af-wikipedia-org-4266	----	Markus Aurelius - Wikipedia Markus Aurelius in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie Jump to navigation Jump to search Markus Aurelius 16de Keiser van die Romeinse Ryk Borsbeeld van Markus Aurelius. Regeer 8 Maart 161 - 169 (met Lucius Verus) 169 - 177 (alleen) 177 - Maart 180 (met Commodus) Volle naam Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar Gebore 26 April 121; Rome, Romeinse Ryk Oorlede 17 Maart 180; Vindobona of Sirmium (op 58) Begrawe Mausoleum van Hadrian, Rome Voorganger Antoninus Pius Opvolger Commodus (alleen) Adellike huis Nerva-Antonynse dinastie Vader Marcus Annius Verus Moeder Domitia Lucilla Eggenoot Faustina die jongere Kinders 13 (Commodus Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Lucilla) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (26 April 121 – 17 Maart 180) was 'n Romeinse keiser vanaf 161 tot 180. Hy het saam met Lucius Verus as mede-keiser regeer vanaf 161 tot Verus se dood in 169 en saam met Commodus vanaf 177 tot en met sy dood in 180.[1] In die 170s n.C. het die Romeinse keiser Marcus Aurelius twaalf 'boeke' van morele aforismes in Grieks neergepen. Hierdie sogenaamde Meditasies bied 'n uitdaging aan die vertaler weens die onewe aard van die materiaal - soms staccato, soms ietwat warrig; soms filosofies-teoreties, dan weer prakties.[2] Aurelius se Meditasies is direk uit die Grieks na Afrikaans vertaal deur Francois Bredenkamp, 'n klassikus verbonde aan die TUT, en in 2007 is die boek deur Protea Boekhuis uitgegee. Bibliografie[wysig | wysig bron] Swart, Marius J.: Raar leiers. Stellenbosch: U.U.B., 1967. Sien ook[wysig | wysig bron] Lys van Romeinse keisers Verwysings[wysig | wysig bron] ↑ Birley, Anthony R. 1987 [1966]. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 ↑ https://journals.co.za/content/classic/51/1/EJC27250 Hierdie artikel is ’n saadjie. Voel vry om Wikipedia te help deur dit uit te brei. Normdata BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: 000136425 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80051702 Ontsluit van "https://af.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markus_Aurelius&oldid=1985388" Kategorieë: Geboortes in 121 Mense in die 2de eeu Romeinse keisers Sterftes in 180 Versteekte kategorieë: Pages using ISBN magic links Saadjies Artikels met BIBSYS-identifiseerders Artikels met BNC-identifiseerders Artikels met BNE-identifiseerders Artikels met BNF-identifiseerders Artikels met CANTIC-identifiseerders Artikels met CINII-identifiseerders Artikels met GND-identifiseerders Artikels met ISNI-identifiseerders Artikels met LCCN-identifiseerders Artikels met LNB-identifiseerders Artikels met MusicBrainz-identifiseerders Artikels met NDL-identifiseerders Artikels met NKC-identifiseerders Artikels met NLA-identifiseerders Artikels met NLG-identifiseerders Artikels met NLI-identifiseerders Artikels met NLK-identifiseerders Artikels met NLP-identifiseerders Artikels met NLR-identifiseerders Artikels met NSK-identifiseerders Artikels met NTA-identifiseerders Artikels met RERO-identifiseerders Artikels met SELIBR-identifiseerders Artikels met SNAC-ID-identifiseerders Artikels met SUDOC-identifiseerders Artikels met Trove-identifiseerders Artikels met ULAN-identifiseerders Artikels met VIAF-identifiseerders Artikels met WorldCat-identifiseerders Normdata met 28 elemente Navigasie-keuseskerm Persoonlike gereedskap Nie ingeteken nie Bespreking Bydraes Skep gebruiker Meld aan Naamruimtes Bladsy Bespreking Variante Weergawes Lees Wysig Wysig bron Wys geskiedenis More Soek Navigasie Tuisblad Gebruikersportaal Geselshoekie Onlangse wysigings Lukrake bladsy Hulp Sandput Skenkings Gereedskap Skakels hierheen Verwante veranderings Spesiale bladsye Permanente skakel Bladinligting Haal dié blad aan Wikidata-item Druk/eksporteer Skep boek Laai af as PDF Drukbare weergawe Ander projekte Wikimedia Commons Ander tale Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Wysig skakels Die bladsy is laas op 10 Mei 2019 om 07:06 bygewerk. Die teks is beskikbaar onder die lisensie Creative Commons Erkenning-Insgelyks Deel. Aanvullende voorwaardes kan moontlik ook van toepassing wees. Sien die Algemene Voorwaardes vir meer inligting. Privaatheidsbeleid Inligting oor Wikipedia Vrywaring Selfoonweergawe Ontwikkelaars Statistieke Koekieverklaring 
aleph-bibnat-ro-1814	----	BNR Aut - Vizualizare completă a înregistrării BNR Aut Inregistrare/Conectare | Sfârşitul sesiunii | Permis de bibliotecă | Preferinţe | Baze de date | Ajutor-Help | ROLiNeST Răsfoire | Căutare | Lista rezultatelor | Căutări anterioare | e-raft personal | Engleză |         Rezervare scurtă  |  Adaugă în raftul personal (e-Shelf) Localizare  |  Cerere ÎIB  |  Salvare/Mail  |  Salvare pe server  |   |  Cerere ILL Vizualizare completă a înregistrării Alege formatul: Standard Fişă de catalog Citare Nume de etichete Etichete MARC Sys. no.   000136425 Vedeta   Marcus Aurelius, împărat roman 121-180 Varianta   Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, împărat roman 121-180 Nota biogr./act.   născut în 26 aprilie 121 d.Hr., la Roma; decedat în 17 martie 180 d.Hr., la Sirmium Alegeţi formatul: Standard Fişă de catalog Citare Nume de etichete Etichete MARC Sesiune încheiată - Preferinţe - Feedback - Help - ÎIB - Ex Libris - Răsfoire - Căutare - Lista rezultatelor - Căutări anterioare - Baze de date - Coş © 2005 Ex Libris 
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ang-wikipedia-org-2304	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipǣdia, sēo frēo wīsdōmbōc Marcus Aurelius Fram Wikipǣdian Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius āmētt in Þā Gehygdu Marces Aurelies Antonines, swā āwend fram George Long Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26 Ēastermōnaþ 121 – 17 Hrēþmōnaþ 180) ƿæs Rōmānisc Cāsere of 161 oþ his dēaðe in 180. Hē ƿæs ȝeboren on naman Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and æt beǣƿnunge nām þone naman Marcus Annius Verus. Hƿonne man hine Cāsere ȝenemnede, ƿæs him ȝeȝifen þone naman Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Hē ƿæs se sīðemesta þāra Fīf Gōde Cāseras. Þis gewrit is stycce. Þu most Uikipædie mid ætiecunge hire helpan. Foregan fram: {{{beforan}}} {{{titul}}} {{{gear}}} Æftergan fram: Commodus Foregan fram: {{{beforan}}} {{{titul}}} {{{gear}}} Æftergan fram: (nān) Fram "https://ang.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=184716" begeten Floccas: Styccelicu gewritu Geboren in 121 Gestorfen in 180 Nerva-Antonine Cyndlīne Rōmānisce Cāseras Rōmāniscre tīde ūþwita Stoisc ūþwita Þurhfore getæl Agnu tol Ne ingemeldod Mōtung for þissum IP forðunga Scypp wisboc Foh to wisbec Namstedas Gewrit Motung Missenlicu gecynd Sihþa Ræd Adiht Adiht fruman Seoh stær More Socn Þurhfor Heafodtramet Gemǣnscipes Ingang Se Þorpes Wella Bewitendas Nīwlica andwendunga Hlīetlic tramet Giefan feoh Help Tol Hwæt bindaþ hider Sibba andwendunga Hlad ymelan forþ Syndrige trametas Fæst bend Trametes gefræge Þisne tramet meldian Wikidata wiht Bewrit oþþe forþasend Wyrce boc Hlad on spearctellend to PDF Gemǣlendlicu fadung Oðru weorc Wikimedia Commons Ōðera sprǣca Afrikaans Aragonés العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Adiht hlencan Man niwanost wende þisne tramet on þære 14:39 tide þæs 22 Haligmonað 2015. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Digolnesse rihta bocung Ymbe Wikipǣdian Ætsacunga Handrīmeres sihþ Wyrhtan Statistics Cookie statement 
an-wikipedia-org-3137	----	Marco Aurelio - Biquipedia, a enciclopedia libre Marco Aurelio De Biquipedia Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Marco Aurelio Emperador d'o Imperio Román Marco Aurelio Emperador d'o Imperio Román 161-180 Predecesor Antonín Piu Succesor Comodo Nombre real Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Naixencia 26 d'abril de 121 Roma, Imperio Román Muerte 17 de marzo de 180 Sirmium u Vindobona, Imperio Román Dinastía Dinastía Antonina Pai Marco Annio Vero (biolochico) Antonín Piu (adoptivo) Mai Domicia Lucilla Marco Aurelio (en latín Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus), naixito de Roma o 26 d'abril de 121 y muerto en Sirmium u Vindobona o 17 de marzo de 180, estió un emperador de l'Imperio Román, dende o 161 dica o 180 y un d'os principals filosofos d'o estoicismo. Entre os anyos 161 y 169 estió coemperador con Lucio Vero, periodo en o que bi habió una guerra contra o Imperio Parto. N'esta guerra os romans vencioron por l'acción d'o cheneral Avidio Cassio, que plegó a saqueyar Ctesifont en l'anyo 164, pero tornoron infectaus por una pestilencia que afectó negativament a la población romana, en especial a l'exercito, que heba de defensar unas mugas muito grans. O mesmo Lucio Vero murió n'esta epidemia. Marco Aurelio habió de dedicar os suyos esfuerzos mes grans a defensar a muga danubiana, a on se produciban continos ataques de pueblos chermanicos (marcomans y quados sobre tot), y sarmatas (chazigues). Una incursión de chermans plegó a saqueyar Aquileya. As Guerras Marcomanicas rematoron con exito román. Entre 170 y 180 Marco Aurelio escribió o libro Meditaciones mientres yera en ixas campanyas militars. L'exercito román tamién habió de luitar en atras partz d'o imperio mientres yera embrecau en as luitas contra os chermans y sarmatas. Marco Aurelio habió de ninviar a lo suyo millor cheneral Avidio Cassio pa esclafar una revuelta en Echipto. Marco Aurelio tenió de medico bell tiempo a lo mesmo Galén. A suya salut empeyoró mientres as campanyas contra os chermans y sarmatas. Circuló a falordia que heba muerto, y ixo fació que Avidio Cassio se proclamás emperador, o que tecnicament equivaleba a una sublevación. Marco Aurelio nombró succesor a lo suyo fillo Comodo. Avidio Cassio fue executau por as suyas mesmas tropas. Predecesor: Antonín Piu Emperador de Roma 161-180 Succesor: Comodo Obteniu de "https://an.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=1736785" Categorías: Dinastía d'os Antonins Emperadors romans Naixius de Roma 121 (naixencias) 180 (muertes) Menú de navegación Ferramientas personals No ha dentrato en o sistema Pachina de descusión d'ista IP Contribucions Creyar cuenta Dentrar-ie Espacios de nombres Pachina Discusión Variants Visualizacions Leyer Editar Modificar codigo Amostrar l'historial Más Mirar Navego Portalada A tabierna Actualidat Zaguers cambeos Una pachina a l'azar Aduya Donativos Ferramientas Pachinas que enlazan con ista Cambios relacionatos Cargar fichero Pachinas especials Vinclo permanent Información d'a pachina Citar ista pachina Elemento de Wikidata Imprentar/exportar Creyar un libro Descargar como PDF Versión ta imprentar En otros proyectos Wikimedia Commons En atras luengas Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Modificar os enlaces Zaguera edición d'ista pachina o 3 chun 2021 a las 12:36. O texto ye disponible baixo a Licencia Creative Commons Atribución/Compartir-Igual; talment sigan d'aplicación clausulas adicionals. Mire-se os termins d'uso ta conoixer más detalles. Politica de privacidat Sobre Biquipedia Alvertencias chenerals Versión ta mobils Desembolicadors Estatisticas Declaración de cookies 
archive-org-2852	----	The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 : Knight, Charles, Comp. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 by Knight, Charles, Comp. Publication date 1855 Topics C-DAK Collection digitallibraryindia; JaiGyan Language English Book Source: Digital Library of India Item 2015.45180 dc.contributor.author: Knight, Charles, Comp. dc.date.accessioned: 2015-06-26T08:27:36Z dc.date.available: 2015-06-26T08:27:36Z dc.date.digitalpublicationdate: 2006-11-27 dc.date.citation: 1855 dc.identifier.barcode: 4990010224962 dc.identifier.origpath: /data3/upload/0079/647 dc.identifier.copyno: 1 dc.identifier.uri: http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/45180 dc.description.scanningcentre: C-DAK, Kolkata dc.description.main: 1 dc.description.tagged: 0 dc.description.totalpages: 632 dc.format.mimetype: application/pdf dc.language.iso: English dc.publisher.digitalrepublisher: Digital Library Of India dc.publisher: Bradbury And Evans, London dc.rights: In Public Domain dc.source.library: Uttarpara Jaykrishna Public Library, Hooghly dc.subject.classification: Generalities dc.subject.classification: General Reference Works Encyclopaedias dc.subject.classification: Cyclopaedia dc.title: The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 Addeddate 2017-01-18 14:11:47 Identifier in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t3kx0nz2k Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 Ppi 600 Scanner Internet Archive Python library 1.2.0.dev4 plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 482 Views DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ABBYY GZ download download 1 file DAISY download For print-disabled users download 1 file EPUB download download 1 file FULL TEXT download download 1 file ITEM TILE download download 1 file KINDLE download download 1 file PDF download download 1 file PDF WITH TEXT download download 1 file SINGLE PAGE PROCESSED JP2 TAR download download 1 file TORRENT download download 13 Files download 6 Original SHOW ALL IN COLLECTIONS Public Library of India Bharat Ek Khoj Uploaded by Public Resource on January 18, 2017 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-3040	----	The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 : Knight, Charles, Comp. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 by Knight, Charles, Comp. Publication date 1855 Topics C-DAK Collection digitallibraryindia; JaiGyan Language English Book Source: Digital Library of India Item 2015.45180 dc.contributor.author: Knight, Charles, Comp. dc.date.accessioned: 2015-06-26T08:27:36Z dc.date.available: 2015-06-26T08:27:36Z dc.date.digitalpublicationdate: 2006-11-27 dc.date.citation: 1855 dc.identifier.barcode: 4990010224962 dc.identifier.origpath: /data3/upload/0079/647 dc.identifier.copyno: 1 dc.identifier.uri: http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/45180 dc.description.scanningcentre: C-DAK, Kolkata dc.description.main: 1 dc.description.tagged: 0 dc.description.totalpages: 632 dc.format.mimetype: application/pdf dc.language.iso: English dc.publisher.digitalrepublisher: Digital Library Of India dc.publisher: Bradbury And Evans, London dc.rights: In Public Domain dc.source.library: Uttarpara Jaykrishna Public Library, Hooghly dc.subject.classification: Generalities dc.subject.classification: General Reference Works Encyclopaedias dc.subject.classification: Cyclopaedia dc.title: The English Cyclopaedia Vol. 4 Addeddate 2017-01-18 14:11:47 Identifier in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t3kx0nz2k Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 Ppi 600 Scanner Internet Archive Python library 1.2.0.dev4 plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 482 Views DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ABBYY GZ download download 1 file DAISY download For print-disabled users download 1 file EPUB download download 1 file FULL TEXT download download 1 file ITEM TILE download download 1 file KINDLE download download 1 file PDF download download 1 file PDF WITH TEXT download download 1 file SINGLE PAGE PROCESSED JP2 TAR download download 1 file TORRENT download download 13 Files download 6 Original SHOW ALL IN COLLECTIONS Public Library of India Bharat Ek Khoj Uploaded by Public Resource on January 18, 2017 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-5170	----	The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus : Fronto, Marcus Cornelius : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg correspondencem00frongoog width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Fronto, Marcus Cornelius; Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180; Haines, Charles Reginald, [from old catalog] tr Publication date 1919 Topics Fronto, Marcus Cornelius, Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Publisher London, W. Heinemann; Collection americana Digitizing sponsor Google Book from the collections of unknown library Language English Book digitized by Google and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Addeddate 2008-01-31 16:49:39 Copyright-region US Identifier correspondencem00frongoog Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t6n01402b Lccn 20006310 Pages 395 Possible copyright status NOT_IN_COPYRIGHT Scanner google Source http://books.google.com/books?id=Ao3YulNSO2EC&oe=UTF-8 Translator Charles Reginald Haines Worldcat (source edition) 685605 Year 1920 Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 3,480 Views 1 Favorite DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ABBYY GZ download download 1 file DAISY download For print-disabled users download 1 file EPUB download download 1 file FULL TEXT download download 1 file ITEM TILE download download 1 file KINDLE download download 1 file PDF download download 1 file SINGLE PAGE PROCESSED TIFF ZIP download download 1 file TORRENT download download 15 Files download 8 Original SHOW ALL IN COLLECTIONS American Libraries Uploaded by Unknown on January 31, 2008 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-8133	----	Fronto and Antonine Rome : Champlin, Edward, 1948- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in Fronto and Antonine Rome Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg frontoantoninero00cham width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts Fronto and Antonine Rome by Champlin, Edward, 1948- Publication date 1980 Topics Fronto, Marcus Cornelius, Authors, Latin, Orators Publisher Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks; china Digitizing sponsor Kahle/Austin Foundation Contributor Internet Archive Language English Includes bibliographical references and indexes Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2013-08-26 14:25:56 Bookplateleaf 0006 Boxid IA1164219 City Cambridge, Mass. Donor bostonpubliclibrary External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1149350939 Extramarc University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (PZ) Foldoutcount 0 Identifier frontoantoninero00cham Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t6934vk93 Invoice 1213 Isbn 0674326687 9780674326682 Lccn 79028136 //r96 79028136 Ocr ABBYY FineReader 11.0 (Extended OCR) Openlibrary OL4423512M Openlibrary_edition OL4423512M Openlibrary_work OL4470719W Page-progression lr Pages 210 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20180210114936 Republisher_operator republisher3.shenzhen@archive.org Republisher_time 696 Scandate 20180206180654 Scanner ttscribe22.hongkong.archive.org Scanningcenter hongkong Top_six true Tts_version v1.58-initial-96-g44acc50 Worldcat (source edition) 185403819 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 89 Previews 2 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Internet Archive Books Scanned in China Uploaded by Tracey Gutierres on August 26, 2013 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-8446	----	A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome : Richardson, Lawrence : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg newtopographical0000rich width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome by Richardson, Lawrence Publication date 1992 Topics Rome (Italy) -- Buildings, structures, etc. -- Dictionaries Publisher Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; trent_university; internetarchivebooks Digitizing sponsor Kahle/Austin Foundation Contributor Internet Archive Language English xxxiv, 458 p. : 29 cm Includes bibliographical references 95 05 10 Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2019-09-05 03:15:29 Bookplateleaf 0010 Boxid IA1657001 Camera Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control) Collection_set trent External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1150999786 Foldoutcount 0 Grant_report Arcadia #4117 Identifier newtopographical0000rich Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t6c32sk2r Invoice 1853 Isbn 0801843006 Lccn 91045046 Ocr tesseract 4.1.1 Ocr_detected_lang en Ocr_detected_lang_conf 1.0000 Ocr_detected_script Latin Ocr_module_version 0.0.5 Ocr_parameters -l eng Old_pallet IA12993 Openlibrary_edition OL1563498M Openlibrary_work OL460224W Page_number_confidence 88.69 Pages 506 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20190909202328 Republisher_operator associate-ronil-villaceran@archive.org Republisher_time 769 Scandate 20190905051324 Scanner station24.cebu.archive.org Scanningcenter cebu Scribe3_search_catalog trent Scribe3_search_id 0116404372942 Tts_version 3.0-initial-170-gdf78d52 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 442 Previews 5 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Trent University Library Donation Internet Archive Books Uploaded by station24.cebu on September 5, 2019 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-8618	----	A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome : Richardson, Lawrence : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg newtopographical0000rich width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome by Richardson, Lawrence Publication date 1992 Topics Rome (Italy) -- Buildings, structures, etc. -- Dictionaries Publisher Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; trent_university; internetarchivebooks Digitizing sponsor Kahle/Austin Foundation Contributor Internet Archive Language English xxxiv, 458 p. : 29 cm Includes bibliographical references 95 05 10 Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2019-09-05 03:15:29 Bookplateleaf 0010 Boxid IA1657001 Camera Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control) Collection_set trent External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1150999786 Foldoutcount 0 Grant_report Arcadia #4117 Identifier newtopographical0000rich Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t6c32sk2r Invoice 1853 Isbn 0801843006 Lccn 91045046 Ocr tesseract 4.1.1 Ocr_detected_lang en Ocr_detected_lang_conf 1.0000 Ocr_detected_script Latin Ocr_module_version 0.0.5 Ocr_parameters -l eng Old_pallet IA12993 Openlibrary_edition OL1563498M Openlibrary_work OL460224W Page_number_confidence 88.69 Pages 506 Ppi 300 Republisher_date 20190909202328 Republisher_operator associate-ronil-villaceran@archive.org Republisher_time 769 Scandate 20190905051324 Scanner station24.cebu.archive.org Scanningcenter cebu Scribe3_search_catalog trent Scribe3_search_id 0116404372942 Tts_version 3.0-initial-170-gdf78d52 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 442 Previews 5 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ENCRYPTED DAISY download For print-disabled users 14 day loan required to access EPUB and PDF files. IN COLLECTIONS Books to Borrow Books for People with Print Disabilities Trent University Library Donation Internet Archive Books Uploaded by station24.cebu on September 5, 2019 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
archive-org-998	----	The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus : Fronto, Marcus Cornelius : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Skip to main content See what's new with book lending at the Internet Archive A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a magnifying glass. An illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. Upload An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up | Log in An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine An illustration of an open book. Books An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. Software An illustration of two photographs. Images An illustration of a heart shape Donate An illustration of text ellipses. More An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. About Blog Projects Help Donate An illustration of a heart shape Contact Jobs Volunteer People Search Metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search archived websites Advanced Search Sign up for free Log in The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Reddit Share to Tumblr Share to Pinterest Share via email EMBED EMBED (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg correspondencem00auregoog width=560 height=384 frameborder=0 webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! No_Favorite share flag Flag this item for Graphic Violence Graphic Sexual Content texts The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Fronto, Marcus Cornelius; Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180; Haines, Charles Reginald, [from old catalog] tr Publication date 1919 Topics Fronto, Marcus Cornelius, Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Publisher London, W. Heinemann; Collection americana Digitizing sponsor Google Book from the collections of University of Michigan Language English Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. Addeddate 2008-02-20 21:28:03 Copyright-region US Identifier correspondencem00auregoog Identifier-ark ark:/13960/t6251mg97 Lccn 20006310 Pages 366 Possible copyright status NOT_IN_COPYRIGHT Scandate 20060925 Scanner google Source http://books.google.com/books?id=BsYXAAAAMAAJ&oe=UTF-8 Translator Charles Reginald Haines Worldcat (source edition) 685605 Year 1919 Show More Show Less Full catalog record MARCXML plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to write a review. 3,580 Views 1 Favorite DOWNLOAD OPTIONS download 1 file ABBYY GZ download download 1 file DAISY download For print-disabled users download 1 file EPUB download download 1 file FULL TEXT download download 1 file ITEM TILE download download 1 file KINDLE download download 1 file PDF download download 1 file SINGLE PAGE PROCESSED TIFF ZIP download download 1 file TORRENT download download 15 Files download 8 Original SHOW ALL IN COLLECTIONS American Libraries Uploaded by Unknown on February 20, 2008 SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata) Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014) 
ar-wikipedia-org-1188	----	ماركوس أوريليوس - ويكيبيديا ماركوس أوريليوس من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث ماركوس أوريليوس (باللاتينية: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus)‏    معلومات شخصية اسم الولادة (باللاتينية: Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus)‏  الميلاد 26 أبريل 121[1]  روما  الوفاة 17 مارس 180 (58 سنة) [2][3]  سبب الوفاة طاعون  مكان الدفن قلعة سانت أنجلو  الإقامة روما  مواطنة روما القديمة  الزوجة فوستينا الصغرى[4]  أبناء كومودوس فيبيا أوريليا سابينا  عائلة الأباطرة الأنطونيين الرومان  مناصب إمبراطور روماني[5]   في المنصب 7 مارس 161  – 17 مارس 180  أنطونيوس بيوس  كومودوس  الحياة العملية المهنة سياسي،  وفيلسوف،  وكاتب  اللغات اللاتينية،  والإغريقية  مجال العمل فلسفة  أعمال بارزة التأملات  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   ماركوس أوريليوس أنطونينوس أوغسطس[6] (باللاتينية: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) (26 أبريل 121 - 17 مارس 180)[7] هو فيلسوف رواقي والإمبراطور الروماني السادس عشر (161 - 180) وخامس الأباطرة الأنطونيين الرومان. وهو أبو الإمبراطور كومودوس.[8] كان أحد آخر "خمسة أباطرة جيدون" حكموا الإمبراطورية الرومانية من 96 إلى 180م، كما أنه يُعتبر من أهم وأبرز الفلاسفة الرواقيين.[9] تولى عرش الإمبراطورية الرومانية مع أخيه المُتبنى لوسيوس فيروس من 161م وحتى وفاة فيروس في 166م، ومن ثم مع ابنه كومودوس منذ عام 177م. أُطلق عليه مسمى الفيلسوف من بين الأباطرة الرومانيين[10]، كان ممارساً للفلسفة الرواقية، استولت كتاباته الفلسفية الشخصية والتي سُميت لاحقاً بالتأملات مصدراً هاماً للمفهوم الحديث للفلسفة الرواقية القديمة، والتي مازالت تعتبر من قبل الكثير من المعلقين كأحد أعظم الأعمال الفلسفية والصروح الأدبية في الحكم والإدارة.[11] انتصرت الإمبراطورية الرومانية خلال عهده ضد إعادة الإمبراطورية الفرثية في الشرق، حيث أخمد جنراله أفيديوس كاسيوس التمرد الذي حصل في العاصمة الفرثية قطيسفون في عام 164م. ونجح أوريليوس في قتال القبائل الجرمانية: الماركومانيون والكواديون والسارماتيون، خلال الحروب الماركومانية في أوروبا الوسطى إلى بلاد الغال عبر نهر الدانوب. بالرغم من تهديدات القبائل التي الجرمانية بدأت بالتسبب بواقع مزعج للإمبراطورية. وبموته في عام 180م انتهى عهد ما يُعرف بباكس رومانا[12]، والذي تلاه اضطرابات متزايدة في الغرب مَهدت لبداية سقوط الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية. محتويات 1 المنشأ 1.1 الاسم 1.2 أصول العائلة 1.3 الحياة المبكرة 1.4 الحياة العلمية 128-136 1.5 خلافة هادريان 1.6 المهمات المدنية والعلاقات العائلية 127-136 2 مؤلفاته 3 آثاره في العالم الإسلامي 4 أفلام 5 ملاحظات 6 روابط خارجية 7 مصادر المنشأ[عدل] الاسم[عدل] يُعتقد بأن اسم ولادته كان ماركوس أنيوس فيروس (باللاتينية: Marcus Annius Verus)، وتختلف بعض المصادر بنسب اسمه هذا عندما تبناه جده بعد وفاة أبيه، أو عندما بلغ رُشده.[13][14][15] ربما كان معروفاً عند ولادته أو في أحد مراحل حياته المبكرة باسم ماركوس أنيوس كاتيلوس سيفيروس (باللاتينية: Marcus Annius Catilius Severus).[13][15] وربما قد سُمي ماركوس كاتيلوس سيفيروس أنيوس فيروس (باللاتينية: Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus).[16] عند تنصيبه للعرش عُرف باسم ماركوس أيليوس أوريليوس فيروس سيزر (باللاتينية: Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar)، وعند اعتلاءه العرش وحتى موته كان يُعرف بماركوس أوريليوس أنطونينوس أوغسطس (باللاتينية: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus).[16] أصول العائلة[عدل] نشأت عائلة ماركوس في إسبيخو، وهي بلدة صغيرة تقع في جنوب شرق قرطبة في بايتيكا الإيبيرية. وبرزت عائلته في أواخر القرن الأول الميلادي، كان جد ماركوس الأكبر ماركوس أنيوس فيروس الأول سيناتوراً وبريتور سابق. في 73-74 عُين جده ماركوس أنيوس فيروس الثاني باتريكيان.[17] تزوج والده ماركوس أنيوس فيروس الثالث بدوميتييا لوسيلا.[18] لوسيلا هي ابنة أحد الباتريكيان، والدتها دوميتييا لوسيلا الكبرى ورثت ثروة كبيرة من جد أمها وجد أبيها المتبنى.[19] وقد حصلت لوسيلا الصغرى قدراً من هذه الثروة من أمها، بما في ذلك مصنع قرميد في أحد ضواحي روما، وكان مربحاً حينها عندما شهدت روما طفرة توسع.[20] الحياة المبكرة[عدل] تمثال لماركوس أوريليوس في متاحف كابيتولين، في إيطاليا. ولد ماركوس أوريليوس في روما في 26 أبريل عام 121م، وهو الابن الوحيد لماركوس أنيوس فيروس الثالث ودوميتيا لوسيلا الصغرى، بالإضافة لأخته أنيا كورنيفيكيا فوستينا (باللاتينية: Annia Cornificia Faustina) المولودة في 122 أو 123م. مات والده على الأرجح في عام 124م عندما كان ماركوس يبلغ 3 أعوام.[21] وبالرغم من معرفته الضئيلة لأبيه، إلا أنه ذكر في كتاباته التأملات بأنه تعلم "التواضع والرجولة" من ذكرياته لأبيه ومن سمعته بعد وفاته. لم تتزوج أمه لوسيلا وبعد وفاة أبيه، وربما لم تبقى طويلاً مع ابنها ماركوس بسبب العادات الأرستقراطية السائدة المتبعة، حيث أن ماركوس كان تحت رعاية المربيات. يُشيد ماركوس لأمه بتعليمها إياه "التقوى الدينية، والبساطة في المأكل"، وبكيفية تجنب "أساليب الأثرياء". كما يردد ذكر أمه في رسائله ويشير لها بالحنية، وهو ممتن لها، لأنها وكما يقول: "مع أن موتها كان محتوماً وهي يافعة، لكنها قضت آخر أيامها معي". بعد موت أبيه، رعاه جده من أبيه ماركوس أنيوس فيروس الثاني [22]، واشترك في رعايته رجل آخر يُدعى لوسيوس كاتيليوس سيفيروس (باللاتينية: Lucius Catilius Severus). يَنعت ماركوس سيفيروس بأنه جده من أمه، وعلى الأرجح بأنه يكون زوج أم لوسيلا الكبرى.[22] نشأ ماركوس في منزل والديه في تل كايليان، وهي منطقة يُشير إليها بحنية بأنها تنتمي إليه[23]، وكانت منطقة راقية، يتواجد عليها بعض المباني والعديد من الفلل الأرستقراطية، كان جده يمتلك قصراً خاصاً بجانب اللاترن، حيث أمضى ماركوس الكثير من طفولته فيه.[24] أشاد ماركوس في كتاباته لجده لتعليمه إياه "الشخصية الجيدة، وتجنب الطباع السيئة".[25] ماركوس كان أقل رأفةً مع عشيقة جده التي أتخذها وعاش معها بعد وفاة زوجته روبيليا فوستينا.[26] اكتشف كاتب سيرة ماركوس الحديث أنتوني بيرلي تلميحاً يدل على توتر جنسي في كتابات ماركوس عن العشيقة[27]، كان ماركوس ممتناً لأنه لم يبقى معها طويلاً[26]، وشكوراً للآلهة لأنه لم يفقد عذريته في الوقت الخاطئ، ولمقاومته لوقت أطول.[28] ومعتزاً بأنه لم يُشبع رغباته مع بنديكتا أو ثيودوتس.[29][ملاحظة 1] الحياة العلمية 128-136[عدل] تمثال لولي العهد الشاب ماركوس أوريليوس (138-144م). في متحف ألتيس، برلين، ألمانيا. بدأ ماركوس الدراسة في سن السابعة على الأرجح[30]، تلقى تعليمه منزلياً كما هو متبع حسب العادات الأرستوقراطية.[31] يشكر ماركوس إلى لوسيوس سيفيروس لتشجيعه إياه بتجنب المدارس العامة.[32] يُعرف 3 ممن قاموا بتدريسه في الصغر وهم: يوفوريك، جيمينوس، وآخر غير مسمى. لم يرد أي ذكر لهؤلاء الثلاثة في المصادر القديمة، ربما لأنهم كانوا عبيداً أو معتقون. وربما قام يوفوريك بتعليم ماركوس أساسيات اللغة الإغريقية لاسمه اليوناني[33]، ويُقال بأنه علم ماركوس الأدب.[34] يوصف جيمينوس على أنه ممثل، ومن المحتمل بأنه علم ماركوس النطق اللاتيني، وفن الخطابة العامة.[33] والآخر كان مسؤولاً عن مراقبته، ورعاية أخلاقه وتطويره بشكل عام.[33] كان ماركوس يتحدث عنه بإعجاب في التأملاتعلمه "بأن أتحمل الألم، وأن أرضى بالقليل، وأن أعمل بنفسي، وأهتم بشؤوني الخاصة، لأن أكون بطيئاً في الاستماع للافتراءات".[35] في سن الثانية عشر كان جاهزاً للدراسة الثانوية، ويُعرف اثنان من معلميه في هذه المرحلة وهما أندرو (باللاتينية: Andro) عالم هندسة وموسيقي، ودايوغنيتيس (باللاتينية: Diognetus) رسام كبير[36]، كان ماركوس يَكن اعتباراً لدايوغنيتيس ليس فقط لكونه رساماً، ولكن بسبب تعريفه له لنهج فلسفة الحياة، ويذكر ماركوس بأن دايوغنيتيس علمه "بان أتجنب الاندفاع، بأن أرتاب بقصص متكهني الغيب والمحتالين بالأعمال السحرية وطرد الأرواح الشريرة وما إلى ذلك، بأن لا أنخرط في صراع الديوك أو لأن لا ينالني الحماس لمثل هذه الرياضات"، "لأن أذعن بالقول الصريح، ولأن أفقه بالفلسفة"، "لأن أكتب الحوارات الفلسفية في فترة الصبا".[37] في أبريل 132م، أخذ ماركوس رداء وعادات الفلاسفة تحت أمر من دايوغنيتيس، كان يدرس بينما يرتدي عباءة يونانية فظة، وكان ينام على الأرض حتى أقنعته أمه بالنوم على السرير.[38] في حوالي العام 132 أو 133م، تولى تدريسه ألكسندر كوتايوم وتروسيوس أبر وإوتيتشيوس بروكلوس.[39] لا يعرف إلا القليل عن آخر اثنان، كلاهما يدرسان اللاتينية، ولكن ألكسندر كان أديباً كبيراً، وقد امتن ماركوس له لتعليمه أسلوبه في الأدب.[40] خلافة هادريان[عدل] في أواخر 136م أوشك الإمبراطور هارديان على الموت إثر نزيف حل به. وبينما كان يتماثل للشفاء في فيلته في تيفولي، اختار -خِلافاً لرغبات الجميع-[41] لوسيوس سيونيوس كوماندوس (والد ماركوس بالتبني) خليفةً وابناً له[42]، وليس من الواضح ما الذي دَفعهُ لاتخاذ هذا القرار، بيد أنه وعلى الأرجح يريد وضع ماركوس -الذي كان صغيراً حينئذ- على سلم العرش.[43] أخذ كوماندوس اسم لوسيوس أيليوس سيزر بعد تبنيه، وكانت صحته سيئة للغاية؛ حيث أنه، وخلال حفل مراسم تنصيبه كخليفة للعرش لم يستطع حمل درعاً كبيراً بمفرده.[44] وبعد مرابطة قصيرة لأيليوس على جبهة الدانوب، عاد إلى روما ليُلقي خطبة في مجلس الشيوخ الروماني في أول يوم في 138م، ولكن في ليلة ما قبل الخطبة اشتد به مرضه، وتوفي على أثر نزيف حل به.[45] وفي 24 يناير 138م، عَين الإمبراطور هارديان خلفته الجديد أوريليوس أنطونيوس زوج فوستينا الكبرى خالة ماركوس.[46] والذي كان من شروطه أن يتبنى أوريليوس ماركوس أوريليوس ولوسيوس فيروس[47]، فأصبح ماركوس يُعرف باسم ماركوس أوريليوس أيليوس فيروس، ولوسيوس فيروس باسم لوسيوس أيليوس أوريليوس كوماندوس. وبطلب من هارديان تم عقد خطبة ماركوس على فوستينا ابنة أوريليوس.[48] ويُقال بأن ماركوس استقبل حزيناً نبأ هارديان تبنيه له كجده. حيث رحل من منزل أمه إلى منزل هارديان الخاص مع عدم رغبته بذلك.[49] في وقت ما من عام 138م طلب هادريان في مجلس الشيوخ بإعفاء ماركوس من منصبه ككويستور قبل عيد ميلاده الرابع والعشرين. وقبل المجلس طلبه، وخدم ماركوس تحت يد أنطونيوس القنصل حتى عام 139م. غير تبني ماركوس مساره الوظيفي المعتاد لطبقته. فلو لم يُتبنى لكان على الأرجح سيصبح تريومفير مونيتاليس (باللاتينية: Triumvir Monetalis)، وتعنى بإدارة سك العملات وهي وظيفة ذات تقدير عالٍ، ومن بعدها كان بمقدوره أن يخدم كأطربون عسكري. ولكنه على الأرجح ابتغى السفر ومواصلة التعليم بدلًا من ذلك. وكما يتضح بأن ماركوس انعزل عن بقية المواطنين. ولكن كاتب سيرته يؤكد بأن شخصيته لم تتأثر؛ كان يبدي نفس الاحترام في علاقته عندما كان مواطنًا عاديًا، وكان معتنٍ ومقتصدًا لممتلكاته كما كان عندما عاش في منزل خاص. المهمات المدنية والعلاقات العائلية 127-136[عدل] في عام 127م عندما كان يبلغ 6 سنوات، انضم ماركوس إلى الإكوايتس بطلب من الإمبراطور هادريان. بالرغم من كون هذا غير مسبوق كلياً، وأن سبق وقد انضم أطفال من قبل، إلا أن ماركوس كان لا يزال صغيراً. كان هادريان يَكن الكثير من الحنية للطفل ماركوس، ولقبه بالحق الأعلى (باللاتينية: Verissimus).[50] ماركوس هو ابن اخت الأمبراطور (لاحقاً) انطونيوس بيوس. وبعد اعتلاء انطونيوس بيوس منصب الامبراطورية تبنى ماركوس الذي بات يعرف بماركوس ايليوس اوريليوس انطونيوس وزوّجه من ابنته عام 145. وعام 161 أصبح ماركوس امبراطوراً، وظل في الحكم حتى قتله ابنه كومودوس في فيينا (يندوبونا) عام 180، بعد حملة عسكرية قادها في شمال وسط أوروبا.[51] مسلة ماركوس بروما طوال هذه الفترة خاض ماركوس اوريليوس حروب دفاعية عن أرجاء امبراطوريته الضخمة على الجبهتين الشمالية والشرقية، منها نجاح قواته في رد هجمات البارثيين الإيرانيين على اراضي سورية عام 166.وحافظ على سورية الرومانية كأهم مناطق الامبراطورية، وفي خضم همومه السلطوية والاستراتيجية كان مهتماً بالتشريع والقوانين واصول الإدارة. في سنة 166 م أرسل الإمبراطور الروماني ماركوس أوريليوس من مستعمرته في الخليج العربي مبعوثاً إلى الصين. ومن ناحية ثانية، برغم حرصه على الصالح العام الذي تجسد في اقدامه على بيع ممتلكاته الخاصة لتخفيف محنة مواطنيه من المجاعة والأوبئة وحدبه على الفقراء وتشييده المستشفيات والمياتم، فإنه ناهض المسيحية واعتبرها مصدر تهديد للامبراطورية. مؤلفاته[عدل] ان ماركوس اوريليوس خلّد اسمه بين الاباطرة العظام لسبب لا صلة مباشرة له بالسلطة. إذ أنه اشتهر بطول باعه في مضمار الفلسفة اليونانية، ووضع مؤلفاً باللغة اليونانية من 12 فصلا عرف بـ«التأملات»، يعد من أبرز آثار الفكر الفلسفي الرواقي، ويعرض إيمانه بأن الحياة الخلوقة السوية تفضي إلى السكينة والطمأنينة، ويشدد على فضائل الحكمة والعدالة والاعتدال والصلابة في المواقف. آثاره في العالم الإسلامي[عدل] قوس ماركوس بطرابلس ليبيا قوس ماركوس اوريليوس (في العاصمة الليبية طرابلس -«ويات»)، في حي باب البحر. ويعتبر واحداً من الآثار الرومانية العديدة التي تزخر بها ليبيا شرقاً وغرباً، ولا سيما في شحات ولبدة الكبرى (لابتيس ماغنا) وصبراتة. ويرى الباحثون في التاريخ الفينيقي لليبيا أن اتجاهات أبواب قوس ماركوس اوريليوس تمثل اتجاهات المدينة الفينيقية القديمة التي اقيمت عليها مدينة رومانية في طرابلس. أفلام[عدل] فيلم جلادييتور "gladiator"بطوله راسل كرو"russell crowe" وهو من أشهر الافلام التي انتجت بهذا الصدد The Fall of the Roman Empire,سقوط الإمبراطورية الرومانية (1964)، بطولة اليك غينيس Alec Guinness Richard Harris '"فيلم صمت الحملان. ساعد في انتشار مقولات ماركوس اوريليوس المقتبسة من كتابه ' تأملات :" عن اي شيء، ولا يسال 'ما هو في ذاته؟ ما هي طبيعته؟ " مسلسل roman empire من إنتاج شبكة "نتفلكس" ملاحظات[عدل] ^ جاريات على أرجح الظن روابط خارجية[عدل] ماركوس أوريليوس على موقع Encyclopædia Britannica Online (الإنجليزية) ماركوس أوريليوس على موقع Encyclopædia Britannica Online (الإنجليزية) ماركوس أوريليوس على موقع MusicBrainz (الإنجليزية) ماركوس أوريليوس على موقع NNDB people (الإنجليزية) ماركوس أوريليوس على موقع المكتبة المفتوحة (الإنجليزية) مصادر[عدل] ^ العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ^ العنوان : Марк-Аврелий, Антонин — نشر في: Military Encyclopedia. Volume 15, 1914 — إقتباس: ... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены. ^ العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии. ↑ أ ب العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ^ العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: 7 марта 161 г. он вступил в управление империей. ^ In Classical Latin, Aurelius' name would be inscribed as MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS ^ Marcus Aurelius AKA Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus نسخة محفوظة 22 يناير 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين. ^ McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 ^ Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 ^ Mark, Joshua (May 8, 2018). "Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King". Ancient History Encyclopedia. مؤرشف من الأصل في 4 أغسطس 2019. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) ^ Desmond Collins (19 July 1973). Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting. Cambridge University Press Archive. صفحة 58. GGKEY:XUFU58U7ESS. مؤرشف من الأصل في 21 ديسمبر 2019. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) ^ Mark Merrony (6 July 2017). The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. Taylor & Francis. صفحة 85. ISBN 978-1-351-70278-2. مؤرشف من الأصل في 26 يناير 2020. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) ↑ أ ب Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 8 p. 139 ↑ أ ب Birley ch. 2 p. 33 ↑ أ ب Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 5 p. 78 ^ HA Marcus 1.2, 1.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 28; McLynn, 14. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 30. ^ Marcus Aurelius (121—180 C.E.) نسخة محفوظة 27 يونيو 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين. ↑ أ ب Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 33. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 2.8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31–32. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ↑ أ ب Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35, 53. ^ Meditations 1.17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, 23. ^ Meditations 1.17.11; Farquharson, 1.103; McLynn, 23. ^ Cf. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 1.1.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35–36; McLynn, 19. ^ McLynn, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, 20. ↑ أ ب ت HA Marcus 2.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 2.2; McLynn, 21. ^ Meditations 1.2, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 2.2, 4.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 21–22. ^ Meditations 1.6, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; cf. McLynn, 21–22. ^ HA Marcus 2.6; cf. Meditations 1.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; McLynn, 21. ^ HA Marcus 2.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations 1.10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40; McLynn, 22. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ HA Aelius 6.2-3 ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Weigel. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Antoninus Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ HA Marcus 5.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ HA Marcus 1.10, 2.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. The appellation also survives on inscriptions: Birley cites (at Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.24) Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 697, and L'Année épigraphique 1940.62. نسخة محفوظة 27 يناير 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين. ^ Marcus Aurelius نسخة محفوظة 08 فبراير 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين. ماركوس أوريليوس في المشاريع الشقيقة صور وملفات صوتية من كومنز اقتباسات من ويكي الاقتباس ع ن ت أباطرة الرومان والبيزنطيين عهد الزعامة 27 ق م – 235 م أغسطس تيبيريوس كاليغولا كلوديوس نيرون غالبا أوثو فيتليوس فسبازيان تيتوس دوميتيان نيرفا تراجان هادريان أنطونيوس بيوس ماركوس أوريليوس مع لوسيوس أورليوس فيروس كومودوس برتيناكس ديديوس جوليانوس سيبتيموس سيفيروس كاراكلا غيتا ماكرينوس مع ديادومينيان إيل جبل سيفيروس ألكسندر أزمة القرن الثالث 235–284 ماكسيمينوس ثراكس جورديان الأول و كورديان الثاني بابينوس و بلبنوس غورديان الثالث فيليب العربي ديكيوس مع هيرينيوس إيتروسكوس هوستيليان تريبونيانوس غالوس مع Volusianus إميليانوس فاليريان غالينوس مع سالونينوس كلاوديوس الثانى كوينتلوس أوريليان تاسيتس فلوريانوس بروبوس كاروس كارينوس نومريان عهد السيادة 284–395 ديوكلتيانوس مكسيميانوس قسطنطيوس كلوروس غاليريوس Severus مكسنتيوس Maximinus Daia ليسينيوس مع Valerius Valens و Martinianus قسطنطين العظيم قسطنطين الثاني قنسطنس قنسطانطيوس الثاني مع Vetranio يوليان المرتد جوفيان فالنتينيان الأول فالنس جراتيان فالنتينيان الثاني ثيودوسيوس الأول الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية 395–480 هونوريوس مع قسطنطين الثالث قسطنطينيوس الثالث Joannes فالنتينيان الثالث بيترونيوس ماكسيموس أفيتوس ماجوريان ليبيوس سيفيروس أنثيميوس أوليبريوس Glycerius يوليوس نيبوس رومولوس أوغستولوس الإمبراطورية البيزنطية 395–1204 آركاديوس ثيودوسيوس الثاني مارقيان ليو الأول ليو الثاني زينون باسيليسكوس أناستاسيوس الأول جستين الأول جستينيان الأول جستين الثاني تيبريوس الثاني موريكيوس فوقاس هرقل قسطنطين الثالث هرقلوناس قسطنطين الثاني قسطنطين الرابع جستنيان الثاني ليونتيوس تيبريوس الثالث فيليبيكوس أرتيميوس أناستاسيوس الثاني ثيودوسيوس الثالث ليو الثالث الإيساوري قسطنطين الخامس أرتاباسدوس ليو الرابع قسطنطين السادس أيرين أثينا نقفور الأول ستوراكيوس ميخائيل الأول رانجابي ليون الخامس الأرمني مايكل الثاني ثيوفيلوس مايكل الثالث باسل الأول ليو السادس الحكيم إسكندر قسطنطين السابع رومانوس الأول رومانوس الثاني نقفور الثاني يوحنا زيمسكي باسيل الثاني قسطنطين الثامن Zoe رومانوس الثالث أرغيروس ميخائيل الرابع البافلاغوني ميخائيل الخامس الجلفاط قسطنطين التاسع ثيودورا الثالثة ميخائيل السادس برينغاس إسحاق الأول كومنين قسطنطين العاشر دوكاس رومانوس الرابع ديوجينيس ميخائيل السابع دوكاس نقفور الثالث بوتانياتيس ألكسيوس الأول كومنينوس يوحنا الثاني كومنين مانويل كومنينوس ألكسيوس الثاني كومنينوس أندرونيكوس الأول كومنينوس إسحاق الثاني ألكسيوس الثالث أنجيلوس ألكسيوس الرابع أنجيلوس ألكسيوس الخامس دوكاس إمبراطورية نيقية 1204–1261 قسطنطين لاسكاريس ثيودور الأول لاسكاريس يوحنا الثالث دوكاس فاتاتزس ثيودور الثاني لاسكاريس يوحنا الرابع لاسكاريس الإمبراطورية البيزنطية 1261–1453 ميخائيل الثامن باليولوج أندرونيكوس الثاني باليولوج ميخائيل التاسع باليولوج أندرونيكوس الثالث باليولوج يوحنا الخامس باليولوج يوحنا السادس کانتاکوزنوس ماتیوس کانتاکوزنوس أندرونيكوس الرابع باليولوج يوحنا السابع باليولوج أندرونيكوس الخامس باليولوج مانويل الثاني يوحنا الثامن باليولوج قسطنطين الحادي عشر ع ن ت رواقية الفلاسفة العهد المبكر زينون الرواقي برسيوس أرسطو سفايروس إريليوس كليانثس خريسبوس زينو طرسوس ماركوس قراطس دايوجينيس بابل أبولودروس أنتيبياتر طرسوس العهد الأوسط بانتيوس Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato بوسيدونيوس Diodotus جيمينوس Antipater of Tyre Athenodoros Cananites العهد الأخير لوكيوس سينيكا Cornutus غايوس موسونيوس روفوس Euphrates Cleomedes ابكتيتوس Hierocles Sextus Junius Rusticus ماركوس أوريليوس الفلسفة الرواقية الأصناف المنطق الاهتمامات الفيزياء الرواقية الجديدة الرواقية الحديثة المفاهيم Adiaphora Apatheia اضطراب الطمأنينة Ekpyrosis يودايمونيا Katalepsis Kathekon لوغوس Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos الأعمال أبيكتيتوس Discourses Enchiridion ماركوس أوريليوس التأملات سيناكا Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy عن الحياة السعيدة عن أوقات الفراغ Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations آخرون غايوس موسونيوس روفوس On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) مقالات متعلقة Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition بوابة السياسة بوابة فلسفة بوابة أعلام بوابة روما القديمة ضبط استنادي WorldCat BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: 000136425 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 J9U: 987007264913605171 ماركوس أوريليوس على مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي ماركوس أوريليوس  على جود ريدز. ماركوس أوريليوس  على كورا. مجلوبة من "https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ماركوس_أوريليوس&oldid=53217629" تصنيفات: مواليد 121 مواليد في روما وفيات 180 وفيات بعمر 58 ماركوس أوريليوس أباطرة رومان في القرن 2 أباطرة رومان مؤلهون أشخاص من روما الأباطرة الأنطونيين الرومان تاريخ الأفكار تاريخ الفلسفة رواقية فلاسفة أخلاق فلاسفة العقل فلاسفة سياسيون فلاسفة في القرن 2 فلاسفة قانون فلاسفة من إيطاليا الرومانية قدماء الرومان قناصل إمبراطوريون رومان كاتبون عن الفلسفة كتاب باللغة اليونانية مواليد القرن 2 وفيات القرن 2 تصنيفات مخفية: صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات صفحات ويكي بيانات بحاجة لتسمية عربية قالب أرشيف الإنترنت بوصلات واي باك الصفحات التي تستخدم وصلات ISBN السحرية مقالات تحتوي نصا باللاتينية صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1559 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P18 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1477 مواليد 26 أبريل صفحات بها مراجع ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P569 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P19 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P570 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P509 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P119 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P551 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P27 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P26 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P40 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P53 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P39 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P580 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P582 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1365 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1366 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P106 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1412 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P101 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أدوات شخصية غير مسجل للدخول نقاش مساهمات إنشاء حساب دخول نطاقات مقالة نقاش المتغيرات معاينة اقرأ عدل تاريخ المزيد بحث الموسوعة الصفحة الرئيسية الأحداث الجارية أحدث التغييرات أحدث التغييرات الأساسية تصفح المواضيع أبجدي بوابات مقالة عشوائية تصفح من غير إنترنت مشاركة تواصل مع ويكيبيديا مساعدة الميدان تبرع أدوات ماذا يصل هنا تغييرات ذات علاقة رفع ملف الصفحات الخاصة وصلة دائمة معلومات الصفحة استشهد بهذه الصفحة عنصر ويكي بيانات طباعة/تصدير إنشاء كتاب تحميل PDF نسخة للطباعة في مشاريع أخرى ويكيميديا كومنز ويكي الاقتباس لغات Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 عدل الوصلات آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان يوم 26 مارس 2021، الساعة 03:01. النصوص منشورة برخصة المشاع الإبداعي. طالع شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. سياسة الخصوصية حول ويكيبيديا إخلاء مسؤولية نسخة المحمول المطورون إحصائيات بيان تعريف الارتباطات 
arz-wikipedia-org-5508	----	ماركوس اوريليوس - ويكيبيديا ماركوس اوريليوس من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعه الحره اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث ماركوس اوريليوس (باللاتينى: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus)    معلومات شخصيه اسم الولاده (باللاتينى: Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus)  الميلاد 26 ابريل 121[1]  روما  الوفاة 17 مارس 180 (59 سنة)[2][3]  فيندوبونا  سبب الوفاة طاعون  الاقامه روما  ابناء كومودوس  معلومات أخرى اتعلم عند ماركوس كورنيليوس فرونتو[4][5]،  وچونيوس روستيكوس[4][6]  المهنه سياسى،  وكاتب  اللغات المحكيه او المكتوبه لاتينى  مجال العمل فلسفه  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   ماركوس اوريليوس (باللاتينى: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus)  معلومات شخصيه اسم الولاده (باللاتينى: Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus)  الميلاد 26 ابريل 121[1]  روما  الوفاة 17 مارس 180 (59 سنة)[2][3]  فيندوبونا  سبب الوفاة طاعون  الاقامه روما  ابناء كومودوس  الاب Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) الام Domitia Lucilla منصب سبقه انطونينوس بيوس خلفه كومودوس الحياه العمليه اتعلم عند ماركوس كورنيليوس فرونتو[4][5]،  وچونيوس روستيكوس[4][6]  المهنه سياسى،  وكاتب  اللغات المحكيه او المكتوبه لاتينى  مجال العمل فلسفه  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   ماركوس اوريليوس انطونينوس أوغسطس(26 ابريل 121 - 17 مارس180) الامبراطور الروماني السادس عشر (161 - 180) وخامس الأباطرة الأنطونيين الرومان . الأمبراطور الروماني الفيلسوف وهو أبو الامبراطور كومودوس. كان آخر"خمسة اباطره جيدون "حكموا الإمبراطورية الرومانية من سنة 96 لسنة 180 ، كمان أنه بيعتبر من أهم الفلاسفة الرواقيين. تميز عهده بالحروب في آسيا ضد اعادة الإمبراطورية البارثانية، والقبائل الجرمانيه لبلاد الغال عبر نهر الدانوب. والتمرد اللى حصل في الشرق بقيادة افيديوس كاسيوس. كفيلسوف فان "تأملات ماركوس اوريليوس اللي كتبها في حملته بين 170-180، ما زالت تعتبر واحده من اهم الكتابات الادبية في الحكم والإدارة. شوف كمان[تعديل] ليستة امبراطرة الرومان فيه فايلات فى ويكيميديا كومونز عن: Marcus Aurelius ↑ أ ب العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ↑ أ ب العنوان : Марк-Аврелий, Антонин — نشر في: Military Encyclopedia. Volume 15, 1914 — إقتباس: ... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены. ↑ أ ب العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر — إقتباس: Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии. ↑ أ ب العنوان : Antoninus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ↑ أ ب العنوان : Fronto — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر ↑ أ ب العنوان : Rusticus — نشر في: القاموس الحقيقي للآثار الكلاسيكية للوبكر اتجابت من "https://arz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ماركوس_اوريليوس&oldid=5524042" تصانيف: مواليد 121 مواليد 26 ابريل مواليد في روما وفيات 180 امبراطوريه رومانيه رومان امبراطرة الرومان تصنيفات مستخبية: مقالات تحتوي نصا باللاتينى صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1559 صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P18 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1477 صفحات فيها مراجع ويكيداتا صفحات تستخدم خاصية P569 صفحات فيها داتا ويكيداتا صفحات تستخدم خاصية P19 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P570 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P20 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P509 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P551 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P40 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1066 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P106 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1412 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P101 صفحات ويكيداتا محتاجه تسميه مصريه مقالات تحتوي نصا بالروسى لستة التصفح ادوات شخصيه انت مش مسجل دخولك المناقشة مع عنوان الأيبى دا مساهمات افتح حساب دخول النطاقات صفحه مناقشه المتغيرات مناظر قرايه تعديل استعراض التاريخ اكتر تدوير استكشاف الصفحه الرئيسيه بوابات ويكيبيديا مصرى اخر التعديلات صفحة عشوائيه مساعده تواصل صالون المناقشه طريقة الكتابه احداث دلوقتى التبرعات علبة العده ايه بيوصل هنا تعديلات ليها علاقه ارفع فايل (upload file) صفح مخصوصه لينك دايم معلومات عن الصفحه استشهد بالصفحة دى عنصر ويكيداتا اطبع/صدّر إعمل كتاب تنزيل PDF نسخه للطبع مشاريع تانيه ويكيميديا كومنز بلغات تانيه Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 عدل الوصلات الصفحه دى اتعدلت اخر مره فى 6 مايو 2021,‏ 16:10. النصوص متوفرة تحت رخصة التشارك الإبداع العزو/المشاركة بالمثل; ممكن تطبيق شروط إضافية. بص على شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. بوليسة الخصوصيه عن ويكيبيديا تنازل عن مسئوليه نسخة المحمول مطورين احصائيات بيان الكوكيز 
ast-wikipedia-org-3755	----	Marcu Aureliu - Wikipedia Marcu Aureliu De Wikipedia Saltar a navegación Saltar a la gueta Marcu Aureliu cuestor (es) Cónsul romanu senador romanu Emperador romanu 7 marzu 161 - 17 marzu 180 ← Antonín Píu - Cómodu → Vida Nacimientu Roma, 26  d'abril de 121 [1] Nacionalidá Antigua Roma Residencia Roma Grupu étnicu antiguos romanos (es) Muerte Vindobona (es) , 17  de marzu de 180 [3] (58 años) Sepultura Castillo Sant'Angelo (es) Causa de la muerte Peste Familia Padre Marco Annio Vero Madre Domicia Lucila Casáu con Faustina la Menor [4] Fíos/es ver Cómodu Marcus Annius Verus Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina Fadila (es) Lucila Cornificia Vibia Aurelia Sabina (es) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus Domitia Faustina (en) Hermanos/es ver Annia Cornificia Faustina (es) Pueblu dinastía Antonina (es) Estudios Llingües falaes llatín griegu antiguu Alumnu de Alexander of Cotiaeum (en) Herodes Ático (es) Marcu Cornelio Frontón Quinto Junio Rústico (es) Oficiu Oficiu políticu, filósofu, escritor Trabayos destacaos Meditaciones (es) Creencies Relixón Relixón na Antigua Roma Bustu de Marcu Aureliu del sieglu II, n'actualidá espuestu en Musée Saint Raimond. César Marcu Aureliu Antoninu Augustu, en llatín Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26  d'abril de 121, Roma - 17  de marzu de 180, Vindobona (es) ), tamién conocíu como Marcu Aureliu, foi emperador romanu dende'l 8 de marzu de 161 el 17 de marzu de 180 y filósofu. Foi el 16ᵁ emperador de l'Imperiu romanu y miembru de la dinastía Antonina, instituyía por Traxanu. Foi un de los más grandes filósofos del Estoicismu. Enllaces esternos[editar | editar la fonte] Wikimedia Commons tien conteníu multimedia tocante a Marcu Aureliu. ↑ «Antoninus» (en rusu). Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru.  ↑ «Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin» (en rusu). Military Encyclopedia. Volume 15, 1914.  ↑ «Antoninus» (en rusu). Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru.  ↑ «Antoninus» (en rusu). Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru.  Sacáu de «https://ast.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcu_Aureliu&oldid=3273173» Categoríes: Homes Emperadores de la Roma antigua Filósofos y filósofes Wikipedia:Mantenimientu:Persones ensin plantía NF Categoría anubrida: Wikipedia:Páxines con etiquetes de Wikidata ensin traducir Menú de navegación Ferramientes personales Nun aniciasti sesión Alderique Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Entrar Espacios de nome Páxina Alderique Variantes Vistes Lleer Editar Editar la fonte Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidá Fechos actuales Cambeos recientes Páxina al debalu Ayuda Ferramientes Lo qu'enllaza equí Cambios rellacionaos Xubir ficheru Páxines especiales Enllaz permanente Información de la páxina Citar esta páxina Elementu de Wikidata Imprentar/esportar Crear un llibru Descargar como PDF Versión pa imprentar N'otros proyeutos Wikimedia Commons N'otres llingües Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Editar los enllaces La última edición d'esta páxina foi el 13 mar 2021, a les 19:53. El testu ta disponible baxo la Llicencia Creative Commons Reconocimientu/CompartirIgual 3.0; puen aplicase otres cláusules más. Llei les condiciones d'usu pa más detalles. Política d'intimidá Tocante a Wikipedia Avisu llegal Vista pa móvil Desendolcadores Estadístiques Declaración de cookies 
authority-bibsys-no-4063	----	Field Value System control number 90564087 scn 90564087 autid x90564087 handle http://hdl.handle.net/11250/1669662 isni 000000011031946X bibbi 531620 Status kat3 Authority type PERSON Created date Tue Sep 21 00:00:00 CEST 2010 Last update date Thu Feb 20 09:09:40 CET 2020 Deleted false 024$a http://viaf.org/viaf/102895066 024$2 viaf 043$a it Personal name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Titles and other words associated with a name romersk keiser Dates associated with a name 121-180 Gender m Personal name (See From Tracing) Marcus Aurelius Titles and other words associated with a name (See From Tracing) romersk keiser Dates associated with a name (See From Tracing) 121-180 Personal name (See From Tracing) Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Titles and other words associated with a name (See From Tracing) romersk keiser Dates associated with a name (See From Tracing) 121-180 Personal name (See From Tracing) Aurelius, Marcus Titles and other words associated with a name (See From Tracing) romersk keiser Dates associated with a name (See From Tracing) 121-180 Personal name (See From Tracing) Mark Aurel Titles and other words associated with a name (See From Tracing) romersk keiser Dates associated with a name (See From Tracing) 121-180 Personal name (See From Tracing) Marcus Antoninus Titles and other words associated with a name (See From Tracing) romersk keiser Dates associated with a name (See From Tracing) 121-180 Nonpublic general note Navneform hentet fra 'Greske og latinske navneformer inntil år 1500' Heading or subdivision term Philosophus (121-180) 
azb-wikipedia-org-7969	----	مارکوس آئورلیوس - ویکی‌پدیا مارکوس آئورلیوس ویکی‌پدیا، آچیق بیلیک‌لیک‌دن پرش به ناوبری پرش به جستجو Marcus Aurelius Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey Emperor of the Roman Empire شاه‌لیق 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 قاباقکی آنتونیوس پیوس واریث کومودوس Co-emperors لوسیوس وروس (161–169) کومودوس (177–180) دوغوم ۲۶ آوریل ۱۲۱ روم اولوم ۱۷ مارس ۱۸۰ میلادی (۵۸ یاش) Vindobona or Sirmium دفن Hadrian's Mausoleum اوشاقلار 14, incl. کومودوس, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla کامیل آدی Marcus Annius Verus (name at birth,[۱][۲] or upon the death of his father and adoption by his grandfather, or upon coming of age[۳]) Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (name at birth,[۳] or for some period of his youth[۲]) Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus (name at birth[۴]) Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus (upon adoption by Antoninus Pius[۵]) Regnal name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (as imperial heir) Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (upon joint ascension, with Lucius Verus, to the throne[۴]) سولاله Antonine آتا Marcus Annius Verus* آنتونیوس پیوس (adoptive) آنا Domitia Lucilla مارکوس آئورلیوس (اینگیلیسی‌جه: Marcus Aurelius) روم ایمپیراتورو. ۸ مارس ۱۶۱ – ۱۷ مارس ۱۸۰ ایل‌لر آراسیندا حؤکومت ائدیب. آنتونیوس پیوس اؤلوموندن سوْنرا حؤکومتی اله کئچدیب و اؤزونون وفاتیندان سوْنرا کومودوس واریث کیمی تخت و تاجه صاحیب چیخیب. گؤرونتولر[دَییشدیر] قایناقلار[دَییشدیر] ↑ Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 8 p. 139 ↑ ۲٫۰ ۲٫۱ Birley ch. 2 p. 33 ↑ ۳٫۰ ۳٫۱ Historia MA I.9–10 ↑ ۴٫۰ ۴٫۱ Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 5 p. 78 ↑ Birley ch. 2 p. 39 ب دان دییش روم ایمپیراتورلاری پرینسیپات ۲۷ م.ق – ۲۳۵ م.س آقوستوس تیبریوس کالیقولا کلودیوس نرون قالبا اتو ویتلیوس وسپاسیان تیتوس ایکینجی یتیان نروا تراژان هادریانوس آنتونیوس پیوس مارکوس آئورلیوس و لوسیوس وروس کومودوس پرتیناکس دیدیوس ژولیانوس (پسنیوس نیقر) (کلودیوس آلبینوس) سپتیموس سوروس کاراکالا ایله پوبلیوس سپتیموس قتا ماکرینوس ایله ایکینجی دیانیان هلیوقابال الکساندر سوروس بوحران ۲۳۵–۲۸۴ ماکسیمینوس ترکس بیرینجی قوردیان و ایکینجی قوردیان پوپینوس و بالبینوس اۆچونجو قوردیان فیلیپ عرب ایله ایکینجی فیلیپوس دقیانوس ایله هرنیوس اتروسکوس هوستیلیان تربونیانوس قالوس ایله ولوسیانوس آئمیلیانوس والرین قالینوس ایله سالونینوس و ایکینجی والریان کلودیوس قوتیکوس کوئینتیلوس اورلیان تاسیتوس فلوریانوس پروبوس کاروس کارینوس و نومریان Gallic Emperors: Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (ایکینجی یتیانوس) تتریکوس ایله Tetricus II سزار کیمی دومینات ۲۸۴–۳۹۵ دیوکلسین (whole empire) دیوکلسین (شرق) و ماکسیمیان (غرب) دیوکلسین (شرق) و ماکسیمیان (غرب) with قالریوس (شرق) و کونستانتیوس کلوروس (غرب) سزار کیمی قالریوس (شرق) و کونستانتیوس کلوروس (غرب) with فلاویوس والریوس سوروس (غرب) و ماکسیمینوس دایا (شرق) سزار کیمی قالریوس (شرق) و فلاویوس والریوس سوروس (West) with بیرینجی کونستانتین (غرب) و ماکسیمینوس دایا (شرق) سزار کیمی قالریوس (شرق) و ماکسنتیوس (غرب) with بیرینجی کونستانتین (غرب) و ماکسیمینوس دایا (شرق) سزار کیمی قالریوس (شرق) و لیسینیوس (غرب) with بیرینجی کونستانتین (غرب) و ماکسیمینوس دایا (شرق) سزار کیمی ماکسنتیوس (alone) لیسینیوس (غرب) و ماکسیمینوس دایا (East) with بیرینجی کونستانتین (Self-proclaimed Augustus) and والریوس والنس لیسینیوس (شرق) و بیرینجی کونستانتین (غرب) with Licinius II, ایکینجی کونستانتین, and Crispus سزار کیمی (مارتینیانوس) بیرینجی کونستانتین (whole empire) with son Crispus as Caesar ایکینجی کونستانتین بیرینجی کونستانس ماقننتیوس with Decentius as Caesar ایکینجی کونستانتیوس وترانیو ایله ژولیان ژوویان بیرینجی والنتینیان والنس قراتیان ایکینجی والنتینیان ماقنوس ماکسیموس فلاویوس فاتح ایله بیرینجی تئودئوس (Eugenius) غربی روم ایمپیراتورلوغو ۳۹۵–۴۸۰ هونوریوس Constantine III with son Constans II اۆچونجو کونستانتیوس یوآنس اۆچونجو والنتینیان پترونیوس ماکسیموس with Palladius آویتوس ماژوریان لیبیوس سوروس آنتمیوس الیبریوس قلیسریوس ژولیوس نپوس رومولوس آقوستولوس بیزانس ایمپیراتورلوغو ۳۹۵–۱۲۰۴ آرکادیوس ایکینجی تئودئوس Pulcheria مارسیانوس بیرینجی لئون (بیزانس) ایکینجی لئون (بیزانس) زنون (بیزانس) (first reign) باسیلیسکوس with son Marcus as co-emperor زنون (بیزانس) (second reign) بیرینجی آناستاسیوس بیرینجی ژوستین بیرینجی ژوستینین ایکینجی ژوستین ایکینجی تیبریوس کونستانتین موریس (ایمپراتور) with son تئودوسیوس پسر (ماوریتیوس) as co-emperor فوکاس هراکلیوس اۆچونجو کونستانتین هراکلوناس ایکینجی کونستانس دؤردونجو کونستانتین with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then ایکینجی ژوستینین as co-emperors ایکینجی ژوستینین (first reign) لئونتیوس اۆچونجو تیبریوس ایکینجی ژوستینین (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor فیلیپیکوس ایکینجی آناستاسیوس اۆچونجو تئودوسیوس اۆچونجو لئون (بیزانس) بئشینجی کونستانتین آرتاباسدوس دؤردونجو لئوی Constantine VI ایرنه بیرینجی نیکه‌فوروس استوراکیوس بیرینجی میخائیل (بیزانس) with son Theophylact as co-emperor بئشینجی لئوی with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor ایکینجی میخائیل تئوفیلوس اۆچونجو میخائیل بیرینجی باسیلیوس سککیزینجی لئوی الکساندر (بیزانس) یئدینجی کونستانتین بیرینجی رومانوس with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors ایکینجی رومانوس ایکینجی نیکه‌فوروس بیرینجی ژان (بیزانس) ایکینجی باسیل سککیزینجی کونستانتین زوئه مقدونی (first reign) and اۆچونجو رومانوس زوئه مقدونی (first reign) and دؤردونجو میخائیل بئشینجی میخائیل زوئه مقدونی (second reign) with تئودورای مقدونی زوئه مقدونی (second reign) and دوققوزونجو کونستانتین دوققوزونجو کونستانتین (sole emperor) تئودورای مقدونی Michael VI Bringas بیرینجی ایزاک اوْنونجو کونستانتین دؤردونجو رومانوس یئدینجی میخائیل with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine اۆچونجو نیکه‌فوروس بیرینجی آلکسیوس ایکینجی ژان (بیزانس) with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor بیرینجی مانوئل ایکینجی آلکسیوس بیرینجی آندرونیکوس with John Komnenos as co-emperor ایکینجی ایزاک اۆچونجو آلکسیوس دؤردونجو آلکسیوس نیکو(لائوس) کانابوس (chosen by the Senate) بئشینجی آلکسیوس نیکیا ایمپیراتورلوغو ۱۲۰۴–۱۲۶۱ کونستانتین لاسکاریس بیرینجی تئودور لاسکاریس اۆچونجو ژان دوکاس واتاتزس ایکینجی تئودور لاسکاریس دؤردونجو ژان لاسکاریس بیزانس ایمپیراتورلوغو ۱۲۶۱–۱۴۵۳ سککیزینجی میخائیل ایکینجی آندرونیکوس with دوققوزونجو میخائیل as co-emperor اۆچونجو آندرونیکوس بئشینجی ژان (بیزانس) سککیزینجی ژان (بیزانس) with بئشینجی ژان (بیزانس) و ماتیوس کانتاکوزنوس as co-emperors بئشینجی ژان (بیزانس) دؤردونجو آندرونیکوس یئدینجی ژان (بیزانس) بئشینجی آندرونیکوس ایکینجی مانوئل John VIII Palaiologos اوْن‌بیرینجی کونستانتین Italics indicates a co-emperor, while underlining indicates an usurper. کیتابخانا معلوماتلاری WorldCat Identities VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (داده‌ها) بیبسیس: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 موزیک‌برینز: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 «https://azb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=مارکوس_آئورلیوس&oldid=570213»-دن آلینمیش‌دیر بؤلمه‌لر: صفحه‌های دارای تابع تجزیه‌گر آرایش‌عدد با آرگومان غیرعددی ایستنادی اولان مقاله‌لر روم ایمپیراتورلاری شاهلار گیزلی بؤلمه‌لر: کیتابخانا معلوماتلاری ۱۵ ائلمنتیله VIAF شناسه‌سی‌له ویکی‌پدیا مقاله‌لری LCCN شناسه‌سی‌له ویکی‌پدیا مقاله‌لری ISNI 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az-wikipedia-org-5543	----	Mark Avreli — Vikipediya Mark Avreli Vikipediya, azad ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search Mark Avreli lat.Marcus Aurelius Antoninus lat. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus XVI Roma İmperatoru 8 mart 161 — 17 mart 180 8 mart 161 – 7 mart 169 (Lusi Ver ilə birlikdə) 169 – 177 (təkbaşına) 177 – 17 mart 180 (Kommod ilə birlikdə) Sələfi Antonin Piy Xələfi Kommod Şəxsi məlumatlar Təhsili Stoisizm Doğum tarixi 26 aprel 121 Doğum yeri Roma İmperiyası Roma Vəfat tarixi 17 mart 180 (58 yaşında) Vəfat yeri Vindobona indiki Vyana Vəfat səbəbi taun Dəfn yeri Müqəddəs Ancelo qəsri Sülalə Nerva-Antonin Atası Anni Ver Anası Domitia Luçilla Həyat yoldaşı Gənc Faustina Uşaqları Kommod, Luçilla (daha 13 uşaq) Elmi fəaliyyəti Elm sahəsi fəlsəfə  Vikianbarda əlaqəli mediafayllar Mark Avreli, Markus Avrelius (lat. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 26 aprel 121 – 17 mart 180) — Roma imperatoru (161–180), stoaçı filosof. İlk vaxtlar imperiyanı Lutsi Verlə birgə idarə etmişdir. Parfiyalılar (162–166), german və sarmatlarla (166–180, Markoman müharibəsində) hərblər aparmışdır. Stoisizmin ardıcıllarından olan Mark Avreli fəlsəfədə ("Özü ilə təklikdə" əsəri) əxlaqi kamilliyi təbliğ etmiş, siyasi quruluşu təkmilləşdirməyin qeyri-mümkünlüyü ideyasını irəli sürmüşdür. Mündəricat 1 Həyatı 1.1 Ailəsi və uşaqları 1.2 İmperatorluğu 1.3 Ölümü və adına ehtiram 1.4 Nerva-Antonin sülaləsinin zaman xətti 2 Fəlsəfəsi 2.1 Həmçinin bax: 3 İstinadlar 4 Xarici keçidlər 5 Həmçinin bax Həyatı[redaktə | əsas redaktə] 139-cu ildə atası vəfat etdikdən sonra imperator Antonin Piy tərəfindən oğulluğa götürüldükdən sonra Mark Avreli Ver Sezar adlandırılmağa başlanmışdır. Gözəl təhsilə yiyələnmiş Avreli fəlsəfəyə və təsviri sənətə böyük maraq göstərmişdir. Dioqnetin, şagirdi olan Avreli fəlsəvi görüşlərinə görə məhz quru taxt üzərində yatar və üstünü heyvan dərisi ilə örtərmiş. Bacarığına görə gənc olmasına baxmayaraq Hadrianın vəfatından yarım il sonra 5 dekabr 138 ci ildə kvestor vəzifəsinə irəli çəkilərək karyerasına inzibati idarəçiliklə başlamışdır. Elə həmin il Antonin Piyin qızı ilə nişanlandıqdan sonra tax-taca varislik əldə edir. 140 ci ildə konsul və sezar elan edilir. 146 cı ildə Antonin Piy Mark Avreliyə konsul kimi dövləti idarə etmək hüquq verir. 1 yanvar 161 ci ildə qardaşlığı Lutsi Ver ilə birlikdə üçüncu dəfə konsul kimi dövləti idarə edir. 169-cu ildən Lutsi Verin ölümündən sonra dövləti təkbaşına idarə edir. Ailəsi və uşaqları[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Avreli, 145 ci ildə Gənc Faustina ilə evlənmiş və 30 illik evliliyi boyunca Faustinadan 13 uşağı olmuşdur: Anniya Avreliya Qaleriya Faustina (147–165) Anniya Avreliya Qaleriya Luçilla (148/50–181), Lutsi Verin həyat yoldaşı Luçillanın Gemellus Luçilla adında bir əkizi vardır (149–150) Tit Eli Antonin (150, 7 mart 161) Tit Eli Avreli (150, 7 mart 161) Hadrian (152, 7 mart 161) Domitia Faustina (150, 7 mart 161) Fadilla (159, 192) Annia Kornifiçia Faustina Minor (160, 211–217) Tit Avreli Fulv Antonin (161–165) Kommod (161–192) Mark Anni Ver Sezar (162–169) Vibiya Avreliya Sabina (170–217) İmperatorluğu[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Atası kimi senata və onun üzvlərinə hörmət yanaşarmış. Məhkəmə işinə böyük diqqət verərmiş. Bir çox köhnəlmiş qanunları bərpa etmişdir. Afinada dörd fəlsəfə kafedrası yaradaraq, professorları dövlət himayəsinə götürmüşdür. Bir çox döyüş və hərbi yürüşlərdə şəxsən iştirak etmişdir. 166-cı ildə məğlubiyyətdən sonra Parfiya ilə sülh bağlamağa məcbur olur. Həmin il Roma germanların Dunay çayı boyu hücumları, vandallara qarşı müharibə, şimali Misir üsyanına baxmayaraq 178-ci ildə germanlara qarşı müharibədə böyük uğurlar qazanır, lakin imperiya qoşunlarını yoluxucu xəstəlik taun epidemiyası bürüyür. Daimi müharibələr imperiyanı zəiflətmiş, epidemiyaya və əhalinin dilənçiləşməsinə səbəb olmuşdu. Ölümü və adına ehtiram[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Mark Avrelinin silahdaşları onun xəstə halına acıyıb ağlayarkən, üzünü onlara tutub deyir: " Niyə mənim halıma acıyıb ağlayırsınız, siz ona ağlayın ki, bu taun hamımızı məhv edəcək." 17 mart 180-ci ildə Vindobon (müasir Vyana) deyilən yerdə taundan vəfat edir. Mark Avreli (külü) Hadrian məqbərəsində indiki Müqəddəs Ancelo qəsrində dəfn edilmişdir. Onun ölümündən sonra həmin dövrü antik tarixi ənənəyə görə "Qızıl əsr" özünü isə tax-taclı filosof adlandırırdılar. Senat onun şərəfinə ölümündən sonra Romada hal-hazırda it. Piazza Colonna adlanan meydanda "Şərəf sütunu" (Mark Avreli sütunu) qoydurtmuşdur. Obrazı "Qladiator" filmində istifadə edilmişdir. Nerva-Antonin sülaləsinin zaman xətti[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Fəlsəfəsi[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Alman dilinə tərcümə olunmuş Selbstbetrachtungen ("Özünlə təklikdə") əsəri, Hamburq 1727. Mark Avreli həyatı boyu müxtəlif elmlər və fəlsəfə ilə də məşğul olmuş və bir filosof kimi tanınmışdır. O, Stoa fəlsəfi məktəbinin ən parlaq nümayəndələrindən sayılmaqdadır. Mark Avreli dövründə Romada artıq bütün sahələri əhatə edən tənəzzül dövrü başlamışdır. Siyasi-iqtisadi və sosial böhranlar onun fəlsəfi fikrinə təsir etmişdir. Onun fəlsəfəsində pessimist düşüncələr, dünyanın keçici və mənasız olması kimi fikirlərə tez-tez rast gəlinir. Buna görə Mark Avreli taleyə tabe olmağa, ona qarşı çıxış etməməyə çağırırdı. Bütün bu fikirlər onun "Özünlə təklikdə" kitabında söylənmişdir. Mark Avreli hesab edir ki, dünyada hər şey bir düzənə (nizama) tabedir. Eyni zamanda, tanrılaşdırılmış Yüksək ədalət də vardır. O hər şeyin əsasıdır, hər şey ondan yaranır və ona qayıdır. Həmçinin dünya əqli və tale də tanrılaşdırılmışdır. Dünyada hər şey tanrı düzəninə və məqsədinə tabedir. Markus Avreliusun fikrincə dünya yetkindir. Bu dünyada baş verən hər bir şər isə tanrının dünya üçün cızdığı plana uyğundur[1]. Şəri dünya düzəni baxımından dəyərləndirəndə o təbii bir şeyə çevrilir. Şərin Tanrının hökmü ilə yaranıb-yaranmaması problemi sonralar ortaəsr xristian və müsəlman ilahiyyatı və fəlsəfəsinin əsas problemlərindən birinə çevrilmişdir. Xeyir isə ilahi iradəyə və təbiət qanunlarına uyğun olan bir ahəngdir. Xeyir həm də insanın özü-özü, öz təbiəti ilə razılığı və mənəvi ucalığıdır[2]. Ona görə də, insan təbii düzənə uyğun həyat sürməlidir. Həmin düzəni pozduqda o, ədalətsizliyə yol verir, təbiətə və cəmiyyətə qarşı üsyan edir[3]. Mark Avreli dövlət qanunlarını da təbii qanunlara aid etmiş, onlara tabe olmağı hər bir insan üçün vacib bilmişdir. Markus Avreliusun fəlsəfəsində dünya hər zaman dəyişən bir varlıqdır. Onun üzərində olan hər bir şey məhv olaraq bir durumdan başqasına keçir. Beləliklə, dünyada hər şey dövr etməkdədir. İnsan həyatını təbiət qanunlarına uyğunlaşdırmalı, sonda isə başı uca və ləyaqətlə dünyanı tərk etməlidir. Mənbə Aydın Əlizadə (2016). Antik fəlsəfə tarixi (PDF). 3 saylı Bakı Mətbəəsi ASC. s. 185-187. ISBN 5-89968-061-X. 2016 tarixində arxivləşdirilib (PDF). İstifadə tarixi: 2016-08-16. Həmçinin bax:[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Antik fəlsəfə Stoaçılıq İstinadlar[redaktə | əsas redaktə] ↑ Марк Аврелий Антонин. Размышления / Перевод А. В. Добровольского. Л.: Наука, 1985, s. 10–11. ↑ Марк Аврелий Антонин. Размышления / Перевод А. В. Добровольского. Л.: Наука, 1985, s. 55. ↑ Марк Аврелий Антонин. Размышления / Перевод А. В. Добровольского. Л.: Наука, 1985, s. 49–50. Xarici keçidlər[redaktə | əsas redaktə] ("Özü ilə təklikdə, Düşüncə") rus dilində Həmçinin bax[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Vikianbarda Mark Avreli ilə əlaqəli mediafayllar var. Roma imperatorları Prinsipat e.ə. 27-235 Avqust  · Tiberi  · Kaliqula  · Klavdi  · Neron  · Qalba · Oton · Vitelli  · Vespasian  · Tit  · Domisian  · Nerva · Trayan · Hadrian · Antonin Piy · Mark Avreli/Lusi Ver  · Kommod  · Pertinaks · Didi Yulian · Septimi Sever  · Karakalla/Geta  · Makrin  · Helioqabal  · Aleksandr Sever · Böhran 235-284 Frakiyalı Maksimin · I Qordian · II Qordian · Balbin/Pupien · III Qordian · Ərəb Filipp · Desi Trayan · Gerenni Etrusk · Trebonian Qall · Hostilian · Voluzian · Emilian · Valerian · Qallien · II Klavdi  · Kvintill  · Avrelian  · Tasit · Florian · Prob · Kar  · Karin · Numerian Dominat 235-395 Diokletian/Maksimian  · I Konstansi  · Qaleri  · Flavi Sever  · Maksensi  · Maksimin Daza · Lisini · Valeri Valent · Martinian  · I Konstantin  · II Konstantin  · Konstant  · II Konstansi  · Maqnensi  · Neposian  · Vetranion  · Mürtəd Yulian  · İovian  · I Valentinian  · Qrasian  · II Valentinian  · Maqn Maksim  · Yevgeni  · I Feodosiy Qərbi İmperiya 395–480 Flavi Honori • III Konstansi • İohann • III Valentinian • Petroniy Maksim • Avit • Mayorian • Libiy Sever • Antemi • Olibri • Qliseri • Yuli Nepot • Romul Avqust Roma İmperiyası SƏLƏF Antonin Piy Mark Avreli Nerva-Antonin sülaləsi imperatoru XƏLƏF Kommod Mənbə — "https://az.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Avreli&oldid=5835806" Kateqoriyalar: 26 apreldə doğulanlar 121-ci ildə doğulanlar 17 martda vəfat edənlər 180-ci ildə vəfat edənlər Əlifba sırasına görə dövlət xadimləri Roma imperatorları Qədim Roma filosofları Romada doğulanlar Vyanada vəfat edənlər Taundan ölənlər İdeyalar tarixi Gizli kateqoriyalar: Zaman diaqramının istifadə olunduğu səhifələr Vikipediya:Vikiverilənlərdə dəyəri müəyyən olunmuş məqalələr Vikipediya:Kartoçka daxilinə cədvəl əlavə olunan məqalələr Naviqasiya menyusu Alətlər sandığı Daxil olmamısınız Müzakirə Fəaliyyətim Hesab yarat Daxil ol Adlar fəzası Məqalə Müzakirə Variantlar Görünüş Oxu Redaktə Əsas redaktə Tarixçə Daha çox Axtar Bələdçi Ana səhifə Kənd meydanı Aktual hadisələr Son dəyişikliklər Təsadüfi səhifə Layihələr Seçilmiş məqalələr Seçilmiş siyahılar Seçilmiş portallar Yaxşı məqalələr Məqalə namizədləri Mövzulu ay Xüsusi Bizimlə əlaqə Maddi kömək Kömək Alətlər Səhifəyə keçidlər Əlaqəli redaktələr Fayl yüklə Xüsusi səhifələr Daimi keçid Səhifə məlumatları Bu məqaləyə istinad et Vikiverilənlər elementi Çap et/ixrac Kitab yarat PDF olaraq yüklə Çap variantı Digər layihələrdə Vikianbar Vikisitat Başqa dillərdə Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն İnterlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Keçidlərin redaktəsi Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 10 mart 2021 21:42 tarixində redaktə edilib. Mətn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike lisenziyası altındadır, bəzi hallarda əlavə şərtlər tətbiq oluna bilər. Ətraflı məlumat üçün istifadə şərtlərinə baxın. Gizlilik siyasəti Vikipediya haqqında İmtina etmə Mobil görüntü Tərtibatçılar Statistikalar Kuki məlumatı 
bcl-wikipedia-org-8569	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Gikan sa Bikol Sentral na Wikipedia, an talingkas na ensiklopedya Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Si Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (Abril 26, 121 – Marso 17, 180) an emperador kan Roma poon 161 AD hanggan sa saiyang kagadanan kan 180 AD. Sarò man siyang pilosopong Stoiko. Pinaghugot gikan sa "https://bcl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=139379" Kategorya: Mga emperador kan Roma Hihilngan sa paglibot-libot Pansadiring mga gamiton Dai ka nakalaog Mag-ulay Mga Kaarambagan Magmukna nin panindog Maglaog Mga espasyong ngaran Pahina Urulayan Mga Kinalaenan Mga pagtànaw Basáhon Liwatón Liwaton an gikanan Tanawon sa historiya Kadugangan Maghanap Paglibot-libot Panginot na Pahina Portal kan komunidad Sa ngunyan na mga pangyayari Dae pa sana nahahaloy na mga kaliwatan Purakan na pahina Katabangan Magdonar Mga gamiton: Ano an mga makasugpon digdi Kasurugpon na mga kaliwatan Ikarga an sagunson Mga espesyal na pahina Permanenteng sugpon Pahina kan impormasyon Isambit an pahinang ini Wikidata na bagay Imprintahon/Ipagpaluwas Magmukna nin sarong libro Ikarga bilang PDF Nalilimbag na bersyon Sa ibang mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Sa ibang mga lengguwahe/tataramon Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Liwaton an mga takod Huring pigliwat an pahinang ini kan 8 Marso 2013, alas 00:31. An teksto makukua sa irarom kan Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; tibaad igwa pang ibang patanid. Hilingon an Terms of Use para sa detalye. Kalakawan nin pribasidad Dapít sa Wikipedia Mga Pangindahan Magíwasong patanaw Mga developer Estadistika Statement na Cookie 
be-wikipedia-org-6367	----	Марк Аўрэлій — Вікіпедыя Марк Аўрэлій З пляцоўкі Вікіпедыя Jump to navigation Jump to search Марк Аўрэлій Антанін лац.: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Бюст з мюнхенскай Гліптатэкі Рымскі імператар 7 сакавіка 161 — 17 сакавіка 180 Сумесна з Луцый Вер (7 сакавіка 161 — студзень 169), Комад (177 — 17 сакавіка 180) Папярэднік Антанін Пій Пераемнік Комад Нараджэнне 26 красавіка 121[1] Рым, Італія, Рымская імперыя Смерць 17 сакавіка 180[2][1] (58 гадоў) Vindobona[d], Upper Pannonia[d], Рымская імперыя Месца пахавання Замак Святога Анёла Род Дынастыя Антанінаў Імя пры нараджэнні Марк Аній Вер Бацька Marcus Annius Verus[d] Маці Domitia Calvilla[d] Жонка Faustina the Younger[d][1] Дзеці Комад, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar[d], Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina[d], Fadilla[d], Анія Луцыла[d], Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor[d], Vibia Aurelia Sabina[d], Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus[d] і Domitia Faustina[d] Веравызнанне Старажытнарымская рэлігія Дзейнасць палітык, філосаф, пісьменнік Марк Аўрэлій на Вікісховішчы Марк Аўрэлій Антанін (лац.: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; 26 красавіка 121, Рым — 17 сакавіка 180, Віндабона) — рымскі імператар (161—180) з дынастыі Антанінаў, філосаф, прадстаўнік позняга стаіцызму, паслядоўнік Эпіктета. Змест 1 Раннія гады 2 Кіраванне 3 Філасофія 4 Беларускія пераклады 5 Адлюстраванне ў кіно 6 Знакамітыя сучаснікі 7 Зноскі 8 Літаратура 8.1 Тэксты і пераклады 8.2 Даследаванні 9 Спасылкі Раннія гады[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Марк Аній Вер (пазней пасля першага ўсынаўлення — Марк Аній Катылій Север, а пасля другога — Марк Элій Аўрэлій Вер Цэзар), сын Марка Анія Вера і Даміцыі Луцылы, які ўвайшоў у гісторыю пад імем Марка Аўрэлія, нарадзіўся ў Рыме 26 красавіка 121 года ў сенатарскай сям’і іспанскага паходжання. Дзед Марка Аўрэлія па бацькаўскай лініі (таксама Марк Аній Вер) быў трохразовым консулам (трэці раз абраны ў 126 годзе). Жонка Антаніна Пія — Анія Галерыя Фаўсціна (Фаўсціна Старэйшая) — даводзілася роднай сястрой бацьку Марка Аўрэлія (і адпаведна роднай цёткай самаму Марку Аўрэлію). Марк Аній Вер быў першапачаткова ўсыноўлены трэцім мужам маці імператара Адрыяна — Даміцыі Луцылы Паўліны — Публіем Катыліем Северам (консулам 120 года) і стаў называцца Маркам Аніем Катыліем Северам. У 139 годзе пасля смерці свайго прыёмнага бацькі ён быў усыноўлены імператарам Антанінам Піем і стаў звацца Марк Элій Аўрэлій Вер Цэзар. Марк Аўрэлій атрымаў выдатную адукацыю. Яшчэ пры жыцці Адрыяна Марк Аўрэлій, нягледзячы на свой юны ўзрост, быў прызначаны ў квестары, а праз паўгода пасля смерці Адрыяна ўступіў на пасаду квестара (5 снежня 138 года) і пачаў займацца адміністрацыйнай дзейнасцю. У тым жа годзе ён быў заручаны з Аніяй Галерыяй Фаўсцінай, дачкой імператара Антаніна Пія, пераемніка Адрыяна на прастоле. Ад шлюбу з ёй Марк Аўрэлій меў дзяцей: Анію Аўрэлію Галерыю Луцылу, Анію Аўрэлію Галерыю Фаўсціну, Элія Антаніна, Элія Адрыяна, Даміцыю Фаўсціну, Фадылу, Карніфіцыю, Комада (будучага імператара), Ціта Аўрэлія Фульвія Антаніна, Элія Аўрэлія, Марка Анія Вера Цэзара, Вібію Аўрэлію Сабіну. Большасць дзяцей Марка Аўрэлія памерлі ў дзіцячым узросце, да сталых гадоў дажылі толькі Комад, Луцыла, Фаўсціна і Сабіна. Ён быў прызначаны Піем у консулы на 140 год і абвешчаны цэзарам. У 145 годзе абвешчаны консулам другі раз, разам з Піем. У 25 лёт пачаў займацца філасофіяй; галоўным настаўнікам Марка Аўрэлія быў Квінт Юній Рустык. Маюцца звесткі і пра іншых філосафаў, выкліканых для яго ў Рым. Кіраўніком Марка Аўрэлія ў вывучэнні грамадзянскага права быў знакаміты юрыст Луцый Валузій Мецыян. 1 студзеня 161 года Марк уступіў у сваё трэцяе консульства разам з прыёмным братам. У сакавіку таго ж года сканаў імператар Антанін Пій і пачалося сумеснае кіраванне Марка Аўрэлія з Луцыем Верам, якое доўжылася да смерці Луцыя ў студзені 169 года, пасля чаго Марк Аўрэлій кіраваў аднаасобна. Кіраванне[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Марк Аўрэлій шмат чаму навучыўся ў свайго прыёмнага бацькі Антаніна Пія. Падобна яму, Марк Аўрэлій усяляк падкрэсліваў сваю павагу да сената як установы і да сенатараў як членаў гэтай установы. Вялікую ўвагу Марк Аўрэлій надаваў судаводству. Агульны кірунак яго дзейнасці ў вобласці права: «не столькі ўводзіў новаўвядзенні, колькі аднаўляў старадаўняе права». У Афінах ён заснаваў чатыры кафедры філасофіі — для кожнага з пануючых у яго час філасофскіх кірункаў — акадэмічнага, перыпатэтычнага, стаічнага, эпікурэйскага. Прафесары знаходзіліся на дзяржаўным утрыманні. Аўрэлію, які не меў ваяўнічага характара, даводзілася шмат разоў удзельнічаць у ваенных дзеяннях. Парфяне ўварваліся ў рымскія ўладанні адразу ж пасля смерці Антаніна Пія і ў дзвюх бітвах нанеслі паражэнне рымлянам. Рымская імперыя склала мір з Парфіяй у 166 годзе. У тым жа годзе германскія плямёны ўварваліся ў рымскія ўладанні на Дунаі. Імператары-суправіцелі выступілі ў паход супраць варвараў. Яшчэ не была скончана вайна з германцамі і сарматамі, як пачаліся хваляванні ў Паўночным Егіпце (172). У 178 г. Марк Аўрэлій узначаліў паход супраць германцаў, і яму атрымалася дамагчыся вялікіх поспехаў, але рымскія войскі нагнала эпідэмія чумы. 17 сакавіка 180 года Марк Аўрэлій сканаў ад чумы ў Віндабоне на Дунаі (сучасная Вена). Пасля смерці Марк Аўрэлій быў афіцыйна абагаўлёны. Час яго кіравання лічыцца ў антычнай гістарычнай традыцыі залатым векам. Марка Аўрэлія завуць «філосафам на троне». Ён вызнаваў прынцыпы стаіцызму, і галоўнае ў яго цыдулках — этычнае вучэнне, ацэнка жыцця з філасофска-маральнага боку і саветы, як да яе адносіцца. Філасофія[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Асноўны артыкул: Развагі пра самога сябе Конная статуя Марка Аўрэлія (знойдзена ў эпоху Адраджэння і ўзведзена на рымскім Капітоліі). Бюст Palazzo Nuova — Капіталійскага музея ў Рыме Марк Аўрэлій пакінуў філасофскія запісы — 12 напісаных на грэчаскай мове «кніг», якім звычайна прыпісваюць агульную назву «Развагі пра самога сябе». Настаўнікам філасофіі Марка Аўрэлія быў Максім Клаўдзій. У цэнтры яго антыматэрыялістычнага вучэння стаіць частковае ўладанне чалавекам сваім целам, душой і духам, носьбітам якіх з’яўляецца набожная і мужная асоба, якае кіруе розумам — уладарка (праўда, толькі над духам), выхавальнік пачуцця абавязку і прыстанак дапытлівага сумлення. Пасродкам духу ўсе людзі бяруць удзел у боскім і гэтым ствараюць ідэйную агульнасць, якая пераадольвае ўсе абмежаванні. У асобе Марка Аўрэлія трагічна спалучаліся мужнасць і расчараванасць. Беларускія пераклады[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Паасобныя творы на беларускую пераклаў Ян Пятроўскі. Адлюстраванне ў кіно[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Адлюстраванне Марка Аўрэлія ўвасоблена Рычардам Харысам у фільме Рыдлі Скота «Гладыятар» і Алекам Гінесам у фільме «Падзенне Рымскай імперыі». Знакамітыя сучаснікі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Луцый Арторый Каст (часам атаясняны з каралём Артурам) Гален — знакаміты ўрач-хірург, асабісты ўрач імператара, які зрабіў шэраг важных навуковых адкрыццяў Зноскі ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Любкер Ф. Antoninus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q101490"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q1459210"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q694826"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q45275993"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q24933120"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q30059240"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4249594"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4135787"></a> ↑ Марк-Аврелий, Антонин // Военная энциклопедия — СПб.: Иван Дмитриевич Сытин, 1914. — Т. 15. — С. 201.<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4448234"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q4114391"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q26160611"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q25397449"></a> Літаратура[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Тэксты і пераклады[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Греческий текст (издание 1882 года) Английский перевод Дж. Лонга В «Loeb classical library» сочинение издано под № 58. В серии «Collection Budé» начато издание его сочинения: Marc Auréle. Écrits pour lui-même. Tome I: Introduction générale. Livre I. Texte établi et traduit par P. Hadot, avec la collaboration de C. Luna. 2e tirage 2002. CCXXV, 94 p. Даследаванні[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Ренан Э. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. СПб., 1906. Руднев В. В. Император Марк Аврелий как философ // Вера и разум.1887, № 20, кн. I, отд. фил., С. 385—400. Руднев В. В. Император Марк Аврелий и его отношение к христианству // Вера и разум, 1889, № 13, кн. I, отд. филос. С. 17-36. Унт Я. «Размышления» Марк Аврелия как литературный и философский памятник // Марк Аврелий. Размышления. Пер. А. К. Гаврилова. Л., 1985.- С.93-114. Гаджикурбанова П. А. «Философские медитации» Марка Аврелия // MegaLing-2008. Горизонты прикладной лингвистики и лингвистических технологий: Докл. междунар. научн. конф. 24-28 сент. 2008 г., Украина, Крым, Партенит. Симферополь, 2008. С. 42-43. Спасылкі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] На Вікісховішчы ёсць медыяфайлы па тэме Марк Аўрэлій Марк Аўрэлій у бібліятэцы Максіма Машкова Пантелеев А. Д. Христиане в правление Марка Аврелия (руск.) . Исследования и публикации по истории античного мира. 2005. Архівавана з першакрыніцы 4 жніўня 2012. Рымскія імператары Прынцыпат 27 да н.э. — 235 Актавіян Аўгуст Тыберый Калігула Клаўдзій Нерон Гальба Атон Вітэлій Веспасіян Ціт Даміцыян Нерва Траян Адрыян Антанін Пій Марк Аўрэлій і Луцый Вер Комад Пертынакс Дзідзій Юліян Песцэній Нігер Клодзій Альбін Септымій Север Каракала Гета Макрын і Дыядумен Геліягабал Аляксандр Север Крызіс 235—284 Максімін Фракіец Гардыян I і Гардыян II Пупіен і Бальбін Гардыян III Філіп Араб Дэцый і Герэній Этруск Гастыліян Трэбаніян Гал і Валузіян Эміліян Валерыян I Галіен і Салонін Клаўдзій II Квінціл Аўрэліян Тацыт Фларыян Проб Кар Карын і Нумерыян Дамінат 284—395 Дыяклетыян Максіміян Канстанцый I Хлор Галерый Флавій Север Максенцый Максімін Ліцыній з Валентам і Марцініянам Канстанцін I Канстанцін II Канстант Канстанцый II і Ветраніён Флавій Клаўдзій Юліян Іавіян Валентыніян I Валент II Грацыян Валентыніян II Феадосій Заходняя імперыя 395—480 Ганорый Канстанцый III Канстанцін III Іаан Валентыніян III Петроній Максім і Паладый Авіт Маярыян Лібій Север Антэмій Алібрый Гліцэрый Юлій Непат Ромул Аўгуст Усходняя імперыя 395—476 (да падзення Рыма) Аркадзій Феадосій II Маркіян Леў I Макела Леў II Зянон Васіліск Зянон Дынастыя Антанінаў (96—192) Пяць добрых імператараў: Нерва (96—98) • Траян (98—117) • Адрыян (117—138) • Антанін Пій (138—161) • Марк Аўрэлій (161—180) і Луцый Вер (161—169) • Комад (180—192) Марк Аўрэлій — продкі Marcus Annius Verus[d] Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi[d] Libo Rupilius Frugi[d] Marcus Annius Verus[d] Sulpicia Praetextata[d] Rupilia[d] Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus[d] Марк Аўрэлій Саланіна Матыдзія[d] Ulpia Marciana[d] Publius Calvisius Tullus Ruso[d] Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus[d] Publius Calvisius Ruso[d] Domitia Calvilla[d] Domitia Lucilla Major[d] Gnaeus Domitius Lucanus[d]     Тэматычныя сайты MusicBrainz · Project Gutenberg Слоўнікі і энцыклапедыі Вялікая каталанская · Вялікая нарвежская · Вялікая расійская · Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Ваенная Сыціна · Іспанскі біяграфічны · Малы Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Рэальны слоўнік класічных старажытнасцяў · Britannica (11-th) · Britannica (онлайн) · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Notable Names Database · Pauly-Wissowa · Treccani · Universalis Генеалогія і некрапалістыка Find a Grave · WikiTree · WeRelate · genealogics.org Нарматыўны кантроль BAV: ADV12179132, ADV12667279, ADV11069824, ADV11069825, ADV12420148 · BIBSYS: 90564087 · BNC: a10491697 · BNE: XX932158 · BNF: 11914476c · CiNii: DA00596148 · CONOR: 6923107 · GND: 118577468 · ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X · LCCN: n80051702 · LNB: 000027790 · NDL: 00431918 · NKC: jn19981001808 · NLA: 35966523 · NLG: 150699 · NLR: 000136425 · NLP: A1180743X · NSK: 000083919 · NTA: 06867452X · NUKAT: n96103790 · PTBNP: 272140 · LIBRIS: 194415 · SUDOC: 027008614 · VIAF: 102895066 · ULAN: 500115701 · WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 Узята з "https://be.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аўрэлій&oldid=3831978" Катэгорыі: Нарадзіліся 26 красавіка Нарадзіліся ў 121 годзе Нарадзіліся ў Рыме Памерлі 17 сакавіка Памерлі ў 180 годзе Памерлі ў Рымскай імперыі Пахаваныя ў Лацыа Дынастыя Антанінаў Асобы Імператары рымскія Познія стоікі Філосафы Старажытнай Грэцыі Філосафы Старажытнага Рыма Філосафы II стагоддзя Памерлі ад чумы Рымскія імператары II стагоддзя Памерлі ў Вене Схаваныя катэгорыі: Вікіпедыя:Артыкулы з пераазначэннем значэння з Вікідадзеных Вікіпедыя:Артыкулы з крыніцамі з Вікідадзеных Вікіпедыя:Спасылка на Вікісховішча непасрэдна ў артыкуле Навігацыя Асабістыя прылады Не ўвайшоў Размовы Уклад Стварыць уліковы запіс Увайсці Прасторы назваў Артыкул Размовы Варыянты Віды Чытаць Правіць Правіць зыходнік Паказаць гісторыю Болей Знайсці Навігацыя Галоўная старонка Супольнасць Апошнія змены Новыя старонкі Форум Выпадковая старонка Даведка Ахвяраванні Паведаміць пра памылку Прылады Сюды спасылаюцца Звязаныя праўкі Адмысловыя старонкі Нязменная спасылка Звесткі пра старонку Цытаваць гэту старонку Элемент Вікідадзеных Друк/экспарт Стварыць кнігу Загрузіць як PDF Для друку У іншых праектах Вікісховішча Вікіцытатнік На іншых мовах Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Правіць спасылкі Апошняе змяненне старонкі адбылося 14:22, 13 красавіка 2021. 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books-google-com-1298	----	Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective - Fred S. Kleiner - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective Fred S. Kleiner Cengage Learning, Dec 30, 2008 - Education - 880 pages 0 Reviews Featuring unique NEW study tools for students and dynamic NEW lecture resources for instructors, the 13th Edition of GARDNER'S ART THROUGH THE AGES: THE WESTERN PERSPECTIVE takes this brilliant bestseller to new heights in addressing the challenges of today's classroom. The most widely read history of art in the English language for more than 80 years, GARDNER has built its stellar reputation on the inclusion of the most significant images and monuments, discussions of these images in their full historical and cultural context, reproductions of unsurpassed quality, scholarship that is up-to-date and deep, and more help for students and instructors than any other survey text. The 13th Edition adds to this heritage with new images and new full-color reconstructions, as well as a unique scale feature that helps students visualize the size of each work. Students will also benefit from the clarity that only a book written by a single author can provide. New to this edition are the three levels of review including extended image captions, The Big Picture overviews at the end of every chapter, and a special global timeline. ArtStudy Online is a free interactive study guide that includes image flashcards and quizzes to help students master the material quickly. Dynamic lecture tools -- including a digital library with a full zoom and side-by-side comparison capability and the exciting Google Earth technology -- will save instructors time in preparing for class and personalizing their lectures. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the ebook version. What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Other editions - View all Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Volume II Fred S. Kleiner No preview available - 2009 Gardners Art Through the Ages, Volume 2 Fred Kleiner No preview available - 2008 About the author (2008) Fred S. Kleiner, Ph.D. has been professor of art history and archeology at Boston University for four decades. He taught previously at University of Virginia and served as editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology. Acclaimed for inspiring lectures, Dr. Kleiner won Boston University's Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching, the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising in the Humanities, and the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of Arts and Sciences Honors Program. He is a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London as well as the Text and Academic Authors Association. In addition to this title, Dr. Kleiner authored several editions of ART THROUGH THE AGES: A CONCISE HISTORY (Cengage), A HISTORY OF ROMAN ART (Cengage), and more than 100 publications on Greek and Roman art and architecture. Dr. Kleiner earned his Ph.D. from Columbia University. Bibliographic information Title Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective Author Fred S. Kleiner Edition 13 Publisher Cengage Learning, 2008 ISBN 0495573558, 9780495573555 Length 880 pages Subjects Education  › General Education / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-1421	----	The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future - Milton Osborne - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $15.99 Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future Milton Osborne Open Road + Grove/Atlantic, Dec 1, 2007 - History - 320 pages 0 Reviews A “remarkable” history of the great river of Southeast Asia (Jill Ker Conway, author of The Road from Coorain).   The Mekong River runs over nearly three thousand miles, beginning in the mountains of Tibet and flowing through China, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam before emptying into the China Sea. Its waters are the lifeblood of Southeast Asia, and first begot civilization on the fertile banks of its delta region at Oc Eo nearly two millennia ago.   This is the story of the peoples and cultures of the great river, from these obscure beginnings to the emergence of today’s independent nations. Drawing on research gathered over forty years, Milton Osborne traces the Mekong’s dramatic history through the rise and fall of civilizations and the era of colonization and exploration. He details the struggle for liberation during a twentieth century in which Southeast Asia has seen almost constant conflict, including two world wars, the Indochina War, the Vietnam War, and its bloody aftermath—and explores the prospects for peace and prosperity as the region enters a new millennium.   Along the way, he brings to life those who witnessed and shaped events along the river, including Chou Ta-kuan, the thirteenth-century Chinese envoy who recorded the glory of Angkor Wat, the capital of the Khmer Empire; the Iberian mercenaries Blas Ruiz and Diego Veloso, whose involvement in the intrigues of Cambodia’s royal family shook Southeast Asia’s politics in the sixteenth century; and the revolutionaries led by Ho Chi Minh, whose campaigns to liberate Vietnam from the French and unify the nation under communism changed the course of history.   “[A] pathbreaking, ecologically informed chronicle . . . A pulsating journey through the heart of Southeast Asia.” —Publishers Weekly   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review LibraryThing Review User Review  - jakkrits - LibraryThingThroughout the book “The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future”, Milton Osborne details the experiences of the early Mekong explorations of the French expedition team back in the colonial era ... Read full review The Mekong, turbulent past, uncertain future User Review  - Not Available - Book VerdictThe author admits that the enormous power and potential of the Mekong River is his obsession, begun when he was a foreign service officer and subsequently cultivated through four decades of traveling ... Read full review Selected pages Page Page Page Title Page Table of Contents Contents Maps and Illustrations Beginnings Discovery and the Colonial Years War Failed Peace and Plans for the Mekong War Victory and Defeat along the Mekong Tragedies of Peace Dams Plans and Controversies I Present Epilogue Sources Notes and Acknowledgements Index Copyright Other editions - View all The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future Milton E. Osborne Limited preview - 2000 The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future Milton E. Osborne No preview available - 2000 Common terms and phrases Angkor Wat Angkorian Asian Australian Bangkok banks boat bridge Buddhist building built Burma Cambodia capital Carné China Chinese claim Cochinchina colonial communist construction countries country’s course court Dali dams Delaporte Despite Doudart de Lagrée downstream early European expedition’s explorers finally fish flow France France’s Francis Garnier French French Indochina Funan Grandière gunboats Henri Mouhot Indochina Jinghong journey Khmer Rouge Khone Falls kilometres king Lagrée’s Lake later linked Luang Prabang major Malraux Mekong Delta Mekong Expedition Mekong River metres modern navigation nineteenth century Norodom officials once pagodas palace Paris party Pavie Phnom Penh plans Pol Pot political population Portuguese possible provinces rapids reached recorded region royal Ruiz ruler Saigon Sambor season settlement Siam Siamese Southeast Asia southern Laos southern Vietnam temples territory Thai Thailand Theun Tonle Sap tributaries Veloso vessels Vientiane Vietnamese Wat Phu Yunnan About the author (2007) A compelling, lively narrative history of the peoples and cultures of the great river of Southeast Asia, The Mekong spans two thousand years--from the dawn of civilization on the Mekong Delta to the political and environmental challenges the region faces today. Beginning with the rise of ancient seafaring civilizations at Oc Eco and moving on to the glory of the Cambodian empire in the first millennium, through European colonization and the struggle for independence in the twentieth century, Osborne traces the history of the region that comprises the modern nations of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, and China. Vibrant, insightful, and eminently readable, The Mekong is a rousing history of a dynamic region that has fascinated readers the world over. Bibliographic information Title The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future Author Milton Osborne Publisher Open Road + Grove/Atlantic, 2007 ISBN 0802196098, 9780802196095 Length 320 pages Subjects History  › Asia  › Southeast Asia History / Asia / Southeast Asia Nature / Ecosystems & Habitats / Rivers Travel / Asia / Southeast     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
bg-wikipedia-org-5295	----	Марк Аврелий – Уикипедия Марк Аврелий от Уикипедия, свободната енциклопедия Направо към навигацията Направо към търсенето Вижте пояснителната страница за други личности с името Марк Аврелий. Марк Аврелий 16-и император на Римската империя Скулптурен портрет на Марк Аврелий в Глиптотеката, Мюнхен Управление 8 март 161 – 169 (с Луций Вер) 169 – 177 (сам) 177–март 180 (с Комод) Наследил Антонин Пий Наследник Комод Лични данни Роден 26 април 121 г. Рим Починал 17 март 180 г. (58 г.) Виндобона или Сирмиум Погребан в Мавзолей на Адриан Пълно име Марк Аний Катилий Север (рождено име) Марк Аний Вер (като зет на Антонин Пий) Марк Елий Аврелий Вер Цезар (като наследник) Цезар Марк Аврелий Антонин Август (като император) Семейство Династия Нерво-Антонинова Баща Марк Аний Вер Майка Домиция Луцила Брак Фаустина Млада Марк Аврелий в Общомедия Марк Аврелий Антонин (на латински: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) е римски император и философ. Той спада към династията на Антонините и е последният от Петимата добри императори. Марк Аврелий, философът на императорския трон, управлява Римската империя от 161 до 180 г. (от 161 до 169 г. съвместно с Луций Вер, от 169 до 177 г. – еднолично, от 177 до 180 г. – заедно със сина си Комод). През неговото царуване империята е въвлечена в изтощителна серия от отбранителни войни по границите си и преминава през период на обществени сътресения и икономически затруднения. Марк Аврелий е запомнен най-вече със своето посвещаване на стоическата философия и с оставените от него философски записки. Съдържание 1 Произход и ранни години 1.1 Престолонаследник (138 – 161) 2 Войни и управление 2.1 Съуправление с Луций Вер (161 – 169) 2.2 Самостоятелно управление (169 – 177) 2.3 Съуправление с Комод (177 – 180) 3 Титли и магистратури 4 Философски съчинения 5 Деца и наследници 6 Вижте също 7 Бележки 8 Външни препратки 9 Библиография Произход и ранни години[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Роден е на 26 април 121 г. в Рим като наследник на патрицианска фамилия, произхождаща от испанския град Укуби (близо до днешния град Кордоба). При раждането си получава името Марк Аний Вер. Семейството му има испански произход и консули от предшествениците си – Аний Вер Старши. Роднините му притежават голямо грънчарско производство в покрайнините на Рим. Марк Аврелий е син на претора Марк Аний Вер и богатата Домиция Луцила, дъщеря на Публий Калвизий Тул Рузон (консул 109 г.) и Домиция Луцила Старша – роднина на император Адриан. Внук е по баща на Марк Аний Вер (три пъти консул) и на Рупилия Фаустина. Брат е на Ания Корнифиция Фаустина. Сестрата на баща му Фаустина Стара е съпруга на римския император Антонин Пий и майка на Фаустина Младша – която става съпруга на Марк Аврелий. Той се ползва с благосклонността на император Адриан, който рано открива бъдещите му способности, лично се грижи за неговото възпитание и го подготвя, за да заеме висшия пост в държавата. Според писанията на Аврелий Виктор, от най-ранна възраст бъдещият император притежавал толкова спокоен характер, че нито радост, нито мъка се изписвали на лицето му и водел аскетично съществуване, въпреки неговото нестабилно здраве, което продължило през целия му живот. Тъй като Аврелий е още млад, Адриан обявява Елий Цезар за приемник на властта, която е планирано по-късно да премине в ръцете на Марк Аврелий. Елий обаче умира твърде скоро. През 138 г. Адриан, на когото остават само няколко месеца живот, избира за наследник Антонин Пий, но с условие, че той ще осинови веднага непълнолетните Марк Аврелий и Луций Цейоний Комод (синът на Елий Цезар) като следващи кандидати за престола. След осиновяването имената им са променени съответно на Марк Елий Аврелий Вер и Луций Елий Аврелий Комод. Престолонаследник (138 – 161)[редактиране | редактиране на кода] През управлението на Антонин Пий (138 – 161) Марк Аврелий е официален престолонаследник в продължение на 23 години. През 145 г. Марк Аврелий става зет на император Антонин Пий, след като се жени за своята първа братовчедка по майчина линия Фаустина Младата, дъщерята на Антонин Пий и Фаустина Старата. Тя му ражда 13 деца, повечето от които умират рано. За живота на Марк Аврелий в този период до възкачването му през 161 г. практически не е известно много. Той посвещава много от времето си на своето образование и влиза в интелектуалните среди на най-изтъкнатите философи и оратори от това време. Негови учители са известните ритори Фронтон и Херод Атик. Около 146 – 147 г. той спира да се занимава с риторика и приема учението на Епиктет, ставайки убеден стоик. След смъртта на Антонин Пий в 161 г. Марк Аврелий е провъзгласен за император. Той веднага поисква от Сената да бъдат предоставени равни с неговите права на Луций Комод (той е известен още като император Луций Вер). Това е първият случай на съвместен принципат в Римската империя. За да се заздрави връзката между императорите, дъщерята на Марк Аврелий – Ания Луцила е сгодена за Луций Комод. Войни и управление[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Бронзовата конна статуя на Марк Аврелий (Капитолия, Рим) Марк Аврелий единодушно е възхваляван като въплъщение на платоновия идеал за владетел-философ, а според оценката на историци и съвременници, неговият възвишен и сериозен характер представлявал забележително олицетворение на римските добродетели. Освен с блестящо образование, той се отличава с благородство и сдържаност в поведението си. Властването му съвпада с епохата наречена „Златен век“ на Римската империя, време когато държавата се намира във върха на своето могъщество и слава, но това също така е и времето, когато започват да се появяват първите признаци на наближаващата криза. Във вътрешната политика Аврелий се стреми да поддържа курса на своите предшественици: допълва юридическите и административни реформи, подпомага бедните и нуждаещите се, демонстрира милосърдие и скромност на обществените прояви. Полага грижи за възстановяването на занемареното селско стопанство в Италия, вече все по-изоставаща в сравнение с провинциите. Той е един от последните императори, които поддържали приятелски отношения с нобилитета и Сената. Съуправление с Луций Вер (161 – 169)[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Практически цялото управление на Марк Аврелий, който по своята природа бил склонен към войни, е подчинено на предотвратяване на военните конфликти – от деветнадесетте години през които управлява, само четири преминават в мир. Отначало империята е заплашена от размирици в Северна Британия (161 г.) и от нападение на германските племена хати по река Рейн в Горна Германия (162 г.). Когато спокойствието на запад е възстановено, войски на царството Партия завоюват Армения и разгромяват две римски армии в Сирия и Кападокия. Там са изпратени легиони начело със съимператор Луций Комод Вер. Под командването на двамата военачалници Авидий Касий и Стаций Приск Армения е отвоювана от партите (163 – 164), вражеската столица Ктезифон е завладяна, а Месопотамия е разграбена. Но сред войската се разпространява зараза, което кара римляните да изоставят завоеванията и да се оттеглят през 166 година. Сестерция на Марк Аврелий, представяща пленените като трофеи оръжия от германските войни С връщането на победните войски, в империята е донесена и смъртоносна болест, епидемията от която предизвиква ужасни опустошения сред населението. През 167 г. епидемията достига Рим, където отнема по 2 хиляди човешки живота на ден, или общо около една-четвърт от жителите на града. Следват и други бедствия: слаба реколта и масов глад, наводнения, земетресения. Настъпва период на икономически затруднения и финансова криза, поради което съдържанието на сребро в монетите е намалено. В това време варварските народи започват мащабни нападения по северните граници на империята. Римските земи по Дунав и Рейн са най-засегнати от инвазията на хати, маркомани, лангобарди, язиги и други. През 167 г. племената квади и маркомани навлизат в алпийските провинции и успяват да нахлуят даже в Северна Италия, но накрая са изгонени след тежки боеве (168 г.). Критичното положение и недостигът на военна сила принуждават римляните да набират попълнения сред гладиатори и бивши роби. Пострадват също така провинциите Тракия, Македония и Ахея, нападнати през 170 – 171 г. от племето костобоки. Самостоятелно управление (169 – 177)[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Детайл от Колоната на Марк Аврелий в Рим През 169 г. Луций Вер умира по време на кампания срещу варварите и Марк Аврелий остава едноличен император. В същата година имперските съкровища са продадени на търг, за да се финансират военните действия и от 170 до 174 г. Марк Аврелий се намира при действащата Дунавска армия, която воюва с маркоманите, квадите и сарматите. Кампанията протича успешно и легионите навлизат в земите на варварите. Императора възнамерява да основе две нови провинции отвъд Дунав – Маркомания и Сарматия (на територията на днешните Чехия и Словакия). Плановете за завоевания обаче са осуетени от внезапно започналите въстания в източните провинции. Избухналото голямо въстание на овчарите („буколи“) в Северен Египет е потушено през 175 г. от Авидий Касий – талантлив пълководец, имащ големи пълномощия на изток. На свой ред обаче той се обявява за император, възползвайки се от слух за смъртта на Марк Аврелий. Метежът е бързо потушен, а Касий е убит от поддържащите го легиони, но тези събития принуждават императора да напусне Дунавските области и да остави завоюването им недовършено. На север от река Дунав са създадени области, в които римляните позволяват да се заселват варварски племена срещу задължението от тяхна страна да защитават римската граница. Това са първите стъпки за масово заселване на чужденци в покрайнините на империята. След потушаване на бунта на Касий, императорът, заедно с Фаустина, Комод и висши офицери, продължава своята обиколка на изток, преминавайки през Египет, Сирия, Мала Азия, Гърция и Тракия (в края на лятото на 175 г. преминава през днешните български земи по маршрута р. Дунав – Нове (дн. Свищов) – Емпориум Дискодуратера (дн. с. Гостилица) – Троянски проход – Филипопол (дн. Пловдив) – Хадрианопол (дн. Одрин) и през 176 г. отпразнува в Рим триумф след осемгодишно отсъствие. Вероятно тогава е издигната триумфалната Колона на Марк Аврелий (през 1589 г. на нея е поставена статуята на апостол Павел). Около това време са подновени гоненията на християните в империята. Съуправление с Комод (177 – 180)[редактиране | редактиране на кода] В 177 г. Марк Аврелий прави сина си, 16-годишния Комод, свой съуправител, давайки му титлата „цезар“. Но мирът не продължава дълго, а обстановката по Дунавската граница отново изисква присъствието на императора там. Римляните водят поредната война с германските племена и постигат важни победи (178 г.), макар и те да не са окончателни. Плановете за анексирането на нови земи отвъд Дунав още веднъж се провалят, този път поради смъртта на императора. Марк Аврелий умира във Виндобона най-вероятно от чума (март 180 г.). Смъртта му причинила всеобща скръб сред народа на Рим. Бива посмъртно удостоен с божествени почести от Сената. Дни преди смъртта си той представил Комод пред своите приятели и войската като бъдещ император. Според оценката на древния историк Дион Касий, Аврелий не срещнал добрата съдба, която заслужавал, защото бил слаб физически, а проблемите и неуредиците съпътствали цялото му управление. Все пак обаче той успява да преведе и запази империята през извънредни трудности, макар че предава властта на един, както по-късно се оказва, напълно неподготвен и покварен наследник. Неговите биографи твърдят, че ако не бил Аврелий, то тогава целият римски свят би рухнал из основи. Римската империя по времето на Марк Аврелий (180 г.) Титли и магистратури[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Получава трибунска власт 34 пъти. Понтифекс максимус от 161 г., Pater Patriae от 166 г., консул е три пъти – 140, 145 и 161 г. В чест на военните му победи получава титлите Armeniacus – „Арменски“ (164), Medicus – „Медийски“ и Parthicus maximus – „Партски, най-велик“ (166), Germanicus – „Германски“ (172), Sarmaticus – „Сарматски“ (175). Десетократно е акламиран като император. Философски съчинения[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Марк Аврелий Антонин е автор на философско произведение, написано на гръцки език и озаглавено „Към себе си“.[1] Съчинявано е по време на военни походи, а след смъртта му то се преписва и разпространява. Отразява стоическите възгледи на императора. Деца и наследници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Бюст на Фаустина Млада, Лувъра, Париж Марк Аврелий се жени за първата си братовчедка Фаустина Млада през 145 г. През 30-годишния им брак се раждат тринадесет деца. Само един син и четири дъщери надживяват баща си: Ания Аврелия Галерия Фаустина (147 – † след 165 г.) Гемел Луцил (Gemellus Lucillae; † около 150 г.), близнак на Луцила Ания Галерия Луцила (148/150 – 182 г.), близначка на Гемел, съпруга на Луций Вер Тит Елий Антонин (Titus Aelius Antoninus; роден след 150, † преди 7 март 161 г.) Тит Елий Аврелий (Titus Aelius Aurelius; роден след 150, † преди 7 март 161 г.) Адриан (Hadrianus; 152 – 157 г.) Домиция Фаустина (Domitia Faustina; родена след 150, † преди 7 март 161 г.) Ания Аврелия Фадила (159 – † след 192 г.) Ания Корнифиция Фаустина Младша (160 – 211 г.) Тит Аврелий Фулв Антонин (Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus; 161 – 165), близнак на Комод Луций Аврелий Комод Антонин – Комод (161 – 192 г.), близнак на Тит Аврелий Фулв Антонин и по-късно император Марк Аний Вер Цезар (162 – 169 г.) Вибия Аврелия Сабина (170 – 217 г.) Вижте също[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Родословно дърво на Нерво-Антониновата династия Стоицизъм Маркоманска война Римско-партски войни Колона на Марк Аврелий Бележки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] ↑ Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν, в превод на латински Meditations; в превод на български език е издадено най-напред като Размишления към самия мене, София: Ст. Атанасов, 1914, (пр. Рачо Стоянов) и по-късно като Към себе си, София: Нар. култура, 1986, превод и предг. Богдан Богданов Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Уикицитат съдържа колекция от цитати от/за Марк Аврелий. Herbert W. Benario Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161 – 180) DIR – An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Historia Augusta The Life of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180 CE) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Rain Miracle Marcus Aurelius livius.org Библиография[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Birley, A. R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Reprint. Oxford, Routledge, 1987. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. Fündling, J. Marc Aurel. Kaiser und Philosoph. Darmstadt, Primus Verlag, 2008 (Gestalten der Antike). Rosen, K. Marc Aurel. Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1997; 3. Aufl. 2004. Monti, E. Marc Aurel. Kaiser aus Pflicht. Regensburg, 2000. Kasulke, C. T. Fronto, Marc Aurel und kein Konflikt zwischen Rhetorik und Philosophie im 2. Jh. n. Chr. München, K. G. Saur, 2005 (Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, 218). Фонтен, Ф. Марк Аврелий. М., Молодая гвардия, 2005 (Жизнь замечательных людей). Studi sull'età di Marco Antonio. Ed. G. Traina. Lecce, 2006 (Rudiae, 18). Giavatto, A. Interlocutore di se stesso: la dialettica di Marco Aurelio. Hildesheim, Olms, 2008 (Europaea memoria. Reihe 1, Studien, 58). п б р ←    Император на Римската империя (7 март 161 – 17 март 180) → Принципат 27 пр.Хр. – 235 Август · Тиберий · Калигула · Клавдий · Нерон · Галба · Отон · Вителий · Веспасиан · Тит · Домициан · Нерва · Траян · Адриан · Антонин Пий · Марк Аврелий и Луций Вер · Комод · Пертинакс · Дидий Юлиан · Септимий Север · Каракала с Гета · Макрин и Диадумениан · Елагабал · Александър Север Войнишки императори 235–284 Максимин Трак · Гордиан I и Гордиан II · Пупиен Максим и Балбин · Гордиан III · Филип I Араб · Деций Траян с Херений Етруск · Хостилиан · Требониан Гал с Волусиан · Емилиан · Валериан I · Галиен · Клавдий II · Квинтил · Аврелиан · Тацит · Флориан · Проб · Кар · Карин · Нумериан Доминат 284–395 Диоклециан · Максимиан · Констанций I Хлор · Галерий · Север II · Максенций · Максимин Дая · Лициний с Валерий Валент и Мартиниан · Константин I Велики · Константин II · Констант · Констанций II · Юлиан Апостат · Йовиан · Валентиниан I · Валент · Грациан · Валентиниан II · Теодосий I п б р Римски консули 118—138 г. Римски консули 139—160 г. Римски консули 161—192 г. 139: Тит Аврелий Фулвий Бойоний Арий Антонин Пий (за 2-ри път) и Гай Брутий Презенс Луций Фулвий Рустик (за 2-ри път), суфекти — Луций Миниций Наталис Квадроний Вер, Луций Клавдий Прокул Корнелиан, Гай Юлий Скапула, Марк Цекций Юстин и Гай Юлий Бас  · 140: Тит Аврелий Фулвий Бойоний Арий Антонин Пий (за 3-ти път) и Марк Аврелий, суфекти — Юлий Красипед, Марк Барбий Емилиан и Тит Флавий Юлиан  · 141: Тит Хений Север и Марк Педуцей Стлога Присцин, суфект — Луций Аний Фабиан  · 142: Луций Куспий Пактумей Руфин и Луций Стаций Квадрат, суфекти — Публий Раний Каст, Марк Корнелий Фронтон, Луций Лаберий Приск, Луций Тусидий Кампестер, Квинт Корнелий Сенецио Аниан и Сулпиций Юлиан  · 143: Гай Белиций Торкват и Луций Вибулий Хипарх Тиберий Клавдий Атик Ирод, суфекти — Квинт Юний Калам и Марк Валерий Юниан  · 144: Луций Хедий Руф Лолиан Авит и Тит Статилий Максим, суфекти — Квинт Мустий Приск, Марк Понтий Лелиан Ларций Сабин, Марк Калпурний Лонг и Децим Велий Фид  · 145: Тит Аврелий Фулвий Бойоний Арий Антонин Пий (за 4-ти път) и Марк Аврелий (за 2-ри път), суфекти — Луций Побликола Приск, Луций Плавций Елий Ламия Силван, Гней Арий Корнелий Прокул, Децим Юний Пет, Луций Петроний Сабин, Гай Викрий Руф, Гай Фадий Руф и Публий Викрий  · 146: Секст Еруций Клар (за 2-ри път) и Гней Клавдий Север Арабиан, суфекти — Квинт Модестин Секст Атий Лабеон, Публий Мумий Сизена Рутилиан, Тит Приферний Пет, Луций Аврелий Гал, Гней Луций Теренций Хомул Юниор, Квинт Воконий Сакса Фид, Гай Аниан Вер, Луций Емилий Лонг и Квинт Корнелий Прокул  · 147: Гай Прастина Месалин и Луций Аний Ларг, суфекти — Авъл Клавдий Харакс, Квинт Фуфиций Корнут, Купресен Гал, Квинт Корнелий Квадрат, Секст Кокцей Севериан Хонорин, Тиберий Лициний Касий Касиан и Гай Попилий Кар Педон  · 148: Луций Октавий Корнелий Публий Салвий Юлиан Емилиан и Гай Белиций Калпурний Торкват, суфекти — Сатурий Фирм, Гай Салвий Капитон, Луций Целий Фест, Публий Орфидий Сенецион, Гай Фабий Агрипин и Марк Антоний Зенон  · 149: Сервий Корнелий Сципион Салвидиен Орфит и Квинт Помпей Созий Приск, суфекти — Квинт Пасиен Лицин, Гай Юлий Авит и Тит Флавий Лонгин  · 150: Марк Гавий Сквила Галикан и Секст Карминий Вет, суфекти — Марк Касий Аполинар и Марк Петроний Мамертин  · 151: Секст Квинтилий Кондиан и Секст Квинтилий Валерий Максим, суфекти — Луций Атидий Корнелиан и Марк Коминий Секунд  · 152: Маний Ацилий Глабрион Гней Корнелий Север и Марк Валерий Хомул, суфекти — Луций Клавдий Модест, Луций Дазумий Тулий Туск, Публий Суфенат Вер, Гай Новий Приск, Луций Юлий Ромул, Публий Клувий Максим и Марк Сервилий Силан  · 153: Луций Фулвий Рустик Гай Брутий Презенс и Авъл Юний Руфин, суфекти — Секст Цецилий Максим, Марк Понтий Сабин, Публий Септимий Апер, Марк Седаций Севериан, Квинт Петиедий Гал и Гай Катий Марцел  · 154: Луций Аврелий Вер и Тит Секстий Латеран, суфекти — Приферний Пет, Марк Ноний Макрин, Тиберий Клавдий Юлиан, Секст Калпурний Агрикола, Гай Юлий Стаций Север и Тит Юний Север  · 155: Гай Юлий Север и Марк Юний Руфин Сабиниан, суфекти — Гай Ауфидий Викторин, Марк Гавий, Анций Полион, Миниций Опимиан, Децим Рупилий Север и Луций Юлий Север  · 156: Марк Цейоний Силван и Гай Серий Авгурин, суфекти — Авъл Авилий Уринаций Квадрат, Страбон Емилиан, Квинт Канузий Пренестин и Гай Лузий Спарс  · 157: Марк Ветулен Цивика Барбар и Марк Метилий Аквилий Регул, суфекти — Гай Целий Секунд и Гай Юлий Комод Орфициан  · 158: Секст Сулпиций Тертул и Квинт Тиней Сакердот Клемент, суфекти — Марк Сервилий Фабиан Максим и Квинт Ялий Бас  · 159: Плавций Квинтил и Марк Стаций Приск Лициний Италик, суфекти — Луций Матукций Фусцин, Марк Пизибаний Лепид и Авъл Курций Криспин Арунциан  · 160: Апий Аний Атилий Брадуа и Тит Клодий Вибий Вар, суфекти — Авъл Платорий Непот Калпурниан, Марк Постумий Фест, Гай Септимий Север, Цезорий Павел, Тиберий Оклаций Север, Ниний Хастиан и Новий Сабиниан п б р Римски консули 139—160 г. Римски консули 161—192 г. Римски консули 193—234 г. 161: Марк Аврелий (за 3-ти път) и Луций Елий Аврелий Комод (за 2-ри път), суфекти — Марк Аний Либон и Квинт Камурий Нумизий Юниор — 162: Квинт Юний Рустик (за 2-ри път) и Луций Титий Плавций Аквилин, суфекти — Марк Фонтей Фронтиниан Луций Стертиний Руф и Марк Инстей Битиник — 163: Марк Понтий Лелиан и Авъл Юний Пастор — 164: Марк Помпей Макрин и Публий Ювентий Целс, суфекти — Тиберий Хатерий Сатурнин и Квинт Цецилий Авит — 165: Марк Гавий Орфит и Луций Арий Пудент — 166: Квинт Сервилий Пудент и Луций Фуфидий Полион, суфекти — Марк Вибий Либерал и Публий Мартий Вер — 167: Луций Елий Аврелий Комод (за 3-ти път) и Марк Умидий Квадрат Аниан, суфекти — Квинт Цецилий Дентилиан, Марк Антоний Палас, Луций Семпроний Гракх и Квинт Анцистий Адвент Постумий — 168: Луций Венулей Апрониан Октавий Приск (за 2-ри път) и Луций Сергий Павел — 169: Квинт Помпей Сенецио Созий Приск и Публий Целий Аполинар — 170: Гай Еруций Клар и Марк Гавий Корнелий Цетег, суфект — Тит Хений Север — 171: Тит Статилий Север и Луций Алфидий Херениан — 172: Сервий Сципион Орфит и Секст Квинтилий Максим — 173: Гней Клавдий Север и Тиберий Клавдий Помпеян — 174: Луций Аврелий Гал и Квинт Волузий Флак Корнелиан — 175: Луций Калпурний Пизон и Публий Салвий Юлиан, суфекти — Публий Хелвий Пертинакс, Марк Дидий Север Юлиан и Публий Корнелий Анулин — 176: Тит Витразий Полион (за 2-ри път) и Марк Флавий Апер (за 2-ри път) — 177: Луций Аврелий Комод и Марк Педуцей Плавций Квинтил — 178: Сервий Корнелий Сципион Салвидиен Орфит и Децим Велий Руф Юлиан — 179: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 2-ри път) и Публий Мартий Вер (за 2-ри път), суфекти — Тит Флавий Клавдиан, Луций Емилий Юнк, Маний Ацилий Фаустин и Луций Юлий Прокулиан — 180: Луций Фулвий Рустик Гай Брутий Презенс (за 2-ри път) и Секст Квинтилий Кондиан — 181: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 3-ти път) и Луций Антисций Бур — 182: Марк Петроний Сура Мамертин и Квинт Тиней Руф, суфекти — Аврелиан и Луций Атидий Корнелиан — 183: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 4-ти път) и Гай Ауфидий Викторин, суфекти — Луций Тутилий Понтиан Гентиан, Марк Херений Секунд, Марк Егнаций Постум, Тит Пактумей Магн и Луций Септимий Флак — 184: Луций Косоний Егий Марул и Гней Папирий Елиан, суфект — Гай Октавий Виндекс — 185: Триарий Матерн и Тиберий Клавдий Брадуа Атик — 186: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 5-ти път) и Маний Ацилий Глабрион, суфекти — Луций Новий Руф, Гай Сабуций Майор Цецилиан и Валерий Сенецион — 187: Луций Брутий Квинтий Криспин и Луций Росций Елиан Пакул — 188: Публий Сей Фусциан (за 2-ри път) и Марк Сервилий Силан (за 2-ри път) — 189: Дулий Силан и Квинт Сервилий Силан — 190: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 6-ти път) и Марк Петроний Сура Септимиан, суфекти — Луций Септимий Север и Апулей Руфин — 191: Попилий Педон Апрониан и Марк Валерий Брадуа Маврик — 192: Луций Аврелий Комод (за 7-ми път) и Публий Хелвий Пертинакс (за 2-ри път), суфекти — Квинт Тиней Сакердот, Публий Юлий Скапула Приск, Луций Юлий Месала Рутилиан и Гай Емилий Север Кантабрин Нормативен контрол BIBSYS: 90564087 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (данни) CiNii: DA00596148 CONOR.BG: 6603877 ΕΒΕ: 150699 FAST: 54205 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X Koninklijke: 06867452X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MBa: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NSK: 000083919 Open Library: OL133986A SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat: lccn-n80051702 Взето от „https://bg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелий&oldid=10622414“. 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books-google-com-164	----	Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting - Desmond Collins, Ruth Whitehouse, David Whitehouse, Martin Henig - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting Desmond Collins, Ruth Whitehouse, David Whitehouse, Martin Henig CUP Archive, Jul 19, 1973 - Social Science - 116 pages 0 Reviews A concise, clearly written introduction to the early past of Britain and Europe from the beginnings up to the twelfth century AD, which presents archaeological research in a readily understandable form. Written, and originally published in 1973, for readers with no specialist knowledge or the subject, a major virtue of this book is the way in which it brings into focus all the separate strands of evidence to present a coherent narrative development. The account starts with a brief survey of human evolution and a consideration of the evidence of tool-making in the Old Stone Age. It goes on to describe the origins and spread of farming and the subsequent development of metallurgy and full urban civilization and the contribution made by the urban civilization of Rome to the development of Europe. It looks at the Migration Period through to the reestablishment of urban culture in northern Europe concluding with a brief description of conditions in the twelfth century.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents Index Other editions - View all Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting Desmond Collins,Ruth Whitehouse,Martin Henig,David Whitehouse No preview available - 1973 Common terms and phrases Anatolia Anglo-Saxon animals archaeology areas army Aurignacian became beginning Britain British bronze buildings called cave central central Europe century characterised church civilisation Clactonian classical communities continuity culture dates derived domesticated earlier early east eastern economy Empire England established European evidence evolution example excavation existence farming followed fourth France Gaul Greece Greek human hunting important increased indicate industry influence introduced Italy known late later less London materials medieval Mediterranean metal Middle million natural Neanderthal Neolithic Norman northern organisation origin perhaps period phase plants Pleistocene population possible pottery present probably provinces recent Roman Rome seems settlement significant social society southern spread stage stone suggested supported took towns trade tradition urban valleys Vikings village western Europe About the author (1973) David Whitehouse is Executive Director of the Corning Museum of Glass, New York and a leading authority on Roman, Islamic, and medieval glass. He lives in Corning. Bibliographic information Title Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting Authors Desmond Collins, Ruth Whitehouse, David Whitehouse, Martin Henig Edition illustrated, revised Publisher CUP Archive, 1973 Length 116 pages Subjects Social Science  › Archaeology Social Science / Archaeology     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-1766	----	Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version - Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus) - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available AbeBooks Amazon Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus) University of Chicago Press, 1965 - Syriac language - 145 pages 0 Reviews What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Other editions - View all Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus) Snippet view - 1935 Bibliographic information Title Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version Issue 11 of Studies in ancient oriental civilization Author Saint Epiphanius (Bishop of Constantia in Cyprus) Editor James Elmer Dean Contributor British Museum Publisher University of Chicago Press, 1965 Length 145 pages     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-1861	----	The Climax Of Rome - Michael Grant - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » The Climax Of Rome Michael Grant Orion, Dec 30, 2011 - History - 320 pages 2 Reviews The definitive study of Rome by one of the 20th century's finest ancient historians. A richly detailed portrait of Rome at the height of its glory. What people are saying - Write a review LibraryThing Review User Review  - Farree - LibraryThingThis is an excellent survey of the last several hundred years of the Roman Empire before its total collapse (due, some would say, to the bubonic plague of 541 - 544 and subsequent plagues). This is ... Read full review LibraryThing Review User Review  - le.vert.galant - LibraryThingA comprehensive survey of the history and culture of this poorly documented period. While this era is often seen as a period of decline, Grant's thesis is that the ability of Rome to survive the ... Read full review Other editions - View all The Climax Of Rome Michael Grant Limited preview - 2011 The Climax of Rome Michael Grant Snippet view - 1974 The Climax of Rome Michael Grant No preview available - 1997 View all » About the author (2011) Michael Grant (1914-2004) was a highly successful and renowned historian of the ancient world. He held many academic posts including those of Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; Professor of Humanity at Edinburgh University; Vice Chancellor of The Queen's University, Belfast and Vice Chancellor of the University of Khartoum. He was a Doctor of Letters at Dublin and a Doctor of Laws at Belfast. He has also been President of the Classical Association of England, the Virgil Society and the Royal Numismatic Society, and was a Medallist of the American Numismatic Society. Bibliographic information Title The Climax Of Rome Author Michael Grant Publisher Orion, 2011 ISBN 1780222769, 9781780222769 Length 320 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Rome History / Ancient / General History / Ancient / Rome     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-1862	----	The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC ... - Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Cambridge University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220 Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank Cambridge University Press, Dec 26, 1986 - History - 1024 pages 0 Reviews This volume begins the historical coverage of The Cambridge History of China with the establishment of the Ch'in empire in 221 BC and ends with the abdication of the last Han emperor in AD 220. Spanning four centuries, this period witnessed major evolutionary changes in almost every aspect of China's development, being particularly notable for the emergence and growth of a centralized administration and imperial government. Leading historians from Asia, Europe, and America have contributed chapters that convey a realistic impression of significant political, economic, intellectual, religious, and social developments, and of the contacts that the Chinese made with other peoples at this time. As the book is intended for the general reader as well as the specialist, technical details are given in both Chinese terms and English equivalents. References lead to primary sources and their translations and to secondary writings in European languages as well as Chinese and Japanese.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents Index References Contents The state and empire of Chin 1 Archeological evidence 7 Archeological evidence 7 The concept of sovereignty 13 Characteristic developments of the early empires 14 The state and empire of Chin 20 х CONTENTS 94 The Former Han dynasty 103 Wang Mang the restoration of the Han dynasty 223 The concept of sovereignty 726 Tung Chungshu 733 The views of Wang Chung and Wang Fu 739 The development of the Confucian schools 747 Confucian Legalist and Taoist thought in Later Han 766 Later Han 779 The breakdown of central authority 795 The value of Later Han thought 806 More The conduct of government and the issues at stake 291 The fall of Han 317 Han foreign relations 377 The structure and practice of government 463 The institutions of Later Han 491 Chin and Han law 520 The economic and social history of Former Han 545 The economic and social history of Later Han 608 The religious and intellectual background 649 Popular Taoism at the end of the Han dynasty 815 The philosophical revival of the third century 826 Buddhist and Taoist gnosis 838 Buddhism under the southern and northern dynasties 846 Taoism under the southern and northern dynasties 860 Buddhism and Taoism under the Sui dynasty 868 Bibliography 879 Glossaryindex 921 Copyright Less Other editions - View all The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC ... John King Fairbank No preview available - 1986 Common terms and phrases according administration agriculture apparent appointed authority became become Book Buddhist called capital central century Ch'in changes Chapter China Chinese Chou civil commanderies Confucian considerable continued court criticism death Dubs dynasty early emperor empire empress established eunuchs example existed figures five followed forces Former given Heaven HFHD Hsiung-nu Hulsewé human ideas imperial important included king kingdoms known land Later Later Han Lo-yang Loewe major means measures military nature northern officials origin palace period persons political population position possible practice probably recorded reference Regions reign relations remained result rule ruler scholars Shang social sources succession taken texts thought tion took traditional Ts'ao Wang Wang Mang Western writings Yellow References to this book Manufacturing Confucianism: Chinese Traditions & Universal Civilization Lionel M. Jensen,Associate Professor of East Asian Languages &amp; Literatures and Concurrent Associate Professor of History Lionel M Jensen Limited preview - 1997 Empire Alejandro Colás Limited preview - 2007 All Book Search results &raquo; About the author (1986) Born in South Dakota, John King Fairbank attended local public schools for his early education. From there he went on first to Exeter, then the University of Wisconsin, and ultimately to Harvard, from which he received his B.A. degree summa cum laude in 1929. That year he traveled to Britain as a Rhodes Scholar. In 1932 he went to China as a teacher and after extensive travel there received his Ph.D. from Oxford University in 1936. Between 1941 and 1946, he was in government service---as a member of the Office of Strategic Services, as special assistant to the U.S. ambassador to China, and finally as director of the U.S. Information Service in China. Excepting those years, beginning in 1936, Fairbank spent his entire career at Harvard University, where he served in many positions, including Francis Lee Higginson Professor of History and director of Harvard's East Asian Research Center. Fairbank, who came to be considered one of the world's foremost authorities on modern Chinese history and Asian-West relations, was committed to reestablishing diplomatic and cultural relations with China. He was also committed to the idea that Americans had to become more conversant with Asian cultures and languages. In his leadership positions at Harvard and as president of the Association for Asian Studies and the American Historical Association, he sought to broaden the bases of expertise about Asia. At the same time, he wrote fluidly and accessibly, concentrating his work on the nineteenth century and emphasizing the relationship between China and the West. At the same time, his writings placed twentieth-century China within the context of a changed and changing global order. It was precisely this understanding that led him to emphasize the reestablishment of American links with China. More than anyone else, Fairbank helped create the modern fields of Chinese and Asian studies in America. His influence on American understanding of China and Asia has been profound. Bibliographic information Title The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220 Cambridge histories online Online access with purchase: Cambridge History Online Volume 1 of The Cambridge History of China, John King Fairbank, ISBN 0521214475, 9780521214476 Authors Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank Editors Denis Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher Cambridge University Press, 1986 ISBN 0521243270, 9780521243278 Length 1024 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General History / Asia / China History / Asia / General History / Europe / Medieval     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-2829	----	The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD - Mark Merrony - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $39.46 Get this book in print Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD Mark Merrony Routledge, Jul 6, 2017 - History - 244 pages 0 Reviews The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD argues that the fall of the western Roman Empire was rooted in a significant drop in war booty, agricultural productivity, and mineral resources. Merrony proposes that a dependency on the three economic components was established with the Principate, when a precedent was set for an unsustainable threshold on military spending. Drawing on literary and archaeological data, this volume establishes a correspondence between booty (in the form of slaves and precious metals) from foreign campaigns and public building programmes, and how this equilibrium was upset after the Empire reached its full expansion and began to contract in the third century. It is contended that this trend was exacerbated by the systematic loss of agricultural productivity (principally grain, but also livestock), as successive barbarian tribes were settled and wrested control from the imperial authorities in the fifth century. Merrony explores how Rome was weakened and divided, unable to pay its army, feed its people, or support the imperial bureaucracy – and how this contributed to its administrative collapse.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Table of Contents Index References Contents Preface Abbreviations The purple cloak of deceit The bloody peace Crisis What crisis? The rise and fall of the new golden The plight of Rome Copyright Other editions - View all The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD Mark Merrony Limited preview - 2017 The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD Mark Merrony No preview available - 2017 The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century Ad Mark Merrony No preview available - 2019 Common terms and phrases agricultural product Alans Antonine Plague Archaeological data archaeological evidence attested Augustan period Augustus AVDC barbarian Basilica Battle biography booty Britain Britannia building inscriptions Caesar campaigns Caracalla cent Christian civic civitates coinage Commodus Constantine Constantinople construction Dacia Danube decline decurions defeat Diocletian Duncan-Jones early fifth century eastern economic emperor epigraphic Esmonde Cleary foederati Forum fourth century frontier Gaul gold Gothic Goths Hadrian Hadrian’s Wall Heather historian History Honorius Huns Iberian peninsula imperial Italy late Roman MacMullen Marcus Aurelius Metropolis civitas military minted Nero North Africa numismatic olive oil Pannonia Platner and Ashby provinces recorded region reign revenue revolt Rhine Roman army Roman empire Rome Rome’s rural Sarmatians Sasanian second century Septimius Severus sesterces settlement soldiers sources southern Gaul substantial Sueves suggested Temple territories Theodosius third century Trajan Translated troops urban Valens Valentinian Valentinian III Vandal Vespasian villas Visigoths Ward-Perkins western empire western Roman empire Xiongnu About the author (2017) Mark Merrony is a Supernumerary Fellow at Wolfson College, University of Oxford, and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (both in the UK). He specializes in Roman archaeology and history, and has undertaken fieldwork in Britain, France, and the Levant. Socio-economic aspects of Late Roman Mosaic Pavements in Phoenicia and Northern Palestine was published in 2013, and he has authored several peer-reviewed papers on the subject. Bibliographic information Title The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD Routledge Studies in Ancient History Author Mark Merrony Edition illustrated Publisher Routledge, 2017 ISBN 1351702785, 9781351702782 Length 244 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-294	----	A Reference Guide to Stoicism - John L. Bowman - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » A Reference Guide to Stoicism John L. Bowman Author House, 2014 - History - 220 pages 0 Reviews Stoicism is a 2,300 year-old Greek and Roman philosophy that addressed human happiness. This book is a compendium of principal Stoic philosophers Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius' writings arranged by topic. on escape Seneca wrote whatever your destination you will be followed by your failings; on death Marcus Aurelius advised be content with your allocation of time; on happiness Cicero believed that a happy life depends on very little; and on suicide Epictetus suggested to quit the game when it no longer pleases you and depart. These are a few profound ideas from an ancient philosophy of life that explained things are what we make them; contentment does not come from externals; ambition, avarice and luxury impede happiness; use proper judgments; remain indifferent to matters outside choice; and pleasure and passion are the primary causes of human unhappiness. the writings of ancient Stoics reproduced in this book are as relevant today as they were millennia ago.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents References Contents Body 1 Back Matter 197 Back Cover 203 Spine 204 Copyright Other editions - View all A Reference Guide to Stoicism: A Compilation of the Principle Stoic Writings ... John L. Bowman Limited preview - 2014 Common terms and phrases accordance with nature action anger another’s assent Aurelius 18 Aurelius 25 Aurelius 62 Aurelius 90 avoid beliefs body brings cause Christopher Gill Chrysippus Cicero Cicero/MacKendrick 194 comes covet Cynics death Diogenes directing mind distress divine envy Epictetus 174 Epictetus 89 Epictetus xix Epicureanism Epicurus everything evil externals fear feel fortune freedom friendship grief habit happens happy life depends harm honor human happiness impressions impulse liberal studies lose lust MacKendrick man’s Marcus Aurelius master moral nature’s never old age one’s Oregon State University ourselves pain peace of mind people’s pity poverty preconceptions rational reason remove the thought riches Robin Campbell self−control self−mastery Self−restraint self−sufficiency Seneca 37 Seneca 49 Seneca 58 Seneca 75 sickness slave Socrates someone soul sphere of choice spirit stoa Stoic philosophy Stoicism temperance things troubles truth tyrants vice virtue wealth Wisdom wise wish worry wrong About the author (2014) John Bowman lives in Portland, Oregon, where he raised three daughters with his wife, Kathy. He has been a commercial real estate broker for forty years in Portland, where he owns a commercial real estate company. John is the author of numerous books on philosophy, real estate, politics, sports, words, Stoicism and humor. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1973 from Whitman College, a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy in 1993 from Portland State University and a Master of Interdisciplinary Studies degree in philosophy and history in 2010 from Oregon State University. His master's thesis, titled Stoicism, Enkrasia and Happiness, surveyed the ancient philosophy of Stoicism, particularly the famous Roman Stoic Seneca. Most of the references in this book are taken from John's readings of the ancient Stoics Bibliographic information Title A Reference Guide to Stoicism Author John L. Bowman Publisher Author House, 2014 ISBN 1496900170, 9781496900173 Length 220 pages Subjects Poetry  › Subjects & Themes  › General History / General Poetry / Subjects & Themes / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-3286	----	The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius - Pierre Hadot, Mark Aurel (Römisches Reich, Kaiser), Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Harvard University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Pierre Hadot, Mark Aurel (Römisches Reich, Kaiser), Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Harvard University Press, 1998 - Philosophy - 351 pages 1 Review The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius are treasured today--as they have been over the centuries--as an inexhaustible source of wisdom. And as one of the three most important expressions of Stoicism, this is an essential text for everyone interested in ancient religion and philosophy. Yet the clarity and ease of the work's style are deceptive. Pierre Hadot, eminent historian of ancient thought, uncovers new levels of meaning and expands our understanding of its underlying philosophy. Written by the Roman emperor for his own private guidance and self-admonition, the Meditations set forth principles for living a good and just life. Hadot probes Marcus Aurelius's guidelines and convictions and discerns the hitherto unperceived conceptual system that grounds them. Abundantly quoting the Meditations to illustrate his analysis, the author allows Marcus Aurelius to speak directly to the reader. And Hadot unfolds for us the philosophical context of the Meditations, commenting on the philosophers Marcus Aurelius read and giving special attention to the teachings of Epictetus, whose disciple he was. The soul, the guiding principle within us, is in Marcus Aurelius's Stoic philosophy an inviolable stronghold of freedom, the "inner citadel." This spirited and engaging study of his thought offers a fresh picture of the fascinating philosopher-emperor, a fuller understanding of the tradition and doctrines of Stoicism, and rich insight on the culture of the Roman empire in the second century. Pierre Hadot has been working on Marcus Aurelius for more than twenty years; in this book he distills his analysis and conclusions with extraordinary lucidity for the general reader.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review LibraryThing Review User Review  - delta351 - LibraryThingSolid book, author details extensive structure and themes in MA Meditations. Relates influences of other Stoic authors well, and the precursor influences on MA, esp the mysterious Epictetus. I read ... Read full review Contents I 1 II 21 III 35 IV 54 V 73 VI 101 VII 128 VIII 183 IX 232 X 243 XI 307 Copyright Other editions - View all The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Pierre Hadot,Michael Chase No preview available - 2001 Common terms and phrases able accordance action activity allows ancient appear Arrian assent attitude become beginning body Book called cause completely consent consequences consider consists correspond death depend desire Destiny discipline discipline of desire discourse dogmas Emperor entire Epictetus everything evil example exercise expression fact feel Finally freedom Fronto give given goal gods Greek guiding hand happens human idea impulse indifferent inner instance intention judgment justice kind live Marcus Aurelius matter means Meditations moral moreover Nature notes object oneself particular passage person philosopher physics possible practice precisely present principle providence rational reality reason recognize regard remain representations rhetoric rules seems seen Seneca sense soul speaks Stoic Stoicism theme things thought translation true universal universal Nature VIII virtue Whole writing Bibliographic information Title The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Authors Pierre Hadot, Mark Aurel (Römisches Reich, Kaiser), Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Translated by Michael Chase Edition illustrated Publisher Harvard University Press, 1998 ISBN 0674461711, 9780674461710 Length 351 pages Subjects Philosophy  › History & Surveys  › Ancient & Classical Philosophy / History & Surveys / Ancient & Classical     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-350	----	The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition - Michael Grant - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $37.69 Get this book in print Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » 0 ReviewsWrite review The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition By Michael Grant   About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Routledge. Copyright.  Pages      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-3616	----	Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy - Richard Duncan-Jones - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Cambridge University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy Richard Duncan-Jones Cambridge University Press, May 2, 2002 - History - 264 pages 1 Review This book by the author of The Economy of the Roman Empire: Quantitative Studies considers important interlocking themes. Did the Roman Empire have a single 'national' economy, or was its economy localised and fragmented? Can coin and pottery survivals demonstrate the importance of long-distance trade? How fast did essential news travel by sea, and what does that imply about Mediterranean sailing-patterns? Further subjects considered include taxation, commodity-prices, demography, and army pay and manpower. The book is very wide-ranging in its geographical coverage and in the evidence that it explores. By analysing specific features of the economy the contrasting discussions examine important questions about its character and limitations, and about how surviving evidence should be interpreted. The book throws new and significant light on the economic life of Europe and the Mediterranean in antiquity, and will be valuable to ancient historians and students of European economic history.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review LibraryThing Review User Review  - barlow304 - LibraryThingMore a aseries of essays and specialist articles than a book, Duncan-Jones's Structure and Scale nonetheless contains many fascinating insights into the economy of the Roman empire. This book is not suitable for general readers. Read full review Selected pages Title Page Index References Contents Communicationspeed and contact by sea in the Roman empire 7 Trade taxes and money 30 Separation and cohesion in Mediterranean trade 48 Stability and change 59 DEMOGRAPHY AND MANPOWER 77 Ageawareness in the Roman world 79 Roman lifeexpectancy 93 Pay and numbers in Diocletians army 105 Who paid for public building? 174 TAXPAYMENT AND TAXASSESSMENT 185 Taxation in money and taxation in kind 187 Land taxes and labour implications of the iugum 199 APPENDICES 211 DATED BUILDING EVIDENCE 213 TOTALS OF DATED PAPYRI BY REGNAL YEAR 214 EXISTING INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BEATTY FIGURES 220 More AGRARIAN PATTERNS 119 Land and landed wealth 121 The price of wheat in Roman Egypt 143 THE WORLD OF CITIES 157 The social cost of urbanisation 159 THE IUGUM IN EPIPHANIUS 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY 223 INDEX 234 Copyright Less Other editions - View all Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy Richard Duncan-Jones No preview available - 1990 Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy Richard Duncan-Jones No preview available - 1990 Common terms and phrases Africa ages allowed already appears argue army artaba average belong building Carthage Centre century chapter cities coin consistent contains Dacia death denarii detailed direct documents donatives drachmas Duncan-Jones early edicts Egypt Egyptian emperor empire estates evidence example existed fact figures further given Group Hadrian half hold imperial implied important increase indicates inscriptions interpretation Italy iugera iugum Jones kind known lamps land late later less levied limited lower Marcus marques mean measure median Mediterranean months needed normally paid pattern payment percentage period possible Principate probably produced provinces received refer reflect regional reign relatively remains Roman Rome sample seasonal seems seen shown social South suggests Table taxation third Thugga took town trade Trajan units variation References to this book The Myth of Property: Toward an Egalitarian Theory of Ownership John Christman Limited preview - 1994 Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times Julian Bennett No preview available - 1997 All Book Search results &raquo; Bibliographic information Title Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy Author Richard Duncan-Jones Edition illustrated, revised Publisher Cambridge University Press, 2002 ISBN 0521892899, 9780521892896 Length 264 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General History / World     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-372	----	Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde ... - Jorge Pisa Sánchez - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $9.99 Get this book in print Ediciones Nowtilus S.L. Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano. Jorge Pisa Sánchez Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., Jan 1, 2010 - History - 256 pages 0 Reviews ?BH Hispania es una obra que nos acerca al pasado de nuestro territorio de forma fiel y sencilla. Dividida en diferentes capítulos aborda una parte importante de la historia de España ampliamente tratada por muchos otros eruditos. El autor nos presenta un pequeño manual que hace las delicias de todo amante de la historia, con información buena y precisa sobre el tema tratado.?(Blog Cientos de miles de historias, 20 de septiembre de 2011) Una de las provincias más ricas e importantes del Imperio romano, patria de filósofos y emperadores, conquistada tras acabar con su heroica defensa. No estaba en los planes de Roma conquistar Iberia para someterla, el objetivo principal era cortar la retaguardia de uno de sus mayores enemigos: Aníbal el cartaginés. Para ello los romanos tuvieron que vencer a no pocos enemigos. Breve Historia de Hispania recrea con todas sus luces y sus sombras los momentos más relevantes de la ocupación romana de la Península Ibérica y retrata a los personajes más sobresalientes, aquellos que hicieron de Hispania una de las provincias más relevantes de todo el Imperio. Jorge Pisa emprende en este trabajo un completísimo estudio histórico que abarca cronológicamente la totalidad de la presencia romana en la península. Analiza en una breve introducción la situación de la península de los distintos pueblos pre-romanos para pasar a continuación a determinar las razones y hechos que provocaron que en el 218 a.C. los romanos llegaran a Empúries. Aparecerán en la obra personajes que pertenecen ya a la leyenda, como el lusitano Viriato o históricas batallas que pertenecen al imaginario popular como la defensa de Numancia en las Guerras Celtíbéricas. Recorre el autor todo el periodo de la ocupación hasta el 476 d. C. año de la caída del Imperio a manos germánicas. Hispania fue un emplazamiento fundamental dentro del Imperio, y ha dado a la historia de Roma personalidades tan relevantes como los emperadores Adriano, Trajano y Teodosio, y Séneca, el celebérrimo filósofo y dramaturgo. Razones para comprar la obra: - Abarca un espectro muy completo que va desde antes de la llegada de los romanos a la península hasta la caída del Imperio. Una novedad editorial. - El autor es un auténtico experto en la historia de Hispania. - Introduce un material documental de gran valor y que sirve de guía de lugares emblemáticos para los viajeros interesados en la huella romana en España. - Contiene un buen número de curiosidades históricas y un riguroso trabajo sobre yacimientos de la época. Teatros, acueductos, carreteras o incluso nuestra propia lengua: la huella romana está en lo más hondo de nuestra historia.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents Index References Contents II 17 III 49 IV 83 V 115 VI 151 VII 183 VIII 215 Copyright Other editions - View all Breve Historia de Hispania Jorge Pisa Sanchez No preview available - 2009 Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde ... Jorge Pisa Sánchez No preview available - 2009 Common terms and phrases actividad actual ciudad administración Adriano ampliamente anfiteatro Asturica Baelo Claudia Bética Caesar Augusta campañas cartagineses Cartago Nova celtíberos ción Citerior ciudad de Roma ciudad de Tarraco ciudadanos ciudades Claudio conquista consiguió Constantino cónsul control convirtió Corduba culto desarrollo destacan dinastía Diocleciano diversas económica edificios ejército Emerita Augusta emperador enfrentamiento época romana eran Escipión esclavos estaba establecieron familia finales del siglo fueron Gades Galia Gallaecia germanos gladiadores gobernador guerra hijo Hispalis Hispania Hispania Ulterior hispanorromana imperial Imperio Imperio galo importante incluso indígenas inicio inscripciones Itálica legiones llegada llevó a cabo Lucio lusitanos Mayoriano mediterráneo militar militares muerte mundo nombrado norte nuevo obispos occidentales organización Península Ibérica población poder Pompeyo Portugal pretor propio provin provincial provincias hispanas públicos pueblos realizaban representó romanización salazones senadores Séneca Sertorio siglo I d.C. siglo III situación situado social suevos tarde Tarraco Tarraconense Teodosio termas territorio hispano Tiberio Trajano través tropas vándalos vetones visigodos zona About the author (2010) Jorge Pisa Sánchez es licenciado en Historia y especializado en Historia Antigua y Antigüedad Tardía. Durante varios años se ha dedicado a la Arqueología, excavando yacimientos de época ibérica, romana y medieval. Ha colaborado en la publicación diversos libros de Historia como Visión Histórica de Caldes de Montbui, Los Layetanos, los íberos de la Torre Roja, El termalismo en Caldes de Montbui o Guía de Barcelona, barrio a barrio y ha publicado artículos históricos y estudios cerámicos. Ha participado en actividades y Asociaciones de carácter histórico, promoviendo siempre la investigación y la difusión de la historia. También ha coordinado varias jornadas de conferencias de Historia y Arqueología, y asesorado científicamente la exposición La Torre Roja, Poblado Ibérico del siglo V a.C. Actualmente colabora con el sitio web Magazine Siglo XXI, Revista mensual de Cultura y Sociedad y con el proyecto literario Webdelibros. Bibliographic information Title Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano. Breve Historia Author Jorge Pisa Sánchez Publisher Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010 ISBN 8497637690, 9788497637695 Length 256 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-4875	----	Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age - Barbara M. Levick - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $67.99 Get this book in print Oxford University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age Barbara M. Levick Oxford University Press, Feb 1, 2014 - History - 272 pages 0 Reviews The Roman empress Faustina the Elder (c. 97-140) and her daughter Faustina II (c. 130-175) have been subject to criticism from the earliest records, described in turn as fickle, unfaithful, and treasonous. Yet their husbands, the emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, have reputations as golden as that of the whole Antonine age and seem to have thought favorably of them as prolific mothers, loyal spouses, and useful complements to the military and political proceedings of the empire. On the most basic level of lineage and procreation, the two women were naturally important for establishing the Antonine dynasty. Yet, the Faustinae, as they are commonly referred, also proved instrumental in solidifying in Roman minds the image of a nurturing and harmonious empire. Barbara M. Levick's Faustina I and II carefully synthesizes the many competing sources on the Faustinae into one comprehensive study, demonstrating the extent to which women could and did influence both the internal workings and external standing of the imperial dynasty. The book traces Faustina I's formation of her family's heritage amid a new empire through to Faustina II's enhancement of that legacy, focusing especially on the younger Faustina's deep involvement in palace politics and her possible role in the revolt of Avidius Cassius in 175. Through an analysis of everything from textual evidence to portraiture and coin inscriptions, this study ultimately evokes these two women whose exact biographies are not always certain, but whose relevance to their contemporaries and current scholarship is perfectly distinct.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Page Title Page Table of Contents Index References Contents Introduction 3 ONE Sources 13 TWO The Empresses and Womens Power 19 THREE The Succession to Hadrian 41 FOUR The Faustinas as Empresses 138175 57 FIVE Public and Private in the Dynasty 91 Association Assimilation and Consecration 119 SEVEN Faustinas Children and the End of the Antonines 139 Family Trees 161 Abbreviations 165 Chronology 169 Notes 173 Glossary 213 Bibliography 215 Persons Index 233 Subject Index 241 More Whos Who 155 Copyright Less Other editions - View all Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age Barbara Levick Limited preview - 2014 Common terms and phrases A. R. Birley adoption Aelius Caesar Agrippina Alföldi Ameling Annia Annius Verus Antoninus Pius Asia Aurelius Avidius Avidius Cassius betrothed birth Boatwright Caes Ceionia century Ceres Champlin chapter Chausson child citing Claudius Severus coinage coins Commodus Commodus’s Concord connexion consul consulship Cornificia CREBM daughter death deified Faustina deities Diva Domitia Lucilla Domna dynasty Elagabalus emperor empire empress Ephesus Fadilla father Faus Faustina II favour Fittschen 1982 Fronto Galeria Hadrian Haines heir Hekster Herodes Atticus Historia Augusta honour husband imperial family inscriptions Julia Julia Domna Levick Livia Marcus and Faustina Marcus’s Marius marriage married Matidia mother Nero Noreña ofMarcus Pflaum PIR2 Pius’s Pliny Plotina Pompeianus prefect Priwitzer 2009 Quintillus reign Rémy Roman Rome Rupilia Senate senatorial Septimius Severus Servianus Severan sister status story surviving Syme temple Temporini Tiberius Trajan twins Ummidius Quadratus Verus’s Vibia Sabina Wallinger 1990 wife woman women younger About the author (2014) Barbara M. Levick is Emeritus Fellow and Tutor in Literae Humaniores, St. Hilda's College, Oxford. Bibliographic information Title Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age Women in Antiquity Author Barbara M. Levick Publisher Oxford University Press, 2014 ISBN 0199702179, 9780199702176 Length 272 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Rome Biography & Autobiography / Women History / Ancient / General History / Ancient / Rome     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-5522	----	The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B ... - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Download EPUB Download PDF eBook - FREE Get this book in print AbeBooks On Demand Books Amazon Find in a library All sellers » The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B. C. 100) to Agustulus (A. D. 476), Volume 3 J. Eugene Reed Gebbie & Company, 1883 - Emperors 0 Reviews   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Page 70 Page 168 Page 136 Page 200 Page 320 Contents PLOTINA Wife of Trajan 17 PLUTARCH 31 DION CHRYSOSTOMUS 35 HADRIAN 41 SABINA Wife of Hadrian 59 EPICTETUS 65 POLEMON 71 APPIAN 79 Wife of Marcus Aurelius By the Chevalier A Mongez 187 By the Chevalier A Mongez 191 LUCILLA Wife of Lucius Verus By the Chevalier A Mongez 197 GAIUS 203 LUCIAN 210 CORNELIUS FRONTO 218 JUSTIN MARTYR 225 EXTENT AND MILITARY FORCE OF 238 More Wife of Antoninus By the Chevalier A Mongez 95 APULEIUS 104 PEREGRINUS PROTEUS 108 MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS By Jean Baptiste Louis Crevier 115 UNION AND INTERNAL PROSPERITY 258 CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE By Edward Gibbon 279 AURELIUS COMMODUS 295 CRISPINA Wife of Commodus 344 Less Other editions - View all The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius ..., Volume 2 J. Eugene Reed Full view - 1883 The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius ..., Volume 1 J. Eugene Reed Full view - 1883 The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius ..., Volume 5 J. Eugene Reed Full view - 1884 Common terms and phrases according adopted Alexander ancient Antoninus appears arms army Augustus authority barbarians believed born brought Cæsar called carried Cassius caused celebrated character Christians citizens command Commodus considered consul Dacia danger death deserved desire died dignity Dion emperor empire enemies equal father Faustina Favorinus followed formed friends gave give given Greek Hadrian hand head honour hundred Italy known legions letters lived lost Lucius manner Marcus Aurelius master means mentioned military nature never observed occasion passed peace person Pertinax philosopher Pliny present preserved prince probably provinces raised rank reason received regard reign remained respect Roman Rome says seems Senate sent soldiers soon speaks subjects suffered Tacitus temple thing thought thousand tion Trajan Verus virtue whole wife writings Bibliographic information Title The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B. C. 100) to Agustulus (A. D. 476), Volume 3 The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B. C. 100) to Agustulus (A. D. 476), J. Eugene Reed Editor J. Eugene Reed Publisher Gebbie & Company, 1883 Original from Pennsylvania State University Digitized Jan 20, 2010     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-6041	----	A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD) - Rafe de Crespigny - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD) Rafe de Crespigny BRILL, Dec 1, 2006 - History - 1348 pages 0 Reviews This publication is the long-awaited complement to Michael Loewe's acclaimed Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (2000). With more than 8,000 entries, based upon historical records and surviving inscriptions, the comprehensive Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD) now provides information on men and women of the Chinese world who lived at the time of Later (or Eastern) Han, from Liu Xiu, founding Emperor Guangwu (reg. 24-57), to the celebrated warlord Cao Cao (155-220) at the end of the dynasty. The entries, including surnames, personal names, styles and dates, are accompanied by maps, genealogical tables and indexes, with lists of books and special accounts of women. These features, together with the convenient surveys of the history and the administrative structure of the dynasty, will make Rafe de Crespigny's work an indispensable tool for any further serious study of a significant but comparatively neglected period of imperial China.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents Index References Contents BIOGRAPHICAL LIST 1 GENEALOGICAL TABLES 1186 PROVINCES AND COMMANDERY UNITS OF LATER HAN 1193 THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF LATER HAN 1216 BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1242 GENERAL INDEX 1267 LIST OF MAPS 1307 Copyright Other editions - View all A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD) Rafe De Crespigny No preview available - 2007 Common terms and phrases Administrator appointed army attack bandits became Biao brother Cao Cao Cao Pi Cao's capital Chang'an Chen Cheng Chong Commandant commandery county magistrate court defeated died Dong Zhuo Dou Xian Dowager Duan Emperor Guangwu Emperor Huan Emperor Ming Emperor Zhang Empress enfeoffed eunuch Fang father Feng fief Filial and Incorrupt Geng Gengshi Emperor Gong Gongsun Guan Guang Hanzhong Hong honour Huang Huangfu HYGZ Imperial Secretariat Jian Jiang Jing province joined killed King Kuang Lady later Liang Ji Ling Liu Bao Liu Xiu Liu Zhang Luoyang marquis Meng Minister Nanyang Palace Qiang rebels Rong Runan sent Shang Shanyu Sheng soon afterwards stele Sun Quan surrender throne took troops Wang Mang Xiongnu Xuan Yangzi Ying Yingchuan Youfufeng Yuan Shao Zhao Zhen Zhong Zhou Bibliographic information Title A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD) Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 4 China Author Rafe de Crespigny Publisher BRILL, 2006 ISBN 9047411846, 9789047411840 Length 1348 pages Subjects History  › Europe  › General Biography & Autobiography / Reference History / Europe / General Social Science / Ethnic Studies / General Social Science / Human Geography Social Science / Regional Studies     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-6687	----	The Imperial Roman Army - Yann Le Bohec - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » The Imperial Roman Army Yann Le Bohec Routledge, Oct 28, 2013 - History - 346 pages 0 Reviews The Emperor Augustus believed that the Roman army occupied a crucial lace at the heart of the empire and it was he who made it a fully professional force. This book looks at the structure and development of the army between the Republic and the Late Empire, examining why the army has always been accorded such a prominent position in the history of the Roman Empire, and whether that view is justified. The book is divided into three sections. The author first examines the major divisions of army organization - the legions, the auxiliary units, the fleet - and how the men were recruited. Secondly he looks at what the army did - the training, tactics and strategy. Finally he considers the historical role of the army - how it fitted into Roman society, of which it was only part, and what influence it had economically and politically. In exploring these themes, the author gives equal weight to epigraphic, documentary and archaeology evidence. With tables summarizing detailed information, Yann Le Bohec provides a synthesis of current knowledge of the Roman army from the first to the third century AD, putting it in its context as part of the state structure of the Roman Empire.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents List of plates Training Tactics History of theRoman army 41 Notes 21 Summary bibliography 130 Copyright Other editions - View all The Imperial Roman Army Yann Le Bohec Limited preview - 2013 The Imperial Roman Army Yann Le Bohec Limited preview - 2000 Common terms and phrases Africa andthe Annals Arrian ªthe atthe Augustus Aurelian Column auxiliaries barbarians battle Bohec Britain built bythe camp cavalry centurions CIL VIII civilian Claudius cohorts command corps Dacians Danube decurions Divus Early Empire Egypt emperor enemy equestrian Firstly Flavians fleet fromthe frontier Frontinus function Gallienus garrison at Rome Gemina Germanicus Germany Hadrian Herodian historians Histories honour IIIe imperial important infantry inscriptions inthe itis Josephus L’Année épigr L’armée Lambaesis Latin legate legio III Augusta legionaries legions limes Marcus Aurelius Mauretania mentioned military Moesia Nero numeri Numidia officers ofthe Onesandros onthe organization Pannonia Parthians Pliny Praetorians praetorium prefect protection provinces Pseudo-Hyginus Raetia rampart rank recruitment Reddé reign Rhine role Roman army Roman citizens Rome«s Roux salaries second century Senate Septimius Severus Severus Alexander siege situation stationed Suetonius Syria Tacitus tactics thatthe theEmpire thethird third century Tiberius tobe tothe Trajan Trajan«s Column tribune troops units Vegetius Vespasian wall About the author (2013) Yann Le Bohec is Professor of Roman History at the University of Grenoble. He has written several works on the Roman army, including La Troisieme Legion Auguste, Les unites auxiliaires de l'armee romaine en Afrique proconsulaire et Numidie sous le Haut Empire and La Sardaigne et l'armee romaine sous le Haut-Empire. Bibliographic information Title The Imperial Roman Army Author Yann Le Bohec Publisher Routledge, 2013 ISBN 1135955131, 9781135955137 Length 346 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-7268	----	The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 - Fergus Millar - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Harvard University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 Fergus Millar Harvard University Press, 1993 - History - 587 pages 0 Reviews From Augustus to Constantine, the Roman Empire in the Near East expanded step by step, southward to the Red Sea and eastward across the Euphrates to the Tigris. In a remarkable work of interpretive history, Fergus Millar shows us this world as it was forged into the Roman provinces of Syria, Judaea, Arabia, and Mesopotamia. His book conveys the magnificent sweep of history as well as the rich diversity of peoples, religions, and languages that intermingle in the Roman Near East. Against this complex backdrop, Millar explores questions of cultural and religious identity and ethnicity--as aspects of daily life in the classical world and as part of the larger issues they raise. As Millar traces the advance of Roman control, he gives a lucid picture of Rome's policies and governance over its far-flung empire. He introduces us to major regions of the area and their contrasting communities, bringing out the different strands of culture, communal identity, language, and religious belief in each. The Roman Near East makes it possible to see rabbinic Judaism, early Christianity, and eventually the origins of Islam against the matrix of societies in which they were formed. Millar's evidence permits us to assess whether the Near East is best seen as a regional variant of Graeco-Roman culture or as in some true sense oriental. A masterful treatment of a complex period and world, distilling a vast amount of literary, documentary, artistic, and archaeological evidence--always reflecting new findings--this book is sure to become the standard source for anyone interested in the Roman Empire or the history of the Near East.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents III 1 IV 25 V 27 VII 43 VIII 56 IX 70 X 80 XIII 90 XLIX 374 L 387 LII 400 LIII 408 LIV 414 LV 428 LVI 437 LVII 445 More XIV 99 XV 111 XVIII 127 XX 141 XXI 159 XXII 174 XXIII 190 XXIV 207 XXV 223 XXVI 225 XXVIII 236 XXXI 242 XXXII 250 XXXIII 256 XXXIV 264 XXXVII 267 XXXVIII 270 XXXIX 274 XL 285 XLI 296 XLIII 300 XLIV 310 XLV 319 XLVI 337 XLVII 351 XLVIII 366 LVIII 452 LIX 467 LX 472 LXI 481 LXII 489 LXIII 523 LXIV 535 LXV 545 LXVI 553 LXVII 563 LXVIII 565 LXIX LXX LXXI LXXII LXXIII LXXIV LXXV LXXVI LXXVII LXXX LXXXI LXXXII LXXXIII LXXXIV Copyright Less Other editions - View all The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 Fergus Millar,Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford (Emeritus) Fergus Millar Snippet view - 1993 Common terms and phrases already Antioch appears Arab Arabia Aramaic army belonged called century Christian claim clear clearly coins colonia construction context continued course cult culture Damascus dedication deity described documents Dura earlier early East Edessa Emesa Emperor Empire Euphrates Eusebius evidence fact followed forces frontier further give Greek cities Hauran Hierapolis Imperial important inscriptions instance Jerusalem Jewish Jews Josephus Judaea king kingdom known language later Latin least major means Mesopotamia military Nabataean northern origin pagan Palmyra Palmyrene Parthian perhaps period Persian person Phoenician population presence probably province question records reference reflect region reign relation remains represented river Roman Rome rule seems seen Semitic Severus significant social status steppe structure suggest Syria temple territory third tion Trachonitis village whole written zone References to this book Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years Martin Hengel Limited preview - 1997 Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence Jonathan L. Reed Limited preview - 2002 All Book Search results &raquo; About the author (1993) Fergus G. B. Millar is Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Bibliographic information Title The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 ACLS Humanities e-book Volume 6 of Carl Newell Jackson Lectures History e-book project Author Fergus Millar Contributor American Council of Learned Societies Edition illustrated, revised Publisher Harvard University Press, 1993 ISBN 0674778863, 9780674778863 Length 587 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-7592	----	A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus ... - John Bagnell Bury - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Download EPUB Download PDF eBook - FREE Get this book in print AbeBooks On Demand Books Amazon Find in a library All sellers » A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.) John Bagnell Bury John Murray, 1893 - Rome - 638 pages 0 Reviews   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Page 625 Page 272 Page 591 Page 590 Page 188 Contents FOUNDATION OF THE PRINCIPATE 1 B C 14 A D II THE PRINCIPATE 12 B C 180 A D III THE JOINT GOVERNMENT OF THE PRINCEPS 27 B C 14 A D VI PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION UNDER 74 B C 14 A D VII PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION continued 101 B C 14 A D IX THE WINNING AND LOSING OF GERMANY 124 B C 14 A D X ROME UNDER AUGUSTUS His BUILD 141 B C 14 A D XI LITERATURE OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE 149 THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS 374 FLAVIANS 397 ADMINISTRATION AND EASTERN 433 TIBERIUS TO TRAJAN 457 Pius 522 B C 180 A D XXX THE ROMAN WORLD UNDER 562 B C 180 A D XXXI ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 633 Common terms and phrases administration adopted Agrippa Agrippina already appeared appointed Armenia army attempt Augustus became Books Britain buildings Cæsar called camp carried cause chief Christians Claudius cohorts command communities connected consul Dacia death Domitian Drusus east Emperor Empire enemy epigram forces Gaius Gaul German Germanicus give governor Greek Hadrian hand held honour imperial important influence interest Italy Jews king land later legions lived marched Marcus marked mentioned military nature Nero Parthian passed perhaps persons political position possessed prætorian prefect Princeps probably provinces reached received regarded reign remained restored Rhine Roman Rome rule SECT seems senate sent shows side soldiers soon success successor Tacitus taken temple Tiberius took town Trajan troops Vespasian victory Vitellius Bibliographic information Title A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.) Student's Roman Empire Student's series Author John Bagnell Bury Edition 4 Publisher John Murray, 1893 Original from Columbia University Digitized Jan 21, 2009 Length 638 pages     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-7703	----	Nomads, Traders and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road: Papers Presented at a ... - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Nomads, Traders and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road: Papers Presented at a Symposium Held at The Asia Society in New York, November 9-10, 2001 Annette L. Juliano, Judith A. Lerner, Asia Society Isd, 2002 - History - 125 pages 0 Reviews This collection of papers formed part of the symposium, Nomads, Traders and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, held at the Asia Society in New York on November 9-10, 2001. Although the Silk Road has inspired several important museum exhibitions, none had focused on the Hexi Corridor nor attempted to analyze the complexity of the cross-cultural relationships within China's borders. Nor had any exhibition focused on the nearly four hundred years of political disunity, nomadic incursions and social upheaval, brought about by the collapse of the great Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), that then, after a series of short-lived dynasties, culminated in the reunification of China under the Tang empire (618-906). From inside the book   What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents Introduction 1 What is Dunhuang Art? 7 Strange Beasts in Han and PostHan Imagery 23 Copyright 7 other sections not shown Common terms and phrases Ancient animal appear Bactria became Beijing bowl bronze Buddha Buddhist Buddhist art burials Cambridge carved Cave centers Central Asia century B.C.E. China Chinese creatures cultural dated Datong decorated depicted designs developed discussion donors drum Dunhuang dynasty early East Eastern example excavated festivals fifth figures finds foreign fourth Gansu glass groups History images important India influences Iran Iranian Kaogu known land late later London Maijishan major Monks and Merchants motif Museum nomadic Northern Wei Northwest origin painting pattern period Persian plate present Press probably Province Qinghai records region relief represent ritual Roman routes Samarkand Sasanian scenes seventh shape shows side Silk Road silver similar sixth century Sogdian Song Southern steles steppes stone style Tang temples texts third tomb trade tradition Treasures Tuoba University vessels Wenwu West Western Xianbei York Bibliographic information Title Nomads, Traders and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road: Papers Presented at a Symposium Held at The Asia Society in New York, November 9-10, 2001 Silk Road studies Editors Annette L. Juliano, Judith A. Lerner, Asia Society Edition illustrated Publisher Isd, 2002 Original from the University of Michigan Digitized Sep 9, 2008 ISBN 2503521789, 9782503521787 Length 125 pages Subjects History  › Asia  › Central Asia History / Asia / Central Asia     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-792	----	Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire - Warwick Ball - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $47.16 Get this book in print Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire Warwick Ball Routledge, Jun 10, 2016 - History - 594 pages 0 Reviews This new edition of Rome in the East expands on the seminal work of the first edition, and examines the lasting impact of the near Eastern influence on Rome on our understanding of the development of European culture. Warwick Ball explores modern issues as well as ancient, and overturns conventional ideas about the spread of European culture to the East. This volume includes analysis of Roman archaeological and architectural remains in the East, as well as links to the Roman Empire as far afield as Iran, Central Asia, India, and China. The Near Eastern client kingdoms under Roman rule are examined in turn and each are shown to have affected Roman, and ultimately European, history in different but very fundamental ways. The highly visible presence of Rome in the East – mainly the architectural remains, some among the greatest monumental buildings in the Roman world – are examined from a Near Eastern perspective and demonstrated to be as much, if not more, a product of the Near East than of Rome. Warwick Ball presents the story of Rome in the light of Rome’s fascination with the Near East, generating new insights into the nature and character of Roman civilisation, and European identity from Rome to the present. Near Eastern influence can be seen to have transformed Roman Europe, with perhaps the most significant change being the spread of Christianity. This new edition is updated with the latest research and findings from a range of sources including field work in the region and new studies and views that have emerged since the first edition. Over 200 images, most of them taken by the author, demonstrate the grandeur of Rome in the East. This volume is an invaluable resource to students of the history of Rome and Europe, as well as those studying the Ancient Near East.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Page Table of Contents Index References Contents Photographic acknowledgements Preface Objectives Historical background Beyond the Euphrates The long retreat Copyright Other editions - View all Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire Warwick Ball Limited preview - 2016 Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire Warwick Ball No preview available - 2016 Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire Warwick Ball No preview available - 2016 Common terms and phrases Abgar Achaemenid Alexander ancient Antioch Apamaea Arab Arabia arch archaeological Augustan History Baalbek Bishapur Bosra buildings Caesarea campaign Caracalla centre century BC Chapter Christianity church civilisation colonnaded colonnaded streets columns cult Damascus Dead Cities depicted desert Dodgeon and Lieu Dushara dynasty eastern Edessa Elagabalus elements Emesa Emesene Emperor emphasised Euphrates evidence example excavations façades Figure Greek Hellenistic Herod Herodian high places important India inscriptions Iran Iranian Islamic Jerash Jerusalem Jewish Judaea Julia Domna kalybe king kingdom Lepcis Magna Macedonian Millar monumental Nabataean nymphaeum pagan palace Palmyra Palmyrene Parthian Persian Petra Phoenician Plate plaza probably processional propylaeum Rasafa religion religious remains Roman architecture Roman East Roman Empire Roman period Roman world Rome Rome’s sacred sanctuary Sasanian second century Segal Seleucid Septimius Severus settlement Severan Shahba Shapur sources Syria Tanukh temenos temple tetrapylon theatre third century Tomb town trade tradition walls West western Zenobia Zeus About the author (2016) Warwick Ball is a Near Eastern archaeologist who has excavated in Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Libya and Ethiopia, and travelled extensively in most other countries in the region in his professional capacity. He has held posts with the British Institute of Afghan Studies in Kabul, the Department of Antiquities of Jordan and the British School of Archaeology in Iraq. The first edition of Rome in the East was Choice Outstanding Academic Book in 2000 and was awarded the James Henry Breasted Prize in 2001. Author of many other books on the history and archaeology of the region, Mr Ball now lives in Scotland. Bibliographic information Title Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire Author Warwick Ball Edition 2, illustrated, revised Publisher Routledge, 2016 ISBN 1317296346, 9781317296348 Length 594 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-8964	----	A Companion to Marcus Aurelius - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Marcel van Ackeren Wiley, Mar 16, 2012 - History - 600 pages 0 Reviews A Companion to Marcus Aurelius presents the first comprehensive collection of essays to explore all essential facets relating to contemporary Marcus Aurelius studies. First collection of its kind to commission new state-of-the-art scholarship on Marcus Aurelius Features readings that cover all aspects of Marcus Aurelius, including source material, biographical information, and writings Contributions from an international cast of top Aurelius scholars Addresses evolving aspects of the reception of the Meditations What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. About the author (2012) Marcel van Ackeren is Professor at Cologne University. He is the author of Das Wissen vom Guten (2003), Heraklit (2005), Understanding Ancient Philosophy (with Jörn Müller, 2006), The Political Identity of the West: Platonism in the Dialogue of Cultures (edited with Orrin F. Summerell, 2006), and Die Philosophie Marc Aurels (2011). Bibliographic information Title A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Volume 174 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World Editor Marcel van Ackeren Publisher Wiley, 2012 ISBN 1118219821, 9781118219829 Length 600 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Rome History / Ancient / General History / Ancient / Rome     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-9065	----	Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305 - Gary K. Young - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305 Gary K. Young Routledge, Oct 4, 2003 - Business & Economics - 320 pages 0 Reviews The spectacular ruins of such places as Palmyra and Petra bear witness to the wealth and power which could be derived from the silks, spices and incense of the east. Such goods were highly prized in the Roman Empire, and merchants were ready to face the perils of deserts, oceans, warfare and piracy to meet the demand for their wares. But exactly how did the trade in luxury goods operate, and to whose benefit? Gary K. Young's study offers unprecedented coverage of the major trading regions of Egypt, Arabia, Palmyra, and Syria, with detailed analysis of the routes used and of the roles of all the participants. He looks closely at the influence of the commerce in eastern goods both on the policy of the Roman imperial government, and upon local communities in the East itself. His findings contradict the standard view that the imperial government had a strong political interest in the eastern trade; rather its primary concern was the tax income the trade brought in. He also demonstrates the need for greater recognition of the efforts made by local authorities to exploit the trade to their own advantage. Incorporating the considerable archaeological research that has been undertaken in recent years, this comprehensive survey provides fresh insight into an important aspect of the eastern Roman Empire.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 THE RED SEA TRADE IN EGYPT 24 3 THE ARABIAN INCENSE TRADE 81 4 THE TRADE OF PALMYRA 123 5 TRADE IN SYRIA AND THE NORTH 169 6 THE LONGDISTANCE TRADE AND THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT 181 7 CONCLUSION 192 PRICES OF GOODS OF THE EASTERN TRADE AT ROME IN THE FIRST CENTURY AD 199 SILVER CONTENT OF NABATAEAN AND ROMAN COINS IN THE FIRST CENTURY AD 202 INSCRIPTIONS REFERRING TO PALMYRENE MILITARY ACTIVITIES AD 132225 207 THE CAREER OF SEPTIMIUS ODAENATHUS AND THE STATUS OF PALMYRA AD 251267 209 NOTES 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY 258 INDEX 278 Copyright Other editions - View all Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305 Gary K Young Limited preview - 2003 Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305 Gary K. Young No preview available - 2011 Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305 Gary Keith Young No preview available - 2001 Common terms and phrases activity al-Qadim Alexandria appear arabarch Arabia archaeological Arikamedu attested Berenike caravan inscriptions caravan trade caravan traffic Charax city’s coinage coins Coptos eastern commerce Eastern Desert eastern trade Egyptian Red Sea Erythra Erythra Thalassa Euphrates evidence excavations expedition frankincense Gawlikowski Greek Hatra honour Ibid imperial important Incense Road incense trade India indicate involved king Leuke Kome long-distance trade Mediterranean mentioned Mesene military Myos Hormos myrrh Nabataean kingdom Negev Nile nomads Nonetheless Odaenathus ostraka overland Palmyra Palmyrene papyrus Parthian period Periplus Maris Erythraei Persian Petra Pliny Pliny NH possible probably province Ptolemaic Quseir al-Qadim Red Sea commerce Red Sea ports Red Sea trade reference road Roman Commerce Roman East Roman Economic Policy Roman Egypt Roman Empire Roman government Rome S.E.Sidebotham Safaitic Septimius Severan ships Sidebotham Roman Economic significant silk sources spices Strabo Strabo Geog strategos Studies in Roman Syria tetarte third century trade routes Trajan Vaballathus Wadi Sirhan Bibliographic information Title Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305 Author Gary K. Young Publisher Routledge, 2003 ISBN 1134547935, 9781134547937 Length 320 pages Subjects Business & Economics  › Investments & Securities  › Commodities  › General Business & Economics / Commerce Business & Economics / Economic History Business & Economics / Investments & Securities / Commodities / General History / Ancient / General History / Ancient / Rome     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-9268	----	Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio ... - Adam M. Kemezis - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Cambridge University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian Adam M. Kemezis Cambridge University Press, Oct 23, 2014 - History - 340 pages 0 Reviews The political instability of the Severan Period (AD 193-235) destroyed the High Imperial consensus about the Roman past and caused both rulers and subjects constantly to re-imagine and re-narrate both recent events and the larger shape of Greco-Roman history and cultural identity. This book examines the narratives put out by the new dynasty, and how the literary elite responded with divergent visions of their own. It focuses on four long Greek narrative texts from the period (by Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian), each of which constructs its own version of the empire, each defined by different Greek and Roman elements and each differently affected by dynastic change, especially that from Antonine to Severan. Innovative theories of narrative are used to produce new readings of these works that bring political, literary and cultural perspectives together in a unified presentation of the Severan era as a distinctive historical moment.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Title Page Table of Contents Index References Contents From Antonine to Severan 30 the last annalist 90 Hellenic perfection on an imperial stage 150 Hellas Antonine Golden Age 196 a dysfunctional Rome 227 from Severan to thirdcentury 273 The dates and addressees of PhilostratusApollonius and Sophists 294 Bibliography 309 Index 335 Copyright Other editions - View all Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio ... Adam M. Kemezis Limited preview - 2014 Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio ... Adam M. Kemezis No preview available - 2020 Common terms and phrases activities Aeschines Albinus Alexander Alexander’s Antonine Apollonius Appian argues argument army Athens audience Augustus Book Caesar Caracalla career Cassius Dio century chapter characters claims Commodus contemporary context continuity contrast death defining describe Dio’s discourse Domitian dynasteia dynastic earlier Elagabalus elite emperor empire evidence explicit explicitly figure Flinterman gives Gordian Gordian III Greek culture Hadrian Hellenic Herodes Herodian Hidber historians historiography identity imperial Kemezis later literary Lucian Macrinus Maecenas Marcus Maximinus military monarchical narrative world narrator Nero notably Octavian one’s overall Pannonian Parthian past period Pertinax Philiscus philosophical Philostratus Polemo political Pompey Pompey’s portrayed positive Praetorians present provincial question readers refer reign relationship Republican rhetorical role Roman Rome rule ruler Second Sophistic Senate senatorial sense Septimius Severus Severan Severan dynasty significant soldiers specific speech story Tacitus tradition Trajan wars Whittaker 1969 Xiph καὶ About the author (2014) Adam M. Kemezis is Associate Professor in the Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta. Bibliographic information Title Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian Greek Culture in the Roman World Author Adam M. Kemezis Publisher Cambridge University Press, 2014 ISBN 1107062721, 9781107062726 Length 340 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General History / Ancient / Rome Literary Criticism / Ancient & Classical     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-9397	----	Dictionary of World Biography - Frank Northen Magill - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Taylor & Francis Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1 Frank Northen Magill Taylor & Francis, Jan 23, 2003 - Reference - 1000 pages 0 Reviews Containing 250 entries, each volume of theDictionary of World Biographycontains examines the lives of the individuals who shaped their times and left their mark on world history. Much more than a 'Who's Who', each entry provides an in-depth essay on the life and career of the individual concerned. Essays commence with a quick reference section that provides basic facts on the individual's life and achievements, and conclude with a fully annotated bibliography. The extended biography places the life and works of the individual within an historical context, and the summary at the end of each essay provides a synopsis of the individual's place in history. Any student in the field will want to have one of these as a handy reference companion.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review Dictionary of world biography User Review  - Not Available - Book VerdictThe 17th & 18th Centuries and The 19th Century are part of a ten-volume set titled Dictionary of World Biography, a revision and new arrangement (by time period) of Salem Press's 30-volume Great Lives ... Read full review Dictionary of World Biography: The 19th Century; Vol 5&6 User Review  - Not Available - Book VerdictThe 17th & 18th Centuries and The 19th Century are part of a ten-volume set titled Dictionary of World Biography, a revision and new arrangement (by time period) of Salem Press's 30-volume Great Lives ... Read full review Selected pages Page 3 Page 53 Title Page Table of Contents Contents INDICES 1292 AREA OF ACHIEVEMENT 1294 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 1307 NAME INDEX 1315 PHOTO CREDITS 1323 Copyright Other editions - View all Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2 Frank Northen Magill Limited preview - 1998 Dictionary of World Biography Frank Northen Magill,Christina J. Moose No preview available - 1998 Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 3 Frank Northen Magill No preview available - 1998 View all » Common terms and phrases Aeschylus Alexander Alexandria ancient Antisthenes Antony Archimedes Area of Achievement Aretaeus Aristotle Aristoxenus army Ashurbanipal Asia Aśoka Athenian Athens Augustus battle became Bibliography biography Bishop Born Brutus Caesar Cambridge University Press Cassius Cato century B.C. chapter Christian Church Cicero classical Claudius commentary Confucius Constantine contains Contribution cultural death defeat died Diophantus discussion Dynasty early Egypt Egyptian emperor empire Epicurus Erasistratus Eusebius father Gaius Greece Greek Hellenistic Herodotus Herophilus historians human important influence Isocrates Jerusalem Jesus Jewish John Josephus king known later Latin leader Life’s literary lived London Lysippus Maecenas Marcus Masinissa mathematics medicine Mencius military modern Moses Octavian Parmenides Pericles Persian Philip philosophical Pisistratus Pittacus Plato Plotinus Plutarch poems poet poetry political Polybius Pompey Posidonius probably reign religion religious Roman Rome Rome’s ruler Saint scholarly scholars sources Sparta Summary survived Thebes theory tradition translation victory volume writings York Bibliographic information Title Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1 Dictionary of World Biography, Frank Northen Magill, ISBN 089356320X, 9780893563202 Author Frank Northen Magill Editors Frank Northen Magill, Alison Aves Edition illustrated, annotated Publisher Taylor & Francis, 2003 ISBN 1579580408, 9781579580407 Length 1000 pages Subjects Reference  › Dictionaries Reference / Dictionaries     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-9567	----	Avidio Cassio - Maria Laura Astarita - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Ed. di Storia e Letteratura All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Avidio Cassio Maria Laura Astarita Ed. di Storia e Letteratura, 1983 - Consuls, Roman - 222 pages 0 Reviews   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents Premessa Pag 15 Fra la morte di Lucio Vero e lusurpazione 61 Lusurpazione 91 Conclusione 149 Due fonti letterarie 163 Fonti 203 Autori moderni 213 Common terms and phrases A. R. Birley abbia accenna Adriano afferma alcuni Alfòldy Antiochia Antonino Pio Arabia attestato attribuisce Augusta aver Avidio Cassio Avidius avrebbe avuto avvenimenti base biografia brano Bucoloi carica caso Cassio Dione Cassius certamente chiaramente Claudius collega Commodo complici conferma consolato costituisce Cristiani dato dell'imperatore documenti Egitto Erode Attico esclude famiglia Faustina figlio fonti generale genero Giudei governatore Greci gruppo guerre ibid imperatori infatti iniziato invece ipotizzare Iulius Konsulat l'autore l'imperatore legato legione lettera Lucio Vero Marco Aurelio Marcus Mario Massimo Martius Verus mente menziona miracolo moglie morte nome nota notizia noto occasione oltre opere orientale Oriente osserva parere partiche particolare particolarmente passo periodo Pflaum politica porta possa possibile potere potrebbe presente probabilmente proposito proprio provincia quest'ultimo reca regno riferisce riporta risale risulta ritiene rivolta Romani sarebbe seguito Seleucidi sembra Senato senatori Severo Siria soldati soltanto storico studiosi Syme testimonianza tratta trova truppe ufficiale References to this book Maintenir l'ordre à Rome: IIe-IVe siècles AP. J.-C. Hélène Ménard Snippet view - 2004 Bibliographic information Title Avidio Cassio Author Maria Laura Astarita Publisher Ed. di Storia e Letteratura, 1983 Length 222 pages     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-9918	----	Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond - Geoffrey William Adams - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Rowman & Littlefield Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond Geoffrey William Adams Rowman & Littlefield, 2013 - History - 333 pages 0 Reviews This book examines the biography of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It seeks to further understand the author of the Historia Augusta alongside the reminiscences of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Geoff W. Adams arrives at this understanding through a study of a wide range of literary texts. Marcus Aurelius was a very important ruler of the Roman Empire, who has had an impact symbolically, philosophically, and historically upon how the Roman Empire has been envisioned. Adams achieves this end to bring a clearer understanding to his representation and to modern interpretations of his highly interpreted and romanticized representations in the ancient texts.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents Abbreviations 1 Introduction 3 The Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi and the Historia Augusta 17 Commentary on the Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi 55 Commentary on the Interpolation in the Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi 155 Marcus Aurelius General Representation in the Historia Augusta 185 Marcus Aurelius in the Third and Fourth Centuries AD 213 Conclusions 241 The Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi 255 Bibliography 315 Index 331 About the Author 333 Copyright Other editions - View all Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond Geoff W. Adams Limited preview - 2012 Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond Geoff W. Adams No preview available - 2014 Common terms and phrases accentuate accounts of Marcus Aelius Alexander Severus ancient Annius Verus Antoninus Pius atque Aurelius Victor autem Avidius Cassius Barnes bellum biographer biographer’s Birley Caesaribus Cassius Dio character Chastagnol Claudius clearly Commodus considering consul criticism Diocletian discussion Divus diximus eius emperors episodes Epitomator etiam Eutropius evident exhibited Faustina focus fuit Hadrian Herodian highlight Historia Augusta historical honors illustrates Imperial important to note included indication influence interpolation ipse l’Histoire Auguste literary sources Lucius Verus Macrinus Marcomanni Marcomannic Marcomannic war Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Marius Maximus mentioned multa negative noni op.cit overall Oxford particularly in relation passage philosophy portrayal of Marcus positive present princeps Quadi quae quam quidem quod reference to Marcus reign representation of Marcus Roman Rome Schwendemann 1923 Section 20 Senate Severus significant similar structure Suetonius Syme tamen thematic continuity theme tion tradition University Press Vita Marci Antonini About the author (2013) Geoffrey Adams began his studies at the University of Queensland, where he completed his undergraduate degree and continued there until completing a Research Master of Arts in Ancient History in 2000. He completed his doctoral studies at the University of Adelaide in 2005. In 2004 he commenced teaching at the University of New England, which continued until the end of 2006. He also taught as Assistant Lecturer in Archaeology and Ancient History at Monash University in 2007/8. His research interests include Roman Domestic Space, Pompeii and Herculaneum, Roman Biography, Roman Imperial History, Roman Britain, Pyrrhus of Epirus and the design of Hellenistic Palaces. He has published six books (Power and Religious Acculturation in Romano-Celtic Society: an examination of archaeological sites in Gloucestershire, 2009; Rome and the Social Role of Élite Villas in its Suburbs, 2008; Romano-British Tombstones between the 1st and 3rd Centuries AD: Epigraphy, Gender and Familial Relations, 2007; The Roman Emperor Gaius 'Caligula' and his Hellenistic Aspirations, 2007; The Suburban Villas of Campania and their Social Function, 2006; Romano-Celtic Élites and their Religion, 2005), as well as numerous articles on topics such as, Roman Frontier Policy, curse tablets and Athenian Grave stelai. Bibliographic information Title Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series Author Geoffrey William Adams Edition illustrated Publisher Rowman & Littlefield, 2013 ISBN 0739176382, 9780739176382 Length 333 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Rome History / Ancient / Rome History / Historiography Philosophy / History & Surveys / Ancient & Classical     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-au-709	----	The Play of Allusion in the <i>Historia Augusta<i> - David Rohrbacher - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com.au Booktopia.com.au Dymocks Fishpond.com.au Find in a library All sellers » Shop for Books on Google Play Browse the world's largest eBookstore and start reading today on the web, tablet, phone, or ereader. Go to Google Play Now » The Play of Allusion in the <i>Historia Augusta<i> David Rohrbacher University of Wisconsin Pres, 2016 - Biography & Autobiography - 246 pages 0 Reviews By turns outlandish, humorous, and scatological, the Historia Augusta is an eccentric compilation of biographies of the Roman emperors and usurpers of the second and third centuries. Historians of late antiquity have struggled to explain the fictional date and authorship of the work and its bizarre content (did the Emperor Carinus really swim in pools of floating apples and melons? did the usurper Proculus really deflower a hundred virgins in fifteen days?). David Rohrbacher offers, instead, a literary analysis of the work, focusing on its many playful allusions. Marshaling an array of interdisciplinary research and original analysis, he contends that the Historia Augusta originated in a circle of scholarly readers with an interest in biography, and that its allusions and parodies were meant as puzzles and jokes for a knowing and appreciative audience.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Contents Introduction 3 1 Allusion in the Historia Augusta 16 2 The Historia Augusta and the Ancient Reader 47 3 Religion in the Historia Augusta 87 4 Imperial History Reimagined 134 Afterword 170 Notes 177 Bibliography 203 Index 221 Index Locorum 235 Copyright Other editions - View all The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta David Rohrbacher No preview available - 2020 The Play of Allusion in the <i>Historia Augusta<i> David Rohrbacher No preview available - 2016 Common terms and phrases Alex Alexander Severus allusion Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus’s ancient Apollonius argues Attalus audience Aurelian Avidius Cassius BHAC biography Birley Bonosus Cameron Carinus Carus Chastagnol Christian Cicero claims Classical Claudius Clodius Albinus commentary Constantine contemporary context Diocletian discussion Elag Elagabalus emperor eunuchs Eutropius evidence evokes example fiction Firmus fourth century Gallienus Gellius genre Gordian Greek HA-author Hengst Herodian Hilarion Histoire Auguste V.1 Historia Augusta Historia-Augusta-Colloquium historiography humor imperial interpretation invented Jerome Jerome’s joke Julian l’Histoire Last Pagans Late Antiquity Latin letter literary lives Marius Maximus Marnas Maximinus Nicomachus Numerian offers Onesimus oracles Oxford parody particular Paschoud passage Pescennius Niger Pollio praise Probus Proculus Quad quae quam quod reader Roman Rome Rudolf Habelt scholarly scholars senate soldiers Stilicho Straub Suetonian Suetonius Syme Tacitus temple Thirty Tyrants traditional Trebellius Pollio University Press usurper Valerian Vergil Vita Vopiscus writing καὶ About the author (2016) David Rohrbacher is associate professor of classics at New College of Florida. He is the author of The Historians of Late Antiquity. Bibliographic information Title The Play of Allusion in the <i>Historia Augusta<i> Wisconsin Studies in Classics Author David Rohrbacher Publisher University of Wisconsin Pres, 2016 ISBN 0299306046, 9780299306045 Length 246 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Rome Biography & Autobiography / Historical History / Ancient / Rome Literary Criticism / Ancient & Classical Literary Criticism / General     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-gr-963	----	How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius - Donald Robertson - Βιβλία Google Αναζήτηση Εικόνες Χάρτες Play YouTube Ειδήσεις Gmail Drive Περισσότερα » Είσοδος Βιβλία Η βιβλιοθήκη μου Βοήθεια Σύνθετη Αναζήτηση Βιβλίων Αγορά eBook - 10,99 $ Λήψη αυτού του βιβλίου σε έντυπη μορφή Macmillan Ελευθερουδάκης Παπασωτηρίου Εύρεση σε κάποια βιβλιοθήκη Όλοι οι πωλητές » How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Donald Robertson St. Martin's Publishing Group, 2 Απρ 2019 - 256 σελίδες 2 Κριτικές "This book is a wonderful introduction to one of history's greatest figures: Marcus Aurelius. His life and this book are a clear guide for those facing adversity, seeking tranquility and pursuing excellence." —Ryan Holiday, bestselling author of The Obstacle is the Way and The Daily Stoic The life-changing principles of Stoicism taught through the story of its most famous proponent. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius was the last famous Stoic philosopher of the ancient world. The Meditations, his personal journal, survives to this day as one of the most loved self-help and spiritual classics of all time. In How to Think Like a Roman Emperor, cognitive psychotherapist Donald Robertson weaves the life and philosophy of Marcus Aurelius together seamlessly to provide a compelling modern-day guide to the Stoic wisdom followed by countless individuals throughout the centuries as a path to achieving greater fulfillment and emotional resilience. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor takes readers on a transformative journey along with Marcus, following his progress from a young noble at the court of Hadrian—taken under the wing of some of the finest philosophers of his day—through to his reign as emperor of Rome at the height of its power. Robertson shows how Marcus used philosophical doctrines and therapeutic practices to build emotional resilience and endure tremendous adversity, and guides readers through applying the same methods to their own lives. Combining remarkable stories from MarcusΆs life with insights from modern psychology and the enduring wisdom of his philosophy, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor puts a human face on Stoicism and offers a timeless and essential guide to handling the ethical and psychological challenges we face today.   Προεπισκόπηση αυτού του βιβλίου » Τι λένε οι χρήστες - Σύνταξη κριτικής LibraryThing Review Κριτική χρηστών  - Schneider - LibraryThingThis was a title that going into I was not sure what to expect. Too dry? Too preachy? Too deep? To my surprise Mr. Robertson's book was eminently readable, all-together understandable, and way too ... Ανάγνωση ολόκληρης της κριτικής How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Κριτική χρηστών  - Publishers WeeklyThis look at Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180) and his reign provides an illuminating study of the principles of Stoic philosophy, to which Aurelius was an adherent, within the framework of ... Ανάγνωση ολόκληρης της κριτικής Επιλεγμένες σελίδες Σελίδα Τίτλου Πίνακας περιεχομένων Ευρετήριο Αναφορές Περιεχόμενα Introduction 1 The Dead Emperor 17 The Most Truthful Child in Rome 45 Contemplating the Sage 83 The Choice of Hercules 113 Grasping the Nettle 155 The Inner Citadel and War of Many Nations 187 Temporary Madness 217 Death and the View from Above 253 Acknowledgments 271 Πνευματικά δικαιώματα ¶λλες εκδόσεις - Προβολή όλων How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Donald Robertson Περιορισμένη προεπισκόπηση - 2019 How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Donald Robertson Δεν υπάρχει διαθέσιμη προεπισκόπηση - 2020 Συχνά εμφανιζόμενοι όροι και φράσεις accept actions ancient anger angry Antonine Plague Antoninus anxiety Apollonius Arrian Avidius Cassius become behavior called Cassius Dio CassiusΆs catastrophic character cognitive therapy Commodus contemplate cope Cynic death described desire Diogenes Diogenes the Cynic Discourses emotional emperor endure Epictetus EpictetusΆs Epicurus example exercise external things face fear feelings friends Fronto gain cognitive distance Galen goal Greek habits Hadrian happen harm Hercules Historia Augusta imagine important indifference legionaries legions looking Lucius LuciusΆs manΆs Marcomannic Marcomannic War Marcus Aurelius Marcus says Marcus tells MarcusΆs Meditations mentor mind natural ourselves pain and illness passions peopleΆs perhaps person philoso pleasure psychotherapy reminds reserve clause resilience rhetoric role model Roman Rome Sarmatians sensations situation Socrates someone sort Stoic philosophy Stoicism strategies suffering taught techniques therapists therapy ThereΆs tion turn tutor unhealthy value judgments Verus whatΆs wisdom and virtue worry Zeno Σχετικά με τον συγγραφέα (2019) DONALD ROBERTSON is a cognitive-behavioral psychotherapist, trainer, and writer. He was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, and after living in England and working in London for many years, he emigrated to Canada where he now lives. Robertson has been researching Stoicism and applying it in his work for twenty years. He is one of the founding members of the non-profit organization Modern Stoicism. Πληροφορίες βιβλιογραφίας Τίτλος How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Συγγραφέας Donald Robertson Εκδότης St. Martin's Publishing Group, 2019 ISBN 1250196639, 9781250196637 Μέγεθος 256 σελίδες     Εξαγωγή αναφοράς BiBTeX EndNote RefMan Σχετικά με τα Βιβλία Google - Πολιτική απορρήτου - Όροι Παροχής Υπηρεσιών - Πληροφορίες για Εκδότες - Αναφορά προβλήματος - Βοήθεια - Google Αρχική σελίδα 
bo-wikipedia-org-680	----	མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། - Wikipedia མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། ཡོང་ཁུངས་Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་-ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨུ་རེ་ལུའུ་(ལ་ཏིན​་སྐད།: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus)ནི་འདི་ལྟ་སྟེ། གོང་མ་གཅིག་པོ་མ་ཡིན་པར། མཚན་ཉིད་སྨྲ་བ་མཆོག་ཏུ་གྲགས། རོམ་གྱི་ཁོངས་གཏོགས་ཟིན་ནས་ཀྱང་། སེམས་ཀྱི་གསང་བར་གཙོ་བོར་གཟིགས། ཞེས་པ་ལྟར། ཁོང་ནི་སྤྱི་ལོ་༡༢༡ལོའི་ཟླ་བ་བཞི་པའི་ཚེས་༢༦ཉིན་འཁྲུངས་པ་དང་སྤྱི་ལོ་༡༨༠ལོའི་ཟླ་བ་གསུམ་པའི་ཚེས་༡༧ཉིན་ཚེ་ལས་འདས་པ་རེད། ཁོང་ནི་སྤྱི་༡༦༡ལོ་ནས་༡༨༠ལོའི་བར་རོམ་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རེད། དེ་མ་ཟད་ཁོང་ནི་མཚན་ཉིད་ཀྱི་མཁས་པ་ཡིན་པ་དང། ཁོང་གིས་མཛད་པའི་དེབ་སྐད་གྲགས་ཅན་ཡིན་ལ་དེས་ནུབ་ཕྱོགས་ཀྱི་མཚན་ཉིད་ལྟ་བ་ལ་ཤུགས་རྐྱེན་ཐེབས་པ་ཆེས་རེད། ནང་དོན། ༡ མི་ཚེ། ༢ པར་རིས་བར་འཁྱམས། ༣ ཟིན་ཐོ་འམ་དཔྱད་གཞི། ༤ དཔྱད་གཞིའི་དཀར་ཆག ༥ ད་དུང་གཟིགས། ༦ ཕྱི་ཕྱོགས་དྲ་མཐུད། མི་ཚེ།[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] པར་རིས་བར་འཁྱམས།[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] ཟིན་ཐོ་འམ་དཔྱད་གཞི།[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] དཔྱད་གཞིའི་དཀར་ཆག[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] ད་དུང་གཟིགས།[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] ཕྱི་ཕྱོགས་དྲ་མཐུད།[རྩོམ་སྒྲིག] "https://bo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ།&oldid=133473"ལས་སླར་རྙེད་སོང། སྡེ་ཚན་ ༡: རོ་མ། ཕྱོགས་ཁྲིད་འདེམས་བྱང། སྒེར་ཀྱི་ལག་ཆ། ནང་འཛུལ་བྱས་མེད། IP གནས་ཡུལ་འདི་ལ་གླེང་མོལ། Contributions Create account ནང་འཛུ། མིང་གནས། རྩོམ་ཡིག གྲོས་བསྡུར། འགྱུར་ཚད། ལྟ་ཞིབ། ཀློག་པ། རྩོམ་སྒྲིག ལོ་རྒྱུས་ལ་ལྟ་བ། More འཚོལ། དཀར་ཆག གཙོ་གནད་ཤོག་ངོས། ཁོངས་མི་འདུ་ར། ད་ལྟའི་བྱ་བ། ཉེ་བའི་བཟོ་བཅོས། རང་མོས་ཤོག་ངོས། རོགས་རམ། ཞལ་འདེབས། ལག་ཆ། གང་དག་ལ་སྦྲེལ་ཡོད། འབྲེལ་བའི་བཟོ་བཅོས། ཡར་འཇོག དམིཊ་བསལ་གྱི་བཟོ་བཅོས། རྟག་བརྟན་གྱི་དྲ་འབྲེལ། Page information རྩོམ་འདི་འདྲེན་པ། Wikidata item Print/export དེབ་ཅིག་སྒྲིག་པ། Download as PDF དཔར་ཐུབ་པའི་དྲ་ངོས། ལས་གཞི་གཞན་དག། Wikimedia Commons སྐད་རིགས་གཞན་ཐོག། Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Edit links ཤོག་ངོས་འདི་ཡི་བཟོ་བཅོས་མཐའ་མ་༢༢ ཟླ་བདུན་པ། ༢༠༡༧ ཀྱི་ ༢༡:༤༢ ལ་རེད། Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. གསང་དོན་གན་རྒྱ། Wikipediaཡི་སྐོར། བདག་སྤྲོད་འདོར་མཁན། ཁ་པར་ལྟ་རྣམ། Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
br-wikipedia-org-2556	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Eus Wikipedia Aller à la navigation Aller à la recherche Marcus Aurelius, delwenn er British Museum e Londrez. Marcus Aurelius, pe Mark Aorel (distagañ Margaourel), pe c'hoazh Markus Aorelianus (121-180) zo ur prederour stoikour, hag un impalaer roman hag a renas adalek 161 betek e varv e 180. Meur a stumm zo d'e anv: Marcus Annius Verus (pe Marcus Catilius Severus er penn-kentañ), ha kemer a reas an anv Marcus Ælius Aurelius Verus, goude ma oa advabet gant an impalaer Antoninus an Deol. Evel impalaer e c'houlennas bezañ anvet Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. Meur a zen a voe anvet Marcus Aurelius. Meulet e oa e furnez hag e vuhezegezh gant istorourien e amzer. Ul levr, skrivet e gresianeg, en deus laaosket : Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν, Ta eis heauton, da lârout eo, ger evit ger, "Evitañ e-unan", a gaver aliesañ dindan an titl Prederiadennoù. Adtapet diwar « https://br.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1813155 » Rummadoù : Impalaerien roman Ganedigezhioù 121 Marvioù 180 Prederourien an eil kantved Lañser merdeiñ Ostilhoù personel Digevreet Kaozeal Ma degasadennoù Krouiñ ur gont Kevreañ Esaouennoù anv Pajenn Kaozeadenn Adstummoù Gweladennoù Lenn Kemmañ Kemmañ ar vammenn Gwelet an istor Muioc'h Klask Merdeiñ Degemer Kemmoù diwezhañ Ur bajenn dre zegouezh Meneger hollek Kemer perzh Skoazell Porched ar gumuniezh Tavarn Reiñ Ostilhoù Pajennoù liammet Heuliañ ar pajennoù liammet Kargañ war ar servijer Pajennoù dibar Chomlec'h ar stumm-mañ Titouroù ar bajenn Menegiñ ar pennad-mañ Elfenn Wikidata Moullañ/ezporzhiañ Sevel ul levr Pellgargañ evel PDF Stumm da voullañ E raktresoù all Wikimedia Commons Yezhoù all Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Kemmañ al liammoù Kemmoù diwezhañ degaset d'ar bajenn-mañ d'an 7 Kzu 2018, da 13:20. Gallout a reer implijout an testennoù zo dindan an Aotre-Implijout Creative Commons Dereiñ/Kenrannañ diouzh an hevelep divizoù; divizoù ouzhpenn a c'hall bezañ ivez. Gwelet an Doareoù Implijout evit gouzout hiroc'h. Reolennoù prevezded Diwar-benn Wikipedia Kemennoù Gwel evit an hezoug Diorroerien Stadegoù Diskrêriadur war an toupinoù 
bs-wikipedia-org-8293	----	Marko Aurelije - Wikipedia Marko Aurelije S Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Marko Aurelije Car Rimskog carstva Vladavina 8. mart 161. - 17. mart 180. Prethodnik Antonin Pio Nasljednik Komod Djeca Komod Marko Ver Lucila Otac Marko Anije Ver Majka Domicija Lucila Rođenje 26. april 121. Rim, Rimsko carstvo Smrt 17. mart 180. (u 58. godini) Vindobona Mjesto sahrane Hadrijanov mauzolej Marko Aurelije (latinski: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26. april 121 – 17. mart 180) bio je rimski car od 161. do 180. Bio je posljednji od pet dobrih careva, a također se smatra jednim od najvažnijih stoičkih filozofa. Tokom njegove vladavine, Rimsko carstvo je porazilo revitalizirano Partsko carstvo na istoku. U centralnoj Evropi, Aurelije se uspješno borio protiv Markomana, Kvada i Sarmata tokom Markomanskih ratova, nakon čega je započeo borbu protiv svih germanskih plemena. Njegovo primarno djelo je "Meditacije".[1][2] Sadržaj 1 Rani život i karijera 2 Također pogledajte 3 Reference 4 Vanjski linkovi Rani život i karijera[uredi | uredi izvor] Njegova porodica potiče iz Ukubija, malog gradića jugoistočno od Kordobe na Iberijskom poluostrvu. Postali su poznati krajem 1. stoljeća kada je Markov pradjed Marko Anije Ver postao senator. Također pogledajte[uredi | uredi izvor] Filozofija Antička filozofija Stoicizam Rimsko carstvo Reference[uredi | uredi izvor] ^ Biografija s stranice ''Biography'' učitano 26.04.2014 (en) ^ Biografija na zvaničnoj stranici Archived 2014-04-25 na Wayback Machine The European Graduate School učitano 26.04.2014 (en) Vanjski linkovi[uredi | uredi izvor] Marcus Aurelius De Imperatoribus Romanis Internet tekstovi o Meditacijama Wikicitati imaju citate vezane za: Marko Aurelije Commons ima datoteke na temu: Marko Aurelije p r u Rimski carevi Rimsko Kraljevstvo (753. p. n. e. – 509. p. n. e.) Romul Numa Pompilije Tul Hostilije Anko Marcije Lucije Tarkvinije Prisk Servije Tulije Lucije Tarkvinije Superb Zapadno Rimsko Carstvo (27. p. n. e. – 476) Oktavijan August Tiberije Kaligula Klaudije Neron Galba Oton Vitelije Vespazijan Tit Domicijan Nerva Trajan Hadrijan Antonin Pio Lucije Ver Marko Aurelije Komod Pertinaks Didije Julijan Septimije Sever Karakala Geta Makrin Dijadumenijan Heliogabal Aleksandar Sever Maksimin Tračanin Gordijan I Gordijan II Pupijen Balbin Gordijan III Filip I Filip II Decije Trajan Herenije Etrurski Hostilijan Trebonijan Gal Voluzijan Emilijan Valerijan Galijen Salonin Klaudije Gotski Kvintil Aurelijan Tacit Florijan Prob Kar Karin Numerijan Dioklecijan Maksimijan Konstancije I Galerije Valerije Sever Maksencije Licinije Maksimin Daja Konstantin I Konstantin II Konstans I Konstancije II Vetranio Julijan Jovijan Valentinijan I Valens Gracijan Valentinijan II Magnus Maksim Flavije Viktor Eugenije Teodozije I Honorije Konstantin III Konstancije III Ivan August Valentinijan III Petronije Maksim Avit Majorijan Libije Sever Antemije Olibrije Glicerije Julije Nepot Romul August Istočno Rimsko (Bizantijsko) Carstvo (395–1453) Konstantin I Konstans I Konstantin II Julijan Jovijan Valentinijan Valens Gracijan Teodozije I Arkadije Teodozije II Markijan Leon I Leon II Zenon Anastazije I Justin I Justinijan I Justin II Tiberije II Mauricije Foka Heraklije Konstantin III Heraklona Konstans II Konstantin IV Justinijan II Leontije Tiberije III Filipik Anastazije II Teodozije III Leon III Konstantin V Leon IV Konstantin VI Irina Nikefor I Staurakije Mihael I Leon V Mihael II Teofilo Mihael III Bazilije I Leon VI Konstantin VII Roman I Roman II Nikefor II Ivan I Bazilije II Konstantin VIII Roman III Mihael IV Mihael V Konstantin IX Zoja Teodora Mihael VI Isak I Konstantin X Roman IV Mihael VII Nikefor III Aleksije I Ivan II Manuel I Aleksije II Andronik I Isak II Aleksije III Aleksije IV Aleksije V Teodor I Ivan III Teodor II Ivan IV Mihael VIII Andronik II Andronik III Ivan V Ivan VI Andronik IV Ivan VII Manuel II Ivan VIII Konstantin XI Preuzeto iz "https://bs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marko_Aurelije&oldid=3207284" Kategorije: Filozofija Filozofi Biografije Sakrivena kategorija: Webarchive template wayback links Navigacija Lični alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Napravi korisnički račun Prijavi me Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija Više Pretraga Navigacija Početna strana Istaknuti članci Portali Kategorije Nedavne izmjene Nasumična stranica Interakcija Pomoć Igralište Vrata zajednice Čaršija Novosti Donacije Alati Šta vodi ovamo Srodne izmjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajni link Informacije o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Na Wikipodacima Štampanje / izvoz Napravi knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Za štampanje Na drugim projektima Wikimedia Commons Wikicitat Drugi jezici Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Uredi veze Ova stranica je posljednji put izmijenjena na datum 25 juni 2020 u 22:58. 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catalogo-bne-es-7515	----	Autoridades de la B.N.: Búsqueda Nueva búsqueda Cambiar Formato Etiquetado MARC21 GARR/Tesauro Formato: Etiquetado Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma Lugar de nacimiento: Roma Campo de actividad: Filósofos Categoría profesional: Filósofos; Politicos Lengua: Griego antiguo; Latín Usado por: Aurelio, Marco, Emperador de Roma Aurelius, Marcus, Emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio Antonino, Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius, Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperador de Roma Fuentes: Meditaciones, 1992; port. (Marco Aurelio) p. [7] (n. Roma 26-4-121; m. Vindobona, Viena 17-3-180) p. 15 (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) Dictionary of Latin literature, 1956; (emperador romano, escribió en griego) Otro identificador normalizado: http://viaf.org/viaf/102895066 viaf http://www.isni.org/isni/000000011031946X isni https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1430 wikidata Registro en datos.bne.es: http://datos.bne.es/resource/XX932158 Nº Registro: XX932158 Obras Marcar/Desmarcar todos los de esta páginaAñadir marcados a la lista de registros    Borrar toda la lista de registros Añadir este registro a su lista    Borrar toda la lista de registros Exportar registros En Formato Por qué medio marcados en esta página guardados en la lista ( 0) EtiquetadoGARR/Tesauro MARC21ISO2709  Por pantalla  Por fichero Buzón de sugerencias Página principal | Inicio página 
catalogue-bnf-fr-559	----	Notice de personne "Marc Aurèle (0121-0180 ; empereur romain)" | BnF Catalogue général - Bibliothèque nationale de France Aller au contenu Espace personnel Utilisez votre espace personnel pour :   Réserver vos places et documents sur   le site François-Mitterrand.   Réserver vos documents sur les sites  Richelieu-Louvois (y compris les Cartes et plans), Opéra, Arsenal.   Ajouter vos notices et les classer.   Voir vos achats de reproductions. Se connecter Aide Aide à la consultation du catalogue Une question ? Historique Mon panier Tout Gallica Haut-de-jardin Lancer la recherche    Recherche avancée Recherches ciblées Autres recherches Recherches ciblées Auteurs A-Z SUJETS A-Z PÉRIODIQUES COTE  Notices d'autorité dans univers Dans les univers jeunesse images et cartes musique Accueil Nom de personne Notice de personne Notice Au format public Au format Intermarc Au format Unimarc Marc Aurèle (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) forme courante français Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) forme internationale latin Langue(s) :  latin Sexe :  Masculin Responsabilité(s) exercée(s) sur les documents :  Auteur Naissance :  0121-04-26, Rome Mort :  0180-03-17, Vienne (Autriche) A aussi écrit en grec. Empereur romain. - Philosophe stoïcien. Forme(s) rejetée(s) :  < Marc-Antonin (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) français < Marc-Aurèle Antonin (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) français < Marcus Antoninus (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) latin < Márkos 'Antōninos (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) translit.-ISO grec monotonique < Μάρκος Ἀυρήλιος (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) grec polytonique < Mârkos 'Aurī́lios (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) translit.-ISO grec polytonique < Mârkos 'Aurḗlios (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) romanisation grec polytonique < Marco Aurelio (0121-0180 ; empereur romain) Forme(s) associée(s) :  >> << Rome -- 161-180 (Marc Aurèle) Source(s) :  Marci Aurelii Antonini ad se ipsum Libri XII / ed. Joachim Dalfen, 1987 . - Pensées de Marc-Aurèle Antonin / nouvelle traduction du grec par Mr de Joly, 1769 GDEL . - Clavis SGL : Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Aurelius Antoninus Imperator . - Encycl. Grèce : en polytonique . - Encycl. Papyros : en monotonique BN Cat. gén. : Marc-Aurèle . - BN Cat. gén. 1960-1969 : Marcus Aurelius . - BN Service grec Domaine(s) :  100 . - 930 Identifiant international :  ISNI 0000 0001 1031 946X , cf. http://isni.org/isni/000000011031946X Notice n° :  FRBNF11914476 Création :  80/01/18 Mise à jour :  19/10/04 Fermer ce volet Ouvrir ce volet Outils Citer la notice : Voir la notice dans le catalogue actuel Télécharger/Imprimer Envoyer par courriel Ajouter à mes références Information Veuillez sélectionner au moins une notice dans la liste de résultats. Notices bibliographiques liées Voir les notices liées en tant que : auteur (1519) sujet (81) Voir toutes les notices liées (1598) Œuvres liées Œuvres de l'auteur (1) Œuvres de l'auteur (Liste A-Z) Ajouter à mes références La sélection a bien été ajoutée. > Accéder à mes références Haut de page Conditions d'utilisation | À propos | Écrire à la BnF | V 13.1.1 
ca-wikipedia-org-5432	----	Marc Aureli - Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure Marc Aureli De Viquipèdia Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Marc Aureli Estàtua eqüestre de Marc Aureli al Museu Capitolí de Roma Nom original (la) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Biografia Naixement Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar 26 abril 121 Roma (Imperi Romà) Mort 17 març 180 (58 anys) Vindobona (Imperi Romà) Causa de mort Causes naturals  (Pesta ) Sepultura Mausoleu d'Adrià  Emperador romà 7 març 161 – 17 març 180 ← Antoní Pius – Còmmode → Cònsol romà Senador romà Qüestor Dades personals Grup ètnic Antics romans Religió Religió a l'antiga Roma Activitat Camp de treball Filosofia Ocupació Polític, filòsof i escriptor Període Alt Imperi Romà Professors Alexandre el gramàtic, Herodes Àtic, Marc Corneli Frontó i Quint Juni Rústic Obra Obres destacables (segle II) Meditacions Altres Títol Emperador Dinastia Antonina Cònjuge Faustina Menor Fills 14 fills i filles, incloent Còmmode, Ànnia Lucil·la Pares Marc Anni Ver Domícia Lucil·la Germans Annia Cornificia Faustina (en) Marc Aureli, per casament Marcus Annius Verus (26 d'abril del 121 - 17 de març del 180) fou emperador romà del 161 al 180, que succeí a Antoní Pius, juntament amb son germà, i fill adoptiu d'Antoní Pius, Luci Aureli Ver. També és conegut per ser un important filòsof del període de l'estoïcisme romà i autor del recull de reflexions Meditacions. Durant el seu regnat va haver de combatre la sublevació dels parts, les invasions dels pobles germànics a través del Danubi i les dels mauretans a través d'Hispània. Les legions que van combatre contra els parts (161-166) van tornar portant la primera gran epidèmia que assolà l'imperi. El seu resultat va ser una elevada mortaldat que va començar a reduir la població. Contingut 1 Fonts documentals 2 Orígens 3 Adopció per Adrià 4 Hereu d'Antoní Pius 5 Inicis com a emperador 6 La campanya contra els parts 7 La campanya contra les tribus germàniques 8 Campanya a Hispània 9 Mort i successió 10 Obra filosòfica 11 Descendència 12 Vegeu també 13 Notes 14 Referències 15 Bibliografia 16 Enllaços externs Fonts documentals[modifica] La majoria de les fonts documentals per l'estudi de la vida i fets de Marc Aureli són textos fragmentats i de poca fiabilitat: un d'ells és la Història Augusta, que està basada en un text original de Mari Màxim, avui dia desaparegut. També són d'utilitat el conjunt de cartes que Marc Aureli va tenir amb el seu tutor, Frontó, i amb diversos membres de la família Antonina, tot i que es conserven incompletes, serveixen per conèixer els fets entre els anys 138 i 166.[1] Un llibre escrit pel mateix emperador, titulat Meditacions, ofereix una visió de la seva personalitat i inquietuds però a més contextualitza les seves vivències fent referències específiques sobre els esdeveniments de la seva època.[2] Una altra font documental que dóna informació sobre el període històric de Marc Aureli és Cassi Dió: aquest autor aporta una bona informació sobre les qüestions militars tot i que els seus prejudicis contra l'expansió imperial enfosqueixen el seu punt de vista.[3] Altres fonts literàries complementen la informació: en els escrits de Galè hi ha informació sobre la seva salut i els costums de la seva família, les oracions d'Eli Aristides donen idea de l'estat d'ànim dels seus contemporanis, i les lleis que va promulgar conservades en el Digesta i el Codex Justinianus informen sobre els problemes del seu regnat.[4] Orígens[modifica] Marc Aureli va néixer en una família originària d'Ucubi, a la Bètica. El seu besavi va ser senador, al seu avi li van donar el títol de patrici. La seva mare, Domícia Lucil·la, també era patrícia i havia heretat una gran fortuna dels seus avis.[5] Tenia una germana menor Annia Cornificia Faustina. Quan el seu pare va morir ell devia tenir només uns tres anys [a] i la mare no es va tornar a casar. En les seves Memòries va escriure que havia heretat de la reputació del seu pare la modèstia i la masculinitat,[6] de la seva mare va aprendre a ser pietós i senzill en els costums.[7] La figura paterna la van substituir el seu avi patern i un home que es deia Catili Sever, probablement el pare adoptiu de la seva mare.[8] La residència principal de la família estava al turó Celi. Va ser educat a casa, el més influent dels seus tutors es deia Diognetus i era un mestre pintor que probablement el va introduir en fer reflexions filosòfiques. Marc Aureli donava gràcies a Catili Sever per haver-li evitat d'anar a una escola pública.[9] En l'adolescència va adoptar un tipus de vida segons la filosofia estoica, vestint una túnica de roba aspra i dormint a terra, fins que la seva mare el va convèncer de tornar a dormir damunt d'un llit.[10]Els seus professors de llengua i literatura llatines es deien: Alexandre de Cotiaeum, Trosi Aper, Tutici Procle i Frontó.[11]Els professors de grec van ser tres: Anin Macer, Canini Celer, i Herodes Àtic. Adopció per Adrià[modifica] A finals del 136 l'emperador Adrià va estar a punt de morir a causa d'una hemorràgia. Mentre es refeia a la seva vil·la de Tívoli, va escollir com a successor Luci Ceioni Commode i el va adoptar,[12] va ser una decisió contra la voluntat de tothom els motius de la qual no estan clars.[13][14]Com a part de l'adopció va canviar el seu nom pel de Luci Eli Ver. Després d'una breu estada a la frontera del Danubi, a començaments del 138, Luci Eli Ver va emmalaltir i va morir,[b]llavors l'emperador va escollir com a nou successor a Antoní Pius. A petició d'aquest va adoptar també a Marc Aureli i a Luci Aureli, el fill de Luci Eli Ver, que el va prometre a la seva filla. L'any 138 l'emperador va demanar al senat que nomenés Marc Aureli qüestor, encara que només tenia vint-i-quatre anys, cosa que van aprovar, mentre que el fill de Luci Eli era nomenat cònsol.[15] L'emperador sembla que tenia depressió fins al punt de voler-se suïcidar diverses vegades, però Antoní Pius ho va impedir cada vegada i el va enviar a fer repòs a la seva casa de Baiae, a la costa de Campània. La seva salut no va millorar i es va morir el 10 de juliol del 138.[16] Hereu d'Antoní Pius[modifica] Després de la mort d'Adrià, Antoní Pius va proposar trencar el compromís entre el fill de Luci Eli Ver i la seva filla Faustina per oferir-la en matrimoni a Marc Aureli, cosa que van acceptar.[17] Va tenir els següents títols:[18] cònsol de l'any 140, seviri, un dels sis comandants de la cavalleria, princeps iuventutis, cap de l'orde eqüestre, a petició del senat va adoptar formar part de tots els col·legis sacerdotals, no sabem amb quin títol. cònsol de l'any 145 En aquesta època va començar a patir d'úlcera però mai la seva malaltia el va fer abandonar els seus deures.[19] A l'abril del 145 es va casar amb Faustina, com estava previst.[20] L'1 de desembre del 147 Antoní Pius li va conferir la potestat tribunícia, un dia després del naixement de la seva primera filla. El mateix dia va rebre l'imperium, és a dir, l'autoritat sobre els exèrcits i províncies de tot l'imperi.[21]Aquesta nena va emmalaltir i va morir, el mateix va passar amb els bessons que van néixer després. El 7 de març del 161 Antoní, de setanta anys, es va sentir malament mentre estava a Lorium (a 19 km de Roma), de seguida va convocar els seus fills adoptius i els va traspassar els poders i, fet això, molt aviat va morir.[22][23][24] Inicis com a emperador[modifica] El senat va proposar confirmar el títol d'emperador només a Marc Aureli, però ell es va negar a acceptar fins que no donessin els mateixos poders a Luci Ver.[25]Va ser la primera vegada que Roma era governada per dos emperadors[26] i encara que nominalment eren iguals, Marc Aureli tenia una lleugera supremacia (auctoritas). Per la cerimònia de jurament va fer un donatiu a les tropes el doble del que estava acostumat: 20.000 sestercis per cap; al mateix temps va decretar una forta devaluació de la moneda: el percentatge de la plata a cada denari va quedar reduïda del 83,5% al 79% i el pes va baixar de 2,68 grams a 2,57 grams.[27] Marc Aureli i Luci Aureli Ver van governar en bona harmonia. Durant el seu regnat es va permetre la llibertat d'expressió: l'escriptor Marullus va estrenar una obra de teatre que els ridiculitzava, cosa que amb emperadors anteriors hauria estat castigat i ells van tolerar.[28] A la primavera del 162 el Tíber es va desbordar, anegant camps de conreu i ofegant molts animals; això va portar un any de fam, un problema del qual els emperadors van prendre un part activa.[29]Pel que fa a la seva tasca com a legislador, va mostrar interés per tres àrees concretes: la manumissió dels esclaus, la custòdia dels orfes i menors, i l'elecció d'administradors de les ciutats (decuriones).[30]Marc Aureli va reprendre la decisió d'Adrià d'establir quatre jutges suprems per damunt dels tribunals locals, que havien estat suprimits per Antoní Pius. Va prohibir que governessin les províncies magistrats que en fossin originaris. Va efectuar condonacions d'impostos a Hispània cap als anys 176 o 177, que tenien queixes per aquest motiu des dels temps d'Adrià.[31] A començaments de la tardor del 161, Vologès IV de Pàrtia va envair Armènia, que llavors era un estat client de Roma, va fer fora el seu rei i va posar en el seu lloc a Pacoros. El governador de Cappadòcia, Severià, convençut per un oracle que seria fàcil derrotar els parts, va enviar una legió a Armènia però fou interceptat pel general part Cosroes a la frontera, els soldats van ser massacrats i ell es va suïcidar.[32][33] També hi havia amenaça de guerra en altres fronteres: a Britània, Rècia i Germània Superior, on els cats havíen traspassat els límits de l'imperi. Marc Aureli es va trobar amb el problema d'haver de fer front a qüestions militars sense tenir experiència, l'anterior emperador Antoni Pius només l'havia preparat en temes administratius.[34] La campanya contra els parts[modifica] A l'estiu del 162 Luci Ver va marxar per dirigir personalment la campanya contra els parts. M. Anni Libó, un cosí de Marc Aureli sense experiència militar, fou enviat per substituir l'antic governador de Síria. Luci va passar la major part de la campanya a Antioquia, però va establir els quarters d'hivern a Laodicea i l'estiu el van passar a Daphne, un suburbi d'Antioquia on hi havia termes. Aviat el van criticar pel tipus de vida còmoda, passant temps en entreteniments com jugar als daus i convidant actors.[35][c] Libó va morir a començaments de la guerra i es va comentar que potser Luci Ver l'havia matat.[37]A mitjan campanya es va traslladar a Efes per casar-se amb una filla de Marc Aureli, d'uns tretze anys.[38] El 164 els romans van ocupar la capital d'Armènia i van instal·lar en el tron un rei que va acceptar estar sotmès a Roma. L'any següent van anar cap a Edessa i van reinstaurar un altre rei que els parts havien deposat.[39] Els parts van ser perseguits fins que es van dispersar a l'altra banda del Tigris. Una segona força d'atac, comandada per Avidi Cassi es va desplaçar per la riba de l'Eufrates i va obtenir una important victòria a la batalla de Dura.[40]Ctesifont, a la banda esquerra del Tigris, va ser ocupada i incendiada.[41] Una malaltia va començar a fer estralls entre els homes d'Avidi Cassi i es van replegar.[42]Al retorn de la campanya es va celebrar un triomf amb els dos emperadors i les respectives famílies com a protagonistes; es va aprofitar l'ocasió per atorgar el títol de cèsar a dos fills de Marc Aureli, Còmmode de 5 anys i Anni de tres. Els soldats van encomanar la malaltia que havien adquirit a Àsia, que es va convertir en una epidèmia (actualment anomenada pesta antonina) la qual es va estendre per tot l'imperi durant els anys 165 al 180.[43] La campanya contra les tribus germàniques[modifica] Article principal: Guerres Marcomanes Durant el darrer any de vida d'Antoní Pius, Victorí, gendre d'un dels mestres de Marc Aureli, Frontó, va ser enviat com a llegat al nord de Germània i es va trobar que no tan sols no s'estaven respectant les fronteres sinó que a més els governadors acceptaven suborns a canvi de permetre que algunes tribus bàrbares s'establissin il·legalment en territori imperial.[44] La invasió més perillosa va ser la dels marcomans l'any 166, procedents de Bohèmia i que havien estat clients de Roma des del 119, van travessar el Danubi juntament amb els longobards i altres tribus germàniques. Al mateix temps els sàrmates atacaven la zona entre el Danubi i el Tisza. Com que la major part de les tropes romanes estaven enfeinades en la campanya contra els parts, només van poder enviar una expedició punitiva el 167. L'emperador Luci Ver va morir el 169 i llavors Marc Aureli va anar en persona a ocupar-se de la campanya contra els germànics. Els romans van tenir almenys dues derrotes serioses contra els quades i els marcomans, els quals van poder travessar els Alps, fer pillatge per Opitergium (Oderzo) i assetjar Aquileia, la principal ciutat itàlica del nord-est. Al mateix temps els costobocs, procedents dels Carpats, van envair Mèsia, Macedonia i Grècia. Després de llargues lluites els exèrcits de Marc Aureli van poder expulsar aquests invasors però tot seguit nombroses tribus germàniques es van establir a les regions frontereres: Dàcia, Pannònia i la mateixa península Itàlica. Això no era la primera vegada que passava però degut a la gran quantitat de gent, es va fer necessària la creació de dues noves províncies de control fronterer: Sarmàtia i Marcomània. Els que s'havien establert a Itàlia, van causar revoltes a Ravenna i per aquest motiu l'emperador els va fer fora i va prohibir l'establiment de més bàrbars en territoris tradicionalment romans.[45] L'any 174 els romans van guanyar una decisiva batalla contra els quades enmig d'una tempesta que es va dir va ser miraculosa, enviada per Déu en resposta a les pregàries d'una tropa formada majoritàriament per cristians.[46] El llegat Tiberi Claudi Pompeià va assumir el comandament de les tropes romanes a la frontera germana, i la victòria li donaria prestigi suficient per casar-se amb Ànnia Lucil·la, filla de Marc Aureli i vídua de Luci Ver. El 175, va córrer per Àsia el rumor de la mort de Marc Aureli i el general Avidi Cassi, que va ser vencedor dels parts i ara era governador de Siria, es va proclamar emperador. Una vegada coneguda la falsedat del rumor, Cassi va ser assassinat per un dels seus oficials.[47] Campanya a Hispània[modifica] Va fer front a dues incursions de mauritans a Hispània, la primera entre els anys 171 i 173 i la segona entre els 175 i 178,[48] i la presència de la legió romana enviada a la zona va impedir la conquesta de la Bètica pels gots fins al 458.[49] Gai Aufidi Victorí, el governador de la Tarraconense, va assumir el govern de la província envaïda, mentre els magribins assetjaven Híspalis; també va acudir el governador de la Mauritània Tingitana; les forces romanes van aniquilar els magribins. Mort i successió[modifica] El 17 de març del 180, Marc Aureli va morir de malaltia desconeguda,[d], suposadament a Vindobona (l'actual Viena). Tertul·lià, emperò, indica Sírmium com a lloc del seu traspàs. Li succeí el seu fill Còmmode que ja havia estat nominalment associat al tron des de feia anys. Obra filosòfica[modifica] L'obra de Marc Aureli pertany a la Segona Sofística, (vegeu sofística) un renaixement de la literatura i filosofia gregues. Tot i que es va educar a Roma, va expressar els seus pensaments més íntims en llengua grega.[51] Influències dels seus tutors Herodes Àtic va ser un personatge controvertit, tenia un temperament irritable i criticava els atenencs per la condescendència amb què tractaven els altres.[52] S'oposava a l'estoicisme,[53] opinava que l'anhel dels estoics per una "manca de desig" era una bogeria.[54] Marc Aureli, però tenia creences estoiques i, potser per això no esmenta el seu tutor Àtic en les seves Meditacions tot i que van mantenir el contacte durant dècades.[55] Frontó tenia una gran reputació entre els literats, que el comparaven amb Ciceró. Dominava el llatí fins al punt de ser capaç de trobar diferències entre paraules considerades sinònimes i escollir la més adient.[56][e] Es conserva molta de la correspondència entre Marc Aureli i Frontó,[57]l'amistat es va estendre a la seva dona i filla.[58] Frontó compaginava les classes amb Marc Aureli amb la seva feina d'advocat. En un cas que va portar es va haver d'enfrontar amb Herodes Àtic. Marc Aureli va demanar a Frontó, primer com un consell i després com un favor, que no ataqués Herodes Àtic; al mateix temps va demanar a Herodes que no fos ell el qui donés el primer cop.[59]Frontó va contestar que la seva intenció era de guanyar el cas per qualsevol mitjà necessari "... els càrrecs són espantosos i només es pot parlar d'ells amb espant. Aquells en particular, que es refereixen a la pallissa i a robar els descriuré d'una manera tal que assaboreixen de fel i de bilis. Si he de dir-li que és un grec insignificant sense educació no serà perquè busqui baralla o la seva condemna a mort." Es desconeix com va acabar el judici.[60] Frontó el va aconsellar sobre l'estudi de la filosofia dient-li:"És millor no haver tocat mai els estudis de filosofia… que haver-los tastat de forma superficial amb la punta dels llavis, com se sol dir". Menyspreava la filosofia i els filòsofs i mirava amb desaprovació les classes que tenia Marc Aureli amb Apol·loni de Calcedònia i altres del seu cercle.[57] A Frontó li feia l'efecte que la inclinació de Marc Antoni per la filosofia només era una manera d'escapar als tediosos exercicis de retòrica.[51] Apol·loni el va introduir en l'estoïcisme, però va ser Quint Juni Rústic qui va exercir major influència.[61] Tenia vint anys més que Marc Aureli i era el nét d'un dels màrtirs que van ser víctimes de la tirania de Domicià(r. 81–96), per això va tirar endavant l'oposició dels estoics contra els mals emperadors, un veritable successor de les idees de Sèneca.[62]Marc Aureli donava gràcies a Rústic per haver-li ensenyat "a haver canviat el camí de la retòrica, pel dels escrits sobre temes especulatius, per pensar sobre textos moralitzants… Per evitar l'oratòria, la poesia, i l'escriptura fina".[63] En els primers anys del seu regnat va haver un terratrèmol a la ciutat de Cízic i Marc Aureli va fer un eloqüent discurs davant el senat, per destinar diners a la recuperació de la ciutat, que va omplir d'orgull al seu antic mestre Frontó, més per la forma que pel contingut filosòfic.[64] Meditacions Mentre estava ocupat en la campanya militar contra les tribus germàniques, entre els anys 170 i 180, va escriure en grec les Meditacions, títol que se li va donar posteriorment, ja que ell va anomenar aquesta obra "Per a mi mateix", escrita com un diari de reflexions personals. Se l'ha catalogat com un llibre homenatge al govern, el deure i el servei a la pàtria, dins la filosofia estoica. D'aquesta obra es desprèn que no creia en la vida després de la mort alhora que es lamenta de la fugacitat de la vida. La mort és quelcom desitjable perquè és el descans dels desitjos que pertorben la pau, mentre que la vida o les coses fetes en vida cauen aviat en l'oblit, són insignificants i mentre s'està viu cal cercar la virtut.[65] Descendència[modifica] Es va casar amb la filla d'Antoní Pius, Faustina Menor, amb la qui va tenir diversos fills que van morir en la infantesa, llevat de dos. Domitia Faustina, nascuda el 30 de novembre del 147 - morta el 151.[66] bessons:Titus Aurelius Antoninus i Tiberius Aelius Aurelius. Nascuts el 149, hi ha monedes celebrant l'esdeveniment amb la inscripció temporum felicitas i la imatge d'una cornucòpia; van morir abans de l'any i els van enterrar al mausoleu d'Adrià.[67] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, nascuda el 7 de març del 150, filla de nom desconegut nascuda el 151, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, nascut el 152- mort el 158.[68] Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, nascuda el 153.[69] Fadilla, nascuda el 159.[70] Cornificia, nascuda el 160.[70] bessons:T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus i Lucius Aurelius Commodus, (posteriorment Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus) nascuts el 31 d'agost del 161.[f] Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, nascut el 162 - mort el 169. Vibia Aurelia Sabina, nascuda el 170 - morta abans del 217. Vegeu també[modifica] Cornelià Notes[modifica] ↑ Segons Farquharson tenia 9 anys ↑ Quan el va adoptar ja era cosa coneguda que patia tuberculosi i que no viuria gaire temps, per tant sembla un nomenament més aviat honorífic i que la veritable intenció era nomenar a Antoní Pius. ↑ Se sospita que la part de la Història Augusta que descriu la vida de plaers de Luci Ver és una invenció de l'autor.[36] ↑ Stefan Winkle suposa que va morir a conseqüència de l'epidèmia antonina.[50] per bé que també s'especula que es podria tractar de càncer ↑ Els historiadors i lingüistes moderns no el tenen en tan bona estimació. ↑ A la Història Augusta es diu que va córrer el rumor que Còmmode era fill de Faustina i un gladiador, cosa que Birley considera improbable. Referències[modifica] ↑ Beard, Mary «Was He Quite Ordinary?». London Review of Books, 31, 14, 2009. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 227. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 228-229,253. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 227-228. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 29,31,44. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 31. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 35. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 33. ↑ McLynn, 2009, p. 20-22. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 38. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 40,270. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 42. ↑ Barnes, 1967, p. 65–79. ↑ VanderLeest, 1995, p. 319–30. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 49-50. ↑ cassi Dió Història de Roma LXIX.22.4 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 53-54. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 56-57. ↑ cassi Dió Història de Roma LXXI.36.3 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 90-91. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 103. ↑ Birley, 2000, p. 156. ↑ Sext Aureli Víctor De Caesaribus XV.7 ↑ cassi Dió Història de Roma LXXI.33.4-5 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 116. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 117. ↑ Tulane University Roman Currency of the Principate ↑ Birley, 2000, p. 157. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 120. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 133. ↑ Història Augusta Adrià XII 4 ↑ Cassi Dió Història de Roma LXXI.2.1 ↑ Llucià Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 103-104,122. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 129. ↑ Barnes, 1967, p. 69. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 130-131. ↑ Barnes, 1967, p. 72. ↑ Birley, 2000, p. 161-163. ↑ Llucià Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28 ↑ Birley, 2000, p. 163. ↑ Birley, 2000, p. 164. ↑ Cassi Dió Història de Roma, LXXII 14.3–4 ↑ Cassi Dió Història de Roma, LXXII 11.3–4 ↑ Cassi Dió Història de Roma, LXXII 11.4-5 ↑ Smith, 1853, p. 111. ↑ Canduci, 2010, p. 44. ↑ Laura Arias Ferrer, La Hispania del siglo II'p.81-83 (castellà) ↑ Andrew Gillett, Envoys and political communication in the late antique West, 411-533[Enllaç no actiu], p.68 (anglès) ↑ Winkle, 1997, p. 434. ↑ 51,0 51,1 Cameron, 1967, p. 347. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 63-64. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 64-65. ↑ Aule Gel·li, Noctes Atticae XIX.12 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 65. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 67-68. ↑ 57,0 57,1 Birley, 1966, p. 69. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 76-77. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 77-78. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 79-80. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 95. ↑ Champlin, 1980, p. 120. ↑ Meditacions 1.7 ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 128. ↑ Dollimore, 1998, p. 32-34. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 247. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 206. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 108. ↑ Birley, 1966, p. 107. ↑ 70,0 70,1 Birley, 1966, p. 114. Bibliografia[modifica] Alberich i Mariné(traducció), Joan; Tello i Brugal, Joan. Llibres de l'Índex, 2008 Marc Aureli: "Meditacions". Edició bilingüe grec-català. Barcelona: Col·lecció Clàssics de l'Índex, 6, 2008. ISBN 978-84-96563-74-2.  Barnes, Timothy D «Hadrian and Lucius Verus». Journal of Roman Studies, 57, 1 i 2, 1967, pàg. 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Nova York: Routledge, 1966. ISBN 0-415-17125-3.  Birley, Anthony R. «Hadrian to the Antonines». A: The Cambridge Ancient History. Nova York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1.  Cameron, Alan «Review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius». Classical Review, 17, 3, 1967. Canduci, Alexander. "Triumph & Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Immortal Emperors", volum 9. Pier, 2010. ISBN 978-1-74196-598-8.  Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7.  Dollimore, Jonathan. Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture, 1998. ISBN 0 7139 9125 9.  Duncan-Jones, Richard P. «The impact of the Antonine plague». Journal of Roman Archaeology, 9, 1996, pàg. 108–136. Farquharson, A. S. L.. The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 1944.  García Gual(comentraris), Carlos; Ramón Bach Pellicer(traducció), Ramón. Marco Aurelio: Meditaciones. Madrid: Gredos, col·lecció:"Biblioteca clásica Gredos", volum 5, 2005. ISBN 84-249-3497-0 (cart.). ISBN 978-84-249-3497-2. Leita i Graell(traducció), Joan; Montserrat i Torrents, Josep. Epíctec, Marc Aureli: "Enquiridió". "Reflexions". Barcelona: Laia, Col·lecció Textos Filosòfics, volum 27, 1984. ISBN 84-7222-585-2. ; ISBN 978-84-7222-585-5. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. Londres: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2.  Smith, William. A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Londres: J.Murray, 1853.  VanderLeest, J. «Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo». Phoenix, 49, 4, 1995. Winkle, Stefan. Geißeln der Menschheit: Die Kulturgeschichte der Seuchen. Düsseldorf: Artemis & Winkler, 1997. ISBN 3-538-07159-4.  Enllaços externs[modifica] En altres projectes de Wikimedia: Commons (Galeria) Commons (Categoria) Viquidites Marc Aurèle, Pensées. Traduction française de Jules Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire. París: Baillière, 1876 (grec antic), (francès). La mateixa traducció en un altre servidor (grec antic), (francès). Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν τοῦ Μάρκου Αὐρήλιου. A. S. L. Farquharson, 1944 (grec antic). Marc Aureli, Meditacions. Edició bilingüe grec-català. Traducció al català de Joan Alberich (grec antic), (català). El Miracle de la Pluja (anglès). Emperadors romans Principat 27 aC – 235 Dinastia Júlio-Clàudia August  · Tiberi  · Calígula  · Claudi  · Neró L'any dels quatre emperadors Galba  · Otó  · Vitel·li Dinastia Flàvia Vespasià  · Tit  · Domicià Dinastia Antonina Nerva  · Trajà  · Adrià  · Antoní Pius  · Marc Aureli amb Luci Ver · Còmmode Interregne Pèrtinax  · Didi Julià Dinastia Severa Septimi Sever  · Caracal·la  · Geta  · Macrí amb Diadumenià · Elagàbal  · Alexandre Sever Crisi 235–284 Maximí el Traci  · Gordià I i Gordià II  · Pupiè i Balbí  · Gordià III  · Felip l'Àrab  · Deci amb Herenni Etrusc · Hostilià  · Trebonià Gal amb Volusià · Emilià  · Valerià I  · Gal·liè  · Claudi el Gòtic  · Quintil  · Aurelià  · Tàcit  · Florià  · Probe  · Car  · Carí  · Numerià Dominat 284–395 Dioclecià  · Maximià  · Constanci Clor  · Galeri  · Sever II  · Maxenci  · Maximí Daia  · Licini amb Valeri Valent i Martinià · Constantí I el Gran  · Constantí II  · Constant I  · Constanci II  · Julià  · Jovià  · Valentinià I  · Valent  · Gracià 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ci-nii-ac-jp-4464	----	CiNii Books Author - Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome CiNii menu search Articles Books Dissertations Sign Up Login Japanese Book & Journal Author Content Search Books and Journals Books Journals Advanced Search Title Exact Title Match Include Uniform Titles Author Include Alias Names Author ID Uniform Title ID Publisher ISBN ISSN NCID Subject Classification Note Format Any Formats Book and Journal Cartographic Material Braill Printed Music Manuscript Text Manuscript Map Manuscript Music Projected Graphic Microform Non-projected Graphic Motion Picture Musical Sound Recording Non-musical Sound Recording Videorecording Computer File 3D Artcraft or Naturally Occurring Object Kit Language Any Languages Japanese English German French Chinese Russian Spanish Italian Korean Arabic Year from to Library ID Organization ID Area Any Areas Hokkaido Tohoku Region Aomori Iwate Miyagi Akita Yamagata Fukushima Kanto Region Ibaraki Tochigi Gunma Saitama Chiba Tokyo Kanagawa Hokuriku/Koshinetsu Region Niigata Toyama Ishikawa Fukui Yamanashi Nagano Tokai Region Gifu Shizuoka Aichi Mie Kansai Region Shiga Kyoto Osaka Hyogo Nara Wakayama Chugoku/Shikoku Region Tottori Shimane Okayama Hiroshima Yamaguchi Tokushima Kagawa Ehime Kochi Kyushu/Okinawa Region Fukuoka Saga Nagasaki Kumamoto Oita Miyazaki Kagoshima Okinawa Asia Region Korea China Thailand Europe Region United Kingdom Germany Switzerland France Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway North America Region United States of America Other Foreign Region Remember Lib. ID / Org. ID / Area Search Close Search Search Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome ID:DA00596148 Alias Name マルクス・アウレリウス（マルクス・アウレリウス） Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome Marc-Aurèle Aurelius, A. M. Marc. Aurel. Antonin, Emperor of Rome マルクス, アウレーリウス（マルクス, アウレーリウス） Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 Search authors sharing the same name Search Results1-20 of 223 1 2 3 4 5 6 ... 12 1 / 12 Select all： Open in New Windows Export to RefWorks Export to EndNote Show Refer/BiblX Show RIS Show BibTeX Show TSV Show 20 results Show 50 results Show 100 results Show 200 results Date (newest) Date (oldest) Number of Libraries (descending) Number of Libraries (ascending) Title (A-Z) Title (Z-A) Relevance 1 Écrits pour lui-même Marc Aurèle ; texte établi et traduit par Pierre Hadot, avec la collaboration de Concetta Luna Les Belles Lettres 2019 4e tirage Collection des universités de France . série grecque ; 388 t. 1 Available at 1 libraries 2 超訳自省録 : よりよく生きる マルクス・アウレリウス [著] ; 佐藤けんいち編訳 ディスカヴァー・トゥエンティワン 2019.4 Available at 8 libraries 3 Marcus Aurelius in love Marcus Aurelius and Marcus Cornelius Fronto ; edited, translated, and with an introduction and commentary by Amy Richlin University of Chicago Press 2016 : pbk. Available at 1 libraries 4 Meditations, books 1-6 Marcus Aurelius ; translated with an introduction and commentary by Christopher Gill Oxford University Press 2013 1st ed Clarendon later ancient philosophers : [hbk.] Available at 4 libraries 5 自省録 マルクス・アウレリウス作 イースト・プレス 2012.6 まんがで読破 / バラエティ・アートワークス企画・漫画 MD109 Available at 18 libraries 6 Meditations Marcus Aurelius ; translated by Robin Hard ; with an introduction and notes by Christopher Gill Oxford University Press 2011 Oxford world's classics : pbk Available at 2 libraries 7 Meditations of Marcus Aurelius translation by A.S.L. Farquharson ; introduction by Tom Griffith Collector's Library 2011 Collector's Library : hbk Available at 2 libraries 8 The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus translated by Francis Hutcheson and James Moor ; edited and with an introduction by James Moore and Michael Silverthorne Liberty Fund c2008 Natural law and Enlightenment classics , The collected works and correspondence of Francis Hutcheson : hbk , : pbk Available at 5 libraries 9 自省録 マルクス・アウレーリウス [著] ; 神谷美恵子訳 岩波書店 2007.2 改版 岩波文庫 青(33)-610-1 Available at 279 libraries 10 Marcus Aurelius in love Marcus Aurelius and Marcus Cornelius Fronto ; edited, translated, and with an introduction and commentary by Amy Richlin University of Chicago Press c2006 : cloth Available at 1 libraries 11 Meditations Marcus Aurelius ; translated with notes by Martin Hammond ; with an introduction by Diskin Clay Penguin Books 2006 Penguin classics , Penguin philosophy Available at 6 libraries 12 マルクス・アウレリウス「自省録」 マルクス・アウレリウス [著] ; 鈴木照雄訳 講談社 2006.2 講談社学術文庫 [1749] Available at 196 libraries 13 명상록 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 지음; 천병희 옮김 숲 2005.11 Available at 1 libraries 14 Meditations Marcus Aurelius ; translated by Maxwell Staniforth Penguin 2004 Penguin books . Great ideas ; 2 Available at 6 libraries 15 I ricordi Marco Aurelio ; traduzione di Francesco Cazzamini-Mussi ; a cura di Carlo Carena Einaudi c2003 Einaudi tascabili 1094 . Classici Available at 1 libraries 16 Selbstbetrachtungen Marc Aurel ; aus dem Griechischen von Otto Kiefer ; mit einem Vorwort von Klaus Sallmann Insel 2003 Insel Taschenbuch 2976 Available at 1 libraries 17 Meditations Marcus Aurelius ; Translated, and introduction, by Gregory Hays Modern Library c2002 Available at 2 libraries 18 The emperor's handbook : a new translation of The meditations Marcus Aurelius ; C. Scot Hicks and David V. Hicks Scribner c2002 Available at 2 libraries 19 Écrits pour lui-même Marc Aurèle ; texte établi et traduit par Pierre Hadot, avec la collaboration de Concetta Luna Les Belles lettres c2002 2e tirage Collection des universités de France t. 1 Available at 2 libraries 20 Wege zu sich selbst : Μαρκου Αντωνινου αυτοκρατοροσ Τα εισ εαυτον Marc Aurel ; herausgegeben und übersetzt von Rainer Nickel Artemis & Winkler c1998 2. Aufl Sammlung Tusculum Available at 4 libraries 1 2 3 4 5 6 ... 12 1 / 12 Search this author VIAF KAKEN — Researchers J-GLOBAL researchmap Google Scholar Google Yahoo! JAPAN Related Authors Hadot, Pierre Luna, Concetta Fronto, Marcus Cornelius Gill, Christopher John バラエティ・アートワークス Hard, Robin Farquharson, A. S. L. (Arthur Spenser Loat) Hutcheson, Francis Moor, James Moore, R. J. (Robin James) Silverthorne, Michael James 神谷, 美恵子 Hammond, Martin Clay, Diskin 鈴木, 照雄 Kiefer, Otto Nickel, Rainer Page Top Smart Phone | PC About CiNii About CiNii CiNii Incorporated Databases Terms of Use Contact NII Home Help CiNii Articles CiNii Books CiNii Dissertations Metadata and API News Updates RSS Twitter NII Scholarly Services KAKEN IRDB NII-REO 
commons-wikimedia-org-2096	----	Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus - Wikimedia Commons Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search English: Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (April 26, 121 - March 17, 180) was Roman emperor from 8 March 161 until his death on 17 March 180 C.E. From 161 to 169 he was co-emperor (with Lucius Verus); from 177 until his death he was co-emperor with Commodus, his son. Together with his wife, Faustina Minor, he had 14 children, including a son and a daughter, Commodus and Lucilla. Contents 1 Statues and busts 1.1 As a boy 1.2 As a young man 1.3 As an adult 2 Coinage 3 Equestrian statues 4 Public works 5 Maps 6 Audiobooks Statues and busts[edit] As a boy[edit] Musei Capitolini, ca. 140 C.E. Musei Capitolini, ca. 140 Hermitage As a young man[edit] In Versailles gardens Antiquario del Palatino, ca. 147 C.E. As an adult[edit] Hermitage Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the British Museum (London) 16th century bust, Prado, Madrid. Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Glyptothek (Munich) Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna) Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Archaeological Museum (Istanbul) Statue of Marcus Aurelius in the British Museum (London) Statue of Marcus Aurelius, Archaeological Museum (Istanbul) Museu Nacional Arqueològic de Tarragona Bronze of Marcus Aurelius, (Louvre, Paris) Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, Kaiserbrücke (Mainz) Drawing of Marcus Aurelius, Charlotte Mary Yonge, Young Folks' History of Rome Coinage[edit] Denarius Aureus Coins issued by the Antonine dynasty Equestrian statues[edit] Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius Statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius Statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Replica of Marcus Aurelius statue on Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome Inscription of the Marcus Aurelius equestrian statue Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini 3D Image of Marcus Aurelius' equestrian statue Marcus Aurelius statue in Musei Capitolini Public works[edit] Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. : detailed complete panorama Detail of Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Detail of Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Inscription of Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. Marcus Aurelius, panel relief Marcus Aurelius, panel relief Arch of Marcus Aurelius in Tripoli (Libya) Maps[edit] Marcomannic wars, 170AD Marcomannic wars, 171-175AD Marcomannic wars, 178-179AD Marcomannic wars, 180-182AD Audiobooks[edit] Marc Aurèle - Prière au monde (French audiobook) Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus_Augustus&oldid=509483824" Category: Marcus Aurelius Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Gallery Discussion Variants Views View Edit History More Search Navigate Main page Welcome Community portal Village pump Help center Participate Upload file Recent changes Latest files Random file Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource In Wikipedia Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2020, at 21:58. 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commons-wikimedia-org-8819	----	Category:Marcus Aurelius - Wikimedia Commons Help Category:Marcus Aurelius From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། (bo); Markús Árelíus (is); Marcus Aurelius (ms); Marcus Aurelius (bcl); Marcus Aurelius (en-gb); Марк Аврелий (bg); مارکس اورلیس (pnb); Màrc Aureliò (nap); Marcus Aurelius (mg); Marcus Aurelius (sk); Marc Aurèli (oc); Марк Аврелий (tg); Marcus Aurelius (io); 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 (ko); Marcus Aurelius (fo); Marko Aŭrelio (eo); Marcus Aurelius (cs); Marko Aurelije (bs); Marco Aurelio (an); Marcu Uréliu (ext); Marc Aurèle (fr); Marko Aurelije (hr); मार्कस ऑरेलियस (mr); Marcus Aurelius (vi); Marks Aurēlijs (lv); Markus Aurelius (af); Марко Аурелије (sr); Marco Aurélio (pt-br); Marcus Aurelius (sco); Марк Аврелий (mn); Marcus Aurelius (nn); Marcus Aurelius (nb); Mark Avreli (az); Марко Аврелиј (mk); 馬可奧勒留 (lzh); Marcus Aurelius (nan); Marcus Aurelius (en); ماركوس أوريليوس (ar); Marcus Aurelius (br); Marcus Aurelius (da); မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် (my); 奧理略 (yue); Marcus Aurelius római császár (hu); Авлелий (kk); مارکوس اورلیوس (fa); Marko Aurelio (eu); Marko Aurelije (sh); Marcu Aureliu (ast); Marc Aureli (ca); Mark Aurel (de-ch); Mark Aurel (de); Marcus Aurelius (cy); Marcas Áiréilias (ga); Մարկոս Ավրելիոս (hy); 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 (zh); Markus Aurelius (fy); მარკუს ავრელიუსი (ka); マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス (ja); Marco Aurelio (ia); Marcus Aurelius (diq); ماركوس اوريليوس (arz); মার্কাস অরিলিয়স (bn); מרקוס אורליוס (he); Марк Аврелий (tt); Avreliy Mark (uz); मार्कस ऑरेलियस (hi); 马可·奥勒留 (wuu); Marcus Aurelius (fi); Marek Aureliusz (pl); March Aureli (pms); Marcus Aurelius (id); மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் (ta); Marco Aurelio (it); Марк Аврелий (ru); Marco Aurelio (es); Марк Аўрэлій (be); Marcus Aurelius (et); Marcus Aurelius (kg); Marcus Aurelius (sv); Marcus Aurelius (en-ca); จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส (th); Marcus Aurelius (yo); Marcu Aureliu (scn); Marco Aurélio (pt); Marcus Aurelius (ang); Marcus Aurelius (tr); Марк Аврелій (uk); Markas Aurelijus (lt); Mark Avrelij (sl); Marcus Aurelius (tl); Mâ-khù-sṳ̂ O-lie̍t-lî-vû-sṳ̂ (hak); Marcus Aurelius (ku); Marcus Aurelius (war); Marcus Aurelius (sw); Marcus Aurelius (gd); Marcus Aurelius (nl); Marcus Aurelius (la); مارکوس آئورلیوس (azb); Marc Aureliu (ro); Marco Aurelio (lfn); Marco Aurelio (gl); Marcus Aurelius (sq); Μάρκος Αυρήλιος (el); Marcus Aurelius (simple) emperador romano en la segunda mitad del siglo II (es); a Római Birodalom császára (hu); emperador romà (ca); römischer Kaiser und Philosoph (121-180) (de); рымскі імператар (be); امپراتور و فیلسوف رومی (fa); 古羅馬皇帝 (zh); Roma imparatoru. (tr); kejsare av Rom 161–180 (sv); קיסר רומי ופילוסוף סטואי (he); Борынгы Римның 16 нчы императоры, фәлсәфәче (tt); प्राचीन रोम के सम्राट (hi); Antiikin Rooman keisari (fi); imperiestro de Romio (121–180) (eo); римски цар и филозоф (mk); பண்டைய உரோமப் பேரரசர் (ta); sedicesimo imperatore romano (161-180) (it); empereur romain de 161 à 180 et philosophe stoïcien (fr); imperador romano (pt); Romas imperators no 161. līdz 180. gadam (lv); импреатор древног Рима (sr); Rimski cesar (sl); կայսր (hy); cesarz rzymski (pl); romersk keiser (nb); politicus uit Romeinse Keizerrijk (121-180) (nl); Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας (el); 16-й римский император (ru); římský císař (161–180) (cs); Romanorum Imperator (la); Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher (en); إمبراطور روماني، فيلسوف (ar); 罗马帝国的皇帝 (zh-hans); împărat roman din dinastia Antonină între anii 161 și 180 p.Chr. și filozof stoic (ro) Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto (es); Цезар Маркус Аурелијус Антонијус Аугустус, Маркус Анијус Верус (sr); Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Verus Augustus, Marcus Annius Catillius Severus, Marcus Aurelius (hu); Mark Aurel (nb); Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Անտոնինոս, Մարկուս Ավրելիուս Անտոնինուս (hy); Mark Aurel (nn); מַרְקוּס אוֹרֶלְיוּס אנטונינוס אוגוסטוס (he); Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Imperator, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Philosophus (la); Mark Aureli (sq); Cesare Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto (it); Marc Aurel, Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (de); Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (cy); Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius, Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Annius Verus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (en); Mark-Aŭrelio, Cezaro Marko Aŭrelio Antoneno Aŭgusto, Marko Aŭrelio Antoneno (eo); 马可·奥勒留 (zh); மார்க்கஸ் அன்டோனியஸ், மார்க்க ஒளரேலியன் (ta) Marcus Aurelius  Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Upload media   Wikipedia   Wikiquote   Wikisource Name in native language Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Date of birth 26 April 121 Rome (Roman Empire, Roman Italy) Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Date of death 17 March 180 Vindobona (Roman Empire, Upper Pannonia) Manner of death natural causes Cause of death plague Place of burial Castel Sant'Angelo Country of citizenship Ancient Rome Residence Rome Occupation politician philosopher writer Position held Roman emperor (161–180) Ancient Roman senator Roman consul quaestor (139) Field of work philosophy Noble title Emperor Family Nerva–Antonine dynasty Father Marcus Annius Verus Mother Domitia Calvilla Sibling Annia Cornificia Faustina Child Commodus Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina Fadilla Lucilla Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor Vibia Aurelia Sabina Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus Domitia Faustina Spouse Faustina the Younger Notable work Meditations Authority control  Q1430 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X VIAF ID: 102895066 GND ID: 118577468 Library of Congress authority ID: n80051702 Union List of Artist Names ID: 500115701 Bibliothèque nationale de France ID: 11914476c IdRef ID: 027008614 CiNii author ID (books): DA00596148 National Diet Library ID: 00431918 Libraries Australia ID: 35966523 MusicBrainz artist ID: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b Open Library ID: OL133986A NKCR AUT ID: jn19981001808 SELIBR ID: 194415 National Library of Israel ID: 000088890 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID: XX932158 National Library of Romania ID: 000136425 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID: 06867452X BIBSYS ID: 90564087 NLP ID (unique): A1180743X National Library of Korea ID: KAC200403589 Reasonator PetScan Scholia Statistics OpenStreetMap Locator tool Search depicted Subcategories This category has the following 10 subcategories, out of 10 total. - ► Marcus Aurelius in art‎ (3 C, 5 F) A ► Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Markouna)‎ (8 F) ► Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Rome)‎ (1 C) C ► Children of Marcus Aurelius‎ (8 C) ► Column of Marcus Aurelius (Rome)‎ (3 C, 1 P, 163 F) M ► Marc-Aurel-Straße, Vienna‎ (2 C, 15 F) ► Marcus Aurelius Arch in Tripoli‎ (34 F) ► Meditations by Marcus Aurelius‎ (45 F) O ► Odos Markou Avriliou (Plaka)‎ (1 F) S ► Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum 29:127‎ (1 F) Pages in category "Marcus Aurelius" The following 3 pages are in this category, out of 3 total. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus M Template:Marcus Aurelius Creator:Marcus Aurelius Media in category "Marcus Aurelius" The following 68 files are in this category, out of 68 total. 9777 - Museo archeologico di Milano - Lapide per Marco Aurelio (140-151 d.C.) - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 13-mar-2012.jpg 2,816 × 1,880; 1.94 MB Albero Genealogico della stirpe degli Antonini.png 788 × 788; 82 KB Antoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg 800 × 394; 219 KB Antoninus Pius, with Marcus Aurelius Caesar, denarius, AD 139, RIC III 412a.jpg 800 × 389; 193 KB Arch of Constantine, Lustration of the troops.jpg 781 × 1,149; 412 KB Aurelius edit.png 897 × 912; 213 KB Aurelius180AD.png 747 × 493; 26 KB Belgique - Bruxelles - Maison du Roi d'Espagne - 08.jpg 2,436 × 1,628; 3.5 MB Carnuntum 8540.jpg 2,592 × 3,888; 659 KB CILIII1979Salona.jpg 2,048 × 1,536; 869 KB Cornifiglia figlia di marco aurealio (forse), II secolo, dai pressi del teatro di ostia.JPG 1,696 × 5,080; 3.46 MB Famille Annii Atilii.png 1,197 × 406; 25 KB Famille Annii Veri.png 1,325 × 359; 21 KB Famille Domitia Lucilla.png 1,270 × 361; 25 KB Ghisolfi Giovanni (Nachf.) — Ruinencapriccio mit dem Standbild des Marc Aurel (Stift Klosterneuburg).jpg 3,648 × 2,736; 2.78 MB Harley MS 5694 Lucian Pro Imaginibus Scholia by Arethas from the British Library.png 1,809 × 693; 2.31 MB Icones imperatorvm romanorvm, ex priscis numismatibus ad viuum delineatae, and breui narratione historicâ (1645) (14766519123).jpg 1,980 × 1,984; 1.11 MB IGII(2)3398Clinton510Eleusis.jpg 1,057 × 1,483; 1.58 MB IGII(2)3401Clinton509Eleusis.jpg 1,052 × 1,677; 584 KB IGII2,3620Clinton503Eleusis.jpg 1,536 × 2,048; 1.22 MB INC-1942-r Статер Боспорское царство Евпатор (реверс).png 1,000 × 1,000; 1.33 MB Inscription Capitolium Sabratha.JPG 3,072 × 2,304; 3.46 MB Library of the world's best literature, ancient and modern (1896) (14761220136).jpg 1,240 × 1,958; 1.03 MB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 170 dC V1.1 fr.png 1,280 × 886; 1.76 MB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 170 dC V1.1.JPG 1,280 × 886; 280 KB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 170 dC.jpg 1,280 × 886; 286 KB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 171-175 dC.jpg 1,280 × 886; 279 KB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 178-179 dC.jpg 1,280 × 886; 282 KB Marcomannia e Sarmatia 180-182 dC.jpg 1,280 × 886; 908 KB Marcus Aurelius (d'après une cornaline antique).jpg 2,724 × 3,667; 2.37 MB Marcus Aurelius (portrait gravé).jpg 1,358 × 1,559; 578 KB Marcus Aurelius - Project Gutenberg eText 15877.jpg 340 × 500; 50 KB Marcus Aurelius en Casa de Pilatos.jpg 2,082 × 2,973; 1.71 MB Marcus Aurelius Erfgoedcentrum Rozet 300 191 d 6 C 01.jpg 4,448 × 4,936; 6.83 MB Marcus Aurelius on Horseback (recto); Study of an Antique Vase (verso) MET DP838059.jpg 2,788 × 3,608; 3.24 MB Marcus Aurelius oval.jpg 434 × 605; 32 KB Mark Aurel-article-2004.ogg 9 min 42 s; 2.54 MB MC - Jupiter Inschrift.jpg 1,712 × 2,560; 1.48 MB Medaglione cerchiato di marco aurelio, 172 dc, recto.JPG 2,012 × 2,020; 3.18 MB Medaglione contorniato di marco aurelio con olimpia macedone su triclinio tra delfino e serpente a cui dà pomo.JPG 1,144 × 1,128; 802 KB Medaglione di marco aurelio, 165 dc..JPG 1,479 × 1,393; 1.56 MB Medaglione di marco aurelio, 166 dc, verso con giove con la folgore, marco aurelio e lucio vero.JPG 1,565 × 1,552; 1.79 MB Medaglione di marco aurelio, roma, 170 dc.jpg 932 × 895; 650 KB Medaglione di marco aurelio, zecca di tiatira-lidia, divinità in quadriga e fiume Lico.JPG 1,676 × 1,704; 1.35 MB Milestone from the southern branch of the Via Egnatia leading to Apollonia with dedication to Marcus Aurelius, Apollonia, Albania.jpg 3,264 × 4,928; 7.9 MB MSR-Marc Aurèle-Ra61b.stl 5,120 × 2,880; 23.36 MB Munt van Eupator.gif 281 × 201; 10 KB Nuremberg chronicles f 112r 1.png 246 × 1,355; 731 KB Palazzo corsini, scalone monumentale, statua 01 marco aurelio.JPG 2,736 × 3,648; 2.02 MB Poros Museum - Roman Pedestal.JPG 5,456 × 3,632; 4.44 MB Puxar em comum, mas não pensar em comum. Marco Aurélio, 121-180 dC.svg 1,052 × 744; 3.23 MB Rivista italiana di numismatica 1890 p 594.png 2,574 × 4,267; 3.69 MB Roman milestone St Margarethen Austria 201 aC.jpg 1,816 × 3,384; 909 KB Romanorvm imperatorvm effigies - elogijs ex diuersis scriptoribus per Thomam Treteru S. Mariae Transtyberim canonicum collectis (1583) (14765027971).jpg 1,280 × 1,860; 583 KB Sabratha - Fragment mit Inschrift.jpg 4,000 × 3,000; 2.18 MB Seekers after God (1868) (14778378472).jpg 2,912 × 1,892; 1.37 MB Sixteen portraits of classical poets and thinkers. Drawing, Wellcome V0009100.jpg 2,492 × 3,437; 3.35 MB State Museum of History of Georgia (Tbilisi Archaeological Museum) 3.jpg 1,920 × 1,875; 1,006 KB Statue of a Roman citizen of the second quarter of the 2nd century A.D., a portrait of the young Marcus Aurelius was added by a neo-classical sculptor sometime before 1818, Romisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne (8115663549).jpg 2,874 × 4,120; 7.04 MB Statue of Ali Kuscu.jpeg 1,600 × 1,148; 253 KB Statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Nymphaeum of Herodes Atticus at Olympia, dating from between 149 and 153 AD (posthumous), Olympia Archaeological Museum, Greece (13983876346).jpg 3,097 × 4,928; 7.53 MB Territoires et monuments de l'Antique Diana Veteranorum (Zana) 70.jpg 1,920 × 2,560; 703 KB The Commentaries of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus.djvu 1,543 × 2,105, 262 pages; 16.36 MB The Fourth Book of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.pdf 825 × 1,301, 93 pages; 3.1 MB VerlovingAureliusFaustina.jpg 250 × 259; 33 KB Young Folks' History of Rome illus326.png 334 × 356; 20 KB Вторгнення костобоків у Грецію.jpg 343 × 500; 87 KB Марк Аврелий 1914.djvu 3,542 × 2,528, 25 pages; 567 KB Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=527318012" Categories: 121 births 180 deaths 58-year-old deaths Ancient Roman philosophers Stoic philosophers Deified Roman emperors Nerva–Antonine dynasty Gens Annia People depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle Births in Rome Non-topical/index: Uses of Wikidata Infobox Uses of Wikidata Infobox providing interwiki links Deceased people by name Uses of Wikidata Infobox with no family name Uses of Wikidata Infobox with no given name Men by name People by name Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Discussion Variants Views View Edit History More Search Navigate Main page Welcome Community portal Village pump Help center Participate Upload file Recent changes Latest files Random file Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikipedia In Wikipedia Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 06:25. 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curate-nd-edu-9284	----	Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column // CurateND University of Notre Dame Hesburgh Libraries Search CurateND Search CurateND Search About About Terms of Service Governing Policies Submission Agreement FAQ Log In FAQ Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column Image Generate Citation Usage Details Click to Expand Description Roman victory column, with a spiral relief, built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and modeled on Trajan’s Column. Because the original dedicatory inscription has been destroyed, it is not known whether it was built during the emperor’s reign (on the occasion of the triumph over the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians in the year 176) or after his death in 180; however, an inscription found in the vicinity attests that the column was completed by 193. As with Trajan’s column, there is an interior stairway. About 3 metres of the base have been below ground level since 1589 when, by order of pope Sixtus V, the whole column was restored by Domenico Fontana and adapted to the ground level of that time. Also a bronze statue of the apostle St. Paul was placed on the top platform, to go with that of St. Peter on Trajan’s Column (27 October 1588). (Originally the top platform probably had a statue of Marcus Aurelius, but it had been already lost by the 16th century.) Attributes Attribute Name Values Alternate Title Columna Centenaria Divorum Marci et Faustinae Creator G. Massiot & cie Subject Columns Architecture Date Created 1910-01-01 Date Digitized 2007-01-01 Cultural Context Roman (ancient Italian style) Imperial (Roman) Place of Creation Rome, Lazio, Italy: Piazza Colonna in front of Palazzo Chigi Rome +41.900833+12.479861 Departments and Units University of Notre DameHesburgh LibrariesGeneral Member of Architectural Lantern Slides of Italy Temporal Coverage before or circa 1910 Record Visibility Public Content License Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 Use Permissions To view the physical lantern slide, please contact the Architecture Library. Collections Collections Featuring this Image Architectural Lantern Slides of Italy Files Thumbnail File Name Description Size Type File Access Actions Please Note: You may encounter a delay before a download begins. Large or infrequently accessed files can take several minutes to retrieve from our archival storage system. Italy-Rome-column-Marcus-Aurelius.jpg 617 KB image/jpeg Public Begin Download View Details image_1155.xml 5.05 KB text/xml Public Begin Download View Details Italy-Rome-column-Marcus-Aurelius.tif 331 MB image/tiff Public Begin Download View Details 1 - 3 of 3 CurateND is a service of the Hesburgh Libraries of Notre Dame. Questions? Contact the CurateND Support team at curate@nd.edu. Help Copyright © 2021 University of Notre Dame 
cs-wikipedia-org-9993	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedie Marcus Aurelius Z Wikipedie, otevřené encyklopedie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Marcus Aurelius 16. císař římské říše Busta Marka Aurelia v mnichovské Glyptotéce Doba vlády 7. březen 161 – 17. březen 180 Úplné jméno Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Narození 26. duben 121 Řím Úmrtí 17. březen 180 (ve věku 58 let) Vindobona nebo Sirmium Pohřben Hadrianovo mauzoleum Předchůdce Antoninus Pius Nástupce Commodus Manželka Faustina mladší Potomci 13 dětí, včetně Commoda Dynastie adoptivních císařů Otec Marcus Annius Verus Matka Domitia Lucilla Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26. dubna 121 – 17. března 180), byl římským císařem v letech 161 až 180, přičemž náležel k tzv. adoptivním císařům. Patřil rovněž mezi význačné představitele pozdní fáze vývoje filozofie stoicismu, kvůli čemuž bývá nazýván „filosof na trůně“. Navzdory jeho vysoké mravní integritě a výjimečným osobním schopnostem skončilo za jeho vlády dlouhotrvající období míru a prosperity římské říše, jejíž stabilita byla stále více nahlodávána jak zahraničními hrozbami, tak vnitřními problémy. Krátce po svém nástupu na trůn byl Marcus nucen čelit útoku parthské říše na východních hranicích. Vedením války pověřil svého bratra a spoluvládce Lucia Vera, jehož podřízení si do roku 166 Parthy podrobili a ovládli Mezopotámii. Zhruba v téže době však barbarské kmeny obývající Germánii napadly a prolomily dunajskou hranici, oslabenou odesláním části zdejších sil do boje s Parthy. Tím byl zahájen dlouhý a náročný konflikt, známý jako markomanské války, jenž vyplnil většinu zbývajících let Markova vládnutí. Kromě vážných vnějších výzev se císař musel potýkat také s katastrofálními následky antoninovského moru, zavlečeného do římské říše vojáky vracejícími se z Orientu, a s neklidem vyvolaným spontánním pronásledováním křesťanů, k němuž docházelo v různých částech impéria. Roku 175 se zdárně vypořádal se vzpourou ve východních provinciích, vedenou Avidiem Cassiem. Nicméně ještě než stačil Germány zcela potlačit, v roce 180 Marcus zemřel, čímž moc nad říší přešla na jeho syna Commoda. Během vojenských tažení v letech 170 až 180 vytvořil řecky psané dílo „Hovory k sobě“ (Ta eis heauton), které je dodnes pokládáno za literární klenot, oslavující pojetí vlády jako služby a povinnosti, a je vysoce ceněno pro svůj znamenitý a vytříbený styl. Obsah 1 Život 1.1 Původ a mládí 1.2 Zapojení do vládnutí a převzetí moci 1.3 Válka s Parthy 1.4 Germánie a Dunaj 1.5 Vnitřní politika 1.6 Pronásledování křesťanů 1.7 Usurpace Avidia Cassia 1.8 Následnictví a smrt 2 Markova filosofie 2.1 Hovory k sobě 2.2 Politické principy 3 Prameny 4 Hodnocení 5 Odkazy 5.1 Reference 5.2 Literatura 5.3 Související články 5.4 Externí odkazy Život[editovat | editovat zdroj] Původ a mládí[editovat | editovat zdroj] Marcus Aurelius se narodil 26. dubna 121 v Římě jako syn praetora Annia Vera a Domitie Lucilly, pocházející z bohatého a vznešeného italského rodu. Markovo jméno původně znělo Marcus Annius Verus, případně Marcus Annius Catilius Severus. Jeho praděd z otcovy strany přesídlil za Neronovy vlády z Hispánie do Říma, kde se domohl úřadu praetora a posléze se stal členem senátu. Jeho syn Marcus Annius Verus, Markův děd, zastával celkem třikrát konsulát, což byla výjimečná pocta, jíž za principátu dosáhlo jen několik málo jedinců, a působil i jako městský prefekt. Po předčasné smrti otce vyrůstal Marcus v domě svého děda, jenž ho adoptoval. V raném věku se začal zabývat studiem filosofie a řecké a latinské rétoriky, čemuž se věnoval s nevšedním nadšením. Na jeho vzdělávání dohlížela řada vynikajících soudobých učenců a myslitelů, včetně Heroda Attika, Alexandra z Kotiaeia, Aelia Aristeida a Marka Cornelia Frontona. S posledně zmiňovaným udržoval Marcus čilou korespondenci, jejíž část se dochovala až do dnešních dnů. V těchto dopisech se budoucí císař projevuje jako inteligentní, vážně založený a pilný člověk. Důstojnost jeho rodiny a výtečné povahové rysy mladého Marka záhy upoutaly pozornost císaře Hadriana, který ho pro jeho pravdymilovnost nazýval Verissimus („nejpravdivější“) a již jako osmiletého ho nechal přijmout do kněžského sboru Saliů. V roce 136 si Hadrianus zvolil Lucia Aelia Caesara za svého nástupce a ve stejném roce byl Marcus zasnouben s Ceionií Fabií, dcerou Aelia Caesara. Zasnoubení bylo však anulováno poté, co na počátku roku 138 Aelius Caesar zemřel. V únoru téhož roku ustavil Hadrianus svým adoptivním synem a následníkem předního senátora Tita Aurelia Antonina, později známého pod jménem Antoninus Pius, jehož manželka Faustina starší byla Markovou tetou. Podle podmínek ujednání s Hadrianem musel Antoninus na oplátku adoptovat Lucia Vera, syna zesnulého Lucia Aelia Caesara, a svého tehdy sedmnáctiletého synovce Marka. Když Hadrianus v červenci 138 skonal, odebral se Marcus do císařského paláce za svým adoptivním otcem. Zapojení do vládnutí a převzetí moci[editovat | editovat zdroj] Mladý Marcus Aurelius Před tím, než se Marcus chopil vlády, uplynulo téměř dvacet tři let Antoninova panování, během nichž prošel patřičnou průpravou umožňující mu náležité obeznámení s nároky, jež na něho měla klást císařská hodnost. Marcus získal bezvadné znalosti o fungování správních struktur římské říše v rámci působení v různých veřejných úřadech. V souvislosti s tím vzrůstal jeho vliv na chod státu a v letech 140, 145 a 161 se opakovaně účastnil rozhodování ve funkci konzula. V roce 147 obdržel prokonsulské imperium spolu s tribunskou mocí (tribunitia potestas), které představovaly formální základ principových pravomocí. Jelikož Marcus měl výborný cit pro výběr vhodných uchazečů a kandidátů na různé úřední posty, spoléhal se Antoninus ve všech otázkách obsazení administrativy na jeho mínění. V první knize Hovorů k sobě líčí Marcus svého adoptivního otce Antonina jako příklad vzorného vládce a zároveň vyjadřuje míru respektu, jíž vůči němu pociťoval: „U svého otce jsem vídal vlídnost, ale i neoblomné setrvání na každém zrale uváženém rozhodnutí; také lhostejnost k takzvaným poctám a zálibu i houževnatost v práci. Rád naslouchal těm, kteří se vytasili s návrhem obecně prospěšným, a každému měřil neodchylně, jak si zasloužil. Měl zkušenost, kde je potřebí otěže přitáhnout a kde povolit. (...) Odmítal ovace a všeliké lichocení, ustavičně bděl nad potřebami říše, omezoval veřejná vydání. (...) Nikdo o něm nemohl říci, že je sofista, tlachal nebo pedant, neboť každý vycítil, že je to zralý a dokonalý muž, nepřístupný pochlebování a schopný řídit záležitosti svoje i jiných. Mimoto si dovedl vážit opravdových filosofů, ale ostatní nezlehčoval, ani se jimi nedával zavádět.“[1] Vzájemné úzké pouto mezi Markem a Antoninem bylo ještě prohloubeno upevněním příbuzenského svazku, k čemuž v roce 145 posloužila svatba Marka s Antoninovou dcerou Faustinou mladší. Ta porodila Markovi celkem třináct dětí, z nichž většina zemřela v mladém věku. 7. března 161 Antoninus Pius zemřel, načež se Marcus pod nově přijatým jménem Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ujal vlády nad říší. Proti jeho nástupu se nezvedla žádná opozice, nevyskytly se ani žádné projevy nesouhlasu, protože všeobecně požíval úctu a vážnost svých spoluobčanů pro výjimečně ctnostný způsob života. Bezprostředně po svém povýšení prokázal oddanost Hadrianovým záměrům, když ustanovil Lucia Vera svým spoluvládcem. Poprvé v dějinách měla tudíž římská říše ve svém čele dva jedince. Tento systém sdílené vlády byl jakousi reminiscencí republikánského principu kolegiality. Nicméně, i přes formálně rovnocenné postavení i pravomoc obou císařů, mladší a pravděpodobně méně oblíbený Verus byl svému bratrovi v jistém smyslu podřízen. Marcus předčil Vera svou autoritou (auctoritas) a kromě toho si pro sebe vyhradil úřad nejvyššího velekněze (pontifex maximus). K utvrzení tohoto uspořádání oženil Marcus v roce 164 Vera se svojí dcerou Lucillou. Císařové byli záhy nuceni vypořádávat se s nepříznivou zahraničněpolitickou situací, jelikož dosud převážně mírové poměry na hranicích impéria byly ohroženy útoky Parthů a následnými vpády barbarů. Marcus vyslal proto Vera na Východ, aby tam velel vojenským operacím, zatímco sám se chopil faktického řízení státu. Válka s Parthy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Markův vítězný oblouk v Tripolisu V roce 161 odrazili místní legáti nájezdy barbarů do severní Británie a Raetie, avšak mnohem závažnější nebezpečí pro římskou říši vzniklo v Orientu. V posledních letech Antoninovy vlády výrazně vzrostlo napětí mezi Římany a Parthy. Předmětem sporu byla kontrola nad Arménií, královstvím fungujícím jako nárazníkový stát mezi oběma mocnostmi, jež usilovaly dosadit na zdejší trůn monarchu poslušného jejich zájmům. Parthský král Vologaisés IV., konající už za Antoninova života rozsáhlé válečné přípravy, hodlal využít mocenských změn v Římě a s tím spojené nejistoty ve svůj prospěch a neprodleně udeřil. Nedlouho po Antoninově skonu přepadl Arménii a pronikl do Sýrie, přičemž se mu podařilo přemoci dvě římská vojska. Poté, co byl poražen římský místodržitel v Kappadokii, odebral se Verus v čele legií na Východ. Ještě před vlastním vyplutím se Verus zdržel z důvodu nemoci ve městě Canusium a teprve na přelomu let 162 a 163 dorazil do Antiochie, odkud řídil reorganizaci demoralizovaného vojska a koordinoval zásobování. Ve skutečnosti postrádal zkušenosti s velením a lehkomyslně projevoval zájem spíše o rozmařilý a nevázaný život než o vážné věci. Marcus ho prozíravě obklopil nejzdatnějšími římskými generály, pod jejichž vedením přešli Římané v roce 163 do protiútoku. Nejprve vypudili Parthy z Arménie a ustavili zdejším vládcem prořímského prince Sohaema. Nato zahájili ofenzívu v Mezopotámii, obsadili Osroénu a v roce 165 dobyli a zpustošili parthská hlavní města Seleukii a Ktésifón. V dalším roce Římané postoupili až do Médie. Vzhledem k přesvědčivým římským úspěchům se parthský král rozhodl ukončit konflikt a přenechat Arménii Římanům. Po návratu z výpravy oslavil Verus spolu s Markem a ostatními členy rodiny výjimečný triumf, třebaže největší podíl na vítězství příslušel vojevůdci Avidiu Cassiovi. Vracející se římští vojáci se v Mezopotámii nakazili nemocí, jež se rozšířila do celé římské říše a zhruba v letech 165 až 180 měla velmi devastující účinek na stav populace všech provincií. Tato epidemie byla později označena jako antoninovský mor. Podobně jako u většiny ostatních starověkých epidemií, ani v tomto případě nelze s jistotou určit, o jakou chorobu se doopravdy jednalo. Podle převládajícího mínění mělo jít buď o neštovice, anebo o spalničky. Podle historika Cassia Diona propukla tato nemoc s novou intenzitou zhruba kolem roku 177. Jenom v samotném Římě jí tehdy denně padlo za oběť 2000 lidí, když čtvrtina všech nakažených této chorobě podlehla. Celkový počet mrtvých byl odhadován na pět milionů. Vysoká úmrtnost mezi vojáky podlamovala sílu legií, současně se snížilo množství vybraných daní, což mělo negativní dopad na státní hospodaření. V čínských pramenech se objevuje zpráva o římských vyslancích, kteří měli v roce 166 dorazit do Číny. Tito muži s sebou přinesli dary a prohlašovali se za vyslance jistého Andogni (Antoninus), jehož lze ztotožnit s Markem Aureliem, případně s Antoninem Piem. Nelze ovšem vyloučit, že nešlo o skutečné vyslance, nýbrž o obyčejné římské obchodníky. Germánie a Dunaj[editovat | editovat zdroj] Související informace naleznete také v článku Markomanské války. Jezdecká socha Marka Aurelia na Kapitolu Od počátku šedesátých let 2. století se zvyšovala intensita nájezdů Germánů a jiných barbarů směřujících do Galie a za Dunaj. Tento pohyb barbarů na jih a západ byl zřejmě vyvolán tlakem kmenů sídlících dále na východě. První nepřátelská invase, vpád Chattů do Horní Germánie, byla odražena již v roce 162. Nejspíše koncem roku 166, nebo na počátku roku 167 překročilo 6000 Langobardů a Obiů Dunaj a vstoupilo do Panonie. Barbaři byli brzy poraženi, načež zdejší římský místodržitel zahájil vyjednávání se zástupci několika okolních kmenů. S pomocí markomanského krále Ballomara se sice podařilo dohodnout mír mezi Římany a jejich barbarskými sousedy, nicméně situace na hranicích zůstávala nadále neklidná. Někdy v téže době byla Dácie přepadena Vandaly a sarmatskými Jazygy. Neblahý vývoj na severních hranicích zhoršovaný šířícím se morem přiměl Marka k horlivému konání obětí, jimiž chtěl usmířit rozhněvané bohy. Na jaře 168 vyrazili oba císařové z Říma na dunajskou frontu. Svůj hlavní stan umístili do severoitalského města Aquileia, z něhož organizovali obranu římského teritoria. Zároveň prováděli inspekci vojsk a dali odvést dvě nové legie, legio II Italica a legio III Italica. Přítomnost Marka a Vera v Panonii a Noriku pomohla stabilisovat tamní poměry, avšak kvůli řádění moru mezi legionáři se na radu dvorního lékaře Galéna rozhodli k návratu do Říma. Při zpáteční cestě Verus patrně v důsledku mrtvice v lednu nebo únoru 169 zemřel, takže od tohoto okamžiku musel Marcus trávit většinu času na taženích proti nepřátelům. Svoji ovdovělou dceru Lucillu provdal i přes její odpor za Tiberia Claudia Pompeiana, mimořádně schopného důstojníka syrského původu. Invaze Markomanů a Kvádů do Itálie v roce 170 V roce 170 ztroskotal první vážnější římský pokus o protiofensivu, když bylo 20 000 Římanů poraženo poblíž města Carnuntum germánskou koalicí v čele s Ballomarem. Markomani a Kvádové pak vyrazili na jih, zatímco ostatní barbaři vyplenili Noricum. Ballomarem vedení Germáni zdolali Alpy, vydrancovali město Opitergium (dnešní Oderzo) a jejich nápor vyvrcholil obležením Aquileie. Poprvé od porážky Kimbrů a Teutonů na konci 2. století př. n. l. se tak nepřátelským silám podařilo stanout na italské půdě, což vážně otřáslo sebedůvěrou obyvatelstva poloostrova. Mezitím Kostobokové, příchozí z oblasti Karpat, využili slabosti Římanů, zpustošili Moesii, Thrákii a Makedonii a dorazili až do Eleusíny, nedaleko Athén. Také jiné části říše byly svírány loupeživými nájezdy a povstáními. Na jihozápadě přemohli Maurové posádky pohraničních kastelů v Mauretánii a po dvě léta sužovali svými útoky Hispánie. Dokonce ještě Ammianus Marcellinus, přední dějepisec pozdní antiky, připomínal ve svém díle události markomanských válek, jevící se s odstupem času jako předzvěst mnohem hrozivějších barbarských útoků v následujících staletích. Nedostatek lidských sil, zapříčiněný morem, a finanční těžkosti přiměly Římany k přijetí mimořádných opatření. Do legií byli rekrutováni otroci, stejně jako gladiátoři, díky čemuž mohli být útočníci pozvolna zatlačeni zpět za Dunaj. S některými kmeny byly navázány diplomatické kontakty, v rámci nichž bylo dojednáno spojenectví. Různé germánské pomocné oddíly se tudíž zapojily do konfliktu na straně Římanů. Marcus se snažil izolovat nejvzpurnější kmeny a vést s nimi boj odděleně, čímž mohli Římané snáze využít svoji drtivou početní a logistickou převahu. Tato strategie se ale ukázala být velice nákladná a zdlouhavá, neboť si vyžádala enormní množství zdrojů. K jejímu uskutečnění bylo navíc zapotřebí značných vojenských sborů, pro něž musely být vystavěny nové pevnosti, jako byla třeba Castra Regina (Regensburg). Taktéž byly učiněny nepříliš úspěšné kroky k usazení určitých skupin barbarů na římském území. Poté, co Římané obnovili kontrolu nad Norikem, přemístil Marcus své hlavní sídlo do Carnunta. Příležitostně řídil vojenské operace také z táborů v Sirmiu (Sremska Mitrovica) a ve Vindoboně (Vídeň). V roce 172 podnikli Římané výpravu proti Markomanům a v dalších dvou letech si podrobili Kvády. Obdobně Marcus naložil s Jazygy, jež přinutil vydat tisíce římských zajatců. Poznámky v Historii Augustě o Markově úmyslu zřídit na levém břehu Dunaje dvě nové provincie, pojmenované Marcomannia a Sarmatia (zahrnující přibližně nynější Moravu, Slovensko a východní Maďarsko), dnešní historikové, vzhledem k absenci shodných tvrzení v jiných pramenech, zpochybňují a považují za kontroversní. Třebaže pohoří na severním okraji těchto teritorií mohla tvořit lépe hájitelnou hranici, než jakou představoval Dunaj, říše, vyčerpaná dlouhotrvajícími válečnými střety, nedisponovala prostředky nezbytnými k výstavbě těchto provincií. Ať už byly Markovy záměry jakékoli, usurpace Avidia Cassia mu zabránila v jejich uskutečnění. Od roku 177 pokračovali Římané ve válečných operacích proti Markomanům a Kvádům na středním Dunaji, v nichž vytrvali do samotného závěru Markova života. Vnitřní politika[editovat | editovat zdroj] Markův denár Marcus se vyznačoval velkou svědomitostí při plnění svých administrativních povinností. Obtížné úkoly neváhal svěřovat nejkompetentnějším mužům, aniž by se obával, že ho svými schopnostmi zastíní. Mimořádnou pozorností zahrnul sociálně nejslabší příslušníky římské společnosti: otroky, ženy a děti, jimž se snažil ulehčit jejich tíživou situaci. Více než polovina dochovaných zákonodárných a jiných aktů, vydaných za Marka, se zaměřovala na zlepšení právního postavení těchto skupin obyvatelstva. Tyto akty často sloužily k odstranění nadměrné tvrdosti a nepřesností v občanském právu. Stejnou tendenci projevoval i při uplatňování soudní pravomoci, jíž vykonával se vzornou pečlivostí a bezpříkladnou obětavostí. Podle Historie Augusty nechal zvýšit počet dnů vyhrazených k projednávání soudních sporů. Ve své soudní činnosti nepolevoval ani poté, co vytáhl do boje s Germány, o čemž se zmiňuje Cassius Dio. Účastníci řízení museli dokonce kvůli projednání přicestovat za císařem do jeho vojenského tábora. Určitý úpadek signalizoval počátek aplikace kategorií honestiores („vážení“) a humiliores („nižší“), jejichž prostřednictvím bylo v odvětví trestního práva zohledňován společenský stav při rozhodování o míře potrestání. Soudní správa Itálie byla přenechána úředníkům, nazývaným iuridici, kteří vystupovali jménem císaře. Touto praxí, napomáhající centralisaci vlády, navazoval Marcus na někdejší Hadrianovo soudní členění Itálie, od něhož bylo upuštěno za Antonina. Sloup Marka Aurelia na Piazza Colonna v Římě V úvodní fázi Markova panování byla římská říše zasažena řadou katastrof, mezi nimiž patřily k nejzávažnějším ničivé rozvodnění Tiberu a především antoninovský mor, zanesený do římské říše vojáky vracejícími se z Východu. Epidemie pozvolna postihla takřka celé území impéria, včetně hustě obydleného hlavního města. V době vypuknutí války s Germány byla Itálie zle sužována hladem. Následky těchto neštěstí Marcus usiloval zmírnit rozdílením obilí všem italským městům a zaváděním různých sanitačních opatření bránících šíření nemoci. Přírodní pohromy, epidemie a vysoké válečné náklady neúměrně zatěžovaly císařskou pokladnu. Ačkoli Marcus ulevoval státním výdajům svojí příkladnou osobní zdrženlivostí a střídmostí, musel se uchýlit k mírnému snížení obsahu drahých kovů v mincích, čímž nevyhnutelně přiživil inflaci. Aby získal dodatečné peněžní prostředky, omezil závody a gladiátorské zápasy v Cirku. Osobně přispěl k uhrazení financování vojenských operací, když nechal na Foru vydražit četné cenné předměty, uložené v císařském paláci. Vítězným legionářům odmítl udělit zvláštní odměnu, jíž se dožadovali, a upozorňoval je, že každá taková platba by musela být zajištěna na úkor jejich rodičů a příbuzných. Za Markova vládnutí bylo vybudováno jen nevelké množství význačných monumentů, v čemž se zřetelně odlišil od mnoha svých předchůdců. Na počest Antonina byl vybudován sloup na Martově poli, jehož ústředním motivem byla apoteosa zemřelého císaře a jeho manželky Faustiny starší. Podstavec tohoto sloupu je nyní vystaven ve Vatikánských museích. Markovy a Verovy válečné úspěchy byly v Římě oslaveny celkem třemi vítěznými oblouky. Samotnému Markovi byly určeny dva z nich, žádný se ovšem nedochoval do dnešních dnů. Pouze některé pravoúhlé reliéfy byly využity při tvorbě Konstantinova oblouku. Zřejmě nejvěhlasnější stavbou připomínající Markův principát se stal sloup, jenž se tyčí na náměstí Piazza Colonna. Na tomto díle jsou vyobrazena Markova tažení proti Markomanům a Sarmatům v letech 172 až 175. Na jednom z vlysů je zachycena událost, známá jako „zázračný déšť v zemi Kvádů“, při níž podle římského líčení vyslyšel bůh císařovy modlitby a sesláním bouře odvrátil nebezpečí, hrozící obklíčeným římským vojákům. Nejslavnější zpodobnění Marka Aurelia představuje jeho bronzová jezdecká socha, v období renesance vystavená Michelangelem na náměstí Piazza del Campidoglio na římském Kapitolu. V současnosti se zde nachází replika, zatímco originál je umístěn v Kapitolských museích. Tato socha je znázorněna i na italské versi padesáticentové euromince. Pronásledování křesťanů[editovat | editovat zdroj] Marcus provádějící rituální oběť u oltáře Jova Kapitolského Přestože byl Marcus významný myslitel a filosof, byl rovněž, alespoň navenek, hluboce nábožensky založený člověk. Státní kult byl za jeho panování náležitě uctíván, zároveň však byla tolerována i odlišná božstva, takže různorodost náboženství nepůsobila žádné rozpory mezi vládou a obyvatelstvem. Z tohoto pravidla existovala pouze jediná výjimka reprezentovaná křesťanstvím. Marcus zaujímal vůči křesťanům stejné stanovisko, jaké prosazoval už Traianus: pokud upustili od veřejného vyznávání své víry, neměla jim být státní mocí činěna žádná újma. Naproti tomu v soukromém životě mohlo být křesťanství nerušeně praktikováno. Církev nebyla tudíž nijak výrazně omezována, díky čemuž došlo v průběhu 2. století k enormnímu rozmachu jejího vlivu. Kritické vnější i vnitřní okolnosti, v nichž se říše ocitla v šedesátých letech, způsobily, že dosavadní praxe nebyla respektována, čímž byla narušena osobní bezpečnost křesťanů. V této neradostné době byla vydávána nařízení vybízející Římany, aby přispěli k usmíření bohů pravidelným prováděním žertev. Taktéž vzrůstaly represe proti těm, kteří se zdráhali obětovat, což postihovalo obzvláště křesťany. V letech 166 až 168 byli křesťané, především ve východní části impéria, vystaveni hněvu ostatního obyvatelstva, vyvolaného pravděpodobně šířením epidemie. Nepřátelství vzniklo zcela živelně bez jakékoli iniciativy ze strany státu. Další pronásledování křesťanů se konalo v Galii v roce 177. Za jeho prapříčinu lze považovat tehdejší rozkolísanost veřejných financí. K doplnění stavu legií byly hojně užívány odvody gladiátorů a jejich najímání za účelem pořádání her se tedy stávalo stále nákladnějším a problematičtějším. Nárůst výdajů spojených s konáním gladiátorských soubojů, jejichž uhrazením byli pověřeni vykonavatelé městské správy v provinciích, záhy překročil únosnou mez. Vzniklé obtíže přiměly císaře k vydání usnesení, podle něhož směli být odsouzení zločinci prodáváni do arén jako gladiátoři. Část městské populace v Lugdunu (Lyon) hodlala tohoto nařízení využít k zásahu proti tamním křesťanům, jimž v případě, že by se nezřekli své víry, hrozilo odsouzení místními úřady. Svoji roli při volbě křesťanů zřejmě sehrálo i nepřátelství vůči cizincům, protože mezi pozdějšími mučedníky bylo zastoupeno mnoho osob s řecky znějícími jmény. Příslušný prokurátor vznesl do Říma dotaz ohledně postupu v záležitosti souzení křesťanů. Na základě císařova reskriptu, odkazujícího na Traianem vydané ustanovení, měl být popraven každý, kdo se veřejně přiznal k víře v Krista odmítáním konání obětí. Křesťané byli poté v lugdunské aréně nelítostně zabíjeni pro pobavení obecenstva. Třebaže Marcus se osobně nezapojil do těchto protikřesťanských aktivit, nijak jim ani nebránil. Po lugdunském masakru nejsou již z období Markova panování zaznamenány žádné jiné zprávy týkající se stíhání křesťanů. Po bližším obeznámení se s touto událostí císař patrně rozhodl o adekvátních opatřeních, jimiž zamezil obdobným ukrutnostem. Zhruba do poloviny 3. století znamenaly podstatnější hrozbu pro trvalejší existenci církve spíše vnitřní rozpory mezi jednotlivými křesťanskými směry. Usurpace Avidia Cassia[editovat | editovat zdroj] Busta Faustiny mladší v Louvru V roce 175 se vzbouřil syrský místodržitel Avidius Cassius. Příčiny této usurpace nejsou zcela objasněny, avšak Cassius Dio a stejně tak Historia Augusta uvádějí, že císařovna Faustina znepokojená nedobrým zdravotním stavem svého manžela navázala s Cassiem kontakt. Faustina se nejspíše strachovala o další trvání dynastie, poněvadž její jediný žijící syn Commodus byl dosud příliš mladý. Možná se ale obávala ztráty své posice v případě, že by se po Markově smrti stal císařem někdo jiný než Commodus. Vzpoura mohla být též vyprovokována zvěstmi o Markově úmrtí. Avidius Cassius, jenž se výborně osvědčil jako velitel v parthské válce, se na Východě těšil značné popularitě. Ačkoli později seznal, že císař je naživu, místo aby se Markovi podrobil, přikročil ke konfrontaci. Vzhledem k početní přesile dunajských legií nebyly ale Cassiovy vyhlídky příliš nadějné. Cassius byl proto vlastními lidmi zavražděn dříve, než se občanská válka mohla naplno rozhořet. Ještě na Dunaji dostihl Marka Commodus přivolaný z Říma. Císař vzápětí uzavřel mír se Jazygy a neprodleně se vypravil na východ, aby se vypořádal s tamější neklidnou situací a obnovil pořádek v provinciích. Přitom si počínal velice ohleduplně, neboť promíjel městům i jednotlivcům účast na Cassiově vzpouře. Kromě toho prokázal svoji moudrost a shovívavost, když velkoryse přesvědčil senát, aby omilostnil všechny členy usurpátorovy rodiny. Aniž by ji četl, nechal spálit Cassiovu korespondenci, která mohla kompromitovat leckteré senátory. Během cesty zemřela v zimě 175 v jižní Kappadokii Markova choť Faustina, jejíž pověst utrpěla znatelné šrámy. V antických pramenech je obviňována z užívání jedů a vraždění lidí, stejně jako z provozování neřestného života udržováním styků s gladiátory, námořníky i muži vyššího postavení. Marcus jí ovšem bezvýhradně důvěřoval a vytrvale ji hájil. Faustina ho doprovázela na četných taženích, čímž si od něho vysloužila titul Matka táborů (Mater castrorum). Po její smrti jí zasvětil chrám a místo, kde zemřela, nechal přejmenovat na Faustinopolis. Jakmile dokončil konsolidaci východních provincií, vyrazil Marcus zpět do Říma, přičemž učinil krátkou zastávku v Athénách a podpořil místní filosofické školy. Následnictví a smrt[editovat | editovat zdroj] Koncem prosince 176 oslavil Marcus společně se svým synem Commodem v Římě triumf nad Germány a Sarmaty. 1. ledna následujícího roku obdařil Commoda titulem augustus a ustavil ho svým spoluvládcem. Marcus tak dal zřetelně najevo, že jeho syn po něm nastoupí na trůn, avšak toto jeho rozhodnutí bylo mnohými historiky hodnoceno jako závažné pochybení. Úmyslně totiž odmítl pokračovat v tradici předávání vlády nad říší adopcí nejzdatnějšího jedince, přestože mu muselo být známo Commodovo neuspokojivé chování, diskvalifikující ho z výkonu císařské moci. Marcus se nepochybně zaobíral oběma těmito hledisky a nakonec je zohlednil ve svém výsledném rozhodnutí. Ostatní adoptivní císaři nezanechali žádné vlastní mužské dědice, které by mohli učinit svými nástupci. Nárok Commoda, jemuž byl již v pěti letech jako předpokládanému pretendentu trůnu udělen titul caesara, nebyl proto dosavadní praxí adopcí nijak zpochybněn, ačkoli po formální stránce nebyla císařská hodnost dědičná. S přihlédnutím k vývoji událostí lze soudit, že konečným impulsem ke Commodově povýšení se stala usurpace Avidia Cassia, naznačující, že císařovo nevalné zdraví, případně jeho úmrtí by mohly vyvolat občanskou válku, pokud by otázka následnictví nebyla včas upravena. V dané situaci se tedy nejjistějším a nejméně zpochybnitelným řešením jevila být volba Commoda. Commodus Marcus si sice všiml problematických povahových rysů svého syna, zřejmě ale setrval v naději, že v průběhu dospívání doroste Commodus do své budoucí role. Pokud by dal přednost některým svým vzdálenějším příbuzným nebo jiným osobám, nový panovník by patrně v zájmu zajištění své moci usiloval o Commodův život. Od poloviny roku 175 až do března 180 doprovázel Commodus, potvrzený už jako nástupce, svého otce na jeho cestách a válečných taženích. Přesto způsob a délka Commodovy přípravy na císařskou funkci zůstaly nesrovnatelné s možnostmi, jakými disponoval jeho otec. Commodus začal brzy po své intronisaci vystupovat jako gladiátor, přičemž se vydával za Herkula. Určití historikové tuto stylisaci nepovažují za natolik scestnou, jak se na první pohled může jevit, jelikož Herkules byl považován za symbol neúnavného jedince, jenž ve shodě se stoickými zásadami očisťuje svět od útrap. V srpnu 178 zamířili Marcus a Commodus zpět k Dunaji. Během této výpravy podlehl císař 17. března 180 blíže neznámé chorobě. Někteří badatelé považují za příčinu smrti antoninovský mor, jiní se domnívají, že trpěl nádorovým onemocněním. Obvykle se jako místo Markova úmrtí udává Vindobona, ovšem Tertullianus podotýká, že zemřel v Sirmiu. Po vypuknutí nemoci a v předtuše blížící se smrti si Marcus nechal předvolat Commoda, jehož upomínal, aby vytrval v tažení proti barbarům až do završení vítězství. Nicméně Commodus se zřejmě ze strachu z nákazy spěchal rychle vzdálit z otcovy blízkosti. Protože si Marcus přál urychlit svůj konec, odmítal přijímat potravu a pití. Podle dochovaného podání se krátce před svým skonem obrátil k truchlícím přátelům se slovy: „Proč pláčete nade mnou a nesnažíte se raději zabránit moru, který kosí lidi hromadně?“[2] Jeho ostatky byly pochovány v Římě v Hadriánově mausoleu, známém dnes jako Andělský hrad. Markova filosofie[editovat | editovat zdroj] Hovory k sobě[editovat | editovat zdroj] Aquincum (dnešní Budapešť) bylo jedním z míst, kde Marcus tvořil své dílo „Hovory k sobě“ Filosofické postoje Markových učitelů výrazně ovlivnily jeho příklon ke stoicismu, avšak nejdůležitější role v procesu utváření Markovy filosofické orientace příslušela Epiktétovi, jehož dílo Rozpravy (Diatribai) si velice oblíbil. Hlubšího poznání Markových filosofických myšlenek, přesvědčení a zásad, jimiž se řídil, lze dosáhnout studiem toho nejcennějšího, co po sobě zanechal, jeho díla „Hovory k sobě“ (Ta eis heauton, anglicky Meditations). Není jasné, zda zamýšlel obeznámit lidstvo s tímto spisem, neboť se jedná o kusé a místy rozvláčné osobní poznámky a úvahy, jimiž se zabýval při vedení vojenských výprav a řízení administrativních záležitostí. Zdá se spíše, že je napsal proto, aby si jejich čtením dodal odvahy ke snášení tíživé odpovědnosti, jež pro něho představovalo břímě vládnutí. Marcus si v něm neustále vytyčoval obtížně dosažitelné principy chování, rozvažoval nad všedností, nekultivovaností a pomíjivostí hmotného světa. Zabýval se také úlohou člověka ve světě a zvláště sebe samého. Nevěřil v žádný jiný svět a cítil se beznadějně připoután ke svým povinnostem a službě. Vytrvale se proměňující vesmír, jehož součástí měla být lidská duše, ztělesňoval podle Marka celek řízený rozumem. Díky tomu mohl člověk i ve stavu bezbrannosti a osamocenosti obstát tváří v tvář chaosu a marnosti za předpokladu, že byl nezkažený a ctnostný. Pro Markovo chápání bytí byl prvořadý soulad myšlení a konání resp. jednota slov a činů, což se odráželo i v jeho vnímání posuzování a realizování vládnutí, které spolu měly být úzce sdruženy: „Přestaň už vykládat, jaký asi má být dobrý člověk; raději už jím buď!“[3] „Ani v psaní, ani v čtení nebudeš moci dávat návod, dokud se sám dříve návodu nepodrobíš. Ještě mnohem více to platí v životě.“[4] Velký důraz kladl na smysl pro pravdu a pro realitu, čehož si na něm cenil Hadrianus: „Jestliže mi někdo dovede přesvědčivě dokázat, že nesprávně soudím nebo jednám, milerád své mínění změním; neboť hledám pravdu, kterou ještě nikdy nikdo škodu neutrpěl. Škodu mívá leda ten, kdo setrvává ve svém klamu a nevědomosti.“[5] „Kdykoli tě roztrpčí něčí nestoudnost, ihned se ptej sebe sama: Cožpak je možné, aby nebyli ve světě nestoudní? Není to možné. Nežádej tedy nemožnosti.“[6] Hovory k sobě byly jakousi formou duševního cvičení, zaměřeného na zachování a rozvíjení způsobu života a vědomí odpovídajícímu zásadám stoicismu, stejně jako na kontrolu emocí. To se projevuje i v Markově postoji k lidem: „Lidé jsou stvořeni kvůli sobě navzájem; buď je tedy poučuj, nebo je snášej!“[7] „Kdykoli se chceš potěšit, v duchu si vybavuj přednosti svých současníků, jako například podnikavost jednoho, skromnost druhého, štědrost třetího a jinou ctnost někoho jiného. Neboť nic nepůsobí takové potěšení jako vzory ctností, které se zrcadlí v mravech našich vrstevníků a které se v jednotlivci, pokud možno, všechny slučují. A proto je také záhodno si je stále oživovat v paměti.“[8] Úvahy v duchu stoy mu měly napomoci rovněž k tomu, aby přestál rozmanitá protivenství, odolal ranám osudu a vypořádal se s vlastní nedokonalostí: „Nebuď rozmrzelý, ani neochabuj, ani se nevzdávej, jestli se ti nedaří provést každé dílo podle správných zásad, raději se znova vracej k tomu, co se ti povedlo, a buď rád, jestliže aspoň většina tvých skutků odpovídá lidské přirozenosti, a měj v lásce to, k čemu se vracíš!“[9] „Je-li ve tvé moci učinit něco lépe, proč to neuděláš? Když je to v moci někoho jiného, komu chceš dělat výčitky? Slepé náhodě nebo bohům? Obojí je nesmyslné. Nikomu nemáš činit výčitky. Jestli můžeš, naprav alespoň věc samu; a nemůžeš-li ani to, co ti prospěje tvé počínání. Neboť nic se nemá dělat neúčelně.“[10] „Nevyhnutelný osud se vznáší nad tebou. Dokud žiješ, dokud ještě můžeš, staň se dobrým!“[11] Marcus nepociťoval pražádný strach ze smrti, jíž chápal jako vysvobození: „... abychom očekávali smrt s odevzdanou myslí jako přirozené rozloučení prvků, z nichž se každé stvoření skládá. Není-li však pro prvky samé nic hrozného v tom, že se každý z nich ustavičně přeměňuje v jiný, proč by se kdo děsil přeměny a rozkladu všech dohromady? Vždyť se to děje ve shodě s přírodou; a co se děje ve shodě s přírodou, není zlo.“[12] Hovory k sobě byly po mnoho generací pokládány za jednu z největších knih všech dob. Markovu dílu byla přesto občas vytýkána nedostatečná originalita filosofického přínosu, jelikož ideje uvedené v této knize byly v podstatě odvozeny z mravních východisek stoicismu, převzatých od Epiktéta. Při tom byla obvykle opomíjena skutečnost, že Marcus neusiloval o původnost svých zápisků, protože je sepisoval sám pro sebe. V některých drobných aspektech se Marcus odchýlil od stoické filosofie a v určitých směrech se přiblížil platónismu, jenž se pozvolna vyvíjel v novoplatónismus. Nicméně neodklonil se natolik, aby připustil jakoukoli formu posmrtné existence. Politické principy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Markova busta K Markově věhlasu, přetrvávajícímu po všechny historické epochy, nepochybně silně přispěla jeho proslulost filosofa na trůně, aplikujícího filosofické zásady při procesu realisování vlády. Různé doklady Markových politických úvah lze seznat v Hovorech k sobě. Mnohé z nich se jeví nadčasové a dosud nepřekonané. „Bratr Severus mi byl vzorem lásky k rodině a lásky k pravdě a spravedlnosti; ... od něho jsem získal představu svobodného státu, v němž vládne dokonalá rovnoprávnost pro všechny bez rozdílu a v němž ničeho není dbáno více než svobody občanů.“[13] Svoboda a spravedlnost, především ve smyslu stejných práv pro všechny, náležely k Markovým časně osvojeným a ustavičně prosazovaným, stěžejním politickým principům. Před pokušením zneužívat absolutní moc, jemuž byl ve svém postavení nevyhnutelně vystaven, ho ochraňovalo jeho filosofické založení a výstrahy, jimiž sám sebe zahrnoval. „Dej pozor, abys nezcísařštěl: abys nenačichl císařstvím; stává se to snadno! Bojuj o to, abys zůstal takovým, jakým tě chtěla mít filosofie!“Neboť Cesta po které kráčejí naše koně je zrádná jako jejich povaha.[14] Marcus si byl příliš vědom omezených možností svého konání a chatrnosti utopických modelů společnosti: „Neblouzni o státě Platónově, nýbrž spokoj se i s nejmenším krůčkem vpřed a nepokládej ani tento úspěch za nevýznamný! Neboť kdo dovede změnit utkvělé představy? Ale bez jejich změny – co jiného čekat než otročení vzdychajících a poslušnost pokrytců?“[15] Bylo mu jasné, že politické jednání musí zohledňovat smýšlení lidí a proto upřednostňoval občanskou svobodu také ve vyjadřování názoru. Záleželo mu na rozumně uplatňovaném a veřejnému prospěchu zasvěceném užívání moci, s níž nakládal přiměřeně, přičemž zohledňoval dobré porozumění věci a nalezení řešení problému: „Stačí můj rozum na tento úkol či ne? Jestliže stačí, pak ho užívám na jeho provedení jako nástroje, jímž mě vybavila vesmírná příroda; pakli nestačí, buď postoupím svůj úkol tomu, kdo ho dovede vykonat lépe, není-li mou přímou povinností, anebo ho konám, jak dovedu, ještě s přispěním někoho jiného, jenž podporován mým rozumem, může pak provést čin obecnému blahu právě teď příhodný a prospěšný. Neboť každý skutek, ať už ho konám sám nebo s přispěním jiného, má směřovat jen k tomu, co je prospěšné a přiměřené obecnému dobru.“[16] Na dobrém výkonu soudnictví, jež pro něho bylo činností, při níž pociťoval nejvyšší míru zodpovědnosti, spočíval podle Marka základ veškerého společenského pořádku: „Dovedeš-li se bystře dívat, dívej se, a suď pokud možno nejmoudřeji.“[17] Svému bytí přiřazoval Marcus i určitý kosmopolitní rozměr. „Pro mne, občana Antonina, je obcí a vlastí Řím; pro mne, Antonina člověka, vesmír: co je tedy těmto obcím na prospěch, jenom to je pro mne dobrem.“[18] Prameny[editovat | editovat zdroj] Markovým životem a vládnutím se zaobírá celá řada pramenů, avšak většina z nich přináší spíše neuspokojivá a neúplná fakta, neboť v Markově období nepůsobil žádný významný historik. Hlavní literární pramen představuje jeho biografie v díle Historia Augusta, doplněná o sdělení týkající se Marka v životopisech Hadriana, Antonina, Vera a Avidia Cassia. Diskuse o kvalitě a spolehlivosti tohoto souboru biografií římských císařů se vedly více než sto let. S velkou pravděpodobností byl vytvořen jediným autorem píšícím koncem 4. století. Vzhledem k časovému odstupu vzniku díla od popisovaných jevů a k značně rozličné hodnověrnosti prací, z nichž autor vycházel, se důvěryhodnost uváděných informací velice různí. Třebaže Historie Augusta mnohdy přináší velmi přesné údaje, obsahuje také množství smyšlenek a výmyslů. Cassius Dio, píšící zřejmě ve třicátých letech 3. století, zhotovil rozsáhlé dějiny Říma, jež se ale dochovaly jen v notně zestručněné podobě. Aurelius Victor a Eutropius, dějepisci žijící ve 4. století, ve svých dílech příležitostně přinášejí určité informace osvětlující momenty Markova panování. Užitečné jsou i spisy Markova učitele a řečníka Frontona. Velká důležitost přísluší i literatuře církevních autorů, jako byl Tertullianus, Eusebios nebo Orosius. Poznatky z papyrů, nápisů, mincí, právních aktů společně s výsledky archeologického bádání a výklady architektonických monumentů dále poskytují vodítka pro bližší pochopení událostí doby Markova vládnutí. Hodnocení[editovat | editovat zdroj] Markova busta v Metropolitan Museum of Art v New Yorku Markovo počínání jako panovníka, stejně jako jeho dochované filosofické úvahy mu vynesly respekt a obdiv v očích současníků i později narozených. Taktéž křesťané, přestože byli za jeho vlády vystaveni pronásledování, považovali Marka za dobrého císaře. Tertullianus ho dokonce označil za přítele křesťanství. Všeobecná úcta prokazovaná Markovi širokými vrstvami římského obyvatelstva ještě zesílila vlivem vzrůstajících zmatků po skončení jeho panování. Okamžik jeho smrti se zdál být určitým zlomem a počátkem úpadku, jak to ostatně vyjádřil soudobý historik Cassius Dio. Rokem 180 je proto leckdy vymezován závěr epochy Pax Romana. Markova reputace zůstala i v dalších staletích zcela bez úhony, ačkoli ho ani zdaleka nelze označit za „dokonalého“ člověka, jelikož projevoval příliš velkou toleranci k chybám druhých. Jako Markovo největší selhání bude patrně vždy vnímán výběr Commoda, jeho jediného přeživšího syna, nástupcem. Kvůli tomu je často podrobován kritice, podle níž odklonem od adoptivního principu odevzdávání moci přerušil dlouhou a přínosnou éru římských dějin. Není ovšem možné přehlížet skutečnost, že kdyby neučinil Commoda augustem, pravděpodobně by tím svému synovi přivodil záhubu. Navzdory tomu lze jen stěží z Marka sejmout odpovědnost za to, že v důsledku jeho rozhodnutí se Římu dostalo jednoho z nejzhýralejších a nejukrutnějších císařů. V novověku byl Marcus vystaven nové pozornosti a zájmu filosofů, myslitelů a literátů, kteří znovu pozvedli jeho proslulost. Za osvícenství se „Hovory k sobě“ staly módní četbou řady vzdělanců, zvláště Voltaire jimi byl uchvácen. Markova moudrost, lidskost a smysl pro povinnost z něho činily vzor spravedlivého krále. Historik Edward Gibbon se ve svém stěžejním díle History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire přiklonil k postoji Cassia Diona, když formuloval názor, že Markovou smrtí skončil zlatý věk Říma. Od novověku až do současnosti se četné význačné osobnosti, mezi něž náleželi monarchové, politici i spisovatelé, prohlašovaly za příznivce tohoto římského císaře. Paradoxně sám Marcus pociťoval vůči posmrtné slávě naprostou lhostejnost: „Slovní výrazy kdysi obvyklé jsou teď zastaralé. Podobně i jména kdysi věhlasných lidí jsou teď jistou měrou zastaralá, jako Camillus, Caeso, Volesus, Dentatus a co nevidět i jméno Scipio a Cato, pak i Augustus a konečně Hadrianus a Antoninus. Neboť všechno je pomíjivé a brzy se stává bájí a klesá v hrob čirého zapomnění.“[19] Odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Reference[editovat | editovat zdroj] ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. Praha : Svoboda, 1975. I, 16 ↑ Portréty světovládců I. Životopis filozofa Marka Antonina 28, 4 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. X, 16 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. XI, 29 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VI, 21 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. IX, 42 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VIII, 59 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VI, 48 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. V, 9 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VIII, 17 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. IV, 17 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. II, 17 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. I, 14 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VI, 30 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. IX, 29 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VII, 5 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VIII, 38 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. VII, 40 ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus. Hovory k sobě. IV, 33 Literatura[editovat | editovat zdroj] BURIAN, Jan. Římské impérium : vrchol a proměny antické civilizace. Praha : Svoboda, 1997. ISBN 80-205-0536-9 GIBBON, Edward. Úpadek a pád římské říše. Praha : Levné knihy KMa, 2005. ISBN 80-7309-189-5 GRANT, Michael. Dějiny antického Říma. Praha : BB/art, 2006. ISBN 80-7341-930-0 GRANT, Michael. Římští císařové. Praha : BB art, 2002. ISBN 80-7257-731-X HÉRÓDIANOS. Řím po Marku Aureliovi. Praha : Svoboda, 1975 HOŠEK, Radislav, MAREK, Václav. Řím Marka Aurelia. Praha : Mladá fronta, 1990. ISBN 80-204-0083-4 MAŠKIN, Nikolaj A. Dějiny starověkého Říma. Praha : SNPL, 1957 ZAMAROVSKÝ, Vojtěch. Dějiny psané Římem. Bratislava : Perfekt, 2005. ISBN 80-8046-297-6 Portréty světovládců I (Od Hadriana po Alexandra Severa). Praha : Svoboda, 1982 Související články[editovat | editovat zdroj] Antoninovská dynastie Jezdecká socha Marka Aurelia Sloup Marka Aurelia Stoicismus Markomanské války Antoninovský mor Externí odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Marcus Aurelius na Wikimedia Commons Osoba Marcus Aurelius ve Wikicitátech Autor Marcus Aurelius ve Wikizdrojích Marcus Aurelius (stránky Antika) Cassius Dio. Roman History. Epitome of Book LXXII (anglicky) Marcus Aurelius (De Imperatoribus Romanis) (anglicky) Marcus Aurelius (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (anglicky) Volně dostupný český překlad Hovorů k sobě Citáty Marca Aurelia Předchůdce: Antoninus Pius Římský císař 161–180 Nástupce: Commodus Autoritní data: AUT: jn19981001808 | GND: 118577468 | ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X | LCCN: n80051702 | ULAN: 500115701 | VIAF: 102895066 | WorldcatID: lccn-n80051702 Portály: Lidé | Starověký Řím Citováno z „https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=20024381“ Kategorie: Římští císaři Starověcí římští filosofové Adoptivní císaři Narození 2. století Úmrtí 2. století Úmrtí 17. března Narození 26. dubna Narození 121 Úmrtí 180 Narození v Římě Pohřbení v Římě Skryté kategorie: Monitoring:Panovník/barva Monitoring:Články s autoritní kontrolou Muži Navigační menu Osobní nástroje Nejste přihlášen(a) Diskuse Příspěvky Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Jmenné prostory Článek Diskuse Varianty Zobrazení Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Více Hledání Navigace Hlavní strana Nápověda Potřebuji pomoc Nejlepší články Náhodný článek Poslední změny Komunitní portál Pod lípou Podpořte Wikipedii Nástroje Odkazuje sem Související změny Načíst soubor Speciální stránky Trvalý odkaz Informace o stránce Citovat stránku Položka Wikidat Tisk/export Vytvořit knihu Stáhnout jako PDF Verze k tisku Na jiných projektech Wikimedia Commons Wikicitáty Wikizdroje V jiných jazycích Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Upravit odkazy Stránka byla naposledy editována 5. 6. 2021 v 10:54. 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cy-wikipedia-org-9436	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wicipedia Marcus Aurelius Oddi ar Wicipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Ganwyd Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus  26 Ebrill 121  Rhufain  Bu farw 17 Mawrth 180  Vindobona  Man preswyl Rhufain  Dinasyddiaeth Rhufain hynafol  Galwedigaeth gwleidydd, athronydd, ysgrifennwr  Swydd ymerawdwr Rhufain, seneddwr Rhufeinig, Conswl Rhufeinig, quaestor  Adnabyddus am Meditations  Tad Marcus Annius Verus  Mam Domitia Calvilla  Priod Faustina yr Ieuengaf  Plant Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, Domitia Faustina  Llinach Nerva–Antonine dynasty  Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus neu Marcus Aurelius (26 Ebrill 121 – 17 Mawrth 180) oedd Ymerawdwr Rhufain o 7 Mawrth 161 hyd ei farwolaeth. Ei enw gwreiddiol oedd Marcus Annius Catilius Severus. Wedi priodi cymerodd yr enw Marcus Annius Verus. Pan gyhoeddwyd ef yn ymerawdwr galwodd ei hun yn Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Ystyrir ef fel yr olaf o'r "Pum Ymerawdwr Da". Yn ystod ei deyrnasiad bu raid i Marcus Aurelius ryfela'n barhaus yn erbyn gwahanol bobloedd ar ffiniau'r ymerodraeth. Ymosododd yr Almaenwyr droeon ar Gâl, ac adenillodd y Parthiaid eu nerth ac ymosod ar yr ymerodraeth. Oherwydd y problemau hyn dewisodd Lucius Verus fel cyd-ymerawdwr, hyd farwolaeth Verus yn 169. Mae Marcus Aurelius yn adnabyddus fel awdur y Myfyrdodau, a ysgrifennodd yn yr iaith Roeg yn ystod ymgyrchoedd milwrol rhwng 170 a 180. Ystyrir y llyfr yn glasur hyd heddiw. Credir mai yn ystod ei deyrnasiad ef y bu'r cysylltiad cyntaf rhwng yr ymerodraeth Rufeinig a Tsieina yn y flwyddyn 166. Bu farw Marcus Aurelius ar 17 Mawrth 180 yn ninas Vindobona (Fienna heddiw) tra'n ymgyrchu yn erbyn y Marcomanni. Daethpwyd a'i gorff yn ôl i Rufain i'w gladdu. Yn wahanol i'r pedwar ymeradwr o'i flaen roedd ganddo fab i'w olynu. Gwnaeth ei fab Commodus yn gyd-ymerawdwr yn 177, a dilynodd ei dad yn 180. Yn anffodus ni fu Commodus yn ymerawdwr da, ac mae rhai haneswyr yn ystyried mai marwolaeth Marcus Aurelius yn 180 oedd diwedd y Pax Romana. Cerflun o Marcus Aurelius yn Piazza del Campidoglio yn Rhufain Rhagflaenydd: Antoninus Pius Ymerawdwr Rhufain 7 Mawrth 161 – 17 Mawrth 180 gyda Lucius Verus 7 Mawrth 161 – ? Mawrth 169 gyda Commodus 177 – 17 Mawrth 180 Olynydd: Commodus Awdurdod WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 Eginyn erthygl sydd uchod am Rufain hynafol. Gallwch helpu Wicipedia drwy ychwanegu ato Wedi dod o "https://cy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=10895871" Categorïau: Egin Rhufain Athronwyr Genedigaethau 121 Llenyddiaeth Roeg glasurol Marwolaethau 180 Ymerodron Rhufeinig Categorïau cuddiedig: Articles with hCards Erthyglau sy'n defnyddio Nodyn Gwybodlen person Wicidata AC with 14 elements Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Llywio Offer personol Heb fewngofnodi Sgwrs Cyfraniadau Crëwch gyfrif Mewngofnodi Parthau Erthygl Sgwrs Amrywiolion Golygon Darllen Golygu Golygu cod y dudalen Gweld yr hanes Rhagor Chwilio Panel llywio Hafan Porth y Gymuned Y Caffi Materion cyfoes Newidiadau diweddar Erthygl ar hap Cymorth Rhoi Blwch offer Beth sy'n cysylltu yma Newidiadau perthnasol Tudalennau arbennig Dolen barhaol Gwybodaeth am y dudalen Cyfeiriwch at yr erthygl hon Eitem Wikidata Argraffu/allforio Llunio llyfr Lawrlwytho ar ffurf PDF Fersiwn argraffu Mewn prosiectau eraill Wikimedia Commons Ieithoedd eraill Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Golygu cysylltau Newidiwyd y dudalen hon ddiwethaf ar 19 Mawrth 2021, am 06:43. 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data-bnf-fr-5267	----	Marc Aurèle (empereur romain, 0121-0180) Data rechercher dans data.bnf.fr Se repérer sur data ? Que demander à data ? Le projet data Web sémantique et modèle de données Sparql Français English Deutsch Services BnF Venir à la BnF Reproduire un document Autres bases documentaires Recherche dans Gallica Retronews Catalogue général BnF archives et manuscrits BnF Image Catalogue collectif de France Europeana OCLC WorldCat Sudoc Outils Imprimer la page Exporter la page en PDF Signaler un problème sur la page Citer la page Permalien : Télécharger les données Télécharger en RDF ( xml | nt | n3 ) Télécharger en JSON-LD Télécharger en JSON Le Web sémantique dans data.bnf.fr informations mises à jour le 2021-05-06 |  Mentions légales | Contact | version 2.12.4 
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da-wikipedia-org-6833	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Marcus Aurelius Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Spring til navigation Spring til søgning Marcus Aurelius Navn før tiltrædelse: Marcus Annius Verus Navn som kejser: Imperator Cæsar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Regerede: 161–180 Dynasti: Nervan-antoninske Født: 26. april 121 ,   Død: 17. marts 180 , Vindobona Dødsårsag: Naturlige årsager Forgænger: Antoninus Pius Efterfølger: Commodus Se også liste over romerske kejsere v d r Statue af Marcus Aurelius på Piazza del Campidoglio i Rom Marcus Aurelius (født Marcus Annius Verus 26. april 121, død 17. marts 180) var romersk kejser fra 161-180 e.kr. og stoisk filosof. Marcus Aurelius, hvis familie havde rødder i provinsen Hispania, gjorde sig tidligt bemærket ved sine religiøse og filosofiske interesser og blev som ganske ung adopteret af den senere kejser Antoninus Pius på anbefaling af kejser Hadrian. Fra 146 var han adoptivfaderens medregent og svigersøn. Han overtog tronen efter Antoninus Pius død i 161. Til 169 regerede han formelt sammen med sin adoptivbroder Lucius Verus. Hans biologiske forældre var Marcus Annius Verus og Domitia Lucilla. Hans indre styre var en vellykket fortsættelse af forgængernes reformpolitik. Han gennemførte flere sociallove, bedrede slavernes retssikkerhed, indførte fødselsattesten og prøvede at begrænse gladiatorkampene. Derimod blev udenrigspolitikken fra ca. 170 præget af krige med germanerne, og Roms nedgangstid begynder allerede her. Han førte næsten uafbrudt krige med germanerstammen markomannerne, som han med stor energi drev tilbage. Han døde i det nuværende Østrig efter et vellykket felttog. Marcus Aurelius var kendt som "filosoffen på kejsertronen", da han skrev en lang række stoiske aforismer på græsk under sine mange felttog. Aforismerne er samlet i værket Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν (Ta eis heauton, "Tanker til sig selv)". Hans filosofi er præget af en beskeden og værdig holdning til livets tilskikkelser. En del af hans tanker ligner kristendommens, som han i øvrigt bekæmpede. Lighederne skyldes, at også kristendommens var påvirket af stoicismen.[kilde mangler] Hans høje idealer og generelt sympatiske fremtræden har givet ham tilnavnet "den ædleste af alle cæsarer". Han anerkendte sin søn Commodus som tronfølger, hvilket var et brud med traditionen, at kejseren adopterede en kapabel ung mand og gjorde ham til sin efterfølger. Historikere har anset hans valg for tragisk, fordi Commodus og det efterfølgende dynasti forlod de værdier og idealer som Marcus Aurelius havde kæmpet for.[1] Han udnævnte Commodus til medregent i 166AD, og udnævnte ham i 177 til tronfølger. Marcus Aurelius var grækofil (dvs. en elsker af alt græsk). Han skrev og talte græsk og anlagde fuldskæg efter græsk skik, ligesom mange andre romerske kejsere efter Hadrian gjorde. I traditionel historieskrivning ses han som den sidste gode kejser, og hans død er for det meste enden på Pax Romana og begyndelsen på romerrigets forfaldstid ("Romerrigets undergang og fald"; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire beskrevet i Edward Gibbons bog). Flere romerske kejsere som Caracalla og Heliogabalus erklærede, at de havde ham som forbillede og tog hans navn. Det skaber nogen forvirring i kejserrækken. Marcus Aurelius i kulturen[redigér | redigér wikikode] Søsterprojekter med yderligere information: Billeder og medier fra Wikimedia Commons Citater fra Wikiquote Kildetekster fra Wikisource Alec Guinness spillede Marcus Aurelius i filmen Romerrigets Fald fra 1964. Richard Harris spillede Marcus Aurelius i Ridley Scotts film Gladiator fra 2000. Kilder[redigér | redigér wikikode] ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 186–91. Rudi Thomsen, Marcus Aurelius : en filosof på kejsertronen, Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 2001. ISBN 87-7288-870-9. J.A. Bundgaard (oversætter), Marcus Aurelius – Meditationer, Det lille Forlag, 1996. ISBN 87-90030-45-1. Eksterne henvisninger[redigér | redigér wikikode] "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" af Edward Gibbon "Tanker til sig selv" i engelsk oversættelse Foregående: Romerske kejsere Efterfølgende: Antoninus Pius 138-161 Commodus 180-192 v d r Romerske kejsere Principatet 27 f.Kr – 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius med Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus med Diadumenian Elagabalus Alexander Severus Krisen i det 3. århundrede 235–284 Maximinus I Thrax Gordian I og Gordian II Pupienus og Balbinus Gordian III Philippus Arabs Decius med Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus med Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus med Saloninus Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerianus Dominatet 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Constantius Chlorus Galerius Severus Maxentius Maximinus Daia Licinius med Valerius Valens og Martinianus Konstantin den Store Konstantin II Constans I Constantius II med Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Gratian Valentinian II Theodosius I Det vestromerske rige 395–480 Honorius med Konstantin III og Constantius III Johannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustus Østromerske rige 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Konstantin Maurikios Phocas Heraclius Konstantin III Heraklonas Constans II Konstantin IV Justinian II Leontios Tiberios III Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosios III Leo III Konstantin V Artabasdos Leo IV Konstantin VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Mikael I Rangabe Konstantin VI Leo V Mikael II Theophilos Mikael III Basil I Leo VI Alexander Konstantin VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas Johannes I Tzimiskes Basil II Konstantin VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Mikael IV Mikael V Kalaphates Konstantin IX Monomachos Theodora Mikael VI Bringas Isak I Komnenos Konstantin X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Mikael VII Doukas Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos Johannes II Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos Isak II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Kejserriget Nicaea 1204–1261 Konstantin Laskaris Theodor I Laskaris Johannes III Doukas Vatatzes Theodor II Laskaris Johannes IV Laskaris Byzantinske kejserrige 1261–1453 Mikael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos Mikael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos Johannes V Palaiologos Johannes VI Kantakouzenos Matthæus Kantakouzenos Andronikos IV Palaiologos Johannes VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos Johannes VIII Palaiologos Konstantin XI Palaiologos Autoritetsdata WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 Hentet fra "https://da.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=10330975" Kategorier: Født i 121 Døde i 180 Kejsere fra Romerriget Filosoffer fra Romerriget Græsksprogede forfattere Stoicisme Skjulte kategorier: Kilder mangler (samlet liste) Kilder mangler siden Uge 50, 2008 Mand Wikipedia artikler med VIAF autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med LCCN autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med ISNI autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med GND autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med SELIBR autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med BNF autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med BIBSYS autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med ULAN autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med MusicBrainz autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med NLA autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med NDL 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diq-wikipedia-org-149	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Wikipediya, ensiklopediya xosere ra Xıl de be pusula Xıl de cıgeyrayışi Marcus Aurelius Melumato şexsi Dewlete Roma Antike Cınsiyet Camêrd Cay biyayışi Roma Biyayış 26 Nisane 121 Merdış 17 Adar 180 (Castel Sant'Angelo de merdo) Cay merdışi Vindobona(Veba ra merd) Gırwe Siyasetkar, Filozof u nuştekar Zıwani Latinki u Greki Partner Faustina the Younger Domani Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus u Domitia Faustina Mae Domitia Calvilla Pi Marcus Annius Verus İtıqad Ancient Roman religion Şariye Roman people Marcus Aurelius, yew imperatorê İmperatoriya Roma biyo. ↔ bıvurne İmperatorê Roma Dewrê Principatusi Vİ 27 – Bİ 235 Augustus * Tiberius * Caligula * Claudius * Nero * Galba * Otho * Vitellius * Vespasianus * Titus * Domitianus * Nerva * Traianus * Hadrianus * Antoninus Pius * Marcus Aurelius u Lucius Verus * Commodus * Pertinax * Didius Iulianus * (Pescennius Niger) * Septimius Severus * Caracalla be Geta * Macrinus piya Diadumenian * Elagabalus * Alexander Severus Krizê seserra hirêyıne 235–284 Maximinus Thrax * Gordianus I u Gordianus II * Pupienus u Balbinus * Gordianus III * Philippus Arabs * Decius ya Herennius Etruscus * Hostilian * Trebonianus Gallus ya Volusianus * Aemilianus * Valerian * Gallienus ya Saloninus * Claudius Gothicus * Quintillus * Aurelian * Tacitus * Florianus * Probus * Carus * Carinus * Numerian Dewrê Dominatusi 284–395 Diocletianus u Maximinus ya Konstantius Chloros u Galerius ya Severus u Maximinus Daia * Maxentius * Licinius ya Valerius Valens u Martinianus * Constantinus I * Constantinus II * Konstans I * Constantius II ya Vetranio * Julianus * Jovianus * Valentinianus I * Valens * Gratianus * Valentinianus II * Theodosius I İmperatoriya Romaya Rocawani 395–480 Honorius pê Constantine III * Constantius III * Joannes * Valentinian III * Petronius Maximus * Avitus * Majorian * Libius Severus * Anthemius * Olybrius * Glycerius * Julius Nepos * Romulus Augustulus Retrieved from "https://diq.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=397242" Kategoriy: Camêrd Merdumê ke Roma de biyê Merdumê merdey Merdumê ke be veba ra merdê Merdumê ke Vindobona de merdê İmperatorê Roma Menuyê navigasyoni Hacetê şexsi Şıma nêkewtê hesabê xo Perra werênayışê nê IPy İştıraki Hesab vıraze Cı kewe Heruna nameyan Meqale Werênayış Varyanti Asayışi Bıwane Bıvurne Çımeyi bıvurne Verêni bıvêne Zêde Cıgeyrayış Navigasyon Pela seri Portalê cemati Vurnayışê peyêni Rapori Zazakipediya Portali Pela raştameyiye İştıraki Meydanê dewe Textey cerrebi Waştışi Peştdariye Bexş Piya guriyayış Xeberi Haceti Gırey be pele Vurnayışê eleqeyıni Dosya bar kerê Pelê xısusiyi Gırey be halê peyêni Melumatê pele Na pele çıme bımocne Unsurê Wikidata Çap/teber kerê Yew kıtab vırazê Warardışê PDF Versiyonê çapkerdışi Proceyanê binan de Embarê Wikimedya Zıwanê bini Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Gıreyan bıvurne Ena pele tewr peyên roca 23:07 de, saeta 16 Tışrino Verên 2019 de vurriya Nuşte Creative Commons Atıf-Zey Pê vılakerdış'i de yo; şertê bini tetbiq benê. Detayan rê Şertanê karkerdışi bıvênên. Madeyê nımıtışi Heqa Wikipediya de Redê mesulêti Asayışo mobil Raverberdoği İstatistiki Çerezê pêhesnayışi 
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Lösen Sie Bestellungen bitte erst nach der erfolgreichen Reservierung aus.     Ergebnis der Suche nach: nid=118577468 Treffer 1 von 1  Link zu diesem Datensatz http://d-nb.info/gnd/118577468 Person Mark Aurel, Römisches Reich, Kaiser Andere Namen Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Empereur de l'Empire Romain (Französisch, Code: fre) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of the Roman Empire (Englisch, Code: eng) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Imperator Marcus Aurelius, Kaiser Marc Aurèle, Empereur Marcus Aurelius, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marc, Aurel Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Römisches Reich, Kaiser Marcus Aurelius, Philosophus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Philosophus Marcus Antoninus, Imperator Aurelius, Marcus, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marco, Aurelio Antonous Markos, Antōnios Aurelius, Marcus Marcus Aurelius Aurel, Marc Aoleliu (Chines.) Aoleiliu (Chines.) Markos Awrelyws (Kasach.) Markos Avrelyws (Kasach.) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ((VD-16)) Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Antoninos Autokrator, Markos Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Marc Antonin, Empereur Marc Aurele Antonin, Empereur Marc-Aurèle Marcus Antoninus, Philosophus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Markos Antōninos, Autokrator Markos Antōninos, Autokratōr M. Antoninus, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marcus Aurelius, Philosoph Marc Aurel Marcus, Aurelius Marcus Annius, Verus Marcus Annius, Catilius Severus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Marco, Aurelio Marcus, Aurel Marco Aurelio, Antonino Marco, Filosofo Stoico Marco, Imperatore Romano Annius Verus, Marcus Antoninus, Marcus A. Antoninus, Marcus Mark Aurel Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Marc-Aurèle, de Rome Marcus, Antoninus Aurelio, Marco Aurel, Mark, Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurel, Mark, Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurèle, Marc, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Markos Antōninos, Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Antoninus, Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aurelius Mark Avrelij Antonin Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Mark Avrelii, Emperor of Rome Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome Markos Antoninos, Emperor of Rome Marco Aurelio, Emperor of Rome Markus Aʹurelyus, Emperor of Rome Markus Orelyus, Emperor of Rome Marks Aurelijs, Emperor of Rome Marc Avrelij Mark Aurel, Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus, Antonius Marc Aurel, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurèle, Marc Aurelius, Marcus, Römischer Kaiser Marc Aurèle Aurelius, Marcus, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marcus Aurelius, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Mark Aurel, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of the Roman Empire Marc Aurèle, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Aurelius, Römischer Kaiser Marc Aurel, Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Empereur de l'Empire Romain Markos, Antonios Mark Anthony, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marcus Antonius, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marco Aurelio Antonin, Marc Marcus Antonius Antonius, Marcus Antonin, Marcus Marc Antonin, Empire Romain, Empereur Marcus Antoninus, Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marc-Aurele Quelle Lex. alte Welt LCAuth Zeit Lebensdaten: 121-180 (Lebensdaten nach Pauly neu) 101 - 200 (UDK-Zeitcode 01) Land Römisches Reich (XT) Sprache(n) Latein (lat) Beruf(e) Kaiser Philosoph Weitere Angaben Römischer Kaiser seit 161 Beziehungen zu Personen Faustina II., Römisches Reich, Kaiserin (Ehefrau) Antigonus, Carystius (VD-16 Mitverf.) Antoninus, Liberalis (VD-16 Mitverf.) Apollonius, Dyscolus (VD-16 Mitverf.) Holzmann, Wilhelm (VD-16 Mitverf.) Geßner, Andreas (VD-16 Mitverf.) Gesner, Konrad (VD-16 Mitverf.) K.O. (VD-16 Mitverf.) Systematik 16.5p Personen der Geschichte (Politiker und historische Persönlichkeiten) ; 4.7p Personen zu Philosophie Typ Person (piz) Autor von 135 Publikationen Meditationen Mark Aurel, Römisches Reich, Kaiser. - Berlin : Henricus - Edition Deutsche Klassik GmbH, 2021, 1. Auflage Meditationen Mark Aurel, Römisches Reich, Kaiser. - Berlin : Henricus - Edition Deutsche Klassik GmbH, 2021, 1. Auflage ... Beteiligt an 12 Publikationen [Ad se ipsum] Wege zu sich selbst Leipzig : Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, 2020 Wie soll man leben? Čechov, Anton Pavlovič. - Zürich : Diogenes, 2020, 1. Auflage ... Thema in 49 Publikationen Marc Aurel Leipzig : Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, 2021 Marc Aurel Leipzig : Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, 2020 ... Maschinell verknüpft mit 32 Publikationen Die Eroberung Ägyptens durch das Imperium Romanum. Inwiefern hatte Ägypten nach der Eingliederung in die römische Republik eine Sonderstellung? Ramke, Katharina. - München : GRIN Verlag, 2020, 1. Auflage, digitale Originalausgabe Die Eroberung Ägyptens durch das Imperium Romanum. Inwiefern hatte Ägypten nach der Eingliederung in die römische Republik eine Sonderstellung? Ramke, Katharina. - München : GRIN Verlag, 2020, 1. Auflage ... Treffer 1 von 1 Aktionen In meine Auswahl übernehmen Druckansicht Versenden MARC21-XML-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes RDF (Turtle)-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes Dokumentation RDF (Linked Data Service) Korrekturanfrage Nachweis der Quelle Zugehöriger Artikel in Wikipedia Administration Version 1.7.19.4 / 2021-01-15T14:43:09Seitenanfang 
de-wikipedia-org-9571	----	Mark Aurel – Wikipedia Mark Aurel aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Mark Aurel (München, Glyptothek) Mark Aurel[1] (* 26. April 121 in Rom; † 17. März 180 in Vindobona oder Sirmium), auch Marc Aurel oder Marcus Aurelius, war von 161 bis 180 römischer Kaiser und als Philosoph der letzte bedeutende Vertreter der jüngeren Stoa. Als Princeps und Nachfolger seines Adoptivvaters Antoninus Pius nannte er sich selbst Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus.[2] Mit seiner Regierungszeit endete in mancherlei Hinsicht eine Phase innerer und äußerer Stabilität und Prosperität für das Römische Reich, die Ära der sogenannten Adoptivkaiser. Mark Aurel war der letzte von ihnen, denn in seinem Sohn Commodus stand ein leiblicher Erbe für die Herrscherfunktion bereit. Innenpolitische Akzente setzte Mark Aurel in Gesetzgebung und Rechtsprechung bei der Erleichterung des Loses von Benachteiligten der damaligen römischen Gesellschaft, vor allem der Sklaven und Frauen. Außergewöhnlichen Herausforderungen hatte er sich hinsichtlich einer katastrophalen Tiberüberschwemmung zu stellen sowie in der Konfrontation mit der Antoninischen Pest und angesichts spontaner Christenverfolgungen innerhalb des Römischen Reiches. An den Reichsgrenzen musste er nach einer längeren Friedenszeit wieder an mehreren Fronten gegen eindringende Feinde vorgehen. Insbesondere waren der Osten des Reiches durch die Parther, über die Mark Aurels Mitkaiser Lucius Verus triumphierte, und der Donauraum durch diverse Germanen-Stämme bedroht. Sein letztes Lebensjahrzehnt verbrachte Mark Aurel daher vorwiegend im Feldlager. Hier verfasste er die Selbstbetrachtungen, die ihn der Nachwelt als Philosophenkaiser präsentieren und die mitunter zur Weltliteratur gezählt werden.[3] Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Werdegang bis zum Herrschaftsantritt 1.1 Herkunft und Jugend 1.2 Philosophische Orientierung 1.3 Einarbeitung in die Regierungsgeschäfte 2 Der Prinzipat des Mark Aurel 2.1 Politische Leitsätze 2.2 Innenpolitik 2.3 Militärische Herausforderungen 2.4 Die „Gesandtschaft“ nach China 2.5 Religionspolitik und Christenverfolgungen 2.6 Die Usurpation des Avidius Cassius und das Nachfolgeproblem 3 Tod und Nachwirkung 3.1 Nachhaltige Verehrung und Vereinnahmung in der Antike 3.2 Christliche Reaktionen und Rezeption 3.3 Neuzeitliche Annäherungen und gegenwärtige Deutungen 4 Quellen 5 Literatur 6 Weblinks 7 Anmerkungen Werdegang bis zum Herrschaftsantritt[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Herkunft und Jugend[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Mark Aurel um 138 n. Chr. (Rom, Kapitolinische Museen) Der spätere Kaiser Mark Aurel wurde als Marcus Annius Catilius Severus in Rom geboren. Sein Urgroßvater war aus den hispanischen Provinzen nach Rom gekommen. Unter Kaiser Vespasian hatte er es bis zum Praetor gebracht. Marcus Annius Verus, der Großvater Mark Aurels, bekleidete bereits dreimal das Amt des Konsuls. Er verheiratete seinen Sohn, der ebenfalls Annius Verus hieß – Mark Aurels Vater also –, mit Domitia Lucilla, einer Verwandten Kaiser Hadrians, deren Familie durch den Besitz von Ziegeleien reich geworden war. Nach dem frühen Tod des Vaters (128) wuchs Marcus im Haus seines Großvaters auf. Am 17. März 136 nahm er anlässlich seiner Verlobung mit Ceionia, der Tochter des im selben Jahr zum Nachfolger Hadrians bestimmten Lucius Aelius Caesar, den Namen Marcus Annius Verus an. Marcus wurde so in die Familie des voraussichtlichen Thronfolgers eingebunden. Das in der Ämterlaufbahn erworbene Ansehen der Familie und das ernsthafte Naturell des jungen Marcus hatten ihm angeblich schon früh die Beachtung Kaiser Hadrians eingebracht,[4] der ihn wegen seiner Wahrheitsliebe scherzhaft mit dem Spitznamen Verissimus („der Wahrhaftigste“, der Superlativ von verus) belegt haben soll und ihn wohl bereits als Achtjährigen in das Priesterkollegium der Salier aufnehmen ließ.[5] Im Zuge seiner durch den plötzlichen Tod des Lucius Aelius Caesar nötig gewordenen zweiten Nachfolgeregelung adoptierte der todkranke Hadrian dann am 25. Februar 138 den Senator Antoninus Pius mit der Maßgabe, dass dieser wiederum Lucius Verus, den Sohn des Verstorbenen, und Mark Aurel, Antoninus’ angeheirateten Neffen und nächsten männlichen Verwandten, zu adoptieren hatte. Dieser hieß nach der Adoption durch Antoninus nun Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus. Lucius Verus wurde zugleich mit Faustina, der einzigen Tochter des Antoninus, verlobt und dadurch sichtbar herausgehoben. Andererseits sprachen der Altersvorsprung und die Nähe zu Antoninus für Mark Aurel als künftigen Thronerben.[6] Nach dem Tode Hadrians im Juli desselben Jahres zog der nun siebzehnjährige Mark Aurel zu Antoninus Pius, seinem Adoptivvater und neuem Kaiser, in den Regierungspalast. Antoninus veränderte sofort die Regelungen Hadrians: Er löste sogleich die Verlobung zwischen Lucius Verus und Faustina und verlobte diese stattdessen mit Mark Aurel (die Verbindung mit Ceionia wurde zuvor gelöst), der damit eindeutig an die erste Stelle rückte. Schwerpunkte der Ausbildung waren zunächst Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Rhetorik bei den Lehrern Herodes Atticus und Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Mit letzterem führte er einen regen Briefwechsel, der in Teilen erhalten ist. 139 wurde Mark Aurel zum Caesar erhoben und damit formell zum Thronfolger designiert. Erneut weit vorfristig, nämlich schon mit 18 Jahren, bekleidete er im folgenden Jahr sein erstes Konsulat. Anscheinend ging es Antoninus Pius darum, Mark Aurel so früh wie möglich in eine unangreifbare Position zu bringen.[7] Dies war auch deshalb notwendig, weil die Nachfolge im Prinzipat grundsätzlich zu Lebzeiten des Vorgängers geregelt werden musste, um reibungslos verlaufen zu können, denn eine Vererbung der kaiserlichen Macht war formal nicht vorgesehen.[8] Es war daher üblich, den gewünschten Nachfolger im Vorfeld durch Ehrungen und die Verleihung wichtiger Titel und Vollmachten eindeutig zu kennzeichnen. Philosophische Orientierung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] → Hauptartikel: Selbstbetrachtungen Deutsche Übersetzung der Selbstbetrachtungen (Hamburg, 1727) Die stoischen Philosophen unter Mark Aurels Lehrern mögen eine Neigung nachhaltig unterstützt haben, die er bereits als Zwölfjähriger an den Tag gelegt haben soll, als er sich in den Mantel der Philosophen kleidete und fortan auf unbequemer Bretterunterlage nächtigte, nur durch ein von der Mutter noch mit Mühe verordnetes Tierfell gepolstert.[9] Hier hat eine Lebenshaltung ihren Anfang genommen, die in den auf Altgriechisch verfassten Selbstbetrachtungen (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν) der späten Jahre festgehalten wurde. Dabei dürften die Grundlagen der dort formulierten Überzeugungen bereits frühzeitig gegolten haben, denn sie fußten auf einer bald 500-jährigen, fortlebenden Tradition stoischen Philosophierens. Werdegang und Herrschaftspraxis Mark Aurels sind in engem Zusammenhang mit den Selbstbetrachtungen zu sehen; denn die Einheit von Denken und Handeln, von Wort und Tat war für seine darin niedergelegte Daseinsauffassung vorrangig: „Es kommt nicht darauf an, über die notwendigen Eigenschaften eines guten Mannes dich zu besprechen – vielmehr ein solcher zu sein.“[10] „Du kannst nicht im Schreiben und Lesen unterrichten, wenn du es nicht selber kannst; viel weniger lehren, wie man recht leben soll, wenn du es nicht selber tust.“[11] Ebenso deutlich akzentuiert hat Mark Aurel das Bewusstsein für Wahrheit und Wirklichkeit, das schon Hadrian an ihm geschätzt haben soll: „Kann mir jemand überzeugend dartun, dass ich nicht richtig urteile oder verfahre, so will ich’s mit Freuden anders machen. Suche ich ja nur die Wahrheit, sie, von der niemand je Schaden erlitten hat. Wohl aber erleidet derjenige Schaden, der auf seinem Irrtum und auf seiner Unwissenheit beharrt.“[12] „So oft du an der Unverschämtheit jemandes Anstoß nimmst, frage dich sogleich: Ist es auch möglich, daß es in der Welt keine unverschämten Leute gibt? Das ist nicht möglich. Verlange also nicht das Unmögliche.“[13] Der Stellenwert dieser Notate für die Lebenspraxis Mark Aurels erschließt sich aus dem Entstehungszusammenhang der Selbstbetrachtungen. Es handelte sich um eine Form geistiger Übungen, die darauf zielten, eine mit den Grundsätzen der Stoa übereinstimmende Lebensführung im Bewusstsein wachzuhalten und zu aktualisieren sowie abweichende Emotionen zu kontrollieren. Darum ging es u. a. auch in der Einstellung zu den Mitmenschen: „Die Menschen sind füreinander da. Also belehre oder dulde sie.“[14] „Willst du dir ein Vergnügen machen, so betrachte die Vorzüge deiner Zeitgenossen, so die Tatkraft des einen, die Bescheidenheit des andern, die Freigebigkeit eines Dritten und so an einem Vierten wieder eine andere Tugend. Denn nichts erfreut so sehr wie die Muster der Tugenden, die aus den Handlungen unserer Zeitgenossen uns in reicher Fülle in die Augen fallen. Darum habe sie auch stets vor Augen.“[15] Vielerlei Unangenehmes zu verarbeiten, Schicksalsschläge durchzustehen und mit der eigenen Unvollkommenheit auszukommen, auch dazu qualifizierten den Thronanwärter und späteren Kaiser Reflexionen im Geiste der Stoa in besonderem Maße: „Rührt ein Übel von dir selbst her, warum tust du’s? Kommt es von einem andern, wem machst du Vorwürfe? Etwa den Atomen oder den Göttern? Beides ist unsinnig. Hier ist niemand anzuklagen. Denn, kannst du, so bessere den Urheber; kannst du das aber nicht, so bessere wenigstens die Sache selbst; kannst du aber auch das nicht, wozu frommt dir das Anklagen? Denn ohne Zweck soll man nichts tun.“[16] „Empfinde keinen Ekel, laß deinen Eifer und Mut nicht sinken, wenn es dir nicht vollständig gelingt, alles nach richtigen Grundsätzen auszuführen; fange vielmehr, wenn dir etwas mißlungen ist, von neuem an und sei zufrieden, wenn die Mehrzahl deiner Handlungen der Menschennatur gemäß ist, und behalte das lieb, worauf du zurückkommst.“[17] Einarbeitung in die Regierungsgeschäfte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Kamee, Mark Aurel und Faustina als Götterpaar Jupiter und Juno Eine bessere Vorbereitung auf politische Verantwortungsübernahme, als sie Mark Aurel durchlaufen hat, ist in Hinblick auf die Innenpolitik kaum vorstellbar. Bis zum Antritt der eigenen Herrschaft hatte er 23 Jahre lang (138–161) die umfassend genutzte Gelegenheit, sich auf die Anforderungen des Amtes einzustellen, sich in die Verwaltungsstrukturen des Römischen Reiches einzuarbeiten und alle wichtigen Bewerber und Inhaber einflussreicher Ämter kennenzulernen. Er erlangte dabei angeblich einen so sicheren Blick für die menschliche und aufgabenbezogene Eignung der Amtsträger und Postenkandidaten, dass Antoninus Pius sich schließlich in allen Stellenbesetzungsfragen auf das Urteil des Marcus gestützt haben soll. Die von Hadrian aufeinander Verwiesenen harmonierten laut den Quellen auch von ihrem Naturell her. Die Charakterisierung des Antoninus, die Mark Aurel im Ersten Buch der Selbstbetrachtungen gibt, dürfte sowohl die Vorbildfunktion wie auch die Wesensverwandtschaft zum Ausdruck bringen, die den Jüngeren mit seinem Adoptivvater verbunden hat: „An meinem Vater bemerkte ich Sanftmut, verbunden mit einer strengen Unbeugsamkeit in seinen nach reiflicher Erwägung gewonnenen Urteilen. Er verachtete den eitlen Ruhm, den beanspruchte Ehrenbezeigungen verleihen, liebte die Arbeit und die Ausdauer, hörte bereitwilligst gemeinnützige Vorschläge anderer, behandelte stets jeden nach Verdienst, hatte das richtige Gefühl, wo Strenge oder Nachgiebigkeit angebracht ist, verzichtete auf unnatürliche Liebe und lebte nur dem Staatswohl. […] Niemand konnte sagen, er sei ein Sophist, ein Einfältiger, ein Pedant, sondern jeder erkannte in ihm einen reifen und vollkommenen Mann, erhaben über Schmeicheleien, fähig, sowohl seine eigenen Angelegenheiten als die der andern zu besorgen. Dazu ehrte er die wahren Philosophen und zeigte sich nichtsdestoweniger nachsichtig gegen diejenigen, die es nur zum Scheine waren. Im Umgang war er höchst angenehm, er scherzte gern, jedoch ohne Übertreibung.“[18] Zusätzliche verwandtschaftliche Bande wurden dadurch hergestellt, dass Mark Aurel eine bestehende Verlobung zu lösen hatte, um Faustina, die Tochter des Antoninus, zu heiraten, die von Hadrian, wie gesagt, als Frau des Lucius Verus vorgesehen gewesen war. Aus dieser Ehe gingen insgesamt 13 Kinder hervor, die in der Mehrzahl allerdings noch im Kindesalter starben. Auffällig ist, dass Antoninus entgegen der Tradition des Prinzipats darauf verzichtete, den Nachfolger auch militärisch auszubilden und den an den Grenzen des Imperiums stationierten Truppen vorzustellen. Die Gründe, warum Antoninus seinen Adoptivsohn in 23 Jahren niemals von seiner Seite weichen ließ, sind umstritten. Glaubt man nicht der offiziellen Lesart, dass der Kaiser Mark Aurel zu sehr geliebt habe, um ihn auch nur einen Tag aus den Augen zu lassen, so kommt im Gegenteil auch Misstrauen als Erklärung in Frage: Möglicherweise wünschte Antoninus nicht, dass Mark Aurel sich zu früh eine eigene Machtbasis bei den Soldaten schaffen könnte. Die militärische Unerfahrenheit, die die Konsequenz aus diesem Verhalten war, sollte sich später durchaus rächen, da Mark Aurel (im Unterschied zu Lucius Verus) als Feldherr stets eher unglücklich agierte. Aureus zur Herrschaftsübernahme durch Mark Aurel und Lucius Verus: Eintracht zwischen den Augusti Bereits im Dezember 147 war Mark Aurel durch die Verleihung der tribunicia potestas und des imperium proconsulare zum Mitregenten avanciert.[19] Mit dem Tode des Antoninus Pius 161 ging das Kaisertum dann auf Mark Aurel über, der fast unverzüglich seinen Adoptivbruder Lucius Verus zum formal (fast) gleichberechtigten Mitkaiser erhob. An auctoritas freilich war Marcus überlegen, zumal er auch das Amt des Pontifex maximus für sich behielt. Verus, der ja einst von Hadrian als Hauptkaiser vorgesehen gewesen war, hat sich offenbar zeitlebens in dieses Arrangement gefügt; 164 heiratete er die Tochter Mark Aurels, Lucilla. Über die Ernennung des Lucius Verus zum Mit- bzw. Unterkaiser ist oft gerätselt worden, aber letztlich hatte Mark Aurel eigentlich nur die Wahl, ihn entweder zum Mitherrscher zu machen oder zu beseitigen; anderenfalls wäre Verus wahrscheinlich eine Gefahr für die Herrschaft des Marcus geworden. Da Mark Aurel offenbar nicht wie Hadrian oder Tiberius durch politischen Mord einen Schatten auf seinen Herrschaftsbeginn werfen lassen wollte, entschied er sich, Lucius Verus stattdessen an der Macht zu beteiligen. Auffällig ist, dass Mark Aurel später den mittlerweile verstorbenen Lucius Verus in seinen Selbstbetrachtungen im Unterschied zu Antoninus Pius nur ein einziges Mal beiläufig erwähnte, was möglicherweise gegen ein inniges Verhältnis der beiden Augusti spricht. Beide Kaiser standen jedenfalls binnen kurzem einer – im Vergleich zu den vorhergehenden Jahrzehnten des äußeren Friedens – veränderten Situation gegenüber, als ab 161 zunächst die Parther die Oberhoheit des Römischen Reiches über Armenien mit militärischer Gewalt in Frage stellten und dann plündernde Germanen im Donauraum von 168 an ernsthaft die Nordgrenze bedrängten. Die Aufgabenteilung der beiden Kaiser ergab, dass Mark Aurel faktisch das Reich regierte, während seinem Adoptivbruder Lucius Verus bis zu seinem Tode die Durchführung wichtiger Militäroperationen im Osten oblag. Der Prinzipat des Mark Aurel[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Politische Leitsätze[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Mark Aurel um 170 n. Chr. Das über alle geschichtlichen Epochen hinweg fortwirkende Charisma Mark Aurels liegt nicht zuletzt begründet in dem mit ihm verbundenen Bild des „Philosophen auf dem Thron“ und in der als beispielhaft angesehenen Verknüpfung von politischer Philosophie und Herrschaftspraxis. Die Belege für das politische Denken Mark Aurels und für seine Selbstdarstellung sind den Selbstbetrachtungen zu entnehmen. Manches davon erscheint wie zeitlos und in der Gegenwart nicht überholt. In welchem Maße die Aussagen des Kaisers als authentische Selbstzeugnisse seiner Regierungspraxis zu gelten haben, bleibt offen; die historische Quellenkritik stößt hier an ihre Grenzen. Von Bedeutung ist, dass das Ideal eines Philosophenherrschers zu allen Zeiten die Phantasie der Menschen bewegt hat und dass Mark Aurel für viele zur Verkörperung dieses Leitbilds wurde. Sein politisches Denken spiegeln unter anderem folgende Auszüge aus den Selbstbetrachtungen: „Severus war mir ein Beispiel in der Liebe zu unseren Verwandten wie auch in der Wahrheits- und Gerechtigkeitsliebe […], durch ihn bekam ich einen Begriff, was zu einem freien Staate gehört, wo vollkommene Rechtsgleichheit für alle ohne Unterschied herrscht und nichts höher geachtet wird als die Freiheit der Bürger.“[20] Freiheit und Gerechtigkeit, vor allem im Sinne gleichen Rechts für alle, gehörten demnach zu den früh angeeigneten und stets propagierten politischen Leitvorstellungen Mark Aurels. Gegen die Versuchungen absolutistischen Machtmissbrauchs, denen er in seiner Stellung unvermeidlich ausgesetzt war, schützten ihn nach eigenem Bekunden sein philosophischer Reflexionshintergrund und Selbstermahnungen wie die folgende: „Hüte dich, dass du nicht ein tyrannischer Kaiser wirst! Nimm einen solchen Anstrich nicht an, denn es geschieht so leicht. […] Ringe danach, dass du der Mann bleibest, zu dem dich die Philosophie bilden wollte.“[21] Nur zu bewusst war Mark Aurel sich der Grenzen seiner politischen Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten und der Hinfälligkeit utopischer Gesellschaftsmodelle: „Hoffe auch nicht auf einen platonischen Staat, sondern sei zufrieden, wenn es auch nur ein klein wenig vorwärts geht, und halte auch einen solchen kleinen Fortschritt nicht für unbedeutend. Denn wer kann die Grundsätze der Leute ändern? Was ist aber ohne eine Änderung der Grundsätze anders zu erwarten als ein Knechtsdienst unter Seufzen, ein erheuchelter Gehorsam?“[22] Dass Mentalitäten nicht ohne weiteres formbar und disponibel sind und daher im politischen Handeln berücksichtigt werden müssen, war für Mark Aurel klar, weil er der senatorischen Freiheit gerade auch in der Meinungsäußerung Priorität einräumte. Damit folgte er im Grunde der bereits unter Augustus und anderen Kaisern formulierten Idee, dass die aristokratische libertas unter einem guten princeps geachtet werden müsse. Gemeint war damit, wie gesagt, das Recht der freien Meinungsäußerung, nicht etwa politische Mitbestimmung, die auch Mark Aurel dem Senat oder dem Volk nicht eingeräumt hat. Dem Bild des Philosophenkaisers entsprechend und auf der Linie der Paideia und der Zweiten Sophistik berief Mark Aurel bevorzugt Philosophen mit einem hohen sozialen Status in den am Hof institutionalisierten Beraterkreis. Indem er die gebildeten Oberschichten in den Herrschaftsapparat einband, vermied er anders als manche Vorgänger eine Konfrontation mit den Interessen der Aristokratie und erhielt sein Prinzipat stabil.[23] Worauf es ihm nach eigener Aussage ankam, war in hellenistischer philosophischer Tradition ein vernunftgeleiteter und gemeinwohlorientierter Machtgebrauch, der mit den Grenzen der eigenen Kompetenz rechnete und dem größeren Sachverstand den Vortritt ließ bzw. die Problemlösung übertrug: „Reicht mein Verstand zu diesem Geschäft hin oder nicht? Reicht er hin, so verwende ich ihn dazu als ein von der Allnatur mir verliehenes Werkzeug. Im entgegengesetzten Falle überlasse ich das Werk dem, der es besser ausrichten kann, wenn anders es nicht zu meinen Pflichten gehört, oder ich vollbringe es, so gut ich’s vermag, und nehme dabei einen andern zu Hilfe, der, von meiner Geisteskraft unterstützt, vollbringen kann, was dem Gemeinwohl gerade jetzt dienlich und zuträglich ist.“[24] In der Rechtspflege lag für Mark Aurel, wie für die principes vor ihm, der Kern der guten gesellschaftlichen Ordnung und der Bereich, für den er sich persönlich am meisten verantwortlich fühlte: „Wenn du Scharfsinn besitzest, so zeige ihn in weisen Urteilen.“[25] Mark Aurel hat seinem Dasein auch eine kosmopolitische Komponente zugeordnet und sogar bereits ein ökologisches Bewusstsein aufscheinen lassen: „Meine Natur aber ist eine vernünftige und für das Gemeinwesen bestimmte; meine Stadt und mein Vaterland aber ist, insofern ich Antonin heiße, Rom, insofern ich ein Mensch bin, die Welt. Nur das also, was diesen Staaten frommt, ist für mich ein Gut.“[26] „Die Allnatur aber hat außerhalb ihres eigenen Kreises nichts. Das ist gerade das Bewundernswerte an ihrer Kunstfertigkeit, daß sie in ihrer Selbstbegrenzung alles, was in ihr zu verderben, zu veralten und unbrauchbar zu werden droht, in ihr eigenes Wesen umwandelt und eben daraus wieder andere neue Gegenstände bildet. Sie bedarf zu diesem Zweck ebensowenig eines außer ihr befindlichen Stoffes, als sie eine Stätte nötig hat, um das Morsche dorthin zu werfen. Sie hat vielmehr an ihrem eigenen Raum, ihrem eigenen Stoff und an ihrer eigenen Kunstfertigkeit genug.“[27] Innenpolitik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Denar des Mark Aurel, 168 n. Chr. Innere Belastungen für das Römische Reich ergaben sich bereits in der Anfangsphase der Regierungszeit Mark Aurels aus einer verheerenden Tiberüberschwemmung und vor allem aus der als Antoninische Pest bekannt gewordenen Pandemie, die sich seit 165 von Osten aus über das ganze Römische Reich ausbreitete und ab 166 die dicht besiedelte Hauptstadt Rom heimsuchte. Der Quellenbefund dazu ist allerdings widersprüchlich, was damit zusammenhängen könnte, dass einem guten Kaiser im Rückblick die Meisterung einer Mehrzahl schwerwiegender Herausforderungen zugeschrieben wurde.[28] Seiner Selbstdarstellung als Stoiker auf dem Kaiserthron entsprechend, konzentrierte Mark Aurel sein Regierungshandeln, solange ihm dies möglich war, auf die inneren Strukturen des Reiches. Das besondere Augenmerk galt dabei den Schwachen und Benachteiligten der römischen Gesellschaft, den Sklaven, Frauen und Kindern, deren Situation er zu erleichtern suchte. Mehr als die Hälfte der überlieferten Gesetzgebungsakte des „Philosophen auf dem Kaiserthron“ zielten auf Verbesserung der Rechtsstellung und Freiheitsfähigkeit dieser Bevölkerungsgruppen. In gleicher Richtung hat er auch als oberstes Rechtsprechungsorgan des Reiches gewirkt, ein Amt, das er mit mustergültiger Sorgfalt und beispielloser Hingabe ausgeübt hat. Die Anzahl der Gerichtstage pro Jahr wurde auf seine Anordnung erhöht, so dass schließlich 230 Tage für Verhandlungen und Schlichtungstermine vorgesehen waren. Als er 168 selber gegen die Germanen ins Feld zog – mit Lucius Verus zunächst noch, nach dessen Tod 169 aber ganz auf sich gestellt –, hat er seine richterliche Tätigkeit vor Ort fortgesetzt. Die Prozessbeteiligten mussten ggf. zur Verhandlung im Feldlager anreisen. Der Historiker Cassius Dio berichtet darüber: „Sooft ihm der Krieg etwas freie Zeit ließ, sprach er Recht. Den Rednern ließ er die Wasseruhren [wie sie bei Gericht gebräuchlich waren] reichlich füllen, und er beschäftigte sich sehr ausführlich mit den einleitenden Untersuchungen und Vernehmungen, um ein allseits gerechtes Urteil zu fällen. So verwandte er oft bis zu elf oder zwölf Tage auf die Verhandlung eines einzigen Falles, obwohl er manchmal sogar nachts Sitzungen abhielt. Denn er war fleißig und widmete sich den Aufgaben seines Amtes mit der größten Sorgfalt. Nie sprach, schrieb oder tat er etwas, als ob es sich um etwas Unwichtiges handle, sondern verbrachte bisweilen ganze Tage über irgend einer winzigen Kleinigkeit, weil er glaubte, es stehe einem Kaiser nicht an, etwas nur obenhin zu tun. Er war nämlich davon überzeugt, daß schon das geringste Versehen ein schlechtes Licht auch auf all seine übrigen Handlungen werfen werde.“[29] Tiberüberschwemmung, Pestepidemie, Kriegskosten: Es war eine in mehrfacher Hinsicht schwierige Lage, in der sich Mark Aurel auch hinsichtlich der Führung des Staatshaushalts zu bewähren hatte. Gerühmt wurden seine Sorgfalt bei den staatlichen Ausgaben[30] und der Verzicht auf die Einführung neuer Steuern angesichts enormer zusätzlicher Lasten, die er geschultert habe.[31] Im Übrigen trug der Kaiser durch vorbildliche Zurückhaltung in der eigenen Lebensführung dazu bei, dass Ausgabenbegrenzungen etwa im Bereich der Zirkusspiele dem Volk vermittelbar waren. Auch zur Kriegsfinanzierung leistete das Kaiserhaus seinen Beitrag, indem eine Vielzahl wertvoller Gegenstände aus kaiserlichen Besitzständen auf dem Forum zur Versteigerung gebracht wurden. Der Historiker Cassius Dio (Senator unter Commodus; unter Severus Alexander Statthalter der Provinzen Africa, Dalmatien und Oberpannonien) zeigte sich besonders beeindruckt von Mark Aurels Auftreten gegenüber den im Felde siegreichen Soldaten, die als Siegprämie eine Sonderzahlung verlangten. Der Kaiser lehnte dies strikt ab und verwies darauf, dass jede solche Zahlung u. a. den Eltern und Verwandten der Legionäre abgepresst werden müsste. Für das Bankwesen erließ er regulierende Bestimmungen.[32] Militärische Herausforderungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] → Hauptartikel: Partherkrieg des Lucius Verus und Markomannenkriege Darstellung auf der Mark-Aurel-Säule in Rom: Legionen überschreiten den Grenzfluss Donau Schon zur Regierungszeit des Antoninus Pius hatte der Partherkönig Vologaeses IV. wohl einen Krieg gegen Rom vorbereitet, um den römischen Einfluss in Armenien zurückzudrängen. Ob die Aggressionen dabei von den Parthern ausgingen, oder ob ihr Angriff eher ein Präventivschlag gegen die Römer war, die bereits seit 158/159 vermehrt Truppen im Osten hatten aufmarschieren lassen, ist umstritten. Vielleicht haben der Thronwechsel und das noch unerprobte Doppelkaisertum von Mark Aurel und Lucius Verus die Parther ermutigt, unverzüglich loszuschlagen. Als der römische Statthalter von Kappadokien eine schwere Niederlage erlitt, wurde Lucius Verus mit einem Heer in den Osten entsandt. Verus, den noch vor der Einschiffung eine längere Erkrankung bei Canusium festhielt, gelangte erst Ende 162 nach Antiochia am Orontes und widmete sich dort zunächst der Reorganisation des demoralisierten Heeres und der Koordination des Nachschubs. Wie Mark Aurel hatte er persönlich keinerlei militärische Erfahrung. Die operative Führung der römischen Gegenoffensive, die 163 begann, oblag daher hauptsächlich erfahrenen Offizieren wie dem aus Syrien stammenden Avidius Cassius. Die Römer drangen schließlich nach Armenien vor, wo der prorömische Arsakidenprinz Sohaemus als König eingesetzt wurde. 164 begann die römische Hauptoffensive in Mesopotamien; die Osrhoene wurde besetzt, und schließlich fiel 165 sogar die parthische Doppelhauptstadt Seleukia-Ktesiphon in römische Hand, wobei die Königsburg zerstört wurde. Römische Truppen drangen sogar zeitweilig bis nach Medien vor. Der Krieg konnte im Jahr darauf siegreich beendet werden. Dies war ein gewaltiger Erfolg für Lucius Verus, der aber klug genug war, den anschließenden Triumph mit dem senior Augustus Mark Aurel zu teilen, damit die Rangordnung gewahrt blieb. Rom konnte aufgrund der Pestepidemie (siehe oben) aber wohl keinen dauerhaften Gewinn aus dem Sieg ziehen: Ob Nordmesopotamien in den folgenden Jahrzehnten von den Römern kontrolliert wurde, ist unklar. War bis zum Sieg über die Parther die Lage im Donau-Grenzraum zwar auch bereits angespannt, aber doch im Wesentlichen beherrschbar geblieben, so änderte sich dies 167/168, als in Pannonien gegen die einfallenden Langobarden und Obier eine erste Schlacht geschlagen werden musste. Dies geschah auch im Zeichen einer Schwächung durch die Antoninische Pest, vermutlich eine Form der Pocken, die die vom östlichen Kriegsschauplatz zurückgekehrten Legionäre eingeschleppt hatten. Der Statthalter von Oberpannonien trat danach in Verhandlungen mit den Germanen, erreichte aber nur eine vorübergehende Beruhigung der Lage mit Hilfe des Markomannenkönigs Ballomar. Denn bereits 169 drangen Ballomars Markomannen gemeinsam mit den Quaden bis über die Alpen nach Norditalien vor und zerstörten die Stadt Opitergium. Noch auf Ammianus Marcellinus, den großen Historiker der Spätantike, verfehlte der Einbruch der Germanen nicht seine Wirkung.[33] In Rom suchte Mark Aurel der nun neben der Pestdepression zusätzlich um sich greifenden Kriegsfurcht mit religiösen Mitteln beizukommen: „Die Opferaltäre rauchten, man schlachtete inmitten der Hungersnot in Massen ausgesuchte Tiere. […] Gleich eine Woche lang wurden die Statuen der Götter als Festgäste mit Köstlichkeiten bewirtet und zugleich um Erbarmen angefleht.“[34] Mark Aurel machte sich nun auch selbst bereit, mit den Truppen ins Feld zu ziehen. Hatte seit den Zeiten Trajans kein Kaiser mehr an der Spitze der Armee im Krieg gestanden, so kam nun die Militärmonarchie als Ursprung des Prinzipats wieder deutlich zum Vorschein. Die kämpfende Truppe verlangte nach der Anwesenheit eines Kaisers, andernfalls drohten Usurpationen. Beide Augusti, Mark Aurel und Lucius Verus, fanden sich 168 an der Donaufront ein, um Truppeninspektionen durchzuführen und die Lage zu sondieren. Als Ergebnis wurde in der Folge eine spezifische Militärverwaltungszone mit großen Verteidigungsstützpunkten eingerichtet, die praetentura Italiae et Alpium. Das Hauptquartier befand sich zu dieser Zeit unweit östlich von Opitergium in Aquileia. Als auch hier die Pest sich ausbreitete, reisten die Imperatoren auf Anraten von Mark Aurels Leibarzt Galen nach Rom ab. Auf diesem Wege verstarb Lucius Verus Anfang 169, angeblich infolge eines Schlaganfalls. Seine nun verwitwete Tochter Lucilla vermählte Mark Aurel gegen deren Widerstand mit Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, einem besonders fähigen Offizier syrischer Herkunft, den er für die Germanenkriege an sich binden wollte. Der Doppelprinzipat hatte sich damit vorerst erledigt, da es nun niemanden mehr gab, der noch Ansprüche auf den Augustus-Titel hätte geltend machen können.[35] In seinem Wirken als Oberbefehlshaber entsprach Marc Aurel nicht nur den traditionellen Erwartungen vor allem der aristokratischen Oberschicht, sondern gelangte auch zu unkonventionellen Neuerungen und nutzte in außerordentlichen Notlagen vorhandene Möglichkeiten strategischer, operationeller, logistischer und psychologischer Art.[36] Die Datierung der militärischen Operationen im Zuge der Markomannenkriege steht unter dem Vorbehalt einer nicht sehr ergiebigen Quellenlage, deren Deutung eher auf mehr oder minder große Wahrscheinlichkeiten hinausläuft als auf gesichertes Wissen. 170 überrannten Germanen und Jazygen das strategisch exponierte Dacia (Dakien) und stießen anschließend bis nach Moesia superior (Obermösien) vor. Wohl ebenfalls in dieser Zeit scheiterte eine Offensive unter Mark Aurel äußerst verlustreich: 20.000 Legionäre kamen dabei ums Leben. Auch zwei neu ausgehobene Legionen konnten zunächst nicht verhindern, dass die gesamte Donaufront bedenklich bröckelte; in anderen Teilen des Reiches kam es zu Aufständen und Räubereinfällen. Im Südwesten erhoben sich die Mauren, überwanden die Grenzkastelle und verwüsteten die spanischen Provinzen, sodass Südspanien für zwei Jahre Kriegsgebiet blieb.[37] Der Osten wurde zu einem großen Militärdistrikt zusammengefasst und Avidius Cassius unterstellt. Markomannenkriege: Mark Aurel begnadigt Germanenhäuptlinge (Kapitolinische Museen) 179 ließ Mark Aurel an der germanischen Donaugrenze, u. a. zur Abwehr der Markomannen, für die Legio III Italica ein befestigtes Lager errichten, aus dem später die Stadt Regensburg hervorging. Nur mit bedeutenden Anstrengungen auch hinsichtlich der Kriegsfinanzierung (s. o.) und unter temporärer Ausweitung der Rekrutierungsbasis des Heeres z. B. auf Gladiatoren-Sklaven gelang es den Römern in der Folge, auch im germanischen Vorfeld jenseits der Donau wieder Fuß zu fassen, die Angreifer zurückzuschlagen und die verschiedenen germanischen Stämme je nach Einschätzung ihrer Zuverlässigkeit durch unterschiedlich bevorzugte Behandlung bei Vertragsschlüssen gegeneinander auszuspielen. In Teilen wurden sie nun auch als Hilfstruppen der Römer an den jeweils aktuellen Kriegsschauplätzen verwendet. Außerdem kam es zu allerdings wenig erfolgreichen Versuchen, begrenzte germanische Bevölkerungskontingente durch Ansiedlung innerhalb der Reichsgrenzen zu integrieren. Die Lager im Grenzbereich, von denen aus Mark Aurel die militärischen Operationen leitete, wechselten mit den Erfordernissen der Situation. Als Noricum wieder vollständig in römischer Hand war, verlegte er sein Hauptquartier nach Carnuntum. Weitere Standquartiere befanden sich in Sirmium und Vindobona. Für mehrere im Zuge der Markomannenkriege an der Donau stationierte Legionen wurden neue Lager gegründet, so 179 Castra Regina, das heutige Regensburg. In einer Offensive eroberten die Römer 172 die Region Moravia (Mähren), womit die ebenfalls feindlich gesinnten Sarmaten von den Quaden abgeschnitten waren, und unterwarfen schließlich bis ins Jahr 174 auch die Markomannen und Quaden. Die Gefahr, die von den Jazygen ausgegangen war, wurde gebannt, als Marcus von Sirmium aus gegen sie vorging. Der wiederholte Hinweis in der Marcusbiographie der Historia Augusta, Mark Aurel habe jenseits der Donau die Einrichtung zweier neuer Provinzen, Marcomannia und Sarmatia, geplant, wird in der Forschung angesichts mangelnder Bestätigung aus anderen Quellen angezweifelt und kontrovers diskutiert. Einerseits hätten Gebirgszüge wie das Riesengebirge eine leichter zu verteidigende Grenze ergeben können, als es die Donau war; andererseits hätten Einrichtung und Ausbau zweier neuer Provinzen Ressourcen erfordert, die in der gegebenen, auf das Äußerste gespannten Lage kaum zur Verfügung standen.[38] Sollte Mark Aurel sich aber tatsächlich mit solchen Absichten getragen haben, dann wurde er 175 durch den Usurpator Avidius Cassius und 180 durch den eigenen Tod an dem Versuch ihrer Verwirklichung gehindert. Die „Gesandtschaft“ nach China[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] In chinesischen Quellen findet man einen Bericht über eine römische „Gesandtschaft“, die 166 China erreichte. Die Männer brachten Geschenke mit und gaben an, von Andongni (chinesisch 安东尼, Pinyin āndōngní), dem König von Daqin (Rom), (chinesisch  大秦, W.-G. Ta-ts’in) geschickt worden zu sein. Mit Andongni (Antoninus) können nur Antoninus Pius (in diesem Fall hätte die Reise jedoch über fünf Jahre gedauert) oder Mark Aurel gemeint sein. Allerdings dürfte es sich bei den „Gesandten“ nur um herkömmliche römische Kaufleute gehandelt haben, nicht um offizielle Botschafter. Die chinesischen Quellen notieren, dass die Geschenke, die die Römer überreicht hätten, wenig eindrucksvoll (es handelte sich um Waren, die aus Südasien stammten, nicht aus dem Imperium Romanum) und von geringem Wert gewesen seien. Siehe auch: Römisch-chinesische Beziehungen Religionspolitik und Christenverfolgungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Mark Aurel beim rituellen Opfer an den kapitolinischen Jupiter (Kapitolinische Museen) Theologie war im Rom des 2. Jahrhunderts Cornelius Motschmann zufolge hauptsächlich Sache der Philosophen, die sich aber an den griechischen Wurzeln ausrichteten und zur römischen Religionspraxis Distanz hielten. Über die peinlich genaue Beachtung der römischen Kultrituale wurde im Alltag gleichwohl gewacht, weil man meinte, dass politischer Erfolg und Misserfolg davon abhingen. Der Herrschaftsantritt des Philosophen Mark Aurel als Kaiser hätte demnach ein problematisches Spannungsfeld erzeugen können.[39] Als bedeutsame Respektsgeste gegenüber dem Senat ist der Umstand zu verstehen, dass Mark Aurel mit der Herrschaftsübernahme nicht gleichzeitig auch das Amt des Pontifex Maximus übernahm, sondern sich dieses erst etwas später in einem gesonderten Rahmen vom Senat übertragen ließ, wie es in der Frühphase des Prinzipats üblich gewesen war. Den Nöten und Gefahren, die sich mit Tiberüberschwemmung, Hunger, Pest und drohendem Krieg gleich nach Herrschaftsantritt stellten, setzte Mark Aurel eine Reihe religionspolitischer Maßnahmen entgegen. Neben traditionellen Sühneriten wie Lustration und Lectisternien kamen dabei auch Fremdkulte zum Zuge. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit widmete Mark Aurel in diesem Kontext dem Kult des ägyptischen All- und Heilgottes Serapis, jedoch ohne dass dieser unter die Staatsgötter aufgenommen wurde.[40] Gegen das in Krisenzeiten verstärkte Auftreten von selbsternannten Propheten und Wanderpredigern erließ Mark Aurel ein gegen jegliche Verbreitung von Aberglauben gerichtetes Reskript, in dem alle Handlungen unter Strafe gestellt wurden, die religiöse Unruhe erzeugten. Mit den mandata de sacrilegis erhielten die Provinzstatthalter Anweisung, nach Religionsfrevlern zu fahnden.[41] Eine Wiederbelebung des Bewusstseins vom „gerechten Krieg“ suchte Mark Aurel ebenfalls mit religiösem Bezug zu erreichen, als er den zweiten Markomannenkrieg mit einem auf das ius fetiale gegründeten symbolischen Lanzenwurf auf das feindliche Territorium eröffnete. Da die Markomannen mit einem Einfall auf römisches Gebiet den Friedensvertrag von 175 gebrochen hatten, ließ sich dieser Krieg offiziell zu einem bellum iustum erklären und religiös legitimieren.[42] Motschmann gelangt als Fazit seiner Untersuchung bezüglich Mark Aurels Religionspolitik zu dem Schluss, dass römische Religionspraxis und philosophischer Gottesglaube keinen Widerspruch für den Kaiser darstellten, „sondern sich gegenseitig ergänzten und so zu einer eigentümlichen Synthese gelangten.“[43] Eine kritische Auswertung der Überlieferung zu den Verfolgungsaktivitäten gegen Christen in der Regierungszeit Mark Aurels spricht gegen die in der kirchlichen Tradition angelegte Vorstellung einer besonderen Verfolgungspraxis dieses Kaisers. Insbesondere fehlt es an neuartigen Anordnungen Mark Aurels diesbezüglich. Ob es in seinem Prinzipat zu einer höheren Anzahl christlicher Märtyrer gekommen ist als unter seinen Vorgängern oder Nachfolgern, ist laut Joachim Molthagen wegen fehlender verlässlicher Angaben schwer abzuschätzen.[44] In den Jahren 165–168 – vermutlich im Zusammenhang mit der Pestepidemie – waren Christen zunächst in dem durch die Partherkriege in Mitleidenschaft gezogenen Ostteil des Römischen Reiches Opfer örtlichen Volkszorns, nicht jedoch einer staatlich gelenkten Initiative. Mark Aurel hielt gegenüber den Christen an der Linie fest, die seit Trajan galt: Sie sollten nicht behördlich belangt werden, solange sie auf öffentliche Bekenntnisse zu ihrem Glauben verzichteten. Im Privatleben konnten sie ihr Christentum demnach in der Regel ungestört praktizieren, auch wenn es de iure ein Kapitalverbrechen war, Christ zu sein. Unter bestimmten äußeren und inneren Bedingungen gewährleistete diese Praxis einer stillschweigenden Duldung jedoch nicht überall die persönliche Sicherheit. So konnten beispielsweise Erlasse mit Aufforderungen an die Bevölkerung, die Staatsgötter angesichts der Pest durch Opfer zu versöhnen, zu Aversionen gegenüber den Christen führen, die solche Opfer aus Glaubensgründen verweigern mussten. In diesem Fall wurden sie hingerichtet. Es gab aber auch viele lapsi, die vor den Behörden ihren Glauben verleugneten: Wer Christus abschwor, wurde verschont; nur confessores („Bekenner“) wurden hingerichtet. Weitere Christenverfolgungen fanden im Herbst 177 in Gallien statt. Hierbei waren wohl die bereits erwähnten angespannten öffentlichen Finanzen als mitursächlich anzusehen. Gladiatoren für die Veranstaltung von Zirkusspielen wurden zunehmend knapp und teuer, da sie teilweise zu Verstärkung der Legionen im Krieg gegen die Germanen verwendet wurden. So stiegen die Kosten für die Veranstaltung derartiger Spiele, die von den Amtsinhabern der städtischen Selbstverwaltungen in den Provinzen zu bestreiten waren, über das erträgliche Maß hinaus. Diesbezügliche Beschwerden aus Gallien dürften dazu geführt haben, dass Kaiser und Senat ein Dekret erließen, wonach zum Tode verurteilte Verbrecher künftig zu Billigpreisen als Gladiatoren in der Arena eingesetzt werden durften. In Lugdunum (Lyon) machten sich daraufhin Teile der Bevölkerung daran, Christen aufzuspüren und sie im Zusammenwirken mit den örtlichen Zuständigen aburteilen zu lassen, sofern sie ihrem Bekenntnis nicht abschworen. Auch eine fremdenfeindliche Komponente könnte zusätzlich bei diesen Vorgängen eine Rolle gespielt haben, denn unter den Märtyrern waren griechische Namen zahlreich vertreten. Da Lugdunum zudem ein wichtiges Zentrum der paganen Religion in Gallien war und eine Stadt, in der viele in diesem Zusammenhang ihren Lebensunterhalt bestritten, dürfte den Christen hier ohnehin eine verbreitete Ablehnung entgegengebracht worden sein. Der zuständige Prokurator sicherte die Verurteilung der bekennenden Christen durch eine Anfrage bei Mark Aurel ab. Das folgende kaiserliche Reskript verwies auf die seit Trajan gängige Regelung; folglich erlitt die Todesstrafe, wer sich öffentlich zum Christentum bekannte. Nachdem die Christen, die ihrem Glauben nicht abschwören wollten, in Lugdunum 177 in der Arena getötet worden waren, sind weitere Christenverfolgungen in der Regierungszeit Mark Aurels nicht überliefert. Vielleicht hat der Kaiser nach Kenntnisnahme des Geschehensablaufs entsprechende Vorkehrungen getroffen.[45] Die Usurpation des Avidius Cassius und das Nachfolgeproblem[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Reiterstatue Mark Aurels in Rom Im Jahre 175 erhob sich der syrische Statthalter Avidius Cassius als Usurpator. Die Hintergründe sind nicht ganz klar, doch wird sowohl von Cassius Dio als auch in der (allerdings oft sehr unzuverlässigen) Historia Augusta angeführt, Faustina, die Frau des Kaisers, habe in Sorge um die angeschlagene Gesundheit ihres Mannes und zwecks Erhaltung der eigenen Stellung über dessen Tod hinaus Kontakt zu Avidius Cassius aufgenommen. Im Osten hatte Avidius Cassius, der sich als General im Partherkrieg bewährt hatte, großen Zuspruch gefunden. Seine Proklamation zum Kaiser wurde wahrscheinlich durch das Gerücht ausgelöst, Mark Aurel sei gestorben. Als er jedoch erkannte, dass der Kaiser noch am Leben und nicht kompromissbereit war, machte er den Fehler, sich ihm nicht zu unterwerfen, und ließ es stattdessen auf einen Kampf ankommen. In der von Cassius Dio wiedergegebenen Ansprache Mark Aurels an seine Truppen vor dem Aufbruch gegen den Usurpator bedauerte der Kaiser den bevorstehenden, bürgerkriegsartigen Waffengang und versicherte, dass er die Sache lieber im Verhandlungswege vor dem Senat geklärt hätte. Noch sei nicht abzusehen, wie Avidius Cassius sich beim Aufeinandertreffen verhalten werde; doch sei zu fürchten, dass er die Auseinandersetzung nicht überleben und dass Mark Aurel deshalb nicht dazu kommen werde, ihm zu verzeihen und ihm seine Freundschaft anzubieten. Denn das wäre die ihm vorschwebende Art, der Welt zu zeigen, wie man einen Bürgerkrieg beenden sollte.[46] Angesichts des Übergewichts der Donaulegionen, bei denen Cassius keine Anerkennung fand, war seine Lage wenig aussichtsreich. Zu einem Bürgerkrieg kam es aber gar nicht erst, da Cassius kurz darauf von zwei Männern aus den eigenen Reihen erschlagen wurde. Den Kopf des Empörers sandte man Markus, der ihn anzusehen sich jedoch weigerte und die Bestattung anordnete. Über den Tod des fähigen Feldherrn äußerte er sein Bedauern.[47] Noch an der Donaugrenze ließ Mark Aurel seinen Sohn Commodus aus Rom kommen, erhob ihn zum princeps iuventutis, schloss mit den Sarmaten Frieden und zog in den Osten des Reichs, um die Lage in den dortigen Provinzen nach dem Aufstand des Avidius Cassius zu beruhigen. Bei dieser Reise starb Mark Aurels Ehefrau Faustina im Alter von 46 Jahren. Man hat ihr Untreue gegenüber ihrem Gatten nachgesagt. Vielleicht im Wissen darum hatte Mark Aurel sie an die Donaufront kommen lassen und sie zur „Mutter des Feldlagers“ erhoben. Auch nach ihrem Tod verweigerte er ihr ein ehrendes Andenken nicht, was ihn aber andererseits nicht hinderte, alsbald eine Konkubine zu erwählen. Die Rückreise führte den Kaiser über Athen, wo er für die vier großen, traditionsreichen Philosophenschulen (die Platonische Akademie, das Aristotelische Lykeion, die Stoa und den Epikureismus) je einen Lehrstuhl stiftete. Nachfolger und Mitkaiser Commodus um 180 n. Chr. Am 23. Dezember des Jahres 176 feierte Mark Aurel zusammen mit Commodus in Rom den Triumph über die Germanen und Sarmaten (siehe oben). Am 1. Januar 177 machte er Commodus (der Zwillingsbruder Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus war als Vierjähriger, der ein Jahr jüngere Bruder Annius Verus Caesar mit sieben Jahren verstorben) zum gleichberechtigten Mitkaiser (Augustus), das Oberpontifikat behielt er sich allerdings selbst vor, um wie einst gegenüber Lucius Verus seinen Vorrang zu verdeutlichen. Es war dennoch das für alle Welt unübersehbare Signal: Commodus würde Mark Aurel nachfolgen. Dies ist Marcus in der Literatur, die Commodus überwiegend als schlechten Kaiser beurteilt, teilweise als gravierende Schwäche ausgelegt worden: Wäre es nicht gerade an ihm gewesen, die Tradition seiner Amtsvorgänger fortzusetzen und vermittels einer Adoption die Geschicke des Reiches in die bestmöglichen Hände zu übergeben? Hatte sich Commodus nicht schon in jungen Jahren durch unkalkulierbares, auf Genusssucht angelegtes Verhalten für Herrschaftsaufgaben disqualifiziert? Die rein dynastische Nachfolgeregelung scheint bis heute vielen so gar nicht zum sonstigen Agieren des idealisierten Philosophenkaisers zu passen. Was die Entscheidung Mark Aurels erklärt: Keiner der Adoptivkaiser vor ihm besaß einen leiblichen männlichen Erben, den er hätte zum Nachfolger machen können. Commodus’ Anspruch – er war mit dem Titel Caesar bereits als Fünfjähriger 166 als Nachfolgeanwärter designiert worden – war daher durch die von den Amtsvorgängern Mark Aurels während des laufenden Jahrhunderts eingeübte Adoptionspraxis nicht in Frage gestellt, auch wenn die Kaiserwürde formal nicht erblich war (siehe Prinzipat). Gerade der Umstand, dass die kinderlosen Kaiser die Notwendigkeit sahen, ihre Nachfolger zu adoptieren, belegt im Gegenteil die faktische Bedeutung des dynastischen Denkens. Altersporträt des Mark Aurel Den endgültigen Ausschlag gegeben hat aber wohl – nach dem Gang der Ereignisse zu urteilen – der Usurpationsversuch des Avidius Cassius, der zeigte, dass die angeschlagene Gesundheit bzw. das Ableben des Kaisers (175 als Gerücht bereits gezielt gestreut) bei ungeregelter Nachfolgefrage zum Bürgerkrieg hätte führen können. Als verbindliche und möglichst unanfechtbare Lösung bot sich in der gegebenen Situation nur Commodus an. Nichts deutet darauf hin, dass Mark Aurel jemals mit dem Gedanken gespielt haben könnte, seinen Sohn nicht zu seinem Nachfolger zu machen. Dessen Sukzession war für alle Beteiligten schlicht eine Selbstverständlichkeit: Als Privaterbe des Kaisers verfügte Commodus über gewaltige Geldmittel und die Loyalität der Soldaten; solange er lebte, war er als Thronfolger unvermeidlich.[48] Hätte Mark Aurel tatsächlich zugunsten z. B. eines seiner Schwiegersöhne Commodus nicht zum Zuge kommen lassen, so wäre dies im Sinne der Machtsicherung des neuen Herrschers unter Umständen einem Todesurteil gegen den eigenen Sohn gleichgekommen und hätte leicht einen Bürgerkrieg provoziert. Mark Aurel, der die problematischen Wesenszüge seines Sohnes wahrgenommen haben mag, blieb wohl immerhin die Hoffnung, dass Commodus nach der Pubertät in seine Aufgaben hineinwachsen würde. Reisen und Feldzüge seines Vaters hatte er jedenfalls von Mitte des Jahres 175 an – und bis zu dessen Ende im März 180 – als bereits bestätigter Thronfolger zu begleiten: So wie Antoninus ihn nicht aus den Augen gelassen hatte, so behielt nun auch Mark Aurel den Commodus stets an seiner Seite. Seine Ausbildung konzentrierte sich nun stark auf das Militärische, und nicht zufällig blieb Commodus zeitlebens sehr beliebt bei den Legionen. Gleichwohl blieben Art und Dauer seiner Vorbereitung auf die Herrscherrolle hinter den Möglichkeiten, die Mark Aurel zur Verfügung gestanden hatten, zurück. Commodus’ spätere Selbstinszenierung als keulenschwingender Herkules und Gladiator ist für Fündling übrigens weniger abwegig, als es auf den ersten Blick scheint. Fündling zufolge firmierte Herkules auch als Sinnbild eines rastlosen Herrschers, der die Welt in Übereinstimmung mit stoischen Grundsätzen von Plagen reinigt: „Das Spektakel des blutbespritzten Commodus mag ein Versuch gewesen sein, aus dem Vorbild etwas Eigenes zu machen, ein auf den Hund gekommener Stoizismus.“[49] Tod und Nachwirkung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Das Römische Reich zum Ende der Herrschaft von Mark Aurel: Seine Armeen besetzten für einige Jahre Gebiete der Markomannen und der Jazygen. Die hell gefärbten Gebiete im Osten sind die von Rom abhängigen Königreiche von Armenien, Kolchis, Iberien und Albania. Am 3. August 178 brachen Mark Aurel und Commodus zum zweiten Markomannenkrieg auf. Auf diesem Feldzug starb der Kaiser am 17. März 180,[50] entweder laut Aurelius Victor in Vindobona,[51] dem heutigen Wien, oder dem Zeitgenossen Tertullian folgend im Lager Bononia bei Sirmium[52] an einer nicht bekannten Krankheit. Einige Wissenschaftler gehen von der Antoninischen Pest als Todesursache aus[53], andere vermuten ein Krebsleiden. Mit Ausbruch der Krankheit und in Erwartung des nahen Todes ließ der Kaiser seinen Sohn Commodus rufen und mahnte ihn angeblich, den Feldzug bis zum Sieg fortzusetzen. Commodus habe es in dieser Situation – möglicherweise aus Angst vor Ansteckung – eilig gehabt, sich wieder zu entfernen. Daraufhin soll Mark Aurel, um das eigene Ende zu beschleunigen, das Essen und Trinken verweigert haben und bald darauf verschieden sein. Seinen klagenden Freunden entgegnete er der Überlieferung nach: „Was weint ihr um mich? Weint um die Pest und das Sterbenmüssen aller!“[54] Der Leichnam des Kaisers wurde in Rom auf dem Campus Martius verbrannt. Über dem Ort des in der Antike zu einem Denkmal gestalteten Ustrinums erhebt sich heute der Palazzo di Montecitorio.[55] Die Asche Mark Aurels wurde im Mausoleum Kaiser Hadrians, der späteren Engelsburg, beigesetzt. Ihm zu Ehren ließ der Senat von Rom in der Zeit zwischen 176 und 193 eine Ehrensäule (Mark-Aurel-Säule) errichten. Diese ist auf der nach ihr benannten Piazza Colonna in Rom zu finden. Die bekannteste Darstellung Mark Aurels ist sein bronzenes Reiterstandbild, das seit der Renaissance auf dem von Michelangelo gestalteten Platz (Piazza del Campidoglio) des Kapitols in Rom aufgestellt ist (jetzt in Nachbildung, das Original im benachbarten Museum). Dieses Reiterstandbild ist, seit der Einführung des Euro im Jahr 2002, auf der 50-Cent-Münze der italienischen Version dieser Währung abgebildet. Ein weiterer Abguss der Reiterstatue steht in Tulln an der Donau. Die Statue soll dort an die jahrhundertelange Anwesenheit der Römer an der Donaugrenze erinnern. Bildnistypen des Mark Aurel Typ 1 ab 17 Jahren, Altes Museum, Berlin Typ 2 ab 24 Jahren, Nationalmuseum, Neapel Typ 3 ab 40 Jahren, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Typ 3, Seitenprofil, Louvre, Paris Typ 4 ab 50 Jahren, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien Nachhaltige Verehrung und Vereinnahmung in der Antike[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Das Bild, das Mark Aurel als Herrscher geboten hatte, sowie seine überlieferten philosophischen Reflexionen haben ihm unter Zeitgenossen und Nachgeborenen vielfach Respekt und Bewunderung eingetragen, in breiten Bevölkerungskreisen des Römischen Reiches wie unter Aristokraten und Herrschern. Der römische Senator, Zeitgenosse und Historiker Cassius Dio pries Mark Aurel als einen Kaiser, der besser geherrscht habe als irgendjemand sonst in einer vergleichbaren Machtstellung. Die dem letzten Adoptivkaiser bezeugte Verehrung mag noch verstärkt worden sein durch die nach seiner Regierungszeit einsetzenden Turbulenzen, die seinen Tod im Rückblick als Zäsur erscheinen ließen – mit den Worten Cassius Dios als Abstieg in ein Zeitalter von „Eisen und Rost“.[56] Goldbüste des Septimius Severus, dieser Kaiser ließ bewusst die Porträts des Mark Aurel nachahmen. In der anderen wichtigen antiken Quelle zu Leben und Herrschaft Mark Aurels, der im 4. Jahrhundert entstandenen Historia Augusta, nimmt dieser Kaiser bereits im Titel eine Sonderstellung ein (vita Marci Antonii philosophi), indem allein sein Name mit der Bezeichnung Philosoph verbunden wird.[57] Als charakteristische Eigenschaften, die ihm in der Historia Augusta durchgängig zugeschrieben werden, nennt Geoff W. Adams Mäßigung, Gleichmut, Selbstbeherrschung und Verantwortung.[58] Dabei sei die Unterscheidung zwischen Faktum und Fiktion in der Historia Augusta äußerst schwierig, weil sich die Darstellung aus einer Epoche speise, in der die Idealisierung Mark Aurels dessen Betrachtung umfassend durchdrungen habe.[59] So ordnet Adams auch die beiden Mark Aurel kritisch behandelnden Abschnitte (20 und 29) der Marcus-Vita in der Historia Augusta ein, die in der Tradition der Kaiser-Biographien Suetons vermutlich dazu dienen sollten, dem überaus positiven Gesamtbild des Philosophen auf dem Kaiserthron einen neutralen Anstrich zu geben.[60] Die Historia Augusta-Darstellung ziele insgesamt eher auf ein erzieherisches Musterbeispiel als auf historische Wirklichkeitstreue.[61] In die Nachfolge des Marcus Aurelius Antoninus stellte sich nicht nur sein Sohn Commodus, sondern stellten sich auch Septimius Severus, der sich zwecks Herrschaftslegitimation (fiktiv) zum Bruder des Commodus und zum Adoptivsohn Mark Aurels erklärte, und dessen Nachfolger in der Severer-Dynastie. Im 3. Jahrhundert war Marcus Aurelius Namensbestandteil bei jedem Herrscher seit Claudius Gothicus.[62] Diokletian bekannte sich mit seiner Namensgebung deutlich zu Mark Aurel; und noch in der zweiten Hälfte des 4. Jahrhunderts hob ihn Kaiser Julian unter allen seinen Vorgängern als Philosophen hervor und ließ ihm von den Göttern den Sieg in einem satirisch-fiktiven Wettbewerb zusprechen.[63] Christliche Reaktionen und Rezeption[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Der wesentliche Eindruck, den Mark Aurel im spätantiken und mittelalterlichen Christentum hinterließ, war der des Christenverfolgers. Seine christlichen Zeitgenossen reagierten aber nicht einhellig mit Ablehnung. Tertullian sprach ihm sogar eine Schutzfunktion (protector) für die Christenheit zu, resultierend aus Mark Aurels Dankbarkeit gegenüber jenen Christen, die mit ihren Gebeten für das „Regenwunder“ im ersten Markomannenkrieg gesorgt haben sollten.[64] Die längerfristige christliche Rezeption geprägt hat aber vor allem der Zeitgenosse des christenfreundlichen Kaisers Konstantin, Eusebius von Caesarea, der Mark Aurel als Christenverfolger herausstellte und ihm speziell den Märtyrertod des Polykarp von Smyrna 155 anlastete (als Antoninus Pius noch Kaiser war). Augustinus von Hippo führt Mark Aurel in seinem Werk vom Gottesstaat als vierten von zehn Christenverfolgern unter den römischen Kaisern an. Das Reiterstandbild des Marcus blieb während des Mittelalters nur erhalten, weil man in ihm den Förderer des Christentums, Konstantin den Großen, zu erkennen meinte. Das von Eusebius geschaffene Bild überdauerte während des Mittelalters nahezu durchgängig: ein Kaiser der alten Welt, der den wichtigen Krieg gegen die Parther gewonnen und Christenverfolgungen anberaumt hatte.[65] Neuzeitliche Annäherungen und gegenwärtige Deutungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Die letzten Worte des Philosophenkaisers, Gemälde von Eugène Delacroix, 1844 In der Neuzeit wurde Mark Aurel wiederentdeckt und erneut als Idealherrscher verehrt. Im XIX. Kapitel des Principe würdigt Niccolò Machiavelli ihn im Kontrast zu seinen Nachfolgern und den Soldatenkaisern des 3. Jahrhunderts. Nur er sei zu Lebzeiten wie auch nach dem Tod allgemein hoch verehrt worden, weil er die Herrschaft als rechtmäßiger Erbe angetreten habe, sie also weder den Soldaten noch dem Volk zu verdanken hatte, und darum beide zu zügeln in der Lage gewesen sei, ohne sich je Hass oder Verachtung zuzuziehen. Im Zeitalter der Aufklärung wurde Mark Aurel laut Jörg Fündling geradezu Modeautor, insbesondere für Voltaire. „Vernunft, Humanität, Pflichtgefühl und ein nichtchristlicher Gottesbegriff: So sollte ein König sein.“[66] Edward Gibbon vertrat in seinem berühmten Werk History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in Anlehnung an Cassius Dio die Meinung, dass mit dem Tod Mark Aurels ein goldenes Zeitalter geendet habe.[67] Von der Neuzeit bis in die Gegenwart haben sich bedeutende Persönlichkeiten als seine Anhänger bekannt, darunter politisch Verantwortliche wie der aufgeklärte preußische Monarch Friedrich II. oder der deutsche Altbundeskanzler Helmut Schmidt, aber auch russische Literaten wie Anton Tschechow oder der Literaturnobelpreisträger Joseph Brodsky. In der neueren Forschung wird unter anderem der Frage nachgegangen, wie bedeutsam Mark Aurels Philosophie für sein politisches Handeln war, ob und welche Anhaltspunkte es dafür gibt. Lukas de Blois sieht Mark Aurels tägliches Handeln zwar von seinen philosophischen Neigungen beeinflusst, jedoch nicht in der Art systematisch begründeter politischer Reformen. Dies zeige sich unter anderem in seiner Haltung zu Fragen des Familienrechts, der Sklaven- und Frauenstellung.[68] Zu ähnlichen Schlüssen gelangt Thomas Finkenauer in seiner Spezialuntersuchung zu der die Sklaven betreffenden Rechtsetzung unter Mark Aurel. Gegen die Interessen der Sklavenherren kam es in der Regel nicht zur Freilassung von Sklaven. Flohen diese, wurden sie wie Gesetzesbrecher verfolgt. Nur wo allein die kaiserliche Kasse betroffen war, im eigenen Verfügungsbereich also, wurde eine großzügigere Freilassungspraxis entwickelt. Finkenauer verweist zudem auf das mit den besten Juristen der Zeit besetzte consilium principis; es beriet „in offenbar diskursfreudiger Atmosphäre“ und hatte Mark Aurels Wertschätzung, sodass viele Entscheidungen auch ohne dessen Mitwirkung vielleicht kaum anders ausgefallen wären. Resümierend heißt es: „So selten in den Abhandlungen der klassischen römischen Juristen philosophisches Gedankengut aufscheint, so selten ist es auch Entscheidungsgrundlage oder auch nur Motivation in den kaiserlichen Konstitutionen. Wahrscheinlich wäre es damit auch überfordert.“[69] Auch Christopher Gill sieht Mark Aurels Reskripte zur Sklavenfrage zwar auf eine „humane“ Behandlung dieser Unfreien gerichtet, nicht aber auf eine radikal neue, philosophisch konzipierte Änderung des Umgangs mit ihnen. Speziell unter dem Druck der Markomannenkriege sei es ihm vermutlich als der beste Weg erschienen, sein stoisches Lebensprojekt zu verfolgen, indem er seine Herrscherfunktion auf wirksame und humane Weise ausübte.[70] Auf eine zweifache und nur scheinbar widersprüchliche Sicht Mark Aurels auf die Vereinbarkeit seines Anspruchs mit seiner Rolle als Herrscher im Krieg richtet Jean-Baptiste Gourinat sein Augenmerk anhand der Selbstbetrachtungen. Eingangs von Buch VIII heißt es: Auch das bewahrt dich vor eitler Ruhmbegierde, daß du nicht dein ganzes Leben, zumal nicht von Jugend auf, hast hinbringen können, wie es einem Philosophen geziemt, sondern vielen anderen, wie dir selbst, als ein Mensch erschienen bist, der weit von der Philosophie entfernt ist. Ein Makel also hängt dir an, und es ist dir mithin nicht mehr leicht, den Ruhm eines Philosophen zu gewinnen. Aber auch deine Lebensstellung ist dir dabei hinderlich.[71] Rang und Ruhm eines Philosophen kann Mark Aurel nach eigener Einschätzung demnach nicht beanspruchen – auch weil ihm sein Lebensalltag dabei im Wege steht. An anderer Stelle aber findet sich diese Betrachtung: Wie deutlich drängt es sich auf, daß keine andere Grundlage des Lebens zum Philosophieren so günstig ist wie die, in der du dich jetzt befindest.[72] Die Säule des Mark Aurel im Stadtbild von Rom, Piazza Colonna Für Gourinat resultiert aus der Zusammenführung beider Blickwinkel, dass Mark Aurel sein Dasein in politischer Verantwortung einerseits zwar die Reputation des Philosophen kostet, dass es ihm andererseits aber eine politische Praxis vorgibt, die ihn gar nicht erst in Versuchung führt, Abhandlungen zu verfassen oder seine Zeit mit praxisfernen theoretischen Spekulationen zu verbringen.[73] Für Marcel van Ackeren und Jan Opsomer lässt sich Mark Aurel durch eine rein historische Perspektive nur unzureichend erfassen. Er sei wie kaum eine andere Figur der Antike für eine Vielzahl von Disziplinen interessant, darunter Archäologie, Philosophie, Philologie, Numismatik, Politikwissenschaft und Rechtsgeschichte. Die Selbstbetrachtungen, die Mark-Aurel-Säule, sein Reiterstandbild, die ungemein vielfältigen Münzprägungen sowie anhaltende archäologische Funde erforderten und ermöglichten interdisziplinäre Forschung mit dem Ziel, durch komparatistische Methodik ein möglichst facettenreiches Verständnis von Mark Aurel und seiner Wirkung zu erarbeiten und zu vermitteln.[74] In diese Richtung scheint auch die Mark-Aurel-Darstellung des Althistorikers Alexander Demandt zu zielen, der es auf einen „erneuten Versuch“ anlegt, „die literarischen und epigraphischen, die numismatischen und archäologischen Zeugnisse vom Kriegsgeschehen so in eine Chronik einzuordnen, daß sie einander nicht im Wege stehen und die geostrategische Ereignisfolge nachvollziehbar machen.“[75] Mark Aurels eigene Sicht zur Frage des Nachruhms ist in den Selbstbetrachtungen enthalten: Einst gebräuchliche Worte sind jetzt unverständliche Ausdrücke. So geht es auch mit den Namen ehemals hochgepriesener Männer, wie Camillus, Kaeso, Volesus, Leonnatus, und in kurzer Zeit wird das auch mit einem Scipio und Cato, nachher mit Augustus und dann mit Hadrian und Antoninus der Fall sein. Alles vergeht und wird bald zum Märchen und sinkt rasch in völlige Vergessenheit…[76] Quellen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Neben den Selbstbetrachtungen (siehe unten): Historia Augusta, Vita des Marcus Aurelius, Teil 1 und Teil 2 (lateinischer Text und englische Übersetzung bei LacusCurtius) Cassius Dio, Buch 71 und 72 (englische Übersetzung) Fronto: Epistulae Eusebius von Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica, 5. Buch Eine detailliertere Darstellung der Quellensituation bietet Birley.[77] Literatur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Übersichtsdarstellungen Ilsetraut Hadot, Richard Goulet: Marcus Annius Verus (Marc Aurèle). In: Richard Goulet (Hrsg.): Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques. Band 4, CNRS Éditions, Paris 2005, ISBN 2-271-06386-8, S. 269–281 Einführungen und Gesamtdarstellungen Anthony R. Birley: Mark Aurel. Kaiser und Philosoph. 2., durchgesehene und erweiterte Auflage. C.H. Beck, München 1977, ISBN 3-406-06760-3. Überarbeitete Ausgabe auf Englisch: Marcus Aurelius. A biography. Batsford, London 1987, ISBN 0-7134-5428-8 (Standardwerk, inzwischen aber teilweise überholt). Alexander Demandt: Marc Aurel. Der Kaiser und seine Welt. C.H. Beck, München 2018, ISBN 978-3406718748. Jörg Fündling: Marc Aurel. Kaiser und Philosoph. Primus Verlag, Darmstadt 2008, ISBN 978-3-89678-609-8 (Rezension). Pierre Grimal: Marc Aurèle. Paris 1991. Wolfgang Kuhoff: Mark Aurel. Kaiser, Denker, Kriegsherr. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2019, ISBN 978-3-17-021110-0. Klaus Rosen: Marc Aurel. 3. Auflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2004, ISBN 3-499-50539-8 (knappe, aber nützliche Einführung). Aufsatzsammlungen Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.): A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Blackwell, Oxford u. a. 2012 (aktuelle und umfassende wissenschaftliche Einführung mit Beiträgen von internationalen Experten). Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.): Selbstbetrachtungen und Selbstdarstellungen. Der Philosoph und Kaiser Marc Aurel in interdisziplinärem Licht. Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 23. bis 25. Juli 2009. Reichert, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-89500-929-7 (Inhaltsverzeichnis). Volker Grieb (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel – Wege zu seiner Herrschaft. Computus, Gutenberg 2017, ISBN 978-3-940598-27-1 (Inhaltsverzeichnis). Richard Klein (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1979, ISBN 3-534-07802-0 (wichtige Aufsatzsammlung zur älteren Forschung). Untersuchungen zu einzelnen Themen Richard P. Duncan-Jones: The impact of the Antonine plague. In: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Band 9, 1996, S. 108–136. Cornelius Motschmann: Die Religionspolitik Marc Aurels (= Hermes-Einzelschriften. Band 88). Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-515-08166-6. Klaus Rosen: Die angebliche Samtherrschaft von Marc Aurel und Lucius Verus. Ein Beitrag der Historia Augusta zum Staatsrecht der Römischen Kaiserzeit. In: Historiae Augustae Colloquia. Nov. Ser. I, Macerata 1991, S. 271–285. Michael Wendler: Zwischen Concordia und Konkurrenz: Überlegungen zur sogenannten „Samtherrschaft“ von Marc Aurel und Lucius Verus (161–169 n. Chr.). In: Gymnasium 128, 2021, S. 147–175. Ikonographie Susanne Börner: Marc Aurel im Spiegel seiner Münzen und Medaillons. Eine vergleichende Analyse der stadtrömischen Prägungen zwischen 138 und 180 n. Chr. (= Antiquitas. Reihe I, Band 58). Habelt, Bonn 2012, ISBN 978-3-7749-3769-7. Detlev von der Burg (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel. Der Reiter auf dem Kapitol. Hirmer, München 1999, ISBN 3-7774-8340-0 (kunsthistorische Studie zur Reiterstatue). Rezeption Gernot Michael Müller: Mark Aurel. In: Peter von Möllendorff, Annette Simonis, Linda Simonis (Hrsg.): Historische Gestalten der Antike. Rezeption in Literatur, Kunst und Musik (= Der Neue Pauly. Supplemente. Band 8). Metzler, Stuttgart/Weimar 2013, ISBN 978-3-476-02468-8, Sp. 659–668. Weblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Commons: Mark Aurel – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien Wikiquote: Mark Aurel – Zitate Wikisource: Mark Aurel – Quellen und Volltexte Literatur von und über Mark Aurel im Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Werke von und über Mark Aurel in der Deutschen Digitalen Bibliothek Suche nach Mark Aurel im Online Katalog der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz. Achtung: Die Datenbasis hat sich geändert; bitte Ergebnis überprüfen und SBB=1 setzen Herbert W. Benario: Kurzbiografie (englisch) bei De Imperatoribus Romanis (mit Literaturangaben). Rachana Kamtekar: Eintrag in Edward N. Zalta (Hrsg.): Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Vorlage:SEP/Wartung/Parameter 1 und Parameter 3 und nicht Parameter 2 John Sellars: Eintrag in J. Fieser, B. Dowden (Hrsg.): Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Mark Aurel: Selbstbetrachtungen im Projekt Gutenberg-DE Anmerkungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] ↑ Annähernd gleich oft findet sich die Schreibung „Marc Aurel“. Marcus Annius Verus (oder Marcus Catilius Severus, wie er auch genannt wurde) nahm nach seiner Adoption durch Kaiser Antoninus Pius den Namen Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus an (die alternative Benennung als Aurelius Caesar Augusti Pii Filius ist ebenfalls überliefert). ↑ Name ohne kaiserliche Titulatur. Sein vollständiger Name nebst Titulatur zum Zeitpunkt seines Todes lautete Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Germanicus Sarmaticus, Pontifex Maximus, Tribuniciae potestatis XXXIV, Imperator X, Consul III, Pater patriae. ↑ Alle nachfolgenden Zitate aus den Selbstbetrachtungen entstammen, wenn nicht anders angegeben, der Übertragung von Albert Wittstock: Marc Aurel: Selbstbetrachtungen. Reclam, Stuttgart 1949; Nachdruck 1995. Die 12 Bücher werden bei den Stellennachweisen wie herkömmlich mit den römischen Ziffern I bis XII angegeben, die Unterabschnitte mit arabischen Ziffern, z. B.: Mark Aurel II, 2. ↑ Fündling hebt hervor, dass die Geburt des Marcus schon deshalb von speziellem Interesse für Hadrian war, weil Mark Aurels Großvater Annius Verus wegen seiner loyalen Haltung sowie in seinen Funktionen als amtierender Konsul und Stadtpräfekt (und damit als einziger in Rom über Truppen verfügender Angehöriger des Senatorenstandes) dem kinderlosen Herrscher angeblich besonders nahestand: „Falls der kleine Annius überlebte, würde man über ihn nachdenken müssen …“ (Fündling 2008, S. 17). ↑ Mit weniger als 16 Jahren war vor Mark Aurel niemand in diesen Kreis gewählt worden. Die Ausnahme ging vermutlich auf Hadrian als Pontifex Maximus zurück (Fündling 2008, S. 24). ↑ Bei Jörg Fündling heißt es: Hadrian wählte Antoninus, „ohne lebenden Sohn, aber mit einem Neffen aus mächtiger Familie, den der Kaiser aufmerksam beobachtet und ausgezeichnet hatte“. Es sei zu fragen, ob Antoninus ohne Marcus überhaupt zu haben war. Sobald dieser aber in die Erbfolge integriert war, begünstigten der Altersvorsprung vor Lucius, der Adoptivvater Antoninus und jedes verstreichende Jahr den Marcus gegenüber Lucius. „Der Initiator musste das wissen. Andererseits sicherte Hadrian, indem er beide zu Brüdern machte, Lucius’ Zukunft in einem gewissen Maß durch den Appell an Antoninus’ wie Marcus’ pietas...“ (Jörg Fündling: Kommentar zur Vita Hadriani der Historia Augusta. Bonn 2006, Bd. 4.2, S. 1068–1070). ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 38. ↑ Vgl. Henning Börm: Born to be emperor. The principle of succession and the Roman monarchy. In: Johannes Wienand (Hrsg.): Contested Monarchy. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2015, S. 239 ff. ↑ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius 2, 6; Birley, S. 61. ↑ Mark Aurel X, 16. ↑ Mark Aurel XI, 29. ↑ Mark Aurel VI, 21. ↑ Mark Aurel IX, 42. ↑ Mark Aurel VIII, 59. ↑ Mark Aurel VI, 48. ↑ Mark Aurel VIII, 17. ↑ Mark Aurel V, 9. ↑ Mark Aurel I, 16. ↑ Die auch heute noch häufig zu lesende Datierung der ersten tribunicia potestas des Mark Aurel in das Jahr 146 geht auf Theodor Mommsen und dessen chronologische Sortierung der Briefe Frontos zurück. Gestützt wurde sie durch die in den Fasti Ostienses erwähnte Geburt einer Tochter Mark Aurels in Kombination mit eine Fehldatierung einer Inschrift aus Smyrna (Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes IV 1399). Bereits Anthony R. Birley: Marcus Aurelius. Little, Brown, Boston MA u. a. 1966, S. 78. 188, datierte die in den Fasti Ostienses genannte Geburt einer Tochter, die der Verleihung der tribunicia potestas vorausging, auf das Jahr 147, so auch Peter Herz: Kaiserfeste der Prinzipatszeit. In: Hildegard Temporini (Hrsg.): Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Band 16: Religion (Heidentum: Römische Religion, Allgemeines). Teil 2. De Gruyter, Berlin 1978, S. 1135–1200, hier S. 1173. Spätestens seit der Neudatierung der Inschrift aus Smyrna durch Georg Petzl: Τ. Statilius Maximus – Prokonsul von Asia. In: Chiron. Band 13, 1983, S. 33–36, gilt der Ansatz in das Jahr 146 als obsolet. Vgl. etwa Walter Ameling: Die Kinder des Marc Aurel und die Bildnistypen der Faustina Minor. In: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. Band 90, 1992, S. 147–166, hier S. 150 f.; Werner Eck: The Political State of the Roman Empire. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.): A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Blackwell, Oxford u. a. 2012, S. 95–109, hier S. 96; Susanne Börner: Coins. In: ebenda S. 278–293, hier S. 283. ↑ Mark Aurel I, 14. ↑ Mark Aurel VI, 30. ↑ Mark Aurel IX, 29. ↑ Claudia Horst: Die Macht des Philosophenkaisers. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 189–210. „Wie Herodian berichtet, habe Marc Aurel den gebildeten Oberschichten nicht nur durch zahlreiche Ehrungen, sondern vor allem auch durch seine Zugänglichkeit Respekt entgegengebracht. Marc Aurel habe Bittsteller immer zu sich kommen lassen und der Leibwache verboten, Personen abzuweisen, die zu ihm wollten, da nicht Gewalt, sondern allein die Akzeptanz der Menschen eine Voraussetzung für eine gefahrlose und lange Regierungszeit sei.“ (Ebenda, S. 208) ↑ Mark Aurel VII, 5. ↑ Mark Aurel VIII, 38. ↑ Mark Aurel VI, 44. ↑ Mark Aurel VIII, 50. ↑ Hilmar Klinkott: Parther – Pest – Pandora-Mythos. Katastrophen und ihre Bedeutung für die Regierungszeit von Marc Aurel. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 285–306. „Dabei werden besonders in der Historia Augusta die Qualitäten des optimus princeps in Krisenzeiten thematisiert. In sophistischem Sinn wird das Verhalten des Philosophenkaisers bei schicksalhaften Prüfungen durchexerziert.“ (Ebenda, S. 305) ↑ Zitiert nach Birley 1977, S. 326f. ↑ Demandt 2018, S. 311 mit Bezug auf Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius 11, 1. ↑ Cassius Dio 72,32,3; zitiert nach Fündling 2008, S. 140. ↑ Demandt 2018, S. 313 mit Bezug auf Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius 9, 9. ↑ Vgl. Ammianus Marcellinus 29, 6, 1. ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 97. ↑ Stefan Priwitzer: Marc Aurel und der Doppelprinzipat. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 22. „Im Jahr 177 gab es dann wieder einen guten Grund für den Doppelprinzipat, die vorangegangene Bedrohung der Herrschaft der Antoninendynastie durch Avidius Cassus. Marcus reagierte also in allen Fällen ganz pragmatisch auf die politische Gemengelage.“ (Ebenda) ↑ Michael A. Speidel: Der Philosoph als Imperator. Marc Aurel und das Militär. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 73. In der Historia Augusta heißt es gegen Ende der Marcus-Vita, die Truppen hätten ihn ganz besonders geliebt und seien von der Kunde seiner Erkrankung außerordentlich betrübt gewesen. „Marc Aurel, der Philosoph, war auch als siegreicher Imperator in jeder Hinsicht der Musterkaiser der römischen Geschichtsschreibung.“ (Ebenda, S. 74) ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 110. ↑ Michael Alexander Speidel schlägt vor, die militärische Besetzung der nordmesopotamischen und der transdanubischen Gebiete als Versuch Mark Aurels zu verstehen, zu einer langfristigen Lösung zu gelangen, „mit der die Gefahr von Invasionen an der Donau dauerhaft gebannt und die Sicherheit der Reichbevölkerung und der res publica garantiert werden könne. An Rhein und Donau folgten auf Marcus‘ Kriege jedenfalls einige Jahrzehnte Ruhe.“ (Michael A. Speidel: Der Philosoph als Imperator. Marc Aurel und das Militär. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 71) ↑ Motschmann 2002, S. 12. ↑ Motschmann 2002, S. 103–125 unter der Überschrift: „Religion als Instrument der Krisenbewältigung“. ↑ Motschmann 2002, S. 167 f. ↑ Motschmann 2002, S. 199–204. „Im Jahre 178 wurde das erste und zugleich letzte Mal in der römischen Geschichte die Anwendung des Fetialrechts bewußt von der Idee vom gerechten Krieg bestimmt.“ (ebenda, S. 203) ↑ Motschmann 2002, S. 272. ↑ Joachim Molthagen: Die Verfolgung von Christen unter Marc Aurel. In: Grieb (Hrsg.) 2017, S. 361 f. Denkbar sei, dass „die äußere Bedrohung mancher Reichsgrenzen und dazu Gefahren im Inneren, wie sie etwa von der Pest ausgingen, nicht nur zu verstärkten Anstrengungen des Kaisers hinsichtlich der Verehrung der Götter führten und zu Maßnahmen gegen neue religiöse Praktiken oder auch gegen Religionsfrevler, sondern dass in Teilen der Bevölkerung auch der Unmut über die Christen wuchs und damit die Bereitschaft, sie anzuklagen.“ (Ebenda, S. 362) ↑ Paul Keresztes: War Marc Aurel ein Christenverfolger? In: Richard Klein (Hrsg.) 1979, S. 298. „Marc Aurel erfuhr von den Übergriffen in in Lugdunum und anderswo. [...] Tatsächlich gibt es für die restliche Regierungszeit Marc Aurels keine weitere Nachricht über irgendwelche christenfeindliche Ausschreitungen in irgendeinem Teil des Reiches.“ (Ebenda) ↑ Cassius Dio 71,24–27; zitiert nach Demandt 2018, S. 237 f. ↑ Demandt 2018, S. 240. ↑ Demandt 2018, S. 318 f. „Planmäßig und verantwortungsbewußt hat der Kaiser seinen Sohn auf dessen Aufgabe vorbereitet und die Römer auf ihren künftigen Herrn eingestimmt. Die Vorstufen zur Herrschaftsübernahme waren seit Augustus’ Nachfolgepolitik bekannt und bewährt.“ (Ebenda, S. 319) ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 173f. ↑ Cassius Dio 71,33,4. ↑ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 16,14; Epitome 16,12; diese Angabe vertritt Birley 1977, S. 379. ↑ Tertullian, Apologeticum 25; diese Angabe vertreten etwa Fündling 2008, S. 171 und Herbert Bannert: Der Tod des Kaisers Marcus. In: Richard Klein (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1979, S. 459–472, hier: S. 466. ↑ Stefan Winkle: Kulturgeschichte der Seuchen. Düsseldorf 1997. S. 434. ↑ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius 28, 4; Übersetzung nach Fündling 2008, S. 171, der ebenda resümiert: „So wählte er sein Ende gewissermaßen doch noch selbst.“ ↑ Romolo A. Staccioli, Guida di Roma antica. Milano 1994. S. 343 und (Plan) 344. ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 178: „Dass Marcus’ Zeit für Dio den letzten festen Punkt jenes Verhältnisses von Kaiser und Senat verkörperte, zu dem Rom zurückkehren sollte, steht fest.“ ↑ Julia Bruch/Katrin Herrmann: The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.) 2012: A Companion... , S. 483 und 485. ↑ „The central character traits that were emphasized by the author of the Vita Marci were: moderation, equanimity, self-control, and responsibility.“ (Geoff W. Adams: Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD 2013, S. 242) ↑ Geoff W. Adams: Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD 2013, S. 250. ↑ „It seems probable that the HA biographer sought to include these references to Marcus’ weaknesses to establish his presentation as being more even-handed. If this was the case, it is clear that they were unsuccessful because of the severe break in the character representation of Marcus Aurelius and the biographical inconsistency in the narrative that they produce.“ (Geoff W. Adams: Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD 2013, S. 242) ↑ „Judging from the evidence, it is clear that Marcus Aurelius was a benevolent and responsible princeps, but the representation provided in the Vita Marci Antonii extends this beyond the reality of Marcus’ life into an idealized presentation of an almost ‚perfect‘ Emperor.“ (Geoff W. Adams: Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD 2013, S. 247) ↑ Katrin Herrmann: Herrschaftskonzeption und Herrschaftspraxis bei Marc Aurel und eine neue Optimus princeps-Konzeption im 3. Jahrhundert. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2012 (Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 2009), S. 197–200. ↑ Katrin Herrmann: Herrschaftskonzeption und Herrschaftspraxis bei Marc Aurel und eine neue Optimus princeps-Konzeption im 3. Jahrhundert. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2012 (Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 2009), S. 187. ↑ Julia Bruch/Katrin Herrmann: The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.) 2012: A Companion... , S. 488 f. ↑ Julia Bruch/Katrin Herrmann: The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.) 2012: A Companion... , S. 490 und 493. ↑ Fündling 2008, S. 180, der seine durchaus nicht apologetisch gemeinte biographische Darstellung an das Ziel gebunden hat, Mark Aurel im Kontext von „Bedingtheit, Abhängigkeit, Zwang, Denkhindernisse(n), Konventionen und automatische(n) Abläufe(n)“ zu betrachten (S. 12). ↑ Vgl. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, Kapitel 1. ↑ Lukas de Blois: The Relation of Politics and Philosophy under Marcus Aurelius. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.) 2012: A Companion... , S. 179 f. ↑ Thomas Finkenauer: Die Rechtsetzung Mark Aurels zur Sklaverei. Mainz 2010, S. 87–91. ↑ Christopher Gill: Marcus Aurelius: Philosophy and the Rest of Life. In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2012 (Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 2009), S. 57. ↑ Mark Aurel VIII, 1. Καὶ τοῦτο πρὸς τὸ ἀκενόδοξον φέρει, ὅτι οὐκέτι δύνασαι τὸν βίον ὅλον ἢ τόν γε ἀπὸ νεότητος φιλόσοφον βεβιωκέναι, ἀλλὰ πολλοῖς τε ἄλλοις καὶ αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ δῆλος γέγονας πόῤῥω φιλοσοφίας ὤν. πέφυρσαι οὖν, ὥστε τὴν μὲν δόξαν τὴν τοῦ φιλοσόφου κτήσασθαι οὐκέτι σοι ῥᾴδιον˙ ἀνταγωνίζεται δὲ καὶ ἡ ὑπόθεσις. ↑ Mark Aurel XI, 7. Πῶς ἐναργὲς προσπίπτει τὸ μὴ εἶναι ἄλλην βίου ὑπόθεσιν εἰς τὸ φιλοσοφεῖν οὕτως ἐπιτήδειον ὡς ταύτην, ἐν ᾗ νῦν ὢν τυγχάνεις. (Zitiert nach: Marc Aurel: Wege zu sich selbst. Herausgegeben und übertragen von Willy Theiler, Zürich und München, 3. Auflage, 1984, S. 259) ↑ Jean Baptiste Gourinat: Was Marcus Aurelius a philosopher? In: Marcel van Ackeren (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2012 (Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 2009), S. 71 f.: „In other words, he seems to analyze his situation as favourable to the practice of philosophy, without spending himself in a theoretical speculation disconnected from practice.“ ↑ Marcel van Ackeren, Jan Opsomer: Der Kaiser und Philosoph Marc Aurel als Gegenstand interdisziplinärer Forschung. In: Dies. (Hrsg.), Wiesbaden 2012 (Akten des Interdisziplinären Kolloquiums Köln 2009), S. 15–17. ↑ Demandt 2018, S. 10. „Unsere wissenswürdige Kenntnis der Antike ist überhaupt kaum noch zu vermehren. Möglich und sinnvoll ist und bleibt es, aus diesem ungeheuren Schatz die Zimelien immer wieder herauszugreifen und in einer Form darzubieten, die ihren Glanz zur Geltung bringt.“ (Ebenda) ↑ Mark Aurel IV, 33. ↑ Birley, Mark Aurel, 1977, S. 409ff.; bzw. Marcus Aurelius, 1987, S. 226ff. Dieser Artikel ist als Audiodatei verfügbar: Speichern | Informationen | 09:42 min (2,5 MB) Text der gesprochenen Version (30. Oktober 2004) Mehr Informationen zur gesprochenen Wikipedia Vorgänger Amt Nachfolger Antoninus Pius Römischer Kaiser 161–180 Commodus Dieser Artikel wurde am 24. April 2006 in dieser Version in die Liste der lesenswerten Artikel aufgenommen. Normdaten (Person): GND: 118577468 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: n80051702 | NDL: 00431918 | VIAF: 102895066 | Wikipedia-Personensuche Personendaten NAME Mark Aurel ALTERNATIVNAMEN Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Marcus Annius Verus; Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus; Marcus Aurelius; Marcus Catilius Severus; Marcus Annius Catilius Severus KURZBESCHREIBUNG römischer Kaiser GEBURTSDATUM 26. April 121 GEBURTSORT Rom STERBEDATUM 17. 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doi-org-1193	----	Legislation against the Christians* | The Journal of Roman Studies | Cambridge Core Skip to main content Accessibility help We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Login Alert Cancel Log in × × Home Only search content I have access to Home Log in Register Browse subjects What we publish Services About Cambridge Core Cart Cart Institution login Register Log in Cart Hostname: page-component-747cfc64b6-zm8ws Total loading time: 0.36 Render date: 2021-06-14T16:47:07.098Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "shouldUseShareProductTool": true, "shouldUseHypothesis": true, "isUnsiloEnabled": true, "metricsAbstractViews": false, "figures": true, "newCiteModal": false, "newCitedByModal": true, "newEcommerce": true } Home >Journals >The Journal of Roman Studies >Volume 58 Issue 1-2 >Legislation against the Christians* EnglishFrançais The Journal of Roman Studies Article contents Extract References Legislation against the Christians* Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2012 T. D. Barnes Show author details T. D. Barnes Affiliation: The Queen's College, Oxford Article Metrics Article contents Extract References Get access Share Cite Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window] Extract The modern bibliography on the subject of the juridical basis of the persecutions of the Christians in the Roman Empire before 250 is vast, contentious—and in large part worthless. For no-one has yet attempted to gather together in a small compass and to scrutinize without preconceptions all the primary evidence for specific actions or legal enactments of the Senate or of emperors before Decius which directly concerned the Christians, or which were directly rendered necessary by them. Ulpian collected the imperial rescripts relating to the punishment of Christians in the seventh book of his De Officio Proconsulis. This chapter has left no discernible trace in the Digest commissioned by the Christian emperor Justinian. The evidence which remains, therefore, is scattered and often difficult to evaluate. What follows is an attempt to present clearly the primary evidence for the legal basis of the condemnation of Christians before 250 without the accretions of later hagiography or of modern interpretations. Type Research Article Information The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 58 , Issue 1-2 , November 1968 , pp. 32 - 50 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/299693[Opens in a new window] Copyright Copyright © T. D. Barnes 1968. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies Access options Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. References 1 1 For the main lines of the controversy see Sherwin-White, A. N., ‘The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again’, JTS N.S. III (1952), 199 ff.Google Scholar, reprinted with slight additions at The Letters of Pliny (1966), 772 ff.; Wlosok, A., ‘Die Rechtsgrundlagen der Christenverfolgungen der ersten zwei Jahrhunderte’, Gymnasium LXVI (1959), 14 ffGoogle Scholar. The clearest exposition of the problems is that of de Ste Croix, G. E. M., ‘Why were the early Christians persecuted?’, Past and Present XXVI (1963), 6 ffGoogle Scholar. 2 2 Lactantius, , Div. Inst. v, 11Google Scholar, 19: ‘Domitius de officio proconsulis libro septimo rescripta principum nefaria collegit, ut doceret quibus poenis adfici oporteret eos qui se cultores dei confiterentur’. 3 3 Vague references to a ‘νόμος/lex’ against the Christians (such as Athenagoras, Legatio 7; Tertullian, , Apol. 4, 4 ffGoogle Scholar.) will be disregarded: they show merely that Christianity was illegal, not how it came to be so. 4 4 Below, p. 35. 5 5 Volterra, E., ‘Di una decisione del Senato Romano ricordata di Tertulliano’, Scritti in onore di C. Ferrini pubblicati in occasione della sua beatificazione I (1947), 471 ff.Google Scholar; Cecchelli, C., ‘Un tentato riconoscimento imperiale del Cristo’, Studi in onore di A. Calderini e R. Paribeni I (1956), 351 ff.Google Scholar; Sordi, M., ‘I primi rapporti fra lo Stato Romano e il Cristianesimo’, Rendiconti Acc. Naz. Lincei8 XII (1957), 58 ff.Google Scholar; ‘Sui primi rapporti dell’ autorità romana con il Cristianesimo’, Studi Romani VIII (1960), 393 ff.Google Scholar; Il Cristianesimo e Roma (1965), 26, et al. 6 6 So M. Sordi, Il Cristianesimo e Roma (1965), 418; cf. ‘Un senatore cristiano dell’ età di Commodo’, Epigraphica XVII (1955), 104 ff.Google Scholar; ‘L'apologia del martire romano Apollonio’, Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia XVIII (1964), 169 ffGoogle Scholar. 7 7 GCS XLVII, 176 f.; Chronicon Paschale p. 430 f. Bonn. 8 8 For the universal dependence of later eastern writers on Eusebius see Haase, F., Altchristliche Kirchengeschichte nach orientalischen Quellen (1925), esp. 116 ff.Google Scholar 9 9 Urbina, I. Ortizde, Patrologia Syriaca (1958), 41 f.Google Scholar 10 10 Phillips, G., The Doctrine of Addai, the Apostle (1876), 36 f. (Eng. trans.).Google Scholar 11 11 As asserted by Volterra, o.c., 478 ff. Sordi, M., Rendiconti Acc. Naz. Lincei8 XII (1957), 81 fGoogle Scholar. adduces as proof of an independent tradition Moses of Chorene, , Hist. Armen. II, 33Google Scholar—which is both in dubitably no earlier than the ninth century (P-W, Suppl. VI, 534 ff.) and demonstrably based on the Doctrina Addai (R. A. Lipsius, Die edessenische Abgar-sage kritisch untersucht (1880), esp. 31 ff.). 12 12 For the rapid development of other legends concerning Abgar see von Gutschmid, A., ‘Untersuchungen über die Geschichte des Königreichs Osroëne’, Mém. Acad. Imp. St.-Pétersbourg7 XXXV, 1 (1887), 10 ff.Google Scholar; Kirsten, E., RAC IV, 588 ffGoogle Scholar. Already in the time of Eusebius the fictitious correspondence between Jesus and King Abgar was said to be in the official archives of Edessa, (HE I, 13Google Scholar, 5 ff.). The motive for these pious inventions is fully discussed by Koester, H., HTR LVIII (1965), 290 ff.Google Scholar, esp. 305 f. 13 13 Gibson, M. D., ‘Apocrypha Sinaitica’, Studia Sinaitica V (1896), 52 ff.Google Scholar, esp. 59. Another version of the same tale was published by Lewis, A. S., ‘Acta Mythologica Apostolorum’, Horae Semiticae III (1904)Google Scholar: Arabic text; IV (1904), 210 ff.: Eng. trans. 14 14 Apol. 5, 3. Yet Frend, W. H. C., CR n.s. XVII (1967), 196Google Scholar, following Sordi, represents the passage as saying that Tiberius' communication with the Senate ‘resulted in a senatus consultum unfavourable to the new religion’. 15 15 e.g. Sordi, M., Studi Romani VIII (1960), 393 ffGoogle Scholar. 16 16 e.g. M. Sordi, Il Cristianesimo e Roma (1965), 59, etc. 17 17 Pp. 46–48. 18 18 PIR 2 J 757, after E. Groag, Die römischen Reichsbeamten von Achaea (1939), 34 f. 19 19 Acts 18, 14 ff. 20 20 The date can only be inferred from the disputed chronology of Acts: P-W II A, 1716 f. 21 21 Acts 13, 6 ff. Whatever the implausibility of the story to the sceptical, there is hardly a conversion in Acts which is not occasioned by some display of supernatural powers: for the ancient writer, as for the modern believer, ‘it is as one inspired by the (Holy) Spirit that Paul defeats the false prophet’ (G. W. H. Lampe, Peake's Commentary on the Bible (1962), 788h). 22 22 Acts 21, 27 ff., esp 23, 26 ff. (the letter). 23 23 Acts 23, 33 ff., esp. 24, 26 (Felix' hope of a bribe); 24, 27; 25, 9 (Festus' desire to please the Jews). 24 24 Acts 25, 25. For Paul's so-called ‘appeal’ to the emperor, see the convincing exposition of Garnsey, P. D. A., JRS LVI (1966), 182 ffGoogle Scholar. 25 25 cf. Nero 19, 3. 26 26 R. Syme, Tacitus (1958), 553, n. 5, justly observes that ‘Tacitus reproduces the mixed character of the situation itself’. At the time of writing, the latest discussion is by Koestermann, E., ‘Ein folgenschwerer Irrtum des Tacitus (Ann. 15, 44, 2 ff.) ?’, Historia XVI (1967), 456 ffGoogle Scholar. 27 27 Pliny, , Epp. X, 96/7Google Scholar. The opposite inference is drawn by Keresztes, P., VChr XVIII (1964), 204Google Scholar; but see n. 48. 28 28 Indeed, Keresztes, ibid., goes so far as to claim that ‘there is today an almost general agreement that the Christians, under normal circumstances, were not tried on the basis of either the ius coercitionis or the general criminal law, but on the basis of a special law introduced during Nero's rule, proscribing Christians as such’. 29 29 The quotations of Tertullian are all taken from Corpus Christianorum, Series hatina I/II. 30 30 E. Renan, Marc-Aurèle (1882), 284, quotes Melito and observes ‘le système des apologistes, si chaudement soutenu par Tertullien (Apol. 5), d'après lequel les bons empereurs ont favorisé le christianisme et les mauvais empereurs l'ont persécuté, était déjà complètement éclos’. But he failed to see the relevance of Tertullian's two successive versions of Melito's argument for the institutum Neronianum. A similar blindness led J. Zeiller, Miscellanea G. Mercati V (Studi e Testi CXXV, 1946), 3Google Scholar to state that the phrase also occurs in the Apologeticum. 31 31 Eusebius, , HE IV, 26Google Scholar, 7 ff. 32 32 So, e.g., W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (1965), 286 f. 33 33 The sequence of the two works has been demonstrated beyond possible doubt by C. Becker, Tertullians Apologeticum: Werden und Leistung (1954). 34 34 Apol. 5, 2; cf. 21, 24. Although Tertullian is the earliest evidence for Pilate's letter to Tiberius (above, pp. 32 f.) Justin, (Apol. I, 35Google Scholar; 48) appeals to ‘τὰ ἐπὶ Ποντίου Πιλάτου γενόμενα ἄκτα’ to establish the facts concerning the crucifixion of Jesus. But the public records of the province of Judaea were burnt in 66 (Josephus, , BJ II, 427Google Scholar). (On the apocryphal Pilate-literature which is still extant, see O'Ceallaigh, G. C., HTR LVI (1963), 21 ff.Google Scholar). 35 35 J. Moreau, Die Christenverfolgung im römischen Reich 2 (1961), 64 holds that Tertullian is citing Suetonius, and that ‘das institutum Tertullians stammt also aus Sueton’. But Suetonius does not explicitly state either that the executions occurred in Rome or that Christianity was at that time just beginning to gain a hold in the capital: both facts, however, appear in Tacitus, , Ann. XV, 44Google Scholar. 36 36 Borleffs, J. W. P., ‘Institutum Neronianum’, VChr VI (1952), 129 ffGoogle Scholar. 37 37 Eusebius, , Chronicon, GCS XX, 216Google Scholar; HE II, 25, 5 assigns the deaths of Peter and Paul to the time of the first persecution, that of Nero, as does Jerome, , GCS XLVII, 185Google Scholar. Both, however, put the persecution four years after the fire, an error which Sulpicius Severus was able to avoid through his knowledge of Tacitus. 38 38 Chronica II, 31, 2. 39 39 PIR 2B 159. Perhaps the Christians are misreporting an account of the victims of Domitian by Bruttius Praesens (ib. 164). 40 40 Dio LXVII, 14. 41 41 Domitilla is mentioned only because the murderer of Domitian was ‘Stephanus, Domitillae procurator’ (Dom. 17, 1). 42 42 The same factors lie behind the progressive exaltation of the status of the martyr Apollonius: Eusebius calls him ‘ἄνδρα τῶν τότε πιοτῶν ἐπὶ παιδείᾳ καὶ φιλοσοφίᾳ βεβοημένον’ (HE V, 21, 2); Jerome a ‘Romanae urbis senator’ (De Viris Illustribus 42). 43 43 Syncellus, p. 650 Bonn. 44 44 See further Smallwood, E. M., ‘Domitian's Attitude toward the Jews and Judaism’, CP LI (1956), 1 ffGoogle Scholar. 45 45 For commentary on these two letters see Sherwin-White, A. N., The Letters of Pliny (1966), 691 ff.Google Scholar; R. Freudenberger, Das Verhalten der römischen Behörden gegen die Christen im 2. Jahrhundert (Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte LII, 1967). The date of the letters is probably autumn 110 (Sherwin-White, o.c, 80 f.; 693), not 112 (as Freudenberger, o.c. 17, implies). 46 46 This was a common, perhaps the normal, procedure: Millar, F. G. B., JRS LVI (1966), 159Google Scholar; P. D. A. Garnsey, ibid. 181 f. 47 47 cf. Freudenberger, o.c. 203 ff. 48 48 Epp. x, 96, 1–3: ‘cognitionibus d e Christianis interfui numquam: ideo nescio quid et quatenus aut puniri soleat aut quaeri. nec mediocriter haesitavi, sitne aliquod discrimen aetatum …; nomen ipsum, si flagitiis careat, an flagitia cohaerentia nomini puniantur. interim … hunc sum secutus modum. interrogavi ipsos an essent Christiani. confitentes iterum ac tertio interrogavi supplicium minatus: perseverantes duci iussi. neque enim dubitabam, qualecumque esset quod faterentur, pertinaciam certe et inflexibilem obstinationem debere puniri’. These words surely disprove the inference of Keresztes, P., VChr XVIII (1964), 204Google Scholar: ‘It is clear from the well-known correspondence of Pliny and Trajan that before and at the time of this correspondence there was a law proscribing Christianity as such’. Keresztes appears to rely on the assumption ‘nullum crimen sine lege’—which is false for Roman law (de Ste Croix, o.c. (n. 1), 12). 49 49 That this is the main point of the letter was realized by E. G. Hardy, Plinii Epistulae ad Traianum (1889), 65, and can be securely deduced from three facts: Pliny places his suggestion in an emphatic position, at the very end; he constructs the argument of the letter to build up to it; and he stresses how large a number are still in custody (9: ‘visa est enim mihi res digna consultatione, maxime propter periclitantium numerum’). 50 50 de Ste Croix, o.c. 19 f. 51 51 Pliny, , Epp. x, 96Google Scholar, 2; Justin, , Apol. 1, 4Google Scholar; etc. 52 52 Apol. 2, 17. 53 53 Eusebius, , HE V, 1, 14Google Scholar; 1, 25 ff.; 1, 33 ff. 54 54 The year is fixed by AÉ 1957, 17. 55 55 In the MS. of Justin the original Latin has been supplanted by Eusebius’ Greek translation. The Latin which stands at Rufinus, , HE IV, 9Google Scholar, is no more than a retranslation of Eusebius’ Greek (Schanz-Hosius, Gesch. der röm. Litt. III3(1922), 250 f.). 56 56 PIR 1L 170; A. Degrassi,Fasti Consolari(1952), 32. 57 57 Mart. Polyc. 3, etc. 58 58 Compare the constant employment of the charge of maiestas against senators at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. 59 59 E. Groag, P-W XIII, 462 f.; Schmid, W., ‘The Christian Re-interpretation of the Rescript of Hadrian’, Maia VII (1955), 5 ff.Google Scholar; Keresztes, P., ‘The Emperor Hadrian's Rescript to Minicius Fundanus’, Latomus XXVI (1967), 54 ffGoogle Scholar. = Phoenix XXI (1967), 119 ff.Google Scholar; Freudenberger, o.c. 216 ff. Hadrian and the Christians had different views of what was meant by ‘εἴ τις δείκνυσίν τι παρὰ τοὺς νόμους πράττοντας’. The latter took the clause to prohibit condemnation for the nomen alone, whereas Hadrian was in fact here mainly considering the case of those who were falsely accused of Christianity ‘συκοφαντίας χάριν’. 60 60 See L-S-J, s.v. 61 61 Compare ‘μηδὲ μόναις βοαῖς’ in Hadrian's rescript to Fundanus. 62 62 PIR 2A 1513. 63 63 PIR 2A 697. 64 64 Harnack, A., ‘Das Edikt des Antoninus Pius’, Texte u. Unters. XIII, 4 (1895), 56 ffGoogle Scholar. was, however, possibly correct in maintaining that the Christian who composed the letter styled the emperor quite simply ‘Ἀντωνīνος’, and that a later hand produced what stands in Eusebius, while ‘der nicht ungelehrte Redaktor B’ produced what is in Cod.Par.Gr. 450 to remove the discrepancy in Eusebius. 65 65 XLIX, 38 ff. Keil. 66 66 e.g. Hüttl, W., Antoninus Pius II (1933), 48 f.Google Scholar; Degrassi, o.c. (n. 56), 38; cf. PIR 2A 810. 67 67 Ramsay, W. M., JÖAI XXVII (1932), Beiblatt 245 ff.Google Scholar; followed (for the date of the earthquakes) by Frend, o.c. (n. 32), 240. 68 68 Bowersock, G. W., ‘The Proconsulate of Albus’, HSCP LXXII (1967), 289 ff.Google Scholar, arguing from the in- scriptions at JÖAI XLIV (1959), 143Google Scholar ( = SEG XIX, 684); JÖAI XLIV (1959), Beiblatt 257 ffGoogle Scholar. 69 69 cf. Bowersock, o.c. 292: ‘the rescript has a genuine historical context, and that is why, bogus as it probably is, it can oscillate between two emperors in the year 161‘. 70 70 For letters from emperors to provincial councils on the subject of criminals liable to capital punishmen t compare Dig. XLVII, 14, 1 (Hadrian to the concilium Baeticae: about rustlers); P. Ox. 2104, of of which Dig. XLIX, 1, 25 preserves the first part (Alexander to the κοινόν of Bithynia: abou t appeals, some on capital charges). 71 71 Dodd, C. H., Num. Chr.4 XI (1911), 209 ffGoogle Scholar. 72 72 Eusebius, , HE IV, 26Google Scholar, 10. Since the Apology is addressed to one emperor alone (ibid. 6 ff.), it was presumably composed between the death of Lucius Verus in the winter of 168/9 and Commodus’ investiture as Augustus in 177. 73 73 6/7: . 74 74 Eusebius, , HE V, 1, 47Google Scholar. (On the date, JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 518Google Scholar.) 75 75 ibid, IV, 26. Also by Athenagoras, Legatio 1 ff. 76 76 Acta Just. 4 f. (short recension). Sentence is, however, passed in the following words: ‘οἱ μή βουληθέντες ἐπιθῦσαι τοῖς θεοῖς, φραγελλωθέντες ἀπαχθήτωσαν τῇ τῶν νόμων ἀκολουθίᾳ’ (ibid. 5). 77 77 As attempted by Harnack, o.c; Freudenberger, R., ‘Christenreskript: ein umstrittenes Reskript des Antoninus Pius’, Zeitschr. für Kirchengesch. LXXVIII (1967), 1 ffGoogle Scholar. 78 78 Vita 66. 79 79 e.g. that Lucius Verus returned from Syria to Ephesus to marry Marcus' daughter (Vita 45, cf. JRS LVII (1967), 72Google Scholar). 80 80 Vita I. The province of Phrygia Salutaris is certainly no older than the Diocletianic reforms, and its formation may be even later: see Jones, A. H. M., ‘The Date and Value of the Verona List’, JRS XLIV (1954), 21 ffGoogle Scholar. 81 81 For the terms of these edicts see, respectively, Knipfing, J. R., ‘The Libelli of the Decian Persecution’, HTR XVI (1923), 345 ff.Google Scholar; de Ste Croix, G. E. M., ‘Aspects of the “Great” Persecution’, HTR XLVII (1954), 75 ffGoogle Scholar. 82 82 Luke 2, 1. The decree is, nonetheless, accepted as authentic by Sordi, M., ‘I “nuovi decreti” di Marco Aurelio contro i Cristiani’, Studi Romani IX (1961), 365 ffGoogle Scholar. 83 83 Perhaps most effectively by J. B. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers Part II. S. Ignatius. S. Polycarp, I2 (1889), 488 ff. 84 84 Sordi, M., ‘Le polemiche intorno al Cristianesimo del II secolo’, Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia XVI (1962), 19 ff.Google Scholar; o.c. (n. 16), 193 ff. 85 85 Eusebius, , HE V, 21Google Scholar, 3, it is true, states that the accuser of Apollonius was executed: but see below, pp. 46-48. 86 86 So, most recently, Sordi, o.c. (n. 82); Frend, o.c. (n. 32), 268 f. 87 87 Grégoire, H.—Orgels, P., Bull. Ac. Roy. Belg. XXXVIII (1952), 44 fGoogle Scholar. = Les Persécutions dans l'empire romain 2 (1964), 174 f.; de Ste Croix, G. E. M., JTS n.s. XVIII (1967), 219Google Scholar. 88 88 For an indication of the problems surrounding the provincial edict see Chalon, G., L'Édit de Tiberius Julius Alexander (1964), 72 ff.Google Scholar Sherwin-White, o.c. (n. 45) gives no annotation on Pliny's edict in Bithynia (Epp. X, 96, 7), merely referring to its ‘routine publication’ (o.c. 583). 89 89 Grégoire—Orgels, l.c., argue that the decrees come from the cities of Asia. But the cities ought not (at this date) to concern themselves with a capital offence; and the view in the text perhaps accords better with the words ‘εἰ δὲ καὶ παρὰ σοῦ μὴ εἴη ἡ βουλὴ αῦτη καὶ τὸ καινὸν τοῦτο διάταγμα’ (Eusebius, , HE IV, 26Google Scholar, 6 fin.). 90 90 For the date, and the possibility that the emperor is not Marcus, see JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 518Google Scholar. 91 91 (a Roman citizen) raises a problem. It describes a particular mode of execution (D. M. Macdowell, Athenian Homicide Law (1963), 111 ff.). But the context here seems to require a vague word for execution in general; and it must not be forgotten that Marcus will have written to the governor in Latin. 92 92 It is not here relevant that Pliny sent the citizens to Rome whereas the governor of Lugdunensis did not: cf. Garnsey, l.c. (n. 46). 93 93 For the punishment see P- W IV, 1731; TLL IV, 1246 f. Eusebius, l.c., and Acta Apoll. 45 (Greek) surely demonstrate that crurifragium was a form of execution. 94 94 Eusebius does not identify this decree with the alleged measure of Marcus Aurelius recorded at HE v 5, 6. 95 95 Geffcken, J., Hermes XLV (1910), 486Google Scholar. The edict of Constantine de accusationibus (Bruns, Fortes 7 no. 94 = FIRA 2 1, no. 94), though adduced by Th. Mommsen, ‘Der Prozess des Christen Apollonius unter Commodus’, S-B Berlin 1894, 497 ff. = Ges. Schr. III (1907), 447 ff.Google Scholar, offers no parallel: there slaves or freedmen who accuse their master or patrons are to be crucified ‘denegata audientia’. 96 96 Th. Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (1899), 414 f., who also shows that such evidence was becoming acceptable in an ever-increasing number of cases. 97 97 ibid. 98 98 The normal practice when hearing the evidence of slaves and freedmen: ibid. 416 ff. 99 99 See further below, pp. 46–48. 100 100 Acta Apoll. 1/2 (Greek); Eusebius, , HE V, 21Google Scholar, 4; cf. below, pp. 46, 47. 101 101 Elag. 3, 4/5; Alex. 22, 4 (both discussed below); Quad. Tyr. 8, 6 f.; cf. Syme, R., ‘Ipse ille patriarcha’, Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1966–67 (1968), 119 ff.Google Scholar; Ammianus and the Historia Augusta (1968), 61 ff. 102 102 Juster, J., Les Juifs dans l'Empire romain I (1914), 226, 258Google Scholar; M. Avi-Yonah, Geschichte der Juden im Zeitalter des Talmud (1962), 45. Historical interpretation of the actions of Septimius Severus has for too long been vitiated by the assumption that he was anti-Roman (e.g. Avi-Yonah, o.c. 38): for a refutation see Historia XVI (1967), 87 ffGoogle Scholar. 103 103 See the long list given by Schwarte, K. H., Historia XII (1963), 189 ffGoogle Scholar. Since then the argument has been repeated by Frend, o.c. (n. 32), 320 ff. On the other hand, H. Grégoire, Les Persécutions dans l'empire romain 2 (1964), 36 uses the edict as evidence of Severus' favouring Christianity. 104 104 Pass. Perp. 6. 105 105 See Hasebroek, J., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Septimius Severus (1921), 118 ff.Google Scholar For Severus' stay in Egypt, W. L. Westermann—A. A. Schiller, Apokrimata: Decisions of Septimius Severus on Legal Matters (1954); Youtie, H. C.—Schiller, A. A., Chronique d'Égypte XXX (1955), 327 ffGoogle Scholar. 106 106 CIG 5973 = CIL VI, 1603; also printed by G. J. Murphy, The Reign of the Emperor L. Septimius Severus from the Evidence of the Inscriptions (1945), 28 f. 107 107 van Beek, C.J.M.J., Passio Sanctarum Perpetuae et Felicitatis I (1936), 162* ffGoogle Scholar. 108 108 HE VI, 2, 2. It has not yet been proved that Eusebius always dates events in Egypt by the official Egyptian regnal years (as A. Stein, Die Präfekten von Ägypten (1950), 111 ). Nor is it by any means certain that the Ecclesiastical History, following the scheme of the Chronicon, always reckons an emperor's regnal years from September to September (as Lawlor, H. J.—Oulton, J. E. L., Eusebius II (1928), 37 f.Google Scholar). However, the length of Philip's reign is given as seven years (HE VI, 39, 1)—a figure which must come from Egyptian regnal years (see PIR 2 J 461). 109 109 Eusebius, , HE VI, 3, 3Google Scholar; 5, 2. 110 110 The earliest evidence is P. Ox. 1100 (October/November, 206). Claudius Julianus is now attested as prefect from 203 until at least the end of 204: see Rea, J., ‘The Prefecture of Claudius Julianus’, La Parola del Passato XXII (1967), 48 ff.Google Scholar; Barnes, T. D., JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 526 fGoogle Scholar. 111 111 Hippolytus' Commentary on Daniel, though often adduced, offers no support at all to the view here criticized: see below, pp. 42 f. 112 112 It is worth noting that A. Wirth, Quaestiones Severianae (1888), 34, argued ‘a. 200 verus persecutionis annus putandus est’. The difficulty which he saw is too often evaded: thus Frend, o.c. 321, blithely speaks of ‘the edict of 202’. 113 113 Schwarte, K. H., ‘Das angebliche Christengesetz des Septimius Severus’, Historia XII (1963), 185 ffGoogle Scholar. Frend, o.c. 341, n. 144, rejects Schwarte's cogent arguments with the peculiar and irrelevant observation ‘the victims of the outbreak would hardly thank Dr. Schwarte for telling them that the Severan decree against the Christians was an “Erfindung”’. 114 114 Scap. 4, 5. 115 115 HE, VI, 1, 1. 116 116 Butler, O. F., ‘Studies in the Life of Heliogabalus’, Univ. of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series IV (1910), 1 ff.Google Scholar, at 75 ff. 117 117 Nevertheless, it is still accepted as historical by many: e.g. Avi-Yonah, o.c. 41; Sordi, o.c. (n. 16), 238; and (with some hesitation) Frend, o.c. 328; 344, n. 207. 118 118 Compare the same technique at Alex. 24, 4 (‘habuit in animo’), where an imitation of Victor, Aurelius, Caes. 28, 6 fGoogle Scholar. (on Philip) has been detected by Chastagnol, A., Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1964–1965 (1966), 55 fGoogle Scholar. 119 119 G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer 2 (1912), 366. 120 120 Dessau, H., ‘Die Samaritaner bei den S.H.A.’, Janus I (1921), 124 ffGoogle Scholar. 121 121 See the analyses by K. Hönn, Quellenuntersuchungen zu den Viten des Heliogabalus und des Severus Alexander im Corpus der S.H.A. (1911), 33 ff.; N. H. Baynes, The Historia Augusta. Its date and purpose (1926), 118 ff. 122 122 Momigliano, A. D., Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes XVII (1954), 40 fGoogle Scholar. = Secondo Contributo alla Storia degli Studi Classici (1960), 129 ff. = Studies in Historiography (1966), 163 f. 123 123 Syme, l.c. (n. 101). 124 124 R. Syme, Ammianus and the Historia Augusta (1968), 61; 138. 125 125 It is particularly significant that K. Bihlmeyer, Die ‘syrischen’ Kaiser zu Rom (211–235) und das Christentum (1916), 111 ff. could find none, though he wished to accept as many of the six as possible. 126 126 As Frend, o.c. 329. 127 127 No less weak, in the case of the Historia Augusta, is the argument from plausibility: e.g. Bihlmeyer, o.c. 101; Avi-Yonah, o.c. 41. But what seems plausible to the modern scholar may have been invented by the ancient romancer precisely because it seemed plausible to him too. 128 128 In Dan. I, 1, etc. 129 129 Dan. 13, 1 ff. (Vulgate), esp. 13, 20/1. 130 130 The explicit internal evidence from which a date is prima facie to be deduced is stated succinctly by A. Bonwetsch, GCS I, xx: ‘Die Abfassung liegt später als die von De Antichristo, nicht zu lange nach einer heftigen Verfolgung, während Ein Kaiser zu herrschen scheint’. Elsewhere, however, Bonwetsch produced other reasons for putting the In Danielem among Hippolytus' earlier works (Studien zu den Kommentaren Hippolyts (1897), 81 ff.). 131 131 So, e.g., Harnack, A., Die Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius II (1904), 249 f.Google Scholar; Bardy, G., Hippolyte: Commentaire sur Daniel (Sources Chrétiennes XIV, 1947), 12 f.Google Scholar; M. Lefèvre, ibid., 111; Frend, o.c. 375; 387, n. 219; B. Altaner-A. Stuiber, Patrologie 7 (1966), 166 f. 132 132 Above, pp. 40 f. 133 133 Apol. 4, 4; 4, 5; 5, 1. 134 134 Acts 17, 7. Noted by Bonwetsch, A., GCS I, 32Google Scholar. 135 135 Clarke, G. W., ‘Some Victims of the Persecution of Maximinus Thrax’, Historia XV (1966), 445 ffGoogle Scholar. 136 136 Hence claimed as the first Christian emperor by Grégoire, o.c. (n. 103), 9 ff. The development of Christian views of Philip is of some interest. The contemporary Dionysius refers to his sympathy (Eusebius, , HE VI, 41Google Scholar, 9), and Eusebius in the Chronicon implies it (GCS XX, 226; cf. HE VI, 39, 1). In the Ecclesiastical History, however, Eusebius goes further and represents Philip as a convinced Christian (VI, 34), a statement which Jerome inserts into his edition of the Chronicon (GCS XLVII, 217). Would such a story have been invented before there was a Christian emperor? If not, his statements about Philip are relevant to the problems raised by the various versions of Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History. (Suspiciously similar is the story which Philostorgius, HE VII, 8 (GCS XXI, 89 f.), reports about the hostility to the Christians of either Numerian or Decius.) 137 137 Eusebius, , HE VI, 41Google Scholar, 1: ὁ δέ αὐτὸς (sc. Dionysius) ἐν ἐπιστολῇ … τῶν κατὰ Δέκιον μαρτυρησάντων ἐν Ἀλεξανδρείᾳ τοὺς ἀγῶνας τοῦτον ἱστοπεἴ τὸν τρόπον οὐκ ἀπὸ τοῦ βασιλικοῦ προστάγματος ὁ διωγμὸς παρ᾿ ἡμῖν ἤρξατο, ἀλλὰ γὰρ ὅλον ἐνιαυτὸν προύλαβεν. 138 138 The year ought perhaps to be counted, not from the promulgation of the edict in Rome (winter 249/50: P-W XV, 1281), or even in Alexandria, but rather from the date fixed in Egypt for compliance with its terms. 139 139 Knipfing, o.c. (n. 81). 140 140 PIR 2 J 461. Note especially the Alexandrian coins of Philip's seventh year, minted after 29th August, 249. 141 141 Claud. 25, 4. 142 142 So A.D.Momigliano, Claudius 2 (1961), 32 f.; 99. 143 143 See now Judge, E. A.—Thomas, G. S. R., ‘The Origin of the Church at Rome: A New Solution?’, Reformed Theological Review XXV (Melbourne, 1966), 81 ffGoogle Scholar. 144 144 Suetonius, , Domit. 12, 2Google Scholar. 145 145 See, in general, Smallwood, o.c. (n. 44). 146 146 Dig. XLVIII, 19, 30. 147 147 Sent. Pauli V, 21, 2. 148 148 Re-edited by Oliver, J. H.—Palmer, R. E. A., ‘Minutes of an Act of the Roman Senate’, Hesperia XXIV (1955). 320 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar. 149 149 JTS N.S. XIX (1968), 518 fGoogle Scholar. 150 150 As appears to be conjectured by A. Birley, Marcus Aurelius (1966), 329. But the ‘new decrees’ seem to have mentioned the Christians in particular, not just criminals in general (see Eusebius, , HE IV, 26Google Scholar, 5). 151 151 Similarly, the theory that Christians were punished for their contumacia towards the magistrate tried them (Sherwin-White, o.c. 780 ff.) fails to explain why they were haled into court to appear before him. 152 152 See, e.g., Neumann, K. J., Der römische Staat und die allgemeine Kirche bis auf Diocletian I (1890), 274 ffGoogle Scholar. 153 153 See Barnes, T. D., ‘Pre-Decian Acta Martyrum’, JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 509 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar. Acta Martyrum are quoted here from R. Knopf—G. Krüger—G. Ruhbach, Ausgewählte Martyrerakten 4 (1965), except where otherwise stated. 154 154 The importance of this type of evidence is rightly emphasized by Lieberman, S., ‘Roman Legal Institutions in Early Rabbinics and in the Acta Martyrum’, JQR XXXV (1944–1945), 1 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar. 155 155 Mart. Polyc. 10, 1; Acta Scill. 3; 5; also Acta Apoll. 3. 156 156 Acta Scill. 3; Pass. Perp. 6, 2; cf. Pliny, , Epp. X, 96Google Scholar, 6. 157 157 Acta Scill. 2 ff.; cf. Acta Apoll. 6; 8 f. (Apollonius tries to rebut the suspicion of disloyalty). 158 158 Acta Scill. 1. 159 159 2 (Latin); 4; 11; 45 (Greek). 160 160 H. Lietzmann, ‘Die älteste Gestalt der Passio SS. Carpi, Papylae et Agathonikes’, Festgabe für K. Müller (1922), 46 ff. = Kl. Schr. I (Texte u. Unters. LXVII, 1958), 239 ffGoogle Scholar. 161 161 M. Simonetti, Studi agiografici (1955), 105 ff. 162 162 JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 514 f.Google Scholar, arguing from the question ‘principals es ?/βονλευτὴς εί; that the Decian date is the more probable of the two. 163 163 HE IV, 15, 48: ἑξῆς δὲ καὶ ἄλλων ἐν Περγάμῳ πόλει τῆς Ἀσίας ὑπομνήματα μεμαρτυρηκότων φέρεται, Κάρπου… . 164 164 ibid. 47: τῶν γε μὲν τότε περιβόητος μάρτυς εἷς τις ἐγνωρίζετο Πιόνιος. On the date of Pionius' martyrdom, see now JTS n.s. XIX (1968), 529 ffGoogle Scholar. 165 165 So, e.g., Lietzmann, H., CAH XII (1939), 521Google Scholar: ‘there began under the emperor Decius the first systematic Christian persecution, organized for the whole empire by imperial command’. 166 166 PIR 2 J 814 gives the evidence relevant to the date. 167 167 All three are to be found together at G. Lazzati, Gli sviluppi della letteratura sui martiri nei primi quattro secoli (1956), 119 ff. 168 168 The translation given here is a rendering into modern English of that by F. C. Conybeare, Monuments of Early Christianity (1894), 35 ff. O. von Gebhardt, Ausgewählte Märtyreracten (1902), 44 ff. conveniently prints a German translation of the Armenian beneath the Greek text. 169 169 See Grosso, F., La lotta politica al tempo di Commodo (1964), 139 ff.Google Scholar; 190 ff. 170 170 Acts 18, 24 f.: Ἰουδαῖος δέ τις ᾿Απολλῶς όνόματι, ᾿Αλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει, ἀνὴρ λόγιος > Acta Apoll. pref. (Greek): ᾿Απολλὼς δὲ ὁ ἀπόστολος, ἀνὴρ ὤν εὐλαβής, ᾿Αλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει. 171 171 P-W I, 1863. 172 172 HE V, 21, 4; cf. above, p. 40. 173 173 ibid. 5. 174 174 See Knopf—Krüger—Ruhbach, o.c. 35. 175 175 E. Gabba, ‘Il processo di Apollonio’, Mélanges offerts à J. Carcopino (1966), 397 ff. Cf. Rufinus, , HE V, 21Google Scholar, 4: ‘turn deinde exoratur beatus Apollonius martyr, uti defensionem pro fide sua, quam audiente senatu atque omni populo luculenter et splendide habuerat, ederet scriptam’. 176 176 yet Harnack, A., Deutsche Literaturzeitung XXV (1904), 2464 ffGoogle Scholar. had no difficulty in showing that the argument from apologetic motifs is not by itself sufficient. 177 177 HE II, 2, 4; cf. V, 5, 5. 178 178 J.Geffcken, ‘Die Acta Apollonii’, Gött. Gel. Nachr., Phil.-hist. Kl. 1904, 262 ff.; Zwei Griechische Apologeten (1907), 246 ff.; Hermes XLV (1910), 486 ffGoogle Scholar. 179 179 Note the attitude of Dio, which is doubtless typical: F. Millar, A Study of Cassius Dio (1964), 115 f. Significantly, Mommsen, o.c. (n. 95), 499 = 449 felt compelled to conjecture that Apollonius was actually brought before the Senate, not by Perennis, but by the consuls. 180 180 Modern scholars often evade the difficulty and improve on Eusebius, who did not consider Apollonius to be a senator (above, n. 42). Thus L. L. Howe, The Pretorian Prefect from Commodus to Diocletian (A.D. 180–305) (1942), 96 f. cites the trial as ‘an illustration of the procedure which must generally have been followed in trying Senators’; and Beaujeu, J., La religion romaine à l'apogée de l'Empire I (1955), 393Google Scholar states ‘à Rome même, un personnage de rang sénatorial nommé Apollonius fut jugé et condamné à la décapitation par le Sénat’. 181 181 Acta Apoll. I/2. 182 182 ibid. I; 11 ff. 183 183 Griffe, E., ‘Les Actes du martyr Apollonius et le problème de la base juridique des persécutions’, Bull. litt. eccl. LIII/LXXII (1952), 65 ffGoogle Scholar. is surely mistaken in translating ‘τὸ δόγμα τῆς συγκλήτου’ as merely ‘la volonté du sénat’. Zeiller, J., Mélanges J. Lebreton IIGoogle Scholar (Rech. sci. rel. XL, 1952), 155 fGoogle Scholar. takes the wavering as proof that Christianity was originally outlawed by the joint action of emperor and Senate. 184 184 HE V, 21, 4: κεφαλικῇ κολάσει ὡς ἄν ἀπὸ δόγματος συγκλήτου τελειοῦται, μηδ᾿ ἄλλως ἀφεῖσθαι τοὺς ἅπαξ εἰς δικαστήριον παριόντας καὶ μηδαμῶς τῆς προθέσεως μεταβαλλομένους ἀρχαίου παρ᾿ αὐτοῖς νόμου κεκρατηκότος. 185 185 HE V, 21, 5: ‘et post hoc secundum senatus consultum capite plexus est. ita namqu e a prioribus lex iniquissime promulgata censebat’. 186 186 Compare the senatus consultum in the Talmudic Deut. Rabba 2, 24 (quoted by Baer, Y., Scripta Hierosolymitana VIII (1961), 84Google Scholar, n. 14). 187 187 Above, p. 40. 188 188 Cf. Acta Still. 14: ‘Speratum … et ceteros ritu Christiano se vivere confessos, quoniam oblata sibi facilitate ad Romanorum morem redeundi obstinanter perseveraverunt, gladio animadverti placet’. 189 189 Millar, F. G. B., JRS LVI (1966), 166Google Scholar. 190 190 Contrast J. A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome (1967), 279: ‘The equation “Christian = man to be punished” can only have been established by government directive’. 191 191 Epp. X, 92 is written from Amisus, 98 from Amastris. Cf. Sherwin-White, o.c. 693 f. 192 192 Note Pliny's words, Epp. X, 96, 3: ‘perseverantes duci iussi. neque enim dubitabam, qualecumque esset quod faterentur, pertinaciam certe et inflexibilem obstinationem debere puniri’. 193 193 Acts 17, 5 ff. 194 194 Acts 16, 16 ff. 195 195 Mommsen, o.c. (n. 96), 639 ff.; R. MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order (1966), 124 ff. 196 196 Momigliano, o.c. (n. 142), 29 ff. 197 197 A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (1963), 82 f. comments ‘had the case not been abandoned, the next step would have been the dispatch and arraignment of the prisoner before the proconsul, either at the capital of the province, or at the nearest assize city’. 198 198 For the social and economic background see Baldwin, B., ‘Lucian as Social Satirist’, CQ n.s. XI (1961), 199 ffGoogle Scholar. 199 199 Compare, for a later period, Ulpian, , Dig. I, 18Google Scholar, 13: ‘congruit bono et gravi praesidi curare, ut pacata atque quieta provincia sit quam regit’. 200 200 Acts 13, 50. 201 201 Acts 14, 3 ff. 202 202 Acts 14, 8 ff. 203 203 I hope to justify the interpretation advanced here in JTS n.s. XX (1969)Google Scholar. 204 204 Acts 17, 16 ff. The episode receives no mention whatever from Sherwin-White, o.c, in his chapter entitled ‘Paul and the Cities’. 205 205 Acts 19, 23 ff., esp. 27 f.; 34; 37. Sentence of death for a religious offence happens to be attested at Ephesus at an earlier period: Sokolowski, F., HTR LVIII (1965), 427 ffGoogle Scholar. 206 206 Nock, A. D., ‘The Augustan Restoration’, CR XXXIX (1925), 60 ff.Google Scholar; CAH X (1934), 465 ff.Google Scholar; Pleket, H. W., HTR LVIII (1965), 331 ffGoogle Scholar. 207 207 For the traditional character of Decius' requirement see Liesering, E., Untersuchungen zur Christenverfolgung des Kaisers Decius (1933), 33 ff.Google Scholar; Andreotti, R., ‘Religione ufficiale e culto dell' Imperatore nei “libelli” di Decio’, Studi in onore di A. Calderini e R. Paribeni I (1956), 369 ffGoogle Scholar. There is no proof that the edict applied only to Roman citizens, even though one of the Egyptian libelli which seemed to constitute a prima facie proof that it did not (Knipfing, o.c. (n. 81), 385, no. 35) has been re-read (see Youtie, H. C., ‘The Textual Criticism of Documentary Papyri: Prolegomena’, Bull. Lond. Inst. Cl. St., Supp. VI (1958), 16 f.Google Scholar). 208 208 Ada Scill. 5: ‘initianti tibi mala de sacris nostris aures non praebebo’. 209 209 Epp. X, 96, 9/10. 210 210 E. Le Blant, Les Persécuteurs et les martyrs (1893), 67 ff. For example, the instructions to the consuls in 186 B.C. imply a religious as well as a moral objection to the Bacchic rites: these are to be rooted out ‘exstrad quam sei quid ibei sacri est’ (SC de Bacchanalibus, line 28)/‘extra quam si qua ibi vetusta ara aut signum consecratum esset’ (Livy XXXIX, 18, 7). Permission for Bacchanalia can only be given to those who claim a prior religious obligation to celebrate them (SC, line 4; Livy XXXIX, 18, 8). 211 211 As Last, H., ‘The Study of the Persecutions’, JRS XXVII (1937), 80 ffGoogle Scholar. 212 212 As Mommsen, o.c. (n. 96), 567 ff. 213 213 Wissowa, o.c. (n. 119), 317 ff. 214 214 See Cicero, , Leg. II, 18 ffGoogle Scholar. One of the laws of Cicero's ideal state is: ‘separatim nemo habessit deos neve novos neve advenas nisi publice adscitos; privatim colunto, quos rite a patribus < cultos acceperint >’ (19). The context implies that this proposal was not regarded as a break with tradition. The enunciation of the religious laws of the ideal state is greeted with the comment ‘non multum discrepat ista constitutio religionum a legibus Numae nostrisque moribus’ (23). Unfortunately, the full justification advanced for the specific proposal just quoted is probably lost in a lacuna (25 f.). But the same attitude was later expressed by Dio (LII, 36), and seems to lie behind the actions of Decius (Andreotti, o.c. 376). 215 215 Tacitus, , Ann. XIII, 32Google Scholar. 216 216 Mommsen, Th., ‘Der Religionsfrevel nach römischem Recht’, Hist. Zeitschr. LXIV (1890), 389 ff.Google Scholar = Ges. Schr. III (1907), 389 ffGoogle Scholar. 28 Cited by Cited by Loading... 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doi-org-5971	----	Hadrian and Lucius Verus | The Journal of Roman Studies | Cambridge Core Skip to main content Accessibility help We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Login Alert Cancel Log in × × Home Only search content I have access to Home Log in Register Browse subjects What we publish Services About Cambridge Core Cart Cart Institution login Register Log in Cart Hostname: page-component-747cfc64b6-65n5b Total loading time: 0.175 Render date: 2021-06-14T16:47:07.318Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "shouldUseShareProductTool": true, "shouldUseHypothesis": true, "isUnsiloEnabled": true, "metricsAbstractViews": false, "figures": true, "newCiteModal": false, "newCitedByModal": true, "newEcommerce": true } Home >Journals >The Journal of Roman Studies >Volume 57 Issue 1-2 >Hadrian and Lucius Verus EnglishFrançais The Journal of Roman Studies Article contents Extract References Hadrian and Lucius Verus Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2012 T. D. Barnes Show author details T. D. Barnes Affiliation: The Queen's College, Oxford. Article Metrics Article contents Extract References Get access Share Cite Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window] Extract At the age of sixty the emperor Hadrian cast about for a successor. His first choice was L. Ceionius Commodus, his second T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus. Both being adopted in turn by the ailing emperor, the former died before Hadrian while the latter survived to succeed him. Modern scholarship has indulged in long speculations about the motives of Hadrian and the political intrigues of his final years. This paper will not attempt to add to such speculations but will examine the precise details of the dynastic settlements of 136 and 138 upon which they are based. For due weight has not been given to certain relevant and important statements in the Historia Augusta, and as a result the facts have been misrepresented. Moreover, since some of these statements occur in the Vita Veri, the excellent worth of which has too often been denigrated, an analysis of that will be necessary. The partial interdependence of the historical and the literary problems dictates the separate yet combined treatment adopted here. The first part of this paper will discuss the biography of Lucius Verus in the Historia Augusta, the second the dynastic plans of Hadrian. The evidence and arguments employed in each part will, it is hoped, both confirm and be confirmed by the thesis advanced in the other. Type Research Article Information The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 57 , Issue 1-2 , November 1967 , pp. 65 - 79 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/299345[Opens in a new window] Copyright Copyright ©T. D. Barnes 1967. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies Access options Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. References 1 1 To cite only two fairly recent articles, Carcopino, J., ‘L'héredité dynastique chez les Antonins’, RÉA LI (1949), 262 ff.Google Scholar, esp. 285–321 = Passion et politique chez les Césars (1958), 143 ff., esp. 173–222; and H.-G. Pflaum, ‘Le Réglement successoral d'Hadrien’, Historia-Augusta-Colloquium Bonn 1963 (1964), 95 ff. 2 2 And still is : e.g. Birley 312 ‘the so-called “minor lives”—those of “Helius Verus”, L. Verus … are virtually worthless as independent sources’. 3 3 Mommsen, Th., Hermes xxv (1890), 246Google Scholar = Ges. Schr. VII, 319. 4 4 O. Th. Schulz, Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der letzte Historiker Roms (1907), 3 (the passage quoted), 56 ff. (on the Vita Veri). 5 5 Op. cit. 215 ff. 6 6 This, the standard objection to Schulz, was first formulated by K. Hönn, Deutsche Literaturzeitung 1908, 1002 ff. and by W. Weber, Gött. Gel. Anz. 170. Jhrg. (1908), 945 ff. 7 7 Op. cit. 57, 224; Leben des Kaisers Hadrian (1904), 125 ff., 142. That one did not exist is a certain deduction from Aelius 2, 9 f. and the Historia Augusta's ignorance of Aelius' birthday (known to Philocalus (CIL 12, p. 255) and perhaps appearing in the Feriale Duranum (col. i, 11/12); see The Excavations at Dura-Europus, Final Report V. 1, The Parchments and Papyri (1959), 205 f.). 8 8 Weber, op. cit. 957 ff., esp. 971. 9 9 Ibid. 959 ff. 10 10 Lambrechts, P., ‘L'Empereur Lucius Verus : Essai de réhabilitation’, Ant. Cl. III (1934), 173 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar. The theory of an annalistic source, held by Weber, loc. cit., by Hohl, E., Bursians Jahresber. CLXXI (1915), 101 fGoogle Scholar. and by N. H. Baynes, The Historia Augusta; its date and purpose (1926), 67 ff., was propounded at length by Heer, J. M., ‘Der historische Wert der Vita Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae Augustae’, Philol. Suppl. IX (1901), 1 ff.Google Scholar, and by Schwendemann, and seemed to acquire implicit confirmation from the purely historical investigation of J. Hasebroek, Untersuchungen zuR Geschichte des Kaisers Septimius Severus (1921). The critique of Barbieri, G., Ann. della R. Sc. Norm. Sup. di Pisa2 III (1934), 525 ffGoogle Scholar. fails to distinguish this theory from the view that the main source for the second century was biographical (as postulated here and argued by Lécrivain 103 ff., esp. 191 f.). 11 11 Marius certainly wrote a life of Elagabalus (Elagabalus 11, 6), but not a life of Alexander: Alexander 5, 4; 21, 4; 30, 6; 65, 4 all refer to Marius on earlier emperors, while from 48, 6 f. it follows that the author of the Historia Augusta knew of no biography of Alexander by him. It is tempting to suppose that he wrote precisely of those twelve Caesars listed by Ausonius, Caesares XIII–XXIV (compare also Quadrigae Tyrannorum 1, 2). If so, he wrote no life of Verus. 12 12 Lambrechts, loc. cit. 178. 13 13 Ibid. 180 : ‘Mais la vita Veri est un œuvre de maigre valeur historique. Elle ne présent quelque intérêt documentaire que jusqu'en 4, 4, et encore !’. 14 14 See Cameron, A. D. E., Hermes XCII (1964), 373Google Scholar (‘clearly his (sc. Marius') work formed the basis of the Historia Augusta up to Elagabalus and perhaps Alexander’), Birley, A. R., Historia xv (1966), 249Google Scholar (‘I must confess to a predilection for the view that the major source for the lives of the emperors from Hadrian to Elagabalus was L. Marius Maximus ’), H.-G. Pflaum, Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1964/1965 (1966), 152 (‘La source (sc. of the Pius), sans doute Marius Maximus ’), and W. Seston, ibid. 218 (‘Rien ne nous garantit formellement qu'elle (sc. the main source of the Pertinax) soit la Vita Pertinacis qu'écrivit Marius Maximus; mais rien ne s'y oppose’). Cf. also Hohl, E., Miscellanea Academica Berolinensia (1950), 287 ff.Google Scholar; ‘Kaiser Commodus und Herodian’, SDAW, Kl.f.Ges., 1954, 1, 3 f. 15 15 Barbieri, G., RFIC XXXII (1954), 36 ff.Google Scholar, 262 ff.; the point had already been made by Lécrivain 193 ff. 16 16 It was already admitted by Hohl, loc. cit., Lambrechts, op. cit. 177, and Baynes, loc. cit., that the two strands could no longer be disentangled. 17 17 Cf. Syme, R., Ammianus and the Historia Augusta (forthcoming).Google Scholar 18 18 The style of treatment adopted here differs from that of W. H. Fisher in his analysis of the Vita Aureliani (JRS XIX (1929), 125 ff.Google Scholar). This is partly for the reason stated in the text, partly because the is a comparative wealth of widely scattered evidence which bears upon the Vita Veri. 19 19 D. van Berchem, Les Distributions de blé et d'argent à la plèbe romaine sous l'Empire (1939), 154 does, it is true, assign Pius' liberalitas III to the tirocinium of Lucius, citing the passage under discussion and RIC III (1930), 21, 35, 109Google Scholar. But he assumes that the date can be 144 : against which there are purely numismatic arguments, viz. that the coins of liberalitas III ought to belong to 142 (BMCxlvi). 20 20 Lécrivain 241 branded the passage as ‘pleine de contradictions’. 21 21 Praesepe occurs elsewhere in the Historia Augusta only at Elagabalus 21, 2 ‘misit et uvas Apamenas in praesepia equis suis’, which is modelled on Verus 6, 4. 22 22 Elsewhere the Historia Augusta uses mulio in its correct sense five times (Lessing, s.v.). 23 23 There are other possible echoes of Ausonius in the Historia Augusta. The story at Hadrian 20, 8 is patently modelled on Ausonius, Epigrammata XXXVII (XVII)—unless both are translating independently from a lost Greek original. For the ioca and the anecdote interrupt the description of Hadrian's feats of memory (20, 6/7; 20, 9–12), while ‘patri negavi iam tuo’ said by Lais has far more point than ‘iam hoc patri tuo negavi’ in the mouth of Hadrian. Macrinus 11, 6 (‘gabalus iste fuit’) may be inspired by the lost second distich of Caesares XXIV (if Fragmenta Poetarum Latinorum (ed. W. Morel), Incerti fr. 58 really is from Ausonius), and Macrinus 14, 2 by the first pentameter of the same poem : for Macrinus 7, 7 (‘versus extant cuiusdam poetae, quibus ostenditur Antonini nomen coepisse a Pio et paulatim per Antoninos usque ad sordes ultimas pervenisse’) seems to be an explicit allusion to Ausonius' Caesares. It is also possible that Hadrian 25, 9 imitates Parentalia XXVII, though both may derive separately from Septimius Serenus. I have made only a very cursory search : others may well be able to add far more convincing examples than those collected here. 24 24 IGRR 1, 1046 shows the presence of δ]εκανῶν τῶν ἐν στόλῳ πραιτορίῳ in Alexandria between 161 and 163 : perhaps part of the fleet sent to commandeer supplies. 25 25 To the suspicious mind ‘inter symphonias et cantica’ may recall Suetonius, Cal. 37, 2 ‘inter choros ac symphonias’. 26 26 CW = Catalogue sommaire de la Collection Waddington, by Babelon, E., Rev. Num. 4, 1/11(1897/1898)Google Scholar. The coins cited here all bear the name of Lucius, and the description is always of the reverse. 27 27 Babylonem refers to the area, not the town (P–W II, 2700 ff.): it corresponds to Μεσοποταμία in the title of Antiochianus' work on the Parthian war (Lucian, Quomodo Historia 30). 28 28 For an earlier illness of the same type see Fronto, Ad Verum Imp. II, 6 = 126 Hout and for its date see above on 6, 7. 29 29 Cf. Leo, F., Die griechisch-römische Biographie (1901), 272 ff.Google Scholar 30 30 For all the vitae mentioned see the extremely brief analyses by Lécrivain 103 ff. 31 31 Cf. Pflaum, H.-G., Banner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1964/1965 (1966), 143 ff.Google Scholar 32 32 Cf. Werner, R., ‘Der historische Wert der Pertinaxvita in den Scriptores Historiae Augustae’, Klio XXVI (1933), 283 ff.Google Scholar; Kolbe, H., Bonn. Jhrb. CLXII (1962), 407 ffGoogle Scholar. 33 33 Cf. PIR 2D 77; O. Th. Schulz, Beiträge zur Kritik unserer litterarischen Überlieferung für die Zeit von Commodus' Sturze bis auf den Tod des M. Aurelius Antoninus (1903), 26 ff. 34 34 Schwendemann obfuscates a simple matter by his assumption about the sources (n. 10) : 1–14, 20, 1 b—27,9(?) with some subtractions form a Suetonian biography. 35 35 Heer, op. cit., had produced the same obfuscation as Schwendemann : there is no reason why one main (biographical) source should not be the basis of 1–17. 36 36 Cf. Hasebroek, op. cit.; Barnes, T. D., Historia XVI (1967), 87 ffGoogle Scholar. The greater part of 1–17, 4 and 19, 1–5 is factually accurate. 37 37 Cf. Reusch, W., ‘Der historische Wert der Caracallavita in den Scriptores Historiae Augustae’, Klio, Beiheft XXIV (1931)Google Scholar. 38 38 Especially in 1–14. 39 39 Where did the series end ? None will question that it included Caracalla (cf. Reusch, op. cit.; E. Hohl, Miscellanea Academica Berolinensia (1950), 287 ff.). Lécrivain 182 ff. thought that it included a life of Macrinus. But that is explicitly denied by the preface to the Macrinus (1, 1) : ‘vitae illorum … qui non diu imperarunt in obscuro latent … : nos tamen ex diversis historicis eruta in lucem proferemus’. The problem concentrates, therefore, on the Geta. The only possible trace of the postulated biographer is at 3, 1 (for the rest see Schulz, op. cit. 114 ff.; Lécrivain 260 ff.). The consular date has recently been argued to be correct, except that Vitellio is a perversion of Vettuleno (Birley, A. R., Historia xv (1966), 251 ffGoogle Scholar.); but the day and the place of Geta's birth both seem to be wrong (cf. Passio Perpetuae 7; HA, Severus 4, 2; and the examples of variatio of facts in the Historia Augusta collected by Lécrivain 396). A. von Domaszewski, ‘Die Personennamen bei den Scriptores Historiae Augustae’, Heidelberger SB, Phil.-hist. Kl., 1918, 13, 62 pointed out a possible resemblance to Suetonius, Cal. 8, 1 ‘C. Caesar natus est patre suo et C. Fonteio Capitone coss. ubi natus sit incertum diversitas tradentium facit’—and a page later a letter contains the date ‘XV Kal. Iun’ (ibid. 8, 4). See further R. Syme, Ammianus and the Historia Augusta, ch. XXI. 40 40 Eutropius VIII, 11; HA, Marcus 16, 6 f. 41 41 For example, A. Stein, P–W III (1898), 1833 f.; von Domaszewski, A., Geschichte der römischen Kaiser 11 (1909), 211Google Scholar; Saekel, H., Klio XII (1912), 123 ff.Google Scholar; Hüttl, W., Antoninus Pius 1 (1936), 41 f.Google Scholar; Weber, W., CAH XI (1936), 322 fGoogle Scholar.; E. Homo, Le Haut-Empire (1931), 530 f.; Solari, A., L'Impero Romano III (1945), 155Google Scholar; A. S. L. Farquharson, Marcus Aurelius (1951), 24 ff.; A. Piganiol, Histoire de Rome 5 (1962), 293; Pflaum, op. cit. (n. 1); Birley 45 ff. There has also been explicit dissent : e.g. B. W. Henderson, The Life and Principate of the Emperor Hadrian (1923), 261; A. Garzetti, L'Impero da Tiberio agli Antonini (1960), 689. 42 42 In general see PIR 2C 605. 43 43 HA, Marcus 4, 5. 44 44 The evidence is collected at PIR 2C 605. 45 45 PIR 2C 1464, A 886. 46 46 Sulla is not mentioned by Tacitus in his narrative of the year 54. In 55, however, it was plausible to accuse Pallas and Burrus of plotting to elevate him to be emperor, and it was Nero's fear which led to his exile in 58 and death in 62 (Tacitus, , Ann. XIII, 23, 47Google Scholar; XIV, 57). 47 47 So most of the scholars cited in note 41. 48 48 The case is put most clearly and effectively by Pflaum, op. cit. (n. 1), 103 ff. 49 49 Cf. Kaser, M., Das römische Privatrecht 1 (1955), 290 ffGoogle Scholar. 50 50 For the order of events see Instinsky, H. U., Hermes XCIV (1966), 324 ffGoogle Scholar. The original name of Germanicus must be inferred from that of his father (see PIR 2I 221) : it is nowhere on epigraphic record. 51 51 ILS 107; PIR 2C 941. 52 52 ILS 107, 166 etc.; PIR 2I 219. 53 53 ILS 107, 173 etc.; PIR 2I 221. 54 54 Trajan was ‘absens et ignarus’ (Pliny, , Pan. 9, 3Google Scholar): Nerva's calling of a ‘contio hominum deorumque’ (ibid. 8, 3) is a dubious appeal to a ‘higher legality’ (cf. Kaser, op. cit. 292 f.). 55 55 Brassloff, S., Hermes XLIX (1914), 590 ffGoogle Scholar. argued that Hadrian's adoption was testamentary. Prévost, M.-H., ‘Les Adoptions politiques à Rome’, Publications de l'Institut de Droit Romain de l'Université de Paris v (1949), 51 fGoogle Scholar. develops this theory by claiming that the adoption derived its validity from that of Trajan's will, which was itself valid as being a ‘testament militaire que Trajan lui-même, précisement, avait réglementé’. But Hadrian received litterae adoptionis on the ninth day of August 117 and ordered that day to be celebrated as the natalis adoptionis (HA, Hadrian 4, 6), while his natalis imperii was the eleventh, on which he heard of Trajan's death (ibid. 4, 7; Snyder, W. F., YCS VII (1940), 243 f.Google Scholar). 56 56 The principle ‘quod principi placuit, legis habet vigorem’ (Ulpian, , Digest 1, 4Google Scholar, 1; cf. Gaius, , Inst. 1, 5Google Scholar) is no harsh imposition from above : the initiative to enhance the emperor's powers almost invariably comes from below (cf. Alföldi, A., Röm. Mitt. XLIX (1934), 1 ff.Google Scholar; L (1935). 1 ff.). 57 57 Aelius 7, 2; Verus 1, 3; 2, 1. On the last two see above : the Aelius consists entirely of fiction and of material drawn from other parts of the Historia Augusta (E. Hohl, ‘Über die Glaubwürdigkeit der Historia Augusta’, SDAW, Kl. f. Ges., 1953, 2, 23 ff.). 58 58 CIL xv, 732. 59 59 The argument was first stated by Th. Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht II3 (1889), 1139, Anm. 1 : ‘übrigens muss er (sc. Lucius) vor der Adoption des Vaters emancipirt worden sein, da er auf einem vor seiner Adoption durch Pius geschriebenen Ziegel sich L. Ceio(nius) Com(modus) C(aesaris) f(ilius) nennt’. 60 60 Hadrian died on the tenth day of July 138 (HA, Hadrian 25, 6). 61 61 CIL xv, 733. 62 62 CIL xv, 734. Note also CIL xv, 735 : ‘L. Aeli Aug(usti) Pii f(ili)’. H. Dressel, ad loc, punctuates after ‘Aeli’. But it is easier to take ‘Augusti’ with what precedes. If so, that gives another example of an error. 63 63 See above, on Verus 2, 11 ff. 64 64 CIL xv, 3695 ff. passim, esp. 4294–4338. Discounting those where the form of Lucius' name is not certain, two (4302, 4308) unmistakably have ‘Commodi filio’, four (3807, 4294, 4330, 4337) ‘Commodo Augusti filio’, the rest plain ‘Commodo’. 65 65 Dio LXIX, 17, 1; HA, Hadrian 23, 7. 66 66 So Pflaum, op. cit. 104. Cf. MAMA VI, 3 (Laodicea in Phrygia): πεπρεσβευκὼς … προῖκα πρός τε Λούκιον Καίσαρα εἰς Παννονίαν… 67 67 Cf. P–W Suppl. IX, 554; Hüttl, op. cit. 271 ff. The best evidence is ILS 1058, with CIL XVI, 78, 84 : see PIR 2H 30. 68 68 Cf. Birley, E., PBA XXXIX (1953), 197 ffGoogle Scholar. 69 69 Dio LXIX, 17, 1 : ἀρξάμενος δὲ νοσεῖν … ἀπεγνώσθη μὲν βιώσεσθαι, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο Κόμμοδον μὲν Λούκιον, καίτοι αἷμα ἐμοῦντα, Καίσαρα Ῥωμαίοις ἀπέδειξεν. 70 70 Dio LXIX, 20, 1 :ἐπεὶ δὲ συνέβη τὸν Λούκιον τὸν Κόμμοδον ἐξαίφνης ἐγκαταλειφθῆναι ὑπὸ τοῦ αἵματος πολλοῦ τε καὶ ἀθρόου ἐκπεσόντος… 71 71 Dio LXIX, 20, 2 ff.; cf. Millar, F., A Study of Cassius Dio (1964), 71Google Scholar. 72 72 Millar, op. cit. 78 ff. On the other side it may be urged that Dio did not always harmonize his speeches with their context. 73 73 Hadrian 23, 10 ff., partly developed at Aelius 6, 1 ff. with a typical variatio of the amount of the donative (compare Hadrian 21,4 with Aelius 5, 4 f.; Maximini 12, 1, with 12, 6). 74 74 Aelius 3, 7 ff. 75 75 The bogus ‘careful writers’ and the use of Aeneid VI are both stigmata of the author (as was pointed out by Dessau, H., Hermes XXIV (1889), 382 ff.Google Scholar; Hermes XXVII (1892), 582 ff.Google Scholar). 76 76 Marcus' name is wrongly given prior place at Aelius 6, 9; Pius 4, 5. The error is natural: cf. Linderski, J., Historia XIV (1965), 423 ff.Google Scholar, for a similar distortion of the order of the consuls of 59 B.C. The inversion is reproduced by the scholars cited in note 41, and by H. Schiller, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit (1883), 628; P. von Rohden, P–W I (1894), 2283; P–W 11 (1896), 2497; H. M. D. Parker, A History of the Roman World, 138–337 (1935), 4; E. Albertini, L'Empire Romain (1938), 194; B. Orgeval, L'Empereur Hadrien (1950), 33. Not however by R. Syme, Tacitus (1958), 601. 77 77 Dio LXIX, 21,1 : ἐπεὶ δὲ ἦν ἄπαις ἀρρένων παίδων, τόν τε Κομμόδου υἱὸν Κόμμοδον ἐσεποίησεν αὐτῷ καὶ ἔτι πρὸς τούτῳ Μᾶρκον Ἄννιον Οὐῆρον 78 78 Hadrian 24, 1. 79 79 Eutropius VIII, 9, 1 calls him Lucius Annius Antoninus Verus; the Epitome 16, 5, L. Annius Verus; at HA, Pius 6, 10 he is Annius Verus, while his brother is M. Antoninus in 6, 9. 80 80 See respectively Schwendemann 118 ff., and above, pp. 67–9. 81 81 Marcus 6, 2; Verus 2, 3. (Aelius 6, 9 clearly depends upon one or both of these passages : cf. note 19.) Marcus 6, 2 is now disfigured by a lacuna : almost certainly there originally stood there a reference to Lucius' betrothal to Faustina (cf. Verus 2, 3). 82 82 First published by Heberdey, R., JÖAI VII (1904), Beiblatt, 49 ffGoogle Scholar. (with photographs). Reproducions are to be found also at Röm. Mitt. XLVIII (1933)Google Scholar, Tfl. 50; J. M. C. Toynbee, Art of the Romans (1965), pl. 42; R. Brilliant, Gesture and Rank in Roman Art (1963), fig. 3.83. 83 83 E.g. by E. Strong, Roman Sculpture (1907), 295; La Scultura Romana ii (1926), 258Google Scholar. That interpretation is impossible : with Lucius Verus still alive, Commodus and Annius Caesar must appear in the family group either together or not at all (cf. PIR 2A 698). 84 84 The correct date was first perceived by von Lorentz, F., Röm. Mitt. XLVIII (1933), 308 ffGoogle Scholar. For a select bibliography see Inan, J. and Rosenbaum, E., Roman and Early Byzantine Portrait Sculpture in Asia Minor (1966), 71Google Scholar. Inan and Rosenbaum follow Eichler, F., Bericht über den VI. Internationalen Kongress für Archäologie, Berlin 21.–26. August 1939 (1940), 488 ff.Google Scholar, in assigning the series of reliefs to which this belongs to a monument commemorating the Parthian War of 162–6, though they do not deny that the relief's ‘dramatic date’ is 138. But is there really anything which compels the late dating ? Toynbee, op. cit. 65 f., evidently does not think so. 85 85 Cf. Alföldi, A., Röm. Mitt. L (1935), 124 f.Google Scholar; Lewi s an d Short, s.v. sceptrum. 86 86 See the works cited in note 41. 87 87 Cf. Hadrian 24, 6 f. For Marcus' relatives see the stemmata facing PIR 2I, p. 118; Pflaum, op. cit. 122; and Birley 318 ff. 88 88 Eutropius VIII, 11; HA, Marcus 16, 7. The Historia Augusta refines the reasoning behind Eutropius' statement, which perhaps indicates the use of him as a source (Dessau, H., Hermes XXIV (1889), 367 ff.Google Scholar). But Marcus 15, 5 contains a story not in Eutropius, but found in Aurelius Victor (16, 7). Use of a common source is, therefore, at least an equal possibility. 89 89 Dio LXIX 21, 2 : . 90 90 Syme, op. cit. 794; PIR 2H 5. 91 91 HA, Marcus 1, 6. 82 82 See above on Verus 2, 11 ff. 93 93 Hadrian declared Antoninus as his heir on 23 January (HA, Hadrian 1, 3; 26, 6; cf. PIR 2 1, p. 28), a full month before the actual adoption (Pius 4, 6). 94 94 Dio LXXII (LXXI ) 35, 2/3 : 95 95 HA, Marcus 4, 1. Cf. ILS 6305 : ‘honorato equo publ. ab imp. Antonino Aug. cum ageret aetatis an. V’; also ILS 1316–7. 96 96 Marcus 4, 2. The case of Marcus is unique according to R. Cirilli, Les prêtres danseurs de Rome (1913), 59 f., followed by P–W I A, 1882 f. But M. Annius Flavius Libo (PIR 2A 648) was a salius Palatinus twenty-six years before his consulship in 204; as an imperial relative he may have been consul at about thirty-three (cf. Syme, op. cit. 653 f.; Morris, J., Listy Filologické 87 (1964), 316 ff.Google Scholar). Others too may have been salii in their boyhood : perhaps C. Bruttius Praesens, salius in 199, if he is indeed the consul of 217 (PIR 2B 166). There is little enough evidence for the membership of the collegium—only the fragmentary CIL VI, 1978–84. 97 97 Cf. Hohl, op. cit. (n. 57) 37 : ‘Da dieser Superlativ im Munde eines Hadrian ein von Ironie nicht ganz freies Lob dargestellt haben dürfte, könnte man den Necknamen mit “Wahrheitsfanatiker” zu verdeutschen suchen’. Verissimus appears in all seriousness, however, on an Ostian inscription of 143 (AÉ 1940, 62) and in the Apology of Justin. 98 98 HA, Marcus 2, 6. 99 99 Marcus, 4, 1. 100 100 Marcus 1, 7; 1, 10; 2, 1 ff.; Marcus, Med. 1, 4. 101 101 See Weber, W., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus (1907), 197 ff.Google Scholar In 125 Hadrian had returned to Rome some time before mid-September (Bourguet, E., De Rebus Delphicis Imperatoriae Aetatis (1905), 82 f.)Google Scholar; in 128 he was at Lambaesis on the first day of July (ILS 9133). 102 102 HA, Hadrian 3, 3; 3, 5; 3, 10 f.; Weber, op. cit. 20 ff. F. J. Hassel, Der Trajansbogen in Benevent (1966), contends that the arch was completed in 114 (not early in the reign of Hadrian), but he brings no real argument apart from the date on the dedicatory inscription which it bears. 103 103 Marcus was, it is true, designated quaestor on the proposal of Hadrian (Marcus 5, 6). Again, that need not denote especial favour : the consulate, though easy to give (cf. Res Gestae 14), was withheld. 9 Cited by Cited by Loading... Cited by 9 Crossref Citations This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by CrossRef. Gordon, R.L 1972. Mithraism and Roman Society:*Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman Empire. Religion, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, p. 92. CrossRef Google Scholar Birley, A. R. 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 132. CrossRef Google Scholar Griffin, Miriam 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 84. CrossRef Google Scholar Griffin, Miriam 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 1. CrossRef Google Scholar Bowman, Alan K. Garnsey, Peter and Rathbone, Dominic 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. CrossRef Google Scholar Thornton, Daniel James 2012. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. CrossRef Google Scholar Gorrie, Charmaine L. 2014. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. 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doi-org-6393	----	The Chronology of Fronto | The Journal of Roman Studies | Cambridge Core Skip to main content Accessibility help We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Login Alert Cancel Log in × × Home Only search content I have access to Home Log in Register Browse subjects What we publish Services About Cambridge Core Cart Cart Institution login Register Log in Cart Hostname: page-component-747cfc64b6-fkkrz Total loading time: 0.245 Render date: 2021-06-14T16:47:07.292Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "shouldUseShareProductTool": true, "shouldUseHypothesis": true, "isUnsiloEnabled": true, "metricsAbstractViews": false, "figures": true, "newCiteModal": false, "newCitedByModal": true, "newEcommerce": true } Home >Journals >The Journal of Roman Studies >Volume 64 >The Chronology of Fronto EnglishFrançais The Journal of Roman Studies Article contents Extract References The Chronology of Fronto Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2012 Edward Champlin Show author details Edward Champlin Affiliation: The Queen's College, Oxford Article Metrics Article contents Extract References Get access Share Cite Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window] Extract A reconsideration of the chronological data for Fronto's extant works is desirable on several counts, not least in providing a firmer base for the investigation of Antonine history. Various systems have been devised, but there is great room for improvement even in the little that is known. It is now almost forty years since the last full attempt, and much knowledge has accrued, notably from the Ostian fasti. Also, unfortunately, a ‘date’ has too often been engendered by simple horror vacui. More serious are the many misinterpretations, often quite small but some of wider significance, which have become lodged in print and then used by others as a firm base for other researches. Conflicting views on matters of some import, notably the year of Fronto's death (the main estimates vary by a decade), require examination. Most misleading of all, some investigators have wreaked Procrustean violence on the corpus by discerning and ruthlessly applying an alleged underlying editorial principle. On that account, an agnostic method of considering each piece on its own merit will be used here, letting that editorial principle emerge if it will. The evidence, where available, for each work will be set down in the manuscript order, preceded by a discussion of the date of Fronto's demise and followed by some remarks on the original edition of the corpus and a section tabulating the results. Type Research Article Information The Journal of Roman Studies , Volume 64 , November 1974 , pp. 136 - 159 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/299265[Opens in a new window] Copyright Copyright © Edward Champlin 1974. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies Access options Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. References 1 1 Notably by Mommsen, T., Hermes 8 (1874), 198–216Google Scholar = Gesammelte Schriften 4 (1906), 469–86;Google Scholar by Haines, C. R., CQ 8 (1914), 112–20,CrossRefGoogle Scholar developed in his Loeb Classical Library edition (1919–20); and by Hanslik, R., Commentationes Vindobonenses 1 (1935), 21–47Google Scholar. Also the remarks of Brakman, C., Frontoniana ii (Utrecht, 1902), 24–42,Google Scholar and of certain editors: A. Mai (1815, 1823, 1846), B. G. Niebuhr (1816, important introduction), S. Naber(1867). References to Haines followed by 1 or 11 are to the Loeb edition, otherwise to his article. References to the letters follow the edition of M. P. J. van den Hout (Leiden, 1954). 2 2 For most of what follows, consult the preface of van den Hout, ix–lxv. 3 3 Bischoff, B., ‘Der Fronto-Palimpsest der Mauriner’, SBAW, Phil. Hist. Kl. 1958, 2.Google Scholar 4 4 Compare Willis, J., JRS 45 (1955), 235:Google Scholar ‘The history of Fronto's letters is little more than a record of the crimes, the follies, and the misfortunes of his editors’ etc. 5 5 Haines 1, xiii–xiv. 6 6 Subscriptions: Ad M. Caes. II, IV, V; Ad Ant. Imp. II; Ad Ver. I; de Orat.; Ad Ant. Pium; Ad Am. I, 11; Princ. Hist.; Bell. Parth.; Fer. Als.; de Nep. Am.; Arion. 7 7 Excepting the simple muddle of v.d.H. 114, 1–2, hardly due to the editor. 8 8 Ad M. Caes. IV, V; Ad Ant. Imp. 1, Ad Ant. Pium; Ad Am. I, II. 9 9 Thus, at Ad Am. 11, 7, 15, the m2 note to v.d.H. 184, 7 ff. serves only to confuse, 10 10 Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford, 1969), 124–26,Google Scholar with bibliography. 11 11 PIR 2 G 14. 12 12 Mommsen, 486. 13 13 O.c. 124–25. 14 14 Chiron 2 (1972), 469–70Google Scholar. 15 15 Haines, 118; cf. 11, 111, n.1. 16 16 O.C., quoting HA Marcus 7, 8 and 11,2. Another of Birley's arguments is based on a faulty passage at Galen XIV, 651 K: cf. Nutton, V., Chiron 3 (1973), 429Google Scholar ff. 17 17 Commodus' first coins (BMC Cat. iv, Marcus Aurelius 625, 633 ff.) appear in 175, in the context of German victories. 18 18 PIR 2 C 606 for the inscriptional evidence, and note HA Verus 4, 1. 19 19 ‘Antoninus’: Ad Ant. Imp. 1, 2, 2 and 4; II, 1, 1; Ad Ver. Imp. 11, 1, 5, 6. 20 20 As observed by Birley, 473. 21 21 Bowersock, 124; Birley, 473. 22 22 See the list of ailments at Haines, 11, 333, col. 1. 23 23 Syme, Tacitus 652. 24 24 The phrase ‘memoria nostra’ need not (for Fronto) imply personal involvement, cf. Princ. Hist. 2, 4 on Trajan's Parthian War. 25 25 Euphrates: Dio lxix, 8, 3. Dio: based on the last possible date of Pliny's second year in the East. (Dio is last mentioned at Pliny, , Epp. x, 81–82Google Scholar.) It was the opinion of von Arnim, H., Leben und Werke des Dio von Prusa (Berlin, 1898), 574,Google Scholar that Dio could not have survived Pliny (a much younger man) by much. Athenodotus: M. Aurelius, Med. 1, 13. 26 26 PIR 2 C 259. If Dio lxviii, 16, 2 be pressed to imply Trajan's presence in Rome, 113 is the latest possible year for Crassus' exploits. 27 27 HA Hadr. 9, 4–5. 28 28 ibid. 11, 3. 29 29 ibid. 15, 7. 30 30 I hesitate to exploit a fragmentary stone from Lepcis Magna (PBSR 10 (1955), 132Google Scholar = IRT 624), dedicated to one … us Fronto, pontifex of the colony and granted the broad stripe, (apparently) by the divine Trajan Parthicus (i.e., A.D. 116 or 117). That would entail lengthy analysis of the African contribution to the Roman senate before the Antonine period. However, the possibility that this is the Fronto should not be rejected out of hand. 31 31 Gilliam, J. F. has collected the evidence, AJP 82 (1961), 227–44Google Scholar. 32 32 The evidence for Marcus' statues is assembled by Gordon, A. E., Quintus Veranius, consul A.D. 49 (Univ. of California Publ. in Class. Archaeol. ii, 5), 325–26Google Scholar. 33 33 HA Marcus 2, 5. 34 34 Noted at Birley, 473. 35 35 ILS 1129. 36 36 Mommsen, 473; Haines, 114; Hanslik, 22–28. 37 37 Marcus was born 26th April, 121: HA Marcus 1, 5. The phrase used by Fronto is ‘duos et viginti annos natum’. Strictly this should mean 22 years completed. However, ancient writers are notoriously free in their use of such chronological terms (cf. Reinhold, M., CW 26 (1932/1933), 172–75)Google Scholar, so the meaning ‘in the 22nd year’ can not be excluded, and Fronto's consulship might have been held in 142. A similar caution applies to IV, 13. 38 38 By Haines, 1, 108. Rightly denied by Hanslik, 24–26. The place of delivery cannot be deduced from 9, 2, but it need not even be the senate. 39 39 One would expect Marcus to attend his master's greatest hour in person. Fronto certainly did: ‘Ceterum quidem in idus Augustas tibi expectandum est ut quid vis, quale vis audias’ (11, 1, 2). Compare Pliny's apologies (Epp. ix, 37, 1) for not attending the installation of a familiaris as consul. 40 40 Haines, 1, 80 ff.; Hanslik, 21–22. 41 41 Or enquires which spa Fronto will attend. The passage is uncertain, cf. v.d.H. 2, 3–8, with app. crit. 42 42 ‘vigeo, valeo, exulto; quo vis veniam, quo vis curram’ i, 3, 3. 43 43 1, 1, 2: ‘Vale Caesar, et ride et omnem vitam laetare et parentibus optimis et eximio ingenio tuo fruere.’ 1, 3, 13: ‘Vale Caesar, cum tuis parentibus et ingenium tuum excole.’ 44 44 Hanslik, loc. cit., based on Brakman, 26. The imperial family at Baiae: HA Hadrian 25, 6, cf. Pius 5, 1. 45 45 The phrase ‘apud Baias agimus in hoc diuturno Ulixi labyrintho’ is said to lend support to the theory. Haines, 1, 92, n. 1 makes it refer to Ulysses being driven backwards forwards along the coast, followed by D'Arms, J. H., Romans on the Bay of Naples (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 106Google Scholar. Other interpretations are possible, and the use of ‘labyrinth’ is unusual. T. D. Barnes suggests (by letter) an allusion to the sojourn with Circe or to the visit to the Underworld. 46 46 cf. HA Marcus 7, 2–3. 47 47 e.g. Ad M. Caes. IV, 7. 48 48 Mommsen, 481; Hanslik, 22–23. 49 49 Haines, 1, 155. 50 50 Barnes, T. D., Latomus 27 (1968), 581–86,Google Scholar is indispensable on Herodes' family. However, certain points must be stressed. The date of the marriage of Herodes and Regilla is quite unknown and cannot be deduced, and the precise date of 143, accepted by Barnes for 1, 6–8, is invalid. Barnes satisfactorily establishes the birth of Elpinice as probably pre-145, but further precision is impossible. Up to three children remain unaccounted for: Lucian, Demonax 25; Philostratus, VS 555; MDAI(A) 67 (1942). 136–39Google Scholar. The value of Marcellus' account of Herodes' children (IGRR 1, 194, A. 14–18) is thus reduced for our purposes. Barnes demonstrates what can be known about those who survived, but precision is impossible as to the birthdates of those shadowy infants of whom the boy in 1, 6 is one. 51 51 HA Pius 11, 2. A common duty of the landed magnate was to oversee the harvest, e.g. Pliny, , Epp. ix, 20Google Scholar. 52 52 Minucius Felix, Octavius 2, 3, and J. Beaujeu, ad loc. Hanslik, 27 overlooks this slight difficulty. 53 53 ‘Die senatus huius magis hic futuri quam illuc venturi videmur.’ 54 54 It is here taken for granted that the letters printed by Naber (pp. 37, 10–39, 17) as the last two in this book were in fact the last two in the second book Ad Ant. Imp. Cf. Mommsen, 470 for the correct reconstruction of the manuscript. 55 55 Hanslik, 28. 56 56 GSRE 93–100. 57 57 Opuscula Philologica 6 (1934), 25–34Google Scholar. 58 58 i.e., that Herodes' wife Regilla was related to the Annii Veri of Baetica (HA Marcus 1, 4); in fact she descends from the Etruscan Annii Galli (cf. Torelli, M., Dial. Arch. 3 (1969), 301–02)Google Scholar. 59 59 O.c. 99. 60 60 Note however the Latin litterator of Commodus, Antistius Capella (HA Comm. 1, 6). One might suspect error in the HA or humour in Fronto, and conflate Capella with Capreolus; if so, some very slight support for the later date. 61 61 PIR 2 1, 340. There are no other Marciani available, and the Cirtan connection should render identity most probable. (I hope to investigate elsewhere Fronto's close and considerable circle of Cirtan friends.) Marcianus was in Pannonia as legate of legio X Gemina at the time of Pius' death (7th March 161), therefore 161 and 160 are probably ruled out as dates for the trial. 62 62 Haines, 115–16; 1, 32 ff.; Hanslik, 28. 63 63 BMC Cat. iv, Antoninus Pius, 124–31. On the date, H.-G. Pflaum, BHAC 1963, 110 ff. 64 64 Gellius xix, 8, 3. I am greatly indebted to Professor C. P. Jones for this suggestion. 66 66 cf. Hanslik, 28–29. 66 66 ibid. 29–30. 67 67 Reinmuth, O., BASP 4 (1967), 98Google Scholar. The name Iulianus is of little help, but a thought should go to the future emperor M. Didius Iulianus. The invalid in question is Marcus' friend, Fronto's visit ‘mea maxime gratia’. Didius had especially close relations with the Caesar. He was brought up at the house of Domitia Lucilla, who secured for him the vigintivirate, and Marcus favoured his career throughout, commending him for the aedileship, the praetorship and the consulship (HA Did. Iul. 1, 3–2, 3). He was born in either 133 or 137 (Dio lxxiv, 17, 5 vs. HA 9, 3); if he is the man of Ad M. Caes. IV, 2, 3, another indication of the late 150s. 68 68 Haines, 116; vs. Hanslik, 31–32. 69 69 Haines, 1, 2, n. 1. 70 70 Victorinus' consulship: CIL vi, 2086, 23. For the date of the marriage (c. 158) see below. 71 71 FO XXVIII. The subject of these letters is unlikely to be Domitia Faustina, known only from her epitaph (ILS 385, before A.D. 161). ‘Faustina’ would be the prerogative of the elder. Haines, 1, 203 confuses the two. 72 72 But cf. n. 37 above. 73 73 e.g. by Birley, A. R., Marcus Aurelius (London, 1966), 120CrossRefGoogle Scholar. I know of no divergence from the communis opinio. 74 74 Diog. Laert. vii, 160–64. 75 75 Gell. xi, 18, 16. Works: PW Suppl.-Bd. viii 857 ff. (Titius 27a), cf. ix, 1395 ff. Fragments: Lenel, O., Palingenesia iuris civilis (Leipzig 1888) 59–70Google Scholar. 76 76 Pliny, , Epp. i, 22, 1–7Google Scholar. It is singular that Pliny's letter is addressed to Marcus' kinsman, Catilius Severus, whose name he bore for a time. The relationship is unclear: Syme, Tactitus 793. 77 77 Haines, 114. Cf. PIR 2 D 183 for the date. 78 78 FO XXVII. 79 79 FO XXIX. 80 80 On the date of Lucilla's birth, Birley, 139, n. 2. 81 81 cf. n. 71 above. 82 82 For Fronto's birthday see below, on Ad Ant. Imp. 1, 1–2. 83 83 See below, on Ad Pium 8. 84 84 Mommsen, 483. 85 85 Hanslik, 35. 85 85 HA Comm. 1, 2. Cf. Hanslik, 36–38 for a discussion of the date, quite wrong in joining it with Ad Ver. 1, 3 (q.v.). 86 86 Suet., DA 35. Imperial attendance at the senate is by no means to be assumed. However, the HA outlines in some detail Marcus' respect for and interest in that body, HA Marcus 10, 1–9, especially 7: ‘Semper autem, cum potuit, interfuit senatui, etiamsi nihil esset referendum, si Romae fuit; sivero aliquid referre voluit, etiam de Campania ipse venit.’ 87 87 Bowersock, G. W., HSCP 72 (1967), 289–94,Google Scholar especially 291–92. 88 88 ILS 7190 (A.D. 139) displays three generations of the family interested in Cyzicene affairs. 89 89 ‘Feci prorsus conpendium itineris Lorium usque, conpendium viae lubricae, conpendium clivorum arduorum …’ 1, 3, 1. 90 90 E.g. Haines, 11, 118; Hanslik, 38. 91 91 For the confused problem of Fronto's grand-children, mentioned here, see the discussion below of De Nepote Amisso. 92 92 For these dates, see the relevant discussions below. 93 93 HA Verus 8, 10. Haines, 117; Hanslik, 39. 94 94 Mommsen, 483–84, followed by Barnes, T. D., JRS 57 (1967), 72Google Scholar. 95 95 On the two Apolausti: Weaver, P. R. C., Familia Caesaris (Cambridge, 1972), 27–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 96 96 HA Comm. 7, 2; ILS 5191. 97 97 Mommsen, 483. 98 98 Haines, 1, 297, n. 1; Brakman, 35; Hanslik, 36–37. 99 99 cf. n. 71 above. 100 100 HA Marcus 7, 5–8; 21, 3–5. Compare the austerity of Tiberius: Dio lvii, 14, 6 and 22, 3; Tac, ., Ann. iii, 6Google Scholar. 101 101 V.d.H. on 110, 13. Mommsen correctly assumed that the correspondence with Commodus Caesar (sic) has perished (p. 471). 102 102 cf. Syme, R., Historia 9 (1960), 379, n. 80Google Scholar. 103 103 Haines, 11, 128, n. 2; Hanslik, 39; Mommsen, 484. For the text of 11, 1 the article cited in n. 3 above must be consulted. 104 104 BMC Cat. IV, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus 261 ff. Cf. Dodd, C. H., NC 11 (1911), 221–22Google Scholar. 105 105 BMC Cat. 300 ff. 106 106 ibid. 233 ff. Dodd, 216–17 for the date. He calculated that the victory leading to Lucius' ‘Armeniacus’ and ‘Imp. II’ occurred about September. 107 107 HA Verus 6, 7–9. 108 108 Dodd, 215; Schwendemann, J., Der historische Wert der Vita Marci bei den Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Heidelberg, 1923), 143;Google ScholarLambrechts, P., AC 3 (1934), 194;Google Scholar CAH xi, 346; Birley, 167–68; etc. 109 109 The Greater Mysteries were celebrated from the 15th to the 23rd Boedromion, September/early October: Mylonas, G. E., Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries (Princeton, 1961), 243Google Scholar ff. 110 110 Jones, C. P., GRBS 13 (1972), 484–85Google Scholar. 111 111 CIL iii, 129 (Dmeir) does not prove his presence in Syria before 10th December, 162, contra Dodd, 215, n. 16. 112 112 The triumph was celebrated 12th October (HA Marcus 12, 8 with Comm. 11, 13). That Lucius was in Rome late August is suggested at Barnes, 72, relying on ILS 366 (not quite secure). The Misenine fleet was still in the East 24th May: FIRA 2 iii, 132. 113 113 McDowell, R. H., Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor, 1935), 234CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 114 114 Haines, n, 85; Hanslik, 39–40. 115 115 HA Verus 6, 7; Marcus 8, 11; BMC Cat. 198, 208 (by implication). 116 116 Mommsen, 485–86, misinterpreted by Barnes, 70 to say that the letter must be 166 or later. 117 117 Haines, 11, 239; Birley, 197: ‘This is the last surviving letter of Fronto to either of his imperial pupils, and he must have died soon after this.’ 118 118 Haines, 11, 46 ff. No one else has been so foolhardy. 119 119 cf. v.d.H. 156, 14 ff., and the note at 162, 37 ff. 120 120 Hanslik, 41–42. 121 121 Mommsen, 481; Haines, 114; Hanslik, 41. 122 122 Pan. Lat. viii (v), 14, 2. 123 123 Compare the correct opening of Fronto's letter, ‘Imp. Antonino Pio Augusto Fronto’. 124 124 HA Pius 8, 6–7. 125 125 Note the full discussion of his career by Zevi, F., RAL 26 (1971), 449–63,Google Scholar combining for the first time CIL xiv, 191 and 4471 (Ostia). If we accept the HA, Maximus did not ‘give up’ his office; contra Birley, 148. 126 126 FO XXVII. In the same sentence, Fronto refers to another old friend of Niger, Marcius Turbo, ‘primarius equestris ordinis’, obviously Hadrian's celebrated guard prefect, the date of whose demise is unknown. However, Hanslik (41) identified him with the Marcius Turbo attested as legate of Moesia Inferior in 155 (CIL iii, 7749), thereby affording himself an illusory terminus post quem. He failed to notice that this person must have been a senator. On these people and their family: Syme, R., JRS 52 (1962), 87–96Google Scholar. 127 127 On the normal interval between consulship and proconsulship in this age see Syme, R., REA 61 (1959), 310–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 128 128 Reuss, F., RhM 54 (1899), 464–65Google Scholar for the calculation. 129 129 Haines, 1, 263; Hanslik, 42. 130 130 PIR 2 C 1027 and Pflaum, H.-G., ‘Les correspondants de l'orateur M. Cornelius Fronto de Cirta’, Hommages à Jean Bayet (Bruxelles, 1964), 547–48,Google Scholar prefer the father; for the son see n. 131. 131 131 Haines, 1, 283; Hanslik, 43; Bowersock, 125–126. 132 132 cf. Birley, A. R., Chiron 2 (1972), 472–73Google Scholar. The urban prefecture is quite conjectural. 133 133 On whom see Bowersock, 54–55. 134 134 Guey, J., REL 29 (1951), 307Google Scholar ff.; Syme, R., REA 61 (1959). 316CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 135 135 cf. PIR 2 I 169; Zevi, F., MEFR 82 (1970), 309–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 136 136 cf.CIL Proculus: CIL viii, 1625 and HA Marcus 2, 3, A. R. Birley, BHAC 1966/67, 39–40. Papirianus: viii, 1641. Repentinus: exploiting an argument of Alföldy, G., Fasti Hispanienses (Wiesbaden, 1969), 143–45,Google Scholar which would identify his grandson on an acephalous stone from Sicca (viii, 15869). Note that ILS 6898, recording Marcus and Commodus as ‘sanctissimi imp.’ is very relevant to Alföldy's argument (q.v.). 137 137 CIL viii, 15872, 27572. On all this see Jarrett, M. G., Epig. St. 9 (1972), 186Google Scholar. 138 138 On his literary connections, Bowersock, 78–79. 139 139 ILS 2907 (Bonn). 140 140 PSI X, 1105. On father and son see H.-G. Pflaum Carrières, nos. 177 (with page 981); 166. 141 141 Avidius did not assume the Syrian command until 164 (P-W ii, 2379–80). Dodd, 234–48 argued that the Parthian campaign did not commence until 165, with the first important victory c. August/September, but the capture of Dausara and Nice-phorium were surely contemporary with or before the afterglow of Armenian successes, i.e. 164. Cf. the comments on Ad Ver. Imp. 11, 1, above. 142 142 Philostratus, VS 591. Identity is denied by Nutton, V., Latomus 29 (1970), 726–27,Google Scholar n. 4, but he assumes that the province is Germany and overlooks Aquila's oriental origin. On various other possibilities, Birley, A. R. in Britain and Rome (Kendal, 1966), 58–60Google Scholar. The essay of Orth, E., Phil. Woch. 53 (1933). 364–67Google Scholar is worthless. 143 143 P-W Passienus 6, 7; Thomasson, B. E., Die Statthalter der römischen Provinzen Nordafrikas von Augustus bis Diocletianus (Lund, 1960), ii, 17–18;Google Scholar cf. Pflaum (1964), 554. 144 144 cf. viii, 26528 a, b; 26606. 145 145 Service of that legion in the Parthian War is quite unattested (P-W xii, 1707–08) but surely probable: it was stationed at Melitene in Cappadocia on the Armenian frontier, and an inscription from Pessinus (IGRR iii, 230) offers a laticlave tribune of either this legion or III Cyrenaica awarded dona militaria by two Augusti. 146 146 CIL viii, 2736, 18067 (Lambaesis). 147 147 Pflaum, 555 collects the evidence. 148 148 Pflaum, 547; Bowersock, 125; Birley (1972), 471, n. 27. Cf. the aged Gavius Maximus. 149 149 On whom see Lambrechts, P., AC 5 (1936), 187–89Google Scholar. 150 150 Hanslik, 44; CIL iii, 77, cf. 44. 151 151 Pflaum, 549–50; Bowersock, 125, dependent partially on his dating of 1, 9 (q.v.). 152 152 Hauler never published his fuller reading of the Ms, cf. WS 47 (1928), 181Google Scholar. 153 153 ILS 9200, cf. Plaum, Carrèires no. 50; HA Comm. 4, 10. 154 154 Med. xii, 27; CIL iii, 14387e(Baalbek): D. Velio Fido leg. Aug. pr. pr. prov …; vi, 2120, Velius Fidus as pontifex. The two are perhaps identical. The P-W article of R. Hanslik (Velius 4) is confused and erroneous. He argues that the Syrian command should in fact be that of Syria Palestina (formerly Iudaea), making Fidus the recipient of PSI ix, 1026. That man is in fact Vilius Kadus, a known governor of Palestine. Hence Hanslik's dates of cos. c. 144 and ‘legatus Augustis pro praetore provinciae Iudaeae’ 149/150 are invalid. The editor of IGLS 2777 is confused. 155 155 Thus it was deciphered by Hauler, E., WS 46 (1928), 244–46Google Scholar. 156 156 cf. most recently the Budé edition of R. Marache (Paris, 1967) 1, ix-xii. He insists on a date prior to 158, the year in which he supposes Apuleius to have delivered his Apology. There is an undoubted echo between Apol. 9 and NA 19, 9, but a common source is by no means excluded, nor the precedence of the Apologia. 165 might seem preferable, the year of Peregrinus Proteus' self-immolation, of which there is no sign at NA 8, 3 and 12, 11. 157 157 PIR 2 F 520; Pflaum, H.-G., Let procurateurs équestres sous le haut-empire romain (Paris, 1950), 69–71,Google Scholar but retracted by reason of uncertainty at Pflaum (1964), 556–57. 158 158 Haines, 11, 245. 159 159 Date: Barnes, T. D., JTS 21 (1970), 407,Google Scholar on OGIS 512. 160 160 Pflaum (1964), 552–53. 161 161 PIR 2 G 98. 162 162 Lucian, Demonax 30. 163 163 The consul of 150, Squilla Gallicanus, married Pompeia Agrippina, daughter of a long line of senators from Miletus and descendant of the historian Theophanes. (On the family see R. Syme, Tacitus 748–49, and for the Antonine period Vogliano, A. and Cumont, F., AJA 37 (1933), 215–63)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. It happens that the delightful estate of a certain Orfitus is praised in a Greek verse inscription from Lesbos, where the Pompeii were held in high honour (IG xii, 2, 129, see now Ant. J. 51 (1971), 263–66)Google Scholar. The owner should be M. Gavius Orfitus (cos. 165), who will have inherited that estate from his mother. 164 164 Die römischen Reichsbeamten von Achaia bis auf Diokletian (Wien, 1939), 150,Google Scholar n. 623. The procurator is now known to be a Caelius Quadratus: Birley, E., Latomus 31 (1972), 916,Google Scholar for facts and conjectures. 165 165 Gell. i, 6, 4–6, ii, 27, 3–5; xi, 13, 1 ff; xiii 22, 1 ff. 166 166 ILS 1118. 167 167 V.d.H. 189, 15–17. 168 168 Montanus' eloquence, Ad Am. 1, 3, 2; Fronto's, 1. 3, 3 note (v.d.H. 166, 27); Lollianus', 1, 3, 4 note v.d.H. 166, 32), cf. Apuleius, Apol. 95. 169 169 Haines, 1, 39. 170 170 ‘Favorinus noster’ in 3 need not be alive; in any event the date of his death is not closely ascertainable. Cf. with this passage Gell. ii, 26, where Fronto ‘consularis’ and Favorinus are also discussing colour. 171 171 Haines, II, 28, n.1. 172 172 P-W ii A, 1009–10; Sedatius 1. 173 173 Birley, 169. 174 174 Brakman, 36; Hanslik, 46, n. 85. 175 175 Ad Ant. Imp. 1, 2, 10; Ad Ver. Imp. 11, 7, 4; De Eloq. 3, 2; Ad Am. 1, 15, 2; H, 1, 3. 176 176 As does, e.g., Birley, 177. 177 177 This information emerges from the combination of De Nep. Am. 2, 6 and 4, with Ad Ver. Imp. II, 9, 1. 178 178 Dio lxxii, 11, 3 and CIL xiii, 11808 offer on clue. The cursus of L. Dasumius Tullius Tuscus (xi, 3365) included the governance of Germania Superior and Pannonia Superior. The latter is independently witnessed (iii, 4117) as held under the two emperors, therefore it is assumed (by Ritterling, E., Fasti des römischen Deutschlands unter dem Prinzipat (Wien, 1932) 31)Google Scholar that the former was held c. 160/161, immediately before Victorinus. In fact, it may well have been earlier, for only one post (a curatorship) was held between the consulship (152) and the German command. 179 179 Ritterling 32; Pflaum, H.-G., ‘Les Sodales Antoniniani de l'époque de Marc-Aurèle (Mem. Acad. Inscr. 15, 2 (1966), 181Google Scholar ff.), dates it from 163 on the authority of CIL vi, 1546, the relevance of which is quite dubious. 180 180 Mommsen, 470–80 wrongly assigned the death to a date 166/169, after Lucius' return from the East. It is clear from the letters he cites (Ad. Ver. Imp. 11, 9–10) that Lucius is absent. Also, the child died in Germany, obviously during his father's stay there. 181 181 He was comes of the emperors in expeditione Germanica (AE 1957, 121), A.D. 168/169, having held one other legateship before that. 182 182 Haines, 1, 55, n. 5. 183 183 cf. Haines, 1, 21, 19, and above on Ad M. Caes. III, 9. 184 184 Mommsen, 472; Hanslik, 42. 184 184 Peter, H., Der Brief in der römischen Literature (Leipzig, 1901), 128Google Scholar ff. 185 185 Pan. Lat. viii (v), 14, 1–2; and Felix, Minucius, Octavius 9, 6–7,Google Scholar the so-called ‘In Christianos’ fragment which should rather (I think) be identified as a speech ‘In Pelopem’ recorded by Sidonius Apollinaris, Epp. viii, 10, 3, and which has little to do with Christianity. (I hope to discuss this matter elsewhere.) 187 187 cf. the fragments i–iv (all from Charisius) at v.d.H., 240. Fr. vi (also Charisius) is perhaps from one of Ad Am. 1, 12, 13, 14, or 18 (all to Victorinus). It might be argued that Pan. Lat. viii (v) 14, 1–2 (‘Romanae eloquentiae non secundum sed alterum decus’) betrays in A.D. 297 a knowledge of Ad M. Caes. 11, 3, 2 (‘Igitur vale, decus eloquentiae Romanae …’). 188 188 O. Seeck, ed. (Berlin, 1888), xxii ff. 189 189 Haines, 119, cf. 1, xxi. 190 190 T. D. Barnes, by letter. 191 191 Marcus' lenience: Dio lxxi, 27–28; HA Marcus 26, 2. 192 192 HA Cassius 13, 6, borne out by other evidence, cf. Jameson, S., AS 16 (1966), 126–27Google Scholar. 193 193 e.g., Petronius Victorinus c.i. and his son Petronius Aufidius Victorinus, flourishing in 256 (ILS 7218, Pisaurum). 194 194 CIL vi, 1416, 1418. 195 195 PIR 2 I 604. 10 Cited by Cited by Loading... Cited by 10 Crossref Citations This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by CrossRef. Bowman, Alan K. Garnsey, Peter and Rathbone, Dominic 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. CrossRef Google Scholar Birley, A. R. 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 132. CrossRef Google Scholar Griffin, Miriam 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 1. CrossRef Google Scholar Griffin, Miriam 2000. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 84. CrossRef Google Scholar 2011. Die Philosophie Marc Aurels. CrossRef Google Scholar Gibson, Roy 2012. On the Nature of Ancient Letter Collections. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 102, Issue. , p. 56. CrossRef Google Scholar Fleury, Pascale 2012. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. p. 62. CrossRef Google Scholar Mullen, Alex 2015. ‘In both our languages’: Greek–Latin code-switching in Roman literature. Language and Literature: International Journal of Stylistics, Vol. 24, Issue. 3, p. 213. CrossRef Google Scholar Fleury, Pascale 2016. Fabrique de la déclamation antique. p. 411. CrossRef Google Scholar Elder, Olivia and Mullen, Alex 2019. The Language of Roman Letters. 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el-wikipedia-org-4806	----	Μάρκος Αυρήλιος - Βικιπαίδεια Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μετάβαση στην πλοήγηση Πήδηση στην αναζήτηση Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Γενικές πληροφορίες Όνομα στη μητρική γλώσσα Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Λατινικά) Γέννηση 26  Απριλίου 121[1] Ρώμη Θάνατος 17  Μαρτίου 180[2][3] Vindobona Αιτία θανάτου πανώλη Συνθήκες θανάτου φυσικά αίτια Τόπος ταφής Κάστρο Σαν Άντζελο Κατοικία Ρώμη Εθνικότητα αρχαίοι Ρωμαίοι Χώρα πολιτογράφησης Αρχαία Ρώμη Θρησκεία Ρωμαϊκή θρησκεία Εκπαίδευση και γλώσσες Ομιλούμενες γλώσσες λατινική γλώσσα αρχαία ελληνικά Πληροφορίες ασχολίας Ιδιότητα πολιτικός φιλόσοφος συγγραφέας[4] Αξιοσημείωτο έργο Τα εις εαυτόν Οικογένεια Σύζυγος Φαυστίνα η Νεότερη[5] Τέκνα Κόμμοδος Μάρκος Άννιος Βήρος Καίσαρ Άννια Γαλερία Αυρηλία Φαυστίνα Άννια Αυρηλία Φαδίλλα Λουκίλλα Άννια Κορνιφίκια Φαυστίνα η Νεότερη Βίβια Αυρηλία Σαβίνα Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus Domitia Faustina Γονείς Μάρκος Άννιος Βήρος (πατέρας του Μάρκου Αυρηλίου) και Δομιτία Καλβίλα Θετοί γονείς Αντωνίνος Πίος[5] Αδέλφια Αννία Κορνιφικία Φαυστίνα Οικογένεια Δυναστεία των Αντωνίνων Αξιώματα και βραβεύσεις Αξίωμα Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας (161–180)[6] Ρωμαίος συγκλητικός Ύπατος στην αρχαία Ρώμη ταμίας[5]  Σχετικά πολυμέσα δεδομένα (π • σ • ε ) Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αντωνίνος Αύγουστος (Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[7][8], 26 Απριλίου 121 - 17 Μαρτίου 180) ήταν Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας από το 161 έως το 180. Κυβέρνησε ως συναυτοκράτορας με τον Λεύκιο Βέρο από το 161 έως το θάνατο του Βέρου το 169. Ήταν ο τελευταίος από τους "Πέντε Καλούς Αυτοκράτορες" και θεωρείται επίσης ως ένας από τους σημαντικότερους στωικούς φιλοσόφους. Κατά τη διάρκεια της βασιλείας του, η Ρωμαϊκή αυτοκρατορία νίκησε την αναγεννημένη Παρθική Αυτοκρατορία στην Ανατολή. Επίσης πολέμησε εναντίον των γερμανικών φυλών στη Γαλατία και τον Δούναβη, ενώ σημειώθηκε και μία στάση εναντίον του, στην Ανατολή, από τον Αβίδιο Κάσσιο, η οποία απέτυχε. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έγραψε το περίφημο έργο "Έις εαυτόν", στα ελληνικά, κατά τη διάρκεια των εκστρατειών του. Ακόμη και σήμερα θεωρείται ως έργο μνημείο για μια διακυβέρνηση με γνώμονα το καθήκον και την εξυπηρέτηση του συνόλου. Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Τα νεανικά του χρόνια 1.1 Η οικογένεια 1.2 Διάδοχος στην αυτοκρατορία 2 Αυτοκράτορας 2.1 Συναυτοκράτορας 3 Προκλήσεις 3.1 Παρθικοί Πόλεμοι 3.2 Γερμανία και Δούναβης 3.3 Κίνα των Χαν 4 Θάνατος και διαδοχή 5 Γάμος και παιδιά 6 Το συγγραφικό του έργο 7 Τα έργα του σε νεοελληνική μετάφραση 8 Παραπομπές 9 Βιβλιογραφία 10 Δείτε επίσης Τα νεανικά του χρόνια[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Η οικογένεια[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ήταν ο μοναδικός γιος του Μάρκου Αννίου Βήρου του Νεότερου. Ο πατέρας του ήταν ρωμαιο-ισπανικής καταγωγής, υπηρετούσε ως πραίτωρ και απεβίωσε όταν ο γιος του ήταν τριών ετών. Η μητέρα του Δομιτία Καλβίλα, κόρη του πατρικίου Πούμπλιου Καλβίσιου Τούλου Ρούσο, καταγόταν από πλούσια οικογένεια. Είχε και μία αδελφή, την Αννία Κορνιφικία Φαυστίνα, η οποία ήταν δύο χρόνια νεότερή του. Η θεία τού πατέρα του, (από την πλευρά της μητέρας εκείνου), ήταν η Βιβία Σαβίνα, σύζυγος του Αυτοκράτορα Αδριανού. Η Ρουπιλία Φαυστίνα (η γιαγιά του από την πλευρά του πατέρα του) και η Βιβία Σαβίνα ήταν κόρες της Σαλονίας Ματιδίας, ανιψιάς του Αυτοκράτορα Τραϊανού. Η αδελφή του πατέρα του, η Φαυστίνα η Πρεσβύτερη, ήταν σύζυγος του Αυτοκράτορα Αντωνίνου Πίου. Μετά το τέλος του πατέρα του, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ανατράφηκε από τη μητέρα του και τον παππού του, Μάρκο Άννιο Βήρο τον Πρεσβύτερο, με τους οποίους και μεγάλωσε. Ο παππούς του αυτός απεβίωσε το 138, σε ηλικία σχεδόν 90 ετών. Διάδοχος στην αυτοκρατορία[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Προτομή του νεαρού Μάρκου Αυρήλιου. Καπιτωλιανό Μουσείο της Ρώμης Το 137, ο Αδριανός ανακοίνωσε ότι ο διάδοχός του θα είναι ο Λεύκιος Κειώνιος Κόμμοδος, που μετονομάστηκε Λεύκιος Αίλιος Καίσαρ. Ο Μάρκος είχε ήδη τραβήξει την προσοχή του Αδριανού, ο οποίος τον καλούσε με το παρατσούκλι, ο "Πιο Αληθινός", και τον έκανε ιππέα στην ηλικία των έξι ετών. Μετά αυτός αρραβωνιάστηκε την Κειώνια Φαβία, κόρη του Αιλίου. Ο αρραβώνας ακυρώθηκε μετά τον θάνατο του Αιλίου, όταν ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έκανε δεσμό με την κόρη του Αντωνίνου Πίου. Έτσι μετά τον θάνατο του Αιλίου, ο Αδριανός έκανε καινούριο διάδοχό του τον Αντωνίνο Πίο, και του επέβαλε να υιοθετήσει τον Μάρκο Αυρήλιο και τον Λεύκιο Κειώνιο Κόμμοδο (τον γιό του θανόντος Αίλιου, που ήταν δέκα χρόνια μικρότερος από τον Μάρκο Αυρήλιο) και να τους βάλει επόμενους στη διαδοχή μετά από αυτόν. Ο Αντωνίνος Πίος τους έκανε διαδόχους στις 17 Φεβρουαρίου 138, όταν ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ήταν μόνο 17 ετών. Θα γινόταν Αυτοκράτορας στην ηλικία των 40 ετών, το 161. Λέγεται ότι ο Αντωνίνος Πίος και ο Κόμμοδος προορίζονταν μόνο να προετοιμάσουν τον δρόμο για τη διαδοχή από τους Μάρκο Αυρήλιο και Λεύκιο Βέρο. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος διδάχθηκε από μερικούς από τους καλύτερους διανοούμενους της εποχής του. Ο Ευφορίων του δίδαξε λογοτεχνία, ο Γεμίνος το δράμα, ο Άνδρων τη Γεωμετρία, ο Κάνινος Κέλερ και ο Ηρώδης ο Αττικός την ελληνική ρητορική. Ο Αλέξανδρος ο Κοτυεύς του δίδαξε την Ελληνική γλώσσα και ο Μάρκος Κορνήλος Φρόντων τη Λατινική γλώσσα. Λόγω της σχέσης τού Μάρκου Αυρήλιου με τον Φρόντωνα, σήμερα έχουμε πολλές πληροφορίες για την εποχή και τη βασιλεία του Αντωνίνου Πίου. Μέσα από αυτά τα γράμματα φαινεται ότι ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ήταν έξυπνος, σοβαρός και εργατικός νέος. Επίσης δείχνουν και το ολοένα και μεγαλύτερο ενδιαφέρον τού μελλοντικού Αυτοκράτορα για τη φιλοσοφία. Δείχνοντας ανυπομονησία για τα ατέλειωτα μαθήματα των Ελληνικών και των Λατινικών, έγινε υποστηρικτής των "Διατριβών" του Επίκτητου, ενός σημαντικού ηθικού φιλοσόφου της Στωικής Φιλοσοφικής Σχολής. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος επίσης μετείχε ολοένα και περισσότερο στον δημόσιο βίο δίπλα στον Αντωνίνο Πίο, καθώς έγινε ύπατος το 140, το 145 και το 161. Το 145 νυμφεύτηκε την Άννα Γαλερία Φαυστίνα που έμεινε στην ιστορία ως η Φαυστίνα η Νεώτερη, κόρη του Αντωνίνου Πίου και (από την πλευρά της μητέρας της) δική του εξαδέλφη από την πλευρά του πατέρα του. Αυτοκράτορας[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Συναυτοκράτορας[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Όταν απεβίωσε ο Αντωνίνος Πίος στις 7 Μαρτίου του 161, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος αποδέχτηκε τον θρόνο με τον όρο ότι θα ήταν συναυτοκράτορας με τον Λεύκιο Βέρο και ότι και οι δύο θα ήταν Αύγουστοι. Παρόλο ότι θεωρητικά και οι δύο ήταν ίσοι στη νομή της εξουσίας, ο Βέρος ήταν νεότερος και πιθανόν λιγότερο δημοφιλής. Η επιθυμία του Μάρκου Αυρηλίου για τη συγκυριαρχία του Βέρου, οφειλόταν στον σεβασμό προς τη θέληση του θετού πατέρα του και ενδεχομένως στο ότι τον περισσότερο χρόνο της βασιλείας του βρισκόταν στα διάφορα μέτωπα πολεμώντας με τις διάφορες φυλές στα σύνορα της Αυτοκρατορίας. Για τη διοίκηση του στρατού χρειαζόταν ένα πολύ πειθαρχημένο και ηγετικό πρόσωπο. Αλλά κανένας δεν θα μπορούσε να βρίσκεται ταυτόχρονα στον βορρά απέναντι στις Γερμανικές φυλές και στην Μέση Ανατολή απέναντι στους Πάρθους. Ούτε μπορούσε να βάλει ένα αρχιστράτηγο για τις λεγεώνες του: ακόμη και οι παλαιότεροι και δημοφιλείς Ρωμαίοι στρατιωτικοί όπως ο Ιούλιος Καίσαρας και ο Βεσπασιανός χρησιμοποίησαν τον στρατό, για να ρίξουν την κυβέρνηση και να γίνουν απόλυτοι ηγέτες. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έλυσε το πρόβλημα, στέλνοντας τον Λεύκιο Βέρο στην ανατολή ως αρχιστράτηγο του Ρωμαϊκού στρατού στην περιοχή. Ο Βέρος έμεινε πιστός στον Μάρκο Αυρήλιο έως το τέλος του, το 169. Αυτή η συγκυριαρχία θύμιζε πολύ το παλαιό σύστημα των δύο υπάτων της Ρωμαϊκής Δημοκρατίας, που δεν επέτρεπε σε ένα άτομο να κρατήσει την εξουσία μόνο για τον εαυτό του. Η συγκυριαρχία θα ξαναδημιουργηθεί αργότερα στα τέλη τού 3ου αιώνα από τον Διοκλητιανό, ο οποίος θα θεσπίσει Συναύγουστο και διαδόχους (Τετραρχία). Μόλις ανέλαβε τον θρόνο, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έκανε ό,τι και οι προκάτοχοί του, δηλαδή μεταρρυθμίσεις στους νόμους της Αυτοκρατορίας. Ευνόησε με τους νόμους του κυρίως τις ασθενείς ομάδες της Αυτοκρατορίας, όπως τους δούλους, τις χήρες και τους ανήλικους. Αναγνώρισε την εξ αίματος σχέση ως κύριο χαρακτηριστικό της κληρονομιάς. Τους νόμους για τα εγκλήματα τους χώρισε σε δύο κατηγορίες, τους πιο "αυστηρούς" και τους "λιγότερο αυστηρούς". Υπό τη βασιλεία του Μάρκου Αυρηλίου, η κατάσταση των Χριστιανών παρέμεινε η ίδια από την εποχή του Τραϊανού, δηλαδή κανονικά τιμωρούνταν από τον νόμο, αλλά στην πραγματικότητα σπάνια τους τιμωρούσε. Το 177 στη Λυών, μία ομάδα Χριστιανών εκτελέστηκε, αν και αυτό θεωρείται περισσότερο ευθύνη του τοπικού διοικητή. Προκλήσεις[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Παρθικοί Πόλεμοι[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Στην Ασία, η ενδυναμωμένη Παρθική Αυτοκρατορία αντεπιτέθηκε το 161, νικώντας δύο ρωμαϊκές στρατιές και εισβάλλοντας στη Συρία και στην Αρμενία. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έστειλε τον συναυτοκρατορά του, Λεύκιο Βέρο να αντιμετωπίσει αυτό τον κίνδυνο που προερχόταν από τη Μέση Ανατολή. Ο πόλεμος τελείωσε επιτυχημένα για την Ρώμη το 166, παρόλο που η επιτυχία πρέπει να αποδοθεί περισσότερο σε κατώτερους αξιωματικούς όπως ο Γάιος Αβίδιος Κάσσιος. Στην επιστροφή του στην Ρώμη, ο Βέρος ανταμείφθηκε με μία περίεργη παρέλαση θριάμβου, που συμπεριελάμβανε δύο αυτοκράτορες, τους γιούς τους και τις ανύπαντρες κόρες τους, και έμοιαζε σαν μία μεγάλη οικογενειακή γιορτή. Οι δύο γιοι του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου, ο Άννιος Βέρος και ο Κόμμοδος, τριών και πέντε ετών αντίστοιχα, έγιναν Καίσαρες για την περίσταση. Η επιστροφή του Ρωμαϊκού στρατού από το μέτωπο, έφερε μία επιδημία, μετέπειτα γνωστή ως επιδημία του Αντωνίνου, ή επιδημία του Γαληνού, που επεκτάθηκε στη Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία μεταξύ των ετών 165 και 180 μ.Χ. Η επιδημία έγινε πανδημία, και στο τέλος αφαίρεσε τις ζωές δύο αυτοκρατόρων, του Λεύκιου Βέρου, που πέθανε το 169, και του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου που πέθανε το 180. Το όνομα της οικογένειας του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου, Αντωνίνοι, δόθηκε στην επιδημία. Η επιδημία επανεμφανίστηκε εννέα χρόνια αργότερα, και ο Ρωμαίος ιστορικός Δίων Κάσσιος έγραψε ότι σκότωνε μέχρι και 2.000 άτομα στην Ρώμη κάθε μέρα. Οι συνολικοί θάνατοι υπολογίζονται σε πέντε εκατομμύρια. Γερμανία και Δούναβης[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Αρχίζοντας από το 160, γερμανικές φυλές άρχισαν να κάνουν επιθέσεις στα βόρεια σύνορα της αυτοκρατορίας, κυρίως στην Γαλατία και στον ποταμό Δούναβη. Πιθανόν οι επιθέσεις να προκλήθηκαν από την πίεση άλλων φυλών από τα ανατολικά. Η πρώτη εισβολή στο Σατί, στην Άνω Γερμανία αποκρούστηκε το 162. Πολύ πιο επικίνδυνη αποδείχθηκε η εισβολή των Μαρκομάννων από τη Βοημία, που ήταν υποτελείς στην αυτοκρατορία από το 19 μ.Χ., και διέσχισαν τον Δούναβη το 166, μαζί με τους Λογγοβάρδους και άλλες γερμανικές φυλές. Την ίδια εποχή, οι Σαρμάτες επιτέθηκαν στις περιοχές μεταξύ των ποταμών Δούναβη και Τίσα. Λόγω της κατάστασης στην Ανατολή της αυτοκρατορίας μόνο μία αποφασιστική εκστρατεία θα μπορούσε να σταματήσει τον κίνδυνο. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος και ο Λεύκιος Βέρος την ανέλαβαν από κοινού. Μετά τον θάνατο του Βέρου, το 169, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος οδήγησε μόνος του τις λεγεώνες εναντίον των βαρβαρικών φυλών για το υπόλοιπο της ζωής του. Οι Ρωμαίοι ηττήθηκαν από τους Κουάδους και τους Μαρκομάννους, οι οποίοι πέρασαν τις Άλπεις και πολιόρκησαν την κύρια ρωμαϊκή πόλη στη βορειοανατολική Ιταλία, την Ακυληία. Τον ίδιο καιρό, οι Κοστοβότοι (Δακική φυλή), περνώντας από την περιοχή των Καρπαθίων, εισέβαλαν στη Μοισία, στη Μακεδονία και στην Ελλάδα. Μέτα από μεγάλους αγώνες οι λεγεώνες του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου, κατάφεραν να διώξουν τους εισβολείς. Πολλές γερμανικές φυλές εγκαταστάθηκαν στην Δακία, στην Παννονία, στην Γερμανία και στην Ιταλία. Αυτό δεν ήταν κάτι το καινούριο, καθώς ο μεγάλος αριθμός των φυλών που εγκαταστάθηκαν, δημιουργούσε την ανάγκη για την δημιουργία νέων συνοριακών επαρχιών στην αριστερή πλευρά του Δούναβη, στη Σαρματία και στη Μαρκομαννία, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των σημερινών περιοχών της Βοημίας και Ουγγαρίας. Τα σχέδια του αυτοκράτορα, ανατράπηκαν από μία επανάσταση στην Ανατολή, με επικεφαλής τον Αβίδιο Κάσσιο, ο οποίος διέδωσε ότι ο αυτοκράτορας πέθανε μετά από ασθένεια. Από τις ανατολικές επαρχίες, μόνο η Βιθυνία και η Καππαδοκία δεν συμμάχησαν με τους επαναστάτες. Όταν έγινε γνωστό ότι ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ήταν ζωντανός, η μοίρα του Κάσσιου άλλαξε, και δολοφονήθηκε από τα στρατεύματά του μετά από μόνο εκατό μέρες στην εξουσία. Μαζί με την σύζυγό του Φαυστίνα, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος επισκέφθηκε τις ανατολικές επαρχίες μέχρι το 173. Επισκέφθηκε την Αθήνα, ανακηρύσσοντας τον εαυτό του προστάτη της Φιλοσοφίας. Μετά τον θρίαμβό του στη Ρώμη, έκανε εκστρατεία και πάλι προς τα σύνορα στον Δούναβη. Μετά από μία αποφασιστική νίκη το 178, το σχέδιό του να καταλάβει τη Βοημία ματαιώθηκε, διότι αρρώστησε και πάλι το 180. Κίνα των Χαν[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Το 97, ο Μπάο Χαν, στρατηγός των δυτικών επαρχιών της δυναστείας των Χαν της Κίνας (220 π.Χ. - 220 μ.Χ.), έστειλε τον υποτελή του Γκαν Γιν στη Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία, ο οποίος όμως συνελήφθη από τους Πάρθους κάπου κοντά στον Περσικό Κόλπο. Μπόρεσε πάντως να γράψει μία έκθεση για τη Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία, από αυτά που άκουγε στα ταξίδια του. Παρόλα αυτά ένα κινέζικο βιβλίο του 5ου αιώνα μ.Χ., το "Βιβλίο του αείμνηστου Χαν", γραμμένο από τον ιστορικό Φαν Γε, λέει ότι Ρωμαίοι επισκέπτες που έφτασαν στην Κίνα, μέσω του θαλάσσιου δρόμου της Νότιας Θάλασσας της Κίνας, επισκέφτηκαν τον αυτοκράτορα Χουάν της δυναστείας των Χαν (βασίλεψε μεταξύ των ετών, 146-168 μ.Χ.) στη Λουογιάνγκ και του έφεραν δώρα φιλίας το 166. Το κινέζικο βιβλίο λέει ότι έφεραν τα δώρα εκ μέρους του Αντωνίνου (Αντούν), αν και ο ιστορικός Ράφε ντε Κρεσπινύ λέει ότι πιθανώς ήταν Ρωμαίοι έμποροι και όχι απαραίτητα διπλωμάτες του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου Αντωνίνου. Θάνατος και διαδοχή[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος πέθανε στις 17 Μαρτίου του 180 μ.Χ. στην πόλη της Βιντομπόνα (σημερινή Βιέννη), και ο γιος και διάδοχός του Κόμμοδος, ήταν μαζί του. Θεοποιήθηκε και οι στάχτες μεταφέρθηκαν πίσω στη Ρώμη, και έμειναν στο Μαυσωλείο του Αδριανού μέχρι την καταστροφή της Ρώμης από τους Βησιγότθους το 410. Οι εκστρατείες του εναντίον των γερμανικών φυλών και των Σαρμάτων μνημονεύτηκαν από μία στήλη και έναν ναό που φτιάχτηκε προς τιμήν τους. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έκανε τον γιο και διάδοχό του Κόμμοδο, Καίσαρα το 166 και συναυτοκράτορα το 177. Η απόφασή του να σταματήσει την εξ υιοθεσίας διαδοχή ήταν εξαιρετικά ατυχής και υπήρξε αντικείμενο κριτικής από τους μετέπειτα ιστορικούς. Ο Κόμμοδος υπήρξε ένας κακός αυτοκράτορας και στρατηγός, ένας εγωιστής με ψυχονευρωτικά προβλήματα. Ο θάνατος του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου θεωρείται από πολλούς ως το τέλος της περίφημης Ρωμαϊκής Ειρήνης (Pax Romana). Η απόφαση του να βάλει τον Κόμμοδο ως διάδοχό του ήταν μάλλον λόγω της απουσίας ικανών διαδόχων και της προσπάθειας του να αποφύγει η αυτοκρατορία εμφύλιους πολέμους διαδοχής. Ο ιστορικός Μάικλ Γκραντ στο βιβλίο του The Climax of Rome (1968) λέει όσον αφορά τον Κόμμοδο, "η νεανική του ζωή ήταν τόσο απογοητευτική και μη παραδοσιακή, που η καταστροφή ήταν πραγματικά αναπόφευκτη. Αλλά είτε το ήξερε αυτό ο Μάρκος είτε όχι, η επιλογή κάποιου άλλου θα σήμαινε σίγουρα εμφύλιο πόλεμο όπως οι πολυάριθμοι που έγιναν στο μέλλον. Γάμος και παιδιά[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος παντρεύτηκε τη Φαυστίνα τη Νεότερη το 145, και στην διάρκεια των τριάντα ετών του γάμου τους απέκτησε 14 παιδιά. Μόνο ένας γιος και τέσσερις κόρες έζησαν μετά το τέλος του: Αννία Γαλερία Αυρηλία Φαυστίνα (π. 151 - μετά το 165), παντρεύτηκε τον Γναίο Κλαύδιο Σεβήρο ύπατο. ένας γιος (απεβ. πριν το 158). Αννία Αυρηλία Γαλερία Λουκίλλα (148/50 - 182), παντρεύτηκε πρώτα τον Λεύκιο Βέρο Συναυτοκράτορα του πατέρα της και μετά τον Τιβέριο Κλαύδιο Πομπηιανό. Τίτος Αίλιος Αντωνίνος (μετά το 150 - πριν τις 7 Μαρτίου, 161), απεβ. το πολύ 11 ετών. Τίτος Αίλιος Αυρήλιος (μετά το 150 - πριν τις 7 Μαρτίου 161), απεβ. το πολύ 11 ετών. Αδριανός (152 - 157), απεβ. 5 ετών. Δομιτία Φαυστίνα (μετά το 150 - πριν τις 7 Μαρτίου 161), απεβ. το πολύ 11 ετών. Τιβέριος Αίλιος Αντωνίνος (152 - πριν το 156), απεβ. το πολύ 4 ετών. Αννία Αυρηλία Φαδίλλα (159 - μετά το 211), παντρεύτηκε τον Μάρκο Πεδουκαίο Πλαύτιο Κουιντίλλο. Αννία Κορνιφικία Φαυστίνα η Νεότερη (160 - μετά το 211), παντρεύτηκε τον Μάρκο Πετρώνιο Σούρα Μαμερτίνο. Τίτος Αυρήλιος Φούλβος Αντωνίνος (161 - 165), απεβ. 4 ετών. Λεύκιος Αυρήλιος Κόμμοδος Αντωνίνος Κόμμοδος (161 - 192), δίδυμος αδελφός του προηγούμενου, Ρωμαίος Αυτοκράτορας. Μάρκος Άννιος Βήρος Καίσαρ (162-169), απεβ. 7 ετών. Βιβία Αυρηλία Σαβίνα (170 - πριν το 217), παντρεύτηκε τον Λεύκιο Αντίστιο Βούρρο. Το συγγραφικό του έργο[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Κατά την διάρκεια εκστρατειών μεταξύ του 170 και του 180, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος έγραψε «Τα Εις Εαυτόν» στα ελληνικά, ως πηγή για τη βελτίωση του χαρακτήρα και του πνεύματός του. Ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος ήταν εκπρόσωπος της Στωικής φιλοσοφίας και τα «Εις Εαυτόν» θεωρούνται εξαιρετικό έργο, κλασικό δείγμα της φιλοσοφίας αυτής. Το βιβλίο τυπώθηκε το 1558 στην Ζυρίχη, από ένα αντίγραφο χειρογράφου που τώρα έχει χαθεί. Ένα ακόμη αντίγραφο του χειρογράφου, το μοναδικό σωζόμενο, βρίσκεται στη βιβλιοθήκη του Βατικανού. Η σημασία του θανάτου ήταν πολύ βασική στη φιλοσοφία του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου. Δεν πίστευε στη μετά θάνατο ζωή. Έγραφε ότι «Εμείς ζούμε για μία στιγμή, μόνο για να ξεχαστούμε μετά σε μία τέλεια άγνοια». «Δες πόσοι έχουν περάσει τη ζωή τους σε μίση, πάθη, υποψίες... και τώρα είναι νεκροί, μόνο στάχτη». Σύμφωνα με τον Μάρκο Αυρήλιο, όλα θα μπορούσαν να γίνουν σχεδόν θρύλοι. «Από τη ζωή του ανθρώπου η διάρκεια είναι ένα σημείο, αλλά η ουσία ξεφεύγει, όλα τα σώματα είναι προκαθορισμένα να καταστραφούν, και η ψυχή αβέβαιη και η φήμη άγνωστη. Σε έναν κόσμο που όλα τα υλικά σώματα είναι σαν ένα ποτάμι και όλα τα ψυχικά και πνευματικά σαν ένα όνειρο άυλο, η ζωή είναι ένας πόλεμος και η μετά θάνατον φήμη είναι κάτι που θα ξεχαστεί». «Όλα υπάρχουν για να πεθάνουν». Η διάρκεια της ζωής κάποιου δεν έχει σημασία. Για τον Μάρκο Αυρήλιο, ο θάνατος ήταν θεμιτός, επειδή βάζει ένα τέλος σε όλες τις επιθυμίες. Τα έργα του σε νεοελληνική μετάφραση[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Επικτήτου Εγχειρίδιον. Μάρκου Αυρηλίου Τα εις εαυτόν. Κλεάνθους Ύμνος εις Δία. Παράφραση [= μετάφραση] Στέφανου Δέλτα. Αθήνα, 1935. Επανέκδοση: Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Εστία, 2002, με προλογικό σημείωμα Αλ. Π. Ζάννα. Μάρκος Αυρήλιος. Τα εις εαυτόν. Μτφρ. A.S.L. Farquharson, 1944, Βικιθηκη, [1] Μάρκος Αυρήλιος. Τα εις εαυτόν. Μτφρ. Γιάννης Αβραμίδης. Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Θύραθεν, 2009. Μάρκος Αυρήλιος. Τα εις εαυτόν. Μτφρ. Felix De Giorgio. Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Δαίδαλος-Ζαχαρόπουλος, χ.χ. Μάρκος Αυρήλιος. Επιλογή από τα Εις εαυτόν. Μτφρ. Ν.Μ.Σκουτερόπουλος. Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Στιγμή, 2007. Μάρκος Αυρήλιος. Άπαντα. 2 τόμ. Μτφρ. Φιλολογική ομάδα Κάκτου. Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Κάκτος, 1998. Παραπομπές[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] ↑ 1,0 1,1 «Antoninus» (Ρωσικά) ↑ «Марк-Аврелий, Антонин» (Ρωσικά) ↑ «Antoninus» (Ρωσικά) ↑ Ανακτήθηκε στις 20  Ιουνίου 2019. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 «Antoninus» (Ρωσικά) ↑ «Antoninus» (Ρωσικά) ↑ Στην λατινική επιγραφική το όνομα του Αυρήλιου θα γραφόταν ως MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS ↑ Το αρχικό του όνομα ήταν Μάρκος Άννιος Κατίλιος Σεβήρος (ή ίσως Μάρκος Κατίλιος Σεβήρος). Όταν παντρεύτηκε πήρε το όνομα Μάρκος Άννιος Βέρος, και όταν έγινε αυτοκράτορας πήρε το όνομα Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αντωνίνος. Βιβλιογραφία[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Forstater Mark, Οι πνευματικές διδασκαλίες του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου, Μτφρ. Ειρήνη-Δανιήλ Ντούτσουλη, εκδ.Κυβέλη, Αθήνα, 2007. Δείτε επίσης[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Στη Βικιθήκη υπάρχει υλικό που έχει σχέση με το θέμα:   Συγγραφέας:Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Τα Wikimedia Commons έχουν πολυμέσα σχετικά με το θέμα    Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Επίκτητος Στωικισμός Σωκράτης Προηγούμενος Αντωνίνος ο Ευσεβής Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης 161-180 Επόμενος Κόμμοδος π • σ • ε Ρωμαίοι και Βυζαντινοί Αυτοκράτορες Ηγεμονία 27 π.Χ.–235 μ.Χ. Αύγουστος Τιβέριος Καλιγούλας Κλαύδιος Νέρων Γάλβας Όθων Βιτέλλιος Βεσπασιανός Τίτος Δομιτιανός Νέρβας Τραϊανός Αδριανός Αντωνίνος Πίος Μάρκος Αυρήλιος, Λεύκιος Βέρος Κόμμοδος Περτίναξ Δίδιος Ιουλιανός (Πεσκένιος Νίγηρ) (Κλαύδιος Αλβίνος) Σεπτίμιος Σευήρος Καρακάλλας Γέτας Μακρίνος, Διαδυμενιανός Ηλιογάβαλος Αλέξανδρος Σεβήρος Κρίση 235–284 Μαξιμίνος Θραξ Γορδιανός Α΄, Γορδιανός Β΄ Πουπιηνός και Βαλβίνος Γορδιανός Γ΄ Φίλιππος ο Άραβας Φίλιππος Β΄ Δέκιος, Ερέννιος Ετρούσκος Οστιλιανός Τρεβονιανός Γάλλος και Βολουσιανός Αιμιλιανός Βαλεριανός Γαλλιηνός, Σαλονίνος Κλαύδιος Γοτθικός Κουιντίλλος Αυρηλιανός Τάκιτος Φλωριανός Πρόβος Κάρος Καρίνος Νουμεριανός Γαλάτες Αυτοκράτορες: Πόστουμος, (Λαιλιανός), Μάριος, Βικτωρίνος, (Δομιτιανός Β΄), Τέτρικος Α΄, Τέτρικος Β΄ Δεσποτεία 284–395 Διοκλητιανός Μαξιμιανός Κωνστάντιος Χλωρός Γαλέριος Σεβήρος Μαξέντιος Μαξιμίνος Δάιας Λικίνιος, (Βαλέριος Ουάλης), (Μαρτινιανός) Κωνσταντίνος Α΄ Κωνσταντίνος Β΄ Κώνστας Κωνστάντιος Β´, Βετρανίων Μαγνέντιος Ιουλιανός Ιοβιανός Ουαλεντινιανός Α΄ (Δύση) Ουάλης (Ανατολή) Γρατιανός (Δύση) Ουαλεντινιανός Β΄ (Δύση) Θεοδόσιος Α΄ Μάγνος Μάξιμος Βίκτωρ (Ευγένιος) Δυτική Αυτοκρατορία 395–480 Ονώριος (Κωνσταντίνος), Κώνστας Κωνστάντιος Γ΄ (Ιωάννης) Ουαλεντινιανός Γ΄ Πετρόνιος Μάξιμος Άβιτος Μαϊοριανός Λίβιος Σεβήρος Ανθέμιος Ολύβριος Γλυκέριος Ιούλιος Νέπως Ρωμύλος Αυγουστύλος Ανατολική Αυτοκρατορία 395-554 Αρκάδιος Θεοδόσιος Β´ Μαρκιανός Λέων Α΄ Λέων Β΄ Ζήνων Βασιλίσκος, Μάρκος Αναστάσιος Α´ Ιουστίνος Α΄ Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία 554–1204 Ιουστινιανός Α´ Ιουστίνος Β΄ Τιβέριος Β΄ Μαυρίκιος, Θεοδόσιος Φωκάς Ηράκλειος Κωνσταντίνος Γ΄ Ηρακλεωνάς Κώνστας Β΄ Κωνσταντίνος Δ΄ Ηράκλειος Τιβέριος Ιουστινιανός Β´, Τιβέριος Λεόντιος Τιβέριος Γ΄ Φιλιππικός Βαρδάνης Αναστάσιος Β΄ Θεοδόσιος Γ´ Λέων Γ´ Κωνσταντίνος Ε΄ Αρτάβασδος Λέων Δ΄ Κωνσταντίνος ΣΤ΄ Ειρήνη Νικηφόρος Α´ Σταυράκιος Μιχαήλ Α΄, Θεοφύλακτος Λέων Ε΄, Κωνσταντίνος Μιχαήλ Β´ Θεόφιλος Μιχαήλ Γ΄ Βασίλειος Α΄ Λέων ΣΤ΄ Αλέξανδρος Κωνσταντίνος Ζ΄ Ρωμανός Α´, Χριστόφορος, Στέφανος, Κωνσταντίνος Ρωμανός Β´ Νικηφόρος Β΄ Ιωάννης Α΄ Βασίλειος Β´ Κωνσταντίνος Η΄ Ζωή Ρωμανός Γ΄ Μιχαήλ Δ΄ Μιχαήλ Ε΄ Κωνσταντίνος Θ΄ Θεοδώρα Μιχαήλ ΣΤ΄ Ισαάκιος Α´ Κωνσταντίνος Ι΄ Ρωμανός Δ΄ Μιχαήλ Ζ΄, Ανδρόνικος, Κωνστάντιος, Κωνσταντίνος Νικηφόρος Γ΄ Αλέξιος Α΄ Ιωάννης Β΄, Αλέξιος Μανουήλ Α΄ Αλέξιος Β΄ Ανδρόνικος Α΄, Ιωάννης Ισαάκιος Β΄ Αλέξιος Γ΄ Αλέξιος Δ΄ (Νικόλαος Καναβός) Αλέξιος Ε΄ Ρωμαική Αυτοκρατορία στη Νίκαια 1204–1261 Κωνσταντίνος (ΙΑ΄) Θεόδωρος Α΄ Ιωάννης Γ΄ Θεόδωρος Β΄ Ιωάννης Δ΄ Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία 1261–1453 Μιχαήλ Η΄ Ανδρόνικος Β΄, Μιχαήλ Θ΄ Ανδρόνικος Γ΄ Ιωάννης Ε΄ Ιωάννης ΣΤ΄, Ματθαίος Ανδρόνικος Δ΄ Ιωάννης Ζ΄ Ανδρόνικος Ε΄ Παλαιολόγος Μανουήλ Β΄ Ιωάννης Η΄ Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ΄ (ΙΒ΄) Η παρένθεση δηλώνει έναν σφετεριστή. Η πλάγια γραφή υποδηλώνει έναν νεαρό συναυτοκράτορα. Καθιερωμένοι όροι WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 ΕΒΕ: 150699 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 Ανακτήθηκε από "https://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Μάρκος_Αυρήλιος&oldid=8781440" Κατηγορίες: Ρωμαίοι Αυτοκράτορες Στωικοί φιλόσοφοι Δυναστεία των Αντωνίνων Κρυμμένες κατηγορίες: Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P1559 Έλεγχος:Παραπομπές από Wikidata Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P569 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P19 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P20 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P509 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P1196 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P119 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P551 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P172 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P27 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P140 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P1412 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P106 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P800 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P26 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P40 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P22 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P25 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P3448 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P3373 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P53 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P39 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P373 Πρότυπο Βικιθήκη χωρίς ορισμό παραμέτρου σελίδας Πρότυπο Βικιθήκη με ορισμό παραμέτρου σελίδας διαφορετικό από Wikidata Κατηγορία Commons με τίτλο σελίδας διαφορετικό από των Wikidata Commonscat που τραβάει δεδομένα από Wikidata AC με 16 στοιχεία Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά VIAF Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά EBE Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά LCCN Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά ISNI Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά GND Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά SELIBR Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά BNF Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά BIBSYS Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά ULAN Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά MusicBrainz Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά NLA Μενού πλοήγησης Προσωπικά εργαλεία Χωρίς Σύνδεση Συζήτηση για αυτή την IP Συνεισφορές Δημιουργία λογαριασμού Σύνδεση Ονοματοχώροι Λήμμα Συζήτηση Παραλλαγές Προβολές Ανάγνωση Επεξεργασία Επεξεργασία κώδικα Προβολή ιστορικού Περισσότερα Αναζήτηση Πλοήγηση Κύρια πύλη Κατάλογος λημμάτων Προβεβλημένα λήμματα Τρέχοντα γεγονότα Τυχαίο λήμμα Συμμετοχή Βοήθεια Πύλη Κοινότητας Αγορά Πρόσφατες αλλαγές Επικοινωνία Δωρεές Εργαλεία Συνδέσεις προς εδώ Σχετικές αλλαγές Ειδικές σελίδες Σταθερός σύνδεσμος Πληροφορίες σελίδας Παραπομπή Αντικείμενο Wikidata Εκτύπωση/εξαγωγή Δημιουργία βιβλίου Κατέβασμα ως PDF Εκτυπώσιμη έκδοση Σε άλλα εγχειρήματα Wikimedia Commons Βικιφθέγματα Βικιθήκη Άλλες γλώσσες Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Επεξεργασία συνδέσμων Τελευταία τροποποίηση 23:11, 7 Απριλίου 2021. 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en-wikipedia-org-1007	----	Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor) - Wikipedia Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people with the same name, see Alexios Komnenos (disambiguation). Emperor of the Romans Alexios Komnenos Emperor of the Romans Mosaic of Alexios Komnenos in Hagia Sophia. He is depicted as a beardless youth, probably at the time of his coronation at 16 or 17 years of age. Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire Reign 1122–1142 Coronation 1122 as co-emperor Born February 1106 Balabista (today Sidirokastro) in Macedonia Died Late summer 1142 (aged 36) Attaleia, Pamphylia Spouse Eupraxia-Dobrodjeja of Kiev Eirene-Kata of Georgia Issue Maria Komnene Dynasty Komnenos Father John II Komnenos Mother Irene of Hungary Alexios Komnenos, latinised as Alexius Comnenus (Greek: Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός), was the eldest son of the Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos and his wife Eirene of Hungary. He was born in February 1106 at Balabista (today Sidirokastro) in Macedonia, was made co-emperor with his father at 16 or 17 years of age and died on 2 August 1142 [1] at Attalia, Pamphylia. He was an elder brother of the emperor Manuel I Komnenos, and had a twin sister, Maria Komnene (plus other siblings). Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 Footnotes 4 References Life[edit] Alexios was made co-emperor by his father in 1122, but died in 1142. This was the year before his father's death as the result of a hunting accident. The reign of John II is less well chronicled than those of his father, Alexios I, or successor, Manuel I, and coverage of the life of his son Alexios is very sparse. A panegyrical poem by Theodore Prodromos was addressed to John and his son on the occasion of the coronation of Alexios. It hailed both rulers as "kings born of kings and emperors, reformers of old customs and privileges, with whom the august throne and sceptre-bearing are a paternal acquisition, a matter of inheritance."[2] His final illness is described: "...of the severest kind and of short duration, took the form of a rushing fever attacking the head as though it were an acropolis."[1] The location of Alexios' death, at Attalia, suggests that he was on campaign with his father, who had established this city as a base from which to pacify the inland areas around Lake Pousgousē (probably the modern Beyşehir Gölü).[3] Alexios' younger brother Andronikos was charged with escorting the body back to Constantinople, however, while discharging this duty, he too was taken ill and died.[4] Family[edit] John II and his eldest son Alexios (right), crowned by Christ The identity of his wife is uncertain. It is possible he was married twice, the first wife being Dobrodjeja Mstislavna of Kiev, a daughter of Mstislav I of Kiev, and the second being Kata of Georgia, a daughter of David IV of Georgia. While both women are known to have married members of the Komnenoi family, several theories have been suggested as to the identities of their husband or husbands. His daughter Maria Komnene married the pansebastos Alexios Axuch. He was the son of John Axuch, the megas domestikos (commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army), who was a close friend of John II.[5] Alexios Axuch served as Duke of Cilicia and protostrator. However he eventually fell out of favor with Manuel I Komnenos in 1167. John Kinnamos and Niketas Choniates report that the accusations against him included practice of witchcraft. He and an unnamed "Latin wizard" were accused of causing the pregnancy of Maria of Antioch, the Empress consort, to result in a miscarriage. They supposedly managed to do so by providing drugs to Maria.[6] Alexios ended his life as a monk.[citation needed] Maria Komnene, "wife of Alexios the protostrator" was mentioned in a seal. According to the Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983) by Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, this Maria was suffering from insanity by the end of her life.[7] They were the parents of John Komnenos "the Fat", a short-lived rival emperor to Alexios III Angelos. Theodora Axuchina, wife of Alexios I of Trebizond, is considered a possible daughter of John the Fat.[citation needed] Footnotes[edit] ^ a b Choniates p.22 ^ Magdalino p. 422. ^ Choniates pp. 21-22 ^ Choniates p.374 ^ Choniates p.59 ^ Lynda Garland and Andrew Stone, "Mary of Antioch" ^ Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983), p. 276. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexios Komnenos (d. 1142). Choniates, Niketas (1984). O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates. transl. by H. Magoulias. Detroit. ISBN 0-8143-1764-2. Magdalino, Paul (1993). The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. pp. 339–348. OCLC 834784634. Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor) Komnenos dynasty Born: 1106 Died: 1142 Regnal titles Preceded by John II Komnenos Byzantine Emperor 1122–1142 With: John II Komnenos Succeeded by John II Komnenos v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. Rulers and co-rulers are denoted in bold v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexios_Komnenos_(co-emperor)&oldid=1002924795" Categories: 1106 births 1142 deaths Komnenos dynasty 12th-century Byzantine emperors Twin people from the Byzantine Empire Byzantine junior emperors Heirs apparent who never acceded Sons of Byzantine emperors People from Sidirokastro Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2014 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 17:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1063	----	Philippikos Bardanes - Wikipedia Philippikos Bardanes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 711 to 713 "Philippicus" redirects here. For the 6th-century Byzantine general, see Philippicus (comes excubitorum). Emperor of the Romans Philippikos Emperor of the Romans A solidus of Philippikos. The inscription reads dn filepicvs multus an. Byzantine emperor Reign 4 November 711– 3 June 713 Predecessor Justinian II Successor Anastasius II Born Pergamum Died 713 Father Nikephorus Twenty Years' Anarchy Chronology Leontios 695–698 Tiberius III 698–705 Justinian II 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Philippikos Bardanes 711–713 Anastasios II 713–715 Theodosios III 715–717 Succession Preceded by Heraclian dynasty Followed by Isaurian dynasty v t e Philippikos or Philippicus (Greek: Φιλιππικός) was the Byzantine emperor of the from 711 to 713. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Reign 2 See also 3 Bibliography 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography[edit] Philippicus was originally named Bardanes (Greek: Βαρδάνης, Vardanis; Armenian: Վարդան, Vardan); according to some scholars he was the son of the patrician Nikephorus, who was of Armenian extraction from an Armenian colony in Pergamum.[1] Antony Kaldellis suggests his origin probably Persian.[2] Relying on the support of the Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Emperor Justinian II; these led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Apsimarus, and subsequently to his banishment to Cherson by order of Justinian. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus, successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt with the help of the Khazars. The successful rebels seized Constantinople, and Justinian fled; Philippikos took the throne. Justinian was subsequently seized and beheaded; his son Tiberius was likewise apprehended by Philippikos's officers, Ioannes and Mauros, and killed in a church. Justinian's principal officers, such as Barasbakourios, were also massacred. Reign[edit] Among the first acts of Philippikos Bardanes were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, in favour of John VI, a member of his own sect, and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which abolished the canons of the Sixth Ecumenical Council. In response the Roman Church refused to recognize the new emperor and his patriarch. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian ruler Tervel plundered up to the walls of Constantinople in 712. When Philippicus transferred an army from the Opsikion theme to police the Balkans, the Umayyad Caliphate under Al-Walid I made inroads across the weakened defenses of Asia Minor. In late May 713 the Opsikion troops rebelled in Thrace. Several of their officers penetrated the city and blinded Philippicus on June 3, 713 while he was in the hippodrome.[3] He was succeeded for a short while by his principal secretary, Artemius, who was raised to the purple as Emperor Anastasius II. He died in the same year. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Bibliography[edit] References ^ Charanis, Peter (1959). "Ethnic Changes in the Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Dumbarton Oaks. 13: 23–44. doi:10.2307/1291127. JSTOR 1291127. ^ Kaldellis, Anthony (2019). Romaland_Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium_. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674986510. ^ Theophanes 1982, p. 79. Sources Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Theophanes; Translated by Harry Turtledove. The Chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of anni mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813) (1982 ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1128-6.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Philippicus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Further reading[edit] The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. External links[edit] Media related to Philippicus (category) at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Justinian II Byzantine Emperor 4 November 711 – 3 June 713 Succeeded by Anastasius II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Byzantine emperor from 711 to 713 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippikos_Bardanes&oldid=1021275665" Categories: 7th-century births 713 deaths 710s in the Byzantine Empire 8th-century Byzantine emperors Armenian Byzantine emperors Medieval Crimea Twenty Years' Anarchy Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Armenian-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2021, at 20:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-m-wikipedia-org-7123	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Marcus Aurelius Language Watch Edit For other uses, see Marcus Aurelius (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aurelian. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs;[2] 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana (27 BC to 180 AD), an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus Aurelius Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperor Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born 26 April 121 Rome, Italy Died 17 March 180 (aged 58) Sirmium, Pannonia Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger (145–175, her death) Issue Detail 14, including Commodus, Annius, Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, and Vibia Aurelia Sabina Names Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (see section Name for details) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Calvilla Philosophy career Notable work Meditations Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western Philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori[1] Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Epictetus, Quintus, Apollonius, Sextus of Chaeronea Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Stoic philosophy Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised Marcus. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus' uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus' reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 Name 2.2 Family origins 2.3 Childhood 2.4 Succession to Hadrian 2.5 Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) 2.6 Fronto and further education 2.7 Births and deaths 2.8 Antoninus Pius's last years 3 Emperor 3.1 Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) 3.2 Early rule 3.3 War with Parthia (161–166) 3.4 War with Germanic tribes (166–180) 3.5 Legal and administrative work 3.5.1 Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague 3.6 Death and succession (180) 4 Legacy and reputation 5 Attitude towards Christians 6 Marriage and children 7 Nerva–Antonine family tree 8 Writings 9 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 10 Column of Marcus Aurelius 11 In popular culture 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Sources 14.1 Ancient 14.2 Modern 15 External links SourcesEdit   Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.[3] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[4] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.[5] A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[6][7] Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[8] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[9] Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus's legal work.[10] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[11] Early lifeEdit Main article: Early life of Marcus Aurelius   A bust of young Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'[12] NameEdit Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,[13] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,[14][15][16] or at the time of his marriage.[17] He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[18] at birth or some point in his youth,[14][16] or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;[19] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[20] Family originsEdit Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III).[21] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.[22][23] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[24] Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.[25][26][note 1] Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.[29][30] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.[31][32][33] The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. ChildhoodEdit Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.[34] His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.[35][note 2] Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.[37] His mother Lucilla did not remarry[35] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',[38] and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.[16] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.[39] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.[40] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.[41] Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[42] From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.[43] Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[44] he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[45] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.[46] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[47] A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin[48][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.[50] Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[51] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's Meditations.[52] Succession to HadrianEdit   Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[53] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.[54] While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.[55] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.[56] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.[57][note 4] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.[59] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.[60] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[61] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[62] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.[63] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.[64] After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[65] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[66] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[67] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.[68] Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)Edit   Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.[69]   Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.[70] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.[71] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[72] Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[73] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[74] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[75] Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.[74] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'[76] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.[77] As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.[78] But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.[79] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.[80] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[81] On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.[82] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.[83] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[84] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.[85] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.[86] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[87] Fronto and further educationEdit After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[88] He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,[89] but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.[90] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[91] Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.[92] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.[93] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.[94] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[95] Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[96] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[97][note 6] He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[97] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.[101] The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.[102] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[103] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.[104] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[105] – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[106] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.[107] Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[108] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.[109] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,[110] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.[111] The outcome of the trial is unknown.[112] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[113] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[114] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.[115] Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.[116] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[101] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[117] Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.[118] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[119][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[121] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;[122] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[123] Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.[124] Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'[125] Births and deathsEdit On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.[126] The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.[127] Domitia would die in 151.[128]   The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[129] Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[130] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':[131]  leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad vi.146[131] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.[132] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[133] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.[134] By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.[135] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.[136] Antoninus Pius's last yearsEdit   Bust of Antoninus Pius, British Museum Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,[137] and was consul again with Marcus in 161.[138] Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.[139][note 8] He did not marry until 164.[143] In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[144] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.[136] Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[145] about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[146] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[147] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).[148] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[149] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.[150] EmperorEdit Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)Edit   Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.[151] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.[152] Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[153] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[154] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[155] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[156][note 9] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[159][note 10] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[159] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.[160] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[161] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[162] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[163] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz).[164] Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.[165] If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[166] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[163] In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.[167] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[168]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[169] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[170][note 11] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[172] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[173] Early ruleEdit Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[174] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[175] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.[176] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[177] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[178] Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.[179] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[180] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'[181] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[182] Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[183] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'[184] Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[185] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[186]     Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, December 2008 In either autumn 161 or spring 162,[note 12] the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[188][note 13] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[190] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.[191] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.[192] The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[193] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.[194] War with Parthia (161–166)Edit Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars   Coin of Vologases IV of Parthia. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63. On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[195] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[196] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[197] The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.[198] Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,[199] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[200]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[201] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[202] Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[203][note 14] More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[205] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[206] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[207] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[208] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[209] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[210] M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,[211] and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[212]   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, Victoria is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.[213] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[214] Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'[215] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[216] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[217] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.[218] Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'[219]   The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in Antioch's open-air taverns than with their units.[220] (Engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866)   The Euphrates River near Raqqa, Syria Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,[221] and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,[222] but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.[223] Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.[224] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.[225][note 15] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.[227] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[228] Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,[229] saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',[230] and enjoyed the company of actors.[231][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.[233]   Marble statue of Lucilla, 150–200 AD, Bardo National Museum, Tunisia In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.[234] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.[235] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[236] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,[237] who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[238] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.[239] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[240] He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[241] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[242] At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[243] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[244] Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[245] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[246] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[247] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[248] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[249] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[250] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.[251] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[252] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[253] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[254] By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[255] Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[256] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[257] Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[258] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[259] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.[260] War with Germanic tribes (166–180)Edit Main article: Marcomannic Wars   The Roman Empire at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia[261] – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and by his death.[262] The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Scenes from the Marcomannic Wars, 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museums)   Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards   Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot   Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts Jupiter, flanked by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.[263]   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.[264] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[265] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[266] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[267] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[268] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[269] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[270] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[271] Legal and administrative workEdit   Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt. Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,[272] but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.[273] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'[274] and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.[275] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[276] Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.[277] In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.[278] In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.[164] Trade with Han China and outbreak of plagueEdit Main articles: Sino-Roman relations and Antonine Plague A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.[279][280][281] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[282] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[283][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[284] The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[285] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.[286] It is believed that the plague was smallpox.[287] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.[288] Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[289] Death and succession (180)Edit   Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1844) by Eugène Delacroix Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[290] Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.[291] Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.[292] Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;[293] however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.[292] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[294] [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. –Dio lxxi. 36.3–4[294] Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."[295] Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[296] The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.[296] Legacy and reputationEdit Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.[297][298] Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.[299] The last-named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.[300] The historian Herodian wrote: "Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."[301] Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: "[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."[302] Attitude towards ChristiansEdit In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.[303] The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.[304] The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.[305] Marriage and childrenEdit   Coin of Commodus and Annius, 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus.   Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Prado Museum Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[126][306] including two sets of twins.[126][307] One son and four daughters outlived their father.[308] Their children included: Domitia Faustina (147–151)[126][138][309] Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)[129][307][310] Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)[129][307][310] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150[132][309]–182[311]), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus,[138] then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151),[134] married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)[134] Unknown child (died before 158)[136] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus[310] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),[312] twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,[310][313] married Bruttia Crispina, no issue Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162[260]–169[306][314])[138] Hadrianus[138] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170[310]– died before 217[315]),[138] married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue Nerva–Antonine family treeEdit v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. WritingsEdit Main article: Meditations While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.[316] It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.[317] It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.[318] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[319] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[320] Equestrian Statue of Marcus AureliusEdit Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.[321]   Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelius The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.[322] This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands 11.6 ft (3.5 m) and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.[323]   A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums   A full view of the equestrian statue   Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill   Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Column of Marcus AureliusEdit Main article: Column of Marcus Aurelius Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[324] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[325]   The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase.   The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) In popular cultureEdit In the 1965 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. In the 2000 British-American drama Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius. NotesEdit ^ Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[27] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[28] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.[36] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.[49] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.[58] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[81] ^ Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[98] Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[99] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[100] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[120] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[140]) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[141] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[142] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[157] The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[158] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[159] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[159] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[171] ^ Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[187] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[182]) ^ Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.[189] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' vivente Pio (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[204]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[226] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (HA Verus iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[232] ^ For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1741148930. CitationsEdit All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a 'HA'. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ^ Henry Albert Fischel, Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings, E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95. ^ 'Marcus Aurelius' Archived 28 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. ^ Rohrbacher, p. 5. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae' (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. ^ Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. ^ Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Magill, p. 693. ^ a b Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Van Ackeren, p. 139. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus i. 10; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Dio lxix.21.1; HA Marcus i. 9; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Van Ackeren, p. 78. ^ Dean, p. 32. ^ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. ^ Sánchez, p. 165. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ^ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ^ Giacosa, p. 8. ^ Levick, pp. 161, 163. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. ^ "M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae". ^ l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. JHU Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780801843006. horti domizia lucilla. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. ^ Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ Robertson, Donald J. "Stoicism as a Martial Art". Medium. Retrieved 23 February 2021. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. ^ HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. ^ HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Magie & Birley, Lives of the later Caesars, pp. 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, pp. 39ff. ^ HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30. ^ HA Aelius vi. 2–3 ^ HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. ^ Dio, lxix.17.1; HA Aelius, iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. ^ Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. ^ HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. ^ HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 108. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 77. ^ HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. ^ Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. ^ HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. ^ HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, pp. 1–2. ^ Mellor, p. 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. ^ Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. ^ a b Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–08. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Reed, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius'. Livius.org. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), pp. 173ff. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. ^ Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bury, p. 532. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156. ^ HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ a b 'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus xix. 1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 226. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ a b Adams, p. 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 183. ^ Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani, p. 33. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 241. ^ Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–24. ^ Le Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. ^ Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.' ^ Codex Justinianeus 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ Digest 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Irvine, pp. 57–58. ^ Dio, lxxii.33 ^ Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79. ^ Yü, pp. 460–61. ^ De Crespigny, p. 600. ^ An, 83. ^ Young, pp. 29–30. ^ Ball, p. 154. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–1098. ^ Murphy, Verity. 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe'. BBC News, 7 November 2005. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–98. ^ De Crespigny, p. 514. ^ McLaughlin, pp. 59–60. ^ Kleiner, p. 230. ^ Merrony, p. 85. ^ a b Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91. ^ Kemezis, p. 45. ^ a b Tr. Cary, ad loc. ^ Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 ^ a b Grant, The Climax Of Rome, p. 15. ^ HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. World History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. ^ Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ Thinkers at War. ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ a b Stephens, p. 31. ^ a b c Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. 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New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. External linksEdit Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects  Media from Wikimedia Commons  Quotations from Wikiquote  Texts from Wikisource  Resources from Wikiversity   Texts on Wikisource: The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. 1907. "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 693–96. "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.   Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Works by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Aurelius at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Aurelius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)   Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius Antonine dynasty Born: 26 April 121 Died: 17 March 180 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–180 With: Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Succeeded by Commodus Political offices Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–April 140 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–February 145 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus Preceded by Ti. Oclatius Severus Novius Sabinianus Consul of Rome January 161 With: Lucius Verus Succeeded by M. Annius Libo Q. Camurius Numisius Junior Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636" Last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:51 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Terms of Use Desktop Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-m-wikipedia-org-8297	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Marcus Aurelius Language Watch Edit For other uses, see Marcus Aurelius (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aurelian. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs;[2] 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana (27 BC to 180 AD), an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus Aurelius Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperor Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born 26 April 121 Rome, Italy Died 17 March 180 (aged 58) Sirmium, Pannonia Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger (145–175, her death) Issue Detail 14, including Commodus, Annius, Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, and Vibia Aurelia Sabina Names Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (see section Name for details) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Calvilla Philosophy career Notable work Meditations Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western Philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori[1] Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Epictetus, Quintus, Apollonius, Sextus of Chaeronea Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Stoic philosophy Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised Marcus. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus' uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus' reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 Name 2.2 Family origins 2.3 Childhood 2.4 Succession to Hadrian 2.5 Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) 2.6 Fronto and further education 2.7 Births and deaths 2.8 Antoninus Pius's last years 3 Emperor 3.1 Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) 3.2 Early rule 3.3 War with Parthia (161–166) 3.4 War with Germanic tribes (166–180) 3.5 Legal and administrative work 3.5.1 Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague 3.6 Death and succession (180) 4 Legacy and reputation 5 Attitude towards Christians 6 Marriage and children 7 Nerva–Antonine family tree 8 Writings 9 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 10 Column of Marcus Aurelius 11 In popular culture 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Sources 14.1 Ancient 14.2 Modern 15 External links SourcesEdit   Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.[3] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[4] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.[5] A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[6][7] Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[8] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[9] Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus's legal work.[10] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[11] Early lifeEdit Main article: Early life of Marcus Aurelius   A bust of young Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'[12] NameEdit Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,[13] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,[14][15][16] or at the time of his marriage.[17] He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[18] at birth or some point in his youth,[14][16] or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;[19] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[20] Family originsEdit Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III).[21] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.[22][23] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[24] Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.[25][26][note 1] Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.[29][30] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.[31][32][33] The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. ChildhoodEdit Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.[34] His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.[35][note 2] Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.[37] His mother Lucilla did not remarry[35] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',[38] and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.[16] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.[39] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.[40] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.[41] Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[42] From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.[43] Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[44] he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[45] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.[46] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[47] A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin[48][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.[50] Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[51] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's Meditations.[52] Succession to HadrianEdit   Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[53] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.[54] While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.[55] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.[56] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.[57][note 4] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.[59] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.[60] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[61] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[62] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.[63] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.[64] After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[65] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[66] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[67] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.[68] Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)Edit   Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.[69]   Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.[70] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.[71] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[72] Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[73] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[74] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[75] Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.[74] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'[76] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.[77] As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.[78] But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.[79] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.[80] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[81] On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.[82] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.[83] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[84] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.[85] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.[86] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[87] Fronto and further educationEdit After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[88] He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,[89] but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.[90] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[91] Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.[92] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.[93] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.[94] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[95] Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[96] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[97][note 6] He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[97] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.[101] The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.[102] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[103] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.[104] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[105] – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[106] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.[107] Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[108] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.[109] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,[110] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.[111] The outcome of the trial is unknown.[112] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[113] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[114] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.[115] Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.[116] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[101] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[117] Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.[118] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[119][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[121] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;[122] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[123] Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.[124] Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'[125] Births and deathsEdit On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.[126] The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.[127] Domitia would die in 151.[128]   The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[129] Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[130] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':[131]  leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad vi.146[131] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.[132] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[133] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.[134] By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.[135] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.[136] Antoninus Pius's last yearsEdit   Bust of Antoninus Pius, British Museum Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,[137] and was consul again with Marcus in 161.[138] Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.[139][note 8] He did not marry until 164.[143] In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[144] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.[136] Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[145] about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[146] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[147] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).[148] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[149] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.[150] EmperorEdit Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)Edit   Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.[151] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.[152] Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[153] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[154] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[155] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[156][note 9] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[159][note 10] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[159] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.[160] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[161] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[162] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[163] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz).[164] Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.[165] If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[166] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[163] In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.[167] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[168]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[169] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[170][note 11] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[172] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[173] Early ruleEdit Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[174] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[175] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.[176] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[177] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[178] Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.[179] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[180] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'[181] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[182] Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[183] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'[184] Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[185] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[186]     Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, December 2008 In either autumn 161 or spring 162,[note 12] the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[188][note 13] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[190] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.[191] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.[192] The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[193] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.[194] War with Parthia (161–166)Edit Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars   Coin of Vologases IV of Parthia. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63. On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[195] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[196] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[197] The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.[198] Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,[199] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[200]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[201] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[202] Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[203][note 14] More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[205] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[206] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[207] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[208] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[209] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[210] M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,[211] and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[212]   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, Victoria is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.[213] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[214] Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'[215] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[216] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[217] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.[218] Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'[219]   The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in Antioch's open-air taverns than with their units.[220] (Engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866)   The Euphrates River near Raqqa, Syria Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,[221] and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,[222] but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.[223] Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.[224] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.[225][note 15] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.[227] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[228] Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,[229] saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',[230] and enjoyed the company of actors.[231][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.[233]   Marble statue of Lucilla, 150–200 AD, Bardo National Museum, Tunisia In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.[234] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.[235] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[236] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,[237] who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[238] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.[239] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[240] He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[241] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[242] At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[243] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[244] Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[245] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[246] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[247] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[248] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[249] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[250] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.[251] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[252] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[253] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[254] By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[255] Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[256] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[257] Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[258] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[259] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.[260] War with Germanic tribes (166–180)Edit Main article: Marcomannic Wars   The Roman Empire at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia[261] – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and by his death.[262] The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Scenes from the Marcomannic Wars, 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museums)   Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards   Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot   Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts Jupiter, flanked by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.[263]   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.[264] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[265] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[266] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[267] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[268] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[269] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[270] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[271] Legal and administrative workEdit   Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt. Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,[272] but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.[273] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'[274] and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.[275] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[276] Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.[277] In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.[278] In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.[164] Trade with Han China and outbreak of plagueEdit Main articles: Sino-Roman relations and Antonine Plague A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.[279][280][281] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[282] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[283][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[284] The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[285] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.[286] It is believed that the plague was smallpox.[287] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.[288] Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[289] Death and succession (180)Edit   Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1844) by Eugène Delacroix Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[290] Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.[291] Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.[292] Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;[293] however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.[292] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[294] [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. –Dio lxxi. 36.3–4[294] Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."[295] Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[296] The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.[296] Legacy and reputationEdit Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.[297][298] Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.[299] The last-named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.[300] The historian Herodian wrote: "Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."[301] Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: "[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."[302] Attitude towards ChristiansEdit In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.[303] The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.[304] The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.[305] Marriage and childrenEdit   Coin of Commodus and Annius, 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus.   Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Prado Museum Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[126][306] including two sets of twins.[126][307] One son and four daughters outlived their father.[308] Their children included: Domitia Faustina (147–151)[126][138][309] Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)[129][307][310] Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)[129][307][310] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150[132][309]–182[311]), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus,[138] then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151),[134] married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)[134] Unknown child (died before 158)[136] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus[310] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),[312] twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,[310][313] married Bruttia Crispina, no issue Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162[260]–169[306][314])[138] Hadrianus[138] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170[310]– died before 217[315]),[138] married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue Nerva–Antonine family treeEdit v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. WritingsEdit Main article: Meditations While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.[316] It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.[317] It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.[318] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[319] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[320] Equestrian Statue of Marcus AureliusEdit Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius   Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.[321]   Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelius The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.[322] This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands 11.6 ft (3.5 m) and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.[323]   A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums   A full view of the equestrian statue   Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill   Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Column of Marcus AureliusEdit Main article: Column of Marcus Aurelius Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[324] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[325]   The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase.   The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) In popular cultureEdit In the 1965 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. In the 2000 British-American drama Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius. NotesEdit ^ Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[27] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[28] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.[36] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.[49] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.[58] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[81] ^ Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[98] Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[99] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[100] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[120] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[140]) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[141] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[142] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[157] The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[158] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[159] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[159] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[171] ^ Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[187] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[182]) ^ Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.[189] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' vivente Pio (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[204]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[226] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (HA Verus iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[232] ^ For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1741148930. CitationsEdit All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a 'HA'. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ^ Henry Albert Fischel, Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings, E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95. ^ 'Marcus Aurelius' Archived 28 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. ^ Rohrbacher, p. 5. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae' (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. ^ Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. ^ Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Magill, p. 693. ^ a b Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Van Ackeren, p. 139. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus i. 10; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Dio lxix.21.1; HA Marcus i. 9; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Van Ackeren, p. 78. ^ Dean, p. 32. ^ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. ^ Sánchez, p. 165. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ^ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ^ Giacosa, p. 8. ^ Levick, pp. 161, 163. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. ^ "M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae". ^ l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. JHU Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780801843006. horti domizia lucilla. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. ^ Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ Robertson, Donald J. "Stoicism as a Martial Art". Medium. Retrieved 23 February 2021. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. ^ HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. ^ HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Magie & Birley, Lives of the later Caesars, pp. 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, pp. 39ff. ^ HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30. ^ HA Aelius vi. 2–3 ^ HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. ^ Dio, lxix.17.1; HA Aelius, iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. ^ Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. ^ HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. ^ HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 108. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 77. ^ HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. ^ Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. ^ HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. ^ HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, pp. 1–2. ^ Mellor, p. 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. ^ Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. ^ a b Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–08. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Reed, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius'. Livius.org. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), pp. 173ff. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. ^ Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bury, p. 532. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156. ^ HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ a b 'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus xix. 1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 226. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ a b Adams, p. 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 183. ^ Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani, p. 33. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 241. ^ Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–24. ^ Le Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. ^ Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.' ^ Codex Justinianeus 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ Digest 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Irvine, pp. 57–58. ^ Dio, lxxii.33 ^ Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79. ^ Yü, pp. 460–61. ^ De Crespigny, p. 600. ^ An, 83. ^ Young, pp. 29–30. ^ Ball, p. 154. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–1098. ^ Murphy, Verity. 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe'. BBC News, 7 November 2005. ^ Haas, pp. 1093–98. ^ De Crespigny, p. 514. ^ McLaughlin, pp. 59–60. ^ Kleiner, p. 230. ^ Merrony, p. 85. ^ a b Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91. ^ Kemezis, p. 45. ^ a b Tr. Cary, ad loc. ^ Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 ^ a b Grant, The Climax Of Rome, p. 15. ^ HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. World History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. ^ Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ Thinkers at War. ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ a b Stephens, p. 31. ^ a b c Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. Livius.org. ^ Ackermann, Schroeder, Terry, Lo Upshur and Whitters, p. 39. ^ a b c d McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 92. ^ a b c d e Levick, p. 171. ^ Lendering, Jona. 'Lucilla'. Livius.org. ^ Gagarin, p. 37. ^ Benario, Herbert W. 'Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Adams, p. 104. ^ Levick, p. 160. ^ Hays, p. xlix. ^ Collins, p. 58. ^ Stertz, p. 434, citing Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius 3.5; Victor, De Caesaribus 16.9. ^ Hays, pp. xlviii–xlix. ^ Hadot, p. 22. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 236. ^ Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. ^ Kleiner, p. 193. ^ 'Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column' Archived 22 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine. University of Notre Dame, Hesburgh Library. Accessed 24 November 2018. ^ 'The Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius'[permanent dead link]. Grinnell College, Classics. Accessed 24 November 2018. SourcesEdit AncientEdit Aristides, Aelius. Orationes (in Latin). Trapp, Michael B. 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Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Facts on File, 2008. ISBN 978-0816063864. Adams, Geoff W. Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. ISBN 978-0739176382. An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-2503521787. Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. OCLC 461867183. Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-0415720786. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. doi:10.2307/299345. JSTOR 299345. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. doi:10.2307/299693. JSTOR 299693. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', Phoenix 26:2 (1972): 140–82. doi:10.2307/1087714. JSTOR 1087714. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 978-1134695690. Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0521263351. Bowman, John L. A Reference Guide to Stoicism. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. ISBN 978-1496900173. Bury, John Bagnell. The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.). New York: Harper, 1893. OCLC 1067064647. Champlin, Edward. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. doi:10.2307/299265. JSTOR 299265. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 978-0674331778. Collins, Desmond. Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. OCLC 879899744. De Crespigny, Rafe. A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Boston: Brill, 2007. ISBN 978-9047411840. Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0521892896. 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius'. Musei Capitolini. Gagarin, Michael. The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0195170726. Giacosa, Giorgio. Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. ISBN 0839001932. Gilliam, J. F. 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. American Journal of Philology 82.3 (1961): 225–51. doi:10.2307/292367. JSTOR 292367. Gnecchi, Francesco. I medaglioni Romani, 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. OCLC 6529816. Grant, Michael. The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-1317972105. Grant, Michael. The Climax Of Rome. London: Orion, 2011. ISBN 978-1780222769. Haas, Charles. The Antonine plague (in French). Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. OCLC 958470753. Hadot, Pierre. The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0674461710. Hays, Gregory. Meditations. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 978-1842126752. Irvine, William B. A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1522632733. Kemezis, Adam M. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1107062726. Kleiner, Fred S. 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Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0306819162. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0224072922. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0674778863. Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1999. 119 (1). doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. Reed, J. Eugene. The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476). Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Rohrbacher, David. The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0299306045. Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano [Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. ISBN 978-8497637695. Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1441125613. Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–39. doi:10.2307/4348712. JSTOR 4348712. Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. JSTOR 4435015. Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. External linksEdit Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects  Media from Wikimedia Commons  Quotations from Wikiquote  Texts from Wikisource  Resources from Wikiversity   Texts on Wikisource: The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. 1907. "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 693–96. "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.   Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Works by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Aurelius at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Aurelius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)   Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius Antonine dynasty Born: 26 April 121 Died: 17 March 180 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–180 With: Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Succeeded by Commodus Political offices Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–April 140 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–February 145 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus Preceded by Ti. Oclatius Severus Novius Sabinianus Consul of Rome January 161 With: Lucius Verus Succeeded by M. Annius Libo Q. Camurius Numisius Junior Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636" Last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:51 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Terms of Use Desktop Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-1083	----	Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 - Wikipedia Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Conflict between the Roman and Parthian Empires Roman–Parthian war of 161–166 Part of the Roman–Parthian Wars Date 161–166 AD Location Armenia, Mesopotamia and Media Result Roman victory Arsacids re-established on Armenian throne as Roman clients Ctesiphon and Seleucia sacked Territorial changes Minor Roman gains in upper Mesopotamia Belligerents  Roman Empire Parthian Empire Commanders and leaders Lucius Verus Avidius Cassius Marcus Claudius Fronto Marcus Statius Priscus Publius Martius Verus Vologases IV of Parthia Chosrhoes v t e Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Campaign (53 BC) Caesar's planned invasion (44 BC) Pompeian–Parthian invasion (40–38 BC) Antony's Parthian War (40–33 BC) War over Armenia (58–63) Trajan's Parthian campaign (115–117) War of 161–166 Campaign of Septimius Severus (198) Caracalla's Parthian War (216–217) v t e Roman–Persian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Caesar's planned invasion Pompeian–Parthian invasion Cilician Gates Amanus Pass Mt Gindarus Mark Antony's campaigns Armenian War of 58–63 Trajan's Parthian campaign Lucius Verus' campaigns 2nd Ctesiphon Parthian war of Caracalla Nisibis Roman–Sasanian wars Nisibis (235) Hatra Resaena Misiche Nisibis (252) Barbalissos Antioch Dura-Europos Edessa Caesarea (260) 3rd Ctesiphon Carrhae (296) Satala Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 1st Singara Amida 2nd Singara Julian's Persian War Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Bagrevand Byzantine–Sasanian wars War of 421–422 War of 440 Anastasian War Iberian War Lazic War War of 572–591 War of 602–628 The Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 (also called the Parthian War of Lucius Verus[1]) was fought between the Roman and Parthian Empires over Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia. It concluded in 166 after the Romans made successful campaigns into lower Mesopotamia and Media and sacked Ctesiphon, a Parthian capital. Contents 1 Origins to Lucius' dispatch, 161–162 2 Lucius' dispatch and journey east, 162–163? 3 Dissipation and logistics at Antioch, 162?–165 4 Counterattack and victory, 163–166 5 Conclusion of the war, mid-160s–167 6 Notes 7 Citations 8 References 8.1 Ancient sources 8.2 Modern sources Origins to Lucius' dispatch, 161–162[edit] On his deathbed in the spring of 161, Emperor Antoninus Pius had spoken of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[2] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[3] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[4] At the time of the invasion, the governor of Syria was Lucius Attidius Cornelianus. Attidius had been retained as governor even though his term had ended in 161, presumably to avoid giving the Parthians the chance to wrong-foot his replacement. The governor of Cappadocia, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters. But living in the east had a deleterious effect on his character.[5] The confidence man Alexander of Abonutichus, a prophet who carried a snake named Glycon around with him, had enraptured Severianus, as he had many others.[6] Father-in-law to the respected senator Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, then-proconsul of Asia, Abonutichus was friends with many members of the east Roman elite.[7] Alexander convinced Severianus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself.[8] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[9]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, past the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.[10] Coin of Vologases IV, king of Parthia, from 162 Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[11] Marcus Aurelius, who had become emperor on Pius' death on 7 March 161, was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius' twenty-three-year reign at the emperor's side—and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[12][notes 1] Marcus made the necessary appointments: Marcus Statius Priscus, the governor of Britain, was sent to replace Severianus as governor of Cappadocia,[14] and was in turn replaced by Sextus Calpurnius Agricola.[15] More bad news arrived: Attidius Cornelianus' army had been defeated in battle against the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[16] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with vexillations from the Danubian legions.[17] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[18] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[19] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[20] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[21] Attidius Cornelianus himself was replaced by M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties[22]—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[23] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to his former tutor Marcus Cornelius Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[24] Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?"[25] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[26] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of leisure.[27] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back.[28] Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!" He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!"[29] Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, including Cicero's pro lege Manilia, in which the orator had argued in favor of Pompey taking supreme command in the Mithridatic War. It was an apt reference (Pompey's war had taken him to Armenia), and may have had some impact on the decision to send Lucius to the eastern front.[30] "You will find in it many chapters aptly suited to your present counsels, concerning the choice of army commanders, the interests of allies, the protection of provinces, the discipline of the soldiers, the qualifications required for commanders in the field and elsewhere [...][notes 2]"[32] To settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, Fronto wrote Marcus a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, at Allia, at Caudium, at Cannae, at Numantia, Cirta, and Carrhae;[33] under Trajan, Hadrian, and Pius;[34] but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".[35] Lucius' dispatch and journey east, 162–163?[edit] Over the winter of 161–62, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity.[36] Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor.[37][notes 3] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".[39] Titus Furius Victorinus, one of the two praetorian prefects, was sent with Lucius, as were a pair of senators, Marcus Pontius Laelianus Larcius Sabinus and Marcus Iallius Bassus, and a detachment of the Praetorian Guard.[38] Victorinus had previously served as procurator of Galatia, giving him some experience with eastern affairs.[40][notes 4] Moreover, he was far more qualified than his praetorian partner, Sextus Cornelius Repentinus, who was said to owe his office to the influence of Pius' mistress Galeria Lysistrate.[41] Repentius had the rank of a senator, but no real access to senatorial circles—his was merely a decorative title.[42] Since a prefect had to accompany the Guard, Victorinus was the clear choice.[41] Laelianus had been governor of both Pannonias and governor of Syria in 153; hence he had first-hand knowledge of the eastern army and military strategy on the frontiers. He was made comes Augustorum ("companion of the emperors") for his service.[43] Laelianus was, in the words of Fronto, "a serious man and an old-fashioned disciplinarian".[44] Bassus had been governor of Lower Moesia, and was also made comes.[45] Lucius selected his favorite freedmen, including Geminus, Agaclytus, Coedes, Eclectus,[46] and Nicomedes, who gave up his duties as praefectus vehiculorum to run the commissariat of the expeditionary force.[47] The fleet of Misenum was charged with transporting the emperor and general communications and transport.[48] Lucius left in the summer of 162 to take a ship from Brundisium; Marcus followed him as far as Capua. Lucius feasted himself in the country houses along his route, and hunted at Apulia. He fell ill at Canosa, probably afflicted with a mild stroke, and took to bed.[49] Marcus made prayers to the gods for his safety in front of the senate, and hurried south to see him.[50] Fronto was upset at the news, but was reassured when Lucius sent him a letter describing his treatment and recovery. In his reply, Fronto urged his pupil to moderate his desires, and recommended a few days of quiet bedrest. Lucius was better after three days' fasting and a bloodletting. It was probably only a mild stroke.[51] Verus continued eastward via Corinth and Athens, accompanied by musicians and singers as if in a royal progress.[52] At Athens he stayed with Herodes Atticus, and joined the Eleusinian Mysteries.[53] During sacrifice, a falling star was observed in the sky, shooting west to east.[54] He stopped in Ephesus, where he is attested at the estate of the local aristocrat Publius Vedius Antoninus,[55] and made an unexpected stopover at Erythrae, where an elegiac poem in the voice of the local sibyl alludes to his visit.[56] The journey continued by ship through the Aegean and the southern coasts of Asia Minor, lingering in the famed pleasure resorts of Pamphylia and Cilicia, before arriving in Antioch.[57] It is not known how long Verus' journey east took; he might not have arrived in Antioch until after 162.[58] Statius Priscus, meanwhile, must have already arrived in Cappadocia; he would earn fame in 163 for successful generalship.[59] Dissipation and logistics at Antioch, 162?–165[edit] Antioch from the southwest (engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea[60] and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[61] He took up a mistress named Panthea,[notes 5] from Smyrna.[63] The biographer calls her a "low-born girl-friend",[64] but she is probably closer to Lucian's "woman of perfect beauty", more beautiful than any of Phidias and Praxiteles' statues.[65] Polite, caring, humble, she sang to the lyre perfectly and spoke clear Ionic Greek, spiced with Attic wit.[66] Panthea read Lucian's first draft, and criticized him for flattery. He had compared her to a goddess, which frightened her—she did not want to become the next Cassiopeia.[67] She had power, too. She made Lucius shave his beard for her. The Syrians mocked him for this, as they did for much else.[68] Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle.[69] He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through".[70] He enjoyed the company of actors.[71] He made a special request for dispatches from Rome, to keep him updated on how his chariot teams were doing.[72] He brought a golden statue of the Greens' horse Volucer around with him, as a token of his team spirit.[73] Fronto defended his pupil against some of these claims: the Roman people needed Lucius' bread and circuses to keep them in check.[74][notes 6] This, at least, is how the biographer has it. The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (HA Verus 4.4–6.6) is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Some few passages seem genuine;[notes 7] others take and elaborate something from the original.[notes 8] The rest is by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[79] Lucius faced quite a task. Fronto described the scene in terms recalling Corbulo's arrival one hundred years before.[80] The Syrian army had turned soft during the east's long peace. They spent more time at the city's open-air bars than in their quarters. Under Lucius, training was stepped up. Pontius Laelianus ordered that their saddles be stripped of their padding. Gambling and drinking were sternly policed.[81] Fronto wrote that Lucius was on foot at the head of his army as often as on horseback. He personally inspected soldiers in the field and at camp, including the sick bay.[82] Lucius sent Fronto few messages at the beginning of the war. He sent Fronto a letter apologizing for his silence. He would not detail plans that could change within a day, he wrote. Moreover, there was little thus far to show for his work: "not even yet has anything been accomplished such as to make me wish to invite you to share in the joy".[83] Lucius did not want Fronto to suffer the anxieties that had kept him up day and night.[84] One reason for Lucius' reticence may have been the collapse of Parthian negotiations after the Roman conquest of Armenia. Lucius' presentation of terms was seen as cowardice.[85] The Parthians were not in the mood for peace.[86] Lucius needed to make extensive imports into Antioch, so he opened a sailing route up the Orontes. Because the river breaks across a cliff before reaching the city, Lucius ordered that a new canal be dug. After the project was completed, the Orontes' old riverbed dried up, exposing massive bones—the bones of a giant. Pausanias says they were from a beast "more than eleven cubits" tall; Philostratus says that it was "thirty cubits" tall. The oracle at Claros declared that they were the bones of the river's spirit.[87] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla.[88] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[89] Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him.[90] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Marcus Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father.[91] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen.[92] Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[93] Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[94] Lucilla would bear three of Lucius' children in the coming years. Lucilla became Lucilla Augusta.[95] Counterattack and victory, 163–166[edit] The Legions I Minervia, commanded by M. Claudius Fronto and V Macedonica, commanded by P. Martius Verus, served under Marcus Statius Priscus in Armenia, achieving success during the campaign season of 163,[96] culminating with the capture of the Armenian capital Artaxata.[97] At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[98] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the title Imperator II with him.[99] The army of Syria was reinforced by II Adiutrix and Danubian legions under X Gemina's legate Geminius Marcianus.[100] The Euphrates river near Raqqa, Syria Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ("New City" in Greek), replaced Artaxata.[101] On Birley's reckoning, it was thirty miles closer to the Roman border.[90] Detachments from Cappadocian legions are attested at Echmiadzin, beneath the southern face of Mount Ararat, 400 km east of Satala. It would have meant a march of twenty days or more, through mountainous terrain, from the Roman border; a "remarkable example of imperialism", in the words of Fergus Millar.[102] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[103] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Verus sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[104] In 163, while Statius Priscus was occupied in Armenia, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia, just east of Syria, with its capital at Edessa. They deposed the country's leader, Mannus, and replaced him with their own nominee, who would remain in office until 165.[105] (The Edessene coinage record actually begins at this point, with issues showing Vologases IV on the obverse and "Wael the king" (Syriac: W'L MLK') on the reverse.[106]) In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[86] On the evidence of Lucian, the Parthians still held the southern, Roman bank of the Euphrates (in Syria) as late as 163 (he refers to a battle at Sura, which is on the southern side of the river).[107] Before the end of the year, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[108][notes 9] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.[111] There was little movement in 164; most of the year was spent on preparations for a renewed assault on Parthian territory.[90] In 165, Roman forces, perhaps led by Martius Verus and the V Macedonica, moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, Mannus re-installed.[112] His coinage resumed, too: 'Ma'nu the king' (Syriac: M'NW MLK') or Antonine dynasts on the obverse, and 'King Mannos, friend of the Romans' (Greek: Basileus Mannos Philorōmaios) on the reverse.[106] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris; their general Chosrhoes swam down the river and made his hideout in a cave.[113] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura-Europos.[114] By the end of 165, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version (promulgated, according to the Historia Augusta, by Asinius Quadratus) had it that the Seleuceni broke faith first.[115] Whatever the case, the sacking marks a particularly destructive chapter in Seleucia's long decline.[116][notes 10] During the sacking, Roman troops stole the statue of Apollo Comaeus from its temple and brought it back to Rome, where it was installed at the temple of the Palatine Apollo.[118] This blasphemy may have been on Marcus' mind when he called a lectisternium, a great meal offered to the gods, at the beginning of the Marcomannic Wars (ca. 167) to ward off the evils then being visited on the state.[119] Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague, contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[120][121] Iunius Maximus, a young tribunus laticlavius serving in III Gallica under Cassius, took the news of the victory to Rome. Maximus received a generous cash bounty (dona) for bringing the good news, and immediate promotion to the quaestorship.[122] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title Imp. III.[123] Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title Medicus,[124] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming Imp. IV in imperial titulature. Marcus too took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[125] Conclusion of the war, mid-160s–167[edit] Lucius Verus' apotheosis from Ephesus (today in Ephesos Museum in Wien). Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals. The forces that advanced on Osroene were led by M. Claudius Fronto, an Asian provincial of Greek descent who had led I Minervia in Armenia under Priscus. He was probably the first senator in his family.[126] Fronto was consul for 165, probably in honor of the capture of Edessa. Claudius Fronto returned to Italy for his consulship; the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Julius Verus, also returned.[127] Publius Martius Verus had led V Macedonica to the front, and also served under Priscus. Martius Verus was a westerner, whose patria was perhaps Tolosa in Gallia Narbonensis.[128] The most prominent general, however, was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was young senator, the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, a noted orator who was augustal prefect of Egypt from 137 to 142 AD under Hadrian, and wife Julia Cassia Alexandra. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings and the Julio-Claudians through his mother Julia Cassia Alexandra, who descended (via Junia Lepida) from Julia, daughter and only child of Augustus.[129] Cassius and Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.[130] On the return from the campaign, Lucius was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Marcus Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion. A statue base survives in Sardis to commemorate Lucius' victory (the emperor had presumably visited the city on his return to Rome).[131] The wealthy sophist T. Flavius Damianus also hosted the emperor and his army during their return trip.[132] Nisibis on the upper Euphrates remained in Roman hands for several decades after the end of the war. By the mid-3rd century, when it was frequently contested by and exchanged between Persia and Rome, it had taken on the appearances of a typical Roman garrison town.[133] Notes[edit] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded "countless legions" vivente Pio (while Pius was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[13]) ^ The text breaks off here.[31] ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[38] ^ Victorinus had also served in Britain, on the Danube, in Spain, as prefect of the Italian fleets, as prefect of Egypt, and in many posts in Rome itself.[40] ^ Or "Pantheia".[62] ^ Fronto called it "the corn-dole and public spectacles" (annona et spectaculis), preferring his own pompous rephrase to Juvenal's plain panem et circenses.[75] (The notion was a commonplace,[76] and Fronto was, in any case, unfamiliar with Juvenal; the author was out of style through the classicizing mania of the Second Sophistic, and would not become popular until the later 4th century.[77]) ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8, "He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'."; 4.10, "He never needed much sleep, however; and his digestion was excellent."; perhaps 5.7, "After the banquet, moreover, they diced until dawn.".[78] ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8 ("He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'.") and 10.9 ("Among other articles of extravagance he had a crystal goblet, named Volucer after that horse of which he had been very fond, that surpassed the capacity of any human draught.") are the seed for 6.2–6, "And finally, even at Rome, when he was present and seated with Marcus, he suffered many insults from the 'Blues,' because he had outrageously, as they maintained, taken sides against them. For he had a golden statue made of the 'Green' horse Volucer, and this he always carried around with him; indeed, he was wont to put raisins and nuts instead of barley in this horse's manger and to order him brought to him, in the House of Tiberius, covered with a blanket dyed with purple, and he built him a tomb, when he died, on the Vatican Hill. It was because of this horse that gold pieces and prizes first began to be demanded for horses, and in such honour was this horse held, that frequently a whole peck of gold pieces was demanded for him by the faction of the 'Greens'."; 10.8, "He was somewhat halting in speech, a reckless gambler, ever of an extravagant mode of life, and in many respects, save only that he was not cruel or given to acting, a second Nero.", for the comparison with other "bad emperors" at 4.6 ("...he so rivalled Caligula, Nero, and Vitellius in their vices..."), and, significantly, the excuse to use Suetonius.[78] ^ The letter noting the victories (Ad Verum Imperator 2.1) dates to 164 (Fronto makes a reference to Marcus' delay in taking the Armeniacus; since he took the title in 164, the letter can be no earlier than that date.[109]), but the battles themselves date to 163.[110] ^ Birley states that the siege marked the end of the city's history;[117] Matthews denies that the end of Seleucia can be tied to any one event, and points to other factors in the city's decline, like the rise of Ctesiphon, the shifting course of the Tigris, and a decline in royal patronage.[116] Citations[edit] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. ^ E.g. Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160. ^ HA Pius 12.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, "The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): 281. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 241–50. ^ Lucian, Alexander 30; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ HA Marcus 8.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 122. ^ HA Pius 7.11; Marcus 7.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103–4, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–4, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 349. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing A.R. Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (1981), 123ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), 65ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–51 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–98 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Marcus 12.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31). ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21). ^ De bello Parthico 2 (= Haines 2.21–23); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Dio 71.1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Verus 5.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, 125. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Marcus 8.9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 139. ^ a b HA Pius 8.9; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160–61. ^ Giuseppe Camodeca, "La carriera del prefetto del pretorio Sex.Cornelius Repentinus in una nuova iscrizione puteolana" (in Italian), Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 43 (1981): 47. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1094, 1100; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.84ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 1.4. ^ HA Verus 8.6, 9.3–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 163. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing C.G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy, (1941), 188ff. ^ HA Verus 6.7–9; HA Marcus 8.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–6. Stroke: Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; Haines 2.85 n. 1. ^ HA Marcus 8.11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.85–87); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing SIG3 1.869, 872; HA Hadrian 13.1. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing Cassiodorus senator s.a. 162. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161, citing I Eph 728, 3072; H. Halfmann, Itinera Principum. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich (Stuttgart, 1986), 210–11. ^ Christian Habicht, "Pausanias and the Evidence of Inscriptions", Classical Antiquity 3:1 (1984), 42–43, citing IErythrai 225. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Dio 71.3.1; HA Verus 7.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Historia Augusta Life of Lucius Verus 7 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Barry Baldwin, review of C.P. Jones' Culture and Society in Lucian, American Historical Review 92:5 (1987), 1185. ^ Smyrna: Lucian, Imagines 2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 11, 14–15; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Pro Imaginibus 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, cf. 7.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.6, tr. Magie; cf. 5.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 8.7, 8.10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Juvenal, 10.78; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Scholar and His Achievement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2 n. 8. ^ Alan Cameron, "Literary Allusions in the Historia Augusta", Hermes 92:3 (1964), 367–68. ^ a b Barnes, 69. Translations from the HA Verus: Magie, ad loc. ^ Barnes, 69. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.148–49); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historia 13 (= Haines 2.209–11); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129–30. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; citing Panegyrici Latini 14(10).6. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Pausanias 8.29.3–4; Philostratus, Heroicus 138.6–9 K., 9.5–7 L.; Christopher Jones, "The Emperor and the Giant", Classical Philology 95:4 (2000): 476–81. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Barnes, 72; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163; cf. also Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians", Journal of Roman Studies 58:1–2 (1968), 39; "Some Persons in the Historia Augusta", Phoenix 26:2 (1972), 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161–62, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874 (Claudius Fronto); Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; HA Verus 7.1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8977 (II Adiutrix); Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–51 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Marcianus); Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Dio 71.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 394; 9117; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 280 n. 42; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, 279 n. 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ a b Millar, Near East, 112. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 29; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Champlin, "Chronology", 147. ^ Astarita, 41; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), 124ff., on the date. ^ a b John F. Matthews, The Roman Empire of Ammianus (London: Duckworth, 1989), 142–43. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163–64. ^ Ammianus 23.6.23–24; McLynn, 334–35. ^ HA Marcus 13.1–6; McLynn, 334–35. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164. ^ Kernan, Sean. "The Virus That Crushed the Roman Army". Publishous. 31 July 2010 ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy and Halfmann, "Iunius Mauricus und die Victoria Parthica", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 35 (1979): 195–212 = Alföldy, Römische Heeresgeschichte. Beiträge 1962–1985 (Amsterdam, 1987), 203 ff (with addenda, 220–1); Fronto, Ad amicos 1.6. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), 99 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 179 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 24, 221. ^ Sherman E. 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London: Heinemann, 1918. Online at Theoi and Perseus at Tufts. Accessed 27 August 2009. Philostratus. Heroicus (On Heroes). Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. On Heroes. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online at Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies. Accessed 18 September 2015. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Vita Abercii. Modern sources[edit] Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. (2000). "Hadrian to the Antonines". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Rathbone, Dominic (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–94. ISBN 9780521263351. Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-1052	----	Alexander the Great - Wikipedia Alexander the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. For other uses, see Alexander the Great (disambiguation). King of Macedonia and hegemon of the Hellenic League Alexander III Basileus of Macedon Hegemon of the Hellenic League Shahanshah of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt Lord of Asia Hermes-type bust, of a bronze sculpture made by Lysippos King of Macedon Reign 336–323 BC Predecessor Philip II Successor Alexander IV Philip III Hegemon of Hellenic League Strategos autokrator of Greece Reign 336 BC Predecessor Philip II Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 332–323 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Alexander IV Philip III King of Persia Reign 330–323 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Alexander IV Philip III Lord of Asia Reign 331–323 BC Predecessor New office Successor Alexander IV Philip III Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC Pella, Macedon, Ancient Greece Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32) Babylon, Mesopotamia Spouse Roxana of Bactria Stateira II of Persia Parysatis II of Persia Issue Alexander IV Heracles (alleged illegitimate son) Names Alexander III of Macedon Greek Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος[d] Mégas Aléxandros lit. 'Great Alexander' Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας Aléxandros ho Mégas lit. 'Alexander the Great' Dynasty Argead Father Philip II of Macedon Mother Olympias of Epirus Religion Greek polytheism Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) stp.n-rꜤ mrj-jmn Setepenre meryamun Chosen by Ra, beloved by Amun Nomen Ꜥlwksjndrs Aluxsindres Alexandros Horus name mk-kmt Mekemet Protector of Egypt Second Horus name: ḥḳꜢ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜢswt Heqaqeni tekenkhasut The brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands Third Horus name: ḥḳꜢ ḥḳꜢw nw tꜢ (r) ḏr-f Heqa heqau nu ta (er) djeref The ruler of the rulers of the entire land Fourth Horus name: ṯmꜢ-Ꜥ Tjema'a The sturdy-armed one Nebty name mꜢj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜢw ḫꜢswt Mai werpehty itj dju tau khasut The lion, great of might, who takes possession       of mountains, lands, and deserts Golden Horus kꜢ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜢḳ(t) ḥḳꜢ wꜢḏ(-wr) šnw n jtn Ka (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en Aten The (strong) bull who protects Egypt,       the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος, Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.[a] A member of the Argead dynasty, he was born in Pella—a city in Ancient Greece—in 356 BC. He succeeded his father King Philip II to the throne at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia and Northeastern Africa. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.[1][2] He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's most successful military commanders.[3] Alexander on a mosaic from Pompeii, an alleged imitation of a Philoxenus of Eretria or Apelles' painting, 4th century BC. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16. His father Philip was assassinated in 336 BC at Alexander's sister's wedding, and Alexander assumed the throne to the Kingdom of Macedon. After sacking the city of Thebes, Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece. He used his authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project, which involved him assuming the leadership position to all the Greeks in their conquest of Persia.[4][5] In 334 BC he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. Following his conquest of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[b] At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the Beas River due to the demand of his homesick troops, dying in Babylon in 323 BC; the city he planned to establish as his capital. He did not manage to execute a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart. Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded more than twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture resulted in Hellenistic civilization, which developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture. The Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its end in the mid-15th century AD. Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and the population exchange in the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and enduring, unprecedented success in battle make him the measure with which many modern military leaders compare themselves.[c] Military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics.[6] He is often ranked among the most influential people in human history.[7][8] Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Lineage and childhood 1.2 Education 2 Philip's heir 2.1 Regency and ascent of Macedon 2.2 Exile and return 3 King of Macedon 3.1 Accession 3.2 Consolidation of power 3.3 Balkan campaign 4 Conquest of the Persian Empire 4.1 Asia Minor 4.2 The Levant and Syria 4.3 Egypt 4.4 Assyria and Babylonia 4.5 Persia 4.6 Fall of the Empire and the East 4.7 Problems and plots 4.8 Macedon in Alexander's absence 5 Indian campaign 5.1 Forays into the Indian subcontinent 5.2 Revolt of the army 6 Last years in Persia 7 Death and succession 7.1 After death 7.2 Division of the empire 7.3 Last plans 8 Character 8.1 Generalship 8.2 Physical appearance 8.3 Personality 8.4 Personal relationships 9 Battle record 10 Legacy 10.1 Hellenistic kingdoms 10.2 Founding of cities 10.3 Funding of temples 10.4 Hellenization 10.4.1 Hellenization in South and Central Asia 10.5 Influence on Rome 10.6 Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus 10.7 Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf 10.8 Legend 10.9 In ancient and modern culture 11 Historiography 12 See also 13 Annotations 14 References 15 Sources 15.1 Primary sources 15.2 Secondary sources 16 Further reading 17 External links Early life Lineage and childhood Map of The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC, birthplace of Alexander Public bathtubs in Pella, Alexander's birthplace Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon,[9] on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is uncertain.[10] He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus.[11] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.[12] Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.[13] According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image.[14] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[14] On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.[15] Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.[13] In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.[16] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[17] Roman medallion depicting Olympias, Alexander's mother When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.[13] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.[18] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.[19] Education When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[20] Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.[21] Alexander was able to quote Euripides from memory.[22] During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III.[23][24][25] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines.[23][26][27][28] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.[26] Suda writes that, also, Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of his teachers. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns.[29] Philip's heir Regency and ascent of Macedon Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon Further information: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.[13] During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.[30] Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.[31] Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.[32] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.[33] Battle plan from the Battle of Chaeronea As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.[34] After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war.[35] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.[36][37] Exile and return When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[38] the niece of his general Attalus.[39] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.[40] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.[39] At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another." — Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[41] In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians.[42] He continued to Illyria,[42] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.[43] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.[42] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.[44] In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.[42] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.[42] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.[42] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[45] King of Macedon Accession Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[46] In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.[e] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.[47][48][49] Consolidation of power Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed.[50] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[50] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.[51] Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.[51] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[47][49][52] News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.[53] Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[54] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."[55] At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[56] Balkan campaign Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.[57] The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river[58] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.[59] News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.[60] While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[61] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.[61] Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.[62] According to ancient writers Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης)[63][64][65] and a boy.[65] Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites.[64][66] Conquest of the Persian Empire Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia Asia Minor Further information: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and Siege of Miletus Map of Alexander's empire and his route Gérard Audran after Charles LeBrun, &vid=01NGA_INST:IMAGE 'Alexander Entering Babylon,' original print first published 1675, engraving, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC. Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-Simon Berthélemy After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion.[67][68] At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.[67][68] Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[61] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[69][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.[61] After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[70] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[71] From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[72] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[73] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.[74] The Levant and Syria Further information: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre (332 BC) In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.[75] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[76] Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.[71] In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege.[77][78] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.[79] Egypt Further information: Siege of Gaza Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum. When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".[80] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.[81] Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.[82] He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert.[83] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.[84] During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.[85] Assyria and Babylonia Further information: Battle of Gaugamela Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela.[86] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.[87] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon.[88] Persia Further information: Battle of the Persian Gate Site of the Persian Gate; the road was built in the 1990s. From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.[88] He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[89] On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.[90] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.[91] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[92] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.[93][94][95] Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,[93] but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.[93] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.[93] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[96] Fall of the Empire and the East Administrative document from Bactria dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents[97] Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.[98] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[99] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[100] Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.[101] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[102] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.[103] Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.[104] In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[105] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[106] Problems and plots The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–1899) During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.[107] The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.[108] A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.[109] Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.[110] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.[111] Macedon in Alexander's absence When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.[62] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.[62] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis.[62] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.[112] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.[113] In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.[114] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.[115] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[17] Indian campaign Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great Forays into the Indian subcontinent The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899) Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent Porus surrenders to Alexander After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[116] Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[117] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys.[118] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.[116] The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."[119] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.[116] After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[120] Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).[121][122] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.[123] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.[124] The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.[125] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[126] Revolt of the army Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[127] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[128] As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[129] Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.[130] Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[131] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[132] Last years in Persia (left) Alexander and (right) Hephaestion: Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship[133] Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.[134][135] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[136] Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796) After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.[137] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[135] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[138] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[139] During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[139] Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[140][141] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning.[140] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.[142] Death and succession Main article: Death of Alexander the Great A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London) On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[143] There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[144] He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[145] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony.[146] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[144] Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[147] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[148] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[146][149] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence,[150] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[151] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[149][151] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[149] The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[152] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[153][154][155] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.[156] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[156][157] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[158] Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.[159] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[160] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus.[161][162] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.[159] After death See also: Tomb of Alexander the Great Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.[163][164] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[165] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.[166] 19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[163][165] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.[167] The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great[168] has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.[169][170] Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[167] The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331.[171][172] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death. Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.[173][174][175] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".[176] Division of the empire Main articles: Partition of Babylon and Diadochi Kingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red). Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.[62] Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.[177] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[146] Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.[178] Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.[179] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.[146][177] Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.[180] Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt , Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.[181] Last plans A coin of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, circa 333-327 BC. The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.[182] Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".[183] Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[183] Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[62] According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the Pillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean;[184] Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, all costing 1,500 talents, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy[62][184] Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"[185][184] Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"[62][184] Conquest of Arabia[62] Circumnavigation of Africa[62] The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.[184] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance.[186] Character Generalship The Battle of the Granicus, 334 BC The Battle of Issus, 333 BC Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.[61] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.[187] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.[188] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,[91] in the manner of a Macedonian king.[187] In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.[189] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.[190] At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.[190] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.[191] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.[190] When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.[191] In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.[137] Physical appearance Greek biographer Plutarch (c. 45 – c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as: The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.[192] The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander exhibited heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.[193] British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents: Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.[194] Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher has said that Alexander had blond hair.[195] Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image.[196] Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros.[197] Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[198] Personality Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic,[199] Pella Museum As is the case with personality traits in general, Alexander's prominent personality traits reflected those of his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[194] Olympias's influence instilled a sense of destiny in him,[200] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[201] However, his father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.[50] Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.[194] While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[202] he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.[194] According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[203] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.[194] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.[204] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[205] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[194] His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.[203] He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.[206] A Roman copy of an original 3rd century BC Greek bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.[201][205] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).[207] He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.[177][203] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.[177] During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[150] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.[208] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,[150] in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,[209][210] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.[211][212] He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[150] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[213] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.[214] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.[214] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform.[107] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.[215] However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.[216] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.[217] Personal relationships Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC; the couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite. Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[218][219][220] out of love;[221] and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons.[222][223] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.[224][225] Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[140][194][226] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.[140][227] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.[150][159] Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.[228] The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.[229] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."[230] Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[231][232] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.[233] Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[194] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.[234] Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.[235] According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[236] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".[206] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[237] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.[194] Battle record Date War Action Opponent/s Type Country (present day) Rank Outcome 338-08-02 2 August 338 BC Rise of Macedon Chaeronea Battle of Chaeronea .Thebans, Athenians Battle Greece Prince Victory ⁂ 335 335 BC Balkan Campaign Mount Haemus Battle of Mount Haemus .Getae, Thracians Battle Bulgaria King Victory ⁂ 335-12 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Pelium Siege of Pelium .Illyrians Siege Albania King Victory ⁂ 335-12 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Pelium Battle of Thebes .Thebans Battle Greece King Victory ⁂ 334-05 May 334 BC Persian Campaign Granicus Battle of the Granicus .Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King Victory ⁂ 334 334 BC Persian Campaign Miletus Siege of Miletus .Achaemenid Empire, Milesians Siege Turkey King Victory ⁂ 334 334 BC Persian Campaign Halicarnassus Siege of Halicarnassus .Achaemenid Empire Siege Turkey King Victory ⁂ 333-11-05 5 November 333 BC Persian Campaign Issus Battle of Issus .Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King Victory ⁂ 332 January–July 332 BC Persian Campaign Tyre Siege of Tyre .Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians Siege Lebanon King Victory ⁂ 332-10 October 332 BC Persian Campaign Tyre Siege of Gaza .Achaemenid Empire Siege Palestine King Victory ⁂ 331-10-01 1 October 331 BC Persian Campaign Gaugamela Battle of Gaugamela .Achaemenid Empire Battle Iraq King Victory ⁂ 331-12 December 331 BC Persian Campaign Uxian Defile Battle of the Uxian Defile .Uxians Battle Iran King Victory ⁂ 330-01-20 20 January 330 BC Persian Campaign Persian Gate Battle of the Persian Gate .Achaemenid Empire Battle Iran King Victory ⁂ 329 329 BC Persian Campaign Cyropolis Siege of Cyropolis .Sogdians Siege Turkmenistan King Victory ⁂ 329-10 October 329 BC Persian Campaign Jaxartes Battle of Jaxartes .Scythians Battle Uzbekistan King Victory ⁂ 327 327 BC Persian Campaign Sogdian Rock Siege of the Sogdian Rock .Sogdians Siege Uzbekistan King Victory ⁂ 327 May 327 – March 326 BC Indian Campaign Cophen Cophen Campaign .Aspasians Expedition Afghanistan and Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 326-04 April 326 BC Indian Campaign Aornos Siege of Aornos .Aśvaka Siege Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 326-05 May 326 BC Indian Campaign Hydaspes Battle of the Hydaspes .Porus Battle Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 325 November 326 – February 325 BC Indian Campaign Aornos Siege of Multan .Malli Siege Pakistan King Victory ⁂ Legacy The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors[238] Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.[17] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.[17] Hellenistic kingdoms Main article: Hellenistic period Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[239] and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.[240] The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[177] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.[241] Founding of cities Further information: List of cities founded by Alexander the Great Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris.[108][242] The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.[108] The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.[108] Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.[108][242] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.[108] Funding of temples Dedication of Alexander the Great to Athena Polias at Priene, now housed in the British Museum[243] In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey.[244][245] An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."[243] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.[243] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.[243][244][245][246] Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.[247][248] Hellenization Main article: Hellenistic civilization Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km. Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.[240] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch[249] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[250] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.[251] The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.[252] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[253] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.[253] Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language.[249] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[254] Hellenization in South and Central Asia Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indo-Greek art, and Greco-Buddhism The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo National Museum. Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.[255] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.[256] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[257] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.[255] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[258] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[255] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.[259] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[260] while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.[259][261][262] The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.[263] The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals. Influence on Rome This medallion was produced in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.[264] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.[264] Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.[264] The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla.[264] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes.[265] On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values.[266] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).[266] Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.[267] The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.[268][269] Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.[270] After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.[271][272] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[271][272][273] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[273] As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii.[273] Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.[272] In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.[274][275] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[275] Caligula, who could not swim,[276] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.[275] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[275] The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[277] Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (today at the Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander.[278] In addition, Pliny the Elder writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was 12 kilometres (7+1⁄2 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.[279][280] Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that the Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea.[281][282] Legend Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century Armenian miniature painting Main article: Alexander the Great in legend Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.[283] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[284] In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[285] containing many dubious stories,[283] and was translated into numerous languages.[286] In ancient and modern culture Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript Main articles: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great and Alexander the Great in the Quran Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.[286] Folio from the Shahnameh showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century Alexander the Great conquering the air. Jean Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, Flanders, 1448–1449 Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.[287] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play.[287] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.[287] Detail of a 16th-century Islamic painting depicting Alexander the Great being lowered in a glass submersible In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.[288] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.[289] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth.[290] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba.[291] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.[292] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.[289] The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.[289] In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog.[293] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.[293] The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".[289] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest.[293] His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[289] According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.[294] In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khajli stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).[295] In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.[296] In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.[297] During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.[298] In Greek Anthology there are poems referring to Alexander.[299][300] Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are: Sikandar (1941), an Indian production directed by Sohrab Modi about the conquest of India by Alexander[301] Alexander the Great (1956), produced by MGM and starring Richard Burton Sikandar-e-Azam (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor Alexander (2004), directed by Oliver Stone, starring Colin Farrell There are also many references to other movies and TV series. Newer novels about Alexander are: The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by Valerio Massimo Manfredi consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world". The trilogy of Mary Renault consisting of "Fire from Heaven", "The Persian Boy" and "Funeral Games". The Virtues of War, about Alexander the Great (2004), ISBN 0385500998 and "* The Afghan Campaign, about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), ISBN 038551641X" by Steven Pressfield. Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem. Historiography Main article: Historiography of Alexander the Great Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.[17] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.[17] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.[17] See also History portal Greece portal Iran portal Egypt portal War portal Ancient Macedonian army Bucephalus Chronology of European exploration of Asia Diogenes and Alexander Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources List of people known as The Great Annotations ^ Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe.[302] ^ By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[303][304] An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map. ^ For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[305] Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[306] Pompey and Alauddin Khalji consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[307] the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.[308]Caracalla was so obsessed with Alexander that he arranged 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes during his Parthian Invasion. His mania for Alexander went so far that he visited Alexandria while preparing the invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander.[309][310]Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.[311][312] Mehmed the Conqueror's heroes were Alexander and Achilles.[313] ^ The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō, lit. 'ward off, avert, defend')[314][315] and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, lit. 'man'),[316][315] and means "protector of men".[317] ^ There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[318] ^ However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men. References ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE." Golden, Peter B. Central Asia in World History (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. 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"Did Alexander the Great die of acute pancreatitis?". J Clin Gastroenterol. 24 (4): 294–96. doi:10.1097/00004836-199706000-00031. PMID 9252868. ^ a b Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (1998). "The Location of the Tomb: Facts and Speculation". Greece.org. Archived from the original on 31 May 2004. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ "Bayfront Byline Bug Walk". UCSD. March 1996. Retrieved 25 March 2013. ^ a b Aelian, "64", Varia Historia, XII ^ Green 2007, p. 32. ^ a b Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (1998). "The Aftermath: The Burial of Alexander the Great". Greece.org. Archived from the original on 27 August 2004. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ Christides, Giorgos (22 September 2014). "Greeks captivated by Alexander-era tomb at Amphipolis". BBC News. ^ "Archaeologist claims opulent grave in Greece honored Alexander the Great's best friend". usnews.com. 30 September 2015. ^ "Hephaestion's Monogram Found at Amphipolis Tomb". Greek Reporter. 30 September 2015. ^ Studniczka 1894, pp. 226ff ^ Bieber, M (1965). 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ISBN 978-1-4051-9572-0. ^ Ogden 2009, p. 208... three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his father. ^ Mary Renault (1979). The Nature of Alexander. Pantheon. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-394-73825-3. No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. 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"Journey to Mecca: A History". In Porter, Venetia (ed.). Hajj : journey to the heart of Islam. Cambridge, Mass.: The British Museum. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-674-06218-4. OCLC 709670348. ^ Webb, Peter (2013). "The Hajj before Muhammad: Journeys to Mecca in Muslim Narratives of Pre-Islamic History". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.). The Hajj : collected essays. London: The British Museum. pp. 14 footnote 72. ISBN 978-0-86159-193-0. OCLC 857109543. ^ a b c Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 122. ^ Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XI, 337 viii, 5 ^ Connerney 2009, p. 68 ^ Donde, Dipanwita (2014). "The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting". International Conference of Greek Studies: An Asian Perspective – via Academia. ^ Noll, Thomas (2016). "The Visual Image of Alexander the Great". In Stock, Markus (ed.). Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. Translated by Boettcher, Susan. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-1-4426-4466-3. ^ Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne,Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, pp 158 ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ Dwyer, Rachel (December 2005). 100 Bollywood Films. ISBN 9788174369901. ^ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58; Errington 1990, pp. 3–4; Fine 1983, pp. 607–08; Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 11; Jones 2001, p. 21; Osborne 2004, p. 127; Hammond 1989, pp. 12–13; Hammond 1993, p. 97; Starr 1991, pp. 260, 367; Toynbee 1981, p. 67; Worthington 2008, pp. 8, 219; Cawkwell 1978, p. 22; Perlman 1973, p. 78; Hamilton 1974, Chapter 2: The Macedonian Homeland, p. 23; Bryant 1996, p. 306; O'Brien 1994, p. 25. ^ Danforth 1997, pp. 38, 49, 167. ^ Stoneman 2004, p. 2. ^ Goldsworthy 2003, pp. 327–28. ^ Plutarch 1919, XI, 2 ^ Holland 2003, pp. 176–83. ^ Barnett 1997, p. 45. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19. ^ Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46 ^ Nicolle, David (2000). Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-091-9. ^ Plutarch 1919, IV, 57: 'ἀλέξω'. ^ a b Liddell & Scott 1940. ^ Plutarch 1919, IV, 57: 'ἀνήρ'. ^ "Alexander". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ Lane Fox 1980, pp. 72–73. Sources Primary sources Arrian (1976). de Sélincourt, Aubrey (ed.). Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044253-3. Quintus Curtius Rufus (1946). Rolfe, John (ed.). History of Alexander. Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 28 April 2015. Siculus, Diodorus (1989). "Library of History". CH Oldfather, translator. Perseus Project. Retrieved 14 November 2009. Plutarch (1919). Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project. Retrieved 6 December 2011. Plutarch (1936). Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). On the Fortune of Alexander. IV. Loeb Classical Library. pp. 379–487. Retrieved 26 November 2011. Trogus, Pompeius (1853). Justin (ed.). "Epitome of the Philippic History". Rev. John Selby Watson, translator. Forum romanum. Retrieved 14 November 2009.. Secondary sources Barnett, C. (1997). Bonaparte. Wordsworth. ISBN 978-1-85326-678-2. Baynes, Norman G (2007). "Byzantine art". Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Baynes. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4067-5659-3. Berkley, Grant (2006). Moses in the Hieroglyphs. Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4120-5600-7. Retrieved 13 January 2011. Bose, Partha (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-113-9. Bosworth, A. B. (1988). Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1. Cawkwell, George (1978). Philip of Macedon. London, UK: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-10958-6. Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Alexander the Great. Haus. ISBN 978-1-904341-56-7. Connerney, R. D. (2009). The upside-down tree: India's changing culture. Algora. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-87586-649-9. Curtis, J.; Tallis, N; Andre-Salvini, B (2005). Forgotten empire: the world of ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4. Dahmen, Karsten (2007). The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-39451-2. Danforth, Loring M. (1997). The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04356-2. Dillon, John M. (2004). Morality and custom in ancient Greece. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34526-4. Durant, Will (1966). The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-41800-7. Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06319-8. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0. Fermor, Patrick Leigh (2006). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. New York Book Review. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-59017-188-2. Fischer, MMJ (2004). Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry. Duke University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8223-3298-5. Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7. Foreman, Laura (2004). Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king. Da Capo Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-306-81293-4. Gabriel, Richard A (2002). "The army of Byzantium". The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9. Gergel, Tania, ed. (2004). The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-200140-0. Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7. Goldsworthy, A. (2003). The Fall of Carthage. Cassel. ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2. Grafton, Anthony (2010). Most, Glenn W; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. Green, Peter (2007). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9. Gunther, John (2007). Alexander the Great. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-4519-5. Hammond, NGL (1983). Sources for Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71471-6. ——— (1986). A History of Greece to 323 BC. Cambridge University. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 978-90-256-1050-0. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Walbank, Frank William (2001). A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814815-1. Harrison, E. F. (1971). The language of the New Testament. Wm B Eerdmans. p. 508. ISBN 978-0-8028-4786-7. Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A, eds. (2009). Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3082-0. Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4. Holt, Frank Lee (2003). Alexander the Great and The Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23881-7. Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, K. (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Ashgate. pp. 37–58. ISBN 978-0-7546-6525-0. Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8. Keay, John (2001). India: A History. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0 Lane Fox, Robin (1980). The Search for Alexander. Boston: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-29108-8. ——— (2006). Alexander the Great. ePenguin. ASIN B002RI9DYW. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Sir Henry Stuart; McKenzie, Roderick (eds.). A Greek-English Lexicon on Perseus Digital Library. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978). Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 AD. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. LCCN 78907043. McCarty, Nick (2004). Alexander the Great. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-04268-5. McKechnie, Paul (1989). Outsiders in the Greek cities in the fourth century BC. Taylor & Francis. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-00340-7. Morkot, Robert (1996). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece. Penguin. Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome–12. Ogden, Daniel (2009). "Alexander's Sex Life". In Heckel, Alice; Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A (eds.). Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3082-0. Pingree, D. (1978). "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 15. pp. 533–633. Pratt, James Bissett (1996). The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. Laurier Books. ISBN 978-81-206-1196-2. Renault, Mary (2001). The Nature of Alexander the Great. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-139076-5. Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M; Berney, KA; Schellinger, Paul E, eds. (1994). International dictionary of historic places. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. Sabin, P; van Wees, H; Whitby, M (2007). The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78273-9. Sacks, David (1995). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Constable & Co. ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2. Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6. Stoneman, Richard (2004). Alexander the Great. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31932-4. Stoneman, Richard (1996). "The Metamorphoses of Alexander Romance". In Schmeling, Gareth L (ed.). The Novel in the Ancient World. Brill. pp. 601–12. ISBN 978-90-04-09630-1. Studniczka, Franz (1894). Achäologische Jahrbook 9. Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1999). History of Ancient India. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Wood, Michael (2001). In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23192-4. Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-415-29187-3. Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0. Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61915-9. Further reading Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7. Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press.[ISBN missing] Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2. Boardman, John (2018). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day – illustrated history of his representations in art and literature[ISBN missing] Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press. Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009. Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great". Overlook. Doherty, Paul (2004). "The Death of Alexander the Great". Carroll & Graf. Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-076024-3. Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of Alexander the Great. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN 978-0-306-80371-0. Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7. Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of Power. Penguin. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-14-028019-7. Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8. Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Lane Fox, Robin (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-14-008878-4., also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: Penguin Books. Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc. McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-880393-35-2. Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-7276-301-5. O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge. Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9. Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia (3 ed.). Da Capo. Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath. Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and His Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff. Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press. Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0. Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history. New York: GP Putnam's sons. Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the Great. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9. Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1. External links Alexander the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Alexander the Great Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Delamarche, Félix (1833), The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great. Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", Forbes (conversations) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6. Alexander the Great at Curlie Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources, Livius. The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great, Archæology. Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes, Sherlockian Sherlock. In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015. Alexander the Great Argead dynasty Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Philip II King of Macedon 336–323 BC Succeeded by Philip III and Alexander IV Preceded by Darius III Great King (Shah) of Persia 330–323 BC Pharaoh of Egypt 332–323 BC New creation Lord of Asia 331–323 BC v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Shahnameh of Ferdowsi Characters Pishdadian Keyumars Hushang Tahmuras Jamshid Fereydun Iraj Manuchehr Nowzar Zaav Garshasp Kayanian Kay Kawād Kay Kāvus Kay Khosrow Kay Lohrasp Goshtasb Kay Bahman Humay Chehrzad Kay Darab Dara II (identified with Darius III) Male characters Jamasp Siamak Shahrasp Abtin Kayanoush Kāve Arash Salm Tur Qobád Qaren Tous Gostaham Gershasp Nariman Sām Zāl Rostam Sohrab Esfandiyār Pashotan Faramarz Fariborz Siyâvash Farud Zangay-i Shavaran Kashvad Goudarz Giv Bizhan Rohham Bahram Hojir Gorgin Zavara Shaghad Rostam Farrokhzād Female characters Faranak Arnavāz Shahrnāz Sindukht Rudaba Sudabeh Tahmina Banu Goshasp Gordafarid Farangis Manizheh Katāyoun Tazian Mardas Zahhak Mehrab Kaboli Turanian Zadashm Pashang Aghrirat Garsivaz Afrasiab Tageuo Shideh Arjasp Viseh Piran Houman Barman Nastihan Biderafsh Clans and families Kashvadian House of Goudarz House of Viseh House of Nowzar House of Sasan House of Sām Creatures and animals Akvan Div Kharvazan Div Arzhang Div Div-e Sepid Koulad-Ghandi Huma bird Simurgh Rakhsh Shabdiz Shabrang White Elephant Places Iran Turan Zabulistan Sistan Kabul Balkh Ctesiphon Estakhr Mazandaran Alborzkouh Mount Damavand Tammisha Kasa-Roud Other locations... Structures Gonbadan Castle (Dez-i Gonbadan) Roein Castle (Dez-i Roein) Sepid Castle (Dezh-i Sepid Bahman Castle (Dezh-i Bahman) Alanan Castle (Dezh-i Alanan Gang Castle (Gang-Dez) Manuscripts Baysonghor Shahnameh Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp Florence Shahnameh Shahnameh of Rashida Windsor Shahnameh Great Mongol Shahnameh (or Demotte) Shahnameh of Ghavam al-Din Davari Shahnameh See also Daqiqi Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh Derafsh Kaviani Babr-e Bayan Zal and Rudabeh Rostam and Sohrab Rostam and Esfandiyar Rostam's Seven Labours Davazdah Rokh Khosrow and Shirin Bijan and Manijeh Persian mythology Category v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military 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Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing 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Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Akra Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and 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War) Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle 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en-wikipedia-org-1090	----	File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 174, RIC III 295.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 174, RIC III 295.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Marcus_Aurelius,_aureus,_AD_174,_RIC_III_295.jpg ‎(736 × 343 pixels, file size: 73 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionMarcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 174, RIC III 295.jpg English: Marcus Aurelius. AD 161-180. AV Aureus (7.40 g, 12h). Rome mint. Struck AD 174. M ANTONINVS AVG TR P XXVIII, laureate and cuirassed bust right / IMP VI COS III, Marcus Aurelius, togate, on horseback prancing right, raising right hand. RIC III 295; MIR 18, 264-2/35; Calicó 1870 (same dies as illustration); BMCRE 590 var. (bust type). Near EF, lustrous, light scratch on reverse. The reverse depicts the famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius that has stood in Rome since it was first erected. It survived the Middle Ages because it was thought to represent Constantine, the first Christian emperor, and is the only surviving complete equestrian statue of a pre-Christian emperor. The statue’s original location is uncertain. In the 8th century it stood in the Lateran Palace, and in 1538 it was moved from there to the Capitoline Hill as a feature of Michelangelo’s redesign. It stood on the Capitoline until it was replaced with a copy in 1981. Date 6 January 2009 Source https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=132860 Author CNG Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. 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en-wikipedia-org-1091	----	Pescennius Niger - Wikipedia Pescennius Niger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 193 to 194 Usurper of the Roman Empire Gaius Pescennius Niger Usurper of the Roman Empire Aureus of Pescennius Niger, Antioch mint. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG. Reign 9 April 193 – May 194 Predecessor Didius Julianus Successor Septimius Severus Born c. 135/140 Roman Empire Died 194 (aged 53–59) Roman Empire Names Gaius Pescennius Niger Regnal name Imperator Caesar Gaius Pescennius Niger Iustus Augustus Dynasty None Father Annius Fuscus Mother Lampridia Gaius Pescennius Niger (c. 135 – 194) was Roman Emperor from 193 to 194 during the Year of the Five Emperors. He claimed the imperial throne in response to the murder of Pertinax and the elevation of Didius Julianus, but was defeated by a rival claimant, Septimius Severus, and killed while attempting to flee from Antioch. Contents 1 Early career 2 Septimius Severus and Niger 3 Name 4 Popular culture 5 See also 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 References 8 External links Early career[edit] AR denarius Pescennius Niger. Antioch mint, 3.12 g. Inscription: IMP[ERATOR] CAES[AR] G[AIVS] PESC[ENNIVS] NIGER IVST[VS] AVG[VSTVS] CO[N]S[VL] II /FELICITAS TEMPOR. Although Niger was born into an old Italian equestrian family, around the year 135,[1] he was the first member of his family to achieve the rank of Roman senator.[2] Not much is known of his early career; it is possible that he held an administrative position in Egypt, and that he served in a military campaign in Dacia early in Commodus’ reign.[3] During the late 180s, Niger was elected as a Suffect consul, after which Commodus made him imperial legate of Syria in 191.[4] He was still serving in Syria when news came through firstly of the murder of Pertinax, followed by the auctioning off of the imperial title to Didius Julianus.[5] Niger was a well regarded public figure in Rome[3] and soon a popular demonstration against Didius Julianus broke out, during which the citizens called out for Niger to come to Rome and claim the imperial title for himself.[6] As a consequence, it is alleged that Julianus dispatched a centurion to the east with orders to assassinate Niger at Antioch.[7] The result of the unrest in Rome saw Niger proclaimed Emperor by the eastern legions by the end of April 193.[8] On his accession, Niger took the additional cognomen Justus, or "the Just".[3] Although imperial propaganda issued on behalf of Septimius Severus later claimed that Niger was the first to rebel against Didius Julianus,[7] it was Severus who persisted, claiming the imperial title on 14 April.[2] Although Niger sent envoys to Rome to announce his elevation to the imperial throne, his messengers were intercepted by Severus.[3] As Niger began bolstering his support in the eastern provinces, Severus marched on Rome which he entered in early June 193 after Julianus had been murdered.[9] Septimius Severus and Niger[edit] Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193) Chronology Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger 193 Clodius Albinus 193 Septimius Severus 193–211 Succession Preceded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Followed by Severan dynasty Severus wasted no time consolidating his hold on Rome, and ordered his newly appointed prefect of the watch, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus to capture Niger’s children and hold them as hostages.[10] Meanwhile, Niger was busy securing the support of all of the governors in the Asiatic provinces, including the esteemed proconsul of Asia, Asellius Aemilianus, who had occupied Byzantium in the name of Niger.[11] He then proceeded to secure direct control over Egypt, while Severus did as much as he could to protect the wheat supply, and ordered troops loyal to him to keep watch on the western border of Egypt and prevent the legion stationed there -- Legio II Traiana Fortis -- from sending military aid to Niger.[12] Although the Asiatic provinces contained great wealth, Niger's military resources were inferior to Severus’. While Severus had the sixteen Danubian legions at his disposal, Niger possessed only six: three in Syria, the two stationed in Arabia Petraea, and one located at Melitene.[10] Niger therefore decided to act aggressively, and sent a force into Thrace where it defeated a part of Severus’ army under Lucius Fabius Cilo at Perinthus.[13] Severus now marched from Rome to the east, sending his general Tiberius Claudius Candidus ahead of him.[14] Niger, having made Byzantium his headquarters, gave Asellius Aemilianus the task of defending the southern shore of the Sea of Marmara.[14] As Severus approached, he offered Niger the opportunity to surrender and go into exile, but Niger refused, trusting in the outcome of a military encounter.[3] In the fall of 193, Candidus met Aemilianus in battle at Cyzicus, resulting in Niger’s forces being defeated as well as the capture and death of Aemilianus.[15] Byzantium was now placed under siege, forcing Niger to abandon the city and retreat to Nicaea.[14] The city remained loyal to Pescennius Niger, and it would take Severus until the end of 195 to finally capture Byzantium.[16] Another battle took place outside Nicaea in later December 193, which also resulted in a defeat for Niger. Nevertheless, Niger was able to withdraw the bulk of his army intact to the Taurus Mountains, where he held the passes for a few months while he returned to Antioch.[17] However, Niger's support in Asia was falling. Some previously loyal cities changed their allegiance, in particular Laodicea and Tyre.[16] By February 13, 194, Egypt had declared for Severus, as had the imperial legate of Arabia, further diminishing Niger’s chances.[18] After Severus had replaced Candidus with another general, Publius Cornelius Anullinus, Niger met Anullinus in battle at Issus in May 194, where after a long and hard-fought struggle, Niger was decisively defeated.[15] Forced to retreat to Antioch, Niger was captured while attempting to flee to Parthia.[19] Niger was beheaded, and his severed head was taken to Byzantium, but the city refused to surrender. Eventually, Severus stormed and completely destroyed Byzantium before he had it rebuilt.[16] Niger’s head eventually found its way to Rome where it was displayed.[13] After his victory in the east, Severus punished Niger’s supporters.[20] He had Niger’s wife and children put to death, while his estates were confiscated.[21] Name[edit] The name "Niger" means "black", which incidentally, contrasts him with one of his rivals for the throne in 194, Clodius Albinus, whose name means "white".[22] According to the Historia Augusta, his cognomen of "Niger" was given due to his black neck, which contrasted with the rest of his body.[23] Popular culture[edit] In the film The Fall of The Roman Empire Niger is played by Douglas Wilmer and depicted as a scheming henchman of Commodus. At the end of the film, Niger and Didius Julianus, played by Eric Porter, another crony of Commodus, compete against each other in the auction for the throne of Rome. See also[edit] Abdsamiya Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 74 & 75 Herodian, Roman History, Books 2 & 3 Historia Augusta, Life of Pescennius Niger Secondary sources[edit] Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 Bowman, Alan K., The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337, Cambridge University Press, 2005 http://www.roman-emperors.org/pniger.htm Meckler, Michael L, "Pescennius Niger (193-194 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (1998) References[edit] ^ Potter, p. 101; Meckler, Pescennius Niger, Cassius Dio, 75:6:1 ^ a b Potter, p. 101 ^ a b c d e Meckler, Pescennius Niger ^ Meckler, Pescennius Niger; Southern, p. 28 ^ Bowman, p. 2; Meckler, Pescennius Niger ^ Meckler, Pescennius Niger; Potter, p. 101; Bowman, p. 2 ^ a b Potter, p. 99 ^ Southern, p. 28; Bowman, p. 2 ^ Bowman, p. 4; Meckler, Pescennius Niger ^ a b Potter, p. 103 ^ Southern, p. 32; Meckler, Pescennius Niger ^ Southern, p. 32 ^ a b Potter, p. 104 ^ a b c Bowman, p. 4 ^ a b Bowman, p. 4; Potter, p. 104; Southern, p. 33 ^ a b c Southern, p. 33 ^ Meckler, Pescennius Niger; Bowman, p. 4; Potter, p. 104 ^ Bowman, p. 4; Potter, p. 104 ^ Meckler, Pescennius Niger; Southern, p. 33 ^ Potter, p. 106 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Pescennius Niger, 6:1 ^ Southern, p. 28 ^ Historian Augusta, Life of Pescennius Niger, 6:6 External links[edit] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pescennius Niger" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Pescennius Niger at Livius.Org Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pescennius Niger. Regnal titles Preceded by Didius Julianus Roman Emperor 193 in competition with Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus Succeeded by Septimius Severus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1094	----	Valerius Severus - Wikipedia Valerius Severus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 306 to 307 "Severus II" redirects here. For the 7th century AD head of the Syriac Orthodox Church, see Severus II bar Masqeh. Not to be confused with Septimius Severus, Severus Alexander, or Libius Severus. Roman emperor Valerius Severus Coin from 305 or 306 depicting Severus Roman emperor Augustus 25 July 306 – April 307 (in the West) Predecessor Constantius I Successor Maxentius, Licinius Co-rulers Galerius (East) Constantine I (Gaul and Britain) Maxentius, and Maximian Caesar 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (in the West under Constantius) Born Illyria Died September 307 Tres Tabernae Issue Flavius Severianus Names Flavius Valerius Severus Regnal name Flavius Valerius Severus nobilissimus Caesar (305) Dominus Noster Flavius Valerius Severus Augustus (306)[1] Flavius Valerius Severus (died September 307), also Severus II,[2] was a Roman emperor from 306 to 307. After failing to besiege Rome, he fled to Ravenna. It is thought that he was killed there or executed near Rome. Contents 1 Background and early career 2 Augustus, 306–307 3 References 4 External links Background and early career[edit] Severus was of humble birth, born in Northern Illyria around the middle of the third century AD.[3][4] He rose to become a senior officer in the Roman army,[3] and as an old friend of Galerius, that emperor nominated Severus as Caesar of the Western Roman Empire. According to Lactantius, Diocletian objected to Galerius's suggestion, saying in response, "What! That dancer, that habitual drunkard who turns night into day and day into night?" Galerius persisted, saying that Severus has served faithfully as paymaster and purveyor of the army.[5] Diocletian acquiesced and Severus succeeded to the post of Caesar on 1 May 305.[6] He thus served as junior emperor to Constantius I (Constantius Chlorus), Augustus of the western half of empire.[3] Augustus, 306–307[edit] On the death of Constantius I in Britain in the summer of 306, Severus was promoted to Augustus by Galerius. This was done as a reaction to the acclamation of Constantine I (Constantius' son) by his own soldiers at York as Augustus.[7]Lactantius reports that Galerius had done this to promote the older man to the higher office, while accepting the imperial symbols of Constantine and bestowing upon him the rank of Caesar.[8] When Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximian, revolted at Rome, Galerius sent Severus to suppress the rebellion. Severus moved towards Rome from his capital, Mediolanum, at the head of an army previously commanded by Maximian.[3] Fearing the arrival of Severus, Maxentius offered Maximian the co-rule of the empire. Maximian accepted, and when Severus arrived under the walls of Rome and besieged it, his men deserted to Maximian, their old commander. Severus fled to Ravenna, an impregnable position.[3] Maximian offered to spare his life and treat him humanely if he surrendered peaceably, which he did in March or April 307. Despite Maximian's assurance, Severus was nonetheless displayed as a captive and later imprisoned at Tres Tabernae.[3] One belief is that when Galerius himself invaded Italy to suppress Maxentius and Maximian, the former ordered Severus's death, and that he was executed on September 307 at Tres Tabernae, near the current Cisterna di Latina.[4] Lactantius reports that he was permitted to kill himself by opening his veins.[9] Another belief is that Severus II was killed in Ravenna.[6][10] Severus was survived by his son Flavius Severianus. References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Enumerated after Septimius Severus, skipping Severus Alexander. ^ a b c d e f Michael DiMalo (1998). "Severus II". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 1 August 2015. ^ a b "Aurelius Victor, About Caesar" (in Russian). Ancient Rome. Retrieved 1 August 2015. ^ Lactantius. Lord Hailes (transl.) (2021) On the Deaths of the Persecutors: A Translation of De Mortibus Persecutorum by Lucius Cæcilius Firmianus Lactantius Evolution Publishing, Merchantville, NJ ISBN 978-1-935228-20-2, p. 31-32 ^ a b "Biography of Emperor Constantine" (in Russian). Ancient Rome. Retrieved 1 August 2015. ^ Barnes, Timothy David (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Harvard University Press. pp. 26–27. ISBN 0-7837-2221-4. ^ Lactantius. Lord Hailes (transl.) (2021) On the Deaths of the Persecutors: A Translation of De Mortibus Persecutorum by Lucius Cæcilius Firmianus Lactantius Evolution Publishing, Merchantville, NJ ISBN 978-1-935228-20-2, p. 45 ^ Lactantius. Lord Hailes (transl.) (2021) On the Deaths of the Persecutors: A Translation of De Mortibus Persecutorum by Lucius Cæcilius Firmianus Lactantius Evolution Publishing, Merchantville, NJ ISBN 978-1-935228-20-2, p. 47 ^ Baronio, Annales Ecclesiastici, vol. 1, pp. 769-770 External links[edit] Works related to The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter XIV at Wikisource Media related to Flavius Valerius Severus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius I Roman emperor 306–307 With: Galerius Succeeded by Licinius Political offices Preceded by Constantius I Galerius Consul of Rome 307 With: Maximinus Daia Galerius Maximian Constantine I Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Maxentius Valerius Romulus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1100	----	Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Usage[edit] Use this template for royalty related to the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. For Emperors, use Template:Infobox royalty. For non-(blood)related, military persons connected to the Nerva–Antonine dynasties, use Template:Infobox military Person. {{Nerva–Antonine dynasty| |image = [[Image:X|Xpx]] |caption = image caption }} Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=1015868013" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ancient Rome templates Ruler navigational boxes Hidden categories: Sidebars with styles needing conversion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 01:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1103	----	Roman Empire (TV series) - Wikipedia Roman Empire (TV series) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American drama series Not to be confused with Rome (TV series), Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire, or Rome: Rise and Fall of an Empire. Roman Empire Genre Historical drama Documentary Written by Jeremiah Murphy Peter Sherman Brian Burstein (season 2) John Ealer (season 2) Steve Loh (season 2) Directed by Richard Lopez John Ealer (season 2) Starring Sean Bean Aaron Jakubenko Country of origin United States Australia Original language English No. of seasons 3 No. of episodes 15 Production Cinematography Miltj on Kam Production company Stephen David Entertainment Distributor Netflix Release Original network Netflix Original release November 11, 2016 (2016-11-11) – present External links Website Roman Empire is a television docudrama based on historical events of the Roman Empire. The show is in the anthology format with each season presenting an independent story. Season 1, "Reign of Blood", is a six-part story about Emperor Commodus.[1] Jeremiah Murphy and Peter Sherman collaborated on writing the first season, with Richard Lopez directing. It premiered on Netflix on November 11, 2016.[2] Season 2, "Master of Rome", is a five-part story about the rise of Dictator Julius Caesar and the fall of the Roman Republic.[3] Season 2 premiered on July 27, 2018. Season 3 "The Mad Emperor" premiered on Netflix on April 5, 2019 and is a four-part story about Emperor Caligula.[4] The series was produced by Netflix as a "Netflix Original" series, though it frequently reuses footage from other programs, including Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (2006). Contents 1 Episodes 1.1 Season 1 1.2 Season 2 1.3 Season 3 2 Historical people and events 2.1 Commodus: Reign of Blood 2.2 Julius Caesar: Master of Rome 3 Cast 3.1 Season 1: Reign of Blood 3.2 Season 2: Master of Rome 3.3 Season 3: The Mad Emperor 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Episodes[edit] As Roman Empire is an anthology series, each season tells its own story, and each season has its own title. Season 1[edit] The first season is named Commodus: Reign of Blood, and consists of 6 episodes. It became available for streaming on November 11, 2016. Ep 1: Born in the Purple Ep 2: The Making of an Emperor Ep 3: Enemy of the Senate Ep 4: Rome is Burning Ep 5: Fight for Glory Ep 6: 14 Days of Blood Season 2[edit] The second season is named Julius Caesar: Master of Rome, and consists of 5 episodes. It became available for streaming on July 27, 2018. Ep 1: The larkana city Ep 2: The Great Conqueror Ep 3: Crossing the Rubicon Ep 4: Queen of the Nile Ep 5: The Ides of March In Episode 5 of Season two at 34:22, the narrator, Steve West, stated that Julius Caesar was stabbed on March 14, that was incorrect. As Julius Caesar was stabbed on March 15 as stated earlier in the episode. Season 3[edit] The third season is named Caligula: The Mad Emperor, and consists of 4 episodes. It became available for streaming on April 5, 2019. Ep 1: The Rightful Heir Ep 2: A New Hope Ep 3: In Search of an Heir Ep 4: Descent into Madness Historical people and events[edit] Commodus: Reign of Blood[edit] Commodus was Roman Emperor from 180 to 192. He also ruled as co-emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177 until his father's death in 180. Marcus Aurelius was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. He ruled with Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Verus' death in 169. Marcus Aurelius was the last of the so-called Five Good Emperors. He was a practitioner of Stoicism, and his Greek-language writing, commonly known as the Meditations, is the most significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. Faustina the Younger was a daughter of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. She was a Roman Empress and wife to her maternal cousin Marcus Aurelius. Though Roman sources give a generally negative view of her character, she was held in high esteem by soldiers and her own husband and was given divine honors after her death. Lucilla was the second daughter and third child of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and an elder sister to future Roman Emperor Commodus. Avidius Cassius was a Roman general and usurper who briefly ruled Egypt and Syria in 175. Julius Caesar: Master of Rome[edit] Julius Caesar, a politician, general, and later, dictator; the season's central argument is that Julius Caesar was assassinated because wealthy and conservative elites wanted to block Caesar's reforms. Pompey, politician and military leader who, while as ambitious as Caesar, and despite having been his son-in-law, chose to ally himself with the optimates in opposing Caesar and supporting the traditional Roman Republic. Crassus, the richest man in Rome, who rose to political prominence following his victory over the slave revolt led by Spartacus, sharing the consulship with his rival Pompey Servilia, the mother of Marcus Junius Brutus and former lover of Caesar Brutus, a Roman politician whose relationship with Caesar is deeply complex Mark Antony, an hedonistic Roman general and politician; while Caesar was away in Egypt, Antony remained in Rome to restore order but quickly caused Rome to fall into a state of anarchy. Cleopatra, the last ruler of Egypt Vercingetorix, king of the Arverni tribe; he leads the Gauls in a revolt against Rome Cast[edit] Season 1: Reign of Blood[edit] Sean Bean as Narrator Aaron Jakubenko as Commodus Lisa Chappell as Faustina the Younger Ella Becroft as Bruttia Crispina[5] Edwin Wright as Cassius Dio Genevieve Aitken as Marcia Jared Turner as Cleander John Bach as Marcus Aurelius Tai Berdinner-Blades as Lucilla[6] Calum Gittins as Saoterus Mike Edward as Narcissus Season 2: Master of Rome[edit] Steve West as Narrator Ditch Davey as Julius Caesar Tim Carlsen as Mark Antony Natalie Medlock as Servilia Ben Black as Brutus Stephen Lovatt as Pompey Wesley Dowdell as Crassus Andrew Robertt as Cato Taylor Hall as Young Caesar Jessica Green as Cleopatra Errol Shand as Vercingetorix Phoenix Connolly as Julia Season 3: The Mad Emperor[edit] Steve West as Narrator Ido Drent as Caligula[7] Craig Walsh-Wrightson as Tiberius Kelson Henderson as Claudius Colin Moy as Cassius Teressa Liane as Agrippina Leon Wadham as Tiberius Gemellus Michael Morris as Naevius Sutorius Macro Molly Leishman as Livilla Elizabeth Dowden as Drusilla See also[edit] Gladiator, a 2000 fictionalized film telling of the life of Commodus. Rome fictional account of the fall of the Republic. The Fall of the Roman Empire, another fictionalized telling of the life of Commodus. References[edit] ^ O'Keefe, Meghan (November 11, 2016). "Roman Empire: Reign of Blood is an Uncensored Look at Ancient History". The Decider. ^ Robinson, Joanna; Lawson, Richard (October 25, 2016). "What's New on Netflix in November—and What to Watch Before It Disappears". Vanity Fair. Retrieved November 20, 2016. ^ "Roman Empire | Netflix Official Site". www.netflix.com. Retrieved July 28, 2018. ^ "'Roman Empire' Season 3 Coming to Netflix in April 2019". What's on Netflix. March 13, 2019. ^ "Bruttia Crispina". TV Maze. Retrieved August 2, 2017. ^ O'Keefe, Meghan (November 15, 2016). "'Roman Empire: Reign of Blood': Who was the Real Lucilla?". The Decider. Retrieved November 20, 2016. ^ "Kiwi stars to get bloody in ancient Rome". spy.nzherald.co.nz. July 28, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2018. External links[edit] Roman Empire: Reign of Blood on Netflix Roman Empire at IMDb Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Empire_(TV_series)&oldid=1023279897" Categories: 2016 American television series debuts 2016 American television series endings Depictions of Julius Caesar on television Depictions of Augustus on television Depictions of Cleopatra on television Depictions of Caligula on television Cultural depictions of Claudius Cultural depictions of Commodus Cultural depictions of Marcus Junius Brutus Cultural depictions of Vercingetorix Cultural depictions of Mark Antony Cultural depictions of Pompey Cultural depictions of Marcus Licinius Crassus Cultural depictions of Tiberius Cultural depictions of Agrippina the Younger Cultural depictions of Cornelia (wife of Caesar) Cultural depictions of Servilia (mother of Brutus) Cultural depictions of Lucilla Netflix original documentary television series Works set in the 2nd century Television shows filmed in New York (state) Television shows filmed in New Zealand Television series set in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Français Galego Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 14:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1116	----	Pupienus - Wikipedia Pupienus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 238 Roman emperor Pupienus Roman emperor Reign 22 April – 29 July 238 Predecessor Gordian I and II Successor Gordian III Co-emperor Balbinus Born c. 168 Died 29 July 238 (aged approximately 70) Rome, Italy Issue Detail Titus Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla Names Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus Augustus[1] Father ? Marcus Pupienus Maximus Mother ? Clodia Pulchra Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Sestertius of Pupienus. Inscription: IMP. CAES. M. CLOD. PVPIENVS AVG. Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus (c. 168[2] – 29 July 238[3]) was Roman emperor with Balbinus for three months in 238, during the Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor is limited. In most contemporary texts he is referred to by his cognomen "Maximus" rather than by his second nomen (family name) Pupienus (Classical Latin: [puː.piː.ˈeːnʊs].[4][5] Contents 1 Origins and early career 2 Reign 3 Family 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Origins and early career[edit] The Historia Augusta, whose testimony is not to be trusted unreservedly, paints Pupienus as an example of advancement through the cursus honorum due to military success. It claims he was the son of a blacksmith, was adopted by one Pescennia Marcellina (otherwise unknown), and who started his career as a Centurio primus pilus before becoming a Tribunus Militum, and then a Praetor. Pupienus's career was allegedly impressive, serving a number of important posts during the reign of the Severan dynasty throughout the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. This included assignment as Proconsul of the senatorial propraetorial provinces of Bithynia et Pontus, Achaea, and Gallia Narbonensis.[6] In fact Pupienus was part of the aristocracy, albeit a minor member, and his family had possibly been elevated only recently.[7] Hailing from the Etruscan city of Volterra,[8] it has been speculated that Pupienus was the son of Marcus Pupienus Maximus, a Senator who was the first member of his family to enter the Senate, and wife Clodia Pulchra.[9] The claim in the Historia Augusta that Pupienus held three praetorian proconsular governorships is unlikely. For one thing, as Bernard Rémy points out, during Pupienus' lifetime the province of Bithynia et Pontus was an imperial one, governed by an imperial legatus. Remy points out another problem: that being awarded three praetorian proconsular governorships violates what we know of Roman practice, and lacks any similar cases. Remy pointedly quotes the opinion of André Chastagnol who recommended "to admit an information provided by the Augustan History only if it is confirmed by another document" and considers that, faced with such an unreliable source, one must permit "methodical doubt and hypercritical attitude to prevail."[10] No fasti or list of governors of any of the three provinces to which the Historia Augusta assigns Pupienus includes him as a governor.[citation needed] After his consulship (around the year 222), his cursus honorum is much more reliable. Pupienus was later assigned as imperial legate to one of the German provinces, most probably after his first suffect consulship, circa 207 AD.[11] While governor he scored military victories over the Sarmatians and German tribes. At some point after he concluded his duties in the German province, the sortition awarded him proconsular governorship of Asia.[12] In 234, during the last years of Severus Alexander's reign, he was installed as Consul for the second time. In that same year he was also appointed Urban Prefect of Rome and gained a reputation for severity, to the extent that he became unpopular with the Roman mob.[13] Reign[edit] When Gordian I and his son were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including the elderly Senator Pupienus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus Thrax until the arrival of the Gordians.[14] On the news of the Gordians' defeat and deaths, however, the Senate met in closed session in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and voted for two members of the committee to be installed as co-emperors – Pupienus and Balbinus.[11] Unlike the situation in 161 with Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, both emperors were elected as pontifices maximi, chief priests of the official cults.[citation needed] According to Edward Gibbon (drawing on the narratives of Herodian and the Historia Augusta), the choice was sensible, as: the mind of Maximus [Pupienus] was formed in a rougher mould [than that of Balbinus]. By his valour and abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians and the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of his justice whilst he was prefect of the city, commanded the esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favour of the more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consul... and, since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, they had both attained the full maturity of age and experience.[15] However, factions within the Senate who had hoped to profit from the accession of the Gordians manipulated the people and the Praetorian Guard to agitate for the elevation of Gordian III as their imperial colleague.[16] Leaving his senior colleague Balbinus in charge of the civil administration at Rome, sometime during late April, Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus, recruiting German auxiliary troops who had served under him whilst he was in Germania.[11] After Maximinus was assassinated by his soldiers just outside Aquileia, Pupienus despatched both Maximinus' troops and his own back to their provinces (along with a considerable donative) and returned to Rome with his newly acquired German bodyguard.[17] Balbinus, in the meantime, had failed to keep public order in the capital. The sources suggest that Balbinus suspected Pupienus of using his German bodyguard to supplant him, and they were soon living in different parts of the Imperial palace.[18] This meant that they were at the mercy of disaffected elements in the Praetorian Guard, who resented serving under Senate-appointed emperors, and now plotted to kill them.[19] Pupienus, becoming aware of the threat, begged Balbinus to call for the German bodyguard. Balbinus, believing that this news was part of a plot by Pupienus to have him assassinated, refused, and the two began to argue just as the Praetorians burst into the room. Both emperors were seized and dragged back to the Praetorian barracks where they were tortured and hacked to death in the bath house.[11] Family[edit] Three individuals have been identified as his children. Titus Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus, consul suffectus c. 235, and patron of the town of Tibur outside Rome, has been identified as his oldest son.[20] Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus, consul ordinarius in 236 as the colleague of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, has been identified as his youngest son.[21] These consulships in the family, across the reigns of Severus Alexander and Maximinus Thrax, suggest that the family was influential and in high favour. Pupienus also had a daughter, named Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla, wife of Marcus Ulpius Eubiotus Leurus.[22] Quintus Tineius Sacerdos Clemens consul ordinarius Marcus Pupienus Maximus Quintus Tineius Clemens consul ordinarius Quintius Tineius Rufus consul 182 Quintus Tineius Sacerdos consul suffectus ∞ Volusia Laodice Pupienus Roman Emperor (238) ∞ Sextia Cethegilla Marcus Ulpius Leurus senator previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235-238 ∞ Caecilia Paulina Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 Tineia Titus Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus consul suffectus Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus consul ordinarius ∞ Cornelia Marullina Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla Marcus Ulpius Eubiotus Leurus suffect consul Gaius Julius Verus Maximus caesar Gordian II Roman emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana Lucius Clodius Tineius Pupienus Bassus proconsul ∞ Ovinia Paterna Balbinus Roman emperor 238 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238-244 References[edit] ^ a b Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Michael Grant, The Roman emperors: a biographical guide to the rulers of imperial Rome, 31 BC-AD 476 (1985), pg. 144 ^ Carson, Robert Andrew Glendinning (1962). Severus Alexander to Balbinus and Pupienus. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. 6. Trustees of the British Museum. p. 101. ^ Association, American Philological (13 May 1940). "Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association". Association – via Google Books. ^ Webster, Noah (13 May 1852). "A dictionary of the English language. To which are added, a synopsis of words differently pronounced and Walker's Key to the classical pronunciation of Greek, Latin and Scripture proper names. Revised and enlarged, by C.A. Goodrich" – via Google Books. ^ Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 5:1-8 ^ John Drinkwater, Maximinus to Diocletian and the crisis, in The Cambridge ancient history: The crisis of empire, A.D. 193-337 (ed. Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Averil Cameron) (2005), p. 32 ^ Michel Christol, L'empire romain du IIIe siècle: histoire politique (1997), p. 114 ^ Christian Settipani, Continuité gentilice et continuité familiale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale: mythe et réalité (2000), pg. 120 – Note that this speculation is based upon onomastic similarities and probabilities ^ Bernard Rémy, Les carrières sénatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolie au Haut-Empire (31 av. J.-C. - 284 ap. J.-C.) (Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes-Georges Dumézil, 1989), p. 120 ^ a b c d McMahon, Pupienus (238 A.D.) and Balbinus (238 A.D.) ^ Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1989), p. 227 ^ Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: a military and political history (2004), pg. 268 ^ Potter, pg. 169 ^ Gibbon, Edward; Milman, Henry Hart (7 June 2008). "VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin - Part II". In Widger, David (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman EmpireTable of Contents with links in the HTML file to the two Project Gutenberg editions (12 volumes). ^ John Drinkwater, Maximinus to Diocletian and the crisis, in The Cambridge ancient history: The crisis of empire, A.D. 193-337 (ed. Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Averil Cameron) (2005), pgs. 33 ^ McMahon, Pupienus (238 A.D.) and Balbinus (238 A.D.); Southern, pg. 67 ^ Potter, pg. 171 ^ Michael Grant, The collapse and recovery of the Roman Empire (1999), pgs. 5-6 ^ Ronald Syme, Historia Augusta papers (1983), pg. 194 ^ Syme, Emperors and biography: studies in the Historia Augusta (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 174 ^ Syme, Emperors and biography, pp. 173f Sources[edit] McMahon, Robin, Pupienus (238 A.D.) and Balbinus (238 A.D.), De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001) Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at bay, AD 180-395 (2004) Southern, Pat, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2004) External links[edit] Media related to Pupienus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Gordian I and Gordian II Roman emperor 238 With: Balbinus Succeeded by Gordian III Political offices Preceded by L. Valerius Maximus Gnaeus Cornelius Paternus Roman consul 234 with Marcus Munatius Sulla Urbanus Succeeded by Gnaeus Claudius Severus Titus Claudius Quintianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1123	----	Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus - Wikipedia Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman senator and consul (138-182) Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus (138–182) was a Roman Senator and the nephew of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He was involved in an unsuccessful plot to assassinate his cousin the Emperor Commodus, which led to his execution afterwards. Offices Quadratus Annianus held included legate to the proconsul of Africa, and consul ordinarius in 167 with the emperor Lucius Aurelius Verus.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 See also 3 Sources 4 References Life[edit] Quadratus Annianus was the son of Marcus Aurelius’ sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina and an unnamed Senator. Ronald Syme identifies him with one of the suffect consuls in 146, recorded in the Fasti Ostienses as Gaius Annianus Verus, but having the full name of Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Annianus Verus. He was descended from one of the leading aristocratic and political influential families in Rome and was a direct descendant of the late suffect consul Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus.[2] Through his mother, Quadratus Annianus was related to the ruling Nerva–Antonine dynasty. His sister was Ummidia Cornificia Faustina. His mother had died sometime between 152 and 158. At her death, Quadratus Annianus and Cornificia Faustina divided their mother’s property, making them both very wealthy.[3] After his mother’s death, Quadratus took a mistress, a Greek freedwoman named Marcia, who would later become the emperor Commodus' mistress. Following his consulship, Quadratus adopted the first son of the Senator and philosopher Gnaeus Claudius Severus, who then assumed the name Marcus Claudius Ummidius Quadratus. The reason for the adoption is unknown. When Marcus Aurelius died in 180, Quadratus' maternal cousin Commodus succeeded him as emperor. Commodus’ sister Lucilla was not happy living as a quiet, private citizen in Rome and became jealous of her brother and her sister-in-law. Further, she became very concerned at Commodus' erratic behavior. In 182, Lucilla, her daughter Plautia, and her nephew-in-marriage Quintianus, along with Quadratus, his adopted son, and Cornificia Faustina, planned to assassinate Commodus and replace him with Lucilla and her second husband, the consul Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Quintianus. The involvement of Quadratus, his adopted son and his sister can be explained by a possible dynastic dispute with Commodus, or a possible romantic relationship between Quadratus and Lucilla. Quintianus burst from his place of hiding with a dagger, trying to stab Commodus. He said to him, "Here is the dagger the senate sends to you", giving away his intentions before he had the chance to act. The guards were faster than he was, and overpowered him. The conspirators were soon revealed; the emperor ordered the deaths of Quadratus Annianus, his adopted son and Quintianus. Commodus may have confiscated Quadratus Annianus’ property and fortune. Lucilla, her daughter, and Cornificia Faustina were banished to the Italian island of Capri. Later that year the Emperor sent a centurion to Capri to execute the three women. See also[edit] Ummidia gens Sources[edit] Krawczuk, Aleksander. Poczet cesarzowych Rzymu. Warszawa: Iskry. ISBN 83-244-0021-4. Anthony Richard Birley, Septimius Severus: the African emperor, Second Edition, 1999 Anthony Richard Birley, Marcus Aurelius, Routledge, 2000 Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, 1974 William M. Ramsay, The Cities and Bishoprics of Phyrgia: Being an Essay of the Local History of Phrygia from the Earliest Times to the Turkish Conquest, Volume One, Part One Roman Emperors "Lucius Aurelius Commodus (AD 161 - AD 192)". Retrieved 7 April 2011. "The People's Princeps, Enemy of the Senate". UNRV.com. Retrieved 7 April 2011. References[edit] ^ Syme, "The Ummidii", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 17 (1968), pp. 99-102 ^ Syme, "The Ummidii", pp. 98f ^ Sigrid Mratschek-Halfmann, Divites et praepotentes. Reichtum und soziale Stellung in der Literatur der Prinzipatszeit (Dissertation, Historia Einzelschriften, Bd. 70). Steiner, Stuttgart 1993, ISBN 3-515-05973-3, p. 110 Political offices Preceded by Publius Martius Verus, and Marcus Vibius Liberalis as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 167 with Lucius Verus III Succeeded by Quintus Caecilius Dentilianus, and Marcus Antonius Pallas as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Ummidius_Quadratus_Annianus&oldid=1027086919" Categories: 138 births 182 deaths 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Africa Ummidii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Italiano Latina Nederlands Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1131	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NLI identifiers.The NLI identifier appears as Israel in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P949. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 49,213 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). 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en-wikipedia-org-1153	----	Aristo of Chios - Wikipedia Aristo of Chios From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd Century BCE Stoic philosopher Not to be confused with the Peripatetic philosopher Aristo of Ceos. Aristo of Chios (Greek: Ἀρίστων ὁ Χῖος Ariston ho Chios; fl. c. 260 BC) was a Stoic philosopher and colleague of Zeno of Citium. He outlined a system of Stoic philosophy that was, in many ways, closer to earlier Cynic philosophy. He rejected the logical and physical sides of philosophy endorsed by Zeno and emphasized ethics. Although agreeing with Zeno that Virtue was the supreme good, he rejected the idea that morally indifferent things such as health and wealth could be ranked according to whether they are naturally preferred. An important philosopher in his day, his views were eventually marginalized by Zeno's successors. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 2.1 Logic 2.2 Physics 2.3 Ethics 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Aristo, son of Miltiades, was born on the island of Chios sometime around 300 BC.[1] He came to Athens where he attended the lectures of Zeno of Citium, and also, for a time, the lectures of Polemo,[2] (the head of the Academy from 314 to 269). Although he was a member of Zeno's circle he soon departed from Zeno's teachings, largely rejecting the two non-ethical parts of Stoic philosophy – physics and logic – endorsed by Zeno. A man of persuasive eloquence, Aristo was such a good speaker that he was called the Siren. He was also called Phalanthus, from his baldness. He set up his own school in the Cynosarges gymnasium[3] (a place associated with Cynic philosophy) and attracted many pupils, so much so that when he was accused of exposing the dignity of philosophy by his freedom to all-comers, he answered, that "he wished that Nature had given understanding to wild beasts, that they too might be capable of being his hearers."[4] His followers called themselves Aristonians and included the scientist Eratosthenes[5] and the Stoics: Apollophanes, Diphilus, and Miltiades.[3][5] Aristo engaged in much debate with Arcesilaus, the leader of the Academy, defending Stoic epistemology against Arcesilaus's skeptical views.[2] On one occasion he accused Arcesilaus of being: "Plato the head of him, Pyrrho the tail, midway Diodorus".[6] meaning that Arcesilaus presented himself as a Platonist, the substance of what he taught was the dialectics of Diodorus, but his actual philosophy was that of Pyrrhonism.[7] In his old age, he reportedly lapsed from the Stoic ideal and indulged in pleasure. "Eratosthenes the Cyrenean ... in his treatise which is entitled Ariston, represents his master as subsequently being much addicted to luxury, speaking as follows: "And before now, I have at times discovered him breaking down, as it were, the partition wall between pleasure and virtue, and appearing on the side of pleasure." And Apollophanes (and he was an acquaintance of Ariston), in his Ariston (for he also wrote a book with that title), shows the way in which his master was addicted to pleasure."[5] It is not known when he died,[8] but he is supposed to have died from sunstroke on account of his baldness.[9] Philosophy[edit] Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: Logic (which was a very wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought); Physics (including not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well); and Ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve happiness through the right way of living according to Nature. It is impossible to describe in full Aristo's philosophical system because none of his writings survived intact, but from the fragments preserved by later writers, it is clear that Aristo was heavily influenced by earlier Cynic philosophy: Logic[edit] Aristo regarded Logic as unimportant, saying that it had nothing to do with us.[3] "Dialectic reasonings," he said, "were like cobwebs, artificially constructed, but otherwise useless."[3] It is unlikely that he rejected all Logic,[10] and it is notable that Zeno, too, compared the skills of dialecticians "to right measures that do not measure wheat or anything else worthwhile but chaff and dung."[11] According to Stephen Menn, Aristo recognized the need to add somehow disposed in relation to something to the Stoic Categories.[citation needed] Physics[edit] Aristo also rejected Physics, saying that it was beyond us.[3] This is reflected in his views concerning God: Aristo holds that no form of God is conceivable, and denies him sensation, and is in a state of complete uncertainty as to whether he is, or is not, animate.[12] This was in marked opposition to Zeno to whom "the universe was animate and possessed of reason."[13] He did, however, agree with Zeno that Nature was comprehensible, arguing against the Academics. He once asked an Academic "Do you not even see the man who is sitting next to you?", and when the Academic replied, "I do not," Aristo said: "Who then has blinded you; who has robbed you of your eyes?"[14] Ethics[edit] For Aristo, Ethics was the only true branch of philosophy, but he also limited this category, removing its practical side: advice concerning individual actions was largely useless: He holds that it does not sink into the mind, having in it nothing but old wives' precepts, and that the greatest benefit is derived from the actual dogmas of philosophy and from the definition of the Supreme Good. When a man has gained a complete understanding of this definition and has thoroughly learned it, he can frame for himself a precept directing what is to be done in a given case.[15] For Aristo, only the sage makes flawless decisions and does not need advice, for everybody else with clouded minds, advice is ineffective: For precepts will be of no avail while the mind is clouded with error; only when the cloud is dispersed will it be clear what one's duty is in each case. Otherwise, you will merely be showing the sick man what he ought to do if he were well, instead of making him well.[16] The purpose of life was to seek the Supreme Good, and here Aristo set up a challenge to Zeno. While agreeing with Zeno that Virtue was the supreme good, he totally rejected the idea that external advantages (health, wealth, etc.), although morally "indifferent", could be ranked in terms of whether they are naturally preferred or not: Aristo of Chios denied that health, and everything similar to it, is a preferred indifferent. To call it a preferred indifferent is equivalent to judging it a good, and different practically in name alone; For without exception things indifferent as between virtue and vice have no difference at all, nor are some of them preferred by nature while others are dispreferred, but in the face of the different circumstances of the occasions, neither those said to be preferred prove to be unconditionally preferred, nor are those said to be dispreferred of necessity dispreferred; For if healthy men had to serve a tyrant and be destroyed for this reason, while the sick had to be released from the service and, therewith also, from destruction, the wise man would rather choose sickness in this circumstance than health.[17] Zeno would have agreed that there could be circumstances when one might choose illness for the good of the world, but for Zeno, health is a naturally preferred state; Aristo rejected this. For Aristo, not only are there times when illness might be preferred over health, (health cannot always be unconditionally preferred), but health is not even a natural advantage, and one can never assume that it is better than illness. Although the sage can (and often must) choose between various indifferent things, he should never make the error of assuming that they could be naturally preferred. For Zeno, the chief good was to live according to Nature; for Aristo, the chief good was: to live in perfect indifference to all those things that are of an intermediate character between virtue and vice; making not the slightest difference between them, but regarding them all on a footing of equality. For that the wise man resembles a good actor; who, whether he is filling the part of Agamemnon or Thersites, will perform them both equally well.[18] The highest good is thus to follow virtue as the supreme good, avoid vice as the supreme evil, and to live in a state of perfect indifference towards everything else.[19] Aristo did, however, agree with Zeno on the unity of virtue, even if it is often labelled as different things: Aristo made virtue one thing in its essence, and called it health; but in what it is somehow related to, he made the virtues differentiated and plural, just as if one wanted to call our vision in grasping light-colored things light-sight, but dark-sight in grasping dark-colored ones. For virtue in considering things to be done and not to be done is called wisdom, but it is called temperance in bringing order to our appetites and defining what is measured and timely in pleasures, and justice in busying itself with joint enterprises and contracts with other people.[20] The problem remains of how one can achieve a virtuous state if one can not make rational choices between which things in life are preferred and dispreferred and has only an abstract goal of perfect virtue. Aristo left the question unanswered, and Cicero writing in the first century BC gave what has been the standard view of Aristo's philosophy ever since: For if we maintained that all things were absolutely indifferent, the whole of life would be thrown in confusion, as it is by Aristo, and no function or task could be found for wisdom, since there would be absolutely no distinction between the things that pertain to the conduct of life, and no choice need be exercised among them.[21] Whether or not this view is correct,[22] Aristo clearly thought he was doing something more positive than playing the Cynic and trying to undermine the roots of the Stoic system: He who has equipped himself for the whole of life does not need to be advised concerning each separate item, because he is now trained to meet his problem as a whole; for he knows not merely how he should live with his wife or his son, but how he should live aright.[23] Legacy[edit] Aristo came to be regarded as a marginal figure in the history of Stoicism, but in his day, he was an important philosopher whose lectures drew large crowds.[24] Eratosthenes, who lived in Athens as a young man, claimed that Aristo and Arcesilaus were the two most important philosophers of his age.[25] But it was the more moderate Zeno, not the radical Aristo, whose views would win out. Chrysippus, (head of the Stoic school from c. 232 to c. 206 BC), systemized Stoicism along the lines set down by Zeno, and in doing so, was forced to repeatedly attack Aristo: To maintain that the only Good is Moral Worth is to do away with the care of one's health, the management of one's estate, participation in politics, the conduct of affairs, the duties of life; nay, to abandon that Moral Worth itself, which according to you is the be-all and the end-all of existence; objections that were urged most earnestly against Aristo by Chrysippus.[26] And yet, Aristo never quite went away, as can be seen by the repeated references to his views by later writers. By outlining a version of Stoicism rooted in Cynic philosophy, he provided fruitful food for thought for both the supporters and the opponents of Stoicism ever since. Notes[edit] ^ His date of birth is uncertain. He attended lectures by Zeno (born 333 BC, lectured between c. 302-264), and also became his most significant Stoic rival. He also attended lectures by Polemo (died 270/269 BC). 290 BC is the latest we can say he was born, but the late 4th century is quite probable. ^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 162. ^ a b c d e Laërtius 1925, § 161. ^ Plutarch, Lives: That a Philosopher Ought to Converse with Great Men. ^ a b c Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, Book VII. ^ Laërtius 1925b, § 35; and Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism. ^ "Arcesilaus ... does indeed seem to me to share the Pyrrhonean arguments, so that his Way is almost the same as ours.... he made use of the dialectic of Diodorus, but he was an outwardly Platonist." Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I, Chapter 33. ^ He was a vigorous opponent of Arcesilaus (head of the Academy from 265 to 241) and he also taught Eratosthenes (born 276), so he was presumably alive in the 250's and perhaps beyond. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 164. ^ "Crude sentences of the form 'x rejects logic' are unsatisfying, ... it is one thing to decline to study the subject of logic, and quite another to decline to produce arguments. No ancient philosopher is accused of abjuring reason."Barnes, Johnathan (1996). Logic and the imperial Stoa. Brill. p. 8. ISBN 9004108289. ^ Stobaeus, 2.22, 12-15. ^ Cicero, [De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods)], 1, 14. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods), 2, 8. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 163. ^ Seneca, Epistles, 94. 2. ^ Seneca, Epistles, 94. 5. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Against the Professors, 11. 64-7. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 160 ^ Seneca, Epistles, 94. 8. ^ Plutarch - On Moral Virtue, 440e-441a. ^ Cicero, De Finibus (On Ends) Archived January 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, 3. 15. ^ Thomas Bénatouïl has, for example, argued that for Aristo, uniform indifference was the consequence of, rather than the path to achieving perfect virtue. See the Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2007.04.64 ^ Seneca, Epistles, 94. 3. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 182. ^ Strabo, Geography, 1.2.2. ^ Cicero, De Finibus (On Ends) Archived October 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, 4. 25. References[edit] Inwood, B., The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press, 2003.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Ariston" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "The Academics: Arcesilaus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:4. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Long, A., Sedley, D., The Hellenistic Philosophers. Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 1987. Nicholson, Aikin, Enfield, Morgan, Johnston, General Biography: Or, Lives, Critical and Historical, of the Most Eminent Persons. 1799. Porter, J., The Philosophy of Aristo of Chios. In The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 156–189.   Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Ariston". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. pp. 310–311. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Aristo of Chios Seneca the Younger, Letter 94, On the value of advice. Seneca's translation (or paraphrase) of Aristo's views (§ 5-17), followed by Seneca's riposte. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia United States Israel Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristo_of_Chios&oldid=1024297336" Categories: 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC philosophers Ancient Chians Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 08:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1161	----	Mauretania - Wikipedia Mauretania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region in the ancient Maghreb This article is about the ancient Maghreb territory. For the modern country, see Mauritania. For other uses, see Mauretania (disambiguation). For the passenger ship, see RMS Mauretania (1906) and RMS Mauretania (1938). Mauretania 3rd century BC – 44 AD[1] Mauretania Status Tribal Berber kingdoms (3rd century BC – 40 AD) Provinces of the Roman Empire (44 AD – 7th century AD) Independent kingdoms (431 AD[1] – 8th century) Capital Volubilis[2] Iol / Caesarea[3] Common languages Berber, Latin Religion Roman paganism, local beliefs, Christianity King   • 110–80 BC Bocchus I • 25 BC - 23 AD Juba II • 20–40 AD Ptolemy of Mauretania Historical era Classical Antiquity • Established before 200 BC • client state of the Roman Empire 25 BC • Division into Roman provinces 44 AD • Disestablished 44 AD Today part of  Algeria  Morocco  Spain  ∟ Ceuta  ∟ Melilla Mauretania (/ˌmɒrɪˈteɪniə, ˌmɔːrɪ-/; Classical Latin: [mau̯.reːˈt̪aː.ni.a])[4][5] is the Latin name for a region in the ancient Maghreb. It stretched from central present-day Algeria westwards to the Atlantic, covering northern Morocco, and southward to the Atlas Mountains.[6] Its native inhabitants, seminomadic pastoralists of Berber ancestry, were known to the Romans as the Mauri and the Masaesyli.[1] In 25 BC, the kings of Mauretania became Roman vassals until about 44 AD, when the area was annexed to Rome and divided into two provinces: Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis. Christianity spread there from the 3rd century onwards.[7] After the Muslim Arabs subdued the region in the 7th century, Islam became the dominant religion. Contents 1 Moorish kingdom 1.1 Kings 2 Roman province(s) 3 Late Antiquity 3.1 Roman-Moorish kingdoms 3.2 Vandal kingdom 3.3 Praetorian prefecture of Africa 3.4 Exarchate of Africa 4 Religion 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Moorish kingdom[edit] Further information: North Africa during Antiquity Coin of Faustus Sulla, with the reverse depicting the Mauretanian king Bocchus I (left) offering Jugurtha (right) to Faustus' father Lucius Sulla. Mauretania existed as a tribal kingdom of the Berber Mauri people. In the early 1st century Strabo recorded Maûroi (Μαῦροι) as the native name of a people opposite the Iberian Peninsula. This appellation was adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Mauroúsii (Μαυρούσιοι).[8][9] The Mediterranean coast of Mauretania had commercial harbours for trade with Carthage from before the 4th century BC, but the interior was controlled by Berber tribes, who had established themselves in the region by the Iron Age. The tomb of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II in Tipaza, Algeria King Atlas was a legendary king of Mauretania credited with inventing the celestial globe.[10] The first known historical king of the Mauri, Baga, ruled during the Second Punic War of 218–201 BC. The Mauri were in close contact with Numidia. Bocchus I ([fl.] 110 BC) was father-in-law to the redoubted Numidian king Jugurtha. Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 25 BC when the Romans installed Juba II of Numidia as their client-king. On his death in AD 23, his Roman-educated son Ptolemy of Mauretania succeeded him. The Emperor Caligula had Ptolemy executed in 40.[11] The Roman Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly as a Roman province in 44, placing it under an imperial governor (either a procurator Augusti, or a legatus Augusti pro praetore). Kings[edit] Name Reign Notes Image Atlas 6th century BC mythical king of Mauretania[12] Bagas fl. 225 BC Bocchus I c. 110 – c. 80s BC Mastanesosus c. 80s BC – 49 Bocchus II 49 – c. 33 BC Co-ruler with Bogud Bogud 49 – c. 38 BC Co-ruler with Bocchus II Juba II 25 BC – AD 23 Roman client king Ptolemy 20–40 Last king of Mauretania Began reign as co-ruler with Juba II Assassinated by Caligula Roman province(s)[edit] Further information: Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis In the 1st century AD, Emperor Claudius divided the Roman province of Mauretania into Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana along the line of the Mulucha (Muluya) River, about 60 km west of modern Oran: Mauretania Tingitana was named after its capital Tingis (now Tangier); it corresponded to northern Morocco (including the current Spanish enclaves). Mauretania Caesariensis was named after its capital Caesarea (Mauretaniae) and comprised western and central Algeria. Mauretania gave the empire one emperor, the equestrian Macrinus. He seized power after the assassination of Caracalla in 217 but was himself defeated and executed by Elagabalus the next year. Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform (293) further divided the area into three provinces, as the small, easternmost region of Sitifensis was split off from Mauretania Caesariensis. The Notitia Dignitatum (c. 400) mentions themas still existing, two being under the authority of the Vicarius of the diocese of Africa: A Dux et praeses provinciae Mauritaniae et Caesariensis, i.e. a Roman governor of the rank of Vir spectabilis, who also held the high military command of dux, as the superior of eight border garrison commanders, each styled Praepositus limitis ..., followed by (genitive forms) Columnatensis, Vidensis, inferioris (i.e. lower border), Fortensis, Muticitani, Audiensis, Caputcellensis and Augustensis. A (civilian) Praeses in the province of Mauretania Sitifensis. And, under the authority of the Vicarius of the diocese of Hispaniae: A Comes rei militaris of Mauretania Tingitana, also ranking as vir spectabilis, in charge of the following border garrison (Limitanei) commanders: Praefectus alae Herculeae at Tamuco Tribunus cohortis secundae Hispanorum at Duga Tribunus cohortis primae Herculeae at Aulucos Tribunus cohortis primae Ityraeorum at Castrabarensis Another Tribunus cohortis at Sala Tribunus cohortis Pacatianensis at Pacatiana Tribunus cohortis tertiae Asturum at Tabernas Tribunus cohortis Friglensis at the Fortress of Friglas or Frigias, near Lixus[13] and to whom three extraordinary cavalry units were assigned: Equites scutarii seniores Equites sagittarii seniores Equites Cordueni A Praeses (civilian governor) of the same province of Tingitana Late Antiquity[edit] Further information: Diocese of Africa Roman-Moorish kingdoms[edit] Further information: Mauro-Roman Kingdom During the crisis of the 3rd century, parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berber tribes. Direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities (such as Septem in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis) by the late 3rd century.[14] Historical sources about inland areas are sparse, but these were apparently controlled by local Berber rulers who, however, maintained a degree of Roman culture, including the local cities, and usually nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of the Roman Emperors.[15] The Western kingdom more distant from the Vandal kingdom was the one of Altava, a city located at the borders of Mauretania Tingitana and Caesariensis....It is clear that the Mauro-Roman kingdom of Altava was fully inside the Western Latin world, not only because of location but mainly because it adopted the military-religious-sociocultural-administrative organization of the Roman Empire...[16] In an inscription from Altava in western Algeria, one of these rulers, Masuna, described himself as rex gentium Maurorum et Romanorum (king of the Roman and Moorish peoples). Altava was later the capital of another ruler, Garmul or Garmules, who resisted Byzantine rule in Africa but was finally defeated in 578.[17] The Byzantine historian Procopius also mentions another independent ruler, Mastigas, who controlled most of Mauretania Caesariensis in the 530s. In the 7th century there were eight Romano-Moorish kingdoms: Altava, Ouarsenis, Hodna, Aures, Nemenchas, Capsa, Dorsale and Cabaon.[18] The last resistance against the Arab invasion was sustained in the second half of the 7th century mainly by the Roman-Moorish kingdoms -with the last Byzantine troops in the region- under the leadership of the Christian king of Altava Caecilius, but later ended in complete defeat in 703 AD (when the queen Kahina died in battle). Vandal kingdom[edit] Main article: Vandal kingdom The Vandals conquered the Roman province beginning in the 420s. The city of Hippo Regius fell to the Vandals in 431 after a prolonged siege, and Carthage also fell in 439. Theodosius II dispatched an expedition to deal with the Vandals in 441, which failed to progress farther than Sicily.[clarification needed] The Western Empire under Valentinian III secured peace with the Vandals in 442, confirming their control of Proconsular Africa. For the next 90 years, Africa was firmly under the Vandal control. The Vandals were ousted from Africa in the Vandalic War of 533–534, from which time Mauretania at least nominally became a Roman province once again. The old provinces of the Roman Diocese of Africa were mostly preserved by the Vandals, but large parts, including almost all of Mauretania Tingitana, much of Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Sitifensis and large parts of the interior of Numidia and Byzacena, had been lost to the inroads of Berber tribes, now collectively called the Mauri (later Moors) as a generic term for "the Berber tribes in the province of Mauretania". Praetorian prefecture of Africa[edit] Main article: Praetorian prefecture of Africa In 533, the Roman army under Belisarius defeated the Vandals. In April 534, Justinian published a law concerning the administrative organization of the newly acquired territories. Nevertheless, Justinian restored the old administrative division, but raised the overall governor at Carthage to the supreme administrative rank of praetorian prefect, thereby ending the Diocese of Africa's traditional subordination to the Prefecture of Italy (then still under Ostrogoth rule). Exarchate of Africa[edit] The emperor Maurice sometime between 585 and 590 AD created the office of "Exarch", which combined the supreme civil authority of a praetorian prefect and the military authority of a magister militum, and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. Two exarchates were established, one in Italy, with seat at Ravenna (hence known as the Exarchate of Ravenna), and one in Africa, based at Carthage and including all imperial possessions in the Western Mediterranean. The first African exarch was the patricius Gennadius.[19] Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Sitifensis were merged to form the new province of Mauretania Prima, while Mauretania Tingitana, effectively reduced to the city of Septem, was combined with the citadels of the Spanish coast (Spania) and the Balearic islands to form Mauretania Secunda. The African exarch was in possession of Mauretania Secunda, which was little more than a tiny outpost in southern Spain, beleaguered by the Visigoths. The last Spanish strongholds were conquered by the Visigoths in 624 AD, reducing "Mauretania Seconda" opposite Gibraltar to only the fort of Septem. Religion[edit] Christianity is known to have existed in Mauretania as early as the 3rd century.[7] It spread rapidly in these areas despite its relatively late appearance in the region.[20] Although it was adopted in the urban areas of Mauretania Caesariensis, the hinterlands retained the Romano-Berber religion.[21] Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Mauretania Sitifensis, listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[22] Acufida (Cafrida) Arae in Mauretania (Ksar-Tarmounth) Assava (Hammam-Guergour) Asuoremixta Castellum in Mauretania (ruins of Aïn-Castellou?) Cedamusa (near the Fdoulès mountains) Cellae in Mauretania (Kherbet-Zerga) Cova (Ziama Mansouriah) Eminentiana Equizetum (Lacourbe, Ouled Agla) Ficus (in the region of El-Ksar or Djemâa-Si-Belcassem) Flumenpiscense (ruins of Kherbet-Ced-Bel-Abbas?) Gegi Horrea (ruins of Sidi-Rehane or of Aïn-Zada?) Horrea Aninici (ruins of Aïn-Roua) Ierafi (in the valley of Bou-Sellam?) Lemellefa (Bordj-Redir) Lemfocta (between Tiklat and Mlakou) Lesvi Macri Macriana in Mauretania Maronana (ruins of Aïn-Melloud?) Medjana (Medianas Zabuniorum) Molicunza (ruins of Makou?) Mons in Mauretania (ruins of Henchir-Casbalt?) Mopta (ruins of El-Ouarcha?) Murcona Novaliciana (Kherbet Madjouba or Beni-Fouda) Oliva (ruins of Drâa-El-Arba?, ruins of Tala, Mellal?) Parthenia Perdices (ruins of Aïn-Hamiet?) Privata (near Safiet-El-Hamra Mountain) Saldae Satafis (Aïn El Kebira) Sertei (Kherbet-Guidra) Sitifis, Metropolitan Archdiocese Socia Surista Tamagrista (near Mount Magris) Tamallula (Ras El Oued) Tamascani (Kerbet-Zembia-Cerez?) Thibuzabetum (Aïn-Melloul?) Thucca in Mauretania Tinista Vamalia (ruins of Biar-Haddada?) Zabi (Bechilga) Zallata See also[edit] Gaetuli tribe (namesake of Getulia) Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Syphax Victor Maurus, a Christian Mauretanian martyr and saint Zeno of Verona References[edit] ^ a b c "region, North Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica. August 9, 2007. Retrieved 25 March 2017. ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/836 ^ "Iol - ancient city, Algeria". Encyclopedia Britannica. 28 Aug 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2017. ^ The Classic Latin Dictionary, Follett, 1957, only gives "Mauritania" ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 ^ Phillip C. Naylor (7 May 2015). Historical Dictionary of Algeria. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-8108-7919-5. ^ a b Early Christianity in Contexts: An Exploration across Cultures and Continents ^ Strabo, Geographica 17.3.2 (English translation): "Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing African nation, situated opposite to Spain" (οἰκοῦσι δ᾽ ἐνταῦθα Μαυρούσιοι μὲν ὑπὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων λεγόμενοι, Μαῦροι δ᾽ ὑπὸ τῶν Ῥωμαίων καὶ τῶν ἐπιχωρίων, Λιβυκὸν ἔθνος μέγα καὶ εὔδαιμον, ἀντίπορθμον τῇ Ἰβηρίᾳ.). ^ Lewis and Short, Latin Dictionary, 1879, s.v. "Mauri". ^ Diodorus Siculus; Bib. IV, 27 ; Alexander Polyhistor, fr. 3, F.G.H. III, p. 212; John of Antioch, fr. 13, F.H.G. IV, p. 547. ^ Anthony A. Barrett, Caligula: The Corruption of Power (Routledge, 1989), pp. 116–117. ^ Rabasa, José (1993). Inventing America: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentrism. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 180. ISBN 9780806125398. Retrieved 6 October 2019. ^ Villaverde Vega, Noé Tingitana en la antigüedad tardía, siglos III-VII: autoctonía y romanidad en el extremo occidente mediterráneo. Madrid, Real Academia de la Historia, 2001 ISBN 8489512949, 9788489512948 p. 275 (spanish) ^ Wickham, Chris (2005). Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400 - 800. Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-921296-5. ^ Wickham, Chris (2005). Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400 - 800. Oxford University Press. p. 335. ISBN 978-0-19-921296-5. ^ Noé Villaverde, Vega: "El Reino mauretoromano de Altava, siglo VI" (The Mauro-Roman kingdom of Altava) p.355 ^ Aguado Blazquez, Francisco (2005). El Africa Bizantina: Reconquista y ocaso (PDF). p. 46. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-07. ^ "Map showing the eight romano-berber kingdoms". Archived from the original on 2016-10-13. Retrieved 2016-05-27. ^ Julien (1931, v.1, p.273) ^ Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa, Leslie Dossey, page 25 ^ Early Christianity in Contexts: An Exploration across Cultures and Continents ^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013 Further reading[edit] Aranegui, Carmen; Mar, Ricardo (2009). "Lixus (Morocco): from a Mauretanian sanctuary to an Augustan palace". Papers of the British School at Rome. 77: 29–64. doi:10.1017/S0068246200000039. Papi, Emanuele (2014). "Punic Mauretania?". In Josephine Crawley Quinn, Nicholas C. Vella (ed.). The Punic Mediterranean. Identities and Identification from Phoenician Settlement to Roman Rule. Cambridge University. pp. 202–218. ISBN 978-1107055278. Roller, Duane W. (2003). The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge Classical Monographs. ISBN 0415305969. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Mauretania . Tingitana[permanent dead link] v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 Authority control: National libraries Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mauretania&oldid=1025897276" Categories: Mauretania Roman client kingdoms Countries in ancient Africa Ancient history of North Africa States and territories established in the 3rd century BC States and territories disestablished in the 1st century 3rd-century BC establishments 1st-century disestablishments Ancient Greek geography of North Africa 44 disestablishments Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2013 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara Français 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kongo Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2021, at 06:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1170	----	Junius Rusticus - Wikipedia Junius Rusticus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman teacher, politician and Stoic philosopher Junius Rusticus presides over the trial of Justin Martyr Quintus Junius Rusticus (c. 100 – c. 170 AD), was a Roman teacher and politician. He was probably a grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, a prominent member of the Stoic Opposition. He was a Stoic philosopher and was one of the teachers of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, whom Aurelius treated with the utmost respect and honour. Rusticus held the political positions of Suffect consul in 133 and Consul ordinarius in 162. He served as urban prefect of Rome between 162 and 168. In this role he is notable for presiding over the trial of the Christian theologian Justin Martyr, which ended with Justin's conviction and execution. According to Themistius, a 4th-century Roman philosopher and orator, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius "pulled Arrian and Rusticus away from their books, refusing to let them be mere pen-and-ink philosophers" and escorted them from the study of Stoic philosophy "to the general’s tent as well as to the speaker’s platform."[1] Themistius lumps Arrian and Rusticus together in recounting their military achievements: In their role as Roman generals, these men passed through the Caspian Gates, drove the Alani out of Armenia, and established boundaries for the Iberians and the Albani. For all these accomplishments, they reaped the fruits of the eponymous consulship, governed the great city [of Rome], and presided over the ancient senate.[1] Contents 1 Influence on Marcus Aurelius 2 Trial of Justin 3 See also 4 References Influence on Marcus Aurelius[edit] The Historia Augusta states that Rusticus was the most important teacher of Marcus Aurelius: [Marcus] received most instruction from Junius Rusticus, whom he ever revered and whose disciple he became, a man esteemed in both private and public life, and exceedingly well acquainted with the Stoic system, with whom Marcus shared all his counsels both public and private, whom he greeted with a kiss prior to the prefects of the guard, whom he even appointed consul for a second term, and whom after his death he asked the senate to honour with statues.[2] In his Meditations, Marcus thanks Rusticus for the Stoic training he received from him: From Rusticus I received the impression that my character required improvement and discipline; and from him I learned not to be led astray to sophistic emulation, nor to writing on speculative matters, nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to showing myself off as a man who practices much discipline, or does benevolent acts in order to make a display.[3] Marcus also explains how it was from Rusticus that he first came to read the works of Epictetus: and I am indebted to him for being acquainted with the discourses of Epictetus, which he communicated to me out of his own collection.[3] Trial of Justin[edit] He was the urban prefect of Rome between 162 and 168, and it was during this time that he conducted the trial of Justin Martyr which led to Justin's execution.[4] Three transcripts of the trial survive, of which the shortest is probably the most accurate.[5] Justin was denounced to the authorities after disputing with the Cynic philosopher Crescens, according to Tatian and Eusebius.[6][7] Justin was tried together with six companions. The trial record indicates that Rusticus asked him several questions about Christian beliefs and practices, after which he affirmed the law that failure to sacrifice to the gods in submission to the Imperial decrees was a capital offence. When Justin and his companions refused to do so, Rusticus condemned him and he was beheaded, probably in 165. The martyrdom of Justin preserves the record of the trial.[8] See also[edit] Junia (gens) References[edit] ^ a b Themistius, 34th Oration, In Reply to Those who Found Fault with him for Accepting Public Office ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 3. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i. 15. ^ Birley, A., Marcus Aurelius, page 152ff. Routledge. (2000). ^ Grant, Robert McQueen, Second-Century Christianity: A Collection of Fragments, page 51ff. Westminster John Knox Press. (2003). ^ Tatian, Address to the Greeks 19. ^ Eusebius, Church History iv. 16. ^ J. Quasten, Patrology vol. 1, p.196–7. Political offices Preceded by Marcus Antonius Hiberus, and Publius Mummius Sisenna as ordinary consul Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 133 with Quintus Flavius Tertullus Succeeded by Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, and Publius Sufenas Verus as suffect consul Preceded by Julius Geminus Capellianus, and Titus Flavius Boethus as suffect consul Consul of the Roman Empire 162 with Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus Succeeded by Tiberius Claudius Paullinus, and Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus as suffect consul v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Junius_Rusticus&oldid=1026248884" Categories: Junii 100 births 170 deaths Imperial Roman consuls 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century philosophers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Philosophers of Roman Italy Urban prefects of Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Estremeñu Français Italiano Latina Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 06:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1173	----	File:2006 Piazza Colonna - panoramio.jpg - Wikipedia File:2006 Piazza Colonna - panoramio.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 398 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 159 × 240 pixels | 319 × 480 pixels | 664 × 1,000 pixels. Original file ‎(664 × 1,000 pixels, file size: 315 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. 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Photograph Description2006 Piazza Colonna - panoramio.jpg 2006 Piazza Colonna Date 4 June 2011 (original upload date) Source https://web.archive.org/web/20161022002813/http://www.panoramio.com/photo/53719544 Author Валерий Дед Permission (Reusing this file) This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Attribution: Валерий Дед You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 CC BY 3.0 Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 truetrue This image, which was originally posted to Panoramio, was automatically reviewed on 26 November 2016 by Panoramio upload bot, who confirmed that it was available on Panoramio under the above license on that date. Tags (from Panoramio photo page) Roma, >5000, Roma(Рим) Camera location 41° 54′ 02.56″ N, 12° 28′ 47.37″ E  View this and other nearby images on: OpenStreetMap 41.900712; 12.479825 Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value object has role: photographer author name string: Валерий Дед URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20161022002721/http://www.panoramio.com/user/2333416?with_photo_id=53719544 copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported coordinates of the point of view 41°54'2.563"N, 12°28'47.370"E inception 4 June 2011 source of file file available on the internet operator: Panoramio described at URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20161022002813/http://www.panoramio.com/photo/53719544 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 04:14, 26 November 2016 664 × 1,000 (315 KB) Panoramio upload bot == {{int:filedesc}} == {{Information |description=2006 Piazza Colonna |date={{Original upload date|2011-06-04}} |source=http://www.panoramio.com/photo/53719544 |author=[http://www.panoramio.com/user/2333416?with_photo_id=53719544 Валерий Дед]... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. 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en-wikipedia-org-1172	----	Tunisia - Wikipedia Tunisia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Country in Africa Republic of Tunisia الجمهورية التونسية (Arabic) al-Jumhūrīyah at-Tūnisīyah République tunisienne  (French) Flag Coat of arms Motto: حرية، كرامة، عدالة، نظام‎ "Ḥurrīyah, Karāma, 'Adālah, Niẓām" "freedom, dignity, justice, and order"[1] Anthem: حماة الحمى‎ "Humat al-Hima" (English: "Defenders of the Homeland") Location of Tunisia in northern Africa Capital and largest city Tunis 36°49′N 10°11′E / 36.817°N 10.183°E / 36.817; 10.183 Official languages Arabic[2] Spoken languages Tunisian Arabic[3] Berber[4][5][6][7] French (administrative, commercial and educational) English Ethnic groups Arab-Berber 98%, European 1%, Jewish and other 1% [8][9] Religion Islam (official)[10] Demonym(s) Tunisian Government Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic[11][12] • President Kais Saied • Prime Minister Hichem Mechichi • Assembly Speaker Rached Ghannouchi Legislature Assembly of the Representatives of the People Establishment • Ancient Carthage inaugurated 814 BC • Aghlabids inaugurated 800 • Fatimid Caliphate inaugurated 909 • Hafsid dynasty inaugurated 1207 • Husainid Dynasty inaugurated 15 July 1705 • Independence from France 20 March 1956 • Republic declared 25 July 1957 • 1987 Tunisian coup d'état 7 November 1987 • Revolution Day 14 January 2011 • 2nd republic declared 10 February 2014 Area • Total 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi) (91st) • Water (%) 5.04 Population • 2020 estimate 11,708,370[13] (81st) • Density 71.65/km2 (185.6/sq mi) (110rd) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $159.707 billion[14] • Per capita $13,417[14] GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $44.192 billion[14] • Per capita $3,713[14] Gini (2017) 35.8[15] medium HDI (2019)  0.740[16] high · 95th Currency Tunisian dinar (TND) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) Driving side right Calling code +216 ISO 3166 code TN Internet TLD .tn .تونس‎[17] Tunisia,[a] officially the Republic of Tunisia,[b] is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a part of the Maghreb region of North Africa, and is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east; covering 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi), with a population of 11 million. It contains the eastern end of the Atlas Mountains and the northern reaches of the Sahara desert, with much of its remaining territory arable land. Its 1,300 km (810 mi) of coastline include the African conjunction of the western and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Basin. Tunisia is home to Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela; and its capital and largest city is Tunis, located on its northeastern coast, which lends the country its name. From early antiquity, Tunisia was inhabited by the indigenous Berbers. Phoenicians began to arrive in the 12th century BC, establishing several settlements, of which Carthage emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC. A major mercantile empire and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC, who occupied Tunisia for most of the next 800 years, introducing Christianity and leaving architectural legacies like the amphitheatre of El Jem. After several attempts starting in 647, Muslims conquered all of Tunisia by 697, bringing Islam and Arab culture to the local inhabitants. The Ottoman Empire established control in 1574 and held sway for over 300 years, until the French conquered Tunisia in 1881. Tunisia gained independence under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba, who declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. Today, Tunisia is the smallest nation in North Africa, and its culture and identity are rooted in this centuries-long intersection of different cultures and ethnicities. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution, triggered by the lack of freedom and democracy under the 24-year rule of president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, overthrew his regime and catalyzed the broader Arab Spring across the region. Free multiparty parliamentary elections were held shortly after; the country again voted for parliament on 26 October 2014,[19] and for president on 23 November 2014.[20] Tunisia remains a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic; and is the only North African country classified as "Free" by Freedom House,[21] and considered the only fully democratic state in the Arab World in the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index.[22][c] It is one of the only few countries in Africa ranking high in the Human Development Index, with one of the highest per capita incomes in the continent. Tunisia is well integrated into the international community. It is a member of the United Nations, La Francophonie, the Arab League, the OIC, the African Union, the Non-Aligned Movement, the International Criminal Court, and the Group of 77, among others. It maintains close economic and political relations with some European countries, particularly with France,[23] and Italy,[24][25] which geographically lie very close to it. Tunisia also has an association agreement with the European Union, and has also attained the status of major non-NATO ally of the United States. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Antiquity 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Ottoman Tunisia 2.4 French Tunisia (1881–1956) 2.5 Post-independence (1956–2011) 2.6 Post-revolution (since 2011) 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity 4 Government and politics 4.1 Military 4.2 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Energy 5.3 Transport 5.4 Water supply and sanitation 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Languages 6.3 Religion 6.4 Education 6.5 Health 7 Culture 7.1 Painting 7.2 Literature 7.3 Music 7.4 Media 7.5 Sports 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Etymology See also: Etymology of Tunis The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis; a central urban hub and the capital of modern-day Tunisia. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, evolved from French Tunisie,[26] in turn generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means "to lay down" or "encampment".[27] It is sometimes also associated with the Punic goddess Tanith (aka Tunit),[26][28] ancient city of Tynes.[29][30] The French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages have left the name untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с (Tunís) and Spanish Túnez. In this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس‎, and only by context can one tell the difference.[26] Before Tunisia, the territory's name was Ifriqiya or Africa, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa. History Main article: History of Tunisia Antiquity Main articles: Capsian culture and Ancient Carthage Ruins of Dougga's World Heritage Site Farming methods reached the Nile Valley from the Fertile Crescent region about 5000 BC, and spread to the Maghreb by about 4000 BC. Agricultural communities in the humid coastal plains of central Tunisia then were ancestors of today's Berber tribes. It was believed in ancient times that Africa was originally populated by Gaetulians and Libyans, both nomadic peoples. According to the Roman historian Sallust, the demigod Hercules died in Spain and his polyglot eastern army was left to settle the land, with some migrating to Africa. Persians went to the West and intermarried with the Gaetulians and became the Numidians. The Medes settled and were known as Mauri, later Moors.[31] Carthaginian-held territory before the first First Punic War The Numidians and Moors belonged to the race from which the Berbers are descended. The translated meaning of Numidian is Nomad and indeed the people were semi-nomadic until the reign of Masinissa of the Massyli tribe.[32][33][34] At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 12th century BC (Bizerte, Utica). The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century BC by Phoenicians. Legend says that Dido from Tyre, now in modern-day Lebanon, founded the city in 814 BC, as retold by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium. The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from Phoenicia, now present-day Lebanon and adjacent areas.[35] After the series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean. The people of Carthage worshipped a pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit. Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet, which was altered in Roman times. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of Roman power. From the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 202 BC, Carthage functioned as a client state of the Roman Republic for another 50 years.[36] Following the Battle of Carthage which began in 149 BC during the Third Punic War, Carthage was conquered by Rome in 146 BC.[37] Following its conquest, the Romans renamed Carthage to Africa, incorporating it as a province. Ruins of Carthage During the Roman period, the area of what is now Tunisia enjoyed a huge development. The economy, mainly during the Empire, boomed: the prosperity of the area depended on agriculture. Called the Granary of the Empire, the area of actual Tunisia and coastal Tripolitania, according to one estimate, produced one million tons of cereals each year, one-quarter of which was exported to the Empire. Additional crops included beans, figs, grapes, and other fruits. By the 2nd century, olive oil rivaled cereals as an export item. In addition to the cultivations and the capture and transporting of exotic wild animals from the western mountains, the principal production and exports included the textiles, marble, wine, timber, livestock, pottery such as African Red Slip, and wool. The Roman amphitheater in El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD There was even a huge production of mosaics and ceramics, exported mainly to Italy, in the central area of El Djem (where there was the second biggest amphitheater in the Roman Empire). Berber bishop Donatus Magnus was the founder of a Christian group known as the Donatists.[38] During the 5th and 6th centuries (from 430 to 533 AD), the Germanic Vandals invaded and ruled over a kingdom in Northwest Africa that included present-day Tripoli. The region was easily reconquered in 533–534 AD, during the rule of Emperor Justinian I, by the Eastern Romans led by General Belisarius.[39] Middle Ages Main article: History of medieval Tunisia Uqba ibn Nafi led the Umayyad conquest of Tunisia in the late 7th century Domes of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb. Sometime between the second half of the 7th century and the early part of the 8th century, Arab Muslim conquest occurred in the region. They founded the first Islamic city in Northwest Africa, Kairouan. It was there in 670 AD that the Mosque of Uqba, or the Great Mosque of Kairouan, was constructed.[40] This mosque is the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the Muslim West with the oldest standing minaret in the world;[41] it is also considered a masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture.[42] Tunis was taken in 695, re-taken by the Byzantine Eastern Romans in 697, but lost permanently in 698. The transition from a Latin-speaking Christian Berber society to a Muslim and mostly Arabic-speaking society took over 400 years (the equivalent process in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent took 600 years) and resulted in the final disappearance of Christianity and Latin in the 12th or 13th centuries. The majority of the population were not Muslim until quite late in the 9th century; a vast majority were during the 10th. Also, some Tunisian Christians emigrated; some richer members of society did so after the conquest in 698 and others were welcomed by Norman rulers to Sicily or Italy in the 11th and 12th centuries – the logical destination because of the 1200 year close connection between the two regions.[43] The Arab governors of Tunis founded the Aghlabid dynasty, which ruled Tunisia, Tripolitania and eastern Algeria from 800 to 909.[44] Tunisia flourished under Arab rule when extensive systems were constructed to supply towns with water for household use and irrigation that promoted agriculture (especially olive production).[44][45] This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and was marked by the construction of new palace cities such as al-Abassiya (809) and Raqadda (877).[44] After conquering Cairo, the Fatimids abandoned Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria to the local Zirids (972–1148).[46] Zirid Tunisia flourished in many areas: agriculture, industry, trade, and religious and secular learning.[47] Management by the later Zirid emirs was neglectful though, and political instability was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture.[44][48][49] The depredation of the Tunisian campaigns by the Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab Bedouin tribe encouraged by the Fatimids of Egypt to seize Northwest Africa, sent the region's rural and urban economic life into further decline.[46] Consequently, the region underwent rapid urbanisation as famines depopulated the countryside and industry shifted from agriculture to manufactures.[50] The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.[48][51] The main Tunisian cities were conquered by the Normans of Sicily under the Kingdom of Africa in the 12th century, but following the conquest of Tunisia in 1159–1160 by the Almohads the Normans were evacuated to Sicily. Communities of Tunisian Christians would still exist in Nefzaoua up to the 14th century.[52] The Almohads initially ruled over Tunisia through a governor, usually a near relative of the Caliph. Despite the prestige of the new masters, the country was still unruly, with continuous rioting and fighting between the townsfolk and wandering Arabs and Turks, the latter being subjects of the Muslim Armenian adventurer Karakush. Also, Tunisia was occupied by Ayyubids between 1182 and 1183 and again between 1184 and 1187.[53] The greatest threat to Almohad rule in Tunisia was the Banu Ghaniya, relatives of the Almoravids, who from their base in Mallorca tried to restore Almoravid rule over the Maghreb. Around 1200 they succeeded in extending their rule over the whole of Tunisia until they were crushed by Almohad troops in 1207. After this success, the Almohads installed Walid Abu Hafs as the governor of Tunisia. Tunisia remained part of the Almohad state, until 1230 when the son of Abu Hafs declared himself independent. During the reign of the Hafsid dynasty, fruitful commercial relationships were established with several Christian Mediterranean states.[54] In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold. Ottoman Tunisia Main article: Ottoman Tunisia In the last years of the Hafsid dynasty, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Conquest of Tunis by Charles V and liberation of Christian galley slaves in 1535 The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis took place in 1534 under the command of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, the younger brother of Oruç Reis, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 under Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis that the Ottomans permanently acquired the former Hafsid Tunisia, retaining it until the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881. Initially under Turkish rule from Algiers, soon the Ottoman Porte appointed directly for Tunis a governor called the Pasha supported by janissary forces. Before long, however, Tunisia became in effect an autonomous province, under the local Bey. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957.[55] This evolution of status was from time to time challenged without success by Algiers. During this era the governing councils controlling Tunisia remained largely composed of a foreign elite who continued to conduct state business in the Turkish language. Attacks on European shipping were made by corsairs, primarily from Algiers, but also from Tunis and Tripoli, yet after a long period of declining raids the growing power of the European states finally forced its termination. Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of Tunisia contracted; it lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli). Medina quarter of Tunis, 1899 The plague epidemics ravaged Tunisia in 1784–1785, 1796–1797 and 1818–1820.[56] In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy.[57] Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a protectorate in 1881. French Tunisia (1881–1956) Main article: French protectorate of Tunisia British tank moves through Tunis during the liberation, 8 May 1943 In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt and an international financial commission took control over its economy. In 1881, using the pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, the French invaded with an army of about 36,000 and forced the Bey to agree to the terms of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id).[58] With this treaty, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate, over the objections of Italy. Under French colonization, European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[59] During World War II, French Tunisia was ruled by the collaborationist Vichy government located in Metropolitan France. The antisemitic Statute on Jews enacted by the Vichy was also implemented in Vichy Northwest Africa and overseas French territories. Thus, the persecution, and murder of the Jews from 1940 to 1943 was part of the Shoah in France. From November 1942 until May 1943, Vichy Tunisia was occupied by Nazi Germany. SS Commander Walter Rauff continued to implement the Final Solution there. From 1942 to 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the Tunisia Campaign, a series of battles between the Axis and Allied forces. The battle opened with initial success by the German and Italian forces, but the massive supply and numerical superiority of the Allies led to the Axis surrender on 13 May 1943.[60][61] Post-independence (1956–2011) Main article: History of modern Tunisia Tunisia achieved independence from France on 20 March 1956 with Habib Bourguiba as Prime Minister.[62] 20 March is celebrated annually as Tunisian Independence Day.[63] A year later, Tunisia was declared a republic, with Bourguiba as the first President.[64] From independence in 1956 until the 2011 revolution, the government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), formerly Neo Destour and the Socialist Destourian Party, were effectively one. Following a report by Amnesty International, The Guardian called Tunisia "one of the most modern but repressive countries in the Arab world".[65] In November 1987, doctors[66] declared Bourguiba unfit to rule and, in a bloodless coup d'état, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency[64] in accordance with Article 57 of the Tunisian constitution.[67] The anniversary of Ben Ali's succession, 7 November, was celebrated as a national holiday. He was consistently re-elected with enormous majorities every five years (well over 80 percent of the vote), the last being 25 October 2009,[68] until he fled the country amid popular unrest in January 2011. Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption[69] and plundering the country's money. Economic liberalisation provided further opportunities for financial mismanagement,[70] while corrupt members of the Trabelsi family, most notably in the cases of Imed Trabelsi and Belhassen Trabelsi, controlled much of the business sector in the country.[71] The First Lady Leila Ben Ali was described as an "unabashed shopaholic" who used the state airplane to make frequent unofficial trips to Europe's fashion capitals.[72] Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who were accused by the French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina.[73] Ben Ali's son-in-law Sakher El Materi was rumoured as being primed to eventually take over the country.[74] Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International, documented that basic human and political rights were not respected.[75][76] The regime obstructed in any way possible the work of local human rights organizations.[77] In 2008, in terms of Press freedom, Tunisia was ranked 143rd out of 173.[78] Post-revolution (since 2011) See also: Tunisian Revolution Tunis on 14 January 2011 during the Tunisian Revolution The Tunisian Revolution[79][80] was an intensive campaign of civil resistance that was precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[81] a lack of freedom of speech and other political freedoms[82] and poor living conditions. Labour unions were said to be an integral part of the protests.[83] The protests inspired the Arab Spring, a wave of similar actions throughout the Arab world. The catalyst for mass demonstrations was the death of Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old Tunisian street vendor, who set himself afire on 17 December 2010 in protest at the confiscation of his wares and the humiliation inflicted on him by a municipal official named Faida Hamdy. Anger and violence intensified following Bouazizi's death on 4 January 2011, ultimately leading longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to resign and flee the country on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power.[84] Protests continued for banning of the ruling party and the eviction of all its members from the transitional government formed by Mohammed Ghannouchi. Eventually the new government gave in to the demands. A Tunis court banned the ex-ruling party RCD and confiscated all its resources. A decree by the minister of the interior banned the "political police", special forces which were used to intimidate and persecute political activists.[85] On 3 March 2011, the interim president announced that elections to a Constituent Assembly would be held on 24 July 2011.[86] On 9 June 2011, the prime minister announced the election would be postponed until 23 October 2011.[87] International and internal observers declared the vote free and fair. The Ennahda Movement, formerly banned under the Ben Ali regime, came out of the election as the largest party, with 89 seats out of a total of 217.[88] On 12 December 2011, former dissident and veteran human rights activist Moncef Marzouki was elected president.[89] In March 2012, Ennahda declared it will not support making sharia the main source of legislation in the new constitution, maintaining the secular nature of the state. Ennahda's stance on the issue was criticized by hardline Islamists, who wanted strict sharia, but was welcomed by secular parties.[90] On 6 February 2013, Chokri Belaid, the leader of the leftist opposition and prominent critic of Ennahda, was assassinated.[91] In 2014, President Moncef Marzouki established Tunisia's Truth and Dignity Commission, as a key part of creating a national reconciliation.[92] Tunisia was hit by two terror attacks on foreign tourists in 2015, first killing 22 people at the Bardo National Museum, and later killing 38 people at the Sousse beachfront. Tunisian president Beji Caid Essebsi renewed the state of emergency in October for three more months.[93] The Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet won the 2015 Nobel Peace Prize for its work in building a peaceful, pluralistic political order in Tunisia.[94] Tunisia's first democratically elected president Beji Caid Essebsi died in July 2019. After him Kais Saied became Tunisia's president after a landslide victory in the 2019 Tunisian presidential elections in October 2019.[95] Geography This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tunisia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Geography of Tunisia Köppen climate classification in Tunisia. The climate is Mediterranean towards the coast in the north, while most of the country is desert. View of the central Tunisian plateau at Téboursouk Tunisia is situated on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Delta. It is bordered by Algeria on the west and southwest and Libya on the south east. It lies between latitudes 30° and 38°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°E. An abrupt southward turn of the Mediterranean coast in northern Tunisia gives the country two distinctive Mediterranean coasts, west–east in the north, and north–south in the east. Though it is relatively small in size, Tunisia has great environmental diversity due to its north–south extent. Its east–west extent is limited. Differences in Tunisia, like the rest of the Maghreb, are largely north–south environmental differences defined by sharply decreasing rainfall southward from any point. The Dorsal, the eastern extension of the Atlas Mountains, runs across Tunisia in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula in the east. North of the Dorsal is the Tell, a region characterized by low, rolling hills and plains, again an extension of mountains to the west in Algeria. In the Khroumerie, the northwestern corner of the Tunisian Tell, elevations reach 1,050 metres (3,440 ft) and snow occurs in winter. The Sahel, a broadening coastal plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast, is among the world's premier areas of olive cultivation. Inland from the Sahel, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the Steppes. Much of the southern region is semi-arid and desert. Tunisia has a coastline 1,148 kilometres (713 mi) long. In maritime terms, the country claims a contiguous zone of 24 nautical miles (44.4 km; 27.6 mi), and a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22.2 km; 13.8 mi).[96] The city of Tunis is built on a hill slope down to the lake of Tunis. These hills contain places such as Notre-Dame de Tunis, Ras Tabia, La Rabta, La Kasbah, Montfleury and La Manoubia with altitudes just above 50 metres (160 feet). The city is located at the crossroads of a narrow strip of land between Lake Tunis and Séjoumi.[97] Climate Tunisia's climate is Mediterranean in the north, with mild rainy winters and hot, dry summers.[98] The south of the country is desert. The terrain in the north is mountainous, which, moving south, gives way to a hot, dry central plain. The south is semiarid, and merges into the Sahara. A series of salt lakes, known as chotts or shatts, lie in an east–west line at the northern edge of the Sahara, extending from the Gulf of Gabes into Algeria. The lowest point is Chott el Djerid at 17 metres (56 ft) below sea level and the highest is Jebel ech Chambi at 1,544 metres (5,066 ft).[99] Climate data for Tunisia in general Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 14.7 (58.5) 15.7 (60.3) 17.6 (63.7) 20.3 (68.5) 24.4 (75.9) 28.9 (84.0) 32.4 (90.3) 32.3 (90.1) 29.2 (84.6) 24.6 (76.3) 19.6 (67.3) 15.8 (60.4) 23.0 (73.3) Average low °C (°F) 6.4 (43.5) 6.5 (43.7) 8.2 (46.8) 10.4 (50.7) 13.8 (56.8) 17.7 (63.9) 20.1 (68.2) 20.7 (69.3) 19 (66) 15.2 (59.4) 10.7 (51.3) 7.5 (45.5) 13.0 (55.4) Average rainfall mm (inches) 50.5 (1.99) 45.3 (1.78) 43.4 (1.71) 35.5 (1.40) 21 (0.8) 10.8 (0.43) 3.7 (0.15) 8.8 (0.35) 10.5 (0.41) 38.6 (1.52) 46.4 (1.83) 56.4 (2.22) 370.9 (14.59) Source: Weatherbase[100] Biodiversity Tunisia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests, Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, and North Saharan steppe and woodlands.[101] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Tunisia Kais Saied President since 2019 Hichem Mechichi Prime Minister since 2020 Tunisia is a representative democracy and a republic with a president serving as head of state, a prime minister as head of government, a unicameral parliament, and a civil law court system. The Constitution of Tunisia, adopted 26 January 2014, guarantees rights for women and states that the President's religion "shall be Islam". In October 2014 Tunisia held its first elections under the new constitution following the Arab Spring.[102] Tunisia (#69 worldwide) is the only democracy in North Africa.[103] The number of legalized political parties in Tunisia has grown considerably since the revolution. There are now over 100 legal parties, including several that existed under the former regime. During the rule of Ben Ali, only three functioned as independent opposition parties: the PDP, FDTL, and Tajdid. While some older parties are well-established and can draw on previous party structures, many of the 100-plus parties extant as of February 2012 are small.[104] Rare for the Arab world, women held more than 20% of seats in the country's pre-revolution bicameral parliament.[105] In the 2011 constituent assembly, women held between 24% and 31% of all seats.[106][107] Tunisia is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. On 23 November 2014 Tunisia held its first Presidential Election following the Arab Spring in 2011.[108] The Tunisian legal system is heavily influenced by French civil law, while the Law of Personal Status is based on Islamic law.[109] Sharia courts were abolished in 1956.[109] A Code of Personal Status was adopted shortly after independence in 1956, which, among other things, gave women full legal status (allowing them to run and own businesses, have bank accounts, and seek passports under their own authority). The code outlawed the practices of polygamy and repudiation and a husband's right to unilaterally divorce his wife.[110] Further reforms in 1993 included a provision to allow Tunisian women to transmit citizenship even if they are married to a foreigner and living abroad.[111] The Law of Personal Status is applied to all Tunisians regardless of their religion.[109] The Code of Personal Status remains one of the most progressive civil codes in North Africa and the Muslim world.[112] Military Main article: Tunisian Armed Forces Soldiers of the Tunisian Armed Forces As of 2008[update], Tunisia had an army of 27,000 personnel equipped with 84 main battle tanks and 48 light tanks. The navy had 4,800 personnel operating 25 patrol boats and 6 other craft. The Tunisian Air Force has 154 aircraft and 4 UAVs. Paramilitary forces consisted of a 12,000-member national guard.[113] Tunisia's military spending was 1.6% of GDP as of 2006[update]. The army is responsible for national defence and also internal security. Tunisia has participated in peacekeeping efforts in the DROC and Ethiopia/Eritrea.[114] United Nations peacekeeping deployments for the Tunisian armed forces have been in Cambodia (UNTAC), Namibia (UNTAG), Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi, Western Sahara (MINURSO) and the 1960s mission in the Congo, ONUC. The military has historically played a professional, apolitical role in defending the country from external threats. Since January 2011 and at the direction of the executive branch, the military has taken on increasing responsibility for domestic security and humanitarian crisis response.[104] Administrative divisions Main articles: Governorates of Tunisia and Delegations of Tunisia Mediterranean sea Djerba Kerkennah Jendouba Bizerte Kef Béja Kasserine Gafsa Tozeur Kebili Tataouine Medenine Gabès Sfax Mahdia Monastir Sousse Nabeul Sidi Bouzid Kairouan Siliana Zaghouan Manouba Ben Arous Ariana Tunis Tunisia is subdivided into 24 governorates (Wilaya), which are further divided into 264 "delegations" or "districts" (mutamadiyat), and further subdivided into municipalities (baladiyats)[115] and sectors (imadats).[116] Economy Main article: Economy of Tunisia A proportional representation of Tunisia's exports in 2012. Ranked the most competitive economy in Africa by the World Economic Forum in 2009;[117] Tunisia is an export-oriented country in the process of liberalizing and privatizing an economy that, while averaging 5% GDP growth since the early 1990s, has suffered from corruption benefiting politically connected elites.[118] Tunisia's Penal Code criminalises several forms of corruption, including active and passive bribery, abuse of office, extortion and conflicts of interest, but the anti-corruption framework is not effectively enforced.[119] However, according to the Corruption Perceptions Index published annually by Transparency International, Tunisia was ranked the least corrupt North African country in 2016, with a score of 41. Tunisia has a diverse economy, ranging from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and petroleum products, to tourism, which accounted for 7% of the total GDP and 370,000 jobs in 2009.[120] In 2008 it had an economy of US$41 billion in nominal terms, and $82 billion in PPP.[121] The agricultural sector accounts for 11.6% of the GDP, industry 25.7%, and services 62.8%. The industrial sector is mainly made up of clothing and footwear manufacturing, production of car parts, and electric machinery. Although Tunisia managed an average 5% growth over the last decade it continues to suffer from a high unemployment especially among youth.[citation needed] The European Union remains Tunisia's first trading partner, currently accounting for 72.5% of Tunisian imports and 75% of Tunisian exports. Tunisia is one of the European Union's most established trading partners in the Mediterranean region and ranks as the EU's 30th largest trading partner. Tunisia was the first Mediterranean country to sign an Association Agreement with the European Union, in July 1995, although even before the date of entry came into force, Tunisia started dismantling tariffs on bilateral EU trade. Tunisia finalised the tariffs dismantling for industrial products in 2008 and therefore was the first non-EU Mediterranean country to enter in a free trade area with EU.[122] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Tunisia Sidi Bou Said: a major tourist destination The front of the capitol at ruins of Dougga, another tourist destination, qualified as World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Among Tunisia's tourist attractions are its cosmopolitan capital city of Tunis, the ancient ruins of Carthage, the Muslim and Jewish quarters of Jerba, and coastal resorts outside of Monastir. According to The New York Times, Tunisia is "known for its golden beaches, sunny weather and affordable luxuries".[123] Energy Main article: Energy in Tunisia Sources of electricity production in Tunisia[124]   Thermal steam (44%)   Combined cycle (43%)   Gas turbine (11%)   Wind, hydroelectric, solar (2%) The majority of the electricity used in Tunisia is produced locally, by state-owned company STEG (Société Tunisienne de l'Electricité et du Gaz). In 2008, a total of 13,747 GWh was produced in the country.[125] Oil production of Tunisia is about 97,600 barrels per day (15,520 m3/d). The main field is El Bourma.[126] Oil production began in 1966 in Tunisia. Currently there are 12 oil fields.[127] Tunisia had plans for two nuclear power stations, to be operational by 2020. Both facilities are projected to produce 900–1000 MW. France is set to become an important partner in Tunisia's nuclear power plans, having signed an agreement, along with other partners, to deliver training and technology.[128][129] As of 2015[update], Tunisia has abandoned these plans. Instead, Tunisia is considering other options to diversify its energy mix, such as renewable energies, coal, shale gas, liquified natural gas and constructing a submarine power interconnection with Italy.[130] According to the Tunisian Solar Plan (which is Tunisia's Renewable Energy Strategy not limited to solar, contrary to what its title may suggest, proposed by the National Agency for Energy Conservation), Tunisia's objective is to reach a share of 30% of renewable energies in the electricity mix by 2030, most of which should be accounted for by wind power and photovoltaics.[131] As of 2015[update], Tunisia had a total renewable capacity of 312 MW (245 MW wind, 62 MW hydropower, 15 MW photovoltaics.)[132][133] Transport Main article: Transport in Tunisia The country maintains 19,232 kilometres (11,950 mi) of roads,[121] with three highways: the A1 from Tunis to Sfax (works ongoing for Sfax-Libya), A3 Tunis-Beja (works ongoing Beja – Boussalem, studies ongoing Boussalem – Algeria) and A4 Tunis – Bizerte. There are 29 airports in Tunisia, with Tunis Carthage International Airport and Djerba–Zarzis International Airport being the most important ones. A new airport, Enfidha – Hammamet International Airport opened in 2011. The airport is located north of Sousse at Enfidha and is to mainly serve the resorts of Hamammet and Port El Kantaoui, together with inland cities such as Kairouan. Five airlines are headquartered in Tunisia: Tunisair, Syphax airlines, Karthago Airlines, Nouvelair, and Tunisair Express. The railway network is operated by SNCFT and amounts to 2,135 kilometres (1,327 mi) in total.[121] The Tunis area is served by a Light rail network named Metro Leger which is managed by Transtu. Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Tunisia Tunisia has achieved the highest access rates to water supply and sanitation services in the Middle East and North Africa. As of 2011[update], access to safe drinking water became close to universal approaching 100% in urban areas and 90% in rural areas.[134] Tunisia provides good quality drinking water throughout the year.[135] Responsibility for the water supply systems in urban areas and large rural centres is assigned to the Sociéte Nationale d'Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux (SONEDE), a national water supply authority that is an autonomous public entity under the Ministry of Agriculture. Planning, design and supervision of small and medium water supplies in the remaining rural areas are the responsibility of the Direction Générale du Génie Rurale (DGGR). In 1974, ONAS was established to manage the sanitation sector. Since 1993, ONAS has had the status of a main operator for protection of water environment and combating pollution. The rate of non-revenue water is the lowest in the region at 21% in 2012.[136] Demographics Main articles: Tunisian people and Demographics of Tunisia Population pyramid Arabs leaving mosque in Tunis c. 1899 Tunisian students According to the CIA, as of 2017, Tunisia has a population of 11,403,800 inhabitants.[121] The government has supported a successful family planning program that has reduced the population growth rate to just over 1% per annum, contributing to Tunisia's economic and social stability.[104] Ethnic groups According to the CIA World Factbook, ethnic groups in Tunisia are: Arab 98%, European 1%, Jewish and other 1%.[121] According to the 1956 Tunisian census, Tunisia had a population at the time of 3,783,000 residents, 95% consisting of Berbers and Arabs, 256 000 Europeans and 105 000 Jews. Speakers of Berber dialects were 2% of the population.[137] According to another source, the population of Arabs is estimated to be <40%[138] to 98%,[121][139][140] and that of Berbers at 1%[141] to over 60%.[138][clarification needed] Amazighs are concentrated in the Dahar mountains and on the island of Djerba in the south-east and in the Khroumire mountainous region in the north-west. That said, an important number of genetic and other historical studies point out to the predominance of the Amazighs in Tunisia.[142] An Ottoman influence has been particularly significant in forming the Turco-Tunisian community. Other peoples have also migrated to Tunisia during different time periods, including West Africans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews, and French settlers.[143] By 1870, the distinction between the Arabic-speaking population and the Turkish elite had blurred.[144] From the late 19th century to the period after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and Italians (255,000 Europeans in 1956),[145] although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. The history of the Jews in Tunisia goes back some 2,000 years. In 1948, the Jewish population was estimated at 105,000, but by 2013 only about 1000 remained.[146] The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were the Berbers. Numerous civilizations and peoples have invaded, migrated to, or have been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with influences of population from Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Spaniards, Ottoman Turks and Janissaries, and French. There was a continuing inflow of nomadic Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula.[46] After the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians and Moriscos from Spain, many Spanish Muslims and Jews arrived in Tunisia. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."[147] Languages Main article: Languages of Tunisia Arabic is the official language, and Tunisian Arabic, known as Tounsi,[148] is the national, vernacular variety of Arabic used by the public.[149] There is also a small minority of speakers of Berber languages known collectively as Jebbali or Shelha.[150][151] French also plays a major role in Tunisian society, despite having no official status. It is widely used in education (e.g., as the language of instruction in the sciences in secondary school), the press, and business. In 2010, there were 6,639,000 French-speakers in Tunisia, or about 64% of the population.[152] Italian is understood and spoken by a small part of the Tunisian population.[153] Shop signs, menus and road signs in Tunisia are generally written in both Arabic and French.[154] Religion Main article: Religion in Tunisia Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul, Tunis Tunisia's constitution declares Islam as the official state religion—and the absolute majority of its population, or around 98%, are Muslims, while some 2% follow Christianity and Judaism or other religions.[121] Although most of the population are Muslims, more than one-third of them identify as non-religious. The percentage of Tunisians identifying themselves as non-religious increased from around 12% in 2013 to around 33% in 2018, making Tunisia the least religious country in the Arab world according to the Aran Barometer Survey.[155] The same survey found that nearly half of the young Tunisians described themselves as non-religious.[156] Tunisians enjoy a significant degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected in its constitution, which guarantees the freedom of thoughts, beliefs and to practice one's religion.[157] The country has a secular culture where religion is separated from not only political, but also public life. Individual Tunisians are tolerant of religious freedom and generally do not inquire about a person's personal beliefs.[157] The bulk of Tunisians belong to the Maliki School of Sunni Islam, and their mosques are easily recognizable by square minarets. However, the Turks brought with them the teaching of the Hanafi School during Ottoman rule, which still survives among families of Turkish descent today; their mosques traditionally have octagonal minarets.[158] Sunnis form the majority, with non-denominational Muslims being the second largest group of Muslims,[159] followed by Ibadite Amazighs.[160][161] Tunisia's sizable Christian community of around >35,000 adherents[162][163] is composed mainly of Catholics (22,000), and to a lesser degree Protestants. Berber Christians continued to live in some Nefzaoua villages up until the early 15th century,[164] and the community of Tunisian Christians existed in the town of Tozeur up to the 18th century.[52] The International Religious Freedom Report for 2007 estimates that thousands of Tunisian Muslims have converted to Christianity.[165][166] Judaism is the third-largest religion, with between 1,000 and 1,400 members.[167][168] One-third of the Jewish population lives in and around the capital. The remainder lives on the island of Djerba with 39 synagogues where the Jewish community dates back 2,600 years,[169] in Sfax, and in Hammam-Lif.[157] Djerba, an island in the Gulf of Gabès, is home to El Ghriba synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the world and the oldest uninterruptedly used. Many Jews consider it a pilgrimage site, with celebrations taking place there once a year due to its age and the legend that the synagogue was built using stones from Solomon's temple.[170] In fact, Tunisia along with Morocco, have been said to be the Arab countries most accepting of their Jewish populations.[171] Education Main article: Education in Tunisia Sadiki College in Tunis. Literacy rate of Tunisia population, plus 15, 1985–2015 by UNESCO Institute of Statistics The total adult literacy rate in 2008 was 78%[172] and this rate goes up to 97.3% when considering only people from 15 to 24 years old.[173] Education is given a high priority and accounts for 6% of GNP. A basic education for children between the ages of 6 and 16 has been compulsory since 1991. Tunisia ranked 17th in the category of "quality of the [higher] educational system" and 21st in the category of "quality of primary education" in The Global Competitiveness Report 2008–9, released by The World Economic Forum.[174] While children generally acquire Tunisian Arabic at home, when they enter school at age 6, they are taught to read and write in Standard Arabic. From the age of 8, they are taught French while English is introduced at the age of 12.[175] The four years of secondary education are open to all holders of Diplôme de Fin d'Etudes de l'Enseignement de Base where the students focus on entering university level or join the workforce after completion. The Enseignement secondaire is divided into two stages: general academic and specialized. The higher education system in Tunisia has experienced a rapid expansion and the number of students has more than tripled over the past 10 years from approximately 102,000 in 1995 to 365,000 in 2005. The gross enrollment rate at the tertiary level in 2007 was 31 percent, with gender parity index of GER of 1.5.[174] Health Main article: Health in Tunisia In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.37% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 12.02 physicians and 33.12 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[176] The life expectancy at birth was 75.73 years in 2016, or 73.72 years for males and 77.78 years for females.[177] Infant mortality in 2016 was 11.7 per 1,000.[178] Culture Main article: Culture of Tunisia City of Culture in Tunis The culture of Tunisia is mixed due to its long established history of outside influence from people ‒ such as Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, Italians, Spaniards, and the French ‒ who all left their mark on the country. Painting The birth of Tunisian contemporary painting is strongly linked to the School of Tunis, established by a group of artists from Tunisia united by the desire to incorporate native themes and rejecting the influence of Orientalist colonial painting. It was founded in 1949 and brings together French and Tunisian Muslims, Christians and Jews. Pierre Boucherle was its main instigator, along with Yahia Turki, Abdelaziz Gorgi, Moses Levy, Ammar Farhat, and Jules Lellouche. Given its doctrine, some members have therefore turned to the sources of aesthetic Arab-Muslim art: such as miniature Islamic architecture, etc. Expressionist paintings by Amara Debbache, Jellal Ben Abdallah, and Ali Ben Salem are recognized while abstract art captures the imagination of painters like Edgar Naccache, Nello Levy, and Hedi Turki.[179] After independence in 1956, the art movement in Tunisia was propelled by the dynamics of nation building and by artists serving the state. A Ministry of Culture was established, under the leadership of ministers such as Habib Boularès who oversaw art and education and power.[179] Artists gained international recognition such as Hatem El Mekki or Zoubeir Turki and influenced a generation of new young painters. Sadok Gmech draws his inspiration from national wealth while Moncef Ben Amor turns to fantasy. In another development, Youssef Rekik reused the technique of painting on glass and founded Nja Mahdaoui calligraphy with its mystical dimension.[179] There are currently fifty art galleries housing exhibitions of Tunisian and international artists.[180] These galleries include Gallery Yahia in Tunis and Carthage Essaadi gallery.[180] A new exposition opened in an old monarchal palace in Bardo dubbed the "awakening of a nation". The exposition boasts documents and artifacts from the Tunisian reformist monarchal rule in mid 19th century.[181] Literature Main article: Tunisian literature Abdelwahab Meddeb, a Tunisian French-language poet and novelist. Tunisian literature exists in two forms: Arabic and French. Arabic literature dates back to the 7th century with the arrival of Arab civilization in the region. It is more important in both volume and value than French literature, introduced during the French protectorate from 1881.[182] Among the literary figures include Ali Douagi, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,[183] Khraief Bashir, an Arabic novelist who published many notable books in the 1930s and which caused a scandal because the dialogues were written in Tunisian dialect,[183] and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad, or Mahmoud Messadi. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi. As for literature in French, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi, who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,[184] a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hele Beji, or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.[citation needed] The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia, with 885 titles in Arabic.[185] In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.[186] Nearly a third of the books are published for children.[187] In 2014 Tunisian American creative nonfiction scribe and translator Med-Ali Mekki who wrote many books, not for publication but just for his own private reading translated the new Constitution of the Tunisian Republic from Arabic to English for the first time in Tunisian bibliographical history, the book was published worldwide the following year and it was the Internet's most viewed and downloaded Tunisian book. Music Main article: Music of Tunisia Rachidia orchestra playing traditional music in Tunis Theater At the beginning of the 20th century, musical activity was dominated by the liturgical repertoire associated with different religious brotherhoods and secular repertoire which consisted of instrumental pieces and songs in different Andalusian forms and styles of origins, essentially borrowing characteristics of musical language. In 1930 "The Rachidia" was founded well known thanks to artists from the Jewish community. The founding in 1934 of a musical school helped revive Arab Andalusian music largely to a social and cultural revival led by the elite of the time who became aware of the risks of loss of the musical heritage and which they believed threatened the foundations of Tunisian national identity. The institution did not take long to assemble a group of musicians, poets, scholars. The creation of Radio Tunis in 1938 allowed musicians a greater opportunity to disseminate their works.[citation needed] Notable Tunisian musicians include Saber Rebaï, Dhafer Youssef, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M'barek, Latifa, Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem, Emel Mathlouthi and Lotfi Bouchnak. Media Main article: Media of Tunisia The TV media has long remained under the domination of the Establishment of the Broadcasting Authority Tunisia (ERTT) and its predecessor, the Tunisian Radio and Television, founded in 1957. On 7 November 2006, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali announced the demerger of the business, which became effective on 31 August 2007. Until then, ERTT managed all public television stations (Télévision Tunisienne 1 as well as Télévision Tunisienne 2 which had replaced the defunct RTT 2) and four national radio stations (Radio Tunis, Tunisia Radio Culture, Youth and Radio RTCI) and five regional Sfax, Monastir, Gafsa, Le Kef and Tataouine. Most programs are in Arabic but some are in French. Growth in private sector radio and television broadcasting has seen the creation of numerous operations including Radio Mosaique FM, Jawhara FM, Zaytuna FM, Hannibal TV, Ettounsiya TV, and Nessma TV.[188][189] In 2007, some 245 newspapers and magazines (compared to only 91 in 1987) are 90% owned by private groups and independents.[190] The Tunisian political parties have the right to publish their own newspapers, but those of the opposition parties have very limited editions (like Al Mawkif or Mouwatinoun). Before the recent democratic transition, although freedom of the press was formally guaranteed by the constitution, almost all newspapers have in practice followed the government line report. Critical approach to the activities of the president, government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally Party (then in power) were suppressed. In essence, the media was dominated by state authorities through the Agence Tunis Afrique Presse. This has changed since, as the media censorship by the authorities have been largely abolished, and self-censorship has significantly decreased.[191] Nonetheless, the current regulatory framework and social and political culture mean that the future of press and media freedom is still unclear.[191] Sports Main article: Sport in Tunisia Stade Olympique de Radès in Radès. Football is the most popular sport in Tunisia. The Tunisia national football team, also known as "The Eagles of Carthage," won the 2004 African Cup of Nations (ACN), which was held in Tunisia.[192][193] They also represented Africa in the 2005 FIFA Cup of Confederations, which was held in Germany, but they could not go beyond the first round. The premier football league is the "Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1". The main clubs are Espérance Sportive de Tunis, Étoile Sportive du Sahel, Club Africain, Club Sportif Sfaxien, Union Sportive Monastirienne, and ES Metlaoui. The Tunisia men's national handball team has participated in several handball world championships. In 2005, Tunisia came fourth. The national league consists of about 12 teams, with ES. Sahel and Esperance S.Tunis dominating. The most famous Tunisian handball player is Wissem Hmam. In the 2005 Handball Championship in Tunis, Wissem Hmam was ranked as the top scorer of the tournament. The Tunisian national handball team won the African Cup ten times, being the team dominating this competition. The Tunisians won the 2018 African Cup in Gabon by defeating Egypt.[194] Tunisia's national basketball team has emerged as a top side in Africa. The team won the 2011 Afrobasket and hosted Africa's top basketball event in 1965, 1987 and 2015. Tunisia was one of the continent's pioneers in basketball as it established one of the Africa's first competitive leagues.[195] In boxing, Victor Perez ("Young") was world champion in the flyweight weight class in 1931 and 1932.[196] In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Tunisian Oussama Mellouli won a gold medal in 1500 meter freestyle.[197] In the 2012 Summer Olympics, he won a bronze medal in the 1500 meter freestyle and a gold medal in the Men's marathon swim at a distance of 10 kilometers. In 2012, Tunisia participated for the seventh time in her history in the Summer Paralympic Games. She finished the competition with 19 medals; 9 golds, 5 silvers and 5 bronzes. Tunisia was classified 14th on the Paralympics medal table and 5th in Athletics. Tunisia was suspended from Davis Cup play for the year 2014, because the Tunisian Tennis Federation was found to have ordered Malek Jaziri not to compete against an Israeli tennis player, Amir Weintraub.[198] ITF president Francesco Ricci Bitti said: "There is no room for prejudice of any kind in sport or in society. The ITF Board decided to send a strong message to the Tunisian Tennis Federation that this kind of action will not be tolerated."[198] See also Africa portal Index of Tunisia-related articles Outline of Tunisia References Notes ^ Pronunciation: UK: /tjuːˈnɪziə, -ˈnɪs-/, US: /-ˈniːʒə, -ˈniːʃə, -ˈnɪʒə, -ˈnɪʃə/;[18] Arabic: تونس‎ Tūnis; Berber: Tunest, ; French: Tunisie. ^ Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية‎ al-Jumhūrīya at-Tūnisīya; French: République tunisienne) ^ Lebanon and Iraq are confessional democracies. References ^ "Tunisia Constitution, Article 4" (PDF). 26 January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2014. ^ "Tunisian Constitution, Article 1" (PDF). 26 January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2014. Translation by the University of Bern: "Tunisia is a free State, independent and sovereign; its religion is the Islam, its language is Arabic, and its form is the Republic." ^ Arabic, Tunisian Spoken. Ethnologue (19 February 1999). Retrieved on 5 September 2015. ^ "Tamazight language". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ "Nawaat – Interview avec l' Association Tunisienne de Culture Amazighe". Nawaat. ^ Gabsi, Z. (2003). An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia). PhD Thesis, Western Sydney University. ^ "Tunisian Amazigh and the Fight for Recognition – Tunisialive". Tunisialive. Archived from the original on 18 October 2011. ^ Fadhlaoui-Zid, Karima; Martinez-Cruz, Begoña; Khodjet-el-khil, Houssein; Mendizabal, Isabel; Benammar-Elgaaied, Amel; Comas, David (October 2011). "Genetic structure of Tunisian ethnic groups revealed by paternal lineages". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 146 (2): 271–280. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21581. PMID 21915847. ^ "Tunisia" (PDF). International Religious Freedom Report for 2011, United States Department of State – Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor. ^ "The Constitution of the Tunisian Republic" (PDF). constitutionnet.org. Retrieved 29 October 2017. ^ Frosini, Justin; Biagi, Francesco (2014). Political and Constitutional Transitions in North Africa: Actors and Factors. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-317-59745-2. ^ Choudhry, Sujit; Stacey, Richard (2014) "Semi-presidential government in Tunisia and Egypt". International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 7 January 2016. ^ "National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia". National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2020. ^ a b c d "Tunisia". International Monetary Fund. ^ "GINI index". World Bank. Retrieved 19 January 2013. ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020. ^ "Report on the Delegation of تونس". Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. 2010. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2010. ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 ^ "Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre". Jeune Afrique. 25 June 2014. ^ "Tunisia holds first post-revolution presidential poll". BBC News. 23 November 2014. ^ "Tunisia | Country report | Freedom in the World | 2020". freedomhouse.org. 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Democracy Index 2018". The Economist. 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External links Tunisiaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official Tunisia Government website Official website of the Ministry of Tourism Official Tourism Portal Official website of the National Institute of Meteorology Official website of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People Official website of the Tunisian Ministry of the Interior Official website of The Ministry of Transport Tunisia Profile from UNESCO Tunisia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. The Emergence and activity of Tunisia's most fearful terrorist group, 137–150. Tunisia web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Tunisia at Curlie Tunisia profile from BBC News. Wikimedia Atlas of Tunisia Geographic data related to Tunisia at OpenStreetMap EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Country profile of Tunisia v t e Tunisia articles History Prehistoric Punic Roman Early Islamic Medieval Ottoman French occupation Modern 1987 coup d'état Revolution (Political Crisis) Geography Cities Ech-Chambi mountain Governorates Ichkeul lake Politics Constitution Current cabinet Foreign relations Human rights Military Parliament Political parties President Head of Government Economy Agriculture Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Demographics Education Languages Media LGBT Squatting Culture Cinema Cuisine Music Religion Sport  Africa portal Related articles v t e Governorates and regions of Tunisia Governorates Ariana Béja Ben Arous Bizerte Gabès Gafsa Jendouba Kairouan Kasserine Kebili Kef Mahdia Manouba Medenine Monastir Nabeul Sfax Sidi Bouzid Siliana Sousse Tataouine Tozeur Tunis Zaghouan Regions North West North East Central West Central East South West South East WikiProject Tunisia v t e Countries and territories of Africa Sovereign states Entirely or mostly in Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Partly in Africa France Mayotte Réunion Italy Pantelleria Pelagie Islands Portugal Madeira Spain Canary Islands Ceuta Melilla Plazas de soberanía Yemen Socotra States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic1 Somaliland Territories and dependencies Îles Éparses France Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha UK 1 Unclear sovereignty.  Africa portal v t e Countries and territories of North Africa Sovereign states  Algeria  Egypt  Libya  Morocco  Sudan  Tunisia Partially recognized state Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Territories Morocco/SADR Western Sahara1 Spain Canary Islands Ceuta2 Melilla2 Alboran Alhucemas2 Chafarinas2 Vélez de la Gomera2 Portugal Madeira Savage Islands3 Sudan/Egypt Hala'ib Triangle4 Wadi Halfa Salient4 Bir Tawil5 Sudan/South Sudan Abyei6 Kafia Kingi6 Italy Pantelleria Pelagie Islands Libya/Chad Aouzou Strip7 Morocco/Spain Perejil8 1Entirely claimed by both Morocco and the SADR. 2Spanish exclaves claimed by Morocco. 3Portuguese archipelago claimed by Spain. 4Disputed between Egypt and the Sudan. 5Terra nullius located between Egypt and the Sudan. 6Disputed between South Sudan and the Sudan. 7Part of Chad, formerly claimed by Libya. 8Disputed between Morocco and Spain v t e Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sovereign states Albania Algeria Andorra Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Cyprus Egypt France Greece Israel Italy Lebanon Libya Malta Monaco Montenegro Morocco North Macedonia Portugal San Marino Serbia Slovenia Spain Syria Tunisia Turkey Vatican States with limited recognition Kosovo Northern Cyprus Palestine Dependencies and other territories Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK) Gibraltar (UK) Marginal seas Libyan Sea Levantine Sea Tyrrhenian Sea Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Ionian Sea Balearic Sea Sea of Sardinia Sea of Crete Ligurian Sea Alboran Sea Thracian Sea Sea of Marmara v t e Arab League Arab League Lists Politics Charter Council Flag Geography Headquarters History Military Joint Defence Council Parliament Arab Union Membership Members Algeria Bahrain Comoros Djibouti Egypt Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libya Mauritania Morocco Oman Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia Somalia Sudan Tunisia United Arab Emirates Yemen Observers Armenia Brazil Chad Eritrea India Venezuela Suspended Syria Candidates South Sudan Diplomacy Arab Peace Initiative Arab League 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Affairs Women and Gender Cross-Cutting Programs Financial institutions AFRA Commission African Central Bank African Monetary Fund African Investment Bank Peace and Security Council ACIRC African Standby Force Panel of the Wise UNAMID AMIB AMIS AMISOM MISCA Specialised agencies and institutions Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention Politics APRM Foreign relations African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights Enlargement United States Africa Command (United States military bases) United States ambassador Symbols Anthem Emblem Flag Economy Currencies (Gold standard) Development Bank African Economic Community NEPAD African Continental Free Trade Area Single African Air Transport Market Culture Africa Day Languages Theory Afro United States of Africa United States of Latin Africa East African Federation Category v t e Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD) Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Djibouti Egypt Eritrea Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Liberia Libya Mali Mauritania Morocco Niger Nigeria São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan Togo Tunisia v t e Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Members Afghanistan Albania Algeria Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Benin Burkina Faso Brunei Cameroon Chad Comoros Djibouti Egypt Gabon Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Indonesia Iran Iraq Ivory Coast Jordan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Libya Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Morocco Mozambique Niger Nigeria Oman Pakistan Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan Suriname Tajikistan Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Uzbekistan United Arab Emirates Yemen Suspended Syria Observers Countries and territories Bosnia and Herzegovina Central African Republic Northern Cyprus1 Russia Thailand Muslim communities Moro National Liberation Front International organizations Economic Cooperation Organization African Union Arab League Non-Aligned Movement United Nations 1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State". v t e Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Members Members Albania Andorra Armenia Belgium Benin Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Dominica Egypt Equatorial Guinea France Gabon Greece Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Ivory Coast Laos Lebanon Luxembourg North Macedonia Madagascar Mali Mauritania Mauritius Moldova Monaco Morocco Niger Qatar Romania Rwanda Saint Lucia São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Switzerland Togo Tunisia Vanuatu Vietnam National/regional members French Community of Belgium New Brunswick Quebec Associate members Gambia Ghana Cyprus Serbia United Arab Emirates Observers Argentina Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Czech Republic Dominican Republic Georgia Hungary Ireland Kosovo Latvia Lithuania Louisiana Mexico Montenegro Mozambique Ontario Poland Slovakia Slovenia South Korea Ukraine Uruguay Suspended members Thailand Organization Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique Agence universitaire de la Francophonie Culture French language UN French Language Day International Francophonie Day Jeux de la Francophonie Prix des cinq continents de la francophonie Senghor University AFFOI TV5Monde LGBT rights Category Coordinates: 34°N 9°E / 34°N 9°E / 34; 9 Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Japan Czech Republic Australia Israel 2 Sweden Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz area National Archives (US) SUDOC (France) 1 Encyclopedia of Islam Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tunisia&oldid=1025961624" Categories: Tunisia States and territories established in 1956 1956 establishments in Tunisia Maghrebi countries Arabic-speaking countries and territories Berber-speaking countries and 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en-wikipedia-org-1180	----	Elagabalus - Wikipedia Elagabalus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 218 to 222 For the god with the same name, see Elagabalus (deity). Roman emperor Elagabalus Bust, Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 8 June 218 – 11 March 222[1] Predecessor Macrinus Successor Severus Alexander Born Varius Avitus Bassianus c. 204 Emesa, Syria or Rome Died 11 March 222 (aged 18)[1] Rome, Italy Burial Corpse thrown into the Tiber Supposed spouse Julia Cornelia Paula Aquilia Severa Annia Aurelia Faustina Hierocles Issue Severus Alexander (adoptive) Names Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Dynasty Severan Father Sextus Varius Marcellus Mother Julia Soaemias Bassiana Elagabalus[a] or Heliogabalus[b] (c. 204 – 11 March 222), officially known as Antoninus, was Roman emperor from 218 to 222, while he was still a teenager. His short reign was conspicuous for sex scandals and religious controversy. A close relative to the Severan dynasty, he came from a prominent Arab family in Emesa (Homs), Syria, where since his early youth he served as head priest of the sun god Elagabal. After the death of his cousin the emperor Caracalla, Elagabalus was raised to the principate at 14 years of age in an army revolt instigated by his grandmother, Julia Maesa, against Caracalla's short-lived successor, Macrinus. As a private citizen, he was probably named Varius Avitus Bassianus. Upon becoming emperor he took the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and only posthumously became known by the Latinised name of his god.[c] Later historians suggest Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos. He replaced the traditional head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter, with the deity Elagabal, of whom he had been high priest. He forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating this deity, presiding over them in person. He married four women, including a Vestal Virgin, and lavished favours on male courtiers thought to have been his lovers.[4][5] He was also reported to have prostituted himself.[6] His behavior estranged the Praetorian Guard, the Senate, and the common people alike. Amidst growing opposition, at just 18 years of age he was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Severus Alexander in March 222. The assassination plot against Elagabalus was devised by his grandmother, Julia Maesa, and carried out by disaffected members of the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity, decadence, zealotry, and sexual promiscuity. This tradition has persisted, and among writers of the early modern age he suffered one of the worst reputations among Roman emperors. Edward Gibbon, for example, wrote that Elagabalus "abandoned himself to the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury".[7] According to Barthold Georg Niebuhr, "the name Elagabalus is branded in history above all others" because of his "unspeakably disgusting life".[8] An example of a modern historian's assessment is Adrian Goldsworthy's: "Elagabalus was not a tyrant, but he was an incompetent, probably the least able emperor Rome had ever had."[9] Despite universal condemnation of his reign, some scholars do write warmly about him, including 6th century Roman chronicler John Malalas, and Warwick Ball, a modern historian who described him as innovative and "a tragic enigma lost behind centuries of prejudice".[10] Contents 1 Family and priesthood 2 Rise to power 3 Emperor (218–222) 3.1 Journey to Rome and political appointments 3.2 Religious controversy 3.3 Marriages, sexuality and gender 3.4 Fall from power 3.4.1 Assassination 4 Sources 4.1 Cassius Dio 4.2 Herodian 4.3 Augustan History 4.4 Modern historians 5 Cultural references 5.1 Fiction 5.2 Plays 5.3 Dance 5.4 Music 5.5 Paintings 5.6 Poetry 5.7 Television 6 Severan dynasty family tree 7 Explanatory notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary material 9.2.1 Images 10 External links Family and priesthood Further information: Severan dynasty family tree Antoninianus coin of Julia Maesa, inscribed: iulia maesa aug· Sculpture of Julia Soaemias Elagabalus was born in 203 or 204,[11][12] to Sextus Varius Marcellus and Julia Soaemias Bassiana,[13] who had probably married around the year 200 (and no later than 204).[14][15] Elagabalus's full birth name was probably (Sextus) Varius Avitus Bassianus,[d] the last name being apparently a cognomen of the Emesene dynasty.[16] Marcellus was an equestrian, later elevated to a senatorial position.[13][12][14] Julia Soaemias was a cousin of the emperor Caracalla, and there were rumors (which Soaemias later publicly supported) that Elagabalus was Caracalla's child.[12][17] Marcellus's tombstone attests that Elagabalus had at least one brother,[18][19] about whom nothing is known.[15] Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa, was the widow of the consul Julius Avitus Alexianus, the sister of Julia Domna, and the sister-in-law of the emperor Septimius Severus.[13][14] Other relatives included Elagabalus's aunt Julia Avita Mamaea and uncle Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and their son Severus Alexander.[13] Elagabalus's family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god Elagabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at Emesa (modern Homs) in Roman Syria as part of the Arab Emesene dynasty.[20] The deity's Latin name, "Elagabalus", is a Latinized version of the Arabic Ilāh ha-Gabal, from ilāh ("god") and gabal ("mountain"), meaning "God of the Mountain",[21] the Emesene manifestation of Ba'al.[22] Initially venerated at Emesa, the deity's cult spread to other parts of the Roman Empire in the 2nd century; a dedication has been found as far away as Woerden (in the Netherlands), near the Roman limes.[23] The god was later imported to Rome and assimilated with the sun god known as Sol Indiges in the era of the Roman Republic and as Sol Invictus during the late third century.[24] In Greek, the sun god is Helios, hence Elagabal was later known as "Heliogabalus", a hybrid of "Helios" and "Elagabalus".[25] Rise to power Herodian writes that when the emperor Macrinus came to power, he suppressed the threat to his reign from the family of his assassinated predecessor, Caracalla, by exiling them—Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson Elagabalus—to their estate at Emesa in Syria.[26] Almost upon arrival in Syria, Maesa began a plot with her advisor and Elagabalus's tutor, Gannys, to overthrow Macrinus and elevate the fourteen-year-old Elagabalus to the imperial throne.[26] Maesa spread a rumor, which Soaemias publicly supported, that Elagabalus was the illegitimate child of Caracalla[17][27] and so deserved the loyalty of Roman soldiers and senators who had sworn allegiance to Caracalla.[28] The soldiers of the Third Legion Gallica at Raphana, who had enjoyed greater privileges under Caracalla and resented Macrinus (and may have been impressed or bribed by Maesa's wealth), supported this claim.[12][27][29] At sunrise on 16 May 218, Elagabalus was declared emperor[29] by Publius Valerius Comazon, commander of the legion.[30] To strengthen his legitimacy, Elagabalus adopted the same name Caracalla bore as emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.[31][32] Cassius Dio states that some officers tried to keep the soldiers loyal to Macrinus, but they were unsuccessful.[12] Reverse of an aureus of Elagabalus, marked: salus antonini aug· ("the Health of Antoninus Augustus") Praetorian prefect Ulpius Julianus responded by attacking the Third Legion, most likely on Macrinus's orders (though one account says he acted on his own before Macrinus knew of the rebellion).[33] Herodian suggests Macrinus underestimated the threat, considering the rebellion inconsequential.[34] During the fighting, Julianus's soldiers killed their officers and joined Elagabalus's forces.[31] Macrinus asked the Roman Senate to denounce Elagabalus as "the False Antoninus", and they complied,[35] declaring war on Elagabalus and his family.[29] Macrinus made his son Diadumenian co-emperor, and attempted to secure the loyalty of the Second Legion with large cash payments.[36][37] During a banquet to celebrate this at Apamea, however, a messenger presented Macrinus with the severed head of his defeated prefect Julianus.[36][37][38] Macrinus therefore retreated to Antioch, after which the Second Legion shifted its loyalties to Elagabalus.[36][37] Elagabalus's legionaries, commanded by Gannys, defeated Macrinus and Diadumenian and their Praetorian Guard at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218, prevailing when Macrinus's troops broke ranks after he fled the battlefield.[29][37][36] Macrinus made for Italy, but was intercepted near Chalcedon and executed in Cappadocia, while Diadumenian was captured at Zeugma and executed.[36] That month, Elagabalus wrote to the senate, assuming the imperial titles without waiting for senatorial approval,[39] which violated tradition but was a common practice among 3rd-century emperors.[40] Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to Rome extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing its laws, while also condemning the administration of Macrinus and his son.[41] The senators responded by acknowledging Elagabalus as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla.[40] Elagabalus was made consul for the year 218 in the middle of June.[42] Caracalla and Julia Domna were both deified by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of Augustae,[43] and the memory of Macrinus was expunged by the Senate.[40] (Elagabalus's imperial artifacts assert that he succeeded Caracalla directly.)[44] Comazon was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard.[45][46] Elagabalus was named pater patriae by the Senate before 13 July 218.[42] On 14 July, Elagabalus was inducted into the colleges of all the Roman priesthoods, including the College of Pontiffs, of which he was named pontifex maximus.[42] Emperor (218–222) Journey to Rome and political appointments Denarius of Elagabalus, inscribed: imp· antoninus pius aug· on the obverse and fortunae aug· on the reverse, showing Fortuna with a cornucopia and a rudder on a globe Elagabalus stayed for a time at Antioch, apparently to quell various mutinies.[47] Dio outlines several, which historian Fergus Millar places prior to the winter of 218–219.[48] These included one by Gellius Maximus, who commanded the Fourth Legion and was executed,[48] and one by Verus, who commanded the Third Gallic Legion, which was disbanded once the revolt was put down.[49] Next, according to Herodian, Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218–219 in Bithynia at Nicomedia, and then traveled through Thrace and Moesia to Italy in the first half of 219,[47] the year of Elagabalus's second consulship.[42] Herodian says that Elagabalus had a painting of himself sent ahead to Rome to be hung over a statue of the goddess Victoria in the Senate House so people would not be surprised by his Eastern garb, but it is unclear if such a painting actually existed, and Dio does not mention it.[50][51] If the painting was indeed hung over Victoria, it put senators in the position of seeming to make offerings to Elagabalus when they made offerings to Victoria.[49] On his way to Rome, Elagabalus and his allies executed several prominent supporters of Macrinus, such as Syrian governor Fabius Agrippinus and former Thracian governor C. Claudius Attalus Paterculianus.[52] Arriving at the imperial capital in August or September 219, Elagabalus staged an adventus, a ceremonial entrance to the city.[42] In Rome, his offer of amnesty for the Roman upper class was largely honored, though the jurist Ulpian was exiled.[53] Elagabalus made Comazon praetorian prefect, and later consul (220) and prefect of the city (three times, 220–222), which Dio regarded as a violation of Roman norms.[52] Elagabalus himself held a consulship for the third year in a row in 220.[42] Herodian and the Augustan History say that Elagabalus alienated many by giving powerful positions to other allies.[54] Dio states that Elagabalus wanted to marry a charioteer named Hierocles and to declare him caesar,[48] like (Dio says) he had previously wanted to marry Gannys and name him caesar.[48] The athlete Aurelius Zoticus is said by Dio to have been Elagabalus's lover and cubicularius (a non-administrative role), while the Augustan History says Zoticus was a husband to Elagabalus and held greater political influence.[55] Elagabalus's relationships to his mother Julia Soaemias and grandmother Julia Maesa were strong at first; they were influential supporters from the beginning, and Macrinus declared war on them as well as Elagabalus.[56] Accordingly, they became the first women allowed into the Senate,[57] and both received senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of Clarissima, and Maesa the more unorthodox Mater Castrorum et Senatus ("Mother of the army camp and of the Senate").[43] They exercised influence over the young emperor throughout his reign, and are found on many coins and inscriptions, a rare honor for Roman women.[58] Under Elagabalus, the gradual devaluation of Roman aurei and denarii continued (with the silver purity of the denarius dropping from 58% to 46.5%),[59] though antoniniani had a higher metal content than under Caracalla.[60] Religious controversy Reverse of an aureus of Elagabalus, with the baetylus transported in a quadriga. Inscription: sanct· deo soli elagabal· ("to the Holy Sun God El-Gabal") The baetylus of Elgabal back in its home temple at Emesa, on a coin of Uranius Since the reign of Septimius Severus, sun worship had increased throughout the Empire.[61] At the end of 220, Elagabalus instated Elagabal as the chief deity of the Roman pantheon, possibly on the date of the winter solstice.[42] In his official titulature, Elagabalus was then entitled in Latin: sacerdos amplissimus dei invicti Soli Elagabali, pontifex maximus, lit. 'highest priest of the unconquered god, the Sun Elgabal, supreme pontiff'.[42] That a foreign god should be honored above Jupiter, with Elagabalus himself as chief priest, shocked many Romans.[62] As a token of respect for Roman religion, however, Elagabalus joined either Astarte, Minerva, Urania, or some combination of the three to Elagabal as consort.[63] A union between Elagabal and a traditional goddess would have served to strengthen ties between the new religion and the imperial cult. There may have been an effort to introduce Elagabal, Urania, and Athena as the new Capitoline triad of Rome—replacing Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.[64] He aroused further discontent when he married the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa, Vesta's high priestess, claiming the marriage would produce "godlike children".[65] This was a flagrant breach of Roman law and tradition, which held that any Vestal found to have engaged in sexual intercourse was to be buried alive.[66] A lavish temple called the Elagabalium was built on the east face of the Palatine Hill to house Elagabal,[67] who was represented by a black conical meteorite from Emesa.[41] This was a baetylus. Herodian wrote "this stone is worshipped as though it were sent from heaven; on it there are some small projecting pieces and markings that are pointed out, which the people would like to believe are a rough picture of the sun, because this is how they see them".[68] Dio writes that in order to increase his piety as high priest of Elagabal atop a new Roman pantheon, Elagabalus had himself circumcised and swore to abstain from swine.[67] He forced senators to watch while he danced circling the altar of Elagabal to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals.[68] Each summer solstice he held a festival dedicated to the god, which became popular with the masses because of the free food distributed on these occasions.[69] During this festival, Elagabalus placed the black stone on a chariot adorned with gold and jewels, which he paraded through the city:[70] A six horse chariot carried the divinity, the horses huge and flawlessly white, with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments. No one held the reins, and no one rode in the chariot; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer. Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot, facing the god and holding the horses' reins. He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion, looking up into the face of his god.[71] The most sacred relics from the Roman religion were transferred from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium, including the emblem of the Great Mother, the fire of Vesta, the Shields of the Salii, and the Palladium, so that no other god could be worshipped except in association with Elagabal.[72] Although his native cult was widely ridiculed by contemporaries, sun-worship was popular among the soldiers and would be promoted by several later emperors.[73] Marriages, sexuality and gender Roman denarius depicting Aquilia Severa, the second wife of Elagabalus. The marriage caused a public outrage because Aquilia was a Vestal Virgin, sworn by Roman law to celibacy for 30 years. Inscription: iulia aquilia severa aug· The question of Elagabalus's sexual orientation is confused, owing to salacious and unreliable sources. Cassius Dio states that Elagabalus was married five times (twice to the same woman).[50] His first wife was Julia Cornelia Paula, whom he married prior to 29 August 219; between then and 28 August 220, he divorced Paula, took the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquilia Severa as his second wife, divorced her,[50][74] and took a third wife, whom Herodian says was Annia Aurelia Faustina, a descendant of Marcus Aurelius and the widow of a man Elagabalus had recently had executed, Pomponius Bassus.[50] In the last year of his reign, Elagabalus divorced Annia Faustina and remarried Aquilia Severa.[50] Dio (who referred to Elagabalus with feminine pronouns)[75] states that another "husband of this woman [Elagabalus] was Hierocles", an ex-slave and chariot driver from Caria.[5][75] The Augustan History claims that Elagabalus also married a man named Zoticus, an athlete from Smyrna, while Dio says only that Zoticus was his cubicularius.[5][76] Dio says that Elagabalus prostituted himself in taverns and brothels.[6] Dio says Elagabalus delighted in being called Hierocles's mistress, wife, and queen.[77] The emperor reportedly wore makeup and wigs, preferred to be called a lady and not a lord, and offered vast sums to any physician who could provide him with a vagina,[77][78] although Clare Rowan says that this last detail "seem[s] to be entirely fictive".[79] For this reason, the emperor is seen by some writers as an early transgender figure and one of the first on record as seeking sex reassignment surgery.[77][80][81] Fall from power By 221 Elagabalus's eccentricities, particularly his relationship with Hierocles, increasingly provoked the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard.[82] When Elagabalus's grandmother Julia Maesa perceived that popular support for the emperor was waning, she decided that he and his mother, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced. As alternatives, she turned to her other daughter, Julia Avita Mamaea, and her daughter's son, the fifteen-year-old Severus Alexander.[83] Prevailing on Elagabalus, she arranged that he appoint his cousin Alexander as his heir and that the boy be given the title of caesar.[83] Alexander was elevated to caesar in June 221, possibly on 26 June.[42] Elagabalus and Alexander were each named consul designatus for the following year, probably on 1 July.[42] Elagabalus took up his fourth consulship for the year of 222.[42] Alexander shared the consulship with the emperor that year.[83] However, Elagabalus reconsidered this arrangement when he began to suspect that the Praetorian Guard preferred his cousin to himself.[84] Elagabalus ordered various attempts on Alexander's life,[85] after failing to obtain approval from the Senate for stripping Alexander of his shared title.[86] According to Dio, Elagabalus invented the rumor that Alexander was near death, in order to see how the Praetorians would react.[87] A riot ensued, and the Guard demanded to see Elagabalus and Alexander in the Praetorian camp.[87] Assassination Statue of Elagabalus as Hercules, re-faced as his successor, Alexander Severus (National Archaeological Museum, Naples) The emperor complied and on 11 March 222 he publicly presented his cousin along with his own mother, Julia Soaemias. On their arrival the soldiers started cheering Alexander while ignoring Elagabalus, who ordered the summary arrest and execution of anyone who had taken part in this display of insubordination.[88] In response, members of the Praetorian Guard attacked Elagabalus and his mother: He made an attempt to flee, and would have got away somewhere by being placed in a chest had he not been discovered and slain, at the age of eighteen. His mother, who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, and then the mother's body was cast aside somewhere or other, while his was thrown into the Tiber.[89] Following his assassination, many associates of Elagabalus were killed or deposed, including his lover Hierocles.[87] His religious edicts were reversed and the stone of Elagabal was sent back to Emesa.[90] Women were again barred from attending meetings of the Senate.[91] The practice of damnatio memoriae—erasing from the public record a disgraced personage formerly of note—was systematically applied in his case.[42][92] Several images, including an over-life-size statue of him as Hercules now in Naples, were re-carved with the face of Alexander Severus.[93] Sources Cassius Dio The historian Cassius Dio, who lived from the second half of the 2nd century until sometime after 229, wrote a contemporary account of Elagabalus. Born into a patrician family, Dio spent the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under emperor Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus, and then he served as suffect consul around 205, and as proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.[94] Aureus of Elagabalus, marked: imp·caes· m·aur· antoninus aug· Dio's Roman History spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229. His contemporaneous account of Elagabalus's reign is generally considered more reliable than the Augustan History or other accounts for this general time period,[95][96] though by his own admission Dio spent the greater part of the relevant period outside of Rome and had to rely on second-hand information.[94] Furthermore, the political climate in the aftermath of Elagabalus's reign, as well as Dio's own position within the government of Severus Alexander, who held him in high esteem and made him consul again, likely influenced the truth of this part of his history for the worse. Dio regularly refers to Elagabalus as Sardanapalus, partly to distinguish him from his divine namesake,[97] but chiefly to do his part in maintaining the damnatio memoriae and to associate him with another autocrat notorious for a dissolute life.[98] Historian Clare Rowan calls Dio's account a mixture of reliable information and "literary exaggeration", noting that Elagabalus's marriages and time as consul are confirmed by numismatic and epigraphic records.[79] In other instances, Dio's account is inaccurate, as when he says Elagabalus appointed entirely unqualified officials and that Comazon had no military experience before being named to head the Praetorian Guard,[99] when in fact Comazon had commanded the Third Legion.[45][46] Dio also gives different accounts in different places of when and by whom Diadumenian (whose forces Elagabalus fought) was given imperial names and titles.[100] Herodian Reverse of an aureus of Elagabalus, marked: fides exercitus ("the Faith of the Army") Another contemporary of Elagabalus was Herodian, a minor Roman civil servant who lived from c. 170 until 240. His work, History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius, commonly abbreviated as Roman History, is an eyewitness account of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of the reign of Gordian III. His work largely overlaps with Dio's own Roman History, and the texts, written independently of each other, agree more often than not about Elagabalus and his short but eventful reign.[101] Arrizabalaga writes that Herodian is in most ways "less detailed and punctilious than Dio",[102] and he is deemed less reliable by many modern scholars, though Rowan considers his account of Elagabalus's reign more reliable than Dio's[79] and Herodian's lack of literary and scholarly pretensions are considered to make him less biased than senatorial historians.[103] He is considered an important source for the religious reforms which took place during the reign of Elagabalus,[104] which have been confirmed by numismatic[105][106] and archaeological evidence.[107] Augustan History The source of many stories of Elagabalus's depravity is the Augustan History (Historia Augusta), which includes controversial claims.[108] It is most likely that the Historia Augusta was written towards the end of the 4th century, during the reign of emperor Theodosius I.[109] The account of Elagabalus in the Augustan History is of uncertain historical merit.[110] Sections 13 to 17, relating to the fall of Elagabalus, are less controversial among historians.[111] The author of the most scandalous stories in the Augustan History concedes that "both these matters and some others which pass belief were, I think, invented by people who wanted to depreciate Heliogabalus to win favour with Alexander."[10] Modern historians Aureus of Elagabalus, inscribed: imp·c· m·aur· antoninus p·f· aug· For readers of the modern age, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) further cemented the scandalous reputation of Elagabalus. Gibbon not only accepted and expressed outrage at the allegations of the ancient historians, but he might have added some details of his own; for example, he is the first historian known to claim that Gannys was a eunuch.[112] Gibbon wrote: To confound the order of the season and climate, to sport with the passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of nature and decency, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. A long train of concubines, and a rapid succession of wives, among whom was a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her sacred asylum, were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of the Roman world affected to copy the manners and dress of the female sex, preferring the distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the principal dignities of the empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers; one of whom was publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor's, or, as he more properly styled himself, the empress's husband. It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, and attested by grave and contemporary historians, their inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or country.[113] The 20th-century anthropologist James George Frazer (author of The Golden Bough) took seriously the monotheistic aspirations of the emperor, but also ridiculed him: "The dainty priest of the Sun [was] the most abandoned reprobate who ever sat upon a throne ... It was the intention of this eminently religious but crack-brained despot to supersede the worship of all the gods, not only at Rome but throughout the world, by the single worship of Elagabalus or the Sun."[114] The first book-length biography was The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus (1911) by J. Stuart Hay, "a serious and systematic study"[115] more sympathetic than that of previous historians, which nonetheless stressed the exoticism of Elagabalus, calling his reign one of "enormous wealth and excessive prodigality, luxury and aestheticism, carried to their ultimate extreme, and sensuality in all the refinements of its Eastern habit".[116] Medal of Elagabalus, Louvre Museum. Inscription: imp· antoninus pius aug· Some recent historians paint a more favourable picture of the emperor's rule. Martijn Icks, in Images of Elagabalus (2008; republished as The Crimes of Elagabalus in 2011 and 2012), doubts the reliability of the ancient sources and argues that it was the emperor's unorthodox religious policies that alienated the power elite of Rome, to the point that his grandmother saw fit to eliminate him and replace him with his cousin. He described ancient stories pertaining to the emperor as “part of a long tradition of ‘character assassination’ in ancient historiography and biography.”[117] Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado, in The Emperor Elagabalus: Fact or Fiction? (2008), is also critical of the ancient historians and speculates that neither religion nor sexuality played a role in the fall of the young emperor. He was simply the loser in a power struggle within the imperial family; the loyalty of the Praetorian Guards was up for sale, and Julia Maesa had the resources to outmaneuver and outbribe her grandson. In this version of events, once Elagabalus, his mother, and his immediate circle had been murdered, a campaign of character assassination began, resulting in a grotesque caricature that has persisted to the present day.[118] Warwick Ball, in his book Rome in the East, writes a very apologetic account of the emperor, arguing that the wild descriptions of his religious rites were exaggerated and should be dismissed as propaganda, similar to how pagan descriptions of Christian rites (involving cannibalism and unspeakable orgies) have since been dismissed. Ball describes the emperor’s ritual processions (marriage of the gods) as sound political and religious policy; that syncretism of eastern and western deities deserves praise rather than the ridicule he received. Ultimately, he paints Elagabalus as a child forced to become emperor by his scheming grandmother, and who rightfully, as high-priest of a cult, continued his rituals even after becoming emperor, which he viewed as a secondary occupation. Finally, Ball notes the eventual victory of Elagabalus, as his deity would be welcomed by Rome in its Sol Invictus form, brought back from Emesa by Aurelian 50 years later. Sol Invictus came to influence the monotheist Christian beliefs of Constantine, being grafted into Christianity till this day.[119] Cultural references Despite the attempted damnatio memoriae, stories about Elagabalus survived and figured in many works of art and literature.[120] In Spanish, his name became a word for "glutton", heliogábalo.[120][121] Due to the ancient stories about him, he often appears in literature and other creative media as a decadent figure (becoming something of an anti-hero in the Decadent movement of the late 19th century, and inspiring many famous works of art, especially by Decadents)[80] and the epitome of a young, amoral aesthete. The most notable of these works include:[122] Fiction Illustration by Auguste Leroux for the 1902 edition of Jean Lombard's L'agonie showing the migration of the baetylus of Elgabal, though with the emperor riding rather than leading the god's chariot L'Agonie (1888) by Jean Lombard,[123] which was the inspiration for Louis Couperus's De berg van licht (The Mountain of Light) in 1905–06; Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné (Heliogabalus or The Anarchist Crowned) by Antonin Artaud (1934), depicting the life of Elagabalus and combining essay, biography, and fiction;[124] historical novels Family Favourites (1960) by Alfred Duggan and Child of the Sun (1966) by Kyle Onstott and Lance Horner, in the former of which an ordinary Roman soldier witnesses the reign; and Victor Pelevin's Sol Invictus, which depicts Elagabalus as a key unrecognized spiritual figure. Plays Heliogabalus: A Buffoonery in Three Acts (1920) by H. L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan[125] Heliogabalus: A Love Story (2002) by Sky Gilbert[126] Dance Elagabalus on a wall painting at Forchtenstein Castle in Austria Héliogabale, a modern dance choreographed by Maurice Béjart[127] The Legends, a dance performed by Sebastian Droste as Heliogabalus, as part of the Dances of Vice, Horror and Ecstasy performance staged by Droste and Anita Berber in 1923[128] Music Eliogabalo (1667), an opera by Venetian Baroque composer Francesco Cavalli Elagabalus is mentioned in the Major-General's Song (1879) from Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance.[129] Heliogabale (1910), an opera by French composer Déodat de Séverac Artaud (1973), an album released by Argentine band Pescado Rabioso, particularly the track "Cantata de Puentes Amarillos", was heavily influenced by Antonin Artaud's book, Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné, as well as the life of Heliogabalus.[130] Eliogabalus (1990), title of both the second album and second song by the experimental rock band Devil Doll (Slovenian band) Heliogabalus imperator (Emperor Heliogabalus) (1972), an orchestral work by the German composer Hans Werner Henze Six Litanies for Heliogabalus (2007), an album by American musician John Zorn The Pale Emperor (2015), an album by American musician Marilyn Manson, was inspired by the life of Heliogabalus and more specifically Antonin Artaud's book[131][132] Paintings The Roses of Heliogabalus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1888) Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun (1866), by the Pre-Raphaelite Simeon Solomon One of the most notorious incidents laid to his account, an extravagant dinner party in which guests were smothered under a mass of "violets and other flowers" dropped from above,[133] is immortalized in the 19th-century painting The Roses of Heliogabalus (1888), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema. Antonin Artaud Heliogabalus (2010–11), by Anselm Kiefer[134] Poetry Algabal (1892–1919), a collection of poems by Stefan George In "He 'Digesteth Harde Yron'" American poet Marianne Moore describes a banquet at which Elagabalus served six hundred ostrich brains, a detail she found in George Jennison's book Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome. Television In CBBC's adaptation of Horrible Histories, Elagabalus is portrayed by Mathew Baynton as a laddish teenager with a cruel sense of humour. Severan dynasty family tree v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. Explanatory notes ^ /ˌɛləˈɡæbələs/ EL-ə-GAB-ə-ləs ^ /ˌhiːliə-, -lioʊ-/ HEE-lee-ə-, -⁠lee-oh-[2] ^ The first known instance is in the Chronography of 354, in the list of emperors in the section titled Chronica Urbis Romae, where he is called Antoninus Elagaballus.[3] ^ For a detailed discussion of his nomenclature, see de Arrizabalaga y Prado (2010, p. 231) References ^ a b Arrizabalaga 2010, p. 27. ^ "Heliogabalus". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 6 November 2019. ^ "The Chronography of 354 AD. Part 16: Chronicle of the City of Rome". tertullian.org (in Latin and English). Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2020. ^ Scott 2018, pp. 129–130, 135–137. ^ a b c Zanghellini 2015, p. 59. ^ a b Campanile, Carlà-Uhink & Facella 2017, p. 113. ^ Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter VI. ^ Niebuh 1844, p. 144, "too disgusting even to allude to them". ^ Goldsworthy 2009, p. 81. ^ a b Ball 2016, p. 464. ^ Barbara Levick, Julia Domna: Syrian Empress, p. 93: "Elagabalus, born in 203 or 204" ^ a b c d e Lukas de Blois, Image and Reality of Roman Imperial Power in the Third Century AD, 2018, p. 72 Archived 14 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d Scott 2018, pp. 83–84. ^ a b c Millar 1993, p. 119. ^ a b Scott 2018, p. 84. ^ Icks 2011, p. 59. ^ a b Marjorie Lightman, Benjamin Lightman, A to Z of Ancient Greek and Roman Women, 2008, p. 174 ^ Anthony R. Birley, Septimius Severus: The African Emperor, pp. 217, 222–223 ^ Sextus Varius Marcellus Archived 10 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine at Livius.org ^ Ball 2000, pp. 35–37, 412. ^ The Journal of Juristic Papyrology, volume 23, p. 116: "und mit palmyrenischer Inschrift "Gott Berg" steht die umstrittene Etymologie des Namens "Elagabal" (ilah ha-gabal) fest" ^ Ball 2000, p. 37. ^ "The Woerden Elagabal Inscription Archived 8 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine" at Livius.org; the inscription is now in Woerden's city museum Archived 28 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Devlaminck, Pieter (2004). "De Cultus van Sol Invictus: Een vergelijkende studie tussen keizer Elagabalus (218–222) en keizer Aurelianus (270–275)" (in Dutch). University of Ghent. Archived from the original on 16 August 2007. Retrieved 7 August 2007. ^ Icks 2011, p. 227. ^ a b Walter J. Whittemore Jr., Untimely Deaths by Assassination (2012), p. 33 ^ a b Ball 2000, p. 412. ^ Icks 2011, p. 11. ^ a b c d Burns 2006, p. 209. ^ Potter 2004, p. 151. ^ a b Icks 2011, p. 12. ^ Scott 2018, p. 106. ^ Scott 2018, pp. 26, 89. ^ Scott 2018, p. 89. ^ Southern 2003, p. 300. ^ a b c d e Michael Kulikowski, The Triumph of Empire, 2016, p. 105 ^ a b c d Stephen Dando-Collins, Legions of Rome, 2013, p. 324 Archived 14 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine ^ Scott 2018, p. 26. ^ Southern 2003, p. 58. ^ a b c Icks 2011, p. 33. ^ a b Icks 2011, p. 14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kienast 1990, pp. 165–170. ^ a b Benario, Herbert W. (1959). "The Titulature of Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea: Two Notes". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 90. 90: 9–14. doi:10.2307/283691. JSTOR 283691. ^ Arrizabalaga 2010, p. 156. ^ a b Southern 2003, p. 301. ^ a b Icks 2011, p. 20. ^ a b Scott 2018, p. 116. ^ a b c d Scott 2018, p. 122. ^ a b van Zoonen, Lauren (2005). "Heliogabalus". livius.org. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2007. ^ a b c d e Scott 2018, pp. 129–130. ^ Arrizabalaga 2010, pp. 82, 172. ^ a b Scott 2018, pp. 118–119. ^ Grant 1996, p. 51. ^ Icks 2011, p. 48. ^ Scott 2018, p. 137. ^ Barbara Levick, Julia Domna: Syrian Empress (2007), p. 71 Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine ^ Burns 2006, p. 214. ^ Icks 2011, p. 19. ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" Archived 1 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Arrizabalaga 2010, p. 60. ^ Halsberghe 1972, p. 36. ^ Icks 2011, pp. 14–15. ^ Icks 2011, p. 63. ^ Icks 2011, pp. 32–33. ^ Icks 2011, p. 62. ^ "Vestal Virgins at Encyclopædia Britannica". Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2020. ^ a b Icks 2011, p. 54. ^ a b Icks 2011, p. 89. ^ Icks 2011, p. 49. ^ Icks 2011, pp. 59–60. ^ Herodian, Roman History, Book 5.6.7. ^ Icks 2011, p. 113. ^ Meckler. ^ Grant 1996, p. 25. ^ a b Scott 2018, pp. 135–136. ^ Scott 2018, pp. 136–137. ^ a b c Varner, Eric (2008). "Transcending Gender: Assimilation, Identity, and Roman Imperial Portraits". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. Supplementary Volume. Ann Arbor, Michigan, US: University of Michigan Press. 7: 200–201. ISSN 1940-0977. JSTOR 40379354. OCLC 263448435. Elagabalus is also alleged to have appeared as Venus and to have depilated his entire body. ... Dio recounts an exchange between Elagabalus and the well-endowed Aurelius Zoticus: when Zoticus addressed the emperor as 'my lord,' Elagabalus responded, 'Don't call me lord, I am a lady.' Dio concludes his anecdote by having Elagabalus asking his physicians to give him the equivalent of a woman's vagina by means of a surgical incision. ^ Scott 2018, pp. 137–138. ^ a b c Rowan 2012, p. 169. ^ a b Godbout, Louis (2004). "Elagabalus" (PDF). GLBTQ: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. Chicago: glbtq, Inc. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2007. ^ Benjamin, Harry (1966). The Transsexual Phenomenon. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 29. New York: The Julian Press Inc. pp. 428–430. doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1967.tb02273.x. ISBN 978-0-446-82426-2. PMID 5233741. Archived from the original on 24 April 2005. Retrieved 27 April 2005. ^ Icks 2011, p. 70. ^ a b c Bowman, Cameron & Garnsey 2005, p. 22. ^ Icks 2011, p. 74. ^ Icks 2011, p. 75. ^ Icks 2011, p. 77. ^ a b c Icks 2011, p. 78. ^ Icks 2011, pp. 77–79. ^ Dio, Roman History, Book 80.20. ^ Icks 2011, p. 15. ^ Hay 1911, p. 124. ^ Hans Willer Laale, Ephesus (Ephesos): An Abbreviated History From Androclus to Constantine XI (2011) p. 269 ^ Varner 2004, pp. 192–194. ^ a b Dio, Roman History, chapter 80.18. ^ Maggie L. Popkin, The Architecture of the Roman Triumph (2016), p. 170: "[of] Cassius Dio, Herodian, and the Historian Augusta[,] Dio is generally considered our most reliable source for this period [the Severan era]" ^ Martin M. Winkler, The Fall of the Roman Empire: Film and History (2012), p. 63: "Dio, a close contemporary [of Aurelius] and generally considered the most reliable source for his own time" ^ Dio, Roman History, Book 80.11–12. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 145–146. ^ Dio, Roman History, book 80.4. ^ Scott 2018, p. 62. ^ Herodian, Roman History. ^ Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado, Varian Studies Volume One: Varius (2017), p. 131 ^ Sorek (2012, p. 202): "Modern scholars have regarded Herodian as unreliable. However, [...] his lack of literary and scholarly pretensions make him less biased than the senatorial historians." ^ Sorek 2012, p. 202. ^ Cohen, Henry (1880–1892). Description Historiques des Monnaies Frappées sous l'Empire Romain. Paris. p. 40. ^ Babelon, Ernest Charles François (1885–1886). Monnaies Consulaires II. Bologna: Forni. pp. 63–69. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, CIL II, 1409, CIL II, 1410, CIL II, 1413, and CIL III: 564–589. ^ Syme 1971, p. 218. ^ Cizek, Eugen (1995). Histoire et historiens à Rome dans l'Antiquité. Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon. p. 297. ^ Syme 1971, p. 263. ^ Butler, Orma Fitch (1910). "Studies in the life of Heliogabalus". University of Michigan Studies: Humanistic Series IV. New York: MacMillan: 140. ^ Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado, "Pseudo-Eunuchs in the Court of Elagabalus" Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 1999, p. 4. ^ Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter VI ^ Fraser, J. G., The Worship of Nature, Volume I, London: MacMillan and Co., 1926, pp. 496–498. ^ J. B. Bury in introduction to Hay (1911, p. xxiii) ^ Hay 1911, p. 2. ^ Icks 2011, pp. 345–346. ^ de Arrizabalaga y Prado 2010, pp. 1–13. ^ Ball 2016, pp. 462–466. ^ a b Paul Chrystal, In Bed with the Romans (2015), p. 337: "Despite the damnatio, many works of art and literature have been spawned by the emperor's memory. He lives on in the Spanish word heliogábalo" ^ heliogábalo Archived 6 January 2013 at archive.today in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Retrieved on 3 May 2008. ^ For detailed lists of the appearance of Elagabalus in various media, and a critical evaluation of some of these works, see Icks (2012), pp. 219–224. ^ L'Agonie ^ Boldt-Irons, Leslie Anne (1996). "Anarchy and Androgyny in Artaud's "Héliogabale ou L'Anarchiste Couronné"". The Modern Language Review. Cambridge, UK: Modern Humanities Research Association. 91 (4): 866–877. doi:10.2307/3733514. JSTOR 3733514. ^ Mencken, H. L.; Nathan, George Jean (1920). Heliogabalus: A Buffoonery in Three Acts. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ^ Gilbert, Sky (2002). Heliogabalus: A Love Story. Toronto: Cabaret Theatre Company. ^ Giorgio Lotti, Raul Radice, John Gilbert, La Scala (1979), p. 232: "In Heliogabale, created for the Yantra Ballet (Ballet of the Twentieth Century) and performed for the first time at the Shiraz Festival, Béjart drew inspiration from three sources–African music, used to conjure up the magical atmosphere surrounding Heliogabalus; Italian opera, reflecting the grandeur of Imperial Rome; and Verdi's Macbeth, expressing the power of the feminine will." ^ Mel Gordon, The Seven Addictions and Five Professions of Anita Berber (2006), p. 175 ^ "I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major-General". Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2019. ^ Spinetta, Luis Alberto (2014). Spinetta : crónica e iluminaciones. Eduardo Berti ([Enlarged, corrected and updated edition] ed.). C.A.B.A. p. 44. ISBN 978-950-49-4055-5. OCLC 905840105. ^ "Marilyn Manson: The Devil Beneath My Feet". Revolver. 1 March 2015. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018. ^ "Marilyn Manson Explains His Life-Long Love Affair With Makeup". The Fader. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2018. ^ "Life of Elagabalus". Augustan History. p. 21]. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2021. ^ Anselm Kiefer – Antonin Artaud Heliogabalus – 2010–11 – courtesy White Cube, Londra – photo Ben Westoby (in Italian). Artribune. 21 February 2012. Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 9 July 2012. Bibliography Primary sources Dio, Cassius (1927) [3rd century]. Roman History. Books 79, 80 (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Portsmouth, New Hampshire, US: Heinemann. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2020. Herodian (1961) [3rd century]. Roman History. Book 5. Translated by Edward C. Echols. Berkeley, California, US: University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019. Published on Livius.org in 2007 Historia Augusta, The Life of Elagabalus Parts 1 Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine and 2 Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Latin text with English translation. Secondary material Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de (2010). The Emperor Elagabulus: Fact or Fiction?. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89555-2. Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de. "Pseudo-Eunuchs in the Court of Elagabalus: The Riddle of Gannys, Eutychianus, and Comazon" Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Collected Papers in Honour of the Ninety-Fifth Anniversary of Ueno Gakuen, Tokyo, 1999, pp. 117–41. Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de. "Varian Studies: a Definition of the Subject", opening address to the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-11376-2. Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-71777-9. Birley, Anthony R. (2002). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-13416-4. OCLC 1062302222. Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter, eds. (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume 12. The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. |volume= has extra text (help) Burns, Jasper (2006). Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-13184-6. Campanile, Domitilla; Carlà-Uhink, Filippo; Facella, Margherita, eds. (2017). TransAntiquity: Cross-Dressing and Transgender Dynamics in the Ancient World. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-37737-5. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. de Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo (2010). The Emperor Elagabalus: Fact Or Fiction?. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89555-2. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15560-0. Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12772-1. Halsberghe, Gaston H. (1972). The Cult of Sol Invictus. Leiden: Brill. Hay, J. Stuart (1911). The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus. London: MacMillan. p. 124. Archived from the original on 2 February 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008. Additional copy. Introduction by J. B. Bury. Icks, Martijn (2011). The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Elgabal". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. Kienast, Dietmar. "Heliogabalus, a Monster on the Roman Throne: The Literary Construction of a 'Bad' Emperor," in Ineke Sluiter and Ralph M. Rosen (eds), Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne: Supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 307. Kienast, Dietmar. "Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado: The Emperor Elagabalus" Archived 5 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Kienast, Dietmar. "The 'Vices and Follies' of Elagabalus in Modern Historical Research", paper delivered at the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. Meckler, Michael L., "Elagabalus", De Imperatoribus Romanis, archived from the original on 15 May 2008, retrieved 21 November 2004, 26 August 1997. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C. – A.D. 337. Cambridge, Massachusetts, US: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77885-6. Niebuh, B.G. (1844). The History Of Rome. Translated by Julius Charles Hare; Connop Thirlwall. London, England: Taylor and Walter. Southern, Pat (2003). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-55380-8. Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10057-1. Rowan, Clare (2012). Under Divine Auspices. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02012-2. Scott, Andrew G. (2018). Emperors and Usurpers: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-90-87960-0. Sorek, Susan (2012). Ancient Historians: A Student Handbook. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-1135-7. Syme, Ronald (1971). Emperors and biography: studies in the 'Historia Augusta'. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814357-4. Varian Symposium Acta and links for a conference held at Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. Varner, Eric R. (2004). Monumenta Graeca et Romana: Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13577-2. Zanghellini, Aleardo (2015). The Sexual Constitution of Political Authority. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-06706-0. Images Wildwinds coin archive: Elagabalus Archived 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins bearing the image of Elagabalus. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. Coinarchives coin archive: Elagabalus Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins issued under Elagabalus, including coins of family members. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. External links Media related to Elagabalus at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Elagabalus at Wikiquote Elagabalus Severan dynasty Born: c. 204 Died: 11 March 222 Regnal titles Preceded by Macrinus Roman emperor 218–222 Succeeded by Severus Alexander Political offices Preceded by Macrinus M. Oclatinius Adventus Consul of the Roman Empire 218–220 with M. Oclatinius Adventus, Q. Tineius Sacerdos, P. Valerius Comazon Succeeded by G. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus, M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus Preceded by G. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus, M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus Consul of the Roman Empire 222 with M. Aurelius Alexander Caesar Succeeded by Marius Maximus, L. 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en-wikipedia-org-1199	----	Constantine III (Western Roman emperor) - Wikipedia Constantine III (Western Roman emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 407 to 411 Not to be confused with Constantius III or Constantine III (Byzantine emperor). Roman emperor Constantine III Coin of Constantine III Roman emperor Reign Usurper 407–409 (against Emperor Honorius) Co-emperor 409–411 (with Honorius and Constans II) Predecessor Gratian Successor Honorius Died 411 (before 18 September) Issue Constans II Julianus[1] Names Flavius Claudius Constantinus Religion Nicene Christianity Flavius Claudius Constantinus,[2] known in English as Constantine III (died shortly before 18 September 411), was a Roman general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor in Britannia in 407 and established himself in Gaul. He was co-emperor from 409 until 411.[3] Constantine rose to power during a bloody struggle in Roman Britain and was acclaimed emperor by the local legions in 407. He promptly moved to Gaul, taking all of the mobile troops from Britain, to confront the various Germanic invaders who had crossed the Rhine the previous winter. Constantine gained the upper hand after several battles with the forces of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius. As a result, Honorius recognised Constantine as co-emperor in 409. The activities of the invading tribes, raids by Saxons on the near-defenseless Britain and desertions by some of his top commanders led to a collapse of support. After further military setbacks he abdicated in 411. He was captured and executed shortly afterwards. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Recognition as co-emperor 1.2 March on Italy 1.3 Surrender and execution 2 Legend 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Secondary sources 6 External links Life[edit] Roman Gaul prior to the crossing of the Rhine In 406, the provinces of Roman Britain revolted. The garrisons had not been paid and had determined to choose their own leader.[4] Their first two choices, Marcus and Gratian, did not meet their expectations and were killed. Fearful of a Germanic invasion and desperate for some sense of security in a world that seemed to be rapidly falling apart, the Roman military in Britain sought greater security in strong and able military leadership and chose as their leader a man named after the famed emperor of the early fourth century, Constantine the Great, who had himself risen to power through a military coup in Britain.[5] Constantine was a common soldier, but one of some ability.[6] Early in 407, they acclaimed him as emperor.[7][2] Constantine moved quickly. He crossed the Channel at Bononia (Boulogne) and (historians have assumed) took with him all of the mobile troops left in Britain, thus denuding the province of any first line military protection and explaining the disappearance of the legions from Britannia in the early fifth century.[8] The Roman forces in Gaul (modern France) declared for him, followed by most of those in Hispania (modern Spain). On 31 December 406 several tribes of barbarian invaders, including the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Alans and the Sueves had crossed the Rhine, perhaps near Mainz, and overrun the Roman defensive works in a successful invasion of the Western Roman Empire.[9] Constantine's forces won several confrontations with the Vandals and quickly secured the line of the Rhine. The sitting Western emperor, Honorius, ordered Stilicho, his leading general, or magister militum, to expel Constantine. Sarus the Goth, a commander of Honorius, defeated two of Constantine's generals, Iustinianus and the Frank Nebiogastes, who were leading the vanguard of his forces.[10] Constantine's lieutenant, Nebiogastes, was first trapped in, then killed outside, Valence.[11] Constantine sent another army headed by Edobichus and Gerontius, and Sarus retreated into Italy, needing to buy his passage through the Alpine passes from the brigand Bagaudae, who controlled them.[12] With these advances, Constantine controlled all of Gaul and garrisoned the Alpine passes into Italy.[13] By May 408 he had made Arles his capital,[14] where he appointed Apollinaris, the grandfather of Sidonius Apollinaris, as prefect.[15] Recognition as co-emperor[edit] In the summer of 408, the Roman forces in Italy assembled to attack Constantine. Hispania was a stronghold of the House of Theodosius[14] and loyal to the ineffectual Honorius. Constantine feared that Honorius' cousins would organise an attack from that direction while troops under Sarus and Stilicho attacked him from Italy in a pincer manoeuvre. He struck first at Hispania.[16] He summoned his eldest son, Constans, from the monastery where he was dwelling, elevated him to Caesar,[17] and sent him with the general Gerontius towards Hispania,[8] where they defeated the cousins of Honorius with little difficulty; two – Didymus and Verinianus – were captured, and two others – Lagodius and Theodosiolus – escaped, Lagodius to Rome and Theodosiolus to Constantinople.[18] Constans left his wife and household at Saragossa under the care of Gerontius and returned to Arles to report to his father.[19] Meanwhile, the loyalist Roman army mutinied at Ticinum (Pavia) on 13 August, which was followed by the execution of Honorius' general Stilicho on 22 August.[18] Intrigue within the Imperial court caused the general Sarus and his men to abandon the western army. This left Honorius in Ravenna without any significant military power, and facing a Gothic army under Alaric that roamed unchecked in northern Italy. So, when Constantine's envoys arrived to parley, the fearful Honorius recognised Constantine as co-emperor, and the two were joint consuls for the year 409.[19] March on Italy[edit] That year was Constantine's high-water mark. While he had been fighting Honorius' armies, some of the Vandal tribes had overrun Constantine's Rhine defenses and spent two years and eight months burning and plundering their way through Gaul. The tribes reached the Pyrenees, where they broke through Constantine's garrisons and entered Hispania.[8] Constantine prepared to send his son Constans back to deal with this crisis when word came that his general Gerontius had rebelled, raising his relative, Maximus of Hispania, as co-emperor.[10] Despite Constantine's best efforts, the feared attack from Hispania came the following year, when Gerontius advanced with the support of his barbarian allies.[20] At about the same time Saxon pirates raided Britain, which Constantine had left defenceless.[21][citation needed] Distressed that Constantine had failed to defend them, the Roman inhabitants of Britain and Armorica (Brittany) rebelled and expelled his officials.[17][22] Constantine's response to this tightening circle of enemies was a final desperate gamble. Encouraged by the entreaties of officials of the western court, he marched on Italy with the troops left to him.[citation needed] They wanted to replace Honorius with a more capable ruler.[8] Constantine, though, had insufficient forces and retreated into Gaul in the late spring of 410.[8] Constantine's position became untenable; Gerontius defeated his forces at Vienne in 411; there his son Constans was captured and executed.[10] Constantine's praetorian prefect Decimus Rusticus, who had replaced Apollinaris a year earlier, abandoned Constantine to be caught up in the new rebellion of Jovinus in the Rhineland. Gerontius trapped Constantine inside Arles and besieged him.[8] Surrender and execution[edit] Constantine III portrayed on a siliqua. The reverse celebrates the victories of the Augusti. At the same time, Honorius found a new general, the future Constantius III. He arrived at Arles and put Gerontius to flight. Gerontius committed suicide and many of his troops deserted to Constantius, who took over the siege.[citation needed] Constantine held out, hoping for the return of Edobichus, who was raising troops in northern Gaul amongst the Franks.[21] But on his arrival Edobichus was defeated in an ambush.[23] Constantine, his hopes fading after his troops guarding the Rhine abandoned him to support Jovinus, surrendered to Constantius. Despite the promise of safe passage, and Constantine's assumption of clerical office, Constantius imprisoned the former soldier and had him beheaded on his way to Ravenna[citation needed] in either August or September 411.[2] His head was mounted on a pole and presented to Emperor Honorius on 18 September. It was later displayed outside Carthage.[24] Athaulf the Visigoth later suppressed the revolt of Jovinus.[citation needed] Roman rule never returned to Britain after the death of Constantine III. As the historian Procopius later explained, "from that time onwards it remained under [the rule] of tyrants."[25] Legend[edit] Constantine III is also known as Constantine II of Britain. He is often confused with the Constantine found in Geoffrey of Monmouth's highly popular and imaginative Historia Regum Britanniae, who comes to power following Gracianus Municeps' reign. In Geoffrey's account, the Britons ask Aldroenus [fr], the ruler of Armorica, to be their ruler after the Roman withdrawal, seeking a king who can defend them against the barbarians. Aldroenus refuses, believing the country to have diminished, but sends his brother Constantine to rule instead. Constantine becomes king and has three sons, Constans, Aurelius and Uther, but is stabbed to death by a Pict.[26] Constantine III is of no relation to the Constantine described in Geoffrey's account and he has no link to the legend of King Arthur.[citation needed] Geoffrey's Constantine is the brother of Aldroenus, both of whom were the descendants of Conan Meriadoc. It is Geoffrey's Constantine who, through his son Uther Pendragon, becomes the grandfather of the legendary King Arthur. See also[edit] End of Roman rule in Britain References[edit] ^ Jones, pg. 638 ^ a b c Jones, pg. 316 ^ Doyle, Chris (2014). The Endgame of Treason: Suppressing Rebellion and Usurpation in the Late Roman Empire AD 397‑411. National University of Ireland Galway. Unpublished doctoral thesis. pp. 163–192. ^ Zosimus, 6:1:2 ^ Zosimus, 7:40:5 ^ Orosius, 7:40:4 ^ Snyder 1998:19, Age of Tyrants. ^ a b c d e f Elton, Constantine III (407–411 A.D.) ^ Bury, pg. 138 ^ a b c Birley, pg. 460 ^ Zosimus, 6:2:3 ^ Zosimus, 6:2:4 ^ Birley, pgs. 458–459 ^ a b Bury, pg. 140 ^ Jones, pg. 113 ^ Zosimus, 6:2:5 ^ a b Birley, pg. 459 ^ a b Gibbon, Ch. 30 ^ a b Bury, pg. 141 ^ Bury, pg.142 ^ a b Bury, pg. 143 ^ Higham 1992, pp. 71–72. ^ Bury, pg. 144 ^ Heather, pg. 237 ^ Birley, pg. 160 ^ Monmouth, 6:5 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Zosimus, Historia Nova, Books 5 & 6 Historia Nova Orosius, Historiae adversum Paganos, 7.40 Geoffrey of Monmouth' Historia Regum Britanniae Secondary sources[edit] Bartrum, Peter A Welsh Classical Dictionary Cardiff: National Library of Wales, 1993, ISBN 978-0-907158-73-8 Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government in Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4 Bury, J. B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I (1889) London; New York: Macmillan OCLC 22138662 Elton, Hugh, Constantine III (407–411 A.D.), D.I.R. Ford, David Nash Early British Kingdoms: Constantine Corneu Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott OCLC 692266633 Heather, Peter(2005) The Fall of the Roman Empire, Basingstoke and Oxford: Pan Macmillan ISBN 978-0-333-98914-2 Higham, Nicholas (1992), Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, London: B. A. Seaby, ISBN 978-1-85264-022-4 Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-521-20159-9 Snyder, Christopher A. (1998), An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 978-0-271-01780-8 Stevens, C.E. "Marcus, Gratian, Constantine", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), pp. 316–47 Thompson, E.A. "Britain, A.D. 406–410", Britannia, 8 (1977), pp. 303–318. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constantine III (usurper). Political offices Preceded by Anicius Auchenius Bassus Flavius Philippus Consul of the Roman Empire 409 with Honorius and Theodosius II Succeeded by Varanes Tertullus Legendary titles VacantTurmoil Title last held by Gracianus Municeps King of Britain 407–411 Succeeded by Constans v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Geoffrey of Monmouth Works Prophetiae Merlini (c. 1135) Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Vita Merlini (c. 1150) Translations Roman de Brut Layamon's Brut Brut y Brenhinedd Characters Aeneas Saint Alban Albanactus Alhfrith of Deira Allectus Ambrosius Aurelianus Amphibalus Andragius Archgallo Archmail King Arthur Arvirargus Ascanius Augustine of Canterbury Aurelius Conanus Bedivere Beldgabred Beli Mawr Belinus Bladud Bledric ap Custennin Bledudo Brennius Brutus Greenshield Brutus of Troy Budic II of Brittany Cadfan ap Iago Cadoc Cador Cadwaladr Cadwallon ap Cadfan Camber (legendary king) Cap of Britain Capetus Silvius Capoir Caracalla Caradocus Carausius Cassivellaunus Catellus Catigern Cherin Claudius Cledaucus Clotenus Coel Hen Coilus Conan Meriadoc Constans II (usurper) Constantine the Great Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor) Constantine (Briton) Constantius Chlorus Cordelia of Britain Corineus Cunedagius Cunobeline Danius Saint David Digueillus Diocletian Dionotus Dunvallo Molmutius Ebraucus Edadus Edern ap Nudd Edwin of Northumbria Eldol Eldol, Consul of Gloucester Elidurus Eliud Enniaunus Estrildis Eudaf Hen Ferrex Fulgenius Gawain Gerennus Goffar the Pict Gogmagog (folklore) Goneril Gorboduc Gorbonianus Gorlois Gracianus Municeps Guiderius Guinevere Guithelin Gurgintius Gurguit Barbtruc Gurgustius Gwenddoleu ap Ceidio Gwenddydd Queen Gwendolen Helena (empress) Helenus Hengist and Horsa Hoel Humber the Hun Iago ap Beli Idvallo Igraine Ingenius of Britain Jago of Britain Julius and Aaron Julius Asclepiodotus Julius Caesar Sir Kay Keredic Kimarcus Kinarius Latinus Lavinia Leil Leir of Britain Locrinus King Lot Lucius of Britain Lucius Tiberius Lud son of Heli Maddan Maelgwn Gwynedd Magnus Maximus Mandubracius Queen Marcia Marganus Marganus II Marius of Britain Mempricius Merianus Merlin Millus Mordred Morgause Morvidus Myrddin Wyllt Nennius of Britain Octa of Kent Oenus Oswald of Northumbria Oswiu of Northumbria Owain mab Urien Penda of Mercia Peredur Peredurus Pir of the Britons Porrex I Porrex II Publius Septimius Geta Quintus Laberius Durus Redechius Redon of Britain Regan (King Lear) Rhydderch Hael Rience Rivallo Rud Hud Hudibras Runo Sawyl Penuchel Septimius Severus Silvius (mythology) Sisillius I Sisillius II Sisillius III Son of Gorbonianus Taliesin Tasciovanus Trahern Turnus Urianus Uther Pendragon Venissa Vespasian Vortigern Vortimer Vortiporius Wulfhere of Mercia Ywain Æthelberht of Kent Æthelfrith of Northumbria Œthelwald of Deira Topics Avalon Battle of Arfderydd Battle of Badon Battle of Camlann Battle of Guoloph Brut y Tywysogion Excalibur Lailoken List of legendary kings of Britain List of legendary rulers of Cornwall Logres Matter of Britain Molmutine Laws Nennius Pridwen Riothamus River Malvam Siege of Exeter (c. 630) Locations associated with Arthurian legend Treachery of the Long Knives Trinovantum Trojan genealogy of Nennius Walter of Oxford Wikiquote Wikisource texts Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Poland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)&oldid=1026086772" Categories: 4th-century births 411 deaths 5th-century Roman usurpers 5th-century murdered monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Ancient Roman generals Ancient Romans in Britain Arthurian characters British traditional history Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth Claudii Flavii People executed by the Roman Empire Executed Roman emperors People executed by decapitation Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2018 Good articles EngvarB from May 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021 Commons link 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Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1215	----	Category:Articles with permanently dead external links - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with permanently dead external links From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. This category has a backlog that requires the attention of willing editors. This notice will hide itself when this category has fewer than 1000 items. (recount) This category keeps track of articles with the {{dead link}} template that have the fix-attempted parameter set to "yes". 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Aa Ab Ac Ad Ae Af Ag Ah Ai Aj Ak Al Am An Ao Ap Aq Ar As At Au Av Aw Ax Ay Az B Ba Bb Bc Bd Be Bf Bg Bh Bi Bj Bk Bl Bm Bn Bo Bp Bq Br Bs Bt Bu Bv Bw Bx By Bz C Ca Cb Cc Cd Ce Cf Cg Ch Ci Cj Ck Cl Cm Cn Co Cp Cq Cr Cs Ct Cu Cv Cw Cx Cy Cz D Da Db Dc Dd De Df Dg Dh Di Dj Dk Dl Dm Dn Do Dp Dq Dr Ds Dt Du Dv Dw Dx Dy Dz E Ea Eb Ec Ed Ee Ef Eg Eh Ei Ej Ek El Em En Eo Ep Eq Er Es Et Eu Ev Ew Ex Ey Ez F Fa Fb Fc Fd Fe Ff Fg Fh Fi Fj Fk Fl Fm Fn Fo Fp Fq Fr Fs Ft Fu Fv Fw Fx Fy Fz G Ga Gb Gc Gd Ge Gf Gg Gh Gi Gj Gk Gl Gm Gn Go Gp Gq Gr Gs Gt Gu Gv Gw Gx Gy Gz H Ha Hb Hc Hd He Hf Hg Hh Hi Hj Hk Hl Hm Hn Ho Hp Hq Hr Hs Ht Hu Hv Hw Hx Hy Hz I Ia Ib Ic Id Ie If Ig Ih Ii Ij Ik Il Im In Io Ip Iq Ir Is It Iu Iv Iw Ix Iy Iz J Ja Jb Jc Jd Je Jf Jg Jh Ji Jj Jk Jl Jm Jn Jo Jp Jq Jr Js Jt Ju Jv Jw Jx Jy Jz K Ka Kb Kc Kd Ke Kf Kg Kh Ki Kj Kk Kl Km Kn Ko Kp Kq Kr Ks Kt Ku Kv Kw Kx Ky Kz L La Lb Lc Ld Le Lf Lg Lh Li Lj Lk Ll Lm Ln Lo Lp Lq Lr Ls Lt Lu Lv Lw Lx Ly Lz M Ma Mb Mc Md Me Mf Mg Mh Mi Mj Mk Ml Mm Mn Mo Mp Mq Mr Ms Mt Mu Mv Mw Mx My Mz N Na Nb Nc Nd Ne Nf Ng Nh Ni Nj Nk Nl Nm Nn No Np Nq Nr Ns Nt Nu Nv Nw Nx Ny Nz O Oa Ob Oc Od Oe Of Og Oh Oi Oj Ok Ol Om On Oo Op Oq Or Os Ot Ou Ov Ow Ox Oy Oz P Pa Pb Pc Pd Pe Pf Pg Ph Pi Pj Pk Pl Pm Pn Po Pp Pq Pr Ps Pt Pu Pv Pw Px Py Pz Q Qa Qb Qc Qd Qe Qf Qg Qh Qi Qj Qk Ql Qm Qn Qo Qp Qq Qr Qs Qt Qu Qv Qw Qx Qy Qz R Ra Rb Rc Rd Re Rf Rg Rh Ri Rj Rk Rl Rm Rn Ro Rp Rq Rr Rs Rt Ru Rv Rw Rx Ry Rz S Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Sl Sm Sn So Sp Sq Sr Ss St Su Sv Sw Sx Sy Sz T Ta Tb Tc Td Te Tf Tg Th Ti Tj Tk Tl Tm Tn To Tp Tq Tr Ts Tt Tu Tv Tw Tx Ty Tz U Ua Ub Uc Ud Ue Uf Ug Uh Ui Uj Uk Ul Um Un Uo Up Uq Ur Us Ut Uu Uv Uw Ux Uy Uz V Va Vb Vc Vd Ve Vf Vg Vh Vi Vj Vk Vl Vm Vn Vo Vp Vq Vr Vs Vt Vu Vv Vw Vx Vy Vz W Wa Wb Wc Wd We Wf Wg Wh Wi Wj Wk Wl Wm Wn Wo Wp Wq Wr Ws Wt Wu Wv Ww Wx Wy Wz X Xa Xb Xc Xd Xe Xf Xg Xh Xi Xj Xk Xl Xm Xn Xo Xp Xq Xr Xs Xt Xu Xv Xw Xx Xy Xz Y Ya Yb Yc Yd Ye Yf Yg Yh Yi Yj Yk Yl Ym Yn Yo Yp Yq Yr Ys Yt Yu Yv Yw Yx Yy Yz Z Za Zb Zc Zd Ze Zf Zg Zh Zi Zj Zk Zl Zm Zn Zo Zp Zq Zr Zs Zt Zu Zv Zw Zx Zy Zz Pages in category "Articles with permanently dead external links" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 190,696 total. 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(previous page) (next page). ...Baby One More Time (song) ...Like Clockwork .38-40 Winchester .45 Auto Rim .50 BMG .50-70 Government .50-120 Federal FireStick .243 Winchester .338 Lapua Magnum .350 Legend .357 Remington Maximum .358 Winchester .400 Cor-Bon .405 Winchester .458 Lott .460 Weatherby Magnum .470 Nitro Express .ac .au .au Domain Administration .cg .co .cr .hack//Sign .local .me .mobi .NET Framework .ph .za .рф ' '40s Junction '96 (film) 'Asir Province 'Asta Bowen 'Double Fish Hook' Strategy 'Makabelo Mosothoane 'Makholane 'Ndrangheta 'Nzuddi 'Orfi Shirazi 't Woudt 't zal wel gaan 't Zand, Schagen 'Tis Pity She's a Whore " "Muslim patrol" incidents in London "O" (Flowers of Hell album) "Shotgun Tom" Kelly ( (52747) 1998 HM151 (119951) 2002 KX14 (153591) 2001 SN263 (386723) 2009 YE7 (415029) 2011 UL21 (I've Been) Searchin' So Long (Untitled) Blue Lady * *shels + + + +/- (band) +44 discography 0–9 0-4-4-0 0-41* 0DFx 1% (South Park) 1 point player 1 The Avenue 1 Treasury Place 1-800-273-8255 (song) 1-Decanol 1-Hexene (data page) 1-Lysophosphatidylcholine 1, 2, 3 Dayz Up 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexachloropropane 1,4-Butanediol 1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours 1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy 1. 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Liga Süd-West 3B/Bærums Verk 3CG Records 3CX 3d Air Support Operations Group 3d Combat Communications Group 3D Na'Tee (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links&oldid=1012798559" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Wikipedia backlog Articles with dead external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية বাংলা Bahasa Indonesia मराठी ଓଡ଼ିଆ Shqip Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 March 2021, at 11:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1226	----	Category:Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Help Category:Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Marcus Aurelius. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Aurelius. Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. C ► Cultural depictions of Marcus Aurelius‎ (7 P) G ► Generals of Marcus Aurelius‎ (5 P) T ► Tutors of Marcus Aurelius‎ (2 P) Pages in category "Marcus Aurelius" The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Marcus Aurelius A Agaclytus (freedman) C Catorthoseis E Early life of Marcus Aurelius F Faustina the Younger M Meditations R Reign of Marcus Aurelius T Temple of Marcus Aurelius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=948418013" Categories: 2nd-century philosophers 2nd-century Roman emperors Nerva–Antonine dynasty Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after Roman emperors Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی 한국어 Italiano 日本語 Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 March 2020, at 23:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1227	----	Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This category is populated by the {{Cite NSRW}} template and contain a link to a Wikisource article via the use of a parameter wstitle=NSRW article name. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in category "Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 416 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A A Aardvark Abbotsford, Scottish Borders Emir Abdelkader Franz Abt Felix Adler (professor) Albany Congress Alcuin Alexander Winchell Almanac Andromeda (constellation) Edmund Andros Antaeus Antananarivo Apostles in Christianity Astor Library John Jacob Astor Auxanometer B Vasco Núñez de Balboa Battering ram Battle of Bosworth Field Battle of San Jacinto Bay of Biscay Eugène de Beauharnais Pierre Beaumarchais Beaumont, Texas Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania August Bebel Bechuanaland Protectorate Frederick Bedford Bird-of-paradise Bisbee, Arizona Bismarck Archipelago Bismarck, North Dakota James G. Blaine Blind fish Boiling point Bosporus Boston Boston University Brattleboro, Vermont Bridge of Sighs Bridgeton, New Jersey Rhoda Broughton Charles Brockden Brown Elmer Ellsworth Brown Burgundy C Calico University of California, Berkeley Calyptra Cantilever bridge Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles X Charles XII of Sweden Charleston, West Virginia Charlottenburg Charterhouse School Châteauguay Cheyenne Cheyenne, Wyoming Cider Cimabue Cimbri Circe Clark University Alvan Clark William Mortimer Clark Henry Clay Pope Clement XIV University of Colorado Boulder Columella (botany) Conidium Roscoe Conkling Conning tower Timothy Abbott Conrad Convolvulus Coot Cornwall Canal Cotopaxi Cumberland Mountains Cumberland River Cumberland, Maryland Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry Ernst Curtius John Curwen D Dakota people Deadwood, South Dakota Deer Paul Delaroche Delaware Bay Delaware River Delaware, Ohio Théophile Delcassé Denison, Texas Density Morgan Dix Thomas Joseph Dowling DuBois, Pennsylvania Dubuque, Iowa Duccio Joseph-Thomas Duhamel Albert Dyment E James Buchanan Eads Edible mushroom Electrical cable Elwood, Indiana Emin Pasha Encyclopedia John Endecott Endosperm Ethnology James B. Eustis Robley D. Evans Express company F Finch Minnie Maddern Fiske John Fitch (inventor) Charles Fitzpatrick Colosseum Flint, Michigan Flora (mythology) Fort Madison, Iowa Fox Franklin, Tennessee Fugitive slave laws in the United States G Georgy Gapon Calixto García George Ticknor Curtis Georgetown, Guyana German East Africa Glossary of botanical terms James Robert Gowan Great Salt Lake Great Slave Lake Grebe Green Mountains Greenwich Gustaf V Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Johannes Gutenberg Arnold Henry Guyot H Habit Hagerstown, Maryland Hamilton, Ohio Constance Cary Harrison Harrow School Hartford, Connecticut Le Havre Hawk Hazleton, Pennsylvania Samuel P. Heintzelman Hercules Johann Gottfried Herder Nicholas Herkimer James J. Hill Hillsboro, Texas History of Italian culture (1700s) Honey Honeysuckle Hops Horatio Parker Oliver Otis Howard I Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt Illinois Confederation John James Ingalls University of Iowa Iquique Ironwood, Michigan Isthmus of Tehuantepec J Jacksonville, Illinois Jacob James Thomson (poet, born 1700) Jay John Habberton John of Gaunt John Slidell John Woodward Philip Justin Smith Morrill K Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz George Kennan (explorer) Kennebec River Kenosha, Wisconsin James Kent Gustav Kirchhoff L Lake Forest College Lake George (New York) Lake Tanganyika Laocoön Lapis lazuli Laramie River Larch Université Laval John Law (economist) Lawrence, Massachusetts Abbott Lawrence Amos Lawrence James Lawrence Lawrence, Kansas William Edward Hartpole Lecky Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_citation_to_the_NSRW_with_an_wstitle_parameter&oldid=951973684" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages भोजपुरी Simple English 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2020, at 22:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1230	----	Roman glass - Wikipedia Roman glass From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cage cup from Cologne, dated to the mid-4th century. Collection Staatliche Antikensammlung, Munich This pyxis is exemplary of luxury Roman glassware, ca. late 1st century BC. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore Roman glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts. Glass was used primarily for the production of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window glass were also produced. Roman glass production developed from Hellenistic technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely coloured cast glass vessels. However, during the 1st century AD the industry underwent rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of glass blowing and the dominance of colourless or 'aqua' glasses. Production of raw glass was undertaken in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels,[1][2] and by the end of the 1st century AD large scale manufacturing resulted in the establishment of glass as a commonly available material in the Roman world, and one which also had technically very difficult specialized types of luxury glass, which must have been very expensive. Contents 1 Growth of the Roman glass industry 2 Production 2.1 Composition 2.2 Glass making 2.3 Recycling 2.4 Glass working 2.5 Styles 3 Vessel production techniques 3.1 Core and rod formed vessels 3.2 Cold-cut vessels 3.3 Glass blowing: free and mould blown vessels 3.4 Other production techniques 4 Decorative techniques 4.1 Cast glass patterns 4.2 Gold glass 4.3 Other decorative techniques 5 Tesserase and window glass 6 Chemistry and colours 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 Further reading Growth of the Roman glass industry[edit] Roman glass from the 2nd century Enamelled glass depicting a gladiator, found at Begram, Afghanistan, which was once part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, but was ruled by the Kushan Empire during the contemporaneous Roman Principate period, to which the glass belongs, 52–125 AD (although there is some scholarly debate about the precise dating).[3] Despite the growth of glass working in the Hellenistic World and the growing place of glass in material culture, at the beginning of the 1st century AD there was still no Latin word for it in the Roman world.[1] However, glass was being produced in Roman contexts using primarily Hellenistic techniques and styles (see glass, history) by the late Republican period. The majority of manufacturing techniques were time-consuming, and the initial product was a thick-walled vessel which required considerable finishing. This, combined with the cost of importing natron for the production of raw glass, contributed to the limited use of glass and its position as an expensive and high-status material. A double-handled glass vial from Syria, c. 4th century AD The glass industry was therefore a relatively minor craft during the Republican period; although, during the early decades of the 1st century AD the quantity and diversity of glass vessels available increased dramatically.[1] This was a direct result of the massive growth of the Roman influence at the end of the Republican period, the Pax Romana that followed the decades of civil war,[4] and the stabilisation of the state that occurred under Augustus' rule.[1] Still, Roman glasswares were already making their way from Western Asia (i.e. the Parthian Empire) to the Kushan Empire in Afghanistan and India and as far as the Han Empire of China. The first Roman glass found in China came from an early 1st-century BC tomb at Guangzhou, ostensibly via the South China Sea.[5][6] In addition to this a major new technique in glass production had been introduced during the 1st century AD.[7] Glassblowing allowed glass workers to produce vessels with considerably thinner walls, decreasing the amount of glass needed for each vessel. Glass blowing was also considerably quicker than other techniques, and vessels required considerably less finishing, representing a further saving in time, raw material and equipment. Although earlier techniques dominated during the early Augustan and Julio-Claudian periods,[8] by the middle to late 1st century AD earlier techniques had been largely abandoned in favour of blowing.[1] As a result of these factors, the cost of production was reduced and glass became available for a wider section of society in a growing variety of forms. By the mid-1st century AD this meant that glass vessels had moved from a valuable, high-status commodity, to a material commonly available: "a [glass] drinking cup could be bought for a copper coin" (Strabo, Geographica XVI.2). This growth also saw the production of the first glass tesserae for mosaics, and the first window glass,[1] as furnace technology improved allowing molten glass to be produced for the first time.[9] At the same time, the expansion of the empire also brought an influx of people and an expansion of cultural influences that resulted in the adoption of eastern decorative styles.[1] The changes that took place in the Roman glass industry during this period can therefore be seen as a result of three primary influences: historical events, technical innovation and contemporary fashions.[1] They are also linked to the fashions and technologies developed in the ceramic trade, from which a number of forms and techniques were drawn.[1] "Circus beaker" from Roman Iron Age, found in Varpelev, Denmark Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China Glass making reached its peak at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, with glass objects in domestic contexts of every kind.[1] The primary production techniques of blowing, and to a lesser extent casting, remained in use for the rest of the Roman period, with changes in vessel types but little change in technology.[1] From the 2nd century onwards styles became increasingly regionalised,[1] and evidence indicates that bottles and closed vessels such as unguentaria moved as a by-product of the trade in their contents, and many appear to have matched the Roman scale of liquid measurement.[1] The use of coloured glass as a decorative addition to pale and colourless glasses also increased, and metal vessels continued to influence the shape of glass vessels.[1] After the conversion of Constantine, glass works began to move more quickly from depicting Pagan religious imagery towards Christian religious imagery. The movement of the capital to Constantinople rejuvenated the Eastern glass industry, and the presence of the Roman military in the western provinces did much to prevent any downturn there.[1] By the mid-4th century mould-blowing was in use only sporadically.[1] Production[edit] Composition[edit] Main article: Glass Close-up of beach sand, the main component of Roman glass Roman glass production relied on the application of heat to fuse two primary ingredients: silica and soda.[7] Technical studies of archaeological glasses divide the ingredients of glass as formers, fluxes, stabilisers, as well as possible opacifiers or colourants. Former: The major component of the glass is silica, which during the Roman period was sand (quartz), which contains some alumina (typically 2.5%) and nearly 8% lime.[4] Alumina contents vary, peaking around 3% in glasses from the western Empire, and remaining notably lower in glasses from the Middle East.[4] Flux: This ingredient was used to lower the melting point of the silica to form glass. Analysis of Roman glass has shown that soda (sodium carbonate) was used exclusively in glass production.[10] During this period, the primary source of soda was natron, a naturally occurring salt found in dry lake beds. The main source of natron during the Roman period was Wadi El Natrun, Egypt, although there may have been a source in Italy. Stabiliser: Glasses formed of silica and soda are naturally soluble, and require the addition of a stabiliser such as lime or magnesia. Lime was the primary stabiliser in use during the Roman period, entering the glass through calcareous particles in the beach sand, rather than as a separate component.[11] Roman glass has also been shown to contain around 1% to 2% chlorine, in contrast to later glasses.[10] This is thought to have originated either in the addition of salt (NaCl) to reduce the melting temperature and viscosity of the glass, or as a contaminant in the natron. Glass making[edit] Roman blown-glass cinerary urn, dated between 1st and 3rd centuries AD Archaeological evidence for glass making during the Roman period is scarce, but by drawing comparisons with the later Islamic and Byzantine periods, it is clear that glass making was a significant industry. By the end of the Roman period glass was being produced in large quantities contained in tanks situated inside highly specialised furnaces, as the 8-tonne glass slab recovered from Bet She'arim illustrates.[11] These workshops could produce many tonnes of raw glass in a single furnace firing, and although this firing might have taken weeks, a single primary workshop could potentially supply multiple secondary glass working sites. It is therefore thought that raw glass production was centred around a relatively small number of workshops,[11] where glass was produced on a large scale and then broken into chunks.[12] There is only limited evidence for local glass making, and only in context of window glass.[13] The development of this large-scale industry is not fully understood, but Pliny's Natural History (36, 194), in addition to evidence for the first use of molten glass in the mid-1st century AD,[9] indicates that furnace technologies experienced marked development during the early-to-mid-1st century AD, in tandem with the expansion of glass production. The siting of glass-making workshops was governed by three primary factors: the availability of fuel which was needed in large quantities, sources of sand which represented the major constituent of the glass, and natron to act as a flux. Roman glass relied on natron from Wadi El Natrun, and as a result it is thought that glass-making workshops during the Roman period may have been confined to near-coastal regions of the eastern Mediterranean.[11] This facilitated the trade in the raw colourless or naturally coloured glass which they produced, which reached glass-working sites across the Roman empire.[11] The scarcity of archaeological evidence for Roman glass-making facilities has resulted in the use of chemical compositions as evidence for production models,[14] as the division of production indicates that any variation is related to differences in raw glass making.[11] However, the Roman reliance on natron from Wadi El Natrun as a flux,[13] has resulted in a largely homogenous composition in the majority of Roman glasses.[13][15] Despite the publication of major analyses,[16] comparisons of chemical analyses produced by different analytical methods have only recently been attempted,[14][17] and although there is some variation in Roman glass compositions, meaningful compositional groups have been difficult to establish for this period.[11] Recycling[edit] Cameo glass plaque with the infant Bacchus and a satyr, early 1st century AD. The Roman writers Statius and Martial both indicate that recycling broken glass was an important part of the glass industry, and this seems to be supported by the fact that only rarely are glass fragments of any size recovered from domestic sites of this period.[7] In the western empire there is evidence that recycling of broken glass was frequent and extensive,[13][15] and that quantities of broken glassware were concentrated at local sites prior to melting back into raw glass.[13] Compositionally, repeated recycling is visible via elevated levels of those metals used as colourants.[18] Melting does not appear to have taken place in crucibles; rather, cooking pots appear to have been used for small scale operations. For larger work, large tanks or tank-like ceramic containers were utilised. In the largest cases, large furnaces were built to surround these tanks. Glass working[edit] In comparison to glass making, there is evidence for glass working in many locations across the empire. Unlike the making process, the working of glass required significantly lower temperatures and substantially less fuel. As a result of this and the expansion of the Empire, glass working sites developed in Rome, Campania and the Po Valley[7] by the end of the 1st century BC, producing the new blown vessels alongside cast vessels. Italy is known to have been a centre for the working and export of brightly coloured vessels at this time,[19] with production peaking during the mid-1st century AD.[7] By the early-to-mid-1st century AD, the growth of the Empire saw the establishment of glass working sites at locations along trade routes, with Cologne and other Rhineland centres becoming important glass working sites from the Imperial period,[7] and Syrian glass being exported as far as Italy.[20] During this period vessel forms varied between workshops, with areas such as the Rhineland and northern France producing distinctive forms which are not seen further south.[7] Growth in the industry continued into the 3rd century AD, when sites at the Colonia Claudia Agrippinensis appear to have experienced significant expansion,[21] and by the 3rd and early 4th centuries producers north of the Alps were exporting down to the north of Italy and the transalpine regions.[20] Glass working sites such as those at Aquileia also had an important role in the spread of glassworking traditions[21] and the trade in materials that used hollow glasswares as containers.[20] However, by the 4th[21] and 5th centuries[20] Italian glass workshops predominate. Styles[edit] Glass vessel from the 2nd century AD, found in Bosanski Novi The earliest Roman glass follows Hellenistic traditions and uses strongly coloured and 'mosaic' patterned glass. During the late Republican period new highly coloured striped wares with a fusion of dozens of monochrome and lace-work strips were introduced.[1] During this period there is some evidence that styles of glass varied geographically, with the translucent coloured fine wares of the early 1st century notably 'western' in origin, whilst the later colourless fine wares are more 'international'.[8] These objects also represent the first with a distinctly Roman style unrelated to the Hellenistic casting traditions on which they are based, and are characterised by novel rich colours.[1] 'Emerald' green, dark or cobalt blue, a deep blue-green and Persian or 'peacock' blue are most commonly associated with this period, and other colours are very rare.[8] Of these, Emerald green and peacock blue were new colours introduced by the Romano-Italian industry and almost exclusively associated with the production of fine wares.[8] However, during the last thirty years of the 1st century AD there was a marked change in style, with strong colours disappearing rapidly, replaced by 'aqua' and true colourless glasses.[7] Colourless and 'aqua' glasses had been in use for vessels and some mosaic designs prior to this, but start to dominate the blown glass market at this time.[7] The use of strong colours in cast glass died out during this period, with colourless or 'aqua' glasses dominating the last class of cast vessels to be produced in quantity, as mould and free-blowing took over during the 1st century AD.[8] From around 70 AD colourless glass becomes the predominant material for fine wares, and the cheaper glasses move towards pale shades of blue, green, and yellow.[8] Debate continues whether this change in fashion indicates a change in attitude that placed glass as individual material of merit no longer required to imitate precious stones, ceramics, or metal,[7] or whether the shift to colourless glass indicated an attempt to mimic highly prized rock crystal.[1] Pliny's Natural History states that "the most highly valued glass is colourless and transparent, as closely as possible resembling rock crystal" (36, 192), which is thought to support this last position, as is evidence for the persistence of casting as a production technique, which produced the thickly walled vessels necessary to take the pressure of extensive cutting and polishing associated with crystal working.[1] Vessel production techniques[edit] The Portland Vase, 5-25AD(?) cameo glass. Core and rod formed vessels[edit] Artisans used a mass of mud and straw fixed around a metal rod to form a core, and built up a vessel by either dipping the core in liquified glass, or by trailing liquid glass over the core.[7] The core was removed after the glass had cooled, and handles, rims and bases were then added. These vessels are characterised by relatively thick walls, bright colours and zigzagging patterns of contrasting colours, and were limited in size to small unguent or scent containers.[7] This early technique continued in popularity during the 1st century BC,[1] despite the earlier introduction of slumped and cast vessels. Cold-cut vessels[edit] This technique is related to the origin of glass as a substitute for gemstones. By borrowing techniques for stone and carved gems, artisans were able to produce a variety of small containers from blocks of raw glass or thick moulded blanks,[7] including cameo glass in two or more colours, and cage cups (still thought by most scholars to have been decorated by cutting, despite some debate). Glass blowing: free and mould blown vessels[edit] These techniques, which were to dominate the Roman glass working industry after the late 1st century AD, are discussed in detail on the glass blowing page. Mould-blown glass appears in the second quarter of the 1st century AD.[19] Other production techniques[edit] A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period: Cage cup production Cameo glass production Slumping Casting Decorative techniques[edit] Cast glass patterns[edit] Ribbed bowl of mosaic glass in the Metropolitan Museum of Art The Lycurgus Cup, a dichroic (colour-changing) cage cup, lit from behind, with a modern foot and rim. The glass sheets used for slumping could be produced of plain or multicoloured glass, or even formed of 'mosaic' pieces. The production of these objects later developed into the modern caneworking and millefiori techniques, but is noticeably different. Six primary patterns of 'mosaic' glass have been identified:[7] Floral (millefiori) and spiral patterns: This was produced by binding rods of coloured glass together and heating and fusing them into a single piece. These were then cut in cross-section, and the resulting discs could be fused together to create complex patterns. Alternately, two strips of contrasting-coloured glass could be fused together, and then wound round a glass rod whilst still hot to produce a spiral pattern.[7] Cross-sections of this were also cut, and could be fused together to form a plate or fused to plain glass. Marbled and dappled patterns: Some of these patterns are clearly formed through the distortion of the original pattern during the slumping of the glass plate during melting.[7] However, by using spiral and circular patterns of alternating colours producers were also able to deliberately imitate the appearance of natural stones such as sardonyx.[1] This occurs most often on pillar-moulded bowls, which are one of the commonest glass finds on 1st century sites.[7] Lace patterns: Strips of coloured glass were twisted with a contrasting coloured thread of glass before being fused together. This was a popular method in the early period, but appears to have gone out of fashion by the mid-1st century AD.[7] Striped patterns: Lengths of monochrome and lacework glass were fused together to create vivid striped designs, a technique that developed from the lace pattern technique during the last decades of the 1st century AD.[1] The production of multicoloured vessels declined after the mid-1st century, but remained in use for some time after.[7] Gold glass[edit] Main article: Gold glass Further information: List of gold-glass portraits Detail of a gold glass medallion with a portrait of a family, from Alexandria (Roman Egypt), 3rd–4th century (Brescia, Museo di Santa Giulia)[22] Gold sandwich glass or gold glass was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century. There are a very fewer larger designs, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. The great majority are 4th century, extending into the 5th century. Most are Christian, but many pagan and a few Jewish; their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. In contrast, a much smaller group of 3rd century portrait levels are superbly executed, with pigment painted on top of the gold. The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.[23] Other decorative techniques[edit] A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period, including enamelled glass and engraved glass. Tesserase and window glass[edit] Shards of broken glass or glass rods were being used in mosaics from the Augustan period onwards, but by the beginning of the 1st century small glass tiles, known as tesserae, were being produced specifically for use in mosaics.[1] These were usually in shades of yellow, blue or green, and were predominantly used in mosaics laid under fountains or as highlights. Around the same time the first window panes are thought to have been produced.[1] The earliest panes were rough cast into a wooden frame on top of a layer of sand or stone,[1] but from the late 3rd century onwards window glass was made by the muff process, where a blown cylinder was cut laterally and flattened out to produce a sheet.[24] Chemistry and colours[edit] See also modern glass colors. Colourant Content Comments Furnace Conditions 'Aqua' Iron(II) oxide (FeO) 'Aqua', a pale blue-green colour, is the common natural colour of untreated glass. Many early Roman vessels are this colour.[7] Colourless Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) Colourless glass was produced in the Roman period by adding either antimony or manganese oxide.[1] This oxidised the iron (II) oxide to iron (III) oxide, which although yellow, is a much weaker colourant, allowing the glass to appear colourless. The use of manganese as a decolourant was a Roman invention first noted in the Imperial period; prior to this, antimony-rich minerals were used.[1] However, antimony acts as a stronger decolourant than manganese, producing a more truly colourless glass; in Italy and northern Europe antimony or a mixture of antimony and manganese continued to be used well into the 3rd century.[25] Amber Iron-sulfur compounds 0.2%-1.4% S[1] 0.3% Fe Sulfur is likely to have entered the glass as a contaminant of natron, producing a green tinge. Formation of iron-sulfur compounds produces an amber colour. Reducing Purple Manganese (such as pyrolusite) Around 3%[1] Oxidising[1] Blue and green Copper 2%–13%[1] The natural 'aqua' shade can be intensified with the addition of copper. During the Roman period this was derived from the recovery of oxide scale from scrap copper when heated, to avoid the contaminants present in copper minerals.[1] Copper produced a translucent blue moving towards a darker and denser green. Oxidising[1] Dark green Lead By adding lead, the green colour produced by copper could be darkened.[1] Royal blue to navy Cobalt 0.1%[1] Intense colouration Powder blue Egyptian blue[1] Opaque red to brown (Pliny's Haematinum) Copper lead >10% Cu 1% – 20% Pb[1] Under strongly reducing conditions, copper present in the glass will precipitate inside the matrix as cuprous oxide, making the glass appear brown to blood red. Lead encourages precipitation and brilliance. The red is a rare find, but is known to have been in production during the 4th, 5th and later centuries on the continent.[26] Strongly reducing White Antimony (such as stibnite) 1–10%[1] Antimony reacts with the lime in the glass matrix to precipitate calcium antimonite crystals creating a white with high opacity.[1] Oxidising Yellow Antimony and lead (such as bindheimite).[1] Precipitation of lead pyroantimonate creates an opaque yellow. Yellow rarely appears alone in Roman glass, but was used for the mosaic and polychrome pieces.[1] These colours formed the basis of all Roman glass, and although some of them required high technical ability and knowledge, a degree of uniformity was achieved.[1] See also[edit] Ancient glass trade Speyer wine bottle References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq Fleming, S. J., 1999. Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ^ Stern, E. M., 1999. Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context. American Journal of Archaeology 103/3, 441–484. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 153. ^ a b c Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions. Journal of Glass Studies 46, 67–83. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94. Edited by Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. ISBN 2-503-52178-9. Page 83-84. ^ Ebrey, Patricia. (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66991-X. Page 70. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Allen, D., 1998. Roman Glass in Britain. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. ^ a b c d e f Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares. Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. ^ a b Stern, E. M., 1995. Roman Mould-blown Glass. Rome, Italy, L'Erma di Fretshneidur in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. ^ a b Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass. Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. ^ a b c d e f g Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective. Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage, Geological Society of London. Special publication 257: 201–216. ^ Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J.,2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus. Archaeometry 44, 257–272. ^ a b c d e Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York. Journal of Glass Studies 40, 55–61. ^ a b Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, Jackson, C.M., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses. Archaeometry 48/3, 399–414. ^ a b Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In: 9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre, Nancy, France: Editions du Centre de Publications de L'A.I.H.V. ^ Brill, R. H., 1999. Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. ^ Degryse, P., 2014. Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project, Leuven University Press. ^ Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis. Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7. ^ a b Price, J., 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete. Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. ^ a b c d Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. ^ a b c Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain. Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. ^ Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2071-5, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. ^ Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, pp. 25–26, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, ISBN 0140560335 ^ Forbes, R. J., 1966. Studies in ancient technology V. Editors: Leiden, Brill. ^ Jackson, Caroline (2005). "Making colourless glass in the Roman period". Archaeometry. 47 (4): 763–780. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00231.x. ^ Evison, V. I., 1990. Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian. Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman glassware. Allen, D., 1998. Roman Glass in Britain. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. Amrein, H.,2001, L'atelier de verriers d'Avenches. L'artisanat du verre au milieu du 1er siècle après J.-C., Cahiers d'archéologie romande 87, Lausanne 2001. Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, et al., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses. Archaeometry 48/3, 399–414. Biek, L. and J. Bayley, 1979. Glass and other Vitreous Materials. World Archaeology 11, Early Chemical Technology/1, 1–25. Brill, R. H., 1999. Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain. In Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Caron, B., 1993. A Roman Figure-Engraved Glass Bowl. Metropolitan Museum Journal 28, 47–55. Degryse, P., 2014. Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project, Leuven University Press. Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions. Journal of Glass Studies 46, 67–83. Evison, V. I., 1990. Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian. In Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). In Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Fleming, S. J., 1999. Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Forbes, R. J., 1966. Studies in ancient technology V. Leiden, Brill. Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis. Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7. Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective. Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage: Geological Society of London. Special publication 257: 201–216. Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J., 2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus. Archaeometry 44, 257–272. Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares. Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. Gudenrath, W., 2006. Enameled Glass Vessels, 1425 BC – 1800: The decorating Process. Journal of Glass Studies 48, 23. Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York. Journal of Glass Studies 40, 55–61. Meredith, H. G., 2015. Word becomes Image: Open-Work Vessels as a Reflection of Late Antique Transformation. Archaeopress Archaeology Series. Oxford: Archaeopres. Price, J., 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete. Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Rutti, B., 1991. Early Enamelled Glass. In M. Newby and K. Painter (eds.) Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. Silvestri, A., G. Molin, et al., 2005. Roman and medieval glass from the Italian area: Bulk characterization and relationships with production technologies. Archaeometry 47/4, 797–816. Stern, E. M., Roman Mould-blown Glass. Rome, Italy: L'Erma di Bretschneider in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. Stern, E. M., 1991. Early Exports Beyond the Empire. Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. Stern, E. M., 1999. Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context. American Journal of Archaeology 103/3, 441–484. Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass. In: Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In: 9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre, Nancy, France: Editions du Centre de Publications de L'A.I.H.V. Whitehouse, D., 1990. Late Roman cameo glass. In: Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam. Whitehouse, D., 1991. Cameo Glass. Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London.(UK) Further reading[edit] Charlesworth, Dorothy (1959), "Roman glass in Northern Britain", Archaeologia Aeliana, Series 4, 37: 33–58 v t e Roman art topics Roman art periods Roman Republican art (509 BC - 27 BC) Augustan and Julio-Claudian art (44 BC - 69 AD) Flavian art (69 - 96) Trajanic art (98 - 117) Hadrianic art [it] (117 - 138) Art of the early Antonini [it] (138 - 180) Art in the age of Commodus [it] (180 -192) Severan art (193 - 253) Art in the age of Gallienus [it] (253 - 268) Art of Diocletian and the tetrarchy [it] (284 - 312) Constantinian art [it] (312 - 337) Theodosian art [it] (379 - 395) Types Roman architecture Roman funerary art Roman sarcophagi Roman glass Roman mosaic Roman painting Roman wall painting Roman pottery Roman sculpture Roman portraiture Related topics Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum Pompeian frescoes Roman graffiti Tintinnabulum Art in related cultures Ancient Greek art Byzantine art Early Christian art 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defined Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Español Français 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 Slovenščina 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 March 2021, at 23:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1239	----	Lucius Aelius Caesar - Wikipedia Lucius Aelius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Aelius Verus) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Roman nobleman and adoptive son of Hadrian (101-138) This article is about the adoptive son of Hadrian. For the Praetorian prefect called Lucius Aelius Sejanus, see Sejanus. This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Lucius Aelius Caesar" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2012) Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius, musée du Louvre Born 13 January 101 Died 1 January 138 (aged 36) Spouse Avidia Issue Lucius Verus Ceionia Fabia Ceionia Plautia Names Lucius Ceionius Commodus (from birth until adoption by Hadrian) Regnal name Lucius Aelius Caesar (as Imperial heir) Father Lucius Ceionius Commodus Hadrian (adoptive) Mother Plautia Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Lucius Aelius Caesar (13 January 101 – 1 January 138) was the father of Emperor Lucius Verus. In 136, he was adopted by Hadrian and named heir to the throne. He died before Hadrian and thus never became emperor. After Lucius' death, he was replaced by Antoninus Pius, who succeeded Hadrian the same year. Contents 1 Life and family 2 Heir to Hadrian 3 Death 4 Sources 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life and family[edit] Denarius of Aelius Denarius of Aelius' son, future Roman emperor Lucius Verus Aelius was born with the name Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and became Lucius Aelius Caesar upon his adoption as Hadrian's heir. He is often sometimes referred to as Lucius Aelius Verus, though this name is not attested outside the Augustan History, where it probably was originally the result of a manuscript error. The young Lucius Ceionius Commodus was of the gens Ceionia. His father, also named Lucius Ceionius Commodus (the author of the Augustan History adds the cognomen Verus), was consul in 106, and his paternal grandfather, also of the same name, was consul in 78. His paternal ancestors were from Etruria, and were of consular rank. His mother was a surmised but otherwise undocumented Roman woman named Plautia.[1] The Augustan History states that his maternal grandfather and his maternal ancestors were of consular rank. Before 130, the younger Lucius Commodus married Avidia, a well-connected Roman noblewoman who was the daughter of the senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus. Avidia bore Lucius two sons and two daughters, who were: Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger – He would become Lucius Verus Caesar, and would co-rule as Roman Emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 161 until his own death in 169. Verus would marry Lucilla, the second daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus – he is known from an inscription found in Rome. Ceionia Fabia – at the time of Marcus Aurelius's adoption, she was betrothed, as part of the adoption conditions, to him. Shortly after Antoninus Pius' ascension, Pius came to Aurelius and asked him to end his engagement to Fabia, instead marrying Antoninus Pius’ daughter Faustina the Younger; Faustina had originally been planned by Hadrian to wed Lucius Verus. Ceionia Plautia Heir to Hadrian[edit] Bust of Hadrian, Musei Capitolini For a long time, the emperor Hadrian had considered his brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus as his unofficial successor. As Hadrian's reign drew to a close, however, he changed his mind. Although the emperor certainly thought Servianus capable of ruling as an emperor after Hadrian's own death, Servianus, by now in his nineties, was clearly too old for the position. Hadrian's attentions turned to Servianus' grandson, Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, his great-nephew, gave him special status in his court, and groomed him as his heir. However, in late 136, Hadrian almost died from a haemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he decided to change his mind, and selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus as his new successor, adopting him as his son.[2] The selection was done invitis omnibus, "against the wishes of everyone";[3] in particular, Servianus and the young Salinator became very angry at Hadrian and wished to challenge him over the adoption. Even today, the rationale for Hadrian's sudden switch is still unclear.[4] It is possible Salinator went so far as to attempt a coup against Hadrian in which Servianus was implicated. In order to avoid any potential conflict in the succession, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Salinator and Servianus.[5] Although Lucius had no military experience, he had served as a senator, and had powerful political connections; however, he was in poor health. As part of his adoption, Lucius Ceionius Commodus took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. Death[edit] After a year's stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the senate on the first day of 138. The night before the speech, however, he grew ill, and died of a haemorrhage late the next day.[6][notes 1] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus (19 September 86 – 7 March 161) as his new successor.[8] After a few days' consideration, Antoninus accepted. He was adopted on 25 February. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus adopted both Lucius Aelius's son (properly called Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger) and Hadrian's great-nephew by marriage, Marcus Aurelius (26 April 121 – 17 March 180). Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus; Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus.[notes 2] At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[9] Marcus Aurelius later co-ruled with Lucius Verus as joint Roman Emperors, until Lucius Verus died in 169, after which Aurelius was sole ruler until his own death in 180. Sources[edit] The major sources for the life of Aelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century, but are in fact written by a single author (referred to here as "the biographer") from the later 4th century (c. 395).[10] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are a tissue of lies and fiction, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[10] For Aelius, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus and Lucius Verus are largely reliable, but that of Avidius Cassius, and even Lucius Aelius' own, is full of fiction.[11] Some other literary sources provide specific detail: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianus on Marcus' legal work.[12] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[13] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended the eventual post-Antoninus succession, anyway.[7] ^ The younger Lucius Commodus did not take the cognomen Verus until his joint accession with Marcus after the death of Pius. All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. References[edit] ^ Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettulani", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), pp. 306–315 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, pp. 291–292. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1–7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Antoninus Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65–74. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Aelius. Political offices Preceded by Publius Rutilius Fabianus, and Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus Aemilius Tuscillus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 136 with Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus Succeeded by Lucius Aelius Caesar II, and Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius as ordinary consuls Preceded by Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 137 with Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius Succeeded by Kanus Junius Niger, and Gaius Pomponius Camerinus as ordinary consuls Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Aelius_Caesar&oldid=1020829164" Categories: 101 births 138 deaths Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Romans Adult adoptees Aelii Ceionii Senators of the Roman Empire Caesars (heirs apparent) Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Ancient Roman adoptees Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Use dmy dates from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2012 All articles needing additional references Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 08:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1241	----	Wax tablet - Wikipedia Wax tablet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Writing implement in antiquity Wax tablet and a Roman stylus A wax tablet is a tablet made of wood and covered with a layer of wax, often linked loosely to a cover tablet, as a "double-leaved" diptych. It was used as a reusable and portable writing surface in Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages. Cicero's letters make passing reference to the use of cerae, and some examples of wax-tablets have been preserved in waterlogged deposits in the Roman fort at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall. Medieval wax tablet books are on display in several European museums. Writing on the wax surface was performed with a pointed instrument, a stylus. A straight-edged spatula-like implement (often placed on the opposite end of the stylus tip) would be used as an eraser. The modern expression of "a clean slate" equates to the Latin expression "tabula rasa". Writing with stylus and folding wax tablet. painter, Douris, ca 500 BC (Berlin). Wax tablets were used for a variety of purposes, from taking down students' or secretaries' notes to recording business accounts. Early forms of shorthand were used too. Contents 1 Use in antiquity 2 Use in medieval to modern times 3 References 4 Further reading Use in antiquity[edit] The earliest surviving exemplar of a boxwood writing tablet with an ivory hinge was among the finds recovered from the 14th-century BCE Uluburun Shipwreck near Kaş in modern Turkey in 1986.[1] This find further confirmed that the reference to writing tablets in Homer was far from anachronistic. An archaeological discovery in 1979 in Durrës, Albania found two wax tablets made of ivory in a grave believed to belong to a money lender from the 2nd century CE.[2] The Greeks probably started using the folding pair of wax tablets, along with the leather scroll in the mid-8th century BCE. Liddell & Scott, 1925 edition gives the etymology of the word for the writing-tablet, deltos (δέλτος), from the letter delta (Δ) based on ancient Greek and Roman authors and scripts, due to the shape of tablets to account for it.[3] An alternative theory holds that it has retained its Semitic designation, daltu, which originally signified "door" but was being used for writing tablets in Ugarit in the 13th century BCE. In Hebrew the term evolved into daleth.[4] In the first millennium BCE writing tablets were in use in Mesopotamia as well as Syria and Palestine. A carved stone panel dating to between 640-615 BCE that was excavated from the South-West Palace of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib, at Nineveh in Iraq (British Museum, ME 124955) depicts two figures, one clearly clasping a scroll and the other bearing what is thought to be an open diptych.[5] Berthe van Regemorter identified a similar figure in the Neo-Hittite Stela of Tarhunpiyas (Musée du Louvre, AO 1922.), dating to the late 8th century BCE, who is seen holding what may be a form of tablature with a unique button closure.[6][7] Writing tablets of ivory were found in the ruins of Sargon's palace in Nimrud.[8] Margaret Howard surmised that these tablets might have once been connected together using an ingenious hinging system with cut pieces of leather resembling the letter “H” inserted into slots along the edges to form a concertina structure.[9] Use in medieval to modern times[edit] Roman scribe with his stylus and tablets on his tomb stele at Flavia Solva in Noricum. Hériman of Tournai (1095—1147), a monk at the abbey of St Martin of Tournai, wrote "I even wrote down a certain amount on tablets".[10] A remarkable example of a wax tablet book are the servitude records which the hospital of Austria's oldest city, Enns, established in 1500. Ten wooden plates, sized 375 x 207 mm (14.76 x 8.15 inches) and arranged in a 90 mm (3.54 inch) stack, are each divided into two halves along their long axis. The annual payables due are written on parchment or paper glued to the left sides. Payables received were recorded for deduction (and subsequently erased) on the respective right sides, which are covered with brownish-black writing wax. The material is based on beeswax, and contains 5-10% plant oils and carbon pigments; its melting point is about 65 °C.[11] This volume is the continuation of an earlier one, which was begun in 1447. Wax tablets were used for high-volume business records of transient importance until the 19th century. For instance, the salt mining authority at Schwäbisch Hall employed wax records until 1812.[12] The fish market in Rouen used them even until the 1860s, where their construction and use had been well documented in 1849.[13] References[edit] ^ Payton, Robert (1991). "The Ulu Burun Writing-Board Set". Anatolian Studies. 41: 99–106. doi:10.2307/3642932. ^ "Wax Tablets Reveal Secrets of Ancient Illyria - Albanian Economy News". https://albanianeconomy.com/. External link in |website= (help) ^ Εntry δέλτος (deltos) at Liddell & Scott ^ Walter, Burkert (1995). The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 30. ^ "Stone Panel from the South-West Palace of Sennacherib (Room 28, Panel 9)". British Museum. Retrieved 8 January 2011. ^ Van Regemorter, Berthe (1958). "Le Codex Relié À L'époque Néo-Hittite". Scriptorium. 12: 177–81. ^ Szirmai, J.A. (1990). "Wooden Writing Tablets and the Birth of the Codex". Gazette du Livre Médèvale. 17: 31–32. ^ Wiseman, D.J. (1955). "Assyrian Writing Boards". Iraq. 17 (1): Plate III. doi:10.2307/4241713. ^ Howard, Margaret (1955). "Technical Description of the Ivory Writing-Boards from Nimrud". Iraq. 17 (1): 14–20, Fig. 7–11. doi:10.2307/4241714. ^ Herman of Tournai, Lynn Harry Nelson, ed. and tr. The Restoration of the Monastery of Saint Martin of Tournai "Prologue" p. 11. ^ Wilflingseder, F., 1964. "Die Urbare des Ennser Bürgerspitals aus den Jahren 1447 und 1500". Biblos 13, 134-45 ^ Büll, R., 1977. Wachs als Beschreib- und Siegelstoff. Wachstafeln und ihre Verwendung. In: Das große Buch vom Wachs. Vol. 2, 785-894 ^ Lalou E., 1992. "Inventaire des tablettes médiévales et présentation genérale". In: Les Tablettes à écrire de l'Antiquité à l'Epoque Moderne, pp. 233-288; esp. p. 280 and Fig. 13 Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wax tablets. Galling, K., 1971. "Tafel, Buch und Blatt" in Near Eastern Studies in Honour of W. F. Albright (Baltimore), pp 207–23. v t e Writing and writing material Enduring Plant-based Palm leaf (Borassus) Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Birch bark (Betula) Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Bamboo and wooden slips Paper Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Parabaik (Streblus asper) Samut khoi (S. asper) Kraing (Morus bark) Other materials Clay tablet Wax tablet Metals Stamping Intaglio Stone Animal skin Parchment Vellum Oracle bone Silk text Textile printing Geoglyph Ink Photographic film Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Inscription Bas-relief Scroll Manuscript Palimpsest Codex Book Sign Microform Electronic media Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wax_tablet&oldid=1010152705" Categories: Writing media Manuscripts by type Hidden categories: CS1 errors: external links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Frysk Italiano Kaszëbsczi Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 March 2021, at 01:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1272	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Sources== [[File:Marcus Aurelius bust Istanbul Archaeological Museum - inv. 5129 T.jpg|thumb|Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Archaeological Museum of Istanbul]], Turkey|alt=Bust of Marcus Aurelius]] The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the ''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'', claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.<ref>Rohrbacher, p. 5.</ref> The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources ([[Marius Maximus]] or Ignotus), are much more accurate.<ref name='Birley, 1889'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der ''Scriptoes Historiae Augustae{{'}}'' (in German), ''Hermes'' 24 (1889), pp. 337ff.</ref> For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius|Antoninus]], Marcus, and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius]] are largely reliable, but those of [[Aelius Verus]] and [[Avidius Cassius]] are not.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 230. On the ''HA Verus'', see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74.</ref> A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto|Fronto]] and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.<ref>Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.</ref><ref>Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</ref> Marcus's own ''Meditations'' offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 227.</ref> The main narrative source for the period is [[Cassius Dio]], a Greek senator from [[Bithynian]] [[Nicaea]] who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 228–229, 253.</ref> Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician [[Galen]] on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of [[Aelius Aristides]] on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the ''[[Digest (Roman law)|Digest]]'' and ''[[Codex Justinianeus]]'' on Marcus's legal work.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 227–28.</ref> [[Epigraphy|Inscriptions]] and [[numismatics|coin finds]] supplement the literary sources.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 228.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1273	----	File:Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, British Museum (23455313842).jpg - Wikipedia File:Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, British Museum (23455313842).jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 414 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 166 × 240 pixels | 332 × 480 pixels | 415 × 600 pixels | 531 × 768 pixels | 708 × 1,024 pixels | 1,416 × 2,048 pixels | 3,190 × 4,613 pixels. Original file ‎(3,190 × 4,613 pixels, file size: 10.42 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. 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en-wikipedia-org-1278	----	Stoic passions - Wikipedia Stoic passions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic passions are various forms of emotional suffering in Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy. Contents 1 Definition 2 Primary passions 3 Subdivisions 3.1 Distress 3.2 Fear 3.3 Lust 3.4 Delight 4 Good feelings 5 See also 6 Citations 7 References 8 External links Definition[edit] The passions are transliterated pathê from Greek.[1] The Greek word pathos was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers.[2] The Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as anger, fear and excessive joy.[3] A passion is a disturbing and misleading force in the mind which occurs because of a failure to reason correctly.[2] For the Stoic Chrysippus the passions are evaluative judgements.[4] A person experiencing such an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing.[5] A fault of judgement, some false notion of good or evil, lies at the root of each passion.[6] Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future.[6] Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress about the present, or fear for the future.[6] These states of feeling are disturbances of mental health which upset the natural balance of the soul, and destroy its self-control.[6] They are harmful because they conflict with right reason.[7] The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value,[6] and see that the passions are not natural.[8] To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is self-contained.[8] There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you.[8] Primary passions[edit] The Stoics beginning with Zeno arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust.[9] One report of the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise On Passions by Pseudo-Andronicus (trans. Long & Sedley, pg. 411, modified): Distress (lupē) Distress is an irrational contraction, or a fresh opinion that something bad is present, at which people think it right to be depressed. Fear (phobos) Fear is an irrational aversion, or avoidance of an expected danger. Lust (epithumia) Lust is an irrational desire, or pursuit of an expected good. Delight (hēdonē) Delight is an irrational swelling, or a fresh opinion that something good is present, at which people think it right to be elated. Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently present, and two of these (fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at the future.[9] Thus there are just two states directed at the prospect of good and evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or future:[10]   Present Future Good Delight Lust Evil Distress Fear Subdivisions[edit] Numerous subdivisions of the same class are brought under the head of the separate passions. The definitions are those of the translation of Cicero's Tusculan Disputations by J. E. King. Distress[edit] Envy Envy is distress incurred by reason of a neighbor's prosperity. Rivalry Rivalry is distress, should another be in possession of the object desired and one has to go without it oneself. Jealousy Jealousy is distress arising from the fact that the thing one has coveted oneself is in the possession of the other man as well as one's own. Compassion Compassion is distress arising from the wretchedness of a neighbor in undeserved suffering. Anxiety Anxiety is oppressive distress. Mourning Mourning is distress arising from the untimely death of a beloved object. Sadness Sadness is tearful distress. Troubling Troubling is burdensome distress. Grief Grief is torturing distress. Lamenting Distress accompanied by wailing. Depression Depression is distress accompanied by brooding. Vexation Vexation is lasting distress. Despondency Despondency is distress without any prospect of amelioration. Fear[edit] Sluggishness Sluggishness is fear of ensuing toil. Shame Shame is fear of disgrace. Fright Fright is paralyzing fear which causes paleness, trembling and chattering of teeth. Timidity Timidity is fear of approaching evil. Consternation Consternation is fear upsetting the mental balance. Pusillanimity Pusillanimity is fear following on the heels of fright like an attendant. Bewilderment Bewilderment is fear paralyzing thought. Faintheartedness Faintheartedness is lasting fear. Lust[edit] Anger Anger is lust of punishing the man who is thought to have inflicted an undeserved injury. Rage Rage is anger springing up and suddenly showing itself. Hatred Hatred is inveterate anger. Enmity Enmity is anger watching as opportunity for revenge. Wrath Wrath is anger of greater bitterness conceived in the innermost heart and soul. Greed Greed is insatiable lust. Longing Longing is lust of beholding someone who is not present. Delight[edit] Malice Malice is pleasure derived from a neighbor's evil which brings no advantage to oneself. Rapture Rapture is pleasure soothing the soul by charm of the sense of hearing. Ostentation Ostentation is pleasure shown in outward demeanor and puffing oneself out extravagantly. Good feelings[edit] The wise person (sophos) is someone who is free from the passions (apatheia). Instead the sage experiences good-feelings (eupatheia) which are clear-headed.[11] These emotional impulses are not excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions.[12][13] Instead they are the correct rational emotions.[13] The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy (chara), wish (boulesis), and caution (eulabeia).[5] Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then the wise person experiences an uplift in the soul—joy (chara).[14] The Stoics also subdivided the good-feelings:[15] Joy: Enjoyment Cheerfulness Good spirits Wish: Good intent Goodwill Welcoming Cherishing Love Caution: Moral shame Reverence See also[edit] On Passions Citations[edit] ^ Blank, David - "Philodemus"-2.2.4.4.2 On individual ethical topics (c.f. - 5th paragraph) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)(published Wed Apr 10, 2013; substantive revision Mon Aug 4, 2014) [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ a b Annas 1994, p. 103 ^ Annas 1994, p. 103-4 ^ Groenendijk, Leendert F. and de Ruyter, Doret J.(2009) 'Learning from Seneca: a Stoic perspective on the art of living and education', Ethics and Education, 4: 1, 81 — 92 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/17449640902816277 (alternative URL: here) [Retrieved 2015-3-18] ^ a b Annas 1994, p. 114 ^ a b c d e Capes 1880, p. 47 ^ Annas 1994, p. 113 ^ a b c Capes 1880, p. 48 ^ a b Sorabji 2000, p. 29 ^ Graver 2007, p. 54 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 705 ^ Annas 1994, p. 115 ^ a b Graver 2007, p. 52 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 701 ^ Graver 2007, p. 58 References[edit] Annas, Julia (1994), Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-07659-4 Capes, William Wolfe (1880), Stoicism, Pott, Young, & Co. Graver, Margaret (2007), Stoicism and Emotion, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-30557-8 Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-25028-3 Sorabji, Richard (2000), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-198-25005-0 Andronicus, "On Passions I," Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, 3.391. ed. Hans von Arnim. 1903–1905. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1945 c. 1927). Cicero : Tusculan Disputations (Loeb Classical Library, No. 141) 2nd Ed. trans. by J. E. King. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP. Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] The Passions according to the Classical Stoa The Primary Passions v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Emotions (list) Emotions Acceptance Admiration Adoration Aesthetic Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Boredom Calmness Compassion Confidence Contempt Contentment Courage Cruelty Curiosity Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Embarrassment vicarious Empathy Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Faith Fear Flow Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hygge Hysteria Indulgence Infatuation Insecurity Inspiration Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Love limerence Lust Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity self-pity Pleasure Pride grandiosity hubris insult vanity Rage Regret Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness melancholy Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Social connection Sorrow Spite Stress chronic Suffering Surprise Sympathy Trust Wonder Worry Worldviews Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz Related Affect consciousness in education measures in psychology Affective computing forecasting neuroscience science spectrum Affectivity positive negative Appeal to emotion Emotion and art and memory and music and sex classification evolution expressed functional accounts group homeostatic in animals perception recognition in conversation regulation interpersonal work Emotional aperture bias blackmail competence conflict contagion detachment dysregulation eating exhaustion expression intelligence and bullying intimacy isolation lability labor lateralization literacy prosody reasoning responsivity security selection symbiosis well-being Emotionality bounded Emotions and culture history in decision-making in the workplace in virtual communication moral self-conscious social social sharing sociology Feeling Gender and emotional expression Group affective tone Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems Jealousy in art Meta-emotion Pathognomy Pathos Social emotional development Stoic passions Theory affect appraisal constructed emotion discrete emotion somatic marker Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoic_passions&oldid=1020290060" Categories: Stoicism Emotion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Suomi Татарча/tatarça Edit links This page was last edited on 28 April 2021, at 08:25 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1279	----	Stoicism - Wikipedia Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Stoic philosophy) Jump to navigation Jump to search School of Hellenistic Greek philosophy Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, in the Farnese collection, Naples – Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969. Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to eudaimonia (happiness, or blessedness) is found in accepting the moment as it presents itself, by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain, by using one's mind to understand the world and to do one's part in nature's plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in themselves (adiaphora), but have value as "material for virtue to act upon". Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness", a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm", though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.[3] Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[4] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Origins 1.2 Modern usage 2 Basic tenets 3 History 4 Logic 4.1 Propositional logic 4.2 Categories 4.3 Epistemology 5 Physics 6 Ethics 6.1 The doctrine of "things indifferent" 6.2 Spiritual exercise 7 Social philosophy 8 Influence on Christianity 9 Stoic philosophers 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Studies 13 External links Name[edit] Origins[edit] Stoicism was originally known as "Zenonism", after the founder Zeno of Citium. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise, and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.[5] The name "Stoicism" derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes, on the north side of the Agora in Athens, where Zeno and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.[6][7] Sometimes Stoicism is therefore referred to as "The Stoa", or the philosophy of "The Porch".[5] Modern usage[edit] The word "stoic" commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.[8] The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently" was first cited in 1579 as a noun and in 1596 as an adjective.[9] In contrast to the term "Epicurean", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins."[10] Basic tenets[edit] Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. — Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature."[11] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[12] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[13] The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[11] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",[12] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[14] History[edit] Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch"), from which his philosophy got its name.[15] Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Bust of Seneca Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater. Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survive from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive.[16] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire,[17] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics."[18] Logic[edit] Main article: Stoic logic Propositional logic[edit] Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking."[19] Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes."[19] Categories[edit] Main article: Stoic categories The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.[20] Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[21] They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.[22] Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories. substance (ὑποκείμενον) The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are made of quality (ποιόν) The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter somehow disposed (πως ἔχον) Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον) Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects Make for yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object that is presented to you in life, and always to look at things so as to see at the same time what kind of universe this is, and what kind of use everything performs in it, and what value everything has with reference to the whole. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iii. 11 Stoics outlined what we have control over categories of our own action, thoughts and reaction. The opening paragraph of The Enchiridion states the categories as: "Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in a word, whatever are not our own actions." These suggest a space that is within our own control. Epistemology[edit] The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[23] The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. Physics[edit] Main article: Stoic physics See also: De Mundo According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos),[24] known as God or Nature, which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".[25] The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (logos),[24] is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. — Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39 Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40 Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[26] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis", conflagration) and re-created again,[27] and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also Eternal return). Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[28] According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason[24] or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.[29] The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.[30][31] Ethics[edit] Ancient stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts than today. The word "stoic" has since come to mean "unemotional" or indifferent to pain because Stoic ethics taught freedom from "passion" by following "reason". The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute "askēsis", that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm.[32] Logic, reflection, and focus were the methods of such self-discipline, temperance is split into self-control, discipline, and modesty. Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads".[citation needed] One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of pathos (plural pathe) translated here as passion was "anguish" or "suffering",[33] that is, "passively" reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word. Terms used in Stocism related to pathos include propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings that result from the correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment. The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; literally, "without passion") or peace of mind,[34] where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense—being objective or having "clear judgment" and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. According to reason and virtue, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426–435): Wisdom (Greek: φρόνησις "phronesis" or σοφία "sophia", Latin: prudentia or sapientia) Courage (Greek: ανδρεία "andreia", Latin: fortitudo) Justice (Greek: δικαιοσύνη "dikaiosyne", Latin: iustitia) Temperance (Greek: σωφροσύνη "sophrosyne", Latin: temperantia) Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness. The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy: to examine one's own judgments and behavior and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature. The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life.[35] Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[36] Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease,[35] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[37] The doctrine of "things indifferent"[edit] Main article: Adiaphora See also: Eudaimonia In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law—that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekonta, "convenient actions", or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes). As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent" developed: things to prefer because they assist life according to nature; things to avoid because they hinder it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense. The principle of adiaphora was also common to the Cynics. Philipp Melanchthon revived the doctrine of things indifferent during the Renaissance. Spiritual exercise[edit] Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, mortality salience, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to mindfulness and some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions e.g. with journaling. Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II.I: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of the ignorance of real good and ill ... I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together ... Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[38] According to French philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.[39] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[40] Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice.[41] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified.[42] Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. Three such consolations by Seneca have survived. Stoics commonly employ ‘The View from Above’, reflecting on society and otherness in guided visualization, aiming to gain a "bigger picture", to see ourselves in context relevant to others, to see others in the context of the world, to see ourselves in the context of the world to help determine our role and the importance of happenings. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, in Book 7.48 it is stated; A fine reflection from Plato. One who would converse about human beings should look on all things earthly as though from some point far above, upon herds, armies, and agriculture, marriages and divorces, births and deaths, the clamour of law courts, deserted wastes, alien peoples of every kind, festivals, lamentations, and markets, this intermixture of everything and ordered combination of opposites. Social philosophy[edit] A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism; according to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy."[43] This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said, "I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world."[44] They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."[45] Influence on Christianity[edit] See also: Neostoicism Justus Lipsius, founder of Neostoicism In St. Ambrose of Milan's Duties, "The voice is the voice of a Christian bishop, but the precepts are those of Zeno."[46][47] Regarding what he called "the Divine Spirit", Maxwell Staniforth wrote: Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's 'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly, it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated—in the Christian as in the Stoic mind—with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.[48] Regarding the Trinity, Staniforth wrote: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the Holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.[48] The apostle Paul met with Stoics during his stay in Athens, reported in Acts 17:16–18. In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of Christianity.[49] Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of St. Ambrose, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[50] The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[51][52] nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[28] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,[28] and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic writings such as Meditations by Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day. Middle and Roman Stoics taught that sex is just within marriage, for unitive and procreative purposes only.[53][54] This teaching is accepted by the Catholic Church to this day.[55] Saint Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. Stoic philosophers[edit] Main article: List of Stoic philosophers Zeno of Citium (332–262 BC), founder of Stoicism and the Stoic Academy (Stoa) in Athens Aristo of Chios (fl. 260 BC), pupil of Zeno; Herillus of Carthage (fl. 3rd century BC) Cleanthes (of Assos) (330–232 BC), second head of Stoic Academy Chrysippus (280–204 BC), third head of the academy Diogenes of Babylon (230–150 BC) Antipater of Tarsus (210–129 BC) Panaetius of Rhodes (185–109 BC) Posidonius of Apameia (c. 135–51 BC) Diodotus (c. 120–59 BC), teacher of Cicero Cato the Younger (94–46 BC) Seneca (4 BC – 65 AD) Gaius Musonius Rufus (1st century AD) Rubellius Plautus (33–62 AD) Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (1st century AD) Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (1st century AD) Epictetus (55–135 AD) Hierocles (2nd century AD) Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD) See also[edit] 4 Maccabees Ecclesiastes Dehellenization Deixis Glossary of Stoic terms Ekpyrosis, palingenesis, apocatastasis Ekpyrotic universe (cosmological theory) List of Stoic philosophers Megarian school Oikeiôsis Stoic passions Paradoxa Stoicorum Plank of Carneades Sage (philosophy) Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta "Stoic Opposition" Tirukkural References[edit] ^ Sharpe, Matthew. "Stoic Virtue Ethics." Handbook of Virtue Ethics, 2013, 28–41. ^ John Sellars. Stoicism, 2006, p. 32. ^ Stoicism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). A New Stoicism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400822447. ^ a b Robertson, Donald (2018). Stoicism and the Art of Happiness. Great Britain: John Murray. ^ "Definition of STOIC". ^ Williamson, D. (1 April 2015). Kant's Theory of Emotion: Emotional Universalism. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-49810-6. ^ "Modern Stoicism | Build The Fire". Build The Fire. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary – Stoic". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (13 December 2004). "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Stoicism". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 254 ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 264 ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 253. ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4 ^ Becker, Lawrence (2003). A History of Western Ethics. New York: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-96825-6. ^ A.A.Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 115. ^ Amos, H. (1982). These Were the Greeks. Chester Springs: Dufour Editions. ISBN 978-0-8023-1275-4. OCLC 9048254. ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (1946). ^ a b Ancient Logic by Susanne Bobzien. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Jacques Brunschwig, Stoic Metaphysics in The Cambridge Companion to Stoics, ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, p.206-32 ^ Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton) ^ Marcelo D. Boeri, The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723-752 ^ Diogenes Laërtius (2000). Lives of eminent philosophers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VII.49 ^ a b c Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan Monotheism and Pagan Cult". "Theism" and Related Categories in the Study of Ancient Religions. SCS/AIA Annual Meeting. 75.4. Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies (University of Pennsylvania). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Historical authors generally refer to “the divine” (to theion) or “the supernatural” (to daimonion) rather than simply “God.” [...] The Stoics, believed in a God identifiable with the logos or hegemonikon (reason or leading principle) of the universe and downgraded the traditional gods, who even disappear during the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical discourse, generally speak of this God, not the gods, as responsible for the creation and providence of the universe. 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Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ Seddon, Keith (2005). Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes. New York: Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-415-32451-9. OCLC 469313282. ^ a b Don E. Marietta, (1998), Introduction to ancient philosophy, pp. 153–54. Sharpe ^ Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. (2007). "Cato's suicide in Plutarch AV Zadorojnyi". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (1): 216–230. doi:10.1017/S0009838807000195. ^ William Braxton Irvine, (2009), A guide to the good life: the ancient art of Stoic joy, p. 200. Oxford University Press ^ Davidson, A.I. (1995) Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy, in Philosophy as a Way of Life, Hadot, P. Oxford Blackwells, pp. 9–10 ^ Hadot, P. (1992) La Citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle. Paris, Fayard, pp. 106–15 ^ Hadot, P. (1987) Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135. ^ Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". Reflective Practice. 10 (4): 429–36. doi:10.1080/14623940903138266. S2CID 219711815. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 5. 26 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 9. 1 ^ Seneca, Moral letters to Lucilius, Letter 47: On master and slave, 10, circa AD 65. ^ "On the Duties of the Clergy". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 1 March 2017. ^ Aurelius, Marcus (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1958, p. 208. ISBN 978-0139365911 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Stoicism. §Stoic elements in Pauline and patristic thought ^ Agathias. Histories, 2.31. ^ David, Sedley. "Ancient philosophy". In E. Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 October 2008. ^ Musonius Rufus. "Lecture XII "On Sexual Indulgence"." Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates (Lectures and Fragments), Introduction and Translation by Cora E. Lutz, From Volume X of the Yale Classical Studies, Yale University Press, 1947 ^ The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. From University of California Press, 2003 ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 2366. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008. Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint Edition, January 1955. Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995. Irvine, William, A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0-19-537461-2 Hadas, Moses (ed.), Essential Works of Stoicism, Bantam Books 1961. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928. Long, George, Discourses of Epictetus, Kessinger Publishing, January 2004. Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0-14-044210-3 Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0-14-044140-9, or translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0-679-64260-9. Also Available on wikisource translated by various translators Oates, Whitney Jennings, The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius, Random House, 9th printing 1940. Studies[edit] Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, May 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) ISBN 0-691-01660-7 Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006) Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Hall, Ron, Secundum Naturam (According to Nature). Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021. Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0-253-22376-8 Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0-520-22974-6 Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1 Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1-84465-053-7 Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London: Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0-8264-9608-3 Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0-521-82709-4 Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892 External links[edit] Library resources about Stoicism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to: Stoicism Listen to this article (43 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 30 September 2019 (2019-09-30), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). The Stoic Therapy eLibrary The Stoic Library Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic "A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012. 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en-wikipedia-org-127	----	Barea Soranus - Wikipedia Barea Soranus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman senator, consul and provincial governor Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman senator who lived in the reign of Nero. He was suffect consul in 52, but later attracted the hatred of Nero, and upon being condemned to death committed suicide. He was associated with a group of Stoics opposed to the perceived tyranny and autocratic tendencies of certain emperors, known today as the Stoic Opposition. Contents 1 Life and career 2 Trial and death 3 Family 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 References 6 Further reading Life and career[edit] Soranus was a member of the gens Marcia; his father, Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus, had been a suffect consul as well as governor of Africa. His brother was Quintus Marcius Barea Sura, friend of the future emperor Vespasian and maternal grandfather of Trajan. His career prior to becoming consul is not well known. Subsequent to holding the fasces, Soranus was governor of Asia around 61/62.[1] During this tenure, the Emperor Nero had ordered his freedman Acrato to take away the works of art of the city of Pergamon, but the people revolted; Soranus refused to follow the orders of the Emperor and punish its citizens.[1] Trial and death[edit] Soranus was accused by Ostorius Sabinus, an equestrian, of being friends with Rubellius Plautus (another object of Nero's hatred), and for inciting the citizens of Asia to revolt.[2] One of the chief witnesses against him was Egnatius Celer of Berytus, his client and former tutor. Soranus' daughter, Servilia, was also accused of having hired a sorcerer (magi), and was tried together with her father.[2] Servilia confessed that she had consulted an astrologer, but only to pray in honor of her father and the emperor;[3] Soranus asked that his daughter be spared because she was not involved in the conspiracy or aware of the misdeeds of her husband, Gaius Annius Pollio.[4] In the end, Soranus was condemned to death (in 65 or 66), and committed suicide.[5] Family[edit] Soranus is known to have one daughter, Marcia Servilia Sorana, better known as "Servilia".[6] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ a b Tacitus, Annals, xvi.23 ^ a b Tacitus, Annals, xvi.30 ^ Tacitus, Annals, xvi.31 ^ Tacitus, Annals, xvi.32 ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Soranus, Barea". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 430. ^ Julian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps (Routledge, 2003), p. 13 ISBN 978-11-3470-914-4 Further reading[edit] Tacitus, Histories iv.10 Juvenal, Satire III.116 Dio Cassius, lxii.26 Political offices Preceded by Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus as ordinary consul Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 52 with Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix Succeeded by Lucius Salvidienus Rufus Salvianus as suffect consul Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barea_Soranus&oldid=982638798" Categories: 60s deaths Senators of the Roman Empire Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Asia 1st-century Romans Marcii Ancient Romans who committed suicide People executed by the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Italiano Latina Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2020, at 11:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-129	----	Toulouse - Wikipedia Toulouse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prefecture and commune in Occitanie, France For other uses, see Toulouse (disambiguation). Prefecture and commune in Occitanie, France Toulouse Tolosa  (Occitan) Prefecture and commune Hôpital de La Grave, Ariane 5 (Cité de l'espace), Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Place du Capitole, the first Airbus A380, Musée des Augustins Coat of arms Motto(s): Per Tolosa totjorn mai (Occitan for '"For Toulouse, always more"') Location of Toulouse Toulouse Show map of France Toulouse Show map of Occitanie Coordinates: 43°36′16″N 1°26′38″E / 43.6045°N 1.444°E / 43.6045; 1.444Coordinates: 43°36′16″N 1°26′38″E / 43.6045°N 1.444°E / 43.6045; 1.444 Country France Region Occitanie Department Haute-Garonne Arrondissement Toulouse Canton Toulouse-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 Intercommunality Toulouse Métropole Government  • Mayor (2020–2026) Jean-Luc Moudenc (LR) Area1 118.3 km2 (45.7 sq mi)  • Urban (2017) 811.6 km2 (313.4 sq mi)  • Metro (2010) 5,381.5 km2 (2,077.8 sq mi) Population (Jan. 2018)[1] 486,828  • Rank 4th in France  • Density 4,100/km2 (11,000/sq mi)  • Urban (Jan. 2017[2]) 968,638  • Urban density 1,200/km2 (3,100/sq mi)  • Metro (Jan. 2017[3]) 1,360,829  • Metro density 250/km2 (650/sq mi) Demonym(s) English: Toulousian French: Toulousain(e) Occitan: tolosenc(a) Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST) INSEE/Postal code 31555 / Website www.toulouse.fr 1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. Toulouse (/tuːˈluːz/ too-LOOZ,[4] French: [tuluz] (listen); Occitan: Tolosa [tuˈluzɔ]; Latin: Tolosa [tɔˈloːsa]) is the capital of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the region of Occitanie. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, 150 kilometres (93 miles) from the Mediterranean Sea, 230 km (143 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean and 680 km (420 mi) from Paris. It is the fourth-largest city in France, with 479,553 inhabitants within its municipal boundaries (as of January 2017), and 1,360,829 inhabitants within its wider metropolitan area (also as of January 2017), after Paris, Lyon and Marseille, and ahead of Lille and Bordeaux. Toulouse is the centre of the European aerospace industry, with the headquarters of Airbus (formerly EADS), the SPOT satellite system, ATR and the Aerospace Valley. It also hosts the European headquarters of Intel and CNES's Toulouse Space Centre (CST), the largest space centre in Europe.[5] Thales Alenia Space, ATR, SAFRAN, Liebherr-Aerospace and Airbus Defence and Space also have a significant presence in Toulouse. The University of Toulouse is one of the oldest in Europe (founded in 1229) and, with more than 103,000 students, it is the fourth-largest university campus in France, after the universities of Paris, Lyon and Lille.[6] The air route between Toulouse–Blagnac and the Paris airports is the busiest in France, transporting 3.2 million passengers in 2019.[7] According to the rankings of L'Express and Challenges, Toulouse is the most dynamic French city.[8][9][10] Founded by the Romans, the city was the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom in the 5th century and the capital of the province of Languedoc in the Late Middle Ages and early modern period (provinces were abolished during the French Revolution), making it the unofficial capital of the cultural region of Occitania (Southern France). It is now the capital of the Occitanie region, the second largest region in Metropolitan France. Toulouse counts three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Canal du Midi (designated in 1996 and shared with other cities), and the Basilica of St. Sernin, the largest remaining Romanesque building in Europe,[11] designated in 1998 along with the former hospital Hôtel-Dieu Saint-Jacques because of their significance to the Santiago de Compostela pilgrimage route. The city's unique architecture made of pinkish terracotta bricks has earned Toulouse the nickname La Ville Rose ("The Pink City").[citation needed] Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Hydrography 1.2 Climate 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 County of Toulouse 2.3 Kingdom of France 2.4 19th century 2.5 20th and 21th centuries 3 Population 4 Government and politics 4.1 Toulouse Métropole 4.2 Local politics 4.3 Mayors 5 Sights and architecture 5.1 Romanesque architecture (11th-12th c.) 5.1.1 Basilica of Saint-Sernin 5.2 Gothic architecture (13th c.-early 16th c.) 5.2.1 Southern French Gothic: a militant religious architecture 5.2.2 Gothic civil architecture 5.3 Renaissance architecture 5.4 17th century architecture 5.4.1 17th century religious architecture 5.4.2 17th century civil architecture 5.5 18th century architecture 5.6 19th and 20th century architecture 5.7 Banks of the Garonne, Canal du Midi, parks 5.8 Museums and theme parks 6 Economy 7 Education 7.1 Colleges and universities 7.2 Primary and secondary schools 8 Transport 8.1 Train 8.2 Metro 8.3 Tramway 8.4 Bicycle 8.5 Airports 8.6 Canal 8.7 Toulouse public transportation statistics 9 Communications 10 Culture 11 Sport 12 Notable people 13 International relations 13.1 Twin towns and sister cities 13.2 Other cooperations 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Sources 17 External links Geography[edit] Toulouse is in the south of France, north of the department of Haute-Garonne, on the axis of communication between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Hydrography[edit] The city is traversed by the Canal de Brienne, the Canal du Midi and the rivers Garonne, Touch and Hers-Mort. Climate[edit] Toulouse has a temperate humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification). Too much precipitation during the summer months prevents the city from being classified as a Mediterranean climate zone. Toulouse Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     51     10 2     42     11 3     49     15 5     70     17 7     74     21 11     60     25 14     38     28 17     47     28 17     47     25 13     57     20 11     51     13 6     52     10 3 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     2     49 36     1.6     52 37     1.9     58 41     2.7     63 45     2.9     70 52     2.4     77 58     1.5     82 62     1.8     82 62     1.9     76 56     2.2     67 51     2     56 42     2.1     50 38 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Climate data for Toulouse (TLS), elevation: 151 m (495 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1947–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 21.2 (70.2) 24.1 (75.4) 27.1 (80.8) 30.0 (86.0) 33.4 (92.1) 40.2 (104.4) 40.2 (104.4) 40.7 (105.3) 35.3 (95.5) 30.8 (87.4) 24.3 (75.7) 21.1 (70.0) 40.7 (105.3) Average high °C (°F) 9.5 (49.1) 11.1 (52.0) 14.5 (58.1) 17.0 (62.6) 21.0 (69.8) 25.2 (77.4) 28.0 (82.4) 27.9 (82.2) 24.6 (76.3) 19.5 (67.1) 13.3 (55.9) 9.9 (49.8) 18.5 (65.3) Daily mean °C (°F) 5.9 (42.6) 7.0 (44.6) 9.8 (49.6) 12.1 (53.8) 16.0 (60.8) 19.7 (67.5) 22.3 (72.1) 22.2 (72.0) 19.0 (66.2) 15.0 (59.0) 9.5 (49.1) 6.5 (43.7) 13.8 (56.8) Average low °C (°F) 2.4 (36.3) 3.0 (37.4) 5.0 (41.0) 7.1 (44.8) 10.9 (51.6) 14.3 (57.7) 16.5 (61.7) 16.5 (61.7) 13.4 (56.1) 10.5 (50.9) 5.8 (42.4) 3.2 (37.8) 9.1 (48.4) Record low °C (°F) −18.6 (−1.5) −19.2 (−2.6) −8.4 (16.9) −3.0 (26.6) −0.8 (30.6) 4.0 (39.2) 7.6 (45.7) 5.5 (41.9) 1.9 (35.4) −3.0 (26.6) −7.5 (18.5) −12.0 (10.4) −19.2 (−2.6) Average precipitation mm (inches) 51.3 (2.02) 41.6 (1.64) 49.1 (1.93) 69.6 (2.74) 74.0 (2.91) 60.3 (2.37) 37.7 (1.48) 46.8 (1.84) 47.4 (1.87) 57.0 (2.24) 51.1 (2.01) 52.4 (2.06) 638.3 (25.13) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 9.2 7.8 8.6 9.6 9.9 7.1 5.0 6.1 6.5 8.1 9.2 8.6 95.7 Average snowy days 2.1 2.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.6 7.5 Average relative humidity (%) 87 82 77 76 76 72 68 71 74 81 85 88 78 Mean monthly sunshine hours 92.5 115.0 175.1 186.1 209.2 227.6 252.6 238.8 204.0 149.2 96.0 85.3 2,031.3 Source 1: Meteo France[12][13] Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990)[14] Climate data for Toulouse–Francazal, elevation: 164 m (538 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1922–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 23.3 (73.9) 24.8 (76.6) 28.3 (82.9) 29.9 (85.8) 33.9 (93.0) 39.3 (102.7) 40.2 (104.4) 44.0 (111.2) 36.0 (96.8) 35.4 (95.7) 27.0 (80.6) 26.9 (80.4) 44.0 (111.2) Average high °C (°F) 9.7 (49.5) 11.1 (52.0) 14.5 (58.1) 16.9 (62.4) 20.9 (69.6) 25.0 (77.0) 28.0 (82.4) 28.0 (82.4) 24.6 (76.3) 19.5 (67.1) 13.4 (56.1) 10.1 (50.2) 18.5 (65.3) Daily mean °C (°F) 6.1 (43.0) 7.2 (45.0) 9.9 (49.8) 12.2 (54.0) 16.1 (61.0) 19.8 (67.6) 22.4 (72.3) 22.3 (72.1) 19.1 (66.4) 15.2 (59.4) 9.7 (49.5) 6.8 (44.2) 13.9 (57.0) Average low °C (°F) 2.6 (36.7) 3.3 (37.9) 5.4 (41.7) 7.4 (45.3) 11.3 (52.3) 14.7 (58.5) 16.8 (62.2) 16.7 (62.1) 13.7 (56.7) 10.8 (51.4) 6.1 (43.0) 3.4 (38.1) 9.4 (48.9) Record low °C (°F) −19.0 (−2.2) −16.7 (1.9) −7.4 (18.7) −4.1 (24.6) 0.1 (32.2) 4.5 (40.1) 7.0 (44.6) 7.3 (45.1) 0.0 (32.0) −2.6 (27.3) −8.5 (16.7) −13.4 (7.9) −19.0 (−2.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 50.4 (1.98) 38.5 (1.52) 45.9 (1.81) 65.7 (2.59) 73.7 (2.90) 58.0 (2.28) 38.5 (1.52) 42.7 (1.68) 51.9 (2.04) 55.4 (2.18) 52.4 (2.06) 52.5 (2.07) 625.6 (24.63) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 8.5 7.1 8.2 10.0 9.6 7.0 4.9 6.2 6.3 8.2 8.8 8.7 93.4 Average snowy days 2.1 2.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.6 7.5 Average relative humidity (%) 87 82 77 76 76 72 68 71 74 81 85 88 78 Mean monthly sunshine hours 93.1 116.6 173.6 186.7 207.5 224.8 246.8 234.9 202.5 147.9 94.9 85.4 2,014.5 Source: Meteo France[15] History[edit] Main articles: History of Toulouse and Timeline of Toulouse The remains of the Roman wall in Toulouse illustrate the early use of brick and stone in construction. Early history[edit] The Garonne Valley was a central point for trade between the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic since at least the Iron Age. The historical name of the city, Tolosa (Τολῶσσα in Greek, and of its inhabitants, the Tolosates, first recorded in the 2nd century BC), is of unknown meaning or origin, possibly from Aquitanian or Iberian,[16] but it has also been connected to the name of the Gaulish Volcae Tectosages.[17] Tolosa enters the historical period in the 2nd century BC, when it became a Roman military outpost. After the conquest of Gaul, it was developed as a Roman city in Gallia Narbonensis. Under the reign of Emperor Augustus and thanks to the Pax Romana, the Romans moved the city a few kilometres from the hills where it was an oppidum to the banks of the Garonne, which were more suitable for trade. Around the year 250, Toulouse was marked by the martyrdom of Saturnin, the first bishop of Toulouse. This episode illustrates the difficult beginnings of Christianity in Roman Gaul. In the 5th century, Tolosa fell to the Visigothic kingdom and became one of its major cities, in the early 6th century even serving as its capital, before it fell to the Franks under Clovis in 507 (Battle of Vouillé). From that time, Toulouse was the capital of Aquitaine within the Frankish realm.[18][citation needed] In 721, Duke Odo of Aquitaine defeated an invading Umayyad Muslim army at the Battle of Toulouse. Many Arab chroniclers consider that Odo's victory was the real stop to Muslim expansion into Christian Europe, incursions of the following years being simple raids without real will of conquest (including the one that ended with Charles Martel's victory at the Battle of Tours, also called the Battle of Poitiers).[19] The Frankish conquest of Septimania followed in the 750s, and a quasi-independent County of Toulouse emerged within the Carolingian sub-kingdom of Aquitaine by the late 8th century. The Battle of Toulouse of 844, pitting Charles the Bald against Pepin II of Aquitaine, was key in the Carolingian Civil War. County of Toulouse[edit] Further information: County of Toulouse Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse was a leader of the First Crusade Over nearly 5 centuries the capitouls held an exceptional collection of their portraits in the municipal annals. St Dominic's room at Maison Seilhan is considered the birthplace of the Dominican Order. The vast Hall of the Illustrious (Salle des Illustres) in the Capitole presents numerous paintings and sculptures illustrating the history of Toulouse. In 1096, Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, left with his army at the call of the Pope to join the First Crusade, of which he was one of the main leaders. In the 12th century the notables of the city took advantage of a weakening of the county power to obtain for their city a great autonomy, they created a municipal body of consuls (called capitouls in Toulouse) to lead the city. At the beginning of the thirteenth century the county of Toulouse was taken in another crusade, of which it was the target this time. The reason for this was the development of Catharism in the south of France, which the Pope wanted to eradicate by all possible means. This struggle took on several aspects, going beyond the military crusade, such as the creation of an original and militant Gothic architecture: the Southern French Gothic. In 1215, the Dominican Order was founded in Toulouse by Saint Dominic in the context of struggle against the Cathar heresy. In the Treaty of Paris of 1229, Toulouse formally submitted to the crown of France. The county's sole heiress Joan was engaged to Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, a younger brother of Louis IX of France. The marriage became legal in 1241, but it remained childless and so after Joan's death, the county fell to the Crown of France by inheritance. Also in 1229, University of Toulouse was established after the Parisian model, intended as a means to dissolve the heretic movement.[citation needed] Various monastic orders, like the congregation of the order of frères prêcheurs, were started. They found home in Les Jacobins.[citation needed] In parallel, a long period of inquisition began inside the Toulouse walls. The fear of repression forced the leading figures to exile or to convert themselves. The inquisition lasted nearly 400 years, making Toulouse its capital.[citation needed] Kingdom of France[edit] In 1271, Toulouse was incorporated into the kingdom of France and declared a "royal city".[citation needed] In 1323 the Consistori del Gay Saber was created in Toulouse to preserve the lyric art of the troubadours by organizing a poetry contest; and Toulouse became the centre of Occitan literary culture for the next hundred years. The Consistori del Gay Saber is considered to be the oldest literary society in Europe, at the origin of the most sophisticated treatise on grammar and rhetoric of the Middle Ages, and in 1694 it was transformed into the Royal Academy of the Floral Games (Académie des Jeux Floraux), still active today, by king Louis XIV. The 14th century brought a pogrom against Toulouse's Jewish population by Crusaders in 1320,[20] the Black Death in 1348, then the Hundred Years' War. Despite strong immigration, the population lost 10,000 inhabitants in 70 years. By 1405 Toulouse had only 19,000 people.[21] The situation improved in the 15th century.[22] Charles VII established the second parliament of France after that of Paris. Reinforcing its place as an administrative center, the city grew richer, participating in the trade of Bordeaux wine with England, as well as cereals and textiles. A major source of income was the production and export of pastel, a blue dye made from woad.[23] The fortune generated by this international trade was at the origin of several of Toulouse's superb Renaissance mansions. In 1562 the French Wars of Religion began and Toulouse became an ultra-Catholic stronghold in a predominantly Protestant region, the era of economic prosperity came to an end. The governor of Languedoc, Henri II de Montmorency, who had rebelled, was executed in 1632 in the Capitole in the presence of King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu. In 1666 Pierre-Paul Riquet started the construction of the Canal du Midi which links Toulouse to the Mediterranean Sea, and is considered one of the greatest construction works of the 17th century. Completed in 1681, the canal stimulated the economy of Toulouse by promoting the export of cereals (wheat and corn) and the import of oil and other goods from the Mediterranean regions. In the 18th century, Toulouse was a provincial capital that prided itself on its royal academies (the only city in France, along with Paris, to have three royal academies), but seemed far removed from the debates of ideas that agitated the Enlightenment. A famous example illustrates this backwardness of Toulouse mentalities of the time: in 1762 its powerful Parliament sentenced Jean Calas to death. The philosopher Voltaire then accused the Parliament of Toulouse of religious intolerance (Calas was a Protestant), gave the affair a European repercussion and succeeded in having the judgment of the Parliament quashed by the King's Council, which did much damage to the reputation of the Parliament. It was on this occasion that Voltaire published one of his major philosophical works: his famous Treatise on Tolerance. With the French Revolution of 1789 and the reform or suppression of all royal institutions, Toulouse lost much of its power and influence: until then the capital of the vast province of Languedoc, with a Parliament ruling over an even larger territory, the city then finds itself simply at the head of the single small department of Haute-Garonne. 19th century[edit] On 10 April 1814, four days after Napoleon's surrender of the French Empire to the nations of the Sixth Coalition (a fact that the two armies involved were not yet aware of), the Battle of Toulouse pitted the Hispanic-British troops of Field Marshal Wellington against the French troops of Napoleonic Marshal Soult, who, although they managed to resist, were forced to withdraw. Toulouse was thus the scene of the last Franco-British battle on French territory.[24] Unlike most large French cities, there was no real industrial revolution in 19th century Toulouse. The most important industries were the gunpowder factory, to meet military needs, and the tobacco factory. In 1856 the railway arrived in Toulouse and the city was modernised: the ramparts were replaced by large boulevards, and major avenues such as the rue d'Alsace-Lorraine and the rue de Metz opened up the historic centre. In 1875 a flood of the Garonne devastated more than 1,000 houses and killed 200 people. It also destroyed all the bridges in Toulouse, except the Pont-Neuf.[25] 20th and 21th centuries[edit] World War I brought to Toulouse (geographically sheltered from enemy attacks) chemical industries as well as aviation workshops (Latécoère, Dewoitine), which launched the city's aeronautical construction tradition and gave birth after the war to the famous Aéropostale, a pioneering airmail company based in Toulouse and whose epics were popularised by the novels of writers such as Joseph Kessel and Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (himself an Aéropostale pilot).[26] In the 1920s and 1930s the rise of the Toulouse population was increased by the arrival of Italians and Spaniards fleeing the fascist regimes of their country. Then, in the early 1960s, French repatriates from Algeria swelled the city's population. In 1963, Toulouse was chosen to become one of the country's eight “balancing Metropolis”, regaining a position among the country's major cities that it had always had, but lost in the 19th century. The French state then encouraged the city's specialisation in aeronautics and space activities, sectors that had experienced strong growth in recent decades, fueling economic and population growth. On 21 September 2001, an explosion occurred at the AZF fertiliser factory, causing 31 deaths, about 30 seriously wounded and 2,500 light casualties. The blast measured 3.4 on the Richter scale and the explosion was heard 80 km (50 miles) away. In 2016 a territorial reform made Toulouse the regional prefecture of Occitanie, the second largest region in metropolitan France, giving it a role commensurate with its past as a provincial capital among the most important in France. Population[edit] Historical population[2][3] Urban Area Metropolitan Area 1695 43,000 1750 48,000 1790 52,863 1801 50,171 1831 59,630 1851 95,277 1872 126,936 1911 149,000 1936 213,220 1946 264,411 1954 268,865 1962 329,044 1968 439,764 474,000 1975 509,939 585,000 1982 541,271 645,000 1990 650,336 797,373 1999 761,090 964,797 2007 859,336 1,187,686 2012 906,457 1,270,760 2017 968,638 1,360,829 The population of the city proper (French: commune) was 479,553 at the January 2017 census, with 1,360,829 inhabitants in the metropolitan area (within the 2010 borders of the metropolitan area), up from 1,187,686 at the January 2007 census (within the same 2010 borders of the metropolitan area).[2][3] Thus, the metropolitan area registered a population growth rate of +1.4% per year between 2007 and 2017, the highest growth rate of any French metropolitan area larger than 500,000 inhabitants, although it is slightly lower than the growth rate registered between the 1999 and 2007 censuses. Toulouse is the fourth largest city in France, after Paris, Marseille and Lyon, and the fourth-largest metropolitan area after Paris, Lyon, and Marseille. Historical population of the commune of Toulouse Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1793 52,612 —     1800 50,171 −0.68% 1806 51,689 +0.50% 1821 52,328 +0.08% 1831 59,639 +1.32% 1836 77,372 +5.34% 1841 90,368 +3.15% 1846 94,227 +0.84% 1851 96,564 +0.49% 1856 103,144 +1.33% 1861 113,714 +1.97% 1866 126,936 +2.22% 1872 124,852 −0.28% 1876 131,642 +1.33% 1881 140,289 +1.28% 1886 147,617 +1.02% 1891 149,791 +0.29% 1896 149,963 +0.02% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1901 149,841 −0.02% 1906 149,438 −0.05% 1911 149,576 +0.02% 1921 175,434 +1.61% 1926 180,771 +0.60% 1931 194,564 +1.48% 1936 213,220 +1.85% 1946 264,411 +2.18% 1954 268,863 +0.21% 1962 323,724 +2.35% 1968 370,796 +2.29% 1975 373,796 +0.12% 1982 347,995 −1.02% 1990 358,688 +0.38% 1999 390,350 +0.94% 2007 439,453 +1.49% 2012 453,317 +0.62% 2017 479,553 +1.13% Source: EHESS[27] and INSEE (1968-2017)[28] Largest groups of foreign residents Nationality Population (2016)[29]  Algeria 13,272  Morocco 10,444  Spain 5,369  Tunisia 3,408  Portugal 3,115  Italy 2,174  Turkey 1,086 Fueled by booming aerospace and high-tech industries, population growth of +1.49% a year in the metropolitan area in the 1990s (compared with +0.37% for metropolitan France), and a record +1.87% a year in the early 2000s (+0.68% for metropolitan France), which is the highest population growth of any French metropolitan area larger than 500,000 inhabitants, means the Toulouse metropolitan area overtook Lille as the fourth-largest metropolitan area of France at the 2006 census. A local Jewish group estimates there are about 2,500 Jewish families in Toulouse.[citation needed] A Muslim association has estimated there are some 35,000 Muslims in town.[30] Government and politics[edit] Toulouse Métropole[edit] Main article: Toulouse Métropole The Community of Agglomeration of Greater Toulouse (Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Toulouse) was created in 2001 to better coordinate transport, infrastructure and economic policies between the city of Toulouse and its immediate independent suburbs. It succeeds a previous district which had been created in 1992 with fewer powers than the current council. It combines the city of Toulouse and 24 independent communes, covering an area of 380 km2 (147 sq mi), totalling a population of 583,229 inhabitants (as of 1999 census), 67% of whom live in the city of Toulouse proper. As of February 2004 estimate, the total population of the Community of Agglomeration of Greater Toulouse was 651,209 inhabitants, 65.5% of whom live in the city of Toulouse. Due to local political feuds, the Community of Agglomeration only hosts 61% of the population of the metropolitan area, the other independent suburbs having refused to join in. Since 2009, the Community of agglomeration has become an urban community (in French: communauté urbaine). This has become a métropole in 2015, spanning 37 communes.[31] Local politics[edit] Toulouse's city hall, the Capitole de Toulouse, and the square of the same name with the Occitan cross designed by Raymond Moretti on the ground Coats of arms of Toulouse: Saint-Sernin church and Comtal castle frame a paschal lamb bearing the Toulouse cross One of the major political figures in Toulouse was Dominique Baudis, the mayor of Toulouse between 1983 and 2001, member of the centrist UDF.[citation needed] First known as a journalist known for his coverage of the war in Lebanon, 36-year-old Dominique Baudis succeeded his father Pierre Baudis in 1983 as mayor of Toulouse. (Pierre Baudis was mayor from 1971 to 1983.) Baudis tried to strengthen the international role of Toulouse (such as its Airbus operations), as well as revive the cultural heritage of the city. The Occitan cross, flag of Languedoc and symbol of the counts of Toulouse, was chosen as the new flag of the city, instead of the traditional coat of arms of Toulouse (which included the fleur de lis of the French monarchy). Many cultural institutions were created, in order to attract foreign expatriates and emphasise the city's past. For example, monuments dating from the time of the counts of Toulouse were restored, the city's symphonic concert hall (Halle aux Grains) was refurbished, a city theater was built, a Museum of Modern Art was founded, the Bemberg Foundation (European paintings and bronzes from the Renaissance to the 20th century) was established, a huge pop music concert venue (Zénith, the largest in France outside Paris) was built, the space museum and educational park Cité de l'Espace was founded, etc. To deal with growth, major housing and transportation projects were launched. Line A of the underground was opened in 1993, and line B opened in 2007. The creation of a system of underground car parking structures in Toulouse city centre was sharply criticised by the Green Party.[32] In 2000, Dominique Baudis was at the zenith of his popularity, with approval rates of 85%.[citation needed] He announced that he would not run for a fourth (6-year) term in 2001. He explained that with 3 terms he was already the longest-serving mayor of Toulouse since the French Revolution; he felt that change would be good for the city, and that the number of terms should be limited. He endorsed Philippe Douste-Blazy, then UDF mayor of Lourdes as his successor. Baudis has since been appointed president of the CSA (Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel) in Paris, the French equivalent of the American FCC. Philippe Douste-Blazy narrowly won in the 2001 elections, which saw the left making its best showing in decades. Douste-Blazy had to deal with a reinvigorated political opposition, as well as with the dramatic explosion of the AZF plant in late 2001. In March 2004, he entered the national government, and left Toulouse in the hands of his second-in-command Jean-Luc Moudenc, elected mayor by the municipal council. In March 2008, Moudenc was defeated by the Socialist Party's candidate Pierre Cohen. At the next elections in 2014 Moudenc defeated Cohen in a rematch to re-take the job with more than 52% of the votes. Mayors[edit] Mayor Term start Term end   Party Raymond Badiou 1944 September 1958 SFIO G. Carrère September 1958 16 October 1958 SFIO Louis Bazerque 16 October 1958 1971 SFIO Pierre Baudis March 1971 March 1983 UDF Dominique Baudis March 1983 23 January 2001 UDF Guy Hersant 23 January 2001 23 March 2001 UDF Philippe Douste-Blazy 23 March 2001 30 April 2004 UDF Françoise de Veyrinas 30 April 2004 6 May 2004 UMP Jean-Luc Moudenc 6 May 2004 17 March 2008 UMP Pierre Cohen 17 March 2008 4 April 2014 PS Jean-Luc Moudenc 4 April 2014 incumbent UMP Sights and architecture[edit] Format differences between a "foraine" brick and a standard brick. Classified "City of Art and History", Toulouse has a very rich architectural heritage ranging from large Romanesque and Gothic churches to neo-classical facades such as that of the Capitole, to the prestigious mansions of the Renaissance. This ancient heritage is mainly enclosed within the 220 hectares of the city's inner boulevard (one of the largest protected urban areas in France). Almost all the buildings of the historical centre were made with the traditional building material of the region: the "foraine" brick that has earned the city the nickname of Ville Rose (Pink city). Medieval heir to the Roman brick, the "foraine" brick is characterised by its large dimensions, its flat appearance and its colour ranging from orange/pink to red. White stone is also present in smaller quantities. As there were no stone quarries near Toulouse, it was transported from the Pyrenees via the Garonne river and was for a long time rare and therefore expensive, considered in Toulouse as a luxury material. However, it is enough to give Toulouse's architecture one of its characteristics: red/white polychromy. Romanesque architecture (11th-12th c.)[edit] The Romanesque architecture of Toulouse is largely dominated by the presence of the Basilica of Saint-Sernin, one of the most important churches of its time in Europe, and fortunate enough to keep its Romanesque character virtually intact. Basilica of Saint-Sernin[edit] Basilica of Saint-Sernin, part of the Way of Saint James UNESCO World Heritage Site, was also in itself a major place of pilgrimage. It is considered the largest remaining Romanesque church in Europe.[note 1] With more than two hundred relics (including six apostles), many of which were donated by Charlemagne to the shrine that preceded the present church, Saint-Sernin is the church with the most relics after Saint Peter of Rome.[33] Conceived from the outset as a gigantic reliquary, the church was mainly built at the end of the 11th century and at the beginning of the 12th century to welcome the crowds of pilgrims, its double-sided aisles and the ambulatory surrounding the apse make it the archetype of the great pilgrimage church, where pilgrims could make the circuit around the church and were able to stop for meditation and prayer at the apsidal chapels of the transept and the radiating chapels of the choir. The church is also particularly noteworthy for the quality of its Romanesque sculptures, including numerous capitals and the historiated tympanum of the Miègeville gate, one of the first of its kind.[34] Basilica of Saint-Sernin Basilica of Saint-Sernin. The east side is the oldest part. The Miègeville gate. Romanesque tympanum (late 11th c. or early 12th c.). Romanesque sculptures. The central nave of the church. Romanesque paintings. Bernard Gilduin's altar table, consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096. Christ in Majesty by Bernard Gilduin, late 11th c. Gothic architecture (13th c.-early 16th c.)[edit] Southern French Gothic: a militant religious architecture[edit] See also: Southern French Gothic At the beginning of the 13th century, the Catholic clergy of the South of France, seeing a growing number of the faithful turning to the Catharism which advocated a more pious austerity, showed the will to correct the defects of the Catholic Church which indulged in luxury. Under the impulse of the bishop of Toulouse, Foulques, an austere and militant architectural style was born with the reconstruction of the Cathedral of Toulouse: the Southern French Gothic. Conceived according to an ideal of poverty and humility to bring the faithful together in a single, vast nave to facilitate preaching, this architectural style then developed during the 13th century in the grand mendicant convents of the city, before spreading in the 14th century to a large number of churches and cathedrals in the region.[35] Several churches or convents in Toulouse belong to this architectural trend, but two of them are particularly symbolic and remarkable: Cathedral of Saint-Etienne (Saint Stephen) is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toulouse. Its construction, which was mainly done at the beginning and then at the end of the 13th century, reflects the history of this decisive century which saw the city lose its independence to become a French city. The single nave is the first example of Southern French Gothic, at 19 metres wide it probably was at its completion the widest in Western Europe (1210-1220). The higher choir that adjoins it was built in the Gothic style of northern France shortly after the city became part of the Crown of France in 1271. Convent of the Jacobins (13th century / early 14th century) was the Dominican convent of Toulouse and is considered to be, together with the Albi Cathedral, the pinnacle of Southern French Gothic architecture.[36] Like all Southern French Gothic churches it has a deliberately austere exterior, but on the inside its alignment of cylindrical columns form one of the tallest colonnades ever erected in Gothic architecture (28 metres high).[34] The masterpiece of this church is the column that closes the choir (1275-1292), its palm tree shape was a hundred years ahead of the flamboyant gothic fan vaults.[36] Because he thought that the bones of Saint Thomas Aquinas deserved «the most beautiful and most splendid surroundings»,[34] in 1368 Pope Urban V made the church of the Jacobins the burial place of the famous Dominican friar, one of the most notable philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages. Southern French Gothic religious architecture Toulouse cathedral. Old nave of the Toulouse Cathedral. Altar in the choir of the Toulouse Cathedral (gothic of northern France). Church of the Jacobins, exterior (13th c.). The vault of the Jacobins and its famous palm tree. Cloister (14th c.) and bell tower (1298) of the Jacobins. Augustinian Convent (14th c.). Wall belfry of Notre-Dame du Taur (14th c.). Top of the wall belfry of Notre-Dame du Taur, with miter arches typical of Southern French Gothic. Gothic civil architecture[edit] Toulouse has preserved about thirty Gothic stair towers (plus a dozen Renaissance or later towers),[37] the remains of private mansions (called hôtels particuliers) from the Middle Ages and the early 16th century. Often hidden in courtyards, some of these towers are high enough to exceed their function of serving the floors and display the ambition of their owners. At a time when most of the houses in Toulouse were built in wood or cob, the brick construction of these towers and hôtels also testifies to their quality. Gothic civil architecture Boysson tower, 1478. Delfau tower, 1497. Lancefoc tower (late 15th c.) and Serta tower (1529). Olmières tower, 1503. Bernuy tower, 1504. Bruni tower, 1510. Beringuier Bonnefoy tower, 1513. Serta tower, 1529. Door of the Hotel Delfau. Door of the Hotel de Bernuy. Romanesque-Gothic house window, with small carved decoration (c. 1300). Hôtel Boysson window (late 15th c.). Former tower of the city archives, 1525-1530 (except for the 19th century roof). Renaissance architecture[edit] See also: Renaissance architecture of Toulouse In the 16th century, Toulouse experienced a golden age coinciding with the Renaissance in France. The woad trade (pastel) brought merchants of international stature to the city, and the Parliament of Toulouse made the city the judicial capital of a large part of the south of France. These wealthy elites had private mansions built, remarkable for their architecture inspired by architectural treatises such as those of Serlio, Alberti or Vitruvius, but also by the royal castles of the Loire Valley and the Île-de-France.[38] Renowned for the quality of their architecture, the private mansions of the Toulouse Renaissance that have survived to the present day were built over more than a century (around 1515–1620) by reputed architects such as Louis Privat, Nicolas Bachelier, Dominique Bachelier or Pierre Souffron. The most famous of these hôtels are those of Assézat, Bernuy, Vieux-Raisin or Clary...[38] Renaissance private mansions Classical facades of hôtel d'Assézat. Hôtel d'Assézat. Courtyard of hôtel de Bernuy. Low vault of hôtel de Bernuy. Hôtel du Vieux-Raisin. Renaissance windows at hôtel du Vieux-Raisin. Tower of hôtel de Brucelles. The hôtel de Clary and its richly sculpted decoration. Sample of Renaissance doors Door of hôtel du Vieux-Raisin. Portal of hôtel d'Assézat. Door of hôtel d'Assézat. Door of hôtel d'Assézat. Portal of hôtel Molinier. Portal of a former college of the university. Portal of Dalbade church. Door of hôtel Dahus. Door of hôtel de Guillaume de Bernuy. Door of hôtel de Bagis. Triumphal portal of the Capitole. Portal of the former Jesuit college. 17th century architecture[edit] 17th century religious architecture[edit] The French Wars of Religion, which started in the second half of the 16th century, brought to the city many religious orders who came to seek asylum in this solid Catholic bastion. They had beautiful baroque churches built in the 17th century: among them, the Order of Carthusians, expelled by the Protestants from the region of Castres, founded the church of Saint-Pierre des Chartreux, the order of the Discalced Carmelites built the church of Saint-Exupère, the blue penitents founded the church of Saint-Jérôme and the order of Carmelite nuns created a convent of which a remarkable painted chapel remains. 17th c. religious architecture Church of Saint-Pierre des Chartreux. Church of Saint-Pierre des Chartreux. Portal of Saint-Pierre des Chartreux. Church of Saint-Exupère. Church of Saint-Exupère (detail of the facade). Church of Saint-Exupère. Church of Saint-Jérôme. Chapel of the Carmelites (partly 18th century). Vault of the chapel of the Carmelites. 17th century civil architecture[edit] After the Renaissance, the decorations in civil architecture became less numerous and ostentatious, due to the importance given to the moderation of the architectural structures and the development of interior decorations. The play of colours (between brick and stone) and reliefs (bossing) were less costly and nevertheless effective solutions for livening up facades. The 17th century is the century that gave Toulouse the largest number of its private mansions, most of them built by members of parliament.[39] 17th c. civil architecture Hôtel de Caulet. Hôtel Comère. Hôtel d'Avizard. Hôtel Saint-Jean (courtyard), former Grand Priory of Knights Hospitaller. Portal of hôtel Saint-Jean. Portal of hôtel de Chalvet. Portal of hôtel Desplats (courtyard). Portal of hôtel d'Orbessan. Side portal of hôtel Comère, cut out of brick. 18th century architecture[edit] In the 18th century Toulouse made its living from its Parliament and from the wheat and corn trade, which was boosted by the creation of the Canal du Midi at the end of the previous century. Among the major architectural achievements, the most notable were undoubtedly the construction of the quays of the Garonne and the new facade of the Capitole (1750-1760), designed by architect Guillaume Cammas. In the last third of the 18th century, the ever increasing influence of the Parisian model meant that red brick was no longer popular: the city facades were then covered with white paint to imitate stone. This is why nowadays, even though the white paint has generally been removed, there are walls with deep grooves carved in brick to imitate ashlar architecture. 18th century architecture Capitole - City hall. Capitole pediment and columns in red marble. Hôtel de Nupces. Hôtel d'Espie. Portal of hôtel d'Espie. Hôtel de Ciron-Fumel. Hôtel de Bonfontan. Basilica of la Daurade. 19th and 20th century architecture[edit] Toulouse's 19th century architecture can be divided into three periods, which sometimes overlapped. In the first half of the century, at the instigation of architect Jacques-Pascal Virebent, the main planned squares were created: the Place du Capitole and the Place Wilson (called place Villeneuve when it was built), whose uniform architecture was inspired by Rue de Rivoli in Paris. From 1830 onwards, Auguste Virebent and his brothers (sons of Jacques-Pascal) developed a factory of low-cost moulded decorations which met with great success and adorned Toulouse facades with numerous terracotta ornaments, far from the austere architecture of their father. Then, in the last third of the 19th century, large Haussmann-style avenues were opened in the town centre, such as the central Alsace-Lorraine street, built in yellow brick to imitate Parisian stone. 19th and 20th century architecture Place Wilson (19th c.), an oval-shaped square. Place du Capitole, the main square of Toulouse (19th c.). Facade with moulded terracotta decorations (19th c.). Facade with moulded terracotta decorations (19th c.). Yellow brick of Alsace-Lorraine street (19th c.). Art nouveau facade, Gambetta street (20th c.). Art Deco facade, Alsace-Lorraine street (20th c.). Banks of the Garonne, Canal du Midi, parks[edit] The banks of the Garonne river offer an interesting urban panorama of the city. Red brick dykes from the 18th century enclose the river which was subject to destructive floods. The Pont-Neuf took almost a century to build as the project was so ambitious (1545-1632). It was a very modern bridge for its time, removing the housing on the deck and using, possibly for the first time together, techniques such as basket-handle (surbased) arches, openings in the piers and stacked spouts to spread the water, making it the only bridge in Toulouse to withstand the violent floods of the past. Further downstream, the Bazacle is a ford across the Garonne river, in the 12th century the Bazacle Milling Company was the first recorded European joint-stock company. On the left bank of the river, historically a flood-prone bank, stand two former hospitals whose origins date back to the 12th century: the Hôtel-Dieu Saint-Jacques and the Hôpital de La Grave. Isolated on the left bank, victims of the plague and other sick people were thus kept away from the city by the width of the river. Built at the end of the 17th century, the Canal du Midi bypasses the city centre and has linked Toulouse to the Mediterranean Sea ever since. Its 240 kilometres were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. The Jardin des Plantes is a large park spanning several blocks, including the museum of Natural History, cafés, activities for children and a botanical garden (early 19th century). Banks of the Garonne, Canal du Midi, parks Pont-Neuf bridge (16th-17th c.). Red brick dykes from the 18th century. Hôtel-Dieu Saint-Jacques former hospital (12th–19th c.). La Grave former hospital (12th–19th c.) and the dome of its chapel. Port de la Daurade, a former port converted into an amenity area. Prairie des filtres park. Canal du Midi (17th c.). Grand rond park. Japanese garden. Renaissance portal in Jardin des plantes park. Romanesque wall in Jardin des plantes park. Museums and theme parks[edit] Toulouse has many museums, the most important of which are: Musée des Augustins is the fine arts museum of Toulouse, it is located in the former Augustinian convent. Bemberg Foundation, housed in the Hôtel d'Assézat, presents to the public one of the major private collections of art in Europe. Musée Saint-Raymond is the archeological museum of Toulouse, located in a former college of the university it presents the ancient history of Toulouse and a very rich collection of Roman sculptures from the imperial Roman villa of Chiragan. Musée Paul Dupuy is the museum of Decorative Arts and Graphic Arts, including a very rich collection of clocks and watches. Musée Gorges Labit is dedicated to artifacts from the Far-Eastern and Ancient Egyptian civilizations. Muséum de Toulouse is one of the most important natural history museums in France, housed in the former convent of the Discalced Carmelites. Les Abattoirs is the museum of modern and contemporary art of the city, opened in a former municipal slaughterhouse. Toulouse also has several theme parks, notably highlighting its aeronautical and space heritage: Cité de l'espace is a scientific discovery centre focused on spaceflight. Aeroscopia is an aeronautical theme park located near Toulouse–Blagnac Airport, dedicated to the preservation of aeronautical historical heritage (it hosts for example two Concorde airliners). L'Envol des pionniers is a museum that traces the great adventure of l'Aéropostale, a pioneering airmail company based in Toulouse which operated between France and South America from 1918 to 1933, and employed legendary pilots such as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Jean Mermoz or Henri Guillaumet... Halle de La Machine is a vast hall that houses numerous small or giant animated machines, often inspired by the world of aeronautics, human or technological epics. Museums and theme parks Musée des Augustins. Musée des Augustins: Romanesque capitals room Painting of Lucas Cranach the Elder at Bemberg Foundation. Musée Saint-Raymond. Musée Gorges Labit. Muséum de Toulouse. Les Abattoirs. Cité de l'espace. Cité de l'espace. Aeroscopia. Saint-Exupéry in Toulouse, 1933. The giant Minotaur of the Halle de La Machine. Economy[edit] The main Airbus factory in Blagnac, near Toulouse, lies next to Toulouse Airport The main industries are aeronautics, space, electronics, information technology and biotechnology. Toulouse hosts the Airbus headquarters and assembly-lines of Airbus A320, A330, A350 and A380. (A320 lines also exist in Hamburg, Germany, Tianjin, China, and Mobile, Alabama, USA.) Airbus has its head office in Blagnac, near Toulouse.[40][41] Airbus's France division has its main office in Toulouse.[41] Toulouse also hosts the headquarters of ATR, Sigfox, one of the two headquarters of Liebherr Aerospace and Groupe Latécoère. The Concorde supersonic aircraft was also constructed in Toulouse. Education[edit] Portal of the college de l'Esquile (1556), a symbol of the university's seniority Toulouse has the fourth-largest student population in France after Paris, Lyon and Lille with 103,000 students (2012).[42] Colleges and universities[edit] A historic building of the University of Toulouse. New building of Toulouse School of Economics ENAC entrance The University of Toulouse (Université de Toulouse) was established in 1229 (now split into three separate universities). Like the universities in Oxford and Paris, the University of Toulouse was established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Arabs of Andalus and Greek philosophers. These writings challenged European ideology—inspiring scientific discoveries and advances in the arts—as society began seeing itself in a new way. These colleges were supported by the Church, in hopes of reconciling Greek philosophy and Christian theology.[citation needed] Catholic University of Toulouse Université Toulouse I, Toulouse School of Economics, Toulouse School of Management and Institut d'études politiques de Toulouse University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès (Formerly University of Toulouse II – Le Mirail) Université Paul Sabatier (Toulouse III) Toulouse is also the home of Toulouse Business School (TBS), Toulouse School of Economics (TSE), the Institut supérieur européen de gestion group (ISEG Group), the Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action (ISEFAC), E-Artsup and several engineering schools: ICAM Toulouse (Institut catholique d'arts et métiers) INSA Toulouse ISAE SUPAERO (Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace) ENAC (École Nationale de l'Aviation Civile) INP ENSEEIHT (École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique, d'Électrotechnique, d'Informatique, d'Hydraulique et des Télécommunications) ENSFEA (École nationale supérieure de formation de l’enseignement agricole) INP ENSIACET (École nationale supérieure d'ingénieurs en art chimique et technologique) INP ENSAT ('École Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Toulouse) INP ENM (École Nationale de la Météorologie) EPITA (École pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées) EPITECH (École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies or European Institute of Information Technology) IPSA (Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées) EIPurpan (École d'ingénieurs de Purpan) Primary and secondary schools[edit] The most well known high schools in Toulouse are Lycée Pierre-de-Fermat [fr] and Lycée Saint-Sernin. International schools serving area expatriates are in nearby Colomiers: International School of Toulouse Deutsche Schule Toulouse (German school) Transport[edit] Line A of the Toulouse Metro. Train[edit] The main railway station, with regional and national services, is Toulouse-Matabiau. Metro[edit] In addition to an extensive bus system, the Toulouse Metro is a VAL (Véhicule Automatique Léger) metro system made up of driverless (automatic) rubber-tired trains. Line A runs for 12.5 km (7.8 mi) from Balma-Gramont in the north-east to Basso Cambo in the south-west. Line B, which opened in June 2007, serves 20 stations north to south and intersects line A at Jean Jaurès. Line C has existed since line A was completed. It is not VAL but an urban railway line operated by SNCF. It connects to line A at Arènes. Two other stations located in Toulouse are also served by line C. Lardenne, formerly named "Gare des Capelles", changed its name in September 2003 when line C opened.[43] Le TOEC station opened on 1 September 2003 with the creation of line C, allowing an urban train service in Toulouse and close western suburbs.[43] Similarly, Line D runs south from Toulouse Matabiau to Muret. Tramway[edit] The tramway line T1 (operating since December 2010), runs from Beauzelle to Toulouse passing through Blagnac. All urban bus, metro and tram services are operated by Tisséo. Tramway line T2 is a branch of the first line serving notably Toulouse Blagnac airport. Bicycle[edit] In 2007, a citywide bicycle rental scheme called VélôToulouse was introduced,[44] with bicycles available from automated stations for a daily, weekly, monthly or yearly subscription. Airports[edit] Airports include: Toulouse Blagnac, the principal local airport Toulouse Lasbordes Canal[edit] The Canal du Midi begins in Toulouse and runs up to Sète. Toulouse public transportation statistics[edit] The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Toulouse, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 44 min. 9.1% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 9 min, while 10.4% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 km, while 8% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[45] Communications[edit] Toulouse is the home of Bonhoure Radio Tower, a 61-metre high lattice tower used for FM and TV transmission.[46] In 2001 a large (100 km) optical fiber (symmetric 360Gbit/s) network named Infrastructure Métropolitaine de Télécommunications was deployed around the city and suburbs.[47] Culture[edit] The Halle aux grains, a former grain market now used as a concert hall. The Théâtre du Capitole is the home of opera and ballet; there has been a theatre on the site since 1736.[48] The Orchestre National du Capitole, long associated with Michel Plasson, plays at the Halle aux Grains.[49] Le Château d'Eau,[50] an old 19th-century water-tower, was converted as a gallery in 1974 by Jean Dieuzaide, a French photographer from Toulouse and is now one of the oldest public places dedicated to photography in the world. Toulouse's art museums include the Musée des Augustins, the Musée des Abattoirs, the Musée Georges Labit, and the Fondation Bemberg in the Hôtel d'Assézat. The Musée Saint-Raymond is devoted to Antiquity and the Muséum de Toulouse to natural history. Toulouse is the seat of the Académie des Jeux Floraux, the equivalent of the French Academy for the Occitan-speaking regions of southern France, making Toulouse the unofficial capital of Occitan culture. The traditional Cross of Toulouse (from Provence, under the name of cross of Provence), emblem of the County of Toulouse and commonly widespread around all of Occitania during the Middle Ages is the symbol of the city and of the newly founded Midi-Pyrénées région, as well as a popular Occitan symbol. The city's gastronomic specialties include the Saucisse de Toulouse, a type of sausage, cassoulet Toulousain, a bean and pork stew, and garbure, a cabbage soup with poultry. Also, foie gras, the liver of an overfed duck or goose, is a delicacy commonly made in the Midi-Pyrénées.[51] Sport[edit] Stade Toulousain of the Top 14 is the most successful rugby union clubs in all of Europe, having been crowned European champions five times and French champions twenty times.[52][53] Toulouse Olympique represents the city in rugby league. The club have been playing in the British rugby league system since 2016, and are currently playing in the 2nd tier Championship. The club have had historical success in France, being crowned French champions six times. The city also has a professional football team, Toulouse FC, who play in Ligue 2, the second division of football in France, and who won the 1957 Coupe de France Final. The club play at the Stadium Municipal, which was a venue during the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup, as well as hosting important club rugby games and several Rugby League World Cups. Toulouse was also a host of EuroBasket 1999. Major sports facilities and professional clubs The municipal Stadium (capacity: 33,150). Stade Ernest Wallon (capacity: 19,500). Rugby union: Stade toulousain. Football: Toulouse Football Club. Rugby league: Toulouse Olympique. Women's basket: Toulouse Métropole Basket. Handball: Fenix Toulouse Handball. Volleyball: Spacer's Toulouse Volley. Notable people[edit] Main category: People from Toulouse Bust of mathematician Pierre de Fermat in the Capitole de Toulouse Several notable Toulousains have been scientists, such as Jean Dausset, 1980 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; 17th-century mathematician Pierre de Fermat, who spent his life in Toulouse, where he wrote Fermat's Last Theorem and was a lawyer in the city's Parlement; Paul Sabatier, 1912 winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry; Albert Fert,[54] 2007 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics who grew up in Toulouse where he attended the Lycée Pierre-de-Fermat [fr] and Jean Tirole, owner of the 2014 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences, chairman and founder of the Toulouse School of Economics along with Jean-Jacques Laffont. Musically, Toulouse is one of the two controversial, disputed birthplaces of Carlos Gardel (the other being Tacuarembo, Uruguay), probably the most prominent figure in the history of the tango. The city's most renowned songwriter is Claude Nougaro. The composer and organist Georges Guiraud (1868–1928) was born in Toulouse. Concerning arts, Toulouse is the birthplace of Impressionist painter Henri Martin as well as sculptors Alexandre Falguière and Antonin Mercié. Moreover, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Antoine Bourdelle were trained at the Toulouse fine arts school. Post Impressionist painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec's (1864-1901) father was Count Alphonse Charles de Toulouse-Lautrec Monfa (1838-1913) and was part of an aristocratic family of Counts of Toulouse, Odet de Foix, Vimcomte de Lautrec and the Viscounts of Montfa. French graffiti artist Cyril Kongo was born in Toulouse in 1969. Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, one of the leaders of the First Crusade, was born in Toulouse. Aviation pioneer Clément Ader and psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol were also natives. International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in France Twin towns and sister cities[edit] Toulouse is twinned with:[55] Atlanta, United States, since 1975 Bologna, Italy, since 1981 Elche, Spain, since 1981 Chongqing, China, since 1981 Kyiv, Ukraine, since 1975 Tel Aviv, Israel, since 1962 Other cooperations[edit] Toulouse also has accords of cooperation with the following towns:[56] Zaragoza, Aragón, Spain N'Djamena, Chad Hanoi, Vietnam Saint-Louis, Senegal Düsseldorf, Germany See also[edit] France portal 138 Tolosa, an asteroid Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toulouse André Abbal Listing of the works of Alexandre Falguière The works of Antonin Mercié List of the mayors of Toulouse Notes[edit] ^ Speyer cathedral is slightly larger, but unlike Saint-Sernin this church has been largely destroyed and rebuilt in its history, so the question of which is the largest remaining Romanesque church depends on the criteria chosen as to Romanesque character. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "Populations légales 2018". INSEE. 28 December 2020. ^ a b c "Unité urbaine de Toulouse (31701)". INSEE. Retrieved 24 September 2020. ^ a b c "Aire urbaine de Toulouse (004)". INSEE. Retrieved 24 September 2020. ^ "Toulouse". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 24 September 2014. ^ CNES. "Ademe.fr" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2007. ^ Lefebvre, Olivier (2014). Atlas régional : effectifs d'étudiants en 2012-2013 (PDF). Paris: Ministère de l'Education nationale, de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche. ^ "Bulletin Statistique du trafic aérien commercial - année 2019" (PDF). DGAC. p. 6/24. Retrieved 13 October 2020. ^ Palmarès des villes les plus dynamiques : la revanche de la province L'Express ^ Les villes les plus dynamiques de France Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Challenges ^ Toulouse, métropole la plus dynamique La Dépêche du Midi ^ Toulouse's Saint Sernin, Largest Romanesque Church in Europe Europe Close ^ "Climatological Information for Toulouse, France". Meteo France. 7 August 2019. ^ "TOULOUSE–BLAGNAC (31)" (PDF). Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1981–2010 et records (in French). Meteo France. Retrieved 7 August 2019. ^ "Normes et records 1961–1990: Toulouse-Blagnac (31) – altitude 151m" (in French). Infoclimat. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2019. ^ "TOULOUSE–FRANCAZAL (31)" (PDF). Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1981–2010 et records (in French). Meteo France. Retrieved 7 August 2019. ^ Albert Dauzat et Charles Rostaing, Dictionnaire étymologique des noms de lieux en France, 2nd ed., Librairie Guénégaud 1978. ^ Le Nom de Toulouse de Pierre Moret, 1996, Université Toulouse le Mirail – Toulouse II, p. 11; Histoire de Toulouse, 1974, p. 11. ^ The Capetians: Kings of France 987-1328, p. 59, Jim Bradbury,2007 ^ https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k415420b/f39. ^ " "Goldberg, Jeffrey. "Is it Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?" The Atlantic. April 2015". Retrieved 21 March 2015. ^ Biraben, Jean-Noël. La Population de Toulouse au XIVe et au XVe siècles [Pierre Wolff, Les Estimes toulousaines du XIVe et XVe siècles]. Journal des savants, 1964, p. 300. ^ Brumont, Francis. La commercialisation du pastel toulousain (1350–1600). Privat presse, 1994, p. 27. ^ "terredepastel.com". terredepastel.com. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ Anne Le Stang, Histoire de Toulouse illustrée, p. 150. ^ Spécial météo à Toulouse, L'Express, #, semaine du 3 au 9 janvier 2008, Les crues les plus dévastatrices, p. II. ^ Benoît Heimermann and Olivier Margot, L'aéropostale: la fabuleuse épopée de Mermoz, Saint-Exupéry, Guillaumet, Arthaud editor, 1994. ^ Des villages de Cassini aux communes d'aujourd'hui: Commune data sheet Toulouse, EHESS. (in French) ^ Population en historique depuis 1968, INSEE ^ https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2874036?sommaire=2874056&geo=COM-13055 ^ Irish, John. "Killings sour good life for high-flying Toulouse". Reuters.com. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ "Décret n° 2014-1078 du 22 septembre 2014 portant création de la métropole dénommée " Toulouse Métropole " | Legifrance". Retrieved 30 June 2017. ^ "Toulouse politics information". Bonjourlafrance.com. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ Jean-Claude Jaffé, "Toulouse, le patrimoine révélé". Éditions Privat, 2013. ^ a b c Quitterie and Daniel Cazes, "See you in Toulouse". Éditions Sud-Ouest, 2018. ^ Caroline de Barrau, "Le gothique toulousain, un art militant", in magazine VMF of march 2010 (revue des Vieilles Maisons Françaises), in French. ^ a b "La Cité épiscopale d'Albi (Episcopal City of Albi). Nomination document produced by French state for inscription on the world heritage list, p. 875, chapter comparing the Cathedral of Albi with the Jacobin Convent of Toulouse (in French)" (PDF). World Heritage Centre (UNESCO). 2009. ^ Jean-François Gourdou, "Tours tolosanes", Editions Privat, 2008. ^ a b Collective work directed by Pascal Julien, «catalogue de l'exposition Toulouse Renaissance» ("Toulouse Renaissance exhibition catalogue"), Somogy éditions d'art, 2018. ^ Guy Ahlsell de Toulza, Louis Peyrusse, Bruno Tollon, «Hôtels et demeures de Toulouse et du Midi toulousain» ("Hotels and residences in Toulouse and the region of Toulouse"), Editor Daniel Briand, 1997. ^ "Airbus A380 lands after making aviation history." USA Today. 27 April 2005. Updated 28 April 2005. Retrieved 12 February 2010. ^ a b "Contacts Archived 10 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine." Airbus. Retrieved 12 February 2010. ^ "Toulouse, France travel guide - Travel S Helper". TravelsHelper. Retrieved 20 February 2017. ^ a b "Le RER toulousain entre en gares". ladepeche.fr. Retrieved 6 February 2016. ^ "VélôToulouse arrive..." La Dépêche du Midi (in French). Toulouse. 11 November 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2017. ^ "Toulouse Public Transportation Statistics". Global Public Transit Index by Moovit. Retrieved 19 June 2017. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. ^ Bonhoure Transmission Tower at Structurae ^ "Garonne-networks.com". Garonne-networks.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011. ^ "L'univers du Théâtre". Theatre-du-capitole.fr. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2011. ^ "Orchestre National du Capitole de Toulouse". Onct.mairie-toulouse.fr. Retrieved 14 March 2011. ^ "Le Château d'Eau Official website" (in French). Galeriechateaudeau.org. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ "The production regions". foiegras-factsandtruth.com. Retrieved 4 February 2019. ^ "Europe's Top Rugby Clubs – For Dummies". Dummies.com. 4 January 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ "ERC : Classement Européen". Ercrugby.com. 21 September 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ "Albert Fert retrouve son Toulouse". La Dépêche du Midi. Retrieved 23 May 2008. ^ "Les villes jumelées" (in French). Toulouse, France: Mairie de Toulouse. Retrieved 26 December 2020. ^ "Accords de coopération" (in French). Toulouse, France: Mairie de Toulouse. Retrieved 26 December 2020. Sources[edit] Le Stang, Anne (2006). Histoire de Toulouse illustrée (in French). leperegrinateurediteur.com. ISBN 2-910352-44-7. Kerrison, Helen & Jeremy (2008). The Practical Guide to Toulouse. leperegrinateurediteur.com. ISBN 978-2-910352-46-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toulouse. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Toulouse. Toulouse tourist office ToulouseCity.com (in French) Toulouse city guide – About-France.com Toulouse: pink, violets, red and black – Official French website Official site (in French) v t e Prefectures of the departments of France Bourg-en-Bresse (Ain) Laon (Aisne) Moulins (Allier) Digne-les-Bains (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) Gap (Hautes-Alpes) Nice (Alpes-Maritimes) Privas (Ardèche) Charleville-Mézières (Ardennes) Foix (Ariège) Troyes (Aube) Carcassonne (Aude) Rodez (Aveyron) Marseille (Bouches-du-Rhône) Caen (Calvados) Aurillac (Cantal) Angoulême (Charente) La Rochelle (Charente-Maritime) Bourges (Cher) Tulle (Corrèze) Ajaccio (Corse-du-Sud) Bastia (Haute-Corse) Dijon (Côte-d'Or) Saint-Brieuc (Côtes-d'Armor) Guéret (Creuse) Périgueux (Dordogne) Besançon (Doubs) Valence (Drôme) Évreux (Eure) Chartres (Eure-et-Loir) Quimper (Finistère) Nîmes (Gard) Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) Auch (Gers) Bordeaux (Gironde) Montpellier (Hérault) Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) Châteauroux (Indre) Tours 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Albiac Ambax Anan Antichan-de-Frontignes Antignac Arbas Arbon Ardiège Arguenos Argut-Dessous Arlos Arnaud-Guilhem Artigue Aspet Aspret-Sarrat Aucamville Aulon Auragne Aureville Auriac-sur-Vendinelle Auribail Aurignac Aurin Ausseing Ausson Aussonne Auterive Auzas Auzeville-Tolosane Auzielle Avignonet-Lauragais Ayguesvives Azas Bachas Bachos Bagiry Bagnères-de-Luchon Balesta Balma Barbazan Baren Bax Baziège Bazus Beauchalot Beaufort Beaumont-sur-Lèze Beaupuy Beauteville Beauville Beauzelle Belberaud Belbèze-de-Lauragais Belbèze-en-Comminges Bélesta-en-Lauragais Bellegarde-Sainte-Marie Bellesserre Benque Benque-Dessous-et-Dessus Bérat Bessières Bezins-Garraux Billière Binos Blagnac Blajan Bois-de-la-Pierre Boissède Bondigoux Bonrepos-Riquet Bonrepos-sur-Aussonnelle Bordes-de-Rivière Le Born Boudrac Bouloc Boulogne-sur-Gesse Bourg-d'Oueil Bourg-Saint-Bernard Boussan Boussens Boutx Bouzin Bragayrac Brax Bretx Brignemont Bruguières Burgalays Le Burgaud Buzet-sur-Tarn Cabanac-Cazaux 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Folcarde Fonbeauzard Fonsorbes Fontenilles Forgues Fos Fougaron Fourquevaux Le Fousseret Francarville Francazal Francon Franquevielle Le Fréchet Fronsac Frontignan-de-Comminges Frontignan-Savès Fronton Frouzins Fustignac Gagnac-sur-Garonne Gaillac-Toulza Galié Ganties Garac Gardouch Gargas Garidech Garin Gauré Gémil Génos Gensac-de-Boulogne Gensac-sur-Garonne Gibel Gouaux-de-Larboust Gouaux-de-Luchon Goudex Gourdan-Polignan Goutevernisse Gouzens Goyrans Gragnague Gratens Gratentour Grazac Grenade Grépiac Le Grès Guran Herran His Huos L'Isle-en-Dodon Issus Izaut-de-l'Hôtel Jurvielle Juzes Juzet-de-Luchon Juzet-d'Izaut Labarthe-Inard Labarthe-Rivière Labarthe-sur-Lèze Labastide-Beauvoir Labastide-Clermont Labastide-Paumès Labastide-Saint-Sernin Labastidette Labège Labroquère Labruyère-Dorsa Lacaugne Lacroix-Falgarde Laffite-Toupière Lafitte-Vigordane Lagarde Lagardelle-sur-Lèze Lagrâce-Dieu Lagraulet-Saint-Nicolas Lahage Lahitère Lalouret-Laffiteau Lamasquère Landorthe Lanta Lapeyrère 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en-wikipedia-org-12	----	Paulina - Wikipedia Paulina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prosopographical list of female relatives of Roman emperor Hadrian For other uses, see Paulina (disambiguation). Paulina Paulina Major from Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Issue Hadrian Father Asceplus I Religion Roman Religion Paulina or Paullina (English: /pɔːˈlaɪnə/, Latin pronunciation: [pau̯ˈliːna]) was a name shared by three relatives of the Roman Emperor Hadrian: his mother, his elder sister and his niece. Contents 1 Mother of Hadrian 1.1 Sources 2 Sister of Hadrian 2.1 Sources 3 Niece of Hadrian 3.1 Sources 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree Mother of Hadrian[edit] Domitia Paulina or Paullina, Domitia Paulina Major or Paulina Major, (Major Latin for the elder), also known as Paulina the Elder (?-85/86). Paulina was a Spanish Roman woman who lived in the 1st century. She was a daughter of a distinguished Spanish Roman senatorial family. Paulina originally came from Gades (modern Cádiz, Spain). Gades was one of the wealthiest Roman cities. Little is known of the life of Paulina. Paulina married Spanish Roman Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a praetor who was a paternal cousin of Roman Emperor Trajan. Paulina and Afer had two children, a daughter Aelia Domitia Paulina (75-130) and a son emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76-138). Around 85/86 Paulina died of unknown causes, before her husband. After the death of her husband, her children were raised by Trajan and the Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Sister of Hadrian[edit] Aelia Domitia Paulina or Paullina or Domitia Paulina Minor (Minor Latin for the younger) also known as Paulina the Younger (early 75-130). The younger Paulina was the eldest child and only daughter to Domitia Paulina and praetor Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer. She was Hadrian’s eldest sister and only sibling. She was Spanish, but was of Roman descent. She was most probably born and raised in Italica (a city near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. When her parents died around 86, she and her brother were raised by her father’s paternal cousin, the Roman Emperor Trajan, and Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Before the accession of Trajan to the throne in 98, Trajan had arranged for her to marry the Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus. During Trajan’s reign 98-117, Paulina and Servianus had a daughter called Julia Serviana Paulina. Before Trajan’s death in 117, Paulina and Servianus had arranged for their daughter Julia to marry the Spanish Roman Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who was a man of consular rank. Julia and Salinator, in 118, had a son, a younger Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. When Paulina died, Servianus and Hadrian had a private ceremony for her. Hadrian was ridiculed for not granting her a full state funeral and apotheosis until pressured to do so by the senate, but granting his companion Antinous a sumptuous funeral with full divine honours. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Ancient Library 3125 Ancient Library Niece of Hadrian[edit] Julia Serviana Paulina or Paullina also known as Julia Paulina was the daughter and only child to Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Aelia Domitia Paulina. Her maternal uncle was Roman Emperor Hadrian and maternal aunt-in-marriage was Roman Empress Vibia Sabina. She was born at an unknown date during the reign of her third cousin emperor Trajan, who reigned 98-117. Her birthplace is unknown. Before Trajan’s death in 117, her parents arranged for her to marry the Roman senator Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, ordinary consul in 118. Roman senator Pliny the Younger sent a letter of congratulations to her parents regarding her wedding (Epistulae, VI.26). Her husband was originally from Barcelona, Spain (this was the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis). Salinator had the same name as his father and his father was a former consul. In 118, during Salinator’s consulship, Julia and Salinator had a son, the younger Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. The elder Salinator and Julia seem to have died before 136. Julia’s father had always cherished the idea that her youthful son would one day succeed Hadrian. The aging Emperor considered Julia’s son as his heir. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, gave him special status in his court and also groomed him for his succession. However, in 136, Hadrian changed his mind and decided to adopt Lucius Aelius Caesar as his heir. Julia’s father and son were angry with Hadrian and wanted to challenge him about the adoption. To avoid any conflict, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Julia’s father and son. Sources[edit] Ancient Library 3125 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulina&oldid=1002429753" Categories: 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Romans from Hispania Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Aelii Domitii Julii Ancient Roman prosopographical lists of women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 12:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1302	----	Roman Italy - Wikipedia Roman Italy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian peninsula during the Roman Empire Italy Italia (Latin) Roman Empire at its greatest extent c. 117 AD, with Italy in red and Provinces in pink. Capital Rome, Mediolanum and Ravenna (as capitals of the Republic or the Empire) Common languages Latin Religion Polytheistic synchretism, followed by monotheistic Christianity Government Mixed constitution Legislature Senate and People of Rome Historical era Classic Antiquity Population • AD 1 c. 10 million (c.1 million in Rome)[1] ISO 3166 code IT Preceded by Succeeded by Archaic Italy Regnum Italiae Italia (the Latin and Italian name for the Italian Peninsula) was the homeland of the Romans and metropole of Rome's empire in classical antiquity.[2][3][4][5] According to Roman mythology, Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to Aeneas of Troy and his descendants, who were the founders of Rome. Aside from the legendary accounts, Rome was an Italic city-state that changed its form of government from kingdom to republic and then grew within the context of a peninsula dominated by the Celts in the North, the Etruscans and Umbrians in the Centre, and the Messapians (Illyrian Colonies) and Greeks colonies in the south. The consolidation of Italy into a single entity occurred during the Roman expansion in the peninsula, when Rome formed a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities.[6] The strength of the Italian confederacy was a crucial factor in the rise of Rome, starting with the Punic and Macedonian wars between the 3rd and 2nd century BC. As provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it "not a province, but the Domina (ruler) of the provinces".[7] Such a status meant that Roman magistrates exercised the Imperium domi (police power) within Italy, rather than the Imperium militiae (military power) used abroad. Italy's inhabitants had Latin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges. The period between the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC was turbulent, beginning with the Servile Wars, continuing with the opposition of aristocratic élite to populist reformers and leading to a Social War in the middle of Italy. However, Roman citizenship was recognized to the rest of the Italics by the end of the conflict and then extended to Cisalpine Gaul when Julius Caesar became Roman Dictator. In the context of the transition from Republic to Principate, Italy swore allegiance to Octavian Augustus and was then organized in eleven regions from the Alps to the Ionian Sea. More than two centuries of stability followed, during which Italy was referred to as the rectrix mundi (queen of the world) and omnium terrarum parens (motherland of all lands).[8] Several emperors made notable accomplishments in this period: Claudius incorporated Britain into the Roman Empire, Vespasian subjugated the Great Revolt of Judea and reformed the financial system, Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated Parthia, and Marcus Aurelius epitomized the ideal of the philosopher king. The crisis of the third century hit Italy particularly hard and left the eastern half of the Empire more prosperous. In 286 AD the Roman Emperor Diocletian moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Mediolanum.[9] Nevertheless, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, and Italian cities such as Mediolanum and Ravenna continued to serve as capitals for the West. The Bishop of Rome gained importance during Constantine's reign and was given religious primacy with the Edict of Thessalonica under Theodosius I. Italy was invaded several times by the barbarians and fell under the control of Odoacer, when Romulus Augustus was deposed in 476 AD. In the sixth century, except for about more than a decade between the end of the Gothic War in mid-550s and Lombard invasion of Italy in 568 when (Eastern) Roman Empire reunited Italy, Italy's territory was divided between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Germanic peoples.[further explanation needed] After that, Italy remained divided until 1861, when it was reunited by the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Italy, which became the present-day Italian Republic in 1946. Contents 1 Characteristics 2 History 2.1 Augustan organization 2.2 Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations 2.3 Western Roman Empire 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Characteristics[edit] Northern and southern section of Italia under Augustus and successors Following the end of the Social War in 87 BC, Rome had allowed its Italian allies full rights in Roman society and granted Roman citizenship to all the Italic peoples.[10] After having been for centuries the heart of the Roman Empire, from the 3rd century the government and the cultural center began to move eastward: first the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD extended Roman citizenship to all free men within the imperial boundaries. Then, Christianity became the dominant religion during Constantine's reign (306–337), raising the power of other Eastern political centres. Although not founded as a capital city in 330, Constantinople grew in importance. It finally gained the rank of eastern capital when given an urban prefect in 359 and the senators who were clari became senators of the lowest rank as clarissimi. As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan), and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). In 402, the capital was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming the decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in seven centuries). History[edit] The name Italia covered an area whose borders evolved over time. According to Strabo's Geographica, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto (corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria); later the term was extended by Romans to include the Italian Peninsula up to the Rubicon, a river located between Northern and Central Italy. In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Cisalpine Gaul;[11] while in 42 BC the hitherto existing province was abolished, thus extending Italy to the north up to the southern foot of the Alps.[12][13] Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria.[13] Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to also include the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Raetia and part of Pannonia.[14] The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana, Slovenia) was the easternmost town of Italy. Augustan organization[edit] At the beginning of the Roman imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called municipia, had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones, as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia: Roman Italia (in green) as organized by Augustus. The Tropaeum Alpium The Victory Monument of the Alps, La Turbie, France, marked the augustan border between Italy and Gaul Italia annonaria and Italia suburbicaria dioceses. Regio I Latium et Campania Regio II Apulia et Calabria Regio III Lucania et Bruttium Regio IV Samnium Regio V Picenum Regio VI Umbria et Ager Gallicus Regio VII Etruria Regio VIII Aemilia Regio IX Liguria Regio X Venetia et Histria Regio XI Transpadana Italy was privileged by Augustus and his heirs, with the construction, among other public structures, of a dense network of Roman roads. The Italian economy flourished: agriculture, handicraft and industry had a sensible growth, allowing the export of goods to the other provinces.[citation needed] The Italian population may have grown as well: three census were ordered by Augustus, to record the number of Roman citizens throughout the empire. The surviving totals were 4,063,000 in 28 BC, 4,233,000 in 8 BC, and 4,937,000 in AD 14, but it is still debated whether these counted all citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens sui iuris.[15] Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009.[16] Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations[edit] During the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors called Augusti and two junior vice-emperors called Caesars. He decreased the size of the Roman provinces by doubling their number to reduce the power of the provincial governors. He grouped the provinces into several dioceses (Latin: diocesis) and put them under the supervision of the imperial vicarius (vice, deputy), who was the head of the diocese. During the Crisis of the Third Century the importance of Rome declined because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. Diocletian and his colleagues usually resided in four imperial seats. The Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, who were responsible for the East and West respectively, established themselves at Nicomedia, in north-western Anatolia (closer to the Persian frontier in the east) and Milan, in northern Italy (closer to the European frontiers) respectively. The seats of the Caesars were Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius who also resided at Thessaloniki. Under Diocletian Italy became the Dioecesis Italiciana. It included Raetia. It was subdivided the following provinces: Liguria (today's Liguria and western Piedmont) Transpadana (eastern Piedmont and Lombardy) Rhaetia (eastern Switzerland, western and central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Venetia et Histria (today's Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige and Istria county) Aemilia (Emilia-Romagna) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany and Umbria) Flaminia (Picenum and the former Ager Gallicus, in today's Marche) Latium et Campania (the coastal parts of Lazio and Campania) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and Irpinia) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (Basilicata and Calabria) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Corsica et Sardinia Constantine subdivided the empire into four Praetorian prefectures. The Diocesis Italiciana became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy (praefectura praetoria Italiae), and was subdivided into two dioceses. It still included Raetia. The two dioceses and their provinces were: Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of the annona - its inhabitants had to provide the administration in Milan and the troops stationed in that city the annona - food, wine and timber).[clarification needed] Alpes Cottiae (modern Liguria and western part of Piedmont) Liguria (western Lombardy and eastern part of Piedmont) Venetia et Histria (Istria [which is now part of Croatia, Slovenia and Italy], Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto and eastern and central Lombardy) Raetia I (eastern Switzerland and western Austria) Rhaetia II (central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Aemilia (the Emilia part of Emilia-Romagna) Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium (Romagna and northern Marche) Diocesis Italia Suburbicaria (Italy "under the government of the urbs", i.e. Rome) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany, Umbria and the northern part of coastal Lazio) Picenum suburbicarium (Piceno, in southern Marche) Valeria Sabina (the modern province of Rieti, other areas of Lazio and areas of Umbria and Abruzzo) Campania (central and southern coastal Lazio and coastal Campania except for the modern province of Salerno) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and the mountain areas of modern Campania; i.e., the modern provinces of Benevento and Avellino and part of the province of Caserta) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (modern Calabria, Basilicata and the province of Salerno in modern Campania) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Sardinia Corsica Western Roman Empire[edit] In 330, Constantine inaugurated Constantinople. He established the imperial court, a Senate, financial and judicial administrations, as well as the military structures. The new city, however, did not receive an urban prefect until 359 which raised it to the status of eastern capital. After the death of Theodosius in 395 and the subsequent division of the empire Italy was part of the Western Roman Empire. As a result of Alaric's invasion in 402 the western seat was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. Alaric, king of Visigoths, sacked Rome itself in 410; something that hadn't happened for eight centuries. Northern Italy was attacked by Attila's Huns in 452. Rome was sacked in 455 again by the Vandals under the command of Genseric. The "Praetorian Prefecture of Italy" (in yellow) stretched from the Danube river to North Africa According to Notitia Dignitatum, one of the very few surviving documents of Roman government updated to the 420s, Roman Italy was governed by a praetorian prefect, Prefectus praetorio Italiae (who also governed the Diocese of Africa and the Diocese of Pannonia), one vicarius, and one comes rei militaris. The regions of Italy were governed at the end of the fourth century by eight consulares (Venetiae et Histriae, Aemiliae, Liguriae, Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii, Tusciae et Umbriae, Piceni suburbicarii, Campaniae, and Siciliae), two correctores (Apuliae et Calabriae and Lucaniae et Bruttiorum) and seven praesides (Alpium Cottiarum, Rhaetia Prima and Secunda, Samnii, Valeriae, Sardiniae, and Corsicae). In the fifth century, with the Emperors controlled by their barbarian generals, the Western imperial government maintained weak control over Italy, whose coasts were periodically under attack. In 476, with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, the Western Roman Empire had formally fallen unless one considers Julius Nepos, the legitimate emperor recognized by Constantinople as the last. He was assassinated in 480 and may have been recognized by Odoacer. Italy remained under Odoacer and his Kingdom of Italy, and then under the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The Germanic successor states under Odoacer and Theodoric the Great continued to use the Roman administrative machinery, as well as being nominal subjects of the Eastern emperor at Constantinople. In 535 Roman Emperor Justinian invaded Italy which suffered twenty years of disastrous war. In August 554, Justinian issued a Pragmatic sanction which maintained most of the organization of Diocletian. The "Prefecture of Italy" thus survived, and came under Roman control in the course of Justinian's Gothic War. As a result of the Lombard invasion in 568, the Byzantines lost most of Italy, except the territories of the Exarchate of Ravenna - a corridor from Venice to Lazio - and footholds in the south Naples and the toe and heel of the peninsula. References[edit] ^ [1] ^ [2] ^ [3] ^ [4] ^ [5] ^ Mommsen, Theodor (1855). History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel. ^ [6] ^ [7] ^ Video of Roman Milan (in Italian) ^ Keaveney, Arthur (1987). Rome and the Unification of Italy. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9781904675372. ^ Cassius, Dio. Historia Romana. 41. 36. ^ Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina". Athenaeum (in Italian). Firenze (80): 5–23. ^ a b Aurigemma, Salvatore. "Gallia Cisalpina". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 14 October 2014. ^ "Italy (ancient Roman territory)". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2013. ^ Hin, Saskia (2007). Counting Romans (PDF). Leiden: Princeton/Stanford Working Papers. ^ Lo Cascio, Elio (2009). Urbanization as a Proxy of Demographic and Economic Growth. Oxford: Scholarship Online. ISBN 9780199562596. Further reading[edit] Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06975-7. Salmon, Edward T. (1982). The Making of Roman Italy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801414381. Whatmough, Joshua (1937). The Foundations of Roman Italy. London: Methuen & Company. Lomas, Kathryn (1996). Roman Italy, 338 BC-AD 200. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-16072-2. Launaro, Alessandro (2011). Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107004795. Hin, Saskia (2013). The Demography of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00393-4. Clarke, John R. (1991). The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07267-7. Laurence, Ray (2002). The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16616-0. External links[edit] (in Italian) Geographical regions in Roman history: Italy v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e List of historic states of Italy Etruscan civilization Lega dei popoli Etruscan dodecapolis Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Italy (4th/3rd century BC–476 AD) Sicilia (241 BC–476 AD) Corsica and Sardinia (238 BC–455 AD) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (285 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy (337 AD–584 AD) Medieval and Early Modern states Early Italian Kingdom (476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric of Bressanone Corsican Republic City of Fiume and its District Commune of Rome County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla County of Santa Fiora Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Tyrol Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Savoyard state Savoy County of Savoy Piedmont Duchy of Aosta County of Nice County of Tenda Papal States (754–1870) Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Holy See Duchy of Parma Duchy of Urbino Republics Republic of Cospaia Republic of Ancona Republic of Florence Republic of Genoa Republic of Noli Republic of Lucca Republic of Massa Republic of Pisa Republic of Siena Republic of Venice (697–1797) Dogado Domini di Terraferma Stato da Màr Southern Italy (774–1139) Byzantine Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Gaeta Catepanate of Italy Longobardia Theme of Lucania Duchy of Naples Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily Duchy of Sorrento Arab Emirate of Bari Emirate of Sicily Lombard Principality of Benevento Principality of Salerno Principality of Capua Norman County of Apulia and Calabria County of Aversa County of Sicily Principality of Taranto Sardinia (from the 9th century) Judicates Agugliastra Arborea Cagliari Gallura Logudoro Oristano Republic of Sassari Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1861) Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) and Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816) State of the Presidi Duke of San Donato Duchy of Sora Principality of Taranto Terra Sancti Benedicti Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648) Hospitaller Malta Gozo Malta Protectorate Crown Colony of Malta French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras (1792–1815) Republics Cisalpinia Cispadania Italy Liguria Lucca Parthenopea Piedmont Rome Subalpinia Transpadania Monarchies Benevento Etruria Guastalla Italy Lucca and Piombino Massa and Carrara Naples Pontecorvo Tuscany Elba Corsica Post-Napoleonic states Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848) Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829) Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859) Duchy of Parma (1814–1859) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859) Italian United Provinces (1831) Provisional Government of Milan (1848) Republic of San Marco (1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Venezia Giulia Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e History of the Roman and Byzantine Empire in modern territories Albania (Classical - Medieval) Algeria Armenia (Classical - Late Antique) Azerbaijan Austria Balkans Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria (Classical - High Medieval) Britain (England) Crimea (Classical - Medieval) Croatia Cyprus (Classical - Medieval) Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique) France (Corsica (Classical - Early Medieval)) Georgia Germany Greece (Classical - Medieval) (Crete (Classical - Medieval)) Hungary Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique) Italy (Classical - Medieval) (Sicily (Classical - Medieval), Sardinia (Classical - Early Medieval)) Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique) Libya Liechtenstein Luxembourg Malta Macedonia Monaco Montenegro Morocco The Netherlands North Africa Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique) Portugal Romania Scotland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain (Classical - Late Antique) Switzerland Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique) Tunisia (Roman Carthage) Turkey (Classical - Medieval) (Thrace (Classical - Medieval)) Wales v t e Classical antiquity by region Europa Graecia Italia Gallia Dacia Thracia Illyria Hispania Britannia Germania Asia Scythia Anatolia Levant (Greater Syria) Arabia Africa Libya Aegyptus Carthage Igbo-Ukwu v t e Campania Provinces Avellino Benevento Caserta Naples Salerno Places Amalfi Coast Cilento Irpinia Islands Samnium Sorrentine Peninsula Terra di Lavoro Vallo di Diano Cities, towns and villages List of communes History Kingdom of Naples Monarchs Viceroys Two Sicilies Magna Graecia Samnite Wars Italia province Duchy of Naples Duchy of Benevento Principality of Capua Principality of Salerno Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Sorrento Duchy of Apulia and Calabria Ancient Campania Politics and government Elections in Campania List of Presidents of Campania Culture Demographics Geography Music Flag Coat of arms Categories Coordinates: 42°00′00″N 12°30′00″E / 42.0000°N 12.5000°E / 42.0000; 12.5000 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Italy&oldid=1026836942" Categories: Roman Italy States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories established in the 3rd century BC States and territories disestablished in the 5th century 4th-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic 3rd-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic 470s disestablishments in the Roman Empire Ancient Italian history Hidden categories: Articles with Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2013 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2017 Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate 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en-wikipedia-org-1309	----	Jiaozhi - Wikipedia Jiaozhi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Jiaozhi Chinese name Chinese 交趾 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiāozhǐ Wade–Giles Chiāo1-chǐh4 Alternative Chinese name Chinese 交阯 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiāozhǐ Wade–Giles Chiāo1-chǐh4 Vietnamese name Vietnamese Giao Chỉ Hán-Nôm 交趾 History of Vietnam (Names of Vietnam) 2879–2524 BC Xích Quỷ 2524–258 BC Văn Lang 257–179 BC Âu Lạc 204–111 BC Nam Việt 111 BC – 40 AD Giao Chỉ 40–43 Lĩnh Nam 43–299 Giao Chỉ 299–544 Giao Châu 544–602 Vạn Xuân 602–679 Giao Châu 679–757 An Nam 757–766 Trấn Nam 766–866 An Nam 866–967 Tĩnh Hải quân 968–1054 Đại Cồ Việt 1054–1400 Đại Việt 1400–1407 Đại Ngu 1407–1427 Giao Chỉ 1428–1804 Đại Việt 1804–1839 Việt Nam 1839–1945 Đại Nam 1887–1954 Đông Pháp (Bắc Kỳ, Trung Kỳ, Nam Kỳ) from 1945 Việt Nam Main template History of Vietnam v t e Jiaozhi (Chinese) or Giao Chỉ (Vietnamese) was a historical region corresponding to present-day Northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (Chinese: 交趾郡, 交阯郡; Vietnamese: Quận Giao Chỉ), an administrative division centered in the Red River Delta that existed through Vietnam's first and second periods of northern domination. During the Han dynasty, the commandery was part of a province of the same name (later renamed to Jiaozhou) that covered northern and central Vietnam as well as Guangdong and Guangxi in southern China. In 670 AD, Jiaozhi was absorbed into the Annam Protectorate established by the Tang dynasty. Afterwards, official use of the name Jiaozhi was superseded by "Annam" and other names of Vietnam, except during the brief Fourth Chinese domination when the Ming dynasty administered Vietnam as the Jiaozhi Province. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Van Lang 2.2 Âu Lạc 2.3 Nanyue 2.4 Han dynasty 2.5 Three Kingdoms 2.6 Ming dynasty 3 Sino-Roman contact 4 Notes 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Articles 7.2 Books 8 External links Name[edit] According to Michel Ferlus, the Sino-Vietnamese Jiao in Jiāozhǐ (交趾), together with the ethnonym and autonym of the Lao people (lǎo 獠), and the ethnonym Gēlǎo (仡佬), a Kra population scattered from Guizhou (China) to North Vietnam, would have emerged from the Austro-Asiatic *k(ə)ra:w 'human being'.[1][2] The etymon *k(ə)ra:w would have also yielded the ethnonym Keo/ Kæw kɛːwA1, a name given to the Vietnamese by Tai speaking peoples, currently slightly derogatory.[1] In Pupeo (Kra branch), kew is used to name the Tay (Central Tai) of North Vietnam.[3] jiāo 交 < MC kæw < OC *kraw [k.raw] lǎo 獠 < MC lawX < OC *C-rawʔ [C.rawˀ] The name of the territory was also used to refer to the Lac people and their ancient language. It seems to be a Yue or Viet endonym of uncertain meaning, although it has had various folk etymologies over the years. A Chinese geographer, Fan Chengda (1126–1193), explained that the Vietnamese have crossed toes, which meaning jiaozhi in Chinese.[4] In his Tongdian, Du You (735–812) wrote that "The Jiaozhi are the southern people: the big toe points to the outside of the foot, so if the man stands up straight, the two big toes point to each other, so people call them the "jiaozhi"." (The Chinese character 趾 means "hallux, big toe".) The Ciyuan disputed this: The meaning of the word Jiaozhi cannot be understood literally, but the ancient Greek method of "opposite pillar" and "connecting pillar" to label humans on earth—where "opposite pillar" stood for the South side and its logical opposite the North side, whilst "connecting pillar" stood for the East side with the West side connected to it—could provide a suggested origin. If Jiaozhi was intended to characterize "opposite pillar" because this was what people of the North called the people of the South, then the feet of the North side (chân phía Bắc') and feet of the South side (chân phía Nam) must oppose each other, therefore rendering it impossible for the feet of a person to cross or intersect each other (không phải thực là chân người "giao" nhau).[5] Various Vietnamese scholars such as Nguyễn Văn Siêu and Đặng Xuân Bảng have since echoed this explanation.[citation needed] Jiaozhi, pronounced Kuchi in the Malay, became the Cochin-China of the Portuguese traders c. 1516, who so named it to distinguish it from the city and the Kingdom of Cochin in India, their first headquarters in the Malabar Coast. It was subsequently called "Cochinchina".[6][7] However by viewpoint of researcher Trần Như Vĩnh Lạc, 交趾 or 交阯 in the transcribing a pronunciation "Viet" (越), as "/ˈɡw:ət/" in the ancient Annamese.[citation needed] Meanwhile, James Chamberlain claims that Jiao originated as a cognate of Lao.[8] Chamberlain, like Joachim Schlesinger, claim that the Vietnamese language was not originally based in the area of the Red River in what is now northern Vietnam. According to them, the Red River Delta region was originally inhabited by Tai-speakers or other Kra-Dai speakers such as Li people. They claim that the area become Vietnamese-speaking only between the seventh and ninth centuries AD,[9] or even as late as the tenth century, as a result of immigration from the south, i.e., modern central Vietnam.[10][11] According to Han-Tang records, east of Jiaozhi and the coast of Kwangdong, Kwangsi was heavily populated by ethnic Li people (whom Chinese contemporaries called Lǐ 俚 and Lǎo 獠).[12][13][14] Even so, Michael Churchman acknowledged that "The absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese."[15] History[edit] Van Lang[edit] See also: Văn Lang The native state of Văn Lang is not well attested, but much later sources name Giao Chỉ as one of the realm's districts (bộ). Its territory purportedly comprised present-day Hanoi and the land on the right bank of the Red River. According to tradition, the Hung kings directly ruled Mê Linh while other areas were ruled by dependent Lac lords.[16] The Van Lang kingdom fell to the Âu under prince Thục Phán around 258 BC.[nb 1] Âu Lạc[edit] See also: Âu Lạc Thục Phán established his capital at Co Loa in Hanoi's Dong Anh district. The citadel was taken around 208 BC by the Qin general Zhao Tuo. Nanyue[edit] See also: Nanyue Zhao Tuo declared his independent kingdom of Nanyue in 204 and organized his Vietnamese territory as the two commanderies of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen (Vietnamese: Cửu Chân; present-day Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An, and Hà Tĩnh). Following a native coup that killed the Zhao king and his Chinese mother, the Han launched two invasions in 112 and 111 BC that razed the Nanyue capital at Panyu (Guangzhou). Han dynasty[edit] See also: First Chinese domination of Vietnam, Second Chinese domination of Vietnam, and Southward expansion of the Han dynasty Chinese provinces in the late Eastern Han dynasty period, 189 CE The Han dynasty received the submission of the Nanyue commanders in Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, confirming them in their posts and ushering in the "First Era of Northern Domination" in Vietnamese history. These commanderies were headed by grand administrators (taishou) who were later overseen by the inspectors (刺史, cishi) of Jiaozhou or "Jiaozhi Province" (Giao Chỉ bộ), the first of whom was Shi Dai. Under the Han, the political center of the former Nanyue lands was moved from Panyu (Guangzhou) south to Jiaozhi. The capital of Jiaozhi was first Mê Linh (Miling) (within modern Hanoi's Me Linh district) and then Luy Lâu, within Bac Ninh's Thuan Thanh district.[18][19] According to the Book of Han’s "Treatise on Geography", Jiaozhi contained 10 counties: Leilou (羸𨻻), Anding (安定), Goulou (苟屚), Miling (麊泠), Quyang (曲昜), Beidai (北帶), Jixu (稽徐), Xiyu (西于), Longbian (龍編), and Zhugou (朱覯). Đào Duy Anh stated that Jiaozhi's territory contained all of Tonkin, excluding the regions upstream of the Black River and Ma River.[20] Southwestern Guangxi was also part of Jiaozhi.[20] The southwest area of present-day Ninh Bình was the border of Jiuzhen. Later, the Han dynasty created another commandery named Rinan (Nhật Nam) located south of Jiuzhen, stretching from the Ngang Pass to Quảng Nam Province. One of the Grand Administrators of Jiaozhi was Su Ding.[21] In AD 39, two sisters Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị who were daughters of the Lac lord of Mê Linh, led an uprising that quickly spread to an area stretching approximate modern-day Vietnam (Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, Hepu and Rinan), forcing Su Ding and the Han army to flee. All of Lac lords submitted to Trưng Trắc and crowned her Queen.[22] In AD 42 the Han empire struck back by sending an reconquest expedition led by Ma Yuan. Copper columns of Ma Yuan was supposedly erected by Ma Yuan after he had suppressed the uprising of the Trưng Sisters in AD 44.[23] Ma Yuan followed his conquest with a brutal course of assimilation,[24] destroying the natives' bronze drums in order to build the column, on which the inscription "If this bronze column collapses, Jiaozhi will be destroyed" was carved, at the edge of the Chinese empire.[25] Following the defeat of Trưng sisters, thousands of Chinese immigrants (mostly soldiers) arrived and settled in Jiaozhi, adopted surname Ma, and married with local Lac Viet girls, began the developing of Han-Viet ruling class while local Lac ruling-class families who had submitted to Ma Yuan were used as local functionaries in Han administration and were natural participants in the intermarriage process.[26] By the years of 200s, Vietic people gradually declined to the south and southwest, while most of the Red River Delta became more densely inhabited by Tai-speaking "Li" Hlai people.[27] In 100, Cham people in Xianglin county (near modern-day Huế) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two year tax respite.[28] In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the Imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."[28] In 115, Hlai people/Nung people of Cangwu district revolted against the Han. In the following year, thousand of rebels from Yulin and Hepu besieged Cangwu. Empress Dowager Deng decided to avoid conflict and instead sent attendant censor Ren Chuo with a proclamation to grant them amnesty.[29] In 157, Lac leader Chu Đạt in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.[30][31] In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tributes to the Han government.[32] In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing tributes to the Han, which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.[33] In 178, Wuhu people under Liang Long sparked a revolt against the Han in Hepu and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam, Guangxi and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Chu Chuan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed.[34] In 192, Cham people in Xianglin county led by Khu Liên successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom of Lâm Ấp.[35] Jiaozhi emerged as the economic center of gravity on the southern coast of the Han empire. In 2 AD, the region reported four times as many households as Nanhai (modern Guangdong), while its population density is estimated to be 9.6 times larger than that of Guangdong. Jiaozhi was a key supplier of rice and produced prized handicrafts and natural resources. The region's location was highly favorable to trade. Well connected to central China via the Ling Canal, it formed the nearest connection between the Han court and the Maritime Silk Road.[36] By the end of the second century AD, Buddhism (brought from India via sea by Indian Buddhists centuries earlier) had become the most common religion of Jiaozhi.[37] Three Kingdoms[edit] During the Three Kingdoms period, Jiaozhi was administered from Longbian (Long Biên) by Shi Xie on behalf of the Wu. This family controlled several surrounding commanderies, but upon the headman's death Guangzhou was formed as a separate province from northeastern Jiaozhou and Shi Xie's son attempted to usurp his father's appointed replacement. In retaliation, Sun Quan executed the son and all his brothers and demoted the remainder of the family to common status.[38] Ming dynasty[edit] Main article: Jiaozhi Province During the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, the Ming dynasty revived the historical name Jiaozhi and created the Jiaozhi Province in northern Vietnam. After repelling the Ming forces, Lê Lợi dismissed all former administrative structure and divided the nation into 5 dao. Thus, Giao Chỉ and Giao Châu have never been names of official administrative units ever since. Sino-Roman contact[edit] See also: Sino-Roman relations Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China In 166 CE An-tun (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) of the state of Ta Ch'in sent missinaries from beyond Rinan to offer present of ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise to the Han court.[39] Hou Han shu records: In the ninth Yanxi year [AD 166], during the reign of Emperor Huan, the king of Da Qin [the Roman Empire], Andun (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, r. 161–180), sent envoys from beyond the frontiers through Rinan... During the reign of Emperor He [AD 89–105], they sent several envoys carrying tribute and offerings. Later, the Western Regions rebelled, and these relations were interrupted. Then, during the second and the fourth Yanxi years in the reign of Emperor Huan [AD 159 and 161], and frequently since, [these] foreigners have arrived [by sea] at the frontiers of Rinan [Commandery in modern central Vietnam] to present offerings.[40][41] The Book of Liang states: The merchants of this country [the Roman Empire] frequently visit Funan [in the Mekong delta], Rinan (Annam) and Jiaozhi [in the Red River Delta near modern Hanoi]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Da Qin. During the 5th year of the Huangwu period of the reign of Sun Quan [AD 226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Lun came to Jiaozhi [Tonkin]; the prefect [taishou] of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao, sent him to Sun Quan [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his native country and its people."[42] The capital of Jiaozhi was proposed by Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 to have been the port known to the geographer Ptolemy and the Romans as Kattigara, situated near modern Hanoi.[43][44] Richthofen's view was widely accepted until archaeology at Óc Eo in the Mekong Delta suggested that site may have been its location. Kattigara seems to have been the main port of call for ships traveling to China from the West in the first few centuries AD, before being replaced by Guangdong.[45] In terms of archaeological finds, a Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC.[46] At Óc Eo, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near Jiaozhi, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found.[47][48] This may have been the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy, laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[47][48] Notes[edit] ^ Numerous Chinese sources state the fact that Jiaozhi was already known in China during the Spring and Autumn period. At this time Jiaozhi was applied to the lands south of the Five Ranges (Lingnan). When Han dynasty conquered Nanyueh in 111 BC and divided it into 9 commanderies, one commandery called Jiaozhi was the center of Han administration and government for all 9 areas. Because of this, the entire areas of 9 commanderies was sometime called Jiaozhi. From Han to Tang, the names Jiaozhi and Jiao county at least was used for a part of the Han-era Jiaozhi. In 670, Jiaozhi was absorbed into a larger administrative called Annan (Pacified South). After this, the name Jiaozhi was applied for the Red River Delta and most or all of northern Vietnam (Tonkin). Chau Ju-kua, 46, n. 1[17] See also[edit] History portal Vietnam portal China portal Kang Senghui, a Buddhist monk of Sogdian origin who lived in Jiaozhi during the 3rd century Tonkin, an exonym for northern Vietnam, approximately identical to the Jiaozhi region Cochinchina, an exonym for (southern) Vietnam, yet cognate with the term Jiaozhi References[edit] ^ a b Ferlus (2009), p. 4. ^ Pain (2008), p. 646. ^ Ferlus (2009), p. 3. ^ Fan (2011), p. 210. ^ Ciyuan, volume Tý, page 141. ^ Yule (1995), p. 34. ^ Reid (1993), p. 211. ^ Chamberlain (2016), p. 40. ^ Chamberlain (2000), p. 97, 127. ^ Schliesinger (2018a), p. 21, 97. ^ Schliesinger (2018b), p. 3-4, 22, 50, 54. ^ Churchman (2011), p. 70. ^ Schafer (1967), p. 58. ^ Pulleyblank (1983), p. 433. ^ Churchman (2010), p. 36. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 12-13. ^ Fan 2011, p. 209 ^ Taylor (1983), p. 12, 32-35. ^ Xiong (2009). ^ a b Đất nước Việt Nam qua các đời, Văn hóa Thông tin publisher, 2005 ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 78. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 79. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 80. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 81. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 48. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 48, 50–53, 54. ^ Churchman (2016), p. 47. ^ a b Kiernan (2019), p. 85. ^ Churchman (2016), p. 126. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 64-66. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 316. ^ Li (2011), p. 48. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 86. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 67-68. ^ Taylor (1983), p. 69. ^ Li (2011), p. 39-44. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 92. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 91. ^ Yu (1986), p. 470. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27. ^ Hill (2009), p. 31. ^ Hill (2009), p. 292. ^ Richthofen 1944, p. 387. ^ Richthofen (1944), p. 410-411. ^ Hill 2004 - see: [1] and Appendix: F. ^ An (2002), p. 83. ^ a b Young (2001), p. 29-30. ^ a b Osborne (2006), p. 24-25. Sources[edit] Articles[edit] Chamberlain, James R. (2016). "Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam". Journal of the Siam Society. 104. Churchman, Michael (2010). "Before Chinese and Vietnamese in the Red River Plain: The Han–Tang Period" (PDF). Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies. 4. Ferlus, Michel (2009). "Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia". 42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics. 31: 1–6 – via HAL. Masanari, Nishimura (2005). "Settlement patterns on the Red River plain from the late prehistoric period to the 10th century AD". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 25: 99–107. doi:10.7152/bippa.v25i0.11920. Noriko, Nishino (2017). "An Introduction to Dr. Nishimura Masanari's Research on the Lung Khe Citadel". Asian Review of World Histories. 5 (2): 11–27. doi:10.1163/22879811-12340003 – via Brill. Pain, Frédéric (2008). "An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 128: 641–662 – via JSTOR. Taylor, K. (2017). "What Lies Behind the Earliest Story of Buddhism in Ancient Vietnam?". The Journal of Asian Studies. 77 (1): 107–122. doi:10.1017/S0021911817000985 – via Cambridge University Press. Books[edit] An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, Brepols Publishers, pp. 79–94, ISBN 2503521789 Chamberlain, James R. (2000). "The origin of the Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history" (PDF). In Burusphat, Somsonge (ed.). Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29–31, 1998. Bangkok, Thailand: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. ISBN 974-85916-9-7. Retrieved 29 August 2014. Churchman, Catherine (2016). The People Between the Rivers: The Rise and Fall of a Bronze Drum Culture, 200–750 CE. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-442-25861-7. Churchman, Michael (2011), ""The People in Between": The Li and the Lao from the Han to the Sui", in Li, Tana; Anderson, James A. (eds.), The Tongking Gulf Through History, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 67–86, ISBN 978-0-812-20502-2 Li, Tana (2011). "Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han period Tongking Gulf". In Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James A. (eds.). The Tongking Gulf Through History. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 39–53. ISBN 9780812205022. Fan, Chengda (2011). Hargett, James M. (ed.). Treatises of the Supervisor and Guardian of the Cinnamon Sea: The Natural World and Material Culture of Twelfth-Century China. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-29599-079-1. Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Kiernan, Ben (2019). Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. Oxford University Press. Loewe, Michael (1986), "The conduct of government and the issues at stake (A.D. 57-167)", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 291–316 Osborne, Milton (2006). The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-893-6. Pulleyblank, E.G. (1983). "The Chinese and their neighbors in prehistoric and early historic times". In Keightly, David N. (ed.). The Origins of Chinese Civilization. Berkeley: University of California Press. Reid, Anthony (1993), Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, Vol. 2: Expansion and Crisis, New Haven: Yale University Press |volume= has extra text (help) Richthofen, Ferdinand von (1944), "China", in Hennig, Richard (ed.), Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden: Brill, pp. 387, 410–411 Schafer, Edward Hetzel (1967), The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South, Los Angeles: University of California Press Schliesinger, Joachim (2018a). Origin of the Tai People 5―Cradle of the Tai People and the Ethnic Setup Today Volume 5 of Origin of the Tai People. Booksmango. ISBN 978-1641531825. Schliesinger, Joachim (2018b). Origin of the Tai People 6―Northern Tai-Speaking People of the Red River Delta and Their Habitat Today Volume 6 of Origin of the Tai People. Booksmango. ISBN 978-1641531832. Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of the Vietnam. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07417-0. Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009), "Jiaozhi", Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, p. 251, ISBN 978-0-8108-6053-7 Yu, Ying-shih (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–463 Yule, Henry (1995). A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases: Hobson-Jobson. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-0321-0. Young, Gary K. (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24219-3. Zürcher, Erik (2002): "Tidings from the South, Chinese Court Buddhism and Overseas Relations in the Fifth Century AD." Erik Zürcher in: A Life Journey to the East. Sinological Studies in Memory of Giuliano Bertuccioli (1923-2001). Edited by Antonio Forte and Federico Masini. Italian School of East Asian Studies. Kyoto. Essays: Volume 2, pp. 21–43. External links[edit] "The Southern Silk Roads" on Silk Roads Programme v t e Han dynasty provinces and commanderies Sili Henan Henei Hedong Hongnong Jingzhao Zuopingyi Youfufeng Yu Province Yingchuan Runan Liang Pei Chen Lu Ji Province Wei Julu Changshan Zhongshan Xindu Hejian Qinghe Handan Bohai Yan Province Chenliu Dong Dongping Rencheng Taishan Jibei Shanyang Jiyin Xu Province Donghai Langya Pengcheng Guangling Linhuai Qing Province Jinan Pingyuan Le'an Beihai Donglai Qi Jing Province Nanyang Nan Jiangxia Lingling Guiyang Wuling Changsha Yang Province Jiujiang Danyang Lujiang Kuaiji Wu Yuzhang Yi Province Hanzhong Ba Guanghan Shu Jianwei Zangke Yuexi Yizhou Yongchang Liang Province Longxi Hanyang Wudu Jincheng Anding Wuwei Zhangye Jiuquan Dunhuang Bing Province Shangdang Taiyuan Xihe Yunzhong Dingxiang Yanmen Shuofang Province Shuofang Wuyuan Shang Xihe Beidi You Province Zhuo Guangyang Dai Shanggu Yuyang Youbeiping Liaoxi Liaodong Xuantu Lelang Jiaozhi Province Nanhai Cangwu Yulin Hepu Jiaozhi Jiuzhen Rinan Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jiaozhi&oldid=1027791071" Categories: Populated places along the Silk Road Former countries in Vietnamese history History of Vietnam Regions of Vietnam Former commanderies of China in Vietnam Commanderies of the Han dynasty Commanderies of the Jin dynasty (266–420) Commanderies of the Southern dynasties Commanderies of the Sui dynasty Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from June 2020 Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Vietnamese-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2020 Articles containing Malay (macrolanguage)-language text Articles containing Portuguese-language text CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Guangxi articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Guangdong articles missing geocoordinate data Vietnam articles missing geocoordinate data Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Čeština Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 Русский Tiếng Việt 文言 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 01:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1312	----	Artaxata - Wikipedia Artaxata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Artashat (ancient city)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Artashat" redirects here. For other uses, see Artashat (disambiguation). Artashat View of mount Ararat from Khor Virap. The hill where the church was built is the location of ancient Artashat (near the village of Lusarat)[1] Artaxata Shown within Armenia Location South of the modern town of Artashat, Ararat Province, Armenia Coordinates 39°53′06″N 44°34′35″E / 39.88500°N 44.57639°E / 39.88500; 44.57639Coordinates: 39°53′06″N 44°34′35″E / 39.88500°N 44.57639°E / 39.88500; 44.57639 History Builder King Artaxias I Founded 176 BC[2] Abandoned 7th century Public baths Artashat (Armenian: Արտաշատ); Hellenized as Artaxata (Greek: Ἀρτάξατα) and Artaxiasata (Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξιάσατα),[3] was a large commercial city and the capital of ancient Armenia during the reign of king Artaxias I; the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty of the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. The name of the city is derived from Iranian languages and means the "joy of Arta" (see also; -shat).[1][2] Founded by King Artaxias I in 176 BC, Artaxata served as the capital of the Kingdom of Armenia from 185 BC until 120 AD, and was known as the "Vostan Hayots" ("court/seal of the Armenians").[2] Contents 1 History 1.1 Antiquity 1.2 Wars against Romans and Persians 1.3 Soviet period and independence 2 References 3 Further reading History[edit] Antiquity[edit] King Artashes I founded Artashat in 176 BC in the Vostan Hayots canton within the historical province of Ayrarat, at the point where Araks river was joined by Metsamor river during that ancient eras, near the heights of Khor Virap. The story of the foundation is given by the Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi of the fifth century: "Artashes traveled to the location of the confluence of the Yeraskh and Metsamor [rivers] and taking a liking to the position of the hills [adjacent to Mount Ararat], he chose it as the location of his new city, naming it after himself."[4] According to the accounts given by Greek historians Plutarch and Strabo, Artashat is said to have been chosen and developed on the advice of the Carthaginian general Hannibal: It is said that Hannibal the Carthaginian, after Antiochus had been conquered by the Romans, left him and went to Artaxias the Armenian, to whom he gave many excellent suggestions and instructions. For instance, observing that a section of the country which had the greatest natural advantages and attractions was lying idle and neglected, he drew up a plan for a city there, and then brought Artaxias [Artashes] to the place and showed him its possibilities, and urged him to undertake the building. The king was delighted, and begged Hannibal to superintend the work himself, whereupon a very great and beautiful city arose there, which was named after the king, and proclaimed the capital of Armenia.[5] However, modern historians argue that there is no direct evidence to support the above.[6] Some sources have also indicated that Artashes built his city upon the remains of an old Urartian settlement.[1] Strabo and Plutarch describe Artashat as a large and beautiful city and call it the "Armenian Carthage".[1] A focal point of Hellenistic culture, Armenia's first theatre was built here.[2] Movses Khorenatsi points that in addition to numerous copper pagan statues of the gods and goddesses of Anahit, Artemis and Tir brought from the religious center of Bagaran and other regions to the city, Jews from the former Armenian capital of Armavir were relocated to Artashat.[7] Artashes also built a citadel (which was later named Khor Virap and gained prominence as the location where Gregory the Illuminator was to be imprisoned by Tiridates III of Armenia) and added other fortifications, including a moat.[8] Given the city's strategic position on the Araks valley, Artashat soon became a center of bustling economic activity and thriving international trade, linking Persia and Mesopotamia with the Caucasus and Asia Minor. Its economic wealth can be gauged in the numerous bathhouses, markets, workshops administrative buildings that sprang up during the reign of Artashes I. The city had its own treasury and customs. The amphitheater of Artashat was built during the reign of king Artavasdes II (55-34 BC). The remains of the huge walls surrounding the city built by King Artashes I could be found in the area. Wars against Romans and Persians[edit] Model of the Acropolis of Artaxata An attempt to restore the temple of Tir Apollo to Artaxata, located in the lower town, near the Aras river During the reign of Tigranes II, the Armenian kingdom expanded and conquered many territories in the south and west, ultimately reaching the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the remoteness of Artashat in the greater context of the empire, Tigranes built a new capital called Tigranocerta. However, in 69 the Roman general Lucullus invaded Armenia, defeated Tigranes' forces at the outskirts of Tigranocerta, and sacked the new capital. As the harassed Roman forces continued to move northeast in pursuit of the Armenian king, a second prominent battle took place, this time at Artashat where, according to Roman sources, Tigranes II was defeated once again. Artashat was restored as capital of Armenia in 60 B.C. However, the city remained a hotly contested military target for the next two centuries. It was occupied by Capadocian legions under the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, who razed it to the ground in 59 AD as part of the first, short-lived, Roman conquest of Armenia. After Emperor Nero recognized Tiridates I as king of Armenia in 66, he granted him 50 million sesterces and sent architects and construction experts to help in the reconstruction of the ruined city.[2] The city was temporarily renamed Neronia, in honor of its sponsor, Nero. Artashat remained the capital of Armenia until 120 when the see of power was moved to Vagharshapat during the reign of Vologases I (Vagharsh I) 117/8–144. After his death, the Romans led by Statius Priscus invaded Armenia and destroyed Artashat in 162 A.D. Archaeological excavations conducted during the Soviet era uncovered a Latin inscription bearing the full titles of the Emperor Trajan that was probably inscribed upon the governor's palace, dating back to the first quarter of the second century.[2] Artashat remained one of the principal political and cultural centres of Armenia until 369 when it was thoroughly destroyed by the Sassanid Persian invading army of king Shapur II. In 449, just prior to the Battle of Avarayr, the city witnessed the gathering of the Artashat Council, where the political and religious leaders of Christian Armenia gathered to discuss the threats of the Sassanid king Yazdegerd II. However, after losing its status as a capital to Vagharshapat and later Dvin, Artashat gradually lost its significance, though it continued to be a notable settlement for centuries. In 587 during the reign of emperor Maurice, Artashat and much of Armenia came under Roman administration after the Romans defeated the Sassanid Persian Empire at the battle of the Blarathon. The exact location of ancient Artashat was identified during the 1920s, with archaeological excavations beginning in 1970. The archaeological site is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of the modern city of Artashat, near the monastery of Khor Virap. Soviet period and independence[edit] The modern town of Artashat was founded by the Soviet government in 1945, 8 km northwest of the ancient city, within the Armenian SSR. It was given the status of an urban community with the merger of three villages, Upper Ghamarlu, Lower Ghamarlu, and Narvezlu.[1] The town grew gradually as an industrial hub during the Soviet period, mainly in the sphere of food-processing and building materials production. In 1995, with the new law of the territorial administration of the Republic of Armenia, Artashat became the provincial centre of the newly created Ararat Province. References[edit] ^ a b c d e Tiratsyan, Gevorg (1976). "Արտաշատ [Artashat]". Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia Volume 2 (in Armenian). pp. 135–136. ^ a b c d e f Hewsen, R. H. (1986). "Artaxata". Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Strabo, Geography, § 11.14.6 ^ (in Armenian) Movses Khorenatsi. Հայոց Պատմություն, Ե Դար [History of Armenia, Fifth Century]. Annotated translation and commentary by Stepan Malkhasyants. Gagik Sargsyan (ed.) Yerevan: Hayastan Publishing, 1997, 2.49, p. 164. ISBN 5-540-01192-9. ^ Plutarch. Life of Lucullus. 31.3-4. ^ Bournoutian, George A. (2006). A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, p. 29. ISBN 1-56859-141-1. ^ Movses Khorenatsi. History of Armenia, 2.49, p. 164. ^ Garsoïan, Nina. "The Emergence of Armenia" in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I, The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, p. 49. ISBN 0-312-10169-4. Further reading[edit] Dan, Roberto (2019). "Between Urartian and Achaemenid Architectural Traditions: Considerations on the So-Called 'Urartian Wall' of Artašat". Iranica Antiqua. 54: 1–16. doi:10.2143/IA.54.0.3287444. v t e Historical capitals of Armenia Tushpa (832–590 BC) Armavir (331–210 BC) Yervandashat (210–176 BC) Artashat (176–177 BC and 69 BC–120 AD) Tigranakert (77–69 BC) Vagharshapat (120–330) Dvin (336–428) Bagaran (885–890) Shirakavan (890–929) Kars (929–961) Ani (961–1045) Sis (1080–1375) Yerevan (since 1918) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artaxata&oldid=1023979546" Categories: Former capitals of Armenia Archaeological sites in Armenia Forts in Armenia Buildings and structures in Ararat Province Ararat Province Hidden categories: CS1 Armenian-language sources (hy) Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն ქართული Latviešu Nederlands Română Svenska اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2021, at 12:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1315	----	Boxing - Wikipedia Boxing From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 8 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search Full contact combat sport Look up boxing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. "Boxer", "Boxers", and "Fistfight" redirect here. For other uses, see Boxing (disambiguation), Boxer (disambiguation), Boxers (disambiguation), and Fistfight (disambiguation). Boxing Two Royal Navy men boxing for charity (1945). The modern sport was codified in England in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Also known as Western Boxing, Pugilism See note.[1] Focus Punching, striking Country of origin Prehistoric Parenthood Bare-knuckle boxing Olympic sport 688 BC (Ancient Greece) 1904 (modern) Boxing is a combat sport in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves and other protective equipment such as hand wraps and mouthguards, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a standard fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is overseen by a referee over a series of one-to-three-minute intervals called rounds. A winner can be resolved before the completion of the rounds when a referee deems an opponent incapable of continuing, disqualification of an opponent, or resignation of an opponent. When the fight reaches the end of its final round with both opponents still standing, the judges' scorecards determine the victor. In the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, professional bouts are considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, because a winner must be declared, judges award the contest to one fighter on technical criteria. While humans have fought in hand-to-hand combat since the dawn of human history, the earliest evidence of fist-fighting sporting contests date back to the ancient Near East in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.[2] The earliest evidence of boxing rules date back to Ancient Greece, where boxing was established as an Olympic game in 688 BC.[2] Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century with the 1867 introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry Rules. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient history 1.2 Early London prize ring rules 1.3 Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) 1.4 Late 19th and early 20th centuries 1.5 Modern boxing 2 Rules 3 Professional vs. amateur boxing 3.1 Amateur boxing 3.2 Professional boxing 4 Boxing styles 4.1 Definition of style 4.1.1 Boxer/out-fighter 4.1.1.1 Boxer-puncher 4.1.1.2 Counter puncher 4.1.2 Brawler/slugger 4.1.3 Swarmer/in-fighter 4.2 Combinations of styles 4.3 Style matchups 5 Equipment 6 Technique 6.1 Stance 6.2 Punches 6.3 Defense 6.4 Unorthodox strategies 7 Ring corner 8 Health concerns 8.1 Possible health benefits 9 Boxing Hall of Fame 10 Governing and sanctioning bodies 11 Boxing rankings 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 External links History[edit] Ancient history[edit] See also: Ancient Greek boxing and History of physical training and fitness A painting of Minoan youths boxing, from an Akrotiri fresco circa 1650 BC. This is the earliest documented use of boxing gloves. A boxing scene depicted on a Panathenaic amphora from Ancient Greece, circa 336 BC, British Museum The earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BC.[2] A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes (c. 1350 BC) shows both boxers and spectators.[2] These early Middle-Eastern and Egyptian depictions showed contests where fighters were either bare-fisted or had a band supporting the wrist.[2] The earliest evidence of fist fighting with the use of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c. 1500–1400 BC).[2] Various types of boxing existed in ancient India. The earliest references to musti-yuddha come from classical Vedic epics such as the Ramayana and Rig Veda. The Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.[3] Duels (niyuddham) were often fought to the death.[citation needed] During the period of the Western Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman—in addition to being well-versed in "the great sciences" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic—was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman and boxer.[4] The Gurbilas Shemi, an 18th-century Sikh text, gives numerous references to musti-yuddha. In Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad, 688 BC. The boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue. Weight categories were not used, which meant heavyweights had a tendency to dominate. The style of boxing practiced typically featured an advanced left leg stance, with the left arm semi-extended as a guard, in addition to being used for striking, and with the right arm drawn back ready to strike. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, and there is little evidence to suggest that targeting the body was common.[5] Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome.[6] Fighters protected their knuckles with leather thongs wrapped around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the thong became a weapon. Metal studs were introduced to the thongs to make the cestus. Fighting events were held at Roman amphitheatres. Early London prize ring rules[edit] A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or "Fist Fighting". As the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.[7] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. This earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize. Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, a successful Wrestler from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today.[8] The first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.[9] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of 'mufflers', a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in 'jousting' or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches. Tom Molineaux (left) vs Tom Cribb in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811 These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to end the round and begin the 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly"[10] and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers.[11] In modern boxing, there is a three-minute limit to rounds (unlike the downed fighter ends the round rule). Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit full out.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows.[12][13][unreliable source?] The London Prize Ring Rules introduced measures that remain in effect for professional boxing to this day, such as outlawing butting, gouging, scratching, kicking, hitting a man while down, holding the ropes, and using resin, stones or hard objects in the hands, and biting.[14] Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)[edit] In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. Play media The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.[15] Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.[16] The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face. Late 19th and early 20th centuries[edit] Through the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police.[17] Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics. Amateur Boxing Club, Wales 1963 The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[18] The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada,[19] where it was legal at the time. Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy.[20] They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan. Modern boxing[edit] The modern sport arose from illegal venues and outlawed prizefighting and has become a multibillion-dollar commercial enterprise. A majority of young talent still comes from poverty-stricken areas around the world.[citation needed] Places like Mexico, Africa, South America, and Eastern Europe prove to be filled with young aspiring athletes who wish to become the future of boxing. Even in the U.S., places like the inner cities of New York, and Chicago have given rise to promising young talent. According to Rubin, "boxing lost its appeal with the American middle class, and most of who boxes in modern America come from the streets and are street fighters".[21] Rules[edit] Main article: Marquess of Queensberry Rules The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.[22] A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds. A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches and elbows that connect, defense, knockdowns, hugging and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signalled end of each round. A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue. Some jurisdictions require the referee to count to eight regardless of if the fighter gets up before. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knock-out" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he or she feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he or she is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown. Ingemar Johansson of Sweden KO's heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson, 26 June 1959. In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between). If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue. Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed. Unheard of in the modern era, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a "newspaper decision (NWS)" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A "no decision" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a "no decision" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report. Professional vs. amateur boxing[edit] Roberto Durán (right) held world championships in four weight classes: lightweight, welterweight, light middleweight and middleweight Throughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts.[23] Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career. Western boxers typically participate in one Olympics and then turn pro, Cubans and other socialist countries have an opportunity to collect multiple medals.[24] In 2016, professional boxers were admitted in the Olympic Games and other tournaments sanctioned by AIBA.[25] This was done in part to level the playing field and give all of the athletes the same opportunities government-sponsored boxers from socialist countries and post-Soviet republics have.[26] However, professional organizations strongly opposed that decision.[27][28] Amateur boxing[edit] Main article: Amateur boxing Nicola Adams is the first female boxer to win an Olympic gold medal. Here with Mary Kom of India. Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, etc. In many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds. Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end is just a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless the fighters weigh under 165 pounds (75 kg), thus allowing them to wear ten ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.[29] Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH). Professional boxing[edit] Main article: Professional boxing Firpo sending Dempsey outside the ring; painting by George Bellows. Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early 20th century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the 20th century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Kim Duk-koo eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds. Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested.[30] Boxing styles[edit] Definition of style[edit] "Style" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as each is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter ("boxer"), brawler (or "slugger"), and Inside fighter ("swarmer"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock paper scissors scenario - boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer.[31] Boxer/out-fighter[edit] Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali was a typical example of an out-fighter. A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.[32] Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork. Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe, Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sánchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney,[33] Ezzard Charles,[34] Willie Pep,[35] Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo "Finito" López, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vázquez, Sergio "Maravilla" Martínez, Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed. Boxer-puncher[edit] A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter),[36] but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style. Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Canelo Álvarez, Sugar Ray Leonard, Roy Jones Jr., Wladimir Klitschko, Vasyl Lomachenko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis,[37] Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar De La Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford,[38] Henry Armstrong,[39] Sugar Ray Robinson,[40] Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón,[41] Alexis Argüello, Érik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas Hearns, Julian Jackson and Gennady Golovkin. Counter puncher[edit] Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork. Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Calzaghe, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Gabriel Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style of boxing is also used by fictional boxer Little Mac. Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style. Brawler/slugger[edit] Famous brawler George Foreman A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb a substantial amount of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García. A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio César Chávez, Roberto Durán, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Jake LaMotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James "Clubber" Lang. Brawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch. Swarmer/in-fighter[edit] Henry Armstrong was known for his aggressive, non-stop assault style of fighting. In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting. The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters use their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, this permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts, they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard "chin", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving. Notable in-fighters include Henry Armstrong, Aaron Pryor, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Shawn Porter, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Rocky Marciano,[42] Wayne McCullough, James Braddock, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb,[43][44] David Tua, James Toney and Ricky Hatton. This style was also used by the Street Fighter character Balrog. Combinations of styles[edit] All fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches. Old history of the development of boxing and its prevalence contribute to fusion of various types of martial arts and the emergence of new ones that are based on them. For example, a combination of boxing and sportive sambo techniques gave rise to a combat sambo. Style matchups[edit] Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936 There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock paper scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights." Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout "The Sunshine Showdown". Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime. The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers. An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed "Thunder Meets Lightning" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the "Mexican" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out. With about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout. Equipment[edit] Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not use them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place. A mouthguard is important to protect the teeth[45][46] and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts. Boxers practice their skills on several types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. The double-end bag is usually connected by elastic on the top and bottom and moves randomly upon getting struck and helps the fighter work on accuracy and reflexes. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also use sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls. Boxers also use punch/focus mitts in which a trainer calls out certain combinations and the fighter strikes the mitts accordingly. This is a great exercise for stamina as the boxer isn't allowed to go at his own pace but that of the trainer, typically forcing the fighter to endure a higher output and volume than usual. In addition, they also allow trainers to make boxers utilize footwork and distances more accurately. Boxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term "ring" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general. Technique[edit] Main article: Boxing styles and technique Stance[edit] The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson. Upright stance Semi-crouch Full crouch In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the "textbook" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents. In order to retain their stance boxers take 'the first step in any direction with the foot already leading in that direction.'[47] Different stances allow for bodyweight to be differently positioned and emphasised; this may in turn alter how powerfully and explosively a type of punch can be delivered. For instance, a crouched stance allows for the bodyweight to be positioned further forward over the lead left leg. If a lead left hook is thrown from this position, it will produce a powerful springing action in the lead leg and produce a more explosive punch. This springing action could not be generated effectively, for this punch, if an upright stance was used or if the bodyweight was positioned predominantly over the back leg.[48] Mike Tyson was a keen practitioner of a crouched stance and this style of power punching. The preparatory positioning of the bodyweight over the bent lead leg is also known as an isometric preload. Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand. North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots. Punches[edit] There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer. Jab Cross - in counter-punch with a looping Hook Uppercut Canelo Álvarez is known as an excellent counterpuncher, being able to exploit openings in his opponents' guards while avoiding punches with head and body movement. He is also known as a formidable body puncher.[49][50] Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab extends from the side of the torso and typically does not pass in front of it. It is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or wear down their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko. Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane.[51] Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer give the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab. Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (palm facing down) though in modern times a wide percentage of fighters throw the hook with a vertical fist (palm facing themselves). The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier, Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson. Ricardo Dominguez (left) throws an uppercut on Rafael Ortiz (right).[52] Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out. These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos." The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo." This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully. A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse," "haymaker," "overhand," or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in. Another unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm. An illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch. Both the hook and uppercut may be thrown with both hands, resulting in differing footwork and positioning from that described above if thrown by the other hand. Generally the analogous opposite is true of the footwork and torso movement. Defense[edit] There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below. Slipping Bobbing Blocking (with the arms) Cover-Up (with the gloves) Clinching Footwork Pulling away Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson. Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or " Riding The Punch". Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely. Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving. Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm", "catch", or "cuff" is a defence which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove. The cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below. The clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing. Unorthodox strategies[edit] The "rope-a-dope" strategy: Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "the Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently, however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown. Tyson Fury also attempted this against Francesco Pianeto but didn't pull it off as smoothly. Bolo punch: Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilán as well as current British fighter Chris Eubank Jr. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch. Bolo punch Overhand (overcut) Overhand: The overhand is a punch, thrown from the rear hand, not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking. Deontay Wilder heavily favours and is otherwise known for knocking many of his opponents out with one of his right overhands. Check hook: A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down. Ring corner[edit] Boxer Tina Rupprecht receiving instructions from her trainer while being treated by her cutman in the ring corner between rounds. In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds for 1 minute and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts, blood and excessive swelling. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts or swelling that threaten the boxer's eyes. In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase "to throw in the towel", meaning to give up, derives from this practice).[53] This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal. Health concerns[edit] See also: Dementia pugilistica and The distance (boxing) § Distance change criticisms Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.[54] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.[55] In March 1981, neurosurgeon Dr. Fred Sonstein sought to use CAT scans in an attempt to track the degeneration of boxers' cognitive functions after seeing the decline of Bennie Briscoe.[56] From 1980 to 2007, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters died due to ring or training injuries.[57] In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing.[58] The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society."[59] Since then, the British,[60] Canadian[61] and Australian[62] Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing. Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[63] Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for "injury". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent.[64] In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage,[65] and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.[66] The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofilament light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurological function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University in 1994 and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council in 2017 show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport.[67][68] In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.[69][70] Professional boxing is forbidden in Iceland,[71] Iran and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed.[72] Boxing was banned in Albania from 1965 until the fall of Communism in 1991. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.[73] Possible health benefits[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Like other active and dynamic sports, boxing may be argued to provide some general benefits, such as fat burning, increased muscle tone, strong bones and ligaments, cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, improved core stability, co-ordination and body awareness, strength and power, stress relief and self-esteem. Some claim that with a careful and thoughtful approach, boxing can be quite beneficial to health. One example is Gemma Ruegg, a two-weight regional champion from Bournemouth in Dorset, who boxed throughout her pregnancy and returned to the ring three weeks after giving birth to her daughter. Earlier, boxing helped her to get rid of alcohol addiction and depression.[74] Boxing Hall of Fame[edit] Stamp honoring heavyweight champion Gene Tunney The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF).[75] In 2013, The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas opened in Las Vegas, NV founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson.[76] The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures[77] include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself. The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of all the great champions including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Durán, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio César Chávez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Durán, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson[78] Governing and sanctioning bodies[edit] Main article: List of boxing organisations Former WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight champion, Ukrainian Wladimir Klitschko Governing bodies British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC) European Boxing Union (EBU) Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC) Major sanctioning bodies World Boxing Association (WBA) World Boxing Council (WBC) International Boxing Federation (IBF) World Boxing Organization (WBO) Intermediate International Boxing Organization (IBO) Novice Intercontinental Boxing Federation (IBFed) Amateur International Boxing Association (AIBA; now also professional) Boxing rankings[edit] Main article: List of current boxing rankings All world boxing champions (Lineal, and The Ring magazine) There are various organization and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner. Transnational Boxing Rankings Board (ratings Archived 6 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine) ESPN (ratings) The Ring (ratings) BoxRec (ratings) Fightstat (rating) See also[edit] Martial arts portal Boxing styles and technique Boxing training Boxing gloves List of current world boxing champions Undisputed champion List of female boxers List of male boxers Weight class in boxing Milling - military training exercise related to boxing References[edit] ^ Note: The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition notes as different pugilism and boxing. Vol. IV "Boxing" (p. 350)[1]; Vol. XXII "Pugilism" (p. 637)[2] Consulted April 17, 2017. ^ a b c d e f Michael Poliakoff. "Encyclopædia Britannica entry for Boxing". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 May 2013. ^ Section XIII: Samayapalana Parva, Book 4: Virata Parva, Mahabharata. ^ John Keay (2000). India: A History. HarperCollins. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-00-255717-7. [Rudradaman] was also a fine swordsman and boxer, and excellent horseman, charioteer and elephant-rider ... and far-famed for his knowledge of grammar, music, logic and 'other great sciences'. ^ Gardiner, E. Norman, 'Boxing' in Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals, London: MacMillan, 1910, p.402, pp.415–416, 419–422 ^ Guttmann, Allen (1981). "Sports Spectators from Antiquity to the Renaissance" (PDF). Journal of Sport History. 8 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2018. ^ "James Figg". IBHOF. 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2018. excerpting Roberts, James B.; Skutt, Alexander G. (2006). The Boxing Register: International Boxing Hall of Fame Official Record Book (4th ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: McBooks Press. ISBN 978-1-59013-121-3. OCLC 819715339. Retrieved 22 March 2018. ^ "tumblr_lx13m7QVfb1qa5yan.jpg". Tumblr. Retrieved 16 January 2014. ^ John Rennie (2006) East London Prize Ring Rules 1743 Archived 18 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ Anonymous ("A Celebrated Pugilist"), The Art and Practice of Boxing, 1825 ^ Daniel Mendoza, The Modern Art of Boxing, 1790 ^ "blow-1.jpg". Yahoo!. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014. ^ "Yahoo! Groups". Groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved 5 September 2013. ^ Rodriguez, Robert G. (2009). The Regulation of Boxing: A History and Comparative Analysis of Policies Among American States. McFarland. ISBN 9780786438624. ^ Leonard–Cushing fight Part of the Library of Congress Inventing Entertainment educational website. Retrieved 12/14/06. ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica (2006). Queensbury Rules, Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ "BBC - London - History - Unlicensed Boxing". Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ "Tracy Callis (2006). James Corbett". Cyberboxingzone.com. 18 February 1933. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ Orbach, Barak. "Prizefighting and the Birth of Movie Censorship". Retrieved 25 June 2014. ^ Socolow, Michael. "Why boxing disappeared after the Rumble in the Jungle". The Washington Post. Retrieved 6 April 2020. ^ Rubin, Louis D. (2000). "The Manly art of Modified Mayhem: Dempsey and Others". The Sewanee Review. 108 (3): 412–432. JSTOR 27548887. ^ "Marquess of Queensberry rules | boxing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ Emspak, Jesse (8 February 2012). "Headgear Protects Boxers' Brains, Mostly". DNews. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ "Barry McGuigan explains Cuban boxing success". 18 April 2013 – via www.bbc.com. ^ "Professional boxers will be allowed to compete at Rio Olympics". The Guardian. ^ "Feisty USA Boxing President John Brown Sees Better Times Ahead". The Sweet Science. ^ "WBC forbids its champions and ranked fighters from going to Olympics". boxingnewsonline.net. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2017. ^ "Pro Boxers at the Olympics: An Opportunity, or a Dangerous Power Grab?". ^ "Andrew Eisele (2005). Olympic Boxing Rules, About.com". Boxing.about.com. 9 April 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ Bert Randolph Sugar (2001). "Boxing", World Book Online Americas Edition Owingsmillsboxingclub.com Archived 19 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The Science of Boxing Styles". Boxing Training Fitness. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2012. ^ "Learn about the different boxing styles. BoxingBeginners.com, the main source of Boxing for Beginners, learn how to box!". Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.162 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.254 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.384 ^ "The 15 Greatest Composite Punchers of All Time". Boxing.com. Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.337 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.120 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, Joe Frazier, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.204 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.403 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.353, ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.75 ^ James Roberts, Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.98, 99 ^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.339, 340 ^ "Hobbies & Braces: Protect Teeth While Playing Sport and Music". Orthodontics Australia. 26 May 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2020. ^ "The Importance Of A Mouthguard When Playing Sport". Orthodontics Australia. 21 February 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020. ^ Dempsey, Jack, 'Footwork' in Championship Fighting Explosive Punching and Aggressive Defense, 1950 ^ Dempsey, Jack, 'Stance' in Championship Fighting Explosive Punching and Aggressive Defense, 1950 ^ "The Tactical Guide to Gennady Golovkin vs Canelo Alvarez". 15 September 2017. ^ Fantaousakis, Kostas (23 September 2017). "Canelo vs Golovkin Breakdown: Moves to remember". Bloody Elbow. ^ Patterson, Jeff. "Boxing for Fitness: Straight Right". nwfighting.com. Northwest Fighting Arts. Retrieved 12 March 2014. ^ Goldman, Herbert G. (2012). Boxing: A Worldwide Record of Bouts and Boxers. NC, USA: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-6054-0. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012. ^ "Phrases.org". Phrases.org. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ "Boxing: The health risks". Archived from the original on 18 September 2002. Retrieved 6 May 2010. ^ Carter, Neil (June 2006). "Better and Safer Boxing: Ringside and Boardroom Medical Control of Boxing Careers in the Twentieth Century". Dora.dmu.ac.uk. Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ "Sports People: Inside boxer's head". Philadelphia Inquirer. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 24 March 1981. p. 2D. ^ Svinth, Joseph R. "Death Under the Spotlight" Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences, Accessed 25 November 2007 ^ John Noble Wilford (January 14, 1983). "Physicians' Journal Calls for a Ban on Boxing". The New York Times. pp. A1, A23. Editorials in today's issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association urged the banning of boxing in light of new evidence suggesting the chronic brain damage was prevalent among fighters ... New evidence of the correlation between boxing and brain damage was reported in the journal by a team of Ohio doctors, led by Dr. Ronald J. Ross, a radiologist in Mayfield Heights, Ohio ... [The AMA] concluded that for the time being [banning boxing] 'is not a realistic solution.' Instead, urging stricter medical supervision of the sport, it recommended establishment of a National Registry of Boxers ... Another recommendation was that all states provide for a ringside physician who would be 'authorized to stop any bout'. ^ Lundberg, George D. (1983). "Boxing should be banned in civilized countries". Journal of the American Medical Association. Jama.jamanetwork.com. 249 (2): 249–250. doi:10.1001/jama.1983.03330260068037. ^ BMA.org.uk Archived 8 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ "CMA wants to ban boxing". CBC Sports. 19 December 2000. ^ Australian Medical Association. "CMA.ca". Ama.com.au. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ "UK | BMA renews call for boxing ban". BBC News. 3 May 1998. Retrieved 23 June 2016. ^ "Football Concussion Controversy: Brain Damage, Tests, and More". Webmd.com. Retrieved 4 December 2012. ^ "Amateur boxers suffer brain damage too". New Scientist (2602): 4. 8 May 2007. ^ "Does Amateur Boxing Cause Brain Damage?". American Academy of Neurology. 2 May 2007. Archived from the original on 27 June 2007. ^ Stewart, W. F.; Gordon, B.; Selnes, O.; Bandeen-Roche, K.; Zeger, S.; Tusa, R. J.; Celentano, D. D.; Shechter, A.; Liberman, J. (15 March 1994). "Prospective study of central nervous system function in amateur boxers in the United States". American Journal of Epidemiology. 139 (6): 573–588. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117047. ISSN 0002-9262. PMID 8172169. ^ "National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS)". CPSC.gov. 5 April 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2019. ^ "American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians". Aaprp.org. 17 September 2011. Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ Hauser, Thomas. "Medical Issues and the AAPRP" Archived 10 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine SecondsOut.com, Accessed 25 November 2007 ^ "Bouncing back". The Economist. 15 January 2015. ^ Fish, Jim (26 June 2007). "Boxers bounce back in Sweden". BBC News. ^ Rudd, S.; Hodge, J.; Finley, R.; Lewis, P.; Wang, M. (2016). "Should We Ban Boxing?". British Medical Journal. 352 – via ProQuest. ^ "Bournemouth mum takes up boxing to improve mental health". BBC.com. 19 September 2019. ^ "International Boxing Hall of Fame". ibhof.com. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ "Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas news - Boxing News". Boxingnews24.com. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2016. ^ "Inductee Index". ibhof.com. Retrieved 8 May 2019. ^ Iole, Kevin (28 June 2013). "Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas announces first class of inductees, gives sport its third hall - Boxing Experts Blog - Boxing Blog - Yahoo! Sports". Sports.yahoo.com. Retrieved 23 June 2016. Bibliography[edit] Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47. Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection Baker, Mark Allen (2010). TITLE TOWN, USA, Boxing in Upstate New York. ISBN 978-1-59629-769-2 Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002). An Illustrated History of Boxing. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2201-1 Fox, James A. (2001). Boxing. Stewart, Tabori and Chang. ISBN 1-58479-133-0 Gunn M, Ormerod D. The legality of boxing. Legal Studies. 1995;15:181. Halbert, Christy (2003). The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing. Impact Seminars, Inc. ISBN 0-9630968-5-0 Hatmaker, Mark (2004). Boxing Mastery: Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science. Tracks Publishing. ISBN 1-884654-21-5 McIlvanney, Hugh (2001). The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-658-02154-0 Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-86105-258-8. Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 (available at Internet Archive, [3], access date 26 June 2018). Robert Anasi (2003). The Gloves: A Boxing Chronicle. North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-652-7 Schulberg, Budd (2007). Ringside: A Treasury of Boxing Reportage. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-749-X Silverman, Jeff (2004). The Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told: Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-479-5 Snowdon, David (2013). Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World (Peter Lang Ltd) Scully, John Learn to Box with the Iceman weight classification, "2009" U.S. Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994). Coaching Olympic Style Boxing. Cooper Pub Group. 1-884-12525-5 A Pictoral History Of Boxing, Sam Andre and Nat Fleischer, Hamlyn, 1988, ISBN 0-600-50288-0 History of London Boxing. BBC News. Ronald J. Ross, M.D., Cole, Monroe, Thompson, Jay S., Kim, Kyung H.: "Boxers - Computed Axial Tomography, Electroencephalography and Neurological Evaluation." Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 249, No. 2, 211–213, January 14, 1983. 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en-wikipedia-org-1319	----	Second Sophistic - Wikipedia Second Sophistic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Term for 1st to 3rd century Greek sophist writers This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Second Sophistic is a literary-historical term referring to the Greek writers who flourished from the reign of Nero until c. 230 AD and who were catalogued and celebrated by Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists. However, some recent research has indicated that this Second Sophistic, which was previously thought to have very suddenly and abruptly appeared in the late 1st century, actually had its roots in the early 1st century.[1] It was followed in the 5th century by the philosophy of Byzantine rhetoric, sometimes referred to as the Third Sophistic.[2] Writers known as members of the Second Sophistic include Nicetas of Smyrna, Aelius Aristides, Dio Chrysostom, Herodes Atticus, Favorinus, Philostratus, Lucian, and Polemon of Laodicea. Plutarch is also often associated with the Second Sophistic movement as well, although many historians[who?] consider him to have been somewhat aloof from its emphasis on rhetoric, especially in his later work.[citation needed] The term Second Sophistic comes from Philostratus. In his Lives of the Sophists, Philostratus traces the beginnings of the movement to the orator Aeschines in the 4th century BC. But its earliest representative was really Nicetas of Smyrna, in the late 1st century AD. Unlike the original Sophistic movement of the 5th century BC, the Second Sophistic was little concerned with politics. But it was, to a large degree, to meet the everyday needs and respond to the practical problems of Greco-Roman society. It came to dominate higher education and left its mark on many forms of literature. The period from around AD 50 to 100 was a period when oratorical elements dealing with the first sophists of Greece were reintroduced to the Roman Empire. The province of Asia embraced the Second Sophistic the most. Diococceianus (or Chrysostomos) and Aelius Aristides were popular sophists of the period. They orated over topics like poetry and public speaking. They did not teach debate or anything that had to do with politics because rhetoric was restrained due to the imperial government's rules.[3] Owing largely to the influence of Plato and Aristotle, philosophy came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as specious and rhetorical, a practical discipline. Thus, by the time of the Roman Empire, a sophist was simply a teacher of rhetoric and a popular public speaker. For instance, Libanius, Himerius, Aelius Aristides, and Fronto were sophists in this sense. Contents 1 The Sophistic of the second century and the Roman Empire 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition of sophist 1.3 Conclusion 2 See also 3 Literature 4 References 5 External links The Sophistic of the second century and the Roman Empire[edit] Introduction[edit] The year 146 BC marks the moment in history in which the Romans conquered one of the first civilized empires in the West. Ancient Greece is known for its rich culture, mythology, technology and intellect. In its classical period it was one of the greatest early empires. After the civilization fell to the Roman conquest, the emerging empire would begin to grow following many of the traditions of the Greeks. Mirroring some of their architectural styles and adapting a similar religious cult, the Empire held the Greek culture with reverence to its customs. Throughout its growth, the Romans incorporated the Greeks into their society and imperial life. In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, a renaissance of Hellenic oratory and education captivated the Roman elites. The resurgence was called the Second Sophistic and it recalled the grand orators and teachings of the 5th century BC. “The sophist was to revive the antique purer form of religion and to encourage the cults of the heroes and Homeric gods.”[4] In this century, the Roman Emperors such as Trajan, Hadrian and numerous others, held these intellectuals in their high esteem. Many of them paid patronage to Athens and other Greek cities in the Empire.[5] Elites sent their sons to be educated in schools developed by these sophists. The Emperor Hadrian sent his adoptive son Antoninus to study under the acclaimed Polemo in Smyrna.[5] The Second Sophistic opened doors for the Greeks to prosper surprisingly, in many ways on their own terms. This renaissance enabled them to become a prominent society that the Romans could respect and revere. The sophists and their movement provided a way for the Romans to legitimatize themselves as civilized intellectuals and associate themselves with an old imperial pre-eminence. This movement allowed the Greeks to become a part of the Roman Empire but still retain their cultural identity. Definition of sophist[edit] Sophism was the revival of the use and value of higher education in the Roman Empire during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. This also included a renewed emphasis and importance of rhetoric and oratory. The practice and teachings were modeled after the Athenian vocabulary of 400 BC, as well as the Hellenic traditions of that time. The sophists were great lecturers and declaimers who esteemed to address various issues of political, economic and social importance.[6] Thus, they served a vast array of positions from educational and social leaders, to ambassadors, Imperial Secretaries and high priests.[7] In these orders, they won the favor of Emperors who would restore their eastern centers of intellect. Some like Lucian heavily favored Atticism (an artificial purist movement favoring archaic expressions), while others like Plutarch favored the Greek of their day. A. Oratory A resurgence of educational value occurred during this time and these sophists were at the heart of it. They emphasized the importance of the practice of oratory. Sophists would begin their careers lecturing to groups of students. As they gained recognition and further competence they would begin speaking out to the public.[6] There were two different oratory styles of sophism that developed out of the period of enlightenment: Asianism and Atticism. 1. Asianism A later sophist who wrote one of the only remaining accounts of these great orators in his Lives of the Sophists, Philostratus describes Asianism as a form that “...aims at but never achieves the grand style.” He adds that its style is more, “flowery, bombastic, full of startling metaphors, too metrical, too dependent on the tricks of rhetoric, too emotional.”[4] This type of rhetoric is also sometimes referred to as “Ionian” and “Ephesian”, because it came from outside of Athens.[8] The historical sophist criticized its form calling it, “theatrical shamelessness”.[8] It seems that this approach of oratory tended to put more emphasis on form, passion and sentiment rather than prudent realities. 2. Atticism In contrast, the other mode of rhetoric, Atticism, is explained by Philostratus as technique that is exemplified by the sophist Aelius Aristides. He describes Aristides as one who, “usually imitates some classical author, aims at simplicity of style, and is a purist, carefully avoiding any allusion or word that does not occur in a writer of the classical period.”[4] Atticism drew from Greece’s rich past and originated in its illustrious city of Athens. This is where the majority of the classic Hellenistic culture was cultivated. The impressive lectures and declamations of these sophists were based more upon preparation and the studying of information. Having this basis, they were then able to speak more adeptly about the topics to their audiences. The sophists generally gave their discourses in Rome or one of three major sophist centers. B. Rhetoric The three main centers of sophism lay east of the imperial capital of Rome. They were the core of ancient intellectualism; Ephesus, Smyrna and Athens. The sophists revitalized these cities bringing in wealth, acclaim and foreign interest from around the Empire.[9] They were the ones responsible for providing benefactions to the city and resolving the disputes of its citizens.[10] 1. Smyrna Smyrna was an important Greek city in the Empire at this age. Two noteworthy sophists were educated and taught in this center; attracting the respect of its citizens. They also invited the attention or patronage of Roman Emperors such as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Although neither of these men called the city their birthplace, both Polemo of Laodicea and Aelius Aristides spent much of their time here studying the rhetoric or advocating for its people. Another esteemed sophist in the 2nd century, Herodes Atticus, paved the way for succeeding sophists of Atticism in the great center of Athens.[11] These three eminent connoisseurs of rhetoric were significant sophists of the 2nd century AD. Many succeeding them would strive to replicate and illustrate their immense knowledge of the Hellenic classics and eloquent skills in oratory. Out of all of the Second Sophistic orators, these men possessed significant esteem in the eyes of Emperors. They also provided their provincial regions as well as other areas of the Empire with an abundance of benefactions. 2. Polemo of Laodicea Polemo of Laodicea was the earliest of the trio. He was born in approximately 85 AD and is the only Asianic orator of Smyrna.[12] Like so many of the other sophists, Polemo came from a ranked family.[12] He, therefore, had connections and status with the local administration and it was easy for him to thrive in political and social aspects. Being from an elite family provided him the means and footing to be able study the sophistic discipline. His wealth and political connections allowed him to travel and prosper in his role as an expert of robust rhetoric. Not only was Polemo admired in Smyrna and other surrounding Greek centers of intellect, he was quite popular and venerated in Rome as well. He acted as a sort of ambassador to the Empire for his area. Polemo found a great deal of favor in the eyes of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus .[5] They bestowed many luxuries upon the sophist. 3. Herodes Atticus The Roman elites and Emperors valued the approval and sponsorship of acclaimed sophists. Herodes Atticus, at one point in time, received up to three letters a day from Emperor Marcus Aurelius.[13] The Emperor also waited three days in Smyrna for the honor of meeting the student of Herodes and Polemo, Aelius Aristides.[14] He then was required to wait one more day, before he was allowed to hear him speak.[14] The man at the supposedly highest standing in the entire Empire was subject to the convenience of a man conventionally considered to be of a lower rank. Conclusion[edit] It seems that the association and a positive close relationship with these experts of rhetoric were coveted by these imperial officials. The sophists were held with high regard by those in surrounding regions and even by Roman elites and bureaucrats. “No other type of intellectual could compete with them in popularity, no creative artists existed to challenge their prestige at the courts of phil-Hellenic Emperors, and though the sophists often show jealousy of the philosophers, philosophy without eloquence was nowhere.”[7] Not only were the wealthy citizens encouraging their sons to follow the sophistic profession, but nobles were more than proud to claim relation with celebrated sophists.[15] See also[edit] Sophism Roman Emperors Literature[edit] P. Aelius Aristides, The Complete Works, Vol. 1. Trans. Behr, C.A. The Netherlands: Brill, E.J., Leiden, 1986. G.W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire. (1969 Oxford) Kai Brodersen (ed.): Philostratos. Leben der Sophisten. Greek and German. Wiesbaden: Marix, 2014 ISBN 978-3-86539-368-5 Jaap-Jan Flinterman, Power, paideia & pythagoreanism. Greek identity, conceptions of the relationship between philosophers and monarchs and political ideas in Philostratus' Life of Apollonius (1995 Amsterdam) Maud Gleason, Making men. Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome (1995) Philostratus, The Lives of the Sophists. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. Simon Swain, Hellenism and Empire. Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250 (1996 Oxford) Tim Whitmarsh, The Second Sophistic (2005 Oxford) Tim Whitmarsh, Greek Literature and the Roman Empire (2001 Oxford) The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XI. 2nd Ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. References[edit] ^ Bruce W. Winter, Philo and Paul Among the Sophists. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002. ^ Nagy, Gregory (2001). Greek Literature. Routledge. p. 179. ISBN 0-415-93771-X. ^ McKay, Brett (2010). Classical Rhetoric 101: A Brief History. ^ a b c Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page xix. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ a b c Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page 113. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XI. 2nd Ed., page 900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ^ a b Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page xv. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ a b Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page xx. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ G.W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire, page 17 (1969 Oxford). ^ G.W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire, page 26 (1969 Oxford. ^ Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page 139. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ a b Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page 107. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page 175. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ a b Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page 217. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. ^ Philostratus: The Lives of the Sophists, page xvii. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961. External links[edit] Lucian of Samosata Project - Articles, Timeline, Maps, Library, and Themes Livius.org: Second Sophistic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Sophistic&oldid=1018060047" Categories: Roman-era Sophists Literary movements Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles that may contain original research from April 2009 All articles that may contain original research All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2011 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Polski Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2021, at 02:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1332	----	Paganism - Wikipedia Paganism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pagan) Jump to navigation Jump to search Polytheistic religious groups in pre-Christian Roman territories or modern religious movement "Pagan" redirects here. For other uses, see Pagan (disambiguation). Romanticized depiction from 1887 showing two Roman women offering a sacrifice to the goddess Vesta. Paganism (from classical Latin pāgānus "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used pejoratively in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism[1] or ethnic religions other than Judaism. In the time of the Roman empire, individuals fell into the pagan class either because they were increasingly rural and provincial relative to the Christian population, or because they were not milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[2][3] Alternative terms in Christian texts were hellene, gentile, and heathen.[1] Ritual sacrifice was an integral part of ancient Graeco-Roman religion[4] and was regarded as an indication of whether a person was pagan or Christian.[4] Paganism has broadly connoted the "religion of the peasantry".[1][5] During and after the Middle Ages, the term paganism was applied to any non-Christian religion, and the term presumed a belief in false god(s).[6][7] The origin of the application of the term pagan to polytheism is debated.[8] In the 19th century, paganism was adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-descriptor by practitioners of Modern Paganism, Neopagan movements and Polytheistic reconstructionists. Modern pagan traditions often incorporate beliefs or practices, such as nature worship, that are different from those in the largest world religions.[9][10] Contemporary knowledge of old pagan religions and beliefs comes from several sources, including anthropological field research records, the evidence of archaeological artifacts, and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to Classical antiquity. Most modern pagan religions existing today (Modern or Neopaganism[11][12]) express a world view that is pantheistic, panentheistic, polytheistic or animistic, but some are monotheistic.[13] Contents 1 Nomenclature and etymology 1.1 Pagan 1.2 Hellene 1.3 Heathen 2 Definition 3 Perception 4 Ethnocentrism 5 History 5.1 Pre-History 5.2 Bronze Age to Early Iron Age 5.3 Classical antiquity 5.3.1 Late Antiquity and Christianization 5.3.2 Islam in Arabia 5.4 Early Modern period 5.5 Romanticism 6 Modern Paganism 7 Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Nomenclature and etymology[edit] Reconstruction of the Parthenon, on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece Pagan[edit] Further information: Pagus It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century, people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised. The notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition. As such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense. — Owen Davies, Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, 2011[8] The term pagan is derived from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance. Itself deriving from classical Latin pagus which originally meant 'region delimited by markers', paganus had also come to mean 'of or relating to the countryside', 'country dweller', 'villager'; by extension, 'rustic', 'unlearned', 'yokel', 'bumpkin'; in Roman military jargon, 'non-combatant', 'civilian', 'unskilled soldier'. It is related to pangere ('to fasten', 'to fix or affix') and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag- ('to fix' in the same sense).[14] The adoption of paganus by the Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (ethnikos) remained the word for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. — Peter Brown, Late Antiquity, 1999[15] Medieval writers often assumed that paganus as a religious term was a result of the conversion patterns during the Christianization of Europe, where people in towns and cities were converted more easily than those in remote regions, where old ways tended to remain. However, this idea has multiple problems. First, the word's usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.[16] Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon (see above). Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[14][16] A good example of Christians still using paganus in a military context rather than religious is in Tertullian's De Corona Militis XI.V, where the Christian is referred to as paganus (civilian): [16] Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.[17] With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.[18] Paganus acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.[16] As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. Following the sack of Rome by the Visigoths just over fifteen years after the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I,[19] murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater care of the city than the Christian God. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos ('The City of God against the Pagans'). In it, he contrasted the fallen "city of Man" to the "city of God" of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were "not of the city" or "rural".[20][21][22] The term pagan is not attested in the English language until the 17th century.[23] In addition to infidel and heretic, it was used as one of several pejorative Christian counterparts to gentile (גוי‎ / נכרי‎) as used in Judaism, and to kafir (كافر‎, 'unbeliever') and mushrik (مشرك‎, 'idolater') as in Islam.[24] Hellene[edit] Further information: Hellenes (religion) In the Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire of the newly Christianizing Roman Empire, Koine Greek became associated with the traditional polytheistic religion of Ancient Greece, and regarded as a foreign language (lingua peregrina) in the west.[25] By the latter half of the 4th century in the Greek-speaking Eastern Empire, pagans were—paradoxically—most commonly called Hellenes (Ἕλληνες, lit. 'Greeks'). The word almost entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.[26][27] It retained that meaning for roughly the first millennium of Christianity. This was influenced by Christianity's early members, who were Jewish. The Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religion rather than ethno-cultural standards, and early Jewish Christians would have done the same. Since Hellenic culture was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman east, they referred to pagans as Hellenes. Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for non-Jews and adapted it in order to refer to non-Christians with whom they were in contact. This usage is recorded in the New Testament. In the Pauline epistles, Hellene is almost always juxtaposed with Hebrew regardless of actual ethnicities.[27] The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influential Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[26] The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had a chilling effect on Hellenic culture by the late 4th century.[26] By late antiquity, however, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself as a Hellene.[28] The long-established use of Greek both in and around the Eastern Roman Empire as a lingua franca ironically allowed it to instead become central in enabling the spread of Christianity—as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[29] In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,[30] and the Acta Conciliorum ("Acts of the Church Councils") were recorded originally in Greek and then translated into other languages.[31] Heathen[edit] Heathen comes from Old English hæðen (not Christian or Jewish); cf. Old Norse heiðinn. This meaning for the term originated from Gothic haiþno (gentile woman) being used to translate Hellene (cf. Mark 7:26) in Wulfila's Bible, the first translation of the Bible into a Germanic language. This may have been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the time used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothic haiþi (dwelling on the heath). However, this is not attested. It may even be a borrowing of Greek ἔθνος (ethnos) via Armenian hethanos.[32] The term has recently been revived in the forms Heathenry and Heathenism (often but not always capitalized), as alternative names for the Germanic neopagan movement, adherents of which may self-identify as Heathens. Definition[edit] It is perhaps misleading even to say that there was such a religion as paganism at the beginning of [the Common Era] ... It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, before their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is normally used today. They had no tradition of discourse about ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical debate or antiquarian treatise), no organized system of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, above all no commitment to a particular group of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of pagan life, it follows that we should look on paganism quite simply as a religion invented in the course of the second to third centuries AD, in competition and interaction with Christians, Jews and others. — J A North 1992, 187–88, [33] Defining paganism is complex and problematic. Understanding the context of its associated terminology is important.[34] Early Christians referred to the diverse array of cults around them as a single group for reasons of convenience and rhetoric.[35] While paganism generally implies polytheism, the primary distinction between classical pagans and Christians was not one of monotheism versus polytheism, as not all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in a supreme deity. However, most such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/daimons—see henotheism—or divine emanations.[13] To Christians, the most important distinction was whether or not someone worshipped the one true God. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, or atheist) were outsiders to the Church and thus considered pagan.[36] Similarly, classical pagans would have found it peculiar to distinguish groups by the number of deities followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as the College of Pontiffs or Epulones) and cult practices more meaningful distinctions.[37] Referring to paganism as pre-Christian indigenous religions is equally untenable. Not all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.[34] Owing to the history of its nomenclature, paganism traditionally encompasses the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around the classical world; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavic tribes.[38] However, modern parlance of folklorists and contemporary pagans in particular has extended the original four millennia scope used by early Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far into prehistory.[39] Perception[edit] Paganism came to be equated by Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in more mainstream religions. Pagans were usually described within this worldly stereotype, especially among those drawing attention to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism.[40] Thus G. K. Chesterton wrote: "The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else."[41] In sharp contrast, Swinburne the poet would comment on this same theme: "Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death."[42] Ethnocentrism[edit] Recently, the ethnocentric and moral absolutist origins of the common usage of the term pagan have been acknowledged,[43][44] with scholar David Petts noting how, with particular reference to Christianity, "...local religions are defined in opposition to privileged 'world religions'; they become everything that world religions are not, rather than being explored as a subject in their own right."[45] In addition, Petts notes how various spiritual, religious, and metaphysical ideas branded as "pagan" from diverse cultures were studied in opposition to Abrahamism in early anthropology, a binary he links to ethnocentrism and colonialism.[46] History[edit] Pre-History[edit] Prehistoric religion Paleolithic religion Bronze Age to Early Iron Age[edit] Religions of the ancient Near East Ancient Egyptian religion Ancient Semitic religion Ancient Iranian religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Classical antiquity[edit] Main articles: Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Hellenistic religion, and Roman imperial cult Ludwig Feuerbach defined the paganism of classical antiquity, which he termed Heidentum ('heathenry') as "the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man",[47] qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined by ethnicity, i.e. Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Norse etc., so that each pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of orthodoxy.[48] Late Antiquity and Christianization[edit] Further information: Decline of Hellenistic paganism and Hellenic philosophy and Christianity The developments in the religious thought of the far-flung Roman Empire during Late Antiquity need to be addressed separately, because this is the context in which Early Christianity itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of pagan developed in the first place. As Christianity emerged from Second Temple Judaism (or Hellenistic Judaism), it stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults of Dionysus,[49] Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeanism.[citation needed] Dionysus in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of Jesus the wandering rabbi into the image of Christ the Logos, the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[50][51] Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Marriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[52] The scene in The Bacchae wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.[52][53][54] Islam in Arabia[edit] See also: Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia Arabic paganism gradually disappeared during prophet Muhammad's era through Islamization.[55][56] The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.[57] After Muhammad had conquered Mecca he set out to convert the pagans.[58][59][60] One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. Dhul Khalasa is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as the Ka'ba of Yemen, built and worshipped by pagan tribes.[61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] Early Modern period[edit] Interest in pagan traditions was first revived during the Renaissance, when Renaissance magic was practiced as a revival of Greco-Roman magic. In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological aspect to an ethnological one, and religions began to be understood as part of the ethnic identities of peoples, and the study of the religions of so-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical origin of religion. Thus, Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc saw the pagan religions of Africa of his day as relics that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.[70] Romanticism[edit] Great God! I'd rather be A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn; So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; Or hear old Triton blow his wreathèd horn. — William Wordsworth, "The World Is Too Much with Us", lines 9–14 Paganism resurfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th-century Romanticism, in particular in the context of the literary Celtic and Viking revivals, which portrayed historical Celtic and Germanic polytheists as noble savages. The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by the Brothers Grimm, especially Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology, and Elias Lönnrot with the compilation of the Kalevala. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[71] Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of Romantic nationalism and the rise of the nation state in the context of the 1848 revolutions, leading to the creation of national epics and national myths for the various newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were also common in the musical nationalism of the period. Modern Paganism[edit] Main article: Modern Paganism Some megaliths are believed to have religious significance. Children standing with The Lady of Cornwall in a neopagan ceremony in England Neopagan handfasting ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005) Modern Paganism, or Neopaganism, includes reconstructed religions such as Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, Hellenism, Slavic Native Faith, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, or heathenry, as well as modern eclectic traditions such as Wicca and its many offshoots, Neo-Druidism, and Discordianism. However, there often exists a distinction or separation between some polytheistic reconstructionists such as Hellenism and revivalist neopagans like Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as the importance of accurate orthopraxy according to ancient sources available, the use and concept of magic, which calendar to use and which holidays to observe, as well as the use of the term pagan itself.[72][73][74] Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-Druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th century Romanticism and retain noticeable elements of occultism or Theosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural (paganus) folk religion. Most modern pagans, however, believe in the divine character of the natural world and paganism is often described as an Earth religion.[75] The hammer Mjölnir is one of the primary symbols of Germanic neopaganism. There are a number of neopagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on one hand and contemporary traditions of folk religion on the other. Isaac Bonewits introduced a terminology to make this distinction.[76] Neopaganism The overarching contemporary pagan revival movement which focuses on nature-revering/living, pre-Christian religions and/or other nature-based spiritual paths, and frequently incorporating contemporary liberal values[citation needed]. This definition may include groups such as Wicca, Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith. Paleopaganism A retronym coined to contrast with Neopaganism, original polytheistic, nature-centered faiths, such as the pre-Hellenistic Greek and pre-imperial Roman religion, pre-Migration period Germanic paganism as described by Tacitus, or Celtic polytheism as described by Julius Caesar. Mesopaganism A group, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This group includes aboriginal Americans as well as Aboriginal Australians, Viking Age Norse paganism and New Age spirituality. Influences include: Spiritualism, and the many Afro-Diasporic faiths like Haitian Vodou, Santería and Espiritu religion. Isaac Bonewits includes British Traditional Wicca in this subdivision. Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in their A History of Pagan Europe (1995) classify pagan religions as characterized by the following traits: Polytheism: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (the soft and hard polytheism distinction). Nature-based: Some pagan religions have a concept of the divinity of nature, which they view as a manifestation of the divine, not as the fallen creation found in dualistic cosmology. Sacred feminine: Some pagan religions recognize the female divine principle, identified as the Goddess (as opposed to individual goddesses) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic God.[77] In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of modern paganism inspired by the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.[78] In Iceland, the members of Ásatrúarfélagið account for 0.4% of the total population,[79] which is just over a thousand people. In Lithuania, many people practice Romuva, a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that country. Lithuania was among the last areas of Europe to be Christianized. Odinism has been established on a formal basis in Australia since at least the 1930s.[80] Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe[edit] Further information: Christianization Albanian mythology Baltic mythology Basque mythology Celtic polytheism Etruscan mythology Finnic mythologies Germanic paganism Ancient Greek religion Hungarian Native Faith Minoan religion Mari Native Religion Mordvin Native Religion Norse mythology Religion in ancient Rome Sámi shamanism Scythian religion Slavic paganism See also[edit] Animism Crypto-paganism Dharmic religions East Asian religions Eleusinian Mysteries Henotheism Jungian psychology Kemetism List of Pagans Neopagan temples in Europe List of Neopagan movements List of religions and spiritual traditions Myth and ritual Naturalistic pantheism Nature worship Panentheism Polytheism Sentientism Totemism Notes[edit] ^ a b c Peter Brown (1999). "Pagan". In Glen Warren Bowersock; Peter Brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press. pp. 625–26. ISBN 978-0-674-51173-6. ^ J. J. O'Donnell (1977), Paganus: Evolution and Use, Classical Folia, 31: 163–69. ^ Augustine, Divers. Quaest. 83. ^ a b Jones, Christopher P. (2014). Between Pagan and Christian. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72520-1. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-162001-0. ^ Kaarina Aitamurto (2016). Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie. Routledge. pp. 12–15. ISBN 978-1-317-08443-3. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–6, 70–83. ISBN 978-0-19-162001-0. ^ a b Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191620010. ^ Paganism, Oxford Dictionary (2014) ^ Paganism, The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, Bron Taylor (2010), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199754670 ^ Lewis, James R. (2004). The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-19-514986-6. ^ Hanegraff, Wouter J. (1006). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 90-04-10696-0. ^ a b Cameron 2011, pp. 28, 30. ^ a b Harper, Douglas. "pagan (n.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013. ^ Peter Brown, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, 1999, s.v. Pagan. ^ a b c d Cameron 2011, pp. 14–15. ^ De Corona Militis XI.V ^ Ante-Nicene Fathers III, De Corona XI ^ "Theodosius I", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912 ^ "The City of God". Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, 2003. ^ Orosius Histories 1. Prol. "ui alieni a civitate dei..pagani vocantur." ^ C. Mohrmann, Vigiliae Christianae 6 (1952) 9ff; Oxford English Dictionary, (online) 2nd Edition (1989) ^ The OED instances Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, "Chapter XXI: Persecution of Heresy, State of the Church. Part VII" (1776): "The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of Paganism." ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (1983). “Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont. Religion“ 13:1–17, at p. 3. ^ Augustine, Confessions 1.14.23; Moatii, "Translation, Migration, and Communication," p. 112. ^ a b c Cameron, Alan G.; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993). "2: Synesius of Cyrene; VI: The Dion". Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius. University of California Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0520065505. ^ a b Cameron 2011, pp. 16–17. ^ Simon Swain, "Defending Hellenism: Philostratus, in Honour of Apollonius," in Apologetics, p. 173. ^ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State, p. 5. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, pp. 97–98. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, p. 98. ^ Harper, Douglas. "heathen (n.)". The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 26–27. ^ a b Davies 2011, Defining paganism. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 26. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 27, 31. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 29. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 28. ^ Davies 2011, Chapter 1: The ancient world. ^ Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Roma, Gangemi, 2008 ^ Heretics, G. K. Chesterton, 2007, Hendrickson Publishers Inc., p.88 ^ 'Hymn to Proserpine' ^ Hanegraaff, Wouter. "Reconstructing "Religion" from the Bottom Up". Numen. 63 (5/6): 576–605. ^ Blumberg, Antonia (27 May 2016). "What Not To Say When You Meet Someone Who Is Pagan". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ Petts, David. Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7156-3754-8. ^ Kourbage, Melanie. "Kourbage on Petts, 'Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe'". Humanities and Social Sciences Online. H-German. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ cf. the civil, natural and mythical theologies of Marcus Terentius Varro ^ A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians 1989, pp. 31 ff.: "The modern emphasis on paganism's cult acts was also acknowledged by pagans themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians." ^ E. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus "two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a Pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this Pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of Pagan monotheism." [1] ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 6. 26. 1–2 ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2. 34a ^ a b Wick, Peter (2004). "Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums". Biblica. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute. 85 (2): 179–98. Retrieved 10 October 2007. ^ Studies in Early Christology, by Martin Hengel, 2005, p. 331 ( ISBN 0567042804) ^ Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2005), The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet, Darussalam Publications, pp. 245–46, ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8 ^ Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 2 (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, ISBN 1861796765. (online) ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Free Version), p. 129 ^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society. p. 380. ASIN B0007JAWMK. ^ Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, p. 269 ^ Mufti, M. Mukarram Ahmed (2007), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, p. 103, ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1 ^ Robertson Smith, William (2010). Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. Forgotten Books. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-4400-8379-2. ^ S. Salibi, Kamal (2007). Who Was Jesus?: Conspiracy in Jerusalem. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-8451-1314-8. ^ Muir, William (1878). The life of Mahomet. Kessinger Publishing. p. 219. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2002). When the Moon Split. DarusSalam. p. 296. ISBN 978-9960-897-28-8. ^ Glasse, Cyril (2003). The new encyclopedia of Islam. US: AltaMira Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:641 ^ Dermenghem, Émile (1930). The life of Mahomet. G. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN 978-9960-897-71-4. Five hundred horsemen went to Dhul Khalasa to demolish the Yemenite Ka'ba ^ Ibn al Kalbi, Hisham (1952). The book of idols: being a translation from the Arabic of the Kitāb al-asnām. Princeton University Press. pp. 31–32. ASIN B002G9N1NQ. ^ The Book of Idols, Scribd, archived from the original on 26 August 2011, retrieved 9 September 2017. ^ "It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient paganism in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit." Peter N. Miller, ”History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc's Africa” Journal of the History of Ideas 67.4 (2006) 675–96.[2] ^ Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 846, ISBN 0-393-97636-X ^ "Hellenismos FAQ". The Cauldron: A Pagan Forum. Retrieved 25 March 2015. ^ "Pagans". Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Retrieved 7 September 2007. ^ Arlea Anschütz, Stormerne Hunt (1997). "Call us Heathens!". Journal of the Pagan Federation. Retrieved 7 September 2007. ^ "Pagan beliefs: nature, druids and witches". BBC Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 25 March 2015. ^ "Defining Paganism: Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-"(Version 2.5.1) 1979, 2007 c.e., Isaac Bonewits ^ Jones, Prudence; Pennick, Nigel (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. p. 2. Routledge. ^ "Paganism: Heathenry". BBC – Religions. Retrieved 25 March 2015. ^ Statistics Iceland – Statistics >> Population >> Religious organisations ^ "The Odinic Rite of Australia". Retrieved 25 March 2015. References[edit] Cameron, Alan G. (2011). The Last Pagans of Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199780914. OCLC 553365192. Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191620010. Hua, Yih-Fen. book review to: Maria Effinger / Cornelia Logemann / Ulrich Pfisterer (eds): Götterbilder und Götzendiener in der Frühen Neuzeit. Europas Blick auf fremde Religionen. In: sehepunkte 13 (2013), Nr. 5 [15.05.2013], URL: http://www.sehepunkte.de/2013/05/21410.html. (Book review in English). Robert, P. & Scott, N. (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. New York, Barnes & Noble Books, ISBN 0-7607-1210-7. York, Michael (2003). Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion NYU Press, ISBN 0-8147-9708-3. 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en-wikipedia-org-1339	----	Aristotelianism - Wikipedia Aristotelianism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tradition in philosophy Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez Aristotelianism (/ˌærɪstəˈtiːliənɪzəm/ ARR-i-stə-TEE-lee-ə-niz-əm) is a philosophical tradition inspired by the work of Aristotle, usually characterized by deductive logic and an analytic inductive method in the study of nature and natural law. It answers why-questions by a scheme of four causes, including purpose or teleology, and emphasizes virtue ethics. Aristotle and his school wrote tractates on physics, biology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Any school of thought that takes one of Aristotle's distinctive positions as its starting point can be considered "Aristotelian" in the widest sense. This means that different Aristotelian theories (e.g. in ethics or in ontology) may not have much in common as far as their actual content is concerned besides their shared reference to Aristotle. In Aristotle's time, philosophy included natural philosophy, which preceded the advent of modern science during the Scientific Revolution. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school and later on by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotle's writings. In the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna and Averroes translated the works of Aristotle into Arabic and under them, along with philosophers such as Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi, Aristotelianism became a major part of early Islamic philosophy. Moses Maimonides adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Although some of Aristotle's logical works were known to western Europe, it was not until the Latin translations of the 12th century and the rise of scholasticism that the works of Aristotle and his Arabic commentators became widely available. Scholars such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas interpreted and systematized Aristotle's works in accordance with Catholic theology. After retreating under criticism from modern natural philosophers, the distinctively Aristotelian idea of teleology was transmitted through Wolff and Kant to Hegel, who applied it to history as a totality. However, this project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano as non-Aristotelian, Hegel's influence is now often said to be responsible for an important Aristotelian influence upon Marx. Recent Aristotelian ethical and "practical" philosophy, such as that of Gadamer and McDowell, is often premissed upon a rejection of Aristotelianism's traditional metaphysical or theoretical philosophy. From this viewpoint, the early modern tradition of political republicanism, which views the res publica, public sphere or state as constituted by its citizens' virtuous activity, can appear thoroughly Aristotelian. Alasdair MacIntyre is a notable Aristotelian philosopher who helped to revive virtue ethics in his book After Virtue. MacIntyre revises Aristotelianism with the argument that the highest temporal goods, which are internal to human beings, are actualized through participation in social practices. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient Greek 1.2 Byzantine Empire 1.3 Islamic world 1.4 Western Europe 1.5 Modern era 2 Contemporary 2.1 Ethics 2.2 Meta-ontology 2.3 Problem of universals 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] Ancient Greek[edit] Main article: Peripatetic school The original followers of Aristotle were the members of the Peripatetic school. The most prominent members of the school after Aristotle were Theophrastus and Strato of Lampsacus, who both continued Aristotle's researches. During the Roman era, the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work.[1] The most important figure in this regard was Alexander of Aphrodisias who commentated on Aristotle's writings. With the rise of Neoplatonism in the 3rd century, Peripateticism as an independent philosophy came to an end. Still, the Neoplatonists sought to incorporate Aristotle's philosophy within their own system and produced many commentaries on Aristotle. Byzantine Empire[edit] Byzantine Aristotelianism emerged in the Byzantine Empire in the form of Aristotelian paraphrase: adaptations in which Aristotle's text is rephrased, reorganized, and pruned, in order to make it more easily understood. This genre was allegedly invented by Themistius in the mid-4th century, revived by Michael Psellos in the mid-11th century, and further developed by Sophonias in the late 13th to early 14th centuries.[2] Leo the Mathematician was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Magnaura School in the mid-9th century to teach Aristotelian logic.[2] The 11th and 12th centuries saw the emergence of twelfth-century Byzantine Aristotelianism. Before the 12th century, the whole Byzantine output of Aristotelian commentaries was focused on logic.[2] However, the range of subjects covered by the Aristotelian commentaries produced in the two decades after 1118 is much greater due to the initiative of the princess Anna Comnena who commissioned a number of scholars to write commentaries on previously neglected works of Aristotle.[2] Islamic world[edit] A medieval Arabic representation of Aristotle teaching a student. In the Abbasid Empire, many foreign works were translated into Arabic, large libraries were constructed, and scholars were welcomed.[3] Under the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and his son Al-Ma'mun, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad flourished. Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph. In his lifetime, Ishaq translated 116 writings, including works by Plato and Aristotle, into Syriac and Arabic.[4][5] With the founding of House of Wisdom, the entire corpus of Aristotelian works that had been preserved (excluding the Eudemian Ethics, Magna Moralia and Politics) became available, along with its Greek commentators; this corpus laid a uniform foundation for Islamic Aristotelianism.[6] Al-Kindi (801–873) was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world.[7] He incorporated Aristotelian and Neoplatonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework. This was an important factor in the introduction and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim intellectual world.[8] The philosopher Al-Farabi (872–950) had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries, and in his time was widely thought second only to Aristotle in knowledge (alluded to by his title of "the Second Teacher"). His work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, paved the way for the work of Avicenna (980–1037).[9] Avicenna was one of the main interpreters of Aristotle.[10] The school of thought he founded became known as Avicennism, which was built on ingredients and conceptual building blocks that are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonist.[11] At the western end of the Mediterranean Sea, during the reign of Al-Hakam II (961 to 976) in Córdoba, a massive translation effort was undertaken, and many books were translated into Arabic. Averroes (1126–1198), who spent much of his life in Cordoba and Seville, was especially distinguished as a commentator of Aristotle. He often wrote two or three different commentaries on the same work, and some 38 commentaries by Averroes on the works of Aristotle have been identified.[12] Although his writings had an only marginal impact in Islamic countries, his works would eventually have a huge impact in the Latin West,[12] and would lead to the school of thought known as Averroism. Western Europe[edit] See also: Scholasticism and Thomism Aristotle, holding his Ethics detail from the Vatican fresco The School of Athens Although some knowledge of Aristotle seems to have lingered on in the ecclesiastical centres of western Europe after the fall of the Roman empire, by the ninth century, nearly all that was known of Aristotle consisted of Boethius's commentaries on the Organon, and a few abridgments made by Latin authors of the declining empire, Isidore of Seville and Martianus Capella.[13] From that time until the end of the eleventh century, little progress is apparent in Aristotelian knowledge.[13] The renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning. James of Venice, who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle's Posterior Analytics from Greek into Latin in the mid-twelfth century,[14] thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, the Organon, available in Latin for the first time. Scholars travelled to areas of Europe that once had been under Muslim rule and still had substantial Arabic-speaking populations. From central Spain, which had returned to Christian rule in the eleventh century, scholars produced many of the Latin translations of the 12th century. The most productive of these translators was Gerard of Cremona,[15] (c. 1114–1187), who translated 87 books,[16] which included many of the works of Aristotle such as his Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology. Michael Scot (c. 1175–1232) translated Averroes' commentaries on the scientific works of Aristotle.[17] Aristotle's physical writings began to be discussed openly. At a time when Aristotle's method was permeating all theology, these treatises were sufficient to cause his prohibition for heterodoxy in the Condemnations of 1210–1277.[13] In the first of these, in Paris in 1210, it was stated that "neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy or their commentaries are to be read at Paris in public or secret, and this we forbid under penalty of ex-communication."[18] However, despite further attempts to restrict the teaching of Aristotle, by 1270, the ban on Aristotle's natural philosophy was ineffective.[19] William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) undertook a complete translation of the works of Aristotle or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of the Politics (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. Many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation were assumed to have been influenced by Averroes, who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Such claims were without merit, however, as the Alexandrian Aristotelianism of Averroes followed "the strict study of the text of Aristotle, which was introduced by Avicenna, [because] a large amount of traditional Neoplatonism was incorporated with the body of traditional Aristotelianism".[20] Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) was among the first medieval scholars to apply Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought. He produced paraphrases of most of the works of Aristotle available to him.[21] He digested, interpreted and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. His efforts resulted in the formation of a Christian reception of Aristotle in the Western Europe.[21] Albertus did not repudiate Plato. In that, he belonged to the dominant tradition of philosophy that preceded him, namely the "concordist tradition",[22] which sought to harmonize Aristotle with Plato through interpretation (see for example Porphyry's On Plato and Aristotle Being Adherents of the Same School). Albertus famously wrote: "Scias quod non perficitur homo in philosophia nisi ex scientia duarum philosophiarum: Aristotelis et Platonis." (Metaphysics, I, tr. 5, c. 5) (Know that a man is not perfected in philosophy if it weren't for the knowledge of the two philosophers, Aristotle and Plato) Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the pupil of Albertus Magnus, wrote a dozen commentaries on the works of Aristotle.[23] Thomas was emphatically Aristotelian, he adopted Aristotle's analysis of physical objects, his view of place, time and motion, his proof of the prime mover, his cosmology, his account of sense perception and intellectual knowledge, and even parts of his moral philosophy.[23] The philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work of Thomas Aquinas was known as Thomism, and was especially influential among the Dominicans, and later, the Jesuits.[23] Using Albert's and Thomas's commentaries, as well as Marsilius of Padua's Defensor pacis, 14th-century scholar Nicole Oresme translated Aristotle's moral works into French and wrote extensively comments on them. Modern era[edit] After retreating under criticism from modern natural philosophers, the distinctively Aristotelian idea of teleology was transmitted through Wolff and Kant to Hegel, who applied it to history as a totality.[citation needed] Although this project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano as un-Aristotelian,[citation needed] Hegel's influence is now often said to be responsible for an important Aristotelian influence upon Marx.[24] Postmodernists, in contrast, reject Aristotelianism's claim to reveal important theoretical truths.[25] In this, they follow Heidegger's critique of Aristotle as the greatest source of the entire tradition of Western philosophy. Contemporary[edit] Ethics[edit] Aristotelianism is understood by its proponents as critically developing Plato's theories.[26] Recent Aristotelian ethical and 'practical' philosophy, such as that of Gadamer and McDowell, is often premised upon a rejection of Aristotelianism's traditional metaphysical or theoretical philosophy.[citation needed] From this viewpoint, the early modern tradition of political republicanism, which views the res publica, public sphere or state as constituted by its citizens' virtuous activity, can appear thoroughly Aristotelian.[citation needed] Mortimer J. Adler described Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics as a "unique book in the Western tradition of moral philosophy, the only ethics that is sound, practical, and undogmatic."[27] The contemporary Aristotelian philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre is specially famous for helping to revive virtue ethics in his book After Virtue. MacIntyre revises Aristotelianism with the argument that the highest temporal goods, which are internal to human beings, are actualized through participation in social practices. He opposes Aristotelianism to the managerial institutions of capitalism and its state, and to rival traditions—including the philosophies of Hume, Kant, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche—that reject its idea of essentially human goods and virtues and instead legitimize capitalism. Therefore, on MacIntyre's account, Aristotelianism is not identical with Western philosophy as a whole; rather, it is "the best theory so far, [including] the best theory so far about what makes a particular theory the best one."[28] Politically and socially, it has been characterized as a newly 'revolutionary Aristotelianism'. This may be contrasted with the more conventional, apolitical, and effectively conservative uses of Aristotle by, for example, Gadamer and McDowell.[29] Other important contemporary Aristotelian theorists include Fred D. Miller, Jr.[30] in politics and Rosalind Hursthouse in ethics.[31] Meta-ontology[edit] Neo-Aristotelianism in meta-ontology holds that the goal of ontology is to determine which entities are fundamental and how the non-fundamental entities depend on them.[32] The concept of fundamentality is usually defined in terms of metaphysical grounding. Fundamental entities are different from non-fundamental entities because they are not grounded in other entities.[32] For example, it is sometimes held that elementary particles are more fundamental than the macroscopic objects (like chairs and tables) they compose. This is a claim about the grounding-relation between microscopic and macroscopic objects. These ideas go back to Aristotle's thesis that entities from different ontological categories have different degrees of fundamentality. For example, substances have the highest degree of fundamentality because they exist in themselves. Properties, on the other hand, are less fundamental because they depend on substances for their existence.[33] Jonathan Schaffer's priority monism is a recent form of neo-Aristotelian ontology. He holds that there exists only one thing on the most fundamental level: the world as a whole. This thesis doesn't deny our common-sense intuition that the distinct objects we encounter in our everyday affairs like cars or other people exist. It only denies that these objects have the most fundamental form of existence.[34] Problem of universals[edit] The problem of universals is the question of whether and in what way universals exist. Aristotelians and Platonists agree that universals have actual, mind-independent existence; thus they oppose the nominalist standpoint. Aristotelians disagree with Platonists, however, about the mode of existence of universals. Platonists hold that universals exist in some form of "Platonic heaven" and thus exist independently of their instances in the concrete, spatiotemporal world. Aristotelians, on the other hand, deny the existence of universals outside the spatiotemporal world. This view is known as immanent realism.[35] For example, the universal "red" exists only insofar as there are red objects in the concrete world. Were there no red objects there would be no red-universal. This immanence can be conceived in terms of the theory of hylomorphism by seeing objects as composed of a universal form and the matter shaped by it. David Malet Armstrong was a modern defender of Aristotelianism on the problem of universals. States of affairs are the basic building blocks of his ontology, and have particulars and universals as their constituents. Armstrong is an immanent realist in the sense that he holds that a universal exists only insofar as it is a constituent of at least one actual state of affairs. Universals without instances are not part of the world.[36] See also[edit] Commentaries on Aristotle Corpus Aristotelicum Phronesis Platonism Wheel of fire Notes[edit] ^ Furley, David (2003), From Aristotle to Augustine: Routledge History of Philosophy, 2, Routledge ^ a b c d Ierodiakonou, Katerina; Bydén, Börje. "Byzantine Philosophy". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Wiet, Gaston. "Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate". Retrieved 2010-04-16. ^ Opth: Azmi, Khurshid. "Hunain bin Ishaq on Ophthalmic Surgery." Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine 26 (1996): 69–74. Web. 29 Oct. 2009 ^ Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science: Islamic Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2007. Print. ^ Manfred Landfester, Hubert Cancik, Helmuth Schneider (eds.), Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical tradition, Volume 1, Brill, 2006, p. 273. ^ Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H (2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. p 165 ^ Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi, pages 166–167. In Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. ^ "Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c.980–1037)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2007-07-13. ^ "Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina)". Sjsu.edu. Archived from the original on 11 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-19. ^ "Avicenna". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2010-04-14. ^ a b Edward Grant, (1996), The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages, page 30. Cambridge University Press ^ a b c Auguste Schmolders, History of Arabian Philosophy in The eclectic magazine of foreign literature, science, and art, Volume 46. February 1859 ^ L.D. Reynolds and Nigel G. Wilson, Scribes and Scholars, Oxford, 1974, p. 106. ^ C. H. Haskins, Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, p. 287. "more of Arabic science passed into Western Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in any other way." ^ For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35–8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," Science in Context, 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275–281. ^ Christoph Kann (1993). "Michael Scotus". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). 5. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 1459–1461. ISBN 3-88309-043-3. ^ Edward Grant, A Source Book in Medieval Science, page 42 (1974). Harvard University Press ^ Rubenstein, Richard E. Aristotle's Children: How Christians, Muslims, and Jews Rediscovered Ancient Wisdom and Illuminated the Middle Ages, page 215 (2004). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ^ Schmölders, Auguste (1859). "'Essai sur les Ecoles Philosophiques chez les Arabes' par Auguste Schmölders, (Paris 1842)" [Essay on the Schools of Philosophy in Arabia] (full–text/pdf). In Telford, John; Barber, Benjamin Aquila; Watkinson, William Lonsdale; Davison, William Theophilus (eds.). The London Quarterly Review. 11. J.A. Sharp. p. 60. We have said already that the most interesting and important of the Arabian schools is that which was the simple expression of Alexandrian Aristotelianism, the school of Avicenna and Averroes; or, as the Arabians themselves called it par excellence, that of the 'philosophers.' In no material point did they differ from their master, and, therefore, an exposition of their doctrines would be useless to those who know anything of the history of philosophy; but, before the strict study of the text of Aristotle, which was introduced by Avicenna, a large amount of traditional Neo-Platonism was incorporated with the body of traditional Aristotelianism, so as to take them sometimes far astray from their master's track. ^ a b Führer, Markus. "Albert the Great". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Henricus Bate, Helmut Boese, Carlos Steel, On Platonic Philosophy, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1990, p. xvi. ^ a b c McInerny, Ralph. "Saint Thomas Aquinas". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ For example, George E. McCarthy (ed.), Marx and Aristotle: Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory and Classical Antiquity, Although many disagree Rowman & Littlefield, 1992. ^ For example, Ted Sadler, Heidegger and Aristotle: The Question of Being, Athlone, 1996. ^ For contrasting examples of this, see Hans-Georg Gadamer, The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy (trans. P. Christopher Smith), Yale University Press, 1986, and Lloyd P. Gerson, Aristotle and Other Platonists, Cornell University Press, 2005. ^ Adler 1985. ^ Alasdair MacIntyre, 'An Interview with Giovanna Borradori', in Kelvin Knight (ed.), The MacIntyre Reader, Polity Press / University of Notre Dame Press, 1998, p. 264. ^ Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press, 2007. ^ Fred D. Miller, Jr., Nature, Justice, and Rights in Aristotle's Politics, Oxford University Press, 1997. ^ Rosalind Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics, Oxford University Press, 1999. ^ a b Jonathan Schaffer (2009). "On What Grounds What Metametaphysics" (PDF). In Chalmers; Manley; Wasserman (eds.). Metametaphysics. Oxford University Press. pp. 347–83. ISBN 978-0199546046. ^ Cohen, S. Marc (2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. ^ Schaffer, Jonathan (1 January 2010). "Monism: The Priority of the Whole". The Philosophical Review. 119 (1): 31–76. doi:10.1215/00318108-2009-025. ISSN 0031-8108. ^ Balaguer, Mark (2016). "Platonism in Metaphysics". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. ^ Armstrong, D. M. (29 July 2010). "4. States of Affairs". Sketch for a Systematic Metaphysics. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-161542-9. Further reading[edit] Adler, Mortimer (1978). Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy. Touchstone, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-83823-6. Adler, Mortimer (1985). Ten Philosophical Mistakes: Basic Errors In Modern Thought - How they came about, their consequences, and how to avoid them. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-500330-5. Chappell, Timothy (ed.), Values and Virtues: Aristotelianism in Contemporary Ethics, Oxford University Press, 2006. Ferrarin, Alfredo, Hegel and Aristotle, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Kenny, Anthony, Essays on the Aristotelian Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2001. Knight, Kelvin, Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7456-1976-7. Knight, Kelvin & Paul Blackledge (eds.), Revolutionary Aristotelianism: Ethics, Resistance and Utopia, Lucius & Lucius (Stuttgart, Germany), 2008. Lobkowicz, Nicholas, Theory and Practice: History of a Concept from Aristotle to Marx, University of Notre Dame Press, 1967. MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, University of Notre Dame Press, 1984 / Duckworth, 1985 (2nd edn.). MacIntyre, Alasdair, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, University of Notre Dame Press / Duckworth, 1988. MacIntyre, Alasdair, Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition, University of Notre Dame Press / Duckworth, 1990. MacIntyre, Alasdair, 'The Theses on Feuerbach: A Road Not Taken', in Kelvin Knight (ed.), The MacIntyre Reader, University of Notre Dame Press / Polity Press, 1998. MacIntyre, Alasdair, Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues, Open Court / Duckworth, 1999. MacIntyre, Alasdair, 'Natural Law as Subversive: The Case of Aquinas' and 'Rival Aristotles: 1. Aristotle Against Some Renaissance Aristotelians; 2. Aristotle Against Some Modern Aristotelians', in MacIntyre, Ethics and Politics: Selected Essays volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 2006. Moraux, Paul, Der Aristotelismus bei den Griechen, Von Andronikos bis Alexander von Aphrodisias: Vol. I: Die Renaissance des Aristotelismus im I. Jh.v. Chr. (1973); Vol. II: Der Aristotelismus im I. und II. Jh.n. Chr. (1984); Vol. III: Alexander von Aphrodisias (2001) – Edited by Jürgen Wiesner, with a chapter on Ethics by Robert W. Sharples. Riedel, Manfred (ed.), Rehabilitierung der praktischen Philosophie, Rombach, volume 1, 1972; volume 2, 1974. Ritter, Joachim, Metaphysik und Politik: Studien zu Aristoteles und Hegel, Suhrkamp, 1977. Russell, Bertrand (1967), A History of Western Philosophy, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0671201581 Schrenk, Lawrence P. (ed.), Aristotle in Late Antiquity, Catholic University of America Press, 1994. Sharples, R. W. (ed.), Whose Aristotle? Whose Aristotelianism?, Ashgate, 2001. Shute, Richard, On the History of the Process by Which the Aristotelian Writings Arrived at Their Present Form, Arno Press, 1976 (originally 1888). Sorabji, Richard (ed.), Aristotle Transformed: The Ancient Commentators and Their Influence, Duckworth, 1990. Stocks, John Leofric, Aristotelianism, Harrap, 1925. Veatch, Henry B., Rational Man: A Modern Interpretation of Aristotelian Ethics, Indiana University Press, 1962. External links[edit] The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum and the Birth of Aristotelianism with an annotated bibliography Clayton, Edward. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{Short description|Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher}} {{other uses}} {{distinguish|Aurelian}} {{good article}} {{Use British English|date=September 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}} {{Infobox royalty | name = Marcus Aurelius | image = L'Image et le Pouvoir - Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle agé - 3.jpg | alt = Marble bust of Marcus Aurelius | caption = Marble bust, [[Musée Saint-Raymond]], [[Toulouse]], [[France]] | succession = [[Roman emperor]] | reign = 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 | reign-type = [[Reign of Marcus Aurelius|Reign]] | predecessor = [[Antoninus Pius]] | successor = [[Commodus]] | regent = {{ubl|[[Lucius Verus]] (161–169)|[[Commodus]] (177–180)}} | reg-type = {{nowr|Co-emperor}} | birth_date = 26 April 121 | birth_place = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]] | death_date = 17 March 180 (aged 58) | death_place = [[Sirmium]], [[Pannonia]] | burial_place = [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Hadrian's Mausoleum]] | spouse = [[Faustina the Younger]] (145–175, her death) | issue = 14, including [[Commodus]], [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]], [[Lucilla]], [[Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina]], [[Fadilla]], [[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor]], and [[Vibia Aurelia Sabina]] | issue-link = #Marriage and children | issue-pipe = Detail | full name = Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar<br/>''(see section [[#Name|Name]] for details)'' | regnal name = Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus | dynasty = [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty|Nerva–Antonine]] | father = {{ubl|[[Marcus Annius Verus (praetor)|Marcus Annius Verus]]|[[Antoninus Pius]] (adoptive)}} | mother = [[Domitia Calvilla]] | module = {{Infobox philosopher | embed = yes | notable_works = ''[[Meditations]]'' | era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]] | region = [[Western Philosophy]] | school_tradition = [[Stoicism]] | main_interests = [[Ethics]] | notable_ideas = ''[[Memento mori]]''<ref>Henry Albert Fischel, ''Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings'', E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95.</ref> | influences = [[Heraclitus]], [[Socrates]], [[Epictetus]], [[Quintus Junius Rusticus|Quintus]], [[Apollonius of Chalcedon|Apollonius]], [[Sextus of Chaeronea]] | influenced = Virtually all of subsequent [[Stoic philosophy]] }} }} {{Nerva–Antonine dynasty|image=[[File:INC-1604-a Ауреус Марк Аврелий цезарь ок. 152-153 гг. (аверс).png|150px]]|caption=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius}} {{Marcus Aurelius}} {{Stoicism sidebar}} '''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''' ({{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|r|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|REE|lee|əs}};<ref>[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/marcus-aurelius 'Marcus Aurelius'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228082840/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/marcus-aurelius |date=28 December 2018}}. [[Dictionary.com]].</ref> 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was [[Roman emperor]] from 161 to 180 and a [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the [[Five Good Emperors]] (a term coined some 13 centuries later by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]), and the last emperor of the [[Pax Romana]] (27 BC to 180 AD), an age of relative peace and stability for the [[Roman Empire]]. He served as [[Roman consul]] in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus was born during the reign of [[Hadrian]] to the emperor's nephew, the praetor [[Marcus Annius Verus&nbsp;(III)|Marcus Annius Verus]], and the heiress [[Domitia Calvilla]]. His father died when he was three, and his mother and [[Marcus Annius Verus&nbsp;(II)|grandfather]] raised Marcus. After Hadrian's [[Adoption in ancient Rome|adoptive]] son, [[Aelius Caesar]], died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus' uncle [[Antoninus Pius]] as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius]], the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as [[Herodes Atticus]] and [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]]. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter [[Faustina the Younger|Faustina]] in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The [[reign of Marcus Aurelius]] was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire [[Parthian war of Lucius Verus|fought successfully]] with a revitalized [[Parthian Empire]] and the rebel [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. Marcus defeated the [[Marcomanni]], [[Quadi]], and [[Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] in the [[Marcomannic Wars]]; however, these and other [[Germanic peoples]] began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the [[Roman currency]], the [[denarius]]. The [[persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire]] appears to have increased during Marcus' reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The [[Antonine Plague]] broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the [[population of the Roman Empire]], causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included [[Lucilla]], who married Lucius, and [[Commodus]], whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|Column]] and [[Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius]] still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. ''[[Meditations]]'', the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. ==Sources== [[File:Marcus Aurelius bust Istanbul Archaeological Museum - inv. 5129 T.jpg|thumb|Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Archaeological Museum of Istanbul]], Turkey|alt=Bust of Marcus Aurelius]] The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the ''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'', claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.<ref>Rohrbacher, p. 5.</ref> The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources ([[Marius Maximus]] or Ignotus), are much more accurate.<ref name='Birley, 1889'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der ''Scriptoes Historiae Augustae{{'}}'' (in German), ''Hermes'' 24 (1889), pp. 337ff.</ref> For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius|Antoninus]], Marcus, and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius]] are largely reliable, but those of [[Aelius Verus]] and [[Avidius Cassius]] are not.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 230. On the ''HA Verus'', see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74.</ref> A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto|Fronto]] and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.<ref>Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.</ref><ref>Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</ref> Marcus's own ''Meditations'' offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 227.</ref> The main narrative source for the period is [[Cassius Dio]], a Greek senator from [[Bithynian]] [[Nicaea]] who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 228–229, 253.</ref> Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician [[Galen]] on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of [[Aelius Aristides]] on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the ''[[Digest (Roman law)|Digest]]'' and ''[[Codex Justinianeus]]'' on Marcus's legal work.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 227–28.</ref> [[Epigraphy|Inscriptions]] and [[numismatics|coin finds]] supplement the literary sources.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 228.</ref> ==Early life== {{Main|Early life of Marcus Aurelius}} [[File:Young Marcus Aurelius Musei Capitolini MC279.jpg|thumb|A bust of young Marcus Aurelius ([[Capitoline Museum]]). [[Anthony Birley]], his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 49.</ref>|alt=Bust of a young Marcus Aurelius]] ===Name=== Marcus was born in [[Rome]] on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,<ref>Magill, p. 693.</ref> but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,<ref name='Historia MA I.9–10'>''Historia'' MA I.9–10</ref><ref>Van Ackeren, p. 139.</ref><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 33.</ref> or at the time of his marriage.<ref>Dio 69.21.1; ''HA Marcus'' i. 10; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 24.</ref> He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,<ref>Dio lxix.21.1; ''HA Marcus'' i. 9; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 24.</ref> at birth or some point in his youth,<ref name='Historia MA I.9–10'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'/> or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;<ref>Van Ackeren, p. 78.</ref> [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], in his chronology of the Roman emperors ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'', calls him ''Marcus Aurelius Verus''.<ref>Dean, p. 32.</ref> ===Family origins=== Marcus's paternal family was of Roman [[Annia gens#Anni Verii|Italo-Hispanic origins]]. His father was [[Marcus Annius Verus (III)]].<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 | page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45180/page/n225 439] | quote=Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. |title = The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography| publisher=Bradbury & Evans |last1 = Knight|first1 = Charles|year = 1856}}</ref> The [[Annia gens|gens Annia]] was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from [[Numa Pompilius]]) and a branch of it moved to [[Espejo, Córdoba|Ucubi]], a small town south east of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in Iberian [[Baetica]].<ref name=' Sánchez2010' >Sánchez, p. 165.</ref><ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 14.</ref> This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the ''Annii Veri'', rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a [[Roman Senate|senator]] and (according to the ''Historia Augusta'') ex-[[praetor]]; his grandfather [[Marcus Annius Verus (II)]] was made [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] in 73–74.<ref>''HA Marcus'' i. 2, 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 28; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 14.</ref> Through his grandmother [[Rupilia]], Marcus was a member of the [[Nerva-Antonine dynasty]]; the emperor [[Trajan]]'s [[Ulpia Marciana|sororal]] niece [[Salonia Matidia]] was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife [[Vibia Sabina|Sabina]].<ref>Giacosa, p. 8.</ref><ref>Levick, pp. 161, 163.</ref>{{refn|Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.<ref>Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that [[Rupilia|Rupilia Faustina]] was the daughter of the consular senator [[Libo Rupilius Frugi]] and [[Salonina Matidia|Matidia]], who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of [[Vibia Sabina]], Hadrian's wife.<ref>''Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum'' 14.3579 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, ''Roman Papers'' 1.244.</ref>|group=note}} Marcus's mother, [[Domitia Lucilla Minor]] (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]]'s letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the ''Horti Domitia Calvillae'' (or ''Lucillae''), a villa on the [[Caelian hill]] of Rome.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29, citing Pliny, ''Epistulae'' 8.18.</ref><ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 30.</ref> Marcus himself was born and raised in the ''Horti'' and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/fronto.html | title=M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/newtopographical0000rich | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/newtopographical0000rich/page/198 198] | quote=horti domizia lucilla. |title = A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome| publisher=JHU Press |isbn = 9780801843006|last1 = l. Richardson|first1 = jr|last2 = Richardson|first2 = Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L.|date = October 1992}}</ref><ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman [[Aurelia gens#Aueli Fulvi|Italo-Gallic origins]]: the [[Aurelia gens|gens Aurelia]], into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a [[Sabine]] gens; [[Antoninus Pius]], his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in [[Roman Gaul]]. ===Childhood=== Marcus's sister, [[Annia Cornificia Faustina]], was probably born in 122 or 123.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 31, 44.</ref> His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref>{{refn|Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.<ref>Farquharson, 1.95–96.</ref>|group=note}} Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his ''Meditations'' that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.<ref>''Meditations'' 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> His mother Lucilla did not remarry<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31'/> and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 1 and ''Meditations'' v. 4, qtd. in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 32.</ref> and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of ''[[patria potestas]]'' over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different ''patria potestas''. [[Lucius Catilius Severus]], described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'/> Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the [[Caelian Hill]], an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the [[Lateran Palace|Lateran]], where he would spend much of his childhood.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 31–32.</ref> Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 35.</ref> He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 35.</ref> Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 23; cf. ''Meditations'' i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103.</ref> From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for [[wrestling]] and [[boxing]]. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Donald J. |title=Stoicism as a Martial Art |url=https://medium.com/stoicism-philosophy-as-a-way-of-life/stoicism-as-a-martial-art-3ab9302071f9 |website=Medium |access-date=23 February 2021}}</ref> Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;<ref>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', 20–21.</ref> he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.<ref>''Meditations'' 1.4; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 20.</ref> One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 2, iv. 9; ''Meditations'' i. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 37; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', pp. 21–22.</ref> In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough [[Pallium (Roman cloak)|Greek cloak]], and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 38; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 21.</ref> A new set of tutors – the [[Homer]]ic scholar [[Alexander of Cotiaeum]] along with [[Trosius Aper]] and [[Tuticius Proculus]], teachers of [[Latin]]<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 40, citing Aristides, ''Oratio'' 32 K; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 21.</ref>{{refn|Birley amends the text of the ''HA Marcus'' from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.<ref>Magie & Birley, ''Lives of the later Caesars'', pp. 109, 109 n.8; ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing ''Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia'' 1966/7, pp. 39ff.</ref>|group=note}} – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.27.</ref> Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 10; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 40; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 22.</ref> Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's ''Meditations''.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, ''The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus'' (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453.</ref> ===Succession to Hadrian=== [[File:AELIUS CAESAR RIC II 987-671493.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Roman currency|Coin]] (136–138 AD) of [[Hadrian]] (obverse) and his adoptive son, [[Lucius Aelius]] (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the [[laurel crown]]. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR.]] In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a [[hemorrhage]]. Convalescent in [[Hadrian's Villa|his villa]] at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]], he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and [[Adoption in ancient Rome|adopted son]],<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 41–42.</ref> according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.<ref>''HA Hadrian'' xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 42.</ref> While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', ''Phoenix'' 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30.</ref> As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.<ref>''HA Aelius'' vi. 2–3</ref> After a brief stationing on the [[Danube]] frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.<ref>''HA Hadrian'' xxiii. 15–16; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148.</ref>{{refn|Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.<ref>Dio, lxix.17.1; ''HA Aelius'', iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147.</ref>|group=note}} On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt [[Faustina the Elder]], as his new successor.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148.</ref> As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.<ref>Weigel, Richard D. [http://www.roman-emperors.org/tonypis.htm 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)']. Roman Emperors.</ref> Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.<ref>Dio 69.21.1; ''HA Hadrian'' xxiv. 1; ''HA Aelius'' vi. 9; ''HA Antoninus Pius'' iv. 6–7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 48–49.</ref> Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.<ref>''HA Marcus'' v. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 49.</ref> At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming ''[[quaestor]]'' before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 49–50.</ref> Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become ''[[Triumvir Monetalis|triumvir monetalis]]'', a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as [[military tribune|tribune with a legion]], becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 50.</ref> After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for [[Baiae]], a seaside resort on the [[Campania]]n coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.<ref>Dio 69.22.4; ''HA Hadrian'' xxv. 5–6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; ''HA Hadrian'' xxiv. 8–13.</ref> His remains were buried quietly at [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli]].<ref>''HA Hadrian'' xxv. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 53.</ref> The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151.</ref> For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151.</ref> ===Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)=== [[File:Antoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Sestertius]] of [[Antoninus Pius]] (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and [[Faustina the Younger]] in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of [[Concordia (mythology)|Concordia]] and clasping hands with [[Faustina the Elder]]. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 108.</ref>|alt=Coin commemorating the betrothal of Marcus Aurelius to his eventual wife Faustina.]] [[File:Antoninus Pius, with Marcus Aurelius Caesar, denarius, AD 139, RIC III 412a.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Denarius]] of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 77.</ref>|alt=Coin of Antoninus Pius, Marcus's predecessor, depicting Antoninus on the obverse and Marcus on the reverse.]] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to [[Ceionia Fabia]] would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to [[Faustina the Younger|Faustina]], Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vi. 2; ''Verus'' ii. 3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 53–54.</ref> He was made [[Roman consul|consul]] for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a ''seviri'', one of the [[Equites|knights]]' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became ''princeps iuventutis'', head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.<ref>Dio 71.35.5; ''HA Marcus'' vi. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 56.</ref> Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the [[Tyrian purple|purple dye]] – for that can happen'.<ref>''Meditations'' vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57; cf. ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation.</ref> At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (''[[Pontiff|pontifices]]'', ''[[augur]]es'', ''[[quindecimviri sacris faciundis]]'', ''[[Epulones|septemviri epulonum]]'', etc.);<ref name='ReferenceA'>''HA Marcus'' vi. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 57.</ref> direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the [[Arval Brethren]].<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing ''Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00032&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 6.32], [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 6.379], cf. ''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+00360&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 360].</ref> Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the ''aulicum fastigium'' or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.<ref name='ReferenceA'/> Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'<ref>''Meditations'' 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57.</ref> – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the ''Meditations'' for 'abusing court life' in front of company.<ref>''Meditations'' 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57.</ref> As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 57–58.</ref> But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 90.</ref> He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vi. 5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 58.</ref> He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...]{{refn|The manuscript is corrupt here.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89'/>|group=note}} I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.<ref>Dio 71.36.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 90–91.</ref> Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 91.</ref> Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 91.</ref> ===Fronto and further education=== After taking the ''[[toga virilis]]'' in 136, Marcus probably began his training in [[Eloquence|oratory]].<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 61.</ref> He had three tutors in [[Greek language|Greek]] – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and [[Herodes Atticus]] – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,<ref>''HA Marcus'' iii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 62.</ref> but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 62.</ref> This was the age of the [[Second Sophistic]], a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his ''Meditations'', Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.<ref>Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's ''Marcus Aurelius'', ''Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 347.</ref> Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.<ref>''Vita Sophistae'' 2.1.14; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 63–64.</ref> Atticus was an inveterate opponent of [[Stoicism]] and philosophic pretensions.<ref>[[Aulus Gellius]], ''[[Noctes Atticae]]'' 9.2.1–7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 64–65.</ref> He thought the Stoics' desire for [[apatheia]] was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.<ref>[[Aulus Gellius]], ''[[Noctes Atticae]]'' 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 65.</ref> In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his ''Meditations'', in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 65.</ref> Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'', esp. chs. 3 and 4.</ref> he was thought of as second only to [[Cicero]], perhaps even an alternative to him.<ref name='ReferenceB'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 65–67.</ref>{{refn|Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Niebhur]], thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, [[Samuel Adrian Naber|Naber]], found him contemptible.<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', pp. 1–2.</ref> Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.<ref>Mellor, p. 460.</ref> Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.<ref>Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and ''passim''.</ref>|group=note}} He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure [[synonym]]s, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.<ref name='ReferenceB'/> A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 69.</ref> The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 76.</ref> Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 76–77.</ref> He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.<ref>Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138.</ref> Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, ''Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire'' (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, ''Herodes Atticus'' (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140.</ref> Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 77–78.</ref> Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 78.</ref> but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 79.</ref> The outcome of the trial is unknown.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 80.</ref> By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in [[jurisprudence]], and showed some signs of general [[malaise]]. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to ''be'' a judge is noble work'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 93.</ref> Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 94.</ref> In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.<ref>''HA Marcus'' iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 94.</ref> Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 69.</ref> He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with [[Apollonius of Chalcedon]] and others in this circle.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69'/> Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.<ref>''De Eloquentia'' iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (''The Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's ''Conversion'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'.</ref> Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94, 105.</ref> Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but [[Junius Rusticus|Quintus Junius Rusticus]] would have the strongest influence on the boy.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95; Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 120.</ref>{{refn|Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the ''Meditations'' is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 174 n. 12.</ref>|group=note}} He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95.</ref> He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of [[Arulenus Rusticus]], one of the martyrs to the tyranny of [[Domitian]] (''r''. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of '[[Stoic Opposition]]' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94–95, 101.</ref> the true successor of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 120.</ref> Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing'<nowiki/>'.<ref>''Meditations'' i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94–95.</ref> [[Philostratus]] describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under [[Sextus of Chaeronea]]: <blockquote>The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the [[Boeotia]]n philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his [[wax tablet|tablets]] and goes to school.'<ref>Philostratus, ''Vitae sophistorum'' ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, ''Markos''</ref></blockquote> ===Births and deaths=== On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the [[tribune|tribunician]] power and the ''[[imperium]]'' – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 103.</ref> The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 105.</ref> Domitia would die in 151.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 247 F.1.</ref> [[File:RomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Mausoleum of Hadrian]], where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried|alt=Mausoleum of Hadrian]] In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend ''temporum felicitas'', 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Mausoleum of Hadrian]], where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 206–207.</ref> Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.<ref>''Meditations'' ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 207.</ref> He quoted from the ''[[Iliad]]'' what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':<ref name="Meditations x pp. 78, 224">''Meditations'' x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224.</ref> <blockquote><poem> leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men.</poem> –&nbsp;''Iliad'' vi.146<ref name="Meditations x pp. 78, 224"/></blockquote> Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, [[Lucilla|Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla]]. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 107.</ref> Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, [[Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina]], might not have been born until 153.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 107–08.</ref> Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates ''fecunditati Augustae'', 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref> By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.<ref>''Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes'' 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> ===Antoninus Pius's last years=== [[File:Imperator Antoninus Pius.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of [[Antoninus Pius]], [[British Museum]]]] Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,<ref>Reed, p. 194.</ref> and was consul again with Marcus in 161.<ref name='livius1'>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/di-dn/divi_fratres/marcus.html 'Marcus Aurelius']. Livius.org.</ref> Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.<ref>''HA Verus'' 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref>{{refn|Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared<ref>Suetonius, ''Nero'' 6.1; ''HA Verus'' 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), ''Antiquité Classique'' 3 (1934), pp. 173ff.</ref>) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68.</ref> scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69.</ref>|group=note}} He did not marry until 164.<ref>''HA Verus'' 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref> In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without [[corset|stays]]. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the [[praetorian prefect]] (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 112.</ref> In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/> Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at [[Lorium]], in [[Etruria]],<ref>Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7</ref> about 19 kilometres (12&nbsp;mi) from Rome.<ref name='Victor, 15:7'>Victor, 15:7</ref> He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,<ref>Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).<ref name='Bury 532'>Bury, p. 532.</ref> He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' 12.4–8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing [[Tiberius]] by a couple of months.<ref>Bowman, p. 156.</ref> ==Emperor== {{Main|Reign of Marcus Aurelius}} ===Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)=== [[File:Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, British Museum (23455313842).jpg|thumb|Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and [[Lucius Verus]] (right), [[British Museum]]|alt=Busts of Marcus Aurelius and his co-ruler Lucius Verus]] After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title ''[[imperator]]'', and he would soon be formally elected as ''Pontifex Maximus'', chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> This may have been a genuine ''horror imperii'', 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116. Birley takes the phrase ''horror imperii'' from ''HA Pert''. xiii. 1 and xv. 8.</ref> Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his ''Meditations''), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.<ref>''HA Verus'' iii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> The senate accepted, granting Lucius the ''imperium'', the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.1; ''Marcus'' vii.5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 116–17.</ref>{{refn|These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the ''Historia Augusta'', our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] shows even more confusion.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117.</ref>|group=note}} It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>{{refn|There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: [[Augustus]] planned to leave [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar]] as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have [[Gaius Caligula]] and [[Tiberius Gemellus]] do so as well; [[Claudius]] left the empire to [[Nero]] and [[Britannicus]], imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>|group=note}} In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more ''[[auctoritas]]'', or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was ''Pontifex Maximus''. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/> As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117, 278 n.4.</ref> Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the [[Castra Praetoria]], the camp of the [[Praetorian Guard]]. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as ''imperatores''. Then, like every new emperor since [[Claudius]], Lucius promised the troops a special donative.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18.</ref> This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 [[sestertius|sesterces]] (5,000 [[denarius|denarii]]) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109.</ref> The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> Upon his accession he also devalued the [[Roman currency]]. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from {{cvt|2.68|g|oz}} to {{cvt|2.57|g|oz}}.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm 'Roman Currency of the Principate']. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001.</ref> Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118, 278 n.6.</ref> If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the [[Campus Martius]], and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A ''[[flamen]]'', or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the [[Temple of Antoninus and Faustina]]. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'/> In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118–19.</ref> (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, [[Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus|Ummius Quadratus]].<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> On 31 August, she gave birth at [[Lanuvium]] to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>{{refn|The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xix. 1–2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.9.</ref>|group=note}} Aside from the fact that the twins shared [[Caligula]]'s birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.<ref>''HA Commodus''. i.4, x.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff.</ref> ===Early rule=== Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118, citing Werner Eck, ''Die Organization Italiens'' (1979), pp. 146ff.</ref> Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their ''civiliter'' ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157.</ref> Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ''[[ab epistulis]]'' Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of [[Pannonia]] and had served in the war in [[Mauretania]]. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, ''Roman Britain and the Roman Army'' (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff.</ref> Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been [[Augustal prefect|prefectural governor]] of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]] at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (''[[aerarium Saturni]]''). He was made consul soon after.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), no. 141.</ref> Fronto's son-in-law, [[Gaius Aufidius Victorinus]], was appointed governor of [[Germania Superior]].<ref name='HA Marcus 8 1985'>''HA Marcus'' viii. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing W. Eck, ''Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen'' (1985), pp. 65ff.</ref> Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in [[Cirta]] as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff).</ref> The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.1 (= Haines 1.305).</ref> Marcus told Fronto of his reading – [[Lucius Coelius Antipater|Coelius]] and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the ''felicitas temporum'' ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG |alt1=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |image2=Piena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg |alt2=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |footer=[[Tiber Island]] seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the [[Tiber]], December 2008 }} In either autumn 161 or spring 162,{{refn|Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.<ref>Gregory S. Aldrete, ''Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31.</ref> (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'/>)|group=note}} the [[Tiber]] overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref>{{refn|Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the ''curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis'' ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of [[Aulus Platorius Nepos|the builder]] of [[Hadrian's Wall]], whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, [[Marcus Statius Priscus|M. Statius Priscus]]. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+05932&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 5932] (Nepos), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01092&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1092] (Priscus); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref>|group=note}} In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xi. 3, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.16.</ref> Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of [[Cleanthes]] and [[Zeno of Citium|Zeno]], yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.<ref>''De eloquentia'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 127–28.</ref> Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at [[Cyzicus]]. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> ===War with Parthia (161–166)=== {{main|Roman–Parthian War of 161–166}} {{see also|Roman–Persian Wars}} [[Image:VologasesIV.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of [[Vologases IV of Parthia]]. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63.]] On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 114, 121.</ref> One of those kings, [[Vologases IV of Parthia]], made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.<ref>Event: ''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'' 119 (1997): p. 281.</ref> Vologases entered the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – [[Bakur|Pacorus]], an [[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid]] like himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was [[Marcus Sedatius Severianus]], a Gaul with much experience in military matters.<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> Convinced by the prophet [[Alexander of Abonutichus]] that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, ''Pagans and Christians'' (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50.</ref> Severianus led a legion (perhaps the [[Legio IX Hispana|IX Hispana]]<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.19.</ref>) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at [[Elegeia]], a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.<ref>Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 21, 24, 25; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22.</ref> There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in [[Raetia]] and Upper Germany, where the [[Chatti]] of the [[Taunus]] mountains had recently crossed over the ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]''.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 122.</ref> Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' vii.11; ''Marcus'' vii.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 103–04, 122.</ref>{{refn|[[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] adduces the 5th-century writer [[Sidonius Apollinaris]]'s comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' ''vivente Pio'' (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the ''Historia Augusta'' (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.<ref>''Pan. Ath.'' 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's ''Marcus Aurelius'', ''The Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 349.</ref>)|group=note}} More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding [[Legio X Gemina|X Gemina]] at [[Vindobona]] ([[Vienna]]), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 8.7050]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 51]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Three full legions were also sent east: [[Legio I Minervia|I Minervia]] from Bonn in Upper Germany,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01097&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1097]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 98]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Legio II Adiutrix|II Adiutrix]] from Aquincum,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01091&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1091]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> and [[Legio V Macedonica|V Macedonica]] from Troesmis.<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 2311]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xii. 13; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161)|M. Annius Libo]], Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,<ref>''L'Année Épigraphique'' 1972.657 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.<ref>''HA Verus'' 9.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg|thumb|300px|Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 226.</ref>|alt=Coin of Marcus Aurelius. Victoria appears on the reverse, commemorating Marcus's Parthian victory.]] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at [[Alsium]], a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the ''[[palaestra]]'', fishing, and comedy),<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: '<nowiki/>'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=Antioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg |caption1=The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in [[Antioch]]'s open-air taverns than with their units.<ref>''Ad Verum Imperator'' 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129.</ref> (Engraving by [[William Miller (engraver)|William Miller]] after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain [[Thomas Byam Martin|Byam Martin]], R.N., 1866) |alt1=Depiction of Antioch, Syria |image2=ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg |caption2=The Euphrates River near [[Raqqa]], Syria |alt2=Euphrates River }} Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled ''De bello Parthico'' (''On the Parthian War''). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23).</ref> but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.<ref>Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.<ref>''HA Verus'' v. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123, 125.</ref>{{refn|Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref>|group=note}} Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: ''HA Verus'' vi. 7–9; ''HA Marcus'' viii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 125–26.</ref> Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at [[Laodicea in Syria|Laodicea]] and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',<ref>''HA Verus'' iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> and enjoyed the company of actors.<ref>''HA Verus'' viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, ''Principae Historia'' 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref>{{refn|The whole section of the ''vita'' dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (''HA Verus'' iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69.</ref>|group=note}} Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.<ref>''HA Verus'' ix. 2; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' 3.199 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130–31.</ref> [[File:Statue of Lucilla detail.jpg|thumb|Marble statue of [[Lucilla]], 150–200 AD, [[Bardo National Museum (Tunis)|Bardo National Museum]], [[Tunisia]]|alt=Statue of Marcus's daughter Lucilla]] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to [[Ephesus]] to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the ''Vita Abercii'' 44ff.</ref> Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.10; Lucian, ''Imagines'' 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131. Cf. Lucian, ''Imagines'', ''Pro Imaginibus'', ''passim''.</ref> Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> who was made ''[[comes]] Augusti'', 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131, citing ''Année Épigraphique'' 1958.15.</ref> Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He only accompanied the group as far as [[Brundisium]], where they boarded a ship for the east.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 5–6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> The Armenian capital [[Artashat (ancient city)|Artaxata]] was captured in 163.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> At the end of the year, Lucius took the title ''Armeniacus'', despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; ''HA Verus'' vii. 1–2; ''Ad Verrum Imperator'' 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> When Lucius was hailed as ''imperator'' again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the ''Imperator II'' with him.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff.</ref> Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.<ref>Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 113.</ref> A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, [[Sohaemus of Armenia|Gaius Julius Sohaemus]]. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend {{Smallcaps|Rex armeniis Datus}}: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff.</ref> In 163, the Parthians intervened in [[Osroene]], a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], and installed their own king on its throne.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 112.</ref> In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the [[Euphrates]] at a more southerly point.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.<ref>Fronto, ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1098]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130.</ref> In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169.</ref> The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the [[Tigris]].<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, ''Roman Papers'', 5.689ff.</ref> By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: [[Seleucia]] on the right bank of the Tigris and [[Ctesiphon]] on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the [[Seleucid Empire]], one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Diadochi|successor kingdoms]]), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.<ref>''HA Verus'' 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, ''Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date.</ref> Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164.</ref> Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as ''imperatores'' again, earning the title 'imp. III'.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff.</ref> Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into [[Media (region)|Media]]. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, ''Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts'' (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff.</ref> and the emperors were again hailed as ''imperatores'', becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff.</ref> On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]] and [[Commodus]], as [[Caesar (title)|his heirs]].<ref name='auto'>Adams, p. 94.</ref> ===War with Germanic tribes (166–180)=== {{main|Marcomannic Wars}} [[File:Aurelius180AD.png|thumb|400px|upright=2.5|The [[Roman Empire]] at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called [[Marcomannia]] and Sarmatia<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of [[Avidius Cassius]] and by his death.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 183.</ref> The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], [[Colchis]], [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberia]], and [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]].|alt=Expanse of the Roman Empire during Marcus Aurelius's reign]] {{multiple image|header = Scenes from the [[Marcomannic Wars]], 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the [[Capitoline Museums]]) |image1=0 Relief - Monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle - La soumission des germains (1).JPG |width1=210 |caption1=Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised ''[[vexillum]]'' standards |alt1 =Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius |image2=Rilievo da monumento onorario di Marco Aurelio trionfo, 176-180.JPG |width2=258 |caption2=Marcus Aurelius celebrating [[Roman triumph|his triumph]] over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a ''[[quadriga]]'' chariot |alt2=Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius }} [[File:Marcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Bust of Marcus Aurelius.|Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], flanked by Marcus and [[Lucius Verus]]. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.<ref>Gnecchi, ''Medaglioni Romani'', p. 33.</ref>]] [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 241.</ref>|alt=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius.]] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).<ref>Dio 72.11.3–4; ''Ad amicos'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132.</ref> The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a [[legionary]] legate who was taking bribes.<ref>Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132, citing ''De nepote amisso'' ii (= Haines 2.222); ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.).</ref> Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. [[Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus]], a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced [[Marcus Nonius Macrinus]]. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure [[Tiberius Haterius Saturnius]]. [[Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus]] was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when [[Marcus Iallius Bassus]] had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, ''Konsulat und Senatorenstand'' (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251.</ref> Starting in the 160s, [[Germanic tribes]], and other nomadic people launched raids along the [[limes Germanicus|northern border]], particularly into [[Gaul]] and across the [[Danube#Human history|Danube]]. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.<ref name='McLynn2010'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', pp. 323–24.</ref> Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the [[Marcomanni]] of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the [[Lombards]] and other Germanic tribes.<ref name='Bohec2013'>Le Bohec, p. 56.</ref> Soon thereafter, the Iranian [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] attacked between the Danube and the [[Tisza|Theiss]] rivers.<ref name='Grant2016'>Grant, ''The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition'', p. 29.</ref> The [[Costoboci]], coming from the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] area, invaded [[Moesia]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like [[Dacia]], Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and [[Marcomannia]], including today's [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Hungary]]. Some Germanic tribes who settled in [[Ravenna]] revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.<ref>Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> ===Legal and administrative work=== [[File:Portrait de Marc Aurèle 2.jpg|thumb|Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Liebieghaus]], Frankfurt.]] Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,<ref>Fergus Millar, ''The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC&nbsp;–&nbsp;AD 337'' (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and ''passim''. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19.</ref> but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.<ref>[http://www.military-history.org/articles/thinkers-at-war-marcus-aurelius.htm 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius']. [http://www.military-history.org ''Military History Monthly''], published 2014. (This is the conclusion of [[Iain King]]'s biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.'</ref> He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'<ref>''Codex Justinianeus'' 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 133.</ref> and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.<ref>''Digest'' 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (''decuriones'').<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.<ref>Irvine, pp. 57–58.</ref> In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.<ref>Dio, lxxii.33</ref> In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from {{cvt|2.57–2.67|g|oz}}. However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'/> ====Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague==== {{main|Sino-Roman relations|Antonine Plague}} A possible contact with [[Han Dynasty|Han China]] occurred in 166 when a [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman traveller visited the Han court]], claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[wikt:安|安]] [[wikt:敦|敦]]), ruler of [[Daqin]], who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.<ref>Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79.</ref><ref>Yü, pp. 460–61.</ref><ref>De Crespigny, p. 600.</ref> In addition to [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era [[Roman glass]]wares found at [[Guangzhou]] along the [[South China Sea]],<ref>An, 83.</ref> Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at [[Óc Eo]], [[Vietnam]], then part of the [[Kingdom of Funan]] near the Chinese province of [[Jiaozhi]] (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of [[Kattigara]], described by [[Ptolemy]] (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name='young 2001 pp. 29-30'>Young, pp. 29–30.</ref><ref group=note>For further information on [[Óc Eo]], see Osborne, Milton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uxF2kH04WKgC ''The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future'']. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. {{ISBN|978-1741148930}}.</ref> Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to [[Aurelian]] have been found in [[Xi'an]], China (site of the Han capital [[Chang'an]]), although the far greater amount of [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Roman coins in India]] suggests the Roman maritime trade for [[History of silk|purchasing Chinese silk]] was centred there, not in China or even the overland [[Silk Road]] running through Persia.<ref name='ball 2016 p154'>Ball, p. 154.</ref> The [[Antonine Plague]] started in [[Mesopotamia]] in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–1098.</ref> mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.<ref name=murphy>Murphy, Verity. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe']. BBC News, 7 November 2005.</ref> It is believed that the plague was [[smallpox]].<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–98.</ref> In the view of historian [[Rafe de Crespigny]], the plagues afflicting the [[Eastern Han]] empire of China during the reigns of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] (r. 146–168) and [[Emperor Ling of Han]] (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.<ref>De Crespigny, p. 514.</ref> Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the [[Indian Ocean]] as proven by the archaeological record spanning from [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] to [[Indo-Roman relations|India]], as well as significantly decreased [[Roman commerce|Roman commercial]] activity in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name='mclaughlin 2010 p59-60'>McLaughlin, pp. 59–60.</ref> ===Death and succession (180)=== [[File:Delacroix-Marc Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|left|''[[Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius]]'' (1844) by [[Eugène Delacroix]]|alt=Painting that depicts Marcus on his deathbed and his son Commodus, surrounded by the emperor's philosopher friends]] Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern [[Sremska Mitrovica]]). He was immediately deified and [[Cremation|his ashes]] were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's [[mausoleum]] (modern [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]) until the [[Visigoth]] [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the city]] in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|column]] and a [[temple of Marcus Aurelius|temple]] built in Rome.<ref name='Kleiner2016'>Kleiner, p. 230.</ref> Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the [[Pax Romana]].<ref name='Merrony2017'>Merrony, p. 85.</ref> Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.<ref name='Birley186–91'>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91.</ref> Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;<ref>Kemezis, p. 45.</ref> however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when [[Vespasian]] was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.<ref name='Birley186–91'/> At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an [[encomium]] to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc">Tr. Cary, ''ad loc''.</ref> <blockquote>[Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. :–Dio lxxi. 36.3–4<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc"/></blockquote> Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."<ref>Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34</ref> [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]], in ''The Climax of Rome'', writes of Commodus:<ref name='Grant2011'/> <blockquote>The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.<ref name='Grant2011'>Grant, ''The Climax Of Rome'', p. 15.</ref></blockquote> ==Legacy and reputation== Marcus acquired the reputation of a [[philosopher king]] within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, ''Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World'' (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1.</ref><ref>Mark, Joshua. [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/174/marcus-aurelius-platos-philosopher-king/ 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King']. ''World History Encyclopedia''. 8 May 2018.</ref> Christians such as [[Justin Martyr]], Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.<ref>Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, ''1 Apologia'' 1; Athenagoras, ''Leg''. 1; Eusebius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 4.26.9–11.</ref> The last-named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.<ref>Eusebius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1.</ref> The historian Herodian wrote: <blockquote>"Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."<ref>Herodian, ''Ab Excessu Divi Marci'' i.2.4, tr. Echols.</ref></blockquote> [[Iain King]] explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: <blockquote>"[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."<ref>Thinkers at War.</ref></blockquote> ==Attitude towards Christians== In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]] of [[Christians]]. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.<ref>Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'.</ref> The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.<ref name='McLynn2010295'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 295.</ref> The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.<ref>The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII</ref> =={{anchor|Marriage and issue}}Marriage and children== {{multiple image |image1=Commodus-AnniusVerus tarsos 161-165 AE17 CNG.jpg |caption1=Coin of [[Commodus]] and [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]], 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus. |alt1=Coin of Marcus's sons Commodus and Annius facing each other |image2=Busto de Vibia Sabina (M. Prado) 01.jpg |caption2=Bust of [[Vibia Aurelia Sabina]], [[Museo del Prado|Prado Museum]] |alt2=Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Marcus's daughter |total_width=500 }} Marcus and his [[Cousin marriage|cousin-wife]] [[Faustina the Younger|Faustina]] had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='Stephens, p. 31'>Stephens, p. 31.</ref> including two sets of twins.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='livius3'/> One son and four daughters outlived their father.<ref>Ackermann, Schroeder, Terry, Lo Upshur and Whitters, p. 39.</ref> Their children included: * Domitia Faustina (147–151)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='livius1'/><ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 92.</ref> * Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'/><ref name='livius3'>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antoninus-and-aelius/ 'Antoninus and Aelius']. Livius.org.</ref><ref name='levick171'>Levick, p. 171.</ref> * Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'/><ref name='livius3'/><ref name='levick171'/> * [[Lucilla|Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla]] (150<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107'/><ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/>–182<ref>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/articles/person/lucilla/ 'Lucilla']. Livius.org.</ref>), married her father's co-ruler [[Lucius Verus]],<ref name='livius1'/> then [[Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus]], had issue from both marriages * [[Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina]] (born 151),<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'/> married [[Gnaeus Claudius Severus (consul 167)|Gnaeus Claudius Severus]], had a son * Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'/> * Unknown child (died before 158)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/> * [[Fadilla|Annia Aurelia Fadilla]] (born 159<ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus]], had issue * [[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor]] (born 160<ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus]], had a son * Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus<ref name='levick171'/> * [[Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus]] (Commodus) (161–192),<ref>Gagarin, p. 37.</ref> twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,<ref name='levick171'/><ref>Benario, Herbert W. [http://www.roman-emperors.org/marcaur.htm 'Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180)']. Roman Emperors.</ref> married [[Bruttia Crispina]], no issue * [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar]] (162<ref name='auto'/>–169<ref name='Stephens, p. 31'/><ref>Adams, p. 104.</ref>)<ref name='livius1'/> * Hadrianus<ref name='livius1'/> * [[Vibia Aurelia Sabina]] (170<ref name='levick171'/>– died before 217<ref>Levick, p. 160.</ref>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Lucius Antistius Burrus]], no issue {{Nerva-Antonine family tree}} ==Writings== {{main|Meditations}} While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his ''[[Meditations]]'' in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. ''Meditations'' is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of [[Christina of Sweden]], [[Frederick the Great]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Matthew Arnold]], and [[Goethe]], and is admired by modern figures such as [[Wen Jiabao]] and [[Bill Clinton]].<ref>Hays, p. xlix.</ref> It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.<ref name='Collins1973'>Collins, p. 58.</ref> It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and [[Julian the Apostate]] was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention ''Meditations''.<ref>Stertz, p. 434, citing Themistius, ''Oratio'' 6.81; ''HA Cassius'' 3.5; Victor, ''De Caesaribus'' 16.9.</ref> It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from [[Arethas of Caesarea]] in the 10th century and in the Byzantine [[Suda]] (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by [[Wilhelm Xylander|Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann)]], from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.<ref>Hays, pp. xlviii–xlix.</ref> The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the [[Vatican library]] and dates to the 14th century.<ref>Hadot, p. 22.</ref> ==Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius== {{main|Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius}} [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 174, RIC III 295.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 236.</ref>|alt=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius]] [[File:Marc Aurel column detailed view 01.jpg|thumb|Detailed view of the [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]]|alt=Column of Marcus Aurelius]] The [[Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius]] in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.<ref>Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.</ref> This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the [[Middle Ages]] as a depiction of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|Christian emperor]] [[Constantine the Great]], and spared the destruction which statues of [[pagan]] figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands {{cvt|11.6|ft|m}} and is now located in the [[Capitoline Museums]] of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the [[Ancient Greek art|classical tradition]] of [[Ancient Greek sculpture|sculpture]].<ref>Kleiner, p. 193.</ref> <gallery> Marco Aurelio bronzo.JPG|A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Capitoline Museums]] Statua Marco Aurelio Musei Capitolini.JPG|A full view of the equestrian statue 0 Marcus Aurelius - Piazza del Campidoglio (2).JPG|alt=Replica of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius|Replica of the statue, [[Capitoline Hill]] Marcus Aurelius Capitoline Hill September 2015-1.jpg|alt=Replica of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius|Replica of the statue, [[Capitoline Hill]] </gallery> ==Column of Marcus Aurelius== {{main|Column of Marcus Aurelius}} Marcus's [[victory column]], established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved [[relief]]s wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the [[Middle Ages]]. It was replaced with a statue of [[Saint Paul]] in 1589 by [[Pope Sixtus V]].<ref>[https://curate.nd.edu/show/ft848p61g5s 'Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522142047/https://curate.nd.edu/show/ft848p61g5s |date=22 May 2020 }}. [[University of Notre Dame]], [[Hesburgh Library]]. Accessed 24 November 2018.</ref> The column of Marcus and the [[column of Trajan]] are often compared by scholars given how they are both [[Doric order|Doric]] in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted [[frieze]]s depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.<ref>[https://omeka1.grinnell.edu/Classics/exhibits/show/columns-exhibit 'The Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius']{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. [[Grinnell College]], Classics. Accessed 24 November 2018.</ref> <gallery> File:2006 Piazza Colonna - panoramio.jpg|The [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]] in [[Piazza Colonna]]. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal [[List of ancient spiral stairs|spiral staircase]]. File:Montecitorio Panini.jpg|The column, right, in the background of [[Giovanni Paolo Panini|Panini's]] painting of the [[Palazzo Montecitorio]], with the base of the [[Column of Antoninus Pius]] in the right foreground (1747) </gallery> {{clear}} == In popular culture == * In the 1965 epic drama ''[[The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire_(film)|The Fall of The Roman Empire]]'', [[Alec Guinness]] portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. * In the 2000 British-American drama ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'', [[Richard Harris]] portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. * In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries ''[[Roman Empire (TV series)|Roman Empire]]'', [[John Bach]] portrays Marcus Aurelius. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} ==Citations== All citations to the ''Historia Augusta'' are to individual biographies, and are marked with a ''{{'}}HA{{'}}''. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. {{Reflist}} ==Sources== ===Ancient=== {{Refbegin}} * Aristides, Aelius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Trapp, Michael B. ''Orations. 1: Orationes 1–2''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2017. {{ISBN|978-0674996465}}. * Victor, Aurelius. ''De Caesaribus'' (in Latin). :Bird, H.W. ''De Caesaribus''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0853232186}}. * Dio, Cassius. ''Roman History'' (in Greek). :Cary, Earnest, trans. ''Roman History''. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. {{OCLC|500523615}}. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html LacusCurtius]. * ''Digest'' (in Latin). :Scott, S.P., trans. ''The Digest or Pandects'' in ''The Civil Law''. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. {{OCLC|23759480}}. Online at the [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm Constitution Society]. * [[Epiphanius of Salamis]]. ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'' (in Latin). :Dean, James Elmer, ed. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FnMlnQEACAAJ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures – The Syriac Version]''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. {{OCLC|123314338}}. * Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends'' (in Latin). :Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends''. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. {{OCLC|476921438}}. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00auregoog 1], [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00frongoog 2]. * Gellius, Aulus. ''Noctes Atticae'' (''Attic Nights''). :Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. {{OCLC|59229750}} (Vol. 1), {{OCLC|1072405870}} (Vol. 2), {{OCLC|1021363430}} (Vol. 3). Vols. 1 and 2 online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/home.html LacusCurtius]. * Herodian. ''Ab Excessu Divi Marci'' (''History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius'', in Latin). :Echols, Edward C., trans. ''Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire: From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. {{OCLC|463202486}}. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_00_intro.htm Tertullian] and [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodian-s-roman-history/ Livius]. * Lucian. :Fowler, F.G.; Fowler, H.W., trans. ''The works of Lucian of Samosata''. Oxford: Clarendon P., 1949. {{OCLC|503242210}}. :''Alexander'' (in Latin). Translation online at [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm Tertullian]. :Translations (from Latin) of [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl210.htm ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' (''The Way to Write History'')], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl303.htm ''Imagines'' (''A Portrait–Study'')], and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl304.htm ''Pro Imaginibus'' (''Defence of the 'Portrait–Study{{'}}'')] online at Sacred Texts, based on the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585 Gutenberg] e-text. * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ''Meditations''. :Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. ''Meditations''. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. {{OCLC|897495952}}. * ''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'' (Authors of the Historia Augusta). ''Historia Augusta'' (''Augustan History''). :Magie, David, trans. ''Historia Augusta''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html LacusCurtius]. :Magie, David; Birley, Anthony R. ''Lives of the later Caesars''. London: The Folio Society, 2005. {{ISBN|0141935995}}. * Themistius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Penella, Robert J. ''The private orations of Themistius''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0520218215}}. {{Refend}} ===Modern=== {{Refbegin}} * Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=FXllDwAAQBAJ ''Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History'']. New York: Facts on File, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0816063864}}. * Adams, Geoff W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dpommWWxA9gC ''Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond'']. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0739176382}}. * An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=FHJwAAAAMAAJ ''Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road''], 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|978-2503521787}}. * Astarita, Maria L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uCUBbMOCJ74C ''Avidio Cassio''] (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. {{OCLC|461867183}}. * [[Warwick Ball|Ball, Warwick]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=07pTDAAAQBAJ ''Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire''], 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0415720786}}. * [[Timothy Barnes|Barnes, Timothy D.]] 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. {{doi|10.2307/299345}}. {{JSTOR|299345}}. * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. {{doi|10.2307/299693}}. {{JSTOR|299693}}. * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', ''Phoenix'' 26:2 (1972): 140–82. {{doi|10.2307/1087714}}. {{JSTOR|1087714}}. * [[Anthony Birley|Birley, Anthony R.]] ''Marcus Aurelius: a biography''. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. {{ISBN|978-1134695690}}. * Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In ''The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192'', edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0521263351}}. * Bowman, John L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vlhPAwAAQBAJ ''A Reference Guide to Stoicism'']. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1496900173}}. * [[J. B. Bury|Bury, John Bagnell]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc-AAAAYAAJ ''The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)'']. New York: Harper, 1893. {{OCLC|1067064647}}. * [[Edward Champlin|Champlin, Edward]]. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 64 (1974): 136–59. {{doi|10.2307/299265}}. {{JSTOR|299265}}. * Champlin, Edward. [https://archive.org/details/frontoantoninero00cham ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. {{ISBN|978-0674331778}}. * Collins, Desmond. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ls4AAAAIAAJ ''Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. {{OCLC|879899744}}. * [[Rafe de Crespigny|De Crespigny, Rafe]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ ''A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)'']. Boston: Brill, 2007. {{ISBN|978-9047411840}}. * [[Richard Duncan-Jones|Duncan-Jones, Richard]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7cpkQQ-n0V8C ''Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0521892896}}. * [http://capitolini.info/scu03247/?lang=en 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius']. Musei Capitolini. * Gagarin, Michael. ''The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0195170726}}. * Giacosa, Giorgio. ''Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins''. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. {{ISBN|0839001932}}. * [[James Frank Gilliam|Gilliam, J. F.]] 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 82.3 (1961): 225–51. {{doi|10.2307/292367}}. {{JSTOR|292367}}. * Gnecchi, Francesco. ''I medaglioni Romani'', 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. {{OCLC|6529816}}. * [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Grant, Michael]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ql0fDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 ''The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition'']. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1317972105}}. * Grant, Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mXc1uk30FIYC ''The Climax Of Rome'']. London: Orion, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1780222769}}. * Haas, Charles. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17195627 The Antonine plague] (in French). ''Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine''. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. {{OCLC|958470753}}. * [[Pierre Hadot|Hadot, Pierre]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3dLVyyDE-vQC ''The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0674461710}}. * Hays, Gregory. ''Meditations''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1842126752}}. * Irvine, William B. ''A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy''. Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1522632733}}. * Kemezis, Adam M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YkilBAAAQBAJ ''Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian'']. Cambridge University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1107062726}}. * Kleiner, Fred S. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IJrN8rDirxkC ''Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective'']. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0495573555}}. * Le Bohec, Yann. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFWSAgAAQBAJ ''The Imperial Roman Army'']. Routledge, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1135955137}}. * [[Barbara Levick|Levick, Barbara M.]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=oVapAgAAQBAJ ''Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age'']. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0199702176}}. * Magill, Frank N. [https://books.google.com/?id=wyKaVFZqbdUC ''Dictionary of World Biography'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1579580407}}. * [[Harold Mattingly|Mattingly, Harold]]; Sydenham, Edward A. ''The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus''. London: Spink & Son, 1930. {{OCLC|768929523}}. * [[Ronald Mellor|Mellor, Ronald]], review of Edward Champlin's ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'', ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 103:4 (1982). * Merrony, Mark. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkgrDwAAQBAJ ''The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD'']. London: Routledge, 2017. {{ISBN|978-1351702782}}. * McLaughlin, Raoul. ''Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China''. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1847252357}}. * [[Frank McLynn|McLynn, Frank]]. ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life''. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0306819162}}. * McLynn, Frank. ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor''. London: Bodley Head, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0224072922}}. * [[Fergus Millar|Millar, Fergus]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C ''The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0674778863}}. * Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1999. 119 (1). {{doi|10.2307/605541}}. {{JSTOR|605541}}. * Reed, J. Eugene. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PTnuAAAAMAAJ ''The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)'']. Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. * Robertson, D. [https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ ''How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ |date=4 August 2019 }}. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. * Rohrbacher, David. [https://books.google.com.au/books?id=gDwGCwAAQBAJ ''The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta'']. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0299306045}}. * Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj5Vx3gIPhwC ''Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano'' &#91;''Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire''&#93;]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. {{ISBN|978-8497637695}}. * [[William O. Stephens|Stephens, William O.]] [http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/marcus-aurelius-a-guide-for-the-perplexed-9781441125613/ ''Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed'']. London: Continuum, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1441125613}}. * Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. ''The Classical World'' 70:7 (1977): 433–39. {{doi|10.2307/4348712}}. {{JSTOR|4348712}}. * [[Ronald Syme|Syme, Ronald]]. 'The Ummidii'. ''Historia'' 17:1 (1968): 72–105. {{JSTOR|4435015}}. * Van Ackeren, Marcel. [https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Companion_to_Marcus_Aurelius.html?id=nsdkQA735p4C ''A Companion to Marcus Aurelius'']. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-405-19285-9}}. {{OCLC|784124210}}. * Young, Gary K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ ''Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-134-54793-7}}. * Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220''], 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}. {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Marcus Aurelius|s=Author:Marcus Aurelius|wikt=no|n=no|v=Nature philosophy|b=no}} * {{wikisource-inline|list= ** [[s:The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus|The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus]] ** {{cite CE1913 <!--|last=Healy |first=Patrick Joseph--> |wstitle=Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |volume=2 |noicon=x |short=x}} ** {{cite EB1911 <!--|last=Mitchell |first=John Malcolm--> |wstitle=Marcus Aurelius Antoninus|volume=17 |pages=693–96 |noicon=x |short=x}} ** {{cite NSRW|wstitle=Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus |noicon=x |short=x}} }} * {{Wikisourcelang-inline|el|Μάρκος Αυρήλιος|Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος |noicon=y}} * {{Gutenberg author | id=Marcus+Aurelius,+Emperor+of+Rome | name=Marcus Aurelius}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Marcus Aurelius}} * {{Librivox author |id=4398}} * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/marcus/ Marcus Aurelius] at the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] {{S-start}} {{S-hou|[[Nerva–Antonine dynasty|Antonine dynasty]]|26 April|121|17 March|180}} {{S-reg}} {{s-bef|before=[[Antoninus Pius]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]|years=161–180|with=[[Lucius Verus]] (161–169)|with2=[[Commodus]] (177–180)}} {{s-aft|after=Commodus}} {{S-off}} {{s-bef|before = [[Marcus Ceccius Justinus|M. Ceccius Justinus]] |before2=[[Gaius Julius Bassus (consul 139)|G. Julius Bassus]]|as=suffect consuls}} {{s-ttl|title = [[List of Roman consuls|Consul of Rome]] |with=Antoninus Pius|years = January–April 140}} {{s-aft|after = [[Quintus Antonius Isauricus|Q. Antonius Isauricus]] |after2=[[Lucius Aurelius Flaccus|L. Aurelius Flaccus]]}} {{s-bef|before = [[Lucius Marcius Celer Marcus Calpurnius Longus|L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus]] |before2=[[Decimus Velius Fidus|D. Velius Fidus]]|as=suffect consuls}} {{s-ttl|title = Consul of Rome |with=Antoninus Pius|years = January–February 145}} {{s-aft|after = [[Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus|L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus]] |after2=[[Lucius Poblicola Priscus|L. Poblicola Priscus]]}} {{s-bef|before = [[Tiberius Oclatius Severus|Ti. Oclatius Severus]] |before2=[[Novius Sabinianus]]}} {{s-ttl|title = Consul of Rome |with=Lucius Verus|years = January 161}} {{s-aft|after = [[Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161)|M. Annius Libo]] |after2=[[Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior|Q. Camurius Numisius Junior]]}} {{S-end}} {{Roman emperors}} {{Stoicism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Marcus Aurelius}} [[Category:Marcus Aurelius| ]] [[Category:121 births]] [[Category:180 deaths]] [[Category:2nd-century philosophers]] [[Category:2nd-century Roman emperors]] [[Category:Aelii]] [[Category:Ancient Roman adoptees]] [[Category:Annii]] [[Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire]] [[Category:Aurelii Fulvi|Marcus]] [[Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo]] [[Category:Cultural critics]] [[Category:Deified Roman emperors]] [[Category:Glycon cult]] [[Category:Hellenistic writers]] [[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]] [[Category:Moneyers of ancient Rome]] [[Category:Moral philosophers]] [[Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty]] [[Category:Philosophers of ethics and morality]] [[Category:Philosophers of law]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Philosophers of Roman Italy]] [[Category:Philosophy writers]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Roman philhellenes]] 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en-wikipedia-org-1349	----	Julia Balbilla - Wikipedia Julia Balbilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st/2nd century Roman noble woman and poet Princess of Commagene Julia Balbilla Princess of Commagene Born AD 72 Rome, Roman Empire Died after AD 130 Names Julia Balbilla House Orontid Father Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes Mother Claudia Capitolina Julia Balbilla (Greek: Ἰουλία Βαλβίλλα, 72 CE – after 130 CE) was a Roman noble woman and poet.[1] Whilst in Thebes, touring Egypt as part of the imperial court of Hadrian, she inscribed three epigrams which have survived.[2] Contents 1 Family and early life 2 The Epigrams 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 Ancestry 5 Fictional references 6 Further reading 7 References Family and early life[edit] Balbilla's family were well-connected members of the royal family of the Kingdom of Commagene, a principality in what is now Turkey which was annexed by the Roman Empire.[3] As well as Egyptian and Greek elements, Balbilla's ancestry included Armenian, Median, Syrian and Seleucian lines. Balbilla was the second child of Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes and Claudia Capitolina, a Greek woman born in Alexandria. Her older brother was Gaius Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappos, one of the first men of eastern descent to become consul at Rome. Balbilla's parents were distant cousins. Claudia Capitolina's paternal grandmother was Aka II of Commagene, the great granddaughter of Antiochus I Theos of Commagene. Balbilla's father, was the first born child of Antiochus IV of Commagene and Julia Iotapa of Commagene. Both Antiochus IV and Iotapa were descendants of Antiochus I Theos. Balbilla's maternal grandfather, after whom she was named, was Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, a Greek of Egyptian descent. He was an astrologer and a learned scholar. He became one of the highest ranking magistrates of the Equestrian order and was Prefect of Egypt from 55 to 59 CE.[4] Balbilus and his father, Thrasyllus of Mendes (Tiberius Claudius Thrasyllus), a grammarian and astrologer were friends of the first Roman emperors including Tiberius, Claudius and Vespasian. Balbilla's paternal grandparents, Antiochus IV of Commagene and Queen Julia Iotapa were puppet rulers under Rome. Balbilla was born and raised in Rome in the household of her paternal grandfather, Antiochus IV. Prior to Balbilla's birth, Vespasian had ordered Antiochus IV to abdicate the throne of Commagene because of his alleged disloyalty to Rome. Antiochus IV and his brother, Callinicus, were accused of colluding with the Kingdom of Parthia against Rome. It is unknown whether these accusations were true. Vespasian gave Antiochus IV sufficient revenue for a luxurious life in Rome. This afforded Balbilla and her brother a traditional Greek education. The family later moved to Athens where Balbilla's father, Epiphanes, died at 92 years of age of unknown causes. Capitolina then returned to Alexandria where she married Marcus Junius Rufus, a Roman politician. Capitolina spent her remaining years in Alexandria. Balbilla lived with her for a time then returned to the home of her brother, Philopappos, in Athens. Despite her aristocratic life, Balbilla's status in Rome may not have been secure as her father was not a senator. However, Philopappos did become a senator, serving as a consul until 109 CE.[5] When Philopappos died in 116 CE, Balbilla built for him a burial monument, the Philopappos Monument, on Musaios Hill, south-west of the Acropolis in Athens. Later, Balbilla married an aristocrat in Athens with no issue. The Epigrams[edit] Balbilla was a court poet and friend of Hadrian and companion or lady in waiting to his wife, Vibia Sabina. In 129 CE, she accompanied them to the Valley of the Kings in Ancient Egypt.[6] Balbilla was commissioned to record the party's return visit from 19 to 21 November 130 CE.[7] Balbilla inscribed three epigrams in Aeolic Greek, known as 'epigrammata', on the legs of the Colossi of Memnon.[8] The statue may have reminded Balbilla of the sculptures on Mount Nemrut and the mausoleum of her ancestor, Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, the descendants of whom she references in her poems. Although the epigrammata were approved public inscriptions, in honor of the Roman imperial family, they are somewhat akin to graffiti.[9] They have elements of wit, history and mythology written in an Homeric tone. The poems display good use of metaphors, verbal and sound echoes. Inspired by Sappho, Balbilla also used traditional lyric themes: the love of songs and a liking for the Muses. The first and second epigrams tell the story of a mythical king of Ethiopia Memnon, killed by Achilles at Troy and whom the God Zeus made immortal. Balbilla is not addressing Memnon but is flattering Hadrian and Sabina. When the August Hadrian Heard Memnon Memnon the Egyptian I learnt, when warmed by the rays of the sun, speaks from Theban stone. When he saw Hadrian, the king of all, before rays of the sun, he greeted him - as far as he was able. But when the Titan driving through the heavens with his steeds of white, brought into shadow the second measure of hours, like ringing bronze Memnon again sent out his voice. Sharp-toned, he sent out his greeting and for a third time a mighty roar. The emperor Hadrian then himself bid welcome to Memnon and left on stone for generations to come. This inscription recounting all that he saw and all that he heard. It was clear to all that the gods love him. When with the August Sabina I Stood Before Memnon Memnon, son of Aurora and holy Tithon, seated before Thebes, city of Zeus, or Amenoth, Egyptian King, as learned. Priests recount from ancient stories, greetings, and singing, welcome her kindly, the August wife of the emperor Hadrian. A barbarian man cut off your tongue and ears: Impious Cambyses; but he paid the penalty, with a wretched death struck by the same sword point with which pitiless he slew the divine Apis. But I do not believe that this statue of yours will perish, I saved your immortal spirit forever with my mind. For my parents were noble, and my grandfathers, the wise Balbillus and Antiochus the king. When on the first day We didn't hear Memnon Yesterday Memnon received [Hadrian's] wife in silence, so that the beautiful Sabina might come back here again. For the lovely form of our queen pleases you. When she arrives, send forth a divine shout, so the king won't be angry with you. As it is now, you've fearlessly detained for too long his noble wedded wife. And Memnon, trembling at the power of Hadrian, suddenly spoke, and she rejoiced to hear it. Balbilla dedicates the third epigram to her parents and grandfathers and to her noble bloodline. For pious were my parents and grandfathers: Balbillus the Wise and King Antiochus; Balbillus, the father of my mother of royal blood and King Antiochus, the father of my father. From their line I too draw my noble blood, and these verses are mine, pious Balbilla. After her poetry, no more is known about Balbilla. A forth epigram, in elegaic couplets, entitled and perhaps authored by a certain "Demo" or "Damo" is a dedication to the Muses. The poem is traditionally published with the works of Balbilla, though the internal evidence suggests a separate author.[10] In the poem, Demo explains that Memnon has shown her special respect. In return, Demo offers the gift for poetry, as a gift to the hero. At the end of this epigram, she addresses Memnon, highlighting his divine status by recalling his strength and holiness.[11] Internal evidence on the leg of Memnon suggests that this poem was written at some point in or after 196 CE.[12][circular reference] Demo Son of Aurora, I greet you. For you addressed me kindly, Memnon, for the sake of the Pierides, who care for me, song-loving Demo. And bearing a pleasant gift, my lyre will always sing of your strength, holy one. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Julia Balbilla 16. (=18., 20., 22., 26.)King Mithridates III of Commagene 8. (=10.)King Antiochus III of Commagene 17. (=19., 21., 23.)Princess Iotapa of Media Atropatene 4. King Antiochus IV of Commagene 18. (=16., 20., 22., 26.)King Mithridates III of Commagene 9. (=11.)Princess Iotapa of Commagene 19. (=17., 21., 23.)Princess Iotapa of Media Atropatene 2. Gaius Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes 20. (=16., 18., 22., 26.)King Mithridates III of Commagene 10. (=8.)King Antiochus III of Commagene 21. (=17., 19., 23.)Princess Iotapa of Media Atropatene 5. Princess Iotapa of Commagene 22. (=16., 18., 20., 26.)King Mithridates III of Commagene 11. (=9.)Princess Iotapa of Commagene 23. (=17., 19., 21.)Princess Iotapa of Media Atropatene 1. Julia Balbilla 12. Thrasyllus of Mendes 6. Tiberius Claudius Balbilus 26. (=16., 18., 20., 22.)King Mithridates III of Commagene 13. Aka II of Commagene 27. (=17., 19., 21., 23.)Princess Iotapa of Media Atropatene 3. Claudia Capitolina Fictional references[edit] The Emperor by Georg Ebers (1880).[13] ‘’The Memoirs of Hadrian’’ by Marguerite Yourcenar (1951) Opus Gemini (part of the Romanike series) by Codex Regious (2014).[14] The Glass Ball Game radio play (part of the Caesar! series by Mike Walker.[15] Further reading[edit] Julia Balbilla (2010) by Patricia Rosenmyer.[16] Matrona Docta: Educated Women in the Roman Élite from Cornelia to Julia Domna (2004) by Emily Ann Hemelrijk.[17] Memoirs of Hadrian (1951) by Marguerite Yourcenar.[18] Early Roman Rule in Commagene by Michael A. Speidel [19] Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250 (1996) by Simon Swain.[20] Amalia Cirio, Gli epigrammi di Giulia Balbilla, Pensa Multimedia, 2011. Patricia A. Rosenmeyer, The Language of Ruins: Greek and Latin Inscriptions on the Memnon Colossus (2018). Some images of the epigrams available at: https://egiptomaniacos.foroactivo.com/t4845-colosos-de-memnon-graffiti and http://nefertiti-returns.blogspot.com/2009/09/graffiti-carved-on-foot-of-memnon.html References[edit] ^ Plant I. M. Women Writers of Ancient Greece and Rome: An Anthology University of Oklahoma Press, 2004, chapter 43. ISBN 0806136219, 9780806136219 ^ Pomeroy S. B. Spartan Women Oxford University Press, USA, 2002. p128. ISBN 0198030002, 9780198030003 ^ Rowlandson J. Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press, 1998 p310 ISBN 0521588154, 9780521588157 ^ Lamour D. H. J. and Wilson K. (ed.) An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers, Volume 1 Taylor & Francis, 1991, p 74 ISBN 0824085477, 9780824085476. ^ Boatwright M. T. Peoples of the Roman World. Cambridge University Press, 2012, p87. ISBN 0521840627, 9780521840620. ^ Opper T. Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University Press, 2008 p204. ISBN 0674030958, 9780674030954. ^ Stevenson J. Women Latin Poets: Language, Gender, and Authority, from Antiquity to the Eighteenth Century. Oxford University Press, 2005, p56. ISBN 0198185022, 9780198185024 ^ Speller E. Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, USA, 2004, pXV. ISBN 0195176138, 9780195176131. ^ Keegan P. Graffiti in Antiquity. Routledge, 2014, p58. ISBN 1317591275, 9781317591276. ^ Brennan, T. C. (1998). "The Poets Julia Balbilla and Damo at the Colossus of Memnon". The Classical World. 91 (4): 215–234. doi:10.2307/4352060. ISSN 0009-8418. JSTOR 4352060. ^ Plant, I. M. (Ian Michael), 1963- (2004). Women writers of ancient Greece and Rome : an anthology. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3621-9. OCLC 53375124.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Sententiaeantiquae, ~ (2018-03-08). "A List of Women Authors from the Ancient World". SENTENTIAE ANTIQUAE. Retrieved 2020-03-07.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Ebers G. The Emperor Wildside Press LLC, 2010, p29. ISBN 1434412644, 9781434412645. ^ Codex Regius. Opus Gemini. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014. ISBN 1502542374, 9781502542373. ^ Caesar BBC Radio 4 website. Accessed 15 August 2015. ^ Rosenmyer P. Julia Balbilla Routledge, London 2010. ISBN 9780415430067. ^ Hemelrijk E. A. Matrona Docta: Educated Women in the Roman Élite from Cornelia to Julia Domna. Psychology Press, 2004. ISBN 0415341272, 9780415341271. ^ Yourcenar M. Memoirs of Hadrian Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York 1951. ISBN 0-374-52926-4. ^ Speidel M. A. Early Roman Rule in Commagene Archived 2015-12-27 at the Wayback Machine Mavors Institut, Basel. PDF. ^ Swain S. Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250 Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996. ISBN 0198147724, 9780198147725 Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julia_Balbilla&oldid=1019069699" Categories: 72 births 130 deaths Hellenistic-era people Commagene people Roman-era Athenians Julii 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century poets 2nd-century women writers 2nd-century writers Italian women poets 1st-century women writers 1st-century writers Ancient Roman women writers 2nd-century Roman women 1st-century Roman women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from April 2021 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Deutsch Euskara Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2021, at 10:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1356	----	Tetricus II - Wikipedia Tetricus II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman caesar from 273 to 274 Caesar of the Gallic Empire Tetricus II Caesar of the Gallic Empire Antoninianus of Tetricus Inscription: C. PIV. ESV. TETRICUS CAES. Reign 273–274 (as Caesar) Predecessor Tetricus I Names Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus (also known as Tetricus II) was the son of Tetricus I, Emperor of the Gallic Empire (270-274). In 273, he was raised to the rank of Caesar,[1] with the title of princeps iuventutis, and in January 274 he started his first consulship, together with his father. After the defeat and deposition of his father in the autumn of 274, he appeared as a prisoner in Aurelian's triumph, but the emperor spared their lives.[2] According to some sources, he had also kept his senatorial rank.[3] References[edit] ^ According to König (I. König, Die gallischen Usurpatoren von Postumus bis Tetricus, München 1981, p. 158ff.), the elevation to Caesar is to be placed in 271 or 272. Drinkwater (J. F. Drinkwater, The Gallic Empire. Separatism and Continuity in the North-Western Provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260-274, Stuttgart, 1987) has provided good reasons to support 273 as the year of elevation. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, 9.13.2. ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 35.5. External links[edit] Media related to Tetricus II at Wikimedia Commons Polfer, Michael, "Tetricus II (Caesar 273-274 AD)", De Imperatoribus Romanis v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetricus_II&oldid=1023075977" Categories: Gallic emperors Thirty Tyrants (Roman) 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century monarchs in Europe Imperial Roman consuls Caesars (heirs apparent) Tetrarchy Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 06:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1364	----	Category:Philosophers of Roman Italy - Wikipedia Help Category:Philosophers of Roman Italy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italy portal Philosophers who lived in Roman Italy, of local or Western Roman descent. They wrote in Latin or/and in Greek, or they just lived and taught a philosophical way of life. For philosophers who came and lived in Rome see Category:Roman era philosophers in Rome. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. R ► Roman-era philosophers in Rome‎ (15 P) Pages in category "Philosophers of Roman Italy" The following 26 pages are in this category, out of 26 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Amafinius Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Aristocles of Messene B Quintus Lucilius Balbus Gaius Blossius Boethius C Catius Cicero Claudius Maximus Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus E Publius Egnatius Celer Siro the Epicurean F Nigidius Figulus H Helvidius Priscus J Arulenus Rusticus Junius Rusticus M Macrobius Marcus Aurelius Gaius Musonius Rufus P Paconius Agrippinus Pliny the Elder Titus Pomponius Atticus R Rabirius (Epicurean) S Seneca the Younger Quintus Sextius T Titus Albucius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Philosophers_of_Roman_Italy&oldid=853514401" Categories: Roman-era philosophers by origin or region Roman-era inhabitants of Italy Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی Latina Edit links This page was last edited on 5 August 2018, at 08:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1373	----	Bruttia Crispina - Wikipedia Bruttia Crispina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman noblewoman and Augusta (164 – 191) Augusta Bruttia Crispina Augusta Head of Bruttia Crispina, Roman Empress Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 178 – 191 Born 164 AD Rome, Roman Empire Died 191 AD (aged 26-27) Capri, Roman Empire Spouse Commodus Names Bruttia Crispina Regnal name Bruttia Crispina Augusta House Nerva–Antonine Father Gaius Bruttius Praesens Mother Valeria Bruttia Crispina (164 – 191 AD) was Roman Empress from 178 to 191 as the consort of Roman Emperor Commodus.[1] Her marriage to Commodus did not produce an heir, and her husband was instead succeeded by Pertinax. Contents 1 Family 2 Marriage 3 Death 4 References 5 External sources Family[edit] Crispina came from an illustrious aristocratic family and was the daughter of twice consul Gaius Bruttius Praesens[2] and his wife Valeria.[3] Crispina’s paternal grandparents were consul and senator Gaius Bruttius Praesens and the rich heiress Laberia Hostilia Crispina, daughter of another twice consul, Manius Laberius Maximus. Crispina's brother was future consul Lucius Bruttius Quintius Crispinus. Her father’s family originally came from Volceii, Lucania, Italy and were closely associated with the Roman Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Crispina was born and raised in Rome or Volceii. Marriage[edit] Crispina married the sixteen-year-old Commodus in the summer of 178 and brought him, as a dowry, a large number of estates. These, when added to the Imperial holdings, gave him control of a substantial part of Lucanian territory.[4][5][6] The actual ceremony was modest but was commemorated on coinage, and largesse was distributed to the people.[7] An epithalamium for the occasion was composed by the sophist Julius Pollux.[8] Upon her marriage, Crispina received the title of Augusta,[9] and thus became empress of the Roman Empire, as her husband was co-emperor with her father-in-law at the time. The previous empress and her mother-in-law, Faustina the Younger had died three years prior to her arrival. Like most marriages of young members of the nobiles, it was arranged by patres—in Crispina's case by her father and her new father-in-law, the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Crispina is described as being a graceful person with a susceptible heart.[10] As Augusta, Crispina was extensively honoured with public images during the last two years of her father-in-law's reign and the initial years of her husband's reign.[9] She did not seem to have any significant political influence over her husband during his bizarre reign. However, she was not exempted from court politics either, as her sister-in-law Lucilla, herself a former empress, was reportedly ambitious and jealous of the empress Crispina due to her position and power.[11] Crispina's marriage failed to produce an heir,[12] which led to a dynastic succession crisis. In fact, both Lucius Antistius Burrus (with whom Commodus had shared his first consulate as sole ruler) and Gaius Arrius Antoninus, who were probably related to the imperial family, were allegedly put to death 'on the suspicion of pretending to the throne'.[13] After ten years of marriage, Crispina was falsely charged with adultery by her husband and was banished to the island of Capri in 188, where she was later executed.[14] After her banishment, Commodus did not marry again but took on a mistress, a woman named Marcia, who was later said to have conspired in his murder.[15] Death[edit] Empress Bruttia Crispina, draped bust On the basis of a misreading of HA Commodus 5.9 and Dio 73.4.6, her fall is sometimes wrongly associated with Lucilla's conspiracy to assassinate Commodus in 181 or 182. Her name continues to appear in inscriptions until as late as 191 (CIL VIII, 02366). Her eventual exile and death may instead have been a result of the fall of Marcus Aurelius Cleander, or of Commodus's inability to produce offspring with her to ensure the dynastic succession.[16] References[edit] ^ Boatwright, Mary T. (2003). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 64. ISBN 9780691094939. ^ Venning, Timothy, ed. (2010). A chronology of the Roman Empire. Introduction by John F. Drinkwater. Continuum. p. 551. ISBN 9781441154781. ^ Chidester Egbert, James (1896). Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions. American Book Co. p. 107. ^ Small, Alastair M.; Buck, Robert J. (1994). The excavations of San Giovanni di Ruoti. University of Toronto Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780802059482. ^ Adams, Geoff W (2012). Marcus Aurelius in Historia Augusta and Beyond. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 123. ISBN 0739176382. ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Leiden: Brill. p. 90. ISBN 9789004203594. ^ Bury, J.B., ed. (1970). The Cambridge ancient history (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 182. ISBN 9780521263351. ^ Swain, Simon (1996). Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek world, AD 50-250. Clarendon Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780198147725. ^ a b Varner, Eric R. (2004). Monumenta Graeca et Romana. damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill. p. 152. ISBN 9789004135772. ^ Morgan, Sydney (2010). Woman and Her Master, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 244. ISBN 9781108019347. ^ Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at bay: AD 180-395 (Reprinted. ed.). 600: Routledge. ISBN 9780415100571.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Ward, Allen M.; Heichelheim, Fritz M.; Yeo, Cedric A. (2003). A History of the Roman people (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 379. ISBN 9780130384805. ^ van Ackeren, Marcel, ed. (2012). A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 237. ISBN 9781405192859. ^ Kean, Roger Michael; Frey, Oliver (2005). The Complete Chronicle of the Emperors of Rome. Thalamus. p. 100. ^ Freisenbruch, Annelise (2011). The First Ladies of Rome: The Women Behind the Caesars. Random House. p. 6. ISBN 1446499065. ^ Hekster, O. (2002). Commodus: An Emperor at the Crossroads. Gieben. pp. 71–72. External sources[edit] Bruttia Crispina, livius.org, 2007. Accessed 2012-5-29. Bruttia Crispina (164-183AD) coin. Accessed 2012-5-29. Crispina coins, forumancientcoins.com. Accessed 2012-5-29. Royal titles Preceded by Annia Galeria Faustina Minor Empress of Rome 178–188 Succeeded by Flavia Titiana Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruttia_Crispina&oldid=1019699101" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Roman empresses 164 births 191 deaths 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women Executed Roman empresses Murdered Roman empresses 2nd-century executions People executed by the Roman Empire Augustae Commodus Bruttii Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2021, at 22:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-138	----	Musée Saint-Raymond - Wikipedia Musée Saint-Raymond From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Art museum, Archeological museum, Historic site Musée Saint-Raymond Saint-Raymond Museum Location within Toulouse Coordinates 43°36′28″N 1°26′28″E / 43.607867°N 1.441125°E / 43.607867; 1.441125Coordinates: 43°36′28″N 1°26′28″E / 43.607867°N 1.441125°E / 43.607867; 1.441125 Type Art museum, Archeological museum, Historic site Curator Laure Barthet Website saintRaymond.toulouse.fr Musée Saint-Raymond (in English, Saint-Raymond museum) is the archeological museum of Toulouse, opened in 1892. The site originally was a necropolis, and in later constructions was a hospital for the poor and pilgrims, prison, student residence, stables, barracks and presbytery, eventually becoming a museum in 1891. It is housed in the former Saint-Raymond university college dating from the sixteenth century[1] that borders Basilica of Saint-Sernin. The building has been renovated and reconstructed several times. It preserves and exhibits archaeological collections from protohistory to the early Middle Ages, mainly from the Celtic, Roman and early Christian periods, much from the Toulouse region. Contents 1 History of the building 2 History of the museum 3 Museum curators 4 Transfer and distribution of Toulouse collections 5 Collections 5.1 Formation 5.2 From prehistory to eleventh century 6 Museography 6.1 Original museography 6.2 1950s 6.3 Since 1999 7 Attendance 8 Other missions 9 References 10 External links History of the building[edit] Originally a Christian necropolis dating from the 4th century was located here and stretched on either side of the Roman road close to the Basilica of Saint-Sernin.[2] Between 1075-1080, on the site of the present building was a hospital for the poor and for pilgrims travelling the Way of St. James on the French Way from Arles via Toulouse, founded by Raymond Gayrard and financed by the Count of Toulouse. By the 13th century, at the time the University of Toulouse was created the house had been acquired by the inquisitor Bernard de Caux, who used it as a prison for heretics.[3] In 1249 the inquisitor offered the house to the abbot of Saint-Sernin in gratitude for his services to the defence of the faith, specifying that the College of Saint-Raymond should be reserved for poor students,[3] as recorded in a 1250 act. The college continued in that purpose until the French Revolution.[4] After a great fire, at the end of the 13th century, Martin de Saint-André, bishop of Carcassonne, rebuilt on the same site. The current building, dating to 1523, was the work of the mason Louis Privat,[5] who would later build the Hôtel de Bernuy for a rich woad merchant, Jean de Bernuy.[6] It was financed in part by Martin de Saint-André (fr), prior of the college and his father, Pierre de Saint-André (fr). The city of Toulouse bought the building in 1836 to use for a variety of functions, such as stables and barracks. In 1852-1853, during the redevelopment of the Place Saint-Sernin, it was the only building to escape demolition, due to the intervention of Alexandre Du Mège, Prosper Mérimée and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. Between 1868-1871, it was restored by Eugene Viollet-le-Duc,[5] who removed the remains of the demolished chapel and built a fourth corner turret, added two interior walls and numerous crenellated chimneys that accented the medieval appearance of the structure. Viollet-le-Duc also built a neo-gothic house in the old courtyard of the college, that became a garden. The building then served as a presbytery to the Saint-Sernin Basilica until 1890. It is one of the rare surviving examples of Toulouse university architecture from the late Middle Ages.[6] Basilique Saint-Sernin and Saint-Raymond College connected by the Peyrou arch in 1760. Drawing by Pierre Joseph Wallaert. Stereoscopic view of the college by Eugène Trutat circa 1860 showing traces of the old chapel before the restoration by Viollet-Le-Duc 1880sː the presbytery of the Saint-Sernin Basilica became Saint-Raymond Museum in 1892 The renovated building stands next to the basilica of Saint-Sernin. History of the museum[edit] By a municipal decree of 14 April 1891, the building became a "museum of ancient and exotic decorative arts"[7] and was inaugurated on 24 April 1892[8] by Toulouse mayor Camille Ournac in the presence of Jean Jaurès, city councilor. Excerpts from 24 April 1892 inaugural speeches (translated from original French):[9] The creation of this museum is essentially democratic in the highest sense of the word; And it is usefully, in my opinion, to work for the people, to teach him history by the eyes; It is to form his taste, to inculcate in him the love of the beautiful in all its forms, all things which make man better.[a] Camille Ournac, mayor of Toulouse No doubt the results are still very much below what we would have liked. At least, we have brought to the common task a great deal of devotion and passion. And now it is up to you, gentlemen, to complete it; It is to the public, the supreme judge and without appeal, to decide the future and to grow the work by making it its own and taking as much pleasure as we had to prepare it.[b] Ernest Roschach, curator of the museum It was dedicated for "small antiquities", small items (ethnographic objects, art objects, furniture, coins and medals and archaeological objects) from all periods. It thus served to unburden the Musée des Augustins, that was still under renovation, of objects it was impossible to display there. The building was adapted to its new functions by the architect Arthur Romestin, when stairs, partitions and cupboards were altered to create larger exhibition spaces. Several additional windows were created to provide better light. The museum was thoroughly reorganized by a new curator, Émile Cartailhac,[10] who took over in 1912. In 1935 Henri Ramet (fr) named it the Cluny museum in Toulouse.[11] The Society of Friends of the Saint-Raymond Museum and ancient art was founded in 1939. The museum was again rebuilt in 1946-1950 by Robert Mesuret, listed as a Monument historique on 11 August 1975[5] and its upper parts were restored in 1981-1982 to return them to their condition before the intervention of Viollet-le-Duc.[12] In 1949, under the direction of Robert Mesuret, it became the archeological museum of Toulouse, receiving the collections of Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages of the city of Toulouse. Due to its age, between 1978 and 1982, a new rehabilitation project of the entire museum was launched under the direction of Yves Boiret, then chief architect of French Historic Monuments.[13] The work began in 1981-82 with the refurbishment of the roof, that regained the appearance it had before the restoration by Viollet-Le-Duc and allowed the development of a second level below the roof. In the following years, among a lot of controversy, Boiret rehabilitates the nearby basilica of Saint Sernin.[13] In 1980, the City of Toulouse acquired a neighboring building at 11 rue des Trois-Renards to relocate its offices, technical services and library, to provide and additional 2,500 m2 of exhibition space for the public. Between 1992 and 1994, a building was constructed in the Bourrassol district of Toulouse to house the reserve collections. A new redevelopment study was carried out under the direction of Bernard Voinchet, the chief architect of Historic Monuments in 1992, and in 1994 a complete reorganization was arranged by Dominique Baudis, Mayor of Toulouse. Between 1994 and 1996, archaeological excavations were undertaken to uncover the necropolis of Saint-Sernin, near the tomb of the martyred saint Saturnin, and his burials dating to the 4th century. A lime kiln dating from the 5th or 6th century was also discovered, and with about a hundred sepulchres and severals inscriptions viewable today.[14] After more than four years renovation the museum reopened to the public on Saturday, 8 May 1999 having been restored to its original 1523 appearance, while a part of the ancient early Christian necropolis, dating from the fourth and fifth centuries, has been excavated. Gallery of the Emperors in the cloister of the Musée des Augustins circa 1842 Antiquities of Martres-Tolosane at the Musée des Augustins 1890 Henri Rachou's painting Meditation showing the cloister of the Musée des Augustins where the early Christian sarcophagi were displayed before their transfer to the Musée Saint-Raymond Museum curators[edit] Ernest Roschach (1892-) Casimir Destrem Henri Rachou Emile Cartailhac (1912-1921) Jules Fourcade (1922- Eugène-Humbert Guitard (1935-1948) Robert Mesuret (1949-1972) Jacqueline Labrousse (1972-1985) Daniel Cazes (1985-2009) Evelyne Ugaglia (2010-2018)[15] Laure Barthet (2018-[16] Transfer and distribution of Toulouse collections[edit] 1892: monumental works remained at the Museum of the Augustins and small objects were transferred from the Musée Saint-Raymond 1931: the ethnographic collection was transferred to the Natural History Museum of Toulouse 1950: the ancient lapidary collections were transferred from the Musée des Augustins to the Musée Saint-Raymond 1961: transfer to the Paul-Dupuy Museum of collections after the Merovingian period Collections[edit] Formation[edit] The original collection originated from the collections of the Académie des sciences, inscriptions et belles-lettres de Toulouse (fr), and the Royal Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, seized during the French Revolution giving birth to the Provisional Museum of the Republic installed in the Augustinian convent of Toulouse in 1793.[17] The sculptures, discovered in the ancient Roman villa of Chiragan during the excavations conducted between 1826 and 1830 by Alexandre Du Mège, who became curator in 1832, were incorporated in the Museum of Antiquities arranged in the galleries of the cloister of the museum.[18] The public can discover a remarkable ensemble along the Gallery of the Emperors and the Gallery of La Venus that can only be compared to the Louvre. In passing through this establishment, a lively and ardent youth may feel the need for a solid education, and the desire not to be a stranger to the knowledge of the diverse civilizations which in turn have reigned in the old world.[18](translated from the original French[c]) - Alexandre Du Mège Torques of Fenouillet Founded in 1831, the Archaeological Society of the Midi of France (fr) contributed to the enrichment of collections allowing the acquisition of major pieces for the collection, such as the torques of Fenouillet and portraits of Béziers, in addition to receiving other offerings or donations. In 1893 the museum gave up an important collection to the city for an annuity. Collectors have benefited from the enrichment of the museum with the donations of Antoine Bibent of objects from Pompeii, in 1831, the Count of Clarac donated Greek and Etruscan vases in 1843, Edward Barry gave small bronzes, and in 1862 the state deposited part of the Campana collection. Many other acquisitions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The curator, Jules Fourcade acquired many pieces of ironwork from Toulouse and under the direction of Robert Mesuret, from 1961, after several movements of the collections, the museum mainly specialises in archeology and has become the Museum of Antiques of Toulouse. Excavations carried out by the Regional Service of Archeology (SRA) contributed greatly to the increase of the collections during the years 1980-1990. From prehistory to eleventh century[edit] For the protohistory, the museum has bracelets, fibulae and axes from the Bronze Age, and bracelets and leg rings in gold from Fenouillet and Lasgraisses for the Iron Age and more precisely from the time of the Volques Tectosages (fr). The rest of the Iron Age collections come from the Cluzel,[19] Estarac and Vieille-Toulouse sites. Amphores of Dressel (?) types 1A and 1B found in a funerary well in Vieille-Toulouse dating from the end of the 2nd century BC. Anthropomorphic statue, 44 - 25 av. J.-C., site of Vieille-Toulouse. 1st century limestone votive altar Several civilizations of the Mediterranean are represented: Cypriot and Etruscan pieces, Greek and Italian vases from the eighth to the first century BC and Hellenistic terracotta figurines. The museum has a very important Roman collection, with ornate oil lamps, sigillated vases from Montans and La Graufesenque, keys and figures of bonzes, mosaics from the end of the Roman Empire from Sigognac, Granéjouls, Saint-Rustice and Saint-Pierre-des-Cuisines, many epigraphs with a set of votive altars. The very rich collection of Roman busts were discovered partly in the ruins of the Roman villa at Chiragan in Martres-Tolosane, and partly in Béziers[20] in 1844, which makes the museum's collection the second largest after the Louvre.[21] The busts includes many emperors and their families but also, as yet unidentified, magistrates, soldiers, men, women and children. The discoveries of the villa Chiragan also cover reliefs of the Labours of Hercules, statues and busts of the Greco-Roman deities. Roman bust of an armoured man about 130 AD. Head of Augustus of Prima Porta Lime-kiln Hercules and the Erymanthian Boar Unknown theodosian (375-425 AD), sometimes called Placidia The museum holds an important collection of coins of Greek, Gallic, Iberian, Roman, Byzantine and Merovingian origins.[22] The early Christian and early medieval collections include sculptures, inscriptions, lamps, liturgical vases, ceramics, jewelry, fibulae and belt buckles from Visigothic Spain, Lauragais and Ariège department. Roman Aureus coins Museography[edit] Original museography[edit] Ground floor Toulouse room with objects on the history of Toulouse and its monuments Exotic room with collections of Roquemaurel First floor Egyptian, Greek and Etruscan antiquities room (Clarac collection, Campana deposit, Dugua collection) Gallic and Roman Room (Barry Collection) Room of the Middle Ages and Renaissance objects On 30 December 1923, a new ground floor room was inaugurated for temporary exhibitions. 1950s[edit] From the 1950s reserves are accessible to researchers. Ground floor Antique lapidary collections room (Chiragan) and an epigraphy gallery Greek ceramic room First floor Room of the Middle Ages and Renaissance objects From 1961 the first floor rooms were emptied of their collections and hosted temporary exhibitions. Since 1999[edit] After the renovation work of the 1990s, the museum has almost exclusively been dedicated to Roman and early Christian Toulouse, and with its exhibition spaces, the opening to the public of the basement and the second floor adding to the existing two levels, the collections are now spread over four floors. The second and last floor is dedicated to the Tolosa in the pre-Roman and Roman province of Narbonne. The first floor displays the collection of Roman sculptures found in the Roman villa of Chiragan.[23] The ground floor accommodates temporary exhibitions in the former tinel, a hall of honor where the student community gathered. In the basement are the early Christian necropolis, developed at the time the first basilica housing the body of Saint-Saturnin was built, sarcophagi and funerary inscriptions and a lime kiln.[24] Latin funerary epitaphs on the basement gallery wall Greek Minerva sculpture Athena-Minerva Roman busts from the Roman villa of Chiragan. Attendance[edit] Graph showing museum attendance between 2001 and 2018.[25] Other missions[edit] Besides displaying its collections, the Musée Saint-Raymond manages the following archaeological and historical sites:[26] Roman Amphitheater at Toulouse-Purpan and the thermae in the Ancely (fr) quarter Saint-Pierre des Cuisines Church Basilica of Saint-Sernin References[edit] Original French text ^ La création de ce musée est une œuvre essentiellement démocratique dans le sens le plus élevé du mot  ; et c'est utilement, à mon avis, travailler pour le peuple, que de lui enseigner l'histoire par les yeux ; c'est former son goût, que de lui inculquer l'amour du beau sous toutes ses formes, toutes choses qui rendent l'homme meilleur. ^ Sans doute, les résultats sont encore très au-dessous de ce que nous aurions voulu. Du moins, avons-nous apporté à la tâche commune beaucoup de dévouement et de passion. Et maintenant, c'est à vous messieurs, de la compléter ; c'est au public, juge suprême et sans appel, à décider de l'avenir et à grandir l’œuvre en la faisant sienne et en y prenant autant de plaisir que nous avons eu à la préparer. ^ En parcourant cet établissement, une jeunesse vive et ardente sentira peut-être le besoin d'une instruction solide et le désir de n'être point étrangère à la connaissance des diverses civilisations qui tour à tour ont régné dans l'ancien monde. Sources ^ "A Museum in a Historic Monument". Musée Saint-Raymond. 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-11. ^ Labrousse, Jacqueline (February 1973). "Au musée Saint-Raymond". L'Auta (in French). Toulouse: Toulousains de Toulouse et amis du vieux Toulouse. 393 (3F): 46–47. Retrieved 2017-03-11. ^ a b 1944 L'Auta - Collège Saint-Raymond - L'Auta January 1944 at Gallica p.10 ^ John Hine Mundy (2006). Studies in the Ecclesiastical and Social History of Toulouse in the Age of the Cathars. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 0-7546-5316-1. ^ a b c Base Mérimée: PA00094508, Ministère français de la Culture. (in French) ^ a b Aymar Verdier (1857). "Collège Saint Raymond à Toulouse". Architecture civile et domestique au Moyen âge et à la Renaissance (in French). II. Librairie archéologique de Victor Didron, 1857. p. 463. ^ Houssaye, Édouard, ed. (3 December 1892). "Collège Saint-Raymond". La Chronique des arts et de la curiosité: Supplément à la Gazette des beaux-arts (in French). Paris: Gazette des beaux-arts. 37: 139. Retrieved 2017-03-24. ^ Cazes, Daniel (1992). Le Musée Saint-Raymond 1892-1992. Toulouse: Musée Saint-Raymond. p. 55. ISBN 2-909454-002. ^ "Inauguration du Musée Saint-Raymond". La Dépêche du Midi (in French). 26 April 1892. ^ Bon, François; Dubois, Sébastien and Labails, Marie-Dominique (2010). Le Muséum de Toulouse et l'invention de la Préhistoire. Toulouse: Muséum de Toulouse. ISBN 978-2-906702-18-9.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Henri Ramet (1935). Librairie Tarride (ed.). Histoire de Toulouse (in French). Toulouse. pp. 890–891.[dubious – discuss] ^ Cazes, Daniel; Arramond, J.C. (1997). "Memoires de la Société Archéologique du Midi de la France" (PDF) (in French). LVII. Toulouse: Ouvrage Publié avec le Concours du Conseil Général de la Haute-Garonne et du centre National d'Études Spatiales: 35–53. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-07. Retrieved 2017-03-21. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b Bérénice Waty (2009). "Saint Sernin of Toulouse : the basilica of dissension". Émotions patrimoniales (in French). Gazette des beaux-arts. I (17): 73–91. Retrieved 2017-03-29. ^ "Necropolis". Musée Saint-Raymond. Retrieved 2017-03-20. ^ G, Th (30 April 2018). "Toulouse. Musée Saint-Raymond : une conservatrice s'en va, une autre arrive" (in French). La Dépêche. Retrieved 22 February 2021. ^ "Le Conseil national de la recherche archéologique" (in French). Ministère de la Culture. 24 June 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2021. ^ L'essentiel des collections. Musée Saint-Raymond (in French). Toulouse: Musée Saint-Raymond. 2011. p. 63. ISBN 978-2-909454-31-3. ^ a b Alexandre Du Mège (1835). Description du Musée des Antiques de Toulouse (PDF) (in French). Paris: F. G. Levrault. p. ?. Retrieved 2017-03-22. ^ Muller, André (1979). "La stratigraphie du Cluzel (commune de Toulouse)". Revue archéologique de Narbonnaise (in French). Montpellier: Presses universitaires de la Méditerrannée. 12 (1): 125–159. doi:10.3406/ran.1979.1038. Retrieved 2017-03-23. ^ Richard Stillwell (2017-03-14). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-691-65420-1. ^ Cazes, Daniel (1999). "Le musée Saint-Raymond, musée des Antiques de Toulouse, rouvre ses portes". Revue du Louvre (in French) (3): 24–27. ^ François Pernot (2004). L'Or (in French). Paris: Artémis Éditions. p. 203. ISBN 2-84416-282-7. ^ "Tolosa's gold age". The collections. Musée Saint-Raymond. 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-24. ^ "Necropolis". The collections. Musée Saint-Raymond. 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-24. ^ "Fréquentation des Musées de France: Musée Saint-Raymond". data.culture.gouv.fr. 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021. ^ "Other sites". Musée Saint-Raymond. 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-24. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Musée Saint-Raymond. Official website Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Israel Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Musée_Saint-Raymond&oldid=1013181450" Categories: Archaeological museums in France History museums in France Museums in Toulouse Hidden categories: Articles containing French-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with French-language sources (fr) CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from March 2017 CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Graph extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Esperanto Français Italiano مصرى Occitan Português Edit links This page was last edited on 20 March 2021, at 13:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1394	----	Sabines - Wikipedia Sabines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sabine) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Sabine" redirects here. For other uses, see Sabine (disambiguation). Ancient Italic people Sabine Statue of Semo Sancus from his shrine on the Quirinal Native to Sabinum Region Central Italy Extinct Only traces of vocabulary, mainly from Marcus Terentius Varro, 1st century BC Language family Indo-European Italic Osco-Umbrian Sabine Writing system Not written except as Latinized words Language codes ISO 639-3 sbv Linguist List sbv Glottolog sabi1245 Map showing the location of the Sabines. The border with Latium to the south was the Aniene river; however, it is possible that Sabines extended to Lake Regillus slightly to the south of it near Gabii. Part of a series on the History of Italy Early Prehistoric Italy Etruscan civilization (12th–6th c. BC) Magna Graecia (8th–3rd c. BC) Ancient Rome Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Populares and Optimates Empire (27 BC–286 AD) Roman Italy Western Empire (286 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy Romano-Barbaric Kingdoms Odoacer's 476-493 Ostrogothic 493-553 Vandal 435-534 Lombard (independence) 565-774 Lombard (under the Frankish rule) 774-885 Frankish (as part of the Carolingian Empire) 885-961 Germanic (as part of the Holy Roman Empire) 961-1801 Medieval Italy in the Middle Ages Byzantine reconquest of Italy (6th–8th c.) Islam and Normans in southern Italy Maritime republics and Italian city-states Guelphs and Ghibellines Early modern Italian Renaissance (14th–16th c.) Italian Wars (1494–1559) Catholic revival (1545-1648) Foreign dominations Napoleonic Italy (1801–1814) Republic Kingdom Risorgimento (1815–1871) Young Italy Thousand Modern Monarchy (1861–1946) Colonial Empire (1882–1960) Italy in World War I (1914–1918) Fascism (1922–1943) Italy in World War II (1940–1945) Fascist Italian Social Republic, Partisans and Civil War (1943–1945) Republic (1946–present) Years of Lead (1970s–1980s) Maxi Trial (1986–1992) Mani pulite (1992–2001) Great Recession (2007–2009) European migrant crisis (2014–present) Coronavirus pandemic (2019–present) By topic List of historic states Citizenship Currency Economy Fashion Genetic Military Music Postage Railway Timeline  Italy portal v t e The Sabines (/ˈseɪbaɪnz/; Latin: Sabini; Ancient Greek: Σαβῖνοι Sabĩnoi; Italian: Sabini, all exonyms) were an Italic people that lived in the central Apennine Mountains of the ancient Italian Peninsula, also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome. The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with the preexisting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized. The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. Afterwards, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic. Contents 1 Language 2 Historical geography 3 Origins 3.1 Literary evidence 4 At Rome 4.1 Legend of the Sabine women 4.2 Traditions 4.3 Religion 5 State 6 Prominent Sabines 6.1 Gentes of Sabine origin 6.2 Romans of Sabine ancestry 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 9.1 Ancient 9.2 Modern 10 Further reading Language[edit] There is little record of the Sabine language; however, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from the Sabine country, but these are given in Latin form. Robert Seymour Conway, in his Italic Dialects, gives approximately 100 words which vary from being well-attested as Sabine to being possibly of Sabine origin. In addition to these he cites place names derived from the Sabine, sometimes giving attempts at reconstructions of the Sabine form.[1] Based on all the evidence, the Linguist List tentatively classifies Sabine as a member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages of the Indo-European family. Historical geography[edit] Latin-speakers called the Sabines' original territory, straddling the modern regions of Lazio, Umbria, and Abruzzo, Sabinum. To this day[update], it bears the ancient tribe's name in the Italian form of Sabina. Within the modern region of Lazio (or Latium), Sabina constitutes a sub-region, situated north-east of Rome, around Rieti. Origins[edit] The Sabine hills in the middle of Sabina Literary evidence[edit] According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, many Roman historians (including Porcius Cato and Gaius Sempronius) regarded the origins of indigenous Romans to be Greek, even though their knowledge was derived from Greek legendary accounts.[2] Dionysius regarded Lista as the mother-city of the Aborigines.[3] Ancient historians debated the specific origins of the Sabines. Zenodotus of Troezen claimed that the Sabines were originally Umbrians that changed their name after being driven from the Reatine territory by the Pelasgians. However, Porcius Cato argued that the Sabines were a populace named after Sabus, the son of Sancus (a divinity of the area sometimes called Jupiter Fidius).[4] In another account mentioned in Dionysius's work, a group of Lacedaemonians fled Sparta since they regarded the laws of Lycurgus as too severe. In Italy, they founded the Spartan colony of Foronia (near the Pomentine plains) and some from that colony settled among the Sabines. According to the account, the Sabine habits of belligerence (aggressive or warlike behavior) and frugality (prudence in avoiding waste) were known to have derived from the Spartans.[5] Plutarch also mentions, in the Life of Numa Pompilius, "Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians". Plutarch also wrote that the Pythagoras of Sparta, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race, helped Numa arrange the government of the city and many Spartan customs introduced by him to the Numa and the people.[6] At Rome[edit] Legend of the Sabine women[edit] Main article: The Rape of the Sabine Women The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion Legend says that the Romans abducted Sabine women to populate the newly built Rome. The resultant war ended only by the women throwing themselves and their children between the armies of their fathers and their husbands. The Rape of the Sabine Women became a common motif in art; the women ending the war is a less frequent but still reappearing motif. According to Livy, after the conflict, the Sabine and Roman states merged, and the Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruled Rome with Romulus until Tatius' death five years later. Three new centuries of Equites were introduced at Rome, including one named Tatienses, after the Sabine king. A variation of the story is recounted in the pseudepigraphal Sefer haYashar (see Jasher 17:1–15). Traditions[edit] Tradition suggests that the population of the early Roman kingdom was the result of a union of Sabines and others. Some of the gentes of the Roman republic were proud of their Sabine heritage, such as the Claudia gens, assuming Sabinus as a cognomen or agnomen. Some specifically Sabine deities and cults were known at Rome: Semo Sancus and Quirinus, and at least one area of the town, the Quirinale, where the temples to those latter deities were located, had once been a Sabine centre. The extravagant claims of Varro and Cicero that augury, divination by dreams and the worship of Minerva and Mars originated with the Sabines are disputable, as they were general Italic and Latin customs, as well as Etruscan, even though they were espoused by Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome and a Sabine.[7] Religion[edit] Dius Fidius Feronia Ops Quirinus Sabus Sancus Soranus Vacuna Varro's list of Sabine gods Flora State[edit] Main article: Roman–Sabine wars During the expansion of ancient Rome, there were a series of conflicts with the Sabines. Manius Curius Dentatus conquered the Sabines in 290 BC. The citizenship without the right of suffrage was given to the Sabines in the same year.[8] The right of suffrage was granted to the Sabines in 268 BC.[9] Prominent Sabines[edit] Gentes of Sabine origin[edit] Aemilia gens – Patrician Aurelia gens Calpurnia gens Calvisia gens Claudia gens – Patrician Curtia gens – Patrician Flavia gens Ligaria (gens) Marcia gens – Patrician Minatia (gens) Oppia gens – Patrician Opsia gens Ostoria gens Pantuleia (gens) Petronia gens Pinaria gens Pompilia gens Pomponia gens Poppaea gens Quirinia gens Rania gens Rubellia gens Sabinia gens Safinia gens Sallustia gens Saturia gens Sertoria gens Sicinia gens Tarpeia gens – Patrician Tineia gens Titia gens Valeria gens – Patrician Romans of Sabine ancestry[edit] Titus Tatius, legendary King of the Sabines Numa Pompilius, legendary King of Rome Ancus Marcius, legendary King of Rome Quintus Sertorius, republican general Attius Clausus, founder of the Roman Claudia gens Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Roman writer Marcus Terentius Varro, Roman scholar Vespasian, Roman emperor and founder of the Flavian dynasty See also[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Sabini . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sabini. For a list of words relating to Sabine language, see the Sabine language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Library resources about Sabines Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ancient peoples of Italy Hostus Hostilius References[edit] ^ Conway, Robert Seymour (1897). The Italic Dialects Edited with a Grammar and Glossary. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 351–369. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book 1.11". Roman Antiquities. But the most learned of the Roman historians, among whom is Porcius Cato, who compiled with the greatest care the "origins" of the Italian cities, Gaius Sempronius and a great many others say that they [Aborigines] were Greeks, part of those who once dwelt in Achaia, and that they migrated many generations before the Trojan war. But they do not name the Greek tribe or city they belonged to, or the date or the leader of the colony, or what made them leave their mother country. Though they follow a Greek legend, they cite no Greek historian as their authority. It is uncertain, therefore, what the truth of the matter is. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book I.14". Roman Antiquities. Twenty-four stades from the afore-mentioned city stood Lista, the mother-city of the Aborigines, which at a still earlier time the Sabines had captured by a surprise attack, having set out against it from Amiternum by night. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book II.49". Roman Antiquities. But Zenodotus of Troezen, a...historian, relates that the Umbrians, a native race, first dwelt in the Reatine territory, as it is called, and that, being driven from there by the Pelasgians, they came into the country which they now inhabit and changing their name with their place of habitation, from Umbrians were called Sabines. But Porcius Cato says that the Sabine race received its name from Sabus, the son of Sancus, a divinity of that country, and that this Sancus was by some called Jupiter Fidius. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book II.49". Roman Antiquities. There is also another account given of the Sabines in the native histories, to the effect that a colony of Lacedaemonians settled among them at the time when Lycurgus, being guardian to his nephew Eunomus, gave his laws to Sparta. For the story goes that some of the Spartans, disliking the severity of his laws and separating from the rest, quit the city entirely, and after being borne through a vast stretch of sea, made a vow to the gods to settle in the first land they should reach; for a longing came upon them for any land whatsoever. At last they made that part of Italy which lies near the Pomentine plains and they called the place where they first landed Foronia, in memory of their being borne through the sea, and built a temple to the goddess Foronia, to whom they had addressed their vows; this goddess, by the alteration of one letter, they now call Feronia. And some of them, setting out from thence, settled among the Sabines. It is for this reason, they say, that many of the habits of the Sabines are Spartan, particularly their fondness for war and their frugality and a severity in all the actions of their lives. But this is enough about the Sabine race. ^ Plutarch. "1". Numa. Pythagoras, the Spartan, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race for the sixteenth Olympiad (in the third year of which Numa was made king), and that in his wanderings about Italy he made the acquaintance of Numa, and helped him arrange the government of the city, whence it came about that many Spartan customs were mingled with the Roman, as Pythagoras taught them to Numa. And at all events, Numa was of Sabine descent, and the Sabines will have it that they were colonists from Lacedaemon. Chronology, however, is hard to fix, and especially that which is based upon the names of victors in the Olympic games, the list of which is said to have been published at a late period by Hippias of Elis, who had no fully authoritative basis for his work. I shall therefore begin at a convenient point, and relate the noteworthy facts which I have found in the life of Numa. ^ Bunbury, Edward Herbert (1857). "Sabini". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography. Volume II Iabadius—Zymethus. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Velleius Paterculus 1.14.6 ^ Velleius Paterculus 1.14.7 Sources[edit] Ancient[edit] Ovid, Fasti (Book III, 167–258) Ovid, Ars Amatoria (Book I, 102) Livy, Ab urbe condita (Book I, 9–14) Cicero, De Republica (Book II, 12–14) Plutarch, Parallel Lives (Romulus, 14–20) Juvenal, Satires (Book III, 81–85) Modern[edit] Donaldson, John William (1860). "Chapter IV: The Sabello-Oscan Language". Varronianus: a critical and historical introduction to the ethnography of ancient Italy and the philological study of the Latin language. London: John W. Parker and Son. Further reading[edit] Brown, Robert. "Livy's Sabine Women and the Ideal of Concordia." Transactions of the American Philological Association 125 (1995): 291-319. doi:10.2307/284357. MacLachlan, Bonnie. Women In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. v t e Lazio Provinces and places Frosinone Latina Rieti Rome Viterbo List of communes History Latins Latium Ancient Rome Papal States Roman Republic (18th century) Roman Republic (19th century) Lakes Lake Albano Lake Bolsena Lake Bracciano Lago di Canterno Lago di Caprolace Lago di Fondi Lago di Giulianello Lake Martignano Lake Mezzano Lago dei Monaci Lake Nemi Lago di Posta Fibreno Lago di Rascino Lago di Sabaudia Lago del Salto Lago del Turano Lake Vico Mountains Seven hills of Rome Alban Hills Aurunci Mountains Monti Ausoni Monte Cavo Cimini Hills Monti Ernici Monte Gorzano Monti della Laga Monti Lepini Monti della Meta Monte Petrella Monti Prenestini Monti Sabatini Monti Sabini Monte Soratte Monte Terminillo Monti della Tolfa Monti Volsini Monte Cassino Monte Abate Monte Altino Monte Appiolo Maschio dell'Ariano Maschio di Lariano Monte Artemisio Monte Autore Monte Carbonaro Monte Cefalo Cima del Redentore (monti Aurunci) Circeo Monte Crispi Monte Dragone Monte Faggeto Monte Fammera Mont Fogliano Monte Fusco Monte Guadagnolo Monte Lauro in Gaeta Monte Lauzo Le Rave Fosche Monte Livata Mainarde Maschio delle Faete Meta (monte) Monna Monte Caira Monte Cervello Monte Revole Monte Sorgenze Monte Trina Monte Val de' Varri – Monte Faito – Monte San Nicola Monte di Cambio Monte le Pezze Parco regionale urbano Monte Orlando Monte Orso Monte Pizzuto Monte Ruazzo Geography Castelli Romani Valle Latina Pontine marshes Roman Campagna Sabina Tiber Tuscia Politics Elections in Lazio List of Presidents of Lazio Culture Flag Categories v t e Italic languages Latino-Faliscan Latin Faliscan Praenestinian Lanuvian Osco-Umbrian Oscan Umbrian Volscian Sabine South Picene Marsian Paeligni Hernican Marrucinian Pre-Samnite Unknown Sicel? (possibly not Italic) Venetic? (possibly Celtic, transitional or independent) Aequian Vestinian Lusitanian? (possibly Celtic) Reconstructed Proto-Italic language All Italic languages except Latin (and its descendants) are now extinct; Latin is still used as a liturgical language of the Catholic Church. 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en-wikipedia-org-1396	----	Philostratus - Wikipedia Philostratus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lucius Flavius Philostratus, Greek sophist of Roman imperial period For other people named Philostratus, see Philostratus (disambiguation). Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus (/fɪˈlɒstrətəs/; Greek: Φλάβιος Φιλόστρατος;[1] c. 170 – 247/250 AD), called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He was born probably around 170, and is said by the Suda to have been living in the reign of emperor Philip the Arab (244–249). His death possibly occurred in Tyre c. 250 AD. Contents 1 Name and identity 2 Works attributed to Philostratus 3 Translations 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Name and identity[edit] Some ambiguity surrounds his name. The praenomen Flavius is given in The Lives of the Sophists and Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos, studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where he would naturally be called Atheniensis) as a member of the learned circle with which empress Julia Domna surrounded herself. Works attributed to Philostratus[edit] Historians agree that Philostratus authored at least five works: Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Τὰ ἐς τὸν Τυανέα Ἀπολλώνιον; Latin: Vita Apollonii), Lives of the Sophists (Βίοι Σοφιστῶν), Gymnasticus (Γυμναστικός), Heroicus (Ἡρωικός) and Epistolae (Ἐπιστολαί). Another work, Imagines (Εἰκόνες), is usually assigned to his son-in-law Philostratus of Lemnos. Heroicus (On Heroes, 213–214 AD) is in the form of a dialogue between a Phoenician traveler and a vine-tender or groundskeeper (ἀμπελουργός ampelourgos), regarding Protesilaus (or "Protosilaos"), the first Achaean warrior to be killed at the siege of Troy, as described in The Iliad. The dialogue extends into a discussion and critique of Homer's presentation of heroes and gods, based on the greater authority of the dead Protosileus, who lives after death and communicates with the ampelourgos. Heroicus includes Achilles' "Ode to Echo".[2] Life of Apollonius of Tyana, written between 217 and 238 AD, tells the story of Apollonius of Tyana (c. 40 – c. 120 AD), a Pythagorean philosopher and teacher. Philostratus wrote the book for Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus and mother of Caracalla. The book was completed after her death. Lives of the Sophists, written between 231 and 237 AD, is a semi-biographical history of the Greek sophists. The book is dedicated to a consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus. The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather picturesque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method, preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says, investigates truth; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted. Gymnasticus, written after 220 AD, contains accounts concerning the Olympic games and athletic contests in general. Epistolae, or Love Letters, breathe the spirit of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33 are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes." The letters are mainly of an erotic character. Their publication date is unknown. Internal evidence confirms that the authors of Life of Apollonius and Lives of the Sophists are one and the same.[citation needed] The Lives of the Sophists was to have an enormous impact upon later writers, particularly Neoplatonists.[citation needed] Translations[edit] Alciphron, Aelian, and Philostratus, The Letters. Translated by A. R. Benner, F. H. Fobes. 1949. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99421-8 Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists. Eunapius, Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists. Translated by Wilmer C. Wright. 1921. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99149-1 Philostratus, Apollonius of Tyana. 3 volumes. Translated by Christopher P. Jones. 2005-6. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 978-0-674-99613-7, ISBN 978-0-674-99614-4, and ISBN 978-0-674-99617-5 Philostratus, Heroicus; Gymnasticus; Discourses 1 and 2. Edited and translated by Jeffrey Rusten and Jason König. Loeb Classical Library. (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 2014). Philostratos, Leben der Sophisten. Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. Wiesbaden: Marix 2014, ISBN 978-3-86539-368-5 Philostratos, Sport in der Antike (Peri Gymnastikes). Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. Wiesbaden: Marix, 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0961-2. Notes[edit] ^ Flavius Philostratus, Phlauiu Philostratu Bioi sophistōn, Mohr, 1838, p. xxv. ^ Sophia Papaioannou, Redesigning Achilles: 'Recycling' the Epic Cycle in the 'Little Iliad' (Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.1-13.622). Berlin/New York. Paul, George M. (1982) - 2007 Page 153 "Nagy's article comments on an interesting but little known literary reception of Achilles, namely his representation as a lyric poet and lyre-player, singing a song to Echo (a code name for the Muse) in the company of Helen of Troy. ... and the two heroes, now souls distanced from their epic lives/roles, have become bards who sing of their own deeds. Cf. Maclean and Aitken above for a translation of the Heroicus, including Achilles' 'Ode to Echo'." References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Philostratus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 445. Further reading[edit] Aitken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer Kay Berenson MacLean, eds. 2004. Philostratus’s “Heroikos”: Religion and Cultural Identity in the Third Century C.E. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Bowie, Ewen L., and Jaś Elsner, eds. 2009. Philostratus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Bryson, Norman. 1994. "Philostratus and the Imaginary Museum." In Art and Text in Ancient Greek Culture. Edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin Osborne, 255–283. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Elsner, Jaś. 2009. "Beyond Compare: Pagan Saint and Christian God in Late Antiquity." Critical Inquiry 35:655–683. Eshleman, Kendra Joy. 2008. "Defining the Circle of Sophists: Philostratus and the Construction of the Second Sophistic." Classical Philology 103:395–413. Demoen, K., and Danny Praet, eds. 2009. Theios Sophistes: Essays on Flavius Philostratus’ “Vita Apollonii.” Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Kemezis, Adam M. 2014. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. König, Jason. 2014. "Images of Elite Communities in Philostratus: Re-Reading the Preface to the “Lives of the Sophists.”" In Roman Rule in Greek and Latin Writing: Double Vision. Edited by Jesper Majbom Madsen and Roger Rees, 246–270. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Potter, David. 2011. The Victor’s Crown: A History of Ancient Sport from Homer to Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Walker, Andrew. 1992. "Eros and the Eye in the Love-Letters of Philostratus." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 38:132–148. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Philostratus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Philostratus Library resources about Philostratus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Philostratus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Livius, Philostratus Updates the subsequent article with some ninety years of more recent research. Online Text: Philostratus, On Heroes (Heroicus) translated by Ellen Bradshaw Aitken and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean. Online Text: Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana translated by F. C. Conybeare Flavius Philostratus entry in historical sourcebook with fresh translations of excerpts from the Life of Apollonius by Mahlon H. Smith Imagines in National Széchényi Library, Budapest Works by or about Philostratus at Internet Archive Works by Philostratus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Flavii Philostrati opera, C. L. Kayser (edit.), 2 voll., Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1870-71: Life of Apollonius: vol. 1 pp. 1-344. Lives of the sophists: vol. 2 pp. 1-127. Heroicus: vol. 2 pp. 128-219. Epistolae: vol. 2 pp. 225-260. Gymnasticus: vol. 2 pp. 261-293. Philostratorum et Callistrati opera, Eunapii vitae sophistarum, Himerii sophistae declamationes, A. Westermann, Jo. Fr. Boissoade, Fr. Dübner (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1849, pp. 1-194 (Life of Apollonius), pp. 195-265 (Lives of the Sophists), pp. 267-319 (Heroicus), pp. 320-338 (Epistolae). v t e Platonists Academics Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptics Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonists Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Alexander Peloplaton Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonists Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Gaius Marius Victorinus Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus David the Invincible Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. W. F. Hegel Hermann Lotze Otto Weininger Thomas Taylor Ralph Waldo Emerson Josiah Royce Søren Kierkegaard Henri Bergson Aleksei Losev Contemporary Analytic Gottlob Frege G. E. Moore Kurt Gödel Alonzo Church Roderick Chisholm Michael Dummett W. V. O. Quine David Kaplan Saul Kripke Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Nicholas Wolterstorff Crispin Wright Edward N. Zalta Continental Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Leo Strauss Miscellaneous Philip K. Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain 2 France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Czech Republic Korea Netherlands Poland Sweden 2 Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philostratus&oldid=1009298535" Categories: Roman-era Sophists Roman-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era Athenian rhetoricians 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people People from Lemnos 170s births 250s deaths Flavii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2007 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 February 2021, at 20:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1397	----	Smallpox - Wikipedia Smallpox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eradicated viral disease "Variola" redirects here. For other uses, see Variola (disambiguation). Medical condition Smallpox Other names Variola,[1] variola vera,[2] pox,[3] red plague[4] A child with smallpox in Bangladesh in 1973. The bumps filled with thick fluid and a depression or dimple in the center are characteristic. Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Early: Fever, vomiting, mouth sores[5] Later: Fluid filled blisters which scab over[5] Complications Scarring of the skin, blindness[6] Usual onset 1 to 3 weeks following exposure[5] Duration About 4 weeks[5] Causes Variola major, Variola minor (spread between people)[6][7] Diagnostic method Based on symptoms and confirmed by PCR[8] Differential diagnosis Chickenpox, impetigo, molluscum contagiosum, monkeypox[8] Prevention Smallpox vaccine[9] Treatment Supportive care[10] Medication Brincidofovir Prognosis 30% risk of death[5] Frequency Eradicated (last wild case in 1977) Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by one of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor.[7] The agent of variola virus (VARV) belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. [11] The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980.[10] The risk of death after contracting the disease was about 30%, with higher rates among babies.[6][12] Often those who survived had extensive scarring of their skin, and some were left blind.[6] The initial symptoms of the disease included fever and vomiting.[5] This was followed by formation of ulcers in the mouth and a skin rash.[5] Over a number of days the skin rash turned into characteristic fluid-filled blisters with a dent in the center.[5] The bumps then scabbed over and fell off, leaving scars.[5] The disease was spread between people or via contaminated objects.[6][13] Prevention was achieved mainly through the smallpox vaccine.[9] Once the disease had developed, certain antiviral medication may have helped.[9] The origin of smallpox is unknown;[14] however, the earliest evidence of the disease dates to the 3rd century BCE in Egyptian mummies.[14] The disease historically occurred in outbreaks.[10] In 18th-century Europe, it is estimated that 400,000 people died from the disease per year, and that one-third of all cases of blindness were due to smallpox.[10][15] Smallpox is estimated to have killed up to 300 million people in the 20th century[16][17] and around 500 million people in the last 100 years of its existence,[18] including six monarchs.[10][15] As recently as 1967, 15 million cases occurred a year.[10] Inoculation for smallpox appears to have started in China around the 1500s.[19][20] Europe adopted this practice from Asia in the first half of the 18th century.[21] In 1796 Edward Jenner introduced the modern smallpox vaccine.[22][23] In 1967, the WHO intensified efforts to eliminate the disease.[10] Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest in 2011.[24][25] The term "smallpox" was first used in Britain in the early 16th century to distinguish the disease from syphilis, which was then known as the "great pox".[26][27] Other historical names for the disease include pox, speckled monster, and red plague.[3][4][27] Contents 1 Classification 2 Signs and symptoms 2.1 Ordinary 2.2 Modified 2.3 Malignant 2.4 Hemorrhagic 2.4.1 Early 2.4.2 Late 3 Cause 3.1 Evolution 3.2 Virology 3.3 Transmission 4 Mechanism 5 Diagnosis 6 Prevention 7 Treatment 8 Prognosis 8.1 Complications 9 History 9.1 Disease emergence 9.2 Eradication 9.2.1 Costs and benefits 9.3 Post-eradication 10 Society and culture 10.1 Biological warfare 10.2 Notable cases 10.3 Tradition and religion 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Classification Case fatality rate (CFR) and frequency of smallpox by type and vaccination status according to Rao case study[28] Type of disease Ordinary Confluent Ordinary Semiconfluent Ordinary Discrete Modified Flat Early Hemorrhagic Late hemorrhagic Vaccinated CFR 26.3% 8.4% 0.7% 0% 66.7% 100% 89.8% Unvaccinated CFR 62% 37% 9.3% 0% 96.5% 100% 96.8% Vaccinated Frequency 4.6% 7% 58.4% 25.3% 1.3% 1.4% 2.0% Unvaccinated Frequency 22.8% 23.9% 42.1% 2.1% 6.7% 0.7% 1.7% There were two forms of the smallpox virus. Variola major was the severe and most common form, with a more extensive rash and higher fever. It could result in confluent smallpox, which had a high death rate of about 30%. Variola minor was a less common presentation, causing less severe disease, typically discrete smallpox, with historical death rates of 1% or less.[29] Subclinical (asymptomatic) infections with Variola virus were noted but were not common.[30] In addition, a form called variola sine eruptione (smallpox without rash) was seen generally in vaccinated persons. This form was marked by a fever that occurred after the usual incubation period and could be confirmed only by antibody studies or, rarely, by viral culture.[30] In addition, there were two very rare and fulminating types of smallpox, the malignant and hemorrhagic forms, which were usually fatal. Signs and symptoms A child showing rash due to ordinary-type smallpox (variola major) The initial symptoms were similar to other viral diseases that are still extant, such as influenza and the common cold: fever of at least 38.3 °C (101 °F), muscle pain, malaise, headache and fatigue. As the digestive tract was commonly involved, nausea, vomiting, and backache often occurred. The early prodromal stage usually lasted 2–4 days. By days 12–15, the first visible lesions – small reddish spots called enanthem – appeared on mucous membranes of the mouth, tongue, palate, and throat, and the temperature fell to near-normal. These lesions rapidly enlarged and ruptured, releasing large amounts of virus into the saliva.[31] Smallpox virus tended to attack skin cells, causing the characteristic pimples, or macules, associated with the disease. A rash developed on the skin 24 to 48 hours after lesions on the mucous membranes appeared. Typically the macules first appeared on the forehead, then rapidly spread to the whole face, proximal portions of extremities, the trunk, and lastly to distal portions of extremities. The process took no more than 24 to 36 hours, after which no new lesions appeared.[31] At this point, variola major infection could take several very different courses, which resulted in four types of smallpox disease based on the Rao classification:[32] ordinary, modified, malignant (or flat), and hemorrhagic smallpox. Historically, ordinary smallpox had an overall fatality rate of about 30%, and the malignant and hemorrhagic forms were usually fatal.[33] The incubation period between contraction and the first obvious symptoms of the disease was around 12 days. Ordinary Ninety percent or more of smallpox cases among unvaccinated persons were of the ordinary type.[30] In this form of the disease, by the second day of the rash the macules had become raised papules. By the third or fourth day, the papules had filled with an opalescent fluid to become vesicles. This fluid became opaque and turbid within 24–48 hours, resulting in pustules. By the sixth or seventh day, all the skin lesions had become pustules. Between seven and ten days the pustules had matured and reached their maximum size. The pustules were sharply raised, typically round, tense, and firm to the touch. The pustules were deeply embedded in the dermis, giving them the feel of a small bead in the skin. Fluid slowly leaked from the pustules, and by the end of the second week, the pustules had deflated and began to dry up, forming crusts or scabs. By day 16–20 scabs had formed over all of the lesions, which had started to flake off, leaving depigmented scars.[34] Ordinary smallpox generally produced a discrete rash, in which the pustules stood out on the skin separately. The distribution of the rash was most dense on the face, denser on the extremities than on the trunk, and denser on the distal parts of the extremities than on the proximal. The palms of the hands and soles of the feet were involved in most cases. Sometimes, the blisters merged into sheets, forming a confluent rash, which began to detach the outer layers of skin from the underlying flesh. Patients with confluent smallpox often remained ill even after scabs had formed over all the lesions. In one case series, the case-fatality rate in confluent smallpox was 62 percent.[30] Modified Referring to the character of the eruption and the rapidity of its development, modified smallpox occurred mostly in previously vaccinated people. It is rare in unvaccinated people, with 1–2% of cases being modified compared to around 25% in vaccinated people. In this form, the prodromal illness still occurred but may have been less severe than in the ordinary type. There was usually no fever during the evolution of the rash. The skin lesions tended to be fewer and evolved more quickly, were more superficial, and may not have shown the uniform characteristic of more typical smallpox.[34] Modified smallpox was rarely, if ever, fatal. This form of variola major was more easily confused with chickenpox.[30] Malignant In malignant-type smallpox (also called flat smallpox) the lesions remained almost flush with the skin at the time when raised vesicles would have formed in the ordinary type. It is unknown why some people developed this type. Historically, it accounted for 5–10 percent of cases, and most (72 percent) were children.[3] Malignant smallpox was accompanied by a severe prodromal phase that lasted 3–4 days, prolonged high fever, and severe symptoms of viremia. The prodromal symptoms continued even after the onset of the rash.[3] The rash on the mucous membranes (enanthem) was extensive. Skin lesions matured slowly, were typically confluent or semi-confluent, and by the seventh or eighth day, they were flat and appeared to be buried in the skin. Unlike ordinary-type smallpox, the vesicles contained little fluid, were soft and velvety to the touch, and may have contained hemorrhages. Malignant smallpox was nearly always fatal. Often, a day or two before death, the lesions turned ashen gray, which, along with abdominal distension, was a bad prognostic sign.[3] If the person recovered, the lesions gradually faded and did not form scars or scabs.[35] Hemorrhagic A man with severe hemorrhagic-type smallpox (Bangladesh, 1975) Fig. 1; The eye in hemorrhagic smallpox; Fig. 2; The eruption in variola nigra Hemorrhagic smallpox is a severe form accompanied by extensive bleeding into the skin, mucous membranes, gastrointestinal tract, and viscera. This form develops in approximately 2 percent of infections and occurs mostly in adults.[30] Pustules do not typically form in hemorrhagic smallpox. Instead, bleeding occurs under the skin, making it look charred and black,[30] hence this form of the disease is also referred to as variola nigra or "black pox."[36] Hemorrhagic smallpox has very rarely been caused by Variola minor.[37] While bleeding may occur in mild cases and not affect outcomes,[38] hemorrhagic smallpox is typically fatal.[39] Early The early or fulminant form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to as purpura variolosa) begins with a prodromal phase characterized by a high fever, severe headache, and abdominal pain.[40] The skin becomes dusky and erythematous, and this is rapidly followed by the development of petechiae and bleeding in the skin, conjunctiva and mucous membranes. Autopsy reveals petechiae and bleeding in the spleen, kidney, serous membranes, skeletal muscles, pericardium, liver, gonads and bladder. Death often occurs suddenly between the fifth and seventh days of illness, when only a few insignificant skin lesions are present. Some people survive a few days longer, during which time the skin detaches and fluid accumulates under it, rupturing at the slightest injury.[37] Historically, this condition was frequently misdiagnosed, with the correct diagnosis made only at autopsy.[37] It is more likely to occur in pregnant women than in the general population (approximately 16% of cases in unvaccinated pregnant women were early hemorrhagic smallpox, versus roughly 1% in nonpregnant women and adult males).[39] The case fatality rate of early hemorrhagic smallpox approaches 100%.[39] Late There is also a later form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to as flat or late hemorrhagic smallpox, or variolosa pustula hemorrhagica). The prodrome is severe and similar to that observed in early hemorrhagic smallpox, and the fever persists throughout the course of the disease.[3] Bleeding appears in the early eruptive period (but later than that seen in purpura variolosa), and the rash is often flat and does not progress beyond the vesicular stage.[30] Sometimes the rash forms pustules which bleed at the base and then undergo the same process as in ordinary smallpox. This form of the disease is characterized by a decrease in all of the elements of the coagulation cascade and an increase in circulating antithrombin.[31] This form of smallpox occurs anywhere from 3 to 25 percent of fatal cases, depending on the virulence of the smallpox strain.[33] Most people with the late-stage form die within 8 to 12 days of illness.[37] Among the few who recover, the hemorrhagic lesions gradually disappear after a long period of convalescence.[3] The case fatality rate for late hemorrhagic smallpox is 90 percent or greater.[39] Cause Variola virus This transmission electron micrograph depicts a number of smallpox virions. The "dumbbell-shaped" structure inside the virion is the viral core, which contains the viral DNA; Mag. = ~370,000× Virus classification (unranked): Virus Realm: Varidnaviria Kingdom: Bamfordvirae Phylum: Nucleocytoviricota Class: Pokkesviricetes Order: Chitovirales Family: Poxviridae Genus: Orthopoxvirus Species: †Variola virus Smallpox was caused by infection with Variola virus, which belongs to the family Poxviridae, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, and genus Orthopoxvirus. Evolution The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled. It most probably evolved from a terrestrial African rodent virus between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago.[41] The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock. One clade was the Variola major strains (the more clinically severe form of smallpox) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1,600 years ago. A second clade included both Alastrim minor (a phenotypically mild smallpox) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1,400 and 6,300 years before present. This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago.[42] A second estimate has placed the separation of variola from Taterapox (an Orthopoxvirus of some African rodents including gerbils) at 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.[43] This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin. If the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses, the divergence date of variola from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50,000 years ago.[43] While this is consistent with the other published estimates, it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete. Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed. Examination of a strain that dates from c. 1650 found that this strain was basal to the other presently sequenced strains.[44] The mutation rate of this virus is well modeled by a molecular clock. Diversification of strains only occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries. Virology Variola is a large brick-shaped virus measuring approximately 302 to 350 nanometers by 244 to 270 nm,[45] with a single linear double stranded DNA genome 186 kilobase pairs (kbp) in size and containing a hairpin loop at each end.[46][47] The two classic varieties of smallpox are variola major and variola minor. Four orthopoxviruses cause infection in humans: variola, vaccinia, cowpox, and monkeypox. Variola infects only humans in nature, although primates and other animals have been infected in an experimental setting. Vaccinia, cowpox, and monkeypox viruses can infect both humans and other animals in nature.[30] The life cycle of poxviruses is complicated by having multiple infectious forms, with differing mechanisms of cell entry. Poxviruses are unique among DNA viruses in that they replicate in the cytoplasm of the cell rather than in the nucleus. To replicate, poxviruses produce a variety of specialized proteins not produced by other DNA viruses, the most important of which is a viral-associated DNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Both enveloped and unenveloped virions are infectious. The viral envelope is made of modified Golgi membranes containing viral-specific polypeptides, including hemagglutinin.[46] Infection with either variola major or variola minor confers immunity against the other.[31] Transmission Transmission occurred through inhalation of airborne Variola virus, usually droplets expressed from the oral, nasal, or pharyngeal mucosa of an infected person. It was transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face-to-face contact with an infected person, usually, within a distance of 1.8 m (6 feet), but could also be spread through direct contact with infected bodily fluids or contaminated objects (fomites) such as bedding or clothing. Rarely, smallpox was spread by virus carried in the air in enclosed settings such as buildings, buses, and trains.[29] The virus can cross the placenta, but the incidence of congenital smallpox was relatively low.[31] Smallpox was not notably infectious in the prodromal period and viral shedding was usually delayed until the appearance of the rash, which was often accompanied by lesions in the mouth and pharynx. The virus can be transmitted throughout the course of the illness, but this happened most frequently during the first week of the rash when most of the skin lesions were intact.[30] Infectivity waned in 7 to 10 days when scabs formed over the lesions, but the infected person was contagious until the last smallpox scab fell off.[48] Smallpox was highly contagious, but generally spread more slowly and less widely than some other viral diseases, perhaps because transmission required close contact and occurred after the onset of the rash. The overall rate of infection was also affected by the short duration of the infectious stage. In temperate areas, the number of smallpox infections was highest during the winter and spring. In tropical areas, seasonal variation was less evident and the disease was present throughout the year.[30] Age distribution of smallpox infections depended on acquired immunity. Vaccination immunity declined over time and was probably lost within thirty years.[31] Smallpox was not known to be transmitted by insects or animals and there was no asymptomatic carrier state.[30] Mechanism Once inhaled, the variola virus invaded the mucus membranes of the mouth, throat, and respiratory tract. From there, it migrated to regional lymph nodes and began to multiply. In the initial growth phase, the virus seemed to move from cell to cell, but by around the 12th day, widespread lysis of infected cells occurred and the virus could be found in the bloodstream in large numbers, a condition known as viremia. This resulted in the second wave of multiplication in the spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. Diagnosis The clinical definition of ordinary smallpox is an illness with acute onset of fever equal to or greater than 38.3 °C (101 °F) followed by a rash characterized by firm, deep-seated vesicles or pustules in the same stage of development without other apparent cause.[30] When a clinical case was observed, smallpox was confirmed using laboratory tests. Microscopically, poxviruses produce characteristic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies, the most important of which are known as Guarnieri bodies, and are the sites of viral replication. Guarnieri bodies are readily identified in skin biopsies stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and appear as pink blobs. They are found in virtually all poxvirus infections but the absence of Guarnieri bodies could not be used to rule out smallpox.[49] The diagnosis of an orthopoxvirus infection can also be made rapidly by electron microscopic examination of pustular fluid or scabs. All orthopoxviruses exhibit identical brick-shaped virions by electron microscopy.[31] If particles with the characteristic morphology of herpesviruses are seen this will eliminate smallpox and other orthopoxvirus infections. Definitive laboratory identification of Variola virus involved growing the virus on chorioallantoic membrane (part of a chicken embryo) and examining the resulting pock lesions under defined temperature conditions.[50] Strains were characterized by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Serologic tests and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), which measured Variola virus-specific immunoglobulin and antigen were also developed to assist in the diagnosis of infection.[51] Chickenpox was commonly confused with smallpox in the immediate post-eradication era. Chickenpox and smallpox could be distinguished by several methods. Unlike smallpox, chickenpox does not usually affect the palms and soles. Additionally, chickenpox pustules are of varying size due to variations in the timing of pustule eruption: smallpox pustules are all very nearly the same size since the viral effect progresses more uniformly. A variety of laboratory methods were available for detecting chickenpox in the evaluation of suspected smallpox cases.[30] Smallpox virus lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane of a developing chick. In contrast to the rash in smallpox, the rash in chickenpox occurs mostly on the torso, spreading less to the limbs. An Italian female smallpox patient whose skin displayed the characteristics of late-stage confluent maculopapular scarring, 1965. Prevention Main article: Smallpox vaccine Components of a modern smallpox vaccination kit including the diluent, a vial of Dryvax vaccinia vaccine, and a bifurcated needle. The earliest procedure used to prevent smallpox was inoculation with variola minor (known as variolation after the introduction of smallpox vaccine to avoid possible confusion), which likely occurred in India, Africa, and China well before the practice arrived in Europe.[12] The idea that inoculation originated in India has been challenged, as few of the ancient Sanskrit medical texts described the process of inoculation.[52] Accounts of inoculation against smallpox in China can be found as early as the late 10th century, and the procedure was widely practiced by the 16th century, during the Ming dynasty.[53] If successful, inoculation produced lasting immunity to smallpox. Because the person was infected with Variola virus, a severe infection could result, and the person could transmit smallpox to others. Variolation had a 0.5–2 percent mortality rate, considerably less than the 20–30 percent mortality rate of the disease.[30] Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers.[54] Lady Mary Wortley Montagu observed smallpox inoculation during her stay in the Ottoman Empire, writing detailed accounts of the practice in her letters, and enthusiastically promoted the procedure in England upon her return in 1718.[55] According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring Circassia. Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years".[56] In 1721, Cotton Mather and colleagues provoked controversy in Boston by inoculating hundreds. In 1796, Edward Jenner, a doctor in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, rural England, discovered that immunity to smallpox could be produced by inoculating a person with material from a cowpox lesion. Cowpox is a poxvirus in the same family as variola. Jenner called the material used for inoculation vaccine from the root word vacca, which is Latin for cow. The procedure was much safer than variolation and did not involve a risk of smallpox transmission. Vaccination to prevent smallpox was soon practiced all over the world. During the 19th century, the cowpox virus used for smallpox vaccination was replaced by the vaccinia virus. Vaccinia is in the same family as cowpox and variola but is genetically distinct from both. The origin of the vaccinia virus and how it came to be in the vaccine are not known.[30] An 1802 cartoon of the early controversy surrounding Edward Jenner's vaccination theory, showing using his cowpox-derived smallpox vaccine causing cattle to emerge from patients. The current formulation of the smallpox vaccine is a live virus preparation of the infectious vaccinia virus. The vaccine is given using a bifurcated (two-pronged) needle that is dipped into the vaccine solution. The needle is used to prick the skin (usually the upper arm) several times in a few seconds. If successful, a red and itchy bump develops at the vaccine site in three or four days. In the first week, the bump becomes a large blister (called a "Jennerian vesicle") which fills with pus and begins to drain. During the second week, the blister begins to dry up, and a scab forms. The scab falls off in the third week, leaving a small scar.[57] The antibodies induced by the vaccinia vaccine are cross-protective for other orthopoxviruses, such as monkeypox, cowpox, and variola (smallpox) viruses. Neutralizing antibodies are detectable 10 days after first-time vaccination and seven days after revaccination. Historically, the vaccine has been effective in preventing smallpox infection in 95 percent of those vaccinated.[58] Smallpox vaccination provides a high level of immunity for three to five years and decreasing immunity thereafter. If a person is vaccinated again later, the immunity lasts even longer. Studies of smallpox cases in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that the fatality rate among persons vaccinated less than 10 years before exposure was 1.3 percent; it was 7 percent among those vaccinated 11 to 20 years prior, and 11 percent among those vaccinated 20 or more years before infection. By contrast, 52 percent of unvaccinated persons died.[59] A demonstration by medical personnel on use of a bifurcated needle to deliver the smallpox vaccine, 2002. There are side effects and risks associated with the smallpox vaccine. In the past, about 1 out of 1,000 people vaccinated for the first time experienced serious, but non-life-threatening, reactions, including toxic or allergic reaction at the site of the vaccination (erythema multiforme), spread of the vaccinia virus to other parts of the body, and other individuals. Potentially life-threatening reactions occurred in 14 to 500 people out of every 1 million people vaccinated for the first time. Based on past experience, it is estimated that 1 or 2 people in 1 million (0.000198 percent) who receive the vaccine may die as a result, most often the result of postvaccinial encephalitis or severe necrosis in the area of vaccination (called progressive vaccinia).[58] Given these risks, as smallpox became effectively eradicated and the number of naturally occurring cases fell below the number of vaccine-induced illnesses and deaths, routine childhood vaccination was discontinued in the United States in 1972 and was abandoned in most European countries in the early 1970s.[10][60] Routine vaccination of health care workers was discontinued in the U.S. in 1976, and among military recruits in 1990 (although military personnel deploying to the Middle East and Korea still receive the vaccination[61]). By 1986, routine vaccination had ceased in all countries.[10] It is now primarily recommended for laboratory workers at risk for occupational exposure.[30] However, the possibility of smallpox virus being used as a biological weapon has rekindled interest in the development of newer vaccines.[62] Treatment Smallpox vaccination within three days of exposure will prevent or significantly lessen the severity of smallpox symptoms in the vast majority of people. Vaccination four to seven days after exposure can offer some protection from disease or may modify the severity of the disease.[58] Other than vaccination, treatment of smallpox is primarily supportive, such as wound care and infection control, fluid therapy, and possible ventilator assistance. Flat and hemorrhagic types of smallpox are treated with the same therapies used to treat shock, such as fluid resuscitation. People with semi-confluent and confluent types of smallpox may have therapeutic issues similar to patients with extensive skin burns.[63] In July 2018, the Food and Drug Administration approved tecovirimat, the first drug approved for treatment of smallpox.[64] Antiviral treatments have improved since the last large smallpox epidemics, and studies suggest that the antiviral drug cidofovir might be useful as a therapeutic agent. The drug must be administered intravenously, and may cause serious kidney toxicity.[65] ACAM2000 is a smallpox vaccine developed by Acambis. It was approved for use in the United States by the U.S. FDA on August 31, 2007. It contains live vaccinia virus, cloned from the same strain used in an earlier vaccine, Dryvax. While the Dryvax virus was cultured in the skin of calves and freeze-dried, ACAM2000s virus is cultured in kidney epithelial cells (Vero cells) from an African green monkey. Efficacy and adverse reaction incidence are similar to Dryvax.[62] The vaccine is not routinely available to the US public; it is, however, used in the military and maintained in the Strategic National Stockpile.[66] In June 2021, brincidofovir was approved for medical use in the United States for the treatment of human smallpox disease caused by variola virus.[67][68] Prognosis Man with facial scarring and blindness due to smallpox The mortality rate from variola minor is approximately 1%, while the mortality rate from variola major is approximately 30%.[69] Ordinary type-confluent is fatal about 50–75 percent of the time, ordinary-type semi-confluent about 25–50 percent of the time, in cases where the rash is discrete the case-fatality rate is less than 10 percent. The overall fatality rate for children younger than 1 year of age is 40–50 percent. Hemorrhagic and flat types have the highest fatality rates. The fatality rate for flat or late hemorrhagic type smallpox is 90 percent or greater and nearly 100 percent is observed in cases of early hemorrhagic smallpox.[39] The case-fatality rate for variola minor is 1 percent or less.[34] There is no evidence of chronic or recurrent infection with Variola virus.[34] In cases of flat smallpox in vaccinated people, the condition was extremely rare but less lethal, with one case series showing a 66.7% death rate.[3] In fatal cases of ordinary smallpox, death usually occurs between the tenth and sixteenth days of the illness. The cause of death from smallpox is not clear, but the infection is now known to involve multiple organs. Circulating immune complexes, overwhelming viremia, or an uncontrolled immune response may be contributing factors.[30] In early hemorrhagic smallpox, death occurs suddenly about six days after the fever develops. The cause of death in early hemorrhagic cases is commonly due to heart failure and pulmonary edema. In late hemorrhagic cases, high and sustained viremia, severe platelet loss and poor immune response were often cited as causes of death.[3] In flat smallpox modes of death are similar to those in burns, with loss of fluid, protein and electrolytes, and fulminating sepsis.[63] Complications Complications of smallpox arise most commonly in the respiratory system and range from simple bronchitis to fatal pneumonia. Respiratory complications tend to develop on about the eighth day of the illness and can be either viral or bacterial in origin. Secondary bacterial infection of the skin is a relatively uncommon complication of smallpox. When this occurs, the fever usually remains elevated.[30] Other complications include encephalitis (1 in 500 patients), which is more common in adults and may cause temporary disability; permanent pitted scars, most notably on the face; and complications involving the eyes (2 percent of all cases). Pustules can form on the eyelid, conjunctiva, and cornea, leading to complications such as conjunctivitis, keratitis, corneal ulcer, iritis, iridocyclitis, and atrophy of the optic nerve. Blindness results in approximately 35 percent to 40 percent of eyes affected with keratitis and corneal ulcer. Hemorrhagic smallpox can cause subconjunctival and retinal hemorrhages. In 2 to 5 percent of young children with smallpox, virions reach the joints and bone, causing osteomyelitis variolosa. Bony lesions are symmetrical, most common in the elbows, legs, and characteristically cause separation of the epiphysis and marked periosteal reactions. Swollen joints limit movement, and arthritis may lead to limb deformities, ankylosis, malformed bones, flail joints, and stubby fingers.[31] Between 65 and 80% of survivors are marked with deep pitted scars (pockmarks), most prominent on the face. History Main article: History of smallpox Disease emergence Statue of Sopona, the Yoruba god thought to cause the disease The earliest credible clinical evidence of smallpox is found in the descriptions of smallpox-like disease in medical writings from ancient India (as early as 1500 BCE),[70][71] and China (1122 BCE),[72] as well as a study of the Egyptian mummy of Ramses V, who died more than 3000 years ago (1145 BCE).[71][73] It has been speculated that Egyptian traders brought smallpox to India during the 1st millennium BCE, where it remained as an endemic human disease for at least 2000 years. Smallpox was probably introduced into China during the 1st century CE from the southwest, and in the 6th century was carried from China to Japan.[3] In Japan, the epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of the population.[15][74] At least seven religious deities have been specifically dedicated to smallpox, such as the god Sopona in the Yoruba religion in West Africa. In India, the Hindu goddess of smallpox, Shitala, was worshipped in temples throughout the country.[75] A different viewpoint is that smallpox emerged 1588 CE and the earlier reported cases were incorrectly identified as smallpox.[76][77] The timing of the arrival of smallpox in Europe and south-western Asia is less clear. Smallpox is not clearly described in either the Old or New Testaments of the Bible or in the literature of the Greeks or Romans. While some have identified the Plague of Athens – which was said to have originated in "Ethiopia" and Egypt – or the plague that lifted Carthage's 396 BCE siege of Syracuse – with smallpox,[3] many scholars agree it is very unlikely such a serious disease as variola major would have escaped being described by Hippocrates if it had existed in the Mediterranean region during his lifetime.[38] While the Antonine Plague that swept through the Roman Empire in 165–180 CE may have been caused by smallpox,[78] Saint Nicasius of Rheims became the patron saint of smallpox victims for having supposedly survived a bout in 450,[3] and Saint Gregory of Tours recorded a similar outbreak in France and Italy in 580, the first use of the term variola.[3] Other historians speculate that Arab armies first carried smallpox from Africa into Southwestern Europe during the 7th and 8th centuries.[3] In the 9th century the Persian physician, Rhazes, provided one of the most definitive descriptions of smallpox and was the first to differentiate smallpox from measles and chickenpox in his Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah (The Book of Smallpox and Measles).[79] During the Middle Ages several smallpox outbreaks occurred in Europe. However, smallpox had not become established there until the population growth and mobility marked by the Crusades allowed it to do so. By the 16th century, smallpox had become entrenched across most of Europe,[3] where it had a mortality rate as high as 30 percent. This endemic occurrence of smallpox in Europe is of particular historical importance, as successive exploration and colonization by Europeans tended to spread the disease to other nations. By the 16th century, smallpox had become a predominant cause of morbidity and mortality throughout much of the world.[3] Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1555–1576), showing Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico with smallpox. There were no credible descriptions of smallpox-like disease in the Americas before the westward exploration by Europeans in the 15th century CE.[42] Smallpox was introduced into the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1509, and into the mainland in 1520, when Spanish settlers from Hispaniola arrived in Mexico, inadvertently carrying smallpox with them. Because the native Amerindian population had no acquired immunity to this new disease, their peoples were decimated by epidemics. Such disruption and population losses were an important factor in the Spanish achieving conquest of the Aztecs and the Incas.[3] Similarly, English settlement of the east coast of North America in 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts was accompanied by devastating outbreaks of smallpox among Native American populations,[80] and subsequently among the native-born colonists.[81] Case fatality rates during outbreaks in Native American populations were as high as 90%.[82] Smallpox was introduced into Australia in 1789 and again in 1829,[3] though colonial surgeons, who by 1829 were attempting to distinguish between smallpox and chickenpox (which could be almost equally fatal to Aborigines), were divided as to whether the 1829–1830 epidemic was chickenpox or smallpox.[83] Although smallpox was never endemic on the continent,[3] it has been described as the principal cause of death in Aboriginal populations between 1780 and 1870.[84] A person with smallpox in the United States, 1912 By the mid-18th century, smallpox was a major endemic disease everywhere in the world except in Australia and small islands untouched by outside exploration. In 18th century Europe, smallpox was a leading cause of death, killing an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year.[85] Up to 10 percent of Swedish infants died of smallpox each year,[15] and the death rate of infants in Russia might have been even higher.[72] The widespread use of variolation in a few countries, notably Great Britain, its North American colonies, and China, somewhat reduced the impact of smallpox among the wealthy classes during the latter part of the 18th century, but a real reduction in its incidence did not occur until vaccination became a common practice toward the end of the 19th century. Improved vaccines and the practice of re-vaccination led to a substantial reduction in cases in Europe and North America, but smallpox remained almost unchecked everywhere else in the world. By the mid-20th century, variola minor occurred along with variola major, in varying proportions, in many parts of Africa. Patients with variola minor experience only a mild systemic illness, are often ambulant throughout the course of the disease, and are therefore able to more easily spread disease. Infection with v. minor induces immunity against the more deadly variola major form. Thus, as v. minor spread all over the US, into Canada, the South American countries, and Great Britain, it became the dominant form of smallpox, further reducing mortality rates.[3] Eradication See also: Smallpox vaccine and Inoculation Decade in which smallpox ceased to spread in each country Vaccination during the Smallpox Eradication and Measles Control Program in Niger, February 1969 The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan (1499–1582) in his Dòuzhěn xīnfǎ (痘疹心法) published in 1549,[86] with earliest hints of the practice in China during the 10th century.[87] In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. People would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers.[88] Voltaire (1742) reports that the Chinese had practiced smallpox inoculation "these hundred years".[56] Variolation had also been witnessed in Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who later introduced it in the UK.[89] An early mention of the possibility of smallpox's eradication was made in reference to the work of Johnnie Notions, a self-taught inoculator from Shetland, Scotland. Notions found success in treating people from at least the late 1780s through a method devised by himself despite having no formal medical background.[90][91] His method involved exposing smallpox pus to peat smoke, burying it in the ground with camphor for up to 8 years, and then inserting the matter into a person's skin using a knife, and covering the incision with a cabbage leaf.[92] He was reputed not to have lost a single patient.[92] Arthur Edmondston, in writings on Notions' technique that were published in 1809, stated, "Had every practitioner been as uniformly successful in the disease as he was, the small-pox might have been banished from the face of the earth, without injuring the system, or leaving any doubt as to the fact."[93] The English physician Edward Jenner demonstrated the effectiveness of cowpox to protect humans from smallpox in 1796, after which various attempts were made to eliminate smallpox on a regional scale. In Russia in 1796, the first child to receive this treatment was bestowed the name "Vaccinov" by Catherine the Great, and was educated at the expense of the nation.[94] The introduction of the vaccine to the New World took place in Trinity, Newfoundland in 1800 by Dr. John Clinch, boyhood friend and medical colleague of Jenner.[95] As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized the Balmis expedition to transport the vaccine to the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[96] The U.S. Congress passed the Vaccine Act of 1813 to ensure that safe smallpox vaccine would be available to the American public. By about 1817, a very solid state vaccination program existed in the Dutch East Indies.[97] In British India a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination, through Indian vaccinators, under the supervision of European officials.[98] Nevertheless, British vaccination efforts in India, and in Burma in particular, were hampered by indigenous preference for inoculation and distrust of vaccination, despite tough legislation, improvements in the local efficacy of the vaccine and vaccine preservative, and education efforts.[99] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[100] In 1842, the United Kingdom banned inoculation, later progressing to mandatory vaccination. The British government introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination by an Act of Parliament in 1853.[101] In the United States, from 1843 to 1855, first Massachusetts and then other states required smallpox vaccination. Although some disliked these measures,[72] coordinated efforts against smallpox went on, and the disease continued to diminish in the wealthy countries. In Northern Europe a number of countries had eliminated smallpox by 1900, and by 1914, the incidence in most industrialized countries had decreased to comparatively low levels. Vaccination continued in industrialized countries as protection against reintroduction until the mid to late 1970s. Australia and New Zealand are two notable exceptions; neither experienced endemic smallpox and never vaccinated widely, relying instead on protection by distance and strict quarantines.[102] Smallpox quarantine order, California, c. 1910 The first hemisphere-wide effort to eradicate smallpox was made in 1950 by the Pan American Health Organization.[103] The campaign was successful in eliminating smallpox from all countries of the Americas except Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador.[102] In 1958 Professor Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox.[104] The proposal (Resolution WHA11.54) was accepted in 1959.[104] At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. Overall, the progress towards eradication was disappointing, especially in Africa and in the Indian subcontinent. In 1966 an international team, the Smallpox Eradication Unit, was formed under the leadership of an American, Donald Henderson.[105] In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort, and adopted the new disease surveillance method promoted by Czech epidemiologist Karel Raška.[106] Three-year-old Rahima Banu of Bangladesh (pictured) was the last person infected with naturally occurring Variola major, in 1975. In the early 1950s, an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year.[10] To eradicate smallpox, each outbreak had to be stopped from spreading, by isolation of cases and vaccination of everyone who lived close by.[107] This process is known as "ring vaccination". The key to this strategy was the monitoring of cases in a community (known as surveillance) and containment. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases, as many cases did not come to the attention of the authorities. The fact that humans are the only reservoir for smallpox infection and that carriers did not exist, played a significant role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. Early on, donations of vaccine were provided primarily by the Soviet Union and the United States, but by 1973, more than 80 percent of all vaccine was produced in developing countries.[102] The Soviet Union provided one and a half billion doses between 1958 and 1979, as well as the medical staff.[108] The last major European outbreak of smallpox was in 1972 in Yugoslavia, after a pilgrim from Kosovo returned from the Middle East, where he had contracted the virus. The epidemic infected 175 people, causing 35 deaths. Authorities declared martial law, enforced quarantine, and undertook widespread re-vaccination of the population, enlisting the help of the WHO. In two months, the outbreak was over.[109] Prior to this, there had been a smallpox outbreak in May–July 1963 in Stockholm, Sweden, brought from the Far East by a Swedish sailor; this had been dealt with by quarantine measures and vaccination of the local population.[110] By the end of 1975, smallpox persisted only in the Horn of Africa. Conditions were very difficult in Ethiopia and Somalia, where there were few roads. Civil war, famine, and refugees made the task even more difficult. An intensive surveillance and containment and vaccination program was undertaken in these countries in early and mid-1977, under the direction of Australian microbiologist Frank Fenner. As the campaign neared its goal, Fenner and his team played an important role in verifying eradication.[111] The last naturally occurring case of indigenous smallpox (Variola minor) was diagnosed in Ali Maow Maalin, a hospital cook in Merca, Somalia, on 26 October 1977.[30] The last naturally occurring case of the more deadly Variola major had been detected in October 1975 in a three-year-old Bangladeshi girl, Rahima Banu.[36] The global eradication of smallpox was certified, based on intense verification activities, by a commission of eminent scientists on 9 December 1979 and subsequently endorsed by the World Health Assembly on 8 May 1980.[10][112] The first two sentences of the resolution read: Having considered the development and results of the global program on smallpox eradication initiated by WHO in 1958 and intensified since 1967 … Declares solemnly that the world and its peoples have won freedom from smallpox, which was a most devastating disease sweeping in epidemic form through many countries since earliest time, leaving death, blindness and disfigurement in its wake and which only a decade ago was rampant in Africa, Asia and South America.[113] Costs and benefits The cost of the eradication effort, from 1967 to 1979, was roughly $300 million US dollars. Roughly a third came from the developed world, which had largely eradicated smallpox decades earlier. The United States, the largest contributor to the program, has reportedly recouped that investment every 26 days since in money not spent on (a) vaccinations and (b) the costs of incidence.[114] Post-eradication Further information: Smallpox virus retention debate Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Program read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980. The last case of smallpox in the world occurred in an outbreak in the United Kingdom in 1978.[115] A medical photographer, Janet Parker, contracted the disease at the University of Birmingham Medical School and died on 11 September 1978. Although it has remained unclear how Parker became infected, the source of the infection was established to be the smallpox virus grown for research purposes at the Medical School laboratory.[116][117] All known stocks of smallpox worldwide were subsequently destroyed or transferred to two WHO-designated reference laboratories with BSL-4 facilities – the United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Soviet Union's (now Russia's) State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR.[118] WHO first recommended destruction of the virus in 1986 and later set the date of destruction to be 30 December 1993. This was postponed to 30 June 1999.[119] Due to resistance from the U.S. and Russia, in 2002 the World Health Assembly agreed to permit the temporary retention of the virus stocks for specific research purposes.[120] Destroying existing stocks would reduce the risk involved with ongoing smallpox research; the stocks are not needed to respond to a smallpox outbreak.[121] Some scientists have argued that the stocks may be useful in developing new vaccines, antiviral drugs, and diagnostic tests;[122] a 2010 review by a team of public health experts appointed by WHO concluded that no essential public health purpose is served by the U.S. and Russia continuing to retain virus stocks.[123] The latter view is frequently supported in the scientific community, particularly among veterans of the WHO Smallpox Eradication Program.[124] In March 2004, smallpox scabs were found inside an envelope in a book on Civil War medicine in Santa Fe, New Mexico.[125] The envelope was labeled as containing scabs from a vaccination and gave scientists at the CDC an opportunity to study the history of smallpox vaccination in the United States. On July 1, 2014, six sealed glass vials of smallpox dated 1954, along with sample vials of other pathogens, were discovered in a cold storage room in an FDA laboratory at the National Institutes of Health location in Bethesda, Maryland. The smallpox vials were subsequently transferred to the custody of the CDC in Atlanta, where virus taken from at least two vials proved viable in culture.[126][127] After studies were conducted, the CDC destroyed the virus under WHO observation on February 24, 2015.[128] In 2017, Canadian scientists recreated an extinct horse pox virus to demonstrate that the smallpox virus can be recreated in a small lab at a cost of about $100,000, by a team of scientists without specialist knowledge.[129] This makes the retention controversy moot since the virus can be easily recreated even if all samples are destroyed. Although the scientists performed the research to help development of new vaccines as well as trace smallpox's history, the possibility of the techniques being used for nefarious purposes was immediately recognized, raising questions on dual use research and regulations.[130][131] In September 2019, the Russian lab housing smallpox samples experienced a gas explosion that injured one worker. It did not occur near the virus storage area, and no samples were compromised, but the incident prompted a review of risks to containment.[132] Society and culture Biological warfare The British used smallpox as a biological warfare agent at the Siege of Fort Pitt during the French and Indian Wars (1754–1763) against France and its Native American allies.[133][134][135][136] British officers, including the top British commanding generals, ordered, sanctioned, paid for and conducted the use of smallpox against the Native Americans. As described by historians, "there is no doubt that British military authorities approved of attempts to spread smallpox among the enemy", and "it was deliberate British policy to infect the Indians with smallpox".[137] On 24 June 1763, William Trent, a local trader and commander of the Fort Pitt militia, wrote, "Out of our regard for them, we gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect."[138][133] The effectiveness of this effort to broadcast the disease is unknown. There are also accounts that smallpox was used as a weapon during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).[139][140] According to a theory put forward in Journal of Australian Studies (JAS) by independent researcher Christopher Warren, British marines used smallpox in 1789 against indigenous tribes in New South Wales.[141] This theory was also considered earlier in Bulletin of the History of Medicine[142] and by David Day.[143] However it is disputed by some medical academics, including Professor Jack Carmody, who in 2010 claimed that the rapid spread of the outbreak in question was more likely indicative of chickenpox—a more infectious disease which, at the time, was often confused, even by surgeons, with smallpox, and was in fact comparably deadly to Aborigines and other peoples without natural immunity to it.[144] Carmody noted that in the 8-month voyage of the First Fleet and the following 14 months there were no reports of smallpox amongst the colonists and that, since smallpox has an incubation period of 10–12 days, it is unlikely it was present in the First Fleet; however, Warren argued in the JAS article that the likely source was bottles of smallpox virus possessed by First Fleet surgeons. Ian and Jennifer Glynn, in The life and death of smallpox, confirm that bottles of "variolous matter" were carried to Australia for use as a vaccine, but think it unlikely the virus could have survived till 1789.[84] In 2007, Christopher Warren offered evidence that the British smallpox may have been still viable.[145] However, the only non-Aborigine reported to have died in this outbreak was a seaman called Joseph Jeffries, who was recorded as being of "American Indian" origin.[146] W. S. Carus, an expert in biological weapons, has written that there is circumstantial evidence that smallpox was deliberately introduced to the Aboriginal population.[147] However Carmody and the Australian National University's Boyd Hunter continue to support the chickenpox hypothesis.[148] In a 2013 lecture at the Australian National University The 'myth' of smallpox at Sydney Cove in April 1789, Carmody pointed out that chickenpox, unlike smallpox, was known to be present in the colony. He also suggested that all C18th (and earlier) identifications of smallpox outbreaks were dubious because: “surgeons . . . would have been unaware of the distinction between smallpox and chickenpox - the latter having traditionally been considered a milder form of smallpox.”[149] During World War II, scientists from the United Kingdom, United States, and Japan (Unit 731 of the Imperial Japanese Army) were involved in research into producing a biological weapon from smallpox.[150] Plans of large scale production were never carried through as they considered that the weapon would not be very effective due to the wide-scale availability of a vaccine.[139] In 1947 the Soviet Union established a smallpox weapons factory in the city of Zagorsk, 75 km to the northeast of Moscow.[151] An outbreak of weaponized smallpox occurred during testing at a facility on an island in the Aral Sea in 1971. General Prof. Peter Burgasov, former Chief Sanitary Physician of the Soviet Army and a senior researcher within the Soviet program of biological weapons, described the incident: On Vozrozhdeniya Island in the Aral Sea, the strongest recipes of smallpox were tested. Suddenly I was informed that there were mysterious cases of mortalities in Aralsk. A research ship of the Aral fleet came to within 15 km of the island (it was forbidden to come any closer than 40 km). The lab technician of this ship took samples of plankton twice a day from the top deck. The smallpox formulation – 400 gr. of which was exploded on the island – "got her" and she became infected. After returning home to Aralsk, she infected several people including children. All of them died. I suspected the reason for this and called the Chief of General Staff of the Ministry of Defense and requested to forbid the stop of the Alma-Ata–Moscow train in Aralsk. As a result, the epidemic around the country was prevented. I called Andropov, who at that time was Chief of KGB, and informed him of the exclusive recipe of smallpox obtained on Vozrazhdenie Island.[152][153] Others contend that the first patient may have contracted the disease while visiting Uyaly or Komsomolsk-on-Ustyurt, two cities where the boat docked.[154][155] Responding to international pressures, in 1991 the Soviet government allowed a joint U.S.–British inspection team to tour four of its main weapons facilities at Biopreparat. The inspectors were met with evasion and denials from the Soviet scientists and were eventually ordered out of the facility.[156] In 1992 Soviet defector Ken Alibek alleged that the Soviet bioweapons program at Zagorsk had produced a large stockpile – as much as twenty tons – of weaponized smallpox (possibly engineered to resist vaccines, Alibek further alleged), along with refrigerated warheads to deliver it. Alibek's stories about the former Soviet program's smallpox activities have never been independently verified. In 1997, the Russian government announced that all of its remaining smallpox samples would be moved to the Vector Institute in Koltsovo.[156] With the breakup of the Soviet Union and unemployment of many of the weapons program's scientists, U.S. government officials have expressed concern that smallpox and the expertise to weaponize it may have become available to other governments or terrorist groups who might wish to use virus as means of biological warfare.[157] Specific allegations made against Iraq in this respect proved to be false.[158] Concern has been expressed by some that artificial gene synthesis could be used to recreate the virus from existing digital genomes, for use in biological warfare.[159] Insertion of the synthesized smallpox DNA into existing related pox viruses could theoretically be used to recreate the virus.[159] The first step to mitigating this risk, it has been suggested, should be to destroy the remaining virus stocks to enable unequivocal criminalization of any possession of the virus.[160] Notable cases In 1767, the 11-year-old composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart survived a smallpox outbreak in Austria that killed Holy Roman Empress Maria Josepha, who became the second consecutive wife of Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II to die of the disease, as well as Archduchess Maria Josepha. (See Mozart and smallpox.) Famous historical figures who contracted smallpox include Lakota Chief Sitting Bull, Ramses V,[161] the Kangxi Emperor (survived), Shunzhi Emperor and Tongzhi Emperor of China, Emperor Komei of Japan (died of smallpox in 1867), and Date Masamune of Japan (who lost an eye to the disease). Cuitláhuac, the 10th tlatoani (ruler) of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, died of smallpox in 1520, shortly after its introduction to the Americas, and the Incan emperor Huayna Capac died of it in 1527 (causing a civil war of succession in the Inca empire and the eventual conquest by the Spaniards). More recent public figures include Guru Har Krishan, 8th Guru of the Sikhs, in 1664, Louis I of Spain in 1724 (died), Peter II of Russia in 1730 (died),[162] George Washington (survived), Louis XV of France in 1774 (died) and Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria in 1777 (died). Prominent families throughout the world often had several people infected by and/or perish from the disease. For example, several relatives of Henry VIII of England survived the disease but were scarred by it. These include his sister Margaret, his wife Anne of Cleves, and his two daughters: Mary I in 1527 and Elizabeth I in 1562. Elizabeth tried to disguise the pockmarks with heavy makeup. Mary, Queen of Scots, contracted the disease as a child but had no visible scarring. In Europe, deaths from smallpox often changed dynastic succession. Louis XV of France succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV through a series of deaths of smallpox or measles among those higher in the succession line. He himself died of the disease in 1774. Peter II of Russia died of the disease at 14 years of age. Also, before becoming emperor, Peter III of Russia caught the virus and suffered greatly from it. He was left scarred and disfigured. His wife, Catherine the Great, was spared but fear of the virus clearly had its effects on her. She feared for the safety of her son, Paul, so much that she made sure that large crowds were kept at bay and sought to isolate him. Eventually, she decided to have herself inoculated by a British doctor, Thomas Dimsdale. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Paul was later inoculated as well. Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire stating: "My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger." By 1800, approximately 2 million inoculations were administered in the Russian Empire.[163] In China, the Qing dynasty had extensive protocols to protect Manchus from Peking's endemic smallpox. U.S. Presidents George Washington, Andrew Jackson, and Abraham Lincoln all contracted and recovered from the disease. Washington became infected with smallpox on a visit to Barbados in 1751.[164] Jackson developed the illness after being taken prisoner by the British during the American Revolution, and though he recovered, his brother Robert did not.[164] Lincoln contracted the disease during his presidency, possibly from his son Tad, and was quarantined shortly after giving the Gettysburg address in 1863.[164] Famous theologian Jonathan Edwards died of smallpox in 1758 following an inoculation.[165] Soviet leader Joseph Stalin fell ill with smallpox at the age of seven. His face was badly scarred by the disease. He later had photographs retouched to make his pockmarks less apparent.[166] Hungarian poet Ferenc Kölcsey, who wrote the Hungarian national anthem, lost his right eye to smallpox.[167] Tradition and religion The Hindu goddess Shitala was worshipped to prevent or cure smallpox. In the face of the devastation of smallpox, various smallpox gods and goddesses have been worshipped throughout parts of the Old World, for example in China and India. In China, the smallpox goddess was referred to as T'ou-Shen Niang-Niang (Chinese: 痘疹娘娘).[168] Chinese believers actively worked to appease the goddess and pray for her mercy, by such measures as referring to smallpox pustules as "beautiful flowers" as a euphemism intended to avert offending the goddess, for example (the Chinese word for smallpox is 天花, literally "heaven flower").[169] In a related New Year's Eve custom it was prescribed that the children of the house wear ugly masks while sleeping, so as to conceal any beauty and thereby avoid attracting the goddess, who would be passing through sometime that night.[169] If a case of smallpox did occur, shrines would be set up in the homes of the victims, to be worshipped and offered to as the disease ran its course. If the victim recovered, the shrines were removed and carried away in a special paper chair or boat for burning. If the patient did not recover, the shrine was destroyed and cursed, to expel the goddess from the house.[168] In the Yoruba language smallpox is known as ṣọ̀pọ̀ná, but it was also written as shakpanna, shopona, ṣhapana, and ṣọpọnọ. The word is a combination of 3 words, the verb ṣán, meaning to cover or plaster (referring to the pustules characteristic of smallpox), kpa or pa, meaning to kill, and enia, meaning human. Roughly translated, it means One who kills a person by covering them with pustules.[170] Among the Yorùbá people of West Africa, and also in Dahomean religion, Trinidad, and in Brazil, The deity Sopona, also known as Obaluaye, is the deity of smallpox and other deadly diseases (like leprosy, HIV/AIDS, and fevers). One of the most feared deities of the orisha pantheon, smallpox was seen as a form of punishment from Shopona.[171] Worship of Shopona was highly controlled by his priests, and it was believed that priests could also spread smallpox when angered.[171] However, Shopona was also seen as a healer who could cure the diseases he inflicted, and he was often called upon his victims to heal them.[172] The British government banned the worship of the god because it was believed his priests were purposely spreading smallpox to their opponents.[172][171] India's first records of smallpox can be found in a medical book that dates back to 400 CE. This book describes a disease that sounds exceptionally like smallpox.[169] India, like China and the Yorùbá, created a goddess in response to its exposure to smallpox. The Hindu goddess Shitala was both worshipped and feared during her reign. It was believed that this goddess was both evil and kind and had the ability to inflict victims when angered, as well as calm the fevers of the already afflicted.[173][174] Portraits of the goddess show her holding a broom in her right hand to continue to move the disease and a pot of cool water in the other hand in an attempt to soothe victims.[169] Shrines were created where many Indian natives, both healthy and not, went to worship and attempt to protect themselves from this disease. Some Indian women, in an attempt to ward off Shitala, placed plates of cooling foods and pots of water on the roofs of their homes.[175] In cultures that did not recognize a smallpox deity, there was often nonetheless a belief in smallpox demons, who were accordingly blamed for the disease. Such beliefs were prominent in Japan, Europe, Africa, and other parts of the world. Nearly all cultures who believed in the demon also believed that it was afraid of the color red. 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ISBN 978-0-520-23732-2. ^ "President Abraham Lincoln: Health & Medical History". 24 March 2007. Retrieved 18 June 2007. ^ Massie RK (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of as Woman. New York: Random House. pp. 387–88. ISBN 978-0-679-45672-8. ^ a b c Oldstone M (2010). Viruses, Plagues, and History. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–71. ISBN 978-0-19-532731-1. ^ "Biography at the Edwards Center at Yale University". Yale University. Retrieved 13 September 2009. ^ Montefiore SS (2008). Young Stalin. Phoenix. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-4072-2145-8. ^ Szinnyei J (2000). Magyar írók élete és munkái. Budapest: Arcanum. ISBN 963-86029-9-6. ^ a b Hopkins DR (1983). Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ^ a b c d Giblin JC (1995). When Plague Strikes: The Black Death, Smallpox, AIDS. United States: HarperCollins Publishers. ^ Keane AH (1920). Man, past and present. Cambridge: University Press. ^ a b c "Shapona, the Yoruba god of smallpox | David J. Sencer CDC Museum | CDC". 30 April 2021. ^ a b "Smallpox controlfrom Africa to America and back again | African Art". ^ Wiley AS, Allen JS (2009). Medical Anthropology: A Biocultural Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ^ Hopkins DR (2002). The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History. University of Chicago Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1. ^ Tucker JB (2001). Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Further reading Bhattacharya S (2006). Expunging variola: the control and eradication of smallpox in India, 1947–1977. Hyderabad: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3018-8. Fenner F (1988). Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-156110-5. Hopkins DR (2002). The Greatest Killer. Smallpox in History. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1. Kelton P (2015). Cherokee Medicine, Colonial Germs: An Indigenous Nation's Fight Against Smallpox. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-4688-1. Koplow DA (2003). Smallpox: the fight to eradicate a global scourge. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24220-3. Mack T (January 2003). "A different view of smallpox and vaccination". The New England Journal of Medicine. 348 (5): 460–63. doi:10.1056/NEJMsb022994. PMID 12496354. McNeill WH (1977). Plagues and peoples. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-385-12122-4. Naono A (2009). State of Vaccination: The Fight Against Smallpox in Colonial Burma. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. p. 238. ISBN 978-81-250-3546-6. Pallen M (2018). The Last Days of Smallpox: Tragedy in Birmingham. UK: Amazon KDP. ISBN 978-1-9804-5522-6. Preston R (2002). The Demon in the Freezer: A True Story. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50856-1. (Excerpt available at The New Yorker) Reinhardt BH (2015). The End of a Global Pox: America and the Eradication of Smallpox in the Cold War Era. University of North Carolina Press. pp. xviii, 268. Tucker JB (2001). Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3939-9. Wharncliffe L, Thomas WM, eds. (1861). The Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. 1. London: Henry G. Bohn. 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(3952481) (Bot) undo Tag: Rollback curprev 14:26, 21 April 2021‎ 110.175.2.152 talk‎ 135,736 bytes +14‎ undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 18:37, 20 April 2021‎ Thamis talk contribs‎ m 135,722 bytes +4‎ fixed reference url (domain moved) undo curprev 05:16, 18 April 2021‎ Chewings72 talk contribs‎ m 135,718 bytes +9‎ Changing short description from "Roman emperor from 161 to 180, philosopher" to "Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher" (Shortdesc helper) undo curprev 19:43, 17 April 2021‎ 92.184.107.190 talk‎ 135,709 bytes −11‎ →‎Early life: Emperor career ? undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 21:29, 12 April 2021‎ Maerlon0 talk contribs‎ m 135,720 bytes +3‎ Added AD undo curprev 22:47, 10 April 2021‎ Youngrubby talk contribs‎ m 135,717 bytes +57‎ Add duration to reign period undo curprev 13:15, 6 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,660 bytes −16‎ Please Ignore these trying to fix spelling mistakes :) undo Tag: Manual revert curprev 13:00, 6 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,676 bytes 0‎ Undid revision 1016300477 by Yezzie34 (talk) undo Tags: Undo Reverted curprev 12:49, 6 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,676 bytes 0‎ undo Tag: Reverted curprev 16:21, 5 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,676 bytes +5‎ spelling mistake undo Tag: Reverted curprev 15:48, 5 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,671 bytes −11‎ undo Tag: Reverted curprev 15:41, 5 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,682 bytes +22‎ undo Tag: Reverted curprev 12:21, 5 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,660 bytes +14‎ undo curprev 00:05, 4 April 2021‎ 67.173.23.66 talk‎ 135,646 bytes +113‎ undo curprev 22:13, 2 April 2021‎ MarioGom talk contribs‎ 135,533 bytes −136‎ remove Lobo Institute spam, see User:MarioGom/LoboReview undo curprev 00:45, 2 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,669 bytes +1‎ undo curprev 00:44, 2 April 2021‎ Yezzie34 talk contribs‎ m 135,668 bytes +22‎ undo curprev 15:59, 30 March 2021‎ 51.79.156.12 talk‎ 135,646 bytes +2‎ Undid revision 1015091429 by 125.166.110.30 (talk) undo Tag: Undo curprev 15:59, 30 March 2021‎ 125.166.110.30 talk‎ 135,644 bytes −2‎ undo Tag: Reverted curprev 20:22, 29 March 2021‎ Marcocapelle talk contribs‎ 135,646 bytes −65‎ removed Category:History of ideas Category:History of philosophy, non-biographical categories undo (newest | oldest) View (newer 50 | older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Atom Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1404	----	Diodotus the Stoic - Wikipedia Diodotus the Stoic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Diodotus (Greek: Διόδοτος; fl. 1st century BC) was a Stoic philosopher, and was a friend of Cicero. Biography[edit] Diodotus lived for most of his life in Rome in Cicero's house, where he instructed Cicero in Stoic philosophy and especially Logic.[1] Although Cicero never fully accepted Stoic philosophy, he always spoke of Diodotus with fondness, and ranked him equal to other philosophers of his era such as Philo of Larissa, Antiochus and Posidonius.[2] In his later years, Diodotus went blind, but he nevertheless continued to teach: The Stoic Diodotus, another man who lost his sight, lived for many years in my house. It seems hard to believe, but after he became blind he devoted himself more strenuously to philosophy than he ever had before. He also played the lyre, like a Pythagorean, and had books read to him day and night; he had no need of eyes to get on with his work. He also did something which seems scarcely credible for a man who could not see: he continued giving lectures on geometry, giving his pupils verbal indications of the points where they should begin and end the lines they had to draw.[3] He died in Cicero's house in 59 BC, and left his friend his entire property.[4] References[edit] ^ Cicero, Brutus, 309. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods), i, 3. ^ Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, v. 39. From Cicero, On the Good Life, trans. Michael Grant. Penguin. (1971) ^ Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum (Letters to Atticus), ii. 20. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diodotus_the_Stoic&oldid=975483469" Categories: 1st-century BC philosophers Roman-era philosophers in Rome Roman-era Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Français Italiano Latina Magyar مصرى Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2020, at 19:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1406	----	Diocletian - Wikipedia Diocletian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 284 to 305 For the band, see Diocletian (band). Roman emperor Diocletian Laureate head of Diocletian Roman emperor Solo-reign Co-reign 20 November 284 – 1 April 286 1 April 286 – 1 May 305 Predecessor Carinus (contested until July 285)[1] Successor Galerius (East) Maximian (West) Co-emperor Maximian (western emperor) Born Diocles 22 December 243–245[2] Salona (Solin, Croatia) Died 3 December 311 Aspalathos (Split, Croatia) Burial Diocletian's Palace Spouse Prisca Issue Valeria Names Gaius Valerius Diocles Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Religion Roman polytheism Diocletian (/ˌdaɪ.əˈkliːʃən/; Latin: Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus; Greek: Διοκλητιανός; born Diocles; 22 December c. 244 – 3 December 311) was a Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in Dalmatia, Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become a cavalry commander of the Emperor Carus's army. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus's surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286. Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire, and Maximian reigned in the Western Empire. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as junior co-emperors (each with the title Caesar), under himself and Maximian respectively. Under the Tetrarchy, or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favourable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centres in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium, and Trevorum, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–312), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, failed to eliminate Christianity in the empire; indeed, after 324, Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under Constantine. Despite these failures and challenges, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another 150 years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to abdicate the position voluntarily. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split in Croatia. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Death of Numerian 1.2 Conflict with Carinus 2 Early rule 2.1 Maximian made co-emperor 2.2 Conflict with Sarmatia and Persia 2.3 Maximian made Augustus 3 Tetrarchy 3.1 Foundation of the Tetrarchy 3.2 Demise of Carausius's breakaway Roman Empire 3.3 Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt 3.4 War with Persia 3.4.1 Invasion, counterinvasion 3.4.2 Peace negotiations 4 Religious persecutions 4.1 Early persecutions 4.2 Great Persecution 5 Later life 5.1 Illness and abdication 5.2 Retirement and death 6 Reforms 6.1 Tetrarchic and ideological 6.2 Administrative 6.3 Legal 6.4 Military 6.5 Economic 6.5.1 Taxation 6.5.2 Currency and inflation 6.5.3 Social and professional mobility 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 10.3 Primary sources 10.4 Secondary sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life[edit] Panorama of amphitheatre in Salona Diocletian was born near Salona in Dalmatia (Solin in modern Croatia), some time around 244.[2] His parents gave him the Greek name Diocles, or possibly Diocles Valerius.[3] The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes his official birthday, 22 December, as his actual birthdate. Other historians are not so certain.[4] His parents were of low status; Eutropius records "that he is said by most writers to have been the son of a scribe, but by some to have been a freedman of a senator called Anulinus." The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure.[5] The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae,[6] a commander of forces on the lower Danube.[7] The often-unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this account is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians of the period.[8] The first time Diocletian's whereabouts are accurately established, in 282, the Emperor Carus made him commander of the Protectores domestici, the elite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household – a post that earned him the honour of a consulship in 283.[9] As such, he took part in Carus's subsequent Persian campaign. Death of Numerian[edit] Carus's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances[10] – he was believed to have been struck by lightning or killed by Persian soldiers[11] – left his sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul as imperial commissioner and arrived there by January 284, becoming legitimate Emperor in the West. Numerian lingered in the East.[12] The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed.[13] The Sassanid king Bahram II could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority. By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor.[14] In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant rescript in his name there,[15][Note 1] but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect (Numerian's father-in-law, and as such the dominant influence in the Emperor's entourage)[17] Aper, reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He travelled in a closed coach from then on.[18] When the army reached Bithynia,[12] some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach.[13] They opened its curtains and inside they found Numerian dead.[19] Both Eutropius and Aurelius Victor describe Numerian's death as an assassination.[20] Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November.[21] Numerianus's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor,[22] in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support.[21] On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new Augustus, and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it.[23] In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper.[24] According to the Historia Augusta, he quoted from Virgil while doing so.[25] Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus"[26] – in full, Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus.[27] Conflict with Carinus[edit] Head of Carinus at the Centrale Montemartini After his accession, Diocletian and Lucius Caesonius Bassus were named as consuls and assumed the fasces in place of Carinus and Numerianus.[28] Bassus was a member of a senatorial family from Campania, a former consul and proconsul of Africa, chosen by Probus for signal distinction.[29] He was skilled in areas of government where Diocletian presumably had no experience.[21] Diocletian's elevation of Bassus as consul symbolized his rejection of Carinus's government in Rome, his refusal to accept second-tier status to any other emperor,[29] and his willingness to continue the long-standing collaboration between the empire's senatorial and military aristocracies.[21] It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in his advance on Rome.[29] Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus's rule; the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, Carinus's corrector Venetiae, took control of northern Italy and Pannonia after Diocletian's accession.[30] Julianus minted coins from the mint at Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) declaring himself emperor and promising freedom. It was all good publicity for Diocletian, and it aided in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant.[31] Julianus's forces were weak, however, and were handily dispersed when Carinus's armies moved from Britain to northern Italy. As leader of the united East, Diocletian was clearly the greater threat.[32] Over the winter of 284–85, Diocletian advanced west across the Balkans. In the spring, some time before the end of May,[33] his armies met Carinus's across the river Margus (Great Morava) in Moesia. In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of Smederevo) and Viminacium,[29] near modern Belgrade, Serbia.[34] Despite having the stronger, more powerful army, Carinus held the weaker position. His rule was unpopular, and it was later alleged that he had mistreated the Senate and seduced his officers' wives.[35] It is possible that Flavius Constantius, the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring.[36] When the Battle of the Margus began, Carinus's prefect Aristobulus also defected.[21] In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men. Following Diocletian's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him as Emperor.[37] Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy.[38] Early rule[edit] Antoninianus of Diocletian Diocletian may have become involved in battles against the Quadi and Marcomanni immediately after the Battle of the Margus. He eventually made his way to northern Italy and made an imperial government, but it is not known whether he visited the city of Rome at this time.[39] There is a contemporary issue of coins suggestive of an imperial adventus (arrival) for the city,[40] but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, and that he did so on principle, as the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire and needed to be taught as much. Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not the date of his ratification by the Senate,[41] following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate's ratification a useless formality.[42] However, Diocletian was to offer proof of his deference towards the Senate by retaining Aristobulus as ordinary consul and colleague for 285 (one of the few instances during the Late Empire in which an emperor admitted a privatus as his colleague)[43] and by creating senior senators Vettius Aquilinus and Junius Maximus ordinary consuls for the following year – for Maximus, it was his second consulship.[44] Head of Diocletian at the National Museum of Serbia Nevertheless, if Diocletian ever did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long;[45] he is attested back in the Balkans by 2 November 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians.[46] Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus, however, retained their offices under Diocletian.[47] In an act of clementia denoted by the epitomator Aurelius Victor as unusual,[48] Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus's traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles.[49] He later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the post of urban prefect for 295.[50] The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus.[51] Maximian made co-emperor[edit] Maximian's consistent loyalty to Diocletian proved an important component of the tetrarchy's early successes.[52] The assassinations of Aurelian and Probus demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire.[21] Conflict boiled in every province, from Gaul to Syria, Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for one person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant.[53] At some time in 285 at Mediolanum (Milan),[Note 2] Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of caesar, making him co-emperor.[56] The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first Emperor, had nominally shared power with his colleagues, and more formal offices of Co-Emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius onward.[57] Most recently, Emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family, raising the question of trust.[58] Some historians state that Diocletian adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son", upon his appointment to the throne, following the precedent of some previous Emperors.[59] This argument has not been universally accepted.[60] The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms. Around 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian assumed the title Herculius.[61] The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders. Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter's heroic subordinate.[62] For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not "gods" in the tradition of the Imperial cult – although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. Instead, they were seen as the gods' representatives, effecting their will on earth.[63] The shift from military acclamation to divine sanctification took the power to appoint emperors away from the army. Religious legitimization elevated Diocletian and Maximian above potential rivals in a way military power and dynastic claims could not.[64] Conflict with Sarmatia and Persia[edit] After his acclamation, Maximian was dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae, insurgent peasants of Gaul. Diocletian returned to the East, progressing slowly.[65] By 2 November, he had only reached Civitas Iovia (Botivo, near Ptuj, Slovenia).[66] In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again.[67] Diocletian wintered in Nicomedia.[Note 3] There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, as he brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace.[69] He visited Syria Palaestina the following spring, [Note 4] His stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the Empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him.[72] Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary.[73] Around the same time, perhaps in 287,[74] Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the empire and made a province. Tiridates III, the Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and a Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the empire after the Persian conquest of 252–53. In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain and encountered no opposition.[75] Bahram II's gifts were widely recognized as symbolic of a victory in the ongoing conflict with Persia, and Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace". The events might have represented a formal end to Carus's eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace.[76] At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates.[77] Maximian made Augustus[edit] Maximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had, according to literary sources, begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Maximian issued a death warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself Augustus, and agitated Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian.[78] Far more probable, according to the archaeological evidence available, is that Carausius probably had held some important military post in Britain[79] and had already a firm basis of power in both Britain and Northern Gaul (a coin hoard found in Rouen proves that he was in control of that mainland area at the beginning of his rebellion) and that he profited from the lack of legitimacy of the central government.[80] Carausius strove to have his legitimacy as a junior emperor acknowledged by Diocletian: in his coinage (of far better quality than the official one, especially his silver pieces) he extolled the "concord" between him and the central power (PAX AVGGG, "the Peace of the three Augusti", read one bronze piece from 290, displaying, on the other side, Carausius together with Diocletian and Maximian, with the caption CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, "Carausius & his brothers" New Empires ).[81] However, Diocletian could not allow elbow room to a breakaway regional usurper following in Postumus's footprints; he could not allow such a usurper to enter, solely of his own accord, the imperial college.[82] So, Carausius had to go. Spurred by the crisis, on 1 April 286,[83][Note 5] Maximian took up the title of Augustus.[87] His appointment is unusual in that it was impossible for Diocletian to have been present to witness the event. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war.[88] This suggestion is unpopular, as it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence.[89] It may be posited, however, that Diocletian felt the need to bind Maximian closer to him, by making him his empowered associate, in order to avoid the possibility of having him striking some sort of deal with Carausius.[90] Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain. Most of the evidence for Carausius's reign comes from his coinage, which was of generally fine quality.[91] Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, so in 287 he campaigned solely against tribes beyond the Rhine instead.[92] As Carausius was allied to the Franks, Maximian's campaigns could be seen as an effort to deny the separatist emperor in Britain a basis of support on the mainland.[93] The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each emperor burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance.[94] The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance.[95] On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289.[96] In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence,[97] or simply attempting to reduce the frequency of their incursions.[98] No details survive for these events.[99] Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings, a disturbing fact in light of increasing tensions with the Sassanids.[100] In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm,[101] but this might simply have been an attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat.[102] Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290,[103] and Sirmium on the Danube by 1 July 290.[104] Diocletian met Maximian in Milan in the winter of 290–91, either in late December 290 or January 291.[105] The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague.[97] A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing its infrequent contact with the Imperial office.[106] The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride. But then it was already a long established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the Imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense. Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253–68) had chosen Milan as the seat of his headquarters.[107] If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat ("...the capital of the empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met"),[108] it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: "Rome is where the emperor is".[107] During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made in secret.[109] The Augusti would not meet again until 303.[97] Tetrarchy[edit] See also: Tetrarchy Foundation of the Tetrarchy[edit] Map of the Roman Empire under the tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence post-299, after Diocletian and Galerius had exchanged their allocated provinces. Triumphal arch of the tetrarchy, Sbeitla, Tunisia Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius, a former Governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73). He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of caesar.[110] In the spring of 293, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian would do the same for Galerius, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's Praetorian Prefect.[Note 6] Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was initially assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands.[112] This arrangement is called the tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four".[113] The Tetrarchic Emperors were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies.[114] They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers. The senior Co-Emperors formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons in 293. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after the departure of Diocletian and Maximian. Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine would then become Caesars. In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia.[115] Demise of Carausius's breakaway Roman Empire[edit] Just before his creation as Caesar, Constantius proceeded to cut Carausius from his base of support in Gaul, recovering Boulogne after a hotly fought siege, a success that would result in Carausius being murdered and replaced by his aide Allectus, who would hold out in his Britain stronghold for a further three years[116] until a two-pronged naval invasion resulted in Allectus's defeat and death at the hands of Constantius's praetorian prefect Julius Asclepiodotus, during a land battle somewhere near Farnham. Constantius himself, after disembarking in the south east, delivered London from a looting party of Frankish deserters in Allectus's pay, something that allowed him to assume the role of liberator of Britain. A famous commemorative medallion depicts a personification of London supplying the victorious Constantius on horseback in which he describes himself as redditor lucis aeternae, 'restorer of the eternal light (viz., of Rome).'[117] The suppression of this threat to the Tetrarchs' legitimacy allowed both Constantius and Maximian to concentrate on outside threats: by 297 Constantius was back on the Rhine and Maximian engaged in a full-scale African campaign against Frankish pirates and nomads, eventually making a triumphal entry into Carthage on 10 March 298.[118] However, Maximian's failure to deal with Carausius and Allectus on his own had jeopardized the position of Maxentius as putative heir to his father's post as Augustus of the West, with Constantius's son Constantine appearing as a rival claimant.[119] Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt[edit] A Trajanic temple on the island of Philae, the newly established border between the Nobatae and Blemmyes and Roman Egypt[120] Diocletian spent the spring of 293 travelling with Galerius from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he would remain for the following winter and spring. He campaigned against the Sarmatians again in 294, probably in the autumn,[121] and won a victory against them. The Sarmatians' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time. Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube,[122] at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). The new forts became part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica.[123] In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296.[124] Later during both 299 and 302, as Diocletian was then residing in the East, it was Galerius's turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube.[125] By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquilitas to the region.[126] The defense came at a heavy cost, but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend.[127] Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291–293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising.[128] He would return to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian empire.[129] Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with Imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius's departure.[130] The usurper L. Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule.[129] Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297,[121] then moving on to besiege Alexandria. Domitianus died in December 297,[131] by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, however, whose defense was organized under Domitianus's former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, was to hold out until a later date, probably March 298.[132] Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay:[133] a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently.[134] Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimius Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards.[135] Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine.[134] In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met with Galerius in Mesopotamia.[120] War with Persia[edit] See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids and Roman–Persian Wars Invasion, counterinvasion[edit] Military issue coin of Diocletian In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. Narseh eliminated Bahram III, a young man installed in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.[136] In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, however, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir (r. 226–41) and Shapur I (r. 241–72), who had defeated and imprisoned Emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) following his failed invasion of the Sasanian Empire.[137] Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287.[138] Narseh moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria)[139] (and thus, the historian Fergus Millar notes, probably somewhere on the Balikh River).[140] Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,[141] but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility. In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not. Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the Imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the Emperor.[142][Note 7] Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions[144] Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.[145] Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.[146][Note 8] It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria.[Note 9] Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, to Narseh's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.[150] Galerius continued moving down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates.[151] Peace negotiations[edit] Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius dismissed him.[152] Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. The magister memoriae (secretary) of Diocletian and Galerius, Sicorius Probus, was sent to Narseh to present terms.[152] The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy:[153] Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau.[154] A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation.[155] With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.[153] Many cities east of the Tigris came under Roman control, including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan – though under what status is unclear.[155] At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim.[152] Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia.[153] To strengthen the defence of the east Diocletian had a fortified road constructed at the southern border, where the empire bordered the Arabs, in the year 300.[156] This road would remain in use for centuries but proved ineffective in defending the border as conventional armies could not operate in the region.[156] Religious persecutions[edit] Further information: Diocletianic Persecution Early persecutions[edit] At the conclusion of the Peace of Nisibis, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Syrian Antioch.[157] At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals and blamed Christians in the Imperial household. The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge.[158] Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, a man faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification,[159] but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge, and its greatest beneficiary.[160] Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the politics of persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue.[161] Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube.[162] Diocletian visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria.[161] Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. In a 31 March 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury.[163] Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, its perceived corruption of the morals of the Roman race, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions.[164] His reasons for opposing Manichaeanism were also applied to his next target, Christianity.[165] Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter on the Via Labicana. Christ between Peter and Paul. To the sides are the martyrs Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, Tiburtius Great Persecution[edit] Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on 17 November 303. Diocletian believed that Romanus of Caesarea was arrogant, and he left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius.[166] According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma.[167] The oracle responded that the impious on Earth hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice. Rhetorically Eusebius records the Oracle as saying "The just on Earth..."[168] These impious, Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution.[169][170] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury.[171] The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published.[172] The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship.[173] Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the Imperial palace.[174] Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. One individual, Peter Cubicularius, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. The executions continued until at least 24 April 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated.[175] A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe.[174] Diocletian would soon follow.[175] Although further persecutory edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice,[176] the persecutory edicts were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and pagans too were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians.[177] Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later persecutory edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed.[178] Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion.[179] The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy.[180] Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians.[181] Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion.[182] Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse,[183] and in Serbian mythology, Diocletian is remembered as Dukljan, the adversary of God.[184] Later life[edit] Illness and abdication[edit] Reconstruction of the Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian in its original appearance upon completion in 305, by Ernest Hébrard Modern-day Diocletian's Palace (2012), as the core of the city of Split Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. On 20 November, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (vicennalia), the tenth anniversary of the tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls "licentious familiarity".[185] The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; it expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On 20 December 303,[186] Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on 1 January 304 instead.[187] There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius's account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome. Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the Temple of Jupiter.[188] From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius's company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi.[186] He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. In the late summer he left for Nicomedia. On 20 November 304, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304–5 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumours alleging that Diocletian's death was merely being kept secret until Galerius could come to assume power spread through the city. On 13 December, it appeared that he had finally died. The city was sent into a mourning from which it recovered after public declarations that Diocletian was still alive. When Diocletian reappeared in public on 1 March 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable.[189] Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the Imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium.[190] On 1 May 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. They met at the same hill, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title.[191] Most in the crowd believed they knew what would follow; Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of reigning emperors, men who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of caesar. Constantine had travelled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment.[192] In Lactantius's account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine.[193] It was not to be: Severus and Maximinus were declared caesars. Maximinus appeared and took Diocletian's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as Augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the tetrarchic system.[194] Retirement and death[edit] Modern depiction of Diocletian in retirement Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive Diocletian's Palace, a heavily fortified compound located by the small town of Spalatum on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and near the large provincial administrative center of Salona. The palace is preserved in great part to this day and forms the historic core of Split, the second-largest city of modern Croatia. Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania.[195] Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other.[196] Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria). Diocletian and Maximian were both present on 11 November 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius's usurpation.[197] Diocletian's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed."[198] He lived on for four more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his tetrarchic system fail, torn by the selfish ambitions of his successors. He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, and his damnatio memoriae. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. Deep in despair and illness, Diocletian had taken his own life on 3 December 311.[199][200][Note 10] Reforms[edit] Tetrarchic and ideological[edit] Modern view of the Peristyle in Diocletian's Palace (Split, Croatia) Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it.[201] He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences.[202] In the Imperial propaganda from the period, recent history was perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the tetrarchs as "restorers". Aurelian's achievements were ignored, the revolt of Carausius was backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it was implied that the tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian was effectively erased. The history of the empire before the tetrarchy was portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse.[203] In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world",[204] men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world".[205] Diocletian was written up as the "founder of eternal peace".[206] The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the tetrarchs themselves.[203] The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period – Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia and Antioch – were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite.[207] A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus's primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors.[208] His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις).[209] Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses.[210] His every appearance was stage-managed.[211] This style of presentation was not new – many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus – but it was only under the tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system.[212] Administrative[edit] In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his consilium, differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair among emperor, army, and senate.[213] In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would be called a consistorium, not a council.[214][Note 11] Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments (scrinia) for different tasks.[216] From this structure came the offices of different magistri, like the magister officiorum ("Master of Offices"), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect – although a prefect like Asclepiodotus was still a trained general[217] – but the office retained much civil authority. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself.[218] Altogether, Diocletian effected a large increase in the number of bureaucrats at the government's command; Lactantius was to claim that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it.[219] The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000.[220] The classicist Roger S. Bagnall estimated that there was one bureaucrat for every 5–10,000 people in Egypt based on 400 or 800 bureaucrats for 4 million inhabitants (no one knows the population of the province in 300 AD; Strabo, 300 years earlier, put it at 7.5 million, excluding Alexandria). (By comparison, the ratio in 12th-century Song dynasty China was one bureaucrat for every 15,000 people.) Jones estimated 30,000 bureaucrats for an empire of 50–65 million inhabitants, which works out to approximately 1,667 or 2,167 inhabitants per imperial official as averages empire-wide. The actual numbers of officials and ratios per inhabitant varied, of course, per diocese depending on the number of provinces and population within a diocese. Provincial and diocesan paid officials (there were unpaid supernumeraries) numbered about 13–15,000 based on their staff establishments as set by law. The other 50% were with the emperor(s) in his or their comitatus, with the praetorian prefects, or with the grain supply officials in the capital (later, the capitals, Rome and Constantinople), Alexandria, and Carthage and officials from the central offices located in the provinces.[221] To avoid the possibility of local usurpations,[222] to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred.[223] The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a vicarius, or "deputy of the praetorian prefects".[224] Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century.[225] Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a 100-mile (160 km)-radius perimeter around the city itself) was not under the authority of the praetorian prefect, as she was to be administered by a city prefect of senatorial rank – the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators, except for some governors in Italy with the titles of corrector and the proconsuls of Asia and Africa.[226] The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated under Diocletian's reign, because Diocletian's reform of the Empire's provincial structure meant that there were now a greater number of governors (praesides) ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations.[227] Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts:[228] whereas in the early Empire military and judicial functions were the function of the governor, and procurators had supervised taxation, under the new system vicarii and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of duces ("dukes"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command.[229] These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men.[230] In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service (cursus publicus) and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties.[231] This curtailment of governors' powers as the Emperors' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all-too-powerful class of Imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors' ability to oppose local landed elites, especially those of senatorial status, which, although with reduced opportunities for office holding, retained wealth, social prestige, and personal connections,[232] particularly in relatively peaceful regions without a great military presence.[233] On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank.[234] If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, one can imagine the difficulties faced by a mere praeses.[235] That accounts for the strained relationship between the central power and local elites: sometime during 303, an attempted military sedition in Seleucia Pieria and Antioch made Diocletian to extract a bloody retribution on both cities by putting to death a number of their council members for failing their duties of keeping order in their jurisdiction.[236] Legal[edit] A 1581 reprint of the Digestorum from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis (527–534). The Corpus drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenian, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign. As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs – responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors. Diocletian was awash in paperwork, and was nearly incapable of delegating his duties. It would have been seen as a dereliction of duty to ignore them. In the "nomadic" imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued – the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function.[237] Whenever the imperial court would settle in one of the capitals, there was a glut in petitions, as in late 294 in Nicomedia, where Diocletian kept winter quarters.[238] Admittedly, Diocletian's praetorian prefects – Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus – aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy.[239] Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue.[240] The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center.[241] Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued from the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–38) to the reign of Diocletian.[242] The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294.[225] Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent-based design of the Roman legal system,[243] the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance.[244] They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the later compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianeus (529) would have. Gregorius and Hermogenianus's codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes,[245] and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers.[246] Their official character, however, was clear in that both collections were subsequently acknowledged by courts as authoritative records of imperial legislation up to the date of their publication and regularly updated.[247] After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were called iudex, or judge. The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor.[248] It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the Empire's universal right of appeal, Imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges.[249] In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment.[250] Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows an adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences.[251] Military[edit] See also: Late Roman army: Diocletian It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil's Dykes, for example, the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian, cannot even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt and strengthened forts at the Upper Rhine frontier (where he followed the works built under Probus along the Lake Constance-Basel and the Rhine–Iller–Danube line),[252] on the Danube- where a new line of forts on the far side of the river, the Ripa Sarmatica, was added to older, rehabilitated fortresses[253] – in Egypt, and on the frontier with Persia. Beyond that, much discussion is speculative and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana, built after the Persian Wars, which ran from the Euphrates North of Palmyra and South towards northeast Arabia in the general vicinity of Bostra, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts – defensible hard-points manned by small garrisons – followed by further fortifications in the rear.[254] In an attempt to resolve the difficulty and slowness of transmitting orders to the frontier, the new capitals of the tetrarchic era were all much closer to the empire's frontiers than Rome had been:[255] Trier sat on the Moselle, a tributary of the Rhine, Sirmium and Serdica were close to the Danube, Thessaloniki was on the route leading eastward, and Nicomedia and Antioch were important points in dealings with Persia.[256] Lactantius criticized Diocletian for an excessive increase in troop sizes, declaring that "each of the four [tetrarchs] strove to have a far larger number of troops than previous emperors had when they were governing the state alone".[257] The fifth-century pagan Zosimus, by contrast, praised Diocletian for keeping troops on the borders, rather than keeping them in the cities, as Constantine was held to have done.[258] Both these views had some truth to them, despite the biases of their authors: Diocletian and the tetrarchs did greatly expand the army, and the growth was mostly in frontier regions, where the increased effectiveness of the new Diocletianic legions seem to have been mostly spread across a network of strongholds.[259] Nevertheless, it is difficult to establish the precise details of these shifts given the weakness of the sources.[260] The army expanded to about 580,000 men from a 285 strength of 390,000, of which 310,000 men were stationed in the East, most of whom manned the Persian frontier. The navy's forces increased from approximately 45,000 men to approximately 65,000 men.[261][Note 12] Diocletian's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire's tax burden grew. Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly.[264] The proportion of the adult male population, excluding slaves, serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs.[265] Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries.[266] Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation.[265] Economic[edit] Taxation[edit] Main article: Capitatio-Iugatio In the early empire (30 BC – AD 235) the Roman government paid for what it needed in gold and silver. The coinage was stable. Requisition, forced purchase, was used to supply armies on the march. During the third century crisis (235–285), the government resorted to requisition rather than payment in debased coinage, since it could never be sure of the value of money. Requisition was nothing more or less than seizure. Diocletian made requisition into tax. He introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iugera) – with one iugerum equal to approximately 0.65 acres – and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make citywide totals of capita and iuga.[267] The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values.[266] Cities provided animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga.[267][Note 13] Most taxes were due on each year on 1 September, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect.[269] Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian's reign than before. These officials represented the interests of the fisc, which collected taxes in gold, and the Imperial properties.[225] Fluctuations in the value of the currency made collection of taxes in kind the norm, although these could be converted into coin. Rates shifted to take inflation into account.[267] In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga.[270] Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was included in the tax system from 290/291 as a diocesis.[271] The city of Rome itself, however, remained exempt; the "regions" (i.e., provinces) South of Rome (generally called "suburbicarian", as opposed to the Northern, "annonaria" region) seem to have been relatively less taxed, in what probably was a sop offered to the great senatorial families and their landed properties.[272] Diocletian's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were made public.[273] The position of decurion, member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works. Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected. Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation.[269] By 300, civilians across the empire complained that there were more tax collectors than there were people to pay taxes.[274] Currency and inflation[edit] A fragment of the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), on display in Berlin Part of the prices edict in Greek in its original area built into a medieval church, Geraki, Greece Aurelian's attempt to reform the currency had failed; the denarius was dead.[275] Diocletian restored the three-metal coinage and issued better quality pieces.[276] The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus/solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound.[277][Note 14] Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss. This practice could be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state-minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned).[278] By 301, however, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian therefore issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummus, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much.[279] In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before 1 September 301 must be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after that date would be repaid at the new standards.[280] It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the Empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency.[281] This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian's currency reforms. The government's response was to issue a price freeze.[282] The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict,[275] somewhere between 20 November and 10 December 301.[280] The best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East,[283] the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone.[284] In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, and thereby restore perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions.[285] In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy".[286] The fact that the edict began with a long rhetorical preamble betrays at the same time a moralizing stance as well as a weak grasp of economics – perhaps simply the wishful thinking that criminalizing a practice was enough to stop it.[287] There is no consensus about how effectively the edict was enforced.[288] Supposedly, inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets.[289] The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian's domains),[290] widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue.[291] Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic,[292] and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source.[293] Social and professional mobility[edit] Partly in response to economic pressures and in order to protect the vital functions of the state, Diocletian restricted social and professional mobility. Peasants became tied to the land in a way that presaged later systems of land tenure and workers such as bakers, armourers, public entertainers and workers in the mint had their occupations made hereditary.[294] Soldiers' children were also forcibly enrolled, something that followed spontaneous tendencies among the rank-and-file, but also expressed increasing difficulties in recruitment.[295] The monolithic granite column shaft of the Diocletianic honorific column in the Serapeum of Alexandria called "Pompey's Pillar" is 20.75 metres (68.1 ft) tall. Built 298–303. Legacy[edit] The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement."[296] Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily.[297] Once he retired, however, his tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire fell into civil wars. Stability emerged after the defeat of Licinius by Constantine in 324.[298] Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned. Constantine's rule, however, validated Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented:[299] the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant.[300] Constantine ignored those parts of Diocletian's rule that did not suit him. Diocletian's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold solidus became the empire's primary currency instead.[301] Diocletian's persecution of Christians was repudiated and changed to a policy of toleration and then favoritism. Christianity eventually became the official religion in 380. Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system and administrative reforms lasted, with some modifications, until the advent of the Muslims in the 630s.[302] The combination of state autocracy and state religion was instilled in much of Europe, particularly in the lands which adopted Orthodox Christianity.[303] In addition to his administrative and legal impact on history, the Emperor Diocletian is considered to be the founder of the city of Split in modern-day Croatia. The city itself grew around the heavily fortified Diocletian's Palace the emperor had built in anticipation of his retirement. The Era of Martyrs (Latin: anno martyrum or AM), also known as the Diocletian era (Latin: anno Diocletiani), is a method of numbering years used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century anno Domini and by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century to the present. In this system of counting, the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284 was used as the epoch, making Diocletian's first year in power into the Year 1 of that calendar. Western Christians were aware of this count but did not use it; Dionysius Exiguus replaced the anno Diocletiani era with his anno Domini era because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[304] The anno Domini era became dominant in the Latin West but was not used in the Greek East until modern times. Dukljan, a major villain in Serbian mythology who is presented as the adversary of God[305] is considered to be a mythological reflection of the historical Diocletian. The Talmud includes several semi-legendary accounts of Diocletian. One of them recounts that Diocletian was originally a swineherd, and that in this part of his life he was teased and abused by young Jews. When he became the Emperor he called up the leaders of the Jews, who were fearful, saying "We have teased Diocletian the Swineherd but we respect Diocletian the Emperor" - to which Diocletian responded "You must show respect even to the smallest and lowest of the Romans, because you can never know which one of us will rise to greatness"[306][307] See also[edit] Camp of Diocletian Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324) Dioclesian, Henry Purcell's 1690 tragicomic semi-opera, loosely based on the life of the historical Diocletian Diocletian Era, used for dating in late antiquity and in the Coptic calendar Diocletian window Diocletianopolis (disambiguation) Dominate Pompey's Pillar (column) Rags to riches 20,000 Martyrs of Nicomedia Illyrian emperors Notes[edit] ^ Coins are issued in his name in Cyzicus at some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he was still in the public eye by that point.[16] ^ Barnes and Bowman argue for 21 July,[54] Potter for 25 July.[55] ^ He is placed there by a rescript dated 3 March 286.[68] ^ He is attested there in a rescript dated 31 May 287.[70] The Jewish Midrash suggests that Diocletian resided at Panias (present-day Banias) in the northern Golan Heights.[71] ^ The chronology of Maximian's appointment as augustus is somewhat uncertain.[84] Some suggest that Maximian was appointed augustus from the beginning of his imperial career, without ever holding the office of caesar;[85] others date the assumption of the Augustan title to 1 March 286.[86] 1 April 286 is the most common date used in modern histories of the period.[83] ^ The suggested dates for Galerius's appointment are 1 March and 21 May. There is no consensus on which is correct.[111] ^ It is possible that Galerius's position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a caesar's deference to his augustus, and not an attempt to humiliate him.[143] ^ Faustus of Byzantium's history refers to a battle that took place after Galerius set up base at Satala (Sadak, Turkey) in Armenia Minor, when Narseh advanced from his base at Oskha to attack him.[147] Other histories of the period do not note these events. ^ Lactantius criticizes Diocletian for his absence from the front,[148] but Southern, dating Diocletian's African campaigns one year earlier than Barnes, places Diocletian on Galerius's southern flank.[149] ^ The range of dates proposed for Diocletian's death have stretched from 311 through to 318. Until recently, the date of 3 December 311 has been favoured; however, the absence of Diocletian on Maxentius's "AETERNA MEMORIA" coins would indicate that he was alive through to Maxentius's defeat in October 312. Given that Diocletian had died by the time of Maximin Daia's death in July 313, it has been argued that the correct date of death was 3 December 312.[199] ^ The term consistorium was already in use for the room where council meetings took place.[215] ^ The Byzantine author John Lydus provides extraordinarily precise troop numbers: 389,704 in the army and 45,562 in the navy.[262] His precision has polarized modern historians. Some believe that Lydus found these figures in official documents and that they are therefore broadly accurate; others believe that he fabricated them.[263] ^ The army recruitment tax was called the praebitio tironum, and conscripted a part of each landowner's tenant farmers (coloni). When a capitulum extended across many farms, farmers provided the funds to compensate the neighbor who had supplied the recruit. Landowners of senatorial rank were able to commute the tax with a payment in gold (the aurum tironicum).[268] ^ The denarius was dropped from the Imperial mints,[275] but the values of new coins continued to be measured in reference to it.[276] References[edit] Citations[edit] Chapters from The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire are marked with "(CAH)". ^ Barnes, New Empire, 4. ^ a b Barnes, New Empire, 30, 46; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68. ^ Aurelius Victor 39.1; Potter, 648. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 30; Williams, 237–38; cf. Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 86: "We do not even know when he was born ..." ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, 9.19; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68; Potter, 280; Williams, 22–23. ^ Zonaras, 12.31; Southern, 331; Williams, 26. ^ Mathisen, "Diocletian"; Williams, 26. ^ SHA, Vita Carini 14–15; Williams, 26. ^ Williams,33 ^ Williams, 36. ^ Theodor Mommsen, A History of Rome Under the Emperors. London: Routledge, 1999, p. 348. Mommsen offers a general remark on the political history of the Third Century Rome: "Those accounts we do possess stem from outsiders who in fact know nothing" – 346. A modern historian like Jill Harries, Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire, Edinburgh University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-7486-2052-4, p. 27, calls Carus's death account, outrightly, a "story". ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4. ^ a b Southern, 133. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus." ^ Codex Justinianeus 5.52.2; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Potter, 279. ^ Roman Imperial Coinage 5.2 Numerian no. 462; Potter, 279–80. ^ Williams, 34 ^ Leadbetter, "Numerianus." ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Odahl, 39; Williams, 35. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, 9.19; Aurelius Victor, Book of the Caesars, 39.1. ^ a b c d e f Potter, 280. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68; Williams, 35–36. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4–5; Odahl, 39–40; Williams, 36–37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4–5; Leadbetter, "Numerian"; Odahl, 39–40; Williams, 37. ^ SHA, Vita Cari 13, cited in Averil Cameron, The Later Roman Empire (Glasgow: Fontana, 1993), 31. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 39. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 31; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 68–69; Potter, 280; Southern, 134; Williams, 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 280; Southern, 134. ^ a b c d Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Leadbetter, "Carinus"; Southern, 134–35; Williams, 38. See also Banchich. ^ Southern, 134–5; Williams, 38. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Leadbetter, "Carinus." ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 280. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Odahl, 40; Southern, 135. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Williams, 37–38. ^ Potter, 280; Williams, 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Odahl, 40; Williams, 38. ^ Southern, 135; Williams, 38. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69. ^ Roman Imperial Coinage 5.2.241 no. 203–04; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5, 287; Barnes, New Empire, 50. ^ Williams, 41. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Cesaribus, 37.5, quoted in Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 654 ^ Barnes, Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality. Cornell University Press, 1998, p. 46 ^ William Lewis Leadbetter, Galerius and the Will of Diocletian. Abingdon: 2011, n.p.g. (e-book) ^ Southern, 135, 331. ^ Potter, 281. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Barnes, New Empire, 113; Williams, 41–42. ^ Aurelius Victor, 39.15, qtd. in Leadbetter, "Carinus." ^ Barnes, "Two Senators," 46; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Leadbetter, "Carinus"; Southern, 135; Williams, 41 ^ Leadbetter, "Carinus." ^ Barnes, "Two Senators," 46; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 5–6; Leadbetter, "Carinus." ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 136. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; New Empire, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69. ^ The Roman Empire at Bay, 280–81. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 280–81; Williams, 43–45. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. See also: Williams, 48–49. ^ Potter, 280; Southern, 136; Williams, 43. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Odahl, 42–43; Southern, 136; Williams, 45. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Southern, 136. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Williams, 58–59. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11–12; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Odahl, 43; Southern, 136–37; Williams, 58. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11; Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 172. ^ Williams, 58–59. See also: Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 137. ^ Codex Justinianeus 4.48.5; Fragmenta Vaticana 297; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 50; Potter, 281. ^ Southern, 143; Williams, 52. ^ Fragmenta Vaticana 275; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Potter, 281, 649. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5)21.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6. ^ Codex Justinianeus 4.10.3; 1.51.1; 5.17.3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 50–51; Potter, 281, 649. ^ Bereishis Rabbah, Ed. Vilna, Parashas Toledos 63:8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Millar, 177. ^ Southern, 242. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 51; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73; Potter, 292, 651; Southern, 143; Williams, 52. ^ Southern, 242, 360–61. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 73; Millar, 180–81; Southern, 143; Williams, 52. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 70–71; Potter, 283–84; Southern, 137–41; Williams, 45–47. ^ Southern, 138 ^ Potter, 284 ^ Southern, 138 & 140 ^ Williams, 61/62 ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 47–48. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 142. ^ Potter, 281; Southern, 142; following De Caesaribus 39.17. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 69; following BGU 4.1090.34. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 48. ^ Potter, 649. ^ Potter, 282; Williams, 49. ^ Southern, 141 ^ Southern, 140. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. ^ Williams, 62. ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 143. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 255; Southern, 144. ^ a b c Potter, 285. ^ Williams, 63. ^ Southern, 144. ^ Williams, 78. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5)12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7, 288; Potter, 284–85, 650; Southern, 143; Williams, 55. ^ Southern, 143; Williams, 55. ^ Codex Justinianeus 9.41.9; Barnes, New Empire, 51; Potter, 285, 650. ^ Codex Justinianeus 6.30.6; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285, 650. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)2.4, 8.1, 11.3–4, 12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 288; Potter, 285, 650; Williams, 56. ^ a b Elsner, Imperial Rome, 73. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)12, qtd. in Williams, 57. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285, 288. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 36–37; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 38; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Williams, 67. ^ Southern, 145. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 45–46; Williams, 67. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9. ^ Jill Harries, "Imperial Rome" ^ Williams, 74 ^ Williams, 75 ^ Jill Harris, "Imperial Rome" ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17–18. ^ a b Odahl, 59. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Williams, 76–77. ^ Williams, 76. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Odahl, 59; Southern, 149–50. ^ Carrie & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 163–164 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 164 ^ Williams, 77. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 163 ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17. See also Southern, 160, 338. ^ DiMaio, "Domitius". ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; DiMaio, "Domitius". ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17–18; Southern, 150. ^ a b Southern, 150. ^ Harries, 173. ^ Potter, 292; Williams, 69. ^ Williams, 69–70. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; " Potter, 292; Southern, 149. ^ Eutropius 9.24–25; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Millar, 177–78. ^ Millar, 177–78. ^ Potter, 652. ^ Eutropius 9.24–25; Theophanes, anno 5793; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 17; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Potter, 292–93. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 14. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 14; Southern, 151. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81; Millar, 178. ^ Millar, 178; Potter, Roman Empire at Bay, 293. ^ Bowman, "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy" (CAH), 81. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 9.6. ^ Severus to Constantine, 151, 335–36. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Potter, 293. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18; Millar, 178. ^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18. ^ a b c Potter, 293. ^ Millar, 178–79; Potter, Roman Empire at Bay, 293. ^ a b Millar, 178. ^ a b Heather, P. J. (Peter J.) (2018). Rome resurgent : war and empire in the age of Justinian. New York. ISBN 978-0199362745. OCLC 1007044617. ^ Southern, 151. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.1–5; Barnes, "Sossianus Hierocles", 245; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 18–19; Burgess, "Date of the Persecution", 157–58; Helgeland, "Christians and the Roman Army", 159; Liebeschuetz, 246–8; Odahl, 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 51; Odahl, 54–56, 62. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6, 31.1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8, a1, 3; Constantine, Oratio ad Coetum Sanctum 22; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 19, 294. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 19. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 49; Carrié & Roussele, L'Empire Romain, 163–164. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 660; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 33.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20; Williams, 83–84. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 20–21. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Odahl, 67. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.50. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338. ^ Some sources translate the oracular proclamation as the just or righteous men. The Persecution of Diocletian: A Historical Essay by Arthur James Mason M.A.; Deighton Bell and Co publishers, Cambridge, 1876; p. 63. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337; Southern, 168. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Williams, 176. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22; Liebeschuetz, 249–50. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24; Southern, 168. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 23–24. ^ Treadgold, 25. ^ Southern, 168. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39. ^ Tilley, xi. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 48–49, 208–213. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 208–213. ^ Lactantius, Divinae Institutiones 7.16–17; cf. Daniel 7:23–25; Digeser, 149–50. ^ Š. Kulišić, P. Ž. Petrović, and N. Pantelić, Српски митолошки речник (Belgrade: Nolit, 1970), 111–12. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall, I, 153 and 712, note 92. ^ a b Potter, 341. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 24–25. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)15.16; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 20.4; Southern, 152, 336. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25; Southern, 152. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 18.1–7; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25; Southern, 152. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine," 60; Odahl, 69–72; Potter, 341–42. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–26. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 26; Potter, 342. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine," 60–61; Odahl, 72–74; Southern, 152–53. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Southern, 152. ^ Southern, 152. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31–32; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90. ^ Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 39.6. ^ a b Nakamura, Byron J. (July 2003). "When Did Diocletian Die? New Evidence for an Old Problem". Classical Philology. 98 (3): 283–89. doi:10.1086/420722. JSTOR 10.1086/420722. S2CID 161249335. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41. ^ Potter, 294–95. ^ Potter, 298. ^ a b Potter, 296–98. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 617, qtd. in Potter, 296. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 641, qtd. in Potter, 296. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 618, qtd. in Potter, 296. See also Millar, 182, on tetrarchic triumphalism in the Near East. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 44–45. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 43; Potter, 290. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171–72; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 43; Liebeschuetz, 235–52, 240–43. ^ Potter, 290. ^ Southern, 163. ^ Southern, 153–54, 163. ^ Southern, 162–63. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171–72; Southern, 162–63; Williams, 110. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 172, citing the Codex Justinianeus 9.47.12. ^ Southern, 162–63; Williams, 110. ^ Williams, 107/108. ^ Williams, 110. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.3, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 173. ^ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 19. ^ Roger S. Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 66, and A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Oxford: Blackwell, 1964), 594, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 173. ^ Carrié & Rouselle, L'Empire Romain, 678 ^ As taken from the Laterculus Veronensis or Verona List, reproduced in Barnes, New Empire, chs. 12–13 (with corrections in T.D. Barnes, "Emperors, panegyrics, prefects, provinces and palaces (284–317)", Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996): 539–42). See also: Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9; Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 179; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 24–27. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 25–26. ^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 10. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 655/666. ^ Potter, 296. ^ Harries, 53–54; Potter, 296. ^ Although there were still some governors – like Arpagius, the 298 governor of Britannia Secunda – who still busied themselves with military affairs in strained circumstances: Williams, 107 ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9–10; Treadgold, 18–20. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 25, citing Simon Corcoran, The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government A.D. 284–324 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 234–53. ^ Michele Renee Salzman,The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire. Harvard University Press, 2009, ISBN 0-674-00641-0, p. 31 ^ Inge Mennen, Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Leiden: Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-20359-4, p. 77 ^ Codex Justinianeus 2.13.1, qtd. by Carrié & Rousselle, l"Empire Romain, 678. ^ Carrié & Roussele, L'Empire Romain, 678 ^ Leadbetter, Galerius and the Will of Diocletian; Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, Paris: Seuil, 2005, ISBN 2-02-057798-4, p. 64, fn. 208. ^ Serena Connolly, Lives behind the Laws: The World of the Codex Hermogenianus. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-253-35401-3, p. 61 ^ Karen Radner, ed., State Correspondence in the Ancient World: From New Kingdom Egypt to the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-935477-1, p. 181 ^ Williams, 53–54, 142–43. ^ Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 201; Williams, Diocletian. 143. ^ Potter, 296, 652. ^ Harries, 14–15; Potter, 295–96. ^ Potter, 295–96. ^ Harries, 21, 29–30; Potter, 295–96. ^ Harries, 21–22. ^ Harries, 63–64. ^ George Mousourakis, Fundamentals of Roman Private Law. Berlin: Springer, 2012, ISBN 978-3-642-29310-8, p. 64 ^ Harries, 162. ^ Harries, 167. ^ Harries, 55. ^ Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 207. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain, 166 ^ Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. Baltimore: JHU Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4, p. 176 ^ Luttwak, 167; Campbell, "The Army" (CAH), 124–26; Southern, 154–55. See also: Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 19–20; Williams, 91–101. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 171; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 27. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 27. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.2, qtd. in Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 46. ^ Zosimus, 2.34 qtd. in Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 46. ^ Christol & Nony, "Rome et son empire" 241 ^ Southern, 157; Treadgold, 19. ^ Treadgold, 19. ^ De Mensibus 1.27. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 17. ^ Southern, 158; Treadgold, 112–13. ^ a b Southern, 159; Treadgold, 112–13. ^ a b Southern, 159. ^ a b c Treadgold, 20. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 173. See also: Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 18. ^ a b Southern, 160; Treadgold, 20. ^ Potter, 333. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 9, 288; Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, 28–29; Southern, 159. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, l"Empire Romain, 187–88. ^ Williams, 125. ^ Brown 1989, p. 25. ^ a b c Southern, 160. ^ a b Potter, 392. ^ Potter, 392–93. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 176. ^ Potter, 334, 393; Southern, 160. ^ a b Potter, 334–35. ^ Potter, 393. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 176–77. ^ Potter, 336. ^ Southern, 160, 339. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 177–78; Potter, 335; Southern, 161. ^ Potter, 335. ^ Rees, "Diocletian and the Tetrarchy", 42 and 44 ^ Rees, "Diocletian and the Tetrarchy",44 ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 178. ^ Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 177. ^ Potter, 336; Southern, 161. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.6–7, cited in Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 178, and Southern, 161. ^ Potter, 336; Williams, 131–32. ^ "Late Antinquity" by Richard Lim in The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Greece and Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010, p. 115. ^ Christol & Nony, 241. ^ Jones, Later Roman Empire, 40. ^ Williams, 228–29. ^ Williams, 196–98. ^ Williams, 204. ^ Williams, 205–06. ^ Williams, 207–08. ^ Williams, 208. ^ Williams, 218–19. ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, 767. ^ Đorđe Janković (2007-09-06). "О називу Диоклeје пре Немањића". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2008-08-16. ^ Hebrew Wikisource ^ "The Legends of King Diocletian" (in Hebrew) on the website of Rabbi Meir Ba'al Ha'nes Synagogue in Tel Aviv [1] Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Codex Justinianeus (translation) 529. Epitome de Caesaribus (translation) ca. 395. Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) first seven books ca. 300, eighth and ninth book ca. 313, tenth book ca. 315, epilogue ca. 325. Book 8. Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urbe Condita (Abbreviated History from the City's Founding) ca. 369. 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Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-814822-4. Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209. Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993. Hardcover ISBN 0-674-77885-5 Paperback ISBN 0-674-77886-3 Nakamura, Byron J. "When Did Diocletian Die? New Evidence for an Old Problem." Classical Philology 98:3 (2003): 283–289. Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1 Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger. Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric: AD 289–307. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-924918-0 Rees, Roger. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7486-1661-6 Rostovtzeff, Michael. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. ISBN 978-0-19-814231-7 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 Tilley, Maureen A. Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996. Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 Further reading[edit] Arnheim, M. T. W. (1972). The senatorial aristocracy in the later Roman empire. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814299-7. Brauer, George C. (1975). The age of the soldier emperors : Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press. ISBN 978-0-8155-5036-5. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire : AD 284–430. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-51193-4. Sutherland, C. H. V. (1935). "The State of the Imperial Treasury at the Death of Diocletian". Journal of Roman Studies. 25 (2): 150–62. doi:10.2307/296596. JSTOR 296596. Sutherland, C. H. V. (1955). "Diocletian's Reform of the Coinage". Journal of Roman Studies. 45: 116–18. doi:10.2307/298751. JSTOR 298751. Sutherland, C. H. V. (1961). "The Denarius and Sestertius in Diocletian's Coinage Reform". Journal of Roman Studies. 51 (1–2): 94–97. doi:10.2307/298841. JSTOR 298841. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diocletianus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Diocletian Diocletian from the Catholic Encyclopedia. 12 Byzantine Rulers, by Lars Brownworth. 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian. 02. The Crisis of the Third Century and the Diocletianic Reforms, Professor Freedman on Yalecourses Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia By Robert Adam, 1764. Plates made available by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. (N.B. "Spalatro" was a less used alternative form of "Spalato", the Italian name for Croatian "Split"). Regnal titles Preceded by Numerian and Carinus Roman Emperor 284–305 Served alongside: Maximian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Political offices Preceded by Carinus, Numerian Consul of the Roman Empire 284–285 with Bassus, Carinus, Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus Succeeded by Marcus Junius Maximus, Vettius Aquilinus Preceded by Marcus Junius Maximus, Vettius Aquilinus Consul of the Roman Empire 287 with Maximian Succeeded by Maximian, Pomponius Ianuarianus Preceded by Marcus Magrius Bassus, Lucius Ragonius Quintianus Consul of the Roman Empire 290 with Maximian Succeeded by Gaius Junius Tiberianus, Cassius Dio Preceded by Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus Consul of the Roman Empire 293 with Maximian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus, Galerius Preceded by Nummius Tuscus, Gaius Annius Anullinus Consul of the Roman Empire 296 with Constantius Chlorus Succeeded by Maximian, Galerius Preceded by Anicius Faustus Paulinus, Virius Gallus Consul of the Roman Empire 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en-wikipedia-org-1424	----	Numa Pompilius - Wikipedia Numa Pompilius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King of Rome Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius shown as an effigy on a Roman coin minted by Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Piso himself claimed descent from the king. King of Rome Reign 715–673 BC Predecessor Romulus Successor Tullus Hostilius Spouse Tatia Issue Pompillia Father Pomponius Religion Ancient Roman Religion Numa Pompilius (Latin pronunciation: [ˈnʊma pɔmˈpɪlijʊs]; 753–673 BC; reigned 715–673 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome,[1] succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum.[2] He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are attributed to him, such as the Roman Calendar, Vestal Virgins, the cult of Mars, the cult of Jupiter, the cult of Romulus, and the office of Pontifex Maximus.[2] Contents 1 Genealogy 2 Kingship 3 Agent of the gods 4 Institutions attributed to Numa 5 Story of the books of Numa 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 8.1 Primary 8.2 Secondary 9 External links Genealogy[edit] According to Plutarch, Numa was the youngest of Pomponius's[3] four sons, born on the day of Rome's founding (traditionally, 21 April 753 BC). He lived a severe life of discipline and banished all luxury from his home. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines and a colleague of Romulus, gave in marriage his only daughter, Tatia, to Numa. After 13 years of marriage, Tatia died, precipitating Numa's retirement to the countryside. According to Livy, Numa resided at Cures immediately before being elected king.[4] Titus Livius (Livy) and Plutarch refer to the story that Numa was instructed in philosophy by Pythagoras but discredit it as chronologically and geographically implausible.[4] Plutarch reports that some authors credited him with only a single daughter, Pompilia. Pompilia's mother is variously identified as Numa's first wife Tatia or his second wife Lucretia. She is said to have married the future first pontifex maximus Numa Marcius, and by him gave birth to the future king Ancus Marcius.[5] Other authors, according to Plutarch, gave Numa, in addition, five sons, Pompo (or Pomponius), Pinus, Calpus, Mamercus, and Numa, from whom the noble families (gentes) of the Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii, Aemilii, and Pompilii respectively traced their descent. Still other writers, writes Plutarch, believed these were fictional genealogies to enhance the status of these families.[6] Kingship[edit] After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one year in which members of the Senate exercised the royal power in rotation for five days in a row. In 715 BC, after much bickering between the factions of Romulus (the Romans) and Tatius (the Sabines), a compromise was reached, and the Senate elected the Sabine, Numa, who was approximately forty years of age[7] as the next king. At first, Numa refused the offer of kingship. He argued that Rome, under the influence of Romulus's rule, was still a country of war. It needed a ruler who would lead their armies, not someone who lived a life of piety and reflection.[8] However, his father and Sabine kinsmen, including his teacher and the father of Numa's son-in-law, Marcus, along with an embassy of two senators from Rome, together persuaded him to accept. In Plutarch and Livy's account, Numa, after being summoned by the Senate from Cures, was offered the tokens of power amid an enthusiastic reception by the people of Rome. He requested, however, that an augur should divine the opinion of the gods on the prospect of his kingship before he accepted. Jupiter was consulted, and the omens were favourable. Thus approved by the Roman and Sabine people and the heavens, he took up his position as King of Rome. According to Plutarch, Numa's first act was to disband the personal guard of 300 so-called "Celeres" (the "Swift") with which Romulus permanently surrounded himself. This gesture is variously interpreted as self-protection in the face of their questionable loyalty, a sign of humility, or a sign of peace and moderation. Based on Roman chronology, Numa died of old age in 673 BC. After a reign of forty-three years, he was over eighty years. At his request, he was not cremated but instead buried in a stone coffin on the Janiculum near the altar of Fons. Tullus Hostilius succeeded him. Rome had two kings in succession who differed in their methods. Romulus was a king of war while Numa was a king of peace, and thus Rome was well versed in both the arts of war and peace.[9] Agent of the gods[edit] Numa was traditionally celebrated by the Romans for his wisdom and piety. In addition to the endorsement by Jupiter, he is supposed to have had a direct and personal relationship with a number of deities, most famously the nymph Egeria, who, according to legend, taught him to be a wise legislator. According to Livy, Numa claimed that he held nightly consultations with Egeria on the proper manner of instituting sacred rites for the city.[10] Numa then appointed the priests for each of the deities. Plutarch suggests that he played on superstition[11] to give himself an aura of awe and divine allure in order to cultivate more gentle behaviour among the warlike early Romans, such as honoring the gods, abiding by law, behaving humanely to enemies, and living proper, respectable lives. Numa was said to have authored several "sacred books" in which he had written down divine teachings, mostly from Egeria and the Muses. Plutarch[12] (citing Valerius Antias) and Livy[13] record that at his request he was buried along with these "sacred books", preferring that the rules and rituals they prescribed be preserved in the living memory of the state priests, rather than preserved as relics subject to forgetfulness and disuse. About half of these books—Plutarch and Livy differ on their number—were thought to cover the priesthoods he had established or developed, including the flamines, pontifices, Salii, and fetiales and their rituals. The other books dealt with philosophy (disciplina sapientiae). According to Plutarch,[12] these books were recovered some four hundred years later (in reality almost five hundred years, i. e. in 181 BC according to Livy 40:29:3-14) at the occasion of a natural accident that exposed the tomb. They were examined by the Senate, deemed to be inappropriate for disclosure to the people, and burned. Dionysius of Halicarnassus[14] hints that they were actually kept as a very close secret by the pontifices. Numa is reputed to have constrained the two minor gods Picus and Faunus into delivering some prophecies of things to come.[15] Numa, supported and prepared by Egeria, reportedly held a battle of wits with Jupiter himself, in an apparition whereby Numa sought to gain a protective ritual against lightning strikes and thunder.[15] Once, when a plague was ravaging the population, a brass shield fell from the sky and was brought to Numa. He declared that Egeria had told him it was a gift from Jupiter to be used for Rome's protection. He ordered ceremonies to give thanks for the gift and quickly brought about an end to the plague. The Ancile became a sacred relic of the Romans[16] and was placed in the care of the Salii. Institutions attributed to Numa[edit] Numa Pompilius, from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum One of Numa's first acts was the construction of a temple of Janus as an indicator of peace and war. The temple was constructed at the foot of the Argiletum, a road in the city. After securing peace with Rome's neighbours, the doors of the temples were shut[10] and remained so for the duration of Numa's reign, a unique case in Roman history. Another creation attributed to Numa was the cult of Terminus, a god of boundaries. Through this rite, which involved sacrifices at private properties, boundaries and landmarks, Numa reportedly sought to instill in Romans the respect of lawful property and non-violent relationships with neighbours. The cult of Terminus, preached Numa, involved absence of violence and murder. The god was a testament to justice and a keeper of peace.[17] In a somehow comparable,[18] more moral rather than legal fashion, Numa sought to associate himself with one of the roles of Vegoia in the religious system of the neighbouring Etruscans by deciding to set the official boundaries of the territory of Rome, which Romulus had never wanted, presumably with the same concern of preserving peace.[17][19] Recognizing the paramount importance of the Ancile, King Numa had eleven matching shields made,[16] so perfect that no one, even Numa, could distinguish the original from the copies. These shields were the Ancilia, the sacred shields of Jupiter, which were carried each year in a procession by the Salii priests. Numa also established the office and duties of Pontifex Maximus and instituted (Plutarch's version[20]) the flamen of Quirinus, in honour of Romulus, in addition to those of Jupiter and Mars that already existed. Numa also brought the Vestal Virgins to Rome from Alba Longa.[21] Plutarch adds that they were then at the number of two, were later augmented to four by Servius Tullius and stayed so through the ages. By tradition, Numa promulgated a calendar reform, which divided the year into twelve months according to the lunar course, but adjusted to be in accordance with the solstitial revolution.[22] It was during this time that the months of January and February[10] were introduced. Numa also made the distinction of the days being either profane or sacred.[9] In other Roman institutions established by Numa, Plutarch thought he detected a Laconian influence, attributing the connection to the Sabine culture of Numa, for "Numa was descended of the Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians." Livy and Dionysius give a largely concordant picture of the vast founding work carried out by Numa concerning Roman religion and religious institutions. Livy's account is concise: it occupies the whole chapters 20 and 21 of his first book. Livy begins with the priesthoods which Numa established. He created a residentiary flamen to Jupiter endowed with regal insignia, who could carry out the sacred functions of the royal office, which usually he himself discharged: he did so to avoid the neglect of the rites whenever the king went to war, for he saw the warlike attitude of the Romans. He also created the flamines of Mars and Quirinus, the Vestal virgins, who were salaried by the state treasury, the twelfth Salii of Mars Gradivus with their peculiar custom and ritual. Then he chose Numa Marcius as pontiff. To him he bestowed all the sacred ceremonies, his books and seals. The following words of this passage have been considered a systematic summary exposition of Roman religion: quibus hostiis, quibus diebus, ad quae templa sacra fierent atque unde in eos sumptus pecunia erogaretur. Cetera quoque omnia publica privataque sacra pontificis scitis subiecit, ut esset quo consultum plebes veniret, ne quid divini iuris negligendo patrios ritus peregrinosque adsciscendo turbaretur. Nec celestes modo caerimonias sed iusta quoque funebria placandosque manes ut idem pontificem edoceret, quaeque prodigia fulminibus a Iove quo visu missa susciperentur atque curarentur. [translated] ...[showing] with what victims, upon what days, and at what temples the sacred rites were to be performed, and from what funds the money was to be taken to defray the expenses. He also placed all other religious institutions, public and private, under the control of the decrees of the pontiff, to the end that there might be some authority to whom the people should come to ask advice, to prevent any confusion in the divine worship being caused by their neglecting the ceremonies of their own country, and adopting foreign ones. He further ordained that the same pontiff should instruct the people not only in the ceremonies connected with the heavenly deities, but also in the due performance of funeral solemnities, and how to appease the shades of the dead; and what prodigies sent by lightning or any other phenomenon were to be attended to and expiated.[23] Livy lists the hostiae, victims, as the first competence of the pontiffs: following come the days, temples, money, other sacred ceremonies, funerals and prodigies. The potential for classification inherent in this text has been remarked by modern historians of Roman religion, even though some, as Bouché-Leclercq, think of a tripartite structure, rather than a division into five (Turchi) or seven parts (Peruzzi). At any rate it is an important document of pontifical derivation that establishes a sort of hierarchic order of competences. Livy continues saying Numa dedicated an altar to Jupiter Elicius as the source of religious knowledge and consulted the god by means of auguries as to what should be expiated; instituted a yearly festival to Fides (Faith) and commanded the three major flamines to be carried to her temple in an arched chariot and to perform the service with their hands wrapped up to the fingers, meaning Faith had to be sacred as in men's right hand; among many other rites he instituted he dedicated places of the Argei. Dionysius of Halicarnassus devotes much more space to Numa's religious reforms. In his account the institution of eight priesthoods is attributed to Numa: curiones, flamines, celeres, augurs, vestals, salii, fetials, pontiffs. However, the space he devotes to the description of these priesthoods and the official duties they discharged is very uneven. He says only a few words about the curiones, who were in charge of tending the sacrifices of the curiae; the flamines; the tribuni celerum,[24] who were the bodyguard of the king but who also took part in some religious ceremonies; and the augurs, who were in charge of official divination. He devotes much more attention to the last four priesthoods of his list, particularly the vestals and the salii. His minute prescriptions about the ceremonies and sacrifices were certainly written down in order to remember them correctly. Plutarch records some of these[25] such as sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even number to the nether gods; the prohibition of making libations to the gods with wine; the prohibition of sacrificing without flour; the necessity of making a complete turn on oneself while praying and worshiping the gods. The ritual of the spolia opima is ascribed to Numa too by ancient sources. Finally Arnobius states the indigitamenta were attributed to him. Numa was credited with dividing the immediate territory of Rome into pagi (villages) and establishing the traditional occupational guilds of Rome: So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and reduced into a single company, appointing every one their proper courts, councils, and observances. (Plutarch) Plutarch, in like manner, tells of the early religion of the Romans, that it was imageless and spiritual. He says Numa "forbade the Romans to represent the deity in the form either of man or of beast. Nor was there among them formerly any image or statue of the Divine Being; during the first one hundred and seventy years they built temples, indeed, and other sacred domes, but placed in them no figure of any kind; persuaded that it is impious to represent things Divine by what is perishable, and that we can have no conception of God but by the understanding". William Blackstone says that Numa may be credited with "originally inventing" corporations: "They were introduced, as Plutarch says, by Numa; who finding, upon his accession, the city torn to pieces by the two rival factions of Sabines, and Romans, thought it a prudent and politic measure, to subdivide these two into many smaller ones, by instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession."[26] Story of the books of Numa[edit] Livy narrates that, in 181BC, while digging in the field of the scriba L. Petilius at the foot of the Ianiculum, peasants found two stone coffers, eight feet long and four feet wide, inscribed both in Latin and in Greek characters, one stating that Numa Pompilus, son of Pompon, king of the Romans was buried (there) and the other that Numa's books were inside it. When Petilius after the advice of his friends opened it, the one that was inscribed with the name of the king was found empty, the other containing two bundles each of seven books, not complete but looking very recent, seven in Latin dealing with pontifical law and seven in Greek of philosophy as it was in that remote past. The books were shown to other people and the fact became public. Praetor Q. Petilius, who was friends with L. Petilius, requested them, found them very dangerous to religion and told Lucius he would have them burnt, but he allowed him to try and recover them by legal or other means. The scriba brought the case to the tribunes of the plebs, and the tribunes in turn brought it to the senate. The praetor declared he was ready to swear an oath that it was not a good thing either to read or to store those books, and the senate deliberated that the offer of the oath was sufficient by itself, that the books be burnt on the Comitium as soon as possible and that an indemnity fixed by the praetor and the tribunes be paid to the owner. L. Petilius though declined to accept the sum. The books were burnt by the victimarii. The action of the praetor has been seen as politically motivated, and in accord with the Catonian reaction of those years.[27] It is relevant though that some of the annalists of those times or only a few years later, do not seem to show any doubt about the authenticity of the books.[28] The whole incident has been critically analyzed again by philologist E. Peruzzi, who by comparing the different versions, strives to demonstrate the overall authenticity of the books.[29] By contrast, M.J. Pena's position is more reserved and critical.[30] Francophone scholars A. Delatte and J. Carcopino believe the incident to be the result of a real initiative of the pythagoric sect of Rome.[31] The fears of the Roman authorities should be explained in connection to the nature of the doctrines contained in the books, which are supposed to have contained a type of physikòs lógos, a partly moral and partly cosmological interpretation of religious beliefs that has been proven by Delatte to be proper of the ancient pythagorism. Part of it must have been in contradiction with the beliefs of fulgural and augural art and of the procuratio of the prodigies.[32] Most ancient authors relate the presence of treatises of pythagoric philosophy, but some, as Sempronius Tuditanus,[33] mention only religious decrees.[34] See also[edit] Pompilia gens References[edit] ^ The Galileo Project, Rice University, note [4] ^ a b "Numa Pompilius | Biography, Reign, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-17. ^ Pompon in Plutarch and Dionysius. The Sabine form of the name was Pompos, not Pomponius as is often supposed, which like Pompilius is a patronymic adjectival formation. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:18. ^ E. Peruzzi Le origini di Roma I. La famiglia Firenze 1970 p. 142 ff. ^ Plutarch, The Parallel Lives : Numa, ch. 21 ^ Hooker, Edna M. (1963). "The Significance of Numa's Religious Reforms". Numen. 10 – via JSTOR. ^ Colman, John (2015). "The Philosopher-King and the City in Plutarch's Life of Numa". Perspectives on Political Science. 44 – via EBSCOhost. ^ a b Livy. "The History of Rome, Books 01 to 08". Project Gutenberg: 19. ^ a b c Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:19 ^ Plutarch, "The parallel lives, Numa Pompilius, §VIII" ^ a b Plutarch, "The parallel lives, Numa Pompilius, §XXII" ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita ^ As noted by Gerard Walter, editor of Plutarch's The parallel lives, La Pléïade, volume n°63, 1967. ^ a b Plutarch, "The parallel lives, Numa Pompilius, §XIV" and Ovid Fasti III. ^ a b Plutarch, "The parallel lives, Numa Pompilius, §XIII" ^ a b Plutarch, "The Parallel Lives, Numa Pompilius, §XVI" ^ Vegoia and Egeria ^ Gilman, Arthur. "The Story of Rome from the Earliest Times to the End of the Republic". Project Gutenberg. ^ Plutarch, "The Parallel Lives, Numa Pompilius, §VII" ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20 ^ Rüpke, Jörg (2011). "The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine". Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated: 38. ^ Livius, Titus (1904). Ab Urbe Condita [Roman History, Books I-III]. Retrieved January 31, 2014. ^ Fasti Praenestini II 13, 2, 123 Degrassi as cited by Capdeville. Marcus Iunius Brutus the founder of the Roman Republic was able to call the comitia exactly for the reason that his office of tribunus celerum entitled him to do so. ^ Plutarch Numa 14, 6-7. ^ 1 Bl. Comm. 456-7 ^ F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica. I. Libri e commentari Sassari 1983 p. 22 n. 75. ^ The sources on the episode are collected in G. Garbarino Roma e la filosofia greca dalle origini alla fine del II secolo a. C. Torino 1973 I pp. 64 ff. ^ E. Peruzzi Origini di Roma II. Le lettere Bologna 1973 pp. 107 ff. as cited by Sini. ^ M. J. Pena "La tumba y los libros de Numa" in Faventia 1 1979 pp. 211 ff. as cited by Sini. ^ A. Delatte "Les doctrines pythagoriciennes des livres de Numa" in Académie royale de Belgique, Bulletin de la classe de la classe des lettres et des sciences morales et politiques 22 1936 pp. 19-40; J. Carcopino La basilique pythagoricienne de la Porte majeure 1926 p. 185 as cited by Dumézil La religione romana arcaica Milano 1977 p. 447 n. 8. ^ Delatte p. 33 as cited by Dumézil p. 447. ^ Pliny Natural History XIII 87 as cited by Dumézil p. 447 n. 8. ^ Dumezil p. 447 n. 8. Sources[edit] Primary[edit] Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Numa Pompilius. Livy, Ab urbe condita, Liber 1 Secondary[edit] Unearthing Rome's king from the History News Network Mark Silk (2004). "Numa Pompilius and the Idea of Civil Religion in the West". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 72 (4): 863–96. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfh082. 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en-wikipedia-org-142	----	Ctesiphon - Wikipedia Ctesiphon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital of the Iranian empire in the Parthian and Sasanian eras in present Iraq For other uses, see Ctesiphon (disambiguation). Ctesiphon Map of the metropolis of Ctesiphon in the Sasanian era Shown within Iraq Location Salman Pak, Baghdad Governorate, Iraq Region Mesopotamia Coordinates 33°5′37″N 44°34′50″E / 33.09361°N 44.58056°E / 33.09361; 44.58056Coordinates: 33°5′37″N 44°34′50″E / 33.09361°N 44.58056°E / 33.09361; 44.58056 Type Settlement History Cultures Iranian Site notes Excavation dates 1928–1929, 1931–1932, 1960s–1970s Archaeologists Oscar Reuther, Antonio Invernizzi, Giorgio Gullini Condition Ruined Ctesiphon (/ˈtɛsɪfɒn/ TESS-if-on; Middle Persian: 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 tyspwn or tysfwn;[1] Persian: تیسفون‎; Greek: Κτησιφῶν, Attic Greek: [ktɛːsipʰɔ̂ːn]; Syriac: ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ‎[2]) was an ancient city, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of present-day Baghdad. Ctesiphon served as a royal capital of the Iranian empire in the Parthian and Sasanian eras for over eight hundred years.[3] Ctesiphon was the winter capital of the Sasanian Empire until the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD. Ctesiphon developed into a rich commercial metropolis, merging with the surrounding cities along both shores of the river, including the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. Ctesiphon and its environs were therefore sometimes referred to as "The Cities" (Aramaic: Mahuza, Arabic: المدائن‎, al-Mada'in). In the late sixth and early seventh century, it was listed as the largest city in the world by some accounts.[4] During the Roman–Parthian Wars, Ctesiphon fell three times to the Romans, and later fell twice during Sasanian rule. It was also the site of the Battle of Ctesiphon in 363 AD. After the Muslim invasion the city fell into decay and was depopulated by the end of the eighth century, its place as a political and economic center taken by the Abbasid capital at Baghdad. The most conspicuous structure remaining today is the Taq Kasra, sometimes called the Archway of Ctesiphon.[5] Contents 1 Names 2 Location 3 History 3.1 Parthian period 3.2 Sasanian period 3.3 Downfall of the Sasanians and the Islamic conquests 3.4 Modern era 4 Population and religion 5 Archaeology 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Names[edit] The Latin name Ctesiphon derives from Ancient Greek Ktēsiphôn (Κτησιφῶν). This is ostensibly a Greek toponym based on a personal name, although it may be a Hellenized form of a local name, reconstructed as Tisfōn or Tisbōn.[6] In Iranian-language texts of the Sasanian era, it is spelled as tyspwn, which can be read as Tīsfōn, Tēsifōn, etc. in Manichaean Parthian 𐫤𐫏𐫘𐫛𐫇𐫗, in Middle Persian 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 and in Christian Sogdian (in Syriac alphabet) languages. The New Persian form is Tisfun (تیسفون). Texts from the Church of the East's synods referred to the city as Qṭēspōn (Syriac: ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ‎)[2] or some times Māḥôzē (Syriac: ܡܚܘܙ̈ܐ‎) when referring to the metropolis of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. In modern Arabic, the name is usually Ṭaysafūn (طيسفون) or Qaṭaysfūn (قطيسفون) or as al-Mada'in (المدائن "The Cities", referring to Greater Ctesiphon). "According to Yāqūt [...], quoting Ḥamza, the original form was Ṭūsfūn or Tūsfūn, which was arabicized as Ṭaysafūn."[7] The Armenian name of the city was Tizbon (Տիզբոն). Ctesiphon is first mentioned in the Book of Ezra[8] of the Old Testament as Kasfia/Casphia (a derivative of the ethnic name Cas, and a cognate of Caspian and Qazvin). It is also mentioned in the Talmud as Aktisfon.[9] In another Talmudic reference it is written as Akistfon, located across the Tigris River from the city of Ardashir.[10] Location[edit] Taq Kasra or Ctesiphon palace ruin, with the arch in the centre, 1864 Ctesiphon is located approximately at Al-Mada'in, 32 km (20 mi) southeast of the modern city of Baghdad, Iraq, along the river Tigris. Ctesiphon measured 30 square kilometers, more than twice the surface of 13.7-square-kilometer fourth-century imperial Rome.[citation needed] The archway of Chosroes (Taq Kasra) was once a part of the royal palace in Ctesiphon and is estimated to date between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD.[11] It is located in what is now the Iraqi town of Salman Pak. History[edit] Parthian period[edit] Ctesiphon was founded in the late 120s BC. It was built on the site of a military camp established across from Seleucia by Mithridates I of Parthia. The reign of Gotarzes I saw Ctesiphon reach a peak as a political and commercial center. The city became the Empire's capital circa 58 BC during the reign of Orodes II. Gradually, the city merged with the old Hellenistic capital of Seleucia and other nearby settlements to form a cosmopolitan metropolis.[12] The reason for this westward relocation of the capital could have been in part due to the proximity of the previous capitals (Mithradatkirt, and Hecatompylos at Hyrcania) to the Scythian incursions.[12] Strabo abundantly describes the foundation of Ctesiphon: In ancient times Babylon was the metropolis of Assyria; but now Seleucia is the metropolis, I mean the Seleucia on the Tigris, as it is called. Nearby is situated a village called Ctesiphon, a large village. This village the kings of the Parthians were wont to make their winter residence, thus sparing the Seleucians, in order that the Seleucians might not be oppressed by having the Scythian folk or soldiery quartered amongst them. Because of the Parthian power, therefore, Ctesiphon is a city rather than a village; its size is such that it lodges a great number of people, and it has been equipped with buildings by the Parthians themselves; and it has been provided by the Parthians with wares for sale and with the arts that are pleasing to the Parthians; for the Parthian kings are accustomed to spend the winter there because of the salubrity of the air, but they summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania because of the prevalence of their ancient renown.[13] Because of its importance, Ctesiphon was a major military objective for the leaders of the Roman Empire in their eastern wars. The city was captured by Rome five times in its history – three times in the 2nd century alone. The emperor Trajan captured Ctesiphon in 116, but his successor, Hadrian, decided to willingly return Ctesiphon in 117 as part of a peace settlement. The Roman general Avidius Cassius captured Ctesiphon in 164 during another Parthian war, but abandoned it when peace was concluded. In 197, the emperor Septimius Severus sacked Ctesiphon and carried off thousands of its inhabitants, whom he sold into slavery. Sasanian period[edit] See also: Sasanian interregnum Map of the southwestern Sasanian province of Asoristan and its surroundings By 226, Ctesiphon was in the hands of the Sasanian Empire, who also made it their capital and had laid an end to the Parthian dynasty of Iran. Ctesiphon was greatly enlarged and flourished during their rule, thus turning into a metropolis, which was known by in Arabic as al-Mada'in, and in Aramaic as Mahoze.[14] The oldest inhabited places of Ctesiphon were on its eastern side, which in Islamic Arabic sources is called "the Old City" (مدينة العتيقة Madīnah al-'Atīqah), where the residence of the Sasanians, known as the White Palace (قصر الأبيض), was located. The southern side of Ctesiphon was known as Asbānbar or Aspānbar, which was known by its prominent halls, riches, games, stables, and baths. Taq Kasra was located in the latter.[14][15] The western side was known as Veh-Ardashir (meaning "the good city of Ardashir" in Middle Persian), known as Mahoza by the Jews, Kokhe by the Christians, and Behrasir by the Arabs. Veh-Ardashir was populated by many wealthy Jews, and was the seat of the church of the Nestorian patriarch. To the south of Veh-Ardashir was Valashabad.[14] Ctesiphon had several other districts which were named Hanbu Shapur, Darzanidan, Veh Jondiu-Khosrow, Nawinabad and Kardakadh.[14] Severus Alexander advanced towards Ctesiphon in 233, but as corroborated by Herodian, his armies suffered a humiliating defeat against Ardashir I.[16] In 283, emperor Carus sacked the city uncontested during a period of civil upheaval. In 295, emperor Galerius was defeated outside the city. However, he returned a year later with a vengeance and won a victory which ended in the fifth and final capture of the city by the Romans in 299. He returned it to the Persian king Narses in exchange for Armenia and western Mesopotamia. In c. 325 and again in 410, the city, or the Greek colony directly across the river, was the site of church councils for the Church of the East.[citation needed] 4th century Ctesiphon (Peutinger Map) After the conquest of Antioch in 541, Khosrau I built a new city near Ctesiphon for the inhabitants he captured. He called this new city Weh Antiok Khusrau, or literally, "better than Antioch Khosrau built this".[17] Local inhabitants of the area called the new city Rumagan, meaning "town of the Romans" and Arabs called the city al-Rumiyya. Along with Weh Antiok, Khosrau built a number of fortified cities.[18] Khosrau I deported 292,000 citizens, slaves, and conquered people to this new city in 542.[19] In 590, a member of the House of Mihran, Bahram Chobin repelled the newly ascended Sasanian ruler Khosrau II from Iraq, and conquered the region. One year later, Khosrau II, with aid from the Byzantine Empire, reconquered his domains. During his reign, some of the great fame of al-Mada'in decreased, due to the popularity of Khosrau's new winter residence, Dastagerd.[20] In 627, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius surrounded the city, the capital of the Sassanid Empire, leaving it after the Persians accepted his peace terms. In 628, a deadly plague hit Ctesiphon, al-Mada'in and the rest of the western part of the Sasanian Empire, which even killed Khosrau's son and successor, Kavadh II.[20] In 629, Ctesiphon was briefly under the control of Mihranid usurper Shahrbaraz, but the latter was shortly assassinated by the supporters of Khosrau II's daughter Borandukht. Ctesiphon then continued to be involved in constant fighting between two factions of the Sasanian Empire, the Pahlav (Parthian) faction under the House of Ispahbudhan and the Parsig (Persian) faction under Piruz Khosrow. Downfall of the Sasanians and the Islamic conquests[edit] Further information: Siege of Ctesiphon (637) In the mid-630s, the Muslim Arabs, who had invaded the territories of the Sasanian Empire, defeated them during a great battle known as the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah.[14] The Arabs then attacked Ctesiphon, and occupied it in early 637. The Muslim military officer Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas quickly seized Valashabad and made a peace treaty with the inhabitants of Weh Antiok Khusrau and Veh-Ardashir. The terms of the treaty were that the inhabitants of Weh Antiok Khusrau were allowed to leave if they wanted to, but if they did not, they were forced to acknowledge Muslim authority, and also pay tribute (jizya). Later on, when the Muslims arrived at Ctesiphon, it was completely desolated, due to flight of the Sasanian royal family, nobles, and troops. However, the Muslims had managed to take some of troops captive, and many riches were seized from the Sasanian treasury and were given to the Muslim troops.[14] Furthermore, the throne hall in Taq Kasra was briefly used as a mosque.[21] The Ctesiphon library was also destroyed by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate.[22] Still, as political and economic fortune had passed elsewhere, the city went into a rapid decline, especially after the founding of the Abbasid capital at Baghdad in the 760s, and soon became a ghost town. Caliph Al-Mansur took much of the required material for the construction of Baghdad from the ruins of Ctesiphon. He also attempted to demolish the palace and reuse its bricks for his own palace, but he desisted only when the undertaking proved too vast.[23] Al-Mansur also used the al-Rumiya town as the Abbasid capital city for a few months.[24] It is believed to be the basis for the city of Isbanir in One Thousand and One Nights. Modern era[edit] The ruins of Ctesiphon were the site of a major battle of World War I in November 1915. The Ottoman Empire defeated troops of Britain attempting to capture Baghdad, and drove them back some 40 miles (64 km) before trapping the British force and compelling it to surrender. Population and religion[edit] Under Sasanian rule, the population of Ctesiphon was heavily mixed: it included Arameans, Persians, Greeks and Assyrians. Several religions were also practiced in the metropolis, which included Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism. In 497, the first Nestorian patriarch Mar Babai I, fixed his see at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, supervising their mission east, with the Merv metropolis as pivot. The population also included Manicheans, a dualist church, who continued to be mentioned in Ctesiphon during Umayyad rule fixing their "patriarchate of Babylon" there.[14] Much of the population fled from Ctesiphon after the Arab capture of the metropolis. However, a portion of Persians remained there, and some important figures of these people are known to have provided Ali with presents, which he, however, refused to take.[14] In the ninth century, the surviving Manicheans fled and displaced their patriarchate up the Silk Road, in Samarkand.[25] Archaeology[edit] A German Oriental Society led by Oscar Reuther excavated at Ctesiphon in 1928–29 mainly at Qasr bint al-Qadi on the western part of the site.[26][27][28][29] In winter of 1931–1932 a joint expedition of the German State Museums (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin) and The Metropolitan Museum of Art continued excavations at the site, focusing on the areas of Ma'aridh, Tell Dheheb, the Taq-i Kisra, Selman Pak and Umm ez-Za'tir under the direction of Ernst Kühnel.[30] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, an Italian team from the University of Turin directed by Antonio Invernizzi and Giorgio Gullini [it] worked at the site, which they identified not as Ctesiphon but as Veh Ardashir. Work mainly concentrated on restoration at the palace of Khosrau II.[31][32][33][34][35][36] In 2013, the Iraqi government contracted to restore the Taq Kasra, as a tourist attraction.[37] Gallery[edit] Ctesiphon Gallery 1824 drawing by Captain Hart. Remains of Taq Kasra in 2008. 1923 Iraqi postage stamp, featuring the arch. Remains of the Kasra arch in Ctesiphon in 1932. Ctesiphon Exhibition at the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin. See also[edit] Opis Persian Empire Cities of the ancient Near East Rachae School of Seleucia-Ctesiphon References[edit] ^ Kröger, Jens. "Ctesiphon". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 December 2016. ^ a b Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58. ^ "Ctesiphon: An Ancient Royal Capital in Context". Smithsonian. September 15, 2018. Retrieved 2018-09-21. ^ "Largest Cities Through History". geography.about.com. Retrieved 25 November 2015. ^ Eventually no less than four Sasanian rulers were quoted as its builders: Shapur I (241–273), Shapur II (310–379), Chosroes I Anushirvan (531–579) and Chosroes II Parvez (590–628). Kurz, Otto (1941). "The Date of the Ṭāq i Kisrā". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. (New Series). 73 (1): 37–41. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00093138. JSTOR 25221709. ^ E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936, Vol. 2 (Brill, 1987: ISBN 90-04-08265-4), p. 75. ^ Kröger, Jens (1993), "Ctesiphon", Encyclopedia Iranica, 6, Costa Mesa: Mazda, archived from the original on 2009-01-16 ^ Ezra 8:17 ^ Talmud Bavli Tractate Gittin. pp. 6A. ^ Talmud Bavli Tractate Eruvin. pp. 57b. ^ Farrokh, K. (2007). "The rise of Ctesiphon and the Silk Route". In Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, p. 240. ^ a b Farrokh, K. (2007). "The rise of Ctesiphon and the Silk Route". In Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, p. 125. ^ "LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book XVI Chapter 1, 16". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 25 November 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h Morony 2009. ^ Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 76a. ISBN 9789004097919. ^ Farrokh, K. (2007). "The rise of Ctesiphon and the Silk Route". In Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, p. 185. ^ Dingas, Winter 2007, 109 ^ Frye 1993, 259 ^ Christensen (1993). The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-259-5. ^ a b Shapur Shahbazi 2005. ^ Reade, Julian (1999). Scarre, Chris, ed. The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World: The Great Monuments and How they were Built. Thames & Hudson. pp. 185–186. ISBN 0-500-05096-1. ^ Lucien X. Polastron (2007). Books on Fire: The Destruction of Libraries Throughout History. 324: Lucien X. Polastron. p. 371. ISBN 9781594771675.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Bier, L. (1993). "The Sassanian Palaces and their Influence in Early Islam". Ars Orientalis, 23, 62–62. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1895). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society. p. 40. ^ John van Schaik, Ketters. Een geschiedenis van de Kerk, Leuven, 2016 ^ Schippmann, K. (1980). "Ktesiphon-Expedition im Winter 1928/29". Grundzüge der parthischen Geschichte (in German). Darmstadt. ISBN 3-534-07064-X. ^ Meyer, E. (1929). "Seleukia und Ktesiphon". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 67: 1–26. ^ Reuther, O. (1929). "The German Excavations at Ctesiphon". Antiquity. 3 (12): 434–451. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00003781. ^ Upton, J. (1932). "The Expedition to Ctesiphon 1931–1932". Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 27 (8): 188–197. doi:10.2307/3255274. JSTOR 3255274. ^ Fowlkes-Childs, Blair. “Ctesiphon.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ctes/hd_ctes.htm (July 2016) ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, First Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1964, Mesopotamia, vol. I, pp. 1–88, 1966 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Second Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1965, Mesopotamia, vol. 2, 1967 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Third Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1966, Mesopotamia, vol. 3–4, 1968–69 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Fifth Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1969, Mesopotamia, vol. 5–6, 1960–71 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Sixth Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Seasons 1972/74, Mesopotamia, vol. 5–6, 1973–74 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Seventh Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Seasons 1975/76, Mesopotamia, vol. 7, 1977 ^ "Iraq to restore ancient Arch of Ctesiphon to woo back tourists". rawstory.com. May 30, 2013. Bibliography[edit] M. Streck, Die alte Landschaft Babylonien nach den arabischen Geographen, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1900–1901). M. Streck, "Seleucia und Ktesiphon," Der Alte Orient, 16 (1917), 1–64. A. Invernizzi, "Ten Years Research in the al-Madain Area, Seleucia and Ctesiphon," Sumer, 32, (1976), 167–175. Luise Abramowski, "Der Bischof von Seleukia-Ktesiphon als Katholikos und Patriarch der Kirche des Ostens," in Dmitrij Bumazhnov u. Hans R. Seeliger (hg), Syrien im 1.-7. Jahrhundert nach Christus. Akten der 1. Tübinger Tagung zum Christlichen Orient (15.-16. Juni 2007). (Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2011) (Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum / Studies and Texts in Antiquity and Christianity, 62), Morony, Michael (2009). "MADĀʾEN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 0-582-40525-4. Amedroz, Henry F.; Margoliouth, David S., eds. (1921). The Eclipse of the 'Abbasid Caliphate. Original Chronicles of the Fourth Islamic Century, Vol. V: The concluding portion of The Experiences of Nations by Miskawaihi, Vol. II: Reigns of Muttaqi, Mustakfi, Muti and Ta'i. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Rekaya, M. (1991). "al-Maʾmūn". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VI: Mahk–Mid. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 331–339. ISBN 90-04-08112-7. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 0-582-40525-4. Zarrinkub, Abd al-Husain (1975). "The Arab conquest of Iran and its aftermath". The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6. Bosworth, C. E. (1975). "Iran under the Buyids". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–305. ISBN 0-521-20093-8. Kröger, Jens (1993). "CTESIPHON". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4. pp. 446–448. Shapur Shahbazi, A. (2005). "SASANIAN DYNASTY". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 30 March 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ctesiphon. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Ctesiphon . Ctesiphon and Taq Kasra photo gallery Ctesiphon Exhibition by the Islamic Art Museum at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin in 2016 (Video) Livius.org: Ctesiphon Ctesiphon (profile at the Metropolitan Museum of Art) v t e Iranian architecture Styles Parsian Achaemenid pre-Parsian Parthian Khorasani Sasanian Other Azeri Isfahani Razi Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Tekyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchāl Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ctesiphon&oldid=1024499046" Categories: Ctesiphon Baghdad Governorate Archaeological sites in Iraq Twin cities Parthian cities Sasanian cities Ancient history of Iraq Former populated places in Iraq Populated places along the Silk Road 120s BC establishments Places in Shahnameh Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Armenian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2021, at 14:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1433	----	Catholic Encyclopedia - Wikipedia Catholic Encyclopedia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English-language encyclopedia Not to be confused with New Catholic Encyclopedia. Cover of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 1 The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church[1] (also referred to as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia and the Original Catholic Encyclopedia)[2] is an English-language encyclopedia published in the United States and designed to serve the Catholic Church. The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed "to give its readers full and authoritative information on the entire cycle of Catholic interests, action and doctrine".[3][4] The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company (RAC), a publishing company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedia's Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company. In 1912 the company's name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the encyclopedia's volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the project's lifetime.[5] Contents 1 Purpose 2 History 2.1 Authors and sources 3 Online versions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Purpose[edit] The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and explaining matters from the Catholic point of view. It records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. While more limited in focus than other general encyclopedias, it was far broader in scope than previous efforts at comprehensive Catholic encyclopedias, which covered only internal Church affairs. It offers in-depth portrayals of historical and philosophical ideas, persons and events, from a Catholic perspective, including issues that divide Catholicism from Protestantism and other faith communities. Since the encyclopedia was first published starting in 1907 and has never been updated (versus the New Catholic Encyclopedia), many of its entries may be out of date either with respect to the wider culture or to the Catholic ecclesiastical world. In particular, it predates the creation of the Vatican City State (1929) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which introduced many significant changes in Catholic practice: For example, the online version of the entries on Judaism and Islam at newadvent.org states in an editorial note: "To complement this article, which was taken from the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent recommends a prayerful reading of 'Nostra Aetate' from the Second Vatican Council."[6] History[edit] The writing of the encyclopedia began on January 11, 1905, under the supervision of five editors: Charles G. Herbermann, professor of Latin and librarian of the College of the City of New York Edward A. Pace, professor of philosophy at The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. Condé B. Pallen, editor The Rev. Thomas J. Shahan, professor of Church history at The Catholic University The Rev. John J. Wynne, S.J., editor of Messenger of the Sacred Heart The first edition was initially printed by Robert Appleton Company. The volumes came out sequentially, the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912:[7] Volume Entries Year first pub. Chief editor 1 Aachen–Assize 1907 Charles George Herbermann 2 Assize–Brownr 3 Brow–Clancy 1908 4 Cland–Diocesan 5 Diocese–Fathers 1909 6 Fathers–Gregory 7 Gregory–Infallibility 1910 8 Infamy–Lapparent 9 Laprade–Mass 10 Mass–Newman 1911 11 New Mexico–Philip 12 Philip–Revalidation 13 Revelation–Simon Stock 1912 14 Simony–Tournely 15 Tournon–Zwirner The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1, 1908, and an imprimatur from John Murphy Farley, Archbishop of New York. This review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. In addition to frequent informal conferences and constant communication by letters, the editors subsequently held 134 formal meetings to consider the plan, scope and progress of the work, culminating in publication on April 19, 1913. A first supplement was published in 1922; a second supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated, commemorative volume was awarded to those patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on.[8] There was controversy over the presence of the Catholic Encyclopedia in public libraries in the United States with nativist protests that this violated the separation of church and state, including a successful appeal in Belleville, New Jersey.[9] The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. Authors and sources[edit] The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers state that: The work is entirely new, and not merely a translation or a compilation from other encyclopedic sources. The editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. However, "from standard works" allows that some of the articles from European contributors such as Pierre Batiffol (French) and Johann Peter Kirsch (German) had previously been published in whole or in part in Europe and were translated and edited for the Encyclopedia.[10] Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston. Online versions[edit] Under copyright law of the United States, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. In 1993, Kevin Knight, then a 26-year-old resident of Denver, Colorado, decided, during the visit of Pope John Paul II to that city for World Youth Day, to launch a project to publish the 1913 edition of the encyclopedia on the Internet. Knight founded the Web site New Advent to host the undertaking. Volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997.[Volumes 1] In 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since been replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent site.[Volumes 2] The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is an exact transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words (e.g., using the names of Old Testament books found in modern Bibles, such as "1 & 2 Chronicles" and "Obadiah", in place of the Vulgate/Douay–Rheims titles, such as "1 & 2 Paralipomenon" and "Abdias") and Biblical citation formatting (i.e., the Catholic Answers version retains the original's usage of Roman numerals for chapter numbers [e.g., Genesis I,1], while the New Advent version uses Arabic numerals throughout [e.g., Genesis 1:1]). Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, and at Wikimedia Commons. Wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons.[Volumes 3] The 1922 supplement to the Encyclopedia is also in the public domain and is available online. The New Catholic Encyclopedia also is available online at some libraries. See also[edit] Encyclopaedia Biblica Jewish Encyclopedia Lists of encyclopedias New Catholic Encyclopedia Orthodox Encyclopedia Thomas F. Woodlock – a member of the board of directors for the project and contributor of several articles within it Notes[edit] ^ "The Catholic Encyclopedia". New Advent. Retrieved September 6, 2010. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia". Catholic Answers. ^ Volume Names Year first pub. Wikisource (Incomplete) Internet Archive Google Books Chief editor 1 Aachen–Assize 1907 Wikisource 1 Internet Archive 1 Google Books 1 Charles George Herbermann 2 Assize–Brownr Wikisource 2 Internet Archive 2 Google Books 2 3 Brow–Clancy 1908 Wikisource 3 Internet Archive 3 Google Books 3 4 Cland–Diocesan Wikisource 4 Internet Archive 4 Google Books 4 5 Diocese–Fathers 1909 Wikisource 5 Internet Archive 5 Google Books 5 6 Fathers–Gregory Wikisource 6 Internet Archive 6 Google Books 6 7 Gregory–Infallibility 1910 Wikisource7 Internet Archive 7 Google Books 7 8 Infamy–Lapparent Wikisource 8 Internet Archive 8 Google Books 8 9 Laprade–Mass Wikisource 9 Internet Archive 9 Google Books 9 10 Mass–Newman 1911 Wikisource 10 Internet Archive 10 Google Books 10 11 New Mexico–Philip Wikisource 11 Internet Archive 11 Google Books 11 12 Philip–Revalidation Wikisource 12 Internet Archive 12 Google Books 12 13 Revelation–Simon Stock 1912 Wikisource 13 Internet Archive 13 Google Books 13 14 Simony–Tournely Wikisource 14 Internet Archive 14 Google Books 14 15 Tournon–Zwirner Wikisource 15 Internet Archive 15 Google Books 15 16 Index 1914 Wikisource 16 Internet Archive 16 Google Books 16 17 Supplement I (1922) Internet Archive 17 Google Books 17 18 Supplement II Google Books 18 19 Supplemental Year Books Supplemental Year Books 1912–1922 References[edit] Citations ^ Herberman, Charles G.; et al., eds. (1907). "The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Volume 1: Aachen–Assize. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Title page. ^ "The Original Catholic Encyclopedia". El Cajon, California: Catholic Answers. Retrieved 2011-07-21. ^ Preface to the Catholic Encyclopedia ^ "Scan of 'Preface'". El Cajon, CA: Catholic Answers. Archived from the original on May 22, 2010. Retrieved September 6, 2010. ^ "The Making of the Catholic Encyclopedia". The Catholic Encyclopedia and its Makers. New York City: The Encyclopedia Press. 1917. pp. iii–viii. OCLC 748253. ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Mohammed and Mohammedanism (Islam)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 23 December 2017. ^ "About". El Cajon, CA: Catholic Answers. Archived from the original on September 15, 2010. Retrieved September 6, 2010. ^ "Celledoor Miscellany: Selected Illustrations from the Catholic Encyclopedia". Celledoor.blogspot.com. June 7, 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-04. ^ Separation of Church and State, Hamburger, Philip, Harvard University Press (2002), p. 412. ^ The Catholic encyclopedia and its makers 1917 Bibliography[edit] Charles B. Herbermann; Edward A. Pace; Conde E. Pallen (1907). The Catholic encyclopedia ; an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline and history of the Catholic Church. archive.org. 14 voll. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on December 28, 2018. Retrieved December 28, 2018. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Catholic Encyclopedia. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) Catholic Encyclopedia at Catholic Answers Catholic Encyclopedia on New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia on Catholicity Catholic Encyclopedia full text via Hathi Trust Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catholic_Encyclopedia&oldid=1028067835" Categories: 1907 non-fiction books American online encyclopedias Catholic media Christian encyclopedias English-language encyclopedias 20th-century encyclopedias Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Reference works in the public domain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 17:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1435	----	Numerian - Wikipedia Numerian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 283 to 284 Roman emperor Numerian Antoninianus of Numerian Roman emperor Augustus Caesar July 283 – 20 November 284 282 – July 283 Predecessor Carus Successor Diocletian Co-emperors Carus (282–283) Carinus (283–284) Died 20 November 284 Emesa Spouse Daughter of Arrius Aper Names Marcus Aurelius Numerianus Marcus Aurelius Numerianus nobilissimus Caesar (282)[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Numerianus Augustus[2] Father Carus Numerian (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus;[3] died 20 November 284) was Roman emperor from 283 to 284 with his older brother Carinus. They were sons of Carus, a general raised to the office of praetorian prefect under Emperor Probus in 282.[4] Contents 1 Early life and Carus' reign 1.1 Numerian and Carinus as Augusti 1.2 After Numerian's death 2 Character 3 Family tree 4 Citations 5 References 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Secondary sources 6 External links Early life and Carus' reign[edit] Numerian was the younger son of Carus.[4] In 282, the legions of the upper Danube in Raetia and Noricum proclaimed as emperor Numerian's father, the praetorian prefect Marcus Aurelius Carus, after a mutiny against the emperor Probus, in which the latter was killed.[5][6] By one account, Carus had himself rebelled against the emperor, and Probus' army, stationed in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia), decided they did not wish to fight Carus and assassinated their emperor instead.[7] According to the Historia Augusta and the view accepted by Gibbon, Carus was not responsible for Probus's death, and inflicted severe punishment upon the murderers.[8] Carus, already sixty, wished to establish a dynasty[9] and immediately elevated Carinus and Numerian to the rank of Caesar.[10] In 283, Carus left Carinus in charge of the West and moved with Numerian and his praetorian prefect Arrius Aper to the East to wage war against the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids had been embroiled in a succession dispute since the death of Shapur and were in no position to oppose Carus' advance.[11][12] According to Zonaras, Eutropius, and Festus, Carus won a major victory against the Persians, taking Seleucia and the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (near modern Al-Mada'in, Iraq), cities on opposite banks of the Tigris.[13] In celebration, Numerian, Carus, and Carinus all took the title Persici maximi.[14] Carus died in July or early August of 283,[4] allegedly due to a strike of lightning.[15] Numerian and Carinus as Augusti[edit] The death of Carus left Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from Gaul, arriving in January 284, while Numerian lingered in the East.[16] The Roman retreat from Persia was orderly and unopposed, for the Persian King, Bahram II, was still struggling to establish his authority.[17] By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor.[18] In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health, as he issued the only extant rescript in his name there.[19] Coins were issued in his name in Cyzicus at some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he was still in the public eye by that point.[20] After Emesa, Numerian's staff, including the prefect Aper, reported that Numerian suffered from an inflammation of the eyes and had to travel in a closed coach.[21] When the army reached Bithynia,[16] or Thrace,[22] some of Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach.[17] They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead.[23] Gibbon, however, dismisses with derision the report of the stench of Numerian's decay: "Could no aromatics be found in the Imperial household?"[24] After Numerian's death[edit] Aper officially broke the news of Numerian's death in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November 284,[25] though Gibbon represents the occurrence of this event at Heraclea, in Thrace, and the discovery, which the prefect attempted to conceal, as due to the forwardness of the soldiery, who forced open the Imperial tent to investigate for themselves the situation of their invisible monarch.[26] Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, which met at Chalcedon across the Bosphorus, where they chose as emperor Diocletian, commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard,[27] despite Aper's attempts to garner support.[25] The army of the east unanimously saluted their new Augustus. Diocletian accepted the purple imperial vestments and raised his sword to the light of the sun, swearing an oath denying responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed the deed. In full view of the army, Diocletian then turned and killed Aper, who had been hauled bound before the assembly.[28][29] Character[edit] According to the Historia Augusta, Numerian was a man of considerable literary attainments, remarkably amiable, and known as a great orator and poet. Allegedly, the senate raised him a statue, inscribed To the most powerful of orators.[30] Family tree[edit] previous Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman Emperor 275-276 Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276-282 Carus Roman Emperor 282-283 next Diocletian Roman Emperor 284-305 ∞ Prisca Carinus Roman Emperor 282-284 ∞ Magnia Urbica Numerian co-emperor 282-284 Galeria Valeria Citations[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 501. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 501. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 634. ^ a b c Leadbetter, "Carus." ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Southern, Severus to Constantine, p. 132; Williams, Diocletian, p. 32. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII., pp. 291, 292 ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Southern, Severus to Constantine, p. 132. ^ Gibbon, p. 292 ^ Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Southern, Severus to Constantine, p. 132; Williams, Diocletian, p. 32. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Williams, Diocletian, p. 32. ^ Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39. ^ Gibbon, pp. 294, 295 ^ Zonaras, 12.30; Eutropius, 9.14.1; Festus, 24; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 4; Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 279; Williams, Diocletian, p. 33. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Leadbetter, "Carus." ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Leadbetter, "Carus"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Southern, Severus to Constantine, p. 133; Williams, Diocletian, pp. 33–34. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4. ^ a b Southern, Severus to Constantine, p. 133. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus." ^ Codex Justinianeus 5.52.2; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 279. ^ Roman Imperial Coinage 5.2 Numerian no. 462; Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, pp. 279–80). ^ Leadbetter, "Numerianus." ^ Gibbon, p. 301 ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Leadbetter, "Numerianus"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 39; Williams, Diocletian, p. 35. ^ Gibbon, Ibid. note ^ a b Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 280. ^ Gibbon, p. 301 ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 4; Barnes, New Empire, p. 31; Bowman, "Diocletian", p. 68; Mathisen, "Diocletian"; Williams, Diocletian, p. 33, 35-36. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 4–5; Leadbetter, "Numerian"; Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, pp. 39–40; Williams, Diocletian, p. 37. ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Gibbon, p. 300 References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Carus, Carinus and Numerian Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Secondary sources[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-7837-2221-4 Bowman, Alan K. "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy." In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, edited by Alan Bowman, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, 67–89. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Leadbetter, William. "Carus (282–283 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001a). Accessed 16 February 2008. Leadbetter, William. "Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001b). Accessed 16 February 2008. Leadbetter, William. "Carinus (283–285 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001c). Accessed 16 February 2008. Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Numerian. Leadbetter, William, "Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)", DIR (2001) Regnal titles Preceded by Carus Roman emperor 283–284 With: Carinus Succeeded by Carinus (until 285) and Diocletian Political offices Preceded by Carus , Carinus Consul of the Roman Empire 284 with Carinus Succeeded by Diocletian, Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Poland Other RERO (Switzerland) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Numerian&oldid=1023471539" Categories: 284 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Aurelii People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 May 2021, at 15:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1438	----	Ulpia Severina - Wikipedia Ulpia Severina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Augusta Ulpia Severina Augusta Antoninianus of Severina Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 270–275 Spouse Aurelian Issue Unknown daughter Names Ulpia Severina Regnal name Ulpia Severina Augusta Father Uncertain, perhaps Ulpius Crinitus Ulpia Severina, also known as Severina (fl. 3rd century), was a Roman Empress, the wife of the emperor Aurelian. There is evidence that she reigned in her own right for some period after Aurelian's death in 275, which would make her the only woman to have ruled over the entire classical Roman Empire by her own power. Very little is known about her, as there are no literary sources mentioning her existence. Almost everything known about her, including her name, is gathered from coins and inscriptions.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Life[edit] Nothing certain is known of Ulpia Severina before her marriage to Aurelian. It has been suggested that she was the daughter of Ulpius Crinitus, a figure appearing in the Historia Augusta.[2][3] This Ulpius is said to have been a descendant of the line of Trajan and to have supported and adopted Aurelian.[2] However, the Historia Augusta is notoriously unreliable, and the story, and perhaps Ulpius himself, may have been invented by propagandists trying to connect Aurelian with the "Good Emperor" Trajan.[1][2] Some scholars believe that Ulpia Severina was from Dacia, where the nomen Ulpius was common due to the influence of Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus).[1] At any rate, Ulpia Severina married Aurelian probably before he became emperor in 270. It is known that she had a daughter by him.[2] According to coinage depicting her, Ulpia had gained the title of Augusta at least by the autumn of 274 if not before then. She also received the titles Pia or "pious"[1] and mater castrorum et senatus et patriae[2] or "mother of the barracks (armies), senate, and country". There is considerable numismatic evidence suggesting that Ulpia Severina ruled in her own right between the death of Aurelian and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus.[1] Sources mention an interregnum between Aurelian and Tacitus, and some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.[2] As such, she may well have been the only woman to have ruled over the whole Roman Empire. See also[edit] List of Roman women List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses References[edit] ^ a b c d e Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. ^ a b c d e f Körner, Christian (December 23, 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270-275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved January 6, 2011. ^ Krawczuk, Aleksander. Poczet cesarzowych Rzymu. Warszawa: Iskry. ISBN 83-244-0021-4. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Severina. Ulpia Severina Ulpian Born:  ? Died:  ? Royal titles Preceded by Cornelia Salonina Roman Empress 270–275 VacantInterregnum (275-283) Next known title holder: Magnia Urbica v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ulpia_Severina&oldid=1026353477" Categories: 3rd-century Roman women 3rd-century women rulers Crisis of the Third Century Roman empresses Ulpii Augustae Ancient women regents Empresses regnant Aurelian Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Scots Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 19:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1441	----	Bithynia - Wikipedia Bithynia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bithynian) Jump to navigation Jump to search Region in Anatolia For the genus of snails, see Bithynia (gastropod). Bithynia (Βιθυνία) Ancient Region of Anatolia Bithynia and Pontus as a province of the Roman Empire, 125 AD Location Northern Anatolia State existed 297–74 BC Nation Bithyni, Thyni, Thracian Historical capitals Nicomedia, Nicaea Roman province Bithynia Location of Bithynia within Asia Minor/Anatolia Bithynia (/bɪˈθɪniə/; Koine Greek: Βιθυνία, Bithynía) was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea. It bordered Mysia to the southwest, Paphlagonia to the northeast along the Pontic coast, and Phrygia to the southeast towards the interior of Asia Minor. Bithynia was an independent kingdom from the 4th century BC. Its capital Nicomedia was rebuilt on the site of ancient Astacus in 264 BC by Nicomedes I of Bithynia. Bithynia was bequeathed to the Roman Republic in 74 BC, and became united with the Pontus region as the province of Bithynia et Pontus. In the 7th century it was incorporated into the Byzantine Opsikion theme. It became a border region to the Seljuk Empire in the 13th century, and was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Turks between 1325 and 1333. Contents 1 Description 2 History 2.1 Iron Age 2.2 Kingdom of Bithynia 2.3 Roman province 2.4 Byzantine province 3 Influence 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 7 Further reading Description[edit] Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara): Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius and Apamea. Bithynia also contained Nicaea, noted for being the birthplace of the Nicene Creed. According to Strabo, Bithynia was bounded on the east by the river Sangarius (modern Sakarya river), but the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which river separated it from Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by the Mariandyni. On the west and southwest it was separated from Mysia by the river Rhyndacus and on the south it adjoined Phrygia and Galatia.[1] It is occupied by mountains and forests, but has valleys and coastal districts of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the (so-called) "Mysian" Olympus (8000 ft., 2500 m), which towers above Bursa and is clearly visible as far away as Istanbul (70 miles, 113 km). Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.[1] East of this the range extends for more than 100 miles (160 km), from the Sakarya to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges are part of the border of mountains which bound the great tableland of Anatolia, Turkey. The broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests — the Turkish Ağaç Denizi, or "The sea of Trees" — is not traversed by any mountain chain. The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, the northernmost, the Gulf of İzmit (ancient Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 miles (65–80 km) into the interior as far as İzmit (ancient Nicomedia), separated by an isthmus of only about 25 miles (40 km) from the Black Sea; and the Gulf of Mudanya or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 miles (40 km) long. At its extremity is situated the small town of Gemlik (ancient Cius) at the mouth of a valley, communicating with the lake of Iznik, on which was situated Nicaea.[1] The principal rivers are the Sangarios which traverses the province from down to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filyos), which rises in the Aladağ, about 50 miles (80 km) from the sea, and after flowing by modern Bolu (ancient Bithynion-Claudiopolis) falls into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Heraclea Pontica (the modern Karadeniz Ereğli), having a course of more than 100 miles (160 km). The Parthenius (modern Bartın), the eastern boundary of the province, is a much less considerable stream.[1] The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, such as oranges, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Bursa and Iznik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Bursa has long been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale.[1] History[edit] Photo of a 15th-century map showing Bithynia. Iron Age[edit] Bithynia is named for the Thracian tribe of the Bithyni, mentioned by Herodotus (VII.75) alongside the Thyni. The "Thraco-Phrygian" migration from the Balkans to Asia Minor would have taken place at some point following the Bronze Age collapse or during the early Iron Age. The Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians, Caucones and other minor tribes, the Mariandyni maintaining themselves in the northeast. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni as settling side by side.[1] No trace of their original language has been preserved, but Herodotus describes them as related to the tribes of Thracian extraction like the Phrygians and Armenians, whose languages may form part of the Paleo-Balkan group (although this is not certain and the theory is not universally accepted). Later the Greeks established on the coast the colonies of Cius (modern Gemlik); Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy), at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Byzantium (modern Istanbul) and Heraclea Pontica (modern Karadeniz Ereğli), on the Euxine, about 120 miles (190 km) east of the Bosporus.[2] The Bithynians were incorporated by king Croesus within the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell under the dominion of Persia (546 BC), and were included in the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus.[1] Kingdom of Bithynia[edit] Further information: List of rulers of Bithynia Even before the conquest by Alexander the Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoites, the latter of whom assumed the title of king (basileus) in 297 BC. His son and successor, Nicomedes I, founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign (c. 278 – c. 255 BC), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I, Prusias II and Nicomedes II (149 – 91 BC), the kingdom of Bithynia had a considerable standing and influence among the minor monarchies of Anatolia. But the last king, Nicomedes IV, was unable to maintain himself in power against Mithridates VI of Pontus. After being restored to his throne by the Roman Senate, he bequeathed his kingdom through his will to the Roman republic (74 BC).[2] The coinage of these kings show their regal portraits, which tend to be engraved in an extremely accomplished Hellenistic style.[3] Roman province[edit] Main article: Bithynia et Pontus As a Roman province, the boundaries of Bithynia changed frequently. During this period, Bithynia was commonly united for administrative purposes with the province of Pontus. This was the situation at the time of Emperor Trajan, when Pliny the Younger was appointed governor of the combined provinces (109/110 – 111/112), a circumstance which has provided historians with valuable information concerning the Roman provincial administration at that time. Byzantine province[edit] Under the Byzantine Empire, Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the Sangarius. Only the area to the west of the river retained the name of Bithynia.[2] Bithynia attracted much attention because of its roads and its strategic position between the frontiers of the Danube in the north and the Euphrates in the south-east. To secure communications with the eastern provinces, the monumental bridge across the river Sangarius was constructed around 562 AD. Troops frequently wintered at Nicomedia. During this time, the most important cities in Bithynia were Nicomedia, founded by Nicomedes, and Nicaea. The two had a long rivalry with each other over which city held the rank of capital. Influence[edit] Bithynia in the Christian bible is a synonym for "violent precipitation," with Bithynia being a common Feminine English name.[4] Notable people[edit] Hipparchus (2nd century BC) Greek astronomer, discovered precession and discovered how to predict the timing of eclipses Theodosius (2nd century BC) Greek astronomer and mathematician Antinous (2nd century) Catamite of the Roman Emperor Hadrian Cassius Dio (c. 155 - c. 235) Roman historian, senator, and consul Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus) Historian, c. 86-160 Helena (empress), Saint and mother of Constantine the Great c. 250 – c. 330 Phrynichus Arabius, (2nd century) Grammarian See also[edit] Bithyni Bithynian coinage Thynia Thyni Thracians Asia Minor Slavs Ancient regions of Anatolia References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Chisholm 1911, p. 12. ^ a b c Chisholm 1911, p. 13. ^ "Kings of Bithynia - Asia Minor Coins - Photo Gallery". www.asiaminorcoins.com. ^ "Bithynia". August 22, 2018. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bithynia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 12–13. Further reading[edit] Storey, Stanley Jonathon (1999) [1998]. Bithynia: history and administration to the time of Pliny the Younger (PDF). Ottawa: National Library of Canada. ISBN 0-612-34324-3. Retrieved 2007-05-21. T. Bekker-Nielsen, Urban Life and Local Politics in Roman Bithynia: The Small World of Dion Chrysostomos, 2008. v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia Bronze Age Ahhiyawa Arzawa Assuwa league Carchemish Colchis Hapalla Hatti Hayasa-Azzi Hittite Empire Isuwa Kaskia Kizzuwatna Lukka Luwia Mitanni Pala Wilusa/Troy Iron Age Aeolia Caria Cimmerians Diauehi Doris Ionia Lycia Lydia Neo-Hittites (Atuna, Carchemish, Gurgum, Hilakku, Kammanu, Kummuh, Quwê, Tabal) Phrygia Urartu Classical Age Antigonids Armenia Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Commagene Galatia Paphlagonia Pergamon Pontus Turkey Portal Coordinates: 40°30′N 31°00′E / 40.5°N 31.0°E / 40.5; 31.0 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bithynia&oldid=1011795512" Categories: Bithynia Historical regions of Anatolia Praetorian prefecture of the East Provinces of the Byzantine Empire History of Bursa Province History of Kocaeli Province History of Sakarya Province History of Bilecik Province History of Düzce Province History of Yalova Province History of Bolu Province History of Kastamonu Province History of Bartın Province History of Zonguldak Province States and territories established in the 3rd century BC 297 BC 290s BC establishments States and territories disestablished in the 1st century BC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Coordinates on Wikidata 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica articles with no significant updates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Wolof 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 March 2021, at 21:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1446	----	Decius - Wikipedia Decius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 249 to 251 For other uses, see Decius (disambiguation). Roman emperor Decius Roman emperor Reign September 249 – June 251 Predecessor Philip the Arab Successor Trebonianus Gallus and Hostilian Co-emperor Herennius Etruscus (251) Born c. 201 Budalia (Martinci, Serbia) Died 251 (aged 49–50) Abrittus (Razgrad, Bulgaria) Spouse Herenia Etruscilla Issue Herennius Etruscus and Hostilian Names Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Valerinus[1] Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Religion Roman polytheism Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius (c. 201 – June 251), sometimes translated as Trajan Decius, was Roman emperor from 249 to 251. A distinguished politician during the reign of Philip the Arab, Decius was proclaimed emperor by his troops after putting down a rebellion in Moesia. In 249, he defeated and killed Philip near Verona and was recognized as emperor by the Senate afterwards. During his reign, he attempted to strengthen the Roman state and its religion, leading to the Decian persecution, where a number of prominent Christians (including Pope Fabian) were put to death. In the last year of his reign, Decius co-ruled with his son Herennius Etruscus, until they were both killed by the Goths in the Battle of Abritus. Contents 1 Early life and rise to power 2 Political and monumental initiatives 2.1 Reviving the censorship 2.2 The Baths of Decius 3 Persecution of Christians 4 Fighting the Goths and death 4.1 The Goths enter the Balkans 4.2 Battle of Abritus 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Early life and rise to power[edit] Antoninianus of Trajan Decius. Inscription: IMP. C. M. Q. TRAIANVS DECIVS AVG. Decius, who was born at Budalia,[2][3] near Sirmium in Pannonia Inferior (now Martinci and Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia), was one of the first among a long succession of Roman emperors to originate from the Danube provinces, often simply called Illyricum.[4] Unlike some of his immediate imperial predecessors such as Philip the Arab or Maximinus who did not have extensive administrative experience before assuming the throne, Decius was a distinguished senator who had served as suffect consul in 232, had been governor of Moesia and Germania Inferior soon afterwards, served as governor of Hispania Tarraconensis between 235 and 238, and was urban prefect of Rome during the early reign of Emperor Philip the Arab (Marcus Iulius Phillippus).[5] Around 245, Philip entrusted Decius with an important command on the Danube.[6] By the end of 248 or 249, Decius was sent to quell the revolt of Pacatianus and his troops in Moesia and Pannonia; some modern historians see this rebellion as a reflection of emerging Balkan separatism.[7] After the collapse of the revolt, Decius let the troops proclaim him emperor. Philip advanced against him and was killed at Verona, Italy, in September 249.[8] The Senate then recognized Decius as emperor, giving him the attribute Traianus in reference to Emperor Trajan. According to the Byzantine historian Zosimus, Decius was clothed in purple and forced to undertake the [burdens of] government, despite his reluctance and unwillingness.[9] Political and monumental initiatives[edit] Decius' political program was focused on the restoration of the strength of the State, both militarily opposing the external threats, and restoring the public piety with a program of renovation of the State religion. Reviving the censorship[edit] Either as a concession to the Senate, or perhaps with the idea of improving public morality, Decius endeavoured to revive the separate office and authority of the censor. The choice was left to the Senate, who unanimously selected Valerian (the future emperor). But Valerian, well aware of the dangers and difficulties attached to the office at such a time, declined the responsibility. The invasion of the Goths and Decius' death put an end to the abortive attempt.[10] The Baths of Decius[edit] During his reign, he proceeded with several building projects in Rome, "including the Thermae Decianae or Baths of Decius on the Aventine", which was completed in 252 and survived through to the 16th century; Decius also repaired the Colosseum, which had been damaged by lightning strikes.[5] Persecution of Christians[edit] Main article: Decian persecution Further information: Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire § Decius In January 250, Decius is said to have issued one of the most remarkable Roman imperial edicts. From the numerous surviving texts from Egypt, recording the act of sacrifice, it appears that the edict itself was fairly clear:[11] All the inhabitants of the empire were required to sacrifice before the magistrates of their community 'for the safety of the empire' by a certain day (the date would vary from place to place and the order may have been that the sacrifice had to be completed within a specified period after a community received the edict). When they sacrificed they would obtain a certificate (libellus) recording the fact that they had complied with the order.[2] That is, the certificate would testify the sacrificant's loyalty to the ancestral gods and to the consumption of sacrificial food and drink as well as the names of the officials who were overseeing the sacrifice.[11] According to D. S. Potter, Decius did not try to impose the superiority of the Roman pantheon over any other gods. It is very probable that the edict was an attempt to legitimize his position and to respond to a general unease provoked by the passing of the Roman millennium.[12] While Decius himself may have intended the edict as a way to reaffirm his conservative vision of the Pax Romana and to reassure Rome's citizens that the empire was still secure, it nevertheless sparked a "terrible crisis of authority as various Christian bishops and their flocks reacted to it in different ways."[2] Measures were first taken demanding that the bishops and officers of the church make a sacrifice for the emperor. The sacrifice was "on behalf of" (Latin pro) the emperor, not to the emperor, since a living emperor was not considered divine. Certificates were issued to those who satisfied the commissioners during the persecution of Christians under Decius. Forty-six such certificates have been published, all dating from 250, four of them from Oxyrhynchus.[13] Anyone, including Christian followers, who refused to offer a sacrifice for the emperor and the Empire's well-being by a specified date risked torture and execution.[14] A number of prominent Christians did, in fact, refuse to make a sacrifice and were killed in the process, including Pope Fabian himself in 250, and "anti-Christian feeling[s] led to killings at Carthage and Alexandria."[14] In reality, however, towards the end of the second year of Decius' reign, "the ferocity of the [anti-Christian] persecution had eased off, and the earlier tradition of tolerance had begun to reassert itself."[14] Despite no indication in the surviving texts that the edict targeted any particular group, Christians bore the brunt of the persecution and never forgot the reign of Decius; whom they remembered as "that fierce tyrant".[14] At this time, there was a second outbreak of the Antonine Plague, which at its height from 251 to 266, took the lives of 5,000 daily[citation needed] in Rome. This outbreak is referred to as the "Plague of Cyprian" (Cyprian was the bishop of Carthage, where both the plague and the persecution of Christians were especially severe). Cyprian's biographer Pontius gave a vivid picture of the demoralizing effects of the plague[citation needed] and Cyprian moralized the event in his essay De mortalitate. In Carthage, the "Decian persecution", unleashed at the onset of the plague, sought out Christian scapegoats. Decius' edicts were renewed under Valerian in 253 and repealed under his son, Gallienus, in 260–261. Fighting the Goths and death[edit] The Gothic Invasions of 250–251 AD The Goths enter the Balkans[edit] The barbarian incursions into the Empire were becoming more and more daring and frequent whereas the Empire was facing a serious economic crisis in Decius' time. During his brief reign, Decius engaged in important operations against the Goths, who crossed the Danube to raid districts of Moesia and Thrace.[10] This is the first considerable occasion that the Goths – who would later come to play such an important role – appear in the historical record. The Goths under King Cniva were surprised by the emperor while besieging Nicopolis on the Danube; the Goths fled through the difficult terrain of the Balkans, but then doubled back and surprised the Romans near Beroë (modern Stara Zagora), sacking their camp and dispersing the Roman troops. The Goths then moved to attack Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv), which fell into their hands.[6] The governor of Thrace, Titus Julius Priscus, declared himself emperor under Gothic protection in opposition to Decius but Priscus's challenge was rendered moot when he was killed soon afterwards.[5] Then the invaders began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank.[15] Battle of Abritus[edit] Main article: Battle of Abritus Coin of Herennius Etruscus. Inscription: HER. ETR. MES. DECIVS NOB. C. / CONCORDIA AVG. F In the meantime, Decius had returned with his re-organized army, accompanied by his son Herennius Etruscus and the general Trebonianus Gallus, intending to defeat the invaders and recover the booty. The final engagement, the battle of Abritus, in which the Goths fought with the courage of despair, under the command of Cniva, took place during the second week of June 251 on swampy ground in the Ludogorie (region in northeastern Bulgaria which merges with Dobruja plateau and the Danube Plain to the north) near the small settlement of Abritus[3] or Forum Terebronii (modern Razgrad).[6] Jordanes records that Decius' son Herennius Etruscus was killed by an arrow early in the battle, and to cheer his men Decius exclaimed, "Let no one mourn; the death of one soldier is not a great loss to the republic." Nevertheless, Decius' army was entangled in the swamp and annihilated in this battle, while he himself was killed on the field of battle.[2] As the historian Aurelius Victor relates: The Decii (i.e., Decius and his son), while pursuing the barbarians across the Danube, died through treachery at Abritus after reigning two years. ... Very many report that the son had fallen in battle while pressing an attack too boldly; that the father however, has strenuously asserted that the loss of one soldier seemed to him too little to matter. And so he resumed the war and died in a similar manner while fighting vigorously.[16] One literary tradition claims that Decius was betrayed by his successor, Trebonianus Gallus, who was involved in a secret alliance with the Goths, but this cannot be substantiated and was most likely a later invention since Gallus felt compelled to adopt Decius' younger son, Gaius Valens Hostilianus, as joint emperor even though the latter was too young to rule in his own right.[17][18] It is also unlikely that the shattered Roman legions would proclaim as emperor a traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks.[19] Decius was the first Roman emperor to die in battle against a foreign enemy.[14] In popular culture[edit] In Persian culture, the "Age of Decius" (Persian: عهد دقیانوس, ahd-e daqyānus) refers to ancient times. When something is old and outdated, people say, "This belongs to the Age of Decius."[20] See also[edit] Seven Sleepers Notes[edit] ^ Cooley, p. 498. ^ a b c d Decius: 249 – 251 AD University of Michigan. Retrieved March 30, 2011 ^ a b Handbook to life in ancient Rome, By Lesley Adkins, Roy A. Adkins, 2004, p. 28 ^ "These men are usually called the Illyrian emperors since they all were born in that province (Illyricum) and were raised to power by legions stationed there". Joseph Ward Swain, The Ancient World ^ a b c Scarre 1995, p.169 ^ a b c Chisholm 1911. ^ Potter 2004, pp.634–5 (note 106) ^ Potter 2004, pp.240–241 ^ Zosimus, New History I.22 ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Decius, Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 913. ^ a b Potter 2004, p.241 ^ Potter 2004, p.243 ^ Ancient History Sourcebook ^ a b c d e Scarre 1995, p.170 ^ Wolfram 1988, p.46 ^ Aurelius Victor, Book of the Caesars 29 ^ Scarre 1995, pp.168–169 ^ Southern 2001, p.308 ^ Potter 2004, p.247 ^ "Travel to the Age of Decius". Hamshahri Online (in Persian). 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2019-08-08. References[edit] Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Scarre, Chris, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers of Imperial Rome, Thames & Hudson, 1995. ISBN 0-500-05077-5 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23943-5 Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988, ISBN 0-520-06983-8 External links[edit] Media related to Decius at Wikimedia Commons Nathan, Geoffrey, and Robin McMahon, "Trajan Decius (249–251 A.D.) and Usurpers During His Reign", DIR Regnal titles Preceded by Philip the Arab Roman emperor 249–251 With: Herennius Etruscus (251) Succeeded by Trebonianus Gallus and Hostilian Political offices Preceded by Lucius Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus Lucius Naevius Aquilinus Consul of the Roman Empire 250–251 with Vettius Gratus, Herennius Etruscus Succeeded by Trebonianus Gallus, Volusianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Israel Netherlands Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decius&oldid=1027672818" Categories: 201 births 251 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Roman emperors killed in battle Romans from Moesia Roman governors of Germania Inferior Decii Messii Romans from Pannonia Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 09:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1462	----	International Standard Name Identifier - Wikipedia International Standard Name Identifier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISNI (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search 16 digit identifier for people and organisations This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) International Standard Name Identifier Logo used by ISNI Acronym ISNI Organisation ISNI-IA Introduced March 15, 2012 (2012-03-15) No. of digits 16 Check digit MOD 11-2 Example 000000012146438X Website isni.org The International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is an identifier system for uniquely identifying the public identities of contributors to media content such as books, television programmes, and newspaper articles. Such an identifier consists of 16 digits. It can optionally be displayed as divided into four blocks. ISNI can be used to disambiguate named entities that might otherwise be confused, and links the data about names that are collected and used in all sectors of the media industries. It was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as Draft International Standard 27729; the valid standard was published on 15 March 2012. The ISO technical committee 46, subcommittee 9 (TC 46/SC 9) is responsible for the development of the standard. Contents 1 ISNI format 1.1 Format without space 1.2 Format with space 2 Uses of an ISNI 2.1 ORCID 3 Organisations involved in the management 3.1 ISNI Registration Authority 3.2 ISNI Registration Agencies 3.3 ISNI members 4 ISNI assignment 5 ISNI coverage 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links ISNI format[edit] The FAQ of the isni.org websites states "An ISNI is made up of 16 digits, the last character being a check character."[1] Format without space[edit] MARC: it was proposed to store the ISNI without spaces, e.g.(isni)1234567899999799[2] isni.org URL: no spaces, e.g. http://www.isni.org/isni/0000000114559647 viaf.org: URL https://viaf.org/viaf/118892012/ URL https://viaf.org/processed/ISNI%7C0000000114559647 the data dumps contain it in form ISNI|0000000114559647 Format with space[edit] In display it is frequently shown with spaces. isni.org[3] viaf.org[4] Uses of an ISNI[edit] The ISNI allows a single identity (such as an author's pseudonym or the imprint used by a publisher) to be identified using a unique number. This unique number can then be linked to any of the numerous other identifiers that are used across the media industries to identify names and other forms of identity. An example of the use of such a number is the identification of a musical performer who is also a writer both of music and of poems. Where he or she might currently be identified in many different databases using numerous private and public identification systems, under the ISNI system, he or she would have a single linking ISNI record. The many different databases could then exchange data about that particular identity without resorting to messy methods such as comparing text strings. An often quoted example in the English language world is the difficulty faced when identifying 'John Smith' in a database. While there may be many records for 'John Smith', it is not always clear which record refers to the specific 'John Smith' that is required. If an author has published under several different names or pseudonyms, each such name will receive its own ISNI. ISNI can be used by libraries and archives when sharing catalogue information; for more precise searching for information online and in databases, and it can aid the management of rights across national borders and in the digital environment. ORCID[edit] ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) identifiers consist of a reserved block of ISNI identifiers for scholarly researchers[5] and administered by a separate organisation.[5] Individual researchers can create and claim their own ORCID identifier.[6] The two organisations coordinate their efforts.[5][6] Organisations involved in the management[edit] ISNI Registration Authority[edit] According to ISO the Registration Authority for ISO 27729:2012 is the "ISNI International Agency".[7] It is located in London (c/o EDItEUR)[8] It is incorporated under the Companies Act 2006 as a private company limited by guarantee.[9] The 'International Agency' is commonly known as the ISNI-IA.[10][11] This UK registered, not-for-profit company has been founded by a consortium of organisations consisting of the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d'Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO), the International Performers Database Association (IPDA), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) and ProQuest. It is managed by directors nominated from these organisations and, in the case of CENL, by representatives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and the British Library. ISNI Registration Agencies[edit] A registration agency provides the interface between ISNI applicants and the ISNI Assignment Agency.[12] List of Registration Agencies in order as on ISNI-IA website Name (as on ISNI-IA website) Since Relation Biblioteca Nacional de España (BNE) Spain BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France) 2014[13] France Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg British Library UK BTLF (Société de gestion de la Banque de Titres de Langue Française) France Casalini Libri Italy China Knowledge Centre for Engineering Sciences and Technology (CKCEST) China Consolidated Independent United Kingdom Electre Identification Agency (IDA) Russia Koninklijke Bibliotheek Netherlands Kültür ve Turizm Bakanliği Turkey National Assembly Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Poland Poland Numerical Gurus United States Program for Cooperative Cataloging (PCC) Quansic Switzerland Ringgold organisations, international Rakuten Kobo Canada Sound Exchange Inc. United States Sound Credit United States YouTube 2018[14] international In 2018, YouTube became an ISNI registry, and announced its intention to begin creating ISNI IDs for the musicians whose videos it features.[15] ISNI anticipates the number of ISNI IDs "going up by perhaps 3-5 million over the next couple of years" as a result.[16] In 2020, Sound Credit, together with ISNI, announced that music industry ISNI registrations were free and automated. The free registration system is part of Sound Credit user profile creation, used by its larger system for music crediting. It includes an automated search to avoid duplicate ISNIs and a certificate generated by the Sound Credit registration system to officiate newly registered ISNIs.[17] ISNI members[edit] ISNI members (ISNI-IA Members[18]) as of 2018[update]-07-11:[18] ABES (French Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education) Brill Publishers CEDRO (Centro Español de Derechos Reprográficos) CDR (Centrale Discotheek Rotterdam) Copyrus FCCN French National Archives (Archives nationales de France) Harvard University Iconoclaste Irish Copyright Licensing Agency (ICLA) ISSN International Centre La Trobe University Library of Congress MacOdrum Library, Carleton University National Library of Finland National Library of New Zealand National Library of Norway National Library of Sweden (Kungliga Biblioteket) Publishers' Licensing Services UNSW Library ISNI assignment[edit] ISNI-IA uses an assignment system comprising a user interface, data-schema, disambiguation algorithms, and database that meets the requirements of the ISO standard, while also using existing technology where possible. The system is based primarily on the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) service, which has been developed by OCLC for use in the aggregation of library catalogues. Access to the assignment system and database, and to the numbers that are generated as the output of the process, are controlled by independent bodies known as 'registration agencies'. These registration agencies deal directly with customers, ensuring that data is provided in appropriate formats and recompensing the ISNI-IA for the cost of maintaining the assignment system. Registration agencies are appointed by ISNI-IA but will be managed and funded independently. ISNI coverage[edit] As of 5 August 2017[update] ISNI holds public records of over 9.41 million identities, including 8.757 million people (of which 2.606 million are researchers) and 654,074 organisations.[19] As of 19 April 2018[update] 9.86 million identities, including 9.15 million people (of which 2.86 million are researchers) and 714,401 organisations.[19] As of 11 July 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.28 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,204 organisations.[19] As of 13 August 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.32 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,795 organisations.[19] As of 17 October 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.39 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 719,010 organisations.[19] As of 5 December 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.4 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 826,810 organisations.[19] As of 11 March 2019[update] over 10 million identities, including: 9.59 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 864,999 organisations.[19] As of 21 June 2019[update] over 10.5 million identities, including: 9.6 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 876,017 organisations.[19] As of 27 November 2019[update] over 10.92 million identities, including: 10.01 million people (of which 2.89 million are researchers) 908,299 organisations.[19] As of 13 February 2020[update] over 11.02 million identities, including: 10.11 million people (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 912,991 organisations.[19] As of 20 October 2020[update] over 11.51 million identities, including: 10.45 million individuals (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 1,062,333 organisations.[19] As of 30 May 2021[update] over 12.22 million identities, including: 11.10 million individuals (of which 2.93 million are researchers) 1,119,480 organisations.[19] See also[edit] Authority control Digital Author Identification (DAI) Digital object identifier (DOI) GRID International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ResearcherID Ringgold identifier References[edit] ^ "ISNI - FAQ". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ Office, Library of Congress Network Development and MARC Standards. "Encoding the International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) in the MARC 21 Bibliographic and Authority Formats". www.loc.gov. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ "ISNI 000000012281955X Ai-en-ssu-tan (1879-1955)". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ http://viaf.org/viaf/75121530/ ^ a b c "What is the relationship between ISNI and ORCID?". About ORCID. ORCID. Retrieved 10 February 2020. ^ a b "ISNI and ORCID". ISNI. Archived from the original on 4 March 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013. ^ "Maintenance agencies and registration authorities". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "ISNI International Agency - ISNI International Agency". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ http://www.isni.org/filedepot_download/134/473 ^ "ISNI". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "About the ISNI International Agency". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "Registration Agencies". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "BnF: First National Library In the World to Become an ISNI Registration Agency". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Transcript: YouTube Knows Who You Are". Beyond the Book. 18 March 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Music Industry ISNI Registrations Now Free and Automated". ISNI. 23 October 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020. ^ a b "Members". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "ISNI". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. Further reading[edit] Karen Smith-Yoshimura, Janifer Gatenby, Grace Agnew, Christopher Brown, Kate Byrne, Matt Carruthers, Peter Fletcher, Stephen Hearn, Xiaoli Li, Marina Muilwijk, Chew Chiat Naun, John Riemer, Roderick Sadler, Jing Wang, Glen Wiley, and Kayla Willey. 2016. "Addressing the Challenges with Organizational Identifiers and ISNI." Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: ISNI (P213) (see uses) Official website v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10628 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14617 14644 14649 14651 14698 14750 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 16023 16262 16355-1 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17799 18000 18004 18014 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000–29999 20000 20022 20121 20400 20802 21000 21047 21500 21827 22000 22300 22395 23090-3 23270 23271 23360 24517 24613 24617 24707 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30000+ 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 56000 80000 Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Name_Identifier&oldid=1025849395" Categories: ISO standards Unique identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-1468	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius== {{main|Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius}} [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 174, RIC III 295.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 236.</ref>|alt=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius]] [[File:Marc Aurel column detailed view 01.jpg|thumb|Detailed view of the [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]]|alt=Column of Marcus Aurelius]] The [[Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius]] in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.<ref>Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.</ref> This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the [[Middle Ages]] as a depiction of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|Christian emperor]] [[Constantine the Great]], and spared the destruction which statues of [[pagan]] figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands {{cvt|11.6|ft|m}} and is now located in the [[Capitoline Museums]] of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the [[Ancient Greek art|classical tradition]] of [[Ancient Greek sculpture|sculpture]].<ref>Kleiner, p. 193.</ref> <gallery> Marco Aurelio bronzo.JPG|A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Capitoline Museums]] Statua Marco Aurelio Musei Capitolini.JPG|A full view of the equestrian statue 0 Marcus Aurelius - Piazza del Campidoglio (2).JPG|alt=Replica of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius|Replica of the statue, [[Capitoline Hill]] Marcus Aurelius Capitoline Hill September 2015-1.jpg|alt=Replica of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius|Replica of the statue, [[Capitoline Hill]] </gallery> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-1486	----	File:Piena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg - Wikipedia File:Piena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 240 pixels | 640 × 480 pixels | 1,024 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 960 pixels | 2,560 × 1,920 pixels | 2,816 × 2,112 pixels. Original file ‎(2,816 × 2,112 pixels, file size: 2.58 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionPiena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg Piena del 12.12.2008. Tiber in flood. Date 12 December 2008, 15:49 Source Piena del 12.12.2008. Tiber in flood. Author Luciano from Roma, Italy Licensing This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 CC BY 2.0 Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 truetrue This image was originally posted to Flickr by Zingaro. I am a gipsy too. at https://www.flickr.com/photos/30208099@N00/3101932253. It was reviewed on 9 January 2015 by FlickreviewR and was confirmed to be licensed under the terms of the cc-by-2.0. 9 January 2015 Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value Flickr user ID: 30208099@N00 author name string: Luciano URL: https://www.flickr.com/people/30208099@N00 copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic inception 12 December 2008 source of file file available on the internet operator: Flickr described at URL: https://www.flickr.com/photos/30208099@N00/3101932253/ File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 20:37, 9 January 2015 2,816 × 2,112 (2.58 MB) Jacopo Werther {{Information |Description=Piena del 12.12.2008. Tiber in flood. |Source=[https://www.flickr.com/photos/30208099@N00/3101932253/ Piena del 12.12.2008. Tiber in flood.] |Date=2008-12-12 15:49 |Author=[https://www.flickr.com/people/30208099@N00 Luciano]... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piena_del_Tevere_-_Tiber_in_flood_-_Ponte_Sisto_-_Rome,_Italy_-_12_Dec._2008.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1496	----	Template:Stoicism sidebar - Wikipedia Template:Stoicism sidebar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Stoicism_sidebar&oldid=942917352" Categories: Philosophy and thinking templates Hidden categories: Sidebars with styles needing conversion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 27 February 2020, at 17:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Tags: Undo Twinkle diffhist Indian Ocean‎ 09:26 0‎ ‎Gap9551 talk contribs‎ Undid revision 1028472411 by 59.98.48.181 (talk) Tag: Undo diffhist Neostoicism‎ 08:34 +150‎ ‎Charles Matthews talk contribs‎ →‎Views of the Lipsius circle: Waszink diffhist Caligula‎ 08:34 +11‎ ‎112.196.171.132 talk‎ Caligula (/kəˈlɪɡjʊlə/; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 C. E.), formally known as Gaius (Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 to 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Tags: Visual edit Reverted diffhist m Neostoicism‎ 08:32 +14‎ ‎Charles Matthews talk contribs‎ →‎Neo-stoic practical philosophy: name ref diffhist Neostoicism‎ 08:28 +115‎ ‎Charles Matthews talk contribs‎ →‎Origins of neostoicism: titles diffhist Neostoicism‎ 08:26 +407‎ ‎Charles Matthews talk contribs‎ →‎Neo-stoic practical philosophy: Waszink diffhist m Michael III‎ 08:13 +36‎ ‎Silesianus talk contribs‎ link Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Atom Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1515	----	Marcus Aurelius Marius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Marius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 269 This article is about the emperor of the Gallic Empire. For other people with the name Marius, see Marius. Augustus of Gaul and Britannia Marius Augustus of Gaul and Britannia Coin featuring Marius. Caption: IMP. C. M. AVR. MARIVS AVG. Emperor of the Gallic Empire Reign 269 Predecessor Postumus Successor Victorinus Died 269 Augusta Treverorum (Trier) Names Marcus Aurelius Marius Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Marius Augustus Marcus Aurelius Marius[1] was emperor of the Gallic Empire in 269 following the assassination of Postumus. Contents 1 Reign 2 References 3 Sources 3.1 Primary sources 3.2 Secondary sources 4 External links Reign[edit] According to later tradition, he was a blacksmith by trade, earning the nickname Mamurius Veturius, a legendary metalworker in the time of Numa.[2] He rose through the ranks of the Roman army to become an officer.[3] He was present with the army that revolted at Moguntiacum (Mainz) after the emperor Postumus refused to allow it to sack the city.[4] They murdered the emperor and in the confusion that followed, the army elected Marius to succeed Postumus.[5] His first decision was in all likelihood to allow his troops to sack the city of Moguntiacum.[6] Seeking to solidify his power base, he then moved to Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[7] His reign lasted no more than two or three months before Postumus’ praetorian prefect Victorinus had Marius killed in the middle of 269, most likely at Augusta Treverorum.[8] According to the ancient written sources, Marius’ reign lasted for two or three days only, before being killed by a sword of his own manufacture.[9] This tradition is probably partially or entirely incorrect. Based upon the number of coins he issued, a more accurate length for his reign would be at least two or three months.[10] Marius is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta. It is said that he was chosen because his names were evocative of two great Romans of the Past, Marcus Aurelius and Gaius Marius.[7] References[edit] ^ Martindale, pg. 562 ^ Historia Augusta, Tyranni Triginta, 8:1; Thomas Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 25. ^ Martindale, pg. 562 ^ Southern, pg. 118 ^ Potter, pg. 266 ^ Polfer, Marius ^ a b Polfer, Marius ^ Polfer, Marius; Potter, pg. 266 ^ Historia Augusta, Tyranni Triginta, 8:1-2; Eutropius, 9:2; Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 33:11-12 ^ Polfer, Marius; Martindale, pg. 562 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, Tyranni_XXX*.html The Thirty Tyrants Secondary sources[edit] Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Polfer, Michel, "Postumus (A.D. 269)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (1999) External links[edit] Media related to Marcus Aurelius Marius at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Postumus and/or Laelianus Emperor of the Gallic Empire 269 Succeeded by Victorinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius_Marius&oldid=1007782781" Categories: Gallic emperors Blacksmiths 269 deaths Thirty Tyrants (Roman) 3rd-century monarchs in Europe 3rd-century murdered monarchs Deaths by blade weapons Aurelii Marii Ancient artisans Murdered Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 22:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1524	----	Adoption in ancient Rome - Wikipedia Adoption in ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Possibly the most famous Roman adoptee, Augustus first Emperor of the Roman Empire Adoption in Ancient Rome was practiced and performed by the upper classes; a large number of adoptions were performed by the Senatorial class.[1] Succession and family legacy were very important; therefore Romans needed ways of passing down their fortune and name when unable to produce a male heir. Adoption was one of the few ways to guarantee succession, so it became a norm to adopt young males into the homes of high ranking families. Due to the Roman inheritance laws (Falcidia Lex),[2] women had very little rights or the ability to inherit fortunes. This made them less valuable for adoption. However, women were still adopted and it was more common for them to be wed to an influential family. Contents 1 Causes 2 Practice 3 Adoption of women 4 Imperial succession 4.1 The Julio-Claudian Dynasty 4.2 The Adoptive Emperors 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Causes[edit] One of the benefits of a male heir was the ability to create ties among other high-ranking families through marriage. Senators throughout Rome had the responsibility of producing sons who could inherit their family’s title and estate. Childbirth was very unpredictable during these times and there was no way of knowing gender before birth. This caused many children to be lost in the years directly after and it was hard for the senators to control the situation. With the cost of children being high and average families having very few children, this posed a challenge for the senators. Without a male heir, their title and estate could be forfeited. This was the leading cause for adoption in ancient Rome. It is important to note that adoption in ancient Rome was used for a number of reasons and not exclusively by senators. The use by senators guaranteed them a son; this gave senators the freedom to produce children more freely knowing a male heir could always be adopted if unable to produce one naturally. This also created new benefits for female babies enabling them to be given away for adoption into higher ranked families. With the reduced risk of succession issues this created opportunities for males children to marry into other high-ranking families to create powerful ties among the upper class. In the case of the lower classes, raising a large family was quite challenging. Due to the cost, this allowed them to put their children up for adoption. It would benefit both the families and the child. One famous example of this is when Lucius Aemilius put his own two sons up for adoption.[1] Practice[edit] In Rome, the person in charge of adoption was the male head of the household called the paterfamilias. Adoption would result in an adoption of power for the adopted child as the status of the adopting family was immediately transferred to the child. This was almost always an increase in power due to the high cost of adoption. Publius Clodius Pulcher famously used this loophole for political power in his attempt to gain control over the plebs.[3] During the Roman Republic, the same laws stood in place with only one difference; the requirement of the Senate's approval. The actual adoption was often operated like a business contract between the two families. The adopted child took the family name as his own. Along with this, the child kept his/her original name through the form of cognomen or essentially a nickname. The adopted child also maintained previous family connections and often leveraged this politically. Due to the power disparity that normally existed between the families involved in adoption, a fee was often given to the lower family to help with replacing (in most cases) the first-born son. Another case similar to adoption was the fostering of children; this effectively took place when a paterfamilias transferred his power to another man to be left in their care.[4] Former slaves who were freed by their masters could be allowed to adopt his children to legitimize them.[5] Adoption of women[edit] Throughout Roman history many adoptions took place but very few accounts of female adoption were recorded and preserved throughout history. With men holding the spotlight in history books and articles, it is possible that adoption of girls was more popular. However, because most of the famous adoptions were male children, female adoptions could have been wrongfully accounted. Additionally, because the legal impacts of women in ancient Rome were so minimal, it is possible that adoptions could have been more informal and therefore less accounted for in history. One of the most well known was Livia Augusta who gained this name after her adoption into the Julian family. Known mainly as the wife of Augustus. Livia played a key role during this time in the Roman Empire both as a political symbol and a role model for Roman households. Livia earned herself an honorable place among history as a great mother however some of the rumors related to potential heirs have survived throughout history.[6] Imperial succession[edit] Many of Rome’s famous emperors came to power through adoption, either because their predecessors had no natural sons or simply to ensure a smooth transition for the most capable candidate. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty[edit] Julio Claudian Family Tree The first emperor, Augustus, owed much of his success to having been adopted into the gens Julia in the will of his great uncle, Julius Caesar. However, the office of emperor did not exist at that time; Octavian inherited Caesar's money, name and auctoritas but not the office of dictator. As Augustus's central role in the principate solidified, it became increasingly important for him to designate an heir. He first adopted his daughter Julia's three sons by Marcus Agrippa, renaming them Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus. After the former two died young and the latter was exiled, Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius Claudius Nero on condition that he adopt his own nephew, Germanicus (who was also Augustus's great nephew by blood). Tiberius succeeded Augustus and on Tiberius's death Germanicus's son Caligula became emperor. Claudius adopted his stepson Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar and succeeded Claudius as the emperor Nero. The Adoptive Emperors[edit] The Nerva-Antonine dynasty was also united by a series of adoptions. Nerva adopted the popular military leader Trajan. Trajan in turn took Publius Aelius Hadrianus as his protégé and, although the legitimacy of the process is debatable, Hadrian claimed to have been adopted and took the name Caesar Traianus Hadrianus when he became emperor. Hadrian adopted Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who changed his name to Lucius Aelius Caesar but predeceased Hadrian. Hadrian then adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, on condition that Antoninus in turn adopt both the natural son of the late Lucius Aelius and a promising young nephew of his wife. They ruled as Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius respectively. Niccolò Machiavelli described them as The Five Good Emperors and attributed their success to having been chosen for the role: From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.[7] This run of adoptive emperors came to an end when Marcus Aurelius named his biological son, Commodus, as his heir. One reason why adoption never became the official method of designating a successor was because hereditary rule was against republican principles and the republic had never been abandoned in law, even though the emperors of the Principate behaved as monarchs. The Dominate of Diocletian effectively replaced adoption with Consortium imperii - designating an heir by appointing him partner in imperium. See also[edit] Roman culture Adrogation References[edit] ^ a b Weigel, Richard D. (January 1978). "A Note on P. Lepidus". Classical Philology. 73 (1): 42–45. doi:10.1086/366392. ISSN 0009-837X. ^ "LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Adoption (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-03-10. ^ Connerty, Victor (2000). Tatum, W. J. (ed.). "Publius Clodius Pulcher". The Classical Review. 50 (2): 514–516. doi:10.1093/cr/50.2.514. ISSN 0009-840X. JSTOR 3064795. ^ "Adoption in the Roman Empire". Life in the Roman Empire. Retrieved 2020-03-10. ^ https://books.google.se/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PA161&dq=%22claudius%22+%22illegitimate+children%22&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZ2vHq-vDtAhXD_CoKHUfiC5kQ6AEwB3oECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=%22claudius%22%20%22illegitimate%20children%22&f=false ^ Huntsman, Eric D. (2009). "Livia Before Octavian". Ancient Society. 39: 121–169. doi:10.2143/AS.39.0.2042609. ISSN 0066-1619. JSTOR 44079922. ^ Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10. 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en-wikipedia-org-1528	----	Maxentius - Wikipedia Maxentius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 306 to 312 For the saint of the same name, see Saint Maxentius. Roman emperor Maxentius Bust of Maxentius at the Pushkin Museum Roman emperor Reign 28 October 306 – 28 October 312 Predecessor Constantius Chlorus Successor Constantine I Co-emperors or rivals Galerius (306–311) Severus (306–7) Constantine I (306–312) Maximian (306–8) Maximinus Daza (311–312) Born c. 276 [1] Died 28 October 312 (aged c. 35–36) Rome Spouse Valeria Maximilla Issue Valerius Romulus and 1 other son Names Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Father Maximian Mother Eutropia Maxentius (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius; c. 276 – 28 October 312) was Roman emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war, allying with Maximinus II against Licinius and Constantine. The latter defeated him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, where Maxentius, with his army in flight, purportedly perished by drowning in the Tiber river. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Birth and Early Life 1.2 Accession 1.3 Emperor 1.4 War against Constantine 2 Overview and legacy 2.1 Discovery of Imperial insignia 3 In culture 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 External links Life[edit] Birth and Early Life[edit] Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably somewhere from 276 to 283. He was the son of the Emperor Maximian and his wife Eutropia. As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who would eventually follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served, however, in any important military or administrative position during the reign of Diocletian and his father. The exact date of his marriage to Valeria Maximilla, daughter of Galerius, is unknown. He had two sons, Valerius Romulus (ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one. In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and the former caesares Constantius and Galerius became Augusti. Although two sons of emperors—Constantine and Maxentius—were available, they were passed over for the new tetrarchy, and Severus and Maximinus Daia were appointed Caesars. Lactantius' Epitome states that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence with Diocletian to see that Maxentius was ignored in the succession; perhaps Diocletian also thought Maxentius was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from Rome. When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on July 25 and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the tetrarchy as Caesar. This set the precedent for Maxentius' accession later in the same year. Accession[edit] The Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum. Completed by his enemy Constantine, it was one of the most impressive edifices of ancient times. When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman population to the capitation tax, like every other city of the empire, and wanted to dissolve the remains of the Praetorian Guard which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A group of officers of the city's garrisons (Zosimus calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city's troops, and was publicly acclaimed emperor on October 28, 306. The usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office. Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a palace in Lucania, but he declined to resume power for the time being. Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy, the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and Sicily, and the African provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western Augustus Severus, who resided in Mediolanum (Milan). Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and styled himself princeps invictus ("undefeated prince"), in the hope of obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius, Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly controlled his father's army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that his accession was part of the regular succession in the tetrarchy, but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus marched on Rome with a large army. The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under Maxentius' father Maximian for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest of his army retreated to Ravenna. Shortly after, he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life would be spared. After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up to the Alps and the Istrian peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes) had become vacant with the surrender of Severus. Emperor[edit] Maxentius as Augustus on a follis. Legend: IMPerator Caesar MAXENTIVS Pius Felix AVGustus / HETERNITAS AVGusti MOSter - M OST Q (mint Ostia, officina Q). The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius himself marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus: by the promise of large sums of money, and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307 already, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine, and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to Gaul, where Constantine married his daughter Fausta and was in turn appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. However, Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius, and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion. In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son, and he had to flee to Constantine. In the conference of Carnuntum, in the autumn of that same year, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and Licinius was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the usurper's domain. Late in 308, Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage, and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome's food supply. Circus of Maxentius in ancient times Maxentius' eldest son Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of about fourteen, was deified and buried in a mausoleum in the Villa of Maxentius at the Via Appia. Nearby, Maxentius also constructed the Circus of Maxentius. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated, and Maxentius allied with Maximinus to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first. In 310, Maxentius lost Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign. However, by the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics[2] and he died soon after April 30, 311.[3] Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.[4] On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.[5] In the meantime, Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions and sent a small army to Africa under the command of his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus which defeated and executed the usurper Domitius Alexander in 310 or 311. Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of his supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius.[6] Maxentius was far from secure, however. His early support was dissolving into open protest;[7] by 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported.[8] Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.[9] The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian's persecution had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy (see Donatism). The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius.[10] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".[11] Constantine, in an attempt to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius,[12] forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus Daia considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for military support.[13] Two alliances, Maximinus Daia and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.[14] War against Constantine[edit] v t e Battles of Constantine I Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Turin Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns See also: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324 AD) Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius, and stationed an army in Verona.[15] Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north.[citation needed] Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men.[citation needed] The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.[16] It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.[12] Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail-of-fresco-in-Vatican-Stanze) c1650 by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano at the University of Edinburgh As early as weather permitted,[12] late in the spring of 312,[17] Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his total army,[citation needed] a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.[12] Having crossed the Cottian Alps at the Mont Cenis pass,[17] he first came to Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his forces to set its gates on fire and scale its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town, and advanced into northern Italy.[18] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry,[19] labeled clibanarii or cataphracti in the ancient sources. In the ensuing battle Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.[20] Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.[21] Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.[22] The Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable omens, especially as the day of battle would be his dies imperii, the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him, is open to speculation. The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, especially Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished. Overview and legacy[edit] A Nummus of Maxentius. Legend: IMPerator MAXENTIVS Pius Felix AVGustus After Constantine's victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like Lactantius, under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image. Maxentius was a prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine's issue of a damnatio memoriae against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the forum Romanum, were in fact built by Maxentius.[23] Discovery of Imperial insignia[edit] In December 2006, Italian archaeologists announced that an excavation under a shrine near the Palatine Hill had unearthed several items in wooden boxes, which they identified as the imperial regalia, possibly belonging to Maxentius.[24] The items in these boxes, which were wrapped in linen and what appears to be silk, include 3 complete lances, 4 javelins, what appears to be a base for standards, and three glass and chalcedony spheres. The most important find was a scepter of a flower holding a blue-green globe, which is believed to have belonged to the Emperor himself because of its intricate workmanship, and has been dated to his rule.[25] These are the only known imperial insignia so far recovered, which hitherto had only been known from representations on coins and in relief sculptures. Clementina Panella, the archaeologist who made the discovery, states that "These artifacts clearly belonged to the emperor, especially the scepter, which is very elaborate. It's not an item you would let someone else have." Panella notes that the insignia were likely hidden by Maxentius' supporters in an attempt to preserve the emperor's memory after he was defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Constantine.[26] The items have been restored and are on temporary display at the Museo Nazionale Romano at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme. In culture[edit] The Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 1520s fresco by Giulio Romano in the Apostolic Palace, Vatican. Maxentius is the main antagonist of the 1961 film Constantine and the Cross. The character is played by Massimo Serato. Maxentius is portrayed in the 5th episode of Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. In the 2014 film Katherine of Alexandria, Maxentius was portrayed by Julien Vialon. Notes[edit] Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine are marked with a "(CC)". ^ Tyranny and Transformation: " Born sometime between a.d. 276 and 283, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius was the son of the tetrarchic emperor Maximian and Eutropia.". ^ Lactantius, 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16. Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Jones, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Odahl, 99. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40. ^ a b c d Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 99–100. ^ Odahl, 99–100. ^ a b Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101–02. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9).5–6; 4(10).21–24; Odahl, 102, 317–18. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9).8.1; 4(10).25.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Cullhed, M (1994) Conservator Urbis Suae Stockholm; Kerr, L (2001) A topography of death: the buildings of the emperor Maxentius on the Via Appia, Rome In M Carruthers et al (eds) Eleventh Annual Proceedings of the Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference pp.24–33 Oxford: Oxbow doi:10.16995/TRAC2001_24_33 ^ http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/749781864 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2009-03-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ The Times, online edition Bibliography[edit] Alföldi, Andrew. The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome. Translated by Harold Mattingly. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1948. Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-7837-2221-4 Drijvers, Jan Willem. "Eusebius' Vita Constantini and the Construction of the Image of Maxentius." In From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron, edited by Hagit Amirav and Bas ter Haar Romeny, 11–28. Leuven and Dudley, MA: Peeters, 2006. ISBN 978-90-429-1971-6 Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 Lenski, Noel, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2 Leppin, Hartmut and Hauke Ziemssen. Maxentius. Der letzte Kaiser in Rom (Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie). Mainz: Zabern, 2007. Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1 Panella, C. et al. 2011. I segni del potere: realtà e immaginario della sovranità nella Roma imperiale. Bari: Edipuglia. ISBN 9788872286166. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maxentius. Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. De imperatoribus Romanis on Maxentius Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Marcus Aurelius Maxentius" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Coins of Maxentius A brief history of Maxentius illustrated with some coins Political offices Preceded by Maximian, Constantine I, Flavius Valerius Severus, Maximinus Daza, Galerius consul of the Roman Empire 308–310 with Valerius Romulus, Diocletian, Galerius Licinius, Constantine I, Tatius Andronicus, Pompeius Probus Succeeded by Galerius, Maximinus Daza, Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus, Aradius Rufinus Preceded by Galerius, Maximinus Daza, Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus, Aradius Rufinus Consul of the Roman Empire 312 with Constantine I, Licinius Succeeded by Constantine I, Licinius, Maximinus Daza v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia United States Australia Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maxentius&oldid=1026086629" Categories: Maxentius 270s births 312 deaths 4th-century Roman emperors 4th-century Roman usurpers 4th-century murdered monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Constantinian dynasty Murdered Roman emperors Deaths by drowning Aurelii Valerii Tetrarchy Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 08:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1548	----	Leo IV the Khazar - Wikipedia Leo IV the Khazar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 775 to 780 Emperor of the Romans Leo IV Emperor of the Romans Illustration of Leo IV (left) and his son Constantine VI (right) from the Icones Imperatorum Romanorum (1557), based upon Byzantine coins minted bearing their images Byzantine emperor Junior 751 – 14 September 775 Senior 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 Predecessor Constantine V Successor Constantine VI Born 25 January 750 Died 8 September 780 (aged 30) Consort Irene Issue Constantine VI Dynasty Isaurian Dynasty Father Constantine V Mother Tzitzak (Irene of Khazaria) Isaurian or Syrian dynasty Chronology Leo III 717–741 with Constantine V as co-emperor, 720–741 Constantine V 741–775 with Leo IV as co-emperor, 751–775 Artabasdos' usurpation 741–743 Leo IV 775–780 with Constantine VI as co-emperor, 776–780 Constantine VI 780–797 under Irene as regent, 780–790, and with her as co-regent, 792–797 Irene as empress regnant 797–802 Succession Preceded by Twenty Years' Anarchy Followed by Nikephorian dynasty Leo IV the Khazar (Greek: Λέων Δ΄ ὁ Χάζαρος, Leōn IV ho Khazaros; 25 January 750 – 8 September 780) was Byzantine emperor from 775 to 780 AD. He was born to Emperor Constantine V and Empress Tzitzak in 750. He was elevated to caesar the next year, in 751, and married to Irene of Athens in 768. When Constantine V died in September 775, while campaigning against the Bulgarians, Leo IV became senior emperor on 14 September 775. In 778 Leo raided Abbasid Syria, decisively defeating the Abbasid army outside of Germanicia. Leo died on 8 September 780, of tuberculosis. He was meant to be succeeded by his son Constantine VI, but rule instead transferred to his wife Irene, who assumed the role of regent and later empress. Contents 1 History 1.1 Invasion of the Abbasid Caliphate 1.2 Death and succession 2 References 2.1 Citations 2.2 Bibliography History[edit] Leo IV was born on 25 January 750 AD,[1] to Emperor Constantine V and his first wife, Empress Tzitzak.[2] Because his mother was a Khazar, Leo was given the epithet 'the Khazar'.[3] Leo was elevated to co-emperor in 751, while still an infant.[2] He became emperor on 14 September 775, after Constantine V died while campaigning against the Bulgarian Empire.[4][5] Leo was by this point suffering from tuberculosis, which, combined with the infancy of his son, Constantine VI, gave two of Leo's half-brothers, the caesares Nikephoros and Christopher, hope of attaining the throne. These hopes were crushed when, in 776, Leo elevated Constantine to caesar, declaring him to be his successor. Shortly after this, Nikephoros and Christopher were discovered conspiring against Leo. Despite public opinion supporting the execution of the pair, Leo instead chose to pardon them, although he did exile several other plotters to Cherson.[3][2][6] Invasion of the Abbasid Caliphate[edit] Leo launched an invasion against the Abbasids in 778, invading Syria with a force made up of the armies of the multiple themes, including: the Opsikion Theme, led by Gregory; the Anatolic Theme, led by Artabasdos; the Armeniac Theme, led by Karisterotzes; the Bucellarian Theme, led by Tatzates; and the Thracesian Theme, led by Lachanodrakon. Lachanodrakon besieged Germanicia for a time, before he was bribed to raise the siege, and then began to raid the surrounding countryside. The Abbasids attacked Lachanodrakon while he was raiding, but were decisively defeated by several Byzantine armies. The Byzantine generals who led troops during this battle were given a triumphal entry when they returned to Constantinople. A number of Jacobites (adherents of the Syriac Orthodox Church) were taken from Syria and forcibly resettled in Thrace. The next year, in 779, Leo successfully repelled an attack by the Abbasids against Asia Minor.[7] Death and succession[edit] Leo died of a violent fever, due to his tuberculosis, on 8 September 780. He was succeeded by his son Constantine, with Leo's wife Irene as his regent. In 797, after Constantine had ruled for 17 years, Irene had him blinded, and became the effective monarch and ruling empress.[8][9] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Grierson, Philip (2001). Scritti Storici E Numismatici. Centro Italiano di Studi sull'Alto Medioevo. p. 273. ISBN 9788879882446. ^ a b c Lawler 2011, p. 186. ^ a b Bury 2015, p. 478. ^ Melton 2014, p. 568. ^ Sophoulis 2011, p. 143. ^ Finlay 2017, p. 85. ^ Bury 2015, p. 479. ^ Melton 2014, p. 569. ^ Finlay 2017, pp. 85–88. Bibliography[edit] Bury, J. B. (2015). A History of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108083188. Finlay, George (2017). The Later Byzantine Empire. Merkaba Press. OCLC 1886829. Lawler, Jennifer (2011). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786466160. Melton, J. Gordon (2014). Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610690263. Sophoulis, Panos (2011). Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. Brill. ISBN 978-9004206953. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leon IV. Leo IV the Khazar Isaurian dynasty Born: 25 January 750 Died: 8 September 780 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine V Byzantine Emperor 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 Succeeded by Constantine VI and Empress Irene v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_IV_the_Khazar&oldid=1027087677" Categories: 8th-century Byzantine emperors Isaurian dynasty 750 births 780 deaths Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars 770s in the Byzantine Empire Irene of Athens 8th-century deaths from tuberculosis Tuberculosis deaths in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1561	----	De Constantia Sapientis - Wikipedia De Constantia Sapientis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Constantia Sapientis From the 1643 edition, published by Francesco Baba Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 55 De Constantia Sapientis (transl. On the Firmness of the Wise) is a moral essay written by Seneca the Younger, a Roman Stoic philosopher, sometime around 55 AD. The work celebrates the imperturbility of the ideal Stoic sage, who with an inner firmness, is strengthened by injury and adversity. Contents 1 Date and addressee 2 Content 3 References 4 Further reading 4.1 Translations 5 External links Date and addressee[edit] The work is addressed to Seneca's friend Annaeus Serenus and written sometime between 47 and 62.[1] De Constantia Sapientis is one of a trio of dialogues addressed to Serenus, which also includes De Tranquillitate Animi and De Otio.[2] The superior position the sage inhabits, of detachment from earthly future events of a detrimental nature, is the unifying theme of the dialogues.[2] Since Serenus is portrayed as not yet a Stoic in De Constantia Sapientis, it is usually considered the earliest of the three dialogues.[3] Content[edit] In De Constantia Sapientis Seneca argues that Stoicism is not as harsh as it first appears. Recalling the figure of Cato the Younger Seneca argues that Cato as a wise person suffered neither injury nor insult. Although Serenus objects to this paradox, Seneca provides further analogies to emphasize the impervious nature of the wise person. In chapter 5 Seneca distinguishes between contumelia (insults) and iniuria (injuries). The rest of the treatise through to chapter 19 consists of discussions on the nature of both themes, showing that the wise person is immune from both insults and injuries. Seneca concludes the treatise praising the idea of the wise person while offering practical advice for all of us who are imperfect.[3] References[edit] ^ Reynolds, L. D.; Griffin, M. T.; Fantham, E. (2012). Hornblower, S; Spawforth, A; Eidinow, E (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199545561. ^ a b Gian Biagio Conte (4 Nov 1999). Latin Literature: A History. Translated by J Solodow. JHU Press. ISBN 0801862531. ^ a b Scott Smith, R. (2013). "De Constantia Sapientis". In Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. pp. 121–6. ISBN 9004217088. Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, Gareth D. Williams (2014). Seneca: Hardship and Happiness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748332 External links[edit] Works related to On the Firmness of the Wise Man at Wikisource  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: De constantia sapientis Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Constantia_Sapientis&oldid=1027358749" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1564	----	Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium - Wikipedia Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Collection of letters by Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 15th-century illuminated manuscript, Laurentian Library Author Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date c. 65 AD Text Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium at Wikisource The Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Latin for "Moral Letters to Lucilius"), also known as the Moral Epistles and Letters from a Stoic, is a collection of 124 letters that Seneca the Younger wrote at the end of his life, during his retirement, after he had worked for the Emperor Nero for more than ten years. They are addressed to Lucilius Junior, the then procurator of Sicily, who is known only through Seneca's writings. Regardless of how Seneca and Lucilius actually corresponded, it is clear that Seneca crafted the letters with a broad readership in mind. The letters often begin with an observation on daily life, and then proceed to an issue or principle abstracted from that observation. The result is like a diary, or handbook of philosophical meditations. The letters focus on many traditional themes of Stoic philosophy such as the contempt of death, the stout-heartedness of the sage, and virtue as the supreme good. Contents 1 Writing 2 Content 3 Themes 4 Language and style 5 Later history 6 Legacy and influence 7 English translations 7.1 Complete 7.2 Selections 8 Quotations 9 Criticism 10 Citations 11 References 12 External links Writing[edit] The Letters were probably written in the last three years of Seneca's life. Scholars generally agree that the letters are arranged in the order in which Seneca wrote them.[1] In letter 8, Seneca alludes to his retirement from public life, which is thought (by reference to Tacitus Annals xiv. 52–6) to have been around spring of the year 62.[2] Letter 18 was written in December, in the run-up to the Saturnalia. Letter 23 refers to a cold spring, presumably in 63.[2] Letter 67 refers to the end of a cold spring and is thought (to allow forty-three intervening letters) to have been written the following year.[2] Letter 91 refers to the great fire of Lugdunum (Lyon) that took place in the late summer of 64.[2] Letter 122 refers to the shrinking daylight hours of autumn.[3] Other chronologies are possible—in particular if letters 23 and 67 refer to the same spring, that can reduce the timescale by a full year.[2] The 124 letters are arranged in twenty manuscript volumes, but the collection is not complete.[4] Aulus Gellius (mid-2nd-century) quotes an extract from the "twenty-second book", so some letters are missing.[5] However since the fire of Lyon mentioned in letter 91 took place less than a year before Seneca's death (in spring 65) the number of missing letters is not thought to be very many.[5] Collectively the letters constitute Seneca's longest work.[5] Although addressed to Lucilius, the letters take the form of open letters,[6] and are clearly written with a wider readership in mind.[7] The epistolary genre was well-established in Seneca's time.[8] Seneca refers to Cicero's letters to Atticus and the letters of Epicurus, and he was probably familiar with the letters of Plato and the epistles of Horace.[9] However, despite the careful literary crafting, there is no obvious reason to doubt that they are real letters.[1] Seneca often says that he is writing in response to a letter from Lucilius, although there is unlikely to have been a strict back-and-forth exchange of letters.[10] Even if both writers had access to the imperial mail service, a letter from central Italy to Sicily would have taken four to eight days to travel.[10] In many instances Seneca probably composed letters as a new subject occurred to him.[10] On average the letters tend to become longer over time,[4] and the later letters focus increasingly on theoretical questions.[11] However even in the later letters Seneca continues to include letters that are very short.[12] Content[edit] Incipit page of the first printed edition of the Epistles in the "Tuscan" i.e. Italian version (1494). The letters all start with the phrase "Seneca Lucilio suo salutem" ("Seneca greets his Lucilius") and end with the word "Vale" ("Farewell"). In these letters, Seneca gives Lucilius advice on how to become a more devoted Stoic. Some of the letters include "On Noise" and "Asthma". Others include letters on "the influence of the masses" and "how to deal with one's slaves". Although they deal with Seneca's personal style of Stoic philosophy, they also give us valuable insights into daily life in ancient Rome. There is a general tendency throughout the letters to open proceedings with an observation of a specific (and usually rather minor) incident, which then digresses to a far wider exploration of an issue or principle that is abstracted from it.[13] In one letter (letter 7), for instance, Seneca begins by discussing a chance visit to an arena where a gladiatorial combat to the death is being held; Seneca then questions the morality and ethics of such a spectacle, in what is the first record (to our current knowledge) of a pre-Christian writer bringing up such a debate on that particular matter.[13] Seneca frequently quotes Latin poets, especially Virgil, but also Ovid, Horace, and Lucretius.[14] Seneca also quotes Publilius Syrus, such as during the eighth letter, "On the Philosopher's Seclusion".[15] Themes[edit] Seneca's letters are focused on the inner-life, and the joy that comes from wisdom.[16] He emphasizes the Stoic theme that virtue is the only true good and vice the only true evil.[11] He repeatedly refers to the brevity of life and the fleeting nature of time.[1] Underlying a large number of the letters is a concern with death on the one hand (a central topic of Stoic philosophy, and one embodied in Seneca's observation that we are "dying every day") and suicide on the other, a key consideration given Seneca's deteriorating political position and the common use of forced suicide as a method of elimination of figures deemed oppositional to the Emperor's power and rule.[13] Early letters often conclude with a maxim to meditate on, although this strategy is over by the thirtieth letter.[12] Such maxims are typically drawn from Epicurus, but Seneca regards this as a beginner's technique.[17] In letter 33 he stresses that the student must begin to make well-reasoned judgements independently.[17] Language and style[edit] French edition, 1887 The language and style of the letters is quite varied, and this reflects the fact that they are a mixture of private conversation and literary fiction. As an example, there is a mix of different vocabulary, incorporating technical terms (in fields such as medicine, law and navigation) as well as colloquial terms and philosophical ones.[18] Seneca also uses a range of devices for particular effects, such as ironic parataxis, hypotactic periods, direct speech interventions and rhetorical techniques such as alliterations, chiasmus, polyptoton, paradoxes, antitheses, oxymoron, etymological figures and so forth. In addition there are neologisms and hapax legomena.[18] Later history[edit] The oldest manuscripts of the letters date from the ninth-century.[19] For a long time the letters did not circulate together, letters 89–124 in particular appear in their own manuscripts.[19] They began to be widely circulated together from the twelfth-century onwards.[20] The first printed edition appeared in 1475.[20] Erasmus produced a much superior edition in 1529.[20] Legacy and influence[edit] Michel de Montaigne was influenced by his reading of Seneca's letters,[21] and he modelled his Essays on them.[20] The letters were a principal source for Justus Lipsius for the development of his Neostoicism towards the end of the 16th-century.[20] English translations[edit] Complete[edit] There have been several full translations of the 124 letters ever since Thomas Lodge included a translation in his complete works of 1614. Thomas Lodge (1614). The workes of Lucius Annæus Seneca, both morrall and naturall. London: William Stansby Thomas Morell (1786). The Epistles of Lucius Annæus Seneca. 2 vols. London: W. Woodfall Richard M. Gummere (1917, 1920, 1925). Seneca: Ad Lucilium epistulae morales. 3 vols. Loeb Classical Library Margaret Graver, A. A. Long (2015). Letters on Ethics: To Lucilius. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 022652843X Selections[edit] There have been many selected and abridged translations of Seneca's letters. Recent editions include: Robin Campbell (1969). Letters from a Stoic. Penguin. ISBN 0140442103 (40 letters) Elaine Fantham (2010). Seneca. Selected Letters. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0199533210 (80 letters) Quotations[edit] The tag Vita sine litteris mors ('Life without learning [is] death') is adapted from Epistle 82 (originally Otium sine litteris mors, 'Leisure without learning [is] death') and is the motto of Derby School and Derby Grammar School in England, Adelphi University, New York, and Manning's High School, Jamaica. The work is also the source for the phrase non scholae sed vitae: "We do not learn for school, but for life". Criticism[edit] Erasmus in his 1529 edition raised three main criticisms of the letters. First was Seneca's habit of mixing personas in the work, running objections and refutations of objections together in a way that Erasmus found not illuminating but obfuscatory.[22] Second was the way Seneca, in complaining about philosophical logic-chopping, nevertheless filled his pages with much of that empty quibbling himself, in illustration - prompting Erasmus to second Quintilian's objection to Seneca's own standing as a philosopher.[22] Thirdly, Erasmus felt that the letters were more disguised essays than a real correspondence: "one misses in Seneca that quality that lends other letters their greatest charm, that is that they are a true reflection of a real situation".[22] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Setaioli 2013, p. 193 ^ a b c d e Setaioli 2013, pp. 191-2 ^ Fantham 2010, p. xxii ^ a b Setaioli 2013, p. 198 ^ a b c Graver & Long 2015, p. 6 ^ Setaioli 2013, p. 194 ^ Graver & Long 2015, p. 4 ^ Setaioli 2013, p. 196 ^ Setaioli 2013, p. 195 ^ a b c Fantham 2010, p. xxi ^ a b Setaioli 2013, p. 192 ^ a b Graver & Long 2015, p. 5 ^ a b c Romm, James (14 March 2014). "Rome's House of Cards". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 June 2014. ^ Graver & Long 2015, pp. 8-9 ^ Moral letters to Lucilius, Letter 8 ^ Graver & Long 2015, p. 13 ^ a b Graver & Long 2015, p. 11 ^ a b Berno, Francesca Romana. "Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium". Academia.edu. Retrieved 27 June 2014. ^ a b Graver & Long 2015, p. 20 ^ a b c d e Graver & Long 2015, p. 21 ^ Clark, Carol E. (1968). "Seneca's Letters to Lucilius as a source of some of Montaigne's imagery". Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance. 30, 2 (2): 249–266. JSTOR 41430068. ^ a b c Fantham 2010, p. xxviii References[edit] Fantham, Elaine (2010), "Introduction", Seneca. Selected Letters, Oxford World's Classics, ISBN 978-0199533213 Graver, Margaret; Long, A. A. (2015), "Introduction", Seneca. Letters on Ethics: To Lucilius, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-26517-9 Setaioli, Aldo (2013), "Epistulae Morales", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004217089 External links[edit]  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium  English Wikisource has original text related to this article: Moral Letters to Lucilius Moral letters to Lucilius, translated by Richard M. Gummere on Wikisource Introduction to the Epistles. – by Richard M. Gummere Why Seneca's Moral Epistles? Seneca: Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales Volume I (Volume II; Volume III) at Open Library (in Latin and English) Thomas Lodge, The workes of Lucius Annæus Seneca, both morrall and naturall, 1614. Moral Letters, Vol. I public domain audiobook at LibriVox Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales (3 Volumes) Translated by Richard M. Gummere (1917) PDF Books Public domain v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epistulae_Morales_ad_Lucilium&oldid=1026610344" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Ethics literature Collections of letters Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles that link to Wikisource Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Íslenska Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Português Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 08:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1567	----	Tiberius (son of Justinian II) - Wikipedia Tiberius (son of Justinian II) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor of the Romans Tiberius Emperor of the Romans Solidus with Tiberius IV and his father Justinian II on its reverse side. Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire Reign 706–711(alongside Justinian II) Coronation 706 Predecessor Justinian II Successor Philippikos Bardanes Born 705 Khazaria Died 711 (Aged 6) St. Mary's Church in Blachernae, Constantinople Eastern Roman Empire Regnal name Tiberius Augustus Dynasty Heraclian Dynasty Father Justinian II Mother Theodora of Khazaria Tiberius (Greek: Τιβέριος, Tiberios; 705–711), sometimes enumerated as Tiberius IV,[1] was the son of Emperor Justinian II and Theodora of Khazaria. He served as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with his father Justinian II, from 706–711. Both were killed in 711, when Bardanes led a rebellion which marched on Constantinople. After Tiberius' death, two different individuals impersonated him, with one, named Bashir, going on to be hosted by Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, the Umayyad caliph, before his lie was discovered and he was crucified. Contents 1 History 2 Numismatics 3 References 3.1 Primary sources 3.2 Citations 3.3 Bibliography History[edit] In 705, Justinian II, who had previously been emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 685–695, but had been usurped by Leontios, used a vast army of Khazars, Bulgars, and Slavs to retake the throne from Tiberios III, who had in turn overthrown Leontios.[2] While Justinian led troops into the Byzantine Empire, he left his wife, Theodora of Khazaria, behind in Bulgaria. While there, she gave birth to Tiberius. Once Justinian had consolidated his hold on the throne, he sent for his wife and his newly born son.[3][4] When they arrived in Constantinople in 706, Theodora was crowned Augusta, and Tiberius was made co-emperor.[1][4][5] In 710, when Pope Constantine visited Constantinople, he was welcomed by the Byzantine Senate and the young co-emperor Tiberius, before Constantine went on to meet Justinian II.[5][6] In 711, the Theme of Cherson rebelled against Justinian II, led by an exiled general by the name of Bardanes. The rebels resisted a counter-attack, before the forces sent to attack the rebels themselves joined the rebellion.[7] The rebels marched on the capital, Constantinople, and proclaimed Bardanes as Emperor Philippicus.[8] During this time, Justinian II had been traveling to Armenia, and thus did not arrive in Constantinople in time to defend it, but only after it had fallen.[9] He was arrested, and then executed outside the city in December 711. His head was kept by Bardanes as a trophy. Upon hearing the news of his death, Anastasia, his mother, took Tiberius, at this time six years old, to St. Mary's Church in Blachernae, for sanctuary. He was pursued by men sent by Bardanes, who dragged him from the altar and murdered him outside of the church.[10] Two separate individuals later arose claiming to be Tiberius: one in 715 during the Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs; and another in 737.[11] The second impostor, a man by the name of Bashir, plotted with a blind man named Theophantus. They arranged that Theophantus would go to Sulayman ibn Hisham, an Arab general, and son of the Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, and inform him that he knew the location of Tiberius, who was actually Bashir himself. Sulayman believed Theophantus and instructed him to bring Bashir to him, which Theophantus agreed to do in exchange for money. Theophantus then delivered Bashir to Sulayman, whereupon Bashir denied being Tiberius profusely, so as to make Sulayman certain that he really was Tiberius. After many promises of safety and reward were given, he "confessed" that he was Tiberius. Sulayman immediately wrote to his father, Hisham, who instructed him to dress the false Tiberius in royal clothes and to have him pass through all major cities in procession. Bashir then went first to Edessa, and then the other major cities. After this, he went to Hisham, who received him with honor. Bashir stayed with Hisham, sending ambassadors to Constantinople to proclaim that Tiberius was still alive, and allied with the Umayyad. This news frightened the Byzantines, especially Emperor Leo III. However, Bashir's deception was eventually revealed, and he was crucified in Edessa.[12] Numismatics[edit] Tiberius can be found on coins issued during the second reign of Justinian II (705–711). During Justinian II's first reign (686–695), the first coins to bear a depiction of Jesus Christ on the obverse were minted. During his second reign, Tiberius was featured on the reverse of the coins, alongside Justinian II. On the reverse, Tiberius and Justinian II both wear crowns, loros, and chlamys, and hold cross potents in their hands. The legend of the reverse reads: "Domini Nostri Iustinianus et Tiberius Perpetui Augusti", meaning "Our Lords Justinian and Tiberius, the Eternal Emperors".[13] References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Kitab al-Fitan by Nu'aym ibn Hammad.[11] Chronicle of 1234 by Anonymus (2.260).[14] Chronicle by Theophanes.[15] Chronicon Syriacum by Bar Hebraeus.[16] Citations[edit] ^ a b Venning & Harris 2006, p. 190. ^ Crawford 2013, p. 201. ^ Bellinger & Grierson 1968, p. 644. ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 361. ^ a b Haldon 2016, p. 50. ^ Venning & Harris 2006, p. 192. ^ De Imperatoribus Romanis. ^ Norwich 1990, p. 343. ^ Bury 1889, p. 365. ^ Bury 1889, pp. 365–366. ^ a b Motzki 2016, p. 224. ^ Hoyland 2011, p. 234. ^ Curta & Holt 2016, p. 388. ^ Hoyland 2011, p. 12. ^ Cook 2004, p. 43. ^ Green 1992, p. 92. Bibliography[edit] Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip (1968). Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Dumbarton Oaks. OCLC 847177622. Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, 395 A.D. to 800 A.D. II. MacMillan & Co. OCLC 168739195. Cook, Michael (2004). Studies in the Origins of Early Islamic Culture and Tradition. Ashgate Variorum. ISBN 9780860789161. Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods. Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 9781848846128. Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (2016). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610695664. Green, Tamara M. (1992). The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran. BRILL. ISBN 9789004301429. Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674969179. Hoyland, Robert G. (2011). Theophilus of Edessa's Chronicle and the Circulation of Historical Knowledge in Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9781846316975. Motzki, Harald (2016). Hadith: Origins and Developments. Routledge. ISBN 9781351931816. Moore, R. Scott. "De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 5 January 2018. Norwich, John Julius (1990). Byzantium: The Early Centuries. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-011447-5. Venning, Timothy; Harris, Jonathan (2006). A Chronology of the Byzantine Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230505865. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_(son_of_Justinian_II)&oldid=1019253107" Categories: 705 births 711 deaths Heraclian Dynasty 8th-century Byzantine emperors Executed Byzantine people Medieval child rulers Twenty Years' Anarchy Byzantine junior emperors 8th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Good articles Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Italiano Polski Português Română Русский Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2021, at 09:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1583	----	Wilhelm Xylander - Wikipedia Wilhelm Xylander From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search German humanist and classical scholar (1532–1576) Wilhelm Xylander Engraving from Bibliotheca chalcographica Born 26 December 1532 Augsburg Died 10 February 1576(1576-02-10) (aged 43) Heidelberg Nationality German Other names Guilielmus Xylander, Wilhelm Holtzmann Occupation Arts Professor Known for First translation of Meditations by Marcus Aurelius into Latin Wilhelm Xylander (born Wilhelm Holtzman, graecized to Xylander; 26 December 1532 – 10 February 1576) was a German classical scholar and humanist. He served as rector of Heidelberg University in 1564.[1] Contents 1 Biography 2 Works 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Born at Augsburg, he studied at Tübingen, and in 1558, when very short of money (caused, according to some, by his intemperate habits), he was appointed to succeed Jakob Micyllus in the professorship of Greek at the University of Heidelberg; he exchanged it for a chair of logic (publicus organi Aristotelici interpres) in 1562.[2] In Heidelberg church and university politics, Xylander was a close partisan of Thomas Erastus.[3] Xylander was the author of a number of important works, including Latin translations of Dio Cassius (1558), Plutarch (1560–1570) and Strabo (1571). He also edited (1568) the geographical lexicon of Stephanus of Byzantium; the travels of Pausanias (completed after his death by Friedrich Sylburg, 1583); the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (1558), the editio princeps based on a Heidelberg manuscript now lost; a second edition in 1568 with the addition of Antoninus Liberalis, Phlegon of Tralles, an unknown Apollonius, and Antigonus of Carystus—all paradoxographers); and the chronicle of George Cedrenus (1566). He translated the first six books of Euclid into German with notes, the Arithmetica of Diophantus,[4] and the De quattuor mathematicis scientiis of Michael Psellus into Latin.[2] Works[edit] Marcus Aurelius, De seipso, seu vita sua, libri 12 ed. and trans. by Xylander. Zurich: Andreas Gessner, 1558. References[edit] ^ Drüll, Dagmar (2002). Heidelberger Gelehrtenlexikon 1386-1651. Berlin: Springer. pp. 562–3. ISBN 3540435301. ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Xylander, Guilielmus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 889. ^ Gunnoe, Charles (2011). Thomas Erastus and the Palatinate: A Renaissance Physician in the Second Reformation. Leiden: Brill. p. 201. ISBN 9789004187924. ^ Weil, André (2006). Number Theory: An approach through history from Hammurapi to Legendre. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 31. ISBN 9780817645656. External links[edit] Fritz Schöll (1898), "Xylander, Wilhelm", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) (in German), 44, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 582–593 Works of Wilhelm Xylander available at the Munich Digitisation Centre (MDZ) Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Greece Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_Xylander&oldid=1018282976" Categories: 1532 births 1576 deaths German classical scholars University of Tübingen alumni Heidelberg University faculty Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Greek–Latin translators Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Use dmy dates from March 2017 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica articles with no significant updates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Latina مصرى 日本語 Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2021, at 06:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1585	----	Roman Senate - Wikipedia Roman Senate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political institution in ancient Rome Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman Senate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Roman Senate (Latin: Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in 753 BC). It survived the overthrow of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC; the fall of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC; the division of the Roman Empire in AD 395; and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476; Justinian's attempted reconquest of the west in the 6th century, and lasted well into the Eastern Roman Empire's history. During the days of the Roman Kingdom, most of the time the Senate was little more than an advisory council to the king, but it also elected new Roman kings. The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a coup d'état led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded the Roman Republic. During the early Republic, the Senate was politically weak, while the various executive magistrates were quite powerful. Since the transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was most likely gradual, it took several generations before the Senate was able to assert itself over the executive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate had reached the apex of its republican power. The late Republic saw a decline in the Senate's power, which began following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. After the transition of the Republic into the Principate, the Senate lost much of its political power as well as its prestige. Following the constitutional reforms of Emperor Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant. When the seat of government was transferred out of Rome, the Senate was reduced to a purely municipal body. That decline in status was reinforced when Constantine the Great created an additional senate in Constantinople. After Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476, the Senate in the West Empire functioned under the rule of Odoacer (476–489) and during Ostrogothic rule (489–535). It was restored to its official status after the reconquest of Italy by Justinian I but ultimately disappeared after 603, the date of its last recorded public act. Some Roman aristocrats in the Middle Ages bore the title senator, but it was by this point a purely honorific title and does not reflect the continued existence of the classical Senate. The Eastern Senate survived in Constantinople through the 14th century. Contents 1 History 1.1 Senate of the Roman Kingdom 1.2 Senate of the Roman Republic 1.3 Senate of the Roman Empire 1.4 Post-Classical Senate 1.4.1 Senate in the West 1.4.2 Senate in the East 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 Further reading History[edit] Senate of the Roman Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and Constitution of the Roman Kingdom The senate was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means "old man"; the word thus means "assembly of elders". The prehistoric Indo-Europeans who settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC[1] were structured into tribal communities,[2] and these communities often included an aristocratic board of tribal elders.[3] The early Roman family was called a gens or "clan",[2] and each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for "father").[4] When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a common community, the patres from the leading clans were selected[5] for the confederated board of elders that would become the Roman senate.[4] Over time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader, and so they elected a king (rex),[4] and vested in him their sovereign power.[6] When the king died, that sovereign power naturally reverted to the patres.[4] The senate is said to have been created by Rome's first king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the patrician class.[7] Rome's fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen from the minor leading families, and were accordingly called the patres minorum gentium.[8] Rome's seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, executed many of the leading men in the senate, and did not replace them, thereby diminishing their number. However, in 509 BC Rome's first and third consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius Publicola chose from amongst the leading equites new men for the senate, these being called conscripti, and thus increased the size of the senate to 300.[9] The senate of the Roman Kingdom held three principal responsibilities: It functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power,[10] it served as the king's council, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert with the people of Rome.[11] During the years of the monarchy, the senate's most important function was to elect new kings. While the king was nominally elected by the people, it was actually the senate who chose each new king.[10] The period between the death of one king and the election of a new king was called the interregnum,[10] during which time the Interrex nominated a candidate to replace the king.[12] After the senate gave its initial approval to the nominee, he was then formally elected by the people,[13] and then received the senate's final approval.[12] At least one king, Servius Tullius, was elected by the senate alone, and not by the people.[14] The senate's most significant task, outside regal elections, was to function as the king's council, and while the king could ignore any advice it offered, its growing prestige helped make the advice that it offered increasingly difficult to ignore. Only the king could make new laws, although he often involved both the senate and the curiate assembly (the popular assembly) in the process.[11] Senate of the Roman Republic[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Senate of the Roman Republic Representation of a sitting of the Roman senate: Cicero attacks Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome, house of the Italian Senate. It is worth noting that idealistic medieval and subsequent artistic depictions of the Senate in session are almost uniformly inaccurate. Illustrations commonly show the senators arranged in a semicircle around an open space where orators were deemed to stand; in reality the structure of the existing Curia Julia building, which dates in its current form from the Emperor Diocletian, shows that the senators sat in straight and parallel lines on either side of the interior of the building. In current media depictions in film this is shown correctly in The Fall of the Roman Empire, and incorrectly in, for example, Spartacus. While the Curia Julia was built, the Senate convened in the Theatre of Pompey and the fact that Julius Caesar was killed there may have caused the misconception. The so-called "Togatus Barberini", a statue depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid-1st century BC. When the Republic began, the Senate functioned as an advisory council. It consisted of 300–500 senators who served for life. Only patricians were members in the early period, but plebeians were also admitted before long, although they were denied the senior magistracies for a longer period. Senators were entitled to wear a toga with a broad purple stripe, maroon shoes, and an iron (later gold) ring. The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called senatus consulta, which in form constituted "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. While these decrees did not hold legal force, they usually were obeyed in practice.[15] If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law (lex) that was passed by an assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum because the senatus consultum had its authority based on precedent and not in law. A senatus consultum, however, could serve to interpret a law.[16] Through these decrees, the senate directed the magistrates, especially the Roman Consuls (the chief magistrates), in their prosecution of military conflicts. The senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the disbursal of public funds from the treasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate also supervised the administration of the provinces, which were governed by former consuls and praetors, in that it decided which magistrate should govern which province. Since the 3rd century BC the senate also played a pivotal role in cases of emergency. It could call for the appointment of a dictator (a right resting with each consul with or without the senate's involvement). However, after 202 BC, the office of dictator fell out of use (and was revived only two more times) and was replaced with the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"), a senatorial decree which authorised the consuls to employ any means necessary to solve the crisis.[17] While senate meetings could take place either inside or outside the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), no meeting could take place more than a mile (1 km) outside it.[18] The senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the auspices) was taken.[19] The senate was only allowed to assemble in places dedicated to the gods. Meetings usually began at dawn, and a magistrate who wished to summon the senate had to issue a compulsory order.[20] The senate meetings were public[18] and directed by a presiding magistrate (usually a consul).[6] While in session, the senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech,[21] then referred an issue to the senators, who would discuss it in order of seniority.[18] Senators had several other ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. For example, every senator was permitted to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall,[15] a dedicated group or even a single senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster or diem consumere).[21] When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative.[22] With a dictator as well as a senate, the senate could veto any of the dictator's decisions. At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed, usually by a tribune. If there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be put to either a voice vote or a show of hands. If there was no veto and no obvious majority, and the matter was of a significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house,[18] with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber. Senate membership was controlled by the censors. By the time of Augustus, ownership of property worth at least one million sesterces was required for membership. The ethical requirements of senators were significant. In contrast to members of the Equestrian order, senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce,[18] they could not leave Italy without permission from the rest of the senate and they were not paid a salary. Election to magisterial office resulted in automatic senate membership.[23] Senate of the Roman Empire[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire, Senate of the Roman Empire, and Constitution of the Late Roman Empire After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman senate to the Roman Emperor. Though retaining its legal position as under the republic, in practice, however, the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power in the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority. During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the emperor held control over the senate, the senate acted as a vehicle through which he exercised his autocratic powers. The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate. The first emperor, Augustus, reduced the size of the senate from 900 members to 600, even though there were only about 100 to 200 active senators at one time. After this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. Under the empire, as was the case during the late republic, one could become a senator by being elected quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties), but only if one were already of senatorial rank.[24] In addition to quaestors, elected officials holding a range of senior positions were routinely granted senatorial rank by virtue of the offices that they held.[25] If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for him to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor manually granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the quaestorship,[24] while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate by issuing a decree.[26] Under the empire, the power that the emperor held over the senate was absolute.[27] The two consuls were a part of the senate, but had more power than the senators. During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two consuls,[28] and usually acted as the presiding officer. Senators of the early empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lower rank, although the emperor could speak at any time.[28] Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also preside over the senate. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on.[29] While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred to the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta) acquired the full force of law.[27] The legislative powers of the imperial senate were principally of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a range of powers over the provinces.[27] During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[27][30] and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the senate,[30] and, while theoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized. Around 300 AD, the emperor Diocletian enacted a series of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, he asserted the right of the emperor to take power without the theoretical consent of the senate, thus depriving the senate of its status as the ultimate repository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The senate did, however, retain its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over the senatorial order. The senate also retained the power to try treason cases, and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the emperor. In the final years of the western empire, the senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, such as in the case of Eugenius, who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I. The senate remained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of the spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory (first removed by Constantius II) to the senatorial curia. According to the Historia Augusta (Elagabalus 4.2 and 12.3) emperor Elagabalus had his mother or grandmother take part in Senate proceedings. "And Elagabalus was the only one of all the emperors under whom a woman attended the senate like a man, just as though she belonged to the senatorial order" (David Magie's translation). According to the same work, Elagabalus also established a women's senate called the senaculum, which enacted rules to be applied to matrons regarding clothing, chariot riding, the wearing of jewelry, etc. (Elagabalus 4.3 and Aurelian 49.6). Before this, Agrippina the Younger, mother of Nero, had been listening to Senate proceedings, concealed behind a curtain, according to Tacitus (Annales, 13.5). Post-Classical Senate[edit] Senate in the West[edit] After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the senate continued to function under the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, and then under Ostrogothic rule. The authority of the senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders, who sought to protect the institution. This period was characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families, such as the Anicii, while the senate's leader, the princeps senatus, often served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. It is known that the senate successfully installed Laurentius as pope in 498, despite the fact that both King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supported the other candidate, Symmachus.[31] The peaceful coexistence of senatorial and barbarian rule continued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad found himself at war with Emperor Justinian I and took the senators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552 as revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king, Totila. After Rome was recaptured by the imperial (Byzantine) army, the senate was restored, but the institution (like classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by the long war. Many senators had been killed and many of those who had fled to the east chose to remain there, thanks to favorable legislation passed by Emperor Justinian, who, however, abolished virtually all senatorial offices in Italy. The importance of the Roman senate thus declined rapidly.[32] In 578 and again in 580, the senate sent envoys to Constantinople. They delivered 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilograms) of gold as a gift to the new emperor, Tiberius II Constantinus, along with a plea for help against the Lombards, who had invaded Italy ten years earlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593, lamented the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order and the decline of the prestigious institution.[33][34] It is not known exactly when the Roman senate disappeared in the West, but it appears to have been in the early seventh century - it is last attested in 603, when the Gregorian register records that it acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia,[35][36] and in 630 the Curia Julia was converted into a church (Sant'Adriano al Foro) by Pope Honorius I, which suggests that the Senate had ceased to meet there some time previously.[37] The Palazzo Senatorio, originally built to house the revived Senate during the Roman Commune period. The title senator did continue to be used in the Early Middle Ages (it was held by Crescentius the Younger (d.998) and in its feminine form senatrix by Marozia (d.937), to give two prominent examples) but in this period it appears to have been regarded as a title of nobility and no longer indicated membership of an organized governing body.[38] In 1144, the Commune of Rome attempted to establish a government modelled on the old Roman Republic in opposition to the temporal power of the higher nobles (in particular the Frangipani family) and the pope. It constructed a new Senate House (the Palazzo Senatorio [it]) for itself on the Capitoline Hill, apparently in the mistaken belief that this was the site of the ancient Senate House.[39] Most of our sources state that there were 56 senators in the revived senate, and modern historians have therefore interpreted this to indicate that there were four senators for each of the fourteen regiones of Rome.[40] These senators, the first real senators since the 7th century, elected as their leader Giordano Pierleoni, son of the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician, since the term consul had been deprecated as a noble styling.[citation needed] The Commune came under constant pressure from the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor during the second half of the twelfth century. From 1192 onwards the popes succeeded in reducing the 56-strong senate down to a single individual, styled Summus Senator, who subsequently became the head of the civil government of Rome under the pope's aegis.[41] Between 1191 and 1193, this was a certain Benedetto called Carus homo or carissimo.[citation needed] Senate in the East[edit] Main article: Byzantine Senate The senate continued to exist in Constantinople, although it evolved into an institution that differed in some fundamental forms from its predecessor. Designated in Greek as synkletos, or assembly, the Senate of Constantinople was made up of all current or former holders of senior ranks and official positions, plus their descendants. At its height during the 6th and 7th centuries, the Senate represented the collective wealth and power of the Empire, on occasion nominating and dominating individual emperors.[42] In the second half of the 10th century a new office, proëdrus (Greek: πρόεδρος), was created as head of the senate by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. Up to the mid-11th century, only eunuchs could become proëdrus, but later this restriction was lifted and several proëdri could be appointed, of which the senior proëdrus, or protoproëdrus (Greek: πρωτοπρόεδρος), served as the head of the senate. There were two types of meetings practised: silentium, in which only magistrates currently in office participated and conventus, in which all syncletics (Greek: συγκλητικοί, senators) could participate. The Senate in Constantinople existed until at least the beginning of the 13th century, its last known act being the election of Nicolas Canabus as emperor in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade.[43] See also[edit] Acta Senatus Aedile Centuria Curia Comitia curiata Gerousia SPQR Cursus honorum Interrex Master of the Horse Pontifex Maximus Princeps senatus Promagistrate Roman Law Plebeian Council Praetor References[edit] ^ Abbott, 3 ^ a b Abbott, 1 ^ Abbott, 12 ^ a b c d Abbott, 6 ^ Abbott, 16 ^ a b Byrd, 42 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1 ^ a b c Abbott, 10 ^ a b Abbott, 17 ^ a b Abbott, 14 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.41 ^ a b Byrd, 44 ^ Abbott, 233 ^ Abbott, 240 ^ a b c d e Byrd, 34 ^ Lintott, 72 ^ Lintott, 75 ^ a b Lintott, 78 ^ Lintott, 83 ^ Byrd, 36 ^ a b Abbott, 381 ^ Metz, 59, 60 ^ Abbott, 382 ^ a b c d Abbott, 385 ^ a b Abbott, 383 ^ Abbott, 384 ^ a b Abbott, 386 ^ Levillain, 907 ^ Schnurer, 339 ^ Bronwen, 3. "For since the Senate has failed, the people have perished, and the sufferings and groans of the few who remain are multiplied each day. Rome, now empty, is burning!" ^ Cooper, 23 ^ Richards, 246 ^ Levillain 1047 ^ Kaegi, 196 ^ Wickham, Chris (2014). Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. pp. 23, 448. ISBN 9780199684960. ^ Wickham, Chris (2014). Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. pp. 337–9. ISBN 9780199684960. ^ Wickham, Chris (2014). Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. p. 448. ISBN 9780199684960. ^ Wickham, Chris (2014). Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. p. 447. ISBN 9780199684960. ^ Runciman, 60. ^ Phillips, 222–226. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cicero, Marcus Tullius De Re Publica, Book Two Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1. Livy, Ab urbe condita Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2. Polybius, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government Secondary sources[edit] Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics, ISBN 0-543-92749-0. Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1898). Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23. Cooper, Kate; Julia Hillner (13 September 2007). Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Early Christian Rome, 300–900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46838-1. Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth, F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York Public Library Kaegi, Walter Emil (27 March 2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1. Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press ( ISBN 0-19-926108-3). Metz, David (2008). Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. pp. 59 & 60. ISBN 978-0-87220-957-2. Neil, Bronwen; Matthew J. Dal Santo (9 September 2013). A Companion to Gregory the Great. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-04-25776-4. Phillips, Jonathan (2004). The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. Penguin. ISBN 9781101127728. Richards, Jeffrey (1979). The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752. Routledge. ISBN 9780710000989. Runciman, Steven (1956). Byzantine Civilisation. Meridian. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press ( ISBN 0-472-08125-X). Schnurer, Gustov (1956). Church And Culture in the Middle Ages 350–814. Kessinger Publishing ( ISBN 978-1-4254-2322-3). Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopædia (1907) – a work now in public domain. Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Senate . Cameron, A. The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993). Crawford, M. The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978). Eck, Werner. Monument und Inschrift. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur senatorischen Repräsentation in der Kaiserzeit (Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 2010). Gruen, Erich, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (U California Press, 1974). Hoеlkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, Senatus populusque Romanus. Die politische Kultur der Republik – Dimensionen und Deutungen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004). Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891. Krieckhaus, Andreas, Senatorische Familien und ihre patriae (1./2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2006) (Studien zur Geschichtesforschung des Altertums, 14). Millar, Fergus, The Emperor in the Roman World, (London, Duckworth, 1977, 1992). Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888 Talbert, Richard A. The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton, Princeton Univerversity Press, 1984). Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886. Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. 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en-wikipedia-org-1586	----	De Otio - Wikipedia De Otio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Otio From the 1643 edition, published by Francesco Baba. Its position, appended to the end of De Vita Beata, reflects the manuscript tradition Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 62 De Otio (On Leisure) is a 1st-century Latin work by Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). It survives in a fragmentary state. The work concerns the rational use of spare time, whereby one can still actively aid humankind by engaging in wider questions about nature and the universe. Contents 1 Dating 2 Title and contents 3 Themes 4 References 5 Further reading 5.1 Translations 6 External links Dating[edit] No absolute certainty about the date of writing is possible, but since the contents of the work parallel Seneca's own withdrawal into private life near the end of his life it is thought by a majority of critics to have been written around 62 AD or shortly after.[1][2] Title and contents[edit] Otio is from otium, this literally translates as leisure, vacant time, freedom from business.[3] De Otio survives only in fragmentary form. The manuscript text begins mid-sentence, and ends rather abruptly.[4][5] In the Codex Ambrosianus C 90 (the main source for Seneca's essays) it is simply tacked onto the end of De Vita Beata suggesting a scribe missed a page or two.[6] The title of the essay, De Otio, is known from the table of contents. The addressee has been erased but appears to have been seven letters long and is assumed to have been Seneca's friend Serenus.[6] De Otio is thus one of a trio of dialogues addressed to Serenus, which also includes De Constantia Sapientis and De Tranquillitate Animi.[7] Chronologically, it is thought to be the last of the three.[7] Themes[edit] Seneca understood the word otio to represent something more than absolute free-time. He understood it to mean leisure used in service to the community by intellectual activity:[8] ... hoc nempe ab homine exigitur, ut prosit hominibus ... this of course is required of a human, to benefit their fellow humans In De Otio Seneca debates the appropriate life for a Stoic philosopher. Seneca reports the standard position of the school that wise people will engage in public affairs, unless something prevents them. Seneca lists some arguments against engaging in public life such as if the state is too corrupt, or if the wise person's influence is too limited, or if they are ill. Seneca then shows that private life (otium) far from being a life of listless retirement can be active from a Stoic point of view. The wise person can choose to engage with the wider universe: by moving one's actions from the local to the cosmic perspective and engage with the fundamental questions of the universe, one can still aid all of humankind.[2] The superior position the sage (ho sophos) inhabits of detachment from earthly (terena) concerns, and an according freedom from possible future events of detrimental nature, is a unifying theme of the dialogue.[9][7] References[edit] ^ G. D. Williams - Lucius Annaeus Seneca - De Otio - Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics (p.2) (Cambridge University Press, 30 Jan 2003) ISBN 0521588065 [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ a b R Scott Smith - Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist (edited by Andreas Heil, Gregor Damschen) BRILL, 13 Dec 2013 ISBN 9004217088 [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ Perseus Digital Library - Latin Word Study Tool otium - otio [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ Howatson, M. (2013). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. p. 519. ISBN 978-0199548552. ^ Bartsch, Shadi; Schiesaro, Alessandro, eds. (16 February 2015). The Cambridge Companion to Seneca. p. 79. ISBN 978-1316239896. ^ a b Cooper, John M.; Procopé, J. F. (1995). Seneca: Moral and Political Essays. Cambridge University Press. p. 167. ISBN 0521348188. ^ a b c Gian Biagio Conte - professor of Latin literature in the Department of Classical Philology at the University of Pisa, Italy. (Translated by J Solodow) (4 Nov 1999). Latin Literature: A History. JHU Press. ISBN 0801862531. Retrieved 2015-03-19. ^ T E Beck (editor) "Introduction" to B Taegio - La Villa (first published 1559) Penn Studies in Landscape Architecture (University of Pennsylvania Press, 21 Sep 2011) ISBN 0812203801 [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ R Bett - A Companion to Ancient Philosophy - p.531 (edited by Mary Louise Gill, Pierre Pellegrin)[Retrieved 2015-3-19] (ed. Bett was source of term ho sophos) Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] G. D. Williams (2003), Seneca - De Otio, De Brevitate Vitae (Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521588065 Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, Gareth D. Williams (2014). Seneca: Hardship and Happiness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748332 External links[edit] Works related to Of Leisure at Wikisource Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks De Otio (Latin) (ed. John W. Basore) v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Otio&oldid=1027358765" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1612	----	Ancient Greek art - Wikipedia Ancient Greek art From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Art of Ancient Greece Ancient Greek art Heracles and Athena, black-figure side of the belly amphora by the Andokides Painter, c. 520/510 BC The Hellenistic Pergamon Altar: l to r Nereus, Doris, a Giant, Oceanus History of art Periods: Prehistoric Ancient Medieval Renaissance art Baroque Rococo Neoclassicism Romanticism Realism Modern Contemporary Postmodern Regions: Art of the Middle East Mesopotamian Egyptian Hittite Persian Arabian South Arabian Phoenician Ottoman Art of Asia Indian Chinese Central Asian Japanese Korean Newa Bhutanese Tibetan Vietnamese Thai Cambodian Khmer Indonesian Philippino Art of Europe Minoan Cycladic Etruscan Dacian Celtic Scythian Greek Hellenistic Iberian Roman Byzantine Anglo-Saxon Ottonian Viking Romanesque Gothic Rus Renaissance Mannerism Baroque Rococo Neoclassicism Romanticism Realism Impressionism Symbolism Decorative Post-Impressionism Art Nouveau Fauvism Expressionism Cubism Pop Art of Africa Igbo Yoruba Benin Kuba Luba Art of the Americas Pre-Columbian Maya Muisca Native American Inuit Art of Australia Art of Oceania Religions: Christian Catholic Protestant Buddhist Islamic Hindu Jain Techniques: Sculpture Painting Pottery Calligraphy Architecture Photography Graphic arts Digital art Types: Narrative Figurative Naturalist Symbolic Naïve Abstract v t e Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery. Greek architecture, technically very simple, established a harmonious style with numerous detailed conventions that were largely adopted by Roman architecture and are still followed in some modern buildings. It used a vocabulary of ornament that was shared with pottery, metalwork and other media, and had an enormous influence on Eurasian art, especially after Buddhism carried it beyond the expanded Greek world created by Alexander the Great. The social context of Greek art included radical political developments and a great increase in prosperity; the equally impressive Greek achievements in philosophy, literature and other fields are well known. The earliest art by Greeks is generally excluded from "ancient Greek art", and instead known as Greek Neolithic art followed by Aegean art; the latter includes Cycladic art and the art of the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures from the Greek Bronze Age.[1] The art of ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods: the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric age is usually dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years, traditionally known as the Greek Dark Ages. The 7th century BC witnessed the slow development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. Around 500 BC, shortly before the onset of the Persian Wars (480 BC to 448 BC), is usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the reign of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC) is taken as separating the Classical from the Hellenistic periods. From some point in the 1st century BC onwards "Greco-Roman" is used, or more local terms for the Eastern Greek world.[2] In reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and as in any age some artists worked in more innovative styles than others. Strong local traditions, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of works of art found far from their place of origin. Greek art of various kinds was widely exported. The whole period saw a generally steady increase in prosperity and trading links within the Greek world and with neighbouring cultures. The survival rate of Greek art differs starkly between media. We have huge quantities of pottery and coins, much stone sculpture, though even more Roman copies, and a few large bronze sculptures. Almost entirely missing are painting, fine metal vessels, and anything in perishable materials including wood. The stone shell of a number of temples and theatres has survived, but little of their extensive decoration.[3] Contents 1 Pottery 1.1 History 2 Metalwork 3 Monumental sculpture 3.1 Materials, forms 3.2 Archaic 3.3 Classical 3.4 Hellenistic 4 Figurines 4.1 Terracotta figurines 4.2 Metal figurines 5 Architecture 6 Coin design 7 Painting 7.1 Panel and wall painting 7.2 Polychromy: painting on statuary and architecture 7.2.1 Architecture 7.2.2 Sculpture 7.3 Vase painting 8 Mosaics 9 Engraved gems 10 Ornament 11 Other arts 12 Diffusion and legacy 13 Historiography 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links Pottery[edit] Detail of a black-figure vase, c. 540. White, which has not worn well, and a different red-purple are also used.[4] Interior of an Attic red-figure cup, about 450 White ground, Attic, c. 460, Cylix of Apollo, who pours a libation, detail.[5] Main article: Pottery of ancient Greece Further information: Ancient Greek vase painting By convention, finely painted vessels of all shapes are called "vases", and there are over 100,000 significantly complete surviving pieces,[6] giving (with the inscriptions that many carry) unparalleled insights into many aspects of Greek life. Sculptural or architectural pottery, also very often painted, are referred to as terracottas, and also survive in large quantities. In much of the literature, "pottery" means only painted vessels, or "vases". Pottery was the main form of grave goods deposited in tombs, often as "funerary urns" containing the cremated ashes, and was widely exported. The famous and distinctive style of Greek vase-painting with figures depicted with strong outlines, with thin lines within the outlines, reached its peak from about 600 to 350 BC, and divides into the two main styles, almost reversals of each other, of black-figure and red-figure painting, the other colour forming the background in each case. Other colours were very limited, normally to small areas of white and larger ones of a different purplish-red. Within the restrictions of these techniques and other strong conventions, vase-painters achieved remarkable results, combining refinement and powerful expression. White ground technique allowed more freedom in depiction, but did not wear well and was mostly made for burial.[7] Conventionally, the ancient Greeks are said to have made most pottery vessels for everyday use, not for display. Exceptions are the large Archaic monumental vases made as grave-markers, trophies won at games, such as the Panathenaic Amphorae filled with olive oil, and pieces made specifically to be left in graves; some perfume bottles have a money-saving bottom just below the mouth, so a small quantity makes them appear full.[8] In recent decades many scholars have questioned this, seeing much more production than was formerly thought as made to be placed in graves, as a cheaper substitute for metalware in both Greece and Etruria.[9] Most surviving pottery consists of vessels for storing, serving or drinking liquids such as amphorae, kraters (bowls for mixing wine and water), hydria (water jars), libation bowls, oil and perfume bottles for the toilet, jugs and cups. Painted vessels for serving and eating food are much less common. Painted pottery was affordable even by ordinary people, and a piece "decently decorated with about five or six figures cost about two or three days' wages".[10] Miniatures were also produced in large numbers, mainly for use as offerings at temples.[11] In the Hellenistic period a wider range of pottery was produced, but most of it is of little artistic importance. In earlier periods even quite small Greek cities produced pottery for their own locale. These varied widely in style and standards. Distinctive pottery that ranks as art was produced on some of the Aegean islands, in Crete, and in the wealthy Greek colonies of southern Italy and Sicily.[12] By the later Archaic and early Classical period, however, the two great commercial powers, Corinth and Athens, came to dominate. Their pottery was exported all over the Greek world, driving out the local varieties. Pots from Corinth and Athens are found as far afield as Spain and Ukraine, and are so common in Italy that they were first collected in the 18th century as "Etruscan vases".[13] Many of these pots are mass-produced products of low quality. In fact, by the 5th century BC, pottery had become an industry and pottery painting ceased to be an important art form. The range of colours which could be used on pots was restricted by the technology of firing: black, white, red, and yellow were the most common. In the three earlier periods, the pots were left their natural light colour, and were decorated with slip that turned black in the kiln.[7] Greek pottery is frequently signed, sometimes by the potter or the master of the pottery, but only occasionally by the painter. Hundreds of painters are, however, identifiable by their artistic personalities: where their signatures have not survived they are named for their subject choices, as "the Achilles Painter", by the potter they worked for, such as the Late Archaic "Kleophrades Painter", or even by their modern locations, such as the Late Archaic "Berlin Painter".[14] History[edit] The history of ancient Greek pottery is divided stylistically into five periods: the Protogeometric from about 1050 BC the Geometric from about 900 BC the Late Geometric or Archaic from about 750 BC the Black Figure from the early 7th century BC and the Red Figure from about 530 BC During the Protogeometric and Geometric periods, Greek pottery was decorated with abstract designs, in the former usually elegant and large, with plenty of unpainted space, but in the Geometric often densely covering most of the surface, as in the large pots by the Dipylon Master, who worked around 750. He and other potters around his time began to introduce very stylised silhouette figures of humans and animals, especially horses. These often represent funeral processions, or battles, presumably representing those fought by the deceased.[15] The Geometric phase was followed by an Orientalizing period in the late 8th century, when a few animals, many either mythical or not native to Greece (like the sphinx and lion respectively) were adapted from the Near East, accompanied by decorative motifs, such as the lotus and palmette. These were shown much larger than the previous figures. The Wild Goat Style is a regional variant, very often showing goats. Human figures were not so influenced from the East, but also became larger and more detailed.[16] The fully mature black-figure technique, with added red and white details and incising for outlines and details, originated in Corinth during the early 7th century BC and was introduced into Attica about a generation later; it flourished until the end of the 6th century BC.[17] The red-figure technique, invented in about 530 BC, reversed this tradition, with the pots being painted black and the figures painted in red. Red-figure vases slowly replaced the black-figure style. Sometimes larger vessels were engraved as well as painted. Erotic themes, both heterosexual and male homosexual, became common.[18] By about 320 BC fine figurative vase-painting had ceased in Athens and other Greek centres, with the polychromatic Kerch style a final flourish; it was probably replaced by metalwork for most of its functions. West Slope Ware, with decorative motifs on a black glazed body, continued for over a century after.[19] Italian red-figure painting ended by about 300, and in the next century the relatively primitive Hadra vases, probably from Crete, Centuripe ware from Sicily, and Panathenaic amphorae, now a frozen tradition, were the only large painted vases still made.[20] Middle Geometric krater, 99 cm high, Attic, c. 800-775 BC Late Geometric pyxis, British Museum Corinthian orientalising jug, c. 620 BC, Antikensammlungen Munich Black-figure olpe (wine vessel) by the Amasis Painter, depicting Heracles and Athena, c. 540 BC, Louvre Interior (tondo) of a red figure kylix, depicting Heracles and Athena, by Phoinix (potter) and Douris (painter), c. 480-470 BC, Antikensammlungen Munich Detail of a red-figure amphora depicting a satyr assaulting a maenad, by Pamphaios (potter) and Oltos (painter), c. 520 BC, Louvre White-ground lekythos with a scene of mourning by the Reed Painter, c. 420-410 BC, British Museum Hellenistic relief bowl with the head of a maenad, 2nd century BC (?), British Museum Metalwork[edit] The Derveni Krater, 4th century BC, with Dionysus and Ariadne seen here.[21] Fine metalwork was an important art in ancient Greece, but later production is very poorly represented by survivals, most of which come from the edges of the Greek world or beyond, from as far as France or Russia. Vessels and jewellery were produced to high standards, and exported far afield. Objects in silver, at the time worth more relative to gold than it is in modern times, were often inscribed by the maker with their weight, as they were treated largely as stores of value, and likely to be sold or re-melted before very long.[22] During the Geometric and Archaic phases, the production of large metal vessels was an important expression of Greek creativity, and an important stage in the development of bronzeworking techniques, such as casting and repousse hammering. Early sanctuaries, especially Olympia, yielded many hundreds of tripod-bowl or sacrificial tripod vessels, mostly in bronze, deposited as votives. These had a shallow bowl with two handles raised high on three legs; in later versions the stand and bowl were different pieces. During the Orientalising period, such tripods were frequently decorated with figural protomes, in the shape of griffins, sphinxes and other fantastic creatures.[23] Swords, the Greek helmet and often body armour such as the muscle cuirass were made of bronze, sometimes decorated in precious metal, as in the 3rd-century Ksour Essef cuirass.[24] Armour and "shield-bands" are two of the contexts for strips of Archaic low relief scenes, which were also attached to various objects in wood; the band on the Vix Krater is a large example.[25] Polished bronze mirrors, initially with decorated backs and kore handles, were another common item; the later "folding mirror" type had hinged cover pieces, often decorated with a relief scene, typically erotic.[26] Coins are described below. From the late Archaic the best metalworking kept pace with stylistic developments in sculpture and the other arts, and Phidias is among the sculptors known to have practiced it.[27] Hellenistic taste encouraged highly intricate displays of technical virtuousity, tending to "cleverness, whimsy, or excessive elegance".[28] Many or most Greek pottery shapes were taken from shapes first used in metal, and in recent decades there has been an increasing view that much of the finest vase-painting reused designs by silversmiths for vessels with engraving and sections plated in a different metal, working from drawn designs.[29] Exceptional survivals of what may have been a relatively common class of large bronze vessels are two volute kraters, for mixing wine and water.[30] These are the Vix Krater, c. 530 BC, 1.63m (5'4") high and over 200 kg (450 lbs) in weight, holding some 1,100 litres, and found in the burial of a Celtic woman in modern France,[31] and the 4th-century Derveni Krater, 90.5 cm (35 in.) high.[32] The elites of other neighbours of the Greeks, such as the Thracians and Scythians, were keen consumers of Greek metalwork, and probably served by Greek goldsmiths settled in their territories, who adapted their products to suit local taste and functions. Such hybrid pieces form a large part of survivals, including the Panagyurishte Treasure, Borovo Treasure, and other Thracian treasures, and several Scythian burials, which probably contained work by Greek artists based in the Greek settlements on the Black Sea.[33] As with other luxury arts, the Macedonian royal cemetery at Vergina has produced objects of top quality from the cusp of the Classical and Hellenistic periods.[34] Jewellery for the Greek market is often of superb quality,[35] with one unusual form being intricate and very delicate gold wreaths imitating plant-forms, worn on the head. These were probably rarely, if ever, worn in life, but were given as votives and worn in death.[36] Many of the Fayum mummy portraits wear them. Some pieces, especially in the Hellenistic period, are large enough to offer scope for figures, as did the Scythian taste for relatively substantial pieces in gold.[37] Bronze griffin head protome from Olympia, 7th century BC The Vix Krater, a late Archaic monumental bronze vessel, exported to French Celts Fancy Early Classical bronze mirror with human caryatid handle, c. 460 BC Golden wreath, 370-360, from southern Italy Silver rhyton for the Thracian market, end 4th century[38] 4th century BC Greek gold and bronze rhyton with head of Dionysus, Tamoikin Art Fund Fragment of a gold wreath, c. 320-300 BC, from a burial in Crimea Gold hair ornament and net, 3rd century BC Late Hellenistic silver medallion Monumental sculpture[edit] Riders from the Parthenon Frieze, around 440 BC. Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour.[39] Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (plural kouroi), the standing male nude (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore (plural korai), or standing clothed female figure, was also common, but since Greek society did not permit the public display of female nudity until the 4th century BC, the kore is considered to be of less importance in the development of sculpture.[40] By the end of the period architectural sculpture on temples was becoming important. As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal—beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. Kouroi were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations.[41] Unlike authors, those who practiced the visual arts, including sculpture, initially had a low social status in ancient Greece, though increasingly leading sculptors might become famous and rather wealthy, and often signed their work (unfortunately, often on the plinth, which typically became separated from the statue itself).[42] Plutarch (Life of Pericles, II) said "we admire the work of art but despise the maker of it"; this was a common view in the ancient world. Ancient Greek sculpture is categorised by the usual stylistic periods of "Archaic", "Classical" and "Hellenistic", augmented with some extra ones mainly applying to sculpture, such as the Orientalizing Daedalic style and the Severe style of early Classical sculpture.[43] Materials, forms[edit] Rare large Late Archaic terracotta statue of Zeus and Ganymede, Olympia. Surviving ancient Greek sculptures were mostly made of two types of material. Stone, especially marble or other high-quality limestones was used most frequently and carved by hand with metal tools. Stone sculptures could be free-standing fully carved in the round (statues), or only partially carved reliefs still attached to a background plaque, for example in architectural friezes or grave stelai.[44] Bronze statues were of higher status, but have survived in far smaller numbers, due to the reusability of metals. They were usually made in the lost wax technique. Chryselephantine, or gold-and-ivory, statues were the cult-images in temples and were regarded as the highest form of sculpture, but only some fragmentary pieces have survived. They were normally over-lifesize, built around a wooden frame, with thin carved slabs of ivory representing the flesh, and sheets of gold leaf, probably over wood, representing the garments, armour, hair, and other details.[45] In some cases, glass paste, glass, and precious and semi-precious stones were used for detail such as eyes, jewellery, and weaponry. Other large acrolithic statues used stone for the flesh parts, and wood for the rest, and marble statues sometimes had stucco hairstyles. Most sculpture was painted (see below), and much wore real jewellery and had inlaid eyes and other elements in different materials.[46] Terracotta was occasionally employed, for large statuary. Few examples of this survived, at least partially due to the fragility of such statues. The best known exception to this is a statue of Zeus carrying Ganymede found at Olympia, executed around 470 BC. In this case, the terracotta is painted. There were undoubtedly sculptures purely in wood, which may have been very important in early periods, but effectively none have survived.[47] Archaic[edit] Kleobis and Biton, kouroi of the Archaic period, c. 580 BC, Delphi Archaeological Museum Bronze Age Cycladic art, to about 1100 BC, had already shown an unusual focus on the human figure, usually shown in a straightforward frontal standing position with arms folded across the stomach. Among the smaller features only noses, sometimes eyes, and female breasts were carved, though the figures were apparently usually painted and may have originally looked very different. Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of Egypt and Mesopotamia, during the Archaic period the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660–580 BC, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures, such as these, both male and female, wore the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic.[48] Three types of figures prevailed—the standing nude youth (kouros), the standing draped girl (kore) and, less frequently, the seated woman.[49] All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum, London), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period.[50] Archaic reliefs have survived from many tombs, and from larger buildings at Foce del Sele (now in the museum at Paestum) in Italy, with two groups of metope panels, from about 550 and 510, and the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, with friezes and a small pediment. Parts, all now in local museums, survive of the large triangular pediment groups from the Temple of Artemis, Corfu (c. 580), dominated by a huge Gorgon, and the Old Temple of Athena in Athens (c. 530-500).[51] Dipylon Kouros, c. 600 BC, Athens, Kerameikos Museum The Moschophoros or calf-bearer, c. 570 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum Frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, depicting a Gigantomachy, c. 525 BC, Delphi Archaeological Museum The Strangford Apollo, 500-490, one of the last kouroi The Sabouroff head, an important example of Late Archaic Greek marble sculpture, ca. 550-525 BCE. The Perserschutt, or "Persian rubble", dating from the destruction of Athens in 480/479 BC during the Second Persian invasion of Greece offer a clear datation marker for Archaic statuary. Classical[edit] Further information: Severe style The Artemision Bronze, either Poseidon or Zeus, c. 460 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. This masterpiece of classical sculpture was found by fishermen off Cape Artemisium in 1928. It is more than 2 m in height. In the Classical period there was a revolution in Greek statuary, usually associated with the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic (see the Charioteer of Delphi for an example of the transition to more naturalistic sculpture), and the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the first public monuments to actual people.[52] "The first true portrait of an individual European":[53] Roman-era copy of a lost 470 BC bust of Themistocles in Severe style.[54] At the same time sculpture and statues were put to wider uses. The great temples of the Classical era such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, required relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Unfortunately these works survive only in fragments, the most famous of which are the Parthenon Marbles, half of which are in the British Museum.[55] Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. They are among the most intimate and affecting remains of the ancient Greeks.[56] In the Classical period for the first time we know the names of individual sculptors. Phidias oversaw the design and building of the Parthenon. Praxiteles made the female nude respectable for the first time in the Late Classical period (mid-4th century): his Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was said by Pliny to be the greatest statue in the world.[57] The most famous works of the Classical period for contemporaries were the colossal Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon. Both were chryselephantine and executed by Phidias or under his direction, and are now lost, although smaller copies (in other materials) and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted emperors to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed in fires.[58] Copy of Polyclitus' Diadumenos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens So-called Venus Braschi by Praxiteles, type of the Knidian Aphrodite, Munich Glyptothek The Marathon Youth, 4th-century BC bronze statue, possibly by Praxiteles, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Hermes, possibly by Lysippos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Hellenistic[edit] See also: Hellenistic art The Venus de Milo, discovered at the Greek island of Milos, 130-100 BC, Louvre The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC), Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Thus Greek art became more diverse and more influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit.[59] In the view of some art historians, it also declined in quality and originality. This, however, is a judgement which artists and art-lovers of the time would not have shared. Indeed, many sculptures previously considered as classical masterpieces are now recognised as being Hellenistic. The technical ability of Hellenistic sculptors is clearly in evidence in such major works as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities, where the new monarchies were lavish patrons.[60] By the 2nd century the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition—and an increasing proportion of its products as well.[61] During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; the interest in depicting extremes of emotion being sometimes pushed to extremes. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the Boy with Thorn is an example. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection.[62] The world of Dionysus, a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs, maenads, nymphs and sileni, had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. Now such works were made, surviving in copies including the Barberini Faun, the Belvedere Torso, and the Resting Satyr; the Furietti Centaurs and Sleeping Hermaphroditus reflect related themes.[63] At the same time, the new Hellenistic cities springing up all over Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period. Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC),[64] the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the Venus de Milo (mid-2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group Laocoön and His Sons (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted. The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called "baroque", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The reliefs on the Pergamon Altar are the nearest original survivals, but several well known works are believed to be Roman copies of Hellenistic originals. These include the Dying Gaul and Ludovisi Gaul, as well as a less well known Kneeling Gaul and others, all believed to copy Pergamene commissions by Attalus I to commemorate his victory around 241 over the Gauls of Galatia, probably comprising two groups.[65] The Laocoön Group, the Farnese Bull, Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus ("Pasquino group"), Arrotino, and the Sperlonga sculptures, are other examples.[66] From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues.[67] Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for the Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces.[68] Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC, unusually sensual, detailed and feministic (as opposed to deified) depiction of Isis, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms beginning around the time of Egypt's conquest by Alexander the Great. However this was untypical of Ptolemaic court sculpture, which generally avoided mixing Egyptian styles with its fairly conventional Hellenistic style,[69] while temples in the rest of the country continued using late versions of traditional Egyptian formulae.[70] Scholars have proposed an "Alexandrian style" in Hellenistic sculpture, but there is in fact little to connect it with Alexandria.[71] Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), which was the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as other very large works of this period. The Hellenistic Prince, a bronze statue originally thought to be a Seleucid, or Attalus II of Pergamon, now considered a portrait of a Roman general, made by a Greek artist working in Rome in the 2nd century BC. The Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic), The Louvre, Paris Laocoön and His Sons (Late Hellenistic), Vatican Museum Late Hellenistic bronze of a mounted jockey, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Figurines[edit] Terracotta figurines[edit] Main article: Greek terracotta figurines Pottery vessel in the shape of Aphrodite inside a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria cemetery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), 1st quarter of 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg. Clay is a material frequently used for the making of votive statuettes or idols, even before the Minoan civilization and continuing until the Roman period. During the 8th century BC tombs in Boeotia often contain "bell idols", female statuettes with mobile legs: the head, small compared to the remainder of the body, is perched at the end of a long neck, while the body is very full, in the shape of a bell.[72] Archaic heroon tombs, for local heroes, might receive large numbers of crudely-shaped figurines, with rudimentary figuration, generally representing characters with raised arms. By the Hellenistic period most terracotta figurines have lost their religious nature, and represent characters from everyday life. Tanagra figurines, from one of several centres of production, are mass-manufactured using moulds, and then painted after firing. Dolls, figures of fashionably-dressed ladies and of actors, some of these probably portraits, were among the new subjects, depicted with a refined style. These were cheap, and initially displayed in the home much like modern ornamental figurines, but were quite often buried with their owners. At the same time, cities like Alexandria, Smyrna or Tarsus produced an abundance of grotesque figurines, representing individuals with deformed members, eyes bulging and contorting themselves. Such figurines were also made from bronze.[73] For painted architectural terracottas, see Architecture below. Metal figurines[edit] Figurines made of metal, primarily bronze, are an extremely common find at early Greek sanctuaries like Olympia, where thousands of such objects, mostly depicting animals, have been found. They are usually produced in the lost wax technique and can be considered the initial stage in the development of Greek bronze sculpture. The most common motifs during the Geometric period were horses and deer, but dogs, cattle and other animals are also depicted. Human figures occur occasionally. The production of small metal votives continued throughout Greek antiquity. In the Classical and Hellenistic periods, more elaborate bronze statuettes, closely connected with monumental sculpture, also became common. High quality examples were keenly collected by wealthy Greeks, and later Romans, but relatively few have survived.[74] Bell Idol, 7th century BC 8th-century BC bronze votive horse from Olympia Actor from the New Comedy, about 200 BC Tanagra figurine of fashionable lady, 32.5 cm (12.8 in), 330-300 BC Architecture[edit] Main article: Architecture of ancient Greece Two early Archaic Doric order Greek temples at Paestum, Italy, with much wider capitals than later. Temple of Hephaistos, Athens, well-preserved mature Doric, late 5th century BC Architecture (meaning buildings executed to an aesthetically considered design) ceased in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. Since most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mud-brick, nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the surviving buildings of the Late Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods (since ancient Roman architecture heavily used Greek styles), and from late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century BC). This means that there is a strong bias towards temples, the most common major buildings to survive. Here the squared blocks of stone used for walls were useful for later buildings, and so often all that survives are parts of columns and metopes that were harder to recycle.[75] For most of the period a strict stone post and lintel system of construction was used, held in place only by gravity. Corbelling was known in Mycenean Greece, and the arch was known from the 5th century at the latest, but hardly any use was made of these techniques until the Roman period.[76] Wood was only used for ceilings and roof timbers in prestigious stone buildings. The use of large terracotta roof tiles, only held in place by grooving, meant that roofs needed to have a low pitch.[77] Until Hellenistic times only public buildings were built using the formal stone style; these included above all temples, and the smaller treasury buildings which often accompanied them, and were built at Delphi by many cities. Other building types, often not roofed, were the central agora, often with one or more colonnaded stoa around it, theatres, the gymnasium and palaestra or wrestling-school, the ekklesiasterion or bouleuterion for assemblies, and the propylaea or monumental gateways.[78] Round buildings for various functions were called a tholos,[79] and the largest stone structures were often defensive city walls. Tombs were for most of the period only made as elaborate mausolea around the edges of the Greek world, especially in Anatolia.[80] Private houses were built around a courtyard where funds allowed, and showed blank walls to the street. They sometimes had a second story, but very rarely basements. They were usually built of rubble at best, and relatively little is known about them; at least for males, much of life was spent outside them.[81] A few palaces from the Hellenistic period have been excavated.[82] Temples and some other buildings such as the treasuries at Delphi were planned as either a cube or, more often, a rectangle made from limestone, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. This was supplemented by columns, at least on the entrance front, and often on all sides.[83] Other buildings were more flexible in plan, and even the wealthiest houses seem to have lacked much external ornament. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt Pentelus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the Parthenon in Athens.[84] There were two main classical orders of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic, with the Corinthian order only appearing in the Classical period, and not becoming dominant until the Roman period. The most obvious features of the three orders are the capitals of the columns, but there are significant differences in other points of design and decoration between the orders.[85] These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric was the earliest, probably first appearing in stone in the earlier 7th century, having developed (though perhaps not very directly) from predecessors in wood.[86] It was used in mainland Greece and the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was first used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands, probably beginning in the 6th century.[87] The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian order was a later development of the Ionic, initially apparently only used inside buildings, and using Ionic forms for everything except the capitals. The famous and well-preserved Choragic Monument of Lysicrates near the Athens Acropolis (335/334) is the first known use of the Corinthian order on the exterior of a building.[88] Most of the best known surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, however, is Ionic. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum.[89] But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives. The Erechtheion on the Acropolis of Athens, late 5th century BC Model of the processional way at Ancient Delphi, without much of the statuary shown.[90] Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens, 335/334 The theatre of Epidauros, 4th century BC Coin design[edit] Main article: Ancient Greek coinage Athenian tetradrachm with head of Athena and owl, after 449 BC. The most acceptable coin in the Mediterranean world. Gold 20-stater of Eucratides of Bactria circa 150 BC, the largest gold coin of antiquity. 169.2 grams, diameter 58 mm. Coins were (probably) invented in Lydia in the 7th century BC, but they were first extensively used by the Greeks,[91] and the Greeks set the canon of coin design which has been followed ever since. Coin design today still recognisably follows patterns descended from ancient Greece. The Greeks did not see coin design as a major art form, although some were expensively designed by leading goldsmiths, especially outside Greece itself, among the Central Asian kingdoms and in Sicilian cities keen to promote themselves. Nevertheless, the durability and abundance of coins have made them one of the most important sources of knowledge about Greek aesthetics.[92] Greek coins are the only art form from the ancient Greek world which can still be bought and owned by private collectors of modest means. The most widespread coins, used far beyond their native territories and copied and forged by others, were the Athenian tetradrachm, issued from c. 510 to c. 38 BC, and in the Hellenistic age the Macedonian tetradrachm, both silver.[93] These both kept the same familiar design for long periods.[94] Greek designers began the practice of putting a profile portrait on the obverse of coins. This was initially a symbolic portrait of the patron god or goddess of the city issuing the coin: Athena for Athens, Apollo at Corinth, Demeter at Thebes and so on. Later, heads of heroes of Greek mythology were used, such as Heracles on the coins of Alexander the Great. The first human portraits on coins were those of Achaemenid Empire Satraps in Asia Minor, starting with the exiled Athenian general Themistocles who became a Satrap of Magnesia circa 450 BC, and continuing especially with the dynasts of Lycia towards the end of the 5th century.[95] Greek cities in Italy such as Syracuse began to put the heads of real people on coins in the 4th century BC, as did the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great in Egypt, Syria and elsewhere.[96] On the reverse of their coins the Greek cities often put a symbol of the city: an owl for Athens, a dolphin for Syracuse and so on. The placing of inscriptions on coins also began in Greek times. All these customs were later continued by the Romans.[92] The most artistically ambitious coins, designed by goldsmiths or gem-engravers, were often from the edges of the Greek world, from new colonies in the early period and new kingdoms later, as a form of marketing their "brands" in modern terms.[97] Of the larger cities, Corinth and Syracuse also issued consistently attractive coins. Some of the Greco-Bactrian coins are considered the finest examples of Greek coins with large portraits with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West".[98] Arethusa on a coin of Syracuse, Sicily, 415-400 Drachm of Aegina with tortoise and stamp, after 404 BC Heracles fighting lion. Silver coin from Heraclea Lucania Macedonian tetradrachm with image of Alexander the Great as Heracles, after 330 BC Painting[edit] Macedonian tomb fresco from Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC. The Greeks seem to have valued painting above even sculpture, and by the Hellenistic period the informed appreciation and even the practice of painting were components in a gentlemanly education. The ekphrasis was a literary form consisting of a description of a work of art, and we have a considerable body of literature on Greek painting and painters, with further additions in Latin, though none of the treatises by artists that are mentioned have survived.[99] Unfortunately we have hardly any of the most prestigious sort of paintings, on wood panel or in fresco, that this literature was concerned with. The contrast with vase-painting is total. There are no mentions of that in literature at all, but over 100,000 surviving examples, giving many individual painters a respectable surviving oeuvre.[100] Our idea of what the best Greek painting was like must be drawn from a careful consideration of parallels in vase-painting, late Greco-Roman copies in mosaic and fresco, some very late examples of actual painting in the Greek tradition, and the ancient literature.[101] There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Early painting seems to have developed along similar lines to vase-painting, heavily reliant on outline and flat areas of colour, but then flowered and developed at the time that vase-painting went into decline. By the end of the Hellenistic period, technical developments included modelling to indicate contours in forms, shadows, foreshortening, some probably imprecise form of perspective, interior and landscape backgrounds, and the use of changing colours to suggest distance in landscapes, so that "Greek artists had all the technical devices needed for fully illusionistic painting".[102] Panel and wall painting[edit] List of known ancient Greek painters One of the Pitsa panels, the only surviving panel paintings from Archaic Greece   Agatharchus Antiphilus Apelles Apollodorus (painter) Aristides of Thebes Cimon of Cleonae Echion (painter) Euphranor Eupompus Melanthius Nicomachus of Thebes Panaenus Parrhasius Pausias Polyeidos (poet) Polygnotus Protogenes Theon of Samos Timarete Timomachus Zeuxis and Parrhasius The most common and respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were panel paintings, individual, portable paintings on wood boards. The techniques used were encaustic (wax) painting and tempera. Such paintings normally depicted figural scenes, including portraits and still-lifes; we have descriptions of many compositions. They were collected and often displayed in public spaces. Pausanias describes such exhibitions at Athens and Delphi. We know the names of many famous painters, mainly of the Classical and Hellenistic periods, from literature (see expandable list to the right). The most famous of all ancient Greek painters was Apelles of Kos, whom Pliny the Elder lauded as having "surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded him."[103][104] Unfortunately, due to the perishable nature of the materials used and the major upheavals at the end of antiquity, not one of the famous works of Greek panel painting has survived, nor even any of the copies that doubtlessly existed, and which give us most of our knowledge of Greek sculpture. We have slightly more significant survivals of mural compositions. The most important surviving Greek examples from before the Roman period are the fairly low-quality Pitsa panels from c. 530 BC,[105] the Tomb of the Diver from Paestum, and various paintings from the royal tombs at Vergina. More numerous paintings in Etruscan and Campanian tombs are based on Greek styles. In the Roman period, there are a number of wall paintings in Pompeii and the surrounding area, as well as in Rome itself, some of which are thought to be copies of specific earlier masterpieces.[106] In particular copies of specific wall-paintings have been confidently identified in the Alexander Mosaic and Villa Boscoreale.[107] There is a large group of much later Greco-Roman archaeological survivals from the dry conditions of Egypt, the Fayum mummy portraits, together with the similar Severan Tondo, and a small group of painted portrait miniatures in gold glass.[108] Byzantine icons are also derived from the encaustic panel painting tradition, and Byzantine illuminated manuscripts sometimes continued a Greek illusionistic style for centuries. Symposium scene in the Tomb of the Diver at Paestum, c. 480 BC The tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. It is not clear, whether there is any continuity between these antecedents and later Greek wall paintings. Wall paintings are frequently described in Pausanias, and many appear to have been produced in the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Due to the lack of architecture surviving intact, not many are preserved. The most notable examples are a monumental Archaic 7th-century BC scene of hoplite combat from inside a temple at Kalapodi (near Thebes), and the elaborate frescoes from the 4th-century "Grave of Phillipp" and the "Tomb of Persephone" at Vergina in Macedonia, or the tomb at Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, sometimes suggested to be closely linked to the high-quality panel paintings mentioned above. Greek wall painting tradition is also reflected in contemporary grave decorations in the Greek colonies in Italy, e.g. the famous Tomb of the Diver at Paestum. Some scholars suggest that the celebrated Roman frescoes at sites like Pompeii are the direct descendants of Greek tradition, and that some of them copy famous panel paintings. Hellenistic Greek terracotta funerary wall painting, 3rd century BC Reconstructed colour scheme of the entablature on a Doric temple Ancient Macedonian paintings of armour, arms, and gear from the Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, 2nd century BC. A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptolemaic thyreophoros soldier, a characteristic example of the "Romanization" of the Ptolemaic army Fresco from the Tomb of Judgment in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, depicting religious imagery of the afterlife, 4th century BC A fresco showing Hades and Persephone riding in a chariot, from the tomb of Queen Eurydice I of Macedon at Vergina, Greece, 4th century BC A banquet scene from a Macedonian tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC; six men are shown reclining on couches, with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.[109] Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakitai) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC The Sampul tapestry, a woollen wall hanging from Lop County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang, China, showing a possibly Greek soldier from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–125 BC), with blue eyes, wielding a spear, and wearing what appears to be a diadem headband; depicted above him is a centaur, from Greek mythology, a common motif in Hellenistic art;[110] Xinjiang Region Museum. A Hellenistic Greek encaustic painting on a marble tombstone depicting the portrait of a young man named Theodoros, dated 1st century BC during the period of Roman Greece, Archaeological Museum of Thebes Hades abducting Persephone, 4th-century BC wall painting in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina Polychromy: painting on statuary and architecture[edit] Traces of paint depicting embroidered patterns on the peplos of an Archaic kore, Acropolis Museum Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία, πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases. Although the word polychrome is created from the combining of two Greek words, it was not used in ancient Greece. The term was coined in the early nineteenth century by Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy.[111] Architecture[edit] Painting was also used to enhance the visual aspects of architecture. Certain parts of the superstructure of Greek temples were habitually painted since the Archaic period. Such architectural polychromy could take the form of bright colours directly applied to the stone (evidenced e.g. on the Parthenon, or of elaborate patterns, frequently architectural members made of terracotta (Archaic examples at Olympia and Delphi). Sometimes, the terracottas also depicted figural scenes, as do the 7th-century BC terracotta metopes from Thermon.[112] Reconstructed colour scheme on a Trojan archer from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. Sculpture[edit] Most Greek sculptures were painted in strong and bright colors; this is called "polychromy". The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone or bronze, but it could also cover sculptures in their totality; female skin in marble tended to be uncoloured, while male skin might be a light brown. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form, but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art.[113] For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have recently been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. The polychromy of stone statues was paralleled by the use of different materials to distinguish skin, clothing and other details in chryselephantine sculptures, and by the use of different metals to depict lips, fingernails, etc. on high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes.[113] Vase painting[edit] The most copious evidence of ancient Greek painting survives in the form of vase paintings. These are described in the "pottery" section above. They give at least some sense of the aesthetics of Greek painting. The techniques involved, however, were very different from those used in large-format painting. The same probably applies to the subject matter depicted. Vase painters appear to have usually been specialists within a pottery workshop, neither painters in other media nor potters. It should also be kept in mind that vase painting, albeit by far the most conspicuous surviving source on ancient Greek painting, was not held in the highest regard in antiquity, and is never mentioned in Classical literature.[114] Mosaics[edit] The Stag Hunt Mosaic, late 4th century BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[115] Unswept Floor, Roman copy of the mosaic by Sosus of Pergamon A domestic floor mosaic depicting Athena, from the "Jewellery Quarter" of Delos, Greece, late 2nd or early 1st century BC Mosaics were initially made with rounded pebbles, and later glass with tesserae which gave more colour and a flat surface. They were popular in the Hellenistic period, at first as decoration for the floors of palaces, but eventually for private homes.[116] Often a central emblema picture in a central panel was completed in much finer work than the surrounding decoration.[117] Xenia motifs, where a house showed examples of the variety of foods guests might expect to enjoy, provide most of the surviving specimens of Greek still-life. In general mosaic must be considered as a secondary medium copying painting, often very directly, as in the Alexander Mosaic.[118] The Unswept Floor by Sosus of Pergamon (c. 200 BC) was an original and famous trompe-l'œil piece, known from many Greco-Roman copies. According to John Boardman, Sosus is the only mosaic artist whose name has survived; his Doves are also mentioned in literature and copied.[119] However, Katherine M. D. Dunbabin asserts that two different mosaic artists left their signatures on mosaics of Delos.[120] The artist of the 4th-century BC Stag Hunt Mosaic perhaps also left his signature as Gnosis, although this word may be a reference to the abstract concept of knowledge.[121] Mosaics are a significant element of surviving Macedonian art, with a large number of examples preserved in the ruins of Pella, the ancient Macedonian capital, in today's Central Macedonia.[122] Mosaics such as the "Stag Hunt Mosaic and Lion Hunt" mosaic demonstrate illusionist and three dimensional qualities generally found in Hellenistic paintings, although the rustic Macedonian pursuit of hunting is markedly more pronounced than other themes.[123] The 2nd-century-BC mosaics of Delos, Greece were judged by François Chamoux as representing the pinnacle of Hellenistic mosaic art, with similar styles that continued throughout the Roman period and perhaps laid the foundations for the widespread use of mosaics in the Western world through to the Middle Ages.[116] A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC Central panel of the Abduction of Helen by Theseus, floor mosaic, detail of the charioteer, from the House of the Abduction of Helen, (c. 300 BC), ancient Pella Alexander the Great (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th-century BC mosaic from Pella[124] Mosaic of a nymph from the Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, 2nd century BC The winged god Dionysus riding a tiger, from the House of Dionysus in Delos, Greece, 2nd century BC Detail of floor panel with Alexandrine parakeet, Pergamon modern Turkey, middle 2nd century BC (reigns of Eumenes II and Attalus II) Ptolemaic mosaic of a dog and askos wine vessel from Hellenistic Egypt, dated 200-150 BC Hellenistic mosaic from Thmuis (Mendes), Egypt, signed by Sophilos c. 200 BC; Ptolemaic Queen Berenice II (joint ruler with her husband Ptolemy III) as the personification of Alexandria.[125] Engraved gems[edit] Apollonios of Athens, gold ring with portrait in garnet, c. 220 BC The engraved gem was a luxury art with high prestige; Pompey and Julius Caesar were among later collectors.[126] The technique has an ancient tradition in the Near East, and cylinder seals, whose design only appears when rolled over damp clay, from which the flat ring type developed, spread to the Minoan world, including parts of Greece and Cyprus. The Greek tradition emerged under Minoan influence on mainland Helladic culture, and reached an apogee of subtlety and refinement in the Hellenistic period.[127] Round or oval Greek gems (along with similar objects in bone and ivory) are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim.[128] Early examples are mostly in softer stones. Gems of the 6th century are more often oval,[129] with a scarab back (in the past this type was called a "scarabaeus"), and human or divine figures as well as animals; the scarab form was apparently adopted from Phoenicia.[130] The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the usually small size of the gems.[94] In the 5th century gems became somewhat larger, but still only 2–3 centimetres tall. Despite this, very fine detail is shown, including the eyelashes on one male head, perhaps a portrait. Four gems signed by Dexamenos of Chios are the finest of the period, two showing herons.[131] Relief carving became common in 5th century BC Greece, and gradually most of the spectacular carved gems were in relief. Generally a relief image is more impressive than an intaglio one; in the earlier form the recipient of a document saw this in the impressed sealing wax, while in the later reliefs it was the owner of the seal who kept it for himself, probably marking the emergence of gems meant to be collected or worn as jewellery pendants in necklaces and the like, rather than used as seals – later ones are sometimes rather large to use to seal letters. However inscriptions are usually still in reverse ("mirror-writing") so they only read correctly on impressions (or by viewing from behind with transparent stones). This aspect also partly explains the collecting of impressions in plaster or wax from gems, which may be easier to appreciate than the original. Larger hardstone carvings and cameos, which are rare in intaglio form, seem to have reached Greece around the 3rd century; the Farnese Tazza is the only major surviving Hellenistic example (depending on the dates assigned to the Gonzaga Cameo and the Cup of the Ptolemies), but other glass-paste imitations with portraits suggest that gem-type cameos were made in this period.[132] The conquests of Alexander had opened up new trade routes to the Greek world and increased the range of gemstones available.[133] Ornament[edit] A typical variety of ornamental motifs on an Attic vase of c. 530. The synthesis in the Archaic period of the native repertoire of simple geometric motifs with imported, mostly plant-based, motifs from further east created a sizeable vocabulary of ornament, which artists and craftsmen used with confidence and fluency.[134] Today this vocabulary is seen above all in the large corpus of painted pottery, as well as in architectural remains, but it would have originally been used in a wide range of media, as a later version of it is used in European Neoclassicism. Elements in this vocabulary include the geometrical meander or "Greek key", egg-and-dart, bead and reel, Vitruvian scroll, guilloche, and from the plant world the stylized acanthus leaves, volute, palmette and half-palmette, plant scrolls of various kinds, rosette, lotus flower, and papyrus flower. Originally used prominently on Archaic vases, as figurative painting developed these were usually relegated to serve as borders demarcating edges of the vase or different zones of decoration.[135] Greek architecture was notable for developing sophisticated conventions for using mouldings and other architectural ornamental elements, which used these motifs in a harmoniously integrated whole. Even before the Classical period, this vocabulary had influenced Celtic art, and the expansion of the Greek world after Alexander, and the export of Greek objects still further afield, exposed much of Eurasia to it, including the regions in the north of the Indian subcontinent where Buddhism was expanding, and creating Greco-Buddhist art. As Buddhism spread across Central Asia to China and the rest of East Asia, in a form that made great use of religious art, versions of this vocabulary were taken with it and used to surround images of buddhas and other religious images, often with a size and emphasis that would have seemed excessive to the ancient Greeks. The vocabulary was absorbed into the ornament of India, China, Persia and other Asian countries, as well as developing further in Byzantine art.[136] The Romans took over the vocabulary more or less in its entirety, and although much altered, it can be traced throughout European medieval art, especially in plant-based ornament. Islamic art, where ornament largely replaces figuration, developed the Byzantine plant scroll into the full, endless arabesque, and especially from the Mongol conquests of the 14th century received new influences from China, including the descendants of the Greek vocabulary.[137] From the Renaissance onwards, several of these Asian styles were represented on textiles, porcelain and other goods imported into Europe, and influenced ornament there, a process that still continues. Other arts[edit] Left: A Hellenistic glass amphora excavated from Olbia, Sardinia, dated to the 2nd century BC Right: Hellenistic satyr who wears a rustic perizoma (loincloth) and carries a pedum (shepherd's crook). Ivory appliqué, probably for furniture. Although glass was made in Cyprus by the 9th century BC, and was considerably developed by the end of the period, there are only a few survivals of glasswork from before the Greco-Roman period that show the artistic quality of the best work.[138] Most survivals are small perfume bottles, in fancy coloured "feathered" styles similar to other Mediterranean glass.[139] Hellenistic glass became cheaper and accessible to a wider population. No Greek furniture has survived, but there are many images of it on vases and memorial reliefs, for example that to Hegeso. It was evidently often very elegant, as were the styles derived from it from the 18th century onwards. Some pieces of carved ivory that were used as inlays have survived, as at Vergina, and a few ivory carvings; this was a luxury art that could be of very fine quality.[140] It is clear from vase paintings that the Greeks often wore elaborately patterned clothes, and skill at weaving was the mark of the respectable woman. Two luxurious pieces of cloth survive, from the tomb of Philip of Macedon.[141] There are numerous references to decorative hangings for both homes and temples, but none of these have survived. Diffusion and legacy[edit] Greco-Buddhist frieze of Gandhara with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century AD, Buner, Swat, Pakistan, Victoria and Albert Museum Ancient Greek art has exercised considerable influence on the culture of many countries all over the world, above all in its treatment of the human figure. In the West Greek architecture was also hugely influential, and in both East and West the influence of Greek decoration can be traced to the modern day. Etruscan and Roman art were largely and directly derived from Greek models,[142] and Greek objects and influence reached into Celtic art north of the Alps,[143] as well as all around the Mediterranean world and into Persia.[144] In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, which was greatly aided by the spread of Buddhism, which early on picked up many Greek traits and motifs in Greco-Buddhist art, which were then transmitted as part of a cultural package to East Asia, even as far as Japan, among artists who were no doubt completely unaware of the origin of the motifs and styles they used.[145] Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists, with a major revival in the movement of Neoclassicism which began in the mid-18th century, coinciding with easier access from Western Europe to Greece itself, and a renewed importation of Greek originals, most notoriously the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world.[146] Historiography[edit] Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC. The Hellenized Roman upper classes of the Late Republic and Early Empire generally accepted Greek superiority in the arts without many quibbles, though the praise of Pliny for the sculpture and painting of pre-Hellenistic artists may be based on earlier Greek writings rather than much personal knowledge. Pliny and other classical authors were known in the Renaissance, and this assumption of Greek superiority was again generally accepted. However critics in the Renaissance and much later were unclear which works were actually Greek.[147] As a part of the Ottoman Empire, Greece itself could only be reached by a very few western Europeans until the mid-18th century. Not only the Greek vases found in the Etruscan cemeteries, but also (more controversially) the Greek temples of Paestum were taken to be Etruscan, or otherwise Italic, until the late 18th century and beyond, a misconception prolonged by Italian nationalist sentiment.[147] The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, especially his books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between ancient Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day.[148] The full disentangling of Greek statues from their later Roman copies, and a better understanding of the balance between Greekness and Roman-ness in Greco-Roman art was to take much longer, and perhaps still continues.[149] Greek art, especially sculpture, continued to enjoy an enormous reputation, and studying and copying it was a large part of the training of artists, until the downfall of Academic art in the late 19th century. During this period, the actual known corpus of Greek art, and to a lesser extent architecture, has greatly expanded. The study of vases developed an enormous literature in the late 19th and 20th centuries, much based on the identification of the hands of individual artists, with Sir John Beazley the leading figure. This literature generally assumed that vase-painting represented the development of an independent medium, only in general terms drawing from stylistic development in other artistic media. This assumption has been increasingly challenged in recent decades, and some scholars now see it as a secondary medium, largely representing cheap copies of now lost metalwork, and much of it made, not for ordinary use, but to deposit in burials.[150] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Greek art. Part of a series on the History of Greek art Greek Bronze Age Cycladic art Minoan art Mycenaean art Ancient Greece Archaic Greek art Ancient Greek art Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek pottery Ancient Greek sculpture Hellenistic art see also: Greco-Buddhist art Medieval Greece Byzantine art Macedonian art Post-Byzantine Greece Cretan School Heptanese School Modern Greece Modern Greek art Modern Greek architecture Munich School Contemporary Greek art v t e Ancient art history Middle East Mesopotamia Ancient Egypt Hittite Persia Asia India China Japan Korea European prehistory Minoan Cycladic Etruscan Celtic Scythia Classical art Ancient Greece Hellenistic Rome v t e Dionysian art Death in ancient Greek art Parthian art List of ancient Greek temples National Archaeological Museum of Athens Classical architecture Notes[edit] ^ Boardman, 3–4; Cook, 1–2 ^ Cook, 12 ^ Cook, 14–18 ^ Athena wearing the aegis, detail from a scene representing Heracles and Iolaos escorted by Athena, Apollo and Hermes. Belly of an Attic black-figured hydria, Cabinet des Médailles, Paris, Inv. 254. ^ Apollo wearing a laurel or myrtle wreath, a white peplos and a red himation and sandals, seating on a lion-pawed diphros; he holds a kithara in his left hand and pours a libation with his right hand. Facing him, a black bird identified as a pigeon, a jackdaw, a crow (which may allude to his love affair with Coronis) or a raven (a mantic bird). Tondo of an Attic white-ground kylix attributed to the Pistoxenos Painter (or the Berlin Painter, or Onesimos). Diam. 18 cm (7 in.) ^ Home page of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum, accessed 16 May 2016 ^ a b Cook, 24–26 ^ Cook, 27–28; Boardman, 26, 32, 108–109; Woodford, 12 ^ Preface to Ancient Greek Pottery (Ashmolean Handbooks) by Michael Vickers (1991) ^ Boardman, 86, quoted ^ Cook, 24–29 ^ Cook, 30, 36, 48–51 ^ Cook, 37–40, 30, 36, 42–48 ^ Cook, 29; Woodward, 170 ^ Boardman, 27; Cook, 34–38; Williams, 36, 40, 44; Woodford, 3–6 ^ Cook, 38–42; Williams, 56 ^ Woodford, 8–12; Cook, 42–51 ^ Woodford, 57–74; Cook, 52–57 ^ Boardman, 145–147; Cook, 56-57 ^ Trendall, Arthur D. (April 1989). Red Figure Vases of South Italy: A Handbook. Thames and Hudson. p. 17. ISBN 978-0500202258. ^ Boardman, 185–187 ^ Boardman, 150; Cook, 159; Williams, 178 ^ Cook, 160 ^ Cook, 161–163 ^ Boardman, 64–67; Karouzou, 102 ^ Karouzou, 114–118; Cook, 162–163; Boardman, 131–132 ^ Cook, 159 ^ Cook, 159, quoted ^ Rasmussen, xiii. However, since the metal vessels have not survived, "this attitude does not get us very far". ^ Sowder, Amy. "Ancient Greek Bronze Vessels", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online (April 2008) ^ Cook, 162; Boardman, 65–66 ^ Boardman, 185–187; Cook, 163 ^ Boardman, 131–132, 150, 355–356 ^ Boardman, 149–150 ^ Boardman, 131, 187; Williams, 38–39, 134–135, 154–155, 180–181, 172–173 ^ Boardman, 148; Williams, 164–165 ^ Boardman, 131–132; Williams, 188–189 for an example made for the Iberian Celtic market. ^ Rhyton. The upper section of the luxury vessel used for drinking wines is wrought from silver plate with gilded edge with embossed ivy branch. The lower part goes in the cast Protoma horse. The work of the Greek master, probably for Thracian aristocrat. Perhaps Thrace, the end of the 4th century BC. NG Prague, Kinský Palace, NM-HM10 1407. ^ Cook, 19 ^ Woodford, 39–56 ^ Cook, 82–85 ^ Smith, 11 ^ Cook, 86–91, 110–111 ^ Cook, 74–82 ^ Kenneth D. S. Lapatin. Chryselephantine Statuary in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-815311-2 ^ Cook, 74–76 ^ Boardman, 33–34 ^ Cook, 99; Woodford, 44, 75 ^ Cook, 93 ^ Boardman, 47–52; Cook, 104–108; Woodford, 38–56 ^ Boardman, 47–52; Cook, 104–108; Woodford, 27–37 ^ Boardman, 92–103; Cook, 119–131; Woodford, 91–103, 110–133 ^ Tanner, Jeremy (2006). The Invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and Artistic Rationalisation. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN 9780521846141. ^ CAHN, HERBERT A.; GERIN, DOMINIQUE (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124. ^ Boardman, 111–120; Cook, 128; Woodford, 91–103, 110–127 ^ Boardman, 135, 141; Cook, 128–129, 140; Woodford, 133 ^ Woodford, 128–134; Boardman, 136–139; Cook, 123–126 ^ Boardman, 119; Woodford, 128–130 ^ Smith, 7, 9 ^ Smith, 11, 19–24, 99 ^ Smith, 14–15, 255–261, 272 ^ Smith, 33–40, 136–140 ^ Smith, 127–154 ^ Smith, 77–79 ^ Smith, 99–104; Photo of Kneeling youthful Gaul, Louvre ^ Smith, 104–126 ^ Smith, 240–241 ^ Smith, 258-261 ^ Smith, 206, 208-209 ^ Smith, 210 ^ Smith, 205 ^ "Bell idol", Louvre ^ Williams, 182, 198–201; Boardman, 63–64; Smith, 86 ^ Williams, 42, 46, 69, 198 ^ Cook, 173–174 ^ Cook, 178, 183–184 ^ Cook, 178–179 ^ Cook, 184–191; Boardman, 166–169 ^ Cook, 186 ^ Cook, 190–191 ^ Cook, 241–244 ^ Boardman, 169–171 ^ Cook, 185–186 ^ Cook, 179–180, 186 ^ Cook, 193–238 gives a comprehensive summary ^ Cook, 191–193 ^ Cook, 211–214 ^ Cook, 218 ^ Boardman, 159–160, 164–167 ^ another reconstruction ^ Howgego, 1–2 ^ a b Cook, 171–172 ^ Howgego, 44–46, 48–51 ^ a b Boardman, 68–69 ^ "A rare silver fraction recently identified as a coin of Themistocles from Magnesia even has a bearded portrait of the great man, making it by far the earliest datable portrait coin. Other early portraits can be seen on the coins of Lycian dynasts." Carradice, Ian; Price, Martin (1988). Coinage in the Greek World. Seaby. p. 84. ISBN 9780900652820. ^ Howgego, 63–67 ^ Williams, 112 ^ Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World" ^ Cook, 22, 66 ^ Cook, 24, says over 1,000 vase-painters have been identified by their style ^ Cook, 59–70 ^ Cook, 59–69, 66 quoted ^ Bostock, John. "Natural History". Perseus. Tufts University. Retrieved 23 March 2017. ^ Leonard Whibley, A Companion to Greek Studies 3rd ed. 1916, p. 329. ^ Cook, 61; ^ Boardman, 177–180 ^ Boardman, 174–177 ^ Boardman, 338–340; Williams, 333 ^ Cohen, 28 ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012). Mair, Victor H. (ed.). "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations (230): 15–16. ISSN 2157-9687. ^ Sabatini, Paolo. "Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy (1755-1849) and the Rediscovery of Polychromy in Grecian Architecture: Colour Techniques and Archaeological Research in the Pages of "Olympian Zeus."" (PDF). ^ Cook, 182–183 ^ a b Woodford, 173–174; Cook, 75–76, 88, 93–94, 99 ^ Cook, 59–63 ^ See: Chugg, Andrew (2006). Alexander's Lovers. Raleigh, N.C.: Lulu. ISBN 978-1-4116-9960-1, pp 78-79. ^ a b Chamoux, 375 ^ Boardman, 154 ^ Boardman, 174–175, 181–185 ^ Boardman, 183–184 ^ Dunbabin, 33 ^ Cohen, 32 ^ Hardiman, 517 ^ Hardiman, 518 ^ Palagia, Olga (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander". In Bosworth, A.B.; Baynham, E.J. (eds.). Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 9780198152873. ^ Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7, image plates and captions between pp. 246-247. ^ for Caesar: De Vita Caesarum, Divus Iulius, (The Lives of the Caesars, The Deified Julius), Fordham online text; for Pompey: Chapters 4–6 of Book 37 of the Natural History of Pliny the Elder give a summary art history of the Greek and Roman tradition, and of Roman collecting ^ Boardman, 39, 67–68, 187, 350 ^ Boardman, 39 See Beazley for more detail. ^ "Lenticular" or "lentoid" gems have the form of a lens. ^ Beazley, Later Archaic Greek gems: introduction. ^ Boardman, 129–130 ^ Boardman, 187–188 ^ Beazley, "Hellenistic gems: introduction" ^ Cook, 39–40 ^ Rawson, 209–222; Cook, 39 ^ Rawson, throughout, but for quick reference: 23, 27, 32, 39–57, 75–77 ^ Rawson, 146–163, 173–193 ^ Williams, 190 ^ Williams, 214 ^ Boardman, 34, 127, 150 ^ Boardman, 150 ^ Boardman, 349–353; Cook, 155–156; Williams, 236–248 ^ Boardman, 353–354 ^ Boardman, 354–369 ^ Boardman, 370–377 ^ Cook, 157–158 ^ a b Ceserani, Giovanna (2012). Italy's Lost Greece: Magna Graecia and the Making of Modern Archaeology. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–66. ISBN 978-0-19-987679-2. ^ Honour, 57–62 ^ See Classical Art from Greece to Rome by John Henderson and Mary Beard, 2001), ISBN 0-19-284237-4; Honour, 45–46 ^ See Rasmussen, "Adopting an Approach", by Martin Robertson and Mary Beard, also the preface to Ancient Greek Pottery (Ashmolean Handbooks) by Michael Vickers (1991) References[edit] "Beazley" The Classical Art Research Centre, Oxford University. Beazley Archive – Extensive website on classical gems; page titles used as references Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0198143869 Burnett, Andrew, Coins; Interpreting the Past, University of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN 0520076281 Chamoux, Françios, Hellenistic Civilization, translated by Michel Roussel, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002 [1981], ISBN 0631222421. Cohen, Ada, Art in the Era of Alexander the Great: Paradigms of Manhood and Their Cultural Traditions, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 9780521769044 Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661 Dunbabin, Katherine, M. D., Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0521002303 Hardiman, Craig I., (2010). "Classical Art to 221 BC", In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian, A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, ISBN 9781405179362. Honour, Hugh, Neo-classicism. Style and Civilisation 1968 (reprinted 1977), Penguin Howgego, Christopher, Ancient History from Coins, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 041508993X Karouzou, Semni, National Museum : Illustrated Guide to the Museum (NM of Athens), 1980, Ekdotike Athenon S.A., ISBN 9789602130049 (later edition) Rasmussen, Tom, Spivey, Nigel, eds., Looking at Greek Vases, 1991, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521376792, google books Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316 Smith, R.R.R., Hellenistic Sculpture, a handbook, Thames & Hudson, 1991, ISBN 0500202494 Williams, Dyfri. Masterpieces of Classical Art, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714122540 Woodford, Susan, An Introduction To Greek Art, 1986, Duckworth, ISBN 9780801419942 Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon, Henri Stierlin, TASCHEN, 2004 Further reading[edit] Shanks, Michael (1999). Art and the Greek City State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 56117 5. Betancourt, Philip P. Introduction to Aegean Art. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press, 2007. Burn, Lucilla. Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004. Coldstream, J. N. Geometric Greece: 900-700 BC. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2003. Jenkins, Ian, Celeste Farge, and Victoria Turner. Defining Beauty: The Body In Ancient Greek Art. London: British Museum, 2015. Langdon, Susan Helen. Art and Identity In Dark Age Greece, 1100--700 B.C.E. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Ling, Roger. Making Classical Art: Process & Practice. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2000. Moon, Warren G. Ancient Greek Art and Iconography. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983. Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek Art and Archaeology. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2012. Plantzos, Dimitris. Hellenistic Engraved Gems. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. Pollitt, J. J. Art In the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. --. Art and Experience In Classical Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Smith, Tyler Jo, and Dimitris Plantzos. A Companion to Greek Art. Somerset: Wiley, 2012. Stewart, Andrew F. Classical Greece and the Birth of Western Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Yatromanolakis, Dimitrios. Epigraphy of Art: Ancient Greek Vase-Inscriptions and Vase-Paintings. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2016. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Greek Art . Library resources about Ancient Greek art Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Greek Art History Resource Ancient Greek Ceramics v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe 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Contents 1 Summary 2 Category page definition 2.1 Putting pages into categories 3 Working with category pages 3.1 Linking to category pages 3.2 Retrieving raw category information 3.3 Sorting category pages 3.3.1 Default sort key 3.4 Searching for pages in categories 3.5 Listing all categories 3.6 Displaying category trees and page counts 3.7 Moving and redirecting category pages 3.8 Hiding categories 4 Finding articles for a category 5 Categorizing 5.1 Categorizing templates 5.2 Categories and templates 5.3 Categorizing redirect pages 5.4 "Related Changes" with categories 5.5 Watching category additions and removals 6 See also 7 Notes Summary The MediaWiki software maintains tables of categories, to which any editable page can be added. To add a page to a category, include "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" in that page's wikimarkup. The categories to which a page belongs appear in a box at the bottom of the page. A category is usually associated with a category page in the "Category:" namespace.[1] A category page contains text that can be edited, like any other page, but when the page is displayed, the last part of what is displayed is an automatically generated list of all pages in that category, in the form of links. Other category pages which appear in this list are treated separately, as subcategories. The bottom of a Wikipedia article on Chicken eyeglasses. At the very bottom of the page, below the References, navigation templates and external links are a series of links. These links are the categories used on the page, which include: Category:Animal Welfare, Category:Animal equipment, Category:Eyewear, and Category:Poultry farming. By clicking on the category link at the bottom of the page, readers can navigate the Category tree. Category page definition A category page is any page in the Category namespace. They each act as a category, and are termed a "category". The category page has one section titled Subcategories listing other "categories", and one section titled Pages, listing pages as categorized (in other namespaces). New categories are created by creating a page in the Category namespace. A category page can be edited like any other page. However, when it is displayed, the editable part of the page is followed by automatically generated lists of pages belonging to the category, as follows: First a count and list of subcategories (other category pages belonging to the category) is shown, if any exist. The name of each subcategory is followed by counts like "(6 C, 38 P, 2 F)", meaning this subcategory contains 6 subcategories, 38 pages, and 2 files. Counts of 0 are omitted. The further subcategories are expanded in the display if the ► sign alongside the subcategory is clicked (but this "widget" is only visible if your browser has JavaScript enabled). Note: ► is shown if there are no further subcategories. The subcategory is collapsed again if ▼ is clicked. Next a count and list of pages in the category (excluding subcategories and images) is shown. If the category has no members, a message to that effect is displayed. Next a count and list of image and other media files in the category appears, if any exist. These are shown with thumbnails. The first 20 characters of the file name are shown, with an ellipsis if that is not the full name; also the file size is shown. The items in the lists all link to the pages concerned; in the case of the images this applies both to the image itself and to the text below it (the name of the image). For the way in which the lists are ordered, see Sorting category pages below. The first and second lists are divided into sections, according to the first character of the sort key. These initial characters are displayed above the sections. To suppress these, make all sort keys start with a space. A category page can only display a limited number of items (currently 200). If more pages belong to the category, there will be a link to the next ones. The categories box for the category page appears at the bottom, in the same place as for other pages. This contains the categories to which the current category page has been added, i.e. its parent categories (the categories of which it is a subcategory). Add a category page to other categories in the normal way, using the "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" syntax. Putting pages into categories Shortcut WP:PAGECAT A page belongs to a category if the page's wikimarkup contains a declaration for that category. A category declaration takes the form [[Category:Category name]] or [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]. The declaration must be processed, i.e. it will not work if it appears between <nowiki>...</nowiki> or <includeonly>...</includeonly> tags, or in a comment. The declaration may however come from a transcluded page; see Categories and templates below. A category name can be any string that would be a legitimate page title. If the category name begins with a lower-case letter it will be capitalized. In Wikipedia, it is customary to place category declarations at the end of the wikimarkup, but before any stub templates (which themselves transclude categories) and interlanguage links. When a page has been added to one or more categories, a categories box appears at the bottom of the page (or possibly elsewhere, if a non-default skin is being used). This box contains a list of the categories the page belongs to, in the order in which the category declarations appear in the processed wikimarkup. The category names are linked to the corresponding category pages. They appear as redlinks if the corresponding category page does not exist. If a user has enabled the HotCat gadget, the categories box will also provide links to quickly add, remove, or modify category declarations on the page, without having to edit the whole page. Hidden categories are not displayed, except as described below under Hiding categories. Working with category pages The following subsections are ordered from simple actions to more elaborate or rarer actions. Linking to category pages To link to a category page without putting the current page in that category, precede the link with a colon: [[:Category:Category name]]. Such a link can be piped like a normal wikilink. (The {{cl}} template, and others listed on its documentation page, may sometimes be helpful.) Retrieving raw category information Raw information about the members of a category, their sortkeys and timestamps (time when last added to the category) can be obtained from the API, using a query of the form: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?cmtitle=Category:Category_name&action=query&list=categorymembers&cmlimit=500&cmprop=title|sortkey|timestamp Listings of up to 500 members are possible. If there are more members then the results will include text near the end like this: <categorymembers cmcontinue="page|NNNN|TITLE" />. This can be added to the previous one, without quotation marks, for the next page of members: ...&cmcontinue=page|NNNN|TITLE Sorting category pages See also: Help:Sorting Shortcut WP:SORTCAT By default, a page is sorted under the first character of its name, without the namespace. English Wikipedia groups accented characters together with their unaccented version, so pages starting with À, Á, Ä, will be listed under heading A. Sorting is case-insensitive, so "ABC" comes after "Abacus". Unlike at Special:Allpages and Special:Prefixindex, a space is treated as a space (coming before all other characters), not as an underscore. The English Wikipedia has numerical sorting in categories. This means a page whose title begins with a number will be sorted according to the numeric value of the number (even if it is multiple digits). Thus "9 dogs", "25 dogs", and "112 dogs" will all appear under the "0–9" heading in numeric order. If the number includes a comma, space, or period, the sorting algorithm will only consider the part of the number before the separator. Each of the three lists (subcategories, pages, media files) is arranged in the order explained above (except that, in the subcategories list, the namespace indicator "Category:" is not considered). If an item ought to be positioned within a list on the basis of an alternative name (sort key) for that item, then this can be specified in the category tag that places the item in the list: [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]] For example, to add an article called Albert Einstein to the category "People" and have the article sorted by "Einstein, Albert", you would type: [[Category:People|Einstein, Albert]] Unlike a piped link (which uses the same syntax), the sort key itself is not displayed to readers. It affects only the order in which pages are listed on the category page. It is useful to document the system being used for sort keys on the category page. For guidelines about the use of sort keys on Wikipedia, see WP:SORTKEY. Default sort key Shortcut WP:DEFAULTSORT See also: WP:NAMESORT and WP:SORTKEY It is possible to set a default sort key which is different from {{PAGENAME}} by using the magic word {{DEFAULTSORT}}: {{DEFAULTSORT:new key}} This is often used in biography articles, to make sure the subject is sorted by their last name: {{DEFAULTSORT:LastName, FirstName}} In the case of multiple default sort key tags, the last DEFAULTSORT on the final rendering of a page applies for all categories, regardless of the position of the category tags. This also means that a DEFAULTSORT tag included from a template is not effective if another DEFAULTSORT tag occurs later on the page, even if the later DEFAULTSORT tag is also "hidden" (included by another template). If a category is added inside <ref>...</ref> then DEFAULTSORT may be ignored. Searching for pages in categories Further information: Help:Searching § Syntax See also: § Searching for articles in categories, Wikipedia:Category intersection, and Wikimedia bug T3497 "Hierarchical category system is urgently needed" In addition to browsing through hierarchies of categories, it is possible to use the search tool to find specific articles in specific categories. To search for articles in a specific category, type incategory:"CategoryName" in the search box. An "OR" can be added to join the contents of one category with the contents of another. For example, enter incategory:"Suspension bridges" OR incategory:"Bridges in New York City" to return all pages that belong to either (or both) of the categories, as here. Note that using search to find categories will not find articles which have been categorized using templates. This feature also doesn't return pages in subcategories. Listing all categories Special:Categories provides an alphabetic list of all categories, with the number of members of each; this number does not include the content of the subcategories, but it includes the subcategories themselves, i.e., each counting as one. The above list contains all categories that have members, regardless of whether they have corresponding category pages. To list all existing category pages (regardless of whether they have members), use Special:AllPages/Category:. Displaying category trees and page counts As described at mw:Help:Magic words, {{PAGESINCATEGORY:Example}} or {{PAGESINCAT:Example}} returns the number of pages in "Category:Example". Each subcategory counts as one page; pages in subcategories are not counted. The page Special:CategoryTree enables you to see the tree structure of a category (its subcategories, their subcategories and so on; the display of files and other member pages is optional). The CategoryTree extension can be used to display such a tree on any page. (This is sometimes done on the category page itself, if the category is split over multiple screens, to make all subcategories available on every screen.) The basic syntax is <categorytree>Category name</categorytree> to display just the subcategory tree, and <categorytree mode=pages>Category name</categorytree> to display member pages as well. They will be indicated by italics. Dapete's category-visualizer vCat will render charts of the tree structure. You may also use Template:Category tree or Template:Category tree all, instead. Warning: The following code {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{PAGENAME}}}} will not work as expected when used in the wikitext or in a transcluded template in a category page whose title contains some ASCII punctuations. For legacy reasons, {{PAGENAME}} may return the page name with these characters being HTML-encoded using numeric character entities : this still works for generating derived wikilinks or displaying page names, or when HTML-encoded this page name is used in a conditional "#switch", but PAGESINCATEGORY does not recognize the category name given in parameter if some characters are HTML-encoded (this is the case notably when the category name contains ASCII apostrophes ' and a few other ASCII punctuations. (The same HTML-encoding is also applied to the values returned by {{FULLPAGENAME}}, {{SUBPAGENAME}}, or {{NAMESPACE}}). In that case, as the category is not found by its HTML-encoded pagename, PAGESINCATEGORY will unexpectedly return 0 and not its effective number of member pages. A simple workaround is to transform these HTML-encoded characters back into standard UTF-8-encoded characters, by using the {{titleparts:}} parser function, like this: {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}}}}} Moving and redirecting category pages Categories can be moved in the same way as an ordinary page; but a certain amount of cleanup may be necessary. A redirect is left at the old category name, and this is not a normal #REDIRECT [[...]] but a {{category redirect}}. Once all the pages have been moved out of the old category, it may be left as a category redirect or deleted. For categories entirely populated through templates (see above), modifying the templates enables all affected articles to be moved to another category, but with the refresh problem mentioned. Almost all category name changes are made pursuant to a consensus decision at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion. Do not create intercategory redirects other than with a {{category redirect}} template. See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion#Redirecting categories for more on category redirects. Hiding categories When the magic word __HIDDENCAT__ is placed on a category page, that category becomes hidden, meaning that it will not be displayed on the pages belonging to that category. On Wikipedia, the magic word is not normally used explicitly, but is applied through the {{hidden category}} template. The feature is mostly used to prevent project maintenance categories from showing up to ordinary readers on article pages. However, hidden categories are displayed (although listed as hidden): on category pages (whether as parent categories or subcategories); at preview during editing; if the user has selected "Show hidden categories" in user preferences. Hidden categories are automatically added to Category:Hidden categories. For guidelines on the hiding of categories on Wikipedia, see WP:HIDDENCAT. Finding articles for a category The most effective way of finding entries of a category is using the "What links here" tool on the category's main article. An easy way to find relevant articles for a new category or missing entries in an existing one is by finding the most relevant list and checking its entries. Sometimes categories are about things that are intersections of other categories for which the PetScan tool can be used. More relevant articles may also be found linked in a category's main article and the articles already featured in the category − especially in their "See also" sections (if existent) and the automatically suggested "RELATED ARTICLES" below them. Furthermore, a category's superordinate categories often feature articles that should be subcategorized to the category. Other ways to find relevant articles include searching Wikipedia for the category's topic and searching the Web for the topic in quotes " (with synonyms also in quotes and appended after an OR) and appending the word wiki or Wikipedia or site:Wikipedia.org to them. Categorizing Main page: Wikipedia:Categorization Categorizing templates Templates are categorized the same way as articles, except that [[Category: Some-topic templates]] should be placed on the template's documentation page (or inside <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, if there is no documentation page), this is necessary to avoid categorizing pages by template inclusion (see below). Categories and templates A template can be used to add pages to a category, usually by placing the category link inside <includeonly></includeonly> tags on the template (e.g. <includeonly>[[Category:category name]]</includeonly>). When the template is transcluded into the page, the category link becomes active, and the page is added to the category page. This is useful for categories that have high turnover or many pages included, like cleanup categories. Changes to the template, however, may not be reflected immediately on the category page. When you edit an article to add a category tag directly, the list of category members is updated immediately when the page is saved. When a category link is contained in a template, however, this does not happen immediately: instead, whenever a template is edited, all the pages that transclude it are put into the job queue to be recached during periods of low server load. This means that, in busy periods, it may take hours or even days before individual pages are recached and they start to appear in the category list. Performing a null edit to a page will allow it to jump the queue and be immediately recached. To add the template itself to the category page as well, omit the "includeonly" tags. To add the template to a category without categorizing pages on which the template is transcluded, place the category declaration between <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, or add it to the template documentation page between <includeonly></includeonly> (the latter allows recategorizing the template without editing it, which is helpful if it is protected, or so complicated that mere mortals hesitate to touch it). Parser functions can be used to make the transcluded categories, or the sort key used in them, dependent on other variables, notably PAGENAME. Passing a category name as a parameter <includeonly>[[Category:{{{cat|default}}}]]</includeonly> or <includeonly>{{{cat|[[Category:default]]}}}</includeonly> If the user provides a parameter 'cat=XXX' the page will be categorized at the page [[Category:XXX]], otherwise it will be categorized at the page [[Category:default]]. Calling the template with "cat=" (equal to nothing) disables putting the page in any category. Excluding non-article pages <includeonly>{{#if:{{NAMESPACE}} | | [[Category:XXX]]}}</includeonly> the variable NAMESPACE is null for mainspace articles. For any space other than mainspace, this ParserFunction will produce an empty string, but for regular articles this will include the article in Category:XXX. On Wikipedia it is not recommended that templates be used to populate ordinary content categories of articles. See Categorization using templates in the categorization guideline. Categorizing redirect pages Main page: Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects Redirect pages can be categorized and there are conventions how to do it. The redirect link must be first on the page. On a category page, redirects are listed in italics. "Related Changes" with categories For a category, the "Related Changes" feature, when applied to the corresponding category page, lists recent changes to the pages which are currently listed as belonging to a category. Where those pages are subcategories or image pages, only changes to their editable parts are listed. Notice that "Related Changes" does not show edits to pages that have been removed from the category. Also, "Related Changes" does not list recent changes to pages linked from the editable part of the category page (as it would normally, with a non-category page). If a workaround would be required, the links in question could be placed in a template and transcluded onto the category page. As usual – unlike with watchlists – recent changes to corresponding talk pages are not shown under "Related Changes". Pages one is watching are bolded on the list. This can help to find which pages in a given category one has on one's watchlist. The DynamicPageList (third-party) extension provides a list of last edits to the pages in a category, or optionally, just the list of pages; the simpler DynamicPageList (Wikimedia) is installed on Meta, Wikinews, Wikibooks and Wikiversity; the extension mw:Extension:DPLforum is installed on Wikia. Watching category additions and removals Since 2016, additions and removals from categories are available via the "Category changes" filter on recent changes pages, including watchlists and Special:RecentChangesLinked. For example, category changes to articles in Category:Cannabis stubs can be found here. You can monitor additions and removals from specific categories by adding the categories to your watchlist and making sure the "Category changes" filter is active. You can view changes to categories in your watchlist by clicking here. Additional scripts with similar functionality are User:CategoryWatchlistBot and User:Ais523/catwatch. See also mw:Help:Categories {{Category TOC}} Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories Wikipedia:Quick cat index Notes ^ The category itself is permanently created as soon as it has been saved on to any page. Unless you create a category page, it will display as a red link. Unless you add another category to the category page, it will not be placed in the category tree. Category pages are created like any other page. Most commonly, editors click on the redlink in an article and create the category page that way. Wikipedia help pages Visit the Teahouse or the Help desk for an interactive Q & A forum. FAQs (?) Reference desks (?) Noticeboards (?) Cheatsheet (?) Directories (?) About Wikipedia (?) Administration Purpose Principles Policies and guidelines What Wikipedia is not Disclaimer (parental advice) Making requests Who writes Wikipedia? Help for readers (?) 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en-wikipedia-org-1620	----	Danube - Wikipedia Danube From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the river. For other uses, see Danube (disambiguation). River in Central and Eastern Europe Danube The Danube in Budapest Course of the Danube, marked in red Location Countries Germany Austria Slovakia Hungary Croatia Serbia Bulgaria Romania Ukraine Cities Ulm Ingolstadt Regensburg Linz Vienna Bratislava Győr Budapest Dunaújváros Vukovar Apatin Novi Sad Zemun Belgrade Pančevo Smederevo Drobeta-Turnu Severin Vidin Giurgiu Ruse Călărași Brăila Galați Izmail Tulcea Sulina Physical characteristics Source Breg  • location Martinskapelle, Black Forest, Germany  • coordinates 48°05′44″N 08°09′18″E / 48.09556°N 8.15500°E / 48.09556; 8.15500  • elevation 1,078 m (3,537 ft) 2nd source Brigach  • location St. Georgen, Black Forest, Germany  • coordinates 48°06′24″N 08°16′51″E / 48.10667°N 8.28083°E / 48.10667; 8.28083  • elevation 940 m (3,080 ft) Source confluence    • location Donaueschingen  • coordinates 47°57′03″N 08°31′13″E / 47.95083°N 8.52028°E / 47.95083; 8.52028 Mouth Danube Delta  • location Romania  • coordinates 45°13′3″N 29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E / 45.21750; 29.76139Coordinates: 45°13′3″N 29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E / 45.21750; 29.76139 Length 2,850 km (1,770 mi)[1] Basin size 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) Discharge    • location before delta  • average 6,450–7,000 m3/s (228,000–247,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Passau 30km before town  • average 580 m3/s (20,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Vienna  • average 1,900 m3/s (67,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Budapest  • average 2,350 m3/s (83,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Belgrade  • average 5,600 m3/s (200,000 cu ft/s) v t e Danube summary route map Legend 2860 Source at Donaueschingen 2587 Limit of navigation at Ulm 2458 Ingolstadt 2411 Rhine–Main–Danube Canal 2376 Regensburg 2226 River Inn Germany Austria 2128 Linz 1918 Vienna Austria Slovakia River Morava 1867 Bratislava Slovakia Hungary 1794 Győr 1639 Budapest 1579 Dunaújváros Hungary Croatia 1433 Hungary Serbia 1425 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1424 Bezdan Bridge 1382 River Drava 1367 Bogojevo Road Bridge 1366 Bogojevo Railway Bridge 1335 Vukovar 1297 Ilok–Bačka Palanka Bridge Croatia Serbia 1296 in Serbia 1258 Liberty Bridge 1255 Varadin Bridge 1254 Novi Sad 1254 Žeželj Bridge 1253 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1232 Beška Bridge 1215 River Tisza 1176 Pupin Bridge 1173 Zemun 1170 River Sava 1169 Belgrade 1167 Pančevo Bridge 1153 Pančevo 1104 River Great Morava 1116 Smederevo 1113 Pipeline bridge 1112 Kovin Bridge 1077 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1076 Serbia Romania 943 Iron Gate I 930 Drobeta-Turnu Severin 863 Iron Gate II Serbia Bulgaria 846 796 New Europe Bridge River Olt 495 Ruse 489 Danube Bridge Bulgaria Romania 300 Anghel Saligny Bridge 300 Cernavodă Bridge 238 Giurgeni–Vadu Oii Bridge Romania Moldova Moldova Ukraine Danube Delta 0 Black Sea Note: Distances are in kilometers, rounded to the nearest kilometer. Waterway distances are shown, not towpath distances. Country capitals are shown in bold. The Danube (/ˈdæn.juːb/ DAN-yoob; known by various names in other languages) is the second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through much of Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest into the Black Sea. Its longest headstream Breg rises in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, while the river carries its name from its source confluence in Donaueschingen onwards. The Danube was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today is the river running through the largest number of countries in the world (10; the Nile is second with 9). Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2,850 km (1,770 mi), passing through or bordering Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine before draining into the Black Sea. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries. The largest cities on the river are Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade and Bratislava, all of which are the capitals of their respective countries. Six more capital cities lie in the Danube's basin: Bucharest, Sofia, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo and Pristina. The fourth-largest city in its basin is Munich, the capital of Bavaria, standing on the Isar River. The Danube river basin is home to fish species such as pike, zander, huchen, Wels catfish, burbot and tench. It is also home to a large diversity of carp and sturgeon, as well as salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube Delta and the lower portion of the river. Since ancient times, the Danube has been a traditional trade route in Europe. Today, 2,415 km (1,501 mi) of its total length are navigable. The Danube is linked to the North Sea via the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, connecting the Danube at Kelheim with the Main at Bamberg. The river is also an important source of hydropower and drinking water. Contents 1 Names and etymology 1.1 Other names 1.2 Etymology 2 Geography 2.1 Drainage basin 2.2 Tributaries 2.3 Cities and towns 2.4 Islands 2.5 Sectioning 3 Modern navigation 4 Piracy 5 Danube Delta 6 International cooperation 6.1 Ecology and environment 6.2 Navigation 7 Geology 8 History 8.1 Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube 8.2 Rivalry along the Danube 9 Economics 9.1 Drinking water 9.2 Navigation and transport 9.3 Fishing 9.4 Tourism 9.4.1 Danube Bike Trail 9.4.2 Sultans Trail 9.4.3 Donausteig 9.4.4 The Route of Emperors and Kings 10 Important national parks 11 In popular culture 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Names and etymology[edit] Other names[edit] The river was known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros (Ἴστρος)[2] a borrowing from a Daco-Thracian name meaning 'strong, swift', from a root possibly also encountered in the ancient name of the Dniester (Danaster in Latin, Tiras in Greek) and akin to Iranic turos 'swift' and Sanskrit iṣiras (इषिरस्) 'swift', from the PIE *isro-, *sreu 'to flow'.[3] In the Middle Ages, the Greek Tiras was borrowed into Italian as Tyrlo and into Turkic languages as Tyrla, the latter further borrowed into Romanian as a regionalism (Turlă).[3] The Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas,[4] "the bringer of luck".[5] The Middle Mongolian name for the Danube was transliterated as Tho-na in 1829 by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat.[6] The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names related to Dānuvius: German: Donau (IPA: [ˈdoːnaʊ] (listen)); Bavarian: Doana; Silesian: Dōnaj; Upper Sorbian: Dunaj; Czech: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj]); Slovak: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj]); Polish: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj] (listen)); Hungarian: Duna (IPA: [ˈdunɒ] (listen)); Slovene: Donava (IPA: [ˈdóːnaʋa]); Serbo-Croatian: Dunav / Дунав (IPA: [dǔna(ː)ʋ]); Romanian: Dunărea (IPA: [ˈdunəre̯a]); Bulgarian: Дунав, romanized: Dunav (IPA: [ˈdunɐf]); Russian: Дунай, romanized: Dunaj (IPA: [dʊˈnaj]); Ukrainian: Дунай, romanized: Dunaj (IPA: [dʊˈnɑj]); Greek: Δούναβης (IPA: [ˈðunavis]); Italian: Danubio (IPA: [daˈnuːbjo]); Spanish: Danubio; (Spanish pronunciation: [daˈnuβjo]); Turkish: Tuna; Romansh: Danubi; Albanian: Tunë, definite Albanian form: Tuna.[7] Etymology[edit] Danube is an Old European river name derived from the Celtic 'danu' or 'don'[8] (both Celtic gods), which itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European *dānu. Other European river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr, Dysna and Tana/Deatnu. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means "fluid, dewdrop" and dānuja means "born from dānu" or "born from dew-drops". In Avestan, the same word means "river". In the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra, "a dragon blocking the course of the rivers". The Finnish word for Danube is Tonava, which is most likely derived from the word for the river in German, Donau. Its Sámi name Deatnu means "Great River". It is possible that dānu in Scythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river": Dnieper and Dniestr, from Danapris and Danastius, are presumed to continue Scythian *dānu apara "far river" and *dānu nazdya- "near river", respectively.[9] In Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius, Ister[10] or Hister. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, except Slovenian (the name of the Rhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The German Donau (Early Modern German Donaw, Tonaw,[11] Middle High German Tuonowe)[12] is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe "wetland". Romanian differs from other surrounding languages in designating the river with a feminine term, Dunărea.[3] This form was not inherited from Latin, although Romanian is a Romance language.[13] To explain the loss of the Latin name, scholars who suppose that Romanian developed near the large river propose[13] that the Romanian name descends from a hypothetical Thracian *Donaris. The Proto-Indoeuropean root of this presumed name is related to the Iranic word "don-"/"dan-", while the supposed suffix -aris is encountered in the ancient name of the Ialomița River, Naparis, and in the unidentified Miliare river mentioned by Jordanes in his Getica.[3] Gábor Vékony says that this hypothesis is not plausible, because the Greeks borrowed the Istros form from the native Thracians.[13] He proposes that the Romanian name is loanword from a Turkic language (Cuman or Pecheneg).[13] Geography[edit] The Danube basin The hydrogeographical source of the Danube at St Martin's Chapel in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald: the Bregquelle, the source of the Danube's longest headstream, the Breg, where the Danube is symbolized by the Roman allegory for the river, Danuvius. The symbolical source of the Danube in Donaueschingen: the source of the Donaubach (Danube Brook), which flows into the Brigach. The Danube's source confluence in Donaueschingen: the Donauzusammenfluss, the confluence of Breg and Brigach. Confluence of (from left to right) Inn, Danube, and Ilz in Passau Danube in Linz, Austria The Danube in Bratislava, Slovakia Basilica of Esztergom, Hungary The Tisza is the longest tributary of the Danube Confluence of river Sava into the Danube beneath Belgrade citadel Danube at Nikopol, Bulgaria in winter The Danube in Sulina, Romania 0 km, Danube Delta, Ukraine Where the Danube Meets the Black Sea (NASA Goddard image). The Danube discharges into the Black Sea (the upper body of water in the image). Classified as an international waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,730 km (1,700 mi), passing through four capital cities (Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade) before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine. Once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries: Romania (29.0% of basin area), Hungary (11.6%), Serbia (10.2%), Austria (10.0%), Germany (7.0%), Bulgaria (5.9%), Slovakia (5.9%), Croatia (4.4%), Ukraine (3.8%), and Moldova (1.6%).[14] Its drainage basin extends into nine more (ten if Kosovo is included). Drainage basin[edit] In addition to the bordering countries (see above), the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6% of the basin area), the Czech Republic (2.9%), Slovenia (2.0%), Montenegro (0.9%), Switzerland (0.2%), Italy (<0.15%), Poland (<0.1%), North Macedonia (<0.1%) and Albania (<0.1%).[14] The total drainage basin is 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) in area and is home to 83 million people.[15][16][17] The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border, at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft).[18] The Danube River Basin is divided into three main parts, separated by "gates" where the river is forced to cut through mountainous sections:[17] Upper Basin, from the headwaters to the Devín Gate. Middle Basin, usually called the Pannonian basin or Carpathian Basin, between the Devín Gate and the Iron Gates. It includes the Hungarian plains Kisalföld and Alföld. Lower Basin, from the Iron Gates to the river mouth, including the Danube Delta. Tributaries[edit] Main article: List of tributaries of the Danube The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (as they enter): Iller (entering at Ulm) Lech Altmühl (entering at Kelheim) Naab (entering at Regensburg) Regen (entering at Regensburg) Isar Inn (entering at Passau) Ilz (entering at Passau) Enns Morava (entering near Devín Castle) Rába (entering at Győr) Váh (entering at Komárno) Hron (entering at Štúrovo) Ipeľ Sió Drava Vuka (entering at Vukovar) 18. Tisza 19. Sava (entering at Belgrade) 20. Tamiš (entering at Pančevo) 21. Great Morava 22. Mlava 23. Karaš 24. Jiu (entering at Bechet) 25. Iskar (entering near Gigen) 26. Olt (entering at Turnu Măgurele) 27. Osam (entering near Nikopol, Bulgaria) 28. Yantra (river) (entering near Svishtov) 29. Argeș (entering at Oltenița) 30. Ialomița 31. Siret (entering near Galați) 32. Prut (entering near Galați) Cities and towns[edit] The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from the source to the mouth they are:  Germany Donaueschingen in the State of Baden-Württemberg – rivers Brigach and Breg join to form the Danube Möhringen an der Donau in Baden-Württemberg Tuttlingen in Baden-Württemberg Sigmaringen in Baden-Württemberg Riedlingen in Baden-Württemberg Munderkingen in Baden-Württemberg Ehingen in Baden-Württemberg Ulm in Baden-Württemberg Neu-Ulm in Bavaria Günzburg in Bavaria Dillingen an der Donau in Bavaria Donauwörth in Bavaria Neuburg an der Donau in Bavaria Ingolstadt in Bavaria Kelheim in Bavaria Regensburg in Bavaria Straubing in Bavaria Deggendorf in Bavaria Passau in Bavaria  Austria Linz, capital of Upper Austria Krems in Lower Austria Tulln in Lower Austria Vienna – capital of Austria and the most populous city on the Danube, where the Danube floodplain is called the Lobau, though the Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube (it is bounded by the Donaukanal – 'Danube canal').  Slovakia Bratislava – capital of Slovakia Komárno Štúrovo  Hungary Mosonmagyaróvár Győr Komárom Esztergom Visegrád Vác Szentendre Göd Dunakeszi Budapest – capital of Hungary, the largest city and the largest agglomeration on Danube (about 3,300,000 people). This section of the river is also called Danube Bend. Szigetszentmiklós Százhalombatta Ráckeve Adony Dunaújváros Dunaföldvár Paks Kalocsa Baja Mohács  Croatia Vukovar Ilok  Serbia Apatin Bačka Palanka Čerević Futog Veternik Novi Sad Sremski Karlovci Zemun Belgrade – capital of Serbia Pančevo Smederevo Kovin Veliko Gradište Golubac Donji Milanovac Kladovo  Bulgaria Vidin Lom Kozloduy Oryahovo Nikopol Belene Svishtov Ruse Tutrakan Silistra  Romania Moldova Nouă Orșova Drobeta-Turnu Severin Calafat Bechet Dăbuleni Corabia Turnu Măgurele Zimnicea Giurgiu Oltenița Călărași Fetești Cernavodă Hârșova Brăila – limit of the maritime sector of the Danube Galați – largest port on the Danube Isaccea Tulcea Sulina – last city through which it flows  Moldova Giurgiulești  Ukraine Reni Izmail Kiliya Vylkove Panorama of the Danube in Vienna The Danube Bend is a curve of the Danube in Hungary, near the city of Visegrád. The Transdanubian Mountains lie on the right bank (left side of the picture), while the North Hungarian Mountains on the left bank (right side of the picture). Panorama of the Danube in Budapest with the Hungarian Parliament (left) Budapest at night The confluence of the Sava into the Danube at Belgrade. Pictured from Belgrade Fortress, Serbia Panoramic image of the Danube and Sava river from Kalemegdan, Belgrade Serbia. The Danube entering the Iron Gate at the South-Western end of the Carpathian Mountains. Romania on the left side, Golubac Fortress and Serbia on the right side. Islands[edit] Further information: List of islands in the Danube Aerial view of Margaret Island, Budapest, Hungary. There are 15 bridges over the Danube in Budapest. Great War Island, Belgrade, as seen from Zemun, Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube. The Ada Kaleh island in the Danube was forgotten during the peace talks at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which allowed it to remain a de jure Turkish territory and the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II's private possession until the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 (de facto until Romania unilaterally declared its sovereignty on the island in 1919 and further strengthened it with the Treaty of Trianon in 1920).[19][20] The island was submerged during the construction of the Iron Gates hydroelectric plant in 1970. Ada Kaleh Island Ostrovul Mare, Gogoșu Balta Ialomiței Belene Island Csepel Island Donauinsel Great Brăila Island Great War Island Island of Mohács Kozloduy Island Margaret Island Ostrovo (Kostolac) Ostrovul Ciocănești Ostrovul Mare, Islaz Ribarsko Ostrvo, Novi Sad Island of Šarengrad Szigetköz Island of Szentendre Vardim Island Island of Vukovar Žitný ostrov Sectioning[edit] Upper Section: From spring to Devín Gate, at the border of Austria and Slovakia. Danube remains a characteristic mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0.0012% (12 ppm), from Passau to Devín Gate the gradient lessens to 0.0006% (6 ppm). Middle Section: From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania. The riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0.00006% (0.6 ppm). Lower Section: From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0.00003% (0.3 ppm). Modern navigation[edit] The Danube in Budapest Fisherman in the Danube Delta Play media Freight ship on the Danube near Vienna The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania (the maritime river sector), and further on by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. Since the completion of the German Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005. At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60 km (37 mi) downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m3/s (540,000 cu ft/s). There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km (40 mi) Danube-Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km (250 mi); the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal is about 171 km (106 mi), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.[21] Piracy[edit] In 2010–12, shipping companies (especially from Ukraine) claimed that their vessels suffered from "regular pirate attacks", on the Serbian and Romanian stretches of the Danube.[22][23][24] However, these transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery".[25] On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates", and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small-time contraband theft that is taking place along the river. The trading practices were legal along the river, since Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU in 2007 and Romania became European border with Ukraine and Serbia. "Vamesi" the Romanian Border Officers, were confused with the new trading rules and new borders along the river as long as most of the southern Danube border is shared with Bulgaria.[26] Danube Delta[edit] Main article: Danube Delta The Danube Delta (Romanian: Delta Dunării pronounced [ˈdelta ˈdunərij]; Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю, romanized: Del'ta Dunayu) is the largest river delta in the European Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odessa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4,152 km2 (1,603 sq mi), of which 3,446 km2 (1,331 sq mi) are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim-Sinoe (1,015 km2 (392 sq mi) of which 865 km2 (334 sq mi) water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5,165 km2 (1,994 sq mi). The Danube Delta is also the best preserved river Delta in Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and a Ramsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangered pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as the Bystroye Canal.[27] International cooperation[edit] Ecology and environment[edit] Main article: International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River Pelicans in the Danube Delta, Romania The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization which consists of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro and Ukraine) and the European Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and the groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive. Navigation[edit] Main article: Danube Commission The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia, It meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission's working plans. The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states. Geology[edit] Iron Gates, Serbia-Romania border Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station, Romania-Serbia Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the Alps mountains which flows north towards the North Sea, an invisible line beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed. Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one. The Iron Gate, on the Serbian-Romanian border (Iron Gates natural park and Đerdap national park) Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alb, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 kilometres (7 mi) south at the Aachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,500 litres per second (300 cu ft/s), north of Lake Constance—thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung. Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing. The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia at Batina, Dalj, Vukovar and Ilok.[28] History[edit] The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BC Vinča culture, (Vinča, Serbia) are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BC Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics. Darius the Great, king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BC to invade European Scythia and to subdue the Scythians. Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian king Syrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BC. Under the Romans the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From AD 37 to the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I (364–375) the Danubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube into Dacia was achieved by the Imperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town of Drobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia under Decebalus enabled the Province of Dacia to be created, but in 271 it was lost again. Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century. The oldest bridge across the Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus between 103 and 105 CE, directed by Trajan, modern Serbia and Romania. At Esztergom and Štúrovo, the Danube separates Hungary from Slovakia The Danube in Vienna The Danube between Belene and Belene Island, Bulgaria A look upstream from the Donauinsel in Vienna, Austria during an unusually cold winter (February 2006). A frozen Danube usually occurs just once or twice in a lifetime. Bratislava does not usually suffer major floods, but the Danube sometimes overflows its right bank Combat between Russian and Turkish forces on the Danube in 1854, during the Crimean War (1853–1856) Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube[edit] Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282). At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.[29] Rivalry along the Danube[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire competed first with the Kingdom of Serbia, Second Bulgarian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary, Principality of Wallachia, Principality of Moldavia and later with the Austrian Habsburgs, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire for controlling the Danube (Tuna in Turkish), which became the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars (1366–1526) and Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791) were fought along the river. The most important wars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Siege of Belgrade (1456), the Battle of Mohács (1526), the first Turkish Siege of Vienna (1529), the Siege of Esztergom (1543), the Long War (1591–1606), the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Economics[edit] Drinking water[edit] Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people.[30][31] In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such as Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube. In Austria and Hungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.[32] Navigation and transport[edit] Fishing from a Zille on the Danube in Lower Austria, 1982 In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, as The Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot."[33] Today, as "Corridor VII" of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects the Port of Rotterdam and the industrial centres of Western Europe with the Black Sea and, also, through the Danube – Black Sea Canal, with the Port of Constanța. The waterway is designed for large-scale inland vessels (110 × 11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns. Downstream from the Freudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometres (530 mi). The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal at Kelheim, with the Donaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube–Black Sea Canal at Cernavodă. Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Danube–Tisa–Danube Canals, links sections downstream. In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat-bottomed boat called a Zille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area. Fishing[edit] The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry. However, some of the river's resources have been managed in an environmentally unsustainable manner in the past, leading to damage by pollution, alterations to the channel and major infrastructure development, including large hydropower dams.[34] The sturgeon stocks associated with the Danube River basin have, over the centuries, formed the basis of a large and significant commercial fishery, renowned throughout the world. The construction of the dams, beside overfishing and river pollution has a significant role over sturgeon population decline because create a barrier for fish migratory species that usually spawn in the upper parts of the river.[35] The spawning areas of migratory fishes species has been dramatically reduced by the construction of hydropower and navigation systems at Iron Gates I (1974) and Iron Gates II (1984)Corda (1988). "Iron gates II design and performance of dams- geotechnical considerations" (PDF). International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering. Cite journal requires |journal= (help). The initial design of these dams has not included any fish passage facility.[36] The possibility of building a man-made fish pass enabling migration for fish species including the sturgeon, is currently under review by projects such as We Pass.[37] The Upper Danube ecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube–Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many.[38] Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga, Russian sturgeon, bastard sturgeon, sterlet, starry sturgeon and European sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely–or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon–disappeared from the river.[38] The huchen, one of the largest species of salmon, is endemic to the Danube basin, but has been introduced elsewhere by humans.[39] Tourism[edit] Wachau Valley near Spitz, Austria Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau Valley, the Nationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, the Danube Delta in Romania, and the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria. Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go from Passau in Germany to the Danube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic-free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats. The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also due to its fascinating landmarks and sights important for the regional tourism industry. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.[40] The Danube Banks in Budapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city. The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination. Danube Bike Trail[edit] The Danube Bike Trail running along the Schlögener Schlinge The Danube Bike Trail leading through the city Linz The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.[41] The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections: Donaueschingen–Passau (559 km) Passau–Vienna (340 km) Vienna–Budapest (306 km) Budapest–Black Sea (1670 km) Sultans Trail[edit] The Sultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river between Vienna and Smederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating in Istanbul. Sections along the river are as follows. Vienna–Budapest (323 km) Budapest–Smederevo (595 km) Donausteig[edit] Resting area along the Donausteig hiking trail near Bad Kreuzen In 2010 the Donausteig, a hiking trail from Passau to Grein, was opened. It is 450 kilometres (280 mi) long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. An impressive landscape and beautiful viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of the Donausteig.[42] The Route of Emperors and Kings[edit] The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading from Regensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna.[43] The international consortium ARGE Die Donau-Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.[40] In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town, stone bridge and cathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues to Engelhartszell, with the only Trappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight-stops along the Danube, include the "Schlögener Schlinge", the city of Linz, which was European Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, the Melk Abbey, the university city of Krems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Since ancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue travelled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While travelling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today. The route got its name from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and the crusaders as well as from Richard I of England who had been jailed in the Dürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of the Habsburg family. Once crowned in Frankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences and state-run convents were built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock". Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube, but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig" and visit the UNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg, Wachau and Vienna.[44] Important national parks[edit] Naturpark Obere Donau (Germany) Donauauen zwischen Neuburg und Ingolstadt (Germany) – map Nature protection area Donauleiten (Germany) Nationalpark Donau Auen (Austria) – map Chránená krajinná oblasť Dunajské luhy (Slovakia) – map Danube-Ipoly National Park (Hungary) – map Danube-Drava National Park (Hungary) – map Naturalpark Kopački Rit (Croatia) – map Gornje Podunavlje Nature Reserve (Serbia) – map Fruška Gora National Park (Serbia) Koviljsko-petrovaradinski rit Nature Reserve (Serbia) Great War Island Nature Reserve (Serbia) Đerdap National park (Serbia) Iron Gates Natural Park (Romania) Persina Nature Park (Bulgaria) – map Kalimok-Brushlen Protected Site (Bulgaria) – map Srebarna Nature Reserve (Bulgaria) – map Măcin Mountains Natural Park (Romania) Balta Mică a Brăilei Natural Park (Romania) Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (Romania) – map Danube Biosphere Reserve in Ukraine Gornje Podunavlje Special Nature Reserve in Serbia. Golubac Fortress in Đerdap National park, Serbia. In popular culture[edit] This article is in list format, but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (May 2012) 16th-century Danube landscape near Regensburg, by Albrecht Altdorfer – a member of the Danube school. The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous waltz by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, The Blue Danube Waltz (On the Beautiful Blue Danube). This piece is well known across the world and is also used widely as a lullaby. The Waves of the Danube (Romanian: Valurile Dunării) is a waltz by the Romanian composer Iosif Ivanovici (1845–1902); as the Anniversary Song, it has been performed by many vocalists, such as Al Jolson, Rosemary Clooney, Vera Lynn, Tom Jones, and countless others. [It is most commonly known as the Anniversary Waltz, though that is actually a different song and melody.] Joe Zawinul wrote a symphony about the Danube called Stories of the Danube. It was performed for the first time at the 1993 Bruckner festival, at Linz. The Danube figures prominently in the Bulgarian National Anthem, as a symbolic representation of the country's natural beauty. In Lithuanian folklore songs, the appearance of Danube (Dunojus, Dunojėlis) is more common than the appearance of the longest Lithuanian river Neman. The German tradition of landscape painting, the Danube school, was developed in the Danube valley in the 16th century.[citation needed] One of Claudio Magris's masterpieces is called Danube ( ISBN 1-86046-823-3). The book, published in 1986, is a large cultural-historical essay, in which Magris travels the Danube from the first sources to the delta, tracing the rich European ethnic and cultural heritage, literary and ideological past and present along the way. Jules Verne's The Danube Pilot (1908) (Le Pilote du Danube) depicts the adventures of fisherman Serge Ladko as he travels down the river. In the Star Trek universe, the Danube-class runabout is a type of starship used by the Federation Starfleet, most notably in the Deep Space Nine series. Miklós Jancsó's film the Blue Danube Waltz (1992) The Hungarian sweet speciality Duna kavics ("Danube pebbles") is named after the river.[citation needed] A Hungarian folk ensemble, the Danube Folk Ensemble (Duna Művészegyüttes), is named after the river. The group is made up of 30 dancers and musicians. During their performances they show the Hungarian folk music, dance and costumes.[citation needed] There are Hasidic (Chabad Nigunnim) songs called "dunai", dating from around 1800. They are often lullabies and are named after the river Dunay. Farmers around the river used to come to it and sing spiritual songs to thank God for the great beauty which they saw every day.[citation needed] See also[edit] Germany portal Austria portal Slovakia portal Hungary portal Croatia portal Serbia portal Bulgaria portal Romania portal Ukraine portal 2006 European floods Between the Woods and the Water, a travel book telling of a Danubian journey in 1934 The Ister, 2004 film Executive Agency for Exploration and Maintenance of the Danube River List of crossings of the Danube Steamboats on the Danube Black Sea drainage basin References[edit] ^ "Danube River". Britannica.com. ^ "Herodotus, The Histories, book 4, chapter 48". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ a b c d Felecan, Oliviu; Felecan, Nicolae (2015). "Straturi etimologice reflectate în hidronimia românească" (PDF). Quaderns de Filologia: Estudis Lingüístics. Universitat de València. 20 (1): 254. doi:10.7203/qfilologia.20.7521. ^ Dyer, Robert (1974). "Matoas, the Thraco-Phrygian name for the Danube, and the IE root *madų". Glotta. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG). 52 (1/2): 91–95. JSTOR 40266286. ^ Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2009). "Reka kot božanstvo — Sava v antiki" [River as a Deity – The Sava in Antiquity]. In Barachini, Jožef (ed.). Ukročena lepotica: Sava in njene zgodbe [The Tamed Beauty: The Sava and Its Stories] (PDF) (in Slovenian and English). Sevnica: Javni zavod za kulturo, šport, turizem in mladinske dejavnosti. pp. 42–50. ISBN 978-961-92735-0-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. ^ Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre (1829). Nouveaus Mélanges Asiatiques. 2. Paris: Schubart and Heidelhoff. pp. 96–97. ^ Kozma Vasili; Arsen Mustaqi, eds. (1981), Lirika popullore [Folk lyrics], Folklor Shqiptar (in Albanian), 4, Tirana: Akademia e Shkencave e RPS te Shqiperise, Instituti i Kultures Popullore, Sektori i Prozes dhe Poezise, p. 624, Tunë-a lumi i Danubit ^ Triad 35. Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein, pp. 280–285. ^ Mallory, J.P; Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 106.. V. I. Adaev (1949). Осетинский язык и фольклор [Ossetian language and folklore] (PDF) (in Russian). Moscow: Publishing house of Soviet Academy of Sciences. p. 236. ^ Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One. Paris: Mouton. 1976. p. 144. ^ Tonaw in Sebastian Franck (1542). Weltbuch. p. 81. Donaw e.g. in Leonhard Thurneisser zum Thurn (1572). Pison. p. 186. Spelling Donau from the 17th century. ^ Grimm. Deutsche Grammatik. p. 407. ^ a b c d Vékony, Gábor (2000). Dacians, Romans, Romanians. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-882785-13-1. ^ a b "Countries of the Danube River Basin". International Commission for the protection of the Danube River. Retrieved 13 November 2010. ^ Complete table of the Bavarian Waterbody Register by the Bavarian State Office for the Environment (xls, 10.3 MB) ^ Danube River Basin District, Part A – Roof Report, IPCDR, p 8 ^ a b "River Basin | ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River". www.icpdr.org. ^ "Drainage basin of the Black Sea" (PDF). Our Waters: Joining Hands Across Borders. First Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes and Groundwaters. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2007. ^ Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, 24 July 1923, retrieved 6 December 2014 ^ "Ada Kaleh". alexisphoenix.org. ^ "Danube navigation at a glance". ^ Piškor, Mate (12 October 2011). "Riječni gusari u Srbiji pljačkaju hrvatske brodove" (in Croatian). ^ "Ukrainian Danube Shipping Company Says Its Ships Are Being Attacked Frequently in Romanian Part Of River Danube". Un.ua. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012. ^ Гордієва, Олена (20 January 2012). "Українські кораблі все частіше стають жертвами румунських піратів" [Romanian Pirates Attack Ukrainian Ships More Frequently]. Gazeta.ua (in Ukrainian). ^ Pirates on the lower Danube at rivercruiseinfo.com ^ Reports Of 'Pirates Of The Danube' Get The Old Heave-Ho at Radio Free Europe ^ Staras, Mircea (2005). Documentation on the likely significant transboundary impact of the Ukrainian deep-water navigation canal Danube-black sea in the context of Espoo Convention, 1991 (PDF). Tulcea, Romania: Danube Delta National Institute (published February 2005). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020. ^ "Daily hydrological report". State Hydrometeorological Bureau of the Republic of Croatia. Retrieved 9 September 2010. ^ Dacia Preistorica Archived 7 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Nicolae Densusianu (1913). ^ "About Us | ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River". www.icpdr.org. Retrieved 5 February 2021. ^ "Blue River". wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 5 February 2021. ^ "The Danube". International Association of Water Supply Companies in the Danube River Catchment Area. Archived from the original on 19 May 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012. ^ "The Times & The Sunday Times". www.thetimes.co.uk. ^ Holcik, Juraj (1989). The freshwater fishes of Europe Vol.I Part II General introduction to fishes. Wiesbaden: Aula Verlag. ^ Hensel, K; Holcik, J (1997). Past and current status of sturgeons in the upper and middle Danube River. ^ Suciu Radu, Guti Gabor (2012). Have sturgeons a future in the Danube River? (PDF). 39th IAD Conference: Living Danube. Szentendre, Hungary. ^ We Pass - Facilitating Fish Migration and Conservation at the Iron Gates. ICPDR. 11 November 2019. ^ a b Hales, J. (2013). Upper Danube. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Retrieved 25 February 2013. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2013). "Hucho hucho" in FishBase. February 2013 version. ^ a b "Press release of the "ARGE Donau Österreich"" (PDF) (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014. ^ "Die ADFC-Radreiseanalyse 2013 – Zahlen, Daten und Fakten" (in German). Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2014. ^ "Donausteig". Traildino.com. Retrieved 1 April 2014. ^ "Welcome". Straße der Kaiser und Könige. ^ "The Route of Emperors and Kings". bavaria.by. Retrieved 29 March 2014. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Danube. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Danube. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Danube . Geographic data related to Danube at OpenStreetMap Danube watershed map and information from the World Resources Institute Danube Panorama Project сайт о Дунае (in Russian) Danube and the sport of rowing Danube image pool on Flickr Danube Tourist Commission (in German) danubemap.eu – The Tourist Map of the Danube (archive) International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River Bridges of Budapest over the Danube river Description of the Danube estuary in June 1877, The Times of London Old maps of the Danube, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel v t e The Danube Countries Germany Austria Slovakia Hungary Croatia Serbia Bulgaria Romania Moldova Ukraine Cities Ulm Ingolstadt Regensburg Passau Linz Vienna Bratislava Győr Budapest Vukovar Novi Sad Belgrade Vidin Ruse Brăila Galați Izmail Tulcea Tributaries Iller Lech Regen Isar Inn Morava Váh Hron Ipeľ/Ipoly Drava Tisza/Tisa Sava Timiș/Tamiš Great Morava Timok Jiu Iskar Olt Osam Yantra Vedea Argeș Ialomița Siret Prut Canals Rhine–Main–Danube Canal Danube–Black Sea Canal See also Breg Brigach Source Danube Delta List of islands in the Danube List of crossings of the Danube Internationalization v t e Barbarian kingdoms established around the Migration Period Germanic kingdoms Alamannian Kingdom Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy Bavarian Duchy Burgundian Kingdom Frankish Kingdom Frisian Kingdom Gepid Kingdom Herulian Kingdom Lombard Kingdom Suebian Kingdom (Danube) Suebian Kingdom (Gallaecia) Ostrogothic Kingdom Rugian Kingdom Saxonian Duchy Scirian Kingdom Thuringii Kingdom Vandal Kingdom Visigothic Kingdom Hunnic kingdoms Hunnic Empire Avar kingdoms Avar Khaganate Turkic kingdoms Bulgar Khanate Iranian kingdoms Alani Kingdom of Orleans Alani Kingdom of Valencia Celtic kingdoms Bro Gwened Cornouaille Domnonée Dumnonia Hen Ogledd Gaelic Ireland Petty kingdoms of Wales Pictland Sub-Roman Britain Slavic kingdoms Antes Tribal Union Carantian Principality Samo's Empire Sclaveni Berber kingdoms Mauro-Roman Kingdom Kingdom of Altava Kingdom of Ouarsenis Kingdom of the Aures Arab kingdoms Ghassanids Tanukhids Salihids See also Foederati Cantabri Vascones Odoacer's Kingdom(?) 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Chinese 汉语/漢語, Hànyǔ or 中文, Zhōngwén Hànyǔ written in traditional (top) and simplified characters (middle); Zhōngwén (bottom) Native to Chinese-speaking world Native speakers 1.2 billion (2004)[1] Language family Sino-Tibetan Chinese Early forms Old Chinese Middle Chinese Standard forms Standard Mandarin Standard Cantonese Dialects Mandarin Jin Wu Gan Xiang Min Hakka Yue Ping Huizhou Writing system Chinese characters (Traditional/Simplified) Transcriptions: Zhuyin Pinyin (Latin) Xiao'erjing (Arabic) Dungan (Cyrillic) Chinese Braille ʼPhags-pa script (Historical) Official status Official language in Mandarin:  China  Singapore  Taiwan Cantonese:[a]  Hong Kong  Macau Regulated by National Commission on Language and Script Work (Mainland China)[2] National Languages Committee (Taiwan) Civil Service Bureau (Hong Kong) Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (Macau) Chinese Language Standardisation Council (Malaysia) Promote Mandarin Council (Singapore) Language codes ISO 639-1 zh ISO 639-2 chi (B) zho (T) ISO 639-3 zho – inclusive code Individual codes: cdo – Min Dong cjy – Jinyu cmn – Mandarin cpx – Pu Xian czh – Huizhou czo – Min Zhong gan – Gan hak – Hakka hsn – Xiang mnp – Min Bei nan – Min Nan wuu – Wu yue – Yue csp – Southern Pinghua cnp – Northern Pinghua och – Old Chinese ltc – Late Middle Chinese lzh – Classical Chinese Glottolog sini1245 Linguasphere 79-AAA Map of the Chinese-speaking world.   Countries and regions with a native Chinese-speaking majority.   Countries and regions where Chinese is not native but an official or educational language.   Countries with significant Chinese-speaking minorities. 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Chinese language(s) (general/spoken) Simplified Chinese 汉语 Traditional Chinese 漢語 Literal meaning Han language Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hànyǔ Wade–Giles Han4-yu3 Tongyong Pinyin Hàn-yǔ Yale Romanization Hàn-yǔ IPA [xân.ỳ] Wu Romanization hoe3 nyiu2 Hakka Romanization Hon Ngi Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization hon yúh Jyutping Hon3 jyu5 Canton Romanization hon3 yü5 IPA Cantonese pronunciation: [hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Háng-ngṳ̄ Chinese language (written) Chinese 中文 Literal meaning Middle/Central/Chinese text Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhōngwén Wade–Giles Chung1-wên2 Tongyong Pinyin jhong-wún Yale Romanization jūng-wén IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋ.wə̌n] Wu Romanization tson1 ven1 Hakka Romanization Chung-Vun Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Jūng mán Jyutping Zung1 man4*2 Canton Romanization Zung1 men4*2 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tiong-bûn Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Dṳng-ùng Chinese (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語; pinyin: Hànyǔ[b] or also 中文; Zhōngwén,[c] especially for the written language) is a group of language varieties that form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages, spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the world's population) speak a variety of Chinese as their first language.[3] The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be variants of a single language. Due to their lack of mutual intelligibility, however, they are classified as separate languages in a family by some linguists, who note that the varieties are as divergent as the Romance languages.[d] Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is just starting. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin (with about 800 million speakers, or 66%), followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese).[5] These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwest Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan (though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka). All varieties of Chinese are tonal to at least some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest Chinese written records are Shang dynasty-era oracle bone inscriptions, which can be dated to 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. Qieyun, a rime dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language (Guanhua) based on Nanjing dialect of Lower Yangtze Mandarin. Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin), based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, was adopted in the 1930s and is now an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The written form, using the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of mutually unintelligible dialects. Since the 1950s, simplified Chinese characters have been promoted for use by the government of the People's Republic of China, while Singapore officially adopted simplified characters in 1976. Traditional characters remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and other countries with significant overseas Chinese speaking communities such as Malaysia (which although adopted simplified characters as the de facto standard in the 1980s, traditional characters still remain in widespread use). Contents 1 Classification 2 History 2.1 Old and Middle Chinese 2.2 Classical and literary forms 2.3 Rise of northern dialects 2.4 Influence 3 Varieties 3.1 Grouping 3.2 Standard Chinese 3.3 Nomenclature 4 Phonology 4.1 Tones 5 Grammar 6 Vocabulary 6.1 Loanwords 6.2 Modern borrowings 7 Writing system 7.1 Chinese characters 7.2 Romanization 7.3 Other phonetic transcriptions 8 As a foreign language 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Classification[edit] Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif.[6] Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones.[7] Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear.[8] A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.[9] History[edit] Main article: History of the Chinese language The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard.[10] Old and Middle Chinese[edit] The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty.[11] Old Chinese was the language of the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), recorded in inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching.[12] Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters.[13] Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids.[14] Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese.[15] Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles.[16] Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the Qieyun rime book (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system.[17] These works define phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent.[18] Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence.[19] The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.[20] Classical and literary forms[edit] Main article: Classical Chinese The relationship between spoken and written Chinese is rather complex ("diglossia"). Its spoken varieties have evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. Classical Chinese literature began in the Spring and Autumn period. Rise of northern dialects[edit] After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jin (Jurchen) and Yuan (Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital.[21] The Zhongyuan Yinyun (1324) was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language.[22] Together with the slightly later Menggu Ziyun, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects.[23] Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety.[24] Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà (官话/官話, literally "language of officials").[25] For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect.[26] By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.[27] In the 1930s, a standard national language, Guóyǔ (国语/國語 ; "national language") was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it pǔtōnghuà (普通话/普通話; "common speech").[28] The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both Mainland China and Taiwan.[29] Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in Hong Kong and Macau is the local Cantonese, although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools.[30] Influence[edit] See also: Adoption of Chinese literary culture and Sino-Xenic vocabularies The Tripitaka Koreana, a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canon Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han empire in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies were established in northern Korea in the first century BCE, but disintegrated in the following centuries.[31] Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese.[32] Later Korea, Japan, and Vietnam developed strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions, with Literary Chinese as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam.[33] Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.[34] Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies.[35] This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese[36] and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean.[37] Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages.[38] Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries.[39] The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.[40] Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the Hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex Chữ nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters (Kanji) and kana. Korean is written exclusively with Hangul in North Korea, and supplementary Chinese characters (Hanja) are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of former French colonization, Vietnamese switched to a Latin-based alphabet. Examples of loan words in English include "tea", from Hokkien (Min Nan) tê (茶), "dim sum", from Cantonese dim2 sam1 (點心) and "kumquat", from Cantonese gam1gwat1 (金橘). Varieties[edit] Main article: Varieties of Chinese Range of Chinese dialect groups in China Mainland and Taiwan according to the Language Atlas of China[41] Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.[42] These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely.[43] Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbors. For instance, Wuzhou is about 190 kilometres (120 mi) upstream from Guangzhou, but the Yue variety spoken there is more like that of Guangzhou than is that of Taishan, 95 kilometres (60 mi) southwest of Guangzhou and separated from it by several rivers.[44] In parts of Fujian the speech of neighboring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.[45] Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects are spoken.[46] The vast majority of Chinese immigrants to North America up to the mid-20th century spoke the Taishan dialect, from a small coastal area southwest of Guangzhou.[47] Grouping[edit] Proportions of first-language speakers[5]   Mandarin (65.7%)   Min (6.2%)   Wu (6.1%)   Yue (5.6%)   Jin (5.2%)   Gan (3.9%)   Hakka (3.5%)   Xiang (3.0%)   Huizhou (0.3%)   Pinghua, others (0.6%) Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely on the basis of the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials:[48][49] Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, Pekingese, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia Wu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese Gan Xiang Min, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew Hakka Yue, including Cantonese and Taishanese The classification of Li Rong, which is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups:[41][50] Jin, previously included in Mandarin. Huizhou, previously included in Wu. Pinghua, previously included in Yue. Some varieties remain unclassified, including Danzhou dialect (spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island), Waxianghua (spoken in western Hunan) and Shaozhou Tuhua (spoken in northern Guangdong).[51] Standard Chinese[edit] Main article: Standard Chinese See also: List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language Standard Chinese, often called Mandarin, is the official standard language of China and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called "Huáyŭ" 华语/華語 or simply Chinese). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. In China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature. For example, in addition to Standard Chinese, a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese; and, if they grew up elsewhere, then they are also likely to be fluent in the particular dialect of that local area. A native of Guangzhou may speak both Cantonese and Standard Chinese. In addition to Mandarin, most Taiwanese also speak Minnan, Hakka, or an Austronesian language.[52] A Taiwanese may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Mandarin and other Taiwanese languages, and this mixture is considered normal in daily or informal speech.[53] Due to their traditional cultural ties to Guangdong province and colonial histories, Cantonese is used as the standard variant of Chinese in Hong Kong and Macau instead. Nomenclature[edit] The official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is fāngyán (方言, literally "regional speech"), whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called dìdiǎn fāngyán (地点方言/地點方言 "local speech").[54] Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use dialect for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status) and dialect group for a regional grouping such as Mandarin or Wu.[42] Because varieties from different groups are not mutually intelligible, some scholars prefer to describe Wu and others as separate languages.[55][better source needed] Jerry Norman called this practice misleading, pointing out that Wu, which itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, could not be properly called a single language under the same criterion, and that the same is true for each of the other groups.[42] Mutual intelligibility is considered by some linguists to be the main criterion for determining whether varieties are separate languages or dialects of a single language,[56] although others do not regard it as decisive,[57][58][59][60][61] particularly when cultural factors interfere as they do with Chinese.[62] As Campbell (2008) explains, linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity.[63] John DeFrancis argues that it is inappropriate to refer to Mandarin, Wu and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. On the other hand, he also objects to considering them as separate languages, as it incorrectly implies a set of disruptive "religious, economic, political, and other differences" between speakers that exist, for example, between French Catholics and English Protestants in Canada, but not between speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin in China, owing to China's near-uninterrupted history of centralized government.[64] Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include vernacular,[65] lect,[66] regionalect,[54] topolect,[67] and variety.[68] Most Chinese people consider the spoken varieties as one single language because speakers share a common culture and history, as well as a shared national identity and a common written form.[69] Phonology[edit] Further information: Standard Chinese phonology, Historical Chinese phonology, and Varieties of Chinese § Phonology Spoken Mandarin Chinese The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant+glide; zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, the retroflex approximant /ɻ /, and voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/, /ŋ/ and /ɻ /. The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.[e] Tones[edit] All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words.[70] A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese (along with the neutral tone) to the syllable ma. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: The four main tones of Standard Mandarin, pronounced with the syllable ma. Examples of Standard Mandarin tones Characters Pinyin Pitch contour Meaning 妈/媽 mā high level 'mother' 麻 má high rising 'hemp' 马/馬 mǎ low falling-rising 'horse' 骂/罵 mà high falling 'scold' 吗/嗎 ma neutral question particle Standard Cantonese, in contrast, has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be "checked tones" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such:[71] Examples of Standard Cantonese tones Characters Jyutping Yale Pitch contour Meaning 诗/詩 si1 sī high level, high falling 'poem' 史 si2 sí high rising 'history' 弒 si3 si mid level 'to assassinate' 时/時 si4 sìh low falling 'time' 市 si5 síh low rising 'market' 是 si6 sih low level 'yes' Grammar[edit] Main article: Chinese grammar See also: Chinese classifiers Chinese is often described as a "monosyllabic" language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Classical Chinese and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, for example, perhaps 90% of words correspond to a single syllable and a single character. In the modern varieties, it is usually the case that a morpheme (unit of meaning) is a single syllable; In contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as "seven", "elephant", "para-" and "-able". Some of the conservative southern varieties of modern Chinese have largely monosyllabic words, especially among the more basic vocabulary. In modern Mandarin, however, most nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonological attrition. Sound change over time has steadily reduced the number of possible syllables. In modern Mandarin, there are now only about 1,200 possible syllables, including tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still largely monosyllabic) and over 8,000 in English.[e] This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary[72] lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí (tone 2): 十 'ten'; 实/實 'real, actual'; 识/識 'know (a person), recognize'; 石 'stone'; 时/時 'time'; 食 'food, eat'. These were all pronounced differently in Early Middle Chinese; in William H. Baxter's transcription they were dzyip, zyit, syik, dzyek, dzyi and zyik respectively. They are still pronounced differently in today's Cantonese; in Jyutping they are sap9, sat9, sik7, sek9, si4, sik9. In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is; Yuen Ren Chao's modern poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi. As such, most of these words have been replaced (in speech, if not in writing) with a longer, less-ambiguous compound. Only the first one, 十 'ten', normally appears as such when spoken; the rest are normally replaced with, respectively, shíjì 实际/實際 (lit. 'actual-connection'); rènshi 认识/認識 (lit. 'recognize-know'); shítou 石头/石頭 (lit. 'stone-head'); shíjiān 时间/時間 (lit. 'time-interval'); shíwù 食物 (lit. 'foodstuff'). In each case, the homophone was disambiguated by adding another morpheme, typically either a synonym or a generic word of some sort (for example, 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is simply to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable should be selected. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, shí 石 alone, not shítou 石头/石頭, appears in compounds meaning 'stone-', for example, shígāo 石膏 'plaster' (lit. 'stone cream'), shíhuī 石灰 'lime' (lit. 'stone dust'), shíkū 石窟 'grotto' (lit. 'stone cave'), shíyīng 石英 'quartz' (lit. 'stone flower'), shíyóu 石油 'petroleum' (lit. 'stone oil'). Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic without compounding, as in kūlong 窟窿 from kǒng 孔; this is especially common in Jin. Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction. Although many of these single-syllable morphemes (zì, 字) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as cí (词/詞), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí ('word') can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. For example: yún 云/雲 'cloud' hànbǎobāo, hànbǎo 汉堡包/漢堡包, 汉堡/漢堡 'hamburger' wǒ 我 'I, me' rén 人 'people, human, mankind' dìqiú 地球 'The Earth' shǎndiàn 闪电/閃電 'lightning' mèng 梦/夢 'dream' All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology—i.e., changes in form of a word—to indicate the word's function in a sentence.[73] In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few articles (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English).[f] They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like le 了 (perfective), hái 还/還 ('still'), yǐjīng 已经/已經 ('already'), and so on. Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages like Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. Vocabulary[edit] The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers [74]. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms and names of political figures, businesses and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD),[75] based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms. The 7th (2016) edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Loanwords[edit] Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 蜜 mì "honey", 狮/獅 shī "lion," and perhaps also 马/馬 mǎ "horse", 猪/豬 zhū "pig", 犬 quǎn "dog", and 鹅/鵝 é "goose".[g] Ancient words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include 葡萄 pútáo "grape", 石榴 shíliu/shíliú "pomegranate" and 狮子/獅子 shīzi "lion". Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 佛 Fó "Buddha" and 菩萨/菩薩 Púsà "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 胡同 hútòng "hutong". Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 葡萄 "grape," generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pāli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵琶 pípá, the Chinese lute, or 酪 lào/luò "cheese" or "yogurt", but from exactly which source is not always clear.[76] Modern borrowings[edit] See also: Translation of neologisms into Chinese and Transcription into Chinese characters Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (calque, or by meaning), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary. Any Latin or Greek etymologies are dropped and converted into the corresponding Chinese characters (for example, anti- typically becomes "反", literally opposite), making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word telephone was initially loaned phonetically as 德律风/德律風 (Shanghainese: télífon [təlɪfoŋ], Mandarin: délǜfēng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later 电话/電話 diànhuà (lit. "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent (電話 is in fact from the Japanese 電話 denwa; see below for more Japanese loans). Other examples include 电视/電視 diànshì (lit. "electric vision") for television, 电脑/電腦 diànnǎo (lit. "electric brain") for computer; 手机/手機 shǒujī (lit. "hand machine") for mobile phone, 蓝牙/藍牙 lányá (lit. "blue tooth") for Bluetooth, and 网志/網誌 wǎngzhì (lit. "internet logbook") for blog in Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 汉堡包/漢堡包 hànbǎobāo (漢堡 hànbǎo "Hamburg" + 包 bāo "bun") for "hamburger". Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as 马利奥/馬利奧 Mǎlì'ào for the video game character Mario. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔腾/奔騰 bēnténg (lit. "dashing-leaping") for Pentium and 赛百味/賽百味 Sàibǎiwèi (lit. "better-than hundred tastes") for Subway restaurants. Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes 以色列 Yǐsèliè, "Paris" becomes 巴黎 Bālí. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙发/沙發 shāfā "sofa", 马达/馬達 mǎdá "motor", 幽默 yōumò "humor", 逻辑/邏輯 luóji/luójí "logic", 时髦/時髦 shímáo "smart, fashionable", and 歇斯底里 xiēsīdǐlǐ "hysterics". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghai dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, 沙发/沙發 "sofa" and 马达/馬達 "motor" in Shanghainese sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 梳化 so1 faa3*2 "sofa" and 摩打 mo1 daa2 "motor". Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French came 芭蕾 bālěi "ballet" and 香槟/香檳 xiāngbīn, "champagne"; from Italian, 咖啡 kāfēi "caffè". English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed, such as 高尔夫/高爾夫 gāoěrfū "golf" and the above-mentioned 沙发/沙發 shāfā "sofa". Later, the United States soft influences gave rise to 迪斯科 dísikē/dísīkē "disco", 可乐/可樂 kělè "cola", and 迷你 mínǐ "mini [skirt]". Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 卡通 kaa1 tung1 "cartoon", 基佬 gei1 lou2 "gay people", 的士 dik1 si6*2 "taxi", and 巴士 baa1 si6*2 "bus". With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 粉丝/粉絲 fěnsī "fans", 黑客 hēikè "hacker" (lit. "black guest"), and 博客 bókè "blog". In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 駭客 hàikè for "hacker" and 部落格 bùluògé for "blog" (lit. "interconnected tribes"). Another result of the English influence on Chinese is the appearance in Modern Chinese texts of so-called 字母词/字母詞 zìmǔcí (lit. "lettered words") spelled with letters from the English alphabet. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, on web sites, and on TV: 三G手机/三G手機 "3rd generation cell phones" (三 sān "three" + G "generation" + 手机/手機 shǒujī "mobile phones"), IT界 "IT circles" (IT "information technology" + 界 jiè "industry"), HSK (Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì, 汉语水平考试/漢語水平考試), GB (Guóbiāo, 国标/國標), CIF价/CIF價 (CIF "Cost, Insurance, Freight" + 价/價 jià "price"), e家庭 "e-home" (e "electronic" + 家庭 jiātíng "home"), Chinese: W时代/Chinese: W時代 "wireless era" (W "wireless" + 时代/時代 shídài "era"), TV族 "TV watchers" (TV "television" + 族 zú "social group; clan"), 后РС时代/後PC時代 "post-PC era" (后/後 hòu "after/post-" + PC "personal computer" + 时代/時代), and so on. Since the 20th century, another source of words has been Japanese using existing kanji (Chinese characters used in Japanese). Japanese re-molded European concepts and inventions into wasei-kango (和製漢語, lit. "Japanese-made Chinese"), and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, jīngjì (经济/經濟; 経済 keizai in Japanese), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages. Writing system[edit] "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion" by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive style Main articles: Written Chinese, Mainland Chinese Braille, and Taiwanese Braille The Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century.[77] Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character 一 ("one") is uttered yī in Standard Chinese, yat1 in Cantonese and it in Hokkien (form of Min). Most written Chinese documents in the modern time, especially the more formal ones, are created using the grammar and syntax of the Standard Mandarin Chinese variants, regardless of dialectical background of the author or targeted audience. This replaced the old writing language standard of Literary Chinese before the 20th century.[78] However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese.[79] Meanwhile, colloquial forms of various Chinese language variants have also been written down by their users, especially in less formal settings. The most prominent example of this is the written colloquial form of Cantonese, which has become quite popular in tabloids, instant messaging applications, and on the internet amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere.[80] Because some Chinese variants have diverged and developed a number of unique morphemes that are not found in Standard Mandarin (despite all other common morphemes), unique characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standard to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like 冇 and 係 for Cantonese and Hakka, are actively used in both languages while being considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system for most of its speakers until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era.[81] In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nü Shu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic, and was previously written in the Arabic script. The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; some of the related Hui people also speak the language and live mainly in China. Chinese characters[edit] 永 (meaning "forever") is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters. Main article: Chinese characters Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as rén 人 (human), rì 日 (sun), shān 山 (mountain; hill), shuǐ 水 (water). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as chōng 沖 (pour), combining a phonetic component zhōng 中 (middle) with a semantic radical 氵 (water). Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary recognized 214 radicals. Modern characters are styled after the regular script. Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script. Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art. There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau and Chinese speaking communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside mainland China, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, introduced by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common cursive shorthand variants. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading these alternative systems, be it traditional or simplified. Most Chinese users in the modern era are capable of, although not necessarily comfortable with, reading (but not writing) the alternative system, through experience and guesswork.[82] A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School-children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000.[83] A large unabridged dictionary, like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used. Romanization[edit] Main article: Romanization of Chinese "National language" (國語/国语; Guóyǔ) written in Traditional and Simplified Chinese characters, followed by various romanizations. Romanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is Hanyu Pinyin, often known simply as pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the Pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels, i.e. it is an Anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until 2009 was widely used in Taiwan. When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai²-pei³ (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which really are none, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade–Giles, for comparison: Mandarin Romanization Comparison Characters Wade–Giles Pinyin Meaning/Notes 中国/中國 Chung¹-kuo² Zhōngguó China 台湾/台灣 T'ai²-wan¹ Táiwān Taiwan 北京 Pei³-ching¹ Běijīng Beijing 台北/臺北 T'ai²-pei³ Táiběi Taipei 孫文 Sun¹-wên² Sūn Wén Sun Yat-sen 毛泽东/毛澤東 Mao² Tse²-tung¹ Máo Zédōng Mao Zedong, Former Communist Chinese leader 蒋介石/蔣介石 Chiang³ Chieh⁴-shih² Jiǎng Jièshí Former Nationalist Chinese leader (better known to English speakers as Chiang Kai-shek, with Cantonese pronunciation) 孔子 K'ung³ Tsu³ Kǒngzǐ Confucius Other systems of romanization for Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other Chinese varieties. Other phonetic transcriptions[edit] Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. Zhuyin (colloquially bopomofo), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. Although zhuyin characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles: Pinyin table Zhuyin table There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. As a foreign language[edit] Main article: Chinese as a foreign language Yang Lingfu, former curator of the National Museum of China, giving Chinese language instruction at the Civil Affairs Staging Area in 1945. With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Mandarin instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.[84] Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.[85] In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (also known as HSK, comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005, the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660.[86] See also[edit] Chinese exclamative particles Chinese honorifics Chinese numerals Chinese punctuation Classical Chinese grammar Four-character idiom Han unification Languages of China North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics Protection of the Varieties of Chinese Notes[edit] ^ de facto: While no specific variety of Chinese is official in Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese is the predominent spoken form and the de facto regional standard, written in traditional Chinese characters. Standard Mandarin and simplified Chinese characters are only occasionally used in some official and educational settings. The HK SAR Government promotes 兩文三語 [Bi-literacy (Chinese, English) and Tri-lingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, English)], while the Macau SAR Government promotes 三文四語 [Tri-literacy (Chinese, Portuguese, English) and Quad-lingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, Portuguese, English)], especially in public education. ^ lit. "Han language" ^ lit. "Chinese writing" ^ Various examples include: David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages." Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family." Norman (1988), p. 1. "[...] the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages [...]" DeFrancis (1984), p. 56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China." Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by Fu Maoji in the Encyclopedia of China: “汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。” ("In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family.")[4] ^ a b DeFrancis (1984), p. 42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English. ^ A distinction is made between 他 as 'he' and 她 as 'she' in writing, but this is a 20th-century introduction, and both characters are pronounced in exactly the same way. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica s.v. "Chinese languages": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer."; Jan Ulenbrook, Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), p. 3. ^ china-language.gov.cn Archived 2015-12-18 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese) ^ "Summary by language size". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 March 2021. ^ Mair (1991), pp. 10, 21. ^ a b Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), pp. 3, 125. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 12–13. ^ Handel (2008), pp. 422, 434–436. ^ Handel (2008), p. 426. ^ Handel (2008), p. 431. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 183–185. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 1. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 2–3. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 42–45. ^ Baxter (1992), p. 177. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 181–183. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 12. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 14–15. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 125. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 34–42. ^ Norman (1988), p. 24. ^ Norman (1988), p. 48. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 48–49. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 49–51. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 133, 247. ^ Norman (1988), p. 136. ^ Coblin (2000), pp. 549–550. ^ Coblin (2000), pp. 540–541. ^ Ramsey (1987), pp. 3–15. ^ Norman (1988), p. 133. ^ Zhang & Yang (2004). ^ Sohn & Lee (2003), p. 23. ^ Miller (1967), pp. 29–30. ^ Kornicki (2011), pp. 75–77. ^ Kornicki (2011), p. 67. ^ Miyake (2004), pp. 98–99. ^ Shibatani (1990), pp. 120–121. ^ Sohn (2001), p. 89. ^ Shibatani (1990), p. 146. ^ Wilkinson (2000), p. 43. ^ Shibatani (1990), p. 143. ^ a b Wurm et al. (1987). ^ a b c Norman (2003), p. 72. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 189–190. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 23. ^ Norman (1988), p. 188. ^ Norman (1988), p. 191. ^ Ramsey (1987), p. 98. ^ Norman (1988), p. 181. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 53–55. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 55–56. ^ Kurpaska (2010), pp. 72–73. ^ Klöter, Henning (2004). "Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras". China Perspectives. 56. ISSN 1996-4617. Retrieved 30 May 2015. ^ Kuo, Yun-Hsuan (2005). New dialect formation : the case of Taiwanese Mandarin (PhD). University of Essex. Retrieved 26 June 2015. ^ a b DeFrancis (1984), p. 57. ^ Thomason (1988), pp. 27–28. ^ Mair (1991), p. 17. ^ DeFrancis (1984), p. 54. ^ Romaine (2000), pp. 13, 23. ^ Wardaugh & Fuller (2014), pp. 28–32. ^ Liang (2014), pp. 11–14. ^ Hymes (1971), p. 64. ^ Thomason (1988), p. 27. ^ Campbell (2008), p. 637. ^ DeFrancis (1984), pp. 55–57. ^ Haugen (1966), p. 927. ^ Bailey (1973:11), cited in Groves (2008:1) ^ Mair (1991), p. 7. ^ Hudson (1996), p. 22. ^ Baxter (1992), p. 7–8. ^ Norman (1988), p. 52. ^ Matthews & Yip (1994), pp. 20–22. ^ Terrell, Peter, ed. (2005). Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary. Berlin and Munich: Langenscheidt KG. 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Retrieved 28 April 2010. ^ Wakefield, John C., Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning (Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics), Routledge, New York City, 2019., p.45 ^ (in Chinese) "汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万",Gov.cn Xinhua News Agency, 16 January 2006. Sources[edit] Bailey, Charles-James N. (1973), Variation and Linguistic Theory, Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1. Campbell, Lyle (2008), "[Untitled review of Ethnologue, 15th edition]", Language, 84 (3): 636–641, doi:10.1353/lan.0.0054, S2CID 143663395. Chappell, Hilary (2008), "Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages", Linguistic Typology, 12 (1): 45–98, doi:10.1515/lity.2008.032. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 [Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume], Beijing: The Commercial Press, ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6. Coblin, W. South (2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4): 537–552, doi:10.2307/606615, JSTOR 606615. DeFrancis, John (1984), The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1068-9. Handel, Zev (2008), "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux", Language and Linguistics Compass, 2 (3): 422–441, doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x. Haugen, Einar (1966), "Dialect, Language, Nation", American Anthropologist, 68 (4): 922–935, doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040, JSTOR 670407. Hudson, R. A. (1996), Sociolinguistics (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-56514-1. Hymes, Dell (1971), "Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking", in Ardener, Edwin (ed.), Social Anthropology and Language, Routledge, pp. 47–92, ISBN 978-1-136-53941-1. Groves, Julie (2008), "Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers (179) Kane, Daniel (2006), The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3853-5. Kornicki, P.F. (2011), "A transnational approach to East Asian book history", in Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.), New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History, Worldview Publications, pp. 65–79, ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3. Kurpaska, Maria (2010), Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects", Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2. Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Liang, Sihua (2014), Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography, Springer International Publishing, ISBN 978-3-319-12619-7. Mair, Victor H. (1991), "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 29: 1–31, archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2018, retrieved 12 January 2009. Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (1994), Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-08945-6. Miller, Roy Andrew (1967), The Japanese Language, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-52717-8. Miyake, Marc Hideo (2004), Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction, RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 978-0-415-30575-4. Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. Norman, Jerry (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, Routledge, pp. 72–83, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), The Languages of China, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. Romaine, Suzanne (2000), Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875133-5. Schuessler, Axel (2007), ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990), The Languages of Japan, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36918-3. Sohn, Ho-Min (2001), The Korean Language, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36943-5. Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003), "Language, forms, prosody, and themes", in Lee, Peter H. (ed.), A History of Korean Literature, Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–51, ISBN 978-0-521-82858-1. Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988), "Languages of the World", in Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.), International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, Westport, CT: Greenwood, pp. 17–45, ISBN 978-0-313-24484-1. Van Herk, Gerard (2012), What is Sociolinguistics?, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-9319-1. Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-73229-8. Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese History: A Manual (2nd ed.), Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4. Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), Language Atlas of China, Longman, ISBN 978-962-359-085-3. Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), "Putonghua education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), Language policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and practice since 1949, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. Further reading[edit] Hannas, William C. (1997), Asia's Orthographic Dilemma, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0. Qiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese Writing, trans. Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. R. L. G. "Language borrowing Why so little Chinese in English?" The Economist. 6 June 2013. Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009), The Syntax of Chinese, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166935, ISBN 978-0-521-59958-0. External links[edit] Chinese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese languages. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Chinese language Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Chinese. 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en-wikipedia-org-1626	----	Vindobona - Wikipedia Vindobona From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Celtic settlement. For the asteroid, see 231 Vindobona. For the train, see Vindobona (train). For the modern city, see Vienna. Map of Vindobona around 250 A.D. Vindobona (from Gaulish windo- "white" and bona "base/bottom") was a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Vienna in Austria. The settlement area took on a new name in the 13th century, being changed to Berghof, or now simply known as Alter Berghof (the Old Berghof).[1] Around 15 BC, the kingdom of Noricum was included in the Roman Empire. Henceforth, the Danube marked the border of the empire, and the Romans built fortifications and settlements on the banks of the Danube, including Vindobona with an estimated population of 15,000 to 20,000.[2][3] Contents 1 History 2 Evidence for the Roman presence in Vindobona 2.1 Archaeological remains 2.2 Evidence for the Roman military presence 2.3 Roman canals 2.4 Legacies in today's streets 3 Popular culture 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] Head of a genius found during excavations of Vindobona Silver plate, part of a larger find found around Kärntner Straße in 1945 Early references to Vindobona are made by the geographer Ptolemy in his Geographica and the historian Aurelius Victor, who recounts that emperor Marcus Aurelius died in Vindobona on 17 March 180 from an unknown illness while on a military campaign against invading Germanic tribes. Today, there is a Marc-Aurelstraße (English: Marcus Aurelius street) near the Hoher Markt in Vienna. It is possible that Vindobona as a legionary fortress was built around the year of 100, because from the archeological records there are no building inscriptions dating earlier than the year of 103.[4] Vindobona was part of the Roman province Pannonia, of which the regional administrative centre was Carnuntum. Vindobona was a military camp with an attached civilian city (Canabae). The military complex covered an area of some 20 hectares, housing about 6000 men where Vienna’s first district now stands. The Danube marked the border of the Roman Empire, and Vindobona was part of a defensive network including the camps of Carnuntum, Brigetio and Aquincum. By the time of Emperor Commodus, four legions (X Gemina, XIV Gemina Martia Victrix, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix) were stationed in Pannonia.[5] Vindobona was provisioned by the surrounding Roman country estates (Villae rusticae). A centre of trade with a developed infrastructure as well as agriculture and forestry developed around Vindobona. Civic communities developed outside the fortifications (canabae legionis), as well another community that was independent of the military authorities in today's third district.[citation needed] It has also been proven that a Germanic settlement with a large marketplace existed on the far side of the Danube from the second century onwards.[citation needed] The asymmetrical layout of the military camp, which was unusual for the otherwise standardised Roman encampments, is still recognisable in Vienna’s street plan: Graben, Naglergasse, Tiefer Graben, Salzgries, Rabensteig, Rotenturmstraße. The oblique camp border along today's street Salzgries was probably caused by a tremendous flood of the River Danube that occurred during the 3rd century and eroded a considerable part of the camp.[6] The name “Graben” (English: ditch) is believed to hark back to the defensive ditches of the military camp. It is thought that at least parts of the walls still stood in the Middle Ages, when these streets were laid out, and thus determined their routes. The Berghof was later erected in one corner of the camp. Rebuilt after Germanic invasions in the second century, the town remained a seat of Roman government through the third and fourth centuries.[7][8] The population fled after the Huns invaded Pannonia in the 430s and the settlement was abandoned for several centuries.[9][10] Evidence for the Roman presence in Vindobona[edit] Archaeological remains[edit] Remains of the Roman outpost at Michaelerplatz Roman stones from the thermae, at Sterngasse Remains of a hypocaust, found below Hoher Markt Remains of the Roman military camp have been found at many sites in the centre of Vienna. The centre of the Michaelerplatz has been widely investigated by archaeologists. Here, traces of a Roman legionary outpost (canabae legionis) and of a crossroad have been found.[11] The centrepiece of the current design of the square is a rectangular opening that evokes the archaeological excavations at the site and shows wall remains that have been preserved from different epochs. Part of a Roman canal system is underneath the fire station am Hof.[12] Directly under the Hoher Markt are the remains of two buildings unearthed during the canalisation works of 1948/49 and made accessible to the public. After further excavation, a showroom was opened in 1961. For this purpose some of the original walls had to be removed; white marks on the floor show the spots where.[citation needed] The buildings, which are separated from one another by a road, housed an officer and his family.[citation needed] In 2008 this Roman ruins exhibit was expanded into the Museum of the Romans.[13] Only a small portion can today be seen, for the majority of the remains are still located underneath the square and south of it. The remains of the walls date from different phases from the 1st to the 5th century AD. The houses were typical Roman villas, with living quarters and space for working set around a middle courtyard with columned halls.[14] Evidence for the Roman military presence[edit] Dedication stone with inscriptions mentioning the Legio XIII Gemina Over 3,000 stamped bricks, several stone monuments and written sources prove that several legions, cavalry units and marines were stationed in Vindobona. Around 97 AD, Legio XIII Gemina was responsible for construction of the legionary camps. Because of the wars in Dacia, they were pulled out and redeployed in 101 AD. A decade later, Legio XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix followed. Legio X Gemina from Aquincum arrived in 114 AD and remained in Vindobona until the 5th century.[citation needed] About 6,000 soldiers were stationed in the Roman camp.[citation needed] Many of them were free from active duty during peaceful times and had other jobs.[citation needed] These so-called immunes were needed for the supply of goods and for the production and maintenance of weapons and commodities. They also extracted stone from quarries and wood from forests, produced bricks, and maintained the streets, bridges and the water system. Administrating the camp and ensuring its security required additional manpower. Roman canals[edit] Manhole cover. Proper water supply and sanitation was vital for the functioning of the city The Romans provided their cities, including Vindobona, with clean potable water through an elaborate systems of Roman aqueducts, canals, and large subterranean pipes. Excavations have revealed that Vindobona received its supply through a 17 km long water pipeline.[citation needed] The source is in the Vienna Woods around today's Kalksburg. Wells, latrines and the thermae were supplied with water. Central buildings such as the commander's office and the hospital had their own supplies, as did the settlement outside the camp, where households had their own groundwater wells.[citation needed] Archaeological excavations done over the last 100 years have discovered the following Roman water supply fragment locations: In the Zemlinskygasse: at numbers 2-4 - (23rd district, found in 1924) In the Breitenfurter Straße: at number 422 - (23rd district, in 1959) In the Rudolf Zeller-Gasse/Anton-Krieger-Gasse - (23rd district, 1992) In Atzgersdorf - (23rd district, 1902–1907) In the Tullnertalgasse: at number 76 - (23rd district, 1973) In the Lainergasse: at number 1 - (23rd district, 1958) In the Wundtgasse - (12th district, 1951) In the Rosenhügelstraße: at number 88 - (12th district, 1926) In the Fasangartenstraße: at number 49 - (12th district, 1916) In the Pacassistraße - (13th district, 1928) In the Sechshauserstraße: at number 7 - (15th district, 1879 - leading towards the first district) Waste from the Roman camp was transported through an elaborate subterranean sewerage system that was planned from the beginning. The sewers were lined with brick walls and plates and ran beneath the main roads. Gradients were used in such a way that the waste water descended through the canals into the River Danube. Since the canals were up to two meters deep, they could be cleaned out regularly. Large waste was probably deposed at the slope of the river. In the civilian settlement, waste was deposed in former water wells and dumps.[citation needed] Legacies in today's streets[edit] The Cygnus-Relief was probably part of a larger public building Small bronze statuettes of gods The layout of a Roman camp (castra) was normally standardised. This has helped archaeologists to reconstruct what the camp must have looked like, despite the heavy rebuilding that has taken place in Vienna throughout the centuries. The basic contours of the camp, which was surrounded by a mighty wall with towers and three moats (today the Tiefer Graben, Naglergasse, Graben, and Rotenturmstraße) are identifiable. Along these axes, main roads connected the gates with one other. The main buildings were the commander's headquarters, the Palace of the Legate, the houses of the staff officers, and the thermae. At right angles to these, the soldiers' accommodation, a hospital, workshops, and mews (stables) were constructed.[citation needed] Popular culture[edit] In the American film Gladiator (2000), Maximus (Russell Crowe) fights in the battle of Vindobona under the order of Marcus Aurelius (Richard Harris).[15][16] There are also two lines that make reference to Vindobona. In one, the lead character's servant, Cicero, trying to get the attention of Lucilla, states, "I served your father at Vindobona!"[17] In the other, the lead character asks if anyone in his group of gladiators has served in the army, to which an anonymous fighter responds, "I served with you at Vindobona." The historical novel Votan by Welsh writer John James begins in "Vindabonum" and imagines 2nd century C.E. life there. See also[edit] List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire References[edit] ^ The Older Berghof in Vienna (German). Today, the site is more commonly associated with Hoher Markt and Wiener Neustädter Hof, a building in today's Sterngasse 3. Berghof was the name of the mansion, which had evolved from the initial settlement with the walls of the Roman baths. It was originally the only building in Vienna to be built by a certain pagan, presumably an Avaricum dignitary, eventually becoming a fortified town. The place is mentioned in Jans Enikel's "Fürstenbuch" (around 1270) (vide: Jeff Bernhard / Dieter Bietak: The Wiener Neustädter Hof alias Berghof - a probe into the Year Zero, Frankfurt am Main/Berlin/Bern 1997, p. 247). ^ Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (2011-12-22). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ Ziak, Karl (1964). "Unvergängliches Wien: Ein Gang durch die Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart". ^ Móscy, András (1974). Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-315-79767-0. ^ Stephen Dando-Collins (2012). Legions of Rome: The definitive history of every Roman legion. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 9781849167918. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. '...at the start of AD 193...On 13 April, the legions of Pannonia - the 10th Gemina and 14th Gemina Martia Victrix in his own province, and the 1st and 2nd Adiutrix legions from neighbouring Lower Pannonia...' ^ Reconstruction of the ancient relief of downtown Vienna (in German) ^ Southern Germany and Austria, Including the Eastern Alps: Handbook for Travellers. Karl Baedeker. 1873. p. 177. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'By the end of the third century Vindobona had become a municipal town, and being the seat of the Roman civil and military government, continued to flourish until the invasion of the Huns in the 5th century.' ^ J. Sydney Jones (2014). Viennawalks: Four Intimate Walking Tours of Vienna's Most Historic and Enchanting Neighborhoods. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 9781466865907. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'Vindobona was destroyed suring the Germanic invasions of the latter part of the second century and was rebuilt after those invasions were finally repelled, but the Roman era had had its peak....by 180...Roman order was restored to Pannonia. But it was a tenuous order, holding doggedly on for another two centuries until the final withdrawal of the Roman troops and destruction of Vindobona in the early fifth century.' ^ Southern Germany and Austria, Including the Eastern Alps: Handbook for Travellers. Karl Baedeker. 1873. p. 177. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 'Vindobona ... continued to flourish until the invasion of the Huns in the 5th century. From that date the Roman Vindobona disappears from the history until the year 791.' ^ Rob Collins, Matt Symonds, Meike Weber (2015). Roman Military Architecture on the Frontiers: Armies and Their Architecture in Late Antiquity. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781782979913. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019. '...Consequently, Vindobona became increasingly depopulated over the course of the first half of the 5th century. The present state of research indicated that the definite end of the settlement within the old fortress occurred during the 430s AD, when the Huns finally seized control of the province of Pannonia...The intramural area of Vindobona has provided no evidence of settlement activity from the mid 5th century through until at least the 9th century.'CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Wien Museum | Archäologisches Grabungsfeld Michaelerplatz(in German) ^ Wien Museum | Römische Baureste Am Hof, Vienna Museum (in German) ^ "Die Römer kommen nach Wien", ORF 10 May 2008 (in German) ^ Wien Museum | Römische Ruinen Hoher Markt(in German) ^ Villapalos Salas, Gustavo; San Miguel Pérez, Enrique (September 1, 2014). Lecciones de Historia del Derecho Español. Editorial Universitaria Ramon Areces. p. 38. ISBN 9788499611785. ^ Gilliland, Charles (November 14, 2016). The Gospel of Matthew Through the Eyes of a Cop: A Devotional for Law Enforcement Officers. WestBow Press. p. 162. ISBN 9781490898377. ^ Cyrino, Monica Silveira (February 9, 2009). Big Screen Rome. John Wiley & Sons. p. 209. ISBN 9781405150323. Further reading[edit] Michaela Kronberger: Siedlungschronologische Forschungen zu den canabae legionis von Vindobona. Die Gräberfelder (Monographien der Stadtarchäologie Wien Band 1). Phoibos Verlag, Wien 2005. (in German) Christine Ranseder e.a., Michaelerplatz. Die archäologischen Ausgrabungen. Wien Archäologisch 1, Wien 2006. ISBN 3-901232-72-9. (in German) Vindobona. Die Reise in das antike Wien. DVD-Rom, 2004. (in German) Vindobona II. Wassertechnik des antiken Wiens. DVD-Rom, 2005. (in German) External links[edit] Media related to Vindobona at Wikimedia Commons Wien Museum | Ausgrabungsstätten (in German) Forschungsgesellschaft Wiener Stadtarchäologie | Legionslager Vindobona (in German) Animationsfilme zu vindobona (in German) Seite mit sehenswerter Rekonstruktion des Lagertores (in German) Livius.org: Vindobona (Vienna) Austrian Mint Coin Features Vindobona Bursche, A., L. Pitts, P. Kaczanowski, E. Krekovič, R. Madyda‑Legutko, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 128537 (Vindobona)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Coordinates: 48°12′39″N 16°22′13″E / 48.21083°N 16.37028°E / 48.21083; 16.37028 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vindobona&oldid=1015421250" Categories: History of Vienna Roman towns and cities in Austria Roman aqueducts outside Rome Innere Stadt Celtic towns Celtic toponyms Populated places in Pannonia Roman fortified camps in Austria Roman fortifications in Pannonia Superior Hidden categories: Articles with German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 Commons category link from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Aragonés Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 April 2021, at 11:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1628	----	Quindecimviri sacris faciundis - Wikipedia Quindecimviri sacris faciundis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e In ancient Rome, the quindecimviri sacris faciundis were the fifteen (quindecim) members of a college (collegium) with priestly duties. They guarded the Sibylline Books, scriptures which they consulted and interpreted at the request of the Senate. This collegium also oversaw the worship of any foreign gods which were introduced to Rome. Originally these duties had been performed by duumviri (or duoviri), two men of patrician status. Their number was increased to ten by the Licinian-Sextian Law in 367 BC, which also required for half of the priests to be plebeian. During the Middle Republic, members of the college were admitted through co-option. At some point in the third century BC, several priesthoods, probably including the quindecimviri, began to be elected through the voting tribes.[1] References[edit] ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 183–184 online. External links[edit] Decemviri Sacris Faciundis in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities at LacusCurtius This Ancient Rome–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quindecimviri_sacris_faciundis&oldid=1010650745" Categories: Ancient Rome stubs Ancient Roman religious titles Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Latina Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 March 2021, at 16:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1651	----	Antonine Plague - Wikipedia Antonine Plague From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Disease outbreak (165–180 CE) Antonine Plague The angel of death striking a door during the plague of Rome: an engraving by Levasseur after Jules-Elie Delaunay Disease possibly Measles or smallpox First reported Seleucia The Antonine Plague of 165 to 180 AD, also known as the Plague of Galen (after Galen, the physician who described it), was an ancient pandemic brought to the Roman Empire by troops who were returning from campaigns in the Near East. Scholars have suspected it to have been either smallpox[1] or measles.[2][3] The plague may have claimed the life of a Roman emperor, Lucius Verus, who died in 169 and was the co-regent of Marcus Aurelius. The two emperors had risen to the throne by virtue of being adopted by the previous emperor, Antoninus Pius, and as a result, their family name, Antoninus, has become associated with the pandemic. Ancient sources agree that the plague appeared first during the Roman siege of the Mesopotamian city Seleucia in the winter of 165–166.[4] Ammianus Marcellinus reported that the plague spread to Gaul and to the legions along the Rhine. Eutropius stated that a large proportion of the empire's population died from this outbreak.[5] According to the contemporary Roman historian Cassius Dio, the disease broke out again nine years later in 189 AD and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day in Rome, one quarter of those who were affected.[6] The total death count has been estimated at 5–10 million,[7][8] and the disease killed as much as one third of the population in some areas and devastated the Roman army.[9] Contents 1 Epidemiology 2 Impact 2.1 Arts 3 Military concerns 4 Indian Ocean trade and Han China 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Epidemiology[edit] A group of physicians in an image from the Vienna Dioscurides, named after the physician Galen shown at the top centre. In 166, during the epidemic, the Greek physician and writer Galen travelled from Rome to his home in Asia Minor and returned to Rome in 168, when he was summoned by the two Augusti, the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He was present at the outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia in the winter of 168/69. Galen briefly recorded observations and a description of the epidemic in the treatise Methodus Medendi ("Method of Treatment"), and he scattered other references to it among his voluminous writings. He described the plague as "great" and of long duration, and mentioned fever, diarrhea, and pharyngitis as well as a skin eruption, sometimes dry and sometimes pustular, that appeared on the ninth day of the illness. The information that was provided by Galen does not unambiguously identify the nature of the disease, but scholars have generally preferred to diagnose it as smallpox.[10] The historian William H. McNeill[11] asserts that the Antonine Plague and the later Plague of Cyprian (251–c. 270) were outbreaks of two different diseases, one of smallpox and one of measles but not necessarily in that order. The severe devastation to the European population from the two plagues may indicate that people had no previous exposure to either disease, which brought immunity to survivors. Other historians believe that both outbreaks involved smallpox.[12] The latter view is bolstered by molecular estimates that place the evolution of measles sometime after 1000 AD.[13] Impact[edit] Arts[edit] In their consternation, many turned to the protection offered by magic. Lucian of Samosata's irony-laden account of the charlatan Alexander of Abonoteichus records a verse of his "which he despatched to all the nations during the pestilence... was to be seen written over doorways everywhere", particularly in the houses that were emptied, Lucian further remarks.[14] The epidemic had drastic social and political effects throughout the Roman Empire. Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831) concluded that "as the reign of Marcus Aurelius forms a turning point in so many things, and above all in literature and art, I have no doubt that this crisis was brought about by that plague.... The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted on it by the plague which visited it in the reign of Marcus Aurelius."[15] During the Marcomannic Wars, Marcus Aurelius wrote his philosophical work Meditations. A passage (IX.2) states that even the pestilence around him was less deadly than falsehood, evil behaviour and lack of true understanding. As he lay dying, he uttered the words, "Weep not for me; think rather of the pestilence and the deaths of so many others." Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) and Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) assigned the Antonine plague less influence than contemporary political and economic trends.[citation needed] Military concerns[edit] A Roman coin commemorating the victories of Marcus Aurelius in the Marcomannic Wars against the Germanic tribes along the Danube frontier in the early 170s AD Some direct effects of the contagion stand out. When imperial forces moved east, under the command of Emperor Verus, after the forces of Vologases IV of Parthia attacked Armenia, the Romans' defense of the eastern territories was hampered when large numbers of troops succumbed to the disease. According to the 5th-century Spanish writer Paulus Orosius, many towns and villages in the Italian Peninsula and the European provinces lost all of their inhabitants. As the disease swept north to the Rhine, it also infected Germanic and Gallic peoples outside the empire's borders. For years, those northern groups had pressed south in search of more lands to sustain their growing populations. With their ranks thinned by the epidemic, Roman armies were now unable to push the tribes back. From 167 to his death, Marcus Aurelius personally commanded legions near the Danube, trying, with only partial success, to control the advance of Germanic peoples across the river. A major offensive against the Marcomanni was postponed to 169 because of a shortage of imperial troops.[citation needed] Indian Ocean trade and Han China[edit] Although Ge Hong was the first writer of traditional Chinese medicine who accurately described the symptoms of smallpox, the historian Rafe de Crespigny mused that the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han Empire during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189) – with outbreaks in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 – were perhaps connected to the Antonine plague on the western end of Eurasia.[16] De Crespigny suggests that the plagues led to the rise of the cult faith healing millenarian movement led by Zhang Jue (d. 184), who instigated the disastrous Yellow Turban Rebellion (184–205).[17] He also stated that "it may be only chance" that the outbreak of the Antonine plague in 166 coincides with the Roman embassy of "Daqin" (the Roman Empire) landing in Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) and visiting the Han court of Emperor Huan, claiming to represent "Andun" (安敦; a transliteration of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus or his predecessor Antoninus Pius).[18][19][20] Raoul McLaughlin wrote that the Roman subjects visiting the Han Chinese court in 166 could have ushered in a new era of Roman Far East trade, but it was a "harbinger of something much more ominous" instead.[21] McLaughlin surmised that the origins of the plague lay in Central Asia, from some unknown and isolated population group, which then spread to the Chinese and the Roman worlds.[21] The plague would kill roughly 10% of the Roman population, as cited by McLaughlin, causing "irreparable" damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[22] However, as evidenced by the 3rd-century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and the 6th-century Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes, Roman maritime trade into the Indian Ocean, particularly in the silk and spice trades, certainly did not cease but continued until the loss of Egypt to the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate.[23][24] Chinese histories also insist that further Roman embassies came to China by way of Rinan in Vietnam in 226 and 284 AD, where Roman artifacts have been found.[25][26][27] See also[edit] Plague of Cyprian List of epidemics Notes[edit] ^ H. Haeser's conclusion, in Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin und der epidemischen Krankenheiten III:24–33 (1882), followed by Zinsser in 1935. ^ "There is not enough evidence satisfactorily to identify the disease or diseases", concluded J. F. Gilliam in his summary (1961) of the written sources, with inconclusive Greek and Latin inscriptions, two groups of papyri and coinage. ^ The most recent scientific data have eliminated that possibility. See Furuse, Y.; Suzuki, A.; Oshitani, H. (2010). "Origin of the Measles Virus: Divergence from Rinderpest Virus Between the 11th and 12th Centuries". Virology. 7: 52–55. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-52. PMC 2838858. PMID 20202190. ^ Sicker, Martin (2000). "The Struggle over the Euphrates Frontier". The Pre-Islamic Middle East. Greenwood. p. 169. ISBN 0-275-96890-1. ^ Eutropius XXXI, 6.24. ^ Dio Cassius, LXXII 14.3–4; his book that would cover the plague under Marcus Aurelius is missing; the later outburst was the greatest of which the historian had knowledge. ^ "Reactions to Plague in the Ancient & Medieval World". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-02-06. ^ "Past pandemics that ravaged Europe". BBC News. November 7, 2005. ^ Smith, Christine A. (1996). "Plague in the Ancient World". The Student Historical Journal. ^ See McLynn, Frank, Marcus Aurelius, Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, Vintage Books, London, 2009.[page needed] ^ McNeill, W.H. 1976 Plagues and Peoples. New York Anchor Press. ISBN 0-385-11256-4[page needed] ^ D. Ch. Stathakopoulos Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire (2007) 95 ^ Furuse Y, Suzuki A, Oshitani H (2010), "Origin of measles virus: divergence from rinderpest virus between the 11th and 12th centuries.", Virol. J., 7 (52): 52, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-52, PMC 2838858, PMID 20202190, S2CID 709881 ^ Lucian, Alexander, 36. ^ Niebuhr, Lectures on the history of Rome III, Lecture CXXXI (London 1849), quoted by Gilliam 1961:225 ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 514, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 514–515, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ See also Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1999). "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (1): 71–79. doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. ^ See also: Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1, p. 27. ^ a b Raoul McLaughlin (2010), Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China, London & New York: Continuum, ISBN 978-1847252357, p. 59. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2010), Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China, London & New York: Continuum, ISBN 978-1847252357, pp. 59–60. ^ Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society, p. 25. Accessed 21 September 2016. ^ William H. Schoff (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). "'The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century' in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea". Depts.washington.edu. University of Washington. Retrieved 2016-09-21. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, pp. 152–153. ^ Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society, pp. 53–54. Accessed 21 September 2016. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. References[edit] Bruun, Christer, "The Antonine Plague and the 'Third-Century Crisis'," in Olivier Hekster, Gerda de Kleijn, Danielle Slootjes (ed.), Crises and the Roman Empire: Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire, Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2007 (Impact of Empire, 7), 201–218. Gilliam, J. F. "The Plague under Marcus Aurelius". American Journal of Philology 82.3 (July 1961), pp. 225–251. Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Littman, R.J. and Littman, M.L. "Galen and the Antonine Plague". American Journal of Philology, Vol. 94, No. 3 (Autumn, 1973), pp. 243–255. Marcus Aurelius. Meditations IX.2. Translation and Introduction by Maxwell Staniforth, Penguin, New York, 1981. McNeill, William H. Plagues and Peoples. Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc., New York, 1976. ISBN 0-385-12122-9. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119, (1999), pp. 71–79 de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 514–515, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. Zinsser, Hans. Rats, Lice and History: A Chronicle of Disease, Plagues, and Pestilence (1935). Reprinted by Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. in 1996. ISBN 1-884822-47-9. v t e Pandemics, epidemics and notable disease outbreaks List of epidemics Local Ancient Hittite plague (c. 1320–1300 BC) Plague of Athens (429–426 BC) Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) Plague of Cyprian (250–266) Post-classical First plague pandemic (541–767) Plague of Justinian (541–542) Roman Plague (590) Plague of Sheroe (627–628) Plague of Amwas (638–639) Plague of 664 (664–689) Japanese smallpox (735–737) Black Death (1346–1353) Sweating sickness (1485–1551) Early modern 16th century Influenza pandemic (1510) Mexican smallpox (1520) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) London plague (1563–1564) Maltese plague (1592–1593) London plague (1592–1593) Atlantic plague (1596–1602) 17th century Maltese plague (1623) Italian plague (1629–1631) Massachusetts smallpox (1633) Great Plague in late Ming Dynasty (1633–1644) Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) Maltese plague (1655) Naples Plague (1656) Great Plague of London (1665–1666) Maltese plague (1675–1676) Great Plague of Vienna (1679) 18th century Great Northern War plague (1710–1712) Great Plague of Marseille (1720–1722) Great Plague of 1738 (1738) Russian plague (1770–1772) Persian Plague (1772) North American smallpox (1780–1782) Philadelphia yellow fever (1793–1798) Modern 19th century Ottoman plague (1812–1819) Maltese plague (1813–1814) Caragea's plague (1813) Groningen epidemic (1829) Great Plains smallpox (1837–1838) Typhus (1847–1848) Copenhagen cholera (1853) Stockholm cholera (1853) Broad Street cholera (1854) Guam smallpox (1856) Pacific Northwest smallpox (1862–1863) Barcelona yellow fever (1870) Buenos Aires yellow fever (1871) 20th century San Francisco plague (1900–1904) Manchurian plague (1910–1911) LA pneumonic plague (1924) Croydon typhoid (1937) NYC smallpox (1947) Yugoslav smallpox (1972) London flu (1972–1973) Indian smallpox (1974) Surat plague (1994) Malaysian Nipah virus (1998–1999) 21st century SARS (2002–2004) Bird flu (2003–2005) Singaporean dengue (2005) Indian dengue (2006) Chikungunya outbreaks (2006) Pakistani dengue (2006) Iraqi cholera (2007) Zimbabwean cholera (2008–2009) Madagascar plague (2008–2017) Bolivian dengue (2009) Gujarat hepatitis (2009) Western African meningitis (2009–2010) Haiti cholera (2010–2019) Pakistani dengue (2011) Darfur yellow fever (2012) MERS (2012–present) Swansea measles (2013) Chikungunya (2013–2014) Western African Ebola (2013–2016) DR Congo Ebola (2014) Madagascar plague (2014) Odisha jaundice (2014) Polio declaration (2014) Indian swine flu (2015) South Korean MERS (2015) Zika (2015–2016) Angolan yellow fever (2016) Yemeni cholera (2016–present) Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis (2017) Saudi Arabian MERS (2018) Kerala Nipah virus (2018) Équateur province Ebola (2018) Kivu Ebola (2018–2020) Madagascar measles (2018) Samoa measles (2019–present) Philippine measles (2019–present) Pacific NW measles (2019) New York measles (2019) Kuala Koh measles (2019) Tonga measles (2019) DRC measles (2019–2020) New Zealand measles (2019–2020) Global Second plague pandemic (1348–19th century) Influenza pandemic (1510) Influenza pandemic (1557–1559) First cholera pandemic (1816–1826) Second cholera pandemic (1829–1851) Third cholera pandemic (1852–1860) Third plague pandemic (1855–1960) Fourth cholera pandemic (1863–1879) Fifth cholera pandemic (1881–1896) Russian flu (1889–1890) Sixth cholera pandemic (1899–1923) Spanish flu (1918–1920) Asian flu (1957–1958) Seventh cholera pandemic (1961–1975) Hong Kong flu (1968–1970) Russian flu pandemic (1977–1979) HIV/AIDS (1981–present) Swine flu (2009–2010) COVID-19 (2019–present) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonine_Plague&oldid=1024095700" Categories: Pandemics Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ancient Roman medicine 2nd-century disasters Ancient health disasters Smallpox epidemics 160s 170s 160s in the Roman Empire 170s in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2017 Articles with short 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en-wikipedia-org-1662	----	List of Augustae - Wikipedia List of Augustae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Augusta (honorific)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Augusta (Classical Latin: [au̯ˈɡʊsta]; plural Augustae; Greek: αὐγούστα)[1] was a Roman imperial honorific title given to empresses and honoured women of the imperial families. It was the feminine form of Augustus. In the third century, Augustae could also receive the titles of Mater Senatus ("Mother of the Senate) and Mater Castrorum ("Mother of the Camp") and Mater Patriae ("Mother of the Fatherland"). The title implied the greatest prestige. Augustae could issue their own coinage, wear imperial regalia, and rule their own courts.[1] Wife of Claudius, Agrippina was the first wife of the emperor in Roman history to receive the throne of Augusta, a position she held for the rest of her life, ruling with her husband and son. In the third century, Julia Domna was the first empress to receive the title combination "Pia Felix Augusta" after the death of her husband Septimius Severus, which may have implied greater powers being vested in her than what was usual for a Roman empress mother and in this innumerable official position and honor, she accompanied his son on an extensive military campaign and provincial tour.[2] This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Contents 1 Principate period 1.1 Julio-Claudian dynasty 1.2 Flavian dynasty 1.3 Nerva–Antonine dynasty 1.4 Year of the Five Emperors 1.5 Severan dynasty 1.6 Crisis of the Third Century 2 Dominate period 2.1 Tetrarchy 2.2 Constantinian dynasty 2.3 Valentinianic dynasty 2.4 Theodosian dynasty 2.5 Leonid dynasty 3 Byzantine period 3.1 Justinian dynasty 3.2 Heraclian dynasty 3.3 Isaurian dynasty 3.4 Nikephorian dynasty 3.5 Amorian dynasty 3.6 Macedonian dynasty 3.7 Komnenid dynasty 3.8 Doukid dynasty 3.9 Komnenid dynasty 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources 6 External links Principate period[edit] Main article: Principate Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Livia Livia Drvsilla Ivlia Avgvsta 30 January 58 BC AD 14 Wife of Emperor Augustus. 28 September AD 29 Antonia Minor Antonia Minor 31 January 36 BC Athens AD 41 (posthumous) Mother of Emperor Claudius. AD 37 Rome Agrippina the Younger Ivlia Avgvsta Agrippina 7 November AD 15 Oppidum Ubiorum AD 50 Wife of Emperor Claudius 23 March AD 59 Misenum Poppaea Sabina Poppaea Avgvsta Sabina AD 30 Pompeii AD 63 Wife of Emperor Nero. AD 65 Rome Claudia Augusta Clavdia Avgvsta 21 January AD 63 Antium AD 63 Daughter of Emperor Nero. April AD 63 Flavian dynasty[edit] Main article: Flavian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Domitilla the Younger Flavia Domitilla Avgvsta 45 Before 80 Daughter of Emperor Vespasian. 66 Nerva–Antonine dynasty[edit] Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Pompeia Plotina Pompeia Plotina Clavdia Phoebe Piso 54–68 105 Wife of Emperor Trajan. 123 Ulpia Marciana Vlpia Marciana Avgvsta 48 105 Sister of Emperor Trajan. 112–114 Salonia Matidia Salonia Matidia Avgvsta 4 July 68 112 Niece of Emperor Trajan. 23 December 119 Vibia Sabina Vibia Sabina Avgvsta 13 August 83 128 Wife of Emperor Hadrian. 136–137 Faustina the Elder Annia Galeria Favstina Avgvsta Maior 21 September 100 138 Wife of Emperor Antoninus Pius. 140 Faustina the Younger Annia Galeria Favstina Avgvsta Minor 125–130 1 December 147[3] Daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius; wife of Emperor Marcus Aurelius; mother of Emperor Commodus. 175 Lucilla Annia Avrelia Galeria Lvcilla Avgvsta 148–150 164 Daughter of Emperor Marcus Aurelius and wife of Emperor Lucius Verus. 182 Bruttia Crispina Brvttia Crispina Avgvsta 164 Rome 177 Wife of Emperor Commodus. 191 Capri Year of the Five Emperors[edit] Main article: Year of the Five Emperors Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Manlia Scantilla Manlia Scantilla 193 Wife of Emperor Didius Julianus. 193 Didia Clara Didia Clara 153 Rome 193 Daughter of Emperor Didius Julianus. Unknown Severan dynasty[edit] Main article: Severan dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Julia Domna Ivlia Domna Avgvsta[4] Ivlia Avgvsta[4] Ivlia Pia Felix Avgvsta[4] c. 160 Wife of Emperor Septimius Severus. 217 Fulvia Plautilla Pvblia Fvlvia Plavtilla Avgvsta 185—189 210s Wife of Emperor Caracalla. 212 Julia Cornelia Paula Jvlia Cornelia Pavla 219 First wife of Emperor Elagabalus. Aquilia Severa Ivlia Aqvilia Severa Avgvsta 220 Second and fourth wife of Emperor Elagabalus. Julia Avita Mamaea Ivlia Avita Mamaea Avgvsta 180 222 Mother of Emperor Alexander Severus and co-regent, in his name, during his adolescence. 235 Sallustia Orbiana Seia Herennia Sallvstia Barbia Orbiana Avgvsta 225 Wife of Emperor Alexander Severus. Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Tranquillina Fvria Sabinia Tranqvillina Avgvsta c. 225 241 Wife of Emperor Gordian III. After 244 Marcia Otacilia Severa Marcia Otacilia Severa Avgvsta 240s Wife of the Emperor Philip the Arab. Herennia Etruscilla Annia Cvpressenia Herennia Etrvscilla Avgvsta September 249 240s Wife of Emperor Trajan Decius; mother of Emperor Herennius Etruscus and Emperor Hostilian. June 251 Mariniana Egnatia Mariniana Avgvsta 250s Wife of Emperor Valerian. Cornelia Supra Caia Cornelia Svpera Avgvsta 253 Wife of Aemilianus. Cornelia Salonina Ivlia Cornelia Salonina Avgvsta Unknown 253 Wife of Emperor Gallienus. 268 Sulpicia Dryantilla Svlpicia Dryantilla c. 260 Wife of usurper Emperor Regalianus, who named her avgvsta as part of legitimizing his claim. 260 Zenobia Ivlia Avrelia Zenobia 240 267 Queen of the Palmyrene Empire, a short lived splinter empire that revolted during the Crisis. She proclaimed herself avgvsta and annexed the Eastern Mediterranean from Rome. c. 275 Ulpia Severina Vlpia Severina Avgvsta 274 Wife of Emperor Aurelian; possibly reigned in her own right after the death of her husband in 275. Magnia Urbica Magnia Vrbica Avgvsta 283 Wife of Emperor Carus. Dominate period[edit] Main article: Dominate Tetrarchy[edit] Main article: Tetrarchy Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Galeria Valeria Galeria Valeria Avgvsta 308 Daughter of Emperor Diocletian and wife of Emperor Galerius. 315 Constantinian dynasty[edit] Main article: Constantinian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Fausta Flavia Maxima Fausta Avgvsta 289 324 Wife of Constantine I and daughter of Emperor Maximianus. Mother of: Constantina, Constantius II, Constans I, Helena, and Fausta. 326 Helena Flavia Ivlia Helena Avgvsta 246—250 c.324-325 Mother of Constantine I and ex-wife or mistress of Emperor Constantius Chlorus (separated before his accession as Caesar). 18 August 330 Constantina Avgvsta 307—317 After 312, before 337. Daughter of Emperor Constantine I. Wife of Hannibalianus, Rex Regum et Ponticarum Gentium, "King of Kings and of the Pontic People". Wife of Caesar Constantius Gallus. 354 Valentinianic dynasty[edit] Main article: Valentinianic dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Albia Dominica Albia Dominica Avgvsta c. 337 364—378 Wife of Emperor Valens. After 378 Galla Placidia Aelia Galla Placidia Avgvsta 392 c. 416 Daughter of Theodosius I, wife of Constantius III, regent for her son Valentinian III. 27 November 450 Justa Grata Honoria Ivsta Grata Honoria Avgvsta After 426 Sister of Valentinian III. Theodosian dynasty[edit] Main article: Theodosian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Aelia Flaccilla Aelia Flavia Flaccilla Avgvsta Before 385 Wife of Emperor Theodosius I. 386 Aelia Eudoxia Aelia Evdoxia Avgvsta 9 January 400 Wife of Emperor Arcadius. 6 October 404 Pulcheria Aelia Pvlcheria Avgvsta 19 January 398–399 414 Daughter of Arcadius, sister of Theodosius II, sole ruler for a month following the death of Theodosius, then co-ruler with her husband Marcian. July 453 Aelia Eudocia Aelia Evdocia Avgvsta 401 2 January 423 Wife of Theodosius II 20 October 460 Licinia Eudoxia Licinia Evdoxia Avgvsta 422 439 Daughter of Theodosius II, Wife of Valentinian III. 462 Leonid dynasty[edit] Main article: Leonid dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Marcia Euphemia Aelia Marcia Euphemia Avgvsta c. 453 Daughter of Marcian by an unknown woman. Wife of Anthemius. 472 Verina Aelia Verina Avgvsta 457 Wife of Leo I, sister of Basiliscus, mother of Ariadne and Leontia. 484 Ariadne Aelia Ariadne Avgvsta before 457 474 Daughter of Leo I. Wife of Zeno. Mother of Leo II. Wife of Anastasius I. 515 Zenonis Aelia Zenonis Avgvsta 475 Wife of Basiliscus. 476–477 Byzantine period[edit] Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire Justinian dynasty[edit] Main article: Justinian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Euphemia Εὐφημία, Euphemia Augusta 518 Wife of Justin I. Originally named Lupicina, renamed Euphemia on her husband's accession. c.523/4, before 527. Theodora Θεοδώρα, Theodora Augusta c. 500 9 August 527 Wife of Justinian I. 28 June 548 Sophia Σοφία, Aelia Sophia Augusta 568 Wife of Justin II, intermittent regent. c. 601 Ino Anastasia Ἰνὼ, Aelia Anastasia Augusta 578 Wife of Emperor Tiberius II. 593 Constantina Κωνσταντῖνα c. 560 582 Wife of Emperor Maurice. c. 605 Leontia Λεοντία 602 Wife of Emperor Phocas. Heraclian dynasty[edit] Main article: Heraclian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Augustina, Αὐγουστίνα 639 Daughter of Heraclius. Martina Μαρτίνα 639 Second wife of Heraclius. Fausta Φαύστα c. 630 642 Wife of Constans II. After 668 Isaurian dynasty[edit] Main article: Isaurian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Maria Μαρία 25 August 718 Wife of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian. Anna Ἄννα 741–742 Wife of Artabasdos. Eudokia Ευδοκια 1 April 769 Third wife of Emperor Constantine V. Irene of Athens Eἰρήνη η Ἀθηναία c. 752 17 December 769 Wife of Emperor Leo IV the Khazar, empress dowager and regent from 780 to 797. 9 August 803 Nikephorian dynasty[edit] Main article: Nikephorian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Prokopia Προκοπία c. 770 12 October 811 Daughter of Emperor Nikephoros I and wife of Michael I Rhangabe. After 813 Amorian dynasty[edit] Main article: Amorian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Theodora Θεοδώρα c. 815 830 Wife of Emperor Theophilos and regent. After 867 Thekla Θέκλα 830s Daughter of Theophilos. Anna Ἄννα 830s Daughter of Emperor Theophilos. Anastasia Ἀναστασία 830s Daughter of Emperor Theophilos. Macedonian dynasty[edit] Main article: Macedonian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Zoe Zaoutzaina Ζωή Ζαούτζαινα 898 Third wife of Leo VI the Wise May 899 Theodora Θεοδώρα 921 Wife of Romanos I. 20 February 922 Helena Lekapene Ἑλένη Λεκαπηνή c. 910 February 922 Wife of Constantine VII. 19 September 961 Sophia Σοφία February 922 Wife of Christopher Lekapenos. Anna Ἄννα 933 Daughter of Gabalas and wife of Stephen Lekapenos. Komnenid dynasty[edit] Main article: Komnenid dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Catherine of Bulgaria Αἰκατερίνη before 1018 1057 Empress-consort of Emperor Isaac I Komnenos. after 1059 Doukid dynasty[edit] Main article: Doukid dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Eudokia Makrembolitissa Ευδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα c. 1021 1059–1067 Second wife of Emperor Constantine X Doukas and later became the wife of Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes. 1096 Komnenid dynasty[edit] Main article: Komnenid dynasty Portrait Name Birth Date of naming Description Death Anna Dalassena Ἄννα Δαλασσηνή 1025 1081 Mother of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. 1102 See also[edit] List of Roman and Byzantine empresses Augustus (title) List of Christian women of the patristic age References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, pp. 694–695. ^ Langford 2013, Introduction, note 88; Bédoyère 2018, p. 282. ^ Barbara Levick (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. ^ a b c Société française de numismatique et d'archéologie 1873, p. 151. Sources[edit] Bédoyère, Guy de la (2018). Domina: The Women Who Made Imperial Rome. ISBN 9780300230307. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Langford, Julie (2013). Maternal Megalomania: Julia Domna and the Imperial Politics of Motherhood. ISBN 9781421408484. Société française de numismatique et d'archéologie (1873). Comptes rendus de la Société française de numismatique et d'archéologie (in French). IV. Paris. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Augustae. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Augustae&oldid=1015509434" Categories: Augustae Lists of Roman women Byzantine Empire-related lists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Incomplete lists from August 2011 CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 1 April 2021, at 21:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1665	----	Anastasius I Dicorus - Wikipedia Anastasius I Dicorus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in the East from 491 to 518 "Anastasios I" redirects here. For other uses, see Anastasios I (disambiguation). For other uses, see Anastasius I. Byzantine emperor Anastasius I Dicorus Solidus of Emperor Anastasius Byzantine emperor Reign 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 Predecessor Zeno Successor Justin I Born c. 431 Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania)[1] Died 9 July 518 (aged 87)[2] Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Ariadne Dynasty Leonid Anastasius I "Dicorus" (Greek: Ἀναστάσιος, Anastásios; c. 431 – 9 July 518) was a Byzantine emperor from 491 to 518. He made his career as a government administrator. He came to the throne at the age of 61 after being chosen by the wife of his predecessor, Zeno. His religious tendencies caused tensions throughout his reign. He is often recognized as the first Byzantine emperor.[3] His reign was characterised by improvements in the government, economy, and bureaucracy in the Eastern Roman empire.[4] He is noted for leaving the imperial government with a sizeable budget surplus of 23,000,000 solidi due to minimisation of government corruption, reforms to the tax code, and the introduction of a new form of currency.[5] He is venerated as a saint by the Syriac Orthodox Church on 29 July. Contents 1 Early life 2 Accession 3 Foreign policy and wars 4 Domestic and ecclesiastical policies 5 Successor 6 Family 7 Administrative reform and introduction of new coinage 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links Early life[edit] Anastasius was born at Dyrrachium; the date is unknown, but is thought to have been no later than 431. He was born into a Greek[6] or Illyrian family.[7] Anastasius had one eye black and one eye blue (heterochromia), and for that reason he was nicknamed Dicorus (Greek: Δίκορος, "two-pupiled").[8] Before becoming emperor, Anastasius was a particularly successful administrator in the department of finance.[9] Accession[edit] Following the death of Zeno (491), there is strong evidence that many Roman citizens wanted an emperor who was an Orthodox Christian. In the weeks following Zeno's death, crowds gathered in Constantinople chanting "Give the Empire an Orthodox Emperor!"[9] Under such pressure, Ariadne, Zeno's widow, turned to Anastasius. Anastasius was in his sixties at the time of his ascension to the throne. It is noteworthy that Ariadne chose Anastasius over Zeno's brother Longinus,[5] who was arguably the more logical choice; this upset the Isaurians. It was also not appreciated by the circus factions, the Blues and the Greens. These groups combined aspects of street gangs and political parties and had been patronised by Longinus. The Blues and Greens subsequently repeatedly rioted, causing serious loss of life and damage.[5] Religiously, Anastasius' sympathies were with the Monophysites.[5] Consequently, as a condition of his rule, the Patriarch of Constantinople required that he pledge not to repudiate the Council of Chalcedon.[10] Ariadne married Anastasius on 20 May 491, shortly after his accession. He gained popular favour by a judicious remission of taxation, in particular by abolishing the hated tax on receipts which was mostly paid by the poor. He displayed great vigour and energy in administering the affairs of the Empire.[11][12] His reforms improved the empire's tax base and pulled it from financial depression and bleak morale. By the end of his reign, it is claimed that the treasury had 320,000 lb gold reserve.[13] Foreign policy and wars[edit] Under Anastasius the Eastern Roman Empire engaged in the Isaurian War against the usurper Longinus and the Anastasian War against Sassanid Persia.[14][15] The Isaurian War (492–497) was stirred up by the Isaurian supporters of Longinus, the brother of Zeno, who was passed over for the throne in favour of Anastasius. The battle of Cotyaeum in 492 broke the back of the revolt, but guerrilla warfare continued in the Isaurian mountains for several years.[11] The resistance in the mountains hinged upon the Isaurians' retention of Papirius Castle. The war lasted five years, but Anastasius passed legislation related to the economy in the mid-490s, suggesting that the Isaurian War did not absorb all of the energy and resources of the government.[4] After five years, the Isaurian resistance was broken; large numbers of Isaurians were forcibly relocated to Thrace, to ensure that they would not revolt again.[14] During the Anastasian War of 502–505 with the Sassanid Persians, the Sassanids captured the cities of Theodosiopolis and Amida, although the Romans later received Amida in exchange for gold. The Persian provinces also suffered severely and a peace was concluded in 506. Anastasius afterward built the strong fortress of Daras, which was named Anastasiopolis, to hold the Persians at Nisibis in check.[15] The Balkan provinces were denuded of troops, however, and were devastated by invasions of Slavs and Bulgars; to protect Constantinople and its vicinity against them, the emperor built the Anastasian Wall, extending from the Propontis to the Black Sea. He converted his home city, Dyrrachium, into one of the most fortified cities on the Adriatic with the construction of Durrës Castle.[1][11] Domestic and ecclesiastical policies[edit] The Emperor was a convinced Miaphysite, following the teachings of Cyril of Alexandria and Severus of Antioch who taught "One Incarnate Nature of Christ" in an undivided union of the Divine and human natures. However, his ecclesiastical policy was moderate. He endeavoured to maintain the principle of the Henotikon of Zeno and the peace of the church.[11] Yet, in 512, perhaps emboldened after his military success against the Persians, Anastasius I deposed the Patriarch of Chalcedon and replaced him with a Monophysite. This violated his agreement with the Patriarch of Constantinople and precipitated riots in Chalcedon.[5] The following year the general Vitalian started a rebellion, quickly defeating an imperial army and marching on Constantinople.[5] With the army closing in, Anastasius gave Vitalian the title of Commander of the Army of Thrace and began communicating with the Pope regarding a potential end to the Acacian schism.[5] Two years later, General Marinus attacked Vitalian and forced him and his troops to the northern part of Thrace. Following the conclusion of this conflict, Anastasius had undisputed control of the Empire until his death in 518.[16] Successor[edit] A gold solidus of Anastasius I The Anonymous Valesianus gives an account of Anastasius attempting to predict his successor: Anastasius did not know which of his three nephews would succeed him, so he put a message under one of three couches and had his nephews take seats in the room. He believed that the nephew who sat on the couch with the message would be his heir. However, two of his nephews sat on the same couch, and the one with the concealed message remained empty.[17] After putting the matter to God in prayer, he determined that the first person to enter his room the next morning would be the next Emperor. That person was Justin, the chief of his guards. Anastasius had never thought of Justin as a successor, but from this point on he treated him as if he would be. Anastasius died childless in Constantinople on 9 July 518 and was buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles. He left the Imperial treasury with 23,000,000 solidi, which is 320,000 pounds of gold or 420 long tons (430 t).[18] The illiterate, peasant-born Justin then became the next emperor.[19] Meanwhile, the heir apparent Justinian engrossed himself in the life of Constantinople.[20] Family[edit] The Barberini ivory, a 6th-century ivory diptych representing either Anastasius or Justinian I. Anastasius is known to have had a brother named Flavius Paulus, who served as consul in 496.[21] With a woman known as Magna, Paulus was father to Irene, who married Olybrius. This Olybrius was the son of Anicia Juliana and Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus.[22] The daughter of Olybrius and Irene was named Proba. She married Probus and was mother to a younger Juliana. This younger Juliana married another Anastasius and was mother of Areobindus, Placidia, and a younger Proba.[23] Another nephew of Anastasius was Flavius Probus, consul in 502.[24] Anastasius' sister, Ceaseria, married Secundinus, and gave birth to Hypatius and Pompeius.[24] Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Moschianus Probus Magnus, consul in 518, was a great-nephew of Anastasius. His daughter Juliana later married Marcellus, a brother of Justin II.[23] The extensive family may well have included several viable candidates for the throne.[25] Administrative reform and introduction of new coinage[edit] Anastasius is famous for showing an uncommon interest in administrative efficiency and issues concerning the economy.[16] Whenever it was possible in governmental transactions, he altered the method of payment from goods to hard currency. This practice decreased the potential for embezzlement and the need for transportation and storage of supplies. It also allowed for easier accounting.[5] He also applied this practice to taxes, mandating that taxes be paid with cash rather than with goods.[5] He eliminated the practice of providing soldiers with their arms and uniforms; instead he allotted each soldier a generous sum of money with which to purchase their own.[5] These changes to imperial policy seem to have worked well; taxpayers often paid smaller tax bills than they had before, while government revenue increased.[5] The increase in revenue allowed the emperor to pay soldiers a higher wage, which attracted native Roman soldiers to the military, as opposed to the barbarian and Isaurian mercenaries which some previous emperors had been forced to rely on.[26] Anastasius is often cited for his "prudent management" of the empire's finances.[27] Amidst these reforms, though, Anastasius continued the practice of selling official positions.[4] He sold so many that he has been accused of having facilitated the creation of a civilian aristocracy. This claim is strengthened by the growth in influence of families that often held high level positions in the government, such as the Appiones from Egypt. This has puzzled historians, given that the emperor seems to have minimised government corruption/inefficiency in other areas.[4] Anastasius I also gave official positions to his close friend General Celer, his brother-in-law, his brother, his nephews, and his grand-nephews.[4] The complex monetary system of the early Byzantine Empire, which suffered a partial collapse in the mid-5th century, was revived by Anastasius in 498. The new system involved three denominations of gold, the solidus and its half and third; and five of copper, the follis, worth 40 nummi, and its fractions down to a nummus. It would seem that the new currency quickly became an important part of trade with other regions. A follis coin has been found in the Charjou desert, north of the River Oxus.[28] Four solidi from his reign have been recovered as far from the Roman Empire as China. China might seem an unlikely trading partner, but the Romans and the Chinese were probably able to do business via Central Asian merchants travelling along the Silk Roads. Some Roman trading partners attempted to replicate the coins of Anastasius. The currency created by Anastasius stayed in use and circulated widely for long after his reign.[28] A 40-nummi coin of Anastasius is depicted on the obverse of North Macedonia's 50 denar banknote, issued in 1996.[29] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Norwich 1988, p. 186. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 189. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2004). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Facts on File. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8160-5026-0. ^ a b c d e Croke, Brian (1 January 2009). Haarer, F. K. (ed.). "Anastasius I". The Classical Review. 59 (1): 208–210. doi:10.1017/s0009840x08002540. JSTOR 20482729. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Treadgold, Warren (2001). A Concise History of Byzantium. Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave. pp. 57. ISBN 978-0-333-71830-8. ^ Treadgold, Warren (1997). A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2421-0. OCLC 37154904. ^ Croke, Brian (2001). Count Marcellinus and his chronicle. Oxford University Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-19-815001-5. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ Anastasius (AD 491–518) Archived 24 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine Hugh Elton – Florida International University – An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors ^ a b Ostrogorski, Georgije (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, NJ.: Rutgers University Press. p. 59. OCLC 812752850. ^ Myres, J. N. L. (1 January 1940). Charanis, Peter (ed.). "The Religious Policy of Anastasius I". The Classical Review. 54 (4): 208–209. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00087229. JSTOR 705334. ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Anastasius I". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 919. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 184. ^ Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. South Yorkshire, UK: Pen and Sword. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-84884-612-8. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 60. ^ a b Zacharias of Mytilene, Syriac Chronicle, Book VII, Chapter VI ^ a b Treadgold, Warren (2001). A Concise History of Byzantium. Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave. pp. 56. ISBN 978-0-333-71830-8. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 188. ^ Norwich 1988, pp. 188–9. ^ Durant 1950, p. 104. ^ Brown 1989, p. 150. ^ "The Consular List". Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2008. ^ Pazdernik 1999, pp. 300–301. ^ a b Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 3 ^ a b Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 2 ^ "James Allan Evans, "Justin I (518–527 A.D.)"". Archived from the original on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2008. ^ Treadgold, Warren (2001). A Concise History of Byzantium. Handmills, Hampshire: Palgrave. pp. 57. ISBN 978-0-333-71830-8. ^ Laiou, Angeliki (2002). The Economic History of Byzantium. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections. p. 940. ISBN 978-0-88402-288-6. ^ a b Pyatnitsky, Yuri (1 January 2006). "New Evidence for Byzantine Activity in the Caucasus During the Reign of the Emperor Anastasius I". American Journal of Numismatics (1989–). 18: 113–122. JSTOR 43580526. ^ National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia Archived 19 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Macedonian currency. Banknotes in circulation: 50 Denars Archived 24 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. – Retrieved on 30 March 2009. Sources[edit] Arce, Ignacio; Feissel, Denis (2014). The Edict of Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD): An Interim Report. Amman: DAAD. OCLC 889751713. Brown, Peter (1989). The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750. New York and London: W.W. Norton and Co. ISBN 978-0-39395-803-4. Charanis, Peter (1935). The religious policy of Anastasius I: emperor of the later Roman Empire 491–518. Madison Wis.: University of Wisconsin—Madison. OCLC 827230820. Durant, Will (1950). The Age of Faith. The Story of Civilization. IV. New York: Simon and Schuster. OCLC 225699907. Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (29 June 2005). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14687-6. Hussey, J.M., ed. (1985). The Cambridge Medieval History. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-04535-3. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Norwich, John (1988). Byzantium: the Early Centuries. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-80251-7. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of The Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 422217218. Pazdernik, Charles (1999). "Anicia Juliana". In G.W. Bowersock; Peter Brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67451-173-6. Settipani, Christian (1989). Les ancêtres de Charlemagne (in French). Settipani, Christian (2000). Continuité gentilice et continuité sénatoriale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale (in French). Settipani, Christian (2006). Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs. Les princes caucasiens et l'Empire du VIe au IXe siècle Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs (in French). Zacharias of Mytilene, Syriac Chronicle, Book VII, Chapter VI External links[edit] Media related to Anastasius I at Wikimedia Commons Works related to Anastasius I at Wikisource Anastasius I Dicorus Leonid dynasty Born: c. 431 Died: 9 July 518 Regnal titles Preceded by Zeno Byzantine emperor 491–518 Succeeded by Justin I Political offices Preceded by Anicius Olybrius, sine collega Roman consul 492 with Flavius Rufus Succeeded by Flavius Albinus Iunior, and Flavius Eusebius II Preceded by Paulus, Post consulatum Viatoris (West) Roman consul 497 with out colleague Succeeded by Paulinus, and John the Scythian Preceded by Flavius Ennodius Messala, and Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus Roman consul 507 with Venantius iunior, followed by Clovis I Succeeded by Basilius Venantius, and Celer v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Greece Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anastasius_I_Dicorus&oldid=1028269833" Categories: 430s births 518 deaths 5th-century Byzantine emperors 6th-century Byzantine emperors Anastasian War Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Durrës Flavii House of Leo Illyrian people Imperial Roman consuls Oriental Orthodox monarchs People from Durrës People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2018 Good articles EngvarB from May 2018 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 23:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1667	----	Roman currency - Wikipedia Roman currency From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Currency of ancient Rome Denarius of Marcus Aurelius. Legend: IMP. M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXV. Numismatics Currency Coins Banknotes Forgery List ISO Circulating currencies Africa The Americas Europe Asia Oceania Local currencies Company scrip LETS Time dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies Greek Roman China India Persian Tibetan Thai Filipino Malay Byzantine Medieval currencies Production Mint Designers Coining Milling Hammering Cast Exonumia Credit cards Medals Tokens Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks Bonds Glossary of numismatics  Numismatics portal  Money portal v t e Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage[1] (see: Roman metallurgy). From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, and composition. A persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian. This trend continued into Byzantine times. Due to the economic power and longevity of the Roman state, Roman currency was widely used throughout western Eurasia and northern Africa from classical times into the Middle Ages. It served as a model for the currencies of the Muslim caliphates and the European states during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Roman currency names survive today in many countries (e.g., the Arabic dinar (from the denarius coin), the British pound and Mexican peso (both translations of the Roman libra)). Contents 1 Authority to mint coins 2 Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC 3 Imperial period: 27 BC - AD 476 3.1 Iconography 4 Value and composition 4.1 Debasement 4.2 Equivalences 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Footnotes 6.2 Bibliography 7 External links Authority to mint coins[edit] The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word "mint" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC near the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image[citation needed]; Quietus, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued thirteen coins bearing his image from three mints.[2] The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they did not know about striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC[edit] Main article: Roman Republican currency Bronze aes signatum produced by the Roman Republic after 450 BC. Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC; and Greeks in Asia Minor had pioneered the use of coinage (which they employed in addition to other more primitive, monetary mediums of exchange) as early as the 7th century BC.[3] Coinage proper was only introduced by the Roman Republican government c. 300 BC. The greatest city of the Magna Graecia region in southern Italy, and several other Italian cities, already had a long tradition of using coinage by this time and produced them in large quantities during the 4th century BC to pay for their wars against the inland Italian groups encroaching on their territory. For these reasons, the Romans would have certainly known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. The reason behind Rome's adoption of coinage was likely cultural. The Romans had no pressing economic need, but they wanted to emulate Greek culture; they considered the institution of minted money a significant feature of that culture. However, Roman coinage initially saw very limited use.[4] The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean. It combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the aes signatum (Latin for signed bronze). It measured about 160 by 90 millimetres (6.3 by 3.5 in) and weighed around 1,500 to 1,600 grams (53 to 56 oz), being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal currency bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of Aes grave, an unrefined metal with a high iron content.[5] Along with the aes signatum, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze and silver coins that emulated the styles of those produced in Greek cities.[6] Produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Greek designs.[7] The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a "solid conservatism", usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods and goddesses.[8] Imperial period: 27 BC - AD 476[edit] Iconography[edit] The most commonly used coin denominations and their relative sizes during Roman times. Coins of the Roman Republic and Empire - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait. While moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesar's was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual. The tradition continued following Caesar's assassination, although the imperators from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the Roman emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the empire, the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear on the coins until the middle of Augustus' reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins. The main focus of the imagery during the empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the empire. Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against Pompey, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either Venus or Aeneas, attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was Commodus. In AD 192 , he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of Hercules) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid in succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the empire. Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to be viewed as embodying the attributes of the individual portrayed. Dio wrote that following the death of Caligula the Senate demonetized his coinage, and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher Epictetus jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this sestertius carry? Trajan's? Give it to me. Nero's? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone. It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor Philip in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with Persia; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians. Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes,[9][citation needed] and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor.[10] Value and composition[edit] Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had (at least in the early centuries) significant intrinsic value. However, while the gold and silver issues contained precious metals, the value of a coin could be slightly higher than its precious metal content, so they were not, strictly speaking, equivalent to bullion. Also, over the course of time the purity and weight of the silver coins were reduced. Estimates of the value of the denarius range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content,[citation needed] thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British Pound Sterling at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 Pound Sterling by its end (comparing bread, wine and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a Legionary.[11] The coinage system that existed in Egypt until the time of Diocletian's monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased tetradrachm. Although the value of these tetradrachms can be reckoned as being equivalent to that of the denarius, their precious metal content was always much lower. Elsewhere also, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of Sulla till the time of Augustus no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality. Debasement[edit] The rapid decline in silver purity of the antoninianus The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of Diocletian, the heavily debased antoninianus (double denarius) was replaced with a variety of new denominations, and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a tetrarchy, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule. The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a character that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or genius) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the army, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor. These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured Christograms (the chi-rho monogram for Jesus Christ's name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of Constantine until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured almost indistinguishable idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness. Although the denarius remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction in 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably, decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement became such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals and inadequacies in state finances. When introduced, the denarius contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 grams, but from the time of Nero onwards the tendency was nearly always for its purity to be decreased. The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the denarii that were struck by Mark Antony to pay his army during his battles against Octavian. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal denarius, were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome. The denarius continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by Septimius Severus. This was followed by the introduction of a double denarius piece, differentiated from the denarius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the antoninianus by numismatists after the emperor Caracalla, who introduced the coin in early 215. Although nominally valued at two denarii, the antoninianus never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the denarius. The profit of minting a coin valued at two denarii, but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of antoniniani minted increased, the number of denarii minted decreased, until the denarius ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the antonianus fell to only 2%, losing almost any appearance of being silver. During this time the aureus remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base (lower gold content and higher base metal content) before Diocletian's reform. The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aurelian in 274. The standard for silver in the antonianus was set at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were noticeably marked as containing that amount (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek). Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an aureus struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the argenteus, and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. Diocletian issued an Edict on Maximum Prices in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of denarii, although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze follis was valued at 12+1⁄2 denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market. The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained constant debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve inflation, trade with India, which drained silver from the Mediterranean world, and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 sestertii a year under Augustus to 2000 sestertii a year under Septimius Severus and the price of grain more than tripled indicating that fall in real wages and a moderate inflation occurred during this time.[12] Another reason for debasement was lack of raw metal with which to produce coins. Italy itself contains no large or reliable mines for precious metals; therefore the precious metals for coinage had to be obtained elsewhere. The majority of the precious metals that Rome obtained during its period of expansion arrived in the form of war booty from defeated territories, and subsequent tribute and taxes by new-conquered lands. When Rome ceased to expand, the precious metals for coinage then came from newly mined silver, such as from Greece and Spain, and from melting older coins. Without a constant influx of precious metals from an outside source, and with the expense of continual wars, it would seem reasonable that coins might be debased to increase the amount that the government could spend. This explanation for the debasement of coinage is that it allowed the state to spend more than it had. By decreasing the amount of silver in its coins, Rome could produce more coins and "stretch" its budget. As time progressed, the trade deficit of the west, because of its buying of grain and other commodities, led to a currency drainage in Rome. Equivalences[edit] The first rows show the values of each boldface coin in the first column in relation to the coins in the following columns: Early Republic values[13][14] (after 211 BC) Denarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quincunx Triens Quadrans Uncia Denarius 1 4 5 10 20 24 30 40 120 Sestertius 1⁄4 1 1+1⁄4 2+1⁄2 5 6 7+1⁄2 10 30 Dupondius 1⁄5 4⁄5 1 2 4 4+4⁄5 6 8 24 As 1⁄10 2⁄5 1⁄2 1 2 2+2⁄5 3 4 12 Semis 1⁄20 1⁄5 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 1+1⁄5 1+1⁄2 2 6 Quincunx 1⁄24 1⁄6 5⁄24 5⁄12 5⁄6 1 1+1⁄4 1+2⁄3 5 Triens 1⁄30 2⁄15 1⁄6 1⁄3 2⁄3 4⁄5 1 1+1⁄3 4 Quadrans 1⁄40 1⁄10 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 3⁄5 3⁄4 1 3 Uncia 1⁄120 1⁄30 1⁄24 1⁄12 1⁄6 1⁄5 1⁄4 1⁄3 1 Augustan values (27 BC – AD 301) Aureus Quinarius Aureus Denarius Quinarius Sestertius Dupondius As Semis Quadrans Aureus 1 2 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 Quinarius Aureus 1⁄2 1 12+1⁄2 25 50 100 200 400 800 Denarius 1⁄25 2⁄25 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 Quinarius Argenteus 1⁄50 1⁄25 1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 32 Sestertius 1⁄100 1⁄50 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 2 4 8 16 Dupondius 1⁄200 1⁄100 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 2 4 8 As 1⁄400 1⁄200 1⁄16 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 2 4 Semis 1⁄800 1⁄400 1⁄32 1⁄16 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 2 Quadrans 1⁄1600 1⁄800 1⁄64 1⁄32 1⁄16 1⁄8 1⁄4 1⁄2 1 Diocletian values (301–305) Solidus Argenteus Nummus Radiate Laureate Denarius Solidus 1 10 40 200 500 1000 Argenteus 1⁄10 1 4 20 50 100 Nummus 1⁄40 1⁄4 1 5 12+1⁄2 25 Radiate 1⁄200 1⁄20 1⁄5 1 2+1⁄2 5 Laureate 1⁄500 1⁄50 2⁄25 2⁄5 1 2 Denarius 1⁄1000 1⁄100 1⁄25 1⁄5 1⁄2 1 Late Empire coin values (337–476) Solidus Miliarense Siliqua Follis Nummus Solidus 1 12 24 180 7200 Miliarense 1⁄12 1 2 15 600 Siliqua 1⁄24 1⁄2 1 7+1⁄2 300 Follis 1⁄180 1⁄15 2⁄15 1 40 Nummus 1⁄7200 1⁄600 1⁄300 1⁄40 1 See also[edit] Numismatics portal Money portal Cupellation List of historical currencies Roman economy Roman Republican coinage Roman provincial currency Byzantine coinage Visigothic coinage Sasanian coinage Roman Republican moneyers Tessera Spintria Ancient Symbols (Unicode block) References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ "Blanchard and Company, Inc. - The Twelve Caesars". Retrieved February 8, 2017. ^ Wildwinds Coins ^ Metcalf 2012, p. 33. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 15–16. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 3. ^ Burnett 1987. pp. 4–5. ^ Burnett 1987. p. 16. ^ Reece 1970. p. 19. ^ Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). "Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ "Probus". www.forumancientcoins.com. Retrieved 2019-05-06. ^ "Buying Power of Ancient Coins". Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-10. ^ ancientcoins.biz ^ W.G. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World-Politics and Propaganda, Iola, 1997, p. 20. ^ William Boyne, A Manual of Roman Coins: from the earliest period to the extinction of the empire, W. H. Johnston, 1865, p. 7. Available online. Bibliography[edit] Burnett, Andrew (1987). Coinage in the Roman World. London: Seaby. ISBN 978-0-900652-84-4. Cohen, Henry, Description historiques des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, Paris, 1882, 8 vols. There exists online version of this Cohen's catalogue Greene, Kevin. Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986. Howgego, Christopher. Ancient History from Coins. London: Routledge, 1995. Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy: Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974. Melville Jones, John R., 'A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins', London, Spink 2003. Metcalf, William E. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305746. Reece, Richard (1970). Roman Coins. London: Ernest Benn Limited. ISBN 978-0-510-06151-7. Salmon, E. Togo. Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. Suarez, Rasiel. The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins. Dirty Old Books, 2005. Sutherland, C. H. V. Roman Coins. New York: G. P. (Also published by Barrie and Jenkins in London in 1974 with ISBN 0-214-66808-8) Van Meter, David. The Handbook of Roman Imperial Coins. Laurion Press, 1990. Vecchi, Italo. Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy. London Ancient Coins, London 2013. Hard bound in quarto format, 84 pages, 92 plates. ISBN 978-0-9575784-0-1 External links[edit] A Collection of Flavian coins Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman currency. Library resources about Roman currency Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films v t e Currencies of Ancient Rome Proto-currency Bronze Aes rude Aes signatum Republican era Gold Aureus Silver Denarius Sestertius Victoriatus Quadrigatus Bronze and copper Dupondius (2 asses) As (1) Dodrans ( 3⁄4) Bes ( 2⁄3) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quincunx ( 5⁄12) Triens ( 1⁄3) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Sextans ( 1⁄6) Uncia ( 1⁄12) Semuncia ( 1⁄24) Early Empire Gold Aureus Dacicus Silver Antoninianus (32 asses) Denarius (16) Quinarius (8) Copper Double sestertius (8) Sestertius ( 2+1⁄2; later 4) Dupondius (2) As (1) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Diocletian era Gold Solidus Silver Argenteus Nummus Copper Radiate Laureate Denarius Late Empire Gold Solidus Tremissis Silver Miliarense Siliqua Copper and bronze Follis Nummus Constantinian bronzes Centenionalis Ancient Rome Portal Numismatics Portal Authority control: National libraries Spain France (data) United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&oldid=1025288466" Categories: Coins of ancient Rome Numismatics Economic history of Italy Ancient Roman sculpture Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018 Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with unsourced statements from September 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Bosanski Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français Galego 贛語 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська ייִדיש Edit links This page was last edited on 26 May 2021, at 19:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1668	----	Help:Introduction - Wikipedia Help:Introduction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tutorial for newcomers who want to contribute to Wikipedia Introduction to Wikipedia Welcome to Wikipedia! Anyone can edit almost every page, and millions already have. This page takes you through a set of tutorials aimed at complete newcomers interested in contributing. It covers all the basics, and each tutorial takes only a few minutes, so you could become a proficient Wikipedian in no time! Get started Policies and Guidelines The Wiki markup source editor shows the underlying page source code, and works like a plain text file. Links and other items are indicated using simple code like this: [[Earth]]. Editing Referencing Images Tables Talk pages VisualEditor works more like a word processor and hides the underlying source code. Links and other items are edited using toolbar and pop-up interfaces. Editing Referencing Images Tables Navigating Wikipedia Manual of Style Conclusion View all as single page Shortcuts WP:I H:I H:INTRO For more training information, see also: Full help contents page Training for students A single-page guide to contributing A training adventure game Resources for new editors Please consider leaving us some feedback. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Introduction&oldid=1021131290" Categories: Wikipedia quick introductions Hidden categories: Help pages with short description Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Arpetan অসমীয়া Авар Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Български Boarisch Bosanski Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം Malti مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Română Romani čhib Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Удмурт Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2021, at 02:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1673	----	Emperor Ling of Han - Wikipedia Emperor Ling of Han From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor of the Han dynasty from 168 to 189 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Emperor Ling of Han" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor of the Han dynasty Emperor Ling of Han 漢靈帝 Emperor of the Han dynasty Reign 168–189 Predecessor Emperor Huan Successor Emperor Shao Marquis of Jiedu Village (解瀆亭侯) Tenure ?–168 Predecessor Liu Chang Born 156 Died May 13, 189(189-05-13) (aged 32–33) Consorts Empress Song Empress Lingsi Empress Linghuai Issue Liu Bian, Prince Huai of Hongnong Emperor Xian of Han Princess Wannian Full name Family name: Liu (劉) Given name: Hong (宏) Era dates Jianning (建寧) 168–172 Xiping (熹平) 172–178 Guanghe (光和) 178–184 Zhongping (中平) 184–189 Posthumous name Xiaoling Huangdi (孝靈皇帝) Dynasty Han dynasty Father Liu Chang Mother Empress Xiaoren Emperor Ling of Han Traditional Chinese 漢靈帝 Simplified Chinese 汉灵帝 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hàn Língdì Wade–Giles Han Ling-ti Liu Hong Traditional Chinese 劉宏 Simplified Chinese 刘宏 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Liú Hóng Wade–Giles Liu Hung Emperor Ling of Han (156 – 13 May 189), personal name Liu Hong,[1] was the 12th and last powerful emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. Born the son of a lesser marquis who descended directly from Emperor Zhang (the third Eastern Han emperor), Liu Hong was chosen to be emperor in 168 around age 12 after the death of his predecessor, Emperor Huan, who had no son to succeed him. He reigned for about 21 years until his death in 189. Emperor Ling's reign saw another repetition of corrupt eunuchs dominating the eastern Han central government, as was the case during his predecessor's reign. Zhang Rang, the leader of the eunuch faction (十常侍), managed to dominate the political scene after defeating a faction led by Empress Dowager Dou's father, Dou Wu, and the Confucian scholar-official Chen Fan in 168. After reaching adulthood, Emperor Ling was not interested in state affairs and preferred to indulge in women and a decadent lifestyle. At the same time, corrupt officials in the Han government levied heavy taxes on the peasants. He exacerbated the situation by introducing a practice of selling political offices for money; this practice severely damaged the Han civil service system and led to widespread corruption. Mounting grievances against the Han government led to the outbreak of the peasant-led Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184. Emperor Ling's reign left the Eastern Han dynasty weak and on the verge of collapse. After his death, the Han Empire disintegrated in chaos for the subsequent decades as various regional warlords fought for power and dominance. (See End of the Han dynasty.) The Han dynasty ended in 220 when Emperor Ling's son, Emperor Xian, abdicated his throne – an event leading to the start of the Three Kingdoms period in China. Contents 1 Family background and accession to the throne 2 Early reign 3 Middle reign 4 The Yellow Turban Rebellion 5 Late reign 6 Family 7 Ancestry 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References Family background and accession to the throne[edit] Women dressed in Hanfu silk robes A woman with an Eastern Han hairstyle Detail of a banquet scene Women dressed in Hanfu robes Murals of the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China, showing scenes of daily life. Liu Hong was a hereditary marquis – the Marquis of Jiedu Village (解瀆亭侯). In the Han dynasty, a village marquis's marquisate usually comprised only one village or, in rarer cases, two or three villages. He was the third person in his family to hold this title; his father Liu Chang (劉萇) and grandfather Liu Shu (劉淑) were also formerly Marquis of Jiedu Village. His great-grandfather, Liu Kai (劉開), the Prince of Hejian (河間王), was the sixth son of Emperor Zhang, the third emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. His mother, Lady Dong, was Liu Chang's formal spouse. When Emperor Huan died in 168 without a son to succeed him, his empress, Empress Dou, became empress dowager, and she examined the genealogy of the imperial clan to choose a candidate to be the next emperor. For reasons unknown, her assistant Liu Shu (劉儵) recommended Liu Hong, the Marquis of Jiedu Village. After consulting with her father Dou Wu and the Confucian scholar-official Chen Fan, Empress Dowager Dou installed a 12-year-old Liu Hong on the throne, and continued ruling on his behalf as regent. The newly enthroned Emperor Ling bestowed posthumous titles on his grandfather, father and grandmother, honouring them as emperors and an empress respectively. His mother, Lady Dong, did not become empress dowager and instead received the title of an Honoured Lady. Early reign[edit] Dou Wu and Chen Fan, who became the most important officials in the central government, sought to purge the eunuch faction. Later in 168, they even proposed to exterminate all the powerful eunuchs, a proposal that Empress Dowager Dou rejected. However, word of the plot was leaked, and the eunuchs, after kidnapping the empress dowager and taking the young emperor into custody (after persuading him that it was for his own protection) arrested and executed Chen Fan. Dou Wu resisted but was eventually defeated and forced to commit suicide. The Dou clan was slaughtered. The powerful eunuchs, led by Cao Jie (曹節) and Wang Fu (王甫), became the most powerful individuals in the central government. After the destruction of the Dou clan, in 169, Emperor Ling promoted his mother to the position of empress dowager, though he continued honouring Empress Dowager Dou, now under house arrest, as empress dowager as well. Members of the Dong clan began to enter government, but did not have substantial influence. Later that year, the eunuchs persuaded Emperor Ling that the "partisans" (i.e., Confucian officials and those who supported them) were plotting against him, and a large number of partisans were arrested and killed; the others had their civil liberties stripped completely, in an event historically known as the second Disaster of Partisan Prohibitions. Empress Dowager Dou died in 172. Despite suggestions by eunuchs to have her only buried as an imperial consort and not be honoured as Emperor Huan's wife, Emperor Ling had her buried with full honours befitting an empress dowager in Emperor Huan's mausoleum. In the aftermaths of her death, a vandal wrote on the palace gate: "All that is under the heaven is in upheaval. Cao and Wang murdered the empress dowager. The key officials only know how to be officials and had nothing faithful to say." The angry eunuchs ordered an investigation which led to over 1,000 arrests, but nothing conclusive was found. In that year, the eunuchs also falsely accused Emperor Huan's brother, Liu Kui (劉悝), the Prince of Bohai, of treason and forced him to commit suicide. The members of his entire household, including his wife, concubines, children, assistants and principality officials, were all rounded up and executed. As the Han government became more corrupt, the people received heavier tax burdens. As Emperor Ling grew older, he not only took no remedial action, but continued to tolerate the eunuchs' corruption for the most part. A major defeat of the Han army by the Xianbei tribes in 177 further drained the imperial treasury. In 178, Emperor Ling's wife Empress Song, whom he made empress in 171 but did not favour, fell victim to the eunuchs' treachery. Her aunt, Lady Song, was Liu Kui's wife, so the eunuchs were worried that she would seek vengeance on them. Thus, by collaborating with other imperial consorts who wanted to replace the empress, the eunuchs falsely accused Empress Song of using witchcraft to curse Emperor Ling. The emperor believed them and deposed the empress, who was imprisoned and died in despair. Her father, Song Feng (宋酆), and the rest of her family were exterminated. Middle reign[edit] In 178, Emperor Ling introduced the practice of selling political offices for money – a practice which severely damaged the Han civil service system (chajuzhi, Chinese: 察举)[fn 1] and led to widespread corruption. The people who paid for these positions perpetuated corruption upon taking office. That was exactly what Emperor Ling had in mind: he allowed the officials to pay by instalments after taking office if they could not afford the initial amount. In 180, Emperor Ling instated Lady He as the new empress and appointed her brother, He Jin, as a key official in his government. (According to legends, she managed to enter Emperor Ling's imperial harem because her family bribed the eunuchs in charge of selecting women for the emperor.) She received the position of empress because she bore Emperor Ling a son, Liu Bian; the emperor had other sons but they died prematurely before Liu Bian's birth. During these years, Emperor Ling became interested in building imperial gardens so he ordered the commandery and principality officials throughout the Han Empire to pay their tributes to him directly, so he could use the money to finance his construction projects. This, in turn, created pressures on the officials to resort to corrupt practices so they could extract a larger tribute from their jurisdictions for the emperor. In spite of all his flaws, Emperor Ling occasionally heeded good advice from his subjects but was not consistent in doing so. His subjects often found it frustrating to try to convince him on policy issues because he only listened to them when he wanted to. The Yellow Turban Rebellion[edit] Main article: Yellow Turban Rebellion Chariots and cavalry, detail of a mural from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China Sometime before 183, a major Taoist rebel movement had started in Ji Province – the Taiping Sect (太平教), led by Zhang Jiao, who claimed he had magical powers to heal the sick. By 183, his teachings and followers had spread to eight of the empire's thirteen provinces – Ji, Qing, Xu, You, Jing, Yang, Yan, and Yu. Several key imperial officials became concerned about Zhang Jiao's hold over his followers, and suggested that the Taiping Sect be disbanded. Emperor Ling did not listen to them. Zhang Jiao had in fact planned a rebellion. He commissioned 36 military commanders, set up a shadow government, and wrote a declaration: "The blue heaven is dead. The yellow heaven will come into being. The year will be jiazi. The world would be blessed." (Under the traditional Chinese sexagenary cycle calendar method, 184 would be the first year of the cycle, known as jiazi.) Zhang Jiao had his supporters write jiazi in large characters with white talc everywhere they could – including on the doors of government offices in the imperial capital and other cities. One of Zhang Jiao's followers, Ma Yuanyi (馬元義), plotted with two eunuchs to start an uprising inside the palace. Early in 184, this plot was discovered, and Ma Yuanyi was immediately arrested and executed. Emperor Ling ordered that Taiping Sect members be arrested and executed, and Zhang Jiao immediately declared a rebellion. Every member of the rebellion wore a yellow turban or headscarf as their symbol – and therefore the rebellion became known for it. Within a month, Zhang Jiao controlled large areas of territory. Under suggestion by the eunuch Lü Qiang (呂強), who was sympathetic to the partisans, Emperor Ling pardoned the partisans to ward off the possibility they would join the Yellow Turbans. (Lü Qiang himself became a victim, however, when the other eunuchs, in retaliation, falsely accused him of wanting to depose the emperor, and he committed suicide later that year.) Emperor Ling sent out a number of military commanders against the Yellow Turbans, and in these campaigns several of them distinguished themselves – including Huangfu Song, Cao Cao, Fu Xie (傅燮), Zhu Jun, Lu Zhi, and Dong Zhuo. A key military development with great implications later was that the Yellow Turbans fought mainly with troops deployed from the battle-tested Liang Province who had been accustomed to suppressing rebellions by the Qiang tribes. In late 184, Zhang Jiao was killed, and while the rest of the Yellow Turbans were not defeated immediately, they gradually dissipated by the following year. Because of the Liang Province forces' contributions to the campaign, they began to be feared and began to look down on troops from all other provinces. During and in the aftermaths of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, many people from other provinces, in order to ward off pillaging by Yellow Turbans or governmental forces, also organised themselves into military groups, and a good number resisted government forces, and even after the Yellow Turbans were defeated, the central government's control of the provinces was no longer what it used to be. Late reign[edit] Even after the Yellow Turban Rebellion was suppressed, Emperor Ling did not change his wasteful and corrupt ways. He continued to levy heavy taxes and continued to sell offices. As a result, other agrarian and military rebellions multiplied. In 185, when a fire broke out in the southern part of the imperial palace, the Ten Attendants suggested to Emperor Ling to levy a tax of ten maces from every mu of farmland to raise funds for rebuilding the palace. Emperor Ling then ordered the officials in Taiyuan (太原), Hedong (河東) and Didao (狄道) commanderies to transport wood and patterned rocks to Luoyang (the imperial capital) as construction materials. When the shipments reached the palace, the eunuchs who received them scolded the labourers for delivering materials of poor quality, and insisted on paying them far below market prices – to as low as a tenth of the market price. They then resold the materials to other eunuchs, who refused to buy. Over time, the accumulated piles of wood started decaying. The construction works were thus delayed for years. In order to please Emperor Ling, some regional officials levied heavier taxes and forced the people to produce greater quantities of construction materials – this led to greater resentment from the common people.[2] Emperor Ling appointed cavalry officers to serve as his messengers whenever he issued orders for things to be delivered to Luoyang. These officers, known as zhongshi (中使; "central emissaries"), abused their power by forcing the regional officials, who were afraid of them, to give them bribes. The appointment of officials below the position of Inspector (刺史) was decided by the amount of money they could pay to fund the army and palace construction. Before assuming office, these officials had to undergo an assessment to determine their "value". Some who could not afford the required amount committed suicide, while others who refused to take up their appointments were forced into accepting.[3] Around the time, there was one Sima Zhi (司馬直), who had been newly appointed as the Administrator (太守) of Julu Commandery (鉅鹿郡). As he had a reputation for being an honest official, he was required to pay less – three million maces. Upon receiving the order, he lamented, "I should be like a parent to the common people, but I have been forced to exploit them to satisfy (the Emperor's) needs. I can't bear to do this." He attempted to resign, claiming that he was ill, but his request was denied. When he reached Meng Ford (孟津) near Luoyang, he wrote a memorial to point out all the problems with the government and cite historical examples to warn the emperor. He then committed suicide by consuming poison. After reading Sima Zhi's memorial, Emperor Ling temporarily stopped collecting funds for rebuilding the palace,[4] but quickly resumed his construction projects later. He built a hall within the western gardens and filled it with treasures and silk taken from the agriculture department. He also visited his birthplace in Hejian Commandery, where he acquired land and used it to build mansions and towers. As Emperor Ling came from a relatively poor background as a lesser marquis, he had a strong desire to accumulate as much personal wealth as possible – especially after he saw that his predecessor, Emperor Huan, did not leave behind a large family fortune for him. He drew his wealth not just from the imperial treasuries, but also from the low-ranking eunuchs who attended to him.[5] Emperor Ling often said, "Regular Attendant Zhang (Rang) is my father, Regular Attendant Zhao (Zhong) is my mother."[6] As the eunuchs were highly trusted and favoured by Emperor Ling, they behaved lawlessly and abused their power. They even built lavish mansions for themselves in the same design as the imperial palace. When Emperor Ling once visited Yong'anhou Platform (永安侯臺), a high viewing platform, the eunuchs were worried that he would see their mansions and become suspicious. Thus, they told him, "Your Majesty shouldn't put yourself on higher ground. If you do so, the people will scatter." The emperor believed them and stopped visiting high towers and viewing platforms.[7] In 186, Emperor Ling tasked the eunuchs Song Dian (宋典) and Bi Lan (畢嵐) with overseeing new construction projects, including a new palace hall, four large bronze statues, four giant bronze bells and water-spouting animal sculptures, among others. He also ordered coins to be minted and widely circulated. Many people perceived this to be a display of the emperor's extravagance, and pointed to signs showing that the coins will eventually scatter everywhere. This turned out to be true when chaos broke out in Luoyang after Emperor Ling's death.[8] Emperor Ling appointed Zhao Zhong as "General of Chariots of Cavalry" (車騎將軍) but removed him from office after some 100 days.[9] In 188, under the suggestions of Liu Yan, Emperor Ling greatly increased the political and military power of the provincial governors and selected key officials to serve as provincial governors. In 189, as Emperor Ling became critically ill, a succession issue came into being. Emperor Ling had two surviving sons – Liu Bian, the son of Empress He, and Liu Xie, the son of Consort Wang. Because Emperor Ling had, earlier in his life, frequently lost sons in childhood, he later believed that his sons needed to be raised outside the palace by foster parents. Therefore, when Liu Bian was born, he was entrusted to Shi Zimiao (史子眇), a Taoist, and referred to "Marquis Shi." Later, when Liu Xie was born, he was raised by Emperor Ling's mother, Empress Dowager Dong, and was known as "Marquis Dong." Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered making Liu Xie crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide. When Emperor Ling died later that year, a powerful eunuch whom he trusted, Jian Shuo, wanted to first kill Empress He's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, and then make Liu Xie emperor, and therefore set up a trap at a meeting he was to have with He Jin. He Jin found out, and peremptorily declared Liu Bian emperor. Family[edit] Consorts and Issue: Empress, of the Song clan (皇后 宋氏; d. 178) Empress Lingsi, of the He clan (靈思皇后 何氏; d. 189) Liu Bian, Prince Huai of Hongnong (弘農懷王 劉辯; 176–190), first son Empress Linghuai, of the Wang clan (靈懷皇后 王氏; d. 181), personal name Rong (榮) Liu Xie, Emperor Xiaoxian (孝獻皇帝 劉協; 181–234), second son Unknown Princess Wannian (萬年公主), first daughter Ancestry[edit] Emperor Zhang of Han (57–88) Liu Kai (d. 131) Lady Shen Liu Shu Empress Xiaomu Liu Chang Empress Xiaoyuan Emperor Ling of Han (156–189) Empress Xiaoren (d. 189) See also[edit] Consort kin Chinese emperors family tree (early)#Han dynasty, Xin dynasty and Shu Han Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Footnotes[edit] ^ chajuzhi, also known as "elevation on recommendation" was a civil service system introduced by emperor Wu of Han. Chajuzhi also was the first civil service system in Chinese history, included two specific parts, recommendation and examination. And it mainly depended on the former. References[edit] ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2003), Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years for the years 157 to 189 AD as recorded in Chapters 54 to 59 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang (internet ed.), Australian National University ^ (明年，南宮災。讓、忠等說帝令斂天下田畒稅十錢，以修宮室。發太原、河東、狄道諸郡材木及文石，每州郡部送至京師，黃門常侍輒令譴呵不中者，因強折賤買，十分雇一，因復貨之於宦官，復不為即受，材木遂至腐積，宮室連年不成。刺史、太守復增私調，百姓呼嗟。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (凡詔所徵求，皆令西園騶密約勑，號曰「中使」，恐動州郡，多受賕賂。刺史、二千石及茂才孝廉遷除，皆責助軍修宮錢，大郡至二三千萬，餘各有差。當之官者，皆先至西園諧價，然後得去。有錢不畢者，或至自殺。其守清者，乞不之官，皆迫遣之。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (時鉅鹿太守河內司馬直新除，以有清名，減責三百萬。直被詔，悵然曰：「為民父母，而反割剝百姓，以稱時求，吾不忍也。」辭疾，不聽。行至孟津，上書極陳當世之失，古今禍敗之戒，即吞藥自殺。書奏，帝為暫絕修宮錢。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (又造萬金堂於西園，引司農金錢繒帛，仞積其中。又還河閒買田宅，起第觀。帝本侯家，宿貧，每歎桓帝不能作家居，故聚為私臧，復臧寄小黃門常侍錢各數千萬。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (是時中常侍趙忠、張讓、夏惲、郭勝、段珪、宋典等皆封侯貴寵，上常言：「張常侍是我公，趙常侍是我母。」) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 58. ^ (常云：「張常侍是我公，趙常侍是我母。」宦官得志，無所憚畏，並起第宅，擬則宮室。帝常登永安侯臺，宦官恐其望見居處，乃使中大人尚但諫曰：「天子不當登高，登高則百姓虛散。」自是不敢復升臺榭。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (明年，遂使鉤盾令宋典繕修南宮玉堂。又使掖庭令畢嵐鑄銅人四列於倉龍、玄武闕。又鑄四鐘，皆受二千斛，縣於玉堂及雲臺殿前。又鑄天祿蝦蟇，吐水於平門外橋東，轉水入宮。又作翻車渴烏，施於橋西，用灑南北郊路，以省百姓灑道之費。又鑄四出文錢，錢皆四道。識者竊言侈虐已甚，形象兆見，此錢成，必四道而去。及京師大亂，錢果流布四海。) Houhanshu vol. 78. ^ (復以忠為車騎將軍，百餘日罷。) Houhanshu vol. 78. Fan, Ye (5th century). Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu). Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian. Emperor Ling of Han House of Liu Born: 156 Died: 13 May 189 Regnal titles Preceded by Emperor Huan of Han Emperor of China Eastern Han 168–189 with Empress Dowager Dou (168–172) Succeeded by Emperor Shao of Han v t e Emperors of the Han dynasty Western Han Gaozu Hui Qianshao Houshao Wen Jing Wu Zhao Liu He Xuan Yuan Cheng Ai Ping Ruzi 漢 (Xin dynasty) (Wang Mang) Lülin & Chimei Gengshi Liu Penzi Eastern Han Guangwu Ming Zhang He Shang An Marquess of Beixiang Shun Chong Zhi Huan Ling Liu Bian Xian Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → 3 Kingdoms → Jìn / 16 Kingdoms → S. Dynasties / N. Dynasties → Sui → Tang → 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms → Liao / Song / W. Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → ROC / PRC v t e Notable people at the end of the Han dynasty (189–220) Emperors Ling Shao Xian Empresses and noble ladies Empress Dowager Dong Empress He Consort Tang Empress Fu Empress Cao Regents He Jin Dong Zhuo Wang Yun Li Jue & Guo Si Cao Cao Cao Pi Warlords Bao Xin Bian Zhang Ding Yuan Gao Gan Gongsun Du Gongsun Gong Gongsun Kang Gongsun Zan Han Fu Han Sui Han Xuan Jin Xuan Kong Rong Kong Zhou Liu Bei Liu Biao Liu Chong Liu Cong Liu Du Liu Qi Liu Xun Liu Yan Liu Yao Liu Yu Liu Zhang Lü Bu Ma Chao Ma Teng Qiao Mao Shi Xie Sun Ce Sun Jian Sun Quan Tao Qian Wang Kuang Wang Lang Xu Gong Yan Baihu Yang Qiu Yuan Tan Yuan Shao Yuan Shang Yuan Shu Yuan Xi Yuan Yi Zang Hong Ze Rong Zhang Jue Zhang Lu Zhang Xiu Zhang Yan Zhang Yang Zhao Fan Civil officers Cai Yong Cao Song Chang Lin Chen Deng Chen Gong Chen Gui Chen Ji Chen Lin Cheng Yu Chenggong Ying Cui Yan Ding Yi Fa Zheng Gao You Gu Hui Gu Shao Guan Jing Guo Jia Guo Tu Guo Yuan Han Ji He Kui Hua Xin Jia Xu Jian Yong Ju Shou Kuai Liang Kuai Yue Li Ru Liang Mao Liu Dai Liu Fu Liu Hong Lou Gui Lu Kang Ma Liang Ma Midi Mao Jie Mi Fang Mi Zhu Pang Ji Pang Tong Pang Xi Pang Yu Pei Qian Peng Yang Qiao Xuan Qin Song Shen Pei Sheng Xian Shi Ren Sima Fang Sima Lang Sima Zhi Su Ze Sun Qian Tian Feng Wang Can Wang Fu Wang Xiu Wei Kang Wu Zhi Xin Pi Xin Ping Xing Yong Xu Shao Xu Shu Xu Yi Xu You Xun Chen Xun Shuang Xun You Xun Yu Xun Yue Yan Wen Yan Xiang Yang Biao Yang Jun Yang Xiu Ying Shao Yuan Huan Zhang Cheng Zhang Fan Zhang Hong Zhang Miao Zhang Song Zhang Wen Zhang Yu Zhang Zhao Zhao Ang Zhao Qi Zhong Yao Zhou Qun Zhuge Liang Zhuge Xuan Military officers Bu Zhi Cai Mao Cao Bao Cao Chun Cao Hong Cao Ren Cao Xing Cao Xiu Cao Zhang Chen Shi Chen Wu Cheng Pu Chunyu Qiong Dian Wei Ding Feng Dong Cheng Dong Xi Fan Chou Gan Ning Gao Shun Gu Li Guan Yu Guan Ping Guo Yuan Han Dang Han Hao Han Xian Hao Meng He Qi Hou Cheng Hu Zhen Hua Xiong Huang Gai Huang Quan Huang Zhong Huang Zu Huangfu Song Huo Jun Ji Ling Jia Kui Jiang Qin Jiang Xu Li Dian Li Su Li Tong Li Yan Liao Hua Ling Cao Ling Tong Liu Feng Lu Su Lu Xun Lu Zhi Lü Fan Lü Meng Man Chong Meng Da Niu Fu Niu Jin Pan Zhang Pang De Qian Zhao Qin Yilu Qu Yi Ren Jun Sima Yi Sun Ben Sun Fu Sun Jiao Sun Jing Sun Yi Sun Yu Taishi Ci Tian Kai Wang Zhong Wen Chou Wen Ping Wu Jing Wu Yi Xiahou Dun Xiahou Yuan Xu Chu Xu Huang Xu Rong Xu Sheng Yan Liang Yan Rou Yan Xing Yan Yan Yang Feng Yin Li Yu Jin Yue Jin Zang Ba Zhang Fei Zhang He Zhang Ji Zhang Liao Zhang Ren Zhao Lei Zhao Yan Zhao Yun Zhou Ang Zhou Tai Zhou Xin Zhou Yu Zhou Yu (Renming) Zhu Huan Zhu Jun Zhu Ling Zhu Ran Zhu Zhi Zhuge Jin Other notable women Lady Bian Bu Lianshi Cai Yan Lady Gan Guan Yinping Huang Yueying Lady Mi Pang E Two Qiaos Lady Sun Wang Yi Lady Wu Zhang Changpu Zhang Chunhua Lady Zhen Xin Xianying Other notable figures Bing Yuan Cao Ang Cao Chong Cao Xiong Cao Zhi Gan Ji Guan Lu Hua Tuo Huang Chengyan Ji Ben Jian Shuo Jiang Gan Liu Bao Mi Heng Qiuliju Sima Hui Sun Kuang Tadun Ten Attendants Tian Chou Zhang Zhongjing Zuo Ci Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor_Ling_of_Han&oldid=1027308603" Categories: 156 births 189 deaths 2nd-century births 2nd-century deaths Eastern Han dynasty emperors Han dynasty imperials related to the Three Kingdoms Child rulers from Asia 2nd-century Chinese monarchs People from Baoding Han dynasty poets Poets from Hebei Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2009 All articles needing additional references Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Chinese-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 05:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1691	----	American Journal of Philology - Wikipedia American Journal of Philology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "American Journal of Philology" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Academic journal American Journal of Philology Discipline Philology Language English Edited by David H. J. Larmour Publication details History 1880–present Publisher Johns Hopkins University Press (United States) Frequency Quarterly Standard abbreviations ISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2) NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt ) ISO 4 Am. J. Philol. Indexing CODEN · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt) MIAR · NLM (alt) · Scopus ISSN 0002-9475 (print) 1086-3168 (web) JSTOR 00029475 OCLC no. 33891035 Links Journal homepage Online access The American Journal of Philology is a quarterly academic journal established in 1880 by the classical scholar Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, published by the Johns Hopkins University Press. It covers the field of philology, and related areas of classical literature, linguistics, history, philosophy, and cultural studies. In 2003, the journal received the award for Best Single Issue from the Professional and Scholarly Publishing Division of the Association of American Publishers.[citation needed] The current editor-in-chief is Joseph Farrell (University of Pennsylvania). External links[edit] Official website American Journal of Philology at Project MUSE This article about a journal on Classical studies is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Journal_of_Philology&oldid=933328489" Categories: Publications established in 1880 English-language journals Quarterly journals Johns Hopkins University Press academic journals Classics journals Linguistics journal stubs Philology stubs Classical studies stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2019 All articles lacking sources Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Quarterly journals (infobox) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Deutsch Español Français Íslenska Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 31 December 2019, at 07:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1698	----	Cite This Page - Wikipedia Help Cite This Page Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents APA MLA MHRA Chicago CSE Bluebook AMA BibTeX wiki IMPORTANT NOTE: Most educators and professionals do not consider it appropriate to use tertiary sources such as encyclopedias as a sole source for any information—citing an encyclopedia as an important reference in footnotes or bibliographies may result in censure or a failing grade. Wikipedia articles should be used for background information, as a reference for correct terminology and search terms, and as a starting point for further research. As with any community-built reference, there is a possibility for error in Wikipedia's content—please check your facts against multiple sources and read our disclaimers for more information. Bibliographic details for "Marcus Aurelius" Page name: Marcus Aurelius Author: Wikipedia contributors Publisher: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Date of last revision: 6 June 2021 17:51 UTC Date retrieved: 14 June 2021 16:47 UTC Permanent link: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636 Primary contributors: Revision history statistics Page Version ID: 1027202636 Please remember to check your manual of style, standards guide or instructor's guidelines for the exact syntax to suit your needs. For more detailed advice, see Citing Wikipedia. Citation styles for "Marcus Aurelius" APA style Wikipedia contributors. (2021, June 6). Marcus Aurelius. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:47, June 14, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636 MLA Style Manual Wikipedia contributors. "Marcus Aurelius." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 6 Jun. 2021. Web. 14 Jun. 2021. MHRA style Wikipedia contributors, 'Marcus Aurelius', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 6 June 2021, 17:51 UTC, <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636> [accessed 14 June 2021] Chicago style Wikipedia contributors, "Marcus Aurelius," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636 (accessed June 14, 2021). CBE/CSE style Wikipedia contributors. Marcus Aurelius [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2021 Jun 6, 17:51 UTC [cited 2021 Jun 14]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636. Bluebook style Marcus Aurelius, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636 (last visited June 14, 2021). AMA style Wikipedia contributors. Marcus Aurelius. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. June 6, 2021, 17:51 UTC. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636. Accessed June 14, 2021. BibTeX entry @misc{ enwiki:1027202636, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Marcus Aurelius --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2021", url = "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636", note = "[Online; accessed 14-June-2021]" } When using the LaTeX package url (\usepackage{url} somewhere in the preamble), which tends to give much more nicely formatted web addresses, the following may be preferred: @misc{ enwiki:1027202636, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Marcus Aurelius --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2021", howpublished = "\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1027202636}", note = "[Online; accessed 14-June-2021]" } Wikipedia talk pages Markup [[Marcus Aurelius]] ([[Special:Permalink/1027202636|this version]]) Result Marcus Aurelius (this version) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CiteThisPage" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1733	----	Legio IX Hispana - Wikipedia Legio IX Hispana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman legion "9th Legion" redirects here. For the Polish regiment, see 9th Legions' Infantry Regiment. Legio IX Hispana Map of the Roman empire in 125 AD, under emperor Hadrian, showing the IX Hispana's last attested location at Noviomagus Batavorum on the Rhine (Nijmegen, Netherlands) Active Before 58 BC to sometime in the 2nd century AD Country Roman Republic and Roman Empire Type Roman legion (Marian) Role Infantry assault Size c. 5,400 Garrison/HQ Hispania Tarraconensis 41–c.13 BC ? Pannonia 9–43 AD Eboracum (Britannia) 71–c.121 ? Noviomagus (Germania Inferior) c. 121–130 Nickname(s) The Lost Legion Mascot(s) Bull Engagements Gallic Wars (58–51 BC) Cantabrian Wars (29–19 BC) Roman conquest of Britain Boudican revolt Battle of Mons Graupius Commanders Notable commanders Julius Caesar Quintus Petillius Cerialis Gnaeus Julius Agricola Legio IX Hispana ("9th Legion – Spanish"),[1] also written Legio VIIII Hispana,[2] was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that existed from the 1st century BC until at least AD 120. The legion fought in various provinces of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was stationed in Britain following the Roman invasion in 43 AD. The legion disappears from surviving Roman records after c. AD 120 and there is no extant account of what happened to it.[3] The unknown fate of the legion has been the subject of considerable research and speculation. One theory (per historian Theodor Mommsen) was that the legion was wiped out in action in northern Britain soon after 108, the date of the latest datable inscription of the Ninth found in Britain, perhaps during a rising of northern tribes against Roman rule. This view was popularised by the 1954 novel The Eagle of the Ninth in which the legion is said to have marched into Caledonia (modern day Scotland), after which it was "never heard of again". This theory fell out of favour among modern scholars as successive inscriptions of IX Hispana were found in the site of the legionary base at Nijmegen (Netherlands), suggesting the Ninth may have been based there from c. 120, later than the legion's supposed annihilation in Britain.[4] The Nijmegen evidence has led to suggestions that IX Hispana was destroyed in later conflicts of the 2nd century. Suggestions include the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135) or Marcus Aurelius' war against Parthia (161–166) in Armenia.[5] However, some scholars have ascribed the Nijmegen evidence to a mere detachment of IX Hispana, not the whole legion. In any event, it is clear that the IX Hispana did not exist during the reign of the emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211), as it is not included in two identical but independent lists of the 33 legions existing in this period. Contents 1 Republican army (to 30 BC) 2 Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 130?) 2.1 Britain (AD 43 – at least 108) 2.2 Germania Inferior (108? – 130?) 3 Theories about the Ninth's disappearance 4 Known members 5 Epigraphic inscriptions 6 In fiction and popular culture 6.1 Reenactment groups 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Republican army (to 30 BC)[edit] The origin of the legion is uncertain, but a 9th legion seems to have participated in the siege of Asculum during the Social War in 90 BC.[6] When Julius Caesar became governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 58 BC, he inherited four legions, numbered VII VIII IX X, that were already based there. The Ninth (IX) may have been quartered in Aquileia "to guard against attacks from the Illyrians".[7] Caesar created two more legions (XI and XII), using all six for his attack on the Helvetii initiating the Gallic wars. The Caesarian Ninth Legion fought in the battles of Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus (48 BC) and in the African campaign of 46 BC. After his final victory, Caesar disbanded the legion and settled the veterans in the area of Picenum.[8] Following Caesar's assassination, Caesar's ally Ventidius Bassus made attempts to recreate the 7th, 8th and 9th legions, but "it is not clear that any of these survived even to the time of Philippi".[9] Octavian later recalled the veterans of the Ninth to fight against the rebellion of Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. After defeating Sextus, they were sent to the province of Macedonia. The Ninth remained with Octavian in his war of 31 BC against Mark Antony and fought by his side in the Battle of Actium. Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 130?)[edit] See also: Imperial Roman army Memorial to Lucius Duccius Rufinus, a standard bearer of the Ninth, Yorkshire Museum, York With Octavian, whom the Senate later titled Augustus, established as sole ruler of the Roman world, the legion was sent to Hispania to take part in the large-scale campaign against the Cantabrians (25–13 BC). The nickname Hispana ("stationed in Hispania") is first found during the reign of Augustus and probably originated at that time. After this, the legion was probably part of the imperial army in the Rhine borderlands that was campaigning against the Germanic tribes. Following the abandonment of the eastern Rhine area (after the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9), the Ninth was relocated in Pannonia. Britain (AD 43 – at least 108)[edit] In AD 43, the legion most likely participated in the Roman invasion of Britain led by the emperor Claudius and general Aulus Plautius, because they soon appear amongst the provincial garrison. In AD 50, the Ninth was one of two legions that defeated the forces of Caratacus at Caer Caradoc. Around the same year, the legion constructed a fort, Lindum Colonia, at Lincoln. Under the command of Caesius Nasica they put down the first revolt of Venutius between 52 and 57. The Ninth suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Camulodunum under Quintus Petillius Cerialis in the rebellion of Boudica (61), when most of the foot-soldiers were killed in a disastrous attempt to relieve the besieged city of Camulodunum (Colchester). Only the cavalry escaped. The legion was later reinforced with legionaries from the Germania provinces. When Cerialis returned as governor of Britain ten years later, he took command of the Ninth once more in a successful campaign against the Brigantes in 71–72, to subdue north-central Britain. Around this time they constructed a new fortress at York (Eboracum), as shown by finds of tile-stamps from the site.[10] The Ninth participated in Agricola's invasion of Caledonia (modern Scotland) in 82–83. According to Tacitus, the legion narrowly escaped destruction when the Caledonians beyond the Forth launched a surprise attack at night on their fort. The Caledonians "burst upon them as they were terrified in their sleep". In desperate hand-to-hand fighting the Caledonians entered the camp, but Agricola was able to send cavalry to relieve the legion. Seeing the relief force, "the men of the Ninth Legion recovered their spirit, and sure of their safety, fought for glory", pushing back the Caledonians.[11] The legion also participated in the decisive Battle of Mons Graupius. The last attested activity of the Ninth in Britain is during the rebuilding in stone of the legionary fortress at York (Eboracum) in 108. This is recorded in an inscribed stone tablet discovered in 1864, now displayed in the Yorkshire Museum in York.[12] Germania Inferior (108? – 130?)[edit] Several inscriptions attesting IX Hispana have been found in the site of the legionary fortress on the lower Rhine river at Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen, Netherlands). These include some tile-stamps (dated 104–120); and a silver-plated bronze pendant, found in the 1990s, that was part of a phalera (military medal), with "LEG HISP IX" inscribed on the reverse.[13] In addition, an altar to Apollo, dating from this period, was found at nearby Aquae Granni (Aachen, Germany), erected in fulfillment of a vow, by Lucius Latinius Macer, who describes himself as primus pilus (chief centurion) and as praefectus castrorum ("prefect of the camp", i.e. third-in-command) of IX Hispana.[14] (it was commonplace for chief centurions, on completion of their single-year term of office, to be promoted to praefectus castrorum). The archaeological evidence thus appears to indicate that elements of IX Hispana were present at Noviomagus sometime after 104 (when the previous incumbent legion, X Gemina, was transferred to the Danube) and that IX was probably replaced by a detachment of legion XXX Ulpia Victrix not long after AD 120.[15] Less clear is whether the whole IX legion was at Nijmegen or simply a detachment. The evidence for the presence of senior officers such as Macer convinced several scholars that the Ninth Legion as a whole was based there between 121 and 130.[4] It may have been both: first a detachment, later followed by the rest of the legion: a vexillatio Britannica ("British detachment") is also attested at Nijmegen in this period.[16] However, it is unclear whether this detachment was drawn from the IX Hispana (and its attached auxiliary regiments) alone, or from a mix of various British-based units. Theories about the Ninth's disappearance[edit] A stamp of the Ninth legion from the fortress at Caerleon in Wales. The last definite attestation of the Ninth: a stone inscription at York dated 108, on display in the Yorkshire Museum. The Nijmegen finds, dating to c. 120, were, in 2015, the latest records of Legion IX found. The Ninth was apparently no longer in existence after 197. Two lists of the legions survive from this era, one inscribed on a column found in Rome (CIL VI 3492) and the other a list of legions in existence "today" provided by the contemporary Greco-Roman historian Dio Cassius, writing c. 210–232 (Roman History LV.23–24). Both these lists date from after 197, as both include the 3 Parthica legions founded by Septimius Severus in that year. Both lists provide an identical list of 33 legions. Neither includes a "IX Hispana". It thus appears that IX Hispana disappeared sometime in the period 120–197. The traditional theory is that the Ninth was destroyed in a war on Britain's northern frontier against the indigenous Celtic tribes. According to the eminent 19th-century German classicist Theodor Mommsen, "under Hadrian there was a terrible catastrophe here, apparently an attack on the fortress of Eboracum [York] and the annihilation of the legion stationed there, the very same Ninth that had fought so unluckily in the Boudican revolt."[12] He suggested that a revolt of the Brigantes soon after 108 was the most likely explanation. Mommsen cited as evidence the Roman historian Marcus Cornelius Fronto, writing in the 160s AD, who told the emperor Marcus Aurelius: "Indeed, when your grandfather Hadrian held imperial power, what great numbers of soldiers were killed by the Jews, what great numbers by the Britons".[17] The emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138) visited Britain in person around 122 AD, when he launched the construction of Hadrian's Wall because, according to one Roman source, "the Britons could not be kept under Roman control".[18] It is plausible that Hadrian was responding to a military disaster.[19] However, there is no archaeological evidence of it around 120. Mommsen's thesis was published long before the first traces of IX Hispana were found at Nijmegen. As a result of these, and of inscriptions proving that two senior officers, who were deputy commanders of the Ninth in c. 120, lived on for several decades to lead distinguished public careers, led to the Mommsen theory falling out of favour with many scholars. These now suggest later conflicts in other theatres as possible scenes of IX Hispana's demise: The Second Jewish Revolt against the Romans in Judea that broke out in 132. It was reported that the Romans suffered heavy casualties in this war, whose start-date fits neatly with the estimated time of IX Hispana's departure from Nijmegen (120–130). In this scenario, the Ninth may have been dispatched to Judea to reinforce the locally based legions, but was heavily defeated by Jewish forces and the remnants of the unit disbanded. However, another legion, XXII Deiotariana, normally based in Egypt, is actually documented in Judea at this time and its surviving datable records also cease c. 120. It is possible that both legions were destroyed by the Jews, but if so this would rate as the worst Roman military disaster since the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) when 3 legions were lost. The emperor Marcus Aurelius' Parthian War (161–166) against King Vologases IV. According to Greco-Roman historian Cassius Dio, a Parthian army led by the general Chosroes surrounded and annihilated an unspecified Roman legion in Armenia. This led to the suicide of its commander, the governor of Cappadocia, Marcus Sedatius Severianus.[20] At this time, there were two legions permanently stationed in Cappadocia, the XII Fulminata and the XV Apollinaris. Both these units are attested as operational well beyond AD 200, so neither could have been the legion destroyed by the Parthians. The theory that the Ninth was the lost legion has the drawback that there is a complete lack of evidence that the Ninth was present in the East in the period 130–160. Some scholars argue that the legion referred to by Dio was the XXII Deiotariana, but if so, the latter could not have been annihilated by the Jews thirty years earlier. Several scholars continue to argue that destruction in Britain is the most likely scenario for the Ninth's disappearance. Russell argues that "by far the most plausible answer to the question 'what happened to the Ninth' is that they fought and died in Britain, disappearing in the late 110s or early 120s when the province was in disarray".[21][22] Such scholars criticise the assumptions of those who extrapolate from inscription evidence, arguing that it is easy to confuse evidence about different persons with the same name. It is highly unlikely that if the legion continued in existence up to the Armenian war of 161, no records at all later than c. 120 would be known. Lawrence Keppie says that "no inscriptions recording the building activities of the legion or the lives and careers of its members have come from the East", suggesting that if the legion did leave Britain, it ceased to exist very soon afterwards.[23] Russell argues that "there is no evidence that the Ninth were ever taken out of Britain." He has claimed that the tile stamps found at Nijmegen cannot be dated to the period after 120, but "all seem to date to the 80s AD, when detachments of the Ninth were indeed on the Rhine fighting Germanic tribes."[21] Keppie also says that the tiles cannot be securely dated, but suggests that they date from c. 105 during a temporary absence of the legion from Britain.[23] However, Keppie does not support the theory that the legion met its end in Britain. He suggests that the legion may have been withdrawn from York around 117 to take part in the war in Parthia at the end of Trajan's reign. Keppie suggests that it was the legion's absence elsewhere that encouraged a native uprising, obliging Hadrian to send the Legio VI Victrix to Britain.[23] In conclusion, the fate of the Ninth remains the subject of vigorous debate among scholars.[12] As Sheppard Frere noted in 1967, "further evidence is needed before more can be said".[24] Known members[edit] Name Rank Time frame Province Source Caesius Nasica[25] legatus legionis c. 50 Britannica Tacitus, Annales, XII.40 Quintus Petillius Cerialis[26] legatus legionis 59–61 Britannica Tacitus, Agricola 7, 8, 17; Annales XIV.32 Gaius Caristanius Fronto[27] legatus legionis c. 76–79 Britannica ILS 9485 Lucius Aninius Sextius Florentinus[28] legatus legionis 118–120 Britannica CIL III, 87 Lucius Duccius Rufinus standard-bearer ? Britannica ? Titus[29] tribunus laticlavius c. 60 Britannica Suetonius, Divus Titus 4.1 Lucius Roscius Aelianus Maecius Celer[30] tribunus laticlavius 83 Britannica CIL XIV, 3612 Lucius Burbuleius Optatus Ligarianus[31] tribunus laticlavius c. 115 Britannica CIL X, 6006 Lucius Aemilius Carus[32] tribunus laticlavius c. 122 Britannica CIL VI, 1333 = ILS 1077 Lucius Novius Crispinus Martialis Saturninus[33] tribunus laticlavius c. 125 Britannica CIL VIII, 2747 Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior tribunus laticlavius c. 145 Britannica CIL XI, 5670 Epigraphic inscriptions[edit] - Monumentum / (...) Quirina Quintillus miles legionis IX Hispanae annorum (...) Pisoni filius posuit (...). Leon (Legionem), Spain. HEp 9, 1999, 405. In fiction and popular culture[edit] The Ninth Legion's mysterious disappearance has made it a popular subject for historical fiction, fantasy and science fiction. The Silchester eagle, the Roman eagle that inspired Sutcliff's novel. According to Reading Museum, it "is not a legionary eagle but has been immortalized as such by Rosemary Sutcliff."[34] In Rosemary Sutcliff's 1954 historical novel The Eagle of the Ninth, a young Roman officer, Marcus Flavius Aquila, is trying to recover the Eagle standard of his father's legion beyond Hadrian's Wall. A Home Service radio dramatisation of The Eagle of the Ninth was broadcast on Children's Hour in about 1956. In Alan Garner's 1973 novel Red Shift, one narrative involves a group of Roman soldiers who are survivors of the Legion's destruction, trying to survive in hostile, 2nd-century Cheshire. In Karl Edward Wagner's 1976 fantasy novel Legion from the Shadows (featuring Robert E. Howard's Bran Mak Morn), the survivors of the Ninth flee underground where they interbreed with the Worms of the Earth. A BBC television serial was made of The Eagle of the Ninth in 1977. The 1979 historical novel Legions of the Mists by Amanda Cockrell recounts the destruction of the Ninth Hispania by an attack by combined tribes in Scotland. In David Gemmell's "Stones of Power" historical fantasy series, (1988–1991) the Ninth have been trapped in Limbo and are released by the protagonists (Uther Pendragon in Ghost King and Alexander the Great in Dark Prince (1991)) to help in battles. In Will Murray's 1993 Doc Savage novel, The Forgotten Realm,[35] the Ninth Hispana founded a city called Novum Eboracum ("New York") in the African Congo, surviving until at least the 1930s. A full-cast radio dramatization of The Eagle of the Ninth was broadcast by BBC Radio 4 in 1996.[36] In Marion Zimmer Bradley's Lady of Avalon historical fantasy novel, (1997) the Ninth is destroyed in a battle with the native Britons, from which the hero Gawen escapes to return to Avalon. In Susanna Kearsley's 1997 novel The Shadowy Horses, an archaeologist believes he has found the remains of a fort that housed the Ninth Legion in remote Eyemouth, Scotland.[37] N. M. Browne's 2000 Warriors of Alavna accounts for the disappearance of the Legion by transporting it to an alternative reality. Valerio Massimo Manfredi's 2002 historical novel L'ultima legione (The Last Legion) depicts the Ninth Legion as being part of the legend of King Arthur. Jim Butcher's Codex Alera fantasy series (2004–2009) is populated by the descendants of the Ninth Legion and its camp followers, who were transported to the world of Carna.[38] The 2006 album Caledonia by German Celtic metal band Suidakra includes a song "The IXth Legion" about the legion's fight with the Picts. The 2007 movie The Last Legion based upon the Manfredi novel. In Stephen Lorne Bennett's 2010 historical novel Last of the Ninth the Ninth Legion is destroyed by the Parthians under General Chosroes, in Cappadocia in 161 AD. The 2010 movie Centurion follows the destiny of the Ninth Legion, as seen from the perspective of centurion Quintus Dias. The 2011 movie The Eagle is based on the book The Eagle of the Ninth. The 2013 book The Eagle has Fallen written by Brian Young also subscribes to the theory that the Legion was destroyed in Britain. The 2017 Doctor Who episode "The Eaters of Light" features the remnants of the Ninth Legion, which was wiped out by an extradimensional being. In Marc Alan Edelheit's 2017 book Lost Legio IX: The Karus Saga the remains of the IXth, about to be destroyed by the native Britons, find themselves transported to another planet where they will rebuild a Roman civilization. In the TV series Britannia[39] In Kate Atkinson's novel Behind the Scenes at the Museum, set in 20th-century York, the ghosts of the members of Legio IX—together with those of people from other periods in York's history—celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 and raise aloft their legion's Eagle in the new Queen's honour. In Robert Kroese's Alternative history "The Iron Dragon" series, the 9th is wiped out when time travellers, escaping the Judean Revolt, drop a malfunctioning proton reactor on them. Reenactment groups[edit] Several historical reenactment groups play the role of the Ninth Legion: The Vicus (UK) represents a vexillation of the Ninth[40] Legio IX Hispana (US)[41] IX Legion Hispana (UK)[42] Legio IX Hispana Sydney (Aust)[43] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal List of people who disappeared pre-1970 List of Roman legions Castra Limes (Roman Empire) Structural history of the Roman military Silchester eagle References[edit] ^ E. Ritterling, "Legio (64)", in Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Band XII, Halbband XXIV (1925), cols. 1664–1670 ^ "Legio VIIII Hispana - Livius". livius.org. ^ Campbell, Duncan B (2018). The Fate of the Ninth. The curious disappearance of one of Rome's legions. Bocca della Verità Publishing / Kindle Direct Publishing. ISBN 978-1-791-76833-1. ^ a b Campbell, Fate of the Ninth, ch. 11 ^ Campbell, Fate of the Ninth, ch. 12. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire. London: Batsford. p. 68. ISBN 0-7134-3651-4. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire. London: Batsford. p. 208. ISBN 0-7134-3651-4. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1983). Colonisation and veteran Settlement in Italy, 47–14 BCE. London: British School at Rome. pp. 54. ISBN 0-904152-06-5. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire. London: Batsford. p. 133. ISBN 0-7134-3651-4. ^ Wright, R. P. (1978). "Tile-Stamps of the Ninth Legion found in Britain". Britannia. 9: 379–382. JSTOR 525953. ^ Herbert W. Benario, Tacitus – Agricola, Germany, and Dialogue on Orators, Hackett Publishing, 2006, p. 42. ^ a b c D. B. Campbell, "The Fate of the Ninth: the Curious Disappearance of the VIIII Legio Hispana", Ancient Warfare, IV-5, 2010, pp. 48–53. ^ AE (1996) 1107 ^ AE (1968) 323 ^ Willems & Enckevort (2009): Ulpia Noviomagus (Journal of Roman Archaeology supp. series no. 73) p. 56 ^ Willems & Enckevort (2009) 56 ^ Fronto Parthian War 2, 220 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae Hadrian, 5, 1 ^ e.g. Breeze, D. & Dobson, B. (2000). Hadrian's Wall (4th ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 0-14-027182-1. ^ Dio LXXI.2 ^ a b Russell, Miles (May 2011). "What Happened to Britain's Lost Roman Legion?". BBC History Magazine: 40–45. ^ Russell, Miles (2010). Bloodline: The Celtic Kings of Roman Britain. Amberley. pp. 180–85. ISBN 978-1848682382. ^ a b c Lawrence Keppie, "The Fate of the Ninth Legion: a problem for the Eastern Provinces?", in Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971–2000, pp. 247 ff. ^ Frere, S. S. (1987). Britannia. A History of Roman Britain (Third, extensively revised ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 124. ISBN 0-7102-1215-1. ^ Anthony Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 231 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 231 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 234 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 238 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 269 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 270 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 271f ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 274f ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 276f ^ Reading Museum's Silchester Eagle PDF Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Robeson, Kenneth (1993). Doc Savage: The Forgotten Realm (1st ed.). Bantam Spectra. ISBN 0-553-29555-1. ^ BBC, Eagle of the ninth. ISBN 1-4084-6776-3 ^ Amazon reviews of The Shadowy Horses. ^ "Q&A with Jim Butcher". ^ Named in episode 4 of season 1, Britannia ^ "What We Do: Roman Units". Vicus – Romans and Britons. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2014. The Vicus represents two Roman military units. A vexillation of Legio IX Hispania: The choice of portraying Legion IX was an easy one as most of the legions that were present during the invasion and early occupation of Britain were already being portrayed in the UK and also the ninth does seem to have been involved in many of the significant military events.... ^ "Legio IX Hispana: Bringing Rome to Life!". Legio IX Hispana. ^ "IX Legion Hispana is a small Peterborough based group that represents mid first century military and civilian life focused on the areas occupied by the original legion after its arrival in Britain". IX Legion Hispana. ^ https://www.facebook.com/LegioIXHispanaSydney/ External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Legio IX Hispana. The fate of the Ninth: The curious disappearance of Legio VIIII Hispana Photograph of a stamped tile from York Today the ninth legion v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legio_IX_Hispana&oldid=1025018815" Categories: Roman legions Roman legions in Britain Military units and formations established in the 1st century BC Military units and factions of the Bar Kokhba revolt Missing person cases in the United Kingdom Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from February 2021 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Français Frysk 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 May 2021, at 08:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1736	----	Arulenus Rusticus - Wikipedia Arulenus Rusticus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Stoic philosopher and senator (c. 35-93) Quintus Junius Arulenus Rusticus (c. 35 – 93 AD) was a Roman Senator and a friend and follower of Thrasea Paetus, and like him an ardent admirer of Stoic philosophy. Arulenus Rusticus attained a suffect consulship in the nundinium of September to December 92 with Gaius Julius Silanus as his colleague.[1] He was one of a group of Stoics who opposed the perceived tyranny and autocratic tendencies of certain emperors, known today as the Stoic Opposition. His contemporaries referred to him in varying ways. The Fasti of Potentia and Ostia call him Q. Arulenus Rusticus, while Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Dio Cassius call him Arulenus Rusticus or Rusticus Arulenus, yet Suetonius calls him Junius Rusticus. That his brother was a friend of Pliny the Younger named Junius Mauricus, the senator Junius Rusticus (attested as alive in AD 29) is commonly identified as his father, and Quintus Junius Rusticus (suffect consul in 133 and ordinary consul in 162) as his grandson, only increases the perplexity. In his monograph on Roman naming practices, Olli Salomies attempted to determine to which gens Arulenus Rusticus belonged—Aruleni or Junii—only to admit there is no better explanation than the suggestion of Ronald Syme that Arulenus "is either adoptive or maternal—and accorded preference to the indistinctive 'Iunius'".[2] Life[edit] Arulenus Rusticus was Tribune of the plebs in AD 66, in which year Thrasea was condemned to death by the Roman Senate; he would have placed his veto upon the senatus consultum, had not Thrasea prevented him, as he would only have brought certain destruction upon himself without saving the life of the defendant.[3] He was praetor in the civil wars after the death of Nero (69 AD), when as one of the senate's ambassadors to the Flavian armies he was wounded by the soldiers of Petilius Cerialis.[4] Although Arulenus Rusticus attained a suffect consulship during the reign of Domitian, in the following year he was condemned to death because he wrote a panegyric to Thrasea. When I was once lecturing in Rome, that famous Rusticus, whom Domitian later killed through envy at his repute, was among my hearers, and a soldier came through the audience and delivered to him a letter from the emperor. There was a silence and I, too, made a pause, that he might read his letter; but he refused and did not break the seal until I had finished my lecture and the audience had dispersed. Because of this incident everyone admired the dignity of the man.[5] Suetonius attributes to him a panegyric on Helvidius Priscus, but the latter work was composed by Herennius Senecio, as we learn both from Tacitus and Pliny the Younger. See also[edit] Junia (gens) References[edit] ^ Paul Gallivan, "The Fasti for A. D. 70-96", Classical Quarterly, 31 (1981), pp. 191, 218 ^ Salomies, Adoptive and Polyonymous Nomenclature in the Roman Empire (Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1992), pp. 150f ^ Tacitus, Annales, XVI.26 ^ Tacitus, Historiae, III.80 ^ Plutarch. On being a busybody. p. 15. Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 26, Histories, iii. 80, Agricola, 2 Suetonius, Domitian, 10 Dio Cassius, lxvii. 13 Pliny, Epistles, i. 5, 14; iii. 11 Plutarch, de Curiositate 15 (Moralia 822D-E) Prosopographia Imperii Romani (2nd ed.) I 730 R. Syme, 'A Political Group', Roman Papers VII, pp. 568–87  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Rusticus, Junius (2)". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. p. 680. Political offices Preceded by Lucius Stertinius Avitus, and Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 92 with Gaius Julius Silanus Succeeded by Sextus Pompeius Collega, and Quintus Peducaeus Priscinus as ordinary consuls Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arulenus_Rusticus&oldid=1016907179" Categories: Junii 30s births 93 deaths Ancient Roman politicians Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman-era Stoic philosophers Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire Philosophers of Roman Italy 1st-century Romans 1st-century philosophers 1st-century executions Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Български Català Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2021, at 18:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1765	----	Annia Cornificia Faustina - Wikipedia Annia Cornificia Faustina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sister of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius For the 1st century BC poet, see Cornificia. For the daughter of Marcus Aurelius, see Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor. Annia Cornificia Faustina (122/123 – between 152 and 158) was the youngest child and only daughter of the praetor Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. The parents of Cornificia came from wealthy senatorial families who were of consular rank. Her brother was the future Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and both were born and raised in Rome. Contents 1 History 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 Sources 4 References 5 External links History[edit] In 124, the father of Cornificia died and she and her brother were raised by their mother and their paternal grandfather, the Roman Senator Marcus Annius Verus, who died in 138. Relations between her and her brother appeared to be good. Before Cornificia had married, she had settled her paternal inheritance with her brother. Ronald Syme identifies her husband as one of the suffect consuls in 146, recorded in the Fasti Ostienses as Gaius Annianus Verus, but whom he claims had the full name of Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Annianus Verus. He was descended from one of the leading aristocratic and politically influential families in Rome and was a direct descendant of the late Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus, one time suffect consul.[1] Cornificia bore Annianus Verus two children: Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus Ummidia Cornificia Faustina Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000 From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, by Albino Garzetti, 1974 Meditations by Marcus Aurelius Augustan History – Marcus Aurelius References[edit] ^ Syme, "The Ummidii", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 17 (1968), pp. 98f External links[edit] Statue Bust of Annia Cornificia Faustina from a Portuguese Historical Site Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annia_Cornificia_Faustina&oldid=1002812294" Categories: 120s births 150s births 2nd-century Roman women Nerva–Antonine dynasty Annii Cornificii 2nd-century Romans Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Dansk Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-176	----	Trebonianus Gallus - Wikipedia Trebonianus Gallus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 251 to 253 Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus Roman emperor Reign June 251 – August 253 Predecessor Decius and Herennius Etruscus Successor Aemilianus Co-emperors Hostilian (July–November 251) Volusianus (November 251 – August 253) Born 206 Italy Died August 253 (aged 47) Interamna Spouse Afinia Gemina Baebiana Issue Volusianus and Vibia Galla Names Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus[1] (206 – August 253) was Roman emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. Contents 1 Early life 2 Rise to power 3 Death 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Early life[edit] Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected Etruscan senatorial background. He had two children in his marriage with Afinia Gemina Baebiana: Gaius Vibius Volusianus, later Emperor, and a daughter, Vibia Galla. His early career was a typical cursus honorum, with several appointments, both political and military. He was suffect consul and in 250 was made governor of the Roman province of Moesia Superior, an appointment that showed the confidence of Emperor Decius in him. Rise to power[edit] In June 251, Decius and his co-emperor and son Herennius Etruscus died in the Battle of Abrittus at the hands of the Goths they were supposed to punish for raids into the empire. According to rumours supported by Dexippus (a contemporary Greek historian) and the thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Decius' failure was largely owing to Gallus, who had conspired with the invaders. In any case, when the army heard the news, the soldiers proclaimed Gallus emperor, despite Hostilian, Decius' surviving son, ascending the imperial throne in Rome. This action of the army, and the fact that Gallus seems to have been on good terms with Decius' family, makes Dexippus' allegation improbable.[2] Gallus did not back down from his intention to become emperor, but accepted Hostilian as co-emperor, perhaps to avoid the damage of another civil war. Bronze of Gallus dating from the time of his reign as Roman Emperor, the only surviving near-complete full-size 3rd-century Roman bronze (Metropolitan Museum of Art)[3] Anxious to secure his position at Rome and stabilize the situation on the Danube frontier, Gallus made peace with the Goths. Peace terms allowed the Goths to leave Roman territory while keeping their captives and plunder. In addition, it was agreed that they would be paid an annual subsidy.[4] Reaching Rome, Gallus' proclamation was formally confirmed by the Senate, with his son Volusianus being appointed Caesar. On June 24, 251, Decius was deified, but by July 15 Hostilian disappears from history—he may have died in an outbreak of plague.[5] Gallus may have also ordered a localized and uncoordinated persecution of Christians.[6] However, only two incidents are known to us: the exile of Pope Cornelius to Centumcellae, where he died in 253 and the exile of his successor, Pope Lucius, right after his election. The latter was recalled to Rome during the reign of Valerian.[7] Radiate of Trebonianus Gallus. Legend: IMP CAE C VIB TREB GALLVS AVG Like his predecessors, Gallus did not have an easy reign. In the East, an Antiochene nobleman, Mariades, revolted and began ravaging Syria and Cappadocia, then fled to the Persians. Gallus ordered his troops to attack the Persians, but Persian Emperor Shapur I invaded Armenia and destroyed a large Roman army, taking it by surprise at Barbalissos in 253. Shapur I then invaded the defenseless Syrian provinces, capturing all of their legionary posts and ravaging their cities, including Antioch, without any response.[8] Persian invasions were repeated in the following year, but now Uranius Antoninus (a priest originally called Sampsiceramus), a descendant of the royal house of Emesa, confronted Shapur and forced him to retreat. Uranius proclaimed himself emperor,[6] however, and minted coins with his image upon them.[9] On the Danube, Scythian tribes were once again on the loose, despite the peace treaty signed in 251. They invaded Asia Minor by sea, burned the great Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and returned home with plunder. Lower Moesia was also invaded in early 253.[10] Aemilianus, governor of Moesia Superior and Pannonia, took the initiative and defeated the invaders. Death[edit] Trebonianus Gallus. Legend: ΑΥΤΟΚ. Κ. ΓΟ. VIB. TΡΕΒ. ΓΑΛΛΟ. CEB. / ΔΗΜΑΡΧ. ΕΞΟΥCIAC YΠΑΤ. Α, S C, Γ. Greek inscription for IMP C VIB TREB GALLO AVG / MUNICIPAL AUTHORITY CONSUL I, Senatus Consulto, III Since the army was no longer pleased with the Emperor, the soldiers proclaimed Aemilianus emperor. With a usurper, supported by Pauloctus, threatening the throne, Gallus prepared for a fight. He recalled several legions and ordered reinforcements to return to Rome from Gaul under the command of the future emperor Publius Licinius Valerianus. Despite these dispositions, Aemilianus marched onto Italy ready to fight for his claim and caught Gallus at Interamna (modern Terni) before the arrival of Valerianus. What exactly happened there is not clear.[11] Later sources claim that after an initial defeat, Gallus and Volusianus were murdered by their own troops;[10] or Gallus did not have the chance to face Aemilianus at all because his army went over to the usurper.[12] In any case, both Gallus and Volusianus were killed in August 253.[13] Notes[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Potter (2004), pp. 247–248. ^ Bronze portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, 05.30 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 39–40. ^ Potter (2004), p. 248. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, p. 40. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, p. 636. ^ Potter (2004), pp. 248–249. ^ Potter (2004), pp. 249–250. ^ a b Potter (2004), p. 252. ^ See Bray (1997), p. 38, for both versions of the story and their sources. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, p. 41. ^ Bray (1997), p. 38. References[edit] Bray, John. Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics, Wakefield Press, 1997. ISBN 1-86254-337-2 Bowman Alan K., Garnsey Peter, Cameron Averil (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337, Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trebonianus Gallus. Metropolitan Museum of Art: Bronze of Trebonianus Gallus Regnal titles Preceded by Decius Roman Emperor 251–253 Served alongside: Hostilian (251) and Volusianus (251–253) Succeeded by Aemilianus Political offices Preceded by Decius, Herennius Etruscus Consul of the Roman Empire 252 with Volusianus Succeeded by Volusianus, Lucius Valerius Poplicola Balbinus Maximus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1778	----	Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) - Wikipedia Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Near Eastern state, 321 BC – 428 AD This article is about the Kingdom of Armenia during classical antiquity. For a list of other Armenian Kingdoms, see Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation). Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Left: The reconstructed standard of the Artaxiad dynasty Right: The standard of the Arsacid dynasty Armenia at its greatest extent under Tigranes the Great, 69 BC (including vassals) Status Satrapy, Kingdom, Empire, Province Capital Armavir (331–210 BC) Yervandashat (210–176 BC) Artashat (176–77 BC; 69–120 AD) Tigranocerta (77 BC–69 AD) Vagharshapat (120–330) Dvin (336–428) Common languages Armenian (native language) Greek Aramaic Iranian (Parthian and Pahlavi) Religion Zoroastrianism[1] (331 BC–301 AD) Christianity (Armenian Church) (301–428) Government Monarchy King, King of Kings   • 321–317 BC Orontes III • 422–428 Artaxias IV Historical era Antiquity, Middle Ages • Satrapy of Armenia is formed c. 533 BC • Orontes III 331 BC • Battle of Rhandeia 61 AD • Christianity national religion 301 AD • Western Armenia conquered by Byzantium 387 • Armenia conquered by Persia 428 AD Currency Taghand ISO 3166 code AM Preceded by Succeeded by Satrapy of Armenia Byzantine Armenia Persian Armenia Redgate, Anne Elizabeth (2000). The Armenians. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 7. ISBN 0-631-22037-2. Part of a series on the History of Armenia Prehistory Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Legend of Hayk Trialeti-Vanadzor culture Armani Hayasa-Azzi Arme-Shupria Armeno-Phrygians Mushki Nairi Confederation Urartu (Kingdom of Van) Antiquity Satrapy of Armenia Armenia Minor Kingdom of Armenia Armenian Empire Roman Armenia Christianization of Armenia Kingdom of Sophene Kingdom of Commagene Byzantine Armenia Sasanian Armenia Muslim conquest of Armenia Middle Ages Emirate of Armenia Principality of Hamamshen Kingdom of Armenia Kingdom of Vaspurakan Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget Kingdom of Syunik Kingdom of Artsakh Zakarid Armenia Principality of Khachen Mongol Armenia Kingdom of Cilicia Early modern age Iranian Armenia Five Melikdoms Ottoman Armenia Russian Armenia Armenian Oblast Armenian question Armenian genocide Western Armenia National Liberation Movement Modern age First Republic of Armenia Armenian S.S.R. Republic of Mountainous Armenia Contemporary Armenia Republic of Artsakh Timeline • Origins • Etymology v t e The Kingdom of Armenia, also the Kingdom of Greater Armenia,[2] or simply Greater Armenia (Armenian: Մեծ Հայք Mets Hayk;[3] Latin: Armenia Maior), sometimes referred to as the Armenian Empire, was a monarchy in the Ancient Near East which existed from 321 BC to 428 AD. Its history is divided into successive reigns by three royal dynasties: Orontid (321 BC–200 BC),[4][5] Artaxiad (189 BC–12 AD) and Arsacid (52–428). The root of the kingdom lies in one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia called Armenia (Satrapy of Armenia), which was formed from the territory of the Kingdom of Ararat (860 BC–590 BC) after it was conquered by the Median Empire in 590 BC. The satrapy became a kingdom in 321 BC during the reign of the Orontid dynasty after the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great, which was then incorporated as one of the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Seleucid Empire. Under the Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC), the Armenian throne was divided in two – Armenia Maior and Sophene – both of which passed to members of the Artaxiad dynasty in 189 BC. During the Roman Republic's eastern expansion, the Kingdom of Armenia, under Tigranes the Great, reached its peak, from 83 to 69 BC, after it reincorporated Sophene and conquered the remaining territories of the falling Seleucid Empire, effectively ending its existence and raising Armenia into an empire for a brief period, until it was itself conquered by Rome in 69 BC. The remaining Artaxiad kings ruled as clients of Rome until they were overthrown in 12 AD due to their possible allegiance to Rome's main rival in the region, Parthia. During the Roman–Parthian Wars, the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was founded when Tiridates I, a member of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, was proclaimed King of Armenia in 52. Throughout most of its history during this period, Armenia was heavily contested between Rome and Parthia, and the Armenian nobility was divided among pro-Roman, pro-Parthian or neutrals. From 114 to 118, Armenia briefly became a province of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan. The Kingdom of Armenia often served as a client state or vassal at the frontier of the two large empires and their successors, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. In 301, Tiridates III proclaimed Christianity as the state religion of Armenia, making the Armenian kingdom the first state to embrace Christianity officially. During the Byzantine–Sasanian wars, Armenia was ultimately partitioned into Byzantine Armenia in 387 and Persian Armenia in 428. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Orontid dynasty 1.3 Artaxiad dynasty 1.4 Roman rule 1.5 Arsacid dynasty 2 Army 2.1 Under Tigranes the Great 2.2 Ayrudzi 2.3 Legio I Armeniaca-Armenian First Legion 2.4 Legio II Armeniaca-Armenian Second Legion 3 Mythology and pre-Christian religion 3.1 Zoroastrianism 4 Literature 5 Language 6 Capitals 7 Political geography 7.1 Provinces 8 Maps 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links History[edit] See also: History of Armenia Origins[edit] Main article: Origin of the Armenians This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The geographic Armenian Highlands, then known as the highlands of Ararat (Assyrian: Urartu), was originally inhabited by Proto-Armenian tribes which did not yet constitute a unitary state or nation. The highlands were first united by tribes in the vicinity of Lake Van into the Kingdom of Van (Urartian: Biainili). The kingdom competed with Assyria over supremacy in the highlands of Ararat and the Fertile Crescent. Both kingdoms fell to Iranian invaders from the neighbouring East (Medes, followed by Achaemenid Persians) in the 6th century BC. Its territory was reorganized into a satrapy called Armenia (Old Persian: Armina, Elamite: Harminuya, Akkadian: Urashtu). The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the empire's defeat against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, a Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and the Orontids returned, not as satraps, but as kings. Orontid dynasty[edit] Main article: Orontid dynasty This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Orontes III and the ruler of Lesser Armenia, Mithridates, recognized themselves independent, thus elevating the former Armenian satrapy into a kingdom, giving birth to the kingdoms of Armenia and Lesser Armenia. Orontes III also defeated the Thessalian commander Menon, who wanted to capture Sper's gold mines. Weakened by the Seleucid Empire which succeeded the Macedonian Empire, the last Orontid king, Orontes IV, was overthrown in 200/201 BC and the kingdom was taken over by a commander of the Seleucid Empire, Artashes I, who is presumed to be related to the Orontid dynasty himself. Artaxiad dynasty[edit] Tigran II's Great Armenia Map of Armenia and the Roman client states in eastern Asia Minor, ca. 50 AD, before the Roman–Parthian War and the annexation of the client kingdoms into the Empire Main article: Artaxiad dynasty The Seleucid Empire's influence over Armenia had weakened after it was defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. A Hellenistic Armenian state was thus founded in the same year by Artaxias I alongside the Armenian kingdom of Sophene led by Zariadres. Artaxias seized Yervandashat, united the Armenian Highlands at the expense of neighboring tribes and founded the new royal capital of Artaxata near the Araxes River.[6] According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised the building of Artaxata.[7] The new city was laid on a strategic position at the juncture of trade routes that connected the Ancient Greek world with Bactria, India and the Black Sea which permitted the Armenians to prosper.[6] Tigranes the Great saw an opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he entered Syria, and soon established himself as ruler of Syria—putting the Seleucid Empire virtually at an end—and ruled peacefully for 17 years. During the zenith of his rule, Tigranes the Great extended Armenia's territory outside of the Armenian Highland over parts of the Caucasus and the area that is now south-eastern Turkey, Iran, Syria and Lebanon, becoming one of the most powerful states in the Roman East. Roman rule[edit] Main article: Roman Armenia Roman coin of 141 AD, showing emperor Antoninus Pius holding a crown on the Armenia King's head Armenia came under the Ancient Roman sphere of influence in 66 BC, after the battle of Tigranocerta and the final defeat of Armenia's ally, Mithridates VI of Pontus. Mark Antony invaded and defeated the kingdom in 34 BC, but the Romans lost hegemony during the Final War of the Roman Republic in 32–30 BC. In 20 BC, Augustus negotiated a truce with the Parthians, making Armenia a buffer zone between the two major powers. Augustus installed Tigranes V as king of Armenia in AD 6, but ruled with Erato of Armenia. The Romans then installed Mithridates of Armenia as client king. Mithridates was arrested by Caligula, but later restored by Claudius. Subsequently, Armenia was often a focus of contention between Rome and Parthia, with both major powers supporting opposing sovereigns and usurpers. The Parthians forced Armenia into submission in AD 37, but in AD 47 the Romans retook control of the kingdom. In AD 51 Armenia fell to an Iberian invasion sponsored by Parthia, led by Rhadamistus. Tigranes VI of Armenia ruled from AD 58, again installed by Roman support. The period of turmoil ends in AD 66, when Tiridates I of Armenia was crowned king of Armenia by Nero. For the remaining duration of the Armenian kingdom, Rome still considered it a client kingdom de jure, but the ruling dynasty was of Parthian extraction, and contemporary Roman writers thought that Nero had de facto yielded Armenia to the Parthians.[8] Arsacid dynasty[edit] Main article: Arsacid dynasty of Armenia This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Under Nero, the Romans fought a campaign (55–63) against the Parthian Empire, which had invaded the Kingdom of Armenia, allied with the Romans. After gaining Armenia in 60, then losing it in 62, the Romans sent the Legio XV Apollinaris from Pannonia to Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, legatus of Syria. In 63, strengthened further by the legions III Gallica, V Macedonica, X Fretensis and XXII, General Corbulo entered into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia, who then returned the Armenian kingdom to Tiridates, king Vologases I's brother. Another campaign was led by Emperor Lucius Verus in 162–165, after Vologases IV of Parthia had invaded Armenia and installed his chief general on its throne. To counter the Parthian threat, Verus set out for the east. His army won significant victories and retook the capital. Sohaemus, a Roman citizen of Armenian heritage, was installed as the new client king. But during an epidemic within the Roman forces, Parthians retook most of their lost territory in 166. Sohaemus retreated to Syria, and the Arsacid's dynasty was restored to power over Armenia. After the fall of the Arsacid dynasty in Persia, the succeeding Sasanian Empire aspired to reestablish Persian control. The Sassanid Persians occupied Armenia in 252. However, in 287, Tiridates III the Great was established King of Armenia by the Roman armies. After Gregory the Illuminator's spreading of Christianity in Armenia, Tiridates accepted Christianity and made it his kingdom's official religion. The traditional date for Armenia's conversion to Christianity is established at 301, preceding the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great's conversion and the Edict of Milan by a dozen years. In 387, the Kingdom of Armenia was split between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Persian Empire. Western Armenia first became a province of the Roman Empire under the name of Armenia Minor, and later Byzantine Armenia; Eastern Armenia remained a kingdom within Persia until, in 428, the local nobility overthrew the king, and the Sassanids installed a governor in his place, beginning the Marzpanate period over Persian Armenia. Those parts of historical Armenia remained firmly under Persian control until the Muslim conquest of Persia, while the Byzantine parts remained until being conquered, also by invading Arabic armies, in the 7th century. In 885, after years of Roman, Persian, and Arab rule, Armenia regained its independence under the Bagratuni dynasty. Army[edit] Main article: Military history of Armenia Under Tigranes the Great[edit] The army of the Kingdom of Armenia reached its peak under the reign of Tigranes the Great. According to the author of Judith, his army included chariots and 12,000 cavalrymen, most likely heavy cavalry or cataphracts, a unit also commonly used by Seleucids and Parthians. His army consisted mainly of 120,000 infantrymen and 12,000 mounted archers, also an important feature of the Parthian army. Like the Seleucids, the bulk of Tigranes' army were foot soldiers. The Jewish historian Josephus talks of 500,000 men in total, including camp followers. These followers consisted of camels, donkeys, and mules used for baggage, sheep, cattle, and goats for food, said to be stocked in abundance for each man, and hoards of gold and silver. As a result, the marching Armenian army was listed as "a huge, irregular force, too many to count, like locusts or the dust of the earth", not unlike many other enormous Eastern armies of the time. The smaller Cappadocian, Graeco-Phoenician, and Nabataean armies were generally no match for the sheer number of soldiers, with the organized Roman army with its legions eventually posing a much greater challenge to the Armenians.[9] Note that the numbers given by Israelite historians of the time were probably exaggerated, considering the fact that the Hasmonean Jews lost the war against Tigranes. Plutarch wrote that the Armenian archers could kill from 200 meters with their deadly-accurate arrows. The Romans admired and respected the bravery and the warrior spirit of the Armenian Cavalry – the core of Tigran's Army. The Roman historian Sallustius Crispus wrote that the Armenian [Ayrudzi – lit. horsemen] Cavalry was "remarkable by the beauty of their horses and armor". Horses in Armenia, since ancient times were considered as the most important part and pride of the warrior.[10] Ayrudzi[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) From ancient times in Armenia there existed "Azatavrear" cavalry which consisted of the Armenian elite. "Azatavrear" cavalry made up the main part of the Armenian king's court. In medieval times "Azatavrear" cavalry were collected from nobles (usually the youngest sons of Armenian lords), and were known as Ayrudzi, or "horsemen." During times of peace, Armenian cavalry were divided into small groups which took the roles of guarding the King and other Armenian lords, as well as their families. Some part of the Armenian cavalry force was always patrolling Armenian borders, under the command of an Armenian general (sparapet). The group of Armenian cavalry whose main mission was the protection of the Armenian king and his family consisted of 6000 heavily armored horsemen in the ancient period, and 3000 horsemen in the medieval period. During times of war, the number of Armenian cavalry would rise, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to at least 20,000 horsemen. Besides heavy cavalry, there was also light cavalry, which primarily consisted of mounted archers.[citation needed] Legio I Armeniaca-Armenian First Legion[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion" and "prima" as "first". The Armenian First Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This Legion was mentioned in the late-antique text known as Notitia Dignitatum. It is most likely that the Armenian First Legion was formed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, in the western part of the Kingdom, with the mission to protect the lands of Armenia from intrusion. It might first have been the garrison of Armenian lands which had been under the control of the Roman Empire. The Armenian First Legion took part in the ill-fated Persian campaign of the emperor Julianus Apostata in 363. Legio II Armeniaca-Armenian Second Legion[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion" and "Secunda" as "Second". Like the First legion, the Armenian Second Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This legion is also mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum. The Armenian Second Legion was thought to have been created around the end of the 3rd century or in the beginning of the 4th century. The Armenian Second Legion had a permanent camp in one of the Northern provinces of the Orient, and built a camp in Satala. The Armenian Second legion is mentioned in the year 360 AD as a part of the garrison of Bezabda (anciently called Phoencia) in upper Tigris. In Bezabde the Armenian Second Legion served together with the Legions Parthica and II Flavia. In 390 AD Bezabde was taken by the Persian army, and a terrible bloodbath ensued against the inhabitants and garrison. The legion seemed to have survived this battle, because it appears in Notitia Dignitatum, which was written in the 5th century. Later on, the Armenian Second legion became a part of the Byzantine army. Mythology and pre-Christian religion[edit] Main articles: Armenian mythology and Armenian Apostolic Church The pre-Christian Armenian pantheon included: Aramazd - Cognate of the Iranian Ahura Mazda (or Ormazd). Head of the pantheon, identified with Zeus in the interpretatio graeca. Amanor and/or Vanatur - God of the Armenian new year, Navasard, at the end of July. His temple was located in Diyadin. Anahit - Cognate of the Iranian Anahita. The goddess of fertility and birth, and daughter or wife of Aramazd, Anahit is identified with Artemis and Aphrodite. Temples dedicated to Anahit were established in Armavir, Artashat, Ashtishat. Ara the Beautiful - a dying-and-rising god slain in a war against Semiramis. Astghik - Cognate of the Semitic Ishtar. Fertility goddess and consort of Vahagn, sharing a temple with him at Derik. The holiday of Vardavar was originally in honor of Astghik. Barsamin - God of sky and weather, probably derived from the Semitic god Baal Shamin. Hayk - Legendary forefather of the Armenian people, archer, and slayer of the Titan Bel. Mihr - Cognate with the Persian Mithra. God of the sun and light, son of Aramazd, the brother of Anahit and Nane. His center of worship was located in Bagaharich, and the temple of Garni was dedicated to him. Nane - Possible cognate of the Sumerian Nanaya. Daughter of Aramazd, war and motherhood goddess. Her cult was related to Anahit, both of their temples located near each other in Gavar. Tir or Tiur - God of wisdom, culture, science and studies, he also was an interpreter of dreams. He was the messenger of the gods and was associated with Apollo. Tir's temple was located near Artashat. Tsovinar - Also called Nar, she was the goddess of rain, sea and water, though she was actually a fiery being who forced rain to fall. Vahagn - Cognate of the Iranian Verethragna. The storm god and herculean dragon slayer. Derik housed the central temple to Vahagn. During the 1st century AD, Christianity spread through Armenia due to (according to legend) the efforts of the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus. After persecutions by kings Sanatruk, Axidares, Khosrov I, and Tiridates III, Christianity was adopted as the state religion by Tiridates III after he was converted by Gregory the Illuminator. Armenia's adoption of Christianity as the state religion (the first country to do so) distinguished it from Parthian and Mazdaen influence.[11] Zoroastrianism[edit] Main article: Zoroastrianism in Armenia Until the late Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian-adhering land.[12] With the advent of Christianity, both paganism and Zoroastrianism gradually started to diminish. The founder of the Arsacid branch in Armenia, Tiridates I was a Zoroastrian priest or magus.[13][12] A noted episode which illustrates the observance by the Armenian Arsacids is the famous journey of Tiridates I to Rome in A.D. 65–66.[14] With the adoption of Christianity in the early 4th century, Zoroastrianism's influence in the kingdom gradually started to decline. See also: List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties Literature[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Little is known about pre-Christian Armenian literature. Many literature pieces known to us were saved and then presented to us by Moses of Chorene. This is a pagan Armenian song, telling about the birth of Vahagn: Armenian version Երկնէր երկին, երկնէր երկիր, Երկնէր և ծովն ծիրանի, Երկն ի ծովուն ունէր և զկարմրիկն եղեգնիկ։ Ընդ եղեգան փող ծուխ ելանէր, Ընդ եղեգան փող բոց ելանէր, Եւ ի բոցոյն վազէր խարտեաշ պատանեկիկ։ Նա հուր հեր ունէր, Բոց ունէր մօրուս, Եւ աչքունքն էին արեգակունք։ Translation In travail were heaven and earth, In travail, too, the purple sea, The travail held in the sea the small red reed. Through the hollow of the stalk came forth smoke, Through the hollow of the stalk came forth flame, And out of the flame a youth ran․ Fiery hair had he, Ay, too, he had flaming beard, And his eyes, they were as suns. Language[edit] Main articles: Armenian language and Armenian alphabet Before the Armenian alphabet was created, Armenians used the Aramaic and Greek alphabets, the last of which had a great influence on the Armenian alphabet. The Armenian alphabet was created by Saint Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia (Sahak Partev) in AD 405, primarily for a Bible translation into the Armenian language. Traditionally, the following phrase translated from Solomon's Book of Proverbs is said to be the first sentence to be written down in Armenian by Mashtots: Mesrop Mashtots, the creator of Armenian Alphabet, by Francesco Maggiotto (1750–1805) Ճանաչել զիմաստութիւն եւ զխրատ, իմանալ զբանս հանճարոյ: Čanačʿel zimastutʿiun yev zxrat, imanal zbans hančaroy. To know wisdom and instruction; to perceive the words of understanding. — Book of Proverbs, 1:2. By the 2nd century BC, according to Strabo, the inhabitants of Greater Armenia spoke the Armenian language, implying that modern Armenians descended from that population.[15][16][17][18] Capitals[edit] Armenian Statehood Hayasa-Azzi Nairi Urartu Orontid Armenia Kingdom of Armenia Arminiya Bagratid Armenia Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Zakarid Armenia Partitions Kingdom of Sophene Kingdom of Commagene Kingdom of Lesser Armenia Kingdom of Lori Kingdom of Vaspurakan Principality of Khachen Kingdom of Artsakh First Republic of Armenia Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic Armenia v t e Yervandashat – The ancient town sits upon an escarpment overlooking the junction of the Arax River and Akhurian River. According to Movses Kaghankatvatsi, Orontes IV founded Yervandashat to replace Armavir as his capital after Armavir had been left dry by a shift of the Arax. The archaeological site has not been subject of major research, but fortifications and some remains of palaces have been uncovered. Ancient Yervandashat was destroyed by the army of the Persian King Shapur II in the 360s. Artashat – King Artashes I founded Artashat in 185 BC in the region of Vostan within the historical province of Ayrarat (Ararat), at the point where the Araks river was joined by the Metsamor river during the ancient era, near the heights of Khor Virap. The story of the foundation is given by the Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi of the 5th century: "Artashes traveled to the location of the confluence of the Yeraskh and Metsamor [rivers] and taking a liking to the position of the hills (adjacent to Mount Ararat), he chose it as the location of his new city, naming it after himself."[19] According to the accounts given by Greek historians Plutarch and Strabo, Artashat is said to have been chosen and developed on the advice of the Carthaginian general Hannibal. The city's strategic position in the Araks valley on the Silk Road soon made Artashat a centre of bustling economic activity and thriving international trade, linking Persia and Mesopotamia with the Caucasus and Asia Minor. Its economic wealth can be gauged in the numerous bathhouses, markets, workshops, and administrative buildings that sprang up during the reign of Artashes I. The city had its own treasury and customs. The amphitheatre of Artashat was built during the reign of king Artavasdes II (55–34 BC). The remains of the huge walls surrounding the city built by King Artashes I can still be found in the area. After losing its status as a capital, Artashat gradually lost its significance. Tigranakert was founded by the Armenian emperor Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC. Tigranakert was founded as the new capital of the Armenian Empire in order to be in a more central position within the boundaries of the expanding empire. Its population was 120,000 and it also had many temples and an amphitheater. Vagharshapat – In the first half of the 1st century, during the reign of the Armenian Arshakuni king Vologases I (Vagharsh I) (117–144), the old town of Vardgesavan was renovated and renamed Vaghasrhapat (Վաղարշապատ), which still persists as the official appellation of the city. The original name, as preserved by Byzantine historian Procopius (Persian Wars), was Valashabad—"Valash/Balash city" named after king Balash/Valash/Valarsh of Armenia. The name evolved into its later form by the shift in the medial L into a Gh, which is common in Armenian language. Khorenatsi mentions that the town of Vardges was totally rebuilt and fenced by Vagharsh I, eventually becoming known as Noarakaghak (The New City) or Vagharshapat. The city served as a capital for the Ashakuni Kingdom of Armenia between 120 and 330 AD and remained the country's most important city until the end of the 4th century. When Christianity became the state religion of Armenia, Vagharshapat was eventually called Ejmiatsin (or Etchmiadzin), after the name of the Mother Cathedral. Starting in 301, the city became the spiritual centre of the Armenian nation, home to the Armenian Catholicosate, one of the oldest religious organizations in the world. Vagharshapat was home to one of the oldest schools established by Saint Mashtots and the home of the first manuscripts library in Armenia founded in 480 AD. Starting in the 6th century, the city slowly lost its importance—especially after the transfer of the seat of the Catholicosate to Dvin in 452—until the foundation of the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia in 885. After the fall of the Bagratid dynasty in 1045, the city gradually became an insignificant place until 1441, when the seat of the Armenian Catholicosate was transferred from the Cilician town of Sis back to Etchmiadzin. Dvin – The ancient city of Dvin was built by Khosrov III the Small in 335 on the site of an ancient settlement and fortress from the 3rd millennium BC. Since then the city had been used as the primary residence of the Armenian kings of the Arshakuni dynasty. Dvin had a population of about 100,000 citizens of various professions including arts and crafts, trade, fishing, etc. After the fall of the Armenian Kingdom in 428, Dvin became the residence of Sassanid-appointed marzpans (governors), Byzantine kouropalates and later Umayyad and Abbasid-appointed ostikans (governors), all of whom were of senior nakharar stock. In 640 Dvin was the center of the emirate of Armenia. Political geography[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Kingdom of Armenia was bordered by Caucasian Albania in the east, Caucasian Iberia in the north, the Roman Empire in the west, and Parthia, later succeeded by Sassanian Empire, in the south. The border between Caucasian Iberia and the Kingdom of Armenia was the Kur river, which was also the border between Caucasian Albania and Kingdom of Armenia. After 331 BC, Armenia was divided into Lesser Armenia (a region of the Kingdom of Pontus), the Kingdom of Armenia (corresponding to Armenia Major) and the Kingdom of Sophene. In 189 BC when Artashes I's reign began, many neighboring countries (Media, Caucasian Iberia, Seleucid Empire) exploiting the weakened state of the kingdom, conquered its remote regions. Strabo says that Artaxias I raided to the east and reunited Caspiane and Paytakaran, then raided to the north, defeated the Iberians, reuniting Gugark (Strabo also notes that Iberia recognized themselves as vassals of the Kingdom of Armenia at this time), to the west, reuniting Karin, Ekeghik and Derjan and to the south, where, after many battles with the Seleucid Empire, he reunited Tmorik. Artaxias I was not able to reunite Lesser Armenia, Corduene, and Sophene, something completed by his grandson Tigranes the Great. During Artaxias I's reign the Kingdom of Armenia covered 350,000 km2 (135,000 sq mi). At its peak, under Tigranes the Great, it covered 3,000,000 km2 (1,158,000 sq mi), incorporating, besides Armenia Major, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Armenian Mesopotamia, Osroene, Adiabene, Syria, Assyria, Commagene, Sophene, Judea and Atropatene. Parthia and also some Arab tribes were vassals of Tigranes the Great. Lesser Armenia's area was 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi). Provinces[edit] Regions of Greater Armenia (Arsacid Armenia). Historical provinces of Greater Armenia The 15 provinces of the Kingdom of Armenia with their capitals are as follows: Upper Armenia, 23,860 km2 (9,000 sq mi) (Garin) Sophene; 18,890 km2 (7,000 sq mi) (Arsamosata) Aghdznik; 17,532 km2 (7,000 sq mi) (Tigranakert) Turuberan; 25,008 km2 (10,000 sq mi) (Manzikert) Corduene; 14,707 km2 (6,000 sq mi) (Pinik) Moxoene; 2,962 km2 (1,000 sq mi) (Moks) Nor Shirakan; 11,010 km2 (4,000 sq mi) (Her) Vaspurakan; 40,870 km2 (16,000 sq mi) (Van) Syunik; 15,237 km2 (6,000 sq mi) (Baghaberd) Artsakh; 11,528 km2 (4,000 sq mi) (Shusha) Paytakaran; 21,000 km2 (8,000 sq mi) (Paytakaran) Utik; 11,315 km2 (4,000 sq mi) (Partav) Gugark; 16,765 km2 (6,000 sq mi) (Ardahan) Tayk; 10,179 km2 (4,000 sq mi) (Olti) Ayrarat; 40,105 km2 (15,000 sq mi) (Armavir) Other Armenian regions: Lesser Armenia; 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi) (Nikopolis) Armenian Mesopotamia; 20,000 km2 (8,000 sq mi) (Edessa) Maps[edit] World in 323 BC World in 200 BC World in 100 BC Orontid Armenia Armenian Empire under Tigranes the Great Arshakuni Armenia in 150 AD Persian Armenia Byzantine Armenia References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Curtis 2016, p. 185; Boyce 1984, p. 84; de Jong 2015, pp. 119–120, 123–125; Russell 1987, pp. 170–171, 268 ^ "Kingdom of Greater Armenia". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 November 2013. ^ Adontz, Nicolas (1970). The Reform of Justinian Armenia. Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. p. 310. ^ Mach Chahin (2001). Kingdom of Armenia. Surrey: Routledge. p185–190. ^ "Armenia - Geography & History". britannica.com. Retrieved 27 March 2018. ^ a b Hovannisian, Richard G. (2004). The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 49. ISBN 1-4039-6421-1. ^ Bournoutian, George A. (2006). A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, p. 29. ISBN 1-56859-141-1. ^ Redgate, Anne Elizabeth (2000). The Armenians (First ed.). Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. pp. 88–91. ISBN 0-631-22037-2. ^ W, Aa. (2005). Materia Giudaica X/1. Editrice La Giuntina. p. 93. ISBN 88-8057-226-1. ^ Gevork Nazaryan, Armenian Empire. ^ Gilman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (11 January 2013). Christians in Asia before 1500. Routledge. ISBN 9781136109782. Retrieved 27 March 2018 – via Google Books. ^ a b Boyce 1984, p. 84. ^ Lang, David Marshall (1980). Armenia, cradle of civilization. Allen & Unwin. pp. 84, 141, 149. (..) Though Tiridates was to be a client king of the Romans, Nero rightly judged that his investiture would satisfy the honour of the Parthians as well. Three years later, Tiridates made the journey to Rome. As a magus or priest of the Zoroastrian faith, he had to observe the rites which forbade him to defile water by travelling. (...) ^ Russell 1987, pp. 170–171, 268. ^ Donabedian, Patrick (1994). "The History of Karabagh from Antiquity to the Twentieth Century". In Chorbajian, Levon; Mutafian, Claude (eds.). The Caucasian Knot: The History & Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh. Zed Books. pp. 51–53. ISBN 978-1-85649-288-1. ^ Laitin, David D.; Suny, Ronald Grigor (1999). "Armenia and Azerbaijan: thinking a way out of Karabakh" (PDF). Middle East Policy. 7: 145. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4967.1999.tb00348.x. ^ Daniela Dueck (2017). "Strabo and the history of Armenia". The Routledge Companion to Strabo. Routledge. pp. 97–98. ISBN 9781138904330. ^ M. L. Chaumont. "ARMENIA AND IRAN ii. The pre-Islamic period". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on October 28, 2009. At the same time Zariadris annexed Acilisene (Ekeleacʿ) and Taraunitis (Taron) (Strabo 11.14.5 and 15). The peoples who were thus brought together in the kingdoms of Armenia and Sophene all spoke one and the same language: Armenian (Strabo, ibid.) Alt URL ^ (in Armenian) Movses Khorenatsi. History of Armenia, 5th Century (Հայոց Պատմություն, Ե Դար). Annotated translation and commentary by Stepan Malkhasyants. Gagik Sargsyan (ed.) Yerevan: Hayastan Publishing, 1997, 2.49, p. 164. ISBN 5-540-01192-9. Sources[edit] Boyce, Mary (1984). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2016). "Ancient Iranian Motifs and Zoroastrian Iconography". In Williams, Markus; Stewart, Sarah; Hintze, Almut (eds.). The Zoroastrian Flame Exploring Religion, History and Tradition. I.B. Tauris. pp. 179–203. ISBN 9780857728159. de Jong, Albert (2015). "Armenian and Georgian Zoroastrianism". In Stausberg, Michael; Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw; Tessmann, Anna (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Russell, James R. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674968509. Further reading[edit] M. Chahin, The Kingdom of Armenia (1987, reissued 1991) Vahan Kurkjian, Tigran the Great (1958) Ashkharbek Kalantar, Armenia: From the Stone Age to the Middle Ages, Civilisations du Proche Orient, Se´rie 1, Vol. 2, Recherches et Publications, Neuchâtel, Paris, 1994; ISBN 978-2-940032-01-3 Ashkharbek Kalantar, The Mediaeval Inscriptions of Vanstan, Armenia, Civilisations du Proche-Orient: Series 2 – Philologie – CDPOP 2, Vol. 2, Recherches et Publications, Neuchâtel, Paris, 1999; ISBN 978-2-940032-11-2 Ashkharbek Kalantar, Materials on Armenian and Urartian History (with a contribution by Mirjo Salvini), Civilisations du Proche-Orient: Series 4 – Hors Série – CPOHS 3, Neuchâtel, Paris, 2004; ISBN 978-2-940032-14-3 External links[edit] Media related to Kingdom of Armenia at Wikimedia Commons v t e Historical states and regions of Armenia Independent Armenian states Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) (Orontids, Artaxiads and Arsacids, 553 BC–428 AD) Kingdom of Armenia (middle ages) (Bagratunis, 884-1045) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Rubenids, Hethumids and Lusignans, 1080-1375) Republic of Armenia (1918-1920) Republic of Armenia (1991-) Minor or dependent Armenian states Satrapy of Armenia (Orontids, 522-331 BC) Kingdom of Vaspurakan (Artsrunis, 908–1021) Kingdom of Vanand (963–1064) Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget (Kiurikians, 979–1118) Kingdom of Syunik (Siunis, 987–1170) Kingdom of Artsakh (Khachen, 1000–1261) Zakarid Principality of Armenia (Zakarians, 1201–1335) Melikdoms of Karabakh (Beglarians, Israelians, Hasan-Jalalians, Shanazarians and Avanians, 1603-1822) Republic of Mountainous Armenia (unrecognized, 1921) Soviet Armenia (1920-1991) Provinces or Ashkhars of Armenia Major Upper Armenia Sophene Arzanene Turuberan Moxoene Corduene Nor Shirakan Vaspurakan Syunik Artsakh Paytakaran Utik Gugark Tayk Ayrarat Other Armenian regions Lesser Armenia (regions: First, Second and Third Armenia) Commagene Armenian Mesopotamia Cilicia (regions: Mountainous, Plain and Rocky Cilicia) Other provinces under Tigranes the Great Syria Atropatene Adiabene Assyria Iberia Albania Cappadocia Judea Osroene v t e Armenia articles History  (timeline) Early Origins Name Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Hayk Hayasa-Azzi Mitanni Nairi Mushki Diauehi Kingdom of Urartu Median kingdom Orontid Dynasty Achaemenid Empire Satrapy of Armenia Kingdom of Armenia Roman Armenia Parthian Empire Byzantine Armenia Sasanian Armenia Middle Arminiya Sajids Bagratuni Armenia Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Sallarids Ilkhanate Chobanids Aq Qoyunlu Kara Koyunlu Ottoman Armenia 1508–1828 Iranian Armenia Safavid Iran Afsharid Iran Qajar Iran Erivan Khanate Karabakh Khanate Treaty of Turkmenchay Russian Armenia Modern First Republic of Armenia Soviet Armenia Independent Armenia By topic Armenian genocide Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Armenian national liberation movement more... Geography Ararat Plain Armenian Highlands Cities Earthquakes Extreme points Lake Sevan Mountains Municipalities Rivers and lakes Shikahogh State Reserve Shirak Plain more... Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Corruption Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Judiciary Military National Assembly National Security Service Police Political parties President Prime Minister President of the National Assembly more on government on politics Economy Agriculture Armex (stock exchange) Central Bank Dram (currency) Energy Mining Pension reform Telecommunications Tourism Transport Waste management Culture Alphabet Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Language Eastern Western Literature Music Sport Theatre more... Demographics Census Crime Education Ethnic minorities Health People diaspora Social issues Women more... Religion Armenian Apostolic Church Armenian Catholic Church Armenian Evangelical Church Armenian Brotherhood Church Judaism Islam more... Symbols Armenian Cross Armenian eternity sign Coat of arms Flag Mount Ararat National anthem Apricot Grape Pomegranate Outline Index Category v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire Authority control: National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)&oldid=1025879821" Categories: Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) Seleucid Empire successor states Roman Anatolia Ancient history of Georgia (country) Ancient history of Turkey Ancient history of Azerbaijan Christian states Hidden categories: Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles needing additional references from May 2020 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi தமிழ் Türkçe Тыва дыл Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2021, at 03:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1779	----	Caligula - Wikipedia Caligula From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Gaius Caligula) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 37 to 41 For other uses, see Caligula (disambiguation) and Gaius Julius Caesar (disambiguation). Roman emperor Caligula Roman emperor Reign 16 March 37 – 24 January 41 Predecessor Tiberius Successor Claudius Born Gaius Caesar 31 August AD 12 Antium, Italy Died 24 January AD 41 (aged 28) Palatine Hill, Rome, Italy Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Junia Claudilla Livia Orestilla Lollia Paulina Milonia Caesonia Issue Julia Drusilla Nymphidius Sabinus (disputed) Tiberius Gemellus (adopted) Regnal name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus[1] Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Germanicus Mother Agrippina the Elder Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Marble bust of Emperor Caligula restored to its original colours. The colours were identified from particles trapped in the marble. Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Caligula (/kəˈlɪɡjʊlə/; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD), formally known as Gaius (Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 to 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus's uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in AD 14. Although Gaius was named after Gaius Julius Caesar, he acquired the nickname "Caligula" (meaning "little [soldier's] boot") from his father's soldiers during their campaign in Germania. When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted an invitation in 31 to join the emperor on the island of Capri, where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier. Following the death of Tiberius, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather as emperor in 37. There are few surviving sources about the reign of Caligula, though he is described as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance, and sexual perversion, presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources is questionable, it is known that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself, and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, however. On the day of the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorians declared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the next Roman emperor. Although the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule the empire until the fall of his nephew Nero in 68, Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line. Contents 1 Early life 2 Emperor 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Public reform 2.3 Financial crisis and famine 2.4 Construction 2.5 Feud with the senate 2.6 Western expansion 2.6.1 Mauretania 2.6.2 Britannia 2.7 Claims of divinity 2.8 Eastern policy 2.9 Scandals 2.10 Assassination and aftermath 3 Legacy 3.1 Historiography 3.2 Health 3.3 Possible rediscovery of burial site 4 Gallery 5 In popular culture 5.1 In film and series 5.2 In literature and theatre 5.3 In music 6 References 7 Bibliography 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary material 8 External links Early life[edit] See Julio-Claudian family tree. Anzio, birthplace of emperor Caligula Julia Drusilla, sister of Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar (named in honour of his famous relative) was born in Antium (modern Anzio and Nettuno[2]) on 31 August 12 AD, the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and his second cousin Agrippina the Elder,[3] who was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder; making her the granddaughter of Augustus.[3] Gaius had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus,[3] as well as three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla.[3][4] He was also a nephew of Claudius, Germanicus' younger brother and the future emperor.[5] As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania.[6] The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier's outfit, including boots and armour.[6] He was soon given an affectionate nickname, Caligula, meaning "little (soldier's) boot" in Latin, after the small boots (caligae) he wore.[7] Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname.[8] Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius, who viewed Germanicus as a political rival.[9] After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated.[10] Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival.[11] Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero, were banished in 29 on charges of treason.[12][13] The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother (and Tiberius's mother), Livia.[10] After her death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor.[10] In 30, his brother Drusus was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide.[13][14] Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under the close watch of soldiers.[15] In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for six years.[10] To the surprise of many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius.[16] According to historians, Caligula was an excellent natural actor and, recognising danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius.[10][17] An observer said of Caligula, "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!"[10][17] Caligula claimed to have planned to kill Tiberius with a dagger to avenge his mother and brother: however, having brought the weapon into Tiberius's bedroom he did not kill the Emperor but instead threw the dagger down on the floor. Supposedly Tiberius knew of this but never dared to do anything about it.[18] Suetonius claims that Caligula was already cruel and vicious: he writes that, when Tiberius brought Caligula to Capri, his purpose was to allow Caligula to live in order that he "prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world."[19] In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, a position he held until his rise to emperor.[20] Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died in prison.[21][22] Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla in 33, though she died in childbirth the following year.[18] Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally.[18] Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula.[23] In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius's estate along with Tiberius Gemellus.[24] Emperor[edit] Early reign[edit] When Tiberius died on 16 March 37 AD, his estate and the titles of the principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius's own grandson, Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Although Tiberius was 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still conjecture that he was murdered.[18][25] Tacitus writes that Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people,[25] while Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing, though this is not recorded by any other ancient historian.[18] Seneca the Elder and Philo, who both wrote during Tiberius's reign, as well as Josephus, record Tiberius as dying a natural death.[26] Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius's will nullified with regard to Gemellus on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius's wishes.[27] Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647 Caligula was proclaimed emperor by the Senate on 18 March.[28] He accepted the powers of the principate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star", among other nicknames.[28][29] Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun."[30] Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus,[29] and because he was not Tiberius.[31] Suetonius said that over 160,000 animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in the new reign.[32][33] Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful.[34] Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature.[27] To gain support, he granted bonuses to the military, including the Praetorian Guard, city troops and the army outside Italy.[27] He destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past, and recalled those who had been sent into exile.[35] He helped those who had been harmed by the imperial tax system, banished certain sexual deviants, and put on lavish spectacles for the public, including gladiatorial games.[36][37] Caligula collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus.[38] A denarius of Gaius Caligula. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. GERM. P. M. TR. POT. In October 37, Caligula fell seriously ill, or perhaps was poisoned. He soon recovered from his illness, but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical: he started to kill off or exile those who were close to him or whom he saw as a serious threat. Perhaps his illness reminded him of his mortality and of the desire of others to advance into his place.[39] He had his cousin and adopted son Tiberius Gemellus executed – an act that outraged Caligula's and Gemellus's mutual grandmother Antonia Minor. She is said to have committed suicide, although Suetonius hints that Caligula actually poisoned her. He had his father-in-law Marcus Junius Silanus and his brother-in-law Marcus Lepidus executed as well. His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock. His favourite sister, Julia Drusilla, died in 38 of a fever: his other two sisters, Livilla and Agrippina the Younger, were exiled. He hated being the grandson of Agrippa and slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was actually conceived as the result of an incestuous relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia the Elder.[40] Public reform[edit] In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius. He aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. He allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders.[41] Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of elections.[42] Cassius Dio said that this act "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many ... many disasters would result".[43] During the same year, though, Caligula was criticized for executing people without full trials and for forcing the Praetorian prefect, Macro, to commit suicide. Macro had fallen out of favor with the emperor, probably due to an attempt to ally himself with Gemellus when it appeared that Caligula might die of fever.[44] Financial crisis and famine[edit] According to Cassius Dio, a financial crisis emerged in 39.[44] Suetonius places the beginning of this crisis in 38.[45] Caligula's political payments for support, generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state's treasury. Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates.[46] Historians describe a number of Caligula's other desperate measures. To gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money.[47] He levied taxes on lawsuits, weddings and prostitution.[48] Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows.[46][49] Wills that left items to Tiberius were reinterpreted to leave the items instead to Caligula.[50] Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over spoils to the state.[50] The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money.[50] According to Suetonius, in the first year of Caligula's reign he squandered 2.7 billion sesterces that Tiberius had amassed.[45] His nephew Nero both envied and admired the fact that Gaius had run through the vast wealth Tiberius had left him in so short a time.[51] However, some historians have shown scepticism towards the large number of sesterces quoted by Suetonius and Dio. According to Wilkinson, Caligula's use of precious metals to mint coins throughout his principate indicates that the treasury most likely never fell into bankruptcy.[52] He does point out, however, that it is difficult to ascertain whether the purported 'squandered wealth' was from the treasury alone due to the blurring of "the division between the private wealth of the emperor and his income as head of state."[52] Furthermore, Alston points out that Caligula's successor, Claudius, was able to donate 15,000 sesterces to each member of the praetorian guard in 41,[25] suggesting the Roman treasury was solvent.[53] The Vatican Obelisk was first brought from Egypt to Rome by Caligula. It was the centerpiece of a large racetrack he built. A brief famine of unknown extent occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula's seizure of public carriages;[46] according to Seneca, grain imports were disrupted because Caligula re-purposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge.[54] Construction[edit] See also: Caligula's Giant Ship Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, though others were for himself. Josephus describes Caligula's improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily, allowing increased grain imports from Egypt, as his greatest contributions.[55] These improvements may have been in response to the famine.[citation needed] Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta.[56] He expanded the imperial palace.[57] He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels.[58] He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the "Vatican Obelisk") transported by sea and erected in the middle of Rome.[59] At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods.[56] He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition.[60] He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps.[56] He planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work.[56] The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace for the Emperor. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.[61][62] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[62] Caligula, who could not swim,[63] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.[62] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[62] Caligula had two large ships constructed for himself (which were recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi around 1930). The ships were among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller ship was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble floors and plumbing.[64] The ships burned in 1944 after an attack in the Second World War; almost nothing remains of their hulls, though many archaeological treasures remain intact in the museum at Lake Nemi and in the Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo) at Rome.[65] Feud with the senate[edit] In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated.[66] The subject of their disagreement is unknown. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. The Senate had become accustomed to ruling without an emperor between the departure of Tiberius for Capri in 26 and Caligula's accession.[67] Additionally, Tiberius' treason trials had eliminated a number of pro-Julian senators such as Asinius Gallus.[67] Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided, based on their actions during these trials, that numerous senators were not trustworthy.[66] He ordered a new set of investigations and trials.[66] He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death.[68] Suetonius reports that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot.[68] Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula faced a number of additional conspiracies against him.[69] A conspiracy involving his brother-in-law was foiled in late 39.[69] Soon afterwards, the Governor of Germany, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was executed for connections to a conspiracy.[69] Western expansion[edit] Map of the Roman Empire and neighboring states during the reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41 AD).   Italy and Roman provinces   Independent countries   Client states (Roman puppets)   Mauretania seized by Caligula   Former Roman provinces Thrace and Commagena made client states by Caligula . In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia. (Due to the novel I, Claudius, it is commonly believed that Caligula attempted war against Neptune at this time. This is not mentioned in any ancient source, however.)[3] The conquest of Britannia was later achieved during the reign of his successor, Claudius. Mauretania[edit] Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed.[70] Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and subsequently divided into two provinces, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, separated by the river Malua.[71] Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula, but Dio states that in 42 an uprising took place, which was subdued by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and the division only took place after this.[72] This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province, but the division was postponed because of the rebellion.[73] The first known equestrian governor of the two provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus, in office in 44.[73] Details on the Mauretanian events of 39–44 are unclear. Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.[74] Caligula's move seemingly had a strictly personal political motive – fear and jealousy of his cousin Ptolemy – and thus the expansion may not have been prompted by pressing military or economic needs.[75] However, the rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province, and it is thus possible that Caligula's expansion was a prudent response to potential future threats.[73] Britannia[edit] There seems to have been a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted.[74] This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect seashells as "spoils of the sea".[76] The few primary sources disagree on what precisely occurred. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission.[77] The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius.[78] "Seashells", or conchae in Latin, may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia (perhaps the troops visited brothels) or boats (perhaps they captured several small British boats).[79] Claims of divinity[edit] Ruins of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. Ancient resources as well as recent archaeological evidence suggest that, at one point, Caligula had the palace extended to annex this structure. When several client kings came to Rome to pay their respects to him and argued about their nobility of descent, he allegedly cried out the Homeric line:[80] "Let there be one lord, one king."[57] In 40, Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo.[81] Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as "Jupiter" on occasion in public documents.[82][83] A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome.[83] The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the forum was linked directly to the imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula.[83][84] He would appear there on occasion and present himself as a god to the public. Caligula had the heads removed from various statues of gods located across Rome and replaced them with his own.[85] It is said that he wished to be worshipped as Neos Helios, the "New Sun". Indeed, he was represented as a sun god on Egyptian coins.[86] Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome.[87] Augustus had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from.[87] Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including senators, worship him as a tangible, living god.[88] Eastern policy[edit] Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa, who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in 37.[89] The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of Jews in the empire. Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists.[90] In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus.[91] According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews.[92] As a result, riots broke out in the city.[93] Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him.[94] In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories.[95] Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks.[96] Jews were accused of not honouring the emperor.[96] Disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia.[97] Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it.[97] In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem,[98] a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.[99] In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his".[99] The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.[100] Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.[96] However, Caligula issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem. In Rome, another statue of himself, of colossal size, was made of gilt brass for the purpose. The Temple of Jerusalem was then transformed into a temple for Caligula, and it was called the Temple of Illustrious Gaius the New Jupiter.[101] Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, c. AD 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. GERMANICVS PON. M. TR. POT. / AGRIPPINA DRVSILLA IVLIA S. C. Scandals[edit] Cameo depicting Caligula and a personification of Rome Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, short-tempered, killed on a whim, and indulged in too much spending and sex.[102] He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it,[103] killing for mere amusement,[104] deliberately wasting money on his bridge, causing starvation,[54] and wanting a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship.[98] Once, at some games at which he was presiding, he was said to have ordered his guards to throw an entire section of the audience into the arena during the intermission to be eaten by the wild beasts because there were no prisoners to be used and he was bored.[105] While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Livilla, and say he prostituted them to other men.[106] They state he sent troops on illogical military exercises,[74][107] turned the palace into a brothel,[47] and, most famously, planned or promised to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul,[108][109] and actually appointed him a priest.[83] The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government.[110] Assassination and aftermath[edit] Caligula's actions as emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, to the nobility and to the equestrian order.[111] According to Josephus, these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula.[112] Eventually, officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea succeeded in murdering the emperor.[113] The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it.[114] The situation had escalated when, in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently and to move to Alexandria in Egypt, where he hoped to be worshipped as a living god. The prospect of Rome losing its emperor and thus its political power was the final straw for many. Such a move would have left both the Senate and the Praetorian Guard powerless to stop Caligula's repression and debauchery. With this in mind Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators, who included Marcus Vinicius and Lucius Annius Vinicianus, to put their plot into action quickly. Bust of Caligula from Palazzo Massimo in Rome According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination.[115] Suetonius sees the motive in Caligula calling Chaerea derogatory names.[116] Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection.[117] Caligula would mock Chaerea with names like "Priapus" and "Venus".[118] On 24 January 41,[120] Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace, during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divine Augustus.[121] Details recorded on the events vary somewhat from source to source, but they agree that Chaerea stabbed Caligula first, followed by a number of conspirators.[122] Suetonius records that Caligula's death resembled that of Julius Caesar. He states that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea respectively).[123] By the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard responded, the Emperor was already dead. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.[124] These wounded conspirators were treated by the physician Arcyon. The cryptoporticus (underground corridor) beneath the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill where this event took place was discovered by archaeologists in 2008.[125] The senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic.[126] Chaerea tried to persuade the military to support the Senate.[127] The military, though, remained loyal to the idea of imperial monarchy.[127] Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support, the assassins sought out and killed Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and killed their young daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall.[128] They were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius. After a soldier, Gratus, found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain, he was spirited out of the city by a sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard[129] to their nearby camp.[130] Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian Guard. Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy, including Chaerea.[131] According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus; in 410, during the Sack of Rome, the ashes in the tomb were scattered. Legacy[edit] Historiography[edit] Fanciful renaissance depiction of Caligula The facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are mostly lost to history. Only two sources contemporary with Caligula have survived – the works of Philo and Seneca. Philo's works, On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus, give some details on Caligula's early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes. Seneca's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula's personality. Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in AD 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators.[132] At one time, there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula, but they are now lost. Additionally, the historians who wrote them are described as biased, either overly critical or praising of Caligula.[133] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporaneous historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embellishment and misrepresentation.[134] Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula.[135] Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula's reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against him.[69] The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula. Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they are lost. The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula 80 years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula's death. Cassius Dio's work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula's reign. A handful of other sources add a limited perspective on Caligula. Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula's assassination. Tacitus provides some information on Caligula's life under Tiberius. In a now lost portion of his Annals, Tacitus gave a detailed history of Caligula. Pliny the Elder's Natural History has a few brief references to Caligula. There are few surviving sources on Caligula and none of them paints Caligula in a favourable light. The paucity of sources has resulted in significant gaps in modern knowledge of the reign of Caligula. Little is written on the first two years of Caligula's reign. Additionally, there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula's military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate. According to legend, during his military actions in Britannia Caligula grew addicted to a steady diet of European sea eels, which led to their Latin name being Coluber caligulensis.[136] Health[edit] All surviving sources, except Pliny the Elder, characterize Caligula as insane. However, it is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally. Additionally, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for his behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis.[137] The question of whether Caligula was insane (especially after his illness early in his reign) remains unanswered.[137] Philo of Alexandria, Josephus and Seneca state that Caligula was insane, but describe this madness as a personality trait that came through experience.[95][138][139] Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once he became emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from.[140] According to Josephus, power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god.[95] Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of an illness in the eighth month of his reign in 37.[141] Juvenal reports he was given a magic potion that drove him insane. Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness", or epilepsy, when he was young.[142][143] Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures.[144] Despite swimming being a part of imperial education, Caligula could not swim.[145] Epileptics are discouraged from swimming in open waters because unexpected fits could lead to death because a timely rescue would be difficult.[146] Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon:[68] Epilepsy was long associated with the moon.[147] Suetonius described Caligula as sickly-looking, skinny and pale: "he was tall, very pale, ill-shaped, his neck and legs very slender, his eyes and temples hollow, his brows broad and knit, his hair thin, and the crown of the head bald. The other parts of his body were much covered with hair ... He was crazy both in body and mind, being subject, when a boy, to the falling sickness. When he arrived at the age of manhood he endured fatigue tolerably well. Occasionally he was liable to faintness, during which he remained incapable of any effort".[148][149] Based on scientific reconstructions of his official painted busts, Caligula had brown hair, brown eyes, and fair skin.[150] Some modern historians think that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism.[151] This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula's irritability and his "stare" as described by Pliny the Elder. Possible rediscovery of burial site[edit] On 17 January 2011, police in Nemi, Italy, announced that they believed they had discovered the site of Caligula's burial, after arresting a thief caught smuggling a statue which they believed to be of the emperor.[152] The claim has been met with scepticism by Cambridge historian Mary Beard.[153] Gallery[edit] Quadrans celebrating the abolition of a tax in AD 38 by Caligula.[154] The obverse of the coin contains a picture of a Pileus which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden. Caption: C. CAESAR DIVI AVG. PRON[EPOS] (great-grandson of) AVG. / PON. M., TR. P. III, P. P., COS. DES. RCC. (probably Res Civium Conservatae, i.e. the interests of citizens have been preserved) Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai, India, examples of Indo-Roman trade during the period. One coin of Caligula (AD 37–41), and two coins of Nero (AD 54–68). British Museum. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. PON. M., TR. POT. III, COS. III. - NERO CAESAR. AVG. IMP. - NERO CAESAR AVG. IMP. In popular culture[edit] In film and series[edit] Referenced In Season 2, Episode 8 of the Tv series Lucifer. Lucifer, played by actor Tom Ellis, mentions him to actress Rachel Harris who plays Dr. Linda Martin in her office roughly halfway through the episode. Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius.[155] He was played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV historical drama series, The Caesars.[156] American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s, The Robe (1953) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954).[157] He was played by John Hurt in the 1976 BBC mini-series I, Claudius.[158] He was referenced by Jerry on Seinfeld in "The Jimmy" (season 6, episode 19) in 1995[citation needed] and in "The Blood" (season 9, episode 4)[citation needed] in 1997. A feature-length historical film Caligula was completed in 1979 with Malcolm McDowell in the lead role. The film contains explicit sex and violence.[159] The 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas features an Ancient Rome-themed casino called Caligula's Casino. The casino itself is mafia-run, and plays a central role in the main storyline. In season 3, episode 17 (titled “Salem the Boy”) of Sabrina the Teenage Witch Glenn Shadix portrayed Caligula. Caligula is a character in the 2015 NBC series A.D. The Bible Continues and is played by British actor Andrew Gower. His portrayal emphasises Caligula's "dabauched and dangerous" persona [160] as well as his sexual appetite, quick temper, and violent nature. The third season of the Roman Empire series (released on Netflix in 2019) is named Caligula: The Mad Emperor with South African actor Ido Drent in the leading role.[161] In season 2, episode 4 (titled "Escape to the House of Mummies (Part II))" of The Venture Bros. Caligula is a satirical caricature, portrayed to be debaucherous. In literature and theatre[edit] Caligula, by French author Albert Camus, is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla. The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to "bring the impossible into the realm of the likely".[162] In the novel I, Claudius by English writer Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as being a murderous sociopath from his childhood, who became clinically insane early in his reign. At the age of only ten, he drove his father Germanicus to despair and death by secretly terrorising him. Graves's Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla.[163] This was adapted for television in the 1976 BBC mini-series of the same name. In the book series Trials of Apollo by American writer Rick Riordan, Caligula is depicted as a wealthy and malicious emperor with plans to destroy a Roman demigod camp named "Camp Jupiter". He also wants to become the sun god with the power of Helios and Apollo. In music[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Caligula" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There is a song by the rap duo City Morgue called "Caligula" from their debut album CITY MORGUE VOL 1: HELL OR HIGH WATER. There is a song by Hip Hop rapper Ghostemane called "Caligula". Caligvla is the second album released by Canadian death metal band Ex Deo.[164] The Smiths' 1984 track "Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now" references the emperor with the following line: "What she asked of me at the end of the day, Caligula would have blushed".[165] Macy Gray released a track called "Caligula" on her 1999 album On How Life Is. "It's Just My Little Tribute to Caligula, Darling!" is a song from the 2001 Pet Shop Boys musical Closer to Heaven. In their 2019 album Fear Inoculum, Tool released a track called "Invincible" with the following line: "Tales told of battles won, of things we've done. Caligula would grin." Sodom released a track called "Caligula" on their 2016 released album Decision Day. Caligula is the third studio album by Lingua Ignota, released July 19, 2019.[166] "Caligulove" by Them Crooked Vultures is a reference to Caligula. Caligula's Horse is an Australian progressive metal band from Brisbane, Queensland. Caligula's Horse achieved their first chart success with their 2015 album release Bloom, with it reaching number 16 on the Australian Albums ARIA Chart and number 75 on the overall album chart. The album also reached number 73 on the Australian iTunes chart on 21 October 2015. References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Paola Brandizzi Vittucci, Antium: Anzio e Nettuno in epoca romana, Roma, Bardi, 2000 ISBN 88-85699-83-9 ^ a b c d e Suetonius. "Life of Caligula". The Lives of Twelve Caesars – via uchicago.edu. ^ Wood, Susan (1995). "Diva Drusilla Panthea and the Sisters of Caligula". American Journal of Archaeology. 99 (3): 457–482. doi:10.2307/506945. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 506945. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.6. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 9. ^ "Caligula" is formed from the Latin word caliga, meaning soldier's boot, and the diminutive infix -ul. ^ Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of a Wise Person XVIII 2–5. See Malloch, 'Gaius and the nobiles', Athenaeum (2009). ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 2. ^ a b c d e f Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 10. ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.52. ^ Tacitus, Annals V.3. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 54. ^ Tacitus, Annals V.10. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 64. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 62. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals VI.20. ^ a b c d e Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 12. ^ The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 11 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.23. ^ Tacitus, Annals VI.25. ^ Tacitus, Annals VI.23. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius VI.35. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 76. ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals XII.53. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius IV.25; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIII.6.9. ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.1. ^ a b Henzen, Wilhelm, ed. (1874). 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Caligula. London: Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-0203003725. OCLC 57298122. ^ Alston, Richard (2002). Aspects of Roman history, AD 14–117. London: Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0203011874. OCLC 648154931. ^ a b Seneca the Younger, On the Shortness of Life XVIII.5. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2.5. ^ a b c d Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 21. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 22. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 21, Life of Claudius 20; Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXXVI.122. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History XVI.76. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.15; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 37. ^ Wardle, David (2007). "Caligula's Bridge of Boats – AD 39 or 40?". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 56 (1): 118–120. ISSN 0018-2311. 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ISBN 0-7394-2025-9. ^ Allen Ward, Cedric Yeo, and Fritz Heichelheim, A History of the Roman People: Third Edition, 1999, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LI.20. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.26–28. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.6.10; Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus V.25. ^ Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus III.8, IV.21. ^ Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus V.26–28. ^ Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus VVI.43 ^ Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus VII.45. ^ Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus XXI.185. ^ a b c Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.7.2. ^ a b c Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.8.1. ^ a b Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXX.201. ^ a b Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXX.203. ^ a b Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XVI.115. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXXI.213. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XLIII.346. ^ Seneca the Younger, On Anger xviii.1, On Anger III.xviii.1; On the Shortness of Life xviii.5; Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXIX. ^ Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.1. ^ Seneca the Younger, On Anger III.xviii.1. ^ "Daily life in the Roman City". 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(this seems to give 23 January, but Dio is probably using exclusive reckoning, which does give 24).[119] ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 58. ^ Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 58; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.14. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 57, 58. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.15; Suetonius, Life of Caligula 58. ^ Owen, Richard (17 October 2008). "Archaeologists unearth place where Emperor Caligula met his end". The Times. The Times, London. Retrieved 31 August 2018. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2. ^ a b Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.4.4. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 59. ^ Suetonius. 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Retrieved 14 March 2021. ^ Watch A.D. The Bible Continues Episodes at NBC.com, retrieved 9 May 2020 ^ Nolan, Emma (26 March 2019). "Roman Empire Caligula The Mad Emperor Netflix release date, cast, trailer, plot". Express.co.uk. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ Sheaffer-Jones, Caroline (1 January 2012). "A Deconstructive Reading of Albert Camus' Caligula: Justice and the Game of Calculations". Australian Journal of French Studies. 49 (1): 31–42. doi:10.3828/AJFS.2012.3. ISSN 0004-9468. ^ Graves, Robert I, Claudius (1934) ^ "Ex Deo Caligvla". exclaim.ca. 11 September 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "The Smiths – Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now". Retrieved 2 August 2020 – via genius.com. ^ "My Sweet Revenge: How Lingua Ignota Is Transforming The Horrors Of Abuse Into Art". Kerrang!. Retrieved 24 March 2021. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 59 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX Philo of Alexandria, (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890): On the Embassy to Gaius Flaccus Seneca the Younger On Firmness On Anger To Marcia, On Consolation On Tranquility of Mind On the Shortness of Life To Polybius, On Consolation To Helvia, On Consolation On Benefits On the Terrors of Death (Epistle IV) On Taking One's Own Life (Epistle LXXVII) On the Value of Advice (Epistle XCIV) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula Tacitus, Annals, Book 6 Secondary material[edit] Balsdon, V. D. (1934). The Emperor Gaius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Barrett, Anthony A. (1989). Caligula: the corruption of power. London: Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-5487-1. Grant, Michael (1979). The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044072-0. Hurley, Donna W. (1993). An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' Life of C. Caligula. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Sandison, A. T. (1958). "The Madness of the Emperor Caligula". Medical History. 2 (3): 202–209. doi:10.1017/s0025727300023759. PMC 1034394. PMID 13577116. Wilcox, Amanda (2008). "Nature's Monster: Caligula as exemplum in Seneca's Dialogues". In Sluiter, Ineke; Rosen, Ralph M. (eds.). Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity. Mnemosyne: Supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity. 307. Leiden: Brill. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caligula. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Gaius Caesar . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Caligula The portrait of Caligula in the Digital Sculpture Project Caligula Attempts to Conquer Britain in AD 40 Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis Franz Lidz, "Caligula’s Garden of Delights, Unearthed and Restored", New York Times, Jan. 12, 2021 Caligula Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 31 August AD 12 Died: 24 January AD 41 Roman Emperors Preceded by Tiberius Roman emperor 37–41 Succeeded by Claudius Preceded by Drusus Caesar Caesar of the Roman Empire 33–37 Succeeded by Tiberius Gemellus Political offices Preceded by Gn. Acerronius Proculus G. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus Roman consul July–August 37 With: Claudius Succeeded by A. Caecina Paetus G. Caninius Rebilus Preceded by Ser. Asinius Celer Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus Roman consul January 39 With: L. Apronius Caesianus Succeeded by Q. Sanquinius Maximus Preceded by A. Didius Gallus Gn. Domitius Afer Roman consul January 40 sine collega Succeeded by G. Laecanius Bassus Q. Terentius Culleo Preceded by G. Laecanius Bassus Q. Terentius Culleo Roman consul January 41 With: Gn. Sentius Saturninus Succeeded by Q. Pomponius Secundus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Capri History History of Capri Geography Anacapri Arco Naturale Blue Grotto Capri (municipality) Faraglioni Grotta Bianca Grotta del Castiglione Grotta del Pisco Grotta dell'Arco Grotta dell'Arsenale Grotta delle Felci Grotta di Matromania Grotta Verde Gulf of Naples Marina Grande Marina Piccola Monte Solaro Tyrrhenian Sea Culture Contempt (Le Mépris) Entdeckung der blauen Grotte auf der Insel Capri South Wind The Story of San Michele Archaeological sites Castello Barbarossa Cloaca Palazzo a Mare Notable landmarks Capri Philosophical Park Cemetery Certosa di San Giacomo Gardens of Augustus Grand Hotel Quisisana JK Place Capri Ospedale G. 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en-wikipedia-org-1788	----	List of Byzantine emperors - Wikipedia List of Byzantine emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Emperor of the Romans Imperial Last in Office Constantine XI 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453 Details First monarch Constantine I Last monarch Constantine XI Formation 11 May 330 Abolition 29 May 1453 Residence Great Palace, Blachernae Palace Appointer Non-specified, de facto hereditary[1] Pretender(s) None This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Byzantine Empire (or the Eastern Roman Empire), to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised sovereign authority are included, to the exclusion of junior co-emperors (symbasileis) who never attained the status of sole or senior ruler, as well as of the various usurpers or rebels who claimed the imperial title. Traditionally, the line of Byzantine emperors is held to begin with the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, who rebuilt the city of Byzantium as an imperial capital, Constantinople, and who was regarded by the later emperors as the model ruler. It was under Constantine that the major characteristics of what is considered the Byzantine state emerged: a Roman polity centered at Constantinople and culturally dominated by the Greek East, with Christianity as the state religion. The Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395. Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire continued until 476. Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be rightful Roman emperors in direct succession from Augustus;[2] the term "Byzantine" was coined by Western historiography only in the 16th century. The use of the title "Roman Emperor" by those ruling from Constantinople was not contested until after the Papal coronation of the Frankish Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor (25 December 800), done partly in response to the Byzantine coronation of Empress Irene, whose claim, as a woman, was not recognized by Pope Leo III. The title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially "Augustus", although other titles such as Dominus were also used. Their names were preceded by Imperator Caesar and followed by Augustus. Following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek Basileus (Gr. Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant sovereign, though Augustus continued to be used in a reduced capacity. Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, the title "Autokrator" (Gr. Αὐτοκράτωρ) was increasingly used. In later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the "Emperor of the Greeks". Towards the end of the Empire, the standard imperial formula of the Byzantine ruler was "[Emperor's name] in Christ, Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans" (cf. Ῥωμαῖοι and Rûm). When on occasion rendering their names and titles in Latin in the centuries following the adoption of Basileus and Greek language, Byzantine rulers used Imperator for senior emperors and Rex for junior emperors, as seen in coins of Michael III and his junior emperor Basil I.[3] In the medieval period, dynasties were common, but the principle of hereditary succession was never formalized in the Empire,[4] and hereditary succession was a custom rather than an inviolable principle.[1] Contents 1 List of Emperors 1.1 Constantinian dynasty (306–363) 1.2 Non-dynastic (363–364) 1.3 Valentinianic dynasty (364–379) 1.4 Theodosian dynasty (379–457) 1.5 Leonid dynasty (457–518) 1.6 Justinian dynasty (518–602) 1.7 Non-dynastic (602–610) 1.8 Heraclian dynasty (610–695) 1.9 Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717) 1.10 Isaurian dynasty (717–802) 1.11 Nikephorian dynasty (802–813) 1.12 Non-dynastic (813–820) 1.13 Amorian dynasty (820–867) 1.14 Macedonian dynasty (867–1056) 1.15 Non-dynastic (1056–1057) 1.16 Komnenid dynasty (1057–1059) 1.17 Doukid dynasty (1059–1081) 1.18 Komnenid dynasty (1081–1185) 1.19 Angelid dynasty (1185–1204) 1.20 Laskarid dynasty (Empire of Nicaea, 1204–1261) 1.21 Palaiologan dynasty (restored to Constantinople, 1261–1453) 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References List of Emperors[edit] For Roman emperors before Constantine I, see List of Roman emperors. Portrait Name[a] Reign Notes Constantinian dynasty (306–363)[edit] See also: Constantinian dynasty Constantine I "the Great" Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας Fl. Valerius Constantinus 19 September 324 – 22 May 337 Born at Naissus ca. 272 as the son of the Augustus Constantius and Helena. Proclaimed Augustus of the western empire upon the death of his father on 25 July 306, he became sole ruler of the western empire after the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. In 324, he defeated the eastern Augustus Licinius and re-united the empire under his rule, reigning as sole emperor until his death. Constantine completed the administrative and military reforms begun under Diocletian, who had begun ushering in the Dominate period. Actively interested in Christianity, he played a crucial role in its development and the Christianization of the Roman world, through his convocation of the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea. He is said to have received baptism on his deathbed. He also reformed coinage through the introduction of the gold solidus, and initiated a large-scale building program, crowned by the re-foundation the city of Byzantium as "New Rome", popularly known as Constantinople. He was regarded as the model of all subsequent Byzantine emperors.[3] Constans I Κῶνστας Fl. Iulius Constans 22 May 337 – 18 January 350 Born c. 323, the third surviving son of Constantine I. Caesar since 333 and Augustus from 9 September 337, he inherited the central third of Roman Empire upon his father's death, and became sole emperor in the west following the death of Constantine II in 340. An ardent supporter of Athanasius of Alexandria, he opposed Arianism. Constans was assassinated during the coup of Magnentius.[5] Constantius II Κωνστάντιος Βʹ Fl. Iulius Constantius 22 May 337 – 3 November 361 Born on 7 August 317, as the second surviving son of Constantine I, he inherited the eastern third of Roman Empire upon his father's death, sole Roman Emperor from 353, after the overthrow of the western usurper Magnentius. Constantius' reign saw military activity on all frontiers, and dissension between Arianism, favoured by the emperor, and the "Orthodox" supporters of the Nicene Creed. In his reign, Constantinople was accorded equal status to Rome, and the original Hagia Sophia was built. Constantius appointed Constantius Gallus and Julian as Caesares, and died on his way to confront Julian, who had risen up against him.[6] Julian "the Apostate" Ἰουλιανὸς ὁ Παραβάτης Fl. Claudius Iulianus[b] 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 Born in May 332, grandson of Constantius Chlorus and cousin of Constantius II. Proclaimed by his army in Gaul, became legitimate Emperor upon the death of Constantius. Killed on campaign against Sassanid Persia. Non-dynastic (363–364)[edit] Jovian Ἰοβιανός; Iovianus 28 June 363 – 17 February 364 Born c. 332. Captain of the guards under Julian, elected by the army upon Julian's death. Died on journey back to Constantinople. Valentinianic dynasty (364–379)[edit] See also: Valentinianic dynasty Valentinian I Οὐαλεντιανός; Valentianus 26 February 364 – 17 November 375 Born in 321. An officer under Julian and Jovian, he was elected by the army upon Jovian's death. He soon appointed his younger brother Valens as Emperor of the East. Died of cerebral haemorrhage. Valens Οὐάλης; Valens 28 March 364 – 9 August 378 Born in 328. A soldier of the Roman army, he was appointed Emperor of the East by his elder brother Valentinian I. Killed at the Battle of Adrianople. Gratian Γρατιανός; Gratianus 9 August 378 – 19 January 379 Born on 18 April/23 May 359, the son of Valentinian I. Emperor of the West, he inherited rule of the East upon the death of Valens and appointed Theodosius I as Emperor of the East. Assassinated on 25 August 383 during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus. Theodosian dynasty (379–457)[edit] See also: Theodosian dynasty Theodosius I "the Great" Θεοδόσιος Aʹ ὁ Μέγας 19 January 379 – 17 January 395 Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. He reunited the whole Empire after defeating Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus, on 6 September 394. Arcadius Ἀρκάδιος 17 January 395 – 1 May 408 Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I; proclaimed Augustus on 19 January 383. On the death of Theodosius I in 395, the Roman Empire was permanently divided between the East Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, and the West Roman Empire. Theodosius' eldest son Arcadius became emperor in the East while his younger son Honorius became emperor in the West. Theodosius II "the Younger" Θεοδόσιος Βʹ ὁ μικρός 1 May 408 – 28 July 450 Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius; proclaimed Augustus on 10 January 402. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident. Marcian Μαρκιανός; Marcianus 25 August 450 – 27 January 457 Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II, following the latter's death. Died of gangrene. Leonid dynasty (457–518)[edit] See also: Leonid dynasty Leo I "the Butcher" Λέων Aʹ Μακέλλης 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 Born in Dacia ca. 400, and of Bessian origin, Leo became a low-ranking officer and served as an attendant of the Gothic magister militum, Aspar, who chose him as emperor on Marcian's death. He was the first emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the first one to legislate in Greek.[7] His reign was marked by the pacification of the Danube and peace with Persia, which allowed him to intervene in the affairs of the West, supporting candidates for the throne and dispatching an expedition to recover Carthage from the Vandals in 468. Initially a puppet of Aspar, Leo began promoting the Isaurians as a counterweight to Aspar's Goths, marrying his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian leader Tarasicodissa (Zeno). With their support, in 471 Aspar was murdered and Gothic power over the army was broken.[8] Leo II "the Younger" Λέων Βʹ το μικρό 18 January – 17 November 474 Born 468, he was the grandson of Leo I by Leo's daughter Ariadne and her Isaurian husband, Zeno. He was raised to Augustus on 17 November 473. Leo ascended the throne after the death of his grandfather, on 18 January 474. He crowned his father Zeno as co-emperor and effective regent on 29 January. He died shortly after. Zeno Ζήνων 17 November 474 – 9 April 491 Born ca. 425 in Isauria, originally named Tarasicodissa. As the leader of Leo I's Isaurian soldiers, he rose to comes domesticorum, married the emperor's daughter Ariadne and took the name Zeno, and played a crucial role in the elimination of Aspar and his Goths. He was named co-emperor by his son and became sole ruler upon the latter's death, but had to flee to his native country before Basiliscus in 475, regaining control of the capital in 476. Zeno concluded peace with the Vandals, saw off challenges against him by Illus and Verina, and secured peace in the Balkans by enticing the Ostrogoths under Theodoric the Great to migrate to Italy. Zeno's reign also saw the end of the western line of emperors. His pro-Monophysite stance made him unpopular and his promulgation of the Henotikon resulted in the Acacian Schism with the papacy.[9] Basiliscus Βασιλίσκος 9 January 475 – August 476 General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477 Anastasius I "Dicorus" Ἀναστάσιος ὁ Δίκορος 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 Born ca. 430 at Dyrrhachium, he was a palace official (silentiarius) when he was chosen as her husband and Emperor by Empress-dowager Ariadne. He was nicknamed "Dikoros" (Latin: Dicorus), because of his heterochromia. Anastasius reformed the tax system and the Byzantine coinage and proved a frugal ruler, so that by the end of his reign he left a substantial surplus. His Monophysite sympathies led to widespread opposition, most notably the Revolt of Vitalian and the Acacian Schism. His reign was also marked by the first Bulgar raids into the Balkans and by a war with Persia over the foundation of Dara. He died childless.[10] Justinian dynasty (518–602)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Justin I Ἰουστῖνος; Iustinus 10 July 518 – 1 August 527 Born c. 450 at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania. Officer and commander of the Excubitors bodyguard under Anastasius I, he was elected by army and people upon the death of Anastasius I. Justinian I "the Great" Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Μέγας Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus 1 August 527 – 14 November 565 Born in 482/483 at Tauresium (Taor), Macedonia. Nephew of Justin I, raised to co-emperor on 1 April 527. Succeeded on Justin I's death. Attempted to restore the western territories of the Empire, reconquering Italy, North Africa and parts of Spain. Also responsible for the corpus juris civilis, or the "body of civil law," which is the foundation of law for many modern European nations.[11] Justin II "the Younger" Ἰουστῖνος Βʹ Iustinus Iunior 14 November 565 – 5 October 578 Born c. 520. Nephew of Justinian I, he seized the throne on the death of Justinian I with support of army and Senate. Became insane, hence in 573–574 under the regency of his wife Sophia, and in 574–578 under the regency of Tiberius Constantine. Tiberius II Constantine Τιβέριος Κωνσταντῖνος Tiberius Constantinus 5 October 578 – 14 August 582 Born c. 535, commander of the Excubitors, friend and adoptive son of Justin. Was named Caesar and regent in 574. Succeeded on Justin II's death. Maurice Μαυρίκιος Mauricius Tiberius 14 August 582 – 27 November 602 Born in 539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia. Became an official and later a general. Married the daughter of Tiberius II and succeeded him upon his death. Named his son Theodosius as co-emperor in 590. Deposed by Phocas and executed on 27 November 602 at Chalcedon. Non-dynastic (602–610)[edit] Phocas Φωκᾶς 23 November 602 – 5 October 610 Subaltern in the Balkan army, he led a rebellion that deposed Maurice. Increasingly unpopular and tyrannical, he was deposed and executed by Heraclius. Heraclian dynasty (610–695)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Heraclius Ἡράκλειος 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 Born c. 575 as the eldest son of the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius the Elder. Began a revolt against Phocas in 609 and deposed him in October 610. Brought the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 to successful conclusion but was unable to stop the Muslim conquest of Syria. Officially replaced Latin with Greek as the language of administration. Constantine III Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος Heraclius Constantinus 11 February – 25 May 641 Born on 3 May 612 as the eldest son of Heraclius by his first wife Fabia Eudokia. Named co-emperor on 22 January 613, he succeeded to throne with his younger brother Heraklonas following the death of Heraclius. Died of tuberculosis, allegedly poisoned by Empress-dowager Martina. Heraklonas Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Constantinus Heraclius 11 February 641 – September 641 Born in 626 to Heraclius' second wife Martina, named co-emperor on 4 July 638. Succeeded to throne with Constantine III following the death of Heraclius. Sole emperor after the death of Constantine III, under the regency of Martina, but was forced to name Constans II co-emperor by the army, and was deposed by the Senate in September 641 (or early 642). Constans II "the Bearded" Κώνστας Β' ὁ Πωγωνάτος Flavius Heraclius September 641 – 15 July 668 Born on 7 November 630, the son of Constantine III. Raised to co-emperor in summer 641 after his father's death due to army pressure, he became sole emperor after the forced abdication of his uncle Heraklonas. Baptized Heraclius, he reigned as Constantine. "Constans" is his nickname. Moved his seat to Syracuse, where he was assassinated, possibly on the orders of Mizizios. Constantine IV "the Younger" Κωνσταντῖνος Δʹ ὁ νέος September 668 – 10 July 685[12] Born in 652, co-emperor since 13 April 654, he succeeded following the murder of his father Constans II. Erroneously called "Constantine the Bearded" by historians through confusion with his father. He called the Third Council of Constantinople which condemned the heresy of Monothelitism, repelled the First Arab Siege of Constantinople, and died of dysentery. Justinian II "the Slit-nosed" Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Ῥινότμητος 10 July 685 – 695 Born in 669, son of Constantine IV, he was named co-emperor in 681 and became sole emperor upon Constantine IV's death. Deposed by military revolt in 695, mutilated (hence his surname) and exiled to Cherson, whence he recovered his throne in 705. Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)[edit] Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy Leontios Λεόντιος 695 – 15 February 698[12] General from Isauria, he deposed Justinian II and was overthrown in another revolt in 698. He was executed in February 706. Tiberius III Apsimar Τιβέριος Γʹ (Ἀψίμαρος) 15 February 698 – 21 August 705[12] Admiral of Germanic origin, originally named Apsimar. He rebelled against Leontios after a failed expedition. Reigned under the name of Tiberius until deposed by Justinian II in 705. Executed in February 706. Justinian II "the Slit-nosed" (second reign) 21 August 705 – 4 November 711 Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706. Deposed and killed by military revolt. Philippikos Φιλιππικός December 711 – 3 June 713 A general of Armenian origin, he deposed Justinian II and was in turn overthrown by a revolt of the Opsician troops. Anastasios II Artemios Ἀναστάσιος Β (ʹἈρτέμιος) 4 June 713 – late 715 Originally named Artemios. A bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers who overthrew Philippikos. Deposed by another military revolt, he led an abortive attempt to regain the throne in 718 and was killed. Theodosius III Θεοδόσιος Γʹ May 715 – 25 March 717 A fiscal official, he was proclaimed emperor by the rebellious Opsician troops. Entered Constantinople in November 715. Abdicated following the revolt of Leo the Isaurian and became a monk. Isaurian dynasty (717–802)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty Leo III "the Isaurian" Λέων Γʹ ὁ Ἴσαυρος 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 Born c. 685 in Germanikeia, Commagene, he became a general. Rose in rebellion and secured the throne in spring 717. Repelled the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople and initiated the Byzantine Iconoclasm. Constantine V "the Dung-named" Κωνσταντῖνος Eʹ Κοπρώνυμος 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 Born in July 718, the only son of Leo III. Co-emperor since 720, he succeeded upon his father's death. After overcoming the usurpation of Artabasdos, he continued his father's iconoclastic policies and won several victories against the Arabs and the Bulgars. He is given the surname "the Dung-named" by hostile later chroniclers. Artabasdos Ἀρτάβασδος 741 – 2 November 743 General and son-in-law of Leo III, Count of the Opsician Theme. Led a revolt that secured Constantinople, but was defeated and deposed by Constantine V, who blinded and tonsured him. Leo IV "the Khazar" Λέων Δʹ ὁ Χάζαρος 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 Born on 25 January 750 as the eldest son of Constantine V. Co-emperor since 751, he succeeded upon his father's death. Constantine VI Κωνσταντῖνος ΣΤʹ 8 September 780 – 19 August 797 Born in 771, the only child of Leo IV. Co-emperor since 14 April 776, sole emperor upon Leo's death in 780, until 790 under the regency of his mother, Irene of Athens. He was overthrown on Irene's orders, blinded and imprisoned, probably dying of his wounds shortly after. Irene of Athens Εἰρήνη 19 August 797 – 31 October 802 Born c. 752 in Athens, she married Leo IV on 3 November 768 and was crowned empress on 17 December. Regent for her son Constantine VI in 780–790, she overthrew him in 797 and became empress-regnant. In 787 she called the Second Council of Nicaea which condemned the practice of iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons to Christian practice. Deposed in a palace coup in 802, she was exiled and died on 9 August 803. Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty Nikephoros I "Genikos" or "the Logothete" Νικηφόρος Αʹ ὁ Γενικός/ὁ Λογοθέτης 31 October 802 – 26 July 811 Logothetes tou genikou (general finance minister) under Irene, led initially successful campaigns against the Bulgars but was killed at the Battle of Pliska. Staurakios Σταυράκιος 26 July 811 – 2 October 811 Only son of Nikephoros I, crowned co-emperor in December 803. Succeeded on his father's death; however, he had been heavily wounded at Pliska and left paralyzed. He was forced to resign, and retired to a monastery where he died soon after. Michael I Rangabe Μιχαὴλ Αʹ Ῥαγγαβέ 2 October 811 – 11 July 813 Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, he succeeded Staurakios on his abdication. Resigned after the revolt under Leo the Armenian and retired to a monastery, where he died on 11 January 844. Reigned with eldest son Theophylact as co-emperor. Non-dynastic (813–820)[edit] Leo V "the Armenian" Λέων Εʹ ὁ Ἀρμένιος 11 July 813 – 25 December 820 General of Armenian origin, born c. 755. He rebelled against Michael I and became emperor. Appointed his son Symbatios co-emperor under the name of Constantine in 813. Revived Byzantine Iconoclasm. Murdered by a conspiracy led by Michael the Amorian. Amorian dynasty (820–867)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty Michael II "the Amorian" Μιχαὴλ Βʹ ὁ ἐξ Ἀμορίου 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 Born in 770 at Amorium, he became an army officer. A friend of Leo V, he was raised to high office but led the conspiracy that murdered him. Survived the rebellion of Thomas the Slav, lost Crete to the Arabs and faced the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, reinforced iconoclasm. Theophilos Θεόφιλος 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 Born in 813, as the only son of Michael II. Crowned co-emperor on 12 May 821, he succeeded on his father's death. Michael III "the Drunkard" Μιχαὴλ Γʹ ὁ Μέθυσος 20 January 842 – 24 September 867 Born on 19 January 840, son of Theophilos, he succeeded on Theophilos' death. Under the regency of his mother Theodora until 856, and under the effective control of his uncle Bardas in 862–866. Ended iconoclasm. Murdered by Basil the Macedonian. A pleasure-loving ruler, he was nicknamed "the Drunkard" by later, pro-Basil chroniclers. Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)[edit] See also: Macedonian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty Basil I "the Macedonian" Βασίλειος Αʹ ὁ Μακεδών 24 September 867 – 29 August 886 Born in the Theme of Macedonia ca. 811, he rose in prominence through palace service, becoming a favourite of Michael III, who crowned him co-emperor on 26 May 866. He overthrew Michael and established the Macedonian dynasty. He led successful wars in the East against the Arabs and the Paulicians, and recovered southern Italy for the Empire. Leo VI "the Wise" Λέων ΣΤʹ ὁ Σοφός 29 August 886 – 11 May 912 Born on 19 September 866, either the legitimate son of Basil I or the illegitimate son of Michael III. Co-emperor since 6 January 870. Leo was known for his erudition. His reign saw a height in Saracen (Muslim) naval raids, culminating in the Sack of Thessalonica, and was marked by unsuccessful wars against the Bulgarians under Simeon I. Alexander Ἀλέξανδρος 11 May 912 – 6 June 913 Son of Basil I, Alexander was born in 870 and raised to co-emperor in 879. Sidelined by Leo VI, Alexander dismissed his brother's principal aides on his accession. He died of exhaustion after a polo game. Romanos I Lekapenos Ῥωμανὸς Αʹ Λεκαπηνός 17 December 920 – 20 December 944 An admiral of lowly origin, Romanos rose to power as a protector of the young Constantine VII against the general Leo Phokas the Elder. After becoming the emperor's father-in-law, he successively assumed higher offices until he crowned himself senior emperor. His reign was marked by the end of warfare with Bulgaria and the great conquests of John Kourkouas in the East. Romanos promoted his sons Stephen and Constantine (alongside Christopher, who died soon after) as co-emperors over Constantine VII, but was himself overthrown by them and confined to an island as a monk. He died there on 15 June 948. Constantine VII "the Purple-born" Κωνσταντῖνος Ζʹ ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 Son of Leo VI, he was born on 17/18 May 905 and raised to co-emperor on 15 May 908. His early reign was dominated by successive regencies, first by his mother, Zoe Karbonopsina, and Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, and from 919 by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who wedded his daughter to Constantine and was crowned senior emperor in 920. Constantine was sidelined during the Lekapenos regime, but asserted his control by deposing Romanos's sons on 27 January 945. His reign was marked by struggles with Sayf al-Dawla in the East and an unsuccessful campaign against Crete, and pro-aristocratic policies that saw a partial reversal of Lekapenos' legislation against the dynatoi. He is notable for his promotion of the "Macedonian Renaissance", sponsoring encyclopaedic works and histories. He was a prolific writer himself, best remembered for the manuals on statecraft (De administrando imperio) and ceremonies (De ceremoniis) he compiled for his son.[13] Romanos II "the Purple-born" Ῥωμανὸς Βʹ ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος 9 November 959 – 15 March 963 The only surviving son of Constantine VII, he was born on 15 March 938 and succeeded his father on the latter's death. He ruled until his own death, although the government was led mostly by the eunuch Joseph Bringas. His reign was marked by successful warfare in the East against Sayf al-Dawla and the recovery of Crete by general Nikephoros Phokas. Nikephoros II Phokas Νικηφόρος Βʹ Φωκᾶς 16 August 963 – 11 December 969 The most successful general of his generation, Nikephoros II was born ca. 912 to the powerful Phokas clan. After the death of Romanos II, he rose to the throne with the support of the army and people as regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, marrying the empress-dowager Theophano. Throughout his reign he led campaigns in the East, conquering much of Syria. He was murdered by his nephew and one-time associate John Tzimiskes. John I Tzimiskes Ἰωάννης Αʹ ὁ Τσιμισκὴς 11 December 969 – 10 January 976 Nephew of Nikephoros Phokas, Tzimiskes was born ca. 925. A successful general, he fell out with his uncle and led a conspiracy of disgruntled generals who murdered him. Tzimiskes succeeded Nikephoros as emperor and regent for the young sons of Romanos II. As ruler, Tzimiskes crushed the Rus' in Bulgaria and ended the Bulgarian tsardom before going on to campaign in the East, where he died. Basil II "the Bulgar-Slayer" Βασίλειος Βʹ ὁ Βουλγαροκτόνος 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 Eldest son of Romanos II, Basil was born in 958. The first decade of his reign was marked by rivalry with the powerful Basil Lekapenos, an unsuccessful war against Bulgaria, and rebellions by generals in Asia Minor. Basil solidified his position through a marriage alliance with Vladimir I of Kiev, and after suppressing the revolts, he embarked on his conquest of Bulgaria. Bulgaria was finally subdued in 1018 after over 20 years of war, interrupted only by sporadic warfare in Syria against the Fatimids. Basil also expanded Byzantine control over most of Armenia. His reign is widely considered as the apogee of medieval Byzantium. Constantine VIII "the Purple-born" Κωνσταντῖνος Ηʹ ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος 15 December 1025 – 11/12 November 1028 The second son of Romanos II, Constantine was born in 960 and raised to co-emperor on 30 March 962. During the rule of Basil II, he spent his time in idle pleasure. During his short reign he was an indifferent ruler, easily influenced by his courtiers and suspicious of plots to depose him, especially among the military aristocracy, many of whom were blinded and exiled. On his deathbed, he chose Romanos Argyros as husband for his daughter Zoe.[14] Zoe "the Purple-born" Ζωὴ ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος) 21 April – 12 June 1042 The daughter of Constantine VIII, she succeeded on her father's death, as the only surviving member of the Macedonian dynasty, along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her. Romanos III Argyros Ῥωμανὸς Γʹ Ἀργυρός 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 Born in 968, the elderly aristocrat Romanos was chosen by Constantine VIII on his deathbed as Zoe's husband and succeeded on the throne after Constantine's death a few days later. Michael IV "the Paphlagonian" Μιχαὴλ Δʹ ὁ Παφλαγών 11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 Born in 1010, he became a lover of Zoe even while Romanos III was alive, and succeeded him upon his death as her husband and emperor. Aided by his older brother, the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos, his reign was moderately successful against internal rebellions, but his attempt to recover Sicily failed. He died after a long illness. Michael V "the Caulker" Μιχαὴλ Εʹ ὁ Καλαφάτης 10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042 Born in 1015, he was the nephew and adopted son of Michael IV. During his reign he tried to sideline Zoe, but a popular revolt forced him to restore her as empress on 19 April 1042, along with her sister Theodora. He was deposed the next day, castrated and tonsured, dying on 24 August 1042. Theodora "the Purple-born" Θεοδώρα ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος 19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056 The younger sister of Zoe, born in 984, she was raised as co-ruler on 19 April 1042. After Zoe married her third husband, Constantine IX, in June 1042, Theodora was again sidelined. After Zoe died in 1050 and Constantine in 1055, Theodora assumed full governance of the Empire and reigned until her death. She nominated Michael VI as her successor. Constantine IX Monomachos Κωνσταντῖνος Θʹ Μονομάχος 11 June 1042 – 7/8 or 11 January 1055 Born ca. 1000 of noble origin, he had an undistinguished life but was exiled to Lesbos by Michael IV, returning when he was chosen as Zoe's third husband. Constantine supported the mercantile classes and favoured the company of intellectuals, thereby alienating the military aristocracy. A pleasure-loving ruler, he lived an extravagant life with his favourite mistresses and endowed a number of monasteries, chiefly the Nea Moni of Chios and the Mangana Monastery. His reign was marked by invasions by the Pechenegs in the Balkans and the Seljuk Turks in the East, the revolts of George Maniakes and Leo Tornikios, and the Great Schism between the patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople.[15] Non-dynastic (1056–1057)[edit] Michael VI Bringas "Stratiotikos" or "the Old" Μιχαὴλ ΣΤʹ Βρίγγας ὁ Στρατιωτικός/ὁ Γέρων 31 August 1056 – 31 August 1057 A court bureaucrat and stratiotikos logothetes (hence his first sobriquet). Crowned emperor by Theodora on 22 August 1056. Deposed by military revolt under Isaac Komnenos, he retired to a monastery where he died in 1059. Komnenid dynasty (1057–1059)[edit] See also: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty Isaac I Komnenos Ἰσαάκιος Αʹ Κομνηνός 5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059 Born c. 1005. A successful general, he rose in revolt leading the eastern armies and was declared emperor; he was recognized after the abdication of Michael VI on 31 August 1057. He resigned in 1059 and died c. 1061. Doukid dynasty (1059–1081)[edit] See also: Doukas and Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty Constantine X Doukas Κωνσταντῖνος Ιʹ Δούκας 24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067 Born in 1006, he became a general and close ally of Isaac Komnenos, and succeeded him as emperor on his abdication. Named his sons Michael, Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors. Michael VII Doukas "Parapinakes" Μιχαὴλ Ζʹ Δούκας "Παραπινάκης" 22 May 1067 – 24 March 1078 Born in 1050 as the eldest son of Constantine X. Co-emperor since 1059, he succeeded on his father's death. Due to his minority he was under the regency of his mother, Eudokia Makrembolitissa, in 1067–1068, and relegated to junior emperor under her second husband Romanos IV Diogenes in 1068–71. Senior emperor in 1071–78, he named his son Constantine co-emperor alongside his brothers. He abdicated before the revolt of Nikephoros Botaneiates, retired to a monastery and died c. 1090. His reign saw the complete devaluation of the Byzantine currency, hence his nickname. Romanos IV Diogenes Ῥωμανὸς Δʹ Διογένης 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 Born in 1032, a successful general he married empress-dowager Eudokia Makrembolitissa and became senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X. Deposed by the Doukas partisans after the Battle of Manzikert, blinded in June 1072 and exiled. He died soon after. Nikephoros III Botaneiates Νικηφόρος Γʹ Βοτανειάτης 31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081 Born in 1001, he was the strategos of the Anatolic Theme. He rebelled against Michael VII and was welcomed into the capital. He weathered several revolts, but was overthrown by the Komnenos clan. He retired to a monastery where he died on 10 December of the same year (1081). Komnenid dynasty (1081–1185)[edit] See also: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty Alexios I Komnenos Ἀλέξιος Αʹ Κομνηνός 4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 Born in 1056, a nephew of Isaac I Komnenos. A distinguished general, he overthrew Nikephoros III. His reign was dominated by wars against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks, as well as the arrival of the First Crusade and the establishment of independent Crusader states. He retained Constantine Doukas as co-emperor until 1087 and named his eldest son John co-emperor in 1092. John II Komnenos Ἰωάννης Βʹ Κομνηνός 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 Born on 13 September 1087 as the eldest son of Alexios I. Co-emperor since 1092, he succeeded upon his father's death. His reign was focused on wars with the Turks. A popular, pious and frugal ruler, he was known as "John the Good". Named his eldest son Alexios co-emperor in 1122, but the son predeceased his father. Manuel I Komnenos Μανουὴλ Αʹ Κομνηνό 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180 Born on 28 November 1118 as the fourth and youngest son of John II, he was chosen as emperor over his elder brother Isaac by his father on his deathbed. An energetic ruler, he launched campaigns against the Turks, humbled Hungary, achieved supremacy over the Crusader states, and tried unsuccessfully to recover Italy. His extravagance and constant campaigning, however, depleted the Empire's resources. Alexios II Komnenos Ἀλέξιος B' Κομνηνός 24 September 1180 – September 1183 Born on 14 September 1169 as the only son of Manuel I. In 1180–1182 under the regency of his mother, Maria of Antioch. She was overthrown by Andronikos I Komnenos, who became co-emperor and finally had Alexios II deposed and killed. Andronikos I Komnenos Ἀνδρόνικος Αʹ Κομνηνός September 1183 – 11 September 1185 Born c. 1118, a nephew of John II by his brother Isaac. A general, he was imprisoned for conspiring against John II, but escaped and spent 15 years in exile in various courts in eastern Europe and the Middle East. He seized the regency from Maria of Antioch in 1182 and subsequently throne from his nephew Alexios II. An unpopular ruler, he was overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising. Angelid dynasty (1185–1204)[edit] See also: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Isaac II Angelos Ἰσαάκιος Βʹ Ἄγγελος 11 September 1185 – 8 April 1195 Born in September 1156, Isaac came to the throne at the head of a popular revolt against Andronikos I. His reign was marked by revolts and wars in the Balkans, especially against a resurgent Bulgaria. He was deposed, blinded and imprisoned by his elder brother, Alexios III. Alexios III Angelos Ἀλέξιος Γʹ Ἄγγελος 8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203 Born in 1153, Alexios was the elder brother of Isaac II. His reign was marked by misgovernment and the increasing autonomy of provincial magnates. He was deposed by the Fourth Crusade and fled Constantinople, roaming Greece and Asia Minor, searching for support to regain his throne. He died in Nicaean captivity in 1211. He was later restored to the throne by the Crusaders and Alexios IV. Due to their failure to deal with the Crusaders' demands, he was deposed by Alexios V Doukas in January 1204 and died on 28 January 1204, perhaps of poison. Alexios IV Angelos Ἀλέξιος Δʹ Ἄγγελος 1 August 1203 – 27/28 January 1204 Born in 1182, the son of Isaac II. He enlisted the Fourth Crusade to return his father to the throne, and reigned alongside his restored father. Due to their failure to deal with the Crusaders' demands, he was deposed by Alexios V Doukas in January 1204, and was strangled on 8 February. Alexios V Doukas "Mourtzouphlos" Ἀλέξιος Εʹ Δούκας ὁ “Μούρτζουφλος” 5 February 1204 – 12 April 1204 Born in 1140, the son-in-law of Alexios III and a prominent aristocrat, he deposed Isaac II and Alexios IV in a palace coup. He tried to repel the Crusaders, but they captured Constantinople forcing Mourtzouphlos to flee. He joined the exiled Alexios III, but was later blinded by the latter. Captured by the Crusaders, he was executed in December 1205. Laskarid dynasty (Empire of Nicaea, 1204–1261)[edit] See also: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea Theodore I Laskaris Θεόδωρος Αʹ Λάσκαρις 1205– November 1221 Born c. 1174, he rose to prominence as a son-in-law of Alexios III. His brother Constantine Laskaris (or Theodore himself, it is uncertain) was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day before the city fell to the Crusaders; Constantine only remained for a few hours before the sack of the city and later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208. He managed to stop the Latin advance in Asia and to repel Seljuk attacks, establishing the Empire of Nicaea as the strongest of the Greek successor states. John III Doukas Vatatzes Ἰωάννης Γʹ Δούκας Βατάτζης 15 December 1221– 3 November 1254 Born c. 1192, he became the son-in-law and successor of Theodore I in 1212. A capable ruler and soldier, he expanded his state in Bithynia, Thrace and Macedonia at the expense of the Latin Empire, Bulgaria and the rival Greek state of Epirus. Theodore II Laskaris Θεόδωρος Βʹ Λάσκαρις 3 November 1254– 16 August 1258 Born in 1221/1222 as the only son of John III, he succeeded on his father's death. His reign was marked by his hostility towards the major houses of the aristocracy, and by his victory against Bulgaria and the subsequent expansion into and Albania. John IV Laskaris Ἰωάννης Δʹ Λάσκαρις 16 August 1258– 25 December 1261 Born on 25 December 1250 as the only son of Theodore II, he succeeded on his father's death. Due to his minority, the regency was exercised at first by George Mouzalon until his assassination, and then by Michael Palaiologos, who within months was crowned senior emperor. After the recovery of Constantinople in August 1261, Palaiologos sidelined John IV completely, had him blinded and imprisoned. John IV died c. 1305. Palaiologan dynasty (restored to Constantinople, 1261–1453)[edit] See also: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty Michael VIII Palaiologos Μιχαὴλ Ηʹ Παλαιολόγος 1 January 1259– 11 December 1282 Born in 1223, great-grandson of Alexios III, grandnephew of John III by marriage. Senior emperor alongside John IV in 1259. His forces reconquered Constantinople on 25 July 1261, thus restoring the Empire. He entered the city and was crowned on 15 August. Became sole emperor after deposing John IV on 25 December 1261. Andronikos II Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Βʹ Παλαιολόγος 11 December 1282– 24 May 1328 Son of Michael VIII, born on 25 March 1259. Named co-emperor in 1261, crowned in 1272, he succeeded as sole emperor on Michael's death. Favouring monks and intellectuals, he neglected the army, and his reign saw the collapse of the Byzantine position in Asia Minor. He named his son Michael IX co-emperor. In a protracted civil war, he was first forced to recognize his grandson Andronikos III as co-emperor and was then deposed outright. He died on 13 February 1332. Andronikos III Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Γʹ Παλαιολόγος 24 May 1328– 15 June 1341 Son of Michael IX, he was born on 25 March 1297 and named co-emperor in 1316. Rival emperor since July 1321, he deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and ruled as sole emperor until his death. Supported by John Kantakouzenos, his reign saw defeats against the Ottoman emirate but successes in Europe, where Epirus and Thessaly were recovered. John V Palaiologos Ἰωάννης Εʹ Παλαιολόγος 19 November 1341– 12 August 1376 Only son of Andronikos III, he had not been crowned co-emperor or declared heir at his father's death, a fact which led to the outbreak of a destructive civil war between his regents and his father's closest aide, John VI Kantakouzenos, who was crowned co-emperor. The conflict ended in 1347 with Kantakouzenos recognized as senior emperor, but he was deposed by John V in 1354, during another civil war. Matthew Kantakouzenos, raised by John VI to co-emperor, was also deposed in 1357. John V appealed to the West for aid against the Ottomans, but in 1371 he was forced to recognize Ottoman suzerainty. He was deposed in 1376 by his son Andronikos IV. John VI Kantakouzenos Ἰωάννης ΣΤʹ Καντακουζηνός 21 May 1347– 9/10 December 1354 A maternal relative of the Palaiologoi, he was declared co-emperor on 26 October 1341, and was recognized as senior emperor for ten years after the end of the civil war on 8 February 1347. Deposed by John V in 1354, he became a monk, dying on 15 June 1383. Andronikos IV Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Δʹ Παλαιολόγος 12 August 1376– 1 July 1379 Son of John V and grandson of John VI, he was born on 2 April 1348 and raised to co-emperor c. 1352. He deposed his father on 12 August 1376 and ruled until overthrown in turn in 1379. He was again recognized as co-emperor in 1381 and given Selymbria as an appanage, dying there on 28 June 1385. John V Palaiologos (second reign) 1 July 1379– 14 April 1390 Restored to senior emperor, he was reconciled with Andronikos IV in 1381, re-appointing him co-emperor. He was overthrown again in 1390 by his grandson, John VII. John VII Palaiologos Ἰωάννης Ζʹ Παλαιολόγος 14 April 1390– 17 September 1390 Son of Andronikos IV, he was born in 1370, and named co-emperor under his father in 1377–79. He usurped the throne from his grandfather John V for five months in 1390, but with Ottoman mediation he was reconciled with John V and his uncle, Manuel II. He held Constantinople against the Ottomans in 1399–1402, and was then given Thessalonica as an appanage, which he governed until his death on 22 September 1408. John V Palaiologos (third reign) 17 September 1390– 16 February 1391 Restored to senior emperor, he ruled until his death in February 1391. Manuel II Palaiologos Μανουὴλ Βʹ Παλαιολόγος 16 February 1391– 21 July 1425 Second son of John V, he was born on 27 June 1350. Raised to co-emperor in 1373, he became senior emperor on John V's death and ruled until his death. He journeyed to the West European courts seeking aid against the Turks, and was able to use the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Ankara to regain some territories and throw off his vassalage to them. John VIII Palaiologos Ἰωάννης Η' Παλαιολόγος 21 July 1425– 31 October 1448 Eldest surviving son of Manuel II, he was born on 18 December 1392. Raised to co-emperor around 1416 and named full autokrator on 19 January 1421, he succeeded his father on his death. Seeking aid against the resurgent Ottomans, he ratified the Union of the Churches in 1439. Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos Κωνσταντῖνος ΙΑʹ Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος 6 January 1449– 29 May 1453 The fourth son of Manuel II and Serbian princess Helena Dragaš, he was born on 8 February 1405. As Despot of the Morea since 1428, he distinguished himself in campaigns that annexed the Principality of Achaea and brought the Duchy of Athens under temporary Byzantine suzerainty, but was unable to repel Turkish attacks under Turahan Bey. As the eldest surviving brother, he succeeded John VIII after the latter's death. Facing the designs of the new Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II, on Constantinople, Constantine acknowledged the Union of the Churches and made repeated appeals for help to the West, but in vain. Refusing to surrender the city, he was killed during the final Ottoman attack on 29 May 1453.[16] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Family tree of the Byzantine emperors List of Roman emperors List of Trapezuntine emperors List of Roman usurpers List of Byzantine usurpers Pretenders to the Byzantine throne List of Roman and Byzantine empresses List of Byzantine emperors of Armenian origin Family tree of the Roman emperors History of the Byzantine Empire Notes[edit] ^ Regnal numbers were never used in the Byzantine Empire. Instead, the Byzantines used nicknames and patronymics to distinguish rulers of the same name. The numbering of Byzantine emperors is a purely historiographical invention. ^ By the 4th century, the name Flavius had become a part of the imperial title: Cameron, Alan (1988). "Flavius : a Nicety of Protocol". Société d'Études Latines de Bruxelles. 47: 26–33. References[edit] ^ a b Nicol, Donald MacGillivray, Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, Cambridge University Press, Second Edition, 1993, p. 72: "Hereditary succession to the throne was a custom or a convenience in Byzantium, not an inviolable principle. Emperors, particularly in the later period, would take pains to nominate their sons as co-emperors, for the rule of a dynasty made for stability and continuity. But in theory, the road to the throne was a carriere ouverte aux talents [career open to talents]..." ^ Hooker, Richard (1 October 2007). "European Middle Ages: The Byzantine Empire". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 24 February 1999. Retrieved 25 August 2015. ^ a b Morrisson, Cécile (2013) "Displaying the Emperor's Authority and Kharaktèr on the Marketplace" in Armstrong, Pamela. Authority in Byzantium. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 978-1409436089 ^ p. 183, Karayannopoulous, Yanis, "State Organization, Social Structure, Economy, and Commerce," History of Humanity – Scientific and Cultural Development from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Centuries, Vol. IV, M. A. Al-Bakhit, L. Bazin, S. M. Cissoko and M. S. Asimov, Editors, UNESCO, Paris (2000) ^ Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Constans". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 496. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Constantius II". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 524. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Christopher, Wickham (2009). The inheritance of Rome. Penguin. p. 90. ISBN 9780670020980. ^ Gregory, Timothy E.; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Leo I". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1206–1207. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Zeno". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 2223. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Anastasios I". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ McKay/HillA History of World Societies. Bedford/St. Martin's, 9th edition. 2012 ^ a b c Chronicon Altinate ^ Kazhdan, Alexander; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 502–503. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Brand, Charles M.; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Constantine VIII". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 503–504. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Brand, Charles M.; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Constantine IX Monomachos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 504. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Talbot, Alice-Mary (1991). "Constantine XI Palaiologos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 505. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Mesopotamia Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central Emperors Coronation Family tree Empresses Imperial bureaucracy Medieval Greek Senate Early Praetorian prefects Magister officiorum Comes sacrarum largitionum Comes rerum privatarum Quaestor sacri palatii Middle Logothetes tou dromou Sakellarios Logothetes tou genikou Logothetes tou stratiotikou Chartoularios tou sakelliou Chartoularios tou vestiariou Epi tou eidikou Protasekretis Epi ton deeseon Late Megas logothetes Mesazon Provincial Early Praetorian prefectures Dioceses Provinces Quaestura exercitus Exarchate of Ravenna Exarchate of Africa Middle Themata Kleisourai Bandon Catepanates Late Kephale Despotates Diplomacy Treaties Diplomats Roman–Iranian relations Military Army Battle tactics Battles Generals Mercenaries Military manuals Military units Revolts Wars Early Late Roman army East Roman army Foederati Bucellarii Scholae Palatinae Excubitors Middle Themata Kleisourai Tourma Droungos Bandon Tagmata Domestic of the Schools Hetaireia Akritai Varangian Guard Late Komnenian army Pronoia Vestiaritai Palaiologan army Allagion Paramonai Grand domestic Navy Karabisianoi Maritime themata Cibyrrhaeot Aegean Sea Samos Dromon Greek fire Droungarios of the Fleet Megas doux Admirals Naval battles Religion and law Religion Eastern Orthodoxy Byzantine Rite Hesychasm Patriarchate of Constantinople Saints Oriental Orthodoxy Alexandrian Rite Armenian Rite West Syriac Rite Miaphysitism Ecumenical councils Arianism Monophysitism Paulicianism Iconoclasm Great Schism Bogomilism Mount Athos Missionary activity Bulgaria Moravia Serbs Kievan Rus' Jews Law Codex Theodosianus Corpus Juris Civilis Code of Justinian Ecloga Basilika Hexabiblos Mutilation Culture and society Architecture Secular Sacred Cross-in-square Domes Constantinople Basilica Cistern Baths of Zeuxippus Blachernae Palace Chora Church City Walls Great Palace of Constantinople Hagia Irene Hagia Sophia Hippodrome Pammakaristos Church Prison of Anemas Thessalonica Arch of Galerius and Rotunda Byzantine Bath Hagia Sophia Hagios Demetrios Panagia Chalkeon Walls of Thessaloniki Ravenna San Vitale Sant'Apollinare in Classe Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Other locations Daphni Monastery Hosios Loukas Nea Moni of Chios Panagia Gorgoepikoos Saint Catherine's Monastery Mystras Art Icons Enamel Glass Mosaics Early Byzantine mosaics Painters Macedonian period art Komnenian renaissance Economy Agriculture Coinage Mints Trade silk Silk Road Varangians Dynatoi Literature Novel Acritic songs Digenes Akritas Alexander Romance Historians Everyday life Calendar Cities Cuisine Dance Dress Flags and insignia Gardens Music Lyra Octoechos People Byzantine Greeks Women Slavery Units of measurement Science Learning Encyclopedias Imperial Library Inventions Medicine Philosophy Rhetoric Scholars University University of Constantinople Impact Byzantine commonwealth Byzantine studies Museums Byzantinism Cyrillic script Neo-Byzantine architecture Greek scholars in the Renaissance Third Rome Megali Idea Byzantine Empire portal v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1838	----	Augustus (title) - Wikipedia Augustus (title) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Augustus (honorific)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses of Augustus, see Augustus (disambiguation). Ancient Roman title This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Augustus" title – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Coin of the emperor Diocletian, marked diocletianus augustus Augustus (plural Augusti; /ɔːˈɡʌstəs/ aw-GUST-əs,[1] Classical Latin: [au̯ˈɡʊstʊs]; "majestic", "great" or "venerable") was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form Augusta was used for Roman empresses and other female members of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as titles for major and minor Roman deities of the Empire associated the Imperial system and Imperial family with traditional Roman virtues and the divine will, and may be considered a feature of the Roman Imperial cult. In Rome's Greek-speaking provinces, "Augustus" was translated as Sebastos (Σεβαστός, "venerable"), or Hellenised as Augoustos (Αὔγουστος); these titles continued to be used in the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although they gradually lost their imperial exclusivity. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Augustus was sometimes used as a name for men of aristocratic birth, especially in the lands of the Holy Roman Empire. It remains a given name for males. Contents 1 Title in Ancient Rome 1.1 Earliest usage 1.2 Imperial honorific 1.3 Feminine equivalent 2 Other uses 2.1 Holy Roman Empire 2.2 Brian Boru 3 See also 4 References Title in Ancient Rome[edit] Earliest usage[edit] Some thirty years before its first association with Caesar's heir, augustus was an obscure honorific with religious associations. One early context (58 BC), associates it with provincial Lares (Roman household gods).[2] In Latin poetry and prose, it signifies the "elevation" or "augmentation" of what is already sacred or religious.[3] Some Roman sources connected it to augury, and Rome was said to have been founded with the "august augury" of Romulus.[4] A coin of the late 3rd century emperor Probus, marked with abbreviated titles and honorifics: imp·c·probus·invic·p·f· aug Imperial honorific[edit] See also: Sebastos The first true Roman Emperor known as "Augustus" (and first counted as a Roman Emperor) was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian). He was the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, who had been murdered for his seeming aspiration to divine monarchy, then subsequently and officially deified. Octavian studiously avoided any association with Caesar's claims, other than acknowledging his position and duties as Divi filius, "son of the deified one". Nevertheless, his position was unique and extraordinary. He had ended Rome's prolonged and bloody civil war with his victory at Actium, and established a lasting peace. He was self-evidently favoured by the gods. As princeps senatus ("first man or head of the senate") he presided at senatorial meetings. He was pontifex maximus, chief priest of Roman state religion. He held consular imperium, with authority equal to the official chief executive, he was supreme commander of all Roman legions, and held tribunicia potestas ("tribunician power"). As a tribune, his person was inviolable (sacrosanctitas) and he had the right to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate within Rome. He was officially renamed Augustus by the Roman Senate on January 16, 27 BC – or perhaps the Senate ratified his own careful choice; "Romulus" had been considered, and rejected.[5][6] This name was deemed too blatant as it would make Octavius the second founder of Rome.[7] So his official renaming in a form vaguely associated with a traditionally Republican religiosity, but unprecedented as a cognomen, may have served to show that he owed his position to the approval of Rome and its gods, and possibly his own unique, elevated, "godlike" nature and talents.[citation needed] His full and official title was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. Augustus' religious reforms extended or affirmed Augusti as a near ubiquitous title or honour for various minor local deities, including the Lares Augusti of local communities, and obscure provincial deities such as the North African Marazgu Augustus. This extension of an Imperial honorific to major and minor deities of Rome and her provinces is considered a ground-level feature of Imperial cult, which continued until the official replacement of Rome's traditional religions by Christianity. The religious ambiguity of the title allowed for this kind of deification throughout the empire as subjects - beginning from Asia and Bithynia - adopted the worship of the genius or soul of Augustus, establishing a ruler-cult.[8] The title or name of Augustus was adopted by his successors, who held the name during their own lifetimes by virtue of their status, offices and powers. This included the Christian emperors. Most emperors also used imperator but others could and did bear the same title and functions. "Caesar" was used as a title, but was also the name of a clan within the Julian line.[citation needed] The first emperor bequeathed the title Augustus to his adopted heir and successor Tiberius in his will.[9] From then on, though it conferred no specific legal powers, Augustus was a titular element of the imperial name.[9] Subsequently, the title was bestowed by the Roman Senate.[9] Until the reign of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180), the title was unique to its bearer; in 161 Marcus Aurelius elevated Lucius Verus (r. 161–69) to Augustus and both bore the title at the same time.[9] The date of an emperor's investiture with the title Augustus was celebrated as the dies imperii and commemorated annually.[9] From the 3rd century, new emperors were often acclaimed as Augusti by the army.[9] A late Byzantine example of Augustus in imperial titulature: in this miniature from ca. 1404, Manuel II Palaiologos is titled "basileus and autokrator of the Romans", but also "aei augoustos" ("always Augustus"), after the late antique formula "semper Augustus". The Tetrarchy instituted by Diocletian shared power between two Augusti and two emperors titled Caesares.[9] Nevertheless, as Augustus senior Diocletian retained legislative power.[9] Diocletian and his eventual successor after the civil wars of the Tetrarchy, Constantine the Great both used the title semper Augustus ('ever Augustus'), which indicates a formalisation of the name in the late 3rd and early 4th century.[9] From the reign of Constantine onwards, the Greek: Σεβαστός, translit. Sebastós was abandoned as the translation of "Augustus" in favour of the homophone Greek: Αὔγουστος, translit. aúgoustos.[9] Beginning with Valentinian the Great and his brother Valens, whom he raised to Augustus pari iure, 'Augustus without reserve' in 364, the concurrent Augusti of the eastern and western provinces were of equal standing.[9] The last Roman Emperor to rule in the West, Romulus Augustus became known as Augustulus ("little Augustus"), due to the unimportance of his reign.[citation needed] After the victory over the Sasanian Empire in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the 7th century final phase of the Roman–Persian Wars, the emperor Heraclius introduced the Greek: βασιλεύς, translit. basileús, lit. "king" and the title Augoustos fell out of favour.[9] Until Heraclius's 629 reforms, royal titles had been eschewed in Rome since the legendary overthrow of the Roman monarchy's last king Tarquinius Superbus by Lucius Junius Brutus in the late 6th century BC.[9] The Imperial titles of imperator, Caesar, and Augustus were respectively rendered in Greek as autokratōr, Kaisar, and Augoustos (or Sebastos[10]). The Greek titles were used in the Byzantine Empire until its extinction in 1453, although Sebastos lost its imperial exclusivity and autokratōr along with basileus became the exclusive title of the Byzantine Emperor. Feminine equivalent[edit] Further information: List of Augustae Augusta was the female equivalent of Augustus, and had similar origins as an obscure descriptor with vaguely religious overtones. It was bestowed on some women of the Imperial dynasties, as an indicator of worldly power and influence and a status near to divinity. There was no qualification with higher prestige. The title or honorific was shared by state goddesses associated with the Imperial regime's generosity and provision, such as Ceres, Bona Dea, Juno, Minerva, and Ops, and by local or minor goddesses around the empire. Other personifications perceived as essentially female and given the title Augusta include Pax (peace) and Victoria (victory). The first woman to receive the honorific Augusta was Livia Drusilla, by the last will of her husband Augustus. From his death (14 AD) she was known as Julia Augusta, until her own death in AD 29. Other uses[edit] Holy Roman Empire[edit] Charlemagne used the title serenissimus Augustus as a prefix to his titles. The style assumed by Otto I was imperator Augustus. The relative simplicity of the style and absence of any mention of Rome was in deference to Byzantium (although he would briefly use the title imperator Augustus Romanorum ac Francorum (Emperor-Augustus of the Romans and Franks) in 966), which would soon reach the medieval apex of its power. By the 12th century, the standard style of the Emperor was Dei gratia Romanorum imperator semper Augustus (By the grace of God, Emperor of the Romans, ever Augustus). The formula of semper Augustus ("ever exalted") when translated into German in the late period of the Holy Roman Empire was not rendered literally, but as allzeit Mehrer des Reiches ("ever Increaser of the Realm"), from the transitive verbal meaning of augere "to augment, increase". Brian Boru[edit] The Irish High King Brian Boru (c. 941 – 1014) was described in the Annals of Ulster as ardrí Gaidhel Erenn & Gall & Bretan, August iartair tuaiscirt Eorpa uile ("High King of the Gaels of Ireland, the Norsemen and the Britons, Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe"), the only Irish king to receive that distinction.[11][12] See also[edit] Archons Auctoritas Basileus Caesar (title) Imperium List of Augustae References[edit] ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Augustus" ^ Hornum, Michael B., Nemesis, the Roman state and the games, Brill, 1993, p.37 footnote 23, citing epigraphic evidence from the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul. ^ It appears as such in works of Cicero, before its use by Octavian, later known as Augustus. See entry at Lewis and Short's Latin dictionary, online at perseus.org. ^ Haverfield, F J, "The name Augustus", Journal of Roman Studies, 5 (1915), pp. 249‑250, citing Ennius, Annales, 245 M. (494 V.) "Augusto augurio postquam incluta condita Romast". available from penelope.uchicago.edu ^ Cassius Dio|Roman History][1], 53.16.7 ^ Haverfield, F J, "The name Augustus", Journal of Roman Studies, 5 (1915), pp. 249‑250, available from penelope.uchicago.edu Octavian was also an augur. Haverfield surmises that the choice of "Augustus" as the name might also have meant to overshadow the legend "AUG" on coins issued by his defeated enemy Pompey' – where "AUG" signifies Pompey's status as an augur, defeated with the help of Augustus' superior augury. ^ Wacher, John (2002). The Roman World, Volume II. London: Routledge. p. 770. ISBN 0415263166. ^ Ferguson, John (1985). The Religions of the Roman Empire. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 90. ISBN 0801493110. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Strothmann, Meret (Bochum) (2006-10-01). "Augustus [2]". Brill's New Pauly. ^ White, L. Michael (2005). From Jesus to Christianity: How Four Generations of Visionaries & Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins. p. 44. ISBN 9780060816100. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-05-27. Retrieved 2017-05-23.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "The Annals of Ulster". celt.ucc.ie. Archived from the original on 15 March 2009. 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en-wikipedia-org-1813	----	Hadrian - Wikipedia Hadrian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 117 to 138 This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, see Hadrian (disambiguation). Roman emperor Hadrian Marble bust, Venice National Archaeological Museum Roman emperor Reign 11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (20 years and 10 months) Predecessor Trajan Successor Antoninus Pius Born Publius Aelius Hadrianus 24 January 76 Italica, Hispania (most likely) or Rome, Italy Died 10 July 138 (aged 62) Baiae, Italy Burial Puteoli Gardens of Domitia Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Vibia Sabina Issue Lucius Aelius Caesar (adoptive) Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus[1] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer Trajan (adoptive) Mother Domitia Paulina Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Hadrian Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Hadrian (/ˈheɪdriən/; Latin: Caesar Traianus Hadrianus [ˈkae̯s̠ar t̪rajˈjaːnʊs̠ (h)a.d̪riˈjaːnʊs̠]; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. He was born into a Roman Italo-Hispanic family that settled in Spain from the Italian city of Atri in Picenum. His father was of senatorial rank and was a first cousin of Emperor Trajan. He married Trajan's grand-niece Vibia Sabina early in his career, before Trajan became emperor and possibly at the behest of Trajan's wife Pompeia Plotina. Plotina and Trajan's close friend and adviser Lucius Licinius Sura were well disposed towards Hadrian. When Trajan died, his widow claimed that he had nominated Hadrian as emperor immediately before his death. Rome's military and Senate approved Hadrian's succession, but four leading senators were unlawfully put to death soon after. They had opposed Hadrian or seemed to threaten his succession, and the Senate held him responsible for it and never forgave him. He earned further disapproval among the elite by abandoning Trajan's expansionist policies and territorial gains in Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, and parts of Dacia. Hadrian preferred to invest in the development of stable, defensible borders and the unification of the empire's disparate peoples. He is known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Britannia. Hadrian energetically pursued his own Imperial ideals and personal interests. He visited almost every province of the Empire, accompanied by an Imperial retinue of specialists and administrators. He encouraged military preparedness and discipline, and he fostered, designed, or personally subsidised various civil and religious institutions and building projects. In Rome itself, he rebuilt the Pantheon and constructed the vast Temple of Venus and Roma. In Egypt, he may have rebuilt the Serapeum of Alexandria. He was an ardent admirer of Greece and sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the Empire, so he ordered the construction of many opulent temples there. His intense relationship with Greek youth Antinous and the latter's untimely death led Hadrian to establish a widespread cult late in his reign. He suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judaea, but his reign was otherwise peaceful. Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness. He saw the Bar Kokhba revolt as the failure of his panhellenic ideal. He executed two more senators for their alleged plots against him, and this provoked further resentment. His marriage to Vibia Sabina had been unhappy and childless; he adopted Antoninus Pius in 138 and nominated him as a successor, on the condition that Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his own heirs. Hadrian died the same year at Baiae, and Antoninus had him deified, despite opposition from the Senate. Edward Gibbon includes him among the Empire's "Five Good Emperors", a "benevolent dictator"; Hadrian's own Senate found him remote and authoritarian. He has been described as enigmatic and contradictory, with a capacity for both great personal generosity and extreme cruelty and driven by insatiable curiosity, self-conceit, and ambition.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Public service 2.1 Relationship with Trajan and his family 2.2 Succession 3 Emperor (117) 3.1 Securing power 4 Travels 4.1 Britannia and the West (122) 4.2 Africa, Parthia and Anatolia; Antinous (123–124) 4.3 Greece (124–125) 4.4 Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128) 4.5 Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death 4.6 Greece and the East (130–132) 4.7 Second Roman–Jewish War (132–136) 5 Final years 5.1 Arranging the succession 5.2 Death 6 Military activities 7 Legal and social reforms 8 Religious activities 8.1 Antinous 8.2 Christians 9 Personal and cultural interests 9.1 Poem by Hadrian 10 Appraisals 11 Sources and historiography 12 Nerva–Antonine family tree 13 See also 14 Citations 15 References 15.1 Primary sources 15.2 Secondary sources 16 Further reading 17 External links Early life[edit] Hadrian's Arch in central Athens, Greece[3] . The Roman Emperor's admiration for Greece materialised in such projects, ordered during his reign. Hadrian was born on 24 January 76, probably in Italica (near modern Seville) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica; one Roman biographer claims he was born at Rome.[4][5][6] He was named Publius Aelius Hadrianus. His father was Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a senator of praetorian rank, born and raised in Italica but paternally linked, through many generations over several centuries, to a family from Hadria (modern Atri), an ancient town in Picenum. The family had settled in Italica soon after its founding by Scipio Africanus. Hadrian's mother was Domitia Paulina, daughter of a distinguished Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades (Cádiz).[7] His only sibling was an elder sister, Aelia Domitia Paulina. His wet-nurse was a slave Germana, probably of Germanic origin, to whom he was devoted throughout his life. She was later freed by him and ultimately outlived him, as shown by her funerary inscription, which was found at Hadrian's villa at Tivoli.[8][9][10] Hadrian's great-nephew, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, from Barcino (Barcelona) would become Hadrian's colleague as co-consul in 118. As a senator, Hadrian's father would have spent much of his time in Rome.[11] In terms of his later career, Hadrian's most significant family connection was to Trajan, his father's first cousin, who was also of senatorial stock, and had been born and raised in Italica. Hadrian and Trajan were both considered to be – in the words of Aurelius Victor – "aliens", people "from the outside" (advenae).[12] Hadrian's parents died in 86, when he was ten years old. He and his sister became wards of Trajan and Publius Acilius Attianus (who later became Trajan's Praetorian prefect).[7] Hadrian was physically active, and enjoyed hunting; when he was 14, Trajan called him to Rome and arranged his further education in subjects appropriate to a young Roman aristocrat.[13] Hadrian's enthusiasm for Greek literature and culture earned him the nickname Graeculus ("Greekling").[14] Public service[edit] Hadrian's first official post in Rome was as a member of the decemviri stlitibus judicandis, one among many vigintivirate offices at the lowest level of the cursus honorum ("course of honours") that could lead to higher office and a senatorial career. He then served as a military tribune, first with the Legio II Adiutrix in 95, then with the Legio V Macedonica. During Hadrian's second stint as tribune, the frail and aged reigning emperor Nerva adopted Trajan as his heir; Hadrian was dispatched to give Trajan the news— or most probably was one of many emissaries charged with this same commission.[15] Then Hadrian was transferred to Legio XXII Primigenia and a third tribunate.[16] Hadrian's three tribunates gave him some career advantage. Most scions of the older senatorial families might serve one, or at most two military tribunates as a prerequisite to higher office.[17][18] When Nerva died in 98, Hadrian is said to have hastened to Trajan, to inform him ahead of the official envoy sent by the governor, Hadrian's brother-in-law and rival Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus.[19] In 101, Hadrian was back in Rome; he was elected quaestor, then quaestor imperatoris Traiani, liaison officer between Emperor and the assembled Senate, to whom he read the Emperor's communiqués and speeches – which he possibly composed on the emperor's behalf. In his role as imperial ghostwriter, Hadrian took the place of the recently deceased Licinius Sura, Trajan's all-powerful friend and kingmaker.[20] His next post was as ab actis senatus, keeping the Senate's records.[21] During the First Dacian War, Hadrian took the field as a member of Trajan's personal entourage, but was excused from his military post to take office in Rome as Tribune of the Plebs, in 105. After the war, he was probably elected praetor.[22] During the Second Dacian War, Hadrian was in Trajan's personal service again, but was released to serve as legate of Legio I Minervia, then as governor of Lower Pannonia in 107, tasked with "holding back the Sarmatians".[23][24] Now in his mid-thirties, Hadrian travelled to Greece; he was granted Athenian citizenship and was appointed eponymous archon of Athens for a brief time (in 112).[25] The Athenians awarded him a statue with an inscription in the Theater of Dionysus (IG II2 3286) offering a detailed account of his cursus honorum thus far.[26][27] Thereafter no more is heard of him until Trajan's Parthian War. It is possible that he remained in Greece until his recall to the imperial retinue,[23] when he joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate.[28] When the governor of Syria was sent to deal with renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed his replacement, with independent command.[29] Trajan became seriously ill, and took ship for Rome, while Hadrian remained in Syria, de facto general commander of the Eastern Roman army.[30] Trajan got as far as the coastal city of Selinus, in Cilicia, and died there, on 8 August; he would be regarded as one of Rome's most admired, popular and best emperors. Relationship with Trajan and his family[edit] A relief scene on Trajan's Column in Rome, 2nd-century monument attributed to Apollodorus of Damascus (monochrome graphics by Conrad Cichorius), showing a Roman legion storming a Dacian fortress during Trajan's Dacian Wars Around the time of his quaestorship, in 100 or 101, Hadrian had married Trajan's seventeen or eighteen-year-old grandniece, Vibia Sabina. Trajan himself seems to have been less than enthusiastic about the marriage, and with good reason, as the couple's relationship would prove to be scandalously poor.[31] The marriage might have been arranged by Trajan's empress, Plotina. This highly cultured, influential woman shared many of Hadrian's values and interests, including the idea of the Roman Empire as a commonwealth with an underlying Hellenic culture.[32] If Hadrian were to be appointed Trajan's successor, Plotina and her extended family could retain their social profile and political influence after Trajan's death.[33] Hadrian could also count on the support of his mother-in-law, Salonina Matidia, who was daughter of Trajan's beloved sister Ulpia Marciana.[34][35] When Ulpia Marciana died, in 112, Trajan had her deified, and made Salonina Matidia an Augusta.[36] Hadrian's personal relationship with Trajan was complex, and may have been difficult. Hadrian seems to have sought influence over Trajan, or Trajan's decisions, through cultivation of the latter's boy favourites; this gave rise to some unexplained quarrel, around the time of Hadrian's marriage to Sabina.[37][38] Late in Trajan's reign, Hadrian failed to achieve a senior consulship, being only suffect consul for 108;[39] this gave him parity of status with other members of the senatorial nobility,[40] but no particular distinction befitting an heir designate.[41] Had Trajan wished it, he could have promoted his protege to patrician rank and its privileges, which included opportunities for a fast track to consulship without prior experience as tribune; he chose not to.[42] While Hadrian seems to have been granted the office of Tribune of the Plebs a year or so younger than was customary, he had to leave Dacia, and Trajan, to take up the appointment; Trajan might simply have wanted him out of the way.[43] The Historia Augusta describes Trajan's gift to Hadrian of a diamond ring that Trajan himself had received from Nerva, which "encouraged [Hadrian's] hopes of succeeding to the throne".[44][45] While Trajan actively promoted Hadrian's advancement, he did so with caution.[46] Bust of Emperor Trajan wearing the civic crown and the aegis, symbol of divine power and world domination, Glyptothek, Munich Succession[edit] Failure to nominate an heir could invite chaotic, destructive wresting of power by a succession of competing claimants – a civil war. Too early a nomination could be seen as an abdication, and reduce the chance for an orderly transmission of power.[47] As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, Plotina, and closely watched by Prefect Attianus, he could have lawfully adopted Hadrian as heir, by means of a simple deathbed wish, expressed before witnesses;[48] but when an adoption document was eventually presented, it was signed not by Trajan but by Plotina, and was dated the day after Trajan's death.[49] That Hadrian was still in Syria was a further irregularity, as Roman adoption law required the presence of both parties at the adoption ceremony. Rumours, doubts, and speculation attended Hadrian's adoption and succession. It has been suggested that Trajan's young manservant Phaedimus, who died very soon after Trajan, was killed (or killed himself) rather than face awkward questions.[50] Ancient sources are divided on the legitimacy of Hadrian's adoption: Dio Cassius saw it as bogus and the Historia Augusta writer as genuine.[51] An aureus minted early in Hadrian's reign represents the official position; it presents Hadrian as Trajan's "Caesar" (Trajan's heir designate).[52] Emperor (117)[edit] Securing power[edit] The Roman Empire in 125, under the rule of Hadrian Castel Sant'Angelo, the ancient Hadrian Mausoleum A denarius of Hadrian issued in 119 AD for his third consulship. Inscription: HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS / LIBERALITAS AVG. CO[N]S III, P. P. According to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian informed the Senate of his accession in a letter as a fait accompli, explaining that "the unseemly haste of the troops in acclaiming him emperor was due to the belief that the state could not be without an emperor".[53] The new emperor rewarded the legions' loyalty with the customary bonus, and the Senate endorsed the acclamation. Various public ceremonies were organised on Hadrian's behalf, celebrating his "divine election" by all the gods, whose community now included Trajan, deified at Hadrian's request.[54] Hadrian remained in the east for a while, suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan. He relieved Judea's governor, the outstanding Moorish general Lusius Quietus, of his personal guard of Moorish auxiliaries;[55][56] then he moved on to quell disturbances along the Danube frontier. In Rome, Hadrian's former guardian and current Praetorian Prefect, Attianus, claimed to have uncovered a conspiracy involving Lusius Quietus and three others leading senators, Lucius Publilius Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus and Gaius Avidius Nigrinus.[57] There was no public trial for the four – they were tried in absentia, hunted down and killed.[57] Hadrian claimed that Attianus had acted on his own initiative, and rewarded him with senatorial status and consular rank; then pensioned him off, no later than 120.[58] Hadrian assured the senate that henceforth their ancient right to prosecute and judge their own would be respected. The reasons for these four executions remain obscure. Official recognition of Hadrian as legitimate heir may have come too late to dissuade other potential claimants.[59] Hadrian's greatest rivals were Trajan's closest friends, the most experienced and senior members of the imperial council;[60] any of them might have been a legitimate competitor for the imperial office (capaces imperii);[61] and any of them might have supported Trajan's expansionist policies, which Hadrian intended to change.[62] One of their number was Aulus Cornelius Palma who as a former conqueror of Arabia Nabatea would have retained a stake in the East.[63] The Historia Augusta describes Palma and a third executed senator, Lucius Publilius Celsus (consul for the second time in 113), as Hadrian's personal enemies, who had spoken in public against him.[64] The fourth was Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, an ex-consul, intellectual, friend of Pliny the Younger and (briefly) Governor of Dacia at the start of Hadrian's reign. He was probably Hadrian's chief rival for the throne; a senator of highest rank, breeding, and connections; according to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian had considered making Nigrinus his heir apparent, before deciding to get rid of him.[65][66] Soon after, in 125, Hadrian appointed Quintus Marcius Turbo as his Praetorian Prefect.[67] Turbo was his close friend, a leading figure of the equestrian order, a senior court judge and a procurator.[68][69] As Hadrian also forbade equestrians to try cases against senators,[70] the Senate retained full legal authority over its members; it also remained the highest court of appeal, and formal appeals to the emperor regarding its decisions were forbidden.[71] If this was an attempt to repair the damage done by Attianus, with or without Hadrian's full knowledge, it was not enough; Hadrian's reputation and relationship with his Senate were irredeemably soured, for the rest of his reign.[72] Some sources describe Hadrian's occasional recourse to a network of informers, the frumentarii[73] to discreetly investigate persons of high social standing, including senators and his close friends.[74] Travels[edit] This famous statue of Hadrian in Greek dress was revealed in 2008 to have been forged in the Victorian era by cobbling together a head of Hadrian and an unknown body. For years, the statue had been used by historians as proof of Hadrian's love of Hellenic culture.[75] British Museum, London. Hadrian was to spend more than half his reign outside Italy. Whereas previous emperors had, for the most part, relied on the reports of their imperial representatives around the Empire, Hadrian wished to see things for himself. Previous emperors had often left Rome for long periods, but mostly to go to war, returning once the conflict was settled. Hadrian's near-incessant travels may represent a calculated break with traditions and attitudes in which the empire was a purely Roman hegemony. Hadrian sought to include provincials in a commonwealth of civilised peoples and a common Hellenic culture under Roman supervision.[76] He supported the creation of provincial towns (municipia), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own customs and laws, rather than the imposition of new Roman colonies with Roman constitutions.[77] A cosmopolitan, ecumenical intent is evident in coin issues of Hadrian's later reign, showing the emperor "raising up" the personifications of various provinces.[78] Aelius Aristides would later write that Hadrian "extended over his subjects a protecting hand, raising them as one helps fallen men on their feet".[79] All this did not go well with Roman traditionalists. The self-indulgent emperor Nero had enjoyed a prolonged and peaceful tour of Greece, and had been criticised by the Roman elite for abandoning his fundamental responsibilities as emperor. In the eastern provinces, and to some extent in the west, Nero had enjoyed popular support; claims of his imminent return or rebirth emerged almost immediately after his death. Hadrian may have consciously exploited these positive, popular connections during his own travels.[80] In the Historia Augusta, Hadrian is described as "a little too much Greek", too cosmopolitan for a Roman emperor.[81] Britannia and the West (122)[edit] Hadrian's Wall, the Roman frontier fortification in northern England. A milecastle is in the foreground. Hadrian's Gate, in Antalya, southern Turkey was built to honour Hadrian who visited the city in 130. Arch of Hadrian in Jerash, Transjordan, built to honour Hadrian's visit in 130 Prior to Hadrian's arrival in Britannia, the province had suffered a major rebellion, from 119 to 121.[82] Inscriptions tell of an expeditio Britannica that involved major troop movements, including the dispatch of a detachment (vexillatio), comprising some 3,000 soldiers. Fronto writes about military losses in Britannia at the time.[83] Coin legends of 119–120 attest that Quintus Pompeius Falco was sent to restore order. In 122 Hadrian initiated the construction of a wall, "to separate Romans from barbarians".[84] The idea that the wall was built in order to deal with an actual threat or its resurgence, however, is probable but nevertheless conjectural.[85] A general desire to cease the Empire's extension may have been the determining motive. Reduction of defence costs may also have played a role, as the Wall deterred attacks on Roman territory at a lower cost than a massed border army,[86] and controlled cross-border trade and immigration.[87] A shrine was erected in York to Britannia as the divine personification of Britain; coins were struck, bearing her image, identified as BRITANNIA.[88] By the end of 122, Hadrian had concluded his visit to Britannia. He never saw the finished wall that bears his name. Hadrian appears to have continued through southern Gaul. At Nemausus, he may have overseen the building of a basilica dedicated to his patroness Plotina, who had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.[89] At around this time, Hadrian dismissed his secretary ab epistulis,[90] the biographer Suetonius, for "excessive familiarity" towards the empress.[91] Marcius Turbo's colleague as Praetorian Prefect, Gaius Septicius Clarus, was dismissed for the same alleged reason, perhaps a pretext to remove him from office.[92] Hadrian spent the winter of 122/123 at Tarraco, in Spain, where he restored the Temple of Augustus.[93] Africa, Parthia and Anatolia; Antinous (123–124)[edit] Statue of Antinous (Delphi), polychrome Parian marble, made during the reign of Hadrian In 123, Hadrian crossed the Mediterranean to Mauretania, where he personally led a minor campaign against local rebels.[94] The visit was cut short by reports of war preparations by Parthia; Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. At some point, he visited Cyrene, where he personally funded the training of young men from well-bred families for the Roman military. Cyrene had benefited earlier (in 119) from his restoration of public buildings destroyed during the earlier Jewish revolt.[95][96] When Hadrian arrived on the Euphrates, he personally negotiated a settlement with the Parthian King Osroes I, inspected the Roman defences, then set off westwards, along the Black Sea coast.[97] He probably wintered in Nicomedia, the main city of Bithynia. Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly before his stay; Hadrian provided funds for its rebuilding, and was acclaimed as restorer of the province.[98] It is possible that Hadrian visited Claudiopolis and saw the beautiful Antinous, a young man of humble birth who became Hadrian's beloved. Literary and epigraphic sources say nothing of when or where they met; depictions of Antinous show him aged 20 or so, shortly before his death in 130. In 123 he would most likely have been a youth of 13 or 14.[98] It is also possible that Antinous was sent to Rome to be trained as a page to serve the emperor and only gradually rose to the status of imperial favourite.[99] The actual history of their relationship is mostly unknown.[100] With or without Antinous, Hadrian travelled through Anatolia. Various traditions suggest his presence at particular locations, and allege his foundation of a city within Mysia, Hadrianutherae, after a successful boar hunt. At about this time, plans to complete the Temple of Zeus in Cyzicus, begun by the kings of Pergamon, were put into practice. The temple received a colossal statue of Hadrian. Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesus and Sardes were promoted as regional centres for the Imperial cult (neocoros).[101] Greece (124–125)[edit] Temple of Zeus in Athens The Pantheon in Rome was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian arrived in Greece during the autumn of 124, and participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries. He had a particular commitment to Athens, which had previously granted him citizenship and an archonate; at the Athenians' request, he revised their constitution – among other things, he added a new phyle (tribe), which was named after him.[102] Hadrian combined active, hands-on interventions with cautious restraint. He refused to intervene in a local dispute between producers of olive oil and the Athenian Assembly and Council, who had imposed production quotas on oil producers;[103] yet he granted an imperial subsidy for the Athenian grain supply.[104] Hadrian created two foundations, to fund Athens' public games, festivals and competitions if no citizen proved wealthy or willing enough to sponsor them as a Gymnasiarch or Agonothetes.[105] Generally Hadrian preferred that Greek notables, including priests of the Imperial cult, focus on more durable provisions, such as aqueducts and public fountains (nymphaea).[106] Athens was given two such fountains; another was given to Argos.[107] During the winter he toured the Peloponnese. His exact route is uncertain, but it took in Epidaurus; Pausanias describes temples built there by Hadrian, and his statue – in heroic nudity – erected by its citizens[108] in thanks to their "restorer". Antinous and Hadrian may have already been lovers at this time; Hadrian showed particular generosity to Mantinea, which shared ancient, mythic, politically useful links with Antinous' home at Bithynia. He restored Mantinea's Temple of Poseidon Hippios,[109][110] and according to Pausanias, restored the city's original, classical name. It had been renamed Antigoneia since Hellenistic times, after the Macedonian King Antigonus III Doson. Hadrian also rebuilt the ancient shrines of Abae and Megara, and the Heraion of Argos.[111][112] During his tour of the Peloponnese, Hadrian persuaded the Spartan grandee Eurycles Herculanus – leader of the Euryclid family that had ruled Sparta since Augustus' day – to enter the Senate, alongside the Athenian grandee Herodes Atticus the Elder. The two aristocrats would be the first from "Old Greece" to enter the Roman Senate, as representatives of the two "great powers" of the Classical Age.[113] This was an important step in overcoming Greek notables' reluctance to take part in Roman political life.[114] In March 125, Hadrian presided at the Athenian festival of Dionysia, wearing Athenian dress. The Temple of Olympian Zeus had been under construction for more than five centuries; Hadrian committed the vast resources at his command to ensure that the job would be finished. He also organised the planning and construction of a particularly challenging and ambitious aqueduct to bring water to the Athenian Agora.[115] Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128)[edit] Colossal portrait bust of the emperor Hadrian with a wreath of oak leaves (AD 117–138); pentelic marble, found in Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Hadrian in armour, wearing the gorgoneion on his breastplate; marble, Roman artwork, c. 127–128 AD, from Heraklion, Crete, now in the Louvre, Paris On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to Sicily. Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island.[116] Back in Rome, he saw the rebuilt Pantheon, and his completed villa at nearby Tibur, among the Sabine Hills. In early March 127 Hadrian set off on a tour of Italy; his route has been reconstructed through the evidence of his gifts and donations.[116] He restored the shrine of Cupra in Cupra Maritima, and improved the drainage of the Fucine lake. Less welcome than such largesse was his decision in 127 to divide Italy into four regions under imperial legates with consular rank, acting as governors. They were given jurisdiction over all of Italy, excluding Rome itself, therefore shifting Italian cases from the courts of Rome.[117] Having Italy effectively reduced to the status of a group of mere provinces did not go down well with the Roman Senate,[118] and the innovation did not long outlive Hadrian's reign.[116] Hadrian fell ill around this time; whatever the nature of his illness, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit Africa. His arrival coincided with the good omen of rain, which ended a drought. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer, he found time to inspect the troops; his speech to them survives.[119] Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief, as he set off on another tour that would last three years.[120] Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death[edit] In September 128, Hadrian attended the Eleusinian mysteries again. This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta – the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece. Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival around the Amphictyonic League based in Delphi, but by now he had decided on something far grander. His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring Greek cities together. Having set in motion the preparations – deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would take time – Hadrian set off for Ephesus.[121] From Greece, Hadrian proceeded by way of Asia to Egypt, probably conveyed across the Aegean with his entourage by an Ephesian merchant, Lucius Erastus. Hadrian later sent a letter to the Council of Ephesus, supporting Erastus as a worthy candidate for town councillor and offering to pay the requisite fee.[122] Hadrian arrived in Egypt before the Egyptian New Year on 29 August 130.[123] He opened his stay in Egypt by restoring Pompey the Great's tomb at Pelusium,[124] offering sacrifice to him as a hero and composing an epigraph for the tomb. As Pompey was universally acknowledged as responsible for establishing Rome's power in the east, this restoration was probably linked to a need to reaffirm Roman Eastern hegemony, following social unrest there during Trajan's late reign.[125] Hadrian and Antinous held a lion hunt in the Libyan desert; a poem on the subject by the Greek Pankrates is the earliest evidence that they travelled together.[126] While Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the Nile, Antinous drowned. The exact circumstances surrounding his death are unknown, and accident, suicide, murder and religious sacrifice have all been postulated. Historia Augusta offers the following account: During a journey on the Nile he lost Antinous, his favourite, and for this youth he wept like a woman. Concerning this incident there are varying rumours; for some claim that he had devoted himself to death for Hadrian, and others – what both his beauty and Hadrian's sensuality suggest. But however this may be, the Greeks deified him at Hadrian's request, and declared that oracles were given through his agency, but these, it is commonly asserted, were composed by Hadrian himself.[127] Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis in Antinous' honour on 30 October 130. He then continued down the Nile to Thebes, where his visit to the Colossi of Memnon on 20 and 21 November was commemorated by four epigrams inscribed by Julia Balbilla, which still survive. After that, he headed north, reaching the Fayyum at the beginning of December.[128] Greece and the East (130–132)[edit] Ruins of the Arch of Hadrian in Athens, Greece, near the Athenian Acropolis Hadrian's movements after his journey down the Nile are uncertain. Whether or not he returned to Rome, he travelled in the East during 130/131, to organise and inaugurate his new Panhellenion, which was to be focused on the Athenian Temple to Olympian Zeus. As local conflicts had led to the failure of the previous scheme for an Hellenic association centered on Delphi, Hadrian decided instead for a grand league of all Greek cities.[129] Successful applications for membership involved mythologised or fabricated claims to Greek origins, and affirmations of loyalty to Imperial Rome, to satisfy Hadrian's personal, idealised notions of Hellenism.[130][131] Hadrian saw himself as protector of Greek culture and the "liberties" of Greece – in this case, urban self-government. It allowed Hadrian to appear as the fictive heir to Pericles, who supposedly had convened a previous Panhellenic Congress – such a Congress is mentioned only in Pericles' biography by Plutarch, who respected Rome's Imperial order.[132] Epigraphical evidence suggests that the prospect of applying to the Panhellenion held little attraction to the wealthier, Hellenised cities of Asia Minor, which were jealous of Athenian and European Greek preeminence within Hadrian's scheme.[133] Hadrian's notion of Hellenism was narrow and deliberately archaising; he defined "Greekness" in terms of classical roots, rather than a broader, Hellenistic culture.[134] Some cities with a dubious claim to Greekness, however – such as Side – were acknowledged as fully Hellenic.[135] The German sociologist Georg Simmel remarked that the Panhellenion was based on "games, commemorations, preservation of an ideal, an entirely non-political Hellenism".[136] Hadrian bestowed honorific titles on many regional centres.[137] Palmyra received a state visit and was given the civic name Hadriana Palmyra.[138] Hadrian also bestowed honours on various Palmyrene magnates, among them one Soados, who had done much to protect Palmyrene trade between the Roman Empire and Parthia.[139] Hadrian had spent the winter of 131–32 in Athens, where he dedicated the now-completed Temple of Olympian Zeus,[140] At some time in 132, he headed East, to Judaea. Second Roman–Jewish War (132–136)[edit] Main article: Bar Kokhba revolt Coinage minted to mark Hadrian's visit to Judea. Inscription: HADRIANVS AVG. CO[N]S. III, P. P. / ADVENTVI (arrival) AVG. IVDAEAE – S. C. Statue of Hadrian unearthed at Tel Shalem commemorating Roman military victory over Simon bar Kokhba, displayed at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem Porphyry statue of Hadrian discovered in Caesarea, Israel In Roman Judaea Hadrian visited Jerusalem, which was still in ruins after the First Roman–Jewish War of 66–73. He may have planned to rebuild Jerusalem as a Roman colony – as Vespasian had done with Caesarea Maritima – with various honorific and fiscal privileges. The non-Roman population would have no obligation to participate in Roman religious rituals, but were expected to support the Roman imperial order; this is attested in Caesarea, where some Jews served in the Roman army during both the 66 and 132 rebellions.[141] It has been speculated that Hadrian intended to assimilate the Jewish Temple to the traditional Roman civic-religious Imperial cult; such assimilations had long been commonplace practice in Greece and in other provinces, and on the whole, had been successful.[142][143] The neighbouring Samaritans had already integrated their religious rites with Hellenistic ones.[144] Strict Jewish monotheism proved more resistant to Imperial cajoling, and then to Imperial demands.[145] A massive anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman Jewish uprising broke out, led by Simon bar Kokhba. The Roman governor Tineius (Tynius) Rufus asked for an army to crush the resistance; bar Kokhba punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.[146] According to Justin Martyr and Eusebius, that had to do mostly with Christian converts, who opposed bar Kokhba's messianic claims.[147] A tradition based on the Historia Augusta suggests that the revolt was spurred by Hadrian's abolition of circumcision (brit milah);[148] which as a Hellenist he viewed as mutilation.[149] The scholar Peter Schäfer maintains that there is no evidence for this claim, given the notoriously problematical nature of the Historia Augusta as a source, the "tomfoolery" shown by the writer in the relevant passage, and the fact that contemporary Roman legislation on "genital mutilation" seems to address the general issue of castration of slaves by their masters.[150][151][152] Other issues could have contributed to the outbreak; a heavy-handed, culturally insensitive Roman administration; tensions between the landless poor and incoming Roman colonists privileged with land-grants; and a strong undercurrent of messianism, predicated on Jeremiah's prophecy that the Temple would be rebuilt seventy years after its destruction, as the First Temple had been after the Babylonian exile.[153] Relief from an honorary monument of Hadrian (detail), showing the emperor being greeted by the goddess Roma and the Genii of the Senate and the Roman People; marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD, Capitoline Museums, Vatican City Given the fragmentary nature of the existing evidence, it is impossible to ascertain an exact date for the beginning of the uprising, but it is probable that it began in-between summer and fall 132.[154] The Romans were overwhelmed by the organised ferocity of the uprising.[145] Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britain, and brought troops in from as far as the Danube. Roman losses were heavy; an entire legion or its numeric equivalent of around 4,000.[155] Hadrian's report on the war to the Roman Senate omitted the customary salutation, "If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health."[156] The rebellion was quashed by 135. According to Cassius Dio, Roman war operations in Judea left some 580,000 Jews dead, and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed.[157] An unknown proportion of the population was enslaved. Beitar, a fortified city 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) southwest of Jerusalem, fell after a three and a half year siege. The extent of punitive measures against the Jewish population remains a matter of debate.[158] Hadrian erased the province's name from the Roman map, renaming it Syria Palaestina. He renamed Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina after himself and Jupiter Capitolinus, and had it rebuilt in Greek style. According to Epiphanius, Hadrian appointed Aquila from Sinope in Pontus as "overseer of the work of building the city", since he was related to him by marriage.[159] Hadrian is said to have placed the city's main Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus Maximus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan. After the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Hadrian provided the Samaritans with a temple, dedicated to Zeus Hypsistos ("Highest Zeus")[160] on Mount Gerizim.[161] The bloody repression of the revolt ended Jewish political independence from the Roman Imperial order.[162] Inscriptions make it clear that in 133 Hadrian took to the field with his armies against the rebels. He then returned to Rome, probably in that year and almost certainly – judging from inscriptions – via Illyricum.[163] Final years[edit] Imperial group as Mars and Venus; the male figure is a portrait of Hadrian, the female figure was perhaps reworked into a portrait of Annia Lucilla; marble, Roman artwork, c. 120–140 AD, reworked c. 170–175 AD. Hadrian spent the final years of his life at Rome. In 134, he took an Imperial salutation for the end of the Second Jewish War (which was not actually concluded until the following year). Commemorations and achievement awards were kept to a minimum, as Hadrian came to see the war "as a cruel and sudden disappointment to his aspirations" towards a cosmopolitan empire.[164] The Empress Sabina died, probably in 136, after an unhappy marriage with which Hadrian had coped as a political necessity. The Historia Augusta biography states that Hadrian himself declared that his wife's "ill-temper and irritability" would be reason enough for a divorce, were he a private citizen.[165] That gave credence, after Sabina's death, to the common belief that Hadrian had her poisoned.[166] In keeping with well-established Imperial propriety, Sabina – who had been made an Augusta sometime around 128[167] – was deified not long after her death.[168] Arranging the succession[edit] Bronze head of Hadrian found in the River Thames in London. Now in the British Museum. Posthumous portrait of Hadrian; bronze, Roman artwork, c. 140 AD, perhaps from Roman Egypt, Louvre, Paris Hadrian's marriage to Sabina had been childless. Suffering from poor health, Hadrian turned to the problem of the succession. In 136 he adopted one of the ordinary consuls of that year, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who as an emperor-in waiting took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. He was the son-in-law of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, one of the "four consulars" executed in 118, but was himself in delicate health, apparently with a reputation more "of a voluptuous, well educated great lord than that of a leader".[169] Various modern attempts have been made to explain Hadrian's choice: Jerome Carcopino proposes that Aelius was Hadrian's natural son.[170] It has also been speculated that his adoption was Hadrian's belated attempt to reconcile with one of the most important of the four senatorial families whose leading members had been executed soon after Hadrian's succession.[79] Aelius acquitted himself honourably as joint governor of Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior;[171] he held a further consulship in 137, but died on 1 January 138.[172] Hadrian next adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (the future emperor Antoninus Pius), who had served Hadrian as one of the five imperial legates of Italy, and as proconsul of Asia. In the interests of dynastic stability, Hadrian required that Antoninus adopt both Lucius Ceionius Commodus (son of the deceased Aelius Caesar) and Marcus Annius Verus (grandson of an influential senator of the same name who had been Hadrian's close friend); Annius was already betrothed to Aelius Caesar's daughter Ceionia Fabia.[173][174] It may not have been Hadrian, but rather Antoninus Pius – Annius Verus's uncle – who supported Annius Verus' advancement; the latter's divorce of Ceionia Fabia and subsequent marriage to Antoninus' daughter Annia Faustina points in the same direction. When he eventually became Emperor, Marcus Aurelius would co-opt Ceionius Commodus as his co-Emperor, under the name of Lucius Verus, on his own initiative.[173] Hadrian's last few years were marked by conflict and unhappiness. His adoption of Aelius Caesar proved unpopular, not least with Hadrian's brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Servianus's grandson Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Servianus, though now far too old, had stood in the line of succession at the beginning of Hadrian's reign; Fuscus is said to have had designs on the imperial power for himself. In 137 he may have attempted a coup in which his grandfather was implicated; Hadrian ordered that both be put to death.[175] Servianus is reported to have prayed before his execution that Hadrian would "long for death but be unable to die".[176] During his final, protracted illness, Hadrian was prevented from suicide on several occasions.[177] Death[edit] Hadrian died in the year 138 on 10 July, in his villa at Baiae at the age of 62.[178] Dio Cassius and the Historia Augusta record details of his failing health. He had reigned for 21 years, the longest since Tiberius, and the fourth longest in the Principate, after Augustus, Hadrian's successor Antoninus Pius, and Tiberius. He was buried first at Puteoli, near Baiae, on an estate that had once belonged to Cicero. Soon after, his remains were transferred to Rome and buried in the Gardens of Domitia, close by the almost-complete mausoleum. Upon completion of the Tomb of Hadrian in Rome in 139 by his successor Antoninus Pius, his body was cremated, and his ashes were placed there together with those of his wife Vibia Sabina and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius Caesar, who also died in 138. The Senate had been reluctant to grant Hadrian divine honours; but Antoninus persuaded them by threatening to refuse the position of Emperor.[179][180] Hadrian was given a temple on the Campus Martius, ornamented with reliefs representing the provinces.[181] The Senate awarded Antoninus the title of "Pius", in recognition of his filial piety in pressing for the deification of his adoptive father.[179] At the same time, perhaps in reflection of the senate's ill will towards Hadrian, commemorative coinage honouring his consecration was kept to a minimum.[182] Military activities[edit] Bust of the Emperor Hadrian, Roman, 117–138 CE. Probably from Rome, Italy. Formerly in the Townley Collection, now housed in the British Museum, London Most of Hadrian's military activities were consistent with his ideology of empire as a community of mutual interest and support. He focused on protection from external and internal threats; on "raising" existing provinces, rather than the aggressive acquisition of wealth and territory through subjugation of "foreign" peoples that had characterised the early empire.[183] Hadrian's policy shift was part of a trend towards the slowing down of the empire's expansion, such expansion being not closed after him (the empire's greatest extent being achieved only during the Severan dynasty), but a significant step in that direction, given the empire's overstretching.[184] While the empire as a whole benefited from this, military careerists resented the loss of opportunities. Statue of Hadrian in military garb, wearing the civic crown and muscle cuirass, from Antalya, Turkey The 4th-century historian Aurelius Victor saw Hadrian's withdrawal from Trajan's territorial gains in Mesopotamia as a jealous belittlement of Trajan's achievements (Traiani gloriae invidens).[185] More likely, an expansionist policy was no longer sustainable; the empire had lost two legions, the Legio XXII Deiotariana and the "lost legion" IX Hispania, possibly destroyed in a late Trajanic uprising by the Brigantes in Britain.[186] Trajan himself may have thought his gains in Mesopotamia indefensible and abandoned them shortly before his death.[187] Hadrian granted parts of Dacia to the Roxolani Sarmatians; their king, Rasparaganus, received Roman citizenship, client king status, and possibly an increased subsidy.[188] Hadrian's presence on the Dacian front is mere conjecture, but Dacia was included in his coin series with allegories of the provinces.[189] A controlled partial withdrawal of troops from the Dacian plains would have been less costly than maintaining several Roman cavalry units and a supporting network of fortifications.[190] Hadrian retained control over Osroene through the client king Parthamaspates, who had once served as Trajan's client king of Parthia;[191] and around 121, Hadrian negotiated a peace treaty with the now-independent Parthia. Late in his reign (135), the Alani attacked Roman Cappadocia with the covert support of Pharasmanes, the king of Caucasian Iberia. The attack was repulsed by Hadrian's governor, the historian Arrian,[192] who subsequently installed a Roman "adviser" in Iberia.[193] Arrian kept Hadrian well-informed on matters related to the Black Sea and the Caucasus. Between 131 and 132, he sent Hadrian a lengthy letter (Periplus of the Euxine) on a maritime trip around the Black Sea that was intended to offer relevant information in case a Roman intervention was needed.[194] Hadrian also developed permanent fortifications and military posts along the empire's borders (limites, sl. limes) to support his policy of stability, peace and preparedness. That helped keep the military usefully occupied in times of peace; his wall across Britania was built by ordinary troops. A series of mostly wooden fortifications, forts, outposts and watchtowers strengthened the Danube and Rhine borders. Troops practised intensive, regular drill routines. Although his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat,[195] with an emphasis on disciplina (discipline), which was the subject of two monetary series. Cassius Dio praised Hadrian's emphasis on "spit and polish" as cause for the generally peaceful character of his reign.[196] Fronto, by contrast, claimed that Hadrian preferred war games to actual war and enjoyed "giving eloquent speeches to the armies" – like the inscribed series of addresses he made while on an inspection tour, during 128, at the new headquarters of Legio III Augusta in Lambaesis[197] Faced with a shortage of legionary recruits from Italy and other Romanised provinces, Hadrian systematised the use of less costly numeri – ethnic non-citizen troops with special weapons, such as Eastern mounted archers, in low-intensity, mobile defensive tasks such as dealing with border infiltrators and skirmishers.[198][199] Hadrian is also credited with introducing units of heavy cavalry (cataphracts) into the Roman army.[200] Fronto later blamed Hadrian for declining standards in the Roman army of his own time.[201] Legal and social reforms[edit] Hadrian enacted, through the jurist Salvius Julianus, the first attempt to codify Roman law. This was the Perpetual Edict, according to which the legal actions of praetors became fixed statutes, and as such could no longer be subjected to personal interpretation or change by any magistrate other than the Emperor.[202][203] At the same time, following a procedure initiated by Domitian, Hadrian made the Emperor's legal advisory board, the consilia principis ("council of the princeps") into a permanent body, staffed by salaried legal aides.[204] Its members were mostly drawn from the equestrian class, replacing the earlier freedmen of the Imperial household.[205][206] This innovation marked the superseding of surviving Republican institutions by an openly autocratic political system.[207] The reformed bureaucracy was supposed to exercise administrative functions independently of traditional magistracies; objectively it did not detract from the Senate's position. The new civil servants were free men and as such supposed to act on behalf of the interests of the "Crown", not of the Emperor as an individual.[205] However, the Senate never accepted the loss of its prestige caused by the emergence of a new aristocracy alongside it, placing more strain on the already troubled relationship between the Senate and the Emperor.[208] Hadrian codified the customary legal privileges of the wealthiest, most influential or highest status citizens (described as splendidiores personae or honestiores), who held a traditional right to pay fines when found guilty of relatively minor, non-treasonous offences. Low ranking persons – alii ("the others"), including low-ranking citizens – were humiliores who for the same offences could be subject to extreme physical punishments, including forced labour in the mines or in public works, as a form of fixed-term servitude. While Republican citizenship had carried at least notional equality under law, and the right to justice, offences in Imperial courts were judged and punished according to the relative prestige, rank, reputation and moral worth of both parties; senatorial courts were apt to be lenient when trying one of their peers, and to deal very harshly with offences committed against one of their number by low ranking citizens or non-citizens. For treason (maiestas) beheading was the worst punishment that the law could inflict on honestiores; the humiliores might suffer crucifixion, burning, or condemnation to the beasts in the arena.[209] A great number of Roman citizens maintained a precarious social and economic advantage at the lower end of the hierarchy. Hadrian found it necessary to clarify that decurions, the usually middle-class, elected local officials responsible for running the ordinary, everyday official business of the provinces, counted as honestiores; so did soldiers, veterans and their families, as far as civil law was concerned; by implication, all others, including freedmen and slaves, counted as humiliores. Like most Romans, Hadrian seems to have accepted slavery as morally correct, an expression of the same natural order that rewarded "the best men" with wealth, power and respect. When confronted by a crowd demanding the freeing of a popular slave charioteer, Hadrian replied that he could not free a slave belonging to another person.[210] However, he limited the punishments that slaves could suffer; they could be lawfully tortured to provide evidence, but they could not be lawfully killed unless guilty of a capital offence.[211] Masters were also forbidden to sell slaves to a gladiator trainer (lanista) or to a procurer, except as legally justified punishment.[212] Hadrian also forbade torture of free defendants and witnesses.[213][214] He abolished ergastula, private prisons for slaves in which kidnapped free men had sometimes been illegally detained.[215] Hadrian issued a general rescript, imposing a ban on castration, performed on freedman or slave, voluntarily or not, on pain of death for both the performer and the patient.[216] Under the Lex Cornelia de Sicaris et Veneficis, castration was placed on a par with conspiracy to murder, and punished accordingly.[217] Notwithstanding his philhellenism, Hadrian was also a traditionalist. He enforced dress-standards among the honestiores; senators and knights were expected to wear the toga when in public. He imposed strict separation between the sexes in theatres and public baths; to discourage idleness, the latter were not allowed to open until 2.00 in the afternoon, "except for medical reasons".[218] Religious activities[edit] Statue of Hadrian as pontifex maximus, dated 130–140 AD, from Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, Capitoline Museums One of Hadrian's immediate duties on accession was to seek senatorial consent for the apotheosis of his predecessor, Trajan, and any members of Trajan's family to whom he owed a debt of gratitude. Matidia Augusta, Hadrian's mother-in-law, died in December 119, and was duly deified.[219] Hadrian may have stopped at Nemausus during his return from Britannia, to oversee the completion or foundation of a basilica dedicated to his patroness Plotina. She had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.[89] As Emperor, Hadrian was also Rome's pontifex maximus, responsible for all religious affairs and the proper functioning of official religious institutions throughout the empire. His Hispano-Roman origins and marked pro-Hellenism shifted the focus of the official imperial cult, from Rome to the Provinces. While his standard coin issues still identified him with the traditional genius populi Romani, other issues stressed his personal identification with Hercules Gaditanus (Hercules of Gades), and Rome's imperial protection of Greek civilisation.[220] He promoted Sagalassos in Greek Pisidia as the Empire's leading Imperial cult centre; his exclusively Greek Panhellenion extolled Athens as the spiritual centre of Greek culture.[221] Hadrian added several Imperial cult centres to the existing roster, particularly in Greece, where traditional intercity rivalries were commonplace. Cities promoted as Imperial cult centres drew Imperial sponsorship of festivals and sacred games, attracted tourism, trade and private investment. Local worthies and sponsors were encouraged to seek self-publicity as cult officials under the aegis of Roman rule, and to foster reverence for Imperial authority.[222] Hadrian's rebuilding of long-established religious centres would have further underlined his respect for the glories of classical Greece – something well in line with contemporary antiquarian tastes.[111][223] During Hadrian's third and last trip to the Greek East, there seems to have been an upwelling of religious fervour, focused on Hadrian himself. He was given personal cult as a deity, monuments and civic homage, according to the religious syncretism at the time.[224] He may have had the great Serapeum of Alexandria rebuilt, following damage sustained in 116, during the Kitos War.[225] In 136, just two years before his death, Hadrian dedicated his Temple of Venus and Roma. It was built on land he had set aside for the purpose in 121, formerly the site of Nero's Golden House. The temple was the largest in Rome, and was built in an Hellenising style, more Greek than Roman. The temple's dedication and statuary associated the worship of the traditional Roman goddess Venus, divine ancestress and protector of the Roman people, with the worship of the goddess Roma – herself a Greek invention, hitherto worshiped only in the provinces – to emphasise the universal nature of the empire.[226] Antinous[edit] Busts of Hadrian and Antinous in the British Museum Hadrian had Antinous deified as Osiris-Antinous by an Egyptian priest at the ancient Temple of Ramesses II, very near the place of his death. Hadrian dedicated a new temple-city complex there, built in a Graeco-Roman style, and named it Antinoöpolis.[227] It was a proper Greek polis; it was granted an Imperially subsidised alimentary scheme similar to Trajan's alimenta,[228] and its citizens were allowed intermarriage with members of the native population, without loss of citizen-status. Hadrian thus identified an existing native cult (to Osiris) with Roman rule.[229] The cult of Antinous was to become very popular in the Greek-speaking world, and also found support in the West. In Hadrian's villa, statues of the Tyrannicides, with a bearded Aristogeiton and a clean-shaven Harmodios, linked his favourite to the classical tradition of Greek love.[230] In the west, Antinous was identified with the Celtic sun-god Belenos.[231] Hadrian was criticised for the open intensity of his grief at Antinous's death, particularly as he had delayed the apotheosis of his own sister Paulina after her death.[232] Nevertheless, his recreation of the deceased youth as a cult-figure found little opposition.[233] Though not a subject of the state-sponsored, official Roman imperial cult, Antinous offered a common focus for the emperor and his subjects, emphasising their sense of community.[234] Medals were struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all parts of the empire, in all kinds of garb, including Egyptian dress.[235] Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia and Mantineia in Arcadia. In Athens, festivals were celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. As an "international" cult figure, Antinous had an enduring fame, far outlasting Hadrian's reign.[236] Local coins with his effigy were still being struck during Caracalla's reign, and he was invoked in a poem to celebrate the accession of Diocletian.[237] Christians[edit] Hadrian continued Trajan's policy on Christians; they should not be sought out, and should only be prosecuted for specific offences, such as refusal to swear oaths.[238] In a rescript addressed to the proconsul of Asia, Gaius Minicius Fundanus, and preserved by Justin Martyr, Hadrian laid down that accusers of Christians had to bear the burden of proof for their denunciations[239] or be punished for calumnia (defamation).[240] Personal and cultural interests[edit] Hadrian on the obverse of an aureus (123). The reverse bears a personification of Aequitas Augusti or Juno Moneta. Inscription: IMP. CAESAR TRAIAN. HADRIANVS AVG. / P. M., TR. P., CO[N]S. III. Hadrian had an abiding and enthusiastic interest in art, architecture and public works. Rome's Pantheon (temple "to all the gods"), originally built by Agrippa and destroyed by fire in 80, was partly restored under Trajan and completed under Hadrian in the domed form it retains to this day. Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) provides the greatest Roman equivalent of an Alexandrian garden, complete with domed Serapeum, recreating a sacred landscape.[241] An anecdote from Cassius Dio's history suggests Hadrian had a high opinion of his own architectural tastes and talents, and took their rejection as a personal offence: at some time before his reign, his predecessor Trajan was discussing an architectural problem with Apollodorus of Damascus – architect and designer of Trajan's Forum, the Column commemorating his Dacian conquest, and his bridge across the Danube – when Hadrian interrupted to offer his advice. Apollodorus gave him a scathing response: "Be off, and draw your gourds [a sarcastic reference to the domes which Hadrian apparently liked to draw]. You don't understand any of these matters." Dio claims that once Hadrian became emperor, he showed Apollodorus drawings of the gigantic Temple of Venus and Roma, implying that great buildings could be created without his help. When Apollodorus pointed out the building's various insoluble problems and faults, Hadrian was enraged, sent him into exile and later put him to death on trumped up charges.[242][243] Hadrian wrote poetry in both Latin and Greek; one of the few surviving examples is a Latin poem he reportedly composed on his deathbed (see below). Some of his Greek productions found their way into the Palatine Anthology.[244][245] He also wrote an autobiography, which Historia Augusta says was published under the name of Hadrian's freedman Phlegon of Tralles. It was not, apparently, a work of great length or revelation, but designed to scotch various rumours or explain Hadrian's most controversial actions.[246] It is possible that this autobiography had the form of a series of open letters to Antoninus Pius.[247] Hadrian was a passionate hunter from a young age.[248] In northwest Asia, he founded and dedicated a city to commemorate a she-bear he killed.[249] It is documented that in Egypt he and his beloved Antinous killed a lion.[249] In Rome, eight reliefs featuring Hadrian in different stages of hunting decorate a building that began as a monument celebrating a kill.[249] Hadrian's philhellenism may have been one reason for his adoption, like Nero before him, of the beard as suited to Roman imperial dignity; Dio of Prusa had equated the growth of the beard with the Hellenic ethos.[250] Hadrian's beard may also have served to conceal his natural facial blemishes.[251] All emperors before him (except Nero) had been clean-shaven; emperors who came after him until Constantine the Great were bearded and this imperial fashion was revived again by Phocas at the beginning of the 7th century.[252][253] Hadrian was familiar with the rival philosophers Epictetus and Favorinus, and with their works, and held an interest in Roman philosophy. During his first stay in Greece, before he became emperor, he attended lectures by Epictetus at Nicopolis.[254] Shortly before the death of Plotina, Hadrian had granted her wish that the leadership of the Epicurean School in Athens be open to a non-Roman candidate.[255] During Hadrian's time as Tribune of the Plebs, omens and portents supposedly announced his future imperial condition.[256] According to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian had a great interest in astrology and divination and had been told of his future accession to the Empire by a grand-uncle who was himself a skilled astrologer.[257] Poem by Hadrian[edit] According to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian composed the following poem shortly before his death:[258] Animula, vagula, blandula Hospes comesque corporis Quae nunc abibis in loca Pallidula, rigida, nudula, Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos... P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp. Roving amiable little soul, Body's companion and guest, Now descending for parts Colourless, unbending, and bare Your usual distractions no more shall be there... The poem has enjoyed remarkable popularity,[259][260] but uneven critical acclaim.[261] According to Aelius Spartianus, the alleged author of Hadrian's biography in the Historia Augusta, Hadrian "wrote also similar poems in Greek, not much better than this one".[262] T. S. Eliot's poem "Animula" may have been inspired by Hadrian's, though the relationship is not unambiguous.[263] Appraisals[edit] Hadrian has been described as the most versatile of all Roman emperors, who "adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy, hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised the ardor for fame with which he burned."[264][265] His successor Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, lists those to whom he owes a debt of gratitude; Hadrian is conspicuously absent.[266] Hadrian's tense, authoritarian relationship with his senate was acknowledged a generation after his death by Fronto, himself a senator, who wrote in one of his letters to Marcus Aurelius that "I praised the deified Hadrian, your grandfather, in the senate on a number of occasions with great enthusiasm, and I did this willingly, too [...] But, if it can be said – respectfully acknowledging your devotion towards your grandfather – I wanted to appease and assuage Hadrian as I would Mars Gradivus or Dis Pater, rather than to love him."[267] Fronto adds, in another letter, that he kept some friendships, during Hadrian's reign, "under the risk of my life" (cum periculo capitis).[268] Hadrian underscored the autocratic character of his reign by counting his dies imperii from the day of his acclamation by the armies, rather than the senate, and legislating by frequent use of imperial decrees to bypass the Senate's approval.[269] The veiled antagonism between Hadrian and the Senate never grew to overt confrontation as had happened during the reigns of overtly "bad" emperors, because Hadrian knew how to remain aloof and avoid an open clash.[270] That Hadrian spent half of his reign away from Rome in constant travel probably helped to mitigate the worst of this permanently strained relationship.[271] In 1503, Niccolò Machiavelli, though an avowed republican, esteemed Hadrian as an ideal princeps, one of Rome's Five Good Emperors. Friedrich Schiller called Hadrian "the Empire's first servant". Edward Gibbon admired his "vast and active genius" and his "equity and moderation", and considered Hadrian's era as part of the "happiest era of human history". In Ronald Syme's view, Hadrian "was a Führer, a Duce, a Caudillo".[272] According to Syme, Tacitus' description of the rise and accession of Tiberius is a disguised account of Hadrian's authoritarian Principate.[273] According, again, to Syme, Tacitus' Annals would be a work of contemporary history, written "during Hadrian's reign and hating it".[274] While the balance of ancient literary opinion almost invariably compares Hadrian unfavourably to his predecessor, modern historians have sought to examine his motives, purposes and the consequences of his actions and policies.[275] For M.A. Levi, a summing-up of Hadrian's policies should stress the ecumenical character of the Empire, his development of an alternate bureaucracy disconnected from the Senate and adapted to the needs of an "enlightened" autocracy, and his overall defensive strategy; this would qualify him as a grand Roman political reformer, creator of an openly absolute monarchy to replace a sham senatorial republic.[276] Robin Lane Fox credits Hadrian as creator of a unified Greco-Roman cultural tradition, and as the end of this same tradition; Hadrian's attempted "restoration" of Classical culture within a non-democratic Empire drained it of substantive meaning, or, in Fox's words, "kill[ed] it with kindness".[277] Sources and historiography[edit] In Hadrian's time, there was already a well established convention that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for fear of contradicting what the emperors wanted to say, read or hear about themselves.[278][279] As an earlier Latin source, Fronto's correspondence and works attest to Hadrian's character and the internal politics of his rule.[280] Greek authors such as Philostratus and Pausanias wrote shortly after Hadrian's reign, but confined their scope to the general historical framework that shaped Hadrian's decisions, especially those relating the Greek-speaking world, Greek cities and notables.[281] Pausanias especially wrote a lot in praise of Hadrian's benefactions to Greece in general and Athens in particular.[282] Political histories of Hadrian's reign come mostly from later sources, some of them written centuries after the reign itself. The early 3rd-century Roman History by Cassius Dio, written in Greek, gave a general account of Hadrian's reign, but the original is lost, and what survives, aside from some fragments, is a brief, Byzantine-era abridgment by the 11th-century monk Xiphilinius, who focused on Hadrian's religious interests, the Bar Kokhba war, and little else—mostly on Hadrian's moral qualities and his fraught relationship with the Senate.[283] The principal source for Hadrian's life and reign is therefore in Latin: one of several late 4th-century imperial biographies, collectively known as the Historia Augusta. The collection as a whole is notorious for its unreliability ("a mish mash of actual fact, cloak and dagger, sword and sandal, with a sprinkling of Ubu Roi"),[284] but most modern historians consider its account of Hadrian to be relatively free of outright fictions, and probably based on sound historical sources,[285] principally one of a lost series of imperial biographies by the prominent 3rd-century senator Marius Maximus, who covered the reigns of Nerva through to Elagabalus.[286] The first modern historian to produce a chronological account of Hadrian's life, supplementing the written sources with other epigraphical, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, was the German 19th-century medievalist Ferdinand Gregorovius.[287] A 1907 biography by Weber,[287] a German nationalist and later Nazi Party supporter, incorporates the same archaeological evidence to produce an account of Hadrian, and especially his Bar Kokhba war, that has been described as ideologically loaded.[288][289][290] Epigraphical studies in the post-war period help support alternate views of Hadrian. Anthony Birley's 1997 biography of Hadrian sums up and reflects these developments in Hadrian historiography. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Memoirs of Hadrian, a 1951 semi-fictional autobiography of Hadrian, written by Marguerite Yourcenar. Phallos, a 2004 novel in which the narrator encounters Hadrian and Antinous just before Antinous's murder and then, once more, minutes afterward, which changes the narrator's life, written by Samuel R. Delany. Hadrian, a 2018 opera based on Hadrian's life and death and his relationship with Antinous, composed by Rufus Wainwright. Citations[edit] ^ Salmon, 333 ^ Ando, Clifford "Phoenix", Phoenix, 52 (1998), pp. 183–185. JSTOR 1088268. ^ Kouremenos, Anna forthcoming: https://www.academia.edu/43746490/_Forthcoming_The_City_of_Hadrian_and_not_of_Theseus_A_Cultural_History_of_Hadrians_Arch. ^ Mary T. Boatwright (2008). "From Domitian to Hadrian". In Barrett, Anthony (ed.). Lives of the Caesars. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-4051-2755-4. ^ Alicia M. Canto, Itálica, sedes natalis de Adriano. 31 textos históricos y argumentos para una secular polémica, Athenaeum XCII/2, 2004, 367–408. ^ Ronald Syme, "Hadrian and Italica" (Journal of Roman Studies, LIV, 1964; pp. 142–149) supports the position that Rome was Hadrian's birthplace. Canto argues that among the ancient sources, only the Historia Augusta, Vita Hadriani 2,4, claims this. 25 other sources, including Hadrian's horoscope, state that he was born in Italica. See Stephan Heiler, "The Emperor Hadrian in the Horoscopes of Antigonus of Nicaea", in Günther Oestmann, H. Darrel Rutkin, Kocku von Stuckrad, eds.,Horoscopes and Public Spheres: Essays on the History of Astrology, Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 49 ISBN 978-3-11-018545-4: Cramer, FH., Astrology in Roman Law and Politics, Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 37, Philadelphia, 1954 (reprinted 1996), 162–178, footnotes 121b, 122 et al.,Googlebooks preview O. Neugebauer and H. B. Van Hoesen, "Greek Horoscopes" Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 48, 76, Philadelphia, 1959, pp. 80–90, 91, and footnote 19, googlebooks preview of 1987 edition ^ a b Royston Lambert, Beloved And God, pp. 31–32. ^ CIL VI 10909 ([Text http://www.edr-edr.it/edr_programmi/res_complex_comune.php?do=book&id_nr=EDR131420&partId=1] on the Epigraphic Database Roma) ^ Morwood 2013, pp. 5 & 43. ^ Opper 2008, p. 34. ^ On the numerous senatorial families from Spain residing at Rome and its vicinity around the time of Hadrian's birth see R. Syme, 'Spaniards at Tivoli', in Roman Papers IV (Oxford, 1988), pp. 96–114. Hadrian went on to build an Imperial villa at Tivoli (Tibur) ^ Alicia M. Canto, "La dinastía Ulpio-Aelia (96–192 d.C.): ni tan Buenos, ni tan Adoptivos ni tan Antoninos". Gerión (21.1): 263–305. 2003 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 24–26 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 16–17 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 37 ^ John D. Grainger, Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. Abingdon: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-34958-3, p. 109 ^ Thorsten Opper, The Emperor Hadrian. British Museum Press, 2008, p. – 39 ^ Jörg Fündling, Kommentar zur Vita Hadriani der Historia Augusta (= Antiquitas. Reihe 4: Beiträge zur Historia-Augusta-Forschung, Serie 3: Kommentare, Bände 4.1 und 4.2). Habelt, Bonn 2006, ISBN 3-7749-3390-1, p. 351. ^ John D. Grainger, Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis, p. 109; Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds. The Cambridge Ancient History – XI. Cambridge U. P.: 2000, ISBN 0-521-26335-2, p. 133. ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 54 ^ Boatwright, in Barrett, p. 158 ^ The text of Historia Augusta (Vita Hadriani, 3.8) is garbled, stating that Hadrian's election to the praetorship was contemporary "to the second consulate of Suburanus and Servianus" – two characters that had non-simultaneous second consulships – so Hadrian's election could be dated to 102 or 104, the later date being the most accepted ^ a b Bowman, p. 133 ^ Anthony Everitt, 2013, Chapter XI: "holding back the Sarmatians" may simply have meant maintaining and patrolling the border. ^ The inscription in footnote 1 ^ The Athenian inscription confirms and expands the one in Historia Augusta; see John Bodel, ed., Epigraphic Evidence: Ancient History From Inscriptions. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0-415-11623-6, p. 89 ^ His career in office up to 112/113 is attested by the Athens inscription, 112 AD: CIL III, 550 = InscrAtt 3 = IG II, 3286 = Dessau 308 = IDRE 2, 365: decemvir stlitibus iudicandis/ sevir turmae equitum Romanorum/ praefectus Urbi feriarum Latinarum/ tribunus militum legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis (95, in Pannonia Inferior)/ tribunus militum legionis V Macedonicae (96, in Moesia Inferior)/ tribunus militum legionis XXII Primigeniae Piae Fidelis (97, in Germania Superior)/ quaestor (101)/ ab actis senatus/ tribunus plebis (105)/ praetor (106)/ legatus legionis I Minerviae Piae Fidelis (106, in Germania Inferior)/ legatus Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae Inferioris (107)/ consul suffectus (108)/ septemvir epulonum (before 112)/ sodalis Augustalis (before 112)/ archon Athenis (112/13). He also held office as legatus Syriae (117): see H. W. Benario in Roman-emperors.org ^ Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, p. 68 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 75 ^ Karl Strobel: Kaiser Traian. Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte. Regensburg: 2010, p. 401. ^ Robert H. Allen, The Classical Origins of Modern Homophobia, Jefferson: Mcfarland, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7864-2349-1, p. 120 ^ Hidalgo de la Vega, Maria José: "Plotina, Sabina y Las Dos Faustinas: La Función de Las Augustas en La Politica Imperial". Studia historica, Historia antigua, 18, 2000, pp. 191–224. Available at [1]. Retrieved 11 January 2017 ^ Plotina may have sought to avoid the fate of her contemporary, former empress Domitia Longina, who had fallen into social and political oblivion: see François Chausson, "Variétés Généalogiques IV:Cohésion, Collusions, Collisions: Une Autre Dynastie Antonine", in Giorgio Bonamente, Hartwin Brandt, eds., Historiae Augustae Colloquium Bambergense. Bari: Edipuglia, 2007, ISBN 978-88-7228-492-6, p. 143 ^ Marasco, p. 375 ^ Tracy Jennings, "A Man Among Gods: Evaluating the Significance of Hadrian's Acts of Deification." Journal of Undergraduate Research: 54. Available at [2] Archived 16 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 15 April 2017 ^ This made Hadrian the first senator in history to have an Augusta as his mother-in-law, something that his contemporaries could not fail to notice: see Christer Brun, "Matidia die Jüngere", IN Anne Kolb, ed., Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?: Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-05-004898-7, p. 230 ^ Thorsten Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University Press, 2008, p. 170 ^ David L. Balch, Carolyn Osiek, eds., Early Christian Families in Context: An Interdisciplinary Dialogue. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-8028-3986-X, p. 301 ^ Anthony R Birley, Hadrian: The Restless Emperor, p. 54 ^ Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, XI, p. 133 ^ Mackay, Christopher. Ancient Rome: a Military and Political History. Cambridge U. Press: 2007, ISBN 0-521-80918-5, p. 229 ^ Fündling, 335 ^ Gabriele Marasco, ed., Political Autobiographies and Memoirs in Antiquity: A Brill Companion. Leiden: Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-18299-8, p. 375 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 3.7 ^ In 23 BC Augustus handed a similar ring to his heir apparent, Agrippa: see Judith Lynn Sebesta, Larissa Bonfante, eds., The World of Roman Costume. University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 78 ^ Fündling, 351 ^ Fündling, 384; Strobel, 401. ^ John Richardson, "The Roman Mind and the power of fiction" IN Lewis Ayres, Ian Gray Kidd, eds. The Passionate Intellect: Essays on the Transformation of Classical Traditions : Presented to Professor I.G. Kidd. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1995, ISBN 1-56000-210-7, p. 128 ^ Elizabeth Speller, p. 25 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 80 ^ Stephan Brassloff, "Die Rechtsfrage bei der Adoption Hadrians". Hermes 49. Bd., H. 4 (Sep. 1914), pp. 590–601 ^ The coin legend runs HADRIANO TRAIANO CAESARI; see Roman, Yves, Rémy, Bernard & Riccardi, Laurent:" Les intrigues de Plotine et la succession de Trajan. À propos d'un aureus au nom d'Hadrien César". Révue des études anciennes, T. 111, 2009, no. 2, pp. 508–517 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 6.2 ^ Egyptian papyri tell of one such ceremony between 117 and 118; see Michael Peppard, The Son of God in the Roman World: Divine Sonship in Its Social and Political Context. Oxford U. Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-19-975370-3, pp. 72f ^ Royston Lambert, p. 34 ^ Cizek, Eugen. L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus chez Tacite et le " complot " des consulaires. In: Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, no. 3, octobre 1980. pp. 276–294. Retrieved 10 June 2015. Available at [3] ^ a b Elizabeth Speller. ^ It is likely that Hadrian found Attianus' ambition suspect. Attianus was likely dead, or executed, by the end of Hadrian's reign; see Françoise Des Boscs-Plateaux, Un parti hispanique à Rome?: ascension des élites hispaniques et pouvoir politique d'Auguste à Hadrien, 27 av. J.-C.-138 ap. J.-C. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2005, ISBN 84-95555-80-8, p. 611 ^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, 55 ^ John Antony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge University Press: 1955, pp. 54f ^ Marasco, p. 377 ^ Michel Christol & D. Nony, Rome et son Empire. Paris: Hachette, 2003, ISBN 2-01-145542-1, p. 158 ^ Hadrien Bru, Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes: Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin. Leiden: Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-20363-1, pp. 46f ^ Carcopino Jérôme. "L'hérédité dynastique chez les Antonins". Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 51, 1949, no.3–4. pp. 262–321. ^ Cizek, "L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus" ^ Nigrinus' ambiguous relationship with Hadrian would have consequences late in Hadrian's reign, when he had to plan his own succession; see Anthony Everitt, Hadrian and the triumph of Rome. New York: Random House, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4000-6662-9. ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 91 ^ Christol & Nony, p. 158 ^ Richard P. Saller, Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press: 2002, ISBN 0-521-23300-3, p. 140 ^ Richard A. Bauman, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-203-42858-7, p. 83 ^ Digest, 49 2, I,2, quoted by P.E. Corbett, "The Legislation of Hadrian". University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register, Vol. 74, No. 8 (Jun. 1926), pp. 753–766 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 88 ^ Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-973784-0, p. 153 ^ Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome: Trust in the Gods But Verify. London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-7146-5480-9, p. 253 ^ Kennedy, Maev (9 June 2008). "How Victorian restorers faked the clothes that seemed to show Hadrian's softer side". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 June 2008. ^ Paul Veyne, Le Pain et le Cirque, Paris: Seuil, 1976, ISBN 2-02-004507-9, p. 655 ^ András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, Routledge, 2014 Hadrian ^ Paul Veyne, " Humanitas: Romans and non-Romans". In Andrea Giardina, ed., The Romans, University of Chicago Press: 1993, ISBN 0-226-29049-2, p. 364 ^ a b Christol & Nony, p. 159 ^ Larry Joseph Kreitzer, Striking New Images: Roman Imperial Coinage and the New Testament World. Sheffield: A & C Black, 1996, ISBN 1-85075-623-6, pp. 194ff ^ Simon Goldhill, Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 12 ISBN 0-521-66317-2 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 123 ^ Opper, p. 79 ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Hadrian, xi, 2 ^ Nick Hodgson, Hadrian's Wall: Archaeology and history at the limit of Rome's empire. Ramsbury: Crowood Press, 2017, ISBN 978-0-7-1982-159-2 ^ Patrick le Roux, Le haut-Empire romain en Occident d'Auguste aux Sévères. Paris: Seuil, 1998, ISBN 2-02-025932-X, p. 396 ^ Breeze, David J., and Brian Dobson, "Hadrian's Wall: Some Problems", Britannia, Vol. 3, (1972), pp. 182–208 ^ "Britannia on British Coins". Chard. Retrieved 25 June 2006. ^ a b Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 145 ^ Potter, David S. (2014). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 9781134694778. ^ Jason König, Katerina Oikonomopoulou, Greg Woolf, eds. Ancient Libraries. Cambridge U. Press: 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01256-1, p. 251 ^ Anthony Everitt, Hadrian and the triumph of Rome. ^ William E. Mierse, Temples and Towns in Roman Iberia: The Social and Architectural Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third Century B.C. to the Third Century A.D.. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, ISBN 0-520-20377-1, p. 141 ^ Royston Lambert, pp. 41–2 ^ Anthony Birley, pp. 151–2 ^ The rebuilding continued until late in Hadrian's reign; in 138 a statue of Zeus was erected there, dedicated to Hadrian as Cyrene's "saviour and founder". See E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian : a Study in Political Relations. Leiden, Brill, 2001, 0-391-04155-X, p. 410 ^ Anthony Birley, pp. 153–5 ^ a b Anthony Birley, pp. 157–8 ^ Royston Lambert, pp. 60–1 ^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 171 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 164–7 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 175–7 ^ Kaja Harter-Uibopuu, "Hadrian and the Athenian Oil Law", in O.M. Van Nijf – R. Alston (ed.), Feeding the Ancient Greek city. Groningen- Royal Holloway Studies on the Greek City after the Classical Age, vol. 1, Louvain 2008, pp. 127–141 ^ Brenda Longfellow, Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage: Form, Meaning and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes. Cambridge U. Press: 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-19493-8, p. 120 ^ Verhoogen Violette. Review of Graindor (Paul). Athènes sous Hadrien, Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, 1935, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 926–931. Available at [4]. Retrieved 20 June 2015 ^ Mark Golden, Greek Sport and Social Status, University of Texas Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-292-71869-2, p. 88 ^ Cynthia Kosso, Anne Scott, eds., The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance. Leiden: Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17357-6, pp. 216f ^ Alexia Petsalis-Diomidis, Truly Beyond Wonders: Aelius Aristides and the Cult of Asklepios. OUP : 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-956190-2, p. 171 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 177–80 ^ David S. Potter,The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395. London: Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-84054-5, p. 44 ^ a b Boatwright, p. 134 ^ K. W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge U. Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55340-7, pp. 162, 185 ^ Birley, "Hadrian and Greek Senators", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 116 (1997), pp. 209–245. Retrieved 23 July 2015 ^ Christol & Nony, p. 203 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 182–4 ^ a b c Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 191–200 ^ J. Declareuil, Rome the Law-Giver, London: Routledge, 2013, ISBN 0-415-15613-0, p. 72 ^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-520-22067-6 ^ Royston Lambert, pp. 71–2 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 213–4 ^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 215–20 ^ Boatwright, p. 81 ^ Foertmeyer, Victoria Anne (1989). Tourism in Graeco-Roman Egypt (PhD). Princeton. pp. 107–108. ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 235 ^ Boatwright, p. 142 ^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 173 ^ Historia Augusta (c. 395) Hadr. 14.5–7 ^ Foertmeyer, pp. 107–108 ^ Cortes Copete Juan Manuel. "El fracaso del primer proyecto panhelénico de Adriano".Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, vol. 25, n°2, 1999. pp. 91–112. Available at [5] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 January 2019 ^ Boatwright, p. 150 ^ Anthony Kaldellis, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-87688-9, p. 38 ^ Fernando A. Marín Valdés, Plutarco y el arte de la Atenas hegemónica. Universidad de Oviedo: 2008, ISBN 978-84-8317-659-7, p. 76 ^ A. J. S. Spawforth, Greece and the Augustan Cultural Revolution. Cambridge University Press: 2011, ISBN 978-1-107-01211-0, p. 262 ^ Nathanael J. Andrade, Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9, p. 176 ^ Domingo Plácido, ed. La construcción ideológica de la ciudadanía: identidades culturales y sociedad en el mundo griego antiguo. Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 2006, ISBN 84-7491-790-5, p. 462 ^ Georg Simmel, Sociology: Inquiries into the Construction of Social Forms. Leiden: Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17321-7, p. 288 ^ Nathanael J. Andrade, Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9, p. 177 ^ Andrew M. Smith II, Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1, p. 25; Robert K. Sherk, The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian. Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 0-521-33887-5, p. 190 ^ Hadrien Bru, Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes: Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin (31 av. J.-C.-337 ap. J.-C.). Leiden: Brill,2011, ISBN 978-90-04-20363-1, pp. 104-105 ^ Laura Salah Nasrallah, Christian Responses to Roman Art and Architecture: The Second-Century Church Amid the Spaces of Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-521-76652-4, p. 96 ^ Giovanni Battista Bazzana, "The Bar Kokhba Revolt and Hadrian's religious policy", IN Marco Rizzi, ed., Hadrian and the Christians. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-022470-2, pp. 89-91 ^ Bazzana, 98 ^ Cf a project devised earlier by Hellenized Jewish intellectuals such as Philo: see Rizzi, Hadrian and the Christians, 4 ^ Emmanuel Friedheim, "Some notes about the Samaritans and the Rabbinic Class at Crossroads" IN Menachem Mor, Friedrich V. Reiterer, eds., Samaritans – Past and Present: Current Studies. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5, p. 197 ^ a b Peter Schäfer, Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand. Tübingen 1981, pp. 29–50. ^ Chronicle of Jerome, s.v. Hadrian. See: [6] See also Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba, Random House New York 1971, pp. 22, 258 ^ Alexander Zephyr, Rabbi Akiva, Bar Kokhba Revolt, and the Ten Tribes of Israel. Bloomington: iUniverse, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4917-1256-6 ^ Schäfer, Peter (June 2009). Judeophobia: Attitudes Toward the Jews in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press (published 1998). pp. 103–105. ISBN 978-0-674-04321-3. Retrieved 1 February 2014. [...] Hadrian's ban on circumcision, allegedly imposed sometime between 128 and 132 CE [...]. The only proof for Hadrian's ban on circumcision is the short note in the Historia Augusta: 'At this time also the Jews began war, because they were forbidden to mutilate their genitals (quot vetabantur mutilare genitalia). [...] The historical credibility of this remark is controversial [...] The earliest evidence for circumcision in Roman legislation is an edict by Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE), Hadrian's successor [...] [I]t is not utterly impossible that Hadrian [...] indeed considered circumcision as a 'barbarous mutilation' and tried to prohihit it. [...] However, this proposal cannot be more than a conjecture, and, of course, it does not solve the questions of when Hadrian issued the decree (before or during/after the Bar Kokhba war) and whether it was directed solely against Jews or also against other peoples. ^ Mackay, Christopher. Ancient Rome a Military and Political History: 230 ^ Peter Schäfer, The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome Mohr Siebeck, 2003 p. 68 ^ Peter Schäfer, The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest. Routledge:2003, p. 146 ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian 14.2 ^ Shaye Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Third Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press,2014, ISBN 978-0-664-23904-6, pp. 25–26 ^ Steven T. Katz, ed. The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8, pp. 11-112 ^ Possibly the XXII Deiotariana, which according to epigraphy did not outlast Hadrian's reign; see [https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html livius.org account; however, Peter Schäfer, following Bowersock, finds no traces in the written sources of the purported annihilation of Legio XXII. A loss of such magnitude would have surely been mentioned (Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand, 14). ^ Cassius Dio 69, 14.3 Roman History. Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the Senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors[...] ^ Dio's Roman History (trans. Earnest Cary), vol. 8 (books 61–70), Loeb Classical Library: London 1925, pp. 449–451 ^ Daniel R. Schwartz, Zeev Weiss, eds., Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple. Leiden: Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-21534-4, p. 529, footnote 42 ^ Epiphanius, "On Weights and Measures" §14: Hadrian's Journey to the East and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem, Renan Baker, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bd. 182 (2012), pp. 157-167. Published by: Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, available through jstor (subscription required, accessed march 25, 2012) ^ Ken Dowden, Zeus. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0-415-30502-0, p. 58. ^ Anna Collar, Religious Networks in the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press: 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-04344-2, pp. 248–249 ^ Geza Vermes, Who's Who in the Age of Jesus, Penguin: 2006, ISBN: 0140515658, entry "Hadrian" ^ Ronald Syme, "Journeys of Hadrian" (1988), pp. 164–9 ^ Ronald Syme, "Journeys Of Hadrian". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 73 (1988) 159–170. Available at [7]. Retrieved 20 January 2017. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 10.3 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 23.9 ^ Anne Kolb, Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?: Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-05-004898-7, pp. 26-27 ^ Olivier Hekster, Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the Constraints of Tradition. Oxford U. Press: 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-873682-0, pp. 140-142 ^ Merlin Alfred. Passion et politique chez les Césars (review of Jérôme Carcopino, Passion et politique chez les Césars). In: Journal des savants. Jan.-Mar. 1958. pp. 5–18. Available at [8]. Retrieved 12 June 2015. ^ Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines : A History of the Roman Empire AD 14–192. London: Routledge, 2014, p. 699 ^ András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. London: Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-74582-6, p. 102 ^ Anthony Birley, pp. 289–292. ^ a b The adoptions: Anthony Birley, pp. 294–5; T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies (1967), Ronald Syme, Tacitus, p. 601. Antoninus as a legate of Italy: Anthony Birley, p. 199 ^ Annius Verus was also the step-grandson of the Prefect of Rome, Lucius Catilius Severus, one of the remnants of the all-powerful group of Spanish senators from Trajan's reign. Hadrian would likely have shown some favor to the grandson in order to count on the grandfather's support; for an account of the various familial and marital alliances involved, see Des Boscs-Plateaux, pp. 241, 311, 477, 577; see also Frank McLynn,Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo, 2010, ISBN 978-0-306-81916-2, p. 84 ^ Anthony Birley, pp. 291–2 ^ Dio 69.17.2[permanent dead link] ^ Anthony Birley, p. 297 ^ Anthony Birley, p. 300 ^ a b Salmon, 816 ^ Dio 70.1.1 ^ Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press: 2015, ISBN 978-1-108-08324-9, p. 250 ^ Christian Bechtold, Gott und Gestirn als Präsenzformen des toten Kaisers: Apotheose und Katasterismos in der politischen Kommunikation der römischen Kaiserzeit und ihre Anknüpfungspunkte im Hellenismus.V&R unipress GmbH: 2011, ISBN 978-3-89971-685-6, p. 259 ^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-22067-6, p. 330 ^ Patrick Le Roux, Le Haut Empire Romain en Occident, d'Auguste aux Sévères. Paris: Seuil, 1998, ISBN 2-02-025932-X, p. 56 ^ W. Den Boer, Some Minor Roman Historians, Leiden: Brill, 1972, ISBN 90-04-03545-1, p. 41 ^ Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army. London: Routledge, 2013, ISBN 0-415-22295-8, p. 55 ^ Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192. London: Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-1-138-01920-1, p. 381 ^ The partial withdrawal was probably supervised by the governor of Moesia Quintus Pompeius Falco; see Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 84, 86. ^ Eutropius's notion that Hadrian contemplated withdrawing from Dacia altogether appears to be unfounded; see Jocelyn M. C. Toynbee, The Hadrianic School: A Chapter in the History of Greek Art. CUP Archive, 1934, 79 ^ Julian Bennett, Trajan-Optimus Priceps. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-253-21435-1, p. 165 ^ Opper, Empire and Conflict, p. 67 ^ N. J. E. Austin & N. B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 4 ^ Austin & Rankov, p. 30 ^ Fergus Millar, Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Volume 2: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire. The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8078-2852-1, p. 183 ^ Elizabeth Speller, p. 69 ^ Opper, p. 85 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 209–212 ^ Luttvak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4, p. 123 ^ Christol & Nony, p. 180 ^ Baumer, Christoph (11 December 2012). The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors– Google Knihy. ISBN 978-1-78076-060-5. Retrieved 3 September 2016. ^ Fronto: Selected Letters. Edited by Caillan Davenport & Jenifer Manley, London: AC & Black, 2014, ISBN 978-1-78093-442-6, pp. 184f ^ Laura Jansen, The Roman Paratext: Frame, Texts, Readers, Cambridge University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-1-107-02436-6 p. 66 ^ Kathleen Kuiper (Editor), Ancient Rome: From Romulus and Remus to the Visigoth Invasion, New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, ISBN 978-1-61530-207-9 p. 133 ^ A. Arthur Schiller, Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development, Walter de Gruyter: 1978, ISBN 90-279-7744-5 p. 471 ^ a b Salmon, 812 ^ R.V. Nind Hopkins, Life of Alexander Severus, CUP Archive, p. 110 ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, Volume 43, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1968, ISBN 0-87169-435-2 p. 650 ^ Salmon, 813 ^ Garnsey, Peter, "Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire", Past & Present, No. 41 (Dec. 1968), pp. 9, 13 (note 35), 16, published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society, JSTOR 650001 ^ Westermann, 109 ^ Marcel Morabito, Les Réalités de l'esclavage d'après Le Digeste. Paris: Presses Univ. Franche-C omté, 1981, ISBN 978-2-251-60254-7, p. 230 ^ Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge, 2012, ISBN 0-415-09678-2;William Linn Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1955, p. 115 ^ Digest 48.18.21; quoted by Q.F. Robinson, Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007 ISBN 978-0-415-41651-1, p. 107 ^ Judith Perkins, Roman Imperial Identities in the Early Christian Era. Abingdon: Routledge, 2009, ISBN 978-0-415-39744-5 ^ Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-973784-0, p. 102 ^ Digest, 48.8.4.2, quoted by Paul Du Plessis, Borkowski's Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-957488-9, p. 95 ^ Peter Schäfer, Judeophobia, 104. ^ Garzetti, p. 411 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 107 ^ Gradel, Ittai, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-815275-2, pp. 194–5. ^ Howgego, in Howgego, C., Heuchert, V., Burnett, A., (eds), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-926526-8, pp. 6, 10. ^ Boatwright, p. 136 ^ K. W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge U. Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55340-7, p. 162 ^ Marcel Le Glay. "Hadrien et l'Asklépieion de Pergame". In: Bulletin de correspondance hellénique. Volume 100, livraison 1, 1976. pp. 347–372. Available at [9]. Retrieved 24 July 2015. ^ Alan Rowe and B. R. Rees (1956). "A Contribution To The Archaeology of The Western Desert: IV – The Great Serapeum Of Alexandria" (PDF). Manchester.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Mellor, R., "The Goddess Roma" in Haase, W., Temporini, H., (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, de Gruyter, 1991, ISBN 3-11-010389-3, pp. 960–964 ^ Cassius Dio, LIX.11; Historia Augusta, Hadrian ^ Tim Cornell, Dr Kathryn Lomas, eds., Bread and Circuses: Euergetism and Municipal Patronage in Roman Italy. London: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-14689-5, p. 97 ^ Carl F. Petry, ed. The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-47137-4, p. 15 ^ Elsner, pp. 176f ^ Williams, p. 61 ^ Hadrian's "Hellenic" emotionalism finds a culturally sympathetic echo in the Homeric Achilles' mourning for his friend Patroclus: see discussion in Vout, Caroline, Power and eroticism in Imperial Rome, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-86739-8, pp. 52–135. ^ Craig A. Williams, Roman Homosexuality : Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. Oxford University Press: 1999, ISBN 978-0-19-511300-6, pp. 60f ^ Marco Rizzi, p. 12 ^ Jás Elsner, Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph, Oxford History of Art, Oxford U.P., 1998, ISBN 0-19-284201-3, pp. 183f. ^ see Trevor W. Thompson "Antinoos, The New God: Origen on Miracle and Belief in Third Century Egypt" for the persistence of Antinous's cult and Christian reactions to it. Freely available. The relationship of P. Oxy. 63.4352 with Diocletian's accession is not entirely clear. ^ Caroline Vout, Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome. Cambridge University Press; 2007, p. 89 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 127, 183. ^ Alessandro Galimberti, "Hadrian, Eleusis, and the beginnings of Christian apologetics" in Marco Rizzi, ed., Hadrian and the Christians. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-022470-2, pp. 77f ^ Robert M. Haddad, The Case for Christianity: St. Justin Martyr's Arguments for Religious Liberty and Judicial Justice. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010, ISBN 978-1-58979-575-4, p. 16 ^ It was lost in large part to despoliation by the Cardinal d'Este, who had much of the marble removed to build the Villa d'Este in the 16th century. ^ Brickstamps with consular dates show that the Pantheon's dome was late in Trajan's reign (115), probably under Apollodorus's supervision: see Ilan Vit-Suzan, Architectural Heritage Revisited: A Holistic Engagement of its Tangible and Intangible Constituents , Farnham: Ashgate, 2014, ISBN 978-1-4724-2062-6, p. 20 ^ Cassius Dio, "Roman History", 69.4, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1925 [10][permanent dead link] ^ Juan Gil & Sofía Torallas Tovar, Hadrianus. Barcelona: CSIC, 2010, ISBN 978-84-00-09193-4, p. 100 ^ Direct links to Hadrian's poems in the A.P. with W.R. Paton's translation at the Internet Archive VI 332, VII 674, IX 137, IX 387 ^ T. J. Cornell, ed., The Fragments of the Roman Historians. Oxford University Press: 2013, p. 591 ^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 26 ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian 2.1. ^ a b c Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 p. 574 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 62 ^ The Historia Augusta however claims that "he wore a full beard to cover up the natural blemishes on his face", H.A. 26.1 ^ "Byzantine first & last times". Byzantium.xronikon.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012. ^ "Barba – NumisWiki, The Collaborative Numismatics Project". Forumancientcoins.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012. ^ Robin Lane Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Philadelphia: Basic Books, 2006, ISBN 978-0-465-02497-1, p. 578 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 108f ^ For instance, a probably bogus anecdote in Historia Augusta relates that as tribune he had lost a cloak that emperors never wore: Michael Reiche, ed., Antike Autobiographien: Werke, Epochen, Gattungen. Köln: Böhlau, 2005, ISBN 3-412-10505-8, p. 225 ^ Christiane L. Joost-Gaugier, Measuring Heaven: Pythagoras and His Influence on Thought and Art in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press: 2007, ISBN 978-0-8014-4396-1, p. 177 ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian Dio 25.9; Antony Birley, p. 301 ^ see e.g.Forty-three translations of Hadrian's "Animula, vagula, blandula ..." including translations by Henry Vaughan, A. Pope, Lord Byron. ^ A.A. Barb, "Animula, Vagula, Blandula", Folklore, 61, 1950 : "... since Casaubon almost three and a half centuries of classical scholars have admired this poem" ^ see Note 2 in Emanuela Andreoni Fontecedro's JSTOR 20547373 "Animula vagula blandula: Adriano debitore di Plutarco", Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, 1997 ^ "tales autem nec multo meliores fecit et Graecos", Historia Augusta, ibidem ^ Russell E. Murphy, Critical Companion to T. S. Eliot: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work, 2007. p. 48 ^ Varius multiplex multiformis in the anonymous, ancient Epitome de Caesaribus, 14.6: trans. Thomas M. Banchich, Canisius College, Buffalo, New York, 2009 Retrieved 24 March 2018 ^ cf Ronald Syme, among others; see Ando, footnote 172 ^ McLynn, 42 ^ "Wytse Keulen, Eloquence rules: the ambiguous image of Hadrian in Fronto's correspondence". [11] Retrieved 20 February 2015 ^ James Uden (2010). "The Contest of Homer and Hesiod and the ambitions of Hadrian". Journal of Hellenic Studies, 130 (2010), pp. 121–135.[12]. Accessed 16 October 2017 ^ Edward Togo Salmon,A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138. London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-04504-5, pp. 314f ^ Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 40 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 1 ^ See also Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 65 ^ Victoria Emma Pagán, A Companion to Tacitus. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4051-9032-9, p. 1 ^ Marache, R.: R. Syme, Tacitus, 1958. In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 61, 1959, n°1–2. pp. 202–206.available at [13]. Accessed 30 April 2017 ^ Susanne Mortensen: Hadrian. Eine Deutungsgeschichte. Habelt, Bonn 2004, ISBN 3-7749-3229-8 ^ Franco Sartori, "L'oecuménisme d'un empereur souvent méconnu : [review of] M.A. Levi, Adriano, un ventennio di cambiamento". In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, vol. 21, no. 1, 1995. pp. 290–297. Available at [14]. Retrieved 19 January 2017 ^ The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New York: Basic Books, 2006, ISBN 978-0-465-02497-1, p. 4 ^ Steven H. Rutledge, "Writing Imperial Politics: The Social and Political Background" IN William J. Dominik, ed;, Writing Politics in Imperial Rome Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-15671-5, p. 60 ^ Adam M. Kemezis, "Lucian, Fronto, and the absence of contemporary historiography under the Antonines". The American Journal of Philology Vol. 131, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 285–325 ^ Mary Taliaferro Boatwright, Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press, 2002, pp. 20-26 ^ Birley, Restless Emperor, 160 ^ K.W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge University Press:2004, ISBN 0-521-55340-7, p. 171. ^ Boatwright, 20 ^ Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Paris: Seuil, 2005, ISBN 2-02-057798-4, p. 312. In the French original: de l'Alexandre Dumas, du péplum et un peu d'Ubu Roi. ^ Danèel den Hengst, Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire. Leiden: Brill, 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-17438-2, p. 93. ^ Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History', XI: the High Empire, 70–192 A.D.Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0521263351, p. 132. ^ a b Anthony R Birley, Hadrian: The Restless Emperor. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013, ISBN 0-415-16544-X, p. 7. ^ Thomas E. Jenkins, Antiquity Now: The Classical World in the Contemporary American Imagination. Cambridge University Press: 2015, ISBN 978-0-521-19626-0, p. 121. ^ A'haron Oppenheimer, Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005, ISBN 3-16-148514-9, p. 199. ^ Birley, Hadrian: the Restless Emperor, 7: Birley describes the results of Ernst Kornemann's attempt to sift the Historia Augusta biography's facts from its fictions (through textual analysis alone) as doubtful. B.W. Henderson's 1923 English language biography of Hadrian focuses on ancient written sources, and largely ignores or overlooks the published archaeological, epigraphic and non-literary evidence used by Weber. References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius Roman History. Greek Text and Translation by Earnest Cary at internet archive Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Augustan History. Latin Text Translated by David Magie Aurelius Victor, Caesares, XIV. Latin "Caesares: text – IntraText CT". Intratext.com. 4 May 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2010. Anon, Excerpta of Aurelius Victor: Epitome de Caesaribus, XIII. Latin "Epitome De Caesaribus: text – IntraText CT". Intratext.com. 4 May 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2010. Inscriptions: Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History (Book IV), "Church History". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 13 March 2010. Smallwood, E.M, Documents Illustrating the Principates of Nerva Trajan and Hadrian, Cambridge, 1966. Secondary sources[edit] Barnes, T. D. (1967). "Hadrian and Lucius Verus". Journal of Roman Studies. 57 (1/2): 65–79. doi:10.2307/299345. JSTOR 299345. Birley, Anthony R. (1997). Hadrian. The restless emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16544-0. Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro (1987). Hadrian and the city of Rome. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691002187. Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro. (2002). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04889-5. Canto, Alicia M. (2004). "Itálica, patria y ciudad natal de Adriano (31 textos históricos y argumentos contra Vita Hadr. 1, 3". Athenaeum. 92 (2): 367–408. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Everitt, Anthony (2009). Hadrian and the Triumph of Rome. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6662-9. Dobson, Brian (2000). Hadrian's Wall. London: Penguin. Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. I, 1776. The Online Library of Liberty "Online Library of Liberty – The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1". Oll.libertyfund.org. Retrieved 13 March 2010. Lambert, Royston (1997). Beloved and God: the story of Hadrian and Antinous. London: Phoenix Giants. ISBN 978-1-85799-944-0. Morwood, James (2013). Hadrian. London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781849668866. Opper, Thorsten (2008). Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674030954. Speller, Elizabeth (2003). Following Hadrian: a second-century journey through the Roman Empire. London: Review. ISBN 978-0-7472-6662-4. Syme, Ronald (1997) [1958]. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814327-7. Syme, Ronald (1964). "Hadrian and Italica". Journal of Roman Studies. LIV (1–2): 142–9. doi:10.2307/298660. JSTOR 298660. Syme, Ronald (1988). "Journeys of Hadrian" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 73: 159–170. Retrieved 12 December 2006. Reprinted in Syme, Ronald (1991). Roman Papers VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 346–357. ISBN 978-0-19-814494-6. Further reading[edit] Danziger, Danny; Purcell, Nicholas (2006). Hadrian's empire : when Rome ruled the world. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-83361-2. Everitt, Anthony (2009). Hadrian and the triumph of Rome. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6662-9. Gray, William Dodge (1919). "A Study of the life of Hadrian Prior to His Accession". Smith College Studies in History. 4: 151–209. Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1898). The Emperor Hadrian: A Picture of the Greco-Roman World in His Time. Mary E. Robinson, trans. London: Macmillan. ISBN 9780790552286. Henderson, Bernard W. (1923). Life and Principate of the Emperor Hadrian. London: Methuen. Ish-Kishor, Sulamith (1935). Magnificent Hadrian: A Biography of Hadrian, Emperor of Rome. New York: Minton, Balch and Co. Perowne, Stewart (1960). Hadrian. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Modena Altieri, Ascanio (2017). Imago roboris: Adriano di Tel Shalem. Rome: L'Intellettuale Dissidente. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus. Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian Hadrian coinage Catholic Encyclopedia article Major scultoric find at Sagalassos (Turkey), 2 August 2007 (between 13 and 16 feet in height, four to five meters), with some splendid photos courtesy of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project Hadrian, in De Imperatoribus Romanis, Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Hadrian Nervan-Antonian dynasty Born: 24 January AD 76 Died: 10 July AD 138 Regnal titles Preceded by Trajan Roman Emperor 117–138 Succeeded by Antoninus Pius Political offices Preceded by Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus, and Marcus Appius Bradua as Ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 108 with Marcus Trebatius Priscus Succeeded by Quintus Pompeius Falco, and Marcus Titius Lustricus Bruttianus as Suffect consuls Preceded by ignotus, and Gnaeus Minicius Faustinus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 118 with Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator Bellicius Tebanianus Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Succeeded by Lucius Pomponius Bassus, and Titus Sabinius Barbarus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Lucius Pomponius Bassus, and Titus Sabinius Barbarus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 119 with Publius Dasumius Rusticus, followed by Aulus Platorius Nepos Succeeded by Marcus Paccius Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus, and Quintus Vibius Gallus as Suffect consuls v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus 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Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1816	----	Constantine XI Palaiologos - Wikipedia Constantine XI Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Last Byzantine emperor, from 1449 to 1453 "Constantine Palaiologos" redirects here. For other uses, see Constantine Palaiologos (disambiguation). "Constantine XI" redirects here. For the earlier emperor sometimes numbered this way, see Constantine Laskaris. For other uses, see Constantine Dragases. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine XI Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of Constantine XI (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453 [n 1] Predecessor John VIII Palaiologos Despot of the Morea Reign 1 May 1428 – March 1449 [n 2] Predecessor Theodore II Palaiologos (alone) Successor Thomas and Demetrios Palaiologos Co-regent Theodore II Palaiologos (1428–1443) Thomas Palaiologos (1428–1449) Born 8 February 1405 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 29 May 1453 (aged 48) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Theodora Tocco ​ ​ (m. 1428; died 1429)​ Caterina Gattilusio ​ ​ (m. 1441; died 1442)​ Names Kōnstantinos Dragasēs Palaiologos Dynasty Palaiologos Father Manuel II Palaiologos Mother Helena Dragaš Religion Catholic/Orthodox Signature Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos or Dragaš Palaeologus (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος, Kōnstantînos Dragásēs Palaiológos; 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453) was the last Byzantine emperor, reigning from 1449 until his death in battle at the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantine's death marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, which traced its origin to Constantine the Great's foundation of Constantinople as the Roman Empire's new capital in 330. Given that the Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire's medieval continuation, with its citizens continually referring to themselves as Romans, Constantine XI's death and Constantinople's fall also marked the definitive end of the Roman Empire, founded by Augustus almost 1,500 years earlier. Constantine was the fourth son of Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of Serbian ruler Konstantin Dejanović. Little is known of his early life, but from the 1420s onward, he is repeatedly demonstrated to have been a skilled general. Based on his career and surviving contemporary sources, Constantine appears to primarily have been a soldier. This does not mean that Constantine was not also a skilled administrator: he was trusted and favored to such an extent by his older brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, that he was designated as regent twice during John VIII's journeys away from Constantinople in 1423–1424 and 1437–1440. In 1427–1428, Constantine and John fended off an attack on the Morea (the Peloponnese) by Carlo I Tocco, ruler of Epirus, and in 1428 Constantine was proclaimed Despot of the Morea and ruled the province together with his older brother Theodore and his younger brother Thomas. Together, they extended Byzantine rule to cover almost the entire Peloponnese for the first time since the Fourth Crusade more than two hundred years before and rebuilt the ancient Hexamilion wall, which defended the peninsula from outside attacks. Although ultimately unsuccessful, Constantine personally led a campaign into Central Greece and Thessaly in 1444–1446, attempting to extend Byzantine rule into Greece once more. In 1448, John VIII died without children, and as his favored successor, Constantine was proclaimed emperor on 6 January 1449. Constantine's brief reign would see the emperor grapple with three primary concerns. First, there was the issue of an heir, as Constantine was also childless. Despite attempts by Constantine's friend and confidant George Sphrantzes to find him a wife, Constantine ultimately died unmarried. The second concern was the religious disunity within what little remained of his empire. Constantine and his predecessor John VIII both believed a union between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches was needed to secure military aid from Catholic Europe, but much of the Byzantine populace opposed the idea. Finally, the most important concern was the growing Ottoman Empire, which by 1449 completely surrounded Constantinople. In April 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II laid siege to Constantinople with an army perhaps numbering as many as 80,000 men. Even though the city's defenders may have numbered less than a tenth of the sultan's army, Constantine considered the idea of abandoning Constantinople unthinkable. The emperor stayed to defend the city and on 29 May, Constantinople fell. Constantine died the same day. Although no reliable eyewitness accounts of his death survived, most historical accounts agree that the emperor led a last charge against the Ottomans and died fighting. Constantine was the last Christian ruler of Constantinople, which alongside his bravery at the city's fall cemented him as a near-legendary figure in later histories and Greek folklore. Some saw the foundation of Constantinople (the New Rome) under Constantine the Great and its loss under another Constantine as fulfillment of the city's destiny, just as Old Rome had been founded by a Romulus and lost under another, Romulus Augustulus. He became known in later Greek folklore as the Marble Emperor (Greek: Μαρμαρωμένος Βασιλιάς, romanized: Marmaromenos Vasilias, lit. 'Emperor/King turned into Marble'), reflecting a popular legend which endured for centuries that Constantine had not actually died, but had been rescued by an angel and turned into marble, hidden beneath the Golden Gate of Constantinople awaiting a call from God to be restored to life and reconquer both the city and the old empire. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Family and background 1.2 Early career 2 Despot of the Morea 2.1 Early rule in the Morea 2.2 Second tenure as regent 2.3 Second marriage and Ottoman threats 2.4 Despot at Mystras 3 Reign as emperor 3.1 Accession to the throne 3.2 Initial concerns 3.3 Search for allies 3.4 Dealings with Mehmed II 3.5 Religious disunity in Constantinople 3.6 Final preparations 4 Fall of Constantinople 4.1 Siege 4.2 Final days and final assault 4.3 Death 5 Legacy 5.1 Historiography 5.2 Legends of Constantine's family 5.3 Lamentations 5.4 The Marble Emperor 5.5 Regnal number 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Cited bibliography 8.2 Cited web sources Early life[edit] Family and background[edit] Miniature from an early 15th-century manuscript depicting Constantine's father Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, his mother Helena Dragaš and his three older brothers John, Theodore and Andronikos Constantine Dragases Palaiologos was born on 8 February 1405[n 3] as the fourth son of Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425), the eighth emperor of the Palaiologos dynasty.[4] Constantine's mother (from whom he took his second last name) was Helena Dragaš, the daughter of Serbian ruler Konstantin Dejanović. Constantine is frequently described as Porphyrogénnētos ("born in the purple"), a distinction granted to sons born to a reigning emperor in the imperial palace.[5] Manuel ruled a disintegrating and dwindling Byzantine Empire.[4] The catalyst of Byzantium's fall had been the arrival of the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia in the 11th century. Though some emperors, such as Alexios I and Manuel I, had successfully recovered portions of Anatolia through help from western crusaders, their gains were only temporary. Anatolia was the empire's most fertile, populated, and wealthy region, and after its loss, Byzantium more or less experienced constant decline. Although most of it was eventually reconquered, the Byzantine Empire was crippled by the 1204 Fourth Crusade and the loss of Constantinople to the Latin Empire, formed by the crusaders. The Byzantine Empire, under the founder of the Palaiologos dynasty, Michael VIII, retook Constantinople in 1261, though the damage to the empire was irreversible and the empire continued to decline over the course of the 14th century as the result of frequent civil wars.[6] Over the course of the 14th century, the Ottoman Turks had conquered vast swaths of territories and by 1405, they ruled much of Anatolia, Bulgaria, central Greece, Macedonia, Serbia and Thessaly. The Byzantine Empire, once extending throughout the eastern Mediterranean, was reduced to the imperial capital of Constantinople, the Peloponnese, and a handful of islands in the Aegean Sea, and was also forced to pay tribute to the Ottomans.[4] As the empire dwindled, the emperors concluded that the only way to ensure that their remaining territory was kept intact was to grant some of their holdings to their sons, who received the title of despot, as appanages to defend and govern. Manuel's oldest son, John, was raised to co-emperor and designated to succeed his father. The second son, Theodore, was designated as the Despot of the Morea (the prosperous province constituting the Peloponnese) and the third son, Andronikos, was proclaimed as Despot of Thessaloniki in 1408. The younger sons; Constantine, Demetrios and Thomas, were kept in Constantinople as there was not sufficient land left to grant them.[7] Little is known of Constantine's early life. From an early age, he was admired by George Sphrantzes (later a famed Byzantine historian), who would later enter his service, and later encomiasts often wrote that Constantine had always been courageous, adventurous, and skilled in martial arts, horsemanship, and hunting.[5] Many accounts of Constantine's life, both before and after he became emperor, are heavily skewed and eulogize his reign, as most of them lack contemporary sources and were composed after his death.[8] Based on his actions and the surviving commentary from some of his advisors and contemporaries, Constantine appeared to have been more comfortable with military matters than with matters of state or diplomacy, though he was also a competent administrator—as illustrated by his tenures as regent—and tended to heed his councilors' advice on important matters of state.[9] Aside from stylized and smudged depictions on seals and coins, no contemporary depictions of Constantine survive.[10] Notable images of Constantine include a seal currently located in Vienna (of unknown provenance, probably from an imperial chrysobull), a few coins, and his portrait among the other Byzantine emperors in the Biblioteca Estense copy of the history of Zonaras. In the latter he is shown with a rounded beard, in noted contrast to his forked-bearded relatives, but it is unclear whether that reflects his actual appearance.[11] Early career[edit] 1422 map of Constantinople by catographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti, the oldest surviving map of the city After an unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1422, Manuel II suffered a stroke and was left paralyzed in one side of his body. He lived for another three years, but the empire's government was effectively in the hands of Constantine's brother John. Thessaloniki was also under siege by the Ottomans; to prevent it from falling into their hands, John gave the city to the Republic of Venice. As Manuel II had once hoped years ago, John hoped to rally support from Western Europe, and he left Constantinople in November 1423 to travel to Venice and Hungary.[12] By this time, Manuel had abandoned his hope of western aid and had even attempted to dissuade John from pursuing it. Manuel believed that an eventual church union, which would become John's goal, would only antagonize the Turks and the empire's populace, which could have started a civil war.[13] John was impressed by his brother's actions during the 1422 Ottoman siege,[3] and trusted him more than his other brothers. Constantine was given the title of despot and was left to rule Constantinople as regent. With the aid of his bedridden father Manuel, Constantine drew up a new peace treaty with the Ottoman sultan Murad II, who momentarily spared Constantinople from further Turkish attacks. John returned from his journey in November 1424 after failing to procure help. On 21 July 1425, Manuel died and John became the senior emperor, John VIII Palaiologos. Constantine was granted a strip of land to the north of Constantinople that extended from the town of Mesembria in the north to Derkos in the south. It also included the port of Selymbria as his appanage in 1425.[12] Although this strip of land was small, it was close to Constantinople and strategically important, which demonstrated that Constantine was trusted by both Manuel II and John.[9] After Constantine's successful tenure as regent, John deemed his brother loyal and capable. Because their brother Theodore expressed his discontent over his position as Despot of the Morea to John during the latter's visit in 1423, John soon recalled Constantine from Mesembria and designated him as Theodore's successor. Theodore eventually changed his mind, but John would eventually assign Constantine to the Morea as a despot in 1427 after a campaign there. Though Theodore was content to rule in the Morea, historian Donald Nicol believes that the support was helpful, as the peninsula was repeatedly threatened by external forces throughout the 1420s. In 1423, the Ottomans broke through the ancient Hexamilion wall—which guarded the Peloponnese—and devastated the Morea. The Morea was also constantly threatened by Carlo I Tocco, the Italian ruler of Epirus, who campaigned against Theodore shortly before the Ottoman invasion and again in 1426, occupying territory in the northwestern parts of the Morea.[14] In 1427, John VIII personally set out to deal with Tocco, bringing Constantine and Sphrantzes with him. On 26 December 1427, the two brothers reached Mystras, the capital of the Morea, and made their way to the town of Glarentza, which was captured by the Epirotes. In the Battle of the Echinades, a naval skirmish off the coast of Glarentza, Tocco was defeated and he agreed to relinquish his conquests in the Morea. In order to seal the peace, Tocco offered his niece, Maddalena Tocco (whose name was later changed to the Greek Theodora), in marriage to Constantine, her dowry being Glarentza and the other Moreot territories. Glarentza was given to the Byzantines on 1 May 1428 and on 1 July, Constantine married Theodora.[15][16] Despot of the Morea[edit] Early rule in the Morea[edit] Map of the Peloponnese in the Middle Ages The transfer of Tocco's conquered Moreot territories to Constantine complicated the Morea's government structure. Since his brother Theodore refused to step down as despot, the despotate became governed by two members of the imperial family for the first time since its creation in 1349. Soon thereafter, the younger Thomas (aged 19) was also appointed as a third Despot of the Morea, which meant that the nominally undivided despotate had effectively disintegrated into three smaller principalities. Theodore did not share control over Mystras with Constantine or Thomas; instead, Theodore granted Constantine lands throughout the Morea, including the northern harbor town of Aigio, fortresses and towns in Laconia (in the south), and Kalamata and Messenia in the west. Constantine made Glarentza, which he was entitled to by marriage, his capital. Meanwhile, Thomas was given lands in the north and based himself in the castle of Kalavryta.[17] During his tenure as despot, Constantine was brave and energetic, but generally cautious.[1] Shortly after being appointed as despots, Constantine and Thomas, together with Theodore, joined forces in an attempt to seize the flourishing and strategically-important port of Patras in the northwest of the Morea, which was ruled by its Catholic Archbishop, Pandolfo Malatesta (Theodore's brother-in-law). The campaign ended in failure, possibly due to Theodore's reluctant participation and Thomas' inexperience. Constantine confided with Sphrantzes and John at a secret meeting in Mystras that he would make a second attempt to retake Patras by himself; if he failed, he would return to his old appanage by the Black Sea. Constantine and Sphrantzes, confident that the city's many Greek inhabitants would support their takeover, marched towards Patras on 1 March 1429, and they besieged the city on 20 March. The siege developed into a long and drawn-out engagement, with occasional skirmishes. At one point, Constantine's horse was shot and killed under him and the despot nearly died, being saved by Sphrantzes at the cost of Sphrantzes being captured by the defenders of Patras (though he would be released, albeit in a state of near-death, on 23 April). After almost two months, the defenders opened up to the possibility of negotiation in May. Malatesta journeyed to Italy in an attempt to recruit reinforcements and the defenders agreed that if he did not return to them by the end of the month, Patras would surrender. Constantine agreed to this and withdrew his army. On 1 June, Constantine returned to the city and, since the Archbishop had not returned, met with the city's leaders in the city's Cathedral of St. Andrew on 4 June and they accepted him as their new lord. The Archbishop's castle, located on a nearby hill, fought against Constantine for another 12 months before surrendering.[18] Ruins of the castle at Patras, captured by Constantine in 1430 Constantine's capture of Patras was seen as an affront by the Pope, the Venetians, and the Ottomans. In order to pacify any threats, Constantine sent ambassadors to all three, with Sphrantzes being sent to talk with Turahan, the Ottoman governor of Thessaly. Although Sphrantzes was successful in removing the threat of Turkish reprisal, the threat from the west was realized as the dispossessed Archbishop arrived at the head of a mercenary army of Catalans. Unfortunately for Malatesta, the Catalans had little interest in helping him recover Patras, and they attacked and seized Glarentza instead, which Constantine had to buy back from them for 6,000 Venetian ducats, and began plundering the Moreot coastline. To prevent Glarentza from being seized by pirates, Constantine eventually ordered it to be destroyed.[19] During this perilous time, Constantine suffered another loss: Theodora died in November 1429. The grief-stricken Constantine first had her buried at Glarentza, but then moved to Mystras.[20] Once the Archbishop's castle surrendered to Constantine in July 1430, the city was fully restored to Byzantine rule after 225 years of foreign occupation. In November, Sphrantzes was rewarded by being proclaimed as the city's governor.[19] By the early 1430s, the efforts of Constantine and his younger brother Thomas had ensured that nearly all of the Peloponnese was under Byzantine rule again since the Fourth Crusade. Thomas ended the Principality of Achaea by marrying Catherine Zaccaria, daughter and heir of the final prince, Centurione II Zaccaria. When Centurione died in 1432, Thomas took control of all his remaining territories by right of marriage. The only lands in the Peloponnese remaining under foreign rule were the few port towns and cities still held by the Republic of Venice. Sultan Murad II felt uneasy about the recent string of Byzantine successes in the Morea. In 1431, Turahan sent his troops south on Murad's orders to demolish the Hexamilion wall in an effort to remind the despots that they were the Sultan's vassals.[21] Second tenure as regent[edit] Map of Byzantine Constantinople In March 1432, Constantine, possibly desiring to be closer to Mystras, made a new territorial agreement (presumably approved by Theodore and John VIII) with Thomas. Thomas agreed to cede his fortress Kalavryta to Constantine, who made it his new capital, in exchange for Elis, which Thomas made his new capital.[22] Relationships between the three despots eventually soured. John VIII had no sons to succeed him and it was thus assumed that his successor would be one of his four surviving brothers (Andronikos having died some time before). John VIII's preferred successor was known to be Constantine and though this choice was accepted by Thomas, who had a good relationship with his older brother, it was resented by Constantine's older brother Theodore. When Constantine was summoned to the capital in 1435, Theodore falsely believed it was to appoint Constantine as co-emperor and designated heir, and he travelled to Constantinople to raise his objections. The quarrel between Constantine and Theodore was not resolved until the end of 1436, when the future Patriarch Gregory Mammas was sent to reconcile them and prevent civil war. The brothers agreed that Constantine was to return to Constantinople, while Theodore and Thomas would remain in the Morea. John needed Constantine in Constantinople as he was departing for Italy soon. On 24 September 1437, Constantine reached Constantinople. Although he was not proclaimed as co-emperor,[20] his appointment as regent for a second time, suggested to John by their mother Helena,[16] indicated that he was to be regarded as John's intended heir,[20] much to the dismay of his other brothers.[16] Contemporary sketches by Pisanello of the Byzantine delegation at the Council of Florence. The figure mounted on the horse is Constantine's brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos. John left for Italy in November to attend the Council of Ferrara in an effort to unite the Eastern and Western churches. Although many in the Byzantine Empire opposed a union of the Churches, as it would mean religious submission under the Papacy, John viewed a union as necessary. The papacy did not view the situation of the Christians in the East as something positive, but it would not call for any aid to the disintegrating empire if it did not acknowledge obedience to the Catholic Church and renounce what Catholics perceived as errors. John brought a large delegation to Italy, including Joseph II, the Patriarch of Constantinople; representatives of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem; large numbers of bishops, monks, and priests; and his younger brother Demetrios. Demetrios showed opposition against a church union, but John decided not to leave him in the East since Demetrios had shown rebellious tendencies and was thought to try to take the throne with Ottoman support. Constantine was not left without supporting courtiers in Constantinople: Constantine's and John's cousin Demetrios Palaiologos Kantakouzenos and the experienced statesman Loukas Notaras were left in the city. Helena and Sphrantzes were also there to advise Constantine.[23] In 1438, Constantine served as the best man at Sphrantzes' wedding,[23] and would later become the godfather to two of Sphrantzes' children.[24] During John's absence from Constantinople, the Ottomans abided by the previously established peace. Trouble appeared to have brewed only once: in early 1439, Constantine wrote to his brother in Italy to remind the Pope that the Byzantines had been promised two warships by the end of spring. Constantine hoped that the ships would leave Italy within fifteen days, as he believed that Murad II was planning a strong offensive against Constantinople. Although the ships were not sent, Constantinople was not in danger as Murad's campaign focused on taking Smederevo in Serbia.[25] In June 1439, the council in Florence, Italy, declared that the churches had been reunited. John returned to Constantinople on 1 February 1440. Although he was received with a grand ceremony organized by Constantine and Demetrios (who had returned sometime earlier), the news of the unification stirred a wave of resentment and bitterness among the general populace,[26] who felt that John had betrayed their faith and their world view.[27] Many feared the union would arouse suspicion among the Ottomans.[26] Constantine's agreed with his brother's views on the union: if a sacrifice of the independence of their church resulted in the Westerners organizing a crusade and saving Constantinople, it would not have been in vain.[26] Second marriage and Ottoman threats[edit] Despite having been relieved of his duties as regent upon John's return, Constantine stayed in the capital for the rest of 1440. He may have stayed in order to find a suitable wife, wishing to remarry since it had been more than ten years since Theodora's death. He decided on Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of Dorino I Gattilusio, the Genoese lord of the island Lesbos. Sphrantzes was sent to Lesbos in December 1440 to propose and arrange the marriage. In late 1441, Constantine sailed to Lesbos with Sphrantzes and Loukas Notaras, and in August he married Caterina. In September, he left Lesbos, leaving Caterina with her father on Lesbos, to travel to the Morea.[28] Upon his return to the Morea, Constantine observed that Theodore and Thomas had ruled well without him. He believed that he could serve the empire's needs better if he was closer to the capital. His younger brother Demetrios governed Constantine's former appanage around Mesembria in Thrace, and Constantine pondered the possibility that he and Demetrios could switch places, with Constantine regaining the Black Sea appanage and Demetrios being granted Constantine's holdings in the Morea. Constantine sent Sphrantzes to propose the idea to both Demetrios and Murad II, who by this point had to be consulted about any appointments.[29] By 1442, Demetrios had no desire for new appointments and was eyeing the imperial throne. He had just made a deal with Murad himself and raised an army, portraying himself as the champion of the Turk-supported cause that opposed the union of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and declared war on John. When Sphrantzes reached Demetrios to forward Constantine's offer, Demetrios was already preparing to march on Constantinople. The danger he posed to the city was so great that Constantine was summoned from the Morea by John to oversee the city's defenses. In April 1442, Demetrios and the Ottomans began their attack and in July, Constantine left the Morea to relieve his brother in the capital. On the way, Constantine met his wife at Lesbos and together they sailed to Lemnos, where they were stopped by an Ottoman blockade and were trapped for months. Although Venice sent ships to assist them, Caterina fell ill and died in August; she was buried at Myrina on Lemnos. Constantine did not reach Constantinople until November and by then, the Ottoman attack had already been repelled.[30] Demetrios' punishment was a brief imprisonment.[31] In March 1443, Sphrantzes was made governor of Selymbria in Constantine's name. From Selymbria, Sphrantzes and Constantine were able to keep a watchful eye on Demetrios' activities. In November, Constantine relinquished control of Selymbria to Theodore, who had abandoned his position as Despot of the Morea, which made Constantine and Thomas the sole Despots of the Morea and gave Constantine Mystras, the despotate's prosperous capital.[32] Despot at Mystras[edit] The Despot's Palace in Mystras, from which Constantine ruled as Despot of the Morea 1443–1449 With Theodore and Demetrios gone, Constantine and Thomas hoped to strengthen the Morea. By this time, the Morea was the cultural center of the Byzantine world and provided a more hopeful atmosphere than Constantinople. Patrons of art and science had settled there at Theodore's invitation and churches, monasteries, and mansions continued to be built. The two Palaiologos brothers hoped to make the Morea into a safe and nearly self-sufficient principality. The philosopher Gemistus Pletho, employed in Constantine's service, said that while Constantinople had once been the New Rome, Mystras and the Morea could become the "New Sparta", a centralized and strong Hellenic kingdom in its own right.[33] One of the projects of the brothers' plan to strengthen the despotate was the reconstruction of the Hexamilion wall, which was destroyed by the Turks in 1431. Together, they completely restored the wall by March 1444. The project impressed many of their subjects and contemporaries, including the Venetian lords in the Peloponnese, who had politely declined to help with its funding. The restoration had cost much in both money and manpower; many of the Moreot landowners had momentarily fled to Venetian lands to avoid financing the venture while others had rebelled before being compelled through military means.[34] Constantine attempted to attract the loyalty of the Moreot landowners by granting them both further lands and various privileges. He also staged local athletic games, where young Moreots could run races for prizes.[35] The Crusade of Varna, sent to aid the Byzantines against the Ottomans, was crushed by Sultan Murad II at the Battle of Varna (pictured) in 1444 In the summer of 1444, perhaps encouraged by news from the west that a crusade had set out from Hungary in 1443, Constantine invaded the Latin Duchy of Athens, his direct northern neighbor and an Ottoman vassal. Through Sphrantzes, Constantine was in contact with Cardinal Julian Cesarini, who along with Władysław III of Poland and Hungary was one of the leaders of the crusade. Cesarini was made aware of Constantine's intentions and that he was ready to aid the crusade in striking at the Ottomans from the south. Constantine swiftly captured Athens and Thebes, which forced Duke Nerio II Acciaioli to pay the tribute to him instead of the Ottomans. The recapture of Athens was seen as a particularly glorious feat. One of Constantine's counsellors compared the despot to the legendary ancient Athenian general Themistocles. Although the crusading army was destroyed by the Ottoman army led by Murad II at the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444, Constantine was not deterred. His initial campaign had been remarkably successful and he had also received foreign support from Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy, who had sent him 300 soldiers. With the Burgundian soldiers and his own men, Constantine raided central Greece as far north as the Pindus mountains in Thessaly, where the locals happily welcomed him as their new lord. As Constantine's campaign progressed, one of his governors, Constantine Kantakouzenos, also made his way north, attacked Thessaly, and seized the town of Lidoriki from the Ottomans. The townspeople were so excited at their liberation that they renamed the town to Kantakouzinopolis in his honor.[36] Tiring of Constantine's successes, Murad II, accompanied by Duke Nerio II of Athens, marched on the Morea in 1446, with an army possibly numbering as many as 60,000 men.[37] Despite the overwhelming number of Ottoman troops, Constantine refused to surrender his gains in Greece and instead prepared for battle.[38] The Ottomans quickly restored control over Thessaly; Constantine and Thomas rallied at the Hexamilion wall, which the Ottomans reached on 27 November.[37] Constantine and Thomas were determined to hold the wall and had brought all their available forces, amounting to perhaps as many as 20,000 men, to defend it.[39] Although the wall might have held against the great Ottoman army under normal circumstances, Murad had brought cannons with him and by 10 December, the wall had been reduced to rubble and most of the defenders were either killed or captured; Constantine and Thomas barely escaped the catastrophic defeat. Turahan was sent south to take Mystras and devastate Constantine's lands while Murad II led his forces in the north of the Peloponnese. Although Turahan failed to take Mystras, this was of little consequence as Murad only wanted to instill terror and did not wish to conquer the Morea at the time. The Turks left the peninsula devastated and depopulated. Constantine and Thomas were in no position to ask for a truce and were forced to accept Murad as their lord, pay him tribute, and promise to never again restore the Hexamilion wall.[40] Reign as emperor[edit] Accession to the throne[edit] Marble relief of a double-headed eagle in the Church of St. Demetrios in Mystras, marking the spot where Constantine XI was supposedly crowned Theodore, once Despot of the Morea, died in June 1448 and on 31 October that same year, John VIII Palaiologos died in Constantinople.[41] Compared to his other living brothers, Constantine was the most popular of the Palaiologoi, both in the Morea and in the capital.[42] It was well known that John's favored successor was Constantine and ultimately, the will of Helena Dragaš (who also preferred Constantine), prevailed in the matter. Both Thomas, who appeared to have had no intention of claiming the throne, and Demetrios, who most certainly did, hurried to Constantinople and reached the capital before Constantine left the Morea. Although many favored Demetrios for his anti-unionist sentiment, Helena reserved her right to act as regent until her eldest son, Constantine arrived, and stalled Demetrios' attempt at seizing the throne. Thomas accepted Constantine's appointment and Demetrios was overruled, though he later proclaimed Constantine as his new emperor.[41] Soon thereafter, Sphrantzes informed Sultan Murad II,[41] who also accepted the appointment on 6 December 1448.[43] With the issue of succession peacefully resolved, Helena sent two envoys, Manuel Palaiologos Iagros and Alexios Philanthropenos Laskaris, to the Morea to proclaim Constantine as emperor and bring him to the capital. Thomas also accompanied them.[41] In a small civil ceremony at Mystras, possibly in one of the churches or in the Despot's Palace, on 6 January 1449, Constantine was given the title of "Basileus" of the Romans. He was not given a crown; instead, Constantine put on a smaller form of imperial headgear, a pilon, on his head with his own hands. Although emperors were traditionally crowned in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, there was historical precedent for smaller and local ceremonies: centuries ago, Manuel I Komnenos had been given the title of emperor by his dying father, John II Komnenos, in Cilicia; Constantine's great-grandfather, John VI Kantakouzenos, had been proclaimed emperor at Didymoteicho in Thrace. Both Manuel I and John VI had been careful to perform the traditional coronation ceremony in Constantinople once they reached the capital. In Constantine's case, no such ceremony was ever performed. Both Constantine and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregory III Mammas, were supporters of the Union of the Churches: a ceremony in which Gregory crowned Constantine emperor might have led the anti-unionists in the capital to rebel. Constantine's rise to emperor was controversial: although he was accepted on account of his lineage with few alternative candidates, his lack of a full coronation and support for the Union of the Churches damaged public perception of the new emperor.[44] Careful not to anger the anti-unionists through being crowned by Gregory III, Constantine believed that his proclamation at Mystras had sufficed as an imperial coronation and had given him all the constitutional rights of the one true emperor. In his earliest known imperial document, a chrysobull from February 1439, he refers to himself as "Constantine Palaiologos in Christ true Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". Constantine arrived at Constantinople on 12 March 1449, having been provided means of travel by a Catalan ship.[45] Constantine was well prepared for his accession to the throne after serving as regent twice and ruling numerous fiefs throughout the crumbling empire.[9] By Constantine's time, Constantinople was a shadow of its former glory; the city never truly recovered from the 1204 sack by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade. Instead of the grand imperial capital it once was, 15th century Constantinople was an almost rural network of population centers, with many of the city's churches and palaces, including the former imperial palace, abandoned and in disrepair. Instead of the former imperial palace, the Palaiologoi emperors used the Palace of Blachernae, located considerably closer to the city's walls, as their main residence. The city's population had declined significantly due to the Latin occupation, the 14th century civil wars, and outbreaks of the Black Death in 1347, 1409 and 1410. By the time Constantine became emperor, only about 50,000 people lived in the city.[46] Initial concerns[edit] 1/8 stavraton, minted 1448–1453. One of the last coins minted by the Byzantine Empire, the coin features a bust of Constantine XI (left) and Christ Pantocrator (right). One of Constantine's most pressing concerns was the Ottomans. One of his first acts as emperor, just two weeks after arriving in the capital, was to attempt to secure the empire by arranging a truce with Murad II. He sent an ambassador, Andronikos Iagaris, to the sultan. Iagaris was successful, and the agreed-upon truce also included Constantine's brothers in the Morea to secure the province from further Ottoman attacks.[47] In order to remove his rebellious brother Demetrios from the capital and its vicinity, Constantine had made Demetrios his replacement as Despot of the Morea to rule the despotate alongside Thomas. Demetrios was granted the Constantine's former capital, Mystras, and authority over the southern and eastern parts of the despotate, while Thomas ruled Corinthia and the northwest, alternating between Patras and Leontari as his place of residence.[2] Constantine XI's seal as emperor Constantine tried to hold numerous discussions with the anti-unionists in the capital, who had organized themselves as a synaxis to oppose Patriarch Gregory III's authority, on account of him being a unionist. Constantine was not a fanatical unionist and merely viewed the Union of the Churches as necessary for the empire's survival. The unionists found this argument to be baseless and materialistic, believing that help would be more likely to come through trust in God than a western crusading campaign.[48] Another pressing concern was the continuation of the imperial family as neither Constantine nor his brothers had male children at the time. In February 1449, Constantine had sent Manuel Dishypatos as an envoy to Italy to speak with Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples in order to secure military aid against the Ottomans and forge a marriage alliance. The intended match was the daughter of Alfonso's nephew, Beatrice of Coimbra, but the alliance failed. In October 1449, Constantine sent Sphrantzes to the east to visit the Empire of Trebizond and the Kingdom of Georgia and see if there were any suitable brides there. Sphrantzes, accompanied by a large retinue of priests, nobles, musicians and soldiers, left the capital for nearly two years.[49] While at the court of Emperor John IV Megas Komnenos in Trebizond, Sphrantzes was made aware that Murad II had passed away. Though John IV saw this as positive news, Sphrantzes was more anxious: the old sultan had grown tired and had given up all hope of conquering Constantinople. His young son and successor, Mehmed II, was ambitious, young and energetic. Sphrantzes had the idea that the sultan could be dissuaded from invading Constantinople if Constantine married Murad II's widow, Mara Branković. Constantine supported the idea when he received Sphrantzes' report in May 1451 and sent envoys to Serbia, where Mara had returned to after Murad II's death.[50] Many of Constantine's courtiers opposed the idea due to a distrust of the Serbians, causing Constantine to question the viability of the match.[51] Ultimately, the opposition of the courtiers to the marriage proved pointless: Mara had no wish to remarry, as she vowed to live a life of celibacy and chastity for the rest of her life once released from the Ottomans. Sphrantzes then decided that a Georgian bride would suit the emperor best and returned to Constantinople in September 1451, bringing a Georgian ambassador with him. Constantine thanked Sphrantzes for his efforts and they agreed that Sphrantzes was to return to Georgia in the spring of 1452 and forge a marriage alliance. Due to mounting tensions with the Ottomans, Sphrantzes ultimately did not return to Georgia.[50] On 23 March 1450, Helena Dragaš passed away. She was highly respected among the Byzantines and was mourned deeply. Gemistus Pletho, the Moreot philosopher previously at Constantine's court in the Morea, and Gennadios Scholarios, future Patriarch of Constantinople, both wrote funeral orations praising her. Pletho praised Helena's fortitude and intellect, and compared her to legendary Greek heroine Penelope on account of her prudence. Constantine's other advisors were often at odds with the emperor and each other.[52] Her death left Constantine unsure of which advisor to rely on the most.[53] Andronikos Palaiologos Kantakouzenos, the megas domestikos (or commander-in-chief), disagreed with the emperor on a number of matters, including the decision to marry a Georgian princess instead of an imperial princess from Trebizond. The most powerful figure at the court was Loukas Notaras, an experienced statesman and megas doux (commander-in-chief of the navy). Although Sphrantzes disliked Notaras,[52] he was a close friend of Constantine. As the Byzantine Empire no longer had a navy, Notaras' position was more of an informal prime minister-type role than a position of military command. Notaras believed that Constantinople's massive defenses would stall any attack on the city and allow western Christians to aid them in time. Due to his influence and friendship with the emperor, Constantine was likely influenced by his hopes and ideas.[54] Sphrantzes was promoted to "First Lord of the Imperial Wardrobe": his office gave him near unhindered access to the imperial residence and a position to influence the emperor. Sphrantzes was even more cautious towards the Ottomans than Notaras, and believed the megas doux risked antagonizing the new sultan. Although Sphrantzes also approved of appealing to the west for aid, he believed that any appeals had to be highly discreet in order to avoid Ottoman attention.[55] Search for allies[edit] Political map of the eastern Mediterranean in 1450 Shortly after Murad II's death, Constantine was quick to send envoys to the new sultan Mehmed II in an attempt to arrange a new truce. Mehmed supposedly received Constantine's envoys with great respect and put their minds to rest through swearing by Allah, the Prophet Muhammad, the Quran, and the angels and archangels that he would live in peace with the Byzantines and their emperor for the rest of his life. Constantine was unconvinced and suspected that Mehmed's mood could abruptly change in the future. In order to prepare for the future possibility of Ottoman attack, Constantine needed to secure alliances and the most powerful realms that might be inclined to aid him were in the West.[56] The nearest and most concerned potential ally was Venice, which operated a large commercial colony in their quarter of Constantinople. However, the Venetians were not to be trusted. During the first few months of his rule as emperor, Constantine had raised the taxes on the goods the Venetians imported to Constantinople since the imperial treasury was nearly empty and funds had to be raised through some means. In August 1450, the Venetians had threatened to transfer their trade to another port, perhaps one under Ottoman control, and despite Constantine writing to the Doge of Venice, Francesco Foscari, in October 1450, the Venetians were unconvinced and signed a formal treaty with Mehmed II in 1451. To annoy the Venetians, Constantine attempted to seal a deal with the Republic of Ragusa in 1451, offering them a place to trade in Constantinople with limited tax concessions, though the Ragusans could offer little military aid to the empire.[57] Most of the kingdoms in Western Europe were occupied with their own wars at the time and the crushing defeat at the Battle of Varna had quelled most of the crusading spirit. The news that Murad II had died and been succeeded by his young son also lulled the western Europeans into a false sense of security. To the papacy, the Union of the Churches was a far more pressing concern than the threat of Ottoman attack. In August 1451, Constantine's ambassador Andronikos Bryennios Leontaris arrived in Rome to deliver a letter to Pope Nicholas V, which contained a statement from the anti-unionist synaxis at Constantinople. Constantine hoped that the Pope would read the letter and understand Constantine's difficulties with making the Union of the Churches a reality in the east. The letter contained the synaxis's proposal that a new council be held at Constantinople, with an equal number of representatives from both churches (since the Orthodox had been heavily outnumbered at the previous council). On 27 September, Nicholas V replied to Constantine after he heard that the unionist Patriarch Gregory III had resigned following the opposition against him. Nicholas V merely wrote that Constantine had to try harder to convince his people and clergy and that the price of further military aid from the west was full acceptance of the union achieved at Florence; the name of the Pope had to be commemorated in the churches in Greece and Gregory III had to be reinstated as patriarch. The ultimatum was a setback for Constantine, who had done his best to enforce the union without inciting riots in Constantinople. The Pope appeared to have completely ignored the sentiment of the anti-unionist synaxis. Nicholas V sent a papal legate, Cardinal Isidore of Kiev, to Constantinople to attempt to help Constantine enforce the union, but Isidore did not arrive until October 1452, when the city faced more pressing concerns.[58] Dealings with Mehmed II[edit] Portrait of Sultan Mehmed II by Gentile Bellini (1480) A great-grandson of Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I, Orhan Çelebi, lived as a hostage in Constantinople. Other than Mehmed II, Orhan was the only known living male member of the Ottoman dynasty, and thus was a potential rival claimant to the sultanate. Mehmed had previously agreed to pay annually for Orhan being kept at Constantinople, but in 1451, Constantine sent a message to the sultan complaining that the payment was not sufficient and hinted that unless more money was paid, Orhan might be released, possibly sparking an Ottoman civil war. The strategy of attempting to use hostage Ottoman princes had been used before by Constantine's father Manuel II, but it was a risky one. Mehmed's grand vizier, Çandarlı Halil Pasha, received the message at Bursa and was appalled at the threat, considering the Byzantine to be inept.[59] Halil had long been relied upon by the Byzantines, through bribes and friendship, to maintain peaceful relations with the Ottomans, but his influence over Mehmed was limited and he was ultimately loyal to the Ottomans, not the Byzantines.[60] Because of the blatant provocation to the sultan, he lost his temper with the Byzantine messengers,[59][61] supposedly shouting: You stupid Greeks, I have had enough of your devious ways. The late sultan was a lenient and conscientous friend to you. The present sultan is not of the same mind. If Constantine eludes his bold and impetuous grasp, it will only be because God continues to overlook your cunning and wicked schemes. You are fools to think you can frighten us with your fantasies, and that when the ink on our recent treaty is barely dry. We are not children without strength or reason. If you think you can start something, then do so. If you want to proclaim Orhan as Sultan in Thrace, go ahead. If you want to bring the Hungarians across the Danube, let them come. If you want to recover the places which you lost long since, try it. But know this: you will make no headway in any of these things. All that you will achieve is to lose what little you still have.[62] Constantine and his advisors had catastrophically misjudged the determination of the new sultan.[63] Throughout his brief reign, Constantine and his advisors had been unable to form an effective foreign policy towards the Ottoman Empire. Constantine mainly continued the policy of his predecessors, doing what he could to brace Constantinople for attack, but also alternated between supplicating and confronting the Ottomans. Constantine's advisors had little knowledge and expertise on the Ottoman court and disagreed in how to deal with the Ottoman threat and as Constantine wavered between the opinions of his different councilors, his policy towards Murad and Mehmed was not coherent and resulted in disaster.[64] Mehmed II considered Constantine to have broken the terms of their 1449 truce and quickly revoked the small concessions he had given to the Byzantines. The threat of releasing Orhan gave Mehmed a pretext for concentrating all of his efforts on seizing Constantinople, his true goal since he had become sultan.[65] Mehmed believed that the conquest of Constantinople was essential to the survival of the Ottoman state: by taking the city, he would prevent any potential crusade from using it as a base and prevent it falling into the hands of a rival more dangerous than the Byzantines.[66] Furthermore, Mehmed had an intense interest in ancient Greco-Roman and medieval Byzantine history, his childhood heroes being figures like Achilles and Alexander the Great.[67] The Rumelihisarı castle, seen from the Bosphorus strait Mehmed began preparations immediately. In the spring of 1452, work had begun on the Rumelihisarı castle, constructed on the western side of the Bosporus strait, opposite to the already existing Anadoluhisarı castle on the eastern side. With the two castles, Mehmed could control sea traffic in the Bosporus and could blockade Constantinople both by land and sea. Constantine, horrified by the implications of the construction project, protested that Mehmed's grandfather Mehmed I had respectfully asked the permission of Emperor Manuel II before constructing the eastern castle and reminded the sultan of their existing truce.[65] Based on his actions in the Morea, especially during at the time of the Crusade of Varna, Constantine was clearly anti-Turkish and he preferred himself to take aggressive action against the Ottoman Empire; his attempts to appeal to Mehmed were simply a stalling tactic.[68] Mehmed's response to Constantine was that the area he built the fortress on had been uninhabited and that Constantine owned nothing outside of Constantinople's walls.[69] As panic ensued in Constantinople, the Rumelihisarı was completed in August 1452, intended not only to serve as a means to blockade Constantinople but also as the base from which Mehmed's conquest of Constantinople was to be directed. To clear the site of the new castle, some local churches were demolished, which angered the local Greek populace. Mehmed had them massacred. The Ottomans had sent some animals to graze on Byzantine farmland on the shores of the Sea of Marmara, which also angered the locals. When the Greek farmers protested, Mehmed sent his troops to attack them, killing about forty. Outraged, Constantine formally declared war on Mehmed II, closing the gates of Constantinople and arresting all Turks within the city walls. Seeing the futility in this move, Constantine renounced his actions three days later and set the prisoners free.[65] After the capture of several Italian ships and the execution of their crews during Mehmed's eventual siege of Constantinople, Constantine reluctantly ordered the execution of all Turks within the city walls.[70] Constantine began to prepare for what was at best a blockade, and at worst a siege, gathering provisions and working to repair Constantinople's walls.[71] Manuel Palaiologos Iagros, one of the envoys who had invested Constantine as emperor in 1449, was put in charge of the restoration of the formidable walls, a project which was completed late in 1452.[72] He sent more urgent requests for aid to the west. Near the end of 1451, he had sent a message to Venice stating that unless they sent reinforcements to him at once, Constantinople would fall to the Ottomans. Although the Venetians were sympathetic to the Byzantine cause, they explained in their reply in February 1452 that although they could ship armor and gunpowder to him, they had no troops to spare as they were fighting against neighboring city-states in Italy at the time. When the Ottomans sank a Venetian trading ship in the Bosporus in November 1452 and executed the ship's survivors on account of the ship refusing to pay a new toll instituted by Mehmed, the Venetian attitude changed as they now also found themselves at war with the Ottomans. Desperate for aid, Constantine sent pleas for reinforcements to his brothers in the Morea and Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples, promising the latter the island of Lemnos if he brought help. The Hungarian warrior John Hunyadi was invited to help and was promised Selymbria or Mesembria if he came with aid. The Genoese on the island Chios were also sent a plea, being promised payment in return for military assistance. Constantine received little practical response to his pleas.[71] Religious disunity in Constantinople[edit] Cardinal Isidore of Kiev, sent as a papal legate to Constantinople in October 1452 Above all, Constantine sent many appeals for aid to Pope Nicholas V. Although sympathetic, Nicholas V believed that the papacy could not go to the rescue of the Byzantines unless they fully accepted the Union of the Churches and his spiritual authority. Furthermore, he knew that the papacy alone could not do much against the formidable Ottoman Turks, a similar response to one given by Venice, which promised military assistance only if others in Western Europe also came to Constantinople's defense. On 26 October 1452, Nicholas V's legate, Isidore of Kiev, arrived at Constantinople together with the Latin Archbishop of Mytilene, Leonard of Chios. With them, they brought a small force of 200 Neapolitan archers. Though they made little difference in coming battle, the reinforcements were probably more appreciated by Constantinople's citizens than the actual purpose of Isidore's and Leonard's visit: cementing the Union of the Churches. Their arrival in the city spurred the anti-unionists into a frenzy. On 13 September 1452, a month before Isidore and Leonard arrived, the lawyer and anti-unionist Theodore Agallianos had written a short chronicle of contemporary events,[73] concluding with the following words: This was written in the third year of the reign of Constantine Palaiologos, who remains uncrowned because the church has no leader and is indeed in disarray as the result of the turmoil and confusion brought upon it by the falsely named union which his brother and predecessor John Palaiologos engineered... This union was evil and displeasing to God and has instead split the church and scattered its children and destroyed us utterly. Truth to tell, this is the source of all our other misfortunes.[74] Constantine and John VIII before him had badly misjudged the level of opposition against the church union.[1] Loukas Notaras was successful in calming down the situation in Constantinople somewhat, explaining to an assembly of nobles that the Catholic visit was made with good intentions and that the soldiers who had accompanied Isidore and Leonard might just be an advance guard; more military aid might have been on its way. Many nobles were convinced that a spiritual price could be paid for material rewards and that if they were rescued from the immediate danger, there would be time later to think more clearly in a calmer atmosphere. Sphrantzes suggested to Constantine that he name Isidore as the new Patriarch of Constantinople as Gregory III had not been seen for some time and was unlikely to return. Although such an appointment might have gratified the pope and led to further aid being sent, Constantine realized that it would only stir up the anti-unionists more. Once the people of Constantinople realized that no further immediate aid in addition to the 200 soldiers was coming from the papacy, they rioted in the streets.[75] Leonard of Chios confided in the emperor that he believed him to be far too lenient with the anti-unionists, urging him to arrest their leaders and try harder to push back the opposition to the Union of the Churches. Constantine opposed the idea, perhaps under the assumption that arresting the leaders would turn them into martyrs for their cause. Instead, Constantine summoned the leaders of the synaxis to the imperial palace on 15 November 1452, and once again asked them to write a document with their objections to the union achieved at Florence, which they were eager to do. On 25 November, the Ottomans sank another Venetian trading ship with cannon fire from the new Rumelihisarı castle, an event which captured the minds of the Byzantines and united them in fear and panic. As a result, the anti-unionist cause gradually died down. On 12 December, a Catholic liturgy commemorating the names of the Pope and Patriarch Gregory III was held in the Hagia Sophia by Isidore. Constantine and his court were present, as was a large number of the city's citizens (Isidore stated that all of its inhabitants attended the ceremony).[76] Final preparations[edit] Modern painting of Mehmed II and his army approaching Constantinople, by Fausto Zonaro (1903) Constantine's brothers in the Morea could not bring him any help: Turahan had been called on by Mehmed to invade and devastate the Morea again in October 1452 to keep the two despots occupied. The Morea was devastated, with Constantine's brothers only achieving one small success with the capture of Turahan's son, Ahmed, in battle. Constantine then had to rely on the only other parties which had expressed interest in aiding him: Venice, the pope, and Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples. Although Venice had been slow to act, the Venetians in Constantinople acted immediately without waiting for orders when the Ottomans sank their ships. The Venetian bailie in Constantinople, Girolamo Minotto, called an emergency meeting with the Venetians in the city, which was also attended by Constantine and Cardinal Isidore. Most of the Venetians voted to stay in Constantinople and aid the Byzantines in their defense of the city, agreeing that no Venetian ships were to leave Constantinople's harbor. The decision of the local Venetians to stay and die for the city had a significantly greater effect on the Venetian government than Constantine's pleas.[77] In February 1453, Doge Foscari ordered the preparation of warships and army recruitment, both of which were to head for Constantinople in April. He sent letters to the pope, Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples, King Ladislaus V of Hungary, and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III to inform them that unless Western Christianity acted, Constantinople would fall to the Ottomans. Though the increase in diplomatic activity was impressive, it came too late to save Constantinople: the equipment and financing of a joint papal-Venetian armada took longer than expected,[77] the Venetians had misjudged the amount of time on their hands, and messages took at least a month to travel from Constantinople to Venice.[78] Emperor Frederick III's only response to the crisis was a letter sent to Mehmed II in which he threatened the sultan with an attack from all of western Christendom unless the sultan demolished the Rumelihisarı castle and abandoned his plans to Constantinople. Constantine continued to hope for help and sent more letters in early 1453 to Venice and Alfonso V, asking not only for soldiers but also food as his people were beginning to suffer from the Ottoman blockade of the city. Alfonso responded to his plea by quickly sending a ship with provisions.[77] Restored section of the Walls of Constantinople Throughout the long winter of 1452–1453, Constantine ordered the citizens of Constantinople to restore the city's imposing walls and gather as many weapons as they could. Ships were sent to the islands still under Byzantine rule to gather further supplies and provisions. The defenders grew anxious as the news of a huge cannon at the Ottoman camp that was assembled by the Hungarian engineer Orban reached the city. Loukas Notaras was given command of the walls along the sea walls of the Golden Horn and various sons of the Palaiologos and Kantakouzenos families were appointed to man other positions. Many of the city's foreign inhabitants, notably the Venetians, offered their aid. Constantine asked them to man the battlements to show the Ottomans how many defenders they were to face. When the Venetians offered their service to guard four of the city's land gates, Constantine accepted and entrusted them with the keys. Some of the city's Genoese population also aided the Byzantines. In January 1453, notable Genoese aid arrived voluntarily in the form of Giovanni Giustiniani—a renowned soldier known for his skill in siege warfare—and 700 soldiers under his command. Giustiniani was appointed by Constantine as the general commander for the walls on Constantinople's land side.[79] Giustiniani was given the rank of protostrator and promised the island of Lemnos as a reward (though it had already been promised to Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples, should he come to the city's aid).[80] In addition to the limited western aid, Orhan Çelebi, the Ottoman contender held as a hostage in the city, and his considerable retinue of Ottoman troops, also assisted in the city's defense.[81] On 2 April 1453, Mehmed's advance guard arrived outside Constantinople and began pitching up a camp. On 5 April, the sultan himself arrived at the head of his army and encamped within firing range of the city's Gate of St. Romanus. Bombardment of the city walls began almost immediately on 6 April.[82][83] Most estimates of the number of soldiers defending Constantinople's walls in 1453 range from 6,000–8,500, out of which 5,000–6,000 were Greeks, most of whom were untrained militia soldiers.[84] An additional 1,000 Byzantine soldiers were kept as reserves inside the city.[85] Mehmed's army massively outnumbered the Christian defenders; his forces might have been as many as 80,000 men,[86] including about 5,000 elite janissaries.[87] Even then, Constantinople's fall was not inevitable; the strength of the walls made the Ottoman numerical advantage irrelevant at first and under other circumstances, the Byzantines and their allies could have survived until help arrived. The Ottoman use of cannons intensified and sped up the siege considerably.[88] Fall of Constantinople[edit] Main article: Fall of Constantinople Siege[edit] Map of Constantinople and the dispositions of the defenders and the besiegers in 1453 An Ottoman fleet attempted to get into the Golden Horn while Mehmed began bombarding Constantinople's land walls. Foreseeing this possibility, Constantine had constructed a massive chain laid across the Golden Horn which prevented the fleet's passage. The chain was only lifted temporarily a few days after the siege began to allow the passage of three Genoese ships sent by the papacy and a large ship with food sent by Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples.[82] The arrival of these ships on 20 April, and the failure of the Ottomans to stop them, was a significant victory for the Christians and significantly increased their morale. The ships, carrying soldiers, weapons and supplies, had passed by Mehmed's scouts alongside the Bosphorus unnoticed. Mehmed ordered his admiral, Suleiman Baltoghlu, to capture the ships and their crews at all costs. As the naval battle between the smaller Ottoman ships and the large western ships commenced, Mehmed rode his horse into the water to shout unhelpful naval commands to Baltoghlu, who pretended not to hear them. Baltoghlu withdrew the smaller ships so that the few large Ottoman vessels could fire on the western ships, but the Ottoman cannons were too low to do damage to the crews and decks and their shots were too small to seriously damage the hulls. As the sun set, the wind suddenly returned and the ships passed through the Ottoman blockade, aided by three Venetian ships which had sailed out to meet and cover them.[89] The sea walls were weaker than Constantinople's land walls, and Mehmed was determined to get his fleet into the Golden Horn; he needed some way to circumvent Constantine's chain. On 23 April, the defenders of Constantinople observed the Ottoman fleet managed to get into the Golden Horn by being pulled across a massive series of tracks, constructed on Mehmed's orders, across the hill behind Galata, the Genoese colony on the opposite side of the Golden Horn. Although the Venetians attempted to attack the ships and set fire to them, their attempt was unsuccessful.[82] Modern painting of the Ottoman fleet being transported over land to the Golden Horn, by Fausto Zonaro (1903) As the siege progressed, it became clearer that the forces defending the city would not be enough to man both the sea walls and the land walls. Furthermore, food was running out and as food prices rose to compensate, many of the poor began to starve. On Constantine's orders, the Byzantine garrison collected money from churches, monasteries and private residences to pay for food for the poor. Objects of precious metal held by the churches were seized and melted down, though Constantine promised the clergy that he would repay them four-fold once the battle had been won. The Ottomans bombarded the city's outer walls continuously, and eventually opened up a small breach which exposed the inner defenses. Constantine grew more and more anxious. He sent messages begging the sultan to withdraw, promising whatever amount of tribute he wanted, but Mehmed was determined to take the city.[90] The sultan supposedly responded: Either I shall take this city, or the city will take me, dead or alive. If you will admit defeat and withdraw in peace, I shall give you the Peloponnese and other provinces for your brothers and we shall be friends. If you persist in denying me peaceful entry into the city, I shall force my way in and I shall slay you and all your nobles; and I shall slaughter all the survivors and allow my troops to plunder at will. The city is all I want, even if it is empty.[90] To Constantine, the idea of abandoning Constantinople was unthinkable. He did not bother to reply to the sultan's suggestion. Some days after offering Constantine the chance to surrender, Mehmed sent a new messenger to address the citizens of Constantinople, imploring them to surrender and save themselves from death or slavery. The sultan informed them that he would let them live as they were, in exchange for an annual tribute, or allow them to leave the city unharmed with their belongings. Some of Constantine's companions and councilors implored him to escape the city, rather than die in its defense: if he escaped unharmed, Constantine could set up an empire-in-exile in the Morea or somewhere else and carry on the war against the Ottomans. Constantine did not accept their ideas; he refused to be remembered as the emperor who ran away.[90] According to later chroniclers, Constantine's response to the idea of escaping was the following: God forbid that I should live as an Emperor without an Empire. As my city falls, I will fall with it. Whosoever wishes to escape, let him save himself if he can, and whoever is ready to face death, let him follow me.[91] Constantine then sent a response to the sultan, the last communication between a Byzantine emperor and an Ottoman sultan:[90] As to surrendering the city to you, it is not for me to decide or for anyone else of its citizens; for all of us have reached the mutual decision to die of our own free will, without any regard for our lives.[92] The only hope the citizens could cling to was the news that the Venetian fleet was on its way to relieve Constantinople. When a Venetian reconnaissance ship that had slipped through the Ottoman blockade returned to the city to report that no relief force had been seen, it was made clear that the few forces that had gathered at Constantinople would have to fight the Ottoman army alone. The news that the whole of Christendom appeared to have deserted them unnerved some of the Venetians and Genoese defenders and in-fighting broke out between them, forcing Constantine to remind them that there were more important enemies at hand. Constantine resolved to commit himself and the city to the mercy of Christ;[93] if the city fell, it would be God's will.[90] Final days and final assault[edit] The Last Siege, French miniature by Jean Le Tavernier painted sometime after 1455 The Byzantines observed strange and ominous signs in the days leading up to the final Ottoman assault on the city. On 22 May, there was a lunar eclipse for three hours, harkening to a prophecy that Constantinople would fall when the moon was on wane. In order to encourage the defenders, Constantine commanded that the icon of Mary, the city's protector, was to be carried in a procession through the streets. The procession was abandoned when the icon slipped from its frame and the weather turned to rain and hail. Carrying out the procession on the next day was impossible as the city became engulfed in a thick fog.[94] On 26 May, the Ottomans held a war council. Çandarlı Halil Pasha, who believed western military aid to the city was imminent, counseled Mehmed to compromise with the Byzantines and withdraw whereas Zagan Pasha, a military officer, urged the sultan to push on and pointed out that Alexander the Great had conquered almost the entire known world when he was young. Perhaps knowing that they would support a final assault, Mehmed ordered Zagan to tour the camp and gather the opinions of the soldiers.[95] On the evening of 26 May, the dome of the Hagia Sophia was lit up by a strange and mysterious light phenomenon, also spotted by the Ottomans from their camp outside the city. The Ottomans saw it as a great omen for their victory and the Byzantines saw it as a sign of impending doom. 28 May was calm, as Mehmed had ordered a day of rest before his final assault. The citizens who had not been put to work on repairing the crumbling walls or manning them prayed in the streets. On Constantine's orders, icons and relics from all the monasteries and churches in the city were carried along the walls. Both Catholics and Orthodox defenders joined together in prayers and hymns and Constantine led the procession himself.[94] Giustiniani sent word to Loukas Notaras to request that Notaras' artillery be brought to defend the land walls, which Notaras refused. Giustiniani accused Notaras of treachery and they almost fought each other before Constantine intervened.[95] In the evening, the crowds moved to the Hagia Sophia, with Orthodox and Catholic Christians joining together and praying, the fear of impending doom having done more to unite them than the councils ever could. Cardinal Isidore was in attendance, as was Emperor Constantine. Constantine prayed and asked for forgiveness and remission of his sins from all the bishops there before he received communion at the church's altar. The emperor then left the church, going to the imperial palace and asking his household there for forgiveness and saying farewell to them before again disappearing into the night, going to make a final inspection of the soldiers manning the city walls.[96] Without warning, the Ottomans began their final assault in the early hours of 29 May.[97] The service in the Hagia Sophia was interrupted, with fighting-age men rushing to the walls to defend the city and the other men and women helping the parts of the army stationed within the city.[98] Waves of Mehmed's troops charged at Constantinople's land walls, hammering at the weakest section for more than two hours. Despite the relentless attack, the defense, led by Giustiniani and supported by Constantine, held firm.[97] Unbeknownst to anyone, after six hours of fighting, just before sunrise,[97] Giustiniani was mortally wounded.[99] Constantine begged Giustiniani to stay and continue fighting,[97] allegedly saying: My brother, fight bravely. Do not forsake us in your distress. The salvation of the City depends on you. Return to your post. Where are you going?[99] Giustiniani was too weak, however, and his bodyguards carried him to the harbor and escaped the city on a Genoese ship. The Genoese troops wavered when they saw their commander leave them, and though the Byzantine defenders fought on, the Ottomans soon gained control of both the outer and inner walls. About fifty Ottoman soldiers made it through one of the gates, the Kerkoporta, and were the first of the enemy to enter Constantinople; it had been left unlocked and ajar by a Venetian party the night before. Ascending up the tower above the Kerkoporta, they managed to raise an Ottoman flag above the wall. The Ottomans stormed through the wall and many of the defenders panicked with no means of escape. Constantinople had fallen.[97] Giustiniani died of his wounds on his way home. Loukas Notaras was initially captured alive before being executed shortly after. Cardinal Isidore disguised himself as a slave and escaped across the Golden Horn to Galata. Orhan, Mehmed's cousin, disguised himself as a monk in an attempt to escape, but was identified and killed.[100] Death[edit] Romanticized depiction of the final fighting at the Fall of Constantinople by Greek folk painter Theophilos Hatzimihail (1932). Constantine is depicted as charging into battle on a white horse. Constantine died the day Constantinople fell. There were no known surviving eyewitnesses to the death of the emperor and none of his entourage survived to offer any credible account of his death.[101][102] The Greek historian Michael Critobulus, who later worked in the service of Mehmed, wrote that Constantine died fighting the Ottomans. Later Greek historians accepted Critobulus's account, never doubting that Constantine died as a hero and martyr, an idea never seriously questioned in the Greek-speaking world.[103] Though none of the authors were eyewitnesses, a vast majority of those who wrote of Constantinople's fall, both Christians and Muslims, agree that Constantine died in the battle, with only three accounts claiming that the emperor escaped the city. It also seems probable that his body was later found and decapitated.[104] According to Critobulus, the last words of Constantine before he charged at the Ottomans were "the city is fallen and I am still alive".[105] An icon of Constantine XI There were other conflicting contemporary accounts of Constantine's demise. Leonard of Chios, who was taken prisoner by the Ottomans but later managed to escape, wrote that once Giustiniani had fled the battle, Constantine's courage failed and the emperor implored his young officers to kill him so that he would not be captured alive by the Ottomans. None of the soldiers were brave enough to kill the emperor and once the Ottomans broke through, Constantine fell in the ensuing fight, only to briefly get up before falling again and being trampled. The Venetian physician Niccolò Barbaro, who was present at the siege, wrote that no one knew if the emperor had died or escaped the city alive, noting that some said that his corpse had been seen among the dead while others claimed that he had hanged himself as soon as the Ottomans had broken through at the St. Romanus gate. Cardinal Isidore wrote, like Critobulus, that Constantine had died fighting at the St. Romanus gate. Isidore also added that he had heard that the Ottomans had found his body, cut off his head and presented it to Mehmed as a gift, who was delighted and showered the head with insults before taking it with him to Adrianople as a trophy. Jacopo Tedaldi, a merchant from Florence who participated in the final fight, wrote that "some say that his head was cut off; others that he perished in the crush at the gate. Both stories may well be true".[106] Ottoman accounts of Constantine's demise all agree that the emperor was decapitated. Tursun Beg, who was part of Mehmed's army at the battle, wrote a less heroic account of Constantine's death than the Christian authors. According to Tursun, Constantine panicked and fled, making for the harbor in hopes of finding a ship to escape the city. On his way there, he came across a band of Turkish marines, and after charging and nearly killing one of them, was decapitated. A later account by Ottoman historian Ibn Kemal is similar to Tursun's account, but states that the emperor's head was cut off not just by an unnamed marine, but by a giant of a man, who killed Constantine without realizing who he was.[107] Nicola Sagundino, a Venetian who had once been a prisoner of the Ottomans following their conquest of Thessaloniki decades before, gave an account of Constantine's death to Alfonso V of Aragon and Naples in 1454 since he believed that the emperor's fate "deserved to be recorded and remembered for all time". Sagundino stated that although Giustiniani implored the emperor to escape as he was carried away after falling on the battlefield, Constantine refused and preferred to die with his empire. Constantine went to where the fighting appeared to be thickest and, as it would be unworthy of him to be captured alive, implored his officers to kill him. When none of them obeyed his command, Constantine threw off his imperial regalia, as to not let himself be distinguished from the other soldiers, and disappeared into the fray, sword in hand. When Mehmed wanted the defeated Constantine to be brought to him, he was told it was too late as the emperor was dead. A search for the body was conducted, and when it was found, the emperor's head was cut off and paraded through Constantinople before it was sent to the Sultan of Egypt as a gift, alongside twenty captured women and forty captured men.[108] Legacy[edit] Historiography[edit] 19th-century depiction of Constantine XI with classical Greco-Roman armor Constantine's death marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, an institution tracing its origin to Constantine the Great's foundation of Constantinople as the Roman Empire's new capital in 330. Even as their realm gradually became more restricted to only Greek-speaking lands, the people of the Byzantine Empire continually maintained that they were Romaioi (Romans), not Hellenes (Greeks); as such, Constantine's death also marked the definitive end of the Roman Empire that was founded by Augustus almost 1,500 years earlier.[109] Constantine's death and the Fall of Constantinople also marked the true birth of the Ottoman Empire, which dominated much of the eastern Mediterranean until its fall in 1922. The conquest of Constantinople had been a dream of Islamic armies since the 8th century and through its possession, Mehmed II and his successors were able to claim to be the heirs of the Roman emperors.[110] There is no evidence that Constantine ever rejected the hated union of the Churches achieved at Florence in 1439 after spending a lot of energy to realize it. Many of his subjects had chastised him as a traitor and heretic while he lived and he, like many of his predecessors before him, died in communion with the Church of Rome. Nevertheless, Constantine's actions during the Fall of Constantinople and his death fighting the Turks redeemed the popular view of him. The Greeks forgot or ignored that Constantine had died a "heretic", and many considered him a martyr. In the eyes of the Orthodox Church, Constantine's death sanctified him and he died a hero.[111] In Athens, the modern capital of Greece, there are two statues of Constantine: a colossal monument depicting the emperor on horseback on the waterfront of Palaio Faliro, and a smaller statue in the city's cathedral square, which portrays the emperor on foot with a drawn sword. There are no statues of emperors such as Basil II or Alexios I Komnenos, who were significantly more successful and died of natural causes after long and glorious reigns.[102] Scholarly works on Constantine and the fall of Constantinople tend to portray Constantine, his advisors, and companions as victims of the events that surrounded the city's fall. There are three main works that deal with Constantine and his life: the earliest is Čedomilj Mijatović's Constantine Palaeologus (1448–1453) or The Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1892), written at a time when tensions were rising between the relatively new Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire. War appeared imminent and Mijatović's work was intended to serve as propaganda for the Greek cause by portraying Constantine as a tragic victim of events he had no possibility of affecting. The text is dedicated to the young Prince Constantine, of the same name as the old emperor and the heir to the Greek throne, and its preface states that "Constantinople may soon again change masters", alluding to the possibility that Greece might conquer the ancient city.[112] The second major work on Constantine, Steven Runciman's The Fall of Constantinople 1453 (1965), also characterizes Constantine through Constantinople's fall, portraying Constantine as tragic figure who did everything to save his empire from the Ottomans. However, Runciman partly blames Constantine for antagonizing Mehmed II through his threats concerning Orhan. The third major work, Donald Nicol's The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans (1992), examines Constantine's entire life and analyzes the trials and hardships he faced not only as emperor, but as Despot of the Morea as well. Nicol's work places considerably less emphasis on the importance of individuals than the preceding works do, though Constantine is again portrayed as a mostly tragic figure.[113] A less positive assessment of Constantine was given by Marios Philippides in Constantine XI Dragaš Palaeologus (1404–1453): The Last Emperor of Byzantium (2019). Philippides sees no evidence that Constantine was a great statesman or a great soldier. Although the emperor had visions for his reign, Philippides deems him as diplomatically ineffective and unable to inspire the support of his people to achieve his goals. Philippides is highly critical of Nicol's The Immortal Emperor, which he sees as unbalanced. In his book, Philippides points out that Constantine's reconquest of the Morea from the Latins had mostly been achieved through marriages and not military victories. Though much of Philippides' work relies on primary sources, some of his negative assessment seems speculative; he suggests that Constantine's campaigns in the Morea made the peninsula "easier prey for the Turks", something that cannot be substantiated through the actual events that unfolded.[102] Legends of Constantine's family[edit] Statue of Constantine XI in Athens Constantine's two marriages were brief and though he had attempted to find a third wife before the Fall of Constantinople, he died unmarried and without children.[114] His closest surviving relatives were his surviving brothers in the Morea: Thomas and Demetrios.[115] Despite this, there was a persistent story that Constantine had left a widow and several daughters. The earliest documented evidence of this idea can be found in a letter by Aeneas Silvius (the future Pope Pius II) to Pope Nicholas V, dated July 1453. In Aeneas's Cosmographia (1456–1457), the story is elaborated upon: Mehmed II supposedly defiled and murdered the empress and Constantine's daughters in the celebrations after his victory. Aeneas also wrote of an imaginary son of Constantine who escaped to Galata, across the Golden Horn. The story of Constantine's wife and daughters might have been further propagated through the spread of the late 15th-century or early 16th-century Russian tale Nestor Iskander's Tale on the Taking of Tsargrad, where a similar account appears. 16th-century French chronicler Mathieu d'Escouchy wrote that Mehmed raped the empress in the Hagia Sophia and then confined her to his harem.[114] The story of Constantine's supposed family survived into modern Greek folklore. One story, propagated until as late as the 20th century, was that Constantine's supposed empress had been six months pregnant at the time of Constantinople's fall and that a son had been born to her while Mehmed was warring in the north. The empress raised the boy, and though he was well-versed in the Christian faith and the Greek language in his youth, he turned to Islam as an adult and eventually became sultan himself, which meant that all Ottoman sultans after him would have been Constantine's descendants.[116] Though the circumstances are completely fictional, the story might carry a shred of the truth; a grandson of Constantine's brother Thomas, Andreas Palaiologos, lived in Constantinople in the 16th century, converted to Islam and served as an Ottoman court official.[117][118] Another late folk story said that Constantine's empress had shut herself in the imperial palace after Mehmed's victory. After the Ottomans failed to break her barricades and enter the palace, Mehmed had to agree to give her three concessions: that all coins minted by the sultans in the city would bear the names of Constantinople or Constantine, that there would be a street reserved for Greeks alone, and that the bodies of the Christian dead would be given funerals according to Christian custom.[116] Lamentations[edit] Constantine XI as depicted in 1584 by André Thevet The Fall of Constantinople shocked Christians throughout Europe. In Orthodox Christianity, Constantinople and the Hagia Sophia became symbols of lost grandeur. In the Russian Nestor Iskander tale, the foundation of Constantinople (the New Rome) by Constantine the Great and its loss under an emperor by the same name was not seen as a coincidence, but as the fulfilling of the city's destiny, just as Old Rome had been founded by Romulus and lost under Romulus Augustulus.[119] Andronikos Kallistos, a prominent 15th-century Greek scholar and Byzantine refugee to Italy, wrote a text entitled Monodia in which he laments the fall of Constantinople and mourns Constantine Palaiologos, whom he refers to as "a ruler more perceptive than Themistocles, more fluent than Nestor, wiser than Cyrus, more just than Rhadamanthus and braver than Hercules".[120] The 1453 Greek long poem Capture of the City, of uncertain authorship, laments the bad luck of Constantine, which the author blames on Constantine's ill-advised destruction of Glarentza (including its churches) in the 1420s. According to the author, all of Constantine's other misfortunes—the destruction of the Hexamilion wall, the death of his brother John VIII, and the Fall of Constantinople—were the result of what happened at Glarentza. Even then, Constantine was not to blame for Constantinople's fall: he had done what he could and ultimately relied on help from Western Europe that never came. The poem concludes that people say Constantine died by his own sword,[121] and ends with personally addressing the dead emperor: Tell me, where are you to be found? Are you alive, or did you die by your own sword? The conquering Sultan Mehmed searched among the severed heads and corpses, but he never found you ... There are those that say that you are hidden beneath the almighty right hand of the Lord. Would that you were really alive and not dead.[122] The Marble Emperor[edit] See also: King asleep in mountain Marble statue of Constantine XI at the National Historical Museum in Athens In 15th-century Byzantine historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles's The Histories, Chalkokondyles finished his account of Byzantine history with hope for a time when a Christian emperor would rule over the Greeks again. In the late 15th century, a legend originated among the Greeks that Constantine had not actually died, but was merely asleep and was waiting on a call from heaven to come and rescue his people.[123] This legend eventually became the legend of the "Marble Emperor" (Greek: Marmaromenos Vasilias, lit. the "Emperor/King turned into Marble").[124] Constantine Palaiologos, hero of the final Christian days of Constantinople, had not died, but had been rescued, turned into marble and immortalized by an angel moments before he was to be killed by the Ottomans. The angel then hid him in a secret cave beneath the Golden Gate of Constantinople (where emperors in the past had marched during triumphs), where he awaits the angel's call to awaken and retake the city. The Turks later walled up the Golden Gate, explained by the story as a precaution against Constantine's eventual resurrection: when God wills Constantinople to be restored, the angel will descend from heaven, resurrect Constantine, give him the sword he used in the final battle and Constantine will then march into his city and restore his fallen empire, driving the Turks as far away as the "Red Apple Tree", their legendary homeland. According to the legend, Constantine's resurrection would be heralded by the bellowing of a great ox.[125] The story can be seen depicted in a series of seventeen miniatures in a 1590 chronicle by Cretan historian and painter George Klontzas. Klontzas' miniatures show the emperor sleeping beneath Constantinople and guarded by angels, being crowned once more in the Hagia Sophia, entering the imperial palace and then fighting a string of battles against the Turks. Following his inevitable victories, Constantine prays at Kayseri, marches on Palestine and returns triumphant to Constantinople before entering Jerusalem. At Jerusalem, Constantine delivers his crown and the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and finally travels to Calvary, where he dies, his mission completed. In the final miniature, Constantine is buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[126] In 1625, Thomas Roe, an English diplomat, sought permission from the Ottoman government to remove some of the stones from the walled-up Golden Gate to send them to his friend, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, who was collecting antiquities. Roe was denied permission and observed that the Turks had some sort of superstitious dread of the gate, recording that the statues placed on it by the Turks were enchanted and that if they were destroyed or taken down, a "great alteration" would occur to the city.[127] The prophecy of the Marble Emperor endured until the Greek War of Independence in the 19th century and beyond. It was fuelled when the King of the Hellenes, George I, named his firstborn son and heir Constantine in 1868. His name echoed the emperors of old, proclaiming his succession not just to the new Greek kings, but to the Byzantine emperors before them as well. Once he acceded to the throne as Constantine I of Greece, many in Greece hailed him as Constantine XII instead. Constantine I's conquest of Thessaloniki from the Turks in 1912 and his leadership in the Balkan Wars 1912–1913 seemed to be evidence that the prophecy was about to be realized; Constantinople and the Red Apple Tree were believed to be Constantine's next goals. When Constantine was forced to abdicate in 1917, many believed he had been unjustly removed before completing his sacred destiny. The hope of capturing Constantinople would not be completely dashed until the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War in 1922.[128] Regnal number[edit] The larger, waterfront statue of Constantine XI in Athens Constantine Palaiologos is generally reckoned to have been the eleventh emperor with that name.[109] As such, he is typically referred to as Constantine XI, with 'XI' being a regnal number, used in monarchies since the Middle Ages to differentiate among rulers with the same name in the same office, reigning of the same territory. Regnal numbers were never used in the Roman Empire and despite an increase in emperors of the same name during the Middle Ages, such as the many emperors named Michael, Leo, John or Constantine, the practice was never introduced in the Byzantine Empire. Instead, the Byzantines used nicknames (for instance "Michael the Drunkard", now given the number Michael III) or patronymics (for instance "Constantine, son of Manuel" rather than Constantine XI) to distinguish emperors of the same name. The modern numbering of the Byzantine emperors is a purely historiographical invention, created by historians beginning with Edward Gibbon in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789).[129] Since the name Constantine connected an emperor with the founder of Constantinople and the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, the name was particularly popular among emperors. Whilst modern historiography generally recognizes eleven emperors by the name, older works have occasionally numbered Constantine Palaiologos differently. Gibbon numbered him as Constantine XIII after counting two junior co-emperors, Constantine Lekapenos (co-emperor 924–945) and Constantine Doukas (co-emperor 1074–1078 and 1081–1087). The modern number, XI, was established with the publication of the revised edition of Charles le Beau's Histoire du Bas-Empire en commençant à Constantin le Grand in 1836. Early numismatic (coin-related) works typically assigned Constantine Palaiologos higher numerals since there were numerous coins minted by junior co-emperors of the name Constantine as well.[130] There is particular confusion in the correct number of Constantines since there are two different Roman emperors commonly numbered as Constantine III: the Western usurper Constantine III (r. 407–411) of the early 5th century and the briefly reigning Byzantine Constantine III (r. 641) of the 7th century. In addition to them, the emperor commonly known today as Constans II (r. 641–668) actually reigned under the name Constantine, and has sometimes been referred to as Constantine III.[130] A difficult case is Constantine Laskaris, who might have been the first, albeit ephemeral, emperor of the Empire of Nicaea, one of the Byzantine successor states after the Fourth Crusade. It is unclear whether Constantine Laskaris ruled as emperor or not and he is sometimes counted as Constantine XI,[131] which would make Constantine Palaiologos Constantine XII. Constantine Laskaris is sometimes referred to as Constantine (XI), with Constantine Palaiologos numbered Constantine XI (XII).[132] Counting comprehensively those who were officially recognized as rulers under the name Constantine, including those that only ruled nominally as co-emperors but with the supreme title, the total number of emperors named Constantine would be 18. By counting and numbering all previous co-emperors with that name, including Constantine (son of Leo V), Constantine (son of Basil I), Constantine Lekapenos and Constantine Doukas, in addition to Constans II, Constantine Laskaris and the western Constantine III, Constantine Palaiologos would most appropriately be numbered as Constantine XVIII.[n 4] Scholars commonly do not number co-emperors as the extent of their rule was mostly nominal and, unless they inherited the throne later, did not hold independent supreme power. By counting the western Constantine III, Constans II and Constantine Laskaris—all emperors reigning with supreme power under the name of Constantine (though it is questionable in Laskaris's case)—the numbering of Constantine Palaiologos would be Constantine XIV.[133] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty Rise of the Ottoman Empire Notes[edit] ^ Constantine was proclaimed emperor at Mystras on 6 January 1449, which is the most commonly cited date for the beginning of his reign. Another date sometimes used is 12 March 1449, the day he arrived in Constantinople.[1] ^ Though he was made emperor in January 1449, Constantine also retained his territories in the Morea until he gave Mystras to his brother Demetrios Palaiologos in March.[2] ^ Contemporary historian George Sphrantzes, who actually knew Constantine, gives his year of birth as 1404, but other sources confirms that he was born in 1405.[3] ^ Omitting the very short-lived Constantine (son of Theophilos), who died in infancy. References[edit] ^ a b c Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 191. ^ a b Gilliland Wright 2013, p. 63. ^ a b Hellebuyck 2006, p. 6. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, p. 2. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. 4. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 4–6. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 3–4. ^ Carroll 2017, pp. 331–332. ^ a b c Hellebuyck 2006, p. 7. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 5. ^ Carroll 2017, pp. 329–330. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 5–7. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 52. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 7–8. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 8. ^ a b c Hellebuyck 2006, p. 8. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 9. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 9–11. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. 11. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, p. 14. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 12–13. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 13. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 14–15. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 31. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 15–16. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, p. 16. ^ Nicol 1967, p. 333. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 17–18. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 18. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 18–19. ^ PLP, 21454. Παλαιολόγος ∆ημήτριος. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 19. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 21–22. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 23–24. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 27. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 27–29. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. 30. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 45. ^ Runciman 2009, p. 76. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 31–33. ^ a b c d Nicol 1992, pp. 35–36. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 41. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 42. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 37–38. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 40. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 10–12. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 40–41. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 41. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 42–43. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 44–46. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 36. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 46–47. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 34. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 29–30. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 30–31. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 47–48. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 48. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 49–51. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 51–52. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 38–39. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 181. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 52. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 9. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 27. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, pp. 52–55. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 180. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 188. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 44. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 182. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 14. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 55–56. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 47. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 56–58. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 58. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 58–59. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 59–61. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, pp. 61–63. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 185. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 63–64. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 187. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, p. 15. ^ a b c Nicol 1992, p. 64. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 216. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 204. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 215. ^ Carr 2015, p. 251. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 200. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, pp. 209–210. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, pp. 220–221. ^ a b c d e Nicol 1992, p. 65. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 228. ^ When the City Fell. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 66. ^ a b Nicol 1992, pp. 66–67. ^ a b Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 229. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 67–69. ^ a b c d e Nicol 1992, pp. 69–70. ^ Carr 2015, p. 256. ^ a b Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 233. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 234. ^ Philippides & Hanak 2011, p. 100. ^ a b c Harris 2019. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 70. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 82. ^ Sherrard 1965, p. 139. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 76–77. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 79–80. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 81–82. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. ix. ^ Nicolle, Haldon & Turnbull 2007, p. 174. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 109. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 1–2. ^ Hellebuyck 2006, pp. 2–3. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. 95. ^ Runciman 1969, p. 171ff. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. 96. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 115–116. ^ Runciman 1969, p. 183–184. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 97–98. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 97. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 98–99. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 99–100. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 98. ^ Clogg 1992, p. 19. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 101–102, 104. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 102. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 102–103. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 107–108. ^ Foss 2005, p. 94. ^ a b Foss 2005, pp. 93–94. ^ Foss 2005, pp. 98–99. ^ Haldon 2005, p. 176. ^ Foss 2005, pp. 101–102. Cited bibliography[edit] Carr, John C. (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. East Yorkshire: Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-78383-116-6.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Carroll, Margaret (2017). "Constantine XI Palaeologus; some problems of image". In Moffatt, Ann (ed.). Maistor: Classical, Byzantine and Renaissance Studies for Robert Browning. Brill. pp. 329–343. ISBN 978-90-04-34461-7. Clogg, Richard (1992). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80872-3.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Foss, Clive (2005). "Emperors named Constantine". Revue numismatique (in French). 6 (161): 93–102. doi:10.3406/numi.2005.2594.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Gilliland Wright, Diana (2013). "The Fair of Agios Demetrios of 26 October 1449: Byzantine-Venetian Relations and Land Issues in Mid-Century". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 37 (1): 63–80. doi:10.1179/0307013112Z.00000000019. Haldon, John (2005). The Palgrave Atlas of Byzantine History. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-24364-4.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Hellebuyck, Adam William (2006). "Foreign Relations and the End of Byzantium: The Use of Personal Diplomacy during the Reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos (1448–1453)" (PDF). Bachelor's Degree Thesis, University of Michigan.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Nicol, Donald M. (1967). "The Byzantine View of Western Europe" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 8 (4): 315–339.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Nicol, Donald M. (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58369-8.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Nicolle, David; Haldon, John; Turnbull, Stephen (2007). The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-200-4.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Philippides, Marios; Hanak, Walter K. (2011). The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453: Historiography, Topography and Military Studies. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-1064-5.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Runciman, Steven (1969) [1965]. The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39832-9.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Runciman, Steven (2009) [1980]. Lost Capital of Byzantium: The History of Mistra and the Peloponnese. New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-84511-895-2.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Sherrard, Philip (1965). Constantinople: iconography of a sacred city. Oxford University Press.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Cited web sources[edit] Harris, Jonathan (2019). "19.01.05 Philippides, Constantine XI Dragaš Palaeologus". Indiana University – The Medieval Review. Retrieved 24 June 2020.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) "29 Μαϊου 1453: Όταν "η Πόλις εάλω..." [29 May 1453: When the City Fell...]. iefemerida.com (in Greek). 29 May 2012. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017. Constantine XI Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 8 February 1405 Died: 29 May 1453 Regnal titles Preceded by John VIII Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1449–1453 Succeeded by None¹ Preceded by Theodore II Palaiologos Despot of the Morea 1428–1449 with Theodore II Palaiologos, 1428–1443 Thomas Palaiologos, 1428–1449 Succeeded by Thomas and Demetrios Palaiologos Notes and references 1. The Byzantine Empire was ended through the Fall of Constantinople. Mehmed II claimed to succeed Constantine and the Byzantines as a new "Caesar of Rome", similar claims would be forwarded by Russia through the idea that Moscow was the third Rome in succession to Rome (the first Rome) and Constantinople (the second Rome). v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1853	----	Julius Nepos - Wikipedia Julius Nepos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 474 to 480 Roman emperor of the West Julius Nepos Tremissis profile portrait of Nepos; mint of Milan Roman emperor of the West Reign June 474 – 480 (deposed from Italy in 28 August 475) Predecessor Glycerius Successor Odoacer (seized Nepos's lands) Zeno (sole Roman emperor) Co-rulers Romulus (Italy, 475–476) Zeno (East, 474–480) Basiliscus (East, 475–476) Born c. 430 Died c. May 480 Spalatum, Dalmatia Spouse Niece of Leo I Father Nepotianus Mother Sister of Marcellinus Julius Nepos (c. 430 – 480 AD) was de jure and de facto Roman emperor of the West from 474 to 475 and then only de jure until his death in 480. Born to a distinguished family, he succeeded his uncle, Marcellinus, as military governor of the province of Dalmatia in 468. With support of the Eastern Empire, Nepos overthrew his predecessor Glycerius without a fight and proclaimed himself western emperor in June 474. Orestes, the magister militum, turned his forces on Nepos in August 475, forcing him to flee by ship to Dalmatia.[1] Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Emperor in Nepos's absence, but neither the Eastern Emperor Zeno nor many Western provinces recognized Romulus, regarding him as a usurper.[2][3] Nepos never relinquished his imperial title and sought a compromise with the barbarian king Odoacer who deposed Romulus. Odoacer ambiguously recognized his claim but refused him any role in government outside of Dalmatia.[4] Nepos was assassinated in 480 while plotting his own restoration, and Zeno formally abolished the Western division of the Empire. Contents 1 Rise to office 2 Deposition and reign in Dalmatia 3 Assassination 4 Family 5 Citations 6 General references 7 External links Rise to office[edit] Solidus of Emperor Julius Nepos; mint in Ravenna, 474-5 Julius Nepos[5] became the governor of Dalmatia after the murder of his uncle, Marcellinus, and he ruled from AD 468.[6] From this, Nepos inherited the remainder of the Illyrian field army where, with the eastern Emperor Zeno's blessing and no actual resistance, Nepos landed his forces just outside Rome in early summer AD 474.[6] Nepos overthrew Glycerius without a fight and proclaimed himself western emperor on 19 or 24 June AD 474, with historian A.H.M Jones stating the date as 24 June.[6][7] Nepos spared Glycerius's life and appointed him Bishop of Salona.[8] There is scarce historical evidence which depicts Nepos' political activity.[9] But the evidence available shows Nepos' actions were focused on Gaul and the Visigothic King Euric.[9] Nepos embarked on a diplomatic offensive against the Visigoths where he sent two embassies in an attempt to consolidate the remaining imperial holdings in Gaul.[4] Nepos sent bishop Epiphanius of Pavia, who had previously brokered a truce between Anthemius and Ricimer, in the spring of 475 to Toulouse.[4] Later on in 475, Nepos dispatched a delegation of four bishops to Toulouse from southern Gaul whose job may have been to work out the actual terms of the treaty.[4] This shows that Nepos did have some political and military success as Euric agreed to retro-cede Arles and Marseilles in return for Civitas Arvernorum (Clermont-Ferrand) whose resistance could not last for much longer anyway.[7] However, after Nepos' fall, Euric quickly reoccupied Arles and Marseilles.[10] Further political activity from Nepos included renewed Vandal attacks. In a similar fashion to the negations with the Goths, Nepos attempted to negotiate a settlement.[4] But, in this case, Nepos could do little more than recognise Vandal possession of all the territories they occupied in Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearics.[7] Deposition and reign in Dalmatia[edit] Independent Dalmatia; approximate extent of Marcellinus' reign from AD 454 to 468) and Julius Nepos' reign from 468–480; external polities are shown as during Nepos' late period. Nepos' rule only lasted a year due to the actions of General Orestes. Orestes was appointed Patrician by Nepos himself with the aim of clearing up the mess in Italy.[7] But, Orestes, who had previously played the role of ambassador to Attila after Flavius Aetius handed over the province of Pannonia to the Huns,[11] turned his Barbarian troops[8] on Nepos instead.[12] As a result, on the 28 August 475, Nepos left Ravenna and sailed back to Dalmatia thus abandoning the Roman West for a while.[12] On 31 October AD 475, Orestes appointed his son the new Western Roman Emperor with the regnal name "Romulus Augustus" but it was Orestes and his brother Paul who were the real eminences grises.[1] Romulus had never been recognised in Constantinople with the western emperor still alive and well.[13] Romulus's reign also did not last long. The reliance on bands of barbarian federates by the government instead of their own regular regiments caused problems for Orestes.[7] In 476, these federal tribes demanded that they be given a third of the land, much like the federal tribes in Gaul.[7] Orestes refused their demand which caused the federal tribes to rebel and to appoint a Scirian officer named Odoacer as their king.[7] There is some debate about the position of Odoacer with modern scholars describing him as being part of the Roman military establishment. This is based on John of Antioch's statement that Odoacer was on the side of Ricimer at the beginning of his battle with the emperor Anthemius in 472.[14] Similarly, Procopius describes him as one of the Emperor's bodyguards.[15] Moreover, Odoacer is described as Nepos' Count of Domestics by historian Peter Heather.[1] Nevertheless, Odoacer tried to set up another short-lived regime in August AD 476.[1] He captured and killed Orestes and his brother Paul in Piacenza[16] but Romulus still technically remained as the Western Emperor. Odoacer had no interest in preserving the position of this notional ruler who controlled nothing beyond the Italian peninsula.[17] So, Odoacer sent an embassy to Zeno proposing that he assume sovereignty over Italy as the sole Roman emperor but that Odoacer would control the administration.[17] Nepos never returned to Italy, although not through lack of trying. While Zeno was considering the proposition from Odoacer, he received an embassy from Nepos asking for his assistance in reclaiming the throne.[17] Zeno had little interest in western affairs and had no intention of sparing money and men upon Nepos' behalf.[18] Yet he could not overtly disavow Nepos, especially due to the relation between Nepos and the empress mother Verina. Therefore, Zeno unfolded a two-sided plan.[18] The first side was to lecture the senators for having killed and expelled the two emperors they had sent and urge them to take Nepos back.[18] On the other side Zeno told Odoacer's personal representatives that Odoacer ought to seek his appointment from Nepos. He praised Odoacer for the good beginning he had made in preserving the authority of Rome and addressed Odoacer as Patrician who should acknowledge Nepos's de jure Imperial status.[18] Zeno then replied to Nepos that the western Empire was over.[17] Following this reply, Odoacer quickly deposed Romulus and, in consideration of his youth, sent him away to an estate in Campania with a pension of 6,000 solidi a year.[2][7] Odoacer then declared himself King and adopted the title of rex, an action that many previous military commanders had done previously.[16][18] He reigned as an increasingly independent King of Italy, nominally recognising the suzerainty of the Eastern Roman Empire. Nepos attempted a campaign to restore his authority in 479/480.[19] Theodoric offered to lead his Ostrogoths into Dalmatia and fight for Nepos' cause.[9] Assassination[edit] Around AD 480, whilst plotting a campaign to restore his authority in Italy, Nepos was murdered by two retainers. Guy Halsall states this was at the 'instigation of the Bishop of Salona, that same Glycerius whom Nepos had deposed and driven into the church six years previously'.[19] Odoacer then took over Dalmatia.[19] However, there is a debate surrounding the assassination of Nepos. Another theory proposed by historians is that Nepos was murdered by one of his own soldiers in AD 480, on either 25 April, 9 May, or 22 June.[20] He was reportedly stabbed in his villa near Salona. Since Diocletian also had a residence in the area, it is presumed to have taken place in his ancient palace.[9] Marcellinus Comes blames "the treachery of his comes Viator and Ovida" for the murder. Malchus also implicates the former Emperor Glycerius in the conspiracy because, as Nepos had appointed Glycerius as Bishop of Salona, he was in the vicinity of the murder.[21] Adding to the suspicions of Glycerius is a report that Odoacer later made him Bishop of Milan. Ovida served as the next ruler of Dalmatia for a few months, but Odoacer used Nepos' assassination as a pretext to invade.[21] Odoacer defeated Ovida's forces on 9 December and added the province to his kingdom. After Nepos' death, Zeno became the only emperor of the Roman empire[18] and ending the last serious legal claim of a separate Western Roman Empire until the reign of Charlemagne. Family[edit] As is the case with many Roman Emperors who reigned for only a short period of time, especially those from the final decades of the Western Roman Empire, only limited information about Nepos is extant in surviving records. Historians claim[22] that Julius Nepos was son of the comes Nepotianus, a general (Magister Utriusque Militiae) who served the Western Roman Empire between AD 458 and 461 during the reign of Majorian. Historian R. W. Burgess denies this identification. Burgess observes that the claim is premised on one passage from Jordanes' Romana. He proceeds to argue that, while Nepos came from an important family, the general Nepotianus was a mercenary commander working for the Visigoths, from which came his title of Magister Militiae. Thus, Burgess concludes that Nepotianus, father of Nepos, and the military commander Nepotianus, should be considered as different persons.[22] Nepotianus is mentioned as having been active in southern Gaul and Hispania, eventually dying in 465.[23] His unnamed mother was a sister of Marcellinus, the Magister Militum of Dalmatia.[24] There are numerous historians who certify that Nepos was the nephew of Marcellinus.[6][16][25] Nepos was certainly married to a relative of Verina, with most historians assuming it was to her niece.[26] The AD 6th-century chronicler Marcellinus Comes mentions Nepos as "son of the sister of Marcellinus, once patrician".[27] This identification of Nepos is repeated by a passage in Jordanes' Getica.[5][28] Since Jordanes often uses Marcellinus Comes as a source, the passage might have been copied verbatim.[27] Marcellinus was a powerful figure in the Western Roman Empire, rebelling in 454 against the Emperor Valentinian III after the latter's assassination of Flavius Aetius. He established himself as an autonomous ruler in Dalmatia, despite accepting the authority of the emperors Majorian and Anthemius. Under Anthemius he was raised to the rank of patrician, becoming a possible threat to Ricimer, the powerful kingmaker behind the western throne. In 468, Marcellinus died in Sicily, probably at the hands of Ricimer.[29][30][31] Nepos inherited control of Dalmatia from his uncle with the title magister militum Dalmatiae,[32] and which was the basis for his future in exile. Nepos may have been a member of an enduringly prominent Dalmatian family. Four memorial inscriptions commemorating similarly named individuals, from the same region and falling within an appropriate time-frame, have been identified: Aelia Nepotes, Aelia Nepos, Julius Nepos, and Nepotes. The name also seems to be preserved in a church inscription of Salona, dating to the early 5th century.[33] Although the association of the agnomen "Nepos" with his connection to the Leonid dynasty seems to be fairly clear, the origins of and relationships between all these similar-sounding names, including his father's, are less clear. Also unclear is what role Nepos' ties of kinship with Marcellinus might have played in the acquisition of his agnomen. Citations[edit] ^ a b c d Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the barbarians. Oxford: New Oxford Press. p. 427. ^ a b Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the barbarians. Oxford: New Oxford Press. p. 430. ^ Bury, J. B. (2013). History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 2: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Newburyport: Dover Publications. p. 190. ^ a b c d e Mathisen, Ralph W. "Julius Nepos". Online Encyclopaedia of Roman Emperors. ^ a b Martindale 1980, s.v. Iulius Nepos (3), pp. 777–8 ^ a b c d Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A new history of Roma and the barbarians. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 426. ^ a b c d e f g h Jones, A.H.M (1964). The Later Roman Empire: 284-602. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 244. ^ a b Mitchell, Stephen (2015). A History of the Later Roman Empire AD 284-641: Second Edition. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. p. 124. ^ a b c d Demo, Zeljko (1988). "The Mint in Salona: Nepos and Ovida (474-481/2)". Studia numismatica Labacensia Alexandro Jelocnik oblata. 26: 247 – via Academia.edu. ^ Jones, A.H.M. (1964). The Later Roman Empire: 284-602. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 246. ^ Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the barbarians. Oxford: New Oxford Press. p. 314. ^ a b Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the barbarians. Oxford: New Oxford Press. p. 426. ^ Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 281. ^ John of Antioch, fragment 209; translated by C. D. Gordon, Age of Attila, p. 122. ^ History of the Wars, 5.1.6. Text and translation in H.B. Dewing, Procopius (London: Heinemann, 1968), vol. 3 p. 5. ^ a b c Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 280. ^ a b c d Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the barbarians. Oxford: New Oxford Press. p. 429. ^ a b c d e f Jones, A.H.M. (1964). The Later Roman Empire: 284-602. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 245. ^ a b c Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 282. ^ Wilhelm Ensslin, "Julius Nepos", in Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Band XVI, 2 (1935), S. 1505–1510. ^ a b MacGeorge (2002), p. 62 ^ a b Drinkwater & Elton 2002, pp. 24–25 ^ Martindale 1980, s. v. Nepotianus (2), p. 778 ^ "DIR Nepos". www.roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 2021-05-09. ^ Heather, Peter (March 2008). "The western empire, 425-76". The Cambridge Ancient History. 14: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, AD 425-600: 19 – via Cambridge Histories Online. ^ McCormick, Michael (March 2008). "Emperor and court". The Cambridge Ancient History. 14: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, AD 425-600: 149 – via Cambridge Histories Online. ^ a b MacGeorge (2002), p. 29 ^ Jordanes, "The Origins and Deeds of the Goths". Chapter XLV (45). 1915 translation by Charles C. Mierow ^ Martindale 1980, pp. 708–710, s.v. Marcellinus (6) ^ A. Kazhdan 1991, p. 1081, s.v. Julius Nepos ^ O'Flynn 1983, pp. 116–118 ^ PLRE II, pp. 777 ^ MacGeorge (2002), p42 General references[edit] Burgess, R. W., "From Gallia Romana to Gallia Gothica: the view from Spain" in Drinkwater, J.F. & Elton, Hugh (eds.), Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?, 2002, pp. 19–27 Bury, J.B., History of the Later Roman Empire Volume 2: From the Death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian, Dover Publications, (Newburyport, 2013). Demo, Zeljko (1988). "The Mint in Salona: Nepos and Ovida (474-481/2)". Studia numismatica Labacensia Alexandro Jelocnik oblata. 26: 247–270 via Academia.edu. MacGeorge, Penny (2002). Late Roman warlords. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925244-0. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Julius Nepos (19/24 June 474 – [28 August 475 – 25 April/9 May/22 June 480)" Halsall, Guy, Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568, (Cambridge, 2007). Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and barbarians, Oxford New Press, (Oxford, 2007). Heather, Peter (March 2008). "The western empire, 425–76". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 14: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, AD 425–600: – via Cambridge Histories Online. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin: The Later Roman Empire 284–602. A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey. 3 Volumes, Oxford 1964, S. 244 f. (Reprinted in 2 Volumes, Baltimore 1986). Kazhdan, A. (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991 Martindale, John R. (ed.), Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II A.D. 395–527, 1980 McCormick, Michael (March 2008). "Emperor and court". The Cambridge Ancient History. 14: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, AD 425-600: – via Cambridge Histories Online. Mitchell, Stephen, History of the Later Roman Empire AD 284-641, Second Edition, Wiley Blackwell, (Chichester 2015). O'Flynn, John Michael. Generalissimos of the Western Roman Empire External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Nepos, Julius . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iulius Nepos. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Julius Nepos (19/24 June 474 – [28 August 475 – 25 April/9 May/22 June 480)" http://www.acsearch.info/record.html?id=52935 Regnal titles Preceded by Glycerius Western Roman emperor 474–480 With: Romulus Augustulus (475–476) VacantPosition abolished, Zeno becomes sole Roman emperor Preceded by Marcellinus Military ruler of Dalmatia 468–480 Succeeded by Ovida v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-1858	----	Visigoths - Wikipedia Visigoths From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Visigoth) Jump to navigation Jump to search Gothic tribe Visigoths Visigothi The eagles represented on these fibulae from the 6th century, and found in Tierra de Barros (Badajoz), were a popular symbol among the Goths in Spain.[a] Religion Gothic paganism, Arianism, Roman Catholicism, Roman paganism Related ethnic groups Ostrogoths, Crimean Goths, Gepids Detail of the votive crown of Reccesuinth from the Treasure of Guarrazar (Toledo-Spain), hanging in Madrid. The hanging letters spell [R]ECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET [King R. offers this].[b] The Visigoths (/ˈvɪzɪɡɒθs/; Latin: Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, or what is known as the Migration Period. The Visigoths emerged from earlier Gothic groups, including a large group of Thervingi, who had moved into the Roman Empire beginning in 376 and had played a major role in defeating the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378.[1] Relations between the Romans and the Visigoths were variable, alternately warring with one another and making treaties when convenient.[2] Under their first leader, Alaric I, they invaded Italy and sacked Rome in August 410. Afterwards, they began settling down, first in southern Gaul and eventually in Hispania, where they founded the Visigothic Kingdom and maintained a presence from the 5th to the 8th centuries AD.[3] The Visigoths first settled in southern Gaul as foederati to the Romans, a relationship that was established in 418. However, they soon fell out with their Roman hosts (for reasons that are now obscure) and established their own kingdom with its capital at Toulouse. They next extended their authority into Hispania at the expense of the Suebi and Vandals. In 507, however, their rule in Gaul was ended by the Franks under Clovis I, who defeated them in the Battle of Vouillé. After that, the Visigoth kingdom was limited to Hispania, and they never again held territory north of the Pyrenees other than Septimania. An elite group of Visigoths came to dominate the governance of that region at the expense of those who had previously ruled there, particularly in the Byzantine province of Spania and the Kingdom of the Suebi. In or around 589, the Visigoths under Reccared I converted from Arianism to Nicene Christianity, gradually adopting the culture of their Hispano-Roman subjects.[4] Their legal code, the Visigothic Code (completed in 654), abolished the longstanding practice of applying different laws for Romans and Visigoths. Once legal distinctions were no longer being made between Romani and Gothi, they became known collectively as Hispani. In the century that followed, the region was dominated by the Councils of Toledo and the episcopacy. Little else is known about the Visigoths' history during the 7th century, since records are relatively sparse. In 711, an invading force of Arabs and Berbers defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Guadalete. Their king, Roderic, and many members of their governing elite were killed, and their kingdom rapidly collapsed.[5] This was followed by the subsequent formation of the Kingdom of Asturias in northern Spain and the beginning of the Reconquista by Christian troops under Pelagius.[6] During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches that survived. They also left many artefacts which have been discovered in increasing numbers by archaeologists in recent years. The Treasure of Guarrazar of votive crowns and crosses are the most spectacular. They founded the only new cities in western Europe from the fall of the Western half of the Roman Empire until the rise of the Carolingian dynasty. Many Visigothic names are still in use in modern Spanish and Portuguese languages. Their most notable legacy, however, was the Visigothic Code, which served, among other things, as the basis for court procedure in most of Christian Iberia until the Late Middle Ages, centuries after the demise of the kingdom. Contents 1 Nomenclature: Vesi, Tervingi, Visigoths 1.1 Etymology of Tervingi and Vesi/Visigothi 2 History 2.1 Early origins 2.1.1 Contact with Rome 2.2 War with Rome (376–382) 2.3 Reign of Alaric I 2.4 Visigothic Kingdom 3 Genetics 4 Culture 4.1 Law 4.2 Religion 5 Architecture 6 Goldsmithery 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Notes 8.2 Citations 9 Bibliography 10 External links Nomenclature: Vesi, Tervingi, Visigoths[edit] Further information: Name of the Goths The Visigoths were never called Visigoths, only Goths, until Cassiodorus used the term, when referring to their loss against Clovis I in 507. Cassiodorus apparently invented the term based on the model of the "Ostrogoths", but using the older name of the Vesi, one of the tribal names which the 5th century poet Sidonius Apollinaris had already used when referring to the Visigoths.[7][8] The first part of the Ostrogoth name is related to the word "east", and Jordanes, the medieval writer, later clearly contrasted them in his Getica, stating that "Visigoths were the Goths of the western country."[9] According to Wolfram, Cassiodorus created this east–west understanding of the Goths, which was a simplification and literary device, while political realities were more complex.[10] Cassiodorus himself used the term "Goths" to refer only to the Ostrogoths, whom he served, and reserved the geographical term "Visigoths" for the Gallo-Spanish Goths. The term "Visigoths" was later used by the Visigoths themselves in their communications with the Byzantine Empire, and was still in use in the 7th century.[10] Europe in 305 AD Two older tribal names from outside the Roman empire are associated with Visigoths who formed within the empire. The first references to any Gothic tribes by Roman and Greek authors were in the 3rd century, notably including the Thervingi, who were once referred to as Goths by Ammianus Marcellinus.[11] Much less is known of the "Vesi" or "Visi", from whom the term "Visigoth" was derived. Before Sidonius Apollinaris, the Vesi were first mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum, a late 4th or early 5th century list of Roman military forces. This list also contains the last mention of the "Thervingi" in a classical source.[11] Although he did not refer to the Vesi, Tervingi or Greuthungi, Jordanes identified the Visigothic kings from Alaric I to Alaric II as the successors of the 4th century Tervingian king Athanaric, and the Ostrogoth kings from Theoderic the Great to Theodahad as the heirs of the Greuthungi king Ermanaric.[12] Based on this, many scholars have traditionally treated the terms "Vesi" and "Tervingi" as referring to one distinct tribe, while the terms "Ostrogothi" and "Greuthungi" were used to refer to another.[13] Wolfram, who still recently defends the equation of Vesi with the Tervingi, argues that while primary sources occasionally list all four names (as in, for example, Gruthungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Visi), whenever they mention two different tribes, they always refer either to "the Vesi and the Ostrogothi" or to "the Tervingi and the Greuthungi", and they never pair them up in any other combination. In addition, Wolfram interprets the Notitia Dignitatum as equating the Vesi with the Tervingi in a reference to the years 388–391.[14] On the other hand, another other recent interpretation of the Notitia is that the two names, Vesi and Tervingi, are found in different places in the list, "a clear indication that we are dealing with two different army units, which must also presumably mean that they are, after all, perceived as two different peoples".[7] Peter Heather has written that Wolfram's position is "entirely arguable, but so is the opposite".[15] Gutthiuda[citation needed] Wolfram believes that "Vesi" and "Ostrogothi" were terms each tribe used to boastfully describe itself and argues that "Tervingi" and "Greuthungi" were geographical identifiers each tribe used to describe the other.[8] This would explain why the latter terms dropped out of use shortly after 400, when the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions.[16] Wolfram believes that the people Zosimus describes were those Tervingi who had remained behind after the Hunnic conquest.[17] For the most part, all of the terms discriminating between different Gothic tribes gradually disappeared after they moved into the Roman Empire.[8] Many recent scholars, such as Peter Heather, have concluded that Visigothic group identity emerged only within the Roman Empire.[18] Roger Collins also believes that the Visigothic identity emerged from the Gothic War of 376–382 when a collection of Tervingi, Greuthungi, and other "barbarian" contingents banded together in multiethnic foederati (Wolfram's "federate armies") under Alaric I in the eastern Balkans, since they had become a multi ethnic group and could no longer claim to be exclusively Tervingian.[19] Other names for other Gothic divisions abounded. In 469, the Visigoths were called the "Alaric Goths".[10] The Frankish Table of Nations, probably of Byzantine or Italian origin, referred to one of the two peoples as the Walagothi, meaning "Roman Goths" (from Germanic *walhaz, foreign). This probably refers to the Romanized Visigoths after their entry into Spain.[20] Landolfus Sagax, writing in the 10th or 11th century, calls the Visigoths the Hypogothi.[21] Etymology of Tervingi and Vesi/Visigothi[edit] The name Tervingi may mean "forest people", with the first part of the name related to Gothic triu, and English "tree".[8] This is supported by evidence that geographic descriptors were commonly used to distinguish people living north of the Black Sea both before and after Gothic settlement there, by evidence of forest-related names among the Tervingi, and by the lack of evidence for an earlier date for the name pair Tervingi–Greuthungi than the late 3rd century.[22] That the name Tervingi has pre-Pontic, possibly Scandinavian, origins still has support today.[23] The Visigoths are called Wesi or Wisi by Trebellius Pollio, Claudian, and Sidonius Apollinaris.[24] The word is Gothic for "good", implying the "good or worthy people",[8] related to Gothic iusiza "better" and a reflex of Indo-European *wesu "good", akin to Welsh gwiw "excellent", Greek eus "good", Sanskrit vásu-ş "id.". Jordanes relates the tribe's name to a river, though this is most likely a folk etymology or legend like his similar story about the Greuthung name.[23] History[edit] Migrations of the main column of the Visigoths Early origins[edit] The Visigoths emerged from the Gothic tribes, most likely a derivative name for the Gutones, a people believed to have their origins in Scandinavia and who migrated southeastwards into eastern Europe.[25] Such understanding of their origins is largely the result of Gothic traditions and their true genesis as a people is as obscure as that of the Franks and Alamanni.[26] The Visigoths spoke an eastern Germanic language that was distinct by the 4th century. Eventually the Gothic language died as a result of contact with other European people during the Middle Ages.[27] Long struggles between the neighboring Vandelli and Luigi people with the Goths may have contributed to their earlier exodus into mainland Europe. The vast majority of them settled between the Oder and Vistula rivers until overpopulation (according to Gothic legends or tribal sagas) forced them to move south and east, where they settled just north of the Black Sea.[28] However, this legend is not supported by archaeological evidence so its validity is disputable. Historian Malcolm Todd contends that while this large en masse migration is possible, the movement of Gothic peoples south-east was more likely the result of warrior bands moving closer to the wealth of Ukraine and the cities of the Black Sea coast. Perhaps what is most notable about the Gothic people in this regard was that by the middle of the 3rd century AD, they were "the most formidable military power beyond the lower Danube frontier".[29][30] Contact with Rome[edit] The Pietroasele Treasure discovered in Romania, attributed to the Visigoths[31] Throughout the third and fourth centuries there were numerous conflicts and exchanges of varying types between the Goths and their neighbors. After the Romans withdrew from the territory of Dacia, the local population was subjected to constant invasions by the migratory tribes, among the first being the Goths.[32] In 238, the Goths invaded across the Danube into the Roman province of Moesia, pillaging and exacting payment through hostage taking. During the war with the Persians that year, Goths also appeared in the Roman armies of Gordian III.[33] When subsidies to the Goths were stopped, the Goths organized and in 250 joined a major barbarian invasion led by the Germanic king, Kniva.[33] Success on the battlefield against the Romans inspired additional invasions into the northern Balkans and deeper into Anatolia.[34] Starting in approximately 255, the Goths added a new dimension to their attacks by taking to the sea and invading harbors which brought them into conflict with the Greeks as well. When the city of Pityus fell to the Goths in 256, the Goths were further emboldened. Sometime between 266–267, the Goths raided Greece but when they attempted to move into the Bosporus straits to attack Byzantium, they were repulsed. Along with other Germanic tribes, they attacked further into Anatolia, assaulting Crete and Cyprus on the way; shortly thereafter, they pillaged Troy and the temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[35] Throughout the reign of emperor Constantine the Great, the Visigoths continued to conduct raids on Roman territory south of the Danube River.[27] By 332, relations between the Goths and Romans were stabilized by a treaty but this was not to last.[36] War with Rome (376–382)[edit] Main article: Gothic War (376–382) The Goths remained in Dacia until 376, when one of their leaders, Fritigern, appealed to the Roman emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube. Here, they hoped to find refuge from the Huns.[37] Valens permitted this, as he saw in them "a splendid recruiting ground for his army".[38] However, a famine broke out and Rome was unwilling to supply them with either the food they were promised or the land. Generally, the Goths were abused by the Romans,[39] who began forcing the now starving Goths to trade away their children so as to stave off starvation.[40] Open revolt ensued, leading to 6 years of plundering throughout the Balkans, the death of a Roman Emperor and a disastrous defeat of the Roman army.[41] The Battle of Adrianople in 378 was the decisive moment of the war. The Roman forces were slaughtered and the Emperor Valens was killed during the fighting.[42] Precisely how Valens fell remains uncertain but Gothic legend tells of how the emperor was taken to a farmhouse, which was set on fire above his head, a tale made more popular by its symbolic representation of a heretical emperor receiving hell's torment.[43] Many of Rome's leading officers and some of their most elite fighting men died during the battle which struck a major blow to Roman prestige and the Empire's military capabilities.[44] Adrianople shocked the Roman world and eventually forced the Romans to negotiate with and settle the tribe within the empire's boundaries, a development with far-reaching consequences for the eventual fall of Rome. Fourth-century Roman soldier and historian Ammianus Marcellinus ended his chronology of Roman history with this battle.[45] Despite the severe consequences for Rome, Adrianople was not nearly as productive overall for the Visigoths and their gains were short-lived. Still confined to a small and relatively impoverished province of the Empire, another Roman army was being gathered against them, an army which also had amid its ranks other disaffected Goths.[46] Intense campaigns against the Visigoths followed their victory at Adrianople for upwards of three years. Approach routes across the Danube provinces were effectively sealed off by concerted Roman efforts, and while there was no decisive victory to claim, it was essentially a Roman triumph ending in a treaty in 382. The treaty struck with the Goths was to be the first foedus on imperial Roman soil. It required these semi-autonomous Germanic tribes to raise troops for the Roman army in exchange for arable land and freedom from Roman legal structures within the Empire[47][c]. Reign of Alaric I[edit] An illustration of Alaric entering Athens in 395 Main article: Alaric I The new emperor, Theodosius I, made peace with the rebels, and this peace held essentially unbroken until Theodosius died in 395.[49] In that year, the Visigoths' most famous king, Alaric I, made a bid for the throne, but controversy and intrigue erupted between the East and West, as General Stilicho tried to maintain his position in the empire.[50] Theodosius was succeeded by his incompetent sons: Arcadius in the east and Honorius in the west. In 397, Alaric was named military commander of the eastern Illyrian prefecture by Arcadius.[39] Over the next 15 years, an uneasy peace was broken by occasional conflicts between Alaric and the powerful Germanic generals who commanded the Roman armies in the east and west, wielding the real power of the empire.[51] Finally, after the western general Stilicho was executed by Honorius in 408 and the Roman legions massacred the families of thousands of barbarian soldiers who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire, Alaric decided to march on Rome.[52] After two defeats in Northern Italy and a siege of Rome ended by a negotiated pay-off, Alaric was cheated by another Roman faction. He resolved to cut the city off by capturing its port. On August 24, 410, however, Alaric's troops entered Rome through the Salarian Gate, and sacked the city.[53] However, Rome, while still the official capital, was no longer the de facto seat of the government of the Western Roman Empire. From the late 370s up to 402, Milan was the seat of government, but after the siege of Milan the Imperial Court moved to Ravenna in 402. Honorius visited Rome often, and after his death in 423 the emperors resided mostly there. Rome's fall severely shook the Empire's confidence, especially in the West. Loaded with booty, Alaric and the Visigoths extracted as much as they could with the intention of leaving Italy from Basilicata to northern Africa. Alaric died before the disembarkation and was buried supposedly near the ruins of Croton. He was succeeded by his wife's brother.[54] Visigothic Kingdom[edit] Main article: Visigothic Kingdom Europe at the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD The Visigothic Kingdom was a Western European power in the 5th to 8th centuries, created first in Gaul, when the Romans lost their control of the western half of their empire and then in Hispania until 711. For a brief period, the Visigoths controlled the strongest kingdom in Western Europe.[55] In response to the invasion of Roman Hispania of 409 by the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, Honorius, the emperor in the West, enlisted the aid of the Visigoths to regain control of the territory. From 408 to 410 the Visigoths caused so much damage to Rome and the immediate periphery that nearly a decade later, the provinces in and around the city were only able to contribute one-seventh of their previous tax shares.[56] In 418, Honorius rewarded his Visigothic federates by giving them land in Gallia Aquitania on which to settle after they had attacked the four tribes—Sueves, Asding and Siling Vandals, as well as Alans—who had crossed the Rhine near Mainz the last day of 409 and eventually were invited into Spain by a Roman usurper in the Fall of 409 (the latter two tribes were devastated). This was probably done under hospitalitas, the rules for billeting army soldiers.[57] The settlement formed the nucleus of the future Visigothic kingdom that would eventually expand across the Pyrenees and onto the Iberian peninsula. That Visigothic settlement proved paramount to Europe's future as had it not been for the Visigothic warriors who fought side by side with the Roman troops under general Flavius Aetius, it is perhaps possible that Attila would have seized control of Gaul, rather than the Romans being able to retain dominance.[58] The Visigoths' second great king, Euric, unified the various quarreling factions among the Visigoths and, in 475, forced the Roman government to come to terms, but the emperor did not legally recognize Gothic sovereignty; instead the emperor was content to be called a friend (amicus) to the Visigoths, while requiring them to address him as lord (dominus).[59] Between 471–476, Euric captured most of southern Gaul.[60] According to historian J. B. Bury, Euric was probably the "greatest of the Visigothic kings" for he managed to secure territorial gains denied to his predecessors and even acquired access to the Mediterranean Sea.[61] At his death, the Visigoths were the most powerful of the successor states to the Western Roman Empire and were at the very height of their power.[62] Not only had Euric secured significant territory, he and his son, Alaric II, who succeeded him, adopted Roman administrative and bureaucratic governance, including Rome's tax gathering policies and legal codes.[63] Greatest extent of the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in light and dark orange, c. 500. From 585 to 711 Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo in dark orange, green, and white (Hispania). At this point, the Visigoths were also the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula, quickly crushing the Alans and forcing the Vandals into north Africa.[64] By 500, the Visigothic Kingdom, centred at Toulouse, controlled Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis and most of Hispania with the exception of the Kingdom of the Suebi in the northwest and small areas controlled by the Basques and Cantabrians.[65] Any survey of western Europe taken during this moment would have led one to conclude that the very future of Europe itself "depended on the Visigoths".[66] However, in 507, the Franks under Clovis I defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Vouillé and wrested control of Aquitaine.[67] King Alaric II was killed in battle.[62] French national myths romanticize this moment as the time when a previously divided Gaul morphed into the united kingdom of Francia under Clovis.[68] Visigothic power throughout Gaul was not lost in its entirety due to the support from the powerful Ostrogothic king in Italy, Theodoric the Great, whose forces pushed Clovis I and his armies out of Visigothic territories.[67] Theodoric the Great's assistance was not some expression of ethnic altruism, but formed part of his plan to extend his power across Spain and its associated lands.[67] After Alaric II's death, Visigothic nobles spirited his heir, the child-king Amalaric, first to Narbonne, which was the last Gothic outpost in Gaul, and further across the Pyrenees into Hispania. The center of Visigothic rule shifted first to Barcelona, then inland and south to Toledo.[69] From 511 to 526, the Visigoths were ruled by Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths as de jure regent for the young Amalaric. Theodoric's death in 526, however, enabled the Visigoths to restore their royal line and re-partition the Visigothic kingdom through Amalaric, who incidentally, was more than just Alaric II's son; he was also the grandson of Theodoric the Great through his daughter Theodegotho.[70] Amalaric reigned independently for five years.[71] Following Amalaric's assassination in 531, another Ostrogothic ruler, Theudis took his place.[64] For the next seventeen years, Theudis held the Visigothic throne.[72] Sometime in 549, the Visigoth Athanagild sought military assistance from Justinian I and while this aide helped Athanagild win his wars, the Romans had much more in mind.[64] Granada and southernmost Baetica were lost to representatives of the Byzantine Empire (to form the province of Spania) who had been invited in to help settle this Visigothic dynastic struggle, but who stayed on, as a hoped-for spearhead to a "Reconquest" of the far west envisaged by emperor Justinian I.[73] Imperial Roman armies took advantage of Visigothic rivalries and established a government at Córdoba.[74] Visigothic Hispania and its regional divisions in 700, before the Muslim conquest The last Arian Visigothic king, Liuvigild, conquered most of the northern regions (Cantabria) in 574, the Suevic kingdom in 584, and regained part of the southern areas lost to the Byzantines,[75] which King Suintila recovered in 624.[76] Suintila reigned until 631.[77] Only one historical source was written between the years 625 through 711, which comes from Julian of Toledo and only deals with the years 672 and 673.[78] Wamba was the king of the Visigoths from 672 to 680.[78] During his reign, the Visigothic kingdom encompassed all of Hispania and part of southern Gaul known as Septimania. Wamba was succeeded by King Ervig, whose rule lasted until 687.[79] Collins observes that "Ervig proclaimed Egica as his chosen successor" on 14 November 687.[80] In 700, Egica's son Wittiza followed him on the throne according to the Chronica Regum Visigothorum.[81] The kingdom survived until 711, when King Roderic (Rodrigo) was killed while opposing an invasion from the south by the Umayyad Caliphate in the Battle of Guadalete. This marked the beginning of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, when most of Spain came under Islamic rule in the early 8th century.[82] A Visigothic nobleman, Pelayo, is credited with beginning the Christian Reconquista of Iberia in 718, when he defeated the Umayyad forces in the Battle of Covadonga and established the Kingdom of Asturias in the northern part of the peninsula.[83] According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace.[84] Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, the gens Gothorum or the Hispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.[85] Other Visigoths who refused to adopt the Muslim faith or live under their rule, fled north to the kingdom of the Franks, and Visigoths played key roles in the empire of Charlemagne a few generations later. In the early years of the Emirate of Córdoba, a group of Visigoths who remained under Muslim dominance constituted the personal bodyguard of the Emir, al-Haras.[86] During their long reign in Spain, the Visigoths were responsible for the only new cities founded in Western Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries. It is certain (through contemporary Spanish accounts) that they founded four: Reccopolis, Victoriacum (modern Vitoria-Gasteiz, though perhaps Iruña-Veleia), Luceo, and Olite. There is also a possible fifth city ascribed to them by a later Arabic source: Baiyara (perhaps modern Montoro). All of these cities were founded for military purposes and three of them in celebration of victory. Despite the fact that the Visigoths reigned in Spain for upwards of 250 years, there are few remnants of the Gothic language borrowed into Spanish.[87][d][e] The Visigoths as heirs of the Roman empire lost their language and intermarried with the Hispano-Roman population of Spain.[89] Genetics[edit] Further information: Goths § Genetics, Lombards § Genetics, Baiuvarii § Genetics, Alemanni § Genetics, and Visigoths § Genetics A genetic study published in Science in March 2019 examined the remains of eight Visigoths buried at Pla de l'Horta in the 6th century AD. These individuals displayed genetic links to northern and central Europe.[90] Culture[edit] See also: Visigothic art and architecture and Visigothic script Law[edit] The Visigothic Code of Law (Latin: Forum Iudicum), also called Liber Iudiciorum ( English: Book of the Judges) and Lex Visigothorum (English: Law of the Visigoths), is a set of laws first promulgated by king Chindasuinth (642–653 AD) which had been part of aristocratic oral tradition, was set in writing in the year 654 and survives in two separate codices preserved at el Escorial (Spain). It goes into more detail than a modern constitution commonly does and reveals a great deal about Visigothic social structure.[91] The code abolished the old tradition of having different laws for Romans (leges romanae) and Visigoths (leges barbarorum), and under which all the subjects of the Visigothic kingdom ceased being romani and gothi and instead became hispani. All the kingdom's subjects were under the same jurisdiction, which eliminated social and legal differences and facilitated greater assimilation of the various population groups. [92] The Visigothic Code marks the transition from Roman law to Germanic law. One of the greatest contributions of the Visigoths to family law was their protection of the property rights of married women, which was continued by Spanish law and ultimately evolved into the community property system now in force throughout the majority of western Europe.[93] Religion[edit] Before the Middle Ages, the Visigoths, as well as other Germanic peoples, followed what is now referred to as Germanic paganism.[94] While the Germanic peoples were slowly converted to Christianity by varying means, many elements of the pre-Christian culture and indigenous beliefs remained firmly in place after the conversion process, particularly in the more rural and distant regions.[95] The Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals were Christianized while they were still outside the bounds of the Roman Empire; however, they converted to Arianism rather than to the Nicene version (Trinitarianism) followed by most Romans, who considered them heretics.[96] There was a religious gulf between the Visigoths, who had for a long time adhered to Arianism, and their Catholic subjects in Hispania. There were also deep sectarian splits among the Catholic population of the peninsula which contributed to the toleration of the Arian Visigoths on the peninsula. The Visigoths scorned to interfere among Catholics but were interested in decorum and public order.[f] King Liuvigild (568–586), attempted to restore political unity between the Visigothic-Arian elite and the Hispano-Roman Nicene Catholic population through a doctrinal settlement of compromise on matters of faith, but this failed.[97] Sources indicate that the Iberian Visigoths maintained their Christian Arianism, especially the Visigothic elite until the end of Liuvigild's reign.[98] When Reccared I converted to Catholicism, he sought to unify the kingdom under a single faith.[99][100] Capital from the Visigothic church of San Pedro de la Nave, province of Zamora While the Visigoths remained their Arian faith, the Jews were well-tolerated. Previous Roman and Byzantine law determined their status, and it already sharply discriminated against them, but royal jurisdiction was in any case quite limited: local lords and populations related to Jews as they saw fit. We read of rabbis being asked by non-Jews to bless their fields, for example.[101] Historian Jane Gerber relates that some of the Jews "held ranking posts in the government or the army; others were recruited and organized for garrison service; still others continued to hold senatorial rank".[102] In general, then, they were well respected and well-treated by the Visigothic kings, that is, until their transition from Arianism to Catholicism.[103] Conversion to Catholicism across Visigothic society reduced much of the friction between the Visigoths and the Hispano-Roman population.[104] However, the Visigothic conversion negatively impacted the Jews, who came under scrutiny for their religious practices.[105] King Reccared convened the Third Council of Toledo to settle religious disputations related to the religious conversion from Arianism to Catholicism.[106] The discriminatory laws passed at this Council seem not to have been universally enforced, however, as indicated by several more Councils of Toledo that repeated these laws and extended their stringency. These entered canon law and became legal precedents in other parts of Europe as well. The culmination of this process occurred under King Sisibut, who officially decreed a forced Christian conversion upon all Jews residing in Spain.[107] This mandate apparently achieved only partial success: similar decrees were repeated by later kings as central power was consolidated. These laws either prescribed forcible baptism of the Jews or forbade circumcision, Jewish rites, and the observance of the Sabbath and other festivals. Throughout the seventh century the Jews were persecuted for religious reasons, had their property confiscated, were subjected to ruinous taxes, forbidden to trade and, at times, dragged to the baptismal font. Many were obliged to accept Christianity but continued privately to observe the Jewish religion and practices.[108] The decree of 613 set off a century of torment for Spanish Jewry, which was only ended by the Muslim conquest.[g] The political aspects of the imposition of Church power cannot be ignored in these matters. With the conversion of the Visigothic kings to Chalcedonian Christianity, the bishops increased their power, until, at the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633, they selected a king from among the royal family, a practice previously reserved for nobles. This was the same synod that spoke out against those who had been baptized but had relapsed into Judaism. As far as the Visigoths were concerned, the time for religious pluralism "was past".[109] By the end of the 7th century, Catholic conversion made the Visigoths less distinguishable from the indigenous Roman citizens of the Iberian peninsula; when the last Visigothic strongholds fell to the Muslim armies, whose subsequent invasions transformed Spain from the beginning of the 8th century, their Gothic identity faded.[110] In the eighth through 11th centuries, the muwallad clan of the Banu Qasi claimed descent from the Visigothic Count Cassius.[111] Architecture[edit] Visigothic church, San Pedro de la Nave. Zamora. Spain During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches in the basilical or cruciform style that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas.[112] The Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in the Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.[113] Reccopolis, located near the tiny modern village of Zorita de los Canes in the province of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain, is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded in Hispania by the Visigoths. It is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries.[h] The city's construction was ordered by the Visigothic king Liuvigild to honor his son Reccared and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province of Celtiberia, to the west of Carpetania, where the main capital, Toledo, lay.[114] Goldsmithery[edit] In Spain, an important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in Guadamur, in the Province of Toledo, known as the Treasure of Guarrazar. This archeological find is composed of twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with signs of Byzantine influence. According to Spanish archaeologists, this treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery.[115] The two most important votive crowns are those of Recceswinth and of Suintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones. Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered. There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure. Detail of the votive crown of Recceswinth, hanging in Madrid. The hanging letters spell [R]ECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET [King R. offers this].[i] These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of: National Archaeological Museum of Spain: six crowns, five crosses, a pendant and remnants of foil and channels (almost all of gold). Royal Palace of Madrid: a crown and a gold cross and a stone engraved with the Annunciation. A crown, and other fragments of a tiller with a crystal ball were stolen from the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1921 and its whereabouts are still unknown. National Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris: three crowns, two crosses, links and gold pendants. The aquiliform (eagle-shaped) fibulae that have been discovered in necropolises such as Duraton, Madrona or Castiltierra (cities of Segovia), are an unmistakable example of the Visigothic presence in Spain. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania. Visigothic belt buckle. Copper alloy with garnets, glass, and inclusion of lapis lazuli. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York). The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptional Byzantine-style lapis lazuli inlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass.[116][j] See also[edit] Romano-Germanic culture Thiufa References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Pair of Eagle Fibula Walters Art Museum ^ The first R is held at the Musée de Cluny, Paris ^ Other sources dispute the contents of the supposed "treaty" and claim it was a Gothic surrender.[48] ^ The Words such as: werra > guerra (war), falda > falda (skirt) and skankjan > escanciar (to pour out); See: La época visigoda Susana Rodríguez Rosique (spanish) in Cervantes Virtual. Accessed 15 October 2017. ^ The linguistic remnants of the Gothic people in Spain are sparse. A few place names and a mere handful of well-known "Spanish" first names, such as Alfonso, Fernando, Gonzalo, Elvira, and Rodrigo are of Germanic (Visigothic) origin.[88] ^ At least one high-ranking Visigoth, Zerezindo, dux of Baetica, was a Catholic in the mid-6th century. ^ Cf. the extensive accounts of Visigothic Jewish history by Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, Vol. 3 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956 reprint [1894]), pp. 43–52 (on Sisibut, pp. 47–49); Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Vol. 3 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), pp. 33–46 (on Sisibut pp. 37–38); N. Roth, Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict (Leiden: Brill, 1994), pp. 7–40; Ram Ben-Shalom, "Medieval Jewry in Christendom," in M. Goodman, J. Cohen and D. Sorkin, The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 156. ^ According to E. A Thompson, "The Barbarian Kingdoms in Gaul and Spain", Nottingham Mediaeval Studies, 7 (1963:4n11), the others were (i) Victoriacum, founded by Leovigild and may survive as the city of Vitoria, but a twelfth-century foundation for this city is given in contemporary sources, (ii) Lugo id est Luceo in the Asturias, referred to by Isidore of Seville, and (iii) Ologicus (perhaps Ologitis), founded using Basque labour in 621 by Suinthila as a fortification against the Basques, is modern Olite. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and at least Reccopolis, Victoriacum, and Ologicus in celebration of victory. A possible fifth Visigothic foundation is Baiyara (perhaps modern Montoro), mentioned as founded by Reccared in the fifteenth-century geographical account, Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar, cf. José María Lacarra, "Panorama de la historia urbana en la Península Ibérica desde el siglo V al X," La città nell'alto medioevo, 6 (1958:319–358). Reprinted in Estudios de alta edad media española (Valencia: 1975), pp. 25–90. ^ The first R is held at the Musée de Cluny, Paris. ^ Important findings have also been made in the Visigothic necropolis of Castiltierra (Segovia) in Spain. See the following downloadable pdf from the National Archaeological Museum-Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Spain for more information: http://www.man.es/man/dam/jcr:eb7fea42-15c8-4b6b-b18c-4d940b2656a5/2018-castiltierra-ii.pdf Citations[edit] ^ Heather 1998, pp. 52–57, 300–301. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 843. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 843–844. ^ Claude 1998, pp. 119–120. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, pp. 91–92. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 98. ^ a b Christensen 2002, p. 219. ^ a b c d e Wolfram 1988, p. 25. ^ Jordanes 1915, p. 74 [XIV.82]. ^ a b c Wolfram 1988, p. 26. ^ a b Christensen 2002, pp. 207–212. ^ Heather 1998, pp. 300–301. ^ Heather 1999, pp. 43–44. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 24–25. ^ Heather 1999, p. 75. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 24. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn57. ^ Heather 1998, pp. 52–57, 130–178, 302–309. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 22–24. ^ Goffart 1983, pp. 125–126. ^ Friedrich 1910, p. 14. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 387–388, fn58. ^ a b Wolfram 1988, p. 387, fn58. ^ Stevenson 1899, p. 36, fn15. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 39–40. ^ Todd & 100000, p. 149. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTodd100000 (help) ^ a b Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 844. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 42–43. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 149–150. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 42–55. ^ Odobescu 1889, p. 1-100. ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 11. ^ a b Todd 2000, p. 150. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 150–151. ^ Todd 2000, p. 151. ^ Todd 2000, p. 152. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 844–845. ^ Fuller 1998, p. 55. ^ a b Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 845. ^ Durant 1950, p. 24. ^ Durant 1950, pp. 24–25. ^ Sarris 2002, p. 36. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 178–179. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 179. ^ Katz 1955, pp. 88–89. ^ Todd 2000, p. 154. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 179–180. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 180–181. ^ Burns 2003, pp. 322, 374. ^ Heather 2013, pp. 153–160. ^ Heather 2013, pp. 183–223. ^ Frassetto 2003, pp. 204–205. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 214–217. ^ Collins 1999, pp. 63–65. ^ Williams 2004, p. 51. ^ Heather 2005, p. 434. ^ Sivan 1987, pp. 759–772. ^ Burns 2003, p. 382. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 186–187. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 358. ^ Bury 2000, pp. 211–212. ^ a b Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 846. ^ Frassetto 2003, pp. 358–359. ^ a b c Carr 2004, p. 421. ^ Todd 2000, p. 165. ^ Bury 2000, p. 213. ^ a b c Frassetto 2003, p. 359. ^ Heather 2013, p. 70. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 243–245. ^ Heather 2013, p. 93. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 245. ^ Heather 2013, p. 94. ^ Roberts 1997, pp. 82–85. ^ Roberts 1997, p. 82. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 51–53. ^ Arce 1999, p. 4. ^ Collins 2004, p. 69. ^ a b Collins 2004, p. 70. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 102–104. ^ Collins 2004, p. 105. ^ Collins 2004, p. 109. ^ Roberts 1997, pp. 96–100. ^ Williams 2004, p. 60. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 176. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 286. ^ Wolf 2014, pp. 14–15. ^ Ostler 2006, p. 307. ^ Todd 2000, p. 175. ^ Nadeau & Barlow 2013, pp. 28–35. ^ Olalde 2019. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 6–8. ^ O'Callaghan 1975, p. 49. ^ Coolidge 2011, pp. 17–25. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 58, 66, 72–74. ^ James 2009, pp. 215–225. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 75–79. ^ Heather 2013, p. 325. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 265–269. ^ Frassetto 2003, p. 304. ^ Mathisen & Sivan 1999, p. 40. ^ Graetz 1894, p. 44. ^ Gerber 1992, p. 9. ^ Roth 1994, pp. 35–40. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 847. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 59–60. ^ Collins 1999, pp. 211–212. ^ Collins 2000, p. 60. ^ Gonzalez-Salinero 1999, pp. 140–147. ^ Lim 1999, pp. 209–210. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 60–62. ^ Fletcher 2006, p. 45. ^ Galeano 2016. ^ Salvador Conejo, Cripta visigoda de San Antolín. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 55–56. ^ Guerra, Galligaro & Perea 2007, pp. 53–74. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, "Belt Buckle 550–600". 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"The Eastern Roman Empire from Constantine to Heraclius, 306–641". In Cyril Mango (ed.). The Oxford History of Byzantium. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19814-098-6. Sivan, Hagith (1987). "On Foederati, Hospitalitas, and the Settlement of the Goths in A.D. 418". American Journal of Philology. 108 (4): 759–772. doi:10.2307/294799. JSTOR 294799. Stevenson, W. H. (1899). "The Beginnings of Wessex". The English Historical Review. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 14 (53): 32–46. JSTOR 548095. Todd, Malcolm (2000). The Early Germans. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-63119-904-5. Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0816049646. Williams, Mark (2004). The Story of Spain. San Mateo, CA: Golden Era Books. ISBN 978-0-97069-692-2. Wolf, Kenneth Baxter (2014). Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-10763-481-7. Wolfram, Herwig (1988). History of the Goths. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52005-259-8. Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08511-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Visigoths. Lex Visigothorum Visigothic Symposia v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Authority control: National libraries Japan Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visigoths&oldid=1027090412" Categories: Visigoths Early Germanic peoples Iron Age peoples of Europe 5th century in sub-Roman Gaul History of Asturias Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata "Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1866	----	Roman–Persian Wars - Wikipedia Roman–Persian Wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Series of wars between ancient Greco-Roman and Iranian states Roman–Persian Wars Date 54 BC – 628 AD (681 years) Location Mesopotamia, Syria, Southern Levant, Egypt, Transcaucasus, Atropatene, Asia Minor, Balkans, Aegean Sea Belligerents Roman Republic, succeeded by Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire later Clients/allies Albania Araba Armenia Aksumites Commagene Germans Ghassanids Goths Western Turkic Khaganate Herules Iberia Khazars Kindah Lazica Nabatea Osroene Palmyra Pontus Parthian Empire, succeeded by Sasanian Empire Clients/allies Adiabene Albania Araba Armenia Avars Himyar Iberia Jews Lakhmids Lazica Media Atropatene Osroene Sabirs Sclaveni Xionites Commanders and leaders Crassus † Mark Antony Nero Trajan Lucius Verus Septimius Severus Caracalla Macrinus Alexander Severus Gordian III † Valerian (POW) Balista Carus † Galerius Constantius II Julian † Jovian Valens Anastasius I Justinian Tiberius II Constantine Maurice Phocas Heraclius Clients/allies Hyrcanus II (POW) Phasael (POW) Herod Artavasdes II of Armenia Tigranes VI of Armenia Antiochus IV of Commagene Polemon II of Pontus Aristobulus of Chalcis Parthamaspates of Parthia Sanatruq II Arshak II of Armenia Mushegh I Mamikonian Pharas the Herulian Odaenathus Gubazes I of Lazica Vakhtang I of Iberia Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith † Gubazes II of Lazica Tzath I of Lazica Al-Harith ibn Jabalah Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith Ziebel Orodes II Artabanus III Vologases I Osroes I Sinatruces II Vologases IV Ardashir I Shapur I Narseh Shapur II Bahram V Yazdegerd II Kavadh I Khosrau I Bahram VI Khosrau II Clients/allies Quintus Labienus  Antigonus II Mattathias  Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene Tiridates I of Armenia Monobazus II of Adiabene Meharaspes of Adiabene Mirian III of Iberia 'Amr ibn Imru' al-Qays Grumbates Urnayr of Caucasian Albania Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man Gubazes II of Lazica Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir (POW) Stephen I of Iberia † Nehemiah ben Hushiel  Benjamin of Tiberias v t e Roman–Persian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Caesar's planned invasion Pompeian–Parthian invasion Cilician Gates Amanus Pass Mt Gindarus Mark Antony's campaigns Armenian War of 58–63 Trajan's Parthian campaign Lucius Verus' campaigns 2nd Ctesiphon Parthian war of Caracalla Nisibis Roman–Sasanian wars Nisibis (235) Hatra Resaena Misiche Nisibis (252) Barbalissos Antioch Dura-Europos Edessa Caesarea (260) 3rd Ctesiphon Carrhae (296) Satala Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 1st Singara Amida 2nd Singara Julian's Persian War Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Bagrevand Byzantine–Sasanian wars War of 421–422 War of 440 Anastasian War Iberian War Lazic War War of 572–591 War of 602–628 The Roman–Persian Wars, also known as the Roman–Iranian Wars, were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco-Roman world and two successive Iranian empires: the Parthian and the Sasanian. Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 54 BC;[1] wars began under the late Republic, and continued through the Roman (later Byzantine) and Sasanian empires. Various vassal kingdoms and allied nomadic nations in the form of buffer states and proxies also played a role. The wars were ended by the Arab Muslim Conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them. Although warfare between the Romans and Persians continued over seven centuries, the frontier, aside from shifts in the north, remained largely stable. A game of tug of war ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century, they were similar and evenly matched.[2] The expense of resources during the Roman–Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Caliphate, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman–Persian war. Benefiting from their weakened condition, the Arab Muslim armies swiftly conquered the entire Sasanian Empire, and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of its territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, and the rest of North Africa. Over the following centuries, more of the Eastern Roman Empire came under Muslim rule. Contents 1 Historical background 2 Roman–Parthian wars 2.1 Roman Republic vs. Parthia 2.2 Roman Empire vs. Parthia 3 Roman–Sasanian wars 3.1 Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts 4 Byzantine–Sasanian wars 4.1 Anastasian War 4.2 Iberian War 4.3 Justinian vs. Khosrau I 4.4 War for the Caucasus 4.5 Climax 5 Aftermath 6 Strategies and military tactics 7 Assessments 8 Historiography 9 References 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 9.3 Citations 10 Further reading 11 External links Historical background[edit] Rome, Parthia and Seleucid Empire in 200 BC. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid-held territories, and become the strongest states in western Asia. According to James Howard-Johnston, "from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD, the rival players [in the East] were grand polities with imperial pretensions, which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides".[3] The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the Seleucid Empire. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern Iran. Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids, in the 2nd century BC they broke away, and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers, and through the course of the 3rd and early 1st century BC, they had conquered Persia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia.[4][5][6] Ruled by the Arsacid dynasty, the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and established several eponymous branches in the Caucasus, namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia, the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania. Meanwhile, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in Anatolia in the early 2nd century BC, after defeating Antiochus III the Great at Thermopylae and Magnesia. Finally, in 64 BC Pompey conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria, extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the Euphrates, where it met the territory of the Parthians.[6] Roman–Parthian wars[edit] Roman Republic vs. Parthia[edit] Main articles: Battle of Carrhae, Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire, Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC, and Antony's Parthian War A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian warrior wearing a Hellenistic-style helmet, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of Nisa, Turkmenistan, 2nd century BC Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I and was revived by Mithridates II, who negotiated unsuccessfully with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for a Roman–Parthian alliance (c. 105 BC).[7] When Lucullus invaded Southern Armenia and led an attack against Tigranes in 69 BC, he corresponded with Phraates III to dissuade him from intervening. Although the Parthians remained neutral, Lucullus considered attacking them.[8] In 66–65 BC, Pompey reached agreement with Phraates, and Roman–Parthian troops invaded Armenia, but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary. Finally, Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia, except for the western district of Osroene, which became a Roman dependency.[9] The Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results; he and his son Publius were killed at the Battle of Carrhae by the Parthians under General Surena;[10] this was the worst Roman defeat since the battle of Arausio. The Parthians raided Syria the following year, and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC, but their army was caught in an ambush near Antigonea by the Romans, and they were driven back.[11] The Parthians largely remained neutral during Caesar's Civil War, fought between forces supporting Julius Caesar and forces supporting Pompey and the traditional faction of the Roman Senate. However, they maintained relations with Pompey, and after his defeat and death, a force under Pacorus I assisted the Pompeian general Q. Caecilius Bassus, who was besieged at Apamea Valley by Caesarian forces. With the civil war over, Julius Caesar prepared a campaign against Parthia, but his assassination averted the war. The Parthians supported Brutus and Cassius during the ensuing Liberators' civil war and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC.[12] After the Liberators' defeat, the Parthians invaded Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman Quintus Labienus, a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius. They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into Judea, overthrowing the Roman client Hyrcanus II and installing his nephew Antigonus. For a moment, the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands. However, the conclusion of the second Roman civil war soon revived Roman strength in Asia.[13] Mark Antony had sent Ventidius to oppose Labienus, who had invaded Anatolia. Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces, and, although reinforced by the Parthians, was defeated, taken prisoner, and killed. After suffering a further defeat near the Syrian Gates, the Parthians withdrew from Syria. They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius, and Pacorus was killed. In Judaea, Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by Herod in 37 BC.[14] With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored, Mark Antony led a huge army into Atropatene, but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out, while his Armenian allies deserted. Failing to make progress against Parthian positions, the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties. Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the Median king against Octavian and the Parthians. Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw, and the whole region came under Parthian control.[15] Roman Empire vs. Parthia[edit] Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors in 1 AD Main articles: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Trajan's Parthian campaign, Roman–Parthian War of 161–166, and Parthian war of Caracalla With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war, Octavian and Phraataces worked out a compromise in 1 AD. According to the agreement, Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a de facto Roman protectorate there. Nonetheless, Roman–Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades.[16] The decision of the Parthian King Artabanus III to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD, which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia.[17] War erupted in 58 AD, after the Parthian King Vologases I forcibly installed his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne.[18] Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a Cappadocian prince, triggering an inconclusive war. This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor.[19] A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. The Emperor Trajan invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces. He captured the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, before sailing downriver to the Persian Gulf.[20] However, uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories, while a major Jewish revolt broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions, and the Roman garrisons at Seleucia, Nisibis and Edessa were expelled by the local inhabitants. Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, but having installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates on the throne as a client ruler, he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria. Trajan died in 117, before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces.[21] Trajan's Parthian War initiated a "shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire' ", but his successor, Hadrian, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. Hadrian returned to the status quo ante, and surrendered the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Adiabene to their previous rulers and client-kings.[22] Reliefs depicting war with Parthia on the Arch of Septimius Severus, built to commemorate the Roman victories War over Armenia broke out again in 161, when Vologases IV defeated the Romans there, captured Edessa and ravaged Syria. In 163 a Roman counter-attack under Statius Priscus defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne. The following year Avidius Cassius invaded Mesopotamia, winning battles at Dura-Europos and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165. An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time, possibly of smallpox, spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal;[23] this was the origin of the Antonine Plague that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire. In 195–197, a Roman offensive under the Emperor Septimius Severus led to Rome's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around Nisibis, Singara and the third sacking of Ctesiphon.[24] A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor Caracalla, who sacked Arbela in 216. After his assassination, his successor, Macrinus, was defeated by the Parthians near Nisibis. In exchange for peace, he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla.[25] Roman–Sasanian wars[edit] Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts[edit] Main articles: Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 and Julian's Persian War Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and Ardashir I's foundation of the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir (r. 226–241) raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the Achaemenid Empire.[26] After fruitless negotiations, Alexander Severus set out against Ardashir in 232 and finally repulsed him after one column of his army marched successfully into Armenia, while two other columns operated to the south and failed, mostly on account of physical hardship; the emperor celebrated a triumph in Rome.[27] In 238–240, towards the end of his reign, Ardashir attacked again, taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, including Carrhae, Nisibis and Hatra.[28] Bishapur Relief II commemorating Shapur I's victories on the Western front, depicting him on horseback with a captured Valerian, a dead Gordian III, and a kneeling emperor, either Philip the Arab or Uranius.[29][30] The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor Shapur I; he invaded Mesopotamia and captured Hatra, a buffer state which had recently shifted its loyalty but his forces were defeated at a battle near Resaena in 243; Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken by the Romans.[31] Encouraged by this success, the emperor Gordian III advanced down the Euphrates but was defeated near Ctesiphon in the Battle of Misiche in 244. Gordian either died in the battle or was murdered by his own men; Philip became emperor, and paid 500,000 denarii to the Persians in a hastily negotiated a peace settlement.[32] With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short-term emperors, Shapur I soon resumed his attacks. In the early 250s, Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia; Shapur conquered Armenia and killed its king, defeated the Romans at the Battle of Barbalissos in 253, then probably took and plundered Antioch.[33] Between 258 and 260, Shapur captured Emperor Valerian after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa. He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from Odaenathus of Palmyra forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering Armenia and Antioch.[34] In 275 and 282 Aurelian and Probus respectively planned to invade Persia, but they were both murdered before they were able to fulfil their plans.[35] In 283 the emperor Carus launched a successful invasion of Persia, sacking its capital, Ctesiphon; they would probably have extended their conquests if Carus had not died in December of the same year.[36] After a brief period of peace during Diocletian's early reign, Narseh renewed hostilities with the Romans invading Armenia, and defeated Galerius not far from Carrhae in 296 or 297.[37] However, in 298 Galerius defeated Narseh at the Battle of Satala, sacked the capital Ctesiphon and captured the Persian treasury and royal harem. The Roman victory was the most decisive for many decades: many cities east of the Tigris were given to the Romans including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan. Also, control of Armenia was given to the Romans.[38] The Emperor Carus launched a successful invasion of Persia in 283, sacking the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon for the third time. The Persians were weakened by internal strife proceeding from dynastic disputes and the Romans probably would have extended their conquests had Carus not died in December of that year.[39] His successor Numerian was forced by his own army to retreat, being frightened by the belief that Carus had died of a strike of lightning.[40] After a brief peace early in Diocletian's reign, the Persians renewed hostilities when they invaded Armenia and defeated the Romans outside Carrhae in either 296 or 297.[41] However, Galerius crushed the Persians in the Battle of Satala in 298, capturing the treasury and the royal harem. The resulting peace settlement gave the Romans control of the area between the Tigris and the Greater Zab. This was the most decisive Roman victory for many decades; all the territories that had been lost, all the debatable lands, and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands.[42] Julian's unsuccessful campaign in 363 resulted in the loss of the Roman territorial gains under the peace treaty of 299. The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid-330s, when Shapur II began a series of offensives against the Romans. Despite a string of victories in battle, culminating in the overthrow of a Roman army led by Constantius II at Singara (348), his campaigns achieved little lasting effect: three Persian sieges of Nisibis, in that age known as the key to Mesopotamia,[43] were repulsed, and while Shapur succeeded in 359 in successfully laying siege to Amida and taking Singara, both cities were soon regained by the Romans.[41] Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia's eastern and then northern frontiers, he launched a new campaign in 359 with the aid of the eastern tribes which he had meanwhile defeated, and after a difficult siege again captured Amida (359). In the following year he captured Bezabde and Singara, and repelled the counter-attack of Constantius II.[44] But the enormous cost of these victories weakened him, and he was soon deserted by his barbarian allies, leaving him vulnerable to the major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor Julian, who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon[45] with a major army. Despite victory[46][47] at the Battle of Ctesiphon before the walls Julian was unable to take the Persian capital and retreated along the Tigris. Harried by the Persians, Julian was killed in the Battle of Samarra, during a difficult retreat along the Tigris. With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, Julian's successor Jovian made peace, agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sasanian territory. The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris, as well as Nisibis and Singara, and Shapur soon conquered Armenia, abandoned by the Romans.[48] In 383 or 384 Armenia again became a bone of contention between the Roman and the Sasanian empires, but hostilities did not occur.[49] With both empires preoccupied by barbarian threats from the north, in 384 or 387, a definitive peace treaty was signed by Shapur III and Theodosius I dividing Armenia between the two states. Meanwhile, the northern territories of the Roman Empire were invaded by Germanic, Alanic, and Hunnic peoples, while Persia's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the Hephthalites. With both empires preoccupied by these threats, a largely peaceful period followed, interrupted only by two brief wars, the first in 421–422 after Bahram V persecuted high-ranking Persian officials who had converted to Christianity, and the second in 440, when Yazdegerd II raided Roman Armenia.[50] A rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rostam, depicting the triumph of Shapur I over the Roman Emperor Valerian and Philip the Arab. Byzantine–Sasanian wars[edit] Anastasian War[edit] Main article: Anastasian War Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century. Relief of a Sassanian delegation in Byzantium, marble, 4th–5th century, Istanbul Archaeological Museums. The Anastasian War ended the longest period of peace the two powers ever enjoyed. War broke out when the Persian King Kavadh I attempted to gain financial support by force from the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I; the emperor refused to provide it and the Persian king tried to take it by force.[51] In 502 AD, he quickly captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis[52] and besieged the fortress-city of Amida through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege of the fortress-city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten.[53] In 503, the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results.[54] Finally in 504, the Romans gained control through the renewed investment of Amida, which led to the fall of the city. That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus. Although the two powers negotiated, it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to.[55] In 505, Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara. At the same time, the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnae and Amida.[56] Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work proceeded at Dara. This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades earlier. Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections, and the walls were completed by 507–508.[57] . The siege of the city proved to be a far more difficult enterprise than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before being defeated.[58] In 503 the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene, and laid siege to Edessa with the same results.[59] Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed investment of Amida, leading to the hand-over of the city. That year an armistice was agreed to as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus. Negotiations between the two powers took place, but such was their distrust that in 506 the Romans, suspecting treachery, seized the Persian officials. Once released, the Persians preferred to stay in Nisibis.[60] In November 506, a treaty was finally agreed upon, but little is known of what the terms of the treaty were. Procopius states that peace was agreed for seven years, and it is likely that some payments was made to the Persians.[61] In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara. The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida.[62] Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara. This construction project was to become a key component of the Roman defenses, and also a lasting source of controversy with the Persians, who complained that it violated the treaty of 422, by which both empires had agreed not to establish new fortifications in the frontier zone. Anastasius, however, pursued the project, and the walls were completed by 507/508.[60] Iberian War[edit] Main article: Iberian War Roman and Persian Empires in 477, as well as their neighbors, many of whom were dragged into wars between the great powers[discuss] In 524–525 AD, Kavadh proposed that Justin I adopt his son, Khosrau, but the negotiations soon broke down. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Roman emperor and his nephew, Justinian, but Justin's quaestor, Proculus, opposed the move.[63] Tensions between the two powers were further heightened by the defection of the Iberian king Gourgen to the Romans: in 524/525 the Iberians rose in revolt against Persia, following the example of the neighboring Christian kingdom of Lazica, and the Romans recruited Huns from the north of the Caucasus to assist them.[64] To start with, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north.[65] Overt Roman–Persian fighting had broken out in the Transcaucasus region and upper Mesopotamia by 526–527.[66] The early years of war favored the Persians: by 527, the Iberian revolt had been crushed, a Roman offensive against Nisibis and Thebetha in that year was unsuccessful, and forces trying to fortify Thannuris and Melabasa were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks.[67] Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes, the new Roman emperor, Justinian I, reorganized the eastern armies.[68] In 528 Belisarius tried unsuccessfully to protect Roman workers in Thannuris, undertaking the construction of a fort right on the frontier.[69] Damaging raids on Syria by the Lakhmids in 529 encouraged Justinian to strengthen his own Arab allies, helping the Ghassanid leader Al-Harith ibn Jabalah turn a loose coalition into a coherent kingdom. In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at Dara, while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at Satala. Belisarius was defeated by Persian and Lakhmid forces at the Battle of Callinicum in 531, which resulted in his dismissal. In the same year the Romans gained some forts in Armenia, while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica.[70] Immediately after the Battle of Callinicum unsuccessful negotiations between Justinian's envoy, Hermogenes, and Kavadh took place.[71] A Persian siege of Martyropolis was interrupted by Kavadh I's death and the new Persian king, Khosrau I, re-opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the Perpetual Peace in September 532, which lasted less than eight years. Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories, and the Romans agreed to make a one-time payment of 110 centenaria (11,000 lb of gold). The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land.[72] Justinian vs. Khosrau I[edit] See also: Lazic War Roman and Sasanian Empires during Justinian's reign   Roman (Byzantine) Empire   Acquisitions by Justinian   Sasanian Empire   Sasanian vassals The Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 540 AD, probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire, which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East. Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria, extorting large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looting other cities including Antioch, whose population was deported to Persian territory.[73] The successful campaigns of Belisarius in the west encouraged the Persians to return to war, both taking advantage of Roman preoccupation elsewhere and seeking to check the expansion of Roman territory and resources.[74] In 539 the resumption of hostilities was foreshadowed by a Lakhmid raid led by al-Mundhir IV, which was defeated by the Ghassanids under al-Harith ibn Jabalah. In 540, the Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" and Khosrau I invaded Syria, destroying the great city of Antioch and deporting its population to Weh Antiok Khosrow in Persia; as he withdrew, he extorted large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia and systematically looted the key cities. In 541 he invaded Lazica in the north.[75] Belisarius was quickly recalled by Justinian to the East to deal with the Persian threat, while the Ostrogoths in Italy, who were in touch with the Persian King, launched a counter-attack under Totila. Belisarius took the field and waged an inconclusive campaign against Nisibis in 541. In the same year Lazica switched its allegiance to Persia and Khosrau led an army to secure the kingdom. In 542 Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Sergiopolis.[76] He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, en route sacking the city of Callinicum.[77] Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed and the Persian general Mihr-Mihroe was defeated and captured at Dara by John Troglita.[78] Belisarius, recalled from the campaigns in the West to deal with the Persian threat, waged an inconclusive campaign against Nisibis in 541. Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia in 542 when he attempted to capture Sergiopolis.[79] He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, sacking the city of Callinicum en route.[80] Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed, and Persian forces were defeated at Dara.[81] An impetuous invasion of Armenia in 543 by the Roman forces in the East, numbering 30,000, against the capital of Persian Armenia, Dvin, was defeated by a meticulous ambush by a small Persian force at Anglon. Khosrau besieged Edessa in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders.[82] The Edessenes paid five centenaria to Khosrau, and the Persians departed after nearly two months.[82] In the wake of the Persian retreat, two Roman envoys, the newly appointed magister militum, Constantinus, and Sergius proceeded to Ctesiphon to arrange a truce with Khosrau.[83][84] (The war dragged on under other generals and was to some extent hindered by the Plague of Justinian, because of which Khosrau temporarily withdrew from Roman territory)[85] A five-year truce was agreed to in 545, secured by Roman payments to the Persians.[86] Hunting scene showing king Khosrau I (7th century Sasanian art, Cabinet des Medailles, Paris). The Eastern Roman–Persian border at the time of Justinian's death in 565, with Lazica in Eastern Roman (Byzantine) hands Early in 548, King Gubazes of Lazica, having found Persian protection oppressive, asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate. The emperor seized the chance, and in 548–549 combined Roman and Lazic forces with the magister militum of Armenia Dagistheus won a series of victories against Persian armies, although they failed to take the key garrison of Petra (present-day Tsikhisdziri).[87] In 551 AD, general Bassas who replaced Dagistheus put Abasgia and the rest of Lazica under control, and finally subjected Petra, demolishing its fortifications.[88] In the same year a Persian offensive led by Mihr-Mihroe and Khorianes occupied eastern Lazica.[89] The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2,000 lb of gold each year.[90] The Romans failed to completely expel the Sasanian from Lazica, and in 554 AD Mihr-Mihroe launched a new attack, and captured the fortress of Telephis, which was commanded by general Martin.[91] In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years, with neither side able to make any major gains. Khosrau, who now had to deal with the White Huns, renewed the truce in 557, this time without excluding Lazica; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty.[92] Finally, in 562, the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau – Peter the Patrician and Izedh Gushnap – put together the Fifty-Year Peace Treaty. The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30,000 nomismata (solidi).[93] Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade.[94] War for the Caucasus[edit] Further information: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591 War broke again shortly after Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sasanian rule in 571 AD, following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies in Yemen (between the Axumites and the Himyarites) and the Syrian desert, and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the Western Turkic Khaganate against Persia.[95] Justin II brought Armenia under his protection, while Roman troops under Justin's cousin Marcian raided Arzanene and invaded Persian Mesopotamia, where they defeated local forces.[96] Marcian's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria, the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara.[97] At a cost of 45,000 solidi, a one-year truce in Mesopotamia (eventually extended to five years)[98] was arranged, but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued.[99] In 575, Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace. He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia, but to take Theodosiopolis, and after a clash near Melitene the army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack and the Persian royal baggage was captured.[100] The Sasanian Empire and its neighbors (including the Eastern Roman Empire) in 600 AD The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general Justinian invaded deep into Persian territory and raided Atropatene.[100] Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative when Persian confidence revived after Tamkhusro won a victory in Armenia, where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants.[101] In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory. The Roman general Maurice retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia, capturing the stronghold of Aphumon, and sacking Singara. Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor Hormizd IV (r. 578-590) preferred to continue the war.[102] The Roman-Persian frontier in the 4th to 7th centuries In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the Caucasian Iberian monarchy, and turned Iberia into a Persian province ruled by a marzpan (governor).[103][104] During the 580s, the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides. In 582, Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro, who was killed, but the Roman general did not follow up his victory; he had to hurry to Constantinople to pursue his imperial ambitions.[105] Another Roman victory at Solachon in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate.[106] The Persians captured Martyropolis through treachery in 589, but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general Bahram Chobin, having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV, raised a rebellion. Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son Khosrau II, but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory, while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI. With support from Maurice, Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram, and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans defeated Bahram at the Battle of Blarathon and restored Khosrau II to power. In exchange for their help, Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans.[107] Late Roman silver coin showing the words Deus adiuta Romanis ("May God help the Romans") Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160–1170, Paris, Louvre). Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in 600 AD The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent ca. 620 AD Climax[edit] See also: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and Siege of Constantinople (626) In 602 the Roman army campaigning in the Balkans mutinied under the leadership of Phocas, who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family. Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war and reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia.[108] In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success. They were aided by Khosrau's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice's son, and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses.[109] In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara. Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe, he won another victory in 604, while Dara fell after a nine-month siege. Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege, one after another.[110] At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus.[111] Phocas' brutal repression sparked a succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, having sailed from Carthage.[112] Around the same time, the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying Caesarea.[113] Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612, Heraclius launched a major counter-offensive in Syria in 613. He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin, and the Roman position collapsed.[114] Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine, Egypt,[115] Rhodes and several other islands in the eastern Aegean, as well as to devastate Anatolia.[116][117][118][119] Meanwhile, the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction.[120] During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditures, devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.[121] In 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and, after conducting exercises to revive their morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war.[122] In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.[123] Following a lull in 623, while he negotiated a truce with the Avars, Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at Ganzak in Atropatene.[124] In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin and Shahraplakan in Armenia, and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets.[125] Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, together with the Avars and Slavs, the three unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople in 626,[126] while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore.[127] The assassination of Khosrau II, in a manuscript of the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp made by Abd al-Samad c. 1535. Persian poems are from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. Meanwhile, Heraclius formed an alliance with the Western Turkic Khaganate, who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to ravage their territories in the Caucasus.[128] Late in 627, Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh. Continuing south along the Tigris, he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories.[129] Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629.[130] Aftermath[edit] See also: Fall of the Sasanian Empire, Early Muslim conquests, Muslim conquest of Persia, and Arab–Byzantine wars Byzantine Empire (green) by 626 under Heraclius; striped areas are lands still threatened by the Sasanians. Byzantine Empire (orange) by 650. By this point the Sasanian Empire had fallen to the Arab Muslim Caliphate as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the provincial landholders.[131] The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs.[132] Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation.[133] Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami".[134] According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".[135] The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely conquered. During the Byzantine–Arab wars, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of Syria, Armenia, Egypt and North Africa were also lost, reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy.[136] These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural, medieval form of society. However, unlike Persia, the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in 674–678 and 717–718.[137] The Roman Empire also lost its territories in Crete and southern Italy to the Arabs in later conflicts, though these too were ultimately recovered. Strategies and military tactics[edit]  Timeline of the Roman–Persian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars BC   69 First Roman-Parthian contacts, when Lucullus invades southern Armenia. 66–65 Dispute between Pompey and Phraates III over Euphrates boundary. 53 Roman defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. 42–37 A great Pompeian–Parthian invasion of the Levant and Anatolia is defeated. 36–33 Mark Antony's unsuccessful campaign against Parthia. Subsequent campaign in Armenia successful, but followed by withdrawal. Parthians take control of whole region. 20 Settlement with the Parthians by Augustus and Tiberius; return of the captured Roman standards. AD   36 Defeated by the Romans, Artabanus II renounces his claims to Armenia. 58–63 Roman invasion of Armenia; arrangements made with Parthians over its kingship. 114–117 Major campaign of Trajan against Parthia. Trajan's conquests later abandoned by Hadrian. 161–165 After initial Parthian successes, war over Armenia (161–163) ended by a Roman victory. Avidius Cassius sacks Ctesiphon in 165. 195–197 An offensive under the emperor Septimius Severus leads to the Roman acquisition of northern Mesopotamia. 216–217 Caracalla launches a new war against the Parthians. His successor Macrinus, however, is defeated by them near Nisibis in 217. Roman–Sasanian Wars 230–232 Ardashir I raids Mesopotamia and Syria, but is eventually repulsed by Alexander Severus. 238–244 Ardashir's invasion of Mesopotamia and Persian defeat at the Battle of Resaena. Gordian III advances along the Euphrates but is repelled near Ctesiphon at the Battle of Misiche in 244. 253 Roman defeat at the Battle of Barbalissos. c. 258–260 Shapur I defeats and captures Valerian at Edessa. 283 Carus sacks Ctesiphon. 296–298 Roman defeat at Carrhae in 296 or 297. Galerius defeats the Persians in 298. 363 After an initial victory outside Ctesiphon, Julian is killed at the Battle of Samarra. 384 Shapur III and Theodosius I divide Armenia between them. 421–422 Roman retaliation against Bahram's persecution of Christian Persians. 440 Yazdegerd II raids Roman Armenia. 502–506 Anastasius I refuses to support the Persians financially, triggering the Anastasian War. Ends with a seven-year peace treaty. 526–532 Iberian War. Romans victorious at Dara and Satala but defeated at Callinicum. Ends with the treaty of "Perpetual Peace". 540–561 Lazic War begins after Persians break the "Eternal Peace" by invading Syria. Ends with the Roman acquisition of Lazica and the signing of a fifty-year peace treaty. 572–591 War for the Caucasus breaks out when Armenians revolt against Sasanian rule. In 589, the Persian general Bahram Chobin raises a rebellion against Hormizd IV. Restoration of Khosrow II, Hormizd's son, by Roman and Persian forces and restoration of Roman rule in northern Mesopotamia (Dara, Martyropolis) followed by expansion into Iberia and Armenia. 602 Khosrow II conquers Mesopotamia after Maurice is assassinated. 611–623 Persians gradually conquer Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Rhodes and enter Anatolia. 626 Unsuccessful Avar–Persian–Slav siege of Constantinople 627 Persian defeat at Nineveh. 629 The Persians assassinate Khosrow II and agree to withdraw from all occupied territories. Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. v t e When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC, it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the Aegean and the Mediterranean. However, the Romans repulsed the great invasion of Syria and Anatolia by Pacorus and Labienus, and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system, which, according to George Rawlinson, was adapted for national defense but ill-suited for conquest. The Romans, on the other hand, were continually modifying and evolving their "grand strategy" from Trajan's time onwards, and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians.[138] Like the Sasanians in the late 3rd and 4th centuries, the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of Mesopotamia against the Romans. However, the Iranian plateau never fell, as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks.[139] From the 4th century AD onwards, the Sasanians grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor. They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sasanian times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere.[140] Everett Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids, administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a standing army until Khosrau I".[139] In general, the Romans regarded the Sasanians as a more serious threat than the Parthians, while the Sasanians regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence.[141] Proxy warfare was employed by both Byzantines and the Sasanians as an alternative to direct confrontation, particularly through Arab kingdoms in the south and nomadic nations in the north. Historical re-enactment of a Sasanian-era cataphract Militarily, the Sasanians continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on cavalry troops: a combination of horse-archers and cataphracts; the latter were heavy armored cavalry provided by the aristocracy. They added a contingent of war elephants obtained from the Indus Valley, but their infantry quality was inferior to that of the Romans.[142] The combined forces of horse archers and heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot-soldiers, including those led by Crassus in 53 BC,[143] Mark Antony in 36 BC, and Valerian in 260 AD. The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire[144] and cataphractarii and clibanarii units were introduced into the Roman army;[145] as a result, heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars.[140] The Roman army also gradually incorporated horse-archers (Equites Sagittarii), and by the 5th century AD they were no longer a mercenary unit, and were slightly superior individually in comparison to the Persian ones, as Procopius claims; however, the Persian horse-archer units as a whole always remained a challenge for the Romans, which suggests the Roman horse-archers were smaller in numbers.[146] By the time of Khosrow I the composite cavalrymen (aswaran) appeared, who were skilled in both archery and the use of lance.[147] Roman siege engines On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans.[2] The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in siege warfare and had developed a range of siege machines. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit-and-run tactics that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery,[148][149] and also chemical weapons, such as in Dura-Europos (256)[150][151][152] and Petra (550-551).[149] Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft, military engineering, and organization,[153] as well as ability to build defensive works.[154] By the beginning of Sasanian rule, a number of buffer states existed between the empires. These were absorbed by the central state over time, and by the 7th century the last buffer state, the Arab Lakhmids, was annexed to the Sasanian Empire. Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman–Sasanian relations, but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized defense system run by the central government and based on a line of fortifications (the limes) and the fortified frontier cities, such as Dara.[155] Towards the end of the 1st century AD, Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through the limes system, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by Diocletian.[156] Like the Romans, the Sasanians constructed defensive walls opposite the territory of their opponents. According to R. N. Frye, it was under Shapur II that the Persian system was extended, probably in imitation of Diocletian's construction of the limes of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire.[157] The Roman and Persian border units were known as limitanei and marzobans, respectively. The Sasanians, and to a lesser extent the Parthians, practiced mass deportations to new cities as a tool of policy, not just the prisoners-of-war (such as those of the Battle of Edessa), but also the cities they captured, such as the deportation of the Antioch's people to Weh Antiok Khosrow, which led to the decline of the former. These deportations also initiated the spread of Christianity in Persia.[158] The Persians seem to have been reluctant to resort to naval action.[159] There was some minor Sasanian naval action in 620–23, and the only major Byzantine navy's action was during the Siege of Constantinople (626). Assessments[edit] The Roman–Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile" and too "depressing and tedious to contemplate".[160] Prophetically, Cassius Dio noted their "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations" and observed that "it is shown by the facts themselves that [Severus'] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples."[161] In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As Frye states:[155] One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War. "How could it be a good thing to hand over one's dearest possessions to a stranger, a barbarian, the ruler of one's bitterest enemy, one whose good faith and sense of justice were untried, and, what is more, one who belonged to an alien and heathen faith?" Agathias (Histories, 4.26.6, translated by Averil Cameron) about the Persians, a judgment typical of the Roman view.[162] Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways. According to the Letter of Tansar and the Muslim writer Al-Tha'alibi, Ardashir I's and Pacorus I's invasions, respectively, of Roman territories, were to avenge Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia, which was thought to be the cause of the subsequent Iranian disarray;[163][164] this is matched by the notion imitatio Alexandri cherished by the Roman emperors Caracalla, Alexander Severus,[165] and Julian.[166] The Roman quest for world domination was accompanied by a sense of mission and pride in Western civilization and by ambitions to become a guarantor of peace and order. Roman sources reveal long-standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers' customs, religious structures, languages, and forms of government. John F. Haldon underscores that "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present". From the time of Constantine on, Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of Christians of Persia.[167] This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sasanian Iran and often led to Roman–Persian tensions or even military confrontations[168] (e.g. in 421–422). A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had begun in 611–612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strong religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia.[169][170] Historiography[edit] The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur (Hans Holbein the Younger, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, Kunstmuseum Basel) The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered. The Parthians followed the Achaemenid tradition and favored oral historiography, which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished. The main sources of this period are thus Roman (Tacitus, Marius Maximus, and Justin) and Greek historians (Herodian, Cassius Dio and Plutarch). The 13th book of the Sibylline Oracles narrates the effects of the Roman–Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra. With the end of Herodian's record, all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost, until the narratives of Lactantius and Eusebius at the beginning of the 4th century, both from a Christian perspective.[171] The principal sources for the early Sasanian period are not contemporary. Among them the most important are the Greeks Agathias and Malalas, the Persian Muslims al-Tabari and Ferdowsi, the Armenian Agathangelos, and the Syriac Chronicles of Edessa and Arbela, most of whom depended on late Sasanian sources, especially Khwaday-Namag. The Augustan History is neither contemporary nor reliable, but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus. The trilingual (Middle Persian, Parthian, Greek) inscriptions of Shapur are primary sources.[172] These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however, and by the end of the 4th century AD, even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sasanians.[173] For the period between 353 and 378, there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus. For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century, the works of Sozomenus, Zosimus, Priscus, and Zonaras are especially valuable.[174] The single most important source for Justinian's Persian wars up to 553 is Procopius. His continuators Agathias and Menander Protector offer many important details as well. Theophylact Simocatta is the main source for the reign of Maurice,[175] while Theophanes, Chronicon Paschale and the poems of George of Pisidia are useful sources for the last Roman–Persian war. In addition to Byzantine sources, two Armenian historians, Sebeos and Movses, contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius' war and are regarded by Howard-Johnston as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources".[176] References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Agathias, Histories. Book 4. Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus. See original text in the Latin Library.[177] Cassius Dio, Roman History. Book LXXX. Translated by Earnest Cary.[178] Chronicon Paschale. See the original text in Google Books[179] Corippus, Johannis[180] Book I. Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History. Book IX. Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson.[181] Herodian, History of the Roman Empire. Book VI. Translated by Edward C. Echols.[182] John of Epiphania. History[183] Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle. Translated by William Wright.[184] Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum. Book XLI. See original text in the Latin Library.[185] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum. See original text in the Latin Library.[186] Plutarch, Antony. Translated by John Dryden. Plutarch, Crassus. Translated by John Dryden. Plutarch, Sylla. Translated by John Dryden. Procopius, History of the Wars, Book II. Translated by H. B. Dewing. Sibylline Oracles. Book XIII. Translated by Milton S. Terry. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, Book II. Translated by Chester D. Hartranft, Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.[187] Tacitus, The Annals. Translation based on Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb. Theophanes the Confessor. Chronicle. See original text in Documenta Catholica Omnia. (PDF)[188] Theophylact Simocatta. History. Books I and V. Translated by Michael and Mary Whitby. (PDF)[189] Vegetius. Epitoma Rei Militaris. Book III. See original text in the Latin Library.[190] Zacharias Rhetor. Historia Ecclesiastica. Secondary sources[edit] Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24357-2. Barnes, T. D (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". The Journal of Roman Studies. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 75. 75: 126–136. ISSN 0013-8266. JSTOR 300656. Barnett, Glenn (2017). Emulating Alexander: How Alexander the Great's Legacy Fuelled Rome's Wars With Persia (First ed.). Great Britain: Pen and Sword Military. p. 232. ISBN 978-1526703002. Baynes, Norman H. (1912). "The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem". The English Historical Review. 27 (106): 287–299. doi:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287. ISSN 0013-8266. Bivar, A. D. 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Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 1 ^ Kia 2016, p. liii. ^ De Blois & van der Spek 2008, p. 137. ^ a b Ball (2000), 12–13; Dignas–Winter (2007), 9 (PDF) ^ Plutarch, Sulla, 5. 3–6 * Mackay (2004), 149; Sherwin-White (1994), 262 ^ Bivar (1993), 46 * Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263 ^ Sherwin-White (1994), 264 ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 23–32 * Mackay (2004), 150 ^ Bivar (1993), 56 ^ Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. 4 Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine * Bivar (1993), 56–57 ^ Bivar (1993), 57 ^ Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. 4 Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine ; Plutarch, Antony, 33–34 * Bivar (1993), 57–58 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, XLIX, 27–33 * Bivar (1993), 58–65 ^ Sicker (2000), 162 ^ Sicker (2000), 162–163 ^ Tacitus, Annals, XII. 50–51 * Sicker (2000), 163 ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV. 27–29 * Rawlinson (2007), 286–287 ^ Sicker (2000), 167 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVIII, 33 * Sicker (2000), 167–168 ^ Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."; Sicker (2000), 167–168 ^ Sicker (2000), 169 ^ Herodian, Roman History, III, 9.1–12 Campbell (2005), 6–7; Rawlinson (2007), 337–338 ^ Herodian, Roman History, IV, 10.1–15.9 Campbell (2005), 20 ^ Herodian, Roman History, VI, 2.1–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXX, 4.1–2 * Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16 ^ Herodian, Roman History, VI, 5.1–6 * Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28; Frye (1993), 124 ^ Frye (1993), 124–125; Southern (2001), 234–235 ^ Overlaet, Bruno (30 June 2009). "A Roman Emperor at Bishapur and Darabgird". Iranica Antiqua. 44: 461–530. doi:10.2143/IA.44.0.2034386. ^ Overlaet, Bruno (3 November 2017). "Šāpur I: Rock Reliefs". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 25 February 2020. ^ Frye (1968), 125 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 27. 7–8; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, 13–20 Frye (1968), 125; Southern (2001), 235 ^ Frye (1993), 125; Southern (2001), 235–236 ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 5; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, 155–171 * Frye (1993), 126; Southern (2001), 238 ^ Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 108–109, 112; Southern (2001), 241 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 38. 2–4; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 18.1 Frye (1968), 128; Southern (2001), 241 ^ Frye (1968), 130; Southern (2001), 242 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. 33–36; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 24–25.1 Frye (1968), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 38. 2–4; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 18.1 * Frye (1993), 128; Southern (2001), 241 ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), 114 ^ a b Frye (1993), 130; Southern (2001), 242 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. 33–36; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 24–25.1 * Frye (1993), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 ^ Lenski 2002, p. 162. ^ Blockley 1997, p. 423. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlockley1997 (help) ^ Frye (1993), 137 ^ Browning, Robert The Emperor Julian University of California Press (1978) ISBN 978-0-520-03731-1 p. 243 ^ Wacher, J.S. The Roman World, Volume 1 Routledge; 2 edition (2001) ISBN 978-0-415-26315-3 p. 143 ^ Frye (1993), 138 ^ Frye (1968), 141 ^ Bury (1923), XIV.1; Frye (1968), 145; Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51 ^ Procopius, Wars, I.7.1–2 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XLIII * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, VII, 3–4 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71 ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XC * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74 ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XCIII–XCIV * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 63 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 69–71 ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77 ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24 Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77 ^ Joshua the Stylite, XC Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 74 ^ Procopius, Wars, I.11.23–30 * Greatrex (2005), 487; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 82 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84 ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, IX, 2 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 86 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93 ^ Evans (2000), 118; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102; see H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", Chiron 36 (2006), 299ff. ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 102 ^ "Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ Procopius, Wars, II.20.17–19 Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 109–110 ^ Procopius, Wars, II.21.30–32 Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110 ^ Corripus, Johannidos, I.68–98 Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 111 ^ Procopius, Wars, II.20.17–19 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 109–110 ^ Procopius, Wars, II.21.30–32 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 110 ^ Corripus, Johannidos, I.68–98 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 111 ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113 ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113 ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 * Greatrex (2005), 489; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110; "Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 * Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD); Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 ^ Treadgold (1997), 204–205 ^ Treadgold (1997), 205–207 ^ Treadgold (1997), 204–207 ^ Treadgold (1997), 209 ^ Farrokh (2007), 236 ^ Greatrex (2005), 489; Treadgold (1997), 211 ^ Menander Protector, History, frag. 6.1. According to Greatrex (2005), 489, to many Romans this arrangement "appeared dangerous and indicative of weakness". ^ Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD) ^ John of Epiphania, History, 2 AncientSites.com Archived 2011-06-21 at the Wayback Machine gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: "[The Medians'] contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504 ^ Treadgold (1997), 222 ^ The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby [2000], 92–94). ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152; Louth (2005), 113 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 246.11–27 * Whitby (2000), 92–94 ^ a b Theophylact, History, I, 9.4 Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF) Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95 ^ Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95–96 ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225; Whitby (2000), 96 ^ Suny 1994, p. 25. ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 529. ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 226; Whitby (2000), 96 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169 ^ Theophylact, V, History, I, 3.11 Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine and 15.1 (PDF) * Louth (2005), 115; Treadgold (1997), 231–232 ^ Foss (1975), 722 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 290–293 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 292–293 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187 ^ Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178. ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196 ^ The mint of Nicomedia ceased operating in 613, and Rhodes fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197). ^ Kia 2016, p. 223. ^ Howard-Johnston 2006, p. 33. ^ Foss 1975, p. 725 ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 85 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 303–304, 307 * Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 304.25–306.7 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 306–308 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 308–312 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 316 * Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 315–316 McBride (2005), 56 ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 317–327 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227 ^ Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), passim; Speck (1984), 178 ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: "[Heraclius'] victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian rival." ^ Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15 ^ Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of miaphysites may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon [1997], 49–50). ^ Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv ^ Liska (1998), 170 ^ Haldon (1997), 49–50 ^ Haldon (1997), 61–62; Howard-Johnston (2006), 9 ^ Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but essentially the same system." According to Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges". ^ a b Wheeler (2007), 259 ^ a b Frye (2005), 473 ^ Greatrex (2005), 478; Frye (2005), 472 ^ Cornuelle, An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military; Sidnell (2006), 273 ^ According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba [1966], 51–73). ^ The Cambridge History of Iran : "The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire. The ancient Persian tradition of large-scale hydraulic engineering was thus combined with the unique Roman experience in masonry. The Greco-Roman picture of the Persians as a nation of fierce and indomitable warriors contrasts strangely with another stereotype, the Persians as past masters of the art of refined living, of luxuriose vivere. The Persian influence on Roman religion would be enormous, were people allowed to call Mithraism a Persian religion." ^ Vegetius, III, Epitoma Rei Militaris, 26 * Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5 ^ Haldon, John F. (31 March 1999). Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781857284959. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Google Books. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2012). Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224–642. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-78200-848-4. ^ Campbell–Hook (2005), 57–59; Gabba (1966), 51–73 ^ a b Elton, Hugh (2018). The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. p. 326. ISBN 9780521899314. ^ "Death Underground: Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos", Current Archaeology, November 26, 2009 (online feature), accessed October 3, 2014 ^ Samir S. Patel, "Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria", Archaeology, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010, (accessed October 3, 2014) ^ Stephanie Pappas, "Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon", LiveScience, March 8, 2011, accessed October 3, 2014 ^ Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake", Science Daily Levi (1994), 192 ^ Rekavandi–Sauer–Wilkinson–Nokandeh, "The Enigma of the Red Snake" ^ a b Frye (1993), 139 ^ Shahîd (1984), 24–25; Wagstaff (1985), 123–125 ^ Frye (1993), 139; Levi (1994), 192 ^ A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, “DEPORTATIONS,” Encyclopædia Iranica, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deportations (accessed on 30 December 2012). ^ Howard-Johnston, J. D. (31 March 2018). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9780860789925. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Google Books. ^ Brazier (2001), 42 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXV, 3. 2–3 * Garnsey–Saller (1987), 8 ^ Greatrex (2005), 477–478 ^ Brill's Companion to the Reception of Alexander the Great. BRILL. 2018. p. 214. ISBN 9789004359932. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 475. ISBN 9780521200929. ^ Wiesehöfer, Joseph (11 August 2011). "ARDAŠĪR I i. History". Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Athanassiadi, Polymnia (2014). Julian (Routledge Revivals): An Intellectual Biography. Routledge. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-317-69652-0. ^ Barnes (1985), 126 ^ Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, II, 15 Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine * McDonough (2006), 73 ^ Haldon (1999), 20; Isaak (1998), 441 ^ Dignas–Winter (2007), 1–3 (PDF) ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 5; Potter (2004), 232–233 ^ Frye (2005), 461–463; Shahbazi, Historiography Archived 2009-01-29 at the Wayback Machine ^ Shahbazi, Historiography Archived 2009-01-29 at the Wayback Machine ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 7 ^ Boyd (1999), 160 ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 42–43 ^ "LIBER DE CAESARIBUS". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ "LacusCurtius • Cassius Dio's Roman History". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ (sieur), Charles Du Fresne Du Cange (31 March 2018). "Chronicon paschale". Impensis Ed. Weberi. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Google Books. ^ Corippus, Flavius Cresconius (1836). Johannidos: De laudibus Justini Augusti minor libri quattuor. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Internet Archive. Corippus. Johannidos. ^ "Eutropius: Abridgement of Roman History". www.forumromanum.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ Livius. "Herodian's Roman History". www.livius.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ "AncientSites.com". Archived from the original on 2011-06-21. Retrieved 2008-06-08. ^ Stylite, Joshua the. "Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle composed in Syriac in AD 507 (1882) pp. 1-76". www.tertullian.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ "Justin XLI". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ "Lactantius: de Mortibus Persecutorum". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2018. ^ Freewebs.com Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ DocumentaCatholicaOmnia.eu ^ "Humanities.uci.edu" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2008-04-27. ^ "Vegetius Liber III". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2018. Further reading[edit] Blockley, Roger C. (1992). East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius (ARCA 30). Leeds: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0-905205-83-9. Börm, Henning (2007). Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-09052-0. Börm, Henning (2008). ""Es war allerdings nicht so, dass sie es im Sinne eines Tributes erhielten, wie viele meinten ..." Anlässe und Funktion der persischen Geldforderungen an die Römer". Historia (in German). 57: 327–346. Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (1998). Rome and Persia at War, 502–532. Rome: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0-905205-93-6. Isaac, Benjamin (1998). "The Eastern Frontier". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 XIII. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81459-6. Kettenhofen, Erich (1982). Die Römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ). Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B 55. Wiesbaden. Millar, Fergus (1982). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Mitchell, Stephen B. (2006). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0857-6. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. London und New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10058-5. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822945-3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persian-Roman wars. Cataphracts and Siegecraft – Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation. Alemani, Agustí. "Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World" (PDF). Ēran ud Anērān. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. Retrieved 2008-05-06. "Rome and Parthia at War". History Articles – Classical Europe and Mediterranean. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16. "Sassanids vs Byzantines". History Articles – Medieval Europe. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16. v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudican revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e Ancient Iranian Wars Median Empire Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire Fall of Nineveh Battle of Eclipse Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Achaemenid Empire Conquest of Asia Minor Fall of Babylon First Conquest of Egypt Revolts against Darius I Scythian Campaign Conquest of Indus Valley Ionian Revolt Invasions of Greece 1st 2nd Peloponnesian War Revolt of Cyrus the Younger Corinthian War Cadusian Campaign Great Satraps' Revolt Abdashtart I' revolt Second Conquest of Egypt Fall of the Empire Parthian Empire Seleucid Wars Bactrian War Scythian Wars Armenian War Roman Wars Fall of the Empire Sasanian Empire Roman Wars Against Byzantine Empire Kushan War Against Arab tribes Hephthalite Wars Armenian revolt Aksumite Wars Annexation of Yemen Civil war of 589–591 Göktürk Wars 1st 2nd 3rd Battle of Dhi Qar Civil war of 628–632 Fall of the Empire Military history v t e Sasanian Empire Dynasty House of Sasan Sasanian family tree Seven Great Houses of Iran Timeline Timeline of the Sasanian Empire Culture Architecture Art Coinage Crowns Dressing Education Glassware Inscriptions Literature Music Punishment Women Military and wars Military of the Sasanian Empire Navy Defense lines Roman–Persian Wars Arab tribes Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars Göktürk–Persian wars Aksumite–Persian wars Revolts and civil wars Muslim conquest of Persia Descendants Dabuyids Bavands Baduspanids Banu al-Munajjim Mikalids Other related topics Roads Economy Roman–Iranian relations Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom ērān and anērān Lists Monarchs of the Sasanian Empire Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman–Persian_Wars&oldid=1028484097" Categories: Roman–Persian Wars Geopolitical rivalry Ancient history of the Caucasus History of Western Asia Wars involving Iran Wars involving the Roman Empire Wars involving the Roman Republic Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Featured articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 07:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1881	----	Historia Augusta - Wikipedia Historia Augusta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search late Roman collection of biographies of the Roman Emperors, their colleagues and heirs from 117 to 284 Historia Augusta Cover of a 1698 edition of the Historia Augusta from Ettal Abbey, Germany Author Disputed Original title Historia Augusta Language Latin Subject Roman history Publication date Disputed, possibly 4th century LC Class DE The Historia Augusta (English: Augustan History) is a late Roman collection of biographies, written in Latin, of the Roman emperors, their junior colleagues, designated heirs and usurpers from 117 to 284. Supposedly modeled on the similar work of Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, it presents itself as a compilation of works by six different authors (collectively known as the Scriptores Historiae Augustae), written during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine I and addressed to those emperors or other important personages in Ancient Rome. The collection, as extant, comprises thirty biographies, most of which contain the life of a single emperor, but some include a group of two or more, grouped together merely because these emperors were either similar or contemporaneous.[1] The true authorship of the work, its actual date, its reliability and its purpose have long been matters for controversy by historians and scholars ever since Hermann Dessau in 1889 rejected both the date and the authorship as stated within the manuscript. Major problems include the nature of the sources that it used, and how much of the content is pure fiction. For instance, the collection contains in all about 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to the people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations. Virtually all of them are now considered to be fraudulent.[2] By the second decade of the 21st century, the overall consensus supported the position that there was only a single author, who wrote either in the late 4th century or the early 5th century, who was interested in blending contemporary issues (political, religious and social) into the lives of the 3rd century emperors. There is further consensus that the author used the fictitious elements in the work to highlight references to other published works, such as to Cicero and Ammianus Marcellinus, in a complex allegorical game. Despite the conundrums, it is the only continuous account in Latin for much of its period and so is continually being re-evaluated. Modern historians are unwilling to abandon it as a unique source of possible information, despite its obvious untrustworthiness on many levels.[3] Contents 1 Title and scope 2 Textual transmission 3 The dating problem 4 Six scriptores or a single author? 5 Primary and secondary Vitae 6 Genre and purpose 7 Historical value 7.1 False documents and authorities 7.2 Examples of false historical events and personages 8 Marius Maximus or 'Ignotus'? 9 Literary value 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References 13 Sources 14 External links Title and scope[edit] The name Historia Augusta originated with Isaac Casaubon, who produced a critical edition in 1603, working from a complex manuscript tradition with a number of variant versions.[4] The title as recorded on the Codex Palatinus manuscript (written in the 9th century) is Vitae Diversorum Principum et Tyrannorum a Divo Hadriano usque ad Numerianum Diversis compositae ("The Lives of various Emperors and Tyrants from the Divine Hadrian to Numerian by Various Authors"), and it is assumed that the work may have been originally called de Vita Caesarum or Vitae Caesarum.[4] How widely the work was circulated in late antiquity is unknown, but its earliest use was in a Roman History composed by Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus in 485.[5] Lengthy citations from it are found in authors of the 6th and 9th centuries, including Sedulius Scottus who quoted parts of the Marcus Aurelius, the Maximini and the Aurelian within his Liber de Rectoribus Christianis, and the chief manuscripts also date from the 9th or 10th centuries.[6] The six Scriptores – "Aelius Spartianus", "Julius Capitolinus", "Vulcacius Gallicanus", "Aelius Lampridius", "Trebellius Pollio", and "Flavius Vopiscus (of Syracuse)" – dedicate their biographies to Diocletian, Constantine and various private persons, and so ostensibly were all writing around the late 3rd and early 4th century. The first four scriptores are attached to the lives from Hadrian to Gordian III, while the final two are attached to the lives from Valerian to Numerian. The biographies cover the emperors from Hadrian to Carinus and Numerian. A section covering the reigns of Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus, Aemilian and all but the end of the reign of Valerian is missing in all the manuscripts,[7] and it has been argued that biographies of Nerva and Trajan have also been lost[7] at the beginning of the work, which may suggest the compilation might have been a direct continuation of Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars. It has been theorized that the mid-3rd-century lacuna might actually be a deliberate literary device of the author or authors, saving the labour of covering Emperors for whom little source material may have been available.[8] Despite devoting whole books to ephemeral or in some cases non-existent usurpers,[9][10] there are no independent biographies of the Emperors Quintillus and Florian, whose reigns are merely briefly noted towards the end of the biographies of their respective predecessors, Claudius Gothicus and Tacitus. For nearly 300 years after Casaubon's edition, though much of the Historia Augusta was treated with some scepticism, it was used by historians as an authentic source – Edward Gibbon used it extensively in the first volume of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.[11] However, "in modern times most scholars read the work as a piece of deliberate mystification written much later than its purported date, however the fundamentalist view still has distinguished support. (...) The Historia Augusta is also, unfortunately, the principal Latin source for a century of Roman history. The historian must make use of it, but only with extreme circumspection and caution."[12] Textual transmission[edit] Existing manuscripts and witnesses of the Historia Augusta fall into three groups: A manuscript of the first quarter of the ninth century, Vatican Pal. lat. 899 (Codex Palatinus), known as P, and its direct and indirect copies. P was written at Lorsch in Caroline minuscule. The text in this manuscript has several lacunae marked with dots indicating the missing letters, a confusion in the order of the biographies between Verus and Alexander, and the transposition of several passages: two long ones which correspond to a quire of the original which became loose and was then inserted in a wrong place, and a similar transposition in Carus.[13] P is also distinguished by a succession of six centuries of editorial corrections, beginning with the original scribe, and includes such worthies as Petrarch and Poggio Bracciolini; none of these editors betray any knowledge of any other witness.[14] A group of 15th-century manuscripts, designated as Σ. Not only are the lives rearranged in chronological order, but the corruptions present in P have been subjected to drastic emendations or omitted altogether. Beginning with Dr. Ernst Hohl, some have asserted that the improvements in the text come from a source independent of P. Although admitting that "this question still remains to be answered definitively", author Peter Marshall noted that research undertaken through to the 1980s had improved scholarly knowledge concerning the methods and abilities of early Italian humanists, and concludes by saying that "the Σ manuscripts nowhere provide readings which are beyond the powers of the humanists active at the time.[15] Three different sets of excerpts, one of which Theodor Mommsen suggested was possibly the work of Sedulius Scottus. How any are related to P is unclear.[16] In Marshall's opinion, the best scholarly editions are those by H. Peter (Teubner, 2nd ed. 1884), and E. Hohl (Teubner, 1971, reissue of 1965 revised by Ch. Samberger & W. Seyfarth).[14] A copy of the Codex Palatinus (possibly the one made for Petrarch in 1356) was the basis of the editio princeps of the History, published in Milan in 1475. A subsequent printed version (the Aldine edition) was published at Venice in 1516, and this was followed closely by an edition edited by Desiderius Erasmus, and published by Johann Froben in Basel in 1518.[17] The dating problem[edit] Hermann Dessau, whose groundbreaking work on the Historia Augusta led to its critical re-evaluation in the 20th century In 1776, Gibbon had observed that there was something wrong with the numbers and names of the imperial biographers, and that this had already been recognised by older historians who had written on that subject.[note 1][18][19] A clear example was the referencing of the biographer 'Lampridius' (who was apparently writing his biographies after 324) by 'Vopiscus', who was meant to be writing his biographies in 305-6.[20] Then in 1889, Hermann Dessau, who had become increasingly concerned by the large number of anachronistic terms, Vulgar Latin vocabulary, and especially the host of obviously false proper names in the work, proposed that the six authors were all fictitious personae, and that the work was in fact composed by a single author in the late 4th century, probably in the reign of Theodosius I.[21][22] Among his supporting evidence was that the life of Septimius Severus appeared to have made use of a passage from the mid-4th-century historian Aurelius Victor,[note 2] and that the life of Marcus Aurelius likewise uses material from Eutropius.[note 3][23] In the decades following Dessau, many scholars argued to preserve at least some of the six Scriptores as distinct persons and in favour of the first-hand authenticity for the content. As early as 1890, Theodor Mommsen postulated a Theodosian 'editor' of the Scriptores' work, an idea that has resurfaced many times since.[24] Hermann Peter (editor of the Historia Augusta and of the Historicorum Romanorum reliquiae) proposed a date of 330 for when the work was written, based upon an analysis of style and language.[25] Others, such as Norman H. Baynes, abandoned the early 4th-century date but only advanced it as far as the reign of Julian the Apostate (useful for arguing the work was intended as pagan propaganda).[26] In the 1960s and 1970s however Dessau's original arguments received powerful restatement and expansion from Sir Ronald Syme, who devoted three books to the subject and was prepared to date the writing of the work closely in the region of AD 395. Other recent studies also show much consistency of style,[27] and most scholars now accept the theory of a single author of unknown identity, writing after 395.[28] Although it was believed that the Historia Augusta did not reference any material from Ammianus Marcellinus' history, which was finished before 391 and which covered the same period,[29] this has now been shown not to be the case, and that the Historia Augusta does in fact make reference to Ammianus' history.[30] Not all scholars have accepted the theory of a forger working around the last decades of the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. Arnaldo Momigliano[31][32][33] and A. H. M. Jones[34] were the most prominent 20th century critics of the Dessau-Syme theory amongst English-speaking scholars. Momigliano, summarizing the literature from Dessau down to 1954, defined the question as "res iudicanda" (i.e. "a matter to be decided") and not as "res iudicata" ("a matter that has been decided"). Momigliano reviewed every book published on the topic by Sir Ronald Syme, and provided counter arguments to most if not all of Syme's arguments.[32][33] For instance, the reference in the Life of Probus about the emperor's descendants which has been taken to refer to Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (consul in 371) and his family may, in the opinion of Momigliano, equally refer to the earlier members of the family, which was prominent throughout the 4th century, such as Petronius Probinus (consul in 341) and Petronius Probianus (consul in 322).[35] Momigliano's opinion was that there was insufficient evidence to dismiss a composition date of the early 4th century, and that any post-Constantinian anachronisms could be explained by an editor working on the material at a later date, perhaps during the reigns of Constantius II or Julian.[36] Other opinions included Dr H Stern's, who postulated that the History was composed by a team of writers during the reign of Constantius II after the defeat of Magnentius on behalf of the Senatorial aristocracy who had supported the usurper.[37] In the 21st century, Alan Cameron rebutted a number of Syme's and Barnes' arguments for a composition date c.395–400, suggesting a composition date between 361 and the 380s.[38] Six scriptores or a single author?[edit] Linked to the problem of dating the composition of the History is the question about the authorship of the work. Taking the History at face value, there is clearly a division between the authors named prior and after the presence of the interrupting lacuna. For the first half of the History, four scriptores are present, and the biographies are divided in a remarkably erratic fashion:[39] Aelius Spartianus (7 lives): Hadrian, Aelius, Didius Julianus, Severus, Niger, Caracalla and Geta. Julius Capitolinus (9 lives): Antoninus, Marcus, Lucius Verus, Pertinax, Albinus, Macrinus, The Maximini, The Gordiani, and Maximus and Balbinus. Vulcacius Gallicanus (1 life): Avidius Cassius. Aelius Lampridius (4 lives): Commodus, Diadumenus, Heliogabalus and Severus Alexander. Of these four, Spartianus and Gallicanus claim to be undertaking a complete set of imperial biographies from Julius Caesar onwards, while Lampridius' stated intention was to write a collection of biographies that would deal with the Gordians, Claudius II, Aurelian, Diocletian, Maximian and the four rivals of Constantine. Capitolinus also implied that he was writing more biographies than are present in the History.[40] The second half of the History is divided between two scriptores. Unlike the first half, the emperors tackled in this section are grouped logically, and are divided roughly in half between the two scriptores in chronological sequence: Trebellius Pollio (4 lives): Valerian, Gallienus, Tyranni Triginta and Claudius. Flavius Vopiscus Syracusanus (5 lives): Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Quadrigae Tyrannorum and Carus, Carinus and Numerian. In terms of any acknowledgement of the mutual existence between the scriptores, only Flavius Vopiscus (ostensibly writing in 305 or 306)[note 4][41] refers to any of the other authors (specifically Trebellius Pollio, Julius Capitolinus and Aelius Lampridius). None of the other five demonstrate any awareness of the existence of any of their 'colleagues'.[41] However, these references cause difficulties when these authors also address Constantine in their dedications, as Vopiscus was also doing. For instance, Capitolinus mostly addresses Diocletian, but in the Albinus, Maximini and Gordiani he addresses Constantine in a fashion that suggests he is writing after 306.[20] The theory that there was a single author, as initially postulated by Hermann Dessau, is based on the difficulties inherent in having a single work comprising a number of individuals but without any textual evidence of an editor who brought the material together. This is especially evident in that the text has examples of stated intentions by an author to write a life of one of the emperors, only for that life to be completed by another of the scriptores.[note 5][42] If those statements are true, and those additional lives were completed, then an editor must have been involved in the project in order to select one scriptor's life over another's.[42] However, the presence of a post-Constantinian editor, as originally postulated by Theodore Mommsen, still has notable support, most recently articulated by Daniel Den Hengst, who suggests that the editor was the author of the second half of the History, operating under the pseudonyms of Pollio and Vopiscus. Further, that this editor not only wrote the secondary lives in the first half, but he was also responsible for the insertions into the primary lives in that series.[43] He takes the view that the vast stylistic differences between the two halves of the History means they cannot have been written by the same author.[43] Nevertheless, if the validity of six independent authors is accepted, there are still issues, as the way they approached their work does show similar themes and details.[42] All six not only provide biographies for the emperors, but also for the Caesars and usurpers. They describe their work and approach in very similar language, and quote otherwise unknown historians and biographers, such as Junius Cordus. They collectively share many errors, such as calling Diadumenianus "Diadumenus".[42] They also share much idiosyncratic content and similar language, with particular focus on women, wine and military discipline, and were fixated on poor plays on words ascribing personality traits to certain emperors, for instance Verus was truthful, while Severus was a severe individual.[42] Additionally, the authors shared certain stylistic characteristics that has been suggested would not naturally occur between individuals writing separately. For instance, the authors all happen to use the word occido with respect to killing (a total of 42 occurrences), but only once do any of them use the alternative word of interficio. This ratio is not found with any other writers in this time period and for this genre.[42] Finally, each of the six scriptores authored fictional lives for some of their biographies, all of them using fake sources, documents and acclamations.[44] It has been postulated that the names of the scriptores themselves are also a form of literary playfulness, not only mocking both legitimate authors and historians, but also the narrative itself.[45] The names Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus are sourced in various ways from Cicero's writings,[46] as is the name Capitolinus.[47] Further, the word vopiscus is a rare Latin term, referring to a twin who survives, while its sibling died in utero; this has been interpreted to refer to "Flavius Vopiscus" as being the final one to survive from the six authors of the History.[47] Vulcacius is believed to be a mockery of Volcatius Sedigitus, who was a historical literary critic with some association with humor. The meanings behind the other two scriptores (Spartianus and Lampridius) have eluded interpretation.[48] Finally, it should also be noted that the results of recent computer-assisted stylistic analysis concerning the single vs multiple authorship have proven to be inconclusive: "Computer-aided stylistic analysis of the work has, however, returned ambiguous results; some elements of style are quite uniform throughout the work, while others vary in a way that suggests multiple authorship. To what extent this is due to the fact that portions of the work are obviously compiled from multiple sources is unclear. Several computer analyses of the text have been done to determine whether there were multiple authors. Many of them conclude that there was but a single author, but disagree on methodology. However, several studies done by the same team concluded there were several authors, though they were not sure how many."[49] Primary and secondary Vitae[edit] A unique feature of the Historia Augusta is that it purports to supply the biographies not only of reigning Emperors (called "primary lives" by modern scholars), but also "secondary lives" of their designated heirs, junior colleagues, and usurpers who unsuccessfully claimed the supreme power.[50] Thus among the biographies of 2nd-century and early 3rd-century figures are included Hadrian's heir Aelius Caesar, and the usurpers Avidius Cassius, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, Caracalla's brother Geta and Macrinus' son Diadumenianus. None of these pieces contain much in the way of solid information: all are marked by rhetorical padding and obvious fiction. The biography of Marcus Aurelius' colleague Lucius Verus, which Mommsen thought 'secondary', is however rich in apparently reliable information and has been vindicated by Syme as belonging to the 'primary' series.[51] The 'secondary' lives allowed the author to exercise freedom in the invention of events, places and people without the need to conform to authentic historical facts.[52] As the work proceeds the author's inventiveness undergoes an increasing degree of elaboration as legitimate historical sources begin to run out, eventually composing largely fictional accounts such as the "biographies" of the "Thirty Tyrants", whom the author claimed had risen as usurpers under Gallienus. Moreover, after the biography of Caracalla the 'primary' biographies, of the emperors themselves, begin to assume the rhetorical and fictive qualities previously confined to the 'secondary' ones, probably because the secondary lives were written after the Life of Caracalla.[53] The biography of Macrinus is notoriously unreliable,[54] and after a partial reversion to reliability in the Life of Elagabalus, the Alexander Severus, one of the longest biographies in the entire work, develops into a kind of exemplary and rhetorical fable on the theme of the wise philosopher king.[55] Clearly the author's previous sources had given out, but also his inventive talents were developing. He still makes use of some recognized sources – Herodian up to 238, and probably Dexippus in the later books, for the entire imperial period the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte as well as Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Jerome – but the biographies are increasingly tracts of invention in which occasional nuggets of fact are embedded.[56][30] However, even where recognisable facts are present, their use in the History cannot be taken at face value. In the Life of Alexander Severus, the History makes the claim at 24.4 that Alexander had considered banning male prostitution but had decided against making it illegal, although the author added that the emperor Philip did later ban the practice.[57] Although the claim about Alexander is false, the note about Philip is true – the source of this is Aurelius Victor (28.6–7, and who in turn sourced it from the Kaisergeschichte), and the History even copies Victor's style of moralising asides, which were not in the Kaisergeschichte.[58] Normally, this anecdote would have been included in a Life of Philip, but its absence saw the author include it in another life. This is taken as evidence that the mid-work lacuna is deliberate, as the author was apparently reluctant to abandon any useful material that could be gleaned from the Kaisergeschichte.[57] Estimated amount of reliable historical details in some of the Historia Augusta's secondary and later primary vitae[59] Vita Type of Vita % estimate containing reliable historical details Aelius Secondary 25% Avidius Cassius Secondary 5% Pescennius Niger Secondary 29% Clodius Albinus Secondary 32% Geta Secondary 5% Opellius Macrinus Primary 33% Diadumenianus Secondary 5% Elagabalus Primary 24% Alexander Severus Primary 4% Claudius Primary 10% Aurelian Primary 27% Tacitus Primary 15% Probus Primary 17% Quadrigae Tyrannorum Secondary 0% Carus Primary 17% Genre and purpose[edit] Interpretations of the purpose of the History also vary considerably, some considering it a work of fiction or satire intended to entertain (perhaps in the vein of 1066 and All That), others viewing it as a pagan attack on Christianity, the writer having concealed his identity for personal safety. Under this anti-Christianity theory, the lacuna covering the period from Philip the Arab through to the end of Valerian's reign is seen as deliberate, as it freed the author from addressing Philip's reign, as by the late 4th century, Philip was being claimed as a Christian emperor, as well as not discussing Decius and Valerian's reigns, as they were well known persecutors of the Church. It also avoided dealing with their fates, as Christians saw their ends as divine retribution for their persecutions. In fact, where mentioned, both Decius and Valerian are viewed very positively by the author of the History.[60] Further, it is noted that the History also parodies Christian scripture. For instance, in the Life of Alexander Severus there is: "It is said that on the day after his birth a star of the first magnitude was visible for the entire day at Arca Caesarea",[61] while "where, save at Rome, is there an imperial power that rules an empire?"[62] is considered to be a response to 2 Thessalonians 2:6–7.[63] Syme[64] argued that it was a mistake to regard it as a historical work at all and that no clear propaganda purpose could be determined. He theorized that the History is primarily a literary product – an exercise in satire produced by a 'rogue scholiast' catering to (and making fun of or parodying) the antiquarian tendencies of the Theodosian age, in which Suetonius and Marius Maximus were fashionable reading and Ammianus Marcellinus was producing sober history in the manner of Tacitus. (The History implausibly[65] makes the Emperor Tacitus (275–276) a descendant and connoisseur of the historian). In fact in a passage on the Quadriga tyrannorum[66] — the 'four-horse chariot of usurpers' said to have aspired to the purple in the reign of Probus — the History itself accuses Marius Maximus of being a producer of 'mythical history': homo omnium verbosissimus, qui et mythistoricis se voluminibis implicavit ('the most long-winded of men, who furthermore wrapped himself up in volumes of historical fiction'). The term mythistoricis occurs nowhere else in Latin.[67] Of considerable significance in this regard is the opening section of the life of Aurelian, in which 'Flavius Vopiscus' records a supposed conversation he had with the City Prefect of Rome during the festival of Hilaria in which the Prefect urges him to write as he chooses and invent what he does not know.[68] Cicero, one of the authors whose works the Historia Augusta references obliquely. Other examples of the work as a parody can be taken from the names of the Scriptores themselves. It has been suggested that "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius" were invented, with one theory arguing that their origins are based on passages in Cicero's letters and speeches in the 1st century BC.[63] With respect to "Trebellius Pollio", this is a reference to Lucius Trebellius, a supporter of Mark Antony who was mentioned in the Philippics (Phil, 11.14), and another reference to him in Epistulae ad Familiares along with the term "Pollentiam" reminded the History's author of Asinius Pollio, who was a fellow Plebeian Tribune alongside Lucius Trebellius and a historian as well.[63] This is reinforced by noted similarities between the fictitious criticism of "Trebellius Pollio" by "Flavius Vopiscus" at the start of the Life of Aurelian, with similar comments made by Asinius Pollio about Julius Caesar's published Commentaries.[63] Significantly, Lucius Trebellius adopted the Cognomen Fides for his actions as Plebeian Tribune in 47 BC to resist laws that would abolish debts; later when he fell into debt himself and began supporting debt abolishment, Cicero used his cognomen as a method of abuse and ridicule. According to this theory it is no coincidence that, in selecting the name "Trebellius Pollio", the author is playing with the concepts of fides and fidelitas historica at the precise point in the lives that are assigned to "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius".[69] In the case of "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius", it was argued that it too was inspired by the Philippics' reference to "Caesar Vopiscus" (Phil, 11.11), with Cicero's reference to Vopiscus immediately preceding his reference to Lucius Trebellius.[70] The cognomen "Syracusius" was selected because Cicero's In Verrem is filled with references to "Syracusae" and "Syracusani".[70] Further, in Cicero's De Oratore, Cicero refers to Strabo Vopiscus as an authority on humour, during which he refers to the reputation of Sicilians when it came to humour, and Syracuse was one of the principal cities of Sicily.[70] Such references were intended as a "knowing wink" to the readers of the History, who would recognise the mockery of the historical material by the author.[70] This corresponds with David Rohrbacher's view of the History, who maintains that the author has no political or theological agenda; rather that the History is the equivalent of a literary puzzle or game, with the reader's understanding and enjoyment of the numerous elaborate and complicated allusions contained within it being the only purpose behind its existence.[71] In support of this theory, Rohrbacher provides an example with respect to Ammianus Marcellinus' work. In one passage (Amm. 19.12.14), Ammianus describes the Christian emperor Constantius II's attempts to prosecute cases of magic under treason laws, in particular the death penalty applied to those men who were condemned simply for wearing an amulet to ward off diseases: "si qui remedia quartanae vel doloris alterius collo gestaret" ("For if anyone wore on his neck an amulet against the quartan ague or any other complaint").[72] There is a very similar imperial ruling described in the Life of Caracalla (5.7), which makes no sense in Caracalla's time, and is worded in almost exactly the same way: "qui remedia quartanis tertianisque collo adnexas gestarent" ("wearing them around their necks as preventives of quartan or tertian fever").[72] Other theories include André Chastagnol's minimalist opinion that the author was a pagan who supported the Senate and the Roman aristocracy and scorned the lower classes and the barbarian races,[73] while François Paschoud proposed that the last books of the History are in fact a type of alternative historical narrative, with events and the personalities of recent 4th century emperors woven into the fabric of a series of 3rd century emperors. According to Paschoud, the representation of the emperor Probus is in fact a version of Julian, with Carus substituting for Valentinian I and Carinus for Gratian.[73] Historical value[edit] From the sixth century to the end of the 19th century, historians had recognized that the Historia Augusta was a flawed and not a particularly reliable source, and since the 20th century modern scholars have tended to treat it with extreme caution.[12][74] Older historians, such as Edward Gibbon, not fully aware of its problems with respect to the fictitious elements contained within it, generally treated the information preserved within it as authentic. For instance, in Gibbon's account of the reign of Gallienus, he uncritically reproduces the Historia Augusta's biased and largely fictional account of that reign.[75] So when Gibbon states "The repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul",[76] he is reworking the passage in The Two Gallieni: I am ashamed to relate what Gallienus used often to say at this time, when such things were happening, as though jesting amid the ills of mankind. For when he was told of the revolt of Egypt, he is said to have exclaimed "What! We cannot do without Egyptian linen!" and when informed that Asia had been devastated both by the violence of nature and by the inroads of the Scythians, he said, "What! We cannot do without saltpetre!" and when Gaul was lost, he is reported to have laughed and remarked, "Can the commonwealth be safe without Atrebatic cloaks?" Thus, in short, with regard to all parts of the world, as he lost them, he would jest, as though seeming to have suffered the loss of some article of trifling service.[77] Gibbon then noted after this passage: "This singular character has, I believe, been fairly transmitted to us. The reign of his immediate successor was short and busy; and the historians who wrote before the elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus."[78] Modern scholars now believe that Gallienus' reputation was posthumously maligned, that he was one of the main architects of the later Roman imperial structure, and that his reforms were built upon by succeeding emperors.[79] Nevertheless, it is unwise to dismiss it altogether as it is also the principal Latin source regarding a century of Roman history. For example, scholars had assumed that Veturius Macrinus, mentioned in the Life of Didius Julianus, was an invention of the author, like so many other names. However, an inscription was uncovered which confirmed his existence and his post as Praetorian Prefect in 193.[80] Likewise, the information that Hadrian's Wall was constructed during Hadrian's reign[81] and that the Antonine Wall was built during the reign of Antoninus Pius[82] are recorded by no other extant ancient writer apart from the Historia Augusta,[note 6] the veracity of which has been confirmed by inscriptions.[84] False documents and authorities[edit] A peculiarity of the work is its inclusion of a large number of purportedly authentic documents such as extracts from Senate proceedings and letters written by imperial personages.[85][86] In all it contains around 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to the people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations.[2] Records like these are quite distinct from the rhetorical speeches often inserted by ancient historians – it was accepted practice for the writer to invent these himself[87] – and on the few occasions when historians (such as Sallust in his work on Catiline or Suetonius in his Twelve Caesars) include such documents, they have generally been regarded as genuine;[88] but almost all those found in the Historia Augusta have been rejected as fabrications, partly on stylistic grounds, partly because they refer to military titles or points of administrative organisation which are otherwise unrecorded until long after the purported date, or for other suspicious content.[89][90][91] The History moreover cites dozens of otherwise unrecorded historians, biographers, letter-writers, knowledgeable friends of the writers, and so on, most of whom must be regarded as expressions of the author's creative imagination.[92] For example, the biographer "Cordus" is cited twenty-seven times in the History. Long considered to be a real, but lost, biographer until midway into the 20th century,[93][94] with a couple of minor exceptions where material claimed to be sourced from Cordus is in reality from Suetonius or Cicero, every other citation is fake, providing details which have been invented and ascribed to Cordus. Cordus is mentioned almost exclusively in those Vitae where the History used Herodian as the primary source, and his appearances vanish once Herodian's history comes to an end.[95] The author would also misattribute material taken from a legitimate historian and ascribe it to a fictitious author. For instance, Herodian is used more often than he is explicitly referenced in the History; in addition to the ten times he is correctly cited, three times his material is cited as "Arrianus", probably to multiply the author's sources.[23] Further, not only does the author copy from Herodian without citation (either direct lifts, abbreviations or supplementations), he often distorts Herodian, to suit his literary objective.[23][96] Then there is the deliberate citation of false information which is then ascribed legitimate authors. For instance, at a minimum, five of the History's sixteen citations of Dexippus are considered to be fake, and Dexippus appears to be mentioned, not as a principal source of information, but rather as a contradictory author to be contrasted against information sourced from Herodian or the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte. In addition Quintus Gargilius Martialis, who produced works on horticulture and medicine, is cited twice as a biographer, which is considered to be another false attribution.[97] Examples of false historical events and personages[edit] The untrustworthiness of the History stems from the multifarious kinds of fraudulent (as opposed to simply inaccurate) information that run through the work, becoming ever more dominant as it proceeds.[52] The various biographies are ascribed to different invented 'authors', and continue with the dedicatory epistles to Diocletian and Constantine, the quotation of fabricated documents, the citation of non-historical authorities, the invention of persons (extending even to the subjects of some of the minor biographies), presentation of contradictory information to confuse an issue while making a show of objectivity, deliberately false statements, and the inclusion of material which can be shown to relate to events or personages of the late 4th century rather than the period supposedly being written about.[98] For example: The biography of Geta states he was born in Mediolanum on 27 May; the year is not specified but it was 'in the suffect consulships of Severus and Vitellius'.[99] He was actually born in Rome on 7 March 189; there was no such pair of suffect consuls in this or any other year;[100] however, it has been suggested that the names for these persons be amended to be Severus and Vettulenus, and that these men were suffect consuls sometime before 192.[101] In the Vita Commodi, the biography on emperor Commodus, there is much doubt about the authenticity of the sources used and cited. Lampridius (the pseudonym the author works with here) claims to have used Marius Maximus on multiple occasions for his work.[102] One instance forms a case in point: Lampridius (supposedly) quotes the senatorial speeches in Maximus’ work which were held after Commodus’ death.[103] However, it is unclear whether the references to Maximus are genuine or made up by the author to give himself a sense of authority and expertise.[104] Baldwin thinks that the senatorial speeches are probably a figment of Lampridius’ imagination.[105] Molinier-Arbo, however, believes in their authenticity. She suggests that the full report of the acta senatus (lit. acts of the senate) was handed down in the acta urbis (a kind of city gazette). Marius Maximus could have used this report for his work and Lampridius could have used it later on.[106] A letter of Hadrian written from Egypt to his brother-in-law Servianus is quoted at length (and was accepted as genuine by many authorities well into the 20th century).[107] Servianus is saluted as consul, and Hadrian mentions his (adopted) son Lucius Aelius Caesar: but Hadrian was in Egypt in 130, Servianus' consulship fell in 134, and Hadrian adopted Aelius in 136.[108][109] The letter is said to have been published by Hadrian's freedman Phlegon, with the letter's existence not mentioned anywhere except in the History, in another suspect passage.[110] A passage in the letter dealing with the frivolousness of Egyptian religious beliefs refers to the Patriarch, head of the Jewish community in the Empire. This office only came into being after Hadrian put down the Jewish revolt of 132, and the passage is probably meant in mockery of the powerful late 4th-century Patriarch, Gamaliel.[111] Decius revives the office of Censor; the Senate acclaims Valerian as worthy to hold it in a decree dated 27 October 251. The decree is brought to Decius (on campaign against the Goths) and he summons Valerian to bestow the honour.[112] The revival of the censorship is fictitious, and Decius had been dead for several months by the date stated.[113] Valerian holds an imperial council in Byzantium, attended by several named dignitaries, none of them otherwise attested and some holding offices not known to exist until the following century, at which the general 'Ulpius Crinitus' (a name apparently chosen to evoke the military glories of the Emperor Trajan) takes the young Aurelian (destined to be another military Emperor) as his adopted son. There are no grounds to believe this is anything other than invention.[114] Trebellianus, one of the fictitious tyrants included in the Historia Augusta, drawn by Guillaume Rouillé in Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum- 1553 In the Tyranni Triginta, the author 'Trebellius Pollio' sets out to chronicle 'the 30 usurpers who arose in the years when the Empire was ruled by Gallienus and Valerian'.[115] The number 30 is evidently modelled on the notorious 'Thirty Tyrants' who ruled Athens after the end of the Peloponnesian War.[116] The chapter contains 32 mini-biographies. They include two women, six youths, and seven men who never claimed the imperial power; one usurper of the reign of Maximinus Thrax, one of the time of Decius, and two of the time of Aurelian; and a number who are not historical personages: Postumus the Younger, Saturninus, Trebellianus, Celsus, Titus, Censorinus, and Victorinus Junior.[117] In the Life of Tacitus, the emperor is acclaimed by the Senate, meeting in the Curia Pompiliana, which never existed.[118] The History then lists a number of individuals, all of whom are invented by the author: the consul 'Velius Cornificius Gordianus',[119] 'Maecius Faltonius Nicomachus',[120] the Prefect of the City 'Aelius Cesettianus',[121] and the Praetorian Prefect 'Moesius Gallicanus'.[122] Private letters commending Tacitus are quoted from the senators 'Autronius Tiberianus' and 'Claudius Sapilianus', both of whom are assumed to be non-historical personages.[123] Most of the 'Maecii' and 'Gallicani' in the History are believed to be inventions of the author.[120][122] In the Quadrigae Tyrannorum (Four tyrants: The Lives of Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus[124]), the author includes Firmus, said to have been a usurper in Egypt under Aurelian.[125][126] There is no certainty that this person ever existed; however, there was a Corrector named Claudius Firmus stationed in Egypt in 274, about the time Zosimus states that Aurelian was dealing with some trouble in that province.[127] Nevertheless, the History's wealth of detail about him is considered to be completely invented.[128] For example, he would eat an ostrich a day, he had a carriage drawn by ostriches, he would swim among crocodiles, he built himself a house fitted with square panels of glass.[129] In the Life of Probus,[130] the author 'Flavius Vopiscus of Syracuse' states that the Emperor's descendants (posteri) fled from Rome and settled near Verona. There a statue of Probus was struck by lightning, a portent according to soothsayers 'that future generations of the family would rise to such distinction in the senate they all would hold the highest posts', though Vopiscus (supposedly writing under Constantine) says this prophecy has not yet come to pass. This is one of the strongest indications of the History's late 4th-century date, as it seems to be a fairly transparent allusion to the rich and powerful senator Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (consul in 371) whose two sons held the consulship together in 395.[131][132] Petronius Probus was born in Verona.[133] Marius Maximus or 'Ignotus'?[edit] Certain scholars have always defended the value of specific parts of the work. Anthony Birley, for instance, has argued that the lives up to Septimius Severus are based on the now-lost biographies of Marius Maximus, which were written as a sequel to Suetonius' Lives of the Twelve Caesars.[134] As a result, his translation of the History for Penguin Books covers only the first half, and was published as Lives of the Later Caesars, Birley himself supplying biographies of Nerva and Trajan (these are not part of the original texts, which begin with Hadrian). His view (part of a tradition that goes back to J. J. Müller, who advanced Marius' claims as early as 1870, and supported by modern scholars such as André Chastagnol) was vigorously contested by Ronald Syme, who theorized that virtually all the identifiable citations from Marius Maximus are essentially frivolous interpolations into the main narrative source, which he postulated was a different Latin author whom he styled 'Ignotus ("the unknown one"), the good biographer'.[135][136] His theory argued, firstly, that as Marius wrote a sequel to the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, his work covered the reigns from Nerva to Elagabalus; consequently, this would not have included a biography of Lucius Verus, even though the biography of that Princeps in the History is mainly of good quality.[137] Secondly, that 'Ignotus' only went up to Caracalla, as is revealed by the inferior and mostly fictitious biography of Macrinus.[138] Finally, that the composer of the Historia Augusta wrote the lives of the emperors through to the Life of Caracalla (including Lucius Verus) using Ignotus as his main source, and supplementing with Marius Maximus on occasion.[139] It was only when the source failed that he turned to other less reliable sources (such as Herodian and Maximus),[140] as well as his own fertile imagination, and it was at this juncture that he composed the first five minor lives, through to the Life of Geta.[141] A similar theory to Syme's has been put forward by François Paschoud, who claimed that Maximus was probably a satirical poet, in the same vein as Juvenal and not an imperial biographer at all.[142] His argument rests on the point that, outside of the mentions in the History, the only extant referencing of Marius' work is always in the context of Juvenal, and that the History's description of him as a historian cannot be taken at face value, given how it invents or distorts so many other citations.[97] This theory is rejected by historians such as Anthony Birley[142] and David Rohrbacher.[143] Literary value[edit] The Historia Augusta has been described by Ronald Syme as "the most enigmatic work that Antiquity has transmitted".[74] Although much of the focus of study throughout the centuries has been on the historical content, since the 20th century there has also been an assessment of the literary value of the work. For much of that time the assessment has been critical, as demonstrated by the analysis put forward by David Magie: The literary, as well as the historical, value of the Historia Augusta has suffered greatly as a result of the method of its composition. In the arrangement in categories of the historical material, the authors did but follow the accepted principles of the art of biography as practised in antiquity, but their narratives, consisting often of mere excerpts arranged without regard to connexion or transition, lack grace and even cohesion. The over-emphasis of personal details and the introduction of anecdotal material destroy the proportion of many sections, and the insertion of forged documents interrupts the course of the narrative, without adding anything of historical value or even of general interest. Finally, the later addition of lengthy passages and brief notes, frequently in paragraphs with the general content of which they have no connexion, has put the crowning touch to the awkwardness and incoherence of the whole, with the result that the oft-repeated charge seems almost justified, that these biographies are little more than literary monstrosities.[144] M. L. W. Laistner was of the opinion that "even if the Historia Augusta was propaganda disguised as biography, it is still a wretched piece of literature",[145] while Ronald Syme noted that with respect to the author's Latin prose: He was not an elegant exponent. His normal language is flat and monotonous. But uneven, and significantly so. For this author is erudite, a fancier of words, and a collector. Hence many rarities, or even inventions ... first, when depicting the measures of a military disciplinarian, he brings in technical terms redolent of the camp. Second, archaism, preciosity, and flowery words.[146] Further, the work shows evidence of its having been put together in a very haphazard and hasty fashion, with little to no subsequent editing of the material to form a cohesive narrative.[147] Birley sees an example of the carelessness with which the author approached the work in the construction of Marcus Aurelius' biography, where midway through the Life of Marcus Aurelius the author found himself in a muddle, probably because he had historical material in excess of what he required, and also because he had already used up much of his source to write separate biographies of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius, whose lives intersected with Marcus'.[148] The answer he came up with was to use Eutropius as his source for a brief overview of Marcus' principate following the death of Lucius Verus.[148] However, he found that in doing so, the narrative's ending was too abrupt and so, after including some gossip about Commodus not being his son, he once again began an account of Marcus' reign after the death of Verus.[148] Although these criticisms still form the prevailing view on the History's literary worth, modern scholars such as Rohrbacher have begun to argue that, while it is poorly written and not a stylistic or polished work,[149][150] its use of allusion as a vehicle for parodying popular late 4th century biographical and historiographical works means that the very features which were once a cause for intense criticism (such as the inclusion of irrelevant or contradictory inventions alongside traditionally sourced material) are actually an intentional and integral part of the work, making it one of the most unique pieces of literature to emerge from the ancient world.[151][71] See also[edit] Thirty Tyrants (Roman) – about the Tyranni Triginta, one of the books of the Historia Augusta Titus Aurelius Fulvus Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte Footnotes[edit] ^ Gerardus Vossius, who published de Historicis Latinis in 1627, discussed the problem of the distribution of the various vitae among the scriptores, but also the problems about the authors cited by them. Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, who published Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné durant les six premiers Siècles de l'Eglise in 1690, provided a wholesale denunciation of the biographies as being worthless, full of contradictions and chronological errors. ^ Sev. 17.5–19.4 was copied from Victor, Caes. 20.1 and 10–30; in both passages there is a major error, which mixes up the emperor Didius Julianus with the legal scholar Salvius Julianus ^ MA 16.3–18.2 was lifted from Eutropius 8.11 ^ In the Aurelian, Vopiscus refers to Constantinus Chlorus as emperor and Diocletian as a private citizen, dating this composition between Diocletian's abdication on 1 May 305 and Constantius' death on 25 July 306 ^ For example, Spartianus declares that he is going to write a life of Verus, but that life is attributed to Capitolinus. ^ Where other ancient writers (such as Eutropius) speak of a defensive wall in Britain, they have associated it with the activities of Septimius Severus.[83] References[edit] ^ Magie 1921, p. xii. ^ a b Magie 1921, pp. xx–xxi. ^ Breisach 2007, p. 75. ^ a b Magie 1921, p. xi. ^ Birley 1988, p. 20. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxiv–xxv. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 9. ^ Birley 1967, pp. 125–130. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 118–119. ^ Syme 1971, p. 277. ^ Barnes 1978, p. 12. ^ a b Browning 1983, pp. 43,45. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxxiii. ^ a b Marshall 1983, p. 354f. ^ Marshall 1983, p. 355. ^ Marshall 1983, p. 356. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxviii. ^ Birley 1988, p. 7. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxx–xxxi. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 11. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxxii. ^ Syme 1971, p. 1. ^ a b c Birley 2006, p. 20. ^ Syme 1971, p. 2. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 113. ^ Baynes 1926, pp. 169-169. ^ Hornblower, Spawforth & Eidinow 2012, p. 691. ^ Birley 2006, p. 19. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 13–14. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 20. ^ Momigliano 1954, pp. 22–46. ^ a b Momigliano 1969, pp. 566–569. ^ a b Momigliano 1973, pp. 114–115. ^ Jones 1986, p. 1071, Note 1. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 121. ^ Momigliano 1984, pp. 125, 133. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 140. ^ Cameron 2010, pp. 743–746. ^ Birley 1988, p. 12. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 11–12. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 10. ^ a b c d e f Rohrbacher 2016, p. 5. ^ a b Den Hengst 2010, p. 182. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 6. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 20–21. ^ Birley 2006, pp. 25–27. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 23. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 23–24. ^ Prickman 2013. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 54–57. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 56–57. ^ a b Birley 1988, pp. 13–14. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 44, 211, 214. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 57–59. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 146–150. ^ Birley 1988, p. 14. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 151. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, pp. 150–151. ^ Birley 2006, p. 23. ^ Birley 2006, p. 22. ^ Historia Augusta, Alexander Severus, 13.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Alexander Severus, 14.4. ^ a b c d Birley 2006, p. 25. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 12–13. ^ Syme 1983, p. 214. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 1.2. ^ Syme 1971, p. 76. ^ Syme 1968, p. 192. ^ Birley 2006, p. 26. ^ a b c d Birley 2006, p. 27. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 148. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 143. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 147. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 4. ^ Bray 1997, pp. 3–4. ^ Gibbon 1776, Ch. 10. ^ Historia Augusta, The Two Gallieni, 6.1–6.8. ^ Gibbon 1776, Ch. 10, Note 156. ^ Bray 1997, p. 4. ^ Mellor 2002, p. 163. ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 11.2. ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius, 5.4. ^ Shorter 2008, pp. 113–114. ^ Birley 1988, p. 13. ^ Potter 2005, p. 150. ^ Campbell 1994, p. 248. ^ Mehl 2011, p. 21. ^ Potter 2005, p. 149. ^ Hadas 2013, pp. 356–357. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 6–8. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 113–114. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 98–99. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xviii–xix. ^ Syme 1968, pp. 96–98. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, p. 161. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 13. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 160. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 12–16. ^ Historia Augusta, Geta, 3.1. ^ Syme 1968, p. 123. ^ Birley 1966, pp. 249–253. ^ Syme 1983, p. 31. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 15.3-5 + 18-21. ^ Syme 1983, p. 41. ^ Baldwin 1981, pp. 138-149. ^ Molinier-Arbo 2010, pp. 87-112. ^ Raschke 1976, pp. 761–762. ^ Habelt 1968, p. 121. ^ Birley 2013, p. 3. ^ Syme 1968, p. 60. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 21–24. ^ Historia Augusta, The Two Valerians, 5.4–6.1. ^ Syme 1971, p. 215. ^ Den Hengst 2010, p. 97. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 1.1. ^ Bunson 1991, p. 414. ^ Cancik, Schneider & Salazar 2009, p. 91. ^ Den Hengst 2010, p. 159. ^ Kreucher 2003, p. 105. ^ a b Syme 1971, pp. 4, 12. ^ Syme 1983, p. 117. ^ a b Baldwin 1984, p. 4. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 238–239. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 3.1. ^ Historia Augusta, Aurelian, 32.2. ^ Barnes 1978, p. 71. ^ Den Boeft et al. 2013, pp. 150. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 3.2–6.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Probus, 24.1–24.3. ^ Syme 1968, p. 164. ^ Claudian 1922, Panegyric on the Consuls Probinus and Olybrius, Note 1. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1971, pp. 739. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 14–15. ^ Syme 1983, p. 33. ^ Birley 1988, p. 15. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 31–33. ^ Syme 1983, p. 32. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 32–33. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 31–32. ^ Syme 1983, p. 44. ^ a b Birley 2006, p. 21. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, pp. 161–162. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxiii–xxiv. ^ Laistner 1966, p. 180. ^ Syme 1971, p. 251. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 18–19. ^ a b c Birley 1988, p. 19. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 171. ^ Birley 1988, p. 18. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 170–172. Sources[edit] Anonymous (c. 395). Historia Augusta [Augustan History] (in Latin). Baldwin, Barry (1984). Studies on Late Roman and Byzantine History, Literature, and Language. Volume 12 of London studies in classical philology. Brill Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-90-70265-56-4. Baldwin, Barry (1981). "Acclamations in the Historia Augusta". Athenaeum. Italy: Pavia. 59: 138–149. Barnes, Timothy (1978). The Sources of the Historia Augusta. Latomus. ISBN 978-2-87031-005-2. Baynes, Norman Hepburn (1926). The Historia Augusta. Its Date and Purpose. Oxford: U.M.I. Birley, Anthony (2013). Hadrian: The Restless Emperor. Roman imperial biographies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95226-6. Birley, Anthony (1988). Lives of the Later Caesars. United Kingdom: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-193599-7. Birley, Anthony (2006). "Rewriting second- and third-century history in late antique Rome: the Historia Augusta". Classica. Brazil: Belo Horizonte. 19 n.1. Birley, Anthony (1967). "The Augustan History". Latin Biography. Birley, Anthony (1966). "Two Names in the Historia Augusta". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag. 15 (2): 249–253. JSTOR 4434928. Bray, John Jefferson (1997). Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics. Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-86254-337-9. Breisach, Ernst (2007). Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-07284-5. Browning, Robert (1983). "Biography". In Kenney, E. J.; Clausen, Wendell Vernon; Cameron, Averil (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 5, The Later Principate. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–50. ISBN 978-0-521-27371-8. Bunson, Matthew (1991). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cameron, Alan (2010). The Last Pagans of Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978091-4. Campbell, Brian (1994). The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337: A Sourcebook. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-90940-7. Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth; Salazar, Christine (2009). Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity. 14. Holland: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-14219-0. Den Boeft, Jan; Drijvers, Jan Willem; Den Hengst, Daniël; Teitler, Hans (2013). Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXIX. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-26787-9. Den Hengst, Daniel (2010). Emperors and Historiography. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-17438-2. Gibbon, Edward (1776). Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol I. Habelt, Rudolf (1968). Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium, Volume 4. Rudolf Habelt Verlag. Hadas, Moses (2013). A History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). The Later Roman Empire 284-602, Vol 2. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8018-3354-0. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, John Robert; Morris, John (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I (A.D. 260-395). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07233-5. Kreucher, G (2003). Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit. Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08382-9. Laistner, M. W. L. (1966). The Greater Roman Historians. University of California Press. Magie, David (1921). The Historia Augusta. London & Harvard: Loeb Classical Library. Marshall, Peter K (1983). "Scriptores Historiae Augustae". In Reynolds, Leighton Durham (ed.). Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Clarendon Press. pp. 354ff. ISBN 978-0-19-814456-4. Mehl, Andreas (2011). Roman Historiography. London: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-2183-5. Mellor, Ronald (2002). The Roman Historians. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-81652-1. Molinier-Arbo, Agnès (2010). "Les documents d'archives dans la Vita Commodi : degré zéro de l'histoire ou fiction". Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. France: Persée. suppl. 4.1: 87–112. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1954). "An Unsolved Problem of Historical Forgery: The Scriptores Historiae Augustae". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. Oxford. 17 (1/2) (1/2): 22–46. doi:10.2307/750131. JSTOR 750131. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1969). "Review: Ammianus and the Historia Augusta by Ronald Syme". 332. The English Historical Review 84: 566–569. JSTOR 562486. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Momigliano, Arnaldo (1973). "Review: Emperors and Biography. Studies in the Historia Augusta by Ronald Syme". 346. The English Historical Review 88: 114–115. JSTOR 562570. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Momigliano, Arnaldo (1984). Secondo Contributo Alla Storia Degli Studi Classici. Ed. di Storia e Letteratura. Claudian (1922). Claudian on LacusCurtius. Translated by Platnauer, Maurice. Harvard: Harvard University Press. Potter, David (2005). Literary Texts and the Roman Historian. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-96233-4. Prickman, Greg (2013). "Ninth Century – The Text" in The Atlas of Early Printing – via University Archives at the University of Iowa Libraries.[dead link] Mirror at Archive.org Raschke, Manfred (1976). New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East (PDF). Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). 9. W. de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-007175-7. Rohrbacher, David (2016). The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-30604-5. Rohrbacher, David (2013). "The Sources of the Historia Augusta Re-examined" (PDF). Histos. 7. Shorter, David (2008). Roman Britain: A Sourcebook. Syme, Ronald (1968). Ammianus and the Historia Augusta. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. Syme, Ronald (1971). Emperors and Biography: studies in the 'Historia Augusta'. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198143574. Syme, Ronald (1983). Historia Augusta Papers. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814853-1. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Guidelines for use of ISBNs on Wikipedia. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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en-wikipedia-org-1901	----	View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree - Wikipedia View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree ← Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Nerva–Antonine family tree== {{chart top|collapsed={{#switch:{{{state|<noinclude>expanded</noinclude>}}}|expanded=no|#default=yes}}|width={{{width|100%}}}|align={{{align|}}}|template_name=Nerva–Antonine family tree|Nerva–Antonine family tree}} {{chart/start}} {{chart | |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.}} {{chart | QBS | | QMB |v| AF | | |!| | | MCN |v| SP | | |!| | | PAH |QBS=[[Barea Soranus|Q.&nbsp;Marcius Barea Soranus]]|QMB=[[Quintus Marcius Barea Sura|Q.&nbsp;Marcius Barea Sura]]|AF=Antonia Furnilla|MCN=M.&nbsp;Cocceius Nerva|SP=Sergia Plautilla|PAH=P.&nbsp;Aelius Hadrianus}} {{chart | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |!}} {{chart | TTS |v| MRF | | MRC |v| MVT | | | | NER | | | | VLP |v| AHM |TTS={{sm|[[Titus]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;79–81)|MRF=[[Marcia Furnilla]]|NER={{sm|[[Nerva]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;96–98)|MRC=[[Marcia (mother of Trajan)|Marcia]]|MVT={{sm|[[Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan)|Trajanus Pater]]}}|VLP=[[Ulpia (grandmother of Hadrian)|Ulpia]]{{efn-lr|Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p.&nbsp;7.}} |AHM=[[Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus]]|boxstyle_ NER=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_ TTS=background-color: #c6bbf9;}} {{chart | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.|F|~|~|J| | | | | | | |!}} {{chart | | | JF | | MAR |v| SAL | | TRA |j| PLO |P| PAA | | AFR |v| DPA | | | | |JF={{sm|[[Julia Flavia]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac8"|Giacosa (1977), p. 8.}} |TRA={{sm|[[Trajan]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;98–117) |PLO={{sm|[[Pompeia Plotina|Plotina]]}}|PAA=[[Publius Acilius Attianus|P.&nbsp;Acilius Attianus]] |SAL=[[Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus|C.&nbsp;Salonius Matidius]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |MAR={{sm|[[Ulpia Marciana|Marciana]]}}{{efn-lr|name="lev161"}} |DPA=[[Paulina#Mother of Hadrian|Paulina Major]]{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"}} |AFR=[[Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer|P.&nbsp;Aelius Afer]]{{efn-lr|name="giac7"}} |boxstyle_ TRA=background-color: #e9a5d8; }} {{chart | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | | | |:| | | | | |!| | | | }} {{chart | LCM |v| SCR |v| MAT |v| VIB | | |L|~|~|~|7|,|*|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.|VIB=[[Lucius Vibius Sabinus|L.&nbsp;Vibius Sabinus]]<br/>(1){{efn-lr|Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |LCM=[[Lucius Mindius]]<br/>(2)|SCR=[[Libo Rupilius Frugi]]<br/>(3)|MAT={{sm|[[Salonia Matidia|Matidia]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac9"}} }} {{chart | | | |!| |,|-|'| | | |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | |:|!|:| | | | | | | | | PAU |v| URS |PAU=[[Paulina#Sister of Hadrian|Paulina Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"}} |URS=[[Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus|L.&nbsp;Julius Ursus Servianus]]{{efn-lr|name="Smith Servianus"|Smith (1870), [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3125.html "Julius Servianus"].{{Dead link|date=October 2016}} }} |boxstyle_ URS=background-color: #e5e5e5; }} {{chart | | | MAM |!| | | | | | | | SUE |P| SAB |-| HAD |P| AOS | | | | | | | |!| |MAM=[[Matidia Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="giac9"|Giacosa (1977), p. 9.}}|SUE=[[Suetonius]]?{{efn-lr|Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of ''[[Augustan History|HA]] Hadrianus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#11 11:3] }} |SAB={{sm|[[Vibia Sabina|Sabina]]}}{{efn-lr|name="lev161"|Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |HAD={{sm|[[Hadrian]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac7"|Giacosa (1977), p.&nbsp;7.}}{{efn-lr|name="Smith 1870a p. 319"|Smith (1870), [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1427.html "Hadrian"], pp. 319–322.{{Dead link|date=October 2016}} }}{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"|''DIR'' contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), [http://www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm "Hadrian"].}} (r.&nbsp;117–138) |AOS={{sm|[[Antinous]]}}{{efn-lr|Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p.&nbsp;99 and ''passim''; deification: Lamber (1984), pp.&nbsp;2–5, etc.}} |boxstyle_ HAD=background-color: #e9a5d8; }} {{chart | | | | | |!| | | JBL |P|P|P|P|P|P|Z| | | | |L|~|V|7| | | | | SAL |v| JPA |JPA=[[Paulina#Niece of Hadrian|Julia Serviana Paulina]]|SAL=C.&nbsp;Fuscus Salinator I |JBL=[[Julia Balbilla]]?{{efn-lr|Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), ''Hadrian, the Restless Emperor'', p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion.}} }} {{chart | ANV |v| RPF | | | | | | BP |v| GAA | | | | | |:|:| | | | | | | |`|-|.|RPF=[[Rupilia|Rupilia Faustina]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |BP=Boionia Procilla|GAA=[[Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus|Cn.&nbsp;Arrius Antoninus]] |ANV=[[Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius)|M.&nbsp;Annius Verus]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163.}} }} {{chart | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.|L|~|~|~|~|~|C|:| LCC |v| AS | | STY ||LCC=L.&nbsp;Ceionius Commodus|AS=Appia Severa |STY=C.&nbsp;Fuscus Salinator II|boxstyle_ STY=background-color: #e5e5e5; }} {{chart | | | |!| LCP |-|-|v|-|-| AA | | AF |-|v| TAF |:|:| |,|-|'| |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | |AA=Arria Antonina|AF=Arria Fadilla{{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |TAF=[[Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius)|T.&nbsp;Aurelius Fulvus]] |LCP=L.&nbsp;Caesennius Paetus }} {{chart | | | |!| | | | | LCA | | | | | | | | | |`|-|-|.|:|:| LCC |v| FPL | | IGP |v| GAN |LCA=[[Lucius Caesennius Antoninus|L.&nbsp;Caesennius Antoninus]]|LCC=L.&nbsp;Commodus|FPL=[[Plautia (mother of Aelius Caesar)|Plautia]]|IGP=''ignota''{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |GAN=[[Gaius Avidius Nigrinus|C.&nbsp;Avidius Nigrinus]]}} {{chart | |,|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!|:|L|~|~|7|!| | | | | | | |!| | }} {{chart | MAV |v| DL | | | | FD |-| MAL | | FAU |v| ANT | | | |LAC|-|-|v|-|-|AVP| |DL=[[Domitia Calvilla]]{{efn-lr|Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10.}} |MAV=[[Marcus Annius Verus (praetor)|M. Annius Verus]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |FD=Fundania{{efn-lr|Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163.}} |MAL=[[Marcus Annius Libo|M.&nbsp;Annius Libo]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |FAU=[[Faustina the Elder|F<small>AUSTINA</small>]]{{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |ANT={{sm|[[Antoninus Pius]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;138–161){{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |boxstyle_ ANT=background-color: #e9a5d8; |LAC=[[Lucius Aelius Caesar|L.&nbsp;Aelius Caesar]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |AVP=[[Avidia (mother of Lucius Verus)|Avidia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |boxstyle_LAC=background-color: #f6dbef;}} {{chart| |,|-|^|-|.|F|~|~|~|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|7|,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|.| | }} {{chart|ACF| |MAU|-|v|FAI|P|AVC| | |AFD| |VER|.|CEF|v|PQ| |QSP|v|CEP|MAU=[[Marcus Aurelius|M<small>ARCUS</small> A<small>URELIUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;161–180){{efn-lr|name="giac10"}}|FAI=[[Faustina the Younger|F<small>AUSTINA</small> Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |AVC=[[Avidius Cassius|C.&nbsp;Avidius Cassius]]{{efn-lr|The epitomator of Cassius Dio ([http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html 72.22]) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in ''[[Historia Augusta|HA]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Marcus_Aurelius/2*.html "Marcus Aurelius" 24].}}|ACF=[[Annia Cornificia Faustina|Cornificia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"|Levick (2014), p. 163.}} |AFD=Aurelia Fadilla{{efn-lr|name="lev162"|Levick (2014), p. 162.}} |VER=[[Lucius Verus|L<small>UCIUS</small> V<small>ERUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;161–169){{efn-lr|name="lev164"|Levick (2014), p. 164.}}<br/>(1)|PQ=[[Plautius Quintillus]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164.}} |CEF=[[Ceionia Fabia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |QSP=[[Quintus Servilius Pudens|Q.&nbsp;Servilius Pudens]]|CEP=[[Ceionia Plautia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} | | |boxstyle_MAU=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_VER=background-color: #e9a5d8; |boxstyle_AVC=background-color: #e5e5e5;}} {{chart| |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|v|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|`|-|.| |`|.| | | | | | |`|.}} {{chart|COR|v|MPS| |COM|!|FAD|.|MAC| |TCP|-|LUC|'|,|MPQ| |JLB|v|SRV|TCP=[[Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus|Ti.&nbsp;Claudius Pompeianus]]<br/>(2)|LUC=[[Lucilla]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |MAC=[[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|M. Annius Verus Caesar]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |COM=[[Commodus|C<small>OMMODUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;177–192){{efn-lr|name="giac10"|Giacosa (1977), p. 10.}} |COR=[[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor|Cornificia Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"}} |MPS=[[Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus|M.&nbsp;Petronius Sura]]|FAD=[[Fadilla]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"|Levick (2014), p. 117.}} |MPQ=[[Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus|M.&nbsp;Plautius Quintillus]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |JLB=Junius Licinius Balbus|SRV=Servilia Ceionia|boxstyle_COM=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_MAC=background-color: #f6dbef;|boxstyle_TCP=background: #e5e5e5;}} {{chart| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |`|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|'| | | | | | | |!}} {{chart| | |PA| |LAA|-|VAS|-|LAB| |PQS| |PS| | |GST| |AG|v|JLB|PA=Petronius Antoninus|LAB=[[Lucius Antistius Burrus|L.&nbsp;Antistius Burrus]]<br/>(1)|LAA=L.&nbsp;Aurelius Agaclytus<br/>(2)|VAS=[[Vibia Aurelia Sabina|Aurelia Sabina]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"}} |PQS=Plautius Quintillus|PS=Plautia Servilla|GST=[[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|C.&nbsp;Furius Sabinus Timesitheus]]|AG=[[Antonia Gordiana]]|JLB=[[Junius Licinius Balbus]]?}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |`|.| | | | |!}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |TRQ|-|-|GRD|TRQ=[[Tranquillina|Furia Sabina Tranquillina]]|GRD=[[Gordian III|G<small>ORDIAN</small> III]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;238–244)|boxstyle_GRD=background-color: #c6bbf9;}} {{chart/end}} |- |style="text-align: left;"| {| style="border-spacing: 2px; border: 1px solid darkgray;" |- | * (1) = 1st spouse * (2) = 2nd spouse * (3) = 3rd spouse *{{Legend|#e9a5d8|Reddish purple indicates [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty}}<br/>{{Legend|#f6dbef|lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned}}<br/>{{Legend|#e5e5e5|grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants}}<br/>{{Legend|#c6bbf9|bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties}} * dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships * {{sm|small caps}} = posthumously deified (''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augusti]], [[Augusta (honorific)|Augustae]],'' or other) |} |- |style="text-align: left;"|'''Notes:''' Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. {{notelist-lr|30em}}<!--- use either {{Efn-lr}} and/or <ref group=lower-roman /> To fill this notelist --> |- |style="text-align: left;"|'''References:''' *{{cite web |author=''DIR'' contributors |year=2000 |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/ |title=De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families |access-date=2015-04-14}} *{{cite book|last=Giacosa |first=Giorgio |title=Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins |others=Translated by R. Ross Holloway |publisher=Edizioni Arte e Moneta |ISBN=0-8390-0193-2 |date=1977 |location=Milan}} *{{cite book|last=Lambert |first=Royston |date=1984 |title=Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous |publisher=Viking |ISBN=0-670-15708-2 |location=New York}} *{{cite book |last=Levick |first=Barbara |title=Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ISBN=978-0-19-537941-9}} *{{cite book |year=1870 |editor=[[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]] |title=[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]}} {{chart bottom}}<noinclude> {{collapsible option|align=1|title-background=1|width=1}} [[Category:Roman family tree templates]] [[Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty|–]] </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Big (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Category handler (view source) (protected) Template:Chart (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Chart/end (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Chart/start (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Chart bottom (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Chart top (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite book (view source) (protected) Template:Cite web (view source) (protected) Template:Collapsible option (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Dead link (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Efn (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Efn-lr (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Fix (view source) (protected) Template:Greater color contrast ratio (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Ifsubst (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Kbd (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Legend (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Legend/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Main other (view source) (protected) Template:Navbar-collapsible (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree (edit) Template:Notelist (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Notelist-lr (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Para (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Reflist (view source) (protected) Template:Reflist/styles.css (view source) (protected) Template:Sm (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Smallcaps (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Smallcaps/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Template link expanded (view source) (protected) Template:Template other (view source) (protected) Template:Tlx (view source) (protected) Template:Tree chart (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Tree chart/end (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Tree chart/start (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Var (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Yesno (view source) (protected) Template:Yesno-no (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Arguments (view source) (protected) Module:Category handler (view source) (protected) Module:Category handler/blacklist (view source) (protected) Module:Category handler/config (view source) (protected) Module:Category handler/data (view source) (protected) Module:Category handler/shared (view source) (protected) Module:Check for unknown parameters (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Citation/CS1 (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (view source) (protected) Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:Color contrast (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Color contrast/colors (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Namespace detect/config (view source) (protected) Module:Namespace detect/data (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:No globals (view source) (protected) Module:Template link general (view source) (protected) Module:Tree chart (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Tree chart/data (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Unsubst (view source) (protected) Module:Yesno (view source) (protected) Return to Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Nerva–Antonine_family_tree" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-190	----	On Passions - Wikipedia On Passions From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search On Passions Author Chrysippus Original title Περὶ παθῶν Country Ancient Greece Language Ancient Greek Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date c. 225 BCE On Passions (Greek: Περὶ παθῶν; Peri pathōn), also translated as On Emotions or On Affections, is a work by the Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus dating from the 3rd-century BCE. The book has not survived intact, but around seventy fragments from the work survive in a polemic written against it in the 2nd-century CE by the philosopher-physician Galen. In addition Cicero summarises substantial portions of the work in his 1st-century BCE work Tusculan Disputations. On Passions consisted of four books; of which the first three discussed the Stoic theory of emotions and the fourth book discussed therapy and had a separate title—Therapeutics. Most surviving quotations come from Books 1 and 4, although Galen also provides an account of Book 2 drawn from the 1st-century BCE Stoic philosopher Posidonius. Little or nothing is known about Book 3. The Stoics believed that the mind was rational, and that emotions involve judgements. The Stoic passions are emotions such as fear, anger, and desire which cause suffering. In his On Passions, Chrysippus explained how the passions arise from the mistaken opinions of what is good and bad. They are excessive and disobedient to reason, which Chrysippus compared to a runner who is out-of-control. A person in the grip of passion has rejected reason, and therapy is a medical art needed to treat the mind. The treatment outlined by Chrysippus was mostly preventative, demonstrating by theory that the passions are neither natural or necessary, and showing through practice that the mind can be trained to reject them. Contents 1 Background 2 Sources 2.1 Galen 2.2 Cicero 3 Contents 3.1 Book 1 3.2 Book 2 3.3 Book 4: Therapeutics 4 Cicero's Tusculan Disputations 4.1 Book IV 4.1.1 §11–33 4.1.2 §58–81 4.2 Book III 5 Legacy 5.1 Posidonius 5.2 Seneca 5.3 Epictetus 6 Notes 7 Citations 8 References 9 External links Background[edit] Bust of Chrysippus, Uffizi Gallery, Florence See also: Stoic passions Stoicism is a school of philosophy which began in the 3rd-century BCE. The first head (scholarch) of the school, Zeno of Citium, began teaching around 300 BCE, and laid down most of the fundamental doctrines of the school. His successors as head of the school were Cleanthes of Assos and then Chrysippus of Soli. The Stoics grounded their ethics in the belief that the world was rational, ordered, and structured.[1] Only by living according to nature (human nature and cosmic nature) can humans flourish.[2] Since nature is rational, only a life lived according to reason, i.e. according to virtue (aretē), will allow for a life that is smooth, consistent and happy.[2] Failure to reason correctly brings about the occurrence of pathē—a word translated as passions, emotions, or affections.[3][4] The Greek word pathos was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers.[3] The Stoics used the word to discuss generic emotions such as anger, fear and joy.[3] The word passion is often used as a translation of pathos so as not to suggest that the Stoics wanted to be rid of all feeling.[5] However the Stoics were often talking straightforwardly about common emotions.[6] The Stoics beginning with Zeno arranged the passions under four headings: distress (lupē), pleasure (hēdonē), fear (phobos) and desire (epithumia).[7] Two of these (distress and pleasure) refer to passions currently present, and two of these (fear and desire) refer to passions directed at the future.[7] Under these four headings can be found specific emotions such as anger, longing, envy, grief, and pride.[8] Philosophers from the time of Plato had allowed for irrational impulses in the soul, but the Stoics saw the soul as a unified rational whole with a central ruling centre (hegemonikon).[9] Thus the Stoics were the first philosophers to identify all emotions with judgements.[10] A passion is a mistaken opinion.[11] A passion has a passive aspect in that it brings suffering, but it also has an active aspect which the Stoics saw as an impulse (hormē),[5] one which is excessive and disobedient to reason.[12] The wise person who is free from the passions (apatheia) instead experiences good emotions (eupatheia) which are clear-headed feelings.[13] It was against this background that Chrysippus wrote his therapeutic work On Passions. Cleanthes had maintained that to quell a passion such as fear, all one had to do was demonstrate that the emotion had nothing to do with what is bad.[14] However as a form of therapy this was inadequate, and Chrysippus set himself the task of writing a treatise on the theory and therapy of emotions.[14] Sources[edit] The principal source for the On Passions is the polemical commentary by Galen in his On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato which contains most of the surviving quotations.[15] The other main source is Cicero's Tusculan Disputations Book IV which contains a discussion of the Stoic passions which is derived from Chrysippus.[15] A small amount of supplementary information is provided by writers such as Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, Calcidius, and Origen.[15] Galen[edit] Galen quotes Chrysippus' On Passions around seventy times in his On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, thus preserving up to twenty percent of the text.[16] Galen wrote On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato to examine the main doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato and to demonstrate their truth and agreement (as Galen saw it).[17] Plato had divided the soul into three parts representing reason, anger, and appetite.[18] Since Chrysippus was the main representative of the Stoic view that the soul was unitary, Galen devotes most of the fourth and fifth books of his nine-volume treatise attacking the On Passions of Chrysippus.[19] Galen maintains that most philosophers including Pythagoras, Aristotle and even many Stoics agreed with Plato's division of the soul,[20] even if some of them understood the division in terms of powers rather than as parts.[18] His goal is to show that Chrysippus represents a deviant position.[20] He claims that Zeno and Cleanthes were really on Plato's side,[21] but the evidence he presents is very meagre.[22] He accepts he has little evidence for Zeno,[23] and the only evidence he provides for Cleanthes is a brief versified dialogue between anger and reason which he thinks shows that Cleanthes accepted an irrational part of the soul.[24] Throughout his polemic, Galen draws heavily on the Stoic philosopher Posidonius (1st-century BCE) who wrote his own On Passions as a commentary on Chrysippus. Galen claims Posidonius accepted an irrational part of the soul,[25] although Posidonius may have held a more Stoic position than Galen admits to.[26] Galen selects and quotes passages out of context,[27] and he often shows incomprehension in his understanding of Chrysippus.[26] Cicero[edit] Cicero uses Chrysippus' On Passions as a major source for the fourth book of his Tusculan Disputations.[28] Some passages in his third book are also drawn from the same source.[28] Cicero may well have used an epitome made by a later Stoic rather than the full text.[28] He provides extra details not mentioned by Galen, and is comparatively unbiased.[28] However, there are no direct quotations from Chrysippus in Cicero's account; he mixes in material drawn from other philosophy schools; and he intersperses his own comments.[29] Cicero complains that Chrysippus devotes most of his efforts on theory and not therapy, but Cicero has a narrow definition of therapy: a strategy for helping someone in the sudden grip of emotion.[30] Cicero is nevertheless a useful source for the practical side of Chrysippus' therapy, and its focus on prevention.[30] Galen neglects this aspect because his aim is to attack the theory.[31] Contents[edit] Although On Passions is one of the best attested works by Chrysippus, large sections of the work are lost.[16] Galen appears to have only read, and made direct use of, Books 1 and 4.[32][33] He derives his account of Book 2 entirely from the commentary of Posidonius, and he is silent about Book 3.[34][32] The epitome used by Cicero may itself have been a summary of Books 1 and 4.[35] This means that most of the surviving quotations are from Books 1 and 4 and our knowledge of Book 3 is non-existent. Galen refers to the first three books as the theoretical books (logika).[36] Book 4 was known separately as the Therapeutics (Greek: θεραπευτικόν)—a title which apparently goes back to Chrysippus, and it had some status as a stand-alone text.[36] In Book 1 Chrysippus discusses the definitions of passion which had been laid down by Zeno, and analyses its various types.[37] In Book 2 he examines the difficulties raised by everyday experience.[37] Book 4 treats the therapy of the passions, although it too contains theory, summarising some of the material from Book 1.[37] Theory itself plays an important role in Stoic therapy.[38] Book 1[edit] In Book 1 Chrysippus begins with the definitions of passion which had been laid down by Zeno.[39] Zeno had written his own work On Passions which had examined emotions based on common opinions held about them.[40] Zeno defined passion as "an irrational and unnatural motion of the soul" and "an excessive impulse".[41] Chrysippus stresses that "irrational" here means "disobedient to reason and having turned away from reason."[41] Acting emotionally is not being overcome by a lower non-rational part of the soul.[42] Chrysippus compares an excessive impulse to a runner whose legs have such impetus that the runner cannot immediately will them to a halt:[43] In walking according to impulse the movement of the legs is not excessive, but is in a sense coextensive with the impulse so that it can come to a standstill when he [the walker] wishes, or change direction. But in the case of those who are running according to impulse, this sort of thing is no longer the case. The movement of the legs exceeds the impulse, so that they are carried away and do not obediently change their pace the moment they set out to do so. I think something similar happens also in impulses because of an excess beyond the rational measure, so that when someone exercises the impulse that person is not obedient to reason; and whereas the excess in running is termed contrary to the impulse, the excess in impulse is termed contrary to reason. — Chrysippus, quoted by Galen.[9][44] An excessive emotion is like a runner who is out-of-control because of external causes.[42] In the case of out-of-control mind the external causes are external appearances,[42] which when impressed upon a weakened mind result in a corresponding passion.[45] Zeno, again borrowing from common usage, had added a third definition of passion as a "fluttering of the soul".[46] For the Stoics all bodily processes have a material, corporeal cause,[47] which for Chrysippus as well as Zeno meant physical movements in the soul.[46] Having dealt with Zeno's three definitions of passion, Chrysippus passes on to the four generic passions as defined by Zeno.[48] Zeno had defined distress as the opinion that one is in the presence of evil.[49] The intensity of the distress is affected by the soul's resilience and the scale of the experience.[50] Chrysippus adds that the opinion needs to be fresh to explain why distress can fade with time.[49] Chrysippus defines distress as a shrinking before what is thought to be a thing to avoid, and pleasure as a swelling at what is thought to be a thing to choose.[51] Book 2[edit] In Book 2 Chrysippus moves beyond Zeno's definitions to discuss various problems concerning passions.[32] For Chrysippus emotions are judgements: a judgement that something good or bad is at hand and that it is appropriate to act accordingly.[52] Thus a passion consists of two propositions: (1) this is something good/bad and (2) it is right that one should be affected by it.[53] In the case of distress, people believe that (1) something bad has befallen them, and (2) that one should shrink before it, producing not only the inner pain but the outward signs of distress such as weeping.[54] Eventually the distress diminishes which indicates a weakening of the second proposition, however the first proposition may remain in place.[55] Thus one may stop mourning the death of a loved-one while still believing their death to be an evil.[55] Chrysippus understands this in terms of abatement of inflammation, in much the same way a fever abates.[56] The Stoics saw passions as a type of illness, so the medical analogy is deliberate.[57] Chrysippus acknowledges that some emotional responses are not easily reasoned out.[55] For example it is possible that both judgements may be present but that the manifestations of distress do not ensue.[55] Chrysippus explains this as being due to other causal factors acting which we may be unaware of or whose origin may be unclear.[58] This might include underlying characteristics of the mind, or the extent to which other errors have become entrenched in the mind.[59] Chrysippus also discusses the origin of evil, and why children, even those brought up virtuously, become corrupted.[60] Chrysippus relates this to his principle of oikeiôsis.[61] Children are born in a natural state which should lead to goodness and virtue.[61] However, the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain become associated from an early age with the supreme good.[62] A similar process occurs with wealth and fame.[63] Thus physical factors such as pleasure and pain, as well as societal pressures, hamper our natural development.[61] The Stoics equated evil with the passions,[57] and corruption arises in regards to good and evil because of "the persuasiveness of appearances and conversation."[64] Book 4: Therapeutics[edit] Chrysippus states near the beginning of Book 4 that just as there is an art called medicine concerned with the diseased body, so there is an equivalent art associated with the diseased mind.[65] This is not just an analogy: a passion is a real illness brought on from the mind's deviation from its natural state.[66] The soul's condition depends on physiological processes in the body.[67] Chrysippus directly relates this to medical ideas concerning pneuma as the 'breath' that makes up the soul,[68] and a passion involves a disturbance in the balance of the classical elements which make up the body and between physical principles such as hot and cold.[69] Given this material relationship between body and soul, Chrysippus emphasizes the need for bodily health, and advocates a plain, simple diet.[70] Chrysippus discusses the passions by quoting Greek literature. Thus in his examination of anger he makes use of Euripides' Medea:[71] I understand what evils I am about to do, But anger (thymos) is stronger than my sound considerations — Medea 1078–9.[72] Here Chrysippus explains Medea's anger in terms of akrasia: a word meaning weak-will[11] or incontinence.[73] Akrasia is not an irrational force within the soul,[11] instead it is the mind identifying with a bad reason against one's better judgement.[71][74] During emotional conflict reason oscillates between rival judgements.[74] Wrong reason will reside simultaneously in the mind with right reason.[73] In Medea's case she chooses the option rooted in anger, which is thus wrong reason.[73] Chrysippus once again explains this loss of control in terms of "runners who go counter to their impulse in running and [hence] in persons angered counter to their own reason."[75] Someone in the midst of an emotional crisis rejects right reason and cannot be easily helped. Chrysippus gives many examples of anger and other emotions such as people biting keys and kicking a door when it fails to open, or taking out anger on inanimate objects such as balls of wool.[71][76] Such a person will appear changed to those people around them (i.e. people still in possession of right reason) and they can not be treated as the person they normally are.[77] Similarly someone in the throes of love will reject good counsel whatever the price may be.[78] They may recognise right reason, yet they will reject it.[78] The passions obscure, they cause a mental clouding, a madness.[79] They put an end to deliberation, leaving just one option as irresistible.[80] Only recovery from this mental clouding permits deliberation and the return of right reason.[81] Chrysippus describes two forms of treatment: (1) treating passions which have arisen, and (2) preventing passions from arising.[66] Chrysippus stresses that the therapy of the first type has only limited value, to be used as a temporary measure.[30] For even in the case of distress, not every form is soothed by the same method: one remedy should be applied for grief, a different remedy for pity or envy. ... To be sure, all emotions of that sort could be washed away by that form of consolation which teaches that the circumstances which give rise to gladness or desire are not goods, and those which give rise to fear or distress are not evils. But the specific and more reliable cure is when you teach that the emotions are wrong in and of themselves and have nothing either natural or necessary about them. — Tusculan Disputations, iv. 59–60[82] Thus his therapy is preventative.[30] Since a passion is a temporary outbreak reflecting the diseased nature of the mind, therapy itself must be directed at the underlying disease.[30] Chrysippus advocates the practice of 'dwelling in advance'—that is trying to foresee the numerous difficulties that life offers.[83] Chrysippus gives two reasons for the impact of unexpected events: (1) that we have no time to assess the magnitude of the event, and (2) that we feel guilty for not having anticipated it:[84] Chrysippus is of the same view, I know: what is unforeseen strikes us with greater force. But there is more to it than that. It is true that a sudden assault of the enemy creates rather more confusion than an expected one, and that a sudden storm at sea strikes more fear into those on shipboard than if they had seen it coming, and there are many similar cases. But if you were to study such events carefully and scientifically, what you would find, quite simply, is that when things happen suddenly, they invariably seem more serious than they otherwise would. There are two reasons for this. First, there is not enough time to gauge the seriousness of what is happening. Second, we sometimes think that if we had foreseen what was to happen, we might have been able to prevent it, and then our distress is keener because compounded with guilt. — Tusculan Disputations, iii. 52[85] Thus the primary cause of distress is unforeseen events,[83] and we need the ability to respond rationally instead of straight away assenting to appearances.[71] Chrysippean therapy focuses on contemplation; training and improving the mind; strengthening the soul.[30] The theory teaches us that the passions are misguided judgements, and thus are voluntary.[86] It is the task of therapy to teach that these judgements have a wrong valuation, mistaking indifferent things for good or evil.[86] Cicero's Tusculan Disputations[edit] Tusculan Disputations, 15th-century illuminated manuscript Cicero made use of On Passions, probably in epitome form, for his Tusculan Disputations.[28] Most of his testimony can be found in the fourth book of the Tusculans, especially the coherent section at §11–33 and a rather muddled section at §58–81. A few extra passages can be found in Cicero's third book.[a] Book IV[edit] Apart from the introduction (§1–10) and the conclusion (§82–4), Tusculan Disputations Book 4 can be divided into three parts, two of which are derived from Chrysippus' On Passions. The other part is a critique of the Peripatetic theory of moderate emotions at §34–57.[87] Although Stoic, this central section is drawn from some other source.[88] §11–33[edit] This first section closely parallels Galen's account of Books 1 and 4 of On Passions. Cicero begins (§11) with Zeno's first two definitions of emotion, and moves on to an overview of the four generic passions as well as the three good-feelings attributable to the Stoic Sage (§14).[89] He lists (§15) four physical effects of the four passions not found in Galen's account.[89] He follows this (§16–21) with a lengthy catalogue of the emotions arranged under the headings of the four main passions—a list which is again missing from Galen.[90] He then (§22) highlights the concept of akrasia (Latin: intemperamentia) as the source of the passions.[90] Cicero then (§23–32) moves on to material which is drawn from the Therapeutics.[91] It begins (§23) with a statement about how disturbances of the mind are like those of the body, and how the soul is disturbed by conflicting opinions. Cicero provides (§25–26) definitions and examples of the various passions. He explains (§27–28) the analogy between body and soul, and between disease and health. He describes (§31) the limitations of the analogy (a healthy soul cannot become diseased like a healthy body can); and explains (§32) how the clever are less prone to sickness.[91] §58–81[edit] In this section Cicero returns to the subject of therapy. However, although much of the material is sourced from Chrysippus, Cicero interweaves some Peripatetic ideas; adds his own remarks; and sources his own quotations from the Latin poets.[88] After an introduction (§58), Cicero explains (§59–62) the Chrysippean position that one should direct treatment at the passion itself rather than the external cause.[88] He then (§64–65) discusses passions caused by (supposedly) bad and good things respectively.[92] Cicero add his own digression on the opinions offered by different philosophers.[92] He then (§68–76) moves on to the theme of erotic love.[92] Many of these ideas come from Chrysippus, but Cicero uses examples drawn from Latin poetry instead of the Greek poets.[92] The therapeutic ideas (§74–5) about introducing distractions or substituting a new lover for an old one are presumably part of Cicero's "Peripatetic" cures.[93] The next subject (§77–81) treats anger, again drawing his ideas from Chrysippus.[94] Book III[edit] Cicero's Tusculan Disputations Book 3 is focused on the alleviation of distress rather than the passions generally.[95] Cicero draws on many Stoic themes, some of which may be derived from Chrysippus. This includes a medical analogy (§1), and passions as forms of madness (§7–13).[96] However, only a few passages can be directly attributed to On Passions. Of particular value is §52 which contains the doctrine of dwelling in advance which is directly attributed to Chrysippus.[84] This can be supplemented with §29 which contains a Euripides' quote probably used by Chrysippus on the same theme.[83] Other Chrysippean passages include a derivation of the word distress (lupē) at §61,[97] and his therapy concerning mourning at §76 and §79.[98] Legacy[edit] Chrysippus became a preeminent authority for the Stoic school, eclipsing his predecessors.[34] Writers as doctrinally far-apart as Philodemus and Origen quote from his On Passions.[33] Galen himself states that the Stoics of his day followed Chrysippus.[34] Posidonius[edit] Posidonius wrote his own On Passions expanding on the treatise of Chrysippus. Almost everything which is known about the work is drawn from Galen's remarks.[99] Galen claims Posidonius allowed for an irrational part of the soul.[25] It is possible Posidonius did hold this position although it would have been at variance with mainstream Stoic thought, not just that of Chrysippus.[100] Cicero, who had personally known Posidonius, shows no awareness of a disagreement between Posidonius and Chrysippus.[101] Among the difficulties Posidonius wanted to explain were: how impulses become excessive; why different people vary in their emotional reactions; why emotions fade through time, yet judgements can remain intact; and why the manifestations of distress can be so unpredictable.[102] In many cases the disagreement which Galen reports between Posidonius and Chrysippus may in fact have been attempts by Posidonius to refine and corroborate the Stoic position of Chrysippus.[103] For example, Posidonius wanted to explain variations in emotional reactions: why do some people react inappropriately in the face of an emotion and others do not?[104] Posidonius may have argued that human minds are predisposed to various emotional movements without necessarily being irrational.[26] Seneca[edit] The influence of Chrysippus on Seneca is clearest in his long essay On Anger (Latin: De Ira). Seneca distinguishes three stages of anger as part of a chronological sequence.[105] The first stage is shock, an initial agitation or movement which is involuntary.[106] In the second stage the mind assents to appearance of injustice, and that it is thus appropriate to respond with vindictiveness. In the third stage the emotion is released.[105] Reason, which was still present in the second stage is now let go and the mind turns away from it.[107] Since the first stage is involuntary and the third stage lacks reason, therapy has to be directed at the second stage—only here can one recognise the nature of the shock and side with reason.[108] Epictetus[edit] Epictetus tells his students to train themselves in their use of appearances through a series of exercises.[109] This includes questioning whether a grand or beautiful passer-by involves something good, or whether a bereaved or hungry person has encountered something bad.[110] Epictetus makes a sharp distinction between things in our power (eph' hēmin) and not in our power.[111] Anything in our power is defined narrowly as our will or volition (prohairesis).[109] This includes our judgements and desires, but nothing external such as our bodies.[109] The influence of Chrysippus is obvious in a Discourse (ii. 18) on the correct use of impressions, where he explains how diseases grow in the mind in a manner very similar to a Chrysippean passage quoted by Cicero (Tusc. Disp. iv. 24):[112] It is in this way, of course, that moral infirmities grow up in the mind, as philosophers explain. For once you've come to feel a desire for money, if reason is brought to bear in such a way as to make us become aware of the evil, the desire will be suppressed and our ruling centre will be restored to its original authority; but if you apply no remedy, it won't return to its original state, but when it comes to be aroused again by the corresponding impression, it will become inflamed by desire more rapidly than before. And if this happens repeatedly, a callus will finally be formed, and the infirmity will cause the avarice to become entrenched. — Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 18. 8–9 Notes[edit] a. ^ Some older English translations of the Tusculan Disputations use a different numbering scheme for the sections. In these old texts the relevant parts of book IV, §11–33 and §58–81, are sections 6–14 and 27–37. For Book III, §29 and §52 are at sections 14 and 22. The other three passages §61, §76, §79 are at 25, 31, and 33. Citations[edit] ^ Inwood 1999, p. 683 ^ a b Inwood 1999, p. 686 ^ a b c Annas 1994, p. 103 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 16 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 15 ^ Annas 1994, p. 104 ^ a b Sorabji 2000, p. 29 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 700 ^ a b Annas 1994, p. 115 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 20 ^ a b c Inwood 1999, p. 699 ^ Annas 1994, p. 105 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 705 ^ a b Inwood 1999, p. 713 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 1 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 2 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 21 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 26 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 30 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 39 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 101 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 58 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 85-6 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 56 ^ a b Annas 1994, p. 118 ^ a b c Annas 1994, p. 119 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 57 ^ a b c d e Tieleman 2003, p. 288 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 291 ^ a b c d e f Tieleman 2003, p. 319 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 318 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 123 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 140 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 55 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 302 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 90 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 91 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 92 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 96 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 99 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 97 ^ a b c Annas 1994, p. 116 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 102 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 702 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 106 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 104 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 103 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 114 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 115 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 119 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 121 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 93 ^ Inwood 1999, p. 714 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 124 ^ a b c d Tieleman 2003, p. 125 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 131 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 132 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 126 ^ Graver 2002, p. 149 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 132-3 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 138 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 134 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 135 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 137 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 144 ^ a b Inwood 1999, p. 712 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 147 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 148 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 155 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 163-4 ^ a b c d Annas 1994, p. 117 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 171 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 172 ^ a b Sorabji 2000, p. 313 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 173 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 179 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 173-4 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 176 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 180-1 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 181 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 183 ^ Graver 2002, pp. 60-1 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 314 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 313 ^ Graver 2002, p. 24 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 320 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 293 ^ a b c Tieleman 2003, p. 305 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 298 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 300 ^ a b Tieleman 2003, p. 301 ^ a b c d Tieleman 2003, p. 306 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 307 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 307-8 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 309 ^ Tieleman 2003, pp. 310-11 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 315 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 317 ^ Graver 2002, p. 215 ^ Graver 2002, p. 216 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 295 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 98 ^ Tieleman 2003, p. 139 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 58 ^ a b Sorabji 2000, p. 61 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 66 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 62 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 69 ^ a b c Sorabji 2000, p. 215 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 330 ^ Sorabji 2000, p. 214 ^ Graver 2002, p. 157 References[edit] Annas, Julia (1994), Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-07659-1 Graver, Margaret (2002), Cicero on the Emotions: Tusculan Disputations 3 and 4, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-30578-3 Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25028-5 Sorabji, Richard (2000), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-198-25005-3 Tieleman, Teun (2003), Chrysippus' On Affections: Reconstruction and Interpretation, Brill, ISBN 9004129987 External links[edit] Tusculan Disputations Book 4 (On the Passions) – Parallel Latin & English v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=On_Passions&oldid=931328884" Categories: 3rd-century BC books Books about emotions Ethics books Hellenistic philosophical literature Lost books Stoicism Hidden categories: Books with missing cover Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2019, at 08:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1912	----	Flamen - Wikipedia Flamen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Priest in ancient Rome Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e A flamen (plural flamens or flamines)[1] was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three flamines maiores (or "major priests"), who served the important Roman gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus. The remaining twelve were the flamines minores ("lesser priests"). Two of the minores served deities whose names are now unknown; among the others are deities about whom little is known other than the name. During the Imperial era, the cult of a deified emperor (divus) also had a flamen. The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the Pontifical College, who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a pontifex could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the pontifex maximus is known to have substituted for the Flamen Dialis, one of the flamines maiores. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Appointment 4 Privileges and disadvantages 5 Marriage 6 Garb 7 Duties and obligations 8 Flamines maiores 9 Flamines minores 10 Notes 10.1 Citations 11 Sources 12 External links Etymology[edit] The etymology of flamen remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable.[2] The term is traditionally connected with the Proto-Germanic verb *blōtanan ("to sacrifice"; cf. Gothic blotan), by positing a Proto-Indo-European stem *bʰleh₂d-m(e)n- (or *bʰleh₂g-m(e)n-), which could have originally meant "sacrifice".[3][4][5] However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier flă-men, flăd-men or flăg-smen.[4][5] Indo-Europeanist Georges Dumézil attempted to link the term to the Sanskrit word brahman.[6] His etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and modern linguists have generally rejected it.[7][5][a] Andrew Sihler considers the claim that flamen might be a cognate of the Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic blotan and via Proto-Indo-European *bʰleh₂d-m(e)n- is equally plausible.[2] History[edit] At the time of the religious reformation by Augustus, the origins and functions of many of the long-neglected gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a flamen (for example Falacer, Palatua, Quirinus and Volturnus) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Many scholars[who?] assume that the flamines existed at least from the time of the early Roman kings, prior to the establishment of the Republic. The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the priesthood to Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. According to Livy, Numa created the offices of the three flamines maiores and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a curule chair.[8] The flamines were circumscribed by many taboos. The flamen was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed flamen to stop them from gaining power. For example, flamines were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army.[9] By attaining such a position, the flamines were not permitted to run or hold a political office. There may have been flamines appointed simply to stop their progression in power and politics for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy.[10] Appointment[edit] The flamen was a high position within Roman society and religion. Therefore, the selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as flamen. In the case of the Flamen Dialis, they were appointed by the Pontifex Maximus. By the Pontifical College, three nominations were given to the pontifex maximus, those whom Roman's believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new Flamen Dialis, but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve."[11] After the flamen and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as captio. This ceremony was performed by an Augur. It was the Augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new flamen. This was done by asking for the king of the gods, Jupiter's blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as comitia calata ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on the Capitoline Hill.[12] Privileges and disadvantages[edit] Such a position in Roman society came with many privileges which in turn gave flamines a unique power. In law and criminal courts, the flamen wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a flamen, who had the power of pardoning criminals. There were also several other privileges that the flamen possessed. According to Cyril Bailey these include: exemption from the Patria Potestas (lit. power of the father) of his father; the wearing of the toga praetexta; and, the privileges of having a lictor of his own, of sitting on the curule chair, and having an ex officio place in the Senate.[13] During the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 BCE, the flamines were also given a special task. In an attempt to preserve Roman culture and history, the flamines and other religious orders such as the vestals were in charge of the sacred and religious items of Rome. Their objective was to take these treasures out of Rome so they wouldn't be destroyed by the Gauls. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it".[14] The flamines were also prohibited from many different actions and rituals. In the case of death, flamines were in charge of performing ritual sacrificing. However, other than that, contact with anything related to death was prohibited so that the flamen could part take in his religious duties. One extreme example was in the case of the flamen's wife (Latin, flaminica). They were not allowed to wear Calcei Morticini, "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes." Since the animal was not part of a religious ritual or offered to the gods, these shoes would be seen as impure and disrespectful to the gods.[15] Another disadvantage for the flamines was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans," because it was thought that these could interfere with the flamen's religious practices. Most of these were associated with unsanitariness or death. When these flamines would have to perform ritual sacrifices, it was almost impossible for the flamen to avoid contact with raw meat. However, Roman accounts don't include such events in their writings.[15] Another thing flamines were forbidden from was binding. They could not be bound to anything because it could hinder and jeopardize their position as flamen. Therefore, the only bind they were tied to was their religious position and priesthood.[16] Marriage[edit] The marriage of a flamen was extremely important because it was one of the requirements needed to be eligible for the flamen position. The flamen and his wife (the flaminica) needed to come from a Patrician background and the parents had to be married through the ancient ceremony of confarreatio. This only applied to the flamen, because when they married his wife would become part of his family.[17] Through the process of confarreatio, the wife would pass from the manus (hand) of her father to the hand of her husband. This transferred the father's authority to her husband who would also become part of the religious cult.[18] It was necessary for the wife to be a virgin and previously unwed before marriage to a prospective flamen.[19] The position of flamen was also heavily dependent on the wife because they served together. In the case of either's death, the surviving priest would then step down from their position. It was viewed as unlucky to be widowed.[20] The flamen and flaminica could not separate or divorce. The only way to escape a marriage was through death, because, once they attained their positions, they became the property of the deity they were assigned to.[21] Since they ruled together, they were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the flamen and flaminica had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals.[22] Another ritual practiced by the priest and priestess pertained to their bed. Only the flamen and flaminica were allowed to sleep in the bed for ritual reasons, and under no circumstance could they spend the night away from the bed for any longer than three days. This was meant to create and ensure a strong relationship between the couple. The end of the bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay."[23] Garb[edit] The official costume of a flamen, allegedly of great antiquity, was a hat called an apex and a heavy cloak called a laena. The laena was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's toga with a clasp to hold it around his throat.[24] The apex was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood on its top, like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle.[25] This was the traditional outfit during a ritual or sacrifice performed by the flamen. The flamen would not wear the laena on a daily occurrence. The flamen would also wear special shoes known as calcei.[26] The flamen dress represented status. Only flamines were able to wear such a costume. It separated them from average citizens, politicians, and military figures. The responsibility for the creation of such a costume fell in the hands of the flaminica. The costume was handmade and a ritual blade known as secespikta was used in the process.[26] The laena had to be made of wool, because wool was seen as pure and the most appropriate clothing to serve the gods. Duties and obligations[edit] The flamen and the flaminica had special roles that could not be done by the other. This position in Roman society was held to a specific standard with strict rules. The flamen could not perform the duties of the flaminica and she could not perform the duties of her husband. One example would be the honour killing and sacrifice of a ram, which was known as an offering to Jupiter and could only be done by the flaminica on market days.[27] The flamen couldn't perform his sacred duties without the flaminica. These positions of serving the gods were meant to be served together as husband and wife. This was a partnership where each person was dependent on the other. This is why, when one died, the other would have to step down, because they were not allowed to replace their partner or continue by themselves. Flamines maiores[edit] The three flamines maiores were required to be patricians: The Flamen Dialis oversaw the cult of Jupiter, the sky deity and ruler of the gods. The Flamen Martialis oversaw the cult of Mars, the god of war, leading public rites on the days sacred to Mars. The sacred spears of Mars were ritually shaken by the Flamen Martialis when the legions were preparing for war. The Flamen Quirinalis oversaw the cult of Quirinus, who presided over organized Roman social life and was related to the peaceful aspect of Mars. The Flamen Quirinalis led public rites on the days sacred to Quirinus. A fourth flamen maior was dedicated to Julius Caesar as a divinity (divus) of the Roman state.[28] Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made divus by vote of the senate and consent of his successor, and as a divus he would be served by a flamen. The flamen's role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship;[29] see Imperial cult. A flamen could also be represented by a proflamen, or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the flamen (qui vice flaminis fungebatur).[30] Flamines minores[edit] Flamines, distinguished by their pointed apices, as part of a procession on the Augustan Altar of Peace The twelve flamines minores could be plebeians.[31] Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name: Flamen Carmentalis, the flamen for Carmentis Flamen Cerialis, for Ceres Flamen Falacer, for Falacer Flamen Floralis, for Flora Flamen Furrinalis, for Furrina Flamen Palatualis, for Palatua Flamen Pomonalis, for Pomona Flamen Portunalis, for Portunus Flamen Volcanalis, for Vulcan Flamen Volturnalis, for Volturnus There were two other flamines minores during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they cultivated are unknown. The flamines minores seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion.[citation needed] The Floralis and Pomonalis are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of the Portunalis in connection with the cult of the god Quirinus and Volcanalis in connexion with the cult of the goddess Maia on the Kalends of May.[32] Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the flamen Cerialis when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses Ceres and Tellus.[33] Scholars disagree about some differences among flamines maiores and minores. Some maintain the difference was not substantial.[34] Others, among them Dumézil,[35] believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the auspicia maiora and the ritual of inauguration that concerned only the maiores[36] by birth as farreati, that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of confarreatio, which was the form of marriage in turn required for maiores. The maiores also had the privilege of having calatores, assistants who carried out day-to-day business.[37] The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with imperium and those with potestas only.[citation needed] Notes[edit] ^ Dumézil was aware of the technical difficulties, but defended the link on the broader grounds that the nexus between bráhman/flamen was part of a pair of dyadic terms, the other being Skt.ráj-/Latin rēg-, key terms in his theory of a tripartite ideology underpinning Indo-European societies. This comparative sociological framework strengthened, he thought, the identity between the two terms. Georges Dumézil,'La préhistorire des flamens majeurs' (1938) reprinted in his Idées romaines, 2nd ed. Gallimard 1969 pp.155-166 p.158;Dumézil,Mythe et epopee, vol.1, Gallimard 1968 pp.12-16;Dumézil,La religion romaine archaïque, Gallimard 1974 pp.94-97 Citations[edit] ^ "Flamen | Definition of Flamen by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 6 May 2021. ^ a b Andrew Sihler New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford University Press 1995 p.198:’ That such cases are strictly speaking undecidable, so far from calming debate, has seemed to stimulate bickering in the scholarly literature.’ ^ Hellquist, Elof. "blota". Svensk etymologisk ordbok, 1922. ^ a b Kroonen, Guus (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. Brill. p. 70. ISBN 978-90-04-18340-7. ^ a b c de Vaan, Michiel (2018). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Brill. p. 225. ISBN 978-90-04-16797-1. ^ 'The Sanskrit brahman... must derive, with reverse guna, from *bhelgh-men- or *bholgh-men-. The Latin flamen must derive from a neighboring form, *bhlagh-smen-, which, along with forms having the radical -el- or - ol-, presents the same shift'. Dumézil G.,(1940), Mitra-Varuna, trans. D. Coltman. New York: Zone Books, 1988, p.26; ^ Segal, Robert A. (1996). Structuralism in Myth: Lévi-Strauss, Barthes, Dumézil, and Propp. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-8153-2260-3. Dumézil (...) attempted to relate philologically the words Flamen and Brahman. This has not been generally accepted, but the cultural comparisons (...) are certainly suggestive. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20 ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. pp. 32–33. ^ Goldberg, Charles (Winter 2015). "PRIESTS AND POLITICIANS: REX SACRORUM AND FLAMEN DIALIS IN THE MIDDLE REPUBLIC". Phoenix. 69(3): 334–354. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. pp. 19–20. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 22. ^ Bailey, Cyril (1972). Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome. Greenwood Press Publishers. p. 155. ^ Mathisen, Ralph (2019). Ancient Roman Civilization:History and Sources 753 BCE to 640 CE. Oxford University Press. p. 103. ^ a b DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. pp. 34–35. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 36. ^ Goldberg, Charles (Winter 2015). "PRIESTS AND POLITICIANS: REX SACRORUM AND FLAMEN DIALIS IN THE MIDDLE REPUBLIC". Phoenix. 69(3): 334–354. ^ DeLizuo, Meghan (2016). A Place at the Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 20. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 21. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 23. ^ DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. pp. 32–33. ^ Bailey, Cyril (1972). Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome. Greenwood Press Publishers. p. 155. ^ DeLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 31. ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil iv.262; Cicero Brutus 14.56. ^ Servius Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil ii.683, viii.664, x.270. ^ a b DiLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 37. ^ DeLuzio, Meghan (2016). A Place at The Altar. Princeton University Press. p. 43. ^ Caesar's first flamen was Mark Antony. ^ Caesar may have been granted an active flamen while living; the evidence is equivocal. ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. William Smith, LLD, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin)[permanent dead link]. ^ Seindal, René. "flamines maiores". Retrieved 26 September 2016. ^ Fest. p.321 L1 s.v. "persillum"; Macrob. Sat. I,12, 18 ^ The lost treatise De jure pontificio by Quintus Fabius Pictor had contained the list, which was in turn recorded by Varro and through Servius later preserved by Augustine in the De civitate Dei. ^ Kurt Latte, Roemische Religionsgeschichte 1960, pp. 36-37 ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Consideratons preliminaires, XI ^ Gaius 1, 112; Aulus Gellius 13, 15 quoting Messala De Auspicis; Festus p. 274-275 L2. ^ Fest. p. 354 L2; Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227 online. Sources[edit] External links[edit] William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875: "Flamen" v t e Religion in ancient Rome Practices and beliefs Libation Sacrifice Vota Temples Festivals Ludi Funerals Imperial cult Greco-Roman mysteries Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestal Virgins Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Salii Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad Underworld gods Indigitamenta Deified emperors Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan mythology Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flamen&oldid=1028351301" Categories: Ancient Roman religious titles Divination Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text CS1: long volume value All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from May 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français Հայերեն Italiano ქართული Latina Македонски Nederlands Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 12:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1931	----	Pertinax - Wikipedia Pertinax From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 193 For other uses, see Pertinax (disambiguation). Roman emperor Pertinax Possible statue of Pertinax, National Museum of the Union, Alba-Iulia, Romania Roman emperor Reign 1 January 193 – 28 March 193 Predecessor Commodus Successor Didius Julianus Born 1 August 126 Alba Pompeia, Italy Died 28 March 193 (aged 66) Rome, Italy Burial Rome Spouse Flavia Titiana Names Publius Helvius Pertinax Regnal name Imperator Caesar Publius Helvius Pertinax Augustus[1] Father Helvius Successus Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193) Chronology Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger 193 Clodius Albinus 193 Septimius Severus 193–211 Succession Preceded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Followed by Severan dynasty Publius Helvius Pertinax (/ˈpɜːrtɪnæks/; 1 August 126 – 28 March 193) was Roman emperor for the first three months of 193. He succeeded Commodus to become the first emperor during the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. Born the son of a freed slave, Pertinax became an officer in the army. He fought in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166, where his success led him to be promoted to higher-ranking positions in both the military and political spheres. He achieved the rank of provincial governor and urban prefect. He was a member of the Roman Senate, serving at the same time as the historian Cassius Dio. Following the death of Commodus, Pertinax was acclaimed emperor. He attempted to institute several reform measures, although the short duration of his reign as emperor prevented the success of those attempts. One of those reforms, the restoration of discipline among the Praetorian Guard, led to conflict that eventually culminated in Pertinax's assassination by the Guard. Pertinax would be deified by the emperor Septimius Severus. His historical reputation has largely been a positive one, in line with Cassius Dio's assessment. Contents 1 Early life 2 Emperor 3 Aftermath 4 Historical reputation 5 In popular culture 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Early life[edit] His career before becoming emperor is documented in the Historia Augusta and confirmed in many places by existing inscriptions. He was born in Alba Pompeia in Italy,[2] the son of freedman Helvius Successus.[3] Pertinax through the help of patronage was commissioned an officer in a cohort.[4] In the Parthian War that followed,[5] he distinguished himself, which resulted in a string of promotions, and after postings in Britain (as military tribune of the Legio VI Victrix)[6] and along the Danube, he served as a procurator in Dacia.[7] He suffered a setback as a victim of court intrigues during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, but shortly afterwards, he was recalled to assist Claudius Pompeianus in the Marcomannic Wars.[2] In 175, he received the honor of a suffect consulship[8] and until 185, Pertinax was governor of the provinces of Upper and Lower Moesia, Dacia, Syria, and finally governor of Britain.[6] During the 180s, Pertinax took a pivotal role in the Roman Senate until the praetorian prefect Sextus Tigidius Perennis forced him out of public life.[9] He was recalled after three years to Britain, where the Roman army was in a state of mutiny.[10] He tried to quell the unruly soldiers there but one legion attacked his bodyguard, leaving Pertinax for dead.[11] When he was forced to resign in 187, the reason given was that the legions had grown hostile to him because of his harsh rule.[12] He served as proconsul of Africa from 188–189,[13] and followed this term of service with the urban prefecture of Rome,[14] and a second consulship as ordinarius with the emperor Commodus as his colleague.[11] Emperor[edit] Roman aureus struck under the rule of Pertinax. Inscription: IMP. CAES. P. HELV. PERTIN. AVG. / PROVIDentia DEORum COnSul II When Commodus' actions became increasingly erratic in the early 190s, a conspiracy led to his assassination on 31 December 192. The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Commodus' mistress Marcia, and his chamberlain Eclectus.[15] After the murder had been carried out, Pertinax, who was serving as urban prefect at this time, was hurried to the Praetorian Camp and proclaimed emperor the following morning.[16][note 1] His short reign (86 days) was an uneasy one. He attempted to emulate the restrained practices of Marcus Aurelius and made an effort to reform the alimenta, but he faced antagonism from many quarters.[18] Ancient writers detail how the Praetorian Guard expected a generous donativum on his ascension, and when they were disappointed, agitated until he produced the money, selling off Commodus' property,[19] including the concubines and youths Commodus kept for his sexual pleasures.[20][21] He reformed the Roman currency dramatically, increasing the silver purity of the denarius from 74% to 87% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.22 grams to 2.75 grams.[22] Pertinax attempted to impose stricter military discipline upon the pampered Praetorians.[23] In early March he narrowly averted one conspiracy by a group to replace him with the consul Quintus Sosius Falco while he was in Ostia inspecting the arrangements for grain shipments.[24] The plot was betrayed; Falco himself was pardoned but several of the officers behind the coup were executed.[25] On 28 March 193, Pertinax was at his palace when, according to the Historia Augusta, a contingent of some three hundred soldiers of the Praetorian Guard rushed the gates[26] (two hundred according to Cassius Dio).[27] Ancient sources suggest that they had received only half their promised pay.[24] Neither the guards on duty nor the palace officials chose to resist them. Pertinax sent Laetus to meet them, but he chose to side with the insurgents instead and deserted the emperor.[28] Although advised to flee, he then attempted to reason with them, and was almost successful before being struck down by one of the soldiers.[29] Pertinax must have been aware of the danger he faced by assuming the purple, for he refused to use imperial titles for either his wife or son, thereby protecting them from the aftermath of his own assassination.[15] Aftermath[edit] Bust of Septimius Severus, Glyptothek, Munich After Pertinax's death, the Praetorians auctioned off the imperial title; the winner was the wealthy senator Didius Julianus, whose reign would end with his assassination on 1 June 193.[30] Julianus was succeeded by Septimius Severus.[31] After his entry to Rome, Septimius recognized Pertinax as a legitimate emperor, executed the soldiers who killed him, and not only pressured the Senate to deify him and provide him a state funeral,[32] but also adopted his cognomen of Pertinax as part of his name.[33] For some time, he held games on the anniversary of Pertinax's ascension and his birthday.[34] Historical reputation[edit] Pertinax's historical reputation is largely a positive one, beginning with the assessment of Cassius Dio, a historian and senator who was a colleague of Pertinax. Dio refers to him as "an excellent and upright man"[35] who displayed "not only humaneness and integrity in the imperial administrations, but also the most economical management and the most careful consideration for the public welfare".[20] Dio's approval is not unqualified, however. He acknowledges that while some would call Pertinax's decision to confront the soldiers that would wind up killing him "noble", others would call it "senseless".[27] He is also critical of Pertinax's judgment when it came to the speed with which he tried to reform the excesses of the reign of Commodus by suggesting that a more tempered approach would have been less likely to result in his murder.[36] Pertinax is discussed in The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli. Discussing the importance of a prince not being hated, Machiavelli provides Pertinax as an example of how it is as easy for a ruler to be hated for good actions as for bad ones. Though describing him as a good man, Machiavelli considered Pertinax's attempt to reform a soldiery that had become "accustomed to live licentiously" a mistake, as it inspired their hatred of him, which led to his overthrow and death.[37] Pertinax is described by David Hume's essay Of the Original Contract as an "excellent prince" possessing an implied modesty when, on the arrival of soldiers who had come to proclaim him emperor, he believed that Commodus had ordered his death.[38] During the debate over ratification of the US Constitution, Virginia politician John Dawson, at his state's ratifying convention in 1788, spoke of the "atrocious murder" of Pertinax by the Praetorian Guard as an example of the danger of establishing a standing army.[39][40] In popular culture[edit] Pertinax was the pseudonym of the French journalist André Géraud (1882–1974).[41] In Romanitas, a fictional alternate history novel by Sophia McDougall, Pertinax's reign is the point of divergence. In the history as established by the novel, the plot against Pertinax was thwarted, and Pertinax introduced a series of reforms that would consolidate the Roman Empire to such a degree that it would still be a major power in the 21st century.[42] Notes[edit] ^ Although Commodus was killed on 31 December 192, Pertinax was not acclaimed emperor until 1 January 193.[17] References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b Dio, 74:3 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 1:1 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 1:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 2:1 ^ a b Birley (2005), p. 173. ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 2:4 ^ Meckler (1997). ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 3:3 ^ Dio, 74:4 ^ a b Birley (2005), p. 174. ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 3:10 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 4:1 ^ Victor, 18:2 ^ a b Campbell (2005), p. 1. ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 4:5 ^ Pococke (1853), p. 158. ^ Gibbon (1788), chapter 4. ^ Campbell (2005), p. 2. ^ a b Dio, 74:5 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 7:8 ^ Kenneth W. Harl (1999). "Roman Currency of the Principate". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2015. ^ Zosimus, 1:8 ^ a b Dio, 74:8 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 10:4 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 11:1 ^ a b Dio, 74:9 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 11:7 ^ Dio, 74:10 ^ Glay, Marcel le; Voisin, Jean-Louis; Bohec, Yann le (2001). A History of Rome. Translated by Nevill, Antonia (Third ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 369–372. ISBN 1-4051-1083-X. ^ Dio, 74:17:4 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 15:1 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 15:2 ^ Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 15:5 ^ Dio, 74:1 ^ Dio, 74:10. "He failed to comprehend, though a man of wide practical experience, that one cannot with safety reform everything at once, and that the restoration of a state, in particular, requires both time and wisdom". ^ Machiavelli – The Prince, Ch. XIX. Pertinax, Marcus Aurelius and Severus Alexander are described as "men of modest life, lovers of justice, enemies to cruelty, humane, and benignant". However, Machiavelli considers that Roman soldiers, "being accustomed to live licentiously under Commodus, could not endure the honest life to which Pertinax wished to reduce them". ^ Hume – Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, II.XII.41 ^ Graham, John Remington (2009). Free, Sovereign, and Independent States: The Intended Meaning of the American Constitution. United States: Pelican Publishing. p. 139. ISBN 9781589805897. ^ Richard, Carl J. (1994). The Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome, and the American Enlightenment. United States: Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-674-31426-3. ^ "The Press: Pertinax Goes Home". Time. 15 October 1945. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 26 March 2018.(subscription required) ^ McDougall, Sophia. "A Short History of the Roman Empire". Romanitas. Retrieved 26 March 2018. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Historia Augusta, Life of Pertinax, English translation at Lacus Curtius Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 74, English translation at Lacus Curtius Aurelius Victor, "Epitome de Caesaribus", English translation at De Imperatoribus Romanis Zosimus, "Historia Nova", English translation at The Tertullian Project Secondary sources[edit] Birley, Anthony (2005). The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199252374. Campbell, Brian (2005). "The Severan dynasty". In Alan K. Bowman; Peter Garnsey & Averil Cameron (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XII: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Elliot, Simon (2020). Pertinax: The Son of a Slave Who Became Roman. ISBN 9781784385255. Gibbon, Edward (1788). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Meckler, Michael L. (1997). "Pertinax (193 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 1 December 2015. Pococke, Edward (1853). The History of the Roman Empire from the Time of Vespasian to the Extinction of the Western Empire. London. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pertinax. Pertinax at Livius.Org Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Publius Helvius Pertinax" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Pertinax at roman-emperors.org Political offices Preceded by L. Calpurnius Piso P. Salvius Julianus Consul of Rome 175 (suffect) With: Didius Julianus Succeeded by T. Vitrasius Pollio M. Flavius Aper II Preceded by Ulpius Marcellus Governor of Britain c. 185 – 187 Succeeded by Unknown, then Clodius Albinus Preceded by Popilius Pedo Apronianus Marcus Valerius Bradua Mauricus Consul of Rome 192 With: Commodus VII Succeeded by Q. Pompeius Sosius Falco G. 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en-wikipedia-org-1933	----	Meditations - Wikipedia Meditations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Literary work by Marcus Aurelius This article is about the writings by Marcus Aurelius. For other uses, see Meditation (disambiguation). Meditations First page of the 1811 English translation by Richard Graves Author Marcus Aurelius Original title Unknown, probably untitled Country Roman Empire Language Koine Greek Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e Meditations (Medieval Greek: Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν, romanized: Ta eis he'auton, lit. 'things to one's self') is a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor from AD 161 to 180, recording his private notes to himself and ideas on Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius wrote the 12 books of the Meditations in Koine Greek[1] as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement.[2] It is possible that large portions of the work were written at Sirmium, where he spent much time planning military campaigns from 170 to 180. Some of it was written while he was positioned at Aquincum on campaign in Pannonia, because internal notes tell us that the first book was written when he was campaigning against the Quadi on the river Granova (modern-day Hron) and the second book was written at Carnuntum. It is unlikely that Marcus Aurelius ever intended the writings to be published. The work has no official title, so "Meditations" is one of several titles commonly assigned to the collection. These writings take the form of quotations varying in length from one sentence to long paragraphs. Contents 1 Structure and themes 2 History of text 3 Manuscripts 3.1 Codex Palatinus 3.2 Codex Vaticanus 1950 3.3 Other manuscripts 4 Reception 5 Quotations 6 Editions 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Studies 10.2 Translations Structure and themes[edit] Ruins of the ancient city of Aquincum, in modern Hungary – one site where Marcus Aurelius worked on Meditations. The Meditations is divided into 12 books that chronicle different periods of Aurelius' life. Each book is not in chronological order and it was written for no one but himself. The style of writing that permeates the text is one that is simplified, straightforward, and perhaps reflecting Aurelius' Stoic perspective on the text. A central theme to Meditations is the importance of analyzing one's judgment of self and others and developing a cosmic perspective:[3] You have the power to strip away many superfluous troubles located wholly in your judgment, and to possess a large room for yourself embracing in thought the whole cosmos, to consider everlasting time, to think of the rapid change in the parts of each thing, of how short it is from birth until dissolution, and how the void before birth and that after dissolution are equally infinite. Aurelius advocates finding one's place in the universe and sees that everything came from nature, and so everything shall return to it in due time. Another strong theme is of maintaining focus and to be without distraction all the while maintaining strong ethical principles such as "Being a good man."[4] His Stoic ideas often involve avoiding indulgence in sensory affections, a skill which will free a man from the pains and pleasures of the material world. He claims that the only way a man can be harmed by others is to allow his reaction to overpower him. An order or logos permeates existence. Rationality and clear-mindedness allow one to live in harmony with the logos. This allows one to rise above faulty perceptions of "good" and "bad"—things out of your control like fame and health are (unlike things in your control) irrelevant and neither good nor bad. History of text[edit] There is no certain mention of the Meditations until the early 10th century.[5] The historian Herodian, writing in the mid-3rd century, makes mention of Marcus' literary legacy, saying "He was concerned with all aspects of excellence, and in his love of ancient literature he was second to no man, Roman or Greek; this is evident from all his sayings and writings which have come down to us", a passage which may refer to the Meditations. The Historia Augusta's biography of Avidius Cassius, thought to have been written in the 4th century, records that before Marcus set out on the Marcomannic Wars, he was asked to publish his Precepts of Philosophy in case something should befall him, but he instead "for three days discussed the books of his Exhortations one after the other".[6] A doubtful mention is made by the orator Themistius in about AD 364. In an address to the emperor Valens, On Brotherly Love, he says: "You do not need the exhortations (Greek: παραγγέλματα) of Marcus."[7] Another possible reference is in the collection of Greek poems known as the Palatine Anthology, a work dating to the 10th century but containing much earlier material. The anthology contains an epigram dedicated to "the Book of Marcus". It has been proposed that this epigram was written by the Byzantine scholar Theophylact Simocatta in the 7th century.[8] The first direct mention of the work comes from Arethas of Caesarea (c. 860–935), a bishop who was a great collector of manuscripts.[9] At some date before 907 he sent a volume of the Meditations to Demetrius, Archbishop of Heracleia, with a letter saying: "I have had for some time an old copy of the Emperor Marcus' most profitable book, so old indeed that it is altogether falling to pieces.… This I have had copied and am able to hand down to posterity in its new dress."[10] Arethas also mentions the work in marginal notes (scholia) to books by Lucian and Dio Chrysostom where he refers to passages in the "Treatise to Himself" (Greek: τὰ εἰς ἑαυτὸν ἠθικά), and it was this title which the book bore in the manuscript from which the first printed edition was made in the 16th century.[11][12] Arethas' own copy has now vanished, but it is thought to be the likely ancestor of the surviving manuscripts.[10] The next mention of the Meditations is in the Suda lexicon published in the late 10th century.[11] The Suda calls the work "a directing (Greek: ἀγωγή) of his own life by Marcus the Emperor in twelve books,"[12] which is the first mention of a division of the work into twelve books.[11] The Suda makes use of some thirty quotations taken from books I, III, IV, V, IX, and XI.[12] Around 1150, John Tzetzes, a grammarian of Constantinople, quotes passages from Books IV and V attributing them to Marcus.[12] About 200 years later Nicephorus Callistus (c. 1295–1360) in his Ecclesiastical History writes that "Marcus Antoninus composed a book for the education of his son Marcus [i.e. Commodus], full of all worldly (Greek: κοσμικῆς) experience and instruction."[12][13] The Meditations is thereafter quoted in many Greek compilations from the 14th to 16th centuries.[13] Wilhelm Xylander first translated the Meditations into Latin in 1558. Manuscripts[edit] The present-day text is based almost entirely upon two manuscripts. One is the Codex Palatinus (P), also known as the Codex Toxitanus (T), first published in 1558/9 but now lost.[14] The other manuscript is the Codex Vaticanus 1950 (A) in the Vatican Library.[14] Codex Palatinus[edit] The modern history of the Meditations dates from the issue of the first printed edition (editio princeps) by Wilhelm Xylander in 1558 or 1559.[15] It was published at the instigation of Conrad Gesner and printed by his cousin Andreas Gesner at Zurich.[15] The book was bound with a work by Marinus (Proclus vel De Felicitate, also a first edition).[15] To the Meditations was added a Latin translation by Xylander who also included brief notes.[15] Conrad Gesner stated in his dedicatory letter that he "received the books of Marcus from the gifted poet Michael Toxites from the library of Otto Heinrich, Prince Palatine", i.e. from the collection at Heidelberg University.[15] The importance of this edition of the Meditations is that the manuscript from which it was printed is now lost, so that it is one of the two principal sources of all modern texts.[15] Codex Vaticanus 1950[edit] The Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1950 is contained in a codex which passed to the Vatican Library from the collection of Stefano Gradi in 1683.[16] This is a 14th-century manuscript which survives in a very corrupt state, and about forty-two lines have dropped out by accidental omissions.[14][17] Other manuscripts[edit] Other manuscripts are of little independent value for reconstructing the text.[18] The main ones are the Codex Darmstadtinus 2773 (D) with 112 extracts from books I–IX, and the Codex Parisinus 319 (C) with 29 extracts from Books I–IV.[14] Reception[edit] Marcus Aurelius has been lauded for his capacity "to write down what was in his heart just as it was, not obscured by any consciousness of the presence of listeners or any striving after effect." Gilbert Murray compares the work to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions and St. Augustine's Confessions. Though Murray criticizes Marcus for the "harshness and plainness of his literary style", he finds in his Meditations "as much intensity of feeling...as in most of the nobler modern books of religion, only [with] a sterner power controlling it." "People fail to understand Marcus," he writes, "not because of his lack of self-expression, but because it is hard for most men to breathe at that intense height of spiritual life, or, at least, to breathe soberly."[19] Rees (1992) calls the Meditations "unendingly moving and inspiring," but does not offer them up as works of original philosophy.[20] Bertrand Russell found them contradictory and inconsistent, evidence of a "tired age" where "even real goods lose their savour." Using Marcus as an example of greater Stoic philosophy, he found the Stoic ethical philosophy to contain an element of "sour grapes." "We can't be happy, but we can be good; let us therefore pretend that, so long as we are good, it doesn't matter being unhappy."[21] Both Russell and Rees find an element of Marcus' Stoic philosophy in the philosophical system of Immanuel Kant.[20][21] German philosopher Georg Hegel offers a critique of Stoicism that follows similar lines, albeit covering different trajectories.[citation needed] In his Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel attacks the preoccupation with the inner self as a severing, fatalistic barrier to consciousness.[citation needed] A philosophy that reduces all states of harm or injustice to emotional states "could only appear on the scene in a time of universal fear and bondage."[citation needed] The Stoic refusal to meet the world is anathema to Life, a central value in Hegel's philosophical work: "whether on the throne or in chains, in the utter dependence of its individual existence, it aims to be free, and to maintain that lifeless indifference which steadfastly withdraws from the bustle of existence."[citation needed] M. L. Clarke concurs in his historical work on philosophical ideas, The Roman Mind, where he states "[p]olitical liberty could hardly flourish after so many years of despotism and the indifference to public affairs which it bred. And philosophy fostered the same spirit."[citation needed] In the Introduction to his 1964 translation of Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound impact of Stoicism on Christianity.[22] Michael Grant called Marcus Aurelius "the noblest of all the men who, by sheer intelligence and force of character, have prized and achieved goodness for its own sake and not for any reward."[23] Gregory Hays' translation of Meditations for The Modern Library made The Washington Post's bestseller list for two weeks in 2002.[24] The book has been described as a prototype of reflective practice by Seamus Mac Suibhne.[25] United States President Bill Clinton said that Meditations is his favorite book,[26] and former United States Secretary of Defense James Mattis carried his own personal copy of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius throughout his deployments as a Marine Corps officer in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan and Iraq.[27][28] "Everything is only for a day, both that which remembers and that which is remembered" Quotations[edit] This section is a candidate to be copied to Wikiquote using the Transwiki process. Be like a rocky promontory against which the restless surf continually pounds; it stands fast while the churning sea is lulled to sleep at its feet. I hear you say, "How unlucky that this should happen to me!" Not at all! Say instead, "How lucky that I am not broken by what has happened and am not afraid of what is about to happen. The same blow might have struck anyone, but not many would have absorbed it without capitulation or complaint." — IV. 49, trans. Hicks If thou art pained by any external thing, it is not this that disturbs thee, but thy own judgment about it. And it is in thy power to wipe out this judgment now.' — VIII. 47, trans. George Long A cucumber is bitter. Throw it away. There are briars in the road. Turn aside from them. This is enough. Do not add, "And why were such things made in the world?" — VIII. 50, trans. George Long Put an end once for all to this discussion of what a good man should be, and be one. — X. 16,[29] Soon you'll be ashes or bones. A mere name at most—and even that is just a sound, an echo. The things we want in life are empty, stale, trivial. — V. 33, trans. Gregory Hays Never regard something as doing you good if it makes you betray a trust or lose your sense of shame or makes you show hatred, suspicion, ill-will or hypocrisy or a desire for things best done behind closed doors. — III. 7, trans. Gregory Hays Not to feel exasperated or defeated or despondent because your days aren't packed with wise and moral actions. But to get back up when you fail, to celebrate behaving like a human—however imperfectly—and fully embrace the pursuit you've embarked on. — V. 9, trans. Gregory Hays Let opinion be taken away, and no man will think himself wronged. If no man shall think himself wronged, then is there no more any such thing as wrong. — IV. 7, trans. Méric Casaubon Take away your opinion, and there is taken away the complaint, [...] Take away the complaint, [...] and the hurt is gone — IV. 7, trans. George Long [...] As for others whose lives are not so ordered, he reminds himself constantly of the characters they exhibit daily and nightly at home and abroad, and of the sort of society they frequent; and the approval of such men, who do not even stand well in their own eyes has no value for him. — III. 4, trans. Maxwell Staniforth Shame on the soul, to falter on the road of life while the body still perseveres. — VI. 29, trans. Maxwell Staniforth Whatever happens to you has been waiting to happen since the beginning of time. The twining strands of fate wove both of them together: your own existence and the things that happen to you. — V. 8, trans. Gregory Hays In your actions, don't procrastinate. In your conversations, don't confuse. In your thoughts, don't wander. In your soul, don't be passive or aggressive. In your life, don't be all about business. — VIII. 51[30] [Before making a decision] The first thing to do--don't get worked up. For everything happens according to the nature of all things, and in a short time you'll be nobody and nowhere even as the great emperors Hadrian and Augustus are now. The next thing to do--consider carefully the task at hand for what it is, while remembering that your purpose is to be a good human being. Get straight to doing what nature requires of you, and speak as you see most just and fitting--with kindness, modesty, and sincerity. — VIII. 5[31] What if someone despises me? Let me see to it. But I will see to it that I won't be found doing or saying anything contemptible. What if someone hates me? Let me see to that. But I will see to it that I'm kind and good-natured to all, and prepared to show even the hater where they went wrong. Not in a critical way, or to show off my patience, but genuinely and usefully. — XI. 13[32] Do not act as if thou wert going to live ten thousand years. Death hangs over thee. While thou livest, while it is in thy power, be good. — IV. 17, trans. George Long Of the life of man the duration is but a point. — II. 17, trans. C.R. Haines A person who doesn't know what the universe is doesn't know who they are. A person who doesn't know their purpose in life doesn't know who they are or what the universe is. A person who doesn't know any of these things doesn't know why they are here. So what to make of people who seek or avoid the praise of those who have no knowledge of where or who they are? — VIII. 52[33] Often injustice lies in what you aren't doing, not only in what you are doing. — IX. 5[34] Whenever you suffer pain, keep in mind that it's nothing to be ashamed of and that it can't degrade your guiding intelligence, nor keep it from acting rationally and for the common good. And in most cases you should be helped by the saying of Epicurus, that pain is never unbearable or unending, so you can remember these limits and not add to them in your imagination. Remember too that many common annoyances are pain in disguise, such as sleepiness, fever and loss of appetite. When they start to get you down, tell yourself you are giving in to pain. — VII. 64[35] Enough of this miserable, whining life. Stop monkeying around! Why are you troubled? What’s new here? What’s so confounding? The one responsible? Take a good look. Or just the matter itself? Then look at that. There’s nothing else to look at. And as far as the gods go, by now you could try being more straightforward and kind. It’s the same, whether you’ve examined these things for a hundred years, or only three. — IX. 37[36] Keep this thought handy when you feel a bit of rage coming on--it isn't manly to be enraged. Rather, gentleness and civility are more human, and therefore manlier. A real person doesn't give way to anger and discontent, and such a person has strength, courage, and endurance--unlike the angry and complaining. The nearer a man comes to a calm mind, the closer he is to strength. — XI 11.18.5b[37] Don't tell yourself anything more than what the initial impressions report. It's been reported to you that someone is speaking badly about you. This is the report--the report wasn't that you've been harmed. I see that my son is sick--but not that his life is at risk. So always stay within your first impressions, and don't add to them in your head--this way nothing can happen to you. — VIII. 49[38] Drama, combat, terror, numbness, and subservience--every day these things wipe out your sacred principles, whenever your mind entertains them uncritically or lets them slip in. — X. 9[39] I'm constantly amazed by how easily we love ourselves above all others, yet we put more stock in the opinions of others than in our own estimation of self....How much credence we give to the opinions our peers have of us and how little to our very own! — XII. 4[40] Does the light of a lamp shine and keep its glow until its fuel is spent? Why shouldn't your truth, justice, and self-control shine until you are extinguished? — XII. 15[41] Words that everyone once used are now obsolete, and so are the men whose names were once on everyone's lips: Camillus, Caeso, Volesus, Dentatus, and to a lesser degree Scipio and Cato, and yes, even Augustus, Hadrian, and Antoninus are less spoken of now than they were in their own days. For all things fade away, become the stuff of legend, and are soon buried in oblivion. Mind you, this is true only for those who blazed once like bright stars in the firmament, but for the rest, as soon as a few clods of earth cover their corpses, they are 'out of sight, out of mind.' In the end, what would you gain from everlasting remembrance? Absolutely nothing. So what is left worth living for? This alone: justice in thought, goodness in action, speech that cannot deceive, and a disposition glad of whatever comes, welcoming it as necessary, as familiar, as flowing from the same source and fountain as yourself. — IV. 33, trans. Scot and David Hicks Do not then consider life a thing of any value. For look at the immensity of time behind thee, and to the time which is before thee, another boundless space. In this infinity then what is the difference between him who lives three days and him who lives three generations? — IV. 50, trans. George Long When you wake up in the morning, tell yourself: The people I deal with today will be meddling, ungrateful, arrogant, dishonest, jealous, and surly. They are like this because they can't tell good from evil. But I have seen the beauty of good, and the ugliness of evil, and have recognized that the wrongdoer has a nature related to my own—not of the same blood or birth, but the same mind, and possessing a share of the divine. — II. 1, trans. Gregory Hays All things are interwoven with one another; a sacred bond unites them; there is scarcely one thing that is isolated from another. Everything is coordinated, everything works together in giving form to one universe. The world-order is a unity made up of multiplicity: God is one, pervading all things; all being is one, all law is one (namely, the common reason which all thinking persons possess) and all truth is one -- if, as we believe, there can be but one path to perfection for beings that are alike in kind and reason. — VII. 9, trans. Maxwell Staniforth Marcus Aurelius wrote the following about Severus (a person who is not clearly identifiable according to the footnote): Through him [...] I became acquainted with the conception of a community based on equality and freedom of speech for all, and of a monarchy concerned primarily to uphold the liberty of the subject. — I. 14, trans. Maxwell Staniforth Editions[edit] Xylander edition (1558) The editio princeps (first print edition) of the original Greek was published by Conrad Gessner and his cousin Andreas in 1559. Both it and the accompanying Latin translation were produced by Wilhelm Xylander. His source was a manuscript from Heidelberg University, provided by Michael Toxites. By 1568, when Xylander completed his second edition, he no longer had access to the source and it has been lost ever since.[42][43] The first English translation was published in 1634 by Meric Casaubon. Some popular English translations include: Francis Hutcheson, and James Moore (1742). The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2008. Richard Graves (1792). Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, a new translation from the Greek original, with a Life, Notes, &c., by R. Graves, 1792; new edition, Halifax, 1826. George Long (1862) The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius; reprinted many times, including in Vol. 2 of the Harvard Classics. C. R. Haines (1916) Marcus Aurelius. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 0-674-99064-1 A. S. L. Farquharson (1944) Marcus Aurelius Meditations. Everyman's Library reprint edition (1992) ISBN 0-679-41271-9. Oxford World's Classics revised edition (1998) ISBN 0-19-954059-4 Maxwell Staniforth (1969) Meditations. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044140-9 Gregory Hays (2002) Meditations. Random House. ISBN 0-679-64260-9 (181 pages) C. Scot Hicks, David V. Hicks (2002) The Emperor's Handbook: A New Translation of the Meditations. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-3383-2 Martin Hammond (2006) Meditations. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044933-7 Jacob Needleman, and John P. Piazza (2008) The Essential Marcus Aurelius. J. P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-1-58542-617-1 (111 pages) Robin Hard, and Christopher Gill (2011) Meditations with selected correspondence. Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-957320-2. See also[edit] Arethas of Caesarea John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners Memento mori Sirmium References[edit] ^ "Close imitation of Attic was not required because Marcus Aurelius wrote in a philosophical context without thought of publication. Galen's many writings in what he calls 'the common dialect' are another excellent example of non-atticizing but highly educated Greek." Simon Swain, (1996), Hellenism and Empire, p. 29. Oxford University Press. ^ Iain King suggests the books may also have been written for mental stimulation, as Aurelius was removed from the cultural and intellectual life of Rome for the first time in his life. Source: Thinker At War: Marcus Aurelius published August 2014, accessed November 2014. ^ Sellars, John. 23 October 2011. "Marcus Aurelius." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Roberts, John, ed. 23 October 2011. "Aurēlius, Marcus." The Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. ^ Hadot 1998, p. 22 ^ Birley, Anthony (2012). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134695690. ^ Farquharson 1944, p. xv ^ Hadot 1998, p. 24 ^ Farquharson 1944, p. xvi ^ a b Farquharson 1944, p. xvii ^ a b c Farquharson 1944, p. xviii ^ a b c d e Haines 1916, p. xv ^ a b Farquharson 1944, p. xx ^ a b c d Haines 1916, p. xvi ^ a b c d e f Farquharson 1944, p. xxvii ^ Farquharson 1944, p. xix ^ Hall, Frederick William (1913). A companion to classical texts. Clarendon Press. p. 251. ^ Farquharson 1944, p. xxii ^ Murray, Gilbert (2002) [1912]. Five Stages of Greek Religion (3rd ed.). Dover Publications. pp. 168–69. ISBN 978-0-486-42500-9. ^ a b Rees, D. A. 1992. "Introduction." In Meditations, edited by A. S. L. Farquhrson (1944). New York :Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-41271-7. pp. xvii. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand (2004) [1946]. History of Western Philosophy. London: Routledge. pp. 248–56. ISBN 978-0-415-32505-9. ^ Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. pp. 2–27. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ Grant, Michael (1993) [1968]. The Climax of Rome: The Final Achievements of the Ancient World, AD 161–337. London: Weidenfeld. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-297-81391-0. ^ The Washington Post Bestseller List June 9th, 2002 ^ Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". Reflective Practice. 10 (4): 429–36. doi:10.1080/14623940903138266. S2CID 219711815. ^ "An American reader: Bill Clinton". latimes.com. 2009-07-04. ^ "Fiasco". Armed Forces Journal. August 2006. ^ Holiday, Ryan, and Stephen Hanselman. 2016. The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living. Portfolio/Penguin. 2016. p. 3, on James Mattis. ^ "MARCUS AURELIUS, Meditations". Loeb Classical Library. ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.209 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.162 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.179 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.14 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.223 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.280 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.205 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.41 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.238 ^ The Daily Stoic 2016 p.104 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.160 ^ Ryan Holiday & Stephen Hanselman, The Daily Stoic: 366 Meditations on Wisdom, Perseverance and the Art of Living, Portfolio/Penguin, 2016. p.294 ^ Marcus Aurelius, De seipso, seu vita sua, libri 12 ed. and trans. by Xylander. Zurich: Andreas Gessner, 1558. ^ van Ackeren 2012, p. 54. sfn error: no target: CITEREFvan_Ackeren2012 (help) Sources[edit] Farquharson, A. S. L. (1944), "Introduction", The Meditations Of The Emperor Marcus Antoninus, 1, Oxford University Press Haines, C. R. (1916), "Introduction", The communings with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, William Heinemann Hadot, Pierre (1998), The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-46171-0 Further reading[edit] Annas, Julia. 2004. "Marcus Aurelius: Ethics and Its Background." Rhizai: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science 2:103–119. Berryman, Sylvia Ann. 2010. The Puppet and the Sage: Images of the Self in Marcus Aurelius Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 38: 187-209. Ceporina, Matteo. 2012. "The Meditations." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by Marcel van Ackeren, 45–61. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Dickson, Keith. 2009. "Oneself as Others: Aurelius and Autobiography." Arethusa 42.1: 99-125. Gill, Christopher. 2012. "Marcus and Previous Stoic Literature." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by Marcel van Ackeren, 382–395. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Hadot, Pierre. 2001. The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Kraye, Jill. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius and Neostoicism in Early Modern Philosophy." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by Marcel van Ackeren, 515–531. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Rees, D. A. 2000. "Joseph Bryennius and Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations." Classical Quarterly 52.2: 584–596. Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Rutherford, R. B. 1989. The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: A Study. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Wolf, Edita. 2016. "Others as Matter of Indifference in Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations." Acta Universitatis Carolinae. Graecolatina Pragensia 2:13-23. 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en-wikipedia-org-1940	----	Category:Philosophers of law - Wikipedia Help Category:Philosophers of law From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philosophers of law. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. M ► Monarchomachs‎ (7 P) Pages in category "Philosophers of law" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 211 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Matthew Adler Giorgio Agamben Hans Albert Sergei Alexeyev Robert Alexy Trevor Allan (legal philosopher) Hannah Arendt Aristotle Torkel Halvorsen Aschehoug John Austin (legal philosopher) B Francis Bacon Marcia Baron Francis J. Beckwith Bruce L. Benson Iain Benson Jeremy Bentham Mitchell Berman Fritz Berolzheimer Julius Binder Norberto Bobbio Chris Bobonich Jan Broekman Thom Brooks Bartosz Brożek C Tom Campbell (philosopher) Genaro Carrió Bartolomé de las Casas Thomas Cauchi Zechariah Chafee George C. Christie Justin Clemens Jules Coleman Confucius Arthur Corbin Vern Countryman Petrus Cunaeus D Francesco D'Andrea Jacques Derrida Enrico di Robilant Denis Diderot Gray Dorsey Costas Douzinas Émile Durkheim Ronald Dworkin E María Elósegui John Hart Ely Wilhelm Endemann Timothy Endicott Karl Engisch David Enoch (philosopher) Ticio Escobar Antonio Escohotado F Al-Farabi Joel Feinberg Mario Fernández Baeza Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach Martha Albertson Fineman Claire Finkelstein John Finnis Elizabeth Flower Takis Fotopoulos Gary L. Francione Raymond Frey Carl Joachim Friedrich Lon L. Fuller Boris Furlan G Peter Gabel Luis García San Miguel John Gardner (legal philosopher) Ernesto Garzón Valdés George Letsas Robert P. George Margaret Gilbert Jan Glastra van Loon Jeffrey Goldsworthy Leslie Green (philosopher) R. Kent Greenawalt Hugo Grotius Guan Zhong Stephen Guest Gerald Gunther H Susan Haack Guy Haarscher Jürgen Habermas Robert Lee Hale Muhammad Hamidullah Stuart Hampshire Han Fei Learned Hand Sheikh Anwarul Haq H. L. A. Hart Friedrich Hayek Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Mireille Hildebrandt Kenneth Einar Himma Thomas Hobbes Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Tony Honoré Hans-Hermann Hoppe Laurence Houlgate Hozumi Nobushige J Emmanuelle Jouannet K Sanford Kadish Immanuel Kant Felix Kaufmann Mark Kelman Hans Kelsen Duncan Kennedy (legal philosopher) Stephan Kinsella Ragnar Knoph Hans Köchler Nikolai Korkunov Matthew Kramer Jody Kraus Vladimír Kubeš Mattias Kumm Egidijus Kūris L Jacqueline Laing Manuel de Lardizábal y Uribe Larry Laudan Claude Lefort Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Brian Leiter Raphael Lemkin Bruno Leoni Li Kui (legalist) Li Si John Locke Vincent Luizzi Radomir Lukić Martin Luther David Lyons (philosopher) M John Macdonell (judge) Salomon Maimon Marcus Aurelius Karl Marx Mary Kate McGowan Mencius Reinhard Merkel Montesquieu Michael S. Moore (academic) Herbert Morris (philosopher) Mozi Adam Müller N Daniel O. 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Traynor Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg William Twining U Roberto Mangabeira Unger V Frank Van Dun Emer de Vattel Giorgio Del Vecchio Giambattista Vico Viktorin Kornel of Všehrdy (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Philosophers_of_law&oldid=952897412" Categories: Philosophy of law Political philosophers Legal scholars by specialty Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 201–300 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Башҡортса Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Македонски Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2020, at 16:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1941	----	Imperium - Wikipedia Imperium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Type of authority in ancient Rome For other uses, see Imperium (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Imperium" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article appears to be a dictionary definition. Please rewrite it to present the subject from an encyclopedic point of view. If it cannot be turned into a full encyclopedia article in the near future, consider moving it to Wiktionary. Steps for moving to Wiktionary: Check that this article meets Wiktionary's criteria for inclusion. Check that Wiktionary does not have an article on this word or phrase, as verified using the search page. If Wiktionary has a definition already, change this tag to {{TWCleanup2}} or else consider a soft redirect to Wiktionary by replacing the text on this page with {{Wi}}. If Wiktionary does not have the definition yet, consider moving the whole article to Wiktionary by replacing this tag with the template {{Copy to Wiktionary}}. This template will no longer automatically categorize articles as candidates to move to Wiktionary. (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Look up imperium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. In ancient Rome, imperium was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from auctoritas and potestas, different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic and Empire. One's imperium could be over a specific military unit, or it could be over a province or territory. Individuals given such power were referred to as curule magistrates or promagistrates. These included the curule aedile, the praetor, the consul, the magister equitum, and the dictator. In a general sense, imperium was the scope of someone's power, and could include anything, such as public office, commerce, political influence, or wealth. Contents 1 Ancient Rome 2 Later Roman Empire 3 Divine and earthly imperium 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Ancient Rome[edit] Imperium originally meant absolute or kingly power—the word being derived from the Latin verb imperare (to command)—which became somewhat limited under the republic by the collegiality of the republican magistrates and the right of appeal, or provocatio, on the part of citizens. Imperium remained absolute in the army, and the power of the imperator (army commander) to punish remained uncurtailed. The title imperator later was exclusively held by the emperor, as the commander of the armed forces. In fact, the Latin word imperator is the root of the English word emperor.[1][2] In ancient Rome, imperium could be used as a term indicating a characteristic of people, their wealth in property, or the measure of formal power they had. This qualification could be used in a rather loose context (for example, poets used it, not necessarily writing about state officials). However, in Roman society, it was also a more formal concept of legal authority. A man with imperium (an imperator) had, in principle, absolute authority to apply the law within the scope of his magistracy or promagistracy. He could be vetoed or overruled either by a magistrate or promagistrate who was a colleague with equal power (e.g. a fellow consul), by one whose imperium outranked his – that is, one of imperium maius (greater imperium), or by a tribune of the plebs. Some modern scholars such as A. H. M. Jones have defined imperium as "the power vested by the state in a person to do what he considers to be in the best interests of the state".[citation needed] Imperium was indicated in two prominent ways: a curule magistrate or promagistrate carried an ivory baton surmounted by an eagle as his personal symbol of office (compare the field marshal's baton);[citation needed] any such magistrate was also escorted by lictors bearing the fasces (traditional symbols of imperium and authority), when outside the pomerium, axes being added to the fasces to indicate an imperial magistrate's power to inflict capital punishment outside Rome (the axes being removed within the pomerium). The number of lictors in attendance upon a magistrate was an overt indication of the degree of imperium. When in the field, a curule magistrate possessing an imperium greater or equal to that of a praetor wore a sash ritually knotted on the front of his cuirass. Furthermore, any man executing imperium within his sphere of influence was entitled to the curule chair. Curule aedile (aedilis curulis) – 2 lictors Since a plebeian aedile (aedilis plebis) was not vested with imperium, he was not escorted by lictors. Magister equitum (the dictator's deputy) – 6 lictors Praetor – 6 lictors (2 lictors within the pomerium) Consul – 12 lictors each Dictator – 24 lictors outside the pomerium and 12 inside; starting from the dictatorship of Lucius Sulla the latter rule was ignored. To symbolize that the dictator could enact capital punishment within Rome as well as without, his lictors did not remove the axes from their fasces within the pomerium. As can be seen, dictatorial imperium was superior to consular, consular to praetorian, and praetorian to aedilician; there is some historical dispute as to whether or not praetorian imperium was superior to "equine-magisterial" imperium. A promagistrate, or a man executing a curule office without actually holding that office, also possessed imperium in the same degree as the actual incumbents (i.e., proconsular imperium being more or less equal to consular imperium, propraetorian imperium to praetorian) and was attended by an equal number of lictors. Certain extraordinary commissions, such as Pompey's famous command against the pirates, were invested with imperium maius, meaning they outranked all other holders of imperium of the same type or rank (in Pompey's case, even the consuls) within their sphere of command (his being "ultimate on the seas, and within 50 miles inland"). Imperium maius later became a hallmark of the Roman emperor. Another technical use of the term in Roman law was for the power to extend the law beyond its mere interpretation, extending imperium from formal legislators under the ever-republican constitution: popular assemblies, senate, magistrates, emperor and their delegates to the jurisprudence of jurisconsults. Later Roman Empire[edit] While the Byzantine Eastern Roman Emperors retained full Roman imperium and made the episcopate subservient, in the feudal West a long rivalry would oppose the claims to supremacy within post-Roman Christianity between sacerdotium in the person of the Pope and the secular imperium of the Holy Roman Emperor, beginning with Charlemagne, whose title was claimed to have "restored" the office of Western Roman Emperor among the new kingdoms of Western Europe. Both would refer to the heritage of Roman law by their titular link with the very city Rome: the Pope, Bishop of Rome, versus the Holy Roman Emperor (even though his seat of power was north of the Alps). The Donatio Constantini, by which the Papacy had allegedly been granted the territorial Patrimonium Petri in Central Italy, became a weapon against the Emperor. The first pope who used it in an official act and relied upon it, Leo IX, cites the "Donatio" in a letter of 1054 to Michael Cærularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, to show that the Holy See possessed both an earthly and a heavenly imperium, the royal priesthood. Thenceforth the "Donatio" acquires more importance and is more frequently used as evidence in the ecclesiastical and political conflicts between the papacy and the secular power: Anselm of Lucca and Cardinal Deusdedit inserted it in their collections of canons; Gratian excluded it from his Decretum, but it was soon added to it as Palea; the ecclesiastical writers in defence of the papacy during the conflicts of the early part of the 12th century quoted it as authoritative. In one bitter episode, Pope Gregory IX, who had several times mediated between the Lombards and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, reasserted his right to arbitrate between the contending parties. In the numerous manifestos of the Pope and the Emperor the antagonism between Church and State became more evident: the Pope claimed for himself the imperium animarum ("command of the souls", i.e. voicing God's will to the faithful) and the principatus rerum et corporum in universo mundo ("primacy over all things and bodies in the whole world"), while the Emperor wished to restore the imperium mundi, imperium (as under Roman Law) over the (now Christian) world. Rome was again to be the capital of the world and Frederick was to become the real emperor of the Romans, so he energetically protested against the authority of the Pope. The emperor's successes, especially his victory over the Lombards at the battle of Cortenuova (1237), only aggravated tensions between Church and State. The pope again excommunicated the "self-confessed heretic", the "blasphemous beast of the Apocalypse" (20 March 1239) who now attempted to conquer the rest of Italy (i.e. the papal states, et cetera). Divine and earthly imperium[edit] In some monotheistic religions such as Christianity (the Catholic Church where the official language, Latin, used terms as Imperium Dei/Domini) the Divine is held to have a superior imperium, as ultimate King of Kings, above all earthly powers. Whenever a society accepts this Divine will to be expressed on earth, as by a religious authority, this can lead to theocratic legitimation. However, the Catholic Church and most other Christian groups acknowledge the authority of secular governments. If, however, a secular ruler controls the religious hierarchy, he can use it to legitimize his own authority. Thus absolute, universal power was vested under early Islam in the original Caliphate, and later again claimed by Mahdi. The chief minister of Henry VIII, the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, suggested removal of the Roman Catholic papacy's imperium in imperio (Latin for 'state within a state') by requesting that Parliament pass the Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) specifying that England was an empire and that The Crown was imperial, and a year later the Act of Supremacy proclaiming the Imperial Crown Protector and Supreme Head of the Church of England.[citation needed] In Orthodox Russia, too, when Peter I the Great assumed the Byzantine imperial titles Imperator and Autokrator, instead of the royal Tsar, the idea in founding the Russian Holy Synod was to put an end to the old imperium in imperio of the free Church, by substituting the synod for the all too independent Patriarch of Moscow, which had become almost a rival of the Tsars — Peter meant to unite all authority in himself, over Church as well as State: through his Ober-Procurator and synod, the Emperor ruled his Church as absolutely as the military through their respective ministries; he appointed its members just as he did generals; and the Russian Government continued his policy until the end of the empire in 1917. See also[edit] Imperator Constitution of the Roman Republic Cursus honorum Translatio imperii References[edit] ^ "Etymology of the word emperor". Retrieved 13 January 2018. ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). "Imperium". Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 751–752. ISBN 978-0-19-866172-6. Retrieved 31 October 2020. Further reading[edit] Cary, M. (1967). A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 56–58, 79, 80, 115, 124, 249, 476, 479, 492. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Donation of Constantine". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 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en-wikipedia-org-1970	----	Gaul - Wikipedia Gaul From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search historical region of Western Europe inhabited by Celtic tribes This article is about the region. For the people who lived there, see Gauls. For other uses, see Gaul (disambiguation). "Gallia" redirects here. For other uses, see Gallia (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Gaul" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars. Roman ethnography divides Gaul into five parts: Gallia Belgica, Gallia Celtica (largely corresponding to the later province Gallia Lugdunensis), Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis, and Gallia Aquitania. Part of a series on the History of France Ancient Prehistory   Greek colonies 600 BC – 49 BC Celtic Gaul   until 50 BC Roman Gaul 50 BC – 486 AD Middle Ages Francia and the Franks   Merovingians 481–751 Carolingians 751–987 Direct Capetians 987–1328 Valois 1328–1498 Early modern Ancien Régime Valois-Orléans kings 1498–1515 Valois-Angoulême kings 1515–1589 Bourbon kings 1589–1792 Long 19th century French Revolution 1789–1799 Kingdom of France 1791–1792 First Republic 1792–1804 First Empire 1804–1814 Restoration 1814–1830 July Monarchy 1830–1848 Second Republic 1848–1852 Second Empire 1852–1870 Third Republic 1870–1940 20th century Third Republic 1870–1940 Free France Vichy France 1940–1944 Provisional Republic 1944–1946 Fourth Republic 1946–1958 Fifth Republic 1958–present Timeline  France portal v t e Gaul (Latin: Gallia)[1] was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans.[2] It was inhabited by Celtic tribes, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, and parts of Northern Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany, particularly the west bank of the Rhine. It covered an area of 494,000 km2 (191,000 sq mi).[3] According to Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica, Belgica, and Aquitania. Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers of the La Tène culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as well as east to Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, and southwestern Germania during the 5th to 1st centuries BC.[4] During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule: Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120 BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, who were in turn defeated by the Romans by 103 BC. Julius Caesar finally subdued the remaining parts of Gaul in his campaigns of 58 to 51 BC. Roman control of Gaul lasted for five centuries, until the last Roman rump state, the Domain of Soissons, fell to the Franks in AD 486. While the Celtic Gauls had lost their original identities and language during Late Antiquity, becoming amalgamated into a Gallo-Roman culture, Gallia remained the conventional name of the territory throughout the Early Middle Ages, until it acquired a new identity as the Capetian Kingdom of France in the high medieval period. Gallia remains a name of France in modern Greek (Γαλλία) and modern Latin (besides the alternatives Francia and Francogallia). Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Pre-Roman Gaul 2.2 Initial contact with Rome 2.3 Conquest by Rome 2.4 Roman Gaul 2.5 Frankish Gaul 3 Gauls 3.1 Social structure, indigenous nation and clans 3.2 Religion 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Name[edit] Further information: Names of the Celts § Galli, Galatai The Greek and Latin names Galatia (first attested by Timaeus of Tauromenium in the 4th century BC) and Gallia are ultimately derived from a Celtic ethnic term or clan Gal(a)-to-.[5] The Galli of Gallia Celtica were reported to refer to themselves as Celtae by Caesar. Hellenistic folk etymology connected the name of the Galatians (Γαλάται, Galátai) to the supposedly "milk-white" skin (γάλα, gála "milk") of the Gauls.[6] Modern researchers say it is related to Welsh gallu,[7] Cornish: galloes,[8] "capacity, power",[9] thus meaning "powerful people". Despite superficial similarity, the English term Gaul is unrelated to the Latin Gallia. It stems from the French Gaule, itself deriving from the Old Frankish *Walholant (via a Latinized form *Walula),[10] literally the "Land of the Foreigners/Romans". *Walho- is a reflex of the Proto-Germanic *walhaz, "foreigner, Romanized person", an exonym applied by Germanic speakers to Celts and Latin-speaking people indiscriminately. It is cognate with the names Wales, Cornwall, Wallonia, and Wallachia.[11] The Germanic w- is regularly rendered as gu- / g- in French (cf. guerre "war", garder "ward", Guillaume "William"), and the historic diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before a following consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux). French Gaule or Gaulle cannot be derived from Latin Gallia, since g would become j before a (cf. gamba > jambe), and the diphthong au would be unexplained; the regular outcome of Latin Gallia is Jaille in French, which is found in several western place names, such as, La Jaille-Yvon and Saint-Mars-la-Jaille.[12][13] Proto-Germanic *walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae.[14] Also unrelated, in spite of superficial similarity, is the name Gael.[16] The Irish word gall did originally mean "a Gaul", i.e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later widened to "foreigner", to describe the Vikings, and later still the Normans.[17] The dichotomic words gael and gall are sometimes used together for contrast, for instance in the 12th-century book Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib. As adjectives, English has the two variants: Gaulish and Gallic. The two adjectives are used synonymously, as "pertaining to Gaul or the Gauls", although the Celtic language or languages spoken in Gaul is predominantly known as Gaulish. History[edit] Pre-Roman Gaul[edit] Further information: Prehistoric France, Celts, La Tène culture, and Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul Map of Roman Gaul (Droysens Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 1886) There is little written information concerning the peoples that inhabited the regions of Gaul, save what can be gleaned from coins. Therefore, the early history of the Gauls is predominantly a work in archaeology, and the relationships between their material culture, genetic relationships (the study of which has been aided, in recent years, through the field of archaeogenetics) and linguistic divisions rarely coincide. Before the rapid spread of the La Tène culture in the 5th to 4th centuries BC, the territory of eastern and southern France already participated in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture (c. 12th to 8th centuries BC) out of which the early iron-working Hallstatt culture (7th to 6th centuries BC) would develop. By 500 BC, there is strong Hallstatt influence throughout most of France (except for the Alps and the extreme north-west). Out of this Hallstatt background, during the 7th and 6th century BC presumably representing an early form of Continental Celtic culture, the La Tène culture arises, presumably under Mediterranean influence from the Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan civilizations, spread out in a number of early centers along the Seine, the Middle Rhine and the upper Elbe. By the late 5th century BC, La Tène influence spreads rapidly across the entire territory of Gaul. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. Farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia. The major source of materials on the Celts of Gaul was Poseidonios of Apamea, whose writings were quoted by Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.[18] In the 4th and early 3rd century BC, Gallic clan confederations expanded far beyond the territory of what would become Roman Gaul (which defines usage of the term "Gaul" today), into Pannonia, Illyria, northern Italy, Transylvania and even Asia Minor. By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina. In his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar distinguishes among three ethnic groups in Gaul: the Belgae in the north (roughly between the Rhine and the Seine), the Celtae in the center and in Armorica, and the Aquitani in the southwest, the southeast being already colonized by the Romans. While some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century. In addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia (present-day Marseille) along the Mediterranean coast.[19] Also, along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture. Initial contact with Rome[edit] In the 2nd century BC Mediterranean Gaul had an extensive urban fabric and was prosperous. Archeologists know of cities in northern Gaul including the Biturigian capital of Avaricum (Bourges), Cenabum (Orléans), Autricum (Chartres) and the excavated site of Bibracte near Autun in Saône-et-Loire, along with a number of hill forts (or oppida) used in times of war. The prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who found themselves under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls.[20] The Romans intervened in Gaul in 154 BC and again in 125 BC.[20] Whereas on the first occasion they came and went, on the second they stayed.[21] In 122 BC Domitius Ahenobarbus managed to defeat the Allobroges (allies of the Salluvii), while in the ensuing year Quintus Fabius Maximus "destroyed" an army of the Arverni led by their king Bituitus, who had come to the aid of the Allobroges.[21] Rome allowed Massilia to keep its lands, but added to its own territories the lands of the conquered tribes.[21] As a direct result of these conquests, Rome now controlled an area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône river, and in the east up the Rhône valley to Lake Geneva.[22] By 121 BC Romans had conquered the Mediterranean region called Provincia (later named Gallia Narbonensis). This conquest upset the ascendancy of the Gaulish Arverni peoples. Conquest by Rome[edit] Gauls in Rome Main article: Gallic Wars The Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in 58 BC, ostensibly to assist Rome's Gaullish allies against the migrating Helvetii. With the help of various Gallic clans (e.g. the Aedui) he managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. While their military was just as strong as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late.[23][24] Julius Caesar was checked by Vercingetorix at a siege of Gergovia, a fortified town in the center of Gaul. Caesar's alliances with many Gallic clans broke. Even the Aedui, their most faithful supporters, threw in their lot with the Arverni, but the ever-loyal Remi (best known for its cavalry) and Lingones sent troops to support Caesar. The Germani of the Ubii also sent cavalry, which Caesar equipped with Remi horses. Caesar captured Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia, which ended the majority of Gallic resistance to Rome. As many as a million people (probably 1 in 5 of the Gauls) died, another million were enslaved,[25] 300 clans were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during the Gallic Wars.[26] The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) were slaughtered.[27] Before Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (present-day Switzerland), the Helvetians had numbered 263,000, but afterwards only 100,000 remained, most of whom Caesar took as slaves.[28] Roman Gaul[edit] Soldiers of Gaul, as imagined by a late 19th-century illustrator for the Larousse dictionary, 1898 Main articles: Roman Gaul, Gallo-Roman culture, History of France, and Gallic Empire After Gaul was absorbed as Gallia, a set of Roman provinces, its inhabitants gradually adopted aspects of Roman culture and assimilated, resulting in the distinct Gallo-Roman culture.[29] Citizenship was granted to all in 212 by the Constitutio Antoniniana. From the third to 5th centuries, Gaul was exposed to raids by the Franks. The Gallic Empire, consisting of the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania, including the peaceful Baetica in the south, broke away from Rome from 260 to 273. In addition to the large number of natives, Gallia also became home to some Roman citizens from elsewhere and also in-migrating Germanic and Scythian tribes such as the Alans.[30] The religious practices of inhabitants became a combination of Roman and Celtic practice, with Celtic deities such as Cobannus and Epona subjected to interpretatio romana.[31][32] The imperial cult and Eastern mystery religions also gained a following. Eventually, after it became the official religion of the Empire and paganism became suppressed, Christianity won out in the twilight days of the Western Roman Empire (while the Christianized Eastern Roman Empire lasted another thousand years, until the invasion of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453); a small but notable Jewish presence also became established. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture.[33] The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible[33] concerned the destruction by Christians of a pagan shrine in Auvergne "called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue".[34] Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French.[35][36][37][38][39] The Vulgar Latin in the region of Gallia took on a distinctly local character, some of which is attested in graffiti,[39] which evolved into the Gallo-Romance dialects which include French and its closest relatives. The influence of substrate languages may be seen in graffiti showing sound changes that matched changes that had earlier occurred in the indigenous languages, especially Gaulish.[39] The Vulgar Latin in the north of Gaul evolved into the langues d'oil and Franco-Provencal, while the dialects in the south evolved into the modern Occitan and Catalan tongues. Other languages held to be "Gallo-Romance" include the Gallo-Italic languages and the Rhaeto-Romance languages. Frankish Gaul[edit] Main articles: Neustria, Frankish Aquitaine, Frankish Burgundy, and Frankish Gascony Further information: Visigothic Kingdom, Christianity in Gaul, and List of Frankish synods Following Frankish victories at Soissons (AD 486), Vouillé (AD 507) and Autun (AD 532), Gaul (except for Brittany and Septimania) came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of France. Gallo-Roman culture, the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire, persisted particularly in the areas of Gallia Narbonensis that developed into Occitania, Gallia Cisalpina and to a lesser degree, Aquitania. The formerly Romanized north of Gaul, once it had been occupied by the Franks, would develop into Merovingian culture instead. Roman life, centered on the public events and cultural responsibilities of urban life in the res publica and the sometimes luxurious life of the self-sufficient rural villa system, took longer to collapse in the Gallo-Roman regions, where the Visigoths largely inherited the status quo in the early 5th century. Gallo-Roman language persisted in the northeast into the Silva Carbonaria that formed an effective cultural barrier, with the Franks to the north and east, and in the northwest to the lower valley of the Loire, where Gallo-Roman culture interfaced with Frankish culture in a city like Tours and in the person of that Gallo-Roman bishop confronted with Merovingian royals, Gregory of Tours. Massalia (modern Marseille) silver coin with Greek legend, 5th–1st century BC. Gold coins of the Gaul Parisii, 1st century BC, (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris). Roman silver Denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Julius Caesar. Gauls[edit] A map of Gaul in the 1st century BCE, showing the relative positions of the Celtic ethnicities: Celtae, Belgae and Aquitani. Expansion of the Celtic culture in the 3rd century BC. Main article: Gauls Social structure, indigenous nation and clans[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Druids were not the only political force in Gaul, however, and the early political system was complex, if ultimately fatal to the society as a whole. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the clan, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called pagi. Each clan had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the Aedui, a clan of Gaul, the executive held the title of Vergobret, a position much like a king, but his powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council. The regional ethnic groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "region" [a more accurate translation is 'country'], comes from this term), were organized into larger multi-clan groups, which the Romans called civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution. Although the individual clans were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various clans. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear. The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata ("free Gaul" or "long haired Gaul"). Caesar divided the people of Gallia Comata into three broad groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish peoples are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements. Julius Caesar, in his book, The Gallic Wars, comments: All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in our Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws. The river Garonne separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the Marne and the Seine separate them from the Belgae. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilization and refinement of [our] Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germans, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valor, as they contend with the Germans in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhone; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the river Rhine, and stretches toward the north. The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; and look toward the north and the rising sun. Aquitania extends from the river Garonne to the Pyrenaean mountains and to that part of the ocean which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star. .[40] Religion[edit] Main article: Celtic polytheism The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to lakes, streams, mountains, and other natural features and granting them a quasi-divine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal most sacred to the Gauls was the boar[41] which can be found on many Gallic military standards, much like the Roman eagle. Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which virtually every Gallic person worshipped, as well as clan and household gods. Many of the major gods were related to Greek gods; the primary god worshipped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic equivalent of Mercury. The "ancestor god" of the Gauls was identified by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico with the Roman god Dis Pater.[42] Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids. The druids presided over human or animal sacrifices that were made in wooded groves or crude temples. They also appear to have held the responsibility for preserving the annual agricultural calendar and instigating seasonal festivals which corresponded to key points of the lunar-solar calendar. The religious practices of druids were syncretic and borrowed from earlier pagan traditions, with probably indo-European roots. Julius Caesar mentions in his Gallic Wars that those Celts who wanted to make a close study of druidism went to Britain to do so. In a little over a century later, Gnaeus Julius Agricola mentions Roman armies attacking a large druid sanctuary in Anglesey in Wales. There is no certainty concerning the origin of the druids, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people of Gaul. Indeed, they claimed the right to determine questions of war and peace, and thereby held an "international" status. In addition, the Druids monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of educating the aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly of worshippers, which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as well. Thus the Druids were an important part of Gallic society. The nearly complete and mysterious disappearance of the Celtic language from most of the territorial lands of ancient Gaul, with the exception of Brittany, can be attributed to the fact that Celtic druids refused to allow the Celtic oral literature or traditional wisdom to be committed to the written letter.[43] See also[edit] Ambiorix Asterix—a French comic about Gaul and Rome, mainly set in 50 BC Bog body Braccae—trousers, typical Gallic dress Cisalpine Gaul Galatia Lugdunum Roman Republic Roman villas in northwestern Gaul References[edit] ^ English: /ˈɡæliə/ ^ Polybius: Histories ^ Arrowsmith, Aaron (1832). A Grammar of Ancient Geography,: Compiled for the Use of King's College School. Hansard London 1832. p. 50. Retrieved 21 September 2014. gallia . ^ Bisdent, Bisdent (28 April 2011). "Gaul". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 May 2019. ^ Birkhan 1997, p. 48. ^ "The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville" p. 198 Cambridge University Press 2006 Stephen A. Barney, W. J. Lewis, J. A. Beach and Oliver Berghof. ^ "gallu". Google Translate. Retrieved 31 December 2016. ^ Howlsedhes Services. "Gerlyver Sempel". Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 31 December 2016. ^ Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise, éditions Errance, 1994, p. 194. ^ Ekblom, R., "Die Herkunft des Namens La Gaule" in: Studia Neophilologica, Uppsala, XV, 1942-43, nos. 1-2, p. 291-301. ^ Sjögren, Albert, Le nom de "Gaule", in Studia Neophilologica, Vol. 11 (1938/39) pp. 210–214. ^ Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (OUP 1966), p. 391. ^ Nouveau dictionnaire étymologique et historique (Larousse 1990), p. 336. ^ Koch 2006, p. 532. ^ Koch 2006, pp. 775–776. ^ Gael is derived from Old Irish Goidel (borrowed, in turn, in the 7th century AD from Primitive Welsh Guoidel—spelled Gwyddel in Middle Welsh and Modern Welsh—likely derived from a Brittonic root *Wēdelos meaning literally "forest person, wild man")[15] ^ Linehan, Peter; Janet L. Nelson (2003). The Medieval World. 10. Routledge. p. 393. ISBN 978-0-415-30234-0. ^ Berresford Ellis, Peter (1998). The Celts: A History. Caroll & Graf. pp. 49–50. ISBN 0-7867-1211-2. ^ Dietler, Michael (2010). Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France. Berkeley, CA. ^ a b Drinkwater 2014, p. 5. ^ a b c Drinkwater 2014, p. 6. ^ Drinkwater 2014, p. 6. "[...] the most important outcome of this series of campaigns was the direct annexation by Rome of a huge area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône, and up the Rhône valley to Lake Geneva." ^ "France: The Roman conquest". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 6, 2015. Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix’s Great Rebellion of 52 bc had notable successes. ^ "Julius Caesar: The first triumvirate and the conquest of Gaul". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 15, 2015. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome’s military superiority lay in its mastery of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 BC to shake off the Roman yoke came too late. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 22. ^ Tibbetts, Jann (2016-07-30). 50 Great Military Leaders of All Time. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789385505669. ^ Seindal, René (28 August 2003). "Julius Caesar, Romans [The Conquest of Gaul - part 4 of 11] (Photo Archive)". Retrieved 29 June 2019. ^ Serghidou, Anastasia (2007). Fear of slaves, fear of enslavement in the ancient Mediterranean. Besançon: Presses Univ. Franche-Comté. p. 50. ISBN 978-2848671697. Retrieved 8 January 2017. ^ A recent survey is G. Woolf, Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul (Cambridge University Press) 1998. ^ Bachrach, Bernard S. (1972). Merovingian Military Organization, 481-751. U of Minnesota Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780816657001. ^ Pollini, J. (2002). Gallo-Roman Bronzes and the Process of Romanization: The Cobannus Hoard. Monumenta Graeca et Romana. 9. Leiden: Brill. ^ Oaks, L.S. (1986). "The goddess Epona: concepts of sovereignty in a changing landscape". Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. ^ a b Laurence Hélix (2011). Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7. ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise. ^ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue. ^ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995. ^ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83. ^ Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26. ^ Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. The Celtic Languages in Contact: 106. ^ a b c Adams, J. N. (2007). "Chapter V -- Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge. p. 279–289. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482977. ISBN 9780511482977. ^ Caesar, Julius; McDevitte, W. A.; Bohn, W. S., trans (1869). The Gallic Wars. New York: Harper. p. 9. ISBN 978-1604597622. Retrieved 8 January 2017. ^ MacCulloch, John Arnott (1911). The Religion of the Ancient Celts. Edinburgh: Clark. p. 22. ISBN 978-1508518518. Retrieved 8 January 2017. ^ Warner, Marina; Burn, Lucilla (2003). World of Myths, Vol. 1. London: British Museum. p. 382. ISBN 978-0714127835. Retrieved 8 January 2017. ^ Kendrick, Thomas D. (1966). The Druids: A study in Keltic prehistory (1966 ed.). New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 78. Sources[edit] Birkhan, H. (1997). Die Kelten. Vienna. Drinkwater, John Frederick (2014) [1983]. "Conquest and Pacification". Roman Gaul: The Three Provinces, 58 BC-AD 260. Routledge Revivals. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1317750741. Koch, John Thomas (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-440-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-1989	----	Michael II - Wikipedia Michael II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 820 to 829 For other people named Michael II, see Michael II (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael II Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael II and his son Theophilos, founders of the Amorian dynasty. Byzantine emperor Reign 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 Predecessor Leo V the Armenian Successor Theophilos Born 770 Amorium Died 2 October 829 (aged 59) Consort Thekla Euphrosyne Issue Theophilos Dynasty Phrygian Dynasty Amorian or Phrygian dynasty Chronology Michael II 820–829 with Theophilos as co-emperor, 822–829 Theophilos 829–842 with Constantine (c. 833–835) and Michael III (840–842) as co-emperors Michael III 842–867 under Theodora and Theoktistos as regents, 842–855, and with Basil I the Macedonian as co-emperor 866–867 Succession Preceded by Leo V and the Nikephorian dynasty Followed by Macedonian dynasty Michael II the Amorian (Greek: Μιχαήλ ὁ ἐξ Ἀμορίου, romanized: Michaēl ho ex Amoríou; 770-829), nicknamed the Stammerer (ὁ Τραυλός, ho Travlós or ὁ Ψελλός, ho Psellós), reigned as Byzantine Emperor from 25 December 820 to his death on 2 October 829, the first ruler of the Phrygian or Amorian dynasty. Born in Amorium, Michael was a soldier, rising to high rank along with his colleague Leo V the Armenian (r. 813–820). He helped Leo overthrow and take the place of Emperor Michael I Rangabe. However, after they fell out Leo sentenced Michael to death. Michael then masterminded a conspiracy which resulted in Leo's assassination at Christmas in 820. Immediately he faced the long revolt of Thomas the Slav, which almost cost him his throne and was not completely quelled until spring 824. The later years of his reign were marked by two major military disasters that had long-term effects: the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, and the loss of Crete to the Saracens. Domestically, he supported and strengthened the resumption of official iconoclasm, which had begun again under Leo V. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 3 See also 4 Footnotes 5 References Early life[edit] Michael was born in 770 in Amorium, in Phrygia, into a family of professional peasant-soldiers who received land from the government for their military service. His family belonged to the Judeo-Christian sect of the Athinganoi, whose members were Cappadocians and had adopted the Jewish faith and rituals. The Athinganoi were numerous in Anatolia and the Balkans and together with the early Serbians, other Roman citizens in Balkans and Armenians formed the backbone of the Byzantine army of that era. Michael first rose to prominence as a close aide (spatharios) to the general Bardanes Tourkos, alongside his future antagonists Leo the Armenian and Thomas the Slav. He married Bardanes' daughter Thekla, while Leo married another daughter. Michael and Leo abandoned Bardanes shortly after he rebelled against Emperor Nikephoros I in 803, and they were rewarded with higher military commands: Michael was named the Emperor's Count of the Tent. Michael was instrumental in Leo's overthrow of Michael I Rangabe in 813, after Rangabe’s repeated military defeats against the Bulgarians. Under Leo V, Michael was appointed to command the elite tagma of the Excubitors. He became disgruntled with Leo V, however, when the Emperor divorced Michael's sister-in-law. On Christmas Eve 820, Leo V accused him of conspiracy, jailed him, and sentenced him to death, although he postponed the execution until after Christmas. Michael sent messages to his co-conspirators threatening to reveal their identity, whereupon his partisans freed him and murdered Leo V during the Christmas mass in the palace chapel of St. Stephen. Reign[edit] Michael was immediately proclaimed Emperor, while still wearing prison chains on his legs. Later the same day, he was crowned by Patriarch Theodotos I of Constantinople. In his internal policy, Michael II supported iconoclasm, but he tacitly encouraged reconciliation with the iconodules, whom he generally stopped persecuting and allowed to return from exile. These included the former Patriarch Nikephoros and Theodore of Stoudios, who failed, however, to persuade the emperor to abandon iconoclasm. One of the few victims of the Emperor's policy was the future patriarch Methodios I. Michael's accession whetted the appetite of his former comrade-in-arms Thomas the Slav, who set himself up as rival emperor in Anatolia and successfully transferred his forces into Thrace, effectively besieging the capital in December 821. Although Thomas did not win over all the Anatolian themes, he secured the support of the naval theme and their ships, allowing him to tighten his grip on Constantinople. In his quest for support, Thomas presented himself as a champion of the poor, reduced taxation, and concluded an alliance with Al-Ma'mun of the Abbasid Caliphate, having himself crowned Emperor by the Patriarch of Antioch Job. With the support of Omurtag of Bulgaria, Michael II forced Thomas to lift his siege of Constantinople in the spring of 823. Michael besieged Thomas in Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz) and forced his surrender in October. Michael inherited a seriously weakened military and was unable to prevent the conquest of Crete in 824 by 10,000 Arabs (who had 40 ships),[1] or to recover the island with an expedition in 826. In 827 the Arabs also invaded Sicily, taking advantage of local infighting, and besieged Syracuse. Thekla and Michael had only one known son, the Emperor Theophilos (813 – 20 January 842). The existence of a daughter called Helena is possible but there is a contradiction between different sources. Helena is known as the wife of Theophobos, a patrician executed in 842 for conspiring to gain the throne for himself. George Hamartolus and Theophanes report him marrying the sister of the Empress Theodora. Joseph Genesius records Theophobos marrying the sister of the Emperor Theophilos. Whether Helena was sister or sister-in-law to Theophilos is thus unclear. After the death of Thekla, in c. 823, Michael II married Euphrosyne, a daughter of Constantine VI and Maria of Amnia. This marriage was probably intended to strengthen Michael's position as Emperor, but it incurred the opposition of the clergy, as Euphrosyne had previously become a nun. Michael II died on October 2, 829. Because of his Judeo-Christian origin and iconoclasm, Michael II was not popular among Orthodox clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but Michael II was a competent statesman and administrator. Though the civil war his accession precipitated gravely weakened the imperial government, by the end of his reign he had begun a restoration of the Byzantine military. The system of government and military built by Michael II enabled the Empire under his grandson Michael III to gain the ascendancy in their struggles with the Abbasids and to withstand all the vicissitudes of Byzantine palace life. Michael II's direct descendants, the Amorian dynasty followed by the so-called Macedonian dynasty, ruled the Empire for more than two centuries, inaugurating the Byzantine Renaissance of the 9th and 10th centuries. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Footnotes[edit] ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee, 37 References[edit] The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360. Michael II Phrygian Dynasty Born: 770 Died: 2 October 829 Regnal titles Preceded by Leo V Byzantine emperor 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 Succeeded by Theophilos Political offices Preceded by Leo V Consul of the Roman Empire 820–829 Succeeded by Theophilos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_II&oldid=1027089549" Categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors Phrygian dynasty 770 births 829 deaths Byzantine Iconoclasm People from Amorium Protostratores 810s in the Byzantine Empire 820s in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1982	----	Parthian Empire - Wikipedia Parthian Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Arsacid dynasty" redirects here. For other uses, see Arsacid dynasty (disambiguation). Ancient Iranian political and cultural empire from 247 BC to 224 AD Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of Mithridates II (r. 124–91 BC) Capital Ctesiphon,[1] Ecbatana, Hecatompylos, Susa, Mithradatkirt, Asaak, Rhages Common languages Greek (official),[2] Parthian (official),[3] Aramaic (lingua franca)[2][4] Religion Zoroastrianism[5] Babylonian religion[6] Government Feudal monarchy[7] Monarch   • 247–211 BC Arsaces I (first) • 208–224 AD Artabanus IV (last) Legislature Megisthanes Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 247 BC • Disestablished 224 AD Area 1 AD[8][9] 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi) Currency Drachma Preceded by Succeeded by Seleucid Empire Sasanian Empire Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC Scythian Kingdom 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Qara Qoyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Modern period Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Contemporary period Iranian Revolution 1979 Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e The Parthian Empire (/ˈpɑːrθiən/), also known as the Arsacid Empire (/ˈɑːrsəsɪd/),[10] was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD.[11] Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I,[12] who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia[13] in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras, in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China, became a center of trade and commerce. The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia, and eventually the late Roman Republic. Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients. The Parthians destroyed the army of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans. However, Mark Antony led a counterattack against Parthia, although his successes were generally achieved in his absence, under the leadership of his lieutenant Ventidius. Various Roman emperors or their appointed generals invaded Mesopotamia in the course of the ensuing Roman–Parthian Wars of the next few centuries. The Romans captured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon on multiple occasions during these conflicts, but were never able to hold on to them. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I, ruler of Istakhr in Persis, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the Sasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD, although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia, the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania; all eponymous branches of the Parthian Arsacids. Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. Aside from scattered cuneiform tablets, fragmentary ostraca, rock inscriptions, drachma coins, and the chance survival of some parchment documents, much of Parthian history is only known through external sources. These include mainly Greek and Roman histories, but also Chinese histories, prompted by the Han Chinese desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu.[14] Parthian artwork is viewed by historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins and establishment 1.2 Expansion and consolidation 1.3 Rome and Armenia 1.4 Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals 1.5 Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline 1.6 Native and external sources 2 Government and administration 2.1 Central authority and semi-autonomous kings 2.2 Nobility 2.3 Military 2.4 Currency 3 Society and culture 3.1 Hellenism and the Iranian revival 3.2 Religion 3.3 Art and architecture 3.4 Clothing and apparel 3.5 Language 3.6 Writing and literature 3.7 Women in the Parthian Empire 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] Origins and establishment[edit] The silver drachma of Arsaces I (r. c. 247–211 BC) with the Greek language inscription ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ "of Arsaces" Further information: Parni conquest of Parthia Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid Dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central-Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae.[15] The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia.[16] The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires.[17] After conquering the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian, Aramaic, Greek, Babylonian, Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer.[18] Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. A.D.H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras, the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased.[19] However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe.[20] Homa Katouzian[21] and Gene Ralph Garthwaite[22] claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis[20] and Maria Brosius[23] state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC. It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar[24] and Katouzian[21] affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia, who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC. Yet Curtis[25] and Brosius[26] state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history."[27] Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians.[28] A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404 – 358 BC).[29] Parthia, shaded yellow, alongside the Seleucid Empire (blue) and the Roman Republic (purple) around 200 BC For a time, Arsaces consolidated his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246–222 BC) of Egypt. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia.[23] The latter's successor, Diodotus II, formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BC).[30] After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BC), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media.[30] Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: basileus) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior.[31] The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC.[31] Priapatius (r. c. 191–176 BC) succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I (r. c. 176–171 BC) eventually ascended the throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference.[32] Expansion and consolidation[edit] Main article: Seleucid–Parthian wars Drachma of Mithridates I, showing him wearing a beard and a royal diadem on his head. Reverse side: Heracles/Verethragna, holding a club in his left hand and a cup in his right hand; Greek inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the Great King Arsaces the Philhellene" Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana. The locations of these are unknown.[33] Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC),[26] whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire.[21] Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when Mithridates' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I (r. c. 170–145 BC).[34] Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus.[35] This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony.[36] While Mithridates retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa.[36] By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the Indus River.[37] Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert (Nisa, Turkmenistan), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained.[38] Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty.[39] Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of Gotarzes I (r. c. 90–80 BC).[40] It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius.[41] The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BC.[42] However, by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius.[43] Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter's wife Cleopatra Thea. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II (r. c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins.[44] After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands.[45] By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage[46] and a daughter joined Phraates' harem.[47] Drachma of Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC). Reverse side: seated archer carrying a bow; inscription reading "of the King of Kings Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Philhellene." While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China;[48] the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders.[49] Mithridates was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia.[50] Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined sides with the Saka.[51] Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle.[52] The Roman historian Justin reports that his successor Artabanus I (r. c. 128–124 BC) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka.[53] Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.[54] Han-dynasty Chinese silk from Mawangdui, 2nd century BC, silk from China was perhaps the most lucrative luxury item the Parthians traded at the western end of the Silk Road.[55] Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty.[56] After Mithridates extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia.[57] His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. c. 95–55 BC).[58] The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC.[59] Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals.[60] After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality.[59] Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu.[61] The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in silk, the most highly priced luxury good imported by the Romans.[62] Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits.[63] Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88 AD).[64] Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India, spices, and fine leather.[65] Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China.[66] The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China.[67] Rome and Armenia[edit] Main articles: Roman–Persian relations and Roman–Parthian Wars Bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman from the sanctuary at Shami in Elymais (modern-day Khūzestān Province, Iran, along the Persian Gulf), now located at the National Museum of Iran. Dated 50 BC-150 AD, Parthian School. The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border.[68] Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome.[68] A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman proconsul of Cilicia, convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome.[69] Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader Laodice and her Seleucid ally Antiochus X Eusebes (r. 95–92? BC), killing the latter.[70] When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, Demetrius III Eucaerus, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern Aleppo), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated.[70] Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son Gotarzes I succeeded him.[71] He reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns.[72][73] It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in c. 57 BC, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced.[73] This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sinatruces (r. c. 78–69 BC).[74] Following the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War, Mithridates VI of Pontus (r. 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help.[75] When the Roman commander Lucullus marched against the Armenian capital Tigranocerta in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of Phraates III (r. c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the fall of Tigranocerta he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome.[76] Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at Artaxarta. When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander Pompey. He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a client king, Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage.[77] Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into Corduene (southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts, the Roman consul Lucius Afranius forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means.[78] Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia, after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to Roman Syria.[79] Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid Ptolemy XII Auletes (r. 80–58; 55–51 BC) against a rebellion in Egypt.[80] Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.[81] A Roman marble head of the triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, who was defeated at Carrhae by Surena Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of the triumvirs, who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates.[82] As his army marched to Carrhae (modern Harran, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia (r. 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince Pacorus I of Parthia (d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister.[83] Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus.[84] Surena's 1,000 cataphracts (armed with lances) and 9,000 horse archers were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven Roman legions and auxiliaries including mounted Gauls and light infantry.[85] Using a baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows.[85] The horse archers employed the "Parthian shot" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy composite bows on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry.[86] With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside.[87] At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a parley, which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp.[88] Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history.[89] Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome.[90] With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter.[89] Roman aurei bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in Western Asia.[91] Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who ambushed and killed Osaces.[92] The Arsacids sided with Pompey in the civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC.[93] Quintus Labienus, a general loyal to Cassius and Brutus, sided with Parthia against the Second Triumvirate in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I.[94] The triumvir Mark Antony was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival Octavian and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium.[95] After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant.[94] They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel), with the lone exception of Tyre.[96] In Judea, the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest Hyrcanus II, Phasael, and Herod were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally Antigonus II Mattathias (r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at Masada.[94] Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC.[97] Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass.[97] As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose Phraates IV (r. c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir.[98] Drachma of Phraates IV (r. c. 38–2 BC). Inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the King of Kings Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Benefactor Philhellene" Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers.[99] One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and convinced him to invade Parthia.[100] Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place. The following year, when Antony marched to Theodosiopolis, Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan), then ruled by Parthia's ally Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant battering ram meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces.[101] The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria.[102] Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock Roman triumph in Alexandria, Egypt,[103] and eventually executed by Cleopatra VII of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.[104][105] Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west.[105] After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC,[106] Parthian ally Artaxias II reassumed the throne of Armenia. Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals[edit] Further information: Pax Romana Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor.[107] Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads.[108] Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.[109] The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince.[110] Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta.[111] A close-up view of the breastplate on the statue of Augustus of Prima Porta, showing a Parthian man returning to Augustus the legionary standards lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen Musa of Parthia. To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as a great accomplishment in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti.[112] When Phraataces took the throne as Phraates V (r. c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to Josephus, married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory.[113] Phraates' successor Orodes III of Parthia lasted just two years on the throne, and was followed by Vonones I, who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, Artabanus II of Parthia (r. c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria.[114] During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq),[115] led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere.[116] Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him.[117] With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis.[118] A denarius struck in 19 BC during the reign of Augustus, with the goddess Feronia depicted on the obverse, and on the reverse a Parthian man kneeling in submission while offering the Roman military standards taken at the Battle of Carrhae[119] Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD) became involved in a plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia.[120] Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to Scythia. The Romans released a hostage prince, Tiridates III of Parthia, to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania.[121] After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I and his brother Gotarzes II.[122] After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince Meherdates to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of Edessa and Izates bar Monobaz of Adiabene; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne.[123] In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao, the Protector-General of the Western Regions, sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of Pacorus II at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome.[124] He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf, where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome.[125] Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han (r. 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts.[126] William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia.[124] However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy, perhaps only a group of Roman merchants, arrived at the Han capital Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) in 166 AD, during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) and Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD).[127] Although it could be coincidental, Antonine Roman golden medallions dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor Antoninus Pius have been discovered at Oc Eo, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the Mekong Delta), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of "Cattigara" along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) in Ptolemy's Geography.[128] Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline[edit] Main articles: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Trajan's Parthian campaign, Roman–Parthian War of 161–166, and Parthian war of Caracalla Further information: Roman Armenia Map of the troop movements during the first two years of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD over the Kingdom of Armenia, detailing the Roman offensive into Armenia and capture of the country by Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Parthian king making an offering to god Herakles-Verethragna. Masdjid-e Suleiman, Iran. 2nd–3rd century AD. Louvre Museum Sb 7302.[129] After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus (r. 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, Vologases I of Parthia (r. c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later Tiridates I of Armenia, on the throne.[130] Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia.[131] Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings.[132] However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania.[133] When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind.[134] In the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD, the commander Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing Tigranes VI of Armenia as a Roman client.[135] However, Corbulo's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia.[136] Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to Naples and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor Nero (r. 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal diadem on his head.[137] A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of Alans into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians.[138] Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms.[139] To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially Nabataeans), but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry.[140] The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (sagittarii) and even mail-armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces.[141] Yet the Romans had no discernible grand strategy in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions.[142] The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome's client states.[143] Rock relief of Parthian king at Behistun, most likely Vologases III (r. c. 110–147 AD)[144] Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when Osroes I of Parthia (r. c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king Sanatruk and replaced him with Axidares, son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome.[145] The Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 AD) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province.[146] His forces, led by Lusius Quietus, also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain.[147] The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia.[148] Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon[149] and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf.[150] In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa. When Sanatruces II of Parthia gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin Parthamaspates of Parthia betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia.[151] Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons.[152] Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing a failed siege of Hatra during his withdrawal.[153] His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality,"[154] but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia.[155] However, only the 4th-century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia.[156] A Parthian (right) wearing a Phrygian cap, depicted as a prisoner of war in chains held by a Roman (left); Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, 203 AD Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the Roman-Parthian border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources.[157] Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of Osroene. Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia (r. c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability.[158] However, the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) had co-ruler Lucius Verus (r. 161–169 AD) guard Syria while Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD.[159] The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a deadly disease (possibly smallpox) that soon ravaged the Roman world.[160] Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands.[161] When Roman emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of Vologases V of Parthia (r. c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title Parthicus Maximus, he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege.[162] Around 212 AD, soon after Vologases VI of Parthia (r. c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother Artabanus IV of Parthia (d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire.[163] Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Caracalla (r. 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but—because the marriage was not allowed—made war on Parthia and conquered Arbil east of the Tigris river.[163] Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers.[163] After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with Macrinus (r. 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million denarii with additional gifts.[164] The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome, was soon to be followed by the Sasanian Empire. Indeed, shortly afterward, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule.[165] He confronted Artabanus IV at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire.[165] There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD.[166] The Sassanians would not only assume Parthia's legacy as Rome's Persian nemesis, but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by briefly conquering the Levant, Anatolia, and Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Khosrau II (r. 590–628 AD).[167] However, they would lose these territories to Heraclius—the last Roman emperor before the Arab conquests. Nevertheless, for a period of more than 400 years, they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome's principal rival.[168][169] Native and external sources[edit] Parthian gold jewelry items found at a burial site in Nineveh (near modern Mosul, Iraq) in the British Museum Local and foreign written accounts, as well as non-textual artifacts, have been used to reconstruct Parthian history.[170] Although the Parthian court maintained records, the Parthians had no formal study of history; the earliest universal history of Iran, the Khwaday-Namag, was not compiled until the reign of the last Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD).[171] Indigenous sources on Parthian history remain scarce, with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history.[172] Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions.[173] The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the Imperial Aramaic chancellery script of the Achaemenids, and later developed into the Pahlavi writing system.[174] A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, 2nd century AD. Located in Tamoikin Art Fund The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal drachma coins issued by each ruler.[175] These represent a "transition from non-textual to textual remains," according to historian Geo Widengren.[176] Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include cuneiform astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia.[177] Indigenous textual sources also include stone inscriptions, parchment and papyri documents, and pottery ostraca.[176] For example, at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert/Nisa in Turkmenistan, large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine.[178] Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization.[179] Parthian golden necklace, 2nd century AD, Iran, Reza Abbasi Museum A Parthian ceramic oil lamp, Khūzestān Province, Iran, National Museum of Iran The Greek and Latin histories, which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history, are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies.[180] These external sources generally concern major military and political events, and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history.[181] The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook Apicius exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine.[182] Apollodorus of Artemita and Arrian wrote histories focusing on Parthia, which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories.[183] Isidore of Charax, who lived during the reign of Augustus, provides an account of Parthian territories, perhaps from a Parthian government survey.[184] To a lesser extent, people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of Justin, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Cassius Dio, Appian, Josephus, Pliny the Elder, and Herodian.[185] Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the Chinese historical records of events.[186] In contrast to Greek and Roman histories, the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia,[187] although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works (of undetermined origin) makes it difficult to establish a chronological order of events.[188] The Chinese called Parthia Ānxī (Chinese: 安 息, Old Chinese pronunciation: 'ansjək), perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city Antiochia in Margiana (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ).[189] However, this could also have been a transliteration of "Arsaces", after the dynasty's eponymous founder.[190] The works and historical authors include the Shiji (also known as the Records of the Grand Historian) by Sima Qian, the Han shu (Book of Han) by Ban Biao, Ban Gu, and Ban Zhao, and the Hou Han shu (Book of Later Han) by Fan Ye.[191] They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early Saka invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information.[186] For example, the Shiji (ch. 123) describes diplomatic exchanges, exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the Han court, types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia, production of wine using grapes, itinerant merchants, and the size and location of Parthian territory.[192] The Shiji also mentions that the Parthians kept records by "writing horizontally on strips of leather," that is, parchment.[193] Government and administration[edit] Central authority and semi-autonomous kings[edit] Main article: List of Parthian kings Coin of Kamnaskires III, king of Elymais (modern Khūzestān Province), and his wife Queen Anzaze, 1st century BC Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire, the Parthian government was notably decentralized.[194] An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies: the Parthian marzbān, xšatrap, and dizpat, similar to the Seleucid satrapy, eparchy, and hyparchy.[195] The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi-autonomous kingdoms, including the states of Caucasian Iberia, Armenia, Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Edessa, Hatra, Mesene, Elymais, and Persis.[196] The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints.[197] This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius.[198] However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors.[199] During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance.[200] Nobility[edit] Further information: Seven Great Houses of Iran and List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms A statue of a young Palmyran in fine Parthian trousers, from a funerary stele at Palmyra, early 3rd century AD The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. He maintained polygamous relations, and was usually succeeded by his first-born son.[201] Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters; Queen Musa married her own son, though this was an extreme and isolated case.[201] Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD, which addresses the governor (titled "archon") and citizens of the city of Susa. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate."[202] The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era.[203] There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.[204] By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings.[205] Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests.[206] Strabo, in his Geographica, preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian Poseidonius that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and magi, two groups from which "the kings were appointed."[207] Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the House of Suren and the House of Karen.[208] The historian Plutarch noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.[209] Military[edit] Further information: Parthian army The Parthian Empire had no standing army, yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises.[210] There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, serfs and mercenaries, but this royal retinue was small.[211] Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations.[211] Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the Shiji maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.[212] Parthian horse archer, now on display at the Palazzo Madama, Turin Parthian cataphract fighting a lion Relief of an infantryman, from Zahhak Castle, Iran The combination of horse archers and cataphracts formed an effective backbone for the Parthian military The main striking force of the Parthian army was its cataphracts, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in mailed armor.[213] The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers.[214] Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings.[215] The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as horse archers; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle.[213] They used composite bows and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the Parthian shot, was a highly effective tactic.[216] The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the Battle of Carrhae where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus. Light infantry units, composed of levied commoners and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.[217] The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower.[218] Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land.[218] Currency[edit] Further information: Parthian coinage Usually made of silver,[219] the Greek drachma coin, including the tetradrachm, was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire.[220] The Arsacids maintained royal mints at the cities of Hecatompylos, Seleucia, and Ecbatana.[41] They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well.[25] From the empire's inception until its collapse, drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3.5 g or more than 4.2 g.[221] The first Parthian tetradrachms, weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation, appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia.[222] Society and culture[edit] Hellenism and the Iranian revival[edit] Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia. The clothing is Parthian, while the style is Hellenistic (sitting on an omphalos). The Greek inscription reads "King Arsaces, the philhellene" Although Greek culture of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the Near East during the Hellenistic period, the Parthian era witnessed an Iranian cultural revival in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions.[223] Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also philhellenes ("friends of the Greeks").[224] The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II.[225] The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia.[226] Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the Parthian script and language appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek.[227] However, the use of Greek-alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire.[228] A ceramic Parthian water spout in the shape of a man's head, dated 1st or 2nd century AD Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire, however, and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed Greek theatre. When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of The Bacchae by the playwright Euripides (c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the stage-prop head of Pentheus.[229] On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. According to A. Shahbazi, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations, and he calls himself Kārny/Karny (Greek: Autocrator), a title already borne by Achaemenid supreme generals, such as Cyrus the Younger."[230] In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at Mount Behistun, where Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC) made royal inscriptions.[231] Moreover, the Arsacids claimed familial descent from Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404–358 BC) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories, i.e. as being "legitimate successors of glorious kings" of ancient Iran.[232] Artabanus II named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to Cyrus' heritage.[230] The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the "heroic background" of the Avesta, according to V.G. Lukonin.[233] The Parthians also adopted the use of the Babylonian calendar with names from the Achaemenid Iranian calendar, replacing the Macedonian calendar of the Seleucids.[234] Religion[edit] Parthian votive relief from Khūzestān Province, Iran, 2nd century AD The Parthian Empire, being culturally and politically heterogeneous, had a variety of religious systems and beliefs, the most widespread being those dedicated to Greek and Iranian cults.[235] Aside from a minority of Jews[236] and early Christians,[237] most Parthians were polytheistic.[238] Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one. For example, Zeus was often equated with Ahura Mazda, Hades with Angra Mainyu, Aphrodite and Hera with Anahita, Apollo with Mithra, and Hermes with Shamash.[239] Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities.[238] As with Seleucid rulers,[240] Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods; this cult of the ruler was perhaps the most widespread.[241] The extent of Arsacid patronage of Zoroastrianism is debated in modern scholarship.[242] The followers of Zoroaster would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable.[235] However, there is evidence that Vologases I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian magi priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the Avesta.[243] The Sasanian court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire.[244] Although Mani (216–276 AD), the founding prophet of Manichaeism, did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228/229 AD, Bivar asserts that his new faith contained "elements of Mandaean belief, Iranian cosmogony, and even echoes of Christianity ... [it] may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period, which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away."[245] There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of Buddhism from the Kushan Empire into Iran proper.[246] However, it is known from Chinese sources that An Shigao (fl. 2nd century AD), a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk, traveled to Luoyang in Han China as a Buddhist missionary and translated several Buddhist canons into Chinese.[247] Art and architecture[edit] Further information: Parthian art A barrel vaulted iwan at the entrance at the ancient site of Hatra, modern-day Iraq, built c. 50 AD The Parthian Temple of Charyios in Uruk. Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the Iranian plateau; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia.[248] The first genuine Parthian art, found at Mithridatkert/Nisa, combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions.[248] In the second phase, Parthian art found inspiration in Achaemenid art, as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun.[249] The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia.[249] Common motifs of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the investiture of Arsacid kings.[250] Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers.[248] Common art mediums were rock-reliefs, frescos, and even graffiti.[248] Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on stucco and plaster walls.[249] The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun.[251] In portraiture the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile.[252] Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period, Daniel Schlumberger explains the innovation of Parthian frontality:[253] 'Parthian frontality', as we are now accustomed to call it, deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality, though it is, no doubt, an offspring of the latter. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing, in relief and in painting, all figures full-face, even at the expense (as it seems to us moderns) of clearness and intelligibility. So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment de facto of the side-view and of all intermediate attitudes. This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.[253] A wall mural depicting a scene from the Book of Esther at the Dura-Europos synagogue, dated 245 AD, which Curtis[254] and Schlumberger[255] describe as a fine example of 'Parthian frontality' Parthian art, with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture, was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sasanian Empire.[256] However, even after the Roman occupation of Dura-Europos in 165 AD, the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to flourish there. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the Dura-Europos synagogue, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local Mithraeum.[257] Parthian architecture adopted elements of Achaemenid and Greek architecture, but remained distinct from the two. The style is first attested at Mithridatkert/Nisa.[258] The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces, but different in that it forms a circle and vault inside a square space.[258] However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory rhyton vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art.[259] A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the iwan, an audience hall supported by arches or barrel vaults and open on one side.[260] Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs.[249] Although the iwan was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale.[260] The earliest Parthian iwans are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD.[249] Monumental iwans are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style.[261] The largest Parthian iwans at that site have a span of 15 m (50 ft).[262] Clothing and apparel[edit] A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a Hellenistic-style helmet, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of Nisa, Turkmenistan, 2nd century BC The typical Parthian riding outfit is exemplified by the famous bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami, Elymais. Standing 1.9 m (6 ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped tunic fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair.[263] His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid-1st century BC.[226] Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra, in northwestern Iraq. Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt (qamis), combined with trousers and made with fine, ornamented materials.[264] The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court.[261] The trouser-suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings, as shown on the reverse images of coins.[265] The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in Palmyra, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art.[266] Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long-sleeved robes over a dress, with necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and headdresses bedecked in jewelry.[267] Their many-folded dresses were fastened by a brooch at one shoulder.[261] Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards.[261] As seen in Parthian coinage, the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time. The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps, known as the bashlyk (Greek: kyrbasia).[268] This may have derived from an Achaemenid-era satrapal headdress and the pointy hats depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and Persepolis.[269] The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap, yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem.[270] Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian tiara, embroidered with pearls and jewels, a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sasanian monarchs.[271] Language[edit] As culturally and religiously tolerant as the Parthians were, they adopted Greek as their official language, while Aramaic remained the lingua franca in the empire.[2] The native Parthian language, Middle Persian, and Akkadian were also used. Writing and literature[edit] Parthian long-necked lute, c. 3 BC – 3 AD It is known that during the Parthian period the court minstrel (gōsān) recited poetic oral literature accompanied by music. However, their stories, composed in verse form, were not written down until the subsequent Sassanian period.[272] In fact, there is no known Parthian-language literature that survives in original form; all of the surviving texts were written down in the following centuries.[273] It is believed that such stories as the romantic tale Vis and Rāmin and epic cycle of the Kayanian dynasty were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later.[274] Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written Greek literature.[275] Women in the Parthian Empire[edit] There are very few written and archeological sources about the position of women in the Parthian Empire, and the fragmentary information that does exist is only about royal women, whose position shows many similarities to their predecessors in the Achaemenid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire.[276] The Parthian kings were polygamous and had several wives with the title “queen” (referred to with the Babylonian spelling šarratu or the Greek basilisse), as well as concubines.[276] It is known that kings often married their sisters, but it is unknown if they were the kings' full sisters or half sisters.[276] According to Roman sources, Parthian kings had harems full of female slaves and hetairas secluded from contact with men, and royal women were not allowed to participate in the royal banquets.[277] Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance.[278] It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their husbands in battle with their own entourage.[276] This was the reason why female members of the royal family could sometimes be taken captive by enemies and had to be ransomed, such as the famous occasion when the daughter of King Osroes was held captive by emperor Trajan from the occupation of Ctesiphon in 116 until 129, but also the reason why kings sometimes killed the women of his company after a defeat to prevent them from being taken prisoners.[276] Royal women appear to have been less included in royal representation.[276] Artwork depicts royal women dressed similarly to those of the Achaemenid period: in long-sleeved, many-folded dresses tied by a belt, with a tiara or a veil hanging down their back.[276] While their names and titles did appear in official documents, Parthian women were rarely depicted in art. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen Musa of Parthia and queen Anzaze of Elymais.[276] Musa of Parthia is the only woman confirmed to have ruled as queen regnant of the Parthian Empire, while Rinnu, mother of underage king Phraates II, is the only other woman believed to have been a ruler as queen regent.[279][280] See also[edit] Assyria (Roman province) Baghdad Battery Battle of Nisibis (217) Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Romans in Persia History of Iran Inscription of Parthian imperial power List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties Notes[edit] ^ Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). A Brief History of Iraq. Infobase Publishing. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8160-5767-2. One characteristic of the Parthians that the kings themselves maintained was their nomadic urge. The kings built or occupied numerous cities as their capitals, the most important being Ctesiphon on the Tigris River, which they built from the ancient town of Opis. ^ a b c Green 1992, p. 45 ^ Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. "IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Doc – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2017. Parthian. This was the local language of the area east of the Caspian Sea and official language of the Parthian state (see ARSACIDS) and is known from inscriptions on stone and metal, including coins and seals, and from large archives of potsherd labels on wine jars from the Parthian capital of Nisa, as well as from the Manichean texts. ^ Chyet, Michael L. (1997). Afsaruddin, Asma; Krotkoff, Georg; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (eds.). Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff. Eisenbrauns. p. 284. ISBN 978-1-57506-020-0. In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and Sasanian Empires), Aramaic was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided scripts for writing Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian. ^ De Jong 2008, p. 24, "It is impossible to doubt that the Parthians were Zoroastrians. The evidence from the Nisa ostraca and the Parthian parchment from Avroman suffice to prove this, by the use of the Zoroastrian calendar, which was restricted in use, as it had been previously, to communication with Iranians only, yielding to the Seleucid calendar whenever the Parthians dealt with non-Zoroastrians. There are indications, however, that the practice of Zoroastrianism had reserved a large place for the cult of divine images, either those of ancestors in the Fravashi cult, or of deities, and for the existence of sanctuaries dedicated to named deities other than Ahura Mazda, and including deities that are of a non-Avestan background. The Parthian god Sasan is a case in point, but better evidence comes from Armenia, where alongside Aramazd and Anahit, Mher and Vahagn, the West Semitic god Barshamin, and Babylonian Nane were worshipped, as well as the Anatolian Tork and the goddess Astghik of disputed origins." ^ Brosius 2006, p. 125, "The Parthians and the peoples of the Parthian empire were polytheistic. Each ethnic group, each city, and each land or kingdom was able to adhere to its own gods, their respective cults and religious rituals. In Babylon the city-god Marduk continued to be the main deity alongside the goddesses Ishtar and Nanai, while Hatra's main god, the sun-god Shamash, was revered alongside a multiplicity of other gods." ^ Sheldon 2010, p. 231 ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ From Greek Ἀρσάκης Arsakēs, from Parthian 𐭀𐭓𐭔𐭊 Aršak. ^ Waters 1974, p. 424. ^ Brosius 2006, p. 84 ^ "roughly western Khurasan" Bickerman 1983, p. 6 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBickerman1983 (help). ^ Ball 2016, p. 155 ^ Katouzian 2009, p. 41; Curtis 2007, p. 7; Bivar 1983, pp. 24–27; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 24; Brosius 2006, p. 84 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 24–27; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 7–8; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 28–29 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 7 ^ a b c Katouzian 2009, p. 41 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 85 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 29–31 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 8 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 36 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 98–99 ^ Daryaee 2012, p. 179. ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 85–86 ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 29; Brosius 2006, p. 86; Kennedy 1996, p. 74 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 29–31; Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 31 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 33; Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 10–11; Bivar 1983, p. 33; Garthwaite 2005, p. 76 ^ a b Curtis 2007, pp. 10–11; Brosius 2006, pp. 86–87; Bivar 1983, p. 34; Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; Bivar 1983, p. 35 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 103, 110–113 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 73; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 103 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 34 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 89; Bivar 1983, p. 35; Shayegan 2007, pp. 83–103 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Curtis 2007, p. 11; Shayegan 2011, pp. 121–150 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 76–77; Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Curtis 2007, p. 11 ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 145–150 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 37–38; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; see also Brosius 2006, p. 90 and Katouzian 2009, pp. 41–42 ^ Torday 1997, pp. 80–81 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Brosius 2006, pp. 89, 91 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 89 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 38; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; Curtis 2007, p. 11; Katouzian 2009, p. 42 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 40–41; Katouzian 2009, p. 42 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 40; Curtis 2007, pp. 11–12; Brosius 2006, p. 90 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 11–12 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 91–92; Bivar 1983, pp. 40–41 ^ a b Bivar 2007, p. 26 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 41 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 90–91; Watson 1983, pp. 540–542 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help); Garthwaite 2005, pp. 77–78 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 78; Brosius 2006, pp. 122–123 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 123–125 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 100–101 ^ Kurz 1983, p. 560 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Ebrey 1999, p. 70; for an archaeological survey of Roman glasswares in ancient Chinese burials, see An 2002, pp. 79–84 ^ Howard 2012, p. 133 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 92 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 73–78; Brosius 2006, p. 91; Sheldon 2010, pp. 12–16 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, pp. 77–78 ^ Assar 2006, p. 62; Shayegan 2011, p. 225; Rezakhani 2013, p. 770 ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 188–189. ^ a b Sellwood 1976, p. 2. ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 91–92 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 44–45 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 45–46; Brosius 2006, p. 94 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 46–47 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 47; Cassius Dio writes that Lucius Afranius reoccupied the region without confronting the Parthian army, whereas Plutarch asserts that Afranius drove him out by military means. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 48–49; see also Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 48–49; also, Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95 mentions this in passing. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 49 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 49–50; Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 55–56; Garthwaite 2005, p. 79; see also Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95 and Curtis 2007, pp. 12–13 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55 ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 52 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95; Garthwaite 2005, pp. 78–79 ^ Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43; Garthwaite 2005, p. 79; Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 78 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 55–56; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 80 asserts that permanent occupation was the obvious goal of the Parthians, especially after the cities of Roman Syria and even the Roman garrisons submitted to the Parthians and joined their cause. ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 78–79; Bivar 1983, p. 56 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 56–57; Strugnell 2006, p. 243 ^ a b c Bivar 1983, p. 57; Strugnell 2006, p. 244; Kennedy 1996, p. 80 ^ Syme 1939, pp. 214–217 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 57 ^ a b Bivar 1983, pp. 57–58; Strugnell 2006, pp. 239, 245; Brosius 2006, p. 96; Kennedy 1996, p. 80 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 58; Brosius 2006, p. 96; Kennedy 1996, pp. 80–81; see also Strugnell 2006, pp. 239, 245–246 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 79 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 58–59; Kennedy 1996, p. 81 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 58–59 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 60–63; Garthwaite 2005, p. 80; Curtis 2007, p. 13; see also Kennedy 1996, p. 81 for analysis on Rome's shift of attention away from Syria to the Upper Euphrates, starting with Antony. ^ Roller 2010, p. 99 ^ Burstein 2004, p. 31 ^ a b Bivar 1983, pp. 64–65 ^ Roller 2010, pp. 145–151 ^ Roller 2010, pp. 138–151; Bringmann 2007, pp. 304–307 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 65–66 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 80; see also Strugnell 2006, pp. 251–252 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 66–67 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 96–97; 136–137; Bivar 1983, pp. 66–67; Curtis 2007, pp. 12–13 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 67; Brosius 2006, pp. 96–99 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 68; Brosius 2006, pp. 97–99; see also Garthwaite 2005, p. 80 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 68–69; Brosius 2006, pp. 97–99 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 69–71 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 71 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 71–72 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 72–73 ^ See Brosius 2006, pp. 137–138 for more information on Roman coins depicting Parthians returning the lost military standards to Rome. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 73 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 73–74 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 75–76 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 76–78 ^ a b Watson 1983, pp. 543–544 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help) ^ Watson 1983, pp. 543–544 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help); Yü 1986, pp. 460–461; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 239–240; see also Wang 2007, p. 101 ^ Wood 2002, pp. 46–47; Morton & Lewis 2005, p. 59 ^ Yü 1986, pp. 460–461; de Crespigny 2007, p. 600 ^ Young 2001, p. 29; Mawer 2013, p. 38; Ball 2016, p. 153 ^ "Louvre Museum Sb 7302". ^ Bivar 1983, p. 79 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 79–81; Kennedy 1996, p. 81 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 82; Bivar 1983, pp. 79–81 ^ Bausani 1971, p. 41 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 81 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 81–85 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 83–85 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 99–100; Bivar 1983, p. 85 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 86 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 67, 87–88 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 87 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 87–88; see also Kurz 1983, pp. 561–562 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Sheldon 2010, pp. 231–232 ^ Sheldon 2010, pp. 9–10, 231–235 ^ Olbrycht 2016, p. 96. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 86–87 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 88; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Lightfoot 1990, p. 117 ^ Lightfoot 1990, pp. 117–118; see also Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 88–89 ^ Dr. Aaron Ralby (2013). "Emperor Trajan, 98–117: Greatest Extent of Rome". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 88–90; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81; Lightfoot 1990, p. 120; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Lightfoot 1990, p. 120; Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 91; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81 ^ Mommsen 2004, p. 69 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91; see also Brosius 2006, p. 137 and Curtis 2007, p. 13 ^ Lightfoot 1990, pp. 120–124 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; see also Lightfoot 1990, p. 115; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81; and Bivar 1983, p. 91 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 92–93 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 93 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; Bivar 1983, pp. 93–94 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 13; Bivar 1983, pp. 93–94 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Bivar 1983, p. 94; Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ a b c Bivar 1983, pp. 94–95 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 100–101; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44, who mentions this in passing ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 101; Bivar 1983, pp. 95–96; Curtis 2007, p. 14; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 95–96 ^ Frye 1983, pp. 173–174 ^ Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0-8276-1155-2 ^ International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 ISBN 0-7546-5740-X ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1261–1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Yarshater 1983, p. 359 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYarshater1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1261 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 75–76 ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1151–1152 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67; Widengren 1983, p. 1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 79–80 ^ a b Widengren 1983, p. 1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1265 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 75–76; Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 118–119 ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 118–119 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 67, 75; Bivar 1983, p. 22 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 75; Bivar 1983, pp. 80–81 ^ Kurz 1983, p. 564 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help); see also Brosius 2006, p. 138 for further analysis: "Curiously, at the same time as the Parthian was depicted as uncivilised, he was also 'orientalised' in traditional fashion, being described as luxury-loving, leading an effeminate lifestyle, and demonstrating excessive sexuality." ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1261, 1264 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1264 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1265–1266 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ a b Widengren 1983, pp. 1265, 1267 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, p. 80; Posch 1998, p. 363 ^ Posch 1998, p. 358 ^ Watson 1983, pp. 541–542 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help) ^ Wang 2007, p. 90 ^ Wang 2007, p. 88 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 89–90; Brosius 2006, pp. 90–91, 122 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 118; see also Wang 2007, p. 90 for a similar translation ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 67–68 ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 701 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 701 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Curtis 2007, pp. 19–21 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 113–114 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 115–116 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 114–115 ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 103–104 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 119 ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 699–700 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 700–704 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 99–100, 104 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 104–105, 117–118 ^ "Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-12-21. Retrieved 2017-09-11. ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 704–705 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 704 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Brosius 2006, p. 104 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 116, 122; Sheldon 2010, pp. 231–232 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 99–100 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 120; Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 120; Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 116–118; see also Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 and Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 120; Garthwaite 2005, p. 78; Kurz 1983, p. 561 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, p. 122 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 83 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 9, 11–12, 16 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 7–25; Sellwood 1983, pp. 279–298 ^ Sellwood 1983, p. 280 ^ Sellwood 1983, p. 282 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 14–15; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 45 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 85; Curtis 2007, pp. 14–15 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 11 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 16 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 80–81; see also Curtis 2007, p. 21 and Schlumberger 1983, p. 1030 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1030 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Bivar 1983, p. 56 ^ a b Shahbazi 1987, p. 525 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 85; Brosius 2006, pp. 128–129 ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 697 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 687 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Shahbazi 1987, p. 525 ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, pp. 867–868 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ a b Katouzian 2009, p. 45 ^ Neusner 1983, pp. 909–923 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNeusner1983 (help) ^ Asmussen 1983, pp. 924–928 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsmussen1983 (help) ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 125 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 68, 83–84; Colpe 1983, p. 823 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFColpe1983 (help); Brosius 2006, p. 125 ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, pp. 872–873 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ Colpe 1983, p. 844 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFColpe1983 (help) ^ Katouzian 2009, p. 45; Brosius 2006, pp. 102–103 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 85–86; Garthwaite 2005, pp. 80–81; Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, p. 867 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67; Asmussen 1983, pp. 928, 933–934 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsmussen1983 (help) ^ Bivar 1983, p. 97 ^ Emmerick 1983, p. 957 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEmmerick1983 (help) ^ Demiéville 1986, p. 823; Zhang 2002, p. 75 ^ a b c d Brosius 2006, p. 127 ^ a b c d e Brosius 2006, p. 128 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 127; see also Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1041–1043 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 129, 132 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 127; Garthwaite 2005, p. 84; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1049–1050 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Schlumberger 1983, p. 1051 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Curtis 2007, p. 18 ^ Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1052–1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Curtis 2007, p. 18; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1052–1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 111–112 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 111–112, 127–128; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1037–1041 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Garthwaite 2005, p. 84; Brosius 2006, p. 128; Schlumberger 1983, p. 1049 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b c d Brosius 2006, pp. 134–135 ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1049 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 132–134 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 91–92 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 15 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 17 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 108, 134–135 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 101 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 8; see also Sellwood 1983, pp. 279–280 for comparison with Achaemenid satrapal headdresses ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 101–102; Curtis 2007, p. 9 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 101–102; Curtis 2007, p. 15 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 106 ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1151 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1158–1159 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1154–1155 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help); see also Kennedy 1996, p. 74 ^ a b c d e f g h Maria Brosius, “WOMEN i. 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"The Drachms of the Parthian "Dark Age"". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. 1 (1): 2–25. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00132988. JSTOR 25203669. (registration required) Sellwood, David (1983). "Parthian Coins". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–298. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.. Shahbazi, Shahpur A. (1987), "Arsacids. I. Origin", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2: 255 Shayegan, Rahim M. (2007), "On Demetrius II Nicator's Arsacid Captivity and Second Rule", Bulletin of the Asia Institute, 17: 83–103 Shayegan, Rahim M. (2011), Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76641-8 Sheldon, Rose Mary (2010), Rome's Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand, London & Portland: Valentine Mitchell, ISBN 978-0-85303-981-5 Strugnell, Emma (2006), "Ventidius' Parthian War: Rome's Forgotten Eastern Triumph", Acta Antiqua, 46 (3): 239–252, doi:10.1556/AAnt.46.2006.3.3 Syme, Ronald (1939), The Roman Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-280320-7 Torday, Laszlo (1997), Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History, Durham: The Durham Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0 Wang, Tao (2007), "Parthia in China: a Re-examination of the Historical Records", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.), The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran, 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 87–104, ISBN 978-1-84511-406-0. Waters, Kenneth H. (1974), "The Reign of Trajan, part VII: Trajanic Wars and Frontiers. The Danube and the East", in Temporini, Hildegard (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Principat. II.2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 415–427. Watson, William (1983). "Iran and China". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 537–558. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.. Widengren, Geo (1983). "Sources of Parthian and Sasanian History". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1261–1283. ISBN 0-521-24693-8.. Wood, Frances (2002), The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8. Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "Iranian National History". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–480. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.. Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe (ed.), Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Young, Gary K. (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-24219-6. Zhang, Guanuda (2002), "The Role of the Sogdians as Translators of Buddhist Texts", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.), Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, ISBN 978-2-503-52178-7. Daryaee, Touraj (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 978-0-19-987575-7. Archived from the original on 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-02-10. Further reading[edit] Neusner, J. (1963), "Parthian Political Ideology", Iranica Antiqua, 3: 40–59 Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacid ii. The Arsacid dynasty", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 526–535 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to the Parthian Empire. Various articles from Iran Chamber Society (Parthian Empire, The Art of Parthians, Parthian Army) Parthia.com (a website featuring the history, geography, coins, arts and culture of ancient Parthia, including a bibliographic list of scholarly sources) Links to related articles v t e Parthian Empire Origins Parni Dahae Parni conquest of Parthia Dynasty Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Chosroid dynasty Indo-Parthian Kingdom Noble clans Seven Great Houses of Iran House of Ispahbudhan House of Karen House of Mihran House of Spandiyadh House of Suren House of Varaz House of Zik Culture Parthian language Parthian art Parthian dress Parthian coinage Wars Seleucid–Parthian Wars Battle of Ecbatana Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Antony's Atropatene campaign Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC Battle of Ctesiphon (165) Battle of Ctesiphon (198) Battle of Carrhae Battle of the Cilician Gates Battle of Mount Gindarus Battle of Amanus Pass Battle of Nisibis (217) Parthian war of Caracalla Armenian–Parthian War Bactrian–Parthian War Other related topics Parthia Parthian shot Roman–Iranian relations Lists Parthian monarchs Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE 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en-wikipedia-org-198	----	Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161) - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman senator, consul and governor (died 163) Marcus Annius Libo (died 163) was a Roman senator. He was suffect consul in the nundinium of January-April 161 with Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior as his colleague.[1] Libo was the nephew of emperor Antoninus Pius, and cousin to emperor Marcus Aurelius. Libo came from a Roman family that had settled in Hispania generations before, and had returned to Rome more recently. His father was Marcus Annius Libo, consul in 128, and his mother was a noblewoman whose name has been surmised as Fundania, daughter of Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus, consul in 116. Libo had a sister, Annia Fundania Faustina, wife of Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio, whose second consulship was in 176. Governor of Syria[edit] The only portion of his cursus honorum we know is the portion immediately after Libo stepped down from his consulate. To support his co-emperor Lucius Verus' campaign against the Parthians, Marcus Aurelius appointed Libo governor of the province of Syria. Anthony Birley notes this was a surprising choice. "As Libo had been consul only the previous year, 161," writes Birley, "he must have been in his early thirties, and as a patrician must have lacked military experience." Syria was an important province, and the men picked to govern it were usually senior men with much military and administrative experience. Birley answers his own question, "It seems that Marcus' intention was to have on the spot a man he could rely."[2] As governor, Libo quarreled with the emperor Lucius, taking the attitude that he would only follow the instructions that Marcus gave him. This angered Lucius, so when Libo suddenly died,[3] rumor claimed that Lucius had Libo poisoned.[4] When Libo died, Lucius Verus defied Marcus and married Libo's widow to his Greek freedman called Agaclytus. Accordingly, Marcus Aurelius attended neither the ceremony nor the banquet.[5] References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 80 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 125 ^ Géza Alföldy dates Libo's death to 163 (Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 240) ^ Historia Augusta, "Lucius Verus", 9.2 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131 Political offices Preceded by Marcus Aurelius Caesar III, and Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus II as Ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 161 with Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior Succeeded by Julius Geminus Capellianus, and Titus Flavius Boethus as Suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Libo_(consul_161)&oldid=1023813466" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman governors of Syria 163 deaths Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Syria Annii Nerva–Antonine dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 May 2021, at 14:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2023	----	Quintus Antonius Isauricus - Wikipedia Quintus Antonius Isauricus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century military commander and suffect consul Quintus Antonius Isauricus Allegiance Roman Empire Years of service c.130-150 Rank Legate, Suffect Consul Commands held Legio VI Victrix Quintus Antonius Isauricus was a Roman legatus legionis commanding Legio VI Victrix in Britain during the AD 130s under Hadrian. He is attested as later serving as suffect consul in May 140 under Antoninus Pius with Lucius Aurelius Flaccus as his colleague.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Inscription at York 3 References 4 External links Life[edit] Anthony Birley makes several comments about Isauricus' name and likely family.[2] Birley notes Quinti Antonii are rare in all parts of the Roman Empire, and only one other senator is known. The cognomen "Isauricus" is reminiscent of two consuls of the late Roman Republic, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, consul 79 BC, and his son Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, twice consul in 48 BC and 41 BC; their descendants can be traced into the second century AD. Birley speculates that Antonius Isauricus may be descended from these Republican consuls through the female side. Quintus Antonius Isauricus is named in an inscription from Eboracum (York).[3] The inscription was dedicated to his wife, Sosia Juncina, whom Birley speculates may have been related to another consul, Quintus Sosius Senecio, consul in 99 and 107.[2] A fragment of the Fasti Feriarum Latinarum and a military diploma provide evidence of his consulate.[1] Inscription at York[edit] The altar on display in the Yorkshire Museum The Inscription which names Isauricus is an altar dedicated to Fortuna by his wife, Sosia Iuncina. It was found in 1839 at the site of the Old Railway Station, York and is associated with the Roman Baths nearby. Dedications to the Goddess of fortune are often associated with bath-houses.[4] The stone, measuring 71 x 40 x 38 cm and made of limestone, is inscribed with seven lines of texts. The stone inscription reads: DEAE / FORTUNAE / SOSIA / IUNCINA / Q(uinti) ANTONI / ISAURICI / LEG(ati) AUG(usti) To the Goddess Fortuna, Sosia Juncina, wife of Quintus Antonius Isauricus, Imperial Legate, built this.[3] References[edit] ^ a b Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 73 ^ a b Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 247 ^ a b Collingwood, R. (1965). "RIB 644: Altar to Fortuna". Retrieved 21 September 2016. ^ "An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in City of York, Volume 1, Eburacum, Roman York". Royal Commission on Historic Monuments England. 1962. Retrieved 21 September 2016. External links[edit] Altar to Fortuna in the Yorkshire Museum Political offices Preceded by Antonius Pius III, and Marcus Aurelius as ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 140 with Lucius Aurelius Flaccus Succeeded by Julius Crassipes, and ignotus as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Antonius_Isauricus&oldid=1014662911" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Roman legates Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Antonii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2021, at 12:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-202	----	Category:Moneyers of ancient Rome - Wikipedia Help Category:Moneyers of ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman moneyers. Pages in category "Moneyers of ancient Rome" The following 26 pages are in this category, out of 26 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Triumvir monetalis * List of Roman moneyers during the Republic Moneyer A Manius Acilius Glabrio Gnaeus Cornelius Severus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) C Marcus Caecilius Metellus (consul 115 BC) Lucius Caninius Gallus (consul 2 BC) D Denarius of L. Censorinus G Gnaeus Gellius H Quintus Hedius Lollianus Plautius Avitus J Sextus Julius Caesar L Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir) Gnaeus Lucretius Lucius Lucretius M Marcius Censorinus Gaius Marcius Censorinus (consul 8 BC) Marcus Aurelius N Lucius Neratius Marcellus Sextus Nonius Quinctilianus (consul 8) P Quintus Pompeius Senecio Sosius Priscus Quintus Pomponius Musa Gaius Porcius Cato (consul 114 BC) Q Titus Quinctius Crispinus Sulpicianus V Lucius Valerius Flaccus (consul 100 BC) Lucius Valerius Maximus (consul 233) Marcus Valerius Messalla (consul 32 BC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Moneyers_of_ancient_Rome&oldid=1002191405" Categories: Coins of ancient Rome Production of coins Directors of coin mints Political office-holders in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Italiano Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 07:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-2059	----	Sextus of Chaeronea - Wikipedia Sextus of Chaeronea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek philosopher and teacher (c. 95 - c. 185) Sextus of Chaeronea Engraving of a statue of Sextus of Chaeronea, 1803. Born c. 95 CE Chaeronea, Greece Died c. 185 CE possibly Rome Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy Main interests Epistemology, ethics Influences Plutarch Influenced Marcus Aurelius, Apuleius, Herodes Atticus, Himerius Part of a series on Pyrrhonism Precursors Heraclitus Democritus Buddha Anaxarchus Xenophanes Philosophy Acatalepsy Adiaphora Aporia Ataraxia Astathmēta Impermanence Dependent origination Dogma Epoché Agrippa's trilemma Phantasiai Problem of induction Problem of the criterion Reductio ad absurdum Regress argument Relativism Circular reasoning Dissent Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Pyrrhonists Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Michel de Montaigne Sextus Empiricus Timon of Phlius Similar philosophies Academic Skepticism Madhyamaka Buddhism Empiric school Cyrenaicism Cynicism Contrary philosophies Stoicism Aristotelianism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Sextus of Chaeronea (Greek: Σέξτος ὁ Χαιρωνεύς Sextos o Cheronefs, c. 95 - c. 185) was a philosopher, a nephew or grandson[1] of Plutarch,[2] and one of the teachers of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Biography[edit] The Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia based on many ancient sources that have since been lost) identifies Sextus of Chaeronea as being a student of Herodotus of Tarsus and being the same person as Sextus Empiricus, in which case Sextus would be a Pyrrhonist.[3] Some historians infer that due to his relationship with Plutarch that Sextus was a Platonist.[4] Others infer that Sextus as a Stoic due to an ambiguous mention of Sextus as one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius in the notably historically unreliable[5] Historia Augusta.[6] The Suda also says that Sextus of Chaeronea was so high in the favour of Marcus Aurelius that he sat in judgement with him. Two works are mentioned: Ethics (Greek: Ἠθικά Ithika), and Inquiries (Greek: Ἐπισκεπτικά Episkeptika), but whether they were by Sextus of Chaeronea or Sextus Empiricus is unknown. Philostratus[7] describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he received instruction from Sextus, who was teaching in Rome: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius,[8] who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, "it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know." And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, "O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school"[9] The date of this encounter is most likely 177–8, before Marcus' last departure for war.[10] Marcus is also said to have "show[n] off" his philosophy before Sextus.[11] Philostratus also recorded this comment from Sextus who counseled Herodes Atticus with regard to his grief for the death of his daughter Elpinice: "No small gift will you give your daughter if you control your grief for her."[12] In his Meditations, Marcus speaks of Sextus in glowing terms, and we discover the type of education he received from Sextus: My debts to Sextus include kindliness, how to rule a household with paternal authority, the real meaning of the Natural Life, an unselfconscious dignity, an intuitive concern for the interests of one's friends, and a good-natured patience with amateurs and visionaries. The aptness of his courtesy to each individual lent a charm to his society more potent than any flattery, yet at the same time it exacted the complete respect of all present. His manner, too, of determining and systematizing the essential rules of life was as comprehensive as it was methodical. Never displaying a sign of anger nor any kind of emotion, he was at once entirely imperturbable and yet full of kindly affection. His approval was always quietly and undemonstratively expressed, and he never paraded his encyclopaedic learning.[13] Apuleius pays tribute to Sextus and Plutarch at the beginning of The Golden Ass.[14] Sextus and Plutarch are mentioned by his descendant, Nicagoras of Athens (c. 180-250 CE), on an inscription[15] and in an lament by Nicagoras' descendant Himerius for his young son's death. What hopes I had for you! To what bad luck my [evil] spirit has condemned me! I now lament the person who I hoped would speak more forcefully than Minucianus, more solemnly than Nicagoras, more eloquently than Plutarch, more philosophically than Musonius, more intrepidly than Sextus—in a word, more brilliantly and better than all of his ancestors.[16] He is likely the Sextus listed in the Chronicle of Jerome as flourishing in the 224th Olympiad (117 to 121 CE): "Plutarch of Chaeronea, Sextus, Agathobulus and Oenomaus are considered notable philosophers."[17] The Chronography of George Synkellos has a similar mention of Sextus associated with events from 109 to 120 CE "In old age the philosopher Plutarch of Chaeronea was appointed by the Emperor as procurator of Greece. The philosopher Sextus, as well as Agathobulus and Oenomaus were becoming known."[18] George Synkellos mentions Sextus again as flourishing in the period of 165 to 171 CE, "Sextus, the nephew of the philosopher Plutarch of Chaeronea"[19] suggesting that Sextus became known at a young age (perhaps age 25 in 120 CE) and flourished in old age (perhaps age 70 in 165 CE). Notes[edit] ^ Latin nepos indicated "grandson" in the Augustan age, but by the 3rd century meant "nephew". ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius 3.2 ^ Suda, Sextos σ 235. ^ e.g., Andrew Laird in "Fiction, Bewitchment and Story Worlds: The Implications of Claims to Truth in Apuleius" in "Lies and fiction in the ancient world" 1993, p159 ^ Amy Richlin Parallel lives: Domitia Lucilla and Cratia, Fronto and Marcus 2011, Eugesta p 165 https://www.academia.edu/9064051/Parallel_lives_Domitia_Lucilla_and_Cratia_Fronto_and_Marcus "According to the mischievous author of the Historia Augusta – whocan never be trusted" ^ Pierre Hadot The Inner Citadel, 1998, p17 ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557) https://archive.org/stream/philostratuseuna00phil?ref=ol#page/162/mode/2up/search/sextus ; cf. Suda, Markos ^ A philosopher friend of Herodes Atticus ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557) ^ C. R. Haines, Marcus Aurelius, page 376. Loeb Classical Library. ^ Themistius, Orat. xi. 145b ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557) https://archive.org/stream/philostratuseuna00phil?ref=ol#page/164/mode/2up/search/sextus ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i. 9 ^ Apuleius, The Golden Ass, 1.2 ^ Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum: 845, cited in Die Fragmente Der Griechischen Historiker 1999 ISBN 9004113045 p. 227 ^ Himerius, Robert J. Penella, Man and the Word: The Orations of Himerius 2007 ISBN 0520250931 p. 32 ^ http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm ^ George Synkellos, Paul Tuffin, William Adler, The Chronography of George Synkellos ISBN 0199241902 2002 p 503 ^ George Synkellos, Paul Tuffin, William Adler, The Chronography of George Synkellos ISBN 0199241902 2002 p 509 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sextus_of_Chaeronea&oldid=1019260361" Categories: 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century philosophers Pyrrhonism Achaea (Roman province) Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Français Magyar Português Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2021, at 10:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2072	----	Maximinus Daza - Wikipedia Maximinus Daza From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 310 to 313 This article is about the 4th-century Roman emperor. For the 3rd-century Roman emperor, see Maximinus Thrax. For other uses, see Maximin (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Maximinus Daza" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman emperor Maximinus Daza Coin of Maximinus, with the legend: Maximinus p(ius) f(elix) aug(ustus) Roman emperor Augustus 310–313 Predecessor Galerius Successor Licinius Co-rulers Licinius Constantine I Maxentius Caesar 1 May 305 – 310 Born Daza 20 November c. 270 near Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad, Serbia) Died c. July 313[1] Tarsus Issue A son and daughter, both murdered by Licinius Names Galerius Valerius Maximinus Mother Sister of Galerius Religion Roman polytheism Galerius Valerius Maximinus Daza (c. 270 – c. July 313) was Roman emperor from 310 to 313. He became embroiled in the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy between rival claimants for control of the empire, in which he was defeated by Licinius. A committed pagan, he engaged in one of the last persecutions of Christians. Contents 1 Name 2 Early career 3 Civil war 4 Persecution of Christians 5 Death 6 Eusebius on Maximinus 7 See also 8 Citations 9 References Name[edit] The emperor Maximinus was originally called Daza, a common name in Illyria, where he was born.[2][3] The form "Daia" given by the Christian pamphleteer Lactantius, an important source on the emperor's life, is considered a misspelling and deprecated.[4][2] He acquired the name Maximinus at the request of his uncle, Galerius,[5] and his full name as emperor was Galerius Valerius Maximinus.[6] Modern scholarship often refers to him as Maximinus Daza, though this particular form is not attested by epigraphic or literary evidence.[4][7] Early career[edit] He was born of peasant stock to the sister of the emperor Galerius near their family lands around Felix Romuliana, in Dacia Ripensis, a rural area then in the former Danubian region of Moesia, now Eastern Serbia.[8] He rose to high distinction after joining the army. In 305, his maternal uncle Galerius became the eastern Augustus and adopted Maximinus, raising him to the rank of caesar (in effect, the junior eastern Emperor), and granting him the government of Syria and Egypt. Civil war[edit] In 308, after the elevation of Licinius to Augustus, Maximinus and Constantine were declared filii Augustorum ("sons of the Augusti"), but Maximinus probably started styling himself as Augustus during a campaign against the Sassanids in 310. On the death of Galerius in 311, Maximinus divided the Eastern Empire between Licinius and himself. When Licinius and Constantine began to make common cause, Maximinus entered into a secret alliance with the usurper Caesar Maxentius, who controlled Italy. He came to an open rupture with Licinius in 313; he summoned an army of 70,000 men but sustained a crushing defeat at the Battle of Tzirallum in the neighbourhood of Heraclea Perinthus on 30 April. He fled, first to Nicomedia and afterwards to Tarsus, where he died the following August. Persecution of Christians[edit] Maximinus has a bad name in Christian annals for renewing their persecution after the publication of the Edict of Toleration by Galerius, acting in response to the demands of various urban authorities asking to expel Christians. In one rescript replying to a petition made by the inhabitants of Tyre, transcribed by Eusebius of Caesarea,[9] Maximinus expounds an pagan orthodoxy, explaining that it is through "the kindly care of the gods" that one could hope for good crops, health, and the peaceful sea, and that not being the case, one should blame "the destructive error of the empty vanity of those impious men [that] weighed down the whole world with shame". In one extant inscription (CIL III.12132, from Arycanda) from the cities of Lycia and Pamphylia asking for the interdiction of the Christians, Maximinus replied, in another inscription, by expressing his hope that "may those [...] who, after being freed from [...] those by-ways [...] rejoice [as] snatched from a grave illness".[10] After the victory of Constantine over Maxentius, however, Maximinus wrote to the Praetorian Prefect Sabinus that it was better to "recall our provincials to the worship of the gods rather by exhortations and flatteries".[11] Eventually, on the eve of his clash with Licinius, he accepted Galerius' edict; after being defeated by Licinius, shortly before his death at Tarsus, he issued an edict of tolerance on his own, granting Christians the rights of assembling, of building churches, and the restoration of their confiscated properties.[12] Plaster cast in the Pushkin Museum of a porphyry bust of a tetrarchic-era emperor from Athribis – now in the Cairo Museum – labelled as Maximinus Death[edit] Maximinus' death was variously ascribed "to despair, to poison, and to the divine justice".[13] Based on descriptions of his death given by Eusebius,[14] and Lactantius[15] as well as the appearance of Graves' ophthalmopathy in a Tetrarchic statue bust from Anthribis in Egypt sometimes attributed to Maximinus, endocrinologist Peter D. Papapetrou has advanced a theory that Maximinus may have died from severe thyrotoxicosis due to Graves' disease.[16] Maximinus was the last Roman emperor, and thus the last individual, to hold the title of pharaoh,[17] making his death the end of a 3,400-year-old office. Eusebius on Maximinus[edit] The Christian writer Eusebius claims that Maximinus was consumed by avarice and superstition. He also allegedly lived a highly dissolute lifestyle: And he went to such an excess of folly and drunkenness that his mind was deranged and crazed in his carousals; and he gave commands when intoxicated of which he repented afterward when sober. He suffered no one to surpass him in debauchery and profligacy, but made himself an instructor in wickedness to those about him, both rulers and subjects. He urged on the army to live wantonly in every kind of revelry and intemperance, and encouraged the governors and generals to abuse their subjects with rapacity and covetousness, almost as if they were rulers with him. Why need we relate the licentious, shameless deeds of the man, or enumerate the multitude with whom he committed adultery? For he could not pass through a city without continually corrupting women and ravishing virgins.[18] According to Eusebius, only Christians resisted him. For the men endured fire and sword and crucifixion and wild beasts and the depths of the sea, and cutting off of limbs, and burnings, and pricking and digging out of eyes, and mutilations of the entire body, and besides these, hunger and mines and bonds. In all they showed patience in behalf of religion rather than transfer to idols the reverence due to God. And the women were not less manly than the men in behalf of the teaching of the Divine Word, as they endured conflicts with the men, and bore away equal prizes of virtue. And when they were dragged away for corrupt purposes, they surrendered their lives to death rather than their bodies to impurity. He refers to one high-born Christian woman who rejected his advances. He exiled her and seized all of her wealth and assets.[19] Eusebius does not give the girl a name, but Tyrannius Rufinus calls her "Dorothea," and writes that she fled to Arabia. This story may have evolved into the legend of Dorothea of Alexandria. Caesar Baronius identified the girl in Eusebius' account with Catherine of Alexandria, but the Bollandists rejected this theory.[19] See also[edit] Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Citations[edit] ^ Barnes 1982, p. 7. ^ a b Barnes 2011, p. 206 (note 10). ^ Mackay, p. 209. ^ a b Mackay, pp. 208–209. ^ Mackay, p. 206. ^ Mackay, p. 208. ^ Leadbetter, p. 8. ^ Roman Colosseum, Maximinus Daza ^ Ecclesiastical History, IX, 8-9; Eng. trans. available at [1]. Accessed 2 August 2012 ^ John Granger Cook, The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000, ISBN 3-16-147195-4, page 304, footnote 175 ^ Ecclesiastical History, IX, 1-10 ^ Ecclesiastical History, X, 7-11 ^ Gibbon, Edward, 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire', Chapter 14 ^ Ecclesiastical History, IX, 14-15, ^ Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors, Chapter XLIX ^ Peter D. Papapetrou, Hormones 2013, 12(1):142-145 ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-3422008328. ^ Ecclesiastical History, VIII, 14. ^ a b "Santa Dorotea di Alessandria su santiebeati.it". Santiebeati.it. Retrieved 5 August 2020. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maximinus II. Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-28066-0. Barnes, Timothy D. (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2. Christensen, Torben (2012) [1974]. Mogens Müller (ed.). C. Galerius Valerius Maximinus: Studies in the Politics and Religion of the Roman Empire AD 305–313 (PDF). Copenhagen University. ISBN 978-87-91838-48-4. OCLC 872060636. DiMaio, Michael. "Maximinus Daia (305–313 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Leadbetter, Bill (2010). Galerius and the Will of Diocletian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-40488-4. Mackay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology. 94 (2): 198–209. JSTOR 270559. Seeck, Otto (1901), "Daia", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume IV.2, columns 1986–1990, Stuttgart: Metzlerscher Verlag.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Maximinus, Galerius Valerius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 925. Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Maximinus, Gaius Galerius Valerius" Regnal titles Preceded by Galerius Constantine I Roman emperor 308–313 with Galerius, Constantine I and Licinius Succeeded by Constantine I and Licinius Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus, Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian, Constantine I, Valerius Severus, Galerius Succeeded by Diocletian , Galerius, Maxentius, Valerius Romulus Preceded by Tatius Andronicus , Pompeius Probus, Maxentius Roman consul 311 with Galerius, G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus, Aradius Rufinus Succeeded by Constantine I , Licinius, Maxentius Preceded by Constantine I , Licinius, Maxentius Roman consul 313 with Constantine I, Licinius Succeeded by G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2081	----	Category:AC with 30 elements - Wikipedia Help Category:AC with 30 elements From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories can be used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. 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en-wikipedia-org-2086	----	Christianity in the 4th century - Wikipedia Christianity in the 4th century From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Christianity-related events during the 4th century See also: Christianity in the ante-Nicene period and Christianity in the 5th century For broader coverage of this topic, see Christianity in late antiquity.   Spread of Christianity to AD 325   Spread of Christianity to AD 600 Christianity in the 4th century was dominated in its early stage by Constantine the Great and the First Council of Nicaea of 325, which was the beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787), and in its late stage by the Edict of Thessalonica of 380, which made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. Contents 1 Christian persecutions 2 Roman Empire 2.1 Under Galerius 2.2 Constantine I 2.3 The conversion of Christianity 2.4 Constantius II 2.5 Julian the Apostate 2.6 Nicaea Christianity becomes the state religion of the Roman Empire 3 Ecumenical Councils of the 4th century 3.1 First Council of Nicaea 3.2 First Council of Constantinople 4 Church Fathers 4.1 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers 4.2 Greek Fathers 4.3 Athanasius of Alexandria 4.4 John Chrysostom 4.5 Latin Fathers 4.6 Ambrose of Milan 5 Monasticism 5.1 Desert Fathers 5.2 Early Christian monasticism 5.3 Eastern monasticism 5.4 Gaul 6 Defining scripture 7 Bishops 8 Tensions between the East and the West 8.1 Rome 9 Spread of Christianity 9.1 Christianity outside the Roman Empire 9.2 Great persecution 9.3 Conditioning factors of missionary expansion 9.4 Central Asia 10 Timeline 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Christian persecutions[edit] Main article: Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire Major communions of the 4th-5th centuries Communion Primary centers Roman Empire and western Europe Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople Church of the East Syria, Sasanian (Persia) Empire[1] Oriental Orthodox or Non-Chalcedonian Armenia, Syria, Egypt[2] Donatist Church North Africa[3] Gothic Arian Church Gothic tribes[4] With Christianity the dominant faith in some urban centers, Christians accounted for approximately 10% of the Roman population by 300, according to some estimates.[5] Roman Emperor Diocletian launched the bloodiest campaign against Christians that the empire had witnessed. The persecution ended in 311 with the death of Diocletian. The persecution ultimately had not turned the tide on the growth of the religion.[6] Christians had already organized to the point of establishing hierarchies of bishops. In 301 the Kingdom of Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity. The Romans followed suit in 380. Roman Empire[edit] Under Galerius[edit] In April 311, Galerius, who had previously been one of the leading figures in the persecutions, issued an edict permitting the practice of the Christian religion under his rule.[7] From 313 to 380, Christianity enjoyed the status of being a legal religion within the Roman Empire. It had not become the sole authorized state religion, although it gradually gained prominence and stature within Roman society. After halting the persecutions of the Christians, Galerius reigned for another 2 years. He was then succeeded by an emperor with distinctively pro Christian leanings, Constantine the Great. Constantine I[edit] Christian sources record that Constantine experienced a dramatic event in 312 at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, after which Constantine claimed the emperorship in the West. According to these sources, Constantine looked up to the sun before the battle and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words "ΕΝ ΤΟΥΤΩ ΝΙΚΑ" ("by this, conquer!", often rendered in the Latin "in hoc signo vinces"); Constantine commanded his troops to adorn their shields with a Christian symbol (the Chi-Ro), and thereafter they were victorious.[8][9] How much Christianity Constantine adopted at this point is difficult to discern; most influential people in the empire, especially high military officials, were still pagan, and Constantine's rule exhibited at least a willingness to appease these factions.[8] Silver ring with Chi Rho symbol found at a 4th century Christian burial site in Late Roman Tongeren, one of the oldest proofs of a Christian community in Belgium, Gallo-Roman Museum (Tongeren) The conversion of Christianity[edit] See also: Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire and Religious policies of Constantine the Great The accession of Constantine was a turning point for the Christian Church. In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan affirming the tolerance of Christians. Thereafter, he supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e.g., exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the reign of Diocletian.[10] Constantine utilized Christian symbols early in his reign but still encouraged traditional Roman religious practices including sun worship. Between 324 and 330, he built a new imperial capital at Byzantium on the Bosphorus (it came to be named for him: Constantinople)–the city employed overtly Christian architecture, contained churches within the city walls (unlike "old" Rome), and had no pagan temples.[11] In 330 he established Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire. The city would gradually come to be seen as the center of the Christian world.[12] Sociologist Joseph Bryant asserts that, by the time of Constantine, Christianity had already changed from its first century instantiation as a "marginal, persecuted, and popularly despised Christian sect" to become the fully institutionalized church "capable of embracing the entire Roman empire" that Constantine adopted.[13]:304 Without this transformation that Peter Brown has called "the conversion of Christianity" to the culture and ideals of the Roman world, Brown says Constantine would never have converted himself.[14] By the end of the second century Christianity was steadily expanding and its membership was socially rising. The church was becoming increasingly institutionalized, and there is evidence of moral erosion and declining commitment amongst its expanding membership.[13]:313 Bryant explains that, "The governing principle of the [sect is] in the personal holiness of its members".[13]:320 A church, on the other hand, is an organization where sanctity is found in the institution rather than the individual.[13]:306 To become a church, "Christianity had to overcome its alienation from the 'world' and successfully weather persecution, accept that it was no longer an ecclesia pura, (a sect of the holy and the elect), but was instead a corpus permixtum, a 'catholic' Church geared to mass conversions and institutionally endowed with extensive powers of sacramental grace and redemption".[13]:333 This "momentous transformation" threatened the survival of the marginal religious movement as it naturally led to divisions, schisms and defections.[13]:317;320 Bryant explains that, "once those within a sect determine that "the 'spirit' no longer resides in the parent body, 'the holy and the pure' typically find themselves compelled – either by conviction or coercion – to withdraw and establish their own counter-church, consisting of the 'gathered remnant' of God's elect".[13]:317 According to Bryant, this describes all the schisms of Christianity's first 300 years including the Montanists, the schism created by Hippolytus in 218 under Callistus, the Melitian schism, and the Donatists. It is the Donatist schism that Bryant sees as the culmination of this sect to church dynamic.[13]:332 During the Melitian schism and the beginnings of the Donatist division, bishop Cyprian had felt compelled to "grant one laxist concession after another in the course of his desperate struggle to preserve the Catholic church".[13]:325 Roman emperors had always been religious leaders, but Constantine established precedent for the position of the Christian emperor in the Church. These emperors considered themselves responsible to God for the spiritual health of their subjects, and thus they had a duty to maintain orthodoxy.[15] The emperor did not decide doctrine – that was the responsibility of the bishops – rather his role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity.[16] The emperor ensured that God was properly worshiped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was the responsibility of the church. Constantine had commissioned more than one investigation into the Donatist issues and they all ruled in support of the Catholic cause, yet the Donatists refused to submit to either imperial or ecclesiastical authority.[13]:332 For a Roman emperor, that was sufficient cause to act. Brown says Roman authorities had shown no hesitation in "taking out" the Christian church they had seen as a threat to empire, and Constantine and his successors did the same, for the same reasons.[17]:74 Constantine's precedent of deferring to councils on doctrine, and accepting responsibility for their enforcement, would continue generally until the empire's end, although there were a few emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries who sought to alter doctrine by imperial edict without recourse to councils.[18] In 325 Constantine called for the Council of Nicaea, which was effectively the first Ecumenical Council (the Council of Jerusalem was the first recorded Christian council but rarely is it considered ecumenical), to deal mostly with the Arian heresy, but which also issued the Nicene Creed, which among other things professed a belief in One Holy Catholic Apostolic Church, the start of Christendom. John Kaye characterizes the conversion of Constantine, and the council of Nicea, as two of the most important things to ever happen to the Christian church.[19]:1 Constantius II[edit] Constantine's sons banned pagan State religious sacrifices in 341 but did not close the temples. Although all State temples in all cities were ordered shut in 356, there is evidence that traditional sacrifices continued. When Gratian declined the position and title of Pontifex Maximus, his act effectively brought an end to the state religion because of the position's authority and ties within the administration. This ended state official practices but not the private religious practices, and consequently the temples remained open. There was not a total unity of Christianity however, and Constantius II was an Arian who kept Arian bishops at his court and installed them in various sees, expelling the orthodox bishops. Julian the Apostate[edit] Constantius's successor, Julian, known in the Christian world as Julian the Apostate, was a philosopher who upon becoming emperor renounced Christianity and embraced a Neo-platonic and mystical form of paganism shocking the Christian establishment. While not actually outlawing Christianity, he became intent on re-establishing the prestige of the old pagan beliefs and practices. He modified these practices to resemble Christian traditions such as the episcopal structure and public charity (hitherto unknown in Roman paganism). Julian eliminated most of the privileges and prestige previously afforded to the Christian Church. His reforms attempted to create a form of religious heterogeneity by, among other things, reopening pagan temples, accepting Christian bishops previously exiled as heretics, promoting Judaism, and returning Church lands to their original owners. However, Julian's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East. Christianity came to dominance during the reign of Julian's successors, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens (the last Eastern Arian Christian emperor). Nicaea Christianity becomes the state religion of the Roman Empire[edit] Over the course of the 4th century the Christian body became consumed by debates surrounding orthodoxy, i.e. which religious doctrines are the correct ones. By the early 4th century a group in North Africa, later called Donatists, who believed in a very rigid interpretation of Christianity that excluded many who had abandoned the faith during the Diocletian persecutions, created a crisis in the western Empire.[20] A Church synod, or council, was called in Rome in 313 followed by another in Arles in 314. The latter was presided over by Constantine while he was still a junior emperor. The councils ruled that the Donatist faith was heresy, and when the Donatists refused to recant, Constantine launched the first campaign of persecution by Christians against Christians. This was only the beginning of imperial involvement in the Christian theology. Christian scholars within the empire were increasingly embroiled in debates regarding Christology. Opinions were widespread ranging from the belief that Jesus was entirely mortal to the belief that he was an Incarnation of God that had taken human form. The most persistent debate was that between the homoousian view (the Father and the Son are one and the same, eternal) and the Arian view (the Father and the Son are separate, but both divine). This controversy led to Constantine's calling a council meeting at Nicaea in 325.[21] Christological debates raged throughout the 4th century with emperors becoming ever more involved with the Church and the Church becoming ever more divided.[22] The Council of Nicaea in 325 supported the Athanasian view. The Council of Rimini in 359 supported the Arian view. The Council of Constantinople in 360 supported a compromise that allowed for both views. The Council of Constantinople in 381 re-asserted the Athanasian view and rejected the Arian view. Emperor Constantine was of divided opinions, but he largely backed the Athanasian faction (though he was baptized on his death bed by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia). His successor Constantius II supported a Semi-Arian position. Emperor Julian favored a return the traditional Roman/Greek religion, but this trend was quickly quashed by his successor Jovian, a supporter of the Athanasian faction. In 380 Emperor Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica, which established Christianity as the official state religion, specifically the faith established by the Council of Nicaea in 325:[23] Theodosius called the Council of Constantinople in 381 to further refine the definition of orthodoxy. In 391 Theodosius closed all of the pagan (non-Christian and non-Jewish) temples and formally forbade pagan worship. These adhering state churches can be seen as effectively a department of the Roman state. All other Christian sects were explicitly declared heretical and illegal. In 385, came the first capital punishment of a heretic was carried out on Priscillian of Ávila.[24][25] Ecumenical Councils of the 4th century[edit] Main article: First seven Ecumenical Councils The First Council of Nicaea (325) and the First Council of Constantinople (381) were a part of what would later be called the first seven Ecumenical Councils, which span 400 years of church history. First Council of Nicaea[edit] Emperor Constantine presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in this church mosaic. St Sophia, c. 1000. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (in present-day Turkey), convoked by Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical[26] conference of bishops of the Catholic Church (Catholic as in 'universal', not just Roman) and most significantly resulted in the first declaration of a uniform Christian doctrine. The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arian controversy comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250–318 attendees, all but 2 voted against Arius). Another result of the council was an agreement on the date of the Christian Passover (Pascha in Greek; Easter in modern English), the most important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar. The council decided in favour of celebrating the resurrection on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox, independently of the Bible's Hebrew calendar, and authorized the Bishop of Alexandria (presumably using the Alexandrian calendar) to announce annually the exact date to his fellow bishops. The council was historically significant because it was the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom.[27] With the creation of the Nicene Creed, a precedent was established for subsequent general councils to create a statement of belief and canons which were intended to become guidelines for doctrinal orthodoxy and a source of unity for the whole of Christendom – a momentous event in the history of the Church and subsequent history of Europe. The council was opposed by the Arians, and Constantine tried to reconcile Arius with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine, the controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another.[28] In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism.[28] The opponents of Arianism rallied, but in the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within the empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of the Franks to Catholicism in 496.[28] Icon depicting Emperor Constantine, center, accompanied by the Church Fathers of the 325 First Council of Nicaea, holding the Nicene Creed in its 381 form. First Council of Constantinople[edit] Early manuscript illustration of Council of Constantinople The First Council of Constantinople approved the current form of the Nicene Creed as it is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox churches. The creed, originally written in Greek, was subsequently translated in other languages. The form used by the Armenian Apostolic Church, which is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, has several additions to the original text.[29] This fuller creed may have existed before the council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople.[30] Later, the Catholic Church in the west, added two additional Latin phrases ("Deum de Deo" and "Filioque"). The exact time, and origin, of these additions is disputed. However, they were formally accepted only in 1014. The council also condemned Apollinarism,[31] the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ.[32] It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome.[31] The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was accepted as ecumenical in the West.[31] Church Fathers[edit] Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early catacombs, Rome, 4th century. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The term is used of writers and teachers of the Church, not necessarily saints. Teachers particularly are also known as doctors of the Church, although Athanasius called them men of little intellect.[33] Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers[edit] Augustine Main article: Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Late Antique Christianity produced a great many renowned Church Fathers who wrote volumes of theological texts, including Augustine of Hippo, Gregory Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and others. Some, such as John Chrysostom and Athanasius, suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from heretical Byzantine emperors. Many of their writings are translated into English in the compilations of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Influential texts and writers between 325 and c.500 include: Athanasius (298–373) The Cappadocian Fathers (late 4th century) Ambrose (c. 340–397) Chrysostom (347 407) Greek Fathers[edit] Those who wrote in Greek are called the Greek (Church) Fathers. Athanasius of Alexandria[edit] Athanasius of Alexandria was a theologian, Pope of Alexandria, and a noted Egyptian leader of the 4th century. He is best remembered for his role in the conflict with Arianism. At the First Council of Nicaea, Athanasius argued against the Arian doctrine that Christ is of a distinct substance from the Father.[34] John Chrysostom[edit] John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. After his death (or, according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek surname chrysostomos, meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom.[35][36] Chrysostom is known within Christianity chiefly as a preacher, theologian, and liturgist, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Outside the Christian tradition Chrysostom is noted for eight of his sermons which played a considerable part in the history of Christian antisemitism and were extensively used by the Nazis in their ideological campaign against the Jews.[37][38] Latin Fathers[edit] Those fathers who wrote in Latin are called the Latin (Church) Fathers. Ambrose of Milan[edit] Ambrose of Milan[39] was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He is counted as one of the four original doctors of the Church. Monasticism[edit] Desert Fathers[edit] The Desert Fathers were early monastics living in the Egyptian desert; although they did not write as much, their influence was also great. Among them are St. Anthony the Great and St. Pachomius. A great number of their usually short sayings is collected in the Apophthegmata Patrum ("Sayings of the Desert Fathers"). Early Christian monasticism[edit] The first efforts to create a proto-monastery were by Saint Macarius, who established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia (founded in 328.) The intention was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert . At Tabenna around 323, Saint Pachomius chose to mould his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "community-based." All the principal monastic orders are cenobitic in nature. In Catholic theology, this community-based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by the word for "Father;" – in Syriac, Abba; in English, "Abbot." Pachomius was called in to help organize others, and by one count by the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially the Thebaid. Within the span of the next generation this number increased to 7,000. From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire. Eastern monasticism[edit] Analavos worn by Eastern Orthodox Schema-Monks. Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West,[40] so there are no formal monastic rules; rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There is also no division between the "active" and "contemplative" life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects. Icon Depicting Souls Ascent to Heaven after Death Gaul[edit] The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours, who after serving in the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan, then moved on to Poitiers where he gathered a community around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutiers on the opposite bank of the Loire River, a few miles upstream from the city. His monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 410 he established two monasteries near Marseilles, one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian's Institutes, which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences, a collection of spiritual reflections. Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo-Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually-proven monks could live in isolation. One Roman reaction to monasticism was expressed in the description of Lérins by Rutilius Namatianus, who served as prefect of Rome in 414: A filthy island filled by men who flee the light. Monks they call themselves, using a Greek name. Because they will to live alone, unseen by man. Fortune's gifts they fear, dreading their harm: Mad folly of a demented brain, That cannot suffer good, for fear of ill. Lérins became, in time, a center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles and was succeeded in that post by another monk from Lérins. Lérins was aristocratic in character, as was its founder, and was closely tied to urban bishoprics. Defining scripture[edit] Main article: Development of the Christian biblical canon See also: Deuterocanonical books, Biblical Apocrypha, and Antilegomena A page from Codex Sinaiticus, א, showing text from Esther. Written c. 330–360, it is one of the earliest and most important Biblical manuscript. Now at the British Library and other locations, the manuscript was discovered at Saint Catherine's Monastery, in 1844. In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Christian Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.[41] In order to form a New Testament canon of uniquely Christian works, proto-orthodox Christians went through a process that was complete in the West by the beginning of the fifth century.[42] Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, Egypt, in his Easter letter of 367,[43] which was approved at the Quinisext Council, listed the same twenty-seven New Testament books as found in the Canon of Trent. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa in 393; the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and Council of Carthage (419).[44] Bishops[edit] After legalisation in 313, the Church inside the Roman Empire adopted the same organisational boundaries as the empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were located in major urban centres as per pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese as Metropolitan bishops. The bishop's location was his "seat", or "see." The prestige of important Christian centers depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors according to the doctrine of Apostolic succession. Constantine erected a new capital at Byzantium, a strategically placed city on the Bosporus. He renamed his new capital Nova Roma ("New Rome"), but the city would become known as Constantinople. The Second Ecumenical Council, held at the new capital in 381, elevated the see of Constantinople to a position ahead of the other chief metropolitan sees, except that of Rome.[45] Mentioning in particular the provinces of Asia, Pontus and Thrace, it decreed that the synod of each province should manage the ecclesiastical affairs of that province alone, except for the privileges already recognized for Alexandria and Antioch.[46] Tensions between the East and the West[edit] The divisions in Christian unity which led to the East–West Schism started to become evident as early as the 4th century. Although 1054 is the date usually given for the beginning of the Great Schism, there is, in fact, no specific date on which the schism occurred. The events leading to schism were not exclusively theological in nature. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological. Unlike the Coptics or Armenians who broke from the Church in the 5th century and established ethnic churches at the cost of their universality and catholicity, the eastern and western parts of the Church remained loyal to the faith and authority of the seven ecumenical councils. They were united, by virtue of their common faith and tradition, in one Church. The Stone of the Anointing, believed to be the place where Jesus' body was prepared for burial. It is the 13th Station of the Cross. The Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem and the ecclesiastics of the Orthodox church are based in the ancient Church of the Holy Sepulchre constructed in 335 AD. Disunion in the Roman Empire further contributed to disunion in the Church. Emperor Diocletian divided the administration of the eastern and western portions of the empire in the early 4th century, though subsequent leaders (including Constantine) aspired to and sometimes gained control of both regions. Theodosius I, who established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, died in 395 and was the last emperor to rule over a united Roman Empire; following his death, the division into western and eastern halves, each under its own emperor, became permanent. By the end of the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire had been overrun by the Germanic tribes, while the Eastern Roman Empire (known also as the Byzantine Empire) continued to thrive. Thus, the political unity of the Roman Empire was the first to fall. In the West, the collapse of civil government left the Church practically in charge in many areas, and bishops took to administering secular cities and domains.[34] When royal and imperial rule reestablished itself, it had to contend with power wielded independently by the Church. In the East, however, imperial and, later, Islamic rule dominated the Eastern bishops of Byzantium.[34] Whereas the Orthodox regions that were predominantly Slavic experienced period foreign dominance as well as period without infrastructure (see the Tatars and Russia). Rome[edit] In the 4th century when the Roman emperors were trying to control the Church, theological questions were running rampant throughout the Roman Empire.[47] The influence of Greek speculative thought on Christian thinking led to all sorts of divergent and conflicting opinions.[48] Christ's commandment to love others as He loved seemed to have been lost in the intellectual abstractions of the time. Theology was also used as a weapon against opponent bishops, since being branded a heretic was the only sure way for a bishop to be removed by other bishops.[citation needed] After Constantine built Constantinople, the centre of the empire was recognised to have shifted to the eastern Mediterranean. Rome lost the Senate to Constantinople and lost its status and gravitas as imperial capital. The bishops of Rome sent letters which, though largely ineffectual, provided historical precedents which were used by later supporters of papal primacy. These letters were known as 'decretals' from at least the time of Siricius (384–399) to Leo I provided general guidelines to follow which later would become incorporated into canon law.[49] Spread of Christianity[edit] 9th century depiction of Christ as a heroic warrior (Stuttgart Psalter, fol. 23, illustration of Psalm 91:13) In the 4th century, the early process of Christianization of the various Germanic peoples was partly facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst European pagans. Until the decline of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes who had migrated there (with the exceptions of the Saxons, Franks, and Lombards) had converted to Christianity.[50] Many of them, notably the Goths and Vandals, adopted Arianism instead of the Trinitarian beliefs that came to dominate the Roman Imperial Church.[50] The gradual rise of Germanic Christianity was voluntary, particularly amongst groups associated with the Roman Empire. Wulfila or Ulfilas was the son or grandson of Christian captives from Sadagolthina in Cappadocia. In 337 or 341, Wulfila became the first bishop of the (Christian) Goths. By 348, one of the pagan Gothic kings began persecuting the Christian Goths, and Wulfila and many other Christian Goths fled to Moesia Secunda (in modern Bulgaria) in the Roman Empire.[51][52] Other Christians, including Wereka, Batwin, and Saba, died in later persecutions. Between 348 and 383, Wulfila translated the Bible into the Gothic language.[52][53] Thus some Arian Christians in the west used the vernacular languages, in this case including Gothic and Latin, for services, as did Christians in the eastern Roman provinces, while most Christians in the western provinces used Latin. Christianity outside the Roman Empire[edit] 2nd to 5th century simplified migrations. See also map of the world in 820 CE. The Armenian, Georgian and Ethiopian churches are the only instances of imposition of Christianity by sovereign rulers predating the council of Nicaea. Conversions happened among the Grecian-Roman-Celtic populations over centuries, mostly among its urban population and only spread to rural populations in much later centuries. Consequently, while the initial converts were found among the Jewish populations, the development of the Orthodox Church as an aspect of State society occurred through the co-option of State Religion into the ethos of Christianity, and only then was conversion of the large rural population accomplished. The Germanic migrations of the 5th century were triggered by the destruction of the Gothic kingdoms by the Huns in 372–375. Great persecution[edit] The great persecution fell upon the Christians in Persia about 340. Though the religious motives were never unrelated, the primary cause of the persecution was political. When Rome became Christian, its old enemy turned anti-Christian. For the first three centuries[clarification needed] after Christ it was in the West that Christians were persecuted. The Parthians were too religiously tolerant to persecute, and their less tolerant Sassanian successors on the throne were too busy fighting Rome, so Persian emperors were inclined to regard them as friends of Persia. It was about 315 that an ill-advised letter from Christian Emperor Constantine to his Persian counterpart Shapur II probably triggered the beginnings of an ominous change in the Persian attitude toward Christians. Constantine believed he was writing to help his fellow believers in Persia but succeeded only in exposing them. He wrote to the young shah: "I rejoice to hear that the fairest provinces of Persia are adorned with...Christians...Since you are so powerful and pious, I commend them to your care, and leave them in your protection[1]". It was enough to make any Persian ruler conditioned by 300 years of war with Rome suspicious of the emergence of a fifth column. Any lingering doubts must have been dispelled when about twenty years later when Constantine began to gather his forces for war in the East. Eusebius records that Roman bishops were prepared to accompany their emperor to "battle with him and for him by prayers to God whom all victory proceeds".[2] And across the border in Persian territory the forthright Persian preacher Aphrahat recklessly predicted on the basis of his reading of Old testament prophecy that Rome would defeat Persia.[3] When the persecutions began shortly thereafter, the first accusation brought against the Christians was that they were aiding the Roman enemy. The shah Shapur II's response was to order a double taxation on Christians and to hold the bishop responsible for collecting it. He knew they were poor and that the bishop would be hard-pressed to find the money. Bishop Simon refused to be intimidated. He branded the tax as unjust and declared, "I am no tax collector but a shepherd of the Lord's flock." A second decree ordered the destruction of churches and the execution of clergy who refused to participate in the national worship of the sun. Bishop Simon was seized and brought before the shah and was offered gifts to make a token obeisance to the sun, and when he refused, they cunningly tempted him with the promise that if he alone would apostatize his people would not be harmed, but that if he refused he would be condemning not just the church leaders but all Christians to destruction. At that, the Christians rose up and refused to accept such a deliverance as shameful. In 344, Simon was led outside the city of Susa along with a large number of Christian clergy. Five bishops and one hundred priests were beheaded before his eyes, and lastly he was put to death.[4] Sometime before the death of Shapur II in 379, the intensity of the persecution slackened. Tradition calls it a Forty-Year Persecution, lasting from 339–379 and ending only with Shapur's death. When at last the years of suffering ended around 401, the historian Sozomen, who lived nearby, wrote that the multitude of martyrs had been "beyond enumeration".[5] One estimate is that as many as 190,000 Persian Christians died in the terror. Conditioning factors of missionary expansion[edit] Several important factors help to explain the extensive growth in the Church of the East during the first twelve hundred years of the Christian era. Geographically, and possibly even numerically, the expansion of this church outstripped that of the church in the West in the early centuries. The outstanding key to understanding this expansion is the active participation of the laymen – the involvement of a large percentage of the church's believers in missionary evangelism.[6] Persecution strengthened and spread the Christian movement in the East. A great influx of Christian refugees from the Roman persecutions of the first two centuries gave vigour to the Mesopotamian church. The persecutions in Persia caused refugees to escape as far as Arabia, India, and other Central Asian countries. Christianity penetrated Arabia from numerous points on its periphery. Northeastern Arabia flourished from the end of the 3rd to the end of the 6th and was apparently evangelized by Christians from the Tigris-Euphrates Valley in the 4th century. The kingdom of Ghassan on the northwest frontier was also a sphere of missionary activity. In fact, by 500 many churches were also in existence along the Arabian shore of the Persian Gulf and in Oman, all connected with the Church of the East in the Persian Empire. Arabian bishops were found among those in attendance at important church councils in Mesopotamia. Central Asia[edit] The agents of missionary expansion in central Asia and the Far East were not only monks and clergy trained in the mesopotamian monastic schools, but also in many cases Christian merchants and artisans, often with considerable biblical training. They frequently found employment among people less advanced in education, serving in government offices and as teachers and secretaries and more advanced medical care. They also helped to solve the problem of illiteracy by inventing simplified alphabets based on the Syriac language. Persecution often thrust Christians forth into new and unevangelized lands to find refuge. The dissemination of the gospel by largely Syriac-using people had its advantages, but it was also a hindrance to indigenizing the church in the new areas. Because Syriac never became dominant, competition from ethnic religions was an issue. For these reasons of political vicissitude, in later centuries Christianity suffered an almost total eclipse in Asia until the modern period. The golden age of early missions in central Asia extended from the end of the fourth to the latter part of the 9th century. Christianity had an early and extensive dissemination throughout the vast territory north of Persia and west and East of the Oxus River. Cities like Merv, Herat and Samarkand had bishops and later became metropolitanates. Christians were found among the Hephthalite Huns from the 5th century, and the Mesopotamian patriarch assigned two bishops (John of Resh-aina and Thomas the Tanner) to both peoples, with the result that many were baptized. They also devised and taught a written language for the Huns and with the help of an Armenian bishop, taught also agricultural methods and skills. Timeline[edit] 4th century Timeline 296–304 Pope Marcellinus, offered pagan sacrifices for Diocletian 303 Saint George, patron saint of England, and other states 303–312 Diocletian's Massacre of Christians, included burning of scriptures (EH 8.2) 304 – Armenia accepts Christianity as state religion [7] 304? Victorinus, bishop of Pettau 304? Pope Marcellinus, having repented from his previous defection, suffered martyrdom with several companions. 306 – The first bishop of Nisibis is ordained[54] 306 Synod of Elvira, prohibited relations between Christians and Jews 290–345? St Pachomius, founder of Christian monasticism 310 Maxentius deports Pope Eusebius and Heraclius [8] [9] to Sicily (relapse controversy) 312 Lucian of Antioch, founded School of Antioch, martyred 312 Vision of Constantine: while gazing into the sun he saw a cross with the words by this sign conquer, see also Labarum, he was later called the 13th Apostle and Equal-to-apostles 313 Edict of Milan, Constantine and Licinius end persecution, establish toleration of Christianity 313? Lateran Palace given to Pope Miltiades for residence by Constantine 314 Council of Arles [10], called by Constantine against Donatist schism 314 Arsacid Armenia first to adopt Christianity as state religion (mainstream date; traditionally 301) 313 – Emperor Constantine issues Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity in the Roman Empire[55] 317? Lactantius 314 – Tiridates III of Armenia and King Urnayr of Caucasian Albania converted by Gregory the Illuminator 321 Constantine decreed Sunday as state "day of rest" (CJ3.12.2), see also Sol Invictus 251–424? Synods of Carthage 314–340? Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, church historian, cited Caesarean text-type, wrote Ecclesiastical History in 325[56] 325 The First Council of Nicaea 325 The Kingdom of Aksum (Modern Ethiopia) declares Christianity as the official state Religion becoming the second country to do so 325 Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, ordered by Constantine 326, November 18 Pope Sylvester I consecrates the Basilica of St. Peter built by Constantine the Great over the tomb of the Apostle. 327 – Georgian King Mirian III of Iberia converted by Nino[57] 330 – Ethiopian King Ezana of Axum makes Christianity an official religion 330 Old Church of the Holy Apostles, dedicated by Constantine 330, May 11: Constantinople solemly inaugurated. Constantine moves the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, renaming it New Rome 331 Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver 50 Bibles for the Church of Constantinople[58] 332 – Two young Roman Christians, Frumentius and Aedesius, are the sole survivors of a ship destroyed in the Red Sea due to tensions between Rome and Aksum. They are taken as slaves to the Ethiopian capital of Axum to serve in the royal court.[59] 334 – The first bishop is ordained for Merv / Transoxiana (area of modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and southwest Kazakhstan)[60] 335 Council in Jerusalem, reversed Nicaea's condemnation of Arius, consecrated Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulchre 337 Mirian III of Georgia, third to adopt Christianity as state religion 337, May 22: Constantine the Great dies. Baptized shortly prior to his death 341–379 Shapur II's persecution of Persian Christians 343? Council of Sardica 337 – Emperor Constantine baptized shortly before his death[61] 341 – Ulfilas begins work with the Goths in present-day Romania[62] 328–373 Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, first cite of modern 27 book New Testament canon 350? Julius Firmicus Maternus 350? Codex Sinaiticus(א), Codex Vaticanus(B): earliest Christian Bibles, Alexandrian text-type 350? Ulfilas, Arian, apostle to the Goths, translated Greek NT to Gothic 350? Comma Johanneum 1Jn5:7b-8a(KJV) 350? Aëtius, Arian, "Syntagmation": "God is agennetos (unbegotten)", founder of Anomoeanism 350? School of Nisibis founded 350 – Bible is translated into Saidic, an Egyptian language[63] 354 – Theophilus "the Indian" reports visiting Christians in India [11]; Philostorgius mentions a community of Christians on the Socotra islands, south of Yemen in the Arabian Sea [12] 357 Third Council of Sirmium, issued so-called Blasphemy of Sirmium or Seventh Arian Confession,[64] called high point of Arianism 359 Council of Rimini, Dated Creed (Acacians) 360 Julian the Apostate becomes the last non-Christian Roman Emperor. 364 – Conversion of Vandals to Christianity begins during reign of Emperor Valens[65] 353–367 Hilary, bishop of Poitiers 355–365 Antipope Felix II, Arian, supported by Constantius II, consecrated by Acacius of Caesarea 363–364 Council of Laodicea, canon 29 decreed anathema for Christians who rest on the Sabbath, disputed canon 60 named 26 NT books (excluded Revelation) 366–367 Antipope Ursicinus, rival to Pope Damasus I 370? Doctrine of Addai at Edessa proclaims 17 book NT canon using Diatessaron (instead of the 4 Gospels) + Acts + 15 Pauline Epistles (inc. 3 Corinthians) Syriac Orthodox Church 370 – Wulfila translates the Bible into Gothic, the first Bible translation done specifically for missionary purposes 378 – Jerome writes, "From India to Britain, all nations resound with the death and resurrection of Christ"[59] 367–403 Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, wrote Panarion against heresies 370–379 Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea 372–394 Gregory, Bishop Of Nyssa 373 Ephrem the Syrian, cited Western Acts 374–397 Ambrose, bishop & governor of Milan 375–395 Ausonius, Christian governor of Gaul 379–381 Gregory Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople 380, February 27: Emperor Theodosius I issues the edict De Fide Catolica declaring Christianity as the official state religion of the Roman Empire[66] 380, November 24: Emperor Theodosius I is baptised. 380 Roman Emperor Theodosius I makes Christianity the official state religion[67] 381 First Council of Constantinople, 2nd ecumenical, Jesus had true human soul, Nicene Creed of 381 382 Council of Rome under Pope Damasus I sets the Biblical Canon, listing the inspired books of the Old Testament and the New Testament (disputed) 382 – Jerome is commissioned to translate the Gospels (and subsequently the whole Bible) into Latin (Price, p. 78) 383? Frumentius, Apostle of Ethiopia 385 Priscillian, first heretic to be executed? 386 – Augustine of Hippo converted[68] 390? Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea, believed Jesus had human body but divine spirit 391: The Theodosian decrees outlaw most pagan rituals still practiced in Rome. 390 – Nestorian missionary Abdyeshu (or Abdisho) builds a monastery on the island of Bahrain 397 – Ninian evangelizes the Southern Picts of Scotland; three missionaries sent to the mountaineers in the Trento region of northern Italy are martyred[69] 397? Saint Ninian evangelizes Picts in Scotland 400 – Hayyan begins proclaiming gospel in Yemen after having been converted in Hirta on the Persian border; in starting a school for native Gothic evangelists, John Chrysostom writes, "'Go and make disciples of all nations' was not said for the Apostles onlyu, but for us also"[59] 400: Jerome's Vulgate Latin edition and translation of the Bible is published. 400? Ethiopic Bible: in Ge'ez, 81 books, standard Ethiopian Orthodox Bible 400? Peshitta Bible in Syriac (Aramaic), Syr(p), OT + 22 NT, excludes: 2Pt, 2–3Jn, Jude, Rev; standard Syriac Orthodox Church Bible See also[edit] Christianity portal History portal Ancient Rome portal Bible portal History of Christianity History of the Roman Catholic Church History of the Eastern Orthodox Church History of Christian theology Christian martyrs History of Oriental Orthodoxy Ante-Nicene Period Church Fathers List of Church Fathers Christian monasticism Patristics Great Church Development of the New Testament canon Christianization History of Calvinist-Arminian debate Timeline of Christianity Timeline of Christian missions Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church Chronological list of saints in the 4th century Notes[edit] ^ O'Leary (2000), pp. 131–137. ^ Price (2005), pp. 52–55. ^ Dwyer (1998), pp. 109–111. ^ Anderson (2010), p. 604. Amory (), pp. 259–262. ^ Hopkins(1998), p. 191 ^ Irvin (2002), p. 161. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors") ch.34–35 ^ a b Gerberding, p.55 ^ cf. Eusebius, Life of Constantine ^ Gerberding, pp.55–56 ^ Gerberding, p. 56 ^ Payton (2007), p.29 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bryant, Joseph M. (1993). "The Sect-Church Dynamic and Christian Expansion in the Roman Empire: Persecution, Penitential Discipline, and Schism in Sociological Perspective". The British Journal of Sociology. 44 (2). ^ Brown, Peter (1971). The world of late antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad. Thames and Hudson. p. 82. ISBN 978-0500320228. ^ Richards, pp.14–15 ^ Richards, p. 15 ^ Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) ^ Richards, p.16 ^ KAYE, John. Some account of the Council of Nicæa in connexion with the life of Athanasius. United Kingdom, n.p, 1853. ^ Irvin (2002), p. 164, ch. 15. ^ Carroll (1987), p. 11. ^ Irvin (2002), p. 164, ch. 16. ^ Bettenson (1967), p. 22. ^ Halsall, Paul (June 1997). "Theodosian Code XVI.i.2". Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions. Fordham University. Retrieved 2006-11-23. ^ "Lecture 27: Heretics, Heresies and the Church". 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-24. Review of Church policies towards heresy, including capital punishment. ^ Ecumenical, from Koine Greek oikoumenikos, literally meaning worldwide but generally assumed to be limited to the Roman Empire as in Augustus' claim to be ruler of the oikoumene (world); the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' Life of Constantine 3.6 around 338 "σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius' Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369, and the Letter in 382 Archived 2006-06-13 at the Wayback Machine to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople. ^ Kieckhefer, Richard (1989), "Papacy", Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ISBN 0-684-18275-0 ^ a b c Cross, FL, ed. (2005), "Arianism", The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, New York: Oxford University Press. ^ Armenian Church Library: Nicene Creed ^ "Nicene Creed." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 ^ a b c "Constantinople, First Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 ^ "Apollinarius." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 ^ Athanasius, On the Incarnation 47 ^ a b c Will Durant. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972, ISBN 1-56731-014-1 ^ Pope Vigilius, Constitution of Pope Vigilius, 553 ^ "St John Chrysostom" in the Catholic Encyclopedia, available online; retrieved March 20, 2007. ^ Walter Laqueur, The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day, (Oxford University Press: 2006), p.48. ISBN 0-19-530429-2. 48 ^ Yohanan (Hans) Lewy, "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0), Ed. Cecil Roth (Keter Publishing House: 1997). ISBN 965-07-0665-8. ^ Known in Latin and Low Franconian as Ambrosius, in Italian as Ambrogio and in Lombard as Ambroeus. ^ One may hear Orthodox monks referred to as "Basilian Monks", but this is really an inappropriate application of western categories to Orthodoxy. ^ McDonald & Sanders, The Canon Debate, pp.414–415 ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Canon of the New Testament" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Easter letter of 367 ^ McDonald & Sanders' The Canon Debate, Appendix D-2, note 19: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage." "Two books of Esdras" is ambiguous, it could be 1 Esdras and Ezra–Nehemiah as in the Septuagint or Ezra and Nehemiah as in the Vulgate. ^ Second Ecumenical Council, Canon III ^ Second Ecumenical Council, Canon II ^ John Binns, An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2002, pp 162–164 ^ John Binns, An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2002, p68 ^ Schimmelpfennig, p. 47 ^ a b Padberg 1998, 26 ^ Auxentius of Durostorum, Letter of Auxentius, quoted in Heather and Matthews, Goths in the Fourth Century, pp. 141–142. ^ a b Philostorgius via Photius, Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, book 2, chapter 5. ^ Auxentius of Durostorum, Letter of Auxentius, quoted in Heather and Matthews, Goths in the Fourth Century, p. 140. ^ Barrett, David B., Todd M. Johnson, Christopher R. Guidry, and Peter F. Crossing. World Christian Trends, AD 30–AD 2200, William Carey Library Publishers, 2001, p. 115 ^ Kane, p. 33 ^ Eusebius. "The Church History Of Eusebius". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. ^ Fortescue, Adrian. The Eastern Churches Trilogy, Gorgias Press LLC, 2001, p. 17 ^ The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, pages 414–415 ^ a b c Barrett, p. 24 ^ Korolevsky, Cyril. Living Languages in Catholic Worship: An Historical Inquiry, Longmans, Green, 1957, p. 14 ^ Anderson, 149 ^ Neill, p. 48 ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. I, p. 257 ^ "The Seventh Arian (or Second Sirmium) Confession Sirmium (357)". Archived from the original on 2015-07-01. Retrieved 2009-05-27. ^ Herbermann, 268 ^ Theodosian Code XVI.1.2 Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions by Paul Halsall, June 1997, Fordham University, retrieved September 25, 2006 ^ Walker, pp. 117–118 ^ Latourette, 1953, p. 97 ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. I, p. 199 References[edit] Gerberding, R. and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) Further reading[edit] R. T. Meyer, St. Athanasius: The Life of Anthony, ACW 10 (Westminster, Maryland: Newman Press 1950) Chitty, D. J. The Desert a City (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1966) MacMullen, Ramsay, Christianizing the Roman Empire, AD 100–400 Yale University Press (paperback, 1986 ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ) Trombley, Frank R., 1995. Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370–529 (in series Religions in the Graeco-Roman World) (Brill) ISBN 90-04-09691-4 Fletcher, Richard, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371–1386 AD. London 1997. Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0-415-33312-1. Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0-226-65371-4. Schatz, Klaus (1996). Papal Primacy. Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-5522-X. Schimmelpfennig, Bernhard (1992). The Papacy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-07515-2. External links[edit] Links to 4th century background information plus original language texts and translations, major creeds and canons etc. at earlychurchtexts.com Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins Guide to Early Church Documents Chart of Church Fathers at ReligionFacts.com Church Fathers' works in English edited by Philip Schaff, at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library Church Fathers at Newadvent.org Faulkner University Patristics Project A growing collection of English translations of patristic texts and high-resolution scans from the comprehensive Patrologia compiled by J. P. Migne. Primer on the Church Fathers at Corunum Fourth-Century Christianity History of Christianity: Late ancient Christianity Preceded by: Christianity in the 3rd century Fourth century Followed by: Christianity in the 5th century BC C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19 C20 C21 v t e History of Christianity Centuries 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st Origins and Apostolic Age Background Jesus Baptism Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Holy Spirit Apostles Jewish Christians Paul the Apostle Council of Jerusalem Split with Judaism New Testament Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Ante-Nicene period Diversity Adoptionism Arianism Docetism Donatism Gnosticism Marcionism Montanism Canon development Persecution Church / Apostolic Fathers Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Justin Martyr Tertullian Origen Late antiquity (Great Church) Constantine Constantinian shift 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en-wikipedia-org-2087	----	Lucius Caesar - Wikipedia Lucius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman noble For other people with similar names, see Lucius Julius Caesar. Lucius Caesar Lucius Caesar Born Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa 17 BC Roman Empire Died 20 August AD 2 (aged 18) Massalia, Gaul, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Father Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Augustus (adoptive) Mother Julia the Elder Lucius Caesar (17 BC – 20 August AD 2) was a grandson of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. The son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, Augustus' only daughter, Lucius was adopted by his grandfather along with his older brother, Gaius Caesar. As the emperor's adopted sons and joint-heirs to the Roman Empire, Lucius and Gaius had promising political and military careers. However, Lucius died of a sudden illness on 20 August AD 2, in Massilia, Gaul, while traveling to meet the Roman army in Hispania. His brother Gaius also died at a relatively young age on 21 February, AD 4. The untimely loss of both heirs compelled Augustus to redraw the line of succession by adopting Lucius' younger brother, Agrippa Postumus as well as his stepson, Tiberius on 26 June AD 4. Contents 1 Background 2 Early life and family 3 Career 4 Post mortem 5 Ancestry 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 8.1 Ancient sources 8.2 Modern sources 9 External links Background[edit] Lucius' father Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was an early supporter of Augustus (then "Octavius") during the Final War of the Roman Republic that ensued as a result of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. He was a key general in Augustus' armies, commanding troops in pivotal battles against Mark Antony and Sextus Pompeius. From early in the emperor's reign, Agrippa was trusted to handle affairs in the eastern provinces and was even given the signet ring of Augustus, who was seemingly on his deathbed in 23 BC, a sign that he would become princeps were Augustus to die. It is probable that he was to rule until the emperor's nephew, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, came of age. However, Marcellus died of an illness that had spread throughout the city of Rome that year.[1][2][3] With Marcellus gone, Augustus arranged for the marriage of Agrippa to his daughter Julia the Elder, who was previously the wife of Marcellus. Agrippa was given tribunicia potestas ("the tribunician power") in 18 BC, a power that only the emperor and his immediate heir could hope to attain. The tribunician power allowed him to control the Senate, and it was first given to Julius Caesar. Agrippa acted as tribune in the Senate to pass important legislation and, though he lacked some of the emperor's power and authority, he was approaching the position of co-regent.[3][4][5] Early life and family[edit] Lucius was born in Rome in 17 BC to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia. He was part of the imperial family of Augustus, known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and was related to all the Julio-Claudian emperors. On his mother's side, he was the second oldest grandson of emperor Augustus after his brother Gaius. He was the brother-in-law of Tiberius by his half-sister Vipsania Agrippina, and Claudius by his sister Agrippina the Elder's marriage to Germanicus. Lucius' nephew was the future emperor Caligula, who was Germanicus' son.[6] Having no heir since the death of Marcellus, Augustus immediately adopted Lucius and his brother from their father by a symbolic sale following Lucius' birth, and named the two boys his heirs.[7] It is unknown what their father thought of the adoption.[8] Shortly after their adoption in the summer, Augustus held the fifth ever Ludi Saeculares ("Secular Games"). The adoption of the boys coupled with the games served to introduce a new era of peace – the Pax Augusta. Augustus, mostly by himself, taught Gaius and Lucius how to read and swim, as well as how to imitate his own handwriting. He insisted that they earn the applause of people, instead of allowing them to receive it freely. Their adoptive father initiated them into administrative life when they were still young, and sent them to the provinces as consuls-elect.[9] That year (17 BC) Lucius' family left for the province of Syria, because his father was given command of the eastern provinces with proconsular authority (imperium maius).[10] In 13 BC, his father returned to Rome and was promptly sent to Pannonia to suppress a rebellion. Agrippa arrived there that winter (in 12 BC), but the Pannonians gave up their plans. Agrippa returned to Campania in Italy, where he fell ill and died soon after.[11] The death of Lucius' father made succession a pressing issue. The aurei and denarii issued in 13–12 BC made clear the Emperor's dynastic plans for Lucius and Gaius. Their father was no longer available to assume the reins of power if the Emperor were to die, and Augustus had to make it clear who his intended heirs were in case anything should happen.[12] Career[edit] The Maison Carrée (French: "square house") was dedicated in Nemausus to Gaius and Lucius. Augustus brought Lucius to the Forum Romanum in 2 BC to enroll him as a citizen. The event was made into a ceremony the same as Gaius' enrollment had been three years prior. Lucius assumed the toga virilis ("toga of manhood"), marking the beginning of his adulthood, and he too was made princeps iuventutis ("leader of the youth"). Like Gaius, he was elected consul designatus, with the intent that he assume the consulship at the age of nineteen. There was only one difference in his titles from those of Gaius: that he was made a member of the college of augurs whereas Gaius was made a pontifex ("pontiff"). Augustus distributed 60 denarii to each Roman citizen to mark the occasion.[13][14] That same year, before his brother Gaius left for the east, Lucius and Gaius were given the authority to consecrate buildings, and they did, with their management of the games held to celebrate the dedication of the Temple of Mars Ultor (1 August 2 BC). Their younger brother, Postumus, participated in the Trojan games with the rest of the equestrian youth. 260 lions were slaughtered in the Circus Maximus, there was gladiatorial combat, a naval battle between the "Persians" and the "Athenians", and 36 crocodiles were slaughtered in the Circus Flaminius.[15][16] While Gaius was in Armenia, Lucius had been sent by Augustus to complete his military training in Hispania. While on the way to his post, he fell ill and died on 20 August AD 2 in Massalia, Gaul.[17] His death was followed by that of Gaius on 21 February AD 4. In the span of 18 months, the succession of Rome was shaken.[18] The death of both Gaius and Lucius, the Emperor's two most favored heirs, led Augustus to adopt his stepson, Tiberius, and his sole remaining grandson, Postumus Agrippa as his new heirs on 26 June AD 4.[19] Post mortem[edit] The two heirs received many honours by citizens and city officials of the Empire, including Colonia Obsequens Iulia Pisana (Pisa), where it was decreed that proper rites must be observed by matrons to lament their passing. Temples, public baths, and shops shut their doors as women wept inconsolably. Posthumously the Senate voted honours for the young Caesars, and arranged for the golden spears and shields the boys had received on achieving the age of military service to be hung in the Senate House.[20] The caskets containing their ashes were stored in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside those of their father Agrippa and other members of the imperial family.[20] Tacitus and Cassius Dio both suggested that there may have been foul play involved in the death of Gaius and Lucius and that Lucius's step-grandmother Livia may have had a hand in their deaths. Livia's presumed motive may have been to orchestrate the accession of her own son Tiberius as heir to Augustus. Tiberius was named the heir of Augustus in AD 4.[21][22] Ancestry[edit] Ancestry of Lucius Caesar[23] 4. Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa 2. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 1. Lucius Caesar 24. Gaius Octavius 12. Gaius Octavius 6. Augustus 26. Marcus Atius 13. Atia Balba Caesonia 27. Julia Minor 3. Julia the Elder 14. Lucius Scribonius Libo 7. Scribonia 15. Sentia See also[edit] Agrippa Postumus Julio-Claudian family tree References[edit] ^ Bunson 2002, p. 10 ^ Southern 2013, p. 203 ^ a b Dunstan 2010, p. 274 ^ Rowe 2002, pp. 52–54 ^ Scullard 2013, p. 216 ^ Wood 1999, p. 321 ^ Historia Augusta (1921). "6. Avidius Cassius". Digital Loeb Classical Library. doi:10.4159/dlcl.historia_augusta_avidius_cassius.1921. Retrieved 2021-01-27. ^ Davies & Swain 2010, p. 284 ^ Powell 2015, pp. 159–160 ^ Powell 2015, p. 161 ^ Historia Augusta (1921). "6. Avidius Cassius". Digital Loeb Classical Library. doi:10.4159/dlcl.historia_augusta_avidius_cassius.1921. Retrieved 2021-01-27. ^ Wood 1999, p. 65 ^ Richardson 2012, p. 153 ^ Gibson 2012, p. 21 ^ Historia Augusta (1921). "6. Avidius Cassius". Digital Loeb Classical Library. doi:10.4159/dlcl.historia_augusta_avidius_cassius.1921. Retrieved 2021-01-27. ^ Lott 2004, pp. 124–125 ^ Mommsen 1996, p. 107 ^ Tranquillus], Suetonius [Gaius Suetonius (2008-10-09). Edwards, Catharine (ed.). "Oxford World's Classics: Suetonius: Lives of the Caesars". doi:10.1093/actrade/9780199537563.book.1. ISBN 9780199537563. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Pettinger 2012, p. 235 ^ a b Powell 2015, p. 192 ^ Historia Augusta (1921). "6. Avidius Cassius". Digital Loeb Classical Library. doi:10.4159/dlcl.historia_augusta_avidius_cassius.1921. Retrieved 2021-01-27. ^ Tacitus], Tacitus [Cornelius (2009-03-26), Birley, Anthony R (ed.), "1", Oxford World's Classics: Tacitus: Agricola and Germany, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00129050, ISBN 978-0-19-953926-0, retrieved 2021-01-27 ^ Bartsch 2017, p. ix Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 55, English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Annals, I, English translation Modern sources[edit] Bartsch, Shadi (2017), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Nero, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-05220-8 Bunson, Matthew (2002), Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-4562-3 Davies, Mark Everson; Swain, Hilary (2010), Aspects of Roman History 82BC-AD14: A Source-based Approach, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-15160-7 Dunstan, William E. (2010), Ancient Rome, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1 Gibson, Alisdair (2012), The Julio-Claudian Succession: Reality and Perception of the "Augustan Model", Brill, ISBN 9789004231917 Mommsen, Theodore (1996), A History of Rome Under the Emperors, UK: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10113-1 Pettinger, Andrew (2012), The Republic in Danger: Drusus Libo and the Succession of Tiberius, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-960174-5 Powell, Lindsay (2015), Marcus Agrippa:Right-hand Man of Caesar Augustus, Pen & Sword Military, ISBN 978-1-84884-617-3 Lott, J. Bertt (2004), The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-82827-7 Richardson, J.S. (2012), Augustan Rome 44 BC to AD 14: The Restoration of the Republic and the Establishment of the Empire, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-1954-2 Rowe, Greg (2002), Princes and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decress, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-11230-9 Scullard, H. H. (2013), From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-78386-9 Southern, Patricia (2013), Augustus, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-58956-2 Wood, Susan E. (1999), Imperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 B.C. – A.D. 68, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9789004119505  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1873). "C. Caesar and L. Caesar". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. pp. 555–556.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Caesar. statue of Lucius Caesar Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries United States Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Caesar&oldid=1021862847" Categories: 17 BC births AD 2 deaths Julii Caesares Vipsanii 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century Romans Roman consuls designate Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Ancient Roman adoptees Children of Augustus Children of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lombard Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 7 May 2021, at 02:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2104	----	Leo V the Armenian - Wikipedia Leo V the Armenian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 813 to 820 This article is about the Byzantine Emperor. For the Armenian King, see Leo V, King of Armenia. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Leo V the Armenian Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold solidus of Leo V, with his son and co-emperor, Constantine Byzantine emperor Reign 12 July 813 – 25 December 820 Coronation 12 July 813[1] Predecessor Michael I Rangabe Successor Michael II Co-emperor Symbatios-Constantine Born c. 755 Died 25 December 820 (Aged 65)[2] Consort Theodosia Issue Symbatios-Constantine Basil Gregory Theodosios Anna Father Bardas Leo V the Armenian (Greek: Λέων ὁ ἐξ Ἀρμενίας, Leōn ho ex Armenias; c. 755 – 25 December 820) was Emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 813 to 820. A senior general, he forced his predecessor, Michael I Rangabe, to abdicate and assumed the throne. He ended the decade-long war with the Bulgars, and initiated the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. He was assassinated by supporters of Michael the Amorian, one of his most trusted generals, who succeeded him on the throne. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Reign 2 Children 3 Possible descendants 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Leo was the son of the patrician Bardas, who was of Armenian descent (according to Theophanes Continuatus, Leo was also of Assyrian that is Syrian descent.[3][4][5] Leo served in 803 under the rebel general Bardanes Tourkos, whom he deserted in favor of Emperor Nikephoros I. The Emperor rewarded Leo with two palaces, but later exiled him for marrying the daughter of another rebel, the patrician Arsaber. On the other hand, a contemporary source[6] says that one general Leo of the Armeniakon theme was punished for his humiliating defeat by the Arabs during which he also lost the salaries of his thematic units[7] (a modern scholar[8] suggests that this Leo is not the same as the emperor). Punishment also included deprivation of his military rank, beating and hair cutting.[9] Reign[edit] Proclamation of Leo as emperor, miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes Recalled by Michael I Rangabe in 811, Leo became governor of the Anatolic theme and conducted himself well in a war against the Arabs in 812, defeating the forces of the Cilician thughur under Thabit ibn Nasr. Leo survived the Battle of Versinikia in 813 by abandoning the battlefield, but nevertheless took advantage of this defeat to force the abdication of Michael I in his favor on 11 July 813. In a diplomatic move, he wrote a letter[10] to Patriarch Nikephoros in order to reassure him of his orthodoxy (Nikephoros being obviously afraid of a possible iconoclast revival). One month later, during his entrance to the Palace quarter, he kneeled before the icon of Christ at the Chalke Gate.[11] A further step in preventing future usurpations was the castration of Michael's sons.[12] With Krum of Bulgaria blockading Constantinople by land, Leo V had inherited a precarious situation. He offered to negotiate in person with the invader and attempted to have him killed in an ambush. The stratagem failed, and although Krum abandoned his siege of the capital, he captured and depopulated Adrianople and Arcadiopolis. When Krum died in spring 814, Leo V defeated the Bulgarians in the environs of Mesembria (Nesebar) and the two states concluded a 30-year peace in 815. According to some sources,[13][14] Krum participated in the battle and abandoned the battlefield heavily injured. With the iconodule policy of his predecessors associated with defeats at the hands of Bulgarians and Arabs, Leo V reinstituted Iconoclasm after deposing patriarch Nikephoros and convoking a synod at Constantinople in 815. The Emperor used his rather moderate iconoclast policy to seize the properties of iconodules and monasteries, such as the rich Stoudios Monastery, whose influential iconodule abbot, Theodore the Studite, he exiled. Leo V appointed competent military commanders from among his own comrades-in-arms, including Michael the Amorian and Thomas the Slav. He also persecuted the Paulicians. When Leo jailed Michael for suspicion of conspiracy, the latter organized the assassination of the Emperor in the palace chapel of St. Stephen on Christmas Eve, 820. Leo was attending the matins service when a group of assassins disguised as members of the choir due to sing in the service[15] suddenly threw off their robes and drew their weapons. In the dim light they mistook the officiating priest for the Emperor and the confusion allowed Leo to snatch a heavy cross from the altar and defend himself. He called for his guards, but the conspirators had barred the doors and within a few moments a sword stroke had severed his arm, and he fell before the communion-table, where his body was hewed in pieces. His remains were dumped unceremoniously in the snow and the assassins hurried to the dungeons to free Michael II. Unfortunately for them Leo had hidden the key on his person, and since it was too early in the morning to find a blacksmith Michael was hastily crowned as emperor with the iron clasps still around his legs. Leo's family (including his mother and his wife, Theodosia) was exiled to monasteries in the Princes' Islands. His four sons (including ex co-emperor Symbatios) were castrated, a procedure so brutally carried out that one of them died during the "operation".[16] Even sources vehemently hostile to Leo (Theophanes Continuatus,[17] Patriarch Nikephoros) acknowledge his competence in managing state affairs. Unfortunately, as with all iconoclast emperors, his actions and intentions cannot be easily reconstructed due to the extreme bias of the iconodule sources (there are no surviving contemporary iconoclast sources of any kind).[18] Children[edit] All known children of Leo V are traditionally attributed to his wife Theodosia, a daughter of the patrician Arsaber.[19] Genesius records four sons:[20] Symbatios (Συμβάτιος), renamed Constantine, co-emperor from 814 to 820. Castrated and exiled following the assassination of his father. Basil. Castrated and exiled following the assassination of his father. Still alive in 847, recorded to have supported the election of Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople. Gregory. Castrated and exiled following the assassination of his father. Still alive in 847, recorded to have supported the election of Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople. Theodosios (died in 820). Died soon after his castration. Anna, who married Hmayeak, a Mamikonian prince (died c. 797), by whom she had Konstantinos, an officer at the court of Emperor Michael III.[21][22] Possible descendants[edit] Nicholas Adontz in his book The age and origins of the emperor Basil I (1933) expressed a theory that Leo V and Theodosia were ancestors of Basil I. The theory was partly based on the account of his ancestry given by Constantine VII, a grandson of Basil I, as well as the accounts given by Theophanes Continuatus.[19] Basil I, according to these accounts, was a son of peasants. His mother is named by Constantine VII as "Pankalo". The name of his father was not recorded, but the names Symbatios and Constantine have been suggested; both were names used by the eldest sons of Basil, with eldest sons of Byzantines typically named after their grandfathers.[19] The paternal grandfather of Basil is named as Maiactes. The paternal grandmother was not named but was identified as a daughter of "Leo", a citizen of Constantinople. Adontz identified this Leo as Leo V, which would make Leo V and Theodosia great-grandparents of Basil I.[19] Adontz also suggested Constantine VII had made a mistake in the generations separating Maiactes and Basil. This suggests that Basil was a great-grandson of Maiactes and not old enough to have seen the wars with Krum of Bulgaria, which would make Leo V and Theodosia fourth-generation ancestors of Basil.[19] The theory has been accepted by several genealogists, including Christian Settipani in his search for descent from antiquity. The name "Anna" has been suggested for the daughter of Leo V and Theodosia, because it was given to daughters of Basil I, Leo VI the Wise, Constantine VII and Romanos II--almost every emperor that would claim descent from this woman.[19] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Leo (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 439–440. ^ Mango, Cyril A., ed. (1997). "A.M. 6305". The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Oxford University Press. p. 502. ISBN 9780198225683. ^ Chisholm, 1911 ^ Seaver, James E.; jenkins, Romilly (1968). "Byzantium. The Imperial Centuries, A.D. 610-1071". The Classical World. 62 (3): 109. doi:10.2307/4346737. ISSN 0009-8418. JSTOR 4346737. ^ Jenkins, Romilly James Heald; America, Medieval Academy of (1987-01-01). Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610-1071. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6667-1. ^ Chalabian, Antranig (2002). Armenia After the Coming of Islam. A. Chalabian. ^ Theophanes the Confessor, Χρονογραφία (Chronicle), 489. 17–21 ^ Theophanes Continuatus, 11. 3–14 ^ David Turner, The Origins and Accession of Leo V (813–820), Jahrburch der Osterreichischen Byzantinistik, 40, 1990, pp. 179 ^ Scriptor Incertus, 336. 10–12 ^ Theophanes the Confessor, Χρονογραφία (Chronicle), 502. 19–22 ^ Theophanes Continuatus, 18. 19–21 ^ Scriptor Incertus, 341. 10–11 ^ John Skylitzes, Synopsis of Histories (Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν), 13. 47–49 ^ Joannes Zonaras, Extracts of History (Επιτομή Ιστοριών), 381. 5–10 ^ Herrin, Judith (2007). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Penguin. pp. 51–52. ISBN 0713999977. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, 40–41. 7 ^ Theophanes Continuatus, 30. 14–15 ^ Lymberopoulou, Angeliki (2011). Images of the Byzantine World: Visions, Messages and Meanings : Studies Presented to Leslie Brubaker. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-0776-8. ^ a b c d e f Chris Bennett, "The Relationship of Basil I to Leo V" (1995) ^ Charles Cawley, "Medieval Lands" Leon V (August 2012) ^ Kaloustian, S. Saints and Sacraments of the Armenian Church. (1959), p. 17, Fresno, California: A-1 Printers. ^ Koushagian, Torkom. Saints & Feasts of the Armenian Church. Translated by Haigazoun Melkonian. (2005), p. 5, New York: Diocese of the Armenian Church of America (Eastern). External links[edit] Leo V coinage Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leon V. Regnal titles Preceded by Michael I Byzantine Emperor 12 July 813 – 25 December 820 with Constantine (Symbatios) Succeeded by Michael II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_V_the_Armenian&oldid=1027089244" Categories: 750s births 820 deaths 8th-century Armenian people 9th-century Armenian people 8th-century Byzantine people 9th-century Byzantine emperors 9th-century murdered monarchs Armenian Byzantine emperors Assassinated Byzantine emperors Byzantine Iconoclasm Deaths by blade weapons Governors of the Anatolic Theme Protostratores 810s in the Byzantine Empire 820s in the Byzantine Empire Byzantine people of Armenian descent Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2116	----	List of Roman and Byzantine empresses - Wikipedia List of Roman and Byzantine empresses From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article See also: List of Roman emperors and List of Byzantine emperors Empress of Rome Emblem of the Roman Empire Livia, the first Empress of Rome. First empress Livia (27 BC) Last empress Maria (1439 AD) This is a list of Roman and Byzantine empresses. A Roman empress was a woman who was the wife of a Roman emperor, the ruler of the Roman Empire. The Romans had no single term for the position: Latin and Greek titles such as augusta (Greek augousta, the female form of the honorific augustus, a title derived from the name of the first emperor, Augustus), caesarissa (Greek kaisarissa, the female form of the honorific caesar, a title derived from the name of Julius Caesar), basilissa (Ancient Greek: βασίλισσα, the female form of basileus), and autokratorissa, the female form of autocrat, were all used. In the third century, augustae could also receive the titles of mater castrorum "mother of the castra" and mater patriae "mother of the fatherland". Another title of the Byzantine empresses was eusebestatē augousta, meaning "most pious augusta"; they were also called kyría κυρία, meaning "lady", or déspoina δέσποινα, the female form of δεσπότης "despot". Due to the practice of dividing the Roman empire under different emperors, there were periods when there were more than one Roman empress. All the Roman empresses are listed with some co-empresses. Not all empresses were titled augusta, and not all augustae were empresses since the emperor's sister or mistress could bear that title. Some caesarissas and despoinas that never were empresses are included, since the titles were quite similar to empress; however, in the Eastern Roman Empire these titles are often more equivalent to the modern term "crown princess". The Western Roman Empire produced no known empresses regnant, though the obscure Ulpia Severina possibly ruled in her own right for some time after the death of her husband, Aurelian. The Eastern Roman Empire had three empresses regnant: Irene of Athens, Zoë Porphyrogenita and Theodora. Contents 1 Empress consorts of the Roman Empire 1.1 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty 1.2 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 1.3 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 1.4 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty 1.5 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century 1.6 284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty 1.7 364–379: Valentinianic dynasty 1.8 379–395: Theodosian dynasty 2 Empress consorts of the Western Roman Empire 2.1 395–455: Theodosian dynasty 2.2 455–476: Non-dynastic 3 Empresses consort of the Eastern Roman Empire 3.1 395–457: Theodosian dynasty 3.2 457–518: Leonid dynasty 3.3 518–602: Justinian dynasty 3.4 602–610: Non-dynastic 3.5 610–711: Heraclian dynasty 3.6 711–717: Non-dynastic 3.7 717–802: Isaurian dynasty 3.8 802–813: Dynasty of Nikephoros I 3.9 813–820: Non-dynastic 3.10 820–867: Phrygian dynasty 3.11 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty 3.12 1057–1059: Komnenid dynasty 3.13 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty 3.14 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty 3.15 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty 4 Empress consorts of the Eastern Roman Empire (in exile in Nicaea) 4.1 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty 5 Empress consorts of the Eastern Roman Empire (restored) 5.1 1261–1453, restored to Constantinople: Palaiologan dynasty 6 Pretending Empress consorts of the Roman Empire 7 See also 8 Notes 9 External links Empress consorts of the Roman Empire[edit] 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Empress from Empress until Death Spouse Livia (LIVIA•DRVSILLA) Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus 30 January, 58 BC 17 January. 38 BC 16 January 27 BC 19 August AD 14 AD 29 Augustus Livia Orestilla ? ? AD 37 or AD 38 few days after marriage ? Caligula Lollia Paulina Marcus Lollius ? AD 38 6 months later AD 49 Milonia Caesonia ? ? late AD 39 or early AD 40 24 January, AD 41 Hours after husband's death Messalina Marcus Valerius Messalla c. 17/20 37 or 38 24 January 41 AD AD 48, for conspiring against her husband Claudius Agrippina the Younger Germanicus (gens Julia and Claudia) 6 November AD 15 New Year's Day in AD 49 13 October AD 54 March AD 59, possibly because of her son, Nero's affairs with Poppaea Sabina Claudia Octavia Claudius (gens Claudia) Late AD 39 or early AD 40 9 June AD 53 13 October 54 1 January 61 9 June AD 62 Nero Poppaea Sabina Titus Ollius AD 30 AD 62 AD 65 Statilia Messalina ? c. AD 35 AD 66 9 June AD 68 after 68 Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Galeria Fundana Galerius (b. ca 15), a Praetor c. 40 c. 50 March 69 December 69 after 69 Vitellius Domitia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo c. 53 c. 70 14 September 81 18 September 96 c. 130 Domitian Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Pompeia Plotina ? ? ? 28 January 98 7 August 117 121/122 Trajan Vibia Sabina Lucius Vibius Sabinus c. 80 100 10 August 117 136 or 137 Hadrian Annia Galeria Faustina Major Marcus Annius Verus 16 February about 100 110–115 11 July 138 141 Antoninus Pius Annia Galeria Faustina Minor Antoninus Pius (Antonine) 21 September between 125 and 130 13 May 145 8 March 161 co-empress consort March 169 sole-empress consort 175 Marcus Aurelius Lucilla Marcus Aurelius (Antonine) 7 March 148 or 150 164 co-empress consort March 169 182 Lucius Verus Bruttia Crispina Gaius Bruttius Praesens 164 July of 178 July of 178 co-empress consort 18 March 180 sole empress 182 182 or 187 Commodus Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Flavia Titiana Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus ? ? 1 January 193 AD 28 March 193 after 193 Pertinax Manlia Scantilla ? ? before 153 28 March 193 1 June 193 ? Didius Julianus Julia Domna Julius Bassianus c. 160 187 14 April 193 co-empress consort February 197 sole empress April 202 senior empress-consort 4 February 211 217 Septimius Severus Publia Fulvia Plautilla Gaius Fulvius Plautianus 185/around 188/189 13 May 145 April 202 co/junior-empress consort 22 January 205 early 212 Caracalla Nonia Celsa ? ? ? 8 April 217 June 218 ? Macrinus Julia Cornelia Paula Julius Paulus Prudentissimus ? 219 late 220 ? Elagabalus Julia Aquilia Severa Quintus Aquilius ? 220 221 ? Annia Faustina Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus ? July 221 later in 221 ? Aquilia Severa Quintus Aquilius ? 221 222 ? Sallustia Orbiana Seius Sallustius ? 225/226 227 ? Severus Alexander Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Caecilia Paulina ? ? ? 20 March 235 235/236 Maximinus Thrax Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Timesitheus c. 225 May 241 11 February 244 aft. 244 Gordian III Marcia Otacilia Severa Otacilius Severus or Severianus ? 234 February 244 September/October 249 ? Philip the Arab Annia Cupressenia Herennia Etruscilla Unknown Etrurian senatorial family ? before 230 September/October 249 June 251 June 251 after husband Decius Afinia Gemina Baebiana ? ? ? June 251[1] August 253 ? Trebonianus Gallus Gaia Cornelia Supera ? ? ? August 253 October 253 ? Aemilianus Julia Cornelia Salonina ? ? ?243 October 253 September 268 Gallienus Ulpia Severina Ulpius Crinitus? ? ? September 270 September or October 275 ? Aurelian Magnia Urbica ? ? ? 282 Caesarissa in the West Late July/early August 283 sole-empress consort 20 November 284 in conflict with Empress Prisca 285 ? Carinus Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Prisca ? ? ? 20 November 284 in conflict with Magnia Urbica 285 sole-empress consort 1 April 286 co-empress consort in the East 1 May 305 315 Diocletian Eutropia Syrian ? around 283 21 July/25 July 285 Caesarissa 1 April 286 co-empress consort in the West Late 306 husband declared himself Augustus 1 May 305 July 310 after 325 Maximian Flavia Maximiana Theodora Flavius Afranius Hannibalianus ? 293 293 Caesarissa 1 May 305 empress consort in the West 25 July 306 ? Constantius Chlorus Galeria Valeria Diocletian ? 293 1 March/21 May 293 Caesarissa 1 May 305 empress consort in the East 5 May 311 315 Galerius Valeria Maximilla Galerius ? around 293 28 October 306 empress consort in the West 28 October 312 ? Maxentius Minervina ? ? ?[2] 25 July 306 Caesarissa before 307 ? Constantine the Great Fausta Flavia Maxima Maximian 289 307 307 Caesarissa in the West 309 husband proclaimed to be emperor April 310 accepted in the East 29 October 312 undisputed empress-consort in the West, senior-empress-consort in the empire 19 September 324 empress-consort of united empire 326 Flavia Julia Constantia Constantius Chlorus (Constantinian) after 293 313 313 empress-consort in the East 324 c. 330 Licinius Unnamed daughter of Julius Constantius [3] Julius Constantius (Constantinian dynasty) ? 335 or 336 335 or 336 Caesarissa 22 May 337 co-empress consort 350 sole empress consort 353/354 ? Constantius II Flavia Aurelia Eusebia Flavius Eusebius the Macedonian Consul, ? 353 sole empress consort 360 Faustina ? ? Winter of 360 sole-empress consort in empire 3 November 361 after 366 Helena Constantine the Great (Constantinian dynasty) November 355 Caesarissa February 360 empress consort[4] 360? Julian Charito Lucillianus ? ? 27 June 363 17 February 364 after 380 Jovian Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 364–379: Valentinianic dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Marina Severa ? ? ? c. 364 370 ? Valentinian I Justina ? c. 340 c. 370 375 c. 391 Albia Dominica Petronius c. 337 c. 354 c. 364 378 ? Valens Flavia Maxima Constantia Constans II (Constantinian) c. 361–362 c. 374 383 Gratian Laeta ? ? 383 ? Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 379–395: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Aelia Flavia Flaccilla ? ? 375–376 August 378 Roman empress consort in the East 385 Theodosius I Flavia Galla Valentinian I (Valentinianic) 370–375 387 Roman empress consort in the East May 15 392 sole-Roman empress consort 17 November 375 394 Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Empress consorts of the Western Roman Empire[edit] 395–455: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Maria Stilicho ? February 398 the Western Roman empress consort 407 Honorius Thermantia ? 408 the Western Roman empress consort c. 408 415 Aelia Galla Placidia Theodosius I (Theodosian) 392 1 January 421 8 February 421 the Western Roman empress consort 2 September 421 27 November 450 Constantius III Licinia Eudoxia Theodosius II (Theodosian) 422 29 October 437 the Western Roman empress consort 16 March 455 462 Valentinian III 17 March 455 2nd times as the Western Roman empress consort 31 May 455 Petronius Maximus Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 455–476: Non-dynastic[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Aelia Marcia Euphemia Flavius Marcianus ? 453 12 April 467 11 July 472 ? Anthemius Galla Placidia Valentiniana Minor Valentinian III (Valentinianic) 439–443 454 or 455 23 March or 11 July 472 23 October or 2 November 472 480 Olybrius Unnamed niece of Leo I ? (Leonid) ? ? June 474 25 April 480 (since 28 August 475 from Dalmatia) ? Julius Nepos Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Empresses consort of the Eastern Roman Empire[edit] 395–457: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Aelia Eudoxia Flavius Bauto ? 27 April 395 6 October 404 Arcadius Aelia Licinia Eudocia Leontius c. 401 7 June 421 28 July 450 20 October 460 Theodosius II Aelia Pulcheria Arcadius (Theodosian) 19 January 399 28 July 450 July 453 Marcian Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 457–518: Leonid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Aelia Verina ? ? ? 7 February 457 18 January 474 484 Leo I Aelia Ariadne Leo I (Leonid) c. 450 466/468 9 February 474 1st time 9 January 475 515 Zeno Aelia Zenonis ? ? ? 9 January 475 August 476 476/477 Basiliscus Aelia Ariadne Leo I (Leonid) c. 450 466/468 August 476 2nd time 9 April 491 515 Zeno 20 May 491 3rd time 515 Anastasius Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 518–602: Justinian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Euphemia ? ? 491–518 July 518 c. 524 Justin I Theodora (Θεοδώρα) Acacius c. 500 ? 1 August 527 28 June 548 Justinian I Aelia Sophia Sittas[5] c. 530 ? 14 November 565 sole empress consort 5 October 578 co-empress consort 5 October 578 after 601 Justin II Aelia Anastasia ? ? ? 7 December 574 Caesarissa September 578 co-empress consort 5 October 578 sole empress consort 14 August 582 593 Tiberius II Constantine Constantina Tiberius II Constantine (Justinian)[6] c. 560 Autumn 582 27 November 602 c. 605 Maurice Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 602–610: Non-dynastic[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Leontia ? ? ? 23 November 602 October 610 ? Phocas Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 610–711: Heraclian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Fabia Eudokia Rogas of Africa c. 580 5 October 610 13 August 612 Heraclius Martina Martinus ? 613 sole-empress consort 629/630 senior empress-consort 11 February 641 after 641 Gregoria Niketas 610s 629/630 629/630 junior empress-consort 11 February 641 senior empress-consort May 641 ? Constantine III Fausta Valentinus (Arsacid) c. 630 642 15 September 668 after 668 Constans II Anastasia ? ? ? 668 September 685 after 711 Constantine IV Eudokia ? ? ? c. 685? c. 695? ? Justinian II Theodora of Khazaria ? ? 703 705 December 711 ? Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 711–717: Non-dynastic[edit] None 717–802: Isaurian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Maria Tervel of Bulgaria[5] (Dulo) ? ? 25 March 717 18 June 741 ? Leo III Anna Leo III (Isaurian) c. 705 ? June 741 rival empress consort November 743 after 743 Artabasdos Irene of Khazaria Bihar ? c. 732 c. 732 co-empress consort 18 June 741 rival empress consort 2 November 743 sole empress consort c. 750 Constantine V Maria ? ? c. 750 c. 751 Eudokia ? ? c. 751 [7] 14 September 775 ? Irene Serantapechaina (Ειρήνη η Αθηναία, Eirēnē) ? (Sarantapechoi) c. 752 17 December 769 17 December 769 co-empress consort 25 March 775 sole empress consort 18 June 780 9 August 803 Leo IV Maria of Amnia ? c. 770 November 788 January 795 after 823 Constantine VI Theodote ? c. 780 September 795 c. 797 after 797 Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 802–813: Dynasty of Nikephoros I[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Theophano (Θεοφανώ) ? ? 20 December 807 807 co-empress consort 26 July 811 2 October 811 ? Staurakios Prokopia Nikephoros I c. 770 – after 813 late 8th century 2 October 811 11 July 813 after 813 Michael I Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 813–820: Non-dynastic[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Theodosia Arsaber c. 775 ? 11 July 813 25 December 820 after 826 Leo V Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 820–867: Phrygian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Thekla Bardanes Tourkos ? before 803 25 December 820 c. 823 Michael II Euphrosyne Constantine VI (Isaurian) c. 790 c. 823 2 October 829 after 836 Theodora the Armenian (Θεοδώρα) Marinos (Mamikonian) c. 815 5 June 830 20 January 842 after 867 Theophilos Eudokia Dekapolitissa ? ? 855 23–24 September 867 ? Michael III Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became empress Ceased to be empress Death Spouse Eudokia Ingerina[8] (Ευδοκία Ιγγερίνα) Inger c. 840 865 26 May 866 co-empress consort 24 September 867 sole-empress consort 882 Basil I Theophano (Θεοφανώ) Constantine Martiniakos ? c. 883 29 August 886 893/897 10 November 897 Leo VI Zoe Zaoutzaina Stylianos Zaoutzes ? 893/897[9] May 899 Eudokia Baïana ? ? Spring 900[7] 12 April 901 Zoe Karbonopsina (Ζωή Καρβωνοψίνα) ? ? 9 January 906[10] 11 May 912 ? Helena Lekapene Romanos I c. 910 May 919 May 919 co-empress consort 27 January 945 sole-empress consort 9 November 959 19 September 961 Constantine VII Theodora (Θεοδώρα) ? ? ? September 920 Caesarissa 17 December 920 senior co-empress consort 20 February 922 Romanos I Theophano [11] (Θεοφανώ) Anastaso c. 941 956 956 co-empress consort 9 November 959 sole-empress consort 15 March 963 1st time after 976 Romanos II August 963 2nd time 10–11 December 969 Nikephoros II Theodora the Macedonian (Θεοδώρα) Constantine VII (Macedonian) c. 946 November 971 10 January 976 ? John I Helena Alypius ? 976? 976? only empress or junior empress consort unknown, she predeceased her husband many years before he became sole emperor in 1025 ? Constantine VIII Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 1057–1059: Komnenid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Ekaterina of Bulgaria Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria (Comitopuli dynasty) ? before 1057 5 June 1057 rival empress consort 31 August 1057 sole empress consort 22 November 1059 after 1059 Isaac I Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Eudokia Makrembolitissa (Ευδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα) John Makrembolites (Makrembolites) 1021 before 1050 24 November 1059 1st time 22 May 1067 1096 Constantine X 1 January 1068 2nd time 1071 Romanos IV Irene Pegonitissa Niketas Pegonites ? ? ?around 1059? Caesarissa 1074 husband unwillingly proclaimed emperor by rebel Norman ? ? Caesar John Doukas Martha of Alania (as Maria) (Μαρία της Αλανίας) Bagrat IV of Georgia (Bagrationi) c. 1050 1065 1065 junior-empress consort 22 May 1067 co-empress consort 1071 sole-empress consort 1075 as senior empress consort 31 March 1078 after 1103 Michael VII c. 1078 10 December 1081 Nikephoros III Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Irene Doukaina (Ειρήνη Δούκαινα) Andronikos Doukas (Doukai) c. 1066 1078 4 April 1081 15 August 1118 19 February 1123 or 1133 Alexios I Piroska of Hungary (as Irene) Ladislaus I of Hungary (Árpád) 1088 1104 1104 co-empress consort 15 August 1118 sole-empress consort 13 August 1134 John II Dobrodeia of Kiev (as Irene) Mstislav of Kiev (Rurikids) c. 1122 c. 1122 co-empress consort 16 November 1131 Alexios Komnenos Bertha of Sulzbach (as Irene) Berengar II, Count of Sulzbach (Babenberg) 1110s after Epiphany 1146 1159 Manuel I Maria of Antioch Raymond of Antioch (Ramnulfids) 1145 24 December 1161 24 September 1180 1182 Agnes of France (as Anna) Louis VII of France (Capetian) 1171 2 March 1180 24 September 1180 October 1183 after 1204 Alexios II 1183 12 September 1185 Andronikos I Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Margaret of Hungary (as Maria) Béla III of Hungary (Árpád) 1175 c. 1185 12 September 1185 1st time 8 April 1195 1223 Isaac II Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera (Ευφροσύνη Δούκαινα Καματερίνα or Καματηρά) Andronikos Doukas Kamateros (Kamateroi-Doukai) c. 1155 c. 1169 8 April 1195 July 17/18 1203 1211 Alexios III Margaret of Hungary (as Maria) Béla III of Hungary (Árpád) 1175 c. 1185 July 1203 2nd time January 1204 1223 Isaac II Eudokia Angelina[12] (Ευδοκία Αγγελίνα) Alexios III (Angeloi) 1 December 1173 ?1204? 1211 Alexios V Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Empress consorts of the Eastern Roman Empire (in exile in Nicaea)[edit] Main article: List of consorts of the Byzantine successor states 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Anna Angelina Alexios III (Angeloi) c. 1176 1199 or early 1200 1204 death of brother-in-law 1205 husband proclaimed as emperor 1212 Theodore I Philippa of Armenia Ruben III of Armenia (Rubenid) 1183 24 November 1214 1216 before 1219 Marie de Courtenay Peter, Latin Emperor (Courtenay) c. 1204 1219 November 1221 September 1228 Irene Laskarina (Ειρήνη Λασκαρίνα) Theodore I (Laskaris) ? 1212 December 1221 1239 John III Anna of Hohenstaufen Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (Hohenstaufen) 1230 1244 3 November 1254 April 1307 Elena Asenina of Bulgaria Ivan II of Bulgaria (Asen) ? 1235 4 November 1254 husband proclaimed as emperor 1255 husband crowned as emperor 1 January 1259 as co-empress 18 August 1258 ? Theodore II Empress consorts of the Eastern Roman Empire (restored)[edit] 1261–1453, restored to Constantinople: Palaiologan dynasty[edit] Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Theodora Palaiologina Ioannes Doukas Vatatzes (Vatatzes) c. 1240 1253 1 January 1259 co-empress consort of Nicaea 18 August 1258 sole-empress consort of Nicaea 25 July 1261 empress consort, restored to Constantinople 8 November 1273 senior empress consort 1281 only empress consort 11 December 1282 4 March 1303 Michael VIII Anna of Hungary Stephen V of Hungary (Árpád) c. 1260 8 November 1273 co-empress consort 1281/1282 Andronikos II Irene of Montferrat William VII, Marquess of Montferrat (Aleramici) 1274 1284 sole empress consort 16 January 1294 senior empress consort 1317 Maria of Armenia Leo III of Armenia (Hetoumids) 10/11 January 1278 c. 1285 16 January 1294 junior empress consort 1317 only empress consort 12 October 1320 July 1333 Michael IX Irene of Brunswick Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Welf) c. 1293 March 1318 March 1318 co-empress consort July 1321 rival empress consort 16–17 August 1324 Andronikos III Anna of Savoy Amadeus V, Count of Savoy (Savoy) 1306 October 1326 October 1326 rival empress consort 24 May 1328 sole empress consort 15 June 1341 1359 Irene Asanina Andronikos Asen (Asen) c. 1300 before 1320 26 October 1341 rival empress consort 8 February 1347 co-empress consort 4 December 1354 1363–1379 John VI Helena Kantakouzene John VI (Kantakouzenoi) 1333 28 May/29 May 1347 28 May/29 May 1347 co-empress consort 1352 rival empress consort 4 December 1354 senior empress consort 12 August 1376 10 December 1396 John V Irene Palaiologina Demetrios Palaiologos (Palaiologoi) 1327 1340 15 April 1353 co-empress consort 4 December 1354 rival empress consort 1357 Matthew Kantakouzenos Maria of Bulgaria Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria (Shishman) 1348 after 17 August 1355 after 17 August 1355 co-empress consort 12 August 1376 senior empress consort 1 July 1379 1390 Andronikos IV Helena Kantakouzene John VI (Kantakouzenoi) 1333 28 May/29 May 1347 1 July 1379 senior empress consort, husband restored 14 April 1390 only empress 17 September 1390 senior empress consort, husband restored 16 February 1391 10 December 1396 John V Helena Dragaš Constantine Dragaš (Dragaš) c. 1372 10 February 1392 senior empress consort 21 July 1425 23 May 1450 Manuel II Irene Gattilusio Francesco II of Lesbos (Gattilusio) 1384 before 1397 co-empress consort 22 September 1408 1 June 1440 John VII Anna of Moscow Vasili I of Moscow (Rurikid) 1393 c. 1411 1416 Despoina and shortly after co-empress consort August 1417 John VIII Sophia Palaiologina of Montferrat Theodore II, Marquess of Montferrat (Palaiologoi) 1396 19 January 1421 19 January 1421 co-empress consort 21 July 1425 sole-empress consort August 1426 21 August 1434 Maria Megale Komnene Alexios IV of Trebizond (Megalokomnenoi) ? September 1427[7] 17 December 1439 Picture Name Father Birth Marriage Became Empress Ceased to be Empress Death Spouse Pretending Empress consorts of the Roman Empire[edit] Main article: List of consorts of the Byzantine successor states The Western Roman Empire met its end in 476 and the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. Although others continued to claim similar titles after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 – e.g. Holy Roman Empresses (as heirs of the Western Empire) or Russian Tsaritsas and Empresses (as the Empresses of the Third Rome) – the last reigning Empress consort of the Eastern Roman Empire of Constantinople was Maria of Trebizond. The last Palaiologan pretender, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his right to the imperial succession to Charles VIII of France, but he also willed the imperial titles to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille, and so in a sense either the French queens or the Spanish queens have been the titular Empresses of the Eastern Roman Empire since the 15th century. Another Palaiologian, Manuel Palaiologos, sold his right of succession to Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II (the Ottoman sultans already claim to be the Kaizer-i Rum or Roman emperors); but since there is no such thing as a sultaness because the Ottomans practiced polygamy, there are no Ottoman consorts. Other possible pretenders may be the former Queens of Greece because the Greek monarchy was mainly created in 1832 to be the successor of the Byzantine Empire. The former Queens of Italy could be another claimant since their husband's were one of the only European monarchs to effectively hold the city of Rome, the seat of the Roman Empire since its beginning. Neither the Empresses of Russia, the Queens of France, the Queens of Spain, the Queens of Italy or the Queens of the Hellenes claimed any sort of Roman titles and the claimants that clearly made the most point by using the word Roman in their title, the Holy Roman Empresses and the Queens of the Romans, ceased their claim upon the dissolution the empire in 1806. Currently the consorts of five of these states are pretenders in their own countries, themselves, and the current Queen of Spain claims no Roman titles. The status of the current pretenders to the Byzantine successor states of Trebizond, Epirus, and Nicaea are unclear much less their spouses; the despots of Morea became the Byzantine emperors (in exile) in 1453. Along with the current Pretending Latin emperor, the pretenders of the crusader and client states within the Latin Empire are also unclear. See also[edit] Roman Empire portal Byzantine Empire portal List of Augustae List of Russian consorts List of Latin Empresses of Constantinople List of Greek royal consorts Notes[edit] ^ never titled ^ her status as a concumbine or wife is unknown ^ Mentioned in "Letter To The Senate And People of Athens" by Julian ^ not known if she live to see this ^ a b historical theory ^ adoptive ^ a b c Third marriages are the last permitted according to the rules of Orthodox Church, but are highly disapproved by the Church. ^ formerly mistress of Michael III ^ There is a contradiction on Zoe Zaoutzaina's particular status 893–897. According to Symeon, the marriage of Leo VI to Theophano was officially void, allowing Leo and Zoe to marry within the year. According to Theophanes, the original marriage was still valid and Zoe remained the royal mistress. Theophano died in her monastery on 10 November 897. According to Theophanes, Leo and Zoe proceeded to marry at this point. Both Symeon and Theophanes agree that Zoe was only crowned Augusta following the death of her predecessor. ^ Fourth marriages are uncanonical in the eyes of the Orthodox Church. ^ Lover of future Emperor John I ^ Sometimes she is not considered the last Byzantine Empress consort before the Fourth Crusader because of the unknown date of her marriage. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman empresses and Byzantine empresses. v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Mesopotamia Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central Emperors Coronation Family tree Empresses Imperial 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empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses&oldid=1024796792" Categories: Roman empresses Byzantine empresses Byzantine Empire-related lists Lists of Roman women Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2019 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Bosanski Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 04:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2131	----	John Bach - Wikipedia John Bach From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search New Zealand actor This article is about the actor. For the basketball player and coach, see Johnny Bach. For other uses, see Johann Bach. This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. Find sources: "John Bach" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) John Bach Born (1946-06-05) 5 June 1946 (age 75) Cardiff, Wales John Bach (born 5 June 1946) is a Welsh-born New Zealand actor who has acted on stage, television and film over a period of more than four decades. Though born in Wales, he has spent most of his career living and working in New Zealand. International audiences are most likely to have seen Bach as the Gondorian Ranger Madril in the second and third movies of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001–2003). His leading roles in New Zealand television include playing the titular Detective Inspector John Duggan in the Duggan telemovies and television series, one of the truckdriving brothers in series Roche, and time on long-running soap opera Close to Home. In 1992 he starred as Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell in the telemovie The Sound and the Silence. In 1999 he played the Earl of Sackville in an episode of the TV miniseries A Twist in the Tale. Bach's Australian work includes science fiction series Farscape, playing Mike Power in based on a true story mini-series The Great Bookie Robbery (1986), and as Sir Ian Hamilton in the 2015 TV miniseries Gallipoli. In 2010 Bach appeared in NZ science fiction series This Is Not My Life as the sinister Harry Sheridan, as magistrate Titus Calavius in Spartacus: Blood and Sand and in an episode of Legend of the Seeker. He has also appeared in several New Zealand films, including Utu, Carry Me Back, Goodbye Pork Pie, Pallet on the Floor, Old Scores (in which he had a central role), and Beyond Reasonable Doubt. In 2014 he performed as body double for Saruman in place of Christopher Lee, who was unable to fly to New Zealand for principal photography on The Hobbit film series. He appeared as the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the first season of the 2016 Netflix drama series, Roman Empire. Note[edit] Despite being Welsh, Bach's surname is pronounced "Baitch", and not as in the Welsh word for small.[citation needed] External links[edit] John Bach at IMDb Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Other Social Networks and Archival Context Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Bach&oldid=995774206" Categories: 1946 births Living people New Zealand male television actors New Zealand male film actors Welsh emigrants to New Zealand Welsh male television actors Welsh male film actors 20th-century New Zealand male actors 20th-century Welsh male actors 21st-century New Zealand male actors 21st-century Welsh male actors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata BLP articles lacking sources from March 2020 All BLP articles lacking sources Use dmy dates from June 2013 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français مصرى Nederlands Српски / srpski Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 20:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2154	----	Clodius Albinus - Wikipedia Clodius Albinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Usurper and Caesar of the Roman Empire (c.150-197) For others with this cognomen, see Albinus (cognomen). Usurper and Caesar of the Roman Empire Clodius Albinus Usurper and Caesar of the Roman Empire Bust in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Born c. 150 Hadrumetum, Roman Africa (Sousse, Tunisia) Died 19 February 197 Lugdunum Names Decimus Clodius Albinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus[1][2] Decimus Clodius Albinus (c. 150 – 19 February 197) was a Roman general, senator and usurper who claimed the imperial title several times between 193 and 197. He was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) after the murder of Pertinax in 193 (known as the "Year of the Five Emperors"), and proclaimed himself emperor again in 196, before his final defeat the following year.[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Septimius Severus and Albinus 3 Albinus declares himself emperor 4 Notes 5 External links Life[edit] Albinus was born in Hadrumetum, Africa Province (Sousse, Tunisia) to an aristocratic Roman family. His father, Ceionius, said his son received the name of Albinus because of the extraordinary whiteness of his complexion.[3][4][better source needed] Showing a disposition for military life, he entered the army when very young and served with distinction, especially in 175 during the rebellion of Avidius Cassius against Emperor Marcus Aurelius. His merit was acknowledged by the Emperor in two letters in which he calls Albinus an African, who resembled his countrymen but little, and who was praiseworthy for his military experience and the gravity of his character.[4] The Emperor likewise declared that without Albinus the legions (in Bithynia) would have gone over to Avidius Cassius, and that he intended to have him chosen consul.[5] The Emperor Commodus gave Albinus a command in Gallia Belgica and afterwards in Britain. A false rumor having been spread that Commodus had died, Albinus denounced the man before his soldiers in Britain, calling Commodus a tyrant, and maintaining that it would be useful to the Roman Empire to restore to the senate its ancient dignity and power. The Senate was very pleased with these sentiments, but not so the Emperor, who sent Junius Severus to relieve Albinus of his command. Despite this, Albinus kept his command until after the murders of Commodus and his successor Pertinax in 193. Septimius Severus and Albinus[edit] Coin of Clodius Albinus[6] After Pertinax was assassinated, the praetorian prefect Aemilius Laetus and his men, who had arranged the murder, "sold" the imperial throne to wealthy senator Didius Julianus, effectively crowning him emperor. A string of mutinies by the troops in the provinces, however, meant the next Emperor was far from decided. Pescennius Niger was proclaimed Emperor by the legions in Syria; Septimius Severus by the troops in Illyricum and Pannonia; and Albinus by the armies in Britain and Gaul. In the civil war that followed, Albinus was initially allied with Septimius Severus, who had captured Rome. Albinus added the name Septimius to his own, and accepted the title of Caesar from him; the two shared a consulship in 194. Albinus remained effective ruler of much of the western part of the Empire, with support from three British legions and one Spanish.[7] When Didius Julianus was put to death by order of the Senate, who dreaded the power of Septimius Severus, the latter turned his arms against Pescennius Niger. After the defeat and death of Niger in 194, and the complete discomfiture of his adherents, especially after the fall of Byzantium in 196, Severus resolved to make himself the absolute master of the Roman Empire. Albinus, seeing the danger of his position, prepared for resistance. He narrowly escaped being assassinated by a messenger of Severus, after which he put himself at the head of his army, which is said to have consisted of 150,000 men.[4] Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193) Chronology Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger 193 Clodius Albinus 193 Septimius Severus 193–211 Succession Preceded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Followed by Severan dynasty Albinus declares himself emperor[edit] In autumn 196, Albinus received word that Severus had appointed his elder son Caracalla as his successor with the title of Caesar and convinced the Senate to declare Albinus himself an official enemy of Rome. Now with nothing to lose, Albinus mobilized his legions in Britannia, proclaimed himself Emperor (Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus) and crossed from Britain to Gaul, bringing a large part of the British garrison with him.[8] He defeated Severus' legate Virius Lupus, and was able to lay claim to the military resources of Gaul, but although he made Lugdunum the headquarters of his forces, he was unable to win the allegiance of the Rhine legions.[1] On 19 February 197 Albinus met Severus' army at the Battle of Lugdunum.[9] After a hard-fought battle, with 150,000 troops on each side according to Dio Cassius, Albinus was defeated and killed himself, or was captured and executed on the orders of Severus.[10] Severus had his naked body laid out on the ground before him, so that he could ride his horse over it, in a final act of humiliation. Albinus' wife and sons were initially pardoned by Severus, but he changed his mind almost immediately afterwards, for as the dead Albinus was beheaded, so were they. Albinus' headless body was thrown into the Rhône, together with the corpses of his murdered family. Severus sent his head to Rome as a warning to his supporters; with it he sent an insolent letter, in which he mocked the senate for their loyalty to Albinus. The town of Lugdunum was plundered, and the adherents of Albinus were cruelly persecuted by Severus. He had one son, or perhaps two, who were executed with their mother by order of Severus. It is said that he wrote a treatise on agriculture and a collection of Milesian tales.[11][12] Bust of Clodius Albinus in the Pushkin Museum, Moscow (a copy of the original in the Louvre Museum). Notes[edit] ^ a b c Birley, Anthony R. (1996), "Clodius Septimius Albinus, Decimus", in Hornblower, Simon (ed.), Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press ^ RE Clodius 17 ^ An universal history, from the earliest accounts to the present time ^ a b c Capitolinus, Clodius Albinus 4-10 ^ Plate, William (1867), "Albinus, Clodius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, pp. 93–94 ^ This coin celebrates Saeculum Frugiferum, the embodiment of a "fruitful era", probably Baal Hammon, a Phoenician divinity worshipped in North Africa, where Clodius came from. ^ The British legions were II Augusta, VI Victrix, and XX Valeria Victrix, the Spanish legion was the VII Gemina. ^ Indeed, he stripped Britain of every available soldier, which meant that Severus' new administration had to deal with several rebellions, including those of the Maeatae. ^ Spartianus, Severus 11 ^ Collingwood, Robin George; Myres, John Nowell Linton (1998), "Severeus and Albinus", Roman Britain and English Settlements, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, p. 155, ISBN 978-0-8196-1160-4, retrieved January 27, 2009 ^ Cassius Dio, lxx. 4—7 ^ Herodian, ii. 15, iii. 5—7 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Clodius Albinus. Livius.org: Decimus Clodius Albinus James Grout: D. Clodius Albinus, part of the Encyclopædia Romana Albinus coinage Political offices Preceded by Pertinax Governor of Britain 191–197 Succeeded by Virius Lupus Preceded by L. Fabius Cilo G. Aemilius Severus Cantabrinus Consul of Rome 194 With: Septimius Severus Succeeded by P. Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus Q. Tineius Clemens Regnal titles Preceded by Didius Julianus Roman emperor 193 in competition with Pescennius Niger and Septimius Severus Succeeded by Septimius Severus Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) 2 (data) Catalonia Croatia Netherlands Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clodius_Albinus&oldid=1022948329" Categories: 2nd-century births 197 deaths 2nd-century Roman usurpers Clodii Imperial Roman consuls People from Sousse People of Africa (Roman province) Roman governors of Britain Septimii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from September 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Lombard Magyar मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2021, at 12:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2159	----	Constantine Lekapenos - Wikipedia Constantine Lekapenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 924 to 945 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine Lekapenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miliaresion from 931–944, showing Romanos I's bust on a cross on the obverse and listing the names of Romanos and his co-emperors, Constantine VII, Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos, on the reverse. Byzantine emperor Reign 924–945 Co-emperors Constantine VII (920–944) Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos (924–944) Died 946–948 Spouse Helen Dynasty Lekapenos Father Romanos Lekapenos Mother Theodora Constantine Lekapenos or Lecapenus (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός, Kōnstantínos Lakapenós) was the third son of the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944), and co-emperor from 924 to 945. With his elder brother Stephen, he deposed Romanos I in December 944, but was overthrown and exiled by the legitimate emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) a few weeks later. Constantine was exiled to the island of Samothrace, where he was killed while attempting to escape sometime between 946 and 948. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Family 1.2 Reign 1.3 Exile and death 2 References 3 Sources Biography[edit] Family[edit] Constantine was one of the youngest sons of Romanos I and his wife Theodora. Theophanes Continuatus mentions him as the youngest son of the imperial couple, while the 11th-century chronicler George Kedrenos mentions him as the third of four known sons. His older brothers were Christopher Lekapenos (co-emperor 921–931) and Stephen Lekapenos (co-emperor 924-945). It is unclear if Theophylact (Patriarch of Constantinople in 933–956) was his younger brother or slightly older than he was. His sisters included Helena, who married Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (r. 913–959), and Agatha, who married Romanos Argyros. He probably also had at least two unnamed sisters, known only because of their marriages to the magistroi Romanos Mosele and Romanos Saronites.[1][2] Reign[edit] Romanos Lekapenos had risen to power in 919, when he had managed to appoint himself regent over the young Constantine VII and marry his daughter Helena to him. Within a year, he successively rose from basileopator to Caesar, and was eventually crowned senior emperor on 17 December 920.[3][4] To consolidate his hold on power, and with a view of supplanting the ruling Macedonian dynasty with his own family, he raised his eldest son Christopher to co-emperor in May 921, while Stephen and Constantine were proclaimed co-emperors on 25 December 924.[4][5] Following Christopher's early death in 931, and given Constantine VII's de facto sidelining, Stephen and Constantine assumed an increased prominence, although formally they still ranked after their brother-in-law in the college of emperors.[6] In 939, Constantine married his first wife Helena, a daughter of the patrikios Adrian, an Armenian.[7][8] Symeon Magister records the death of Helena on 14 January 940, and on 2 February of the same year, Constantine married his second wife, Theophano Mamas. Constantine had a son, named Romanos, but it is not recorded by which of his two wives.[7][9] This Romanos was castrated in 945, after the Lekapenoi lost power, to prevent him from claiming the Byzantine throne. He nevertheless pursued a career in the court, eventually reaching the rank of patrikios and the post of Eparch of Constantinople.[10] Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos came to the fore in 943, when they opposed a dynastic marriage for their nephew, Romanos II. Their father wanted to have his eldest surviving grandson married to Euphrosyne, a daughter of his successful general John Kourkouas. Although such a union would effectively cement the loyalty of the army, it would also strengthen the position of the legitimate Macedonian line, represented by Romanos II and his father Constantine VII, over the imperial claims of Romanos's own sons.[11] Predictably, Stephen and Constantine opposed this decision, and prevailed upon their father, who was by this time ill and old, to dismiss Kourkouas in the autumn of 944.[12][13] Romanos II instead married Bertha, an illegitimate daughter of Hugh of Arles, King of Italy, who changed her name to Eudokia after her marriage.[4] Seal of Constantine Lekapenos With Romanos I approaching the end of his life, the matter of his succession became urgent. In 943, Romanos drafted a will which would leave Constantine VII as the senior emperor following his death. This greatly upset his two sons, who feared that their brother-in-law would have them deposed and force them to take monastic vows. Motivated, in the opinion of Steven Runciman, partially by self-preservation and partially by genuine ambition, they started planning to seize power through a coup d'état, with Stephen apparently the ringleader and Constantine a rather reluctant partner.[14] Their fellow conspirators included Marianos Argyros, the protospatharios Basil Peteinos, Manuel Kourtikes, the strategos Diogenes, Clado, and Philip. Kedrenos, however, considers Peteinos to have served as an agent of Constantine VII among the conspirators. On 20 December 944, the conspirators set their plans in motion. The two brothers smuggled their supporters into the Great Palace of Constantinople during the midday break in palace activities. They then led their men into the chamber of Romanos I, where they easily captured the "ill old man". They were able to transport him to the nearest harbour and from there to Prote, one of the Princes' Islands and a popular place of exile. There, Romanos agreed to take monastic vows and retire from the throne.[15] Having managed to quietly depose their father, the brothers now had to deal with Constantine VII. Unfortunately for them, rumours soon spread around Constantinople to the effect that, following Romanos's deposition, Constantine VII's life was in danger. Before long, crowds gathered before the palace, demanding to see their emperor in person. The contemporary Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona notes that the ambassadors and envoys from Amalfi, Gaeta, Rome, and Provence present in the capital also supported Constantine VII. Stephen and his brother had to submit to the inevitable, recognizing their brother-in-law as the senior emperor.[16] The new triumvirate lasted for about 40 days. The three emperors soon appointed new leaders for the military services. Bardas Phokas the Elder was appointed as the new Domestic of the Schools, and Constantine Gongyles as head of the Byzantine navy. Stephen and his brother managed to reward their fellow conspirators. Peteinos became patrikios and Great Hetaeriarch, Argyros was appointed Count of the Stable, Kourtikes a patrikios and droungarios of the Watch.[17] On 26 January 945, however, at the urging of their sister, the Augusta Helena, another coup removed the two Lekapenoi from power under the accusation that they attempted to poison Constantine VII, and restored the sole imperial authority to the latter.[10][18] Exile and death[edit] Initially, the two brothers were sent to Prote. The Byzantine chroniclers have their father welcoming them by quoting a passage from the Book of Isaiah, specifically Chapter 1.2:[10] "Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth; for Jehovah hath spoken: I have nourished and brought up children, and they have rebelled against me."[19] Liutprand of Cremona, however, gives a slightly different account, having Romanos I receive his sons with bitter sarcasm, thanking them for not neglecting him and begging them to excuse the monks for their ignorance on how to properly receive emperors.[10] Constantine was soon transported to Tenedos, and then to Samothrace. He was ultimately killed while attempting to escape the island. The exact date is unknown, but since Theophanes Continuatus claims that the exiled Romanos I saw a nightmare featuring his son's descent to Hell at the time of Constantine's death, it can be placed between 946 and Romanos's own death in 948.[20] References[edit] ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1204. ^ Cawley 2011, Romanos Lekapenos. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 59–62. ^ a b c Kazhdan 1991, p. 1806. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 64–67. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 78–79. ^ a b Cawley 2011, Konstantinos Lekapenos. ^ Charanis 1963, Chapter II, p. 43: "Another, this one certainly an Armenian, was Adrian the patrician. Adrian must have been a person of some importance, for Romanus Lecapenus married his son Constantine to his daughter." ^ Runciman 1988, p. 78. ^ a b c d Runciman 1988, p. 234. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 230–231; Treadgold 1997, pp. 484–485. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 146. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 485. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 231–232. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 232. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 232–233. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 233. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 486. ^ American Standard Version (1901), Book of Isaiah. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 234–235. Sources[edit] Cawley, Charles (14 February 2011). "Medieval Lands Project: Byzantium 395–1057". Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Retrieved 20 February 2012. Charanis, Peter (1963). The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire. Lisbon, Portugal: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35722-5. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Lekapenos&oldid=1027091325" Categories: 10th-century births 940s deaths Macedonian dynasty Armenian Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine emperors Lekapenos family Byzantine people who died in prison custody Byzantine junior emperors Constantine VII Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2160	----	Valerius Valens - Wikipedia Valerius Valens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 316 to 317 Nominal Augustus of the Western Roman Empire Valerius Valens Nominal Augustus of the Western Roman Empire Follis of Valerius Valens struck in Alexandria Emperor of the Roman Empire (Unrecognized in the West) Reign late 316 – March 1, 317 (co-emperor with Licinius) Predecessor Constantine I Successor Constantine I Died March 1, 317 Names Aurelius Valerius Valens Regnal name Imperator Caesar Aurelius Valerius Valens Augustus Aurelius Valerius Valens (died March 1, 317) was Roman Emperor from late 316 to March 1, 317. Valens had previously been dux limitis[1] (duke of the frontier) in Dacia. In the first civil war between Licinius and Constantine I, the latter won an overwhelming victory at the battle of Cibalae on October 8, 316[2] (some historians date it in 314).[3] Licinius fled to Adrianople where, with the help of Valens, he gathered a second army. There, early in December 316, he elevated Valens to the rank of Augustus, presumably in order to secure his loyalty.[4] Much later, Licinius would use the same trick (with just as little success) in the second civil war with Constantine, by appointing Martinian co-emperor. Despite the literary sources[5] referring to Valens as a junior emperor (Caesar), the numismatic evidence indicates his Augustan rank.[6] After Licinius's indecisive defeat at Campus Ardiensis in later 316 / early 317, Constantine was still in the dominant position; from which he was able to force Licinius to recognize him as the senior emperor, depose Valens and appoint their sons as Caesars.[7] According to Petrus Patricius, he explicitly expressed his anger at the elevation of Valens by saying the following to the envoy of Mestrianus:[8] The emperor made clear the extent of his rage by his facial expression and by the contortion of his body. Almost unable to speak, he said, "We have not come to this present state of affairs, nor have we fought and triumphed from the ocean till where we have now arrived, just so that we should refuse to have our own brother-in-law as joint ruler because of his abominable behaviour, and so that we should deny his close kinship, but accept that vile slave [9] [Valens] with him into imperial college". The peace treaty was finalized at Serdica on 1 March, 317.[10] Whether it was part of the agreement is unknown, but Licinius also had Valens executed. Citations[edit] ^ A.H.M. Jones, J.R. Martindale, J. Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1971, p.1119 ^ For the consensus on the new dating of the battle of Cibalae in 316, see D.S. Potter 2004, p.378, C. Odahl 2004, p.164. Also see W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press 1997, p.34, A.S. Christensen, L. Baerentzen, Lactantius the Historian, Museum Tusculanum Press, 1980, p.23 ^ See, for instance, A.H.M. Jones 1949, p.127 and Ramsay MacMullen, Constantine, Routledge, 1987, p.67 ^ A.H.M. Jones 1949, p.127 ^ Zosimus and the anonymous author of Origo Constantini, see Odahl 2004, note 9 on p.342 ^ Samuel N. C. Lieu, D. Montserrat 1996, p.57 ^ Odahl 2004, p.165 ^ Petrus Patricius, Excerpta de legationibus ad gentes at N.C. Lieu, D. Montserrat, 1996 p.58 ^ "ευτελές ανδράποδον" in the original Greek text (J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca Cursus Completus, vol.113, col. 672) ^ D.S. Potter 2004, p.378 References[edit] Anonymus Valesianus. Origo Constantini Imperatoris at The Latin Library Jones, Arnold, H. M. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, The English University Press, 1949 Lieu, Samuel N. C., Montserrat, Dominic. From Constantine to Julian: A Source History, Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-09335-X (includes an English translation of Origo Constantini) Odahl, Charles M. Constantine and the Christian Empire, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 External links[edit] DiMaio, Michael, "Valens (316 A.D.)", DIR (1996). Valerius Valens Constantinian dynasty Born: Unknown Died: 317 Regnal titles Preceded by Licinius Roman Emperor 316–317 Served alongside: Licinius Succeeded by Licinius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valerius_Valens&oldid=1026088829" Categories: 4th-century Roman emperors 4th-century murdered monarchs Executed Roman emperors 317 deaths Aurelii Valerii Tetrarchy Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kiswahili مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2193	----	Lucius Verus - Wikipedia Lucius Verus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 169 For the opera, see Vologeso. Roman emperor Lucius Verus Bust, Metropolitan Museum of Art Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 –  23 January 169 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Marcus Aurelius Co-emperor Marcus Aurelius Born 15 December 130 Died 23 January 169 (aged 38)[1] Altinum, Italy Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Lucilla (m. 164) Issue 3 (died young) Names Lucius Ceionius Commodus (birth) Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus (adoption) Lucius Aurelius Verus (emperor)[2] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Lucius Aelius (natural) Antoninus Pius (adoptive, from February 138) Mother Avidia Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Lucius Aurelius Verus (15 December 130 – 23 January 169) was Roman emperor from 161 until his death in 169, alongside his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius. He was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty. Verus' succession together with Marcus Aurelius marked the first time that the Roman Empire was ruled by multiple emperors, an increasingly common occurrence in the later history of the Empire. The eldest son of Lucius Aelius Caesar, first adopted son and heir to Hadrian, Verus was born and educated in Rome where he held several political offices prior to taking the throne. After his biological father's death in 138, he was adopted by Antoninus Pius, who was himself adopted by Hadrian. Hadrian died later that year, and Antoninus Pius succeeded to the throne. Antoninus Pius ruled until 161 and was succeeded by Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. The majority of Verus's reign was occupied by his direction of the war with Parthia which ended in Roman victory and some territorial gains. After initial involvement in the Marcomannic Wars, he fell ill and died in 169. He was deified by the Roman Senate as the Divine Verus (Divus Verus). Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Emperor 2.1 Accession of Lucius and Marcus, 161 2.2 Early rule, 161–62 2.3 War with Parthia, 161–66 2.3.1 Origins to Lucius's dispatch, 161–62 2.3.1.1 Strategic emergency 2.3.2 Lucius's dispatch and journey east, 162–63? 2.3.3 Luxury and logistics at Antioch, 162?–65 2.3.4 Counterattack and victory, 163–66 2.3.5 Invasion of Mesopotamia (165) 2.4 Years in Rome 2.5 Wars on the Danube and death 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Citations 7 External links Early life and career[edit] Lucius Verus as a child Bust of Lucius Verus from Florence. Displayed at exhibition in Taipei. 2013 Bust of Antoninus Pius Born Lucius Ceionius Commodus on 15 December 130, Verus was the first-born son of Avidia and Lucius Aelius Caesar, the first adopted son and heir of Emperor Hadrian.[3] He was born and raised in Rome. Verus had another brother, Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus,[citation needed] and two sisters, Ceionia Fabia and Ceionia Plautia.[3] His maternal grandparents were the senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and the unattested noblewoman Plautia. Although Hadrian was his adoptive paternal grandfather, his biological paternal grandparents were the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus and either Aelia or Fundania Plautia.[citation needed] When his father died in early 138, Hadrian chose Antoninus Pius (86–161) as his successor. Antoninus was adopted by Hadrian on the condition that Verus and Hadrian's great-nephew Marcus Aurelius be adopted by Antoninus as his sons and heirs.[citation needed] By this scheme, Verus, who was already Hadrian's adoptive grandson through his natural father, remained as such through his new father, Antoninus. The adoption of Marcus Aurelius was probably a suggestion of Antoninus himself, since Marcus was the nephew of Antoninus' wife.[citation needed] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal.[4] As a prince and future emperor, Verus received careful education from the famous grammaticus Marcus Cornelius Fronto.[citation needed] He was reported to have been an excellent student, fond of writing poetry and delivering speeches. Verus started his political career as a quaestor in 153, became consul in 154, and in 161 was consul again with Marcus Aurelius as his senior partner.[citation needed] Emperor[edit] Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Denarius of Lucius Verus. Inscription: L. VERVS AVG. ARMENIACVS. Accession of Lucius and Marcus, 161[edit] Antoninus died on 7 March 161, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius bore deep affection for Antoninus, as evidenced by the first book of Meditations.[5] Although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[6] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[7] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name, Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[8][notes 1] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[9][notes 2] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or authority, than Verus. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Pius' administration, and he alone was Pontifex maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[9] As the biographer wrote, "Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor."[11] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the praetorian guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[12] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[13] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[14] Pius's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate".[15] If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Pius's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes.[16] A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Pius, now Divus Antoninus. Pius's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[16] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[14] Early rule, 161–62[edit] Ancient Roman bust of Lucius Verus as a young man, in the Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[17] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[18] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter (lacking pomp) behavior.[19] The emperors permitted free speech, evinced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. At any other time, under any other emperor, he would have been executed. But it was a peaceful time, a forgiving time. And thus, as the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius."[19] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[20] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality."[21] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[22] Lucius was less esteemed by his tutor than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[23] Marcus told Fronto of his reading—Coelius and a little Cicero—and his family. His daughters were in Rome, with their great-great-aunt Matidia Minor; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them.[24] The emperors' early reign proceeded smoothly. Marcus was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[25] Some minor troubles cropped up in the spring; there would be more later. In the spring of 162,[notes 3] the Tiber flooded over its banks, destroying much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[27][notes 4] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[29] War with Parthia, 161–66[edit] Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars Head of Lucius Verus on an older statue from 50 to 75 AD, in military garb and wearing a muscle cuirass, Farnese Collection, Naples Origins to Lucius's dispatch, 161–62[edit] On his deathbed, Pius spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[30] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[31] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[32] At the time of the invasion, the Governor of Syria was Lucius Attidius Cornelianus. Attidius had been retained as governor even though his term ended in 161, presumably to avoid giving the Parthians the chance to wrong-foot his replacement. The Governor of Cappadocia, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters. But living in the east had a deleterious effect on his character.[33] Severianus had fallen under the influence of Alexander of Abonoteichus, a self-proclaimed prophet who carried a snake named Glycon around with him, but was really only a confidence man.[34] Alexander was father-in-law to the respected senator Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, then-proconsul of Asia, and friends with many members of the east Roman elite.[35] Alexander convinced Severianus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself.[36] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana)[37] into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general, Chosrhoes, at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.[38] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[39] Marcus was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side—and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[40][notes 5] Marcus made the necessary appointments: Marcus Statius Priscus, the Governor of Britain, was sent to replace Severianus as Governor of Cappadocia.[42] Sextus Calpurnius Agricola took Priscus's former office.[43] Strategic emergency[edit] Colossal head of Lucius Verus (mounted on a modern bust), from a villa belonging to him in Acqua Traversa near Rome, between 180 and 183 AD, Louvre Museum, Paris More news arrived: Attidius Cornelianus's army had been defeated in battle against the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[44] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[45] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[46] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[47] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[48] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[49] Attidius Cornelianus himself was replaced by Marcus Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties[50]—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[51] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[52] Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?"[53] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[54] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[55] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back.[56] Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say." He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty. Who knows better than you how demanding it is?"[57] Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, including Cicero's pro lege Manilia, in which the orator had argued in favor of Pompey taking supreme command in the Mithridatic War. It was an apt reference (Pompey's war had taken him to Armenia), and may have had some impact on the decision to send Lucius to the eastern front.[58] "You will find in it many chapters aptly suited to your present counsels, concerning the choice of army commanders, the interests of allies, the protection of provinces, the discipline of the soldiers, the qualifications required for commanders in the field and elsewhere [...][notes 6]"[60] To settle his unease over the course of the Parthian War, Fronto wrote Marcus a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, at Allia, at Caudium, at Cannae, at Numantia, Cirta, and Carrhae;[61] under Trajan, Hadrian, and Pius;[62] but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".[63] Lucius's dispatch and journey east, 162–63?[edit] Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum Over the winter of 161–62, as more troubling news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian War in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity.[64] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor.[65][notes 7] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and Lucius left. Marcus remained in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".[67] Furius Victorinus, one of the two praetorian prefects, was sent with Lucius, as were a pair of senators, M. Pontius Laelianus Larcius Sabinus and M. Iallius Bassus, and part of the praetorian guard.[66] Victorinus had previously served as procurator of Galatia, giving him some experience with eastern affairs.[68][notes 8] Moreover, he was far more qualified than his praetorian partner, Cornelius Repentinus, who was said to owe his office to the influence of Pius's mistress, Galeria Lysistrate.[69] Repentinus had the rank of a senator, but no real access to senatorial circles—his was merely a decorative title.[70] Since a prefect had to accompany the guard, Victorinus was the clear choice.[69] Laelianus had been governor of both Pannonias and Governor of Syria in 153; thus he had first-hand knowledge of the eastern army and military strategy on the frontiers. He was made comes Augustorum ("companion of the emperors") for his service.[71] Laelianus was, in the words of Fronto, "a serious man and an old-fashioned disciplinarian".[72] Bassus had been Governor of Lower Moesia, and was also made comes.[73] Lucius selected his favorite freedmen, including Geminus, Agaclytus, Coedes, Eclectus,[74] and Nicomedes, who gave up his duties as praefectus vehiculorum to run the commissariat of the expeditionary force.[68] The fleet of Misenum was charged with transporting the Emperor and general communications and transport.[75] Lucius left in the summer of 162 to take a ship from Brundisium; Marcus followed him as far as Capua. Lucius feasted himself in the country houses along his route, and hunted at Apulia. He fell ill at Canosa, probably afflicted with a stroke, and took to bed.[76] Marcus made prayers to the gods for his safety in front of the senate, and hurried south to see him.[77] Fronto was upset at the news, but was reassured when Lucius sent him a letter describing his treatment and recovery. In his reply, Fronto urged his pupil to moderate his desires, and recommended a few days of quiet bedrest. Lucius was better after three days' fasting and a bloodletting. It was probably only a mild stroke.[78] Verus continued eastward via Corinth and Athens, accompanied by musicians and singers as if in a royal progress.[79] At Athens he stayed with Herodes Atticus, and joined the Eleusinian Mysteries.[80] During sacrifice, a falling star was observed in the sky, shooting west to east.[81] He stopped in Ephesus, where he is attested at the estate of the local aristocrat Publius Vedius Antoninus,[82] and made an unexpected stopover at Erythrae.[83] The journey continued by ship through the Aegean and the southern coasts of Asia Minor, lingering in the famed pleasure resorts of Pamphylia and Cilicia, before arriving in Antioch.[84] It is not known how long Verus's journey east took; he might not have arrived in Antioch until after 162.[85] Statius Priscus, meanwhile, must have already arrived in Cappadocia; he would earn fame in 163 for successful generalship.[86] Luxury and logistics at Antioch, 162?–65[edit] Antioch from the southwest (engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) Statue of Lucius Verus on a body modelled after a sculpture by the ancient Athenian sculptor Myron, Vatican Museums Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[87] He took up a mistress named Panthea,[notes 9] from Smyrna.[89] The biographer calls her a "low-born girl-friend",[90] but she was described as a "woman of perfect beauty" by Lucius. One biographer has postulated that Panthea may have been more beautiful than any of Phidias and Praxiteles' statues.[91] The mistress was musically inclined and spoke Ionic Greek, spiced with Attic wit.[92] Panthea read Lucian's first draft, and criticized him for flattery. He had compared her to a goddess, which frightened her—she did not want to become the next Cassiopeia.[93] She had power, too. She made Lucius shave his beard for her. The Syrians mocked him for this, as they did for much else.[94] Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle.[95] He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through".[96] He enjoyed the company of actors.[97] He made a special request for dispatches from Rome, to keep him updated on how his chariot teams were doing.[98] He brought a golden statue of the Greens' horse Volucer around with him, as a token of his team spirit.[99] Fronto defended his pupil against some of these claims: the Roman people needed Lucius' bread and circuses to keep them in check.[100][notes 10] This, at least, is how the biographer has it. The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (HA Verus 4.4–6.6) is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Some few passages seem genuine;[notes 11] others take and elaborate something from the original.[notes 12] The rest is by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[104] Lucius faced quite a task. Fronto described the scene in terms recalling Corbulo's arrival one hundred years before.[105] The Syrian army had turned soft during the east's long peace. They spent more time at the city's open-air cafés than in their quarters. Under Lucius, training was stepped up. Pontius Laelianus ordered that their saddles be stripped of their padding. Gambling and drinking were sternly policed.[106] Fronto wrote that Lucius was on foot at the head of his army as often as on horseback. He personally inspected soldiers in the field and at camp, including the sick bay.[107] Lucius sent Fronto few messages at the beginning of the war. He sent Fronto a letter apologizing for his silence. He would not detail plans that could change within a day, he wrote. Moreover, there was little thus far to show for his work: "not even yet has anything been accomplished such as to make me wish to invite you to share in the joy".[108] Lucius did not want Fronto to suffer the anxieties that had kept him up day and night.[109] One reason for Lucius' reticence may have been the collapse of Parthian negotiations after the Roman conquest of Armenia. Lucius' presentation of terms was seen as cowardice.[110] The Parthians were not in the mood for peace.[111] Lucius needed to make extensive imports into Antioch, so he opened a sailing route up the Orontes. Because the river breaks across a cliff before reaching the city, Lucius ordered that a new canal be dug. After the project was completed, the Orontes' old riverbed dried up, exposing massive bones—the bones of a giant. Pausanias says they were from a beast "more than eleven cubits" tall; Philostratus says that it was "thirty cubits" tall. The oracle at Claros declared that they were the bones of the river's spirit.[112] These bones would later be understood to be that of large animals.[113] Lucilla depicted as Ceres In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla.[114] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[115] Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him.[116] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father.[117] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen.[118] Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[119] Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[120] Lucilla would bear three of Lucius' children in the coming years. Lucilla became Lucilla Augusta.[121] Counterattack and victory, 163–66[edit] I Minervia and V Macedonica, under the legates M. Claudius Fronto and P. Martius Verus, served under Statius Priscus in Armenia, earning success for Roman arms during the campaign season of 163,[122] including the capture of the Armenian capital Artaxata.[123] At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[124] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[125] The army of Syria was reinforced by II Adiutrix and Danubian legions under X Gemina's legate Geminius Marcianus.[126] The Euphrates river near Raqqa, Syria Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[127] On Birley's reckoning, it was thirty miles closer to the Roman border.[116] Detachments from Cappadocian legions are attested at Echmiadzin, beneath the southern face of Mount Ararat, 400 km east of Satala. It would have meant a march of twenty days or more, through mountainous terrain, from the Roman border; a "remarkable example of imperialism", in the words of Fergus Millar.[128] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[129] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Verus sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[130] In 163, while Statius Priscus was occupied in Armenia, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia, just east of Syria, with its capital at Edessa. They deposed the country's leader, Mannus, and replaced him with their own nominee, who would remain in office until 165.[131] (The Edessene coinage record actually begins at this point, with issues showing Vologases IV on the obverse and "Wael the king" (Syriac: W'L MLK') on the reverse).[132] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[111] On the evidence of Lucian, the Parthians still held the southern, Roman bank of the Euphrates (in Syria) as late as 163 (he refers to a battle at Sura, which is on the southern side of the river).[133] Before the end of the year, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[134][notes 13] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.[137] There was little movement in 164; most of the year was spent on preparations for a renewed assault on Parthian territory.[116] Invasion of Mesopotamia (165)[edit] The apotheosis of Lucius Verus, 2nd century relief plates from Ephesus, on display at Humboldt University of Berlin Ancient bust of Lucius Verus in the Bardo National Museum, Tunis, 2nd century AD In 165, Roman forces, perhaps led by Martius Verus and the V Macedonica, moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, Mannus re-installed.[138] His coinage resumed, too: 'Ma'nu the king' (Syriac: M'NW MLK') or Antonine dynasts on the obverse, and 'King Mannos, friend of Romans' (Greek: Basileus Mannos Philorōmaios) on the reverse.[132] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris; their general Chosrhoes swam down the river and made his hideout in a cave.[139] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[140] By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[141] Whatever the case, the sacking marks a particularly destructive chapter in Seleucia's long decline.[142] Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[143] Iunius Maximus, a young tribunus laticlavius serving in III Gallica under Cassius, took the news of the victory to Rome. Maximus received a generous cash bounty (dona) for bringing the good news, and immediate promotion to the quaestorship.[144] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[145] Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[146] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[147] Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals. The forces that advanced on Osroene were led by M. Claudius Fronto, an Asian provincial of Greek descent who had led I Minervia in Armenia under Priscus. He was probably the first senator in his family.[148] Fronto was consul for 165, probably in honor of the capture of Edessa.[149] P. Martius Verus had led V Macedonica to the front, and also served under Priscus. Martius Verus was a westerner, whose patria was perhaps Tolosa in Gallia Narbonensis.[150] The most prominent general, however, was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was a young senator of low birth from the north Syrian town of Cyrrhus. His father, Heliodorus, had not been a senator, but was nonetheless a man of some standing: he had been Hadrian's ab epistulis, followed the emperor on his travels, and was prefect of Egypt at the end of Hadrian's reign. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings.[151] Cassius and Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166.[152] Vologases IV of Parthia (147–191) made peace but was forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans. Years in Rome[edit] Portrait head of Lucius Verus, found in Athens (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). He used to sprinkle gold-dust on his blond hair to make it brighter.[153] The next two years (166–168) were spent in Rome. Verus continued with his glamorous lifestyle and kept the troupe of actors and favourites with him. He had a tavern built in his house, where he celebrated parties with his friends until dawn. He also enjoyed roaming around the city among the population, without acknowledging his identity. The games of the circus were another passion in his life, especially chariot racing. Marcus Aurelius disapproved of his conduct but, since Verus continued to perform his official tasks with efficiency, there was little that he could do.[citation needed] Wars on the Danube and death[edit] Further information: Marcomannic Wars In the spring of 168 war broke out in the Danubian border when the Marcomanni invaded the Roman territory. This war would last until 180, but Verus did not see the end of it. In 168, as Verus and Marcus Aurelius returned to Rome from the field, Verus fell ill with symptoms attributed to food poisoning, dying after a few days (169). However, scholars believe that Verus may have been a victim of smallpox, as he died during a widespread epidemic known as the Antonine Plague.[citation needed] Despite the minor differences between them, Marcus Aurelius grieved the loss of his adoptive brother. He accompanied the body to Rome, where he offered games to honour his memory. After the funeral, the senate declared Verus divine to be worshipped as Divus Verus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Augustan History Notes[edit] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, the main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[9] The fourth-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[10] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name "Verus" before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[9] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Pius, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustus planned to leave Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank—but all of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[9] ^ Because both Verus and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus 8.4–5), the flood must have happened before Verus's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Pius' funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[26] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161).[22] ^ Since 15 CE, the river had been administered by a Tiber conservancy board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis (curator of the Tiber bed and banks and the city sewers") was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos' likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than "paid leave".[28] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the fifth-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded "countless legions" vivente Pio (while Pius was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on second-century history).[41] ^ The text breaks off here.[59] ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[66] ^ Victorinus had also served in Britain, on the Danube, in Spain, as prefect of the Italian fleets, as prefect of Egypt, and in many posts in Rome itself.[68] ^ Or "Pantheia".[88] ^ Fronto called it "the corn-dole and public spectacles" (annona et spectaculis), preferring his own pompous rephrase to Juvenal's plain panem et circenses.[101] (Fronto was, in any case, unfamiliar with Juvenal; the author was out of style through the classicizing mania of the Second Sophistic, and would not become popular until the later fourth century).[102] ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8, "He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'."; 4.10, "He never needed much sleep, however; and his digestion was excellent."; perhaps 5.7, "After the banquet, moreover, they diced until dawn.".[103] ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8 ("He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'.") and 10.9 ("Among other articles of extravagance he had a crystal goblet, named Volucer after that horse of which he had been very fond, that surpassed the capacity of any human draught.") are the seed for 6.2–6, "And finally, even at Rome, when he was present and seated with Marcus, he suffered many insults from the 'Blues,' because he had outrageously, as they maintained, taken sides against them. For he had a golden statue made of the 'Green' horse Volucer, and this he always carried around with him; indeed, he was wont to put raisins and nuts instead of barley in this horse's manger and to order him brought to him, in the House of Tiberius, covered with a blanket dyed with purple, and he built him a tomb, when he died, on the Vatican Hill. It was because of this horse that gold pieces and prizes first began to be demanded for horses, and in such honour was this horse held, that frequently a whole peck of gold pieces was demanded for him by the faction of the 'Greens'."; 10.8, "He was somewhat halting in speech, a reckless gambler, ever of an extravagant mode of life, and in many respects, save only that he was not cruel or given to acting, a second Nero.", for the comparison with other "bad emperors" at 4.6 ("...he so rivalled Caligula, Nero, and Vitellius in their vices..."), and, significantly, the excuse to use Suetonius.[103] ^ The letter noting the victories (Ad Verum Imperator 2.1) dates to 164 (Fronto makes a reference to Marcus' delay in taking the Armeniacus; since he took the title in 164, the letter can be no earlier than that date),[135] but the battles themselves date to 163.[136] Citations[edit] ^ Dodd, C. H. (1914). "Chronology of the Danubian Wars of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus". The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal. XIII. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b Bishop, M. C. (30 March 2018). Lucius Verus and the Roman Defence of the East. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-4945-7. ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53–54. ^ Marcus Aurelius, "Meditations", Book 1, 1.16 ^ HA Verus 3.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 156. ^ HA Verus 4.1; Marcus 7.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116–17. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157 n.53. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157 n.53. ^ HA Verus 4.2, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117–18. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117–18. "twice the size": Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118, 278 n.6. ^ a b HA Marcus 7.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ HA Marcus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organisation Italiens (1979), 146ff. ^ a b HA Marcus 8.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator 1.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator 1.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ HA Marcus 8.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 30–31. ^ HA Marcus 8.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ HA Marcus 11.3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.16. ^ HA Pius 12.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, "The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): 281. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 241–50. ^ Lucian, Alexander 30; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ HA Marcus 8.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 122. ^ HA Pius 7.11; Marcus 7.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103–4, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–4, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 349. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing A.R. Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (1981), 123ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), 65ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050[permanent dead link]–51[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097[permanent dead link]–98[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Marcus 12.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31). ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21). ^ De bello Parthico 2 (= Haines 2.21–23); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Dio 71.1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Verus 5.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, 125. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Marcus 8.9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing H.G. Pflaum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 139. ^ a b HA Pius 8.9; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160–61. ^ Giuseppe Camodeca, "La carriera del prefetto del pretorio Sex.Cornelius Repentinus in una nuova iscrizione puteolana" (in Italian), Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 43 (1981): 47. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1094[permanent dead link], 1100[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.84ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 1.4. ^ HA Verus 8.6, 9.3–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing C.G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy, (1941), 188ff. ^ HA Verus 6.7–9; HA Marcus 8.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–6. Stroke: Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; Haines 2.85 n. 1. ^ HA Marcus 8.11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.85–87); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing SIG3 1.869, 872; HA Hadrian 13.1. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing Cassiodorus senator s.a. 162. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161, citing I Eph 728, 3072; H. Halfmann, Itinera Principum. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich (Stuttgart, 1986), 210–11. ^ Christian Habicht, "Pausanias and the Evidence of Inscriptions", Classical Antiquity 3:1 (1984), 42–43, citing IErythrai 225. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Dio 71.3.1; HA Verus 7.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Barry Baldwin, review of C.P. Jones' Culture and Society in Lucian, American Historical Review 92:5 (1987), 1185. ^ Smyrna: Lucian, Imagines 2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 11, 14–15; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Pro Imaginibus 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, cf. 7.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.6, tr. Magie; cf. 5.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 8.7, 8.10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Juvenal, 10.78; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Alan Cameron, "Literary Allusions in the Historia Augusta", Hermes 92:3 (1964), 367–68. ^ a b Barnes, 69. Translations from the HA Verus: Magie, ad loc. ^ Barnes, 69. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historia 13 (= Haines 2.209–11); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129–30. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; citing Panegyrici Latini 14(10).6. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Pausanias 8.29.3–4; Philostratus, Heroicus 138.6–9 K., 9.5–7 L.; Christopher Jones, "The Emperor and the Giant", Classical Philology 95:4 (2000): 476–81. ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2011). The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780691150130. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Barnes, 72; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163; cf. also Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians", Journal of Roman Studies 58:1–2 (1968), 39; "Some Persons in the Historia Augusta", Phoenix 26:2 (1972), 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161–62, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874 (Claudius Fronto); Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; HA Verus 7.1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8977[permanent dead link] (II Adiutrix); Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050[permanent dead link]–51[permanent dead link] (Marcianus); Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Dio 71.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 394[permanent dead link]; 9117[permanent dead link]; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 280 n. 42; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, 279 n. 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ a b Millar, Near East, 112. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 29; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Champlin, "Chronology", 147. ^ Astarita, 41; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098[permanent dead link]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), 124ff., on the date. ^ John F. Matthews, The Roman Empire of Ammianus (London: Duckworth, 1989), 142–43. Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163–64, says that the siege marked the end of the city's history. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy and Halfmann, "Iunius Mauricus und die Victoria Parthica", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 35 (1979): 195–212 = Alföldy, Römische Heeresgeschichte. Beiträge 1962–1985 (Amsterdam, 1987), 203 ff (with addenda, 220–1); Fronto, Ad amicos 1.6. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), 99 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 179 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 24, 221. ^ Michael Grant (1994). The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10754-7, pp 27-28. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Verus. Lucius Verus Antonine dynasty Cadet branch of the Nervan-Antonian Dynasty Born: 15 December 130  Died: 169 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–169 With: Marcus Aurelius Succeeded by Marcus Aurelius (alone) Political offices Preceded by Gaius Cattius Marcellus Quintus Petiedius Gallus Roman consul 154 with Titus Sextius Lateranus Succeeded by (Prifernius?) Paetus Marcus Nonius Macrinus Preceded by Tiberius Oclatius Severus Novius Sabinianus Roman consul II 161 with Marcus Aurelius III Succeeded by Marcus Annius Libo Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-2203	----	Lombards - Wikipedia Lombards From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical ethnical group Not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of the region of Lombardy in Italy. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Lombards" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento The Lombards (/ˈlɒmbərdz, -bɑːrdz, ˈlʌm-/)[1] or Langobards (Latin: Langobardi) were a Germanic people[2] who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the History of the Lombards (written between 787 and 796) that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili,[3] who dwelt in southern Scandinavia[4] (Scadanan) before migrating to seek new lands. Roman-era authors however reported them in the 1st century AD, as one of the Suebian peoples, in what is now northern Germany, near the Elbe river. By the end of the 5th century, the Lombards had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria and Slovakia north of the Danube river, where they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids. The Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552; his successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids in 567. Following this victory, Alboin decided to lead his people to Italy, which had become severely depopulated and devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom there. In contrast with the Goths and the Vandals, the Lombards left Scandinavia and descended south through Germany, Austria and Slovenia, only leaving Germanic territory a few decades before reaching Italy. The Lombards would have consequently remained a predominantly Germanic tribe by the time they invaded Italy.[5] The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was almost unopposed. By late 569 they had conquered all of northern Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central Italy and southern Italy. They established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum Italicum ("Kingdom of Italy"), which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish king Charlemagne and integrated into the Frankish Empire. However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula well into the 11th century, when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. In this period, the southern part of Italy still under Lombard domination was known to the foreigners by the name Langbarðaland (Land of the Lombards), in the Norse runestones.[6] Their legacy is also apparent in the name of the region of Lombardy in Northern Italy. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.1.1 Legendary origins 2.1.2 Archaeology and migrations 2.2 Kingdom in Italy, 568–774 2.2.1 Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula 2.2.1.1 Langobardia major 2.2.1.2 Langobardia minor 2.2.2 Arian monarchy 2.2.3 Catholic monarchy 2.3 Later history 2.3.1 Falling to the Franks and the Duchy of Benevento, 774–849 2.3.2 Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915 2.3.3 Lombard principalities in the 10th century 2.3.4 Norman conquest, 1017–1078 3 Genetics 4 Culture 4.1 Language 4.2 Social structure 4.2.1 Migration Period society 4.2.2 Society of the Catholic kingdom 4.2.3 Lombard states 4.3 Religious history 4.3.1 Christianisation 4.3.2 Beneventan Christianity 4.4 Art 4.4.1 Architecture 5 List of rulers 6 Notes and sources 6.1 Notes 7 Ancient sources 8 Modern sources 9 External links Name[edit] According to their own traditions, the Lombards initially called themselves the Winnili. After a reported major victory against the Vandals in the 1st century, they changed their name to Lombards.[7] The name Winnili is generally translated as 'the wolves', related to the Proto-Germanic root *wulfaz 'wolf'.[8] The name Lombard was reportedly derived from the distinctively long beards of the Lombards.[9] It is probably a compound of the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz (long) and *bardaz (beard). History[edit] Early history[edit] Legendary origins[edit] Further information: Hundings Wodan (Godan) and Frigg (Frea) looking out of a window in the heavens... ...and spotting the Lombard women with their long hair tied as to appear as beards Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, circa 720-799 According to their own legends the Lombards originated in southern Scandinavia.[10] The Northern European origins of the Lombards is supported by genetic,[11][12] anthropological,[10] archaeological and earlier literary evidence.[10] A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum (History of the Lombards) of Paul the Deacon, written in the 8th century. Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the Lombard People). The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a small tribe called the Winnili[3] dwelling in southern Scandinavia[4] (Scadanan) (the Codex Gothanus writes that the Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul).[13] The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their native land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation.[14] The departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara[15][16] and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast[17] or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe.[18] Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war. The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute."[19] The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan (the god Odin[4]), who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise.[20] The Winnili were fewer in number[19] and Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess Frigg[4]), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands. At sunrise, Frea turned her husband's bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, "Who are these long-beards?," and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory."[21] From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards (Latinised as Langobardi, Italianised as Longobardi, and Anglicized as Langobards or Lombards). When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian. He thought the pagan stories of his people "silly" and "laughable".[20][22] Paul explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their beards.[23] A modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin.[24] Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition.[25] Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this.[26] Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, whose many names include "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that the Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity.[27] The same Old Norse root Barth or Barði, meaning "beard", is shared with the Heaðobards mentioned in both Beowulf and in Widsith, where they are in conflict with the Danes. They were possibly a branch of the Langobards.[28][29] Alternatively some etymological sources suggest an Old High German root, barta, meaning “axe” (and related to English halberd), while Edward Gibbon puts forth an alternative suggestion which argues that: …Börde (or Börd) still signifies “a fertile plain by the side of a river,” and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view Langobardi would signify “inhabitants of the long bord of the river;” and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick in the neighborhood of the Elbe.[30] According to the Gallaecian Christian priest, historian and theologian Paulus Orosius (translated by Daines Barrington), the Lombards or Winnili lived originally in the Vinuiloth (Vinovilith) mentioned by Jordanes, in his masterpiece Getica, to the north of Uppsala, Sweden. Scoringa was near the province of Uppland, so just north of Östergötland. The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa: The shores of Uppland and Östergötland are covered with small rocks and rocky islands, which are called in German Schæren and in Swedish Skiaeren. Heal signifies a port in the northern languages; consequently Skiæren-Heal is the port of the Skiæren, a name well adapted to the port of Stockholm, in the Upplandske Skiæren, and the country may be justly called Scorung or Skiærunga.[31] The legendary king Sceafa of Scandza was an ancient Lombardic king in Anglo-Saxon legend. The Old English poem Widsith, in a listing of famous kings and their countries, has Sceafa [weold] Longbeardum, so naming Sceafa as ruler of the Lombards.[32] Similarities between Langobardic and Gothic migration traditions have been noted among scholars. These early migration legends suggest that a major shifting of tribes occurred sometime between the 1st and 2nd century BC, which would coincide with the time that the Teutoni and Cimbri left their homelands in Scandinavia and migrated through Germany, eventually invading Roman Italy. Archaeology and migrations[edit] The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BCE – 1 CE (after the Penguin Atlas of World History 1988):    Settlements before 750 BCE    New settlements by 500 BCE    New settlements by 250 BCE    New settlements by 1 CE Distribution of Langobardic burial fields at the Lower Elbe Lands (according to W. Wegewitz) The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus, who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry.[33] Paterculus says that under Tiberius the "power of the Langobardi was broken, a race surpassing even the Germans in savagery".[34] From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci.[33] Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe.[33] He treats them as a branch of the Suebi, and states that: Now as for the tribe of the Suebi, it is the largest, for it extends from the Rhenus to the Albis; and a part of them even dwells on the far side of the Albis, as, for instance, the Hermondori and the Langobardi; and at the present time these latter, at least, have, to the last man, been driven in flight out of their country into the land on the far side of the river.[35] Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus defeated a large force of Germans and drove some “to the farther side of the Albis (Elbe)” river. It is conceivable that these refugees were the Langobardi and the Hermunduri mentioned by Strabo not long after.[36] The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at the Lower Elbe as Langobardic.[37] The burial sites are crematorial and are usually dated from the 6th century BC through the 3rd century AD, so a settlement breakoff seems unlikely.[38] The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic, differing from the lands between Rhine, Weser, and the North Sea.[39] Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people.[40] Tacitus also counted the Lombards as a remote and aggressive Suebian tribe, one of those united in worship of the deity Nerthus, whom he referred to as "Mother Earth", and also as subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni.[41] Marobod had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the Lombards were not part of the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod. Tacitus records: Not only the Cheruscans and their confederates... took arms, but the Semnones and Langobards, both Suebian nations, revolted to him from the sovereignty of Marobod... The armies... were stimulated by reasons of their own, the Cheruscans and the Langobards fought for their ancient honor or their newly acquired independence. . . .[41] In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control the destiny of the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight years earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty.[42] Lombard migration from Scandinavia To the south, Cassius Dio reported that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Obii (sometimes thought to be Ubii) crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia.[43] The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they ceased their invasion and sent Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as ambassador to Aelius Bassus, who was then administering Pannonia. Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards was the lands of the lower Elbe.[44] At about this time, in his Germania Tacitus says that "their scanty numbers are a distinction" because "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring the perils of war".[45] In the mid-2nd century, the Lombards supposedly appeared in the Rhineland, because according to Claudius Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards lived "below" the Bructeri and Sugambri, and between these and the Tencteri. To their east stretching northwards to the central Elbe are the Suebi Angili.[46] But Ptolemy also mentions the "Laccobardi" to the north of the above-mentioned Suebic territories, east of the Angrivarii on the Weser, and south of the Chauci on the coast, probably indicating a Lombard expansion from the Elbe to the Rhine.[47] This double mention has been interpreted as an editorial error by Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy.[48] However, the Codex Gothanus also mentions Patespruna (Paderborn) in connection with the Lombards.[49] From the 2nd century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes recorded as active during the Principate started to unite into bigger tribal unions, such as the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and Saxons.[50] The Lombards are not mentioned at first, perhaps because they were not initially on the border of Rome, or perhaps because they were subjected to a larger tribal union, like the Saxons.[50] It is, however, highly probable that, when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the Elbe region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards.[51] However, the Codex Gothanus states that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under their first king, Agelmund, who ruled for 30 years.[52] In the second half of the 4th century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration.[53] The migration route of the Lombards in 489, from their homeland to "Rugiland", encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa, Golanda, Anthaib, Banthaib, and Vurgundaib (Burgundaib).[54] According to the Ravenna Cosmography, Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe.[55] The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult. The Assipitti (possibly the Usipetes) denied them passage through their lands and a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe. The Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa.[56] The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder.[57] Schmidt considers the name the equivalent of Gotland, meaning simply "good land."[58] This theory is highly plausible; Paul the Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a river, and they could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate.[59] Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib, believed to be the old lands of the Burgundes.[60][61] In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by "Bulgars" (probably Huns)[62] and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and Laimicho was made king. He was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund.[63] The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat but rose up and defeated them with great slaughter,[64] gaining great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in undertaking the toils of war."[65] In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia, where they received Imperial subsidies as Justinian encouraged them to battle the Gepids. In 552, the Byzantines, aided by a large contingent of Foederati, notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars, defeated the last Ostrogoths led by Teia in the Battle of Taginae.[66] Kingdom in Italy, 568–774[edit] Main article: Kingdom of the Lombards Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula[edit] "Lombard invasion of Italy" redirects here. Lombard grave goods (6th-7th century), Milan, Lombardy In approximately 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin, a young and energetic leader who defeated the neighboring Gepidae and made them his subjects; in 566, he married Rosamund, daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund. The next year the Lombards and their allies, the Avars, destroyed the Gepid kingdom in the Lombard-Gepid War. In the spring of 568, Alboin, now fearing the aggressive Avars, led the Lombard migration into Italy.[67] According to the History of the Lombards, "Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia, hastened to take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their goods."[68] Various other peoples who either voluntarily joined or were subjects of King Alboin were also part of the migration.[67] Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which they dwell Gepidan, Bulgarian, Sarmatian, Pannonian, Suabian, Norican, or by other names of this kind."[69] At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and their families joined them in their new migration.[70] The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli) in northeastern Italy, in 569. There, Alboin created the first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf. Soon Vicenza, Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy, Milan. The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars, and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing. Longinus, the Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justin II, could only defend coastal cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto, which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into the 12th century. Wherever they went, they were joined by the Ostrogothic population, which was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty.[71] The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia. When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form of paganism, while some were Arian Christians. Hence they did not enjoy good relations with the Early Christian Church. Gradually, they adopted Roman or Romanized titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the 7th century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. By the time Paul the Deacon was writing, the Lombard language, dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared in toto.[72] The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities. The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi. This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially since these had begun to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power of the Franks. In response, the kings tried to centralize power over time, but they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento in the attempt. Langobardia major[edit] Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Trent Duchy of Persiceta Duchy of Pavia Duchy of Tuscia Langobardia minor[edit] Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of Spoleto Duchy of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento Arian monarchy[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Frankish Merovingian King Chlothar II in combat with the Lombards In 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna. His successor, Cleph, was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death began an interregnum of years (the "Rule of the Dukes") during which the dukes did not elect any king, a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder. In 586, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari, as king. In 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria, the Duke of Bavaria. The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the meantime, Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks. Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf, the duke of Turin, who also married Theodelinda in the same year. Agilulf successfully fought the rebel dukes of northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in 603, and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay tribute. Agilulf died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by Adaloald. Arioald, the head of the Arian opposition who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald. Arioald was succeeded by Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the most energetic of all Lombard kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto, including the Roman city of Opitergium (Oderzo). Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his name, the Edictum Rothari, which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin: the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain their own laws. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by his opponents. At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit, who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia (Ticinum). Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald, son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to the Avars and then to the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the philo-Catholic Cunincpert. The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: from 623 to 626 the Lombards unsuccessfully attacked the Carantanians, and, in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava Valley and the Friuli. Catholic monarchy[edit] King Liutprand (712-744) "was a zealous Catholic, generous and a great founder of monasteries"[73] Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle in the following years. In 705, the Friuli Lombards were defeated and lost the land to the west of the Soča River, namely the Gorizia Hills and the Venetian Slovenia.[74] A new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present time.[74][75] The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II. He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome. He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel drive back the Arabs. The Slavs were defeated in the Battle of Lavariano, when they tried to conquer the Friulian Plain in 720.[74] Liutprand's successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time but had to relinquish it when he was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks, Pippin III, who was called by the Pope. After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis attempted to become king of Lombardy, but he was deposed by Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, the last Lombard to rule as king. Desiderius managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in northern Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against the Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful Frankish king Charlemagne, Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia, while his son Adelchis was forced to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in 774, and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title "King of the Lombards". Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people. Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States. The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan, and the old capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards. Later history[edit] Falling to the Franks and the Duchy of Benevento, 774–849[edit] Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the 8th century Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell to Charlemagne and the Franks in 774, the Lombard-controlled territory to the south of the Papal States was never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants. In 774, Duke Arechis II of Benevento, whose duchy had only nominally been under royal authority, though certain kings had been effective at making their power known in the south, claimed that Benevento was the successor state of the kingdom. He tried to turn Benevento into a secundum Ticinum: a second Pavia. He tried to claim the kingship, but with no support and no chance of a coronation in Pavia. Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his successors were de facto independent. The Beneventan dukes took the title prínceps (prince) instead of that of king. The Lombards of southern Italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east. They typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained outside Frankish control. Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a tribute on the Duchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to Byzantium and even conquered the Neapolitan city of Amalfi in 838. At one point in the reign of Sicard, Lombard control covered most of southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and Naples, with its nominally attached cities. It was during the 9th century that a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly Greek Apulia. However, Sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the Saracens in his war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839, Amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in Benevento, crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies. The civil war lasted ten years and ended with a peace treaty imposed in 849 by Emperor Louis II, the only Frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states. The treaty divided the kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and the Principality of Salerno, with its capital at Salerno on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915[edit] Main article: History of Islam in southern Italy Andrew II of Naples hired Islamic mercenaries and formed a Muslim-Christian alliance for his war with Sicard of Benevento in 836; Sicard responded with other Muslim mercenaries. The Saracens initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of Benevento called in more mercenaries, who destroyed Capua in 841. Landulf the Old founded the present-day Capua, "New Capua", on a nearby hill. In general, the Lombard princes were less inclined to ally with the Saracens than with their Greek neighbours of Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Sorrento. Guaifer of Salerno, however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty. In 847 a large Muslim force seized Bari, until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of Pandenulf. Saracen incursions proceeded northwards until Adelchis of Benevento sought the help of his suzerain, Louis II, who allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I in an effort to expel the Arabs from Bari in 869. An Arab landing force was defeated by the emperor in 871. Adelchis and Louis remained at war until the death of Louis in 875. Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings, and in that capacity he amended the Edictum Rothari, the last Lombard ruler to do so. After the death of Louis, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen alliance, but Pope John VIII convinced him to break it off. Guaimar I of Salerno fought the Saracens with Byzantine troops. Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one party to another. Finally, towards 915, Pope John X managed to unite the Christian princes of southern Italy against the Saracen establishments on the Garigliano river. The Saracens were ousted from Italy in the Battle of the Garigliano in 915. Lombard principalities in the 10th century[edit] Italy around the turn of the millennium, showing the Lombard states in the south on the eve of the arrival of the Normans. The independent state of Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to move towards independence, and by the end of the century they were styling themselves "princes" and as a third Lombard state. The Capuan and Beneventan states were united by Atenulf I of Capua in 900. He subsequently declared them to be in perpetual union, and they were separated only in 982, on the death of Pandulf Ironhead. With all of the Lombard south under his control, except Salerno, Atenulf felt safe to use the title Princeps Gentis Langobardorum ("prince of the Lombard people"), which Arechis II had begun using in 774. Among Atenulf's successors the principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers, cousins, and uncles for the greater part of the century. Meanwhile, the prince Gisulf I of Salerno began using the title Langobardorum Gentis Princeps around mid-century, but the ideal of a united Lombard principality was realised only in December 977, when Gisulf died and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead, who temporarily held almost all Italy south of Rome and brought the Lombards into alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. His territories were divided upon his death. Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to conquer the principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples, but with the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi, Gisulf repulsed him. The rulers of Benevento and Capua made several attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but late in the century, the Byzantines, under the stiff rule of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards. The principal source for the history of the Lombard principalities in this period is the Chronicon Salernitanum, composed late in the 10th century at Salerno. Norman conquest, 1017–1078[edit] Main article: Norman conquest of southern Italy The diminished Beneventan principality soon lost its independence to the papacy and declined in importance until it fell in the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Normans, first called in by the Lombards to fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under the likes of Melus of Bari and Arduin, among others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south. The Salernitan principality experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV, but under Gisulf II, the principality shrank to insignificance and fell in 1078 to Robert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's sister Sichelgaita. The Capua principality was hotly contested during the reign of the hated Pandulf IV, the Wolf of the Abruzzi, and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard Drengot (1058). The Capuans revolted against Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson Richard II and setting up one Lando IV. Capua was again put under Norman rule after the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined in importance under a series of ineffectual Norman rulers. The independent status of these Lombard states is in general attested by the ability of their rulers to switch suzerains at will. Often the legal vassal of pope or emperor (either Byzantine or Holy Roman), they were the real power-brokers in the south until their erstwhile allies, the Normans, rose to preeminence: The Lombards regarded the Normans as barbarians and the Byzantines as oppressors. Regarding their own civilisation as superior, the Lombards did indeed provide the environment for the illustrious Schola Medica Salernitana. Genetics[edit] Further information: Goths § Genetics, Visigoths § Genetics, Bavarii § Genetics, and Alemanni § Genetics A genetic study published in Nature Communications in September 2018 found strong genetic similarities between Lombards of Italy and earlier Lombards of Central Europe. The Lombards of Central Europe displayed no genetic similarities with earlier populations of this region, but were on the other hand strikingly similar genetically to Bronze Age Scandinavians. Lombard males were primarily carriers of subclades of haplogroup R1b and I2a2a1, both of whom are common among Germanic peoples. Lombard males were found to be more genetically homogenous than Lombard females. The evidence suggested that the Lombards originated in Northern Europe, and were a patriarchal people who settled Central Europe and then later Italy through a migration from the north.[11][76] A genetic study published in Science Advances in September 2018 examined the remains of a Lombard male buried at an Alemannic graveyard. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b and the maternal haplogroup H65a. The graveyard also included the remains of a Frankish and a Byzantine male, both of whom were also carriers of subclades of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1. The Lombard, Frankish and Byzantine males were all found to be closely related, and displayed close genetic links to Northern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland.[77] A genetic study published in the European Journal of Human Genetics in January 2019 examined the mtDNA of a large number of early medieval Lombard remains from Central Europe and Italy. These individuals were found to be closely related and displayed strong genetic links to Northern Europe. The evidence suggested that the Lombard settlement of Italy was the result of a migration from the north involving both males and females.[12] Culture[edit] Language[edit] Main article: Lombardic language The West-Germanic languages around the 6th century CE. The Lombardic language is extinct (unless Cimbrian and Mocheno represent surviving dialects).[78] It declined beginning in the 7th century, but may have been in scattered use until as late as about the year 1000. Only fragments of the language have survived, the main evidence being individual words quoted in Latin texts. In the absence of Lombardic texts, it is not possible to draw any conclusions about the language's morphology and syntax. The genetic classification of the language depends entirely on phonology. Since there is evidence that Lombardic participated in, and indeed shows some of the earliest evidence for, the High German consonant shift, it is usually classified as an Elbe Germanic or Upper German dialect.[79] The runic inscription from the Pforzen buckle may be the earliest written example of Lombardic language Lombardic fragments are preserved in runic inscriptions. Primary source texts include short inscriptions in the Elder Futhark, among them the "bronze capsule of Schretzheim" (c. 600) and the silver belt buckle found in Pforzen, Ostallgäu (Schwaben). A number of Latin texts include Lombardic names, and Lombardic legal texts contain terms taken from the legal vocabulary of the vernacular. In 2005, Emilia Denčeva argued that the inscription of the Pernik sword may be Lombardic.[80] The Italian language preserves a large number of Lombardic words, although it is not always easy to distinguish them from other Germanic borrowings such as those from Gothic or from Frankish. They often bear some resemblance to English words, as Lombardic was akin to Old Saxon.[81] For instance, landa from land, guardia from wardan (warden), guerra from werra (war), ricco from rikki (rich), and guadare from wadjan (to wade). The Codice diplomatico longobardo, a collection of legal documents, makes reference to many Lombardic terms, some of them still in use in the Italian language: barba (beard), marchio (mark), maniscalco (blacksmith), aia (courtyard), braida (suburban meadow), borgo (burg, village), fara (fundamental unity of Lombard social and military organization, presently used as toponym), picco (peak, mountain top, also used as toponym), sala (hall, room, also used as toponym), staffa (stirrup), stalla (stable), sculdascio, faida (feud), manigoldo (scoundrel), sgherro (henchman); fanone (baleen), stamberga (hovel); anca (hip), guancia (cheek), nocca (knuckle), schiena (back); gazza (magpie), martora (marten); gualdo (wood, presently used as toponym), pozza (pool); verbs like bussare (to knock), piluccare (to peck), russare (to snore). Social structure[edit] Migration Period society[edit] During their stay at the mouth of the Elbe, the Lombards came into contact with other western Germanic populations, such as the Saxons and the Frisians. From these populations, which had long been in contact with the Celts (especially the Saxons), they adopted a rigid social organization into castes, rarely present in other Germanic peoples.[82] The Lombard kings can be traced back as early as c. 380 and thus to the beginning of the Great Migration. Kingship developed among the Germanic peoples when the unity of a single military command was found necessary. Schmidt believed that the Germanic tribes were divided into cantons and that the earliest government was a general assembly that selected canton chiefs and war leaders in times of conflict. All such figures were probably selected from a caste of nobility. As a result of the wars of their wanderings, royal power developed such that the king became the representative of the people, but the influence of the people on the government did not fully disappear.[83] Paul the Deacon gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the migration: . . . in order that they might increase the number of their warriors, [the Lombards] confer liberty upon many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow, uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact. Complete emancipation appears to have been granted only among the Franks and the Lombards.[84] Society of the Catholic kingdom[edit] See also: Duke (Lombard) Lombard society was divided into classes comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor states of Rome, Frankish Gaul and Spain under the Visigoths. There was a noble class, a class of free persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally slaves. The aristocracy itself was poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than elsewhere. Aside from the richest and most powerful of the dukes and the king himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class (a far cry from provincial Frankish aristocrats who held vast swathes of land, hundreds of times larger than those beneath his status). The aristocracy by the 8th century was highly dependent on the king for means of income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred to in contemporary documents as iudices (judges) even when their offices had important military and legislative functions as well. The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far more numerous than in Frankish lands, especially in the 8th century, when they are almost invisible in surviving documentary evidence. Smallholders, owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of person in surviving diplomata for the Lombard kingdom. They may have owned more than half of the land in Lombard Italy. The freemen were exercitales and viri devoti, that is, soldiers and "devoted men" (a military term like "retainers"); they formed the levy of the Lombard army, and they were sometimes, if infrequently, called to serve, though this seems not to have been their preference. The small landed class, however, lacked the political influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and legislation of the kingdom. The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful politically if not economically in Italy than in contemporary Gaul and Spain. The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the città ad isole (or "city as islands"). It appears from archaeology that the great cities of Lombard Italy—Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan—were themselves formed of small urban cores within the old Roman city walls. The cities of the Roman Empire had been partially destroyed in the series of wars of the 5th and 6th centuries. Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments became fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the Roman Forum became the Campo Vaccino, the field of cows. The portions of the cities that remained intact were small, modest, contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously decorated), and a few public buildings and townhouses of the aristocracy. Few buildings of importance were stone, most were wood. In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were separated from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city walls. Lombard states[edit] Lombard state on the Carpathians (6th century) Lombard state in Pannonia (6th century) Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the Lombards Principality of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento Principality of Salerno and List of Princes of Salerno Principality of Capua and List of Princes of Capua Religious history[edit] The legend from Origo may hint that initially, before the passage from Scandinavia to the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, the Lombards worshiped the Vanir. Later, in contact with other Germanic populations, they adopted the worship of the Æsir: an evolution that marked the passage from the adoration of deities related to fertility and the earth to the cult of warlike gods.[85][86] In chapter 40 of his Germania, Roman historian Tacitus, discussing the Suebian tribes of Germania, writes that the Lombards were one of the Suebian tribes united in worship of the deity Nerthus, who is often identified with the Norse goddess Freyja. The other tribes were the Reudigni, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines and Nuitones.[87] St. Barbatus of Benevento observed many pagan rituals and traditions among the Lombards authorised by the Duke Romuald, son of King Grimoald:[88] They expressed a religious veneration to a golden viper, and prostrated themselves before it: they paid also a superstitious honour to a tree, on which they hung the skin of a wild beast, and these ceremonies were closed by public games, in which the skin served for a mark at which bowmen shot arrows over their shoulder. Christianisation[edit] The Lombards first adopted Christianity while still in Pannonia, but their conversion and Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete. During the reign of Wacho, they were Orthodox Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, but Alboin converted to Arianism as an ally of the Ostrogoths and invaded Italy. All these Christian conversions primarily affected the aristocracy, while the common people remained pagan.[citation needed] In Italy, the Lombards were intensively Christianised, and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was great. With the Bavarian queen Theodelinda, a Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy Catholic influence. After initial support for the anti-Rome party in the Schism of the Three Chapters, Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter of Pope Gregory I. In 603, Adaloald, the heir to the throne, received Catholic baptism. During the next century, Arianism and paganism continued to hold out in Austria (the northeast of Italy) and in the Duchy of Benevento. A succession of Arian kings was militarily aggressive and presented a threat to the Papacy in Rome. In the 7th century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still practising pagan rituals such as sacrifices in "sacred" woods. By the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the Lombards were more or less completely Catholicised. Under Liutprand Catholicism became tangible as the king sought to justify his title rex totius Italiae by uniting the south of the peninsula with the north, thereby bringing together his Italo-Roman and Germanic subjects into one Catholic State. Beneventan Christianity[edit] The Rule of Saint Benedict in Beneventan (i.e. Lombard) script The Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern Italy developed a unique Christian rite in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the liturgy of the Ambrosian rite than to the Roman rite.[citation needed] The Beneventan rite has not survived in its complete form, although most of the principal feasts and several feasts of local significance are extant. The Beneventan rite appears to have been less complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the Roman rite. Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-influenced[citation needed] chant that bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant of Milan. The Beneventan chant is largely defined by its role in the liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many Beneventan chants were assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian chantbooks, appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions, for example. It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant in the 11th century. The chief centre of the Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one of the first and greatest abbeys of Western monasticism. Gisulf II of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to Montecassino in 744, and that became the basis for an important state, the Terra Sancti Benedicti, which was a subject only to Rome. The Cassinese influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense.[citation needed] Montecassino was also the starting point for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism, the use of the distinct Beneventan script, a clear, angular script derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards.[citation needed] Art[edit] During their nomadic phase, the Lombards primarily created art that was easily carried with them, like arms and jewellery. Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears resemblance to the similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of northern and central Europe from the same era. The first major modifications to the Germanic style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially in Italy, under the influence of local, Byzantine, and Christian styles. The conversions from nomadism and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of artistic expression, such as architecture (especially churches) and its accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes). Lombard shield boss northern Italy, 7th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art Lombard S-shaped fibula A glass drinking horn from Castel Trosino Lombard Goldblattkreuz Lombard fibulae Altar of Ratchis 8th-century Lombard sculpture depicting female martyrs, based on a Byzantine model. Tempietto Longobardo, Cividale del Friuli Architecture[edit] Main articles: Lombard architecture and Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.) Church of Santa Sofia, Benevento Few Lombard buildings have survived. Most have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point, so they preserve little of their original Lombard structure. Lombard architecture was well-studied in the 20th century, and the four-volume Lombard Architecture (1919) by Arthur Kingsley Porter is a "monument of illustrated history". The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest preserved examples of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard city in Italy. Parts of Lombard constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, crypts of Sant'Eusebio and San Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral). The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda near Bergamo and the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also have Lombard elements. All these buildings are in northern Italy (Langobardia major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in southern Italy (Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa Sofia in Benevento was erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II, and it preserves Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the columns. Lombard architecture flourished under the impulse provided by the Catholic monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand, and Desiderius to the foundation of monasteries to further their political control. Bobbio Abbey was founded during this time. Some of the late Lombard structures of the 9th and 10th centuries have been found to contain elements of style associated with Romanesque architecture and so have been dubbed "first Romanesque". These edifices are considered, along with some similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a transitory phase between the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged Romanesque. List of rulers[edit] Main article: List of kings of the Lombards Notes and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ "Lombard". Collins English Dictionary. ^ Christie 1995. "The Lombards, also known as the Longobards, were a Germanic tribe whose fabled origins lay in the barbarian realm of Scandinavia." Whitby 2012, p. 857. "Lombards, or Langobardi, a Germanic group..." Brown 2005. "Lombards... a west-Germanic people..." Darvill 2009. "Lombards (Lombard). Germanic people..." Taviani-Carozzi 2005. "Lombards, A people of Germanic origin, conquerors of part of Italy from 568." ^ a b Priester, 16. From Proto-Germanic winna-, meaning "to fight, win". ^ a b c d Harrison, D.; Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9 p. 74 ^ Maciamo. "Eupedia". Eupedia. Retrieved 2021-02-04. ^ 2. Runriket - Täby Kyrka Archived 2008-06-04 at the Wayback Machine, an online article at Stockholm County Museum, retrieved July 1, 2007. ^ Christie 1995, p. 3. ^ Sergent, Bernard (1991). "Ethnozoonymes indo-européens". Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. 17 (2): 15. doi:10.3406/dha.1991.1932. ^ Christie 2018b, pp. 920-922. ^ a b c Christie 1995, pp. 1-6. ^ a b Amorim 2018a. "Late Bronze Age Hungarians show almost no resemblance to populations from modern central/northern Europe, especially compare to Bronze Age Germans and in particular Scandinavians, who, in contrast, show considerable overlap with our Szólád and Collegno central/northern ancestry samples... Our results are thus consistent with an origin of barbarian groups such as the Longobards somewhere in Northern and Central Europe..." ^ a b Vai 2019. "[T]he presence in this cluster of haplogroups that reach high frequency in Northern European populations, suggests a possible link between this core group of individuals and the proposed homeland of different ancient barbarian Germanic groups... This supports the view that the spread of Longobards into Italy actually involved movements of people, who gave a substantial contribution to the gene pool of the resulting populations...This is even more remarkable thinking that, in many studied cases, military invasions are movements of males, and hence do not have consequences at the mtDNA level. Here, instead, we have evidence of maternally linked genetic similarities between LC in Hungary and Italy, supporting the view that immigration from Central Europe involved females as well as males." ^ CG, II. ^ Menghin, 13. ^ Priester, 16. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, I, 336. Old Germanic for "Strenuus", "Sibyl". ^ Ibor and Aio were called by Prosper of Aquitaine, Iborea and Agio; Saxo-Grammaticus calls them Ebbo and Aggo; the popular song of Gothland (Bethmann, 342), Ebbe and Aaghe (Wiese, 14). ^ Priester, 16 ^ Hammerstein-Loxten, 56. ^ a b PD, VII. ^ a b PD, VIII. ^ OGL, appendix 11. ^ Priester, 17 ^ PD, I, 9. ^ Nedoma, Robert (2005).Der altisländische Odinsname Langbarðr: ‘Langbart’ und die Langobarden. In Pohl, Walter and Erhart, Peter, eds. Die Langobarden. Herrschaft und Identität. Wien. pp. 439–444 ^ Priester, 17. ^ Fröhlich, 19. ^ Bruckner, 30–33. ^ The article Hadubarder in Nordisk familjebok (1909). ^ Wilson Chambers, Raymond (2010). Widsith: A Study in Old English Heroic Legend. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. ^ Smith’s Dict. of Greek and Roman Geogr., vol. ii. p. 119 — S. ^ Orosius (1773). The Anglo-Saxon Version, from the Historian Orosius, by Ælfred the Great together with an English Translation from the Anglo-Saxon. Translated by Daines Barrington (Alfred the Great ed.). London: Printed by W. Bowyer and J. Nichols and sold by S. Baker. p. 256. Retrieved 7 May 2020. ^ Widsith, lines 31-33 ^ a b c Menghin, 15. ^ Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 106. Schmidt, 5. ^ Strabo, VII, 1, 3. ^ Suetoniu, The Twelve Caesars, chapters II and III. ^ Wegewitz, Das langobardische Brandgräberfeld von Putensen, Kreis Harburg (1972), 1–29. Problemi della civilita e dell'economia Longobarda, Milan (1964), 19ff. ^ Menghin, 17. ^ Menghin, 18. ^ Priester, 18. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals, II, 45. ^ Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 17. ^ Cassius Dio, 71, 3, 1. Menghin 16. ^ Priester, 21. Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt, 35–36. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 38-40 ^ Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 9. Menghin, 15. ^ Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 17. Menghin, 15 ^ Schütte, Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe, pages 34, and 118 ^ Codex Gothanus, II. ^ a b Priester, 14. Menghin, 16. ^ Hartmann, II, pt I, 5. ^ Menghin, 17, 19. Codex Gothanus, II. ^ Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt, 35–36. Priester, 21–22. HGL, X. ^ Hammerstein-Loxten, 56. Bluhme. HGL, XIII. ^ Cosmographer of Ravenna, I, 11. ^ Hodgkin, Ch. V, 92. HGL, XII. ^ Schmidt, 49. ^ Hodgkin, Ch. V, 143. ^ Menghin, Das Reich an der Donau, 21. ^ Priester, 22. ^ Bluhme, Gens Langobardorum Bonn, 1868 ^ Menghin, 14. ^ Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII ^ Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII. ^ PD, XVII. ^ Helmolt, Hans Ferdinand (1907). Battles The World's History: Central and northern Europe. London. ^ a b Peters, Edward (2003). History of the Lombards: Translated by William Dudley Foulke. University of Pennsylvania Press. ^ Peters, 2.7. ^ Peters, 2.26. ^ Paolo Diacono, Historia Langobardorum, FV, II, 4, 6, 7. ^ De Bello Gothico IV 32, pp. 241-245 ^ "The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700" by Paul Fouracre and Rosamond McKitterick (page 8) ^ Lot, Ferdinand (1931). The End of the Ancient World and the Beginnings of the Middle Ages. London. ^ a b c Vidmar, Jernej. "Od kod prihajajo in kdo so solkanski Langobardi" [From Where Come and Who Are the Solkan Lombards] (in Slovenian). Retrieved 30 July 2012. ^ Štih, Peter; Simoniti, Vasko; Vodopivec, Peter (2008). "The Settlement of the Slavs". In Lazarević, Žarko (ed.). A Slovene history: society – politics – culture. Ljubljana: Institute of Modern History. p. 22. ISBN 978-961-6386-19-7. ^ Amorim 2018b. "[B]iological relationships played an important role in these early medieval societies... Finally, our data are consistent with the proposed long-distance migration from Pannonia to Northern Italy." ^ O'Sullivan 2018. "Niederstotzingen North individuals are closely related to northern and eastern European populations, particularly from Lithuania and Iceland." ^ Kortmann, Bernd (2011). The Languages and Linguistics of Europe: Vol.II. Berlin. ^ Marcello Meli, Le lingue germaniche, p. 95. ^ Emilia Denčeva (2006). "Langobardische (?) Inschrift auf einem Schwert aus dem 8. Jahrhundert in bulgarischem Boden" (PDF). Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur. 128 (1): 1-11. doi:10.1515/BGSL.2006.1 ^ Hutterer 1999, p. 339. ^ Cardini-Montesano, cit., pag. 82. ^ Schmidt, 76–77. ^ Schmidt, 47 n3. ^ Rovagnati, p. 99. ^ Karl Hauk, Lebensnormen und Kultmythen in germanischen Sammes- und Herrscher genealogien. ^ Tacitus', Germania, 40, Medieval Source Book. Code and format by Northvegr.[1] Archived 2008-04-04 at the Wayback Machine ^ Rev. Butler, Alban (1866). The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints: Vol.I. London. Ancient sources[edit] Cosmographer of Ravenna Historia Langobardorum Codicis Gothani in Codex Gothanus Historia Langobardorum Origo Gentis Langobardorum Tacitus. Annals Tacitus. Germania Modern sources[edit] Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. (February 20, 2018a). "Understanding 6th-Century Barbarian Social Organization and Migration through Paleogenomics". 9 (3547). bioRxiv 10.1101/268250. doi:10.1101/268250. Retrieved March 13, 2020. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. (September 11, 2018b). "Understanding 6th-century barbarian social organization and migration through paleogenomics". Nature Communications. Nature Research. 9 (3547): 3547. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06024-4. PMC 6134036. PMID 30206220. Bluhme, Friedrich (1868). Die Gens Langobardorum und ihre Herkunft, ...und ihre Sprache. Bonn: A.Marcus. Brown, Thomas S. (2005). "Lombards". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195187922. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Bruckner, Wilhelm (1895). Die Sprache der Langobarden, Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der germanischen Völker, 75. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. Christie, Neil (1995). The Lombards. Wiley. ISBN 0631182381. Christie, Neil (2018a). "Lomvard Invasion Of Italy". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. pp. 919–920. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 9780191744457. Retrieved March 13, 2020. Christie, Neil (2018b). "Lombards". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. pp. 920–922. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 9780191744457. Retrieved March 13, 2020. Daim, Falko (2019). "The Longobards in Pannonia". Prima e dopo Alboino: sulle tracce dei Longobardi. Napoli: Guida. pp. 221–241. Darvill, Timothy (2009). "Lombards". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199534043.001.0001. ISBN 9780191727139. Retrieved January 25, 2020. Everett, Nicholas (2003). Literacy in Lombard Italy, c. 568-774. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521819053. Fröhlich, Hermann (1976). "Zur Herkunft der Langobarden". In Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken (QFIAB) 55/56. Tübingen : Max Niemeyer. pp. 1–21. Fröhlich, Hermann (1980). Studien zur langobardischen Thronfolge. In two volumes. Diss. Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen. Giess, Hildegard (September 1959). "The Sculpture of the Cloister of Santa Sofia in Benevento". The Art Bulletin. 41 (3): 249–256. JSTOR 3047841. Grimm, Jacob (1875–78) [1st ed. 1835]. Deutsche Mythologie Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) (1913). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II—The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire. Hallenbeck, Jan T. (1982). "Pavia and Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth Century". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Philadelphia. 74 (4). Hammerstein-Loxten, Wilhelm Freiherr von (1869). Die Bardengau. Hannover: Hahn'sche Buchhandlung. Hartmann, Ludo Moritz. Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter II Vol. Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. Clarendon Press Leonardi, Michela (September 6, 2018). "The female ancestor's tale: Long‐term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Wiley. 167 (3): 497–506. bioRxiv 10.1101/268250. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23679. PMID 30187463. Menghin, Wilifred. Die Langobarden / Geschichte und Archäologie. Theiss O'Sullivan, Niall (September 9, 2018). "Ancient genome-wide analyses infer kinship structure in an Early Medieval Alemannic graveyard". Science Advances. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 4 (9): eaao1262. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aao1262. PMC 6124919. PMID 30191172. Oman, Charles (1914) [1893] . The Dark Ages 476–918 (6th ed.). Periods of European History. London: Rivingtons. Pohl, Walter and Erhart, Peter (2005). Die Langobarden : Herrschaft und Identität. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 9. Wien: VÖAW. Priester, Karin (2004). Geschichte der Langobarden: Gesellschaft – Kultur – Altagsleben. Stuttgart: Konrad Theiss. The Lombard Laws. Translated by Katherine Fischer Drew. foreword by Edward Peters. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 1973. ISBN 0-8122-1055-7.CS1 maint: others (link) Santosuosso, Antonio (2004). Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare. ISBN 0-8133-9153-9 Schmidt, Dr. Ludwig (1885). Zur Geschichte der Langobarden. Leipzig: Gustav Fock. Also in (1884) Älteste Geschichte der Langobarden. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Völkerwanderung. Dissertation. Leipzig, Universität. Todd, Malcolm (2004). The Early Germans. Wiley. ISBN 9781405117142. Wegewitz, Willi. Das langobardische Brandgräberfeld von Putensen, Kreise Harburg Wickham, Christopher (1998). "Aristocratic Power in Eighth-Century Lombard Italy". In Goffart, Walter A.; Murray, Alexander C. (eds.). After Rome's Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History, Essays presented to Walter Goffart. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 153–170. ISBN 0-8020-0779-1.. Wiese, Robert. Die älteste Geschichte der Langobarden Zeuss, Kaspar. Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme Carlo Troya, Giovanni Minervini (1852-1855) Codice diplomatico longobardo dal DLXVIII al DCCLXXIV: con note storiche, Napoli, Stamperia reale, 1855 Hutterer, Claus Jürgen (1999). "Langobardisch". Die Germanischen Sprachen. Wiesbaden: Albus. pp. 336–341. ISBN 3-928127-57-8. Taviani-Carozzi, Huguette (2005). "Lombards". In Vauchez, André (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. James Clarke & Co. doi:10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001. ISBN 9780195188172. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Vai, Stefania (January 19, 2019). "A genetic perspective on Longobard-Era migrations". European Journal of Human Genetics. Nature Research. 27 (4): 647–656. doi:10.1038/s41431-018-0319-8. PMC 6460631. PMID 30651584. Whitby, L. Michael (2012). "Lombards". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 857. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001. ISBN 9780191735257. Retrieved January 25, 2020. External links[edit] Media related to Lombards at Wikimedia Commons Beck, Frederick George Meeson; Church, Richard William (1911). "Lombards" . 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en-wikipedia-org-2209	----	Glycerius - Wikipedia Glycerius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 473 to 474 For other uses, see Glycerius (disambiguation). Roman emperor of the West Glycerius Solidus of Emperor Glycerius Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in the East) Reign 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 Predecessor Olybrius Successor Julius Nepos Eastern emperors Leo I (473–474) Leo II (474) Born Dalmatia Died After 474 (possibly 480) Glycerius (fl. 470s) was Roman emperor of the West from 473 to 474. He served as comes domesticorum (commander of the palace guard) during the reign of Olybrius, until Olybrius died in November 472. After a four-month interregnum, Glycerius was proclaimed Western Emperor in March 473 by the magister militum (master of soldiers) and power behind the throne Gundobad. Very few of the events of his reign are known other than that during his reign an attempted invasion of Italy by the Visigoths was repelled, diverting them to Gaul. Glycerius also prevented an invasion by the Ostrogoths through gifts. Glycerius was not recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor Leo I, who instead nominated Julius Nepos as Emperor and sent him with an army to invade the Western Empire. Glycerius was without allies, because Gundobad had left to rule the Burgundians, and therefore was forced to abdicate on 24 June 474. He was appointed Bishop of Salona, which position he held until his death. He died some time after 474, possibly 480. He may have had a role in the assassination of Julius Nepos in 480. Contents 1 Life 2 References 2.1 Ancient sources 2.2 Citations 2.3 Bibliography 2.4 Websites Life[edit] Glycerius was born in Dalmatia.[1][2][3] Glycerius rose to the rank of comes domesticorum during the reign of Western Roman emperor Olybrius, who was a puppet emperor controlled first by the magister militum Ricimer, and then by Ricimer's nephew, the Magister militum Gundobad. After the death of Olybrius on 2 November 472, and an interregnum of nearly four months, Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius as Western Roman Emperor at Ravenna on either 3 or 5 March 473; the Fasti vindobonenses states that it was on the 5th, however the Paschale campanum asserts it was on the 3rd.[1][4][5][6] Many events of Glycerius' reign are unknown.[7][5] Under Glycerius, the invasion of both the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths were repelled, through a mixture of diplomatic and military acts. In 473, the Visigoth King Euric ordered an invasion of Italy, but his commander, Vincentius, was killed by the armies of the comites Alla and Sindila. After Vincentius was killed, Euric chose instead to invade Gaul, occupying both Arles and Marseilles. The Ostrogoth King Videmir proposed to invade Italy, but Glycerius was able to dissuade him through gifts, and divertied them from Italy to Gaul, where they were later attacked by surrounding groups.[6][5][7] These actions to defend Rome may be the reason that Glycerius receives a generally favorable reception in Roman and Byzantine sources. Theophanes describes him only as a "not despicable man", but Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, describes him more thoroughly in his Vita St. Epiphanius:[6] After Olybrius, Glycerius ascended to the rule. With regard to whom I summarize, in my desire for brevity, the numerous things he did for the well being of many people. For, when the blessed man [Bishop Epiphanius of Pavia] interceded, he pardoned the injury done to his mother by some men under his authority.[6] It is believed that Glycerius primarily reigned from northern Italy, as all but one coin found from his reign were minted in either Ravenna or Milan. The only law created by Glycerius which has survived was dated 11 March 473, and issued to Himilco, the Praetorian Prefect of Italy, and later reissued to the Praetorian Prefects of Illyricum, the East, and Gaul, regarding simony. It was adopted not just by the Prefects of Italy and Gaul, who were a part of the Western Roman Empire, but also by the Prefects of Illyricum and the East, despite the fact that he did not actually have the authority to issue laws to them.[6] It is possible that Glycerius attempted reconciliation with the Eastern Roman Empire, evidenced by the fact that Glycerius did not nominate a consul for 474, and instead accepted the eastern consul.[6] Despite this, the Eastern Roman Emperor, Leo I, refused to recognize Glycerius as Western Emperor because he was merely a puppet of Gundobad. Emperor Leo instead chose to recognize one of his own men, Julius Nepos, and sent him with a fleet to invade the Western Empire. Glycerius was without allies, as Gundobad had already left to become King of Burgundy, leaving him with no option but to surrender. After Nepos landed at Ostia in June 474, Glycerius abdicated on 24 June 474, in Ravenna. He was promptly ordained as Bishop of Salona, becoming Nepos' personal bishop.[2][7] According to Malchus, Glycerius had some part in organizing the assassination of Julius Nepos in 480, after Nepos had been forced to flee Italy and was ruling in exile in Dalmatia, although the historical records for the assassination are muddled.[6][8][9] Glycerius died some time after 474, possibly in 480.[7] Some historians suggest he was made archbishop of Milan by Odoacer, but this was likely rumor rather than fact.[6] References[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Anonymus Valesianus (7.36) Ennodius in his Vita St. Epiphanus Fasti vindobonenses John of Antioch in Fragment 209 of his works Jordanes in his Getica (45.239–241) Malchus in Fragment 1 of his works Marcellinus Comes in his Annales Paschale campanum Paul the Deacon in his Historia Romana Citations[edit] ^ a b Meijer 2004, p. 159. ^ a b Adkins & Adkins 2014, p. 37. ^ Cooley, p. 508. ^ Lee 2013, p. 96. ^ a b c MacGeorge 2002, p. 272. ^ a b c d e f g h Mathisen. ^ a b c d Meijer 2004, pp. 159–160. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 31. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 62. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2014). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-816-07482-2. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-748-66835-9. MacGeorge, Penny (2002). Late Roman Warlords. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-191-53091-3. Meijer, Fik (2004). Emperors Don't Die in Bed. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38405-1. Websites[edit] Mathisen, Ralph W. "Roman Emperors - DIR Glycerius". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2018. Regnal titles Preceded by Olybrius Western Roman emperor 473–474 Succeeded by Julius Nepos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glycerius&oldid=1009477675" Categories: 5th-century deaths 5th-century bishops in Pannonia 5th-century Roman emperors Bishops of Split Comites domesticorum Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2020 Good articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Romans from unknown gentes Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 February 2021, at 20:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2214	----	Reign of Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Reign of Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180 Marcus Aurelius Bust, Art Institute of Chicago Emperor of the Roman Empire Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperors Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born Marcus Annius Verus 26 April 121 Rome Died 17 March 180(180-03-17) (aged 58) Vindobona or Sirmium Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger Issue 14, incl. Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla Regnal name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva-Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Lucilla Minor Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e The reign of Marcus Aurelius began with his accession on 8 March 161 following the death of his adoptive father, Antoninus Pius, and ended with his own death on 17 March 180. Marcus first ruled jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus. They shared the throne until Lucius' death in 169. Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, who had been made co-emperor in 177. Under Marcus, Rome fought the Roman–Parthian War of 161–66 and the Marcomannic Wars. The so-called Antonine plague occurred during his reign. In the last years of his rule, Marcus composed his personal writings on Stoic philosophy known as Meditations. Contents 1 Sources 2 Accession of Marcus and Lucius (161) 3 Early rule 4 War with Parthia, 161–166 4.1 Lucius at Antioch, 162–165 4.2 Counterattack and victory, 163–166 4.3 Conclusion of the war and events at Rome, mid-160s–167 5 Legal and administrative work, 161–180 6 Germania and the Danube 7 Death and succession 8 Writings 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 11.1 Ancient sources 11.2 Modern sources Sources[edit] Marble statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen The major sources for the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The biographies contained in the Historia Augusta claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century, but are in fact written by a single author (referred to here as "the biographer of the Historia Augusta") from the later 4th century (c. 395). The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers consist largely of lies and fiction, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus) are much more reliable.[1] For Marcus Aurelius' life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Pius, Marcus and Lucius Verus are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are partly invented.[2] A body of correspondence between Marcus Aurelius' tutor Marcus Cornelius Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[3] Marcus' own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable, and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[4] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[5] Some other literary sources provide specific detail: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianus on Marcus' legal work.[6] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[7] Accession of Marcus and Lucius (161)[edit] Lucius Verus, Aurelius' co-emperor from 161 to Verus' death in 169, British Museum Further information: Early life of Marcus Aurelius At the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow: The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer of the Historia Augusta writes that he was "compelled" to take imperial power.[8] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, "fear of imperial power". Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear. It was his duty.[9] Although Marcus shows no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[10] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus Aurelius alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius, the son of Hadrian's long deceased chosen heir L. Aelius, received equal powers.[11] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[12] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus Aurelius' family name, Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[13][notes 1] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[16][notes 2] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or "authority", than Verus. He had been consul once more than Verus, he had shared in Pius' administration, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[16] As the biographer of the Historia Augusta wrote, "Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor."[17] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores, and like every new emperor since Claudius, promised the troops a special donative.[18] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[19] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[20] Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer of the Historia Augusta, "elaborate".[21] If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Pius' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Pius, now Divus Antoninus. Pius' remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus' children and of Hadrian himself.[22] The temple Pius had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[20] In accordance with his will, Pius' fortune passed on to Faustina.[23] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, he transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[24]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[25] On 31 August she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[26][notes 3] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[28] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[29] Early rule[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius from Probalinthos, Attica, Greece, c. 161 AD, now in the Louvre, Paris Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus' eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Verus (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[30] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[31] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ("lacking pomp") behavior. The emperors permitted free speech, evinced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. At any other time, under any other emperor, he would have been executed. But it was a peaceful time, a forgiving time. And thus, as the biographer of the Historia Augusta wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius."[32] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[33] Marcus' former tutor Lucius Volusius Maecianus, who had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus' accession, was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[34] Fronto's son-in-law, Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Upper Germany.[35] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[36] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality."[37] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[38] Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, 13 December 2008 Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[39] Marcus told Fronto of his reading—Coelius and a little Cicero—and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for "some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus—or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties."[40] Marcus Aurelius' early reign proceeded smoothly. He was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[41] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ("happy times") that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[42] In the spring of 162,[notes 4] the Tiber flooded over its banks, destroying much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[44][notes 5] In other times of famine, they are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[46] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus' early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus' prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was "beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence".[47] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: "Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape."[48] The early days of Marcus' reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and, perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[49] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: "not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased.[50] War with Parthia, 161–166[edit] Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars Statue of Marcus Aurelius from Gabii (Italy), late 2nd-century AD, now in the Louvre, Paris In 161, Vologases IV of Parthia invaded the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king, and installed Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[51][52][53] The governor of Cappadocia, Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters was convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself.[54][55] Severianus led his forces (perhaps the Ninth Legion of Hispania) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates.[56] After attempting to fight Chosrhoes, Severianus committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[57] There were also threats of war in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed into Roman territory.[58] Apparently having been given no military education by Pius, Marcus was unprepared. He had spent no part of his predecessor's twenty-three-year reign in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[59][notes 6] With news of Severianus' defeat, reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier.[61] P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding the Tenth Legion (Gemina) at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[62] Other forces were also sent east: the First Legion (Minervia) from Bonn in Upper Germany, the Second Legion (Adiutrix) from Aquincum, and the Fifth Legion (Macedonica) from Troesmis.[63][64][65] The northern frontier was strategically weakened and its governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[66] M. Annius Libo, Marcus' young first cousin, was made the new governor of Syria. His first consulship had been in 161, and he lacked military experience.[67][68] Surviving letters from Marcus to Fronto describe a holiday the emperor took in Etruria, at the costal resort town of Alsium, during which he was too anxious to relax.[69] Fronto encouraged Marcus Aurelius to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[70] He went so far as to write a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening, to help Marcus break his habit of spending his evenings working on judicial matters instead of relaxing.[71] Marcus, unable to take his former tutor's advise, wrote back: "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off".[72] Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references.[73] In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".[74][75] Lucius at Antioch, 162–165[edit] Engraving of Antioch by William Miller after H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866. The dissolute Syrian army was said to spend more time in the city's open-air cafés than with their units.[76] Over the winter of 161–162, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. It has been suggested that he was stronger and healthier than Marcus, and more suited to military activity.[77] Verus' biographer suggests ulterior motives, such as restraining his debaucheries, making him more thrifty, reforming his morals through the terrors of war, and helping him realize his role as emperor.[78][notes 7] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".[80] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[81] Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle.[82] He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through".[83] He enjoyed the company of actors.[84][notes 8] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Verus had murdered him.[86] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Verus made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla.[87] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he was disturbed by stories of Verus' mistress, the low-born and beautiful Panthea.[88] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[89] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father.[90] Civica was made comes Augusti, "companion of the emperors"; perhaps Marcus wanted him to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[91] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer of the Historia Augusta says he told the senate he would); this did not happen.[92] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[93] Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[94] Counterattack and victory, 163–166[edit] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[95] At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[96] When Verus was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[97] The Euphrates river near Raqqa, Syria Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[98] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[99] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[100] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centered on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[101] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[102] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[103] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.[104] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[105] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[106] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[107] By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[108] Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[109] Verus took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[110] Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Verus took the title 'Medicus',[111] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus Aurelius took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[112] Conclusion of the war and events at Rome, mid-160s–167[edit] Bas-relief scenes depicting events of the Marcomannic Wars, from the (now destroyed) Arch of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, 176–180 AD, Capitoline Museums Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals, the most prominent of which was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was young senator of low birth from the north Syrian town of Cyrrhus. His father, Heliodorus, had not been a senator, but was nonetheless a man of some standing: he had been Hadrian's ab epistulis, followed the emperor on his travels, and was prefect of Egypt at the end of Hadrian's reign. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings.[113] Cassius and his fellow commander in the war, Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.[114] At Rome, Marcus Aurelius was occupied with family matters. Matidia, his great-aunt, had died. Her will was invalid under the lex Falcidia: Matidia had assigned more than three-quarters of her estate to non-relatives; her clients had convinced her to include them in codicils to her will. Matidia had never confirmed the documents, but, as she lay unconscious, her clients had sealed them in with the original, making them valid. It was an embarrassing situation. Fronto urged Marcus to push the family's case; Marcus demurred. He was going to consult his brother, who would make the final call.[115][notes 9] The returning army carried with them a plague, afterwards known as the Antonine Plague, or the Plague of Galen, which spread through the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. The disease was a pandemic believed to have been either smallpox[117] or measles[118] but the true cause remains undetermined. The epidemic may have claimed the life of Lucius Verus, who died in 169. The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, causing up to 2,000 deaths a day in Rome, one quarter of those who were affected, giving the disease a mortality rate of about 25%.[119] The total deaths have been estimated at five million,[120] and the disease killed as much as one-third of the population in some areas and devastated the Roman army.[121] Legal and administrative work, 161–180[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Like nearly all emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing petitions and hearing disputes—that is, on matters of law.[122] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him "an emperor most skilled in the law"[123] and "a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor".[124] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[125] A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Pius.[126][127][128] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[129] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Pius and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[130][131] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[132] Germania and the Danube[edit] Main article: Marcomannic Wars Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (one child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[133] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[134] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[135] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[136] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since year 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[137] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatians attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[138] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus Aurelius managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[139] Death and succession[edit] Head of Marcus Aurelius on a marble body originally made c. 41-54 AD during the reign of Claudius, Farnese Collection, Naples Marcus Aurelius died on 17 March 180, in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna), his son and successor Commodus accompanying him. He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, and rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[140] Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177, though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate; this decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of "adoptive emperors", was highly criticized by later historians since Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems.[141] For this reason, Marcus Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the Pax Romana.[142] At the end of his history of Marcus Aurelius' reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus, to Dio's own times, with sorrow. [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his person in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. – Cassius Dio lxxi.36.3–4[143] It is possible that Marcus Aurelius chose Commodus simply in the absence of other candidates, or as a result of the fear of succession issues and the possibility of civil war. Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome (1968), writes of Commodus: "The youth turned out to be very erratic or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus Aurelius ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrous around future successions."[144] Writings[edit] Main article: Meditations First page of the 1792 English translation by Richard Graves While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus Aurelius wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. "Meditations" as well as others, including "To Himself" were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. The book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe. Modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton are admirers of the book.[145] It is not known how far Marcus Aurelius' writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of Marcus Aurelius' reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention the Meditations.[146] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ("Marcus' writings to himself") are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[147] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[148] Notes[edit] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[14] The fourth-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[15] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name "Verus" before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[16] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Pius, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustus planned to leave Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank—but all of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[16] ^ the biographer of the Historia Augusta relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[27] ^ Both emperors are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii.4–5), so the flood must have happened before Verus' departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer of the Historia Augusta's narrative after Pius' funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in spring 161. The date of the flood was probably in autumn 161 or spring 162, and given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, most likely in the latter.[43] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[38]) ^ Since 15 CE, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ("Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers") was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos' likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than "paid leave".[45] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the fifth-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Aurelius commanded "countless legions" vivente Pio (while Pius was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Aurelius had no military experience. (Neither Sidonius nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on second-century history.[60]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[79] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (HA Verus 4.4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer of the Historia Augusta himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[85] ^ Champlin dates these letters to either summer 162 or early 165.[116] Citations[edit] ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, pp. 65–74. ^ Mary Beard, "Was He Quite Ordinary?", London Review of Books 31:14 (23 July 2009), accessed 15 September 2009; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 226. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–29, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ HA Marcus vii.5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii.1 and xv.8. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49, 116; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus 7.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii.9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii.9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. "twice the size": Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Marcus vii.10, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Commodus i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Commodus. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus, xix.1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organisation Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator 1.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Nepos), 1092 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi.3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia i.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Marcus viii.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, "The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997), p. 281. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio lxxi.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda xxi, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Pius viik.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967), p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–51 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–98 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus ix.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus iii.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus iii.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus iv, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1–2 (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Dio lxxi.1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii.9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius' voyage, see: HA Verus vi.7–9; HA Marcus viii.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.6, tr. Magie; cf. v.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii.7, 10, 11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix.2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii.7; Marcus ix.4; Barnes, p. 72; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163; cf. also Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians", Journal of Roman Studies 58:1–2 (1968), p. 39; "Some Persons in the Historia Augusta", Phoenix 26:2 (1972), p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus vii.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii.7; Marcus ix.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131, citing Anné Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus vii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix.5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix.1; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix.1; HA Verus vii.1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator ii.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio lxxi.3 § 1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; pp. 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, vol. 5, pp. 689ff. ^ HA Verus viii.3–4; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 164. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", p. 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, pp. 24, 221. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator ii.1–2 (= Haines 2.94ff.); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 134. ^ Conclusion by Haeser, pp. 24–33. ^ "There is not enough evidence satisfactorily to identify the disease or diseases" concluded J. F. Gilliam in his summary (1961) of the written sources, with inconclusive Greek and Latin inscriptions, two groups of papyri and coinage. ^ Dio Cassius, lxxii. 14.3–4; his book that would cover the plague under Marcus is missing; this later outburst was the greatest of which the historian had knowledge. ^ "Past pandemics that ravaged Europe", BBC News, 7 November 2005 ^ Plague in the Ancient World ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), p. 6 and passim. See also: idem. "Emperors at Work", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967), pp. 9–19. ^ Codex Justinianus vii.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Digest xxxi.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. (1999). "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (1): 71–79. doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, pp. 377–462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, pp. 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC–AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, pp. 29–30 ^ For further information on Oc Eo, see Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp. 24–25. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154. ^ Dio lxxii.11 § 3, 4; Ad amicos i.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio lxxii.11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso 2 (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii.9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232 f.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234f.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236f.; Dacia: pp. 245f.; Pannonia Inferior: pp. 251. ^ McLynn, pp. 323–324. ^ Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, p. 29. ^ Dio lxxii.11.4-5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius ^ Kleiner, p. 230. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 186–191. ^ "Pax Romana". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. ^ Tr. Cary, ad loc. ^ Grant, p. 15. ^ Hays, xlix. ^ Stertz, p. 434, citing Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius iii.5; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus xvi.9. ^ Hays, xlviii–xlix. ^ Hadot, p. 22. References[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Aelius Aristides. Orationes (Orations). Codex Justinianus. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian, in The Civil Law. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Digest. Scott, S.P., trans. The Digest or Pandects in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Cassius Dio. Roman History. Cary, Earnest, trans. Roman History. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 31 August 2009. Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2. Accessed 26 August 2009. Galen. ad Pisonem de Theriaca. de Antidotis. Gellius, Aulus. Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Rolfe, J.C., trans. The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. Vols. 1 and 2 online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Herodian. Ab Excessu Divi Marci (History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius). Echols, Edward C., trans. Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. Online at Tertullian and Livius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Institutes. Scott, S.P., trans. Institutes of Gaius in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Lucian. Alexander. Harmon, A.M., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1936. Alexander online at Tertullian. Accessed 26 August 2009. Historia Quomodo Conscribenda (The Way to Write History). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. The Way to Write History, in volume 2, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Imagines (Essays in Portraiture [Images]). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. A Portrait Study, in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Pro Imaginibus (Essays in Portraiture Defended). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. Defence of the 'Portrait-Study', in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. Pausanias. Description of Greece. Jones, W.H.S., and H.A. Omerod, trans. Pausanias' Description of Greece. 4 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1918. Online at Theoi and Perseus at Tufts. Accessed 27 August 2009. Philostratus. Heroicus (On Heroes). Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. On Heroes. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online at Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies. Accessed 27 August 2009. Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). Butler, H.E., trans. The Orator's Education. 5 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920–22. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History, abbreviated HA followed by the name of the emperor). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Modern sources[edit] Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Barnes, Timothy D. "Hadrian and Lucius Verus." Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): pp. 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines." In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): pp. 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Grant, Michael. The Climax of Rome. Orion, 2011. ISBN 978-1-78022-276-9 Hadot, Pierre. The Inner Citadel. Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-674-46171-1 Haeser, Heinrich. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin und der epidemischen Krankenheiten III (in German). 1875. Hays, Gregory. Meditations. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 978-1-842-12675-2 Kleiner, Fred S. A History of Roman Art. Cengage Learning, 2016. ISBN 978-1-337-51577-1 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 Stertz, Stephen A. "Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought." The Classical World 70:7 (1977): pp. 433–39. Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reign_of_Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1019575299" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Roman emperors Roman historiography Roman–Parthian Wars Marcus Aurelius Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 24 April 2021, at 03:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2216	----	Suetonius - Wikipedia Suetonius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st/2nd century Roman historian This article is about the Roman historian. For the Roman general who put down the rebellion of Boudica, see Gaius Suetonius Paulinus. This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (October 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 6,472 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated page}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Suetonius A generalized representation of Suetonius from the 15th-century Nuremberg Chronicle[1] Born Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus c. AD 69 Died After c. AD 122 Occupation Secretary, historian Genre Biography Subject History, biography, oratory Literary movement Silver Age of Latin Notable works The Lives of the Twelve Caesars Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs sweːˈt̪oːniʊs t̪raŋˈkᶣɪlːʊs]), commonly known as Suetonius (/swɪˈtoʊniəs/; c. AD 69 – after AD 122),[2] was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of 12 successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar to Domitian, entitled De vita Caesarum. Other works by Suetonius concerned the daily life of Rome, politics, oratory, and the lives of famous writers, including poets, historians, and grammarians. A few of these books have partially survived, but many have been lost. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 The Twelve Caesars 2.2 Other works 2.2.1 Partly extant 2.2.2 Lost works 3 Editions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was probably born about AD 69, a date deduced from his remarks describing himself as a "young man" 20 years after Nero's death. His place of birth is disputed, but most scholars place it in Hippo Regius, a small north African town in Numidia, in modern-day Algeria.[3] It is certain that Suetonius came from a family of moderate social position, that his father, Suetonius Laetus,[4] was a tribune belonging to the equestrian order (tribunus angusticlavius) in Legio XIII Gemina, and that Suetonius was educated when schools of rhetoric flourished in Rome. Suetonius was a close friend of senator and letter-writer Pliny the Younger. Pliny describes him as "quiet and studious, a man dedicated to writing." Pliny helped him buy a small property and interceded with the Emperor Trajan to grant Suetonius immunities usually granted to a father of three, the ius trium liberorum, because his marriage was childless.[5] Through Pliny, Suetonius came into favour with Trajan and Hadrian. Suetonius may have served on Pliny’s staff when Pliny was Proconsul of Bithynia and Pontus (northern Asia Minor) between 110 and 112. Under Trajan he served as secretary of studies (precise functions are uncertain) and director of Imperial archives. Under Hadrian, he became the Emperor's secretary. But Hadrian later dismissed Suetonius for the latter's alleged affair with the empress Vibia Sabina.[6][7] Works[edit] The Twelve Caesars[edit] Main article: The Twelve Caesars A bust of Gaius Julius Caesar He is mainly remembered as the author of De Vita Caesarum—translated as The Life of the Caesars although a more common English title is The Lives of the Twelve Caesars or simply The Twelve Caesars—his only extant work except for the brief biographies and other fragments noted below. The Twelve Caesars, probably written in Hadrian's time, is a collective biography of the Roman Empire's first leaders, Julius Caesar (the first few chapters are missing), Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The book was dedicated to his friend Gaius Septicius Clarus, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard in 119.[8] The work tells the tale of each Caesar's life according to a set formula: the descriptions of appearance, omens, family history, quotes, and then a history are given in a consistent order for each Caesar. He recorded the earliest accounts of Julius Caesar's epileptic seizures. Other works[edit] Partly extant[edit] De Viris Illustribus ("On Famous Men" — in the field of literature), to which belong: De Illustribus Grammaticis ("Lives of the Grammarians"; 20 brief lives, apparently complete) De Claris Rhetoribus ("Lives of the Rhetoricians"; 5 brief lives out of an original 16 survive) De Poetis ("Lives of the Poets"; the life of Virgil, as well as fragments from the lives of Terence, Horace and Lucan, survive) De Historicis ("Lives of the historians"; a brief life of Pliny the Elder is attributed to this work) Peri ton par' Hellesi paidion ("Greek Games") Peri blasphemion ("Greek Terms of Abuse") The two last works were written in Greek. They apparently survive in part in the form of extracts in later Greek glossaries. Lost works[edit] The following list of lost works of Suetonius is taken from the foreword written by Robert Graves in his translation of the Twelve Caesars.[9] Royal Biographies Lives of Famous Whores Roman Manners and Customs The Roman Year The Roman Festivals Roman Dress Greek Games Offices of State On Cicero’s Republic Physical Defects of Mankind Methods of Reckoning Time An Essay on Nature Greek Objurations Grammatical Problems Critical Signs Used in Books The introduction to the Loeb edition of Suetonius, translated by J. C. Rolfe, with an introduction by K. R. Bradley, references the Suda with the following titles: On Greek games On Roman spectacles and games On the Roman year On critical signs in books On Cicero's Republic On names and types of clothes On insults On Rome and its customs and manners The volume adds other titles not testified within the Suda. On famous courtesans On kings On the institution of offices On physical defects On weather signs On names of seas and rivers On names of winds Two other titles may also be collections of some of the aforelisted: Pratum (Miscellany) On various matters Editions[edit] Edwards, Catherine Lives of the Caesars. Oxford World’s Classics. (Oxford University Press, 2008). Robert Graves (trans.), Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd, 1957) Donna W. Hurley (trans.), Suetonius: The Caesars (Indianapolis/London: Hackett Publishing Company, 2011). J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume I (Loeb Classical Library 31, Harvard University Press, 1997). J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume II (Loeb Classical Library 38, Harvard University Press, 1998). C. Suetonii Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libros VIII et De grammaticis et rhetoribus librum, ed. Robert A. Kaster (Oxford: 2016). See also[edit] Suetonius on Christians Notes[edit] ^ The same woodcut is used throughout the chronicle for writers, priests and philosophers of different time periods and different national backgrounds. See Nuremberg Chronicle, digital edition (University of Cambridge), ff. 40v, 59r, 80v, 82v, 118r, 158v, 227r, and 240r. ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Suetonius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 15 May 2017. ^ Suetonius (1997). Lives of the Caesars. 1. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Loeb Classical Library. p. 4. ^ Suetonius. Vita Othonis. 10, 1. ^ Pliny the Younger. "10.95". Letters. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Hadrianus. "11:3". Historia Augusta. claims that Hadrian "removed from office Septicius Clarus, the prefect of the guard, and Suetonius Tranquillus, the imperial secretary, and many others besides, because without his consent they had been conducting themselves toward his wife, Sabina, in a more informal fashion than the etiquette of the court demanded." ^ Reynolds, Leighton Durham (1980). Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 509. ISBN 9780198144564. The dedication, in the lost preface, is recorded by a sixth-century source when the text was still complete ^ Suetonius (1957). "Foreword". In Rives, James (ed.). Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Graves, Robert (1st ed.). Hamondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. p. 7. References[edit] Barry Baldwin, Suetonius: Biographer of the Caesars. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert, 1983. Gladhill, Bill. “The Emperor's No Clothes: Suetonius and the Dynamics of Corporeal Ecphrasis.” Classical Antiquity, vol. 31, no. 2, 2012, pp. 315–348. Lounsbury, Richard C. The Arts of Suetonius: An Introduction. Frankfurt: Lang, 1987. Mitchell, Jack “Literary Quotation as Literary Performance in Suetonius.” The Classical Journal, vol. 110, no. 3, 2015, pp. 333–355 Newbold, R.F. “Non-Verbal Communication in Suetonius and ‘The Historia Augusta:' Power, Posture and Proxemics.” Acta Classica, vol. 43, 2000, pp. 101–118. Power, Tristan and Roy K. Gibson (ed.), Suetonius, the Biographer: Studies in Roman Lives. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014 Syme, Ronald. "The Travels of Suetonius Tranquillus." Hermes 109:105–117, 1981. Trentin, Lisa. “Deformity in the Roman Imperial Court.” Greece & Rome, vol. 58, no. 2, 2011, pp. 195–208. Trevor, Luke “Ideology and Humor in Suetonius' ‘Life of Vespasian’ 8.” The Classical World, vol. 103, no. 4, 2010, pp. 511–527. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew F. Suetonius: The Scholar and his Caesars. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1983. Wardle, David. "Did Suetonius Write in Greek?" Acta Classica 36:91–103, 1993. Wardle, David. “Suetonius on Augustus as God and Man.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 62, no. 1, 2012, pp. 307–326. Kaster, Robert A., Studies on the Text of Suetonius’ “De vita Caesarum” (Oxford: 2016). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Suetonius Wikisource has original works written by or about: Suetonius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Suetonius. Library resources about Suetonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Suetonius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at LacusCurtius (Latin original, English translation) Suetonius' works at Latin Library (Latin) Works by Suetonius at Project Gutenberg The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at Project Gutenberg (English translation including the Lives Of The Grammarians, Rhetoricians, And Poets) Works by or about Suetonius at Internet Archive Works by Suetonius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Gai Suetoni Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libri III-VI Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Lewis E 195 Vitae XII caesarium (Lives of the twelve caesars), fragment and Book of Hours leaf at OPenn Livius.org: Suetonius v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular 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en-wikipedia-org-2228	----	Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Wikipedia Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Online peer-reviewed encyclopaedia Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Type of site Online encyclopedia Created by James Fieser Editor James Fieser and Bradley Dowden URL www.iep.utm.edu Launched 1995; 26 years ago (1995) ISSN 2161-0002 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP) is a scholarly online encyclopedia, dealing with philosophy, philosophical topics, and philosophers.[1] The IEP combines open access publication with peer reviewed publication of original papers. Contribution is generally by invitation, and contributors are recognized and leading international specialists within their field.[2][3] Contents 1 History 2 Organization 3 Usage 4 Recognition 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] The IEP was founded by philosopher James Fieser in 1995, operating through a non-profit organization with the aim of providing accessible and scholarly information on philosophy.[4] The current general editors are philosophers James Fieser and Bradley Dowden, with the staff also including numerous area editors as well as volunteers.[5][6] The entire website was redesigned in the summer of 2009, moving from static HTML pages to the open-source publishing platform WordPress.[7] Organization[edit] The intended audience for the IEP is philosophy students and faculty who are not specialists within the field, and thus articles are written in an accessible style.[8] Articles consist of a brief survey or overview, followed by the body of the article, and an annotated bibliography.[9] Articles are searchable either by an alphabetical index or through a Google-power search mechanism.[9] Usage[edit] Similarweb analytics suggest that the IEP website is accessed worldwide between two and three million times per month.[10] Some 75% of this usage is through internet searches, 18% is through direct access, and 5% through referral, with the referring websites including other reference websites and university library guides.[10] Recognition[edit] The IEP is included by the American Library Association in its listing of Best Free Reference Sites;[11] listed as an online philosophy resource by the Federation of Australasian Philosophy in Schools Associations;[12] listed by EpistemeLinks as one of the "outstanding resources" in philosophy on the internet;[13] and listed as a reliable resource in many university philosophy guides.[14] See also[edit] Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy List of online encyclopedias References[edit] ^ "Oxford University ARCH Project, accessed 11 September 2017". Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017. ^ "Oxford University ARCH Project, accessed 11 September 2017". Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017. ^ See also Kooy, B. 2015. 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy', in Reference Review, Vol.29, No. 4, p. 12. ^ Kooy, B. 2015. 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy', in Reference Review, Vol.29, No.4, p.12; see also "About the IEP". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ "Law in Free Internet Encyclopedias of Philosophy (SEP & IEP) - The University of Chicago Library News - The University of Chicago Library". www.lib.uchicago.edu. ^ See also Kooy, B. 2015. 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy', in Reference Review, Vol.29, No.4, p.12. ^ "IEP Staff". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Kooy, B. 2015. 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy', in Reference Review, Vol. 29, No. 4, p. 12. ^ a b Kooy, B. 2015. 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy', in Reference Review, Vol.29, No.4, p. 12. ^ a b Similarweb data on IEP, at www.similarweb.com, accessed 18 September 2017. ^ "Best Free Reference Web Sites 2016 18th Annual List RUSA Emerging Technologies Section (ETS)". Reference & User Services Association (RUSA). December 29, 2016. ^ "Online guides to Philosophy – FAPSA". ^ "Account has been suspended". epistemelinks.com. ^ team, Philosophy Library. "LibGuides: Philosophy: Philosophy eresources". libguides.cam.ac.uk. External links[edit] Official website Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy&oldid=967726402" Categories: Online encyclopedias Encyclopedias of philosophy Internet properties established in 1995 1995 establishments in the United States Philosophy websites 20th-century encyclopedias American online encyclopedias Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Íslenska Italiano עברית 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 14 July 2020, at 22:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2235	----	Constantius Chlorus - Wikipedia Constantius Chlorus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 293 to 306 Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus Bust of Constantius at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Roman emperor (in the West) Augustus 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (with Galerius in the East) Predecessor Maximian Successor Constantine I and Severus Caesar 1 March 293 – 1 May 305 Born 31 March c. 250 Dacia Ripensis Died 25 July 306 Eboracum, Roman Britain Spouse Helena (disputed) and Theodora Issue among others Constantine the Great Flavius Delmatius Julius Constantius Flavia Julia Constantia Names Flavius Valerius Constantius[1] Dynasty Constantinian Flavius Valerius Constantius "Chlorus" (c. 250 – 25 July 306), also called Constantius I, was a Roman emperor as one of the four original members of the "Tetrarchy" established by Diocletian in 293. He was a junior-ranking emperor, or Caesar, from 293 to 305, and senior emperor, Augustus, from 305 to 306. Constantius was also the father of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of Rome. The nickname Chlorus (Greek: Χλωρός, lit. "the Green") was first popularized by Byzantine-era historians and was not used during the emperor's lifetime.[2] Of Illyrian and probably humble origin, Constantius had a distinguished military career and rose to the top ranks of the army. Around 289 he set aside Helena, Constantine's mother, to marry a daughter of Emperor Maximian, and in 293 was added to the imperial college by Maximian's colleague, Diocletian. Assigned to rule Gaul, Constantius defeated the usurper Carausius there and his successor Allectus in Britain, and campaigned extensively along the Rhine frontier, defeating the Alamanni and Franks. When the Diocletianic Persecution was announced in 303, Constantius ordered the demolition of churches but did not actively hunt down Christians in his domain.[2] Upon becoming senior emperor in May 305, Constantius launched a successful punitive campaign against the Picts beyond the Antonine Wall.[3] He died suddenly at Eboracum (York) in July the following year. After Constantius's death, the army, perhaps at his own instigation, immediately acclaimed his son Constantine as emperor. This act contributed to the collapse of the Diocletianic tetrarchy, sparking a series of civil wars which only ended when Constantine finally united the whole Roman Empire under his rule in 324. According to the Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Constantinian propaganda bedevils assessment of Constantius, yet he appears to have been an able general and a generous ruler".[4] His descendants, the Constantinian dynasty, ruled the Empire until the death of his grandson Julian in 363. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early career 1.2 Elevation as Caesar 1.3 Accession as Augustus and death 2 Family 3 Legend 3.1 Christian legends 3.2 British legends 4 Sources 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Early career[edit] Constantius's birthday was 31 March; the year is unknown, but his career and the age of his eldest son a imply date no later than c. 250.[5] Constantius was born in Dacia Ripensis,[6] a Roman province on the south bank of the Middle Danube – the empire's frontier – with its capital at Ratiaria (modern Archar).[7][8] He was the son of Eutropius, whom the Historia Augusta claimed to be a nobleman from northern Dardania, in the province of Moesia Superior, and Claudia, a niece of the emperors Claudius Gothicus and Quintillus.[9] Modern historians suspect this maternal connection to be a genealogical fabrication created by his son Constantine I,[10] and that his family was of humble origins.[11] Constantine probably sought to dissociate his father's background from the memory of Maximian.[12] The claim that Constantius was descended from Claudius Gothicus is attested only after 310 and does not appear to have been made while Constantius was alive.[citation needed] This coin shows the Augusta Flavia Maximiana Theodora, Constantius' second wife, with the goddess Pietas on the reverse. Constantius was a member of the Protectores Augusti Nostri under the emperor Aurelian and fought in the east against the secessionist Palmyrene Empire.[13] While the claim that he had been made a dux under the emperor Probus is probably a fabrication,[14][15] he certainly attained the rank of tribunus within the army, and during the reign of Carus he was raised to the position of praeses, or governor, of the province of Dalmatia.[16] It has been conjectured that he switched allegiances to support the claims of the future emperor Diocletian just before Diocletian defeated Carinus, the son of Carus, at the Battle of the Margus in July 285.[17] In 286, Diocletian elevated a military colleague, Maximian, to the throne as co-emperor of the western provinces,[18] while Diocletian took over the eastern provinces, beginning the process that would eventually see the division of the Roman Empire into two halves, a Western and an Eastern portion. By 288, his period as governor now over, Constantius had been made Praetorian Prefect in the west under Maximian.[19] Throughout 287 and into 288, Constantius, under the command of Maximian, was involved in a war against the Alamanni, carrying out attacks on the territory of the barbarian tribes across the Rhine and Danube rivers.[18] To consolidate the ties between himself and Emperor Maximian, Constantius divorced his concubine Helena and married the emperor's daughter, Theodora.[20] Elevation as Caesar[edit] On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarchs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. By 293, Diocletian, conscious of the ambitions of his co-emperor for his new son-in-law, allowed Maximian to promote Constantius in a new power sharing arrangement known as the Tetrarchy.[21] The eastern and western provinces would each be ruled by an Augustus, supported by a Caesar. Both Caesars had the right of succession once the ruling Augustus died.[citation needed] At Mediolanum (Milan) on March 1, 293, Constantius was formally appointed as Maximian's Caesar.[22] He adopted the name "Flavius Valerius Constantius", and, being equated with Maximian, also took on "Herculius".[23] His given command consisted of Gaul, Britannia and possibly Hispania. Diocletian, the eastern Augustus, in order to keep the balance of power in the imperium,[21] elevated Galerius as his Caesar, possibly on May 21, 293 at Philippopolis (Plovdiv).[13] Constantius was the more senior of the two Caesars, and on official documents he always took precedence, being mentioned before Galerius.[23] Constantius' capital was to be located at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[citation needed] Constantius' first task on becoming Caesar was to deal with the Roman usurper Carausius who had declared himself emperor in Britannia and northern Gaul in 286.[13] In late 293, Constantius defeated the forces of Carausius in Gaul, capturing Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer).[24] This precipitated the assassination of Carausius by his rationalis (finance officer) Allectus, who assumed command of the British provinces until his death in 296.[citation needed] Constantius spent the next two years neutralising the threat of the Franks who were the allies of Allectus,[25] as northern Gaul remained under the control of the British usurper until at least 295.[26] He also battled against the Alamanni, achieving some victories at the mouth of the Rhine in 295.[27] Administrative concerns meant he made at least one trip to Italy during this time as well.[25] Only when he felt ready (and only when Maximian finally came to relieve him at the Rhine frontier)[28] did he assemble two invasion fleets with the intent of crossing the English Channel. The first was entrusted to Julius Asclepiodotus, Constantius' long-serving Praetorian prefect, who sailed from the mouth of the Seine, while the other, under the command of Constantius himself, was launched from his base at Bononia.[29] The fleet under Asclepiodotus landed near the Isle of Wight, and his army encountered the forces of Allectus, resulting in the defeat and death of the usurper.[30] Constantius in the meantime occupied Londinium (London),[31] saving the city from an attack by Frankish mercenaries who were now roaming the province without a paymaster. Constantius massacred all of them.[28] Constantius remained in Britannia for a few months, replaced most of Allectus' officers, and the British provinces were probably at this time subdivided along the lines of Diocletian's other administrative reforms of the Empire.[32] The result was the division of Britannia Superior into Maxima Caesariensis and Britannia Prima, while Flavia Caesariensis and Britannia Secunda were carved out of Britannia Inferior. He also restored Hadrian's Wall and its forts.[33] Later in 298, Constantius fought in the Battle of Lingones (Langres) against the Alemanni. He was shut up in the city, but was relieved by his army after six hours and defeated the enemy.[34] He defeated them again at Vindonissa (Windisch),[35] thereby strengthening the defences of the Rhine frontier. In 300, he fought against the Franks on the Rhine frontier,[36] and as part of his overall strategy to buttress the frontier, Constantius settled the Franks in the deserted parts of Gaul to repopulate the devastated areas.[37] Nevertheless, over the next three years the Rhine frontier continued to occupy Constantius' attention.[36] From 303 – the beginning of the Diocletianic Persecution – Constantius began to enforce the imperial edicts dealing with the persecution of Christians, which ordered the destruction of churches.[12] The campaign was avidly pursued by Galerius, who noticed that Constantius was well-disposed towards the Christians, and who saw it as a method of advancing his career prospects with the aging Diocletian.[38] Of the four Tetrarchs, Constantius made the least effort to implement the decrees in the western provinces that were under his direct authority,[39] limiting himself to knocking down a handful of churches.[40] Eusebius denied that Constantius destroyed Christian buildings, but Lactantius records that he did.[12] Accession as Augustus and death[edit] Medal of Constantius I capturing Londinium (inscribed as LON) after defeating Allectus. Beaurains hoard. Constantine and Helena. Mosaic in Saint Isaac's Cathedral, Peterburg, Russia Between 303 and 305, Galerius began maneuvering to ensure that he would be in a position to take power from Constantius after the death of Diocletian.[41] In 304, Maximian met with Galerius, probably to discuss the succession issue and Constantius either was not invited or could not make it due to the situation on the Rhine.[36] Although prior to 303 there appeared to be tacit agreement among the Tetrarchs that Constantius's son Constantine and Maximian's son Maxentius were to be promoted to the rank of Caesar once Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple,[42] by the end of 304 Galerius had convinced Diocletian (who in turn convinced Maximian) to appoint Galerius's nominees Severus and Maximinus Daia as Caesars.[36] Diocletian and Maximian stepped down as co-emperors on May 1, 305, possibly due to Diocletian's poor health.[40] Before the assembled armies at Mediolanum, Maximian removed his purple cloak and handed it to Severus, the new Caesar, and proclaimed Constantius as Augustus. The same scene played out at Nicomedia (İzmit) under the authority of Diocletian.[43] Constantius, notionally the senior emperor, ruled the western provinces, while Galerius took the eastern provinces. Constantine, disappointed in his hopes to become a Caesar, fled the court of Galerius after Constantius had asked Galerius to release his son as Constantius was ill.[44] Constantine joined his father's court at the coast of Gaul, just as he was preparing to campaign in Britain.[45] In 305 Constantius crossed over into Britain, travelled to the far north of the island and launched a military expedition against the Picts, claiming a victory against them and the title Britannicus Maximus II by 7 January 306.[46] After retiring to Eboracum (York) for the winter, Constantius had planned to continue the campaign, but on 25 July 306, he died. As he was dying, Constantius recommended his son to the army as his successor;[47] consequently Constantine was declared emperor by the legions at York.[48] Family[edit] Constantius was either married to, or was in concubinage with, Helena, who was probably from Nicomedia in Asia Minor.[49] They had one son: Constantine. In 289 political developments forced him to divorce Helena. He married Theodora, Maximian's daughter. They had six children:[14] Flavius Dalmatius Julius Constantius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Anastasia Eutropia The name of Anastasia (Koinē Greek: Ἀναστασία, romanized: Anastasía, lit. 'resurrection') may indicate a sympathy with Christian or Jewish culture.[6] Legend[edit] Christian legends[edit] As the father of Constantine, a number of Christian legends have grown up around Constantius. Eusebius's Life of Constantine claims that Constantius was himself a Christian, although he pretended to be a pagan, and while Caesar under Diocletian, took no part in the Emperor's persecutions.[50] It was claimed that his first wife, Helena, found the True Cross.[citation needed] British legends[edit] Constantius's activities in Britain were remembered in medieval Welsh legend, which frequently confused his family with that of Magnus Maximus, who also was said to have wed a Saint Elen and sired a son named Constantine while in Britain. Henry of Huntingdon's History of the English identified Constantius's wife Helen as British[51] and Geoffrey of Monmouth repeated the claim in his 1136 History of the Kings of Britain. Geoffrey related that Constantius was sent to Britain by the Senate after Asclepiodotus (here a British king) was overthrown by Coel of Colchester. Coel submitted to Constantius and agreed to pay tribute to Rome, but died only eight days later. Constantius married his daughter Helena and became king of Britain. He and Helena had a son, Constantine, who succeeded to the throne of Britain when his father died at York eleven years later.[52] These accounts have no historical validity: Constantius had divorced Helena before he went to Britain.[citation needed] Similarly, the History of the Britons traditionally ascribed to Nennius[53] mentions the inscribed tomb of "Constantius the Emperor" was still present in the 9th century in Segontium (near present-day Caernarfon, Wales).[54] David Nash Ford credited the monument to Constantine, the supposed son of Magnus Maximus and Elen, who was said to have ruled over the area prior to the Irish invasions.[55] Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History 1050581 extract: ‘Diocletian to the Death of Galerius': 284-311 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Seeck, Otto, "Constantius 1", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 7 (IV.1), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1900), columns 1040–1043. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government in Britain, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4 Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. DiMaio, Robert, "Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, 1996 References[edit] ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 227. ^ a b Bond, Sarah; Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Constantius I", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1235, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-08-25, the nickname Chlorus (Green) is not older than the 6th century ^ W.S. Hanson "Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps" ^ OCD, "Constantius I" ^ Barnes, New Empire, p. 35 ^ a b Gregory, Timothy E. (2005) [1991], Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.), "Constantius Chlorus", The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6, retrieved 2020-08-25 ^ De Sena, Eric C.; Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Dacia Ripensis and Dacia Mediterranea", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-08-25 ^ De Sena, Eric C.; Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Ratiaria (mod. Archar, Bulgaria)", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-08-25 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Claudius 13 ^ Southern, pg. 172 ^ Martindale, pg. 227 ^ a b c Bond, Sarah; Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Constantius I", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-08-25 ^ a b c Potter, pg. 288 ^ a b Martindale, pg. 228 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Probus 22:3 ^ Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. p.16 ^ Potter, pg. 280 ^ a b Southern, pg. 142 ^ DiMaio, Constantine I Chlorus ^ Potter, pg. 288 ^ a b Southern, pg. 145 ^ Birley, pg. 382 ^ a b Southern, pg. 147 ^ Birley, pg. 385 ^ a b Southern, pg. 149 ^ Birley, pg. 387 ^ Birley, pgs. 385-386 ^ a b Southern, pg. 150 ^ Birley, pg. 388 ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39 ^ Potter, pg. 292 ^ Birley, pg. 393 ^ Birley, pg. 405 ^ Eutropius, Breviarum 9.23 ^ UNRV History: Battle of the Third Century AD ^ a b c d Southern, pg. 152 ^ Birley, pg. 373 ^ Potter, pg. 338 ^ Potter, pg. 339; Southern, pg. 168 ^ a b DiMaio, Constantine I Chlorus ^ Potter, pg. 344 ^ Potter, pg. 340 ^ Potter, pg. 342 ^ Southern, pg. 169 ^ Southern, pg. 170; Eutropius, Breviarum 10.1; Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 39; Zosimus, Historia Nova 2 ^ Birley, pg. 406 ^ Potter, pg. 346 ^ Eutropius, Breviarum 10.1–2 ^ Eutropius, Breviarum 9.22; Zosimus, Historia Nova 2; Exerpta Valesiana 1.2 ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13–18 ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum 1.37 ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae 5.6 ^ Nennius (attrib.). Theodor Mommsen (ed.). Historia Brittonum. Composed after AD 830. (in Latin) Hosted at Latin Wikisource. ^ Newman, John Henry & al. Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre, Ch. X: "Britain in 429, A. D.", p. 92. Archived 2016-03-21 at the Wayback Machine James Toovey (London), 1844. ^ Ford, David Nash. "The 28 Cities of Britain Archived 2016-04-15 at the Wayback Machine" at Britannia. 2000. External links[edit] Constantius Chlorus on History of York website Constantius Chlorus Constantinian dynasty Born: 31 March c. 250  Died: 25 July 306 Regnal titles Preceded by Maximian Roman emperor 305–306 With: Galerius (east) Succeeded by Valerius Severus Constantine I Political offices Preceded by Diocletian Maximian Roman consul 294 with Galerius Succeeded by Nummius Tuscus G. Annius Anullinus Preceded by Nummius Tuscus G. Annius Anullinus Roman consul II 296 with Diocletian Succeeded by Maximian Galerius Preceded by Diocletian Maximian Roman consul III 300 with Galerius Succeeded by T. Flavius Postumius Titianus Virius Nepotianus Preceded by T. Flavius Postumius Titianus Virius Nepotianus Roman consul IV 302 with Galerius Succeeded by Diocletian Maximian Preceded by Diocletian Maximian Roman consul V 305–306 with Galerius Succeeded by Maximian Constantine I Valerius Severus Maximinus Daza Galerius Legendary titles Preceded by Coel King of Britain 305–306 Succeeded by Constantine I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2245	----	Eudaimonia - Wikipedia Eudaimonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek term for happiness or welfare For the moth, see Eudaemonia (moth). For other uses, see Eudaemon (disambiguation). Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία [eu̯dai̯moníaː]; sometimes anglicized as eudaemonia or eudemonia, /juːdɪˈmoʊniə/) is a Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness' or 'welfare'; however, more accurate translations have been proposed to be 'human flourishing, prosperity'[1] and 'blessedness'.[2] In the work of Aristotle, eudaimonia (based on older Greek tradition) was used as the term for the highest human good, and so it is the aim of practical philosophy, including ethics and political philosophy, to consider (and also experience) what it really is, and how it can be achieved. It is thus a central concept in Aristotelian ethics and subsequent Hellenistic philosophy, along with the terms aretē (most often translated as 'virtue' or 'excellence') and phronesis" ('practical or ethical wisdom').[3] Discussion of the links between ēthikē aretē (virtue of character) and eudaimonia (happiness) is one of the central concerns of ancient ethics, and a subject of much disagreement. As a result, there are many varieties of eudaimonism. Contents 1 Definition and etymology 1.1 Positive psychology on eudaemonia 1.2 Eudaimonia and areté 1.3 Eudaimonia and happiness 2 Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē 2.1 Socrates 2.2 Plato 2.3 Aristotle 2.4 Pyrrho 2.5 Epicurus 2.6 The Stoics 3 Modern conceptions 3.1 "Modern Moral Philosophy" 3.2 Modern psychology 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Definition and etymology[edit] In terms of its etymology, eudaimonia is an abstract noun derived from the words eu ('good, well') and daimōn ('spirit'), the latter referring to a minor deity or a guardian spirit.[4] Definitions, a dictionary of Greek philosophical terms attributed to Plato himself but believed by modern scholars to have been written by his immediate followers in the Academy, provides the following definition of the word eudaimonia: "The good composed of all goods; an ability which suffices for living well; perfection in respect of virtue; resources sufficient for a living creature." In his Nicomachean Ethics (§21; 1095a15–22), Aristotle says that everyone agrees that eudaimonia is the highest good for human beings, but that there is substantial disagreement on what sort of life counts as doing and living well; i.e. eudaimon: Verbally there is a very general agreement; for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement say that it is [eudaimonia], and identify living well and faring well with being happy; but with regard to what [eudaimonia] is they differ, and the many do not give the same account as the wise. For the former think it is some plain and obvious thing like pleasure, wealth or honour… [1095a17][5] So, as Aristotle points out, saying that eudaimon life is a life which is objectively desirable, and means living well, is not saying very much. Everyone wants to be eudaimon; and everyone agrees that being eudaimon is related to faring well and to an individual's well-being. The really difficult question is to specify just what sort of activities enable one to live well. Aristotle presents various popular conceptions of the best life for human beings. The candidates that he mentions are a (1) life of pleasure, (2) a life of political activity, and (3) a philosophical life. Positive psychology on eudaemonia[edit] The "Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being" developed in Positive Psychology lists six dimensions of eudaimonia:[6] self-discovery; perceived development of one's best potentials; a sense of purpose and meaning in life; investment of significant effort in pursuit of excellence; intense involvement in activities; and enjoyment of activities as personally expressive. Eudaimonia and areté[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) One important move in Greek philosophy to answer the question of how to achieve eudaimonia is to bring in another important concept in ancient philosophy, aretē ('virtue'). Aristotle says that the eudaimon life is one of "virtuous activity in accordance with reason" [1097b22–1098a20]; even Epicurus, who argues that the eudaimon life is the life of pleasure, maintains that the life of pleasure coincides with the life of virtue. So, the ancient ethical theorists tend to agree that virtue is closely bound up with happiness (areté is bound up with eudaimonia). However, they disagree on the way in which this is so. We shall consider the main theories in a moment, but first a warning about the proper translation of areté. One problem with the English translation of areté as 'virtue' is that we are inclined to understand virtue in a moral sense, which is not always what the ancients had in mind. For a Greek, areté pertains to all sorts of qualities we would not regard as relevant to ethics, for example, physical beauty. So it is important to bear in mind that the sense of ‘virtue' operative in ancient ethics is not exclusively moral and includes more than states such as wisdom, courage and compassion. The sense of virtue which areté connotes would include saying something like "speed is a virtue in a horse," or "height is a virtue in a basketball player." Doing anything well requires virtue, and each characteristic activity (such as carpentry, flute playing, etc.) has its own set of virtues. The alternative translation 'excellence' (or 'a desirable quality') might be helpful in conveying this general meaning of the term. The moral virtues are simply a subset of the general sense in which a human being is capable of functioning well or excellently. Eudaimonia and happiness[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Eudaimonia implies a positive and divine state of being that humanity is able to strive toward and possibly reach. A literal view of eudaimonia means achieving a state of being similar to benevolent deity, or being protected and looked after by a benevolent deity. As this would be considered the most positive state to be in, the word is often translated as 'happiness' although incorporating the divine nature of the word extends the meaning to also include the concepts of being fortunate, or blessed. Despite this etymology, however, discussions of eudaimonia in ancient Greek ethics are often conducted independently of any super-natural significance. In his Nicomachean Ethics (1095a15–22) Aristotle says that eudaimonia means 'doing and living well'. It is significant that synonyms for eudaimonia are living well and doing well. On the standard English translation, this would be to say that ‘happiness is doing well and living well'. The word happiness does not entirely capture the meaning of the Greek word. One important difference is that happiness often connotes being or tending to be in a certain pleasant state of mind. For example, when we say that someone is "a very happy person," we usually mean that they seem subjectively contented with the way things are going in their life. We mean to imply that they feel good about the way things are going for them. In contrast, eudaimonia is a more encompassing notion than feeling happy since events that do not contribute to one's experience of feeling happy may affect one's eudaimonia. Eudaimonia depends on all the things that would make us happy if we knew of their existence, but quite independently of whether we do know about them. Ascribing eudaimonia to a person, then, may include ascribing such things as being virtuous, being loved and having good friends. But these are all objective judgments about someone's life: they concern a person's really being virtuous, really being loved, and really having fine friends. This implies that a person who has evil sons and daughters will not be judged to be eudaimonic even if he or she does not know that they are evil and feels pleased and contented with the way they have turned out (happy). Conversely, being loved by your children would not count towards your happiness if you did not know that they loved you (and perhaps thought that they did not), but it would count towards your eudaimonia. So, eudaimonia corresponds to the idea of having an objectively good or desirable life, to some extent independently of whether one knows that certain things exist or not. It includes conscious experiences of well-being, success, and failure, but also a whole lot more. (See Aristotle's discussion: Nicomachean Ethics, book 1.10–1.11.) Because of this discrepancy between the meanings of eudaimonia and happiness, some alternative translations have been proposed. W.D. Ross suggests 'well-being' and John Cooper proposes 'flourishing'. These translations may avoid some of the misleading associations carried by "happiness" although each tends to raise some problems of its own. In some modern texts therefore, the other alternative is to leave the term in an English form of the original Greek, as eudaimonia. Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē[edit] Socrates[edit] French painter David portrayed the philosopher in The Death of Socrates (1787). What we know of Socrates' philosophy is almost entirely derived from Plato's writings. Scholars typically divide Plato's works into three periods: the early, middle, and late periods. They tend to agree also that Plato's earliest works quite faithfully represent the teachings of Socrates and that Plato's own views, which go beyond those of Socrates, appear for the first time in the middle works such as the Phaedo and the Republic. This division will be employed here in dividing up the positions of Socrates and Plato on eudaimonia. As with all ancient ethical thinkers, Socrates thought that all human beings wanted eudaimonia more than anything else (see Plato, Apology 30b, Euthydemus 280d–282d, Meno 87d–89a). However, Socrates adopted a quite radical form of eudaimonism (see above): he seems to have thought that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. Socrates is convinced that virtues such as self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and related qualities of mind and soul are absolutely crucial if a person is to lead a good and happy (eudaimon) life. Virtues guarantee a happy life eudaimonia. For example, in the Meno, with respect to wisdom, he says: "everything the soul endeavours or endures under the guidance of wisdom ends in happiness" (Meno 88c). In the Apology, Socrates clearly presents his disagreement with those who think that the eudaimon life is the life of honour or pleasure, when he chastises the Athenians for caring more for riches and honour than the state of their souls. Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation, and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth or the best possible state of your soul. (29e)[7] ... [I]t does not seem like human nature for me to have neglected all my own affairs and to have tolerated this neglect for so many years while I was always concerned with you, approaching each one of you like a father or an elder brother to persuade you to care for virtue. (31a–b; italics added) It emerges a bit further on that this concern for one's soul, that one's soul might be in the best possible state, amounts to acquiring moral virtue. So Socrates' pointing out that the Athenians should care for their souls means that they should care for their virtue, rather than pursuing honour or riches. Virtues are states of the soul. When a soul has been properly cared for and perfected it possesses the virtues. Moreover, according to Socrates, this state of the soul, moral virtue, is the most important good. The health of the soul is incomparably more important for eudaimonia than (e.g.) wealth and political power. Someone with a virtuous soul is better off than someone who is wealthy and honoured but whose soul is corrupted by unjust actions. This view is confirmed in the Crito, where Socrates gets Crito to agree that the perfection of the soul, virtue, is the most important good: And is life worth living for us with that part of us corrupted that unjust action harms and just action benefits? Or do we think that part of us, whatever it is, that is concerned with justice and injustice, is inferior to the body? Not at all. It is much more valuable…? Much more… (47e–48a) Here, Socrates argues that life is not worth living if the soul is ruined by wrongdoing.[8] In summary, Socrates seems to think that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. A person who is not virtuous cannot be happy, and a person with virtue cannot fail to be happy. We shall see later on that Stoic ethics takes its cue from this Socratic insight. Plato[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Plato's great work of the middle period, the Republic, is devoted to answering a challenge made by the sophist Thrasymachus, that conventional morality, particularly the 'virtue' of justice, actually prevents the strong man from achieving eudaimonia. Thrasymachus's views are restatements of a position which Plato discusses earlier on in his writings, in the Gorgias, through the mouthpiece of Callicles. The basic argument presented by Thrasymachus and Callicles is that justice (being just) hinders or prevents the achievement of eudaimonia because conventional morality requires that we control ourselves and hence live with un-satiated desires. This idea is vividly illustrated in book 2 of the Republic when Glaucon, taking up Thrasymachus' challenge, recounts a myth of the magical ring of Gyges. According to the myth, Gyges becomes king of Lydia when he stumbles upon a magical ring, which, when he turns it a particular way, makes him invisible, so that he can satisfy any desire he wishes without fear of punishment. When he discovers the power of the ring he kills the king, marries his wife and takes over the throne. The thrust of Glaucon's challenge is that no one would be just if he could escape the retribution he would normally encounter for fulfilling his desires at whim. But if eudaimonia is to be achieved through the satisfaction of desire, whereas being just or acting justly requires suppression of desire, then it is not in the interests of the strong man to act according to the dictates of conventional morality. (This general line of argument reoccurs much later in the philosophy of Nietzsche.) Throughout the rest of the Republic, Plato aims to refute this claim by showing that the virtue of justice is necessary for eudaimonia. The School of Athens by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509, showing Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) The argument of the Republic is lengthy and complex. In brief, Plato argues that virtues are states of the soul, and that the just person is someone whose soul is ordered and harmonious, with all its parts functioning properly to the person's benefit. In contrast, Plato argues that the unjust man's soul, without the virtues, is chaotic and at war with itself, so that even if he were able to satisfy most of his desires, his lack of inner harmony and unity thwart any chance he has of achieving eudaimonia. Plato's ethical theory is eudaimonistic because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. On Plato's version of the relationship, virtue is depicted as the most crucial and the dominant constituent of eudaimonia. Aristotle[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Happiness in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics 23 June 2020, audio recording by Sara Sgarlata (DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3905301) Problems playing this file? See media help. Aristotle's account is articulated in the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics. In outline, for Aristotle, eudaimonia involves activity, exhibiting virtue (aretē sometimes translated as excellence) in accordance with reason. This conception of eudaimonia derives from Aristotle's essentialist understanding of human nature, the view that reason (logos sometimes translated as rationality) is unique to human beings and that the ideal function or work (ergon) of a human being is the fullest or most perfect exercise of reason. Basically, well-being (eudaimonia) is gained by proper development of one's highest and most human capabilities and human beings are "the rational animal". It follows that eudaimonia for a human being is the attainment of excellence (areté) in reason. According to Aristotle, eudaimonia actually requires activity, action, so that it is not sufficient for a person to possess a squandered ability or disposition. Eudaimonia requires not only good character but rational activity. Aristotle clearly maintains that to live in accordance with reason means achieving excellence thereby. Moreover, he claims this excellence cannot be isolated and so competencies are also required appropriate to related functions. For example, if being a truly outstanding scientist requires impressive math skills, one might say "doing mathematics well is necessary to be a first rate scientist". From this it follows that eudaimonia, living well, consists in activities exercising the rational part of the psyche in accordance with the virtues or excellency of reason [1097b22–1098a20]. Which is to say, to be fully engaged in the intellectually stimulating and fulfilling work at which one achieves well-earned success. The rest of the Nicomachean Ethics is devoted to filling out the claim that the best life for a human being is the life of excellence in accordance with reason. Since reason for Aristotle is not only theoretical but practical as well, he spends quite a bit of time discussing excellence of character, which enables a person to exercise his practical reason (i.e., reason relating to action) successfully. Aristotle's ethical theory is eudaimonist because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. However, it is Aristotle's explicit view that virtue is necessary but not sufficient for eudaimonia. While emphasizing the importance of the rational aspect of the psyche, he does not ignore the importance of other ‘goods' such as friends, wealth, and power in a life that is eudaimonic. He doubts the likelihood of being eudaimonic if one lacks certain external goods such as ‘good birth, good children, and beauty'. So, a person who is hideously ugly or has "lost children or good friends through death" (1099b5–6), or who is isolated, is unlikely to be eudaimon. In this way, "dumb luck" (chance) can preempt one's attainment of eudaimonia. Pyrrho[edit] Part of a series on Pyrrhonism Precursors Heraclitus Democritus Buddha Anaxarchus Xenophanes Philosophy Acatalepsy Adiaphora Aporia Ataraxia Astathmēta Impermanence Dependent origination Dogma Epoché Agrippa's trilemma Phantasiai Problem of induction Problem of the criterion Reductio ad absurdum Regress argument Relativism Circular reasoning Dissent Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Pyrrhonists Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Michel de Montaigne Sextus Empiricus Timon of Phlius Similar philosophies Academic Skepticism Madhyamaka Buddhism Empiric school Cyrenaicism Cynicism Contrary philosophies Stoicism Aristotelianism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Pyrrho was the founder of Pyrrhonism. A summary of his approach to eudaimonia was preserved by Eusebius, quoting Aristocles of Messene, quoting Timon of Phlius, in what is known as the "Aristocles passage." Whoever wants eudaimonia must consider these three questions: First, how are pragmata (ethical matters, affairs, topics) by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them? Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?" Pyrrho's answer is that "As for pragmata they are all adiaphora (undifferentiated by a logical differentia), astathmēta (unstable, unbalanced, not measurable), and anepikrita (unjudged, unfixed, undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our doxai (views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly should not rely on them. Rather, we should be adoxastoi (without views), aklineis (uninclined toward this side or that), and akradantoi (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not or it neither is nor is not.[9] With respect to aretē, the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus said: If one defines a system as an attachment to a number of dogmas that agree with one another and with appearances, and defines a dogma as an assent to something non-evident, we shall say that the Pyrrhonist does not have a system. But if one says that a system is a way of life that, in accordance with appearances, follows a certain rationale, where that rationale shows how it is possible to seem to live rightly ("rightly" being taken, not as referring only to aretē, but in a more ordinary sense) and tends to produce the disposition to suspend judgment, then we say that he does have a system.[10] Epicurus[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Epicurus identified eudaimonia with the life of pleasure. Epicurus' ethical theory is hedonistic. (His view proved very influential on the founders and best proponents of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.) Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and that pain is the only intrinsic bad. An object, experience or state of affairs is intrinsically valuable if it is good simply because of what it is. Intrinsic value is to be contrasted with instrumental value. An object, experience or state of affairs is instrumentally valuable if it serves as a means to what is intrinsically valuable. To see this, consider the following example. Suppose a person spends their days and nights in an office, working at not entirely pleasant activities for the purpose of receiving money. Someone asks them "why do you want the money?", and they answer: "So, I can buy an apartment overlooking the ocean, and a red sports car." This answer expresses the point that money is instrumentally valuable because its value lies in what one obtains by means of it – in this case, the money is a means to getting an apartment and a sports car and the value of making this money dependent on the price of these commodities. Epicurus identifies the good life with the life of pleasure. He understands eudaimonia as a more or less continuous experience of pleasure and, also, freedom from pain and distress. But it is important to notice that Epicurus does not advocate that one pursue any and every pleasure. Rather, he recommends a policy whereby pleasures are maximized "in the long run". In other words, Epicurus claims that some pleasures are not worth having because they lead to greater pains, and some pains are worthwhile when they lead to greater pleasures. The best strategy for attaining a maximal amount of pleasure overall is not to seek instant gratification but to work out a sensible long term policy. Ancient Greek ethics is eudaimonist because it links virtue and eudaimonia, where eudaimonia refers to an individual's well-being. Epicurus' doctrine can be considered eudaimonist since Epicurus argues that a life of pleasure will coincide with a life of virtue.[11] He believes that we do and ought to seek virtue because virtue brings pleasure. Epicurus' basic doctrine is that a life of virtue is the life which generates the most amount of pleasure, and it is for this reason that we ought to be virtuous. This thesis—the eudaimon life is the pleasurable life—is not a tautology as "eudaimonia is the good life" would be: rather, it is the substantive and controversial claim that a life of pleasure and absence of pain is what eudaimonia consists in. One important difference between Epicurus' eudaimonism and that of Plato and Aristotle is that for the latter virtue is a constituent of eudaimonia, whereas Epicurus makes virtue a means to happiness. To this difference, consider Aristotle's theory. Aristotle maintains that eudaimonia is what everyone wants (and Epicurus would agree). He also thinks that eudaimonia is best achieved by a life of virtuous activity in accordance with reason. The virtuous person takes pleasure in doing the right thing as a result of a proper training of moral and intellectual character (See e.g., Nicomachean Ethics 1099a5). However, Aristotle does not think that virtuous activity is pursued for the sake of pleasure. Pleasure is a byproduct of virtuous action: it does not enter at all into the reasons why virtuous action is virtuous. Aristotle does not think that we literally aim for eudaimonia. Rather, eudaimonia is what we achieve (assuming that we aren't particularly unfortunate in the possession of external goods) when we live according to the requirements of reason. Virtue is the largest constituent in a eudaimon life. By contrast, Epicurus holds that virtue is the means to achieve happiness. His theory is eudaimonist in that he holds that virtue is indispensable to happiness; but virtue is not a constituent of a eudaimon life, and being virtuous is not (external goods aside) identical with being eudaimon. Rather, according to Epicurus, virtue is only instrumentally related to happiness. So whereas Aristotle would not say that one ought to aim for virtue in order to attain pleasure, Epicurus would endorse this claim. The Stoics[edit] Zeno thought happiness was a "good flow of life." Stoic philosophy begins with Zeno of Citium c.300 BC, and was developed by Cleanthes (331–232 BC) and Chrysippus (c.280–c.206 BC) into a formidable systematic unity.[12] Zeno believed happiness was a "good flow of life"; Cleanthes suggested it was "living in agreement with nature", and Chrysippus believed it was "living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature."[12] Stoic ethics is a particularly strong version of eudaimonism. According to the Stoics, virtue is necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. (This thesis is generally regarded as stemming from the Socrates of Plato's earlier dialogues.) We saw earlier that the conventional Greek concept of arete is not quite the same as that denoted by virtue, which has Christian connotations of charity, patience, and uprightness, since arete includes many non-moral virtues such as physical strength and beauty. However, the Stoic concept of arete is much nearer to the Christian conception of virtue, which refers to the moral virtues. However, unlike Christian understandings of virtue, righteousness or piety, the Stoic conception does not place as great an emphasis on mercy, forgiveness, self-abasement (i.e. the ritual process of declaring complete powerlessness and humility before God), charity and self-sacrificial love, though these behaviors/mentalities are not necessarily spurned by the Stoics (they are spurned by some other philosophers of Antiquity). Rather Stoicism emphasizes states such as justice, honesty, moderation, simplicity, self-discipline, resolve, fortitude, and courage (states which Christianity also encourages). The Stoics make a radical claim that the eudaimon life is the morally virtuous life. Moral virtue is good, and moral vice is bad, and everything else, such as health, honour and riches, are merely "neutral".[12] The Stoics therefore are committed to saying that external goods such as wealth and physical beauty are not really good at all. Moral virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. In this, they are akin to Cynic philosophers such as Antisthenes and Diogenes in denying the importance to eudaimonia of external goods and circumstances, such as were recognized by Aristotle, who thought that severe misfortune (such as the death of one's family and friends) could rob even the most virtuous person of eudaimonia. This Stoic doctrine re-emerges later in the history of ethical philosophy in the writings of Immanuel Kant, who argues that the possession of a "good will" is the only unconditional good. One difference is that whereas the Stoics regard external goods as neutral, as neither good nor bad, Kant's position seems to be that external goods are good, but only so far as they are a condition to achieving happiness. Modern conceptions[edit] "Modern Moral Philosophy"[edit] Interest in the concept of eudaimonia and ancient ethical theory more generally had a revival in the 20th century. G. E. M. Anscombe in her article "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958) argued that duty-based conceptions of morality are conceptually incoherent for they are based on the idea of a "law without a lawgiver."[13] She claims a system of morality conceived along the lines of the Ten Commandments depends on someone having made these rules.[14] Anscombe recommends a return to the eudaimonistic ethical theories of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, which ground morality in the interests and well-being of human moral agents, and can do so without appealing to any such lawgiver. Julia Driver in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy explains: Anscombe's article Modern Moral Philosophy stimulated the development of virtue ethics as an alternative to Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics, and Social Contract theories. Her primary charge in the article is that, as secular approaches to moral theory, they are without foundation. They use concepts such as "morally ought", "morally obligated", "morally right", and so forth that are legalistic and require a legislator as the source of moral authority. In the past God occupied that role, but systems that dispense with God as part of the theory are lacking the proper foundation for meaningful employment of those concepts.[15] Modern psychology[edit] See also: Happiness, Positive psychology, and Well-being - Contributing factors and research findings Eudaimonic well-being in 166 nations based on Gallup World Poll data Models of eudaimonia in psychology and positive psychology emerged from early work on self-actualization and the means of its accomplishment by researchers such as Erik Erikson, Gordon Allport, and Abraham Maslow.[16] Theories include Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being, Ryff's Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being, Keyes work on flourishing, and Seligman's[specify] contributions to positive psychology and his theories on authentic happiness and P.E.R.M.A. Related concepts are happiness, flourishing, quality of life, contentment,[17] and meaningful life. The Japanese concept of Ikigai has been described as eudaimonic well-being, as it "entails actions of devoting oneself to pursuits one enjoys and is associated with feelings of accomplishment and fulfillment."[18] See also[edit] Ataraxia Eudaemon (mythology) Eudaemons Eupraxsophy Humanism Maslow's hierarchy of needs Perfectionism Phronesis Social quality Summum bonum Virtue ethics Well-being References[edit] ^ Robinson, Daniel N. 1989. Aristotle's Psychology. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-9672066-0-X, ISBN 9780231070027. ^ Critchley, Simon. 2019. Tragedy, the Greeks, and Us. p 140. ^ Rosalind Hursthouse (July 18, 2007). "Virtue Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. But although modern virtue ethics does not have to take the form known as "neo-Aristotelian", almost any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are areté (excellence or virtue) phronesis (practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually translated as happiness or flourishing.) As modern virtue ethics has grown and more people have become familiar with its literature, the understanding of these terms has increased, but it is still the case that readers familiar only with modern philosophy tend to misinterpret them. ^ Verena von Pfetten (4 September 2008). "5 Things Happy People Do". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2010-06-05. But researchers now believe that eudaimonic well-being may be more important. Cobbled from the Greek eu ("good") and daimon ("spirit" or "deity"), eudaimonia means striving toward excellence based on one's unique talents and potential—Aristotle considered it to be the noblest goal in life. In his time, the Greeks believed that each child was blessed at birth with a personal daimon embodying the highest possible expression of his or her nature. One way they envisioned the daimon was as a golden figurine that would be revealed by cracking away an outer layer of cheap pottery (the person's baser exterior). The effort to know and realize one's most golden self—"personal growth," in today's vernacular—is now the central concept of eudaimonia, which has also come to include continually taking on new challenges and fulfilling one's sense of purpose in life. ^ Aristotle, also David Ross, Lesley Brown (1980). "The Nicomachean Ethics". Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199213610. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Verbally there is very general agreement, for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement...CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Kjell, Oscar (2011). "Sustainable Well-Being: A Potential Synergy Between Sustainability and Well-Being Research." Review of General Psychology, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 255-266. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024603 ^ Uncertain (19 September 2008). "How "God" functioned in Socrates' life". DD:Religion. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy, to exhort you and in my usual way to point out to any of you whom I happen to meet: "Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth, or the best possible state of your soul?" ^ Richard Parry (Aug 7, 2009). "Ancient Ethical Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Socrates says that a man worth anything at all does not reckon whether his course of action endangers his life or threatens death. He looks only at one thing — whether what he does is just or not, the work of a good or of a bad man (28b–c). ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9781400866328. ^ Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I Chapter 8 ^ Principal Doctrines, 5 https://monadnock.net/epicurus/principal-doctrines.html ^ a b c Dirk Baltzly (Feb 7, 2008). "Stoicism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. But what is happiness? The Epicureans' answer was deceptively straightforward: the happy life is the one which is most pleasant. (But their account of what the highest pleasure consists of was not at all straightforward.) Zeno's answer was "a good flow of life" (Arius Didymus, 63A) or "living in agreement", and Cleanthes clarified that with the formulation that the end was "living in agreement with nature" (Arius Didymus, 63B). Chrysippus amplified this to (among other formulations) "living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature"; later Stoics inadvisably, in response to Academic attacks, substituted such formulations as "the rational selection of the primary things according to nature". The Stoics' specification of what happiness consists in cannot be adequately understood apart from their views about value and human psychology. ^ "The ethics of virtue: The Ethics of Virtue and the Ethics of Right Action". wutsamada.com. 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-06-05. legalistic ethics rest on the incoherent notion of a "law" without a lawgiver: DCT unacceptable; and the alternative sources of moral "legislation" are inadequate substitutes ^ G. E. M. Anscombe (January 1958). "Modern Moral Philosophy". Philosophy 33, No. 124. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Originally published in Philosophy 33, No. 124 (January 1958). ... The first is that it is not profitable for us at present to do moral philosophy; that should be laid aside at any rate until we have an adequate philosophy of psychology, in which we are conspicuously lacking. The second is that the concepts of obligation, and duty—moral obligation and moral duty, that is to say—and of what is morally right and wrong, and of the moral sense of "ought", ought to be jettisoned if this is psychologically possible; because they are survivals, or derivatives from survivals, from an earlier conception of ethics which no longer generally survives, and are only harmful without it. My third thesis is that the differences between the well‑known English writers on moral philosophy from Sidgwick to the present day are of little importance. ^ Julia Driver (Jul 21, 2009). "Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe: 5.1 Virtue Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. In the past God occupied that role, but systems that dispense with God as part of the theory are lacking the proper foundation for meaningful employment of those concepts. ^ Ryff, C. D. (1989). "Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 57 (6): 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069. ^ Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. pp. 6–10. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5. ^ Kumano, Michiko (2018-06-01). "On the Concept of Well-Being in Japan: Feeling Shiawase as Hedonic Well-Being and Feeling Ikigai as Eudaimonic Well-Being". Applied Research in Quality of Life. 13 (2): 419–433. doi:10.1007/s11482-017-9532-9. ISSN 1871-2576. S2CID 149162906. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aristotle. The Nichomachean Ethics, translated by Martin Ostwald. New York: The Bobs-Merrill Company. 1962 —— The Complete Works of Aristotle, vol. 1 and 2 (rev. ed.), edited by Jonathan Barnes (1984). Bollingen Foundation.1995. ASIN B000J0HP5E Cicero. "On Ends" in De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1914. Latin text with old-fashioned and not always philosophically precise English translation. Epicurus. "Letter to Menoeceus, Principal Doctrines, and Vatican Sayings." Pp. 28–40 in Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings (2nd ed.), edited by B. Inwood and L. Gerson. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. 1998. ISBN 0-87220-378-6. Plato. Plato's Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper, translated by D. S. Hutchinson. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. 1997. ISBN 0-87220-349-2. Secondary sources[edit] Ackrill, J. L. (1981) Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289118-9 Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958) Modern Moral Philosophy. Philosophy 33; repr. in G.E.M. Anscombe (1981), vol. 3, 26–42. Broadie, Sarah W. (1991) Ethics with Aristotle. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ASIN B000VM6T34 Irwin, T. H. (1995) Plato's Ethics, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Janello, Martin (2013) Philosophy of Happiness, Palioxis Publishing, 1000 pages, ISBN 978-0-9910649-0-8 Long, A. A., and D.N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, vol 1 and 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) McMahon, Darrin M. (2005). Happiness: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-886-7 —— (2004) "The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780." Daedalus (Spring 2004). Norton, David L. (1976) Personal Destinies, Princeton University Press. Urmson, J. O. (1988) Aristotle's Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell. Vlastos, G. (1991) Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9787-6 External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Eudaemonism . 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en-wikipedia-org-2269	----	International Standard Book Number - Wikipedia International Standard Book Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISBN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with ICCU SBN. Unique numeric book identifier International Standard Book Number A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code Acronym ISBN Organisation International ISBN Agency Introduced 1970; 51 years ago (1970) No. of digits 13 (formerly 10) Check digit Weighted sum Example 978-3-16-148410-0 Website isbn-international.org The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique.[a][b] Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.[1] An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.[c] The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero digit '0'). Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.[3] Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores. Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 How ISBNs are issued 2.2 Registration group element 2.3 Registrant element 2.3.1 Pattern for English language ISBNs 3 Check digits 3.1 ISBN-10 check digits 3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation 3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation 3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion 3.5 Errors in usage 3.6 eISBN 4 EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. It was created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,[4] for the booksellers and stationers WHSmith and others in 1965.[5] The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker[6][7] (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN")[8] and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay[6] (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).[8][9][10] The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.[5][6] The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.[11] An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0". For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8", where "340" indicates the publisher, "01381" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and "8" is the check digit. By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book;[12] for example, Woodstock Handmade Houses had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, ISBN: 0-345-24223-8),[13] and it cost US$5.95.[14] Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits.[2] Overview A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN assigned to it.[15]:12 The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007.[c][2] An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN). Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:11 describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows: The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1, the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),[d] the registrant element, the publication element, and a checksum character or check digit. A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.[e] How ISBNs are issued ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.[17] A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.[18] A list for a few countries is given below: Australia – Thorpe-Bowker[19][20] Brazil – The National Library of Brazil;[21] (Up to 28 February 2020)[22] Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro[23] (From 1 March 2020)[22] Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec; Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries[24] India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development[25] Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland) Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries[26] Italy – EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association)[27][28] Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) Malta – The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb)[29][30][31] Morocco – The National Library of Morocco New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand[32] Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan Philippines – National Library of the Philippines[33] South Africa – National Library of South Africa Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture[34] United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V.[35] United States – R. R. Bowker[6][36] Registration group element The ISBN registration group element is a 1- to 5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979),[15]:11 and can be separated between hyphens, such as "978-1-...". Registration groups have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element.[37] The single-digit registration groups within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China. An example 5-digit registration group is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated registration groups are: 0–5, 600–625, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9917–9989, and 99901–99983.[38] Books published in rare languages typically have longer group elements.[39] Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.[40] The registration groups within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.[41] The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero (0) to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Registrant element The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.[42][43][44] A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form. The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[45] Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English-language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.[46] Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. ISBN Country or area Publisher 99921-58-10-7 Qatar NCCAH, Doha 9971-5-0210-0 Singapore World Scientific 960-425-059-0 Greece Sigma Publications 80-902734-1-6 Czech Republic; Slovakia Taita Publishers 85-359-0277-5 Brazil Companhia das Letras 1-84356-028-3 English-speaking area Simon Wallenberg Press 0-684-84328-5 English-speaking area Scribner 0-8044-2957-X English-speaking area Frederick Ungar 0-85131-041-9 English-speaking area J. A. Allen & Co. 93-86954-21-4 English-speaking area Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. 0-943396-04-2 English-speaking area Willmann–Bell 0-9752298-0-X English-speaking area KT Publishing Pattern for English language ISBNs English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:[47] Publication element length 0 – Registration group element 1 – Registration group element Total Registrants From To Registrants From To Registrants 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-01-xxxxxx-x 1-04-xxxxxx-x 1-02-xxxxxx-x 1-06-xxxxxx-x 5 25 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x 0-229-xxxxx-x 0-370-xxxxx-x 0-640-xxxxx-x 0-646-xxxxx-x 0-649-xxxxx-x 0-656-xxxxx-x 0-227-xxxxx-x 0-368-xxxxx-x 0-638-xxxxx-x 0-644-xxxxx-x 0-647-xxxxx-x 0-654-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x 494 1-000-xxxxx-x 1-030-xxxxx-x 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-714-xxxxx-x 1-009-xxxxx-x 1-034-xxxxx-x 1-397-xxxxx-x 1-716-xxxxx-x 316 810 4 digits 0-2280-xxxx-x 0-3690-xxxx-x 0-6390-xxxx-x 0-6550-xxxx-x 0-7000-xxxx-x 0-2289-xxxx-x 0-3699-xxxx-x 0-6397-xxxx-x 0-6559-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x 1,538 1-0350-xxxx-x 1-0700-xxxx-x 1-3980-xxxx-x 1-6500-xxxx-x 1-6860-xxxx-x 1-7170-xxxx-x 1-7900-xxxx-x 1-8672-xxxx-x 1-9730-xxxx-x 1-0399-xxxx-x 1-0999-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1-6799-xxxx-x 1-7139-xxxx-x 1-7319-xxxx-x 1-7999-xxxx-x 1-8675-xxxx-x 1-9877-xxxx-x 2,852 4,390 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5,000 1-55000-xxx-x 1-68000-xxx-x 1-74000-xxx-x 1-77540-xxx-x 1-77650-xxx-x 1-77770-xxx-x 1-80000-xxx-x 1-83850-xxx-x 1-86760-xxx-x 1-64999-xxx-x 1-68599-xxx-x 1-77499-xxx-x 1-77639-xxx-x 1-77699-xxx-x 1-78999-xxx-x 1-83799-xxx-x 1-86719-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x 22,370 27,370 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x 0-949999-xx-x 50,000 1-869800-xx-x 1-916506-xx-x 1-987800-xx-x 1-991200-xx-x 1-915999-xx-x 1-972999-xx-x 1-991149-xx-x 1-998989-xx-x 113,834 163,834 1 digit 0-6398000-x-x 0-6450000-x-x 0-6480000-x-x 0-9500000-x-x 0-6399999-x-x 0-6459999-x-x 0-6489999-x-x 0-9999999-x-x 522,000 1-7320000-x-x 1-7750000-x-x 1-7764000-x-x 1-7770000-x-x 1-8380000-x-x 1-9160000-x-x 1-9911500-x-x 1-9989900-x-x 1-7399999-x-x 1-7753999-x-x 1-7764999-x-x 1-7776999-x-x 1-8384999-x-x 1-9165059-x-x 1-9911999-x-x 1-9999999-x-x 112,660 634,660 Total 579,052 Total 252,037 831,089 Check digits A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero. The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'. The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'. ISBN-10 check digits According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual,[48] the ISBN-10 check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11. That is, if xi is the ith digit, then x10 must be chosen such that: ∑ i = 1 10 ( 11 − i ) x i ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{10}(11-i)x_{i}\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}} For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 1 ) = 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2 = 132 = 12 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)+(2\times 1)\\&=0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10+2\\&=132=12\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( 10 x 1 + 9 x 2 + 8 x 3 + 7 x 4 + 6 x 5 + 5 x 6 + 4 x 7 + 3 x 8 + 2 x 9 + x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (10x_{1}+9x_{2}+8x_{3}+7x_{4}+6x_{5}+5x_{6}+4x_{7}+3x_{8}+2x_{9}+x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: s = ( 0 × 1 ) + ( 3 × 2 ) + ( 0 × 3 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 5 ) + ( 0 × 6 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 1 × 8 ) + ( 5 × 9 ) + ( 2 × 10 ) = 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20 = 165 = 15 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 1)+(3\times 2)+(0\times 3)+(6\times 4)+(4\times 5)+(0\times 6)+(6\times 7)+(1\times 8)+(5\times 9)+(2\times 10)\\&=0+6+0+24+20+0+42+8+45+20\\&=165=15\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + 5 x 5 + 6 x 6 + 7 x 7 + 8 x 8 + 9 x 9 + 10 x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3}+4x_{4}+5x_{5}+6x_{6}+7x_{7}+8x_{8}+9x_{9}+10x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid ISBN-10s differ in at least two digits. It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.[49] In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). ISBN-10 check digit calculation Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN—excluding the check digit itself—is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) = 130 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)\\&=130\end{aligned}}} Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. If the value of x 10 {\displaystyle x_{10}} required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of 11−0 = 11, which is invalid. (Strictly speaking, the first "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 11 − ( ( ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 130 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( 9 ) ) mod 11 = ( 2 ) mod 11 = 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(11-(((0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2))\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((130)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-(9))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(2)\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=2\end{aligned}}} Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between 0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % 11; } The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. ISBN-13 check digit calculation Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:33 describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10. As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + x 5 + 3 x 6 + x 7 + 3 x 8 + x 9 + 3 x 10 + x 11 + 3 x 12 + x 13 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+x_{5}+3x_{6}+x_{7}+3x_{8}+x_{9}+3x_{10}+x_{11}+3x_{12}+x_{13})\equiv 0{\pmod {10}}.} The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. In general, the ISBN-13 check digit is calculated as follows. Let r = ( 10 − ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + ⋯ + x 11 + 3 x 12 ) mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle r={\big (}10-{\big (}x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+\cdots +x_{11}+3x_{12}{\big )}\,{\bmod {\,}}10{\big )}.} Then x 13 = { r  ;  r < 10 0  ;  r = 10. {\displaystyle x_{13}={\begin{cases}r&{\text{ ; }}r<10\\0&{\text{ ; }}r=10.\end{cases}}} This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit. Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0). ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion An ISBN-10 is converted to ISBN-13 by prepending "978" to the ISBN-10 and recalculating the final checksum digit using the ISBN-13 algorithm. The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent. Errors in usage Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[50] For example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books – Ninja gaiden®: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".[51] However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.[citation needed] OCLC often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. eISBN Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.[52] EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading Currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price.[53] For 10-digit ISBNs, the number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1× and 3× weighting on alternating digits). Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007.[54] As of 2011[update], all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used by ISBN. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.[55] Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. See also ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number) BICI (Book Item and Component Identifier) CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) DOI (Digital Object Identifier) ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue) ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number) ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number) ISMN (International Standard Music Number) ISRC (International Standard Recording Code) ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) ISTC (International Standard Text Code) ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code) ISWN (International Standard Wine Number) LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number) License number (East German books) [de] (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR) List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes List of ISBN identifier groups OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center number)[56] Registration authority SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century") VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century") Notes ^ Occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to more than one title—the first edition of The Ultimate Alphabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are published with several ISBNs: A German second-language edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States), 91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (United Kingdom) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany). ^ In some cases, books sold only as sets share ISBNs. For example, the Vance Integral Edition used only two ISBNs for 44 books. ^ a b Publishers were required to convert existing ISBNs from the 10-digit format to the 13-digit format (in their publication records) by 1 January 2007. For existing publications, the new 13-digit ISBN would only need to be added if (and when) a publication was reprinted. During the transition period, publishers were recommended to print both the 10-digit and 13-digit ISBNs on the verso of a publication's title page, but they were required to print only the 13-digit ISBN after 1 January 2007.[2] ^ Some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. A. M. Yaglom's Correlation Theory..., published by Springer Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-6. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit for both (6). Springer uses 431 as the publisher code for Japanese (4), and 4-431-96331-? also has a check digit of 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also have a check digit of 6. This suggests that special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.[original research?] ^ The International ISBN Agency's ISBN User's Manual says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed.[16] The actual definition for hyphenation contains more than 220 different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages. References ^ "The International ISBN Agency". Retrieved 20 February 2018. ^ a b c TC 46/SC 9. "Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO". lac-bac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. ^ Bradley, Philip (1992). "Book numbering: The importance of the ISBN" (PDF [245KB]). The Indexer. 18 (1): 25–26. ^ Foster, Gordon (1966). "International Standard Book Numbering (ISBN) System original 1966 report". informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b "ISBN History". isbn.org. 20 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b c d Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. p. 5. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "International Publishers Association—'It was an idea whose time had come.' David Whitaker on the birth of ISBN". International Publishers Association. Retrieved 6 August 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b "Emery Koltay, David Whitaker Named NISO Fellows" (PDF), Information Standards Quarterly, National Information Standards Organization, 8 (3): 12–13, July 1996, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2014 ^ US ISBN Agency. "Bowker.com – Products". Commerce.bowker.com. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ Gregory, Daniel. "ISBN". PrintRS. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ ISO 2108:1978 (PDF), ISO ^ "Internet Archive Search: "SBN 345"". archive.org. ^ Haney, Robert (1974). Woodstock handmade houses. David Ballantine, Jonathan Elliott. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-24223-8. OCLC 2057258. ^ Haney, Robert; Ballantine, David; Elliott, Jonathan (1974). Woodstock handmade houses. web.archive.org. ISBN 9780345242235. Retrieved 26 May 2021. ^ a b c d ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (7th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95055-12-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". International ISBN Agency. 2014. ^ "ISBN Canada". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. LAC. 17 April 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "Find an agency – International ISBN Agency". isbn-international.org. ^ "About the Australian ISBN Agency". THORPE-Bowker. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". Thorpe-Bowker. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2012. ^ "Tabela de preços dos serviços" [Table of service prices] (in Portuguese). Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil. Retrieved 8 September 2015. ^ a b "Changes in arrangements for ISBN in Brazil". Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "ISBN Brasil" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "Introduction to Books Registration". HKPL. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches ISBN Portal". MHRD. 7 April 2016. ^ "What is an ISBN ?". ICL – מרכז הספר והספריות. 7 April 2015. ^ "ISBN – Chi siamo e contatti" [ISBN – Who we are and contacts] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN – Tariffe Servizi ISBN" [ISBN Service Tariffs] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN". Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. ^ Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. pp. 1–40. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta" (PDF). Government Gazette. 23 January 2015. p. 582. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2016. ^ "ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs". National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "International Standard Book Number". NLP. Retrieved 25 December 2017. ^ "ISBN – Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayımlar Genel Müdürlüğü OS". ekygm.gov.tr. ^ "Nielsen UK ISBN Agency". Nielsen UK ISBN Agency. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". R. R. Bowker. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. 29 April 2014. Select the format you desire and click on the Generate button. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ See a complete list of group identifiers. ISBN.org sometimes calls them group numbers. Their table of identifiers now refers to ISBN prefix ranges, which must be assumed to be group identifier ranges. ^ Hailman, Jack Parker (2008). Coding and redundancy: man-made and animal-evolved signals. Harvard University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-674-02795-4. ^ ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (6th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-95055-02-5. ^ International ISBN Agency (5 December 2014). "International ISBN Agency – Range Message (pdf sorted by prefix)" (PDF). isbn-international.org. p. 29. Retrieved 15 December 2014. ^ "Independent Publishers". Waterstones. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Before submitting any titles to our central buying team for consideration, your book must have the following: An ISBN... ^ "How to obtain an ISBN". Barnes & Noble. Retrieved 2 February 2020. We use ISBNs to track inventory and sales information. All books Barnes & Noble transacts on must have an ISBN. ^ "Product ID (GTIN) requirements for Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Effective June 1, 2017, you must provide an ISBN, EAN, or JAN to list a book in the Amazon catalog, regardless of the book's publication date. ^ See Publisher's International ISBN Directory Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Splane, Lily (2002). The book book : a complete guide to creating a book on your computer (2nd ed.). San Diego, Calif.: Anaphase II. ISBN 0-945962-14-2. OCLC 54527545. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. International ISBN Agency. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014. ^ "ISBN Users' Manual (2001 edition) – 4. Structure of ISBN". International ISBN Agency. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. ^ For example, I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4". ^ Lorimer, Rowland; Shoichet, Jillian; Maxwell, John W. (2005). Book Publishing I. CCSP Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-9738727-0-5. ^ "020 – International Standard Book Number (R) – MARC 21 Bibliographic – Full". Library of Congress. September 2013. ^ "The Myth of the eISBN Why Every eBook Edition Needs a Unique Number – Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses". Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2017. ^ Frequently asked questions, US: ISBN, 12 March 2014, archived from the original on 16 April 2014 — including a detailed description of the EAN-13 format. ^ "ISBN", ISO TC49SC9 (FAQ), CA: Collections ^ "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?", Standards, ISBN ^ "xISBN (Web service)". Xisbn.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2013. External links Wikidata has the properties: ISBN-10 (P957) (see uses) ISBN-13 (P212) (see uses) International Standard Book Numberat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata Documentation from MediaWiki ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN) International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system Numerical List of Group Identifiers—List of language/region prefixes Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 & ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not. "Guidelines for the Implementation of 13-Digit ISBNs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2004 RFC 3187—Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN) Book sources search — allows search by ISBN v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10628 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 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en-wikipedia-org-2276	----	Valens - Wikipedia Valens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 364 to 378 This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, see Valens (disambiguation). Roman emperor in the East Valens Solidus depicting Valens, marked: d·n· valens p·f· aug· Roman emperor in the East Reign 28 March 364 – 9 August 378 Predecessor Valentinian I (East and West) Successor Theodosius I Western emperors Valentinian I (364–375) Gratian (375–378) Valentinian II (375–378) Born 328 Cibalae (Vinkovci, Croatia) Died 9 August 378 (aged 49)[1] Battle of Adrianople Burial unknown, killed in battle near Hadrianopolis (Edirne) Spouse Albia Dominica[2] Issue Valentinianus Galates, Anastasia, Carosa[1] Names Flavius Valens[3] Dynasty Valentinianic Father Gratianus Funarius Religion Semi-Arianism[4][5] Flavius Valens (328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. He was the younger brother of the emperor Valentinian I, who gave Valens the eastern half of the Roman Empire to rule. Before 364, Valens had a largely unremarkable military career. In 378, Valens was defeated and killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the invading Goths, which astonished contemporaries and marked the beginning of barbarian encroachment into Roman territory. As emperor Valens continually faced threats both internal and external.[6] He defeated, after some dithering, the usurper Procopius in 366, and campaigned against the Goths across the Danube in 367 and 369. In the following years, Valens focused on the eastern frontier, where he faced the perennial threat of Persia, particularly in Armenia, as well as additional conflicts with the Saracens and Isaurians. Domestically, he inaugurated the Aqueduct of Valens in Constantinople, which was longer than all the aqueducts of Rome. In 376–77, the Gothic War broke out, following a mismanaged attempt to settle the Goths in the Balkans. Valens returned from the east to fight the Goths in person, but lack of coordination with his nephew, the western emperor Gratian (Valentinian I's son), as well as poor battle tactics, led to Valens and much of the eastern Roman army dying at a battle near Adrianople in 378. Although Valens is described as indecisive, impressionable, a mediocre general and overall "utterly undistinguished", he was also a conscientious and capable administrator,[7] and a notable achievement of his was to significantly relieve the burden of taxation on the population.[8] At the same time, his suspicious and fearful disposition, and excessive concern for personal safety, resulted in numerous treason trials and executions, which heavily stained his reputation. In religious matters, Valens favored a compromise between the Nicene and the various non-trinitarian Christian sects,[9] and interfered little in the affairs of the pagans.[10][8][11] Contents 1 Early life and military career 2 Accession 3 Early reign 3.1 Usurpation of Procopius: September 365–May 366 3.2 Formation of the Valentinianic dynasty 3.3 Currency reforms 4 First Gothic War: 367–369 5 Middle reign: 369–373 6 Persian War: 373 7 Later reign: 373–376 8 Second Gothic War: 376–378 8.1 Battle of Adrianople: 9 August 378 9 Legacy 9.1 Religious policy 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Early life and military career[edit] Marble bust possibly representing Valens or Honorius (Capitoline Museums) Valens and his brother Valentinian were both born in Cibalae (Vinkovci) in Pannonia Secunda, into an Illyrian family in 328 and 321 respectively.[12][13] Gratianus Funarius was from Cibalae (Vinkovci) in Pannonia and had become a senior officer in the Roman army and comes Africae.[14] He and his brother had grown up on estates purchased by their father Gratianus in Africa and Britain.[15] Valens served in the protectores domestici under the emperors Julian (r. 361–363) and Jovian (r. 361–363). According to the 5th-century Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus, while serving as a protector domesticus, Valens refused pressure to offer sacrifice in ancient Roman religion during the reign of the pagan emperor Julian.[13] Valens's younger brother Valentinian joined the protectores, rising to tribunus in 357.[14] Valentinian served in Gaul and in Mesopotamia in the reign of Constantius II (r. 337–361).[14] According to the Chronicle of Jerome and the Chronicon Paschale, Valens's eldest nephew Gratian was born in 359 at Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) to Valentinian's wife Marina Severa.[16][17] In late 364, the reigning emperor Jovian, who having been a protector domesticus under Constantius II and Julian and a primicerius domesticorum from 363, had on 27 June 363 been acclaimed augustus by the army at Maranga on the Tigris during Julian's Persian War, was hastening to Constantinople to secure his claim to the purple.[18] According to one of Themistius's orations, on 1 January 364 Jovian staged a consular entry into Ancyra (Ankara) for the beginning of his first consulship, an honour he shared with his son Varronianus.[18] He died during a stop at Dadastana.[18] The emperor died on 17 February according to the Latin historian Eutropius, but on the 19 February according to the According to Eutropius, Jovian was deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Iovianus, lit. 'the Divine Valens'.[19] Valentinian, a tribunus scholae secundiae scutariorum, owed his advancement to the deceased.[20] In the history written by Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Valentinian was summoned to Nicaea by a council of military and civil officials who acclaimed him augustus.[14] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the date of his elevation was 25 February 364.[21] According to the 5th-century Greek historian Sozomen, Valentinian was a Nicene Christian.[14] Valens, on the other hand, was an Arian Christian (a "Homoean").[13] Solidus of Valens showing Valentinian and Valens on the reverse, marked: victoria augg· ("the Victory of Our Augusti"). They hold together the orb, a symbol of power. Accession[edit] Valentinian appointed his brother Valens tribunus stabulorum (or stabuli) on 1 March 364 and both brothers became Roman consul for the first time.[14][19] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Valentinian raised his brother Valens to be his co-augustus on 28 March 364, at Constantinople.[14][13][19] He was acclaimed augustus on 26 February, 364. It was the general opinion that Valentinian needed help to handle the cumbersome administration, civil and military, of the large and unwieldy empire, and, on 28 March of the same year, at the express demand of the soldiers for a second augustus, he selected his brother Valens as co-emperor at the Hebdomon, before the Constantinian Walls.[22][23] A solidus of Valens with a pearl diadem and a roseate fibula Reverse of a solidus of Valens, marked: restitutor reipublicae ("the restitutor of the Republic") and showing the emperor holding a vexillum and a globe supporting a Victory, who crowns him with a laurel wreath Early reign[edit] Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople, but as soon as they recovered, the two augusti travelled together through Adrianople and Naissus to Mediana, where they divided their territories. Valentinian then went on to the West, where the Alemannic wars required his immediate attention.[24][25] Valens began his consulship in Constantinople and Valentinian took up his consulship in Mediolanum (Milan).[14][19] Valens's wife Domnica may have become augusta in 364.[19] Valens obtained the eastern half of the Empire: Greece, the Balkans, Egypt, Anatolia and the Levant as far as the border with the Sasanian Empire. Valens was back in his capital of Constantinople by December 364. Valens inherited the eastern portion of an empire that had recently retreated from most of its holdings in Mesopotamia and Armenia because of a treaty that his predecessor Jovian had made with Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire. Valens's first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation.[citation needed] Usurpation of Procopius: September 365–May 366[edit] With Valens absent from the imperial city, Procopius, a distant relative of Julian, the last emperor of the Constantinian dynasty, was acclaimed augustus on 28 September 365.[19] Valens was at Caesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri) when he discovered this.[26] According to Ammianus Marcellinus, Procopius was from Cilicia.[27] Under Constantius II (r. 337–361), Procopius had been tribunus et notarius from 358, and under Julian he had become comes primi ordinis.[19] According to the 5th-century Greek historian Zosimus, Procopius may have been intended as Julian's successor.[27] Procopius had commanded an auxiliary northern contingent of his relative's army during the Persian expedition and had not been present when Jovian was named his successor in the camp beyond the Tigris.[28] According to the Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus, in the brief reign of Jovian (r. 363–364) Procopius had withdrawn from office and lived as a private citizen.[19] Though Jovian, aside from depriving him of his command, took no further measures against this potential rival, Procopius fell immediately under the suspicion of Valentinian upon the latter's election.[28] As part of his claim to legitimacy Procopius ensured he was always accompanied by the posthumous daughter of Constantius II, Constantia, still a child, and her mother Faustina, the dowager empress.[29] Constantia had been born after her father's death to Faustina, the late emperor's third wife.[30][31] Procopius was unpopular, being compelled to increase taxes.[27] Valens' dismissal shortly before of Julian's popular minister Salutius contributed to the general disaffection and to the acceptability of a revolution.[32] Valens, meanwhile, faltered. When news arrived that Procopius had revolted, Valens considered abdication and perhaps even suicide. Even after he steadied his resolve to fight, Valens's efforts to forestall Procopius were hampered by the fact that most of his troops had already crossed the Cilician gates into Syria when he learned of the revolt. Procopius quickly gained control of the provinces of Asia and Bithynia, winning increasing support for the insurrection. However, Valens recovered, reappointed Salutius, and dispatched the available legions under veteran generals, Flavius Arinthaeus and Arbitio, to march on Procopius.[33] Valens sent an army against Procopius, but according to Ammianus Marcellinus, before they reached Constantinople they defected to Procopius, whose use of his Constantinian hostages had met with some success.[34][27] According to Ammianus Marcellinus and the later Greek historians Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen, Valens eventually prevailed after eight months and had Procopius executed and subjected to damnatio memoriae on the 28 May 366, after defeating his forces at the Battle of Thyatira and again at the Battle of Nacoleia at Nacoleia (Seyitgazi) on 27 May.[19][27] On both occasions, Procopius was deserted by his own following in fear of their adversaries' formidable commanders. Procopius was delivered to justice by members of his own escort, and executed on 27 May.[35] According to Ammianus Marcellinus, a relative of Procopius's, a former protector domesticus named Marcellus, was proclaimed emperor in Procopius's place in Chalcedon, but according to Zosimus he was swiftly captured and executed.[19] Valens then had to face the threat from the Sasanian Empire and the Goths.[13] Solidus of Valentinian I showing Valentinian and Gratian on the reverse, marked: victores augusti ("the Victors Augusti"). A palm bough is between them and Victory crowns each with a wreath Formation of the Valentinianic dynasty[edit] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Valens's son Valentinianus Galates was born on 18 January 366.[19] The same year, Valens's nephew Gratian was appointed consul in 366 and was entitled nobilissimus puer.[16] After Valentinian recovered unexpectedly from an illness in 367, the emperor raised his eight-year-old son to imperial rank, elevating him to his co-augustus on 24 August at Civitas Ambianensium (Amiens), without having first appointed him caesar.[17][16][21] Gratian's tutor was the rhetor Ausonius, who mentioned the relationship in his epigrams and a poem.[16] Currency reforms[edit] Medal of Valens showing the nimbate emperor on horseback, marked: gloria romanorum ("the Glory of the Romans") Later set in a pendant and found in the Șimleu Silvaniei, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Beginning between 365 and 368, Valentinian and Valens reformed the precious metal coins of the Roman currency, decreeing that all bullion be melted down in the central imperial treasury before minting.[14][13] Such coins were inscribed ob (gold) and ps (silver).[14] Valentinian improved tax collection and was frugal in spending.[14] Coin of Valens after his quinquennalia on 25 February 369, showing the three reigning emperors on the reverse marked: spes r p ("the hope of the Republic") First Gothic War: 367–369[edit] Main article: Gothic War (367-369) In 368 Valentinian and Valens were consuls for the second time.[21][19] Valens successfully attacked the Goths in the and according to the contemporary orator Themistius and the late 5th/early 6th-century Greek historian Zosimus, a treaty was swiftly arranged after the Goths sought peace.[13] During Procopius's insurrection, the Gothic king Ermanaric, who ruled a powerful kingdom north of the Danube from the Euxine to the Baltic Sea,[36] had engaged to supply him with troops for the struggle against Valens. The Gothic army, reportedly numbering 30,000 men, arrived too late to help Procopius, but nevertheless invaded Thrace and began plundering the farms and vineyards of the province.[37] Valens, marching north after defeating Procopius, surrounded them with a superior force and forced them to surrender. Ermanaric protested, and when Valens, encouraged by Valentinian, refused to make atonement to the Goths for his conduct, war was declared.[38] In spring 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the Visigoths under Athanaric, Ermanaric's tributary. The Goths fled into the Carpathian Mountains, and the campaign ended with no decisive conclusion. The following spring, a Danube flood prevented Valens from crossing; instead the Emperor occupied his troops with the construction of fortifications. In 369, Valens crossed again, from Noviodunum, and by devastating the country forced Athanaric into giving battle. Valens was victorious, Athanaric and his forces were able to withdraw in good order and pleaded for peace. Fortunately for the Goths, Valens expected a new war with the Sasanid Empire in the Middle East and was therefore willing to come to terms.[39] In early 370 Valens and Athanaric met in the middle of the Danube and agreed to a treaty that ended the war.[40] The treaty seems to have largely cut off relations between Goths and Romans, confining trade and the exchange of troops for tribute.[41] In summer 368, Valentinian's armies warred against the Alamanni a second time, while in autumn the Franks and Saxons were defeated.[21] Gratian accompanied his father on these campaigns.[17] Valentinian and Valens were both awarded the victory names of Germanicus Maximus, Alamannicus Maximus, and Francicus Maximus.[21][19] The former two titles were also accorded to Gratian at the same time.[17] In 369 Valens received the victory name Gothicus Maximus and celebrated his quinquennalia.[19] Valentinian and celebrated his quinquennalia on 25 February 369 and likewise received the honour of Gothicus Maximus, as did Gratian, who also received the title Francicus Maximus the same year.[21][17] Death of Valentinianus Galates from the 9th-century Paris Gregory (Bibliothèque nationale de France) Middle reign: 369–373[edit] In 369, Valentinianus Galates was made consul for the first time; he is also known to have been titled nobilissimus puer.[19] However, Valens's son died in Caesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri) around 370.[19] Valentinian and Valens were consuls for the third time in 370.[19] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[19] Around 370, Valens's sister-in-law Marina Severa died and was interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles and Valentinian married again, wedding Justina.[21] In autumn 371, Valens's second nephew, also called Valentinian, was born to Justina, possibly at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[42][43] Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to Constantius II's 13-year-old daughter Constantia at Trier.[16][17] This marriage consolidated the dynastic link to the Constantinians, as had his father's second marriage to Justina, with her family connections.[34] Valens celebrated his decennalia on 29 March 374.[19] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin: Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter Carosa – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[19] Valens headed east after defeating the Goths, and began to prepare an attack on Persia, which threatened Armenia, in 375.[13] Valens was distracted from his campaign against the Sasanians by wars against the Saracens and the Isaurians.[13] Portrait head of Valens, or his brother, on a modern bust historically mislabelled as Constantine (Uffizi) Persian War: 373[edit] As mentioned before, among Valens' reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and Shapur II was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Persian emperor began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced the defection of the Arsacid Armenian king, Arshak II (Arsaces II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. The Armenian nobility responded by asking Valens to return Arshak's son, Papas (Pap).[44] Valens agreed and sent Pap back to Armenia, but as these events took place during the war with the Goths he could not support him militarily.[44] In response to the return of Pap, Shapur personally led an invasion force to seize control of Armenia.[45] Pap and his followers took refuge in the mountains while Artaxata, the Armenian capital, and the city of Artogerassa along with several strongholds and castles were destroyed.[45] Shapur sent a second invasion force to Caucasian Iberia to drive out the pro-Roman king Sauromaces II, and put his own appointee, Sauromaces's uncle Aspacures II on the throne. In the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his magister peditum (Master of Foot) Arinthaeus to support Pap.[46] The following spring a force of twelve legions were sent under Terentius to regain Iberia and to garrison Armenia near Mount Npat. When Shapur counterattacked into Armenia in 371, his forces were bested by Valens' generals Traianus and Vadomarius and the Armenian sparapet (general) Mushegh Mamikonian at Bagavan and Gandzak.[47] Valens had overstepped the 363 treaty and then successfully defended his transgression. A truce settled after the 371 victory held as a quasi-peace for the next five years while Shapur was forced to deal with a Kushan invasion on his eastern frontier. Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Papas, who began acting in high-handed fashion, even executing the Armenian bishop Narses and demanding control of a number of Roman cities, including Edessa. Pressed by his generals and fearing that Papas would defect to the Persians, Valens made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the prince and later had him executed inside Armenia. In his stead, Valens imposed another Arsacid, Varasdates (Varazdat), who ruled under the regency of the sparapet Mushegh Mamikonian, a friend of Rome. None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble was brewing elsewhere. In Isauria, the mountainous region of western Cilicia, a major revolt had broken out in 375 which diverted troops formerly stationed in the East. Furthermore, by 377, the Saracens under Queen Mavia had broken into revolt and devastated a swath of territory stretching from Phoenicia and Palestine as far as the Sinai. Though Valens successfully brought both uprisings under control, the opportunities for action on the eastern frontier were limited by these skirmishes closer to home. Aqueduct of Valens in Constantinople, capital of the eastern Roman Empire Detail from a drawing of a medal of Valens showing the nimbate emperor in a seiuga and crowned by victories holding palm boughs on the reverse, marked: d·n· valens victor semper aug· ("Our Lord Valens, Ever-Victor Augustus") Later set in a pendant and found in the Șimleu Silvaniei, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Obverse of a medal of Valens, set in a later pendant and found in the Șimleu Silvaniei, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Later reign: 373–376[edit] Valens became the senior augustus when his younger brother Valentinian died at Brigetio (Szőny) on 17 November 375 while on campaign against the Quadi in Pannonia.[19][14][13][16] He may have died of stroke.[14][13] His body was prepared for burial and started its journey to Constantinople, where it arrived the following year.[34] Gratian was then the only augustus in the western empire, though certain among Valentinian's generals promoted his four-year-old second son Valentinian II, whom the army on the Danube acclaimed augustus at Aquincum (Budapest), despite Gratian's existing prerogatives.[16][43] Valentinian's courtiers and his Arian Christian widow Justina held great influence.[43] Valens and Valentinian II were consuls for the year 376, Valens's fifth consulship.[19] The late augustus Valentinian's body arrived in Constantinople on 28 December 376, but was not yet buried.[21] Second Gothic War: 376–378[edit] Main article: Gothic War (376–382) Migrations of the Huns began to displace the Goths, who sought Roman protection.[13] Valens allowed the Goths led by Fritigern to cross the Danube, but the Gothic settlers were abused by Roman officials and revolted in 377, seeking help from the Huns and the Alans and beginning the Gothic War (376–382).[13] Valens's sixth consulship was in 378, again jointly with Valentinian II.[19] Valens returned from the east to campaign against the Goths.[13] Gratian fought a war with the Alamanni in early summer 378.[17] Valens asked for assistance from his nephew and co-emperor Gratian against the Goths in Thrace, and Gratian set out eastwards, though Valens did not wait for the western armies to arrive before taking the offensive.[13][16] Valens' plans for an eastern campaign were never realized. A transfer of troops to the Western Empire in 374 had left gaps in Valens' mobile forces. In preparation for an eastern war, Valens initiated an ambitious recruitment program designed to fill those gaps. It was thus not entirely unwelcome news when Valens heard of Ermanaric's death and the disintegration of his kingdom before an invasion of hordes of barbaric Huns from the far east. After failing to hold the Dniester or the Prut rivers against the Huns, the Goths retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking new settlements and shelter south of the Danube, which they thought could be held against the enemy. In 376, the Visigoths under their leader Fritigern advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent an ambassador to Valens who had set up his capital in Antioch, and requested asylum.[48] As Valens' advisers were quick to point out, these Goths could supply troops who would at once swell Valens' ranks and decrease his dependence on provincial troop levies—thereby increasing revenues from the recruitment tax. However, it would mean hiring them and paying in gold or silver for their services. Fritigern had enjoyed contact with Valens in the 370s when Valens supported him in a struggle against Athanaric stemming from Athanaric's persecution of Gothic Christians. Though a number of Gothic groups apparently requested entry, Valens granted admission only to Fritigern and his followers. Others would soon follow, however.[49] When Fritigern and his Goths, to the number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told, crossed the Danube, Valens's mobile forces were tied down in the east, on the Persian frontier (Valens was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part). This meant that only limitanei units were present to oversee the Goths' settlement. The small number of imperial troops present prevented the Romans from stopping a Danube crossing by a group of Ostrogoths and yet later on by Huns and Alans. What started out as a controlled resettlement might any moment turn into a major invasion. But the situation was worsened by corruption in the Roman administration, as Valens' generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated and then proceeded to enrage them by such exorbitant prices for food that they were soon driven to the last extremity.[49] Meanwhile, the Romans failed to prevent the crossing of other barbarians who were not included in the treaty.[50] In early 377 the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of Marcianopolis, and defeated the corrupt Roman governor Lupicinus near the city at the Battle of Marcianople.[51] After joining forces with the Ostrogoths under Alatheus and Saphrax who had crossed without Valens' consent, the combined barbarian group spread out to devastate the country before combining to meet Roman advance forces under Traianus and Richomeres. In a sanguinary battle at Ad Salices, the Goths were momentarily checked,[52] and Saturninus, now Valens' lieutenant in the province, undertook a strategy of hemming them in between the lower Danube and the Euxine, hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Fritigern forced him to retreat by inviting some of the Huns to cross the river in the rear of Saturninus's ranged defenses. The Romans then fell back, incapable of containing the irruption, though with an elite force of his best soldiers the general Sebastian was able to fall upon and destroy several of the smaller predatory bands.[53] By 378, Valens himself was ready to march west from his eastern base in Antioch. He withdrew all but a skeletal force—some of them Goths—from the east and moved west, reaching Constantinople by 30 May, 378. Valens' councillors, comes Richomeres, and his generals Frigeridus and Victor cautioned Valens to wait for the arrival of Gratian with his troops from Gaul, fresh from defeating the Alemanni, and Gratian himself strenuously urged this prudent course in his letters. But meanwhile the citizens of Constantinople were clamouring for the emperor to march against the enemy whom he had himself introduced into the Empire, and jeering the contrast between himself and his co-augustus.[54] Valens decided to advance at once and win a victory on his own.[55] Detail from a drawing of the obverse of a medal of Valens showing the three reigning emperors: Valens (C), Gratian (R), and Valentinian II (L) and marked: pietas d·d·d·n·n·n· augustorum ("the Piety of Our Lords Augusti") set in a later pendant and found in the Șimleu Silvaniei, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Battle of Adrianople: 9 August 378[edit] Main article: Battle of Adrianople According to the Latin historians Ammianus Marcellinus and Paulus Orosius, on 9 August 378, Valens and most of his army were killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople, near Hadrianopolis in Thrace (Adrianople, Edirne).[13][16] After a brief stay aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, Valens moved out to Adrianople. From there, he marched against the confederated barbarian army on 9 August 378 in what would become known as the Battle of Adrianople. Although negotiations were attempted, these broke down when a Roman unit sallied forth and carried both sides into battle. The Romans held their own early on but were crushed by the surprise arrival of Visigoth cavalry which split their ranks. The primary source for the battle is Ammianus Marcellinus.[56] Valens had left a sizeable guard with his baggage and treasures depleting his force. His right cavalry wing arrived at the Gothic camp sometime before the left wing arrived. It was a very hot day and the Roman cavalry was engaged without strategic support, wasting its efforts while they suffered in the heat. Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by the Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens' emissary, comes Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled. From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens' demise. In the first account, Ammianus states that Valens was "mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. The hut was surrounded by the Goths who put it to the torch, evidently unaware of the prize within. According to Ammianus, this is how Valens perished (XXXI.13.14–6). A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a tactical victory but a strategic loss. The church historian Socrates likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens. Some have asserted that he was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit.[57] When the battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by comes Richomeres and general Victor. J. B. Bury, a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was "a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred."[58] For Rome, the battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was overcome by the debacle, and, until he appointed Theodosius I, unable to deal with the catastrophe, which spread out of control. The total defeat lost the administration important precious metal resources, as bullion had been centralized with the imperial court.[13] Valens was deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Valens, lit. 'the Divine Valens'.[19] Legacy[edit] "Valens was utterly undistinguished, still only a protector, and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors," writes A. H. M. Jones. But Jones admits that "he was a conscientious administrator, careful of the interests of the humble. Like his brother, he was an earnest Christian."[59] He diminished the oppressive burden of the taxes which had been instituted by Constantine and his sons, and was humbly deferential to his brother in the latter's edicts of reform, as the institution of Defensors (a sort of substitute for the ancient Tribunes, guardians of the lower classes).[60] His moderation and chastity in his private life were everywhere celebrated.[61] At the same time, continuous proscriptions and executions, originating in his weak and fearful disposition, disgraced the dozen years of his reign. "An anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the administration of Valens", writes Gibbon.[62] To have died in so inglorious a battle has thus come to be regarded as the nadir of an unfortunate career. This is especially true because of the profound consequences of Valens' defeat. Adrianople spelled the beginning of the end for Roman territorial integrity in the late Empire and this fact was recognized even by contemporaries. Ammianus understood that it was the worst defeat in Roman history since the Battle of Edessa, and Rufinus called it "the beginning of evils for the Roman empire then and thereafter." Valens is also credited with the commission of a short history of the Roman State. This work, produced by Valens' secretary Eutropius, and known by the name Breviarium ab Urbe condita, tells the story of Rome from its founding. According to some historians, Valens was motivated by the necessity of learning Roman history, that he, the royal family, and their appointees might better mix with the Roman senatorial class.[63] Religious policy[edit] During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the Empire. Julian (361–363), had tried to revive the pagan religions. His reactionary attempt took advantage of the dissensions among the different Christian factions, and a largely Pagan rank and file military. However, in spite of broad support, his actions were often viewed as excessive, and before he died in a campaign against the Persians, he was often treated with disdain. His death was considered a sign from God. Valens was baptised by the Arian bishop of Constantinople before he set out on his first war against the Goths.[64] While the Nicene Christian writers of his time identified Valens with the Arian faction and accused him of persecuting Nicene Christians, modern historians have described both Valens and Valentinian I as primarily interested in maintaining social order and have minimized their theological concerns.[65] Although Athanasius was impelled, under his reign, to briefly go into hiding, Valens maintained a close dependency on his brother Valentinian and treated St. Basil mildly, both of whom supported the Nicene position.[66] Not long after Valens died the cause of Arianism in the Roman East was to come to an end. His successor Theodosius I would favor the Nicene Creed and suppress the Arians. Notes[edit] ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 931. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJonesMartindaleMorris (help) ^ Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John, eds. (1971). "Domnica". The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume I, AD 260–395. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 930. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJonesMartindaleMorris (help) ^ "a semi-Arian Homoian" – Lenski 2003, p. 5 ^ Errington, Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius (2006), pp. 176, 186–187 ^ Nicholson, Oliver, ed. (2018). "Valens". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Valens" ^ a b Oxford Classical Dictionary, 'Valens' ^ Errington, Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius (2006), p. 176 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, ancient Rome – The reign of Valentinian and Valens ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Valens " ^ Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2002). Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. University of California Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Bond, Sarah; Darley, Rebecca (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Valens", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-10-24 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bond, Sarah; Darley, Rebecca (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Valentinian I", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-10-24 ^ Edward Gibbon, The History of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. XXV., p. 848 ^ a b c d e f g h i Bond, Sarah; Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Gratian", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-10-25 ^ a b c d e f g Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Gratianus". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 319–320. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ a b c Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Jovian". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 312. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Valens". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 316–318. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ Gibbon, pp. 844–847 ^ a b c d e f g h Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Valentinianus". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 313–315. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ Gibbon, pp. 847, 848 ^ An Encyclopedia Of World History, (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1952), chap. II., Ancient History, p. 120 ^ Gibbon, p. 849 ^ Noel Emmanuel Lenski, Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D., University of California Press, 2002 ^ Lenski, Noel Emmanuel; Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2002). Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4. ^ a b c d e Bond, Sarah; Haarer, Fiona (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Procopius", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-10-28 ^ a b Gibbon, p. 850 ^ McEvoy 2013. ^ Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Constantius II". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 300–308. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John, eds. (1971). "Constantia 2". The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume I, AD 260–395. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 221. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. ^ Gibbon, pp. 850–852 ^ Gibbon, pp. 852, 853 ^ a b c McEvoy 2016. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcEvoy2016 (help) ^ Gibbon, pp. 853, 854 ^ Gibbon, pp. 890, 891 ^ Gibbon, p. 892 ^ Gibbon, pp. 892, 893 ^ Hughes, Ian, Imperial Brothers, pp. 86–88. ^ Hughes, Ian, Imperial Brothers, p. 95. ^ Gibbon, pp. 893, 894 ^ Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Valentinianus II". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 321–322. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ a b c Bond, Sarah (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Valentinian II", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-10-25 ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.9. ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.10–11. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.13. ^ Hughes, Ian, Imperial Brothers, pp. 102–106. ^ Gibbon, chap. XXVI., pp. 920–923 ^ a b Gibbon, p. 925 ^ Gibbon, p. 926 ^ Gibbon, pp. 927, 928 ^ Gibbon, pp. 931, 932 ^ Gibbon, p. 935 ^ Gibbon, pp. 934, 935 ^ Gibbon, pp. 935, 936 ^ Historiae, 31.12–13. ^ The Ecclesiastical History, VI.38, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.vii.xxxviii.html ^ http://rbedrosian.com/Ref/Bury/ieb4.htm ^ Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 139. ^ Gibbon, chap. XXV., p. 859 ^ Gibbon, p. 858 ^ Gibbon, p. 857 ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, ed. H. W. Bird, Liverpool University Press, 1993, p. xix. ^ Gibbon, Chapter 25. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGibbon (help) ^ Day et al. 2016, p. 28f. ^ Gibbon, pp. 861–864 References[edit] Day, J.; Hakola, R.; Kahlos, M.; Tervahauta, U. (2016). Spaces in Late Antiquity: Cultural, Theological and Archaeological Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-05179-4. Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John, eds. (1971). "Flavius Valens 8". The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume I, AD 260–395. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 930–931. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Lenski, Noel (1997). "Valens (364–378 A.D)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Lenski, Noel (2003). Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23332-8. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367-455. Oxford University Press. External links[edit] Media related to Valens at Wikimedia Commons Laws of Valens This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valens relating to Christianity. Valens Valentinianic dynasty Born: 328 Died: 9 August 378 Regnal titles Preceded by Jovian Roman emperor 364–378 With: Valentinian I, Gratian, and Valentinian II Succeeded by Theodosius I Political offices Preceded by Jovian Varronianus Roman consul 365 with Valentinian I Succeeded by Gratian Dagalaifus Preceded by Lupicinus Iovinus Roman consul II 368 with Valentinian I Succeeded by Valentinianus Galates Victor Preceded by Valentinianus Galates Victor Roman consul III 370 with Valentinian I Succeeded by Gratian Sex. Claudius Petronius Probus Preceded by Domitius Modestus Arintheus Roman consul IV 373 with Valentinian I Succeeded by Gratian Equitius Preceded by Gratian Equitius Roman consul V 376 with Valentinian II Succeeded by Gratian Merobaudes Preceded by Gratian Merobaudes Roman consul VI 378 with Valentinian II Succeeded by Ausonius Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-2257	----	Trajan - Wikipedia Trajan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117 "Traian" redirects here. For other uses, see Traian (disambiguation). "Marcus Ulpius Trajanus" redirects here. For the emperor's father, see Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (father of Trajan). Optimus Princeps Trajan Optimus Princeps Marble bust, Glyptothek, Munich Roman emperor Reign 27 January 98 – 9 August 117 Predecessor Nerva Successor Hadrian Born Marcus Ulpius Traianus 18 September 53 Italica, Hispania Baetica Died c. 9 August 117 (aged 63)[1] Selinus, Cilicia Burial Rome (ashes in foot of Trajan's Column, now lost), now known as Trajan's Forum Spouse Pompeia Plotina Issue Hadrian (adoptive) Aelia Domitia Paulina (adoptive) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus[2] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Ulpius Trajanus Nerva (adoptive) Mother Marcia Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Trajan Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Trajan (/ˈtreɪdʒən/ TRAY-jən; Latin: Caesar Nerva Trajanus; 18 September 53 – c. 9 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared by the Senate optimus princeps ("best ruler"), Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the second-greatest military expansion in Roman history, after Augustus, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public building programs and implementing social welfare policies, which earned him his enduring reputation as the second of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace within the Empire and prosperity in the Mediterranean world. Trajan was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in present-day Spain, an Italic settlement in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. Although misleadingly designated by some later writers as a provincial, his Ulpia gens came from Umbria and he was born a Roman citizen.[3] Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus. In September 96, Domitian was succeeded by the old and childless Nerva, who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, he decided to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died in 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. As a civilian administrator, Trajan is best known for his extensive public building program, which reshaped the city of Rome and left numerous enduring landmarks such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea. His conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. Trajan's war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and the annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and died of a stroke in the city of Selinus. He was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under the Trajan's Column. He was succeeded by his cousin Hadrian, whom Trajan supposedly adopted on his deathbed. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 Military career 2.2 Rise to power 3 Roman Emperor 3.1 Optimus princeps 4 The Correctores: Greek/Roman relations 5 Conquest of Dacia 5.1 Annexation of Nabataea 6 Period of Peace 6.1 Building Projects 6.2 Devaluation of the currency 6.3 The alimenta 7 War against Parthia 7.1 Rationale for the war 7.2 Course of the campaign 8 Kitos war 9 Death 9.1 Succession 10 Building activities 11 Iconography 12 Legacy 12.1 Later Emperors 12.2 After Rome 13 Nerva–Antonine family tree 14 See also 15 References 16 Sources and further reading 16.1 Primary sources 16.2 Secondary material 17 External links Sources[edit] As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, melior Traiano (that he be "luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan"). Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. In the Renaissance, Machiavelli, speaking on the advantages of adoptive succession over heredity, mentioned the five successive good emperors "from Nerva to Marcus"[4] – a trope out of which the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five Good Emperors, of whom Trajan was the second.[5] As far as ancient literary sources are concerned, an extant continuous account of Trajan's reign does not exist. An account of the Dacian Wars, the Commentarii de bellis Dacicis, written by Trajan himself or a ghostwriter and modelled after Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, is lost with the exception of one sentence. Only fragments remain of the Getica, a book by Trajan's personal physician Titus Statilius Criton. The Parthica, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate.[6] Book 68 in Cassius Dio's Roman History, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgements and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajan's rule.[7] Besides this, Pliny the Younger's Panegyricus and Dio of Prusa's orations are the best surviving contemporary sources. Both are adulatory perorations, typical of the High Imperial period, that describe an idealized monarch and an equally idealized view of Trajan's rule, and concern themselves more with ideology than with actual fact.[8] The tenth volume of Pliny's letters contains his correspondence with Trajan, which deals with various aspects of imperial Roman government, but this correspondence is neither intimate nor candid: it is an exchange of official mail, in which Pliny's stance borders on the servile.[9] It is certain that much of the text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajan's signature was written and/or edited by Trajan's Imperial secretary, his ab epistulis.[10] Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation. Non-literary sources such as archaeology, epigraphy, and numismatics are also useful for reconstructing his reign.[11] Early life[edit] Modern statue of Nerva, Rome, Italy. Denarius of Trajan, minted in Rome in 101–102 AD. Inscription: IMP. CAES. NERVA TRAIAN. AVG GERM. Marcus Ulpius Trajanus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica[12] (in what is now Andalusia in modern Spain), in the city of Italica (now in the municipal area of Santiponce, in the outskirts of Seville). Although frequently designated the first provincial emperor, his father's side Ulpia gens appears to have hailed from the area of Tuder (modern Todi) in Umbria, at the border with Etruria, and on his mother's side from the gens Marcia, of an Italic family of Sabine origin. Trajan's birthplace of Italica was founded as a Roman military colony of Italic settlers in 206 BC, though it is unknown when the Ulpii arrived there. It is possible, but cannot be substantiated, that Trajan's ancestors married local women and lost their citizenship at some point, but they certainly recovered their status when the city became a municipium with Latin citizenship in the mid-1st century BC.[13][3] Trajan was the son of Marcia, a Roman noblewoman and sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus,[14] and Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, a prominent senator and general from the gens Ulpia. Marcus Ulpius Trajanus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the Legio X Fretensis.[15] Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death. His elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonina Matidia. The patria of the Ulpii was Italica, in Spanish Baetica.[12] Military career[edit] As a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empire's frontier. In 76–77, Trajan's father was Governor of Syria (Legatus pro praetore Syriae), where Trajan himself remained as Tribunus legionis. From there, after his father's replacement, he seems to have been transferred to an unspecified Rhine province, and Pliny implies that he engaged in active combat duty during both commissions.[16] In about 86, Trajan's cousin Aelius Afer died, leaving his young children Hadrian and Paulina orphans. Trajan and a colleague of his, Publius Acilius Attianus, became co-guardians of the two children.[17] In 91, Trajan was created ordinary Consul for the year, which was a great honour as he was in his late thirties and therefore just above the minimum legal age (32) for holding the post. This can be explained in part by the prominence of his father's career, as his father had been instrumental to the ascent of the ruling Flavian dynasty, held consular rank himself and had just been made a patrician.[18] Around this time Trajan brought Apollodorus of Damascus with him to Rome[19] and also married Pompeia Plotina, a noble woman from the Roman settlement at Nîmes; the marriage ultimately remained childless.[20] Trajan wearing the civic crown and military garb such as a muscle cuirass, 2nd century AD, Antalya Archaeological Museum It has been remarked by authors such as Julian and Cassius Dio that Trajan was personally inclined towards homosexuality. Trajan's putative lovers included Hadrian, pages of the imperial household, the actor Pylades, a dancer called Apolaustus, and senator Lucius Licinius Sura.[21] As the details of Trajan's military career are obscure, it is only sure that in 89, as legate of Legio VII Gemina in Hispania Tarraconensis, he supported Domitian against an attempted coup.[22] Later, after his 91 consulate (held with Acilius Glabrio, a rare pair of consuls at the time, in that neither consul was a member of the ruling dynasty), he held some unspecified consular commission as governor on either Pannonia or Germania Superior – possibly both. Pliny – who seems to deliberately avoid offering details that would stress personal attachment between Trajan and the "tyrant" Domitian – attributes to him, at the time, various (and unspecified) feats of arms.[23] Rise to power[edit] Since Domitian's successor, Nerva, was unpopular with the army, and had just been forced by his Praetorian Prefect Casperius Aelianus to execute Domitian's killers,[24] he felt the need to gain the support of the military in order to avoid being ousted. He accomplished this in the summer of 97 by naming Trajan as his adoptive son and successor, allegedly solely on Trajan's outstanding military merits.[23] There are hints, however, in contemporary literary sources that Trajan's adoption was imposed on Nerva. Pliny implied as much when he wrote that, although an emperor could not be coerced into doing something, if this were the way in which Trajan was raised to power, then it was worth it. Alice König argues that the notion of a natural continuity between Nerva's and Trajan's reigns was an ex post facto fiction developed by authors writing under Trajan, like Tacitus and Pliny.[25] According to the Augustan History, it was the future Emperor Hadrian who brought word to Trajan of his adoption.[19] Hadrian was then retained on the Rhine frontier by Trajan as a military tribune, becoming privy to the circle of friends and relations with which Trajan surrounded himself – among them the then governor of Germania Inferior, the Spaniard Lucius Licinius Sura, who became Trajan's chief personal adviser and official friend.[26] As a token of his influence, Sura would later become consul for the third time in 107. Some ancient sources also tell about his having built a bath named after him on the Aventine Hill in Rome, or having this bath built by Trajan and then named after him, in either case a signal of honour as the only exception to the established rule that a public building in the capital could be dedicated only to a member of the imperial family.[27][28] These baths were later expanded by the third century emperor Decius as a means of stressing his link to Trajan.[29] Sura is also described as telling Hadrian in 108 about his selection as imperial heir.[30] According to a modern historian, Sura's role as kingmaker and éminence grise was deeply resented by some senators, especially the historian Tacitus, who acknowledged Sura's military and oratory virtues but at the same time resented his rapacity and devious ways, similar to those of Vespasian's éminence grise Licinius Mucianus.[31] As governor of Lower Germany during Nerva's reign, Trajan received the impressive title of Germanicus for his skilful management and rule of the volatile Imperial province.[32] When Nerva died on 27 January 98, Trajan succeeded to the role of emperor without any outward incident. However, the fact that he chose not to hasten towards Rome, but instead to make a lengthy tour of inspection on the Rhine and Danube frontiers, hints to the possible fact that his power position in Rome was unsure and that he had first to assure himself of the loyalty of the armies at the front. Trajan ordered Prefect Aelianus to attend him in Germany, where he was apparently executed ("put out of the way"),[33] with his post being taken by Attius Suburanus.[34] Trajan's accession, therefore, could qualify more as a successful coup than an orderly succession.[35] Roman Emperor[edit] Bust of Trajan in 108 AD, in the Museum of Art History in Vienna, Austria On his entry to Rome, Trajan granted the plebs a direct gift of money. The traditional donative to the troops, however, was reduced by half.[36] There remained the issue of the strained relations between the emperor and the Senate, especially after the supposed bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign and his dealings with the Curia. By feigning reluctance to hold power, Trajan was able to start building a consensus around him in the Senate.[37] His belated ceremonial entry into Rome in 99 was notably understated, something on which Pliny the Younger elaborated.[38] By not openly supporting Domitian's preference for equestrian officers,[39] Trajan appeared to conform to the idea (developed by Pliny) that an emperor derived his legitimacy from his adherence to traditional hierarchies and senatorial morals.[40] Therefore, he could point to the allegedly republican character of his rule.[41] In a speech at the inauguration of his third consulship, on 1 January 100, Trajan exhorted the Senate to share the care-taking of the Empire with him – an event later celebrated on a coin.[42][43] In reality, Trajan did not share power in any meaningful way with the Senate, something that Pliny admits candidly: "[E]verything depends on the whims of a single man who, on behalf of the common welfare, has taken upon himself all functions and all tasks".[44][45] One of the most significant trends of his reign was his encroachment on the Senate's sphere of authority, such as his decision to make the senatorial provinces of Achaea and Bithynia into imperial ones in order to deal with the inordinate spending on public works by local magnates[46] and the general mismanagement of provincial affairs by various proconsuls appointed by the Senate.[47] Optimus princeps[edit] In the formula developed by Pliny, however, Trajan was a "good" emperor in that, by himself, he approved or blamed the same things that the Senate would have approved or blamed.[48] If in reality Trajan was an autocrat, his deferential behavior towards his peers qualified him to be viewed as a virtuous monarch.[49] The idea is that Trajan wielded autocratic power through moderatio instead of contumacia – moderation instead of insolence.[50] In short, according to the ethics for autocracy developed by most political writers of the Imperial Roman Age, Trajan was a good ruler in that he ruled less by fear, and more by acting as a role model, for, according to Pliny, "men learn better from examples".[51] Eventually, Trajan's popularity among his peers was such that the Roman Senate bestowed upon him the honorific of optimus, meaning "the best",[52][53] which appears on coins from 105 on.[54] This title had mostly to do with Trajan's role as benefactor, such as in the case of him returning confiscated property.[55] Pliny states that Trajan's ideal role was a conservative one, argued as well by the orations of Dio of Prusa—in particular his four Orations on Kingship, composed early during Trajan's reign. Dio, as a Greek notable and intellectual with friends in high places, and possibly an official friend to the emperor (amicus caesaris), saw Trajan as a defender of the status quo.[56][57] In his third kingship oration, Dio describes an ideal king ruling by means of "friendship" – that is, through patronage and a network of local notables who act as mediators between the ruled and the ruler.[58] Dio's notion of being "friend" to Trajan (or any other Roman emperor), however, was that of an informal arrangement, that involved no formal entry of such "friends" into the Roman administration.[59] Trajan ingratiated himself with the Greek intellectual elite by recalling to Rome many (including Dio) who had been exiled by Domitian,[60] and by returning (in a process begun by Nerva) a great deal of private property that Domitian had confiscated. He also had good dealings with Plutarch, who, as a notable of Delphi, seems to have been favoured by the decisions taken on behalf of his home-place by one of Trajan's legates, who had arbitrated a boundary dispute between Delphi and its neighbouring cities.[61] However, it was clear to Trajan that Greek intellectuals and notables were to be regarded as tools for local administration, and not be allowed to fancy themselves in a privileged position.[62] As Pliny said in one of his letters at the time, it was official policy that Greek civic elites be treated according to their status as notionally free but not put on an equal footing with their Roman rulers.[63] When the city of Apamea complained of an audit of its accounts by Pliny, alleging its "free" status as a Roman colony, Trajan replied by writing that it was by his own wish that such inspections had been ordered. Concern about independent local political activity is seen in Trajan's decision to forbid Nicomedia from having a corps of firemen ("If people assemble for a common purpose ... they soon turn it into a political society", Trajan wrote to Pliny) as well as in his and Pliny's fears about excessive civic generosities by local notables such as distribution of money or gifts.[64] Pliny’s letters state that Trajan and his aides were as much bored as they were alarmed by the claims of Dio and other Greek notables to political influence based on what they saw as their "special connection" to their Roman overlords.[65] Pliny tells of Dio of Prusa placing a statue of Trajan in a building complex where Dio's wife and son were buried – therefore incurring a charge of treason for placing the Emperor's statue near a grave. Trajan, however, dropped the charge.[66] Nevertheless, while the office of corrector was intended as a tool to curb any hint of independent political activity among local notables in the Greek cities,[67] the correctores themselves were all men of the highest social standing entrusted with an exceptional commission. The post seems to have been conceived partly as a reward for senators who had chosen to make a career solely on the Emperor's behalf. Therefore, in reality the post was conceived as a means for "taming" both Greek notables and Roman senators.[68] It must be added that, although Trajan was wary of the civic oligarchies in the Greek cities, he also admitted into the Senate a number of prominent Eastern notables already slated for promotion during Domitian's reign by reserving for them one of the twenty posts open each year for minor magistrates (the vigintiviri).[69] Such must be the case of the Galatian notable and "leading member of the Greek community" (according to one inscription) Gaius Julius Severus, who was a descendant of several Hellenistic dynasts and client kings.[70] Severus was the grandfather of the prominent general Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, consul in 105.[71] Other prominent Eastern senators included Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus, a descendant of Herod the Great, suffect consul in 116.[72] Trajan created at least fourteen new senators from the Greek-speaking half of the Empire, an unprecedented recruitment number that opens to question the issue of the "traditionally Roman" character of his reign, as well as the "Hellenism" of his successor Hadrian.[73] But then Trajan's new Eastern senators were mostly very powerful and very wealthy men with more than local influence[74] and much interconnected by marriage, so that many of them were not altogether "new" to the Senate.[75] On the local level, among the lower section of the Eastern propertied,[76] the alienation of most Greek notables and intellectuals towards Roman rule, and the fact that the Romans were seen by most such Greek notables as aliens, persisted well after Trajan's reign.[77] One of Trajan's senatorial creations from the East, the Athenian Gaius Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappos, a member of the Royal House of Commagene, left behind him a funeral monument on the Mouseion Hill that was later disparagingly described by Pausanias as "a monument built to a Syrian man".[78] The Correctores: Greek/Roman relations[edit] As a senatorial Emperor, Trajan was inclined to choose his local base of political support from among the members of the ruling urban oligarchies. In the West, that meant local senatorial families like his own. In the East, that meant the families of Greek notables. The Greeks, though, had their own memories of independence – and a commonly acknowledged sense of cultural superiority – and, instead of seeing themselves as Roman, disdained Roman rule.[79] What the Greek oligarchies wanted from Rome was, above all, to be left in peace, to be allowed to exert their right to self-government (i.e., to be excluded from the provincial government, as was Italy) and to concentrate on their local interests.[80] This was something the Romans were not disposed to do as from their perspective the Greek notables were shunning their responsibilities in regard to the management of Imperial affairs – primarily in failing to keep the common people under control, thus creating the need for the Roman governor to intervene.[81] An excellent example of this Greek alienation was the personal role played by Dio of Prusa in his relationship with Trajan. Dio is described by Philostratus as Trajan's close friend, and Trajan as supposedly engaging publicly in conversations with Dio.[82] Nevertheless, as a Greek local magnate with a taste for costly building projects and pretensions of being an important political agent for Rome,[83] Dio of Prusa was actually a target for one of Trajan's authoritarian innovations: the appointing of imperial correctores to audit the civic finances[84] of the technically free Greek cities.[85] The main goal was to curb the overenthusiastic spending on public works that served to channel ancient rivalries between neighbouring cities. As Pliny wrote to Trajan, this had as its most visible consequence a trail of unfinished or ill-kept public utilities.[86] Competition among Greek cities and their ruling oligarchies was mainly for marks of pre-eminence, especially for titles bestowed by the Roman emperor. Such titles were ordered in a ranking system that determined how the cities were to be outwardly treated by Rome.[87] The usual form that such rivalries took was that of grandiose building plans, giving the cities the opportunity to vie with each other over "extravagant, needless ... structures that would make a show".[88] A side effect of such extravagant spending was that junior and thus less wealthy members of the local oligarchies felt disinclined to present themselves to fill posts as local magistrates, positions that involved ever-increasing personal expense.[89] Roman authorities liked to play the Greek cities against one another[90] – something of which Dio of Prusa was fully aware: [B]y their public acts [the Roman governors] have branded you as a pack of fools, yes, they treat you just like children, for we often offer children the most trivial things in place of things of greatest worth [...] In place of justice, in place of the freedom of the cities from spoliation or from the seizure of the private possessions of their inhabitants, in place of their refraining from insulting you [...] your governors hand you titles, and call you 'first' either by word of mouth or in writing; that done, they may thenceforth with impunity treat you as being the very last!"[91][92] These same Roman authorities had also an interest in assuring the cities' solvency and therefore ready collection of Imperial taxes.[93] Last but not least, inordinate spending on civic buildings was not only a means to achieve local superiority, but also a means for the local Greek elites to maintain a separate cultural identity – something expressed in the contemporary rise of the Second Sophistic; this "cultural patriotism" acted as a kind of substitute for the loss of political independence,[94] and as such was shunned by Roman authorities.[95] As Trajan himself wrote to Pliny: "These poor Greeks all love a gymnasium ... they will have to content with one that suits their real needs".[96] The first known corrector was charged with a commission "to deal with the situation of the free cities", as it was felt that the old method of ad hoc intervention by the Emperor and/or the proconsuls had not been enough to curb the pretensions of the Greek notables.[97] It is noteworthy that an embassy from Dio's city of Prusa was not favourably received by Trajan,[98] and that this had to do with Dio's chief objective, which was to elevate Prusa to the status of a free city, an "independent" city-state exempt from paying taxes to Rome.[99] Eventually, Dio gained for Prusa the right to become the head of the assize-district, conventus (meaning that Prusans did not have to travel to be judged by the Roman governor), but eleutheria (freedom, in the sense of full political autonomy) was denied.[100] Statue of Trajan, Luna marble and Proconessian marble, 2nd century AD, from Ostia Antica Eventually, it fell to Pliny, as imperial governor of Bithynia in 110 AD, to deal with the consequences of the financial mess wrought by Dio and his fellow civic officials.[101] "It's well established that [the cities' finances] are in a state of disorder", Pliny once wrote to Trajan, plans for unnecessary works made in collusion with local contractors being identified as one of the main problems.[102] One of the compensatory measures proposed by Pliny expressed a thoroughly Roman conservative position: as the cities' financial solvency depended on the councilmen's purses, it was necessary to have more councilmen on the local city councils. According to Pliny, the best way to achieve this was to lower the minimum age for holding a seat on the council, making it possible for more sons of the established oligarchical families to join and thus contribute to civic spending; this was seen as preferable to enrolling non-noble wealthy upstarts.[103] Such an increase in the number of council members was granted to Dio's city of Prusa, to the dismay of existing councilmen who felt their status lowered.[104] A similar situation existed in Claudiopolis, where a public bath was built with the proceeds from the entrance fees paid by "supernumerary" members of the Council, enrolled with Trajan's permission.[105] Also, according to the Digest, it was decreed by Trajan that when a city magistrate promised to achieve a particular public building, it was incumbent on his heirs to complete the building.[106] Conquest of Dacia[edit] Main article: Trajan's Dacian Wars Trajan's Column, Rome Trajan is known particularly for his conquests in the Near East, but initially for the two wars against Dacia – the reduction to client kingdom (101–102), followed by actual incorporation into the Empire of the trans-Danube border group of Dacia – an area that had troubled Roman thought for over a decade with the unstable peace negotiated by Domitian's ministers with the powerful Dacian king Decebalus.[107] According to the provisions of this treaty, Decebalus was acknowledged as rex amicus, that is, client king; nevertheless, in exchange for accepting client status, he received a generous stipend from Rome, as well as being supplied with technical experts.[108] The treaty seems to have allowed Roman troops the right of passage through the Dacian kingdom in order to attack the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians. However, senatorial opinion never forgave Domitian for paying what was seen as "tribute" to a Barbarian king.[109] In addition, unlike the Germanic tribes, the Dacian kingdom was an organized state capable of developing alliances of its own,[110] thus making it a strategic threat and giving Trajan a strong motive to attack it.[111] In May of 101, Trajan launched his first campaign into the Dacian kingdom,[112] crossing to the northern bank of the Danube and defeating the Dacian army at Tapae (see Second Battle of Tapae), near the Iron Gates of Transylvania. It was not a decisive victory, however.[113] Trajan's troops were mauled in the encounter, and he put off further campaigning for the year in order to regroup and reinforce his army.[114] The following winter, King Decebalus took the initiative by launching a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, supported by Sarmatian cavalry,[115] forcing Trajan to come to the aid of the troops in his rearguard. The Dacians and their allies were repulsed after two battles in Moesia, at Nicopolis ad Istrum and Adamclisi.[116] Trajan's army then advanced further into Dacian territory, and, a year later, forced Decebalus to submit. He had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, return all Roman runaways (most of them technical experts), and surrender all his war machines.[117] Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title Dacicus.[118] The peace of 102 had returned Decebalus to the condition of more or less harmless client king; however, he soon began to rearm, to again harbour Roman runaways, and to pressure his Western neighbours, the Iazyges Sarmatians, into allying themselves with him. By trying to develop an anti-Roman bloc, Decebalus eventually left Trajan without the alternative of treating Dacia as a protectorate, rather than an outright conquest.[119] In 104 Decebalus devised a failed attempt on Trajan's life by means of some Roman deserters, and held prisoner Trajan's legate Longinus, who eventually poisoned himself while in custody. Finally, in 105, Decebalus undertook an invasion of Roman-occupied territory north of the Danube.[120][121] Prior to the campaign, Trajan had raised two entirely new legions: II Traiana – which, however, may have been posted in the East, at the Syrian port of Laodicea – and XXX Ulpia Victrix, which was posted to Brigetio, in Pannonia.[120][122] By 105, the concentration of Roman troops assembled in the middle and lower Danube amounted to fourteen legions (up from nine in 101) – about half of the entire Roman army.[123] Even after the Dacian wars, the Danube frontier would permanently replace the Rhine as the main military axis of the Roman Empire.[124] Including auxiliaries, the number of Roman troops engaged on both campaigns was between 150,000 and 175,000, while Decebalus could dispose of up to 200,000.[113] In a fierce campaign which seems to have consisted mostly of static warfare, the Dacians, devoid of manoeuvring room, kept to their network of fortresses, which the Romans sought systematically to storm[125] (see also Second Dacian War). The Romans gradually tightened their grip around Decebalus' stronghold in Sarmizegetusa Regia,[124] which they finally took and destroyed. Decebalus fled, but, when cornered by Roman cavalry, committed suicide. His severed head, brought to Trajan by the cavalryman Tiberius Claudius Maximus,[126] was later exhibited in Rome on the steps leading up to the Capitol and thrown on the Gemonian stairs.[127] Trajan built a new city, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa, on another site (north of the hill citadel holding the previous Dacian capital),[128] although bearing the same full name, Sarmizegetusa. This capital city was conceived as a purely civilian administrative centre and was provided the usual Romanized administrative apparatus (decurions, aediles, etc.).[129] Urban life in Roman Dacia seems to have been restricted to Roman colonists, mostly military veterans;[130] there is no extant evidence for the existence in the province of peregrine cities. Native Dacians continued to live in scattered rural settlements, according to their own ways.[131] In another arrangement with no parallels in any other Roman province, the existing quasi-urban Dacian settlements disappeared after the Roman conquest.[132] A number of unorganized urban settlements (vici) developed around military encampments in Dacia proper – the most important being Apulum – but were only acknowledged as cities proper well after Trajan's reign.[133] The main regional effort of urbanization was concentrated by Trajan at the rearguard, in Moesia, where he created the new cities of Nicopolis ad Istrum and Marcianopolis. A vicus was also created around the Tropaeum Traianum.[134] The garrison city of Oescus received the status of Roman colony after its legionary garrison was redeployed.[134] The fact that these former Danubian outposts had ceased to be frontier bases and were now in the deep rear acted as an inducement to their urbanization and development.[135] Not all of Dacia was permanently occupied. What was permanently included in the province, after the post-Trajanic evacuation of some land across the lower Danube,[136] were the lands extending from the Danube to the inner arch of the Carpathian Mountains, including Transylvania, the Metaliferi Mountains and Oltenia. The Roman province eventually took the form of an "excrescence" North of the Danube, with ill-defined limits, stretching from the Danube northwards to the Carpathians,[124] and was intended perhaps as a basis for further expansion in Eastern Europe – which the Romans conceived to be much more "flattened", and closer to the ocean, than it actually was.[137] Defence of the province was entrusted to a single legion, the XIII Gemina, stationed at Apulum, which functioned as an advanced guard that could, in case of need, strike either west or east at the Sarmatians living at the borders.[135] Therefore, the indefensible character of the province did not appear to be a problem for Trajan, as the province was conceived more as a sally-base for further attacks.[138] Even in the absence of further Roman expansion, the value of the province depended on Roman overall strength: while Rome was strong, the Dacian salient was an instrument of military and diplomatic control over the Danubian lands; when Rome was weak, as during the Crisis of the Third Century, the province became a liability and was eventually abandoned.[139] Trajan resettled Dacia with Romans and annexed it as a province of the Roman Empire. Aside from their enormous booty (over half a million slaves, according to John Lydus),[140] Trajan's Dacian campaigns benefited the Empire's finances through the acquisition of Dacia's gold mines, managed by an imperial procurator of equestrian rank (procurator aurariarum).[141] On the other hand, commercial agricultural exploitation on the villa model, based on the centralized management of a huge landed estate by a single owner (fundus) was poorly developed.[142] Therefore, use of slave labor in the province itself seems to have been relatively undeveloped, and epigraphic evidence points to work in the gold mines being conducted by means of labor contracts (locatio conductio rei) and seasonal wage-earning.[143] The victory was commemorated by the construction both of the 102 cenotaph generally known as the Tropaeum Traiani in Moesia, as well of the much later (113) Trajan's Column in Rome, the latter depicting in stone carved bas-reliefs the Dacian Wars' most important moments.[144] Annexation of Nabataea[edit] In 106, Rabbel II Soter, one of Rome's client kings, died. This event might have prompted the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom, but the manner and the formal reasons for the annexation are unclear. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military operation, with forces from Syria and Egypt. What is known is that by 107, Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosrah, as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The furthest south the Romans occupied (or, better, garrisoned, adopting a policy of having garrisons at key points in the desert)[145] was Hegra, over 300 kilometres (190 mi) south-west of Petra.[146] The empire gained what became the province of Arabia Petraea (modern southern Jordan and north west Saudi Arabia).[147] At this time, a Roman road (Via Traiana Nova) was built from Aila (now Aqaba) in Limes Arabicus to Bosrah.[148] As Nabataea was the last client kingdom in Asia west of the Euphrates, the annexation meant that the entire Roman East had been provincialized, completing a trend towards direct rule that had begun under the Flavians.[145] Period of Peace[edit] Tabula Traiana near Trajan's Bridge in Đerdap National Park, Serbia Building Projects[edit] Following the design of Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan ordered the building of a massive bridge over the Danube, over which the Roman army was able to cross the river swiftly and in numbers, as well as to send in reinforcements, even in winter when the river was not frozen enough to bear the passage of a party of soldiers.[149] Trajan also reformed the infrastructure of the Iron Gates region of the Danube. He commissioned either the creation or enlargement of the road along the Iron Gates, carved into the side of the gorge.[150] Additionally, Trajan commissioned a canal to be built around the rapids of the Iron Gates. Evidence of this comes from a marble slab discovered near Caput Bovis, the site of a Roman fort. The slab, dated to the year 101, commemorates the building of at least one canal that went from the Kasajna tributary to at least Ducis Pratum, whose embankments were still visible until recently. However, the placement of the slab at Caput Bovis suggests that the canal extended to this point or that there was a second canal downriver of the Kasajna-Ducis Pratum one.[151] Statue of Trajan, posing in military garb, in front of the Amphitheater of Colonia Ulpia Traiana in the Xanten Archaeological Park For the next seven years, Trajan ruled as a civilian emperor, to the same acclaim as before. It was during this time that he corresponded with Pliny the Younger on the subject of how to deal with the Christians of Pontus, telling Pliny to continue to persecute Christians but not to accept anonymous denunciations in the interests of justice as well as of "the spirit of the age". Non-citizens who admitted to being Christians and refused to recant, however, were to be executed "for obstinacy". Citizens were sent to Rome for trial.[152] Trajan built several new buildings, monuments and roads in Italia and his native Hispania. His magnificent complex in Rome raised to commemorate his victories in Dacia (and largely financed from that campaign's loot) – consisting of a forum, Trajan's Column, and Trajan's Market, still stands in Rome today. He was also a prolific builder of triumphal arches, many of which survive, and a builder of roads such as the Via Traiana – the extension of the Via Appia from Beneventum to Brundisium[153] – and Via Traiana Nova, a mostly military road between Damascus and Aila, whose building was connected to the founding of the province of Arabia (see annexation of Nabataea) .[154] One of Trajan's notable acts during this period was the hosting of a three-month gladiatorial festival in the great Colosseum in Rome (the precise date is unknown). Combining chariot racing, beast fights and close-quarters gladiatorial bloodshed, this gory spectacle reputedly left 11,000 dead (mostly slaves and criminals, not to mention the thousands of ferocious beasts killed alongside them) and attracted a total of five million spectators over the course of the festival. The care bestowed by Trajan on the managing of such public spectacles led the orator Fronto to state approvingly that Trajan had paid equal attention to entertainments as well as to serious issues. Fronto concluded that "neglect of serious matters can cause greater damage, but neglect of amusements greater discontent".[155] As Fronto added, amusements were a means to assure the general acquiescence of the populace, while the more "serious" issue of the corn dole aimed ultimately only at individuals.[156] Devaluation of the currency[edit] In 107 Trajan devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 93.5% to 89% – the actual silver weight dropping from 3.04 grams to 2.88 grams.[157] This devaluation, coupled with the massive amount of gold and silver carried off after Trajan's Dacian Wars, allowed the emperor to mint a larger quantity of denarii than his predecessors. Also, Trajan withdrew from circulation silver denarii minted before the previous devaluation achieved by Nero, something that allows for thinking that Trajan's devaluation had to do with political ends, such as allowing for increased civil and military spending.[158] The alimenta[edit] Main article: alimenta Another important act was his formalisation of the alimenta, a welfare program that helped orphans and poor children throughout Italy. It provided general funds, as well as food and subsidized education. The program was supported initially out of Dacian War booty, and then later by a combination of estate taxes and philanthropy.[159] In general terms, the scheme functioned by means of mortgages on Italian farms (fundi), through which registered landowners received a lump sum from the imperial treasure, being in return expected to pay yearly a given proportion of the loan to the maintenance of an alimentary fund.[160] War against Parthia[edit] Aureus issued by Trajan to celebrate the conquest of Parthia. Inscription: IMP. CAES. NER. TRAIAN. OPTIM. AVG. GER. DAC. PARTHICO / P. M., TR. P., CO[N]S. VI, P. P., S.P.Q.R. – PARTHIA CAPTA The extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117)[161] Anatolia, western Caucasus and northern Levant under Trajan Main article: Trajan's Parthian campaign In 113, Trajan embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier. It's noteworthy, however, that Trajan, already in Syria early in 113, consistently refused to accept diplomatic approaches from the Parthians in order to settle the Armenian imbroglio peacefully.[162] As the surviving literary accounts of Trajan's Parthian War are fragmentary and scattered,[163] it is difficult to assign them a proper context, something that has led to a long-running controversy about its precise happenings and ultimate aims. Rationale for the war[edit] Many modern historians consider that Trajan's decision to wage war against Parthia might have had economic motives: after Trajan's annexation of Arabia, he built a new road, Via Traiana Nova, that went from Bostra to Aila on the Red Sea.[164] That meant that Charax on the Persian Gulf was the sole remaining western terminus of the Indian trade route outside direct Roman control,[165] and such control was important in order to lower import prices and to limit the supposed drain of precious metals created by the deficit in Roman trade with the Far East.[166] That Charax traded with the Roman Empire, there can be no doubt, as its actual connections with merchants from Palmyra during the period are well documented in a contemporary Palmyrene epigraph, which tells of various Palmyrene citizens honoured for holding office in Charax.[167] Also, Charax's rulers domains at the time possibly included the Bahrain islands (where a Palmyrene citizen held office, shortly after Trajan's death, as satrap[168] – but then, the appointment was made by a Parthian king of Charax[169]) something which offered the possibility of extending Roman hegemony into the Persian Gulf itself.[170] The rationale behind Trajan's campaign, in this case, was one of breaking down a system of Far Eastern trade through small Semitic ("Arab") cities under Parthia's control and to put it under Roman control instead.[171] In his Dacian conquests, Trajan had already resorted to Syrian auxiliary units, whose veterans, along with Syrian traders, had an important role in the subsequent colonization of Dacia.[172] He had recruited Palmyrene units into his army, including a camel unit,[173] therefore apparently procuring Palmyrene support to his ultimate goal of annexing Charax. It has even been ventured that, when earlier in his campaign Trajan annexed Armenia, he was bound to annex the whole of Mesopotamia lest the Parthians interrupt the flux of trade from the Persian Gulf and/or foment trouble at the Roman frontier on the Danube.[174] Other historians reject these motives, as the supposed Parthian "control" over the maritime Far Eastern trade route was, at best, conjectural and based on a selective reading of Chinese sources – trade by land through Parthia seems to have been unhampered by Parthian authorities and left solely to the devices of private enterprise.[175] Commercial activity in second century Mesopotamia seems to have been a general phenomenon, shared by many peoples within and without the Roman Empire, with no sign of a concerted Imperial policy towards it.[176] As in the case of the alimenta, scholars like Moses Finley and Paul Veyne have considered the whole idea of a foreign trade "policy" behind Trajan's war anachronistic: according to them, the sole Roman concern with the Far Eastern luxuries trade – besides collecting toll taxes and customs[177] – was moral and involved frowning upon the "softness" of luxuries, but no economic policy.[178][179] In the absence of conclusive evidence, trade between Rome and India might have been far more balanced, in terms of quantities of precious metals exchanged: one of our sources for the notion of the Roman gold drain – Pliny's the Younger's uncle Pliny the Elder – had earlier described the Gangetic Plains as one of the gold sources for the Roman Empire.[180] Accordingly, in his controversial book on the Ancient economy, Finley considers Trajan's "badly miscalculated and expensive assault on Parthia" to be an example of the many Roman "commercial wars" that had in common the fact of existing only in the books of modern historians.[176] Trajan, "the Palladium", white marble statue at Naples Archeological Museum, late 1st century AD The alternative view is to see the campaign as triggered by the lure of territorial annexation and prestige,[176] the sole motive ascribed by Cassius Dio.[181] As far as territorial conquest involved tax-collecting,[182] especially of the 25% tax levied on all goods entering the Roman Empire, the tetarte, one can say that Trajan's Parthian War had an "economic" motive.[183] Also, there was the propaganda value of an Eastern conquest that would emulate, in Roman fashion, those of Alexander the Great.[184] The fact that emissaries from the Kushan Empire might have attended to the commemorative ceremonies for the Dacian War may have kindled in some Greco-Roman intellectuals like Plutarch – who wrote about only 70,000 Roman soldiers being necessary to a conquest of India – as well as in Trajan's closer associates, speculative dreams about the booty to be obtained by reproducing Macedonian Eastern conquests.[185] There could also be Trajan's idea to use an ambitious blueprint of conquests as a way to emphasize quasi-divine status, such as with his cultivated association, in coins and monuments, to Hercules.[186] Also, it is possible that the attachment of Trajan to an expansionist policy was supported by a powerful circle of conservative senators from Hispania committed to a policy of imperial expansion, first among them being the all-powerful Licinius Sura.[187] Alternatively, one can explain the campaign by the fact that, for the Romans, their empire was in principle unlimited, and that Trajan only took advantage of an opportunity to make idea and reality coincide.[188] Finally, there are other modern historians who think that Trajan's original aims were purely military and quite modest: to assure a more defensible Eastern frontier for the Roman Empire, crossing Northern Mesopotamia along the course of the Khabur River in order to offer cover to a Roman Armenia.[189] This interpretation is backed by the fact that all subsequent Roman wars against Parthia would aim at establishing a Roman presence deep into Parthia itself.[190] Course of the campaign[edit] The campaign was carefully planned in advance: ten legions were concentrated in the Eastern theatre; since 111, the correspondence of Pliny the Younger witnesses to the fact that provincial authorities in Bithynia had to organize supplies for passing troops, and local city councils and their individual members had to shoulder part of the increased expenses by supplying troops themselves.[191] The intended campaign, therefore, was immensely costly from its very beginning.[192] Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king, Parthamasiris (who was afterwards murdered while kept in the custody of Roman troops in an unclear incident, later described by Fronto as a breach of Roman good faith[193]), and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province, receiving in passing the acknowledgement of Roman hegemony by various tribes in the Caucasus and on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea – a process that kept him busy until the end of 114.[194] At the same time, a Roman column under the legate Lusius Quietus – an outstanding cavalry general[195] who had signalled himself during the Dacian Wars by commanding a unit from his native Mauretania[196] – crossed the Araxes river from Armenia into Media Atropatene and the land of the Mardians (present-day Ghilan).[197] It is possible that Quietus' campaign had as its goal the extending of the newer, more defensible Roman border eastwards towards the Caspian Sea and northwards to the foothills of the Caucasus.[198] This newer, more "rational" frontier, depended, however, on an increased, permanent Roman presence east of the Euphrates.[199] The chronology of subsequent events is uncertain, but it is generally believed that early in 115 Trajan launched a Mesopotamian campaign, marching down towards the Taurus mountains in order to consolidate territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. He placed permanent garrisons along the way to secure the territory.[200] While Trajan moved from west to east, Lusius Quietus moved with his army from the Caspian Sea towards the west, both armies performing a successful pincer movement,[201] whose apparent result was to establish a Roman presence into the Parthian Empire proper, with Trajan taking the northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae and organizing a province of Mesopotamia, including the Kingdom of Osrhoene – where King Abgar VII submitted to Trajan publicly[202] – as a Roman protectorate.[203] This process seems to have been completed at the beginning of 116, when coins were issued announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia had been put under the authority of the Roman people.[204] The area between the Khabur River and the mountains around Singara seems to have been considered as the new frontier, and as such received a road surrounded by fortresses.[205] Sestertius during 116 to commemorate Trajan's Parthian victories. Obverse: bust of Trajan, with laurel crown; caption: IMP. CAES. NERV. TRAIANO OPTIMO AVG. GER. DAC. PARTHICO P. M., TR. P., COS VI, P. P.; Reverse: Trajan standing between prostrate allegories of Armenia (crowned with a tiara) and the Rivers Tigris & Euphrates; caption: ARMENIA ET MESOPOTAMIA IN POTESTATEM P. R. REDACTAE (put under the authority of the Roman People) – S. C. (Senatus Consultus, issued by the Senate). Bronze bust of Trajan in his later years, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey After wintering in Antioch during 115/116  – and, according to literary sources, barely escaping from a violent earthquake that claimed the life of one of the consuls, Marcus Pedo Virgilianus[206][207] – Trajan again took to the field in 116, with a view to the conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia, an overambitious goal that eventually backfired on the results of his entire campaign. According to some modern historians, the aim of the campaign of 116 was to achieve a "pre-emptive demonstration" aiming not toward the conquest of Parthia, but for tighter Roman control over the Eastern trade route. However, the overall scarcity of manpower for the Roman military establishment meant that the campaign was doomed from the start.[208] It is noteworthy that no new legions were raised by Trajan before the Parthian campaign, maybe because the sources of new citizen recruits were already over-exploited.[209] As far as the sources allow a description of this campaign, it seems that one Roman division crossed the Tigris into Adiabene, sweeping south and capturing Adenystrae; a second followed the river south, capturing Babylon; Trajan himself sailed down the Euphrates from Dura-Europos – where a triumphal arch was erected in his honour – through Ozogardana, where he erected a "tribunal" still to be seen at the time of Julian the Apostate's campaigns in the same area. Having come to the narrow strip of land between the Euphrates and the Tigris, he then dragged his fleet overland into the Tigris, capturing Seleucia and finally the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon.[210][211] He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, when, after escaping with his fleet a tidal bore on the Tigris,[212] he received the submission of Athambelus, the ruler of Charax. He declared Babylon a new province of the Empire and had his statue erected on the shore of the Persian Gulf,[213] after which he sent the Senate a laurelled letter declaring the war to be at a close and bemoaning that he was too old to go on any further and repeat the conquests of Alexander the Great.[203] Since Charax was a de facto independent kingdom whose connections to Palmyra were described above, Trajan's bid for the Persian Gulf may have coincided with Palmyrene interests in the region.[214] Another hypothesis is that the rulers of Charax had expansionist designs on Parthian Babylon, giving them a rationale for alliance with Trajan.[215] The Parthian summer capital of Susa was apparently also occupied by the Romans.[216] According to late literary sources (not backed by numismatic or inscriptional evidence) a province of Assyria was also proclaimed,[217] apparently covering the territory of Adiabene.[218] Some measures seem to have been considered regarding the fiscal administration of Indian trade – or simply about the payment of customs (portoria) on goods traded on the Euphrates and Tigris.[219][214] It is possible that it was this "streamlining" of the administration of the newly conquered lands according to the standard pattern of Roman provincial administration in tax collecting, requisitions and the handling of local potentates' prerogatives, that triggered later resistance against Trajan.[220] According to some modern historians, Trajan might have busied himself during his stay on the Persian Gulf with ordering raids on the Parthian coasts,[221] as well as probing into extending Roman suzerainty over the mountaineer tribes holding the passes across the Zagros Mountains into the Iranian Plateau eastward, as well as establishing some sort of direct contact between Rome and the Kushan Empire.[222] No attempt was made to expand into the Iranian Plateau itself, where the Roman army, with its relative weakness in cavalry, would have been at a disadvantage.[223] A coin of Trajan, found together with coins of the Kushan ruler Kanishka, at the Ahin Posh Buddhist Monastery, Afghanistan. Caption: IMP. CAES. NER. TRAIANO OPTIMO AVG. GER. DAC. Trajan left the Persian Gulf for Babylon – where he intended to offer sacrifice to Alexander in the house where he had died in 323 BC[224] –  But a revolt led by Sanatruces, a nephew of the Parthian king Osroes I who had retained a cavalry force, possibly strengthened by the addition of Saka archers,[225] imperilled Roman positions in Mesopotamia and Armenia. Trajan sought to deal with this by forsaking direct Roman rule in Parthia proper, at least partially.[226] The Roman Empire under Trajan, 117 AD Trajan sent two armies towards Northern Mesopotamia: the first, under Lusius Quietus, recovered Nisibis and Edessa from the rebels, probably having King Abgarus deposed and killed in the process,[226] with Quietus probably earning the right to receive the honors of a senator of praetorian rank (adlectus inter praetorios).[227] The second army, however, under Appius Maximus Santra (probably a governor of Macedonia) was defeated and Santra killed.[228] Later in 116, Trajan, with the assistance of Quietus and two other legates, Marcus Erucius Clarus and Tiberius Julius Alexander Julianus,[229][228] defeated a Parthian army in a battle where Sanatruces was killed (possibly with the assistance of Osroes' son and Sanatruces' cousin, Parthamaspates, whom Trajan wooed successfully).[230] After re-taking and burning Seleucia, Trajan then formally deposed Osroes, putting Parthamaspates on the throne as client ruler. This event was commemorated in a coin as the reduction of Parthia to client kingdom status: REX PARTHIS DATUS, "a king is given to the Parthians".[231] That done, Trajan retreated north in order to retain what he could of the new provinces of Armenia – where he had already accepted an armistice in exchange for surrendering part of the territory to Sanatruces' son Vologeses[232] – and Mesopotamia. It was at this point that Trajan's health started to fail him. The fortress city of Hatra, on the Tigris in his rear, continued to hold out against repeated Roman assaults. He was personally present at the siege, and it is possible that he suffered a heat stroke while in the blazing heat.[226] Kitos war[edit] Main article: Kitos War Bust of Trajan, Glyptothek, Munich Shortly afterwards, the Jews inside the Eastern Roman Empire, in Egypt, Cyprus and Cyrene – this last province being probably the original trouble hotspot – rose up in what probably was an outburst of religious rebellion against the local pagans, this widespread rebellion being afterwards named the Kitos War.[233] Another rebellion flared up among the Jewish communities of Northern Mesopotamia, probably part of a general reaction against Roman occupation.[234] Trajan was forced to withdraw his army in order to put down the revolts. He saw this withdrawal as simply a temporary setback, but he was destined never to command an army in the field again, turning his Eastern armies over to Lusius Quietus, who meanwhile (early 117) had been made governor of Judaea and might have had to deal earlier with some kind of Jewish unrest in the province.[235] Quietus discharged his commissions successfully, so much that the war was afterward named after him – Kitus being a corruption of Quietus.[236] Whether or not the Kitos War theatre included Judea proper, or only the Jewish Eastern diaspora, remains doubtful in the absence of clear epigraphic and archaeological evidence. What is certain is that there was an increased Roman military presence in Judea at the time.[237] Quietus was promised a consulate[238] in the following year (118) for his victories, but he was killed before this could occur, during the bloody purge that opened Hadrian's reign, in which Quietus and three other former consuls were sentenced to death after being tried on a vague charge of conspiracy by the (secret) court of the Praetorian Prefect Attianus.[239] It has been theorized that Quietus and his colleagues were executed on Hadrian's direct orders, for fear of their popular standing with the army and their close connections to Trajan.[232][240] In contrast, the next prominent Roman figure in charge of the repression of the Jewish revolt, the equestrian Quintus Marcius Turbo, who had dealt with the rebel leader from Cyrene, Loukuas,[241] retained Hadrian's trust, eventually becoming his Praetorian Prefect. As all four consulars were senators of the highest standing and as such generally regarded as able to take imperial power (capaces imperii), Hadrian seems to have decided on a pre-emptive strike against these prospective rivals.[242] Death[edit] The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, widely hailed as a masterpiece of Roman engineering Modern statue of Trajan at Tower Hill, London Early in 117, Trajan grew ill and set out to sail back to Italy. His health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117, something publicly acknowledged by the fact that a bronze bust displayed at the time in the public baths of Ancyra showed him clearly aged and emaciated.[243] After reaching Selinus (modern Gazipaşa) in Cilicia, which was afterwards called Trajanopolis, he suddenly died from edema in August. Some say that Trajan had adopted Hadrian as his successor, but others[who?] claim that it was his wife Pompeia Plotina who assured the succession to Hadrian by keeping his death secret and afterwards hiring someone to impersonate Trajan by speaking with a tired voice behind a curtain, well after Trajan had died. Dio, who tells this narrative, offers his father – the then governor of Cilicia Apronianus – as a source, and therefore his narrative is possibly grounded on contemporary rumor. It may also originate in Roman displeasure at an empress meddling in political affairs.[244] Succession[edit] Hadrian held an ambiguous position during Trajan's reign. After commanding Legio I Minervia during the Dacian Wars, he had been relieved from front-line duties at the decisive stage of the Second Dacian War, being sent to govern the newly created province of Pannonia Inferior. He had pursued a senatorial career without particular distinction and had not been officially adopted by Trajan (although he received from him decorations and other marks of distinction that made him hope for the succession).[245][246] He received no post after his 108 consulate,[247] and no further honours other than being made Archon eponymos for Athens in 111/112.[248] He probably did not take part in the Parthian War. Literary sources relate that Trajan had considered others, such as the jurist Lucius Neratius Priscus, as heir.[249] However, Hadrian, who was eventually entrusted with the governorship of Syria at the time of Trajan's death, was Trajan's cousin and was married to Trajan's grandniece,[250] which all made him as good as heir designate.[251] In addition Hadrian was born in Hispania and seems to have been well connected with the powerful group of Spanish senators influential at Trajan's court through his ties to Plotina and the Prefect Attianus.[252] The fact that during Hadrian's reign he did not pursue Trajan's senatorial policy may account for the "crass hostility" shown him by literary sources.[253] Aware that the Parthian campaign was an enormous setback, and that it revealed that the Roman Empire had no means for an ambitious program of conquests,[119] Hadrian's first act as emperor was to abandon – outwardly out of his own free will[254][255] – the distant and indefensible Mesopotamia and to restore Armenia, as well as Osrhoene, to the Parthian hegemony under Roman suzerainty.[219] However, all the other territories conquered by Trajan were retained. Roman friendship ties with Charax (also known by the name of Mesene) were also retained (although it is debated whether this had to do more with trade concessions than with common Roman policy of exploiting dissensions amid the Empire's neighbors).[256][257] Trajan's ashes were laid to rest underneath Trajan's column, the monument commemorating his success.[258] Building activities[edit] Trajan was a prolific builder in Rome and the provinces, and many of his buildings were erected by the gifted architect Apollodorus of Damascus. Notable structures include the Baths of Trajan, Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Bridge, Alcántara Bridge, Porto di Traiano of Portus, the road and canal around the Iron Gates (see conquest of Dacia), and possibly the Alconétar Bridge. Some historians also attribute the construction of the Babylon fortress in Egypt to Trajan;[259] the remains of the fort is what is now known as the Church of Mar Girgis and its surrounding buildings. In order to build his forum and the adjacent brick market that also held his name Trajan had vast areas of the surrounding Capitoline and Quirinal hills levelled.[260][261] Emperor Trajan making offerings to Egyptian Gods, on the Roman Mammisi at the Dendera Temple complex, Egypt.[262][263] "Gate of Domitian and Trajan" north of the Temple of Hathor, in Dendera, Egypt.[264][265] In Egypt, Trajan was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them. He appears, together with Domitian, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna.[262] Iconography[edit] The head of this statue was reworked with a beard in the 3rd century for the theater of Perge. Now at the Antalya Museum in Turkey. After the despised Nero, Roman emperors until Trajan were depicted shaven. His successor Hadrian made beards fashionable again for emperors.[266][267] Legacy[edit] Ancient sources on Trajan's personality and accomplishments are unanimously positive. Pliny the Younger, for example, celebrates Trajan in his panegyric as a wise and just emperor and a moral man. Cassius Dio added that he always remained dignified and fair.[268] A third-century emperor, Decius, even received from the Senate the name Trajan as a decoration.[269] After the setbacks of the third century, Trajan, together with Augustus, became in the Later Roman Empire the paragon of the most positive traits of the Imperial order.[270] Some theologians such as Thomas Aquinas discussed Trajan as an example of a virtuous pagan. In the Divine Comedy, Dante, following this legend, sees the spirit of Trajan in the Heaven of Jupiter with other historical and mythological persons noted for their justice. Also, a mural of Trajan stopping to provide justice for a poor widow is present in the first terrace of Purgatory as a lesson to those who are purged for being proud.[271] I noticed that the inner bank of the curve... Was of white marble, and so decorated With carvings that not only Polycletus But nature herself would there be put to shame... There was recorded the high glory Of that ruler of Rome whose worth Moved Gregory to his great victory; I mean by this the Emperor Trajan; And at his bridle a poor widow Whose attitude bespoke tears and grief... The wretched woman, in the midst of all this, Seemed to be saying: 'Lord, avenge my son, Who is dead, so that my heart is broken..' So he said: 'Now be comforted, for I must Carry out my duty before I go on: Justice requires it and pity holds me back.' Dante, The Divine Comedy, Purgatorio X, ll. 32 f. and 73 f.[272] Later Emperors[edit] Many emperors after Trajan would, when they were sworn into office, be wished Felicior Augusto, Melior Traiano （"May you rule fortunate like Augustus and better than Trajan"）. The fourth-century emperor Constantine I is credited with saying "[Trajan] is like a spider that creeps up on every wall."[citation needed] After Rome[edit] In the 18th century, King Charles III of Spain commissioned Anton Raphael Mengs to paint The Triumph of Trajan on the ceiling of the banquet hall of the Royal Palace of Madrid – considered among the best works of this artist.[273] It was only during the Enlightenment that this legacy began to be contested, when Edward Gibbon expressed doubts about the militarized character of Trajan's reign in contrast to the "moderate" practices of his immediate successors.[274] Mommsen adopted a divided stance towards Trajan, at some point of his posthumously published lectures even speaking about his "vainglory" (Scheinglorie).[275] Mommsen also speaks of Trajan's "insatiable, unlimited lust for conquest".[276] Although Mommsen had no liking for Trajan's successor Hadrian – "a repellent manner, and a venomous, envious and malicious nature" – he admitted that Hadrian, in renouncing Trajan's conquests, was "doing what the situation clearly required".[277] It was exactly this military character of Trajan's reign that attracted his early twentieth-century biographer, the Italian Fascist historian Roberto Paribeni, who in his 1927 two-volume biography Optimus Princeps described Trajan's reign as the acme of the Roman principate, which he saw as Italy's patrimony.[278] Following in Paribeni's footsteps, the German historian Alfred Heuss saw in Trajan "the accomplished human embodiment of the imperial title" (die ideale Verkörperung des humanen Kaiserbegriffs).[279] Trajan's first English-language biography by Julian Bennett is also a positive one in that it assumes that Trajan was an active policy-maker concerned with the management of the empire as a whole – something his reviewer Lendon considers an anachronistic outlook that sees in the Roman emperor a kind of modern administrator.[280] During the 1980s, the Romanian historian Eugen Cizek took a more nuanced view as he described the changes in the personal ideology of Trajan's reign, stressing the fact that it became ever more autocratic and militarized, especially after 112 and towards the Parthian War (as "only an universal monarch, a kosmocrator, could dictate his law to the East").[281] The biography by the German historian Karl Strobel stresses the continuity between Domitian's and Trajan's reigns, saying that Trajan's rule followed the same autocratic and sacred character as Domitian's, culminating in a failed Parthian adventure intended as the crown of his personal achievement.[282] It is in modern French historiography that Trajan's reputation becomes most markedly deflated: Paul Petit writes about Trajan's portraits as a "lowbrow boor with a taste for booze and boys".[283] For Paul Veyne, what is to be retained from Trajan's "stylish" qualities was that he was the last Roman emperor to think of the empire as a purely Italian and Rome-centred hegemony of conquest. In contrast, his successor Hadrian would stress the notion of the empire as ecumenical and of the Emperor as universal benefactor and not kosmocrator.[284] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano Justice of Trajan Trajanic art References[edit] ^ Historia Augusta Hadrianus 4.6. "On the fifth day before the Ides of August [9 August], while [Hadrian] was governor of Syria, he learned of his adoption by Trajan. On the third day before the Ides of August [11 August] he received the news of Trajan's death." ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 492. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b Arnold Blumberg, Great Leaders, Great Tyrants? Contemporary Views of World Rulers who Made History, 1995, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 315: "Trajan is frequently but misleadingly designated the first provincial emperor, because the Ulpii were from Baetica (southern Spain). The family, resident in Spain for some time, originated in Italian Tuder, not far from the Flavian home of Reate. The emperor's father, M. Ulpius Trajanus, was an early adherent of Vespasian and perhaps the old family friend. This Trajan evidently married a Marcia (her name is inferred from that of their daughter Marciana) whose family owned brickyards in the vicinity of Ameria, near both Reate and Tuder. She was possibly an older sister of Marcia Furnilla, second wife of Vespasian's son Titus. Further, Ulpia, sister of the senior Trajan, was a grandmother of Hadrian. In other words, the emperor Trajan was succeeded in 117 by his cousin, member of another Italian family resident in Baetica." ^ Discourses on Livy, I, 10, 4 ^ Nelson, Eric (2002). Idiots guide to the Roman Empire. Alpha Books. pp. 207–209. ISBN 978-0-02-864151-5. ^ Strobel 2010, p. 14. ^ Strobel 2010, p. 15. ^ Bennett 2001, pp. xii/xiii & 63. ^ Finley Hooper, Roman Realities. Wayne State University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8143-1594-1, p. 427 ^ Carlos F. Noreña, "The Social Economy of Pliny's Correspondence with Trajan". 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Leiden: Brill, 2014, ISBN 978-90-04-27738-0, p. 36 ^ Quoted by Hooper, Roman Realities, 429 ^ JC Carrière ,"À propos de la Politique de Plutarque " – Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, V.3, no.3, 1977. Available at [9] Retrieved December 13, 2014 ^ Fergus Millar, Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, society, and culture in the Roman Empire. Univ of North Carolina Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8078-2852-1, p. 31 ^ Jesper Majbom Madsen, Eager to be Roman: Greek Response to Roman Rule in Pontus and Bithynia. London: Bloombury, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7156-3753-1, p. 116 ^ Simon Swain, ed., Dio Chrysostom: Politics, Letters, and Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-925521-0, p. 68 ^ Paraskevi Martzavou, Nikolaos Papazarkadas, eds., Epigraphical Approaches to the Post-Classical Polis: Fourth Century BC to Second Century AD . Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-965214-3, p. 115 ^ Temporini & Haase, Politische Geschichte, 669 ^ de Ste. Croix 1989, p. 530. ^ Jesper Majbom Madsen, Eager to be Roman, 117 ^ Sviatoslav Dmitriev, City Government in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor. Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-19-517042-9, p. 155 ^ Fergus Millar, Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, society, and culture in the Roman Empire. University of North Carolina Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8078-5520-0, pp. 37/38 ^ "De Imperatoribus Romanis". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 21 July 2007. Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105. During Trajan's reign one of the most important Roman successes was the victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians had taken place in the year 87 and was initiated by Domitian. The praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus led five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towards Banat (in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village of Bucova, in Romania). Legion V Alaude was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious Dacian general was called Decebalus (the brave one). ^ Schmitz 2005, p. 9. ^ Marcel Emerit. "Les derniers travaux des historiens roumains sur la Dacie". In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 41, 1939, n°1. pp. 57–64. available at [10]. Retrieved February 23, 2016 ^ Luttwak 1979, p. 100. ^ Schmitz 2005, p. 13. ^ "De Imperatoribus Romanis". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Because the Dacians represented an obstacle against Roman expansion in the east, in the year 101 the emperor Trajan decided to begin a new campaign against them. The first war began on 25 March 101 and the Roman troops, consisting of four principal legions (X Gemina, XI Claudia, II Traiana Fortis, and XXX Ulpia Victrix), defeated the Dacians. ^ a b Le Roux 1998, p. 73. ^ "Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105: De Imperatoribus Romanis". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganization. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to part of his kingdom, including the Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area south-west of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year 103 A.D., there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS. ^ José Maria Blázquez, Las res gestae de Trajano militar: las guerras dácicas. Aquila Legionis, 6 (2005) 19 ^ Ioan Glodariu, LA ZONE DE SARMIZEGETUSA REGIA ET LES GUERRES DE TRAJAN. Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica, VII, Iasi, 2000. Available at VII, Iasi,2000).pdf.Retrieved July 2, 2014 ^ Bennett 2001, pp. 94–95. ^ Bennett 2001, p. 96. ^ a b Christol & Nony, 171 ^ a b Dando-Collins 2012, p. not numbered. ^ "Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105: De Imperatoribus Romanis". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 8 November 2007. 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Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-521-83878-8, p. 5 ^ Finley 1999, p. 132. ^ Veyne 2001, pp. 163/215. ^ Veyne 2001, p. 181. ^ Bennett 2001, p. 188. ^ Michael Alexander Speidel: "Bellicosissimus Princeps". In: Annette Nünnerich-Asmus ed., Traian. Ein Kaiser der Superlative am Beginn einer Umbruchzeit? Mainz 2002, pp. 23/40. ^ Sidebotham 1986, p. 144. ^ Nathanael John Andrade, "Imitation Greeks": Being Syrian in the Greco-Roman World (175 BCE – 275 CE). Doctoral Thesis, University of Michigan, 2009, p. 192. Available at [12]. Retrieved June 11, 2014 ^ Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. London: Continuum, 2010, ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7, p. 130 ^ Olivier Hekster, "Propagating power: Hercules as an example for second-century emperors". Herakles and Hercules. Exploring a Graeco-Roman Divinity (2005): 205–21.Available at [13] Retrieved August 18, 2019 ^ Des Boscs-Plateaux 2005, pp. 304, 311. ^ Dexter Hoyos, ed., A Companion to Roman Imperialism. Leiden: Brill, 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-23593-9, p. 262 ^ Luttwak 1979, p. 108. ^ David Kennedy & Derrick Riley, Rome's Desert Frontiers. London: B.T. Datsford Limited, 2004, ISBN 0-7134-6262-0, pp. 31/32 ^ Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East, 31 B.C. – A.D. 337. Harvard University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-674-77886-3, p. 103 ^ M.Christol & D. Nony, Rome et son Empire. Paris: Hachette, 2003, ISBN 2-01-145542-1, p. 171 ^ John Rich, Graham Shipley, eds., War and Society in the Roman World. London: Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-415-06644-1, p. 235 ^ Bennett 2001, pp. 194–195. ^ Hermann Bengtson, Römische Geschichte: Republik und Kaiserzeit bis 284 n. Chr. Munich: Beck, 2001, ISBN 3-406-02505-6, p. 289 ^ Alfred S. Bradford, With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001, ISBN 0-275-95259-2, p. 232 ^ Choisnel 2004, p. 164. ^ S.J. De Laet, review of Lepper, Trajan's Parthian War. L'Antiquité Classique, 18-2, 1949, pp. 487–489 ^ Richard Stoneman, Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. Ann Arbor: 1994, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-08315-5, p. 89 ^ Sheldon, Rose Mary (2010). Rome's Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand. London: Vallentine Mitchell. p. 133. ^ Bennett 2001, p. 195. ^ Maurice Sartre, The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-674-01683-1, p. 146. According to Cassius Dio, the deal between Trajan and Abgaros was sealed by the king's son offering himself as Trajan's paramour—Bennett, 199 ^ a b Bennett 2001, p. 199. ^ Bennett, Trajan, 196; Christol & Nony, Rome,171 ^ Petit 1976, p. 44. ^ Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East, 31 B.C. – A.D. 337. Harvard University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-674-77886-3, p. 101 ^ Birley 2013, p. 71. ^ Patrick Le Roux, IN Ségolène Demougin, ed., H.-G. Pflaum, un historien du XXe siècle: actes du colloque international, Paris les 21, 22 et 23 octobre 2004. Geneva: Droz, 2006, ISBN 2-600-01099-8, pp. 182/183 ^ Petit 1976, p. 45. ^ Bennett 2001, pp. 197/199. ^ Birley 2013, p. 72. ^ Longden, "Notes on the Parthian Campaigns", 8 ^ T. Olajos, "Le monument du triomphe de Trajan en Parthie. Quelques renseignements inobservés (Jean d'Ephèse, Anthologie Grecque XVI 72)". Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 1981, vol. 29, no1-4, pp. 379–383. The statue was torn down by Sassanids in 571/572 ^ a b Edwell 2007, p. 21. ^ E. J. Keall, Parthian Nippur and Vologases' Southern Strategy: A Hypothesis. Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 95, No. 4 (Oct. – Dec. 1975), pp. 620–632 ^ George Rawlinson, Parthia. New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-136-1, p. 310 ^ Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History.Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-80918-5, p. 227 ^ Various authors have discussed the existence of the province and its location: André Maricq (La province d'Assyrie créée par Trajan. A propos de la guerre parthique de Trajan. In: Maricq: Classica et orientalia, Paris 1965, pp. 103/111) identifies Assyria with Southern Mesopotamia; Chris S. Lightfood ("Trajan's Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective", Journal of Roman Studies 80, 1990, pp. 115–126), doubts the actual existence of the province; Maria G. Angeli Bertinelli ("I Romani oltre l'Eufrate nel II secolo d. C. – le provincie di Assiria, di Mesopotamia e di Osroene", In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Bd. 9.1, Berlin 1976, pp. 3/45) puts Assyria between Mesopotamia and Adiabene; Lepper (1948, p. 146) considers Assyria and Adiabene to be the same province. ^ a b Luttwak 1979, p. 110. ^ Janos Harmatta and others, eds., History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999, ISBN 81-208-1408-8, p. 135 ^ Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography, London: Routledge, 2013, ISBN 0-7007-1098-1, p. 120 ^ Choisnel 2004, pp. 164/165. ^ Axel Kristinsson, Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze Age. Reykjavík: ReykjavíkurAkademían, 2010, ISBN 978-9979-9922-1-9, p. 129 ^ Bennett, Trajan, 199 ^ Kaveh Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford: Osprey, 2007, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3, p. 162 ^ a b c Bennett 2001, p. 200. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History: The Imperial peace, A.D. 70–192, 1965 ed., p. 249 ^ a b Julián González, ed., Trajano Emperador De Roma, 216 ^ The last two were made consuls (suffecti) for the year 117 ^ E. Yarshater, ed., The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1). Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-521-20092-X, p. 91 ^ Mommsen 1999, p. 289. ^ a b Bennett 2001, p. 203. ^ James J. Bloom, The Jewish Revolts Against Rome, A.D. 66–135: A Military Analysis. McFarland, 2010, p. 191 ^ Bloom, 194 ^ A precise description of events in Judea at the time being impossible, due to the non-historical character of the Jewish (rabbinic) sources, and the silence of the non-Jewish ones: William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz, eds., The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman–Rabbinic Period.Cambridge U. Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8, p. 100 ^ Bloom, 190 ^ Christer Bruun, "the Spurious 'Expeditio Ivdaeae' under Trajan". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 93 (1992) 99–106 ^ He was already consul in absentia: Tanja Gawlich, Der Aufstand der jüdischen Diaspora unter Traian. GRIN Verlag, 2007, ISBN 978-3-640-32753-9, p. 11 ^ Margret Fell, ed., Erziehung, Bildung, Recht. Berlim: Dunker & Hunblot, 1994, ISBN 3-428-08069-6, p. 448 ^ Histoire des Juifs, Troisième période, I – Chapitre III – Soulèvement des Judéens sous Trajan et Adrien ^ Bloom, 195/196 ^ Gabriele Marasco, ed., Political Autobiographies and Memoirs in Antiquity: A Brill Companion. Leiden: Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-18299-8, p. 377 ^ Bennett 2001, p. 201. ^ Francesca Santoro L'Hoir, Tragedy, Rhetoric, and the Historiography of Tacitus' Annales.University of Michigan Press, 2006, ISBN 0-472-11519-7, p. 263 ^ Birley 2013, p. 52. ^ Birley 2013, pp. 50, 52. ^ Des Boscs-Plateaux 2005, p. 306. ^ Birley 2013, p. 64. ^ Birley 2013, p. 50. ^ Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-80918-5, p. 229 ^ Petit 1976, p. 53. ^ Des Boscs-Plateaux 2005, p. 307. ^ Garzetti 2014, p. 379. ^ According to Historia Augusta, Hadrian declared that he was following the precedent set by Cato the Elder towards the Macedonians, who "were to be set free because they could not be protected" – something Birley sees as an unconvincing precedent ^ Birley 2013, p. 78. ^ Young 2001, p. 132. ^ D. S. Potter, The Inscriptions on the Bronze Herakles from Mesene: Vologeses IV's War with Rome and the Date of Tacitus' "Annales". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Bd. 88, (1991), pp. 277–290 ^ Hammond, Mason. "Trajan". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 June 2019. ^ Butler, A. J. (1914). Babylon of Egypt: A study in the history of Old Cairo. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 5. ^ Fritz Heichelheim, Cedric Veo, Allen Ward,(1984) History of the Roman People, p. 382, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey ^ Packer, James (January–February 1998). "Trajan's GLORIOUS FORUM". Archaeology. 51 (1): 32. ^ a b "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian" Stadter, Philip A.; Stockt, L. Van der (2002). Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98–117 A.D.). Leuven University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-90-5867-239-1. ^ Beard, Mary (2015). SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. Profile. p. 424. ISBN 978-1-84765-441-0. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. pp. 252–254. ISBN 978-1-134-66525-9. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2. ^ Gschwantler, Kurt; Bernhard-Walcher, Alfred; Laubenberger, Manuela; Plattner, Georg; Zhuber-Okrog, Karoline (2011). "Emperor Trajan - unknown - Masterpieces in the Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities. A Brief Guide to the Kunsthistorisches Museum". Google Arts & Culture. Vienna. Retrieved 8 May 2021. Trajan is always depicted without a beard. ^ Dorsey, Lauren (9 January 2021). "How to Identify a Roman Emperor By His Beard? | DailyArt Magazine". DailyArtMagazine.com - Art History Stories. Retrieved 8 May 2021. ^ Dio Cassius, Epitome of Book 6; 21.2–3 ^ Eric M. Thienes, "Remembering Trajan in Fourth-Century Rome: Memory and Identity in Spatial, Artistic, and Textual Narratives". Ph.D Thesis, University of Missouri, 2015, p. 70. Available at [14] . Retrieved March 28, 2017 ^ Karl Strobel, Das Imperium Romanum im "3. Jahrhundert": Modell einer historischen Krise? Zur Frage mentaler Strukturen breiterer Bevölkerungsschichten in der Zeit von Marc Aurel bis zum Ausgang des 3. Jh.n.Chr. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993, ISBN 3-515-05662-9, p. 319 ^ Dante 1998, p. 593. David H. Higgins in his notes to Purgatorio X l. 75 says: "Pope Gregory the Great (d. 604) was held to have swayed the justice of God by prayer ('his great victory'), releasing Trajan's soul from Hell, who, resuscitated, was converted to Christianity. Dante accepted this, as Aquinas before him, and places Trajan in Paradise (Paradiso XX.44-8)." ^ Dante 1998, pp. 239–40 ^ Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Ed. Jonathan Dewald. Vol. 4. New York, NY:Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004. p94-96. ^ Robert Mankin, "Edward Gibbon: Historian in Space", A Companion to Enlightenment Historiography, Leiden: Brill, 2013, p. 34 ^ Mommsen 1999, p. 488. ^ Römische Kaisergeschichte. Munich: 1992, p. 389. ^ Mommsen 1999, p. 290. ^ A. G. G. Gibson, ed. Robert Graves and the Classical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-873805-3, pp. 257/258 ^ Heuß, Alfred (1976). Römische Geschichte. 4. Braunschweig: Westermann. pp. 344ff. ^ J.E. Lendon, "Three Emperors and the Roman Imperial Regime", The Classical Journal 94 (1998) pp. 87–93 ^ Richard Jean-Claude, "Eugen Cizek, L'époque de Trajan. Circonstances politiques et problèmes idéologiques [compte rendu]. Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, Année 1985, Volume 44, Numéro 4 pp. 425–426. Available at [15]. Retrieved December 13, 2015. ^ Jens Gering, Rezension zu: Karl Strobel, Kaiser Traian – Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte,Frankfurter elektronische Rundschau zur Altertumskunde 15 (2011), [16]. Retrieved December 15, 2015. ^ Petit, Histoire Générale de L'Empire Romain, 1: Le Haut Empire (27 av. J.C.- 161 apr. J.C.). Paris: Seuil, 1974, ISBN 978-2-02-004969-6, p. 166 ^ Veyne 1976, pp. 654/655. Sources and further reading[edit] Biography portal History portal Italy portal Spain portal Alighieri, Dante (1998) [1st pub. 1993]. The Divine Comedy. Translated by Sisson, Charles H. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283502-4. Alston, Richard (2014). Aspects of Roman History 31BC-AD117. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61120-6. Ancel, R. Manning. "Soldiers." Military Heritage. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 12, 14, 16, 20 (Trajan, Emperor of Rome). Bennett, Julian (2001). Trajan. Optimus Princeps. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21435-5. Birley, Anthony R. (2013). Hadrian: The Restless Emperor. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16544-0. Des Boscs-Plateaux, Françoise (2005). Un parti hispanique à Rome?: ascension des élites hispaniques et pouvoir politique d'Auguste à Hadrien, 27 av. J.-C.-138 ap. J.-C (in French). Madrid: Casa de Velázquez. ISBN 978-84-95555-80-9. Bowersock, G.W. Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, 1983 Browning, Iain (1982). Jerash and the Decapolis. London: Chatto & Windus. OCLC 1166989366. Choisnel, Emmanuel (2004). Les Parthes et la Route de la Soie (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-7475-7037-4. Christol, Michel; Nony, N. (2003). Rome et son Empire (in French). Paris: Hachette. ISBN 978-2-01-145542-0. (in French) Cizek, Eugen. L'époque de Trajan: circonstances politiques et problèmes idéologiques. Bucharest, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1983, ISBN 978-2-251-32852-2 Dando-Collins, Stephen (2012). Legions of Rome: The definitive history of every Roman legion. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84916-230-2. Edwell, Peter (2007). Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-93833-1. Finley, M.I. (1999). The Ancient Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21946-5. Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. v. 1. From the late times to the Battle of Lepanto; ISBN 0-306-80304-6. 255, 266, 269, 270, 273 (Trajan, Roman Emperor). Garzetti, Albino (2014). From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-01920-1. Găzdac, Cristian (2010). Monetary Circulation in Dacia and the Provinces from the Middle and Lower Danube from Trajan to Constantine I (AD 106–337). Cluj-Napoca: Mega. ISBN 978-606-543-040-2. Grainger, John D. (2004). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34958-1. Isaac, B. The Limits of Empire, The Roman Army in the East, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, 1990 ISBN 0-19-814891-7 OCLC 20091873 Kennedy, D. The Roman Army in Jordan, Revised Edition, Council for British Research in the Levant, 2004. ISBN 0-9539102-1-0 OCLC 59267318 Kettenhofen, Erich (2004). "TRAJAN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Jones, Brian (2002). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-03625-9. Lepper, F.A. Trajan's Parthian War. London: Oxford University Press, 1948. OCLC 2898605 Also available online. Luttwak, Edward N. (1979). The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-2158-5. Mattern, Susan P. (1999). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21166-7. Mommsen, Theodor (1999). A History of Rome Under the Emperors. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-97908-2. (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 6, La vie de Plotine, femme de Trajan, p. 147–168. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0. Petit, Paul (1976). Pax Romana. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02171-6. Rees, Roger (2012). Latin Panegyric. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957671-5. Le Roux, Patrick (1998). Le Haut-Empire Romain en Occident, d'Auguste aux Sévères (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-025932-3. de Ste. Croix, G.E.M. (1989). The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-8014-9597-7. Sartre, Maurice (1994). El Oriente romano, Parte 3 (in Spanish). Madrid: AKAL. ISBN 978-84-460-0412-7. Schmitz, Michael (2005). The Dacian Threat, 101–106 AD. Armidale, Australia: Caeros Pty. ISBN 978-0-9758445-0-2. Sidebotham, Steven E. (1986). Roman Economic Policy in the Erythra Thalassa: 30 B.C. – A.D. 217. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07644-0. Strobel, Karl (2010). Kaiser Traian: Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte (in German). Regensburg: F. Pustet. ISBN 978-3-7917-2172-9. Veyne, Paul (1976). Le Pain et le Cirque (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-004507-0. Veyne, Paul (2001). La Société Romaine (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-052360-8. Veyne, Paul (2005). L'Empire Gréco-Romain (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-057798-4. Young, Gary K. (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-47093-0. Wildfeuer, C.R.H. Trajan, Lion of Rome: the Untold Story of Rome's Greatest Emperor, Aquifer Publishing, 2009. ISBN 0-9818460-6-8 OCLC 496004778 Historical fiction. Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 68, English translation Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus Chapter 13, English translation Pliny the Younger, Letters, Book 10, English translation Secondary material[edit] Benario, Herbert W. (2000). "Trajan (A.D. 98–117)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 24 September 2007. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trajan. Trajan Nerva–Antonine dynasty Born: 18 September 53 Died: 8/9 August 117 Regnal titles Preceded by Nerva Roman Emperor 98–117 Succeeded by Hadrian Political offices Preceded by Marcus Tullius Cerialis Gnaeus Pompeius Catullinus as suffect consul Consul of Rome 91 With: Mn. Acilius Glabrio Succeeded by D. P. Valerius Marinus as suffect consul Preceded by P. Cornelius Tacitus M. Ostorius Scapula as suffect consul Consul of Rome 98 With: Nerva IV Succeeded by Gn. Domitius Afer Curvius Tullus Nerva Preceded by A. Cornelius Palma Frontonianus Q. Sosius Senecio as suffect consul Consul of Rome 100–101 Succeeded by L. Julius Ursus Servianus L. Licinius Sura as suffect consul Preceded by L. Antonius Albus M. Junius Homullus as suffect consul Consul of Rome 103 With: Marcus Laberius Maximus Succeeded by Q. Glitius Atilius Agricola II M. Laberius Maximus as suffect consul Preceded by L. Octavius Crassus P. Coelius Apollinaris as suffect consul Consul of Rome 112 With: T. Sextius Cornelius Africanus Succeeded by M. Licinius Ruso as suffect consul v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2279	----	File:Marcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata No higher resolution available. Marcus_Aurelius,_AE_medallion,_AD_168,_Gnecchi_II_52.jpg ‎(500 × 236 pixels, file size: 71 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionMarcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg English: MARCUS AURELIUS. 161-180 AD. Æ Medallion (40mm, 51.78 gm). Struck 168 AD. M ANTONINVS AVG ARM PARTH MAX, laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / TR P XXII IMP IIII COS III, Jupiter standing facing, holding thunderbolt and sceptre; Aurelius and Verus flanking him below. Gnecchi 52 (pl. 63, 3 -- this coin illustrated); MIR 18, 1040-1/37; Cohen 886. Choice VF, dark brown patina. Very rare. ($7500) From the Tony Hardy Collection. Ex Leu 71 (24 October 1997), lot 405; Niklovitz Collection (Hamburger, 19 October 1925), lot 1076; Berlin Cabinet (deaccessioned as duplicate in 1910). Date 3 June 2004, 12:53:54 Source https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=54044 Author CNG Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. 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en-wikipedia-org-2298	----	Alexander of Abonoteichus - Wikipedia Alexander of Abonoteichus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Alexander of Abonutichus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mystic and oracle (c. 105 – c. 170) Alexander Born c. 105 Abonoteichus Died c. 170 Nationality Paphlagonian Occupation oracle of Aesculapius Known for false oracle Alexander of Abonoteichus (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Ἀβωνοτειχίτης Aléxandros ho Abōnoteichítēs), also called Alexander the Paphlagonian (c. 105 – c. 170 CE), was a Greek mystic and oracle, and the founder of the Glycon cult that briefly achieved wide popularity in the Roman world. The contemporary writer Lucian reports that he was an utter fraud – the god Glycon was supposedly made up of a live snake with an artificial head. The vivid narrative of his career given by Lucian might be taken as fictitious but for the corroboration of certain coins of the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius[1] and of a statue of Alexander, said by Athenagoras to have stood in the forum of Parium.[2][3] There is further evidence from inscriptions.[4] Lucian describes him as having swindled many people and engaged, through his followers, in various forms of thuggery.[5] The strength of Lucian's venom against Alexander is attributed to Alexander's hate of the Epicureans. Lucian admired the works of Epicurus, a eulogy of which concludes the piece, and whether or not Alexander was the master of fraud and deceit as portrayed by Lucian, he may not have been too different from other oracles of the age, when a great deal of dishonest exploitation occurred in some shrines.[6] Contents 1 Biography 2 Modern scholarship 3 References 4 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] Not much is known about the early life of Alexander. He apparently worked in travelling medicine shows around Greece and might have been a prophet of the goddess Soi or a follower of Apollonius of Tyana. In Lucian, his partner in profession is given as one Cocconas of Byzantium. After a period of instruction in medicine by a doctor who also, according to Lucian, was an impostor, in about 150 CE he established an oracle of Aesculapius at his native town of Abonoteichus (femin.: Ἀβωνότειχος Abōnóteichos; later Ionopolis), on the Euxine, where he gained riches and great prestige by professing to heal the sick and reveal the future.[7][8] Sometime before 160 CE Alexander formed a cult around the worship of a new snake-god, Glycon, and headquartered it in Abonoteichus. Having circulated a prophecy that the son of Apollo was to be born again, he contrived that there should be found in the foundations of the temple to Aesculapius, then in course of construction at Abonoteichus, an egg in which a small live snake had been placed. In an age of superstition no people had so great a reputation for credulity as the Paphlagonians, and Alexander had little difficulty in convincing them of the second coming of the god under the name of Glycon. A large tame snake with a false human head, wound round Alexander's body as he sat in a shrine in the temple,[9] gave "autophones", or oracles unasked.[2] The numerous questions asked of the oracle were answered by Alexander in metrical predictions. In his most prosperous year he is said to have delivered nearly 80,000 replies, concerning bodily, mental, and social afflictions, for each of which he received a drachma and two oboli.[8] Bronze coin of Antoninus Pius minted in Abonoteichos and showing the snake god Glycon with the legend “ΓΛVΚΩΝ ΑΒΩΝΟΤΕΙΧΕΙΤΩΝ” (29 mm, 16.89 g) Healing instructions were commonly combined with oracles, but Alexander did more; he instituted mysteries like those of Eleusis. Through the cult Alexander achieved a certain level of political influence – his daughter married Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, the governor of the Roman province of Asia. He found believers from Pontus to Rome through pretended arts of soothsaying and magic and was revered and consulted as a prophet by many notable individuals of his age.[10] During the plague of 166 a verse from the oracle was used as an amulet and was inscribed over the doors of houses as a protection and an oracle was sent, at Marcus Aurelius' request, by Alexander to the Roman army on the Danube during the war with the Marcomanni, declaring that victory would follow on the throwing of two lions alive into the river. The result was a great disaster and Alexander had recourse to the old quibble of the Delphic oracle to Croesus for an explanation.[2] His main opponents were Epicureans and Christians.[11] Lucian's account of Alexander represents the Christians—along with the Epicureans—as the special enemies and as the principal objects of his hate: Epicureans had too little religion or superstition to give in to a religious pretender; and the Christian faith was too deep-rooted to dream of any communion with Alexander.[12] Lucian's own close investigations into Alexander's methods of fraud led to a serious attempt on his life. The whole account gives a graphic description of the inner working of one among the many new oracles that were springing up at this period. Alexander had remarkable beauty and the striking personality of the successful charlatan, and must have been a man of considerable intellectual abilities and power of organization. His usual methods were those of the numerous oracle-mongers of the time, of which Lucian gives a detailed account: the opening of sealed inquiries by heated needles, a neat plan of forging broken seals, and the giving of vague or meaningless replies to difficult questions, coupled with a lucrative blackmailing of those whose inquiries were compromising.[2] Alexander died of gangrene of the leg in his seventieth year.[2] Modern scholarship[edit] Scholars have described Alexander as an oracle who perpetrated a hoax to deceive gullible citizens,[13][14] or as a false prophet and charlatan who played on the hopes of simple people. He was said to have "made predictions, discovered fugitive slaves, detected thieves and robbers, caused treasures to be dug up, healed the sick, and in some cases actually raised the dead".[15] Sociologist Stephen A. Kent, in a study of the text, compares Lucian's Alexander to the "malignant narcissist" in modern psychiatric theory, and suggests that the "behaviors" described by Lucian "have parallels with several modern cult leaders."[16] Ian Freckelton has noted at least a surface similarity between Alexander and David Berg, the leader of a contemporary religious group, the Children of God.[17] Lucian's account gives us a detailed account of Alexander's allegedly scandalous life before he concocted the fraud of the god in snake form and an extremely detailed account of how the fraud was set up and how it was conducted. But how did he know all this? It was at the height of the cult that he made his one visit to the small city of Abonoteichus, where he made himself (as he narrates) intensely unpopular because of his scepticism. Its inhabitants, even if any of them had detected the truth, would not have told him, and Lucian does not claim that any of them had. Suspicious too is that this account was written only years later after the deaths of both Alexander and his most powerful patron the leading Roman senator Rutilianus. One can only conclude that this is a work of fiction. Its account of how the fraud was conducted is plausible, but this does not make it history. Lucian was a brilliant writer of fiction and no historian. References[edit] ^ Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, Doctrma Nummorum veterum, ii. pp. 383, 384 ^ a b c d e  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alexander the Paphlagonian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 567. This cites: Lucian, Άλεξάνδρος ἢ ψευδόμαντις Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904) F. Gregorovius, The Emperor Hadrian, trans. by M. E. Robinson (1898). ^ Athenagoras, Apology, c. 26 ^ See Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, nos 4079-80 ^ "Alexander the False Prophet," translated with annotation by A. M. Harmon, Loeb Classical Library, 1936. [1] ^ Nuttall Costa, Charles Desmond, Lucian: Selected Dialogues, p. 129, Oxford University Press (2005), 0-199-25867-8 ^ Masson, John, Lucretius, Epicurean and Poet, pp. 339-340, John Murray (1907). ^ a b Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 ^ Frankfurther, David, Ritual Expertise in Roman Egypt and the Problem of the Category of Macician, in Schäfer, Peter and Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard, Envisioning Magic: A Princeton Seminar and Symposium, p. 115, BRILL (1997), ISBN 90-04-05432-4 ^ Neander, Johann August W, General history of the Christian religion and Church (1850), p. 41. ^ Fergurson, Everett, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, p. 218, (2003), Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 ^ Rainy, Robert D. D., The Ancient Catholic Church: From the Accession of Trajan to the Fourth General Council, (A.D. 98-451), p. 32, Charles Scribner's Sons (1902). ^ Hume, David, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: A Critical Edition, p. 175, Oxford University Press (2000), ISBN 0-19-825060-6 ^ Meyer, Marmin W., The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook, p. 43, University of Pennsylvania Press (1999), ISBN 0-8122-1692-X ^ Lucian, Alexander the False Prophet, ch. 24 ^ Stephen A. Kent. "Narcissistic Fraud in the Ancient World: Lucian's Account of Alexander of Abonoteichus and the Cult of Glycon," Ancient Narrative (University of Groningen), Vol. 6. ^ Ian Freckelton. "'Cults' Calamities and Psychological Consequences," Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 5(1), pp. 1-46. doi:10.1080/13218719809524918 Sources[edit] Life of Alexander of Abonoteichos by Lucian, translated by A. M. Harmon (1936) for the [Loeb Classical Library] edition of Lucian's works. Works by Lucian of Samosata at Project Gutenberg Lendering, Jona, Glycon Further reading[edit] Gillespie, Thomas W. "A Pattern of Prophetic Speech in First Corinthians," Journal of Biblical Literature, 97,1 (1978), 74–95. Jones, C. P. Culture and Society in Lucian (Cambridge, MA, 1986). Ancient Scientific Basis of the" Great Serpent" from Historical Evidence, RB Stothers – Isis, 2004. Martin, Dale B., "Tongues of Angels and Other Status Indicators," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 59,3 (1991), 547–589. Sorensen, E. Possession and Еxorcism in the New Testament and Early Christianity (Tübingen, 2002), 186-189 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2. Reihe, 157). Elm, D. "Die Inszenierung des Betruges und seiner Entlarvung. Divination und ihre Kritiker in Lukians Schrift „Alexander oder der Lügenprophet“," in D. Elm von der Osten, J. Rüpke und K. Waldner (Hrsg.), Texte als Medium und Reflexion von Religion im römischen Reich (Stuttgart, 2006), 141-157 (Potsdamer Altertumswissenschaftliche Beiträge, 14). External links[edit]  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀλέξανδρος ἢ Ψευδομάντις Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway United States Netherlands Poland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Abonoteichus&oldid=1028319115" Categories: 2nd-century clergy Ancient Pontic Greeks Roman-era Greeks Ancient Greek seers 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans Roman Paphlagonia Religious leaders of the Roman Empire Roman-era Greek priests Founders of religions Impostors Deaths from gangrene 105 births 170 deaths Glycon cult Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 07:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2317	----	Pallium (Roman cloak) - Wikipedia Pallium (Roman cloak) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semi-circular draped garment worn by men in Ancient Rome Pallium over a chiton The pallium was a Roman cloak. It was similar in form to the palla, which had been worn by respectable Roman women since the mid-Republican era. It was a rectangular length of cloth,[1] as was the himation in ancient Greece. It was usually made from wool[2] or flax, but for the higher classes it could be made of silk with the use of gold threads[3] and embroideries. The garment varied in fineness, colour and ornament. It could be white, purple red (purpurea from murex), black,[4] yellow, blue, pale green, etc. The pallium was originally considered to be exclusively Greek and despised by Romans, but was favoured by ordinary people, philosophers, and pedagogues. Tertullian thought it the most appropriate garment for philosophers and Christians.[5] It is not to be confused with the pallium used by Catholic clergy, which is related to the omophorion. See also[edit] Abolla Paenula References[edit] ^ Tertullian, De Pallio, I ^ Plautus, Miles Gloriosus, III, 1 93 ^ Virgil, Æneid, IV 262-264 ^ Apuleius, The Golden Ass, XI 3 ^ (in French) French article about De Pallio Archived 2011-01-08 at the Wayback Machine Bibliography[edit] Tertullian, De Pallio Suetonius, De Genere Vestium Judith Lynn Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, Madison WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 1994 (in French) Gaston Boissier, Le traité du manteau de Tertullien in "la Revue des Deux Mondes", 94/5, 1889, pp. 50–78 v t e Historical clothing Clothing generally not worn today, except in historical settings Body-length Abolla Banyan Brunswick Chinese Court dress (Empire of Japan) Chiton Frock Frock coat Justacorps Paenula Peplos Stola Toga Tunic Xout lao Tops Basque Bedgown Bodice Doublet Peascod belly Poet shirt Sbai Suea pat Trousers Braccae Breeches Sompot Chong Kben Culottes Harem Knickerbockers Pedal pushers Skirts Hobble Poodle Sompot Sinh Train Dresses Bliaut Close-bodied gown Debutante Gown Kirtle Mantua Polonaise Sack-back gown Sailor Tea gown Swallow-tailed Outerwear Car coat Caraco Chlamys Cloak Kinsale cloak Dolman Doublet Duster Exomis Greatcoat Himation Houppelande Inverness cape Jerkin Kandys Norfolk jacket Overfrock Pañuelo Palla Pallium Pelisse Poncho Shadbelly Shawl Galway shawl Kullu Smock-frock Spencer Surcoat Surtout Ulster coat Visite Witzchoura Underwear Basque Bustle Chausses Chemise Codpiece Corselet Corset Waist cincher Dickey Garter Hoop skirt Crinoline Farthingale Pannier Hose Liberty bodice Loincloth Open drawers Pantalettes Petticoat Peignoir Pettipants Union suit Yếm Headwear Anthony Eden Apex Arakhchin Attifet Aviator Bergère Blessed hat Bonnet Capotain Caubeen Cavalier Coif Coonskin Cornette Chengziguan Dunce Fillet French hood Fontange Futou Gable hood Hennin Jewish Kausia Kokoshnik Llawt'u Matron's badge Miner's Mob Modius Monmouth Mooskappe Motoring hood Mounteere Nemes Nightcap Nón quai thao Ochipok Pahlavi Petasos Phrygian Pileus Printer's Pudding Qeleshe Qing Salakot Snood Smoking Tainia Taranga Welsh Wig Wimple Footwear Buskins Caligae Chopines Crakow Episcopal sandals Hessian Pampooties Sabatons Accessories Ascot tie Belt hook Cointoise Cravat Hairpin Hatpin Jabot Lavallière Muff Partlet Ruff Shoe buckle  Clothing portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pallium_(Roman_cloak)&oldid=992268389" Categories: Roman-era clothing Byzantine clothing Hidden categories: Articles with French-language sources (fr) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Italiano Latina Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 11:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2343	----	J. B. Bury - Wikipedia J. B. Bury From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Irish historian and freethinker J. B. Bury FBA Born John Bagnell Bury 16 October 1861 County Monaghan, Ireland Died 1 June 1927(1927-06-01) (aged 65) Rome, Italy John Bagnell Bury FBA (UK: /ˈbɛrɪ/; 16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an Anglo-Irish[1][2] historian, classical scholar, Medieval Roman historian and philologist. He objected to the label "Byzantinist" explicitly in the preface to the 1889 edition of his Later Roman Empire. He was Erasmus Smith's Professor of Modern History at Trinity College Dublin (1893–1902), before being Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge from 1902 until his death. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Writings 2.1 History as a science 3 Bibliography 3.1 As editor 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Early life and education[edit] Bury was born and raised on 16 October 1861 in Clontibret, County Monaghan, as the son of Edward John Bury, where his father was Rector of the Anglican Church of Ireland and Anna Rogers.[3] He was educated first by his parents and then at Foyle College in Derry. He studied classics at Trinity College Dublin, where he was elected a scholar in 1879, and graduated in 1882. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College Dublin in 1885 at the age of 24. In 1893, he was appointed to the Erasmus Smith's Chair of Modern History at Trinity College, which he held for nine years. In 1898 he was appointed Regius Professor of Greek, also at Trinity, a post he held simultaneously with his history professorship.[4] In 1902 he became Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge. At Cambridge, Bury became mentor to Steven Runciman (the medievalist), who later commented that he had been Bury's "first, and only, student." At first the reclusive Bury tried to brush him off; then, when Runciman mentioned that he could read Russian, Bury gave him a stack of Bulgarian articles to edit, and so their relationship began. Bury was the author of the first truly authoritative biography of Saint Patrick (1905). Bury remained at Cambridge until his death at the age of 65 in Rome, while on a visit to Italy. He is buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome. He received the honorary degree Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901,[5] the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Aberdeen in 1905, and the honorary degree Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) from the University of Oxford in October 1902, in connection with the tercentenary of the Bodleian Library.[6] His brother, Robert Gregg Bury, was an Irish clergyman, classicist, philologist, and a translator of the works of Plato and Sextus Empiricus into English. Writings[edit] Bury's writings, on subjects ranging from ancient Greece to the 19th-century papacy, are at once scholarly and accessible to the layman. His two works on the philosophy of history elucidated the Victorian ideals of progress and rationality which undergirded his more specific histories. He also led a revival of Byzantine history (which he considered and explicitly called Roman history), which English-speaking historians, following Edward Gibbon, had largely neglected. He contributed to, and was himself the subject of an article in, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. With Frank Adcock and S. A. Cook he edited The Cambridge Ancient History, launched in 1919. History as a science[edit] Bury's career shows his evolving thought process and his consideration of the discipline of history as a "science".[7] From his inaugural lecture as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge in 1902 comes his public proclamation of history as a "science" and not as a branch of "literature". He stated: I may remind you that history is not a branch of literature. The facts of history, like the facts of geology or astronomy, can supply material for literary art; for manifest reasons they lend themselves to artistic representation far more readily than those of the natural sciences; but to clothe the story of human society in a literary dress is no more the part of a historian as a historian, than it is the part of an astronomer as an astronomer to present in an artistic shape the story of the stars.[8][9] Bury's lecture continues by defending the claim that history is not literature, which in turns questions the need for a historian's narrative in the discussion of historical facts and essentially evokes the question: is a narrative necessary? But Bury describes his "science" by comparing it to Leopold von Ranke's idea of science and the German phrase that brought Ranke's ideas fame when he exclaimed "tell history as it happened" or "Ich will nur sagen wie es eigentlich gewesen ist." [I only want to say how it actually happened.] Bury's final thoughts during his lecture reiterate his previous statement with a cementing sentence that argues "...she [history] is herself simply a science, no less and no more".[10] On the argument from ignorance and the burden of proof in his book History of Freedom of Thought he said the following. Some people speak as if we were not justified in rejecting a theological doctrine unless we can prove it false. But the burden of proof does not lie upon the rejecter. I remember a conversation in which, when some disrespectful remark was made about hell, a loyal friend of that establishment said triumphantly, "But, absurd as it may seem, you cannot disprove it." If you were told that in a certain planet revolving around Sirius there is a race of donkeys who speak the English language and spend their time in discussing eugenics, you could not disprove the statement, but would it, on that account, have any claim to be believed? Some minds would be prepared to accept it, if it were reiterated often enough, through the potent force of suggestion.[11] Bibliography[edit] The Odes of Pindar The Nemean Odes of Pindar (1890)[12] The Isthmian Odes of Pindar (1892)[13] Rome A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (2 vols.) (1889)[14][15] A History of the Roman Empire From its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893)[16][17] A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A. D. 802–867) (1912)[18] A History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian (1923)[19] The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians (1928)[20][21] The Life of St. Patrick and His Place in History (1905)[22] History of the Papacy in the 19th Century (1864–1878) (1930) Greece A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (1900)[23] The Ancient Greek Historians (Harvard Lectures) (1909)[24] The Hellenistic Age: Aspects of Hellenistic Civilization (1923), with E. A. Barber, Edwyn Bevan, and W. W. Tarn[25] Philosophical A History of Freedom of Thought (1913)[26] The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth (1920)[27] As editor[edit] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (7 Editions - November 1898–1925) – 2ND American edition at Online Library of Liberty in 12 volumes J.B. Bury, ed., 2 volumes, 4TH Edition (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914) Volume 1 Volume 2 Edward Augustus Freeman, Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe (third edition, 1903) Edward Augustus Freeman, The Atlas To Freeman's Historical Geography (third edition, 1903) See also[edit] Historiography of the United Kingdom References[edit] ^ Brian Young, "History", in Mark Bevir, Historicism and the Human Sciences in Victorian Britain, 2017, ISBN 1107166683, p. 181 ^ Bruce Karl Braswell, A Commentary on Pindar Nemean Nine, 1998, ISBN 3110161249, p. ix ^ Hepburn Baynes, Norman (1929). A Bibliography of the Works of J. B. Bury. Cambridge: CUP Archive. p. 1. Retrieved 25 June 2019. ^ Irish Times, 21 May 2008 ^ "Glasgow University jubilee". The Times (36481). London. 14 June 1901. p. 10. ^ "University intelligence". The Times (36893). London. 8 October 1902. p. 4. ^ Goldstein, Doris (October 1977). "J.B. Bury's Philosophy of history: A Reappraisal". The American Historical Review. 82 (4): 896–919. doi:10.1086/ahr/82.4.896. JSTOR 1865117. ^ Bury, John Bagnell (1930). "The science of history". Selected Essays. CUP Archive. p. 9. Retrieved 1 April 2015. I may remind you that history is not a branch of literature. The facts of history, like the facts of geology or astronomy, can supply material for literary art; for manifest reasons they lend themselves to artistic representation far more readily than those of the natural sciences; but to clothe the story of human society in a literary dress is no more the part of a historian as a historian, than it is the part of an astronomer as an astronomer to present in an artistic shape the story of the stars. ^ Stern, Fritz (1972). The Varieties of History: From Voltaire to the Present. Random House. p. 214. ISBN 0-394-71962-X. ^ Goldstein, Doris (October 1977). "J.B. Bury's Philosophy of history: A Reappraisal". The American Historical Review. 82 (4): 897 (896–919). doi:10.1086/ahr/82.4.896. JSTOR 1865117. ^ Bury, J. B. (1913). History of Freedom of Thought. London: Williams & Norgate. p. 20. ISBN 9781304988607. ^ "The Nemean Odes of Pindar : Pindaros, John Bagnell Bury : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "Epinikoi Isthmionikais. The Isthmian odes. Edited, with introduction and commentary by J.B. Bury : Pindar : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Volume One" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2006. ^ "A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Volume Two" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2006. ^ "A history of the Roman Empire from its foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.) : Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell), 1861-1927 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ Richards, F. T. (25 November 1893). "Review of A History of the Roman Empire, from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius by J. B. Bury". The Academy. 44 (1125): 459. ^ "A history of the Eastern Roman empire from the fall of Irene to the accession of Basil I., A.D. 802-867 : Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell), 1861-1927 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "LacusCurtius • J. B. Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ "The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians : J. B. Bury : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ Thorndike, Lynn (April 1929). "Review of The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians by J. B. Bury". The American Historical Review. 34 (3): 564–566. doi:10.2307/1836287. JSTOR 1836287. ^ "The life of St. Patrick and his place in history : Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell), 1861-1927 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great : J. B. Bury : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "The Ancient Greek Historians Harvard Lectures Harvard Lectures : J. B. Bury : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ "The Hellenistic age; aspects of Hellenistic civilization treated by J.B. Bury [ and others] : Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell), 1861-1927 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. ^ Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell) (1 January 2004). "A History of Freedom of Thought" – via Project Gutenberg. ^ Bury, J. B. (John Bagnell) (1 October 2003). "The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth" – via Project Gutenberg. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: J. B. Bury Wikisource has original works written by or about: J. B. Bury Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Bagnell Bury. Works by J. B. Bury at Project Gutenberg Works by or about J. B. Bury at Internet Archive Works by J. B. Bury at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) v t e Fellows of the British Academy elected in 1902 (founding fellows) Fellows The Earl of Rosebery The Viscount Dillon The Lord Reay Arthur Balfour John Morley The Lord Bryce William Edward Hartpole Lecky Sir William Anson Sir Frederick Pollock Sir Edward Maunde Thompson Sir Henry Maxwell Lyte Sir Courtenay Ilbert Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb David Monro Sir Adolphus Ward Edward Caird Henry Francis Pelham Sir John Rhys George Salmon J. B. Bury Samuel Butcher Ingram Bywater Edward Byles Cowell William Cunningham Thomas Rhys Davids A. V. Dicey Samuel Rolles Driver Robinson Ellis Sir Arthur Evans Andrew Martin Fairbairn Robert Flint Sir James George Frazer Sir Israel Gollancz Thomas Hodgkin Shadworth Hodgson Sir Thomas Erskine Holland Frederic William Maitland Alfred Marshall John E. B. Mayor Sir James Murray Sir William Mitchell Ramsay William Sanday Walter William Skeat Sir Leslie Stephen Whitley Stokes Henry Barclay Swete Henry Fanshawe Tozer Robert Yelverton Tyrrell James Ward Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Biographical dictionaries Ireland Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._B._Bury&oldid=1027236068" Categories: 1861 births 1927 deaths Academics of Trinity College Dublin Alumni of Trinity College Dublin Anglo-Irish writers Classical scholars of Trinity College Dublin Fellows of the British Academy Irish Byzantinists Irish classical scholars 19th-century Irish historians 20th-century Irish historians Irish philologists Irish scholars and academics Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of history People educated at Foyle College People from County Monaghan Scholars of Trinity College Dublin Scholars of Byzantine history Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use Hiberno-English from May 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in Hiberno-English Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with hCards Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with DIB identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 27 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית Latina مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 21:11 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2346	----	Category:Glycon cult - Wikipedia Help Category:Glycon cult From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Glycon. Pages in category "Glycon cult" The following 7 pages are in this category, out of 7 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Glycon A Abonoteichos Alexander of Abonoteichus E Epistles (Horace) L Lucian M Marcus Aurelius Alan Moore Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Glycon_cult&oldid=954880937" Categories: Animal worship Asclepius Hellenistic Anatolian deities Puppets Religion in ancient Macedonia Religious hoaxes Snake gods Snakes in religion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 4 May 2020, at 19:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2352	----	Alec Guinness - Wikipedia Alec Guinness From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British actor Sir Alec Guinness CH CBE Guinness in 1973 by Allan Warren Born Alec Guinness de Cuffe (1914-04-02)2 April 1914 Maida Vale, London, England Died 5 August 2000(2000-08-05) (aged 86) Midhurst, West Sussex, England Burial place Petersfield Cemetery Occupation Actor Years active 1934–1996 Works On stage and screen Spouse(s) Merula Salaman ​ (m. 1938)​ Children Matthew Guinness Military career Allegiance  United Kingdom Service/branch  Royal Navy Years of service 1941–1943 Rank Lieutenant Battles/wars World War II Operation Husky Sir Alec Guinness CH CBE (born Alec Guinness de Cuffe; 2 April 1914 – 5 August 2000) was an English actor. After an early career on the stage, Guinness was featured in several of the Ealing Comedies, including Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949), in which he played nine different characters, The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), for which he received his first Academy Award nomination, and The Ladykillers (1955). He collaborated six times with director David Lean: Herbert Pocket in Great Expectations (1946), Fagin in Oliver Twist (1948), Col. Nicholson in The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor), Prince Faisal in Lawrence of Arabia (1962), General Yevgraf Zhivago in Doctor Zhivago (1965), and Professor Godbole in A Passage to India (1984). In 1970 he played Jacob Marley's ghost in Ronald Neame's Scrooge. He also portrayed Obi-Wan Kenobi in George Lucas's original Star Wars trilogy; for the original 1977 film, he was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the 50th Academy Awards. Guinness began his stage career in 1934. Two years later, at the age of 22, he played the role of Osric in Hamlet in the West End and joined the Old Vic. He continued to play Shakespearean roles throughout his career. He was one of the greatest British actors, along with Laurence Olivier and John Gielgud, who made the transition from theatre to films after the Second World War. Guinness served in the Royal Naval Reserve during the war and commanded a landing craft during the invasion of Sicily and Elba. During the war he was granted leave to appear in the stage play Flare Path about RAF Bomber Command. Guinness won an Academy Award, a BAFTA, a Golden Globe and a Tony Award. In 1959 he was knighted by Elizabeth II for services to the arts. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960, the Academy Honorary Award for lifetime achievement in 1980 and the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award in 1989. Guinness appeared in nine films that featured in the BFI's 100 greatest British films of the 20th century, which included five of Lean's films. Contents 1 Early life 2 Early career 3 Second World War 4 Postwar stage career 5 Film career 5.1 David Lean 5.2 Star Wars 6 Television appearances 7 Awards and honours 8 Personal life 9 Death 10 Archives 11 Autobiographies and biography 11.1 Box office ranking in Britain 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Notes 13.2 Bibliography 14 External links Early life[edit] Guinness was born Alec Guinness de Cuffe at 155 Lauderdale Mansions South,[1] Lauderdale Road, Maida Vale in London.[2] His mother's maiden name was Agnes Cuff, born on 8 December 1890 to Edward Cuff and Mary Ann Benfield. On Guinness's birth certificate, his mother's name is given as Agnes de Cuffe; the infant's name (where first names only are placed) is given as Alec Guinness, and there are no details for the father.[3] The identity of Guinness's father has never been officially confirmed.[4] From 1875, under English law, when the birth of an illegitimate child was registered, the father's name could be entered on the certificate only if he were present and gave his consent. Guinness himself believed that his father was a Scottish banker, Andrew Geddes (1861–1928), who paid for Guinness's boarding-school education at Pembroke Lodge, in Southborne, and Roborough, in Eastbourne. Geddes occasionally visited Guinness and his mother, posing as an uncle.[5] Guinness's mother later had a three-year marriage to a Scottish army captain named Stiven, whose behaviour was often erratic or even violent.[6][7] Early career[edit] Alec Guinness at the Old Vic theatre, London in 1938 Guinness first worked writing advertising copy. His first job in the theatre was on his 20th birthday (April 1934), while he was a student at the Fay Compton Studio of Dramatic Art, in the play Libel, which opened at the old King's Theatre, Hammersmith, and then transferred to the West End’s Playhouse, where his status was raised from a walk-on to understudying two lines, and his salary increased to £1 a week.[8][9] He appeared at the Albery Theatre in 1936 at the age of 22, playing the role of Osric in John Gielgud's successful production of Hamlet. Also in 1936, Guinness signed on with the Old Vic, where he was cast in a series of classic roles.[10] In the later 1930s, he took classes at the London Theatre Studio.[11] In 1939, he took over for Michael Redgrave as Charleston in a road-show production of Robert Ardrey's Thunder Rock.[12] At the Old Vic, Guinness worked with many actors and actresses who would become his friends and frequent co-stars in the future, including Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Peggy Ashcroft, Anthony Quayle, and Jack Hawkins. An early influence was film star Stan Laurel, whom Guinness admired.[13] Guinness continued playing Shakespearean roles throughout his career. In 1937, he played Aumerle in Richard II and Lorenzo in The Merchant of Venice under the direction of John Gielgud. He starred in a 1938 production of Hamlet which won him acclaim on both sides of the Atlantic.[10] He also appeared as Romeo in a production of Romeo and Juliet (1939), Malvolio in Twelfth Night, and as Exeter in Henry V in 1937, both opposite Laurence Olivier, and Ferdinand in The Tempest, opposite Gielgud as Prospero. In 1939, he adapted Charles Dickens's novel Great Expectations for the stage, playing Herbert Pocket. The play was a success. One of its viewers was a young British film editor, David Lean, who would later have Guinness reprise his role in Lean's 1946 film adaptation of the play.[14] Second World War[edit] Guinness served in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve in the Second World War, initially as a seaman in 1941, before receiving a commission as a temporary Sub-lieutenant on 30 April 1942 and a promotion to Temporary Lieutenant the following year.[15][16][17] Guinness then commanded a landing craft at the Allied invasion of Sicily, and later ferried supplies and agents to the Yugoslav partisans in the eastern Mediterranean theatre.[18] During the war, he was granted leave to appear in the Broadway production of Terence Rattigan's play, Flare Path, about RAF Bomber Command, with Guinness playing the role of Flight Lieutenant Teddy Graham.[19] Postwar stage career[edit] Guinness returned to the Old Vic in 1946 and stayed until 1948, playing Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's The Alchemist, the Fool in King Lear opposite Laurence Olivier in the title role, DeGuiche in Cyrano de Bergerac opposite Ralph Richardson in the title role, and finally starring in an Old Vic production as Shakespeare's Richard II. After leaving the Old Vic, he played Eric Birling in J. B. Priestley's An Inspector Calls at the New Theatre in October 1946. He played the Uninvited Guest in the Broadway production of T. S. Eliot's The Cocktail Party (1950, revived at the Edinburgh Festival in 1968). He played Hamlet under his own direction at the New Theatre in the West End in 1951.[20] Invited by his friend Tyrone Guthrie to join the premiere season of the Stratford Festival of Canada, Guinness lived for a brief time in Stratford, Ontario. On 13 July 1953, Guinness spoke the first lines of the first play produced by the festival, Shakespeare's Richard III: "Now is the winter of our discontent/Made glorious summer by this sun of York."[21][22] Guinness won a Tony Award for his Broadway performance as Welsh poet Dylan Thomas in Dylan. He next played the title role in Macbeth opposite Simone Signoret at the Royal Court Theatre in 1966.[23] Guinness made his final stage performance at the Comedy Theatre in the West End on 30 May 1989, in the play A Walk in the Woods. In all, between 2 April 1934 and 30 May 1989, he played 77 parts in the theatre.[24] Film career[edit] Drawing by Nicholas Volpe after Guinness won an Oscar in 1957 for his role in The Bridge on the River Kwai Guinness made his speaking debut in film in the drama Great Expectations (1946). However, he was initially best associated mainly with the Ealing Comedies, and particularly for playing nine characters in Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949).[25] Other films from this period included The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), The Man in the White Suit (1951) and The Ladykillers (1955), with all three ranked among the Best British films.[26] In 1950 he portrayed 19th century British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli in The Mudlark, which included delivering an uninterrupted seven minute speech in Parliament.[27] In 1952, director Ronald Neame cast Guinness in his first romantic lead role, opposite Petula Clark in The Card. In 1951, exhibitors voted him the most popular British star.[28] Guinness was idolised by Peter Sellers—who himself would become famous for inhabiting a variety of characters in a film—with Sellers's first major film role starring alongside his idol in The Ladykillers.[29] Guinness's other notable film roles of this period included The Swan (1956) with Grace Kelly, in her penultimate film role; The Horse's Mouth (1958), in which Guinness played the part of drunken painter Gulley Jimson, and for which he also wrote the screenplay, which was nominated for an Academy Award; the lead in Carol Reed's Our Man in Havana (1959); Marcus Aurelius in The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964); The Quiller Memorandum (1966); Marley's Ghost in Scrooge (1970); Charles I in Cromwell (1970); Pope Innocent III in Franco Zeffirelli's Brother Sun, Sister Moon (1972); and the title role in Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973), which he considered his best film performance, though critics disagreed.[30] Another role which is sometimes referred to as one which he considered his best, and is so considered by many critics, is that of Colonel Jock Sinclair in Tunes of Glory (1960). Guinness also played the role of Jamessir Bensonmum, the blind butler, in the 1976 Neil Simon film Murder by Death. David Lean[edit] Guinness with Rita Tushingham in Doctor Zhivago (1965) Guinness won particular acclaim for his work with director David Lean, which today is his most critically acclaimed work. After appearing in Lean's Great Expectations and Oliver Twist, he was given a starring role opposite William Holden in The Bridge on the River Kwai. For his performance as Colonel Nicholson, the unyielding British POW commanding officer, Guinness won an Academy Award for Best Actor and a BAFTA Award for Best Actor. Despite a difficult and often hostile relationship, Lean, referring to Guinness as "my good luck charm", continued to cast Guinness in character roles in his later films: Arab leader Prince Faisal in Lawrence of Arabia; the title character's half-brother, Bolshevik leader Yevgraf, in Doctor Zhivago and Indian mystic Professor Godbole in A Passage to India. He was also offered a role in Lean's Ryan's Daughter (1970) but declined. At that time, Guinness "mistrusted" Lean and considered the formerly close relationship to be strained—although, at his funeral, he recalled that the famed director had been "charming and affable".[31] Guinness appeared in five Lean films that were ranked in the British Film Institute's top 50 greatest British films of the 20th century: 3rd (Lawrence of Arabia), 5th (Great Expectations), 11th (The Bridge on the River Kwai), 27th (Doctor Zhivago) and 46th (Oliver Twist).[32] Star Wars[edit] Guinness's role as Obi-Wan Kenobi in the original Star Wars trilogy, beginning in 1977, brought him worldwide recognition to a new generation, as well as Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations. In letters to his friends, Guinness described the film as "fairy tale rubbish" but the film's sense of moral good – and the studio's doubling of his initial salary offer – appealed to him and he agreed to take the part of Kenobi on the condition that he would not have to do any publicity to promote the film.[33] He initially negotiated a deal for 2% of the film's royalties paid to the director, George Lucas, who, upon the warm reception of the film with the press and film critics, and as a gesture of good-will for the positive amendments and suggestions Guinness proposed to the screenplay for the film, offered Guinness an additional 0.5%, bringing his share to 2.5%. When Guinness enquired about the share with the film's producer Gary Kurtz, and asked for a written agreement so as to codify his earnings, Kurtz revised Lucas's offering down by 0.25%, bringing Guinness's final, agreed-upon share of royalties paid to the director to 2.25% (Lucas received one-fifth of the overall box office takings).[34][35] This made him very wealthy in his later life. Upon his first viewing of the film, Guinness wrote in his diary, "It's a pretty staggering film as spectacle and technically brilliant. Exciting, very noisy and warm-hearted. The battle scenes at the end go on for five minutes too long, I feel, and some of the dialogue is excruciating and much of it is lost in noise, but it remains a vivid experience."[36] Guinness soon became unhappy with being identified with the part and expressed dismay at the fan following that the Star Wars trilogy attracted. In the DVD commentary of the original Star Wars, Lucas says that Guinness was not happy with the script rewrite in which Obi-Wan is killed. Guinness said in a 1999 interview that it was actually his idea to kill off Obi-Wan, persuading Lucas that it would make him a stronger character and that Lucas agreed to the idea. Guinness stated in the interview, "What I didn't tell Lucas was that I just couldn't go on speaking those bloody awful, banal lines. I'd had enough of the mumbo jumbo." He went on to say that he "shrivelled up" every time Star Wars was mentioned to him.[37] Although Guinness disliked the fame that followed work he did not hold in high esteem,[36] Lucas and fellow cast members Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Kenny Baker, Anthony Daniels and Carrie Fisher have spoken highly of his courtesy and professionalism, on and off the set. Lucas credited him with inspiring cast and crew to work harder, saying that Guinness contributed significantly to achieving completion of the filming. Guinness was quoted as saying that the royalties he obtained from working on the films gave him "no complaints; let me leave it by saying I can live for the rest of my life in the reasonably modest way I am now used to, that I have no debts and I can afford to refuse work that doesn't appeal to me." In his autobiography, Blessings in Disguise, Guinness tells an imaginary interviewer "Blessed be Star Wars", regarding the income it provided.[38] Guinness appeared in the film's sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), as a force ghost apparition to the trilogy's main character Luke Skywalker. In 2003, Obi-Wan Kenobi as portrayed by Guinness was selected as the 37th-greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute.[39] Digitally altered archival audio of Guinness's voice was used in the films Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019).[40][41] Television appearances[edit] Guinness was reluctant to appear on television, but accepted the part of George Smiley in the serialisation of John le Carré's Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (1979) after meeting the author.[42] Guinness reprised the role in Smiley's People (1982), and twice won the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of the character.[43] He received another nomination for best actor for his portrayal of the titular Monsignor Quixote, adapted from the Graham Greene novel by the author in 1987.[44] One of Guinness's last appearances was in the BBC drama Eskimo Day (1996).[45][46] Awards and honours[edit] Plaque installed by the British Film Institute in the City of Westminster, London in recognition of Guinness's contribution to British cinema Guinness won the Academy Award for Best Actor and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in 1957 for his role in The Bridge on the River Kwai after having been unsuccessfully nominated for an Oscar in 1952 for his performance in The Lavender Hill Mob. He was nominated in 1958 for the Academy Award for Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium, for his screenplay adapted from Joyce Cary's novel The Horse's Mouth. He was nominated for Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Obi-Wan Kenobi in Star Wars in 1977. He received an Academy Honorary Award for lifetime achievement in 1980. In 1988, he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for Little Dorrit. He received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award for lifetime achievement in 1989.[47] For his theatre work, he received an Evening Standard Award for his performance as T. E. Lawrence in Ross and a Tony Award for his Broadway turn as Dylan Thomas in Dylan.[48] Guinness received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1559 Vine Street on 8 February 1960.[3] Guinness was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1955 Birthday Honours, Knight Bachelor in the 1959 New Year Honours and Companion of Honour in the 1994 Birthday Honours for services to drama.[9][10] In 1991, he received an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University.[49] Personal life[edit] Guinness married the artist, playwright, and actress Merula Silvia Salaman (1914–2000) in 1938; in 1940, they had a son, Matthew Guinness, who later became an actor. From the 1950s the family lived at Kettlebrook Meadows, near Steep Marsh in Hampshire. The house itself was designed by Merula's brother Eusty Salaman.[50][51] In his biography, Alec Guinness: The Unknown, Garry O'Connor reports that Guinness was arrested and fined 10 guineas (£10.50) for a homosexual act in a public lavatory in Liverpool in 1946. Guinness is said to have avoided publicity by giving his name to police and court as "Herbert Pocket", the name of the character he played in Great Expectations. However, no record of any arrest has ever been found. Piers Paul Read, in his 2005 biography, suggests "The rumour is possibly a conflation of stories about Alec's 'cottaging' and the arrest of John Gielgud, in October 1953, in a public lavatory in Chelsea after dining with the Guinnesses at St. Peter's Square."[52] This suggestion was not made until April 2001, eight months after his death, when a BBC Showbiz article related that new books claimed that Guinness was bisexual and that he had kept his sexuality private from the public eye and that the biography further said only his closest friends and family members knew he had sexual relationships with men.[53] While serving in the Royal Navy, Guinness had planned to become an Anglican priest. In 1954, while he was filming Father Brown in Burgundy, Guinness, who was in costume as a Catholic priest, was mistaken for a real priest by a local child. Guinness was far from fluent in French, and the child apparently did not notice that Guinness did not understand him but took his hand and chattered while the two strolled; the child then waved and trotted off.[54] The confidence and affection the clerical attire appeared to inspire in the boy left a deep impression on the actor.[55] When their son was ill with polio at the age of 11, Guinness began visiting a church to pray.[56] A few years later in 1956, Guinness converted to the Roman Catholic Church. His wife, who was of paternal Sephardi Jewish descent,[57] followed suit in 1957 while he was in Ceylon filming The Bridge on the River Kwai, and she informed him only after the event.[58] Every morning, Guinness recited a verse from Psalm 143, "Cause me to hear your loving kindness in the morning".[59] Death[edit] The graves of Alec and Merula in Petersfield, Hampshire Guinness died on the night of 5 August 2000 at King Edward VII's Hospital in Midhurst, West Sussex.[60][61] He had been diagnosed with prostate cancer in February 2000, and with liver cancer two days before he died, while his wife was also suffering from liver cancer.[62] He was interred at Petersfield Cemetery, Hampshire.[63] Archives[edit] In 2013 the British Library acquired the personal archive of Guinness consisting of over 900 letters, manuscripts for plays, and 100 volumes of diaries from the late 1930s to his death.[64] Autobiographies and biography[edit] Guinness wrote three volumes of a best-selling autobiography, beginning with Blessings in Disguise in 1985, followed by My Name Escapes Me in 1996, and A Positively Final Appearance in 1999. He recorded each of them as an audiobook. Shortly after his death, Lady Guinness asked the couple's close friend and fellow Catholic, novelist Piers Paul Read, to write Guinness's official biography. It was published in 2002. Box office ranking in Britain[edit] For a number of years, British film exhibitors voted Guinness among the most popular stars in Britain at the box office via an annual poll in the Motion Picture Herald. 1951: most popular British star (5th overall)[28] 1952: 3rd most popular British star[65] 1953: 2nd most popular British star 1954: 6th most popular British star 1955: 10th most popular British star[66] 1956: 8th most popular British star[67] 1958: most popular star[68] 1959: 2nd most popular British star[69] 1960: 4th most popular star See also[edit] Biography portal Alec Guinness on stage and screen References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ "Guinness, Sir Alec (1914–2000)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/74513. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ GRO Register of Births: June 1914 1a 39 Paddington – Alec Guinness De Cuffe, mmn = De Cuffe. ^ a b "Alec Guinness." Hollywood Walk of Fame (Hollywood Chamber of Commerce, Hollywood, California), 2011. Retrieved: 22 June 2011. ^ "Alec Guinness biography." Archived 26 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine MSN Movies. Retrieved: 29 July 2007. ^ Read 2005. ^ "Sir Alec Guinness". The Daily Telegraph. UK. 8 August 2000. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013. ^ "Guinness: The black stuff", guardian.co; retrieved 8 April 2012. ^ Extracts from Guinness's Journals, The Daily Telegraph, 20 March 1999. ^ a b Chambers 2002, p. 334. ^ a b c 'Guinness, Alec (1914–2000)', The Cambridge Guide to Theatre, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK; viewed 22 June 2011, from Credo reference (subscription required) ^ "The London Theatre Studio, by Sophie Jump", michelsaintdenis.net, accessed 14 December 2020 ^ Marshall, Herbert. "Obituary: Robert Ardrey (1907–1980)." Bulletin of the Center for Soviet & East European Studies Spring 1980. pp. 4–6. Print ^ On 3 June 1961, Guinness sent a letter to Stan Laurel Archived 11 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine, acknowledging that he must have unconsciously modeled his portrayal of Sir Andrew Aguecheek as he imagined Laurel might have done. Guinness was 23 at the time he was performing in Twelfth Night, so this would have been around 1937, by which time Laurel had become an international movie star. ^ "NY Times: Great Expectations". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Baseline & All Movie Guide. 2009. Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Houterman, J.N. "Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) Officers 1939–1945", Unithistories.com; retrieved 7 March 2010. ^ "No. 35561". The London Gazette. 15 May 1942. p. 2127. ^ "No. 36096". The London Gazette. 16 July 1943. p. 3235. ^ "'Fleming': 10 Famous Brits Who Were Heroes In World War II". BBC America. 25 October 2017. ^ "Theatre Obituaries: Sir Alec Guinness", Telegraph.co.uk, 8 August 2000; retrieved 22 February 2011. ^ McCarten, John. "Eliot and Guinness." The New Yorker, Volume 25, Issue 50, 1950, pp. 25–26. ^ J. Alan B. Somerset. 1991. The Stratford Festival Story, 1st edition. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-27804-4 ^ Tom Patterson. 1987. First Stage. McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-6949-9 ^ Taylor 2000, pp. 133–134. ^ Alec Guinness, Journals, November 1998. ^ Fahy, Patrick (21 August 2015). "Alec Guinness: 10 essential performances". British Film Institute. Retrieved 13 February 2017. ^ "The 100 best British films". Time Out. Retrieved 24 October 2017 ^ Capua, Michelangelo (2017). Jean Negulesco: The Life and Films. McFarland. p. 65. ^ a b "Vivien Leigh Actress of the Year." Townsville Daily Bulletin, via National Library of Australia, 29 December 1951, p. 1. Retrieved: 24 April 2012. ^ Derek Malcolm, Ian Nathan, Wendy Mitchell, Neil Norman. (2017) “Discovering Peter Sellers”. Sky Arts. Retrieved 27 April 2020 ^ Canby, Vincent. "Screen: 'Last Ten Days': Guinness Plays Hitler in Bunker Episode, The Cast." The New York Times, 10 May 1973. ^ Guinness 1998, pp. 90–91. ^ British Film Institute - Top 100 British Films (1999). Retrieved 27 August 2016 ^ Selim, Jocelyn. "Alec Guinness: Reluctant Intergalactic Icon." Cancer Today magazine, Spring 2012. ^ "How Star Wars Producers Screwed Alec Guinness Out Of Millions". CINEMABLEND. 1 October 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2020. ^ "Alec Guinness on Star Wars in 1977, interviewed by Michael Parkinson - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 17 December 2020. ^ a b Read 2005, p. 507. ^ "Alec Guinness Blasts Jedi 'Mumbo Jumbo'", 8 September 1999. ^ Guinness 1986, pp. 214. ^ "Good and Evil Rival for Top Spots in AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains". American Film Institute. American Film Institute. 4 June 2003. Retrieved 20 December 2013. ^ Frank, Allegra (21 December 2015). "You might have missed these classic characters in Star Wars: The Force Awakens". Polygon. ^ Fullerton, Huw (20 December 2019). "Who were the Jedi voices in Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker?". Radio Times. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. ^ le Carré, John (8 March 2002). Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy: A Conversation with John le Carré (DVD). Disc 1.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ "Le Carré adaptations: six of the best". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 30 March 2020. ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0089616/ ^ "BFI Screenonline: Eskimo Day (1996)". Screenonline.org.uk. Retrieved 13 May 2014. ^ "BBC Four - Eskimo Day". BBC. 11 January 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2014. ^ "Fellowship", British Academy of Film and Television Arts ^ Taylor 2000, p. 131. ^ "Honorary Degrees conferred from 1977 till present." Cambridge University, 18 December 2008. ^ Read 2005, pp. 256–258. ^ "Obituary: Lady Guinness". The Daily Telegraph. ^ Read 2005, p. 249. ^ "Sir Alec Guinness was bisexual." BBC News (Showbiz), 16 April 2001. Retrieved: 24 August 2009. ^ Pearce 2006, p. 301. ^ "Sir Alec Guinness." Telegraph (Obituaries), 8 August 2000. Retrieved: 26 August 2009. ^ Sutcliffe, Tom."Sir Alec Guinness (1914–2000)." The Guardian, 7 August 2000. Retrieved: 26 August 2009. ^ Garry O'Connor (2002). Alec Guinness: A Life (illustrated ed.). Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. p. 89. ISBN 9781557835741. ^ Pearce 2006, p. 311. ^ The invisible man, by Hugh Davies, originally published in The Daily Telegraph and reprinted in The Sunday Age, 13 August 2000. ^ GRO Register of Deaths: AUG 2000 1DD 21 Chicester– Alec Guinness, DoB = 2 April 1914, aged 86. ^ "Acting world mourns Sir Alec". news.bbc.co.uk. BBC News. 7 August 2000. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ “Alec Guinness, Reluctant Intergalactic Icon”. Cancer Today. Retrieved 24 May 2020 ^ Demetriou, Danielle (11 August 2000). "Sir Alec laid to rest near family home" – via www.telegraph.co.uk. ^ Sir Alec Guinness Archive, archives and manuscripts catalogue, the British Library. Retrieved 26 May 2020 ^ "Comedian tops film poll." The Sunday Herald (Sydney, NSW: 1949–1953), via National Library of Australia, 28 December 1952, p. 4. Retrieved: 27 April 2012. ^ "'The Dam Busters'." Times [London, England], 29 December 1955, p. 12 via The Times Digital Archive. Retrieved: 11 July 2012. ^ "The Most Popular Film Star In Britain." Times [London, England] 7 December 1956, p. 3 via The Times Digital Archive.. Retrieved: 11 July 2012. ^ "Mr. Guinness Heads Film Poll." Times [London, England], 2 January 1959, p. 4 via The Times Digital Archive. Retrieved: 11 July 2012. ^ "Year Of Profitable British Films." Times [London, England] 1 January 1960, p. 13 via The Times Digital Archive. Retrieved: 11 July 2012. Bibliography[edit] Chambers, Colin (2002). Continuum Companion to Twentieth Century Theatre. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-4959-X. Guinness, Alec (2001). A Positively Final Appearance: A Journal, 1996–1998. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-029964-9. Guinness, Alec (1986). Blessings in Disguise. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0394552377. Guinness, Alec (1998). My Name Escapes Me. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-027745-6. O'Connor, Garry (2002). Alec Guinness: The Unknown. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 0-283-07340-3. Pearce, Joseph (2006). Literary Converts: Spiritual Inspiration in an Age of Unbelief. London: Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-58617-159-9. Read, Piers Paul (2005). Alec Guinness: The Authorised Biography. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-4498-5. Taylor, John Russell (2000). Alec Guinness: A Celebration. London: Pavilion. ISBN 1-86205-501-7. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alec Guinness. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alec Guinness Alec Guinness at IMDb Alec Guinness at the Internet Broadway Database Alec Guinness at the TCM Movie Database Alec Guinness at AllMovie Alec Guinness at the BFI's Screenonline Alec Guinness at British Comedy Guide Performances in Theatre Archive, Bristol Works by Alec Guinness at Open Library Costume Sketches for unrealized one-man show "The Angry Clown" -- Motley Collection of Theatre & Costume Design Awards for Alec Guinness v t e Academy Award for Best Actor 1928–1950 Emil Jannings (1928) Warner Baxter (1929) George Arliss (1930) Lionel Barrymore (1931) Fredric March / Wallace Beery (1932) Charles Laughton (1933) Clark Gable (1934) Victor McLaglen (1935) Paul Muni (1936) Spencer Tracy (1937) Spencer Tracy (1938) Robert Donat (1939) James Stewart (1940) Gary Cooper (1941) James Cagney (1942) Paul Lukas (1943) Bing Crosby (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Fredric March (1946) Ronald Colman (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) José Ferrer (1950) 1951–1975 Humphrey Bogart (1951) Gary Cooper (1952) William Holden (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) Charlton Heston (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) Gregory Peck (1962) Sidney Poitier (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) John Wayne (1969) George C. Scott1 (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Marlon Brando1 (1972) Jack Lemmon (1973) Art Carney (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) 1976–2000 Peter Finch (1976) Richard Dreyfuss (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall (1983) F. Murray Abraham (1984) William Hurt (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Dustin Hoffman (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Al Pacino (1992) Tom Hanks (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Roberto Benigni (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Russell Crowe (2000) 2001–present Denzel Washington (2001) Adrien Brody (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Eddie Redmayne (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) 1 refused award that year v t e Academy Honorary Award 1928–1950 Warner Bros. / Charlie Chaplin (1928) Walt Disney (1932) Shirley Temple (1934) D. W. Griffith (1935) The March of Time / W. Howard Greene and Harold Rosson (1936) Edgar Bergen / W. Howard Greene / Museum of Modern Art Film Library / Mack Sennett (1937) J. Arthur Ball / Walt Disney / Deanna Durbin and Mickey Rooney / Gordon Jennings, Jan Domela, Devereaux Jennings, Irmin Roberts, Art Smith, Farciot Edouart, Loyal Griggs, Loren L. Ryder, Harry D. Mills, Louis Mesenkop, Walter Oberst / Oliver T. Marsh and Allen Davey / Harry Warner (1938) Douglas Fairbanks / Judy Garland / William Cameron Menzies / Motion Picture Relief Fund (Jean Hersholt, Ralph Morgan, Ralph Block, Conrad Nagel)/ Technicolor Company (1939) Bob Hope / Nathan Levinson (1940) Walt Disney, William Garity, John N. A. Hawkins, and the RCA Manufacturing Company / Leopold Stokowski and his associates / Rey Scott / British Ministry of Information (1941) Charles Boyer / Noël Coward / Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (1942) George Pal (1943) Bob Hope / Margaret O'Brien (1944) Republic Studio, Daniel J. Bloomberg, and the Republic Studio Sound Department / Walter Wanger / The House I Live In / Peggy Ann Garner (1945) Harold Russell / Laurence Olivier / Ernst Lubitsch / Claude Jarman Jr. (1946) James Baskett / Thomas Armat, William Nicholas Selig, Albert E. Smith, and George Kirke Spoor / Bill and Coo / Shoeshine (1947) Walter Wanger / Monsieur Vincent / Sid Grauman / Adolph Zukor (1948) Jean Hersholt / Fred Astaire / Cecil B. DeMille / The Bicycle Thief (1949) Louis B. Mayer / George Murphy / The Walls of Malapaga (1950) 1951–1975 Gene Kelly / Rashomon (1951) Merian C. Cooper / Bob Hope / Harold Lloyd / George Mitchell / Joseph M. Schenck / Forbidden Games (1952) 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation / Bell & Howell Company / Joseph Breen / Pete Smith (1953) Bausch & Lomb Optical Company / Danny Kaye / Kemp Niver / Greta Garbo / Jon Whiteley / Vincent Winter / Gate of Hell (1954) Samurai I: Musashi Miyamoto (1955) Eddie Cantor (1956) Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers / Gilbert M. "Broncho Billy" Anderson / Charles Brackett / B. B. Kahane (1957) Maurice Chevalier (1958) Buster Keaton / Lee de Forest (1959) Gary Cooper / Stan Laurel / Hayley Mills (1960) William L. Hendricks / Fred L. Metzler / Jerome Robbins (1961) William J. Tuttle (1964) Bob Hope (1965) Yakima Canutt / Y. Frank Freeman (1966) Arthur Freed (1967) John Chambers / Onna White (1968) Cary Grant (1969) Lillian Gish / Orson Welles (1970) Charlie Chaplin (1971) Charles S. Boren / Edward G. Robinson (1972) Henri Langlois / Groucho Marx (1973) Howard Hawks / Jean Renoir (1974) Mary Pickford (1975) 1976–2000 Margaret Booth (1977) Walter Lantz / Laurence Olivier / King Vidor / Museum of Modern Art Department of Film (1978) Hal Elias / Alec Guinness (1979) Henry Fonda (1980) Barbara Stanwyck (1981) Mickey Rooney (1982) Hal Roach (1983) James Stewart / National Endowment for the Arts (1984) Paul Newman / Alex North (1985) Ralph Bellamy (1986) Eastman Kodak Company / National Film Board of Canada (1988) Akira Kurosawa (1989) Sophia Loren / Myrna Loy (1990) Satyajit Ray (1991) Federico Fellini (1992) Deborah Kerr (1993) Michelangelo Antonioni (1994) Kirk Douglas / Chuck Jones (1995) Michael Kidd (1996) Stanley Donen (1997) Elia Kazan (1998) Andrzej Wajda (1999) Jack Cardiff / Ernest Lehman (2000) 2001–present Sidney Poitier / Robert Redford (2001) Peter O'Toole (2002) Blake Edwards (2003) Sidney Lumet (2004) Robert Altman (2005) Ennio Morricone (2006) Robert F. Boyle (2007) Lauren Bacall / Roger Corman / Gordon Willis (2009) Kevin Brownlow / Jean-Luc Godard / Eli Wallach (2010) James Earl Jones / Dick Smith (2011) D. A. Pennebaker / Hal Needham / George Stevens Jr. (2012) Angela Lansbury / Steve Martin / Piero Tosi (2013) Jean-Claude Carrière / Hayao Miyazaki / Maureen O'Hara (2014) Spike Lee / Gena Rowlands (2015) Jackie Chan / Lynn Stalmaster / Anne V. Coates / Frederick Wiseman (2016) Charles Burnett / Owen Roizman / Donald Sutherland / Agnès Varda (2017) Marvin Levy / Lalo Schifrin / Cicely Tyson (2018) David Lynch / Wes Studi / Lina Wertmüller (2019) v t e BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role 1952–1967 British Ralph Richardson (1952) John Gielgud (1953) Kenneth More (1954) Laurence Olivier (1955) Peter Finch (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Trevor Howard (1958) Peter Sellers (1959) Peter Finch (1960) Peter Finch (1961) Peter O'Toole (1962) Dirk Bogarde (1963) Richard Attenborough (1964) Dirk Bogarde (1965) Richard Burton (1966) Paul Scofield (1967) Foreign Marlon Brando (1952) Marlon Brando (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) François Périer (1956) Henry Fonda (1957) Sidney Poitier (1958) Jack Lemmon (1959) Jack Lemmon (1960) Paul Newman (1961) Burt Lancaster (1962) Marcello Mastroianni (1963) Marcello Mastroianni (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Rod Steiger (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) 1968–present Spencer Tracy (1968) Dustin Hoffman (1969) Robert Redford (1970) Peter Finch (1971) Gene Hackman (1972) Walter Matthau (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Al Pacino (1975) Jack Nicholson (1976) Peter Finch (1977) Richard Dreyfuss (1978) Jack Lemmon (1979) John Hurt (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Michael Caine / Dustin Hoffman (1983) Haing S. Ngor (1984) William Hurt (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Sean Connery (1987) John Cleese (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Philippe Noiret (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Robert Downey Jr. (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Hugh Grant (1994) Nigel Hawthorne (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Robert Carlyle (1997) Roberto Benigni (1998) Kevin Spacey (1999) Jamie Bell (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2013) Eddie Redmayne (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Anthony Hopkins (2020) v t e BAFTA Fellowship Award 1971–2000 Alfred Hitchcock (1971) Freddie Young (1972) Grace Wyndham Goldie (1973) David Lean (1974) Jacques Cousteau (1975) Charlie Chaplin (1976) Laurence Olivier (1976) Denis Forman (1977) Fred Zinnemann (1978) Lew Grade (1979) Huw Wheldon (1979) David Attenborough (1980) John Huston (1980) Abel Gance (1981) Michael Powell & Emeric Pressburger (1981) Andrzej Wajda (1982) Richard Attenborough (1983) Hugh Greene (1984) Sam Spiegel (1984) Jeremy Isaacs (1985) Steven Spielberg (1986) Federico Fellini (1987) Ingmar Bergman (1988) Alec Guinness (1989) Paul Fox (1990) Louis Malle (1991) John Gielgud (1992) David Plowright (1992) Sydney Samuelson (1993) Colin Young (1993) Michael Grade (1994) Billy Wilder (1995) Jeanne Moreau (1996) Ronald Neame (1996) John Schlesinger (1996) Maggie Smith (1996) Woody Allen (1997) Steven Bochco (1997) Julie Christie (1997) Oswald Morris (1997) Harold Pinter (1997) David Rose (1997) Sean Connery (1998) Bill Cotton (1998) Eric Morecambe & Ernie Wise (1999) Elizabeth Taylor (1999) Michael Caine (2000) Stanley Kubrick (2000) Peter Bazalgette (2000) 2001–present Albert Finney (2001) John Thaw (2001) Judi Dench (2001) Warren Beatty (2002) Merchant Ivory Productions (2002) Andrew Davies (2002) John Mills (2002) Saul Zaentz (2003) David Jason (2003) John Boorman (2004) Roger Graef (2004) John Barry (2005) David Frost (2005) David Puttnam (2006) Ken Loach (2006) Anne V. Coates (2007) Richard Curtis (2007) Will Wright (2007) Anthony Hopkins (2008) Bruce Forsyth (2008) Dawn French & Jennifer Saunders (2009) Terry Gilliam (2009) Nolan Bushnell (2009) Vanessa Redgrave (2010) Shigeru Miyamoto (2010) Melvyn Bragg (2010) Christopher Lee (2011) Peter Molyneux (2011) Trevor McDonald (2011) Martin Scorsese (2012) Rolf Harris (2012) Alan Parker (2013) Gabe Newell (2013) Michael Palin (2013) Helen Mirren (2014) Rockstar Games (2014) Julie Walters (2014) Mike Leigh (2015) David Braben (2015) Jon Snow (2015) Sidney Poitier (2016) John Carmack (2016) Ray Galton & Alan Simpson (2016) Mel Brooks (2017) Joanna Lumley (2017) Ridley Scott (2018) Tim Schafer (2018) Kate Adie (2018) Thelma Schoonmaker (2019) Joan Bakewell (2019) Kathleen Kennedy (2020) Hideo Kojima (2020) Ang Lee (2021) Siobhan Reddy (2021) v t e BAFTA TV Award for Best Actor Paul Rogers (1955) Peter Cushing (1956) Michael Gough (1957) Michael Hordern (1958) Donald Pleasence (1959) Patrick McGoohan (1960) Lee Montague (1961) Rupert Davies (1962) Harry H. Corbett (1963) Alan Badel (1964) Patrick Wymark (1965) Alan Badel (1966) Warren Mitchell (1967) Eric Porter (1968) Roy Dotrice (1969) Edward Woodward (1970) Keith Michell (1971) John Le Mesurier (1972) Anthony Hopkins (1973) Frank Finlay (1974) Peter Barkworth (1975) John Hurt (1976) Derek Jacobi (1977) Peter Barkworth (1978) Edward Fox (1979) Alec Guinness (1980) Denholm Elliott (1981) Anthony Andrews (1982) Alec Guinness (1983) Alan Bates (1984) Tim Pigott-Smith (1985) Bob Peck (1986) Michael Gambon (1987) David Jason (1988) Ray McAnally (1989) John Thaw (1990) Ian Richardson (1991) Robert Lindsay (1992) John Thaw (1993) Robbie Coltrane (1994) Robbie Coltrane (1995) Robbie Coltrane (1996) Nigel Hawthorne (1997) Simon Russell Beale (1998) Tom Courtenay (1999) Michael Gambon (2000) Michael Gambon (2001) Michael Gambon (2002) Albert Finney (2003) Bill Nighy (2004) Rhys Ifans (2005) Mark Rylance (2006) Jim Broadbent (2007) Andrew Garfield (2008) Stephen Dillane (2009) Kenneth Branagh (2010) Daniel Rigby (2011) Dominic West (2012) Ben Whishaw (2013) Sean Harris (2014) Jason Watkins (2015) Mark Rylance (2016) Adeel Akhtar (2017) Sean Bean (2018) Benedict Cumberbatch (2019) Jared Harris (2020) Paul Mescal (2021) v t e BFI Fellowship recipients Marcel Carné / David Lean / Michael Powell / Emeric Pressburger / Satyajit Ray / Orson Welles (1983) Sidney Bernstein (1984) John Brabourne / Laurence Olivier (1985) Jeremy Isaacs / Deborah Kerr / Akira Kurosawa / Dilys Powell (1986) Dirk Bogarde / Bette Davis / Elem Klimov (1987) Graham Greene / Vanessa Redgrave / Anthony Smith (1988) Peggy Ashcroft / Gérard Depardieu / David Francis (1989) Derek Jarman / Krzysztof Kieślowski / Jeanne Moreau / Fred Zinnemann (1990) Alec Guinness / Leslie Hardcastle (1991) Richard Attenborough / Maggie Smith (1992) Clint Eastwood / Denis Forman / Maureen O'Hara (1993) Nicolas Roeg / Jean Simmons (1994) Michelangelo Antonioni / John Mills / Martin Scorsese / Robert Wise (1995) Michael Caine / Ken Loach (1996) Michael Parkinson / Lynda La Plante / Verity Lambert / David Puttnam / Sydney Samuelson / Thelma Schoonmaker / Alan Yentob (1997) Bernardo Bertolucci / Jeremy Thomas (1998) John Paul Getty Jr. (1999) Elizabeth Taylor (2000) Robert Altman / Lewis Gilbert (2001) Jack Cardiff / Bob Weinstein (2002) Abbas Kiarostami / Mike Leigh / Ousmane Sembène (2005) Terence Davies (2007) Souleymane Cissé / John Hurt / Ridley Scott (2009) Danny Boyle / David Rose (2010) Isabelle Huppert / Judi Dench / Ralph Fiennes / David Cronenberg (2011) Bryan Forbes / Helena Bonham Carter / Tim Burton / Richard Lester (2012) Philip French / Christopher Lee / John Boorman (2013) Al Pacino / Stephen Frears (2014) Mel Brooks / Cate Blanchett (2015) Hugh Grant / Greg Dyke / Steve McQueen (2016) Peter Morgan / Paul Greengrass (2017) Olivia Colman (2019) Amanda Nevill / Tilda Swinton (2020) v t e Drama League's Distinguished Performance Award Katharine Cornell (1935) Helen Hayes (1936) Maurice Evans (1937) Cedric Hardwicke (1938) Raymond Massey (1939) Paul Muni (1940) Paul Lukas (1941) Judith Evelyn (1942) Alfred Lunt (1943) Lynn Fontanne (1944) Mady Christians (1945) Louis Calhern (1946) Ingrid Bergman (1947) Judith Anderson (1948) Robert Morley (1949) Grace George (1950) Claude Rains (1951) Julie Harris (1952) Shirley Booth (1953) Josephine Hull (1954) Viveca Lindfors (1955) David Wayne (1956) Eli Wallach (1957) Ralph Bellamy (1958) Cyril Ritchard (1959) Jessica Tandy (1960) Hume Cronyn (1961) Paul Scofield (1962) Charles Boyer (1963) Alec Guinness (1964) John Gielgud (1965) Richard Kiley (1966) Rosemary Harris (1967) Zoe Caldwell (1968) Alec McCowen (1969) James Stewart (1970) Anthony Quayle (1971) Eileen Atkins / Claire Bloom (1972) Alan Bates (1973) Christopher Plummer (1974) John Wood (1975) Eva Le Gallienne (1976) Tom Courtenay (1977) Frank Langella (1978) Frances Sternhagen (1979) Roy Scheider (1980) Ian McKellen (1981) Milo O'Shea (1982) Edward Herrmann / Kate Nelligan (1983) Jeremy Irons (1984) Derek Jacobi (1985) Bernadette Peters (1986) James Earl Jones (1987) John Lithgow (1988) Pauline Collins (1989) Robert Morse (1990) Stockard Channing (1991) Glenn Close (1992) Stephen Rea (1993) Sam Waterston (1994) Cherry Jones (1995) Uta Hagen (1996) Charles Durning / Bebe Neuwirth (1997) Brian Stokes Mitchell (1998) Kathleen Chalfant (1999) Eileen Heckart (2000) Mary-Louise Parker / Gary Sinise (2001) Liam Neeson (2002) Harvey Fierstein (2003) Hugh Jackman (2004) Norbert Leo Butz (2005) Christine Ebersole (2006) Liev Schreiber (2007) Patti LuPone (2008) Geoffrey Rush (2009) Alfred Molina (2010) Mark Rylance (2011) Audra McDonald (2012) Nathan Lane (2013) Neil Patrick Harris (2014) Chita Rivera (2015) Lin-Manuel Miranda (2016) Ben Platt (2017) Glenda Jackson (2018) Bryan Cranston (2019) Danny Burstein (2020) v t e European Film Academy Lifetime Achievement Award  Ingmar Bergman (1988)  Marcello Mastroianni (1988)  Federico Fellini (1989)  Andrzej Wajda (1990)  Alexandre Trauner (1991)  Billy Wilder (1992)  Michelangelo Antonioni (1993)  Robert Bresson (1994)  Marcel Carné (1995)  Alec Guinness (1996)  Jeanne Moreau (1997)  Ennio Morricone (1999)  Richard Harris (2000)  Monty Python (2001)  Tonino Guerra (2002)  Claude Chabrol (2003)  Carlos Saura (2004)  Sean Connery (2005)  Roman Polanski (2006)  Jean-Luc Godard (2007)  Judi Dench (2008)  Ken Loach (2009)  Bruno Ganz (2010)  Stephen Frears (2011)  Bernardo Bertolucci (2012)  Catherine Deneuve (2013)  Agnès Varda (2014)  Charlotte Rampling (2015)  Jean-Claude Carrière (2016) Alexander Sokurov (2017) Carmen Maura (2018) Werner Herzog (2019) Award of Merit (Special Achievement Award) Richard Attenborough (1988) Jeremy Irons (1998) Honorary Award Manoel de Oliveira (2007) Michel Piccoli (2011) Michael Caine (2015) Andrzej Wajda (2016) Costa-Gavras (2018) v t e Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actor Richard Burton (1955) Paul Scofield (1956) Laurence Olivier (1957) Michael Redgrave (1958) Eric Porter (1959) Alec Guinness (1960) Christopher Plummer (1961) Paul Scofield (1962) Michael Redgrave (1963) Nicol Williamson (1964) Ian Holm (1965) Albert Finney (1966) Laurence Olivier (1967) Alec McCowen (1968) Nicol Williamson (1969) John Gielgud (1970) Alan Bates (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Alec McCowen (1973) John Wood (1974) John Gielgud (1975) Albert Finney (1976) Donald Sinden (1977) Alan Howard (1978) Warren Mitchell (1979) Tom Courtenay (1980) Alan Howard (1981) Alec McCowen (1982) Derek Jacobi (1983) Ian McKellen (1984) Antony Sher (1985) Albert Finney (1986) Michael Gambon (1987) Eric Porter (1988) Ian McKellen (1989) Richard Harris (1990) John Wood (1991) Nigel Hawthorne (1992) Ian Holm (1993) Tom Courtenay (1994) Michael Gambon (1995) Paul Scofield (1996) Ian Holm (1997) Kevin Spacey (1998) Stephen Dillane (1999) Simon Russell Beale (2000) Alex Jennings (2001) Simon Russell Beale (2002) Michael Sheen (2003) Richard Griffiths (2004) Simon Russell Beale (2005) Rufus Sewell (2006) Patrick Stewart (2007) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2008) Mark Rylance (2009) Rory Kinnear (2010) Benedict Cumberbatch and Jonny Lee Miller (2011) Simon Russell Beale (2012) Adrian Lester and Rory Kinnear (2013) Tom Hiddleston (2014) James McAvoy (2015) Ralph Fiennes (2016) Andrew Garfield (2017) Ralph Fiennes (2018) Andrew Scott (2019) v t e Film Society of Lincoln Center Gala Tribute Honorees Charlie Chaplin (1972) Fred Astaire (1973) Alfred Hitchcock (1974) Joanne Woodward and Paul Newman (1975) George Cukor (1978) Bob Hope (1979) John Huston (1980) Barbara Stanwyck (1981) Billy Wilder (1982) Laurence Olivier (1983) Claudette Colbert (1984) Federico Fellini (1985) Elizabeth Taylor (1986) Alec Guinness (1987) Yves Montand (1988) Bette Davis (1989) James Stewart (1990) Audrey Hepburn (1991) Gregory Peck (1992) Jack Lemmon (1993) Robert Altman (1994) Shirley MacLaine (1995) Clint Eastwood (1996) Sean Connery (1997) Martin Scorsese (1998) Mike Nichols (1999) Al Pacino (2000) Jane Fonda (2001) Francis Ford Coppola (2002) Susan Sarandon (2003) Michael Caine (2004) Dustin Hoffman (2005) Jessica Lange (2006) Diane Keaton (2007) Meryl Streep (2008) Tom Hanks (2009) Michael Douglas (2010) Sidney Poitier (2011) Catherine Deneuve (2012) Barbra Streisand (2013) Rob Reiner (2014) Robert Redford (2015) Morgan Freeman (2016) Robert De Niro (2017) Helen Mirren (2018) No honoree (2019) Spike Lee (2020) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama Paul Lukas (1943) Alexander Knox (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Gregory Peck (1946) Ronald Colman (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) José Ferrer (1950) Fredric March (1951) Gary Cooper (1952) Spencer Tracy (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Kirk Douglas (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) Anthony Franciosa (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) Gregory Peck (1962) Sidney Poitier (1963) Peter O'Toole (1964) Omar Sharif (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Peter O'Toole (1968) John Wayne (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Marlon Brando (1972) Al Pacino (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Peter Finch (1976) Richard Burton (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall / Tom Courtenay (1983) F. Murray Abraham (1984) Jon Voight (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Dustin Hoffman (1988) Tom Cruise (1989) Jeremy Irons (1990) Nick Nolte (1991) Al Pacino (1992) Tom Hanks (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Jim Carrey (1998) Denzel Washington (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Russell Crowe (2001) Jack Nicholson (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Leonardo DiCaprio (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Mickey Rourke (2008) Jeff Bridges (2009) Colin Firth (2010) George Clooney (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Matthew McConaughey (2013) Eddie Redmayne (2014) Leonardo DiCaprio (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Gary Oldman (2017) Rami Malek (2018) Joaquin Phoenix (2019) Chadwick Boseman (2020) v t e Honorary Golden Bear James Stewart (1982) Alec Guinness (1988) Dustin Hoffman (1989) Oliver Stone (1990) Billy Wilder / Gregory Peck (1993) Sophia Loren (1994) Alain Delon (1995) Jack Lemmon / Elia Kazan (1996) Kim Novak (1997) Catherine Deneuve (1998) Shirley MacLaine (1999) Jeanne Moreau (2000) Kirk Douglas (2001) Claudia Cardinale / Robert Altman (2002) Anouk Aimée (2003) Fernando Solanas (2004) Im Kwon-taek / Fernando Fernán Gómez (2005) Andrzej Wajda / Ian McKellen (2006) Arthur Penn (2007) Francesco Rosi (2008) Maurice Jarre (2009) Hanna Schygulla / Wolfgang Kohlhaase (2010) Armin Mueller-Stahl (2011) Meryl Streep (2012) Claude Lanzmann (2013) Ken Loach (2014) Wim Wenders (2015) Michael Ballhaus (2016) Milena Canonero (2017) Willem Dafoe (2018) Charlotte Rampling (2019) Helen Mirren (2020) v t e Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Jason Robards (1977) Robert Morley (1978) Melvyn Douglas (1979) Timothy Hutton (1980) John Gielgud (1981) John Lithgow (1982) Jack Nicholson (1983) Adolph Caesar (1984) John Gielgud (1985) Dennis Hopper (1986) Morgan Freeman (1987) Alec Guinness (1988) Danny Aiello (1989) Joe Pesci (1990) Michael Lerner (1991) Gene Hackman (1992) Tommy Lee Jones (1993) Martin Landau (1994) Don Cheadle (1995) Edward Norton (1996) Burt Reynolds (1997) Bill Murray / Billy Bob Thornton (1998) Christopher Plummer (1999) Willem Dafoe (2000) Jim Broadbent (2001) Chris Cooper (2002) Bill Nighy (2003) Thomas Haden Church (2004) William Hurt (2005) Michael Sheen (2006) Vlad Ivanov (2007) Heath Ledger (2008) Christoph Waltz (2009) Niels Arestrup (2010) Christopher Plummer (2011) Dwight Henry (2012) James Franco / Jared Leto (2013) J. K. Simmons (2014) Michael Shannon (2015) Mahershala Ali (2016) Willem Dafoe (2017) Steven Yeun (2018) Song Kang-ho (2019) Glynn Turman (2020) v t e National Board of Review Award for Best Actor Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) Michael Redgrave (1947) Walter Huston (1948) Ralph Richardson (1949) Alec Guinness (1950) Richard Basehart (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) James Mason (1953) Bing Crosby (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Yul Brynner (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) Spencer Tracy (1958) Victor Sjöström (1959) Robert Mitchum (1960) Albert Finney (1961) Jason Robards (1962) Rex Harrison (1963) Anthony Quinn (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Peter Finch (1967) Cliff Robertson (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Peter O'Toole (1972) Al Pacino / Robert Ryan (1973) Gene Hackman (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) David Carradine (1976) John Travolta (1977) Jon Voight / Laurence Olivier (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Henry Fonda (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Tom Conti (1983) Victor Banerjee (1984) William Hurt / Raul Julia (1985) Paul Newman (1986) Michael Douglas (1987) Gene Hackman (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Robert De Niro / Robin Williams (1990) Warren Beatty (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Anthony Hopkins (1993) Tom Hanks (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Russell Crowe (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) Billy Bob Thornton (2001) Campbell Scott (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Philip Seymour Hoffman (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) George Clooney (2007) Clint Eastwood (2008) George Clooney / Morgan Freeman (2009) Jesse Eisenberg (2010) George Clooney (2011) Bradley Cooper (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Michael Keaton / Oscar Isaac (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Tom Hanks (2017) Viggo Mortensen (2018) Adam Sandler (2019) Riz Ahmed (2020) v t e New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Charles Laughton (1935) Walter Huston (1936) Paul Muni (1937) James Cagney (1938) James Stewart (1939) Charlie Chaplin (1940) Gary Cooper (1941) James Cagney (1942) Paul Lukas (1943) Barry Fitzgerald (1944) Ray Milland (1945) Laurence Olivier (1946) William Powell (1947) Laurence Olivier (1948) Broderick Crawford (1949) Gregory Peck (1950) Arthur Kennedy (1951) Ralph Richardson (1952) Burt Lancaster (1953) Marlon Brando (1954) Ernest Borgnine (1955) Kirk Douglas (1956) Alec Guinness (1957) David Niven (1958) James Stewart (1959) Burt Lancaster (1960) Maximilian Schell (1961) No Award (1962) Albert Finney (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Oskar Werner (1965) Paul Scofield (1966) Rod Steiger (1967) Alan Arkin (1968) Jon Voight (1969) George C. Scott (1970) Gene Hackman (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Marlon Brando (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Jack Nicholson (1975) Robert De Niro (1976) John Gielgud (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Dustin Hoffman (1979) Robert De Niro (1980) Burt Lancaster (1981) Ben Kingsley (1982) Robert Duvall (1983) Steve Martin (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Bob Hoskins (1986) Jack Nicholson (1987) Jeremy Irons (1988) Daniel Day-Lewis (1989) Robert De Niro (1990) Anthony Hopkins (1991) Denzel Washington (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Paul Newman (1994) Nicolas Cage (1995) Geoffrey Rush (1996) Peter Fonda (1997) Nick Nolte (1998) Richard Farnsworth (1999) Tom Hanks (2000) Tom Wilkinson (2001) Daniel Day-Lewis (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Paul Giamatti (2004) Heath Ledger (2005) Forest Whitaker (2006) Daniel Day-Lewis (2007) Sean Penn (2008) George Clooney (2009) Colin Firth (2010) Brad Pitt (2011) Daniel Day-Lewis (2012) Robert Redford (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Michael Keaton (2015) Casey Affleck (2016) Timothée Chalamet (2017) Ethan Hawke (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) Delroy Lindo (2020) v t e Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor Marty Feldman (1974/75) Jay Robinson (1976) Alec Guinness (1977) Burgess Meredith (1978) Arte Johnson (1979) Scatman Crothers (1980) Burgess Meredith (1981) Richard Lynch (1982) John Lithgow (1983) Tracey Walter (1984) Roddy McDowall (1985) Bill Paxton (1986) Richard Dawson (1987) Robert Loggia (1988) Thomas F. Wilson (1989/90) William Sadler (1991) Robin Williams (1992) Lance Henriksen (1993) Gary Sinise (1994) Brad Pitt (1995) Brent Spiner (1996) Vincent D'Onofrio (1997) Ian McKellen (1998) Michael Clarke Duncan (1999) Willem Dafoe (2000) Ian McKellen (2001) Andy Serkis (2002) Sean Astin (2003) David Carradine (2004) Mickey Rourke (2005) Ben Affleck (2006) Javier Bardem (2007) Heath Ledger (2008) Stephen Lang (2009) Andrew Garfield (2010) Andy Serkis (2011) Clark Gregg (2012) Ben Kingsley (2013) Richard Armitage (2014) Adam Driver (2015) John Goodman (2016) Patrick Stewart (2017) Josh Brolin (2018/2019) v t e Society of London Theatre Special Award Laurence Olivier (1979) Ralph Richardson (1980) Charles Wintour (1982) Joan Littlewood (1983) John Gielgud (1985) Alec Guinness (1988) Peggy Ashcroft (1991) Ninette de Valois (1992) Kenneth MacMillan (1993) Sam Wanamaker (1994) Harold Pinter (1996) Margaret Harris (1997) Ed Mirvish / David Mirvish (1998) Peter Hall (1999) Rupert Rhymes (2002) Sam Mendes (2003) Judi Dench (2004) Alan Bennett (2005) Ian McKellen (2006) John Tomlinson (2007) Andrew Lloyd Webber (2008) Alan Ayckbourn (2009) Maggie Smith (2010) Stephen Sondheim (2011) Monica Mason / Tim Rice (2012) Michael Frayn / Gillian Lynne (2013) Nicholas Hytner & Nick Starr / Michael White (2014) Sylvie Guillem / Kevin Spacey (2015) Kenneth Branagh (2017) David Lan (2018) Matthew Bourne (2019) Don Black / Jo Hawes / Thelma Holt / Stephen Jameson / Ian McKellen / Sarah Preece / Peter Roberts (2020) v t e Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play José Ferrer / Fredric March (1947) Henry Fonda / Paul Kelly / Basil Rathbone (1948) Rex Harrison (1949) Sidney Blackmer (1950) Claude Rains (1951) José Ferrer (1952) Tom Ewell (1953) David Wayne (1954) Alfred Lunt (1955) Paul Muni (1956) Fredric March (1957) Ralph Bellamy (1958) Jason Robards Jr. (1959) Melvyn Douglas (1960) Zero Mostel (1961) Paul Scofield (1962) Arthur Hill (1963) Alec Guinness (1964) Walter Matthau (1965) Hal Holbrook (1966) Paul Rogers (1967) Martin Balsam (1968) James Earl Jones (1969) Fritz Weaver (1970) Brian Bedford (1971) Cliff Gorman (1972) Alan Bates (1973) Michael Moriarty (1974) John Kani and Winston Ntshona (1975) John Wood (1976) Al Pacino (1977) Barnard Hughes (1978) Tom Conti (1979) John Rubinstein (1980) Ian McKellen (1981) Roger Rees (1982) Harvey Fierstein (1983) Jeremy Irons (1984) Derek Jacobi (1985) Judd Hirsch (1986) James Earl Jones (1987) Ron Silver (1988) Philip Bosco (1989) Robert Morse (1990) Nigel Hawthorne (1991) Judd Hirsch (1992) Ron Leibman (1993) Stephen Spinella (1994) Ralph Fiennes (1995) George Grizzard (1996) Christopher Plummer (1997) Anthony LaPaglia (1998) Brian Dennehy (1999) Stephen Dillane (2000) Richard Easton (2001) Alan Bates (2002) Brian Dennehy (2003) Jefferson Mays (2004) Bill Irwin (2005) Richard Griffiths (2006) Frank Langella (2007) Mark Rylance (2008) Geoffrey Rush (2009) Denzel Washington (2010) Mark Rylance (2011) James Corden (2012) Tracy Letts (2013) Bryan Cranston (2014) Alex Sharp (2015) Frank Langella (2016) Kevin Kline (2017) Andrew Garfield (2018) Bryan Cranston (2019) v t e Volpi Cup for Best Actor 1934–68 Wallace Beery (1934) Pierre Blanchar (1935) Paul Muni (1936) Emil Jannings (1937) Leslie Howard (1938) Ermete Zacconi (1941) Fosco Giachetti (1942) Pierre Fresnay (1947) Ernst Deutsch (1948) Joseph Cotten (1949) Sam Jaffe (1950) Jean Gabin (1951) Fredric March (1952) Henri Vilbert (1953) Jean Gabin (1954) Curd Jürgens / Kenneth More (1955) Bourvil (1956) Anthony Franciosa (1957) Alec Guinness (1958) James Stewart (1959) John Mills (1960) Toshiro Mifune (1961) Burt Lancaster (1962) Albert Finney (1963) Tom Courtenay (1964) Toshiro Mifune (1965) Jacques Perrin (1966) Ljubiša Samardžić (1967) John Marley (1968) 1983–2000 Guy Boyd / George Dzundza / David Alan Grier / Mitchell Lichtenstein / Matthew Modine / Michael Wright (1983) Naseeruddin Shah (1984) Gérard Depardieu (1985) Carlo Delle Piane (1986) Hugh Grant / James Wilby (1987) Don Ameche / Joe Mantegna (1988) Marcello Mastroianni / Massimo Troisi (1989) Oleg Borisov (1990) River Phoenix (1991) Jack Lemmon (1992) Fabrizio Bentivoglio / Marcello Mastroianni (1993) Xia Yu / Roberto Citran (1994) Götz George / Ian Hart (1995) Liam Neeson / Chris Penn (1996) Wesley Snipes (1997) Sean Penn (1998) Jim Broadbent (1999) Javier Bardem (2000) 2001–present Luigi Lo Cascio (2001) Stefano Accorsi (2002) Sean Penn (2003) Javier Bardem (2004) David Strathairn (2005) Ben Affleck (2006) Brad Pitt (2007) Silvio Orlando (2008) Colin Firth (2009) Vincent Gallo (2010) Michael Fassbender (2011) Philip Seymour Hoffman / Joaquin Phoenix (2012) Themis Panou (2013) Adam Driver (2014) Fabrice Luchini (2015) Oscar Martínez (2016) Kamel El Basha (2017) Willem Dafoe (2018) Luca Marinelli (2019) Pierfrancesco Favino (2020) Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Czech 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en-wikipedia-org-2368	----	Stoic physics - Wikipedia Stoic physics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Stoic physics, the Earth and the universe are all part of a single whole. Stoic physics refers to the natural philosophy of the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome which they used to explain the natural processes at work in the universe. To the Stoics, the cosmos is a single pantheistic god, one which is rational and creative, and which is the basis of everything which exists. The world is one, and must arise from one principle. Nothing incorporeal exists. The nature of the world is one of unceasing change, driven by the active part or reason (logos) of God which pervades all things. The active substance of the world is characterized as a 'breath', or pneuma, which provides form and motion to matter, and is the origin of the elements, life, and human rationality. From their physics, the Stoics explained the development, and ultimately, the destruction of the cosmos in a never-ending cycle (palingenesis). The cosmos proceeds from an original state in utmost heat, and, in the cooling and separation that occurs, all things appear which are only different embodiments and stages in the change of primitive being. Eventually though, the world will be reabsorbed into the primary substance, to be consumed in a general conflagration (ekpyrôsis), out of which a new cycle begins again. Since the world operates through reason, all things are determined. But the Stoics adopted a compatibilist view which allowed humans freedom and responsibility within the causal network of fate. Humans are part of the logos which permeates the cosmos. The human soul is a physical unity of reason and mind. The good for a human is thus to be fully rational, behaving as Nature does in the natural order. Contents 1 Central tenets 1.1 Monism 1.2 Materialism 1.3 Dynamism 2 Universe 2.1 Formation 2.2 Ending and rebirth 3 God 3.1 Fate 3.2 Divination 4 Mixture 5 Tension 6 Soul 7 Sensation 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References Central tenets[edit] In pursuing their physics the Stoics wanted to create a picture of the world which would be completely coherent.[1] Stoic physics can be described in terms of (a) monism, (b) materialism, and (c) dynamism.[2] Monism[edit] Stoicism was a pantheistic philosophy.[3] The cosmos is active, life-giving, rational and creative.[4] It is a single cohesive unit,[5] a self-supporting entity containing within it all that it needs, and all parts depending on mutual exchange with each other.[6] Different parts of this unified structure are able to interact and have an affinity with each other (sympatheia).[7] The Stoics explained everything from natural events to human conduct as manifestations of an all-pervading reason (logos).[1] Thus they identified the universe with God,[3] and the diversity of the world is explained through the transformations and products of God as the rational principle of the cosmos.[8] Materialism[edit] Philosophers since the time of Plato had asked whether abstract qualities of the soul, such as justice and wisdom, have an independent existence.[9] Plato in his Sophist dialogue (245e–249d) had argued that since qualities such as virtue and vice cannot be 'touched', they must be something very different from ordinary bodies.[10] The Stoics' answer to this dilemma was to assert that everything, including wisdom, justice, etc., are bodies.[11] Plato had defined being as "that which has the power to act or be acted upon,"[12] and for the Stoics this meant that all action proceeds by bodily contact; every form of causation is reduced to the efficient cause, which implies the communication of motion from one body to another.[2] Only Body exists.[13] The Stoics did recognise the presence of incorporeal things such as void, place and time,[13] but although real they could not exist and were said to "subsist".[14] Stoicism was thus fully materialistic;[Note a] the answers to metaphysics are to be sought in physics; particularly the problem of the causes of things for which Plato's theory of forms and Aristotle's "substantial form" had been put forth as solutions.[2] Dynamism[edit] A dualistic feature of the Stoic system are the two principles, the active and the passive: everything which exists is capable of acting and being acted upon.[2] The active principle is God acting as the rational principle (logos), and which has a higher status than the passive matter (ousia).[3] In their earlier writings the Stoics characterised the rational principle as a creative fire,[8] but later accounts stress the idea of breath, or pneuma, as the active substance.[Note b] The cosmos is thus filled with an all-pervading pneuma which allows for the cohesion of matter and permits contact between all parts of the cosmos.[15] The pneuma is everywhere coextensive with matter, pervading and permeating it, and, together with it, occupying and filling space.[16] The Epicureans had placed the form and movement of matter in the chance movements of primitive atoms.[2] In the Stoic system material substance has a continuous structure, held together by tension (tonos) as the essential attribute of body.[2][17] This tension is a property of the pneuma, and physical bodies are held together by the pneuma which is in a continual state of motion.[18] The various pneuma currents combining give objects their stable, physical properties (hexis).[18] A thing is no longer, as Plato maintained, hot or hard or bright by partaking in abstract heat or hardness or brightness, but by containing within its own substance the material of these pneuma currents in various degrees of tension.[16] As to the relation between the active and the passive principles there was no clear difference.[16] Although the Stoics talked about the active and passive as two separate types of body, it is likely they saw them as merely two aspects of the single material cosmos.[19] Pneuma, from this perspective, is not a special substance intermingled with passive matter, but rather it could be said that the material world has pneumatic qualities.[19] The diversity of the world is explained though the transformations and products of this eternal principle.[8] Universe[edit] In Stoic physics, the universe begins and ends in a divine artisan-fire. Like Aristotle, the Stoics conceived of the cosmos as being finite with the Earth at the centre and the moon, sun, planets, and fixed stars surrounding it.[20] Similarly, they rejected the possibility of any void (i.e. vacuum) within the cosmos since that would destroy the coherence of the universe and the sympathy of its parts.[21] However, unlike Aristotle, the Stoics saw the cosmos as an island embedded in an infinite void.[15] The cosmos has its own hexis which holds it together and protects it and the surrounding void cannot affect it.[22] The cosmos can, however, vary in volume, allowing it to expand and contract in volume through its cycles.[21] Formation[edit] The pneuma of the Stoics is the primitive substance which existed before the cosmos. It is the everlasting presupposition of particular things; the totality of all existence; out of it the whole of nature proceeds, eventually to be consumed by it. It is the creative force (God) which develops and shapes the universal order (cosmos). God is everything that exists.[16] In the original state, the pneuma-God and the cosmos are absolutely identical; but even then tension, the essential attribute of matter, is at work.[16] In the primitive pneuma there resides the utmost heat and tension, within which there is a pressure, an expansive and dispersive tendency. Motion backwards and forwards once set up cools the glowing mass of fiery vapour and weakens the tension.[16] Thus follows the first differentiation of primitive substance—the separation of force from matter, the emanation of the world from God. The seminal Logos which, in virtue of its tension, slumbered in pneuma, now proceeds upon its creative task.[16] The cycle of its transformations and successive condensations constitutes the life of the cosmos.[16] The cosmos and all its parts are only different embodiments and stages in the change of primitive being which Heraclitus had called "a progress up and down".[23] Out of it is separated elemental fire, the fire which we know, which burns and destroys; and this condenses into air; a further step in the downward path produces water and earth from the solidification of air.[24] At every stage the degree of tension is slackened, and the resulting element approaches more and more to "inert" matter.[16] But, just as one element does not wholly transform into another (e.g. only a part of air is transmuted into water or earth), so the pneuma itself does not wholly transform into the elements.[16] From the elements the one substance is transformed into the multitude of individual things in the orderly cosmos, which is itself a living thing or being, and the pneuma pervading it, and conditioning life and growth everywhere, is its soul.[16] Ending and rebirth[edit] The process of differentiation is not eternal; it continues only until the time of the restoration of all things. For the cosmos will in turn decay, and the tension which has been relaxed will again be tightened. Things will gradually resolve into elements, and the elements into the primary substance, to be consumed in a general conflagration (ekpyrôsis) when once more the world will be absorbed in God.[16] This ekpyrôsis is not so much a catastrophic event, but rather the period of the cosmic cycle when the preponderance of the fiery element once again reaches its maximum.[25] All matter is consumed becoming completely fiery and wholly soul-like.[26] God, at this point, can be regarded as completely existing in itself.[27] In due order a new cycle of the cosmos begins (palingenesis), reproducing the previous world, and so on forever.[28] Therefore, the same events play out again repeated endlessly.[29] Since the cosmos always unfolds according to the best possible reason, any succeeding world is likely to be identical to the previous one.[30] Thus in the same way that the cosmos occupies a finite space in an infinite void, so it can be understood to occupy a finite period in an infinite span of time.[31] God[edit] Zeno of Citium, founder of the Stoic school The Stoics often identified the universe and God with Zeus,[32] as the ruler and upholder, and at the same time the law, of the universe.[33] The Stoic God is not a transcendent omniscient being standing outside nature, but rather it is immanent—the divine element is immersed in nature itself.[32] God orders the world for the good,[34] and every element of the world contains a portion of the divine element that accounts for its behaviour.[32] The reason of things—that which accounts for them—is not some external end to which they are tending; it is something acting within them, "a spirit deeply interfused," germinating and developing from within.[16] In one sense the Stoics believed that this is the best of all possible worlds.[35] Only God or Nature is good,[36] and Nature is perfectly rational.[37] It is an organic unity and completely ordered.[38] The goodness of Nature manifests in the way it works to arrange things in the most rational way.[37] For the Stoics this is therefore the most reasonable, the most rational, of all possible worlds.[39][40] None of the events which occur by Nature are inherently bad;[41] but nor are they intrinsically 'good' even though they have been caused by a good agent.[40][42] The natural patterning of the world—life, death, sickness, health, etc.—is made up of morally indifferent events which in themselves are neither good nor bad.[39] Such events are not unimportant, but they only have value in as far as they contribute to a life according to Nature.[43] As reasoning creatures, humans have a share in Nature's rationality. The good for a human is to be fully rational, behaving as Nature does to maintain the natural order.[44] This means to know the logic of the good, to understand the rational explanation of the universe, and the nature and possibilities of being human.[38] The only evil for a human is to behave irrationally—to fail to act upon reason—such a person is insane.[38] The Stoics attempted to incorporate traditional polytheism into their philosophy.[33] Not only was the primitive substance God, the one supreme being, but divinity could be ascribed to the manifestations—to the heavenly bodies, to the forces of nature, even to deified persons; and thus the world was peopled with divine agencies.[33] Prayer is of apparently little help in a rationally ordered cosmos, and surviving examples of Stoic prayers appear to be more like types of self-meditation than appeals for divine intervention.[45] Fate[edit] To the Stoics nothing passes unexplained; there is a reason (Logos) for everything in nature.[2] Because of the Stoics' commitment to the unity and cohesion of the cosmos and its all-encompassing reason, they fully embraced determinism.[46] However instead of a single chain of causal events, there is instead a many-dimensional network of events interacting within the framework of fate.[47] Out of this swarm of causes, the course of events is fully realised.[47] Humans appear to have free will because personal actions participate in the determined chain of events independently of external conditions.[48] This "soft-determinism" allows humans to be responsible for their own actions, alleviating the apparent arbitrariness of fate.[48][49] Divination[edit] Divination was an essential element of Greek religion, and the Stoics attempted to reconcile it with their own rational doctrine of strict causation.[33] Since the pneuma of the world-soul pervades the whole universe, this allows human souls to be influenced by divine souls.[50] Omens and portents, Chrysippus explained, are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences. There must be countless indications of the course of providence, for the most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity.[33] To those who argued that divination was superfluous as all events are foreordained, he replied that both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which it affords are included in the chain of causation.[33] Mixture[edit] To fully characterize the physical world, the Stoics developed a theory of mixing in which they recognised three types of mixture.[51] The first type was a purely mechanical mixture such as mixing barley and wheat grains together: the individual components maintain their own properties, and they can be separated again.[51] The second type was a fusion, whereby a new substance is created leading to the loss of the properties of the individual components, this roughly corresponds to the modern concept of a chemical change.[51] The third type was a commingling, or total blending: there is complete interpenetration of the components down to the infinitesimal, but each component maintains its own properties.[52] In this third type of mixture a new substance is created, but since it still has the qualities of the two original substances, it is possible to extract them again.[53] In the words of Chrysippus: "there is nothing to prevent one drop of wine from mixing with the whole ocean".[52] Ancient critics often regarded this type of mixing as paradoxical since it apparently implied that each constituent substance be the receptacle of each other.[54] However to the Stoics, the pneuma is like a force, a continuous field interpenetrating matter and spreading through all of space.[55] Tension[edit] Every character and property of a particular thing is determined solely by the tension in it of pneuma, and pneuma, though present in all things, varies indefinitely in quantity and intensity.[56] In the lowest degree of tension the pneuma dwelling in inorganic bodies holds bodies together (whether animate or inanimate) providing cohesion (hexis).[57] This is the type of pneuma present in stone or metal as a retaining principle.[56] In the next degree of tension the pneuma provides nature or growth (physis) to living things.[57] This is the highest level in which it is found in plants.[56] In a higher degree of tension the pneuma produces soul (psyche) to all animals, providing them with sensation and impulse.[57] In humans can be found the pneuma in its highest form as the rational soul (logike psyche).[57] A certain warmth, akin to the vital heat of organic being, seems to be found in inorganic nature: vapours from the earth, hot springs, sparks from the flint, were claimed as the last remnant of pneuma not yet utterly slackened and cold.[56] They appealed also to the speed and expansion of gaseous bodies, to whirlwinds and inflated balloons.[56] Soul[edit] In the rational creatures pneuma is manifested in the highest degree of purity and intensity as an emanation from the world-soul.[56] Humans have souls because the universe has a soul,[58] and human rationality is the same as God's rationality.[3] The pneuma that is soul pervades the entire human body.[57] The soul is corporeal, else it would have no real existence, would be incapable of extension in three dimensions (i.e. to diffuse all over the body), incapable of holding the body together, herein presenting a sharp contrast to the Epicurean tenet that it is the body which confines and shelters the atoms of soul.[56] This corporeal soul is reason, mind, and ruling principle; in virtue of its divine origin Cleanthes can say to Zeus, "We too are thy offspring," and Seneca can calmly insist that, if man and God are not on perfect equality, the superiority rests rather on our side.[59] What God is for the world, the soul is for humans. The cosmos is a single whole, its variety being referred to varying stages of condensation in pneuma.[56] So, too, the human soul must possess absolute simplicity, its varying functions being conditioned by the degrees of its tension. There are no separate "parts" of the soul, as previous thinkers imagined.[56] With this psychology is intimately connected the Stoic theory of knowledge. From the unity of soul it follows that all mental processes—sensation, assent, impulse—proceed from reason, the ruling part; the one rational soul alone has sensations, assents to judgments, is impelled towards objects of desire just as much as it thinks or reasons.[56] Not that all these powers at once reach full maturity. The soul at first is empty of content; in the embryo it has not developed beyond the nutritive principle of a plant; at birth the "ruling part" is a blank tablet, although ready prepared to receive writing.[56] The source of knowledge is experience and discursive thought, which manipulates the materials of sense. Our ideas are copied from stored-up sensations.[56] Just as a relaxation in tension brings about the dissolution of the universe; so in the body, a relaxation of tension, accounts for sleep, decay, and death for the human body. After death the disembodied soul can only maintain its separate existence, even for a limited time, by mounting to that region of the universe which is akin to its nature. It was a moot point whether all souls so survive, as Cleanthes thought, or the souls of the wise and good alone, which was the opinion of Chrysippus; in any case, sooner or later individual souls are merged in the soul of the universe, from which they originated.[56] Sensation[edit] Chrysippus of Soli The Stoics explained perception as a transmission of the perceived quality of an object, by means of the sense organ, into the percipient's mind.[60] The quality transmitted appears as a disturbance or impression upon the corporeal surface of that "thinking thing," the soul.[60] In the example of sight, a conical pencil of rays diverges from the pupil of the eye, so that its base covers the object seen. A presentation is conveyed, by an air-current, from the sense organ, here the eye, to the mind, i.e. the soul's "ruling part." The presentation, besides attesting its own existence, gives further information of its object—such as colour or size.[60] Zeno and Cleanthes compared this presentation to the impression which a seal bears upon wax, while Chrysippus determined it more vaguely as a hidden modification or mode of mind.[60] But the mind is no mere passive recipient of impressions: the mind assents or dissents.[60] The contents of experience are not all true or valid: hallucination is possible; here the Stoics agreed with the Epicureans.[60] It is necessary, therefore, that assent should not be given indiscriminately; we must determine a criterion of truth, a special formal test whereby reason may recognize the merely plausible and hold fast the true.[60] The earlier Stoics made right reason the standard of truth.[61] Zeno compared sensation to the outstretched hand, flat and open; bending the fingers was assent; the clenched fist was "simple apprehension," the mental grasp of an object; knowledge was the clenched fist tightly held in the other hand.[62] But this criterion was open to the persistent attacks of Epicureans and Academics, who made clear (1) that reason is dependent upon, if not derived from, sense, and (2) that the utterances of reason lack consistency.[60] Chrysippus, therefore, did much to develop Stoic logic,[63] and more clearly defined and safeguarded his predecessors' position.[60] See also[edit] Block universe Eternal return Holism Natural law Stoic categories Vitalism World soul Notes[edit] a. ^ Some historians prefer to describe Stoic doctrine as "corporealism" rather than "materialism". One objection to the materialism label relates to a narrow 17th/18th-century conception of materialism whereby things must be "explained by the movements and combination of passive matter" (Gourinat 2009, p. 48). Since Stoicism is vitalistic it is "not materialism in the strict sense" (Gourinat 2009, p. 68). A second objection refers to a Stoic distinction between mere bodies (which extend in three dimensions and offer resistance), and material bodies which are "constituted by the presence with one another of both [active and passive] principles, and by the effects of one principle on the other". The active and passive principles are bodies but not material bodies under this definition (Cooper 2009, p. 100). b. ^ The concept of pneuma (as a "vital breath") was prominent in the Hellenistic medical schools. Its precise relationship to the "creative fire" (pyr technikon) of the early Stoics is unclear. Some ancient sources state that pneuma was a combination of elemental fire and air (these two elements being "active"). But in Stoic writings pneuma behaves much like the active principle, and it seems they adopted pneuma as a straight swap for the creative fire.[64] Citations[edit] ^ a b Long 1996, p. 45 ^ a b c d e f g Hicks 1911, p. 943 ^ a b c d Algra 2003, p. 167 ^ White 2003, p. 129 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 5 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 114 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 41 ^ a b c Long 1996, p. 46 ^ Sellars 2006, pp. 81-2 ^ Cooper 2009, p. 97 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 82 ^ Plato, Sophist, 247D ^ a b White 2003, p. 128 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 84 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 1 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Hicks 1911, p. 944 ^ White 2003, p. 149 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 31 ^ a b Sellars 2006, p. 90 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 108 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 110 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 113 ^ Heraclitus, DK B60 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 98 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 106 ^ Sambursky 1959, pp. 107-8 ^ White 2003, p. 137 ^ White 2003, p. 142 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 99 ^ White 2003, p. 143 ^ Christensen 2012, p. 25 ^ a b c Frede 2003, pp. 201-2 ^ a b c d e f Hicks 1911, p. 947 ^ Algra 2003, p. 172 ^ Frede 1999, p. 75 ^ Christensen 2012, p. 22 ^ a b Frede 1999, p. 77 ^ a b c Christensen 2012, p. 64 ^ a b Brennan 2005, p. 239 ^ a b Frede 1999, p. 80 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 102 ^ Brennan 2005, p. 238 ^ Christensen 2012, p. 70 ^ Frede 1999, p. 78 ^ Algra 2003, p. 175 ^ White 2003, p. 139 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 77 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 65 ^ White 2003, p. 144 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 66 ^ a b c Sambursky 1959, p. 12 ^ a b Sambursky 1959, p. 13 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 89 ^ White 2003, p. 148 ^ Sambursky 1959, p. 36 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Hicks 1911, p. 945 ^ a b c d e Sellars 2006, p. 105 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 106 ^ Seneca, Epistles, liii. 11–12 ^ a b c d e f g h i Hicks 1911, p. 946 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 54 ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 4 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 56 ^ White 2003, pp. 134-6 References[edit] Algra, Keimpe (2003), "Stoic Theology", in Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521779855 Brennan, Tad (2005). The Stoic Life: Emotions, Duties, and Fate. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199256268. Christensen, Johnny (2012). An Essay on the Unity of Stoic Philosophy. Museum Tusculanum Press. University of Copenhagen. ISBN 9788763538985. Cooper, John M. (2009). "Chrysippus on Physical Elements". In Salles, Ricardo (ed.). God and Cosmos in Stoicism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199556144. Frede, Dorothea (2003), "Stoic Determinism", in Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521779855 Frede, Michael (1999). "On the Stoic Conception of the Good". In Ierodiakonou, Katerina (ed.). Topics in Stoic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198237685. Gourinat, Jean-Baptiste (2009). "The Stoics on Matter and Prime Matter". In Salles, Ricardo (ed.). God and Cosmos in Stoicism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199556144. Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 942–951. Jacquette, Dale (1995-12-01). "Zeno of Citium on the divinity of the cosmos". Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. 24 (4): 415–431. doi:10.1177/000842989502400402. S2CID 171126287. Long, A. A. (1996), "Heraclitus and Stoicism", Stoic Studies, University of California Press, ISBN 0520229746 Sambursky, Samuel (1959), Physics of the Stoics, Routledge Sellars, John (2006), Ancient Philosophies: Stoicism, Acumen, ISBN 978-1-84465-053-8 White, Michael J. (2003), "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)", in Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521779855 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoic_physics&oldid=1000407154" Categories: Stoicism History of physics Ancient Greek metaphysics Divination Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 23:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-237	----	Claudius Gothicus - Wikipedia Claudius Gothicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 268 to 270 Roman emperor Claudius Gothicus Gold medallion (worth 8 aurei) depicting Claudius Gothicus. Legend: IMP(ERATOR) C(AESAR) M(ARCUS) AUR(E)L(IUS) CLAUDIUS P(IUS) F(ELIX) AUG(USTUS). Roman emperor Reign September 268 – January 270 Predecessor Gallienus Successor Quintillus Born 10 May 214 Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior (modern-day Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died January 270 (aged 55) Sirmium Names Marcus Aurelius Claudius Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Augustus[1] Dynasty Gordian? Father Unknown, possibly Gordian II Mother Unknown Marcus Aurelius Claudius 'Gothicus' (10 May 214 – January 270), also known as Claudius II, was Roman emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alemanni and decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. He died after succumbing to "pestilence", possibly the Plague of Cyprian that had ravaged the provinces of the Empire. Contents 1 Early life and origin 2 Military career and rise to power 2.1 Downfall of Gallienus 2.2 The Campaigns of Claudius 2.3 The Empire and Foreign Affairs under Claudius 3 Religion 4 Links to the Constantinian dynasty 5 Saint Valentine 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links Early life and origin[edit] The most significant source for Claudius II is the biography written by Trebellius Pollio as part of the collection of imperial biographies called the Historia Augusta. However, his story is riddled with fabrications and obsequious praises. This is due to the fact that in the 4th century, Claudius was declared a relative of Constantine the Great's father, Constantius I Chlorus, and, consequently, of the ruling dynasty. Thus, this biography should be used with extreme caution and supplemented with information from other sources: the works of Aurelius Victor, Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Orosius, Joannes Zonaras, and Zosimus, as well as coins and inscriptions.[2] The future emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius was born on May 10, 213 or 214.[3] Some researchers suggest a later date – 219 or 220.[4] Nevertheless, most historians adhere to the first version, moreover, as the Byzantine historian of the 6th century John Malalas reports, at the time of his death Claudius was 56 years old.[5][6] Claudius came from Dalmatia or Illyricum, although it is possible that his place of birth was the region of Dardania in Moesia Superior.[3] According to the fourth-century Epitome de Caesaribus, he was thought to be a bastard son of Gordian II,[7] but this is doubted by some historians.[8] The Historia Augusta makes him a member of the gens Flavia.[9] Military career and rise to power[edit] Probable bust of Claudius in the Palatine Museum, Rome Before coming to power, Claudius served with the Roman army, where he made a good career and secured appointment to the highest military posts. During the reign of Decius (249–251), he served as a military tribune.[10] In this post, Claudius was sent to defend Thermopylae, in connection with which the governor of Achaea was ordered to send him 200 Dardanian soldiers, 60 horsemen, 60 Cretan archers, and a thousand well-armed recruits. However, there is no evidence that the Goths who invaded at that time threatened the region, since their invasion did not extend beyond the middle Balkans. Most likely the message of the "History of the Augustus" is an anachronism, since it is known that the garrison at Thermopylae appeared in 254. Historian François Pashau offers a version that this passage was invented in order to contrast the successful pagan commander Claudius and the unlucky Christian generals who allowed the ruin of Greece by the Gothic leader Alaric I in 396.[11] In addition, Trebellius Pollio reveals that Decius rewarded Claudius after he demonstrated his strength while fighting another soldier at the Games of Mars.[12] His troops then proclaimed him emperor[13] amid charges, never proven, that he murdered his predecessor Gallienus.[14] However, he soon proved to be less than bloodthirsty, as he asked the Roman Senate to spare the lives of Gallienus' family and supporters. He was less magnanimous toward Rome's enemies, however, and it was to this that he owed his popularity.[15] It is possible Claudius gained his position and the respect of the soldiers by being physically strong and especially cruel. A legend tells of Claudius knocking out a horse's teeth with one punch. When Claudius performed as a wrestler in the 250s, he supposedly knocked out the teeth of his opponent when his genitalia had been grabbed in the match.[16] Claudius, like Maximinus Thrax before him, was of barbarian birth. After an interlude of failed aristocratic Roman emperors since Maximinus' death, Claudius was the first in a series of tough "soldier emperors" who would eventually restore the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century.[17][18] Downfall of Gallienus[edit] Antoninianus of Claudius II. Legend: IMPerator Caesar CLAVDIVS AVGustus. During the 260s, the breakup of the Roman Empire into three distinct governing entities (the core Roman Empire, the Gallic Empire and the Palmyrene Empire) placed the whole Roman imperium into a precarious position. Gallienus was seriously weakened by his failure to defeat Postumus in the West, and the ability of Odaenathus to live with his arrangement with Gallienus in the East. By 268, however, the situation had changed, as Odaenathus was assassinated, most likely due to court intrigue, and Gallienus fell victim to a mutiny in his own ranks. Upon the death of Odaenathus, power fell to his younger son, who was dominated by his mother, Zenobia.[19] Under threat of invasion by multiple tribes, Gallienus' troubles primarily lay with Postumus, whom he could not attack because his attention was required in dealing with Macrianus and the invading Scythians. After four years of delay, Postumus had established power, but in 265, when Gallienus and his men crossed the Alps, they defeated and besieged Postumus in an (unnamed) Gallic city. When victory appeared to be near, Gallienus made the mistake of approaching the city walls too closely and was gravely injured, compelling him to withdraw the campaign. In the next three years, Gallienus' troubles would only get worse. The Scythians successfully invaded the Balkans in the early months of 268, and Aureolus, a commander of the cavalry, declared himself an ally of Postumus and the new emperor in Milan.[19] At this time, another invasion was taking place. A group called the Herulians navigated through Asia Minor and then into Greece on a naval expedition. Details of these invasions are abstract, as it is nearly impossible to reconstruct the happenings, due to the chain of conflicts initiated by the Herulians in 268. Scholars assume Gallienus' efforts were focused on Aureolus, the officer who betrayed him, and the defeat of the Herulians was left to his successor, Claudius Gothicus.[20] The death of Gallienus is surrounded by conspiracy and betrayal, as were many emperors' deaths. Different accounts of the incident are recorded, but they agree that senior officials wanted Gallienus dead. According to two accounts, the prime conspirator was Aurelius Heraclianus, the Praetorian Prefect. One version of the story tells of Heraclianus bringing Claudius into the plot while the account given by the Historia Augusta exculpates the would-be emperor and adds the prominent general Lucius Aurelius Marcianus into the plot. The removal of Claudius from the conspiracy is due to his later role as the progenitor of the house of Constantine, a fiction of Constantine's time, and may serve to guarantee that the original version from which these two accounts spring was current prior to the reign of Constantine. It is written that while sitting down at dinner, Gallienus was told that Aureolus and his men were approaching the camp. Gallienus rushed to the front lines, ready to give orders, when he was struck down by a commander of his cavalry. In a different and more controversial account, Aureolus forges a document in which Gallienus appears to be plotting against his generals and makes sure it falls into the hands of the emperor's senior staff. In this plot, Aurelian is added as a possible conspirator. The tale of his involvement in the conspiracy might be seen as at least partial justification for the murder of Aurelian himself under circumstances that seem remarkably similar to those in this story.[21] Whichever story is true, Gallienus was killed in the summer of 268, and Claudius was chosen by the army outside of Milan to succeed him. Accounts tell of people hearing the news of the new emperor, and reacting by murdering Gallienus' family members until Claudius declared he would respect the memory of his predecessor. Claudius had the deceased emperor deified and buried in a family tomb on the Appian Way. The traitor Aureolus was not treated with the same reverence, as he was killed by his besiegers after a failed attempt to surrender.[21] The Campaigns of Claudius[edit] At the time of Claudius' accession, the Roman Empire was in serious danger from several incursions, both within and outside its borders. The most pressing of these was an invasion of Illyricum and Pannonia by the Goths.[15] Although Gallienus had already inflicted some damage on them at the Battle of Nestus,[22] Claudius, not long after being named emperor, followed this up by winning his greatest victory, and one of the greatest in the history of Roman arms.[20] The Roman Empire in 268 A.D. At the Battle of Naissus, Claudius and his legions routed a huge Gothic army.[2] Together with his cavalry commander, the future Emperor Aurelian, the Romans took thousands of prisoners, destroyed the Gothic cavalry as a force, and stormed their laager (a circular alignment of wagons long favored by the Goths).[dubious – discuss] The victory earned Claudius his surname of "Gothicus" (conqueror of the Goths), and that is how he is known to this day. More importantly, the Goths were soon driven back across the Danube River by Aurelian, and nearly a century passed before they again posed a serious threat to the empire.[20] At the same time, the Alamanni had crossed the Alps and attacked the empire. Claudius responded quickly, routing the Alamanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus in the late fall of 268, a few months after the Battle of Naissus.[23] For this he was awarded the title of "Germanicus Maximus."[2] He then turned on the Gallic Empire, ruled by a pretender for the past eight years and encompassing Britain, Gaul, and the Iberian Peninsula. He won several victories and soon regained control of Hispania and the Rhone river valley of Gaul.[22] This set the stage for the ultimate destruction of the Gallic Empire under Aurelian.[2] Claudius did not live long enough to fulfill his goal of reuniting all the lost territories of the empire. Late in 269 he had traveled to Sirmium[13] and was preparing to go to war against the Vandals, who were raiding in Pannonia.[23] However, he fell victim to the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox), and died early in January 270.[24] Before his death, he is thought to have named Aurelian as his successor, though Claudius' brother Quintillus briefly seized power.[15] The Senate immediately deified Claudius as "Divus Claudius Gothicus".[25] The Empire and Foreign Affairs under Claudius[edit] Claudius was not the only man to reap the benefits of holding high office after the death of Gallienus. Before the rule of Claudius Gothicus, there had only been two emperors from the Balkans, but afterwards there would only be one emperor who did not hail from the provinces of Pannonia, Moesia or Illyricum until 378, when Theodosius I from Hispania would take the throne. To comprehend the structure of government during the reign of Claudius, we must look at four inscriptions that deepen our understanding of a new, truncated empire. The first is a dedication to Aurelius Heraclianus, the prefect involved in the conspiracy against Gallienus, from Traianus Mucianus, who also gave a dedication to Heraclianus' brother, Aurelius Appollinaris, who was the equestrian governor of the province of Thracia in 267–68 AD.[26] Because these men shared the family name, Marcus Aurelius, a name given to those made citizens by the constitutio Antoniniana, we can understand that these men did not come from the imperial élite. The third inscription reveals the career of Marcianus, another leading general by the time that Gallienus died. The fourth honors Julius Placidianus, the prefect of the vigiles. While we cannot prove that Heraclianus, Appollinaris, Placidianus, or Marcianus were of Danubian origin themselves, it is clear that none of them were members of the Severan aristocracy, and all of them appear to owe their prominence to their military roles. To those men must be added Marcus Aurelius Probus (another emperor in waiting), also of Balkan background, and from a family enfranchised in the time of Caracalla.[27] A Radiate of Claudius II Gothicus. Legend: IMP. CLAVDIVS AVG. Although we see a rise in Pannonian, Moesian and Illyrian marshals, and foreigners become notable figures, it would be impractical to think the government could function without help from the traditional classes within the empire. Although their influence was weakened, there were still a number of men with influence from the older aristocracy. Claudius assumed the consulship in 269 with Paternus, a member of the prominent senatorial family, the Paterni, who had supplied consuls and urban prefects throughout Gallienus' reign, and thus were quite influential. In addition, Flavius Antiochianus, one of the consuls of 270, who was an urban prefect the year before, would continue to hold his office for the following year. A colleague of Antiochianus, Virius Orfitus, also the descendant of a powerful family, would continue to hold influence during his father's term as prefect. Aurelian's colleague as consul was another such man, Pomponius Bassus, a member of one of the oldest senatorial families, as was one of the consuls in 272, Junius Veldumnianus.[27] In his first full year of power, Claudius was greatly assisted by the sudden destruction of the imperium Galliarum. When Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus, a high official under Postumus, declared himself emperor in Germania Superior, in the spring of 269, Postumus defeated him, but in doing so, refused to allow the sack of Mainz, which had served as Laelianus' headquarters. This proved to be his downfall, for out of anger, Postumus' army mutinied and murdered him. Selected by the troops, Marcus Aurelius Marius was to replace Postumus as ruler. Marius' rule did not last long though, as Victorinus, Postumus' praetorian prefect, defeated him. Now emperor of the Gauls, Victorinus was soon in a precarious position, for the Spanish provinces had deserted the Gallic Empire and declared their loyalty to Claudius, while in southern Gaul, Placidianus had captured Grenoble. Luckily, it was there that Placidianus stopped and Victorinus' position stabilized. In the next year, when Autun revolted, declaring itself for Claudius, the central government made no moves to support it. As a result, the city went through a siege, lasting many weeks, until it was finally captured and sacked by Victorinus.[28] It is still unknown why Claudius did nothing to help the city of Autun, but sources tell us his relations with Palmyra were waning in the course of 270. An obscure passage in the Historia Augusta's life of Gallienus states that he had sent an army under Aurelius Heraclianus to the region that had been annihilated by Zenobia. But because Heraclianus was not actually in the east in 268 (instead, at this time, he was involved in the conspiracy of Gallienus' death), we can see that this can not be correct. But the confusion evident in this passage, which also places the bulk of Scythian activity during 269 a year earlier, under Gallienus, may stem from a later effort to pile all possible disasters in this year into the reign of the former emperor. This would keep Claudius' record of being an ancestor of Constantine from being tainted. If this understanding of the sources is correct, it might also be correct to see the expedition of Heraclianus to the east as an event of Claudius' time.[28] Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium, today in Sremska Mitrovica The victories of Claudius over the Goths would not only make him a hero in Latin tradition, but an admirable choice as an ancestor for Constantine I, who was born at Naissus, the site of Claudius' victory in 269. Claudius is also held in high esteem by Zonaras, whose Greek tradition seems to have been influenced by Latin. For Zosimus, a more reasoned contemporary view shows Claudius as less grand. Claudius' successes in the year 269 were not continued in his next year as emperor. As the Scythians starved in the mountains or surrendered, the legions pursuing them began to see an epidemic spreading throughout the men. Also, Claudius' unwillingness to do anything at the siege of Autun likely provoked a quarrel with Zenobia.[29] Although it is not proven that the invasion of Gaul was the breaking point between Claudius and Zenobia, the sequence of events point to the siege as an important factor. The issue at hand was the position that Odaenathus held as corrector totius orientis (imparting overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region). Vaballathus, the son of Zenobia, was given this title when Zenobia claimed it for him. From then on, tension between the two empires would only get worse. Aurelius Heraclianus' fabled arrival might have been an effort to reassert central control after the death of Odaenathus, but, if so, it failed. Although coins were never minted with the face of Odaenathus,[30] soon after his death coins were made with image of his son[31] – outstripping his authority under the emperor.[32] Under Zabdas, a Palmyrene army invaded Arabia and moved into Egypt in the late summer. At this time, the prefect of Egypt was Tenagino Probus, described as an able soldier who not only defeated an invasion of Cyrenaica by the nomadic tribes to the south in 269, but also was successful in hunting down Scythian ships in the Mediterranean. However, he did not see the same success in Egypt, for a Palmyrene underground, led by Timagenes, undermined Probus, defeated his army, and killed him in a battle near the modern city of Cairo in the late summer of 270.[29] Generally, when a Roman commander is slaughtered it is taken as a sign that a state of war is in existence, and if we can associate the death of Heraclianus in 270, as well as an inscription from Bostra recording the rebuilding of a temple destroyed by the Palmyrene army, then these violent acts could be interpreted the same way. Yet they apparently were not. As David Potter writes, "The coins of Vaballathus avoid claims to imperial power: he remains vir consularis, rex, imperator, dux Romanorum, a range of titles that did not mimic those of the central government. The status vir consularis was, as we have seen, conferred upon Odaenathus; the title rex, or king, is simply a Latin translation of mlk, or king; imperator in this context simply means "victorious general"; and dux Romanorum looks like yet another version of corrector totius orientis" (Potter, 263). These titles suggest that Odaenathus' position was inheritable. In Roman culture, the status gained in procuring a position could be passed on, but not the position itself. It is possible that the thin line between office and the status that accompanied it were dismissed in the Palmyrene court, especially when the circumstance worked against the interests of a regime that was able to defeat Persia, which a number of Roman emperors had failed to do. Vaballathus stressed the meanings of titles, because in the Palmyrene context, the titles of Odaenathus meant a great deal. When the summer of 270 ended, things were looking very different in the empire than they did a year before. After its success, Gaul was in a state of inactivity and the empire was failing in the east. Insufficient resources plagued the state, as a great deal of silver was used for the antoninianus, which was again diluted.[29] A large number of rare gold coins of Claudius have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s. Religion[edit] A short history of imperial Rome, entitled De Caesaribus written by Aurelius Victor in AD 361 states that Claudius consulted the Sibylline Books prior to his campaigns against the Goths. Hinting that Claudius "revived the tradition of the Decii", Victor illustrates the senatorial view, which saw Claudius' predecessor, Gallienus, as too relaxed when it came to religious policies.[33] Links to the Constantinian dynasty[edit] The unreliable Historia Augusta reports Claudius and Quintillus having another brother named Crispus and through him a niece, Claudia, who reportedly married Eutropius and was mother to Constantius Chlorus.[34] Some historians suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication, however, intended to link the family of Constantine I to that of a well-respected emperor.[2] Saint Valentine[edit] Claudius Gothicus has been linked to Saint Valentine since the Middle Ages. Contemporary records of his deeds were most probably destroyed during the Diocletianic Persecution in early 4th century[35] and a tale of martyrdom was recorded in Passio Marii et Marthae, a work published in the 5th or 6th century.[35][36] Twentieth-century historians agree that the accounts from this period cannot be verified.[35][36] The legend refers to "Emperor Claudius", but Claudius I did not persecute Christians (minus the one mention by Suetonius of Jewish followers of "Chrestus" being expelled from Rome; see Suetonius on Christians), so people believe he was Claudius II even though this emperor spent most of his time warring outside his territory.[35] The legend was retold in later texts, and in the Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493 AD, involved the Roman priest being martyred during a general persecution of Christians. The text states that St. Valentine was beaten with clubs and finally beheaded for giving aid to Christians in Rome.[35] The Golden Legend of 1260 AD recounts how St. Valentine refused to deny Christ before the "Emperor Claudius" in 270 AD and as a result was beheaded.[36] Since then, February 14 marks Valentine's Day, a day set aside by the Christian church in memory of the Roman priest and physician.[37] References[edit] ^ Henze, col. 2458. ^ a b c d e Weigel, Richard D. (2001). "Claudius II Gothicus (268—270)". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. ^ a b Damerau 1934, s. 39. ^ Henze 1896, s. 2458. ^ Kienast 1990, s. 231. ^ Weigel, Richard D. (2001). "Claudius II Gothicus (268—270)". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. ^ [1] "Many think this man was fathered by Gordian, when, as a youth, he was being prepared by a grown woman for a wife." ^ Hekster, Olivier (2015). Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the Constraints of Tradition. Oxford University Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-19-873682-0. ^ [2]Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius ^ See SHA, Vita Claudii, 14. It is in fact doubtful that Claudius was a military tribune at the time of Gallienus's murder. At that time this military tribune was usually the commander of a legionary cohort or an ala of auxiliary cavalry. For Claudius to have been demoted to this level from the heights he had previous occupied (Hipparchos of the Cavalry and Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armies) would suggest a serious rift between himself and Gallienus. It is possible, but there is no evidence for it in any of the ancient sources; even Zosimus, who is notably cool towards Claudius, gives no hint of it. The most likely explanation for the suggestion is that the author of the Historia Augusta, writing in the Fourth Century AD after the Constantinian reform of the army, had no notion what the term 'tribune' denoted in the seventh decade of the previous century. ^ Paschoud 1992, p. 25—26. ^ Aurelius Victor, 33 ^ a b Jones, pg. 209 ^ Weigel, Richard D. (2001). "Claudius II Gothicus (268—270)". An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. ^ a b c Gibbon, Ch. 11 ^ Meijer, pg. 98 ^ Lightfoot, Christopher (October 2000). "The Roman empire (27 B.C.-393 A.D.)". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ "What were the causes of the 3rd century crisis in the Roman Empire?". dailyhistory.org. 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2019. ^ a b Potter, pg. 263 ^ a b c Potter, David (2004). "7". The Roman empire at bay, AD 180-395. Routledge history of the ancient world (second ed.). ISBN 978-1-315-88256-7. ^ a b Potter, pg. 264 ^ a b Southern, pg. 109 ^ a b Southern, pg. 110 ^ "Now when the war with the Goths was finished, there spread abroad a most grievous pestilence, and then Claudius himself was stricken by the disease, and, leaving mankind, he departed to heaven, an abode befitting his virtues." (Historia Augusta). ^ Bowman, The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337, pg. 50 ^ Christol, Michel (1976). "Une carrière équestre sous le règne de l'empereur Gallien". Latomus. 35: 866–74. ^ a b Potter, p. 265 ^ a b Potter, p. 266 ^ a b c Potter, p. 267 ^ Young, Gary K. (2003). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. ^ Southern, Patricia (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-4248-1. ^ Claes, Liesbeth (2015). "Coins with power" (PDF) (102). Jaarboek voor Munt. pp. 15–60. ^ Curran, pg. 15 ^ Historia Augusta, Claudius, 13:2 ^ a b c d e Jack Oruch, "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February", Speculum 56.3 (July 1981 pp 534–565) p 535. ^ a b c Henry Kelly, Chaucer and the cult of Saint Valentine, pg. 49 ^ Larue, pg. 1 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Claudius The accuracy of this source has been questioned. Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Weigel, Richard D. "Claudius II Gothicus (268 -270)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, 2001 Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Curran, John R. Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000. Print Larue, Gerald A. "There They Go Again!" The Humanist Sept. 1999: 1. Print. Meijer, Fik. Emperors Don't Die in Bed. London: Routledge, 2004. Print. Potter, David S. "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.08.01." The Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 2004. Henze, W. (1896). "Aurelius 82" (Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft ed.). Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) Homo, L. (1903). De Claudio Gothico, Romanorum imperatore (268—270). Paris: H. Jouve. Damerau, P. (1934). Kaiser Claudius II. Goticus (268—270 n. Chr.). Leipzig: Dieterich. Henze, Walter, "Aurelius 82", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 4 (II.2), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1896), columns 2458–2462. Kienast, D. (1990). Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 9783534132898. Paschoud, F. (1992). "Claude II aux Thermopyles? A propos de HA, Claud. 16,1, Zosime 5,5 et Eunape, Vitae Soph. 7, 3, 4-5" (Institutions, société et vie politique dans l'Empire romain au IVe siècle ap. J.-C. Actes de la table ronde autour de l'oeuvre d'André Chastagnol (Paris, 20–21 janvier 1989) ed.). Rome: 21–28. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) Kotula, T. (1994). "Autour de Claude II le Gothique: péripéties d'un mythe" (96) (Revue des Études Anciennes ed.): 499–509. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415239431. Watson (2004). "A.". Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781134908158. Potter, D. S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180—395. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415100588. Hartmann, U.; Gerhardt, T. (2008). Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235-284). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. hrsg. v. Johne K.-P. ISBN 9783050088075. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Claudius II. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Claudius, Marcus Aurelius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Regnal titles Preceded by Gallienus Roman emperor 268–270 Succeeded by Quintillus Political offices Preceded by Aspasius Paternus P. Licinius Egnatius Marinianus Postumus Consul of the Roman Empire 269 with Paternus, Victorinus, Sanctus Succeeded by Flavius Antiochianus Virius Orfitus Victorinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claudius_Gothicus&oldid=1026086498" Categories: 214 births 270 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Gothicus Maximus Aurelii Claudii Illegitimate children of Roman emperors People from Sirmium People from Roman Dalmatia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from July 2012 CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: date and year Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 08:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2382	----	Sphaerus - Wikipedia Sphaerus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sphaerus Engraving by Girolamo Olgiati, 1580 Born c. 285 BC Died c. 210 BC Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Influences Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes Sphaerus (Greek: Σφαῖρος; c. 285 BC – c. 210 BC) of Borysthenes[1] or the Bosphorus,[2] was a Stoic philosopher. Contents 1 Life 2 Ideas 3 Writings 4 Notes 5 References Life[edit] Sphaerus studied first under Zeno of Citium, and afterwards under Cleanthes. He taught in Sparta, where he acted as advisor to Cleomenes III.[1] He moved to Alexandria at some point, (possibly when Cleomenes himself was exiled there in 222 BC) where he lived in the court of Ptolemy IV Philopator. Ideas[edit] Little survives of his works, but Sphaerus had a considerable reputation among the Stoics for the accuracy of his definitions.[3] Examine the definitions of courage: you will find it does not require the assistance of passion. Courage is, then, an affection of mind that endures all things, being itself in proper subjection to the highest of all laws; or it may be called a firm maintenance of judgment in supporting or repelling everything that has a formidable appearance, or a knowledge of what is formidable or otherwise, and maintaining invariably a stable judgment of all such things, so as to bear them or despise them ... for the above definitions are Sphaerus’s, a man of the first ability as a layer-down of definitions, as the Stoics think. — Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, iv. 24 [53][3] Diogenes Laërtius[4] and Athenaeus[5] tell a story of how he once saved himself from admitting that he had been deceived by a trick played upon him by King Ptolemy: And once, when there was a discussion concerning the question whether a wise man would allow himself to be guided by opinion, and when Sphaerus affirmed that he would not, the king, wishing to refute him, ordered some pomegranates of wax to be set before him; and when Sphaerus was deceived by them, the king shouted that he had given his assent to a false perception. But Sphaerus answered very neatly, that he had not given his assent to the fact that they were pomegranates, but to the fact that it was probable that they might be pomegranates. And that a perception which could be comprehended differed from one that was only probable.[4] Writings[edit] According to Diogenes Laërtius, Sphaerus wrote the following works:[6] Περὶ κόσμου δύο – On the Universe (two books) Περὶ στοιχείων – On the Elements [Περὶ] σπέρματος – [On] Seed Περὶ τύχης – On Fortune Περὶ ἐλαχίστων – On the Smallest Things Πρὸς τὰς ἀτόμους καὶ τὰ εἴδωλα – Against Atoms and Images Περὶ αἰσθητηρίων – On the Senses Περὶ Ἡρακλείτου πέντε διατριβῶν – On Heraclitus (five lectures) Περὶ τῆς ἠθικῆς διατάξεως – On the Arrangement of Ethics Περὶ καθήκοντος – On Duty Περὶ ὁρμῆς – On Impulse Περὶ παθῶν δύο – On Passions (two books) Περὶ βασιλείας – On Kingship Περὶ Λακωνικῆς πολιτείας – On the Lacedaemonian Constitution Περὶ Λυκούργου καὶ Σωκράτους τρία – On Lycurgus and Socrates (three books) Περὶ νόμου – On Law Περὶ μαντικῆς – On Divination Διαλόγους ἐρωτικούς – Dialogues on Love Περὶ τῶν Ἐρετριακῶν φιλοσόφων – On the Eretrian Philosophers Περὶ ὁμοίων – On Things Similar Περὶ ὅρων – On Terms Περὶ ἕξεως – On Habits Περὶ τῶν ἀντιλεγομένων τρία – On Contradictions (three books) Περὶ λόγου – On Discourse Περὶ πλούτου – On Wealth Περὶ δόξης – On Glory Περὶ θανάτου – On Death Τέχνης διαλεκτικῆς δύο – Art of Dialectics (two books) Περὶ κατηγορημάτων – On Predicates Περὶ ἀμφιβολιῶν – On Ambiguity Ἐπιστολάς – Letters Notes[edit] ^ a b Plutarch, Cleomenes, 2.2. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 37, 177 ^ a b Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, iv. 24. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 177 ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, viii. 354 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 178 References[edit]  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Sphaerus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sphaerus&oldid=975490011" Categories: Stoic philosophers 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC philosophers Ancient Pontic Greeks Ptolemaic court 280s BC births 210s BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Français Italiano مصرى Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2020, at 20:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2393	----	Constans - Wikipedia Constans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Constans I) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 337 to 350 For other uses, see Constans (disambiguation). Roman emperor Constans Portrait head of Constans set in a modern bust (Louvre) Roman emperor Augustus 9 September 337 – 18 January 350 Predecessor Constantine I Successor Magnentius and Vetranio Co-rulers Constantine II (Gaul, Hispania and Britain, 337–340) Constantius II (East) Caesar 25 December 333 – 9 September 337 Born c. 320 Died January 350 (aged 27 or 30)[1] Vicus Helena, southwestern Gaul Names Flavius Julius Constans[1] Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantine I Mother Fausta Religion Nicene Christianity Flavius Julius Constans (c. 320 – 350) was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of caesar from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. After his father's death, he was made augustus alongside his brothers in September 337. Constans was given the administration of the praetorian prefectures of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa.[2] He defeated the Sarmatians in a campaign shortly afterwards.[2] Quarrels over the sharing of power led to a civil war with his eldest brother and co-emperor Constantine II, who invaded Italy in 340 and was killed in battle with Constans's forces near Aquileia.[2] Constans gained from him the praetorian prefecture of Gaul.[2] Thereafter there were tensions with his remaining brother and co-augustus Constantius II (r. 337–361), including over the exiled bishop Athanasius of Alexandria.[2] In the following years he campaigned against the Franks and in 343 visited Roman Britain.[2] In January 350, Magnentius (r. 350–353) the commander of the Jovians and Herculians, a corps in the Roman army, was acclaimed augustus at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of Marcellinus, the comes rei privatae.[3] Magnentius overthrew and killed Constans.[2][3] Surviving sources, possibly influenced by the propaganda of Magnentius's faction, accuse Constans of misrule and of homosexuality.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 2.1 Caesar 2.2 Augustus 2.3 Homosexuality 3 Death 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Early life[edit] Constans was probably born in 320.[1] He was the third and youngest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, his father's second wife.[4] He was the grandson of both the augusti Constantius I and Maximian.[1] When he was born his father Constantine was the empire's senior augustus, and at war with his colleague and brother-in-law Licinius I (r. 308–324). At the time of Constans's birth, his eldest brother Constantine II and his half-brother Crispus, Constantine's first-born son, were already reigning as caesar. Constans's half-aunt Flavia Julia Constantia was Licinius's wife and mother to another caesar, Licinius II. After the defeat of Licinius by Crispus at the Battle of the Hellespont and at the Battle of Chrysopolis by Constantine, Licinius and his son resigned the purple and were spared at Constantine's half-sister's urging. Licinius was executed on a pretext shortly afterwards. In 326, Constans's mother Fausta was put to death. She was killed on Constantine's orders, as were Constans's half-brother Crispus and Licinius II. This left Constans's branch of the Constantinian dynasty – descended from Constantius I's relationship with Helena – in control of the imperial college. According to the works of both Ausonius and Libanius he was educated at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius, who instructed him in Latin.[1] Reign[edit] Caesar[edit] On 25 December 333, his father Constantine I elevated Constans to the imperial rank of caesar at Constantinople.[1] He was nobilissimus caesar alongside his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II.[1] Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the praetorian prefect Ablabius, but the marriage never came to pass.[4] Official imagery was changed to accommodate an image of Constans as co-caesar beside his brothers and their father the augustus.[5] It is possible that the occasion of Constans's elevation to the imperial college was timed to coincide with the celebration of the millennium of the city of Byzantium, whose re-foundation as Constantinople Constantine had begun the previous decade.[5] In 248, Rome had celebrated its own millennium, the Saecular Games (Latin: ludi saeculares), in the reign of Philip the Arab (r. 244–249).[5] Philip may also have raised his son to co-augustus at the start of the anniversary year.[5] Rome had been calculated by the 1st-century BC Latin author Marcus Terentius Varro to have been founded by Romulus in 753 BC.[5] Byzantium was thought to have been founded in 667 BC by Byzas, according to the reckoning derived from the History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, the 5th-century BC Greek historian and used by Constantine's court historian Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicon.[5] Augustus[edit] Solidus of Constans marked: constans augustus With Constantine's death in 337, Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II, divided the Roman world among themselves[6] and disposed of virtually all relatives who could possibly have a claim to the throne.[7] The army proclaimed them augusti on 9 September 337.[1] Almost immediately, Constans was required to deal with a Sarmatian invasion in late 337, in which he won a resounding victory.[4] Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius. Constans was initially under the guardianship of Constantine II. The original settlement assigned Constans the praetorian prefecture of Italy, which included Northern Africa.[citation needed] Constans was unhappy with this division, so the brothers met at Viminacium in 338 to revise the boundaries.[citation needed] Constans managed to extract the prefecture of Illyricum and the diocese of Thrace,[citation needed] provinces that were originally to be ruled by his cousin Dalmatius, as per Constantine I's proposed division after his death.[7] Constantine II soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son.[8] Gold medallion of Constans, equivalent to 9 solidi. Aquileia, 342 AD - Bode Museum Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, which he agreed to do in order to maintain a fragile peace.[8][9] Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage and Constantine, and which parts belonged to Italy and Constans.[10] This led to growing tensions between the two brothers, which were only heightened by Constans finally coming of age and Constantine refusing to give up his guardianship. In 340 Constantine II invaded Italy.[9] Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces.[8] Constantine was eventually trapped at Aquileia, where he died, leaving Constans to inherit all of his brother's former territories – Hispania, Britannia and Gaul.[6] Solidus of Constans marked: constans p·f· augustus on the obverse, with the emperor holding a vexillum with a chi-rho and crowned by Victory on the reverse, marked: spes rei publicae ("the hope of the Republic") Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion.[6] In 341–342, he led a successful campaign against the Franks, and in the early months of 343 he visited Britain.[4] The source for this visit, Julius Firmicus Maternus, does not provide a reason, but the quick movement and the danger involved in crossing the English Channel in the winter months suggests it was in response to a military emergency, possibly to repel the Picts and Scots.[4] Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism and promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341.[4] He suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother Constantius. Although Constans called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict,[11] it was a complete failure,[12] and by 346 the two emperors were on the point of open warfare over the dispute.[citation needed] The conflict was only resolved by an interim agreement which allowed each emperor to support their preferred clergy within their own spheres of influence.[citation needed] Homosexuality[edit] The Roman historian Eutropius says Constans "indulged in great vices," in reference to his homosexuality, and Aurelius Victor stated that Constans had a reputation for scandalous behaviour with "handsome barbarian hostages."[4] Nevertheless, Constans did sponsor a decree alongside Constantius II that ruled that marriage based on "unnatural" sex should be punished meticulously. John Boswell argues that the decree outlawed homosexual marriages only, rather than homosexual activity more generally. However, it was likely the case that Constans promulgated the legislation under pressure from the growing band of Christian leaders, in an attempt to placate public outrage at his own perceived indecencies.[13] Death[edit] In the final years of his reign, Constans developed a reputation for cruelty and misrule.[14] Dominated by favourites and openly preferring his select bodyguard, he lost the support of the legions.[8] In 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier and, later, the western provinces of the Empire.[15] Constans was enjoying himself nearby when he was notified of the elevation of Magnentius.[8] Lacking any support beyond his immediate household,[8] he was forced to flee for his life. As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in Helena (Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul,[16] where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple.[17] An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die in the arms of his grandmother. His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy.[18] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 220. ^ a b c d e f g h Tougher, Shaun (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Constans I", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1182, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-11-02 ^ a b Tougher, Shaun (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Magnentius", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2914, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-11-02 ^ a b c d e f g DiMaio, Constans I (337–350 A.D.) ^ a b c d e f Ramskold, Lars (2018). "The silver emissions of Constantine I from Constantinopolis, and the celebration of the millennium of Byzantion in 333/334 CE". Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte. 68: 145–198. ISBN 978-3-943639-06-3. ^ a b c Eutropius, 10:9 ^ a b Victor, 41:20 ^ a b c d e f Gibbon, Ch. 18 ^ a b Victor, 41:21 ^ Zosimus, 2:41-42 ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 2, chapter 20. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, 1930, Patrick J. Healy, Sardica ^ John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality, 1980 ^ Zosimus, 2:42 ^ Eutropius, 10:9:4 ^ Victor, 41:21:23 ^ Gibbon, Edward (1900). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 2. P. F. Collier & Son. p. 117. Before he could reach a seaport in Spain, where he intended to embark, he was overtaken near Helena, at the foot of the Pyrenees, by a party of light cavalry, whose chief, regardless of the sanctity of a temple, executed his commission by the murder of the son of Constantine. ^ Cárdenas, Fabricio (2014). 66 petites histoires du Pays Catalan [66 Little Stories of Catalan Country] (in French). Perpignan: Ultima Necat. ISBN 978-2-36771-006-8. OCLC 893847466. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 2 Historia Nova Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Secondary sources[edit] DiMaio, Michael; Frakes, Robert, Constans I (337–350 A.D.), in De Imperatoribus Romanis (D.I.R.), An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) External links[edit] Media related to Constans at Wikimedia Commons Constans Constantinian dynasty Born: 320 Died: 350 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine I Roman emperor 337–350 With: Constantius II and Constantine II Succeeded by Magnentius Vetranio Political offices Preceded by Ursus Polemius Roman consul 339 With: Constantius Augustus II Succeeded by Septimius Acindynus L. Aradius Valerius Proculus Preceded by Antonius Marcellinus Petronius Probinus Roman consul II 342 With: Constantius Augustus III Succeeded by M. Furius Placidus Romulus Preceded by Amantius M. Nummius Albinus Roman consul III 346 With: Constantius Augustus IV Succeeded by Vulcacius Rufinus Eusebius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain United States Netherlands Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constans&oldid=1026086226" Categories: 320s births 350 deaths 4th-century Byzantine emperors 4th-century Christians 4th-century murdered monarchs 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient LGBT people Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Julii LGBT heads of state LGBT people from Italy Murdered Roman emperors People executed by the Roman Empire Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 08:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2417	----	Lorium - Wikipedia Lorium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lorium was an ancient village of ancient Etruria, Italy, along the Via Aurelia, 19 km west of Rome.[1][2] The 15th emperor of the Roman Empire, Antoninus Pius, who was educated here, afterwards built a palace, in which he died.[3] It was also a favorite haunt of Pius' successor as emperor, Marcus Aurelius.[4] Remains of ancient buildings exist in the neighborhood of the road on each side (near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of tombs, inscriptions, etc., were excavated in 1823–1824. Parts of an elite villa have been excavated near Castel di Guido as well.[5] Three or four kilometres farther west was probably the post-station of Baebiana, where inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed; no doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was reached by this road. References[edit] ^ "Lorio" http://www.cambridge.org/us/talbert/talbertdatabase/TPPlace1245.html ^ Quilici, L., S. Quilici Gigli, DARMC, R. Talbert, S. Gillies, J. Åhlfeldt, J. Becker, T. Elliott. "Places: 422963 (Lorium)". Pleiades. Retrieved October 18, 2015.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ John H. Humphrey (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. pp. 567–. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5. ^ Michael Petrus Josephus Van Den Hout; Marco Cornelio Frontón (1999). A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. BRILL. pp. 93–. ISBN 90-04-10957-9. ^ Annalisa Marzano (2007). Roman Villas in Central Italy: A Social and Economic History. BRILL. pp. 311–. ISBN 90-04-16037-X.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lorium". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 9. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lorium&oldid=893556496" Categories: Ancient Italian history Roman towns and cities in Italy Etruria Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Italiano Nederlands Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2019, at 06:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2428	----	Triumvir monetalis - Wikipedia Triumvir monetalis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Triumvir Monetalis) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Triumvir monetalis" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman Republic, AR Denarius struck 111-110 BC. Triumvir Monetalis: Appius Claudius Pulcher, T. Manlius Mancius and Q. Urbinus. Various Roman currency A triumvir monetalis was one of three moneyers appointed in Ancient Rome to oversee the minting of coins. Name[edit] The triumviri monetalis derived their name from the Roman mint's location in the temple of Juno Moneta ("Juno the Advisor" or "the Solitary"). In time, the mint gave the goddess's epithet the additional connotation of "of" or "related to money", which became the source of the English word money. The "money triumvirs" were also known as the triumviri or tresviri aere argento auro flando feriundo, the three men "charged with casting and striking bronze, silver, and gold". See also[edit] Moneyer Other triumvirs This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triumvir_monetalis&oldid=1025501656" Categories: Moneyers of ancient Rome Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from August 2020 All articles lacking sources Articles containing Latin-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2021, at 23:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2432	----	Eloquence - Wikipedia Eloquence From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rhetoric For other uses, see Eloquence (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eloquence" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (August 2016) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 4,028 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Éloquence]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Éloquence}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Statue of Eloquence at the Palais du parlement de Bretagne, Rennes Eloquence (from French eloquence from Latin eloquentia) is fluent, forcible, elegant or persuasive speaking. It is primarily the power of expressing strong emotions in striking and appropriate language, thereby producing conviction or persuasion. The term is also used for writing in a fluent style. The concept of eloquence dates to the ancient Greeks, Calliope (one of the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne) being the Muse of epic poetry and eloquence. The Greek god Hermes was patron of eloquence. Cicero is considered as one of the most eloquent orators of Antiquity. Fr. Louis Bourdaloue is regarded as one of the founders of French eloquence. "The Effects of Trim's Eloquence". George Cruikshank's illustration to Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman Eloquence derives from the Latin roots: ē (a shortened form of the preposition ex), meaning "out (of)", and loqui, a deponent verb meaning "to speak". Thus, being eloquent is having the ability to project words fluidly out of the mouth and the ability to understand and command the language in such a way that one employs a graceful style coupled with the power of persuasion, or just being extremely graceful in the interpretation of communication. Petrarch (Fracesco Petrarca), in his study program of the classics and antiquity (Italian Renaissance) focused attention on language and communication. After mastering language, the goal was to reach a "level of eloquence", to be able to present gracefully, combine thought and reason in a powerful way, so as to persuade others to a point of view. Petrarch encouraged students to imitate the ancient writers, from a language perspective, combining clear and correct speech with moral thought. The Renaissance humanists focused on the correlation of speech and political principles as a powerful tool to present and persuade others to particular concepts. At the core of presentations was the use of graceful style, clear concise grammar and usage, and over time the insertion of rational and emotional arguments. In modern times, colloquial speech entered into presentation styles deemed eloquent. Eloquence is both a natural talent and improved by knowledge of language, study of a specific subject to be addressed, philosophy, rationale and ability to form a persuasive set of tenets within a presentation. "True eloquence," Oliver Goldsmith says, "Does not consist ... in saying great things in a sublime style, but in a simple style; for there is, properly speaking, no such thing as a sublime style, the sublimity lies only in the things; and when they are not so, the language may be turgid, affected, metaphorical, but not affecting."[1] Contents 1 Eloquent politicians 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Eloquent politicians[edit] The Roman politician and soldier Marcus Antonius, c. 83–30 BCE, gave one of the most memorable speeches in history, dramatized by William Shakespeare in the play Julius Caesar; Shakespeare used Antonius's famous opening line "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears". Many famous political leaders, like Winston Churchill and Martin Luther King Jr., dictators such as Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, rose to prominence in large part due to their eloquence. In the Iranian Revolution, Ruhollah Khomeini came to power in part through the eloquence of his speeches, smuggled into the country on audio cassettes while he was still in exile.[2] See also[edit] De vulgari eloquentia an essay by Dante Alighieri Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) Public speaking for oratory and oration Rhetoric Conférence du barreau de Paris References[edit] ^ Goldsmith, Oliver (1759). Of Eloquence. ^ Stephen Zunes (April 2009). "The Iranian Revolution (1977-1979)". ICNC. Further reading[edit] Mark Forsyth (2013), The Elements of Eloquence: How to Turn the Perfect English Phrase. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Eloquence Figures of Speech Abraham Lincoln's Lost Speech Modern parliamentary eloquence; the Rede lecture, delivered before the University of Cambridge, 6 November 1913 by George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eloquence&oldid=1016810540" Categories: Public speaking Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles to be expanded from August 2016 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from French Wikipedia Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Kiswahili Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română سنڌي Suomi Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2021, at 06:11 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2466	----	Severus Alexander - Wikipedia Severus Alexander From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 222 to 235 Roman emperor Severus Alexander Bust, Musei Capitolini Roman emperor Reign 13 March 222 – 19 March 235 Predecessor Elagabalus Successor Maximinus Thrax Born 1 October 208 Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia (modern Akkar, Lebanon) Died 19 March 235 (aged 26) Moguntiacum, Germania Superior (Mainz, Germany) Spouse Sallustia Orbiana Sulpicia Memmia Names Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander[1] Dynasty Severan Father Uncertain, possibly Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus Mother Julia Avita Mamaea Religion Syncretism of pagan, Orphic and Christian beliefs Roman imperial dynasties Bust of Julia Mamaea, Alexander's mother Severan dynasty Chronology Septimius Severus 193–211 Caracalla 198–217 Geta 209–211 Interlude: Macrinus 217–218 —with Diadumenian 218 Elagabalus 218–222 Severus Alexander 222–235 Dynasty Severan dynasty family tree All biographies Succession Preceded by Year of the Five Emperors Followed by Crisis of the Third Century Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 19 March 235) was the last Roman emperor from the Severan dynasty, ruling from 222 to 235. Alexander was the heir to his cousin, the 18-year-old Emperor Elagabalus. The latter had been murdered along with his mother Julia Soaemias by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the Tiber river.[2] Alexander and his cousin were both grandsons of Julia Maesa, the sister of empress Julia Domna, who had arranged for Elagabalus's acclamation as emperor by the Third Gallic Legion. It was the rumor of Alexander's death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother.[3] Alexander's 13-year reign was the longest reign of a sole emperor since Antoninus Pius.[4] He was also the second-youngest ever sole legal Roman emperor during the existence of the united empire, the youngest being Gordian III. Alexander's peacetime reign was prosperous. However, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids. But when campaigning against Germanic tribes, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman army, leading to a conspiracy that resulted in the assassination of Alexander, his mother Julia Avita Mamaea, and his advisors. After their deaths, the accession of Maximinus Thrax followed. Alexander's death marked the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century—nearly 50 years of civil wars, foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy. Contents 1 Early reign 2 Domestic achievements 3 Persian War 4 Military discipline 5 Germanic War 6 Death 7 Legacy 8 Personal life 9 Ancestry 10 Severan dynasty family tree 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Primary 13.2 Secondary 14 External links Early reign[edit] The future emperor Severus Alexander was born on 1 October 208 in Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia.[5] Of his birth name, only two cognomina are known, from literary sources: Bassianus (Greek: Βασσιανός) according to the historian Cassius Dio, and Alexianus (Greek: Αλεξιανός) according to Herodian. It seems likely that Bassianus was his family name, since several of his relatives were also called as such, and Alexianus his actual given name, which was later converted to Alexander.[6] The historian Cassius Dio thought Alexianus was the son of Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus, but Icks disputes this, saying the latter could not have married the emperor's mother before 212 and that Alexianus must've been fathered by his mother's first husband, who is of unknown name but of certain existence.[7] Severus Alexander became emperor when he was around 14 years old, making him the youngest emperor in Rome's history, until the ascension of Gordian III.[8] Alexander's grandmother Maesa believed that he had more potential to rule and gain support from the Praetorian Guard than her other grandson, the increasingly unpopular emperor Elagabalus.[9] Thus, to preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabalus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander.[10] The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on 13 March 222, immediately conferring on him the titles of Augustus, pater patriae and pontifex maximus.[11] Throughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, before her death in 224, and mother, Julia Mamaea.[12] As a young, immature, and inexperienced adolescent, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. In time, however, the army came to admire what Jasper Burns refers to as "his simple virtues and moderate behavior, so different from [Elagabalus]".[13] Domestic achievements[edit] Bust of Alexander Severus, Louvre. Under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state.[14] He employed noted jurists, such as Ulpian,[15] to oversee the administration of justice.[15][citation needed] His advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and historical sources claimed that with the help of his family, he created a select board of 16 senators,[16] although this claim is sometimes disputed.[17] Some scholars have rejected Herodian's view that Alexander expanded senatorial powers.[18] He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome.[19] Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished,[20] and he restored the Baths of Nero in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him. He extended the imperial residence at the Horti Lamiani with elaborate buildings and created the Nymphaeum of Alexander (known as the Trophies of Marius) which still stands in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. This was the great fountain he built at the end of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct. Upon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the denarius from 46.5% to 43%—the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41 grams to 1.30 grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46 grams. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50 grams.[21] Additionally, during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged;[22] and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.[23] In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. According to the Historia Augusta, he wished to erect a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests; however, this claim is unreliable as the Historia Augusta is considered untrustworthy by historians, containing significant amounts of information that is false and even invented, even extending to when it was written and the number of authors it was written by.[24][25] He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll.[26] In legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy.[27] He also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills,[28] protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were on campaign,[29] and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his castrense peculium) could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father.[30] Persian War[edit] On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids[31] under Ardashir I.[32] In 231 AD, Ardeshir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response.[33] Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats,[34] while according to the Historia Augusta[35] as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories.[36] Making Antioch his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the Sassanian Empire; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern Mesopotamia, while another army invaded Media through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of Babylon. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease.[37][38] Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of Armenia as it retired into winter quarters, due to an incompetent failure to establish adequate supply lines.[39][40] Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.[41] Although the Sassanids were checked for the time,[36] the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed Taurinus emperor.[42] Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates.[43] The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.[36] Military discipline[edit] IMP. ALEXANDER PIVS AVG. IMP. ALEXANDER PIVS AVG. Denarii of Severus Alexander Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline.[44] In 228, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian,[44] in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to nominal post of honor in Egypt and then Crete, where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated.[45] The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.[46] Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy.[46] Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to "...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure."[46] Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.[46] Germanic War[edit] After the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with Origen, one of the Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexander's mother, Julia Mamaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity.[47] While Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that caused alarm as far as Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.[48] As word of the invasion spread, the emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a fleet to carry the entire army across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the mere threat of his armies would be sufficient to persuade the hostile tribes to surrender.[49] Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among his legions.[50] Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.[51] It was this decision that resulted in the legionaries looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.[52] Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status.[50] He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose to his present position from a peasant background. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty,[53] and, with the growing animosity of Severus' army towards him, the path for his assassination was paved. Death[edit] Alexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action.[54] According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity.[55] Alexander was assassinated on 19 March 235, together with his mother, in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals.[56] These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus.[14] Lampridius documents two theories that elaborate on Severus's assassination. The first claims that the disaffection of Mamaea was the main motive behind the homicide. However, Lampridius makes it clear that he is more supportive of an alternative theory, that Alexander was murdered in Sicilia (located in Britain).[57] This theory has it that, in an open tent after his lunch, Alexander was consulting with his insubordinate troops, who compared him to his cousin Elagabalus, the divisive and unpopular Emperor whose own assassination paved the way for Alexander's reign. A German servant entered the tent and initiated the call for Alexander's assassination, at which point many of the troops joined in the attack. Alexander's attendants fought against the other troops but could not hold off the combined might of those seeking the Emperor's assassination. Within minutes, Alexander was dead. His mother Julia Mamaea was in the same tent with Alexander and soon fell victim to the same group of assassins.[55] Alexander's body was buried together with the body of his mother Julia Manaea in a mausoleum in Rome. The actual mausoleum, called Monte di Grano, is the third largest in Rome behind those of Hadrian and Augustus. It is still visible in Piazza dei Tribuni, in the Quadraro area in Rome, where it resembles a large earth mound. The large sarcophagus found inside the tomb in the 16th century, and which contained the emperor's remains, is in the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum in Rome. According to some sources inside the same sarcophagus in 1582 a precious glass urn was found, the Portland Vase, currently on display at the British Museum in London. Legacy[edit] 15th-century depiction of Severus Alexander Alexander's death marked the end of the Severan dynasty. He was the last of the Syrian emperors and the first emperor to be overthrown by military discontent on a wide scale.[58] After his death his economic policies were completely discarded, and the Roman currency was devalued; this signaled the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century, which brought the empire to the brink of collapse.[53] Alexander's death at the hands of his troops can also be seen as the heralding of a new role for Roman emperors. Though they were not yet expected to personally fight in battle during Alexander's time, emperors were increasingly expected to display general competence in military affairs.[59] Thus, Alexander's taking of his mother's advice to not get involved in battle, his dishonorable and unsoldierly methods of dealing with the Germanic threat, and the relative failure of his military campaign against the Persians were all deemed highly unacceptable by the soldiers.[59] Indeed, Maximinus was able to overthrow Alexander by "harping on his own military excellence in contrast to that feeble coward".[59] Yet by arrogating the power to dethrone their emperor, the legions paved the way for a half-century of widespread chaos and instability. Although the Senate declared the emperor and his rule damned upon the report of his death and the ascension of a replacement emperor, Alexander was deified after the death of Maximinus in 238.[60] His damnatio memoriae was also reversed after Maximinus's death. Perhaps his most tangible legacy was the emergence in the 16th Century of the 'Barberini vase'. This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus and his family at Monte Del Grano. The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli and referenced on page 28 of a book on The Portland Vase.[61] Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of Severus Alexander. However, this together with the interpretations of the scenes depicted are the source of countless theories and disputed 'facts'. The vase passed through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples and was later sold to the Duke and Duchess of Portland, and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase.[62] Following catastrophic damage in 1845, this vase (1-25BC) has been reconstructed three times and resides in the British Museum. The Portland vase itself was borrowed and near copied by Josiah Wedgewood who appears to have added modesty drapery. The vase formed the basis of Jasperware. Portland Vase Personal life[edit] Denarius of Sallustia Orbiana. Inscription: SALL. BARBIA ORBIANA AVG. His first wife was Sallustia Orbiana, Augusta, whom he married in 225 when she was 16 years old. Their marriage was arranged by Alexander's mother, Mamaea.[15] According to historian Herodian, however, as soon as Orbiana received the title of Augusta, Mamaea became increasingly jealous and resentful of Alexander's wife due to Mamaea's excessive desire of all regal female titles.[14] Alexander divorced and exiled Orbiana in 227, after her father, Seius Sallustius, was executed after being accused of treason.[63] According to Historia Augusta, Alexander married Sulpicia Memmia, a member of one of the most ancient Patrician families in Rome and a daughter to a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was Catulus. She is mentioned as his wife only in this later text, thus the marriage has been questioned.[64][65] Alexander did not father any children. According to the Historia Augusta, a late Roman work containing biographies of emperors and others, and considered by scholars to be a work of dubious historical reliability,[66] Alexander prayed every morning in his private chapel. He was extremely tolerant of Jews and Christians alike. He continued all privileges towards Jews during his reign,[67][68] and the Augustan History relates that Alexander placed images of Abraham and Jesus in his oratory, along with other Roman deities and classical figures.[69][70] Also according to the Historia Augusta, Alexander's "chief amusement consisted in having young dogs play with little pigs."[71] Herodian portrays him as a mother's boy. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Severus Alexander 2. Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus 1. Severus Alexander 6. Julius Avitus Alexianus[citation needed] 3. Julia Avita Mamaea 14. Julius Bassianus[citation needed] 7. Julia Maesa[citation needed] Severan dynasty family tree[edit] v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. See also[edit] Severan dynasty family tree References[edit] ^ Cooley, p. 496. ^ Dio, 60:20:2 ^ Herodian, 5:8:5 ^ A handful of emperors since Antoninus Pius reigned for longer than 13 years, but for some or most of their reign they were co-emperors with others and therefore they were sole emperor for less than 13 years. ^ Benario. ^ Groebe, col. 2526–2527. ^ Icks, pp. 57–58. ^ "Alexander Severus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 January 2021. ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 215. ISBN 1134131852 ^ Wells, pg. 266 ^ John S. McHugh, Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection, AD 222–235 (London: Pen and Sword, 2017), 131-32. ISBN 1473845823 ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 217. ISBN 1134131852 ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 214. ISBN 1134131852 ^ a b c Benario, Alexander Severus ^ a b c "Alexander Severus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 January 2021. ^ Southern, p. 60 ^ de Blois, Lukas (2006). "Administrative Strategies of the Emperor Severus Alexander and his Advisers". In Kolb, Anne (ed.). Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis. Konzepte, Prinzipien und Strategien der Administration im römischen Kaiserreich. Akademie Verlag. pp. 45–52. ^ Davenport, Caillan (2011). "Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 177: 282. JSTOR 41291183. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 33:1 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 15:1 ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:2 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 43:6–7 ^ "Historia Augusta - Livius". Livius.org. October 10, 2020. Retrieved April 28, 2021. ^ 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia article "Alexander Severus" ^ Campbell, p. 221 ^ Campbell, p. 224 ^ Campbell, p. 239 ^ Campbell, p. 234 ^ Southern, p. 61 ^ "Severus Alexander". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014. ^ Arthur E.R. Boak, A History Of Rome To 565 A.D., (The Macmillan Company, 1921, New York), chap. XVIII., p. 258 ^ Herodian, 6:5–6:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 55:1–3 ^ a b c Southern, p. 62 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VIII., p. 182 ^ Herodian, 6:5:10 ^ Herodian, 6:6:3 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Victor, 24:2 ^ McHugh, John S (2017). Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection AD222-235. Pen and Sword. p. 184. ISBN 9781510708754. ^ a b Campbell, p. 196 ^ Ledlie, James Crawford (1903). "Ulpian". Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation. 5 (1): 19. JSTOR 751768. ^ a b c d Campbell, p. 197 ^ Shahan, T. (1912). Alexander Severus. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved August 25, 2020 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13743a.htm ^ Campbell, 54 ^ "Alexander Severus". Capitoline Museums. ^ a b Library of World History: Containing a Record of the Human Race from the Earliest Historical Period to the Present Time; Embracing a General Survey of the Progress of Mankind in National and Social Life, Civil Government, Religion, Literature, Science and Art, Volume 3. New York Public Library: Western Press Association. p. 1442. ^ Herodian, Roman history, book 6, chapter 7 ^ Herodian, Roman history, book 6, chapter 8 ^ a b "Severus Alexander (222–235 AD): The Calm before the Storm" (PDF). The Saylor Foundation. ^ "Severus Alexander | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-06-04. ^ a b Valentine Nind Hopkins, Sir Richard (1907). The Life of Alexander Severus. Princeton University: The University Press. pp. 240. ^ Southern, p. 63 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 59:6 ^ Campbell, p. 55 ^ a b c Campbell, p. 69 ^ "Severus Alexander". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014. ^ Brooks, Robin (Robin Jeremy) (2004). The Portland Vase : the extraordinary odyssey of a mysterious Roman treasure (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-051099-4. OCLC 54960357. ^ "The Portland Vase". British Museum. Retrieved 2020-01-10. ^ Davenport, Caillan (2011). "Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 177: 281–288. JSTOR 41291183. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 20:3 ^ Kosmetatou, Elizabeth, The Public Image of Julia Mamaea. An Epigraphic and Numismatic Inquiry, in Latomus 61, 2002, pp. 409 note 38 ^ Browning, Robert (1983). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 5, The Later Principat. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–50. ISBN 978-0-521-27371-8. ^ "Alexander Severus". Jewish Encyclopedia. ^ Grant, Michael (1973). Jews In The Roman World. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0684133409. ^ "Alexander Severus". Catholic Encyclopedia. ^ Novak, Ralph Martin (2001). Christianity and the Roman Empire: Background Texts. Bloomsbury T&T Clark. ISBN 978-1563383472. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 41:5 Bibliography[edit] Primary[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 80 Herodian, Roman History, Book 6 Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary[edit] Benario, Herbert W., "Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Birley, A.R., Septimius Severus: The African Emperor, Routledge, 2002 Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Groebe, Paul, "Aurelius 221", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE, PW), volume II.2, Stuttgart, 1896, columns 2526–2542. Icks, Martijn (2011). The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Campbell, J.B., The Emperor and the Roman Army 31 BC – AD 235, Clarenden, 1984 Wells, Colin, The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press, 1997  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alexander Severus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 567. Although a few phrases appear to be copied from this encyclopedia, all of them are attributed here to primary sources. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Alexander Severus Media related to Severus Alexander at Wikimedia Commons "Alexander Severus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. Severus Alexander on NumisWiki Coins of Severus Alexander Severus Alexander Severan dynasty Born: 1 October 208 Died: 19 March 235 Regnal titles Preceded by Elagabalus Roman emperor 222–235 Succeeded by Maximinus Thrax Political offices Preceded by G. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus Roman consul 222 with Elagabalus Succeeded by Marius Maximus L. Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus Preceded by Ti. Manilius Fuscus Ser. Calpurnius Domitius Dexter Roman consul 226 with Gaius Aufidius Marcellus Succeeded by M. Nummius Senecio Albinus M. Laelius Fulvius Maximus Aemilianus Preceded by Q. Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus M. Pomponius Maecius Probus Roman consul 229 with Cassius Dio Succeeded by Lucius Virius Agricola Sex. Catius Clementinus Priscillianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2474	----	Leo VI the Wise - Wikipedia Leo VI the Wise From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 886 to 912 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Leo VI Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans A mosaic in Hagia Sophia showing Leo VI paying homage to Christ Byzantine emperor Reign 29/30 August 886 – 11 May 912 Coronation 6 January 870[1] Predecessor Basil I Successor Alexander Born 19 September 866 Constantinople Died 11 May 912(912-05-11) (aged 45) Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Wives Theophano Martinakia Zoe Zaoutzaina Eudokia Baïana Zoe Karbonopsina Issue Eudokia, Anna, Anna, Basil, Constantine Names Leo VI "the Wise" or "the Philosopher" Dynasty Amorian (assuming Michael III was his father) Macedonian (assuming Basil I was his father) Father Michael III (majority view) or Basil I (minority view) Mother Eudokia Ingerina Leo VI, called the Wise or the Philosopher (Greek: Λέων ὁ Σοφός, romanized: Leōn ho Sophos, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his epithet. During his reign, the renaissance of letters, begun by his predecessor Basil I, continued; but the Empire also saw several military defeats in the Balkans against Bulgaria and against the Arabs in Sicily and the Aegean. His reign also witnessed the formal discontinuation of several ancient Roman institutions, such as the separate office of Roman consul. Contents 1 Early life 2 Domestic policy 3 Foreign policy 4 Marriages 5 Succession 6 Works 7 Family 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links Early life[edit] Leo VI (right) and Basil I, from the 11th-century manuscript by John Skylitzes Born on 19 September 866 to the empress Eudokia Ingerina,[2] Leo was either the illegitimate son of Emperor Michael III[3][4][5] or the second son of Michael's successor, Basil I the Macedonian.[6][7][8] Eudokia was both Michael III's mistress and Basil's wife. In 867, Michael was assassinated by Basil, who succeeded him as Emperor.[9] As the second-eldest son of the Emperor, Leo was associated on the throne in 870[10] and became the direct heir on the death of his older half-brother Constantine in 879.[11] However, Leo and Basil did not like each other; a relationship that only deteriorated after Eudokia's death, when Leo, unhappy with his marriage to Theophano, took up a mistress in the person of Zoe Zaoutzaina. Basil married Zoe off to an insignificant official, and later almost had Leo blinded when he was accused of conspiring against him.[12][13] On 29 August 886, Basil died in a hunting accident, though he claimed on his deathbed that there was an assassination attempt in which Leo was possibly involved.[14] Domestic policy[edit] One of the first actions of Leo VI after his succession was the reburial, with great ceremony, of the remains of Michael III in the imperial mausoleum within the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.[15] This contributed to the suspicion that Leo was (or at least believed himself to be) in truth Michael's son.[11] Seeking political reconciliation, the new Emperor secured the support of the officials in the capital, and surrounded himself with bureaucrats like Stylianos Zaoutzes (the father of his mistress, Zoe Zaoutzaina)[14] and the eunuch Samonas, an Arab defector whom Leo raised to the rank of patrikios and who stood in as godfather to Leo's son, Constantine VII.[16] His attempts to control the great aristocratic families (e.g., the Phokadai and the Doukai) occasionally led to serious conflicts,[17] the most significant being the revolt of Andronikos Doukas in 906.[18] Leo also attempted to involve himself in the church through his arbitrary interference with the patriarchate.[19] Using his former tutor Patriarch Photios's excommunication by Pope John VIII as an excuse, Leo dismissed him[20] and replaced him with his own 19-year-old brother Stephen in December 886.[11] On Stephen's death in 893, Leo replaced him with Zaoutzes' nominee, Antony II Kauleas, who died in 901.[17] Leo then promoted his own Imperial secretary (mystikos) Nicholas, but suspicions that he was involved in the failed assassination attempt against Leo in 903[21] as well as his opposition to Leo's fourth marriage saw Nicholas replaced with Leo's spiritual father Euthymios in 907.[18] The magnificent Church of Ayios Lazaros in Larnaca was constructed during the rule of Leo VI in the late 9th century,[22] and it was built after the relics of St. Lazaros were transported from Crete to Constantinople.[23] The church is one of the best examples of Byzantine architecture. Leo also completed work on the Basilika, the Greek translation and update of the law code issued by Justinian I, which had been started during the reign of Basil.[24] Bishop Liutprand of Cremona gives an account similar to those about Caliph Harun al-Rashid, to the effect that Leo would sometimes disguise himself and go about Constantinople looking for injustice or corruption. According to one story, he was even captured by the city guards during one of his investigations. Late in the evening, he was walking alone and disguised. Though he bribed two patrols with 12 nomismata and moved on, a third city patrol arrested him. When a terrified guardian recognized the jailed ruler in the morning, the arresting officer was rewarded for doing his duty, while the other patrols were dismissed and punished severely.[citation needed] Foreign policy[edit] The Byzantines flee at Boulgarophygon, miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes Leo VI's fortune in war was more mixed than Basil's had been.[25] In indulging his chief counselor Stylianos Zaoutzes, Leo provoked a war with Simeon I of Bulgaria in 894, but he was defeated.[26] Bribing the Magyars to attack the Bulgarians from the north, Leo scored an indirect success in 895.[27] However, deprived of his new allies, he lost the major Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896 and had to make the required commercial concessions and to pay annual tribute.[28] Although he won a victory in 900 against the Emirate of Tarsus, in which the Arab army was destroyed and the Emir himself captured,[29] in the west the Emirate of Sicily took Taormina, the last Byzantine outpost on the island of Sicily, in 902.[30] Nevertheless, Leo continued to apply pressure on his eastern frontier through the creation of the new thema of Mesopotamia, a Byzantine invasion of Armenia in 902, and the sacking of Theodosiopolis, as well as successful raids in the Arab Thughur.[29] Then, in 904 the renegade Leo of Tripolis sacked Thessalonica with his pirates—an event described in The Capture of Thessalonica by John Kaminiates—while a large-scale expedition to recover Crete under Himerios in 911–912 failed disastrously. Nevertheless, the same period also saw the establishment of the important frontier provinces (kleisourai) of Lykandos and Leontokome on territory recently taken from the Arabs.[31] In 907 Constantinople was attacked by the Kievan Rus' under Oleg of Novgorod, who was seeking favourable trading rights with the empire.[30] Leo paid them off, but they attacked again in 911, and a trade treaty was finally signed.[32] Marriages[edit] Leo VI caused a major scandal with his numerous marriages which failed to produce a legitimate heir to the throne.[33] His first wife Theophano, whom Basil had forced him to marry on account of her family connections to the Martinakioi, and whom Leo hated,[34] died in 897, and Leo married Zoe Zaoutzaina, the daughter of his adviser Stylianos Zaoutzes, though she died as well in 899.[35] Upon this marriage Leo created the title of basileopatōr ("father of the emperor") for his father-in-law.[36] After Zoe's death a third marriage was technically illegal,[37] but he married again, only to have his third wife Eudokia Baïana die in 901.[29] Instead of marrying a fourth time, which would have been an even greater sin than a third marriage (according to the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos)[38] Leo took as mistress Zoe Karbonopsina.[39] He married her only after she had given birth to a son in 905,[37] but incurred the opposition of the patriarch. Replacing Nicholas Mystikos with Euthymios,[17] Leo got his marriage recognized by the church (albeit with a long penance attached, and with an assurance that Leo would outlaw all future fourth marriages).[18] Succession[edit] Gold solidus of Leo VI and Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, 908–912 The future Constantine VII was the illegitimate son born before Leo's uncanonical fourth marriage to Zoe Karbonopsina.[37] To strengthen his son's position as heir, Leo had Constantine crowned as co-emperor on 15 May 908, when he was only two years old.[40] Leo VI died on 11 May 912.[17] He was succeeded by his younger brother Alexander, who had reigned as emperor alongside his father and brother since 879.[41] Works[edit] Leo VI was a prolific writer, and he produced works on many different topics and in many styles, including political orations, liturgical poems, and theological treatises.[30] On many occasions he would personally deliver highly wrought and convoluted sermons in the churches of Constantinople.[30] In the subject matter of legal works and treatises, he established a legal commission that carried out his father's original intent of codifying all of existing Byzantine law. The end result was a six-volume work consisting of 60 books, entitled the Basilika. Written in Greek, the Basilika translated and systematically arranged practically all of the laws preserved in the Corpus Juris Civilis, thereby providing a foundation upon which all later Byzantine laws could be built.[37] Leo then began integrating new laws issued during his reign into the Basilika. Called "Novels", or "New Laws", these were codes that dealt with current problems and issues, such as the prohibition on fourth marriages. Both the Basilika and the Novels were concerned with ecclesiastical law (canon law) as well as secular law.[37] Most importantly, from a historical perspective, they finally did away with much of the remaining legal and constitutional architecture that the Byzantine Empire had inherited from the Roman Empire, and even from the days of the Roman Republic.[16] Obsolete institutions such as the Curiae, the Roman Senate, even the Consulate, were finally removed from a legal perspective, even though these still continued in a lesser, decorative form.[37] Tactica The supposed Book of the Eparch and the Kletorologion of Philotheos were also issued under Leo's name and testify to his government's interest in organization and the maintenance of public order.[37] The Book of the Eparch described the rules and regulations for trade and trade organizations in Constantinople, while the Kletorologion was an attempt to standardize officials and ranks at the Byzantine court.[37] Leo is also the author, or at least sponsor, of the Tactica, a notable treatise on military operations.[17] Succeeding generations saw Leo as a prophet and a magician, and soon a collection of oracular poems and some short divinatory texts, the so-called Oracles of Leo the Wise, at least in part based on earlier Greek sources, were attached to the Emperor's name in later centuries and were believed to foretell the future of the world.[30] Finally, Leo is credited with translating the relics of St. Lazarus to Constantinople in the year 890. There are several stichera (hymns) attributed to him that are chanted on Lazarus Saturday in the Eastern Orthodox Church. He also composed hymns that are sung on the Great Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross. Family[edit] By his first wife, Theophano Martinakia, Leo VI had one daughter: Eudokia, who died in 892.[42] By his second wife, Zoe Zaoutzaina, Leo had one daughter: Anna,[36] betrothed and married to the Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Blind,[43] though Dr. Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University, doubts they were married.[44] By his third wife, Eudokia Baïana, Leo had one son: Basil, who survived for only a few days.[33] By his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, Leo had two children:[39] Anna Constantine VII See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ PBW, "KLeo VI". ^ Tougher, p. 42 ^ Treadgold, p. 462 ^ Norwich, p. 102 ^ Finlay, p. 306 ^ Adontz, Nicholas, L'Age et l'origine de l'empereur Basil I. Byzantion, 8, 1933, pp. 475–550 ^ Charanis, Peter, The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire, 1963, p. 35 ^ Ostrogorsky, George, History of the Byzantine State, 1969, p. 233, note 1 ^ Treadgold, p. 455 ^ Kazhdan, p. 1210 ^ a b c Gregory, p. 225 ^ Norwich, p. 99 ^ Treadgold, p. 460 ^ a b Treadgold, p. 461 ^ Finlay, p. 307 ^ a b Finlay, p. 308 ^ a b c d e Kazhdan, p. 1211 ^ a b c Treadgold, p. 468 ^ Finlay, p. 310 ^ Norwich, p. 104 ^ Treadgold, p. 467 ^ Michaelides, M.G., Saint Lazarus, The Friend Of Christ And First Bishop Of Kition, (1984) "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 21 September 2009.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Shepard, The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire (2008), p. 493–496 ^ Norwich, p. 105 ^ Finlay, p. 314 ^ Treadgold, p. 463 ^ Norwich, p. 108 ^ Treadgold, p. 464 ^ a b c Treadgold, p. 466 ^ a b c d e Gregory, p. 226 ^ Treadgold, p. 466–470 ^ Treadgold, p. 469 ^ a b Norwich, p. 114 ^ According to the Patriarch Euthymios' biographer, Leo once told Euthymios that "the whole Senate knows that it was against my will and in great sorrow that I married [Theophano]. Apud Gilbert Dagron, Emperor and Priest:the Imperial Office in Byzantium. Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-03697-9, pp. 203 ^ Treadgold, p. 465 ^ a b Norwich, p. 113 ^ a b c d e f g h Gregory, p. 227 ^ Finlay, p. 312 ^ a b Norwich, p. 115 ^ Kazhdan, p. 502 ^ Gregory, p. 228 ^ Norwich, p. 112 ^ Reuter, Timothy, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. III: c. 900-c. 1024, Cambridge University Press, (2000), p. 334. ^ Tougher, p. 148. Sources[edit] Finlay, George History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1853 Gregory, Timothy, E., A History of Byzantium, Blackwell Publishing, 2005 ISBN 0-631-23512-4 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Tougher, Shaun (1997), The Reign of Leo VI (886-912): Politics and People, Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill, ISBN 9004108114 Treadgold, Warren A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leon VI. French translations of a Turkish-language compendium of divinatory works, including some ascribed to Leo the Sage available at [1]. Greek text with Migne's Latin translation of Leo's works at [2] The Mosaic of Leo VI in the Narthex of Hagia Sophia Digitalized manuscripts of Leo VI the Wise at the Princeton University Library Leo VI the Wise Macedonian dynasty Born: 19 September 866 Died: 11 May 912 Regnal titles Preceded by Basil I Byzantine emperor 29 August 886 – 11 May 912 with Basil I, 870–886 Succeeded by Alexander Political offices Preceded by Basil I in 867, then lapsed Consul of the Roman Empire 886–912 Consulship abolished v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Byzantine music List of composers Composers Romanos the Melodist Andrew of Crete John of Damascus Cosmas of Maiuma Stephen the Sabaite Theodore the Studite Theophanes the Branded Kassia Joseph the Hymnographer Joseph the Confessor Leo VI the Wise Constantine VII Nikephoros Ethikos Gregorios Glykys John Koukouzelis Xenos Korones Joannes Glykys John Kladas Manuel Chrysaphes* Janus Plousiadenos Theorists Manuel Bryennios Liturgy Paschal troparion Octoechos Associated forms Aposticha Canon Cherubikon Byzantine Rite Kathisma Koinonikon Kontakion Akathist Troparion Sticheron Theory Petasti 72 equal temperament Byzantine Musical Symbols Echos Octoechos Nenano Neobyzantine Octoechos Hagiopolitan Octoechos Papadic Octoechos Nana (echos) Ison Instruments Byzantine lyra Cretan lyra Thaboura Organon See also Protopsaltes Cappella Romana Museum of Ancient Greek, Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Musical Instruments School of Ecclesiastic Music *also music theorist Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Italy United States Latvia Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_VI_the_Wise&oldid=1027090051" Categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine emperors Macedonian dynasty Byzantine hymnographers Byzantine composers Medieval Greek military writers 866 births 912 deaths Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine prisoners and detainees 880s in the Byzantine Empire 890s in the Byzantine Empire 900s in the Byzantine Empire 910s in the Byzantine Empire 9th-century Byzantine writers 10th-century Byzantine writers 9th-century composers 10th-century composers Sons of Byzantine emperors 9th-century Greek musicians 10th-century Greek musicians Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2019 Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles 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'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', ''Phoenix'' 26:2 (1972): 140–82. {{doi|10.2307/1087714}}. {{JSTOR|1087714}}. * [[Anthony Birley|Birley, Anthony R.]] ''Marcus Aurelius: a biography''. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. {{ISBN|978-1134695690}}. * Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In ''The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192'', edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0521263351}}. * Bowman, John L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vlhPAwAAQBAJ ''A Reference Guide to Stoicism'']. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1496900173}}. * [[J. B. Bury|Bury, John Bagnell]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc-AAAAYAAJ ''The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)'']. New York: Harper, 1893. {{OCLC|1067064647}}. * [[Edward Champlin|Champlin, Edward]]. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 64 (1974): 136–59. {{doi|10.2307/299265}}. {{JSTOR|299265}}. * Champlin, Edward. [https://archive.org/details/frontoantoninero00cham ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. {{ISBN|978-0674331778}}. * Collins, Desmond. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ls4AAAAIAAJ ''Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. {{OCLC|879899744}}. * [[Rafe de Crespigny|De Crespigny, Rafe]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ ''A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)'']. Boston: Brill, 2007. {{ISBN|978-9047411840}}. * [[Richard Duncan-Jones|Duncan-Jones, Richard]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7cpkQQ-n0V8C ''Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0521892896}}. * [http://capitolini.info/scu03247/?lang=en 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius']. Musei Capitolini. * Gagarin, Michael. ''The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0195170726}}. * Giacosa, Giorgio. ''Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins''. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. {{ISBN|0839001932}}. * [[James Frank Gilliam|Gilliam, J. F.]] 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 82.3 (1961): 225–51. {{doi|10.2307/292367}}. {{JSTOR|292367}}. * Gnecchi, Francesco. ''I medaglioni Romani'', 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. {{OCLC|6529816}}. * [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Grant, Michael]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ql0fDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 ''The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition'']. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1317972105}}. * Grant, Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mXc1uk30FIYC ''The Climax Of Rome'']. London: Orion, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1780222769}}. * Haas, Charles. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17195627 The Antonine plague] (in French). ''Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine''. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. {{OCLC|958470753}}. * [[Pierre Hadot|Hadot, Pierre]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3dLVyyDE-vQC ''The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0674461710}}. * Hays, Gregory. ''Meditations''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1842126752}}. * Irvine, William B. ''A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy''. Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1522632733}}. * Kemezis, Adam M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YkilBAAAQBAJ ''Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian'']. Cambridge University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1107062726}}. * Kleiner, Fred S. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IJrN8rDirxkC ''Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective'']. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0495573555}}. * Le Bohec, Yann. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFWSAgAAQBAJ ''The Imperial Roman Army'']. Routledge, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1135955137}}. * [[Barbara Levick|Levick, Barbara M.]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=oVapAgAAQBAJ ''Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age'']. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0199702176}}. * Magill, Frank N. [https://books.google.com/?id=wyKaVFZqbdUC ''Dictionary of World Biography'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1579580407}}. * [[Harold Mattingly|Mattingly, Harold]]; Sydenham, Edward A. ''The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus''. London: Spink & Son, 1930. {{OCLC|768929523}}. * [[Ronald Mellor|Mellor, Ronald]], review of Edward Champlin's ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'', ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 103:4 (1982). * Merrony, Mark. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkgrDwAAQBAJ ''The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD'']. London: Routledge, 2017. {{ISBN|978-1351702782}}. * McLaughlin, Raoul. ''Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China''. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1847252357}}. * [[Frank McLynn|McLynn, Frank]]. ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life''. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0306819162}}. * McLynn, Frank. ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor''. London: Bodley Head, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0224072922}}. * [[Fergus Millar|Millar, Fergus]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C ''The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0674778863}}. * Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1999. 119 (1). {{doi|10.2307/605541}}. {{JSTOR|605541}}. * Reed, J. Eugene. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PTnuAAAAMAAJ ''The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)'']. Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. * Robertson, D. [https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ ''How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ |date=4 August 2019 }}. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. * Rohrbacher, David. [https://books.google.com.au/books?id=gDwGCwAAQBAJ ''The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta'']. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0299306045}}. * Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj5Vx3gIPhwC ''Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano'' &#91;''Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire''&#93;]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. {{ISBN|978-8497637695}}. * [[William O. Stephens|Stephens, William O.]] [http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/marcus-aurelius-a-guide-for-the-perplexed-9781441125613/ ''Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed'']. London: Continuum, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1441125613}}. * Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. ''The Classical World'' 70:7 (1977): 433–39. {{doi|10.2307/4348712}}. {{JSTOR|4348712}}. * [[Ronald Syme|Syme, Ronald]]. 'The Ummidii'. ''Historia'' 17:1 (1968): 72–105. {{JSTOR|4435015}}. * Van Ackeren, Marcel. [https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Companion_to_Marcus_Aurelius.html?id=nsdkQA735p4C ''A Companion to Marcus Aurelius'']. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-405-19285-9}}. {{OCLC|784124210}}. * Young, Gary K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ ''Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-134-54793-7}}. * Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220''], 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}. {{Refend}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2476	----	File:INC-1604-a Ауреус Марк Аврелий цезарь ок. 152-153 гг. (аверс).png - Wikipedia File:INC-1604-a Ауреус Марк Аврелий цезарь ок. 152-153 гг. (аверс).png From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata No higher resolution available. INC-1604-a_Ауреус_Марк_Аврелий_цезарь_ок._152-153_гг._(аверс).png ‎(516 × 516 pixels, file size: 526 KB, MIME type: image/png) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionINC-1604-a Ауреус Марк Аврелий цезарь ок. 152-153 гг. (аверс).png Русский: Марк Аврелий, цезарь (139—161). Ауреус. Ок. 152—153 гг. Чеканка в правление Антонина Пия (138—161). Рим. Аверс. Надпись AVRELIVS CAESAR AVG P II FIL. Бюст Марка Аврелия в панцире и плаще, вправо. 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en-wikipedia-org-2484	----	Caelian Hill - Wikipedia Caelian Hill From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search One of the seven hills of Rome, Italy The Caelian Hill One of the seven hills of Rome Latin name Collis Caelius Italian name Celio Rione Celio Buildings Baths of Caracalla, Villa Celimontana Churches Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Santo Stefano Rotondo, San Gregorio Magno al Celio, San Tommaso in Formis, Santa Maria in Domnica People Tullus Hostilius, Caelius Vibenna, Servius Tullius The Caelian Hill (/ˈsiːliən/; Latin: Collis Caelius; Italian: Celio [ˈtʃɛːljo]) is one of the famous seven hills of Rome. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Archaic age 2.2 Republican age 2.3 Imperial age 2.4 Middle Ages 2.5 Later history 3 Monuments 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Geography[edit] The Caelian Hill seen from the Aventine Hill. The Caelian Hill is a sort of long promontory about 2 km (1.2 mi) long, 400 m (0.25 mi) to 500 m (0.31 mi) wide, and 50 m (160 ft) tall in the park near the Temple of Claudius.[1] The hill overlooks a plateau from which the Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal hills also arise. Caeliolus (also Caeliculus or Caelius Minor) corresponds to a section of the hill, maybe the westernmost one, towards the valley that houses the Colosseum, or the one now occupied by the Basilica dei Santi Quattro Coronati. History[edit] Archaic age[edit] Schematic map of Rome showing the seven hills and Servian wall. Under the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the entire population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill.[by whom?][2] According to a tradition recounted by Varro,[3] the hill received its name from the Etruscan folk hero Caelius Vibenna, because he either settled there or was honored posthumously by his friend Servius Tullius. Other authors have linked the name to the Latin caelum, "heaven".[4] Nevertheless, the former name of the hill probably was Querquetulanus mons due to the abundance of oaks (Latin: Quercus). Scholarship suggests that there existed the ethnic name Querquetulani as a designation of the previous inhabitants of Caelius, in pre-Etruscan times.[5] Mons Caelius would have been included in the city perimeter under the reign of Ancus Marcius.[6] The list of Septimontium mentions it, and it was part of the 1st city quarter (Suburana) in the division made by Servius Tullius. In the later Augustan division, it became the Regio II Caelimontium. A trace of the archaic period remains in the memory of cults of woods and sources, such as that of the nymph Egeria in the wood of Camenae, just outside Porta Capena. Numa Pompilius is said[by whom?] to have been particularly devoted to his sanctuary. Republican age[edit] In Republican age (as well in Imperial Rome) the Caelian Hill was a fashionable residential district and the site of residences of the wealthy. A section of Pliny the Elder's Natural History, "Who Was the First to Encrust the Walls of Houses at Rome with Marble", attests to this.[7] Mamurra, a soldier who served under Julius Caesar in Gaul and profited tremendously from corruption, achieved this expensive feat on the Caelian Hill; Horace and Catullus mocked him accordingly.[8] Most of the hill was outside the boundaries of the pomerium, therefore temples to foreign divinities were allowed to be built, such as the Temple of Minerva Capta or the old Sacellum of Diana, outside the Servian Wall. Some sepulchres, such as the burial chamber in Via Celimontana, just before Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano, date back to this period. Imperial age[edit] This basanite statue of Agrippina the Younger as a priestess of the divine Claudius, 54–59 AD, was discovered on the Caelian Hill in 1885. Under Augustus the Caelian Hill was one of the 14 divisions of the town, called Caelimontium. The area between the Lateran and Porta Maggiore was included in the v Regio (Esquiliae), though physically it is part of the hill. On the higher point of the side facing the Colosseum, the Temple of Claudius was erected on a huge supporting platform. It was dedicated to the Emperor Claudius and begun by his widow Agrippina after his death and deification in 54 AD; it was not ultimately finished until the reign of Vespasian.[9] Nero added a grand nymphaeum (tiered water fountain) to the eastern retaining wall of this platform, with semi-circular and rectangular niches.[10] The water to supply this fountain was supplied by a special branch of the Aqua Claudia, called the Arcus Neroniani, which extended 2 kilometres west from the Claudia at Porta Maggiore and terminated on the southern side of the Caelian Hill in a structure called the Aqueductium. The Aqueductium distributed the water via conduits to reservoirs behind the nymphaeum and to the site of the temple.[10][11] The remains found in the area of the hill allow one to reconstruct a conspicuous housing phase in the second half of the 2nd century AD, while former buildings of the 1st century BC were probably destroyed by a fire in AD 27. Jerome alleges that Marcus Aurelius was born on the Caelian Hill in AD 121.[7] In the 4th century rich domus, surrounded by vast parks, stood on the hill, such as the ones belonging to the Symmachi (near which rose the Basilica hilariana) and Tetrici families, as well as the domus Faustae, maybe belonged to the wife of Constantine I. The property of the Annii, of Domitia Lucilla Minor (the mother of Marcus Aurelius) and of the Quintilii became part of the Domus Vectiliana of Commodus. In the interurban area of the hill several barracks were built for the troops stationed in the capital: in the site of the Basilica of Saint Stephen in the Round there were the Castra Peregrina (built under Trajan and restored several times in the following centuries), close to a large house of the Valerii (domus Valerii). Opposite, stood the headquarters of the V Cohort of the Vigiles (stazio cohortis V vigilum). In a land possession of the Laterani family Septimius Severus built between 193 and 197 the castra nova equitum singularium, a new barrack for the knights corps of the imperial guard, opposite the former barrack built under Trajan (castra priora equitum singularium). When Constantine I dissolved the corps, the new basilica dedicated to the Messiah, which later became the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, partially occupied the area of the Severian camp. The buildings of the Caelian hill were badly damaged during the sack of Alaric in 410; starting from this period, the hill was subject to increasing abandonment and ruralization. Middle Ages[edit] In the 6th century it was part of the II Roman ecclesiastical region due to its proximity to the Lateran basilica, so much so that the toponym of "Laterano" was often used for the entire hill. The erection of the Patriarchium, probably still in 6th Century, gave rise to the creation of various tituli (the oldest places of Christian worship, often within private houses) and xenodochia (centers for the assistance and reception of pilgrims and sick). New churches continued to be built, initially to replace and above the former tituli, later independently, such as the Basilica of Saints John and Paul, the Basilica of the Four Crowned Martyrs, the Basilica of St. Mary in Domnica, the Basilica of St. Stephen in the Round, the church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina, the church of San Gregorio al Celio, the church of San Tommaso in Formis, the church of San Sisto Vecchio Monasteries, often surrounded by estates and gardens, were also founded on the hill, as well as some towers of noble families, mainly in the 10th and 11th centuries. A new destruction was suffered with the sack of 1084. Since the 12th century, it was part of the Regio Montium, which even extended to the Quirinal Hill. Later history[edit] Today the Caelian Hill is included in the Rione of the same name and, continuing its vocation for assistance, hosts the Policlinico Militare del Celio, built on a project by Salvatore Bianchi and Filippo Laccetti. George Santayana lived in a room at the Convent of English blue sisters on the Caelian Hill from 1912 until his death. Monuments[edit] Temple of Claudius Basilica dei Santi Quattro Coronati Clivus Scauri Library of Pope Agapetus I Basilica dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo Sant'Andrea al Celio Church of San Gregorio al Celio Basilica di Santa Maria in Domnica Arch of Dolabella Villa Celimontana Obelisk of villa Celimontana Church of San Tommaso in Formis Porta Metronia Porta Latina Church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina Oratory of San Giovanni in Oleo Tomb of the Scipios Basilica of San Sisto Vecchio Basilica di Santo Stefano Rotondo al Monte Celio See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Seven hills of Rome Aventine Hill (Aventino) Capitoline Hill (Capitolino) Cispian Hill (Cispio) Esquiline Hill (Esquilino) Janiculum Hill (Gianicolo) Monte Mario Oppian Hill (Oppio) Palatine Hill (Palatino) Pincian Hill (Pincio) Quirinal Hill (Quirinale) Vatican Hill (Vaticano) Velian Hill (Velia) Viminal Hill (Viminale) References[edit] ^ "From Geo.OnLine of Regione Lazio. Technical Regional Chart 1:5000 2002 (RM _ VT _ LT ) IWS 2015". Archived from the original on March 24, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2018. ^ Titus Livy. "28-30". From the Founding of the City: Book 1: The Earliest Legends of Rome. Canon Roberts (translator). Retrieved January 23, 2011 – via Wikisource. ^ Marcus Terentius Varro, On the Latin Language, 5.46 ^ Anderson, Benedict (July 6, 2017). Buried City, Unearthing Teufelsberg: Berlin and its Geography of Forgetting. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317170686 – via Google Books. ^ Loicq, Jean. "Sur les peuples de nom «vénète» ou assimilé dans l’Occident européen". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 35, 2003. p. 146. DOI: 10.3406/ecelt.2003.2153. ^ Strabo, Geographica, V, 3,7. ^ a b Mann, Euphemia M. (March 1, 1926). "Some Private Houses in Ancient Rome". The Classical Weekly. 19 (16): 127–132. doi:10.2307/30107860. JSTOR 30107860. ^ Bostock, John. "Pliny the Elder, Natural History". Perseus Project. Tufts University. Retrieved March 4, 2019. ^ "Stanford Forma Urbis Romae Project". formaurbis.stanford.edu. Retrieved September 28, 2020. ^ a b Andrea Carandini (2017). Atlas of Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. p. 347. ^ Rodolfo Lanciani (1897). The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome. Houghton Mifflin & Co. p. 351. Bibliography[edit] Filippo Coarelli, Guida archeologica di Roma, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Verona 1984. Caelius I Santa Maria in Domnica San Tommaso in Formis e il clivus Scauri, edited by A. 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en-wikipedia-org-2486	----	Maurice (emperor) - Wikipedia Maurice (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 582 to 602 For other uses, see Maurice. Byzantine emperor Maurice Solidus of Emperor Maurice Byzantine emperor Reign 14 August 582 – 27 November 602 Predecessor Tiberius II Constantine Successor Phocas Co-emperor Theodosius (590–602) Born 539 Arabissus, Cappadocia Died 27 November 602 (aged 63) Constantinople Burial Saint Mamas Monastery Spouse Constantina Issue among others Maria Theodosius Tiberius Names Flavius Mauricius Tiberius[a] Dynasty Justinian dynasty Father Paul Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Maurice (Latin: Flavius Mauricius Tiberius; Greek: Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος; 539 – 27 November 602) was Byzantine emperor from 582 to 602. A prominent general, Maurice fought with success against the Sasanian Empire. After he became Emperor, he brought the war with Sasanian Persia to a victorious conclusion. Under him the Empire's eastern border in the South Caucasus was vastly expanded and, for the first time in nearly two centuries, the Romans were no longer obliged to pay the Persians thousands of pounds of gold annually for peace. Maurice campaigned extensively in the Balkans against the Avars – pushing them back across the Danube by 599. He also conducted campaigns across the Danube, the first Roman Emperor to do so in over two centuries. In the west, he established two large semi-autonomous provinces called exarchates, ruled by exarchs, or viceroys of the emperor. In Italy Maurice established the Exarchate of Italy in 584, the first real effort by the Empire to halt the advance of the Lombards. With the creation of the Exarchate of Africa in 590 he further solidified the power of Constantinople in the western Mediterranean. His reign was troubled by financial difficulties and almost constant warfare. In 602 a dissatisfied general named Phocas usurped the throne, having Maurice and his six sons executed. This event would prove a disaster for the Empire, sparking a twenty-six-year war with Sassanid Persia which would leave both empires devastated prior to the Muslim conquests. His reign is a relatively well documented era of late antiquity, in particular by the historian Theophylact Simocatta. The Strategikon, a manual of war which influenced European and Middle Eastern military traditions for well over a millennium, is traditionally attributed to Maurice. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Origins and early life 1.2 Persian War and accession to the throne 1.3 Balkan war 1.4 Domestic policy 2 Family 3 Death 4 Legacy 4.1 Assessment 4.2 Legends 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading Life[edit] Origins and early life[edit] Maurice was born in Arabissus in Cappadocia in 539, the son of a certain Paul. He had one brother, Peter, and two sisters, Theoctista and Gordia, who was later the wife of the general Philippicus.[3] He is recorded to have been a native Greek speaker, unlike the previous emperors since Anastasius I Dicorus.[4] Sources conflict over his birthplace, with most calling him a native Cappadocian Greek and the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks", while historian Evagrius Scholasticus records a descent from old Rome.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Maurice first came to Constantinople as a notarius to serve as a secretary to the comes excubitorum (commander of the Excubitors, the imperial bodyguard), Tiberius, the future Tiberius II (r. 578–582). When Tiberius was named Caesar in 574, Maurice was appointed to succeed him as comes excubitorum.[11] Persian War and accession to the throne[edit] Map of the Roman-Persian frontier showing Maurice's gains after he reinstated Sassanid king Khosrau II on the throne in 591 Further information: Byzantine–Sassanid War of 572–591 In late 577, despite a complete lack of military experience, Maurice was named as magister militum per Orientem, effectively commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in the east. He succeeded General Justinian in the ongoing war against Sassanid Persia. At about the same time he was raised to the rank of patrikios, the Empire's senior honorific title, which was limited to a small number of holders.[12] In 578, a truce in Mesopotamia came to an end and the main focus of the war shifted to that front. After Persian raids in Mesopotamia, the new magister militum of the east mounted attacks on both sides of the Tigris, captured the fortress of Aphumon and sacked Singara. Sassanid emperor Khosrow sought peace in 579, but died before an agreement could be reached and his successor Hormizd IV (r. 579–590) broke off the negotiations.[13] In 580, Byzantium's Arab allies the Ghassanids scored a victory over the Lakhmids, Arab allies of the Sassanids, while Byzantine raids again penetrated east of the Tigris. Around this time the future Khosrow II was put in charge of the situation in Armenia, where he succeeded in convincing most of the rebel leaders to return to Sassanid allegiance, although Iberia remained loyal to the Byzantines.[14] The following year an ambitious campaign by Maurice, supported by Ghassanid forces under al-Mundhir III, targeted Ctesiphon, the Sassanid capital. The combined force moved south along the river Euphrates accompanied by a fleet of ships. The army stormed the fortress of Anatha and moved on until it reached the region of Beth Aramaye in central Mesopotamia, near Ctesiphon. There they found the bridge over the Euphrates destroyed by the Persians.[15] In response to Maurice's advance Sassanid general Adarmahan was ordered to operate in northern Mesopotamia, threatening the Roman army's supply line.[16] Adarmahan pillaged Osrhoene, and was successful in capturing its capital, Edessa. He then marched his army toward Callinicum on the Euphrates. With the possibility of a march to Ctesiphon gone Maurice was forced to retreat. The retreat was arduous for the tired army, and Maurice and al-Mundhir exchanged recriminations for the expedition's failure. However, they cooperated in forcing Adarmahan to withdraw, and defeated him at Callinicum.[17] The mutual recriminations were not laid to rest by this. Despite his successes, al-Mundhir was accused by Maurice of treason during the preceding campaign. Maurice claimed that al-Mundhir had revealed the Byzantine plan to the Persians, who then proceeded to destroy the bridge over the Euphrates. The chronicler John of Ephesus explicitly calls this assertion a lie, as the Byzantine intentions must have been plain to the Persian commanders.[18][19] Both Maurice and al-Mundhir wrote letters to Emperor Tiberius, who tried to reconcile them. Maurice visited Constantinople himself, where he was able to persuade Tiberius of al-Mundhir's guilt.[18] The charge of treason is almost universally dismissed by modern historians; Irfan Shahîd says that it probably had more to do with Maurice's dislike of the veteran and militarily successful Arab ruler. This was compounded by the Byzantines' habitual distrust of the "barbarian" and supposedly innately traitorous Arabs, as well as by al-Mundhir's staunchly Monophysite faith.[20] Al-Mundhir was arrested the following year on suspicion of treachery, triggering war between Byzantines and Ghassanids and marking the beginning of the end of the Ghassanid kingdom.[21] In June of 582 Maurice scored a decisive victory against Adarmahan near Constantina. Adarmahan barely escaped the field, while his co-commander Tamkhosrau was killed.[22][23] In the same month Emperor Tiberius was struck down by an illness which shortly thereafter killed him. In this state Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom was to marry one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to Constantina, and Germanus, related through blood to the great emperor Justinian, was married to Charito.[24] It appears that the plan was to divide the Empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western.[24] According to John of Nikiû, Germanus was Tiberius' favored candidate for the throne but declined out of humility.[25] On 13 August Tiberius was on his deathbed and civilian, military and ecclesiastical dignitaries awaited the appointment of his successor. Tiberius had reportedly prepared a speech on the matter but at this point was too weak to speak. The quaestor sacri palatii (the senior judicial official of the Empire) read it for him. The speech proclaimed Maurice an Augustus and sole successor to the throne. On 14 August 582 Tiberius died and his last words were spoken to his successor:[26] "Let my sovereignty be delivered to thee with this girl. Be happy in the use of it, mindful always to love equity and justice." Maurice became sole emperor, marrying Constantina in the autumn.[27] Shortly after his ascension the advantage he had gained at the Battle of Constantina was lost when his successor as magister militum of the east, John Mystacon, was defeated at the River Nymphios by Kardarigan.[28] The situation was difficult:[29] Maurice ruled a bankrupt Empire;[30] it was at war with Persia; he was paying extremely high tribute to the Avars, 80,000 gold solidi a year;[31] and the Balkan provinces were being thoroughly devastated by the Slavs.[32] Follis with Maurice in consular uniform. Maurice had to continue the war against the Persians. In 586 his troops defeated them at the Battle of Solachon south of Dara. In 588, a mutiny by unpaid Byzantine troops against their new commander, Priscus, seemed to offer the Sassanids a chance for a breakthrough, but the mutineers themselves repulsed the ensuing Persian offensive.[33] Later in the year they secured a major victory before Martyropolis. The Sassanid commander, Maruzas, was killed, several of the Persian leaders were captured along with 3,000 other prisoners, and only a thousand men survived to reach refuge at Nisibis. The Byzantines secured much booty, including the Persian battle standards, and sent them, along with Maruzas' head, to Maurice in Constantinople. In 590 two Parthian brothers, Vistahm and Vinduyih, overthrew King Hormizd IV and made the latter's son, Prince Khosrau II, the new King. The former Persian commander-in-chief, Bahram Chobin, who had rebelled against Hormizd IV, claimed the throne for himself and defeated Khosrau. Khosrau and the two Parthians fled to the Byzantine court. Although the Senate unanimously advised against it, Maurice helped Khosrau regain his throne with an army of 35,000 men. In 591 the combined Byzantine-Persian army under generals John Mystacon and Narses defeated Bahram Chobin's forces near Ganzak at the Battle of the Blarathon. The victory was decisive; Maurice finally brought the war to a successful conclusion with the re-accession of Khosrau.[34][35] Subsequently, Khosrau was adopted by the Emperor in order to seal their alliance.[36] The adoption was made through a rite of adoptio per arma, which ordinarily assumed the Christian character of its partakers.[36] However, the chief Byzantine bishops, "despite their best attempts", failed to convert Khosrau.[36] Khosrau rewarded Maurice by ceding to the Empire western Armenia up to the lakes Van and Sevan, including the large cities of Martyropolis, Tigranokert, Manzikert, Ani, and Yerevan. Maurice's treaty brought a new status-quo to the east territorially. Byzantium was enlarged to an extent never before achieved by the Empire. During the new "perpetual peace" millions of solidi were saved by the remission of tribute to the Persians.[37] Balkan war[edit] Further information: Maurice's Balkan campaigns The Northern Balkans in the 6th century. The Avars arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 568. Almost immediately they launched an attack on Sirmium, the keystone to the Byzantine defences on the Danube, but were repulsed. They then sent 10,000 Kotrigur Huns to invade the Byzantine province of Dalmatia.[38] There followed a period of consolidation, during which the Byzantines paid them 80,000 gold solidi a year.[39] In 579, his treasury empty, Tiberius II stopped the payments.[39] The Avars retaliated with another siege of Sirmium.[40] The city fell in c. 581. After the capture of Sirmium, the Avars demanded 100,000 solidi a year.[31] Refused, they used the strategically important city as a base of operations against several poorly defended forts along the Danube and began pillaging the northern and eastern Balkans.[32] The Slavs began settling the land from the 580s on.[29][40] In 584 the Slavs threatened the capital and in 586 the Avars besieged Thessalonica, while the Slavs went as far as the Peloponnese.[41] After his victory on the eastern frontier in 591, Maurice was free to focus on the Balkans. He launched several campaigns against the Slavs and Avars. In 592 his troops retook Singidunum (modern Belgrade) from the Avars. His commander-in-chief Priscus defeated the Slavs, Avars and Gepids south of the Danube in 593. The same year he crossed the Danube into modern-day Wallachia to continue his series of victories. In 594 Maurice replaced Priscus with his rather inexperienced brother Peter, who, despite initial failures, scored another victory in Wallachia. Priscus, now in command of another army further upstream, defeated the Avars again in 595. The latter now only dared to attack peripherally, in Dalmatia two years later. In the same year the Byzantines concluded a peace treaty with the Avar leader Bayan I, which allowed the Byzantines to send expeditions into Wallachia.[42] In 598 Maurice broke the treaty to permit a retaliation campaign inside the Avar homeland. In 599 and 601 the Byzantine forces wreaked havoc amongst the Avars and Gepids. In 602 the Slavs suffered a crushing defeat in Wallachia. The Byzantine troops were now able to hold the Danube line again. Meanwhile, Maurice was making plans for repopulating devastated areas in the Balkans by using Armenian settlers. Maurice also planned to lead further campaigns against the Avar Khaganate, so as to either destroy them or force them into submission.[43][44] Domestic policy[edit] The Exarchate of Italy under Maurice The Exarchate of Africa under Maurice In the west Maurice organised the threatened Byzantine dominions in Italy into the Exarchate of Italy. The Late Roman administrative system provided for a clear distinction between civil and military offices, primarily to lessen the possibility of rebellion by over-powerful provincial governors. In 584 Maurice created the office of exarch, which combined the supreme civil authority of a praetorian prefect and the military authority of a magister militum and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. The Exarchate was successful in slowing the Lombard advance in Italy. In 591 he created the Exarchate of Africa along similar lines.[45] In 597 an ailing Maurice wrote his last will, in which he described his ideas of governing the Empire. His eldest son, Theodosius, would rule the east from Constantinople; his second son, Tiberius, would rule the West from Rome. Some historians believe he intended for his younger sons to rule from Alexandria, Carthage, and Antioch. His intent was to maintain the unity of the Empire; this idea bears a strong resemblance to the Tetrarchy of Diocletian. However, Maurice's violent death prevented these plans from coming to fruition.[45] In religious matters, Maurice was tolerant towards Monophysitism, although he was a supporter of the Council of Chalcedon. He clashed with Pope Gregory I over the latter's defence of Rome against the Lombards.[46][47] Maurice's efforts to consolidate the Empire slowly but steadily succeeded, especially after the peace with Persia. His initial popularity apparently declined during his reign, mostly because of his fiscal policies. In 588 he announced a cut in military wages by a quarter, leading to a serious mutiny by troops on the Persian front. He refused to pay a small ransom in 599 or 600 to free 12,000 Byzantine soldiers taken prisoner by the Avars. The prisoners were killed, and a protesting military delegation, headed by an officer named Phocas (subsequently Emperor Phocas), was humiliated and rejected in Constantinople.[48] Family[edit] Maurice's marriage produced nine known children:[11][49] Theodosius (4 August 583/585 – after 27 November 602). According to John of Ephesus, he was the first heir born to a reigning emperor since the reign of Theodosius II[50] (408–450). He was appointed Caesar in 587 and co-emperor on 26 March 590.[51] Tiberius (died 27 November 602) Petrus (died 27 November 602) Paulus (died 27 November 602) Justin (died 27 November 602) Justinian (died 27 November 602) Anastasia (died c. 605) Theoctista (died c. 605) Cleopatra (died c. 605) A daughter, Miriam/Maria, is recorded by the 12th-century chronicler Michael the Syrian and other eastern sources as married to Khosrau II but not in any Byzantine Greek ones; she is probably legendary.[52] His brother Petrus (c. 550 – 602) became the curopalates and was killed at the same time as Maurice. Petrus married Anastasia Aerobinda (born c. 570), daughter of Areobindus (born c. 550), and had female issue.[53] Maurice's nephew Domitian of Melitene was probably a son of Peter.[54] Death[edit] In 602 Maurice, with the lack of money as always dictating policy, decreed that the army should stay for winter beyond the Danube. The exhausted troops mutinied against the Emperor. Probably misjudging the situation, Maurice repeatedly ordered his troops to start a new offensive rather than return to winter quarters. His troops gained the impression that Maurice no longer understood the military situation and proclaimed Phocas their leader. They demanded that Maurice abdicate and proclaim as successor either his son Theodosius or General Germanus. Both men were accused of treason. As riots broke out in Constantinople, the Emperor, taking his family with him, left the city on a warship heading to Nicomedia, while Theodosius headed east to Persia (historians are not sure whether he had been sent there by his father or if he fled there). Phocas entered Constantinople in November and was crowned emperor. His troops captured Maurice and his family and brought them to the harbor of Eutropius at Chalcedon.[48] Maurice was murdered at the harbor of Eutropius on 27 November 602 (some sources say 23 November). The deposed emperor was forced to watch his five younger sons executed before he was beheaded himself.[55] Empress Constantina and her three daughters were temporarily spared and sent to a monastery. The palace eunuch Scholasticus aided their escape to St. Sophia, but the church turned them over to Phocas, who sent them back to the monastery. A few years later, they were all executed at the harbor of Eutropius when Constantina was found guilty of a conspiracy against Phocas. The entire family of Maurice and Constantina was buried at the monastery of St. Mamas or Nea Metanoia that had been founded by Maurice's sister Gordia.[56] The Persian King Khosrau II used this coup and the murder of his patron as an excuse for a renewed war against the Empire.[48] Legacy[edit] The Roman Empire in 600 Assessment[edit] Maurice is seen as an able emperor and commander-in-chief, though the description of him by Theophylact may exaggerate these traits. He possessed insight, public spirit, and courage. He proved his expertise on military and foreign affairs during his campaigns against the Persians, Avars and Slavs, and during peace negotiations with Khosrau II. His administrative reforms reveal him as a farsighted statesman, all the more since they outlasted his death by centuries and were the basis for the later introduction of themes as military districts.[45] His court still used Latin, as did the army and administration, and he promoted science and the arts. Maurice is traditionally named as author of the military treatise Strategikon, which is praised in military circles as the only sophisticated combined arms theory until World War II. Some historians now believe the Strategikon is the work of his brother or another general in his court, however.[57][58] His greatest weakness was his inability to judge how unpopular his decisions were. The historian C. W. Previté-Orton, listed a number of character flaws in the Emperor's personality: His fault was too much faith in his own excellent judgment without regard to the disagreement and unpopularity which he provoked by decisions in themselves right and wise. He was a better judge of policy than of men.[59] It was this flaw that cost him throne and life, and thwarted most of his efforts to prevent the disintegration of the Empire of Justinian I. The death of Maurice was a turning point. The war against Persia which it caused weakened both empires, enabling the Slavs to permanently settle the Balkans and paving the way for the Arab-Muslim expansion. English historian A.H.M. Jones characterises the death of Maurice as the end of the era of Classical Antiquity, as the turmoil that shattered the Empire over the next four decades permanently and thoroughly changed society and politics.[60] Legends[edit] The first legendary accounts of Maurice's life are recorded in the ninth century, in the work of the Byzantine historian Theophanes the Confessor. According to his chronicle Chronographia, the death of the imperial family is due to divine intervention: Christ asked the Emperor to choose between a long reign or death and acceptance in the kingdom of heaven. Maurice preferred the second choice.[61] The same story has been recorded in a short Syriac hagiography on the life of the emperor. It is of East Syrian origin.[62][63] This was later sanctified by the Eastern Orthodox Church.[b] According to the Syriac author, the emperor asked in prayer to receive a punishment in this world and a "perfect reward" in the kingdom of heaven. The choice was offered by an angel.[65] Anthony Alcock has published an English translation.[66] According to another legend in the same text, Maurice prevented a nurse from substituting one of his sons so as to save at least one of the heirs of the Empire.[67] In a Montenegrin epic the legendary Prince Nahod Momir (Momir the foundling) and his sister Grozdana are related to the Emperor and his sister Gordia. In the epic, the epithet "the foundling" reflects Maurice's adoption by the Emperor Tiberius, and by the imperial dynasty of Justin. In the Bosnian epic, the Emperor is called Mouio Tcarevitch (Mouio the son of the emperor).[68] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ The full imperial titulature of Maurice, attested in a letter to Childebert II, was Imperator Caesar Flavius Mauricius Tiberius fidelis in Christo mansuetus maximus beneficus pacificus Alamannicus Gothicus [Francicus Germanicus] Anticus Alanicus Vandalicus Erulicus Gepidicus Afric[an]us pius felix inclitus victor ac triumfator semper Augustus ("Emperor Caesar Flavius Maurice Tiberius, faithful in Christ, mild, majestic, bountiful, peaceable; victor over the Alamanni, Goths, [Franks and Germans,] the Antae, Vandals, Heruls, Gepids, in Africa; pious, fortunate, renowned, victorious and triumphant, ever august").[1][2] ^ Commemorated on 28 November according to the Typikon of the Great Church and on 28 August, according to the Palestinian-Georgian Synaxarion.[64] References[edit] ^ Bury 1889, pp. 165–166. ^ Rösch 1978, p. 169. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 855. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 227. ^ Stark, Freya (2012). Rome on the Euphrates: The Story of a Frontier. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-84885-314-0. Byzantium reverted to Greek (Maurice, born in Cappadocia, was its first Greek emperor); and trade and diplomacy were honored from the very founding of the Imperial city as never in Rome before. ^ Corradini, Richard (2006). Texts and identities in the early Middle Ages. Verl. der Österr. Akad. der Wiss. p. 57. ISBN 978-3-7001-3747-4. Emperor Maurice who is said to be the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks," ex Graecorum genere. ^ Stark 2012, p. 390. ^ Corradini 2006, p. 57. ^ Rosser 2011, p. 199. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1318. ^ a b Martindale 1992, p. 856. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 856–857. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 160–162. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 162–163. ^ Shahîd 1995, pp. 413–419; Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 163–165. ^ Shahîd 1995, p. 414. ^ Shahîd 1995, p. 416; Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 165. ^ a b Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 164. ^ Shahîd 1995, pp. 439–443. ^ Shahîd 1995, pp. 444–455. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 163–166. ^ Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992, pp. 859, 1215 ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 166 ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 226. ^ "John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. Chapter XCV (95),25–26. 1916 translation by R. H. Charles". Archived from the original on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2008. ^ Paul the Deacon, III, ch. 15 ^ http://www.roman-emperors.org/sophia.htm Archived 30 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Lynda Garland, "Sophia, Wife of Justin II" ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, pp. 166–167. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1956, pp. 74–5. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 275. ^ a b Mitchell 2007, p. 406. ^ a b Petersen 2013, p. 379. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 170 ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 73. ^ Norwich 1988, pp. 273–4. ^ a b c Payne 2015, p. 164. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 273. ^ Petersen 2013, p. 378. ^ a b Mitchell 2007, p. 405. ^ a b Petersen 2013, pp. 378–379. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 274. ^ Pohl 2002, p. 154. ^ The Armenian History attributed to Sebēos, Part 1, translation and notes, trans. R.W. Thomson; comm. J.D. Howard-Johnston, Translated Texts for Historians 31 (Liverpool, 1999) p.56 ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 75. ^ a b c Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 74. ^ Fortescuen, Adrian (1911). "Maurice" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 76. ^ a b c Norwich 1988, pp. 275–8. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 277. ^ "Roman Emperors – DIR Constantina". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018. ^ Whitby 1988, p. 18. ^ Baum (2004), p. 24-26 ^ Whitby 1988, p. 5. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 411. ^ Norwich 1988, p. 278. ^ Garland, Lynda (1999). "Constantina (Wife of the Emperor Maurice)". www.roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 12 December 2020. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 24. ^ McCotter, Stephen (2003). "'The Nation which Forgets its Defenders will Itself be Forgotten': Emperor Maurice and the Persians". Queen's University of Belfast. deremilitari.org. Archived from the original on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2012. ^ Previté-Orton 1952, p. 203. ^ Norwich 1988, pp. 278–9. ^ Theophanes (the Confessor) et Roger Scott. The chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern history, AD 284–813. Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. 410 ^ Whitby 1988, p. 21. ^ Brock 1976, p. 29. ^ Wortley 1980. ^ Turnhout: Brepols, 1981, pp. 774–775. ^ Alcock 2018. ^ Nau, 1981, pp. 776–778. ^ Shuka, 2015, pp. 527–568. Sources[edit] Alcock, Anthony (2018). "Maurice the Emperor: A Short Syriac Text". Academia.edu. Brock, Sebastian P. (1976). "Syriac Sources for Seventh-Century History". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 2 (1): 17–36. doi:10.1179/030701376790206207. Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, 395 A.D. to 800 A.D. II. MacMillan & Co. OCLC 168739195. Corradini, Richard (2006). Texts and identities in the early Middle Ages. Wien: Verl. der Österr. Akad. der Wiss. ISBN 9783700137474. Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD). New York, London: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-14687-6. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Martindale, John R. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire – Volume III, AD 527–641. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20160-5. Martindale, John Robert; Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Morris, J., eds. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: A.D. 527–641. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20160-5. Mitchell, Stephen (2007). A History of the Later Roman Empire. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0856-0. Norwich, John (1988). Byzantium: The Early Centuries. London: Viking. ISBN 978-0670802517. OCLC 18834505. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of The Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 422217218. Paul the Deacon (2011). Peters, Edward (ed.). History of the Lombards. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812205589. Payne, Richard E. (2015). A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity. Univ of California Press. pp. 1–320. ISBN 9780520961531. Petersen, Leif Inge Ree (2013). Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400–800 AD) Byzantium, the West and Islam. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004254466. Pohl, Walter (2002). The Avars: a Steppe People in Central Europe, 567-822 AD (in German). Munich: Beck. ISBN 9783406489693. Previté-Orton, Charles William (1952). The shorter Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge: University Press. OCLC 263439650. Rösch, Gerhard (1978). Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-0260-1. Rosser, John H. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Boston: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810874770. Shahîd, Irfan (1995). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Volume 1. Washington, District of Columbia: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5. Stark, Freya (2012). Rome on the Euphrates: The Story of a Frontier. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 9781848853140. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Walford, Edward, transl. (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, Merchantville, NJ ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian – Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822945-2. Wortley, J. (1980). "The legend of the Emperor Maurice". Actes du XVe Congrès International d'Etudes byzantines, Athènes, 1976. IV. Athens. pp. 382–391. Further reading[edit] The Christian Roman Empire series. Merchantville, NJ: Evolpub.com. 2007. ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. Retrieved 27 November 2013. Shlosser, Franziska E. (1994). The Reign of the Emperor Maurikios (582–602). A reassessment (Historical Monographs 14). Montreal: McGill University. ISBN 9789607100788. Whitby, Michael; Whitby, Mary (1986). The History of Theophylact Simocatta. Oxford: Claredon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822799-1. Whitby, Michael (2015). "Maurice". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Columbia University Press. OCLC 59605200. Maurice (emperor) Justinian dynasty Born: 539  Died: 602 Regnal titles Preceded by Tiberius II Constantine Byzantine emperor 582–602 with Tiberius II Constantine (582) Theodosius (590–602) Succeeded by Phocas Political offices Preceded by Tiberius Constantinus Augustus in 579, then lapsed Consul of the Roman Empire 583 Succeeded by Lapsed, Phocas Augustus in 603 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Greece Israel 2 Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurice_(emperor)&oldid=1024171433" Categories: Maurice (emperor) Justinian dynasty Flavii 539 births 602 deaths Imperial Roman consuls 6th-century Byzantine emperors 7th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine Cappadocians Patricii Magistri militum Comites excubitorum Executed Byzantine people Ancient Greek military writers Roman military writers People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars People executed by decapitation 7th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire 6th-century Byzantine writers Executed monarchs Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template wayback links Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2020 Good articles EngvarB from May 2018 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 May 2021, at 14:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-249	----	Funan - Wikipedia Funan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kingdom of Funan) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Funan (disambiguation). Ancient kingdom located in Indochina centered on the Mekong Delta Funan ហ្វូណន 68–627 Capital Vyādhapūra Common languages Proto-Khmer (common), Sanskrit (religious) Religion Hinduism, Buddhism and Khmer Animism Government Monarchy Historical era Classical Antiquity • Established 68 • Disestablished 627 Currency Native coins Succeeded by Chenla Today part of Cambodia Thailand Vietnam Part of a series on the History of Cambodia Early history Funan Chenla Khmer Empire Angkor Khmer–Cham wars Khmer-Vietnamese war Post-Angkor Period Chaktomuk era Longvek era Siamese-Cambodian War Cambodian–Spanish War Cambodian–Dutch War Oudong era Loss of Mekong Delta Colonial period French colonial rule Japanese occupation Independence and conflict Post-independence US bombing Sihanouk Trail Cambodian campaign 1970 coup Khmer Republic US bombing Cambodian Civil War fall of Phnom Penh Democratic Kampuchea Mayaguez incident Cambodian genocide Cambodian–Vietnamese War People's Republic of Kampuchea exiled coalition government K5 Plan Peace process 1991 Paris Peace Accords United Nations Transitional Authority (UNTAC, 1992–93) 1993 election Modern Cambodia Economy 1997 coup Khmer Rouge Tribunal 2003 Phnom Penh riots Cambodian–Thai border dispute 2013-2014 protests COVID-19 pandemic By topic Buddhism Economic history Humanitarian crises Monarchy Names Heads of state Military history Timeline  Cambodia portal v t e Funan (Chinese: 扶南; pinyin: Fúnán or Chinese: 跋南; pinyin: Bunong, Chu Han: 夫南, Khmer: ហ្វូណន, Funân [fuːnɑːn]; Vietnamese: Phù Nam) or Nokor Phnom (Khmer: នគរភ្នំ, Nôkô Phnum [nɔkɔː pʰnum], lit. 'Mountain Kingdom') was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianised state—or, rather a loose network of states (Mandala)[1][2]—located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, representing the Wu Kingdom who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century CE.[3]:24 Funan is known in the modern languages of the region as វ្នំ Vnum (Old Khmer) or នគរភ្នំ Nôkô Phnum (Khmer), ฟูนาน Funan (Thai), and Phù Nam (Vietnamese), however, the name Funan is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain"), others however thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all- rather it meant what it says in Chinese. Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon–Khmer, or that they were mostly Austronesian, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. Michael Vickery has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer.[4] The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control.[5] Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.[6] From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state.[7] Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sources 3 History 3.1 Origins of Funan 3.2 Kaundinya/Huntian 3.2.1 Huntian 3.2.2 Kaundinya 3.2.3 Kaundinya in the Chinese sources 3.2.4 Kaundinya in the inscription of Mỹ Sơn 3.2.5 Kaundinya in the inscription of Tháp Mười 3.2.6 Kaundinya in Khmer folklore 3.2.7 Kaundinya's Indian Origins 3.3 Apex and decline of Funan 3.4 Legacy 4 Society 4.1 Capital 4.2 Culture 4.3 Economy 4.4 Foreign relations 5 List of rulers of Funan 6 See also 7 References 8 Literature 9 External links Etymology[edit] Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan (Middle Chinese pronunciation of 扶南: /bju nậm/, Later Han pronunciation: /buɑ nəm/ or possibly /puɑ nəm/[8]) represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain").[9] However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mis-translation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan.[10] It has also been observed that in Chinese the character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as Annam.[11] Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Bhavapura, Aninditapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.[12] Sources[edit] The archeological site of Go Cay Thi, Oc Eo The first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions.[13] Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the Sānguó zhì 三國志 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 CE by Chén Shòu 陳壽 (233–297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of Lǚ Dài 呂待, governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú 吳: the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243.[14] Later sources such as the Liáng shū 梁書 (Book of Liang) of Yáo Chá 姚察 (533–606) and Yáo Sīlián 姚思廉 (d. 637), completed in 636, discuss the mission of the 3rd-century Chinese envoys Kang Tai 康泰 and Zhū Yīng 朱應 from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan. Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the Óc Eo culture, have supported and supplemented his conclusion. History[edit] The archaeological site of Go Thap Muoi, Đồng Tháp See also: Greater India and Indosphere Origins of Funan[edit] According to modern scholars drawing primarily on Chinese literary sources, a foreigner named "Huntian" [pinyin: Hùntián] established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.[6] The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonised by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.[15] It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire.[16] The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese. Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts.[17] Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.[18] In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.[19] Kaundinya/Huntian[edit] A statue of Queen Soma Huntian[edit] The Book of Liang records the story of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (混塡 Middle Chinese pronunciation /ɦwənx tɦian/): "He came from the southern country Jiào (徼, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè (柳葉, "Willow Leaf")(Queen Soma) wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship.[20]:37 Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son,[20]:37 who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū 晉書 (Book of Jin), compiled by Fáng Xuánlíng in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì" 混湏 and "Yèliǔ" 葉柳. Kaundinya[edit] Some scholars have identified the conqueror Hùntián of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn[20]:37 and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars[21] have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from another language.[22] Kaundinya in the Chinese sources[edit] Ruins of Nam Linh Son, Oc Eo Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" [Kauṇḍinya, Koṇḍañña, Koṇḍinya, etc.] is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan as written by the Chinese historians: however, they transcribed it not as "Hùntián", but as "Qiáochénrú" 僑陳如.[23] A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Hùntián. According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán 天竺旃檀 ("Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin (r. 344–361; personal name: Sīmǎ Dān 司馬聃): "He [Qiáochénrú] was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: ʻyou must go reign over Fúnán,ʼ and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at Pánpán 盤盤. The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." Kaundinya in the inscription of Mỹ Sơn[edit] The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C. 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII):[24] "It was there [at the city of Bhavapura] that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task ...".[25] Kaundinya in the inscription of Tháp Mười[edit] This stele found at Tháp Mười in Đồng Tháp Province, Vietnam and now located in the Museum of History in Ho Chi Minh City is one of the few extant writings that can be attributed confidently to the kingdom of Funan. The text is in Sanskrit, written in Grantha script of the Pallava dynasty, dated to the mid-5th century CE, and tells of a donation in honour of Vishnu by a Prince Gunavarman of the Kaundinya lineage. The Sanskrit inscription (K.5) of Tháp Mười (known as "Prasat Pram Loven" in Khmer), which is now on display in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City, refers to a Prince Guṇavarman, younger son (nṛpasunu—bālo pi) of a king Ja[yavarman] who was "the moon of the Kauṇḍinya line (... kauṇḍi[n]ya[vaṅ]śaśaśinā ...) and chief "of a realm wrested from the mud".[26] Kaundinya in Khmer folklore[edit] The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home of the nāgas and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit (Kambujādhipati) and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak.[27][28][29] The reference to an island is interesting and may further implicate Angkor Borei as a noted capital or primary center. Angkor Borei is surrounded by a six kilometer earthen wall approximately 20 meters wide and several meters high. The wall is amorphous with only one discernible geometric corner. The wall circumference mostly contours the settlement area and natural topography. It serves more as a water control mechanism than a defensive wall. There is evidence of brick interiors in some locations which may have been a feature of wall construction. Or, the bricks may represent features within the wall such as a temple or shrine that intentionally articulated with the wall or was buried during wall construction and enhancement, much like Ak Yum in the West Baray at Ankgor. There is archaeological evidence of settlement and activity along and on top of the wall as well - particularly closer to the Angkor Borei River which transects the urban site through at least two wall openings. Areas closer to the river banks and dykes have much higher densities of artifacts and evidence of activity and settlement. There is a 20-meter outer moat in many locations and several moat-like segments on the interior of the wall. The removed soil was likely used to create the wall and further enhance hydrological engineering, i.e., water control: channel it, move it, store it, control ground water levels in the dry season, etc. Because of the high clay content, the wall is rather impermeable. During the wet season, the very flat surrounding floodplain essentially becomes a giant lake with the noted exceptions of Phnom Borei mountain (Iron Age, Funan, and other sites including burials), Phnom Da hills (also contains Asram Maha Russei and Phnom Da temples), and the urban Angkor Borei site appearing as islands. The dominant production economy also switches to fishing. Access to Angkor Borei is by boat rather than road. During the dry season, the situation is reversed where rice paddies and flood recession rice cropping dominate the economy and the land eventually becomes dry, also useful for some gardens, the ever-present sugar palms (Borassus flabellifer), and grazing. The archaeological material culture at Angkor Borei itself is very dense and highly variable with a wide spectrum of exotic items indicative of a prominent trade, production and redistribution center. Kaundinya's Indian Origins[edit] Since most sources are vague on the exact origins of Kaundinya I from India,[30] delving into history especially through the lens of maritime history and ancient trade links as well as inscriptions analysis and customs from India is important in providing insights into the origins of Kaundinya. Sanjeev Sanyal's book The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History further looks into the origin of the name Kaundinya, which points out that it is not usually a common first name in India but a gotra (i.e. the patrilineal lineage) of a group of Brahmins who lived on the eastern coastline of India especially along the Odisha-Northern Andhra coastline. Thus this region corresponds to the ancient Kalinga region (now modern Odisha), which is important considering the early Indian mariners were trading from this region as evident from their ancient maritime history around the 3rd century BCE.[31][32] The port of Palur(near Ganjam) which was referred to by Ptolemy as a prominent international port during the 2nd century CE, thus referring to its important role played in the maritime trading history.[33] The strong links with Kalinga are also noted from the copper plate land grants given by the rulers of Kalinga to Kaundinya Brahmins who lived in the Mahendragiri region of Ganjam, especially the Ragolu inscription copper plate grant of the Pitrbhakta dynasty,[34][35] the prominence of Shaivite customs mentioned in the Chinese work History of the Southern Dynasties during the reign of Jayavarman Kaundinya with regards to Mount Mo-tan in Funan,[36][37] bearing close affinity with the early Saivite customs and its relation to Mahendragiri mountain which was the prevalent religion during the reign of different Kalinga dynasties.[38] The diplomatic relations maintained between Funan and the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE also plays an important role in the relations between the two regions.[39][40][38] Apex and decline of Funan[edit] Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms...he extended his territory five or six thousand li." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243.[20]:38,40,42,46,56,59–60[41]:283–284–285 Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture...they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indian Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indian Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan.[20]:38,40,42,46,56,59–60[41]:283–284–285 Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd-century king Fan Shiman (pinyin: Fàn Shīmàn). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia. Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region.[42] Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.[43] Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom (Zhenla).[44] "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Na-fu-na."[20]:65 The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population.[45] Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".[46] Legacy[edit] The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan.[47][48][49][50] There was a mountain regarded as holy.[51][48] Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.[52][53][54] The Mnong people (Bunong) in eastern Cambodia and southern Vietnam are considered to be direct descendants of the people of Funan. The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.[55][56][57] The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.[58][59] Society[edit] Bodhisattva Lokeshvara of Phnom Da style (7th century), Mỹ Tho. Guimet Museum Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government.[60] Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system. Capital[edit] A temple at the archaeological site of Angkor Borei On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital". One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province. Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).[61] Coedès based his theory on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" [特牧, pinyin: Tèmù]; Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".[62] Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan.[63] However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified. Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region. Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated. The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla [Chenla], Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme. Culture[edit] Wooden Buddha statue Funanese Sanskrit inscription Funan Lingam Funanese Buddha statue Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes. Sanskrit was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines. Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai (康泰) and Zhu Ying (朱應) reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water. Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses, cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold, silver, ivory and exotic animals.[64] Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking.[65] The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements. Two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and Sanghapala,[20]:58,92 took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a prakrit) into Chinese.[66] Among these texts is the Mahayana Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, also called the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra.[67] This text was separately translated by both monks.[66] The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is a prominent figure in this text. Economy[edit] A Roman coin in Oc Eo Funanese gold Funanese jewelry A view of Mount Ba The, Oc Eo, An Giang Province, Vietnam Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird.[68] Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam. The Funanese settlement of Óc Eo, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire.[69] Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".[70] At Óc Eo, Roman coins were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s.[71] These include mid-2nd-century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius.[72] It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from "Daqin" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" (Chinese: 安敦, corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire's southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.[72][73][74][75] In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta; the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation. Foreign relations[edit] Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China.[60] Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty, and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228.[76] A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour, Linyi, joined forces to attack the area of Tongking (Vietnamese: Đông Kinh, "eastern capital"), located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam (which was a Chinese colony at the time). Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225-250 CE).[39][40][38] According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla (pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman (留陁跋摩, pinyin: Liútuóbámó) who ruled from 514 up to c. 545 CE. The French historian Georges Coedès once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain."[77] Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles.[78] People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture. List of rulers of Funan[edit] Order Sanskrit Name Names in Chinese Texts Reign 01 Neang Neak (Queen Soma) Liǔyè 柳葉 / Yèliǔ葉柳 1st/2nd century? 02 Preah Thong (Kaundinya I) Hùntián 混塡 / Hùnhuì 混湏 1st/2nd century 03 Hun Pan-huang Hùnpánkuàng 混盤況 2nd century 04 Pan-Pan Pánpán 盤盤 late 2nd century 05 Srei Meara Fàn Shīmàn 范師蔓 early 3rd century 06 Unknown Fàn Jīnshēng 范金生 c. 230? 07 Unknown Fàn Zhān 范旃 c. 230 – c. 243 or later 08 Unknown Fàn Cháng 范長 after 243 09 Unknown Fàn Xún 范尋 245/50-287 10 Unknown Unknown 4th century 11 Candana Zhāntán 旃檀 c. 357 12 Unknown Unknown Unknown 13 Kaundinya II Qiáochénrú 僑陳如 c. 420 14 Sri Indravarman I Chílítuóbámó 持梨陀跋摩 c. 430 – c. 440 15 Unknown Unknown Unknown 16 Unknown Unknown Unknown 17 Jayavarman Kaundinya Qiáochénrú Shéyébámó 僑陳如闍耶跋摩 484–514 18 Rudravarman Liútuóbámó 留陁跋摩 514-c.545 See also[edit] Mnong people Angkor Borei and Phnom Da Óc Eo Cát Tiên archaeological site Pan Pan References[edit] ^ Martin Stuart-Fox (2003). A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence. Allen & Unwin. p. 29. ^ Dougald JW O′Reilly (2007). Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Altamira Press. p. 194. ^ Higham, C., 2001, The Civilization of Angkor, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 9781842125847 ^ Michael Vickery, "Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients", Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XC-XCI (2003–2004), pp. 101–143 ^ Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Jakarta, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO, 2002, p. 59-82. ^ a b Hà Văn Tấn, "Oc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1–2 (7–8), 1986, pp.91–101. ^ Lương Ninh, "Funan Kingdom: A Historical Turning Point", Vietnam Archaeology, 147 3/2007: 74–89. ^ Schuessler, Axel (2007). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. ^ Georges Cœdès, "La Stele de Ta-Prohm", Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extreme-Orient (BEFEO), Hanoi, VI, 1906, pp.44-81; George Cœdès, Histoire ancienne des États hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, Hanoi, 1944, pp.44-45; Georges Cœdès, Les états hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie, Paris, E. de Boccard, 1948, p.128. ^ Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371–9, pp.373, 375; Ha Van Tan, "Óc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1-2 (7-8), 1986, pp. 91-101, pp.91-92. ^ Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia : Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371-9, p.378. ^ Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia : Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371-9, p.378. ^ See Vickery, "Funan Deconstructed" ^ Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 303. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 22 October 2017. ^ Asia: A Concise History by Milton W. Meyer p.62 ^ Asia: A Concise History by Milton W. Meyer p.62 ^ Pang Khat, «Le Bouddhisme au Cambodge», René de Berval, Présence du Bouddhisme, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, pp.535-551, pp.537, 538; Amarajiva Lochan, "India and Thailand: Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports", S.K. Maity, Upendra Thakur, A.K. Narain (eds,), Studies in Orientology: Essays in Memory of Prof. A.L. Basham, Agra, Y.K. Publishers, 1988, pp.222-235, pp.222, 229-230; Prapod Assavavirulhakarn, The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Chieng Mai, Silkworm Books, 2010, p.55 ^ Philip Taylor, The Khmer lands of Vietnam: Environment, Cosmology, and Sovereignty, Honolulu, Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2014, pp.36-37, 65, 67, 271. ^ Rinith Taing, “Was Cambodia home to Asia’s ancient ‘Land of Gold’?”, The Phnom Penh Post, 5 January, 2018. ^ a b c d e f g Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1. ^ Vickery, "Funan reviewed", p. 197 ^ Edwin George Pulleyblank, Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, and early mandarin, Vancouver: UBC Press 1991, pp. 135 and 306 ^ Hackmann, Erklären des Wörterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus, p. 80, s. v. Chiao-ch'ên-ju ^ Louis Finot,Notes d'Epigraphie XI: Les Inscriptions de Mi-so'n, p.923 ^ Golzio, "Kauṇḍinya in Südostasien", pp. 157–165 ^ Georges Cœdès, "Études Cambodgiennes XXV: Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou-nan", pp. 2–8 ^ Rudiger Gaudes, Kaundinya, Preah Thong, and the Nagi Soma: Some Aspects of a Cambodian Legend, p. 337 ^ Eveline Poree-Maspero, Nouvelle Etude sur la Nagi Soma, pp. 239 & 246 ^ R. C. Majumdar, Kambuja-Desa or An Ancient Cambodian Colony in Cambodia, pp. 18–19 ^ Chad Raymond (2005), "Regional Geographic Influence on Two Khmer Polities", Journal of Third World Studies, University Press of Florida, 22 (1): 135–150, JSTOR 45194224, retrieved 31 March 2021 ^ Sanyal, Sanjeev (10 August 2016). The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History. Penguin UK. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-93-86057-61-7. ^ Sila Tripati (2002), Early Maritime Activities of Orissa on the East Coast of India: Linkages in Trade and Cultural Developments (PDF), Marine Archaeology Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, retrieved 19 February 2021 ^ Patra, Benudhar (2013), "Ports and Port Towns of Early Odisha: Text, Archaeology and Identification", Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Indian History Congress, 74: 54–63, JSTOR 44158798 ^ Sunil Kumar Patnaik, Sarita Nayak (November 2020), The Mountain Mahendragiri (PDF), Odisha Review, p. 20, retrieved 14 March 2021 ^ Snigdha Tripathy (1997). Inscriptions of Orissa. I - Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D. Indian Council of Historical Research and Motilal Banarsidass. p. 13. ISBN 978-81-208-1077-8. ^ Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 61. ^ Le, Hien (22 September 2016), Indian Values in Oc Eo Culture Case Study – Go Thap, Dong Thap Province, American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS), p. 174 ^ a b c Benudhar Patra (November 2011), Kalinga and Funan : A Study in Ancient Relations (PDF), Orissa Review, retrieved 4 April 2021 ^ a b Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 292. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 12 April 2021. ^ a b Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (PDF). trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1. ^ a b Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., ISBN 9786167339443 ^ Stark, M. T. (2006). From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and regeneration in ancient Cambodia. After collapse: The regeneration of complex societies, 144-167. ^ Stark, M. T. (2006). From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and regeneration in ancient Cambodia. After collapse: The regeneration of complex societies, 144-167. ^ Nick Ray (2009). Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos & the Greater Mekong. Lonely Planet. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-74179-174-7. ^ Michael Vickery,"What to Do about The Khmers", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27, 2, 1996. p. 390, ^ Michael Vickery, "Funan Reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients", p.125 ^ Carlos Ramirez-Faria (1 January 2007). Concise Encyclopeida Of World History. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 106–. ISBN 978-81-269-0775-5. ^ a b Kenneth R. Hal (1985). Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8248-0843-3. ^ Chikyō Yamamoto (1990). Introduction to Buddhist art. International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-85179-44-5. ^ Christopher Tadgell (23 October 2015). The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven. Routledge. pp. 345–. 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ISBN 978-1-136-87394-2. ^ a b Charles Holcombe, Trade Buddhism: Maritime trade, immigration, and the Buddhist landfall in early Japan, p. 280 ^ Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, pp.36 ff. ^ Michael Vickery, Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th–8th centuries, pp. 36 ff. ^ Miriam T. Stark, et al., "Results of the 1995–1996 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Cambodia" Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Asian Perspectives, vol.38, no.1, 1999, at University of Hawai’i, pp.7ff. ^ Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 248–303. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 22 October 2017. ^ D.R.Sardesai, Southeast Asia: Past And Present, 3rd ed. 1994, Westview Press, ISBN 978-0-8133-1706-9, p.23 ^ a b T'oung Pao: International Journal of Chinese Studies. 1958. p. 185 ^ The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalog (T 232) ^ Lương Ninh, "Óc Eo – Cảng thị quốc tế của Vương quốc Phù Nam (Óc Eo – International Trade Port of Funnan Kingdom)", Khảo cổ học / Vietnam Archaeology, 3, 2011, pp.39-44. ^ Albrecht Dihle, "Serer und Chinesen", in Antike und Orient: Gesammelte Aufsätze, Heidelberg, Carl Winter, 1984, S.209. ^ Georges Coedès, Les Peuples de la Péninsule Indochinoise: Histoire – Civilisations, Paris, Dunod, 1962, pp.62, translated by H. M. Wright, The Making of South East Asia, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1966, p. 58-59 ^ Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp 24-25. ^ a b Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations", in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377-462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 17 September 2016. ^ Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. pp. 126–127, 196–197. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7. ^ Cœdès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, p.36. ^ Vickery, Funan Reviewed, pp.103, 132–133. Literature[edit] George Cœdès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (translated from the French by Susan Brown Cowing). Honolulu: East West Center Press, 1968 George Cœdès, "Études Cambodgiennes XXV: Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou-nan",Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XXXI (1931), pp. 1–12 Louis Finot, "Notes d'Épigraphie XI: Les Inscriptions de Mi-so'n", Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient IV (1904), pp. 918–925 Karl-Heinz Golzio, "Kauṇḍinya in Südostasien", in Martin Straube, Roland Steiner, Jayandra Soni, Michael Hahn and Mitsuyo Demoto (eds.) Pāsādikadānaṁ. Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Marburg: Indica et Tibetica Verlag 2009, pp. 157–165 Heinrich Hackmann, Erklärendes Wörterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus. Chinesisch-Sanskrit-deutsch. Von Heinrich Hackmann. Nach seinem handschriftlichen Nachlass überrbeitet von Johannes Nobel, Leiden: E. J. Brill 1952 Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp. 371–9. Claude Jacques,‘Funan: a major early Southeast Asian State’, in The Khmer Empire: Cities and Sanctuaries, Fifth to Thirteenth Century, translated by Tom White, Bangkok, River Books, 2007, pp. 43–66. James C.M. Khoo (editor), Art & archaeology of Fu Nan: pre-Khmer Kingdom of the lower Mekong valley, Bangkok, The Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, Orchid Press, 2003 Lương Ninh, Vương quó̂c Phù Nam: lịch sử và văn hóa [Fu Nan: history and culture], Hà Nội, Viên văn hóa và Nhà xuât bản Văn hóa thông tin, 2005 Lương Ninh, «Nước Chi Tôn», một quőc gia cở ở miển tây sông Hậu, ("Chi Tôn", an ancient state in the western bank of the Hậu river), Khảo cổ học, ső 1, 1981, tr.38 Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke, Arts of ancient Viet Nam: from River Plain to Open Sea, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009, pp. 100–118. Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Jakarta, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO, 2002, p. 59-82. Pelliot, Paul (1903). "Le Fou-nan". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 3: 248–303. doi:10.3406/befeo.1903.1216. Retrieved 22 October 2017. Miriam T. Stark, "From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia", G. Schwartz, J. Nichols (eds.), After Collapse: The Regeneration of Societies, University of Arizona Press, 2006, pp. 144–167.[1] Michael Vickery, Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th–8th centuries. Tokyo: The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, 1998 Michael Vickery, "Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients." Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XC-XCI (2003–2004), pp. 101–143. [2] An Giang Province Bureau of Culture, Sport and Tourism, Office of Cultural Heritage; An Giang Province Management Commission for Oc Eo Cultural Relics, Di Sản Văn Hóa Phù Nam-Óc Eo, An Giang-Việt Nam: Thế kỷ I-VII (Phu Nam-Oc Eo Heritage, An Giang-Vietnam: 1st-7th Century), [Long Xuyên], An Giang, 2013. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nokor Phnom. Library of Congress Country Studies: Cambodia SIDDHAM : the Asia inscriptions database Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Funan&oldid=1028421602" Categories: Funan Ancient Hindu kingdoms States and territories established in the 60s 550 disestablishments States and territories disestablished in the 550s 1st millennium in Cambodia Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata EngvarB from October 2015 Use dmy dates from October 2015 Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Khmer-language text Articles containing Vietnamese-language text Articles containing Thai-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Asia articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lingua Franca Nova मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 21:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2525	----	Macrinus - Wikipedia Macrinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 217 to 218 This article is about the Roman emperor Macrinus. For the addressee of many of Pliny the Younger's Epistles, see Minucius Macrinus. For the spider genus, see Macrinus (spider). Roman emperor Macrinus Bust, Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 11 April 217 – 8 June 218 Predecessor Caracalla Successor Elagabalus Co-emperor Diadumenian (218) Born c. 165 Caesarea, Roman Empire Died June 218 (aged 53) Cappadocia Spouse Nonia Celsa Issue Diadumenian Names Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus[1] Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus (/məˈkraɪnəs/; c. 165 – June 218) was Roman Emperor from 11 April 217 to 8 June 218, reigning jointly with his young son Diadumenianus. As a member of the equestrian class, he became the first emperor who did not hail from the senatorial class and also the first emperor who never visited Rome during his reign. Before becoming emperor, Macrinus served under Emperor Caracalla as a praetorian prefect and dealt with Rome's civil affairs. He later conspired against Caracalla and had him murdered in a bid to protect his own life, succeeding him as emperor. Macrinus was proclaimed emperor of Rome by 11 April 217 while in the eastern provinces of the empire and was subsequently confirmed as such by the Senate; however, for the duration of his reign, he never had the opportunity to return to Rome. His predecessor's policies had left Rome's coffers empty and the empire at war with several kingdoms, including Parthia, Armenia and Dacia. As emperor, Macrinus first attempted to enact reform to bring economic and diplomatic stability to Rome. While Macrinus' diplomatic actions brought about peace with each of the individual kingdoms, the additional monetary costs and subsequent fiscal reforms generated unrest in the Roman military. Caracalla's aunt Julia Maesa took advantage of the unrest and instigated a rebellion to have her fourteen-year-old grandson, Elagabalus, recognized as emperor. Macrinus was overthrown at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218 and Elagabalus proclaimed himself emperor with support from the rebelling Roman legions. Macrinus fled the battlefield and tried to reach Rome, but was captured in Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia. He sent his son to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia, but Diadumenianus was also captured before he could reach his destination and executed. After Macrinus' death, the Senate declared him and his son enemies of Rome and had their names struck from the records and their images destroyed. Contents 1 Background and career 2 Reign 3 Downfall 3.1 Execution 3.2 Damnatio memoriae 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources 6 Further reading 7 External links Background and career[edit] Macrinus was born in Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania to an equestrian family of Berber origins.[2] According to David Potter, his family traced its origins to the Berber tribes of the region and his pierced ear was an indication of his Berber heritage.[3] He received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class.[4] Over the years, he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer; and, under Emperor Septimius Severus, he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla later appointed him a prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[4][5] While Macrinus probably enjoyed the trust of Emperor Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, it was prophesied that he would depose and succeed the emperor.[4] Macrinus, fearing for his safety, resolved to have Caracalla murdered before he was condemned.[6] In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire.[7][8] Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of the Praetorian Guard. In April, Caracalla went to visit a temple of Luna near the site of the battle of Carrhae and was accompanied only by his personal guard, which included Macrinus.[7] On 8 April, while traveling to the temple, Caracalla was stabbed to death by Justin Martialis, a soldier whom Macrinus had recruited to commit the murder.[7][9] In the aftermath, Martialis was killed by one of Caracalla's men.[7] For two or three days, Rome remained without an emperor.[6][9][10] By 11 April, Macrinus had proclaimed himself emperor and assumed all of the imperial titles and powers, without waiting for the Senate.[6] The army backed his claim as emperor and the Senate, so far away, was powerless to intervene.[11] Macrinus never returned to Rome as emperor and remained based in Antioch for the duration of his reign.[12] Macrinus was the first emperor to hail from the equestrian class, rather than the senatorial and also the first emperor of Mauretanian descent.[13] He adopted the name of Severus, in honor of the Severan dynasty, and conferred the imperial title of Augusta to his wife Nonia Celsa[note 1] and the title of Caesar and name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenianus in honor of the Antonine dynasty, thus making him second in command.[13][15][16][17][18] At the time of Diadumenian's accession he was eight years old.[19] Reign[edit] Despite his equestrian background, Macrinus was accepted by the Senate for two reasons: for the removal of Caracalla, and for having received the loyalty of the army.[11][20] The senators were less concerned by Macrinus' Mauretanian ancestry than by his equestrian social background and scrutinized his actions as emperor.[6] Their opinion of him was reduced by his decisions to appoint men to high offices who were of similarly undistinguished background.[6] Only the Senate had the constitutional power to choose the emperor from among the senators and Macrinus, not being a senator and having become emperor through force rather than through traditional means, was looked down upon.[11] Macrinus had several issues that he needed to deal with at the time of his accession, which had been left behind by his predecessor. As Caracalla had a tendency towards military belligerence, rather than diplomacy, this left several conflicts for Macrinus to resolve.[21] Additionally, Caracalla had been a profligate spender of Rome's income.[22] Most of the money was spent on the army; he had greatly increased their pay from 2,000 sesterces to 3,000 sesterces per year.[23][24] The increased expenditures forced Caracalla to strip bare whatever sources of income he had to supply the difference.[22] This shortfall left Rome in a dire fiscal situation that Macrinus needed to address.[25] Macrinus was at first occupied by the threat of the Parthians, with whom Rome had been at war since the reign of Caracalla. Macrinus settled a peace deal with the Parthians, after fighting an indecisive battle at Nisibis in 217.[26] In return for peace, Macrinus was forced to pay a large indemnity to the Parthian ruler Artabanus V.[27][28] Rome was at the time also under threat from Dacia and Armenia, so any deal with Parthia would likely have been beneficial to Rome.[29] Next, Macrinus turned his attention to Armenia.[30] In 216, Caracalla had imprisoned Khosrov I of Armenia and his family after Khosrov had agreed to meet with Caracalla at a conference to discuss some issue between himself and his sons. Caracalla instead installed a new Roman governor to rule over Armenia. These actions angered the Armenian people and they soon rebelled against Rome.[31][32] Macrinus settled a peace treaty with them by returning the crown and loot to Khosrov's son and successor Tiridates II and releasing his mother from prison, and by restoring Armenia to its status as a client kingdom of Rome.[33] Macrinus made peace with the Dacians by releasing hostages, though this was likely not handled by himself but by Marcius Agrippa.[34] In matters of foreign policy, Macrinus showed a tendency towards settling disputes through diplomacy and a reluctance to engage in military conflict, though this may have been due more to the lack of resources and manpower than to his own personal preference.[21] Macrinus began to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by Septimius Severus.[25] One such policy change involved the pay of Roman legionaries. The soldiers that were already enlisted during Caracalla's reign enjoyed exorbitant payments which were impossible for Macrinus to reduce without risking a potential rebellion. Instead, Macrinus allowed the enlisted soldiers to retain their higher payments, but he reduced the pay of new recruits to the level which had been set by Severus.[35][36] Macrinus revalued the Roman currency, increasing the silver purity and weight of the denarius from 50.78 percent and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85 percent and 1.82 grams from Fall 217 to the end of his reign, so that it mirrored Severus' fiscal policy for the period 197–209 A.D.[37][38] Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it came with a cost.[39] The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable had it not been for the military. By this time, the strength of the military was too great and by enacting his reforms he angered the veteran soldiers, who viewed his actions in reducing the pay of new recruits as a foreshadowing of eventual reductions in their own privileges and pay. This significantly reduced Macrinus' popularity with the legions that had declared him emperor.[39][40] Caracalla's mother Julia Domna was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor. This changed when Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch.[41] By this time Julia Domna was suffering from an advanced stage of breast cancer and soon died in Antioch, possibly by starving herself.[13][41] Afterwards, Macrinus sent Domna's sister Julia Maesa and her children back to Emesa in Syria, from where Maesa set in motion her plans to have Macrinus overthrown.[13][20] Macrinus remained in Antioch instead of going to Rome upon being declared emperor, a step which furthered his unpopularity in Rome and contributed to his eventual downfall.[42] Downfall[edit] An aureus of Macrinus. Its elaborate symbolism celebrates the liberalitas ("prodigality") of Macrinus and his son Diadumenianus. Inscription: IMP. C. M. OPEL. SEV. MACRINVS AVG. / LIBERALITAS AVG. Julia Maesa had retired to her home town of Emesa with an immense fortune, which she had accrued over the course of twenty years. She took her children, Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea, and grandchildren, including Elagabalus, with her to Emesa.[43] Elagabalus, aged 14, was the chief priest of the Phoenician sun-deity Elagabalus (or El-Gabal) in Emesa.[43][44] Soldiers from Legio III Gallica (Gallic Third Legion), that had been stationed at the nearby camp of Raphanea, often visited Emesa and went to see Elagabalus perform his priestly rituals and duties while there.[43][45] Julia Maesa took advantage of this, to suggest to the soldiers that Elagabalus was indeed the illegitimate son of Caracalla.[13][43] On 16 May, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the Legio III Gallica at its camp at Raphanea.[46] Upon Elagabalus' revolt, Macrinus travelled to Apamea and conferred the title of Augustus onto his son, Diadumenianus, and made him co-emperor.[19] Execution[edit] Macrinus realised that his life was in danger but struggled to decide upon a course of action and remained at Antioch.[47] He sent a force of cavalry commanded by Ulpius Julianus to regain control of the rebels, but they failed and Ulpius died in the attempt. This failure further strengthened Elagabalus' army.[47][48] Soon after, a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged Macrinus' army on 8 June 218 near the village of Immae, located approximately 24 miles from Antioch.[42] At some point during the ensuing Battle of Antioch, Macrinus deserted the field and returned to Antioch.[42] Macrinus was then forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted in the city as well.[42] Elagabalus himself subsequently entered Antioch as the new ruler of the Roman Empire.[49] Macrinus fled for Rome; he traveled as far as Chalcedon before being recognized and captured.[50] His son and co-emperor Diadumenianus, sent to the care of Artabanus V of Parthia, was himself captured in transit at Zeugma and killed in June of 218.[13][19][50] Diadumenianus' reign lasted a total of 14 months, and he was about 10 years old when he died.[19] Macrinus, upon learning of his son's death, tried to escape captivity, but he injured himself in the unsuccessful attempt[50] and was afterward executed in Cappadocia; his head was sent to Elagabalus.[50] Much like Macrinus, Diadumenianus' head was also cut off and sent to Elagabalus as a trophy.[18] Damnatio memoriae[edit] Macrinus and his son Diadumenianus were declared hostes, enemies of the state, by the Senate immediately after news had arrived of their deaths and as part of an official declaration of support for the usurper Elagabalus, who was recognized in the Senate as the new Emperor. The declaration of hostes led to two actions being taken against the images of the former Emperors. First, their portraits were destroyed and their names were stricken from inscriptions and papyri. The second action, taken by the Roman soldiers who had rebelled against Macrinus in favour of Elagabalus, was to destroy all of the works and possessions of Macrinus. The damnatio memoriae against Macrinus is among the earliest of such sanctions enacted by the Senate. Many of the marble busts of Macrinus that exist were defaced and mutilated as a response to the damnatio memoriae and many of the coins depicting Macrinus and Diadumenianus were also destroyed. These actions against Macrinus are evidence of his unpopularity in Rome.[17] Notes[edit] ^ The only evidence for her existence is a fictitious letter written in Diadumenianus' biography in the Historia Augusta[14] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Cooley, p. 496. ^ Naylor, Phillip (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2. ^ Potter, David (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-415-10057-1. ^ a b c Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 162. ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 15. OCLC 859895124. ^ a b c d e Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ a b c d Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 22. OCLC 859895124. ^ a b Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 163. ^ Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. ^ a b c Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 164. ^ Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. p. 185. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. ^ a b c d e f Dunstan, William, E. (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littleman Publishers. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 26. OCLC 859895124. ^ Crevier, Jean Baptiste Louis (1814). The History of the Roman Emperors From Augustus to Constantine, Volume 8. F. C. & J. Rivington. p. 238. ^ a b Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. pp. 184–188. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. ^ a b Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-4381-1027-1. ^ a b c d Vagi, David (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. pp. 289–290. ISBN 1-57958-316-4. ^ a b Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Dunstan, William, E. (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. ^ Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 413. ISBN 0-19-511875-8. ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Payaslian, S (2008). The History of Armenia: From the Origins to the Present. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-230-60858-0. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 270–271. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Emperor. pp. 165–166. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Harl, Kenneth. "Roman Currency of the Principate". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 10 February 2001. Retrieved 30 August 2016.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ a b Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 166. ^ a b Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ a b c d Glanville, Downey (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing. pp. 248–250. ISBN 1-258-48665-2. ^ a b c d Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 182. ^ Vagi, David (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. pp. 295–296. ISBN 1-57958-316-4. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ a b Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 169. ^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 164. OCLC 859895124. ^ Icks, Martijn (2011). The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor. I. B. Tauris. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. ^ a b c d Crevier, Jean Baptiste Louis (1814). The History of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Constantine, Volume 8. F. C. & J. Rivington. pp. 236–237. Sources[edit] Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511875-8. Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1027-1. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Crevier, Jean Baptiste Louis (1814). The History of the Roman Emperors From Augustus to Constantine, Volume 8. F. C. & J. Rivington. Downey, Glanville. (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing. ISBN 1-258-48665-2. Dunstan, William (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. Harl, Kenneth. "Roman Currency of the Principate". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 10 February 2001.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) Gibbon, Edward. (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. Icks, Martijn (2011). The Crimes of Elegabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Impact of Empire. Volume 12. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-9004203594. OCLC 859895124. |volume= has extra text (help) Naylor, Phillip (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-76190-2. Payaslian, S. (2008). The History of Armenia: From the Origins to the Present. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-230-60858-0. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay AD180-392. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10058-5. Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. Vagi, David (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-57958-316-4. Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. Further reading[edit] Dio, Cassius. (n.d.). Roman History. Herodian of Antioch. (n.d.). History of the Roman Empire. Historia Augusta. (n.d.) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Macrinus. Life of Macrinus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) "Macrinus and Diadumenianius" at De Imperatoribus Romanis (by Michael Meckler of Ohio State University) Macrinus by Dio Cassius Livius.org: Marcus Opellius Macrinus Macrinus Born: 11 April 165 Died: June 218 Regnal titles Preceded by Caracalla Roman emperor 217–218 With: Diadumenian Succeeded by Elagabalus Political offices Preceded by Gaius Bruttius Praesens Titus Messius Extricatus Roman consul 218 with Marcus Oclatinius Adventus Succeeded by Elagabalus Marcus Oclatinius Adventus as suffecti v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Poland Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macrinus&oldid=1027576151" Categories: 165 births 218 deaths 2nd-century Berber people 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Berber people 3rd-century executions 3rd-century murdered monarchs 3rd-century Roman emperors Executed Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Opellii People executed by the Roman Empire People from Cherchell People of the Roman–Parthian Wars Praetorian prefects Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Use dmy dates from June 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Commons link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2021, at 18:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-252	----	De Vita Beata - Wikipedia De Vita Beata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Vita Beata From the 1543 edition, published by Antonio Constantino Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 58 De Vita Beata ("On the Happy Life") is a dialogue written by Seneca the Younger around the year 58 AD. It was intended for his older brother Gallio, to whom Seneca also dedicated his dialogue entitled De Ira ("On Anger"). It is divided into 28 chapters that present the moral thoughts of Seneca at their most mature. Seneca explains that the pursuit of happiness is the pursuit of reason – reason meant not only using logic, but also understanding the processes of nature. Contents 1 Background 2 Contents 3 Topics 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 6.1 Translations 7 External links Background[edit] The dialogue has the full title ad Gallionem de Vita Beata ("To Gallio on the happy life"). It was probably written in early 58 or a little earlier.[1] From incidental remarks made in the work, it is thought Seneca wrote it when he was in a position of power near the beginning of Nero's reign between 54 and 59.[2] Furthermore, Tacitus tells us that Publius Suillius Rufus had made a series of public attacks concerning Seneca's wealth in 58, and De Vita Beata contains a defense of wealth which may be a response to this or similar criticisms made around this time.[2] The work ends rather abruptly and is followed in the manuscripts by Seneca's De Otio which is missing its beginning.[2] The earliest surviving manuscript is from the Codex Ambrosianus, a Milan Codex, from the 11th century and other copies are derived from this archetype.[3] Contents[edit] The work can be clearly divided into two parts. In the first part (§1–17) Seneca defines the concept of the happy life and discusses how it can be achieved.[4] This part also disputes Epicurean doctrines.[4] In the second part (§17–28) Seneca discusses the relationship of philosophical teachings with one's personal life.[4] Part of this (§21–24) is specifically devoted to answering objections against the possession of wealth.[4] Topics[edit] Seneca, in agreement with Stoic doctrine, argues that Nature is Reason (logos) and that people must use their powers of reason to live in harmony with nature and thus achieve happiness. In his words, "rerum naturae adsentior; ab illa non deerrare et ad illius legem exemplumque formari sapientia est," which means "I follow nature; it is common sense not to stray from it but to be molded according to its law and example."[5] Seneca proposes to follow a logical sequence in this approach, starting with the definition of the objectives that the person wants to obtain. In decision-making he scorns the ways of the masses ("the most beaten and frequented paths are the most deceptive") since people are "more willing to trust another than to judge for themselves" and "a mistake that has been passed on from hand to hand finally involves us and works our destruction."[6] In a certain sense he identifies Nature with God, which he states several times requires our obedience ("We were born into this kingdom and to obey to God is freedom",[7] and he writes "when you rage against heaven I do not say, 'You are committing sacrilege,' but 'You are wasting your time.'"[8] Seneca presents a morality based on contempt for the pleasures ("pleasure is something lowly, servile, weak, and perishable")[9] and fortune ("do not be corrupted by external things, be unconquerable and admire only oneself, be courageous in spirit and ready for any fate, be the moulder of one's own life").[10] But he admits that there are acceptable pleasures "calm, moderate, almost listless and subdued, and scarcely noticeable" linked to the conduct of the wise person.[11] The attainment of happiness, therefore, is only really possible by following Virtue who "like a good soldier will submit to wounds, count her scars, and, pierced by darts as she dies, will yet adore the general for whom she falls",[7] because "no one can live cheerfully without living honourably."[9] Thus, Seneca distinguishes between virtues hard or difficult and virtues soft or easier to practice, because "there is no virtue without effort".[12] Among the difficult are patience, fortitude and perseverance, and among the easy are liberality, temperance and meekness. As far as wealth is concerned, Seneca does not consider it good or bad in itself, but acknowledges that it is "useful and brings great comfort to life",[13] so the wise person prefers them but is not subordinate to them. In this sense, wealth must be an instrument of virtue, using it to give to others, because "I shall proffer my bounty to some, and shall forcibly thrust it upon others".[13] Notes[edit] ^ Manfred Fuhrmann: Geschichte der römischen Literatur (= Reclams Universal-Bibliothek. Band 17.658). Page 392. Reclam, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-15-017658-1. ^ a b c Mutschler 2013, p. 141 ^ Leighton Durham Reynolds (Rec.): Dialogorum libri duodecim L. Annaei Senecae (= Oxford classical texts). Pages v-xx. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, ISBN 0-19-814659-0. ^ a b c d Mutschler 2013, pp. 142-3 ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. iii. ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. i. ^ a b Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. xv. ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. xxvii. ^ a b Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. vii. ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. viii. ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. xii. ^ Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. xxv. ^ a b Seneca, De Vita Beata, cap. xxiv. References[edit] Mutschler, Fritz-Heiner (2013), "De Beata Vitae", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, BRILL, ISBN 9004154612 Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, Gareth D. Williams (2014). Seneca: Hardship and Happiness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748332 External links[edit] Aubrey Stewart (1900): Works related to Of a Happy Life at Wikisource Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks De Vita Beata – Latin text at The Latin Library v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Vita_Beata&oldid=1027358761" Categories: Philosophy essays Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Français Galego 한국어 Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2535	----	Category:2nd-century Roman emperors - Wikipedia Help Category:2nd-century Roman emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome portal History portal Biography portal Europe portal 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Subcategories This category has the following 9 subcategories, out of 9 total. A ► Antoninus Pius‎ (2 C, 8 P) C ► Caracalla‎ (11 P) ► Commodus‎ (2 C, 3 P) H ► Hadrian‎ (4 C, 31 P) L ► Lucius Verus‎ (1 C, 4 P) M ► Marcus Aurelius‎ (3 C, 8 P) S ► Septimius Severus‎ (16 P) T ► Trajan‎ (2 C, 31 P) U ► 2nd-century Roman usurpers‎ (2 P) Pages in category "2nd-century Roman emperors" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Antoninus Pius C Caracalla Commodus D Didius Julianus H Hadrian L Lucius Verus M Marcus Aurelius N Nerva–Antonine dynasty P Pertinax Pescennius Niger S Septimius Severus T Trajan Y Year of the Five Emperors Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:2nd-century_Roman_emperors&oldid=950694199" Categories: 2nd-century monarchs in Europe 2nd-century Romans Roman emperors by century Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Español فارسی 한국어 Hrvatski ქართული Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Русский Scots Slovenščina Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2020, at 11:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-254	----	Volusianus - Wikipedia Volusianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 251 to 253 For the saint and bishop of Tours, see Saint Volusianus. Roman emperor Volusianus Roman emperor Reign November 251 – August 253 (with Trebonianus Gallus) Predecessor Decius and Herennius Etruscus Successor Aemilianus Born 230 AD Unknown Died August 253 (aged 22) Interamna Names Gaius Vibius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Gaius Vibius Volusianus Caesar (251)[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Augustus[1] Father Trebonianus Gallus Mother Afinia Gemina Baebiana Gaius Vibius Volusianus (died August 253) was a Roman emperor from November 251 to August 253, ruling with his father Trebonianus Gallus. After Emperor Decius and his son and co-ruler Herennius Etruscus died in battle in June 251, Trebonianus Gallus was elected emperor in the field by the legion. Gallus raised Hostilian, the younger son of Decius, to augustus (co-emperor) and elevated Volusianus to caesar. After the death of Hostilian in November 251, Volusianus was raised to augustus. The short reign of Gallus and Volusianus was notable for the outbreak of a plague, which is said by some to be the reason for Hostilian's death, the invasion of the Sasanian Empire, and the raids of the Goths. Volusianus was killed alongside his father in August 253 by their own soldiers, who were terrified of the forces of the usurper Aemilian which were marching towards Rome. Contents 1 History 2 Numismatics 3 Family tree 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Bibliography 5 External links History[edit] Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Vendumnianus Volusianus was born about 230 AD to the future Roman Emperor Trebonianus Gallus.[2][3] Trebonianus Gallus had become emperor after the previous emperors, Decius and Herennius Etruscus, were both killed in July 251 by the Goths, led by Cniva, at the Battle of Abritus.[2][4][5] The troops in the field elected Trebonianus Gallus as emperor. Trebonianus Gallus was forced to sign a treaty, which contemporary historians decried as "shameful", with the Goths, promising them tribute if the Goths abstained from raiding them.[6] After Trebonianus Gallus became emperor, he made Hostilian, the son of Decius, augustus (emperor) with him, in order to improve the opinion of the people. He then elevated Volusianus to caesar (heir-apparent) about July 251.[2] Volusianus was wed to Hostilian's sister, of an unknown name.[7] Hostilian died in November 251, though the reason for his death is disputed.[2][5] Aurelius Victor and the author of the Epitome de Caesaribus both say that Hostilian died of a plague, however Zosimus claims that he was killed off by Trebonianus Gallus, so that Volusianus could become augustus.[8] Trebonianus Gallus elevated Volusianus to augustus in November 251. He was made consul in 252, alongside Trebonianus Gallus, and in 253, alongside Valerius Maximus.[9][1] The same plague that killed Hostilian devastated the rest of Rome, although Trebonianus Gallus gained much popularity by ensuring that all of the plague victims were given proper burials, regardless of their social status.[6] During the reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus, the persecution of Christians was not as extreme as it was under Decius, although Pope Cornelius was exiled in 252 AD.[10] Novatian was also forced to flee Rome during this period of persecution.[11] Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus issued only two imperial rescripts during their reign.[12] During the shared reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus, the Roman Empire was invaded by both the Goths and the Sassanids. Both co-emperors chose to stay in Rome rather than confront the invasions themselves.[7][2][13][14][15][6] The Sassanids attacked in 252, quickly overrunning Mesopotamia, and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Barbalissos, near Barbalissos in the province of Euphratensis (modern day Syria). They advanced into Roman territory as far as Antioch, which was captured in 253 after a prolonged siege.[6] In 253, the Goths invaded Moesia Inferior, as the new governor, Aemilian, had refused to pay the tribute to them. The Goths split into two bands, with one raiding the cities of Moesia Inferior and Thracia, and the other crossing into Asia Minor as far as Ephesus.[6] Aemilian succeeded in repelling the Goths, slaughtering many and forcing the rest back across the Danube. The prestige of this victory was so great that Aemilian's soldiers spontaneously declared him emperor, in opposition to Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus.[6] Upon hearing this news, they sent word to Valerian, the future emperor, who had been strengthening Rome's defences on the Rhine, to send reinforcements. Aemilian marched to Italy at a rapid pace, such that Valerian did not reach Rome in time to provide assistance. The co-emperors mustered what troops they could and prepared to defend, but made it less than two days before being killed by their own troops in August 253, at Interamna, in Umbria, because they feared fighting the much stronger forces of Aemilian.[2][13][14] The Chronography of 354 says they ruled for a total of two years, four months, and nine days.[15] Numismatics[edit] Coin featuring Volusianus The aurei of Volusianus fell into two types. There were five styles of coins which featured his bust on the obverse, with the reverse showing: Aequitas sitting, Aeternitas standing, Apollo standing, Juno sitting inside a rounded temple, or Victoria standing. There were a further six styles of coins which featured his bust with a Radiate on the obverse, with the reverse displaying: Concordia sitting, Felicitas standing, Libertas standing, Providence standing, Salus standing, or a helmeted Virtus standing.[16] The coins of Volusianus occasionally bore the inscription Saeculum nouum (new age), alongside the traditional inscriptions Romae aeternae (eternal Rome) and Pax aeternae (eternal peace).[17] Family tree[edit] previous Decius Roman Emperor 249-251 ∞ Herenia Etruscilla Trebonianus Gallus Roman Emperor 251-253 ∞ Afinia Gemina Baebiana next Aemilianus Roman Emperor 253 ∞ Cornelia Supera Herennius Etruscus co-emperor Volusianus co-emperor 251-253 References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Cooley 2012, p. 498. ^ a b c d e f Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 28. ^ Foss 1990, p. 215. ^ Bunson 2014, pp. 255–256. ^ a b Salisbury & Mattingly 1924, p. 16. ^ a b c d e f Kean & Frey 2012, p. 355. ^ a b Vagi 2000, p. 342. ^ Manders 2012, p. 18. ^ Cooley 2012, p. 477. ^ Conway 1957, p. 12. ^ Marthaler 2003, p. 464. ^ Ando 2012, p. 195. ^ a b Newton 2014, p. 826. ^ a b Truhart 2000, p. 347. ^ a b Bird 1993, p. 138. ^ Friedberg, Friedberg & Friedberg 2017, p. 48. ^ Brent 2010, p. 163. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195123326. Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284 The Critical Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748629206. Bird, H.W. (1993). The Breviarum Ab Urbe Condita of Eutropius. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9780853232087. Brent, Allen (2010). Cyprian and Roman Carthage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521515474. Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 9781438110271. Conway, George Edward (1957). De Bono Patientiae. Catholic University of America. OCLC 3301214. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521840262. Foss, Clive (1990). Roman Historical Coins. London: Seaby Namismatic. ISBN 9780900652974. Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S.; Friedberg, Robert (2017). Gold Coins of the World: From Ancient Times to the Present. An Illustrated Standard Catlaog with Valuations (9th ed.). Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 9780871840097. Kean, Roger M.; Frey, Oliver (2012). The Complete Chronicle of the Emperors of Rome. Reckless Books. ASIN B0097SBTJM. Marthaler, Berard L. (2003). New Catholic Encyclopedia. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. ISBN 9780787640040. Manders, Erika (2012). Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004189706. Newton, Michael (2014). Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781610692861. Salisbury, F. S.; Mattingly, H. (1924). "The Reign of Trajan Decius". The Journal of Roman Studies. 14 (1–2): 1–23. doi:10.2307/296323. JSTOR 296323. Truhart, Peter (2000). Regenten Der Nationen. München: Saur. ISBN 9783598215438. Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. External links[edit] Media related to Volusianus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Hostilian Roman Emperor 251–253 With: Trebonianus Gallus Succeeded by Aemilian Political offices Preceded by Decius, Herennius Etruscus Consul of the Roman Empire 252–253 with Trebonianus Gallus, Lucius Valerius Poplicola Balbinus Maximus Succeeded by Valerian, Gallienus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volusianus&oldid=1026075887" Categories: 230 births 253 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs Imperial Roman consuls Murdered Roman emperors Crisis of the Third Century Vibii Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Short description matches Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2556	----	Persaeus - Wikipedia Persaeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persaeus (Greek: Περσαῖος; 307/6–243 BC[1]) of Citium, son of Demetrius, was a Greek Stoic philosopher, and a friend and favourite student of Zeno of Citium. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading Life[edit] He lived in the same house as Zeno.[2] Later writers wrote that Persaeus had been Zeno's slave,[3] who had perhaps originally been an amanuensis sent to Zeno by King Antigonus II Gonatas;[4] however, the source of this story seems to be due to a sarcastic remark made about Persaeus by Bion of Borysthenes who upon seeing a statue of Persaeus inscribed: "Persaeus the pupil of Zeno," sneered that it ought to have been: "Persaeus the Servant of Zeno."[5] It is known that Antigonus II Gonatas invited Zeno to his court at Pella[6] around 276 BC. Zeno refused because of his old age and sent his students Persaeus and Philonides of Thebes instead.[7] While Persaeus was at Antigonus' court, Antigonus once, wishing to make trial of him, caused some false news to be brought to him that his estate had been ravaged by the enemy, and as his countenance fell, "Do you see," said he, "that wealth is not a matter of indifference?"[8] Persaeus subsequently became an important figure at the Macedonian court. After Antigonus captured Corinth around 244 BC, he put Persaeus in control of the city as Archon. Persaeus died in 243 BC defending the city against the attack led by Aratus of Sicyon.[9] Writings[edit] None of the writings of Persaeus survive except a few fragments. Diogenes Laërtius lists the following works as being written by Persaeus:[4] Ἠθικαῖς σχολαῖς - Ethical School. Περὶ βασιλείας - On Kingship. Πολιτεία Λακωνική - Constitution of the Lacedaemonians. Περὶ γάμου - On Marriage. Περὶ ἀσεβείας - On Impiety. Θυέστης - Thyestes. Περὶ ἐρώτων - On Love. Προτρεπτικοί - Exhortations. Διατριβῶν - Conversations. Χρειῶν - Apophthegms. Ἀπομνημονεύματα - Reminiscences. Πρὸς τοὺς Πλάτωνος νόμους - Plato's Laws. Concerning Persaeus's philosophical views, Cicero mentions that: Persaeus says that it was men who had discovered some great aid to civilisation that were regarded as gods, and that the names of divinities were also bestowed upon actual material objects of use and profit, so that he is not even content to describe these as the creations of God, but makes out that they are themselves divine.[10] Notes[edit] ^ Dorandi 1999, p. 50. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 13. ^ cf. e.g. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, ii. 18. 8 ^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 36. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, iv. 162 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 6. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 9. ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book VII, Chapter 1, Section 36 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book II: Corinth, ii. 8. 4 ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 1. 15 References[edit] Dorandi, Tiziano (1999). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780521250283.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics:Persaeus (subsection of Zeno)" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 36. Further reading[edit] Erskine, Andrew (2011). "The Life of Persaios of Kition". Creating a Hellenistic World. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales. pp. 177–194. ISBN 978-1-905125-43-2. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persaeus&oldid=1018201573" Categories: 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC philosophers Ancient Cypriots Hellenistic-era philosophers Stoic philosophers 300s BC births 243 BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina مصرى Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2021, at 19:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2558	----	Michael III - Wikipedia Michael III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 842 to 867) For other people named Michael III, see Michael III (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael III Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael III Byzantine emperor Reign 842–867 Predecessor Theophilos Successor Basil I Co-regency Theodora Born 839 or 840 Died 24 September 867 (aged 27) Constantinople Consort Eudokia Ingerina Wife Eudokia Dekapolitissa Issue Leo VI (paternity uncertain) Stephen I (paternity uncertain) Dynasty Amorian Father Theophilos Mother Theodora Michael III (Greek: Μιχαήλ; 839 or 840 – 24 September 867) was Byzantine Emperor from 842 to 867. Michael III was the third and traditionally last member of the Amorian (or Phrygian) dynasty. He was given the disparaging epithet the Drunkard (ὁ Μέθυσος) by the hostile historians of the succeeding Macedonian dynasty, but modern historical research has rehabilitated his reputation to some extent, demonstrating the vital role his reign played in the resurgence of Byzantine power in the 9th century.[1][2] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life and regency 1.2 Warfare 1.3 The ascendency of Bardas and the Christianisation of Bulgaria 1.4 The rise of Basil the Macedonian and the assassination of Michael 2 Legacy 3 Family 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Life[edit] Early life and regency[edit] This coin struck during the regency of Theodora shows how Michael was less prominent than his mother, who is represented as ruler alone on the obverse, and even less than his sister Thecla, who is depicted together with the young Michael on the reverse of this coin. Michael was the youngest child of the emperor Theophilos and his empress Theodora. The balance of available evidence supports a birthdate in January 840.[3] Already crowned co-ruler by his father in his infancy in 840, Michael had just turned two years old when his father died, and Michael succeeded him as sole emperor on 20 January 842. During his minority, the empire was governed by a regency headed by his mother Theodora, her uncle Sergios, and the minister Theoktistos. The empress had iconodule sympathies and deposed Patriarch John VII of Constantinople, replacing him with the iconodule Patriarch Methodius I of Constantinople in 843. This put an end to the second spell of iconoclasm.[4] As the emperor was growing up, the courtiers around him fought for influence. Increasingly fond of his uncle Bardas, Michael invested him with the title kaisar (Caesar – at the time a title second only to emperor) and allowed him to murder Theoktistos in November 855. With the support of Bardas and another uncle, a successful general named Petronas, Michael III overthrew the regency on 15 March 856 and relegated his mother and sisters to a monastery in 857.[5] Warfare[edit] Coronation of Basil the Macedonian as co-emperor (right) The internal stabilization of the state was not entirely matched along the frontiers. Byzantine forces were defeated by the Abbasids in Pamphylia, Crete, and on the border with Syria, but a Byzantine fleet of 85 ships did score a victory over the Arabs in 853. There were also many operations around the Aegean and off the Syrian coast by at least three more fleets, numbering 300 ships total. Following an expedition led by Michael's uncle and general, Petronas, against the Paulicians from the eastern frontier and the Arab borderlands in 856, the imperial government resettled them in Thrace, thus cutting them off from their coreligionists and populating another border region.[6] Michael was also responsible, as per the writings of Constantine VII, for the subjugation of the Slavs settled in the Peloponnese.[7] A conflict between the Byzantines and Bulgarian Empire occurred during 855 and 856. The Byzantine Empire wanted to regain its control over some areas of Thrace, including Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and the ports around the Gulf of Burgas on the Black Sea. Byzantine forces, led by the emperor and the caesar Bardas, were successful in reconquering a number of cities – Philippopolis, Develtus, Anchialus and Mesembria among them – as well as the region of Zagora.[8][9] At the time of this campaign the Bulgarians were distracted by a war with the Franks under Louis the German and the Croatians. In 853 Boris had allied himself to Rastislav of Moravia against the Franks. The Bulgarians were heavily defeated by the Franks; following this, the Moravians changed sides and the Bulgarians then faced threats from Moravia.[10] Michael III took an active part in the wars against the Abbasids and their vassals on the eastern frontier from 856 to 863, and particularly in 857 when he sent an army of 50,000 men against Emir Umar al-Aqta of Melitene. In 859, he personally led a siege on Samosata, but in 860 had to abandon the expedition to repel an attack by the Rus' on Constantinople. In 863, Petronas defeated and killed the emir of Melitene at the battle of Lalakaon, and celebrated a triumph in the capital.[11] The ascendency of Bardas and the Christianisation of Bulgaria[edit] Bardas justified his usurpation of the regency by introducing various internal reforms. Under the influence of both Bardas and Photios, Michael presided over the reconstruction of ruined cities and structures, the reopening of closed monasteries, and the reorganization of the imperial university at the Maganaura palace under Leo the Mathematician.[12] Photios, originally a layman, had entered holy orders and was promoted to the position of patriarch on the dismissal of the troublesome Ignatios in 858.[13] Although a Council of Constantinople in 861 confirmed Photios as patriarch, Ignatios appealed to Pope Nicholas I, who declared Photios illegitimate in 863, leading to the Photian schism. Michael presided over a synod in 867 in which Photios and the three other eastern patriarchs excommunicated Pope Nicholas and condemned the Latin filioque clause concerning the procession of the Holy Spirit.[14] The conflict over the patriarchal throne and supreme authority within the church was exacerbated by the success of the active missionary efforts launched by Photios. The baptism of Boris I of Bulgaria Under the guidance of Patriarch Photios, Michael sponsored the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodios to the Khazar Khagan in an effort to stop the expansion of Judaism among the Khazars. Although this mission was a failure, their next mission in 863 secured the conversion of Great Moravia and devised the Glagolitic alphabet for writing in Slavonic, thus allowing Slavic-speaking peoples to approach conversion to Orthodox Christianity through their own rather than an alien tongue.[15] Fearing the potential conversion of Boris I of Bulgaria to Christianity under Frankish influence, Michael III and the Caesar Bardas invaded Bulgaria, imposing the conversion of Boris according to the Byzantine rite as part of the peace settlement in 864. Michael III stood as sponsor, by proxy, for Boris at his baptism. Boris took the additional name of Michael at the ceremony. The Byzantines also allowed the Bulgarians to reclaim the contested border region of Zagora.[16] The conversion of the Bulgarians has been evaluated as one of the greatest cultural and political achievements of the Byzantine Empire.[17] The rise of Basil the Macedonian and the assassination of Michael[edit] The assassination of Bardas the Caesar at the feet of Michael III Michael III's marriage with Eudokia Dekapolitissa was childless, but the emperor did not want to risk a scandal by attempting to marry his mistress Eudokia Ingerina, daughter of the Varangian (Norse) imperial guard Inger. The solution he chose was to have Ingerina marry his favorite courtier and chamberlain Basil the Macedonian. While Michael carried on his relationship with Ingerina, Basil was kept satisfied with the emperor's sister Thekla, whom her brother retrieved from a monastery. Basil gained increasing influence over Michael, and in April 866 he convinced the emperor that the Caesar Bardas was conspiring against him and was duly allowed to murder Bardas. Now without serious rivals, Basil was crowned co-emperor on 26 May 866 and was adopted by the much younger Michael III. This curious development may have been intended to legitimize the eventual succession to the throne of Eudokia Ingerina's son Leo, who was widely believed to be Michael's son. Michael celebrated the birth of Leo with public chariot races, a sport he enthusiastically patronized and participated in.[18] Leo VI presiding over the transfer of the remains of Michael III to the imperial mausoleum at the Church of the Holy Apostles If ensuring Leo's legitimacy had been Michael's plan, it backfired. Ostensibly troubled by the favour Michael was beginning to show to another courtier, named Basiliskianos, whom he threatened to raise as another co-emperor, Basil had Michael assassinated as he lay insensible in his bedchamber following a drinking bout in 24 September 867.[19] Basil with a number of his male relatives, plus other accomplices, entered Michael's apartment; the locks had been tampered with and no guard had been placed. Michael's end was grisly; a man named John of Chaldia killed him, cutting off both the emperor's hands with a sword before finishing him off with a thrust to the heart. Basil, as the sole remaining emperor (Basiliskianos had presumably been disposed of at the same time as Michael), automatically succeeded as the ruling basileus.[20] Michael's remains were buried in the Philippikos Monastery at Chrysopolis on the Asian shore of the Bosphoros. When Leo VI became ruling emperor in 886, one of his first acts was to have Michael's body exhumed and reburied, with great ceremony, in the imperial mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.[21] Legacy[edit] Amorian or Phrygian dynasty Chronology Michael II 820–829 with Theophilos as co-emperor, 822–829 Theophilos 829–842 with Constantine (c. 833–835) and Michael III (840–842) as co-emperors Michael III 842–867 under Theodora and Theoktistos as regents, 842–855, and with Basil I the Macedonian as co-emperor 866–867 Succession Preceded by Leo V and the Nikephorian dynasty Followed by Macedonian dynasty The reign and personality of Michael III are difficult to evaluate because of the hostile accounts written by Byzantine authors operating under Basil I and his successors. Byzantine accounts describe Michael's habitual drunkenness, his obsession with chariot racing and his orchestration of public displays mocking the processions and rituals of the church. The impression gained from Arab sources, however, is one of Michael as an active and often successful military commander.[22] Though Michael III was allegedly prone to squander money, his reign stabilized the economy, and by the year 850 the empire's annual revenues had increased to 3,300,000 nomismata. The definitive end to iconoclasm early in his reign led, unsurprisingly, to a renaissance in visual arts. The Empire made considerable advances in internal organisation and religious cohesion, and it had more than held its own against the Abbasid Caliphate. Most importantly Bulgaria had been transformed into a religious and cultural satellite of Byzantium. Much of the credit for these achievements, however, must go to Theodora and Theoktistos up to 855, and Bardas and Petronas thereafter.[23] Family[edit] Michael III had no children by his wife Eudokia Dekapolitissa but was conjectured to have fathered one or two sons by his mistress Eudokia Ingerina, who was married to Basil I:[24] Leo VI, who succeeded Basil I as emperor in 886 Stephen I, patriarch of Constantinople See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Gregory, p. 231 ^ Fossier, p. 315 ^ Mango, whole article ^ Treadgold, p. 447 ^ Treadgold, p. 450 ^ Treadgold, pp. 450–451 ^ Arhweiler and Laiou, pp. 7–8 ^ Gjuzelev, p. 130 ^ "TITLE needed", Bulgarian Historical Review, v.33:no.1-4, p.9. ^ Fine, p. 112 ^ Treadgold, p. 452 ^ Tougher, p. 69. ^ On 19 December 858 Photios was a layman, on the 20th he was tonsured and over the next four days was ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest; on 25 December he was consecrated Patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was a kinsman of both Bardas and Michael III. See Tougher, p 69. ^ Fossier, p. 325 ^ Treadgold, p.452 ^ Fine, pp. 118–119 ^ Gregory, p. 240 ^ Treadgold, p, 453 ^ Bekker, Immanuel, ed. (1838). "Libri IV: 44". Theophanes Continuatus – Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. 45. pp. 208–210. ... ab imperatoris ipsis excubitoribus in sancti praeclari martyris Mamantis palatio neci traditur, die vigesima quarta Septembris, indictione prima, anni 6376, hora noctis tertia. ^ Finlay, pp. 180–181. ^ Tougher, p. 62. ^ Gregory, p. 231 ^ Treadgold, p.455 ^ Treadgold, p. 462 References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Michael III. Ahrweiler, H. and Laiou, A.E. (1998) Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire, Dumbarton Oaks. Bulgarian historical review (2005), United Center for Research and Training in History, Published by Pub. House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, v.33:no.1-4. Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Finlay, G. (1856), History of the Byzantine Empire from DCCXVI to MLVII, 2nd Edition, Published by W. Blackwood. Fossier, R. (1986) The Cambridge illustrated history of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. Gjuzelev, V., (1988) Medieval Bulgaria, Byzantine Empire, Black Sea, Venice, Genoa (Centre Culturel du Monde Byzantin). Published by Verlag Baier. Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium. Malden, Massachusetts and West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-8471-X. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Michael III". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1364. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Mango, Cyril (1967) When Was Michael III Born?, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 21 (1967), pp. 253-258, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, DOI: 10.2307/1291264  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360. Tougher, S. (1997) The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People. Brill, Leiden. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Michael III Phrygian Dynasty Born: 19 January 840 Died: 23/24 September 867 Regnal titles Preceded by Theophilos Byzantine Emperor 842–867 Succeeded by Basil I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_III&oldid=1028487285" Categories: 830s births 867 deaths 9th-century Byzantine emperors 9th-century murdered monarchs Phrygian dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars Assassinated Byzantine emperors Deaths by blade weapons Medieval child rulers 840s in the Byzantine Empire 850s in the Byzantine Empire 860s in the Byzantine Empire Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 08:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2562	----	Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus - Wikipedia Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator and consul Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus (died between 190-192 AD) was a Roman consul who lived in the 2nd century and was one of the sons-in-law of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Mamertinus came from a wealthy, well-connected family of African origin—possibly from Egypt. His father, Marcus Petronius Mamertinus, was suffect consul in 150 and his mother's name is unknown. He had a brother, Marcus Petronius Sura Septimianus, who served as consul in 190, and a sister whose husband was the illustrious senator Marcus Antoninus Antius Lupus. Mamertinus was a kinsman of the grammarian Marcus Cornelius Fronto. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and Faustina the Younger (161-175), Mamertinus married their daughter Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor in Rome. Sometime after 173, Cornificia Faustina bore Mamertinus a son, Petronius Antoninus. Mamertinus and his family could have been at the winter camp of Marcus Aurelius in early 180. When Marcus Aurelius died later that year, Mamertinus' brother-in-law Commodus succeeded him as Emperor. In 182, Mamertinus served as consul. Sometime between 190-192, Commodus ordered the deaths of Mamertinus, his son, his brother and his sister’s family. Cornificia Faustina survived the political persecutions of her brother and later remarried. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Martin M. Winkler, The Fall of the Roman Empire: Film and History (2009) Michael Petrus Josephus van den Hout, A commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto (1999) Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192 (1974) Faustina II livius.org (last accessed 27 February 2020) Political offices Preceded by Commodus III, and Lucius Antistius Burrus Consul of the Roman Empire 182 with Quintus Tineius Rufus Succeeded by Commodus IV, and Gaius Aufidius Victorinus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Petronius_Sura_Mamertinus&oldid=1002813717" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Nerva–Antonine dynasty Petronii 190s deaths Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Latina Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2563	----	Adiaphora - Wikipedia Adiaphora From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Concept in Hellenistic philosophy Adiaphoron (/ædɪˈæfərɒn/, /ædiˈæfərɒn/[1][2] plural: adiaphora from the Greek ἀδιάφορα (pl. of ἀδιάφορον), is the negation of διάφορα, meaning "not different or differentiable".[3] In Cynicism, adiaphora represents indifference to the vicissitudes of life. In Pyrrhonism, it indicates things that cannot be logically differentiated. Unlike in Stoicism, the term has no specific connection to morality.[4] In Stoicism, it indicates actions that morality neither mandates nor forbids. In the context of Stoicism adiaphora is usually translated as "indifference". In Christianity, adiaphora are matters not regarded as essential to faith, but nevertheless as permissible for Christians or allowed in the church. What is specifically considered adiaphora depends on the specific theology in view. Contents 1 Cynicism 2 Aristotle 3 Pyrrhonism 4 Stoicism 5 Christianity 5.1 Lutheranism 5.2 Puritanism 5.3 Latitudinarianism in Anglicanism 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Cynicism[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Cynics cultivate adiaphora, by which they meant indifference to the vicissitudes of life, through ascetic practices which help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, and power – that have no value in nature. Examples include Diogenes' practice of living in a tub and walking barefoot in winter. Aristotle[edit] Aristotle uses "adiaphora" to mean "undifferentiated by a logical differentia."[5] Pyrrhonism[edit] Part of a series on Pyrrhonism Precursors Heraclitus Democritus Buddha Anaxarchus Xenophanes Philosophy Acatalepsy Adiaphora Aporia Ataraxia Astathmēta Impermanence Dependent origination Dogma Epoché Agrippa's trilemma Phantasiai Problem of induction Problem of the criterion Reductio ad absurdum Regress argument Relativism Circular reasoning Dissent Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Pyrrhonists Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Michel de Montaigne Sextus Empiricus Timon of Phlius Similar philosophies Academic Skepticism Madhyamaka Buddhism Empiric school Cyrenaicism Cynicism Contrary philosophies Stoicism Aristotelianism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e See also: Non-essentialism Pyrrho claimed that all pragmata (matters, affairs, questions, topics) are adiaphora (not differentiable, not clearly definable, negating Aristotle's use of "diaphora"), astathmēta (unstable, unbalanced, unmeasurable), and anepikrita (unjudgeable, undecidable). Therefore, neither our senses nor our beliefs and theories are able to identify truth or falsehood.[6] Philologist Christopher Beckwith has demonstrated that Pyrrho's use of adiaphora reflects his effort to translate the Buddhist three marks of existence into Greek, and that adiaphora reflects Pyrrho's understanding of the Buddhist concept of anatta. Likewise he suggests that astathmēta and anepikrita may be compared to dukkha and anicca respectively.[7] Stoicism[edit] The Stoics distinguish all the objects of human pursuit into three classes: good, bad, and adiaphora (indifferent). Virtue, wisdom, justice, temperance, and the like, are denominated good; their opposites were bad. Besides these there are many other objects of pursuit such as wealth, fame, etc. of themselves neither good nor bad. These are thought therefore in ethics to occupy neutral territory, and are denominated "adiaphora". This distinction amounts practically to an exclusion of the adiaphora from the field of morals.[8] Christianity[edit] Lutheranism[edit] See also: Law and Gospel and Antinomianism § Lutheranism The issue of what constituted adiaphora became a major dispute during the Protestant Reformation. In 1548, two years after the death of Martin Luther, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried to unite Catholics and Protestants in his realm with a law called the Augsburg Interim. This law was rejected by Philipp Melanchthon, because it did not ensure justification by faith as a fundamental doctrine. Later he was persuaded to accept a compromise known as the Leipzig Interim, deciding that doctrinal differences not related to justification by faith were adiaphora or matters not essential for salvation. Melanchthon's compromise was vehemently opposed by Matthias Flacius and his followers in Magdeburg, who went to the opposite extreme by claiming that adiaphora cease to be such in a case of scandal and confession. By 1576 both extremes were rejected by the majority of Lutherans led by Martin Chemnitz and the formulators of the Formula of Concord. In 1577, the Formula of Concord was crafted to settle the question of the nature of genuine adiaphora, which it defined as church rites that are "...neither commanded nor forbidden in the Word of God."[9] However, the Concord added believers should not yield even in matters of adiaphora when these are being forced upon them by the "enemies of God's Word".[10] The Lutheran Augsburg Confession states that the true unity of the Church is enough to allow for agreement, concerning the doctrine of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments. It also posits that merely human traditions, namely extrabiblical rites or ceremonies, need not be the same across all congregations. Puritanism[edit] This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Westminster Confession of Faith, a confession of faith written by the Puritans, which after the English Civil War was rejected by the Anglicans, distinguishes between elements or acts of worship (worship proper) and the circumstances of worship. The elements of worship must be limited to what has positive warrant in Scripture, a doctrine known as the regulative principle of worship. In this framework, the elements of worship have included praise (the words and manner of music), prayer, preaching and teaching from the Bible, the taking of vows, and the two sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper, while the circumstances of worship have included the building and its necessary furniture and the time of day for worship. The circumstances of worship are considered adiaphora, although they must be done for edification and to promote peace and order (compare 1 Cor. 14:26–33; Rom. 14:19). According to the Westminster Confession 20.2,[11] the conscience is left free in general belief and behavior within the realm of whatever is not "contrary to the Word." However, specifically concerning worship and religious faith, the conscience is free from whatever is "besides" Scripture; that is, it is free to worship and believe only according to whatever has positive warrant in Scripture. Presbyterians who have subscribed to the Westminster Confession, for instance, sometimes considered the questions of musical instruments and of the singing of hymns (as opposed to exclusive psalmody) not drawn directly from the Bible as related to the elements of worship, not optional circumstances, and for this reason they rejected musical instruments and hymns because they believed they were neither commanded by scripture nor deduced by good and necessary consequence from it.[12][13][14] Adherence to such a position is rare among modern Presbyterians, however. The Puritan position on worship is thus in line with the common saying regarding adiaphora: "In necessary things, unity; in doubtful things, liberty; in all things, charity". Latitudinarianism in Anglicanism[edit] Latitudinarianism was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th-century English theologians who believed in conforming to official Church of England practices but who felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance. Good examples of the latitudinarian philosophy were found among the Cambridge Platonists. The latitudinarian Anglicans of the seventeenth century built on Richard Hooker's position, in Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, that God cares about the moral state of the individual soul and that such things as church leadership are "things indifferent". However, they took the position far beyond Hooker's own and extended it to doctrinal matters. See also[edit] Evangelical counsels Heterodoxy Ikhtilaf In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas Lex orandi, lex credendi Mubah, an Islamic concept similar to the Stoic meaning of Adiaphora Orthodoxy Modern Stoicism Theologoumenon References[edit] ^ "adiaphoron". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 2018-11-16. ^ "Adiaphoron". Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved 2018-11-16. ^ διάφορον, ἀδιάφορον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ "Pyrrho". ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 51. ISBN 9781400866328. ^ "Pyrrho". ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. pp. 22–59. ISBN 9781400866328. ^ The New American Cyclopaedia, 1859, p. 124. ^ Lueker, Erwin L.; Poellot, Luther; Jackson, Paul, eds. (2000). "Adiaphora". Christian Cyclopedia. Concordia Publishing House. Retrieved 2018-05-09. ^ "X. Church Rites, Commonly Called Adiaphora". The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord. Retrieved 2018-05-09. ^ "XX", Westminster Confession of Faith with proofs, Reformed. ^ Schwertley, Brian, "Sola Scripture and the Regulative Principles of Worship", Reformed Online. ^ Schwertley, Brian, "Musical Instruments in the Public Worship of God", Reformed Online. ^ Schwertley, Brian, "Exclusive Psalmody: A Biblical Defense", Reformed Online. Bibliography[edit] Waddell, James Alan (2005), The Struggle to Reclaim the Liturgy in the Lutheran Church: Adiaphora in Historical, Theological and Practical Perspective, Lewiston, NY: Mellen, ISBN 0773459227. ——— (2009), A Simplified Guide to Worshiping As Lutherans, Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. External links[edit] The Formula of Concord, CTSFW, archived from the original on 2004-09-04. The Augsburg Confession, CTSFW, archived from the original on 2004-08-10. Christian Freedom (scholarly articles), The Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library, archived from the original on 2007-10-15. WorshipConcord The Lex Orandi Lex Credendi Question in Lutheranism Today Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Adiaphorists" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 192. This specifically describes the Lutheran controversy. v t e Ancient Greek philosophical concepts Adiaphora (nonmoral) Anamnesis (recollection) Apatheia (equanimity) Apeiron (the unlimited) Aponia (pleasure) Aporia (impasse) Arche (first principle) Arete (excellence) Ataraxia (tranquility) Becoming Being Cosmos (order) Demiurge (creator) Diairesis (division) Diegesis (narrate) Differentia / Genus Doxa (common opinion) Dunamis / Energeia (potentiality / actuality) Episteme (knowledge) Epoché (suspension) Ethos (character) Eudaimonia (flourishing) Henosis (oneness) Hexis (active condition) Hyle (matter) Hylomorphism (matter and form) Hylozoism (matter and life) Hypokeimenon (substratum) Hypostasis (underpinning) Idea (Idea) Katalepsis (comprehension) Kathēkon (proper function) Logos (reasoned discourse) Metempsychosis (reincarnation) Mimesis (imitation) Monad (unit) Nous (intellect) Oikeiôsis (affinity) Ousia (substance) Pathos (emotional) Phronesis (practical wisdom) Physis (natural law) Sophia (wisdom) Telos (purpose) Tetractys (fourth triangular number) v t e Early Lutheran controversies Date Controversy Resolution a) Issues / people / publications involved 1527–56 Antinomian V VI Johannes Agricola Andreas Poach Anton Otto Matthias Flacius Philippists 1533–53 Descent into Hell IX Descent into Hell Johannes Aepinus 1548–55 Adiaphoristic X Philip Melanchthon Matthias Flacius Philippists Gnesio-Lutherans 1549–66 Osiandrian III Andreas Osiander Johann Funck Francesco Stancaro Philip Melanchthon Matthias Flacius Andreas Musculus Victorinus Strigel 1551–62 Majoristic VI Georg Major Justus Menius Nicolaus von Amsdorf Nicolaus Gallus Philippists Gnesio-Lutherans 1555–60 Synergistic II Philip Melanchthon Johann Pfeffinger Victorinus Strigel Matthias Flacius Philippists Gnesio-Lutherans On the Bondage of the Will 1560–75 Flacian I Matthias Flacius Simon Musaeus Victorinus Strigel 1560–75 Crypto-Calvinist VII Philip Melanchthon Augsburg Confession Variata Albert Hardenberg Joachim Westphal Martin Chemnitz Maximilian Mörlin Philippists Sacramentarians Ubiquitarians Gnesio-Lutherans The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ 1561–63 Predestination XI Predestination Johann Marbach Girolamo Zanchi a) Articles identified (I–XII) according to the Formula of Concord. Authority control National libraries United States Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adiaphora&oldid=1026053661" Categories: Pyrrhonism Christian ethics Christian terminology Lutheran theology Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from December 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles that may contain original research from September 2007 All articles that may contain original research Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano Latina Magyar 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 03:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2577	----	Latin - Wikipedia Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Indo-European language of the Italic family For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). Latin lingua latīna Latin inscription, in the Colosseum of Rome, Italy Pronunciation [laˈt̪iːna] Native to Latium Roman Kingdom / Republic / Empire Ethnicity Latins Era Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, 6th to 9th centuries; the formal language continued as the scholarly lingua franca of medieval Europe and Cilicia, as well as the liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Regulated by Antiquity: Roman schools of grammar/rhetoric[1] Today: Pontifical Academy for Latin Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat Glottolog impe1234 lati1261 Linguasphere 51-AAB-aa to 51-AAB-ac Map indicating the greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan (c. 117 AD) and the area governed by Latin speakers (dark red). Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire. Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Latin (latīnum, [laˈt̪iːnʊ̃] or lingua latīna, [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈt̪iːna]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium.[2] Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire, before eventually becoming a dead language. Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken at that time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence[3] and author Petronius. Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century; its colloquial form Vulgar Latin developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Sardinian, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian, Piedmontese, Lombard, French, Franco-Provençal, Occitan, Corsican, Ladin, Friulan, Romansh, Catalan/Valencian, Aragonese, Spanish, Asturian, Galician, and Portuguese. Medieval Latin was used as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin. Later, Early Modern Latin and New Latin evolved. Latin was the language of international communication, scholarship and science until well into the 18th century, when vernaculars (including the Romance languages) supplanted it. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders, six or seven noun cases, five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses, three persons, three moods, two voices, two or three aspects, and two numbers. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets and ultimately from the Phoenician alphabet. Contents 1 History 1.1 Old Latin 1.2 Classical Latin 1.3 Vulgar Latin 1.4 Medieval Latin 1.5 Renaissance Latin 1.6 New Latin 1.7 Contemporary Latin 1.7.1 Religious use 1.7.2 Use of Latin for mottos 1.7.3 Other modern uses 2 Legacy 2.1 Inscriptions 2.2 Literature 2.3 Influence on present-day languages 2.4 Education 2.5 Official status 3 Phonology 3.1 Consonants 3.2 Vowels 3.2.1 Simple vowels 3.2.2 Diphthongs 3.3 Syllables 3.3.1 Length 3.3.2 Stress 4 Orthography 4.1 Alternative scripts 5 Grammar 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Adjectives 5.2.1 First and second-declension adjectives 5.2.2 Third declension adjectives 5.2.3 Participles 5.3 Prepositions 5.4 Verbs 5.4.1 Deponent verbs 6 Vocabulary 7 Phrases (Neo-Latin) 8 Numbers 9 Example text 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links 13.1 Language tools 13.2 Courses 13.3 Grammar and study 13.4 Phonetics 13.5 Latin language news and audio 13.6 Latin language online communities History[edit] Main article: History of Latin The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.[4] Old Latin[edit] Main article: Old Latin The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, c. 600 BC during the semi-legendary Roman Kingdom The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon[5][6] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.[7] Classical Latin[edit] Main article: Classical Latin During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.[8][9] Vulgar Latin[edit] Main articles: Vulgar Latin, Late Latin, and Romance languages Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus, which contain snippets of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi, "the speech of the masses", by Cicero), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti.[10] As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages.[11] The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses.[citation needed] Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously.[12] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian cavallo, French cheval, Spanish caballo, Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal) came from Latin caballus. However, Classical Latin used equus. Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken form.[13] Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.[14][15] Medieval Latin[edit] Main article: Medieval Latin The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[16] Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.[16] Renaissance Latin[edit] Main article: Renaissance Latin Most 15th-century printed books (incunabula) were in Latin, with the vernacular languages playing only a secondary role.[17] The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.[18][14] New Latin[edit] Main article: New Latin During the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe. Therefore, until the end of the 17th century the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language) and later native or other languages. Contemporary Latin[edit] Main articles: Contemporary Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. Religious use[edit] The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin, as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman Empire, as the eastern end of Hadrian's Wall (hence the name) at Segedunum. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which permitted the use of the vernacular. Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite. The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary language of its public journal, the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and the working language of the Roman Rota. Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin.[19] In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. In the Anglican Church, after the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading "public schools" (English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin.[20] There have been several Latin translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[21] The polyglot European Union has adopted Latin names in the logos of some of its institutions for the sake of linguistic compromise, an "ecumenical nationalism" common to most of the continent and as a sign of the continent's heritage (such as the EU Council: Consilium) Use of Latin for mottos[edit] In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture.[22] Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore. Spain's motto PLVS VLTRA, meaning "further beyond", is also Latin in origin.[23] It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond"). This was said to have been inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, which marked the edge of the known world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos: such as Connecticut's motto Qui transtulit sustinet ("He who transplanted sustains"); Kansas's Ad astra per aspera ("To the stars through hardships"); Colorado's Nil sine numine ("Nothing without providence"); Michigan's Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"); Missouri's Salus populi suprema lex esto ("The health of the people should be the highest law"); North Carolina's Esse quam videri ("To be rather than to seem"); Virginia's Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants"); and West Virginia's Montani semper liberi ("Mountaineers are always free"). Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as Semper paratus ("always ready"), the motto of the United States Coast Guard; Semper fidelis ("always faithful"), the motto of the United States Marine Corps; Semper Supra (“always above”), the motto of the United States Space Force; and Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University's motto is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Other modern uses[edit] Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages. For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH, which stands for Confœderatio Helvetica, the country's full Latin name. Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost ("Jughead"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics. The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico, the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium. Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019),[24] and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.[25][26][27] There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has more than 100,000 articles. Legacy[edit] Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh, and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin derivatives in English as well as a few in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church. Inscriptions[edit] Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. About 270,000 inscriptions are known. Literature[edit] Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman Republic. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press. Latin translations of modern literature such as The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince, Max and Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, "fabulae mirabiles", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook. Influence on present-day languages[edit] The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In the Middle Ages, borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed "inkhorn terms", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.[28][29][30] Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. The influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis, an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder. Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen, established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal terms. A few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language.[dubious – discuss] Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes. The Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language is the closest contemporary language to Latin.[31] Education[edit] A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University of Graz Library in Austria. Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors. This book, first published in 1956,[32] was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University. Wheelock's Latin has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses. The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available in Vatican City and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University. The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. Latin and Ancient Greek at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, 2014. In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The University of Cambridge,[33] the Open University,[34] a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylors' School, and Rugby, and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis,[35] a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam. Classicist Mary Beard wrote in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it.[36] Official status[edit] Latin was or is the official language of European states:  Hungary – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844. The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.  Croatia – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847). The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions (Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis) – held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273. An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists. Latin is still used on Croatian coins on even years.[37]  Poland, Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used[38][39][40][41] between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.[41] Phonology[edit] Main article: Latin phonology and orthography The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.[42] Consonants[edit] The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows:[43] Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal plain labial Plosive voiced b d ɡ ɡʷ voiceless p t k kʷ Fricative voiced (z) voiceless f s h Nasal m n (ŋ) Rhotic r Approximant l j w /z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek [dz] or [zd]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨z⟩ between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.[44][45] The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ precedes ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend together. So, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, and ⟨th⟩ are all sounds that would be pronounced as [kh], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the vowel ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kw] sound.[46] In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase, and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article. The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used. Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below: Notes Latin grapheme Latin phoneme English examples ⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩ [k] Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/) ⟨t⟩ [t] As t in stay (/steɪ/) ⟨s⟩ [s] As s in say (/seɪ/) ⟨g⟩ [ɡ] Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/) [ŋ] Before ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨n⟩ [n] As n in man (/mæn/) [ŋ] Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨l⟩ [l] When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as "light L", [l̥] in link ([l̥ɪnk]) (l exilis)[47][48] [ɫ] In all other positions, as "dark L", [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis) ⟨qu⟩ [kʷ] Similar to qu in quick (/kwɪk/) ⟨u⟩ [w] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/) ⟨i⟩ [j] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jaɹd/) [ij] "y" (/j/), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/) ⟨x⟩ [ks] A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/) In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus "year" (and in Italian anno) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, as in that example.) Vowels[edit] Simple vowels[edit] Front Central Back Close iː ɪ ʊ uː Mid eː ɛ ɔ oː Open a aː In Classical Latin, ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form ⟨V⟩ was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. ⟨Y⟩ was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from Greek, but it was pronounced like ⟨u⟩ and ⟨i⟩ by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as sylva and ὕλη. Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. Then, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.[46] The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length. Long vowels in Classical Latin are, technically, pronounced as entirely different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below: Pronunciation of Latin vowels Latin grapheme Latin phone modern examples ⟨a⟩ [a] similar to the last a in attack (/ətæk/) [aː] similar to a in father (/fɑːðəɹ/) ⟨e⟩ [ɛ] as e in pet (/pɛt/) [eː] similar to e in hey (/heɪ/) ⟨i⟩ [ɪ] as i in grid (/ɡɹɪd/) [iː] similar to i in machine (/məʃiːn/) ⟨o⟩ [ɔ] as o in cloth (/klɔθ/) [oː] similar to o in rose (/ɹoʊz/) ⟨u⟩ [ʊ] as oo in hood (/hʊd/) [uː] similar to ue in true (/tɹuː/) ⟨y⟩ [ʏ] does not exist in English; as ü in German Stück (/ʃtʏk/) [yː] does not exist in English; as üh in German früh (/fʀyː/) This difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book Vox Latina. However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed that short vowels differed in quality from long vowels, based upon the observation that [ɪ] and [ʊ] do not exist even in very conservative Romance languages such as Sardinian, with the difference in vowel quality more associated with Germanic languages. A vowel letter followed by ⟨m⟩ at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩, represented a long nasal vowel, as in monstrum [mõːstrũː]. Diphthongs[edit] Classical Latin had several diphthongs. The two most common were ⟨ae au⟩. ⟨oe⟩ was fairly rare, and ⟨ui eu ei⟩ were very rare, at least in native Latin words.[49] There has also been debate over whether ⟨ui⟩ is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. hui ce to huic, quoi to cui, etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if ⟨ui⟩ were to be considered a diphthong.[50] The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cavē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new". Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ became Classical ⟨ae⟩. Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ changed to Classical ⟨ū⟩, except in a few words whose ⟨oi⟩ became Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical poena "punishment" and pūnīre "to punish".[49] Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ usually changed to Classical ⟨ī⟩.[51] In Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, ⟨ae oe⟩ merged with ⟨e ē⟩. During the Classical Latin period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.[49] Diphthongs classified by beginning sound Front Back Close ui /ui̯/ Mid ei /ei̯/ eu/eu̯/ oe /oe̯/ ou /ou̯/ Open ae /ae̯/ au /au̯/ Syllables[edit] Syllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels. The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.[46] Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.[46] Length[edit] Syllables can also be seen as long. Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.[46] A syllable that is long by nature has a long vowel or diphthong. On the other hand, a syllable that is long by position has a short vowel that is followed by more than one consonant.[46] Stress[edit] There are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in the Latin language.[46] In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable. In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases. If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress. If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead.[46] Orthography[edit] Main article: Latin alphabet The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts. It was found on the Quirinal Hill in Rome. Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.[52] This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian and Czech); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system. The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters.[53] Later, G was added to represent /ɡ/, which had previously been spelled C, and Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative.[54] The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords.[54] W was created in the 11th century from VV. It represented /w/ in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses V for the purpose. J was distinguished from the original I only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter U from V.[54] Although some Latin dictionaries use J, it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it. Classical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation, letter case,[55] or interword spacing, but apices were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate words. The first line of Catullus 3, originally written as lv́géteóveneréscupꟾdinésqve ("Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids") or with interpunct as lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupꟾdinésqve would be rendered in a modern edition as Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque or with macrons Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque or with apices Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídinésque. A modern Latin text written in the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. The word Romani ('Romans') is at bottom left. The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Most notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era. Alternative scripts[edit] Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts: The Praeneste fibula is a 7th-century BC pin with an Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan script. The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks Casket has an inscription that switches from Old English in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes. Grammar[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin syntax Latin is a synthetic, fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology. In more traditional terminology, it is an inflected language, but typologists are apt to say "inflecting". Words include an objective semantic element and markers specifying the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements: amō, "I love," is produced from a semantic element, ama-, "love," to which -ō, a first person singular marker, is suffixed. The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is "inflected" to express different grammatical functions, but the semantic element usually does not change. (Inflection uses affixing and infixing. Affixing is prefixing and suffixing. Latin inflections are never prefixed.) For example, amābit, "he (or she or it) will love", is formed from the same stem, amā-, to which a future tense marker, -bi-, is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t, is suffixed. There is an inherent ambiguity: -t may denote more than one grammatical category: masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context. All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another. The inflections express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, a process called declension. Markers are also attached to fixed stems of verbs, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect, a process called conjugation. Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections. Nouns[edit] Main article: Latin declension A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun. The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of a, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ae. The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of us, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -i. The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of i, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -is. The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of u, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ūs. The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of e, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ei. There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows: Nominative – used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative. The thing or person acting: the girl ran: puella cucurrit, or cucurrit puella Genitive – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when it is translated into Latin. It also indicates the partitive, in which the material is quantified: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts": people and gifts would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. (Poculum plēnum vīnī est.) The master of the slave had beaten him. (Dominus servī eum verberāverat.) Dative – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the stola to the woman. (Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.) Accusative – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject and as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which.: The man killed the boy. (Vir puerum necāvit.) Ablative – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent or instrument or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial: You walked with the boy. (Cum puerō ambulāvistī.) Vocative – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e in the vocative singular. If it ends in -ius (such as fīlius), the ending is just -ī (filī), as distinct from the nominative plural (filiī) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave. ("Domine!" clāmāvit servus.) Locative – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words domus (house), humus (ground), and rus (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative (Athēnae becomes Athēnīs, "at Athens"). In the fourth-declension word domus, the locative form, domī ("at home") differs from the standard form of all other cases. Latin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so puer currit can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is running". Adjectives[edit] Main article: Latin declension There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second- declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have comparative (more --, -er) and superlative (most --, est) forms. There are also a number of Latin participles. Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See Numbers below. First and second-declension adjectives[edit] First and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus (lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as auxilium (help)). Third declension adjectives[edit] Third-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is -ia (omnia (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is -a or -ia (capita (heads), animalia (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular. Participles[edit] Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles. Prepositions[edit] Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy, "puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few adpositions, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as "gratia" and "tenus"). Verbs[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin conjugation A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations. A conjugation is "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms."[56] The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -re (-rī in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in -ā-re or -ā-ri (active and passive respectively): amāre, "to love," hortārī, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by -ē-re or -ē-rī: monēre, "to warn", verērī, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by -ere, -ī: dūcere, "to lead," ūtī, "to use"; of the fourth by -ī-re, -ī-rī: audīre, "to hear," experīrī, "to attempt".[57] Irregular verbs may not follow the types or may be marked in a different way. The "endings" presented above are not the suffixed infinitive markers. The first letter in each case is the last of the stem so the conjugations are also called a-conjugation, e-conjugation and i-conjugation. The fused infinitive ending is -re or -rī. Third-conjugation stems end in a consonant: the consonant conjugation. Further, there is a subset of the third conjugation, the i-stems, which behave somewhat like the fourth conjugation, as they are both i-stems, one short and the other long.[57] The stem categories descend from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages. There are six general "tenses" in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Verbs are described by four principal parts: The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular. The second principal part is the present active infinitive. The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine and -um for neuter) in the nominative singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs. There are six "tenses" in the Latin language. These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (I, we) and second (you) persons except for emphasis. The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations: Tense Singular Plural 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Present -ō/m -s -t -mus -tis -nt Future -bō, -am -bis, -ēs -bit, -et -bimus, -ēmus -bitis, -ētis -bunt, -ent Imperfect -bam -bās -bat -bāmus -bātis -bant Perfect -ī -istī -it -imus -istis -ērunt Future Perfect -erō -eris/erīs -erit -erimus/-erīmus -eritis/-erītis -erint Pluperfect -eram -erās -erat -erāmus -erātis -erant Deponent verbs[edit] Some Latin verbs are deponent, causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum (to urge). Vocabulary[edit] As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language. However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including persona "mask" and histrio "actor".[58] Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language. After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).[58] This Hellenisation led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.[59] Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as ars (craft) and τέχνη (art).[60] Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic origin, and bracae (breeches), of Celtic origin.[60] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages. During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.[61] Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and other Germanic languages. Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or compounding meaningful segments.[62] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens, "all-powerful," was produced from the adjectives omnis, "all", and potens, "powerful", by dropping the final s of omnis and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives.[63] Phrases (Neo-Latin)[edit] Main article: List of Latin phrases The phrases are mentioned with accents to show where stress is placed.[64] In Latin, words are normally stressed either on the second-to-last (penultimate) syllable, called in Latin paenultima or syllaba paenultima,[65] or on the third-to-last syllable, called in Latin antepaenultima or syllaba antepaenultima.[65] In the following notation, accented short vowels have an acute diacritic, accented long vowels have a circumflex diacritic (representing long falling pitch), and unaccented long vowels are marked simply with a macron. This reflects the tone of the voice with which, ideally, the stress is phonetically realized; but this may not always be clearly articulated on every word in a sentence.[66] Regardless of length, a vowel at the end of a word may be significantly shortened or even altogether deleted if the next word begins with a vowel also (a process called elision), unless a very short pause is inserted. As an exception, the following words: est (English "is"), es ("[you (sg.)] are") lose their own vowel e instead. sálvē to one person / salvête to more than one person – hello ávē to one person / avête to more than one person – greetings válē to one person / valête to more than one person – goodbye cûrā ut váleās – take care exoptâtus to male / exoptâta to female, optâtus to male / optâta to female, grâtus to male / grâta to female, accéptus to male / accépta to female – welcome quômodo válēs?, ut válēs? – how are you? béne – good béne váleō – I'm fine mále – bad mále váleō – I'm not good quaêsō (roughly: ['kwaeso:]/['kwe:so:]) – please amâbō tē – please íta, íta est, íta vêrō, sîc, sîc est, étiam – yes nôn, mínimē – no grâtiās tíbi, grâtiās tíbi ágō – thank you, I give thanks to you mágnās grâtiās, mágnās grâtiās ágō – many thanks máximās grâtiās, máximās grâtiās ágō, ingéntēs grâtiās ágō – thank you very much áccipe sīs to one person / accípite sîtis to more than one person, libénter – you're welcome quā aetâte es? – how old are you? 25 (vīgíntī quînque) ánnōs nâtus sumby male /25 ánnōs nâta sum by female – I am 25 years old úbi lātrîna est? – where is the toilet? scîs (tū) ... – do you speak (literally: "do you know") ... Latînē? – Latin? Graêcē? (roughly: ['graeke:]/['gre:ke:]) – Greek? Ánglicē? – English? Itálicē? – Italian? Gállicē? – French? Hispânicē? – Spanish? (or: Hispânē) Lūsitânē? – Portuguese? Theodíscē?/Germânicē? – German? (sometimes also: Teutónicē) Sînicē? – Chinese? Iapônicē? – Japanese? Coreânē? – Korean? Arábicē? – Arabic? Pérsicē? – Persian? Índicē? – Hindi? Rússicē? – Russian? (sometimes Rutênicē) Cámbricē? – Welsh? Suêticē? – Swedish? (or: Suêcicē) Polônicē? – Polish? ámō tē / tē ámō – I love you Numbers[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Latin numerals (linguistics) In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences. ūnus, ūna, ūnum (masculine, feminine, neuter) I one duo, duae, duo (m., f., n.) II two trēs, tria (m./f., n.) III three quattuor IIII or IV four quīnque V five sex VI six septem VII seven octō VIII eight novem VIIII or IX nine decem X ten quīnquāgintā L fifty centum C one hundred quīngentī, quīngentae, quīngenta (m., f., n.) D five hundred mīlle M one thousand The numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that "1, 2, 3" is counted as ūnus, duo, trēs. Example text[edit] Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also called De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War), written by Gaius Julius Caesar, begins with the following passage: Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones. The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with apices over vowel letters, including customarily before "nf" and "ns" where a long vowel is automatically produced: Gallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó, continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Language portal Catholicism portal Accademia Vivarium Novum Classical compound Contemporary Latin Greek and Latin roots in English Hybrid word International Roman Law Moot Court Latin grammar Latin mnemonics Latin obscenity Latin school Latino sine flexione (Latin without Inflections) List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Latin phrases List of Latin translations of modern literature List of Latin words with English derivatives List of Latinised names Lorem ipsum Romanization (cultural) Toponymy Vulgar Latin References[edit] ^ "Schools". Britannica (1911 ed.). ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1910). A companion to Latin studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 811–812. ^ Clark 1900, pp. 1–3 ^ "History of Europe - Barbarian migrations and invasions". Encyclopedia Britannica. 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Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. ^ Levy 1973, p. 150 ^ Allen 1978, pp. 45, 46 ^ a b c d e f g h Wheelock, Frederic M. (7 June 2011). Wheelock's Latin. LaFleur, Richard A. (7th ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-06-199721-1. OCLC 670475844. ^ Sihler 2008, p. 174. ^ Allen 1978, pp. 33–34 ^ a b c Allen 1978, pp. 60–63 ^ Husband, Richard (1910). "The Diphthong -ui in Latin". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 41: 19–23. doi:10.2307/282713. JSTOR 282713. ^ Allen 1978, pp. 53–55 ^ Diringer 1996, pp. 451, 493, 530 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 536 ^ a b c Diringer 1996, p. 538 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 540 ^ "Conjugation". Webster's II new college dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1999. ^ a b Wheelock, Frederic M. (2011). Wheelock's Latin (7th ed.). New York: CollinsReference. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 13 ^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 14 ^ Norberg, Dag; Johnson, Rand H, Translator (2004) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age". Manuel pratique de latin médiéval. University of Michigan. Retrieved 20 May 2015. ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 3, 46 ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 35, 40 ^ Ebbe Vilborg – Norstedts svensk-latinska ordbok – Second edition, 2009. ^ a b Tore Janson – Latin – Kulturen, historien, språket – First edition, 2009. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria (95 CE) Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22049-1. Baldi, Philip (2002). The foundations of Latin. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Bennett, Charles E. (1908). Latin Grammar. Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Buck, Carl Darling (1904). A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary. Boston: Ginn & Company. Clark, Victor Selden (1900). Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Lancaster: The New Era Printing Company. Diringer, David (1996) [1947]. The Alphabet – A Key to the History of Mankind. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd. ISBN 978-81-215-0748-6. Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02000-6. Holmes, Urban Tigner; Schultz, Alexander Herman (1938). A History of the French Language. New York: Biblo-Moser. ISBN 978-0-8196-0191-9. Levy, Harry Louis (1973). A Latin reader for colleges. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-47602-2. Janson, Tore (2004). A Natural History of Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926309-7. Jenks, Paul Rockwell (1911). A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools. New York: D.C. Heath & Co. Palmer, Frank Robert (1984). Grammar (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-81-206-1306-5. Sihler, Andrew L (2008). New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin. New York: Oxford University Press. Vincent, N. (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). The Romance Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-520829-0. Waquet, Françoise; Howe, John (Translator) (2003). Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-402-1. Wheelock, Frederic (2005). Latin: An Introduction (6th ed.). Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-078423-2. Curtius, Ernst (2013). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-691-15700-9. External links[edit] Latin edition of Wikisource, the free library Latin edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikiquote has quotations related to: Latin proverbs Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Latin Wikiversity has learning resources about Latin For a list of words relating to Latin, see the Latin language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latin language. Language tools[edit] "Latin Dictionary Headword Search". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Searches Lewis & Short's A Latin Dictionary and Lewis's An Elementary Latin Dictionary. Online results. "Online Latin Dictionary with conjugator and declension tool". Olivetti Media Communication. Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with complete declension or conjugation. Online results. "Latin Word Study Tool". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered. Online results. Aversa, Alan. "Latin Inflector". University of Arizona. Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus. "Latin Verb Conjugator". Verbix. Displays complete conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form. "Online Latin Verb Conjugator". Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2014. Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form. Whittaker, William. "Words". Notre Dame Archives. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. Identifies Latin words entered. Translates English words entered. "Alpheios". Alpheios Project. Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short, Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon. Latin Dictionaries at Curlie Dymock, John (1830). A new abridgment of Ainsworth's Dictionary, English and Latin, for the use of Grammar Schools (4th ed.). Glasgow: Hutchison & Brookman. "Classical Language Toolkit Archived 24 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine" (CLTK). A Natural Language Processing toolkit for Python offering a variety of functionality for Latin and other classical languages. "Collatinus web". Online lemmatizer and morphological analysis for Latin texts. Courses[edit] Latin Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin) Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course, Learnlangs Learn Latin Grammar, vocabulary and audio Latin Links and Resources, Compiled by Fr. Gary Coulter der Millner, Evan (2007). "Latinum". Latin Latin Course on YouTube and audiobooks. Molendinarius. Retrieved 2 February 2012. Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus" (PDF). The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Retrieved 20 April 2011. (a course in ecclesiastical Latin). Harsch, Ulrich (1996–2010). "Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae". Bibliotheca Augustana (in Latin). Augsburg: University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved 24 June 2010. Beginners' Latin on The National Archives (United Kingdom) Grammar and study[edit] Bennett, Charles E. (2005) [1908]. New Latin Grammar (2nd ed.). Project Gutenberg. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Griffin, Robin (1992). A student's Latin Grammar (3rd ed.). University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-38587-9. Lehmann, Winifred P.; Slocum, Jonathan (2008). "Latin Online". The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020. Ørberg, Hans (1991). LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA - Pars I FAMILIA ROMANA. ISBN 87-997016-5-0. Ørberg, Hans (2007). LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA - Pars II ROMA AETERNA. ISBN 978-1-58510-067-5. Allen and Greenough (1903). New Latin Grammar. Athanæum Press. Phonetics[edit] Cui, Ray (2005). "Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin". Ray Cui. Retrieved 25 June 2010. "Latin Language" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Ranieri, Luke. "Latin Pronunciation (for Classical Latin)". Retrieved 31 August 2018. Latin language news and audio[edit] Ephemeris, online Latin newspaper Nuntii Latini, from Finnish YLE Radio 1 Nuntii Latini, monthly review from German Radio Bremen (Bremen Zwei) Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek, Haverford College Latinum Latin Language course and Latin Language YouTube Index Latin language online communities[edit] Grex Latine Loquentium (Flock of those Speaking Latin) Circulus Latinus Interretialis (Internet Latin Circle) Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican Latin Discord Forum v t e Italic languages Latino-Faliscan Latin Faliscan Praenestinian Lanuvian Osco-Umbrian Oscan Umbrian Volscian Sabine South Picene Marsian Paeligni Hernican Marrucinian Pre-Samnite Unknown Sicel? (possibly not Italic) Venetic? (possibly Celtic, transitional or independent) Aequian Vestinian Lusitanian? 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en-wikipedia-org-259	----	Cyzicus - Wikipedia Cyzicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient town in Erdek, Balıkesir Province, Turkey This article is about the ancient town. For the clam shrimp genus, see Cyzicus (genus). Cyzicus Κύζικος (Greek) آیدینجق (Ottoman Turkish) Bas relief of a charioteer, late 6th century BC Shown within Turkey Location Erdek, Balıkesir Province, Turkey Region Mysia Coordinates 40°23′N 27°53′E / 40.38°N 27.89°E / 40.38; 27.89Coordinates: 40°23′N 27°53′E / 40.38°N 27.89°E / 40.38; 27.89 Type Settlement History Builder Pelasgian settlers Abandoned 11th century AD Periods Archaic Greek to High Medieval Cultures Greek, Ancient Roman, Byzantine Events Siege of Cyzicus Cyzicus (/ˈsɪzɪkəs/; Ancient Greek: Κύζικος Kyzikos; Ottoman Turkish: آیدینجق‎, Aydıncıḳ) was an ancient Greek town in Mysia in Anatolia in the current Balıkesir Province of Turkey. It was located on the shoreward side of the present Kapıdağ Peninsula (the classical Arctonnesus), a tombolo which is said to have originally been an island in the Sea of Marmara only to be connected to the mainland in historic times either by artificial means or an earthquake. The site of Cyzicus, located on the Erdek and Bandırma roads, is protected by Turkey's Ministry of Culture. Contents 1 History 2 Ecclesiastical history 2.1 Residential bishops 2.2 Catholic titular see 3 Monuments 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links History[edit] See also: Siege of Cyzicus Marble, 2nd quarter of the 2nd century BC. From Cyzicus Cyzicus ruins in Turkey Coin of Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 550–500 BC Coin of Cyzicus, minted in the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Obv: bearded Persian archer, testing arrow held in right hand, left hand holding bow, seated on a tunny. Rev: Quadripartite incuse square. According to some numismatists, the archer may represent Pharnabazus II. The representation of the archer later became the canonical form used on the drachms of the Parthian Empire Electrum stater of Cyzicus, mid 4th century BC. On the obverse is a possible portrait of Timotheos, wearing a victory wreath, with a tuna fish below.[1] Ancient Greek Coin from Cyzicus dated circa 390-341/0 BC The city was said to have been founded by Pelasgians from Thessaly, according to tradition at the coming of the Argonauts; later it received many colonies from Miletus, allegedly in 756 BC, but its importance began near the end of the Peloponnesian War when the conflict centered on the sea routes connecting Greece to the Black Sea. At this time, the cities of Athens and Miletus diminished in importance while Cyzicus began to prosper. Commander of the Athenian fleet Alcibiades defeated the Spartan fleet at a major naval engagement near Cyzicus known as the Battle of Cyzicus in 410 BC. Famed ancient philosopher Eudoxus of Cnidus established a school at Cyzicus and went with his pupils to Athens, visiting Plato. Later he returned to Cyzicus and died in 355 B.C.[2] The era of Olympiads in Cyzicus was reckoned from 135 or 139. Owing to its advantageous position it speedily acquired commercial importance, and the gold staters of Cyzicus were a staple currency in the ancient world till they were superseded by those of Philip of Macedon. Its unique and characteristic coin, the cyzicenus, was worth 28 drachmae. Cyzicus amphitheatre During the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and Lacedaemonians alternately. In the naval Battle of Cyzicus in 410 during the Peloponnesian War, an Athenian fleet routed and completely destroyed a Spartan fleet. At the peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over to Persia. Alexander the Great later captured it from the Persians in 334 BC and was later claimed to be responsible for the land bridge connecting the island to the mainland. The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely connected with that of the Attalids of Pergamon, with whose extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus was held for the Romans against King Mithridates VI of Pontus who besieged it with 300,000 men in 74 BC, but it withstood him stoutly, and the siege was raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded by an extension of territory and other privileges. The Romans favored it and recognized its municipal independence. Cyzicus was the leading city of Northern Mysia as far as Troas. Cyzicus was a town of Mysia. Under Tiberius, it was incorporated into the Roman Empire but remained the capital of Mysia (afterwards, Hellespontus) and became one of the great cities of the ancient world. Cyzicus was captured temporarily by the Arabs led by Muawiyah I in AD 675. It appears to have been ruined by a series of earthquakes beginning in 443, with the last in 1063. Although its population was transferred to Artake before the 13th century when the peninsula was occupied by the Crusaders, in 1324 the metropolitan of Cyzicus was one of three sees in Anatolia which was able to contribute a temporary annual subsidy to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Following its conquest by the Ottomans it underwent hard times. From a point between 1370 and 1372 until 1387, the metropolitan was empty; Speros Vryonis speculates this was due to financial difficulties. Later in the 14th century, the sees of Chalcedon and certain patriarchal possessions in Bithynia and Hellespont were bestowed on the metropolitan of Cyzicus.[3] In the Ottoman era, it was part of the kaza of Erdek in the province of Brusa. Ecclesiastical history[edit] Cyzicus, as capital of the Roman province of Hellespontus, was its ecclesiastical metropolitan see. In the Notitiae Episcopatuum of Pseudo-Epiphanius, composed in about 640, Cyzicus had 12 suffragan sees; Abydus, Baris in Hellesponto (between Sariköy and Biga), Dardanus, Germa in Hellesponto (ruins of Germaslu, Kirmasti, Girmas), Hadrianotherae (Uzuncia yayla), Ilium, Lampsacus, Miletopolis, Oca, Pionia (Avcılar), Poemanenum (Eskimanias), Troas. The province also included two autocephalous archiepiscopal sees: Parium and Proconnesus. Residential bishops[edit] Cyzicus had a catalogue of bishops beginning with the 1st century; Michel Le Quien mentions fifty-nine.[4] A more complete list is found in Nicodemos, in the Greek "Office of St. Emilian" (Constantinople, 1876), 34–36, which has eighty-five names. Of particular importance are the famous Arian theologian Eunomius of Cyzicus; Saint Dalmatius; bishops Proclus and Germanus, who became Patriarchs of Constantinople; and Saint Emilian, a martyr in the 8th century. Another saint who came from Cyzicus, Saint Tryphaena of Cyzicus, is the patron saint of the city. Gelasius, a historian of Arianism, who wrote about 475, was born at Cyzicus.[4][5] George Kleidas, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in ca. 1253–61[6] Theodore Skoutariotes, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in ca. 1277[7] Daniel Glykys, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1285–89[8] Methodius, Metropolitan of Cyzicus from 1289[9] Niphon I, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1310–14, was Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1303–10[10] Athanasios, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1324–47[11] Theodoretos, proedros of Cyzicus in 1370–72[12] Sebasteianos, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1381–86[13] Matthew I, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1397–1410, was Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1387–97[14] Theognostos, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1399–1405[15] Makarios, Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1409[16] Metrophanes II, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1440–43, was Metropolitan of Cyzicus in 1436–40[17] Cyril IV, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1711–13, was Metropolitan of Cyzicus before that Cyzicus remained a metropolitan see of the Greek Orthodox Church until the 1923 Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations emptied it of Greek Orthodox faithful, whether they spoke Greek or Turkish. The last bishop of the see died in 1932.[18][19][20] Today it is a titular metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Catholic titular see[edit] Since 1885, the Catholic Church lists Cyzicus as a titular see.[21] of the highest (Metropolitan) rank, but vacant since 1974. Titular metropolitans were: John Baptist Lamy (1885.08.18 – 1888.02.13) William Benedict Scarisbrick, O.S.B. (1888.09.08 – 1908.05.07) José María Cázares y Martínez (1908.04.29 – 1909.03.31) Johannes Fidelis Battaglia (1909.07.03 – 1913.09.10) Simeón Pereira y Castellón (1913.12.02 – 1921.01.29) Giacomo Sereggi (1921.10.14 – 1922.04.11) Giuseppe Moràbito (1922.07.04 – 1923.12.03) Antal Papp (1924.07.14 – 1945.12.24) Manuel Marilla Ferreira da Silva (1949.05.29 – 1974.11.23) Monuments[edit] The site amid the marshes of Balkiz Serai is known as Bal-Kiz and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. The principal extant ruins are the walls, dating from the fourth century, which are traceable for nearly their whole extent, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian, the ruins of a Roman aqueduct and a theatre. The picturesque amphitheatre, intersected by a stream, was one of the largest in the world. Construction for the amphitheatre began in the middle of the first century C.E until the end of the third century C.E. Its diameter was nearly 500 feet (150 m) and it is located specifically at these coordinates 40°23′54″N 27°53′04″E / 40.398213°N 27.884552°E / 40.398213; 27.884552 (Cyzicus) within the region of Cyzicus. Of this magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven wonders of the ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still stood erect in 1444. These have since been carried away piecemeal for building purposes. Colossal foundations of a temple dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian are still visible: the columns were 21.35 metres high (about 70 feet), while the highest known elsewhere, those at Baalbek in Lebanon are only 19.35 metres (about 63 feet). The monuments of Cyzicus were used by the Byzantine emperor Justinian as a quarry for the building of his Saint Sophia cathedral, and were still exploited by the Ottomans. Notable people[edit] Androsthenes of Cyzicus, 200 BC, accompanied King Antiochus III the Great to India. Eudoxus of Cyzicus, 130 BC, navigator and explorer. Proclus of Constantinople, appointed metropolitan of Cyzicus in 5th century but never functioned as such; patriarch of Constantinople and important figure in the development of Christology Germanus of Constantinople, early eighth century metropolitan of Cyzicus and later Patriarch of Constantinople and early iconophile theologian Gelasius of Cyzicus, 5th century ecclesiastical writer. Adrastus of Cyzicus, a mathematician cited by Augustine of Hippo Theophanes the Confessor, who began his formal religious life at the Polychronius Monastery, located near Cyzicus. Lala, a female painter and sculptor, known as Lala from Cyzicus. Neanthes of Cyzicus, rhetor See also[edit] Ancient sites of Balıkesir References[edit] ^ Leo Mildenberg, "The Cyzicenes, a Reappraisal", American Journal of Numismatics, Vol. 5/6 (1993–94), pp. 1–12. ^ Florian Cajori, A History of Mathematics (1893) ^ Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), pp. 299f ^ a b Le Quien, Michel (1740). "Ecclesia Cyzici". Oriens Christianus, in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus: quo exhibentur ecclesiæ, patriarchæ, cæterique præsules totius Orientis. Tomus primus: tres magnas complectens diœceses Ponti, Asiæ & Thraciæ, Patriarchatui Constantinopolitano subjectas (in Latin). Paris: Ex Typographia Regia. cols. 747–768. OCLC 955922585. ^ v. Cyzique, in Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques, vol. XIII, Paris 1956, coll. 1191–1196 ^ PLP, 11779. Κλειδᾶς Γεώργιος. ^ PLP, 26204. Σκουταριώτης Θεόδωρος. ^ PLP, 4263. Γλυκύς Δανιήλ. ^ PLP, 17597. Μεθόδιος. ^ PLP, 20679. Νίφων Ι.. ^ PLP, 388. Ἀθανάσιος. ^ PLP, 7332. Θεοδώρητος. ^ PLP, 25063. Σεβαστειανός. ^ PLP, 17387. Ματθαῖος Ι.. ^ PLP, 37071. Θεόγνωστος. ^ PLP, 16261. Μακάριος. ^ PLP, 18069. Μητροφάνης ΙΙ.. ^ Μητρόπολη Κυζικού ^ Siméon Vailhé, "Cyzicus" in Catholic Encyclopedia (New York 1908) ^ Heinrich Gelzer, Ungedruckte und ungenügend veröffentlichte Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum, pp. 535, 537, in: Abhandlungen der philosophisch-historische classe der bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1901, pp. 529–641 ^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), p. 871 Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cyzicus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Cyzicus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit (2001). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). I, 1–12, Add. 1–2, CD-ROM Version. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-3003-1. Missing or empty |title= (help) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cyzicus. Ancient Greek coins of Kyzikos v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia Briula Bruzus Bybassus Cadi Callipolis Caloe Canae Carene Carmylessus Carura Caryanda Castabus Casystes Cedreae Celaenae Ceramus Chalcetor Choria Chrysaoris Chytrium Cidramus Cindye Cisthene Clannuda Claros Colophon Colossae Conium Coryphas Cybeleia Cyllandus Cyme Daldis Dareioukome Dideiphyta Didyma Digda Dioclea Dionysiopolis Dios Hieron in Ionia Dios Hieron in Lydia Dioskome Docimium Doroukome Eibos Eiokome Elaea Embatum Emoddi Ephesus Erines Erythrae Erythras Etsyena Eukarpia Euhippe Eumeneia Euromus Euthenae Euxine Gambrium Gerga Gergitha Gerriadai Glauke Gryneium Halicarnassus Halisarna Harpasa Helos Heraclea at Latmus Heraclea in Aeolis Heraclea in Lydia Heraclea Salbace Hermocapelia Hierapolis Hierapolis of the Phyrgian Pentapolis Hierocaesarea Homadena Hydai Hydas Hydissus Hygassos Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypokremnos Hyrcanis Iasos Iaza Idyma Ioniapolis Ioudda Ipsus Isinda in Ionia Iskome Kadyie Kaira Kalabantia Kasara Kasossos Kaualena Kaunos Kilaraza Kildara Klazomenai Kleimaka Kleros Politike Knidos Koddinou Petra Koraia Korakoe Koresa Kouara Kyllene Kymnissa Kys Labraunda Lagina Lalandos Lamyana Lankena Laodicea on the Lycus Larisa in Caria Larisa in Ionia Larisa in Lydia Larissa Phrikonis Larymna Lasnedda Latmus Lebedus Leimon Leucae Leucophrys Limantepe Lobolda Lunda Lydae Lyrna Lysimachia Madnasa Maeandropolis Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnesia on the Maeander Maiboza Maionia in Lydia Malene Marathesium Mastaura Meiros Meiros Megale Melampagos Meloukome Metropolis in Lydia Metropolis in southern Phrygia Miletus Mylasa Mobolla Mokolda Mossyna Mostene Motella Myloukome Myndus Myrina Myus Nais Nasos Naulochon Naulochus Naxia Neapolis Neonteichos Nisyra Notion Nymphaeum Nysa on the Maeander Odon Oenoanda Olaeis Olymos Oroanna Orthoisa Ortygia Otrus Palaemyndus Panasion Panormus near Miletus Panormus near Halicarnassus Parsada Parthenium Passala Passanda Pedasa Pepuza Pergamon Perperene Philadelphia in Lydia Phocaea Phoenix in Caria Physcus Phyteia Pidasa Pinara Pisilis Pisye Pitane Pladasa Plarasa Polichna in Ionia Polichne in Ionia Polybotus Pordoselene Priene Prymnessus Pteleum Pydnae Pygela Pyrnus Pyrrha Saouenda Sardis Satala in Lydia Sebaste in Phrygia Sebastopolis in Caria Setae Side in Caria Sidussa Silandus Sillyos Skolopoeis Smyrna Soa Spore Stadia Stectorium Stratonicea in Lydia Stratonicea in Caria Strobilos Syangela Symbra Synaus Syneta Synnada Syrna Tabae Tabala Tateikome Taza Teichiussa Telandrus Temenothyra Temnos Tempsis Tendeba Teos Termera Teuthrania Thasthara Theangela Thebe Hypoplakia Thebes Thera Thyaira Thyatira Thymbrara Thyssanus Tisna Tlos in Caria Tomara Traianopolis Trapezopolis Trarium Triopium Tripolis on the Meander Troketta Tyanollos Tymion Tymnos Ula Uranium Zemmeana Zingotos Kome Black Sea Abonoteichos Aegialus Aiginetes Alaca Höyük Amasia Amastris Ancon Anticinolis Argyria Armene Bonita Boon Cabira Cales Callistratia Carambis Carissa Carussa Cerasus Chadisia Cinolis Cizari Colonia in Armenia Colussa Comana in the Pontus Coralla Cordyle Cratia Crenides Cromen Cromna Cyptasia Cytorus Dia Diacopa Elaeus Endeira Erythini Euchaita Eusene Gadilon Garius Garzoubanthon Gaziura Gozalena Hadrianopolis in Paphlagonia Hattusa Heraclea Pontica Heracleium Hermonassa Hieron Oros Hüseyindede Tepe Hyssus Ibora Ischopolis Karza Kelesa Kimista Laodicea Pontica Libiopolis Lillium Metroon Mokata Naustathmus Nerik Nicopolis Ophis Oxinas Patara Pharnacia Phazemon Philocaleia Pida Pimolisa Polemonium Pompeiopolis Potami Prusias ad Hypium Pteria in Paphlagonia Salatiwara Samuha Sandaraca Sapinuwa Satala Saurania Sebastopolis in Pontus Stephane Syderos Themiscyra Thymena Timolaeum Tium Tripolis Virasia Yazılıkaya Zagorus Zaliche Zephyrium in Paphlagonia Ziporea Central Anatolia Abouadeineita Alişar Hüyük Amblada Anadynata Andabalis Anisa Anniaca Ano Kotradis Antoniopolis Anzoulada Aquae Saravenae Aralla Arasaxa Archalla Ardistama Ariaramneia Ariarathia Armaxa Artiknos Aspenzinsos Astra Atenia Balbissa Balgatia Barate Bathys Rhyax Binbirkilise Blucium Borissos Campae Camuliana Candara Carus Vicus Çatalhöyük Cimiata Ciscissus Cinna Claneus Comitanassus Congustus Corna Corniaspa Coropassus Cotenna Cybistra Cyzistra Dadastana Dasmenda Derbe Diocaesarea Doara Dometiopolis Dorylaeum Ecdaumava Ecobriga Ergobrotis Euaissa Eudocia (Cappadocia) Eudocia (Phrygia) Eulepa Faustinopolis Germa Gorbeus Gordium Hadrianopolis in Phrygia Heraclea Cybistra Herpha Hieropotamon Homana Hyde Ilistra Irenopolis Juliopolis Kaman-Kalehöyük Kanotala Karbala Keissia Kerkenes Kilistra Kindyria Kobara Kodylessos Korama Koron Kültepe (Kanesh) Lageina Lamatorma Laodicea Combusta Laroumada Lauzadus Limnae Lystra Malandasa Malus in Galatia Malus in Phrygia Meloë Metropolis in northern Phrygia Midaeium Mistea Mnizus Mokissos Mourisa Moutalaske Musbanda Myrika Nakoleia Nazianzus Nitazi Nora Nyssa Ochras Olosada Orcistus Papirion Parnassus Pedachtoë Pedaia Peium Perta Pessinus Pharax Phlara Pillitokome Pissia Pithoi Pontanena Posala Pteria Purushanda Pyrgoi Sadagolthina Salamboreia Salarama Sasima Savatra Sbida Sedasa Senzousa Sereana Sibora Sidamaria Skandos Soanda Soandos Sora Takourtha Tavium Thebasa Thouththourbia Tiberiopolis Trocmades Tyana Tynna Tyriaeum Vasada Zeita Zenopolis Zizima Eastern Anatolia Altıntepe Ani Arsamosata Cafer Höyük Dadima Melid Sugunia Tushpa Marmara Abydos Achaiion Achilleion Ad Statuas Adrasteia Aegospotami Agora Aianteion in Thrace Aianteion in the Troad Ainos Alexandria Troas Alopeconnesus Ammoi Amycus Anaplous Apamea Myrlea Aphrodisias Apollonia on the Rhyndacus Aprus Apsoda Arbeila Argiza Argyria Argyronion Argyropolis Arisba Artace Artaiouteichos Artanes Assos Astacus Astyra in Troad Aureliane Aureliopolis Baradendromia Basilica Therma Basilinopolis Bathonea Beodizo Bergule Birytis Bitenas Bithynium Blachernae Bolos Boradion Brunca Burtudizon Bythias Byzantium Byzapena Caenophrurium Callum Calpe Canopus Cardia Cebrene Cenon Gallicanon Chalcaea Chalcedon Charax Charmidea Chelae on the Black Sea Chelae on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus Chelae on the European coast of the Bosphorus Choiragria Chryse Chrysopolis Cius Clitae Cobrys Cocylium Colla Cremaste Crenides Cressa Crithote Cypasis Cypsela Cyzicus Dadokome Dacibyza Damalis Daphne Mainomene Daphnus Dardanus Dascylium 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the Cragus Antioch on the Pyramis Antiphellus Aperlae Aphrodisias of Cilicia Apollonia in Lycia Arabissus Araxa Ariassus Arima Arnabanda Arneae Arsada Arsinoe Artanada Arycanda Aspendos Augai Augusta Aulae Aunesis Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing Balbura Baris Bindaios Bubon Cabassus Cadrema Cadyanda Callimache Calynda Carallia Carmylessus Casae Castabala Ceretapa Cestrus Charadrus Choma Cibyra Mikra Claudiopolis Colybrassus Comama Comana in Cappadocia Comba Conana Coracesium Corycium Antrum Corycus (Kızkalesi) Corydala Cremna Cretopolis Crya Cyaneae Cyrrhus Daedala Dalisandus in Isauria Dalisandus in Pamphylia Damasei Dias Diocaesarea Domuztepe Elaiussa Sebaste Elbessos Emirzeli Epiphania Erymna Etenna Eudocia (Lycia) Eudocias (Pamphylia) Flaviopolis Gagae Gözlükule Hacilar Hadrianopolis in Pisidia Halae Hamaxia Hippucome Holmi Hyia Idebessos Idyros Iotape Irenopolis Isaura Nea Isaura Palaea Isba Isinda in Lycia Isinda in Pisidia Issus Istlada Juliosebaste Kalanthia Kalelibelen Kandyba 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Summary Object Author AnonymousUnknown author Date circa 175 Medium Bronze Place of discovery Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy Source/Photographer Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius_Capitoline_Hill_September_2015-1.jpg Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. 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Photograph DescriptionMarcus Aurelius Capitoline Hill September 2015-1.jpg English: Replica of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Hill, Rome Date 12 September 2015, 12:30:05 Source Own work Author Alvesgaspar Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. 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en-wikipedia-org-2620	----	Castel Sant'Angelo - Wikipedia Castel Sant'Angelo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the castle in Rome. For other uses, see Castel Sant'Angelo (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Castel Sant'Angelo" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mausoleum of Hadrian Castel Sant'Angelo in 2019 Built in 123–139 AD Built by/for Hadrian Type of structure Mausoleum Related List of ancient monuments in Rome Mausoleum of Hadrian The Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as Castel Sant'Angelo (Italian pronunciation: [kaˈstɛl sanˈtandʒelo]; English: Castle of the Holy Angel), is a towering cylindrical building in Parco Adriano, Rome, Italy. It was initially commissioned by the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family. The building was later used by the popes as a fortress and castle, and is now a museum. The structure was once the tallest building in Rome. Contents 1 Hadrian's tomb 2 Decline 3 Papal fortress, residence and prison 4 Museum 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 Bibliography 8 References 9 External links Hadrian's tomb[edit] Castel Sant'Angelo from the bridge. The top statue is of Michael the Archangel, the angel from whom the building derives its name. Ponte Sant'Angelos Angel figures The tomb of the Roman emperor Hadrian, also called Hadrian's mole,[1] was erected on the right bank of the Tiber, between AD 134 and 139.[2] Originally the mausoleum was a decorated cylinder, with a garden top and golden quadriga. Hadrian's ashes were placed here a year after his death in Baiae in 138, together with those of his wife Sabina, and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who died in 138. Following this, the remains of succeeding emperors were also placed here, the last recorded deposition being Caracalla in 217. The urns containing these ashes were probably placed in what is now known as the Treasury Room, deep within the building. Hadrian also built the Pons Aelius facing straight onto the mausoleum – it still provides a scenic approach from the center of Rome and the left bank of the Tiber, and is renowned for the Baroque additions of statues of angels holding aloft instruments of the Passion of Christ. Decline[edit] Much of the tomb contents and decorations have been lost since the building's conversion to a military fortress in 401 and its subsequent inclusion in the Aurelian Walls by Flavius Honorius Augustus. The urns and ashes were scattered by Visigoth looters during Alaric's sacking of Rome in 410, and the original decorative bronze and stone statuary were thrown down upon the attacking Goths when they besieged Rome in 537, as recounted by Procopius. An unusual survivor, however, is the capstone of a funerary urn (probably that of Hadrian), which made its way to Saint Peter's Basilica, covered the tomb of Otto II and later was incorporated into a massive Renaissance baptistery.[3] The use of spolia from the tomb in the post-Roman period was noted in the 16th century – Giorgio Vasari writes: ...in order to build churches for the use of the Christians, not only were the most honoured temples of the idols [pagan Roman gods] destroyed, but in order to ennoble and decorate Saint Peter's with more ornaments than it then possessed, they took away the stone columns from the tomb of Hadrian, now the castle of Sant'Angelo, as well as many other things which we now see in ruins.[4] Legend holds that the Archangel Michael appeared atop the mausoleum, sheathing his sword as a sign of the end of the plague of 590, thus lending the castle its present name. A less charitable yet more apt elaboration of the legend, given the militant disposition of this archangel, was heard by the 15th-century traveler who saw an angel statue on the castle roof. He recounts that during a prolonged season of the plague, Pope Gregory I heard that the populace, even Christians, had begun revering a pagan idol at the church of Santa Agata in Suburra. A vision urged the pope to lead a procession to the church. Upon arriving, the idol miraculously fell apart with a clap of thunder. Returning to St Peter's by the Aelian Bridge, the pope had another vision of an angel atop the castle, wiping the blood from his sword on his mantle, and then sheathing it. While the pope interpreted this as a sign that God was appeased, this did not prevent Gregory from destroying more sites of pagan worship in Rome.[5] View from the top of the Castel Sant'Angelo towards the ancient city core of Rome. Papal fortress, residence and prison[edit] The popes converted the structure into a castle, beginning in the 14th century; Pope Nicholas III connected the castle to St Peter's Basilica by a covered fortified corridor called the Passetto di Borgo. The fortress was the refuge of Pope Clement VII from the siege of Charles V's Landsknechte during the Sack of Rome (1527), in which Benvenuto Cellini describes strolling the ramparts and shooting enemy soldiers. Leo X built a chapel with a Madonna by Raffaello da Montelupo. In 1536 Montelupo also created a marble statue of Saint Michael holding his sword after the 590 plague (as described above) to surmount the Castel.[6] Later Paul III built a rich apartment, to ensure that in any future siege the pope had an appropriate place to stay. Montelupo's statue was replaced by a bronze statue of the same subject, executed by the Flemish sculptor Peter Anton von Verschaffelt, in 1753. Verschaffelt's is still in place and Montelupo's can be seen in an open court in the interior of the Castle. The Papal state also used Sant'Angelo as a prison; Giordano Bruno, for example, was imprisoned there for six years. Other prisoners were the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini and the magician and charlatan Cagliostro. Executions were performed in the small inner courtyard. As a prison, it was also the setting for the third act of Giacomo Puccini's 1900 opera Tosca; the eponymous heroine leaps to her death from the Castel's ramparts. Museum[edit] Decommissioned in 1901, the castle is now a museum: the Museo Nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo. It received 1,234,443 visitors in 2016.[7] Gallery[edit] Barberini Faun (Glyptothek, Munich) once part of the Castel Sant'Angelo View from south towards the Castel Sant'Angelo and Ponte Sant'Angelo Castel Sant'Angelo viewed from the other side of the river. The original angel by Raffaello da Montelupo. Bronze statue of Michael the Archangel, standing on top of the Castel Sant'Angelo, modelled in 1753 by Peter Anton von Verschaffelt (1710–1793). Another angle of the angel Giovanni Battista Bugatti, papal executioner between 1796 and 1861 offering snuff to a condemned prisoner in front of Castel Sant'Angelo View of the river Tiber looking south with the Castel Sant'Angelo and Saint Peter's Basilica beyond, Rudolf Wiegmann 1834 See also[edit] List of ancient monuments in Rome Cardinal-nephew Concordat of Worms List of castles in Italy Stand of the Swiss Guard Via della Conciliazione Bibliography[edit] Bruno Contardi; Marica Mercalli; Italy. Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali; Museo nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo (1987). The angel and Rome : Castel Sant'Angelo, September 29th-November 29th 1987. Rome: Palombi. ISBN 9788876215773. OCLC 555702196.[8] References[edit] ^ Gibbon, Edward (1826). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. 6 (4th American ed.). New York. p. 369. ^ Aicher, Peter J (2004). Rome Alive: A Source-Guide to the Ancient City Volume I. Bolchazy-Carducci. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ Porphyry Baptismal Font ^ "Preface, "Lives of the Artists"". Archived from the original on 2010-12-10. Retrieved 2007-01-23. ^ Account of Pedro Tafur in The Travels of Pero Tafur (1435–1439), Chapter III. ^ Rome (Eyewitness Travel Guides) DK Publishing, London (2003) p. 242 ^ "Musei, monumenti e aree archeologiche statali" [State museums, monuments and archaeological areas] (PDF). ilsole24ore.it (in Italian). 5 January 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2017. ^ Angels: An Indexed and Partially AnnotatedBibliography of Over 4300 Scholarly Books and Articles Since the 7th Century B.C. Jefferson, McFarland. 1999. p. 90. ISBN 9781476609584. OCLC 918854827. Archived from the original on August 24, 2019. Retrieved August 24, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Castel Sant'Angelo (Rome). Official website Site describing arrangement of the original mausoleum. Mausoleum of Hadrian, part of the Encyclopædia Romana by James Grout Platner and Ashby entry on the tomb on Lacus Curtius site Roman Bookshelf – Views of Castel Sant'Angelo from the 19° Century Hadrian's tomb Model of how the tomb might have appeared in antiquity v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. 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en-wikipedia-org-2621	----	Romanos I Lekapenos - Wikipedia Romanos I Lekapenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 920 to 944 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Romanos I Lekapenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miliaresion from 931–944, showing Romanos' bust on a cross on the obverse and listing the names of Romanos and his co-emperors, Constantine VII, Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos, on the reverse Byzantine emperor Reign 17 December 919 – 16/20 December 944 Predecessor Constantine VII (under regent rule) Successor Constantine VII (solo rule) Co-emperors Constantine VII (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos (924–944) Constantine Lekapenos (924–944) Born c. 870 Lakape Died 15 June 948 (aged 77–78) Burial Myrelaion Monastery Consort Theodora Issue Christopher Stephanos Constantine Theophylact Helena Agatha Dynasty Macedonian dynasty/Lekapenoi Father Theophylaktos Abastaktos Romanos I Lekapenos (Greek: Ρωμανός Λεκαπηνός; c. 870 – 15 June 948), Latinized as Romanus I Lecapenus, was an Armenian who became a Byzantine naval commander and reigned as Byzantine emperor from December 919 until his deposition on December 944. Contents 1 Origin 2 Rise to power 3 War and peace with Bulgaria 4 Campaigns in the East 5 Internal policies 6 End of the reign 7 Family 8 See also 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links Origin[edit] Romanos Lekapenos, born in Lakape (later Laqabin) between Melitene and Samosata (hence the name), was the son of an Armenian peasant.[1][2] with the remarkable name of Theophylact the Unbearable (Theophylaktos Abastaktos). Theophylact, as a soldier, had rescued the Emperor Basil I from the enemy in battle at Tephrike and had been rewarded by a place in the Imperial Guard.[3] Although he did not receive any refined education (for which he was later abused by his son-in-law Constantine VII), Romanos advanced through the ranks of the army during the reign of Emperor Leo VI the Wise. In 911 he was general of the naval theme of Samos and later served as admiral of the fleet (droungarios tou ploimou). In this capacity he was supposed to participate in the Byzantine operations against Bulgaria on the Danube in 917, but he was unable to carry out his mission. In the aftermath of the disastrous Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Acheloos in 917 by the Bulgarians, Romanos sailed to Constantinople, where he gradually overcame the discredited regency of Empress Zoe Karvounopsina and her supporter Leo Phokas. Rise to power[edit] Gold solidus of Romanos I with his eldest son, Christopher Lekapenos On 25 March 919, at the head of his fleet, Lekapenos seized the Boukoleon Palace and the reins of government. Initially, he was named magistros and megas hetaireiarches, but he moved swiftly to consolidate his position: in April 919 his daughter Helena was married to Constantine VII, and Lekapenos assumed the new title basileopator; on 24 September, he was named Caesar; and on 17 December 919, Romanos Lekapenos was crowned senior emperor.[4] In subsequent years Romanos crowned his own sons co-emperors, Christopher in 921, Stephen and Constantine in 924, although, for the time being, Constantine VII was regarded as first in rank after Romanos himself. It is notable that, as he left Constantine untouched, he was called 'the gentle usurper'. Romanos strengthened his position by marrying his daughters to members of the powerful aristocratic families of Argyros and Mouseles, by recalling the deposed patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, and by putting an end to the conflict with the Papacy over the four marriages of Emperor Leo VI. His early reign saw several conspiracies to topple him, which led to the successive dismissal of his first paradynasteuontes, John the Rhaiktor and John Mystikos. From 925 and until the end of his reign, the post was occupied by the chamberlain Theophanes. War and peace with Bulgaria[edit] Main article: Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927 The first major challenge faced by the new emperor was the war with Bulgaria, which had been re-ignited by the regency of Zoe. The rise to power of Romanos had curtailed the plans of Simeon I of Bulgaria for a marital alliance with Constantine VII, and Romanos was determined to deny the unpopular concession of imperial recognition to Simeon, which had already toppled two imperial governments. Consequently, the first four years of Romanos' reign were spent in warfare against Bulgaria. Although Simeon generally had the upper hand, he was unable to gain a decisive advantage because of the impregnability of Constantinople's walls. In 924, when Simeon had once again blockaded the capital by land, Romanos succeeded in opening negotiations. Meeting Simeon in person at Kosmidion, Romanos criticized Simeon's disregard for tradition and Orthodox Christian brotherhood and supposedly shamed him into coming to terms and lifting the siege. In reality, this was accomplished by Romanos' tacit recognition of Simeon as emperor of Bulgaria. Relations were subsequently marred by continued wrangling over titles (Simeon called himself emperor of the Romans as well), but peace had been effectively established. On the death of Simeon in May 927, Bulgaria's new emperor, Peter I, made a show of force by invading Byzantine Thrace, but he showed himself ready to negotiate for a more permanent peace. Romanos seized the occasion and proposed a marriage alliance between the imperial houses of Byzantium and Bulgaria, at the same time renewing the Serbian-Byzantine alliance with Časlav of Serbia, returning independence the same year. In September 927 Peter arrived before Constantinople and married Maria (renamed Eirene, "Peace"), the daughter of his eldest son and co-emperor Christopher, and thus Romanos' granddaughter. On this occasion Christopher received precedence in rank over his brother-in-law Constantine VII, something which compounded the latter's resentment towards the Lekapenoi, the Bulgarians, and imperial marriages to outsiders (as documented in his composition De Administrando Imperio). From this point on, Romanos' government was free from direct military confrontation with Bulgaria. Although Byzantium would tacitly support a Serbian revolt against Bulgaria in 931, and the Bulgarians would allow Magyar raids across their territory into Byzantine possessions, Byzantium and Bulgaria remained at peace for 40 years, until Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria. Campaigns in the East[edit] Romanos appointed the brilliant general John Kourkouas commander of the field armies (domestikos ton scholon) in the East. John Kourkouas subdued a rebellion in the theme of Chaldia and intervened in Armenia in 924. From 926 Kourkouas campaigned across the eastern frontier against the Abbasids and their vassals, and won an important victory at Melitene in 934. The capture of this city is often considered the first major Byzantine territorial recovery from the Muslims. The Byzantine fleet under Theophanes repels the Rus' in 941. Miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes. In 941, while most of the army under Kourkouas was absent in the East, a fleet of 15 old ships under the protovestiarios Theophanes had to defend Constantinople from a Kievan raid. The invaders were defeated at sea, through the use of Greek fire, and again at land, when they landed in Bithynia, by the returning army under Kourkouas. In 944 Romanos concluded a treaty with Prince Igor of Kiev. This crisis having passed, Kourkouas was free to return to the eastern frontier. In 943 Kourkouas invaded northern Mesopotamia and besieged the important city of Edessa in 944. As the price for his withdrawal, Kourkouas obtained one of Byzantium's most prized relics, the mandylion, the holy towel allegedly sent by Jesus Christ to King Abgar V of Edessa. John Kourkouas, although considered by some of his contemporaries "a second Trajan or Belisarius," was dismissed after the fall of the Lekapenoi in 945. Nevertheless, his campaigns in the East paved the way for the even more dramatic reconquests in the middle and the second half of the 10th century. Internal policies[edit] The palace church at Myrelaion, commissioned by Romanos I as a family shrine in 922. Constantinople. Romanos I Lekapenos attempted to strengthen the Byzantine Empire by seeking peace everywhere that it was possible—his dealings with Bulgaria and Kievan Rus' have been described above. To protect Byzantine Thrace from Magyar incursions (such as the ones in 934 and 943), Romanos paid them protection money and pursued diplomatic avenues. The Khazars were the allies of the Byzantines until the reign of Romanos, when he started persecuting the Jews of the empire. According to the Schechter Letter, the Khazar ruler Joseph responded to the persecution of Jews by "doing away with many Christians", and Romanos retaliated by inciting Oleg of Novgorod (called Helgu in the letter) against Khazaria.[5] Similarly, Romanos re-established peace within the church and overcame the new conflict between Rome and Constantinople by promulgating the Tomos of Union in 920. In 933 Romanos took advantage of a vacancy on the patriarchal throne to name his young son Theophylaktos patriarch of Constantinople. The new patriarch did not achieve renown for his piety and spirituality, but he added theatrical elements to the Byzantine liturgy and was an avid horse-breeder, allegedly leaving mass to tend to one of his favorite mares when she was giving birth. Romanos was active as a legislator, promulgating a series of laws to protect small landowners from being swallowed up by the estates of the land-owning nobility (dynatoi). The legislative reform may have been partly inspired by hardship caused by the famine of 927 and the subsequent semi-popular revolt of Basil the Copper Hand. The emperor also managed to increase the taxes levied on the aristocracy and established the state on a more secure financial footing. Romanos was also able to effectively subdue revolts in several provinces of the empire, most notably in Chaldia, the Peloponnese, and Southern Italy. In Constantinople, he built his palace in the place called Myrelaion, near the Sea of Marmara. Beside it he built a shrine which became the first example of a private burial church of a Byzantine emperor. Moreover, he erected a chapel devoted to Christ Chalkites near the Chalke Gate, the monumental entrance to the Great Palace. End of the reign[edit] Romanos' later reign was marked by the old emperor's heightened interest in divine judgment and his increasing sense of guilt for his role in the usurpation of the throne from Constantine VII. On the death of Christopher, by far his most competent son, in 931, Romanos did not advance his younger sons in precedence over Constantine VII. Fearing that Romanos would allow Constantine VII to succeed him instead of them, his younger sons Stephen and Constantine arrested their father on 20[6] (or 16)[7] December 944, carried him off to the Prince's Islands and compelled him to become a monk. When they threatened the position of Constantine VII, however, the people of Constantinople revolted, and Stephen and Constantine were likewise stripped of their imperial rank and sent into exile to their father. Romanos died on 15 June 948,[6][8] and was buried as the other members of his family in the church of Myrelaion. Having lived long under constant threat of deposition—or worse—by the Lekapenoi family, Constantine VII was extremely resentful of them. In his De Administrando Imperio manual written for his son and successor, Romanus II, he minces no words about his late father-in-law: "the lord Romanus the Emperor was an idiot and an illiterate man, neither bred in the high imperial manner, nor following Roman custom from the beginning, nor of imperial or noble descent, and therefore the more rude and authoritarian in doing most things ... for his beliefs were uncouth, obstinate, ignorant of what is good, and unwilling to adhere to what is right and proper."[9] Family[edit] See also: Lekapenos By his marriage to Theodora (who died in 922), Romanos had six children, including: Christopher Lekapenos, co-emperor from 921 to 931, who was married to the Augusta Sophia and was the father of Maria (renamed Irene), who married Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria; Christopher's son Michael Lekapenos may have been associated as co-emperor by his grandfather. Stephen Lekapenos, co-emperor from 924 to 945, died 963. Constantine Lekapenos, co-emperor from 924 to 945, died 946. Theophylaktos Lekapenos, patriarch of Constantinople from 933 to 956. Helena Lekapene, who married Emperor Constantine VII. Agatha Lekapene, who married Romanos Argyros; their grandson was Emperor Romanos III. Romanos also had an illegitimate son, the eunuch Basil, who remained influential at court, particularly during the period 976–985. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ John H. Rosser (2011). Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Scarecrow Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8108-7567-8. ^ Hélène Ahrweiler, Angeliki E. Laiou (1998). Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-88402-247-3. ^ Runciman, p. 63 ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 59–62. ^ "Rus". Encyclopaedia of Islam ^ a b Bekker, Immanuel, ed. (1838) [9th-10th c.]. "Libri VI: Constantini Imperium". Theophanes Continuatus. pp. 436, 441. ^ Skylitzes, John (2010) [1057]. Synopsis of History. Translated by Wortley, John. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ^ Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 29. George Monachos gives the date as 15 July. ^ Jonathan Shepard (ed.). Cambridge History Byzantine Empire. p. 39. Sources[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Romanos I Lekapenos". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1806. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35722-5.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Romanus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 583–584. External links[edit] Media related to Romanus I at Wikimedia Commons World History Encyclopedia - Romanos I Romanos I Lekapenos Macedonian dynasty Born: c. 870 Died: 15 June 948 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine VII Byzantine emperor 920–944 with Constantine VII (913–959) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos (924–945) Constantine Lekapenos (924–945) Succeeded by Constantine VII v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2626	----	Saloninus - Wikipedia Saloninus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 260 This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (September 2019) Roman emperor Saloninus Antoninianus of Saloninus Roman emperor Augustus Caesar July (?) 260 (full emperor, briefly) 258 – 260 Predecessor Gallienus Successor Gallienus Born c. 242 Died 260 (aged 18) Colonia Agrippina Names Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Publius Cornelius Licinius Saloninus Valerianus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Dynasty Licinius Father Gallienus Mother Cornelia Salonina v t e Crisis of the Third Century Reign of Maximinus Thrax (235–238) Death of Alexander Severus (235) Usurpation of Magnus (c. 235) Usurpation of Quartinus (235) Year of the Six Emperors (238) Gordian Revolt (238) Carthage (238) Aquileia (238) Reign of Pupienus and Balbinus (238) Invasion of the Carpi (238–239) Reign of Gordian III (238–244) Sabinianus Revolt (240) Fall of Hatra (241) Resaena (243) Misiche (244) Reign of Philip the Arab (244–249) Invasion of the Carpi (245–247) Secular Games of 248 (248) Usurpation of Sponsianus (240s) Usurpation of Pacatianus (248) Usurpation of Jotapianus (249) Usurpation of Silbannacus (249 or 253) Decius' Rebellion (249) Verona (249) Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249–251) Plague of Cyprian (250–270) Decian persecution (250–251) Gothic invasion of Cniva (250–251) Carpi invasion of Dacia (250) Nicopolis ad Istrum (250) Beroe (250) Philippopolis (250) Usurpation of Titus Julius Priscus (251) Abritus (251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Death of Hostilian (251) Mariades' Revolt (252) Nisibis (252) Barbalissos (253) Interamna Nahars (c 253) Death of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus (253) Reign of Aemilianus (253) Antioch (253) Assassination of Aemilianus (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260) Thessalonica (254) Thermopylae (254) Dura-Europos (256) Gothic invasion (256–257) Invasion of Shapur (258) Invasion of the Alemanni (258–260 approx) Mediolanum (259) Scythian invasion (259–260) Edessa (260) Reign of Gallienus (260–268) Caesarea (260) Usurpation of Ingenuus (260) Usurpation of Regalianus (260) Usurpation of Macrianus Major (c. 259–261) Gallic Empire (260–274) Death of Saloninus (260) Roxolani Invasion of Pannonia (260) Campaigns of Odaenathus (260–267) Usurpation of Quietus (261) Usurpation of Balista (261) Usurpation of Valens Thessalonicus (261) Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (261) Usurpation of Macrianus Minor (261) Pannonian Rebellion (261) Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus (261–262) Postumus' Campaign against the Franks (262) Postumus' Campaign against the Alamanni (263) Ctesiphon (263) Scythian Invasion (265–266) Assassination of Odaenathus (267) Usurpation of Maeonius (266–267) Scythian Invasion (267–269) Heruli Raids (267) Athens (267) Usurpation of Manius Acilius Aureolus (268) Reign of Claudius II (268–270) Usurpation of Laelianus (269) Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marius (269) Augustodunum Haeduorum Naissus (268/269) Lake Benacus (268 or 269) Capture of Athens (269) Palmyrene Empire (270–273) Bostra (270) Palmyrene invasion of Egypt (270) Vandal Invasion (270) Reign of Aurelian (270–275) Usurpation of Victorinus Junior (271) Junthungi Invasion (271) Domitianus II (271) Tetricus I & Tetricus II (271–274) Rebellion of Felicissimus (270s) Placentia (271) Fano (271) Pavia (271) Tyana (272) Immae (272) Emesa (272) Razing of Palmyra (273) Usurpation of Faustinus (c. 273) Châlons (274) Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus (c. 242 – 260) was Roman Emperor in 260. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 3 Death 4 Family tree of Licinia gens 5 Notes Early life[edit] Saloninus was born around the year 242. His father was the later emperor Gallienus, his mother Cornelia Salonina, a Greek[2][3] from Bithynia. In 258 Saloninus was appointed Caesar by his father (just like his older brother Valerian II, who had died around 258) and sent to Gaul to make sure his father's authority was respected there (the title Caesar in Imperial nomenclature indicated that the holder was the Crown Prince and first in line of succession after the Augustus, the title reserved for the ruling Emperor). Like Valerian II, who was made the ward of Ingenuus, governor of the Illyrian provinces, Saloninus was put under the protection of the praetorian prefect Silvanus (otherwise named as Albanus).[4] As Caesar in Gaul, Saloninus had his main seat in Cologne. Reign[edit] Bray [5] conjectures that Saloninus's appointment as Caesar, like that of his elder brother, Valerian II, in Illyria, was made at the instigation of Valerian I who was, simultaneously, the senior Emperor (Augustus) and grandfather of the two young Caesars and, as head of the Licinius clan, exercised also the patria potestas[1] over all members of the Imperial family, including his son Gallienus, his co-Emperor (and co-Augustus). Bray suggests that Valerian's motive in making these appointments was securing the succession and establishing a lasting imperial dynasty. We do not know how Valerian envisaged his grandson interacting with the existing governors and military commanders of the Gallic provinces. There is no reason to suppose that he ever thought the thing through as systematically as Diocletian when he established the Tetrarchy some thirty years later. However, Silvanus must have been a seasoned soldier and administrator, and he does seem to have harboured the notion that, as guardian of Saloninus, he should exercise real authority in Gaul. This was demonstrated by the circumstances in which he fell out with the usurper Postumus. In 260 (probably in July) Silvanus (no doubt in Saloninus's name) ordered Postumus to hand over some booty that Postumus's troops had seized from a German warband which had been on its way home from a successful raid into Gaul. However, Postumus's men took violent exception to this attempt to enforce the rights of the representative of a distant emperor who was manifestly failing in his duty to protect the Gallic provinces. Asserting what was probably the prevailing custom of the frontier,[clarification needed] they turned on Saloninus and Silvanus, who had to then flee to Cologne with some loyal troops. It was probably at this time that Postumus was acclaimed emperor by his army. Riding the tiger of military discontent which he could barely control, Postumus then besieged Saloninus and Silvanus in Cologne. Death[edit] Gallienus, who was fully engaged elsewhere – probably campaigning on the middle Danube – could do nothing to save his son (by this time Saloninus's grandfather, the senior Emperor Valerian, was probably already a captive of the Persian King Shapur I). Saloninus's troops, in their desperation, finally proclaimed him emperor, perhaps hoping that this would induce Postumus's army to desert him and join them in a bid for Empire – i.e., against Valerian and Gallienus. If this was indeed their hope, they were to be disappointed in the event, for Postumus's army pressed on with the siege and, about one month later, the citizens of Colonia Agrippina handed Saloninus and his guardian over to their enemy. Postumus was then unable to prevent his army from murdering them. Despite his public protestations of regret, it seems in fact unlikely that Postumus made a serious effort to resist this course of events. Whether or not Gallienus ever concurred with Valerian's dynastic experiment is not known. Certainly the murder of Saloninus, so soon after the suspicious death of Valerian II, seems to have cured Gallienus of any ambition in this regard. We may assume that Valerian's mother, Salonina, would have been most unhappy: the death of her elder son, Valerian II, in Illyria under the tutelage of Ingenuus must have seemed to her to have confirmed her worst fears of this sort of arrangement. It had certainly proved to be folly to set up inexperienced boys as hostages to fortune and hope that their relationship to the imperial family would quell provincial resentment at the perceived inability of the central government to secure the frontiers from barbarian attack. Throughout the period of his sole reign, Gallienus made no effort to elevate his third son, Egnatius Marinianus, to the purple or associate him in any way with his government of the Empire – although he did allow him to be elected to the largely ceremonial office of Consul in 268. Family tree of Licinia gens[edit] Aulus Egnatius Priscillianus philosopher Quintus Egnatius Proculus consul suffectus Lucius Egnatius Victor Egnatius Victor Marinianus consul suffectus 1.Mariniana Valerian Roman Emperor 253-260 2.Cornelia Gallonia previous Aemilianus Roman Emperor 253 (1) Gallienus Roman Emperor 253-268 ∞ Cornelia Salonina (2) Valerianus Minor consul suffectus Claudius Gothicus Roman Emperor 268-270 Quintillus Roman Emperor 270 next Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 Valerian II caesar Saloninus co-emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus consul 268 Notes[edit] ^ His full title after he proclaimed himself Emperor was IMPERATOR CAESAR CORNELIVS LICINIVS SALONINVS VALERIANVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS, which means "Military commander Caesar Cornelius Licinius Saloninius Valerianus, Pious, Lucky, Undefeated, Augustus". ^ Lissner, Ivar (1958). The Caesars: might and madness. Putnam. p. 291. OCLC 403811. Gallienus' wife was a remarkably sensitive and cultured Greek woman named Cornelia Salonina who came from Bithynia ^ Bengtson, Hermann – Bloedow, Edmund Frederick (1988). History of Greece: from the beginnings to the Byzantine era. University of Ottawa Press. p. 344. ISBN 0-7766-0210-1. The Empress Salonina, a Greek from Bithynia, took an avid part in the philhellenic efforts of the emperor.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ For a discussion of whether Silvanus was in fact Praetorian Prefect see the relevant article. ^ Bray, John (1997). Gallienus: A study in reformist and sexual politics. Adelaide: Wakefield Press. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saloninus. Regnal titles Preceded by Gallienus Roman Emperor 260 Served alongside: Gallienus Succeeded by Gallienus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saloninus&oldid=1023528497" Categories: 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Murdered Roman emperors 242 births 260 deaths Cornelii Licinii Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia introduction cleanup from September 2019 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2019 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2009 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 May 2021, at 21:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2646	----	Stephen Lekapenos - Wikipedia Stephen Lekapenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 924 to 945 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Stephen Lekapenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miliaresion from 931–944, showing Romanos I's bust on a cross on the obverse and listing the names of Romanos and his co-emperors, Constantine VII, Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos on the reverse Byzantine emperor Reign 924–945 Co-emperors Constantine VII (920–944) Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Constantine Lekapenos (924–944) Died 963 Spouse Anna Gabala Issue Romanos Dynasty Lekapenos Father Romanos Lekapenos Mother Theodora Stephen Lekapenos or Lecapenus (Greek: Στέφανος Λακαπηνός, Stéphanos Lakapenós; died 18 April 963) was the second son of the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944), and co-emperor from 924 to 945. With his younger brother Constantine, he deposed Romanos I in December 944, but was overthrown and exiled by the legitimate emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) a few weeks later. Stephen lived out his life in exile on the island of Lesbos, where he died on Easter 963. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Family 1.2 Reign 1.3 Exile 2 References 3 Sources Biography[edit] Family[edit] Stephen was the second son of Romanos I and his wife Theodora. His older siblings were Christopher (co-emperor from 921 until his death in 931) and his sisters Helena, who married Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (r. 913–959), and Agatha, who married Romanos Argyros. His younger brothers were Constantine (co-emperor 924–945) and Theophylact (Patriarch of Constantinople in 933–956). He probably also had at least two unnamed younger sisters, known only because of their marriages to the magistroi Romanos Mosele and Romanos Saronites.[1][2] Reign[edit] Romanos Lekapenos had risen to power in 919, when he had managed to appoint himself regent over the young Constantine VII and marry his daughter Helena to him. Within a year, he successively rose from basileopator to Caesar, and was eventually crowned senior emperor on 17 December 920.[3][4] To consolidate his hold on power, and with a view of supplanting the ruling Macedonian dynasty with his own family, he raised his eldest son Christopher to co-emperor in May 921, while Stephen and Constantine were proclaimed co-emperors on 25 December 924.[4][5] Following Christopher's early death in 931, and given Constantine VII's de facto sidelining, Stephen and Constantine assumed an increased prominence, although formally they still ranked after their brother-in-law in the college of emperors. In 933, Stephen was married to Anna, the daughter of a certain Gabalas, who was crowned Augusta on the same occasion.[6] The couple had one known son, Romanos. According to the 11th-century chronicler George Kedrenos, he was castrated in 945, but later became a sebastophoros.[1][7] Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos came to the fore in 943, when they opposed a dynastic marriage for their nephew, Romanos II. Their father wanted to have his eldest surviving grandson married to Euphrosyne, a daughter of his successful general John Kourkouas. Although such a union would effectively cement the loyalty of the army, it would also strengthen the position of the legitimate Macedonian line, represented by Romanos II and his father Constantine VII, over the imperial claims of Romanos's own sons.[8] Predictably, Stephen and Constantine opposed this decision, and prevailed upon their father, who was by this time ill and old, to dismiss Kourkouas in the autumn of 944.[9][10] Romanos II instead married Bertha, an illegitimate daughter of Hugh of Arles, King of Italy, who changed her name to Eudokia after her marriage.[4][11] With Romanos I approaching the end of his life, the matter of his succession became urgent. In 943, Romanos drafted a will which would leave Constantine VII as the senior emperor following his death. This greatly upset his two sons, who feared that their brother-in-law would have them deposed and force them to take monastic vows. Motivated, in the opinion of Steven Runciman, partially by self-preservation and partially by genuine ambition, they started planning to seize power through a coup d'état, with Stephen apparently the ringleader and Constantine a rather reluctant partner.[12] Their fellow conspirators included Marianos Argyros, the protospatharios Basil Peteinos, Manuel Kourtikes, the strategos Diogenes, Clado, and Philip. Kedrenos, however, considers Peteinos to have served as an agent of Constantine VII among the conspirators. On 20 December 944, the conspirators set their plans in motion. The two brothers smuggled their supporters into the Great Palace of Constantinople during the midday break in palace activities. They then led their men into the chamber of Romanos I, where they easily captured the "ill old man". They were able to transport him to the nearest harbour and from there to Prote, one of the Princes' Islands and a popular place of exile. There, Romanos agreed to take monastic vows and retire from the throne.[13] Having managed to quietly depose their father, the brothers now had to deal with Constantine VII. Unfortunately for them, rumours soon spread around Constantinople to the effect that, following Romanos's deposition, Constantine VII's life was in danger. Before long, crowds gathered before the palace, demanding to see their emperor in person. The contemporary Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona notes that the ambassadors and envoys from Amalfi, Gaeta, Rome, and Provence present in the capital also supported Constantine VII. Stephen and his brother had to succumb to the inevitable, recognizing their brother-in-law as the senior emperor.[14] The new triumvirate lasted for about 40 days. The three emperors soon appointed new leaders for the military services. Bardas Phokas the Elder was appointed as the new Domestic of the Schools, and Constantine Gongyles as head of the Byzantine navy. Stephen and his brother managed to reward their fellow conspirators. Peteinos became patrikios and Great Hetaeriarch, Argyros was appointed Count of the Stable, Kourtikes a patrikios and droungarios of the Watch.[15] On 26 January 945, however, at the urging of their sister, the Augusta Helena, another coup removed the two Lekapenoi from power and restored the sole imperial authority to Constantine VII.[16][17] Exile[edit] Initially, the two brothers were sent to Prote. The Byzantine chroniclers have their father welcoming them by quoting a passage from the Book of Isaiah, specifically Chapter 1.2:[16] "Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth; for Jehovah hath spoken: I have nourished and brought up children, and they have rebelled against me."[18] Liutprand of Cremona, however, gives a slightly different account, having Romanos receive his sons with bitter sarcasm, thanking them for not neglecting him and begging them to excuse the monks for their ignorance on how to properly receive emperors. Soon, however, Stephen was moved on to a prison at Prokonnesos, and then to Rhodes, before finally settling in Methymna, Lesbos.[16] A plot by some members of the imperial government to restore him was discovered in December 947 and the conspirators mutilated and publicly humiliated. Stephen died at Methymna on Easter Sunday (18 April), 963.[7][19] John Skylitzes claims that Stephen was poisoned by order of the Empress Theophano as part of her efforts to protect the rights to the throne of her sons Basil II and Constantine VIII, by eliminating other possible claimants to the throne. It should, however, be noted that several deaths of the extended imperial family at the time are attributed to Theophano by hostile sources, usually by poison.[20] References[edit] ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 1204. ^ Cawley 2011, Romanos Lekapenos. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 59–62. ^ a b c Kazhdan 1991, p. 1806. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 64–67. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 78–79. ^ a b Cawley 2011, Stephanos Lekapenos. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 230–231; Treadgold 1997, pp. 484–485; Holmes 2005, pp. 131–132. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 146. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 485. ^ Cawley 2011, Romanos II. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 231–232. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 232. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 232–233. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 233. ^ a b c Runciman 1988, p. 234. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 486. ^ American Standard Version (1901), Book of Isaiah. ^ Runciman 1988, p. 236. ^ Garland 1999, p. 129. Sources[edit] Cawley, Charles (14 February 2011). "Medieval Lands Project: Byzantium 395–1057". Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Retrieved 20 February 2012. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. Holmes, Catherine (2005). Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976–1025). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927968-5. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35722-5. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Lekapenos&oldid=1027091225" Categories: 10th-century births 963 deaths Macedonian dynasty Armenian Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine emperors Lekapenos family Byzantine junior emperors Constantine VII Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-264	----	Apollonius of Chalcedon - Wikipedia Apollonius of Chalcedon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Apollonius (Ancient Greek: Απολλώνιος) of Chalcedon was an ancient Greek Stoic[1][full citation needed] who taught philosophy. He was invited by the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius to come to Rome, for the purpose of instructing his adoptive sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in philosophy.[2][3][4][5] Aurelius, within his Meditations, writes of Apollonius favourably.[6] Lucian writes of him: When Apollonius was appointed professor of philosophy in the Imperial household, Demonax witnessed his departure, attended by a great number of his pupils. 'Why, here is Apollonius with all his Argonauts,' he cried.[7] Apollonius was also possibly from Chalcis instead of Chalcedon, or, according to Cassius Dio, from Nicomedia.[8] Notes[edit] ^ Footnotes from page 144 of the Meditations by Marcus Aurelius, trans. Robin Hard (2011). ^ Augustan History, Antoninus Pius 10; Lucius Verus 2. ^ M. Antonin. de Rebus suis, 1.8 ^ Lucian, Demon. 31 ^ Johann Albert Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca iii. p. 539 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations: I.8 ^ Lucian, Demonax, 31 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 71.35  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Schmitz, Leonhard (1870). "Apollonius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 238. This biography of a philosopher from Ancient Greece is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollonius_of_Chalcedon&oldid=993246679" Categories: Ancient Greek philosophers 1st-century Greek people 2nd-century Greek people Roman-era Stoic philosophers European philosopher stubs Greek academic biography stubs Ancient Greek people stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from September 2018 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Estremeñu Français Italiano مصرى Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 16:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2653	----	John IV Laskaris - Wikipedia John IV Laskaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John IV Doukas Laskaris Ἰωάννης Δ΄ Δούκας Λάσκαρις Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of John IV (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor Reign 16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261 Predecessor Theodore II Laskaris Successor Michael VIII Palaiologos (Byzantine Empire) Born 25 December 1250 Died c. 1305 House Laskaris/Vatatzes Father Theodore II Laskaris Mother Elena of Bulgaria Religion Eastern Orthodoxy John IV Doukas Laskaris (or Ducas Lascaris) (Greek: Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις, Iōannēs Doukas Laskaris) (December 25, 1250 – c. 1305) was emperor of Nicaea from August 16, 1258, to December 25, 1261. This empire was one of the Greek states formed from the remaining fragments of the Eastern Roman Empire, after the capture of Constantinople by Roman Catholics during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Contents 1 Biography 2 Ancestry 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 Further reading Biography[edit] John was a son of Theodore II Doukas Laskaris and Elena of Bulgaria. His maternal grandparents were Emperor Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria and his second wife Anna Maria of Hungary. Anna was originally named Mária and was the eldest daughter of Andrew II of Hungary and Gertrude of Merania. John IV was only seven years old when he inherited the throne on the death of his father. The young monarch was the last member of the Laskarid dynasty, which had done much to restore the Byzantine Empire. His regent was originally the bureaucrat George Mouzalon, but Mouzalon was murdered by the nobility, and the nobles' leader Michael Palaiologos usurped the post. Soon, on January 1, 1259, Palaiologos made himself co-emperor as Michael VIII. Michael was, in fact, John's second cousin once removed, since they were both descended from Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. After Michael's conquest of Constantinople from the Latin Empire on July 25, 1261, John IV was left behind at Nicaea, and was later blinded on Michael's orders on his eleventh birthday, December 25, 1261.[1] This made him ineligible for the throne, and he was exiled and imprisoned in a fortress in Bithynia. This action led to the excommunication of Michael VIII Palaiologos by the Patriarch Arsenius Autoreianus, and a later revolt led by a Pseudo-John IV near Nicaea. John IV spent the remainder of his life as monk in Dacibyza,[2] under the name Joasaph.[3] There is a rescript of Charles of Anjou, dated 9 May 1273, which refers to a report that John escaped from his imprisonment and invites him to come to his court. Further documents attest to his arrival and receiving a pension from the Angevin arch-enemy of Michael Palaiologos. However, this contradicts the evidence of the historians George Pachymeres and Nikephoros Gregoras, who record that John remained in Dacbyza until long after Michael's death. In his study of Michael VIII's reign, historian Deno John Geanakoplos discusses the contradictory evidence and comes to the conclusion that the documents of Charles of Anjou were intended to serve as propaganda, "to attract the support of the legitimist, pro-Lascarid Greeks of the Byzantine Empire, as well as to sway the anti-Angevin sentiment of the still surviving Greek population of Charles' own territories of southern Italy and Sicily."[4] In 1290 John was visited by Michael VIII's son and successor Andronikos II Palaiologos, who sought forgiveness for his father's blinding three decades earlier. As Donald Nicol notes, "The occasion must have been embarrassing for both parties, but especial for Andronikos who, after all, was the beneficiary of his father's crimes against John Laskaris."[5] The deposed emperor died about 1305 and was eventually recognized as a saint, whose memory was revered in Constantinople in the 14th century. Ancestry[edit] 8. Basileios Vatatzes 4. John III Doukas Vatatzes 18. Isaakios Angelos 9. unknown Angelina 19. 2. Theodore II Laskaris 20. Manuel Laskaris 10. Theodore I Laskaris 21. Joanna Karatzaina 5. Eirene Laskarina 22. Alexios III Angelos 11. Anna Angelina 23. Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera 1. John IV Laskaris 12. Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria 6. Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria 13. Elena 3. Elena Asenina 28. Béla III of Hungary 14. Andrew II of Hungary 29. Agnes de Châtillon 7. Anna Maria of Hungary 30. Berthold IV, Duke of Merania 15. Gertrude of Merania 31. Agnes of Rochlitz See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Hackel 2001, p. 71 ^ Gharipour Mohammad. "Sacred Precincts: The Religious Architecture of Non-Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World" BRILL, 14 nov. 2014. ISBN 9004280227 p 147 ^ Donald M. Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), p. 246 ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West (Harvard University Press, 1959), pp. 217f ^ Donald M. Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), p. 99 Bibliography[edit] Geanakoplos, Deno John (1959). Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. OCLC 1011763434. Hackel, Sergei (2001). The Byzantine saint (2001 ed.). St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0-88141-202-3. - Total pages: 245 Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6. Further reading[edit] The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. John IV Laskaris Laskarid dynasty Born: 25 December 1250 Died: unknown 1305 Regnal titles Preceded by Theodore II Doukas Laskaris Emperor of Nicaea 1258–1261 with Michael VIII Palaiologos (1259–1261) Succeeded by Michael VIII Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_IV_Laskaris&oldid=1020192643" Categories: Emperors of Nicaea Laskarid dynasty Rulers deposed as children Medieval child rulers 13th-century Byzantine emperors 14th-century Byzantine people 1250 births 1305 deaths Greek Christian monks Eastern Orthodox monarchs Byzantine prisoners and detainees Michael VIII Palaiologos Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2021, at 18:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2659	----	Christians - Wikipedia Christians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search People who adhere to Christianity For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). Christians After the miraculous catch of fish, Christ invokes his disciples to become "fishers of men" (Matthew 4:19) by Raphael Total population c. 2.4 billion (worldwide, 2015)[1][2] Founder Jesus Christ Regions with significant populations  United States 246,790,000[2]  Brazil 175,770,000[2]  Mexico 107,780,000[2]  Russia 105,220,000[2]  Philippines 86,790,000[2]  Nigeria 80,510,000[2]  China 67,070,000[2]  DR Congo 63,150,000[2]  Germany 58,240,000[2]  Ethiopia 52,580,000[2] Religions Christianity 50% Catholicism: Latin Church, Eastern Catholic Churches[2] 37% Protestantism: Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism, Pentecostalism and other denominations[2] 12% Orthodoxy: Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Churches[2] 1% Other Christian traditions: incl. Assyrian Church of the East, Latter Day Saint movement, Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarianism and Nondenominational churches[2] Scriptures Bible (Old and New Testament) Languages Predominant spoken languages:[3] Spanish English Portuguese Russian Mandarin Chinese Italian French German Polish Ukrainian Filipino Igbo other vernacular languages of the Christian world and the World Sacred languages: Ecclesiastical Latin Koine Greek[4] Syriac Hebrew Aramaic Ge’ez Coptic Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic Old Georgian Classical Armenian[5] Christians (/ˈkrɪstʃən, -tiən/ (listen)) are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words Christ and Christian derive from the Koine Greek title Christós (Χριστός), a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach (מָשִׁיחַ) (usually rendered as messiah in English).[6] While there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict,[7][8] they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance.[7] The term "Christian" used as an adjective is descriptive of anything associated with Christianity or Christian churches, or in a proverbial sense "all that is noble, and good, and Christ-like."[9] It does not have a meaning of 'of Christ' or 'related or pertaining to Christ'. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, up from about 600 million in 1910.[2] Today, about 37% of all Christians live in the Americas, about 26% live in Europe, 24% live in sub-Saharan Africa, about 13% live in Asia and the Pacific, and 1% live in the Middle East and North Africa.[2] Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories.[2] 280 million Christians live as a minority. About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant (37%).[2] Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world's Christians.[2] Other Christian groups make up the remainder. By 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.[2] According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, Christianity will remain the world's largest religion in 2050, if current trends continue. Christians are the most persecuted religious group in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia.[10][11][12] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Early usage 2.1 Nazarenes 3 Modern usage 3.1 Definition 3.2 Hebrew terms 3.3 Arabic terms 3.4 Asian terms 3.5 Russian terms 3.6 Other non-religious usages 4 Demographics 4.1 Socioeconomics 5 Persecution 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography Etymology The Greek word Χριστιανός (Christianos), meaning "follower of Christ", comes from Χριστός (Christos), meaning "anointed one",[13] with an adjectival ending borrowed from Latin to denote adhering to, or even belonging to, as in slave ownership.[14] In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Mašíaḥ, messiah), meaning "[one who is] anointed."[15] In other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The abbreviations Xian and Xtian (and similarly-formed other parts of speech) have been used since at least the 17th century: Oxford English Dictionary shows a 1634 use of Xtianity and Xian is seen in a 1634–38 diary.[16][17] The word Xmas uses a similar contraction. Early usage The Church of Saint Peter near Antioch (modern-day Antakya), the city where the disciples were called "Christians". The first recorded use of the term (or its cognates in other languages) is in the New Testament, in Acts 11 after Barnabas brought Saul (Paul) to Antioch where they taught the disciples for about a year, the text says: "[...] the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch." (Acts 11:26). The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, "Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." (Acts 26:28). The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4, which exhorts believers: "Yet if [any man suffer] as a Christian, let him not be ashamed; but let him glorify God on this behalf." (1 Peter 4:16). Kenneth Samuel Wuest holds that all three original New Testament verses' usages reflect a derisive element in the term Christian to refer to followers of Christ who did not acknowledge the emperor of Rome.[18] The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames.[19] However Peter's apparent endorsement of the term led to its being preferred over "Nazarenes" and the term Christianoi from 1 Peter becomes the standard term in the Early Church Fathers from Ignatius and Polycarp onwards.[20] The earliest occurrences of the term in non-Christian literature include Josephus, referring to "the tribe of Christians, so named from him;"[21] Pliny the Younger in correspondence with Trajan; and Tacitus, writing near the end of the 1st century. In the Annals he relates that "by vulgar appellation [they were] commonly called Christians"[22] and identifies Christians as Nero's scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome.[23] Nazarenes Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is "Nazarenes". Jesus is named as a Nazarene in Matthew 2:23, while Paul is said to be Nazarene in Acts 24:5. The latter verse makes it clear that Nazarene also referred to the name of a sect or heresy, as well as the town called Nazareth.[citation needed] The term Nazarene was also used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus (Against Marcion 4:8) which records that "the Jews call us Nazarenes." While around 331 AD Eusebius records that Christ was called a Nazoraean from the name Nazareth, and that in earlier centuries "Christians" were once called "Nazarenes".[24] The Hebrew equivalent of "Nazarenes", Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. Modern usage The Latin cross and Ichthys symbols, two symbols often used by Christians to represent their religion Definition A wide range of beliefs and practices are found across the world among those who call themselves Christian. Denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of "Christianity". For example, Timothy Beal notes the disparity of beliefs among those who identify as Christians in the United States as follows: Although all of them have their historical roots in Christian theology and tradition, and although most would identify themselves as Christian, many would not identify others within the larger category as Christian. Most Baptists and fundamentalists (Christian Fundamentalism), for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian. In fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity.[25] Linda Woodhead attempts to provide a common belief thread for Christians by noting that "Whatever else they might disagree about, Christians are at least united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance."[7] Michael Martin evaluated three historical Christian creeds (the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed and the Athanasian Creed) to establish a set of basic Christian assumptions which include belief in theism, the historicity of Jesus, the Incarnation, salvation through faith in Jesus, and Jesus as an ethical role model.[26] Hebrew terms Nazareth is described as the childhood home of Jesus. Many languages employ the word "Nazarene" as a general designation for those of Christian faith. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism. The term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוֹצְרִי (Notzri—"Nazarene"), a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel.[27] Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מְשִׁיחִיִּים (Yehudim Meshihi'im—"Messianic Jews"). Arabic terms In Arabic-speaking cultures, two words are commonly used for Christians: Naṣrānī (نصراني), plural Naṣārā (نصارى) is generally understood to be derived from Nazarenes, believers of Jesus of Nazareth through Syriac (Aramaic); Masīḥī (مسيحي) means followers of the Messiah.[28] Where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus.[29] In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners.[30] Another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī (صليبي "Crusader") from ṣalīb (صليب "cross"), which refers to Crusaders and may have negative connotations.[28][31] However, Ṣalībī is a modern term; historically, Muslim writers described European Christian Crusaders as al-Faranj or Alfranj (الفرنج) and Firinjīyah (الفرنجيّة) in Arabic.[32] This word comes from the name of the Franks and can be seen in the Arab history text Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh by Ali ibn al-Athir.[33][34] Asian terms The most common Persian word is Masīhī (مسیحی), from Arabic. Other words are Nasrānī (نصرانی), from Syriac for "Nazarene", and Tarsā (ترسا), from Middle Persian word Tarsāg, also meaning "Christian", derived from tars, meaning "fear, respect".[35] An old Kurdish word for Christian frequently in usage was felle (فەڵە), coming from the root word meaning "to be saved" or "attain salvation".[36] The Syriac term Nasrani (Nazarene) has also been attached to the Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India. In the Indian subcontinent, Christians call themselves Isaai (Hindi: ईसाई, Urdu: عیسائی‎), and are also known by this term to adherents of other religions.[37] This is related to the name they call Jesus, 'Isa Masih, and literally means 'the followers of 'Isa'. In the past, the Malays used to call the Portuguese Serani from the Arabic Nasrani, but the term now refers to the modern Kristang creoles of Malaysia. In Indonesian language, the term "Nasrani" is also used alongside "Kristen". The Chinese word is 基督徒 (pinyin: jīdū tú), literally "Christ follower." The two characters now pronounced Jīdū in Mandarin Chinese were originally used phonetically to represent the name of Christ. In Vietnam, the same two characters read Cơ đốc, and a "follower of Christianity" is a tín đồ Cơ đốc giáo. Japanese Christians ("Kurisuchan") in Portuguese costume, 16–17th century In Japan, the term kirishitan (written in Edo period documents 吉利支丹, 切支丹, and in modern Japanese histories as キリシタン), from Portuguese cristão, referred to Roman Catholics in the 16th and 17th centuries before the religion was banned by the Tokugawa shogunate. Today, Christians are referred to in Standard Japanese as キリスト教徒, Kirisuto-kyōto or the English-derived term クリスチャン kurisuchan. Korean still uses 기독교도, Kidok-kyo-do for "Christian", though the Greek form Kurisudo 그리스도 has now replaced the old Sino-Korean Kidok, which refers to Christ himself. In Thailand, the most common terms are คนคริสต์ (khon khrit) or ชาวคริสต์ (chao khrit) which literally means "Christ person/people" or "Jesus person/people." The Thai word คริสต์ (khrit) is derived from "Christ." Russian terms The region of modern Eastern Europe and Central Eurasia (Russia, Ukraine and other countries of the former Soviet bloc) has a long history of Christianity and Christian communities on its lands. In ancient times, in the first centuries after the birth of Christ, when this region was called Scythia, the geographical area of Scythians - Christians already lived there.[38] Later the region saw the first states to adopt Christianity officially - initially Armenia (301 AD) and Georgia (337 AD), later Bulgaria (c. 864) and the Great Russian Principality (Kyivan Rus, Russian: Великое княжество Русское, c. 988 AD). In some areas, people came to denote themselves as Christians (Russian: христиане, крестьяне) and as Russians (Russian: русские). In time the Russian term "крестьяне" (khrest'yanye) acquired the meaning "peasants of Christian faith" and later "peasants" (the main part of the population of the region), while the term "христиане" (khristianye) retained its religious meaning and the term "русские" (russkiye) began to mean representatives of the heterogeneous Russian nation formed on the basis of common Christian faith and language,[citation needed] which strongly influenced the history and development of the region. In the region the term "Pravoslav faith" (Russian: православная вера - Orthodox faith) or "Russian faith" (Russian: русская вера) from earliest times became almost as known as the original "Christian faith" (христианская, крестьянская вера).[citation needed] Also in some contexts the term "cossack" (Russian: козак, казак) was used[by whom?] to denote "free" Christians of steppe origin and Russian language. Other non-religious usages Nominally "Christian" societies made "Christian" a default label for citizenship or for "people like us".[39] In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" loosely as a shorthand term for mainstream members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a thoroughly secular (though formerly Christian) society.[40] Demographics For a detailed breakdown of Christian demographics, see Christianity by country. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.4 billion adherents.[41][42][43] The faith represents about a third of the world's population and is the largest religion in the world. Christians have composed about 33 percent of the world's population for around 100 years. The largest Christian denomination is the Roman Catholic Church, with 1.3 billion adherents, representing half of all Christians.[44] Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western World, where 70% are Christians.[2] According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, if current trends continue, Christianity will remain the world's largest religion by the year 2050. By 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. While Muslims have an average of 3.1 children per woman—the highest rate of all religious groups—Christians are second, with 2.7 children per woman. High birth rates and conversion were cited as the reason for Christian population growth. A 2015 study found that approximately 10.2 million Muslims converted to Christianity.[45] Christianity is growing in Africa,[46][47] Asia,[47][48] the Muslim world,[49] and Oceania. Percentage of Christians worldwide, June 2014 Christians (self-described) by region (Pew Research Center, 2011)[50][51][52] Region Christians % Christian Europe 558,260,000 75.2 Latin America–Caribbean 531,280,000 90.0 Sub-Saharan Africa 517,340,000 62.9 Asia Pacific 286,950,000 7.1 North America 266,630,000 77.4 Middle East–North Africa 12,710,000 3.7 World 2,173,180,000 31.5 Socioeconomics According to a study from 2015, Christians hold the largest amount of wealth (55% of the total world wealth), followed by Muslims (5.8%), Hindus (3.3%) and Jews (1.1%). According to the same study it was found that adherents under the classification Irreligion or other religions hold about 34.8% of the total global wealth.[53] A study done by the nonpartisan wealth research firm New World Wealth found that 56.2% of the 13.1 million millionaires in the world were Christians.[54] A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that Christians ranked as the second most educated religious group around in the world after Jews with an average of 9.3 years of schooling,[55] and the highest numbers of years of schooling among Christians were found in Germany (13.6),[55] New Zealand (13.5)[55] and Estonia (13.1).[55] Christians were also found to have the second highest number of graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita while in absolute numbers ranked in the first place (220 million).[55] Between the various Christian communities, Singapore outranks other nations in terms of Christians who obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education (67%),[55] followed by the Christians of Israel (63%),[56] and the Christians of Georgia (57%).[55] According to the study, Christians in North America, Europe, Middle East, North Africa and Asia Pacific regions are highly educated since many of the world's universities were built by the historic Christian denominations,[55] in addition to the historical evidence that "Christian monks built libraries and, in the days before printing presses, preserved important earlier writings produced in Latin, Greek and Arabic".[55] According to the same study, Christians have a significant amount of gender equality in educational attainment,[55] and the study suggests that one of the reasons is the encouragement of the Protestant Reformers in promoting the education of women, which led to the eradication of illiteracy among females in Protestant communities.[55] Persecution Main article: Persecution of Christians Christians are the most persecuted religious group in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia.[citation needed] In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution"[57] with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.[58][59] In 2019, a report[60][61] commissioned by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America,[clarification needed] among others,[11] and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.[61] This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.[12] See also Christianity portal Christendom Conversion to Christianity Cultural Christian Early Christianity List of Christian denominations List of Christian denominations by number of members List of Christian synonyms List of religions and spiritual traditions List of religious organizations Lists of Christians References ^ "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012. ^ Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography (PDF). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2015. ^ A history of ancient Greek by Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Centre for the Greek Language (Thessalonikē, Greece) pg 436 ISBN 0-521-83307-8 ^ Wilken, Robert Louis (27 November 2012). The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1. ^ Bickerman (1949) p. 145, The Christians got their appellation from "Christus," that is, "the Anointed," the Messiah. ^ a b c Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. n.p. ^ Beal, Timothy (2008). Religion in America: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 35, 39. Beal states that, "Although all of them have their historical roots in Christian theology and tradition, and although most would identify themselves as Christian, many would not identify others within the larger category as Christian. Most Baptists and Fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian. In fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity." ^ Schaff, Philip. "V. St. Paul and the Conversion of the Gentiles (Note 496)". History of the Christian Church. ^ "Christian persecution 'at near genocide levels'". BBC News. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ a b Kay, Barbara. "Our politicians may not care, but Christians are under siege across the world". National Post. 8 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ a b Wintour, Patrick. "Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide' in Middle East - report". The Guardian. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ Christ at Etymology Online ^ Bickerman, 1949 p. 147, All these Greek terms, formed with the Latin suffix -ianus, exactly as the Latin words of the same derivation, express the idea that the men or things referred to, belong to the person to whose name the suffix is added. p. 145, In Latin this suffix produced proper names of the type Marcianus and, on the other hand, derivatives from the name of a person, which referred to his belongings, like fundus Narcissianus, or, by extension, to his adherents, Ciceroniani. ^ Messiah at Etymology Online ^ "X, n. 10". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2019. ^ Rogers, Samuel (2004). Webster, Tom; Shipps, Kenneth W. (eds.). The Diary of Samuel Rogers, 1634-1638. Boydell Press. p. 4. ISBN 9781843830436. Retrieved 8 January 2019. Throughout his diary, Rogers abbreviates 'Christ' to 'X' and the same is true of 'Christian' ('Xian'), 'Antichrist' ('AntiX') and related words. ^ #Wuest-1973 p. 19. The word is used three times in the New Testament, and each time as a term of reproach or derision. Here in Antioch, the name Christianos was coined to distinguish the worshippers of the Christ from the Kaisarianos, the worshippers of Caesar. ^ #Wuest-1973 p. 19. The city of Antioch in Syria had a reputation for coining nicknames. ^ Christine Trevett Christian women and the time of the Apostolic Fathers 2006 "'Christians' (christianoi) was a term first coined in Syrian Antioch (Acts 11:26) and which appeared next in Christian sources in Ignatius, Eph 11.2; Rom 3.2; Pol 7.3. Cf. too Did 12.4; MPol 3.1; 10.1; 12.1-2; EpDiog 1.1; 4.6; 5.1;" ^ Josephus. "Antiquities of the Jews — XVIII, 3:3". ^ Tacitus, Cornelius; Murphy, Arthur (1836). The works of Cornelius Tacitus: with an essay on his life and genius, notes, supplements, &c. Thomas Wardle. p. 287. ^ Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1988). The Book of the Acts. Eerdmans. p. 228. ISBN 0-8028-2505-2. ^ Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies: Volume 65, Issue 1 University of London. School of Oriental and African Studies - 2002 "... around 331, Eusebius says of the place name Nazareth that 'from this name the Christ was called a Nazoraean, and in ancient times we, who are now called Christians, were once called Nazarenes';6 thus he attributes this designation ..." ^ Beal, Timothy (2008). Religion in America: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 35. ^ Martin, Michael (1993). The Case Against Christianity. Temple University Press. p. 12. ISBN 1-56639-081-8. ^ Nazarene at Etymology Online ^ a b Society for Internet Research, The Hamas Charter, note 62 (erroneously, "salidi"). ^ Jeffrey Tayler, Trekking through the Moroccan Sahara. ^ "Nasara". Mazyan Bizaf Show. Archived from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2015. ^ Akbar S. Ahmed, Islam, Globalization, and Postmodernity, p 110. ^ Rashid al-din Fazl Allâh, quoted in Karl Jahn (ed.) Histoire Universelle de Rasid al-Din Fadl Allah Abul=Khair: I. Histoire des Francs (Texte Persan avec traduction et annotations), Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1951. (Source: M. Ashtiany) ^ سنة ٤٩١ - "ذكر ملك الفرنج مدينة أنطاكية" في الكامل في التاريخ ^ "Account of al-Faranj seizing Antioch" Year 491AH, The Complete History ^ MacKenzie, D. N. (1986). A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-713559-5 ^ Hazhar Mukriyani, (1990) Hanbanaborina Kurdish-Persian Dictionary Tehran, Soroush press p.527. ^ "Catholic priest in saffron robe called 'Isai Baba'". The Indian Express. 24 December 2008. Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. ^ Вселенские Соборы читать, скачать - профессор Антон Владимирович Карташёв ^ Compare: Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (1957). "Christian". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2005). p. 336. ISBN 9780192802903. Retrieved 5 December 2016. In modern times the name Christian [...] has tended, in nominally Christian countries, to lose any credal significance and imply only that which is ethically praiseworthy (e.g. 'a Christian action') or socially customary ('Christian name'). ^ Compare: Sandmel, Samuel (1967). We Jews and You Christians: An Inquiry Into Attitudes. Lippincott. Retrieved 6 December 2016. ^ 33.39% of 7.174 billion world population (under "People and Society") "World". CIA world facts. ^ "The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions". foreignpolicy.com. March 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ "Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ Pontifical Yearbook 2010, Catholic News Agency. Accessed 22 September 2011. ^ Johnstone, Patrick; Miller, Duane Alexander (2015). "Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 11: 8. Retrieved 30 October 2015. ^ "Study: Christianity growth soars in Africa – USATODAY.com". USATODAY.COM. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2015. ^ a b Ostling, Richard N. (24 June 2001). "The Battle for Latin America's Soul". TIME.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015. ^ "In China, Protestantism's Simplicity Yields More Converts Than Catholicism". International Business Times. 28 March 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2015. ^ Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census ^ ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). "Europe". Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012. ^ ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). "Americas". Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012. ^ ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). "Global religious landscape: Christians". Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012. ^ "Christians hold largest percentage of global wealth: Report". deccanherald.com. 14 January 2015. ^ The religion of millionaires ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Religion and Education Around the World" (PDF). Pew Research Center. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2016. ^ "المسيحيون العرب يتفوقون على يهود إسرائيل في التعليم". Bokra. Retrieved 28 December 2011. ^ Weber, Jeremy. "'Worst year yet’: the top 50 countries where it’s hardest to be a Christian". Christianity Today. 11 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ Enos, Olivia. "North Korea is the world's worst persecutor of Christians". Forbes. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ Worldwatchlist2020, Most dangerous countries for Christians. "Serving Persecuted Christians - Open Doors USA". www.opendoorsusa.org. Retrieved 24 March 2020. ^ Mounstephen, Philip. "Interim report". Bishop of Truro’s Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. ^ a b Mounstephen, Philip. "Final Report and Recommendations". Bishop of Truro’s Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians. July 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. Bibliography Etymology Bickerman, Elias J. (April 1949). "The Name of Christians". The Harvard Theological Review. 42 (2): 109–124. doi:10.1017/s0017816000019635. JSTOR 1507955. (from which page numbers are cited) also available in Bickerman, Elias J. (1986). Studies in Jewish and Christian history. 2. pp. 794–808. ISBN 90-04-04395-0. Wuest, Kenneth Samuel (1973). Wuest's word studies from the Greek New Testament. 1. ISBN 978-0-8028-2280-2. v t e Christianity Index Outline Glossary Lists of Christians By country Bible Canon Old Testament New Testament Foundations Church Creed Gospel New Covenant Christian tradition Worship History (timeline) Early Christianity Jesus Nativity Baptism Ministry Sermon on the Mount Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Apostles Church fathers Apostolic fathers Great Church Ante-Nicene period Late antiquity Constantine First seven ecumenical councils Nicaea I Chalcedon State church of the Roman Empire Biblical canon Middle Ages Monasticism Papal States East–West Schism Investiture Controversy Crusades Age of Discovery Modern era Protestant Reformation Catholic Reformation Thirty Years' War Enlightenment French Revolution Persecution: Communism Islam Denominations (list) Western Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Catholic Charismatic Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Pentecostal Protestant Quakers Eastern Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) Church of the East (Nestorian) Eastern Catholic Restorationist Jehovah's Witnesses Latter Day Saint movement Iglesia ni Cristo Theology God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Christology Nicene Creed Tradition Original sin Salvation Born again Worship Mariology Theotokos Saints Ecclesiology Four marks Body of Christ One true church People of God Canon law Sacraments Baptism Lord's Supper Marriage Confirmation Penance Anointing of the Sick Holy orders Mission Ablution Hygiene Philosophy Natural law Ethics Science Evolution Politics Views on poverty and wealth Other Features Culture Architecture Architecture of cathedrals and great churches Art Jesus Mary Literature Music Mythology Church buildings Cathedrals Role in civilization See also: Other religions Cultural Christians Criticism Persecution Movements Asceticism Charismatic Christian democracy Environmentalism Existentialism Fundamentalism Crusading Liberation Left/Right Pacifism Prosperity Cooperation Christendom Ecumenism Charta Oecumenica World Council of Churches World Evangelical Alliance Nondenominationalism  Christianity portal Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries Spain France (data) United States Latvia Japan Other National Archives (US) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christians&oldid=1025933108" Categories: Christians Christian terminology New Testament Greek words and phrases Religious identity Hidden categories: Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles with hAudio microformats Pages including recorded pronunciations Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Hindi-language text Articles containing Urdu-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Akan Alemannisch العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gàidhlig ГӀалгӀай 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Лезги Li Niha Lingála Македонски Malagasy मराठी ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norfuk / Pitkern Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ ತುಳು Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2021, at 12:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2663	----	Avidia (mother of Lucius Verus) - Wikipedia Avidia (mother of Lucius Verus) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman noblewoman This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Anonymous. Portrait of Avidia. Ca. 136-138. New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Art Gallery. Avidia (flourished 2nd century) was a well-connected noble Roman woman. She is among the lesser known members of the ruling Nerva–Antonine dynasty of the Roman Empire. Contents 1 Biography 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 Sources 4 External links Biography[edit] Avidia was the daughter of the well-connected Roman Senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and his first wife, whose name is unknown. It is thought that Plautia was her stepmother. The Avidia was born and raised in Faventia (modern Faenza, Italy). Her family was distinguished, wealthy and well-connected. Her family were friends of the Greek historian Plutarch, Roman Senator Pliny the Younger, Roman Emperor Trajan and his family. Her family had strong links to Greece, as her paternal grandfather Gaius Avidius Nigrinus had served at an unknown date during the reign of Roman Emperor Domitian (81-96) as Proconsul of Achaea, a position in which her great uncle Titus Avidius Quietus had also served. Her family may have been related to the consul Gaius Petronius Pontius Nigrinus, who had served his consulship at the time that the Roman Emperor Tiberius had died in 37. Avidia's father was executed in 118 on orders from the Roman Senate, because he was one of four senators involved in a failed plot to overthrow the Roman Emperor Hadrian. Sometime after her father's execution, her mother or stepmother may have married another Roman senator. Before 130 Avidia married the powerful Roman Senator Lucius Aelius Caesar. Aelius was adopted by Roman Emperor Hadrian in 136 as his first heir. Avidia bore Aelius two sons and two daughters who were: Lucius Verus – born as Lucius Ceionius Commodus. He would rule as co-Roman Emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 161 until his death in 169. Lucius Verus would marry Lucilla, the second daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus – he is known from an inscription found in Rome. Ceionia Fabia – she was 136 engaged to Marcus Aurelius. In 138, when Marcus Aurelius was adopted by Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, Aurelius ended his engagement to Fabia. Aurelius became engaged to Antoninus Pius’ daughter Faustina the Younger, whom he later married. Ceionia Plautia In early 138, Aelius died, and Hadrian had adopted Antoninus Pius as his second son and heir. Antoninus was obliged to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in turn. If Aelius had lived long enough to succeed Hadrian and rule as emperor, Avidia could have been an Empress of Rome. It is unknown whether Avidia remarried after the death of Aelius. Three existing portrait busts have been identified as Avidia because of physical similarities to the portrait busts of her son Lucius Verus. These busts have been dated to 136-138, when Aelius was the first adopted heir of Hadrian. When her son reigned as co-Roman Emperor with Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus dedicated two honorific inscriptions to his mother. These inscriptions have been found in Rome. The inscriptions honor her as the daughter of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and the mother of Roman Emperor Lucius Verus. It is unknown whether Avidia lived long enough to see her son co-rule as emperor. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Antonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi by Guido Migliorati, 2003 – Italian Historical Secondary Source The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11 By Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone Limited preview - Edition: 2 - Item notes: v. 11 – 2000 Plutarch's Sertorius: A Historical Commentary. C. Konrad Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994 Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000 A dictionary of the Roman Empire By Matthew Bunson – 1995 http://www.roman-emperors.org/lverus.htm http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=2762. https://web.archive.org/web/20110720122702/http://ecatalogue.art.yale.edu/detail.htm?objectId=7368 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aelius*.html#2.8 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Lucius_Verus*.html External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Avidia. Bust of Avidia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avidia_(mother_of_Lucius_Verus)&oldid=1011147853" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women Avidii Nerva–Antonine dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Français مصرى Português Edit links This page was last edited on 9 March 2021, at 08:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2670	----	Stoic Opposition - Wikipedia Stoic Opposition From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st-century Roman Stoic philosophers opposed to the autocratic rule of certain emperors Quaestor Reading the Death Sentence to Senator Thrasea Paetus, by Fyodor Bronnikov, Radischev Art Museum The Stoic Opposition is the name given to a group of Stoic philosophers who actively opposed the autocratic rule of certain emperors in the 1st-century, particularly Nero and Domitian. Most prominent among them was Thrasea Paetus, an influential Roman senator executed by Nero. They were held in high regard by the later Stoics Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. Thrasea, Rubellius Plautus and Barea Soranus were reputedly students of the famous Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus and as all three were executed by Nero they became known collectively as the 'Stoic Martyrs'.[1] Contents 1 Concept 2 History 2.1 Precursors 2.2 Under Nero 2.3 Under Vespasian 2.4 Under Domitian 3 Later influence 4 References Concept[edit] The concept of a "Stoic opposition" dates back to the 19th century and the work of Gaston Boissier.[2] He proposed the theory that the opposition to the emperors in the 1st century was predominantly led by Stoics who opposed the arbitrary use of power in favour of a coherent philosophical rule.[2] The opposition began under Nero, and continued under the Flavian emperors, primarily Vespasian and Domitian, provoking the trials of Stoic senators and the expulsions of philosophers from Rome.[3] This idea was elaborated upon and extended in the 20th century by writers drawing on the textual evidence showing how Stoic doctrines were regarded as politically suspicious throughout this period.[3] In recent years this idea of a coherent Stoic opposition has been criticized.[4] It has been noted that surviving Stoic texts say relatively little about political theory, beyond the desire for a well-run state.[4] Many of the figures named in the Stoic opposition were part of the Senatorial class who were vulnerable to imperial authority, and desired the restoration of their own power and privilege.[2] Many people were undoubtedly persecuted for whom there is little or no evidence for an adherence to Stoicism.[3] Against these views it has been noted that the Stoics emphasized morally correct behaviour (virtue) as the only true good; whereas any form of morally deplorable behaviour was considered the only true evil.[5] Stoic doctrine favoured an active engagement in political life,[6] and certainly acted as support for political opponents during the period.[4] History[edit] Precursors[edit] In the 1st century BC the Stoic senator Cato the Younger had opposed Julius Caesar in the civil war of 49-45 BC.[5] Following his defeat at the Battle of Thapsus, Cato chose to commit suicide rather than submit to life under Caesar's rule.[6] Cato would become eulogised by the prominent Stoics who came after him as a symbol opposed to autocratic rule.[6] For Seneca he was an official Stoic role-model whose martyrdom was reminiscent of Socrates' death.[6] Similarly he was represented as the one consistent hero figure in Lucan's De Bello Civili.[5] Under Nero[edit] The first of the Stoics to fall victim under Nero was Rubellius Plautus, a distant cousin of the emperor. As a potential rival to the increasingly paranoid emperor, Nero exiled him to Asia Minor in 60 AD.[7] He was accompanied into exile by the Stoic philosopher Musonius Rufus.[7] Two years later the Praetorian prefect, Tigellinus, frightened Nero with the accusation that Plautus "had the arrogance of the Stoics, who breed sedition and intrigue".[8] Under the advice of Musonius, Plautus chose to await death rather than flee into a precarious life, and a centurion sent from Rome assassinated him as he stripped for his routine noon exercise.[7] In 65 AD one of Nero's secretaries named Epaphroditos, the owner of Epictetus, reported the Pisonian conspiracy to Nero, and was greatly rewarded for doing so. The aftermath saw Seneca and his nephew Lucan both separately forced to commit suicide.[9] Musonius Rufus, who had returned to Rome following the death of Plautus, was once again exiled, apparently for his fame as teacher of philosophy.[7] This time he was exiled to the island of Gyarus, where he worked the soil with the students who had accompanied him into exile.[7] Around 66 AD, Thrasea Paetus, an influential Roman senator and like Plautus a friend and follower of Musonius Rufus, was placed on trial for treason. Thrasea's crime was a campaign of abstention which included: general non-attendance at the Roman Senate; non-participation in the senatorial oath to the Emperor at the beginning of each year; evading the priestly oath for the emperor, even while holding a priesthood; absenting himself from the vote of divine honours to Poppaea, nor attending her funeral; and never offering a sacrifice for the welfare of the emperor.[3] According to Tacitus, Nero's hostility to Thrasea was stirred-up by Cossutianus Capito who specifically attacked Thrasea because he was a Stoic, a sect hostile to autocracy and which openly disapproved of the Emperor's conduct: Either let us pass over to his creed, if it is the better, or let these seekers after a new world lose their chief and their instigator. It is the sect that ... subverts the empire, they make a parade of liberty: the empire overthrown, they will lay hands on liberty itself. You have removed Cassius to little purpose, if you intend to allow these rivals of the Bruti to multiply and flourish! — Cossutianus Capito, quoted in Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 22 Thrasea was sentenced to death.[3] His friend Arulenus Rusticus was Tribune of the plebs at this time and offered to place his veto upon the senatus consultum, but Thrasea prevented him as he would only have brought certain destruction upon himself without saving Thrasea.[10] Thrasea's son-in-law Helvidius Priscus, and his friend Paconius Agrippinus, were put on trial at the same time as Thrasea; both men were prominent Stoics and both were sentenced to exile.[3] Agrippinus was later praised by Epictetus for the imperturbility in which he accepted his sentence.[3][11] Another Stoic follower of Musonius Rufus, Barea Soranus (a distant relative of later Emperor Marcus Aurelius), was also put on trial in 65 or 66. He was charged with friendship with Rubellius Plautus and with popularity hunting whilst proconsul of Asia with an intent of stirring revolt.[4] His daughter, Servilia, was also accused of having consulted a sorcerer (magi) and was tried together with her father.[4] Both were condemned to death (in 65 or 66), and allowed to commit suicide.[4] Publius Egnatius Celer was the Stoic teacher, who taught and then was paid off to make false accusations against Barea Soranus. He was later accused by Musonius Rufus, the teacher of Epictetus, whom scholars believe to be alluding to the incident in this passage: Thus a friend is overpowered by the testimony of a philosopher: thus a philosopher becomes a parasite; thus he lets himself for hire for money: thus in the senate a man does not say what he thinks; in private (in the school) he proclaims his opinions.[12] Under Vespasian[edit] During the reign of Vespasian the philosophical schools, and the Stoics in particular, were still seen as a political threat.[13] One of his first acts (in 71 or 72) was to banish philosophers from the city of Rome.[13] Musonius Rufus was allowed to remain at first, because he was so highly regarded, but was later banished as well,[13] sometime around 75 AD.[7] Musonius travelled to Syria, returning to Rome only after Vespasian's death in 79 AD.[7] Although Vespasian tried to present himself as a merciful ruler, he faced opposition from Helvidius Priscus who opposed imperial power, denounced kingship and hereditary succession, and was a fierce proponent of senatorial rights.[14] Helvidius was eventually executed by Vespasian.[14] Epictetus praised Priscus for defying Vespasian's order that he should not go into the Senate.[15] Under Domitian[edit] In 93 AD seven people were brought to trial for insulting the emperor Domitian. Three were put to death, Arulenus Rusticus, Herennius Senecio, and Helvidius Priscus (son of the elder Helvidius Priscus).[16] Although he was appointed suffect consul just a year earlier, Arulenus Rusticus was executed because he had written a panegyric in praise of Thrasea.[17] When I was once lecturing in Rome, that famous Rusticus, whom Domitian later killed through envy at his repute, was among my hearers, and a soldier came through the audience and delivered to him a letter from the emperor. There was a silence and I, too, made a pause, that he might read his letter; but he refused and did not break the seal until I had finished my lecture and the audience had dispersed. Because of this incident everyone admired the dignity of the man. [18] Likewise Priscus' widow, Fannia, the daughter of Thrasea, requested that Herennius Senecio compose a panegyric in praise of her deceased husband, using copies of his diaries that she possessed. This led to the execution of Senecio and the exile of Fannia.[17] Helvidius the younger, on the other hand, wrote a play about Paris and Oenone that was interpreted as a satire on the marriage of Domitian and his wife Domitia, and was likewise sentenced to death.[17] Domitian was suspicious of dissent from the philosophical schools: he had apparently expelled philosophers in 88/9 and did so again in 93/4 when he expelled the philosophers not only from the city of Rome but from all of Italy.[19][20] The most famous of the expelled philosophers was Epictetus who moved to Nicopolis, in Greece, where he set up his successful school, and became one of the most famous Stoic philosophers.[20] As mentioned above, Epictetus had been owned by Epaphroditos, the secretary of Nero who reported the Pisonian Conspiracy to Nero, which led to a purge. In the Discourses, Epictetus repeatedly praises Paconius Agrippinus and Helvidius Priscus, prominent members of the Stoic Opposition, to his Stoic students and encourages them to follow their moral example.[21] Later influence[edit] The emperor Marcus Aurelius trained in Stoic philosophy from an early age. He had several Stoic tutors but the most prominent among them was Junius Rusticus, a direct descendant of Arulenus Rusticus. In The Meditations, Marcus refers to Nero as a tyrant. He thanks his Aristotelian tutor, Claudius Severus, for introducing him to the political ideals of Stoic republicans, including Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus. [...] that through him I came to know Thrasea, Helvidius, Cato, Dio, Brutus, and to conceive the idea of a balanced constitution, and of government founded on equity and freedom of speech, and of a monarchy which values above all things the freedom of the subject.[22] The Dio referred to in this passage may be Dio Chrysostom, a Stoic-influenced rhetorician and student of Musonius Rufus, who was banished from Rome by Emperor Domitian in 82 AD for advising one of his relatives. He was good friends with Nerva and returned to Rome when he was acclaimed emperor. He was also friends with the Stoic philosopher Euphrates of Tyre, a fellow-student of Musonius Rufus. References[edit] ^ Dillon, J.t., Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life (2004), p. 52 ^ a b c Sullivan, John Patrick (1985). Literature and politics in the age of Nero. Cornell University Press. p. 115. ^ a b c d e f g Griffin, Miriam Tamara (2000). Nero: The End of a Dynasty. Psychology Press. pp. 170–4. ISBN 0415214645. ^ a b c d e f Wilkinson, Sam (2012). Republicanism During the Early Roman Empire. A&C Black. pp. 70–1. ISBN 978-1441120526. ^ a b c Wilson, Marcus (2003). "After the Silence: Tacitus, Suetonius, Juvenal". In Boyle, Anthony James; Dominik, William J. (eds.). Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text. BRILL. pp. 536–7. ISBN 9004111883. ^ a b c d Braund, Susanna (2009). Seneca: De Clementia. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–6. ISBN 978-0199240364. ^ a b c d e f g Dillon, J. T. (2004). Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life. University Press of America. p. 6. ISBN 0761829024. ^ Williams, G. D. (2003). Seneca: De Otio. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0521588065. citing Tacitus Annals, xiv. 57 ^ Leigh, Matthew (1997). Lucan: Spectacle and Engagement. Clarendon Press. p. 2. ISBN 0198150679. ^ Romm, James (2014). Dying Every Day: Seneca at the Court of Nero. Vintage Books. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-307-74374-9. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.1.28-30 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 4.1 ^ a b c Boyle, A. J. (2003). "Introduction: Reading Flavian Rome". In Boyle, Anthony James; Dominik, William J. (eds.). Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text. BRILL. p. 44. ISBN 9004111883. ^ a b Mellor, Ronald (2003). "The New Autocracy of Power". In Boyle, Anthony James; Dominik, William J. (eds.). Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text. BRILL. p. 81. ISBN 9004111883. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.2.19-21 ^ Jones, Brian (2002). The Emperor Domitian. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 1134853122. (The other four people were Arulenus's brother and wife; and Arria and Fannia, wife and daughter of Thrasea.) ^ a b c Penwill, John L. (2003). "Politics and Philosophy in Flavian Rome". In Boyle, Anthony James; Dominik, William J. (eds.). Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text. BRILL. p. 361. ISBN 9004111883. ^ Plutarch. On being a busybody. p. 15. ^ Jones, Brian (2002). The Emperor Domitian. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 1134853122. ^ a b Smith, R. Scott; Francese, Christopher (2014). Ancient Rome: An Anthology of Sources. Hackett. p. 92. ISBN 978-1624661167. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 1.1, 1.2 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 1.14 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoic_Opposition&oldid=1007807344" Categories: Political thought in ancient Rome Stoicism Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 20 February 2021, at 01:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2678	----	Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors from AD 96 to 192 "Antonine" redirects here. For people with the name, see Antonine (name). "Antonines" redirects here. For the Catholic order, see Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony. Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e The Nerva–Antonine dynasty was a dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from AD 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus. The first of these before Commodus (and excluding the co-emperor Lucius Verus) are commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors". The first five of the six successions within this dynasty were notable in that the reigning Emperor did not have male son, and had to adopt the candidate of his choice to be his successor. Under Roman law, an adoption established a bond legally as strong as that of kinship. Because of this, all but the first and last of the Nerva–Antonine emperors are called Adoptive Emperors. The importance of official adoption in Roman society has often been considered[1] as a conscious repudiation of the principle of dynastic inheritance and has been deemed one of the factors of the period's prosperity. However, this was not a new practice. It was common for patrician families to adopt, and Roman emperors had adopted heirs in the past: the Emperor Augustus had adopted Tiberius and the Emperor Claudius had adopted Nero. Julius Caesar, dictator perpetuo and considered to be instrumental in the transition from Republic to Empire, adopted Gaius Octavius, who would become Augustus, Rome's first emperor. Moreover, there was a family connection as Trajan adopted his first cousin once removed and great-nephew by marriage Hadrian, and Hadrian made his half-nephew by marriage and heir Antoninus Pius adopt both Hadrian's second cousin three times removed and half-great-nephew by marriage Marcus Aurelius, also Antoninus' nephew by marriage, and the son of his original planned successor, Lucius Verus. The naming of his son Commodus as heir by Marcus Aurelius was considered to be an unfortunate choice and the beginning of the Empire's decline.[2] With Commodus' murder in 192, the Nerva–Antonine dynasty came to an end; it was followed by a period of turbulence known as the Year of the Five Emperors. Contents 1 History 1.1 Nerva–Trajan dynasty 1.2 Antonine dynasty 2 Five Good Emperors 2.1 Alternative hypothesis 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 References History[edit] Nerva–Trajan dynasty[edit] Nerva was the first of the dynasty.[3] Though his reign was short, it saw a partial reconciliation between the army, the senate and the commoners. Nerva adopted as his son the popular military leader Trajan. In turn, Hadrian succeeded Trajan; he had been the latter's heir presumptive and averred that he had been adopted by him on Trajan's deathbed. Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antonine dynasty[edit] The Antonines are four Roman Emperors who ruled between 138 and 192: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus and Commodus. In 138, after a long reign dedicated to the cultural unification and consolidation of the empire, the Emperor Hadrian named Antoninus Pius his son and heir, under the condition that he adopt both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Hadrian died that same year, and Antoninus began a peaceful, benevolent reign. He adhered strictly to Roman traditions and institutions and shared his power with the Roman Senate. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus succeeded Antoninus Pius in 161 upon that emperor's death, and co-ruled until Verus' death in 169. Marcus continued the Antonine legacy after Verus' death as an unpretentious and gifted administrator and leader. He died in 180 and was followed by his biological son, Commodus. Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Five Good Emperors[edit] The rulers commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors" were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[4] The term was coined by Niccolò Machiavelli in his posthumously published book The Discourses on Livy from 1531: From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.[5] Machiavelli argued that these adopted emperors earned the respect of those around them through good governing: Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate.[5] Edward Gibbon wrote in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that their rule was a time when "the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue".[6] Gibbon believed that these benevolent monarchs and their moderate policies were unusual and contrasted with their more tyrannical and oppressive successors. Alternative hypothesis[edit] One hypothesis posits that adoptive succession is thought to have arisen because of a lack of biological heirs. All but the last of the adoptive emperors had no legitimate biological sons to succeed them. They were therefore obliged to pick a successor somewhere else; as soon as the Emperor could look towards a biological son to succeed him, adoptive succession was set aside. The dynasty may be broken up into the Nerva–Trajan dynasty (also called the Ulpian dynasty after Trajan's gentile name 'Ulpius') and Antonine dynasty (after their common name Antoninus). Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Note: Marcus Aurelius co-reigned with Lucius Verus from 161 until Verus' death in 169. References[edit] ^ E.g. by Machiavelli and Gibbon ^ "Decline of the Roman Empire". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ "Adoptive Succession". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D.; Buckler, John; Ebrey, Patricia B.; & Beck, Roger B. (2007). A History of World Societies (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, v–vi. ISBN 978-0-618-61093-8. ^ a b Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10. ^ Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, I.78. v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=1022554297" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Roman imperial dynasties 1st-century Roman emperors 2nd-century Roman emperors European dynasties 96 establishments 192 disestablishments 90s establishments in the Roman Empire 2nd-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 May 2021, at 04:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2690	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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en-wikipedia-org-2693	----	OCLC - Wikipedia OCLC From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from OCLC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Global library cooperative For information on using OCLC Control Numbers in Wikipedia articles, see Template:OCLC. OCLC, Inc. OCLC headquarters Type Nonprofit cooperative Industry Information Founded July 5, 1967; 53 years ago (1967-07-05) (as Ohio College Library Center) Founder Frederick G. Kilgour Headquarters Dublin, Ohio , US Area served Worldwide Key people Skip Prichard, President and CEO Products WorldCat FirstSearch Dewey Decimal Classification Tipasa VDX WebJunction Wise WorldShare Revenue $203 million[1] (2015–16) Total assets $425 million[2] (2015–16) Total equity $239 million[2] (2015–16) Members 16,964 libraries in 122 countries[1] (2015–16) Website Official website OCLC, Inc., doing business as OCLC,[3] is an American nonprofit cooperative organization "dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs".[4] It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, then became the Online Computer Library Center as it expanded. In 2017, the name was formally changed to OCLC, Inc.[3] OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog (OPAC) in the world.[5] OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries pay (around $200 million annually in total as of 2016[update]) for the many different services it offers.[1] OCLC also maintains the Dewey Decimal Classification system. Contents 1 History 2 Services 2.1 QuestionPoint 3 Software 4 Research 5 Advocacy 6 Online database: WorldCat 7 Identifiers and linked data 8 Company acquisitions 9 Criticism 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links History[edit] OCLC began in 1967, as the Ohio College Library Center, through a collaboration of university presidents, vice presidents, and library directors who wanted to create a cooperative, computerized network for libraries in the state of Ohio. The group first met on July 5, 1967, on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization[6] and hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, to design the shared cataloging system.[7] Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The plan was to merge the catalogs of Ohio libraries electronically through a computer network and database to streamline operations, control costs, and increase efficiency in library management, bringing libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the world's information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26, 1971. This was the first online cataloging by any library worldwide.[6] Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data. Between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the governance structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States.[8] As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with "networks", organizations that provided training, support and marketing services. By 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on the OCLC Members Council. During 2008, OCLC commissioned two studies to look at distribution channels; at the same time, the council approved governance changes that had been recommended by the Board of Trustees severing the tie between the networks and governance. In early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center.[9] Services[edit] OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone. OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog (OPAC) in the world.[5] WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988. A browser[10] for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013; it was replaced by the Classify Service. Until August 2009, when it was sold to Backstage Library Works, OCLC owned a preservation microfilm and digitization operation called the OCLC Preservation Service Center,[11] with its principal office in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Starting in 1971, OCLC produced catalog cards for members alongside its shared online catalog; the company printed its last catalog cards on October 1, 2015.[12] QuestionPoint[edit] QuestionPoint,[13] an around-the-clock reference service provided to users by a cooperative of participating global libraries, was acquired by Springshare from OCLC in 2019 and migrated to Springshare's LibAnswers platform.[14][15] Software[edit] OCLC commercially sells software, such as: CONTENTdm for managing digital collections[16][17][18] Wise, an integrated library system and "community engagement system"[19][20] WorldCat Discovery, a bibliographic discovery system that allows library patrons to use a single search interface to access an institution's catalog, ebooks, database subscriptions and more[21][22] WorldShare Management Services, an electronic resource management system[23][22] Research[edit] OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications.[24] These publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organization's website. OCLC Publications – Research articles from various journals including The Code4Lib Journal, OCLC Research, Reference and User Services Quarterly, College & Research Libraries News, Art Libraries Journal, and National Education Association Newsletter. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, starting in 1970, are also available.[25] Membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding.[26] Newsletters – Current and archived newsletters for the library and archive community.[27] Presentations – Presentations from both guest speakers and OCLC research from conferences, webcasts, and other events. The presentations are organized into five categories: Conference presentations, Dewey presentations, Distinguished Seminar Series, Guest presentations, and Research staff presentations.[28] Advocacy[edit] Advocacy has been a part of OCLC's mission since its founding in 1967. OCLC staff members meet and work regularly with library leaders, information professionals, researchers, entrepreneurs, political leaders, trustees, students and patrons to advocate "advancing research, scholarship, education, community development, information access, and global cooperation".[29][30] WebJunction, which provides training services to librarians,[31] is a division of OCLC funded by grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation beginning in 2003.[32][33] OCLC partnered with search engine providers in 2003 to advocate for libraries and share information across the Internet landscape. Google, Yahoo!, and Ask.com all collaborated with OCLC to make WorldCat records searchable through those search engines.[29] OCLC's advocacy campaign "Geek the Library", started in 2009, highlights the role of public libraries. The campaign, funded by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, uses a strategy based on the findings of the 2008 OCLC report, "From Awareness to Funding: A study of library support in America".[34] Other past advocacy campaigns have focused on sharing the knowledge gained from library and information research. Such projects have included communities such as the Society of American Archivists, the Open Archives Initiative, the Institute for Museum and Library Services, the International Organization for Standardization, the National Information Standards Organization, the World Wide Web Consortium, the Internet Engineering Task Force, and Internet2. One of the most successful contributions to this effort was the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, "an open forum of libraries, archives, museums, technology organizations, and software companies who work together to develop interoperable online metadata standards that support a broad range of purposes and business models."[29] OCLC has collaborated with the Wikimedia Foundation and the Wikimedia volunteer community, through integrating library metadata with Wikimedia projects, hosting a Wikipedian in residence, and doing a national training program through WebJunction called "Wikipedia + Libraries: Better Together".[35][36][37] Online database: WorldCat[edit] Main article: WorldCat OCLC's WorldCat database is used by the general public and by librarians for cataloging and research. WorldCat is available to the public for searching via a subscription web-based service called FirstSearch,[38] as well as through the publicly available WorldCat.org.[39] Identifiers and linked data[edit] OCLC assigns a unique control number (referred to as an "OCN" for "OCLC Control Number") to each new bibliographic record in the WorldCat. Numbers are assigned serially, and as of mid-2013 over a billion OCNs had been created. In September 2013, the OCLC declared these numbers to be in the public domain, removing a perceived barrier to widespread use of OCNs outside OCLC itself.[40] The control numbers link WorldCat's records to local library system records by providing a common reference key for a record across libraries.[41] OCNs are particularly useful as identifiers for books and other bibliographic materials that do not have ISBNs (e.g., books published before 1970). OCNs are used as identifiers often in Wikipedia and Wikidata. In October 2013, it was reported that out of 29,673 instances of book infoboxes in Wikipedia, "there were 23,304 ISBNs and 15,226 OCNs", and regarding Wikidata: "of around 14 million Wikidata items, 28,741 were books. 5403 Wikidata items have an ISBN associated with them, and 12,262 have OCNs."[42] OCLC also runs the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF), an international name authority file, with oversight from the VIAF Council composed of representatives of institutions that contribute data to VIAF.[43] VIAF numbers are broadly used as standard identifiers, including in Wikipedia.[35][44] Company acquisitions[edit] OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands) OCLC acquired NetLibrary, a provider of electronic books and textbooks, in 2002 and sold it in 2010 to EBSCO Industries.[45] OCLC owns 100% of the shares of OCLC PICA, a library automation systems and services company which has its headquarters in Leiden in the Netherlands and which was renamed "OCLC" at the end of 2007.[46] In July 2006, the Research Libraries Group (RLG) merged with OCLC.[47][48] On January 11, 2008, OCLC announced[49] that it had purchased EZproxy. It has also acquired OAIster. The process started in January 2009 and from October 31, 2009, OAIster records are freely available via WorldCat.org. In 2013 OCLC acquired the Dutch library automation company HKA[50][51] and its integrated library system Wise,[20] which OCLC calls a "community engagement system" that "combines the power of customer relationship management, marketing, and analytics with ILS functions".[19] OCLC began offering Wise to libraries in the United States in 2019.[20] In January 2015, OCLC acquired Sustainable Collection Services (SCS). SCS offered consulting services based on analyzing library print collection data to help libraries manage and share materials.[52] In 2017, OCLC acquired Relais International, a library interlibrary loan service provider based in Ottawa, Canada.[53] Criticism[edit] In May 2008, OCLC was criticized by Jeffrey Beall for monopolistic practices, among other faults.[54] Library blogger Rick Mason responded that although he thought Beall had some "valid criticisms" of OCLC, he demurred from some of Beall's statements and warned readers to "beware the hyperbole and the personal nature of his criticism, for they strongly overshadow that which is worth stating".[55] In November 2008, the Board of Directors of OCLC unilaterally issued a new Policy for Use and Transfer of WorldCat Records[56] that would have required member libraries to include an OCLC policy note on their bibliographic records; the policy caused an uproar among librarian bloggers.[57][58] Among those who protested the policy was the non-librarian activist Aaron Swartz, who believed the policy would threaten projects such as the Open Library, Zotero, and Wikipedia, and who started a petition to "Stop the OCLC powergrab".[59][60] Swartz's petition garnered 858 signatures, but the details of his proposed actions went largely unheeded.[58] Within a few months, the library community had forced OCLC to retract its policy and to create a Review Board to consult with member libraries more transparently.[58] In August 2012, OCLC recommended that member libraries adopt the Open Data Commons Attribution (ODC-BY) license when sharing library catalog data, although some member libraries have explicit agreements with OCLC that they can publish catalog data using the CC0 Public Domain Dedication.[61][62] In July 2010, the company was sued by SkyRiver, a rival startup, in an antitrust suit.[63] Library automation company Innovative Interfaces joined SkyRiver in the suit.[64] The suit was dropped in March 2013, however, following the acquisition of SkyRiver by Innovative Interfaces.[65] Innovative Interfaces was later bought by ExLibris, therefore passing OCLC as the dominant supplier of ILS services in the USA (over 70% market share for academic libraries and over 50% for public libraries for ExLibris, versus OCLC's 10% market share of both types of libraries in 2019).[66] See also[edit] Dynix (software) Public library advocacy References[edit] ^ a b c 2015/2016 OCLC annual report. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC. 2014. OCLC 15601580. ^ a b "OCLC Consolidated Financial Statements 2015–16" (PDF). OCLC. September 12, 2016. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ a b "Certificate of Amendment of the Amended Articles of Incorporation of OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc". Ohio Secretary of State. June 26, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2019. ^ "About OCLC". OCLC. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ a b Oswald, Godfrey (2017). "Largest unified international library catalog". Library world records (3rd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. p. 291. ISBN 9781476667775. OCLC 959650095. ^ a b "In the beginning". oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved August 28, 2012. ^ Intner, Sheila (March–April 2007). "The Passing of an Era". Technicalities. 27: 1–14. ISSN 0272-0884. ^ Bates, Marcia J; Maack, Mary Niles, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of library and information sciences. V (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 3924. ISBN 9780849397127. OCLC 769480033. ^ Bailey-Hainer, Brenda (October 19, 2009). "The OCLC Network of Regional Service Providers: The Last 10 Years". Journal of Library Administration. 49 (6): 621–629. doi:10.1080/01930820903238792. ISSN 0193-0826. S2CID 61936408. ^ "OCLC DeweyBrowser". deweybrowser.oclc.org. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ "Preservation Service Center". OCLC. Archived from the original on December 29, 2003. ^ "OCLC prints last library catalog cards". www.oclc.org. October 1, 2015. Retrieved May 28, 2015. ^ "QuestionPoint". OCLC. Archived from the original on February 15, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ Gest, Jayne (June 3, 2019). "OCLC to sell QuestionPoint software to Florida company". Smart Business Dealmakers Columbus. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "Springshare Acquires QuestionPoint from OCLC". springshare.com. May 31, 2019. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "CONTENTdm". OCLC. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ Gilbert, Heather; Mobley, Tyler (April 17, 2013). "Breaking up with CONTENTdm: why and how one institution took the leap to open source". The Code4Lib Journal (20). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ Mita, Amanda; Pelli, Zachary; Reamer, Kimberly; Ince, Sharon (April 2018). "CONTENTdm to Digital Commons: considerations and workflows". Journal of Archival Organization. 15 (1–2): 58–70. doi:10.1080/15332748.2019.1609308. S2CID 198349364. ^ a b "OCLC Wise: Community engagement system for public libraries". OCLC. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ a b c Johnson, Ben (April 2, 2019). "OCLC Wise Reimagines the ILS". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "WorldCat Discovery". OCLC. Retrieved March 11, 2019. ^ a b Breeding, Marshall (January 2, 2019). "Discovery services: bundled or separate?". American Libraries. Retrieved April 25, 2020. Should discovery services be bundled or acquired à la carte? Perspectives differ regarding the benefits of pairing a discovery service (for example, Ex Libris Primo or OCLC's WorldCat Discovery Service) with the resource management system from the same vendor (Ex Libris Alma or OCLC's WorldShare Management Services). ^ "WorldShare Management Services: An advanced, cloud-based library services platform". OCLC. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Hyatt, Shirley; Young, Jeffrey A. (2005). "OCLC Research Publications Repository". D-Lib Magazine. 11 (3). doi:10.1045/march2005-hyatt. ^ "OCLC Publications". Retrieved August 28, 2012. ^ "OCLC Membership Reports". Retrieved August 28, 2012. ^ "OCLC Newsletters". Retrieved August 28, 2012. ^ "OCLC Presentations". Retrieved August 28, 2012. ^ a b c Rosa, Cathy De (October 22, 2009). "Advocacy and OCLC". Journal of Library Administration. 49 (7): 719–726. doi:10.1080/01930820903260572. ISSN 0193-0826. ^ Grossman, Wendy M. (January 21, 2009). "Why you can't find a library book in your search engine". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ "WebJunction". OCLC. Retrieved April 30, 2014. ^ Block, Marylaine (May 19, 2003). "Gates Foundation and OCLC announce WebJunction". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Enis, Matt (September 7, 2012). "Grant to support OCLC WebJunction for five years". Library Journal. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "Advocacy: From Awareness to Funding, the next chapter". www.oclc.org. OCLC. July 18, 2018. ^ a b "Libraries Leverage Wikimedia". www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "Wikipedia + Libraries: Better Together". webjunction.org. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ "Wikipedia + Libraries: Better Together: OCLC WebJunction". archive.org. August 22, 2018. Retrieved April 25, 2020. Training curriculum and support materials. ^ "FirstSearch: Precision searching of WorldCat". OCLC. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ Hane, Paula J. (July 17, 2006). "OCLC to open WorldCat searching to the world". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ Wallis, Richard (September 24, 2013). "OCLC Declare OCLC Control Numbers Public Domain". dataliberate.com. ^ "OCLC Control Number". Retrieved January 3, 2014. ^ HangingTogether.org (October 11, 2013). "OCLC Control Numbers in the Wild". ^ "VIAF Council". www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Klein, Maximilian; Kyrios, Alex (October 14, 2013). "VIAFbot and the integration of library data on Wikipedia". The Code4Lib Journal (22). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ Jordan, Jay (March 17, 2010). "Letter to members 2010". OCLC. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. ^ Rogers, Michael (October 30, 2007). "CLC/OCLC Pica Merge". Library Journal. New York. Archived from the original on October 28, 2008. ^ Wilson, Lizabeth; Neal, James; Jordan, Jay (October 2006). "RLG and OCLC: Combining for the Future" (guest editorial). Library and Information Science. Vol. 6, no. 4. Retrieved via Project Muse database, 2017-06-21. ^ "RLG to Combine with OCLC" (press release). OCLC Worldwide. May 3, 2006. worldcat.org. Retrieved 2017-06-22. ^ "News releases". www.oclc.org. ^ "OCLC acquires Dutch library systems provider HKA". STM Publishing News. October 2, 2013. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Breeding, Marshall (November 2013). "OCLC acquires the Dutch ILS provider HKA". Smart Libraries Newsletter. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Price, Gary (January 13, 2015). "Print Collections: OCLC Acquires Sustainable Collection Services". Infodocket. Retrieved March 6, 2015. ^ "OCLC agrees to acquire Relais International to provide library consortia more options for resource sharing". www.oclc.org. January 17, 2017. Retrieved May 16, 2017. ^ Beall, Jeffrey (2008). "OCLC: A Review" (PDF). In Roberto, K.R. (ed.). Radical Cataloging: Essays at the Front. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. pp. 85–93. ISBN 978-0786435432. OCLC 173241123. ^ Mason, Rick (June 10, 2008). "OCLC: A Review (a review)". libology.com. Retrieved February 7, 2020. ^ "Policy for Use and Transfer of WorldCat Records". marc.coffeecode.net. Retrieved February 6, 2020. Archived image of OCLC webpage dated November 2, 2008. ^ "OCLC Policy Change". wiki.code4lib.org. 2008–2010. Retrieved July 18, 2020. ^ a b c McKenzie, Elizabeth (January 2012). OCLC changes its rules for use of records in WorldCat: library community pushback through blogs and cultures of resistance (Technical report). Boston: Suffolk University Law School. Research paper 12-06. ^ "Stop the OCLC powergrab!". watchdog.net. February 18, 2009. Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved February 6, 2020. ^ "Stealing Your Library: The OCLC Powergrab (Aaron Swartz's Raw Thought)". aaronsw.com. June 4, 2011. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2020. ^ Vollmer, Timothy (August 14, 2012). "Library catalog metadata: Open licensing or public domain?". Creative Commons. Retrieved February 6, 2020. ^ Price, Gary (February 14, 2014). "Metadata/Catalog Records: National Library of Sweden Signs Agreement With OCLC Re: CC0 License". Library Journal. Retrieved February 6, 2020. ^ Coyle, Karen (July 29, 2010). "SkyRiver Sues OCLC over Anti-Trust". Karen Coyle. ^ Breeding, Marshall (July 29, 2010). "SkyRiver and Innovative Interfaces File Major Antitrust Lawsuit Against OCLC". Library Journal. Archived from the original on August 2, 2010. ^ Price, Gary (March 4, 2013). "III Drops OCLC Suit, Will Absorb SkyRiver". Library Journal. ^ Schonfeld, Roger C. (December 5, 2019). "What Are the Larger Implications of Ex Libris Buying Innovative?". sr.ithaka.org. Retrieved April 25, 2020. Further reading[edit] Bénaud, Claire-Lise; Bordeianu, Sever (October 2015). "OCLC's WorldShare Management Services: a brave new world for catalogers". Cataloging & Classification Quarterly. 53 (7): 738–752. doi:10.1080/01639374.2014.1003668. S2CID 62642181. Blackman, Cathy; Moore, Erica Rae; Seikel, Michele; Smith, Mandi (July 2014). "WorldCat and SkyRiver: a comparison of record quantity and fullness". Library Resources & Technical Services. 58 (3): 178–186. doi:10.5860/lrts.58n3.178. Breeding, Marshall (May 2015). "Library services platforms: a maturing genre of products". Library Technology Reports. 51 (4): 1–38. doi:10.5860/ltr.51n4. Jordan, Jay, ed. (2011). Weaving libraries into the web: OCLC 1998–2008. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415576901. OCLC 759584353. Maciuszko, Kathleen L. (1984). OCLC, a decade of development, 1967–1977. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 0872874079. OCLC 10483157. Matthews, Joseph R. (July 2016). "An environmental scan of OCLC alternatives: a management perspective". Public Library Quarterly. 35 (3): 175–187. doi:10.1080/01616846.2016.1210440. Richardson, Ellen (January 2012). "Ain't no (Sky)River wide enough to keep me from getting to you: SkyRiver, Innovative, OCLC, and the fight for control over the bibliographic data, cataloging services, ILL, and ILS markets". Legal Reference Services Quarterly. 31 (1): 37–64. doi:10.1080/0270319X.2012.654065. S2CID 62595756. Smith, K. Wayne, ed. (1998). OCLC, 1967–1997: thirty years of furthering access to the world's information. New York: Haworth Press. ISBN 0789005360. OCLC 38732191. "WorldCat data licensing" (PDF). oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. See also: "Data licenses & attribution". oclc.org. January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information about licensing of WorldCat records and some other OCLC data. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to OCLC. Official website "Hanging Together – the OCLC Research blog". "OCLC Annual Reports collection". OCLC Archives. "WorldCat.org". Works by or about OCLC in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Authority control General Integrated Authority File 2 3 ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway 2 Spain United States Latvia Czech Republic 2 Australia 2 Israel Poland Croatia Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) 2 Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Microsoft Academic Social Networks and Archival Context Trove (Australia) 1 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OCLC&oldid=1027914696#OCLC" Categories: OCLC 1967 establishments in Ohio Bibliographic database providers Companies based in Dublin, Ohio Cooperatives in the United States Library automation Library cataloging and classification Library centers Library-related organizations Organizations established in 1967 Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from May 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from September 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Kurdî Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 18:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2694	----	Arval Brethren - Wikipedia Arval Brethren From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient Roman college of priests This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Arval Brethren" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Portrait of the emperor Lucius Verus as an Arval Brother (ca. 160 AD) In ancient Roman religion, the Arval Brethren (Latin: Fratres Arvales, "Brothers of the Fields") or Arval Brothers were a body of priests who offered annual sacrifices to the Lares and gods to guarantee good harvests.[1] Inscriptions provide evidence of their oaths, rituals and sacrifices. Contents 1 Origin 2 Structure and duties 3 Restoration of the priesthood 4 References 5 Further reading Origin[edit] Roman legend held that the priestly college was originated by Romulus, first king of Rome, who took the place of a dead son of his nurse Acca Laurentia, and formed the priesthood with the remaining eleven sons. They were also connected originally with the Sabine priesthood of Sodales Titii who were probably originally their counterpart among the Sabines. Thus it can be inferred that they existed before the founding of the city.[2] There is further proof of the high antiquity of the college in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still preserved.[3] They persisted to the imperial period. Structure and duties[edit] Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e Arval Brethren formed a college of twelve priests, although archaeologists have found only up to nine names at a time in the inscriptions. They were appointed for life and did not lose their status even in exile. According to Pliny the Elder, their sign was a white band with the chaplet of sheaves of grain (Naturalis Historia 18.2). The Brethren assembled in the Regia. Their task was the worship of Dea Dia, an old fertility goddess, possibly an aspect of Maia or Ceres. On the three days of her May festival, they offered sacrifices and chanted secretly inside the temple of the goddess at her lucus the Carmen Arvale. The magister (master) of the college selected the exact three days of the celebration by an unknown method. The celebration began in Rome on the first day, was transferred to a sacred grove outside the city wall on the second day and ended back in the city on the third day.[4] Their duties included ritual propitiations or thanksgivings as the Ambarvalia, the sacrifices done at the borders of Rome at the fifth mile of the Via Campana or Salaria (a place now on the hill Monte delle Piche at the Magliana Vecchia on the right bank of the Tiber). Before the sacrifice, the sacrificial victim was led three times around a grain field where a chorus of farmers and farm-servants danced and sang praises for Ceres and offered her libations of milk, honey and wine. Archaic traits of the rituals included the prohibition of the use of iron, the use of the olla terrea (a jar made of unbaked earth) and of the sacrificial burner of Dea Dia made of silver and adorned with grassy clods. 1st-century inscription of the Acta Arvalium Restoration of the priesthood[edit] The importance of Arval Brethren apparently dwindled during the Roman Republic, but emperor Augustus revived their practices to enforce his own authority. In his time the college consisted of a master (magister), a vice-master (promagister), a priest (flamen), and a praetor, with eight ordinary members, attended by various servants, and in particular by four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the toga praetexta. The election of members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a flamen, was himself elected for one year.[3] After Augustus' time emperors and senators frequented the festivities. At least two emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Elagabalus, were formally accepted as members of the Brethren. The first full descriptions of their rituals also originate from this time. It is clear that, while the members were themselves always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were held in high respect. And yet no mention of them occurs in the writings of Cicero or Livy, and that literary allusions to them are very scarce. On the other hand, we possess a long series of the acta or minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves, and inscribed on stone. Excavations, commenced in the 16th century and continued to the 19th, in the grove of the Dea Dia, yielded 96 of these records from 14 to 241 AD.[3] The last inscriptions (Acta Arvalia) about the Arval Brethren date from about 325 AD. They were abolished along with Rome's other traditional priesthoods by 400 AD. References[edit] ^ "Arval Brothers on Britannica". Retrieved August 20, 2012. ^ Aulus Gellius VII 7, 7; Pliny XVII 2, 6. ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Arval Brothers". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 711. ^ Chisholm 1911. Further reading[edit] Piganiol, André. Observations sur le rituel le plus récent des frères Arvales. In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 90ᵉ année, N. 2, 1946. pp. 241–251. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.1946.77986]; www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1946_num_90_2_77986 Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arval_Brethren&oldid=1022277608" Categories: Ancient Roman religious titles Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from August 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 May 2021, at 15:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-270	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with Trove identifiers.The Trove identifier appears as Trove (Australia) in the Other section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P1315. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-2721	----	James Frank Gilliam - Wikipedia James Frank Gilliam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search James Frank Gilliam (14 March 1915 in Seattle – 16 March 1990 in Princeton, New Jersey) was an American classical scholar and historian of ancient Rome. Contents 1 Career 2 Achievements 3 Sources 4 External links Career[edit] James Frank Gilliam studied at San Jose State University (B.A. 1935) and at Stanford University (M.A. 1936). In 1940 he earned his Ph.D. at Yale University under the classicist Michael Rostovtzeff. After his Ph.D., he worked as an instructor in classics until his academic career was interrupted by military service in World War II from 1941 to 1945. In 1947 Gilliam joined the faculty of Wells College in Aurora, New York as an assistant professor. In 1949 he moved to the University of Iowa, where he became a professor of history and classics, remaining until 1961. After a year as a professor of history at the University of Oregon (1961–1962), Gilliam became a professor of Greek and Latin at Columbia University. His final academic appointment was at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey, wherein 1965 he became a professor of classics and history in the School of Historical Studies. He retired from the IAS as professor emeritus in 1985. Already in the academic years 1958/1959 and 1963/1964 he had been a visiting member of the IAS. In the academic year 1955/1956, he was a Guggenheim Fellow. He was also a Marshall Scholar. From 1970 to 1985, Gilliam worked part-time at Columbia University: from 1970 to 1981 as curator of the papyri collection and from 1970 to 1985 as an adjunct professor. From 1972 to 1975 he was a visiting lecturer at Princeton University. In the academic year 1978/1979 he taught as Sather Professor at the University of California, Berkeley. Achievements[edit] As Rostovtzeff's student, Gilliam focused his research on papyrology and on Roman military history. Based on the finding from Dura Europos, where Rostovtzeff had excavated in the 1920s and 1930s, Gilliam studied inscriptions and papyrological documents of Roman military history in the eastern provinces. His numerous research papers dealt with almost all aspects of the complexities of Roman military history. His mastery of the material enabled him to plan an exhaustive presentation of ancient Roman military history in monograph form. He repeatedly promised to produce such a presentation but died without fulfilling his plan. Sources[edit] Charles Rowan Beye (1994). "Gilliam, James Franklin". In Ward W. Briggs (ed.). Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists. Westport, CT/London: Greenwood Press. pp. 219–221. ISBN 0-313-24560-6. James Frank Gilliam (1986). Roman Army Papers. Vol. 2 of Mavors-Series Roman Army Researches. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben Publishing. ISBN 90-70265-28-1. |volume= has extra text (help) External links[edit] James Frank Gilliam at the Database of Classical Scholars Gilliam, J. F. — WorldCat Identities photo: James Gilliam – standing :: School of Historical Studies, IAS Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Frank_Gilliam&oldid=1000064536" Categories: American classical scholars Classical scholars of Columbia University Classical scholars of the Institute for Advanced Study Institute for Advanced Study faculty American papyrologists San Jose State University alumni Stanford University alumni University of Iowa faculty Yale University alumni 1915 births 1990 deaths Scholars of Roman history 20th-century historians Hidden categories: CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 11:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2732	----	Carus - Wikipedia Carus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 282 to 283 For other uses, see Carus (disambiguation). Augustus Carus Augustus Persicus Maximus Antoninianus of Emperor Carus. Legend: IMPerator CARVS Pius Felix AVGustus Roman emperor Reign c. September 282 – c. July 283 (with Carinus in 283) Predecessor Probus Successor Carinus and Numerian Born c. 222 Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis Died July or August 283 (aged 61) Beyond the River Tigris, Sasanian Empire Issue Carinus Numerian Aurelia Paulina Names Marcus Aurelius Carus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus[2] Marcus Aurelius Carus (c. 222 – July or August 283) was Roman emperor from 282 to 283. During his short reign, Carus fought the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube frontier with success. He died while campaigning against the Sassanid Empire and is believed to have died of unnatural causes. It was reported that he had been struck by lightning.[3] He was succeeded by his sons Carinus and Numerian, creating a dynasty which, though short-lived, provided further stability to the resurgent empire. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Campaign against the Sassanids and death 2 Legacy 3 Family tree 4 See also 5 Sources 5.1 Primary Sources 5.2 Secondary Sources 6 References Biography[edit] Carus, whose name before the accession may have been Marcus Numerius Carus,[4] was born, according to differing accounts, either in Gaul, Illyricum or Africa.[5] Modern scholarship inclines to the former view, placing his birth at Narbo (modern Narbonne) in Gaul[6][7] though he was educated in Rome.[8] Little can be said with certainty of his life and rule. Due to the decline of literature, the arts, and the want of any good historians of that age, what is known is almost invariably involved in contradiction and doubt.[9] He was apparently a senator[10] and filled various posts, both civil and military, before being appointed prefect of the Praetorian Guard by the emperor Probus in 282.[11] Two traditions surround his accession to the throne in August or September of 282. According to some mostly Latin sources, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers after the murder of Probus by a mutiny at Sirmium.[12] Greek sources however claim that he rose against Probus in Raetia in a usurpation and had him killed.[13] The often unreliable Historia Augusta is aware of both traditions, although it prefers the former.[14] He does not seem to have returned to Rome after his accession, contenting himself with an announcement to the Senate.[15] This was a marked departure from the constitutionalism of his immediate predecessors, Tacitus and Probus, who at least outwardly respected the authority of the senate, and was the precursor to the even more despotic military autocracy of Diocletian.[16] Campaign against the Sassanids and death[edit] Panels at Naqsh-e Rustam, symbolizing the supposed victories of Bahram II over Carus (top) and Hormizd I Kushanshah (bottom).[17] Bestowing the title of Caesar upon his sons Carinus and Numerian,[18][19] he left Carinus in charge of the western portion of the empire to look after some disturbances in Gaul [20] and took Numerian with him on an expedition against the Persians, which had been contemplated by Probus.[21] Having inflicted a severe defeat on the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube,[22] for which he was given the title Germanicus Maximus,[23] Carus proceeded through Thrace and Asia Minor, annexed Mesopotamia, pressed on to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and marched his soldiers beyond the Tigris.[24] The Sassanid King Bahram II, limited by internal opposition and his troops occupied with a campaign in modern-day Afghanistan, could not effectively defend his territory.[25] The Sasanians, faced with severe internal problems, could not mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon.[3] The victories of Carus avenged all the previous defeats suffered by the Romans against the Sassanids, and he received the title of Persicus Maximus.[26] Rome's hopes of further conquest, however, were cut short by his death; Carus died in Sasanian territory, probably of unnatural causes, as he was reportedly struck by lightning.[3] Legacy[edit] Like the conquests of Trajan, 160 years before, Carus' gains were immediately relinquished by his successor. His son Numerian, naturally of an unwarlike disposition, was forced by the army to retreat back over the Tigris.[27] The report of the lightning strike was evidently widely accepted in the camp, and the superstitious awe of the troops inclined them to ascribe Carus' death to the wrath of the Gods. Rumors had been spread of dark oracles, affixing the limits of the Empire on the Tigris, and threatening destruction against the Roman who should presume beyond the river in arms. Persia was abandoned to her rightful possessors, and not till Diocletian, a decade later, was the Persian contest decided in Rome's favor, by that emperor's decisive victory. In the sphere of civil affairs, Carus is remembered principally for the final suppression of the authority of the senate, which had been partially restored under Tacitus and Probus. He declined to accept their ratification of his election, informing them of the fact by a haughty and distant dispatch. He was the last emperor to have united a civil with a military education, in that age when the two were increasingly detached; Diocletian (Imp. 284–305), who succeeded Carus after the brief reign of the latter's sons, was to confirm and formalize the separation of professions, and the autocratic foundation of the imperial rule.[28] Though Carus was known throughout his life for his austere and virtuous manners, the suspicion of his complicity in Probus' death, along with his haughty conduct towards the senate, tarnished his reputation before his death, and Julian, as Gibbon observes, conspicuously places him among the tyrants of Rome, in his catalogue of The Caesars.[29] Family tree[edit] previous Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman emperor 275–276 Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276–282 Carus Roman Emperor 282–283 next Diocletian Roman Emperor 284–305 ∞ Prisca Carinus Roman Emperor 282–284 ∞ Magnia Urbica Numerian co-emperor 282–284 Galeria Valeria See also[edit] Crisis of the Third Century Sources[edit] Primary Sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Carus, Carinus and Numerian Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Secondary Sources[edit] Leadbetter, William, "Carus (282–283 A.D.)", DIR Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Potter, David (2013). Constantine the Emperor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199755868. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Carus, Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. References[edit] ^ Jones, pg. 183 ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 501. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b c Potter 2013, p. 26. ^ Jones, pg. 183 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII., p. 292 ^ Victor, 38:1 ^ The tradition that he was one of the so-called "Illyrian Emperors", based on the unreliable vita Cari embedded in the Augustan History, was accepted uncritically by Joseph Scaliger, who assumed the other sources were wrong, and followed by Edward Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. (Tom B. Jones, "A Note on Marcus Aurelius Carus" Classical Philology 37.2 (April 1942), pp. 193–194). ^ Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 4:2 ^ Gibbon, ibid; and ch. XIII., p. 340 ^ Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 5:4 ^ Gibbon, ch. XII., p. 292 ^ Jerome, Chron. s. a. 282 ^ Zonaras, 12:29 ^ Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 6:1 ^ Southern, pg. 132 ^ Gibbon, p. 293; and ch. XIII., pp. 328, 329 ^ Encyclopedia Iranica [1] ^ Zonaras, 12:30 ^ Victor 38:2 ^ Gibbon, ch. XII., p. 293 ^ Historia Augusta, "Vita Cari", 7:1 ^ Gibbon, p. 294. Enemy casualties are given at over 36,000. ^ Leadbetter, www.roman-emperors.org/carus.htm ^ Zonaras, 12:30 ^ Leadbetter, www.roman-emperors.org/carus.htm ^ Southern, pg. 133 ^ Gibbon, p. 296 ^ Gibbon, ch. XIII., pp. 328–33. ^ Gibbon, ch. XII., p. 293 and note. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carus. Regnal titles Preceded by Probus Roman emperor 282–283 With: Carinus (283) Succeeded by Carinus Numerian Political offices Preceded by Probus , Victorinus Consul of the Roman Empire 283 with Carinus Succeeded by Carinus, Numerian v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carus&oldid=1023312211" Categories: 222 births 283 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Praetorian prefects Deaths from lightning strikes Aurelii People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 18:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2748	----	Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Marcus Annius Verus (II)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Adoptive father of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (c. 50 – 138 AD) This article is about the Roman senator and three-times consul. For his son the praetor, see Marcus Annius Verus (praetor). For his grandson the emperor, see Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Verus (II) (c. 50 – 138 AD) was the grandfather and adoptive father of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and father-in-law of Emperor Antoninus Pius. Contents 1 Biography 2 Family 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 References 5 Further reading Biography[edit] Verus was the son of an elder Marcus Annius Verus, who gained the rank of senator and praetor. His family originated from Uccibi (modern Espejo) near Corduba (modern Córdoba) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. The family came to prominence and became wealthy through olive oil production in Spain.[1] He was close friends with the emperor Hadrian. He was prefect of Rome and was enrolled as a patrician when Vespasian and Titus were censors. Verus was three times consul, the first time as a suffect in 97,[2] then as ordinary consul in both 121 and 126. This is apparently the cause for a "very strange inscription, found on a large marble tablet excavated in the sixteenth century at St. Peter's in Rome" which alludes to this achievement while celebrating his skill "playing with a glass ball". Edward Champlin notes it was likely the creation of a friendly rival, Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, who also held the consulate three times the last after Verus.[3] One explanation is that the whole thing is a joke, based on the connection between Verus' known passion for playing ball and the notion of the ball game as political juggling: an elegant, self-deprecating and rather bitter joke, one not wholly complimentary to Verus. The aged L. Iulius Servianus wrote the piece himself, had it engraved on a marble slab - perhaps accompanying it with the statue of a toga-clad bear playing ball? - and had it delivered to M. Annius Verus on the Kalends of January, 126. When next they met, the two old men affected to laugh heartily at the joke. Fantasy perhaps, but this is a very strange inscription. He died in 138, nearly aged ninety. Marcus Aurelius says in his "Meditations": "From my grandfather Verus, [I learned] a kindly disposition and sweetness of temper".[4] In his elder years, he had a mistress, of whom he expresses gratitude that "I wasn’t raised by my grandfather's mistress for longer than I was".[5] Family[edit] Verus married Rupilia Faustina, a daughter of the niece of Trajan, Matidia, and had at least three children:[6] Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Elder, a future Empress, having married the future Emperor Antoninus Pius; Marcus Annius Libo, a future consul; and, Marcus Annius Verus (III), a praetor who married Domitia Lucilla and became father to future Emperor Marcus Aurelius (also named Marcus Annius Verus at birth) and his sister Annia Cornificia Faustina. Ronald Syme suggests, based on onomastic evidence, that they had a fourth child, a daughter Annia, who married Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Sertorius Severus.[7] After Verus the son died in 124, the elder Verus adopted, and, together with their mother Domitia, raised their two grandchildren.[8] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, a Biography (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 28 ^ Fausto Zevi "I consoli del 97 d. Cr. in due framenti gia' editi dei Fasti Ostienses", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 96 (1973), pp. 125-137 ^ Champlin, "The Glass Ball Game", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 60 (1985), pp. 159-163 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i.1 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i.17 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 28f ^ Syme, "Ummidius Quadratus, Capax Imperii", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83 (1979), p. 308 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31 Further reading[edit] Marcus Aurelius on Roman Empire.net Historia Augusta on Marcus Aurelius Meditations by Marcus Aurelius Political offices Preceded by Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus II, and Gaius Calpurnius Piso as Suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 97 with Lucius Neratius Priscus Succeeded by Lucius Domitius Apollinaris, and Sextus Hermentidius Campanus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Gaius Carminius Gallus, and Gaius Atilius Serranus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 121 with Gnaeus Arrius Augur Succeeded by Marcus Herennius Faustus, and Quintus Pomponius Marcellus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Quintus Vetina Verus, and Publius Lucius Cosconianus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 126 with Gaius Eggius Ambibulus Succeeded by Lucius Valerius Propinquus, and Gaius Eggius Ambibulus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Verus_(grandfather_of_Marcus_Aurelius)&oldid=1002811120" Categories: 50s births 138 deaths Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Imperial Roman consuls Urban prefects of Rome Annii 2nd-century Romans Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Euskara Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2746	----	Guangzhou - Wikipedia Guangzhou From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Guangzhou (disambiguation). For other places with same name "Canton", see Canton. Not to be confused with Guangzhouwan. Prefecture-level and Subprovincial city in Guangdong, China Guangzhou 广州市 Canton; Kwangchow Prefecture-level and Subprovincial city Clockwise to center: Guangzhou skyline and the Pearl River, Five Goat Statue, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, Zhenhai Tower in Yuexiu Park, Canton Tower, and Sacred Heart Cathedral. Nicknames: City of Rams, City of Flowers, City of Rice Spike Location of Guangzhou City jurisdiction in Guangdong Guangzhou Location of the city center in Guangdong Show map of Guangdong Guangzhou Guangzhou (China) Show map of China Coordinates (Guangdong People's Government): 23°07′55″N 113°15′58″E / 23.132°N 113.266°E / 23.132; 113.266Coordinates: 23°07′55″N 113°15′58″E / 23.132°N 113.266°E / 23.132; 113.266 Country China Province Guangdong Municipal seat Yuexiu District Government  • Type Sub-provincial city  • Body Guangzhou Municipal People's Congress  • CCP Secretary Zhang Shuofu  • Congress Chairman Shi Qizhu  • Mayor Wen Guohui  • CPPCC Chairman Li Yiwei Area[1]  • Prefecture-level and Subprovincial city 7,434.4 km2 (2,870.4 sq mi)  • Urban 3,843.43 km2 (1,483.96 sq mi)  • Metro 37,597 km2 (14,516 sq mi) Elevation 21 m (68 ft) Population (1 November 2020 estimation)[2]  • Prefecture-level and Subprovincial city 18,676,605  • Density 2,500/km2 (6,500/sq mi)  • Urban[3] 12,108,533  • Metro 25,000,000 Demonym(s) Cantonese Time zone UTC+8 (China standard time) Postal code 510000 Area code(s) (0)20 ISO 3166 code CN-GD-01 GDP (nominal)[4] 2020  - Total ¥2.5 trillion $385 billion  - Per capita ¥163,336 $25,154  - Growth 6.5% License plate prefixes 粤A City Flower Bombax ceiba City Bird Chinese hwamei Languages Cantonese, Mandarin Website english.gz.gov.cn Guangzhou "Guangzhou" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters Simplified Chinese 广州 Traditional Chinese 廣州 Postal Canton Kwangchow Literal meaning "Broad Prefecture" Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Guǎngzhōu Bopomofo ㄍㄨㄤˇ   ㄓㄡ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Goangjou Wade–Giles Kuang³-chou¹ Yale Romanization Gwǎngjōu IPA [kwàŋ.ʈʂóu] Wu Romanization Kuaon-tseu Hakka Romanization Kong³-ziu¹ Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Gwóngjàu or Gwóngjāu Jyutping Gwong2zau1 IPA [kʷɔ̌ːŋ.tsɐ̂u] or [kʷɔ̌ːŋ.tsɐ́u] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Kńg-chiu abbreviation Chinese 穗 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Suì Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄟˋ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Suey Wade–Giles Sui⁴ Yale Romanization Swèi IPA [swêi] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Seuih Jyutping Seoi6 IPA [sɵ̀y] Guangzhou (UK: /ɡwæŋˈdʒoʊ/,[5] US: /ɡwɒŋ-/;[6] Chinese: 广州, Cantonese pronunciation: [kʷɔ̌ːŋ.tsɐ̂u] or [kʷɔ̌ːŋ.tsɐ́u] (listen); Mandarin pronunciation: [kwàŋ.ʈʂóu] (listen)), also known as Canton /kænˈtɒn/[7] and alternately romanized as Kwangchow,[8] is the capital and most populous city of the province of Guangdong in southern China.[9] Located on the Pearl River about 120 km (75 mi) north-northwest of Hong Kong and 145 km (90 mi) north of Macau, Guangzhou has a history of over 2,200 years and was a major terminus of the maritime Silk Road,[10] and continues to serve as a major port and transportation hub, as well as one of China's three largest cities.[11] Long the only Chinese port accessible to most foreign traders, Guangzhou was captured by the British during the First Opium War. No longer enjoying a monopoly after the war, it lost trade to other ports such as Hong Kong and Shanghai, but continued to serve as a major transshipment port. Due to a high urban population and large volumes of port traffic, Guangzhou is classified as a Large-Port Megacity, the largest type of port-city in the world.[12] Guangzhou is at the heart of the most-populous built-up metropolitan area in mainland China, which extends into the neighboring cities of Foshan, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Shenzhen and part of Jiangmen, Huizhou, Zhuhai and Macao, forming the largest urban agglomeration on Earth with more than some 45 million inhabitants[13] and part of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone. Administratively, the city holds subprovincial status[14] and is one of China's nine National Central Cities.[15] In the late 1990s and early 2000s, nationals of sub-Saharan Africa who had initially settled in the Middle East and Southeast Asia moved in unprecedented numbers to Guangzhou in response to the 1997/98 Asian financial crisis.[16] The domestic migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40% of the city's total population in 2008. Together with Shanghai, Beijing and Shenzhen, Guangzhou has one of the most expensive real estate markets in China.[17] At the end of 2018, the population of the city's expansive administrative area was estimated at 14,904,400 by city authorities, up 3.8% from the previous year.[18] In the so-called modern commerce, Guangzhou is best known for its annual Canton Fair, the oldest and largest trade fair in China. For three consecutive years (2013–2015), Forbes ranked Guangzhou as the best commercial city in mainland China.[19] Guangzhou is highly ranked as an Alpha- (global first-tier) city together with San Francisco and Stockholm. Guangzhou ranks 10th in the world and 5th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen) in terms of the number of billionaires according to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020.[20] The city is home to many of China's most prestigious universities,[21] including Sun Yat-sen University, South China University of Technology, South China Normal University and Jinan University. According to the Nature Index, Guangzhou has a high level of scientific research output, ranking 15th globally and fifth in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing and Wuhan).[22] Contents 1 Toponymy 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Nanyue 2.3 Imperial China 2.4 Modern China 2.4.1 Revolutions 2.4.2 Republic of China 2.4.3 People's Republic of China 3 Gallery 4 Geography 4.1 Natural resources 4.2 Climate 4.3 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Local products 5.2 Industry 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnicity and language 6.2 Metropolitan area 7 Transportation 7.1 Urban mass transit 7.2 Motor transport 7.3 Airports 7.4 Railways 7.5 Water transport 8 Culture 8.1 Religions 8.1.1 Taoism 8.1.2 Buddhism 8.1.3 Christianity 8.1.4 Islam 9 Sport 10 Destinations 10.1 Eight Views 10.2 Parks and gardens 10.3 Tourist attractions 10.4 Pedestrian streets 10.5 Malls and shopping centers 10.6 Major buildings 11 Media 12 Education 13 International relations 13.1 Twin towns and sister cities 13.2 Consulates General/consulates 14 Honours 15 See also 16 Notes 17 References 17.1 Citations 17.2 Sources 18 Further reading 19 External links Toponymy[edit] A Qing-era portrait of the Grotto of the Five Immortals, the Taoist temple around the five stones which gave Guangzhou its nickname "The City of Rams". Guǎngzhōu is the official romanization of the Chinese name 廣州; 广州. The name of the city is taken from the ancient "Guang Province" after it had become the prefecture's seat of government, which is how some other Chinese cities, including Hangzhou, Suzhou, and Fuzhou got their names. The character 廣 or 广—which also appears in the names of the provinces Guangdong and Guangxi, together called the Liangguang—means "broad" or "expansive" and refers to the intention to dispense imperial grace broadly in the region with the founding of the county of Guangxin in the Han Dynasty. Before acquiring its current name, the town was known as Panyu (Punyü; 番禺), a name still borne by one of Guangzhou's districts not far from the main city. The origin of the name is still uncertain, with 11 various explanations being offered,[23] including that it may have referred to two local mountains.[24][25] The city has also sometimes been known as Guangzhou Fu or Guangfu after its status as the capital of a prefecture. From this latter name, Guangzhou was known to medieval Persians such as Al-Masudi and Ibn Khordadbeh[26] as Khanfu (خانفو).[27] Under the Southern Han, the city was renamed Xingwang Fu (興王府).[28][29] The Chinese abbreviation for Guangzhou is "穗" (although the abbreviation on car license plates, as with the rest of the province, is 粤), after its nickname "City of Rice" (穗城). The city has long borne the nickname City of Rams (羊城) or City of the Five Rams (五羊城) from the five stones at the old Temple of the Five Immortals said to have been the sheep or goats ridden by the Taoist culture heroes credited with introducing rice cultivation to the area around the time of the city's foundation.[30] The former name "City of the Immortals" (仙城/五仙城) came from the same story. The more recent City of Flowers (花城) is usually taken as a simple reference to the area's fine greenery. The English name "Canton" derived from Portuguese Cantão[31] or Cidade de Cantão,[32] a muddling of dialectical pronunciations of "Guangdong"[33][34] (e.g., Hakka Kóng-tûng). Although it originally and chiefly applied to the walled city, it was occasionally conflated with Guangdong by some authors.[note 1][note 2] It was adopted as the Postal Map Romanization of Guangzhou, and remained the official name until its name change to "Guangzhou." As an adjective, it is still used in describing the people, language, cuisine and culture of Guangzhou and the surrounding Liangguang region. The 19th-century name "Kwang-chow foo"[36] derived from Nanjing dialect of Mandarin and the town's status as a prefectural capital. History[edit] Main article: Timeline of Guangzhou Prehistory[edit] A settlement now known as Nanwucheng was present in the area by 1000 BC.[37][38] Some traditional Chinese histories placed Nanwucheng's founding during the reign of Ji Yan,[39][40] king of Zhou from 314 to 256 BC. It was said to have consisted of little more than a stockade of bamboo and mud.[39][40] The jade burial suit of Zhao Mo in Guangzhou's Nanyue King Museum Nanyue[edit] Guangzhou, then known as Panyu, was founded on the eastern bank of the Pearl River[36] in 215 BC. It was the seat of Qin Empire's Nanhai Commandery, and served as a base for the first invasion of the Baiyue lands in southern China. Legendary accounts claimed that the soldiers at Panyu were so vigilant that they did not remove their armor for three years.[41] Upon the fall of the Qin, General Zhao Tuo established the kingdom of Nanyue and made Panyu its capital in 204 BC. It remained independent throughout the Chu-Han Contention, although Zhao negotiated recognition of his independence in exchange for his nominal submission to the Han in 196 BC.[42] Archeological evidence shows that Panyu was an expansive commercial center: in addition to items from central China, archeologists have found remains originating from Southeast Asia, India, and even Africa.[43] Zhao Tuo was succeeded by Zhao Mo and then Zhao Yingqi. Upon Zhao Yingqi's death in 115 BC, his younger son Zhao Xing was named as his successor in violation of Chinese primogeniture. By 113 BC, his Chinese mother, the Empress Dowager Jiu (樛) had prevailed upon him to submit Nanyue as a formal part of the Han Empire. The native prime minister Lü Jia (呂嘉) launched a coup, killing Han ambassadors along with the king, his mother, and their supporters.[44] A successful ambush then annihilated a Han force which had been sent to arrest him. Emperor Wu took offense and launched a massive river- and seaborne war: six armies under Lu Bode and Yang Pu[45] took Panyu and annexed Nanyue by the end of 111 BC.[44] Imperial China[edit] Guangzhou (as 廣) on the 1136 Map of the Tracks of Yu Lai Afong's photograph of a commercial street in Guangzhou c. 1880 Guangzhou ("Canton") and the surrounding islands of Henan ("Hanan"), Pazhou ("Whampoa"), Changzhou ("Dane's Island"), and Xiaoguwei ("French Island") during the First Opium War's Second Battle of Canton. The large East Indiamen of the Canton trade used the anchorage sheltered by these four islands, but the village and island of Huangpu for which it was named make up no part of present-day Guangzhou's Huangpu District. Incorporated into the Han Dynasty, Panyu became a provincial capital. In AD 226, it became the seat of Guang Prefecture, which gave it its modern name. The Old Book of Tang described Guangzhou as an important port in southern China.[46] Direct routes connected the Middle East and China, as shown in the records of a Chinese prisoner returning home from Iraq twelve years after his capture at Talas.[47] Relations were often strained: Arab and Persian pirates[48] sacked the city on October 30, 758[note 3][49][50][51][52] and came to an end under the revenge of Chinese rebel Huang Chao in 878, along with the city's Jews, Christians,[53][54][55] and Parsis.[56][57] The port was closed for fifty years after its destruction.[48] Amid the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms that followed the collapse of the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang governor Liu Yan used his base at Panyu to establish a "Great Yue" or "Southern Han" empire, which lasted from 917 to 971. The region enjoyed considerable cultural and economic success in this period. From the 10th to 12th century, there are records that the large foreign communities were not exclusively male, but included "Persian women".[58][59][note 4] According to Odoric of Pordenone, Guangzhou was as large as three Venices in terms of area, and rivaled all of Italy in the amount of crafts produced. He also noted the large amount of ginger available as well as large geese and snakes.[61] Guangzhou was visited by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta during his 14th-century journey around the world;[62] he detailed the process by which the Chinese constructed their large ships in the port's shipyards.[63] Shortly after the Hongwu Emperor's declaration of the Ming dynasty, he reversed his earlier support of foreign trade and imposed the first of a series of sea bans (海禁).[64] These banned private foreign trade upon penalty of death for the merchant and exile for his family and neighbors.[65] The Yuan-era maritime intendancies of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Ningbo were closed in 1384[66] and legal trade became limited to the tribute delegations sent to or by official representatives of foreign governments.[67] Following the Portuguese conquest of the Melaka Sultanate, Rafael Perestrello traveled to Guangzhou as a passenger on a native junk in 1516.[68] His report induced Fernão Pires de Andrade to sail to the city with eight ships the next year,[68] but De Andrade's exploration[69] was understood as spying[70] and his brother Simão and others began attempting to monopolize trade,[71] enslaving Chinese women[72] and children,[note 5] engaging in piracy,[74] and fortifying the island of Tamão.[75][76] Rumors even circulated that Portuguese were eating the children.[77][73][note 6] The Guangzhou administration was charged with driving them off:[74] they bested the Portuguese at the Battle of Tunmen[79] and in Xicao Bay; held a diplomatic mission hostage in a failed attempt to pressure the restoration of the sultan of Malacca,[80] who had been accounted a Ming vassal;[81] and, after placing them in cangues and keeping them for most of a year, ultimately executed 23 by lingchi.[82][note 7] With the help of local pirates,[77] the "Folangji" then carried out smuggling at Macao, Lampacau, and St John's Island (now Shangchuan),[72] until Leonel de Sousa legalized their trade with bribes to Admiral Wang Bo (汪柏) and the 1554 Luso-Chinese Accord. The Portuguese undertook not to raise fortifications and to pay customs dues;[85] three years later, after providing the Chinese with assistance suppressing their former pirate allies,[86] the Portuguese were permitted to warehouse their goods at Macau instead of Guangzhou itself.[87] In October 1646, the Longwu Emperor's brother, Zhu Yuyue fled by sea to Guangzhou, the last stronghold of the Ming empire. On December 11, he declared himself the Shaowu Emperor, borrowing his imperial regalia from local theater troupes.[88] He led a successful offense against his cousin Zhu Youlang but was deposed and executed on 20 January 1647 when the Ming turncoat Li Chengdong (李成東) sacked the city on behalf of the Qing.[89][note 8] The Qing became somewhat more receptive to foreign trade after gaining control of Taiwan in 1683.[90] The Portuguese from Macau and Spaniards from Manila returned, as did private Muslim, Armenian, and English traders.[91] From 1699 to 1714, the French and British East India Companies sent a ship or two each year;[91] the Austrian Ostend General India Co. arrived in 1717,[92] the Dutch East India Co. in 1729,[93] the Danish Asiatic Co. in 1731,[note 9] and the Swedish East India Co. the next year.[91] These were joined by the occasional Prussian or Trieste Company vessel. The first independent American ship arrived in 1784, and the first colonial Australian one in 1788.[citation needed] By that time, Guangzhou was one of the world's great ports, organized under the Canton System.[95] The main exports were tea and porcelain.[91] As a meeting place of merchants from all over the world, Guangzhou became a major contributor to the rise of the modern global economy.[96] In the 19th century, most of the city's buildings were still only one or two stories. However, there were notable exceptions such as the Flower Pagoda of the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees, and the guard tower known as the Five-Story Pagoda. The subsequently urbanized northern hills were bare and covered with traditional graves. The brick city walls were about 6 miles (10 km) in circumference, 25 feet (8 m) high, and 20 feet (6 m) wide. Its eight main gates and two water gates all held guards during the day and were closed at night. The wall rose to incorporate a hill on its northern side and was surrounded on the other three by a moat which, along with the canals, functioned as the city's sewer, emptied daily by the river's tides. A partition wall with four gates divided the northern "old town" from the southern "new town" closer to the river; the suburb of Xiguan (Saikwan; "West Gate") stretched beyond and the boats of fishers, traders, and Tanka ("boat people") almost entirely concealed the riverbank for about 4 miles (6 km). It was common for homes to have a storefront facing the street and to treat their courtyards as a kind of warehouse.[36] The city was part of a network of signal towers so effective that messages could be relayed to Beijing—about 1,200 miles (1,931 km) away—in less than 24 hours.[97] The Canton System was maintained until the outbreak of the First Opium War in 1839. Following a series of battles in the Pearl River Delta, the British captured Canton on March 18, 1841.[98] The Second Battle of Canton was fought two months later.[99] Following the Qing's 1842 treaty with Great Britain, Guangzhou lost its privileged trade status as more and more treaty ports were opened to more and more countries, usually including extraterritorial enclaves. Amid the decline of Qing prestige and the chaos of the Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856), the Punti and Hakka waged a series of clan wars from 1855 to 1867 in which one million people died. The foreign trade facilities were destroyed by local Chinese in the Arrow War (1856–1858). The international community relocated to the outskirts and most international trade moved through Shanghai.[100][101] The concession for the Canton–Hankow railway was awarded to the American China Development Co. in 1898. It completed its branch line west to Foshan and Sanshui before being engulfed in a diplomatic crisis after a Belgian consortium bought a controlling interest and the Qing subsequently canceled its concession. J.P. Morgan was awarded millions in damages[102] and the line to Wuchang was not completed until 1936[103] and the completion of a unified Beijing–Guangzhou Railway waited until the completion of Wuhan's Yangtze River Bridge in 1957. Modern China[edit] Revolutions[edit] Mausoleum of the 72 Martyrs During the late Qing Dynasty, Guangzhou was the site of revolutionary attempts such as the Uprisings of 1895 and 1911 that were the predecessors of the successful Xinhai Revolution, which overthrew the Qing Dynasty. The 72 revolutionaries whose bodies were found after the latter uprising are honored as the city's 72 Martyrs at the Huanghuagang ("Yellow Flower Mound") Mausoleum. Republic of China[edit] After the assassination of Sung Chiao-jen and Yuan Shihkai's attempts to remove the Nationalist Party of China from power, the leader of Guangdong Hu Hanmin joined the 1913 Second Revolution against him[104] but was forced to flee to Japan with Sun Yat-sen after its failure. The city came under national spotlight again in 1917, when Prime Minister Duan Qirui's abrogation of the constitution triggered the Constitutional Protection Movement. Sun Yat-sen came to head the Guangzhou Military Government supported by the members of the dissolved parliament and the Southwestern warlords. The Guangzhou government fell apart as the warlords withdrew their support. Sun fled to Shanghai in November 1918 until the Guangdong warlord Chen Jiongming restored him in October 1920 during the Yuegui Wars.[105] On 16 June 1922, Sun was ousted in a coup and fled on the warship Yongfeng after Chen sided with the Zhili Clique's Beijing government. In the following months Sun mounted a counterattack into Guangdong by rallying supporters from Yunnan and Guangxi, and in January established a government in the city for the third time. Flag of Kuomintang From 1923 to 1926 Sun and the Kuomintang used the city as a base to prosecute a renewed revolution in China by conquering the warlords in the north. Although Sun was previously dependent on opportunistic warlords who hosted him in the city, with the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT developed its own military power to serve its ambition. The Canton years saw the evolution of the KMT into a revolutionary movement with a strong military focus and ideological commitment, setting the tone of the KMT rule of China beyond 1927. In 1924, the KMT made the momentous decision to ally with the Communist Party and the USSR. With Soviet help, KMT reorganized itself along the Leninist line and adopted a pro-labor and pro-peasant stance. The Kuomintang-CCP cooperation was confirmed in the First Congress of the KMT and the communists were instructed to join the KMT. The allied government set up the Peasant Movement Training Institute in the city, of which Mao Zedong was a director for one term. Sun and his military commander Chiang used Soviet funds and weapons to build an armed force staffed by communist commissars, training its cadres in the Whampoa Military Academy.[105] In August, the fledgling army suppressed the Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising. The next year the anti-imperialist May Thirtieth Movement swept the country, and the KMT government called for strikes in Canton and Hong Kong. The tensions of the massive strikes and protests led to the Shakee Massacre. After the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 the mood was changing in the party toward the communists. In August the left-wing KMT leader Liao Zhongkai was assassinated and the right-wing leader Hu Hanmin, the suspected mastermind, was exiled to the Soviet Union, leaving the pro-communist Wang Jingwei in charge. Opposing communist encroachment, the right-wing Western Hills Group vowed to expel the communists from the KMT. The "Canton Coup" on 20 March 1926 saw Chiang solidify his control over the Nationalists and their army against Wang Jingwei, the party's left wing, its Communist allies, and its Soviet advisors.[106][107] By May, he had ended civilian control of the military[107] and begun his Northern Expedition against the warlords of the north. Its success led to the split of the KMT between Wuhan and Nanking and the purge of the communists in the April 12 Incident. Immediately afterwards Canton joined the purge under the auspice of Li Jishen, resulting in the arrest of communists and the suspension of left wing KMT apparatuses and labor groups. Later in 1927 when Zhang Fakui, a general supportive of the Wuhan faction seized Canton and installed Wang Jingwei's faction in the city, the communists saw an opening and launched the Guangzhou Uprising. Prominent communist military leaders Ye Ting and Ye Jianying led the failed defense of the city. Soon, control of the city reverted to Li Jishen. Li was deposed during a war between Chiang and the Kwangsi Clique. By 1929, Chen Jitang had established himself as the powerholder of Guangdong. In 1931 he threw his weight behind the anti-Chiang schism by hosting a separate Nationalist government in Guangzhou.[108] Opposing Chiang's alleged dictatorship, the separatists included KMT leaders like Wang Ching-wei, Sun Fo and others from diverse factions. The peace negotiations amid the armed standoff led to the 4th National Congress of Kuomintang being held separately by three factions in Nanjing, Shanghai and Canton. Resigning all his posts, Chiang pulled off a political compromise that reunited all factions. While the intraparty division was resolved, Chen kept his power until he was defeated by Chiang in 1936. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the "Canton Operation" subjected the city to Japanese occupation by the end of December 1938. People's Republic of China[edit] Amid the closing months of the Chinese Civil War, Guangzhou briefly served as the capital of the Republic of China after the taking of Nanjing by the PLA in April 1949. The People's Liberation Army entered the city on 14 October 1949. Amid a massive exodus to Hong Kong and Macau, the Nationalists blew up the Haizhu Bridge across the Pearl River in retreat. The Cultural Revolution had a large effect on the city with much of its temples, churches and other monuments destroyed during this chaotic period. The People's Republic of China initiated building projects including new housing on the banks of the Pearl River to adjust the city's boat people to life on land. Since the 1980s, the city's close proximity to Hong Kong and Shenzhen and its ties to overseas Chinese have made it one of the first beneficiaries of China's opening up under Deng Xiaoping. Beneficial tax reforms in the 1990s have also helped the city's industrialization and economic development. The municipality was expanded in the year 2000, with Huadu and Panyu joining the city as urban districts and Conghua and Zengcheng as more rural counties. The former districts of Dongshan and Fangcun were abolished in 2005, merged into Yuexiu and Liwan respectively. The city acquired Nansha and Luogang. The former was carved out of Panyu, the latter from parts of Baiyun, Tianhe, Zengcheng, and an exclave within Huangpu. The National People's Congress approved a development plan for the Pearl River Delta in January 2009; on March 19 the same year, the Guangzhou and Foshan municipal governments agreed to establish a framework to merge the two cities.[109] In 2014, Luogang merged into Huangpu and both Conghua and Zengcheng counties were upgraded to districts. Gallery[edit] Nieuhof's imaginative 1665 map of "Kanton",[110] made from secondhand accounts when Europeans were still forbidden from entering the walled city The Thirteen Factories c. 1805, displaying the flags of Denmark, Spain, the United States, Sweden, Britain, and the Netherlands An 1855 painting of the gallery of Tingqua, one of the most successful suppliers of "export paintings" for Guangzhou's foreign traders. Common themes included the Thirteen Factories, the Whampoa Anchorage (now Pazhou), and the Sea-Banner Temple (now Hoi Tong Monastery) Vrooman's 1860 map of the "City and Entire Suburbs of Canton", one of the first made after the treaties of Tianjin and Beijing permitted foreigners full access to Guangzhou's walled city The Flowery Pagoda at the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees in 1863 The Five-story Pagoda atop Yuexiu Hill c. 1880 The Sacred Heart Cathedral towering over the one- and two-story homes of old Guangzhou c. 1880 Street scene in Guangzhou, 1919 The US Navy's Dept of Navigation's 1920 map of "Canton"[111] Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek at the opening of the Whampoa Military Academy on 16 June 1924 The Guangzhou Bund in 1930, with rows of Tanka boats. Play media A short film of Guangzhou in 1937 The People's Liberation Army entering Guangzhou on 14 October 1949 Map of Guangzhou (labeled as KUANG-CHOU (CANTON)) Geography[edit] Guangzhou Shenzhen Hong Kong Dongguan Foshan Jiangmen Huizhou Zhongshan Zhuhai Macau Zhaoqing Enping Heshan Kaiping Sihui Guangzhou (Guangdong) Map of Guangzhou (labeled as KUANG-CHOU (CANTON) 廣州) in surrounding region (AMS, 1954) Tiantang Peak, highest mountain in Guangzhou The old town of Guangzhou was near Baiyun Mountain on the east bank of the Pearl River (Zhujiang) about 80 miles (129 km) from its junction with the South China Sea and about 300 miles (483 km) below its head of navigation.[36] It commanded the rich alluvial plain of the Pearl River Delta, with its connection to the sea protected at the Humen Strait.[36] The present city spans 7,434.4 square kilometers (2,870.4 sq mi) on both sides of the river from 112° 57′ to 114° 03′ E longitude and 22° 26′ to 23° 56′ N latitude in south-central Guangdong. The Pearl is the 4th-largest river of China.[112] Baiyun Mountain is now locally referred to as the city's "lung" (市肺).[11][113][why?] The elevation of the prefecture generally increases from southwest to northeast, with mountains forming the backbone of the city and the ocean comprising the front. Tiantang Peak (simplified Chinese: 天堂顶; traditional Chinese: 天堂頂, "Heavenly Peak") is the highest point of elevation at 1,210 meters (3,970 ft) above sea level. Places adjacent to Guangzhou Qingyuan Qingyuan Shaoguan Foshan Guangzhou Huizhou Foshan, Zhongshan Zhongshan, South China Sea Dongguan Natural resources[edit] There are 47 different types of minerals and also 820 ore fields in Guangzhou, including 18 large and medium-sized oil deposits. The major minerals are granite, cement limestone, ceramic clay, potassium, albite, salt mine, mirabilite, nepheline, syenite, fluorite, marble, mineral water, and geothermal mineral water. Since Guangzhou is located in the water-rich area of southern China, it has a wide water area with many rivers and water systems, accounting for 10% of the total land area. The rivers and streams improve the landscape and keep the ecological environment of the city stable.[114] Climate[edit] Despite being located just south of the Tropic of Cancer, Guangzhou has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa/Cwa) influenced by the East Asian monsoon. Summers are wet with high temperatures, high humidity, and a high heat index. Winters are mild and comparatively dry. Guangzhou has a lengthy monsoon season, spanning from April through September. Monthly averages range from 13.9 °C (57.0 °F) in January to 28.9 °C (84.0 °F) in July, while the annual mean is 22.6 °C (72.7 °F).[11] Autumn, from October to December, is very moderate, cool and windy, and is the best travel time.[115] The relative humidity is approximately 68 percent, whereas annual rainfall in the metropolitan area is over 1,700 mm (67 in).[11] With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 17 percent in March and April to 52 percent in November, the city receives 1,628 hours of bright sunshine annually, considerably less than nearby Shenzhen and Hong Kong. Extreme temperatures have ranged from 0 °C (32 °F) to 39.1 °C (102.4 °F).[116] The last recorded snowfall in the city was on 24 January 2016, 87 years after the second last recorded snowfall.[117] Climate data for Guangzhou (normals 1971–2000, extremes 1961–2000) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 27.2 (81.0) 28.6 (83.5) 32.1 (89.8) 32.4 (90.3) 36.2 (97.2) 36.6 (97.9) 39.1 (102.4) 38.0 (100.4) 37.6 (99.7) 34.8 (94.6) 32.5 (90.5) 29.6 (85.3) 39.1 (102.4) Average high °C (°F) 18.3 (64.9) 18.5 (65.3) 21.6 (70.9) 25.7 (78.3) 29.3 (84.7) 31.5 (88.7) 32.8 (91.0) 32.7 (90.9) 31.5 (88.7) 28.8 (83.8) 24.5 (76.1) 20.6 (69.1) 26.3 (79.4) Daily mean °C (°F) 13.9 (57.0) 15.2 (59.4) 18.1 (64.6) 22.4 (72.3) 25.8 (78.4) 27.8 (82.0) 28.9 (84.0) 28.8 (83.8) 27.5 (81.5) 24.7 (76.5) 20.1 (68.2) 15.5 (59.9) 22.4 (72.3) Average low °C (°F) 10.3 (50.5) 11.7 (53.1) 15.2 (59.4) 19.5 (67.1) 22.7 (72.9) 24.8 (76.6) 25.5 (77.9) 25.4 (77.7) 24.0 (75.2) 20.8 (69.4) 15.9 (60.6) 11.5 (52.7) 18.9 (66.1) Record low °C (°F) 0.1 (32.2) 1.3 (34.3) 3.2 (37.8) 7.7 (45.9) 14.6 (58.3) 18.8 (65.8) 21.6 (70.9) 20.9 (69.6) 15.5 (59.9) 9.5 (49.1) 4.9 (40.8) 0.0 (32.0) 0.0 (32.0) Average rainfall mm (inches) 40.9 (1.61) 69.4 (2.73) 84.7 (3.33) 201.2 (7.92) 283.7 (11.17) 276.2 (10.87) 232.5 (9.15) 227.0 (8.94) 166.2 (6.54) 87.3 (3.44) 35.4 (1.39) 31.6 (1.24) 1,736.1 (68.33) Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) 7.5 11.2 15.0 16.3 18.3 18.2 15.9 16.8 12.5 7.1 5.5 4.9 149.2 Average relative humidity (%) 72 78 82 84 84 84 82 82 78 72 66 66 78 Mean monthly sunshine hours 118.5 71.6 62.4 65.1 104.0 140.2 202.0 173.5 170.2 181.8 172.7 166.0 1,628 Percent possible sunshine 35 22 17 17 26 35 49 43 46 51 52 50 37 Source: China Meteorological Administration,[118] all-time extreme temperature[116] Administrative divisions[edit] Main article: List of administrative divisions of Guangzhou Guangzhou is a subprovincial city. It has direct jurisdiction over eleven districts: Liwan Yuexiu Haizhu Tianhe Baiyun Huangpu Panyu Huadu Nansha Conghua Zengcheng Administrative divisions of Guangzhou Division code[119] Division Area (km2)[120] Population (2010)[121] Seat Postal code Subdivisions[122] Subdistricts Towns Residential communities Administrative villages 440100 Guangzhou 7,434.40 12,701,948 Yuexiu 510000 136 34 1533 1142 440103 Liwan 59.10 898,200 Shiweitang Subdistrict 510000 22   195   440104 Yuexiu 33.80 1,157,666 Beijing Subdistrict 510000 18   267   440105 Haizhu 90.40 1,558,663 Jianghai Subdistrict 510000 18   257   440106 Tianhe 96.33 1,432,426 Tianyuan Subdistrict 510000 21   205   440111 Baiyun 795.79 2,223,150 Jingtai Subdistrict 510000 18 4 253 118 440112 Huangpu 484.17 831,586 Luogang Subdistrict 510500 14 1 90 28 440113 Panyu 529.94 1,764,828 Shiqiao Subdistrict 511400 11 5 87 177 440114 Huadu 970.04 945,005 Huacheng Subdistrict 510800 4 6 50 188 440115 Nansha 783.86 259,900 Huangge Town 511400 3 6 28 128 440117 Conghua 1,974.50 593,415 Jiekou Subdistrict 510900 3 5 46 221 440118 Zengcheng 1,616.47 1,037,109 Licheng Subdistrict 511300 4 7 55 282 Administrative divisions in Chinese and varieties of romanizations English Chinese Pinyin Guangdong Romanization Kejiahua Pinyin Fang'an Liwan District 荔湾区 Lìwān Qū lei6 wan1 kêu1 lai4 van1 ki1 Yuexiu District 越秀区 Yuèxiù Qū yud6 seo3 kêu1 yet6 siu4 ki1 Haizhu District 海珠区 Hǎizhū Qū hoi2 ju1 kêu1 hoi2 zu1 ki1 Tianhe District 天河区 Tiānhé Qū tin6 ho4 kêu1 tien1 ho2 ki1 Baiyun District 白云区 Báiyún Qū bak6 wan4 kêu1 pak6 yun2 ki1 Huangpu District 黄埔区 Huángpǔ Qū wong4 bou3 kêu1 vong2 bu4 ki1 Panyu District 番禺区 Pānyú Qū pun1 yu4 kêu1 pan1 ngi2 ki1 Huadu District 花都区 Huādū Qū fa1 dou1 kêu1 fa1 du1 ki1 Nansha District 南沙区 Nánshā Qū nam4 sa1 kêu1 nam2/lam2 sa1 ki1 Conghua District 从化区 Cónghuà Qū cung4 fa3 kêu1 vung2 fa3 ki1 Zengcheng District 增城区 Zēngchéng Qū zeng1 xing4 kêu1 zen1 sang2 ki1 Guangzhou City 广州市 Guǎngzhōu Shì guong2 zeo1 xi5 kong3 ziu1 si4 Economy[edit] The first Canton Fair (1957) at the Sino-Soviet Friendship Building Guangzhou is the main manufacturing hub of the Pearl River Delta, one of mainland China's leading commercial and manufacturing regions. In 2017, the GDP reached ¥2,150 billion (US$318 billion), per capita was ¥150,678 (US$22,317).[123] Guangzhou is considered one of the most prosperous cities in China. Guangzhou ranks 10th in the world and 5th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen) in terms of the number of billionaires according to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020.[20] Guangzhou is projected to be among the world top 10 largest cities in terms of nominal GDP in 2035 (together with Shanghai, Beijing and Shenzhen in China) according to a study by Oxford Economics,[124] and its nominal GDP per capita will reach above US$42,000 in 2030.[125] Guangzhou also ranks 21st globally (between Washington, D.C. and Amsterdam) and 8th in the whole Asia and the Pacific (behind Shanghai, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, Beijing, Shenzhen and Dubai) in the 2020 Global Financial Centers Index (GFCI).[126] Owing to rapid industrialization, it was once also considered a rather polluted city. After green urban planning was implemented, it is now one of the most livable cities in China. The Canton Fair, formally the "China Import and Export Fair", is held every year in April and October by the Ministry of Trade. Inaugurated in the spring of 1957, the fair is a major event for the city. It is the trade fair with the longest history, highest level, and largest scale in China.[127] From the 104th session onwards, the fair moved to the new Guangzhou International Convention and Exhibition Center (广州国际会展中心) in Pazhou, from the older complex in Liuhua. The GICEC is served by two stations on Line 8 and three stations on Tram Line THZ1. Since the 104th session, the Canton Fair has been arranged in three phases instead of two phases. Guangzhou skyline The former Canton Fair site at Yuexiu's Liuhua Complex Interior of the current Canton Fair site in Pazhou, 2006 Local products[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Cantonese is one of China's most famous and popular regional cuisines, with a saying stating simply to "Eat in Guangzhou" (食在廣州)[note 10] Cantonese sculpture includes work in jade, wood, and (now controversially) ivory. Canton porcelain developed over the past three centuries as one of the major forms of exportware. It is now known within China for its highly colorful style. Cantonese embroidery is one of China's four main styles of the embroidery, and is represented in Guangzhou, although the industry is mainly centered in Chaozhou. Zhujiang Beer, a pale lager, is one of China's most successful brands. It is made in Guangzhou from water piped directly to the brewery from a natural spring. Industry[edit] Guangzhou Peugeot Automobile Company produced the Peugeot 504 and Peugeot 505 automobiles from 1989 to 1997. Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone Guangzhou Nansha Export Processing Zone The Export Processing Zone was founded in 2005. Its total planned area is 1.36 km2 (0.53 sq mi).[128] It is located in Nansha District and it belongs to the provincial capital, Guangzhou. The major industries encouraged in the zone include automobile assembly, biotechnology and heavy industry. It is situated 54 kilometers (34 miles) (a 70 minutes drive) south of Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport and close to Nansha Port. It also has the advantage of Guangzhou Metro line 4 which is being extended to Nansha Ferry Terminal. Guangzhou Free Trade Zone The zone was founded in 1992. It is located in the east of Huangpu District and near to Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone. It is also very close to Guangzhou Baiyun Airport.[129] The major industries encouraged in the zone include international trade, logistics, processing and computer software. Recently the Area has been rebranded and is now being marketed under the name Huangpu District. Next to the industries above, new sectors are being introduced to the business environment, including new energy, AI, new mobility, new materials, information and communication technology and new transport. It is also Home to the Guangzhou IP Court.[130] Guangzhou Science City Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1950[131] 2,567,645 —     1960[131] 3,683,104 +43.4% 1970[131] 4,185,363 +13.6% 1980[131] 5,018,638 +19.9% 1990[131] 5,942,534 +18.4% 2000[131] 9,943,000 +67.3% 2002[132] 10,106,229 +1.6% 2005[133] 9,496,800 −6.0% 2006[133] 9,966,600 +4.9% 2007[133] 10,530,100 +5.7% 2008[133] 11,153,400 +5.9% 2009[133] 11,869,700 +6.4% 2010[131] 12,701,948 +7.0% 2011[134] 12,751,400 +0.4% 2012[134] 12,832,900 +0.6% 2013[134] 12,926,800 +0.7% 2014[134] 13,080,500 +1.2% 2018 14,904,400 +13.9% Population size may be affected by changes to administrative divisions. The 2010 census found Guangzhou's population to be 12.78 million. As of 2014[update], it was estimated at 13,080,500,[2][134] with 11,264,800 urban residents.[3] Its population density is thus around 1,800 people per km2. The built-up area of the Guangzhou proper connects directly to several other cities. The built-up area of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone covers around 17,573 square kilometers (6,785 sq mi) and has been estimated to house 22 million people, including Guangzhou's nine urban districts, Shenzhen (5.36m), Dongguan (3.22m), Zhongshan (3.12m), most of Foshan (2.2m), Jiangmen (1.82m), Zhuhai (890k), and Huizhou's Huiyang District (760k).[citation needed] The total population of this agglomeration is over 28 million after including the population of the adjacent Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.[citation needed] The area's fast-growing economy and high demand for labor has produced a huge "floating population" of migrant workers; thus, up to 10 million migrants reside in the area least six months each year.[citation needed] In 2008, about five million of Guangzhou's permanent residents were hukouless migrants.[135] Ethnicity and language[edit] Most of Guangzhou's population is Han Chinese. Almost all Cantonese people speak Cantonese as their first language,[137] while most migrants speak forms of Mandarin.[135] In 2010, each language was the native tongue of roughly half of the city's population,[138] although minor but substantial numbers speak other varieties as well.[citation needed] In 2018, He Huifeng of the South China Morning Post stated that younger residents have increasingly favored using Mandarin instead of Cantonese in their daily lives, causing their Cantonese-speaking grandparents and parents to use Mandarin to communicate with them. He Huifeng stated that factors included local authorities discouraging the use of Cantonese in schools and the rise in prestige of Mandarin-speaking Shenzhen.[139] Guangzhou has an even more unbalanced gender ratio than the rest of the country. While most areas of China have 112–120 boys per 100 girls, the Guangdong province that houses Guangzhou has more than 130 boys for every 100 girls.[140] Recent years have seen a huge influx of migrants, with up to 30 million additional migrants living in the Guangzhou area for at least six months out of every year with the majority being female migrants and many becoming local Guangzhou people. This huge influx of people from other areas, called the floating population, is due to the city's fast-growing economy and high labor demands. Guangzhou Mayor Wan Qingliang told an urban planning seminar that Guangzhou is facing a very serious population problem stating that, while the city had 10.33 million registered residents at the time with targets and scales of land use based on this number, the city actually had a population with migrants of nearly 15 million. According to the Guangzhou Academy of Social Sciences researcher Peng Peng, the city is almost at its maximum capacity of just 15 million, which means the city is facing a great strain, mostly due to a high population of unregistered people.[140] According to the 2000 National Census, marriage is one of the top two reasons for permanent migration and particular important for women as 29.3% of the permanent female migrants migrate for marriage [Liang et al.,2004]. Many of the economic migrant female marries men from Guangzhou in hopes of a better life.[141] but like elsewhere in the People's Republic of China, the household registration system (hukou) limits migrants' access to residences, educational institutions and other public benefits. It has been noted that many women end up in prostitution.[142] In May 2014, legally employed migrants in Guangzhou were permitted to receive a hukou card allowing them to marry and obtain permission for their pregnancies in the city, rather than having to return to their official hometowns as previously.[143] Historically, the Cantonese people have made up a sizable part of the 19th- and 20th-century Chinese diaspora; in fact, many overseas Chinese have ties to Guangzhou. This is particularly true in the United States,[144] Canada,[145] and Australia. Demographically, the only significant immigration into China has been by overseas Chinese, but Guangzhou sees many foreign tourists, workers, and residents from the usual locations such as the United States. Notably, it is also home to thousands of African immigrants, including people from Nigeria, Somalia, Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[146] Metropolitan area[edit] The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) to have, as of 2010[update], a population of 25 million.[147][148] Transportation[edit] The east square of Guangzhou railway station in 1991. Urban mass transit[edit] Main article: Guangzhou Metro When the first line of the Guangzhou Metro opened in 1997, Guangzhou was the fourth city in Mainland China to have an underground railway system, behind Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai. Currently the metro network is made up of thirteen lines, covering a total length of 476.26 km (295.93 mi).[149] A long-term plan is to make the city's metro system expand to over 500 km (310 mi) by 2020 with 15 lines in operation. In addition to the metro system there is also the Haizhu Tram line which opened on 31 December 2014.[150] The Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit (GBRT) system which was introduced in 2010 along Zhongshan Road. It has several connections to the metro and is the world's 2nd-largest bus rapid transit system with 1,000,000 passenger trips daily.[151] It handles 26,900 pphpd during the peak hour a capacity second only to the TransMilenio BRT system in Bogota.[152] The system averages one bus every 10 seconds or 350 per hour in a single direction and contains the world's longest BRT stations—around 260 m (850 ft) including bridges. Motor transport[edit] See also: List of bus routes in Guangzhou In the 19th century, the city already had over 600 long, straight streets; these were mostly paved but still very narrow.[36] In June 1919, work began on demolishing the city wall to make way for wider streets and the development of tramways. The demolition took three years in total.[153] In 2009, it was reported that all 9,424 buses and 17,695 taxis in Guangzhou would be operating on LPG-fuel by 2010 to promote clean energy for transport and improve the environment ahead of the 2010 Asian Games which were held in the city.[154] At present[when?], Guangzhou is the city that uses the most LPG-fueled vehicles in the world, and at the end of 2006, 6,500 buses and 16,000 taxis were using LPG, taking up 85 percent of all buses and taxis.[citation needed] Effective January 1, 2007, the municipal government banned motorcycles in Guangdong's urban areas. Motorcycles found violating the ban are confiscated.[155] The Guangzhou traffic bureau claimed to have reported reduced traffic problems and accidents in the downtown area since the ban.[156] Airports[edit] Guangzhou's main airport is the Baiyun International Airport in Baiyun District; it opened on August 5, 2004.[157] This airport is the second busiest airport in terms of traffic movements in China. It replaced the old Baiyun International Airport, which was very close to the city center but failed to meet the city's rapidly growing air traffic demand. The old Baiyun International Airport was in operation for 72 years. Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport now has three runways, with two more planned.[158] The Terminal 2 has opened on April 26, 2018.[159] Another airport located in Zengcheng District is under planning.[160] Guangzhou is served by Hong Kong International Airport; ticketed passengers can take ferries from the Lianhuashan Ferry Terminal and Nansha Ferry Port in Nansha District to the HKIA Skypier.[161] There are also coach bus services connecting Guangzhou with HKIA.[162] Railways[edit] Further information: Guangzhou railway station, Guangzhou East railway station, Guangzhou South railway station, and Guangzhou North railway station Guangzhou is the terminus of the Beijing–Guangzhou, Guangzhou–Shenzhen, Guangzhou–Maoming and Guangzhou–Meizhou–Shantou conventional speed railways. In late 2009, the Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed railway started service, with multiple unit trains covering 980 km (608.94 mi) at a top speed of 320 km/h (199 mph). In December 2014, the Guiyang–Guangzhou high-speed railway and Nanning-Guangzhou railway began service with trains running at top speeds of 250 km/h (155 mph) and 200 km/h (124 mph), respectively.[163] The Guangdong Through Train departs from the Guangzhou East railway station and arrives at the Hung Hom station in Kowloon, Hong Kong. The route is approximately 182 km (113 mi) in length and the ride takes less than two hours. Frequent coach services are also provided with coaches departing every day from different locations (mostly major hotels) around the city. A number of regional railways radiating from Guangzhou started operating such as the Guangzhou–Zhuhai intercity railway and the Guangzhou-Foshan-Zhaoqing intercity railway. Water transport[edit] There are daily high-speed catamaran services between Nansha Ferry Terminal and Lianhua Shan Ferry Terminal in Guangzhou and the Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal, as well as between Nansha Ferry Terminal and Macau Ferry Pier in Hong Kong. Gongyuanqian Station of the Guangzhou Metro Tianhe Sports Center Station (GBRT) Baiyun International Airport in Huadu District A CRH3 Train at Guangzhou South Railway Station A Tram at Wanshengwei Station Culture[edit] Guangzhou Opera House Within China, the culture of the Cantonese people is a subset of the larger "Southern" or "Lingnan" cultural areas. Notable aspects of Guangzhou's cultural heritage include: Cantonese language, the local and prestige variant of Yue Chinese Cantonese cuisine, one of China's eight major culinary traditions[164][note 11] Cantonese opera, usually divided into martial and literary performances Xiguan (Saikwan), the area west of the former walled city The Guangzhou Opera House & Symphony Orchestra also perform classical Western music and Chinese compositions in their style. Cantonese music is a traditional style of Chinese instrumental music, while Cantopop is the local form of pop music and rock-and-roll which developed from neighboring Hong Kong. Religions[edit] Qing-era Guangzhou had around 124 religious pavilions, halls, and temples.[36] Today, in addition to the Buddhist Association, Guangzhou also has a Taoist Association, a Jewish community,[166][167] as well as a history with Christianity, reintroduced to China by colonial powers.[clarification needed] Taoism[edit] Taoism and Chinese folk religion are still represented at a few of the city's temples. Among the most important is the Temple of the Five Immortals, honoring the five immortals credited with introducing rice cultivation at the foundation of the city. The five rams they rode were supposed to have turned into stones upon their departure and gave the city several of its nicknames.[168] Another place of worship is the City God Temple. Guangzhou, like most of southern China, is also notably observant concerning ancestral veneration during occasions like the Tomb Sweeping and Ghost Festivals. Buddhism[edit] Buddhism is the most prominent religion in Guangzhou.[169] The Zhizhi Temple was founded in AD 233 from the estate of a Wu official; it is said to comprise the residence of Zhao Jiande, the last of the Nanyue kings, and has been known as the Guangxiao Temple ("Temple of Bright Filial Piety") since the Ming. The missionary Bodhidharma is traditionally said to have visited Panyu during the Liu Song or Liang dynasties (5th or 6th century). Around AD 520, Emperor Wu of the Liang ordered the construction of the Baozhuangyan Temple and the Xilai Monastery to store the relics of Cambodian Buddhist saints which had been brought to the city and to house the monks beginning to assemble there. The Baozhuangyan is now known as the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees, after a famous poem composed by Su Shi after a visit during the Northern Song.[citation needed] The Xilai Monastery was renamed the Hualin Temple ("Flowery Forest Temple") after its reconstruction during the Qing. The temples were damaged by both the Republican campaign to "Promote Education with Temple Property" (廟產興學) and the Maoist Cultural Revolution but have been renovated since the opening up that began in the 1980s. The Ocean Banner Temple on Henan Island, once famous in the west as the only tourist spot in Guangzhou accessible to foreigners, has been reopened as the Hoi Tong Monastery. Christianity[edit] Nestorian Christians first arrived in China via the overland Silk Road, but suffered during Emperor Wuzong's 845 persecution and were essentially extinct by the year 1000.[170][specify] The Qing-era ban on foreigners limited missionaries until it was abolished following the First Opium War, although the Protestant Robert Morrison was able to perform some work through his service with the British factory. The Catholic Archdiocese of Guangzhou is housed at Guangzhou's Sacred Heart Cathedral, known locally as the "Stone House". A Gothic Revival edifice which was built by hand from 1861 to 1888 under French direction, its original Latin and French stained-glass windows were destroyed during the wars and amid the Cultural Revolution; they have since been replaced by English ones. The Canton Christian College (1888) and Hackett Medical College for Women (1902) were both founded by missionaries and now form part of Guangzhou's Lingnan. Since the opening up of China in the 1980s, there has been renewed interest in Christianity, but Guangzhou maintains pressure on underground churches which avoid registration with government officials.[171] The Catholic archbishop Dominic Tang was imprisoned without trial for 22 years; however, his present successor is recognized by both the Vatican and China's Patriotic Church. Islam[edit] Guangzhou has had ties with the Islamic world since the Tang Dynasty.[172] Relations were often strained: Arab and Persian pirates sacked the city on October 30, 758; the port was subsequently closed for fifty years.[48][49][50][51][52] Their presence came to an end under the revenge of Chinese rebel Huang Chao in 878, along with that of the Jews, Christians,[53][54][55] and Parsis.[56][57] Nowadays, the city is home to halal restaurants.[173] Guangzhou's Temple of the Five Immortals The Hall of the 500 Arhats at the Flowery Forest Temple (Hualin) in the 1870s The Temple of Bright Filial Piety Guangzhou's City God Temple The sacred pigs of the Ocean Banner Temple (Hoi Tong) in the 1830s The Flower Pagoda at the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees (Liurong) The Thousand Buddha Tower at the present-day Hoi Tong Monastery Sacred Heart Cathedral Tianhe Church, built in 2017 Sport[edit] Guangdong Olympic Stadium Tianhe Stadium is the home of Guangzhou F.C. Yuexiushan Stadium is the home of Guangzhou City F.C. The 11,468 seat Guangzhou Gymnasium was one of the venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.[174] From 12 to 27 November 2010, Guangzhou hosted the 16th Asian Games. The same year, it hosted the first Asian Para Games from December 12 to 19. Combined, these were the major sporting events the city ever hosted.[175] Guangzhou also hosted the following major sporting events: 1987 The 6th National Games of China 1991 The 1st FIFA Women's World Cup 2001 The 2001 National Games of China 2007 The 8th National Traditional Games of Ethnic Minorities of the People's Republic of China 2008 The 49th World Table Tennis Championships 2009 The 11th Sudirman Cup: the world badminton mixed team championships Current professional sports clubs based in Guangzhou include: Sport League Tier Club Stadium Football Chinese Super League 1st Guangzhou Tianhe Stadium Football Chinese Super League 1st Guangzhou City Yuexiushan Stadium Esports (Overwatch) Overwatch League 1st Guangzhou Charge Tianhe Gymnasium Basketball Chinese Basketball Association 1st Guangzhou Loong Lions Tianhe Gymnasium Baseball China Baseball League 1st Guangdong Leopards Tianhe Sports Center baseball field In the 2010s, Guangzhou has risen to be a football powerhouse of China, having won eight national titles between 2011 and 2019. The team has also won the AFC Champions League in 2013 and 2015. The club has competed at the 2013 and 2015 FIFA Club World Cup, where it lost 3–0 in the semifinal stage to the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League winners FC Bayern Munich and the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League winners FC Barcelona, respectively.[176] Destinations[edit] Eight Views[edit] Main articles: Eight Views and Eight Views of Guangzhou Canton Tower[177] The Eight Views of Ram City are Guangzhou's eight most famous tourist attractions. They have varied over time since the Song dynasty, with some being named or demoted by emperors. The following modern list was chosen through public appraisal in 2011:[citation needed] "Towers Shining through the New Town" "The Pearl River Flowing and Shining": The Pearl River from Bai'etan to Pazhou "Cloudy Mountain Green and Tidy": Baiyun Mountain Scenic Area "Yuexiu's Grandeur": Yuexiu Hill and Park "The Ancient Academy's Lingering Fame": The Chen Clan Ancestral Hall and its folk art museum "Liwan's Wonderful Scenery": Liwan Lake "Science City, Splendid as Brocade" "Wetlands Singing at Night": Nansha Wetlands Park The Pearl River at Haiyin Bridge Zhujiang New City from Pakwan or Baiyun Mountain A brick carving at the Guangzhou Folk Art Museum, housed in the Chen Clan Ancestral Hall Bombax ceiba, Guangzhou's official flower Parks and gardens[edit] Baiyun Mountain Nansha Wetland Park People's Park South China Botanical Garden Yuexiu Park Dongshanhu Park (东山湖公园; 東山湖公園) Liuhuahu Park (流花湖公园; 流花湖公園) Liwanhu Park (荔湾湖公园; 荔灣湖公園) Luhu Park (麓湖公园; 麓湖公園) Martyrs' Park (广州起义烈士陵园; 廣州起義烈士陵園) Pearl River Park (珠江公园; 珠江公園) Yuntai Garden (云台花园; 雲臺花園) Shimen National Forest Park(石门国家森林公园; 石門國家森林公園) Haizhu Lake Park(海珠湖公园; 海珠湖公園) Tourist attractions[edit] Guangzhou attracts more than 223 million visitors each year, and the total revenue of the tourism exceeded 400 billion in 2018.[178] There are many tourist attractions, including: Canton Tower Chen Clan Ancestral Hall, housing Guangzhou's folk art museum Chime-Long Paradise Chime-Long Waterpark (simplified Chinese: 长隆水上乐园; traditional Chinese: 長隆水上樂園) Guangdong Provincial Museum Guangzhou Zoo Mulberry Park, public center which demonstrates mulberry growing and silk making Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King Peasant Movement Training Institute, an important Maoist site Sacred Heart Cathedral (Stone House) Temple of Bright Filial Piety (Guangxiao) Temple of the Six Banyan Trees (Liurong), site of the Flowery Pagoda Shamian or Shameen Island, the old trading compound Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, site of Guangzhou's former presidential palace Xiguan(Saikwan), the western suburbs of the old city Modern Guangzhou by day Modern Guangzhou at night Pedestrian streets[edit] In every district there are many shopping areas where people can walk on the sidewalks; however most of them are not set as pedestrian streets. Shangxiajiu Pedestrian Street The popular pedestrian streets are: Beijing Road pedestrian street Shangxiajiu Pedestrian Street Huacheng Square (Flower City Square) Malls and shopping centers[edit] There are many malls and shopping centers in Guangzhou. The majority of the new malls are located in the Tianhe district. 101 Dynamics China Plaza Liwan Plaza Teem Plaza Victory Plaza Wanguo Plaza Grandview Mall (Grandview Mall Aquarium) Wanda square Happy Valley (Guangzhou) TaiKoo Hui Parc Central OneLinkWalk Rock Square Aeon Mall GT Land Plaza IFC Plaza IGC Mall Mall of the World K11 Fashion Tianhe Major buildings[edit] Main article: List of tallest buildings in Guangzhou See also: List of historic buildings in Guangzhou CITIC Plaza Canton Tower Guangzhou Circle Mansion Guangdong Olympic Stadium Guangzhou Opera House Guangzhou TV Tower Pearl River Tower The Twin Towers: Guangzhou International Finance Center (West) The CTF Guangzhou (East) Canton Custom House (est. 1916), one of the oldest surviving in China Aiqun Hotel, Guangzhou's tallest building from 1937 to 1967 Our Lady of Lourdes Chapel on Shamian The Canton Cement Factory (est. 1907), which housed Sun Yat-sen from 1923 to 1925 The old provincial capitol, now the Museum of Revolutionary History Guangzhou's CBD, including the IFC (right) Media[edit] Guangzhou has two local radio stations: the provincial Radio Guangdong and the municipal Radio Guangzhou. Together they broadcast in more than a dozen channels. The primary language of both stations is Cantonese. Traditionally only one channel of Radio Guangdong is dedicated to Mandarin Chinese. However, in recent years there has been an increase in Mandarin programs on most Cantonese channels. Radio stations from cities around Guangzhou mainly broadcast in Cantonese and can be received in different parts of the city, depending on the radio stations' locations and transmission power. The Beijing-based China National Radio also broadcasts Mandarin programs in the city. Radio Guangdong has a 30-minute weekly English programs, Guangdong Today, which is broadcast globally through the World Radio Network. Daily English news programs are also broadcast by Radio Guangdong. Guangzhou has some of the most notable Chinese-language newspapers and magazines in mainland China, most of which are published by three major newspaper groups in the city, the Guangzhou Daily Press Group, Nanfang Press Corporation, and the Yangcheng Evening News Group. The two leading newspapers of the city are Guangzhou Daily and Southern Metropolis Daily. The former, with a circulation of 1.8 million, has been China's most successful newspaper for 14 years in terms of advertising revenue, while Southern Metropolis Daily is considered one of the most liberal newspapers in mainland China. In addition to Guangzhou's Chinese-language publications, there are a few English magazines and newspapers. The most successful is That's Guangzhou, which started more than a decade ago and has since blossomed into That's PRD, producing expatriate magazines in Beijing and Shanghai as well. It also produces In the Red. Education[edit] Sun Yat-sen University main gate The College of Medical Science at Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou Library The Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, also known as Guangzhou University Town (广州大学城), is a large tertiary education complex located in the southeast suburbs of Guangzhou. It occupies the entirety of Xiaoguwei Island in Panyu District, covering an area of about 18 square kilometers (7 sq mi). The complex accommodates campuses from ten higher education institutions and can eventually accommodate up to 200,000 students, 20,000 teachers, and 50,000 staff.[179] The Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center's higher education campuses are as follows: Guangdong Pharmaceutical University Guangdong University of Foreign Studies Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts Guangzhou University Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine South China Normal University South China University of Technology Sun Yat-sen University Xinghai Conservatory of Music Guangzhou's other fully accredited and degree-granting universities and colleges include: Guangdong Institute of Science and Technology Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University Guangdong University of Finance & Economics Guangdong University of Finance Guangzhou College of South China University of Technology Guangzhou Medical University Guangzhou Sports University Jinan University South China Agricultural University Southern Medical University Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering The two main comprehensive libraries are Guangzhou Library and Sun Yat-sen Library of Guangdong Province. Guangzhou Library is a public library in Guangzhou. The library has moved to a new building in Zhujiang New Town, which fully opened on 23 June 2013.[180] Sun Yat-sen Library of Guangdong Province has the largest collection of ancient books in Southern China.[181] International relations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in China Twin towns and sister cities[edit] Guangzhou currently maintains sister city agreements with the following foreign cities.[182][183] Fukuoka, Japan (since 1979) Los Angeles, United States (since 1981) Manila, Philippines (since 1982) Vancouver, Canada (since 1985) Sydney, Australia (since 1986) Bari, Italy (since 1986) Lyon, France (since 1988) Frankfurt, Germany (since 1988) Auckland, New Zealand (since 1989) Gwangju, South Korea (since 1996) Durban, South Africa (since 2000) Bristol, United Kingdom (since 2001) Yekaterinburg, Russia (since 2002) Arequipa, Peru (since 2004) Surabaya, Indonesia (since 2005) Vilnius, Lithuania (since 2006) Birmingham, United Kingdom (since 2006) Hambantota, Sri Lanka (since 2007) Recife, Brazil (since 2007) Tampere, Finland (since 2008) Bangkok, Thailand (since 2009) Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia (since 2011) Petaling Jaya, Malaysia (since 2012) Rabat, Morocco (since 2013) Bình Dương Province, Vietnam (since 2013) Ahmedabad, India (since 2014) Łódź, Poland (since 2014) Dhaka, Bangladesh Ecatepec, Mexico (since 2016)[184][185][186][187] Genova, Italy (since 2016) Padova, Italy (since 2017) Consulates General/consulates[edit] See also: List of diplomatic missions in China As of October 2020, Guangzhou hosts 65 foreign consulates-general/consulates, excluding the Hong Kong and Macao trade office, making it one of the major cities to host more than 50 foreign representatives in China after Beijing and Shanghai.[188][189]  Angola  Argentina  Australia  Austria  Belarus  Belgium  Brazil  Cambodia  Canada  Chile  Colombia (consulate)  Republic of the Congo  Cuba  Denmark  Ecuador  Ethiopia  France  Germany  Ghana  Greece  India  Indonesia  Iran  Israel  Italy  Ivory Coast  Japan  South Korea  Kyrgyzstan  Kuwait  Laos  Malaysia  Mali  Mexico    Nepal  Netherlands  New Zealand  Nigeria  Norway  Pakistan  Panama  Peru  Philippines  Poland  Portugal  Qatar  Russia  Saudi Arabia  Senegal  Singapore  Spain (consulate)  Sri Lanka  Sudan   Switzerland  Thailand  Turkey  Uganda  Ukraine  United Arab Emirates  United Kingdom  United States  Uruguay  Venezuela  Vietnam  Zambia Honours[edit] Guangzhou Peninsula in Antarctica is named after the city, which was a major market and processing centre for the nineteenth-century Antarctic sealing industry. See also[edit] Canton System and Old China Trade World's largest cities Historical capitals of China Mezitli Producer Women's Market#Guangzhou Innovation Award 2021 Guangzhou bombing Notes[edit] ^ The lexicographer only accepted Canton as a proper noun referring to the city, and considered usages with reference to the province as an “ellipsis”, see Yule & al.[31] ^ A. Hamilton (1727) used Canton to refer to both the city and the province, but used Canton for the city more frequently in the same work, especially when he wrote Canton without reference to “Quangtung”. See A. Hamilton (1727; pp. 224–238)[35] ^ Given in contemporary sources as the "Guisi Day" (癸巳) of the 9th lunar month of the first year of the Qianyuan Era under Emperor Suzong of the Tang. ^ The term "Persian" may, however, have been loosely applied and referred indifferently to any similar-looking foreign women.[60] ^ "Buying and selling of children was scarcely unknown in Ming China, but the large new demands of the Portuguese may have stimulated kidnapings from good families..."[73] ^ "Some early Chinese historians go even so far as to give vivid details of the price paid for the children and how they were roasted."[78] ^ "On the day of St Nicholas [6 Dec.] in the year 1522 they put boards on them with the sentence that they should die and be exposed in pillories as robbers. The sentences said: 'Petty sea robbers sent by the great robber falsely; they come to spy out our country; let them die in pillories as robbers.' A report was sent to the king according to the information of the mandarins, and the king confirmed the sentence. On 23 Sept. 1523 these twenty-three persons were each one cut in pieces, to wit, heads, legs, arms, and their private members placed in their mouths, the trunk of the body being divided into two pieces round the belly. In the streets of Canton, outside the walls, in the suburbs, through the principal streets they were put to death, at distances of one crossbow shot from one another, that all might see them, both those of Canton and those of the environs, in order to give them to understand that they thought nothing of the Portuguese, so that the people might not talk of the Portuguese. Thus... they were all killed, and their heads and private members were carried on the backs of the Portuguese in front of the mandarins of Canton with the playing of musical instruments and rejoicing, were exhibited suspended in the streets, and were then thrown into the dunghills. And from henceforth it was resolved not to allow any more Portuguese into the country nor other strangers."[84] ^ The Shaowu Emperor's remains are buried in Yuexiu Park. ^ In fact, the Danish Asiatic Company was formally chartered in April 1732 while this first ship, the Cron-Printz Christian, was on its return trip.[94] Counting the Cron-Printz Christian, up to 1833, the DAC dispatched 130 ships to Guangzhou, losing five. The average voyage from Copenhagen took 216 days and the voyage back, 192.[91] ^ The statement is an excerpt from the longer proverb "Be born in Suzhou, play in Hangzhou, eat in Guangzhou, and die in Liuzhou" (生在蘇州，玩在杭州，食在廣州，死在柳州). ^ The other seven are the cuisines of Anhui, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan and Zhejiang.[165] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ 土地面积、人口密度（2008年）. Statistics Bureau of Guangzhou. Archived from the original on March 23, 2015. Retrieved February 8, 2010. ^ a b 广州常住人口去年末超1490万 (in Chinese). 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(2009), "Canton Trade", Rise & Fall of the Canton Trade System, Visualizing Cultures, MIT Von Glahn, Richard (1996), Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-20408-9, archived from the original on May 22, 2020, retrieved August 31, 2017 Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1985), The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1 Wilbur, Clarence Martin (1983), The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521318648, archived from the original on March 24, 2020, retrieved August 31, 2017 Wills, John E., Jr. (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662", in Denis Twitchett; John King Fairbank; Albert Feuerwerker (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Pt. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 333–375, ISBN 978-0-521-24333-9 |volume= has extra text (help) Wills, John E., Jr.; Cranmer-Byng, John; Witek, John W. (2010), Wills, Jr., John E. (ed.), China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-17945-4, archived from the original on May 10, 2016, retrieved October 2, 2016. Yü Ying-shih (1987), "Han Foreign Relations", The Cambridge History of China, Vol. I: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C.–A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8 |volume= has extra text (help) Yule, Henry (2002), The Travels of Friar Odoric Further reading[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of Guangzhou. The World in Guangzhou: Africans and other foreigners in South China's marketplace. University of Chicago Press. 2017. ISBN 9780226506074. Chan, May Caroline. "Canton, 1857." Victorian Review 36.1 (2010): 31–35. online Gray, Mrs. John Henry (1880), Fourteen Months in Canton, London: William Clowes & Sons for Macmillan & Co., p. 444 Foster, Simon; Lin-Liu, Jen; Pham, Sherisse; Beth Reiber; Sharon Owyang; Lee Wing-sze; Christopher D. Winnan (2010), Frommer's China, Frommer's, pp. 542 ff, ISBN 978-0-470-52658-3 Johnson, Graham E. (1999). Historical Dictionary of Guangzhou (Canton) and Guangdong. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-3516-0. Lee, Edward Bing-Shuey (1936). Modern Canton. Shanghai: The Mercury Press. Ng, Yong Sang (1936). Canton, City of the Rams: A General Description and a Brief Historical Survey. Canton: M.S. Cheung. ASIN B0008D1HHO. Shaw, Samuel; Josiah Quincy (1847). The journals of Major Samuel Shaw : the first American consul at Canton : with a life of the author. Boston, MA: Wm. Crosby and H.P. Nichols. Retrieved April 5, 2008. Vogel, Ezra F. (1969). Canton Under Communism: Programs and Politics in a Provincial Capital, 1949–1968. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-09475-8. Guangzhou Statistical Yearbook 2016 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Guangzhou. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Guangzhou. Wikisource has several original texts related to: Guangzhou Guangzhou International: Official website of government of Guangzhou municipality Guangzhou, China Network Geographic data related to Guangzhou at OpenStreetMap Preceded by N/A Capital of Nanyue Nanyue 204–111 BC Succeeded by N/A Preceded by Fengtian Capital of China Republic of China July 1, 1925 – February 21, 1927 Succeeded by Wuhan Preceded by Taiyuan Capital of China Republic of China May 28, 1931 – December 22, 1931 Succeeded by Chongqing Preceded by Nanjing Capital of China Republic of China April 23, 1949 – October 14, 1949 Succeeded by Chongqing Links to related articles v t e Guangzhou Administrative divisions Yuexiu Liwan Haizhu Tianhe Baiyun Huangpu Huadu Panyu Nansha New Area Free-Trade Zone Conghua Zengcheng Defunct divisions Dongshan Fangcun Luogang Attractions Baiyun Mountain Xiguan Shamian Island Chen Clan Ancestral Hall Litchi Bay Guangdong Museum Temple of the Six Banyan Trees Zhenhai Tower The Memorial Museum of Generalissimo Sun Yat-sen's Mansion Sacred Heart Cathedral Huaisheng Mosque Guangxiao Temple Chigang Pagoda Canton Tower Canton Fair Pazhou Pagoda Chimelong Paradise Museum of the Western Han Dynasty Mausoleum of the Nanyue King Peasant Movement Institute Shopping malls Teem Plaza Taikoo Hui Grandview Mall Happy Valley CITIC Plaza Whampoa Military Academy Nansha Tianhou Palace Guangzhou Opera House Huacheng Square (Zhujiang New Town) Twin Towers Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre International Finance Center Haixinsha Island Haizhu Square Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall South China Botanical Garden People's Park Culture & demographics Cantonese language Cantonese culture Cantonese cuisine Cantonese people Cantonese opera Higher Education Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center Sun Yat-sen University South China University of Technology South China Normal University Jinan University Guangdong University of Foreign Studies South China Agricultural University Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou University Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine Guangzhou Medical University Guangdong Pharmaceutical University History Timeline Bibliography Sports venues Guangdong Provincial People's Stadium Yuexiushan Stadium Tianhe Stadium Guangdong Olympic Stadium Guangzhou Gymnasium Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center Central Stadium Guangzhou International Sports Arena Yanzigang Stadium Henry Fok Stadium Guangzhou Evergrande Football Stadium Transport Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport Guangzhou Metro Guangzhou BRT Railway stations Guangzhou railway station Guangzhou East railway station Guangzhou South railway station Guangzhou North railway station Guangzhou-Zhuhai Intercity MRT Guangfo Metro Guangzhou Buses Guangzhou Water Buses Guangzhou Trams Haizhu Tram Baiyun Cableway v t e County-level divisions of Guangdong Province Guangzhou (capital) Sub-provincial cities Guangzhou Baiyun District Conghua District Haizhu District Huadu District Huangpu District Liwan 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Subdistrict Nancheng Subdistrict Wanjiang Subdistrict Shijie town Gaobu town Songshanhu District* Chashan town Dalang town Dalingshan town Liaobu town Shilong town Shipai town Dongbu District* Changping town Dongkeng town Hengli town Huangjiang town Qiaotou town Qishi town Xiegang town Dongnan District* Fenggang town Qingxi town Tangxia town Zhongtang town Binhai District* Chang'an town Houjie town Humen town Shatian town Shuixiang District* Daojiao town Hongmei town Machong town Wangniudun town Zhangmutou town * Not a formal administrative subdivision Zhongshan v t e Zhongshan Zhongxin District* Dongqu Subdistrict Nanqu Subdistrict Shiqi Subdistrict Xiqu Subdistrict Wuguishan Subdistrict Gangkou town Dachong town Shaxi town Dongbu District* Zhongshangang Subdistrict Nanlang town Cuiheng New Area Xibei District* Dongfeng town Dongsheng town Fusha town Guzhen town Henglan town Nantou town Xiaolan town Dongbei District* Huangpu town Minzhong town Sanjiao town Nanbu District* Banfu town Sanxiang town Shenwan town Tanzhou town * Not a formal administrative subdivision Chaozhou Xiangqiao District Chao'an District Fengxi Mgmt Dist Raoping County Jieyang Rongcheng District Jiedong District Puning city Huilai County Jiexi County Yunfu Yuncheng District Yun'an District Luoding city Xinxing County Yunan County Guangdong township-level divisions Guangdong Free-Trade Zone Category Portal   v t e Largest cities in Guangdong Source: China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population Rank Pop. Rank Pop. Guangzhou Shenzhen 1 Guangzhou 13,154,200 11 Maoming 849,700 Dongguan Shantou 2 Shenzhen 13,026,600 12 Zhaoqing 820,600 3 Dongguan 6,850,300 13 Chaozhou 775,800 4 Shantou 2,796,400 14 Shaoguan 647,300 5 Zhuhai 2,779,800 15 Puning 619,100 6 Huizhou 2,396,400 16 Zhongshan 572,000 7 Foshan 1,872,500 17 Qingyuan 534,200 8 Jiangmen 1,386,500 18 Yangjiang 507,800 9 Zhanjiang 917,800 19 Meizhou 469,500 10 Jieyang 860,000 20 Gaozhou 364,400 v t e Pearl River Delta Metropolitan Region (Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area) Pearl River Delta Economic Zone Guangdong Province Guangzhou Panyu Huadu Nansha Zengcheng Conghua Shenzhen Bao'an Zhuhai Hengqin Dongguan Zhongshan Cuiheng Foshan Jiangmen Enping Taishan Kaiping Heshan Huizhou Zhaoqing Sihui Gaoyao Special administrative regions Hong Kong New Territories Kowloon Hong Kong Island Macau Macau Peninsula Taipa Coloane Cotai v t e Major cities along the Pearl River Cities (from upper reaches to lower reaches) Major Tributaries v t e Bei River Bei Nanxiong Shaoguan Zhenjiang Wujiang Qujiang Yingde Qingyuan Qingxin Qingcheng Foshan Sanshui waterways with Xi Nanhai Chancheng Sanshui Guangzhou Panyu Nansha merged into the Shiziyang v t e Dong River Dong Heyuan Yuancheng Huizhou Huicheng Dongguan Guangzhou Zengcheng Huangpu merged into the Shiziyang v t e Xi River Xi Gui→Li Guilin Diecai Qixing Xiufeng Xiangshan Yanshan Wuzhou Changzhou Wanxiu merged into the Xi Xun Yong→Yu Zuo Chongzuo Jiangzhou Nanning Jiangnan Xixiangtang merged into the Yong→Yu You Baise Youjiang Nanning Xixiangtang merged into the Yong→Yu tributaries of Zuo & You Nanning Jiangnan Xixiangtang Qingxiu Liangqing Yongning Guigang Qintang Gangnan Gangbei Guiping merged into the Xun Qian Liu Long Hechi Jinchengjiang Yizhou merged into the Liu Rong Liuzhou Liubei Liunan Chengzhong Yufeng merged into the Liu tributaries of Long & Rong merged into the Qian Hongshui Beipan Xuanwei Liupanshui Liuzhi merged into the Hongshui Nanpan Qujing Qilin merged into the Hongshui tributaries of Beipan & Nanpan Heshan Laibin Xingbin merged into the Qian tributaries of Liu & Hongshui Guiping merged into the Xun tributaries of Yong→Yu & Qian Wuzhou Changzhou Longxu Wanxiu merged into the Xi tributaries of Gui→Li & Xun Wuzhou Wanxiu Yunfu Yun'an Zhaoqing Gaoyao Duanzhou Dinghu Foshan Sanshui waterways with Bei Gaoming Nanhai Shunde Heshan Jiangmen Pengjiang waterways with Shiziyang & Lingdingyang Zhongshan Jiangmen Jianghai Xinhui Zhuhai Doumen Jinwan Xiangzhou South China Sea Pearl River Pearl Guangzhou (Baiyun) Foshan (Nanhai) Guangzhou (Liwan Haizhu Yuexiu Tianhe Huangpu) Dongguan Shiziyang Shiziyang Pearl tributary of Dong Dongguan Guangzhou Panyu tributary of Bei Nansha waterways with Xi Lingdingyang Lingdingyang Shiziyang Guangzhou Nansha waterways with Xi Zhongshan Shenzhen Bao'an Guangming Longhua Nanshan Futian Luohu Yantian Longgang Pingshan Dapeng Zhuhai Xiangzhou Jinwan Doumen Hong Kong New Territories Hong Kong Island Kowloon Macau Macau Peninsula Jiuzhouyang Jiuzhouyang Lingdingyang Macau Taipa Coloane Cotai South China Sea Major cities along the Yangtze River · Major cities along the Yellow River v t e Metropolitan cities of China Major Metropolitan regions Jing-Jin-Ji (BJ-TJ-HE) Yuegang'ao Greater Bay Area (GD-HK-MO) Yangtze Delta (SH-JS-ZJ) Zhongyuan Chengyu Cross-Strait Western Coast Guanzhong Mid-Southern Liaoning Shandong Peninsula Yangtze River Midstream (Yangtze River Valley) Major cities National Central Cities Beijinga Chongqinga Guangzhoub2 Shanghaia2 Tianjina2 Special administrative regions Hong Kong Macau Regional Central Cities Chengdub Nanjingb Shenyangb Shenzhenc1 Wuhanb Xi'anb Sub-provincial cities Changchunb Chengdub Dalianc2 Guangzhoub2 Hangzhoub Harbinb Jinanb Nanjingb Ningboc2 Qingdaoc2 Shenyangb Shenzhenc1 Wuhanb Xiamenc1 Xi'anb Provincial capitals (Prefecture-level) Changsha Fuzhou2 Guiyang Haikou Hefei Kunming Lanzhou Nanchang Shijiazhuang Taiyuan Xining Zhengzhou Taibei5 Autonomous regional capitals Hohhot Lhasa Nanning Ürümqi Yinchuan Comparatively large cities Anshan Baotou Benxi Datong Fushun Handan Huainan Jilin Luoyang Qiqihar Suzhou Tangshan Wuxi Xuzhou Zibo Prefecture-level cities by Province Hebei Shijiazhuang* Tangshan* Qinhuangdao2 Handan* Xingtai Baoding Zhangjiakou Chengde Cangzhou Langfang Hengshui Shanxi Taiyuan* Datong* Yangquan Changzhi Jincheng Shuozhou Jinzhong Yuncheng Xinzhou Linfen Lüliang Inner Mongolia Hohhot* Baotou* Wuhai Chifeng Tongliao Ordos Hulunbuir Bayannur Ulanqab Liaoning Shenyang* Dalian* Anshan* Fushun* Benxi* Dandong Jinzhou Yingkou Fuxin Liaoyang Panjin Tieling Chaoyang Huludao Jilin Changchun* Jilin Siping Liaoyuan Tonghua Baishan Songyuan Baicheng Heilongjiang Harbin* Qiqihar* Jixi Hegang Shuangyashan Daqing Yīchun Jiamusi Qitaihe Mudanjiang Heihe Suihua Jiangsu Nanjing* Wuxi* Xuzhou* Changzhou Suzhou* Nantong Lianyungang2 Huai'an Yancheng Yangzhou Zhenjiang Tàizhou Suqian Zhejiang Hangzhou* Ningbo* Wenzhou2 Jiaxing Huzhou Shaoxing Jinhua Quzhou Zhoushan Tāizhou Lishui Anhui Hefei* Wuhu Bengbu Huainan* Ma'anshan Huaibei Tongling Anqing Huangshan Chuzhou Fuyang Sùzhou Lu'an Bozhou Chizhou Xuancheng Fujian Fuzhou* Xiamen* Putian Sanming Quanzhou Zhangzhou Nanping Longyan Ningde Jiangxi Nanchang* Jingdezhen Pingxiang Jiujiang Xinyu Yingtan Ganzhou Ji'an Yíchun Fǔzhou Shangrao Shandong Jinan* Qingdao* Zibo* Zaozhuang Dongying Yantai2 Weifang Jining Tai'an Weihai Rizhao Laiwu Linyi Dezhou Liaocheng Binzhou Heze Henan Zhengzhou* Kaifeng Luoyang* Pingdingshan Anyang Hebi Xinxiang Jiaozuo Puyang Xuchang Luohe Sanmenxia Nanyang Shangqiu Xinyang Zhoukou Zhumadian Hubei Wuhan* Huangshi Shiyan Yichang Xiangyang Ezhou Jingmen Xiaogan Jinzhou Huanggang Xianning Suizhou Hunan Changsha* Zhuzhou Xiangtan Hengyang Shaoyang Yueyang Changde Zhangjiajie Yiyang Chenzhou Yongzhou Huaihua Loudi Guangdong Guangzhou* Shaoguan Shenzhen* Zhuhai1 Shantou1 Foshan Jiangmen Zhanjiang2 Maoming Zhaoqing Huizhou Meizhou Shanwei Heyuan Yangjiang Qingyuan Dongguan Zhongshan Chaozhou Jieyang Yunfu Guangxi Nanning* Liuzhou Guilin Wuzhou Beihai2 Fangchenggang Qinzhou Guigang Yùlin Baise Hezhou Hechi Laibin Chongzuo Hainan1 Haikou* Sanya Sansha4 Danzhou Sichuan Chengdu* Zigong Panzhihua Luzhou Deyang Mianyang Guangyuan Suining Neijiang Leshan Nanchong Meishan Yibin Guang'an Dazhou Ya'an Bazhong Ziyang Guizhou Guiyang* Liupanshui Zunyi Anshun Bijie Tongren Yunnan Kunming* Qujing Yuxi Baoshan Zhaotong Lijiang Pu'er Lincang Tibet Lhasa* Shigatse Chamdo Nyingchi Shannan Shaanxi Xi'an* Tongchuan Baoji Xianyang Weinan Yan'an Hanzhong Yúlin Ankang Shangluo Gansu Lanzhou* Jiayuguan Jinchang Baiyin Tianshui Wuwei Zhangye Pingliang Jiuquan Qingyang Dingxi Longnan Qinghai Xining* Haidong Ningxia Yinchuan* Shizuishan Wuzhong Guyuan Zhongwei Xinjiang Ürümqi* Karamay Turpan Hami Taiwan5 (none) Other cities (partly shown below) Prefecture-level capitals (County-level) (Inner Mongolia: Ulanhot Xilinhot) Jiagedaqi3, Heilongjiang Enshi, Hubei Jishou, Hunan (Sichuan：Xichang Kangding Barkam) (Guizhou: Xingyi Kaili Duyun) (Yunnan: Chuxiong Mengzi Wenshan Jinghong Dali Mangshi Shangri-La Lushui) (Gansu: Linxia Hezuo) (Qinghai: Yushu Delingha) (Xinjiang: Changji Bole Korla Yining Artux Aksu Kashgar1 Hotan Tacheng Altay) Province-governed cities (Sub-prefecture-level) Jiyuan, Henan (Hubei: Xiantao Qiánjiang Tianmen Shennongjia) (Hainan1: Wuzhishan Qionghai Wenchang Wanning Dongfang) (Xinjiang - XPCC(Bingtuan) cities: Shihezi Aral Tumxuk Wujiaqu Beitun Tiemenguan Shuanghe Kokdala Kunyu) Former Prefecture-level cities Chaohu, Anhui Yumen，Gansu Dongchuan, Yunnan Shashi, Hubei (Sichuan: Fuling Wanxian) (Jilin: Meihekou Gongzhuling) Sub-prefecture-level cities (Prefecture-governed) Qian'an, Hebei Manzhouli, Inner Mongolia Erenhot, Inner Mongolia Golmud, Qinghai County-level cities by Province Hebei Xinji Jinzhou Xinle Zunhua Qian'an* Wu'an Nangong Shahe Zhuozhou Dingzhou Anguo Gaobeidian Botou Renqiu Huanghua Hejian Bazhou Sanhe Shenzhou Shanxi Gujiao Lucheng Gaoping Jiexiu Yongji Hejin Yuanping Houma Huozhou Xiaoyi Fenyang Inner Mongolia Holingol Manzhouli* Yakeshi Zhalantun Ergun Genhe Fengzhen Ulanhot* Arxan Erenhot* Xilinhot* Liaoning Xinmin Wafangdian Zhuanghe Haicheng Donggang Fengcheng Linghai Beizhen Gaizhou Dashiqiao Dengta Diaobingshan Kaiyuan Beipiao Lingyuan Xingcheng Jilin Yushu Dehui Jiaohe Huadian Shulan Panshi Gongzhuling Shuangliao Meihekou Ji'an Linjiang Fuyu Taonan Da'an Yanji Tumen Dunhua Hunchun Longjing Helong Heilongjiang Shangzhi Wuchang Nehe Hulin Mishan Tieli Tongjiang Fujin Fuyuan Suifenhe Hailin Ning'an Muling Dongning Bei'an Wudalianchi Anda Zhaodong Hailun Jiangsu Jiangyin Yixing Xinyi Pizhou Liyang Changshu Zhangjiagang Kunshan Taicang Qidong Rugao Haimen Dongtai Yizheng Gaoyou Danyang Yangzhong Jurong Jingjiang Taixing Xinghua Zhejiang Jiande Lin'an Yuyao Cixi Fenghua Rui'an Yueqing Haining Pinghu Tongxiang Zhuji Shengzhou Lanxi Yiwu Dongyang Yongkang Jiangshan Wenling Linhai Longquan Anhui Chaohu Jieshou Tongcheng Tianchang Mingguang Ningguo Fujian Fuqing Changle Yong'an Shishi Jinjiang Nan'an Longhai Shaowu Wuyishan Jian'ou Zhangping Fu'an Fuding Jiangxi Leping Ruichang Gongqingcheng Lushan Guixi Ruijin Jinggangshan Fengcheng Zhangshu Gao'an Dexing Shandong Zhangqiu Jiaozhou Jimo Pingdu Laixi Tengzhou Longkou Laiyang Laizhou Penglai Zhaoyuan Qixia Haiyang Qingzhou Zhucheng Shouguang Anqiu Gaomi Changyi Qufu Zoucheng Xintai Feicheng Rongcheng Rushan Laoling Yucheng Linqing Henan Gongyi Xingyang Xinmi Xinzheng Dengfeng Yanshi Wugang Ruzhou Linzhou Weihui Huixian Qinyang Mengzhou Yuzhou Changge Yima Lingbao Dengzhou Yongcheng Xiangcheng Jiyuan* Hubei Daye Danjiangkou Yidu Dangyang Zhijiang Laohekou Zaoyang Yicheng Zhongxiang Yingcheng Anlu Hanchuan Shishou Honghu Songzi Macheng Wuxue Chibi Guangshui Enshi* Lichuan Xiantao* Qianjiang* Tianmen* Hunan Liuyang Liling Xiangxiang Shaoshan Leiyang Changning Wugang Miluo Linxiang Jinshi Yuanjiang Zixing Hongjiang Lengshuijiang Lianyuan Jishou* Guangdong Lechang Nanxiong Taishan Kaiping Heshan Enping Lianjiang Leizhou Wuchuan Gaozhou Huazhou Xinyi Sihui Xingning Lufeng Yangchun Yingde Lianzhou Puning Luoding Guangxi Cenxi Dongxing Guiping Beiliu Jingxi Yizhou Heshan Pingxiang Hainan Wuzhishan* Qionghai* Wenchang* Wanning* Dongfang* Sichuan Dujiangyan Pengzhou Qionglai Chongzhou Jianyang Guanghan Shifang Mianzhu Jiangyou Emeishan Langzhong Huaying Wanyuan Barkam* Kangding* Xichang* Guizhou Qingzhen Chishui Renhuai Xingyi* Kaili* Duyun* Fuquan Yunnan Anning Xuanwei Tengchong Chuxiong* Mengzi* Gejiu Kaiyuan Mile Wenshan* Jinghong* Dali* Ruili Mangshi* Lushui* Shangri-La* Tibet (none) Shaanxi Xingping Hancheng Huayin Gansu Yumen Dunhuang Linxia* Hezuo* Qinghai Yushu* Golmud* Delingha* Ningxia Lingwu Qingtongxia Xinjiang Changji* Fukang Bole* Alashankou Korla* Aksu* Artux* Kashgar* Hotan* Yining* Kuytun Korgas Tacheng* Wusu Altay* Shihezi* Aral* Tumxuk* Wujiaqu* Beitun* Tiemenguan* Shuanghe* Kokdala* Kunyu* Taiwan5 (none) Notes * Indicates this city has already occurred above. aDirect-administered Municipalities. bSub-provincial cities as provincial capitals. cSeparate state-planning cities. 1Special economic-zone Cities. 2Open Coastal Cities. 3Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner, Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. 4Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. 5The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template:Administrative divisions of Taiwan instead. All provincial capitals are listed first in prefecture-level cities by province.   v t e Largest cities or municipalities in the People's Republic of China China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. Shanghai Beijing 1 Shanghai SH 24,237,800 11 Nanjing JS 6,572,000 Guangzhou Shenzhen 2 Beijing BJ 18,634,000 12 Hangzhou ZJ 6,504,900 3 Guangzhou GD 13,154,200 13 Zhengzhou HA 6,261,900 4 Shenzhen GD 13,026,600 14 Xi'an SN 5,866,100 5 Tianjin TJ 12,968,100 15 Shenyang LN 5,651,200 6 Chongqing CQ 11,488,000 16 Qingdao SD 5,127,000 7 Wuhan HB 9,180,000 17 Harbin HL 4,860,000 8 Chengdu SC 8,379,700 18 Changchun JL 4,564,000 9 Hong Kong HK 7,448,900 19 Hefei AH 4,292,400 10 Dongguan GD 6,850,300 20 Jinan SD 4,154,900 v t e Guangdong topics Guangzhou (capital) General History Politics Economy Geography Cities Metropolitan areas Chaoshan Pearl River Delta Sanyi (Sam Yup) Sze Yup (Siyi) Leizhou Peninsula Regions Pearl River Delta Yuexi Yuebei Yuedong Pearl River (China) East River West River Nanling Mountains Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks (claimed) Shamian Island Education Guangzhou Education Shenzhen Education Culture Lingnan culture Cantonese people Varieties of Chinese Yue Chinese Hailufeng Teochew Hakka Lingnan architecture Tong lau Lingnan garden Cantonese embroidery Teochew woodcarving Lingnan penjing Canton porcelain Lingnan School Music Cantonese opera Naamyam Guangdong music Gou Wu Cantonese poetry Hung Ga Wing Chun Lingnan Confucianism Flowermarket Cantonese lion dance Wong Tai Sin Hung Shing Cantonese merchants Red cotton flower Cantonese folktales The Legend of Five Goats Villain hitting Hakka people Teochew people Zhuang people Cuisine Cantonese cuisine Beef chow fun Chow mein Char siu Roasted suckling pig Bird's nest soup Seafood birdsnest Shumai Cantonese fried rice Dim sum Yum cha Leung cha Tong sui Hakka cuisine Teochew cuisine Category Commons Cities of China and the World v t e Capitals of China by jurisdiction National: CN Beijing Provinces: AH Hefei FJ Fuzhou GD Guangzhou GS Lanzhou GZ Guiyang HA Zhengzhou HB Wuhan HE Shijiazhuang HI Haikou HL Harbin HN Changsha JL Changchun JS Nanjing JX Nanchang LN Shenyang QH Xining SC Chengdu SD Jinan SN Xi'an SX Taiyuan TW Taipei¹ YN Kunming ZJ Hangzhou Autonomous Regions: GX Nanning NM Hohhot NX Yinchuan XJ Ürümqi XZ Lhasa Municipalities: BJ Beijing CQ Chongqing SH Shanghai TJ Tianjin SARs: HK Hong Kong MO Macau ¹ — Taiwan is administered as a streamlined province by the Republic of China, but claimed by the PRC. v t e World's 50 most-populous urban areas     Tokyo Jakarta Delhi Manila Seoul Mumbai Shanghai New York São Paulo Mexico City Guangzhou–Foshan Shenzhen Beijing Dhaka Osaka–Kobe–Kyoto Cairo Moscow Bangkok Los Angeles Kolkata Lagos Buenos Aires Karachi Istanbul Tehran Tianjin Kinshasa–Brazzaville Chengdu Rio de Janeiro Lahore Lima Bangalore Paris Ho Chi Minh City London Bogotá Chennai Nagoya Hyderabad Johannesburg Chicago Taipei Wuhan Dongguan Hanoi Chongqing Onitsha Kuala Lumpur Ahmedabad Luanda v t e Host cities of Asian Games Summer 1951: Delhi 1954: Manila 1958: Tokyo 1962: Jakarta 1966: Bangkok 1970: Bangkok 1974: Tehran 1978: Bangkok 1982: Delhi 1986: Seoul 1990: Beijing 1994: Hiroshima 1998: Bangkok 2002: Busan 2006: Doha 2010: Guangzhou 2014: Incheon 2018: Jakarta-Palembang 2022: Hangzhou 2026: Aichi-Nagoya 2030: Doha 2034: Riyadh Winter 1986: Sapporo 1990: Sapporo 1996: Harbin 1999: Kangwon 2003: Aomori 2007: Changchun 2011: Astana-Almaty 2017: Sapporo v t e World's 50 most-populous urban areas     Tokyo Jakarta Delhi Manila Seoul Mumbai Shanghai New York São Paulo Mexico City Guangzhou–Foshan Shenzhen Beijing Dhaka Osaka–Kobe–Kyoto Cairo Moscow Bangkok Los Angeles Kolkata Lagos Buenos Aires Karachi Istanbul Tehran Tianjin Kinshasa–Brazzaville Chengdu Rio de Janeiro Lahore Lima Bangalore Paris Ho Chi Minh City London Bogotá Chennai Nagoya Hyderabad Johannesburg Chicago Taipei Wuhan Dongguan Hanoi Chongqing Onitsha Kuala Lumpur Ahmedabad Luanda v t e Megacities Africa (3) Cairo Kinshasa Lagos Asia (27) Bangalore Bangkok Beijing Chengdu Chennai Chongqing Delhi Dhaka Guangzhou Hangzhou Ho Chi Minh City Hyderabad Istanbul Jakarta Karachi Kolkata Kyoto–Osaka–Kobe (Keihanshin) Lahore Manila Mumbai Nagoya Seoul Shanghai Shenzhen Tehran Tianjin Tokyo Xiamen Europe (5) Istanbul London Moscow Paris Rhine-Ruhr North America (3) Los Angeles Mexico City New York City South America (5) Bogotá Buenos Aires Lima Rio de Janeiro São Paulo v t e Capitals of China by jurisdiction National: CN Beijing Provinces: AH Hefei FJ Fuzhou GD Guangzhou GS Lanzhou GZ Guiyang HA Zhengzhou HB Wuhan HE Shijiazhuang HI Haikou HL Harbin HN Changsha JL Changchun JS Nanjing JX Nanchang LN Shenyang QH Xining SC Chengdu SD Jinan SN Xi'an SX Taiyuan TW Taipei¹ YN Kunming ZJ Hangzhou Autonomous Regions: GX Nanning NM Hohhot NX Yinchuan XJ Ürümqi XZ Lhasa Municipalities: BJ Beijing CQ Chongqing SH Shanghai TJ Tianjin SARs: HK Hong Kong MO Macau ¹ — Taiwan is administered as a streamlined province by the Republic of China, but claimed by the PRC. 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en-wikipedia-org-2775	----	Sarmatians - Wikipedia Sarmatians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sarmatian) Jump to navigation Jump to search Large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity For other uses, see Sarmatia (disambiguation). For the people group descended from the ancient Hebrews, see Samaritans. Depiction of a Sarmatian from a Roman sarcophagus, second century AD The Sarmatians (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiənz/; Greek: Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται; Latin: Sarmatae [ˈsar.mat̪ae̯], Sauromatae [sau̯ˈrɔmat̪ae̯]) were a large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity, flourishing from about the fifth century BC to the fourth century AD. Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, the Sarmatians were part of the wider Scythian cultures.[1] They started migrating westward around the fourth and third centuries BC, coming to dominate the closely related Scythians by 200 BC. At their greatest reported extent, around first century AD, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south. Their territory, which was known as Sarmatia (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiə/) to Greco-Roman ethnographers, corresponded to the western part of greater Scythia (it included today's Central Ukraine, South-Eastern Ukraine, Southern Russia, Russian Volga, and South-Ural regions, also to a smaller extent northeastern Balkans and around Moldova). In the first century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes. In the third century AD, their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the fourth century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire. Since large parts of today's Russia, specifically the land between the Ural Mountains and the Don River, were controlled in the fifth century BC by the Sarmatians, the Volga–Don and Ural steppes sometimes are called "Sarmatian Motherland".[2][3] The Sarmatians were eventually decisively assimilated (e.g. Slavicisation) and absorbed by the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe.[4] Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. 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Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e Part of a series on the History of Ukraine Prehistory Trypillian–Cucuteni culture Yamnaya culture Catacomb culture Cimmeria Taurica Scythia Bosporan Kingdom Sarmatia Zarubintsy culture Chernyakhov culture Hunnic Empire Early history Early East Slavs Onoghuria White Croatia Rus' Khaganate Khazars Kievan Rus' Kingdom of Rus' Cumania Mongol invasion of Rus' Golden Horde Principality of Moldavia Grand Duchy of Lithuania Crimean Khanate Early modern history Cossacks Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Zaporozhian Host (Sich) Khmelnytsky Uprising The Ruin Cossack Hetmanate Left bank Sloboda Ukraine Right bank Danube Russian Empire Little Russia New Russia Habsburg Monarchy Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Bukovina Carpathian Ruthenia Modern history Ukraine during World War I Ukraine after the Revolution Ukrainian War of Independence Ukrainian People's Republic West Ukrainian People's Republic Ukrainian State Free Territory Directorate of Ukraine Ukrainian SSR Soviet Union Communist Party of Ukraine Holodomor Ukraine in World War II Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Chernobyl Cassette Scandal Orange Revolution Russia–Ukraine gas disputes Euromaidan Russo-Ukrainian War Crimean crisis War in Donbas COVID-19 pandemic Topics by history Name of Ukraine Historical regions Christianity in Ukraine  Ukraine portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Russia Prehistory  • Antiquity  • Early Slavs Rus' people pre–9th century Rus' Khaganate c. 830–899 Kievan Rus' 882–1240 Feudal Rus' (1097–1547) Mongol conquest • Vladimir-Suzdal Grand Duchy of Moscow • Novgorod Republic Tsardom of Russia 1547–1721 Russian Empire 1721–1917 Russian Revolution (1917–1923) February Revolution • Provisional Government Russian Republic • October Revolution • Civil War (Red Army • White Guard • separatists • others) Soviet Union 1922–1991 Russian Federation 1991–present Timeline 860–1721 • 1721–1796 • 1796–1855 1855–1892 • 1892–1917 • 1917–1927 1927–1953 • 1953–1964 • 1964–1982 1982–1991 • 1991–present  Russia portal v t e Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ethnology 3 Speculation about origin 4 Archaeology 5 Language 6 Genetics 7 Appearance 8 Greco-Roman ethnography 9 Decline begins in the fourth century 10 Legacy 10.1 Sarmatism 11 Tribes 12 See also 13 References 14 Sources 15 External links Etymology[edit] Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing the location of the Sarmatae in the Ukrainian steppe region Sarmatae probably originated as just one of several tribal names of the Sarmatians, but one that Greco-Roman ethnography came to apply as an exonym to the entire group. Strabo in the first century names as the main tribes of the Sarmatians the Iazyges, the Roxolani, the Aorsi, and the Siraces. The Greek name Sarmatai sometimes appears as "Sauromatai" (Σαυρομάται), which is almost certainly no more than a variant of the same name. Nevertheless, historians often regarded these as two separate peoples, while archaeologists habitually use the term 'Sauromatian' to identify the earliest phase of Sarmatian culture. Any idea that the name derives from the word lizard (sauros), linking to the Sarmatians' use of reptile-like scale armour and dragon standards, is almost certainly unfounded.[5] Whereas the word "ὀμμάτιον/ μάτι", meaning eye, would suggest the origin of the name could be due to having what appeared as lizard eyes to Greeks. Both Pliny the Elder (Natural History book iv) and Jordanes recognised the Sar- and Sauro- elements as interchangeable variants, referring to the same people. Greek authors of the fourth century (Pseudo-Scylax, Eudoxus of Cnidus) mention Syrmatae as the name of a people living at the Don, perhaps reflecting the ethnonym as it was pronounced in the final phase of Sarmatian culture. English scholar Harold Walter Bailey (1899–1996) derived the base word from Avestan sar- (to move suddenly) from tsar- in Old Iranian (tsarati, tsaru-, hunter), which also gave its name to the western Avestan region of Sairima (*salm, – *Sairmi), and also connected it to the tenth–eleventh century AD Persian epic Shahnameh's character "Salm".[6] Oleg Trubachyov derived the name from the Indo-Aryan *sar-ma(n)t (feminine – rich in women, ruled by women), the Indo-Aryan and Indo-Iranian word *sar- (woman) and the Indo-Iranian adjective suffix -ma(n)t/wa(n)t.[7] By this derivation was noted the high status of women (matriarchy) that was unusual from the Greek point of view and went to the invention of Amazons (thus the Greek name for Sarmatians as Sarmatai Gynaikokratoumenoi, ruled by women).[7] Ethnology[edit] A Sarmatian diadem, found at the Khokhlach kurgan near Novocherkassk (first century AD, Hermitage Museum) The Sarmatians were part of the Iranian steppe peoples, among whom were also Scythians and Saka.[8] These also are grouped together as "East Iranians".[9] Archaeology has established the connection 'between the Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka and the earlier Timber-grave and Andronovo cultures'.[10] Based on building construction, these three peoples were the likely descendants of those earlier archaeological cultures.[11] The Sarmatians and Saka used the same stone construction methods as the earlier Andronovo culture.[12] The Timber grave (Srubnaya culture) and Andronovo house building traditions were further developed by these three peoples.[13] Andronovo pottery was continued by the Saka and Sarmatians.[14] Archaeologists describe the Andronovo culture people as exhibiting pronounced Caucasoid features.[15] Great steppe of Kazakhstan in early spring 2004 The first Sarmatians are mostly identified with the Prokhorovka culture, which moved from the southern Urals to the Lower Volga and then to the northern Pontic steppe, in the fourth–third centuries BC. During the migration, the Sarmatian population seems to have grown and they divided themselves into several groups, such as the Alans, Aorsi, Roxolani, and Iazyges. By 200 BC, the Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as the dominant people of the steppes.[16] The Sarmatians and Scythians had fought on the Pontic steppe to the north of the Black Sea.[17] The Sarmatians, described as a large confederation,[18] were to dominate these territories over the next five centuries.[19] According to Brzezinski and Mielczarek, the Sarmatians were formed between the Don River and the Ural Mountains.[19] Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) wrote that they ranged from the Vistula River (in present-day Poland) to the Danube. The Sarmatians differed from the Scythians in their veneration of a fire deity rather than a nature deity, and the prominent role of women in warfare that may have served as inspiration for the Amazons. Speculation about origin[edit] There are two theories accounting for the origin of the Sarmatian culture. The first theory holds that the Sarmatian culture was fully formed by the end of the fourth century BC, based on the combination of local Sauromatian culture of Southern Ural and foreign elements brought by tribes advancing from the forest-steppe Zauralye (Itkul culture, Gorohovo culture), from Kazakhstan and possibly from the Aral Sea region.[20] Changes to the culture occurred sometime between the fourth and third century BC, when a mass migration carried nomads of the Southern Ural to the west in the Lower Volga and a smaller migration to the north, south, and east. At the same time, eastern nomads in the Lower Volga, either partly assimilated local Sauromatian tribes or pushed them into the Azov Sea and the Western Caucasus, where they subsequently formed a basis of nomadic association. A merging of the Southern Ural Prokhorovka culture with the Lower Volga or Sauromatian culture is thought to have created the local differences between Prokhorovka monuments of Southern Ural and those of the Volga–Don region within a single culture. The second theory holds that the Sarmatian culture in the Southern Ural evolved from the early Prokhorovka culture and that the culture of the Lower Volga Sauromates developed at the same time as an independent community.[21] Archaeology[edit] A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, second century AD - Tamoikin Art Fund In 1947, Soviet archaeologist Boris Grakov[citation needed] defined a culture flourishing from the sixth century BC to the fourth century AD, apparent in late kurgan graves (buried within earthwork mounds), sometimes reusing part of much older kurgans.[22] It was a nomadic steppe culture ranging from the Black Sea eastward to beyond the Volga that is especially evident at two of the major sites at Kardaielova and Chernaya in the trans-Uralic steppe. The four phases – distinguished by grave construction, burial customs, grave goods, and geographical spread – are:[18][23] Sauromatian, sixth–fifth centuries BC Early Sarmatian, fourth–second centuries BC, also called the Prokhorovka culture Middle Sarmatian, late second century BC to late second century AD Late Sarmatian, late second century AD to fourth century AD While "Sarmatian" and "Sauromatian" are synonymous as ethnonyms, purely by convention they are given different meanings as archaeological technical terms. The term "Prokhorovka culture" derives from a complex of mounds in the Prokhorovski District, Orenburg region, excavated by S. I. Rudenko in 1916.[24] Reportedly, during 2001 and 2006 a great Late Sarmatian pottery centre was unearthed near Budapest, Hungary in the Üllő5 archaeological site. Typical grey, granular Üllő5 ceramics form a distinct group of Sarmatian pottery is found ubiquitously in the north-central part of the Great Hungarian Plain region, indicating a lively trading activity. A 1998 paper on the study of glass beads found in Sarmatian graves suggests wide cultural and trade links.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that Scythian-Sarmatian cultures may have given rise to the Greek legends of Amazons. Graves of armed women have been found in southern Ukraine and Russia. David Anthony noted that approximately 20% of Scythian-Sarmatian "warrior graves" on the lower Don and lower Volga contained women dressed for battle as warriors and he asserts that encountering that cultural phenomenon "probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons".[26] Language[edit] Main article: Scytho-Sarmatian languages Sarmatia and other Eastern Iranian speaking lands (shown in orange) circa 170 BC[citation needed] The Sarmatians spoke an Iranian language that was derived from 'Old Iranian' and it was heterogenous. By the first century BC, the Iranian tribes in what is today South Russia spoke different languages or dialects, clearly distinguishable.[27] According to a group of Iranologists writing in 1968, the numerous Iranian personal names in Greek inscriptions from the Black Sea coast indicate that the Sarmatians spoke a North-Eastern Iranian dialect ancestral to Alanian-Ossetian.[28] However, Harmatta (1970) argued that "the language of the Sarmatians or that of the Alans as a whole cannot be simply regarded as being Old Ossetian".[27] Genetics[edit] A genetic study published in Nature Communications in March 2017 examined several Sarmatian individuals buried in Pokrovka, Russia (southwest of the Ural Mountains) between the fifth century BC and the second century BC. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2. This was the dominant lineage among males of the earlier Yamnaya culture.[29] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to the haplogroups U3, M, U1a'c, T, F1b, N1a1a1a1a, T2, U2e2, H2a1f, T1a, and U5a1d2b.[30] The Sarmatians examined were found to be closely related to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture and to the Poltavka culture.[31] A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of twelve Sarmatians buried between 400 BC and 400 AD.[32] The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1, I2b, R (two samples), and R1.[33] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to C4a1a, U4a2 (two samples), C4b1, I1, A, U2e1h (two samples), U4b1a4, H28, and U5a1.[34] A genetic study published in Science Advances in October 2018 examined the remains of five Sarmatians buried between 55 AD and 320 AD. The three samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1a and R1b1a2a2 (two samples), while the five samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup H2a1, T1a1, U5b2b (two samples), and D4q.[35] A genetic study published in Current Biology in July 2019 examined the remains of nine Sarmatians. The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup Q1c-L332, R1a1e-CTS1123, R1a-Z645 (two samples), and E2b1-PF6746, while the nine samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup W, W3a, T1a1, U5a2, U5b2a1a2, T1a1d, C1e, U5b2a1a1, U5b2c, and U5b2c.[36] In a study conducted in 2014 by Gennady Afanasiev, Dmitry Korobov and Irina Reshetova from the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, DNA was extracted from bone fragments found in seven out of ten Alanic burials on the Don River. Four of them turned out to belong to yDNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them possessed mtDNA haplogroup I.[37] In 2015, the Institute of Archaeology in Moscow conducted research on various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. In these analyses, the two Alan samples from the fourth to sixth century AD turned out to belong to yDNA haplogroups G2a-P15 and R1a-z94, while two of the three Sarmatian samples from the second to third century AD were found to belong to yDNA haplogroup J1-M267 while one belonged to R1a.[38] Three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from the eighth to ninth century AD turned out to have yDNA corresponding to haplogroups G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94.[39] Appearance[edit] In the late second or early third century AD, the Greek physician Galen declared that Sarmatians, Scythians, and other northern peoples had reddish hair.[40] They are said to owe their name (Sarmatae) to that characteristic.[41] The Alans were a group of Sarmatian tribes, according to the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus. He wrote that nearly all the Alani were "of great stature and beauty, their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are frighteningly fierce".[19] Greco-Roman ethnography[edit] Herodotus (Histories 4.21) in the fifth century BC placed the land of the Sarmatians east of the Tanais, beginning at the corner of the Maeotian Lake, stretching northward for a fifteen-day journey, and adjacent to the forested land of the Budinoi. Herodotus (4.110–117) recounts that the Sauromatians arose from marriages of a group of Amazons and young Scythian men. In his account, some Amazons were captured in battle by Greeks in Pontus (northern Turkey) near the river Thermodon, and the captives were loaded into three boats. They overcame their captors while at sea, but were not able sailors. The boats were blown north to the Maeotian Lake (the Sea of Azov) onto the shore of Scythia near the cliff region (today's southeastern Crimea). After encountering the Scythians and learning the Scythian language, the Amazons agreed to marry Scythian men, but only on the condition that they move away from the Scythia and not be required to follow the customs of Scythian women. According to Herodotus, the descendants of this band settled toward the northeast beyond the Tanais (Don) river and became the Sauromatians. His account explains the origins of their language as an "impure" form of Scythian. He credits the unusual social freedoms of Sauromatae women, including participation in warfare, as an inheritance from their Amazon ancestors. Later writers refer to the "woman-ruled Sarmatae" (γυναικοκρατούμενοι).[42] Herodotus (4.118–144) later relates how the Sauromatians under their king Scopasis, answered the Scythian call for help against the Persian King Darius I, to repel his campaign in Scythia, along with the Gelonians and the Boudinians. The Persians invaded much of the Sauromatian territory, but eventually were forced to withdraw due to the tactics used by the tribespeople, of delay and the use of a scorched earth policy.[43] Hippocrates[44] explicitly classes them as Scythian and describes their warlike women and their customs: Their women, so long as they are virgins, ride, shoot, throw the javelin while mounted, and fight with their enemies. They do not lay aside their virginity until they have killed three of their enemies, and they do not marry before they have performed the traditional sacred rites. A woman who takes to herself a husband no longer rides, unless she is compelled to do so by a general expedition. They have no right breast; for while they are yet babies their mothers make red-hot a bronze instrument constructed for this very purpose and apply it to the right breast and cauterize it, so that its growth is arrested, and all its strength and bulk are diverted to the right shoulder and right arm. Polybius (XXV, 1) mentions them for the first time as a force to be reckoned with in 179 B.C.[17] Strabo[45] mentions the Sarmatians in a number of places, but never says much about them. He uses both the terms of Sarmatai and Sauromatai, but never together, and never suggesting that they are different peoples. He often pairs Sarmatians and Scythians in reference to a series of ethnic names, never stating which is which, as though Sarmatian or Scythian could apply equally to them all.[46] Strabo wrote that the Sarmatians extend from above the Danube eastward to the Volga, and from north of the Dnieper River into the Caucasus, where, he says, they are called Caucasii like everyone else there. This statement indicates that the Alans already had a home in the Caucasus, without waiting for the Huns to push them there. Even more significantly, Strabo points to a Celtic admixture in the region of the Basternae and he notes that they were of Germanic origin. He places the Celtic Boii, Scordisci, and Taurisci there as well as a fourth ethnic element interacting and intermarrying, the Thracians (7.3.2), and moreover, that the peoples toward the north were Keltoskythai, "Celtic Scythians" (11.6.2). Strabo portrays the peoples of the region as being nomadic, or Hamaksoikoi, "wagon-dwellers", and Galaktophagoi, "milk-eaters". This latter likely referred to the universal kumis eaten in historical times. The wagons were used for transporting tents made of felt, a type of the yurts used universally by Asian nomads. Pliny the Elder wrote (4.12.79–81): From this point (the mouth of the Danube) all the races in general are Scythian, though various sections have occupied the lands adjacent to the coast, in one place the Getae... at another the Sarmatae... Agrippa describes the whole of this area from the Danube to the sea... as far as the river Vistula in the direction of the Sarmatian desert... The name of the Scythians has spread in every direction, as far as the Sarmatae and the Germans, but this old designation has not continued for any except the most outlying sections  According to Pliny, Scythian rule once extended as far as Germany. Jordanes supports this hypothesis by telling us on the one hand that he was familiar with the Geography of Ptolemy that includes the entire Balto-Slavic territory in Sarmatia,[citation needed] and on the other that this same region was Scythia. By "Sarmatia", Jordanes means only the Aryan territory. The Sarmatians were, therefore, a sub-group of the broader Scythian peoples. In his De Origine et situ Germanorum, Tacitus speaks of "mutual fear" between Germanic peoples and Sarmatians: All Germania is divided from Gaul, Raetia, and Pannonia by the Rhine and Danube rivers; from the Sarmatians and the Dacians by shared fear and mountains. The Ocean laps the rest, embracing wide bays and enormous stretches of islands. Just recently, we learned about certain tribes and kings, whom war brought to light.[47] Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column According to Tacitus, the Sarmatians wore long, flowing robes similar to the Persians (ch 17). He also noted that the Sarmatians exacted tribute from the Cotini and Osi, and that they exacted iron from the Cotini (ch. 43), "to their shame" (presumably because they could have used the iron to arm themselves and resist). By the third century BC, the Sarmatian name appears to have supplanted the Scythian in the plains of what now is south Ukraine. The geographer, Ptolemy,[citation needed] reported them at what must be their maximum extent, divided into adjoining European and central Asian sections. Considering the overlap of tribal names between the Scythians and the Sarmatians, no new displacements probably took place. The people were the same Indo-Europeans, but were referred to under yet another name. Later, Pausanias, viewing votive offerings near the Athenian Acropolis in the second century AD,[48] found among them a Sauromic breastplate. On seeing this a man will say that no less than Greeks are foreigners skilled in the arts: for the Sauromatae have no iron, neither mined by themselves nor yet imported. They have, in fact, no dealings at all with the foreigners around them. To meet this deficiency they have contrived inventions. In place of iron they use bone for their spear-blades and cornel wood for their bows and arrows, with bone points for the arrows. They throw a lasso round any enemy they meet, and then turning round their horses upset the enemy caught in the lasso. Their breastplates they make in the following fashion. Each man keeps many mares, since the land is not divided into private allotments, nor does it bear any thing except wild trees, as the people are nomads. These mares they not only use for war, but also sacrifice them to the local gods and eat them for food. Their hoofs they collect, clean, split, and make from them as it were python scales. Whoever has never seen a python must at least have seen a pine-cone still green. He will not be mistaken if he liken the product from the hoof to the segments that are seen on the pine-cone. These pieces they bore and stitch together with the sinews of horses and oxen, and then use them as breastplates that are as handsome and strong as those of the Greeks. For they can withstand blows of missiles and those struck in close combat. The Tryphon's relief, excavated from Tanais, ancient Greek colony situated in today's Rostov oblast The description by Pausanias is well borne out in a relief from Tanais (see image). These facts are not necessarily incompatible with Tacitus, as the western Sarmatians might have kept their iron to themselves, it having been a scarce commodity on the plains. In the late fourth century, Ammianus Marcellinus[49] describes a severe defeat that Sarmatian raiders inflicted upon Roman forces in the province of Valeria in Pannonia in late 374 AD. The Sarmatians almost destroyed two legions: one recruited from Moesia and one from Pannonia. The latter had been sent to intercept a party of Sarmatians that had been in pursuit of a senior Roman officer named Aequitius. The two legions failed to coordinate, allowing the Sarmatians to catch them unprepared. Decline begins in the fourth century[edit] See also: Alans and Ossetians The Sarmatians remained dominant until the Gothic ascendancy in the Black Sea area (Oium). Goths attacked Sarmatian tribes on the north of the Danube in Dacia, in present-day Romania. The Roman Emperor Constantine I (r. 306–337) summoned his son Constantine II from Gaul to campaign north of the Danube. In 332, in very cold weather, the Romans were victorious, killing 100,000 Goths and capturing Ariaricus, the son of the Gothic king. In their efforts to halt the Gothic expansion and replace it with their own on the north of Lower Danube (present-day Romania), the Sarmatians armed their "servants" Limigantes. After the Roman victory, however, the local population revolted against their Sarmatian masters, pushing them beyond the Roman border. Constantine, on whom the Sarmatians had called for help, defeated the Limigantes, and moved the Sarmatian population back in. In the Roman provinces, Sarmatian combatants enlisted in the Roman army, whilst the rest of the population sought refuge throughout Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy. The Origo Constantini mentions 300,000 refugees resulting from this conflict. Emperor Constantine was subsequently attributed the title of Sarmaticus Maximus.[50] In the fourth and fifth centuries the Huns expanded and conquered both the Sarmatians and the Germanic tribes living between the Black Sea and the borders of the Roman Empire. From bases in modern-day Hungary, the Huns ruled the entire territory formerly ruled by the Sarmatians. Their various constituents flourished under Hunnish rule, fought for the Huns against a combination of Roman and Germanic troops, and departed after the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (451), the death of Attila (453), and the appearance of the Bulgar ruling elements west of the Volga. During the Early Middle Ages, eventually the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe decisively assimilated and absorbed the Sarmatians.[51][52] However, a people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.[53] Legacy[edit] Sarmatism[edit] Main article: Sarmatism Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism) is an ethno-cultural concept with a shade of politics designating the formation of an idea of the origin of Poland from Sarmatians within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[54] The dominant Baroque culture and ideology of the nobility (szlachta) that existed in times of the Renaissance to the eighteenth centuries.[54] Together with another concept of "Golden Liberty", it formed a central aspect of the Commonwealth's culture and society. At its core was the unifying belief that the people of the Polish Commonwealth descended from the ancient Iranic Sarmatians, the legendary invaders of Slavic lands in antiquity.[55][56] Tribes[edit] Alans Aorsi Arcaragantes Hamaxobii (possibly) Iazyges Limigantes Ossetians Roxolani Saii Serboi Siraces Spali Taifals (possibly) See also[edit] List of ancient Iranian peoples Alans Cimmerians Early Slavs References[edit] ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, p. 2. "During the first millennium BCE, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BCE chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive ‘Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture... ^ "Sarmatian | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in antiquity : networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions. Kozlovskaya, Valeriya, 1972-. Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 9781108517614. OCLC 1000597862. ^ Tarasov, Илья Тарасов / Ilia. "Балты в миграциях Великого переселения народов. Галинды // Исторический формат, № 3-4, 2017. С. 95-124". Балты в миграциях Великого переселения народов. Галинды – via www.academia.edu. ^ Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002, p. 6. ^ Bailey, Harold Walter (1985). Khotanese Text. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780521257794. ^ a b Gluhak, Alemko (1990), "Podrijetlo imena Hrvat" [The origin of the ethnonym Hrvat], Jezik : Periodical for the Culture of the Standard Croatian Language (in Croatian), 37 (5): 131–133 ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 220. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 445. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. xiv. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 50. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 51. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 64. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 78. ^ Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (May 16, 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353. ^ Barry W. Cunliffe (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 402–. ISBN 978-0-19-285441-4. ^ a b Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1. ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 113. ^ a b c Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002. ^ Мошкова М. Г. Памятники прохоровской культуры//САИ, 1963. Д. 1–10 ^ Уральская историческая энциклопедия. — УрО РАН, Институт истории и археологии. Екатеринбург: Академкнига. Гл. ред. В. В. Алексеев. 2000. ^ Граков Б. Н. ГYNAIKOKPATOYMENOI (Пережитки матриархата у сарматов)//ВДИ, 1947. № 3 ^ Genito, Bruno (1 November 2002). The Elusive Frontiers of the Eurasian Steppes. All’Insegna del Giglio. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-7814-283-1. ^ Yablonskii, Leonid; Balakhvantsev, Archil (1 January 2009). "A Silver Bowl from the New Excavations of the Early Sarmatian Burial-Ground Near the Village of Prokhorovka". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 15 (1–2): 167–169. doi:10.1163/092907709X12474657004809. ^ "Chemical Analyses of Sarmatian Glass Beads from Pokrovka, Russia" Archived 2005-04-15 at the Library of Congress Web Archives, by Mark E. Hall and Leonid Yablonsky. ^ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ^ a b Harmatta 1970, 3.4. ^ Handbuch der Orientalistik, Iranistik. By I. Gershevitch, O. Hansen, B. Spuler, M.J. Dresden, Prof M Boyce, M. Boyce Summary. E.J. Brill. 1968. ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, pp. 55, 72. "Individual I0575 (Sarmatian) belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2, and was thus related to the dominant Ychromosome lineage of the Yamnaya (Pit Grave) males from Samara..." ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, p. 25, Supplementary Table 1. ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, pp. 3–4. "The two Early Sarmatian samples from the West... fall close to an Iron Age sample from the Samara district... and are generally close to the Early Bronze Age Yamnaya samples from Samara... and Kalmykia... and the Middle Bronze Age Poltavka samples from Samara..." ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 19, 21-22, 25, 90-93, 95-97, 116. ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 9, Rows 15, 18, 64, 67, 68. ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Rows 57, 79-80, 84, 25-27, 31-33, 59. ^ Krzewińska et al. 2018, Supplementary Materials, Table S3 Summary, Rows 4-8. ^ Järve et al. 2019, Table S2. ^ Reshetova, Irina; Afanasiev, Gennady. "Афанасьев Г.Е., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К. О культурной, антропологической и генетической специфике донских алан // Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа. М. 2014. С. 312-315" – via www.academia.edu. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ дДНК Сарматы, Аланы Google Maps ^ Reshetova, Irina; Afanasiev, Gennady. "Афанасьев Г.Е., Вень Ш., Тун С., Ван Л., Вэй Л., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К., Ли Х.. Хазарские конфедераты в бассейне Дона // Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии. М. 2015. С.146-153" – via www.academia.edu. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Day 2001, pp. 55–57. ^ Baumgarten, Siegmund Jakob; Beer, Ferdinand Wilhelm; Semler, Johann Salomo (1760). A Supplement to the English Universal History: Lately Published in London: Containing ... Remarks and Annotations on the Universal History, Designed as an Improvement and Illustration of that Work ... E. Dilly. p. 30. ^ Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, 70; cf. Geographi Graeci minores: Volume 1, p.58 ^ Herodotus' Histories, book IV ^ De Aere XVII ^ Strabo's Geography, books V, VII, XI ^ J. Harmatta, Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians, 1970, ch.1.2 ^ Germania omnis a Gallis Raetisque et Pannoniis Rheno et Danuvio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo metu aut montibus separatur: cetera Oceanus ambit, latos sinus et insularum inmensa spatia complectens, nuper cognitis quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellum aperuit. ^ Description of Greece 1.21.5–6 ^ Amm. Marc. 29.6.13–14 ^ Eusebius. "IV.6". Life of Constantine.; * Valois, Henri, ed. (1636) [ca. 390]. "6.32". Anonymus Valesianus I/Origo Constantini Imperatoris. ^ Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002, p. 39. ^ Slovene Studies. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs. ^ Minahan, James (2000). "Ossetians". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. [...] They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D. ^ a b Kresin, O. Sarmatism Ukrainian. Ukrainian History ^ Tadeusz Sulimirski, The Sarmatians (New York: Praeger Publishers 1970) at 167. ^ P. M. Barford, The Early Slavs (Ithaca: Cornell University 2001) at 28. Sources[edit] Books Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450. Men-At-Arms (373). Bloomsbury USA; Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6. Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley: Zinat Press. ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1. Day, John V. (2001). Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence. Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0941694759. Hinds, Kathryn (2009). Scythians and Sarmatians. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-4519-7. Istvánovits, Eszter; Kulcsár, Valéria (2017). Sarmatians: History and Archaeology of a Forgotten People. Schnell & Steiner. ISBN 978-3-7954-3234-8. Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01951-5. Kuzmina, Elena Efimovna (2007). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. pp. 50, 51, 56, 64, 78, 83, 220, 410. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5. Sinor, Denis, ed. (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9. К.Ф. Смирнов. Сарматы и утверждение их политического господства в Скифии. Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-458-40072-5. Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Ancient People and Places, vol. 73. Praeger. Journals Абрамова, М. П. (1988). "Сарматы и Северный Кавказ". Проблемы сарматской археологии и истории: 4–18. Damgaard, P. B.; et al. (May 9, 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes". Nature. Nature Research. 557 (7705): 369–373. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282. Retrieved April 11, 2020. Genito, Bruno (1988). "The Archaeological Cultures of the Sarmatians with a Preliminary Note on the Trial-Trenches at Gyoma 133: a Sarmatian Settlement in South-Eastern Hungary (Campaign 1985)" (PDF). Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli. 42: 81–126. Järve, Mari; et al. (July 11, 2019). "Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance". Current Biology. Cell Press. 29 (14): 2430–2441. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019. PMID 31303491. Retrieved July 4, 2020. Harmatta, J. (1970). "Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians". Acta Antique et Archaeologica. XIII. Krzewińska, Maja; et al. (October 3, 2018). "Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads". Science Advances. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 4 (10): eaat4457. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.4457K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457. PMC 6223350. PMID 30417088. Клепиков, В. М.; Скрипкин, А. С. (1997). "Ранние сарматы в контексте исторических событий Восточной Европы". Донские древности. 5: 28–40. Козлова, Р. М. (2004). О Сормах, Сарматах, Сорматских горах. Студії з ономастики та етимології (in Ukrainian). Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2002). Les Sarmates: amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube, VIIe siècle av. J.-C.-VIe siècle apr. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-235-3. Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2015). "Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье" [Sarmatia, the Sarmatians and the North Pontic Area] (PDF). Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History]. 1 (292): 109–135. Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2013). "The Sarmatians: The Creation of Archaeological Evidence". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 32 (2): 203–219. doi:10.1111/ojoa.12010. Moshkova, M. G. (1995). "A brief review of the history of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes". Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age: 85–89. Perevalov, S. M. (2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture". Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 40 (4): 7–21. doi:10.2753/aae1061-195940047. S2CID 161826066. Rjabchikov, Sergei V. (2004). "Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs". AnthroGlobe Journal. Симоненко, А. В.; Лобай, Б. И. (1991). "Сарматы Северо-Западного Причерноморья в I в. н. э.". Погребения знати у с. Пороги (in Russian). Unterländer, Martina; et al. (March 3, 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. Nature Research. 8 (14615): 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sarmatians. Yatsenko, S. A. (1992). "CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus". CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 7. pp. 758–760. Ptolemaic Map (Digital Scriptorium) Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Sarmatians v t e Scythia Peoples Scythians Indo-Scythians Hamaxobii Abii Agathyrsi Amyrgians Massagetae Orthocorybantians Spali Tapur Thyssagetae Cimmerians Maeotians Achaei Amazons Sarmatians Agaragantes Alans Aorsi Tatars Cissianti Limigantes Phoristae Rimphaces Roxolani Serboi Siraces Spondolici Yancai Iazyges Arimaspi Budini Gelonians Cercetae Saka Neuri Tauri Zygii Tagar culture Pazyryk culture Sindi Culture Art Jewlery Cultures Religion Languages Regions Kazakh Steppe Sistan Parama Kamboja Kingdom Alania Scythia Minor Sarmatia Sarmatia Asiatica and Sarmatia Europea Pontic–Caspian steppe Related Iranian peoples History of the western steppe Bosporan Kingdom Sarmatism Iranian origin hypotheses of Croats and Serbs Category:Scythia, Category:Populated places in ancient Scythia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarmatians&oldid=1024672837" Categories: Sarmatians Historical Iranian peoples Bosporan Kingdom Peoples of the Caucasus Ancient tribes in Ukraine Ancient peoples of Ukraine Nomadic groups in Eurasia Iranian nomads History of the western steppe History of Eastern Europe Tribes in Greco-Roman historiography Ancient history of Romania History of the Balkans History of Ural Saltovo-Mayaki culture Archaeological cultures of Asia Archaeological cultures of Eastern Europe Archaeological cultures of Southeastern Europe Hidden categories: CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr) Webarchive template other archives CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 CS1 uses Ukrainian-language script (uk) CS1 Ukrainian-language sources (uk) CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Commons link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Адыгабзэ አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar მარგალური مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Qırımtatarca Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2021, at 14:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2806	----	Dacia - Wikipedia Dacia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Balkan kingdom of the Dacians (168 BC–106 AD) This article is about an historic region in Eastern Europe. For the Romanian automobile maker, see Automobile Dacia. For other uses, see Dacia (disambiguation). See also: Dacians and Dacian language This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may contain excessive or inappropriate references to self-published sources. Please help improve it by removing references to unreliable sources where they are used inappropriately. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Dacian Kingdom 168 BC–106 AD Dacian Draco Dacia during the reign of Burebista, 82 BC. Capital Sarmizegetusa Common languages Dacian Religion Zamolxism Government Non-hereditary[1] monarchy King   • beginning of the 2nd century BC Rubobostes • first half of the 2nd century BC Oroles • 82-44 BC Burebista • 44–27 BC Cotiso • 27–29 BC/AD Comosicus[2] • 29–69 AD Scorilo • 69–87 AD Duras • 87–106 AD Decebalus High Priest   Aristocracy   Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 168 BC • Domitian's Dacian War 84–88 AD • Trajan's Dacian Wars 101–106 AD • Disestablished 106 AD Currency Koson, Denarius. Preceded by Succeeded by Dacians Getae Thracians Roman Dacia Free Dacians This article is part of a series on Dacia Geography Sarmizegetusa Argidava Capidava Ziridava Moesia Scythia Minor Culture People Language Religion Construction Pottery Art Warfare History Dromichaetes Burebista Decebalus Other kings Moesi Tribes Conflict with Rome Roman Dacia Trajan's Dacian Wars Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Porolissum Castra Dacia Aureliana Free Dacians Legacy Thraco-Roman Daco-Romanian Archaeology Museums Books v t e Dacia (/ˈdeɪʃə/, DAY-shə; Latin: [ˈd̪aːkija]) was the land inhabited by the Dacians. The Greeks referred to them as the Getae (east of Dacia) and the Romans called them Daci. Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the Danubius river (Danube), in Greek sources the Istros, or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. Lower Moesia (Dobruja), a region south-east of the Danube, was a core area where the Getae lived and interacted with the Ancient Greeks. In the east it was bounded by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) and the river Danastris (Dniester), in Greek sources the Tyras. But several Dacian settlements are recorded between the rivers Dniester and Hypanis (Southern Bug), and the Tisia (Tisza) to the west. At times Dacia included areas between the Tisa and the Middle Danube. The Carpathian Mountains are located in the middle of Dacia. It thus corresponds to the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as smaller parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine. A Dacian Kingdom of variable size existed between 82 BC until the Roman conquest in AD 106. The capital of Dacia, Sarmizegetusa, located in modern Romania, was destroyed by the Romans, but its name was added to that of the new city (Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa) built by the latter to serve as the capital of the Roman province of Dacia. Contents 1 Nomenclature 1.1 Classical era 2 Geography 2.1 Periods 2.1.1 1st century BC 2.1.2 1st century AD 2.1.3 2nd century AD 2.2 Cities 3 Political entities 3.1 Rubobostes 3.2 Oroles 3.3 Burebista 3.4 Cotiso 3.5 Decebalus 4 Roman conquest 4.1 Provincial history 4.2 Constantinian reconquest 5 Dacia after the Romans 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Nomenclature[edit] Classical era[edit] Main article: Dacians § Name and etymology The Dacians are first mentioned in the writings of the Ancient Greeks, in Herodotus (Histories Book IV XCIII: "[Getae] the noblest as well as the most just of all the Thracian tribes") and Thucydides (Peloponnesian Wars, Book II: "[Getae] border on the Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being all mounted archers").[4] Geography[edit] Dacia cf. Strabo (c. 20 AD) [5] The map of Dacia by Brue Adrien Hubert (1826) View of the sanctuary from Dacians' capital Sarmizegetusa Regia Dacia map cf. Ptolemy (2nd century AD) Onomastic range of the Dacian towns with the dava ending, covering Dacia, Moesia, Thrace and Dalmatia The extent and location of Dacia varied in its three distinct historical periods (see below): Periods[edit] For earlier events, see Prehistory of Transylvania, Prehistory of Romania, and Celts in Transylvania. Part of a series on the History of Romania Prehistory Cucuteni–Trypillia culture Hamangia culture Bronze Age in Romania Prehistory of Transylvania Antiquity Dacia Dacian Wars Roman Dacia Origin of the Romanians Middle Ages (Early) History of Transylvania Banat in the Middle Ages First Bulgarian Empire Second Bulgarian Empire Foundation of Wallachia Foundation of Moldavia Rumelia Eyalet Early Modern Times Silistra Eyalet Principality of Transylvania Eyalet of Temesvar Varat Eyalet Phanariotes Danubian Principalities National Awakening Transylvanian School Organic Statute 1848 Moldavian Revolution 1848 Wallachian Revolution Danube Vilayet United Principalities ASTRA War of Independence Kingdom of Romania World War I Union with Banat Union with Bessarabia Union with Bukovina Union with Transylvania Greater Romania Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina World War II Socialist Republic of Romania Soviet occupation Revolution Post-Revolution Romania since 1989 By topic Romanian language Historical timeline Military history Christianity By historical region Banat Crișana Bukovina Dobruja Maramureș Moldavia Muntenia Oltenia Transylvania Wallachia Commons Centuries in Romania  Romania portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Moldova Antiquity Chernyakhov culture Dacia, Free Dacians Bastarnae Early Middle Ages Origin of the Romanians Tivertsi Brodnici Golden Horde Principality of Moldavia Foundation Early Modern Era Phanariotes United Principalities Bessarabia Governorate Treaty of Bucharest Moldavian Democratic Republic Sfatul Țării Romanian military intervention Greater Romania Union of Bessarabia with Romania Transnistria Governorate The Holocaust Moldavian ASSR Moldovenism Moldavian SSR Soviet occupation Soviet deportations Anti-fascist resistance Republic of Moldova Independence of Moldova War of Transnistria Gagauz Republic History of independent Moldova  Moldova portal v t e 1st century BC[edit] The Dacia of King Burebista (82–44 BC), stretched from the Black Sea to the source of the river Tisa and from the Balkan Mountains to Bohemia.[6] During that period, the Geto-Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Olbia) and from present-day Slovakia's mountains to the Balkan mountains.[7] In 53 BC, Julius Caesar stated that the lands of the Dacians started on the eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest).[8] After Burebista's death, his kingdom split in four states, later five. 1st century AD[edit] Strabo, in his Geography written around AD 20, says:[9] ″As for the southern part of Germany beyond the Albis, the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae, which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyregetae; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries″ On this basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisza river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii, and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians.[10] The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and Tisza was tenuous.[11] However, the archaeologist Parducz argued a Dacian presence west of the Tisa dating from the time of Burebista.[12] According to Tacitus (AD 56 – AD 117) Dacians bordered Germania in the south-east, while Sarmatians bordered it in the east.[13] In the 1st century AD, the Iazyges settled West of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisa rivers, according to the scholars' interpretation of Pliny's text: "The higher parts between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest) as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnutum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss".[14][15][16][17] 2nd century AD[edit] Main articles: Trajan's Dacian Wars and Roman Dacia Written a few decades after Emperor Trajan's Roman conquest of parts of Dacia in AD 105–106,[18] Ptolemy's Geographia included the boundaries of Dacia. According to the scholars' interpretation of Ptolemy (Hrushevskyi 1997, Bunbury 1879, Mocsy 1974, Barbulescu and Nagler 2005) Dacia was the region between the rivers Tisza, Danube, upper Dniester, and Siret.[19][20][21][22] Mainstream historians accept this interpretation: Avery (1972) Berenger (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006).[23][8][24][25][26] Ptolemy also provided a couple of Dacian toponyms in south Poland in the Upper Vistula (Polish: Wisla) river basin: Susudava and Setidava (with a manuscript variant Getidava).[27][28][29][30] This could have been an "echo" of Burebista's expansion.[28] It seems that this northern expansion of the Dacian language, as far as the Vistula river, lasted until AD 170–180 when the migration of the Vandal Hasdingi pushed out this northern Dacian group.[31][32] This Dacian group, possibly the Costoboci/Lipița culture, is associated by Gudmund Schütte with towns having the specific Dacian language ending "dava" i.e. Setidava.[29] The Roman province Dacia Traiana, established by the victors of the Dacian Wars during AD 101–106, initially comprised only the regions known today as Banat, Oltenia, Transylvania, and was subsequently gradually extended to southern parts of Moldavia, while Dobruja and Budjak belonged the Roman province of Moesia. In the 2nd century AD, after the Roman conquest, Ptolemy puts the eastern boundary of Dacia Traiana (the Roman province) as far east as the Hierasus (Siret) river, in the middle of modern Romania. Roman rule extended to the south-western area of the Dacian Kingdom (but not to what later became known as Maramureş), to parts of the later Principality of Moldavia east of the Siret and north of the Upper Trajan Wall, and to areas in modern Muntenia and Ukraine, except the Black Sea shore. After the Marcomannic Wars (AD 166–180), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion. So were the 12,000 Dacians 'from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country'. Their native country could have been the Upper Tisa region, but other places cannot be excluded.[33] The later Roman province Dacia Aureliana, was organized inside former Moesia Superior after the retreat of the Roman army from Dacia, during the reign of emperor Aurelian during AD 271–275. It was reorganized as Dacia Ripensis (as a military province) and Dacia Mediterranea (as a civil province).[34] Cities[edit] Main articles: Davae and List of Dacian towns Ptolemy gives a list of 43 names of towns in Dacia, out of which arguably 33 were of Dacian origin. Most of the latter included the added suffix ‘dava’ (meaning settlement, village). But, other Dacian names from his list lack the suffix (e.g. Zarmisegethusa regia = Zermizirga) In addition, nine other names of Dacian origin seem to have been Latinised.[35] The cities of the Dacians were known as -dava, -deva, -δαυα ("-dawa" or "-dava", Anc. Gk.), -δεβα ("-deva", Byz. Gk.) or -δαβα ("-dava", Byz. Gk.), etc. . In Dacia: Acidava, Argedava, Buridava, Dokidava, Carsidava, Clepidava, Cumidava, Marcodava, Netindava, Patridava, Pelendava, *Perburidava, Petrodaua, Piroboridaua, Rhamidaua, Rusidava, Sacidava, Sangidava, Setidava, Singidava, Tamasidava, Utidava, Zargidava, Ziridava, Sucidava—26 names altogether. In Lower Moesia (the present Northern Bulgaria) and Scythia minor (Dobrudja): Aedeba, *Buteridava, *Giridava, Dausadava, Kapidaua, Murideba, Sacidava, Scaidava (Skedeba), Sagadava, Sukidaua (Sucidava)—10 names in total. In Upper Moesia (the districts of Nish, Sofia, and partly Kjustendil): Aiadaba, Bregedaba, Danedebai, Desudaba, Itadeba, Kuimedaba, Zisnudeba—seven names in total. Gil-doba, a village in Thracia, of unknown location. Thermi-daua, a town in Dalmatia. Probably a Grecized form of *Germidava. Pulpu-deva, (Phillipopolis) today Plovdiv in Bulgaria. Political entities[edit] Rubobostes[edit] Main article: Rubobostes Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista.[10] It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership in both military-political and ideological-religious domains.[10] At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, under the rule of Rubobostes, a Dacian king in present-day Transylvania, the Dacians' power in the Carpathian basin increased after they defeated the Celts, who previously held power in the region. Oroles[edit] Main article: Oroles A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. Conflicts with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians. Burebista[edit] Main article: Burebista Burebista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Julius Caesar, ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He thoroughly reorganised the army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to cut their vines and give up drinking wine.[36] During his reign, the limits of the Dacian Kingdom were extended to their maximum. The Bastarnae and Boii were conquered, and even the Greek towns of Olbia and Apollonia on the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) recognized Burebista's authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the Hercynian Forest.[8] Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard[10] During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa Regia.[37][38] For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King Decebalus. The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers. Cotiso[edit] Main article: Cotiso One of these entities was Cotiso's state, to whom Augustus betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in Horace (Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen, Odes, III. 8. 18). The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the province of Moesia, which was under Roman occupation. Strabo testified: "although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans."[9] In fact, this occurred because Burebista's empire split after his death into four and later five smaller states, as Strabo explains, "only recently, when Augustus Caesar sent an expedition against them, the number of parts into which the empire had been divided was five, though at the time of the insurrection it had been four. Such divisions, to be sure, are only temporary and vary with the times". Decebalus[edit] Main article: Decebalus Decebalus ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east.[39] His name translates into "strong as ten men". Roman conquest[edit] Main articles: Domitian's Dacian War, Trajan's Dacian Wars, and Roman Dacia Fiery battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies, Trajan's Column, Rome When Trajan turned his attention to Dacia, it had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Julius Caesar[40][41] when a Roman army had been beaten at the Battle of Histria.[42] From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under Decebalus were engaged in two wars with the Romans. In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia.[43][44] In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under Cornelius Fuscus, were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus.[45] After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of Decebalus, but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up .[46] The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under Tettius Julianus, gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make peace following the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni, leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome. To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines of Transylvania. The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles,[47] and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa, Decebalus once more sought terms.[48] Roman Dacia and Moesia Inferior. Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia,[49] attacking the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizegethusa, and razing it to the ground;[50] the defeated Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide to avoid capture.[51] With part of Dacia quelled as the Roman province Dacia Traiana.[52] Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east. His conquests brought the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of client states, which led to less direct campaigning than in the west.[53] The history of the war is given by Cassius Dio, but the best commentary upon it is the famous Column of Trajan in Rome. Provincial history[edit] Dacia and environs Although the Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, a large remainder of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. Additionally, the conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of the Dacians became Romanised (see also Origin of Romanians). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor Commodus, Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger, both distinguished themselves in the campaign. According to Lactantius,[54] the Roman emperor Decius (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the Carpo-Dacians of Zosimus "having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia". Tarabostes on the Arch of Constantine Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the Gothic tribes, slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the Goths succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor Aurelian's withdrawal, in 275. In AD 268–269, at Naissus, Claudius II (Gothicus Maximus) obtained a decisive victory over the Goths. Since at that time Romans were still occupying Roman Dacia it is assumed that the Goths didn't cross the Danube from the Roman province. The Goths who survived their defeat didn't even attempt to escape through Dacia, but through Thrace.[55] At the boundaries of Roman Dacia, Carpi (Free Dacians) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom Constantine the Great fought. The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the Breviarium historiae Romanae by Eutropius, Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia.[56] Under Diocletian, c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the Danube.[34] Constantinian reconquest[edit] Dacia during Constantine the Great In 328 the emperor Constantine the Great inaugurated the Constantine's Bridge (Danube) at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania)[57] in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.[58] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by Castra of Hinova, Rusidava and Castra of Pietroasele.[59] The limes passed to the north of Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși and ended at Sasyk Lagoon near the Dniester River.[60] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336.[61] Some Roman territories north of the Danube resisted until Justinian. Dacia after the Romans[edit] Main article: Romania in the Early Middle Ages This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Victohali, Taifals, and Thervingians are tribes mentioned for inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that Gepids were disputing Transylvania with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia became federati of the Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle Oltenia. In 376 the region was conquered by Huns, who kept it until the death of Attila in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by Ardaric, used it as their base, until in 566 it was destroyed by Lombards. Lombards abandoned the country and the Avars (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom was destroyed by Charlemagne in 791. At the same time, Slavic people arrived. See also[edit] Dacians Dacian warfare Falx (weapon) List of Dacian kings List of Dacian cities List of Dacian tribes Getae Carpians Costoboci Dacian bracelets Dacian Draco Dacian language List of Dacian names List of Dacian plant names Trajan's Column Trajan's Bridge Notes[edit] ^ (in Romanian) http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/general/articol/intemeiat-burebista-primul-stat-dacic ^ (in Romanian) http://www.dacia.co.ro/di.html ^ (in Romanian) http://enciclopediaromaniei.ro/wiki/Statul_geto-dac_%C3%AEn_timpul_lui_Burebista ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 145-146. ^ Müller 1877, tabulae XV. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMüller1877 (help) ^ "History of Romania – Antiquity – The Dacians". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Murray 2001, p. 1120. ^ a b c Mountain 1998, p. 59. ^ a b Strabo, Geography ^ a b c d Taylor 2001, p. 215. ^ Lengyel & Radan 1980, p. 87: "No matter where the Boii first settled after they left Italia, however, when they arrived at the Danube they had to fight the Dacians who held the entire territory — or at least part of it. Strabo tells us that later animosity between the Dacians and the Boii stemmed from the fact that the Dacians demanded the land from the latter which the Dacians pretended to have possessed earlier." ^ Ehrich 1970, p. 228. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEhrich1970 (help) ^ Gruen 2011, p. 204: Germany as a whole is separated from the Gauls and from the Raetians and Pannonians by the rivers Rhine and Danube, from the Sarmatians and Dacians by mutual fear or mountains; the ocean surrounds the rest of it sfn error: no target: CITEREFGruen2011 (help) ^ Hrushevskyi 1997, p. 93. ^ Bosworth 1980, p. 60. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBosworth1980 (help) ^ Carnap-Bornheim 2003, p. 228. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCarnap-Bornheim2003 (help) ^ Scott Shelley 1997, p. 10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFScott_Shelley1997 (help) ^ Mattern 2002, p. 61. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMattern2002 (help) ^ Hrushevskyi 1997, p. 97: "Dacia, as described by Ptolemy, occupied the region between the Tisa, Danube, upper Dnister, and Seret, while the Black Sea coast — namely, the Greek colonies of Tyras, Olbia, and others — were included in Lower Moesia." ^ Bunbury 1979, p. 517. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBunbury1979 (help) ^ Mocsy 1974, p. 21. ^ Barbulescu & Nägler 2005, p. 71. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarbulescuNägler2005 (help) ^ Berenger 1994, p. 25. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBerenger1994 (help) ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 205. ^ Avery 1972, p. 113. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAvery1972 (help) ^ Fol 1996, p. 223. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFol1996 (help) ^ Dobiás 1964, p. 70. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDobiás1964 (help) ^ a b Berindei & Candea 2001, p. 429. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBerindeiCandea2001 (help) ^ a b Shutte 1952, p. 270. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShutte1952 (help) ^ Giurescu C & Giurescu D 1974, p. 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGiurescu_CGiurescu_D1974 (help) ^ Gordon Childe 1930, p. 245. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGordon_Childe1930 (help) ^ Shutte 1917, p. 109 & 143. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShutte1917 (help) ^ Opreanu 1997, p. 249. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOpreanu1997 (help) ^ a b Odahl 2003. ^ Oltean 2007, p. 114. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOltean2007 (help) ^ Strabo, Geography, VII:3.11 ^ MacKendrick 1975, p. 48. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacKendrick1975 (help) ^ Goodman & Sherwood 2002, p. 227. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoodmanSherwood2002 (help) ^ Vico & Pinton 2001, p. 325. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVicoPinton2001 (help) ^ Goldsworthy 2004, p. 322. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 213. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 215. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 216. ^ Luttwak 1976, p. 53. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 217. ^ "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions). An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 2007-11-08. Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), AD 105. During Trajan's reign Rome achieved victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians took place in the year AD 87 and was initiated by Domitian. The praetorian prefect Cornelius led five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towards Banat (in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village of Bucova, in Romania). Legion V Alaude was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious general was originally known as Diurpaneus (see Manea, p.109), but after this victory he was called Decebalus (the brave one). ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 219. ^ Goldsworthy 2004, p. 329. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 222. ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 223. ^ Luttwak 1976, p. 54. ^ Stoica 1919, p. 52. ^ Luttwak 1976, p. 39. ^ "Of the Manner in which the persecutors died" by Lactantius (early Christian author AD 240–320) ^ Battle of Naissus and Cladius Gothicus. Beside Zosimuss account there is also Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius. ^ EUTROPIUS. "Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History (Historiae Romanae Breviarium)". www.ccel.org. Archived from the original on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2008-06-17. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275-376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3, p.64 -126 ^ Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1. p 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275-376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3, p.64-126 ^ Costin Croitoru, (Romanian) Sudul Moldovei în cadrul sistemului defensiv roman. Contribuții la cunoașterea valurilor de pământ. Acta terrae septencastrensis, Editura Economica, Sibiu 2002, ISSN 1583-1817, p.111. ^ Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1, p.261. References[edit] Brodersen, Kai (2013). "Könige im Karpatenbogen" [Kings in the Carpathian Mountains]. Zeitschrift für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde (in German). Heidelberg: Arbeitskreis für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde (36). Croitoru, Costin (2002). "Sudul Moldovei în cadrul sistemului defensiv roman. Contribuții la cunoașterea valurilor de pământ" [South of Moldova in the Roman defence system. Contributions to the knowledge of the turf walls]. Acta Terrae Septencastrensis (in Romanian). Editura Economica (I). ISSN 1583-1817. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2004). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0297846666. Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: Migration, Development, and the Birth of Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973560-0. Hoddinott, Ralph F., The Thracians, 1981. Hrushevskyi, Mykhailo (1997). History of Ukraine-Rus'. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. ISBN 978-1-895571-19-6. Lactantius, Venantius Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus (1871). "26". In Roberts, Alexander (ed.). The Works of Lactantius: A treatise on the anger of God. 2. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Retrieved 2012-04-15. Lengyel, Alfonz; Radan, George T. (1980). The Archaeology of Roman Pannonia. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9789630518864. Luttwak, Edward (1976). The grand strategy of the Roman Empire from the first century A.D. to the third. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801818639. Madgearu, Alexandru (2002). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane (in Romanian). Cetatea de Scaun. pp. 275–376. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3. Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London and Chicago: Fitzroy-Dearborn. ISBN 9781884964985. Retrieved 2015-12-15. Matyszak, Philip (2004). The Enemies of Rome: From Hannibal to Attila the Hun. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500251249. Mocsy, Andras (1974). Pannonia and Upper Moesia: History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. Routledge & Kegan Paul Books. ISBN 978-0-7100-7714-1. Mountain, Harry (1998). The Celtic Encyclopedia. Universal Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58112-890-1. Murray, Tim (2001). Encyclopedia of archaeology: Volume 1, Part 1. ABC-Clio; illustrated edition. ISBN 978-1-57607-198-4. Odahl, Charles (2003). Constantine and the Christian Empire. Routledge. ISBN 9781134686315. Stoica, Vasile (1919). The Roumanian Question: The Roumanians and their Lands. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Printing Company. Taylor, Timothy (2001). Northeastern European Iron Age pages 210–221 and East Central European Iron Age pages 79–90. Springer Published in conjunction with the Human Relations Area Files. ISBN 978-0-306-46258-0. Vico, Giambattista; Pinton, Giorgio A. (2004). Statecraft: The Deeds of Antonio Carafa. Peter Lang Pub Inc. ISBN 978-0-8204-6828-0. Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples, 2-Volume Set. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4964-6. External links[edit] Media related to Dacia at Wikimedia Commons Sorin Olteanu's Thraco-Daco-Moesian Languages Project (SoLTDM) (sources, thesaurus, textual criticism, phonetics and morphology, substratum, historical geography a.o.) Dacia – The historic region in East-Central Europe (includes Roman Castra) Ptolemy's Geography, book III, chapter 5 UNRV Dacia article sights.seindal.dk – Dacians as they appear on the Arch of Constantine www.fectio.org.uk – Draco Late Roman military standard www.stoa.org/trajan – Dacian Wars on Trajan's Column Journey to the Land of the Cloud Rovers – photographic slide show of Sarmizegetusa. Dacian history Dacia on coins. Dacian coins Preceded by Prehistory of the Balkans History of Romania Succeeded by Roman Dacia v t e Dacia topics Tribes Aedi Albocenses Anartes Apuli Biephi Bessi/Bessoi Burs (Dacia) Carpi Ciaginsi Clariae Costoboci Crobidae Daci Getae Moesi Peukini Piephigi Potulatenses Predasenses Rhadacenses Saldenses Scaugdae Senses Suci Terizi Teurisci Trixae Tyragetae Troglodytae Kings Burebista Comosicus Coson Cotiso Cothelas Dapyx Decebalus Deceneus Dicomes Dromichaetes Dual Duras Moskon Oroles Rhemaxos Rholes Rubobostes Scorilo Zalmodegicus Zyraxes Culture and civilization Artifacts Coinage Art, jewellery, treasures, tools bracelets Clothing Language Belagines Words of possible Dacian origin Dacian plant names Dacian names Dacian script Sinaia lead plates Daco-Thracian Thracian language Thraco-Illyrian Religion Deities Bendis Deceneus Derzelas Dionysus Gebeleizis Kotys Pleistoros Sabazios Semele Seirenes Silenus Zalmoxis Dacian Draco Kogaionon Towns and fortresses Sarmizegetusa Argidava Buridava Cumidava Piroboridava Sucidava More towns... Davae Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains Murus Dacicus Foreign relations Greeks Celts Germanic tribes Romans Warfare Falx Sica Thracian warfare Wars with the Roman Empire Domitian First Battle of Tapae Trajan First War Second Battle of Tapae Battle of Adamclisi Second War Battle of Sarmizegetusa Roman Dacia Dacia Traiana Moesia Scythia Minor Dacia Aureliana Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Trajan Bridge Column Towns and cities Castra Limes Alutanus Moesiae Porolissensis Sarmatiae (Devil's Dykes) Transalutanus Trajan's Wall Brazda lui Novac Culture Daco-Roman Thraco-Roman Eastern Romance substratum Research Archaeology sites in Romania Books Dacianism Dacology Thracology Category Commons WikiProject v t e Ancient Dacian cities and/or fortresses Acidava Acmonia Aedava Aiadava Aizis Amutria Apulon Arcina Arcobadara Argedava Argidava (Arcidava) Arutela Berzobis Bregedava Brucla Buricodava Buridava Buteridava Capidava Carsidava Clepidava Cumidava Danedevae Dausdava Desudaba Diacum Dierna Dinogetia Docidava Drobeta Egeta Gatae Genucla Germisara Gildava Giridava Itadava Keiladeva Klepidaua Kuimedaba Malva (Romula) Marcodava Murideva Napoca Nentidava Oescus Patridava Patruissa Pelendava Perburidava Petrodava Pinon Piroboridava Polondava Potaissa Pulpudeva Quemedava Ramidava Ratiaria Recidava Romboses Rusidava Sacidava Sagadava Sandava Sangidaua Sarmizegetusa Regia Scaidava Setidava Singidava Sucidava Sucidava, Moesia Susudava Sykidaba Tamasidava Tapae Thermidava Tibiscum Tirista Tsierna Tyrida Utidava Zaldapa Zargidava Zeugma Zidava Zikideva Zimnicea Ziridava Zisnudeva Zucidaua Zurobara Zusidava Cities/fortresses with unknown names Aghireșu Ardan Ardeu Arpașu de Sus Augustin Băile Tușnad Băleni-Români Bănița Bâzdâna Beidaud Bocșa Boroșneu Mic Boșorod Botfei Breaza Bretea Mureșană Bucium Căpâlna Cernat Cetățeni Cioclovina Clopotiva "Costești-Blidaru" "Costești-Cetățuie" Cotnari Coțofenii din Dos Covasna Cozia Crăsanii de Jos Crivești Crizbav Cuciulata "Cucuiș - Dealul Golu" "Cucuiș - Vârful Berianului" Cugir Cârlomănești Dalboșeț Densuș Divici Drajna de Sus Dumitrița Eliseni Feldioara "Fețele Albe" Grădiștea de Munte Iedera de Jos Feleac Jigodin Liubcova Mala Kopania Marca Mataraua Merești Moinești Monariu Monor Moșna Ocolișu Mic Odorheiu Secuiesc Olteni Orăștie Mountains Petrila Petroșani "Piatra Roșie" Pietroasa Mică Pinticu Pisculești Poiana cu Cetate Polovragi Ponor Popești (Călărași) Porumbenii Mari Praid Racoș Racu Radovanu - Gorgana I Radovanu - Jidovescu Roadeș Rovinari Rușor Sacalasău Satu Mare (Harghita) Satu Nou Sânzieni Seimeni Socol Sprâncenata Stâncești Stoina Șeica Mică Tășad Telița Teliu Tilișca Timișu de Jos Turia Unip Uroi Valea Seacă Viișoara Moșneni Zemplín Zetea Dacia Maps on Commons Dacian fortresses, settlements, sanctuaries and tombs (Google Earth Community post) v t e Romania articles Topics History Timeline Prehistoric Romania Dacia Roman Dacia Early Middle Ages Middle Ages Early Modern Era National awakening United Principalities Kingdom World War I Greater Romania World War II Communist Romania Revolution Since 1989 Geography Cities Climate Counties Earthquakes Fauna Flora Historical regions Islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas Rivers Territorial evolution Topography Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT Judiciary Law enforcement Military Parliament Political parties Unification with Moldova Economy Agriculture Energy Exports Foreign investment Foreign trade Forestry Great Depression Industry automotive construction mining petrochemical Leu (currency) National Bank Property bubble Science and technology Services Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Crime Demographics Education Healthcare Immigration Languages Minorities Public holidays Religion Romanians Social structure Urban planning Welfare Culture Academy Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Folklore Humour Literature Media Music Philosophy Sport World Heritage Sites Outline Category Portal Commons Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries United States Japan Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dacia&oldid=1026086508" Categories: Dacia 82 BC 80s BC establishments 1st century BC 1st century Ancient history of Romania Former monarchies of Europe Muntenia States and territories established in the 1st century BC States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century Hidden categories: Articles with Romanian-language sources (ro) Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles that may contain original research from February 2014 All articles that may contain original research Articles with self-published sources from February 2014 All articles with self-published sources Europe articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Articles with multiple maintenance issues Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters Articles needing additional references from March 2013 All articles needing additional references CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Romanian-language sources (ro) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 08:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2747	----	British Museum - Wikipedia British Museum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search National museum in London, United Kingdom For other uses, see British Museum (disambiguation). British Museum Location within central London Established 7 June 1753; 268 years ago (1753-06-07) Location Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, England, United Kingdom Coordinates 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.5195°N 0.1269°W / 51.5195; -0.1269Coordinates: 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.5195°N 0.1269°W / 51.5195; -0.1269 Collection size approx. 8 million objects[1] Visitors 1,275,400 (2020) [2] Ranked 1st nationally, Chairman Sir Richard Lambert Director Hartwig Fischer Public transit access Goodge Street; Holborn; Tottenham Court Road; Russell Square; Website www.britishmuseum.org Area 807,000 sq ft (75,000 m2) in 94 galleries The Great Court was developed in 2001 and surrounds the original Reading Room. The British Museum, in the Bloomsbury area of London, England, is a public institution dedicated to human history, art and culture. Its permanent collection of some eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence,[3] having been widely collected during the era of the British Empire. It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.[a] It was the first public national museum in the world.[4] The Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane.[5] It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Its expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of expanding British colonisation and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions.[6] Its ownership of some of its most famous objects originating in other countries is disputed and remains the subject of international controversy, most notably in the case of the Elgin Marbles[7] of Greece, and the Rosetta Stone[8] of Egypt. Contents 1 History 1.1 Sir Hans Sloane 1.2 Foundation (1753) 1.3 Cabinet of curiosities (1753–1778) 1.4 Indolence and energy (1778–1800) 1.5 Growth and change (1800–1825) 1.6 The largest building site in Europe (1825–1850) 1.7 Collecting from the wider world (1850–1875) 1.8 Scholarship and legacies (1875–1900) 1.9 New century, new building (1900–1925) 1.10 Disruption and reconstruction (1925–1950) 1.11 A new public face (1950–1975) 1.12 The Great Court emerges (1975–2000) 1.13 The British Museum today 2 Governance 3 Building 4 Departments 4.1 Department of Egypt and Sudan 4.2 Department of Greece and Rome 4.3 Department of the Middle East 4.4 Department of Prints and Drawings 4.5 Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory 4.6 Department of Asia 4.7 Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas 4.8 Department of Coins and Medals 4.9 Department of Conservation and Scientific Research 4.10 Libraries and archives 5 British Museum Press 6 Controversies 6.1 Artefacts taken from other countries 6.2 Disputed items in the collection 6.3 Bag searches 6.4 BP sponsorship 6.5 Trustee appointment 7 Galleries 7.1 Digital and online 8 Exhibitions 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links History[edit] Sir Hans Sloane[edit] Sir Hans Sloane Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753), a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter,[9] Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities and, not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of £20,000.[10] At that time, Sloane's collection consisted of around 71,000 objects of all kinds[11] including some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens including 337 volumes of dried plants, prints and drawings including those by Albrecht Dürer and antiquities from Sudan, Egypt, Greece, Rome, the Ancient Near and Far East and the Americas.[12] Foundation (1753)[edit] On 7 June 1753, King George II gave his Royal Assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum.[b] The British Museum Act 1753 also added two other libraries to the Sloane collection, namely the Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dating back to Elizabethan times, and the Harleian Library, the collection of the Earls of Oxford. They were joined in 1757 by the "Old Royal Library", now the Royal manuscripts, assembled by various British monarchs. Together these four "foundation collections" included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library[14] including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving manuscript of Beowulf.[c] Montagu House, c. 1715 The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to collect everything. Sloane's collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests.[15] The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary and antiquarian element, and meant that the British Museum now became both National Museum and library.[16] Cabinet of curiosities (1753–1778)[edit] The Rosetta Stone on display in the British Museum in 1874 The body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location.[17][d] With the acquisition of Montagu House, the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759.[18] At this time, the largest parts of collection were the library, which took up the majority of the rooms on the ground floor of Montagu House, and the natural history objects, which took up an entire wing on the second state storey of the building. In 1763, the trustees of the British Museum, under the influence of Peter Collinson and William Watson, employed the former student of Carl Linnaeus, Daniel Solander, to reclassify the natural history collection according to the Linnaean system, thereby making the Museum a public centre of learning accessible to the full range of European natural historians.[19] In 1823, King George IV gave the King's Library assembled by George III,[20] and Parliament gave the right to a copy of every book published in the country, thereby ensuring that the museum's library would expand indefinitely. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several further gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts and David Garrick's library of 1,000 printed plays. The predominance of natural history, books and manuscripts began to lessen when in 1772 the museum acquired for £8,410 its first significant antiquities in Sir William Hamilton's "first" collection of Greek vases.[21] Indolence and energy (1778–1800)[edit] Entrance ticket to the British Museum, London 3 March 1790 From 1778, a display of objects from the South Seas brought back from the round-the-world voyages of Captain James Cook and the travels of other explorers fascinated visitors with a glimpse of previously unknown lands. The bequest of a collection of books, engraved gems, coins, prints and drawings by Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode in 1800 did much to raise the museum's reputation; but Montagu House became increasingly crowded and decrepit and it was apparent that it would be unable to cope with further expansion.[22] The museum's first notable addition towards its collection of antiquities, since its foundation, was by Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), British Ambassador to Naples, who sold his collection of Greek and Roman artefacts to the museum in 1784 together with a number of other antiquities and natural history specimens. A list of donations to the museum, dated 31 January 1784, refers to the Hamilton bequest of a "Colossal Foot of an Apollo in Marble". It was one of two antiquities of Hamilton's collection drawn for him by Francesco Progenie, a pupil of Pietro Fabris, who also contributed a number of drawings of Mount Vesuvius sent by Hamilton to the Royal Society in London. Growth and change (1800–1825)[edit] Left to Right: Montagu House, Townley Gallery and Sir Robert Smirke's west wing under construction, July 1828 The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus Room, 1920s In the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. After the defeat of the French campaign in the Battle of the Nile, in 1801, the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculptures and in 1802 King George III presented the Rosetta Stone – key to the deciphering of hieroglyphs.[23] Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, laid the foundations of the collection of Egyptian Monumental Sculpture.[24] Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman sculpture, in 1805. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803 removed the large collection of marble sculptures from the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens and transferred them to the UK. In 1816 these masterpieces of western art were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament and deposited in the museum thereafter.[25] The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815. The Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich.[26] In 1802 a buildings committee was set up to plan for expansion of the museum, and further highlighted by the donation in 1822 of the King's Library, personal library of King George III's, comprising 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawings.[27] The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an eastern extension to the museum "... for the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it ..."[28] and put forward plans for today's quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the King's Library Gallery began in 1823. The extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. However, following the founding of the National Gallery, London in 1824,[e] the proposed Picture Gallery was no longer needed, and the space on the upper floor was given over to the Natural history collections.[29] The largest building site in Europe (1825–1850)[edit] The Grenville Library, 1875 As Sir Robert Smirke's grand neo-classical building gradually arose, the museum became a construction site. The King's Library, on the ground floor of the East Wing, was handed over in 1827, and was described as one of the finest rooms in London. Although it was not fully open to the general public until 1857, special openings were arranged during The Great Exhibition of 1851. In 1840, the museum became involved in its first overseas excavations, Charles Fellows's expedition to Xanthos, in Asia Minor, whence came remains of the tombs of the rulers of ancient Lycia, among them the Nereid and Payava monuments. In 1857, Charles Newton was to discover the 4th-century BC Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In the 1840s and 1850s the museum supported excavations in Assyria by A.H. Layard and others at sites such as Nimrud and Nineveh. Of particular interest to curators was the eventual discovery of Ashurbanipal's great library of cuneiform tablets, which helped to make the museum a focus for Assyrian studies.[30] Sir Thomas Grenville (1755–1846), a trustee of the British Museum from 1830, assembled a library of 20,240 volumes, which he left to the museum in his will. The books arrived in January 1847 in twenty-one horse-drawn vans. The only vacant space for this large library was a room originally intended for manuscripts, between the Front Entrance Hall and the Manuscript Saloon. The books remained here until the British Library moved to St Pancras in 1998. Collecting from the wider world (1850–1875)[edit] The opening of the forecourt in 1852 marked the completion of Robert Smirke's 1823 plan, but already adjustments were having to be made to cope with the unforeseen growth of the collections. Infill galleries were constructed for Assyrian sculptures and Sydney Smirke's Round Reading Room, with space for a million books, opened in 1857. Because of continued pressure on space the decision was taken to move natural history to a new building in South Kensington, which would later become the British Museum of Natural History. Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the "second founder" of the British Museum, the Italian librarian Anthony Panizzi. Under his supervision, the British Museum Library (now part of the British Library) quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library, the largest library in the world after the National Library of Paris.[16] The quadrangle at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular Reading Room of cast iron, designed by Smirke's brother, Sydney Smirke.[31] Until the mid-19th century, the museum's collections were relatively circumscribed but, in 1851, with the appointment to the staff of Augustus Wollaston Franks to curate the collections, the museum began for the first time to collect British and European medieval antiquities, prehistory, branching out into Asia and diversifying its holdings of ethnography. A real coup for the museum was the purchase in 1867, over French objections, of the Duke of Blacas's wide-ranging and valuable collection of antiquities. Overseas excavations continued and John Turtle Wood discovered the remains of the 4th century BC Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, another Wonder of the Ancient World.[32] Scholarship and legacies (1875–1900)[edit] The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum of Natural History in 1887, nowadays the Natural History Museum. With the departure and the completion of the new White Wing (fronting Montague Street) in 1884, more space was available for antiquities and ethnography and the library could further expand. This was a time of innovation as electric lighting was introduced in the Reading Room and exhibition galleries.[33] The William Burges collection of armoury was bequeathed to the museum in 1881. In 1882, the museum was involved in the establishment of the independent Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society) the first British body to carry out research in Egypt. A bequest from Miss Emma Turner in 1892 financed excavations in Cyprus. In 1897 the death of the great collector and curator, A. W. Franks, was followed by an immense bequest of 3,300 finger rings, 153 drinking vessels, 512 pieces of continental porcelain, 1,500 netsuke, 850 inro, over 30,000 bookplates and miscellaneous items of jewellery and plate, among them the Oxus Treasure.[34] In 1898 Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bequeathed the Waddesdon Bequest, the glittering contents from his New Smoking Room at Waddesdon Manor. This consisted of almost 300 pieces of objets d'art et de vertu which included exquisite examples of jewellery, plate, enamel, carvings, glass and maiolica, among them the Holy Thorn Reliquary, probably created in the 1390s in Paris for John, Duke of Berry. The collection was in the tradition of a Schatzkammer such as those formed by the Renaissance princes of Europe.[35] Baron Ferdinand's will was most specific, and failure to observe the terms would make it void, the collection should be placed in a special room to be called the Waddesdon Bequest Room separate and apart from the other contents of the Museum and thenceforth for ever thereafter, keep the same in such room or in some other room to be substituted for it.[35] These terms are still observed, and the collection occupies room 2a. New century, new building (1900–1925)[edit] Opening of The North Wing, King Edward VII's Galleries, 1914 Sir Leonard Woolley holding the excavated Sumerian Queen's Lyre, 1922 By the last years of the 19th century, The British Museum's collections had increased to the extent that its building was no longer large enough. In 1895 the trustees purchased the 69 houses surrounding the museum with the intention of demolishing them and building around the west, north and east sides of the museum. The first stage was the construction of the northern wing beginning 1906. All the while, the collections kept growing. Emil Torday collected in Central Africa, Aurel Stein in Central Asia, D.G. Hogarth, Leonard Woolley and T. E. Lawrence excavated at Carchemish. Around this time, the American collector and philanthropist J Pierpont Morgan donated a substantial number of objects to the museum,[36] including William Greenwell's collection of prehistoric artefacts from across Europe which he had purchased for £10,000 in 1908. Morgan had also acquired a major part of Sir John Evans's coin collection, which was later sold to the museum by his son John Pierpont Morgan Junior in 1915. In 1918, because of the threat of wartime bombing, some objects were evacuated via the London Post Office Railway to Holborn, the National Library of Wales (Aberystwyth) and a country house near Malvern. On the return of antiquities from wartime storage in 1919 some objects were found to have deteriorated. A conservation laboratory was set up in May 1920 and became a permanent department in 1931. It is today the oldest in continuous existence.[37] In 1923, the British Museum welcomed over one million visitors. Disruption and reconstruction (1925–1950)[edit] New mezzanine floors were constructed and book stacks rebuilt in an attempt to cope with the flood of books. In 1931, the art dealer Sir Joseph Duveen offered funds to build a gallery for the Parthenon sculptures. Designed by the American architect John Russell Pope, it was completed in 1938. The appearance of the exhibition galleries began to change as dark Victorian reds gave way to modern pastel shades.[f] However, in August 1939, due to the imminence of war and the likelihood of air-raids, the Parthenon Sculptures, along with the museum's most valued collections, were dispersed to secure basements, country houses, Aldwych Underground station, the National Library of Wales and a quarry. The evacuation was timely, for in 1940 the Duveen Gallery was severely damaged by bombing.[39] Meanwhile, prior to the war, the Nazis had sent a researcher to the British Museum for several years with the aim of "compiling an anti-Semitic history of Anglo-Jewry".[40] After the war, the museum continued to collect from all countries and all centuries: among the most spectacular additions were the 2600 BC Mesopotamian treasure from Ur, discovered during Leonard Woolley's 1922–34 excavations. Gold, silver and garnet grave goods from the Anglo-Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo (1939) and late Roman silver tableware from Mildenhall, Suffolk (1946). The immediate post-war years were taken up with the return of the collections from protection and the restoration of the museum after the Blitz. Work also began on restoring the damaged Duveen Gallery. A new public face (1950–1975)[edit] The re-opened Duveen Gallery, 1980 In 1953, the museum celebrated its bicentenary. Many changes followed: the first full-time in-house designer and publications officer were appointed in 1964, the Friends organisation was set up in 1968, an Education Service established in 1970 and publishing house in 1973. In 1963, a new Act of Parliament introduced administrative reforms. It became easier to lend objects, the constitution of the board of trustees changed and the Natural History Museum became fully independent. By 1959 the Coins and Medals office suite, completely destroyed during the war, was rebuilt and re-opened, attention turned towards the gallery work with new tastes in design leading to the remodelling of Robert Smirke's Classical and Near Eastern galleries.[41] In 1962 the Duveen Gallery was finally restored and the Parthenon Sculptures were moved back into it, once again at the heart of the museum.[g] By the 1970s the museum was again expanding. More services for the public were introduced; visitor numbers soared, with the temporary exhibition "Treasures of Tutankhamun" in 1972, attracting 1,694,117 visitors, the most successful in British history. In the same year the Act of Parliament establishing the British Library was passed, separating the collection of manuscripts and printed books from the British Museum. This left the museum with antiquities; coins, medals and paper money; prints & drawings; and ethnography. A pressing problem was finding space for additions to the library which now required an extra 1+1⁄4 miles (2.0 km) of shelving each year. The Government suggested a site at St Pancras for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997. The Great Court emerges (1975–2000)[edit] The departure of the British Library to a new site at St Pancras, finally achieved in 1998, provided the space needed for the books. It also created the opportunity to redevelop the vacant space in Robert Smirke's 19th-century central quadrangle into the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court – the largest covered square in Europe – which opened in 2000. The ethnography collections, which had been housed in the short-lived Museum of Mankind at 6 Burlington Gardens from 1970, were returned to new purpose-built galleries in the museum in 2000. The museum again readjusted its collecting policies as interest in "modern" objects: prints, drawings, medals and the decorative arts reawakened. Ethnographical fieldwork was carried out in places as diverse as New Guinea, Madagascar, Romania, Guatemala and Indonesia and there were excavations in the Near East, Egypt, Sudan and the UK. The Weston Gallery of Roman Britain, opened in 1997, displayed a number of recently discovered hoards which demonstrated the richness of what had been considered an unimportant part of the Roman Empire. The museum turned increasingly towards private funds for buildings, acquisitions and other purposes.[43] The British Museum today[edit] Wide view of the Great Court Today the museum no longer houses collections of natural history, and the books and manuscripts it once held now form part of the independent British Library. The museum nevertheless preserves its universality in its collections of artefacts representing the cultures of the world, ancient and modern. The original 1753 collection has grown to over 13 million objects at the British Museum, 70 million at the Natural History Museum and 150 million at the British Library. The Round Reading Room, which was designed by the architect Sydney Smirke, opened in 1857. For almost 150 years researchers came here to consult the museum's vast library. The Reading Room closed in 1997 when the national library (the British Library) moved to a new building at St Pancras. Today it has been transformed into the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre. With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum empty, the demolition for Lord Foster's glass-roofed Great Court could begin. The Great Court, opened in 2000, while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public. At the same time the African collections that had been temporarily housed in 6 Burlington Gardens were given a new gallery in the North Wing funded by the Sainsbury family – with the donation valued at £25 million.[44] As part of its very large website, the museum has the largest online database of objects in the collection of any museum in the world, with 2,000,000 individual object entries, 650,000 of them illustrated, online at the start of 2012.[45] There is also a "Highlights" database with longer entries on over 4,000 objects, and several specialised online research catalogues and online journals (all free to access).[46] In 2013 the museum's website received 19.5 millions visits, an increase of 47% from the previous year.[47] In 2013 the museum received a record 6.7 million visitors, an increase of 20% from the previous year.[47] Popular exhibitions including "Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum" and "Ice Age Art" are credited with helping fuel the increase in visitors.[48] Plans were announced in September 2014 to recreate the entire building along with all exhibits in the video game Minecraft in conjunction with members of the public.[49] Governance[edit] The British Museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport through a three-year funding agreement. Its head is the Director of the British Museum. The British Museum was run from its inception by a 'principal librarian' (when the book collections were still part of the museum), a role that was renamed 'director and principal librarian' in 1898, and 'director' in 1973 (on the separation of the British Library).[50] A board of 25 trustees (with the director as their accounting officer for the purposes of reporting to Government) is responsible for the general management and control of the museum, in accordance with the British Museum Act 1963 and the Museums and Galleries Act 1992.[51] Prior to the 1963 Act, it was chaired by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker of the House of Commons. The board was formed on the museum's inception to hold its collections in trust for the nation without actually owning them themselves, and now fulfil a mainly advisory role. Trustee appointments are governed by the regulatory framework set out in the code of practice on public appointments issued by the Office of the Commissioner for Public Appointments.[52] Building[edit] The museum's main entrance The Greek Revival façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke, with 44 columns in the Ionic order 45 ft (14 m) high, closely based on those of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene in Asia Minor. The pediment over the main entrance is decorated by sculptures by Sir Richard Westmacott depicting The Progress of Civilisation, consisting of fifteen allegorical figures, installed in 1852. The construction commenced around the courtyard with the East Wing (The King's Library) in 1823–1828, followed by the North Wing in 1833–1838, which originally housed among other galleries a reading room, now the Wellcome Gallery. Work was also progressing on the northern half of the West Wing (The Egyptian Sculpture Gallery) 1826–1831, with Montagu House demolished in 1842 to make room for the final part of the West Wing, completed in 1846, and the South Wing with its great colonnade, initiated in 1843 and completed in 1847, when the Front Hall and Great Staircase were opened to the public.[53] The museum is faced with Portland stone, but the perimeter walls and other parts of the building were built using Haytor granite from Dartmoor in South Devon, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway.[54] The Enlightenment Gallery at museum, which formerly held the King's Library, 2007 Proposed British Museum Extension, 1906 The Reading Room and Great Court roof, 2005 External view of the World Conservation and Exhibition Centre at the museum, 2015 In 1846 Robert Smirke was replaced as the museum's architect by his brother Sydney Smirke, whose major addition was the Round Reading Room 1854–1857; at 140 feet (43 m) in diameter it was then the second widest dome in the world, the Pantheon in Rome being slightly wider. The next major addition was the White Wing 1882–1884 added behind the eastern end of the South Front, the architect being Sir John Taylor. In 1895, Parliament gave the museum trustees a loan of £200,000 to purchase from the Duke of Bedford all 69 houses which backed onto the museum building in the five surrounding streets – Great Russell Street, Montague Street, Montague Place, Bedford Square and Bloomsbury Street.[55] The trustees planned to demolish these houses and to build around the west, north and east sides of the museum new galleries that would completely fill the block on which the museum stands. The architect Sir John James Burnet was petitioned to put forward ambitious long-term plans to extend the building on all three sides. Most of the houses in Montague Place were knocked down a few years after the sale. Of this grand plan only the Edward VII galleries in the centre of the North Front were ever constructed, these were built 1906–14 to the design by J.J. Burnet, and opened by King George V and Queen Mary in 1914. They now house the museum's collections of Prints and Drawings and Oriental Antiquities. There was not enough money to put up more new buildings, and so the houses in the other streets are nearly all still standing. The Duveen Gallery, sited to the west of the Egyptian, Greek & Assyrian sculpture galleries, was designed to house the Elgin Marbles by the American Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope. Although completed in 1938, it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years, before reopening in 1962. Other areas damaged during World War II bombing included: in September 1940 two unexploded bombs hit the Edward VII galleries, the King's Library received a direct hit from a high explosive bomb, incendiaries fell on the dome of the Round Reading Room but did little damage; on the night of 10 to 11 May 1941 several incendiaries fell on the south-west corner of the museum, destroying the book stack and 150,000 books in the courtyard and the galleries around the top of the Great Staircase – this damage was not fully repaired until the early 1960s.[56] The Queen Elizabeth II Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the engineers Buro Happold and the architects Foster and Partners.[57] The Great Court opened in December 2000 and is the largest covered square in Europe. The roof is a glass and steel construction, built by an Austrian steelwork company,[58] with 1,656 uniquely shaped panes of glass. At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the British Library, its functions now moved to St Pancras. The Reading Room is open to any member of the public who wishes to read there. Today, the British Museum has grown to become one of the largest museums in the world, covering an area of over 92,000 m2 (990,000 sq. ft).[3][failed verification][59] In addition to 21,600 m2 (232,000 sq. ft)[60] of on-site storage space, and 9,400 m2 (101,000 sq. ft)[60] of external storage space. Altogether the British Museum showcases on public display less than 1%[60] of its entire collection, approximately 50,000 items.[61] There are nearly one hundred galleries open to the public, representing 2 miles (3.2 km) of exhibition space, although the less popular ones have restricted opening times. However, the lack of a large temporary exhibition space has led to the £135 million World Conservation and Exhibition Centre to provide one and to concentrate all the museum's conservation facilities into one Conservation Centre. This project was announced in July 2007, with the architects Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners. It was granted planning permission in December 2009 and was completed in time for the Viking exhibition in March 2014.[62][63] Blythe House in West Kensington is used by the museum for off-site storage of small and medium-sized artefacts, and Franks House in East London is used for storage and work on the "Early Prehistory" – Palaeolithic and Mesolithic – and some other collections.[64] Departments[edit] Department of Egypt and Sudan[edit] Room 61 – The famous false fresco 'Pond in a Garden' from the Tomb of Nebamun, c. 1350 BC Room 4 – The Rosetta Stone, key to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, 196 BC The British Museum houses the world's largest[h] and most comprehensive collection of Egyptian antiquities (with over 100,000[65] pieces) outside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. A collection of immense importance for its range and quality, it includes objects of all periods from virtually every site of importance in Egypt and the Sudan. Together, they illustrate every aspect of the cultures of the Nile Valley (including Nubia), from the Predynastic Neolithic period (c. 10,000 BC) through Coptic (Christian) times (12th century AD), and up to the present day, a time-span over 11,000 years.[66] Egyptian antiquities have formed part of the British Museum collection ever since its foundation in 1753 after receiving 160 Egyptian objects[67] from Sir Hans Sloane. After the defeat of the French forces under Napoleon at the Battle of the Nile in 1801, the Egyptian antiquities collected were confiscated by the British army and presented to the British Museum in 1803. These works, which included the famed Rosetta Stone, were the first important group of large sculptures to be acquired by the museum. Thereafter, the UK appointed Henry Salt as consul in Egypt who amassed a huge collection of antiquities, some of which were assembled and transported with great ingenuity by the famous Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni. Most of the antiquities Salt collected were purchased by the British Museum and the Musée du Louvre. By 1866 the collection consisted of some 10,000 objects. Antiquities from excavations started to come to the museum in the latter part of the 19th century as a result of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund under the efforts of E.A. Wallis Budge. Over the years more than 11,000 objects came from this source, including pieces from Amarna, Bubastis and Deir el-Bahari. Other organisations and individuals also excavated and donated objects to the British Museum, including Flinders Petrie's Egypt Research Account and the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, as well as the University of Oxford Expedition to Kawa and Faras in Sudan. Room 4 – Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III, 1350 BC Active support by the museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in important acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported, although divisions still continue in Sudan. The British Museum conducted its own excavations in Egypt where it received divisions of finds, including Asyut (1907), Mostagedda and Matmar (1920s), Ashmunein (1980s) and sites in Sudan such as Soba, Kawa and the Northern Dongola Reach (1990s). The size of the Egyptian collections now stand at over 110,000 objects.[68] In autumn 2001 the eight million objects forming the museum's permanent collection were further expanded by the addition of six million objects from the Wendorf Collection of Egyptian and Sudanese Prehistory.[69] These were donated by Professor Fred Wendorf of Southern Methodist University in Texas, and comprise the entire collection of artefacts and environmental remains from his excavations at Prehistoric sites in the Sahara Desert between 1963 and 1997. Other fieldwork collections have recently come from Dietrich and Rosemarie Klemm (University of Munich) and William Adams (University of Kentucky). The seven permanent Egyptian galleries at the British Museum, which include its largest exhibition space (Room 4, for monumental sculpture), can display only 4% of its Egyptian holdings. The second-floor galleries have a selection of the museum's collection of 140 mummies and coffins, the largest outside Cairo. A high proportion of the collection comes from tombs or contexts associated with the cult of the dead, and it is these pieces, in particular the mummies, that remain among the most eagerly sought-after exhibits by visitors to the museum. Highlights of the collections include: Predynastic and Early Dynastic period (c. 6000 BC – c.2690 BC) Mummy of Ginger and five other individuals from Gebelein, (c.3400 BC) Flint knife with an ivory handle (known as the Pit-Rivers Knife), Sheikh Hamada, Egypt (c.3100 BC) The Battlefield Palette and Hunters Palette, two cosmetic palettes with complex decorative schemes, (c.3100 BC) Ivory statuette of a king, from the early temple at Abydos, Egypt (c.3000 BC) King Den's sandal label from Abydos, mid-1st Dynasty (c.2985 BC) Stela of King Peribsen, Abydos (c.2720–2710 BC) Old Kingdom (2690–2181 BC) Artefacts from the tomb of King Khasekhemwy from the 2nd Dynasty (2690 BC) Granite statue of Ankhwa, the shipbuilder, Saqqara, Egypt, 3rd Dynasty, (c.2650 BC) Several of the original casing stones from the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, (c.2570 BC) Statue of Nenkheftka from Deshasha, 4th Dynasty (2500 BC) Limestone false door of Ptahshepses, Saqqara (2440 BC) Abusir Papyri, some of the oldest papyri from ancient Egypt, Abusir (2400 BC) Wooden tomb statue of Tjeti, 5th to 6th Dynasty (about 2345–2181 BC) Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) Inner and outer coffin of Sebekhetepi, Beni Hasan, (about 2125–1795 BC) Quartzite statue of Ankhrekhu, 12th Dynasty (1985–1795 BC) Limestone stela of Heqaib, Abydos, Egypt, 12th Dynasty, (1990–1750 BC) Block statue and stela of Sahathor, 12th Dynasty, reign of Amenemhat II, (1922–1878 BC) Limestone statue and stelae from the offering chapel of Inyotef, Abydos, 12th Dynasty (c.1920 BC) Stela of Samontu, Abydos, (1910 BC) Reliefs from the tomb of Djehutyhotep, Deir-el-Bersha, (1878–1855 BC) Three Granite statues of Senwosret III, Deir el-Bahri, (1850 BC) Statue of Rehuankh, Abydos, (1850–1830 BC) Colossal head of Amenemhat III, Bubastis, (1800 BC) Stela of Nebipusenwosret, Abydos, (1800 BC) Second Itermediate Period (1650–1550 BC) Coffin of King Nubkheperre Intef, Thebes, (1570 BC) The famous Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, an early example of Ancient Egyptian mathematics, Thebes, (1550 BC) New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC) Schist head of Pharaoh Hatshepsut or her successor Tuthmosis III (1480 BC) Statue of Senenmut with Princess Neferure on his lap, Karnak, (1470 BC) Block statue of Sennefer, Western Thebes, (1430 BC) Twenty Sekhmet statues from the Temple of Mut, Thebes, (1400 BC) Fragment of the beard of the Great Sphinx of Giza, (14th century BC) Pair of granite monumental lion statues from Soleb in Sudan, (1370 BC) Hoard of silver bullion from El-Amarna, (1352-1336 BC) Colossal head from a statue of Amenhotep III, (1350 BC) Colossal limestone bust of Amenhotep III, (1350 BC) Amarna Tablets, 99 out of 382 tablets found, second greatest collection in the world after the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin (203 tablets), (1350 BC) Stela of Horemheb from his tomb at Saqqara, (1330 BC) London Medical Papyrus with 61 medical and magical treatments, (1300 BC) Papyrus of Ani, one of the finest extant Book of the Dead from antiquity, Thebes, (1275 BC) List of the kings of Egypt from the Temple of Ramesses II, (1250 BC) Statue of Khaemwaset, son of Ramses II, Abydos, (1250 BC) The Great Harris Papyrus, the longest surviving papyrus from antiquity, Thebes, (1200 BC) D'Orbiney Papyrus with the Tale of Two Brothers, (1200–1194 BC) Seated statue of Seti II, Temple of Mut, Karnak, (1200–1194 BC) Face from the sarcophagus of Ramses VI, Valley of the Kings, (1140 BC) Book of the Dead of Nedjmet with painted offering-vignettes and columns of Hieroglyphic text, Deir el-Bahari, (1070 BC) Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC) Pair of gold bracelets that belonged to General Nemareth, son of Shoshenq I, Sais, (940 BC) Colossal column capital of Hathor from Bubastis, 22nd Dynasty, (922–887 BC) Statue of the Nile god Hapy, Karnak, (c.900 BC) Mummy case and coffin of Nesperennub, Thebes, (c.800 BC) Shabaka Stone from Memphis, Egypt, 25th Dynasty (around 700 BC) Coffin of king Menkaure, Giza, (700–600 BC) One of the three statues of Amun in the form of a ram protecting King Taharqo, Kawa, (683 BC) Inner and outer coffins of the priest Hor, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, 25th Dynasty, (about 680 BC) Granite statue of the Sphinx of Taharqo, (680 BC) Late Period (664–332 BC) Saite Sarcophagus of Sasobek, the vizier (prime minister) of the northern part of Egypt in the reign of Psammetichus I (664–610 BC) Sarcophagus lid of Sasobek, (630 BC) Bronze figure of Isis and Horus, North Saqqara, Egypt (600 BC) Sarcophagus of Hapmen, Cairo, 26th Dynasty or later, (600–300 BC) Kneeling statue of Wahibre, from near Lake Mariout, (530 BC) Sarcophagus of Ankhnesneferibre, (525 BC) Torso of Nectanebo I, (380–362 BC) Obelisks and sarcophagus of Pharaoh Nectanebo II, (360–343 BC) Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, Alexandria, (360–343 BC) Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC) The famous Rosetta Stone, trilingual stela that unlocked the ancient Egyptian civilisation (196 BC) Naos or temple shrine of Ptolemy VIII from Philae, (150 BC) Giant sculpture of a scarab beetle, (32–30 BC) Fragment of a basalt Egyptian-style statue of Ptolemy I Soter, (305–283 BC) Mummy of Hornedjitef (inner coffin), Thebes, (3rd century BC) Wall from a chapel of Queen Shanakdakhete, Meroë, (c.150 BC) Shrine of Ptolemy VII, Philae (c.150 BC) Roman Period (30 BC-641 AD) Schist head of a young man, Alexandria, (after 30 BC) The Meriotic Hamadab Stela from the Kingdom of Kush found near the ancient site of Meroë in Sudan, 24 BC Lid of the coffin of Soter and Cleopatra from Qurna, Thebes, (early 2nd century AD) Mummy of a youth with a portrait of the deceased, Hawara, (100–200 AD) Over 30 Fayum mummy portraits from Hawara and other sites in Fayum, (40–250 AD) Bronze lamp and patera from the X-group tombs, Qasr Ibrim, (1st–6th centuries AD) Coptic wall painting of the martyrdom of saints, Wadi Sarga, (6th century AD) Room 64 - Egyptian grave containing a Gebelein predynastic mummy, late predynastic, 3400 BC Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the pharaoh Senusret III, c. 1850 BC Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the goddess Sakhmet, c. 1400 BC Room 4 – Colossal statue of Amenhotep III, c. 1370 BC Great Court – Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III, c. 1350 BC Room 4 - Limestone statue of a husband and wife, 1300-1250 BC Room 63 - Gilded outer coffins from the tomb of Henutmehyt, Thebes, Egypt, 19th Dynasty, 1250 BC Book of the Dead of Hunefer, sheet 5, 19th Dynasty, 1250 BC Room 4 - Ancient Egyptian bronze statue of a cat from the Late Period, about 664–332 BC Room 4 - Green siltstone head of a Pharaoh, 26th-30th Dynasty, 600-340 BC Great Court - Black siltstone obelisk of King Nectanebo II of Egypt, Thirtieth dynasty, about 350 BC Room 62 - Detail from the mummy case of Artemidorus the Younger, a Greek who had settled in Thebes, Egypt, during Roman times, 100-200 AD Department of Greece and Rome[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "British Museum" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Room 17 – Reconstruction of the Nereid Monument, c. 390 BC Room 18 – Parthenon marbles from the Acropolis of Athens, 447 BC Room 21 – Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, mid-4th century BC The British Museum has one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of antiquities from the Classical world, with over 100,000 objects.[70] These mostly range in date from the beginning of the Greek Bronze Age (about 3200 BC) to the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, with the Edict of Milan under the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 313 AD. Archaeology was in its infancy during the nineteenth century and many pioneering individuals began excavating sites across the Classical world, chief among them for the museum were Charles Newton, John Turtle Wood, Robert Murdoch Smith and Charles Fellows. The Greek objects originate from across the Ancient Greek world, from the mainland of Greece and the Aegean Islands, to neighbouring lands in Asia Minor and Egypt in the eastern Mediterranean and as far as the western lands of Magna Graecia that include Sicily and southern Italy. The Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean cultures are represented, and the Greek collection includes important sculpture from the Parthenon in Athens, as well as elements of two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos.[70] Beginning from the early Bronze Age, the department also houses one of the widest-ranging collections of Italic and Etruscan antiquities outside Italy, as well as extensive groups of material from Cyprus and non-Greek colonies in Lycia and Caria on Asia Minor. There is some material from the Roman Republic, but the collection's strength is in its comprehensive array of objects from across the Roman Empire, with the exception of Britain (which is the mainstay of the Department of Prehistory and Europe). The collections of ancient jewellery and bronzes, Greek vases (many from graves in southern Italy that were once part of Sir William Hamilton's and Chevalier Durand's collections), Roman glass including the famous Cameo glass Portland Vase, Roman gold glass (the second largest collection after the Vatican Museums), Roman mosaics from Carthage and Utica in North Africa that were excavated by Nathan Davis, and silver hoards from Roman Gaul (some of which were bequeathed by the philanthropist and museum trustee Richard Payne Knight), are particularly important. Cypriot antiquities are strong too and have benefited from the purchase of Sir Robert Hamilton Lang's collection as well as the bequest of Emma Turner in 1892, which funded many excavations on the island. Roman sculptures (many of which are copies of Greek originals) are particularly well represented by the Townley collection as well as residual sculptures from the famous Farnese collection. Objects from the Department of Greece and Rome are located throughout the museum, although many of the architectural monuments are to be found on the ground floor, with connecting galleries from Gallery 5 to Gallery 23. On the upper floor, there are galleries devoted to smaller material from ancient Italy, Greece, Cyprus and the Roman Empire. Highlights of the collections include: Temple of Hephaestus Marble coffer frame and coffer from the colonnade, (449–415 BC) Parthenon The Parthenon Marbles (Elgin Marbles), (447–438 BC) Propylaea Capital and column drum, (437–432 BC) Erechtheion A surviving column and architectural fittings, (420–415 BC) One of six remaining Caryatids, (415 BC) Temple of Athena Nike Surviving frieze slabs and capital, (427–424 BC) Sanctuary of Apollo at Daphni Fluted columns, column bases and ionic capitals, (399–301 BC) Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos Statue of Dionysos, (270 BC) Tower of the Winds Marble Corinthian capital, (50 BC) Temple of Bassae Twenty-three surviving blocks of the frieze from the interior of the temple, (420–400 BC) Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Two colossal free-standing figures identified as Maussollos and his wife Artemisia, (c. 350 BC) Part of an impressive horse from the chariot group adorning the summit of the Mausoleum, (c. 350 BC) The Amazonomachy frieze – A long section of relief frieze showing the battle between Greeks and Amazons, (c. 350 BC) Temple of Artemis in Ephesus One of the sculptured column bases, (340–320 BC) Part of the Ionic frieze situated above the colonnade, (330–300 BC) Knidos in Asia Minor Demeter of Knidos, (350 BC) Lion of Knidos, (350–200 BC) Xanthos in Asia Minor Lion Tomb, (550–500 BC) Harpy Tomb, (480–470 BC) Nereid Monument, partial reconstruction of a large and elaborate Lykian tomb, (390–380 BC) Tomb of Merehi, (390–350 BC) Tomb of Payava, (375–350 BC) Bilingual Decree of Pixodaros, (340 BC) Wider collection Prehistoric Greece and Italy (3300 BC – 8th century BC) Over thirty Cycladic figures from islands in the Aegean Sea, many collected by James Theodore Bent, Greece, (3300–2000 BC) A large Gaudo culture askos from Paestum, southern Italy, (2800–2400 BC) Kythnos Hoard of wood working metal tools from the island of Naxos, Greece, (2700–2200 BC) Two pottery kernos from Phylakopi in Melos, Greece (2300–2000 BC) Material from the Palace of Knossos including a huge pottery storage jar, some donated by Sir Arthur Evans, Crete, Greece, (1900–1100 BC) The Minoan gold treasure from Aegina, northern Aegean, Greece, (1850–1550 BC) Artefacts from the Psychro Cave in Crete, including two serpentine libation tables, (1700–1450 BC) Bronze Minoan Bull-leaper from Rethymnon, Crete, (1600–1450 BC) Segments of the columns and architraves from the Treasury of Atreus, Peloponnese, Greece, (1350–1250 BC) Ivory game board found at Enkomi, Cyprus, (12th Century BC) Nuragic hoard of bronze artefacts found at Santa Maria in Paulis, Cagliari, Sardinia, (1100–900 BC) Elgin Amphora, highly decorated pottery vase attributed to the Dipylon Master, Athens, Greece, (8th century BC) Votive offerings from the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta, (8th Century BC) Etruscan (8th century BC – 1st century BC) Gold jewellery and other rich artefacts from the Castellani and Galeassi Tombs in Palestrina, central Italy, (8th–6th centuries BC) Ornate gold fibula with granulated parade of animals from the Bernardini Tomb, Cerveteri, (675–650 BC) Various objects including two small terracotta statues from the "Tomb of the five chairs" in Cerveteri (625–600 BC) Gold libation bowl from Sant'Angelo Muxaro, Sicily, (600 BC) Contents of the Isis tomb and François Tomb, Vulci, (570–560 BC) Painted terracotta plaques (the so-called Boccanera Plaques) from a tomb in Cerveteri, (560–550 BC) Decorated silver panels from Castel San Marino, near Perugia (540–520 BC) Statuette of a bronze votive figure from Pizzidimonte, near Prato, Italy (500–480 BC) Bronze helmet with inscription commemorating the Battle of Cumae, Olympia, Greece, (480 BC) Bronze votive statuettes from the Lake of the Idols, Monte Falterona, (420–400 BC) Part of a symposium set of bronze vessels from the tomb of Larth Metie, Bolsena, Italy, (400-300 BC) Exquisite gold ear-ring with female head pendant, one of a pair from Perugia, (300–200 BC) Oscan Tablet, one of the most important inscriptions in the Oscan language, (300–100 BC) Hoard of gold jewelry from Sant'Eufemia Lamezia, southern Italy, (340–330 BC) Latian bronze figure from the Sanctuary of Diana, Lake Nemi, Latium, (200–100 BC) Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa from Chiusi, (150–140 BC) Ancient Greece (8th century BC – 4th century AD) Orientalising gold jewelry from the Camirus cemetery in Rhodes, (700–600 BC) Group of life-size archaic statues from the Sacred Way at Didyma, western Turkey, (600–580 BC) Bronze statuette of a rider and horse from Armento, southern Italy (550 BC) Bronze head of an axe from San Sosti, southern Italy, (520 BC) Statue of a nude standing youth from Marion, Cyprus, (520–510 BC) Large terracotta sarcophagus and lid with painted scenes from Klazomenai, western Turkey, (510–480 BC) Two bronze tablets in the Locrian Greek dialect from Galaxidi, central Greece, (500-475 BC) Fragments from a large bronze equestrian statue of the Taranto Rider, southern Italy, (480–460 BC) Chatsworth Apollo Head, Tamassos, Cyprus (460 BC) Statue of recumbent bull from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens (4th century BC) Hoard of gold jewelry from Avola, Sicily, (370–300 BC) Dedicatory Inscription by Alexander the Great from Priene in Turkey (330 BC) Head from the colossal statue of the Asclepius of Milos, Greece, (325–300 BC) Braganza Brooch, Ornamental gold fibula reflecting Celtic and Greek influences (3rd century BC) Hoard of silver patera from Èze, southeastern France, (3rd century BC) Gold tablet from an Orphic sanctuary in southern Italy (3rd–2nd centuries BC) Marble relief of the Apotheosis of Homer from Bovillae, central Italy, (221–205 BC) Bronze sculpture of a Greek poet known as the Arundel Head, western Turkey, (2nd–1st centuries BC) Remains of the Scylla monument at Bargylia, south west Anatolia, Turkey, (200–150 BC) Bronze head and hand of the statue of Aphrodite of Satala (1st century BC) Bronze statuettes from Paramythia (2nd century AD) Large statue of Europa sitting on the back of a bull from the amphitheatre at Gortyna, Crete, (100 BC) Ancient Rome (1st century BC – 4th century AD) Pair of engraved oval agate plaques depicting Livia as Diana and Octavian as Mercury, (Rome, 30-25 BC) Guildford Puteal from Corinth, Greece (30–10 BC) Bronze head of Augustus from Meroë in Sudan (27–25 BC) Cameo glass Portland Vase, the most famous glass vessel from ancient Rome, (1–25 AD) Silver Warren Cup with homoerotic scenes, found near Jerusalem, (5–15 AD) Gladius of Mainz (or "Sword of Tiberius") and Blacas Cameo, depicting Roman emperors in triumph (15 AD) Horse trappings in decorated silver-plated bronze from Xanten, Germany (1st century AD) Pair of carved fluorite cups known as the Barber Cup and Crawford Cup (100 AD) Athlete statue, "Vaison Diadumenos", from an ancient Roman city in southern France (118–138 AD) A hoard of silver votive plaques dedicated to the Roman God Jupiter Dolichenus, discovered in Heddernheim, near Frankfurt, Germany, (1st–2nd centuries AD) Discus-thrower (Discobolos)[71] and Bronze Head of Hypnos from Civitella d'Arna, Italy, (1st–2nd centuries AD) Part of a large wooden wheel for draining a copper mine in Huelva, southern Spain, (1st–2nd centuries AD) Capitals from some of the pilasters of the Pantheon, Rome, (126 AD) Colossal marble head of Faustina the Elder, wife of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius from Sardis, western Turkey, (140 AD) Marble throne from the prohedria of the Panathenaic Stadium, Athens, (140–143 AD) Hoard of jewellery from a tomb in the vicinity of Miletopolis, Turkey, (175–180 AD) Inscribed marble base of the Roman Consul Tiberius Claudius Candidus, unearthed in Tarragona, Spain (195–199 AD) Jennings Dog, a statue of a Molossian guard dog, central Italy, (2nd century AD) Segment of a decorated marble balustrade from the Colosseum, Rome, (2nd century AD) Various silver treasures found at Arcisate, Beaurains, Boscoreale, Bursa, Chaourse, Caubiac, Chatuzange, Conimbriga, Mâcon and Revel-Tourdan (1st–3rd century AD) Votive statue of Apollo of Cyrene, Libya (2nd century AD) Uerdingen Hoard found near Düsseldorf in Germany (2nd–3rd centuries AD) The collection encompasses architectural, sculptural and epigraphic items from many other sites across the classical world including Amathus, Atripalda, Aphrodisias, Delos, Iasos, Idalion, Lindus, Kalymnos, Kerch, Rhamnous, Salamis, Sestos, Sounion, Tomis and Thessanoloki. Room 12 – A gold earring from the Aegina Treasure, Greece, 1700-1500 BC Room 18 – Parthenon statuary from the east pediment and Metopes from the south wall, Athens, Greece, 447-438 BC Room 19 – Caryatid and Ionian column from the Erechtheion, Acropolis of Athens, Greece, 420-415 BC Room 20 – Tomb of Payava, Lycia, Turkey, 360 BC Room 21 – Fragmentary horse from the colossal chariot group which topped the podium of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Turkey, c. 350 BC Room 22 - Gold oak wreath with a bee and two cicadas, western Turkey, c. 350-300 BC Room 22 – Column from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Turkey, early 4th century BC Room 22 - Colossal head of Asclepius wearing a metal crown (now lost), from a cult statue on Melos, Greece, 325-300 BC Room 1 - Farnese Hermes in the Enlightenment Gallery, Italy, 1st century AD Room 69 - Roman gladiator helmet from Pompeii, Italy, 1st century AD Room 23 - The famous version of the 'Crouching Venus', Roman, c. 1st century AD Room 22 – Roman marble copy of the famous 'Spinario (Boy with Thorn)', Italy, c. 1st century AD Room 22 – Apollo of Cyrene (holding a lyre), Libya, c. 2nd century AD Department of the Middle East[edit] Room 9 – Assyrian palace reliefs, Nineveh, 701–681 BC With a collection numbering some 330,000 works,[72] the British Museum possesses the world's largest and most important collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq. A collection of immense importance, the holdings of Assyrian sculpture, Babylonian and Sumerian antiquities are among the most comprehensive in the world with entire suites of rooms panelled in alabaster Assyrian palace reliefs from Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad. The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas. These cover Mesopotamia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, parts of Central Asia, Syria, the Holy Land and Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean from the prehistoric period and include objects from the beginning of Islam in the 7th century. The first significant addition of Mesopotamian objects was from the collection of Claudius James Rich in 1825. The collection was later dramatically enlarged by the excavations of A. H. Layard at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh between 1845 and 1851. At Nimrud, Layard discovered the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, as well as three other palaces and various temples. He later uncovered the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh with 'no less than seventy-one halls'. As a result, a large numbers of Lamassu's, palace reliefs, stelae, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, were brought to the British Museum. Room 6 – Pair of Human Headed Winged Lions and reliefs from Nimrud with the Balawat Gates, c. 860 BC Room 52 – Ancient Iran with the Cyrus Cylinder, considered to be the world's first charter of human rights, 559–530 BC Layard's work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam and in 1852–1854 he went on to discover the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh with many magnificent reliefs, including the famous Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal and Lachish reliefs. He also discovered the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, a large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance that today number around 130,000 pieces. W. K. Loftus excavated in Nimrud between 1850 and 1855 and found a remarkable hoard of ivories in the Burnt Palace. Between 1878 and 1882 Rassam greatly improved the museum's holdings with exquisite objects including the Cyrus Cylinder from Babylon, the bronze gates from Balawat, important objects from Sippar, and a fine collection of Urartian bronzes from Toprakkale including a copper figurine of a winged, human-headed bull. In the early 20th century excavations were carried out at Carchemish, Turkey by D. G. Hogarth and Leonard Woolley, the latter assisted by T. E. Lawrence. The Mesopotamian collections were greatly augmented by excavations in southern Iraq after the First World War. From Tell al-Ubaid came the bronze furnishings of a Sumerian temple, including life-sized lions and a panel featuring the lion-headed eagle Indugud found by H. R. Hall in 1919–24. Woolley went on to excavate Ur between 1922 and 1934, discovering the 'Royal Cemeteries' of the 3rd millennium BC. Some of the masterpieces include the 'Standard of Ur', the 'Ram in a Thicket', the 'Royal Game of Ur', and two bull-headed lyres. The department also has three diorite statues of the ruler Gudea from the ancient state of Lagash and a series of limestone kudurru or boundary stones from different locations across ancient Mesopotamia. Although the collections centre on Mesopotamia, most of the surrounding areas are well represented. The Achaemenid collection was enhanced with the addition of the Oxus Treasure in 1897 and objects excavated by the German scholar Ernst Herzfeld and the Hungarian-British explorer Sir Aurel Stein. Reliefs and sculptures from the site of Persepolis were donated by Sir Gore Ouseley in 1825 and the 5th Earl of Aberdeen in 1861 and the museum received part of a pot-hoard of jewellery from Pasargadae as the division of finds in 1963 and part of the Ziwiye hoard in 1971. A large column base from the One Hundred Column Hall at Persepolis was acquired in exchange from the Oriental Institute, Chicago. Moreover, the museum has been able to acquire one of the greatest assemblages of Achaemenid silverware in the world. The later Sasanian Empire is also well represented by ornate silver plates and cups, many representing ruling monarchs hunting lions and deer. Phoenician antiquities come from across the region, but the Tharros collection from Sardinia and the large number of Phoenician stelae from Carthage and Maghrawa are outstanding. The number of Phoenician inscriptions from sites across Cyprus is also considerable, and include artefacts found at the Kition necropolis (with the two Kition Tariffs having the longest Phoenician inscription discovered on the island), the Idalion temple site and two bilingual pedestals found at Tamassos. Another often overlooked highlight is Yemeni antiquities, the finest collection outside that country. Furthermore, the museum has a representative collection of Dilmun and Parthian material excavated from various burial mounds at the ancient sites of A'ali and Shakhura (that included a Roman ribbed glass bowl) in Bahrain. From the modern state of Syria come almost forty funerary busts from Palmyra and a group of stone reliefs from the excavations of Max von Oppenheim at Tell Halaf that was purchased in 1920. More material followed from the excavations of Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak in 1935–1938 and from Woolley at Alalakh in the years just before and after the Second World War. Mallowan returned with his wife Agatha Christie to carry out further digs at Nimrud in the postwar period which secured many important artefacts for the museum. The collection of Palestinian material was strengthened by the work of Kathleen Kenyon at Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the 1950s and the acquisition in 1980 of around 17,000 objects found at Lachish by the Wellcome-Marston expedition of 1932–1938. Archaeological digs are still taking place where permitted in the Middle East, and, depending on the country, the museum continues to receive a share of the finds from sites such as Tell es Sa'idiyeh in Jordan. The museum's collection of Islamic art, including archaeological material, numbers about 40,000 objects,[73] one of the largest of its kind in the world. As such, it contains a broad range of pottery, paintings, tiles, metalwork, glass, seals, and inscriptions from across the Islamic world, from Spain in the west to India in the east. It is particularly famous for its collection of Iznik ceramics (the largest in the world), its large number of mosque lamps including one from the Dome of the Rock, mediaeval metalwork such as the Vaso Vescovali with its depictions of the Zodiac, a fine selection of astrolabes, and Mughal paintings and precious artwork including a large jade terrapin made for the Emperor Jahangir. Thousands of objects were excavated after the war by professional archaeologists at Iranian sites such as Siraf by David Whitehouse and Alamut Castle by Peter Willey. The collection was augmented in 1983 by the Godman bequest of Iznik, Hispano-Moresque and early Iranian pottery. Artefacts from the Islamic world are on display in Gallery 34 of the museum. A representative selection from the Department of Middle East, including the most important pieces, are on display in 13 galleries throughout the museum and total some 4,500 objects. A whole suite of rooms on the ground floor display the sculptured reliefs from the Assyrian palaces at Nineveh, Nimrud and Khorsabad, while 8 galleries on the upper floor hold smaller material from ancient sites across the Middle East. The remainder form the study collection which ranges in size from beads to large sculptures. They include approximately 130,000 cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia.[74] Highlights of the collections include: Nimrud: Assyrian palace reliefs from: The North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, (883–859 BC) Palace of Adad-nirari III, (811–783 BC) The Sharrat-Niphi Temple, (c. 9th century BC) Temple of Ninurta, (c. 9th century BC) South-East Palace ('Burnt Palace'), (8th–7th century BC) Central- Palace of Tiglath-Pileser III, (745–727 BC) South-West Palace of Esarhaddon, (681–669 BC) The Nabu Temple (Ezida), (c. 7th century BC) Sculptures and inscriptions: Pair of Human Headed Lamassu Lions, (883–859 BC) Human Headed Lamassu Bull, sister piece in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (883–859 BC) Human Headed Lamassu Lion, sister piece in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (883–859 BC) Colossal Statue of a Lion, (883–859 BC) Foundation tablet of Ashurnasirpal II from the Temple of Ishtar, (875–865 BC) Rassam Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal II, (873–859 BC) Stela and Statue of King Ashurnasirpal II, (883–859 BC) The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, (858–824 BC) Stela of Shamshi-Adad V, (824–811 BC) Rare Head of Human Headed 'Lamassu', recovered from the North-West Palace, (811–783 BC) Pair of statues of attendant god dedicated to Nabu by Adad-Nirari III and Sammuramat, (810–800 BC) Bilingual Assyrian lion weights with both cuneiform and Phoenician inscriptions, (800–700 BC) Large sculpture of a male bearded head from a Lamassu with inscription dedicated to Esarhaddon, (670 BC) Nineveh: Assyrian palace reliefs and sculptures from: South-West Palace of Sennacherib, (705–681 BC) North-Palace of Ashurbanipal, (c. 645 BC), including the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal and Lachish relief The famous Garden Party Relief, (645 BC) Statue of a nude woman, (11th century BC) Broken Obelisk of Ashur-bel-kala, the earliest known Assyrian obelisk, (11th century BC) White Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal I, (1050–1031 BC) Royal Library of Ashurbanipal: A large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance, approximately 22,000 inscribed clay tablets, (7th century BC) The Flood Tablet, relating part of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh, (7th century BC) Taylor Prism, hexagonal clay foundation record, (691 BC) Rassam cylinder with ten faces, that describes the military campaigns of king Ashurbanipal, (643 BC) Other Mesopotamian sites: Khorsabad and Balawat: Alabaster bas-reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II, (710–705 BC) Pair of Human Headed Winged Lamassu Bulls, (710–705 BC) The Balawat Gates of Shalmaneser III, (860 BC) Ur: The Standard of Ur with depictions of war and peace, (2600 BC) Queen's Lyre and gold drinking cup from Queen Puabi's tomb, (2600 BC) The Ram in a Thicket, one of pair, the other is in Philadelphia, (2600–2400 BC) The Royal Game of Ur, an ancient game board, (2600–2400 BC) Wider collection: Plastered human skull from Jericho, a very early form of portraiture, Palestine, (7000–6000 BC) Tell Brak Head, one of the oldest portrait busts from the Middle East, north east Syria, (3500–3300 BC) Uruk Trough, one of the earliest surviving works of narrative relief sculpture from the Middle East, southern Iraq, (3300–3000 BC) Pair of inscribed stone objects known as the Blau Monuments from Uruk, Iraq, (3100–2700 BC) Hoard of Bronze Age gold jewellery found at the Canaanite site of Tell el-Ajjul in Gaza, (1750–1550 BC) Statue of Idrimi from the ancient city of Alalakh, southern Turkey, (1600 BC) Bronze bowl and ivory cosmetic box in the shape of a fish from Tell es-Sa'idiyeh, Jordan, (1250–1150 BC) Group of 16 stone reliefs from the palace of King Kapara at Tell Halaf, northern Syria, (10th century BC) Tablet of Shamash, depicting the sun-god Shamash, from Sippar, Iraq, (early 9th century BC) Hittite lion head from the monument to King Katuwa at Carchemish, southern Turkey, (9th century BC) Two large Assyrian stelae from Kurkh, southern Turkey, (850 BC) Seated statue of Kidudu or guardian spirit from the Assyrian city of Assur under Shalmaneser III, Iraq, (835 BC) Basalt bowl with engraved inscription in Hieroglyphic Luwian found at Babylon, southern Iraq, (8th century BC) Shebna Inscription from Siloam near Jerusalem, (7th century BC) Group of 4 bronze shields with inscription of king Rusa III from the temple of Khaldi at the Urartian fortress of Toprakkale, eastern Turkey, (650 BC) East India House Inscription from Babylon, Iraq, (604–562 BC) Lachish Letters, group of ostraka written in alphabetic Hebrew from Lachish, Israel, (586 BC) Cylinder of Nabonidus, foundation cylinder of King Nabonidus, Sippar, Iraq, (555–540 BC) The famous Oxus Treasure, the largest ancient Persian hoard of gold artefacts, (550–330 BC) Jar of Xerxes I, alabaster alabastron with quadrilingual signature of Achaemenid ruler Xerxes I, found in the ruins of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Turkey, (486–465 BC) Idalion Bilingual, bilingual Cypriot-Phoenician inscription, key to the decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, Idalion, Cyprus, (388 BC) Punic-Libyan Inscription from the Mausoleum of Ateban, key to the decipherment of the Numidian language, Dougga, Tunisia, (146 BC) Amran Tablets found near Sana'a, Yemen, (1st century BC) One of the pottery storage jars containing the Dead Sea Scrolls found in a cave near Qumran, Jordan, (4 BC – 68 AD) Two limestone ossuaries from caves in Jerusalem, (1st century AD) Fragment of a carved basalt architrave depicting a lion's head from the Temple of Garni, Armenia, (1st Century AD) Group of boulders with Safaitic inscriptions from Jordan/Syria, one of which was donated by Gertrude Bell, (1st–2nd centuries AD) Parthian dynasty gold belt-buckle with central repoussé figure of eagle with outstretched wings from Nihavand, Iran, (1st–3rd centuries AD) Silver bowl from Khwarezm depicting a four-armed goddess seated on a lion, Kazakhstan, (658 AD) One of the rare Hedwig glasses, originating from the Middle East or Norman Sicily, (10th–12th centuries AD) Hoard of Seljuq artefacts from Hamadan including gold cup, silver gilt belt fittings and dress accessories, Iran, (11th–12th centuries) Islamic brass ewers with engraved decoration and inlaid with silver and copper from Herat, Afghanistan and Mosul, Iraq (12th–13th centuries AD) Room 56 – The 'Ram in a Thicket' figure, one of a pair, from Ur, Southern Iraq, c. 2600 BC Room 56 – The famous 'Standard of Ur', a hollow wooden box with scenes of war and peace, from Ur, c. 2600 BC Room 56 - Sculpture of the god Imdugud, lion-headed eagle surmounting a lintel made from sheets of copper, Temple of Ninhursag at Tell al-'Ubaid, Iraq, c. 2500 BC Room 56 - Statue of Kurlil, from the Temple of Ninhursag in Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq, c. 2500 BC Room 56 – The famous Babylonian 'Queen of the Night relief' of the goddess Ishtar, Iraq, c. 1790 BC Room 57 - Carved ivory object from the Nimrud Ivories, Phoenician, Nimrud, Iraq, 9th–8th century BC Room 6 – Depiction of the hypocrite, Jehu, King of Israel on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, Nimrud, c. 827 BC Room 10 – Human Headed Winged Bulls from Khorsabad, companion pieces in the Musée du Louvre, Iraq, 710–705 BC Room 55 – Cuneiform Collection, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, Iraq, c. 669-631 BC Room 55 – Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal (detail), Nineveh, Neo-Assyrian, Iraq, c. 645 BC Room 55 - Panel with striding lion made from glazed bricks, Neo-Babylonian, Nebuchadnezzar II, Southern Iraq, 604–562 BC Room 52 – A chariot from the Oxus Treasure, the most important surviving collection of Achaemenid Persian metalwork, c. 5th to 4th centuries BC Room 53 - Stela said to come from Tamma' cemetery, Yemen, 1st century AD Room 53 - Alabaster statue of a standing female figure, Yemen, 1st-2nd centuries AD Room 34 - Cylindrical lidded box with an Arabic inscription recording its manufacture for the ruler of Mosul, Badr al-Din Lu'lu', Iraq, c. 1233 – 1259 AD Department of Prints and Drawings[edit] The Department of Prints and Drawings holds the national collection of Western prints and drawings. It ranks as one of the largest and best print room collections in existence alongside the Albertina in Vienna, the Paris collections and the Hermitage. The holdings are easily accessible to the general public in the Study Room, unlike many such collections.[75] The department also has its own exhibition gallery in Room 90, where the displays and exhibitions change several times a year.[76] Since its foundation in 1808, the prints and drawings collection has grown to international renown as one of the richest and most representative collections in the world. There are approximately 50,000 drawings and over two million prints.[76] The collection of drawings covers the period from the 14th century to the present, and includes many works of the highest quality by the leading artists of the European schools. The collection of prints covers the tradition of fine printmaking from its beginnings in the 15th century up to the present, with near complete holdings of most of the great names before the 19th century. Key benefactors to the department have been Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, Richard Payne Knight, John Malcolm, Campbell Dodgson, César Mange de Hauke and Tomás Harris. There are groups of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, (including his only surviving full-scale cartoon), Dürer (a collection of 138 drawings is one of the finest in existence), Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt, Claude and Watteau, and largely complete collections of the works of all the great printmakers including Dürer (99 engravings, 6 etchings and most of his 346 woodcuts), Rembrandt and Goya. More than 30,000 British drawings and watercolours include important examples of work by Hogarth, Sandby, Turner, Girtin, Constable, Cotman, Cox, Gillray, Rowlandson, Towne and Cruikshank, as well as all the great Victorians. The collection contains the unique set of watercolours by the pioneering colonist John White, the first British artist in America and first European to paint Native Americans. There are about a million British prints including more than 20,000 satires and outstanding collections of works by William Blake and Thomas Bewick.[citation needed]. The great eleven volume Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum compiled between 1870 and 1954 is the definitive reference work for the study of British Satirical prints. Over 500,000 objects from the department are now on the online collection database, many with high-quality images.[77] A 2011 donation of £1 million enabled the museum to acquire a complete set of Pablo Picasso's Vollard Suite.[78] Rogier van der Weyden - Portrait of a Young Woman, c. 1440 Hieronymus Bosch - A comical barber scene, c. 1477-1516 Sandro Botticelli - Allegory of Abundance, 1480-1485 Leonardo da Vinci – The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and the Infant Saint John the Baptist (prep for 'The Burlington House Cartoon'), c. 1499–1500 Michelangelo – Studies of a reclining male nude: Adam in the fresco 'The Creation of Man' on the vault of the Sistine Chapel, c. 1511 Raphael – Study of Heads, Mother and Child, c. 1509-11 Titian – Drowning of the Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea, 1515–17 Albrecht Dürer - Drawing of a walrus, 1521 Hans Holbein the Younger - Portrait of Anne Boleyn, 1536 Peter Paul Rubens - Drawing of Isabella Brant, his first wife, 1621 Francisco de Zurbarán - Head of a monk, 1625–64 Claude Lorrain - Drawing of mules, including one full-length, 1630-1640 Rembrandt – The Lamentation at the Foot of the Cross, 1634–35 Thomas Gainsborough - Drawing of a woman with a rose, 1763-1765 JMW Turner - Watercolour of Newport Castle, 1796 Isaac Cruikshank - 'The happy effects of that grand system of shutting ports against the English!!', 1808 John Constable - London from Hampstead Heath in a Storm, (watercolour), 1831 James McNeill Whistler - View of the Battersea side of Chelsea Reach, London, (lithograph), 1878 Vincent Van Gogh - Man Digging in the Orchard (print), 1883 Peter van Dievoet - Studies for a statue of a figure in Roman dress, most likely for the statue of James II.[79] Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory[edit] Gallery 50 – View down the Roman Britain Gallery at the museum Gallery 2a – Display case of Renaissance metalware from the Waddesdon Bequest The Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory is responsible for collections that cover a vast expanse of time and geography. It includes some of the earliest objects made by humans in east Africa over 2 million years ago, as well as Prehistoric and neolithic objects from other parts of the world; and the art and archaeology of Europe from the earliest times to the present day. Archeological excavation of prehistoric material took off and expanded considerably in the twentieth century and the department now has literally millions of objects from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods throughout the world, as well as from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age in Europe. Stone Age material from Africa has been donated by famous archaeologists such as Louis and Mary Leakey, and Gertrude Caton–Thompson. Paleolithic objects from the Sturge, Christy and Lartet collections include some of the earliest works of art from Europe. Many Bronze Age objects from across Europe were added during the nineteenth century, often from large collections built up by excavators and scholars such as Greenwell in Britain, Tobin and Cooke in Ireland, Lukis and de la Grancière in Brittany, Worsaae in Denmark, Siret at El Argar in Spain, and Klemm and Edelmann in Germany. A representative selection of Iron Age artefacts from Hallstatt were acquired as a result of the Evans/Lubbock excavations and from Giubiasco in Ticino through the Swiss National Museum. In addition, the British Museum's collections covering the period AD 300 to 1100 are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world, extending from Spain to the Black Sea and from North Africa to Scandinavia; a representative selection of these has recently been redisplayed in a newly refurbished gallery. Important collections include Latvian, Norwegian, Gotlandic and Merovingian material from Johann Karl Bähr, Alfred Heneage Cocks, Sir James Curle and Philippe Delamain respectively. However, the undoubted highlight from the early mediaeval period is the magnificent items from the Sutton Hoo royal grave, generously donated to the nation by the landowner Edith Pretty. The late mediaeval collection includes a large number of seal-dies from across Europe, the most famous of which include those from the Town of Boppard in Germany, Isabella of Hainault from her tomb in Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, Inchaffray Abbey in Scotland and Robert Fitzwalter, one of the Barons who led the revolt against King John in England. There is also a large collection of medieval signet rings, prominent among them is the gold signet ring belonging to Jean III de Grailly who fought in the Hundred Years' War, as well as those of Mary, Queen of Scots and Richard I of England. Other groups of artifacts represented in the department include the national collection of (c.100) icon paintings, most of which originate from the Byzantine Empire and Russia, and over 40 mediaeval astrolabes from across Europe and the Middle East. The department also includes the national collection of horology with one of the most wide-ranging assemblage of clocks, watches and other timepieces in Europe, with masterpieces from every period in the development of time-keeping. Choice horological pieces came from the Morgan and Ilbert collections. The department is also responsible for the curation of Romano-British objects – the museum has by far the most extensive such collection in Britain and one of the most representative regional collections in Europe outside Italy. It is particularly famous for the large number of late Roman silver treasures, many of which were found in East Anglia, the most important of which is the Mildenhall Treasure. The museum purchased many Roman-British objects from the antiquarian Charles Roach Smith in 1856. These quickly formed the nucleus of the collection. The department also includes ethnographic material from across Europe including a collection of Bulgarian costumes and shadow puppets from Greece and Turkey. A particular highlight are the three Sámi drums from northern Sweden of which only about 70 are extant. Objects from the Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory are mostly found on the upper floor of the museum, with a suite of galleries numbered from 38 to 51. Most of the collection is stored in its archive facilities, where it is available for research and study. Highlights of the collections include: Stone Age (c. 3.4 million years BC – c. 2000 BC) Palaeolithic material from across Africa, particularly Olduvai, Kalambo Falls, Olorgesailie and Cape Flats, (1.8 million BC onwards) One of the 11 leaf-shaped points found near Volgu, Saône-et-Loire, France and estimated to be 16,000 years old[80] Ice Age art from France including the Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, Montastruc decorated stone and Baton fragment, (c. 12–11,000 BC) Ice Age art from Britain including the decorated jaw from Kendrick and Robin Hood Cave Horse, (11,500–10,000 BC) Rare mesolithic artefacts from the site of Star Carr in Yorkshire, northern England, (8770–8460 BC) Terracotta figurine from Vinča, Serbia, (5200–4900 BC) Callaïs bead jewellery from Lannec-er-Ro'h, intact schist bracelet from Le Lizo, Carnac and triangular pendant from Mané-er-Hroëk, Morbihan, Brittany, western France, (5000–4300 BC) Polished jade axe produced in the Italian Alps and found in Canterbury, Kent, southeast England, (4500–4000 BC) Section of the Sweet Track, an ancient timber causeway from the Somerset Levels, England, (3807/6 BC) Small collection of Neolithic finds including a necklace of flat bone beads from Skara Brae, Orkneys, northern Scotland, (3180–2500 BC) Representative sample of artefacts (sherds, vessels, etc) from the megalithic site of Tarxien, Malta, (3150–2500 BC) A number of Carved Stone Balls from Scotland, Ireland and northern England, (3200–2500 BC) The three Folkton Drums, made from chalk and found in Yorkshire, northern England, (2600–2100 BC) Bronze Age (c. 3300 BC – c. 600 BC) Jet beaded necklace from Melfort in Argyll, Scotland, (c. 3000 BC) Gold lunula from Blessington, Ireland, one of nine from Ireland, Wales and Cornwall, (2400–2000 BC) Early Bronze Age hoards from Barnack, Driffield, Sewell and Snowshill in England, Arraiolos and Vendas Novas in Iberia and Auvernier, Biecz and Neunheilingen in central Europe (2280–1500 BC) Contents of the Rillaton Barrow including a gold cup, and the related Ringlemere Cup, England, (1700–1500 BC) Bronze Age hoards from Forró, Paks-Dunaföldvár, Szőny and Zsujta in Hungary, (1600–1000 BC) Large ceremonial swords or dirks from Oxborough and Beaune, western Europe, (1450–1300 BC) Eight bronze shields including those from Moel Hebog and Rhyd-y-gors, Wales and Athenry, County Galway, Ireland, (12th–10th centuries BC) Gold hoards from Morvah and Towednack in Cornwall, Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire and Mooghaun in Ireland, (1150–750 BC) Gold bowl with intricate repoussé decoration from Leer, Lower Saxony, northern Germany, (1100-800 BC) Dunaverney flesh-hook found near Ballymoney, Northern Ireland and part of the Dowris Hoard from County Offaly, Ireland, (1050–900 BC & 900–600 BC) Late Bronze Age gold hoards from Abia de la Obispalía and Mérida, Spain and an intricate gold collar from Sintra, Portugal, (10th–8th centuries BC) Part of a copper alloy lur from Årslev on the island of Funen, Denmark, one of only about 40 extant and the Dunmanway Horn from County Cork, Ireland (900–750 BC) Gold bowl with embossed ornament and fluted wire handle from Angyalföld, Budapest, Hungary, (800-600 BC) Iron Age (c. 600 BC – c. 1st century AD) Basse Yutz Flagons, a pair of bronze drinking vessels from Moselle, eastern France, (5th century BC) Morel collection of La Tène material from eastern France, including the Somme-Bionne chariot burial and the Prunay Vase, (450-300BC) Important finds from the River Thames including the Battersea, Chertsey and Wandsworth shields and Waterloo Helmet, as well as the Witham Shield from Lincolnshire, eastern England, (350–50 BC) Pair of gold collars called the Orense Torcs from northwest Spain, (300–150 BC) Arras culture items from chariot burials in the Lady's Barrow near Market Weighton and Wetwang Slack, Yorkshire, (300 BC – 100 BC) Other gold neck collars including the Ipswich Hoard and the Sedgeford Torc, England, (200–50 BC) Winchester Hoard of gold jewellery from southern England and the Great Torc from Snettisham in Norfolk, East Anglia, (100 BC) Eight out of about thirty extant intact Celtic bronze mirrors with La Tène decoration including those from Aston, Chettle, Desborough, Holcombe and St Keverne in England, (100 BC – 100 AD) Cordoba and Arcillera Treasures, two silver Celtic hoards from Spain, (100–20 BC) Lindow Man found by accident in a peat bog in Cheshire, England, (1st century AD) Stanwick Hoard of horse and chariot fittings and the Meyrick Helmet, northern England, (1st century AD) La Tène silver hinged brooch from Székesfehérvár, Hungary, (1–100 AD) Lochar Moss Torc and two massive pairs of bronze armlets from Muthill and Strathdon, Scotland, (50–200 AD) Romano-British (43 AD – 410 AD) Tombstone of Roman procurator Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus from London, (1st century) Ribbed glass bowl found in a grave at Radnage, Buckinghamshire, (1st century) Ribchester, Guisborough and Witcham helmets once worn by Roman cavalry in Britain, (1st–2nd centuries) Elaborate gold bracelets and ring found near Rhayader, central Wales, (1st–2nd centuries) Bronze heads of the Roman Emperors Hadrian and Claudius, found in London and Suffolk, (1st–2nd centuries) Vindolanda Tablets, important historical documents found near Hadrian's Wall in Northumberland, (1st–2nd centuries) Head of Mercury from Roman-Celtic Temple at Uley, Gloucestershire and limestone head from Towcester, Northamptonshire (2nd–4th centuries) Wall-paintings and sculptures from the Roman Villa at Lullingstone, Kent, south east England, 1st–4th centuries) Capheaton and Backworth treasures, remnants of two important hoards from northern England, (2nd–3rd centuries) Stony Stratford Hoard of copper headdresses, fibulae and silver votive plaques, central England, (3rd century) Square silver dish from Mileham in Norfolk, (4th century) Gold jewellery deposited at the site of Newgrange, Ireland, (4th century) Thetford Hoard, late Roman jewellery from eastern England, (4th century) Early Mediaeval (c. 4th century AD – c. 1000 AD) Largitio silver dish of the Emperor Licinius found at Niš, Serbia and hexagonal gold coin-set pendant of Constantine the Great, (Early 4th Century AD) Two wooden ship figureheads dredged from the River Scheldt at Moerzeke and Appels, Belgium, (4th-6th centuries) Part of the Asyut, Domagnano, Artres, Sutri, Bergamo and Belluno Treasures, (4th–7th centuries) Lycurgus Cup, a unique figurative glass cage cup, and the Byzantine Archangel ivory panel, (4th–6th centuries) Three large Ogham stones from the Rooves More Rath, County Cork, Ireland, (5th–7th centuries) The Sutton Hoo treasure, Taplow burial and Crundale grave objects with some of the greatest finds from the early Middle Ages in Europe, England, (6th–7th centuries) One of the Burghead Bulls, Pictish stone relief from northeast Scotland, (7th–8th centuries) Three Viking hoards from Norway known as the Lilleberge Viking Burial, Tromsø Burial and Villa Farm barrow burial in Vestnes and the Ardvouray, Ballaquayle, Cuerdale, Goldsborough and Vale of York hoards from Britain, (7th–10th centuries) Irish reliquaries such as the Kells Crozier, Bell Shrine of St. Cuileáin and St Conall Cael's Bell from Inishkeel, (7th–11th centuries) Early Anglo Saxon Franks Casket, a unique ivory container from northern England, (8th century) T-shaped Carolingian antler container with carved geometric interlace and zigzag decoration, found near Grüneck Castle, Ilanz, Switzerland, (8th–9th centuries) A number of luxurious penannular brooches such as the Londesborough Brooch, Breadalbane Brooch and those from the Penrith Hoard, British Isles, (8th–9th centuries) Carolingian crystal intaglios such as the Lothair Crystal, Metz engraved gem with crucifixion and Saint-Denis Crystal, central Europe, (9th century) Anglo-Saxon Fuller and Strickland Brooches with their complex, niello-inlaid design, England, (9th century) Seax of Beagnoth, iron sword with long Anglo-Saxon Runic inscription, London, England, (10th century) Mediaeval (c. 1000 AD – c. 1500 AD) A number of mediaeval ivory panels including the Borradaile, Wernher and John Grandisson Triptychs, (10th–14th centuries) Several elephant ivory horns including the Borradaile Horn, Clephane Horn and Savernake Horn, (11th–12th centuries) The famous Lewis chessmen found in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, (12th century) Reliquary of St. Eustace from the treasury of Basel Munster, Switzerland and fragments of a rare Romanesque crucifix from South Cerney, England, (12th century) Armenian stone-cross or Khachkar from the Noratus cemetery in Armenia, (1225 AD) Items from the tomb of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor at Palermo Cathedral, Sicily, including his mitre, silk pall and shoe, (late 12th century) The unique Warwick Castle Citole, an early form of guitar, central England, (1280–1330) Set of 10 wooden door panels engraved with Christian scenes from the Hanging Church in Old Cairo, Egypt, (1300) Asante Jug, mysteriously found at the Asante Court in the late 19th century, England, (1390–1400) Holy Thorn Reliquary bequeathed by Ferdinand de Rothschild as part of the Waddesdon Bequest, Paris, France, (14th century) Dunstable Swan Jewel, a gold and enamel brooch in the form of a swan, England, (14th century) A silver astrolabe quadrant from Canterbury, southeastern England, (14th century) Chalcis treasure of jewelry, dress accessories and silver plate from the island of Euboea, Greece, (14th–15th centuries) Magnificent cups made from precious metal such as the Royal Gold Cup and the Lacock Cup, western Europe, (14th–15th centuries) Complete church altar set from Medina de Pomar near Burgos, Spain (1455 AD) Renaissance to Modern (c. 1500 AD – present) Two luxurious silver brooches set with precious stones from Glen Lyon and Lochbuie, Scotland (early 16th century) Intricately decorated parade shield made by Giorgio Ghisi from Mantua, Italy, (1554 AD) The Armada Service, 26 silver dishes found in Devon, south west England, (late 16th to early 17th centuries) Early Renaissance Lyte Jewel, presented to Thomas Lyte of Lytes Cary, Somerset by King James I of England, (1610) Huguenot silver from the Peter Wilding bequest, England, (18th century) Pair of so-called Cleopatra Vases from the Chelsea porcelain factory, London, England, (1763) Jaspar ware vase known as the Pegasus Vase made by Josiah Wedgwood, England, (1786) Two of Charles Darwin's chronometers used on the voyage of HMS Beagle, (1795–1805) The Hull Grundy Gift of jewellery, Europe and North America, (19th century) Oak clock with mother-of-pearl engraving designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, (1919) Silver tea-infuser designed by Marianne Brandt from the Bauhaus art school, Germany, (1924) The Rosetta Vase, earthenware pottery vase designed by the contemporary British artist Grayson Perry, (2011) The many hoards of treasure include those of Esquiline, Carthage, First Cyprus, Hockwold, Hoxne, Lampsacus, Mildenhall, Vale of York and Water Newton, (4th–10th centuries AD) Room 2 – Handaxe, Lower Palaeolithic, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, c. 1.2 million years BC Room 3 – Swimming Reindeer carving, France, c. 13,000 years BC[81] Room 2 – Ain Sakhri lovers, from the cave of Ain Sakhri, near Bethlehem, c. 9000 BC[82] Room 51 – Mold gold cape, North Wales, Bronze Age, c. 1900–1600 BC Room 50 - Wandsworth Shield, Iron Age shield boss in La Tène style, England, 2nd century BC Room 50 - Gold torc found in Needwood Forest, central England, 75 BC Room 49 - Bronze head of a Roman Emperor Claudius, from Rendham in Suffolk, eastern England, 1st century AD Room 49 – Hinton St Mary Mosaic with face of Christ in the centre, from Dorset, southern England, 4th century AD Room 49 - Corbridge Lanx, silver tray depicting a shrine to Apollo, northern England, 4th century AD Room 41 - Silver objects from the Roman Coleraine Hoard, Northern Ireland, 4th-5th centuries AD Room 41 – Sutton Hoo helmet, Anglo-Saxon, England, early 7th century AD Room 40 - Ivory statue of Virgin and Child, who is crushing a dragon under her left foot from Paris, France, 1310-1330 AD Room 40 - Chaucer Astrolabe, the oldest dated in Europe, 1326 AD Room 40 – Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup, made in Paris, France, 1370–80 AD Room 2a – Holy Thorn Reliquary, made in Paris, c. 1390s AD Room 38 – Mechanical Galleon clock, Augsburg, Germany, around 1585 AD Room 38 - Carillon clock with automata by Isaac Habrecht, Switzerland, 1589 AD Room 39 - Ornate clock made by Thomas Tompion, England, 1690 AD Department of Asia[edit] Room 33a – Amaravati Sculptures, southern India, 1st century BC and 3rd century AD Room 95 – The Percival David collection of Chinese ceramics The scope of the Department of Asia is extremely broad; its collections of over 75,000 objects cover the material culture of the whole Asian continent (from East, South, Central and South-East Asia) and from the Neolithic up to the present day. Until recently, this department concentrated on collecting Oriental antiquities from urban or semi-urban societies across the Asian continent. Many of those objects were collected by colonial officers and explorers in former parts of the British Empire, especially the Indian subcontinent. Examples include the collections made by individuals such as James Wilkinson Breeks, Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir Harold Deane, Sir Walter Elliot, James Prinsep, Charles Masson, Sir John Marshall and Charles Stuart. A large number of Chinese antiquities were purchased from the Anglo-Greek banker George Eumorfopoulos in the 1930s. The large collection of some 1800 Japanese prints and paintings owned by Arthur Morrison was acquired in the early twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century, the museum greatly benefited from the bequest of the philanthropist PT Brooke Sewell, which allowed the department to purchase many objects and fill in gaps in the collection.[83][84][85] In 2004, the ethnographic collections from Asia were transferred to the department. These reflect the diverse environment of the largest continent in the world and range from India to China, the Middle East to Japan. Much of the ethnographic material comes from objects originally owned by tribal cultures and hunter-gatherers, many of whose way of life has disappeared in the last century. Particularly valuable collections are from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (much assembled by the British naval officer Maurice Portman), Sri Lanka (especially through the colonial administrator Hugh Nevill), Northern Thailand, south-west China, the Ainu of Hokaidu in Japan (chief among them the collection of the Scottish zoologist John Anderson), Siberia (with artefacts collected by the explorer Kate Marsden and Bassett Digby and is notable for its Sakha pieces, especially the ivory model of a summer festival at Yakutsk) and the islands of South-East Asia, especially Borneo. The latter benefited from the purchase in 1905 of the Sarawak collection put together by Dr Charles Hose, as well as from other colonial officers such as Edward A Jeffreys. In addition, a unique and valuable group of objects from Java, including shadow puppets and a gamelan musical set, was assembled by Sir Stamford Raffles. The principal gallery devoted to Asian art in the museum is Gallery 33 with its comprehensive display of Chinese, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian objects. An adjacent gallery showcases the Amaravati sculptures and monuments. Other galleries on the upper floors are devoted to its Japanese, Korean, painting and calligraphy, and Chinese ceramics collections. Highlights of the collections include:[86] The most comprehensive collection of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent in the world, including the celebrated Buddhist limestone reliefs from Amaravati excavated by Sir Walter Elliot[87] An outstanding collection of Chinese antiquities, paintings, and porcelain, lacquer, bronze, jade, and other applied arts The Frau Olga-Julia Wegener Collection of 147 Chinese paintings from the Tang to the Qing dynasties. The most comprehensive collection of Japanese pre-20th century art in the Western world, many of which originally belonged to the surgeon William Anderson and diplomat Ernest Mason Satow East Asia A large collection of Chinese ritual bronzes, including a wine vessel in the shape of two rams supporting a jar, (1500–200 BC ) Jade bi or disc with inscription from the Qianlong Emperor, (1500–1050 BC) Group of Oracle bones that were used for divination from the Shang dynasty, China, (1200–1050 BC) Intricately designed gold dagger handle from Eastern Zhou period, China, (6th–5th centuries BC) Huixian Bronze Hu, an identical pair of bronze vessels from the Eastern Zhou period, China, (5th century BC) Japanese antiquities from the Kofun period excavated by the pioneering archaeologist William Gowland, (3rd–6th centuries AD) Three ornate bronze Dōtaku or bells from the Yayoi period, Japan, (200 BC – 200 AD) Gilded and inscribed Han dynasty wine-cup made from lacquer and found in Pyongyang, Korea (4 AD) Gandharan architectural wood carvings, furniture and dress accessories from Loulan, Xinjiang, (4th century AD) The famous Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, (344–406 AD) The colossal Amitābha Buddha from Hancui, China, (585 AD) A set of ceramic Tang dynasty tomb figures of Liu Tingxun, (c. 728 AD) Silk Princess painting from Dandan-oilik Buddhist sanctuary in Khotan, Xinjiang, China, (7th–8th century AD) Seated Luohan from Yixian, one from a set of eight surviving statues, China, (907–1125 AD) Hoard of Tang dynasty silverware from Beihuangshan, Shaanxi province, China, (9th–10th centuries AD) Seventeen examples of extremely rare Ru ware, the largest collection in the West, (1100 AD) A fine assemblage of Buddhist scroll paintings from Dunhuang, western China, collected by the British-Hungarian explorer Aurel Stein, (5th–11th centuries AD) Pericival David collection of Chinese ceramics, (10th–18th centuries AD) Ivory stand in the form of a seated lion, Chos-'khor-yan-rtse monastery in Tibet, (13th century AD) Copy of a hanging scroll painting of Minamoto no Yoritomo, first Shogun of Japan, (14th century AD) Handscroll silk painting called 'Fascination of Nature' by Xie Chufang depicting insects and plants, China, (1321 AD) Ornate Sino-Tibetan figure of Buddha Sakyamuni made of gilded bronze, China, (1403–1424 AD) Large Cloisonné jar with dragon made for the Ming Dynasty Imperial Court, paired with another in the Rietberg Museum, Zürich, Beijing, China, (1426–35 AD) Pair of ceramic Kakiemon elephants from Japan, (17th century AD) Moon jar from the Joseon Dynasty collected by the potter Bernard Leach, Korea, (18th century AD) Japanese prints including The Great Wave off Kanagawa, (1829–32 AD) South Asia Excavated objects from the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo-daro, and Harappa, Ancient India (now in Pakistan), (2500–2000 BC) Hoard of Copper Hoard Culture celts, plaques and disc from Gungeria, Madhya Pradesh, India, (2000–1000 BC) Assembly of prehistoric artifacts from the Nilgiri Hills in southern India, (10th century BC – 2nd century AD) Sandstone fragment of a Pillar of Ashoka with Brahmi inscription from Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India, (238 BC) The Kulu Vase found near a monastery in Himachal Pradesh, one of the earliest examples of figurative art from the sub-continent, northern India, (1st century BC) Copper plate from Taxila, with important Kharoshthi inscription, Ancient India (now in Pakistan), (1st century BC – 1st century AD) Indo-Scythian sandstone Mathura Lion Capital and Bracket figure from one of the gateways to the Great Stupa at Sanchi, central India, (1st century AD) Bimaran Casket and Wardak Vase, reliquaries from ancient stupas in Afghanistan, (1st–2nd centuries AD) Hoard of gold jewellery with precious stones found under the Enlightenment Throne at the Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, eastern India, (2nd century AD) Relic deposits from stupas at Ahin Posh, Ali Masjid, Gudivada, Manikyala, Sonala Pind, Sanchi and Taxila, (1st–3rd centuries AD) Seated Hārītī and Buddha statues and other Gandhara sculptures from Kafir Kot, Jamal Garhi, Takht-i-Bahi and Yusufzai, Pakistan, (1st–3rd centuries AD) Hephthalite silver bowl with hunting scenes from the Swat District, Pakistan, (460–479 AD) Three sandstone carved sculptures of the Buddha in Gupta style from Sarnath, eastern India, (5th–6th centuries AD) The Buddhapad Hoard of bronze images from southern India, (6th–8th centuries AD) Small bronze figure of Buddha Shakyamuni, Bihar, eastern India, (7th century AD) Stone statue of Buddha from the Sultanganj hoard, Bihar, eastern India, (7th–8th centuries AD) Earliest known figure of the dancing four-armed god Shiva Nataraja, Pallava dynasty, southern India (800 AD) Statue of Tara from Sri Lanka and the Thanjavur Shiva from Tamil Nadu, southern India, (8th century & 10th century AD) Standing Pala statue of Buddha from Kurkihar, Bihar, India, (9th century AD) Several wooden architectural panels from the Kashmir Smast caves, northern Pakistan, (9th–10th centuries AD) Hoard of Buddhist terracotta sealings from the Pala period found at the Nālandā Monastery, Bihar, eastern India, (10th century AD) Statue of the goddess Ambika found at Dhar in central India, (1034 AD) Foundation inscription of the Ananta Vasudeva Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India, (1278 AD) Jade dragon cup that once belonged to Sultan Ulugh Beg from Samarkand, Uzbekistan, (1420–1449 AD) Foundation inscription with Arabic inscription in Naskh script in the name of Sultan Yusufshah from Gauda, Bengal, eastern India, (1477 AD) Large standing gilded copper figure of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Nepal, (15th–16th centuries AD) South-east Asia Earthenware tazza from the Phùng Nguyên culture, northern Vietnam, (2000–1500 BC) Pottery vessels and sherds from the ancient site of Ban Chiang, Thailand, (10th–1st centuries BC) Bronze bell from Klang and iron socketed axe (tulang mawas) from Perak, western Malaysia, (200 BC–200 AD) Group of six Buddhist clay votive plaques found in a cave in Patania, Penang, Malaysia, (6th–11th centuries AD) The famous Sambas Treasure of buddhist gold and silver figures from west Borneo, Indonesia, (8th–9th centuries AD) Three stone Buddha heads from the temple at Borobodur in Java, Indonesia, (9th century AD) Granite Kinnari figure in the shape of a bird from Candi Prambanan in Java, Indonesia, (9th century AD) Sandstone Champa figure of a rampant lion, Vietnam, (11th century AD) Gilded bronze figure of Śiva holding a rosary, Cambodia, (11th century AD) Stone figure representing the upper part of an eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara, Cambodia, (12th century AD) Bronze figure of a seated Buddha from Bagan, Burma, (12th–13th centuries AD) Hoard of Southern Song dynasty ceramic vessels excavated at Pinagbayanan, Taysan Municipality, Philippines, (12th–13th centuries AD) Statue of the Goddess Mamaki from Candi Jago, eastern Java, Indonesia, (13th–14th centuries AD) Glazed terracotta tiles from the Shwegugyi Temple erected by king Dhammazedi in Bago, Myanmar, (1476 AD) Inscribed bronze figure of a Buddha from Fang District, part of a large SE Asian collection amassed by the Norwegian explorer Carl Bock, Thailand, (1540 AD) Large impression of the Buddha's foot made of gilded stone (known as Shwesettaw Footprints) donated by Captain Frederick Marryat, from Ponoodang near Yangon, Myanmar, (18th–19th centuries AD) Room 33 - Cubic weights made of chert from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, 2600-1900 BC Room 33 - One of the hu from Huixian, China, 5th century BC Room 33 - A hamsa sacred goose vessel made of crystal from Stupa 32, Taxila, Pakistan, 1st century AD Room 33 - Stone sculpture of the death of Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st-3rd centuries AD Room 91a - Section of the Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, China, c. 380 AD Room 33 - Gilded bronze statue of the Buddha, Dhaneswar Khera, India, 5th century AD The Amitābha Buddha from Hancui on display in the museum's stairwell, China, 6th century AD Room 33 - The luohan from Yixian made of glazed stoneware, China, 907-1125 AD Sculpture of Goddess Ambika found at Dhar, India, 1034 AD Sculpture of the two Jain tirthankaras Rishabhanatha and Mahavira, Orissa, India, 11th-12th century AD Room 33 - Western Zhou bronze ritual vessel known as the "Kang Hou Gui", China, 11th century BC Room 33 - A crowned figure of the Bodhisattva Khasarpana Avalokiteśvara, India, 12th century AD Room 33 - Covered hanging jar with underglaze decoration, Si Satchanalai (Sawankalok), north-central Thailand, 14th-16th centuries AD Room 33 - Hu-shaped altar flower vessel, Ming dynasty, China, 15th -16th centuries AD Room 33 - An assistant to the Judge of Hell, figure from a judgement group, Ming dynasty, China, 16th century AD Room 33 - Statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, gilded bronze. Nepal, 16th century AD Portrait of Ibrâhîm 'Âdil Shâh II (1580–1626), Mughal Empire of India, 1615 AD Room 90 - Courtesans of the Tamaya House, attributed to Utagawa Toyoharu, screen painting; Japan, Edo period, late 1770s or early 1780s AD Room 33 - Large statue of Buddha made of lacquer from Burma, 18th-19th century AD Room 33 - Figure of seated Lama; of painted and varnished papier-mâché, Ladakh, Tibet, 19th century AD Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas[edit] Room 24 – The Wellcome Trust Gallery of Living and Dying, with Hoa Hakananai'a, a moai, in the centre The British Museum houses one of the world's most comprehensive collections of Ethnographic material from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, representing the cultures of indigenous peoples throughout the world. Over 350,000 objects[88] spanning thousands of years tells the history of mankind from three major continents and many rich and diverse cultures; the collecting of modern artefacts is ongoing. Many individuals have added to the department's collection over the years but those assembled by Henry Christy, Harry Beasley and William Oldman are outstanding. Objects from this department are mostly on display in several galleries on the ground and lower floors. Gallery 24 displays ethnographic from every continent while adjacent galleries focus on North America and Mexico. A long suite of rooms (Gallery 25) on the lower floor display African art. There are plans in place to develop permanent galleries for showcasing art from Oceania and South America. Africa Room 25 – Collection of African throwing knives The Sainsbury African Galleries display 600 objects from the greatest permanent collection of African arts and culture in the world. The three permanent galleries provide a substantial exhibition space for the museum's African collection comprising over 200,000 objects. A curatorial scope that encompasses both archaeological and contemporary material, including both unique masterpieces of artistry and objects of everyday life. A great addition was material amassed by Sir Henry Wellcome, which was donated by the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum in 1954. Highlights of the African collection include objects found at megalithic circles in The Gambia, a dozen exquisite Afro-Portuguese ivories, a series of soapstone figures from the Kissi people in Sierra Leone and Liberia, hoard of bronze Kru currency rings from the Sinoe River in Liberia, Asante goldwork and regalia from Ghana including the Bowdich collection, the rare Akan Drum from the same region in west Africa, pair of door panels and lintel from the palace at Ikere-Ekiti in Yorubaland, the Benin and Igbo-Ukwu bronze sculptures, the beautiful Bronze Head of Queen Idia, a magnificent brass head of a Yoruba ruler and quartz throne from Ife, a similar terracotta head from Iwinrin Grove near Ife, the Apapa Hoard from Lagos and other mediaeval bronze hoards from Allabia and the Forçados River in southern Nigeria, an Ikom monolith from Cross River State, several ancestral screens from the Kalabari tribe in the Niger Delta, the Torday collection of central African sculpture, textiles and weaponry from the Kuba Kingdom including three royal figures, the unique Luzira Head from Uganda, processional crosses and other ecclesiastical and royal material from Gondar and Magdala, Ethiopia following the British Expedition to Abyssinia, excavated objects from Great Zimbabwe (that includes a unique soapstone, anthropomorphic figure) and satellite towns such as Mutare including a large hoard of Iron Age soapstone figures, a rare divining bowl from the Venda peoples and cave paintings and petroglyphs from South Africa. Oceania The British Museum's Oceanic collections originate from the vast area of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from Papua New Guinea to Easter Island, from New Zealand to Hawaii. The three main anthropological groups represented in the collection are Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia – Aboriginal art from Australia is considered separately in its own right. Metal working was not indigenous to Oceania before Europeans arrived, so many of the artefacts from the collection are made from stone, shell, bone and bamboo. Prehistoric objects from the region include a bird-shaped pestle and a group of stone mortars from Papua New Guinea. The British Museum is fortunate in having some of the earliest Oceanic and Pacific collections, many of which were put together by members of Cook's and Vancouver's expeditions or by colonial administrators and explorers such as Sir George Grey, Sir Frederick Broome, Joseph Bradshaw, Robert Christison, Gregory Mathews, Frederick Meinertzhagen, Thomas Mitchell and Arthur Gordon, before Western culture significantly impacted on indigenous cultures. The department has also benefited greatly from the legacy of pioneering anthropologists such as AC Haddon, Bronisław Malinowski and Katherine Routledge. A poignant artefact is the wooden Aboriginal shield probably dating from the late eighteenth century.[89] There is some debate as to whether this shield was found at Botany Bay or, given the nature of the wood being red mangrove which grows abundantly only 500km north of Botany Bay, possibly obtained through trade networks or at an entirely different location.[90][91] The Wilson cabinet of curiosities from Palau is an example of pre-contact ware. Another outstanding exemplar is the mourner's dress from Tahiti given to Cook on his second voyage, one of only ten in existence. In the collection is a large war canoe from the island of Vella Lavella in the Solomon Islands, one of the last ever to be built in the archipelago.[92] In addition, the Māori collection is the finest outside New Zealand with many intricately carved wooden and jade objects and the Aboriginal art collection is distinguished by its wide range of bark paintings, including two very early bark etchings collected by John Hunter Kerr. A particularly important group of objects was purchased from the London Missionary Society in 1911, that includes the unique statue of A'a from Rurutu Island, the rare idol from the isle of Mangareva and the Cook Islands deity figure. Other highlights include the huge Hawaiian statue of Kū-ka-ili-moku or god of war (one of three extant in the world) and the famous Easter Island statues Hoa Hakananai'a and Moai Hava. Americas The Americas collection mainly consists of 19th and 20th century items although the Paracas, Moche, Inca, Maya, Aztec, Taino and other early cultures are well represented. The Kayung totem pole, which was made in the late nineteenth century on Haida Gwaii, dominates the Great Court and provides a fitting introduction to this very wide-ranging collection that stretches from the very north of the North American continent where the Inuit population has lived for centuries, to the tip of South America where indigenous tribes have long thrived in Patagonia. Highlights of the collection include Aboriginal Canadian and Native American objects from North America collected by the 5th Earl of Lonsdale, the Marquis of Lorne, the explorer David Haig-Thomas and Bryan Mullanphy, Mayor of St. Louis, the Squier and Davis collection of prehistoric mound relics from North America, two carved stone bowls in the form of a seated human figure made by ancient North West Coast peoples from British Columbia, the headdress of Chief Yellow Calf from the Arapaho tribe in Wyoming, a lidded rivercane basket from South Carolina and the earliest historic example of Cherokee basketery, a selection of pottery vessels found in prehistoric dwellings at Mesa Verde and Casas Grandes, one of the enigmatic crystal skulls of unknown origin, a collection of nine turquoise Aztec mosaics from Mexico (the largest in Europe), important artefacts from Teotihuacan and Isla de Sacrificios, several rare pre-Columbian manuscripts including the Codex Zouche-Nuttall and Codex Waecker-Gotter and post-colonial ones such as the Codex Aubin and Codex Kingsborough, a spectacular series of Mayan lintels from Yaxchilan excavated by the British Mayanist Alfred Maudslay, a very high quality Mayan collection that includes sculptures from Copan, Tikal, Tulum, Pusilha, Naranjo and Nebaj (including the celebrated Fenton Vase), an ornate calcite vase with jaguar handles from the Ulua Valley in Honduras, the Lord Moyne collection from the Bay Islands, Honduras and Boyle collection from Nicarugua, over 20 stone metates with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic ornamentation from Costa Rica, a group of Zemi Figures from Vere, Jamaica, wooden duhos from the Dominican Republic and The Bahamas, a collection of Pre-Columbian human mummies from sites across South America including Ancon, Acari, Arica and Leyva, a number of prestigious pre-Columbian gold and votive objects from Colombia, three axe-shaped gold diadems found near Camaná from the Siguas culture in Peru, ethnographic objects from across the Amazon region including the Schomburgk and Maybury Lewis collections and part of the von Martius and von Spix collection, two rare Tiwanaku pottery vessels from Lake Titicaca and important items from Tierra del Fuego donated by Commander Phillip Parker King. Room 26 - Stone pipe representing an otter from Mound City, Ohio, USA, 200 BC - 400 AD Room 2 - Stone tomb guardian, part human part jaguar, from San Agustín, Colombia, c. 300-600 AD Room 1 - Maya maize god statue from Copán, Honduras, 600-800 AD Room 24 - Gold Lime Flasks (poporos), Quimbaya Culture, Colombia, 600-1100 AD Room 27 - Lintel 25 from Yaxchilan, Late Classic, Mexico, 600-900 AD Room 24 - Bird pectoral made from gold alloy, Popayán, Colombia, 900-1600 AD Room 24 – Rapa Nui statue Hoa Hakananai'a, 1000 AD, Wellcome Trust Gallery Room 27 - Double-headed serpent turquoise mosaic, Aztec, Mexico, 1400-1500 AD Room 27 - Turquoise Mosaic Mask, Mixtec-Aztec, Mexico, 1400-1500 AD Room 2 - Miniature gold llama figurine, Inca, Peru, about 1500 AD Room 25 - Part of the famous collection of Benin brass plaques, Nigeria, 1500-1600 AD Room 25 - Detail of one of the Benin brass plaques in the museum, Nigeria, 1500-1600 AD Room 25 - Benin ivory mask of Queen Idia, Nigeria, 16th century AD Room 24 - Hawaiian feather helmet or mahiole, late 1700s AD Bowl decorated with pearl shell and boars' tusks, used to serve the intoxicating drink kava, Hawaii, late 1700s AD Great Court - Two house frontal totem poles, Haida, British Columbia, Canada, about 1850 AD Room 25 - Mask (wood and pigment); Punu people, Gabon, 19th century AD Room 25 - Otobo masquerade in the Africa Gallery, Nigeria, 20th century AD Room 25 - Modern interpretation of kente cloth from Ghana, late 20th century AD Department of Coins and Medals[edit] Main article: British Museum Department of Coins and Medals The British Museum is home to one of the world's finest numismatic collections, comprising about a million objects, including coins, medals, tokens and paper money. The collection spans the entire history of coinage from its origins in the 7th century BC to the present day and is representative of both the East and West. The Department of Coins and Medals was created in 1861 and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2011.[93] Department of Conservation and Scientific Research[edit] This department was founded in 1920. Conservation has six specialist areas: ceramics & glass; metals; organic material (including textiles); stone, wall paintings and mosaics; Eastern pictorial art and Western pictorial art. The science department[94] has and continues to develop techniques to date artefacts, analyse and identify the materials used in their manufacture, to identify the place an artefact originated and the techniques used in their creation. The department also publishes its findings and discoveries. Libraries and archives[edit] This department covers all levels of education, from casual visitors, schools, degree level and beyond. The museum's various libraries hold in excess of 350,000 books, journals and pamphlets covering all areas of the museum's collection. Also the general museum archives which date from its foundation in 1753 are overseen by this department; the individual departments have their own separate archives and libraries covering their various areas of responsibility, which can be consulted by the public on application. The Anthropology Library is especially large, with 120,000 volumes.[95] However, the Paul Hamlyn Library, which had become the central reference library of the British Museum and the only library there freely open to the general public, closed permanently in August 2011.[96] The website and online database of the collection also provide increasing amounts of information. British Museum Press[edit] The British Museum Press (BMP) is the publishing business and a division of the British Museum Company Ltd., a company and a charity (established in 1973) wholly owned by the trustees of the British Museum.[97] The BMP publishes both popular and scholarly illustrated books to accompany the exhibition programme and explore aspects of the general collection. Profits from their sales goes to support the British Museum.[97] Scholarly titles are published in the Research Publications series, all of which are peer-reviewed. This series was started in 1978 and was originally called Occasional Papers. The series is designed to disseminate research on items in the collection. Between six and eight titles are published each year in this series.[98] Controversies[edit] A few of the Elgin Marbles (also known as the Parthenon Marbles) from the East Pediment of the Parthenon in Athens. Artefacts taken from other countries[edit] It is a point of controversy whether museums should be allowed to possess artefacts taken from other countries,[7][99] and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism. The Elgin Marbles, Benin Bronzes, Ethiopian Tabots and the Rosetta Stone are among the most disputed objects in its collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of these artefacts to their native countries of Greece, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Egypt respectively. Parthenon Marbles claimed by Greece were also claimed by UNESCO among others for restitution. From 1801 to 1812, Elgin's agents took about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon, as well as sculptures from the Propylaea and Erechtheum. In recent years, controversies pertaining to reparation of artefacts taken from the Old Summer Palace in Beijing during the Anglo-French invasion of China in 1860 have also begun to surface.[100] Victor Hugo condemned the French and British for their plundering.[101] The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum, among others, have been asked since 2009 to open their archives for investigation by a team of Chinese investigators as a part of an international mission to document lost national treasures. However, there have been fears that the United Kingdom may be asked to return these treasures.[102] As of 2010[update], Neil MacGregor, the former Director of the British Museum, said he hoped that both British and Chinese investigators would work together on the controversial collection, which continues to result in resentment in China.[103] The British Museum has refused to return these artefacts, stating that the "restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world".[104] The museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 legally prevents any object from leaving its collection once it has entered it. The law here permits the Trustees of the British Museum to do very little, allowing repatriation of objects only in physical decay, duplicates, pre-1850 and is copiable.[105] A broadening of this law would require the act to be revised/repealed by another act, which needs a majority vote in British Parliament. The museum has stated, even if it would be immoral not to return accessed items, they cannot; the spoliation review committee for the British Museum did not let drawings stole by the Nazis be returned to the Feldmann family. [106] Nevertheless, it has returned items such as the Tasmanian Ashes after a 20-year-long battle with Australia.[107] Disputed items in the collection[edit] Elgin Marbles – claimed by Greece and backed by UNESCO among others for restitution[108] Benin Bronzes – claimed by Nigeria; the Nigerian government has passed a resolution demanding the return of all 700 bronze pieces.[109] 30 pieces of the bronzes were sold by the British Museum privately from the 1950s until 1972, mostly back to the Nigerians.[110] Ethiopian Tabots, Pre-Axumite Civilisation Coins – claimed by Ethiopia[111][112] Four stolen drawings (Nazi plunder) – Compensation paid to Uri Peled for the amount of £175,000 by the British Museum[113] Achaemenid empire gold and silver artefacts from the Oxus Treasure – claimed by Tajikistan[114] Rosetta Stone – claimed by Egypt[115] Dunhuang manuscripts, part of a cache of scrolls, manuscripts, paintings, scriptures, and relics from the Mogao Caves, including the Diamond Sutra – claimed by the People's Republic of China[116] Aboriginal shield — claimed by Aboriginal people of Australia.[117] Hoa Hakananai'a – claimed by Chile on behalf of Easter Island[118] Repatriation and reburial of human remains is a controversial issue, and the British Museum has issued a policy on the subject.[119] Bag searches[edit] In 2016, the British Museum moved its bag searches to marquees in the front courtyard and beside the rear entrance. This has been criticised by heritage groups as out-of-character with the historic building. The British Museum clarified that the change was purely logistical to save space in the main museum entrance and did not reflect any escalation in threat.[120] BP sponsorship[edit] The British Museum's relationship with the oil company BP, which has been a longstanding sponsor of the Museum, has been a source of controversy. In May 2016, the British Museum was temporarily closed after Greenpeace climbers unfurled eight banners down the front columns of the British Museum in protest at BP's sponsorship of an exhibition about Ancient Egypt.[121] In February 2019, hundreds of people occupied the British Museum in protest against BP's longstanding sponsorship of the Museum. Protestors also drew attention to the fact that BP lobbied the UK government to help it gain access to Iraq's oil reserves prior to Britain's invasion in 2003.[122] In July 2019, Ahdaf Soueif resigned from the British Museum's board of trustees in response to its "immovable" position on its sponsorship deal with BP. Soueif claimed that the money BP provided to support British Museum exhibitions could be obtained elsewhere.[123] In February 2020, 1,500 demonstrators, including British Museum staff, took part in a day of protest about the BP sponsorship, occupying 11 of the museum's rooms. Protesters also smuggled a four-metre Trojan horse on to the museum's forecourt. The PCS union said the museum had a duty to recognise the escalating climate crisis and cut its ties with BP. In reply the museum said: “We are aware of the comments from the PCS union and will continue to liaise with the British Museum PCS branch and our staff more generally.”[124] Trustee appointment[edit] According to The Guardian, the UK government rejected the appointment of classicist Mary Beard as a British Museum trustee in 2019, due to her pro-European beliefs. This was a departure from the government's usual hands-off approach to the running of the museum. The newspaper said the British Museum subsequently planned to appoint her as one of the five trustees it does not need government approval for.[125] Galleries[edit] Building Main Staircase, Discobolus of Myron (the Discus-Thrower) British Museum Reading Room Ceiling of the Great Court and the black siltstone obelisks of Nectanebo II, c. 350 BC Detail of an Ionic capital on a pilaster in the Great Court African Garden – created by BBC TV programme Ground Force Museum Galleries Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan Room 4 – Egyptian Sculpture, view towards the Assyrian Transept Room 4 Room 4 Department of the Middle East The British Museum, Room 6 – Assyrian Sculpture Room 8 – Pair of Lamassu from Nimrud & reliefs from the palace of Tiglath-Pileser III Room 7 – Reliefs from the North-west palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud Room 89 – Nimrud & Nineveh Palace Reliefs Room 10 – Nineveh, The Royal Lion Hunt Department of Greece and Rome Room 18 – Ancient Greece Room 20a – Tomb of Merehi & Greek Vases, Lycia, 360 BC Room 85 – Portrait Sculpture, Roman Room 83 – Roman Sculpture Room 84 – Towneley Roman Sculptures Main Staircase – Discobolus, Roman Main Staircase – Townley Caryatid, Roman, 140–160 AD Digital and online[edit] The museum has a collaboration with the Google Cultural Institute to bring the collection online.[126] Exhibitions[edit] Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum, by Joanna Bowring (British Museum Research Paper 189, 2012) lists all temporary exhibitions from 1838 to 2012. Forgotten Empire Exhibition (October 2005 – January 2006) Room 5 – Exhibitions Panorama Room 5 – The Persepolis Casts Room 5 – Exhibitions Relics Room 5 – The Cyrus Cylinder See also[edit] List of museums in London Repatriation (cultural heritage) Notes[edit] ^ Sculptures and applied art are in the Victoria and Albert Museum; the British Museum houses earlier art, non-Western art, prints and drawings. Art of a later date is at Tate Modern. The National Gallery holds the National Collection of Western European Art. Tate Britain holds British Art from 1500 onwards. ^ By the Act of Parliament it received a name – the British Museum. The origin of the name is not known; the word 'British' had some resonance nationally at this period, so soon after the Jacobite rebellion of 1745; it must be assumed that the museum was christened in this light.[13] ^ The estimated footage of the various libraries as reported to the trustees has been summarised by Harris (1998), 3,6: Sloane 4,600, Harley 1,700, Cotton 384, Edwards 576, The Royal Library 1,890. ^ This was perhaps rather unfortunate as the title to the house was complicated by the fact that part of the building had been erected on leasehold property (the Crown lease of which ran out in 1771); perhaps that is why George III paid such a modest price (nominally £28,000) for what was to become Buckingham Palace. See Howard Colvin et al. (1976), 134. ^ Understanding of the foundation of the National Gallery is complicated by the fact that there is no documented history of the institution. At first the National Gallery functioned effectively as part of the British Museum, to which the trustees transferred most of their most important pictures (ex. portraits). Full control was handed over to the National Gallery in 1868, after the Act of Parliament of 1856 established the Gallery as an independent body. ^ Ashmole, the Keeper of the Greek and Roman Antiquities appreciated the original top-lighting of these galleries and removed the Victorian colour scheme, commenting: The old Elgin Gallery was painted a deep terracotta red, which, though in some ways satisfactory, diminished its apparent size, and was apt to produce a depressing effect on the visitor. It was decided to experiment with lighter colours, and the walls of the large room were painted with what was, at its first application, a pure cold white, but which after a year's exposure had unfortunately yellowed. The small Elgin Room was painted with pure white tinted with prussian blue, and the Room of the metopes was painted with pure white tinted with cobalt blue and black; it was necessary, for practical reasons, to colour all the dadoes a darker colour[38] ^ Ashmole had never liked the Duveen Gallery: It is, I suppose, not positively bad, but it could have been infinitely better. It is pretentious, in that it uses the ancient Marbles to decorate itself. This is a long outmoded idea, and the exact opposite of what a sculpture gallery should do. And, although it incorporates them, it is out of scale, and tends to dwarf them with its bogus Doric features, including those columns, supporting almost nothing which would have made an ancient Greek artist architect wince. The source of daylight is too high above the sculptures, a fault that is only concealed by the amount of reflection from the pinkish marble walls. These are too similar in colour to the marbles...These half-dozen elementary errors were pointed out by everyone in the Museum, and by many scholars outside, when the building was projected.[42] It was not until the 1980s that the installation of a lighting scheme removed his greatest criticism of the building. ^ The Cairo Museum has 200,000 artefacts, with leading collections reposited at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (100,000), Musée du Louvre (60,000), Petrie Museum (80,000), The Metropolitan Museum of art (26,000), University of Pennsylvania (42,000), Ashmolean Museum (40,000), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (40,000), Museo Egizio, Turin (32,500 objects). References[edit] ^ "Collection size". British Museum. ^ Art Newspaper annual museum survey, 30 March 2021 ^ a b "About us". British Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2013. ^ "History of the British Museum". The British Museum. Retrieved 12 July 2018. ^ "The Life and Curiosity of Hans Sloane". The British Library. Retrieved 21 October 2017. ^ "Admission and opening times". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ a b Tharoor, Kanishk (29 June 2015). "Museums and looted art: the ethical dilemma of preserving world cultures". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 April 2018. ^ "The Big Question: What is the Rosetta Stone, and should Britain return". The Independent. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2020. ^ "BBC – History – British History in depth: Slavery and the Building of Britain". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ "Creating a Great Museum: Early Collectors and The British Museum". Fathom. Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "General history". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ Gavin R de Beer, Sir Hans Sloane and the British Museum (London, 1953). ^ The question of the use of the term 'British' at this period has recently received some attention, e.g. Colley (1992), 85ff. There never has been a serious attempt to change the museum's name. ^ Letter to Charles Long (1823), BMCE115/3,10. Scrapbooks and illustrations of the Museum. (Wilson, David, M.) (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 346 ^ "The British Museum Images". Bmimages. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ a b Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 38. ^ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press. p. 25. ^ Cavendish, Richard (January 2009). "The British Museum opened on January 15th, 1759". History Today. Vol. 59 no. 1. ^ Rose, ED (15 April 2018). "Specimens, slips and systems: Daniel Solander and the classification of nature at the world's first public museum, 1753–1768" (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science. 51 (2): 205–237. doi:10.1017/S0007087418000249. PMID 29655387. ^ "Collection Guides – King's Library". Retrieved 1 June 2020. ^ Hoock, Holger (2010). Empires of the Imagination: Politics, War and the Arts in the British World, 1750–1850. Profile Books. p. 207. ISBN 9781861978592. Retrieved 21 July 2016. ^ BMCE1/5, 1175 (13 May 1820). Minutes of General Meeting of the Trustees, 1754–63. (Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History, p. 78) ^ Wondrous Curiosities – Ancient Egypt at the British Museum, pp. 66–72 (Stephanie Moser, 2006, ISBN 0-226-54209-2) ^ The Story of the British Museum, p. 24 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0-7141-2772-8) ^ The British Museum – The Elgin Marbles, p. 85 (B.F.Cook, 2005, ISBN 0-7141-2134-7 ^ The British Museum – Assyrian Sculpture, pp. 6–7 (Julian Reade, 2004, ISBN 0-7141-2141-X) ^ "King's Library". Bl. Retrieved 22 October 2011. ^ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 79 ^ The Story of the British Museum, p. 25 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0-7141-2772-8) ^ Reade, Julian (2004). Assyrian Sculpture. London: The British Museum Press, p. 16 ^ Dickens Charles Jr. (1879). "Museum, British". Dickens's Dictionary of London. Retrieved 22 August 2007. Beyond the new Lycian room is the READING ROOM: [...]; circular structure; original suggestion of Thomas Watts, improved by A. (Sir A.) Panizzi, carried out by Mr. Sidney Smirke; [...] ^ South from Ephesus – An Escape From The Tyranny of Western Art, pp. 33–34,(Brian Sewell, 2002, ISBN 1-903933-16-1) ^ "The Electric Light in the British Museum" (PDF). The New York Times. 18 December 1879. Retrieved 15 January 2016. ^ Caygill, Marjorie (2006). The British Museum: 250 Years. London: The British Museum Press, p. 5 ^ a b Caygill, Marjorie. "Creating a Great Museum: Early Collectors and The British Museum". Fathom. Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007. ^ "British Museum – Collection search: You searched for". British Museum. ^ Permanent establishment of the Research Laboratory (now the oldest such establishment in continuous existence) "History". British Museum. ^ Quoted Ashmole (1994), 125 ^ Cook, B.F. (2005). The Elgin Marbles. London: The British Museum Press, pg 92 ^ Aronsfeld, C. C. (April 1984). "Judaica and Hebraica in German libraries: a review article". Journal of Librarianship and Information Science. 16 (2): 129–132. doi:10.1177/096100068401600204. S2CID 60789240. The Nazis, in fact, went to great lengths in exploiting Jewish (as well as general) literature. For instance, they arranged for a German researcher to spend several years at the British Museum for the purpose of compiling an anti-Semitic history of Anglo-Jewry, which, at the time, with its 562 pages and a bibliography of some 600 items, was an effort more ambitious than hitherto attempted. ^ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 270 ^ Ashmole (1994), 126 ^ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 327 ^ "Room 25: Africa". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Search the collection database". British Museum. Retrieved 15 January 2014. ^ Highlights British Museum, online research catalogues British Museum and online journals British Museum ^ a b "British Museum gets record 6.7m visitors for 2013". BBC News. 14 January 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014. ^ Smithers, Rebecca (5 March 2014). "Sunny weather drew record numbers to UK's outdoor tourist hotspots in 2013". The Guardian. ^ Miller, Joe (22 September 2014). "British Museum to be digitally recreated in Minecraft". BBC News. Retrieved 22 September 2014. ^ "Directors". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Museum governance". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 23 August 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Becoming a Trustee". British Museum. Retrieved 1 March 2014. ^ Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999 ^ "Building London". University College London. Archived from the original on 7 December 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ Title deed of the 'perimeter properties' of The British Museum, BM Archives CA TD ^ pp. 65–66, Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999 ^ Norman Foster and the British Museum, Norman Foster, Deyan Sudjic & Spencer de Grey 2001 ^ "British Museum Project". Waagner Biro. Archived from the original on 21 August 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2011. ^ http://planningonline.camden.gov.uk/MULTIWAM/doc/Supporting%20Documents-2692368.pdf?extension=.pdf&id=2692368&location=VOLUME3&contentType=application/pdf&pageCount=1[dead link] ^ a b c "Cross calls for new debate on stored collections". Museums Association. 26 January 2011. Archived from the original on 26 May 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2013. ^ Huang, Jennifer; Kuo, Deborah (31 January 2007). "British Museum feels privileged to put exhibition in Taiwan". Taiwan Headlines. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 13 September 2010. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (5 July 2007). "British Museum plans £100m complex for blockbusters". The Guardian. London. p. 10. Retrieved 5 July 2007. ^ "British Museum unveils new £135 million wing". Design Week. 7 March 2014. ^ "Franks House". British Museum. Retrieved 15 January 2014. ^ "Development since World War II (1945 – )". British Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2013. ^ "Department of Egypt and Sudan". British Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2019. ^ Reported in the list of Sloane's collection given to his executors in 1753. Reproduced in MacGregor (1994a:29) ^ "A British Museum Egyptologist's View: The Return of Egyptian Antiquities is Not an Issue". Touregypt. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Ancient Egypt and Sudan". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 6 February 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ a b "Department of Greece and Rome". British Museum. Retrieved 20 May 2019. ^ Tony Kitto, "The celebrated connoisseur: Charles Townley, 1737–1805" Minerva Magazine May/June 2005, in connection with a British Museum exhibition celebrating the bicentennial of the Townley purchase. Townley marbles Burnley[dead link] ^ "British Museum – Research". britishmuseum.org. ^ "Museum With No Frontiers". Discover Islamic Art. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "History of the Collection: Middle East". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Study room page". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ a b "Prints and Drawings galleries". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ Searches on 8 January 2012, return totals of 700,000, but many are in other departments ^ Singh, Anita (29 November 2011). "City fund manager in £1m Picasso giveaway". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 19 May 2012. ^ Katherine Gibson, 'The emergence of Grinling Gibbons as a statuary', published in Apollo, September 1999, p .28. ^ British Museum Highlights ^ BM Reindeer. page-flip.co.uk. Archived from the original on 1 March 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2021. ^ "British Museum - Ain Sakhri lovers figurine". British Museum. ^ Babs.Guthrie. "Collection page". Untold London. Archived from the original on 21 September 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Embassy of Japan in the UK". Japan Embassy. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Department of Asia". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Department of Asia – Related Highlight Objects". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Room 33a: Amaravati". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "Africa, Oceania and the Americas". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ "shield | British Museum". The British Museum. Retrieved 12 March 2021. ^ Nugent, Maria (February 2018). "'A Shield Loaded With History; Encounters, Objects, and Exhibitions'". Australian Historical Studies: 39. ^ Thomas, Nicholas (2018). "A Case of Identity: The Artifacts of the 1770 Kamay (Botany Bay) Encounter". Australian Historical Studies. 49:1: 4–27 – via Taylor and Francis Online. ^ Museum Collection ^ The British Museum and the Future of UK Numismatics. Proceedings of a conference held to mark the 150th anniversary of the British Museum’s Department of Coins and Medals, 2011, edited by Barrie Cook (British Museum Research Publication 183, 2011) ISBN 978-086159-183-1. ^ "British Museum – Conservation and Scientific Research". thebritishmuseum.ac.uk. ^ See the "Facilities and Services" tab on the home page for each department for details on each library; not all are kept at Bloomsbury. Anthropology Library ^ "Paul Hamlyn Library". British Museum. Retrieved 22 October 2011. ^ a b "About the BMP". Retrieved 2 March 2014. ^ "Research Publications". Retrieved 2 March 2014. ^ "Where it is safe to do so, cultural artefacts should be repatriated". The Economist. 23 February 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2018. ^ Bowlby, Chris (2 February 2015). "The palace of shame that makes China angry". BBC News. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "The Chinese expedition: Victor Hugo on the sack of the Summer Palace". www.napoleon.org. Retrieved 3 January 2016. ^ Foster, Peter (19 October 2009). "China to study British Museum for looted artefacts". The Telegraph. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ Foster, Peter (15 November 2010). "British Museum 'welcomes investigation with Chinese over artefacts'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 January 2016. ^ "Greek and Roman Antiquities". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ British Museum Act 1963, s 5. ^ Keenan, Sarah (11 November 2016). "Give back the Gweagal shield". Critical Legal Thinking. Retrieved 1 May 2021. ^ "British museum agrees to return Aboriginal remains to Australia". USA Today. Associated Press. 16 October 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2016. ^ "Breal's Silver Cup to be displayed at the New Acropolis Museum for one-year period from September 2012". BCRPM. Archived from the original on 27 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007. ^ Kennedy, Maev (28 March 2002). "British Museum sold precious bronzes". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 27 April 2010. ^ "Benin bronzes sold to Nigeria". BBC. 27 March 2002. ^ Johnson, Andrew (23 November 2008). "Ethiopia demands stolen crown back". Independent. Retrieved 24 August 2016. ^ Hoffman, Barbara T. (2006). Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780521857642. ^ "News – Getting the Nazi stolen art back". Channel 4 News. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2010. ^ Harding, Luke (10 April 2007). "Tajik president calls for return of treasure from British Museum". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 27 April 2010. ^ "Egypt calls for return of Rosetta Stone". BBC News. 21 July 2003. Retrieved 27 April 2010. ^ Larmer, Brook (June 2010). "Caves of Faith". National Geographic: 136–138. Retrieved 15 January 2015. ^ Thomas, Nicholas (2018). "A Case of Identity: The Artifacts of the 1770 Kamay (Botany Bay) Encounter". Australian Historical Studies. 49:1: 4–27 – via Taylor and Francis Online. ^ "Easter Islanders Ask British Museum to Return Sacred Statue, Offering Replica in Return". Hyperallergic. 23 October 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018. ^ "The British Museum policy on human remains". British Museum. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "Are the British Museum Bag Searches Getting Out of Hand? – Felix Magazine". Felix Magazine. 17 March 2017. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2017. ^ Vaughan, Adam (19 May 2016). "Greenpeace activists scale British Museum to protest BP sponsorship". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ Busby, Mattha (16 February 2019). "Campaigners protest against BP sponsorship of British Museum". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ "Trustee resigns from British Museum over BP". 16 July 2019. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ "British Museum staff join outcry against BP sponsorship". The Guardian. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020. ^ "Mary Beard blocked by No 10 as British Museum trustee 'for pro-Europe views'". The Guardian. 1 March 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020. ^ "British Museum Online". Further reading[edit] Anderson, Robert (2005). The Great Court and the British Museum. London: The British Museum Press Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard. Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African and Pacific Art and the London Avant Garde. Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 103–164. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9. Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard. "The Transcultural Roots of Modernism: Imagist Poetry, Japanese Visual Culture, and the Western Museum System", Modernism/modernity Volume 18, Number 1, January 2011, pp. 27–42. ISSN 1071-6068. Bowring, Joanna (2012). Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum London: British Museum Research Paper 189. Caygill, Marjorie (2006). The British Museum: 250 Years. London: The British Museum Press Caygill, Marjorie (2002). The Story of the British Museum. London: The British Museum Press --do.-- (2009) Treasures of the British Museum London: The British Museum Press ISBN 0714150622 (1st ed. 1985; 2nd ed. 1992) Cook, B. F. (2005). The Elgin Marbles. London: The British Museum Press Esdaile, Arundell (1946) The British Museum Library: a Short History and Survey. London: Allen & Unwin Jacobs, Norman (2010) Behind the Colonnade. Stroud: The History Press Jenkins, Ian (2006). Greek Architecture and its Sculpture in The British Museum. London: The British Museum Press Francis, Frank, ed. (1971) Treasures of the British Museum. London: Thames & Hudson (rev. ed., 1975) Moser, Stephanie (2006). Wondrous Curiosities: Ancient Egypt at The British Museum. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Reade, Julian (2004). Assyrian Sculpture. London: The British Museum Press Reeve, John (2003). The British Museum: Visitor's Guide. London: The British Museum Press Wilson, David M. (2002). The British Museum: a history. London: The British Museum Press External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: British Museum (category) Official website The British Museum from The Survey of London British Museum elevation "The British Museum Trust Ltd., registered charity no. 1140844". Charity Commission for England and Wales. 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en-wikipedia-org-2807	----	Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors from AD 96 to 192 "Antonine" redirects here. For people with the name, see Antonine (name). "Antonines" redirects here. For the Catholic order, see Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony. Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e The Nerva–Antonine dynasty was a dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from AD 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus. The first of these before Commodus (and excluding the co-emperor Lucius Verus) are commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors". The first five of the six successions within this dynasty were notable in that the reigning Emperor did not have male son, and had to adopt the candidate of his choice to be his successor. Under Roman law, an adoption established a bond legally as strong as that of kinship. Because of this, all but the first and last of the Nerva–Antonine emperors are called Adoptive Emperors. The importance of official adoption in Roman society has often been considered[1] as a conscious repudiation of the principle of dynastic inheritance and has been deemed one of the factors of the period's prosperity. However, this was not a new practice. It was common for patrician families to adopt, and Roman emperors had adopted heirs in the past: the Emperor Augustus had adopted Tiberius and the Emperor Claudius had adopted Nero. Julius Caesar, dictator perpetuo and considered to be instrumental in the transition from Republic to Empire, adopted Gaius Octavius, who would become Augustus, Rome's first emperor. Moreover, there was a family connection as Trajan adopted his first cousin once removed and great-nephew by marriage Hadrian, and Hadrian made his half-nephew by marriage and heir Antoninus Pius adopt both Hadrian's second cousin three times removed and half-great-nephew by marriage Marcus Aurelius, also Antoninus' nephew by marriage, and the son of his original planned successor, Lucius Verus. The naming of his son Commodus as heir by Marcus Aurelius was considered to be an unfortunate choice and the beginning of the Empire's decline.[2] With Commodus' murder in 192, the Nerva–Antonine dynasty came to an end; it was followed by a period of turbulence known as the Year of the Five Emperors. Contents 1 History 1.1 Nerva–Trajan dynasty 1.2 Antonine dynasty 2 Five Good Emperors 2.1 Alternative hypothesis 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 References History[edit] Nerva–Trajan dynasty[edit] Nerva was the first of the dynasty.[3] Though his reign was short, it saw a partial reconciliation between the army, the senate and the commoners. Nerva adopted as his son the popular military leader Trajan. In turn, Hadrian succeeded Trajan; he had been the latter's heir presumptive and averred that he had been adopted by him on Trajan's deathbed. Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antonine dynasty[edit] The Antonines are four Roman Emperors who ruled between 138 and 192: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus and Commodus. In 138, after a long reign dedicated to the cultural unification and consolidation of the empire, the Emperor Hadrian named Antoninus Pius his son and heir, under the condition that he adopt both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Hadrian died that same year, and Antoninus began a peaceful, benevolent reign. He adhered strictly to Roman traditions and institutions and shared his power with the Roman Senate. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus succeeded Antoninus Pius in 161 upon that emperor's death, and co-ruled until Verus' death in 169. Marcus continued the Antonine legacy after Verus' death as an unpretentious and gifted administrator and leader. He died in 180 and was followed by his biological son, Commodus. Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Five Good Emperors[edit] The rulers commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors" were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[4] The term was coined by Niccolò Machiavelli in his posthumously published book The Discourses on Livy from 1531: From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.[5] Machiavelli argued that these adopted emperors earned the respect of those around them through good governing: Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate.[5] Edward Gibbon wrote in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that their rule was a time when "the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue".[6] Gibbon believed that these benevolent monarchs and their moderate policies were unusual and contrasted with their more tyrannical and oppressive successors. Alternative hypothesis[edit] One hypothesis posits that adoptive succession is thought to have arisen because of a lack of biological heirs. All but the last of the adoptive emperors had no legitimate biological sons to succeed them. They were therefore obliged to pick a successor somewhere else; as soon as the Emperor could look towards a biological son to succeed him, adoptive succession was set aside. The dynasty may be broken up into the Nerva–Trajan dynasty (also called the Ulpian dynasty after Trajan's gentile name 'Ulpius') and Antonine dynasty (after their common name Antoninus). Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Note: Marcus Aurelius co-reigned with Lucius Verus from 161 until Verus' death in 169. References[edit] ^ E.g. by Machiavelli and Gibbon ^ "Decline of the Roman Empire". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ "Adoptive Succession". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D.; Buckler, John; Ebrey, Patricia B.; & Beck, Roger B. (2007). A History of World Societies (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, v–vi. ISBN 978-0-618-61093-8. ^ a b Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10. ^ Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, I.78. v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=1022554297" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Roman imperial dynasties 1st-century Roman emperors 2nd-century Roman emperors European dynasties 96 establishments 192 disestablishments 90s establishments in the Roman Empire 2nd-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 May 2021, at 04:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2813	----	Aurelian - Wikipedia Aurelian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 270 to 275 This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, see Aurelian (disambiguation). Roman emperor Aurelian IMP. C. L. DOM. AVRELIANVS P. F. AVG. Roman emperor Reign c. May 270 – c. October 275 Predecessor Quintillus Successor Tacitus Born 9 September 214 (possibly 215) Unclear location,[1] possibly Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria) or Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died c. October 275[2] (aged 61) Caenophrurium, Thrace (present-day Turkey) Spouse Ulpia Severina Issue 1 daughter Names Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus[3][a] Religion Henotheist of Sol Invictus [5] Bust of a Roman Emperor usually thought of as a bust of Claudius II. However, there is a possibility that this bust is actually the bust of Aurelian, since the Roman who buried this would have probably buried a statue of Aurelian along with Claudius II and the other busts found in the Brescia temple. Features of the statue do match the face of Aurelian depicted on coins. Aurelian (Latin: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 September 214 – c. October 275) was Roman emperor from 270 to 275. As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited the Roman Empire after it had practically disintegrated under the pressure of barbarian invasions and internal revolts. His successes were instrumental in ending the Crisis of the Third Century, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis – "Restorer of the World". Born in humble circumstances, he rose through the military ranks to become emperor. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, the abandonment of the province of Dacia, and monetary reform. Although Domitian, two centuries previous, was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus (master and god), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian.[6] Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 2.1 Service under Ulpius Crinitus 2.2 Service under Gallienus 2.3 Service under Claudius 2.4 Opposition to Quintillus 3 Emperor 3.1 The Roman Empire in the 270s 3.2 Reunification of the empire 3.2.1 Defending Italy against the Juthungi 3.2.2 Defeat of the Goths and abandonment of Dacia 3.2.3 Conquest of the Palmyrene Empire 3.2.4 Conquest of the Gallic Empire 3.3 Reforms 3.3.1 Religious reform 3.3.2 Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform 3.3.3 Food distribution reforms 4 Death 5 Legacy 6 Family tree 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Early life[edit] Aurelian was born on 9 September, most likely in 214 AD,[7][8] although 215 is also possible.[9] The ancient sources do not agree on his place of birth, although he was generally accepted as being a native of Illyricum but, another common belief was that he was born in Greece. According to the author of the Historia Augusta, "Aurelian was born of a humble family, at Sirmium according to most writers, but in Dacia Ripensis according to some. I remember, moreover, having read one author who declared that he was born in Moesia..."[10][11] The province of Dacia Ripensis was actually created in Moesia by Aurelian as emperor when he abandoned the old trans-Danubian territory of Dacia. The Roman historian Eutropius also opts for the area that later became Dacia Ripensis.[12] The academic consensus is that he was of humble birth and that his father was a peasant-farmer who took his Roman nomen from his landlord, a senator of the Aurelia gens.[13] Saunders suggests that his family might in fact have been of Roman settler origin and of much higher social status; however, his suggestion has not been taken up by his more recent academic colleagues such as Southern and Watson.[citation needed] Using the evidence of the ancient sources, it was at one time suggested that Aurelian's mother was a freedwoman of a member of the Aurelia gens and that she herself was a priestess of the sun god in her native village. These two propositions, together with the tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. However, it seems that this pleasant extrapolation of dubious facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that.[14] Military career[edit] It is commonly accepted that Aurelian probably joined the army in 235 AD at around age twenty.[13] It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society—albeit a citizen[b]—he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian.[15] This would have opened up for him the tres militia—the three steps of the equestrian military career—one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service.[c] This could be a more expeditious route to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious.[d] However, Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than his nomen which could indicate Italian settler ancestry—although even this is contested—and his rise to the highest ranks which is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities. Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in the Historia Augusta vita Divi Aureliani, while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least is demonstrably an invention typical of that author.[16] However, he was probably associated with Gallienus's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign of Claudius II, he seems to have been its commander.[17] Service under Ulpius Crinitus[edit] The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by many historians.[18] If he did exist he would have been a Dux of the Illyrian and Thracian legions. Ulpius was reportedly born in the city of Italica, which is currently in Spain.[19] Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a time. When a group of Goths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had been taken ill, so he had Aurelian deal with the invaders. He designated Aurelian the Legate of the Third Legion. Aurelian commanded two thousand five hundred Auxiliaries, and the tribal forces of four Germanic Chieftains. He defeated the barbarians in battle and used the resources gained from the battles to enrich the provinces. After the battle, Crinitus thanked Valerian, the emperor at the time, for providing him with such a talented deputy.[18] Afterward, Crinitus adopted Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force.[20] Following this, Crinitus disappeared from the historical record.[18][19] A painting showing Ulpius Crinitus alongside Aurelian has been found in the Temple of Sol, adding to the veracity of his existence.[21] Service under Gallienus[edit] Aurelian's successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of Emperor Gallienus' entourage. In 268, Aurelian and his cavalry participated in general Claudius' victory over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus.[22] Later that year, Gallienus traveled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, while the siege was ongoing the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple—which is plausible.[23] Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little is known. She was from Dacia.[24] They are known to have had a daughter together.[25] Service under Claudius[edit] Claudius was acclaimed emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new emperor immediately ordered the senate to deify Gallienus. Next, he began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved.[26] Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.[26] During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall Magister equitum, what was effectively the head of the army after the emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation.[26] The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube. Marching through Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at the Battle of Lake Benacus.[27] While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae.[27] Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army.[28] The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward into Upper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.[28] Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.[29] Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium, today in Sremska Mitrovica Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward into Thrace.[29] As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out. The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace.[29] The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies. Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths.[29] Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to handle. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions.[29] Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that Emperor Claudius was dead.[30] Opposition to Quintillus[edit] When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of the Crisis of the Third Century, the army refused to recognize the new Emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor about May 270[31][32] by the legions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as Emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed[33] can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii at the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.[34] With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems—recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming the res publica. Emperor[edit] The Roman Empire in the 270s[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Aurelian was a military commander, and during his reign he tried to keep legions' fidelity; this coin celebrated the CONCORDIA MILITVM, "concord of the soldiers" – in other words, "harmony between the emperor and the military". Legend: IMP. C. AVRELIANVS AVG. / CONCORDIA MILITVM – XXIQ mint In 248, Emperor Philip the Arab had celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence.[35] In the following years, however, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economic substrate of the state, agriculture and commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower[36] both for the army and for agriculture. The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of Emperor Valerian in 260 by the Sassanids. The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city of Palmyra, in Syria, whose autonomy grew until the formation of the Palmyrene Empire, which was successful in defending against the Sassanid threat. The western provinces, those facing the limes of the Rhine, seceded to form a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as the Gallic Empire. In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with internal menaces to his power and with the defense of Italia and the Balkans. Reunification of the empire[edit] The first actions of the new Emperor were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Italia against the Vandals, Juthungi, and Sarmatians, expelling them from Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title of Germanicus Maximus.[37] The authority of the Emperor was challenged by several usurpers—Septimius, Urbanus, Domitianus, and the rebellion of Felicissimus—who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of the armies in Roman politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions.[34] Defending Italy against the Juthungi[edit] The Porta Asinara, a gate in the Aurelian Walls. The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, the Alamanni moved towards Italia, entering the Po plain and sacking the villages; they passed the Po River, occupied Placentia and moved towards Fano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to control the Vandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in an ambush near Placentia (January 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rome, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians. But Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near the Metaurus River, defeating them in the Battle of Fano, and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia. For this, he received the title Germanicus Maximus. However, the menace of the Germanic people and a Germanic invasion was still perceived by the Romans as likely, so Aurelian resolved to build a new system of walls around Rome that became known as the Aurelian Walls.[38] Defeat of the Goths and abandonment of Dacia[edit] The emperor led his legions to the Balkans, where he defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing the Gothic leader Cannabaudes, and assuming the title of Gothicus Maximus. However, he decided to abandon the province of Dacia, on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganized a new province of Dacia south of the Danube, inside the former Moesia, called Dacia Aureliana, with Serdica as the capital.[39] Conquest of the Palmyrene Empire[edit] The Roman Empire by 271 A.D before the reconquest of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire by Aurelian Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG – oriens Augusti: the rising sun/star of Augustus. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG. / ORIENS AVG. – XIR. The route of Aurelian's campaign against Palmyra. In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia from the city of Palmyra.[40] Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassing Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. The Syrian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, while Vaballathus, the son of Zenobia, held the title of rex and imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough. Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city but Byzantium and Tyana surrendered to him with little resistance. The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great 1st-century philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream. Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!"[41] Aurelian spared Tyana, and it paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at the gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to the Sassanid Empire. Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk on the streets of Rome in his triumph, the woman in golden chains. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. After a brief clash with the Persians and another in Egypt against the usurper Firmus, Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known as Parthicus Maximus and Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").[34] The rich province of Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained the Library of Alexandria, although the extent of the surviving Library in Aurelian's time is uncertain. Conquest of the Gallic Empire[edit] In 274, the victorious emperor turned his attention to the west, and the Gallic Empire which had already been reduced in size by Claudius II. Aurelian won this campaign largely through diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor" Tetricus was willing to abandon his throne and allow Gaul and Britain to return to the Empire, but could not openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, the two seem to have conspired so that when the armies met at Châlons-en-Champagne that autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to the Roman camp and Aurelian easily defeated the Gallic army facing him.[citation needed] Tetricus was rewarded for his part in the conspiracy with a high-ranking position in Italy itself. A Radiate of Aurelian, obverse. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG. A Radiate of Aurelian, reverse. Legend: ORIENS AVG. – EXXI. Aurelian returned to Rome and won his last honorific from the Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). This title was first assumed by Aurelian in late summer of 272, and had been carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus.[24] In four years, Aurelian had secured the frontiers of the Empire and reunified it, effectively giving the Empire a new lease on life that lasted 200 years. Reforms[edit] Aurelian was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, dealing with the economy and religion. He restored many public buildings, re-organized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.[42] Religious reform[edit] Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun god Sol Invictus as the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The center of the cult was a new temple, built in 274 and dedicated on December 25[43] of that year in the Campus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire. During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow the principle of "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until the Edict of Thessalonica. He appears with the title deus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler") on some of his coins, a style also later adopted by Diocletian. Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time. He was recorded by Christian historians as having organized persecutions.[44][page needed] Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform[edit] Aurelian's reign records the only uprising of mint workers. The rationalis Felicissimus, a senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of the mint at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. The rationalis incited the mintworkers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, presumably executed. The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced the grain supply to Rome, thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election of Quintillus, and thus had something to fear from Aurelian. Aurelian ordered the urban cohorts, reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on the Caelian hill, marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).[42] Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the supporting senators were put to death. The mint of Rome was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony.[45] His monetary reformation included the introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI (or its Greek numeral form KA), which meant that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silver denarius.[46][e] Considering that this was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins prior to their introduction.[34] A very large number of rare gold coins of Aurelian have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s.[47] Food distribution reforms[edit] Rome had been distributing grain to its poorest citizens at a reduced price since 123 BC, and for free since 58 BC through the Cura Annonae. Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of the loaves of bread without increasing their price—a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole.[48] Aurelian is believed to have terminated Trajan's alimenta program. Roman prefect Titus Flavius Postumius Quietus was the last known official in charge of the alimenta, in 271 AD. If Aurelian "did suppress this food distribution system, he most likely intended to put into effect a more radical reform."[49] Death[edit] The deaths of the Sassanid Kings Shapur I (272) and Hormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), presented an opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire, and in 275 Aurelian set out for another campaign against the Sassanids. On his way, he suppressed a revolt in Gaul—possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper of Tetricus—and defeated barbarian marauders in Vindelicia (Germany). However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace to cross into Asia Minor. As an administrator, he had been strict and had handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of his (called Eros by Zosimus) had told a lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution and showed it to collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Guard, fearing punishment from the emperor, murdered him in September 275, in Caenophrurium, Thrace. Aurelian's enemies in the Senate briefly succeeded in passing damnatio memoriae on the emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year, and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus. There is substantial evidence that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, who had been declared Augusta in 274, ruled the empire in her own right for some time after his death.[24][25] Sources hint at an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.[25] Legacy[edit] Aurelian's short reign reunited a fragmented Empire while saving Rome from barbarian invasions that had reached Italy itself. His death prevented a full restoration of political stability and a lasting dynasty that could end the cycle of assassination of emperors and civil war that marked this period. Even so, he brought the Empire through a very critical period in its history and, without Aurelian, it might never have survived the invasions and fragmentation of the decade in which he reigned. Moreover, the Western half of the Empire would survive another two hundred years, while the East would last another millennium, and for that Aurelian must be allowed much of the credit.[citation needed] The city of Orléans in France is named after Aurelian. Originally named Cenabum, Aurelian rebuilt and renamed it Aurelianum or Aureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian", cité d'Aurélien), which evolved into Orléans. Family tree[edit] previous Valerian Roman Emperor 253-260 Gallienus Roman Emperor 253-268 Claudius Gothicus Roman Emperor 268-270 Quintillus Roman Emperor 270 Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 ∞ Ulpia Severina Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman Emperor 275-276 Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276-282 next Carus Roman Emperor 282-283 Saloninus Roman Emperor 258-260 Notes[edit] ^ His full name, with honorific and victory titles, was Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus pius felix invictus Augustus, pontifex maximus, Germanicus maximus, Gothicus maximus, Parthicus maximus, Carpicus maximus, tribunicia potestate VI, consul III, imperator, pater patriae, proconsul, restitutor orbis.[4] ^ Had Aurelian's family been enfranchised by virtue of the Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD) his nomen would have been "Aurelius". ^ The tres militia were: (i) prefecture of a cohort of auxiliary infantry; (ii) tribunate of a legionary cohort; and (iii) prefecture of an ala of auxiliary cavalry. ^ Compare the career of Pertinax who pursued the Tres Militia with those of Publius Aelius Aelianus, Lucius Aurelius Marcianus (both probably) and Traianus Mucianus (certainly) who rose e caliga, i.e. through the ranks. ^ Later emperors Tacitus and Carus would mint coins with the legends XI or IA, signalling a 10% of silver in the alloy. References[edit] ^ Watson, Alaric (2004-01-14). Aurelian and the Third Century. ISBN 9781134908158. ^ Watson 1999, p. 225. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 500. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Groag, col. 157. ^ White 2015, p. 139. ^ Halsberghe, G.H. (1972). The Cult of Sol Invictus. Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Brill. p. 152. Retrieved 2018-04-13. ^ John Malalas 12.301: aged 61 at death ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-041-530-187-9. ^ Saunders 1992, pp. 104-6. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Aurelian, Part One, 1, 3 ^ Milošević (2010: pp. 106–7)[incomplete short citation] ^ Eutropius, Breviarum, 9.13.1 ^ a b Watson 1999, p. 1. ^ Saunders 1992, p. 107. ^ Saunders 1992, p. 109. ^ For instance, vita Divi Aureliani paras 5.5–6, 6.3–5, and 7.1–2. If he ever was a tribune of a legion as suggested in 7.1–2 it could not have been with Legio VII Gallicana as that unit never existed. ^ Saunders 1992, pp. 129–130. ^ a b c White, John F. (2015-11-30). The Roman Emperor Aurelian: Restorer of the World. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-4477-3. ^ a b Hengst, Daniël den (2010). Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire by Daniël Den Hengst. BRILL. ISBN 978-900-417-438-2. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. Retrieved 2020-06-07. ^ "LacusCurtius: Templum Solis (Platner & Ashby, 1929)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-06-23. ^ Watson 1999, p. 41. ^ Aurelius Victor, xxxiii,21. Other sources do not cite Aurelian among those who conspired against Gallienus, though different sources have claimed that he was the one who called Gallienus out of his tent under a proposed "conspiracy" at the point Gallienus was stabbed. ^ a b c Watson 1999. ^ a b c Körner, Christian (23 December 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 6 January 2011. ^ a b c Watson 1999, p. 42. ^ a b Watson 1999, p. 43. ^ a b Watson 1999, p. 44. ^ a b c d e Watson 1999, p. 45. ^ Watson 1999, p. 46. ^ Stein, pp. 46, 50. ^ Groag, col. 1355. ^ Zonaras. ^ a b c d Korner. ^ Magh, David. Historia Augusta. II. Loeb Classical Library. ^ https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/11/solving-the-mystery-of-an-ancient-roman-plague/543528/ ^ Zosimus, 1,48f.; Eutropius; Dexippus, FGrH IIA 460 F7; Historia Augusta – Aurelianus xxi,1–3 and xviii,2. ^ Watson 1999, pp. 51–54, 217. ^ Watson 1999, pp. 54–55. ^ The war against the Palmyrene Empire is described in Zosimus, 1,50,1–1,61,1, and Historia Augusta, Aurelianus, 22–31. ^ Stoneman, Richard (1994). Palmyra and its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt against Rome. p. 167. ISBN 0472083155. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aurelian" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 923–924. ^ Clauss, Manfred (2001). Die römischen Kaiser : 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian (in German). München: Beck. p. 250. ISBN 978-3-406-47288-6. ^ For example, in the Annales Cambriae, B & C Texts. ^ Watson 1999, pp. 52–53. ^ Watson 1999, p. 130. ^ Sylvianne Estiot, The Lava Treasure of Roman Gold. Also in Trésors monétaires, volume XXIV, BNF, 2011 ISBN 9782717724929 ^ Watson, Alaric (2004), Aurelian and the Third Century, London: Routledge, pp, 139-140 ^ Pat Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (London: Routledge, 2015), ISBN 978-0-415-73807-1, page 181. Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor Epitome de Caesaribus, xxxv "Epitome de Caesaribus" (4th century) Eutropius, Breviarium historiae Romanae, IX. 13–15 (4th century) Historia Augusta Aurelianus Life of Aurelian Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Zosimus, Historia Nova Translation of the Historia Nova (published in 1814), book 1, (5th–6th century) Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History Compendium excerpt: Claudius to Diocletian 268–284 (12th century) Secondary sources[edit] Groag, Edmund, "Domitius 36", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 9 (V.1), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1903), columns 1347–1419. Körner, Christian (2001-07-20). "Aurelian". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 20 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-04. (Korner:2001) Saunders, Randall Titus (1992). A biography of the Emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services. Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 0-415-23944-3. (Southern:2001); Stein, Arthur (1924). "Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian". Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. S2CID 161464046. Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century (PDF). The Classical World. 94. London: Routledge. p. 284. doi:10.2307/4352566. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. JSTOR 4352566. S2CID 153920517. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-18. Further reading[edit] White, John (2015). The Roman Emperor Aurelian: Restorer of the World. Casemate Publishers and Book Distributors. ISBN 978-1-4738-4569-5. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aurelianus. Aurelian coinage, at Wildwinds.com On coins of Aurelian with the title dominus et deus (Section 1.9) Regnal titles Preceded by Quintillus Roman emperor 270–275 Succeeded by Tacitus Political offices Preceded by Flavius Antiochianus Virius Orfitus Consul of the Roman Empire 271 with Pomponius Bassus Succeeded by T. Flavius Postumius Quietus Junius Veldumnianus Preceded by M. Claudius Tacitus Julius Placidianus Consul of the Roman Empire 274–275 with Capitolinus (274) Marcellinus (275) Succeeded by Tacitus Augustus II Aemilianus II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-2822	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Favonian (talk | contribs) at 17:51, 6 June 2021 (Reverted 1 edit by 2405:201:6002:2095:ED36:91E8:7F1E:3163 (talk): Doesn't have an article or other indication of notability). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version. Revision as of 17:51, 6 June 2021 by Favonian (talk | contribs) (Reverted 1 edit by 2405:201:6002:2095:ED36:91E8:7F1E:3163 (talk): Doesn't have an article or other indication of notability) (diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher For other uses, see Marcus Aurelius (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aurelian. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperor Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born 26 April 121 Rome, Italy Died 17 March 180 (aged 58) Sirmium, Pannonia Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger (145–175, her death) Issue Detail 14, including Commodus, Annius, Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, and Vibia Aurelia Sabina Names Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (see section Name for details) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Calvilla Philosophy career Notable work Meditations Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western Philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori[1] Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Epictetus, Quintus, Apollonius, Sextus of Chaeronea Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Stoic philosophy Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Marcus Aurelius Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs;[2] 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana (27 BC to 180 AD), an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised Marcus. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus' uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus' reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 Name 2.2 Family origins 2.3 Childhood 2.4 Succession to Hadrian 2.5 Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) 2.6 Fronto and further education 2.7 Births and deaths 2.8 Antoninus Pius's last years 3 Emperor 3.1 Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) 3.2 Early rule 3.3 War with Parthia (161–166) 3.4 War with Germanic tribes (166–180) 3.5 Legal and administrative work 3.5.1 Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague 3.6 Death and succession (180) 4 Legacy and reputation 5 Attitude towards Christians 6 Marriage and children 7 Nerva–Antonine family tree 8 Writings 9 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 10 Column of Marcus Aurelius 11 In popular culture 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Sources 14.1 Ancient 14.2 Modern 15 External links Sources[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.[3] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[4] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.[5] A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[6][7] Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[8] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[9] Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus's legal work.[10] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[11] Early life[edit] Main article: Early life of Marcus Aurelius A bust of young Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'[12] Name[edit] Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,[13] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,[14][15][16] or at the time of his marriage.[17] He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[18] at birth or some point in his youth,[14][16] or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;[19] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[20] Family origins[edit] Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III).[21] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.[22][23] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[24] Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.[25][26][note 1] Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.[29][30] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.[31][32][33] The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. Childhood[edit] Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.[34] His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.[35][note 2] Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.[37] His mother Lucilla did not remarry[35] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',[38] and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.[16] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.[39] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.[40] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.[41] Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[42] From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.[43] Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[44] he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[45] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.[46] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[47] A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin[48][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.[50] Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[51] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's Meditations.[52] Succession to Hadrian[edit] Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[53] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.[54] While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.[55] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.[56] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.[57][note 4] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.[59] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.[60] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[61] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[62] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.[63] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.[64] After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[65] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[66] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[67] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.[68] Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)[edit] Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.[69] Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.[70] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.[71] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[72] Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[73] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[74] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[75] Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.[74] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'[76] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.[77] As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.[78] But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.[79] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.[80] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[81] On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.[82] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.[83] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[84] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.[85] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.[86] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[87] Fronto and further education[edit] After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[88] He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,[89] but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.[90] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[91] Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.[92] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.[93] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.[94] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[95] Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[96] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[97][note 6] He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[97] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.[101] The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.[102] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[103] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.[104] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[105] – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[106] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.[107] Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[108] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.[109] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,[110] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.[111] The outcome of the trial is unknown.[112] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[113] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[114] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.[115] Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.[116] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[101] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[117] Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.[118] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[119][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[121] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;[122] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[123] Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.[124] Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'[125] Births and deaths[edit] On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.[126] The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.[127] Domitia would die in 151.[128] The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[129] Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[130] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':[131]  leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad vi.146[131] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.[132] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[133] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.[134] By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.[135] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.[136] Antoninus Pius's last years[edit] Bust of Antoninus Pius, British Museum Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,[137] and was consul again with Marcus in 161.[138] Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.[139][note 8] He did not marry until 164.[143] In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[144] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.[136] Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[145] about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[146] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[147] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).[148] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[149] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.[150] Emperor[edit] Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)[edit] Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.[151] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.[152] Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[153] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[154] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[155] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[156][note 9] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[159][note 10] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[159] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.[160] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[161] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[162] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[163] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz).[164] Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.[165] If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[166] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[163] In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.[167] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[168]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[169] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[170][note 11] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[172] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[173] Early rule[edit] Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[174] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[175] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.[176] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[177] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[178] Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.[179] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[180] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'[181] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[182] Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[183] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'[184] Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[185] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[186] Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, December 2008 In either autumn 161 or spring 162,[note 12] the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[188][note 13] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[190] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.[191] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.[192] The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[193] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.[194] War with Parthia (161–166)[edit] Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars Coin of Vologases IV of Parthia. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63. On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[195] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[196] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[197] The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.[198] Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,[199] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[200]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[201] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[202] Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[203][note 14] More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[205] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[206] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[207] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[208] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[209] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[210] M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,[211] and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[212] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, Victoria is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.[213] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[214] Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'[215] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[216] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[217] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.[218] Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'[219] The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in Antioch's open-air taverns than with their units.[220] (Engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) The Euphrates River near Raqqa, Syria Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,[221] and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,[222] but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.[223] Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.[224] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.[225][note 15] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.[227] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[228] Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,[229] saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',[230] and enjoyed the company of actors.[231][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.[233] Marble statue of Lucilla, 150–200 AD, Bardo National Museum, Tunisia In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.[234] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.[235] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[236] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,[237] who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[238] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.[239] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[240] He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[241] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[242] At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[243] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[244] Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[245] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[246] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[247] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[248] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[249] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[250] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.[251] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[252] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[253] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[254] By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[255] Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[256] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[257] Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[258] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[259] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.[260] War with Germanic tribes (166–180)[edit] Main article: Marcomannic Wars The Roman Empire at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia[261] – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and by his death.[262] The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Scenes from the Marcomannic Wars, 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museums) Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts Jupiter, flanked by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.[263] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.[264] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[265] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[266] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[267] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[268] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[269] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[270] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[271] Legal and administrative work[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt. Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,[272] but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.[273] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'[274] and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.[275] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[276] Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.[277] In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.[278] In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.[164] Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague[edit] Main articles: Sino-Roman relations and Antonine Plague A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.[279][280][281] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[282] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[283][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[284] The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[285] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.[286] It is believed that the plague was smallpox.[287] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.[288] Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[289] Death and succession (180)[edit] Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1844) by Eugène Delacroix Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[290] Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.[291] Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.[292] Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;[293] however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.[292] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[294] [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. –Dio lxxi. 36.3–4[294] Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."[295] Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[296] The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.[296] Legacy and reputation[edit] Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.[297][298] Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.[299] The last-named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.[300] The historian Herodian wrote: "Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."[301] Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: "[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."[302] Attitude towards Christians[edit] In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.[303] The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.[304] The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.[305] Marriage and children[edit] Coin of Commodus and Annius, 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus. Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Prado Museum Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[126][306] including two sets of twins.[126][307] One son and four daughters outlived their father.[308] Their children included: Domitia Faustina (147–151)[126][138][309] Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)[129][307][310] Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)[129][307][310] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150[132][309]–182[311]), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus,[138] then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151),[134] married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)[134] Unknown child (died before 158)[136] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus[310] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),[312] twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,[310][313] married Bruttia Crispina, no issue Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162[260]–169[306][314])[138] Hadrianus[138] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170[310]– died before 217[315]),[138] married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Writings[edit] Main article: Meditations While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.[316] It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.[317] It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.[318] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[319] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[320] Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius[edit] Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.[321] Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelius The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.[322] This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands 11.6 ft (3.5 m) and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.[323] A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums A full view of the equestrian statue Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Column of Marcus Aurelius[edit] Main article: Column of Marcus Aurelius Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[324] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[325] The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase. The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) In popular culture[edit] In the 1965 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. In the 2000 British-American drama Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius. Notes[edit] ^ Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[27] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[28] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.[36] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.[49] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.[58] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[81] ^ Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[98] Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[99] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[100] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[120] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[140]) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[141] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[142] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[157] The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[158] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[159] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[159] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[171] ^ Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[187] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[182]) ^ Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.[189] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' vivente Pio (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[204]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[226] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (HA Verus iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[232] ^ For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1741148930. Citations[edit] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a 'HA'. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ^ Henry Albert Fischel, Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings, E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95. ^ 'Marcus Aurelius' Archived 28 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. ^ Rohrbacher, p. 5. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae' (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. ^ Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. ^ Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Magill, p. 693. ^ a b Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Van Ackeren, p. 139. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus i. 10; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Dio lxix.21.1; HA Marcus i. 9; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Van Ackeren, p. 78. ^ Dean, p. 32. ^ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. ^ Sánchez, p. 165. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ^ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ^ Giacosa, p. 8. ^ Levick, pp. 161, 163. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. ^ "M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae". ^ l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. JHU Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780801843006. horti domizia lucilla. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. ^ Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ Robertson, Donald J. "Stoicism as a Martial Art". Medium. Retrieved 23 February 2021. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. ^ HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. ^ HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Magie & Birley, Lives of the later Caesars, pp. 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, pp. 39ff. ^ HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30. ^ HA Aelius vi. 2–3 ^ HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. ^ Dio, lxix.17.1; HA Aelius, iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. ^ Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. ^ HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. ^ HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 108. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 77. ^ HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. ^ Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. ^ HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. ^ HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, pp. 1–2. ^ Mellor, p. 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. ^ Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. ^ a b Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–08. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Reed, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius'. Livius.org. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), pp. 173ff. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. ^ Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bury, p. 532. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156. ^ HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ a b 'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus xix. 1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 226. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ a b Adams, p. 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 183. ^ Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani, p. 33. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 241. ^ Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–24. ^ Le Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. ^ Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 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Cary, ad loc. ^ Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 ^ a b Grant, The Climax Of Rome, p. 15. ^ HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. World History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. ^ Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ Thinkers at War. ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ a b Stephens, p. 31. ^ a b c Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. 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New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Rohrbacher, David. The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0299306045. Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano [Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. ISBN 978-8497637695. Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1441125613. Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–39. doi:10.2307/4348712. JSTOR 4348712. Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. JSTOR 4435015. Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. External links[edit] Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Texts on Wikisource: The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. 1907. "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 693–96. "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Works by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Aurelius at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Aurelius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius Antonine dynasty Born: 26 April 121 Died: 17 March 180 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–180 With: Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Succeeded by Commodus Political offices Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–April 140 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–February 145 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus Preceded by Ti. Oclatius Severus Novius Sabinianus Consul of Rome January 161 With: Lucius Verus Succeeded by M. Annius Libo Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-2830	----	Template:Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Template:Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=994456424" Hidden categories: Sidebars with styles needing conversion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 20:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2838	----	Pierre Hadot - Wikipedia Pierre Hadot From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search French historian and philosopher (1922–2010) Pierre Hadot Born 21 February 1922 Reims, France Died 24 April 2010(2010-04-24) (aged 88) Orsay, France Spouse(s) Ilsetraut Hadot Era Contemporary philosophy Region Western philosophy School Continental philosophy Philosophy of life[1] Main interests History of ancient Greek philosophy, history of Neoplatonism Notable ideas The conception of ancient Greek philosophy as a bios (βίος) or way of life (manière de vivre)[2] Influences Marcus Aurelius, Louis Lavelle,[3] Henri Bergson,[4] Jacques Maritain,[5] Cardinal Newman,[5] Ludwig Wittgenstein Influenced Arnold Davidson, Michel Foucault, Wayne Hankey Pierre Hadot (/ɑːˈdoʊ/; French: [ado]; 21 February 1922 – 24 April 2010) was a French philosopher and historian of philosophy specializing in ancient philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophical work 3 Publications 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] In 1944, Hadot was ordained, but following Pope Pius XII’s encyclical Humani generis (1950) left the priesthood. He studied at the Sorbonne between 1946–1947.[4] In 1961, he graduated from the École Pratique des Hautes Études.[4] In 1964, he was appointed a Director of Studies at EPHE, initially occupying a chair in Latin Patristics, before his chair was renamed "Theologies and Mysticisms of Hellenistic Greece and the End of Antiquity" in 1972. He became professor at the Collège de France in 1983, where he assumed the chair of the History of Hellenistic and Roman Thought. In 1991, he retired from this position to become professeur honoraire at the collège; his last lecture was on 22 May that year. He concluded his final lecture by saying, "In the last analysis, we can scarcely talk about what is most important."[6] Over the course of his career, Hadot published translations of and commentaries on Porphyry, St. Ambrose, Plotinus, and Marcus Aurelius. Hadot was married to the historian of philosophy, Ilsetraut Hadot. Philosophical work[edit] Hadot was one of the first authors to introduce Ludwig Wittgenstein's thought into France. Hadot suggested that one cannot separate the form of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations from their content.[7] Wittgenstein had claimed that philosophy was an illness of language and Hadot notes that the cure required a particular type of literary genre.[7] Hadot is also famous for his analysis of the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. He identified and analyzed the "spiritual exercises" used in ancient philosophy (influencing the thought of Michel Foucault in the second and third volumes of his History of Sexuality). By "spiritual exercises" Hadot means "practices ... intended to effect a modification and a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[8] The philosophy teacher's discourse could be presented in such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor, could make spiritual progress and transform himself within."[9] Hadot shows that the key to understanding the original philosophical impulse is to be found in Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all is the importance given to living contact between human beings. Hadot's recurring theme is that philosophy in Antiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises intended to transform the perception, and therefore the being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best pursued in real conversation and not through written texts and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in universities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original, therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[9] which has been critically reviewed.[10] Publications[edit] (Only translations into English are included in this list). with P. Henry, Marius Victorinus, Traités théologiques sur la Trinité, Cerf 1960 (Sources Chrétiennes nos. 68 & 69). Porphyre et Victorinus. Paris, Institut d'Etudes augustiniennes, 1968. (Collection des études augustiniennes. Série antiquité ; 32–33). Marius Victorinus: recherches sur sa vie et ses oeuvres, 1971. (Collection des études augustiniennes. Série antiquité ; 44). Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, Etudes augustiniennes, 1981. (Collection des études augustiniennes. Série antiquité ; 88). ISBN 2-85121-039-4. Philosophy as a Way of Life. Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault, edited with an Introduction by Arnold I. Davidson, translated by Michael Chase, Oxford/Cambridge, Massachusetts, Basil Blackwell, 1995, Oxford, Blackwell's, 1995. ISBN 0-631-18032-X. La citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle. Paris, Fayard, 1992. ISBN 2-213-02984-9. The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, translated by Michael Chase, Cambridge, Massachusetts /London, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-674-46171-1 Qu'est-ce que la philosophie antique? Paris, Gallimard, 1995. (Folio essais ; 280). ISBN 2-07-032760-4. What is Ancient Philosophy?, translated by Michael Chase, Cambridge, Massachusetts /London, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-674-01373-5 Plotin ou la simplicité du regard ; 4e éd. Paris, Gallimard, 1997. (Folio esais ; 302). ISBN 2-07-032965-8. Plotinus or the Simplicity of Vision, translated by Michael Chase, with an Introduction by Arnold A. Davidson, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0226311944 Etudes de philosophie ancienne. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1998. (L'âne d'or ; 8). ISBN 2-251-42007-X (recueil d'articles). Marc Aurèle. Ecrits pour lui même, texte établi et traduit par Pierre Hadot, avec la collaboration de Concetta Luna. vol. 1 (general introduction and Book 1). Paris, Collection Budé, 1998. ISBN 2-251-00472-6. Plotin, Porphyre: Études néoplatoniciennes. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1999. (L'âne d'or ; 10). ISBN 2-251-42010-X (recueil d'articles). La philosophie comme manière de vivre. Paris, Albin Michel, 2002. (Itinéraires du savoir). ISBN 2-226-12261-3. The Present Alone is Our Happiness: Conversations with Jeannie Carlier and Arnold I. Davidson, 2nd ed. Translated by Marc Djaballah and Michael Chase, Stanford / Stanford University Press, 2011 (Cultural Memory in the Present). ISBN 978-0804775434 Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique, nouvelle éd. Paris, Albin Michel, 2002. (Bibliothèque de l'évolution de l'humanité). ISBN 2-226-13485-9. Le voile d'Isis: Essai sur l'histoire de l'idée de nature. Paris, Gallimard, 2004. (NRF essais). ISBN 2-07-073088-3. The Veil of Isis: An Essay on the History of the Idea of Nature. , translated by Michael Chase, Cambridge, Massachusetts /London, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-674-02316-1 Wittgenstein et les limites du langage. Paris, J. Vrin, 2004. (Bibliothèque d'histoire de la philosophie). ISBN 2-7116-1704-1. Apprendre à philosopher dans l'antiquité. L'enseignement du Manuel d'Epictète et son commentaire néoplatonicien (with Ilsetraut Hadot). Paris, LGF, 2004. (Le livre de poche ; 603). ISBN 2-253-10935-5. Notes[edit] ^ John M. Cooper, Pursuits of Wisdom: Six Ways of Life in Ancient Philosophy from Socrates to Plotinus, Princeton University Press, 2012, p. 18. ^ Pierre Hadot (1922-2010) by Matthew Sharpe in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ [1] ^ a b c Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. Postscript: An Interview with Pierre Hadot, p. 278. ^ a b Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. Postscript: An Interview with Pierre Hadot, p. 277. ^ Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. Postscript: An Interview with Pierre Hadot, p. 284. ^ a b Davidson, A.I. (1995), Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy, in Philosophy as a Way of Life, Hadot, P., Oxford Blackwells pp17-18 ^ Hadot, P. (1995), Philosophy as a Way of Life, Oxford, Blackwell. ^ a b Hadot, Pierre (2002). What Is Ancient Philosophy?. Harvard University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-674-00733-6. ^ Zeyl, Donald (June 9, 2003). "What is Ancient Philosophy?". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. Retrieved 2015-09-24. Further reading[edit] J. Scheid, "Pierre Hadot (1922–2010), chaire de pensée hellénistique et romaine, 1982–1991", La lettre du Collège de France no. 30 December 2010, 43–45 G. Catapano, "Pierre Hadot (1922-2010)", Adamantius XVII (2011), 348–352 M. Chase, S.R.L. Clark, M. McGhee, eds., (2013). Philosophy as a way of life: ancients and moderns. Essays in honor of Pierre Hadot Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6161-9. External links[edit] Quotations related to Pierre Hadot at Wikiquote Pierre Hadot (1922-2010) by Matthew Sharpe in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Review of What is Ancient Philosophy? by Benjamin Balint from First Things Michael Chase, Remembering Pierre Hadot - Part I & Part II Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Greece Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Hadot&oldid=1024198000" Categories: 1922 births 2010 deaths 20th-century French philosophers French historians of philosophy French scholars of ancient Greek philosophy French male non-fiction writers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano עברית مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 20 May 2021, at 17:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2847	----	Système universitaire de documentation - Wikipedia Système universitaire de documentation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SUDOC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search University documentation in France "Sudoc" redirects here. For the US government document classification system, see United States Government Printing Office. Screenshot from the Système Universitaire de Documentation (Sudoc) The système universitaire de documentation or SUDOC is a system used by the libraries of French universities and higher education establishments to identify, track and manage the documents in their possession. The catalog, which contains nearly 13 million references, allows students and researchers to search for bibliographical and location information in more than 3,400 documentation centers. It is maintained by the Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education [fr] (ABES). External links[edit] Official website This article relating to library science or information science is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Système_universitaire_de_documentation&oldid=1027148206" Categories: Libraries in France Library cataloging and classification Library and information science stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 11:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2849	----	Tyrian purple - Wikipedia Tyrian purple From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Natural dye extracted from Murex sea snails "Royal purple" redirects here. For other uses, see Royal Purple (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Byzantium (color), a modern colour. Tyrian purple       Colour coordinates Hex triplet #66023C HSV       (h, s, v) (325°, 98%, 40[1]%) sRGBB  (r, g, b) (102, 2, 60) Source "Green-Lion.net". Archived from the original on 2014-02-28. ISCC–NBS descriptor Very deep red B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred) Tyrian purple (Ancient Greek: πορφύρα porphúra; Latin: purpura), also known as Phoenician red, Phoenician purple, royal purple, imperial purple, or imperial dye, is a reddish-purple natural dye; the name Tyrian refers to Tyre, Lebanon. It is a secretion produced by several species of predatory sea snails in the family Muricidae, rock snails originally known by the name 'Murex'. In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labor, and as a result, the dye was highly valued. The main chemical is 6,6′-dibromoindigo. Contents 1 Background 2 Production from sea snails 3 Royal blue 4 History 5 Murex purple production in North Africa 6 Dye chemistry 7 Modern hue rendering 8 Philately 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Background[edit] A twentieth-century depiction of a Roman triumph celebrated by Julius Caesar. Caesar, riding in the chariot, wears the solid Tyrian purple toga picta. In the foreground, two Roman magistrates are identified by their toga praetexta, white with a stripe of Tyrian purple. Biological pigments were often difficult to acquire, and the details of their production were kept secret by the manufacturers. Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the mucus of several species of Murex snail. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a fabric dye began as early as 1200 BCE by the Phoenicians, and was continued by the Greeks and Romans until 1453 CE, with the fall of Constantinople.[2] The pigment was expensive and complex to produce, and items colored with it became associated with power and wealth. Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient Phoenicians as early as 1570 BCE.[3][4] It has been suggested that the name Phoenicia itself means 'land of purple'.[5][6] The dye was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. It came in various shades, the most prized being that of black-tinted clotted blood.[7][4] Because it was extremely difficult to make, Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th century BCE historian Theopompus reported, "Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at Colophon" in Asia Minor.[8] The expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became status symbols, whose use was restricted by sumptuary laws. The most senior Roman magistrates wore a toga praetexta, a white toga edged with a stripe of Tyrian purple. The even more sumptuous toga picta, solid Tyrian purple with a gold stripe, was worn by generals celebrating a Roman triumph.[4] By the fourth century CE, sumptuary laws in Rome had been tightened so much that only the Roman emperor was permitted to wear Tyrian purple.[4] As a result, 'purple' is sometimes used as a metonym for the office (e.g. the phrase 'donned the purple' means 'became emperor'). The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in the succeeding Byzantine Empire and subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of imperial silks.[9] Later (9th century)[10] a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be porphyrogenitos, "born in the purple".[a] Some[who?] speculate that the dye extracted from the Bolinus brandaris is known as argaman (ארגמן) in Biblical Hebrew. Another dye extracted from a related sea snail, Hexaplex trunculus, produced a blue colour after light exposure which could be the one known as tekhelet (תְּכֵלֶת), used in garments worn for ritual purposes.[11] Production from sea snails[edit] Fabrics dyed from different species of sea snail Two shells of Bolinus brandaris, the spiny dye-murex, a source of the dye The dye substance is a mucous secretion from the hypobranchial gland of one of several species of medium-sized predatory sea snails that are found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. These are the marine gastropods Bolinus brandaris the spiny dye-murex (originally known as Murex brandaris Linnaeus, 1758), the banded dye-murex Hexaplex trunculus, the rock-shell Stramonita haemastoma,[12][13] and less commonly a number of other species such as Bolinus cornutus. The dye is an organic compound of bromine (i.e., an organobromine compound), a class of compounds often found in algae and in some other sea life, but much more rarely found in the biology of land animals. In nature the snails use the secretion as part of their predatory behaviour in order to sedate prey and as an antimicrobial lining on egg masses.[14][b] The snail also secretes this substance when it is attacked by predators, or physically antagonized by humans (e.g., poked). Therefore, the dye can be collected either by "milking" the snails, which is more labour-intensive but is a renewable resource, or by collecting and destructively crushing the snails. David Jacoby remarks that "twelve thousand snails of Murex brandaris yield no more than 1.4 g of pure dye, enough to colour only the trim of a single garment."[15] Many other species worldwide within the family Muricidae, for example Plicopurpura pansa,[16] from the tropical eastern Pacific, and Plicopurpura patula[17] from the Caribbean zone of the western Atlantic, can also produce a similar substance (which turns into an enduring purple dye when exposed to sunlight) and this ability has sometimes also been historically exploited by local inhabitants in the areas where these snails occur. (Some other predatory gastropods, such as some wentletraps in the family Epitoniidae, seem to also produce a similar substance, although this has not been studied or exploited commercially.) The dog whelk Nucella lapillus, from the North Atlantic, can also be used to produce red-purple and violet dyes.[18] Royal blue[edit] The Phoenicians also made a deep blue-colored dye, sometimes referred to as royal blue or hyacinth purple, which was made from a closely related species of marine snail.[19] The Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the Iles Purpuraires at Mogador, in Morocco.[20] The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was Hexaplex trunculus also known by the older name Murex trunculus.[21] This second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa (Spain and Portugal, Morocco, and the Canary Islands).[13] History[edit] Byzantine Emperor Justinian I clad in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic at Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy The colour-fast (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by Romans, who used it to colour ceremonial robes. Used as a dye, the color shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green).[22] It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. Vitruvius mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish.[23] In his History of Animals, Aristotle described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye.[24] Pliny the Elder described the production of Tyrian purple in his Natural History:[25][c] The most favourable season for taking these [shellfish] is after the rising of the Dog-star, or else before spring; for when they have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers' workshops, although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken, the vein [i.e. hypobranchial gland] is extracted, which we have previously spoken of, to which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius [about 20 fl. oz.] to every hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in vessels of tin [or lead], and every hundred amphorae ought to be boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling, the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquefied state, upon which a fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it has fully imbibed the colour. Archaeological data from Tyre indicate that the snails were collected in large vats and left to decompose. This produced a hideous stench that was actually mentioned by ancient authors. Not much is known about the subsequent steps, and the actual ancient method for mass-producing the two murex dyes has not yet been successfully reconstructed; this special "blackish clotted blood" colour, which was prized above all others, is believed to be achieved by double-dipping the cloth, once in the indigo dye of H. trunculus and once in the purple-red dye of B. brandaris.[7][19] The Discovery of Purple by Hercules's Dog by Theodoor van Thulden, c. 1636 The Roman mythographer Julius Pollux, writing in the 2nd century CE, asserted (Onomasticon I, 45–49) that the purple dye was first discovered by the philosopher Heracles of Tyre, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast at Tyre. This story was depicted by Peter Paul Rubens in his painting Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye. According to John Malalas, the incident happened during the reign of the legendary King Phoenix of Tyre, the eponymous progenitor of the Phoenicians, and therefore he was the first ruler to wear Tyrian purple and legislate on its use.[26] Recently, the archaeological discovery of substantial numbers of Murex shells on Crete suggests that the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of Imperial purple centuries before the Tyrians. Dating from collocated pottery suggests the dye may have been produced during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th century BCE.[27][28] Accumulations of crushed murex shells from a hut at the site of Coppa Nevigata in southern Italy may indicate production of purple dye there from at least the 18th century BCE.[29] The production of Murex purple for the Byzantine court came to an abrupt end with the sack of Constantinople in 1204, the critical episode of the Fourth Crusade. David Jacoby concludes that "no Byzantine emperor nor any Latin ruler in former Byzantine territories could muster the financial resources required for the pursuit of murex purple production. On the other hand, murex fishing and dyeing with genuine purple are attested for Egypt in the tenth to 13th centuries."[30] By contrast, Jacoby finds that there are no mentions of purple fishing or dyeing, nor trade in the colorant in any Western source, even in the Frankish Levant. The European West turned instead to vermilion provided by the insect Kermes vermilio, known as grana, or crimson. In 1909, Harvard anthropologist Zelia Nuttall compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous murex snail, source of the royal purple dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. "Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a "disagreeable … strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself."[31] Likewise, the ancient Egyptian Papyrus of Anastasi laments: "The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish ..."[32] So pervasive was this stench that the Talmud specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage.[33] In 2021, archaeologists found surviving wool fibers dyed with royal purple in the Timna Valley in Israel. The find, which was dated to c. 1000 BCE, constituted the first direct evidence of fabric dyed with the pigment from antiquity.[34] Murex purple production in North Africa[edit] Murex purple was a very important industry in many Phoenician territories and Carthage was no exception. Traces of this once very lucrative industry are still visible in many Punic sites such as Kerkouane, Zouchis, Djerba and even in Carthage itself. According to Pliny, Meninx (today's Djerba) produced the best purple in Africa which was also ranked second only after Tyre's. It was found also at Essaouira (Morocco). The Royal purple or Imperial purple[35] was probably used until the time of Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) and before the demise of the Roman Empire. Dye chemistry[edit] The chemical structure of 6,6′-dibromoindigo, the main component of Tyrian purple A space-filling model of 6,6′-dibromoindigo, based on the crystal structure The main chemical constituent of the Tyrian dye was discovered by Paul Friedländer in 1909 to be 6,6′-dibromoindigo, derivative of indigo dye that had previously been synthesized in 1903.[36][37] Unlike indigo, it has never been synthesized commercially.[38][39] An efficient protocol for laboratory synthesis of dibromoindigo was developed in 2010.[40] Variations in colors of "Tyrian purple" from different snails is related to indigo dye (blue) or 6-bromoindigo (purple) being present in addition to the red 6,6′-dibromoindigo. Additional changes in color can be induced by debromination from light exposure (as is the case for Tekhelet) or by heat processing.[41] In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, an English engineer named John Edmonds rediscovered a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple.[42][43] He researched recipes and observations of dyers from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind woad fermentation. After collaborating with a chemist, Edmonds hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. He studied an incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding potash, he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour.[44] Recent research in organic electronics has shown that Tyrian purple is an ambipolar organic semiconductor. Transistors and circuits based on this material can be produced from sublimed thin-films of the dye. The good semiconducting properties of the dye originate from strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding that reinforces pi stacking necessary for transport.[45] Modern hue rendering[edit] True Tyrian purple, like most high-chroma pigments, cannot be accurately rendered on a standard RGB computer monitor. Ancient reports are also not entirely consistent, but these swatches give a rough indication of the likely range in which it appeared: _________ _________ The lower one is the sRGB colour #990024, intended for viewing on an output device with a gamma of 2.2 . It is a representation of RHS colour code 66A,[46] which has been equated to "Tyrian red",[47] a term which is often used as a synonym for Tyrian purple. Philately[edit] The colour name "Tyrian plum" is popularly given to a British postage stamp that was prepared, but never released to the public, shortly before the death of King Edward VII in 1910.[48] Gallery[edit] Cuneiform tablet, dated 600–500 BCE, with instructions for dyeing wool purple and blue. Ref.BM62788 . Painting of a man wearing an all-purple toga picta, from an Etruscan tomb (about 350 BCE). Roman men wearing togae praetextae with reddish-purple stripes during a religious procession (1st century BCE). The Empress Theodora, the wife of the Emperor Justinian, dressed in Tyrian purple. (6th century). A medieval depiction of the coronation of the Emperor Charlemagne in 800 CE. The bishops and cardinals wear Tyrian purple, and the Pope wears white. A fragment of the shroud in which the Emperor Charlemagne was buried in 814 CE. It was made of gold and Tyrian purple from Constantinople. Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye by Peter Paul Rubens (1636), Musée Bonnat 6,6'-dibromoindigo, the major component of Tyrian purple See also[edit] Bolinus brandaris – Species of gastropod Hexaplex trunculus – Species of gastropod Tekhelet – A blue dye prized by ancient Mediterranean civilizations Indigo dye – Chemical compound, food additive and dye Notes[edit] ^ It is also possible that the term porphyrogenitos may refer to the purple-red rock known as porphyry that walled the imperial birthing apartment.[citation needed] ^ Because of research by Benkendorff et al. (1999), the Tyrian purple precursor tyrindoleninone is being investigated as a potential antimicrobial agent with uses against multidrug resistant bacteria. ^ The problem with Tyrian purple is that the precursor reacts very quickly with air and light to form an insoluble dye. (Hence Pliny says: "... when [the shellfish] have once discharged their waxy secretion, their juices have no consistency. ...") The cumbersome process that Pliny describes is necessary to reverse the oxidation and to restore the water-soluble precursor so that large masses of wool can be dyed. See: Biggam, Carole P. (2006). "Knowledge of whelk dyes and pigments in Anglo-Saxon England". Anglo-Saxon England. 35. pages 23–56; see especially pages 26–27. doi:10.1017/S0263675106000032. ISBN 9780521883429. S2CID 162937239. See also: C. J. Cooksey (2001) "Tyrian purple: 6,6’-Dibromoindigo and Related Compounds," Molecules, 6 (9) : 736–769, especially page 761. Indigo, which is chemically very similar to Tyrian purple, behaves similarly. See: http://www.indigopage.com/chemistry.htm References[edit] ^ "Color Conversion Tool set to colour #66023C (Tyrian purple)". Forret. ^ Kassinger, Ruth G. (6 February 2003). Dyes: From Sea Snails to Synthetics. 21st century. ISBN 0-7613-2112-8. ^ McGovern, P. E. and Michel, R. H. "Royal Purple dye: tracing the chemical origins of the industry". Analytical Chemistry 1985, 57, 1514A–1522A ^ a b c d St. Clair, Kassia (2016). The Secret Lives of Colour. London: John Murray. p. 162–164. ISBN 9781473630819. OCLC 936144129. ^ Cunliffe, Barry (2008). Europe between the Oceans: 9000 BC – AD 1000. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 241. ^ "Phoenician". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ a b "Pigments: Causes of Color". WebExhibits.org. Retrieved 10 June 2016. ^ Theopompus, cited by Athenaeus (12:526) around 200 BCE; according to Athenaeus (1941). The Deipnosophists. Translated by Gulick, Charles Barton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ^ Jacoby, David (1997). "Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade". Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean. pp. 455 ff and notes [17]–[19]. ^ "Porphyrogennetos". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1701. ISBN 0-195-04652-8. ^ Elsner, O. (1992). "Solution of the enigmas of dyeing with Tyrian purple and the Biblical tekhelet". Dyes in History and Archaeology. 10. pages 14 ff. ^ Ziderman, I.I. (1986). "Purple dye made from shellfish in antiquity". Review of Progress in Coloration. 16: 46–52. doi:10.1111/j.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x. ^ a b Radwin, G. E.; D'Attilio, A. (1986). Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 93. 284 pp incl 192 figs. & 32 pls. ^ Benkendorff, Kirsten (March 1999). Bioactive molluscan resources and their conservation: Biological and chemical studies on the egg masses of marine molluscs (Thesis). University of Wollongong. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 August 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2008. ^ Jacoby, David (2004). "Silk economics and cross-cultural artistic interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim world, and the Christian west". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 58: 210, 197–240. doi:10.2307/3591386. JSTOR 3591386. ^ Gould, Augustus Addison (1853). "Descriptions of shells from the Gulf of California and the Pacific coasts of Mexico and California". Boston Journal of Natural History. 6: 374–408. ; see pp. 406–407. Note: Gould called this species Purpura pansa ; it was later renamed Plicopurpura pansa. ^ Plicopurpura patula was originally named Buccinum patulum by Linnaeus in 1758: Linné (Linnaeus), Carl von (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ … (in Latin). 1. Stockholm, Sweden: Lars Salvius. p. 739. World Register of Marine Species (Web site): Plicopurpura patula (Linnaeus, 1758). The genus Plicopurpura was created in 1903 by Cossmann: Cossmann, Maurice (1903). Essais de paléoconchologie comparée (in French). vol. 5. Paris, France: (Self-published). pp. 68–69. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Biggam, Carole P. (March 2006). "Whelks and purple dye in Anglo-Saxon England" (PDF). The Archaeo+Malacology Group Newsletter. Glasgow, Scotland, UK: Department of English Language, University of Glasgow (9). ^ a b Moorey, Peter (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 138. ISBN 1-57506-042-6. ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2 November 2007). Burnham, Andy (ed.). "Mogador: Promontory Fort". The Megalithic Portal. ^ In 1758, Linnaeus classified the snail as Murex trunculus: Linné (Linnaeus), Carl von (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae … (in Latin). v.1. Stockholm, Sweden: Lars Salvius. p. 747. In 1810, the English naturalist George Perry created the genus Hexaplex: Perry, George (1810–1811). Arcana, or, The museum of natural history …. London, England: James Stratford. p. Plate XXIII: Genus: Triplex. Mathews, Gregory M.; Iredale, Tom (May 1912). ""Perry's Arcanda" – an overlooked work". The Victorian Naturalist. 29 (1): 7–16. ; see p. 11. World Register of Marine Species (Web site): Hexaplex Perry, 1810 ^ Cooksey, Christopher J. (2001). "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds". Molecules. 6 (9): 736–769. doi:10.3390/60900736. ^ Vitruvius. De Architectura [On Architecture]. Book VII, Chapter 13. ^ Aristotle (2004). History of Animals. Whitefish, MT: Kessering Publishing. Book V, pages 131–132. ISBN 9781419123917. ^ Pliny the Elder (1855). "Chapter 62: The Natural History of Fishes". In Bostock, John; Riley, Henry Thomas (eds.). The Natural History. London, UK: Taylor and Francis. Book IX. Pliny discusses Tyrian purple throughout Chapters 60–65. ^ John Malalas, Chronographia II:9. ^ Reese, David S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin," Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, 82, 201–206 ^ Stieglitz, Robert R. (1994), "The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple," Biblical Archaeologist, 57, 46–54. ^ Cazzella, Alberto; Moscoloni, Maurizio (1998). "Coppa Nevigata: un insediamento fortificato dell'eta del Bronzo". In Troccoli, Luciana Drago (ed.). Scavi e ricerche archeologiche dell'Università di Roma La Sapienza. pp. 178–179. ISBN 9788882650155. ^ Jacoby (2004), p. 210. ^ Nutall, Zelia (1909). "A curious survival in Mexico of the use of the Purpura shell-fish for dyeing". In Boas, F. (ed.). Anthropological Essays Presented to Fredrick Ward Putnam in Honor of his Seventieth Birthday, by his Friends and Associates. New York, New York: G. E. Strechert & Co. p. 370. ^ Robinson, Stuart (1969). A History of Dyed Textiles. London, UK: Studio Vista. p. 24. ^ Compton, Stephen (2010). Exodus Lost (1st ed.). Booksurge Publishing. pp. 29–33. ISBN 9781439276839. ^ Woode, David (29 January 2021). "'Regal' purple dye is found in Israeli artefacts dating 3,000 years to the reigns of kings Solomon and David". MSN. Retrieved 29 Jan 2021. ^ "Definition of the Tyrian purple". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 24 July 2016. ^ Friedlaender, P. (1909). "Zur Kenntnis des Farbstoffes des antiken Purpurs aus Murex brandaris" [Towards understanding the ancient purple dye from Murex brandaris]. Monatshefte für Chemie. 30 (3): 247–253. doi:10.1007/BF01519682. S2CID 97865025. ^ Sachs, Franz; Kempf, Richard (1903). "Über p-Halogen-o-nitrobenzaldehyde". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 36 (3): 3299–3303. doi:10.1002/cber.190303603113. ^ "Indigo". Encyclopædia Britannica. V (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1981. p. 338. ISBN 0-85229-378-X. ^ Cooksey, C.J. (2001). "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds" (PDF). Molecules. 6 (9): 736–769. doi:10.3390/60900736. S2CID 5592747. ^ Wolk, Joel L; Frimer, Aryeh A (2010-08-15). "A Simple, Safe and Efficient Synthesis of Tyrian Purple (6,6′-Dibromoindigo)". Molecules. 15 (8): 5561–80. doi:10.3390/molecules15085561. PMC 6257764. PMID 20714313. ^ Ramig, Keith; Lavinda, Olga; Szalda, David J.; Mironova, Irina; Karimi, Sasan; Pozzi, Federica; Shah, Nilam; Samson, Jacopo; Ajiki, Hiroko; Massa, Lou; Mantzouris, Dimitrios; Karapanagiotis, Ioannis; Cooksey, Christopher (June 2015). "The nature of thermochromic effects in dyeings with indigo, 6-bromoindigo, and 6,6′-dibromoindigo, components of Tyrian purple". Dyes and Pigments. 117: 37–48. doi:10.1016/j.dyepig.2015.01.025. ^ Edmonds, John (2000). Tyrian or Imperial Purple: The Mystery of Imperial Purple Dyes. Historic Dye Series, no. 7. Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, England: John Edwards. ISBN 9780953413362. OCLC 45315310. ^ "Author Profile". Imperial-Purple.com. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2011. ^ Chenciner, Robert (2000). Madder Red: A history of luxury and trade: plant dyes and pigments in world commerce and art. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 295. ^ Głowacki, E.D.; et al. (2011). "Ambipolar organic field effect transistors and inverters with the natural material Tyrian purple". AIP Advances. 1 (4). 042132. Bibcode:2011AIPA....1d2132G. doi:10.1063/1.3660358. ^ "RHS, UCL and RGB Colors, gamma = 1.4, fan 2". Azalea Society of America. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 15 July 2006. (this gives the RGB value #b80049, which has been converted to #990024 for the sRGB gamma of 2.2) ^ Buck, G. "Buck Rose". p. 5. Archived from the original on 23 August 2006. ^ "Edward VII 2d". Postal Museum. Collection catalog. External links[edit] "Tyrian Purple". World History Encyclopedia. Cooksey, Chris J. (1994). "Making Tyrian purple". Dyes in History and Archaeology. 13: 7–13 (dead link 8 March 2021). Source of article in author’s Bibliography page. Guckelsberger, Marianne (December 2013). Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity (PDF) (Thesis). University of Iceland. "Tyrian purple". The Free Library. "Royal Purple of Tyre" (PDF). v t e Shades of red Red Scarlet Coquelicot Off-red (RGB) Red (CMYK) (pigment red) Red (Crayola) Red (Munsell) Red (NCS) Red (Pantone) Madder                     Crimson Pink Bright pink (Crayola) Coral pink Salmon pink Salmon Cardinal Carmine Rojo Rusty red                     Chocolate cosmos Rosewood Imperial red Cordovan Fire engine red Rose vale Old rose Bittersweet shimmer Light red Light coral                     Garnet Rose ebony Chili red Vermilion Misty rose Turkey red Cantaloupe melon Barn red Tea rose (red) Cinnabar                     Cornell red Dark red Burgundy Maroon Wine Blood red Fire brick Indian red Rust OU crimson                     Penn red Redwood Syracuse red-orange Tomato Bittersweet Jasper Red-brown Rosy brown Rose taupe                   A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name. v t e Shades of violet African violet Amethyst Blue-violet Byzantium Caput mortuum Chinese violet Dark purple Dark violet Electric indigo Electric purple                     Electric violet English violet Eminence Fairy Tale Fandango French mauve French violet Grape Heliotrope Indigo                     Iris Japanese violet Lavender blush Lavender (floral) Lavender (web) Lilac Mardi Gras Mauve Medium slate blue Mountbatten pink                     Mulberry Orchid Palatinate Pale purple Periwinkle Phlox Pink lavender Plum (web) Pomp and Power Puce                     Purple Purpureus Rebecca purple Royal purple Red-violet Russian violet Slate blue Steel pink Tekhelet Thistle                     Tropical indigo Tyrian purple Ultra Violet Veronica Violet Wisteria             A typical sample is shown for each name; a range of color-variations is commonly associated with each color-name. v t e Dyeing Techniques Batik Dyeing Ikat Kalamkari Katazome Leheria Mordant Reactive dye printing Resist Ring dyeing Rōketsuzome Shibori Tie-dye Tsutsugaki Types of dyes Dyes Natural Acid Reactive Solvent Substantive Sulfur Vat Disperse Traditional textile dyes Armenian cochineal Black walnut Bloodroot Brazilin Cochineal Cudbear Cutch Dyewoods Fustic Gamboge Dyer's broom Henna Indigo Kermes Logwood Madder Polish cochineal Saffron Turmeric Tyrian purple Weld Woad History Use of saffron In Scottish Highlands Craft dyes Dylon Inkodye Procion Rit Reference Glossary of dyeing terms List of dyes Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyrian_purple&oldid=1026982138" Categories: Shades of red Shades of violet Animal dyes Organic pigments Mollusc products Organobromides Halogen-containing natural products Byzantine culture Byzantine clothing Bromine-containing natural products Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2014 CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Color articles with suppressed CMYK data Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2017 Articles containing Biblical Hebrew-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Беларуская Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 10:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2870	----	Salonia Matidia - Wikipedia Salonia Matidia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Niece of Roman emperor Trajan (68-119) Roman imperial dynasties Salonia Matidia Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Salonia Matidia[1][2] (4 July 68 CE – 23 December 119 CE[3]) was the daughter and only child of Ulpia Marciana and wealthy praetor Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus. Her maternal uncle was the Roman emperor Trajan. Trajan had no children and treated her like his daughter. Her father died in 78 CE and Matidia went with her mother to live with Trajan and his wife, Pompeia Plotina. Between 81 and 82, Matidia married a suffect consul and former proconsul Lucius Vibius Sabinus. Sabinus died in 83 or 84. Matidia bore Sabinus a daughter called Vibia Sabina, who would marry the future Roman Emperor Hadrian. Matidia was very fond of her second cousin Hadrian and allowed him to marry Vibia Sabina. In 84, Matidia married for a second time to an otherwise unknown Roman aristocrat called Lucius Mindius. Matidia bore Mindius a daughter called Mindia Matidia, commonly known as Matidia Minor. Mindius died in 85. Denarius showing Matidia Augusta as the goddess Pietas, holding hands with her daughters Sabina and Matidia Minor Matidia later married Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus, who was suffect consul in 88. Matidia bore Frugi a daughter called Rupilia Faustina.[4] Faustina would go on to marry the Roman Senator Marcus Annius Verus, to whom she bore one daughter and two sons. Through her children, Faustina would become the grandmother of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife Faustina the Younger, as well as Marcus's sister Annia Cornificia Faustina. Matidia often traveled with her uncle and assisted him with decision-making. Like her mother, Matidia was honored with monuments and inscriptions in her name throughout the Roman Empire. On August 29, 112, she received the title of Augusta upon the death and divinization of Marciana.[5] Denarius depicting Matidia; the reverse, depicting an eagle with the legend CONSECRATIO, commemorates her consecration as a diva When Trajan died in 117, Matidia and Plotina brought the emperor's ashes back to Rome.[6] In 119 Matidia died, whereupon the Roman Emperor Hadrian delivered her funeral oration, deified her, and granted her a temple and altar in Rome itself.[7] She thus became the first divinized Roman woman to be dedicated a full-scale temple of her own, as opposed to one shared with her husband or a smaller shrine.[8] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ AE 1954, 0062 ^ Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. ^ CIL VI, 02080 ^ Matidia the Elder, from Livius.org. ^ CIL XIV, 00244 ^ William Smith. "Matidia". A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. London. John Murray. ^ Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby). A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929. "Ara Matidiae" & "Templum Matidiae". Retrieved from LacusCurtius on 20 December 2008. ^ Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salonina Matidia. 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en-wikipedia-org-2902	----	Andronikos III Palaiologos - Wikipedia Andronikos III Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1328 to 1341 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos III Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos III Palaiologos, 14th-century miniature. Stuttgart, Württembergische Landesbibliothek. Byzantine emperor Reign 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341 Predecessor Andronikos II Palaiologos Successor John V Palaiologos Born 25 March 1297 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 15 June 1341 (aged 44) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Irene of Brunswick Anna of Savoy Issue Irene, Empress of Trebizond (illegitimate) Maria (renamed Eirene) John V Palaiologos Michael Palaiologos Eirene (renamed Maria) Palaiologina, Lady of Lesbos Names Andronikos III Palaiologos Medieval Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Γ′ Παλαιολόγος House Palaiologos Father Michael IX Palaiologos Mother Rita of Armenia Andronikos III Palaiologos (Medieval Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Γʹ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Andrónikos Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnós Palaiológos; 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341), commonly Latinized as Andronicus III Palaeologus, was the Byzantine emperor from 1328 to 1341.[1] He was the son of Michael IX Palaiologos and Rita of Armenia. He was proclaimed co-emperor in his youth, before 1313, and in April 1321 he rebelled in opposition to his grandfather, Andronikos II Palaiologos. He was formally crowned co-emperor in February 1325, before ousting his grandfather outright and becoming sole emperor on 24 May 1328. His reign included the last failed attempts to hold back the Ottoman Turks in Bithynia and the defeat at Rusokastro against the Bulgarians, but also the successful recovery of Chios, Lesbos, Phocaea, Thessaly, and Epirus.[1] His early death left a power vacuum that resulted in the disastrous civil war between his Empress-dowager, Anna of Savoy, and his closest friend and supporter, John VI Kantakouzenos. Contents 1 Life 2 Reign 2.1 Military history 2.2 Domestic policy 3 Family 4 Succession and legacy 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life[edit] Andronikos was born in Constantinople on 25 March 1297. His father, Michael IX Palaiologos, began reigning in full imperial style as co-emperor circa 1295. In March 1318, Andronikos married Irene of Brunswick, daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. In circa 1321 she gave birth to a son, who died in infancy. In 1320, Andronikos accidentally caused the death of his brother Manuel, after which their father, co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos, died in his grief. The homicide and the general dissolute behavior of Andronikos III and his coterie, mostly the young scions of the great aristocratic clans of the Empire, resulted in a deep rift in the relations between young Andronikos and his grandfather, still reigning as Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. Emperor Andronikos II disowned his grandson Andronikos, who then fled the capital and rallied his supporters in Thrace and began to reign as rival emperor in 1321. Andronikos then waged the intermittent Byzantine civil war of 1321–28 against his reigning grandfather, who granted him to reign as co-emperor Andronikos III. Empress Irene died on 16/17 August 1324 with no surviving child. Theodora Palaiologina, sister of Andronikos III, married the new tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria in 1324. Andronikos III, then a widower, married Anna of Savoy in October 1326. In 1327 she gave birth to Maria (renamed Irene) Palaiologina. Andronikos III concluded the Treaty of Chernomen of 1327, an alliance with tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria against Stephen Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia. The Byzantine civil war flared again and ultimately led to the deposition in 1328 of Emperor Andronikos II, who retired to a monastery. Reign[edit] Military history[edit] Ottoman Turks besieged Nicaea in Asia Minor, historically the provisional capital of the Byzantine Empire from the Fourth Crusade until the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople. Andronikos III launched a relief attempt, which Ottoman sultan Orhan defeated at the Battle of Pelekanon on 10 or 15 June 1329. Nevertheless, Andronikos III effected the recovery of Lordship of Chios (including Lesbos) from Martino Zaccaria in a naval battle, also in 1329. An alliance with Bulgaria failed to secure any gains for the Byzantine empire. On 28 July 1330, the Serbians decisively defeated the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd (modern Kyustendil, Bulgaria) without significant Byzantine participation. The Ottomans continued to advance in 1331, finally taking Nicaea (İznik). Andronikos III wanted Nicomedia and the other few Byzantine forts in Anatolia not to suffer the same fate and sought to pay off the Ottomans with tribute. Andronikos III reorganized and attempted to strengthen the weakened Byzantine navy, which comprised only 10 ships by 1332; in emergencies, he still could muster a hundred extra merchant ships. To overcome his failure to secure gains against the Serbians, Andronikos III attempted to annex Bulgarian Thrace, but the new tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria defeated Byzantine forces at Battle of Rusokastro on 18 July 1332. Territorial concessions and a diplomatic marriage between the son of the Bulgarian emperor, the future Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria, and Maria (renamed Irene) Palaiologina, daughter of Andronikos III Palaiologos, secured peace with Bulgaria. The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta visited Constantinople towards the end of 1332 and mentions meeting Andronikos III in his memoirs.[2] Byzantine sources do not attest to the meeting. Stephen Gabrielopoulos, ruler over Thessaly, died circa 1333; taking advantage of the secession crisis, Andronikos III extended Byzantine control over the region. Syrgiannes Palaiologos, entrusted with the governorship of Thessalonica, deserted to the side of king Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia and aided their advance in Macedonia. He led the Serbians to take Kastoria, Ohrid, Prilep, Strumica, and possibly Edessa circa 1334 and advanced as far as Thessalonica. Byzantine general Sphrantzes Palaiologos, posing as a deserter, entered the Serbian camp and killed Syrgiannes Palaiologos, ending his advance and bringing the Serbian army into disarray.[3] In August 1334, the king of Serbia made peace with Andronikos III and allowed his forces to retake control of captured parts of Macedonia.[4] Andronikos III meanwhile effected the recovery of Phocaea in 1334 from the last Genoese governor, Domenico Cattaneo. However, this victory failed to stem significantly the Ottoman advance in Asia Minor. Byzantine rule gradually vanished from Anatolia as tribute failed to appease Ottoman sultan Orhan, who took Nicomedia (renamed İzmit) in 1337, leaving only Philadelpheia and a handful of ports under Byzantine control. Despite these troubles, Andronikos III took advantage of a secession crisis in Despotate of Epirus to seize Byzantine control from Nikephoros II Orsini in 1337. Domestic policy[edit] John Kantakouzenos, megas domestikos of Andronikos III and later emperor, wielded effective administrative authority during the reign, while the Emperor personally enjoyed hunting and waging war. Andronikos III also reformed the judiciary through his creation of a panel of four judges, designated "Universal Justices of the Romans".[1] Family[edit] Andronikos III was first married in 1318 with Irene of Brunswick,[5] daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she died in 1324. They had an unnamed son, who died shortly after birth in 1321. In 1326, Andronikos III married as his second wife Anna of Savoy,[5] daughter of Amadeus V, Count of Savoy and of his second wife Marie of Brabant, Countess of Savoy. Their marriage produced several children, including: Maria (renamed Eirene) Palaiologina, who married Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria John V Palaiologos (born 18 June 1332) Michael Palaiologos, despotes (designated successor) Eirene (renamed Maria) Palaiologina, who married Francesco I Gattilusio. According to Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras, Andronikos also had an illegitimate daughter, Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond, who married emperor Basil of Trebizond and took over the throne of the Empire of Trebizond from 1340 to 1341.[6] In his Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983), Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza mentions a second illegitimate daughter of Andronikos, who converted (likely under duress) to Islam under the name Bayalun as one among several wives of Öz Beg Khan of the Golden Horde.[7] This daughter is also earlier mentioned in the 14th century traveller Ibn Battuta's work The Travels,[8] in which Ibn Battuta claimed that he had accompanied Bayalun traveling from Khan's court to Constantinople. Detlev Schwennicke does not include this daughter in Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten (1978), and the theory of her existence may reflect theories of Sturdza. Succession and legacy[edit] Andronikos III died at Constantinople, aged 44, on 15 June 1341, possibly due to chronic malaria.[9] Historians contend that his reign ended with the Byzantine Empire in a still-tenable situation and generally do not implicate deficiencies in his leadership in its later demise. John V Palaiologos succeeded his father as Byzantine emperor, but at only 9 years of age, he required a regent. The energetic campaigns of emperor Andronikos III simply lacked sufficient strength to defeat the imperial enemies and led to several significant Byzantine reverses at the hands of Bulgarians, Serbians, and Ottomans. Andronikos III nevertheless provided active leadership and cooperated with able administrators. Under him, the empire came closest to regaining a position of power in the Balkans and Greek peninsula after the Fourth Crusade. The loss of a few imperial territories in Anatolia, however, left the Ottoman Turks poised to expand into Europe. Within a few months after the death of Andronikos III, controversy over the right to exercise the regency over the new emperor John V Palaiologos and the position of John Kantakouzenos as all-powerful chief minister and friend of Andronikos led to the outbreak of the destructive Byzantine civil war of 1341–47, which consumed the resources of the empire and left it in an untenable position. The weakened Byzantine Empire failed to prevent the formation of the Serbian Empire or, more ominously, the Ottoman invasion of Europe. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a b c PLP, 21437. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος III. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός. ^ Battutah, Ibn (2002). The Travels of Ibn Battutah. London: Picador. pp. 131–132. ISBN 9780330418799. ^ Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996) p. 283-284 ^ Norwich. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall p. 284 ^ a b Garland 1999, p. 231. ^ William Miller, Trebizond: The last Greek Empire of the Byzantine Era: 1204-1461, 1926 (Chicago: Argonaut, 1969), p. 46 ^ Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983), page 373 ^ Ibn Battutah, The Travels of Ibn Battutah, Pan Macmillan; New Ed edition (June 1, 2003), ISBN 978-0330418799 ^ Lascaratos & Marketos 1997, pp. 106–109. References[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Bosch, Ursula Victoria (1965), Kaiser Andronikos III. Palaiologos. Versuch einer Darstellung der byzantinischen Geschichte in den Jahren 1321–1341 (in German), Adolf M. Hakkert Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204. Routledge. Lascaratos, J.; Marketos, S. (1997), "The fatal disease of the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III Palaeologus (1328-1341 A.D.)", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90 (2): 106–109, doi:10.1177/014107689709000215, PMC 1296151, PMID 9068444 Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. External links[edit] "Andronicus III." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (9th ed.). 1878. p. 23. "Andronicus III" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 976. Andronikos III Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 25 March 1297 Died: 15 June 1341 Regnal titles Preceded by Andronikos II Byzantine emperor 1321–1341 with Andronikos II (1325–1328) Succeeded by John V v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andronikos_III_Palaiologos&oldid=1027202520" Categories: Palaiologos dynasty 1297 births 1341 deaths Eastern Orthodox monarchs Byzantine people of Armenian descent 14th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars People from Constantinople Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2908	----	Pompeia Plotina - Wikipedia Pompeia Plotina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Empress and wife of Roman Emperor Trajan Augusta Pompeia Plotina Augusta Pompeia Plotina coin, celebrating the Fides on the reverse. Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 98–117 Born Tejada la Vieja (Hispania) Died 121/122 Spouse Trajan Names Pompeia Plotina Claudia Phoebe Piso Regnal name Pompeia Plotina Claudia Phoebe Piso Augusta Father Lucius Pompeius Mother Plotia Pompeia Plotina, (died 121/122) was a Roman Empress and wife of Roman Emperor Trajan. She was renowned for her interest in philosophy, and her virtue, dignity and simplicity. She was particularly devoted to the Epicurean philosophical school in Athens, Greece.[1] She is often viewed as having provided Romans with fairer taxation, improved education, assisted the poor, and created tolerance in Roman society. Her full name was probably Pompeia Plotina Claudia Phoebe Piso. Contents 1 Early life 2 Marriage and Life as Empress 3 Death of Trajan and Accession of Hadrian 4 Later Years 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 References 7 Further reading Early life[edit] Plotina was born and was raised in Tejada la Vieja (Escacena del Campo) in the province of Hispania, possibly during the reign of Roman Emperor Nero (r. 54–68). However, she could have been born in the 70s CE. She was the daughter of Lucius Pompeius and Plotia, who had extensive political and familial connections. Not a lot is known about Plotina's early life. Marriage and Life as Empress[edit] Trajan married her before his accession and, although a happy marriage, they had no known children. Upon entering the imperial palace following Trajan's ascension, Plotina is said to have turned to those watching her and carefully announced, "I enter here the kind of woman I would like to be when I depart."[2] It was through acts like this she sought to dispel the bad taste of domestic strife that had characterized the reign of Domitian as well as the Julio-Claudian dynasty, where she acted like a traditional Roman matron, and was associated with chaste goddesses like Vesta, the guardian of Rome's sacred fire, and Minerva, goddess of war and wisdom.[3] In 100, Trajan awarded her with title of Augusta, but she did not accept the title until 105. Plotina did not appear also on the coinage until 112.[1] When the future emperor Hadrian and his sister lost their parents at 10 or 11 years old, Trajan and the Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus became their guardians; Hadrian was a first cousin once removed to Trajan (Trajan's father and Hadrian's paternal grandmother were siblings). Plotina was the matchmaker between Hadrian and his future wife Vibia Sabina.[4] Death of Trajan and Accession of Hadrian[edit] When a letter Trajan was said to have composed on his deathbed appeared in Rome with Plotina's signature on it, in which he adopted Hadrian and naming him successor to the Empire, suspicions were raised. It was rumoured that Attianus and the Empress Plotina had been lovers, both were very fond of Hadrian their ward, both were present at Trajan’s deathbed at Selinus in Cilicia in August 117, and that the two had helped secure Hadrian's succession by forging Trajan’s will.[1] Annelise Freisenbruch dismisses this accusation: "Plotina, the silent spouse of the second century, thus joined Livia, Agrippina Minor, and Domitia in the gallery of Roman imperial women accused of covering up or conspiring in their husband's deaths." Freisenbruch notes that there are many plausible explanations why Plotina's signature might legitimately be on this declaration: Trajan may have simply been too weak to sign the letter himself. Freisenbruch also notes these kinds of accusations have dogged the spouses of rulers through the centuries.[5] Along with Attianus and Matidia, the grieving widow Plotina accompanied Trajan's body to Seleucia and his ashes to Rome. Aureus with a portrait of Plotina augusta issued by Hadrian on her posthumous apotheosis. The obverse shows a portrait of Trajan as the deified adoptive father of Hadrian. Later Years[edit] It was while a widow that Plotina's best documented action took place. During the year 121, while the emperor Hadrian was inspecting the provinces, Plotina and he engaged in a series of letters discussing who should be the new head of the Epicurean school of philosophy in Athens. She petitioned for a change in the law, which would allow Popillius Theotimus, the acting head of the school, to become the actual head; in response, Hadrian agreed with her argument, and the relevant letters were preserved in a series of inscriptions. Freisenbruch notes, "In stark contrast to her passive anonymity in the literary record, this inscription from Athens recasts Plotina as a highly educated woman, active on behalf of causes close to her heart and with the kind of access to the emperor once enjoyed by Livia."[6] When Plotina died of illness, she was deified. Hadrian built a temple in her honor at Nîmes, in Provence. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ a b c Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth-E.A. (edd.), Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 1214. ^ Dio Cassius, LXVIII, 5 ^ Annalise Freisenbruch, Caesars’ Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire (London and New York: Free Press, 2010), pp. 159–161 ^ Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 3; translated by Anthony Birley, Lives of the Later Caesars (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 59 ^ Freisenbruch, Caesars’ Wives, pp. 162f ^ Freisenbruch, Caesars’ Wives, pp. 163f Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plotina. (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, ch. 6, La vie de Plotine, femme de Trajan, pp. 147–168. Royal titles Preceded by Domitia Longina Empress of Rome 98–117 Succeeded by Vibia Sabina Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pompeia_Plotina&oldid=1010133053" Categories: 1st-century births 120s deaths Roman empresses 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 1st-century Roman women 2nd-century Roman women Deified Roman people Hadrian Trajan Augustae Claudii Pompeii (Romans) Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Italiano Lietuvių Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 March 2021, at 23:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2914	----	Paulina - Wikipedia Paulina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prosopographical list of female relatives of Roman emperor Hadrian For other uses, see Paulina (disambiguation). Paulina Paulina Major from Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Issue Hadrian Father Asceplus I Religion Roman Religion Paulina or Paullina (English: /pɔːˈlaɪnə/, Latin pronunciation: [pau̯ˈliːna]) was a name shared by three relatives of the Roman Emperor Hadrian: his mother, his elder sister and his niece. Contents 1 Mother of Hadrian 1.1 Sources 2 Sister of Hadrian 2.1 Sources 3 Niece of Hadrian 3.1 Sources 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree Mother of Hadrian[edit] Domitia Paulina or Paullina, Domitia Paulina Major or Paulina Major, (Major Latin for the elder), also known as Paulina the Elder (?-85/86). Paulina was a Spanish Roman woman who lived in the 1st century. She was a daughter of a distinguished Spanish Roman senatorial family. Paulina originally came from Gades (modern Cádiz, Spain). Gades was one of the wealthiest Roman cities. Little is known of the life of Paulina. Paulina married Spanish Roman Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a praetor who was a paternal cousin of Roman Emperor Trajan. Paulina and Afer had two children, a daughter Aelia Domitia Paulina (75-130) and a son emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76-138). Around 85/86 Paulina died of unknown causes, before her husband. After the death of her husband, her children were raised by Trajan and the Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Sister of Hadrian[edit] Aelia Domitia Paulina or Paullina or Domitia Paulina Minor (Minor Latin for the younger) also known as Paulina the Younger (early 75-130). The younger Paulina was the eldest child and only daughter to Domitia Paulina and praetor Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer. She was Hadrian’s eldest sister and only sibling. She was Spanish, but was of Roman descent. She was most probably born and raised in Italica (a city near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. When her parents died around 86, she and her brother were raised by her father’s paternal cousin, the Roman Emperor Trajan, and Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Before the accession of Trajan to the throne in 98, Trajan had arranged for her to marry the Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus. During Trajan’s reign 98-117, Paulina and Servianus had a daughter called Julia Serviana Paulina. Before Trajan’s death in 117, Paulina and Servianus had arranged for their daughter Julia to marry the Spanish Roman Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who was a man of consular rank. Julia and Salinator, in 118, had a son, a younger Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. When Paulina died, Servianus and Hadrian had a private ceremony for her. Hadrian was ridiculed for not granting her a full state funeral and apotheosis until pressured to do so by the senate, but granting his companion Antinous a sumptuous funeral with full divine honours. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Ancient Library 3125 Ancient Library Niece of Hadrian[edit] Julia Serviana Paulina or Paullina also known as Julia Paulina was the daughter and only child to Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Aelia Domitia Paulina. Her maternal uncle was Roman Emperor Hadrian and maternal aunt-in-marriage was Roman Empress Vibia Sabina. She was born at an unknown date during the reign of her third cousin emperor Trajan, who reigned 98-117. Her birthplace is unknown. Before Trajan’s death in 117, her parents arranged for her to marry the Roman senator Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, ordinary consul in 118. Roman senator Pliny the Younger sent a letter of congratulations to her parents regarding her wedding (Epistulae, VI.26). Her husband was originally from Barcelona, Spain (this was the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis). Salinator had the same name as his father and his father was a former consul. In 118, during Salinator’s consulship, Julia and Salinator had a son, the younger Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. The elder Salinator and Julia seem to have died before 136. Julia’s father had always cherished the idea that her youthful son would one day succeed Hadrian. The aging Emperor considered Julia’s son as his heir. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, gave him special status in his court and also groomed him for his succession. However, in 136, Hadrian changed his mind and decided to adopt Lucius Aelius Caesar as his heir. Julia’s father and son were angry with Hadrian and wanted to challenge him about the adoption. To avoid any conflict, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Julia’s father and son. Sources[edit] Ancient Library 3125 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulina&oldid=1002429753" Categories: 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Romans from Hispania Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Aelii Domitii Julii Ancient Roman prosopographical lists of women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 12:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2873	----	Bill Clinton - Wikipedia Bill Clinton From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 42nd president of the United States "William Clinton" redirects here. For other uses, see William Clinton (disambiguation). Bill Clinton Official portrait, 1993 42nd President of the United States In office January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001 Vice President Al Gore Preceded by George H. W. Bush Succeeded by George W. Bush 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas In office January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992 Lieutenant Winston Bryant Jim Guy Tucker Preceded by Frank D. White Succeeded by Jim Guy Tucker In office January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981 Lieutenant Joe Purcell Preceded by Joe Purcell (acting) Succeeded by Frank D. White Chair of the National Governors Association In office August 26, 1986 – July 28, 1987 Preceded by Lamar Alexander Succeeded by John H. Sununu Vice Chair of the National Governors Association In office August 6, 1985 – August 26, 1986 Preceded by Lamar Alexander Succeeded by John H. Sununu 50th Attorney General of Arkansas In office January 3, 1977 – January 9, 1979 Governor David Pryor Joe Purcell (acting) Preceded by Jim Guy Tucker Succeeded by Steve Clark Personal details Born William Jefferson Blythe III (1946-08-19) August 19, 1946 (age 74) Hope, Arkansas, U.S. Political party Democratic Spouse(s) Hillary Rodham ​ (m. 1975)​ Children Chelsea Clinton Parents William Jefferson Blythe Jr. Virginia Cassidy Relatives Clinton family Residence Chappaqua, New York, U.S. Washington, D.C., U.S. Education Georgetown University (BS) University College, Oxford (attended) Yale University (JD) Occupation Politician lawyer professor author Awards List of honors and awards Signature This article is part of a series about Bill Clinton Political positions Electoral history Family Public image Sexual assault and misconduct allegations 40th & 42nd Governor of Arkansas Governorship 42nd President of the United States Presidency timeline Policies Economic Gun control Environmental Foreign Clinton Doctrine international trips Appointments Cabinet Judiciary First term Transition First inauguration Health Security Act NAFTA Republican Revolution AmeriCorps Dayton Agreement Timeline '93 '94 '95 '96 Second term Second inauguration One America Initiative Balanced Budget Operation Infinite Reach Bombing of Iraq Bombing of Yugoslavia Clinton–Lewinsky scandal impeachment inquiry trial Timeline '97 '98 '99 '00–'01 Presidential campaigns 1992 primaries convention debates election 1996 primaries convention debates election Controversies Whitewater White House travel office Pardon controversy Post-presidency Presidential library My Life Activities Clinton Foundation Clinton Bush Haiti Fund One America Appeal v t e William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is a retired American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to his presidency, he served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 and as attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was known as a New Democrat, and many of his policies reflected a centrist "Third Way" political philosophy. He is the husband of Hillary Clinton, who was the Secretary of State (2009–2013) and ran for president in 2008 and 2016. Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas and attended Georgetown University, University College, Oxford, and Yale Law School. He met Hillary Rodham at Yale and they were married in 1975. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive terms as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Clinton was elected president in 1992, defeating incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he became the third-youngest president in history. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. In the 1994 elections, the Republican Party won unified control of Congress for the first time in 40 years. In 1996, however, he was reelected in a landslide. He passed welfare reform and the State Children's Health Insurance Program, as well as financial deregulation measures. He also appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first such surplus since 1969. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, signed the Dayton Peace agreement, signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein, participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the second U.S. president to be impeached. The impeachment was based on accusations that Clinton committed perjury and obstruction of justice for the purpose of concealing his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a 22-year-old White House intern. He was acquitted by the Senate and completed his second term in office. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since 1945. His presidency has been ranked among the upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, he has also been subject to substantial criticism for his sex scandals, especially in the wake of the Me Too movement. Since leaving office, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, he teamed up with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning in his wife's presidential campaigns in the 2008 and 2016 presidential elections. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 College and law school years 2.1 Georgetown University 2.2 Oxford 2.3 Vietnam War opposition and draft controversy 2.4 Law school 3 Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992) 3.1 1988 Democratic presidential primaries 4 Presidency (1993–2001) 4.1 1992 presidential campaign 4.2 First term (1993–1997) 4.3 1996 presidential election 4.4 Second term (1997–2001) 4.4.1 Impeachment and acquittal 4.4.2 Pardons and commutations 4.5 Military and foreign affairs 4.5.1 Somalia 4.5.2 Rwanda 4.5.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.5.4 Irish peace talks 4.5.5 Iran 4.5.6 Osama bin Laden 4.5.7 Kosovo 4.5.8 Iraq 4.5.9 China 4.5.10 Israeli-Palestinian conflict 4.6 Judicial appointments 5 Public opinion 6 Public image 7 Sexual misconduct and sexual assault allegations 8 Post-presidency (2001–present) 8.1 Activities until 2008 campaign 8.2 2008 presidential election 8.3 After the 2008 election 8.4 2016 presidential election 8.5 After the 2016 election 8.6 Post-presidential health concerns 8.7 Wealth 9 Ministry 10 Personal life 11 Honors and recognition 12 Electoral history 13 Authored books 14 Recordings 15 See also 16 References 17 Further reading 17.1 Primary sources 17.2 Popular books 17.3 Scholarly studies 18 External links 18.1 Official 18.2 Interviews, speeches, and statements 18.3 Media coverage 18.4 Other Early life and career Clinton's birthplace home in Hope, Arkansas Clinton in Hot Springs High School's 1963 yearbook Part of a series on New Democrats Ideology Centrism Clintonism Modern liberalism Third Way Organizations Coalition for a Democratic Majority Democratic Leadership Council Moderate Dems Working Group New Democrat Coalition New Democrat Network Progressive Policy Institute Senate Centrist Coalition Third Way  Politics portal v t e Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas.[1][2] He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley).[3] His parents had married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved to be bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his third wife.[4] Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store.[2] At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races.[2][5][6][7][8] In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks.[2] The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.[9] Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15[10] that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him.[2] Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr. He threatened his stepfather with violence multiple times to protect them.[2][11] In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician.[2] Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography My Life: Sometime in my sixteenth year, I decided I wanted to be in public life as an elected official. I loved music and thought I could be very good, but I knew I would never be John Coltrane or Stan Getz. I was interested in medicine and thought I could be a fine doctor, but I knew I would never be Michael DeBakey. But I knew I could be great in public service.[2] Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High, when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class.[12] After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".[13] Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy.[2][11] The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.[14] College and law school years Georgetown University Clinton ran for president of the Student Council while attending the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degree in 1968. Georgetown was the only school where Clinton applied.[15] In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president.[16] From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright.[2] While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega[17] and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Clinton was also a member of the Order of DeMolay,[18] a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.[19] Oxford Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics.[20] Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He had received an offer to study at Yale Law School, Yale University, and so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.[11][21][22] During his time at Oxford, Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton.[20][23] British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things".[20] Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.[24] While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife," and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".[21][25] Vietnam War opposition and draft controversy During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969.[26] While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969.[2] He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.[27][28] He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system".[29] Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers 1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.)[30] Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton's ROTC application, suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform. He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign: I was informed by the draft board that it was of interest to Senator Fulbright's office that Bill Clinton, a Rhodes Scholar, should be admitted to the ROTC program ... I believe that he purposely deceived me, using the possibility of joining the ROTC as a ploy to work with the draft board to delay his induction and get a new draft classification.[31] During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then.[32] Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service.[33][34] Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.[35] Law school After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973.[2][11] In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him.[2][36] They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California.[37] The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.[38] Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk,[39] future governor of Texas Ann Richards,[40] and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.[41] Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992) Further information: Electoral history of Bill Clinton Results of the 1978 Arkansas gubernatorial election. Clinton won the counties in blue. After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. With only minor opposition in the primary and no opposition at all in the general election,[42] Clinton was elected.[11] Newly elected Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton meets with President Jimmy Carter in 1978, fifteen years before assuming the nation's highest office. In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas.[43] Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor".[44][45][46] He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.[11] Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings.[47] In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system.[48] For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption.[49] He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level.[49][50] Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.[11] Governor and Mrs. Clinton attend the Dinner Honoring the Nation's Governors in the White House with President Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan, 1987. In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history.[48] Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship.[11][49] He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).[42] Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration.[51] After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.[11][52] According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions.[53][54] However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent".[55] During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976).[56] As Governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection.[57] To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector, would go forward as scheduled.[58][59] 1988 Democratic presidential primaries In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race after incumbent New York governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of multiple marital infidelities.[60] Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady).[61] For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long[62] and poorly delivered.[63] Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.[49][64] Presidency (1993–2001) Main article: Presidency of Bill Clinton For a chronological guide to this subject, see Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency. Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.[65] During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance.[66][67] His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters.[68][69] Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.[70][71][72] The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $69 billion in 1998, $126 billion in 1999, and $236 billion in 2000,[73] during the last three years of Clinton's presidency.[74] Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, The U.S. treasury reported a gross debt of $5.413 trillion in 1997, $5.526 trillion in 1998, $5.656 trillion in 1999, and $5.674 trillion in 2000.[75][76] Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of $5.369 trillion in 1997, $5.478 trillion in 1998, $5.606 in 1999, and $5.629 trillion in 2000.[77] At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to Chappaqua, New York, in order to satisfy a residency requirement for his wife to win election as a U.S. Senator from New York. 1992 presidential campaign Further information: 1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1992 United States presidential election, and Bill Clinton 1992 presidential campaign In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls.[11] Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on 60 Minutes to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.[78] Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South.[11][64] With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate.[64] Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.[11] The Clintons in a White House Christmas portrait During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay.[2][79] Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".[80] Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for The New York Times as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.[53][81] Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his promise not to raise taxes, which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep.[64] By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent.[64][82] Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated.[83] Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious.[84] Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton.[85] Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".[85] On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain."[86] The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.[87] 1992 electoral vote results Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success.[85] Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress,[3] the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.[88][89] According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.[90] First term (1993–1997) First inauguration of Bill Clinton (January 20, 1993) Play media Video of the First inauguration of Bill Clinton First inauguration of Bill Clinton (January 20, 1993) audio only version Problems playing these files? See media help. "Our democracy must be not only the envy of the world but the engine of our own renewal. There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured by what is right with America." Inaugural address, January 20, 1993.[91] Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted of the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of embarrassing mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby gays could serve if and only if they kept it secret.[92] He devised a $16 billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate.[93] His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point.[94] Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support,[95] and was popular with the public.[96] Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush.[97] Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning.[98] During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.[99] On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit.[100] Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda.[101] Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.[102] President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.[103][104] On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation.[105] Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted.[106] In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15 million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses,[107] and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.[108] Clinton and Vice President Al Gore on the South Lawn, August 10, 1993 On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House.[52] Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.[49][52] In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal.[109] A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair. On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.[52] In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in The American Spectator. In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named Paula, a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".[110] Yitzhak Rabin, Clinton and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords on September 13, 1993 That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation.[111] The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress".[112] Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions.[113] Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future.[49] Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack".[114] The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.[115] Remarks on the Signing of NAFTA (December 8, 1993) Play media Clinton's December 8, 1993 remarks on the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement Remarks on the Signing of NAFTA (December 8, 1993) audio only version Problems playing these files? See media help. On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law.[116] Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.[116] The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994,[117] made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons."[118] It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.[119] On October 21, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov.[120][121] The site was followed with three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000.[122][123] The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."[124] After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.[125] A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the Federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Justice Department to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.[126] Clinton's coat of arms, granted by the Chief Herald of Ireland in 1995 The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations.[127] In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.[128] On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states.[129] Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress".[130] Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected."[131] Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that".[132] Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism".[131] In a July 2, 2011, editorial The New York Times opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments."[133] Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.[134] Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions,[135] and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights.[136] During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees[137] and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce.[138] Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled.[139] Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996.[140] Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign.[136] Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009[141] and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013.[142] He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.[143] "When I took office, only high energy physicists had ever heard of what is called the Worldwide Web ... Now even my cat has its own page." Bill Clinton's announcement of Next Generation Internet initiative, October 1996.[144] The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself.[145][146] Despite the evidence,[145][147] the Chinese government denied all accusations.[148] As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton,[149] the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.[150][151] Ken Gormley, author of The Death of American Virtue: Clinton vs. Starr, reveals in his book that Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996. During his visit to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum in Manila, while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government, Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device (IED).[152] According to officials, the IED was large enough to "blow up the entire presidential motorcade".[153] Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti, former member of the presidential protection detail and Director of the Secret Service. Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating there was a wedding cake under a bridge.[152] This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila.[153] Once more, the word "wedding" was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt.[153] Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade, but the alternate route would add forty-five minutes to the drive time. Clinton was very angry, as he was already late for the meeting, but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life. Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high.[154] Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag.[155] Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base.[155] The president was scheduled to visit both these locations later in the week. An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al-Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden.[153] Until recently, this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret. Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events.[153] 1996 presidential election 1996 electoral vote results In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. He became the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon B. Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected president more than once.[156] Second term (1997–2001) In the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth.[157] In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.[158] Impeachment and acquittal Main articles: Impeachment of Bill Clinton and Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton Clinton's impeachment trial in 1999 After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998 by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury[159] and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice.[160] Clinton was only the second U.S. president (after Andrew Johnson) to be impeached.[161][162] Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky.[163] After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment",[164] the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998. Future president Donald Trump and Clinton shaking hands at Trump Tower, June 2000 While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Jones v. Clinton, Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit.[165] The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition. The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges.[166] The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly.[167] The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge[166] and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge.[168] Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.[166] On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case.[169][170] Pardons and commutations Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001.[52][171] Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons.[172] Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey, who found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy.[173] Military and foreign affairs Further information: Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration Col. Paul Fletcher, USAF and Clinton speak before boarding Air Force One, November 4, 1999. Somalia The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets—a spectacle broadcast on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.[174][175] Rwanda In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide".[176][177][178] Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene.[179] President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."[180] Bosnia and Herzegovina Clinton meeting with Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, December 22, 1997. In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.[181] Irish peace talks In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the UK government. In 1994 Clinton angered London by granting a visa to Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin, the IRA's political arm. In November 1995, Clinton became the first U.S. president to visit Northern Ireland, seeing both the divided communities of Belfast and later famously shaking Adams' hand, 14 months into an IRA ceasefire during the Troubles.[182] Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used this as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict with London, Dublin, the paramilitaries and the other groups. Clinton went on to play a key role in the peace talks, which eventually led to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.[183] Clinton plays the saxophone presented to him by Russian president Boris Yeltsin at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994 Iran In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US$131.8 million (equivalent to $217.49 million in 2020) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser.[184] Osama bin Laden Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011).[185] Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer,[186] the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".[187] In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden[188] and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan.[189] Kosovo Clinton greets Air Force personnel at Spangdahlem Air Base, May 5, 1999. In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force.[190] The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide)[191][192] of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region.[193] NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat,[194] though two died in an Apache helicopter crash.[195] Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated.[196][197] Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, common estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had approximately been 1,800, of which were primarily Albanians but also Serbs and that there was no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing.[198][199] In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24".[200] In 2001, the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population.[201] The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference.[202] Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war.[203] He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.[203][204] Iraq In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.[205] Play media Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak, President Clinton and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at Camp David, July 2000 Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces.[206][207] The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors."[208] American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.[209][210] China See also: 1996 United States campaign finance controversy Clinton and Chinese president Jiang Zemin holding a joint press conference at the White House, October 29, 1997 On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China.[211] The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.[212] Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.[213] The U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000 granted China permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status (previously called most favoured nation (MFN)) when China becomes a full member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), ending annual review and approval of NTR. The Act was signed into law on October 10, 2000 by Clinton.[214][215][216] President Clinton in 2000 pushed Congress to approve the U.S.-China trade agreement and China's accession to the WTO, saying that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests: "Economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways," said Clinton.[217] Israeli-Palestinian conflict After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s, which also led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000, which lasted 14 days.[52] Following the failures of the peace talks, Clinton said Arafat had "missed the opportunity" to facilitate a "just and lasting peace". In his autobiography, Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit.[2][218] Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.[52] Judicial appointments Main articles: Bill Clinton Supreme Court candidates and List of federal judges appointed by Bill Clinton Ruth Bader Ginsburg accepting her nomination to the Supreme Court from President Clinton, 1993 Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993[219] and Stephen Breyer in 1994.[220] Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts.[221] In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.[221] Public opinion Clinton's approval ratings throughout his presidential career (Roper Center) Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s.[222] After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point.[223] According to a CBS News/New York Times poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era.[224] Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years.[225] Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.[225] As he was leaving office, a CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?"[225] The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor".[225] ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job."[226] Public opinion of Bill Clinton (Gallup)[227] In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned.[228] Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.[229][230] In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan.[231] The same poll showed that just 3% of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.[231] A 2015 poll by The Washington Post asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.[232] Public image Main article: Public image of Bill Clinton Clinton addressing the British parliament on November 29, 1995 Clinton at a Democratic "Get out the vote" rally in Los Angeles, California, on November 2, 2000 Clinton was the first baby boomer president.[233] Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings.[234][235] When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show, he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president".[236] Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by Pine Bluff Commercial journalist Paul Greenberg;[237] Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor.[237] The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency.[238] His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba, especially in the South.[239] Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog".[240][241] His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".[242][243] Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency.[244] In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first Black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas".[245] Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, blacks typically endure.[245] Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community at large.[246] Clinton, a Baptist,[247] has been open about his faith.[248] Sexual misconduct and sexual assault allegations Main article: Bill Clinton sexual misconduct allegations Clinton and Monica Lewinsky on February 28, 1997 Several women have publicly accused Bill Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the #MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.[249][250][251] In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit.[252] Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998.[253] In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies.[254] Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones $850,000.[255] Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life.[256] During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House,[257] Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.[258] In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation.[259] On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office.[260] An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct.[261] Linda Tripp's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances.[262] Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date.[263] To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press.[264] Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition.[263] In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.[263] The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998.[265] In the wake of the #MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning.[266] During the 2018 Congressional elections, The New York Times alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with him or her was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal.[265] However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.[267] Post-presidency (2001–present) Main article: Post-presidency of Bill Clinton Clinton greets a Hurricane Katrina evacuee, September 5, 2005. In the background, second from the right, is then-Senator Barack Obama. Bill Clinton has continued to be active in public life since leaving office in 2001, giving speeches, fundraising, and founding charitable organizations,[268] and has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention.[269] Activities until 2008 campaign In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences,[270][271] and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this).[272] In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.[273] The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004.[274] Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, My Life, in 2004.[275] In 2007, he released Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World, which also became a New York Times Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.[276] Former president George H. W. Bush and Clinton in the White House Library, January 2005 In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort.[277] After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year.[278] As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show,[279] and traveled to the affected areas.[280] They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.[281] Based on his philanthropic worldview,[282] Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict.[283] In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools.[284] Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative.[285] The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East.[286] In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations.[287] Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.[288] In the early 2000s, Clinton took flights on Jeffrey Epstein's private jet in connection with Clinton Foundation work.[289][290] Years later, Epstein was convicted on sex trafficking charges. Clinton's office released a statement in 2019 saying, "President Clinton knows nothing about the terrible crimes Jeffrey Epstein pleaded guilty to in Florida some years ago, or those with which he has been recently charged in New York. In 2002 and 2003, President Clinton took four trips on Jeffrey Epstein's airplane: one to Europe, one to Asia, and two to Africa, which included stops in connection with the work of the Clinton Foundation. Staff, supporters of the Foundation, and his Secret Service detail traveled on every leg of every trip. ... He's not spoken to Epstein in well over a decade."[289][291][292] 2008 presidential election Clinton speaking at the 2008 Democratic National Convention During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise $10 million toward her campaign.[293] Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad.[294] Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania.[295] Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary.[296] Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead".[297] After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.[298][299] After the 2008 election Clinton with then-President Barack Obama and Senior Advisor Valerie Jarrett in July 2010 Clinton, his wife Hillary, and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in New York City on September 29, 2014 In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China.[300] Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994.[300] After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.[301][302] Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused $1 billion in damages.[303] Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better".[304] In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery.[305] Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant.[304] In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation.[306][307] At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.[308] 2016 presidential election Clinton campaigning at an election rally for his wife Hillary who was running for President of the United States, 2016 Clinton holding a dog on the campaign trail in New York City. Photo by Adam Schultz Clinton speaking at the 2016 Democratic National Convention During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail.[309] In a series of tweets, then-President-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote.[310] Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York.[311] He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine. After the 2016 election The state funeral of George H. W. Bush in December 2018 On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.[312] On September 1, 2018, Clinton, his wife, and the former U.S. Presidents Barack Obama, and George W. Bush and their spouces attended the funeral of Sen. John McCain of Arizona at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Then President Donald Trump did not attend the service. In 2019, he attended the funeral of his former political opponent George H. W. Bush with his wife Hillary Clinton, and former Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, and then President Donald Trump and their spouces. In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris.[313][314] The Clintons attended Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, alongside George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Barack Obama and Michelle Obama. Post-presidential health concerns In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery.[315] In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung.[316] On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart.[315][317] After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn.[318] However, he has since incorporated fish and lean proteins at the suggestion of Dr. Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine.[319] As a result, he is no longer a strict vegan.[320] Wealth The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office.[321] Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing.[322] In 2016, Forbes reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about $240 million in the 15 years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing).[323] Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than $153 million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015.[324] In May 2015, The Hill reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $25 million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made $5 million or more from her book, Hard Choices, during the same time period.[325] In July 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between $5 million and $25.5 million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between $16 and $17 million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president.[326] Clinton earned more than $104 million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012.[327] In June 2014, ABC News and The Washington Post reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $100 million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, The New York Times reported that the Clintons' income tax returns[328] show they made $109 million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost $92 million from his speaking and book-writing.[322][329][330][331] Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned $100,000 to $300,000 per speech.[324][332][333][334] Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton $500,000 for a speech in Moscow.[335][336] Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education." She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members."[330] Ministry In 2007, with Jimmy Carter, he founded the New Baptist Covenant Baptist organization.[337] Personal life At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas and remained a member of a Baptist church.[338] In 1975, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only daughter.[339] Honors and recognition Main article: List of honors and awards received by Bill Clinton Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees, including Doctorate of Law degrees[340][341] and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees.[342] He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there.[343][344] Schools have been named for Clinton,[345][346][347] and statues have been built to pay him homage.[348][349] U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri,[350] Arkansas,[351] Kentucky,[352] and New York.[353] He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001.[354] The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in his honor on December 5, 2001.[355] He has been honored in various other ways, in countries that include the Czech Republic,[356] Papua New Guinea,[357] Germany,[358] and Kosovo.[348] The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue.[359][360][361] Clinton was selected as Time's "Man of the Year" in 1992,[362] and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr.[363] From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century.[364] He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding,[365] a TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design),[366] and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community.[367] Bill Clinton accepted an honorary membership into the Golden Key International Honour Society, along with other notables such as Bill Ford, Desmond Tutu, and Elie Wiesel. Golden Key International Honour Society is the world's largest international collegiate honor society for graduate and undergraduate students, and has strong relationships with over 400 universities around the world. In 2011, President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010". Clinton declared at the ceremony that "in the United States of America, I really don't believe former American presidents need awards anymore, but I am very honored by this one, I love Haiti, and I believe in its promise".[368] U.S. president Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013.[369] Secretary of Defense Cohen presents President Clinton the DoD Medal for Distinguished Public Service. Bill Clinton statue in Ballybunion, erected to commemorate his 1998 golfing visit Bill Clinton statue in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo Former President Bill Clinton is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by then president Barack Obama. Electoral history Main article: Electoral history of Bill Clinton Year Office District Democratic Republican Other 1974 Arkansas 3rd congressional district Arkansas Bill Clinton 48% John Paul Hammerschmidt 52% 1976 Arkansas Attorney General Arkansas Bill Clinton Unopposed 1978 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 63% Lynn Lowe 37% 1980 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 48% Frank White 52% 1982 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 55% Frank White 45% 1984 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 63% Woody Freeman 37% 1986 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 64% Frank White 36% 1990 Governor of Arkansas Arkansas Bill Clinton 57% Sheffield Nelson 42% 1992 President of the United States United States of America Bill Clinton 43% George H. W. Bush 37% Ross Perot (I) 19% 1996 President of the United States United States of America Bill Clinton 49% Bob Dole 41% Ross Perot (Reform) 8% Authored books Putting People First: How We Can All Change America. New York: Three Rivers Press. September 12, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8129-2193-9. Between Hope and History. New York: Times Books. 1996. ISBN 978-0-8129-2913-3. My Life (1st ed.). New York: Vintage Books. 2004. ISBN 978-1-4000-3003-3. Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World (1st ed.). New York: Knopf. 2007. ISBN 978-0-307-26674-3. Back to Work (book) (1st ed.). New York: Knopf. 2011. ISBN 978-0-307-95975-1. The President Is Missing (1st ed.). Knopf. 2018. ISBN 978-0-316-41269-8. The President's Daughter (1st ed.). Knopf. 2021. ISBN 978-0-316-54071-1. Recordings Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf, a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf performed by the Russian National Orchestra, on Pentatone, together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren.[370] This garnered Clinton the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.[371][372] The audiobook edition of his autobiography, My Life, read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album[371] as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year.[373] Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World in 2007 and Back to Work in 2012.[371] See also Clinton family Clinton School of Public Service Efforts to impeach Bill Clinton Gun control policy of the Clinton Administration List of presidents of the United States List of presidents of the United States by previous experience References ^ "Directory of Irish Genealogy: American Presidents with Irish Ancestors". 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Washington, D.C.: The White House, August 1994. --- (with Al Gore). The Climate Change Action Plan. Washington, D.C.: The White House, October 1993. Taylor Branch The Clinton Tapes: Wrestling History with the President. (2009) Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-4333-6 Official Congressional Record Impeachment Set: ... Containing the Procedures for Implementing the Articles of Impeachment and the Proceedings of the Impeachment Trial of President William Jefferson Clinton. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1999. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, William J. Clinton. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1994–2002. S. Daniel Abraham Peace Is Possible, foreword by Bill Clinton Popular books Peter Baker The Breach: Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton (2000) ISBN 0-684-86813-X James Bovard Feeling Your Pain: The Explosion and Abuse of Government Power in the Clinton-Gore Years (2000) ISBN 0-312-23082-6 Joe Conason and Gene Lyons The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton (2003) ISBN 0-312-27319-3 Elizabeth Drew On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency (1994) ISBN 0-671-87147-1 David Gergen Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Leadership. (2000) ISBN 0-684-82663-1 Nigel Hamilton Bill Clinton: An American Journey (2003) ISBN 0-375-50610-1 Christopher Hitchens No One Left to Lie to: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton (1999) ISBN 1-85984-736-6 Michael Isikoff Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story (1999) ISBN 0-609-60393-0 Mark Katz Clinton and Me: A Real-Life Political Comedy (2004) ISBN 978-0-7868-6949-7 David Maraniss The Clinton Enigma: A Four and a Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life (1998) ISBN 0-684-86296-4 Dick Morris with Eileen McGann Because He Could (2004) ISBN 0-06-078415-6 Richard A. Posner An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton (1999) ISBN 0-674-00080-3 Mark J. Rozell The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government (2000) ISBN 0-87840-777-4 Timperlake, Edward, and William C. Triplett II Year of the Rat: How Bill Clinton Compromised U.S. Security for Chinese Cash. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-89526-333-5 Michael Waldman POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency (2000) ISBN 0-7432-0020-9 Ivory Tower Publishing Company. Achievements of the Clinton Administration: the Complete Legislative and Executive. (1995) ISBN 0-88032-748-0 Scholarly studies Campbell, Colin, and Bert A. Rockman, eds. The Clinton Legacy (Chatham House Pub, 2000) Cohen; Jeffrey E. "The Polls: Change and Stability in Public Assessments of Personal Traits, Bill Clinton, 1993–99" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 31, 2001 Cronin, Thomas E. and Michael A. Genovese; "President Clinton and Character Questions" Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol. 28, 1998 Davis; John. "The Evolution of American Grand Strategy and the War on Terrorism: Clinton and Bush Perspectives" White House Studies, Vol. 3, 2003 Dumbrell, John. "Was there a Clinton doctrine? President Clinton's foreign policy reconsidered". Diplomacy and Statecraft 13.2 (2002): 43–56. Edwards; George C. "Bill Clinton and His Crisis of Governance" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Fisher; Patrick. "Clinton's Greatest Legislative Achievement? the Success of the 1993 Budget Reconciliation Bill" White House Studies, Vol. 1, 2001 Glad; Betty. "Evaluating Presidential Character" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Halberstam, David. War in a time of peace: Bush, Clinton, and the generals (Simon and Schuster, 2001). online Harris, John F. The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House (2006). online Head, Simon. The Clinton System (January 30, 2016), The New York Review of Books Hyland, William G. Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy (1999) ISBN 0-275-96396-9 Jewett, Aubrey W. and Marc D. Turetzky; "Stability and Change in President Clinton's Foreign Policy Beliefs, 1993–96" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Kim, Claire Jean (2002), "Managing the Racial Breach: Clinton, Black-White Polarization, and the Race Initiative", Political Science Quarterly, 117 (1): 55–79, doi:10.2307/798094, JSTOR 798094 Laham, Nicholas, A Lost Cause: Bill Clinton's Campaign for National Health Insurance (1996) Lanoue, David J. and Craig F. Emmert; "Voting in the Glare of the Spotlight: Representatives' Votes on the Impeachment of President Clinton" Polity, Vol. 32, 1999 Levy, Peter B. Encyclopedia of the Clinton presidency (Greenwood, 2002) online Maurer; Paul J. "Media Feeding Frenzies: Press Behavior during Two Clinton Scandals" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 Nesmith, Bruce F., and Paul J. Quirk, "Triangulation: Position and Leadership in Clinton’s Domestic Policy." in 42: Inside the Presidency of Bill Clinton edited by Michael Nelson at al. (Cornell UP, 2016) pp. 46–76. Nie; Martin A. "'It's the Environment, Stupid!': Clinton and the Environment" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 in JSTOR O'Connor; Brendon. "Policies, Principles, and Polls: Bill Clinton's Third Way Welfare Politics 1992–1996" The Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 48, 2002 Palmer, David. "'What Might Have Been'--Bill Clinton and American Political Power." Australasian Journal of American Studies (2005): 38–58. online Renshon; Stanley A. The Clinton Presidency: Campaigning, Governing, and the Psychology of Leadership Westview Press, 1995 Renshon; Stanley A. "The Polls: The Public's Response to the Clinton Scandals, Part 1: Inconsistent Theories, Contradictory Evidence" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 32, 2002 Romano, Flavio. Clinton and Blair: the political economy of the third way (Routledge, 2007) Rushefsky, Mark E. and Kant Patel. Politics, Power & Policy Making: The Case of Health Care Reform in the 1990s (1998) ISBN 1-56324-956-1 Schantz, Harvey L. Politics in an Era of Divided Government: Elections and Governance in the Second Clinton Administration (2001) ISBN 0-8153-3583-0 Troy, Gill. The Age of Clinton: America in the 1990s (2015) Walt, Stephen M. "Two Cheers for Clinton's Foreign Policy" Foreign Affairs 79#2 (2000), pp. 63–79 online. Warshaw, Shirley Anne. The Clinton Years (Infobase Publishing, 2009) White, Mark, ed. The Presidency of Bill Clinton: The Legacy of a New Domestic and Foreign Policy (I.B.Tauris, 2012) External links Bill Clintonat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Official Presidential Library & Museum White House biography Clinton Foundation Interviews, speeches, and statements Appearances on C-SPAN Bill Clinton at TED Full audio of a number of Clinton speeches Miller Center of Public Affairs Oral History Interview with Bill Clinton from Oral Histories of the American South, June 1974 "The Wanderer", a profile from The New Yorker, September 2006 Media coverage Bill Clinton collected news and commentary at The Guardian "Bill Clinton collected news and commentary". The New York Times. Other Bill Clinton at Curlie Extensive essays on Bill Clinton and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs "Life Portrait of Bill Clinton", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, December 20, 1999 Clinton an American Experience documentary Bill Clinton at IMDb  Works by Bill Clinton at Project Gutenberg 1992 election episode in CNN's Race for the White House v t e Bill Clinton 42nd President of the United States (1993–2001) 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992) Presidency Transition 1st inauguration 2nd inauguration Economic policy AmeriCorps Health care plan North American Free Trade Agreement Balanced Budget Foreign policy International trips Clinton Doctrine Dayton Agreement Oslo I Accord Israel–Jordan peace treaty 1993 cruise missile strikes on Iraq 1996 cruise missile strikes on Iraq Operation Infinite Reach Bombing of Yugoslavia Bombing of Iraq (1998) One America Initiative Nannygate Lincoln Bedroom for contributors controversy Commerce Department trade mission controversy Clinton–Lewinsky scandal Starr Report Impeachment efforts inquiry trial White House Millennium Council Pardons list State of the Union addresses 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Cabinet Federal judicial appointments Supreme Court controversies Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations Life and legacy Childhood home Early life and career Presidential Library Post-presidency Clinton Foundation Clinton School of Public Service Clinton Boulevard Clinton Bush Haiti Fund Chairman, National Constitution Center Honors and awards Public image Troopergate Sexual misconduct allegations Whitewater controversy Books Between Hope and History (1996) My Life (2004) Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World (2007) Back to Work (2011) The President Is Missing (2018) Popular culture Saturday Night Live parodies of Bill Clinton The War Room (1993 documentary) The Silence of the Hams (1994 film) Primary Colors (1998 film) The Final Days (2000 short film) The Special Relationship (2010 film) Clinton (2012 film) Hillary and Clinton (2016 play) Elections 1974 United States House of Representatives elections 1978 Arkansas gubernatorial election 1980 1982 1984 1986 1990 Bill Clinton 1992 presidential campaign 1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries 1996 Democratic National Convention 1992 1996 1992 United States presidential election theme song 1996 Family Hillary Rodham Clinton (wife) Chelsea Clinton (daughter) William Jefferson Blythe Jr. (father) Virginia Clinton Kelley (mother) Roger Clinton Sr. (first stepfather) Jeff Dwire (second stepfather) Socks (cat) Buddy (dog) Whitehaven (residence) ← George H. W. Bush Category Commons George W. Bush → Offices and distinctions Legal offices Preceded by Jim Guy Tucker Attorney General of Arkansas 1977–1979 Succeeded by Steve Clark Party political offices Preceded by David Pryor Democratic nominee for Governor of Arkansas 1978, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1990 Succeeded by Jim Guy Tucker Preceded by Michael Dukakis Chair of the Democratic Governors Association 1987–1988 Succeeded by James Blanchard Preceded by Sam Nunn Chair of the Democratic Leadership Council 1990–1991 Succeeded by John Breaux Preceded by Michael Dukakis Democratic nominee for President of the United States 1992, 1996 Succeeded by Al Gore Political offices Preceded by Joe Purcell (Acting) Governor of Arkansas 1979–1981 Succeeded by Frank D. White Preceded by Frank D. White Governor of Arkansas 1983–1992 Succeeded by Jim Guy Tucker Preceded by Lamar Alexander Chair of the National Governors Association 1986–1987 Succeeded by John H. Sununu Preceded by George H. W. Bush President of the United States 1993–2001 Succeeded by George W. Bush Diplomatic posts New office Chair of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 1993 Succeeded by Suharto Preceded by Jacques Chirac Chair of the Group of Eight 1997 Succeeded by Tony Blair U.S. order of precedence (ceremonial) Preceded by Jimmy Carter as Former President Order of precedence of the United States as Former President Succeeded by George W. Bush as Former President Articles related to Bill Clinton v t e Presidents of the United States George Washington (1789–1797) John Adams (1797–1801) Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) James Madison (1809–1817) James Monroe (1817–1825) John Quincy Adams (1825–1829) Andrew Jackson (1829–1837) Martin Van Buren (1837–1841) William Henry Harrison (1841) John Tyler (1841–1845) James K. Polk (1845–1849) Zachary Taylor (1849–1850) Millard Fillmore (1850–1853) Franklin Pierce (1853–1857) James Buchanan (1857–1861) Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865) Andrew Johnson (1865–1869) Ulysses S. 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Bush* Obama* Trump* Biden* * Links to list of related timelines Category Commons List v t e (1988 ←) 1992 United States presidential election (→ 1996) Democratic Party Convention Primaries Nominee Bill Clinton campaign positions VP nominee Al Gore Candidates Larry Agran Jerry Brown Tom Harkin Bob Kerrey Lyndon LaRouche campaign positions Tom Laughlin Eugene McCarthy Paul Tsongas Douglas Wilder Charles Woods Republican Party Convention Primaries Nominee George H. W. Bush campaign VP nominee Dan Quayle Candidates Pat Buchanan David Duke Jack Fellure Isabell Masters Pat Paulsen Tennie Rogers Harold Stassen Independent Candidate Ross Perot (campaign) VP candidate James Stockdale Other independent and third party candidates Libertarian Party Convention Nominee Andre Marrou VP nominee Nancy Lord Natural Law Party Nominee John Hagelin VP nominee Mike Tompkins New Alliance Party Nominee Lenora Fulani VP nominee Maria Elizabeth Muñoz Prohibition Party Nominee Earl Dodge VP nominee George Ormsby Socialist Party USA Nominee J. Quinn Brisben VP nominee Barbara Garson Socialist Workers Party Nominee James Warren VP nominee Willie Mae Reid U.S. Taxpayers Party Convention Nominee Howard Phillips VP nominee Albion W. Knight, Jr. Workers World Party Nominee Gloria La Riva VP nominee Larry Holmes Independents and other candidates Ronald Daniels (Running mate: Asiba Tupahache) Bo Gritz Isabell Masters Other 1992 elections House Senate Gubernatorial v t e (1992 ←) 1996 United States presidential election (→ 2000) Democratic Party Convention Primaries Nominee Bill Clinton positions VP nominee Al Gore Candidates James D. Griffin Lyndon LaRouche campaign positions Pat Paulsen Republican Party Convention Primaries Nominee Bob Dole VP nominee Jack Kemp Candidates Lamar Alexander Pat Buchanan Charles E. Collins Bob Dornan Jack Fellure Arthur Fletcher Steve Forbes Phil Gramm Alan Keyes Richard Lugar Isabell Masters Jimmy McMillan Tennie Rogers Arlen Specter Morry Taylor Pete Wilson Reform Party Primaries Nominee Ross Perot (campaign) VP nominee Pat Choate Candidates Richard Lamm Other Third party and independent candidates Green Party Convention Nominee Ralph Nader (campaign) VP nominee Winona LaDuke Independent Grassroots Party Nominee John Birrenbach VP nominee George McMahon Libertarian Party Convention Nominee Harry Browne VP nominee Jo Jorgensen Candidates Irwin Schiff Natural Law Party Nominee John Hagelin VP nominee Mike Tompkins Prohibition Party Nominee Earl Dodge VP nominee Rachel Bubar Kelly Socialist Party Nominee Mary Cal Hollis VP nominee Eric Chester Socialist Workers Party Nominee James Harris U.S. Taxpayers Party Nominee Howard Phillips VP nominee Herb Titus Workers World Party Nominee Monica Moorehead VP nominee Gloria La Riva Independents and other candidates Joan Jett Blakk Marsha Feinland Isabell Masters Steve Michael Dennis Peron Other 1996 elections House Senate Gubernatorial v t e Democratic Party History Second Party System Third Party System Fourth Party System Fifth Party System Sixth Party System National conventions and presidential tickets 1828 (None): Jackson/Calhoun 1832 (Baltimore): Jackson/Van Buren 1835 (Baltimore): Van Buren/R. 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Bryan 1928 (Houston): Smith/Robinson 1932 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Garner 1936 (Philadelphia): Roosevelt/Garner 1940 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Wallace 1944 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Truman 1948 (Philadelphia): Truman/Barkley 1952 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Sparkman 1956 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Kefauver 1960 (Los Angeles): Kennedy/L. Johnson 1964 (Atlantic City): L. Johnson/Humphrey 1968 (Chicago): Humphrey/Muskie 1972 (Miami Beach): McGovern/(Eagleton, Shriver) 1976 (New York): Carter/Mondale 1980 (New York): Carter/Mondale 1984 (San Francisco): Mondale/Ferraro 1988 (Atlanta): Dukakis/Bentsen 1992 (New York): B. Clinton/Gore 1996 (Chicago): B. Clinton/Gore 2000 (Los Angeles): Gore/Lieberman 2004 (Boston): Kerry/Edwards 2008 (Denver): Obama/Biden 2012 (Charlotte): Obama/Biden 2016 (Philadelphia): H. Clinton/Kaine 2020 (Milwaukee/other locations): Biden/Harris Presidential administrations Jackson (1829–1837) Van Buren (1837–1841) Polk (1845–1849) Pierce (1853–1857) Buchanan (1857–1861) A. 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Daley (1997–2000) Norman Mineta (2000–2001) Secretary of Labor Robert Reich (1993–1997) Alexis Herman (1997–2001) Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala (1993–2001) Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Henry Cisneros (1993–1997) Andrew Cuomo (1997–2001) Secretary of Transportation Federico Peña (1993–1997) Rodney E. Slater (1997–2001) Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O'Leary (1993–1997) Federico Peña (1997–1998) Bill Richardson (1998–2001) Secretary of Education Richard Riley (1993–2001) Secretary of Veterans Affairs Jesse Brown (1993–1997) Togo D. West Jr. (1998–2000) * Acting secretary Cabinet-level Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency Carol Browner (1993–2001) Director of the Office of Management and Budget Leon Panetta (1993–1994) Alice Rivlin (1994–1996) Franklin Raines (1996–1998) Jack Lew (1998–2001) Director of Central Intelligence John M. Deutch (1995–1996) George Tenet (1996–2001) Trade Representative Mickey Kantor (1993–1996) Charlene Barshefsky (1996–2001) Ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright (1993–1997) Bill Richardson (1997–1998) Richard Holbrooke (1999–2001) Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers Laura Tyson (1993–1995) Joseph Stiglitz (1995–1997) Janet Yellen (1997–1999) Martin Neil Baily (1999–2001) Administrator of the Small Business Administration Philip Lader (1994–1997) Aida Álvarez (1997–2001) Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency James Lee Witt (1993–2001)* Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy Lee P. Brown (1993–1996) Barry McCaffrey (1996–2001) White House Chief of Staff Mack McLarty (1993–1994) Leon Panetta (1994–1997) Erskine Bowles (1997–1998) John Podesta (1998–2001) * took office in 1993, raised to cabinet-rank in 1996 v t e Governors of Arkansas Territorial (1819–1836) J. Miller Izard Pope Fulton State (from 1836) J. Conway Yell Adams Drew Byrd Roane E. Conway Rector Fletcher Flanagin Murphy Clayton Hadley Baxter Brooks* Baxter Garland W. Miller Churchill Berry Hughes Eagle Fishback Clarke Jones Davis Little Moore Pindall Martin Donaghey Robinson Oldham Futrell Hays Brough McRae Terral Martineau Parnell Futrell Bailey Adkins Laney McMath Cherry Faubus Rockefeller Bumpers Riley Pryor Purcell Clinton White Clinton Tucker Huckabee Beebe Hutchinson Italics indicates acting governor. * Disputed; see Brooks–Baxter War. v t e Chairs of the National Governors Association Willson McGovern Walsh Spry Capper Harrington Allen Sproul Cox Trinkle Brewster McMullen Dern Case Pollard Rolph McNutt Peery Cochran Stark Vanderbilt Stassen O'Conor Saltonstall Maw Martin Caldwell Hildreth Hunt Lane Carlson Lausche Peterson Shivers Thornton Kennon Langlie Stanley Stratton Collins Boggs McNichols Powell Rosellini Anderson Sawyer Reed Guy Volpe Ellington Love Hearnes Moore Mandel Evans Rampton Ray Andrus Askew Milliken Carroll Bowen Busbee Snelling Matheson J. Thompson Carlin Alexander Clinton Sununu Baliles Branstad Gardner Ashcroft Romer Campbell Dean T. Thompson Miller Voinovich Carper Leavitt Glendening Engler Patton Kempthorne Warner Huckabee Napolitano Pawlenty Rendell Douglas Manchin Gregoire Heineman Markell Fallin Hickenlooper Herbert McAuliffe Sandoval Bullock Hogan Cuomo v t e Hillary Clinton 11th Chancellor of Queen's University Belfast (2020–present) 67th United States Secretary of State (2009–2013) U.S. Senator from New York (2001–2009) First Lady of the United States (1993–2001) Secretary of State Tenure as Secretary Foreign trips Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review Foreign policy of the Obama administration Hillary Doctrine Email controversy UN Security Council Resolution 1888 UN Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict U.S. senator Senate career Family Entertainment Protection Act Flag Protection Act of 2005 First Lady 1993 health care reform Hillaryland Travel office controversy FBI files controversy "Vast right-wing conspiracy" Vital Voices Save America's Treasures State Children's Health Insurance Program Adoption and Safe Families Act Foster Care Independence Act White House Millennium Council National Millennium Trail Arkansas Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families Rose Law Firm Legal Services Corporation Whitewater controversy Cattle futures controversy Philanthropic Clinton Foundation State Department controversy Onward Together Speeches and policies Political positions "Women's Rights Are Human Rights" (1995) "Basket of deplorables" (2016) Writings Bibliography Senior thesis (1969) It Takes a Village (1996) Dear Socks, Dear Buddy (1998) An Invitation to the White House (2000) Living History (2003) Hard Choices (2014) Stronger Together (2016) What Happened (2017) The Book of Gutsy Women (2019) State of Terror (2021) Electoral history New York senatorial elections 2000 2006 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries campaign endorsements debates convention 2016 United States presidential election campaign endorsements political non-political Democratic primaries debates running mate selection convention Democratic opposition General election debates Hillary Victory Fund Legacy Awards and honors Books about Cultural and political image Popular culture Saturday Night Live parodies Hillary and Clinton (2016 play) Hillary (2020 documentary) Family Bill Clinton (husband presidency) Chelsea Clinton (daughter) Hugh E. Rodham (father) Dorothy Howell Rodham (mother) Hugh Rodham (brother) Tony Rodham (brother) Socks (cat) Buddy (dog) Whitehaven (residence) v t e Time Persons of the Year 1927–1950 Charles Lindbergh (1927) Walter Chrysler (1928) Owen D. Young (1929) Mohandas Gandhi (1930) Pierre Laval (1931) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) Hugh S. Johnson (1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934) Haile Selassie (1935) Wallis Simpson (1936) Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937) Adolf Hitler (1938) Joseph Stalin (1939) Winston Churchill (1940) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941) Joseph Stalin (1942) George Marshall (1943) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944) Harry S. Truman (1945) James F. Byrnes (1946) George Marshall (1947) Harry S. Truman (1948) Winston Churchill (1949) The American Fighting-Man (1950) 1951–1975 Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951) Elizabeth II (1952) Konrad Adenauer (1953) John Foster Dulles (1954) Harlow Curtice (1955) Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956) Nikita Khrushchev (1957) Charles de Gaulle (1958) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959) U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960) John F. Kennedy (1961) Pope John XXIII (1962) Martin Luther King Jr. (1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) William Westmoreland (1965) The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966) Lyndon B. Johnson (1967) The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968) The Middle Americans (1969) Willy Brandt (1970) Richard Nixon (1971) Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972) John Sirica (1973) King Faisal (1974) American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975) 1976–2000 Jimmy Carter (1976) Anwar Sadat (1977) Deng Xiaoping (1978) Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) Ronald Reagan (1980) Lech Wałęsa (1981) The Computer (1982) Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) Peter Ueberroth (1984) Deng Xiaoping (1985) Corazon Aquino (1986) Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) The Endangered Earth (1988) Mikhail Gorbachev (1989) George H. W. Bush (1990) Ted Turner (1991) Bill Clinton (1992) The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993) Pope John Paul II (1994) Newt Gingrich (1995) David Ho (1996) Andrew Grove (1997) Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998) Jeff Bezos (1999) George W. Bush (2000) 2001–present Rudolph Giuliani (2001) The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002) The American Soldier (2003) George W. Bush (2004) The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005) You (2006) Vladimir Putin (2007) Barack Obama (2008) Ben Bernanke (2009) Mark Zuckerberg (2010) The Protester (2011) Barack Obama (2012) Pope Francis (2013) Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014) Angela Merkel (2015) Donald Trump (2016) The Silence Breakers (2017) The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018) Greta Thunberg (2019) Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020) v t e Recipients of the Charlemagne Prize 1950–1975 1950 Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi 1951 Hendrik Brugmans 1952 Alcide De Gasperi 1953 Jean Monnet 1954 Konrad Adenauer 1955 1956 Winston Churchill 1957 Paul-Henri Spaak 1958 Robert Schuman 1959 George Marshall 1960 Joseph Bech 1961 Walter Hallstein 1962 1963 Edward Heath 1964 Antonio Segni 1965 1966 Jens Otto Krag 1967 Joseph Luns 1968 1969 European Commission 1970 François Seydoux de Clausonne 1971 1972 Roy Jenkins 1973 Salvador de Madariaga 1974 1975 1976–2000 1976 Leo Tindemans 1977 Walter Scheel 1978 Konstantinos Karamanlis 1979 Emilio Colombo 1980 1981 Simone Veil 1982 King Juan Carlos I 1983 1984 1985 1986 People of Luxembourg 1987 Henry Kissinger 1988 François Mitterrand / Helmut Kohl 1989 Brother Roger 1990 Gyula Horn 1991 Václav Havel 1992 Jacques Delors 1993 Felipe González 1994 Gro Harlem Brundtland 1995 Franz Vranitzky 1996 Queen Beatrix 1997 Roman Herzog 1998 Bronisław Geremek 1999 Tony Blair 2000 Bill Clinton 2001–present 2001 György Konrád 2002 Euro 2003 Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 2004 Pat Cox / Pope John Paul II1 2005 Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 2006 Jean-Claude Juncker 2007 Javier Solana 2008 Angela Merkel 2009 Andrea Riccardi 2010 Donald Tusk 2011 Jean-Claude Trichet 2012 Wolfgang Schäuble 2013 Dalia Grybauskaitė 2014 Herman Van Rompuy 2015 Martin Schulz 2016 Pope Francis 2017 Timothy Garton Ash 2018 Emmanuel Macron 2019 António Guterres 2020 Klaus Iohannis 1 Received extraordinary prize. v t e Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album 1959−1980 The Best of the Stan Freberg Shows – Stan Freberg (1959) Lincoln Portrait – Carl Sandburg (1960) FDR Speaks – Robert Bialek (producer) (1961) Humor in Music – Leonard Bernstein (1962) The Story-Teller: A Session with Charles Laughton – Charles Laughton (1963) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? – Edward Albee (playwright) (1964) BBC Tribute to John F. 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en-wikipedia-org-2926	----	Constantius III - Wikipedia Constantius III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 421 Not to be confused with Constantine III (western emperor). Roman emperor of the West Constantius III Constantius on a solidus. The reverse shows Constantius as a general, holding Victory in one hand and a captive enemy in the other. Roman emperor of the West Reign 8 February – 2 September 421 (with Honorius) Born Unknown date Naissus, Moesia, (present-day Niš, Serbia) Died 2 September 421 Ravenna, Italy Spouse Galla Placidia Issue Justa Grata Honoria Valentinian III Names Flavius Constantius Constantius III (Flavius Constantius) was Roman emperor of the West in 421, from 8 February until his death on 2 September. He earned his position as Emperor due to his capability as a general under Honorius, achieving the rank of Magister militum by 411. That same year, he was sent to suppress the revolt of Constantine III, a Roman general who declared himself emperor. Constantius led his army to Arles in Gaul, the capital of Constantine III, and defeated Gerontius, a general rebelling against Constantine, before himself besieging Arles. After defeating a relief force led by Edobichus, Constantius convinced Constantine to surrender, promising safe retirement, but betrayed and beheaded him as soon as he surrendered. Constantius then went on to lead campaigns against various barbarian groups in Hispania and Gaul, recovering much of both for the Western Roman Empire. Constantius was proclaimed Western Roman Emperor by Honorius on 8 February 421. He reigned for seven months before dying on 2 September 421. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Revolt of Constantine III 1.3 Campaigns 1.4 Reign 2 References 2.1 Bibliography Life[edit] Early life[edit] Constantius was born in Naissus, Moesia ( present-day Niš, Serbia ) at an unknown date.[1][2] Constantius served as a general under Honorius, rising to the rank of Magister militum (Master of the Soldiers) by 411.[2] Revolt of Constantine III[edit] In 411 Constantius was sent by Honorius to put down the revolt of Constantine III, who had declared himself emperor in Britain in 407.[3] Constantius thereafter led his soldiers to Arles, the capital and residence of Constantine. Upon arriving, he defeated the army of Gerontius, a general who was rebelling against Constantine, before besieging the city.[3] Constantine refused to surrender, hoping to last until the return of his general Edobichus, who was raising troops in northern Gaul.[4] Edobichus did return to Arles, however he was swiftly defeated by Constantius.[5] Constantine soon after lost much of the remainder of his forces, as his army which had been guarding the Rhine chose to support the usurper Jovinus instead, forcing Constantine to surrender. Despite Constantius' assurances that Constantine would be able to safely retire to a clerical office, Constantius had him imprisoned, and further had him beheaded during his return to Ravenna, in either August or September 411.[3] Honorius' remaining rivals were soon defeated, with Gerontius committing suicide in Hispania,[6] and Jovinus being defeated by Athaulf, king of the Visigoths.[5] Despite this, Honorius was unable to regain control of Britain, nor was any Roman after him.[7] Campaigns[edit] Constantius initiated a campaign against the Visigoths in northern Hispania in 416, blockading them in order to starve them and force their submission. Soon after, the Visigoth king, Wallia, surrendered to Rome, agreeing to: return Galla Placidia, the sister of Honorius, who had been captured by Alaric c. 412, and been forced into marriage with Athaulf, who was by this time dead; to wage war against the Vandals and other barbarians who the Romans were still in conflict with, in exchange for food supplies.[8] Constantius then continued to campaign against various tribal groups, regaining control of much of Hispania and Gaul by 420.[9] Reign[edit] During this time period, generals played a critical role in ensuring the continued reign of Roman Emperors, especially Western Roman Emperors.[10] Constantius' position of Magister militum and his skill as a commander allowed him to gain huge influence over the Western Roman Empire, comparable to the earlier Stilicho.[2] For this reason, Honorius bestowed many honors upon Constantius,[10] such as appointing him consul three times: in 414, alongside Constans; in 417, alongside Honorius;[1][11] and in 420, alongside Theodosius II.[1][12] In order to further ensure Constantius' loyalty, Honorius arranged the betrothal of his sister, Galla Placidia, to Constantius in 417.[1] Later, on 8 February 421, Honorius made Constantius co-Western Emperor under himself. Constantius reigned as co-emperor only seven months before dying on 2 September 421, in Ravenna.[1][13] Constantius was succeeded by Honorius, who ruled alone until his death in 423, whereupon Valentinian III, Constantius' son, assumed the throne, with Galla Placidia serving as regent.[14] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Grant 2015, p. 60. ^ a b c Adkins & Adkins 2014, p. 36. ^ a b c Jones 1992, p. 316. ^ Bury 1889, p. 143. ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 144. ^ Jones 1992, p. 508. ^ Birley 1980, p. 160. ^ Lee 2013, p. 115. ^ Sivan 2011, p. 171. ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 82. ^ Cooley 2012, p. 482. ^ Cooley 2012, p. 483. ^ Cooley 2012, p. 506. ^ Ring, Watson & Schellinger 2013, p. 554. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2014). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Facts On File. ISBN 9780816074822. Birley, Anthony (1980). The People of Roman Britain. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520041196. Bury, J. B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire, from Arcadius to Irene (395 A. D. to 800 A. D.). Macmillan and co. OCLC 933179049. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139576604. Grant, Michael (2015). From Rome to Byzantium: The Fifth Century AD. Routledge. ISBN 9781135166724. Jones, A. H. M. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume 2, AD 395-527. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521201599. Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748668359. Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2013). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781134259656. Sivan, Hagith (2011). Galla Placidia: The Last Roman Empress. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195379129. Political offices Preceded by Heraclianus Lucius Roman consul 414 With: Constans Succeeded by Honorius Theodosius II Preceded by Theodosius II Junius Quartus Palladius Roman consul II 417 With: Honorius Succeeded by Honorius Theodosius II Preceded by Monaxius Plinta Roman consul III 420 With: Theodosius II Succeeded by Agricola Eustathius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantius_III&oldid=1023285260" Categories: 421 deaths 5th-century Roman emperors Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Magistri militum Patricii People from Niš Theodosian dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2019 Good articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 14:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2950	----	Dioscorides (Stoic) - Wikipedia Dioscorides (Stoic) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the philosopher. For the Roman physician, pharmacologist and botanist, see Pedanius Dioscorides. Dioscorides (Greek: Διοσκορίδης, fl. 225 BC), sometimes known as Dioscurides, was a Stoic philosopher, the father of Zeno of Tarsus and a pupil of Chrysippus. All other information has been lost. Another Dioscorides is mentioned by Diogenes Laërtius. This philosopher was a Pyrrhonist, and was a student of Timon of Phlius.[1] Dedication[edit] Chrysippus dedicated the following works to Dioscorides: Four books on Probable Conjunctive Reasons[2] Five books on the Art of Reasoning and of Modes[3] A solution, according to the principles of the ancients, of the law of non-contradiction[4] Five volumes of Dialectic Arguments, with no solution[5] Two books on Probable Arguments bearing on Definitions[6] An essay on Rhetoric, spanning four books[7] References[edit] ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-04-26. Retrieved 2017-05-10.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 190 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 193 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 197 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 198 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 200 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 202 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dioscorides_(Stoic)&oldid=1026329211" Categories: 3rd-century BC philosophers Stoic philosophers Logicians Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 16:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2955	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with ULAN identifiers.The ULAN identifier appears as Artist Names (Getty) in the Art research institutes section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P245. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories can be used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 46,067 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A A. & G. Taylor Dirk van der Aa Pieter van der Aa Herb Aach RWTH Aachen University Aachen Cathedral Treasury Aachen Town Hall Hans von Aachen Peder Aadnes Gunnar Aagaard Andersen Carl Frederik Aagaard Martin Aagaard Aino Aalto Alvar Aalto Elissa Aalto Ilmari Aalto Wäinö Aaltonen Eero Aarnio Jesse Aaron Jules Aarons Slim Aarons AARP Hans Aarsman Johannes Josephus Aarts Nils Aas Ulf Aas Vilmos Aba-Novák Antoni Abad Fritzie Abadi Juan de la Abadía Paul Abadie Magdalena Abakanowicz Martine Aballéa Iñaki Ábalos Masseot Abaquesne Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda Agustín Abarca Maria de Abarca Eduardo Abaroa (artist) André Abbal Abbas (photographer) Reza Abbasi Paolo Abbate Giuseppe Abbati Pietro Giovanni Abbati Vincenzo Abbati Guido Ubaldo Abbatini Hendrik Abbé James Abbe Salomon van Abbé Louise Abbéma Robert K. 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en-wikipedia-org-2961	----	Category:Philosophers of mind - Wikipedia Help Category:Philosophers of mind From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philosophers of mind. Philosophers in the philosophy of mind. See also Category:Cognitive scientists. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. A ► Action theorists‎ (30 P) ► Ancient Greek philosophers of mind‎ (6 P) C ► Consciousness researchers and theorists‎ (141 P) ► Cosmists‎ (5 P) Pages in category "Philosophers of mind" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 446 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)  List of philosophers of mind A Richard Aaron Bijan Abdolkarimi Günter Abel Theodor W. Adorno Lilli Alanen Samuel Alexander Robert F. Almeder Anaxagoras G. E. M. Anscombe Louise Antony István Aranyosi Arif Ahmed (philosopher) Aristotle David Malet Armstrong Nomy Arpaly Aspasia Robert Audi J. L. Austin Armen Avanessian Averroes Avicenna A. J. Ayer Michael R. Ayers B Francis Bacon Roger Bacon Julius Bahnsen Thomas Baldwin (philosopher) Dorit Bar-On Renaud Barbaras Ann-Sophie Barwich Gregory Bateson Anthony Beavers Jakob Sigismund Beck Ansgar Beckermann Balthasar Bekker Friedrich Eduard Beneke Jeremy Bentham Frithjof Bergmann Henri Bergson Akeel Bilgrami Maine de Biran Ned Block Paul Boghossian Emil du Bois-Reymond Francesco Bonatelli Laurence BonJour Lisa Bortolotti Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Hans-Werner Bothe Pierre Bourdieu Oets Kolk Bouwsma F. H. Bradley David Braine (philosopher) Robert Brandom Richard Brandt Franz Brentano Bill Brewer Ingo Brigandt C. D. Broad Berit Brogaard David H. M. Brooks Jason Walter Brown Thomas Brown (philosopher) Bartosz Brożek Léon Brunschvicg Martin Buber Gautama Buddha Tyler Burge C Elisabeth Camp Susan Carey Peter Carruthers (philosopher) Héctor-Neri Castañeda Cornelius Castoriadis David Chalmers Rafe Champion Vere Claiborne Chappell C. T. K. Chari David Charles (philosopher) Roderick Chisholm Kah Kyung Cho Noam Chomsky Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Emil Cioran Andy Clark Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Anne Conway (philosopher) Rachel Cooper (philosopher) Tim Crane Crates of Thebes Paul Crowther Manuel Curado D Antonio Damasio Arthur Danto Donald Davidson (philosopher) Martin Davies (philosopher) Gilles Deleuze Daniel Dennett Jacques Derrida Peggy DesAutels René Descartes John Dewey Vincenzo Di Nicola Philip K. Dick Diogenes Gerhard Dorn Bradley Dowden Fred Dretske Hubert Dreyfus E Umberto Eco Naomi Eilan Rudolf Eisler Jacques Ellul Ralph Waldo Emerson Epictetus Epicurus Wilhelm Esser Josef Estermann Gareth Evans (philosopher) F Fan Zhen Al-Farabi Jan Faye Ludwig Feuerbach Johann Gottlieb Fichte Hartry Field Carrie Figdor Herbert Fingarette Eugen Fink Owen Flanagan Jerry Fodor Manfred Frank Harry Frankfurt Keith Frankish Gottlob Frege Buckminster Fuller Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov G Hans-Georg Gadamer Franz Joseph Gall Shaun Gallagher Ganesha Ashok Gangadean Aldo Gargani Richard Gaskin Christopher Gauker Maximilian de Gaynesford Peter Geach Moritz Geiger Brie Gertler Edmund Gettier Arnold Geulincx Ionel Gherea Allan Gibbard William Gibson Peter Godfrey-Smith Alvin Goldman Sacha Golob Nelson Goodman Thomas Gordon (philosopher) John Gray (philosopher) A. C. Grayling Celia Green Samuel Guttenplan Jean-Marie Guyau Þorsteinn Gylfason H Susan Haack Jürgen Habermas Peter Hacker Everett Hall Eugene Halliday Stuart Hampshire Alastair Hannay Donna Haraway Valerie G. Hardcastle Gilbert Harman Graham Harman Rom Harré Sam Harris David Hartley (philosopher) Charles Hartshorne John Hawthorne Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Dieter Henrich Heraclitus Johann Gottfried Herder Christopher S. Hill William Hirstein Thomas Hobbes Christoph Hoerl Douglas Hofstadter Martin Hollis (philosopher) Ted Honderich Max Horkheimer Jennifer Hornsby Wilhelm von Humboldt David Hume Susan Hurley Edmund Husserl Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) Aldous Huxley (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Philosophers_of_mind&oldid=952691097" Categories: Philosophers by field Philosophy of mind Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Íslenska Latina മലയാളം Монгол 日本語 Polski Scots Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Türkçe اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2020, at 15:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2971	----	Dionysius of Cyrene - Wikipedia Dionysius of Cyrene From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic philosopher Dionysius of Cyrene (Greek: Διονύσιος ὁ Κυρηναῖος), lived c. 150 BC, was a Stoic philosopher and mathematician. He was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus. He was famed as a mathematician, and he is probably the Dionysius whose arguments are attacked by Philodemus in his book On Signs (Latin: De Signis),[1] where Dionysius is reported as arguing that the Sun must be very large because it reappears slowly from behind an obstruction.[2] Notes[edit] ^ Allen, J., Inference from Signs: Ancient Debates about the Nature of Evidence, page 207. Oxford University Press. (2001). ^ Barnes, J., Pyrrhonism, Belief and Causation. Observations on the Skepticism of Sextus Empiricus, p. 2661-2662, in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt:: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. ed. Werk, Vogt, Haase, Temporini. Walter de Gruyter. (1997). v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysius_of_Cyrene&oldid=1012942936" Categories: Hellenistic-era philosophers from Africa Stoic philosophers 2nd-century BC Greek people 2nd-century BC philosophers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ελληνικά Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 March 2021, at 04:53 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2983	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NTA identifiers.The NTA identifier appears as Netherlands in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P1006. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories can be used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 222,748 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)0–9 50 Cent A Michael A'Hearn Abraham Jacob van der Aa Christianus Carolus Henricus van der Aa Christianus Robidé van der Aa Cornelis van der Aa Hubertus Antonius van der Aa Michel van der Aa Petrus van der Aa Pieter van der Aa Aaajiao Philip Aaberg Asger Aaboe Peter Aaby Karen Aabye Hans Günther Aach Hans von Aachen Thorvald Aadahl Bertus Aafjes Jacob Aagaard Johannes Aagaard Andreas Aagesen Fritz Aagesen Anne van Aaken David Aaker Jennifer Aaker Lee Aaker Kim Fupz Aakeson Jeppe Aakjær Johannes Aal Mikkel Aaland Karel Aalbers Piet Aalberse Sr. G. Ch. Aalders Odd Aalen Aaliyah Anathon Aall Hans Aall Jacob Aall Wil van der Aalst Thomas van Aalten Truus van Aalten Marjatta Aalto Pentti Aalto Susanne Aalto Juhani Aaltonen Mike Aamodt Jane Aamund Hans Aanrud Willem Aantjes Hans Aaraas Magnus Aarbakke Karen Aardal Verna Aardema Jacobus Aarden Gijs van Aardenne Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg Frank Aarebrot Emil Aarestrup Andreas Aarflot Antti Aarne Asbjørn Aarnes Selma Lønning Aarø Aaron ben Jacob ha-Kohen Aaron ben Moses ben Asher Aaron ben Samuel of Hergershausen Aaron HaLevi ben Moses of Staroselye Aaron of Jerusalem Benjamin Aaron Caroline Aaron Chester Aaron Daniel Aaron David L. Aaron Hank Aaron Henry J. Aaron Jane Aaron (educator) Jason Aaron Jonathan Aaron Manuel Aaron Richard E. Aaron Richard Aaron Soazig Aaron Ben Aaronovitch David Aaronovitch Sam Aaronovitch Edward S. Aarons Eric Aarons Jules Aarons Mark Aarons Slim Aarons Aaron Aaronsohn Alexander Aaronsohn Lazarus Aaronson Marc Aaronson Scott Aaronson Stuart A. Aaronson Susan Ariel Aaronson Kristian Birch-Reichenwald Aars Asbjørn Aarseth Espen Aarseth Sverre Aarseth Dagfinn Aarskog Francis van Aarssens Harry Aarts Kees Aarts Jan van Aartsen Jozias van Aartsen Kjell Aartun Arne Paasche Aasen Ivar Aasen Katherine Aaslestad Karin Aasma Jans Aasman Arnstein Aassve Asbjørn Aavik Johannes Aavik Juhan Aavik Aziz Ab'Sáber Noureddine Aba Sani Abacha Joseph Abaco Diego Abad de Santillán Héctor Abad Gómez José Abad Santos Manuel Abad y Queipo Gémino Abad Mercedes Abad Pacita Abad Ramon d'Abadal i de Vinyals Lucas Abadamloora Nermin Abadan Unat Haider al-Abadi Martín Abadi Moussa Abadi Guillermo Abadía Morales Alberto Abadie Claude Abadie Jean Marie Charles Abadie Alejandro G. Abadilla Gjorgji Abadžiev Vasily Abaev Frank Abagnale Edmund Abaka Bruno Abakanowicz Magdalena Abakanowicz Ahmet Abakay Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu Leonid Abalkin Rafael Ábalos Richard Abanes Chris Abani Abaoji Ana Francisca Abarca de Bolea Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda Pedro Abarca Salleh Abas José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa Salvador Abascal Vladimir Abashev Dodo Abashidze Grigol Abashidze Irakli Abashidze Kita Abashidze Memed Abashidze Sait Faik Abasıyanık Diego Abatantuono Carmine Abate Getachew Abate Baldo Angelo Abati Reuben Abati Firmin Abauzit Abaye Aziz Abaza Tharwat Abaza Dino Abazović Gustav Abb Giuseppe Cesare Abba Marta Abba Abbad II al-Mu'tadid Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra Mostafa El-Abbadi Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie Jakob Abbadie Jean-Jacques Blaise d'Abbadie Claudio Abbado Marcello Abbado Roberto Abbado Nicola Abbagnano Abbahu Abbas (photographer) Abbas the Great Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf Abbas II of Egypt Abbas Sarwani Ackbar Abbas Ferhat Abbas Hakima Abbas Hassan Abbas (legal scholar) Ibn Abbas Ihsan Abbas (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NTA_identifiers&oldid=908338529" Categories: Pages with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Miscellaneous pages with NTA identifiers Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Bosanski 한국어 Ilokano עברית Bahasa Melayu 日本語 ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Sardu Scots Suomi ไทย Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 29 July 2019, at 02:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2990	----	Herodes Atticus - Wikipedia Herodes Atticus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Greek. (June 2021) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Greek article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 257 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Greek Wikipedia article at [[:el:Ηρώδης ο Αττικός]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|el|Ηρώδης ο Αττικός}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Greco-Roman senator, consul and sophist (101–177) Herodes Atticus bust, from his villa at Kephissia. mid-2nd century Herodes Atticus (Greek: Ἡρῴδης ὁ Ἀττικός, Hērōidēs ho Attikos; AD 101–177)[1] was a Greco-Roman politician and sophist who served as a Roman senator. Appointed consul at Rome in 143, he was the first Greek to hold the rank of consul ordinarius, as opposed to consul suffectus. In Latin, his full name was given as Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes.[1] According to Philostratus, Herodes Atticus was a notable proponent of the Second Sophistic. M.I. Finley described Herodes Atticus as "patron of the arts and letters (and himself a writer and scholar of importance), public benefactor on an imperial scale, not only in Athens but elsewhere in Greece and Asia Minor, holder of many important posts, friend and kinsman of emperors."[2] Contents 1 Ancestry and family 2 Life 3 Children 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Ancestry and family[edit] Herodes Atticus was a Greek of Athenian descent. His ancestry could be traced to the Athenian noblewoman Elpinice, a half-sister of the statesman Cimon and daughter of Miltiades.[1] He claimed lineage from a series of mythic Greek kings: Theseus, Cecrops, and Aeacus, as well as the god Zeus. He had an ancestor four generations removed from him called Polycharmus, who may have been the Archon of Athens of that name from 9/8 BC–22/23.[3] His family bore the Roman family name Claudius. There is a possibility that a paternal ancestor of his received Roman citizenship from an unknown member of the Claudian gens. Herodes Atticus was born to a distinguished and very rich family of consular rank.[4] His parents were a Roman Senator of Greek descent, Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, and the wealthy heiress Vibullia Alcia Agrippina.[1][5][6] He had a brother named Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodianus and a sister named Claudia Tisamenis.[1] His maternal grandparents were Claudia Alcia and Lucius Vibullius Rufus, while his paternal grandfather was Hipparchus.[6] His parents were related as uncle and niece.[5][6][7] His maternal grandmother and his father were sister and brother.[6][7] His maternal uncle Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus was an Archon of Athens in the years 99–100[6][8] and his maternal cousin, Publius Aelius Vibullius Rufus, was an Archon of Athens between 143–144.[6][8] Life[edit] Marble head of Herodes Atticus, the Athenian millionaire and philosopher. Roman, circa 177–180 AD. Said to be Alexandria, Egypt. Lent by Winchester City Museum. The British Museum, London Bust of Polydeukes – Altes Museum, Berlin Memnon, foster child of Herodes Atticus; marble bust (showing sub-Saharan facial features), c. 170 AD, from the villa of Herodes Atticus at Eva, Peloponnesus. Herodes Atticus was born in Marathon, Greece,[9] and spent his childhood years between Greece and Italy. According to Juvenal[10] he received an education in rhetoric and philosophy from many of the best teachers from both Greek and Roman culture.[11] Throughout his life, however, Herodes Atticus remained entirely Greek in his cultural outlook.[11] He was a student of Favorinus, and inherited Favorinus' library.[12] Like Favorius, he was a harsh critic of Stoicism. these disciplines of the cult of the unemotional, who want to be considered calm, brave, and steadfast because they show neither desire nor grief, neither anger nor pleasure, cut out the more active emotions of the spirit and grow old in a torpor, a sluggish, enervated life.[13] The Emperor Hadrian in 125 appointed him Prefect of the free cities in the Roman province of Asia. He later returned to Athens, where he became famous as a teacher. In the year 140, Herodes Atticus was elected and served as an Archon of Athens. Later in 140, the Emperor Antoninus Pius invited him to Rome from Athens to educate his two adopted sons, the future Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Sometime after, he was betrothed to Aspasia Annia Regilla, a wealthy aristocrat, who was related to the wife of Antoninus Pius, Faustina the Elder.[14] When Regilla and Herodes Atticus married, she was 14 years old and he was 40. As Herodes Atticus was in favor with the Emperor, as a mark of his friendship Antoninus Pius appointed him Consul in 143. Herodes Atticus and Regilla controlled a large tract around the Third Mile of the Appian Way outside Rome, which was known as the "Triopio" (from Triopas, King of Thessaly). For his remaining years he travelled between Greece and Italy. Some time after his consulship, he returned to Greece permanently with his wife and their children. Herodes Atticus was the teacher of three notable students: Achilles, Memnon and Polydeuces (Polydeukes). "The aged Herodes Atticus in a public paroxysm of despair at the death of his perhaps eromenos Polydeukes, commissioned games, inscriptions and sculptures on a lavish scale and then died, inconsolable, shortly afterwards."[15] Herodes Atticus had a distinguished reputation for his literary work, most of which is now lost,[11] and was a philanthropist and patron of public works. He funded a number of building projects, including: A Stadium – Athens Odeon – Athens; built to honor the memory of his wife[16] A theater at Corinth A stadium at Delphi The baths at Thermopylae An aqueduct at Canusium in Italy An aqueduct at Alexandria Troas A nymphaeum (monumental fountain) with his wife at Olympia various benefactions to the peoples of Thessaly, Epirus Euboea, Boeotia and Peloponnesus He also contemplated cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was deterred from carrying out the plan because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the emperor Nero.[16] Throughout his life, Herodes Atticus had a stormy relationship with the citizens of Athens, but before he died he was reconciled with them.[11] When he died, the citizens of Athens gave him an honored burial, his funeral taking place in the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which he had commissioned.[11] Children[edit] Regilla bore Herodes Atticus six children, of whom three survived to adulthood. Their children were: Son, Claudius – born and died in 141[1] Daughter, Elpinice – born as Appia Annia Claudia Atilia Regilla Elpinice Agrippina Atria Polla, 142–165[1] Daughter, Athenais – born as Marcia Annia Claudia Alcia Athenais Gavidia Latiaria, 143–161[1] Son, Atticus Bradua – born in 145 as Tiberius Claudius Marcus Appius Atilius Bradua Regillus Atticus[1] Son, Regillus – born as Tiberius Claudius Herodes Lucius Vibullius Regillus, 150–155[1] Unnamed child who died with Regilla or died even perhaps three months later in 160[1] After Regilla died in 160, Herodes Atticus never married again. When he died in 177, his son Atticus Bradua and his grandchildren survived him. Sometime after his wife's death, he adopted his cousin's first grandson Lucius Vibullius Claudius Herodes as his son.[17] Legacy[edit] Herodes Atticus and Regilla, from the 2nd century until the present, have been considered great benefactors in Greece, in particular in Athens. The couple are commemorated in Herodou Attikou Street and Rigillis Street and Square, in downtown Athens. In Rome, their names are also recorded on modern streets, in the Quarto Miglio suburb close to the area of the Triopio. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Pomeroy, The murder of Regilla: a case of domestic violence in antiquity ^ Finley, The Ancient Economy (Berkeley: University of California, 1973), p. 100 ^ Day, J., An economic history of Athens under Roman domination p. 238 ^ Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece p.p. 349-350 ^ a b Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece p. 349 ^ a b c d e f Graindor, P., Un milliardaire antique p. 29 ^ a b Day, J., An economic history of Athens under Roman domination p. 243 ^ a b Sleepinbuff.com Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine ^ Article, Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, Microsoft Encyclopedia 2002 ^ Juvenal, Satire III ^ a b c d e Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece p. 350 ^ Wytse Hette Keulen "Gellius the Satirist: Roman Cultural Authority in Attic Nights" p119 ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, 19.12, translation by William O. Stephens, in Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed 2011, p 12 ^ Pomeroy, The murder of Regilla: a case of domestic violence in antiquity p. 14 ^ Lambert, Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous, p. 143. ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Claudius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 885. ^ Graindor, Un milliardaire antique p. 29 Sources[edit] Primary sources Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists, 2.1 (paragraphs 545–566) Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights Philostratus, Leben der Sophisten. Greek and German by Kai Brodersen. Wiesbaden: Marix 2014, ISBN 978-3-86539-368-5 Secondary material Gibbon, E., The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Day, J., An economic history of Athens under Roman domination, Ayers Company Publishers, 1973 Graindor, P., Un milliardaire antique, Ayers Company Publishers, 1979 Kennell, Nigel M. "Herodes and the Rhetoric of Tyranny", Classical Philology, 4 (1997), pp. 316–362. Lambert, R., Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous, Viking, 1984. Papalas, A. J, "Herodes Atticus: An essay on education in the Antonine age", History of Education Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Summer, 1981), pp. 171–188. Tobin, Jennifer, Herodes Attikos and the City of Athens: Patronage and Conflict Under the Antonines, J. C. Gieben, 1997. Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 18–395, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 978-0-415-10058-8 Wilson, N. G., Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Routledge 2006 Pomeroy, S. B., The murder of Regilla: a case of domestic violence in antiquity, Harvard University Press, 2007 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Herodes Atticus. Sleepinbuff.com Plancia Magna, Aurelia Paulina, and Regilla: Civic Donors Political offices Preceded by (Sulpicius?) Julianus, and Titus Julius Castus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 143 with Gaius Bellicius Flaccus Torquatus Succeeded by Quintus Junius Calamus, and Marcus Valerius Junianus as suffect consuls Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herodes_Atticus&oldid=1026632511" Categories: 101 births 177 deaths Claudii People from East Attica 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Roman-era Athenian rhetoricians Ancient Greek rhetoricians Roman Athens Eponymous archons Roman-era Sophists Philanthropists Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles to be expanded from June 2021 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from Greek Wikipedia Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 11:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2994	----	Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus - Wikipedia Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator and consul Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus (c. 110 – aft. 145) was a Roman senator, who was suffect consul for the nundinium of March-April 145 with Lucius Poblicola Priscus as his colleague.[1] Silvanus was the son of Lucius Fundanius Laemia Aelianus and wife Annia. According to the Augustan History, Silvanus married Aurelia Fadilla (died 135), daughter of Antoninus Pius and Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Elder.[2] The Augustan History claims that Fabia Orestilla, the wife of Gordian I, was a descendant of the Emperor Antoninus Pius through her father Fulvus Antoninus, a descendant of Silvanus.[3] Modern historians have dismissed this name and her information as false, as they believe his wife was the granddaughter of the Greek Sophist, consul, and tutor Herodes Atticus. References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 74 ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius 1.7; translated by Anthony Birley, Lives of the Later Caesars (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 96 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 17.4 Political offices Preceded by Antonius Pius IV, and Marcus Aurelius II as ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 145 with Lucius Poblicola Priscus Succeeded by Gnaeus Arrius Cornelius Proculus, and Decius Junius Paetus as suffect consuls This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Plautius_Lamia_Silvanus&oldid=987342281" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Plautii Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Nerva–Antonine dynasty 110s births Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Español Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2020, at 11:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3045	----	Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus - Wikipedia Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, consul and imperial advisor Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus was a Roman senator who was an amici or trusted advisor of the emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He was suffect consul in the nundinium of April to June 152 as the colleague of Publius Sufenas.[1] He is also known as Lucius Dasumius Tuscus and Lucius Tullius Tuscus.[2] Family[edit] Olli Salomies has argued, based on the commonalities in the names, membership in the same tribe, Stellatina, and that inscriptions honoring both were dedicated by the same man, P. Tullius Callistio, that Publius Tullius Varro, consul in 127, was Tuscus' birth father. The "Lucius Dasumius" in his name refers to his adoptive father, whom Salomies believes was "certainly related" to Publius Dasumius Rusticus, eponymous consul of 119.[3] The origins of he and his father are considered to be the Etruscan town of Tarquinia, which was assigned to the Stellatina tribe.[4] Tuscus is considered to be the father of Marcus Dasumius Tullius Varro;[5] the name of his wife, and any other possible children, are unrecorded. Career[edit] The career of Tuscus is known through an inscription found in Tarquinia.[6] As a teenager, he was a member of the tresviri monetalis, considered by modern scholars the most favored of the magistracies that comprised the vigintiviri. It was usually held either by Patricians or young men favored by the Emperor. Plebeians who held this office usually went on to enjoy successful careers.[7] Evidence of this favor appears shortly afterwards: after serving a term as military tribune in Legio IV Flavia Felix based at Singidunum, Tuscus served as quaestor to the emperor Antoninus Pius, then was legatus or assistant to the proconsul of Africa. These latter two assignments provided him with potential for visibility and introductions to influential people. After holding the Republican magistracies of plebeian tribune and praetor, Tuscus was prefect of the aerarium Saturni (c. 147-c. 150).[8] While suffect consul he was governor of Germania Superior (c. 152-c. 158)[9] and his term as curator operum publicorum possibly was also simultaneous.[10] His last known office was governor of Pannonia Superior during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, as the successor of Marcus Nonius Macrinus and predecessor of Marcus Iallius Bassus.[11] The inscription from Tarquinia also attests that he was a member of the sodales Hadrianales and sodali Antoniniani (the latter most likely after the emperor's death), as well as holding the prestigious sacral office of augur. References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 76 ^ Olli Salomies, Adoptive and polyonymous nomenclature in the Roman Empire, (Helsinski: Societas Scientiarum Fenica, 1992), p. 98 ^ Salomies, Adoptive and polyonymous nomenclature, pp. 98f ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen (Bonn: Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 307 ^ CIL XI, 1400 ^ CIL XI, 3365 = ILS 1081 ^ Anthony Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 5 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 292 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 228 ^ Alföldy dates it to 154. (Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 290) ^ Alföldy suggests the dates of c. 162-c. 166 (Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 237) Political offices Preceded by Manius Acilius Glabrio Gnaeus Cornelius Severus, and Marcus Valerius Homullus as ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 152 with Publius Sufenas Succeeded by Gaius Novius Priscus, and Lucius Julius Romulus as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Dasumius_Tullius_Tuscus&oldid=1017323640" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Dasumii Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Germania Superior Roman governors of Pannonia Superior Augurs of the Roman Empire Ancient Roman adoptees Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2021, at 03:48 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3047	----	Category:Roman pharaohs - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Articles relating to Roman emperors, who were considered pharaohs in Roman Egypt. This covers the period from 30 BC to 313 AD. The category should include only Pharaohs attested in ancient sources, not all Roman emperors. Pages in category "Roman pharaohs" The following 30 pages are in this category, out of 30 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Roman pharaoh A Antoninus Pius Augustus C Caligula Caracalla Claudius Commodus D Decius Diadumenian Diocletian Domitian G Galba Galerius Geta (emperor) H Hadrian L Lucius Verus M Macrinus Marcus Aurelius Maximian Maximinus Daza N Nero Nerva O Otho P Philip the Arab S Septimius Severus T Tiberius Titus Trajan V Valerian (emperor) Vespasian Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman_pharaohs&oldid=1026436018" Categories: Pharaohs Roman Egypt Roman emperors Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 08:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3048	----	Category:Stoicism - Wikipedia Help Category:Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stoicism. The main article for this category is Stoicism. Subcategories This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total. P ► Stoic philosophers‎ (2 C, 47 P) ► Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger‎ (11 P) Pages in category "Stoicism" The following 52 pages are in this category, out of 52 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Stoicism A Adiaphora Anima mundi Apatheia Astronomica (Manilius) Ataraxia Autarky B Best of all possible worlds C De Constantia D Diairesis Discourses of Epictetus Dogma E Ego Is the Enemy Ekpyrosis Enchiridion of Epictetus Epoché Eudaimonia F Free will in antiquity G Glossary of Stoicism terms I If— K Katalepsis Kathekon L Stoic logic M Marcus Aurelius Pat McGeehan Meditations Memento mori Microcosm-macrocosm analogy Modern Stoicism Moral intellectualism N Nature (philosophy) Negative visualization Neostoicism O The Obstacle Is the Way Oikeiôsis Otium P Paradoxa Stoicorum On Passions Pathos Phantasiai Stoic physics Pneuma (Stoic) Prohairesis R Republic (Zeno) S Sage (philosophy) Sign Stoa Poikile Stoic categories Stoic Opposition Stoic passions Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Τ Template:Stoicism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Stoicism&oldid=894605113" Categories: Roman-era philosophy Ethical schools and movements Political theories Pantheism Movements in hellenistic philosophy Meditation Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা Български Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Interlingua Íslenska Italiano Қазақша Latina Latviešu Македонски 日本語 Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 April 2019, at 21:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3049	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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en-wikipedia-org-184	----	Early life of Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Early life of Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Life of Marcus Aurelius between 121 and 161 Marcus Aurelius Marble statue of a young Marcus Aurelius in military garb, wearing the muscle cuirass, Altes Museum, Berlin Emperor of the Roman Empire Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperors Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born Marcus Annius Verus 26 April 121 Rome Died 17 March 180(180-03-17) (aged 58) Vindobona or Sirmium Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger Issue 14, incl. Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla Regnal name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva-Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Lucilla Minor Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e The early life of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) spans the time from his birth on 26 April 121 until his accession as Roman emperor on 8 March 161. Following the death of his father, Marcus Annius Verus (III), Marcus Aurelius was raised by his grandfather, Marcus Annius Verus (II). Educated at home, Marcus became an adherent of Stoicism at a young age. In 138 he was adopted by Antoninus Pius, himself the adopted heir of Emperor Hadrian. Hadrian died later that year and was succeeded by Antoninus. Among Marcus' tutors were the orators Marcus Cornelius Fronto and Herodes Atticus. Marcus held the consulship jointly with Antoninus in 140, then he was quaestor, then he and Antoninus were consuls again for the year 145. In 145, he married Antoninus' daughter Faustina. Several children were born to the couple during Antoninus' reign, of whom only the future empress Lucilla survived. Marcus took on more responsibilities of state as Antoninus aged; at the time of Antoninus' death in 161, he was consul with his adoptive brother Lucius. Contents 1 Sources 2 Family and childhood 3 Early education, 128–136 4 Civic duties and family connections, 127–136 5 Succession to Hadrian, 136–138 6 Heir to Antoninus Pius, 138–145 7 Fronto and further education, 136–146 8 The Stoic prince, 146–161 9 Births and deaths, 147–152 10 Pius' last years, 152–161 11 Chronology 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Bibliography 14.1 Ancient sources 14.2 Modern sources Sources[edit] The major sources for the life and rule of Marcus Aurelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. This is particularly true of his youth. The biographies contained in the Historia Augusta claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the fourth century, but are in fact written by a single author (referred to here as "the biographer") from the later fourth century (c. 395). The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are a tissue of lies and fiction, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much better.[1] For Marcus Aurelius' life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are full of fiction.[2] A body of correspondence between Marcus Aurelius' tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials (with a focus on Marcus Aurelius himself) survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[3] Marcus Aurelius' own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable, and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[4] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[5] Some other literary sources provide specific detail: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianus on Marcus Aurelius' legal work.[6] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[7] Family and childhood[edit] The gens Annia, to which Marcus Aurelius belonged, had an undistinguished history. Their only famous member was Titus Annius Milo, a man known for hastening the end of the free republic through his use of political violence.[8] Marcus Aurelius' paternal family originated in Ucubi, a small town southeast of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica. The family rose to prominence in the late first century AD. Marcus Aurelius' great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; in 73–74 his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made a patrician.[9] Cassius Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[10] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated. One conjectural bond runs through Annius Verus (II). Verus' wife Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and an unnamed mother. It has been hypothesized Rupilia Faustina's mother was Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[11] Verus' elder son—Marcus Aurelius' father—Marcus Annius Verus (III) married Domitia Lucilla Minor.[12] Bust of Marcus Aurelius as a young boy (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, Marcus' modern biographer, writes of the bust: "This is certainly a grave young man."[13] Lucilla was the daughter of the patrician P. Calvisius Tullus Ruso and the Domitia Lucilla Major. Domitia Lucilla Major had inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her maternal grandfather and her paternal grandfather by adoption.[14] The younger Lucilla would acquire much of her mother's wealth, including a large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome—a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom.[15] Lucilla and Verus (III) had two children: a son, Marcus Aurelius, born on 26 April 121, and Annia Cornificia Faustina, probably born in 122 or 123.[16] Verus (III) probably died in 124, during his praetorship, when Marcus Aurelius was only three years old.[17][notes 1] Though he can hardly have known him, Marcus Aurelius wrote in his Meditations that he had learned "modesty and manliness" from his memories of his father and from the man's posthumous reputation.[19] Lucilla did not remarry.[17] Lucilla, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Marcus Aurelius was in the care of "nurses".[20] Marcus Aurelius credits his mother with teaching him "religious piety, simplicity in diet" and how to avoid "the ways of the rich".[21] In his letters, Marcus Aurelius makes frequent and affectionate reference to her; he was grateful that, "although she was fated to die young, yet she spent her last years with me".[22] After his father's death, Marcus Aurelius was adopted by his paternal grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II).[23] Another man, Lucius Catilius Severus, also participated in his upbringing. Severus is described as Marcus Aurelius' "maternal great-grandfather"; he is probably the stepfather of the elder Lucilla.[23] Marcus Aurelius was raised in the home of his mother (the Horti Domitiae Lucillae) on the Caelian Hill, a district he would affectionately refer to as "my Caelian".[24] It was an upscale region, with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. The most famous of these villas was the Lateran Palace, seized under Nero (r. 54–68) and thenceforth imperial property. Marcus Aurelius' grandfather owned his own palace beside the Lateran, where Marcus Aurelius would spend much of his childhood.[25] Marcus Aurelius thanks his grandfather for teaching him "good character and avoidance of bad temper".[26] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of Rupilia Faustina, his wife.[27] Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius' modern biographer, detects a hint of sexual tension in Marcus Aurelius' writings on the mistress.[28] Marcus Aurelius was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[27] Marcus Aurelius thanks the gods that he did not lose his virginity before its due time, and even held out a bit longer.[29] He is proud that he did not indulge himself with Benedicta or Theodotus (household slaves, presumably).[30][notes 2] Early education, 128–136[edit] Bust of a young Marcus Aurelius as the heir apparent, 138-144 AD, Altes Museum, Berlin Marcus Aurelius probably began his education at the age of seven.[32] He was taught at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[33] Marcus Aurelius thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[34] Three of his childhood tutors are known: Euphoric, Geminus, and an unnamed educator. These three are otherwise unattested in the ancient sources, and would probably have been household slaves or freedmen. Since Euphoric had a Greek name, he probably taught Marcus Aurelius the basics of that language.[35] (He is said to have taught Marcus Aurelius literature.[36]) Geminus is described as an actor, and he may have taught Marcus Aurelius Latin pronunciation and general elocution.[35][notes 3] The educator would have been Marcus Aurelius' overall supervisor, charged with his moral welfare and general development.[35] Marcus Aurelius speaks of him with admiration in his Meditations: he taught him to "bear pain and be content with little; to work with my own hands, to mind my own business, to be slow to listen to slander".[38] At the age of twelve, Marcus Aurelius would have been ready for secondary education, under the grammatici. Two of his teachers at this age are known: Andro, a "geometrician and musician"; and Diognetus, a painting-master.[39] Marcus Aurelius thought of Diognetus as more than a mere painter, however. He seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life. Marcus Aurelius writes that Diognetus taught him "to avoid passing enthusiasms; to distrust the stories of miracle-workers and impostors about incantations and exorcism of spirits and such things; not to go cock-fighting or to get excited about such sports; to put up with outspokenness; and to become familiar with philosophy" and "to write philosophical dialogues in my boyhood".[40] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus Aurelius took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[notes 4][42] A new set of tutors—Alexander of Cotiaeum, Trosius Aper, and Tuticius Proculus[notes 5]—took over Marcus Aurelius' education in about 132 or 133.[44] Little is known of the latter two (both teachers of Latin), but Alexander was a major littérateur, the leading Homeric scholar of his day.[45] Marcus Aurelius thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[46] Alexander's influence—an emphasis on matter over style, on careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation—has been detected in Marcus Aurelius' Meditations'' '.[47] Civic duties and family connections, 127–136[edit] Bust of Hadrian (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). Emperor Hadrian patronized the young Marcus, and may have planned to make him his long-term successor.[48] In 127, at the age of six, Marcus Aurelius was enrolled in the equestrian order on the recommendation of Emperor Hadrian. Though this was not completely unprecedented, and other children are known to have joined the order, Marcus Aurelius was still unusually young. In 128, Marcus Aurelius was enrolled in the priestly college of the Salii. Since the standard qualifications for the college were not met—Marcus Aurelius did not have two living parents—they must have been waived by Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius' nominator, as a special favor to the child.[49] Hadrian had a strong affection for the child, and nicknamed him Verissimus, "most true".[50][notes 6] The Salii, after their name (salire: to leap, to dance), were devoted to ritual dance. Twice a year, at the Quinquatria on 19 March and the Armilustrium on 19 October, they played important roles in public ceremonies marking the opening and closing of the campaigning season. On other days in March and October (and especially during the festival of Mars from 1 to 24 March), they would march through the streets of Rome, halting at intervals to perform their ritual dances, beat their shields with staffs, and sing the Carmen Saliare, a hymn in archaic Latin.[52] The song would have been nearly unintelligible, but Marcus Aurelius learned it by heart. He took his duties seriously. Marcus Aurelius rose through the offices of the priesthood, becoming in turn the leader of the dance, the vates (prophet), and the master of the order.[53] Once, when the Salii were throwing their crowns onto the banqueting couch of the gods, as was customary, Marcus Aurelius' fell on the brow of Mars. In later years, this event would be read as an auspicious omen heralding Marcus Aurelius' future rule.[54] Hadrian did not see much of Marcus Aurelius in his childhood. He spent most of his time outside Rome, on the frontier, or dealing with administrative and local affairs in the provinces.[notes 7] By 135, however, he had returned to Italy for good. He had grown close to Lucius Ceionius Commodus, husband of the daughter of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, a dear friend of Hadrian whom the emperor had killed early in his reign. In 136, shortly after, Marcus Aurelius assumed the toga virilis symbolizing his passage into manhood, Hadrian arranged for his engagement to one of Commodus' daughters, Ceionia Fabia.[56] Marcus Aurelius was made prefect of the city during the feriae Latinae soon after (he was probably appointed by Commodus). Although the office held no real administrative significance—the full-time prefect remained in office during the festival—it remained a prestigious office for young aristocrats and members of the imperial family. Marcus Aurelius conducted himself well at the job.[57] Through Commodus, Marcus Aurelius met Apollonius of Chalcedon, a Stoic philosopher. Apollonius had taught Commodus and would be an enormous impact on Marcus Aurelius, who would later study with him regularly. He is one of only three people Marcus Aurelius thanks the gods for having met.[58] At about this time, Marcus Aurelius' younger sister, Annia Cornificia, married Ummidius Quadratus, her first cousin. Domitia Lucilla Minor asked Marcus Aurelius to give part of his father's inheritance to his sister. He agreed to give her all of it, content as he was with his grandfather's estate.[59][notes 8] Succession to Hadrian, 136–138[edit] Portrait of the young Marcus Aurelius on a modern bust, marble, 150–200 AD; NG Prague, Kinský Palace. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a haemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus as his successor, and adopted him as his son.[61] The selection was done invitis omnibus, "against the wishes of everyone";[62] its rationale is still unclear.[63] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. The night before the speech, however, he grew ill, and died of a haemorrhage later in the day.[64][notes 9] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus as his new successor.[66] After a few days' consideration, Antoninus accepted. He was adopted on 25 February. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus adopted Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Commodus, the son of Aelius. Marcus Aurelius became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus; Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[67] The night of his adoption, Marcus Aurelius had a dream. He dreamed that he had shoulders of ivory, and when asked if they could bear a burden, he found them much stronger than before.[68] He was appalled to learn that Hadrian had adopted him. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[69] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus Aurelius be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus Aurelius served under Antoninus, consul for 139.[70] Marcus Aurelius' adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. But for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus Aurelius probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus Aurelius was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: "He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household."[71] Baiae, seaside resort and site of Hadrian's last days. Marcus would holiday in the town with the imperial family in the summer of 143.[72] (J.M.W. Turner, The Bay of Baiae, with Apollo and Sybil, 1823) His attempts at suicide thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[73] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[74] Marcus Aurelius held gladiatorial games at Rome while Pius finalized Hadrian's burial arrangements.[75] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[76] For his dutiful behavior, Antoninus was asked to accept the name "Pius".[77] Heir to Antoninus Pius, 138–145[edit] Sestertius commemorating the betrothal of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger in 139 Bust of Antoninus Pius from the house of Jason Magnus at Cyrene, North Africa (British Museum). Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus Aurelius and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus Aurelius' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus Aurelius consented to Antoninus' proposal.[78] Pius bolstered Marcus Aurelius' dignity: Marcus Aurelius was made consul for 140, with Pius as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus Aurelius became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Caesar: Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[79] Marcus Aurelius would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: "See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye—for that can happen".[80] At the senate's request, Marcus Aurelius joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[81] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[82] Pius demanded that Marcus Aurelius take up residence in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine. Pius also made him take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or "pomp of the court", against Marcus Aurelius' objections.[81] Marcus Aurelius would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal—"where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace"[83]—but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for "abusing court life" in front of company.[84] Marcus Aurelius had much love and respect for his adoptive father. The tribute he gives Pius in the first book of the Meditations is the longest of any. He would have more influence on the young Marcus Aurelius than any other person.[85] From my father: gentleness and unshaken resolution in judgments taken after full examination; no vainglory about external honours; love of work and perseverance; readiness to hear those who had anything to contribute to the public advantage; the desire to reward every man according to his desert without partiality; the experience that knew where to tighten the reign, where to relax. Prohibition of unnatural practices, social tact and permission to his suite not invariably to be present at his banquets nor to attend his progress from Rome, as a matter of obligation, and always to be found the same by those who had failed to attend him through engagements. Exact scrutiny in council and patience; not that he was avoiding investigation, satisfied with first impressions. An inclination to keep his friends, and nowhere fastidious or the victim of manias but his own master in everything, and his outward mien cheerful. His long foresight and ordering of the merest trifle without making scenes. The check-in his reign put upon organized applause and every form of lip-service; his unceasing watch over the needs of the empire and his stewardship of its resources; his patience under criticism by individuals of such conduct. No superstitious fear of divine powers nor with a man any courting of the public or obsequiousness or cultivation of popular favour, but temperance in all things and firmness; nowhere want of taste or search for novelty.[86] As quaestor, Marcus Aurelius would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Pius was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators. His duties as consul were more significant: one of two senior representatives of the senate, he would preside over meetings and take a major role in the body's administrative functions.[87] He felt drowned in paperwork, and complained to his tutor, Fronto: "I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters".[88] He was being "fitted for ruling the state", in the words of his biographer.[89] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[90] On 1 January 145, Marcus Aurelius was made consul a second time. He might have been unwell at this time: a letter from Fronto that might have been sent at this time urges Marcus Aurelius to have plenty of sleep "so that you may come into the Senate with good colour and read your speech with a strong voice".[91] Marcus Aurelius had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: "As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][notes 10] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it."[92] Marcus Aurelius was never particularly healthy or strong. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, praised him for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[93] Busts of Faustina the Younger, Louvre, Paris In April 145, Marcus Aurelius married Faustina, as had been planned since 138. Since Marcus Aurelius was, by adoption, Pius' son, under Roman law he was marrying his sister; Pius would have had to formally release one or the other from his paternal authority (his patria potestas) for the ceremony to take place.[94] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but it is said to have been "noteworthy".[95] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Pius, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus Aurelius makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[96] Fronto and further education, 136–146[edit] After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus Aurelius probably began his training in oratory.[97] He had three tutors in Greek, Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus, and one in Latin, Fronto. (Fronto and Atticus, however, probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138.) The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the language to the aristocracy of Rome.[98] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[99] The latter two were the most esteemed orators of the day. Marcus Aurelius' tutor in law was Lucius Volusius Maecianus, a knight Antoninus had taken on staff at his adoption by Hadrian, and the director of the public post (praefectus vehiculorum).[100] Apollonius was compelled to return from Chalcedon to Rome at the request of Pius, and would continue teaching Marcus Aurelius.[101] Herodes was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger, and resented by his fellow-Athenians for his patronizing manner. He found oratory easy, and preferred subtle, metaphorical oratory to vigorous attack; "graceful" speech, to use the description of Philostratus, author of Lives of the Sophists.[102] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions. He had once given a tramp calling himself a philosopher money to buy bread for a month, publicly declaiming men posing as philosophers all the while.[103] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia foolish: they would live a "sluggish, enervated life", he said.[104] Marcus Aurelius would become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[105] Bust of Herodes Atticus, Marcus Aurelius' tutor in Greek, from his villa at Kephissia (National Archaeological Museum of Athens) Fronto was highly esteemed: he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[106][notes 11] He did not care much for Herodes, though Marcus Aurelius was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[106] The Latin literary world of the day was self-consciously antiquarian: authors of the Silver Age—Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Juvenal, Pliny, Suetonius, and Tacitus—were ignored; only the greatest of the Golden Age, Virgil and Cicero, were widely read; only that pair and earlier writers, like Cato, Plautus, Terence, Gaius Gracchus, and (somewhat anachronistically) Sallust, were cited.[110] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus Aurelius has survived.[111] The pair were very close. "Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here."[112] Marcus Aurelius spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[113] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learned of literature, he would learn "from the lips of Fronto".[114] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[115]—about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[116] Marcus Aurelius asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, "of my own accord with every kind of discomfort".[117] Fronto never became Marcus Aurelius' full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Herodes.[118] Fronto had been retained as defense counsel by Tiberius Claudius Demostratus, a prominent Athenian. Herodes Atticus was chief prosecutor. Because of Herodes' fraught relationship with the city of Athens, the defense's strategy would probably include attacks on his character. Marcus Aurelius pleaded with Fronto, first with "advice", then as a "favor", not to attack Herodes; he had already asked Herodes to refrain from making the first blows.[119] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus Aurelius counted Herodes as a friend (perhaps Herodes was not yet Marcus Aurelius' tutor), but allowed that Marcus Aurelius might be correct, and agreed that the case should not be made into a spectacle.[120] He nonetheless affirmed his intent to make use of the material available: "I warn you that I won't even use in a disproportionate way the opportunity that I have in my case, for the charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular which refer to the beating and robbing I will describe in such a way that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death."[121] Marcus Aurelius was satisfied with Fronto's response.[122] The outcome of the trial is unknown,[123] but Marcus Aurelius succeeded in reconciling the two men. Soon after Fronto's tenure as consul suffectus in July and August 143, Marcus Aurelius wrote a letter to him mentioning that Herodes' new-born son had recently died. Marcus Aurelius asked Fronto to write Herodes a note of condolence. Fronto did, and part of the letter, written in Greek, survives.[124] Fronto himself commended Marcus Aurelius for his talents as a reconciler: "If anyone ever had power by his character to unite all his friends in mutual love for one another, you will surely accomplish this much more easily".[125] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus Aurelius had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made "a hit at" him: "It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work."[126] Marcus Aurelius had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[127] In any case, Marcus Aurelius' formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. His biographer records that he "kept gold statues of them in his private chapel, and always honoured their tombs by personal visits". It "affected his health adversely", his biographer adds, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault in Marcus Aurelius' entire boyhood.[128] The Stoic prince, 146–161[edit] Portrait of Marcus Aurelius as a young man, Antonine period (138-192 AD), from the area of San Teodoro on the Palatine Hill, Palatine Museum, Rome Fronto had warned Marcus Aurelius against the study of philosophy early on: "it is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is".[129] He disdained philosophy and philosophers, and looked down on Marcus Aurelius' sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[111] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus Aurelius' "conversion to philosophy": "in the fashion of the young, tired of boring work", Marcus Aurelius had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[130] Marcus Aurelius kept in close touch with Fronto, but he would ignore his scruples.[131] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus Aurelius to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[132][notes 12] He was the man Fronto recognized as having "wooed Marcus away" from oratory.[134] He was twenty years older than Marcus Aurelius, older than Fronto. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of "Stoic opposition" to the "bad emperors" of the first century;[135] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[136] Marcus Aurelius' tribute to him in the Meditations points to a move away from the oratorical training of Fronto. He thanks Rusticus for teaching him "not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts...To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing'".[137] Claudius Severus, another friend, from a Greek family of Paphlagonia, gave Marcus Aurelius an understanding of what these philosophers stood for. Severus was not a Stoic, but a Peripatetic (an Aristotlean); the strength of his influence illustrates the breadth of Marcus Aurelius' philosophical horizons.[138] Marcus Aurelius thanks three other friends for their influence: Claudius Maximus, Sextus of Chaeronea, and Cinna Catulus.[139] Maximus is one of Marcus Aurelius' three most significant friends, alongside Apollonius and Rusticus. He taught Marcus Aurelius "mastery of self" and "to be cheerful in all circumstances".[140] Unlike Marcus Aurelius' other friends, Sextus was a professional philosopher, devoted to teaching philosophy. Marcus Aurelius continued to attend his lectures even after becoming emperor, scandalizing the polite classes of Rome.[141] Catulus is totally unknown outside Marcus Aurelius' brief words of praise in the Meditations and the notice in the Historia Augusta;[142] Edward Champlin reckons him a senator.[143] Births and deaths, 147–152[edit] The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina were buried On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl, named Domitia Faustina. It was the first of at least fourteen children (including two sets of twins) she would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Pius gave Marcus Aurelius the tribunician power and the imperium—authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, Marcus Aurelius had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Pius could introduce. His tribunican powers would be renewed, with Pius', on 10 December 147.[144] Bust of Marcus Aurelius as a young man, c. 150 AD, Venice National Archaeological Museum The first mention of Domitia in Marcus Aurelius' letters reveals her as a sickly infant. "Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhoea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing." He and Faustina, Marcus Aurelius wrote, had been "pretty occupied" with the girl's care.[145] Domitia would die in 151.[146] In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, "the happiness of the times". They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one baby boy. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[147] Marcus Aurelius steadied himself: "One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'."[148] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the "briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear":                                                         leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad 6.146[149] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus Aurelius' mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor, died.[150] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[151] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, "the Augusta's fertility", depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long; on coins from 156, only the two girls were depicted. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus Aurelius' sister, Cornificia.[152] A son was born in the late 150s. The synod of the temple of Dionysius at Smyrna sent Marcus Aurelius a letter of congratulations. By 28 March 158, however, when Marcus Aurelius replied, the child was dead. Marcus Aurelius thanked the temple synod, "even though this turned out otherwise". The child's name is unknown.[153] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla, after one of Faustina dead sisters, and Cornificia, after Marcus Aurelius' dead sister.[154] Pius' last years, 152–161[edit] Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius' adoptive father and predecessor as emperor (Glyptothek) In 152, Lucius was named quaestor for 153, two years before the legal age of twenty-five (Marcus Aurelius held the office at seventeen). In 154, he was consul, nine years before the legal age of thirty-two (Marcus Aurelius held the office at eighteen and twenty-three). Lucius had no other titles, except that of "son of Augustus". Lucius had a markedly different personality than Marcus Aurelius: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus-games and gladiatorial fights.[155][notes 13] He did not marry until 164. Pius was not fond of his adopted son's interests. He would keep Lucius in the family, but he was sure never to give the boy either power or glory.[159] To take a typical example, Lucius would not appear on Alexandrian coinage until 160/1.[160] In 156, Pius turned seventy. He found difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Pius aged, Marcus Aurelius would have taken on more administrative duties, more still when the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[161] In 160, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Pius was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out.[154] Two days before his death, the biographer records, Pius was at his ancestral estate in Lorium. He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus Aurelius. He ordered that the golden statue of Fortune, which had been in the bedroom of the emperors, should go to Marcus Aurelius' bedroom. Pius turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[162] It was 7 March 161.[163] Marcus Aurelius was now emperor.[164] Chronology[edit] This table largely follows the chronology of Birley's Marcus Aurelius.[165] The chronology of Fronto's letters and miscellaneous works largely follows Champlin's "The Chronology of Fronto" and his Fronto and Antonine Rome.[166] A † indicates that a date is uncertain. Date Event Source 121 Verus (II) consul for the second time, prefect of Rome 26 April 121 Marcus Aurelius born in Rome HA Marcus 1.5 ca. 122 Marcus Aurelius' sister Cornificia born[notes 14] ca. 124 Marcus' father Verus (III) dies during his praetorship 126 Verus (II) consul for the third time 127 Marcus Aurelius enrolled in the equites HA Marcus 4.1 128 Marcus Aurelius made salius Palatinus HA Marcus 4.2 Marcus Aurelius begins his elementary education[notes 15] e.g. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 1.1.15–16 132, after 26 April Marcus Aurelius introduced to "philosophy" by his painting-master Diognetus HA Marcus 2.6, cf. Meditations 1.6 133 Marcus Aurelius begins his secondary education 136, ca. 17 March Marcus Aurelius takes the toga virilis HA Marcus 4.5 136, after 26 April Marcus Aurelius betrothed to Ceionia Favia, daughter of L. Commodus HA Marcus 4.5 Marcus Aurelius is made prefect of the city during the feriae Latinae HA Marcus 4.6 136 Marcus Aurelius meets Apollonius the Stoic HA Marcus 2.7 L. Commodus is adopted by Hadrian, becoming L. Aelius Caesar HA Hadrian 23.11 Cornificia marries Ummidius Quadratus†[168] HA Marcus 4.7, 7.4 Hadrian compels his brother-in-law Servianus and Servianus' grandson Fuscus Salinator to commit suicide HA Hadrian 15.8, 23.2–3, 23.8, 25.8; Dio 69.17.1–3 137 L. Aelius Caesar stationed in Pannonia HA Hadrian 23.13 1 January 138 L. Aelius Caesar dies HA Hadrian 23.16; HA Aelius 4.7 24 January 138 Hadrian chooses Marcus Aurelius' maternal uncle T. Aurelius Antoninus as his successor HA Hadrian 24.1, 26.6–10 25 February 138 Antoninus accepts Hadrian's choice, and is adopted HA Pius 4.6 25 February/26 April 138[notes 16] Antoninus adopts Marcus Aurelius and L. Commodus junior Dio 69.21.1–2; HA Aelius 5.12, 6.9; HA Hadrian 24.1, 26.6–10; HA Marcus 5.1,[notes 17] 5.5–6 Faustina betrothed to L. Commodus junior HA Aelius 6.9 Marcus Aurelius moves to Hadrian's residence in Rome HA Marcus 5.3 Marcus Aurelius named quaestor for 139 HA Marcus 5.6 Antoninus named consul for 139 HA Marcus 5.6 10 July 138 Hadrian dies at Baiae and Antoninus accedes to the emperorship HA Hadrian 26.6; HA Pius 5.1 Marcus Aurelius' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia and Lucius' betrothal to Faustina made void 138, after 10 July Marcus Aurelius betrothed to Faustina HA Marcus 6.2; HA Verus 2.3 Hadrian deified HA Hadrian 27.2; HA Pius 5.1 Antoninus named Pius HA Hadrian 27.4, cf. HA Pius 2.2–7[notes 18] 139 Pius consul Marcus Aurelius quaestor HA Marcus 5.6; HA Pius 6.9 Marcus Aurelius designated consul for 140 HA Marcus 6.3; HA Pius 6.9 Marcus Aurelius acts as a sevir turmarum equitum Romanorum HA Marcus 6.3 Marcus Aurelius becomes princeps iuventutis, takes the name Caesar, and joins the major priestly colleges HA Marcus 6.3 Marcus Aurelius moves into Pius' palace HA Marcus 6.3 Marcus Aurelius begins his higher education 140 Marcus Aurelius consul for the first time, with Pius HA Marcus 6.4 January 143 Herodes Atticus, Marcus Aurelius' tutor, consul July–August 143[171] Fronto, Marcus Aurelius' tutor, consul Ad Marcum Caesarem, 2.9–12 January 145 Marcus Aurelius consul for the second time, with Pius Late spring 145 Marcus Aurelius marries Faustina HA Marcus 6.6; HA Pius 10.2 30 November 147 Domitia Faustina is born to Faustina and Marcus Aurelius[notes 19] Inscriptiones Italiae 13.1.207; cf. HA Marcus 6.6, Herodian 1.8.3 1 December 147 Marcus Aurelius takes the tribunicia potestas HA Marcus 6.6 Faustina named Augusta HA Marcus 6.6 149 Twin sons are born to Faustina and Marcus Aurelius; both die within the year 7 March 150 Lucilla born to Faustina and Marcus Aurelius 152 Cornificia dies Inscriptiones Italiae 13.1.207 Lucius designated quaestor for 153 Tiberius Aelius Antoninus born†[notes 20] Inscriptiones Italiae 13.1.207 153 Lucius quaestor HA Pius 6.10, 10.3; HA Verus 2.11, 3.1–3 154 Lucius consul HA Pius 10.3; HA Verus 3.3 155 Victorinus, son-in-law of Fronto and friend of Marcus Aurelius, consul 155–161 Domitia Lucilla Minor, Marcus Aurelius' mother, dies 161 Marcus Aurelius consul for the third time, with Lucius 7 March 161 Antoninus Pius dies Dio 71.33.4–5; cf. HA Marcus 7.3; HA Pius 12.4–7[notes 21] 8 March 161 Marcus Aurelius and Lucius become emperors HA Marcus 7.3, 7.5; HA Verus 3.8 Notes[edit] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130, when Marcus was nine.[18] ^ Farquharson notes that, contrary to first impressions, these slaves probably were not Christians: these names were not common among Christians in this period, but are quite often found among pagan servants.[31] ^ McLynn describes Marcus' training in drama as a series of reviews and recitations of Euripides.[37] ^ Marcus also thanks Diognetus for having taught him to "aspire to the camp-bed and skin coverlet and the other things which are part of the Greek training".[41] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from "Eutychius" to "Tuticius".[43] ^ Others put a harsher light on Hadrian's nickname. McLynn calls it an example of Hadrian's waspish (McLynn says "vespine") wit and adduces it in support of his contention that Marcus was a "prig".[51] ^ Birley, following the textual and epigraphic citations, concludes that he might only have seen Rome in 127, briefly in 128, and in 131.[55] ^ McLynn holds that Marcus' apparent beneficence was part of Hadrian's dynastic strategy: "Hadrian had dynastic plans of his own for Annia Cornificia and 'leaned on' Marcus to make the transfer".[60] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus' eventual succession anyway.[65] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[90] ^ Moderns have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[107] Historians have seen him as a "pedant and a bore", his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[108] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[109] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus' praise of him in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[133] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[156]), and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[157] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[158] ^ It is known that she was younger than Marcus, so she could not have been born before 122.[167] Birley states that she was born "probably within the next two years" after Marcus' birth.[17] ^ Absent positive evidence either way, Birley assumes that Marcus follows the typical schedule of a Roman aristocrat's education.[27] ^ HA Marcus 5.6 states that Marcus was not adopted until his seventeenth birthday (26 April). It is uncertain how much this account can be trusted.[169] ^ HA Aelius 5.12 and Marcus 5.1 include the false report that Marcus adopted Lucius (he was adopted with Marcus, by Antoninus). ^ The biographer relates a number of fictions regarding Antoninus assumed name in this passage.[170] ^ Marcus and Faustina's first daughter has traditionally been identified with Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (against Herodian 1.8.3, which calls Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla as the eldest).[172] Bol and Fittschen revised the chronology of Marcus and Faustina's children, and Domitia Faustina is now identified as the couple's first daughter.[173] ^ The Fasti Ostienses record the birth of a son in this year. He is identified with T. Aelius Antoninus by Bol and Fittschen.[174] ^ HA Pius 12.4 contains the false notice that Pius died in the seventieth year of his life; it was in fact the seventy-fifth.[175] Citations[edit] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65–74. ^ Mary Beard, "Was He Quite Ordinary?", London Review of Books 31:14 (23 July 2009), accessed 15 September 2009; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 226. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228–29, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 28. ^ HA Marcus 1.2, 1.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 28; McLynn, 14. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 Archived 2012-04-29 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 30. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31, 44. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ HA Marcus 2.1 and Meditations 5.4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 32. ^ Meditations 1.3, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Meditations 1.17.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 33. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 2.8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31–32. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35, 53. ^ Meditations 1.17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, 23. ^ Meditations 1.17.11; Farquharson, 1.103; McLynn, 23. ^ Farquharson, 1.103. ^ Cf. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 1.1.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35–36; McLynn, 19. ^ McLynn, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, 20. ^ a b c HA Marcus 2.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 2.2; McLynn, 21. ^ McLynn, 22, citing S.F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome (Berkeley, 1977), 213–15. ^ Meditations 1.2, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 2.2, 4.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 21–22. ^ Meditations 1.6, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; cf. McLynn, 21–22. ^ Meditations 1.6, tr. Farquharson. ^ HA Marcus 2.6; cf. Meditations 1.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; McLynn, 21. ^ Birley, Later Caesars, 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, 39ff. ^ HA Marcus 2.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, citing Aelius Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, 21. ^ Meditations 1.10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40; McLynn, 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) 2.453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ HA Marcus 4.1, 4.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 1.10, 2.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. The appellation also survives on inscriptions: Birley cites (at Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.24) Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 697, and L'Année épigraphique 1940.62 Archived 2013-01-27 at the Wayback Machine. ^ McLynn, 18, citing Michael Grant, The Antonines (1994), 26 for the characterization of verissimus as an example of Hadrian's waspish wit. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36–37; McLynn, 18–19. ^ HA Marcus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 19. ^ HA Marcus 4.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 19. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38, 270 n.24. ^ HA Marcus 4.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 39–40; McLynn, 24–25; R. Syme, "The Ummidii", Historia 17:1 (1968): 93–94. ^ HA Marcus 4.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ HA Marcus 2.7; Meditations 1.17.5, cf. 1.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ HA Marcus 4.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ McLynn, 37. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1–7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ Dio 71.36.1; HA Marcus 5.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ HA Marcus 5.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49–50. ^ HA Marcus 5.6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 80–81. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian 25.5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio 69.22.1–4; HA Hadrian 24.8–13. ^ HA Hadrian 25.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53. ^ HA Marcus 6.1; McLynn, 42. ^ HA Pius 5.3, 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 55–56; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 55; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 151. ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 56. ^ Meditations 6.30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32 Archived 2012-04-29 at the Wayback Machine, 6.379 Archived 2012-04-29 at the Wayback Machine, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360 Archived 2012-04-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 58–59. ^ Meditations 1.16, tr. Farquharson. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 90. ^ HA Marcus 6.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 90–91. ^ HA Pius 10.2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 61. ^ HA Marcus 2.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 347. ^ HA Marcus 3.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 62. ^ HA Pius 10.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 62–63. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 1–2. ^ Ronald Mellor, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, The American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982): 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Ronald Mellor, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, The American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982): 461 and passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 67–68, citing E. Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome (1980), esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 77. On the date, see Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 79. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 79–80. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 1.6–8 (= Haines 1.154ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 84–85. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 1.6–8 (= Haines 1.154ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 85. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94. ^ HA Marcus 3.5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 69. ^ De Eloquentia 4.5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): "Conversion to Philosophy". ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95; Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Meditations 1.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94–95. ^ Meditations 1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95–96. ^ Meditations 1.15, 1.9, 1.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 96–98. ^ Meditations 1.15, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 97. ^ Dio 71.1.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 97. ^ Meditations, 1.13; HA Marcus 3.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 97–98; Champlin, Fronto, 174 n. 10. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 174 n. 10. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 247 F.1. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 206–07. ^ Meditations 9.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 207. ^ Meditations 10.34, tr. Farquharson, 78, 224. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107–08. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 158. See also: Barnes, 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, "L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation" (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), 173ff. ^ Barnes, 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 68. ^ Barnes, 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 108. ^ Barnes, 68, citing J. Vogt, Die Alexandrinischen Miinzen (1924), I, III; 2, 62ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 112. ^ HA Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 44–45. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 131–36. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 243. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41, 243; Syme, "The Ummidii", 98–99. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 271 n. 48. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967). ^ Champlin, "Chronology", 139. ^ e.g. Magie 147 n. 44; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 247. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 247, citing R. Bol, Das Statuenprogramm des Gerodes-Atticus-Nymphäums (Olympische Forschungen 15, Berlin, 1984), 31f., and Fittschen Die Bildnistypen der Faustina minor und die Fecunditas Augustae (Abhandlungen Akad, Göttingen, ph.-hist. Kl., 3rd series, 126, 1982), 43 n. 8. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 247, citing R. Bol, Das Statuenprogramm des Gerodes-Atticus-Nymphäums (Olympische Forschungen 15, Berlin, 1984), 34f., and Fittschen Die Bildnistypen der Faustina minor und die Fecunditas Augustae (Abhandlungen Akad, Göttingen, ph.-hist. Kl., 3rd series, 126, 1982), 27f. ^ Magie, 129 n. 96; cf. HA Pius 1.8. Bibliography[edit] Early life of Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Ancient sources[edit] Aelius Aristides. Orationes (Orations). Cassius Dio. Roman History. Cary, Earnest, trans. Roman History. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 31 August 2009. Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2. Accessed 26 August 2009. Gellius, Aulus. Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Rolfe, J.C., trans. The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. Vols. 1 and 2 online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Herodian. Ab Excessu Divi Marci (History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius). Echols, Edward C., trans. Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. Online at Tertullian and Livius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). Butler, H.E., trans. The Orator's Education. 5 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920–22. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Modern sources[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. "Hadrian and Lucius Verus." Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines." In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Syme, Ronald. "The Ummidii." Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. 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en-wikipedia-org-3066	----	Cleomedes - Wikipedia Cleomedes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article concerns the Greek astronomer. For the article on the lunar crater named for him, see Cleomedes (crater). Cleomedes (Greek: Κλεομήδης) was a Greek astronomer who is known chiefly for his book On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies (Κυκλικὴ θεωρία μετεώρων), also known as The Heavens (Latin: Caelestia). Contents 1 Placing his work chronologically 2 On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies 3 Optics 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Placing his work chronologically[edit] His birth and death dates are not known—historians have suggested that he wrote his work sometime between the mid-1st century BC and 400 AD. The earlier estimates rely on the fact that Cleomedes refers extensively in his writing to the work of mathematician and astronomer Posidonius of Rhodes (c. 135 – c. 51 BC), and yet seemingly not at all to the work of Ptolemy (c. 100 – c. 170 AD). (Cleomedes also refers to Aristotle (384–322 BC), Pytheas of Massalia (310–306 BC), Aratus (c. 315/310 BC – 240 BC), Eratosthenes (276–195 BC), and Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC). These conclusions have been challenged on the grounds that Cleomedes' work was in relatively elementary astronomy, and that reference to Ptolemy would not necessarily be expected. The 20th century mathematician Otto Neugebauer, however, looked closely at the astronomical observations made by Cleomedes, and concluded that a date of 371 AD (±50 years) better explains what is found there. Neugebauer's estimate has been challenged on the grounds that Cleomedes makes observational errors with enough frequency that there is difficulty in deciding which observations to trust for the purpose of dating his work. On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies[edit] The book for which Cleomedes is known is a fairly basic astronomy textbook in two volumes. His purpose in writing seems to have been as philosophical as it was scientific—he spends an extensive amount of time criticizing the scientific ideas of the Epicureans. Cleomedes' book is valued primarily for preserving, apparently verbatim, much of Posidonius' writings on astronomy (none of Posidonius' books have survived to the modern day). Cleomedes is accurate in some of his remarks on lunar eclipses, especially his conjecture that the shadow on the Moon suggests a spherical Earth. He also remarks presciently that the absolute size of many stars may exceed that of the Sun (and that the Earth might appear as a very small star, if viewed from the surface of the Sun). This book is the original source for the well-known story of how Eratosthenes measured the Earth's circumference. Many modern mathematicians and astronomers believe the description to be reasonable (and believe Eratosthenes' achievement to be one of the more impressive accomplishments of ancient astronomy). Cleomedes deserves credit for the earliest clear statement of the apparent distance explanation of the Sun Illusion or Moon Illusion. He argued that the sun appeared farther away on the horizon than in the zenith, and therefore larger (since its angular size was constant). He attributed this explanation to Posidonius. Optics[edit] As a disciple of Posidonius, Cleomedes noted some elementary qualitative properties of refraction, such as the bending of a ray toward the perpendicular in passing from a less dense to a more dense medium, and suggested that due to atmospheric refraction, the Sun and its rainbow may be visible when the Sun is below the horizon.[1] Legacy[edit] Cleomedes is now memorialized by the crater Cleomedes in the northeastern portion of the visible Moon. References[edit] ^ Carl Benjamin Boyer, The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics (1959) Further reading[edit] Alan C. Bowen, Robert B. Todd, Cleomedes' Lectures on Astronomy. A Translation of The Heavens with an Introduction and Commentary. University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-23325-5 Helen E. Ross, "Cleomedes (c. 1st century AD) on the celestial illusion, atmospheric enlargement, and size-distance invariance". Perception, 2000, 29, 863–871. External links[edit] On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies, original text online and biography English translation of the section on Eratosthenes and the size of the earth at Roger Pearse. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Cleomedes", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews An article on Cleomedes' description of atmospheric enlargement from Perception (2000) Edicion Bilingue Griego Español v t e Ancient Greek astronomy Astronomers Aglaonice Agrippa Anaximander Andronicus Apollonius Aratus Aristarchus Aristyllus Attalus Autolycus Bion Callippus Cleomedes Cleostratus Conon Eratosthenes Euctemon Eudoxus Geminus Heraclides Hicetas Hipparchus Hippocrates of Chios Hypsicles Menelaus Meton Oenopides Philip of Opus Philolaus Posidonius Ptolemy Pytheas Seleucus Sosigenes of Alexandria Sosigenes the Peripatetic Strabo Thales Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Timocharis Works Almagest (Ptolemy) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On the Heavens (Aristotle) Instruments Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrolabe Dioptra Equatorial ring Gnomon Mural instrument Triquetrum Concepts Callippic cycle Celestial spheres Circle of latitude Counter-Earth Deferent and epicycle Equant Geocentrism Heliocentrism Hipparchic cycle Metonic cycle Octaeteris Solstice Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Zodiac Influences Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Influenced Medieval European science Indian astronomy Medieval Islamic astronomy v t e Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (Euclidean geometry) Mathematicians (timeline) Anaxagoras Anthemius Archytas Aristaeus the Elder Aristarchus Apollonius Archimedes Autolycus Bion Bryson Callippus Carpus Chrysippus Cleomedes Conon Ctesibius Democritus Dicaearchus Diocles Diophantus Dinostratus Dionysodorus Domninus Eratosthenes Eudemus Euclid Eudoxus Eutocius Geminus Heliodorus Heron Hipparchus Hippasus Hippias Hippocrates Hypatia Hypsicles Isidore of Miletus Leon Marinus Menaechmus Menelaus Metrodorus Nicomachus Nicomedes Nicoteles Oenopides Pappus Perseus Philolaus Philon Philonides Porphyry Posidonius Proclus Ptolemy Pythagoras Serenus Simplicius Sosigenes Sporus Thales Theaetetus Theano Theodorus Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Thymaridas Xenocrates Zeno of Elea Zeno of Sidon Zenodorus Treatises Almagest Archimedes Palimpsest Arithmetica Conics (Apollonius) Catoptrics Data (Euclid) Elements (Euclid) Measurement of a Circle On Conoids and Spheroids On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Euclid's Optics On Spirals On the Sphere and Cylinder Ostomachion Planisphaerium Sphaerics The Quadrature of the Parabola The Sand Reckoner Problems Angle trisection Doubling the cube Squaring the circle Problem of Apollonius Concepts/definitions Circles of Apollonius Apollonian circles Apollonian gasket Circumscribed circle Commensurability Diophantine equation Doctrine of proportionality Golden ratio Greek numerals Incircle and excircles of a triangle Method of exhaustion Parallel postulate Platonic solid Lune of Hippocrates Quadratrix of Hippias Regular polygon Straightedge and compass construction Triangle center Results In Elements Angle bisector theorem Exterior angle theorem Euclidean algorithm Euclid's theorem Geometric mean theorem Greek geometric algebra Hinge theorem Inscribed angle theorem Intercept theorem Pons asinorum Pythagorean theorem Thales's theorem Theorem of the gnomon Apollonius Apollonius's theorem Other Aristarchus's inequality Crossbar theorem Heron's formula Irrational numbers Menelaus's theorem Pappus's area theorem Problem II.8 of Arithmetica Ptolemy's inequality Ptolemy's table of chords Ptolemy's theorem Spiral of Theodorus Centers Cyrene Library of Alexandria Platonic Academy Other Ancient Greek astronomy Greek numerals Latin translations of the 12th century Neusis construction v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleomedes&oldid=1021710416" Categories: Roman-era Greeks Ancient Greek astronomers Ancient Greek mathematicians Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA 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edited on 6 May 2021, at 07:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3094	----	William Smith (lexicographer) - Wikipedia William Smith (lexicographer) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English lexicographer William Smith Sir William Smith in 1893 Born (1813-05-20)May 20, 1813 Municipal Borough of Enfield Died October 7, 1893(1893-10-07) (aged 80) Resting place Highgate Cemetery Alma mater University College London University College School Occupation Lexicographer and editor Works A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography Sir William Smith (20 May 1813 – 7 October 1893)[1][2] was an English lexicographer. He became known for his advances in the teaching of Greek and Latin in schools. Contents 1 Early life 2 Lexicography 3 Schoolbooks 4 Honours and death 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Early life[edit] Smith was born in Enfield in 1813 to Nonconformist parents. He attended the Madras House school of John Allen in Hackney.[3] Originally destined for a theological career, he instead became articled to a solicitor. Meanwhile, he taught himself classics in his spare time, and when he entered University College London carried off both the Greek and Latin prizes. He was entered at Gray's Inn in 1830, but gave up his legal studies for a post at University College School and began to write on classical subjects.[4] Lexicography[edit] Smith next turned his attention to lexicography. His first attempt was A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, which appeared in 1842, the greater part being written by him. Then followed the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology in 1849. A parallel Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography[5] appeared in 1857, with some leading scholars of the day associated with the task.[6] In 1867, Smith became editor of the Quarterly Review, a post he held until his death.[6] Schoolbooks[edit] Smith published the first of several school dictionaries in 1850, and in 1853 began the Principia series, which marked an advance in the school teaching of Greek and Latin. Then came the Student's Manuals of History and Literature, of which the English literature volume went into 13 editions.[7] He himself wrote the Greek history volume.[6] He was joined in the venture by the publisher John Murray when the original publishing partner met difficulties. Murray was the publisher of the 1214-page Latin–English Dictionary based upon the works of Forcellini and Freund that Smith completed in 1855. This was periodically reissued over the next 35 years. It goes beyond "classical" (100 BC – AD 100) Latin to include many entries not found in other dictionaries of the period, including Lewis and Short.[8] Perhaps the most important of the books Smith edited were the ones that dealt with ecclesiastical subjects: the Dictionary of the Bible (1860–1865), the Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (1875–1880), undertaken in collaboration with Archdeacon Samuel Cheetham, and the Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877–1887), done jointly with Henry Wace.[6] The Atlas, on which Sir George Grove collaborated, appeared in 1875.[9] From 1853 to 1869 Smith was classical examiner to the University of London, and on retirement he became a member of the Senate. He sat on the Committee enquiring into questions of copyright and was for several years registrar of the Royal Literary Fund. He edited Gibbon, with Guizot's and Milman's notes, in 1854–1855.[6][10] Honours and death[edit] Family grave of Sir William Smith in Highgate Cemetery Smith was created a DCL by the University of Oxford and the University of Dublin. A knighthood was conferred on him in 1892. He died on 7 October 1893 in London[11] and is buried in a family grave on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery Notes[edit] ^ BnF ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ^ T. F. T. Baker (Editor) (1995). "Hackney: Education". A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 10: Hackney. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 30 October 2012.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Chisholm 1911, pp. 270–271. ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, by William Smith, William George Smith, Charles Anthon, published by Harper, 1858 [1] ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 271. ^ Thomas Budd Shaw: The Student's Manual of English Literature... (London, 1864). ^ London: Murray; 1855, 1857, 1868 and 1888 editions held by British Library "Latin–English Dictionary". ChurchLatin.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2010. ^ R. J. A. Talbert. 1992. "Mapping the classical world: major atlases and map series 1872–1990." Journal of Roman Archaeology 5:5–38. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology (1870) ^ Smith, William. "Latin-English Dictionary" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 17 October 2010. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Smith, Sir William". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 270–271. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to William Smith (lexicographer). Wikisource has original text related to this article: Author:William Smith (1813-1893) Works by William Smith at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Smith at Internet Archive   "Smith, Sir William", A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, 1910 – via Wikisource A Short History of Ancient Greece with notes, study links and illustration by Elpenor Online facsimile version of Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1870 edition) Online facsimile version of Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1870 edition) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875 edition) Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Smith_(lexicographer)&oldid=1019701971" Categories: 1813 births 1893 deaths Burials at Highgate Cemetery British lexicographers Writers from London Knights Bachelor Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Use British English from February 2021 Use dmy dates from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from SBDEL Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from SBDEL with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar მარგალური مصرى 日本語 Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2021, at 22:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3095	----	File:Statue of Lucilla detail.jpg - Wikipedia File:Statue of Lucilla detail.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 545 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 218 × 240 pixels | 436 × 480 pixels | 698 × 768 pixels | 930 × 1,024 pixels | 1,824 × 2,008 pixels. Original file ‎(1,824 × 2,008 pixels, file size: 1.13 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Author AlexanderVanLoon Description Interlingua: Statua de Lucilla, sposa del imperator Lucio Vero, representate como le dea Cerere Français : Statue de Lucilla, épouse de l’empereur romain Lucius Vérus, en Cérès English: Statue of Lucilla, consort of Roman emperor Lucius Verus, depicted as the goddess Ceres Date between 150 and 200 Medium marble Collection Bardo National Museum    Native name المتحف الوطني بباردو Musée national du Bardo Parent institution palais du Bardo  Location Tunis Coordinates 36° 48′ 33.79″ N, 10° 08′ 04.23″ E   Established 1888 Web page bardomuseum.tn Authority control : Q1429003 VIAF: 136868323 ISNI: 0000 0001 2290 8456 ULAN: 500217575 LCCN: n79003169 GND: 37573-1 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q1429003 Accession number 33655; B122; tt 259a Place of discovery Bulla Regia, Tunisia Source/Photographer This file was derived from:  Statue of Lucilla.JPG:  Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 03:08, 6 August 2015 1,824 × 2,008 (1.13 MB) QuartierLatin1968 User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Faustina the Younger Lucilla Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius User:QuartierLatin1968/Special Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Ания Луцила Usage on br.wikipedia.org Geriadur Istor ha Douaroniezh Usage on id.wikipedia.org Lucilla Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Lucila Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Луцилла Usage on sv.wikipedia.org Lucilla Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. 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en-wikipedia-org-3099	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-3103	----	Template talk:Roman emperors - Wikipedia Template talk:Roman emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This template was considered for deletion on 2020 March 22. The result of the discussion was "do not merge".           This template is of interest to the following WikiProjects: WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome (Rated Template-class) This template is within the scope of WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome, a group of contributors interested in Wikipedia's articles on classics. If you would like to join the WikiProject or learn how to contribute, please see our project page. 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This template is supported by WikiProject Royalty and Nobility.   Contents 1 Include usurpers on list? 2 Revert to recent edit 3 Claudius I 4 Lucius Verus 5 Latin Empire 6 Western Empire end date 7 Clarification of joint rule 8 Principate and crisis of the 3rd century 9 Usurpers: bold vs underlining Include usurpers on list?[edit] I see that Mezezius (a usurper) is included, but several 5th century usurpers (e.g. Constans II (usurper)) are not included in the template. What is the criterion for inclusion on the template?--FeanorStar7 07:24, 27 April 2007 (UTC) I cleaned up/revised this template from a previously messy version without knowing much about many of the later "emperors"; I think any usurpers should be added, especially if they have coins, LOL. Seriously, the template is meant as a navigation tool, and usurpers have a place there too. TAnthony 08:42, 27 April 2007 (UTC) No; consider the number of usurpers, most of whom have coins. This template is already enormous without the Thirty Tyrants (Roman) and the Emperors of Britain. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 17:10, 15 July 2008 (UTC) Revert to recent edit[edit] I reverted The President of Cool's 26 April edit, which he made citing that "during most of this time no one person ruled the entire empire". But the problems here are: 1. Dates aren't always precise when it comes to the Roman Emperors, so at least something in his edit will probably be wrong 2. There are overlapping reigns throughout all periods of the Empire, so by his logic all sections should be changed like this. This template has rulers sorted by the date they first became Emperor, which works! 3. Look what it does to the size of the template! - rst20xx (talk) 00:24, 27 April 2008 (UTC) Claudius I[edit] I have restored the common names of some emperors. Claudius I is rare and unnecessary; if the use of Claudius II causes confusion, the right solution is to move him to Claudius Gothicus. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 17:10, 15 July 2008 (UTC) Lucius Verus[edit] He was never Emperor by himself, and is not usually included in the list of Emperors. Several sons of Emperors are in the same position, and we don't include them. Why him? Septentrionalis PMAnderson 21:28, 27 August 2008 (UTC) Latin Empire[edit] What about adding emperors of the now so-called Latin Empire here as they called themselves Roman Emperors in fact?--Dojarca (talk) 10:56, 24 April 2009 (UTC) Western Empire end date[edit] I went ahead and changed the end of the Western Empire to 476 AD, whihc is the date given in history books and in Romulus Augustus' page. However, User:MinisterForBadTimes reverted it to 480 AD. I'd like to know his source for the 480 AD date, as according to RA's page, by 480 AD he was exiled and vanished from history. Now, on Julius Nepos' page, it mentions him ruling Dalmatia until 480, but the article itself seems to brush it off: "In name at least, the Western Roman Empire continued to exist after 476, but only as a legal formality and as a sop to imperial tradition." I think to comply with previous historical references, the end date for the Western Empire should be reverted to the accepted and recognized date of 476. --- Dralwik|Have a Chat My Great Project 13:18, 12 June 2009 (UTC) This is definitely a grey area. Part of the problem here is the difference between the Western Roman Empire and the Western Roman Emperors. Technically speaking, Romulus Augustulus was never actually the Western Roman Emperor; he was a usurper, willing or not. Nepos continued to be recognised as the legitimate emperor until his death. Odoacer (who deposed Romulus) ruled Italy in Nepos's name until 480 AD, and Syagrius in Gaul continued to mint coins with Nepos's name on them. The Eastern Emperor Zeno also continued to recognise Nepos as emperor. Only his father Orestes seems to have believed that Romulus was emperor. If we accept that Julius Nepos was a) legitimately appointed (by his cousin in the East), b) was the Western Roman Emperor and c) was not deposed until 480 BC, then the last Roman Emperor in the West reigned until 480 AD (even if only in fragment of the former territory). Thus, the span of reigns of the western emperors in this template should be 27 BC&ndash480 AD, at least by my reckoning. A separate question is when the "Western Empire" ceased to exist. This is far more complicated, because it many ways, it only exists as a modern concept; it was not a seperate entity. Roman rule collapsed in the west after 455 AD, but the emperors in the east did not abandon their claim to this territory. The western empire didn't really meaningfully exist after 455 AD, but was still in theory part of the empire long after long after 476 AD. The choice of 476 AD as the 'end of the western empire' is therefore largely arbitrary. It relies on the fact that after 476 AD, no one was calling themselves the "western emperor" anymore - but as we have seen, that is not actually true. After 476 AD Odoacer ruled Italy as viceroy for the eastern emperor Zeno - so Italy was still part of the empire. Although Zeno had no real power in italy, the same is equally true for the last few Western emperors. I would suggest, perhaps a little cheekily, that many authors simply accept the date of 476 BC, because it is one of those dates that is so very well known that no-one ever questions it. In reality, however, the issue is a little more blurred. I would also suggest that the reason that 476 AD became the accepted date is because the rather pathetic story of the last child emperor being deposed is such a fitting end to the decline of Rome. The story of Nepos doesn't make quite such a good ending! It is our job to be as accurate as possible on Wikipedia - not just accept the "received version" of events. That is why I think the template should remain as it is. All that said - there is a strong need for references on the Julius Nepos article. MinisterForBadTimes (talk) 15:33, 12 June 2009 (UTC) Ah, I see. I knew the West faded over time, but I didn't realize the final collapse was such a complex and drawn out process. (Especially compared to the quick conquest of Constantinople a thousand years later.) All right. --- Dralwik|Have a Chat 23:55, 12 June 2009 (UTC) MinisterForBadTimes, you seem to be forgetting something, namely this: the Roman Emperorship was essentially a military office, and the Roman Empire was not a true hereditary monarchy but rather what we would now refer to as a military dictatorship. (The original word in Latin is Imperator, which means "Supreme Commander" or "Master General," not "King" or "Monarch," which would have been Rex, and the Romans did not use that term or have a true hereditary monarchy in that sense since Tarquinius Superbus was banished from the City of Rome in 510 BC.) Yes, kings and emperors can both have absolute power, but the theory of the office is different. A king is in office based on heredity, either directly (most kingships) or indirectly (like Viking kings elected by lesser lords that were themselves hereditary), but nevertheless even in theory. An emperor, however, is theoretically in office by virtue of his command of the armed services (and by implication the support of lesser commanders), even if a dynasty exists in practice. In other words, who was real and who was a usurper was defined only by who won and who lost (respectively) in the eyes of the armed services. Fair or not, the fact was that Romulus Augustus' dad (who installed him as a figurehead) won and Julius Nepos lost, and fair or not this makes Julius Nepos' deposition perfectly legal and Romulus Augustus a lawful emperor, not a usurper. I therefore argue to use the end date that is actually taught in history courses, because as briefly explained above there's a reason why it's taught in class other than just being dogmatically "received." College, mind you; I realize there are no shortage of boldfaced lies in K12 history courses, but that's another topic entirely. That date is AD 476. The Mysterious El Willstro (talk) 06:34, 25 June 2012 (UTC) Clarification of joint rule[edit] This is probably only a few cases, but I've noticed some inconsistency between the template and the articles themselves about when joint rule occurred (such as the Tetrarchy under Diocletian) at various times, and when the office was held exclusively again after such various times. This should be rectified based on outside (by which I mean written by actual experts and not just anyone with a Wikipedia Account) sources. -The Mysterious El Willstro 209.183.187.29 (talk) 05:42, 6 February 2010 (UTC) Principate and crisis of the 3rd century[edit] This template differentiates the periods of Principate (27 BC – 235 AD) and Crisis (235–284). However, the article on the Principate says that it lasted until the end of the Crisis period (27 BC - 284 AD). So, isn't the template incorrect in this regard? Shouldn't we include the emperors from the "crisis" section to the "Principate"?--RR (talk) 19:42, 31 October 2018 (UTC) Yes, the Principate lasted until the institution of the Tetrarchy under Emperor Diocletian in 286 (284 being the year he came to power). I'm fairly certain the Principate and the Crisis of the Third Century are separated here because the large number of "Crisis" emperors during a relatively short timespan and the main method of succession of this time becoming usurpation. Historiographically I'm pretty sure the Crisis of the Third Century is considered part of the "Principate"-era. Ichthyovenator (talk) 18:39, 1 November 2018 (UTC) Usurpers: bold vs underlining[edit] Could we maybe use bold for them instead of underlining? It's a little confusing when hovering over the names when they're already underlined.★Trekker (talk) 17:47, 20 November 2018 (UTC) With the question raised, should they be included at all? Do infoboxes of other "monarchies" include usurpers as well? In either case, bolding might be more appropriate for actual ruling emperors if differentiation is to be applied as it definitely makes something stand out more. Ichthyovenator (talk) 18:42, 20 November 2018 (UTC) But most of the "usurpers" were reigning emperors, holding large territories. Usurpation was just the method by which they ceased the throne. Dimadick (talk) 19:15, 20 November 2018 (UTC) Either way I don't care for the underlining.★Trekker (talk) 19:42, 20 November 2018 (UTC) This is of course true, but the same can surely be said of some other examples of historical usurpers? Something to note is that the usurpers are left out of the List of Roman emperors. Another thing that complicates it a bit, I suppose, is that legitimacy is difficult to determine without a legal line of succession, especially for something as muddled as the Crisis of the Third Century. There are also examples where emperors seen by contemporaries as usurpers, e.g. Romulus Augustulus, have been regarded as full emperors in later historiography. In either case, I don't think making the usurpers bold in this template is a good solution though I agree that underlining isn't very good either. In the british monarchs template, disputed monarchs are in italics which I think looks quite good but that is already used for co-emperors here. Ichthyovenator (talk) 19:50, 20 November 2018 (UTC) Maybe we can bold common emperors and leave the usurpers regular?★Trekker (talk) 20:03, 20 November 2018 (UTC) That would of course mean bolding a vast majority of the names. Ichthyovenator (talk) 20:42, 20 November 2018 (UTC) "are left out of the List of Roman emperors." Because we already have List of Roman usurpers and a List of Byzantine usurpers. Covering people from the 1st to the 15th century. Dimadick (talk) 20:14, 20 November 2018 (UTC) I'm aware, just pointing it out. There is also a point to be made that there are several Roman usurpers left out of going by the List of Roman usurpers and that Byzantine usurpers are left out entirely. Ichthyovenator (talk) 20:41, 20 November 2018 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Roman_emperors&oldid=971715272" Categories: Template-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles NA-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles NA-Class Rome articles NA-importance Rome articles Template-Class Greek articles NA-importance Greek articles Byzantine world task force articles WikiProject Greece history articles Template-Class Middle Ages articles NA-importance Middle Ages articles Template-Class history articles Template-Class biography articles Template-Class biography (royalty) articles NA-importance biography (royalty) articles Royalty work group articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 7 August 2020, at 19:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3119	----	Suda - Wikipedia Suda From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia For other uses, see Suda (disambiguation) and Souda (disambiguation). First page of an early printed edition of the Suda The Suda or Souda (/ˈsuːdə/; Medieval Greek: Σοῦδα, romanized: Soûda; Latin: Suidae Lexicon)[1] is a large 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Soudas (Σούδας) or Souidas (Σουίδας). It is an encyclopedic lexicon, written in Greek, with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often derived from medieval Christian compilers. The derivation is probably[2] from the Byzantine Greek word souda, meaning "fortress" or "stronghold", with the alternate name, Suidas, stemming from an error made by Eustathius, who mistook the title for the author's name. Contents 1 Content and sources 1.1 Biographical notices 1.2 Lost scholia 2 Organization 3 Background 4 Editions 5 References 6 External links Content and sources[edit] pecus est Suidas, sed pecus aurei velleris [Suidas is cattle, but cattle with a golden fleece] — Lipsius The Suda is somewhere between a grammatical dictionary and an encyclopedia in the modern sense. It explains the source, derivation, and meaning of words according to the philology of its period, using such earlier authorities as Harpocration and Helladios.[3][4] It is a rich source of ancient and Byzantine history and life, although not every article is of equal quality, and it is an "uncritical" compilation.[3] Much of the work is probably interpolated,[3] and passages that refer to Michael Psellos (c. 1017–78) are deemed interpolations which were added in later copies.[3] Biographical notices[edit] This lexicon contains numerous biographical notices on political, ecclesiastical, and literary figures of the Byzantine Empire to the tenth century, those biographical entries being condensations from the works of Hesychius of Miletus, as the author himself avers. Other sources were the encyclopedia of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (912–59) for the figures in ancient history, excerpts of John of Antioch (seventh century) for Roman history, the chronicle of Hamartolus (Georgios Monachos, 9th century) for the Byzantine age.[4][3][6] The biographies of Diogenes Laërtius, and the works of Athenaeus and Philostratus. Other principal sources include a lexicon by "Eudemus," perhaps derived from the work On Rhetorical Language by Eudemus of Argos.[7] Lost scholia[edit] The lexicon copiously draws from scholia to the classics (Homer, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, etc.), and for later writers, Polybius, Josephus, the Chronicon Paschale, George Syncellus, George Hamartolus, and so on.[3][4] The Suda quotes or paraphrases these sources at length. Since many of the originals are lost, The Suda serves an invaluable repository of literary history, and this preservation of the "literary history" is more vital than the lexicographical compilation itself, by some estimation.[4] Organization[edit] The lexicon is arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations from common vowel order and place in the Greek alphabet[3] (including at each case the homophonous digraphs, e.g. αι, ει, οι, that had been previously, earlier in the history of Greek, distinct diphthongs or vowels) according to a system (formerly common in many languages) called antistoichia (ἀντιστοιχία); namely the letters follow phonetically in order of sound, in the pronunciation of the tenth century which is similar to that of Modern Greek. The order is: α, β, γ, δ, αι, ε, ζ, ει, η, ι, θ, κ, λ, μ, ν, ξ, ο, ω, π, ρ, σ, τ, οι, υ, φ, χ, ψ[8] In addition, double letters are treated as single for the purposes of collation (as gemination had ceased to be distinctive). The system is not difficult to learn and remember, but some editors—for example, Immanuel Bekker – rearranged the Suda alphabetically. Background[edit] Little is known about the author, named "Suidas" in its prefatory note.[3] He probably lived in the second half of the 10th century, because the death of emperor John I Tzimiskes and his succession by Basil II and Constantine VIII are mentioned in the entry under "Adam" which is appended with a brief chronology of the world.[3] At any rate, the work must have appeared by before the 12th century, since it is frequently quoted from and alluded to by Eustathius who lived from about 1115 AD to about 1195 or 1196.[3] The work deals with biblical as well as pagan subjects, from which it is inferred that the writer was a Christian.[3] The standard printed edition was compiled by Danish classical scholar Ada Adler in the first half of the twentieth century. A modern translation, the Suda On Line, was completed on 21 July 2014.[9] The Suda has a near-contemporaneous Islamic parallel, the Kitab al-Fehrest of Ibn al-Nadim. Compare also the Latin Speculum Maius, authored in the 13th century by Vincent of Beauvais. Editions[edit] Suidas (1834). Gaisford, Thomas; Küster, Ludolf (eds.). Lexicon: post Ludolphum Kusterum ad codices manuscriptos. A - Theta. 1. Typographeo Academico. volume 2 (K - Psi), volume 3 (Rerum et nominum, Glossarum, Scriptorum) Adler, Ada (1928-38) Suidae Lexicon. Reprinted 1967-71, Stuttgart. References[edit] Citations ^ Gaisford Thomas; Küster, Ludolf, edd., (1834), Suidae Lexicon, 3 vols. ^ Bertrand Hemmerdinger, "Suidas, et non la Souda," Bollettino dei classici, 3rd ser. 19 (1998), pp. 31f., defends the name Suidas (Σουΐδας), arguing that the form Σουΐδα/Σοῦδα is a Doric genitive. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Chisholm (1911). ^ a b c d Herbermann (1913). ^ Krumbacher, Karl (1897), Byzantinische Literatur, p. 566, cited by Herbermann (1913) ^ Karl Krumbacher concluded the two main biographical sources were "Constantine VII for ancient history, Hamartolus (Georgios Monarchos) for the Byzantine age".[5] ^ Krumbacher, Karl, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, pp. 268f. ^ Gaisford, Thomas, ed., (1853) (Suidae lexicon: Graecè et Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX (in Greek and Latin) ^ "The History of the Suda On Line". stoa.org. Retrieved 10 July 2015. A translation of the last of the Suda’s 31000+ entries was submitted to the database on July 21, 2014 and vetted the next day. Bibliography Abrantes, Miguel Carvalho (2021), Greek Myths in the Suda. KDP.   Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sūïdas". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Dickey, Eleanor. Ancient Greek Scholarship: a guide to finding, reading, and understanding scholia, commentaries, lexica, and grammatical treatises, from their beginnings to the Byzantine period. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 9780195312935.   Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Suidas". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Mahoney, Anne. "Tachypaedia Byzantina: The Suda On Line as Collaborative Encyclopedia," Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.1 (2009). External links[edit] Index of the Suda on line Suda On Line. An on-line edition of the Ada Adler edition with ongoing translations and commentary by registered editors. Suda lexicon at the Online Books Page Suda Lexicon in three volumes, Cambridge, 1705; Greek text and Latin translation originally from the private collection of John Adams at the Internet Archive: Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol 3 Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) United States Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suda&oldid=1025265748" Categories: 10th-century books 10th century in the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Greek encyclopedias Hidden categories: Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська West-Vlams 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 May 2021, at 16:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3120	----	Aureus - Wikipedia Aureus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Aureus (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Aureus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Aureus minted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate XIV Gemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclaimed him emperor The aureus (pl. aurei, 'golden', used as a noun) was a gold coin of ancient Rome originally valued at 25 pure silver denarii. The aureus was regularly issued from the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 4th century AD, when it was replaced by the solidus. The aureus was about the same size as the denarius, but heavier due to the higher density of gold (as opposed to that of silver). Before the time of Julius Caesar the aureus was struck infrequently, probably because gold was seen as a mark of un-Roman luxury.[citation needed] Caesar struck the coin more often, and standardized the weight at 1 40 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{40}}} of a Roman pound (about 8 grams). Augustus (r. 29 BC – 14 AD) tariffed the value of the sestertius as 1 100 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{100}}} of an aureus. The mass of the aureus was decreased to 1 45 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{45}}} of a pound (7.3 g) during the reign of Nero (r. 54–68). At about the same time the purity of the silver coinage was also slightly decreased. Aureus of Octavian, c. 30 BC After the reign of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) the production of aurei decreased, and the weight fell to 1 50 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{50}}} of a pound (6.5 g) by the time of Caracalla (r. 211–217). During the 3rd century, gold pieces were introduced in a variety of fractions and multiples, making it hard to determine the intended denomination of a gold coin.[1] The solidus was first introduced by Diocletian (r. 284–305) around 301 AD, struck at 60 to the Roman pound of pure gold (and thus weighing about 5.5 g each) and with an initial value equal to 1,000 denarii. However, Diocletian's solidus was struck only in small quantities, and thus had only minimal economic effect. The solidus was reintroduced by Constantine I (r. 306–337) in 312 AD, permanently replacing the aureus as the gold coin of the Roman Empire. The solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound of pure gold, each coin weighing twenty-four Greco-Roman carats, or about 4.5 grams of gold per coin. By this time, the solidus was worth 275,000 of the increasingly debased denarii. However, regardless of the size or weight of the aureus, the coin's purity was little affected. Analysis of the Roman aureus shows the purity level usually to have been near to 24 karat gold, so in excess of 99% pure. Gold content and price comparison Name Gold content Julius Caesar Aureus Julius Caesar Aureus 8.18 grams 1.000 Nero Aureus 7.27 grams 0.889 Caracalla Aureus 6.55 grams 0.800 Diocletian Aureus 5.45 grams 0.667 Constantine Solidus 4.55 grams 0.556 British Sovereign 7.32 grams 0.895 USA Eagle 1837–1933 15.05 grams 1.839 USA Gold Dollar 1849–1889 1.51 grams 0.184 USA Gold Eagle 1986–present 31.10 grams 3.802 Due to runaway inflation caused by the Roman government's issuing base-metal coinage but refusing to accept anything other than silver or gold for tax payments, the value of the gold aureus in relation to the denarius grew drastically. Inflation was also affected by the systematic debasement of the silver denarius, which by the mid-3rd century had practically no silver left in it. In 301, one gold aureus was worth 833⅓ denarii; by 324, the same aureus was worth 4,350 denarii. In 337, after Constantine converted to the solidus, one solidus was worth 275,000 denarii and finally, by 356, one solidus was worth 4,600,000 denarii. Today, the aureus is highly sought after by collectors because of its purity and value, as well its historical interest. An aureus is usually much more expensive than a denarius issued by the same emperor. For instance, in one auction, an aureus of Trajan (r. 98–117) sold for $15,000, and a silver coin of the same emperor sold for $100. The most expensive aureus ever sold was one issued in 42 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, the assassin of Gaius Julius Caesar, which had a price realized of $3.5 million in November 2020.[2] (There is an example of this coin on permanent display at the British Museum in London.) An aureus, issued by the emperor Alexander Severus (r. 222–235), has a picture of the Colosseum on the reverse, and had a price realized of $920,000 in 2008.[3] An aureus with the face of Allectus was auctioned off in the United Kingdom for £552,000 in June 2019.[4] See also[edit] Numismatics portal Guilder Polish złoty References[edit] ^ The Imperial Roman Economy. "Hoarding, Gresham's Law and All That". www.forumancientcoins.com. ^ "Goldberg Coins and Collectibles". Images.goldbergauctions.com. Retrieved 2014-06-07. ^ "Goldberg Coins and Collectibles". Images.goldbergauctions.com. Retrieved 2014-06-07. ^ "Metal detectorist 'ecstatic' after find on farm turns out to be ultra-rare Roman coin fetching £552,000 at auction". www.msn.com. Retrieved 2019-06-10. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aureus. Online numismatic exhibit: "This round gold is but the image of the rounder globe" (H.Melville). The charm of gold in ancient coinage v t e Currencies of Ancient Rome Proto-currency Bronze Aes rude Aes signatum Republican era Gold Aureus Silver Denarius Sestertius Victoriatus Quadrigatus Bronze and copper Dupondius (2 asses) As (1) Dodrans (3⁄4) Bes ( 2⁄3) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quincunx ( 5⁄12) Triens ( 1⁄3) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Sextans ( 1⁄6) Uncia ( 1⁄12) Semuncia ( 1⁄24) Early Empire Gold Aureus Dacicus Silver Antoninianus (32 asses) Denarius (16) Quinarius (8) Copper Double sestertius (8) Sestertius ( 2+1⁄2; later 4) Dupondius (2) As (1) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Diocletian era Gold Solidus Silver Argenteus Nummus Copper Radiate Laureate Denarius Late Empire Gold Solidus Tremissis Silver Miliarense Siliqua Copper and bronze Follis Nummus Constantinian bronzes Centenionalis Ancient Rome Portal Numismatics Portal Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aureus&oldid=1024393628" Categories: Coins of ancient Rome Gold coins Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2008 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego 贛語 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 20:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3130	----	Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia Western Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Independently administered western provinces of the Roman Empire "Western Empire" redirects here. For the Frankish State, see Carolingian Empire. Western Roman Empire Senatus Populusque Romanus Imperium Romanuma 395–476/480b Chi Rho Tremissis depicting Julius Nepos (r. 474–480) The Western Roman Empire in 418 AD, following the abandonment of Britannia and the settlement of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suebi within imperial territory as foederati Status Western division of the Roman Empire a Capital Mediolanum (286–402)[1] Ravenna (402–455, 473–476) Romec (455–473) Salona/Spalatumd (475–480) Common languages Latin (official) Regional / local languages Religion Polytheistic Roman Religion until 4th century Nicene Christianity (state church) after 380 Government Autocracy Roman Emperor   • 395–423 Honorius • 457–461 Majorian • 474–480 Julius Nepos • 475–476 Romulus Augustulus Legislature Roman Senate Historical era Late antiquity • Death of Emperor Theodosius I 17 January 395 • Deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus 4 September 476 • Murder of Emperor Julius Nepos 25 April 480 Area 395[2] 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) Currency Roman currency Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of the Visigoths Kingdom of the Vandals Kingdom of the Franks Kingdom of the Suebi Kingdom of the Burgundians Kingdom of the Romans Kingdom of the Moors and Romans Alamannia Armorica Sub-Roman Britain ^ Since the Western Roman Empire was not a distinct state separate from the Eastern Roman Empire, there was no particular official term that designated the Western provinces or their government, which was simply known at the time as the "Roman Empire". Terms such as Imperium Romanum Occidentale and Hesperium Imperium were either never in official usage or invented by later medieval or modern historians long after the Western Roman court had fallen. In the ancient era the Latin term often used was "S.P.Q.R." ("Senatus Populusque Romanus" ["Senate and People of Rome"] Latin) used in documents, on flags and banners and carved/engraved on buildings ^ Whilst the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor Justinian during the latter half of the 6th century. ^ The Theodosian dynasty emperors Honorius and Valentinian III reigned from Ravenna. In the period between Valentinian and Glycerius (who once again reigned from northern Italy), most emperors appear to have reigned from Rome. Both emperors Petronius Maximus and Anthemius reigned from, and died in, Rome. ^ The de jure last emperor, Julius Nepos, reigned for five years in exile from Salona/Spalatum in Dalmatia.[3][4][5] The Western Roman Empire comprises the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period from 395 to 476, where there were separate coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire in the Western and the Eastern provinces, with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; contemporary Romans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two imperial courts as an administrative expediency. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna was formally dissolved by Justinian in 554. The Eastern imperial court survived until 1453. Though the Empire had seen periods with more than one Emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was institutionalised to reforms to Roman law by emperor Diocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of the Crisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of the tetrarchy in 286, with two senior emperors titled Augustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed Caesar (junior emperor and designated successor). Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such as Constantine I and Theodosius I, governed as the sole Augustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius I in 395, he divided the empire between his two sons, with Honorius as his successor in the West, governing briefly from Mediolanum and then from Ravenna, and Arcadius as his successor in the East, governing from Constantinople. In 476, after the Battle of Ravenna, the Roman Army in the West suffered defeat at the hands of Odoacer and his Germanic foederati. Odoacer forced the deposition of emperor Romulus Augustulus and became the first King of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperor Julius Nepos, the Eastern emperor Zeno dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th-century British historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Odoacer's Italy, and other barbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court. In the 6th century, emperor Justinian I re-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions of North Africa, the ancient Roman heartland of Italy and parts of Hispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had over Western Europe had diminished significantly. The papal coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. The Great Schism of 1054 between the churches of Rome and Constantinople further diminished any authority the Emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the west. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Rebellions and political developments 1.2 Crisis of the Third Century 1.3 Tetrarchy 1.4 Further divisions 2 History 2.1 Reign of Honorius 2.2 Escalating barbarian conflicts 2.3 Internal unrest and Majorian 2.4 Collapse 2.5 Fall of the Empire 3 Political aftermath 3.1 Germanic Italy 3.2 Imperial reconquest 4 Legacy 4.1 Nomenclature 4.2 Attempted restorations of a Western court 4.3 Later claims to the Imperial title in the West 5 List of Western Roman Emperors 5.1 Tetrarchy (286–313) 5.2 Constantinian dynasty (309–363) 5.3 Non-dynastic (363–364) 5.4 Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) 5.5 Theodosian dynasty (392–455) 5.6 Non-dynastic (455–480) 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 6.3 Web sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Further information: History of the Roman Empire and First division of the Roman Empire As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincial governors had de facto autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges.[6] Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica.[7] These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.[8] The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal).[7] These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.[9] Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradual Romanization.[10] While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such as history (e.g., those by Cato the Elder), philosophy and rhetoric.[11][12][13] Rebellions and political developments[edit] Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions were far more numerous—as, for example, those led by Vespasian in the First Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, including Pertinax and Aurelian.[14][15] Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated in civil wars. For instance, legions stationed in Egypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the civil war of 218 between Emperor Macrinus and Elagabalus.[16] As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers Rhine and Danube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.[17] Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, the Parthian Empire in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan or Septimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.[18] Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession: Philip the Arab, Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.[19][20][21] Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The Roman, Gallic and Palmyrene Empires in 271 AD With the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus on 18 March 235, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war, now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sasanian Empire in place of Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east, as demonstrated by Shapur I's capture of Emperor Valerian in 259. Valerian's eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded him and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus – the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as the Gallic Empire emerged.[22] Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government.[23] However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded to form the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.[24] In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated Tetricus I in the Battle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his son Tetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.[25][26] Tetrarchy[edit] Main article: Tetrarchy The organization of the Empire under the Tetrarchy Diocletian was the first Emperor to divide the Roman Empire into a Tetrarchy. In 286 he elevated Maximian to the rank of augustus (emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire while he himself ruled the East.[27][28][29] In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, Maximian made Mediolanum (now Milan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capital Sirmium and Diocletian made Nicomedia his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who appointed Maximinus II and Valerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, creating the Second Tetrarchy.[30] The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son, Constantine the Great, was declared Western Emperor by the British legions,[31][32][33][34] but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius held a meeting at Carnuntum, where he revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and Licinius.[35] However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire than he was in the stability of the Tetrarchy, and by 314 began to compete against Licinius. Constantine defeated Licinius in 324, at the Battle of Chrysopolis, where Licinius was taken prisoner, and later murdered.[36] After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of Byzantium in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma ("New Rome"), later called Constantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.[37] The Tetrarchy was ended, although the concept of physically splitting the Roman Empire between two emperors remained. Although several powerful emperors unified both parts of the empire, this generally reverted in an empire divided into East and West upon their deaths, such as happened after the deaths of Constantine and Theodosius I.[38][39] Further divisions[edit] Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans I, Dalmatius and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius. The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.[38] Constantius, his third son and the second by his wife Fausta (Maximian's daughter)[40] received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by Dalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and a caesar, not an Augustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.[41] The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius. After Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.[40] Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, more than a century prior.[42] In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled for only nine months.[43] Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.[44] The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395 AD, superimposed on modern borders  Western Court under Honorius   Eastern Court under Arcadius More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.[45] Theodosius I later decreed the Edict of Thessalonica, which banned all religions except Christianity.[46] The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.[47] In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.[39] Theodosius I's older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho,[48] while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leader Alaric I who again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire.[49] Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410.[50] History[edit] Reign of Honorius[edit] Main article: Honorius (emperor) Solidus of Emperor Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to Ravenna in 402 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.[51] Ravenna would remain the western capital for 74 years until the deposition of Romulus Augustulus and would later be the capital of both the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Exarchate of Ravenna.[52][53] Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Emperor Gallienus had banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life.[54] In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals were barbarians.[55] The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothic foederati under Alaric, magister militum in Illyricum, rebelled in 395. Gildo, the Comes Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated the Gildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning in Raetia when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.[56] Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to Illyria.[57] Barbarian invasions and the invasion of usurper Constantine III in the Western Roman Empire during the reign of Honorius 407–409 The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, including Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III who invaded Gaul in 407.[58] Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406.[59] Honorius was convinced by the minister Olympius that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.[60] Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,[61] the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.[62] Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurper Constantine III had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania, Gerontius, proclaimed Maximus as Emperor. With the aid of general Constantius, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senator Jovinus revolted after proclaiming himself Emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarian Burgundians and Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under King Athaulf for support.[63] Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperor Sebastianus in 413, around the same time as another usurper arose in Africa, Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.[64] With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "barbarian kingdoms", the Visigothic Kingdom, was formed.[65] Escalating barbarian conflicts[edit] Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100–500 AD Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern Emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum, Joannes was nominated as Western Emperor. Joannes' "rule" was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425.[66] Boxwood relief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a sortie. Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in a status quo ante with a treaty.[67] Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under King Gaiseric to cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia in 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in the fall of Carthage on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the Vandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.[68] However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,[68] though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message from Honoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.[69] With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city of Aurelianum, forcing them into retreat.[70] At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.[71] Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern Emperor Marcian had launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.[72] Internal unrest and Majorian[edit] The Western Roman Empire during the reign of Majorian in 460 AD. During his four-year-long reign from 457 to 461, Majorian restored Western Roman authority in Hispania and most of Gaul. Despite his accomplishments, Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades. Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senator Petronius Maximus and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.[73] On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.[74] Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal king Gaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.[75] With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of the Vandal sack of 455 is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.[76] Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic king Theodoric II and accepted as such by the Roman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian general Ricimer used the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern Emperor Leo I did not select a new western Augustus. The prominent general Majorian defeated an invading force of Alemanni and was subsequently proclaimed Western Emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo.[77] Majorian was the last Western Emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugii, Burgundians, Huns, Bastarnae, Suebi, Scythians and Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At the Battle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return to foederati status. Majorian then entered the Rhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city of Lugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.[77] The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastated Mauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet at Carthaginiensis to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping at Arelate on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the river Iria.[77] Collapse[edit] See also: Fall of the Western Roman Empire The Western and Eastern Roman Empire by 476 The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet Emperors dominated by their Germanic magister militums. The most pointed example of this is Ricimer, who effectively became a "shadow Emperor" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet Emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.[78] The first of these puppet emperors, Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern Emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul and Illyria all refusing to recognize him.[79] Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern general Anthemius as Western Emperor following an eighteen-month interregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western Emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Cape Bon in 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion.[78] The trial and subsequent execution of Romanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevating Olybrius to the Western throne.[80] During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephew Gundobad succeeded him as magister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died of dropsy. Gundobad elevated Glycerius to Western Emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own, Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia. With the support of Eastern Emperors Leo II and Zeno, Julius Nepos crossed the Adriatic Sea in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as the Bishop of Salona.[81] The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 when Orestes, a former secretary of Attila and the magister militum of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship to Dalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western Emperor under the name Romulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western Emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western Emperor, reigning in exile from Dalmatia.[82] On 4 September 476, Odoacer, leader of the Germanic foederati in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western Emperor from Dalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern Emperor Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.[83] Fall of the Empire[edit] See also: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire The city of Ravenna, Western Roman capital, on the Tabula Peutingeriana, a 13th-century medieval map possibly copied from a 4th- or 5th-century Roman original By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in Dalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern Emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.[84] Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul (a realm today known as the Domain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western Emperor.[85] The authority of Julius Nepos as Emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,[86] and the Eastern Emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of Emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern) Roman emperors after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.[87] These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, nearly a thousand years later.[88] As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.[85][89] Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.[90] Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as the Praetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.[84] Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.[91] Political aftermath[edit] Map of the Barbarian kingdoms (major kingdoms and the Roman Empire labelled below) of the western Mediterranean in 526, seven years before the campaigns of reconquest under Eastern Emperor Justinian I   The Roman Empire under Justinian   The Vandal Kingdom   The Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy   The Visigothic Kingdom   The Frankish Kingdom After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.[92] In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.[93] The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the Emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.[94] 6th-century Visigothic coin, struck in the name of Emperor Justinian I Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. The Domain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by the Franks under King Clovis I after the Battle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.[85] Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of the Pyrenees other than Septimania in 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states of France (initially known as West Francia) and Germany (initially known as East Francia).[95] A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of Altava from the year 508 identifies a man named Masuna as the king of "Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum", the Kingdom of the Moors and Romans.[96] It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.[97] This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Roman magister militum Gennadius in 578 and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more.[98] Germanic Italy[edit] Odoacer's Italy in 480 AD, following the annexation of Dalmatia The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.[84] Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman Emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus, rather than in his own name.[84] When Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time.[99] Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend S C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by Emperor Anastasius in the East.[100] Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first being Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus in 480. Basilus was made the praetorian prefect of Italy in 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.[101] Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed, Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (486–493).[102] Solidus minted under Odoacer with the name and portrait of the Eastern Emperor Zeno Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the remaining Empire, the Eastern Emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promised Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths, foederati of the Eastern Court, control over the Italian peninsula if he was able to defeat Odoacer.[103] Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across the Julian Alps and into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, the Bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5 March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.[104] Map of the realm of Theodoric the Great at its height in 523, following the annexation of the southern parts of the Burgundian kingdom. Theoderic ruled both the Visigothic and Ostrogothic kingdoms and exerted hegemony over the Burgundians and Vandals. Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own laws, only edicts or clarifications.[105] The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.[106] Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal king Thrasamund and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.[107] Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic became king of the Visigoths in 511 and exerted hegemony over the Vandals in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the western Mediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.[108] Theoderic, by now Western Emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his "barbarian" heritage, which, like that of Ricimer before him, would have barred him from assuming the throne.[78] With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under King Amalaric and the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new king Athalaric, a child under the regency of his mother Amalasuntha.[109] After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance.[95] Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern Emperor Justinian I and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the Vandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative Theodahad as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an ideal casus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.[109] Imperial reconquest[edit] Further information: Vandalic War and Gothic War (535–554) The Eastern Roman Empire, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during Justinian's reign from 527 (red) to 565 (orange). With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.[110] Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.[111] Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money".[112] Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.[113] Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.[114] With the pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic having been deposed by Gelimer in 530,[115] Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.[116] Justinian I (left) was the first Eastern Emperor to attempt to reconquer the territories of the Western Roman Empire, undertaking successful campaigns in Africa and Italy in the 500s. Manuel I Komnenos (right) was the last, campaigning in southern Italy in the 1150s. Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under King Totila in 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of the Plague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.[117] At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western Emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.[118] Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province of Spania would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under King Suintila reconquered the south coast.[119] These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, the Lombards invaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing the Lombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.[120] Map of the Eastern Roman Empire in 717 AD. Over the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic expansion had ended Roman rule in Africa and though some bastions of Roman rule remained, most of Italy was controlled by the Lombards. Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Persia and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, with Emperor Constans II ruling from Syracuse in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all, being conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, Emperor Leo III attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the Iconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by Pope Gregory III.[121] The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to the Umayyad Caliphate in the 720s.[122][123] The Kingdom of Asturias was founded by Pelagius of Asturias around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.[124] Asturias would be transformed into the Kingdom of León in 924,[125] which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.[126] The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent Papal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800 AD. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, Emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".[127] Imperial rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the conquest of Bari.[128] The last Emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was Manuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the 1150s. The city of Bari willingly opened its gates to the Emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,[129] Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of Rome and Constantinople, separated since the schism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.[130] Legacy[edit] Further information: Legacy of the Roman Empire, Romance languages, Corpus Juris Civilis, Civil law (legal system), Latin alphabet, Literature, Bust (sculpture), Concrete, and Cities On the left: Emperor Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) On the right: Consular diptych of Constantius III (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate in 413 or 417. As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly changed their adherence to the state church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerful Bishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman law and gradually incorporated it.[92] Roman law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of modern civil law. In contrast, common law is based on Germanic Anglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.[131] Romance languages, languages that developed from Latin following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, are spoken in Western Europe to this day and their extent almost reflects the continental borders of the old Empire. Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.[132] Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English and German.[133] It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969. As such it was also used as a lingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin[citation needed]), as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of other lingua francas, especially English and French.[134] The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W. It is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today.[citation needed] Roman numerals continue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced by Arabic numerals.[135] A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Catholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.[72] As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.[136] When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.[137] Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of the Vatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of "Pontifex Maximus" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest of the Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar.[45][138] The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to install Symmachus as pope despite both Theodoric of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate, Laurentius.[139] Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by Emperor Tiberius II in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building, Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church under Pope Honorius I in 630, probably with permission from the eastern emperor, Heraclius.[140] Nomenclature[edit] Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in his Chronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the Chronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively.[141] The term Hesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.[142] Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.[141] This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.[89] The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.[143] Attempted restorations of a Western court[edit] Maps of the Exarchates within the Roman Empire in 600 AD. The Exarchates of Ravenna (left) and Africa (right) were established by the Eastern Empire to better administer the reconquered Western territories. The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole Augustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.[87] The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper, Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).[144] As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.[145][146] The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western Emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the Gothic Wars under Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and their fealty to Belisarius as Western Augustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with the Codex Justinianeus explicitly designating the new Praetorian Prefect of Africa as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.[147] Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.[145] At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two Caesares, the general Maurice and the governor Germanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.[146] If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, the Exarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Exarchate of Africa.[148] Later claims to the Imperial title in the West[edit] See also: Problem of two emperors Denarius of Frankish king Charlemagne, who was crowned as Roman Emperor Karolus Imperator Augustus in the year 800 by Pope Leo III due to, and in opposition to, the Roman Empire in the East being ruled by Irene, a woman. His coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire. In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 AD, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of translatio imperii. Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman Emperors of old until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[149] Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware of that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was Irene, the mother of emperor Constantine VI who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor Nikephoros soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s Emperor Michael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.[127] For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman Emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.[150] Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule.[151] The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.[152] Both of these empires used the imperial title Kaiser (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires who had both claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.[153][154][155] List of Western Roman Emperors[edit] With junior colleagues titled Caesar listed below the reign of each emperor. Tetrarchy (286–313)[edit] Main article: Tetrarchy Bust of Emperor Maximian, the first Western Roman Emperor Maximian: 286–305[156] Constantius Chlorus: 293–305[157] Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeated Carinus.[158] He became Western Emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.[159] Constantius I Chlorus: 305–306[160] Valerius Severus: 305–306[161] Constantius Chlorus was elevated to caesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western Emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.[159] Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.[162] Valerius Severus: 306–307[161] Constantine: 306–307[161] Valerius Severus was elevated to caesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western Emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.[163] He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.[164] Maxentius: 307–312[161] Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus. He succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.[165] The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into the Tiber river.[166] Licinius: 308–313[161] Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at the Council of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.[167] Constantinian dynasty (309–363)[edit] Main article: Constantinian dynasty Bust of Emperor Constantine I, the founder of the Constantinian dynasty Constantine I: 309–337 (Sole Emperor: 324–337).[161] Constantine I was proclaimed caesar of the Western Empire on 25 July 306. After 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western Emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He was the sole Western Emperor from 312 to 324, when he became both Western Emperor and Eastern Emperor.[168] Constantine II 337–340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).[161] Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II control of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.[169] Constans I 337–350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western Emperor: 340–350).[161] Constans was proclaimed emperor of Italy and Africa in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.[170] Constantius II 351–361 (Eastern Emperor: 337–351, Sole Emperor: 351–361).[161] Julian: 355–361[161] Constantius II was proclaimed caesar in 334, and became Eastern Emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius in 351, took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.[171] Julian: 361–363 (Sole Emperor).[161] Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355, before becoming emperor in 361, after Constantius II died of a violent fever in 361. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.[172] Non-dynastic (363–364)[edit] Jovian: 363–364 (Sole Emperor).[161] When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, under Shapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.[173] Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)[edit] Main article: Valentinianic dynasty Bust of Emperor Valentinian II, a member of the Valentinianic dynasty's second generation of emperors Valentinian I: 364–375[161] Gratian: 367–375[161] After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.[174] Gratian: 375–383[161] Valentinian II: 375–383[161] Valentinian elevated his son, Gratian, to caesar in 367, however on his deathbed he elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, to caesar along with Gratian, and Valens who was emperor in the East.[175] Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled to Lyons, where he was murdered on 25 August 383.[176] Valentinian II: 383–392[161] After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western Emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.[176] Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was murdered by Arbogast.[177] Magnus Maximus: 384–388[178][179] Flavius Victor: 383/387–388[178][180][181] Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 384, in opposition to Gratian, who defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was briefly recognized as the Western Emperor by Eastern Emperor Theodosius I, however this recognition was revoked by both when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.[176][178][180][181] Theodosian dynasty (392–455)[edit] Main article: Theodosian dynasty Emperor Honorius, as depicted by Jean-Paul Laurens in 1880 Theodosius I: 394–395 (Eastern Roman Emperor: 379–394, sole Emperor: 394–395)[161] Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died of edema in January 395.[182] Honorius: 395–423[161] Constantine III: 409–411[161] Constans II: 409–411[161] Constantius III: 421.[161] Honorius became Western Emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled by Stilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. Honorius died of edema in 423.[183] Valentinian III: 425–455[161] Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimed caesar, only given the title of nobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper named Joannes rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. He was installed as Western Emperor in 425, after Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna. Valentinian was killed on 16 March 455, by Optila, a friend of Flavius Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed.[184] Non-dynastic (455–480)[edit] Petronius Maximus: 455 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Palladius: 455.[185] Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman Emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.[185] During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, the Vandal king, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them.[186][187] Avitus: 455–456 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Avitus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 9 July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.[188] Majorian: 457–461[161] Majorian was proclaimed Western Emperor 1 April 456, officially by Eastern Emperor Leo I, however in reality Leo's decision was swayed by the influence of Ricimer. On 7 August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered.[189] Libius Severus: 461–465 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Libius Severus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, with Aegidius splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14 November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.[190] Anthemius: 467–472[161] Anthemius was proclaimed Western Emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.[191] Olybrius: 472 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.[192] Glycerius: 473–474 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[161] After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western Emperor by the Western Roman Army, on 3 or 5 May 473.[193] He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.[194] Julius Nepos: 474–475 (In exile 475–480)[195] The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman Emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.[81] Orestes, magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western Emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.[82] Nepos continued to rule as "Western Emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.[86] Romulus Augustus: 475–476 (Not recognized by Eastern Emperor)[195] Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western Emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.[82] The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 the foederati under the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.[196] Orestes was captured and executed on 28 August the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live out his life in the Castellum Lucullanum in Campania, where he might have been alive as late as 507 AD.[197] With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a de jure representative of Western Roman Emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman Emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman Emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such as Belisarius in 540 and Germanus in 582.[145][146] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Christie 1991, p. 236. ^ Taagepera, p. 24. ^ "Salona". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 August 2020. ^ "Spalatum (Split) - Livius". www.livius.org. 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ISBN 978-0195328783. Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. ISBN 9781317496946. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 115–138. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. Tames, Richard (1972). Last of the Tsars. Pan Books Ltd. ISBN 9780330029025. Tenney, Frank (1930). "Life and Literature in the Roman Republic". Classical Philology. 28: 60–61. doi:10.1086/361560. OCLC 321827. Thomas, Hugh (2010). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0141034485. Thompson, E. A. (1969). The Goths in Spain. Clarendon. OCLC 186003872. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1598844290. Retrieved 16 January 2015. Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. Vogt, Joseph (1993). The Decline of Rome: The Metamorphosis of Ancient Civilization. Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0297813927. Watson, Alexander (2014). Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465018727. Weigel, Richard D. (1992). Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415076807. Whaley, Joachim (2012). Joachim Whaley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199688821. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his historian : Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan warfare. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822945-2. White, Craig (2007). The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1434325495. Wienand, Johannes (2014). Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199768998. Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall the Phoenix in the East. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98231-0. Wolfram, Herwig (1990). History of the Goths. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520069831. Web sources[edit] Donald L., Wasson. "Gallienus - World History Encyclopedia". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2018. Ralph W., Mathisen. "Anthemius – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Ralph W., Mathisen. "Glycerius – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Ralph W., Mathisen. "Libius Severus – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018. Ralph W., Mathisen. "Majorian – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Michael, DiMaio. "Constantius II – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Körner, Christian. "Aurelian – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. "Legal System – The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2018. Lendering, Jona. "Governor (Roman) – Livius". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018. Lendering, Jona. "Pontifex Maximus – Livius". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018. Polfer, Michael. "Postumus – De Imperatoribus Romanis". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Scott, Samuel P. "The Code of Justinian – Book 1". droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2018. Shapur Shahbazi, A. "Sasanian Dynasty – Encyclopedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2018. Further reading[edit] Börm, Henning (2018). Westrom: Von Honorius bis Justinian. Kohlhammer. ISBN 978-3-17-033216-4. Heather, Peter (2003). The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1843830337. Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie : Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010934-4. Merills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2007). The Vandals. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405160681. 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en-wikipedia-org-3158	----	Antinous - Wikipedia Antinous From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lover of Roman emperor Hadrian For other uses, see Antinous (disambiguation). Bust of Antinous from Patras, (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) Antinous (also Antinoüs, Latin: Antinous) or Antinoös (Ancient Greek: Ἀντίνοος, romanized: Antínoös; 27 November, c. 111 – before 30 October 130[a]) was a Bithynian Greek youth and a favourite beloved of the Roman emperor Hadrian.[1] After his premature death before his twentieth birthday, Antinous was deified on Hadrian's orders, being worshipped in both the Greek East and Latin West, sometimes as a god (theos) and sometimes merely as a hero (ἥρως, hḗrōs).[2] Little is known of Antinous's life, although it is known that he was born in Claudiopolis (present day Bolu, Turkey), in the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus. He was probably introduced to Hadrian in 123, before being taken to Italy for a higher education. He had become the favourite of Hadrian by 128, when he was taken on a tour of the Roman Empire as part of Hadrian's personal retinue. Antinous accompanied Hadrian during his attendance of the annual Eleusinian Mysteries in Athens, and was with him when he killed the Marousian lion in Libya. In October 130, as they were part of a flotilla going along the Nile, Antinous died amid mysterious circumstances. Various suggestions have been put forward for how he died, ranging from an accidental drowning to an intentional human sacrifice or suicide. Following his death, Hadrian deified Antinous and founded an organised cult devoted to his worship that spread throughout the Empire. Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis close to Antinous's place of death, which became a cultic centre for the worship of Osiris-Antinous. Hadrian also founded games in commemoration of Antinous to take place in both Antinoöpolis and Athens, with Antinous becoming a symbol of Hadrian's dreams of pan-Hellenism. The worship of Antinous proved to be one of the most enduring and popular of cults of deified humans in the Roman empire, and events continued to be founded in his honor long after Hadrian's death.[3] Antinous became associated with homosexuality in Western culture, appearing in the work of Oscar Wilde and Fernando Pessoa. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Life with Hadrian 1.3 Death 2 Deification and the cult of Antinous 2.1 Antinoöpolis 2.2 The cult's spread 2.3 Condemnation and decline 3 In Roman sculpture 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 Cultural references 6 References 6.1 Footnotes 6.2 Bibliography 7 Further reading 7.1 Ancient literary sources 8 External links Biography[edit] The Classicist Caroline Vout noted that most of the texts dealing with Antinous's biography only dealt with him briefly and were post-Hadrianic in date, thus commenting that "reconstructing a detailed biography is impossible".[4] The historian Thorsten Opper noted that "Hardly anything is known of Antinous's life, and the fact that our sources get more detailed the later they are does not inspire confidence."[5] Antinous's biographer Royston Lambert echoed this view, commenting that information on him was "tainted always by distance, sometimes by prejudice and by the alarming and bizarre ways in which the principal sources have been transmitted to us."[6] Childhood[edit] It is known that Antinous was born to a Greek family in the city of Claudiopolis, which was located in the Roman province of Bithynia in what is now north-west Turkey.[7] The year of Antinous's birth is not recorded, although it is estimated that it was probably between 110 and 112 AD.[8] Early sources record that his birthday was in November, and although the exact date is not known, Lambert asserted that it was probably on 27 November.[8] Given the location of his birth and his physical appearance, it is likely that part of his ancestry was not Greek.[9] There are various potential origins for the name "Antinous"; it is possible that he was named after the character of Antinous, who is one of Penelope's suitors in Homer's epic poem, the Odyssey. Another possibility is that he was given the male equivalent of Antinoë, a woman who was one of the founding figures of Mantineia, a city which probably had close relations with Bithynia.[8] Although many historians from the Renaissance onward asserted that Antinous had been a slave, only one of around fifty early sources claims that, and it remains unlikely, as it would have proved heavily controversial to deify a former slave in Roman society.[10] There is no surviving reliable evidence attesting to Antinous's family background, although Lambert believed it most likely that his family would have been peasant farmers or small business owners, thereby being socially undistinguished yet not from the poorest sectors of society.[11] Lambert also considered it likely that Antinous would have had a basic education as a child, having been taught how to read and write.[12] Life with Hadrian[edit] British Museum busts of Hadrian (left) and Antinous (right), both part of the Townley Marbles The Emperor Hadrian spent much time during his reign touring his Empire, and arrived in Claudiopolis in June 123, which was probably when he first encountered Antinous.[13] Given Hadrian's personality, Lambert thought it unlikely that they had become lovers at this point, instead suggesting it probable that Antinous had been selected to be sent to Italy, where he was probably schooled at the imperial paedagogium at the Caelian Hill.[14] Hadrian meanwhile had continued to tour the Empire, only returning to Italy in September 125, when he settled into his villa at Tibur.[15] It was at some point over the following three years that Antinous became his personal favourite, for by the time he left for Greece three years later, he brought Antinous with him in his personal retinue.[15] "The way that Hadrian took the boy on his travels, kept close to him at moments of spiritual, moral or physical exaltation, and, after his death, surrounded himself with his images, shows an obsessive craving for his presence, a mystical-religious need for his companionship." —Royston Lambert, 1984[16] Lambert described Antinous as "the one person who seems to have connected most profoundly with Hadrian" throughout the latter's life.[17] Hadrian's marriage to Sabina was unhappy,[18] and there is no reliable evidence that he ever expressed a sexual attraction for women, in contrast to much reliable early evidence that he was sexually attracted to boys and young men.[19] For centuries, sexual relations between a man and a boy had been socially acceptable among Greece's leisured and citizen classes, with an older erastes (the "lover", aged between 20 and 40) undertaking a sexual relationship with an eromenos (the "beloved", aged between 12 and 18) and taking a key role in his (the latter's) education.[20] Hadrian took Antinous as a favoured servant when they were aged about 48 and 13 respectively. Such a societal institution of pederasty was not indigenous to Roman culture, although bisexuality was widely socially accepted in the upper echelons of Roman society by the early 2nd century.[21] It is known that Hadrian believed Antinous to be intelligent and wise,[15] and that they had a shared love of hunting, which was seen as a particularly manly pursuit in Roman culture.[22] Although none survive, it is known that Hadrian wrote both an autobiography and erotic poetry about his boy favourites; it is therefore likely that he wrote about Antinous.[6] Early sources are explicit that the relationship between Hadrian and Antinous was sexual.[23] During their relationship, there is no evidence that Antinous ever used his influence over Hadrian for personal or political gain.[24] In March 127, Hadrian – probably accompanied by Antinous – travelled through the Sabine area of Italy, Picenum, and Campania.[25] From 127 to 129 the Emperor was then afflicted with an illness that doctors were unable to explain.[25] In April 128 he laid the foundation stone for a temple of Venus and Rome in the city of Rome, during a ritual where he may well have been accompanied by Antinous.[25] From there, Hadrian went on a tour of North Africa, during which he was accompanied by Antinous.[26] In late 128 Hadrian and Antinous landed in Corinth, proceeding to Athens, where they remained until May 129, accompanied by Sabina, the Caeserii brothers, and Pedanius Fuscus the Younger.[27] It was in Athens in September 128 that they attended the annual celebrations of the Great Mysteries of Eleusis, where Hadrian was initiated into the position of epoptes in the Telesterion. It is generally agreed, although not proven, that Antinous was also initiated at that time.[28] The tondo depicting Hadrian's lion hunt, accompanied by Antinous, on the Arch of Constantine in Rome From there they headed to Asia Minor, settling in Antioch in June 129, where they were based for a year, visiting Syria, Arabia, and Judaea. From there, Hadrian became increasingly critical of Jewish culture, which he feared opposed Romanisation, and so introduced policies banning circumcision and building a Temple of Zeus-Jupiter on the former site of the Jewish Temple. From there, they headed to Egypt.[29] Arriving in Alexandria in August 130, there they visited the sarcophagus of Alexander the Great. Although welcomed with public praise and ceremony, some of Hadrian's appointments and actions angered the city's Hellenic social elite, who began to gossip about his sexual activities, including those with Antinous.[30] Soon after, and probably in September 130, Hadrian and Antinous travelled west to Libya, where they had heard of a Marousian lion causing problems for local people. They hunted down the lion, and although the exact events are unclear, it is apparent that Hadrian saved Antinous's life during their confrontation with it, before the beast itself was killed.[31] Hadrian widely publicised the event, casting bronze medallions of it, getting historians to write about it, commissioning Pancrates to write a poem about it, and having a tondo depicting it created which was later placed on the Arch of Constantine. On this tondo it was clear that Antinous was no longer a youth, having become more muscular and hairy, perceptibly more able to resist his master; and thus it is likely that his relationship with Hadrian was changing as a result.[31] Death[edit] Statue of Antinous (Delphi), polychrome Parian marble, made during the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138 AD) In late September or early October 130, Hadrian and his entourage, among them Antinous, assembled at Heliopolis to set sail upstream as part of a flotilla along the River Nile. The retinue included officials, the Prefect, army and naval commanders, as well as literary and scholarly figures. Possibly also joining them was Lucius Ceionius Commodus, a young aristocrat whom Antinous might have deemed a rival to Hadrian's affections.[32] On their journey up the Nile, they stopped at Hermopolis Magna, the primary shrine to the god Thoth.[33] It was shortly after this, in October 130 – around the time of the festival of Osiris – that Antinous fell into the river and died, probably from drowning.[34] Hadrian publicly announced his death, with gossip soon spreading throughout the Empire that Antinous had been intentionally killed.[35] The nature of Antinous's death remains a mystery to this day, and it is possible that Hadrian himself never knew; however, various hypotheses have been put forward.[36] One possibility is that he was murdered by a conspiracy at court. However, Lambert asserted that this was unlikely because it lacked any supporting historical evidence, and because Antinous himself seemingly exerted little influence over Hadrian, thus meaning that an assassination served little purpose.[37] Another suggestion is that Antinous had died during a voluntary castration as part of an attempt to retain his youth and thus his sexual appeal to Hadrian. However, this is improbable because Hadrian deemed both castration and circumcision to be abominations and as Antinous was aged between 18 and 20 at the time of death, any such operation would have been ineffective.[38] A third possibility is that the death was accidental, perhaps if Antinous was intoxicated. However, in the surviving evidence Hadrian does not describe the death as being an accident; Lambert thought that this was suspicious.[39] Another possibility is that Antinous represented a voluntary human sacrifice. The earliest surviving evidence for this comes from the writings of Dio Cassius, 80 years after the event, although it was subsequently repeated in many later sources. In the 2nd century Roman Empire, a belief that the death of one could rejuvenate the health of another was widespread, and Hadrian had been ill for many years; in this scenario, Antinous could have sacrificed himself in the belief that Hadrian would have recovered.[40] If this last situation were true, Hadrian might not have revealed the cause of Antinous's death because he did not wish to appear either physically or politically weak. Conversely, opposing this possibility is the fact that Hadrian disliked human sacrifice and had strengthened laws against it in the Empire.[40] Deification and the cult of Antinous[edit] The constellation Antinous remained in starcharts for centuries, only disappearing for good when the constellations were formalized by the International Astronomical Union in 1930. Hadrian was devastated by the death of Antinous, and possibly also experiencing remorse.[41] In Egypt, the local priesthood immediately deified Antinous by identifying him with Osiris due to the manner of his death.[42] In keeping with Egyptian custom, Antinous's body was probably embalmed and mummified by priests, a lengthy process which might explain why Hadrian remained in Egypt until spring 131.[42] While there, in October 130 Hadrian proclaimed Antinous to be a deity and announced that a city should be built on the site of his death in commemoration of him, to be called Antinoöpolis.[43] The deification of human beings was not uncommon in the Classical world. However, the public and formal divinisation of humans was reserved for the Emperor and members of the imperial family; thus Hadrian's decision to declare Antinous a god and create a formal cult devoted to him was highly unusual, and he did so without the permission of the Senate.[44] Although the cult of Antinous therefore had connections with the imperial cult, it remained separate and distinct.[45] Hadrian also identified a star in the sky between the Eagle and the Zodiac to be Antinous,[46] and came to associate the rosy lotus that grew on the banks of the Nile as being the flower of Antinous.[47] The Antinous Obelisk in the Pincio Hill of Rome It is unknown exactly where Antinous's body was buried. It has been argued that either his body or some relics associated with him would have been interred at a shrine in Antinoöpolis, although this has yet to be identified archaeologically.[48] However, a surviving obelisk contains an inscription strongly suggesting that Antinous's body was interred at Hadrian's country estate, the Villa Adriana at Tibur in Italy.[49] The remains of the Antinoeion at Hadrian's Villa It is unclear whether Hadrian genuinely believed that Antinous had become a god.[50] He would have also had political motives for creating the organised cult, for it enshrined political and personal loyalties specifically to him.[51] In October 131 he proceeded to Athens, where from 131/32 he founded the Panhellenion, an attempt to foster Greek self-consciousness, erode the feuding endemic to the Greek city-states, and promote the worship of the ancient gods; being Greek himself, the god Antinous helped Hadrian's cause in this, representing a symbol of pan-Hellenic unity.[52] In Athens, Hadrian also established a festival to be held in honour of Antinous in October, the Antinoeia.[53] Antinous was understood differently by his various worshippers, in part due to regional and cultural variation. In some inscriptions he is identified as a divine hero, in others as a god, and in others as both a divine hero and a god. In Egypt, he was often understood as a daemon.[54] Inscriptions indicate that Antinous was seen primarily as a benevolent deity, who could be turned to aid his worshipers and cure them of ailments.[55][56] He was also seen as a conqueror of death, with his name and image often being included in coffins.[57] Antinoöpolis[edit] The city of Antinoöpolis was erected on the site of Hir-we. All previous buildings were razed and replaced, with the exception of the Temple of Ramses II.[50] Hadrian also had political motives for the creation of Antinoöpolis, which was to be the first Hellenic city in the Middle Nile region, thus serving as a bastion of Greek culture within the Egyptian area. To encourage Egyptians to integrate with this imported Greek culture, he permitted Greeks and Egyptians in the city to marry and allowed the main deity of Hir-we, Bes, to continue to be worshipped in Antinoöpolis alongside the new primary deity, Osiris-Antinous.[58] He encouraged Greeks from elsewhere to settle in the new city, using various incentives to do so.[59] The city was designed on a Hippodamian grid that was typical of Hellenic cities, and embellished with columns and many statues of Antinous, as well as a temple devoted to the deity.[60] The site of Antinoöpolis in Egypt Hadrian proclaimed that games would be held at the city in Spring 131 in commemoration of Antinous. Known as the Antinoeia, they would be held annually for several centuries, being noted as the most important in Egypt. Events included athletic competitions, chariot and equestrian races, and artistic and musical festivals, with prizes including citizenship, money, tokens, and free lifetime maintenance.[61] Antinoöpolis continued to grow into the Byzantine era, being Christianised with the conversion of the Empire, however it retained an association with magic for centuries to come.[62] Over the centuries, stone from the Hadrianic city was removed for the construction of homes and mosques.[63] By the 18th century, the ruins of Antinoöpolis were still visible, being recorded by such European travellers as Jesuit missionary Claude Sicard in 1715 and Edme-François Jomard the surveyor circa 1800.[64] However, in the 19th century, Antinoöpolis was almost completely destroyed by local industrial production, as the chalk and limestone was burned for powder while stone was used in the construction of a nearby dam and sugar factory.[65] The cult's spread[edit] The "Lansdowne Antinous" was found at Hadrian's Villa in 1769 (Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge) Hadrian was keen to disseminate the cult of Antinous throughout the Roman Empire. He focused on its spread within the Greek lands, and in Summer 131 travelled these areas promoting it by presenting Antinous in a syncretised form with the more familiar deity Hermes.[66] On a visit to Trapezus in 131, he proclaimed the foundation of a temple devoted to Hermes, where the deity was probably venerated as Hermes-Antinous.[67] Although Hadrian preferred to associate Antinous with Hermes, he was far more widely syncretised with the god Dionysus across the Empire.[68] The cult also spread through Egypt, and within a few years of its foundation, altars and temples to the god had been erected in Hermopolis, Alexandria, Oxyrhynchus, Tebytnis, Lykopolis, and Luxor.[66] The cult of Antinous was never as large as those of well established deities such as Zeus, Dionysus, Demeter, or Asclepios, or even as large as those of cults which were growing in popularity at that time, such as Isis or Serapis, and was also smaller than the official imperial cult of Hadrian himself.[69] However, it spread rapidly throughout the Empire, with traces of the cult having been found in at least 70 cities.[69] The cult was most popular in Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, and the North African coast, but a large community of worshippers also existed in Italy, Spain, and northwestern Europe.[56] Artifacts in honor of Antinous have been found in an area that spans from Britain to the Danube.[56] Although the adoption of the Antinous cult was in some cases done to please Hadrian, the evidence makes it clear that the cult was also genuinely popular among the different societal classes in the Empire,[70] and archaeological finds point that Antinous was worshipped in both public and private settings.[56] In Egypt, Athens, Macedonia, and Italy, children would be named after the deity.[71] Part of the appeal was that Antinous had once been human himself, and thus was more relatable than many other deities.[72] It is also possible, however, that his cult borrowed power from parallels between Antinous and beautiful young male immortals in the Greco-Roman pantheon like Apollo, Dionysus, and Silvanus as well as mortal youths beloved by gods in classical mythology like Ganymede, Hylas, Hyacinth, and Narcissus,[73][74] and that images of the sensuous youth invited imaginary erotic bonding between him and his worshipers.[3] These characteristics were common also to the cults of Attis, Endymion, and Adonis. Like the latter, Antinous was treated as a dying-and-rising god not only in Egypt, but in Rome and Greece; the Obelisk of Antinous in Rome describes the honorand, "Osirantinous" as "the Reborn" and "the Everlasting".[75] Antinous (Museo Pio-Clementino) At least 28 temples were constructed for the worship of Antinous throughout the Empire, although most were fairly modest in design; those at Tarsos, Philadelphia, and Lanuvium consisted of a four-column portico. It is likely however that those which Hadrian was directly involved in, such as at Antinoöpolis, Bithynion, and Mantineria, were often grander, while in the majority of cases, shrines or altars to Antinous would have been erected in or near the pre-existing temples of the imperial cult, or Dionysus or Hermes.[76] Worshippers would have given votive offerings to the deity at these altars; there is evidence that he was given gifts of food and drink in Egypt, with libations and sacrifices probably being common in Greece.[77] Priests devoted to Antinous would have overseen this worship, with the names of some of these individuals having survived in inscriptions.[77] There is evidence of oracles being present at a number of Antinoan temples.[77] Sculptures of Antinous became widespread, with Hadrian probably having approved a basic model of Antinous's likeness for other sculptors to follow.[53][78] These sculptures were produced in large quantities between 130 and 138, with estimates being in the region of around 2000, of which at least 115 survive.[79] 44 have been found in Italy, half of which were at Hadrian's Villa Adriana, while 12 have been found in Greece and Asia Minor, and 6 in Egypt.[80] Over 31 cities in the Empire, the majority in Greece and Asia Minor, issued coins depicting Antinous, chiefly between the years 134–35. Many were designed to be used as medallions rather than currency, some of them deliberately made with a hole so that they could be hung from the neck and used as talismans.[78][81] Most production of Antinous-based artefacts ceased following the 130s, although such items continued to be used by the cult's followers for several centuries.[82] Later survivals of his cult largely rested in the Eastern Roman Empire, where his acceptance into the pantheon of gods was better received.[83] Games held in honour of Antinous were held in at least 9 cities, and included both athletic and artistic components.[84] The games at Bythynion, Antinoöpolis, and Mantineia were still active by the early 3rd century, while those at Athens and Eleusis were still operating in 266–67.[85] Rumours spread throughout the Empire that at Antinous's cultic centre in Antinoöpolis, there were "sacred nights" characterised by drunken revelries, perhaps including sexual orgies.[86] Condemnation and decline[edit] The cult of Antinous was criticised by various individuals, both pagan and Christian.[87] Critics included followers of other pagan cults, such as Pausanias,[88] Lucian, and the Emperor Julian, who were all sceptical about the apotheosis of Antinous, as well as the Sibylline Oracles, who were critical of Hadrian more generally. The pagan philosopher Celsus also criticised it for what he perceived as the debauched nature of its Egyptian devotees, arguing that it led people into immoral behaviour, in this way comparing it to Christianity.[87] Surviving examples of Christian condemnation of the Antinous cults come from figures like Tertullian, Origen, Jerome, and Epiphanios. Viewing the religion as a blasphemous rival to Christianity, they insisted that Antinous had simply been a mortal human and condemned his sexual activities with Hadrian as immoral. Associating his cult with malevolent magic, they argued that Hadrian had imposed his worship through fear.[89] During the struggles between Christians and pagans in Rome during the 4th century, Antinous was championed by members of the latter. As a result of this, the Christian poet Prudentius denounced his worship in 384, while a set of seven contorniates depicting Antinous were issued, based upon the designs of those issued in the 130s.[90] Many sculptures of Antinous were destroyed by Christians, as well as by invading barbarian tribes, although in some instances were then re-erected; the Antinous statue at Delphi had been toppled and had its forearms broken off, before being re-erected in a chapel elsewhere.[91] Many of the images of Antinous remained in public places until the official prohibition of pagan religions under the reign of Emperor Theodosius in 391.[90] In Roman sculpture[edit] Hadrian "turned to Greek sculptors to perpetuate the melancholy beauty, diffident manner, and lithe and sensuous frame of his boyfriend Antinous,"[92] creating in the process what has been described as "the last independent creation of Greco-Roman art".[93] It is traditionally assumed that they were all produced between Antinous's death in 130 and that of Hadrian in 138, on the questionable grounds that no-one else would be interested in commissioning them.[94] The assumption is that official models were sent out to provincial workshops all over the empire to be copied, with local variations permitted.[95] It has been asserted that many of these sculptures "share distinctive features – a broad, swelling chest, a head of tousled curls, a downcast gaze – that allow them to be instantly recognized".[96] About a hundred statues of Antinous have been preserved for modernity, at the least, a remarkable fact as his cult was the target of intense hostility by apologists of Christianity, whose followers vandalized and destroyed artifacts and temples built in honor of the youth.[56] By 2005, classicist Caroline Vout could note that more images have been identified of Antinous than of any other figure in classical antiquity with the exceptions of Augustus and Hadrian.[97] She also asserted that the Classical study of these Antinous images was particularly important because of his "rare mix" of "biographical mystery and overwhelming physical presence".[97] Lambert believed that the sculptures of Antinous "remain without doubt one of the most elevated and ideal monuments to pederastic love of the whole ancient world",[98] also describing them as "the final great creation of classical art".[99] There are also statues in many archaeological museums in Greece including the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, the archaeological museums of Patras, Chalkis and Delphi. Although these may well be idealised images, they demonstrate what all contemporary writers described as Antinous's extraordinary beauty.[citation needed] Although many of the sculptures are instantly recognizable, some offer significant variation in terms of the suppleness and sensuality of the pose and features versus the rigidity and typical masculinity. In 1998 monumental remains were discovered at Hadrian's Villa that archaeologists claimed were from the tomb of Antinous, or a temple to him,[100] though this has been challenged both because of the inconclusive nature of the archaeological remains and the overlooking of patristic sources (Epiphanius, Clement of Alexandria) indicating that Antinous was buried at his temple in Antinoöpolis, the Egyptian city founded in his honour.[101] As Bacchus, Vatican As Bacchus, Vatican Antinous as Dionysus-Osiris From Delphi Antinous Mondragone at the Louvre Antinous Ecouen, from Villa Adriana at Tivoli Bust of Antinous in the Palazzo Altemps museum in Rome Vatican Museums, colossal bust, from Villa Adriana As Bacchus, Capitoline Museums The Antinous Braschi type (Louvre) Antinous as a priest of the imperial cult (Louvre) Antinous Farnese, National Archaeological Museum, Naples Capitoline Antinous, Capitoline Museums, from the Villa Adriana Villa Albani relief from the Torlonia collection, Rome Relief, as Sylvanus, National Roman Museum Antinous as Osiris Head (the bust is modern), Antikensammlung Berlin Egyptianizing statue of Antinoos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Antinous as Osiris, found in the ruins of Hadrian's Villa during the 18th century Sculpture of Antinous in the grounds of the New Palace, Potsdam. Bust of Antinous (130–138 AD) in the National Museum of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Cultural references[edit] Antinous remained a figure of cultural significance for centuries to come; as Vout noted, he was "arguably the most notorious pretty boy from the annals of classical history."[102] Sculptures of Antinous began to be reproduced from the 16th century; it remains likely that some of these modern examples have subsequently been sold as Classical artefacts and are still viewed as such.[103] Antinous has attracted attention from the homosexual subculture since the 18th century, the most illustrious examples for this being Prince Eugene of Savoy and Frederick the Great of Prussia.[96] Vout noted that Antinous came to be identified as "a gay icon".[104] Novelist and independent scholar Sarah Waters identified Antinous as being "at the forefront of the homosexual imagination" in late 19th-century Europe.[105] In this, Antinous replaced the figure of Ganymede, who had been the primary homoerotic representation in the visual arts during the Renaissance.[106] Gay author Karl Heinrich Ulrichs celebrated Antinous in an 1865 pamphlet that he wrote under the pseudonym of "Numa Numantius".[106] In 1893, homophile newspaper The Artist, began offering cast statues of Antinous for £3 10s.[106] At the time, Antinous's fame was increased by the work of fiction and writers and scholars, many of whom were not homosexuals.[107] The author Oscar Wilde referenced Antinous in both "The Young King" (1891) and "The Sphinx" (1894).[106] In "The Young King", a reference is made to the king kissing a statue of 'the Bithynian slave of Hadrian' in a passage describing the young king's aesthetic sensibilities and his "...strange passion for beauty...". Images of other classical paragons of male beauty, Adonis and Endymion, are also mentioned in the same context. Additionally, in Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray, the artist Basil Hallward describes the appearance of Dorian Gray as an event as important to his art as "the face of Antinous was to late Greek sculpture." Furthermore, in a novel attributed to Oscar Wilde, Teleny, or The Reverse of the Medal, Des Grieux makes a passing reference to Antinous as he describes how he felt during a musical performance: "I now began to understand things hitherto so strange, the love the mighty monarch felt for his fair Grecian slave, Antinous, who – like unto Christ – died for his master's sake."[108] In Les Misérables, the character Enjolras is likened to Antinous. "A charming young man who was capable of being a terror. He was angelically good-looking, an untamed Antinous." Hugo also remarks that Enjolras was "seeming not to be aware of the existence on earth of a creature called woman."[109] In "Klage um Antinous", Der neuen Gedichte, Anderer Teil (1908) by Rainer Maria Rilke,[110] Hadrian scolds the gods for Antinous's deification. "Lament for Antinoüs", translation by Stephen Cohn.[111] In 1915 Fernando Pessoa wrote a long poem entitled Antinous, but he only published it in 1918, close to the end of World War I, in a slim volume of English verse. In 1921 he published a new version of this poem in English Poems, a book published by his own publishing house, Olisipo. In Marguerite Yourcenar's Mémoires d'Hadrien (1951), the love relationship between Antinous and Hadrian is one of the main themes of the book. A "sexually ambivalent" young man ('Murugan Mailendra') in Aldous Huxley's Island (1962) is likened to Antinous, and his lover Colonel Dipa (an older man) to Hadrian, after the narrator discovers the two are having a secret affair. The story of Antinous' death was dramatized in the radio play "The Glass Ball Game", Episode Two of the second series of the BBC radio drama Caesar!, written by Mike Walker, directed by Jeremy Mortimer and starring Jonathan Coy as "Suetonius", Jonathan Hyde as "Hadrian" and Andrew Garfield as "Antinous". In this story, Suetonius is a witness to the events before and after Antinous's death by suicide, but learns that he himself was used as an instrument to trick Antinous into killing himself willingly to fulfill a pact made by Hadrian with Egyptian priests to give Hadrian more time to live so that Marcus Aurelius may grow up to become the next Emperor. Antinous is seen walking with the other gods to war in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods. In Tipping the Velvet (novel by Sarah Waters and its television adaptation), the lesbian protagonist Nan Astley dresses as Antinous for a costume party held by her partner. On 13 October 2018, in Toronto, the Canadian Opera Company premiered Hadrian, the second opera by Rufus Wainwright, which tells the tale of the Emperor's grief and his all-consuming need to discover the details surrounding Antinous's death. In March 2020, the Hadrian Cup (a rugby tournament for LGBT-inclusive teams based in Newcastle, a city founded by Hadrian himself) introduced the Antinous Plate in honour of Hadrian's lover, which was awarded to Aberdeen Taexali Rugby Club.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ The day and month of his birth come from an inscription on a tablet from Lanuvium dated 136 AD; the year is uncertain, but Antinous must have been about 18 when he drowned, the exact date of which place is itself not clear: certainly a few days before 30 October 130 AD when Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis, possibly on the 22nd (the Nile festival) or more likely the 24th (anniversary of the death of Osiris). See Lambert 1984, p. 19, and elsewhere. Footnotes[edit] ^ Birley 2000, p. 144. ^ Renberg, Gil H.: Hadrian and the Oracles of Antinous (SHA, Hadr. 14.7); with an appendix on the so-called Antinoeion at Hadrian's Villa and Rome's Monte Pincio Obelisk, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 55 (2010) [2011], 159–198; Jones, Christopher P., New Heroes in Antiquity: From Achilles to Antinoos (Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, 2010), 75–83; Bendlin, Andreas: Associations, Funerals, Sociality, and Roman Law: The collegium of Diana and Antinous in Lanuvium (CIL 14.2112) Reconsidered, in M. Öhler (ed.), Aposteldekret und antikes Vereinswesen: Gemeinschaft und ihre Ordnung (WUNT 280; Tübingen, 2011), 207–296. ^ a b Mark Golden (2011). "Mark Golden on Caroline Vout, Power and Eroticism" (PDF). The Ancient History Bulletin Online Reviews. 1: 64–66. ^ Vout 2007, p. 54. ^ Opper 1996, p. 170. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 48. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 15. ^ a b c Lambert 1984, p. 19. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 20. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 20–21. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 21–22. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 22. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 60. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 61–62. ^ a b c Lambert 1984, p. 63. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 97. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 30. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 39. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 90–93. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 78. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 81–83. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 65. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 94. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 73–74. ^ a b c Lambert 1984, p. 71. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 71–72. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 100–106. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 101–106. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 110–114. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 115–117. ^ a b Lambert 1984, pp. 118–121. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 121, 126. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 126. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 127–128. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 128. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 142; Vout 2007, p. 57. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 129. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 130. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 134. ^ a b Lambert 1984, pp. 130–141. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 143. ^ a b Lambert 1984, pp. 144–145. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 146, 149. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 146–147. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 177. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 150–151. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 153. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 155. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 158–160. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 149. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 148. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 148, 163–164. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 165. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 178–179. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 181–182. ^ a b c d e Skinner 2013, p. 334. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 181. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 150. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 199. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 200–202. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 149, 205. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 199–200, 205–206. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 206. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 198. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 207. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 152. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 162. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 180. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 184. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 190–191. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 192. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 177–178. ^ Vout 2005, p. 83. ^ Vout 2007, p. 100–106. ^ Vout 2007, p. 111. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 184–185. ^ a b c Lambert 1984, p. 186. ^ a b Vermeule 1979, p. 95. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 189–190. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 188. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 189. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 194. ^ Wong, Desmond (2013). "Antinous: From the Pederastic to the Divine". ^ Lambert 1984, p. 187. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 195. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 186–187. ^ a b Lambert 1984, pp. 192–193. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.9.7 and 8.9.8 ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 193–194. ^ a b Lambert 1984, p. 196. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 195–196. ^ Wilson 1998, p. 440. ^ Vout 2007, p. 72. ^ Vout 2005, p. 83; Vout 2007, p. 87. ^ Vout 2007, pp. 77–78. ^ a b Waters 1995, p. 198. ^ a b Vout 2005, p. 82. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 80. ^ Lambert 1984, p. 209. ^ Mari, Zaccaria and Sgalambro, Sergio: "The Antinoeion of Hadrian's Villa: Interpretation and Architectural Reconstruction", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 111, No. 1, January 2007, ^ Renberg, pp. 181–191. ^ Vout 2007, p. 52. ^ Vout 2005, pp. 83–84. ^ Vout 2007, p. 53. ^ Waters 1995, p. 194. ^ a b c d Waters 1995, p. 195. ^ Waters 1995, p. 196. ^ Teleny, or the Reverse of the Medals, vol. 1 p.14 ^ Hugo, Victor (1976). Les Misérables. London: Penguin Classics. pp. 556–557. ISBN 978-0-14-044430-8. ^ Rainer Maria Rilke. Der Neuen Gedichte. Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2014-06-29. ^ Rilke, Rainer Maria (1998). Neue Gedichte – Rainer Maria Rilke. ISBN 9780810116498. Retrieved 2014-06-29. Bibliography[edit] Birley, A. R. (2000). "Hadrian to the Antonines". In Alan K. Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Dominic Rathbone (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521263351. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. George Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Opper, Thorsten (1996). Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674030954. Skinner, Marilyn (2013). Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture. Ancient Cultures (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-4986-3. Vermeule, Cornelius Clarkson (1979). Roman Art: Early Republic to Late Empire. Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Vout, Caroline (2005). "Antinous, Archaeology, History". The Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 95: 80–96. doi:10.3815/000000005784016342. JSTOR 20066818. Vout, Caroline (2007). Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521867399. Waters, Sarah (1995). ""The Most Famous Fairy in History": Antinous and Homosexual Fantasy". Journal of the History of Sexuality. University of Texas Press. 6 (2): 194–230. JSTOR 3704122. Wilson, R. J. A (1998). "Roman art and architecture". In John Boardman (ed.). The Oxford History of the Roman World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192802033. Further reading[edit] Grenier, L'Osiris Antinoos (2008) (online). John Addington Symonds, "Antinous", in J. A. Symonds, Sketches and Studies in Italy (1879), p. 47–90 Ancient literary sources[edit] Biography of Hadrian in the Augustan History (attributed to Aelius Spartianus) Cassius Dio, epitome of book 69 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antinous. The Temple of Antinous, Ecclesia Antinoi Antinous Various facets of the Antinous topic, antinous.eu Cassius Dio's Roman History, epitome of Book 69 "Antinous": A poem by Fernando Pessoa. Lisbon: Monteiro, 1918. "Antinous" in English Poems I–II. Lisbon: Olisipo, 1921, pp. 5–16. Sculpture of Antinous at the Lady Lever Art Gallery Virtual Museum: Portraits of Antinous Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antinous&oldid=1025662484" Categories: 110s births 130 deaths 2nd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans Deaths by drowning Deified Roman people Gay men Hadrian Homosexuality and bisexuality deities LGBT history in Italy LGBT and religion Life-death-rebirth gods Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ancient LGBT people Roman mythology Male lovers of royalty Lovers of Roman royalty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2021, at 20:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3164	----	Andronikos I Komnenos - Wikipedia Andronikos I Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185 For other uses, see Andronikos Komnenos. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos I Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miniature portrait of Andronikos I (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 24 September 1183 – 12 September 1185 Predecessor Alexios II Komnenos Successor Isaac II Angelos Born c. 1118 Died 12 September 1185 (aged 66–67) Constantinople Wife Mistresses Anna of France Eudokia Komnene Philippa of Antioch Theodora Komnene Issue Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Maria Komnene Alexios Komnenos Eirene Komnene Dynasty Komnenos Father Isaac Komnenos Mother Irene of Galicia or Kata of Georgia Andronikos I Komnenos (Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός; c. 1118 – 12 September 1185), usually Latinized as Andronicus I Comnenus, was Byzantine Emperor from 1183 to 1185. He was the son of Isaac Komnenos and the grandson of the emperor Alexios I. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 Exile 1.3 Emperor 1.4 Death 2 Family 3 In popular culture 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading Biography[edit] Early years[edit] Andronikos Komnenos was born around 1118. He was handsome and eloquent, active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician, but also licentious.[1] His early years were spent alternately in pleasure and in military service. In 1141, he was taken captive by the Seljuq Turks and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed, he went to Constantinople, where he was held at the court of his first cousin, the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, to whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, Eudoxia, attracted him and she became his mistress.[1] In 1152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in Cilicia. After his defeat at the Battle of Mamistra, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in Constantinople and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia.[1] Exile[edit] About 1153, a conspiracy against the Emperor in which Andronikos participated was discovered, and he was imprisoned. After repeated unsuccessful attempts, he escaped in 1165.[1] After passing through many dangers, including captivity in Vlach territory,[2] he reached Kyiv, where his cousin Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia held court. While under the protection of Yaroslav, Andronikos formed an alliance with the Emperor Manuel I, and with a Galician army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary, assisting at the siege of Semlin.[1] The campaign was successful, and Andronikos returned to Constantinople with Manuel I in 1168; a year later, however, Andronikos refused to take the oath of allegiance to the future king Béla III of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. Andronikos was removed from court but received the province of Cilicia.[1] Still under the displeasure of the Emperor, Andronikos fled to the court of Raymond, Prince of Antioch. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the Prince, Philippa, sister of the Empress Maria. The Emperor was again angered by this dishonour, and Andronikos was compelled to flee.[1] He took refuge with King Amalric I of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the Lordship of Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw Theodora Komnene, the beautiful widow of King Baldwin III and niece of the Emperor Manuel. Although Andronikos was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction.[1] To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronikos to the court of Nur ad-Din, the Sultan of Damascus. Feeling unsafe there, they continued their perilous journey through the Caucasus and Anatolia.[1] They were well received by King George III of Georgia, whose anonymous sister had probably been the first wife of Andronikos. Andronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia, in the east of Georgia. In 1173 or 1174, he accompanied the Georgian army on an expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where George recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from the invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I.[3] Finally, Andronikos and Theodora settled in the ancestral lands of the Komnenoi at Oinaion, on the shores of the Black Sea, between Trebizond and Sinope.[4] While Andronikos was on one of his incursions into Trebizond, his castle was surprised by the governor of that province, and Theodora and her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronikos in early 1180 made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, besought pardon. This he obtained, and he was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion.[1] Emperor[edit] In 1180 the Emperor Manuel died and was succeeded by his ten-year-old son Alexios II, who was under the guardianship of his mother, Empress Maria of Antioch.[1] Her Latin origins and culture led to creeping resentment from her Greek subjects. They had felt insulted by the Western tastes of Manuel, and being ruled by his Western wife built tensions to an explosion of rioting that almost became a full civil war.[citation needed] This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that (according to non-Byzantine sources) included Muslim contingents.[5] The defection of the commander of the Byzantine navy, megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos, and the general Andronikos Angelos, played a key role in allowing the rebellious forces to enter Constantinople.[6] The arrival of Andronikos Komnenos was soon followed by a massacre of the city's Latin inhabitants,[1] who virtually controlled its economy, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Westerners. He was believed to have arranged the poisoning of Alexios II's elder sister Maria the Porphyrogenita and her husband Renier of Montferrat, although Maria herself had encouraged him to intervene; the poisoner was said to be the eunuch Pterygeonites.[citation needed] Soon afterwards Andronikos had the Empress Maria imprisoned and then killed – forcing a signature from the child Emperor Alexios to put his mother to death – by Pterygeonites and the hetaireiarches Constantine Tripsychos.[citation needed] Alexios II was compelled to acknowledge Andronikos as colleague in the empire in front of the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè and was then quickly put to death in turn; the killing was carried out by Tripsychos, Theodore Dadibrenos, and Stephen Hagiochristophorites.[7] In 1183, sixty-five-year old Andronikos married twelve-year-old Agnes of France,[1] daughter of King Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne – Agnes had been betrothed to Alexios II.[8] By November 1183, Andronikos had associated his younger legitimate son John Komnenos on the throne.[9] In 1184, a Venetian embassy visited Constantinople, and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 gold pieces would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171.[citation needed] The reign of Andronikos was characterized by his harsh measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses but above all things to check feudalism and limit the power of the nobles, who were rivals for his throne. He attempted to reform the decaying political system by forbidding the sale of offices, punishing corrupt officials (often brutally) but above all, he moved to check the power of the feudal landowners. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors,[1] who had grown corrupt under the safety and opulence of Manuel I's rule.[citation needed] Andronikos became increasingly paranoid and violent, however, and the Empire descended into a terror state.[citation needed]. In September 1185, he ordered the execution of all prisoners, exiles, and their families for collusion with the invaders. The aristocrats, in turn, were infuriated against him,[1] and there were several revolts.[citation needed] The stories of chaos led to an invasion by William II of the Kingdom of Sicily.[1] William landed in Epirus with a strong force of 200 ships and 80,000 men, including 5,000 knights,[10] and marched as far as Thessalonica, which he took and pillaged ruthlessly (7,000 Greeks died).[1][citation needed] Andronikos hastily assembled five different armies to stop the Sicilian army from reaching Constantinople, but his forces failed to stand and retreated to the outlying hills. Andronikos also assembled a fleet of 100 ships to stop the Norman fleet from entering the Sea of Marmara. The invaders were finally driven out in 1186 by his successor, Isaac Angelos.[citation needed] Death[edit] A medieval depiction of the death of Andronikos. Original in the Bibliothèque Nationale, France. Andronikos seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly successful. But on 11 September 1185, during his absence from the capital[1] Stephen Hagiochristophorites, his lieutenant, moved to arrest Isaac Angelos, whose loyalty was suspect.[11] Angelos killed Hagiochristophorites and took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose that spread rapidly over the whole city.[1] When Andronikos arrived he found that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor.[1] The deposed emperor attempted to escape in a boat with his wife Agnes and his mistress, but they were captured (though some claim that Andronikos survived and managed to escape to the self-proclaimed kingdom of Cyprus).[1] Angelos handed him over to the city mob and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment,[1] remaining for that period tied to a post and beaten. His right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and, among many other sufferings, boiling water was thrown in his face, punishment probably associated with his handsomeness and life of licentiousness.[1] At last he was led to the Hippodrome of Constantinople and hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed as to whose sword would penetrate his body more deeply, and he was, according to the representation of his death, torn apart.[12] He died on 12 September 1185.[1] At the news of the Emperor's death, his son and co-emperor, John, was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.[12] Andronikos I was the last of the Komnenoi to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond in 1204. Their branch of the dynasty was known as the "Great Komnenoi" (Megalokomnenoi).[13] Family[edit] Andronikos I Komnenos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. By his first wife, whose name is not known, he had three children:[14] Manuel Komnenos (1145 – after 1185), served as an ambassador under Manuel I, and opposed his father's policies when he seized power. Due to this opposition, as well as adherence to the AIMA prophecy, he was not named successor, but awarded the rank of sebastokrator instead. Nevertheless, he was blinded by the new regime following the downfall of his father, and disappears from the sources thereafter.[15] From his marriage to the Georgian princess Rusudan, he was the father of Alexios I and David Komnenos, the founders of the Empire of Trebizond and of the dynasty of the Grand Komnenoi, the only male-line descendants of the Komnenian house.[16][17] John Komnenos (1159–1185), as a child he accompanied his father during his exile, and after his rise to the throne was crowned co-emperor in November 1183. After the overthrow of Andronikos, he was executed in September 1185. [18] Maria Komnene (born c. 1166), married Theodore Synadenos in 1182, but he died shortly after; her second husband was a certain Romanos, whose rapacity and terrorization of the populace during the defence of Dyrrhachium against the Normans in 1185 contributed to the fall of the city. The fate of Maria and her husband after Andronikos' downfall is unknown.[19] By his niece and mistress Theodora Komnene, Andronikos I had the following children:[20] Alexios Komnenos (1170 – c. 1199), his early life is obscure, he fled to Georgia after 1185, where he married into the local nobility. The noble family of Andronikashvili claim descent from him, and he may have been the forefather of the provincial rulers of Alastaneli.[21][22] Irene Komnene (born 1171), she was married to the sebastokrator Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, in October 1183. Her husband became involved in a conspiracy against Andronikos and was blinded and imprisoned, while Irene entered a monastery.[23] His second marriage to Anna of France, and his liaisons with his other mistresses, remained childless.[20] In popular culture[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Andronikos is the main protagonist in Michael Arnold's Against the Fall of Night (Garden City, New York: Doubleday 1975), as well as Ange Vlachos' Their Most Serene Majesties (Vanguard Press, 1964). He is mentioned in the Louis L'Amour medieval historical novel, The Walking Drum, with his gruesome death foreseen by the protagonist in a vision. He is among the main characters of the historical novel Agnes of France (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis (b. 1920). The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. The novel ends with the death of Andronikos. Andronikos was portrayed in the novel Baudolino by Umberto Eco, with much detail being given to his grisly end. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Andrey Bogolyubsky List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Chisholm 1911, p. 975. ^ Spinei 2009, p. 131. ^ Minorsky 1945, pp. 557–558. ^ Speros Vryonis Jr., The Decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century, (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), p. 127 ^ Ibn Jubayr p. 355 Broadhurst (Turks and Arabs);[full citation needed] William of Tyre, Historia Transmarina 22.11 (innumeras Barbararum nationum secum trahens copias);[full citation needed] Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium 2.18 (Turks).[full citation needed] ^ Angold 1997, p. 267. ^ Choniates 1984, pp. 260–274. ^ Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, 2nd ed. (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), xiii and 122-36. ISBN 1780936710 ^ Leonora Neville, Heroes and Romans in Twelfth-Century Byzantium : The Material for History of Nikephoros Bryennios (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 13-28. ISBN 9781107009455 ^ Sack of Thessalonica, https://byzantium.gr/battle.php?byzbat=c12_07 ^ Harris 2003, p. 136. ^ a b Choniates 1984, p. 193. ^ Vasiliev, V. V. (1936). "The Foundation of the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1222)". Speculum. 11: 3–36. doi:10.2307/2846872. JSTOR 2846872. ^ Varzos 1984a, p. 637. ^ Varzos 1984b, pp. 511–528. ^ Varzos 1984a, pp. 637–638. ^ Varzos 1984b, p. 527. ^ Varzos 1984b, pp. 528–532. ^ Varzos 1984b, pp. 532–535. ^ a b Varzos 1984a, p. 638. ^ Varzos 1984b, pp. 532–537. ^ Williams 2006. ^ Varzos 1984b, pp. 481, 537–539. References[edit] Angold, Michael (1997), The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204, Longman, ISBN 0-582-29468-1  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Andronicus I", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 975–976 Jurewicz, Oktawiusz (1970). Andronikos I. Komnenos (in German). Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. OCLC 567685925. Magoulias, Harry J. (2011). "Andronikos I Komnenos: A Greek Tragedy". Byzantina Symmeikta. 21: 101–136. doi:10.12681/byzsym.1032. ISSN 1791-4884. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andronicus-I-Comnenus Minorsky, Vladimir (1945), "Khāqānī and Andronicus Comnenus", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 11 (3): 557–558, doi:10.1017/s0041977x0007227x Spinei, Victor (2009), The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century, Koninklijke Brill NV, ISBN 978-90-04-17536-5 Choniates, Nicetas (1984). O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Translated by Harry J. Magoulias. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1764-2. Williams, Kelsey Jackson (2006), "A Genealogy of the Grand Komnenoi of Trebizond", Foundations – the Journal of the Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, 2 (3), hdl:10023/8570, archived from the original on 7 February 2012, retrieved 24 July 2007 Harris, Jonathan (2003), Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury Academic Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784634. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784665. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andronikos I Komnenos. Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 48. Grünbart, Michael, 'Die Macht des Historiographen – Andronikos (I.) Komnenos und sein Bild', in Zbornik Radova Vizantinoloskog Instituta 48, 2011, pp. 75–85 Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Harris, Jonathan, 'Collusion with the infidel as a pretext for military action against Byzantium', in Clash of Cultures: the Languages of Love and Hate, ed. Sarah Lambert and Helen Nicholson, Brepols, 2012, pp. 99–117. ISBN 978 2503 520643 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Mihai Tiuliumeanu, Andronic I Comnenul, Iași, 2000. (in Romanian) Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Eustathios of Thessaloniki 'The Capture of Thessaloniki' (Byzantina Australiensia 8), Canberra 1988. The full text of a lecture by John Melville-Jones on the life of this emperor is located at: [1]. It is accompanied by an extensive bibliography. Andronikos I Komnenos Komnenian dynasty Born: 1118 Died: 12 September 1185 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexios II Komnenos Byzantine emperor 1183–1185 Succeeded by Isaac II Angelos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. 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en-wikipedia-org-3170	----	Heraclitus - Wikipedia Heraclitus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher For other people named Heraclitus, see Heraclitus (disambiguation). Heraclitus Heraclitus, depicted in engraving from 1825 Born c. 535 BC Ephesus, Ionia, Persian Empire Died c. 475 BC (age c. 60) Ephesus, Ionia, Delian League Notable work On Nature Era Pre-Socratic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Ionian Main interests Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, cosmology Notable ideas Logos, fire is the arche, unity of opposites, "everything flows", becoming Influences Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Bias of Priene Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially Heracliteans (e. g. Cratylus, Antisthenes), Parmenides, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Plato, Stoicism, Hegel, Engels, Lassalle, Nietzsche, Spengler, Heidegger, Popper, McTaggart, Whitehead, Jung, Pater, D. H. Lawrence Heraclitus of Ephesus (/ˌhɛrəˈklaɪtəs/;[1] Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, translit. Hērákleitos ho Ephésios, pronounced [hɛː.rá.kleː.tos ho e.pʰé.si.os]; "Glory of Hera" c. 535 – c. 475 BC,[2] fl. 500 BC)[3][4] was an Ancient Greek, pre-Socratic, Ionian philosopher and a native of the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire. His appreciation for wordplay and oracular expressions, as well as paradoxical elements in his philosophy, earned him the epithet "The Obscure" from antiquity. He wrote a single work, On Nature, only fragments of which have survived, increasing the obscurity associated with his life and philosophy. Heraclitus's cryptic utterances have been the subject of numerous interpretations. He has been seen as a "material monist or a process philosopher; a scientific cosmologist, a metaphysician and a religious thinker; an empiricist, a rationalist, a mystic; a conventional thinker and a revolutionary; a developer of logic—one who denied the law of non-contradiction; the first genuine philosopher and an anti-intellectual obscurantist."[5] Heraclitus was of distinguished parentage but he eschewed his privileged life for a lonely one as a philosopher. Little else is known about his early life and education; he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. He was considered a misanthrope who was subject to depression and became known as "the weeping philosopher" in contrast to Democritus, who was known as "the laughing philosopher". Heraclitus believed the world is in accordance with Logos (literally, "word", "reason", or "account") and is ultimately made of fire, although many scholars claim that to be just a metaphor as to how the world is in constant change, just like fire[6]. He also believed in a unity of opposites and harmony in the world. He was most famous for his insistence on ever-present change—known in philosophy as "flux" or "becoming"—as the characteristic feature of the world; an idea he expressed in the saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice", or with panta rhei ("everything flows"). This aspect of his philosophy is contrasted with that of Parmenides, who believed in "being" and in the static nature of the universe. Both Heraclitus and Parmenides had an influence on Plato, who went on to influence all of Western philosophy. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Birth 1.2 Childhood 1.3 Misanthropy 1.4 Illness and death 2 Heraclitus's Book 2.1 Heracliteans 3 Ancient characterizations 3.1 The Obscure 3.2 The weeping philosopher 4 Philosophy 4.1 Logos 4.2 Fire 4.3 Unity of opposites 4.3.1 Strife is justice 4.3.1.1 The One and the Many 4.3.1.2 Harmony 4.3.1.3 War 4.3.2 The way up is the way down 4.4 Becoming 4.4.1 Panta rhei ("everything flows") 4.4.2 The River 4.4.3 The Sun 4.5 God and the soul 4.6 The senses 5 Influence 5.1 Ancient philosophy 5.1.1 Pre-Socratics 5.1.2 Plato 5.1.3 Cynics 5.1.4 Pyrrhonists 5.1.5 Stoics 5.1.6 Church Fathers 5.2 Modern philosophy 5.3 Continental 5.4 Analytic 5.5 Jungian psychology 6 Depictions in art 6.1 Italian 6.2 German 6.3 Dutch 6.4 Flemish, French, and Spanish 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 10.1 Editions and translations 10.2 Selected bibliography 11 External links Life[edit] Heraclitus disliked Pythagoras. The main source for the life of Heraclitus is the doxographer Diogenes Laërtius; the author Charles Kahn questioned the validity of Laërtius's account as "a tissue of Hellenistic anecdotes, most of them obviously fabricated on the basis of statements in the preserved fragments".[7] The stories about Heraclitus could be invented to illustrate his character as inferred from his writings.[5] Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor, birthplace of Heraclitus Historians are uncertain of the dates between which Heraclitus was active. Diogenes Laërtius stated Heraclitus flourished in the 69th Olympiad between 504 and 501 BC.[8][9] Most historians believe Heraclitus was older than Parmenides, whose views constitute a critical response to those of Heraclitus, though the reverse is also possible and it remains a subject of debate.[10][11] Heraclitus refers to older figures such as Pythagoras and is silent on Parmenides, who possibly refers to Heraclitus.[10][12][13] Birth[edit] Heraclitus was born to an aristocratic family c. 535 BC in Ephesus[14](presently Efes, Turkey) in the Persian Empire.[15][16] His dates of birth and death are based on a lifespan of 60 years, the age at which Diogenes Laërtius says he died,[17] with his floruit in the middle.[a] Heraclitus's father was named either Blosôn or Herakôn.[8][9] Diogenes Laërtius says Heraclitus abdicated the kingship (basileia) in favor of his brother[18] and Strabo confirms there was a ruling family in Ephesus that descended from the Ionian founder Androclus; according to Strabo, this family maintained its titles and could sit in the chief seat at the games, along with other privileges.[19] The extent of the king's powers is unknown; Ephesus had been part of the Persian Empire since 547 BC and was ruled by a satrap (governor) who remained a distant figure: Cyrus the Great allowed the Ionians considerable autonomy. Childhood[edit] Diogenes Laërtius says Heraclitus used to play knucklebones with youths in the great temple of Artemis—the Artemisium, one of the largest temples of the 6th century BC and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[b] When asked to start making laws, he refused, saying the politeia (constitution) was ponêra,[20] which can mean either it was fundamentally wrong or that he considered it toilsome. Two extant letters between Heraclitus and Darius I, which are quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, are later forgeries.[21] Laërtius says Heraclitus was "wondrous" from childhood.[c] According to Laërtius, Sotion said Heraclitus was a "hearer" of Xenophanes, which according to Laërtius contradicts Heraclitus' statement he had taught himself by questioning himself. Burnet states; "Xenophanes left Ionia before Herakleitos was born".[22] Laërtius says as a boy, Heraclitus had said he "knew nothing" but later claimed to "know everything".[23] He "heard no one" but "questioned himself".[24] Misanthropy[edit] Heraclitus (with the face and in the style of Michelangelo) sits apart from the other philosophers in Raphael's School of Athens. Diogenes Laërtius relates Heraclitus had a poor opinion of human affairs,[9] stating "The mysteries practiced among men are unholy mysteries".[25] Timon of Phlius is said to have called him a "mob-reviler". Heraclitus was not afraid of being a contrarian, saying on one occasion; "Corpses are more fit to be cast out than dung".[26] "Most men are bad" – Bias of Priene Heraclitus was not an advocate of equality, expressing his opposition in the statement; "One is ten thousand to me, if he be the best".[27] He is generally considered an opponent of democracy,[5] though he believed "All men have a claim to self-ascertainment and sound thinking"[28] and "Thinking is common to all".[29] Heraclitus stressed the heedless unconsciousness of humankind; he asserted the opinion "The waking have one common world, but the sleeping turn aside each into a world of his own [idios kosmos (private world)]".[30] He also stated; "Hearing they do not understand, like the deaf. Of them does the saying bear witness: 'present, they are absent'".[31] He also compares the ignorance of the average man to dogs; "Dogs, also, bark at what they do not know".[32] He advises, "Let us not conjecture randomly about the most important things"[33] and said "a fool is excited by every word".[34] Heraclitus criticized Hesiod, Pythagoras, Xenophanes and Hecataeus for lacking understanding despite their educated positions,[12] and has the most scorn for Pythagoras.[13] According to Heraclitus; "Men that love wisdom must be inquirers into very many things indeed".[35] He also stated; "The knowledge of the most famous persons, which they guard, is but opinion".[36] Among notable individuals he criticized are Homer and Archilochus, both of whom he thought deserved to be beaten.[37] The only man of note he praises is Bias of Priene, one of the Seven Sages of Greece who is known for the maxim "most men are bad";[38] this is evident from Heraclitus's remark; "For what thought or wisdom have they? They follow the poets and take the crowd as their teacher, knowing not that 'the many are bad and few good'".[39] Heraclitus hated the Athenians and his fellow Ephesians, wishing the latter wealth in punishment for their wicked ways.[40] The Ephesians, he believed, would "do well to end their lives, every grown man of them, and leave the city to beardless boys, for that they have driven out Hermodorus, the worthiest man among them, saying, 'We will have none who is worthiest among us; or if there be any such, let him go elsewhere and consort with others'".[41] According to Laërtius, this culminated in misanthropy; "Finally, he became a hater of his kind (misanthrope) and wandered the mountains [...] making his diet of grass and herbs".[42] Illness and death[edit] Heraclitus's life as a philosopher was interrupted by dropsy, for which the physicians he consulted were unable to prescribe a cure. Laërtius lists several stories about Heraclitus' death; in two versions, he is cured of dropsy and dies of another disease; in another account, he "buried himself in a cowshed, expecting that the noxious damp humour would be drawn out of him by the warmth of the manure", while another says he treated himself with a liniment of cow manure and after a day prone in the sun, he died and was interred in the marketplace. According to Neathes of Cyzicus, he was devoured by dogs after smearing himself with dung.[43][44] Heraclitus died from dropsy after 478 BC.[14] According to Burnet: Herakleitos said (fr. 68) that it was death to souls to become water; and we are told accordingly that he died of dropsy. He said (fr. 114) that the Ephesians should leave their city to their children, and (fr. 79) that Time was a child playing draughts. We are therefore told that he refused to take any part in public life, and went to play with the children in the temple of Artemis. He said (fr. 85) that corpses were more fit to be cast out than dung; and we are told that he covered himself with dung when attacked with dropsy. Lastly, he is said to have argued at great length with his doctors because of fr. 58. For these tales see Diog.ix. 3–5.[45] Heraclitus's Book[edit] Heraclitus deposited his book in the Artemisium. Heraclitus is known to have produced a single work on papyrus. The title is unknown.[45][d] According to Diogenes Laërtius, Heraclitus deposited the book in the Artemisium as a dedication. As with the other pre-Socratic philosophers, only fragments of his writings survive in quotations by other authors. In the case of Heraclitus, there are more than 100 of these catalogued using the Diels–Kranz numbering system. Laërtius also states Heraclitus' work was "a continuous treatise ... but was divided into three discourses, one on the universe, another on politics, and a third on theology".[e] Theophrastus says (in Diogenes Laërtius) "some parts of his work [are] half-finished, while other parts [made] a strange medley".[18] The work's opening lines are known, proving it was a continuous work. Aristotle quotes part of the opening line in the Rhetoric to outline the difficulty in punctuating Heraclitus without ambiguity; he debated whether "forever" applied to "being" or to "prove".[5][46] Sextus Empiricus in Against the Mathematicians quotes the whole passage: Of this Logos being forever do men prove to be uncomprehending, both before they hear and once they have heard it. For, though all things come to pass in accordance with this Logos, they are like the unexperienced experiencing words and deeds such as I explain when I distinguish each thing according to its nature and show how it is. Other men are unaware of what they do when they are awake just as they are forgetful of what they do when they are asleep.[47] Heracliteans[edit] Many later philosophers in this period refer to On Nature. Charles Kahn states; "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out".[7] Laërtius comments on the notability of the text, stating; "the book acquired such fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans".[18] Prominent philosophers identified today as Heracliteans include Cratylus and Antisthenes—not to be confused with the cynic.[48] Ancient characterizations[edit] The Obscure[edit] Heraclit by Luca Giordano At some time in antiquity, Heraclitus acquired the epithet "The Obscure"; generally interpreted to mean his sayings—which contain frequent paradoxes, metaphors and incipient utterances—are difficult to understand. Heraclitus According to Aristotle's Metaphysics, Heraclitus denied the law of noncontradiction without explanation.[49] Aristotle regarded it as the most basic of all principles. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Timon of Phlius called Heraclitus "the Riddler" (αἰνικτής; ainiktēs), saying Heraclitus wrote his book "rather unclearly" (asaphesteron); according to Timon, this was intended to allow only the "capable" to attempt it.[18] Heraclitus wrote; "The lord whose is the oracle at Delphi neither speaks nor hides his meaning, but gives a sign".[50] By the time of Cicero, this epithet became "The Dark" (ὁ Σκοτεινός; ho Skoteinós) as he had spoken nimis obscurē, "too obscurely", concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to be misunderstood; the customary English translation of the aforementioned, however, follows the Latin form, "The Obscure".[51] The weeping philosopher[edit] A later tradition referred to Heraclitus as the "weeping philosopher", in contrast to Democritus, who is known as the "laughing philosopher";[52] this statement generally references their reaction to the folly of mankind.[53] One possible origin of the pairing is the Cynic philosopher Menippus.[54] Laërtius ascribes the theory Heraclitus did not complete some of his works because of melancholia to Theophrastus,[18] though in Theophrastus's time, the word "melancholia" denoted impulsiveness. If Stobaeus writes correctly, in the early 1st century, Sotion was already combining the two men in the duo the weeping and laughing philosophers; "Among the wise, instead of anger, Heraclitus was overtaken by tears, Democritus by laughter".[55] The view is also expressed by the satirist Juvenal, who wrote; "The first of prayers, best known at all the temples, is mostly for riches ... Seeing this then do you not commend the one sage Democritus for laughing ... and the master of the other school Heraclitus for his tears?".[56] The motif was also adopted by Lucian of Samosata in his "Sale of Creeds", in which the duo is sold together as a complementary product in a satirical auction of philosophers.[57] Philosophy[edit] Heraclitus's philosophy's focus on change is commonly called "becoming", which can be contrasted with Parmenides' concept of "being". For this reason, Heraclitus and Parmenides are commonly considered to be two of the founders of ontology and the issue of the One and the Many, and thus pivotal in the history of Western philosophy and metaphysics.[citation needed] Diogenes Laërtius has a passage summarizing Heraclitus's philosophy, stating; "All things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things (τὰ ὅλα ta hola ("the whole")) flows like a stream".[58] Logos[edit] Main article: Logos Greek spelling of logos. The meaning of Logos (λόγος) is subject to interpretation; definitions include "word", "account", "principle", "plan", "formula", "measure", "proportion" and "reckoning."[59] Though Heraclitus "quite deliberately plays on the various meanings of logos",[60] there is no evidence he used it in a way that was significantly different from that in which it was used by contemporaneous speakers of Greek.[61] Eduard Zeller's opinion of Heraclitean logos stated: λόγος  in my [Zeller's] opinion, refers indeed primarily to the discourse, but also to the contents of the discourse, the truth expressed in it; a confusion and identification of different ideas, united and apparently included in one word, which should least of all surprise us in Heraclitus. He [Heraclitus] says: "This discourse (the theory of the world laid down in his work) is not recognised by men, although it ever exists (i.e. that which always exists, contains the eternal order of things, the eternal truth), for although all happens according to it (and thus its truth is confirmed by all facts universally) men behave as if they had never had any experience of it, when words or things present themselves to them, as I here represent them" (when the views here brought forward are shown them by instruction or by their own perceptions)[62] The later Stoics understood the Logos as "the account which governs everything";[63] Hippolytus, a Church Father in the 3rd century AD, identified it as meaning the Christian "Word of God", such as in John 1:1, "In the beginning was the Word (logos) and the Word was God".[64] John Burnet viewed the relationship between Heraclitean logos and Johannine logos as fallacious, saying; "the Johannine doctrine of the logos has nothing to do with Herakleitos or with anything at all in Greek philosophy, but comes from the Hebrew Wisdom literature".[f][65] Heraclitus's ideas about the Logos are expressed in three well-known but mysterious fragments, one of which states "For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common.[g] But although the Logos is common, most people live as if they had their own private understanding (phronēsis)."[66] He seems to say the Logos is a public fact like a proposition or formula, though he would not have considered these facts as abstract objects or immaterial things.[67] One quote can even be read as a statement against making arguments ad hominem: "Listening not to me but to the Logos ...".[68] Fire[edit] This world...always was and will be: an ever-living fire... Like the Milesians before him, Thales with water, Anaximander with apeiron, and Anaximenes with air, Heraclitus considered fire as the arche, the fundamental element that gave rise to the other elements, perhaps because living people are warm.[69] Norman Melchert interpreted Heraclitus's use of "fire" metaphorically in lieu of Logos as the origin of all things.[70] Others see it as a metaphor for change, like a dancing, flickering flame. It is also speculated this shows the influence of Persian Zoroastrianism with its concept of Atar.[71] According to Heraclitus, This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out. — from Clement Miscellanies 5.103.3 This quotation is the earliest use of kosmos in any extant Greek text.[5] He also stated; All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods — DK B90, from Plutarch On the E at Delphi 338d-e and The thunderbolt that steers the course of all things — DK B64, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.7 On Heraclitus using Fire as a new primary substance, Burnet writes: All this made it necessary for him to seek out a new primary substance. He wanted not merely something from which opposites could be "separated out," but something which of its own nature would pass into everything else, while everything else would pass in turn into it. This he found in Fire, and it is easy to see why, if we consider the phenomenon of combustion. The quantity of fire in a flame burning steadily appears to remain the same, the flame seems to be what we call a "thing." And yet the substance of it is continually changing. It is always passing away in smoke, and its place is always being taken by fresh matter from the fuel that feeds it. This is just what we want. If we regard the world as an "ever-living fire" (fr. 20), we can understand how it is always becoming all things, while all things are always returning to it.[72] Unity of opposites[edit] In a seeming response to Anaximander,[73][74] Heraclitus also believed in a unity of opposites.[75] He characterized all existing entities by pairs of contrary properties. According to Heraclitus, "Mortals are immortals and immortals are mortals, the one living the others' death and dying the others' life".[76] This is taken to mean men are mortal gods and gods are immortal men.[57] He also similarly compared sleep to death; "Man kindles a light for himself in the night-time, when he has died but is alive. The sleeper, whose vision has been put out, lights up from the dead; he that is awake lights up from the sleeping"[77] and "All the things we see when awake are death, even as all we see in slumber are sleep".[78] Strife is justice[edit] In this union of opposites, of both generation and destruction, Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (eris), "strife", and hypothesizes the apparently stable state, δίκη (dikê), "justice", is a harmony of it.[75] Anaximander described the same as injustice.[79] Aristotle said Heraclitus disliked Homer because Homer wished that strife would leave the world, which according to Heraclitus would destroy the world; "there would be no harmony without high and low notes, and no animals without male and female, which are opposites".[80] The One and the Many[edit] Kitharode by the Berlin Painter. The bow's name is life, though its work is death. On Heraclitus' teachings of the one and many, Burnet writes; "The truth Herakleitos proclaimed was that the world is at once one and many, and that it is just the 'opposite tension' of the opposites that constitutes the unity of the One. It is the same conclusion as that of Pythagoras, though it is put in another way."[81] Burnet also writes about Plato's understanding of Heraclitus: According to Plato, then, Herakleitos taught that reality was at once many and one. This was not meant as a logical principle. The identity which Herakleitos explains as consisting in difference is just that of the primary substance in all its manifestations. This identity had been realised already by the Milesians, but they had found a difficulty in the difference. Anaximander had treated the strife of opposites as an "injustice," and what Herakleitos set himself to show was that, on the contrary, it was the highest justice (fr. 62).[81] Harmony[edit] In a metaphor and one of the earliest uses of a force in the history of philosophy, Heraclitus compares the union of opposites to a strung bow or lyre held in shape by an equilibrium of the string tension: "There is a harmony in the bending back (παλίντροπος palintropos) as in the case of the bow and the lyre".[82] He claims this shows something true yet invisible about reality; "a hidden harmony is better than an apparent one."[83] He also noted "the bow's name is life, though its work is death,"[84] a play on both bow and life being the same word as written – biós; further evidence of a continuous, written work. On the unity of opposites, Burnet says: The "strife of opposites" is really an "attunement" (armonia). From this it follows that wisdom is not a knowledge of many things, but the perception of the underlying unity of the warring opposites. That this really was the fundamental thought of Herakleitos is stated by Philo. He says: "For that which is made up of both the opposites is one; and, when the one is divided, the opposites are disclosed. Is not this just what the Greeks say their great and much belauded Herakleitos put in the forefront of his philosophy as summing it all up, and boasted of as a new discovery?"[85] War[edit] War is the father of all and the king of all. Heraclitus is known as the first philosopher to characterize war as a positive occurrence, writing "Every beast is driven to pasture by blows".[86] He also wrote: We must know that war is common to all and strife is justice, and that all things come into being through strife necessarily. — DK B80, from Origen, Against Celsus 6.42 War is the father of all and king of all; and some he shows as gods, others as men, some he makes slaves, others free. — DK B53, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.9.4 Gods and men honor those who are slain in battle.[h] — DK B24, from Clement Miscellanies 4.16.1 The people must fight for its law as for its walls. — DK B44, from Laertius, Lives, 9.2 The way up is the way down[edit] Heraclitus also said; "The way up and the way down is one and the same"[87] and "In writing, the course taken, straight and crooked, is one and the same".[88] This can be interpreted in several ways. One interpretation is that it shows his monism, though a dialectical one. Heraclitus believed; "Listening not to me but to the Logos it is wise to agree that all things are one".[68] He also said: The one is made up of all things, and all things issue from the one. — DK B10, from Aristotle On the World 5 396b20 Hesiod is most men's teacher. Men think he knew very many things, a man who did not know day or night! They are one. — DK B57, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.2 Concerning a circle the beginning and end are common. — DK B103, from Porphyry, Notes on Homer, on Iliad 24.200 Heraclitus depicted in 1655. Heraclitus's theory also illustrates the cyclical nature of reality and transformation, and a replacement of one element by another; "turnings of fire".[89] This might be another "hidden harmony" and is more consistent with pluralism rather than monism. According to Heraclitus:[5] The death of fire is the birth of air, and the death of air is the birth of water. — DK B76, from Maximus of Tyre, 41.4 For it is death to souls to become water, and death to water to become earth. But water comes from earth; and from water, soul. — DK B36, from Clement Miscellanies 6.17.2 Cold things become warm, and what is warm cools; what is wet dries, and the parched is moistened. — DK B126, from John Tzetzes Notes on the Iliad p. 126 And it is the same thing in us that is quick and dead, awake and asleep, young and old; the former are shifted and become the latter, and the latter in turn are shifted and become the former. — DK B88. from Pseudo-Lutarch, Consolation to Apollonius 106E This idea has also been interpreted as an advocation of relativism.[90][74] Good and ill are one. — DK B58, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.6 Asses prefer straw to gold. — DK B9, from Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics 10.5 1176a7 The sea is the purest and impurest water. Fish can drink it and it is good for them, to me it is undrinkable and destructive. — DK B61, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.5 Becoming[edit] A central aspect of the Heraclitean philosophy is recognition of the changing nature of objects with the flow of time. That is, Heraclitus recognized an impermanence called flux or "becoming"—contrasted with Parmenides "being" as that changeless behind the appearance of change[i][91]—where nothing ever simply "is" but only ever is "becoming" something else.[j] According to Plotinus, Heraclitus seems to say, paradoxically, change is what unites things, pointing to his ideas of the unity of opposites and the quotes "Even the kykeon falls apart if it is not stirred"[92] and "Changing it rests".[93] Panta rhei ("everything flows")[edit] Heraclitus is also credited with the phrase panta rhei (πάντα ῥεῖ; "everything flows").[94] This aphorism that is used to characterize his thought comes from the neoplatonist Simplicius of Cilicia,[95] and from Plato's Cratylus.[96] The word rhei ("to stream") (as in rheology) is etymologically related to Rhea according to Plato's Cratylus.[97][k] On Heraclitus' teachings on flux, Burnet writes: Fire burns continuously and without interruption. It is always consuming fuel and always liberating smoke. Everything is either mounting upwards to serve as fuel, or sinking down wards after having nourished the flame. It follows that the whole of reality is like an ever-flowing stream, and that nothing is ever at rest for a moment. The substance of the things we see is in constant change. Even as we look at them, some of the stuff of which they are composed has already passed into something else, while fresh stuff has come into them from another source. This is usually summed up, appropriately enough, in the phrase "All things are flowing" (panta rei), though this does not seem to be a quotation from Herakleitos. Plato, however, expresses the idea quite clearly. "Nothing ever is, everything is becoming"; "All things are in motion like streams"; "All things are passing, and nothing abides"; "Herakleitos says somewhere that all things pass and naught abides; and, comparing things to the current of a river, he says you cannot step twice into the same stream" (cf. fr. 41). these are the terms in which he describes the system.[98] The River[edit] No man ever steps in the same river twice. Heraclitus's philosophy has been summed up with the adage; "No man ever steps in the same river twice",[99] although, ironically, this precise phrasing is not attested in his own language.[100] This aphorism can be contrasted with Parmenides's statement; "whatever is, is, and what is not cannot be". Heraclitus used the river metaphor more than once: "Ever-newer waters flow on those who step into the same rivers"[101] and "We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not."[102] The idea is referenced twice in Plato's Cratylus;[96] rather than "flow" Plato uses chōrei (χῶρος; chōros; "to change place"). According to Plato: "All entities move and nothing remains still" and "Everything changes and nothing remains still ... and ... you cannot step twice into the same stream".[l] Simplicius references it thus: "the natural philosophers who follow Heraclitus, keeping in view the perpetual flux of generation and the fact that all corporeal things are coming to be and departing and never really are (as Timaeus said too) claim that all things are always in flux and that you could not step twice in the same river".[104] According to Aristotle, Cratylus went a step beyond his master's doctrine and said one cannot step into the same river once.[m] The German classicist and philosopher Karl-Martin Dietz interprets this fragment as an indication by Heraclitus, for the world as a steady constant; "You will not find anything, in which the river remains constant ... Just the fact, that there is a particular river bed, that there is a source and an estuary etc. is something, that stays identical. And this is ... the concept of a river."[105] The Sun[edit] The Sun is new every day. Heraclitus expressed his idea of flux by saying the Sun is new every day, rather than thinking the same Sun will rise tomorrow.[106] God and the soul[edit] By "God", Heraclitus does not mean a single deity as primum movens ("prime mover") of all things or God as Creator, the universe being eternal; he meant the divine as opposed to human, the immortal as opposed to the mortal and the cyclical as opposed to the transient. To him, it is arguably more accurate to speak of "the Divine" and not of "God".[citation needed] Heraclitus distinguishes between human laws and divine law (τοῦ θείου tou theiou lit. '"of God"').[107] He said both God and fire are "want and surfeit".[108] In addition to seeing fire as the fundamental substance, he presents fire as the divine cosmos; fire is a substance and a motivator of change, and is active in altering other things. Heraclitus describes it as "the judging and convicting of all things".[109] Judgment here is literally krinein (κρίνειν; "to separate").[citation needed] In antiquity, this was interpreted to mean that eventually all things will be consumed by fire, a doctrine called ecpyrosis. Hippolytus sees the passage as a reference to divine judgment and Hell; he removes the human sense of justice from his concept of God: "To God all things are fair and good and just, but people hold some things wrong and some right".[110] Heraclitus by Hendrick ter Brugghen According to Heraclitus, God's custom has wisdom but human custom does not.[111] Wisdom is "to know the thought by which all things are steered through all things",[112] which must not imply people are or can be wise. Only Zeus is wise.[113] To some degree, Heraclitus seems to be in the mystic's position of urging people to follow God's plan without much of an idea what that may be. There is a note of despair; "The fairest universe (κάλλιστος κόσμος; kállistos kósmos) is but a heap of rubbish (σάρμα sárma lit. '"sweepings"') piled up (κεχυμένον kechuménon ("poured out") at random (εἰκῇ eikê "aimlessly")."[114] Bertrand Russell presents Heraclitus as a mystic in his Mysticism and Logic.[115] According to Heraclitus, there is the frivolity of a child in both man and God; he wrote, "Eternity is a child moving counters in a game; the kingly power is a child's".[116][57] Nietzsche said this quotation means; "And as the child and the artist plays, so too plays the ever living fire, it builds up and tears down, in innocence—such is the game eternity plays with itself".[citation needed] This quotation may also be the reason for the story of Heraclitus giving up his kingship to his brother.[citation needed] Heraclitus also stated "human opinions are children's toys"[117] and "Man is called a baby by God, even as a child [is called a baby] by a man".[118] Heraclitus also states, "We should not act and speak like children of our parents", which Marcus Aurelius interpreted to mean one should not simply accept what others believe.[119] Fragment from the Derveni Papyrus Heraclitus regarded the soul as a mixture of fire and water, and that fire is the noble part of the soul and water is the ignoble part. A soul should therefore aim to become fuller of fire and less full of water: a "dry" soul was best.[120] According to Heraclitus, worldly pleasures, such as drinking alcohol,[121] made the soul "moist", and he considered mastery of one's worldly desires to be a noble pursuit that purified the soul's fire.[122] The soul also has a self-increasing logos.[123] He also believed we breathe in the logos, as Anaximenes would say, of air and the soul.[67] Heraclitus stated; "It is hard to fight with one's heart's desire. Whatever it wishes to get, it purchases at the cost of soul."[124] A famous quotation of Heraclitus, Ethos anthropoi daimon ("man's character is [his] fate")[125] has led to numerous interpretations, and might mean one's luck is related to one's character.[5] The translation of daimon in this context to mean "fate" is disputed; according to Thomas Cooksey, it lends much sense to Heraclitus' observations and conclusions about human nature in general. While the translation as "fate" is generally accepted as in Charles Kahn's "a man's character is his divinity", in some cases it may also refer to the soul of the departed.[126] The senses[edit] Some writers have interpreted Heraclitus as a kind of proto-empiricist;[115] this view is supported by some fragments, such as "the things that can be seen, heard and learned are what I prize the most",[127] "The sun is the size that it appears", and "the width of a human foot".[128][129][130] W. K. C. Guthrie disputes this interpretation, citing "Eyes and ears are bad witnesses to men who have barbarian souls".[79][131] Heraclitus also said, "sight tells falsehoods"[132] and "nature loves to hide".[133] He also warned against hearsay, "Eyes are better witnesses than the ears".[citation needed] The sense of smell also seems to play a role in Heraclitus's philosophy; he stated; "If all things were turned to smoke, the nostrils would distinguish them"[134] and "Souls smell in Hades".[135] Influence[edit] Ancient philosophy[edit] Pre-Socratics[edit] Heraclitus's most famous follower was Cratylus, whom Plato presented as a linguistic naturalist, one who believes names must apply naturally to their objects. According to Aristotle, Cratylus took the view nothing can be said about the ever-changing world and "ended by thinking that one need not say anything, and only moved his finger".[136] Cratylus may have thought continuous change warrants skepticism because one cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.[137] 20th-century linguistic philosophy saw a rise in considerations brought up by Cratylus in Plato's dialogue and offered the doctrine called Cratylism.[138] Parmenides may have been responding to Heraclitus. Parmenides's poem argues change is impossible; he may have been referring to Heraclitus with such passages as "Undiscerning crowds, who hold that it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions!".[10] The pluralists were the first to try and reconcile Heraclitus and Parmenides. Anaxagoras may have been influenced by Heraclitus in his refusal to separate the opposites. Empedocles's forces of Love and Hate were probably influenced by Heraclitus' Harmony and Strife. Empedocles is also credited with introducing the concept of the four classical elements, uniting his predecessors conceptions about arche: earth, air, fire, and water.[139] The sophists such as Protagoras were also influenced by Heraclitus. They seemed to share his view of logos.[140] Plato considered Heraclitus the intellectual predecessor of the sophists.[141] Aristotle accuses Heraclitus of speaking in contradiction, and accused the sophists of applying contradiction to "all arts".[142] Plato[edit] Plato is the most famous philosopher who tried to reconcile Heraclitus and Parmenides; through Plato, both of these figures influenced virtually all subsequent Western philosophy. Plato knew of Heraclitus through Cratylus and wrote his dialogue of the same name.[143] Plato thought the views of Heraclitus meant no entity may occupy a single state at a single time and argued against Heraclitus as follows:[144] How can that be a real thing which is never in the same state? ... for at the moment that the observer approaches, then they become other ... so that you cannot get any further in knowing their nature or state ... but if that which knows and that which is known exist ever ... then I do not think they can resemble a process or flux ....[144] Plato seems to have been influenced by Heraclitus in his concept of the world as always changing and thus our inability to have knowledge of particulars, and by Parmenides in needing another world—the Platonic realm where things remain unchanging and universals exist as the objects of knowledge, the Forms. In the Symposium, Plato sounds much like Heraclitus:[137][145] Even during the period for which any living being is said to live and retain his identity—as a man, for example, is called the same man from boyhood to old age—he does not in fact retain the same attributes, although he is called the same person: he is always becoming a new being and undergoing a process of loss and reparation, which affects his hair, his flesh, his bones, his blood and his whole body. And not only his body, but his soul as well. No man's character, habits, opinions desires pleasures pains and fears remain always the same: new ones come into existence and old ones disappear.[145] Cynics[edit] Coin from c. 230 AD depicting Heraclitus as a Cynic, with club and raised hand. Cynicism also was influenced by Heraclitus,[146] who has several letters attributed to him in the Cynic epistles.[147] Pyrrhonists[edit] Aenesidemus, one of the major ancient Pyrrhonist philosophers, claimed in a now-lost work that Pyrrhonism was a way to Heraclitean philosophy because Pyrrhonist practice helps one to see how opposites appear to be the case about the same thing. Once one sees this, it leads to understanding the Heraclitean view of opposites being the case about the same thing. A later Pyrrhonist philosopher, Sextus Empiricus, disagreed, arguing opposites' appearing to be the case about the same thing is not a dogma of the Pyrrhonists but a matter occurring to the Pyrrhonists, to the other philosophers, and to all of humanity.[148] Stoics[edit] The Stoics believed major tenets of their philosophy derived from the thought of Heraclitus,[149] "the importance of Heraclitus to later Stoics is evident most plainly in Marcus Aurelius."[150][n] Explicit connections of the earliest Stoics to Heraclitus showing how they arrived at their interpretation are missing, but they can be inferred from the Stoic fragments, which Long concludes are "modifications of Heraclitus".[151] The Stoics were interested in Heraclitus's treatment of fire. The earliest surviving Stoic work, the Hymn to Zeus of Cleanthes, a work transitional from pagan polytheism to the modern religions and philosophies, though not explicitly referencing Heraclitus, adopts what appears to be a modified version of the Heraclitean logos.[o] Zeus rules the universe with law (nomos), wielding on its behalf the "forked servant", the "fire" of the "ever-living lightning"; none of this differs from the Zeus of Homer. According to Cleanthes, Zeus uses fire to "straighten out the common logos" that travels about (phoitan, "to frequent"), mixing with the greater and lesser lights (heavenly bodies); Heraclitus's logos was now confused with the "common nomos", which Zeus uses to "make the wrong (perissa, left or odd) right (artia, right or even)" and "order (kosmein) the disordered (akosma)".[152] Possible statue of Hippolytus The Stoic modification of Heraclitus' idea of the Logos influenced Jewish philosophers such as Philo of Alexandria, who connected it to "Wisdom personified" as God's creative principle.[citation needed] Philo uses the term Logos throughout his treatises on Hebrew scripture in a manner clearly influenced by the Stoics.[citation needed] On the subject of Stoic modification of Heraclitus, Burnet writes: Another difficulty we have to face is that most of the commentators on Herakleitos mentioned in Diogenes were Stoics. Now, the Stoics held the Ephesian in peculiar veneration, and sought to interpret him as far as possible in accordance with their own system. Further, they were fond of "accommodating" the views of earlier thinkers to their own, and this has had serious consequences. In particular, the Stoic theories of the logos and the ekpyrosis are constantly ascribed to Herakleitos, and the very fragments are adulterated with scraps of Stoic terminology.[85] Church Fathers[edit] The Church Fathers were the leaders of the early Christian Church during its first five centuries of existence, roughly contemporaneous to Stoicism under the Roman Empire. The works of dozens of writers in hundreds of pages have survived; all of them mentioned the Christian form of the Logos.[153] The Catholic Church found it necessary to distinguish between the Christian logos and that of Heraclitus to distance itself from pagans and convert them to Christianity. Many Church Fathers were converted philosophers. Hippolytus of Rome identified Heraclitus along with the other Pre-Socratics and Academics as sources of heresy. In Refutation of All Heresies, one of the best sources on quotes from Heraclitus, Hippolytus says; "What the blasphemous folly is of Noetus, and that he devoted himself to the tenets of Heraclitus the Obscure, not to those of Christ".[154] Hippolytus then present a quotation; "God (theos) is day and night, winter and summer ... but he takes various shapes, just as fire, when it is mingled with spices, is named according to the savor of each".[155] The fragment seems to support pantheism if taken literally. German physicist and philosopher Max Bernard Weinstein classed Hippolytus's view as a predecessor of pandeism.[69] Hippolytus condemns the obscurity of it; he could not accuse Heraclitus of heresy, saying; "Did not [Heraclitus] the Obscure anticipate Noetus in framing a system ...?" The apparent pantheist deity of Heraclitus must be equal to the union of opposites and therefore must be corporeal and incorporeal, divine and not-divine, dead and alive, etc., and the Trinity can only be reached by illusory shape-shifting.[156] The Christian apologist Justin Martyr took a more positive view of Heraclitus. In his First Apology, he said both Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians before Christ: "those who lived reasonably are Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; as, among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and men like them".[157] Modern philosophy[edit] Heraclitus from the Nuremberg Chronicle Heraclitus was considered an indispensable motif for philosophy through the modern period.[citation needed] Michel de Montaigne proposed two archetypical views of human affairs based on them, selecting Democritus's for himself.[158] Heraclitus may have even been mentioned in William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.[159] Continental[edit] Heraclitus plaque on Path of Visionaries in Berlin G. W. F. Hegel gave Heraclitus high praise; according to him, "the origin of philosophy is to be dated from Heraclitus". He attributed dialectics to Heraclitus rather than, as Aristotle did, to Zeno of Elea, saying; "There is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my Logic".[160][161][162] Friedrich Engels, who associated with the Young Hegelians, also gave Heraclitus the credit for inventing dialectics, which are relevant to his own dialectical materialism.[citation needed] Ferdinand Lasalle was a socialist who was also influenced by Heraclitus.[163] Friedrich Nietzsche was profoundly influenced by Heraclitus, as can be seen in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks.[164][165] Nietzsche saw Heraclitus as a confident opposition to Anaximander's pessimism.[166] Oswald Spengler was influenced by Nietzsche and also wrote a dissertation on Heraclitus.[167] Martin Heidegger was also influenced by Heraclitus, as seen in his Introduction to Metaphysics, and took a very different interpretation than Nietzsche and several others. According to Heidegger; "In Heraclitus, to whom is ascribed the doctrine of becoming as diametrically opposed to Parmenides' doctrine of being, says the same as Parmenides".[168] Analytic[edit] J. M. E. McTaggart's illustration of the A-series and B-series of time has been seen as an analogous application to time of Heraclitus and Parmenides views of all of reality, respectively.[169][170] A. N. Whitehead's process philosophy resembles the fragments of Heraclitus.[171] Karl Popper wrote much on Heraclitus; both Popper and Heraclitus believed in invisible processes at work.[172] Jungian psychology[edit] Carl Jung wrote Heraclitus "discovered the most marvellous of all psychological laws: the regulative function of opposites ... by which he meant that sooner or later everything runs into its opposite".[173] Jung adopted this law, called enantiodromia, into his analytical psychology. He related it with Chinese classics, stating; "If the Western world had followed his lead, we would all be Chinese in our viewpoint instead of Christian. We can think of Heraclitus as making the switch between the East and the West."[174] Jung suggested Heraclitus was named "the dark" not because his style was too difficult but "because he spoke too plainly" about the paradoxical nature of existence "and called life itself an 'ever-living fire' ".[175] Depictions in art[edit] Crying Heraclitus and laughing Democritus by Donato Bramante Democriet (laughing) & Herakliet (crying) by Cornelis van Haarlem Democritus by Johannes Moreelse Heraclitus by Johannes Moreelse Heraclitus has been portrayed several times in western art, especially as part of the weeping and laughing philosopher motif, and with globes. Italian[edit] Donato Bramante painted a fresco known as "Democritus and Heraclitus" in Casa Panigarola, Milan, in 1477.[176] Heraclitus's most famous depiction in art is in Raphael's School of Athens, which was painted in around 1510. Raphael depicted Michelangelo as Heraclitus; he and Diogenes of Sinope are the only men to sit alone in the painting. Heraclitus seems to write a poem, though he also looks away from his pen and paper.[177] The laughing philosopher and the weeping philosopher by Johann Christoph Ludwig Lücke Salvator Rosa also painted Democritus and Heraclitus, as did Luca Giordano, together and separately in the 1650s.[178][179] Giuseppe Torretti sculpted busts of the same duo in 1705.[180] Giuseppe Antonio Petrini painted "Weeping Heraclitus" circa 1750.[181] German[edit] Franz Tymmermann in 1538 painted a weeping Heraclitus.[182] Johann Christoph Ludwig Lücke sculpted busts of the same in the 1750s.[183] Franz Xaver Messerschmidt also sculpted them.[184] Dutch[edit] In 1619, the Dutch Cornelis van Haarlem also painted a laughing Democritus and weeping Heraclitus. Hendrick ter Brugghen's paintings of Heraclitus and Democritus separately in 1628 hang in the Rijksmuseum, and he also painted them together. Around 1630, Dutch painter Johannes Moreelse painted Heraclitus ringing his hands over a globe, sad at the state of the world, and another with Democritus laughing at one. Dirck van Baburen also painted the pair.[185] Egbert van Heemskerck did as well.[186] Flemish, French, and Spanish[edit] Peter Paul Rubens painted the pair twice in 1603.[187] Nicolaes Pickenoy also painted the pair.[188] French artists Etienne Parrocel and Charles-Antoine Coypel painted Heraclitus.[189] Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera painted the pair in 1630.[190] See also[edit] (in Greek) Quotes of Heraclitus (Apospásmata) Notes[edit] ^ Such calculations are common for those of this early period of Greek philosophy. For example, Thales usual birth of 625 BC is figured by taking the date he predicted an eclipse, May 28, 585 BC, and assuming he was 40 years old at the time. ^ Ancient temples were regularly used for storing treasures and were open to private individuals under exceptional circumstances. ^ thaumasios, which, as Socrates explains in Plato's Theaetetus and Gorgias, is the beginning of philosophy ^ It is sometimes called On Nature like the works of the other Pre-Socratic philosophers. ^ He does not say whether Heraclitus or another person divided them this way.[5] Burnet says: We are told that it was divided into three discourses: one dealing with the universe, one political, and one theological. It is not to be supposed that this division is due to Herakleitos himself; all we can infer is that the work fell naturally into these three parts when the Stoic commentators took their editions of it in hand.[45] ^ See Rendel Harris, The Origin of the Prologue to St. John's Gospel in The Expositor, 1916, pp. 147 sqq. ^ This initial part of DK B2 is often omitted because it is broken by a note explaining that ξυνός ksunos (Ionic) is κοινός koinos (Attic). ^ Literally, slain by Ares ^ Heraclitus typically uses the ordinary word "to become" (gignesthai or ginesthai, present tense or aorist tense of the verb, with the root sense of "being born"). ^ Compare with the Latin adages Omnia mutantur and Tempora mutantur (8 AD) and the Buddhist and Hindu concepts of anicca.[citation needed] ^ In pronunciation the -ei- is a diphthong sounding like the -ei- in reindeer. The initial r is aspirated or made breathy, which indicates the dropping of the s in *sreu-. ^ This sentence has been translated by Seneca.[103] ^ Compare the Japanese tale Hōjōki, (1200 AD) which contains the same image of the changing river.[citation needed] ^ Aurelius quotes Heraclitus in Meditations iv. 46 ^ Different translations of this can be found at Rolleston, T. W. "Stoic Philosophers: Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus". www.numinism.net. Archived from the original on 2009-08-05. Retrieved 2007-11-28. Ellery, M. A. C. (1976). "Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus". Tom Sienkewicz. Archived from the original on 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2007-11-28. "Hymn to Zeus". Translated by not stated. Holy, Holy, Holy at thriceholy.net: Hypatia's Bookshelf. References[edit] ^ Hanks, Patrick; Urdang, Laurence, eds. (1979). Collins English Dictionary. London, Glasgow: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-433078-5. ^ Winters, Andrew M. (2017). Natural Processes: Understanding Metaphysics Without Substance. Springer. p. 10. ISBN 978-3-319-67570-1. ^ Graham, Daniel W. (2019), "Heraclitus", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Graham, Daniel W. "Heraclitus". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b c d e f g h Graham, Daniel W. (April 27, 2021). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ "Heraclitus | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ a b Kahn, Charles (1979). The Art and Thought of Heraclitus: Fragments with Translation and Commentary. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-521-28645-9. ^ a b Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. p. 130.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 1 ^ a b c "Parmenides, Greek fragments and Burnet's English translation". philoctetes.free.fr. ^ John Palmer (2016). Parmenides. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. ^ a b DK B40, from Laertius, Lives 9.1 ^ a b DK B129 ^ a b Ríos Pedraza, Francisco; Haya Segovia, Fernando (2009). Historia de la Filosofía. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-84-673-5147-7. ^ Naddaf 2005, p. 126. ^ Wiesehöfer 2003, pp. 201–202. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 3 ^ a b c d e Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 6 ^ Strabo, Chapter 1, section 3. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 2 ^ G. S. Kirk (2010), Heraclitus: The Cosmic Fragments, Cambridge University Press, p. 1. ISBN 0521136679 ^ Chapter 3 beginning. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 5 ^ DK B101, from Plutarch Against Colotes 1118C ^ DK B14, from Clement Protrepic 22 ^ DK B96, from Plutarch Table Talk 669A ^ DK B49, from Theodorus Prodromus, Letters 1 ^ DK B116, from Stobaeus Selections 3.5.6 ^ DK B113, from Stobaeus Selections 3.1.179 ^ DK B89, from Pseudo-Plutarch, On Superstition 166c ^ DK B34, from Clement, Miscellanies 5.115.3 ^ DK B97, from Plutarch On Listening to Lectures 40f-41a ^ DK B47, from Laertius, Lives, 9.73 ^ B87, from Plutarch On Listening to Lectures 40f-41a ^ DK B35, from Clement Miscellanies 5.140.5 ^ DK B28, from Clement Miscellanies 5.9.3 ^ DK B42, from Laertius, Lives, 9.1 ^ DK B39, Laertius, Lives, 1.88 ^ DK B104, from Proclus Commentary of Plato's Alcibiades I 117 ^ DK B125a, from John Tzetzes, Scholium on Aristophanes Wealth 88 ^ DK B121, from Strabo, Geography 14.25 ^ Laertius Lives, 9.1 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 4 ^ Fairweather, Janet (1973). "Death of Heraclitus". p. 2. ^ a b c Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. p. 131.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Rhetoric 3.1407b11 ^ DK B1, from Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians 7.132 ^ Laertius, Lives, 9.15 ^ Metaphysics Book 4, section 1005b ^ DK B93, from Plutarch On the Pythian Oracle 404D ^ De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Chapter 2, Section 15. ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (1995). Moral and Political Essays. Translated by John M. Cooper; J. F. Procopé. Cambridge University Press. p. 50 note 17. ISBN 978-0-521-34818-8. ^ "Heraclitus, Hendrick ter Brugghen, 1628". Rijksmuseum. ^ Laughing and Weeping Melancholy: Democritus and Heraclitus as Emblems | SpringerLink ^ III.20.53 ^ Satire X. Translation from Juvenal (1903). Thirteen Satires of Juvenal. Sidney George Owen (trans.). London: Methuen & Co. p. 61. ^ a b c Lucian, Sale of Creeds ^ Diogenes Laërtius, ix. 8 ^ For the etymology see Watkins, Calvert (2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: leg-". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. Archived from the original on 2007-12-15. Retrieved 2007-11-20. ^ K. F. Johansen, "Logos" in Donald Zeyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, Greenwood Press 1997. ^ pp. 419ff., W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962. ^ Zeller, E. (1881). A History of Greek Philosophy. 2. Translated by Alleyne, S. F. London: Longmans, Green, And Co. p. 8. ^ DK B72, from Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 4.46 ^ from Hippolytus, Refutation of all Heresies, ix. 9 ^ Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1, 1930: A. & C. Black, Ltd. p. 133.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ DK B2, from Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians 7.133 ^ a b Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers, p. 46 ^ a b DK B50, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.9.1 ^ a b Max Bernhard Weinsten, Welt- und Lebensanschauungen, Hervorgegangen aus Religion, Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis ("World and Life Views, Emerging From Religion, Philosophy and Perception of Nature") (1910), p. 233 ^ Melchert, Norman (2006). The Great Conversation (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530682-8. ^ "Origins of European Philosophy". www.webpages.uidaho.edu. ^ Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. p. 145.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, pp. 50, 60 ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Heraclitus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–310. ^ a b DK B8, from Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics 8.2 1155b4 ^ DK B62, from Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.6 ^ DK B26, from Clement Miscellanies 4.141.2 ^ DK B21, from Clement Miscellanies 3.21.1 ^ a b The Greek Philosophers p. 44 ^ Eudemian Ethics 1235a25 ^ a b Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. pp. 143–144.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ DK B51, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.9.2 ^ DK B54, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.9.5 ^ DK B48, from Etymologium Magnum sv bios ^ a b Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. pp. 142–143.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ DK B11, from Aristotle On the World 6 401a10 ^ DK B60, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.4 ^ DK B59, from Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.4 ^ DK B31, from Clement Miscellanies 5.105 3,5 ^ Nakamura, Hajime (October 15, 1992). A Comparative History of Ideas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 9788120810044 – via Google Books. ^ "HERACLITUS AND PARMENIDES". www.albany.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-27. ^ B125, from Theophrastus On Vertigo 9 ^ Plotinus, Enneads 4.8.1 ^ Beris, A. N. and A. J. Giacomin, "πάντα ῥεῖ: Everything Flows", Cover Article, Applied Rheology, 24(5) (2014), pp. 1–13; Errata: In line 2 of each abstract, "παντα" should be "πάντα". ^ Hermann Diels, Simplicius, In Aristotelis physicorum libros quattuor posteriores commentaria. Reimer, Berlin 1895 (Nachdruck: De Gruyter 1954), p. 1313. ^ a b Cratylus 401d.5 and 402a.8; cf. also Cratylus 439d.3. ^ For the etymology see Watkins, Calvert (2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: sreu". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.). Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2007-11-16. ^ Burnet, John (1930). Early Greek Philosophy. 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, London, W.1: A. & C. Black, Ltd. pp. 145–146.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ DK B91, from Plutarch On the E at Delphi 392b ^ Kahn, Charles (1979). The Art and Though of Heraclitus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 168. ISBN 9780511627392. ^ DK B12, from Arius Didymus, fr. 39.2, apud Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 15.20.2 ^ DK B49a, from Heraclitus Homericus, Homeric Questions 24 ^ in Epistulae, VI, 58, 23. ^ Barnes (1982), p. 65, and also Peters, Francis E. (1967). Greek Philosophical Terms: A Historical Lexicon. NYU Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0814765524. Commentary on Aristotle's Physics, 1313.11. ^ Dietz, Karl-Martin (2004). Heraklit von Ephesus und die Entwicklung der Individualität. Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistesleben. p. 60. ISBN 978-3772512735. ^ DK B6, from Aristotle Meteorology 2.2 355a13 ^ DK B114, from Stobaeus Selections 3.1.179 ^ DK B65, from Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.7 ^ DK B66, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies ^ DK B102, from Porphyry, Notes on Homer, on Iliad 4.4 ^ DK B78, from Origen, Against Celsus 6.12 ^ DK B41, from Laertius, Lives, 9.1 ^ DK B32, from Clement, Miscellanies 5.115.1 ^ DK B124, from Theophrastrus, Metaphysics 15 ^ a b Mysticism and Logic p. 2 ^ DK B52, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.94 ^ DK B70, from Stobaeus, Selections 2.1.16 ^ DK B79 ^ DK B74, from Marcus Aurelius, Meditations ^ DK B118, from Stobaeus Selections 3.5.8 ^ DK B117, from Plotinus Enneads 4.8.1 ^ Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy ^ DK B115, from Stobaeus Selections 3.1.180 ^ DK B85, from Plutarch Life of Coriolanus 22.2 ^ DK B119, from Stobaeus Selections 4.40.23 ^ Thomas L. Cooksey (2010). Plato's 'Symposium': A Reader's Guide. p. 69. Continuum International Publishing Group (London & New York). ISBN 978-0-8264-4067-9 ^ DK B55, from Hippolytus Refutation of All Heresies 9.9.5 ^ DK B3 and B94, from Derveni Papyrus, col IV ^ Lives ^ https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5684 ^ DK B107, from Sextus Empiricus Against the Mathematicians 7.126 ^ DK B46, from Laertius, Lives, 9.7 ^ DK B123, from Themistius Orations 5.69 ^ DK B7, from Aristotle On the Senses and Their Objects 5 443a23 ^ DK B98, from Plutarch, On the Face in the Moon 943E ^ Metaphysics Books 4, section 1010a ^ a b Large, William. "Heraclitus". Arasite. Retrieved 3 March 2017. ^ Wesling, Donald (April 27, 1996). "The scissors of meter : grammetrics and reading". Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press – via Internet Archive. ^ "Presocratic Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 June 2020. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271990860_Structural_Logos_in_Heraclitus_and_the_Sophists ^ Darvishy, Saeed; Zakiany, Gholamreza (March 21, 2014). "Examination of Aristotle's Critiques of Heraclitus' Cosmology on Criticisms of Plato and Sophists". Wisdom And Philosophy. 10 (37): 7–24. doi:10.22054/wph.2014.6141 – via wph.atu.ac.ir. ^ "Aristotle". ^ Metaphysics, 987a32 ^ a b Cratylus 440c–d. ^ a b Symposium, 207d ^ J. F.. Kindstrand, “The Cynics and Heraclitus”, Eranos 82 (1984), 149–78 ^ https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/gregory.buchanan/huma1301/reading-on-the-types-of-cynics ^ Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I, Chapter 29, Sections 210–211 ^ Long, A. A. (2001). Stoic Studies. University of California Press. Chapter 2. ISBN 978-0-520-22974-7. ^ Long (2001), p. 56. ^ Long (2001), p. 51. ^ Blakeney, E. H. (1921). The Hymn of Cleanthes: Greek Text Translated into English: with Brief Introduction and Notes. New York: The MacMillan Company. ^ Kahn, p. 9 ^ Book IX leading sentence. ^ DK B67, from Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 9.10.8 ^ Hippolytus. "Refutation of All Heresies". New Advent. pp. Book IX Chapter 5. Retrieved 2007-12-01. ^ Martyr, Justin. "First Apology of Justin". Early Christian Writings. ^ de Montaigne, Michel (2004-10-26). Of Democritus and Heraclitus. The Essays. Project Gutenberg. ^ Act I Scene II Line 43. ^ Lectures on the History of Philosophy (1892), trans. E. S. Haldane, p. 279 ^ https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1915/obsc/obsc.htm ^ https://philosophynow.org/issues/131/Popper_on_Marx_on_History ^ https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1915/obsc/obsc.htm ^ https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9219&context=gradschool_disstheses ^ https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1122&context=etd ^ Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, p. 6 ^ https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100523587 ^ p. 97 ^ https://philarchive.org/archive/DENTMO-15 ^ http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:XziCyli5y-4J:www.ojs.lgu.edu.pk/index.php/ajss/article/download/1086/953+&cd=31&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us ^ Russell, History p. 46 ^ Naraniecki, Alexander (January 10, 2014). Returning to Karl Popper: A reassessment of his politics and philosophy. Rodopi. ISBN 9789401210454 – via Google Books. ^ Jung, C. G. (2014). Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 9781317535362. ^ Jung, C. G. (2013). William McGuire (ed.). Analytical Psychology: Notes of the Seminar given in 1925 (Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 3 ed.). Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 9781134677740. ^ Jung, C. G. (1953). Psychology and Alchemy. Translated by R. F. C. Hull; Gerhard Adler (Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 12 ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 196. ISBN 9780691018317. ^ Levenson, Jay, ed. (1991). Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-300-05167-4. ^ "Our Stories/Day 3 > DecamerOnline > USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences". dornsifelive.usc.edu. ^ "Heraklit und Demokrit". www.khm.at. ^ "Democritus and Heraclitus by GIORDANO, Luca". www.wga.hu. ^ "Northern side Rooms on the First Floor, Ca' Rezzonico". May 3, 2020. ^ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Petrini_Weeping_Heraclitus.jpg ^ "CRANACH DIGITAL ARCHIVE". lucascranach.org. ^ "Bust of Heraclitus, 'The Weeping Philosopher' | LACMA Collections". collections.lacma.org. ^ PFARR, ULRICH (2001). "Ernst Kris on F. X. Messerschmidt—A Valuable Stimulus for New Research?". American Imago. 58 (1): 445–461 – via JSTOR. ^ "akg-images - Heraclitus and Democritus". www.akg-images.co.uk. ^ "Egbert van Heemskerck, 'Heraclitus and Democritus'". www.bb-worksofart.com. ^ "Heraclitus, the Crying Philosopher - The Collection - Museo Nacional del Prado". www.museodelprado.es. ^ "Nicolaes Eliasz. Pickenoy | Heraclitus and Democritus | MutualArt". www.mutualart.com. ^ "Parrocel Etienne | HERACLITUS | MutualArt". www.mutualart.com. ^ "Jusepe de Ribera - Old Master Paintings 2017/10/17 - Realized price: EUR 222,600 - Dorotheum". www.dorotheum.com. Further reading[edit] Editions and translations[edit] Botten, Mick. (2012). Herakleitos – Logos Made Manifest, Upfront Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78035-064-6 All fragments, in Greek and English, with commentary and appendices Davenport, Guy (translator) (1979). Herakleitos and Diogenes. Bolinas: Grey Fox Press. ISBN 978-0-912516-36-3. Complete fragments of Heraclitus in English Heraclitus; Haxton (translator), Brooks; Hillman (Forward), James (2001). Fragments: The Collected Wisdom of Heraclitus. New York: Viking (The Penguin Group, Penguin Putnam, Inc.). ISBN 978-0-670-89195-5.. Parallel Greek & English Kahn, Charles H. (1979). The Art and Thought of Heraclitus. An Edition of the Fragments with Translation and Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21883-2. Kirk, G. S. (1954). Heraclitus, the Cosmic Fragments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marcovich, Miroslav (2001). Heraclitus. Greek Text with a Short Commentary. Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89665-171-6. First edition: Heraclitus, editio maior. Mérida, Venezuela, 1967 Patrick, G. T. W. (1889). Heraclitus of Ephesus: The Fragments. Robinson, T. M. (1987). Heraclitus: Fragments: A Text and Translation with a Commentary. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6913-9. Sallis, John; Maly, Kenneth, eds. (1980). Heraclitean fragments. University: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-0027-2. Wheelwright, Philip (1959). Heraclitus. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wright, M. R. (1985). The Presocratics: The main Fragments in Greek with Introduction, Commentary and Appendix Containing Text and Translation of Aristotle on the Presocratics. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-86292-079-1. Selected bibliography[edit] Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics: Analysis and Fragments. Trafford Publishing. pp. 26–45 under Heraclitus. ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9. Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers [Revised Edition]. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-415-05079-1. Bollack, Jean; Wismann, Heinz (1972). Héraclite ou la séparation (in French). Paris: Minuit. ISBN 9782707303851. Burnet, John (1892). Early Greek Philosophy. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-2826-2. Early Greek philosophy. First published in 1892, this book has had dozens of editions and has been used as a textbook for decades. The first edition is downloadable from Google Books Dietz, Karl-Martin (2004): Metamorphosen des Geistes. Freies Geistesleben, Stuttgart 2004, Band 1: Prometheus der Vordenker: Vom göttlichen zum menschlichen Wissen. Band 2: Platon und Aristoteles. Das Erwachen des europäischen Denkens. Band 3: Heraklit von Ephesus und die Entwicklung der Individualität. Freies Geistesleben, Stuttgart, 2004, ISBN 3-7725-1300-X Dilcher, Roman (1995). Studies in Heraclitus. Hildesheim: Olms. ISBN 978-3-487-09986-6. Fairbanks, Arthur (1898). The First Philosophers of Greece. New York: Scribner. Graham, D. W. (2002). "Heraclitus and Parmenides". In Caston, V.; Graham, D. W. (eds.). Presocratic Philosophy: Essays in Honour of Alexander Mourelatos. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 27–44. ISBN 978-0-7546-0502-7. Graham, D. W. (2008). "Heraclitus: Flux, Order, and Knowledge". In Curd, P.; Graham, D. W. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 169–188. ISBN 978-0-19-514687-5. Guthrie, W. K. C. (1962). A History of Greek Philosophy: The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heidegger, Martin; Fink, Eugen; Seibert (translator), Charles H. (1993). Heraclitus Seminar. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-1067-0.. Transcript of seminar in which two German philosophers analyze and discuss Heraclitus' texts. Hussey, Edward (1972). The Presocratics. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0684131188. Kirk, G. S.; Raven, J. E. (1957). The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kahn, Charles H. (1979). The Art and Thought of Heraclitus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511627392. Lavine, T. Z. (1984). From Socrates to Sartre: The Philosophic Quest. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. (Bantam Books). Chapter 2: Shadow and Substance, Section: Plato's Sources: The Pre–SocraticPhilosophers: Heraclitus and Parmenides. ISBN 978-0-553-25161-6.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Others: Heraclitus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:9. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Luchte, James (2011). Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0567353313. Magnus, Magus; Fuchs, Wolfgang (introduction) (2010). Heraclitean Pride. Towson: Furniture Press Books. ISBN 978-0-9826299-2-5. Creative re-creation of Heraclitus' lost book, from the fragments McKirahan, R. D. (2011). Philosophy before Socrates, An Introduction With Text and Commentary. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-1-60384-183-2. Mourelatos, Alexander, ed. (1993). The Pre-Socratics : a collection of critical essays (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02088-4. Naddaf, Gerard (2005). The Greek Concept of Nature. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0791463734. Pyle, C. M. (1997). 'Democritus and Heraclitus: An Excursus on the Cover of this Book,' Milan and Lombardy in the Renaissance. Essays in Cultural History. Rome, La Fenice. (Istituto di Filologia Moderna, Università di Parma: Testi e Studi, Nuova Serie: Studi 1.) (Fortuna of the Laughing and Weeping Philosophers topos) Rodziewicz, A. (2011). "Heraclitus historicus politicus". Studia Antyczne I Mediewistyczne. 44: 5–35. ISSN 0039-3231. Schofield, Malcolm; Nussbaum, Martha Craven, eds. (1982). Language and logos : studies in ancient Greek philosophy presented to G. E. L. Owen. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. ISBN 978-0-521-23640-9. Taylor, C. C. W. (ed.), Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato, Vol. I, pp. 80–117. ISBN 0-203-02721-3 Master e-book ISBN, ISBN 0-203-05752-X (Adobe eReader Format) and ISBN 0-415-06272-1 (Print Edition). Tarán, L. (1999). "337–378". Elenchos. 20: 9–52. Vlastos, G. (1955). "On Heraclitus". American Journal of Philology. 76 (4): 337–378. doi:10.2307/292270. JSTOR 292270. Wiesehöfer, Josef (2003). "Heraclitus of Ephesus". HeracliTUS OF EPHESUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2. pp. 201–202. External links[edit] Library resources about Heraclitus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Heraclitus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Quotations related to Heraclitus at Wikiquote Works related to Fragments of Heraclitus at Wikisource Elpenor. "Heraclitus: The Word is Common". The Greek Word: Three Millennia of Greek Literature. Elpenor. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Heraclitus bilingual anthology from DK in Greek and English, side by side, the translations being provided by the organization, Elpenor. Graham, Daniel W. (2006). "Heraclitus". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The editors. Retrieved 2007-10-09. Graham, Daniel W. (2011). "Heraclitus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The editors. Retrieved 2013-08-25. Harris, William, translator (1994). "Heraclitus: The Complete Fragments: Translation and Commentary and The Greek Text" (PDF). Humanities and the Liberal Arts: Greek Language and Literature: Text and Commentary. Middlebury College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-10-09. Greek and English with DK numbers and commentary. "Heraclitus the Obscure: The Father of the Doctrine of Flux and the Unity of Opposites". Archimedes' Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-11-09. Text and selected aphorisms in Greek, English, Italian and French. Hooker, Richard (1996). "Heraclitus". World Civilizations: An Internet Classroom and Anthology: Greek Philosophy. Washington State University. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-10-11. Selected fragments translated by Hooker. Hoyt, Randy (2002). "The Fragments of Heraclitus". Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2007-10-09. The fragments also cited in DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography). June, Daniel (2012). "The Logos: a Modern Adapted Translation of the Complete Fragments of Heraclitus" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2015-04-21. Knierim, Thomas (2007). "Heraclitus: (Ephesus, around 500 BC)". thebigview.com. Archived from the original on 2013-09-22. Retrieved 2004-10-18. Essay on the flux and fire philosophy of Heraclitus. Lancereau, M. Daniel; Béreau, M. Samuel (2007). "Heraclitus". Philoctetes: ΦΙΛΟΚΤΗΤΗΣ. Archived from the original on 2013-08-18. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Site with links to pdf's containing the fragments of DK in Greek (Unicode) with the English translations of John Burnet (see Bibliography) and translations into French, either in parallel columns or interlinear, with links on the lexical items to the Perseus Project dictionaries. Includes also Heraclitus article from Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. Stamatellos, Giannis. "Heraclitus of Ephesus: Life and Work". Retrieved 2007-10-12. Trix. "Heraclitus' Epistemological Views". sym•pos•i•a: σuμποσια: the online philosophy journal. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Osho. "Osho discourse on Heraclitus, The Hidden Harmony". "Heraclitus Series". Heraclitus' fragments rendered into the language of deductive logic on Triple Canopy (online magazine). v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus 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en-wikipedia-org-3178	----	Pozzuoli - Wikipedia Pozzuoli From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A city and comune of the Metropolitan City of Naples, in the Italian region of Campania Comune in Campania, Italy Pozzuoli Pezzulo  (Neapolitan) Comune Panorama of Pozzuoli and Rione Terra Coat of arms Location of Pozzuoli Pozzuoli Location of Pozzuoli in Campania Show map of Italy Pozzuoli Pozzuoli (Campania) Show map of Campania Coordinates: 40°50′40″N 14°05′36″E / 40.84444°N 14.09333°E / 40.84444; 14.09333Coordinates: 40°50′40″N 14°05′36″E / 40.84444°N 14.09333°E / 40.84444; 14.09333 Country Italy Region Campania Metropolitan city Naples (NA) Frazioni Arco Felice, Campana Annunziata, Cuma, Licola Centro, Licola Lido, Lucrino, Montenuovo, Monterusciello, Pisciarelli, Toiano Government  • Mayor Vincenzo Figliolia (PD) Area[1]  • Total 43.44 km2 (16.77 sq mi) Elevation 28 m (92 ft) Population (31 August 2017)[2]  • Total 81,231  • Density 1,900/km2 (4,800/sq mi) Demonym(s) Puteolani Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 80078, 80014, 80125 Dialing code 081 Patron saint St. Proculus Saint day November 16 Website Official website Pozzuoli (Italian pronunciation: [potˈtswɔːli]; Neapolitan: Pezzulo [pətˈtsuːlə]; Latin: Puteoli) is a city and comune of the Metropolitan City of Naples, in the Italian region of Campania. It is the main city of the Phlegrean Peninsula. Contents 1 History 2 Main sights 3 Transportation 4 Twinnings 5 Neighboring communes 6 Notable people 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 Bibliography 10 External links History[edit] Pozzuoli began as the Greek colony of Dicaearchia (Greek: Δικαιαρχία). The Roman colony, established in 194 BC, took the name Puteoli whose roots are in the Latin puteus (well or cistern) and Oscan fistulus (quarry).[3] An alternative etymology of Puteoli derives from the Latin puteo (to stink), referring to the sulfuric fumes in the area, most notably from Solfatara.[4] Pozzuoli itself lies in the centre of the Campi Flegrei, a volcanic caldera. Puteoli was the great emporium for the Alexandrian grain ships, and other ships from all over the Roman world. It also was the main hub for goods exported from Campania, including blown glass, mosaics, wrought iron, and marble. The Roman naval base at nearby Misenum housed the largest naval fleet in the ancient world. It was also the site of the Roman Dictator Sulla's country villa and the place where he died in 78 BC. Pliny mentions Pozzuoli as the site of a famed cochlearium created by Fulvius Hirpinus, known for raising exquisite snails. The local volcanic sand, pozzolana (Latin: pulvis puteolanus, "dust of Puteoli") formed the basis for the first effective concrete, as it reacted chemically with water. Instead of just evaporating slowly off, the water would turn this sand/lime mix into a mortar strong enough to bind lumps of aggregate into a load-bearing unit. This made possible the cupola of the Pantheon, which is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. The ancient Macellum of Pozzuoli was a market building, erroneously identified as a Serapeum when a statue of Serapis was discovered. The apostle Paul landed here on his way to Rome, from which it was 170 miles (274 kilometres) distant. Here he stayed for seven days (Acts 28:13, 14) and then began with his companions his journey by the Appian Way to Rome. Puteoli is considered the best candidate for the unnamed city where the 1st-century Roman novel Satyricon takes place. In 37 AD Puteoli was the location for a political stunt by Emperor Gaius Caligula, who on becoming Emperor ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using trading vessels, stretching for over two miles (3.2 km) from the town to the famous neighboring resort of Baiae, across which he proceeded to ride his horse, in defiance of an astrologer's prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae".[5] Saint Proculus (San Procolo) was martyred here with his companions in the fourth century, and is the city's patron saint. The seven eagle heads on the coat-of-arms for the town of Pozzuoli are said to represent seven of these martyrs. November 16 was the official feast day for Saint Proculus. St. Proculus was affectionately nicknamed 'u pisciasotto ("the pants-pisser") because November 16 was often a day of rain. The townspeople also celebrated his feast day on the second Sunday in May.[6] Charles Lyell visited Pozzuoli in 1828 and studied the Macellum columns. Since 1946 the town has been the home of the Accademia Aeronautica, the Italian Air Force Academy, which was first situated on the island of Nisida, then from 1962 on a purpose-built hilltop campus overlooking the bay. From August 1982 to December 1984 the city experienced hundreds of tremors and bradyseismic activity which reached a peak on October 4, 1983, damaging 8,000 buildings in the city center and dislocating 36,000 people, many permanently. The events raised the sea bottom by almost 2 m, and rendered the Bay of Pozzuoli too shallow for large craft. Main sights[edit] Pozzuoli and surroundings The town's attractions include: The Macellum of Pozzuoli, also known as the Temple of Serapis or serapeum, is considered the city's symbol. The "temple" was actually a marketplace. Its name derives from the misinterpretation of its function after a statue of the god Serapis was found in 1750 at this location. The Macellum includes three majestic columns in Cipollino marble, which show erosion from marine Lithophaga molluscs when, at an earlier time, the ground level was much lower due to Bradyseism, and sea-water could flow in.[7] Flavian Amphitheater (Amphitheatrum Flavium), the third largest Italian amphitheater after the Colosseum and the Capuan Amphitheater.  Solfatara (volcanic crater with active fumaroles) Forum Minor Amphitheater, very near to the Flavian one, its remains were absorbed by other buildings, but some arches can be seen by Via Solfatara and Via Vigna. It is crossed by metropolitan railway and the arena is still buried Puteoli's Baths, so called Temple of Neptune, the remains of a big thermal complex now in Corso Terracciano which included also "Dianae Nymphaeum", this last one partly hidden by buildings. Villa Avellino, one of the few urban parks of Pozzuoli. It also shows several Roman ruins and water tanks. There is also a still working Roman "face" water fountain. Rione Terra, the first settlement of Puteoli, originally Dicearkia in Greek. It is a multi-layered city with several Roman buildings; the most important one is the Temple of Augustus (today the Pozzuoli's Duomo) Necropolis of the Via Puteolis Capuam, just under the bridge that leads outside the city near Via Solfatara Necropolis of Via San Vito, near to Quarto Necropolis of Via Celle, a rich complex of tombs and mausoleums, very near to an old Roman street track still used today (Via Cupa Cigliano) Stadium of Antoninus Pius, a very similar stadium to the Domitian one in Rome, only partially unburied and partly collapsed (Via Campi Flegrei). Sanctuary of San Gennaro (St. Januarius). With the Cathedral of Naples, it is one of the two places in which the alleged miracle of the liquefaction of the saint's blood occurs. Acropolis of ancient city of Cumae Lake Avernus, in which Virgil, in the 6th book of his Aeneid, placed the entrance to Hell. The name derives from Greek, and means "Without Birds", referring to the absence of birds due to the sulfur gas that sprung from it. Nearby are the Temple of Apollo, the Grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl and Cocceius' Grotto, a gallery carved by the Romans to connect Lucrino to Cumae. The latter was damaged during World War II and is no longer visitable. Lake Lucrino, in the frazione of the same name. The lake was considered an infernal place, due to volcanic phenomena. It was a renowned resort in Roman times and included the villa of Cicero, which later held the remains of emperor Hadrian. Pliny the Elder cites it in Naturalis historia (ix, 25) as the home of a dolphin who had made friends with a child. According to Pliny, when the child fell ill and died, the dolphin died of broken heart also. The tale is considered the first known Urban legend. Anarchist monument. A unique anarchist monument is present in the small garden close to the Roman Macellum. It's made of a marble block and has the following text written on it: Italian: Ciò che più importa è che il popolo, gli uomini tutti, perdano gli istinti e le abitudini pecorili che la millenaria schiavitù ha loro ispirato ed apprendano a pensare ed agire liberamente. Gli anarchici. English: What matters most is that people, all men, lose their sheepish instincts and habits that longstanding slavery has inspired in them, and they learn to think and act freely. The anarchists. Flavian Amphitheater (Amphitheatrum Flavium), from below Fumarole in the Solfatara Transportation[edit] It is easily reached by train from Rome on Naples Metro line 2, and by the trains of "Cumana" lines leaving from the station of Montesanto, in the city center. Twinnings[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Agios Dimitrios, a suburb of Athens in Greece[citation needed] Neighboring communes[edit] Bacoli Giugliano in Campania Monte di Procida Naples Quarto Notable people[edit] Januarius, Patron Saint of Naples, executed at Solfatara c. 305 Josephus landed there on his way to Rome (The Life of Flavius Josephus; 3.16) William Jopling, British leprologist, born there Sophia Loren, film actress, grew up there Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, Viceroy of Naples died there on 15 October 1496 Saint Paul, the Apostle landed there on his way to Rome. (Acts 28:13) Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Baroque composer, died there Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Dictator of Rome, died at his villa there Ludovica Nasti, “L’amica geniale”/“My Brilliant Friend” actress, originally from there See also[edit] De balneis Puteolanis Footnotes[edit] ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Comune di Pozzuoli (NA)". ^ John Everett-Heath, ed. (2010). "Pozzuoli". Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. Oxford University Press (Oxford Reference Online Premium Database). ^ C. Suetonius Tranquillius. "Caius Caesar Caligula." The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. ^ http://www.icampiflegrei.it/Azienda%20Turismo/pozzuoli/articoli2003/novembre_eng.htm ^ Legler, Rolf (1990). Der Golf von Neapel (in German). Cologne: DuMont Buchverlag. ISBN 978-3-7701-2254-7. Bibliography[edit] Amalfitano, Paolo, et al. (1990) I Campi Flegrei, Venezia Annecchino, Raimondo (1960) Storia di Pozzuoli e della zona flegrea. Pozzuoli: Arti Grafiche D. Conte Gianfrotta, Piero Alfredo & Maniscalco, Fabio (eds.) (1998) Forma Maris: Forum Internazionale di Archeologia Subacquea. Puteoli Gore, Rick (May 1984). "A Prayer For Pozzuoli". National Geographic. Vol. 165 no. 5. pp. 614–625. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Puteoli: studi di storia Romana; no. 2; 4/5 Sommella, Paolo (1978) Forma e urbanistica di Pozzuoli romana. Pozzuoli: Azienda Autonoma di Soggiorno, Cura e Turismo di Pozzuoli Atti del convegno Studi e ricerche su Puteoli romana: Napoli, Centre J. Bérard, 2-3 aprile 1979. Napoli, 1984 External links[edit] Media related to Pozzuoli at Wikimedia Commons Kub Foto Pozzuoli Pozzuoli Italian Portal (soon translated in english) v t e Archaeological sites in Campania Province of Avellino Aeclanum Aequum Tuticum Compsa Province of Benevento Benevento Arch of Trajan Roman Theatre Caudium Ligures Baebiani Saticula Province of Caserta Allifae Ausona Calatia Cales Santa Maria Capua Vetere Arch of Hadrian (Capua) Amphitheatre of Capua Casilinum Sant'Angelo in Formis Sinuessa Trebula Balliensis Vescia Province of Naples Atella Baiae Cumae Grotta di Cocceio Herculaneum Villa of the Papyri Liternum Miseno Piscina Mirabilis Naples Aqua Augusta Bourbon Tunnel Catacombs of San Gaudioso Catacombs of San Gennaro Crypta Neapolitana Virgil's tomb Macellum of Naples Oplontis Villa Poppaea Palazzo a Mare Pompeii Pozzuoli Flavian Amphitheater (Pozzuoli) Lucrinus Lacus Lake Avernus Macellum of Pozzuoli Portus Julius Stabiae Suessula Castello Barbarossa Villa Jovis Villa Boscoreale 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3179	----	Didius Julianus - Wikipedia Didius Julianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 193 Roman emperor Didius Julianus Bust, Residenz Museum, Munich Roman emperor Reign 28 March – 1 June 193 Predecessor Pertinax Successor Septimius Severus Born 29 January 133 (Dio) or 137 (SHA) Mediolanum, Italy Died 1 June 193 (aged 56 or 60) Rome, Italy Spouse Manlia Scantilla Issue Didia Clara Names Marcus Didius (Severus) Julianus[1][2] Father Quintus Petronius Didius Severus Mother Aemilia Clara Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193) Chronology Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger 193 Clodius Albinus 193 Septimius Severus 193–211 Succession Preceded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Followed by Severan dynasty Marcus Didius Julianus (/ˈdɪdiəs/; 29 January 133 or 137 – 1 June 193) was Roman emperor for nine weeks from March to June 193, during the Year of the Five Emperors. Julianus had a promising political career, governing several provinces, including Dalmatia and Germania Inferior, and defeated the Chauci and Chatti, two invading Germanic tribes. He was even appointed to the consulship in 175 along with Pertinax as a reward, before being demoted by Commodus. After this demotion, his early, promising political career languished. Julianus ascended the throne after buying it from the Praetorian Guard, who had assassinated his predecessor Pertinax. A civil war ensued in which three rival generals laid claim to the imperial throne. Septimius Severus, commander of the legions in Pannonia and the nearest of the generals to Rome, marched on the capital, gathering support along the way and routing cohorts of the Praetorian Guard Julianus sent to meet him. Abandoned by the Senate and the Praetorian Guard, Julianus was killed by a soldier in the palace and succeeded by Severus. Contents 1 Early life 2 Public service 3 Career as Emperor 4 Reign 4.1 Execution (193) 5 Legacy 6 Popular culture 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Early life[edit] Julianus was born to Quintus Petronius Didius Severus and Aemilia Clara.[3] Julianus's father came from a prominent family in Mediolanum, modern-day Milan, and his mother was a North African woman of Roman descent, from a family of consular rank. His brothers were Didius Proculus and Didius Nummius Albinus.[3] His date of birth was 29 January, the year given as 133 by Cassius Dio and 137 by the Historia Augusta.[4][5] Didius Julianus was raised by Domitia Calvilla, mother of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.[6] With Domitia's help, he was appointed at a very early age to the vigintivirate, the first step towards public distinction.[7] He married a Roman woman named Manlia Scantilla, and sometime around 153, she bore him a daughter, Didia Clara, their only child.[8] Public service[edit] In succession Julianus held the offices of quaestor[7] and aedile,[9] and then, around 162, was named as praetor.[9] He was nominated to the command of the Legio XXII Primigenia in Mogontiacum (now Mainz).[10] In 170, he became praefectus of Gallia Belgica and served for five years.[11] After repelling an invasion by the Chauci,[11] a tribe dwelling in the drainage basin of the river Scheldt, the northwestern coastal area of present-day Germany, he was raised to the consulship in 175 along with Pertinax.[12] He further distinguished himself in a campaign against the Chatti,[13] governed Dalmatia[14] and Germania Inferior. [15] He was then made prefect, charged with distributing money to the poor of Italy.[15] Modern historians generally consider this a demotion for political reasons, as Commodus, the Roman Emperor at the time, feared Julianus' growing power.[16] It was around this time that he was charged with having conspired against the life of Commodus, but the jury acquitted him and instead punished his accuser.[15] Afterwards, he governed Bithynia[17] and succeeded Pertinax as the proconsul of North Africa.[18] Career as Emperor[edit] Coin of Didius Julianus. Inscription: CAES. M. DIDI. IVLIAN. AVG. After the murder of Pertinax on 28 March 193, the Praetorian guard announced that the throne was to be sold to the man who would pay the highest price.[19] Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus, prefect of Rome and Pertinax's father-in-law, who was in the Praetorian camp ostensibly to calm the troops, began making offers for the throne.[20] Meanwhile, Julianus also arrived at the camp, and since his entrance was barred, shouted out offers to the guard.[21] After hours of bidding, Sulpicianus promised 20,000 sesterces to every soldier; Julianus, fearing that Sulpicianus would gain the throne, then offered 25,000.[22] The guards closed with the offer of Julianus, threw open the gates, and proclaimed him emperor.[23] Threatened by the military, the senate also declared him emperor.[24] His wife and his daughter both received the title Augusta.[25] Reign[edit] Upon his accession, Julianus immediately reversed Pertinax's monetary reforms by devaluing the Roman currency to near pre-Pertinax levels.[26] Because Julianus bought his position rather than acquiring it conventionally through succession or conquest, he was a deeply unpopular emperor.[27] When Julianus appeared in public, he frequently was greeted with groans and shouts of "robber and parricide."[28] Once, a mob even obstructed his progress to the Capitol by pelting him with large stones.[29] When news of the public anger in Rome spread across the Empire, three influential generals, Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each able to muster three legions, rebelled. They refused to accept Julianus' authority as emperor and instead declared themselves emperor.[30] Julianus declared Severus a public enemy because he was the nearest of the three to Rome, making him the most dangerous foe.[31] Julianus sent senators to persuade Severus' legionaries to abandon him,[32] a new general was nominated to replace him, and a centurion dispatched to take Severus' life.[33] The Praetorian Guard had rarely fought in field battles, so Julianus marched them into the Campus Martius and drilled the guard in the construction of fortifications and field works.[34] Despite this training, the Praetorian Guard was still undertrained compared to the field legionaries of Severus. Severus first secured the support of Albinus, declaring him Caesar,[35] and then seized Ravenna and its fleet.[36] Severus killed Tullius Crispinus, the Praetorian prefect, who was sent to negotiate with Severus and slow his march on Rome[37] and won over to his cause the ambassadors sent to turn his troops.[38][16] Cassius Dio maintained that the Praetorian Guard tried to fight back, but were crushed,[39] while modern historians believe that the Praetorian Guard simply abandoned Julianus, deserting en masse.[16] Julianus attempted to negotiate with Severus, offering to share the empire with his rival,[40] but Severus ignored these overtures and pressed forward. As he marched, more and more cities in Italy supported his claim to the throne.[41] The remnants of the Praetorian Guard received pardons from Severus in exchange for surrendering the actual murderers of Pertinax. After seizing the ringleaders and killing them, the soldiers reported what they had done to Marcus Silius Messala, the consul, who summoned the senate to inform them of the proceedings.[42] The Senate passed a motion proclaiming Severus emperor, awarded divine honours to Pertinax, and sentenced Julianus to death.[43] Julianus was deserted by all except one of the prefects and his son-in-law, Cornelius Repentinus.[44] Execution (193)[edit] Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier on 1 June 193 AD, after a mere 66 days of ruling.[45] Severus dismissed the Praetorian Guard and executed the soldiers who had killed Pertinax, the previous emperor.[46] According to the contemporary Roman historian Cassius Dio, Julianus' last words were: "But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?"[47] His body was given to his wife and daughter, who buried it in his great-grandfather's tomb by the fifth milestone on the Via Labicana.[48] The Senate passed a damnatio memoriae motion to condemn Julianus and his legacy.[16] Legacy[edit] Julianus repelled invasions by the Chatti and the Chauci, both of which helped protect Rome's border provinces. In the long run, the two tribes he repelled were but the harbingers of far larger Germanic migrations that would only truly finish in the sixth century AD.[citation needed] As emperor, Didius Julianus was unable to pass any major policy reforms in his short reign other than currency devaluation. While the currency devaluation was comparatively minor, he restarted the trend of devaluing the Roman currency which had abated under Pertinax's reign. The trend he started, which would continue under the Severan dynasty at a far larger scale, destroyed confidence in Rome's currency, led to rampant hyperinflation, and caused widespread economic upheaval.[49] Moreover, his blatant purchase of the throne shattered any illusions of normalcy in the Roman Empire.[50] Popular culture[edit] In the movie The Fall of The Roman Empire, Julianus is played by Eric Porter and depicted as a scheming henchman of Commodus. At the end of the movie, Julianus and Pescennius Niger, played by Douglas Wilmer, another crony of Commodus, compete against each other in the auction for the throne of Rome. Notes[edit] ^ Hammond, p. 33. ^ Wotawa, col. 412. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.2 ^ Wotawa, col. 413. ^ Meckler. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.3. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.4. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 3.4. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.6. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.7. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.8, 2.3; Pertinax, 14.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.8. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 1.9. ^ a b c Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 2.1. ^ a b c d "Didius Julianus". Livius.org. Retrieved 31 March 2019. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 2.2. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 2.3; Pertinax, 4.1, 14.5. ^ Herodian, ii.6.4. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 11.1; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 2.4, 2.6. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 11.3; Herodian, ii.6.8. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 11.5. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 11.5; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 2.7; Herodian, ii.6.11. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 12; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 3.3. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 3.4, 4.5. ^ Vicki Leon. "Friends, donors and countrymen". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 August 2014. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 13.2–5; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 4.2–7; Herodian, ii.7.3. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 13.3. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 4.2, 4.4. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 14.3–4; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5.1–2. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5.3; Septimius Severus, 5.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Septimius Severus, 5.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5.4–8. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 16.1–2; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5.9; Herodian, ii.11.9. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 15.1–2. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 16.5; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 6.3. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 6.4. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.1; Historia Augusta, Septimius Severus, 5.6. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 16.3. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.2; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 6.9, Septimius Severus, 5.7; Herodian, ii.12.3. ^ Herodian, ii.11.6. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.3. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.4; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 8.7; Herodian, ii.12.6. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 8.6. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.5; Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 8.8. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxv, 1.1. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxiv, 17.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 8.10. ^ Kenneth W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700, p.126 ^ Jack Emerson Brown (2015). "THE ARCHITECTS OF ROME'S DEMISE: THE ROLE OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS IN THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AS A POLITICAL ENTITY" (PDF). University of Delaware: 27. References[edit] Dio Cassius, Roman History, Epitome of Book LXXIV, 11–17 Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646. Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus Herodian, Roman History, ii.6–13 Meckler, Michael L., "Didius Julianus (193 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Wotawa, August von, "Didius 8", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 9 (V.1), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1903), columns 412–424. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Didius Iulianus. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Didius Salvius Julianus, Marcus . Coinage of Didius Julianus Biography at Roman-emperors.org Livius.org: Didius Julianus Regnal titles Preceded by Pertinax Roman emperor 193 Succeeded by Septimius Severus Pescennius Niger Clodius Albinus Political offices Preceded by L. Calpurnius Piso P. Salvius Julianus Roman consul 175 with Pertinax Succeeded by T. Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio II M. 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en-wikipedia-org-3193	----	Hispania Baetica - Wikipedia Hispania Baetica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Baetica) Jump to navigation Jump to search Provincia Hispania Baetica Province of the Roman Empire 14 BC–5th century The Roman province of Hispania Baetica, c. 125 AD Capital Corduba Historical era Antiquity • Established 14 BC • Visigothic conquest 5th century Succeeded by Visigothic Kingdom Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis. Baetica remained one of the basic divisions of Hispania under the Visigoths down to 711. Baetica was part of Al-Andalus under the Moors in the 8th century and approximately corresponds to modern Andalusia. Contents 1 Name 2 History 3 Proconsuls 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Name[edit] In Latin, Baetica is an adjectival form of Baetis, the Roman name for the Guadalquivir River, whose fertile valley formed one of the most important parts of the province. History[edit] Before Romanization, the mountainous area that was to become Baetica was occupied by several settled Iberian tribal groups. Celtic influence was not as strong as it was in the Celtiberian north. According to the geographer Claudius Ptolemy, the indigenes were the powerful Turdetani, in the valley of the Guadalquivir in the west, bordering on Lusitania, and the partly Hellenized Turduli with their city Baelo, in the hinterland behind the coastal Phoenician trading colonies, whose Punic inhabitants Ptolemy termed the "Bastuli". Phoenician Gadira (Cadiz) was on an island against the coast of Hispania Baetica. Other important Iberians were the Bastetani, who occupied the Almería and mountainous Granada regions. Towards the southeast, Punic influence spread from the Carthaginian cities on the coast: New Carthage (Roman Cartago Nova, modern Cartagena), Abdera and Malaca (Málaga). Some of the Iberian cities retained their pre-Indo-European names in Baetica throughout the Roman era. Granada was called Eliberri, Illiberis and Illiber by the Romans; in Basque, "iri-berri" or "ili-berri", still signifies "new town". The south of the Iberian peninsula was agriculturally rich, providing for export of wine, olive oil and the fermented fish sauce called garum that were staples of the Mediterranean diet, and its products formed part of the western Mediterranean trade economy even before it submitted to Rome in 206 BC. After the defeat of Carthage in the Second Punic War, which found its casus belli on the coast of Baetica at Saguntum, Hispania was significantly Romanized in the course of the 2nd century BC, following the uprising initiated by the Turdetani in 197. The central and north-eastern Celtiberians soon followed suit. It took Cato the Elder, who became consul in 195 BC and was given the command of the whole peninsula to put down the rebellion in the northeast and the lower Ebro valley. He then marched southwards and put down a revolt by the Turdetani. Cato returned to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two Iberian provinces. In the late Roman Republic, Hispania remained divided like Gaul into a "Nearer" and a "Farther" province, as experienced marching overland from Gaul: Hispania Citerior (the Ebro region), and Ulterior (the Guadalquivir region). The battles in Hispania during the 1st century BC were largely confined to the north. In the reorganization of the Empire in 14 BC, when Hispania was remade into the three Imperial provinces, Baetica was governed by a proconsul who had formerly been a praetor. Fortune smiled on rich Baetica, which was Baetica Felix, and a dynamic, upwardly-mobile social and economic middling stratum developed there, which absorbed freed slaves and far outnumbered the rich elite. The Senatorial province of Baetica became so secure that no Roman legion was required to be permanently stationed there. Legio VII Gemina was permanently stationed to the north, in Hispania Tarraconensis. Betica amphora found in Essaouira, 1–2nd century AD Hispania Baetica was divided into four conventūs, which were territorial divisions like judicial circuits, where the chief men met together at major centers, at fixed times of year, under the eye of the proconsul, to oversee the administration of justice: the conventus Gaditanus (of Gades, or Cádiz), Cordubensis (of Cordoba), Astigitanus (of Astigi, or Écija), and Hispalensis (of Hispalis, or Seville). As the towns became the permanent seats of standing courts during the later Empire, the conventūs were superseded (Justinian's Code, i.40.6) and the term conventus is lastly applied to certain bodies of Roman citizens living in a province, forming a sort of enfranchised corporation, and representing the Roman people in their district as a kind of gentry; and it was from among these that proconsuls generally took their assistants. So in spite of some social upsets, as when Septimius Severus put to death a number of leading Baetians— including women — the elite in Baetica remained a stable class for centuries. Columella, who wrote a twelve volume treatise on all aspects of Roman farming and knew viticulture, came from Baetica. The vast olive plantations of Baetica shipped olive oil from the coastal ports by sea to supply Roman legions in Germania. Amphoras from Baetica have been found everywhere in the Western Roman empire. It was to keep Roman legions supplied by sea routes that the Empire needed to control the distant coasts of Lusitania and the northern Atlantic coast of Hispania. Baetica was rich and utterly Romanized, facts that the Emperor Vespasian was rewarding when he granted the Ius latii that extended the rights pertaining to Roman citizenship (latinitas) to the inhabitants of Hispania, an honor that secured the loyalty of the Baetian elite and its middle class. The Roman Emperor Trajan, the first emperor of provincial birth, came from Baetica, though of Italian stock,[1] and his kinsman and successor Hadrian came from a family residing in Baetica, though Hadrian himself was born at Rome (which some say he made up). Baetia was Roman until the brief invasion of the Vandals and Alans passed through in the 5th century, followed by the more permanent kingdom of the Visigoths. The province formed part of the Exarchate of Africa and was joined to Mauretania Tingitana after Belisarius' reconquest of Africa. The Catholic bishops of Baetica, solidly backed by their local population, were able to convert the Arian Visigoth king Reccared and his nobles. In the 8th century the Islamic Berbers ("Moors") of North Africa established the Caliphate of Cordoba, conquering Baetica. The region became known as "al-Andalus". The early 20th-century composer Manuel de Falla wrote a Fantasía Bética for piano, using Andalusian melodies. Proconsuls[edit] Gaius Vibius Serenus, AD 20-22[2] Umbrius Silio, c. 43/44[3] Marcus Ulpius Traianus, before 67[4] Lucius Lucullus, late 70s[5] [? Marcus] Sempronius Fuscus, 78/79[6] Gaius Cornelius Gallicanus, 79/80 Lucius Antistius Rusticus, 83/84 Baebius Massa, 91/92 Galeo Tettienus Severus Marcus Eppuleius Proculus Tiberius Caepio Hispo, 95/96 ? Gallus 96/97 Gaius Caecilius Classicus, 97/98 Quintus Baebius Macer, 100/101 Instanius Rufus, 101/102 ? Lustricius Bruttianus, before 107 [? Titus] Calestrius Tiro, 107/108 Egnatius Taurinus, between 117 and 138 ? Gaius Julius Proculus, 122/123 Publius Tullius Varro, 123/124 Lucius Flavius Arrianus, before 129 Gaius Javolenus Calvinus, between 138 and 143[7] Aelius Marcianus, between 138 and 161 Publius Statius Paullus Postumus Junior, middle of the 2nd century Publius Cornelius Anullinus, proconsul c. 170/171 Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, tenure began 171 Gaius Memmius Fidus Julius Albius, c. 183[8] Caecilius Aemilianus, c. 215[8] Aulus Caecina Tacitus, first half 3rd century[9] L. Sempronius O[...] Celsus [Servi]lius Fabianus, first half 3rd century[10] Quintus Pomponius Munat[ianus?] Clodianus, middle of the 3rd century[11] See also[edit] Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Romanization of Hispania Spania References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Arnold Blumberg, "Great Leaders, Great Tyrants? Contemporary Views of World Rulers who Made History", 1995, Greenwood Publishing Group, p.315 ^ Tacitus, Annales iv.13 ^ Dio Cassius, 60.21.5 ^ Paul Leunissen, "Direct Promotions from Proconsul to Consul under the Principate", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 89 (1991), p. 236 ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 9.48 ^ Unless otherwise noted, governors from 78/79 to 136/137 are taken from Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 281–362; 13 (1983), pp. 147–237. ^ Unless otherwise noted, the governors from 138 through 180 are taken from Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), pp. 262f ^ a b Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (1989) p. 297 ^ Leunissen, "Direct promotions", p. 249 ^ CIL VI, 15113 ^ Leunissen, "Direct promotions", pp. 249f Bibliography[edit] Carmen Castillo García, Prosopographia Baetica (Collective biographies of Baetica), 1968[1] Carmen Castillo García, Städte und Personen der Baetica (Settlements in Baetica), 1975[2] A.T. Fear, Rome and Baetica: Urbanization in Southern Spain, C. 50 BC – AD 150 in the series "Oxford Classical Monographs". Evan Haley, Baetica Felix: People and Prosperity in Southern Spain from Caesar to Septimius Severus, (excerpt from the Introduction). El Housin Helal Ouriachen, 2009, La ciudad bética durante la Antigüedad Tardía. Persistencias y mutaciones locales en relación con la realidad urbana del Mediterraneo y del Atlántico, Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Granada, Granada. External links[edit] "Baetica, the great olive oil producer" Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC) v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 Coordinates: 37°30′00″N 6°00′00″W / 37.5000°N 6.0000°W / 37.5000; -6.0000 ^ García, Carmen Castillo (1968). Prosopographia Baetica (in Spanish). Universidad de Navarra. ^ Castillo, Carmen (1975). Städte und Personen der Baetica (in German). de Gruyter. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hispania_Baetica&oldid=1017484176" Categories: States and territories established in the 1st century BC States and territories disestablished in the 5th century Hispania Baetica History of Córdoba, Spain 14 BC establishments Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Coordinates on Wikidata CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2021, at 00:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3204	----	Roman Egypt - Wikipedia Roman Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Egypt (Roman province)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman province that encompassed most of modern-day Egypt Roman Egypt Latin: Aegyptus Koinē Greek: Αἴγυπτος Aigýptos Province of the Roman Empire 30 BC – 641 AD (Sasanian-occupied 619–628) Province of Aegyptus in AD 125 Capital Alexandria Population   • 1st century AD 4 to 8 million.[1] Historical era Classical antiquity Late antiquity • Conquest of Ptolemaic Kingdom 30 BC • Formation of the Diocese 390 • Muslim conquest 641 Preceded by Succeeded by Ptolemaic Kingdom Sasanian Egypt Rashidun Caliphate Today part of Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead Dynasty 332–310 BC Ptolemaic dynasties 310–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1953 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Egypt (Latin: Aegyptus [ae̯ˈɡʏptʊs]; Koinē Greek: Αἴγυπτος Aígyptos [ɛ́ːɡyptos]) was a subdivision of the Roman Empire from Rome's annexation of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in 30 BC to its loss by the Byzantine Empire to the Islamic conquests in AD 641. The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai, and was bordered by the provinces of Crete and Cyrenaica to the west and Judea, later Arabia Petraea, to the East. Egypt came to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman province,[2][3] and by far the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italy.[4] The population of Roman Egypt is unknown; although estimates vary from 4 to 8 million.[1] In Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the largest port, and was the second largest city of the Roman Empire.[citation needed] After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the Ptolemaic Kingdom (r. 305–30 BC), which had ruled Egypt since the Wars of Alexander the Great brought an end to Achaemenid Egypt (the Thirty-first Dynasty), took the side of Mark Antony in the Last war of the Roman Republic, against the eventual victor Octavian, who as Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC, having defeated Mark Antony and the pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, at the naval Battle of Actium.[5] After the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, the Roman Republic annexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.[5] Augustus and many subsequent emperors ruled Egypt as the Roman pharaohs.[5] The Ptolemaic institutions were dismantled, and though some bureaucratic elements were maintained the government administration was wholly reformed along with the social structure.[5] The Graeco-Egyptian legal system of the Hellenistic period continued in use, but within the bounds of Roman law.[5] The tetradrachm coinage minted at the Ptolemaic capital of Alexandria continued to be the currency of an increasingly monetized economy, but its value was made equal to the Roman denarius.[5] The priesthoods of the Ancient Egyptian deities and Hellenistic religions of Egypt kept most of their temples and privileges, and in turn the priests also served the Roman imperial cult of the deified emperors and their families.[5] From the 1st century BC, the Roman governor of Egypt was appointed by the emperor for a multi-year term and given the rank of prefect (Latin: praefectus).[5] Both the governor and the major officials were of equestrian rank (rather than of senatorial rank).[5] Three Roman legions garrisoned Egypt in the early Roman imperial period, with the garrison later reduced to two, alongside auxilia formations of the Roman army.[5] Augustus introduced land reforms that enabled wider entitlement to private ownership of land (previously rare under the Ptolemaic cleruchy system of allotments under royal ownership) and the local administration reformed into a Roman liturgical system, in which land-owners were required to serve in local government.[5] The status of Egypt's cities were increased, particularly the major towns of each nome (administrative region), known as a mētropolis (Koinē Greek: μητρόπολις, lit. 'mother city').[5] The mētropoleis were governed by magistrates drawn from the liturgy system; these magistrates, as in other Roman cities, practised euergetism and built public buildings. In 200/201, the emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) allowed to each metropolis, and to the city of Alexandria, a Boulē (a Hellenistic town council).[5] The Antonine Plague had struck in the latter 2nd century, but Roman Egypt had recovered by the 3rd century.[5] Having escaped much of the Crisis of the Third Century, Roman Egypt fell under the control of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire after the invasion of Egypt by Zenobia in 269.[6] The emperor Aurelian (r. 270–275) successfully besieged Alexandria and recovered Egypt, as did Diocletian (r. 284–305) in his 297–298 campaign against the usurpers Domitius Domitianus and Achilleus.[6] The inhabitants of Roman Egypt were divided by social class along ethnic and cultural lines.[5] Roman citizens and citizens of Alexandria were exempted from the poll tax paid by the other inhabitants, the "Egyptians", and had other defined legal distinctions.[5] Egyptians legally resident in the metropolis of the nomoi paid a reduced poll tax and had more privileges than other Egyptians, and within these mētropoleis there were the Hellenic socio-political élite, who as an urban, land-owning aristocracy dominated Egypt by the 2nd and throughout the 3rd centuries through their large private estates.[5] Most inhabitants were peasants, many working as tenant-farmers for high rents in kind, cultivating sacred land belonging to temples or public land formerly belonging to the Egyptian monarchy.[5] The division between the rural life of the villages, where the Egyptian language was spoken, and the metropolis, where the citizens spoke Koine Greek and frequented the Hellenistic gymnasia, was the most significant cultural division in Roman Egypt, and was not dissolved by the Constitutio Antoniniana of 212, which made all free Egyptians Roman citizens.[5] There was considerable social mobility however, accompanying mass urbanization, and participation in the monetized economy and literacy in Greek by the peasant population was widespread.[5] In Late Antiquity, the administrative and economic reforms of Diocletian (r. 284–305) coincided with the Christianization of the Roman Empire, especially the growth of Christianity in Egypt.[6] After Constantine the Great gained control of Egypt from his erstwhile co-augustus Licinius (r. 308–324), the emperors promoted Christianity.[6] The latest stage of Egyptian language, Coptic, emerged as literary language among the Christians of Roman Egypt.[5] Under Diocletian the frontier was moved downriver to the First Cataract of the Nile at Syene (Aswan), withdrawing from the Dodekaschoinos region.[6] This southern frontier was largely peaceful for many centuries, as attested by serving military documents from the late 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries from garrisons at Syene, Philae, and Elephantine.[6] These soldiers of the Late Roman army were likely limitanei, but regular units also served in Egypt, including the Scythae Iustiniani of Justinian the Great (r. 527–565), known to have been stationed in the Thebaid. Constantine's currency reforms, including the introduction of the gold solidus, stabilized the economy and ensured Roman Egypt remained a monetized system, even in the rural economy.[6] The trend towards private ownership of land became more pronounced in the 5th century and peaked in the 6th century, with large estates built up from many individual plots.[6] Some large estates were owned by Christian churches, and smaller land-holders included those who were themselves both tenant farmers on larger estates and landlords of tenant-farmers working their own land.[6] The First Plague Pandemic arrived in the Mediterranean Basin with the emergence of the Justinianic Plague at Pelusium in Roman Egypt in 541. Egypt ceased to be a part of the Roman Empire in 641, when it became part of the Rashidun Caliphate following the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Contents 1 Roman government in Egypt 2 Military 3 Society 4 Economy 5 Architecture 6 Religion 6.1 Imperial cult 6.2 Cult of Serapis and Isis 6.3 Temples 6.4 Christianity 7 History 7.1 Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century) 7.2 Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries) 7.2.1 Episcopal sees 7.3 Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD) 7.4 Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD) 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Roman government in Egypt[edit] Further information: List of governors of Roman Egypt As Rome overtook the Ptolemaic system in place for areas of Egypt, they made many changes. The effect of the Roman conquest was at first to strengthen the position of the Greeks and of Hellenism against Egyptian influences. Some of the previous offices and names of offices under the Hellenistic Ptolemaic rule were kept, some were changed, and some names would have remained but the function and administration would have changed. The Romans introduced important changes in the administrative system, aimed at achieving a high level of efficiency and maximizing revenue. The duties of the prefect of Aegyptus combined responsibility for military security through command of the legions and cohorts, for the organization of finance and taxation, and for the administration of justice. A 1st-century AD Roman emperor wearing nemes with a uraeus, as pharaoh (Louvre) The Egyptian provinces of the Ptolemaic Kingdom remained wholly under Roman rule until the administrative reforms of the augustus Diocletian (r. 284–305).[7]:57 In these first three centuries of Roman Egypt, the whole country came under the central Roman control of single governor, officially called in Latin: praefectus Alexandreae et Aegypti, lit. 'prefect of Alexandria and Egypt' and more usually referred to as the Latin: praefectus Aegypti, lit. 'prefect of Egypt' or the Koinē Greek: ἔπαρχος Αἰγύπτου, romanized: eparchos Aigyptou, lit. 'Eparch of Egypt'.[7]:57 The double title of the governor as prefect "of Alexandria and Egypt" reflects the distinctions between Upper and Lower Egypt and Alexandria, since Alexandria, outside the Nile Delta, was not within the then-prevailing traditional geographic boundaries of Egypt.[7]:57 Roman Egypt was the only Roman province whose governor was of equestrian rank in the Roman social order; all others were of the senatorial class and served as Roman senators, including former Roman consuls, but the prefect of Egypt had more or less equivalent civil and military powers (imperium) to a proconsul, since a Roman law (a lex) granted him "proconsular imperium" (Latin: imperium ad similitudinem proconsulis).[7]:57 Unlike in senatorially-governed provinces, the prefect was responsible for the collection of certain taxes and for the organization of the all-important grain shipments from Egypt (including the annona).[7]:58 Because of these financial responsibilities, the governor's administration had to be closely controlled and organized.[7]:58 The governorship of Egypt was the second-highest office available to the equestrian class on the cursus honorum (after that of the praetorian prefect (Latin: praefectus praetorio), the commander of the imperial Praetorian Guard) and one of the highest-paid, receiving an annual salary of 200,000 sesterces (a "ducenarian" post).[7]:58 The prefect was appointed at the emperor's discretion; officially the governors' status and responsibilities mirrored those of the augustus himself: his fairness (aequitas, 'equality') and his foresight (providentia, 'providence').[7]:58 From the early 2nd century, service as the governor of Egypt was frequently the penultimate stage in the career of a praetorian prefect.[7]:58 The first generations of the imperial Severan dynasty depicted on the "Severan Tondo" from Egypt (Antikensammlung Berlin) The governor's powers as prefect, which included the rights to make edicts (ius edicendi) and, as the supreme judicial authority, to order capital punishment (ius gladii, 'right of swords'), expired as soon as his successor arrived in the provincial capital at Alexandria, who then also took up overall command of the Roman legions of the Egyptian garrison.[7]:58 (Initially, three legions were stationed in Egypt, with only two from the reign of Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD).)[7]:58 The official duties of the praefectus Aegypti are well known because enough records survive to reconstruct a mostly complete official calendar (fasti) of the governors' engagements.[7]:57 Yearly in Lower Egypt, and once every two years in Upper Egypt, the praefectus Aegypti held a conventus (Koinē Greek: διαλογισμός, romanized: dialogismos, lit. 'dialogue'), during which legal trials were conducted and administrative officials' practices were examined, usually between January (Ianuarius) and April (Aprilis) in the Roman calendar.[7]:58 Evidence exists of more than 60 edicts issued by the Roman governors of Egypt.[7]:58 To the government at Alexandria besides the prefect of Egypt, the Roman emperors appointed several other subordinate procurators for the province, all of equestrian rank and, at least from the reign of Commodus (r. 176–192) of similar, "ducenarian" salary bracket.[7]:58 The administrator of the Idios Logos, responsible for special revenues like the proceeds of bona caduca property, and the iuridicus (Koinē Greek: δικαιοδότης, romanized: dikaiodotes, lit. 'giver of laws'), the senior legal official, were both imperially appointed.[7]:58 From the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138), the financial powers of the prefect and the control of the Egyptian temples and priesthoods was devolved to other procurators, a dioiketes (διοικητής), the chief financial officer, and an archiereus (ἀρχιερεύς, 'archpriest').[7]:58 A procurator could deputize as the prefect's representative where necessary.[7]:58 Statue of an orator, wearing a himation, from Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt (Egyptian Museum, Cairo) Procurators were also appointed from among the freedmen (manumitted slaves) of the imperial household, including the powerful procurator usiacus, responsible for state property in the province.[7]:58 Other procurators were responsible for revenue farming of state monopolies (the procurator ad Mercurium), oversight of farm lands (the procurator episkepseos), of the warehouses of Alexandria (the procurator Neaspoleos), and of exports and emigration (the procurator Phari, 'procurator of the Pharos').[7]:58 These roles are poorly attested, with often the only surviving information beyond the names of the offices is a few names of the incumbents. In general, the central provincial administration of Egypt is no better-known than the Roman governments of other provinces, since, unlike in the rest of Egypt, the conditions for the preservation of official papyri were very unfavourable at Alexandria.[7]:58 Local government in the hinterland (Koinē Greek: χώρα, romanized: khṓrā, lit. 'countryside') outside Alexandria was divided into traditional regions known as nomoi.[7]:58 To each nome the prefect appointed a strategos (Koinē Greek: στρατηγός, romanized: stratēgós, lit. 'general'); the strategoi were civilian administrators, without military functions, who performed much of the government of the country in the prefect's name and were themselves drawn from the Egyptian upper classes.[7]:58 The strategoi in each of the mētropoleis were the senior local officials, served as intermediaries between the prefect and the villages, and were legally responsible for the administration and their own conduct while in office for several years.[7]:58 Each strategos was supplemented by a royal scribe (βασιλικός γραμματεύς, basilikós grammateús, 'royal secretary').[7]:58 These scribes were responsible for their nome's financial affairs, including administration of all property, land, land revenues, and temples, and what remains of their record-keeping is unparalleled in the ancient world for its completeness and complexity.[7]:58 The royal scribes could act as proxy for the strategoi, but each reported directly to Alexandria, where dedicated financial secretaries – appointed for each individual nome – oversaw the accounts: an eklogistes and a graphon ton nomon.[7]:58 The eklogistes was responsible for general financial affairs while the graphon ton nomon likely dealt with matters relating to the Idios Logos.[7]:58–59 Bronze statue of a nude youth, from Athribis in Lower Egypt (British Museum, London) The nomoi were grouped traditionally into those of Upper and Lower Egypt, the two divisions each being known as an "epistrategy" after the chief officer, the epistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος, epistratēgós, 'over-general'), each of whom was also a Roman procurator. Soon after the Roman annexation, a new epistrategy was formed, encompassing the area just south of Memphis and the Faiyum region and named "the Heptanomia and the Arsinoite nome".[7]:58 In the Nile Delta however, power was wielded by two of the epistrategoi.[7]:58 The epistrategos's role was mainly to mediate between the prefect in Alexandria and the strategoi in the mētropoleis, and they had few specific administrative duties, performing a more general function.[7]:58 Their salary was sexagenarian – 60,000 sesterces annually.[7]:58 Each village or kome (κώμη, kṓmē) was served by a village scribe (κωμογραμματεύς, kōmogrammateús, 'secretary of the kome'), whose term, possibly paid, was usually held for three years.[7]:59 Each, to avoid conflicts of interest, was appointed to a community away from their home village, as they were required to inform the strategoi and epistrategoi of the names of persons due to perform unpaid public service as part of the liturgy system.[7]:59 They were required to be literate and had various duties as official clerks.[7]:59 Other local officials drawn from the liturgy system served for a year in their home kome; they included the practor (πράκτωρ, práktōr, 'executor'), who collected certain taxes, as well as security officers, granary officials (σιτολόγοι, sitologoi, 'grain collectors'), public cattle drivers (δημόσιοι kτηνοτρόφοι, dēmósioi ktēnotróphoi, 'cattleherds of the demos'), and cargo supervisors (ἐπίπλοοι, epiploöi).[7]:59 Other liturgical officials were responsible for other specific aspects of the economy: a suite of officials was each responsible for arranging supplies of particular necessity in the course of the prefect's official tours.[7]:59 The liturgy system extended to most aspects of Roman administration by the reign of Trajan (r. 98–117), though constant efforts were made by people eligible for such duties to escape their imposition.[7]:59 A 2nd-century AD Roman emperor wearing nemes, as pharaoh (Museum Carnuntinum [de], Bad Deutsch-Altenburg) The reforms of the early 4th century had established the basis for another 250 years of comparative prosperity in Aegyptus, at a cost of perhaps greater rigidity and more oppressive state control. Aegyptus was subdivided for administrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces, and separate civil and military officials were established; the praeses and the dux. The province was under the supervision of the count of the Orient (i.e. the vicar) of the diocese headquartered in Antioch in Syria. Emperor Justinian abolished the Diocese of Egypt in 538 and re-combined civil and military power in the hands of the dux with a civil deputy (praeses) as a counterweight to the power of the church authorities. All pretense of local autonomy had by then vanished. The presence of the soldiery was more noticeable, its power and influence more pervasive in the routine of town and village life. Encaustic and tempera painted mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 160 – c. 170, with a green sagum, gold fibula, white tunic, and red leather balteus (British Museum) Military[edit] The Roman army was among the most homogenous Roman structures, and the organization of the army in Egypt differed little from its organization elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The Roman legions were recruited from Roman citizens and the Roman auxilia recruited from the non-citizen subjects.[8]:69 Egypt was unique in that its garrison was commanded by the praefectus Aegypti, an official of the equestrian order, rather than, as in other provinces, a governor of the senatorial class.[8]:75 This distinction was stipulated in a law promulgated by Augustus, and, because it was unthinkable that an equestrian should command a senator, the commanders of the legions in Egypt were themselves, uniquely, of equestrian rank.[8]:75 As a result of these strictures, the governor was rendered unable to build up a rival power base (as Mark Antony had been able to do), while the military legati commanding the legions were career soldiers, formerly centurions with the senior rank of primus pilus, rather than politicians whose military experience was limited to youthful service as a military tribune.[8]:75 Beneath the praefectus Aegypti, the overall commander of legions and auxilia stationed in Egypt was styled in Latin: praefectus stratopedarches, from the Greek: στρατοπεδάρχης, romanized: stratopedárchēs, lit. 'camp commander', or as Latin: praefectus exercitu qui est in Aegypto, lit. 'prefect of the army in Egypt'.[8]:75–76 Collectively, these forces were known as the exercitus Aegyptiacus, 'Army of Egypt'.[8]:76 The Roman garrison was concentrated at Nicopolis, a district of Alexandria, rather than at the strategic heart of the country around Memphis and Egyptian Babylon.[9]:37 Alexandria was the Mediterranean's second city in the early Roman empire, the cultural capital of the Greek East and rival to Rome under Antony and Cleopatra.[9]:37 Because only a few papyri are preserved from the area, little more is known about the legionaries' everyday life than is known from other provinces of the empire, and little evidence exists of the military practices of the prefect and his officers.[8]:75 Most papyri have been found in Middle Egypt's villages, and the texts are primarily concerned with local affairs, rarely giving space to high politics and military matters.[8]:70 Not much is known about the military encampments of the Roman imperial period, since many are underwater or have been built over and because Egyptian archaeology has traditionally taken little interest in Roman sites.[8]:70 Because they supply a record of soldiers' service history, six bronze Roman military diplomas dating between 83 and 206 are the main source of documentary evidence for the auxilia in Egypt; these inscribed certificates rewarded 25 or 26 years of military service in the auxilia with Roman citizenship and the right of conubium.[8]:70–71 That the army was more Greek-speaking than in other provinces is certain.[8]:75 The heart of the Army of Egypt was the Nicopolis garrison at Alexandria, with at least one legion permanently stationed there, along with a strong force of auxilia cavalry.[8]:71 These troops would both guard the residence of the praefectus Aegypti against uprisings among the Alexandrians and were poised to march quickly to any point at the prefect's command.[8]:71–72 At Alexandria too was the Classis Alexandrina, the provincial fleet of the Roman Navy in Egypt.[8]:71 In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, there were around 8,000 soldiers at Alexandria, a fraction of the megalopolis's huge population.[8]:72 Initially, the legionary garrison of Roman Egypt consisted of three legions: the Legio III Cyrenaica, the Legio XXII Deiotariana, and one other legion.[8]:70 The station and identity of this third legion is not known for sure, and it is not known precisely when it was withdrawn from Egypt, though it was certainly before 23 AD, during the reign of Tiberius (r. 14–37).[8]:70 In the reign of Tiberius's step-father and predecessor Augustus, the legions had been stationed at Nicopolis and at Egyptian Babylon, and perhaps at Thebes.[8]:70 After August 119, the III Cyrenaica was ordered out of Egypt; the XXII Deiotariana was transferred sometime afterwards, and before 127/8, the Legio II Traiana arrived, to remain as the main component of the Army of Egypt for two centuries.[8]:70 Encaustic painted mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 130, with a blue sagum, silver fibula, white tunic, and red balteus, with related grave goods (Antikensammlung Berlin) After some fluctuations in the size and positions of the auxilia garrison in the early decades of Roman Egypt, relating to the conquest and pacification of the country, the auxilia contingent was mostly stable during the Principate, increasing somewhat towards the end of the 2nd century, and with some individual formations remaining in Egypt for centuries at a time.[8]:71 Three or four alae of cavalry were stationed in Egypt, each ala numbering around 500 horsemen.[8]:71 There were between seven and ten cohortes of auxilia infantry, each cohors about 500 hundred strong, although some were cohortes equitatae – mixed units of 600 men, with infantry and cavalry in a roughly 4:1 ratio.[8]:71 Besides the auxilia stationed at Alexandria, at least three detachments permanently garrisoned the southern border, on the Nile's First Cataract around Philae and Syene (Aswan), protecting Egypt from enemies to the south and guarding against rebellion in the Thebaid.[8]:72 Besides the main garrison at Alexandrian Nicopolis and the southern border force, the disposition of the rest of the Army of Egypt is not clear, though many soldiers are known to have been stationed at various outposts (praesidia), including those defending roads and remote natural resources from attack.[8]:72 Roman detachments, centuriones, and beneficiarii maintained order in the Nile Valley, but about their duties little is known, as little evidence survives, though they were, in addition to the strategoi of the nomoi, the prime local representatives of the Roman state.[8]:73 Archaeological work led by Hélène Cuvigny has revealed many ostraca (inscribed ceramic fragments) which give unprecedently detailed information on the lives of soldiers stationed in the Eastern Desert along the Coptos–Myos Hormos road and at the imperial granite quarry at Mons Claudianus.[8]:72 Another Roman outpost, known from an inscription, existed on Farasan, the chief island of the Red Sea's Farasan Islands off the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula.[8]:72 Encaustic mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 100 – c. 150, with a blue sagum, fibula, white tunic with purple angusticlavus, and red balteus (Antikensammlung Berlin) As in other provinces, many of the Roman soldiers in Egypt were recruited locally, not only among the non-citizen auxilia, but among the legionaries as well, who were required to have Roman citizenship.[8]:73 An increasing proportion of the Army of Egypt was of local origin in the reign of the Flavian dynasty, with an even higher proportion – as many as three quarters of legionaries – under the Severan dynasty.[8]:73 Of these, around one third were themselves the offspring (Latin: castrenses, lit. 'camp-men') of soldiers, raised in the canabae settlements surrounding the army's base at Nicopolis, while only about one eighth were Alexandrian citizens.[8]:73 Egyptians were given Roman-style Latin names on joining the army; unlike in other provinces, indigenous names are nearly unknown among the local soldiers of the Army of Egypt.[8]:74 One of the surviving military diplomas lists the soldier's birthplace as Coptos, while others demonstrate that soldiers and centurions from elsewhere retired to Egypt: auxilia veterans from Chios and Hippo Regius (or Hippos) are named.[8]:73–74 Evidence from the 2nd century suggests most auxilia came from Egypt, with others drawn from the provinces of Africa and Syria, and from Roman Asia Minor.[8]:73–74 Auxilia from the Balkans, who served throughout the Roman army, also served in Egypt: many Dacian names are known from ostraca in the Trajanic period, perhaps connected with the recruitment of Dacians during and after Trajan's Dacian Wars; they are predominantly cavalrymen's names, with some infantrymen's.[8]:74 Thracians, common in the army in other Roman provinces, were also present, and an auxiliary diploma from the Egyptian garrison has been found in Thracia.[8]:74 Two auxilia diplomas connect Army of Egypt veterans with Syria, including one naming Apamea.[8]:74 Large numbers of recruits mustered in Asia Minor may have supplemented the garrison after the Kitos War against a Jewish uprising in Egypt and Syria.[8]:74 Society[edit] The social structure in Aegyptus under the Romans was both unique and complicated. On the one hand, the Romans continued to use many of the same organizational tactics that were in place under the leaders of the Ptolemaic period. At the same time, the Romans saw the Greeks in Aegyptus as “Egyptians”, an idea that both the native Egyptians and Greeks would have rejected.[10] To further compound the whole situation, Jews, who themselves were very Hellenized overall, had their own communities, separate from both Greeks and native Egyptians.[10] 1st-century AD mummy excavated by William Flinders Petrie The Romans began a system of social hierarchy that revolved around ethnicity and place of residence. Other than Roman citizens, a Greek citizen of one of the Greek cities had the highest status, and a rural Egyptian would be in the lowest class.[11] In between those classes was the metropolite, who was almost certainly of Hellenic origin. Gaining citizenship and moving up in ranks was very difficult and there were not many available options for ascendancy.[12] One of the routes that many followed to ascend to another caste was through enlistment in the army. Although only Roman citizens could serve in the legions, many Greeks found their way in. The native Egyptians could join the auxiliary forces and attain citizenship upon discharge.[13] The different groups had different rates of taxation based on their social class. The Greeks were exempt from the poll tax, while Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals were taxed at a lower rate than the native Egyptians, who could not enter the army, and paid the full poll tax.[14] The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked to the governing administration. Elements of centralized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular was the appointment of strategoi to govern the ‘nomes’, the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. Boulai, or town councils, in Egypt were only formally constituted by Septimius Severus. It was only under Diocletian later in the 3rd century that these boulai and their officers acquired important administrative responsibilities for their nomes. The Augustan takeover introduced a system of compulsory public service, which was based on poros (property or income qualification), which was wholly based on social status and power. The Romans also introduced the poll tax which was similar to tax rates that the Ptolemies levied, but the Romans gave special low rates to citizens of mētropoleis.[15] The city of Oxyrhynchus had many papyri remains that contain much information on the subject of social structure in these cities. This city, along with Alexandria, shows the diverse set-up of various institutions that the Romans continued to use after their takeover of Egypt. Just as under the Ptolemies, Alexandria and its citizens had their own special designations. The capital city enjoyed a higher status and more privileges than the rest of Egypt. Just as it was under the Ptolemies, the primary way of becoming a citizen of Roman Alexandria was through showing when registering for a deme that both parents were Alexandrian citizens. Alexandrians were the only Egyptians that could obtain Roman citizenship.[16] Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC–50 AD, Brooklyn Museum If a common Egyptian wanted to become a Roman citizen he would first have to become an Alexandrian citizen. The Augustan period in Egypt saw the creation of urban communities with “Hellenic” landowning elites. These landowning elites were put in a position of privilege and power and had more self-administration than the Egyptian population. Within the citizenry, there were gymnasiums that Greek citizens could enter if they showed that both parents were members of the gymnasium based on a list that was compiled by the government in 4–5 AD.[17] The candidate for the gymnasium would then be let into the ephebus. There was also the council of elders known as the gerousia. This council of elders did not have a boulai to answer to. All of this Greek organization was a vital part of the metropolis and the Greek institutions provided an elite group of citizens. The Romans looked to these elites to provide municipal officers and well-educated administrators.[17] These elites also paid lower poll-taxes than the local native Egyptians, fellahin. It is well documented that Alexandrians in particular were able to enjoy lower tax-rates on land.[18] These privileges even extended to corporal punishments. Romans were protected from this type of punishment while native Egyptians were whipped. Alexandrians, on the other hand, had the privilege of merely being beaten with a rod.[19] Although Alexandria enjoyed the greatest status of the Greek cities in Egypt, it is clear that the other Greek cities, such as Antinoöpolis, enjoyed privileges very similar to the ones seen in Alexandria.[20] All of these changes amounted to the Greeks being treated as an ally in Egypt and the native Egyptians were treated as a conquered race.[citation needed] The Gnomon of the Idios Logos shows the connection between law and status. It lays out the revenues it deals with, mainly fines and confiscation of property, to which only a few groups were apt. The Gnomon also confirms that a freed slave takes his former master's social status. The Gnomon demonstrates the social controls that the Romans had in place through monetary means based on status and property. See also: Fayum mummy portraits Mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 1st-century mummy portrait from Hawara (Cleveland Museum of Art) 1st/2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) Mummy portrait (Antikensammlung Berlin) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait from Faiyum (Galerie Cybèle, Paris) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Antikensammlung Berlin) 3rd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Brooklyn Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Getty Villa) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Pushkin Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art) 2nd–4th-century mummy portrait from Hawara (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd/3rd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Harvard Art Museums) 2nd-century mummy portrait probably from er-Rubayat (Getty Villa) Economy[edit] Roman trade with India started from Aegyptus according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century). The economic resources that this imperial government existed to exploit had not changed since the Ptolemaic period, but the development of a much more complex and sophisticated taxation system was a hallmark of Roman rule. Taxes in both cash and kind were assessed on land, and a bewildering variety of small taxes in cash, as well as customs dues and the like, was collected by appointed officials. A massive amount of Aegyptus's grain was shipped downriver (north) both to feed the population of Alexandria and for export to the Roman capital. There were frequent complaints of oppression and extortion from the taxpayers. For land management and tenure, the Ptolemaic state had retained much of the categorization of land as under the earlier pharaohs, but the Roman Empire introduced a distinction between private and public lands – the earlier system had categorized little land as private property – and a complex arrangement was developed consisting of dozens of types of land-holding.[21]:23–24 Land's status was determined by the hydrological, juridical, and function of the property, as well as by the three main categories of ownership held over from the Ptolemaic system: the sacred property belonging to the temples (Koinē Greek: Ἱερά γη, romanized: Hierā́ gē, lit. 'holy land'); the royal land (Βασιλική γη, Basilikḗ gē, 'royal land') belonging to the state and forming most of its revenue; and the "gifted land" (Koinē Greek: γή εν δωρεά, romanized: gḗ en dōreá, lit. 'land in gift'; Δωρεά, Dōreá, 'gifts') leased out under the cleruchy system.[21]:23–24 The Roman government had actively encouraged the privatization of land and the increase of private enterprise in manufacture, commerce, and trade, and low tax rates favored private owners and entrepreneurs. The poorer people gained their livelihood as tenants of state-owned land or of property belonging to the emperor or to wealthy private landlords, and they were relatively much more heavily burdened by rentals, which tended to remain at a fairly high level. Overall, the degree of monetization and complexity in the economy, even at the village level, was intense. Goods were moved around and exchanged through the medium of coin on a large scale and, in the towns and the larger villages, a high level of industrial and commercial activity developed in close conjunction with the exploitation of the predominant agricultural base. The volume of trade, both internal and external, reached its peak in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Kushan ruler Huvishka with seated Roman-Egyptian god Serapis (ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo") wearing the modius.[22] By the end of the 3rd century, major problems were evident. A series of debasements of the imperial currency had undermined confidence in the coinage,[23] and even the government itself was contributing to this by demanding more and more irregular tax payments in kind, which it channelled directly to the main consumers, the army personnel. Local administration by the councils was careless, recalcitrant, and inefficient; the evident need for firm and purposeful reform had to be squarely faced in the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine I. There are numerous indications of Roman trade with India during the period, particularly between Roman Egypt and the Indian subcontinent. Kushan Empire ruler Huvishka (150–180 CE) incorporated in his coins the Hellenistic-Egyptian god Serapis (under the name ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo").[22][24] Since Serapis was the supreme deity of the pantheon of Alexandria in Egypt, this coin suggests that Huvishka had as strong orientation towards Roman Egypt, which may have been an important markets for the products coming from the Kushan Empire.[22] Architecture[edit] Roman emperor Trajan making offerings to Egyptian Gods, on the Roman Mammisi at the Dendera Temple complex, Egypt.[25] In the administrative provincial capitals of the nomoi, the mētropoleis mostly inherited from the Pharaonic and Ptolemaic period, Roman public buildings were erected by the governing strategos and the local gymnasiarch.[26]:189 In most cases, these have not survived and evidence of them is rare, but it is probable that most were built in the classical architecture of the Graeco-Roman world, employing the classical orders in stone buildings.[26]:189 Prominent remains include two Roman theatres at Pelusium, a temple of Serapis and a tetrastyle at Diospolis Magna at Thebes, and, at Philae, a triumphal arch and temples dedicated to the worship of the emperor Augustus and the goddess Roma, the personification of Rome.[26]:189 Besides a few individual stone blocks in some mētropoleis, substantial remains of Roman architecture are known in particular from three of the mētropoleis – Heracleopolis Magna, Oxyrhynchus, and Hermopolis Magna – as well as from Antinoöpolis, a city founded c. 130 by the emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138).[26]:189 All these were sacred cities dedicated to particular deities.[26]:189 The ruins of these cities were first methodically surveyed and sketched by intellectuals attached to Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, eventually published in the Description de l'Égypte series.[26]:189 Illustrations produced by Edme-François Jomard and Vivant Denon form much of the evidence of these remains, because since the 19th century many of the ruins have themselves disappeared.[26]:189 South of Thebes, the mētropoleis may have been largely without classical buildings, but near Antinoöpolis the classical influence may have been stronger.[26]:189 Most mētropoleis were probably built on the classical Hippodamian grid employed by the Hellenistic polis, as at Alexandria, with the typical Roman pattern of the Cardo (north–south) and Decumanus Maximus (east–west) thoroughfares meeting at their centres, as at Athribis and Antinoöpolis.[26]:189 Vivant Denon made sketches of ruins at Oxyrhynchus, and Edme-François Jomard wrote a description; together with some historical photographs and the few surviving remains, these are the best evidence for the classical architecture of the city, which was dedicated to the medjed, a sacred species of Mormyrus fish.[26]:189 Two groups of buildings survive at Heracleopolis Magna, sacred to Heracles/Hercules, which is otherwise known from Jomard's work, which also forms the mainstay of knowledge about the architecture of Antinoöpolis, founded by Hadrian in honour of his deified lover Antinous.[26]:189 The Napoleonic-era evidence is also important for documenting Hermopolis Magna, where more buildings survive and which was dedicated to the worship of Thoth, equated with Hermes/Mercury.[26]:189 The oldest known remains of church architecture in Egypt are at the Roman village of Kellis; following the house church of the early 4th century, a three-aisled, apsed basilica church was built in the Constantinian period, with pastaphoria on either side, while a third church was accompanied by a Christian cemetery.[27]:671 All these churches were built on an east-west axis, with the liturgical focus at the east, and the pastaphoria (side-rooms) were a common mark of churches in the country.[27]:671 Churches were built quickly after the victory of Constantine over Licinius, and in the 4th century even towns like ‘Ain el-Gedida in the Dakhla Oasis had their own churches.[27]:671 The earliest known monumental basilica of which remains survive is that at Antinoöpolis; a five-aisled, apsed basilica facing east and set in a cemetery is 60 metres (200 ft) long and 20 metres (66 ft) wide.[27]:671 North apse of the Red Monastery of Sohag In the late 4th century, monastic churches differed from the other churches by building rectangular sanctuaries – rather than semi-circular ones – at their east ends where the altar stood, and in place of the apse was an aedicula or niche embellished with an arch and columns in applied in plaster.[27]:671 In the 5th century, regional styles of monumental church basilica with pastaphoria emerged: on the coast of the Mediterranean and throughout the northern part of the country the churches were basilicas of three or five aisles, but in Middle Egypt and Upper Egypt the basilicas were often given a colonnade all the way around the structure, forming an continuous ambulatory by the addition of a transverse fourth aisle to the west of the other three.[27]:671–672 In eastern Egypt, the columns and colonnade were emphasized, and the sanctuary distinguished with a triumphal arch in front of it.[27]:671–672 A transept plan was adopted only in urban environments like Abu Mena and Marea in the western Nile Delta.[27]:673 In the middle 5th century, the Great Basilica, one of the largest churches in Egypt, was built at Hermopolis Magna at the central crossroads of the city.[27]:673 Unusually, the three-aisled transept basilica had semicircular extensions on the north and south walls.[27]:673 At the Coptic White Monastery at Sohag, the 5th-century church was built with a triconch apse, an unusual design also found at Sohag's Dayr Anbā Bishoi; in the Wadi El Natrun at Dayr as-Suyrān; in the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert at Dayr Abū Mattā, and at Dendera.[27]:674 The tomb-chapel of the White Monastery's founder, Shenoute, was also built with this triconch plan and was the first instance of a monastic founder's tomb built in a monastery.[27]:673 Some of the White Monastery's limestone ashlars were spolia; the stones were likely taken from the pharaonic buildings at Upper Egyptian Athribis nearby.[27]:674 The main church's interior is a three-aisled basilica with an ambon and seat, and the usual Egyptian western transvere aisle, but its exterior resembles an Egyptian temple, with cavetto cornices on the roof.[27]:674 Unusually for the Coptic churches, the White Monastery's church has two narthexes, perhaps to accommodate worshippers from outside the monastic community.[27]:674 The affiliated Red Monastery nearby preserves the most extensive painted decoration from Late Antiquity anywhere and is probably representative of the period's Egyptian churches' interior decoration.[27]:674 Besides the main monumental basilica at Antinoöpolis, there were two other cruciform churches built there in the later 5th century.[27]:671 Religion[edit] Imperial cult[edit] Main article: Roman imperial cult Possible personification of the province of Egypt from the Temple of Hadrian in Rome (National Roman Museum) The worship of Egypt's rulers was interrupted entirely by the fall of the Ptolemaic dynasty, who together with their predecessor Alexander the Great had been worshipped with a Egypto-Hellenistic ruler cult.[28]:98 After the Roman conquest of Egypt, Augustus instituted a new Roman imperial cult in Egypt.[28]:98 Formally, the "Roman people" (Latin: populus Romanus) were now collectively the ruler of Egypt; emperors were never crowned pharaoh in person in the traditional way, and there is no evidence that the emperors were systematically incorporated into the traditional pantheons worshipped by the traditional priesthoods.[29]:435 Instead, the image of Augustus was identified with Zeus Eleutherios (Greek: Ἐλευθέριος, lit. "liberator"), and modelled on the example of Alexander the Great, who was said to have "liberated" Egypt from the old pharaohs.[29]:435 Nevertheless, in 27 BC there was at Memphis, as was traditional, a high priest of Ptah appointed under Augustus's authority as the senior celebrant of the Egyptian ruler cult and referred to as a "priest of Caesar".[29]:435 Augustus had been honoured with a cult in Egypt before his death, and there is evidence that Nero was worshipped while still living, as was Hadrian in particular.[29]:437 While alive however, the emperor was usually honoured with offerings to the various gods "for his health" (Latin: pro salute); usually, only after the emperor's death was he deified and worshipped as a god.[29]:437 A letter of Claudius written to the Alexandrians in 41 AD rejects the offer of a cult of himself, permitting only divine honours such as statues and reserving cult worship for the deified Augustus.[29]:438 For juridical purposes, the imperial oath recalling Ptolemaic precedent had to be sworn in the name or "fortune" (tyche) of the emperor: "I swear by Caesar Imperator, son of God, Zeus Eleutherios, Augustus".[29]:437 The official cult was superintended by the archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt (ἀρχιερεὺς Ἀλεξανδρίας καὶ Αἰγύπτου πάσης, archiereùs Alexandrías kaì Aigyptou pásēs), who was procurator in charge of Egypt's temples and responsible for the worship of the imperial deities and of Serapis throughout the country.[28]:95; 98 As with the praefectus Aegypti, the archiereus of Alexandria and All Egypt was a Roman citizen and probably appointed from the equestrian class.[28]:95 The official cult in Egypt differed from that in other provinces; the goddess Roma, closely associated with the Roman Senate, was not introduced by Augustus, since as an imperial province Egypt lay beyond the reach of the Senate's powers (imperium).[28]:98 The archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was appointed by the emperor.[28]:95 The high priest's full title ("high priest of the gods Augusti and the Great Serapis and the one who is responsible for the temples of Egypt and the whole country") indicates that the cult of Serapis was closely connected with the worship of the emperors and that both were overseen by the same Roman official.[28]:94–95 Nilus, the river god of Egypt's Nile, with cornucopia, wheatsheaf, sphinx, and crocodile (Braccio Nuovo). Sculpture from Rome's Temple of Isis and Serapis. An archiereus existed in each of the nomoi; drawn from the local elite through the liturgy system, these high priests were responsible for the maintenance of the imperial temples and cults in their mētropoleis.[28]:98 These officials, in place since the mid-1st century AD at latest, was each known as the "high priest of the Lords Augusti and all the gods" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῶν κυρίων Σεβαστῶν καὶ θεῶν ἁπάντων, archiereùs tōn kuríōn Sebastōn kaì theōn apántōn) or the "high priest of the city" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῆς πόλεως, archiereùs tēs póleōs), and was responsible mainly for the organization of the imperial cult, since the traditional local cults already had their own priesthoods.[28]:92–93 Though imposed by the Roman state and overseen from the provincial capital, the imperial cult was locally organized, though direct imperial control is also attested for the cult at Alexandria.[28]:98[29]:438 Throughout Egypt, sacrificial altars dedicated to the worship of the deified emperor Augustus (Koinē Greek: Σεβαστός, romanized: Sebastós, lit. 'Venerable') were set up in dedicated temples (sebasteia or caesarea).[28]:86; 98 Each sebasteion or caesareum had administrative functions as well as organizing the local cult of the emperor.[28]:86 Nevertheless, there is scant evidence that the worship of the emperors was common in private settings, and the Alexandrians were frequently hostile to the emperors themselves.[28]:98 The form of the imperial cult established in the reign of Augustus, which may have been largely focused on the deified first emperor himself, continued until the reign of Constantine the Great.[29]:437 The widow of the emperor Trajan, the augusta Plotina, was deified after her death by Hadrian.[30]:14 At Dendera, in a temple dedicated to Aphrodite, the late empress was identified with the Egyptian goddess Hathor, the first instance of a member of the imperial family – besides the emperor himself – being integrated into the Egyptian pantheon.[30]:14 Unlike the royal cult of the Ptolemaic dynasty, whose festivals were celebrated according to the Egyptian calendar, the imperial cult days, such as the emperors' birthdays (Koinē Greek: ἡμέραι σεβασταί, romanized: hēmérai sebastaí, lit. 'venerable days'), fell according to the Roman calendar.[29]:438 Cult of Serapis and Isis[edit] Enthroned statue of the syncretic god Serapis with Cerberus, from Pozzuoli (National Archaeological Museum, Naples) Serapis was a syncretic god of abundance and the afterlife which united Hellenistic and Egyptian features and which had been instituted by Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305/304–282 BC) at the beginning of the Ptolemaic period, possibly related to the cult of Osiris-Apis.[31]:439 Serapis assumed the role of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon as god of the afterlife and regeneration, the husband of the fertility goddess Isis, and the father of the child Horus, known to the Hellenistic world as Harpocrates.[31]:439 Emperors were sometimes depicted as Serapis, with their portraits bearing Serapis's distinguishing features, who, unlike most native Egyptian gods but in common with Osiris, was never depicted in animal or part-animal form.[31]:439 Caracalla took the title "Philosarapis" to indicate his devotion to the cult.[31]:439 Serapis was distinguished by his Greek-style clothes, long hair, and beard, as well as by his flat-topped crown, known as a calathus.[31]:439 The Mysteries of Isis, a mystery cult developed outside Egypt and reimported to the country from Roman territories elsewhere, were increasingly celebrated, and Isis was the supreme female deity and creator-goddess in the pantheon, incorporating the Ptolemaic queen-worship tradition.[31]:439 As Isis lactans, 'suckling Isis', she was an image of motherhood, feeding her infant Harpocrates; as Isis myrionymos, 'the myriad-named', she was a goddess of magic and mysteries.[31]:439 In Roman Egypt, the cult was superintended by the archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt.[28]:94–95 Temples of Serapis (serapea) were found throughout Egypt, with the oldest serapeum at Memphis and the greatest the Serapeum of Alexandria.[31]:439 The holy family of Serapis, Isis, and Harpocrates was worshipped throughout the empire; by the 4th century, the cult had become, behind Christianity, the most popular religion in the Roman world.[31]:439 Temples[edit] The imperially-appointed archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was responsible for the administrative management of the temples, beyond those of the imperial cult, dedicated to Graeco-Roman deities and the ancient Egyptian gods.[28]:95 He controlled access to the priesthoods of the Egyptian cults: the ritual circumcision of candidates was subject to his approval and he mediated disputes involving temples, wielding some judicial powers.[28]:93 As sponsors of temple cults, emperors appeared in traditional pharaonic regalia on carved temple reliefs.[29]:435 Similarly, Egyptian gods were sometimes shown wearing Roman military garb, particularly Anubis and Horus.[31]:439 The history of Egyptian temples in Roman times can be studied particularly well in some settlements at the edges of the Faiyum: Archaeological evidence, alongside with lots of written sources on the daily life of the priests, are available from Bakchias, Narmouthis, Soknopaiou Nesos, Tebtunis, and Theadelphia. For instance, temples can be seen supporting each other by asking colleagues to assist when there was a shortage of staff, but also competing with each other for spheres of influence. When temples came into conflict with authorities, then mainly with lower administrative officials, who belonged to the local population themselves; the Roman procurators intervened in these conflicts, if at all, then in a moderating manner.[32] 4th-century relief of the god Horus as a Roman cavalryman killing the crocodile, Setekh (Louvre) The Julio-Claudian emperors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero all sponsored religious monuments and institutions at Coptos and Dendera.[30]:13 Tiberius is known to have patronized monuments at Armant, Aswan, Athribis, Debod, Diospolis Parva, Edfu, Karnak, Kom Ombo, Luxor, Philae and at the Temple of Shenhur.[30]:13 Claudius's patronage is recorded at Aswan, Athribis, Esna, Kom Ombo, and at Philae.[30]:13 Nero is recorded as having sponsored Egyptian elites at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert, and at Karanis and Akoris, as well as at Aswan and Kom Ombo.[30]:13 During the short reigns of Galba and of the contestants in the Year of the Four Emperors after the fall of Nero, images of both Otho and Galba were carved in reliefs at Medinet Habu, a Pharaonic temple dating from the Eighteenth Dynasty, but no monuments to Vitellius are known.[30]:13 The Flavian emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian are all known to have been responsible for works at Esna.[30]:14 Both Vespasian and his older son Titus sponsored work at the Dakhla Oasis, with Vespasian also the sponsor of work at Medinet Habu.[30]:14 Vespasian and his younger son Domitian were both credited with patronage of works at Kom Ombo and Silsila, and Domitian's sponsorship was also recorded at Akhmim, Armant, Dendera, and Philae.[30]:14 185 scenes in many temples show Domitian, concentrated in the oases and in Upper Egypt; his name was in some places removed as a result of his damnatio memoriae.[33]:413 2nd-century relief of Anubis as a Roman infantryman in the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa After Domitian's assassination, the emperor Nerva's patronage of Egyptian temples is recorded only at Esna.[30]:14 Nerva's adoptive heir Trajan continued to lend imperial sponsorship to Egyptian cults, with his patronage recorded at Dendera, Esna, Gebelein, Kalabsha, Kom Ombo, Medinet Habu, and Philae.[30]:14 During Hadrian's tour of Egypt in 130–131, the emperor founded the new Hellenistic polis of Antinoöpolis at the point where Antinous drowned in the Nile and instituted a cult of Antinous as Osiris, to whom a death by drowning was sacrosanct.[30]:15 Hadrian commissioned the Barberini obelisk to commemorate his late lover's funeral rites, including the Egyptian opening of the mouth ceremony; the obelisk was erected in Rome and the cult of Antinous was propagated throughout the provinces.[30]:15 Hadrian also sponsored building work at Philae, and both he and his successor Antoninus Pius sponsored work at Armant, Dendera, and Esna.[30]:16 The reign of Antoninus Pius – also patron of building works at Coptos, Medamud, Medinet Habu, and Tod – saw the last substantial building work on Egyptian temples.[30]:16 After those of Antoninus Pius found at Medinet Habu, Deir el-Shelwit, and Dendera, no further imperial cartouches are known from the regions of Thebes and the western oases.[33]:413 From the reign of Marcus Aurelius, who is recorded as having rededicated an offering to Hathor originally made by Ptolemy VIII Physcon, the rate of new temple building and decoration slackened.[33]:413 Commodus was recorded as Pharaonic sponsor of temples at Armant, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae, the last emperor to be widely honoured in this way in surviving monuments; a general lack of resources and the political turbulence after Commodus's assassination was probably responsible.[30]:18 The name of his successor Pertinax (r. 193) is recorded at the Temple of Tutu at Kellis.[34]:182 After inscriptions of Commodus, Greek inscriptions are no longer found in the temples of the Faiyum.[33]:413 It is possible that the reform of Septimius Severus at the turn of the 3rd century aggravated the decline of the Egyptian temples; the mētropoleis now given administrative control over the temples of their nomoi did not prioritize their upkeep.[33]:413 Copper-alloy statuettes of Egyptian gods Anubis (left) and Horus (centre) as Roman officers with contrapposto stances (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) With a carved relief at Esna, Septimius Severus was commemorated, together with his son and co-augustus Caracalla, his wife Julia Domna the augusta, and their younger son Geta, on the occasion of the imperial tour of Egypt in 199–200.[30]:18 Caracalla's own titles are recorded at Philae, Ombos, in Middle Egypt, and in the Delta.[33]:413 After he murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta, his image was removed from their father's monument relief at Esna as part of the damnatio memoriae imposed by Caracalla.[30]:19 Caracalla's successor was Macrinus, whose patronage is recorded only at Kom Ombo; evidence of his successor Elagabalus in Egypt has not survived, and neither is the patronage of Severus Alexander recorded.[30]:19 Monumental temple-building and decoration among the Egyptian cults ceased altogether in the early 3rd century.[33]:413 After Philip the Arab's cartouche was added to the temple wall at Esna, his successor Decius's cartouche was carved into it, the last known instance of this long-established practice of usurping pharaohs' erasure of their predecessors' dynastic legacy.[30]:21 Philip the Arab's reign saw the last Roman inscription found in the Temple of Kalabsha; at some time thereafter the site was abandoned by the Romans.[30]:22 At Tahta in Middle Egypt, the cartouche of Maximinus Daza was added to a since-ruined temple, along with other additions; he is the last Roman emperor known to have been recorded in official hieroglyphic script.[30]:25–26 The last Buchis bull of Hermonthis (Armant) was born in the reign of Licinius and died in the reign of Constantius II; the cartouche on its funerary stela, dedicated in 340, is the last of all.[33]:413[30]:28 Under the Theodosian dynasty, during the joint reigns of Theodosius the Great and his sons Arcadius and Honorius, an inscription at Philae's Temple of Harendotes commemorated the birthday of Osiris in the 110th anno Diocletiani (24 August 394), the latest hieroglyphic inscription to be dated securely.[30]:30[33]:413 Caligula allowed the worship of Egyptian gods in Rome, which had been formally forbidden since Augustus's reign.[30]:12 In Rome, and at Beneventum (Benevento), Domitian established new temples to the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis.[30]:14 A general "Egyptomania" followed Hadrian's tour of the country, and Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) included an Egyptian-themed area known as the Canopus.[30]:16 Hadrian may have been advised on religious matters by Pancrates, a poet and priest of Egypt.[30]:15 5th-century Christian relief (Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst) Christianity[edit] Main article: History of Christianity in Egypt The authors of the New Testament do not record any missions of the apostles to Alexandria or any epistles to the Egyptians, though Egyptian and Alexandrian Jews in Jerusalem are mentioned in the Book of Acts.[27]:665[35]:475–476 (Acts 2:10 and 6:9.) An Alexandrian Jew, Apollos, is recorded in the Book of Acts as speaking in the synagogue at Ephesus , and because of an interpolation to Acts 18:24 current by the 5th-century – e.g. in the Codex Bezae – which suggested Apollos had been converted to Christianity in Egypt (Biblical Greek: ἐν τῃ πατρίδι, romanized: en tēi patrídi, lit. 'in his country'), Christianity's arrival has been dated to the 1st century, but there is no sure evidence of this, as Apollos may have been converted elsewhere.[35]:475 The pseudepigraphical Secret Gospel of Mark, of dubious authenticity, is the first text to claim Mark the Apostle visited Egypt.[35]:475 The 3rd-century Sextus Julius Africanus's chronology was probably the source of the 4th-century bishop Eusebius of Caesarea's narrative of Mark's arrival in Egypt, which conflicts with that of the Secret Gospel of Mark and is the earliest history of Alexandrian Christianity, including the names of the ten bishops who supposedly succeeded Mark before the late 2nd-century episcopate of Julian of Alexandria.[35]:475 The drive to connect Alexandria with the lives of New Testament characters was part of a desire to establish continuity and apostolic succession with the churches supposed to have been founded by Saint Peter and the other apostles.[35]:475 Christianity probably arrived in Egypt among the Hellenized Alexandrian Jews, from Palestine's communities of Jewish Christians.[27]:665 A possible 2nd-century papyrus fragment of the Gospel of Peter, from the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (P. Oxy. LX 4009, Sackler Library) The earliest evidence of Christianity in Egypt is a letter written in the first half of the 3rd century and mentioning the gymnasiarch and the boulē (thereby indicating the author and recipient were of the upper class) uses the Christian nomina sacra and the Biblical Greek: ἐν κυρίῳ, romanized: en kyrίōi, lit. 'in the Lord', drawn from the Pauline epistles.[35]:480 Another papyrus from the same period records the names of candidates for liturgy service "supervision of the water-tower and fountains of the metropolis" of Arsinoë (Faiyum); among the names is one "Antonios Dioscoros son of Origen, Alexandrian", against whose name is noted in Koinē Greek: ἔστ(ι) ∆ιόσκορος χρηστιανός, romanized: ésti Dióskoros chrēstianós, lit. 'he is the Dioscoros (who is a) Christian'.[35]:480 With Alexandrian citizenship and a Roman nomen, Antonios (Latin: Antonius) was likely of higher social status than the other candidates on the list, and is the first named Egyptian Christian for which evidence exists.[35]:480 In the Chora beyond Alexandria, there is no evidence at all for Christianity in the 2nd century, excepting some ambiguous letters, besides some papyrus fragments of scriptures among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri and among the papyri found at Antinoöpolis and Hipponon (Qarara) in the Heracleopolite nome around Heracleopolis Magna.[35]:480 Many of these are in the form of codices rather than scrolls, the codex being preferred by Christian scribes.[35]:478 Among the 2nd-century New Testament papyri are Rylands Library Papyrus P52 and Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 3523 – fragments of the Gospel of John –, and Oxyrhynchus Papyrus LXIV 4404 a fragment of the Gospel of Matthew.[35]:478 It is not known whether these indicate a Christian presence outside the capital in the 2nd century, whether these papyri, dated subjectively by palaeography, are as old as has been proposed, or whether they were in Egypt when newly made or arrived in later times as already old books.[35]:478–479 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Bishops often named their successors (e.g. Peter, his brother, by Athanasius in 373) or the succession was effected by imposing the hands of a deceased bishop on the one chosen to follow him. By 200 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated. With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 5th century, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as the poet Palladas pointedly noted. It lingered underground for many decades: the final edict against paganism was issued in 435, but graffiti at Philae in Upper Egypt proves worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 6th century. Many Egyptian Jews also became Christians, but many others refused to do so, leaving them as the only sizable religious minority in a Christian country. No sooner had the Egyptian Church achieved freedom and supremacy than it became subject to a schism and prolonged conflict which at times descended into civil war. Alexandria became the centre of the first great split in the Christian world, between the Arians, named for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and their opponents, represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century. In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times. Coptic cross and chi-rho carved into older reliefs at the Temple of Isis at Philae Patristic authorship was dominated by Egyptian contributions: Athanasius, Didymus the Blind and Cyril, and the power of the Alexandrian see embodied in Athanasius, Theophilus, his nephew, Cyril and shortly by Dioscuros. Egypt had an ancient tradition of religious speculation, enabling a variety of controversial religious views to thrive there. Not only did Arianism flourish, but other doctrines, such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, either native or imported, found many followers. Another religious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church. Egyptian Christians took up monasticism with such enthusiasm that the Emperor Valens had to restrict the number of men who could become monks. Egypt exported monasticism to the rest of the Christian world. Another development of this period was the development of Coptic, a form of the Ancient Egyptian language written with the Greek alphabet supplemented by several signs to represent sounds present in Egyptian which were not present in Greek. It was invented to ensure the correct pronunciation of magical words and names in pagan texts, the so-called Greek Magical Papyri. Coptic was soon adopted by early Christians to spread the word of the gospel to native Egyptians and it became the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity and remains so to this day. Christianity eventually spread out west to the Berbers. The Coptic Church was established in Egypt. Since Christianity blended with local traditions, it never truly united the people against Arabian forces in the seventh and eight centuries. Later on in the seventh and eighth centuries, Christianity spread out to Nubia.[36] The fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century further isolated the Egyptian Romans from Rome's culture and hastened the growth of Christianity. The success of Christianity led to a virtual abandonment of pharaonic traditions: with the disappearance of the Egyptian priests and priestesses who officiated at the temples, no-one could read the hieroglyphs of Pharaonic Egypt, and its temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the desert. Roman-era Christian-themed wool-and-linen Egyptian textile (Louvre) Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, convinced the city's governor to expel the Jews from the city in 415 with the aid of the mob, in response to the Jews' alleged night-time massacre of many Christians.[citation needed] The murder of the philosopher Hypatia in March 415 marked a dramatic turn in classical Hellenic culture in Egypt but philosophy thrived in sixth century Alexandria.[citation needed] Another schism in the Church produced prolonged disturbances and may have alienated Egypt from the Empire. The countless papyrus finds mark the continuance of Greek culture and institutions at various levels. The new religious controversy was over the Christ's human and divine nature. The issue was whether he had two natures, human and divine, or a combined one (hypostatic union from his humanity and divinity). In an intensely religious age it was enough to divide an empire. The Miaphysite controversy arose after the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and continued until well after the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which ruled in favour of the position that Christ was "one person in two natures" as opposed to Monophysitism (a single nature). Monophysite belief was not held by the 'miaphysites' as they stated that Jesus was out of two natures in one nature called, the "Incarnate Logos of God". Many of the 'miaphysites' claimed that they were misunderstood, that there was really no difference between their position be the Chalcedonian position, and that the Council of Chalcedon ruled against them because of political motivations alone. The Church of Alexandria split from the Churches of Rome and Constantinople over this issue, creating what would become the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which remains a major force in Egyptian religious life today.[37] Egypt and Syria remained hotbeds of Miaphysite sentiment, and organised resistance to the Chalcedonian view was not suppressed until the 570s. History[edit] Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century)[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The province was established in 30 BC after Octavian (the future Roman emperor Augustus) defeated his rival Mark Antony, deposed Pharaoh Cleopatra, and annexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to the Roman Empire. Maps of Roman Egypt Northern Africa under Roman rule The Roman Empire during the reign of Hadrian (117–138). Two legions were deployed in the imperial province of Ægyptus (Egypt) in the year 125. Trilingual stela of G. Cornelius Gallus from Philae (Egyptian Museum) The first prefect of Aegyptus, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, brought Upper Egypt under Roman control by force of arms, and established a protectorate over the southern frontier district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea and even Arabia Felix. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius. The third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, whose queen Imanarenat had previously attacked Roman Egypt. Failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. The reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were mainly peaceful in Egypt, with intermittent civil strife between Greeks and Jews in Alexandria.[30]:12 According to the Latin historian Tacitus, Germanicus visited Egypt without the permission of Tiberius and caused a rift with his uncle, the emperor.[30]:12 Claudius refused Alexandrian demands for self-government under their own senate, and attempted to quell the unrest between Alexandrian Greek and Jews.[30]:12 Under Nero, perhaps influenced by Chaeremon of Alexandria – an Egyptian priest and the emperor's Stoic tutor – an expedition to Meroë was undertaken, though possible plans for an invasion of the southern kingdom was forestalled by the military demands of the First Jewish–Roman War, a revolt in Judaea.[30]:13 The first praefectus Aegypti of Alexandrian origin was Tiberius Julius Alexander, who was governor through the Year of the Four Emperors and who eventually proclaimed the general Vespasian, victor in the Jewish War, emperor at Alexandria in July 69 AD.[30]:13 This prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria.[30]:13 The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae, lit. 'key to the grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire.[30]:13 From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century. Much trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the Jews, particularly in Alexandria, which after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 became the world centre of Jewish religion and culture.[citation needed] Vespasian was the first emperor since Augustus to appear in Egypt.[30]:13 At Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis, Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.[30]:13–14 As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, thereby miraculously healing him.[30]:14 (This Egyptian tradition of healing is related to the healing the man blind from birth, one of the miracles of Jesus of Nazareth.)[30]:14 In 114, during the reign of Trajan (r. 98–117), unrest among the Jews of Alexandria broke out after the coming of a Messiah was announced at Cyrene.[30]:14 The uprising that year was defeated, but between 115 and 117 a revolt continued in the countryside in the absence of the armies away on Trajan's Parthian campaign.[30]:14 This Kitos War meant that the Greeks and the Egyptian peasants took up arms in the fight against the Jews, which culminated in their defeat and the effective destruction of the Alexandrian Jewish community, which did not recover until the 3rd century.[30]:14–15 The city of Oxyrhynchus, by contrast, celebrated their survival of the rebellion with annual festivals for at least eighty years.[30]:15 Hadrian and Antinous (Graeco-Roman Museum) Bronze portrait head of Hadrian Marble statue of Osiris-Antinous In the reign of Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138), an Egyptian revolt was instigated on the occasion of a new Apis bull's identification in 122; this rebellion was soon suppressed.[30]:15 Hadrian himself toured Egypt with his court for eight to ten months in 130–131, embarking on a Nile cruise, hunting lions in the desert, and making the dawn visit to the Colossi of Memnon.[30]:15 Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis where his lover Antinous drowned in the river; the polis joined the other three poleis as a city with Hellenic citizenship rights, and he commissioned the Via Hadriana, connecting Antinoöpolis with Berenice Troglodytica, on the Red Sea.[30]:15 In 139, at the start of the reign of Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161), the Sothic cycle came to its end, meaning that for the first time in 1,460 years, the heliacal rising of Sirius coincided with the Egyptian calendar's New Year.[30]:16 The emperor's coinage commemorated the good fortune this was expected to portend with images of the millennial phoenix.[30]:16 At some time during his reign, Antoninus Pius visited Alexandria and had new gates and a new hippodrome built, but in 153, a riot in Alexandria killed the praefectus Aegypti.[30]:16 The destructive Antonine Plague epidemic affected Egypt from 165 to 180; evidence of mass graves from that time has been discovered by archaeological excavation in the Valley of the Queens.[30]:17 A revolt of the native Egyptians from 171 was suppressed only in 175, after much fighting.[30]:17 This "Bucolic War", named for the native "herdsmen" (Greek: Βουκόλοι, translit. Boukóloi, lit. "cattlemen") was led by one Isidorus and had defeated the Roman garrison of Egypt.[30]:17 Control was re-established by Avidius Cassius, the governor of Roman Syria and son of an erstwhile praefectus Aegypti, who then declared himself emperor in 175, being acknowledged by his own armies and the Army of Egypt amid rumours that the emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) was dead.[30]:17 On the emperor's approach, Cassius was deposed and killed after three months' rule, and the clemency of Marcus Aurelius restored peace as he visited Alexandria in 176.[30]:17 Marcus Aurelius's successor Commodus (r. 176–192) overturned his adoptive father's pardon of Avidius Cassius's family by having them all murdered at the beginning of his reign.[30]:17 After Commodus's own murder, Pertinax was appointed emperor on 1 January 193, but this was only officially noticed in Egypt in early March, shortly before Pertinax's murder; news of this did not become known in parts of Egypt until late May.[30]:18 Pescennius Niger (r. 193–194), who had commanded a garrison at Aswan and the army in Syria, was recognized as the reigning emperor of Egypt by June 193, with Egypt ignoring the claims made in the brief reign of Didius Julianus at Rome.[30]:18 Granite statue of Caracalla wearing nemes and uraeus cobra headdress (Alexandria National Museum) Following Hadrian's route, Septimius Severus made a tour of Egypt in 199–200, visiting the Colossi of Memnon and ordering the statues repaired, which resulted in the natural "singing" phenomenon reported by visitors to the Colossi for centuries ceasing to be heard.[30]:18 A series of administrative reforms, probably intended to improve revenue collection, included a new boulē (a local council or senate) for Alexandria, and for the mētropolis of each nome, instituted in 200/201.[5][30]:18 Caracalla (r. 198–217) granted Roman citizenship to all Egyptians, in common with the other provincials, with the 212 Constitutio Antoniniana. As a consequence, many Egyptians adopted the emperor's nomen gentilicium, "Aurelius" (after his imperial predecessor Marcus Aurelius) as their name according to Roman naming conventions, though citizenship's entitlements were less valuable than in past centuries and carried a tax burden.[30]:19 Caracalla murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta not long after their father's death, claiming self-defence and imposing a damnatio memoriae; this excuse and other defects of the emperor's character were mocked by the Alexandrians as he approached Egypt in 215, angering Caracalla.[30]:19 The emperor massacred Alexandria's welcoming delegation and allowed his army to sack the city; afterwards, he barred Egyptians from entering the place (except where for religious or trade reasons) and increased its security.[30]:19 Macrinus (r. 217–218), having assassinated Caracalla, assumed power and dispatched a new praefectus Aegypti and, breaking precedent, a senator to govern Egypt. When the deaths of Macrinus and his co-augustus Diadumenian (r. 218) after the Battle of Antioch were announced in Alexandria, the Alexandrians rose up, killed the senator, and forced out the prefect.[30]:20 The victor in the civil war was Elagabalus (r. 218–222), himself succeeded by Severus Alexander (r. 218–222) after the former's murder, but even though Severus Alexander may have visited Alexandria, neither emperor is much recorded in Egyptian sources.[30]:20 After Decius died, Trebonianus Gallus (r. 251–253) was recognized as emperor; in 253 an embassy from Meroë to the Romans is attested from a graffito carved at Philae.[30]:22 Both Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus (r. 253) had coins issued in their names at Alexandria.[30]:22 During the reigns of Valerian (r. 253–260) and his son Gallienus (r. 253–268), the empire's instability was compounded by the Valerianic Persecution and the unprecedented total defeat and capture of Valerian by the Sasanian Empire's Shapur I (r. 240–270) at the 260 Battle of Edessa.[30]:22 After this humiliation, the army acclaimed the brothers Quietus and Macrianus (r. 260–261) augusti; they were the acknowledged emperors in Egypt.[30]:22–23 When they were overthrown, the Alexandrians acclaimed Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, the praefectus Aegypti as their new emperor.[30]:23 He enjoyed successes against the Blemmyes attacking the Thebaid, but by August 262 Alexandria was devastated and had lost two thirds of its inhabitants amid street fighting between the loyalists of Aemilianus and Gallienus; Aemilianus was defeated.[30]:23 There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century. Under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. The prefect of Aegyptus in 260, Mussius Aemilianus, first supported the Macriani, usurpers during the rule of Gallienus, and later, in 261, became a usurper himself, but was defeated by Gallienus. During the existence of the break-away Palmyrene Empire, Egypt came under the rule of Zenobia.[30]:23 Under her control, the Palmyrene state went to war with Rome, holding Egypt against Aurelian (r. 270–275); his forces, led by his eventual successor Probus (r. 276–282), captured Egypt by the end of 271.[30]:23 In 272 however, both Alexandria and Palmyra were again in revolt, at the instigation of Firmus, an Alexandrian with connections to the Blemmyes.[30]:23 Aurelian besieged Alexandria and Firmus killed himself.[30]:23 The reign of Aurelian's successor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (r. 275–276) left no known surviving mark on Egypt, and his brother Florianus (r. 276) was overthrown by Probus with the support of the Army of Egypt.[30]:23 The Blemmyes attacked Coptos and Ptolemais with incursions into Upper Egypt; Probus defeated them.[30]:23 "Pompey's Pillar", a monument erected by Diocletian (r. 284–305) in the Serapeum of Alexandria, represented in a mosaic from Sepphoris in Roman Palestine Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries)[edit] Coptos revolted in 293 and was destroyed by the augustus Diocletian's caesar (junior co-emperor) and future successor, Galerius (r. 293–311).[30]:24 Diocletian's reforms subdivided the empire into more numerous late Roman provinces; these were grouped into thirteen Roman dioceses, and these into four praetorian prefectures.[30]:23 The old province of Aegyptus was divided, with the Thebaid becoming its own province. Financial and tax reforms were implemented in Egypt in 297, and Egyptian currency was brought into line with the rest of the empire's monetary reforms.[30]:23–24 The role of the praefectus Aegypti was divided between a praeses – a civilian governor – and a military dux.[30]:24 In 297, Domitius Domitianus led a revolt and made himself emperor, assisted by Achilleus.[30]:24 Diocletian captured Alexandria from them after an eight-month siege and "Pompey's Pillar" was erected in his honour in the Serapeum of Alexandria.[30]:24 Diocletian then travelled through Egypt as far as Philae, where new gates were constructed for the occasion.[30]:24 Diocletian is also known to have visited Panopolis in 298.[30]:24 He ceded the Dodekaschoinos, upstream of the First Cataract in Lower Nubia, to the Noba people, who were subsidized by the Romans to defend the frontier, now at Syene (Aswan), from attack by the Blemmyes.[30]:24 Diocletian's second visit to Egypt, in 302, involved distributions of bread to the Alexandrians and actions taken against adherents of Manichaeism; the following year, Diocletian instituted the Diocletianic Persecution against Christianity.[30]:24 The persecution was remembered as particularly intense under Satrius Arrianus and Sossianus Hierocles, the praefecti between 304 and 307 and in 310 respectively.[30]:24 The Edict of Serdica published by Galerius, the senior emperor in 311, ended the Diocletianic Persecution.[30]:24 4th-century pendant with portrait of Alexander the Great as Zeus-Ammon with repoussé border (Walters Art Museum) In 313, having defeated their rivals, the co-augusti Licinius (r. 308–324) and Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) issued their Edict of Milan, giving Christianity official recognition among the Romans' other religions.[30]:26 The tax system was reformed, and new fifteen-year cycles (back-dated to 312) of indictions were instituted for revenue purposes.[30]:26 The former soldier Pachomius the Great was baptized into Christianity in 313.[30]:26 Constantine may have planned a visit to Egypt in 325, since preparations were made for an imperial reception at Oxyrhynchus, but these plans would have been forestalled by the convocation of the Christian First Council of Nicaea.[30]:27 The Nicene Creed united most of the Christian Church against the Arianism promoted by the Egyptian bishop Arius and in favour of the doctrines of another Egyptian bishop, Athanasius of Alexandria.[30]:27 In 330, the Christian monastic Macarius of Egypt established his monastery at Scetis (Wadi El Natrun) in the Nitrian Desert.[30]:27 On 24 February 391, the emperor Theodosius the Great (r. 379–395), in the names of himself and his co-augusti (his brother-in-law Valentinian II (r. 375–392) and his own son Arcadius (r. 383–408)) banned sacrifices and worship at temples throughout the empire in a decree addressed to Rome's praefectus urbi.[38][30]:29 On 16 June, writing to the praefectus augustalis and the comes Aegypti, Theodosius and his imperial colleagues reissued the ban on temple worship and sacrifices for Alexandria and Egypt specifically.[38][30]:29 Folio 6 verso from the Golenischev papyrus of the Alexandrian World Chronicle, showing Theophilus of Alexandria standing triumphantly on top of the Serapeum with its bust of Serapis Unrest was fomented against the pagan inhabitants by the bishop, Theophilus of Alexandria, who provoked riots by attempting to convert a temple into a church and staging the discovery of Christian relics.[30]:29 These were processed through the streets and the pagans were forced to take refuge in the Serapeum, with the philosopher Olympius at their head.[30]:29 The Christian mob loyal to Theophilus sacked the Serapeum, and ultimately it was rededicated as a church to John the Baptist.[30]:29 The Serapeum of Canopus (Abu Qir) was looted at the same time, becoming first a monastery and then a church dedicated to Cyrus and John.[30]:29 Ammonius Grammaticus – a priest of Thoth – and the Alexandrian poet Claudian both subsequently fled Egypt, for Constantinople and Rome respectively.[39][30]:30 Arcadius' son and successor Theodosius II's long reign (r. 402–450) saw the unrest generated by the bishop Cyril of Alexandria; he was opposed to the doctrines of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, in relation to the title Mother of God (Theotokos).[30]:30 The faction of Cyril, aided by Shenoute, prevailed, and Nestorius, having been denounced at the 431 Council of Ephesus, was banished in 435 to the Kharga Oasis in the Western Desert.[30]:30 The see of Alexandria's bishop reached the zenith of its influence in 449, when under Dioscorus I (r. 444–454/458) it successfully defended the doctrines of Eutyches at the Second Council of Ephesus against the positions of Dioscorus' rival bishops, Leo I of Rome and Flavian of Constantinople.[30]:30 The Blemmyes continued to attack Roman Egypt, though they were romanticized by pagans for their resistance to the Christians. Olympiodorus of Thebes wrote a positive account of them after a visit in c. 425.[30]:31 In 451, the emperor Marcian (r. 450–457) arrived at a peace treaty with the Blemmyes which allowed them the use of the temple at Philae annually and permitted them to use (and return) the temples' cult statues for oracular purposes.[30]:31 Marcian however, convened the 451 Council of Chalcedon, overturning the conclusions of the Second Council of Ephesus, condemning Dioscorus and sending him into exile.[30]:31 The resultant, and lasting, schism between the Coptic Church and the state church of the Roman Empire dates from this time.[30]:31 Proterius was appointed bishop in Dioscorus' stead.[30]:32 When the Alexandrians heard of the accession of Marcian's successor Leo I, they tore apart the hated Proterius and replaced him with their own nomination, Timothy II, whose election was not recognized by either Leo or his successor and son-in-law Zeno.[30]:32 When Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus seized Zeno's throne in 475, his monophysitism enabled a thaw in relations between Alexandria and the eastern imperial capital, but Zeno's recovery of Constantinople the following year resumed the hostility.[30]:32 Zeno's attempt to repair relations between Rome, Constantinople and Alexandria resulted in his own excommunication by the bishop of Rome, Felix III, and beginning the Acacian schism.[30]:32 The Carmagnola, an Egyptian porphyry head on Venice's St Mark's Basilica thought to represent Justinian I[40] The Sasanian Empire invaded the Nile Delta in the reign of Anastasius I (r. 491–518), though the Sasanian army retreated after they failed to capture Alexandria or make significant gains.[30]:32 In the early 6th century and in the reign of Justin I (r. 518–527), the Blemmyes again made attacks on Upper Egypt.[30]:32 Justin's successor Justinian I (r. 527–565) and his wife, the augusta Theodora, both sought to convert the Noba to Christianity; envoys of Justinian promoted dyophysitism but the Noba were persuaded to adopt the monophysitism of the Coptic Church by emissaries of the empress.[30]:32 Newly converted, they assisted the Roman army in its conquest of the pagan Blemmyes, and the general Narses was in 543 sent to confiscate the cult statues of Philae (which were sent to Constantinople), close the temple, and suppress its priesthood by imprisonment.[30]:32 In 577, during the retirement of Justinian's successor Justin II (r. 565–574) and the start of Tiberius II Constantine's reign (r. 574–582), the defences at Philae had to be rebuilt to repel attacks by the Blemmyes.[30]:33 This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Diocese of Egypt A map of the Near East in 565, showing Byzantine Egypt and its neighbors. The reign of Constantine the Great also saw the founding of Constantinople as a new capital for the Roman Empire, and in the course of the 4th century the Empire was divided in two, with Egypt finding itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. Latin, never well established in Egypt, would play a declining role with Greek continuing to be the dominant language of government and scholarship. During the 5th and 6th centuries the Eastern Roman Empire, known historiographically as the Byzantine Empire, gradually transformed itself into a thoroughly Christian state whose culture differed significantly from its pagan past. The Eastern Empire became increasingly "oriental" in style as its links with the old Græco-Roman world faded. The Greek system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new Greek-Byzantine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the empire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and violence. Egypt nevertheless continued to be an important economic center for the Empire supplying much of its agriculture and manufacturing needs as well as continuing to be an important center of scholarship. It would supply the needs of the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean as a whole. The reign of Justinian (527–565) saw the Empire recapture Rome and much of Italy from the barbarians, but these successes left the empire's eastern flank exposed. The Empire's "bread basket" now lacked protection. Augustan-era krater in Egyptian alabaster, found in a Roman necropolis at San Prisco in 1897 (National Archaeological Museum, Naples) Episcopal sees[edit] Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Primus (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees,[41] suffragans of the Patriarchate of Alexandria are enumerated in the following. The list here, however, does not cover other provinces such as Augustamnica, Arcadia and Thebais. Agnus Andropolis (Kherbeta) Butus (near Desuq? Com-Casir?) Cleopatris (Sersina) Coprithis (Cabrit, Cobrit) Hermopolis Parva Letopolis Phatanus (El-Batanu, El-Batnu) Mariotes (Lake Mariout) Menelaite (Idku) Metelis (Kom el-Ghoraf) Naucratis Nicius (Ibshadi) Onuphis (Menouf) Petra in Aegypto (Hagar-En-Nauatiyeh) Sais Taua (Thaouah? near Ebiar?) Terenuthis Thois (Tideh) Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Secundus (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees :[41] Busiris (Abu-Sir) Cabasa (Chahbas-Esch-Choada) Cynopolis in Aegypto (Banâm Benâ) *Diospolis Inferior (*Tell el-Balamun) Pachnemunis (Kom el-Khanziri) Phragonis (Tell-El-Faraïn, Côm-Faraïn) Schedia Sebennytus (Sebennytos) Xois Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD)[edit] The Byzantine Empire in 629 after Heraclius had reconquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt from the Sassanid Empire. Main articles: Roman–Persian Wars and Sasanian Egypt The Sasanian conquest of Egypt, beginning in AD 618 or 619, was one of the last Sassanid triumphs in the Roman-Persian Wars against Byzantium. From 619 to 628, they incorporated Egypt once again within their territories, the previous (much longer) time being under the Achaemenids. Khosrow II Parvêz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of Emperor Maurice (582–602) and had achieved a series of early successes, culminating in the conquests of Jerusalem (614) and Alexandria (619). A Byzantine counteroffensive launched by Emperor Heraclius in the spring of 622 shifted the advantage, and the war was brought to an end by the fall of Khosrow on 25 February 628.[42] The Egyptians had no love of the emperor in Constantinople and put up little resistance. Khosrow's son and successor, Kavadh II Šêrôe (Šêrôy), who reigned until September, concluded a peace treaty returning territories conquered by the Sassanids to the Eastern Roman Empire. The Sassanian conquest allowed Miaphysitism to resurface in the open in Egypt, and when imperial rule was restored by Emperor Heraclius in 629, the Miaphysites were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. Egypt was thus in a state of both religious and political alienation from the Empire when a new invader appeared. Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD)[edit] The Mediterranean world in 650, after the Arabs had conquered Egypt and Syria from the Byzantines. Main article: Muslim conquest of Egypt An army of 4,000 Arabs led by Amr Ibn Al-Aas was sent by the Caliph Umar, successor to Muhammad, to spread Islamic rule to the west. Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639,[43] and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. The Arabs sent for reinforcements, and in April 641 they besieged and captured Alexandria. The Byzantines assembled a fleet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and won back Alexandria in 645. The Muslims retook the city in 646, completing the Muslim conquest of Egypt. 40,000 civilians were evacuated to Constantinople with the imperial fleet. Thus ended 975 years of Greco-Roman rule over Egypt. Gallery[edit] Mummy Mask of a Man, early 1st century AD, 72.57, Brooklyn Museum Canopic jar from the 3rd or 4th century (National Archaeological Museum, Florence) Funerary masks uncovered in Faiyum, 1st century. 2nd-century statuette of Horus as Roman general (Louvre) 1st–4th-century statuette of Horus as a Roman soldier (Louvre) 2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite (Metropolitan Museum of Art) 2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite from Lower Egypt (Louvre) 1st–4th-century statuette of Isis lactans (Louvre) Isis lactans: the mother goddess suckles Harpocrates (Pio-Clementino Museum) 1st/2nd-century Parian marble statue of Anubis (Gregorian Egyptian Museum) 2nd/3rd-century mosaic of Anubis from Ariminum (Museo della Città, Rimini) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone grave stela (Luxor Museum) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone stela (Luxor Museum) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone relief (Luxor Museum) Hadrian coin celebrating Ægyptus Province, struck c. 135. In the obverse, Egypt is personified as a reclining woman holding the sistrum of Hathor. Her left elbow rests on a basket of grain, while an ibis stands on the column at her feet. Zenobia coin reporting her title as queen of Egypt (Augusta), and showing her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The obverse shows a standing figure of Ivno Regina (Juno) holding a patera in her right hand and a sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet and a brilliant star on the left. See also[edit] Greek and Roman Egypt Roman pharaoh References[edit] ^ a b Janzen, Mark (2017). "Ancient Egypt Population Estimates: Slaves and Citizens". TheTorah.com. Retrieved 18 August 2019. ^ Publishing, Britannica Educational (2010-04-01). Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 9781615302109. ^ Wickham, Chris (2009-01-29). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141908533. ^ Maddison, Angus (2007), Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, p. 55, table 1.14, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Rathbone, Dominic (2012), Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), "Egypt: Roman", The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 2020-12-30 ^ a b c d e f g h i Keenan, James (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Egypt", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-12-30 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Jördens, Andrea (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). Government, Taxation, and Law. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-04. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Haensch, Rudolf (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Roman Army in Egypt. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-04. ^ a b Alston, Richard (2002). "2. The Army and the Province". Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 13–39. ISBN 978-1-134-66476-4. ^ a b Turner, E. G. (1975). "Oxyrhynchus and Rome". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 79: 1–24 [p. 3]. doi:10.2307/311126. JSTOR 311126. ^ Alston, Richard (1997). "Philo's In Flaccum: Ethnicity and Social Space in Roman Alexandria". Greece and Rome. Second Series. 44 (2): 165–175 [p. 166]. doi:10.1093/gr/44.2.165. S2CID 163149248. ^ Lewis, Naphtali (1995). "Greco-Roman Egypt: Fact or Fiction?". On Government and Law in Roman Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 145. ^ Bell, Idris H. (1922). "Hellenic Culture in Egypt". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 8 (3/4): 139–155 [p. 148]. doi:10.2307/3853691. JSTOR 3853691. ^ Bell, p.148 ^ Lewis, p.141 ^ Sherwin-White, A. N. (1973). The Roman Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 391. ^ a b Turner, E. G. (1952). "Roman Oxyrhynchus". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 38: 78–93 [p. 84]. doi:10.1177/030751335203800110. JSTOR 3855498. S2CID 220269251. ^ Delia, Diana (1991). Alexandrian Citizenship During the Roman Principate. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 31. ^ Delia, pp.31–32 ^ Delia, p.32 ^ a b Blouin, Katherine (2012). "Between Water and Sand: Agriculture and Husbandry". In Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0003. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-02-20. ^ a b c Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Harmatta, János. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 326. ISBN 978-81-208-1408-0. ^ Christiansen, Erik (2004). Coinage in Roman Egypt: The Hoard Evidence. Aarhus University Press. ^ Serapis coin ^ "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian" Stadter, Philip A.; Stockt, L. Van der (2002). Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.). Leuven University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-90-5867-239-1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bailey, Donald M. (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). Classical Architecture. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Brooks Hedstrom, Darlene L. (2019), "Archaeology of Early Christianity in Egypt", in Caraher, William R.; Davis, Thomas W.; Pettegrew, David K. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Archaeology, Oxford University Press, pp. 664–684, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199369041.013.21, ISBN 978-0-19-936904-1, retrieved 2021-02-07 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Pfeiffer, Stefan (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Imperial Cult in Egypt. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 84–101. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0007. Retrieved 2021-01-22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Pfeiffer, Stefan (2019), "A Successful Ruler and Imperial Cult", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 429–438, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch27, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn Ritner, Robert K. (1998). "Egypt under Roman rule: the legacy of ancient Egypt". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). Islamic Egypt 640–1517. The Cambridge History of Egypt. 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1017/chol9780521471374.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05337-2. Retrieved 2021-01-26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Naether, Franziska (2019), "New Deities and New Habits", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 439–447, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch28, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ Sippel, Benjamin (2020). Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: Das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 52–58, 208–227. ISBN 978-3-447-11485-1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Vandorpe, Katelijn; Clarysse, Willy (2019), "Cults, Creeds, and Clergy in a Multicultural Context", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 405–427, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch26, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ Kaper, Olaf E. (2010), "9. Galba's Cartouches at Ain Birbiyeh", in Lembke, Katja; Minas-Nerpel, Martina; Pfeiffer, Stefan (eds.), Tradition and Transformation. Egypt under Roman Rule. Proceedings of the International Conference, Hildesheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, 3–6 July 2008, BRILL, pp. 181–201, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004183353.i-508.38, ISBN 978-90-04-18335-3, retrieved 2021-02-11 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Choat, Malcolm (2012). "Christianity". In Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 475–490. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0029. ^ Kevin Shillington, History of Africa ^ "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2011-12-14. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire" ^ a b Gwynn, David M. (2015). Christianity in the Later Roman Empire: A Sourcebook. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-4411-0626-1. ^ Fowden, Garth (1993). The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-691-02498-1. ^ Yuri Marano (2012). "Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople (now in Venice). Early sixth century". Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford. ^ a b Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013 ^ Frye, pp. 167–70[full citation needed] ^ Walter, Kaegi (1992). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0521411721. Further reading[edit] Angold, Michael. 2001. Byzantium : the bridge from antiquity to the Middle Ages. 1st US Edition. New York : St. Martin's Press Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC–AD 642; From Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press Bowman, Alan K. and Dominic Rathbone. “Cities and Administration in Roman Egypt.” The Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992): 107–127. Database on-line. JSTOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27, 2008 Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press El-Abbadi, M.A.H. “The Gerousia in Roman Egypt.” The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50 (December 1964): 164–169. Database on-line. JSTOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27, 2008. Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Aylesbury: Shire Publications Ltd. Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. [1] Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft annotated English translation. [2] Hölbl, Günther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge Ltd. Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 395–421 Peacock, David. 2000. "The Roman Period (30 BC–AD 311)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 422–445 Riggs, Christina, ed. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957145-1. Rowlandson, Jane. 1996. Landowners and Tenants in Roman Egypt: The social relations of agriculture in the Oxyrhynchite nome. Oxford University Press Rowlandson, Jane. 1998. (ed) Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press. Sippel, Benjamin. 2020. Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: Das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz (Philippika 144). ISBN 978-3-447-11485-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Egypt. Detailed Map of Aegyptus v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Egypt topics History Chronology Prehistoric Ancient topics Achaemenid 27th Dynasty 31st Dynasty Ptolemaic Battle of Actium Lighthouse of Alexandria Roman Diocese of Egypt Library of Alexandria Christian Sassanid Muslim Muslim conquest Islamization Fustat Tulunid dynasty Ikhshidid dynasty Fatimid Caliphate Crusader invasions Ayyubid dynasty Mamluk Sultanate Mamluk Ottoman Egypt Eyalet Muhammad Ali dynasty Nahda Khedivate Ethiopian–Egyptian War ʻUrabi revolt Modern French occupation Revolt of Cairo British occupation 1919 revolution World War II Sultanate Kingdom 1948 Arab–Israeli War Republic Nasser era 1952 coup d'état Land reform Suez Crisis United Arab Republic Six-Day War Sadat era Yom Kippur War Egyptian–Libyan War Assassination of Anwar Sadat Mubarak era 2010s Crisis 2013 Rabaa massacre By topic Anarchism Capital Cigarette industry Constitution Copts Genetic Healthcare Jews Muslim Brotherhood 1928–1938 1939–1954 1954–present Parliament Population Postal Saladin Timekeeping devices By city Alexandria Cairo Port Said Geography Biota Borders Cities Climate Deserts Earthquakes Environmental issues Fossils Geology Halfaya Pass Islands Lakes Mountains Mount Sinai Nile Delta Northern coast Oases Qattara Depression Red Sea Riviera Rivers Nile Sinai Peninsula Suez Canal Towns and villages Wadis Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Governorates Postal codes Civil Code Conflicts Conscription Constitution Elections Foreign relations Missions Islamic extremism Judiciary Law enforcement Massacres Military Supreme Council Nationality law Parliament Passport Political parties President list Prime Minister list Proposed new capital Refugees of the Syrian civil war Terrorism Terrorism and tourism Twin towns and sister cities Economy Agriculture Banking National Bank Companies Economic regions Egyptian stock exchange Egyptian pound Energy Entrepreneurship policies Fishing Impact on the environment Lighthouses Military industry Mining Mines Nuclear program Power stations Aswan Dam Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces Tallest buildings Telecommunications Internet Tourism Cultural tourism Transport Airlines Airports Railway stations Water supply and sanitation Water resources management Society General Abortion Animal welfare Billionaires Cannabis Capital punishment Censuses Corruption Crime Human trafficking Mass sexual assault Rape Demographics Diaspora Education Academic grading Law schools Medical schools Schools Universities Families Abaza family Feminism Gender inequality Health Healthcare Hospitals Homelessness Human rights Freedom of religion LGBT rights International rankings Languages Egyptian Arabic Saʽidi Arabic Sign Language Liberalism Literature Prostitution Religion Baháʼí Blasphemy law Christianity Catholic dioceses Coptic Churches Hinduism Identification card controversy Irreligion Islam Ahmadiyya Mosques Niqāb Judaism Synagogues Scientology Smoking Units of measurement Vehicle registration plates Women Culture Art Botanical gardens Castles Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Beer Wine Films Flag list regions Football Football clubs Football stadiums Egyptians Mass media Magazines Newspapers Radio TV Museums Music National anthem Olympics Public holidays World Heritage Sites Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. 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en-wikipedia-org-3213	----	Euphrates - Wikipedia Euphrates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Major river in Western Asia This article is about the river in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see Euphrates (disambiguation). Euphrates The Euphrates near Urfa (Turkey) Map of the combined Tigris–Euphrates drainage basin (in yellow) Etymology from Greek, from Old Persian Ufrātu, from Elamite ú-ip-ra-tu-iš Location Country Turkey, Iraq, Syria Basin area Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran Cities Birecik, Raqqa, Deir ez-Zor, Mayadin, Haditha, Ramadi, Habbaniyah, Fallujah, Kufa, Samawah, Nasiriyah Physical characteristics Source    • location Murat Su, Turkey  • elevation 3,520 m (11,550 ft) 2nd source    • location Kara Su, Turkey  • elevation 3,290 m (10,790 ft) Source confluence    • location Keban, Turkey  • elevation 610 m (2,000 ft) Mouth Shatt al-Arab  • location Al-Qurnah, Basra Governorate, Iraq  • coordinates 31°0′18″N 47°26′31″E / 31.00500°N 47.44194°E / 31.00500; 47.44194Coordinates: 31°0′18″N 47°26′31″E / 31.00500°N 47.44194°E / 31.00500; 47.44194 Length Approx. 2,800 km (1,700 mi) Basin size Approx. 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi) Discharge    • location Hīt  • average 356 m3/s (12,600 cu ft/s)  • minimum 58 m3/s (2,000 cu ft/s)  • maximum 2,514 m3/s (88,800 cu ft/s) Basin features River system Tigris–Euphrates river system Tributaries    • left Balikh, Khabur  • right Sajur The Euphrates (/juːˈfreɪtiːz/ (listen)) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (the "Land Between the Rivers"). Originating in the Armenian Highlands of eastern Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Course 2.1 Discharge 2.2 Tributaries 3 Drainage basin 4 Natural history 5 River 5.1 Environmental and social effects 6 History 6.1 Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods 6.2 Ancient history 6.3 Modern era 7 Economy 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Etymology[edit] The Ancient Greek form Euphrátēs (Ancient Greek: Εὐφράτης, as if from Greek εὖ "good" and ϕράζω "I announce or declare") was adapted from Old Persian 𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢 Ufrātu,[1] itself from Elamite 𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖 ú-ip-ra-tu-iš. The Elamite name is ultimately derived from a name spelt in cuneiform as 𒌓𒄒𒉣 , which read as Sumerian language is "Buranuna" and read as Akkadian language is "Purattu"; many cuneiform signs have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same. In Akkadian the river was called Purattu,[2] which has been perpetuated in Semitic languages (cf. Arabic: الفرات‎, romanized: al-Furāt; Syriac: ̇ܦܪܬ‎ Pǝrāt) and in other nearby languages of the time (cf. Hurrian Puranti, Sabarian Uruttu). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded substrate language.[3] Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov suggest the Proto-Sumerian *burudu "copper" (Sumerian urudu) as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.[4] The name is Yeprat in Armenian (Եփրատ), Perat in Hebrew (פרת), Fırat in Turkish and Firat in Kurdish. The earliest references to the Euphrates come from cuneiform texts found in Shuruppak and pre-Sargonic Nippur in southern Iraq and date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called Buranuna (logographic: UD.KIB.NUN). The name could also be written KIB.NUN.(NA) or dKIB.NUN, with the prefix "d" indicating that the river was a divinity. In Sumerian, the name of the city of Sippar in modern-day Iraq was also written UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river. Course[edit] The Euphrates is the longest river of Western Asia.[5] It emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su or Western Euphrates (450 kilometres (280 mi)) and the Murat Su or Eastern Euphrates (650 kilometres (400 mi)) 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) upstream from the town of Keban in southeastern Turkey.[6] Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the Tigris at 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), of which 1,230 kilometres (760 mi) is in Turkey, 710 kilometres (440 mi) in Syria and 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) in Iraq.[7][8] The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova.[9] The length of the Shatt al-Arab, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the Persian Gulf, is given by various sources as 145–195 kilometres (90–121 mi).[10] Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from Lake Van at elevations of 3,290 metres (10,790 ft) and 3,520 metres (11,550 ft) amsl, respectively.[11] At the location of the Keban Dam, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of 693 metres (2,274 ft) amsl. From Keban to the Syrian–Turkish border, the river drops another 368 metres (1,207 ft) over a distance of less than 600 kilometres (370 mi). Once the Euphrates enters the Upper Mesopotamian plains, its grade drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163 metres (535 ft) while over the last stretch between Hīt and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only 55 metres (180 ft).[6][12] Discharge[edit] The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. Discharge in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn.[9][13] The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as 20.9 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) at Keban, 36.6 cubic kilometres (8.8 cu mi) at Hīt and 21.5 cubic kilometres (5.2 cu mi) at Hindiya.[14] However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at Birecik, just north of the Syro–Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to a high of 42.7 cubic kilometres (10.2 cu mi) in 1963.[15] The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 cubic metres (12,600 cu ft) per second (11.2 cubic kilometres (2.7 cu mi) per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7,510 cubic metres (265,000 cu ft) per second, while after 1990 it is only 2,514 cubic metres (88,800 cu ft) per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 cubic metres (1,900 cu ft) per second before 1990 to 58 cubic metres (2,000 cu ft) per second afterward.[16][17] Tributaries[edit] View of the Murat River In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the Sajur, the Balikh and the Khabur. These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro–Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin Dam. The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around Ra's al-'Ayn, from where the Khabur flows southeast past Al-Hasakah, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near Busayrah. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.[18][19] Name Length Watershed size Discharge Bank Kara Su 450 km (280 mi) 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi) Confluence Murat River 650 km (400 mi) 40,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi) Confluence Sajur River 108 km (67 mi) 2,042 km2 (788 sq mi) 4.1 m3/s (145 cu ft/s) Right Balikh River 100 km (62 mi) 14,400 km2 (5,600 sq mi) 6 m3/s (212 cu ft/s) Left Khabur River 486 km (302 mi) 37,081 km2 (14,317 sq mi) 45 m3/s (1,600 cu ft/s) Left Drainage basin[edit] French map from the 17th century showing the Euphrates and the Tigris Further information: Tigris–Euphrates river system The drainage basins of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi) and 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), respectively.[6] Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low 233,000 square kilometres (90,000 sq mi) to a high 766,000 square kilometres (296,000 sq mi).[9] Recent estimates put the basin area at 388,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi),[6] 444,000 square kilometres (171,000 sq mi)[7][20] and 579,314 square kilometres (223,674 sq mi).[21] The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent.[7][8] Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively.[9] Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within Saudi Arabia, while a small part falls inside the borders of Kuwait.[7][8] Finally, some sources also include Jordan in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert (220 square kilometres (85 sq mi)) drains toward the east rather than to the west.[9][22] Natural history[edit] See also: Mesopotamian Marshes Rafetus euphraticus The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct vegetation zones. Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a xeric woodland. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various oaks, pistachio trees, and Rosaceae (rose/plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and Rosaceae. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including einkorn wheat, emmer wheat, oat and rye.[23] South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-steppe vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by white wormwood (Artemisia herba-alba) and Chenopodiaceae. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of sheep and goat pastoralism by its inhabitants.[24] Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true desert. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of Chenopodiaceae or Poa sinaica. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a riverine forest. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the Oriental plane, the Euphrates poplar, the tamarisk, the ash and various wetland plants.[25] Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of the Cyprinidae are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total.[26] Among the Cyprinids, the mangar has good sport fishing qualities, leading the British to nickname it "Tigris salmon." The Rafetus euphraticus is an endangered soft-shelled turtle that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.[27][28] The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict lion and bull hunts in fertile landscapes.[29] Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like gazelle, onager and the now-extinct Arabian ostrich lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the wild boar. Carnivorous species include the gray wolf, the golden jackal, the red fox, the leopard and the lion. The Syrian brown bear can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of European beaver has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of Abu Hureyra in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.[30] River[edit] Main articles: Dams in Iraq, Tabqa Dam, and Southeastern Anatolia Project Map (in French) showing the locations of dams and barrages built in the Syro–Turkish part of the Euphrates basin The Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system.[31] The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah. Iraq's largest dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam; a 9-kilometre-long (5.6 mi) earth-fill dam creating Lake Qadisiyah.[32] Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia Project, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the Baath Dam and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the Halabiye Dam – between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor.[33] The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam and its reservoir (Lake Assad) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only 100,000–124,000 hectares (390–480 sq mi) had been realized.[34][35] Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.[36] With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (Turkish: Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, or GAP) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces.[37] GAP affects a total area of 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1,700,000 hectares (6,600 sq mi) of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey.[38] C. 910,000 hectares (3,500 sq mi) of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin.[39] By far the largest dam in GAP is the Atatürk Dam, located c. 55 kilometres (34 mi) northwest of Şanlıurfa. This 184-metre-high (604 ft) and 1,820-metre-long (5,970 ft) dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 cubic kilometres (11.7 cu mi), the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates.[40] Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the World Bank has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.[41] Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Tharthar, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the Shatt al-Hayy, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called "Third River;" constructed between 1953 and 1992. This 565-kilometre-long (351 mi) canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of Baghdad to prevent soil salinization from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.[42][43][44] Environmental and social effects[edit] See also: Environmental impact of reservoirs Keban Dam in Turkey, the first dam on the Euphrates after it emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su and the Murat Su Qal'at Ja'bar in Syria, once perched on a hilltop overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding of Lake Assad The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people.[45] A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient.[46] The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "Arab belt" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.[47][48][49] Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased evaporation; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) in Turkey, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) in Syria and 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) in Iraq.[50] Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields.[51] The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water.[52] The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile Mesopotamian Marshes and on freshwater fish habitats in Iraq.[53][54] The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many archaeological sites and other places of cultural significance.[55] Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered cultural heritage as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of Zeugma with its unique Roman mosaics by the reservoir of the Birecik Dam has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press.[56][57] The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by UNESCO to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the Natufian to the Abbasid period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include Mureybet, Emar and Abu Hureyra.[58] A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Jerf el-Ahmar.[59] An archaeological survey and rescue excavations were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq.[60] Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for looting, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the 2003 invasion.[61] History[edit] Further information: History of Mesopotamia and History of Iraq A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods[edit] The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the Fertile Crescent. Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe; the latter together with remains of Homo erectus that were dated to 450,000 years old.[62][63] In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by hunter-gatherers but later by some of the earliest farmers, Jerf el-Ahmar, Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward.[64] In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.[65] Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area.[66] Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including Tell es-Sawwan.[67] During the 5th millennium BCE, or late Ubaid period, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares (25 acres).[68] In Iraq, sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period.[69] Clay boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period.[70] The Uruk period, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over 100 hectares (250 acres) in size and displayed monumental architecture.[71] The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. Habuba Kabira on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.[72][73] Ancient history[edit] During the Jemdet Nasr (3600–3100 BCE) and Early Dynastic periods (3100–2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including Sumero-Akkadian sites like Sippar, Uruk, Adab and Kish, were organized in competing city-states.[74] Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from remote sensing imagery.[75] A similar development took place in Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu and Assyria, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like Ebla, Mari and Tell Leilan grew to prominence for the first time during this period.[76] Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) and Ur III empires, which controlled – either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria.[77] Following their collapse, the Old Assyrian Empire (1975–1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like Isin, Kish and Larsa before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of Babylonia under Hammurabi in the early to mid 18th century BCE.[78] In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni, Assyria and the Hittite Empire in the north, with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians.[79] Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.[80] In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived Median Empire (612–546 BC) and equally brief Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the Achaemenid Empire (539–333 BC).[81] The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by Alexander the Great, who defeated the last king Darius III and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.[82] Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire (312–150 BC), Parthian Empire (150–226 AD) (during which several Neo-Assyrian states such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the Roman Empire, its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire (226–638 AD), until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD. The Battle of Karbala took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD. In the north, the river served as a border between Greater Armenia (331 BC–428 AD) and Lesser Armenia (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC). Modern era[edit] See also: Water politics in the Middle East Wooden bridge carrying the Baghdad Railway over the Euphrates, ca. 1900–1910 After World War I, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), when the Ottoman Empire was partitioned. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, France for its Syrian mandate and the United Kingdom for its mandate of Iraq) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation.[83] An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.[84] Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the world The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932 to 1959. Euphrates near Kahta Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates – the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.[85][86] A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's hydroelectricity production.[87] In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second, or 16 cubic kilometres (3.8 cu mi) per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries.[88] Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey.[84][86][89] In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect.[90] On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border.[91] This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of water per second at the Turkish–Syrian border.[92] Euphrates in Iraq, 2005 During the Syrian civil war and the Iraqi Civil War, much of the Euphrates was controlled by the Islamic State from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in Syria at the Battle of Baghouz and in Iraq in the Western Iraq offensive respectively.[93] Economy[edit] See also: List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large hydropower stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of Aleppo, 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the west of the river valley.[94] The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry.[95] Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.[96] Notes[edit] ^ Negev & Gibson 2001, p. 169 ^ Woods 2005 ^ Witzel, Michael (2006). "Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Substrates, Migrations and Trade" (PDF). In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. University of Hawai'i Press. ^ Gamkrelidze, Thomas; V. Ivanov, Vjaceslav (1995), Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture, Walter de Gruyter, p. 616, ISBN 9783110815030 ^ Zarins 1997, p. 287 ^ a b c d Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a, p. 71 ^ a b c d Daoudy 2005, p. 63 ^ a b c Frenken 2009, p. 65 ^ a b c d e Isaev & Mikhailova 2009, p. 384 ^ Isaev & Mikhailova 2009, p. 388 ^ Mutin 2003, p. 2 ^ Bilen 1994, p. 100 ^ Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a, p. 91 ^ Isaev & Mikhailova 2009, p. 385 ^ Kolars 1994, p. 47 ^ Isaev & Mikhailova 2009, p. 386 ^ Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a, p. 94 ^ Hillel 1994, p. 95 ^ Hole & Zaitchik 2007 ^ Shahin 2007, p. 251 ^ Partow 2001, p. 4 ^ Frenken 2009, p. 63 ^ Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000, pp. 52–58 ^ Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000, pp. 63–65 ^ Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000, pp. 69–71 ^ Coad 1996 ^ Gray 1864, pp. 81–82 ^ Naval Intelligence Division 1944, pp. 203–205 ^ Thomason 2001 ^ Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000, pp. 85–91 ^ Kliot 1994, p. 117 ^ Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006b, pp. 20–21 ^ Jamous 2009 ^ Elhadj 2008 ^ Mutin 2003, p. 4 ^ Mutin 2003, p. 5 ^ Kolars & Mitchell 1991, p. 17 ^ Jongerden 2010, p. 138 ^ Frenken 2009, p. 62 ^ Isaev & Mikhailova 2009, pp. 383–384 ^ Jongerden 2010, p. 139 ^ Kolars 1994, p. 53 ^ Daoudy 2005, p. 127 ^ Hillel 1994, p. 100 ^ Sahan et al. 2001, p. 10 ^ Sahan et al. 2001, p. 11 ^ Anonymous 2009, p. 11 ^ McDowall 2004, p. 475 ^ Hillel 1994, p. 107 ^ Hillel 1994, p. 103 ^ Frenken 2009, p. 212 ^ Rahi & Halihan 2009 ^ Jawad 2003 ^ Muir 2009 ^ McClellan 1997 ^ Tanaka 2007 ^ Steele 2005, pp. 52–53 ^ Bounni 1979 ^ del Olmo Lete & Montero Fenollós 1999 ^ Abdul-Amir 1988 ^ Garcia-Navarro 2009 ^ Muhesen 2002, p. 102 ^ Schmid et al. 1997 ^ Sagona & Zimansky 2009, pp. 49–54 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 74 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 110 ^ Helbaek 1972 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, pp. 163–166 ^ Oates 1960 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, pp. 167–168 ^ Ur, Karsgaard & Oates 2007 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 203 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, pp. 38–39 ^ Adams 1981 ^ Hritz & Wilkinson 2006 ^ Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 233 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 63 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 111 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 132 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 241 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 270 ^ van de Mieroop 2007, p. 287 ^ Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne, World War I Document Archive, retrieved 19 December 2010 ^ a b Geopolicity 2010, pp. 11–12 ^ Shapland 1997, pp. 117–118 ^ a b Kaya 1998 ^ Kolars 1994, p. 49 ^ Daoudy 2005, pp. 169–170 ^ Daoudy 2005, pp. 172 ^ Geopolicity 2010, p. 16 ^ Anjarini, Suhaib (30 May 2014). "A new Turkish aggression against Syria: Ankara suspends pumping Euphrates' water". Al Akhbar. Archived from the original on 16 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2014. ^ Eupherates of Syria Cut Off by Turkey. 30 May 2014 – via YouTube. ^ "Mideast Water Wars: In Iraq, A Battle for Control of Water". Yale E360. Retrieved 7 February 2020. ^ Shapland 1997, p. 110 ^ Krouma 2006 ^ O'Hara 2004, p. 3 References[edit] Abdul-Amir, Sabah Jasim (1988), Archaeological Survey of Ancient Settlements and Irrigation Systems in the Middle Euphrates Region of Mesopotamia (PhD thesis), Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, OCLC 615058488 Adams, Robert McC. (1981), Heartland of Cities. Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-00544-5 Akkermans, Peter M. M. G.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (2003), The Archaeology of Syria. 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(ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East, 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 287–290, ISBN 0-19-506512-3 External links[edit] Media related to Euphrates at Wikimedia Commons Old maps of the Euphrates, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Fertile Crescent Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Hammurabi Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim 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en-wikipedia-org-3228	----	Niccolò Machiavelli - Wikipedia Niccolò Machiavelli From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian politician, writer and author "Machiavelli" redirects here. For other uses, see Machiavelli (disambiguation). Niccolò Machiavelli Portrait of Machiavelli by Santi di Tito Born 3 May 1469 Florence, Republic of Florence Died 21 June 1527(1527-06-21) (aged 58) Florence, Republic of Florence Notable work The Prince, Discourses on Livy Spouse(s) Marietta Corsini ​ (m. 1502)​ Era Renaissance philosophy Region Western philosophy School Classical realism Republicanism Main interests Politics and political philosophy, military theory, history Notable ideas Classical realism, virtù, multitude, national interest Influences Xenophon, Plutarch, Petrarch, Tacitus, Polybius, Sallust, Livy, Thucydides, Dante Alighieri, Ibn Khaldun Influenced Political realism, Bacon, Hobbes, Harrington, Rousseau,[1] Vico, Spinoza, Edward Gibbon, David Hume, John Adams, Marquis de Sade,[2] Vincenzo Cuoco, Hegel, Nietzsche, Pareto, Gramsci, Althusser, T. Schelling, Negri, Waltz, Denis Diderot,[3] Carl Schmitt, Giulio Andreotti, Philip Pettit, Strauss, Weber,[4] Sismondi Signature Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (/ˌmækiəˈvɛli/, also US: /ˌmɑːk-/; Italian: [nikkoˈlɔ makjaˈvɛlli]; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine diplomat, philosopher, politician, historian and writer who lived during the Renaissance. He is best known for The Prince (Il Principe), written about 1513.[5] He has often been called the father of modern political philosophy and political science.[6] For many years he served as a senior official in the Florentine Republic with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is of high importance to historians and scholars.[7] He worked as secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. Machiavelli's name came to evoke unscrupulous acts of the sort he advised most famously in The Prince.[8] His experience showed him that politics have always been played with deception, treachery and crime.[9] He also notably said that a ruler who is establishing a kingdom or a republic, and is criticized for his deeds, including violence, should be excused when the intention and the result is beneficial.[10][11][12] Machiavelli's Prince was much read as a manuscript long before it was published in 1532 and the reaction was mixed. Some considered it a straightforward description of the evil means used by bad rulers; others read in it evil recommendations to tyrants to help them maintain their power.[13] Many scholars, such as Leo Strauss, stated that Machiavelli was a "teacher of evil".[14] The term Machiavellian often connotes political deceit, deviousness, and realpolitik. Even though Machiavelli has become most famous for his work on principalities, scholars also give attention to the exhortations in his other works of political philosophy. While much less well known than The Prince, the Discourses on Livy (composed c. 1517) is often said to have paved the way of modern republicanism.[15] Contents 1 Life 2 Major works 2.1 The Prince 2.2 Discourses on Livy 3 Originality 3.1 Coherence 3.2 Influences 4 Beliefs 4.1 Empiricism and realism versus idealism 4.2 Fortune 4.3 Religion 4.4 Positive side to factional and individual vice 4.5 Machiavellian 5 Influence 5.1 20th century 5.2 Revival of interest in the comedies 5.3 In popular culture 6 Works 6.1 Political and historical works 6.2 Fictional works 6.3 Other works 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Sources 9 Further reading 9.1 Biographies 9.2 Political thought 9.3 Italian studies 9.4 Editions 10 External links Life[edit] See also: Timeline of Niccolò Machiavelli Oil painting of Machiavelli by Cristofano dell'Altissimo Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the third child and first son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli.[16] The Machiavelli family is believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice,[17] one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months and who formed the government, or Signoria; but he was never a full citizen of Florence because of the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time even under the republican regime. Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini in 1502.[18] Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era in which popes waged acquisitive wars against Italian city-states, and people and cities often fell from power as France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire battled for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri (mercenary leaders), who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments.[19] Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin. It is thought that he did not learn Greek even though Florence was at the time one of the centers of Greek scholarship in Europe.[citation needed] In 1494 Florence restored the republic, expelling the Medici family that had ruled Florence for some sixty years. Shortly after the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was appointed to an office of the second chancery, a medieval writing office that put Machiavelli in charge of the production of official Florentine government documents.[20] Shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the Dieci di Libertà e Pace. In the first decade of the sixteenth century, he carried out several diplomatic missions, most notably to the Papacy in Rome. Florence sent him to Pistoia to pacify the leaders of two opposing factions which had broken into riots in 1501 and 1502; when this failed, the leaders were banished from the city, a strategy which Machiavelli had favored from the outset.[21] From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of Cesare Borgia (1475–1507) and his father, Pope Alexander VI, who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of Central Italy under their possession.[22] The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a partial justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as The Prince. At the start of the 16th century, Machiavelli conceived of a militia for Florence, and he then began recruiting and creating it.[23] He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust that he explained in his official reports and then later in his theoretical works for their unpatriotic and uninvested nature in the war that makes their allegiance fickle and often unreliable when most needed),[24] and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy that was to be repeatedly successful. By February 1506 he was able to have marching on parade four hundred farmers, suited (including iron breastplates), and armed with lances and small fire arms.[23] Under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509.[25] Machiavelli's tomb in the Santa Croce Church in Florence Machiavelli's success did not last. In August 1512 the Medici, backed by Pope Julius II, used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato.[26] In the wake of the siege, Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and left in exile. The experience would, like Machiavelli's time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, heavily influence his political writings. The Florentine city-state and the republic were dissolved, and Machiavelli was deprived of office and banished from the city for a year.[27] In 1513, the Medici accused him of conspiracy against them and had him imprisoned.[28] Despite being subjected to torture[27] ("with the rope", in which the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight and dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released after three weeks. Machiavelli then retired to his farm estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina, near San Casciano in Val di Pesa, where he devoted himself to studying and writing his political treatises. He visited places in France, Germany, and Italy where he had represented the Florentine republic.[27] Despairing of the opportunity to remain directly involved in political matters, after a time, he began to participate in intellectual groups in Florence and wrote several plays that (unlike his works on political theory) were both popular and widely known in his lifetime. Politics remained his main passion and, to satisfy this interest, he maintained a well-known correspondence with more politically connected friends, attempting to become involved once again in political life.[29] In a letter to Francesco Vettori, he described his experience: When evening comes, I go back home, and go to my study. On the threshold, I take off my work clothes, covered in mud and filth, and I put on the clothes an ambassador would wear. Decently dressed, I enter the ancient courts of rulers who have long since died. There, I am warmly welcomed, and I feed on the only food I find nourishing and was born to savour. I am not ashamed to talk to them and ask them to explain their actions and they, out of kindness, answer me. Four hours go by without my feeling any anxiety. I forget every worry. I am no longer afraid of poverty or frightened of death. I live entirely through them.[30] Machiavelli died in 1527 at 58 after receiving his last rites.[31] He was buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. An epitaph honouring him is inscribed on his monument. The Latin legend reads: TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM ("So great a name (has) no adequate praise" or "No eulogy (would be) a match for such a great name"). Major works[edit] The Prince[edit] Main article: The Prince Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici to whom the final version of The Prince was dedicated Machiavelli's best-known book Il Principe contains several maxims concerning politics. Instead of the more traditional target audience of a hereditary prince, it concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince". To retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully balance the interests of a variety of institutions to which the people are accustomed.[32] By contrast, a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling: He must first stabilise his newfound power in order to build an enduring political structure. Machiavelli suggests that the social benefits of stability and security can be achieved in the face of moral corruption. Machiavelli believed that public and private morality had to be understood as two different things in order to rule well.[citation needed] As a result, a ruler must be concerned not only with reputation, but also must be positively willing to act unscrupulously at the right times. Machiavelli believed that, for a ruler, it was better to be widely feared than to be greatly loved; a loved ruler retains authority by obligation, while a feared leader rules by fear of punishment.[33] As a political theorist, Machiavelli emphasized the "necessity" for the methodical exercise of brute force or deceit, including extermination of entire noble families, to head off any chance of a challenge to the prince's authority.[34] Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies instrumentality in state building, an approach embodied by the saying, often attributed to interpretations of The Prince, "The ends justify the means".[35] Fraud and deceit are held by Machiavelli as necessary for a prince to use.[36] Violence may be necessary for the successful stabilization of power and introduction of new political institutions. Force may be used to eliminate political rivals, to destroy resistant populations, and to purge the community of other men strong enough of a character to rule, who will inevitably attempt to replace the ruler.[37] Machiavelli has become infamous for such political advice, ensuring that he would be remembered in history through the adjective, "Machiavellian".[38] Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, the Catholic Church banned The Prince, putting it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. Humanists also viewed the book negatively, including Erasmus of Rotterdam. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political realism and political idealism, due to it being a manual on acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli insisted that an imaginary ideal society is not a model by which a prince should orient himself. Concerning the differences and similarities in Machiavelli's advice to ruthless and tyrannical princes in The Prince and his more republican exhortations in Discourses on Livy, few assert that The Prince, although written as advice for a monarchical prince, contains arguments for the superiority of republican regimes, similar to those found in the Discourses. In the 18th century, the work was even called a satire, for example by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.[39][40] Scholars such as Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield have stated that sections of The Prince and his other works have deliberately esoteric statements throughout them.[41] However, Mansfield states that this is the result of Machiavelli's seeing grave and serious things as humorous because they are "manipulable by men", and sees them as grave because they "answer human necessities".[42] Another interpretation is that of Antonio Gramsci, who argued that Machiavelli's audience for this work was not even the ruling class, but the common people, because rulers already knew these methods through their education. Discourses on Livy[edit] Main article: Discourses on Livy The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, written around 1517, published in 1531, often referred to simply as the Discourses or Discorsi, is nominally a discussion regarding the classical history of early Ancient Rome, although it strays very far from this subject matter and also uses contemporary political examples to illustrate points. Machiavelli presents it as a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured. It is a much larger work than The Prince, and while it more openly explains the advantages of republics, it also contains many similar themes from his other works.[43] For example, Machiavelli has noted that to save a republic from corruption, it is necessary to return it to a "kingly state" using violent means.[44] He excuses Romulus for murdering his brother Remus and co-ruler Titus Tatius to gain absolute power for himself in that he established a "civil way of life".[45] Commentators disagree about how much the two works agree with each other, as Machiavelli frequently refers to leaders of republics as "princes".[46] Machiavelli even sometimes acts as an advisor to tyrants.[47][48] Other scholars have pointed out the aggrandizing and imperialistic features of Machiavelli's republic.[49] Nevertheless, it became one of the central texts of modern republicanism, and has often been argued to be a more comprehensive work than The Prince.[50] Originality[edit] Engraved portrait of Machiavelli, from the Peace Palace Library's Il Principe, published in 1769 Commentators have taken very different approaches to Machiavelli and not always agreed. Major discussion has tended to be about two issues: first, how unified and philosophical his work is, and second, concerning how innovative or traditional it is.[51] Coherence[edit] There is some disagreement concerning how best to describe the unifying themes, if there are any, that can be found in Machiavelli's works, especially in the two major political works, The Prince and Discourses. Some commentators have described him as inconsistent, and perhaps as not even putting a high priority in consistency.[51] Others such as Hans Baron have argued that his ideas must have changed dramatically over time. Some have argued that his conclusions are best understood as a product of his times, experiences and education. Others, such as Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield, have argued strongly that there is a very strong and deliberate consistency and distinctness, even arguing that this extends to all of Machiavelli's works including his comedies and letters.[51][52] Influences[edit] Commentators such as Leo Strauss have gone so far as to name Machiavelli as the deliberate originator of modernity itself. Others have argued that Machiavelli is only a particularly interesting example of trends which were happening around him. In any case Machiavelli presented himself at various times as someone reminding Italians of the old virtues of the Romans and Greeks, and other times as someone promoting a completely new approach to politics.[51] That Machiavelli had a wide range of influences is in itself not controversial. Their relative importance is however a subject of on-going discussion. It is possible to summarize some of the main influences emphasized by different commentators. I. The Mirror of Princes genre Gilbert (1938) summarized the similarities between The Prince and the genre it obviously imitates, the so-called "Mirror of Princes" style. This was a classically influenced genre, with models at least as far back as Xenophon and Isocrates. While Gilbert emphasized the similarities, however, he agreed with all other commentators that Machiavelli was particularly novel in the way he used this genre, even when compared to his contemporaries such as Baldassare Castiglione and Erasmus. One of the major innovations Gilbert noted was that Machiavelli focused upon the "deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom". Normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. (Xenophon is also an exception in this regard.) II. Classical republicanism Commentators such as Quentin Skinner and J.G.A. Pocock, in the so-called "Cambridge School" of interpretation, have asserted that some of the republican themes in Machiavelli's political works, particularly the Discourses on Livy, can be found in medieval Italian literature which was influenced by classical authors such as Sallust.[53][54] III. Classical political philosophy: Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle Xenophon, author of the Cyropedia The Socratic school of classical political philosophy, especially Aristotle, had become a major influence upon European political thinking in the late Middle Ages. It existed both in the Catholicised form presented by Thomas Aquinas, and in the more controversial "Averroist" form of authors like Marsilius of Padua. Machiavelli was critical of Catholic political thinking and may have been influenced by Averroism. But he rarely cites Plato and Aristotle, and most likely did not approve of them. Leo Strauss argued that the strong influence of Xenophon, a student of Socrates more known as an historian, rhetorician and soldier, was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli, sometimes not in line with Aristotle. While interest in Plato was increasing in Florence during Machiavelli's lifetime, Machiavelli does not show particular interest in him, but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as Polybius, Plutarch and Cicero. The major difference between Machiavelli and the Socratics, according to Strauss, is Machiavelli's materialism, and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. With their teleological understanding of things, Socratics argued that desirable things tend to happen by nature, as if nature desired them, but Machiavelli claimed that such things happen by blind chance or human action.[55] IV. Classical materialism Strauss argued that Machiavelli may have seen himself as influenced by some ideas from classical materialists such as Democritus, Epicurus and Lucretius. Strauss however sees this also as a sign of major innovation in Machiavelli, because classical materialists did not share the Socratic regard for political life, while Machiavelli clearly did.[55] V. Thucydides Some scholars note the similarity between Machiavelli and the Greek historian Thucydides, since both emphasized power politics.[56][57] Strauss argued that Machiavelli may indeed have been influenced by pre-Socratic philosophers, but he felt it was a new combination: ...contemporary readers are reminded by Machiavelli's teaching of Thucydides; they find in both authors the same "realism," i.e., the same denial of the power of the gods or of justice and the same sensitivity to harsh necessity and elusive chance. Yet Thucydides never calls in question the intrinsic superiority of nobility to baseness, a superiority that shines forth particularly when the noble is destroyed by the base. Therefore Thucydides' History arouses in the reader a sadness which is never aroused by Machiavelli's books. In Machiavelli we find comedies, parodies, and satires but nothing reminding of tragedy. One half of humanity remains outside of his thought. There is no tragedy in Machiavelli because he has no sense of the sacredness of "the common." — Strauss (1958, p. 292) Beliefs[edit] Amongst commentators, there are a few consistently made proposals concerning what was most new in Machiavelli's work. Empiricism and realism versus idealism[edit] Machiavelli is sometimes seen as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist, building generalizations from experience and historical facts, and emphasizing the uselessness of theorizing with the imagination.[51] He emancipated politics from theology and moral philosophy. He undertook to describe simply what rulers actually did and thus anticipated what was later called the scientific spirit in which questions of good and bad are ignored, and the observer attempts to discover only what really happens. — Joshua Kaplan, 2005[58] Machiavelli felt that his early schooling along the lines of a traditional classical education was essentially useless for the purpose of understanding politics. Nevertheless, he advocated intensive study of the past, particularly regarding the founding of a city, which he felt was a key to understanding its later development.[58] Moreover, he studied the way people lived and aimed to inform leaders how they should rule and even how they themselves should live. Machiavelli denies the classical opinion that living virtuously always leads to happiness. For example, Machiavelli viewed misery as "one of the vices that enables a prince to rule."[59] Machiavelli stated that "it would be best to be both loved and feared. But since the two rarely come together, anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved."[60] In much of Machiavelli's work, he often states that the ruler must adopt unsavory policies for the sake of the continuance of his regime. A related and more controversial proposal often made is that he described how to do things in politics in a way which seemed neutral concerning who used the advice—tyrants or good rulers.[51] That Machiavelli strove for realism is not doubted, but for four centuries scholars have debated how best to describe his morality. The Prince made the word Machiavellian a byword for deceit, despotism, and political manipulation. Leo Strauss declared himself inclined toward the traditional view that Machiavelli was self-consciously a "teacher of evil," since he counsels the princes to avoid the values of justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people in preference to the use of cruelty, violence, fear, and deception.[61] Strauss takes up this opinion because he asserted that failure to accept the traditional opinion misses the "intrepidity of his thought" and "the graceful subtlety of his speech."[62] Italian anti-fascist philosopher Benedetto Croce (1925) concludes Machiavelli is simply a "realist" or "pragmatist" who accurately states that moral values in reality do not greatly affect the decisions that political leaders make.[63] German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1946) held that Machiavelli simply adopts the stance of a political scientist—a Galileo of politics—in distinguishing between the "facts" of political life and the "values" of moral judgment.[64] On the other hand, Walter Russell Mead has argued that The Prince's advice presupposes the importance of ideas like legitimacy in making changes to the political system.[65] Fortune[edit] Machiavelli is generally seen as being critical of Christianity as it existed in his time, specifically its effect upon politics, and also everyday life.[66] In his opinion, Christianity, along with the teleological Aristotelianism that the church had come to accept, allowed practical decisions to be guided too much by imaginary ideals and encouraged people to lazily leave events up to providence or, as he would put it, chance, luck or fortune. While Christianity sees modesty as a virtue and pride as sinful, Machiavelli took a more classical position, seeing ambition, spiritedness, and the pursuit of glory as good and natural things, and part of the virtue and prudence that good princes should have. Therefore, while it was traditional to say that leaders should have virtues, especially prudence, Machiavelli's use of the words virtù and prudenza was unusual for his time, implying a spirited and immodest ambition. Mansfield describes his usage of virtu as a "compromise with evil".[67] Famously, Machiavelli argued that virtue and prudence can help a man control more of his future, in the place of allowing fortune to do so. Najemy (1993) has argued that this same approach can be found in Machiavelli's approach to love and desire, as seen in his comedies and correspondence. Najemy shows how Machiavelli's friend Vettori argued against Machiavelli and cited a more traditional understanding of fortune. On the other hand, humanism in Machiavelli's time meant that classical pre-Christian ideas about virtue and prudence, including the possibility of trying to control one's future, were not unique to him. But humanists did not go so far as to promote the extra glory of deliberately aiming to establish a new state, in defiance of traditions and laws. While Machiavelli's approach had classical precedents, it has been argued that it did more than just bring back old ideas and that Machiavelli was not a typical humanist. Strauss (1958) argues that the way Machiavelli combines classical ideas is new. While Xenophon and Plato also described realistic politics and were closer to Machiavelli than Aristotle was, they, like Aristotle, also saw philosophy as something higher than politics. Machiavelli was apparently a materialist who objected to explanations involving formal and final causation, or teleology. Machiavelli's promotion of ambition among leaders while denying any higher standard meant that he encouraged risk-taking, and innovation, most famously the founding of new modes and orders. His advice to princes was therefore certainly not limited to discussing how to maintain a state. It has been argued that Machiavelli's promotion of innovation led directly to the argument for progress as an aim of politics and civilization. But while a belief that humanity can control its own future, control nature, and "progress" has been long-lasting, Machiavelli's followers, starting with his own friend Guicciardini, have tended to prefer peaceful progress through economic development, and not warlike progress. As Harvey Mansfield (1995, p. 74) wrote: "In attempting other, more regular and scientific modes of overcoming fortune, Machiavelli's successors formalized and emasculated his notion of virtue." Machiavelli however, along with some of his classical predecessors, saw ambition and spiritedness, and therefore war, as inevitable and part of human nature. Strauss concludes his 1958 book Thoughts on Machiavelli by proposing that this promotion of progress leads directly to the modern arms race. Strauss argued that the unavoidable nature of such arms races, which have existed before modern times and led to the collapse of peaceful civilizations, provides us with both an explanation of what is most truly dangerous in Machiavelli's innovations, but also the way in which the aims of his immoral innovation can be understood. Religion[edit] Machiavelli shows repeatedly that he saw religion as man-made, and that the value of religion lies in its contribution to social order and the rules of morality must be dispensed with if security requires it.[68][69] In The Prince, the Discourses, and in the Life of Castruccio Castracani, he describes "prophets", as he calls them, like Moses, Romulus, Cyrus the Great, and Theseus (he treated pagan and Christian patriarchs in the same way) as the greatest of new princes, the glorious and brutal founders of the most novel innovations in politics, and men whom Machiavelli assures us have always used a large amount of armed force and murder against their own people.[70] He estimated that these sects last from 1,666 to 3,000 years each time, which, as pointed out by Leo Strauss, would mean that Christianity became due to start finishing about 150 years after Machiavelli.[71] Machiavelli's concern with Christianity as a sect was that it makes men weak and inactive, delivering politics into the hands of cruel and wicked men without a fight.[72] While fear of God can be replaced by fear of the prince, if there is a strong enough prince, Machiavelli felt that having a religion is in any case especially essential to keeping a republic in order. For Machiavelli, a truly great prince can never be conventionally religious himself, but he should make his people religious if he can. According to Strauss (1958, pp. 226–27) he was not the first person to ever explain religion in this way, but his description of religion was novel because of the way he integrated this into his general account of princes. Machiavelli's judgment that governments need religion for practical political reasons was widespread among modern proponents of republics until approximately the time of the French Revolution. This therefore represents a point of disagreement between himself and late modernity.[73] Positive side to factional and individual vice[edit] Despite the classical precedents, which Machiavelli was not the only one to promote in his time, Machiavelli's realism and willingness to argue that good ends justify bad things, is seen as a critical stimulus towards some of the most important theories of modern politics. Firstly, particularly in the Discourses on Livy, Machiavelli is unusual in the positive side he sometimes seems to describe in factionalism in republics. For example, quite early in the Discourses, (in Book I, chapter 4), a chapter title announces that the disunion of the plebs and senate in Rome "kept Rome free". That a community has different components whose interests must be balanced in any good regime is an idea with classical precedents, but Machiavelli's particularly extreme presentation is seen as a critical step towards the later political ideas of both a division of powers or checks and balances, ideas which lay behind the US constitution, as well as many other modern state constitutions. Similarly, the modern economic argument for capitalism, and most modern forms of economics, was often stated in the form of "public virtue from private vices." Also in this case, even though there are classical precedents, Machiavelli's insistence on being both realistic and ambitious, not only admitting that vice exists but being willing to risk encouraging it, is a critical step on the path to this insight. Mansfield however argues that Machiavelli's own aims have not been shared by those he influenced. Machiavelli argued against seeing mere peace and economic growth as worthy aims on their own, if they would lead to what Mansfield calls the "taming of the prince."[74] Machiavellian[edit] Portrait of Gentleman (Cesare Borgia), used as an example of a successful ruler in The Prince Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince, written in 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death. Although he privately circulated The Prince among friends, the only theoretical work to be printed in his lifetime was The Art of War, which was about military science. Since the 16th century, generations of politicians remain attracted and repelled by its neutral acceptance, and also positive encouragement, of the immorality of powerful men, described especially in The Prince but also in his other works. His works are sometimes even said to have contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words politics and politician,[75] and it is sometimes thought that it is because of him that Old Nick became an English term for the Devil.[76] More obviously, the adjective Machiavellian became a term describing a form of politics that is "marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith".[77] Machiavellianism also remains a popular term used casually in political discussions, often as a byword for bare-knuckled political realism.[78][79] While Machiavellianism is notable in the works of Machiavelli, scholars generally agree that his works are complex and have equally influential themes within them. For example, J.G.A. Pocock (1975) saw him as a major source of the republicanism that spread throughout England and North America in the 17th and 18th centuries and Leo Strauss (1958), whose view of Machiavelli is quite different in many ways, had similar remarks about Machiavelli's influence on republicanism and argued that even though Machiavelli was a teacher of evil he had a "grandeur of vision" that led him to advocate immoral actions. Whatever his intentions, which are still debated today, he has become associated with any proposal where "the end justifies the means". For example, Leo Strauss (1987, p. 297) wrote: Machiavelli is the only political thinker whose name has come into common use for designating a kind of politics, which exists and will continue to exist independently of his influence, a politics guided exclusively by considerations of expediency, which uses all means, fair or foul, iron or poison, for achieving its ends—its end being the aggrandizement of one's country or fatherland—but also using the fatherland in the service of the self-aggrandizement of the politician or statesman or one's party. Influence[edit] Statue at the Uffizi To quote Robert Bireley:[80] ...there were in circulation approximately fifteen editions of the Prince and nineteen of the Discourses and French translations of each before they were placed on the Index of Paul IV in 1559, a measure which nearly stopped publication in Catholic areas except in France. Three principal writers took the field against Machiavelli between the publication of his works and their condemnation in 1559 and again by the Tridentine Index in 1564. These were the English cardinal Reginald Pole and the Portuguese bishop Jeronymo Osorio, both of whom lived for many years in Italy, and the Italian humanist and later bishop, Ambrogio Caterino Politi. Machiavelli's ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west, helped by the new technology of the printing press. During the first generations after Machiavelli, his main influence was in non-republican governments. Pole reported that The Prince was spoken of highly by Thomas Cromwell in England and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace.[81] A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor Charles V.[82] In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de' Medici and the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. As Bireley (1990:17) reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers "associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic". In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings.[83] One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli, especially The Prince, was that of the Huguenot, Innocent Gentillet, whose work commonly referred to as Discourse against Machiavelli or Anti Machiavel was published in Geneva in 1576.[84] He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians of his time by saying that his works were the "Koran of the courtiers", that "he is of no reputation in the court of France which hath not Machiavel's writings at the fingers ends".[85] Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done, despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century. This includes the Catholic Counter Reformation writers summarised by Bireley: Giovanni Botero, Justus Lipsius, Carlo Scribani, Adam Contzen, Pedro de Ribadeneira, and Diego Saavedra Fajardo.[86] These authors criticized Machiavelli, but also followed him in many ways. They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation, and even a need for cunning and deceit, but compared to Machiavelli, and like later modernist writers, they emphasized economic progress much more than the riskier ventures of war. These authors tended to cite Tacitus as their source for realist political advice, rather than Machiavelli, and this pretense came to be known as "Tacitism".[87] "Black tacitism" was in support of princely rule, but "red tacitism" arguing the case for republics, more in the original spirit of Machiavelli himself, became increasingly important. Francis Bacon argued the case for what would become modern science which would be based more upon real experience and experimentation, free from assumptions about metaphysics, and aimed at increasing control of nature. He named Machiavelli as a predecessor. Modern materialist philosophy developed in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, starting in the generations after Machiavelli. This philosophy tended to be republican, but as with the Catholic authors, Machiavelli's realism and encouragement of using innovation to try to control one's own fortune were more accepted than his emphasis upon war and factional violence. Not only was innovative economics and politics a result, but also modern science, leading some commentators to say that the 18th century Enlightenment involved a "humanitarian" moderating of Machiavellianism.[88] The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavor, for example Bodin,[89] Francis Bacon,[90] Algernon Sidney,[91] Harrington, John Milton,[92] Spinoza,[93] Rousseau, Hume,[94] Edward Gibbon, and Adam Smith. Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers, such as Montaigne,[95] Descartes,[96] Hobbes, Locke[97] and Montesquieu.[98] Although Jean-Jacques Rousseau is associated with very different political ideas he was also influenced by him, although he viewed Machiavelli's work as a satirical piece in which Machiavelli exposes the faults of a one-man rule rather than exalting amorality. In the seventeenth century it was in England that Machiavelli's ideas were most substantially developed and adapted, and that republicanism came once more to life; and out of seventeenth-century English republicanism there were to emerge in the next century not only a theme of English political and historical reflection—of the writings of the Bolingbroke circle and of Gibbon and of early parliamentary radicals—but a stimulus to the Enlightenment in Scotland, on the Continent, and in America.[99] John Adams admired Machiavelli's rational description of the realities of statecraft. Adams used Machiavelli's works to argue for mixed government. Scholars have argued that Machiavelli was a major indirect and direct influence upon the political thinking of the Founding Fathers of the United States due to his overwhelming favoritism of republicanism and the republican type of government. According to John McCormick, it is still very much debatable whether or not Machiavelli was "an advisor of tyranny or partisan of liberty."[100] Benjamin Franklin, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson followed Machiavelli's republicanism when they opposed what they saw as the emerging aristocracy that they feared Alexander Hamilton was creating with the Federalist Party.[101] Hamilton learned from Machiavelli about the importance of foreign policy for domestic policy, but may have broken from him regarding how rapacious a republic needed to be in order to survive.[102][103] George Washington was less influenced by Machiavelli.[104] The Founding Father who perhaps most studied and valued Machiavelli as a political philosopher was John Adams, who profusely commented on the Italian's thought in his work, A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America.[105] In this work, John Adams praised Machiavelli, with Algernon Sidney and Montesquieu, as a philosophic defender of mixed government. For Adams, Machiavelli restored empirical reason to politics, while his analysis of factions was commendable. Adams likewise agreed with the Florentine that human nature was immutable and driven by passions. He also accepted Machiavelli's belief that all societies were subject to cyclical periods of growth and decay. For Adams, Machiavelli lacked only a clear understanding of the institutions necessary for good government.[105] 20th century[edit] The 20th-century Italian Communist Antonio Gramsci drew great inspiration from Machiavelli's writings on ethics, morals, and how they relate to the State and revolution in his writings on Passive Revolution, and how a society can be manipulated by controlling popular notions of morality.[106] Joseph Stalin read The Prince and annotated his own copy.[107] Revival of interest in the comedies[edit] In the 20th century there was also renewed interest in Machiavelli's play La Mandragola (1518), which received numerous stagings, including several in New York, at the New York Shakespeare Festival in 1976 and the Riverside Shakespeare Company in 1979, as a musical comedy by Peer Raben in Munich's antiteater in 1971, and at London's National Theatre in 1984.[108] In popular culture[edit] Christopher Marlowe's play The Jew of Malta (ca. 1589) contains a prologue by a character called Machiavel, a Senecan ghost based on Machiavelli.[109] Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying "I count religion but a childish toy,/And hold there is no sin but ignorance." Somerset Maugham's last book Then and Now fictionalizes Machiavelli's interactions with Cesare Borgia, which formed the foundation of The Prince. Niccolò Machiavelli plays a vital role in the young adult book series The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott.[110] He is an immortal working in national security for the French government.[111] Niccolò Machiavelli aids Cesare Borgia and protagonist Nicholas Dawson in their dangerous intrigues in Cecelia Holland's 1979 historical novel City of God.[112] David Maclaine writes that in the novel, Machiavelli "is an off-stage presence whose spirit permeates this work of intrigue and betrayal ... It is a brilliant introduction to the people and events that gave us the word 'Machiavellian.'"[112] Machiavelli appears as an Immortal adversary of Duncan MacLeod in Nancy Holder's 1997 Highlander novel The Measure of a Man, and is a character in Michael Scott's novel series The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel (2007–2012). Machiavelli is also one of the main characters in The Enchantress of Florence (2008) by Salman Rushdie, mostly referred to as "Niccolò 'il Macchia", and the central protagonist in the 2012 novel The Malice of Fortune by Michael Ennis. Television dramas centring on the early Renaissance have also made use of Machiavelli to underscore his influence in early modern political philosophy. Machiavelli has been featured as a supporting character in The Tudors (2007–2010),[113][114] Borgia (2011–2014) and The Borgias (2011–2013),[115] and the 1981 BBC mini series The Borgias. Machiavelli appears in the popular historical video games Assassin's Creed II (2009) and Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood (2010), in which he is portrayed as a member of the secret society of Assassins.[116] A highly fictionalised version of Machiavelli appears in the BBC children's TV series Leonardo (2011–2012),[117] in which he is "Mac", a black streetwise hustler who is best friends with fellow teenagers Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, and Lorenzo di Medici. In the 2013 episode "Ewings Unite!" of the television series Dallas, legendary oil baron J. R. Ewing wills his copy of The Prince to his adopted nephew Christopher Ewing, telling him to "use it, because being smart and sneaky is an unbeatable combination." In Da Vinci's Demons (2013–2015) – an American historical fantasy drama series that presents a fictional account of Leonardo da Vinci's early life[118] – Eros Vlahos plays a young Niccolò "Nico" Machiavelli, although the character's full name is not revealed until the finale of the second season. The 1967 The Time Tunnel episode "The Death Merchant" stars famed character actor Malachi Throne as Niccolò Machiavelli, who has been time-displaced to the Battle of Gettysburg. The character's personality and behaviour seem to portray Cesare Borgia rather than Machiavelli himself, suggesting that the writers may have confused the two. Machiavelli is played by Damian Lewis in the 2013 BBC radio play The Prince written by Jonathan Myerson. Together with his defence attorney Lucrezia Borgia (Helen McCrory), he presents examples from history to the devil to support his political theories and appeal his sentence in Hell.[119] The historical novel The City of Man (2009) by author Michael Harrington fully portrays the complex personalities of the two main characters – Girolamo Savonarola and a formative Niccolò Machiavelli – in opposition during the turbulent last decade of 15th century Florence. The portrayal of Machiavelli draws from his later writings and observations of the chaotic events of his youth before rising from obscurity to be appointed as Second Chancellor of the Florentine Republic at the age of twenty-nine, only one month after Savonarola's execution. Major characters include Lorenzo de' Medici, his son Piero, Michelangelo, Sandro Botticelli, Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino, Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia), Cesare Borgia (model for The Prince), Piero and Tommaso Soderini, Il Cronaca and the diarist, Luca Landucci. The American rapper Tupac Shakur read Machiavelli while in prison and became greatly influenced by his work. Upon his release from prison, Tupac honoured Machiavelli in 1996 by changing his own rap name from 2Pac to Makaveli.[120] In the 1993 crime drama A Bronx Tale, local mob boss Sonny tells his young protégé Calogero that while he was doing a 10-year sentence in jail, he passed the time and stayed out of trouble by reading Machiavelli, whom he describes as "a famous writer from 500 years ago". He then tells him how Machiavelli's philosophy, including his famous advice about how it is preferable for a leader to be feared rather than loved if he cannot be both, have made him a successful mob boss. Machiavelli also appears as a young Florentine spy in the third season of Medici, where he is portrayed by Vincenzo Crea. He is addressed as "Nico" in all appearances except the season finale, where he reveals his full name. Works[edit] Part of the Politics series on Republicanism Central concepts Anti-monarchism Liberty as non-domination Popular sovereignty Republic Res publica Social contract Schools Classical Federal Kemalism Nasserism Neo-republicanism Venizelism Types of republics Autonomous Capitalist Christian Corporate Democratic Federal Federal parliamentary Islamic Parliamentary People's Revolutionary Sister Soviet Important thinkers Hannah Arendt Cicero James Harrington Thomas Jefferson John Locke James Madison Montesquieu Polybius Jean-Jacques Rousseau Algernon Sidney Mary Wollstonecraft History Roman Republic Gaṇa sangha Classical Athens Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Dutch Republic American Revolution French Revolution Spanish American wars of independence Trienio Liberal French Revolution of 1848 5 October 1910 revolution Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution German Revolution of 1918–19 Turkish War of Independence Mongolian Revolution of 1921 11 September 1922 Revolution 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt Spanish Civil War 1946 Italian institutional referendum Egyptian revolution of 1952 14 July Revolution North Yemen Civil War Zanzibar Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Cambodian coup of 1970 Metapolitefsi Iranian Revolution 1987 Fijian coups d'état Nepalese Civil War By country Australia Barbados Canada Ireland Jamaica Japan Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Norway Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom Scotland United States Related topics Communitarianism Criticism of monarchy Democracy Liberalism Monarchism Politics portal v t e See also: Category:Works by Niccolò Machiavelli Political and historical works[edit] Peter Withorne's 1573 translation of The Art of War Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499) Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502) Descrizione del modo tenuto dal Duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, il Signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini (1502) – A Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502) – A discourse about the provision of money. Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510) – Portrait of the affairs of France. Ritracto delle cose della Magna (1508–1512) – Portrait of the affairs of Germany. The Prince (1513) Discourses on Livy (1517) Dell'Arte della Guerra (1519–1520) – The Art of War, high military science. Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520) – A discourse about the reforming of Florence. Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520) – A summary of the affairs of the city of Lucca. The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca (1520) – Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca, a short biography. Istorie Fiorentine (1520–1525) – Florentine Histories, an eight-volume history of the city-state Florence, commissioned by Giulio de' Medici, later Pope Clement VII. Fictional works[edit] See also: Machiavelli as a dramatist Besides being a statesman and political scientist, Machiavelli also translated classical works, and was a playwright (Clizia, Mandragola), a poet (Sonetti, Canzoni, Ottave, Canti carnascialeschi), and a novelist (Belfagor arcidiavolo). Some of his other work: Decennale primo (1506) – a poem in terza rima. Decennale secondo (1509) – a poem. Andria or The Girl From Andros (1517) – a semi-autobiographical comedy, adapted from Terence.[121] Mandragola (1518) – The Mandrake – a five-act prose comedy, with a verse prologue. Clizia (1525) – a prose comedy. Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515) – a novella. Asino d'oro (1517) – The Golden Ass is a terza rima poem, a new version of the classic work by Apuleius. Frammenti storici (1525) – fragments of stories. Other works[edit] Della Lingua (Italian for "On the Language") (1514), a dialogue about Italy's language is normally attributed to Machiavelli. Machiavelli's literary executor, Giuliano de' Ricci, also reported having seen that Machiavelli, his grandfather, made a comedy in the style of Aristophanes which included living Florentines as characters, and to be titled Le Maschere. It has been suggested that due to such things as this and his style of writing to his superiors generally, there was very likely some animosity to Machiavelli even before the return of the Medici.[122] See also[edit] Italy portal Biography portal Florentine military reforms Francesco Guicciardini Francesco Vettori Mayberry Machiavelli Republicanism Italian Renaissance References[edit] ^ J.-J. Rousseau, Contrat sociale, III, 6 ^ Airaksinen, Timo (2001). The philosophy of the Marquis de Sade. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 20. ISBN 0-203-17439-9. Two of Sade’s own intellectual heroes were Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes, both of whom he interpreted in the traditional manner to recommend wickedness as an ingredient of virtue. ^ Diderot, Denis. "Machivellianism". Encyclopedie. ^ Najemy, John M. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Machiavelli. Cambridge University Press. p. 259. ^ For example: "Niccolo Machiavelli - Italian statesman and writer". and "Niccolò Machiavelli". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ For example: Smith, Gregory B. (2008). Between Eternities: On the Tradition of Political Philosophy, Past, Present, and Future. Lexington Books. p. 65. ISBN 9780739120774., Whelan, Frederick G. (2004). Hume and Machiavelli: Political Realism and Liberal Thought. Lexington Books. p. 29. ISBN 9780739106310., Strauss (15 October 1988). What is Political Philosophy? And Other Studies. University of Chicago Press. p. 41. ISBN 9780226777139. ^ Najemy, John M. (15 January 2019). Between Friends: Discourses of Power and Desire in the Machiavelli-Vettori Letters of 1513-1515. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691656649. ^ "Niccolo Machiavelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 August 2019. ^ Cassirer, Ernst (1946). The Myth of the State. Yale University Press. pp. 141–145. ISBN 9780300000368. ernst cassirer the myth of the state. ^ For example, The Prince chap. 15, and The Discourses Book I, chapter 9 ^ Strauss, Leo; Cropsey, Joseph (15 June 2012). History of Political Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. p. 297. ISBN 9780226924717. ^ Mansfield, Harvey C. (25 February 1998). Machiavelli's Virtue. University of Chicago Press. p. 178. ISBN 9780226503721. ^ Giorgini, Giovanni (2013). "Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli's Prince". Review of Politics. 75 (4): 625–40. doi:10.1017/S0034670513000624. ^ Strauss, Leo (4 July 2014). Thoughts on Machiavelli. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-23097-9. ^ Harvey Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov, "Introduction to the Discourses". In their translation of the Discourses on Livy ^ de Grazia (1989) ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Niccolò Machiavelli" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Guarini (1999:21) ^ Maurizio Viroli, Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli (2000), ch 1 ^ Ridolfi, Roberto (17 June 2013). The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 9781135026615. ^ Machiavelli 1981, p. 136, notes. ^ "Niccolo Machiavelli | Biography, Books, Philosophy, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 July 2019. ^ a b Viroli, Maurizio (9 January 2002). Niccolo's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli. Macmillan. pp. 81–86. ISBN 9780374528003. ^ This point is made especially in The Prince, Chap XII ^ Viroli, Maurizio (9 January 2002). Niccolo's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli. Macmillan. p. 105. ISBN 9780374528003. ^ Many historians have argued that this was due to Piero Soderini's unwillingness to compromise with the Medici, who were holding Prato under siege. ^ a b c Machiavelli 1981, p. 3, intro. ^ Skinner, Quentin (12 October 2000). Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. p. 36. ISBN 9780191540349. ^ Niccolò Machiavelli (1996), Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence, Northern Illinois University Press, translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices. ^ Joshua Kaplan, "Political Theory: The Classic Texts and their Continuing Relevance," The Modern Scholar (14 lectures in the series; lecture #7 / disc 4), 2005. ^ "Even such men as Malatesta and Machiavelli, after spending their lives in estrangement from the Church, sought on their death-beds her assistance and consolations. Both made good confessions and received the Holy Viaticum." – Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 5, p. 137. ^ Zuckert, Catherine H. (25 April 2017). Machiavelli's Politics. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-43480-3. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (1532). The Prince. Italy. pp. 120–21. ^ Machiavelli The Prince, Chapter III ^ Machiavelli's Virtue ^ The Prince, Chapter XVIII, "In What Mode Should Faith Be Kept By Princes" ^ The Prince. especially Chapters 3, 5 and 8 ^ Kanzler, Peter (22 June 2020). The Prince (1532), The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776). p. 22. ISBN 9781716844508. ^ Discourse on Political Economy: opening pages. ^ Berlin, Isaiah. "The Originality of Machiavelli" (PDF). Retrieved 18 October 2012. ^ This point made most notably by Strauss (1958). ^ Mansfield, Harvey C. (25 February 1998). Machiavelli's Virtue. University of Chicago Press. pp. 228–229. ISBN 9780226503721. ^ Mansfield, Harvey C. (15 April 2001). Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226503707. ^ "Discourses on Livy: Book 1, Chapter 18". www.constitution.org. Retrieved 9 May 2019. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (27 February 2009). Discourses on Livy: Book One, Chapter 9. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226500331. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (27 February 2009). Discourses on Livy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226500331. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (27 February 2009). Discourses on Livy: Book One, Chapter 16. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226500331. ^ Rahe, Paul A. (14 November 2005). Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781139448338. ^ Hulliung, Mark (5 July 2017). Citizen Machiavelli. Routledge. ISBN 9781351528481. ^ Pocock (1975, pp. 183–219) ^ a b c d e f Fischer (2000) ^ Mansfield, Harvey C. (25 February 1998). Machiavelli's Virtue. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226503721. ^ Skinner, Quentin (30 November 1978). The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume 1, The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521293372. ^ Pocock, J. G. A. (20 September 2016). The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400883516. ^ a b Strauss (1958) ^ Paul Anthony Rahe, Against throne and altar: Machiavelli and political theory under the English Republic (2008), p. 282 ^ Jack Donnelly, Realism and International Relations (2000), p. 68 ^ a b Joshua Kaplan (2005). "Political Theory: The Classic Texts and their Continuing Relevance". The Modern Scholar. 14 lectures in the series; (lectures #7) – see disc 4 ^ Leo Strauss, Joseph Cropsey, History of Political Philosophy (1987) p. 300 ^ Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, Chap 17 ^ Strauss, Leo (4 July 2014). Thoughts on Machiavelli. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226230979. ^ Leo Strauss. Leo Strauss "Thoughts On Machiavelli". p. 9. ^ Carritt, e f (1949). Benedetto Croce My Philosophy. ^ Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State, (1946) p. 136, online ^ "When Isms go to War | StratBlog". 29 October 2013. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (27 February 2009). Discourses on Livy. University of Chicago Press. p. 131. ISBN 9780226500331. ^ Mansfield, Harvey (1998) Machiavelli's Virtue, page 233 ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (27 February 2009). Discourses on Livy, Book 1, Chapter 11-15. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226500331. ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò (15 May 2010). The Prince: Second Edition. University of Chicago Press. pp. 69–71. ISBN 9780226500508. ^ Especially in the Discourses III.30, but also The Prince Chap.VI ^ Strauss (1987, p. 314) ^ See for example Strauss (1958, p. 206). ^ Strauss (1958, p. 231) ^ Mansfield (1993) ^ Bireley (1990, p. 241) ^ Fischer (2000, p. 94) ^ "Definition of MACHIAVELLIAN". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 17 October 2018. ^ Rahe, Paul A. (14 November 2005). Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy. Cambridge University Press. pp. xxxvi. ISBN 978-1-139-44833-8. ^ "Definition of Machiavellianism". Merriam-Webster's Dictionary. Retrieved 19 June 2019. ^ Bireley, Robert (1990), The Counter Reformation Prince, p. 14 ^ Bireley (1990:15) ^ Haitsma Mulier (1999:248) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFHaitsma_Mulier1999 (help) ^ While Bireley focuses on writers in the Catholic countries, Haitsma Mulier (1999) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFHaitsma_Mulier1999 (help) makes the same observation, writing with more of a focus upon the Protestant Netherlands. ^ The first English edition was A Discourse upon the meanes of wel governing and maintaining in good peace, a Kingdome, or other principalitie, translated by Simon Patericke. ^ Bireley (1990:17) ^ Bireley (1990:18) ^ Bireley (1990:223–30) ^ Kennington (2004), Rahe (2006) ^ Bireley (1990:17): "Jean Bodin's first comments, found in his Method for the Easy Comprehension of History, published in 1566, were positive." ^ Bacon wrote: "We are much beholden to Machiavelli and other writers of that class who openly and unfeignedly declare or describe what men do, and not what they ought to do." "II.21.9", Of the Advancement of Learning. See Kennington (2004) Chapter 4. ^ Rahe (2006) chapter 6. ^ Worden (1999) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFWorden1999 (help) ^ "Spinoza's Political Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2011. ^ Danford "Getting Our Bearings: Machiavelli and Hume" in Rahe (2006). ^ Schaefer (1990) ^ Kennington (2004), chapter 11. ^ Barnes Smith "The Philosophy of Liberty: Locke's Machiavellian Teaching" in Rahe (2006). ^ Carrese "The Machiavellian Spirit of Montesquieu's Liberal Republic" in Rahe (2006). Shklar "Montesquieu and the new republicanism" in Bock (1999) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBock1999 (help). ^ Worden (1999) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFWorden1999 (help) ^ John P. McCormick, Machiavellian democracy (Cambridge University Press, 2011) p. 23 ^ Rahe (2006) ^ Walling "Was Alexander Hamilton a Machiavellian Statesman?" in Rahe (2006). ^ Harper (2004) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHarper2004 (help) ^ Spalding "The American Prince? George Washington's Anti-Machiavellian moment" in Rahe (2006) ^ a b Thompson (1995) ^ Marcia Landy, "Culture and Politics in the work of Antonio Gramsci," 167–88, in Antonio Gramsci: Intellectuals, Culture, and the Party, ed. James Martin (New York: Routledge, 2002). ^ Stalin: A Biography, by Robert Service, p.10 ^ Review by Jann Racquoi, Heights/Inwood Press of North Manhattan, 14 March 1979. ^ "Jew of Malta, The by MARLOWE, Christopher". Player FM. 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2018. ^ "The Warlock by Michael Scott". Penguin Random House Canada. Retrieved 22 January 2021. ^ Knickerbocker, Joan L. (15 March 2017). Literature for Young Adults: Books (and More) for Contemporary Readers. Routledge. p. 355. ISBN 9781351813020. ^ a b Maclaine, David. "City of God by Cecelia Holland". Historicalnovels.info. Retrieved 5 September 2014. ^ "The Tudors Season 1 Episode 2 – Simply Henry". The Anne Boleyn Files. Retrieved 8 February 2018. ^ Smith, Lucinda (25 July 2017). "An epic for our times: How Game of Thrones reached highbrow status". Prospect. Retrieved 8 February 2018. ^ Ashurst, Sam (20 July 2017). "The 7 most wildly inaccurate historical dramas on TV". Digital Spy. Retrieved 8 February 2018. ^ Motamayor, Rafael. "'Assassin's Creed' Timeline, Explained: From Ancient Civilizations and Greek Gods to Vikings and Pirates". Collider. Retrieved 27 January 2021. ^ Leonardo BBC ^ Jonathan Jones (16 April 2013). "Da Vinci's Demons: the new TV show that totally reinvents Leonardo's life". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 March 2014. ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Saturday Drama, The Prince". BBC. ^ Briceño, Norberto. "28 Things You Didn't Know About Tupac Shakur". Buzzfeed. Retrieved 4 October 2015. ^ "First-time Machiavelli translation debuts at Yale". yaledailynews.com. ^ Godman (1998, p. 240). Also see Black (1999, pp. 97–98) Sources[edit] Machiavelli, Niccolò (1981). The Prince and Selected Discourses. Translated by Daniel Donno (Bantam Classic ed.). New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-21227-3. Further reading[edit] Biographies[edit] Baron, Hans (April 1961). "Machiavelli: The Republican Citizen and the Author of 'the Prince'". The English Historical Review. 76 (299): 217–253. doi:10.1093/ehr/LXXVI.CCXCIX.217. JSTOR 557541. Burd, L. A., "Florence (II): Machiavelli" in Cambridge Modern History (1902), vol. I, ch. vi. pp. 190–218 online Google edition Capponi, Niccolò. An Unlikely Prince: The Life and Times of Machiavelli (Da Capo Press; 2010) 334 pages Celenza, Christopher S. Machiavelli: A Portrait (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2015) 240 pages. ISBN 9780674416123 Godman, Peter (1998), From Poliziano to Machiavelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance, Princeton University Press de Grazia, Sebastian (1989), Machiavelli in Hell, ISBN 978-0679743422, an intellectual biography that won the Pulitzer Prize; excerpt and text search Hale, J. R. Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy (1961) online edition Hulliung, Mark. Citizen Machiavelli (Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 1983) Lee, Alexander. Machiavelli: His Life and Times (London: Picador, 2020) Oppenheimer, Paul. Machiavelli: A Life Beyond Ideology (London; New York: Continuum, 2011) ISBN 9781847252210 Ridolfi, Roberto. The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli (1963) Schevill, Ferdinand. Six Historians (1956), pp. 61–91 Skinner, Quentin. Machiavelli, in Past Masters series. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1981. pp. vii, 102. ISBN 0-19-287516-7 pbk. Skinner, Quentin. Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction (2d ed., 2019) ISBN 978-0-19-883757-2 pbk. Unger, Miles J. Machiavelli: A Biography (Simon & Schuster, 2011) Villari, Pasquale. The Life and Times of Niccolò Machiavelli (2 vols. 1892) (Vol 1; Vol 2) Viroli, Maurizio (2000), Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli, Farrar, Straus & Giroux excerpt and text search Viroli, Maurizio. Machiavelli (1998) online edition Vivanti, Corrado. Niccolò Machiavelli: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton University Press; 2013) 261 pages Political thought[edit] Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny (2 vol 1955), highly influential, deep study of civic humanism (republicanism); 700 pp. excerpts and text search; ACLS E-books; also vol 2 in ACLS E-books Baron, Hans. In Search of Florentine Civic Humanism (2 vols. 1988). Baron, Hans (1961), "Machiavelli: the Republican Citizen and Author of The Prince", English Historical Review, lxxvi (76): 217–53, doi:10.1093/ehr/LXXVI.CCXCIX.217, JSTOR 557541. in JSTOR Bireley, Robert (1990), The Counter Reformation Prince Black, Robert (1999), "Machiavelli, servant of the Florentine republic", in Bock, Gisela; Skinner, Quentin; Viroli, Maurizio (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism, Cambridge University Press Bock, Gisela; Skinner, Quentin; Viroli, Maurizio, eds. (1993). Machiavelli and Republicanism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43589-5. Chabod, Federico (1958). Machiavelli & the Renaissance online edition; online from ACLS E-Books Connell, William J. (2001), "Machiavelli on Growth as an End," in Anthony Grafton and J.H.M. Salmon, eds., Historians and Ideologues: Essays in Honor of Donald R. Kelley, Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 259–277. Donskis, Leonidas, ed. (2011). Niccolò Machiavelli: History, Power, and Virtue. Rodopi, ISBN 978-90-420-3277-4, E- ISBN 978-90-420-3278-1 Everdell, William R. "Niccolò Machiavelli: The Florentine Commune" in The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Fischer, Markus (Autumn 1997). "Machiavelli's Political Psychology". The Review of Politics. 59 (4): 789–829. doi:10.1017/S0034670500028333. JSTOR 1408308. Fischer, Markus (2000), Well-ordered License: On the Unity of Machiavelli's Thought, Lexington Book Guarini, Elena (1999), "Machiavelli and the crisis of the Italian republics", in Bock, Gisela; Skinner, Quentin; Viroli, Maurizio (eds.), Machiavelli and Republicanism, Cambridge University Press Gilbert, Allan (1938), Machiavelli's Prince and Its Forerunners, Duke University Press Gilbert, Felix. Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Italy (2nd ed. 1984) online from ACLS-E-books Gilbert, Felix. "Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War," in Edward Mead Earle, ed. The Makers of Modern Strategy (1944) Jensen, De Lamar, ed. Machiavelli: Cynic, Patriot, or Political Scientist? (1960) essays by scholars online edition Jurdjevic, Mark (2014). A Great and Wretched City: Promise and Failure in Machiavelli's Florentine Political Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72546-1. Kennington, Richard (2004), On Modern Origins, Lexington Books Mansfield, Harvey C. "Machiavelli's Political Science," The American Political Science Review, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Jun. 1981), pp. 293–305 in JSTOR Mansfield, Harvey (1993), Taming the Prince, The Johns Hopkins University Press Mansfield, Harvey (1995), "Machiavelli and the Idea of Progress", in Melzer; Weinberger; Zinman (eds.), History and the Idea of Progress, Cornell University Press Mansfield, Harvey C. Machiavelli's Virtue (1996), 371 pp. Mansfield, Harvey C. Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy (2001) excerpt and text search Roger Masters (1996), Machiavelli, Leonardo and the Science of Power, University of Notre Dame Press, ISBN 978-0-268-01433-9 See also NYT book review. Roger Masters (1998), Fortune is a River: Leonardo Da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificent Dream to Change the Course of Florentine History, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-452-28090-8 Also available in Chinese ( ISBN 9789572026113), Japanese ( ISBN 9784022597588), German ( ISBN 9783471794029), Portuguese ( ISBN 9788571104969), and Korean ( ISBN 9788984070059). See also NYT book review. Mattingly, Garrett (Autumn 1958), "Machiavelli's Prince: Political Science or Political Satire?", The American Scholar (27): 482–91. Najemy, John (1993), Between Friends: Discourses of Power and Desire in the Machiavelli-Vettori Letters of 1513–1515, Princeton University Press Najemy, John M. (1996), "Baron's Machiavelli and Renaissance Republicanism", American Historical Review, 101 (1): 119–29, doi:10.2307/2169227, JSTOR 2169227. Parel, A. J. (Spring 1991). "The Question of Machiavelli's Modernity". The Review of Politics. 53 (2): 320–339. doi:10.1017/S0034670500014649. JSTOR 1407757. Parel, Anthony (1972), "Introduction: Machiavelli's Method and His Interpreters", The Political Calculus: Essays on Machiavelli's Philosophy, Toronto, pp. 3–28 Parsons, William B. (2016), Machiavelli's Gospel, University of Rochester Press, ISBN 9781580464918 Pocock, J.G.A. (1975), The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, Princeton new ed. 2003, a highly influential study of Discourses and its vast influence; excerpt and text search; also online 1975 edition Pocock, J. G. A. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology.: Journal of Modern History 1981 53(1): 49–72. Fulltext: in Jstor. Rahe, Paul (1992), Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution online edition Rahe, Paul A. (2006), Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521851879 Excerpt, reviews and Text search shows Machiavelli's Discourses had a major impact on shaping conservative thought. Ruggiero, Guido. Machiavelli in Love: Sex, Self and Society in Renaissance Italy (2007) Schaefer, David (1990), The Political Philosophy of Montaigne, Cornell University Press. Scott, John T.; Sullivan, Vickie B. (1994). "Patricide and the Plot of the Prince: Cesare Borgia and Machiavelli's Italy". The American Political Science Review. 88 (4): 887–900. doi:10.2307/2082714. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 2082714. Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, v. I, The Renaissance, (1978) Soll, Jacob (2005), Publishing The Prince: History, Reading and the Birth of Political Criticism, University of Michigan Press Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Niccolò Machiavelli (2005) Strauss, Leo (1987), "Niccolò Machiavelli", in Strauss, Leo; Cropsey, Joseph (eds.), History of Political Philosophy (3rd ed.), University of Chicago Press Strauss, Leo (1958), Thoughts on Machiavelli, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-77702-3 Sullivan, Vickie B., ed. (2000), The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli: Essays on the Literary Works, Yale U. PressCS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Sullivan, Vickie B. (1996), Machiavelli's Three Romes: Religion, Human Liberty, and Politics Reformed, Northern Illinois University Press von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007. Thompson, C. Bradley (1995), "John Adams's Machiavellian Moment", The Review of Politics, 57 (3): 389–417, doi:10.1017/S0034670500019689. Also in Rahe (2006). Whelan, Frederick G. (2004), Hume and Machiavelli: Political Realism and Liberal Thought, Lexington Wight, Martin (2005). Wight, Gabriele; Porter, Brian (eds.). Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant, and Mazzini. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199273676. Zuckert, Catherine, (2017) "Machiavelli's Politics" Italian studies[edit] Barbuto, Marcelo (2005), "Questa oblivione delle cose. Reflexiones sobre la cosmología de Maquiavelo (1469-1527)," Revista Daimon, 34, Universidad de Murcia, pp. 34–52. Barbuto, Marcelo (2008), "Discorsi, I, XII, 12–14. La Chiesa romana di fronte alla republica cristiana", Filosofia Politica, 1, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp. 99–116. Celli, Carlo ( 2009), Il carnevale di Machiavelli, Firenze, L.S. Olschki. Connell, William J. (2015), Machiavelli nel Rinascimento italiano, Milano, Franco Angeli. Giuseppe Leone, "Silone e Machiavelli. Una scuola...che non crea prìncipi", pref. di Vittoriano Esposito, Centro Studi Ignazio Silone, Pescina, 2003. Martelli, Mario (2004), "La Mandragola e il suo prologo", Interpres, XXIII, pp. 106–42. Martelli, Mario (2003), "Per la definizione della nozione di principe civile", Interpres, XXII. Martelli, Mario (2001), "I dettagli della filologia", Interpres XX, pp. 212–71. Martelli, Mario (1999a), "Note su Machiavelli", Interpres XVIII, pp. 91–145. Martelli, Mario (1999b), Saggio sul Principe, Salerno Editrice, Roma. Martelli, Mario (1999c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola: valutazione politica e valutazione religiosa", Girolamo Savonarola. L´uomo e il frate". Atti del xxxv Convegno storico internazionale (Todi, II-14 ottobre 1998), CISAM, Spoleto, pp. 139–53. Martelli, Mario (1998a), Machiavelli e gli storici antichi, osservazioni su alcuni luoghi dei discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, Quaderni di Filologia e critica, 13, Salerno Editrice, Roma. Martelli, Mario (1998b), "Machiavelli politico amante poeta", Interpres XVII, pp. 211–56. Martelli, Mario (1998c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola", Savonarola. Democrazia, tirannide, profezia, a cura di G.C. Garfagnini, Florencia, Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzo, pp. 67–89. Martelli, Mario and Bausi, Francesco (1997), "Politica, storia e letteratura: Machiavelli e Guicciardini", Storia della letteratura italiana, E. Malato (ed.), vol. IV. Il primo Cinquecento, Salerno Editrice, Roma, pp. 251–320. Martelli, Mario (1985–1986), "Schede sulla cultura di Machiavelli", Interpres VI, pp. 283–330. Martelli, Mario (1982) "La logica provvidenzialistica e il capitolo XXVI del Principe", Interpres IV, pp. 262–384. Martelli, Mario (1974), "L´altro Niccolò di Bernardo Machiavelli", Rinascimento, XIV, pp. 39–100. Sasso, Gennaro (1993), Machiavelli: storia del suo pensiero politico, II vol., Bologna, Il Mulino, Sasso, Gennaro (1987–1997) Machiavelli e gli antichi e altri saggi, 4 vols., Milano, R. Ricciardi Editions[edit] Collections Gilbert, Allan H. ed. Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others, (3 vol. 1965), the standard scholarly edition Bondanella, Peter, and Mark Musa, eds. The Portable Machiavelli (1979) Penman, Bruce. The Prince and Other Political Writings, (1981) Wootton, David, ed. (1994), Selected political writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, Indianapolis: Hackett Pubs.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) excerpt and text search The Prince Machiavelli, Niccolò (2016), The Prince with Related Documents (Second ed.), Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, ISBN 978-1-319-04892-1. Translated by William J. Connell Machiavelli, Niccolò (2015), The Prince, US: Adagio Press, ISBN 978-0996767705. Edited by W. Garner. Translated by Luigi Ricci. Excerpt and text search Machiavelli, Niccolò (1961), The Prince, London: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-044915-0. Translated by George Bull Machiavelli, Niccolò (2009), The Prince, London: Penguin, ISBN 978-1-84614-044-0. Translated by Tim Parks Machiavelli, Niccolò (1992), The Prince, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-96220-2. Translated by Robert M. Adams (Norton Critical Edition, 2nd ed., with "Backgrounds, Interpretations, Marginalia"). Machiavelli, Niccolò (2006), El Principe/The Prince: Comentado Por Napoleon Bonaparte / Commentaries by Napoleon Buonaparte, Mestas Ediciones. Translated into Spanish by Marina Massa-Carrara Machiavelli, Niccolò (1985), The Prince, University of Chicago Press. Translated by Harvey Mansfield Machiavelli, Niccolò (1995), The Prince, Everyman. Translated and Edited by Stephen J. Milner. Introduction, Notes and other critical apparatus by J.M. Dent. The Prince ed. by Peter Bondanella (1998) 101 pp online edition The Prince ed. by Rufus Goodwin and Benjamin Martinez (2003) excerpt and text search The Prince (2007) excerpt and text search Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince, (1908 edition tr by W. K. Marriott) Gutenberg edition Marriott, W. K. (2008), The Prince, Red and Black Publishers ISBN 978-1-934941-00-3 Il principe (2006) ed. by Mario Martelli and Nicoletta Marcelli, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli, Salerno Editrice, Roma. The Discourses on Livy Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio (2001), ed. by Francesco Bausi, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli, II vol. Salerno Editrice, Roma. The Discourses, online 1772 edition The Discourses, tr. with introduction and notes by L. J. Walker (2 vol 1950). Machiavelli, Niccolò (1531). The Discourses. Translated by Leslie J. Walker, S.J, revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044428-9 The Discourses, edited with an introduction by Bernard Crick (1970). The Art of War The Seven Books on the Art of War online 1772 edition The Art of War, University of Chicago Press, edited with new translation and commentary by Christopher Lynch (2003) The Art of War online 1775 edition The Art of War, Niccolò Machiavelli. Da Capo press edition, 2001, with introduction by Neal Wood. Florentine Histories History of Florence online 1901 edition Reform of Florence online 1772 edition Machiavelli, Niccolò (1988), Florentine Histories, Princeton University Press. Translation by Laura F. Banfield and Harvey Mansfield, Jr. Correspondence Epistolario privado. Las cartas que nos desvelan el pensamiento y la personalidad de uno de los intelectuales más importantes del Renacimiento, Juan Manuel Forte (edición y traducción), Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros, 2007, 435 págs, ISBN 978-84-9734-661-0 The Private Correspondence of Niccolò Machiavelli, ed. by Orestes Ferrara; (1929) online edition Machiavelli, Niccolò (1996), Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence, Northern Illinois University Press. Translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices. Also see Najemy (1993). Poetry and comedy Machiavelli, Niccolò (1985), Comedies of Machiavelli, University Press of New England Bilingual edition of The Woman from Andros, The Mandrake, and Clizia, edited by David Sices and James B. Atkinson. Hoeges, Dirk. Niccolò Machiavelli. Dichter-Poeta. Mit sämtlichen Gedichten, deutsch/italienisch. Con tutte le poesie, tedesco/italiano, Reihe: Dialoghi/Dialogues: Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, Band 10, Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt/M. u.a. 2006, ISBN 3-631-54669-6. External links[edit] Niccolò Machiavelliat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource "Machiavelli, Niccolò" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 233–237. Niccolò Machiavelli | Biography | Encyclopedia Britannica Machiavelli, Niccolò- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Macchiavelli" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 6. 1921. p. 53. Niccolò Machiavelli, History.com William R. Everdell's article "From State to Free-State: The Meaning of the Word Republic from Jean Bodin to John Adams" with extensive discussion of Machiavelli Works by Niccolò Machiavelli at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Niccolò Machiavelli at Internet Archive Works by Niccolò Machiavelli at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Niccolò Machiavelli: text, concordances and frequency list * Works of Machiavelli: Italian and English text Machiavelli and the Italian City on the BBC's In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg; with Quentin Skinner, Regius Professor of History at the University of Cambridge; Evelyn Welch, Professor of Renaissance Studies at Queen Mary, University of London; Lisa Jardine, Director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters at Queen Mary, University of London University of Adelaide's full texts of Machiavelli's works v t e Niccolò Machiavelli As a dramatist Timeline Historical and political works Discourse on Pisa On the Method of Dealing with the Rebellious Peoples of Valdichiana The Description Discourse about the Provision of Money Report on the state of Germany Discourse on Reforming the Government of Florence Life of Castruccio Castracani Florentine Histories The Art of War The Prince Discourses on Livy Imaginative works The Second Decade Andria The Mandrake Clizia Belfagor arcidiavolo The Golden Ass Concepts Realpolitik Virtù Political realism Republicanism Category:Works by Niccolò Machiavelli v t e Social and political philosophy Ancient philosophers Aristotle Augustine Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Philo Plato Plutarch Polybius Shang Socrates Sun Tzu Tertullian Thucydides Valluvar Xenophon Xunzi Medieval philosophers Accursius Alpharabius Augustinus Triumphus Avempace Averroes Baldus Bartholomew Bartolus Bruni Dante Engelbert Gelasius al-Ghazali Giles Godfrey Gratian Gregory Hostiensis Ibn Khaldun Ibn Tufail John of Paris John of Salisbury Latini Maimonides Marsilius Nizam al-Mulk Photios Remigio Thomas Aquinas Wang William of Ockham Early modern philosophers Ammirato Beza Boétie Bodin Bossuet Botero Buchanan Calvin Cumberland Duplessis-Mornay Erasmus Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Harrington Hayashi Hobbes Hotman Huang James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Malebranche Mariana Milton Montaigne More Müntzer Naudé Pufendorf Rohan Sansovino Sidney Spinoza Suárez 18th–19th-century philosophers Bakunin Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Bosanquet Burke Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Hamann Hegel Herbert Herder Hume Jefferson Justi Kant political philosophy Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Möser Nietzsche Novalis Paine Renan Rousseau Royce Sade Schiller Smith Spencer Spedalieri Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th–21st-century philosophers Adorno Ambedkar Arendt Aurobindo Aron Azurmendi Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Butler Camus Chomsky De Beauvoir Debord 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en-wikipedia-org-3231	----	Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus - Wikipedia Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman Senator Gaius Saloninus (or Salonius) Matidius Patruinus (died 78) was a Roman Senator who lived in the Roman Empire during the 1st century during the reign of Vespasian (r. 69-79). Life[edit] Patruinus came from a wealthy family of Vicetia (modern Vicenza, northern Italy). Around 63, he married a noble Roman woman called Ulpia Marciana, the eldest sister of the future Emperor Trajan. On 4 July 68, Marciana bore him a daughter and their only child, Salonina Matidia. He served as a praetor and, through this position, became a senator. In 70/71, Patruinus possibly served as governor of Germania Superior. At the time of his death in 78, in Rome, Patruinus was a priest and served as a member of the Arval Brethren. After that, Marciana and Matidia went to live with Trajan and his wife Pompeia Plotina. Patruinus was the late maternal grandfather to Matidia’s daughters from her three marriages: Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife, and the nobles Matidia Minor (or Mindia Matidia) and Rupilia Faustina. The Italian village of Matigge (ancient Matidiae) is named after him and his second granddaughter Matidia Minor. The Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and his successor Commodus are among his descendants. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] "Ulpia Marciana". livius.org. Retrieved 27 April 2020. Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2. Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04229-1. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Salonius_Matidius_Patruinus&oldid=1002427878" Categories: 1st-century Romans 78 deaths Senators of the Roman Empire Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Romans from unknown gentes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Italiano Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 11:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3251	----	Ulpia (grandmother of Hadrian) - Wikipedia Ulpia (grandmother of Hadrian) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century noble Spanish Roman woman This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman aureus struck under Trajan, c. 115. The reverse commemorates both Trajan's natural father and Ulpia's brother, Marcus Ulpius Traianus (right), and his adoptive father, the Deified Nerva (left). Ulpia (about 31 - before 86) was a noble Spanish Roman woman from the gens Ulpia during the 1st century CE. Contents 1 Life 2 References 3 Sources 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree Life[edit] Her mother is unknown and her paternal ancestors moved from Italy and settled in Italica (near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica in the late 3rd century BC. Her brother was Marcus Ulpius Traianus, who served as a distinguished Roman general and was the first person in her family to enter the Roman Senate. He was the biological father of Trajan, adopted son and heir of the deified Nerva. Ulpia married a Roman Senator called Publius Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus, a wealthy and aristocratic Hispanic Roman from the gens Aelia. Ulpia and Marullinus had at least a son, Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, who would become a distinct Roman soldier and politician. He married a noble Spanish Roman woman called Domitia Paulina and the couple had Aelia Domitia Paulina and Publius Aelius Hadrianus or Hadrian, who was adopted by Trajan and became his heir. Through Ulpia's brother, she was the paternal aunt to Ulpia Marciana and Trajan. She was also a great maternal aunt to Marciana's daughter Salonina Matidia and a great-great maternal aunt to Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, who married his grandson Hadrian. References[edit] Sources[edit] History of Horoscopic Astrology By James H. Holden Rodgers, N., The History and Conquests of Ancient Rome, Hermes House, 2005. Syme, Tacitus, 30-44; PIR Vlpivs 575 "Roman Emperors - DIR Trajan". roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 2015-11-09. "Roman Emperors - DIR hadrian". roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 2015-11-09. "Roman Emperors DIR Roman legions". roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 2015-11-09. "The Stemmata of the 5 Good Emperors". roman-emperors.org. Retrieved 2015-11-09. "Museum of Antiquities | Original Roman Coins | Hadrian". Archived from the original on 2012-10-02. Retrieved 2015-11-09. Perowne, S. (1960). Hadrian. Croom Helm. ISBN 9780709940487. Retrieved 2015-11-09. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ulpia_(grandmother_of_Hadrian)&oldid=1002426594" Categories: 1st-century Romans 1st-century Roman women Nerva–Antonine dynasty Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Ulpii Romans from Hispania 30s births 1st-century deaths Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2019 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 11:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3252	----	File:Delacroix-Marc Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg - Wikipedia File:Delacroix-Marc Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 767 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 307 × 240 pixels | 614 × 480 pixels | 982 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 1,001 pixels | 1,500 × 1,173 pixels. Original file ‎(1,500 × 1,173 pixels, file size: 375 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Eugène Delacroix: Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius    Artist Eugène Delacroix  (1798–1863)     Alternative names Ferdinand-Victor-Eugène Delacroix Description French painter, drawer, aquarellist and photographer Date of birth/death 26 April 1798  13 August 1863  Location of birth/death Charenton-Saint-Maurice Paris Work location Paris, United Kingdom, France, Algeria, Morocco, Netherlands (1839), Belgium Authority control : Q33477 VIAF: 7389086 ISNI: 0000 0001 2098 8878 ULAN: 500115509 LCCN: n79086855 NLA: 35034640 WorldCat artist QS:P170,Q33477 Title Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aureliuslabel QS:Lfr,"Dernières paroles de l'empereur Marc Aurèle" label QS:Lde,"die letzten Worte des Kaisers Marcus Aurelius" label QS:Len,"Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius" label QS:Lit,"Ultime parole dell'imperatore Marco Aurelio" Object type painting  Genre history painting  Depicted people Marcus Aurelius  Commodus Date 1844date QS:P571,+1844-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 Medium oil on canvasmedium QS:P186,Q296955;P186,Q12321255,P518,Q861259 Dimensions 260 x 348 cm Collection Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon    Native name Musée des Beaux-Arts Location Lyon, France Coordinates 45° 46′ 01″ N, 4° 50′ 01″ E   Established 1801  Web page www.mba-lyon.fr Authority control : Q511 VIAF: 130848397 ISNI: 0000 0001 2158 0276 LCCN: n50046715 NLA: 35592243 GND: 2065672-5 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q511 Current location Paintings department Accession number Inv. A 2928 Exhibition history Salon of 1845  Credit line 1860: transferred to from the State Notes Courtesy of the Fine Arts Museum of Lyon. References catalogue: Q88819800, 413  Source/Photographer Œuvre appartenant au musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon Consulter cette image en très haute définition (+1 milliard de pixels) Licensing This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse The author died in 1863, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts digital representation of Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 19:52, 4 July 2011 1,500 × 1,173 (375 KB) Tancrède~commonswiki File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Eugène Delacroix Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius List of last words Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ast.wikipedia.org Eugène Delacroix Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Йожен Дьолакроа Usage on bn.wikipedia.org ওজেন দ্যলাক্রোয়া Usage on de.wikipedia.org Mark Aurel Usage on el.wikipedia.org Κατάλογος έργων του Ευγένιου Ντελακρουά Κατάλογος έργων του Musée des Beaux Arts της Λυών Usage on en.wikiquote.org Ephemerality Usage on es.wikipedia.org Eugène Delacroix Últimas palabras del emperador Marco Aurelio Últimas palabras Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle 180 La Mort de Germanicus Utilisateur:ManuRoquette/Galerie Usage on hyw.wikipedia.org Էօժէն Տելաքրուա Usage on it.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Imperatori adottivi Commodo Utente:SteveR2/Marcus Aurelius Usage on ml.wikipedia.org യൂജിൻ ഡെലാക്രോയിക്സ് Usage on ms.wikipedia.org Eugène Delacroix Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Wikipedysta:Olfar/brudnopis Zaraza Antoninów Usage on ro.wikipedia.org Ultimele cuvinte ale împăratului Marcus Aurelius Usage on sv.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius sista ord Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used Adobe Photoshop CS2 Windows File change date and time 16:45, 24 June 2011 Color space Uncalibrated Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delacroix-Marc_Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3254	----	Postumus - Wikipedia Postumus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 260 to 269 For other uses, see Postumus (disambiguation). Augustus of Gaul, Hispania and Britannia Postumus Augustus of Gaul, Hispania and Britannia Coin featuring Postumus. Legend: IMP. C. POSTVMVS P. F. AVG. Emperor of the Gallic Empire Reign 260–269[note 1] Predecessor Gallienus (as ruler of the united Roman Empire) Successor Marcus Aurelius Marius Born Gaul Died 269 Mogontiacum Issue Postumus Junior (doubtful)[1] Names Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus Pius Felix Augustus Germanicus Maximus [2] v t e Crisis of the Third Century Reign of Maximinus Thrax (235–238) Death of Alexander Severus (235) Usurpation of Magnus (c. 235) Usurpation of Quartinus (235) Year of the Six Emperors (238) Gordian Revolt (238) Carthage (238) Aquileia (238) Reign of Pupienus and Balbinus (238) Invasion of the Carpi (238–239) Reign of Gordian III (238–244) Sabinianus Revolt (240) Fall of Hatra (241) Resaena (243) Misiche (244) Reign of Philip the Arab (244–249) Invasion of the Carpi (245–247) Secular Games of 248 (248) Usurpation of Sponsianus (240s) Usurpation of Pacatianus (248) Usurpation of Jotapianus (249) Usurpation of Silbannacus (249 or 253) Decius' Rebellion (249) Verona (249) Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249–251) Plague of Cyprian (250–270) Decian persecution (250–251) Gothic invasion of Cniva (250–251) Carpi invasion of Dacia (250) Nicopolis ad Istrum (250) Beroe (250) Philippopolis (250) Usurpation of Titus Julius Priscus (251) Abritus (251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Death of Hostilian (251) Mariades' Revolt (252) Nisibis (252) Barbalissos (253) Interamna Nahars (c 253) Death of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus (253) Reign of Aemilianus (253) Antioch (253) Assassination of Aemilianus (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260) Thessalonica (254) Thermopylae (254) Dura-Europos (256) Gothic invasion (256–257) Invasion of Shapur (258) Invasion of the Alemanni (258–260 approx) Mediolanum (259) Scythian invasion (259–260) Edessa (260) Reign of Gallienus (260–268) Caesarea (260) Usurpation of Ingenuus (260) Usurpation of Regalianus (260) Usurpation of Macrianus Major (c. 259–261) Gallic Empire (260–274) Death of Saloninus (260) Roxolani Invasion of Pannonia (260) Campaigns of Odaenathus (260–267) Usurpation of Quietus (261) Usurpation of Balista (261) Usurpation of Valens Thessalonicus (261) Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (261) Usurpation of Macrianus Minor (261) Pannonian Rebellion (261) Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus (261–262) Postumus' Campaign against the Franks (262) Postumus' Campaign against the Alamanni (263) Ctesiphon (263) Scythian Invasion (265–266) Assassination of Odaenathus (267) Usurpation of Maeonius (266–267) Scythian Invasion (267–269) Heruli Raids (267) Athens (267) Usurpation of Manius Acilius Aureolus (268) Reign of Claudius II (268–270) Usurpation of Laelianus (269) Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marius (269) Augustodunum Haeduorum Naissus (268/269) Lake Benacus (268 or 269) Capture of Athens (269) Palmyrene Empire (270–273) Bostra (270) Palmyrene invasion of Egypt (270) Vandal Invasion (270) Reign of Aurelian (270–275) Usurpation of Victorinus Junior (271) Junthungi Invasion (271) Domitianus II (271) Tetricus I & Tetricus II (271–274) Rebellion of Felicissimus (270s) Placentia (271) Fano (271) Pavia (271) Tyana (272) Immae (272) Emesa (272) Razing of Palmyra (273) Usurpation of Faustinus (c. 273) Châlons (274) Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus[3] was a Roman commander of Batavian origin who ruled as Emperor in the West. The Roman army in Gaul threw off its allegiance to Gallienus around the year 260,[note 1] and Postumus assumed the title and powers of Emperor in the provinces of Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Hispania, thereby founding what scholars have dubbed the Gallic Empire. He ruled for the better part of ten years[note 2] before he was murdered by his own troops. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Rise to power 1.2 Establishment of a Gallic empire 1.3 Confrontation with Gallienus 1.4 Final years 1.5 Fall 2 Historical sources 3 Coinage 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Rise to power[edit] Little is known about the early life of Postumus. He has been claimed as being of Batavian[4] origin; certainly his coinage honors deities — Hercules Magusanus and Hercules Deusoniensis — who would have been popular among the Batavians.[5] Hercules Magusanus was probably an interpretatio romana translation of the Germanic deity Þunraz.[6] Deusoniensis may refer to the town of Deuso, located in or near Batavian territory and likely to be identified with modern-day Diessen; it has been hypothesized that Postumus himself was born in Deuso.[7] From these relatively obscure provincial origins, Postumus would have risen through the ranks of the army until he held command of the Roman forces "among the Celts".[8] What his precise title was is not definitely known,[9] though he may plausibly have been promoted by the emperor Valerian to the position of imperial legate of Germania Inferior.[3][10] Postumus was evidently in favor at court, and, according to König, was granted an honorary consulship.[11] By 259, Valerian was campaigning in the east against the Persians, while his son and co-emperor Gallienus was preoccupied with the situation on the Danubian frontier.[12] Consequently, Gallienus left his son, Saloninus, and military commanders, including Postumus, to protect the Rhine.[13] Amid the chaos of an invasion by the Alamanni and Franks, and spurred on by news of the defeat and capture of Valerian,[12] the army in Gaul revolted and proclaimed Postumus emperor.[14][15] The trigger was their defeat in 260[note 1] of a Juthungian army which was returning from Italy laden with prisoners, even though they had been repulsed by Gallienus at Mediolanum (Milan).[14] Under the command of Postumus and Marcus Simplicinius Genialis, the Roman army crushed the Juthungi, and Postumus proceeded to distribute the captured spoils to the legions he commanded.[10] Saloninus, on the advice of his praetorian prefect Silvanus (who had coordinated Roman policy in Gaul alongside Postumus), demanded the transfer of the recovered booty to his residence at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne).[13] Postumus assembled his army and made a show of reluctantly enforcing this command, thus inviting his troops to instead throw off their allegiance to Gallienus.[15] The troops accordingly proclaimed Postumus emperor and proceeded to besiege and attack Colonia, trapping Saloninus and Silvanus.[10] After breaching the walls of the city, Postumus had Silvanus and Saloninus killed,[10][15] although his supporters later claimed that it was the native Gauls who were responsible for the murders.[16] Later he erected a triumphal arch to celebrate his victory. Establishment of a Gallic empire[edit] Postumus aureus, 268, Treves, gold 7.40 g (0.238 ozt). Legend: POSTVMVS AVG. Postumus was immediately recognized as emperor in Gaul (except perhaps for Narbonensis[10]), Germania Superior and Inferior,[16] and Raetia.[13] By 261, Britannia, Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania also acknowledged him as emperor,[16] possibly after an expedition to Britain in the winter of 260–261.[17] He established his capital in northern Gaul, probably at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne)[16] or Augusta Treverorum (Trier),[18] and then proceeded to set up many of the traditional Roman legislative and executive structures.[19] Apart from the position of emperor, he immediately assumed the office of consul alongside a colleague, Honoratianus.[2] Like his imperial predecessors, he became the pontifex maximus of the state[2] and assumed tribunician power each year.[19] He is thought to have established a senate,[13] perhaps on the basis of the Council of the Three Gauls or provincial councils,[20] and a praetorian guard,[16] one of whose officers was to become the future Gallic emperor Victorinus.[21] Reflecting his power base, the chief members of Postumus’ administration appeared to have been of northern Gallic origin, and indeed, the entire administration soon became rapidly Gallicized.[22] Both Victorinus and Tetricus, important members of the government, hailed from this region.[22] Postumus represented himself as the restorer of Gaul (Restitutor Galliarum) and the bringer of security to the provinces (Salus Provinciarum) on some of his coins;[16] prior to 10 December 261,[note 1] he also took the title of Germanicus maximus, a title he earned after successfully defending Gaul against the Germans.[13] His principal objective in assuming the purple appeared to be the restoration and defence of the Rhine frontier and the surrounding area, a task that he approached with vigour, earning the admiration of the ancient authors, who declared that he restored the security that the provinces had enjoyed in the past.[16] So successful was he in the task of restoring peace and security to the provinces under his direct control that the coins issued by Postumus were of better workmanship and higher precious metal content than coins issued by Gallienus;[23] his control of the Spanish and British mining regions was presumably crucial in this regard,[24] as was his employment of master minters who would have come into Gaul with Gallienus.[25] Postumus fought successful campaigns against the Franks and Alamanni in 262 and 263; following his victory over them in 263, he assumed the title Germanicus Maximus, after which his coin-types celebrated peaceful themes such as Felicitas Augusti for some time.[26] After having spent much of the last four years pushing the Franks out of Gaul, Postumus then recruited Frankish troops to fight against other Franks, probably dispersed within existing Roman army units.[27] Scholars continue to debate whether Postumus originally intended to dislodge Gallienus from Rome or was content to rule only the western provinces.[16] From the beginning of his usurpation, Postumus had made it clear that he had no immediate intentions to make a bid for Rome, that his priority was for Gaul.[13][15] Postumus’ power base was Gaul and his main responsibility was the defense of the Rhine provinces. If he marched against Gallienus, then he would be exposing his heartland not only to the Germanic tribes but also potentially to any number of usurpers.[16] Perhaps he hoped to achieve some official recognition from Gallienus; what is clear, however, is that Postumus was not overtly separatist and did not revive the 1st-century dream of an independent Galliarum imperium.[13] (See Julius Sabinus and revolt of the Batavi.) The forms, titles, and administrative structures of Postumus’ principate remained conventionally Roman.[28] Milestone of Postumus c.261-269 found in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain. It bears the inscription: [I]MP(ERATORI) CAE[S(ARI)] [M]ARCO CA[SSIJANO] LAT[IN]IO POSTUMO AUG(USTO). Confrontation with Gallienus[edit] For four years Gallienus was too distracted by Germanic invasions and other usurpers in the east to turn his attention to the situation to his north and west.[29] This changed in 265 when Gallienus launched a campaign to defeat Postumus.[29][30] After some initial success against Postumus, his first attempt failed when Postumus managed to escape from a precarious situation due to the carelessness of Gallienus’ cavalry commander Aureolus,[13] leading to Aureolus’ demotion and eventual abandonment of Gallienus in 267.[30] A second campaign, led by Gallienus himself, also seemed to have the advantage over Postumus, but while Gallienus was besieging a city in Gaul (perhaps Augusta Treverorum[30]), he was wounded and forced to withdraw.[29][31] After his failed attempt at defeating Postumus, Gallienus was occupied with crises in the rest of his empire and did not confront Postumus again.[13] Gallienus nevertheless did manage to wrest control of Raetia from Postumus during these years.[30][dubious – discuss] Final years[edit] An antoninianus of Postumus. Legend: IMP. C. POSTVMVS P. F. AVG. By the end of 265, Postumus’ coin issues were triumphantly commemorating the victory over Gallienus, and the festivities celebrating his quinquennalia continued into the following year.[13] Very little troubled the reign of Postumus from 265 to 268; archaeological evidence, such as it is, points to a general return to peace and normalcy.[32] In 266, Postumus became consul for the fourth time, taking as his colleague Marcus Piavonius Victorinus, a Gallic noble who was also a senior military officer; his selection to such a high-profile position may be seen as an attempt to broaden Postumus’ base of support.[33] The year 268 saw the issuing of the ‘Labours of Hercules’ series of gold coins in honour of Postumus’ favourite god.[34] A sudden debasement of the coinage later that year shows that Postumus was facing increasing financial difficulties, due perhaps to a disruption of silver production in the Spanish mines[35] or the need to buy off an increasingly discontented army.[13] Such discontent must probably have been due to the army’s frustration with Postumus’ failure to take advantage of a golden opportunity to move against Gallienus in 268.[36] Aureolus, the general who was in command of Mediolanum (Milan) in Gallienus’ interest, rebelled and ultimately declared for Postumus.[29] The city of Mediolanum and its north Italian and Raetian hinterland would have been critical to Postumus if he planned to march on Rome. For whatever reason, Postumus failed to support Aureolus, who was besieged by Gallienus.[37] Before the end of the northern summer in 268, the events at Mediolanum were to see the assassination of Gallienus, the defeat of Aureolus, and the accession of Claudius II.[38] It also triggered a sequence of events that would see the end of Postumus’ rule in Gaul. Fall[edit] Aureus of Postumus, within a pendant. Legend: POSTVMVS PIVS AVG. Postumus assumed his fifth consulship on 1 January 269,[13] but the army in Germania Superior raised a usurper in early 269.[13] Laelianus, one of Postumus’ top military leaders and the governor of Germania Superior, was declared emperor in Mogontiacum (Mainz) by the local garrison and surrounding troops (Legio XXII Primigenia).[13][39] Although Postumus was able to capture Mogontiacum and kill Laelianus within a few months, he was unable to control his own troops, who wished to put Mogontiacum to the sack. When Postumus tried to restrain them, his men turned on him and killed him.[13][40] The mutineers set up Marius, a common soldier, as emperor. Marius held sway for a short while before being overthrown by Victorinus, Postumus’ erstwhile colleague in the consulship and tribune of the praetorian guard.[41] In the meantime, the Gallic Empire lost Hispania.[42] Historical sources[edit] Most of the ancient literary references to Postumus come from the works thought to be based on the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte (Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus, Eutropius, and the Historia Augusta, in the last of which Postumus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants). He also figures in the works of Zosimus and Zonaras.[43] Coinage[edit] Postumus has been of particular interest to numismatists, in light of the high quality and relative abundance of his coin issues. His ‘Labours of Hercules’ series is particularly renowned.[5] Notes[edit] ^ a b c d The year of Postumus' accession was either 259 or 260. In the past, the year 259 was favoured; today, however, most scholars consider that the summer or fall of 260 is the more likely date that he was hailed emperor, according to Polfer (Postumus) and J.F. Drinkwater (1987), p. 97. The terminus ante quem is an inscription from September 260 naming Postumus as emperor: Bakker (1993), pp. 369–386. Other dates cited in this article must be pushed back one year for those who take 259 as the year of Postumus' accession. See Drinkwater (1987), pp. 95-106. ^ Based on numismatic evidence, Postumus' rule extended over ten periods of tribunician power, each conventionally lasting for one year beginning on December 10. Regardless of which year Postumus assumed the purple (259 or 260), his rule must have stretched across ten such years. See Drinkwater (1987), pp. 93, 95. References[edit] ^ The only source that mentions a son of Postumus is the Historia Augusta, which is widely considered unreliable. Drinkwater (1987) dismisses the Historia Augusta's reference to Postumus Junior as a "fiction" (p. 65). ^ a b c Potter (2004), p. 260 ^ a b Jones & Martindale (1971), p. 720 ^ State, Paul F., A Brief History of the Netherlands, Infobase Publishing, 2008, p. 8 ^ a b Drinkwater (1987), pp. 162-3. ^ Fields, Nic (2006): Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman: AD 14-193, ISBN 1841769738, p. 45-46 ^ "Regionaal Archief Tilburg - II. Romeinen in Deusone" (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013. ^ The phrase is Zosimus', quoted in Drinkwater (1987), p. 59. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 25. ^ a b c d e Potter (2004), p. 257 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 67. ^ a b Southern (2001), p. 79 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Polfer, Postumus ^ a b Potter (2004), p. 256 ^ a b c d Drinkwater (1987), p. 89. ^ a b c d e f g h i Southern (2001), p. 98 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 168. ^ Drinkwater (1987), pp. 146, 167. ^ a b Southern (2001), p. 97 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 29. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 130. ^ a b Potter (2004), p. 261. ^ Southern (2001), p. 118 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 27. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 136. ^ Drinkwater (1987), pp. 30, 170. ^ Southern (2001), p. 217 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 28. ^ a b c d Potter (2004), p. 263 ^ a b c d Southern (2001), p. 100 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 89, who cites Zonaras (12.24.13-18) as the ancient authority for these events. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 231. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 174. ^ Drinkwater (1987), pp. 32, 174. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 210. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 32. ^ Southern (2001), p. 106 ^ Potter (2004), p. 264 ^ Potter (2004), p. 265 ^ Aurelius Victor 33.8; Eutropius 9.9.1 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 35. ^ Potter (2004), p. 266 ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 45. Primary sources Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Epitome de Caesaribus (sometimes attributed to Aurelius Victor) Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, Tyranni_XXX*.html The Thirty Tyrants Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources Bakker, Lothar. (1993), "Raetien unter Postumus. Das Siegesdenkmal einer Juthungenschlacht im Jahre 260 n. Chr. aus Augsburg." Germania 71, pp. 369–386. Drinkwater, J. F. (1987), The Gallic Empire: Separatism and continuity in the north-western provinces of the Roman Empire, A.D. 260–274, Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-515-04806-5 König, Ingemar (1981), Die gallischen Usurpatoren von Postumus bis Tetricus [The Gaulish usurpers from Postumus to Tetricus] (in German), C.H. Beck, ISBN 3-406-04801-3 Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. (1971), The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press Polfer, Michel (2000), "Postumus (A.D. 260-269)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Potter, David Stone (2004), The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge Southern, Pat (2001), The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Postumus. Partial coinage listing featuring Postumus Regnal titles Preceded by Gallienus Emperor of the Gallic Empire 260–269 Succeeded by Laelianus and/or Marius Political offices Preceded by Aemilianus, Pomponius Bassus Consul of the Roman Empire 261–262 with Publius Cornelius Saecularis , Gaius Junius Donatus, Honoratianus, Gallienus, Lucius Petronius Taurus Volusianus, Macrianus Minor, Quietus Succeeded by Gallienus, Lucius Mummius Faustianus Preceded by Gallienus, Sabinillus Consul of the Roman Empire 268–269 with Ovinius Paternus, Arcesilaus, Victorinus, Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus Succeeded by Claudius Gothicus, Aspasius Paternus, Victorinus, Sanctus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Postumus&oldid=1026346227" Categories: 269 deaths Gallic emperors Imperial Roman consuls 3rd-century Roman usurpers 3rd-century murdered monarchs Germanic warriors Thirty Tyrants (Roman) 3rd-century monarchs in Europe Batavian people Germanic rulers Roman governors of Germania Inferior Cassianii Murdered Roman emperors Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from June 2013 CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Frysk Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 18:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3262	----	Magnentius - Wikipedia Magnentius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 350 to 353 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman emperor Magnentius Solidus of Magnentius Roman emperor (usurper) Reign 18 January 350 – 11 August 353 Predecessor Constans Successor Constantius II Born c. 303 Samarobriva, Gaul Died 11 August 353 (aged about 50) Mons Seleucus Spouse Justina Names Flavius Magnus Magnentius Religion Christianity Magnus Magnentius (c. 303 – 11 August 353) was a usurper of the Roman Empire from 350 to 353. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Usurper 3 Demise 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Early life and career[edit] Born in Samarobriva (Amiens), Gaul, Magnentius was the commander of the Herculians and Jovians, the Imperial guard units.[1] When the army grew dissatisfied with the behavior of Emperor Constans, it elevated Magnentius at Autun on 18 January 350.[2] Constans was hunting near the Pyrenees away from his forces, when Magnentius' forces cornered and killed him at Helene (near Perpignan).[2] Usurper[edit] Caption: DN. MAGNENTIVS P. F. AVG. / SALVS DD NN AVG. ET CAES. X P, A Ω, AMB[IANUM] (Amiens). Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces in Britannia, Gaul, and Hispania, in part because he proved to be far more tolerant toward both Christians and Pagans. His control of Italia and Africa was secured through the election of his men to the most important offices. However, the short-lived revolt of Nepotianus, a member of the Constantinian dynasty, showed Magnentius that his status as emperor needed to be consolidated. Magnentius tried to strengthen his grasp on the territories previously controlled by Constans, moving towards the Danube. Vetranio, commander of the Pannonian army, had been elected Augustus by his troops in Mursa on 1 March. This revolt had a loyalist mark, since Vetranio was supported by Constantina, and Constantius II himself recognized Vetranio, sending him the imperial diadem. Demise[edit] The remaining emperor of the family of Constantine I, Constantius II, broke off his war with Persia, and marched west from Syria. Despite Magnentius' efforts to win Vetranio over to his cause, the elderly Vetranio reached Constantius with his army, resigned the crown, and went into retirement in Bithynia. A Nummus of Magnentius. Caption: DN. MAGNENTIVS P. F. AVG. H[ERACLEA] After electing Magnus Decentius (probably his brother) as Caesar and gathering as many troops as possible, Magnentius advanced his armies to meet those of Constantius in the Battle of Mursa Major in 351; Magnentius led his troops into battle, while Constantius spent the day of battle praying in a nearby church. Despite Magnentius' heroism, his troops were defeated and forced to retreat back to Gaul. As a result of Magnentius' defeat, Italy ejected his garrisons and rejoined the loyalist cause. Magnentius made a final stand in 353 at the Battle of Mons Seleucus, after which he fled to a place called Lugduna and there committed suicide by falling on his sword.[3] Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius began to root out his followers. The most notorious agent he employed in this search was the primicerius notariorum Paulus Catena ("Paul the Chain"). Some sources state that Magnentius' father was a Briton and his mother a Frank.[2] His wife, Justina, later married Valentinian I. Notes[edit] ^ Zosimus, ii.58 ^ a b c Crawford 2016, p. 71. ^ Sozomen (1855). The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Henry G. Bohn. p. 153 References[edit] Cameron, Averil, and Peter Garnsey ed., The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XIII, Cambridge University Press, 1988. Crawford, Peter (2016). Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist. Pen & Sword. (in French) Pierre Bastien (numismat) [fr], Le Monnayage de Magnence (350 – 353), Wetteren (Belgium), Édition numismatique romaine, 1983 External links[edit] Media related to Magnentius at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Constans Roman emperor 350–353 With: Constantius II Vetranio Succeeded by Constantius II Political offices Preceded by Sergius Nigrinianus Roman consul 351 with Gaiso Succeeded by Decentius Caesar Paulus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnentius&oldid=1026087398" Categories: 300s births 353 deaths 4th-century Roman usurpers Ancient Romans who committed suicide Comites rei militaris Flavii Generals of Constans Imperial Roman consuls People from Amiens Suicides by sharp instrument in France Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with French-language sources (fr) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3297	----	Danube - Wikipedia Danube From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the river. For other uses, see Danube (disambiguation). River in Central and Eastern Europe Danube The Danube in Budapest Course of the Danube, marked in red Location Countries Germany Austria Slovakia Hungary Croatia Serbia Bulgaria Romania Ukraine Cities Ulm Ingolstadt Regensburg Linz Vienna Bratislava Győr Budapest Dunaújváros Vukovar Apatin Novi Sad Zemun Belgrade Pančevo Smederevo Drobeta-Turnu Severin Vidin Giurgiu Ruse Călărași Brăila Galați Izmail Tulcea Sulina Physical characteristics Source Breg  • location Martinskapelle, Black Forest, Germany  • coordinates 48°05′44″N 08°09′18″E / 48.09556°N 8.15500°E / 48.09556; 8.15500  • elevation 1,078 m (3,537 ft) 2nd source Brigach  • location St. Georgen, Black Forest, Germany  • coordinates 48°06′24″N 08°16′51″E / 48.10667°N 8.28083°E / 48.10667; 8.28083  • elevation 940 m (3,080 ft) Source confluence    • location Donaueschingen  • coordinates 47°57′03″N 08°31′13″E / 47.95083°N 8.52028°E / 47.95083; 8.52028 Mouth Danube Delta  • location Romania  • coordinates 45°13′3″N 29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E / 45.21750; 29.76139Coordinates: 45°13′3″N 29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E / 45.21750; 29.76139 Length 2,850 km (1,770 mi)[1] Basin size 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) Discharge    • location before delta  • average 6,450–7,000 m3/s (228,000–247,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Passau 30km before town  • average 580 m3/s (20,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Vienna  • average 1,900 m3/s (67,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Budapest  • average 2,350 m3/s (83,000 cu ft/s) Discharge    • location Belgrade  • average 5,600 m3/s (200,000 cu ft/s) v t e Danube summary route map Legend 2860 Source at Donaueschingen 2587 Limit of navigation at Ulm 2458 Ingolstadt 2411 Rhine–Main–Danube Canal 2376 Regensburg 2226 River Inn Germany Austria 2128 Linz 1918 Vienna Austria Slovakia River Morava 1867 Bratislava Slovakia Hungary 1794 Győr 1639 Budapest 1579 Dunaújváros Hungary Croatia 1433 Hungary Serbia 1425 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1424 Bezdan Bridge 1382 River Drava 1367 Bogojevo Road Bridge 1366 Bogojevo Railway Bridge 1335 Vukovar 1297 Ilok–Bačka Palanka Bridge Croatia Serbia 1296 in Serbia 1258 Liberty Bridge 1255 Varadin Bridge 1254 Novi Sad 1254 Žeželj Bridge 1253 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1232 Beška Bridge 1215 River Tisza 1176 Pupin Bridge 1173 Zemun 1170 River Sava 1169 Belgrade 1167 Pančevo Bridge 1153 Pančevo 1104 River Great Morava 1116 Smederevo 1113 Pipeline bridge 1112 Kovin Bridge 1077 Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal 1076 Serbia Romania 943 Iron Gate I 930 Drobeta-Turnu Severin 863 Iron Gate II Serbia Bulgaria 846 796 New Europe Bridge River Olt 495 Ruse 489 Danube Bridge Bulgaria Romania 300 Anghel Saligny Bridge 300 Cernavodă Bridge 238 Giurgeni–Vadu Oii Bridge Romania Moldova Moldova Ukraine Danube Delta 0 Black Sea Note: Distances are in kilometers, rounded to the nearest kilometer. Waterway distances are shown, not towpath distances. Country capitals are shown in bold. The Danube (/ˈdæn.juːb/ DAN-yoob; known by various names in other languages) is the second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through much of Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest into the Black Sea. Its longest headstream Breg rises in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, while the river carries its name from its source confluence in Donaueschingen onwards. The Danube was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today is the river running through the largest number of countries in the world (10; the Nile is second with 9). Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2,850 km (1,770 mi), passing through or bordering Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine before draining into the Black Sea. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries. The largest cities on the river are Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade and Bratislava, all of which are the capitals of their respective countries. Six more capital cities lie in the Danube's basin: Bucharest, Sofia, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo and Pristina. The fourth-largest city in its basin is Munich, the capital of Bavaria, standing on the Isar River. The Danube river basin is home to fish species such as pike, zander, huchen, Wels catfish, burbot and tench. It is also home to a large diversity of carp and sturgeon, as well as salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube Delta and the lower portion of the river. Since ancient times, the Danube has been a traditional trade route in Europe. Today, 2,415 km (1,501 mi) of its total length are navigable. The Danube is linked to the North Sea via the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, connecting the Danube at Kelheim with the Main at Bamberg. The river is also an important source of hydropower and drinking water. Contents 1 Names and etymology 1.1 Other names 1.2 Etymology 2 Geography 2.1 Drainage basin 2.2 Tributaries 2.3 Cities and towns 2.4 Islands 2.5 Sectioning 3 Modern navigation 4 Piracy 5 Danube Delta 6 International cooperation 6.1 Ecology and environment 6.2 Navigation 7 Geology 8 History 8.1 Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube 8.2 Rivalry along the Danube 9 Economics 9.1 Drinking water 9.2 Navigation and transport 9.3 Fishing 9.4 Tourism 9.4.1 Danube Bike Trail 9.4.2 Sultans Trail 9.4.3 Donausteig 9.4.4 The Route of Emperors and Kings 10 Important national parks 11 In popular culture 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Names and etymology[edit] Other names[edit] The river was known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros (Ἴστρος)[2] a borrowing from a Daco-Thracian name meaning 'strong, swift', from a root possibly also encountered in the ancient name of the Dniester (Danaster in Latin, Tiras in Greek) and akin to Iranic turos 'swift' and Sanskrit iṣiras (इषिरस्) 'swift', from the PIE *isro-, *sreu 'to flow'.[3] In the Middle Ages, the Greek Tiras was borrowed into Italian as Tyrlo and into Turkic languages as Tyrla, the latter further borrowed into Romanian as a regionalism (Turlă).[3] The Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas,[4] "the bringer of luck".[5] The Middle Mongolian name for the Danube was transliterated as Tho-na in 1829 by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat.[6] The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names related to Dānuvius: German: Donau (IPA: [ˈdoːnaʊ] (listen)); Bavarian: Doana; Silesian: Dōnaj; Upper Sorbian: Dunaj; Czech: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj]); Slovak: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj]); Polish: Dunaj (IPA: [ˈdunaj] (listen)); Hungarian: Duna (IPA: [ˈdunɒ] (listen)); Slovene: Donava (IPA: [ˈdóːnaʋa]); Serbo-Croatian: Dunav / Дунав (IPA: [dǔna(ː)ʋ]); Romanian: Dunărea (IPA: [ˈdunəre̯a]); Bulgarian: Дунав, romanized: Dunav (IPA: [ˈdunɐf]); Russian: Дунай, romanized: Dunaj (IPA: [dʊˈnaj]); Ukrainian: Дунай, romanized: Dunaj (IPA: [dʊˈnɑj]); Greek: Δούναβης (IPA: [ˈðunavis]); Italian: Danubio (IPA: [daˈnuːbjo]); Spanish: Danubio; (Spanish pronunciation: [daˈnuβjo]); Turkish: Tuna; Romansh: Danubi; Albanian: Tunë, definite Albanian form: Tuna.[7] Etymology[edit] Danube is an Old European river name derived from the Celtic 'danu' or 'don'[8] (both Celtic gods), which itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European *dānu. Other European river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr, Dysna and Tana/Deatnu. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means "fluid, dewdrop" and dānuja means "born from dānu" or "born from dew-drops". In Avestan, the same word means "river". In the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra, "a dragon blocking the course of the rivers". The Finnish word for Danube is Tonava, which is most likely derived from the word for the river in German, Donau. Its Sámi name Deatnu means "Great River". It is possible that dānu in Scythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river": Dnieper and Dniestr, from Danapris and Danastius, are presumed to continue Scythian *dānu apara "far river" and *dānu nazdya- "near river", respectively.[9] In Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius, Ister[10] or Hister. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, except Slovenian (the name of the Rhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The German Donau (Early Modern German Donaw, Tonaw,[11] Middle High German Tuonowe)[12] is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe "wetland". Romanian differs from other surrounding languages in designating the river with a feminine term, Dunărea.[3] This form was not inherited from Latin, although Romanian is a Romance language.[13] To explain the loss of the Latin name, scholars who suppose that Romanian developed near the large river propose[13] that the Romanian name descends from a hypothetical Thracian *Donaris. The Proto-Indoeuropean root of this presumed name is related to the Iranic word "don-"/"dan-", while the supposed suffix -aris is encountered in the ancient name of the Ialomița River, Naparis, and in the unidentified Miliare river mentioned by Jordanes in his Getica.[3] Gábor Vékony says that this hypothesis is not plausible, because the Greeks borrowed the Istros form from the native Thracians.[13] He proposes that the Romanian name is loanword from a Turkic language (Cuman or Pecheneg).[13] Geography[edit] The Danube basin The hydrogeographical source of the Danube at St Martin's Chapel in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald: the Bregquelle, the source of the Danube's longest headstream, the Breg, where the Danube is symbolized by the Roman allegory for the river, Danuvius. The symbolical source of the Danube in Donaueschingen: the source of the Donaubach (Danube Brook), which flows into the Brigach. The Danube's source confluence in Donaueschingen: the Donauzusammenfluss, the confluence of Breg and Brigach. Confluence of (from left to right) Inn, Danube, and Ilz in Passau Danube in Linz, Austria The Danube in Bratislava, Slovakia Basilica of Esztergom, Hungary The Tisza is the longest tributary of the Danube Confluence of river Sava into the Danube beneath Belgrade citadel Danube at Nikopol, Bulgaria in winter The Danube in Sulina, Romania 0 km, Danube Delta, Ukraine Where the Danube Meets the Black Sea (NASA Goddard image). The Danube discharges into the Black Sea (the upper body of water in the image). Classified as an international waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,730 km (1,700 mi), passing through four capital cities (Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade) before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine. Once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries: Romania (29.0% of basin area), Hungary (11.6%), Serbia (10.2%), Austria (10.0%), Germany (7.0%), Bulgaria (5.9%), Slovakia (5.9%), Croatia (4.4%), Ukraine (3.8%), and Moldova (1.6%).[14] Its drainage basin extends into nine more (ten if Kosovo is included). Drainage basin[edit] In addition to the bordering countries (see above), the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6% of the basin area), the Czech Republic (2.9%), Slovenia (2.0%), Montenegro (0.9%), Switzerland (0.2%), Italy (<0.15%), Poland (<0.1%), North Macedonia (<0.1%) and Albania (<0.1%).[14] The total drainage basin is 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) in area and is home to 83 million people.[15][16][17] The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border, at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft).[18] The Danube River Basin is divided into three main parts, separated by "gates" where the river is forced to cut through mountainous sections:[17] Upper Basin, from the headwaters to the Devín Gate. Middle Basin, usually called the Pannonian basin or Carpathian Basin, between the Devín Gate and the Iron Gates. It includes the Hungarian plains Kisalföld and Alföld. Lower Basin, from the Iron Gates to the river mouth, including the Danube Delta. Tributaries[edit] Main article: List of tributaries of the Danube The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (as they enter): Iller (entering at Ulm) Lech Altmühl (entering at Kelheim) Naab (entering at Regensburg) Regen (entering at Regensburg) Isar Inn (entering at Passau) Ilz (entering at Passau) Enns Morava (entering near Devín Castle) Rába (entering at Győr) Váh (entering at Komárno) Hron (entering at Štúrovo) Ipeľ Sió Drava Vuka (entering at Vukovar) 18. Tisza 19. Sava (entering at Belgrade) 20. Tamiš (entering at Pančevo) 21. Great Morava 22. Mlava 23. Karaš 24. Jiu (entering at Bechet) 25. Iskar (entering near Gigen) 26. Olt (entering at Turnu Măgurele) 27. Osam (entering near Nikopol, Bulgaria) 28. Yantra (river) (entering near Svishtov) 29. Argeș (entering at Oltenița) 30. Ialomița 31. Siret (entering near Galați) 32. Prut (entering near Galați) Cities and towns[edit] The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from the source to the mouth they are:  Germany Donaueschingen in the State of Baden-Württemberg – rivers Brigach and Breg join to form the Danube Möhringen an der Donau in Baden-Württemberg Tuttlingen in Baden-Württemberg Sigmaringen in Baden-Württemberg Riedlingen in Baden-Württemberg Munderkingen in Baden-Württemberg Ehingen in Baden-Württemberg Ulm in Baden-Württemberg Neu-Ulm in Bavaria Günzburg in Bavaria Dillingen an der Donau in Bavaria Donauwörth in Bavaria Neuburg an der Donau in Bavaria Ingolstadt in Bavaria Kelheim in Bavaria Regensburg in Bavaria Straubing in Bavaria Deggendorf in Bavaria Passau in Bavaria  Austria Linz, capital of Upper Austria Krems in Lower Austria Tulln in Lower Austria Vienna – capital of Austria and the most populous city on the Danube, where the Danube floodplain is called the Lobau, though the Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube (it is bounded by the Donaukanal – 'Danube canal').  Slovakia Bratislava – capital of Slovakia Komárno Štúrovo  Hungary Mosonmagyaróvár Győr Komárom Esztergom Visegrád Vác Szentendre Göd Dunakeszi Budapest – capital of Hungary, the largest city and the largest agglomeration on Danube (about 3,300,000 people). This section of the river is also called Danube Bend. Szigetszentmiklós Százhalombatta Ráckeve Adony Dunaújváros Dunaföldvár Paks Kalocsa Baja Mohács  Croatia Vukovar Ilok  Serbia Apatin Bačka Palanka Čerević Futog Veternik Novi Sad Sremski Karlovci Zemun Belgrade – capital of Serbia Pančevo Smederevo Kovin Veliko Gradište Golubac Donji Milanovac Kladovo  Bulgaria Vidin Lom Kozloduy Oryahovo Nikopol Belene Svishtov Ruse Tutrakan Silistra  Romania Moldova Nouă Orșova Drobeta-Turnu Severin Calafat Bechet Dăbuleni Corabia Turnu Măgurele Zimnicea Giurgiu Oltenița Călărași Fetești Cernavodă Hârșova Brăila – limit of the maritime sector of the Danube Galați – largest port on the Danube Isaccea Tulcea Sulina – last city through which it flows  Moldova Giurgiulești  Ukraine Reni Izmail Kiliya Vylkove Panorama of the Danube in Vienna The Danube Bend is a curve of the Danube in Hungary, near the city of Visegrád. The Transdanubian Mountains lie on the right bank (left side of the picture), while the North Hungarian Mountains on the left bank (right side of the picture). Panorama of the Danube in Budapest with the Hungarian Parliament (left) Budapest at night The confluence of the Sava into the Danube at Belgrade. Pictured from Belgrade Fortress, Serbia Panoramic image of the Danube and Sava river from Kalemegdan, Belgrade Serbia. The Danube entering the Iron Gate at the South-Western end of the Carpathian Mountains. Romania on the left side, Golubac Fortress and Serbia on the right side. Islands[edit] Further information: List of islands in the Danube Aerial view of Margaret Island, Budapest, Hungary. There are 15 bridges over the Danube in Budapest. Great War Island, Belgrade, as seen from Zemun, Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube. The Ada Kaleh island in the Danube was forgotten during the peace talks at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which allowed it to remain a de jure Turkish territory and the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II's private possession until the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 (de facto until Romania unilaterally declared its sovereignty on the island in 1919 and further strengthened it with the Treaty of Trianon in 1920).[19][20] The island was submerged during the construction of the Iron Gates hydroelectric plant in 1970. Ada Kaleh Island Ostrovul Mare, Gogoșu Balta Ialomiței Belene Island Csepel Island Donauinsel Great Brăila Island Great War Island Island of Mohács Kozloduy Island Margaret Island Ostrovo (Kostolac) Ostrovul Ciocănești Ostrovul Mare, Islaz Ribarsko Ostrvo, Novi Sad Island of Šarengrad Szigetköz Island of Szentendre Vardim Island Island of Vukovar Žitný ostrov Sectioning[edit] Upper Section: From spring to Devín Gate, at the border of Austria and Slovakia. Danube remains a characteristic mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0.0012% (12 ppm), from Passau to Devín Gate the gradient lessens to 0.0006% (6 ppm). Middle Section: From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania. The riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0.00006% (0.6 ppm). Lower Section: From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0.00003% (0.3 ppm). Modern navigation[edit] The Danube in Budapest Fisherman in the Danube Delta Play media Freight ship on the Danube near Vienna The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania (the maritime river sector), and further on by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. Since the completion of the German Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005. At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60 km (37 mi) downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m3/s (540,000 cu ft/s). There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km (40 mi) Danube-Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km (250 mi); the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal is about 171 km (106 mi), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.[21] Piracy[edit] In 2010–12, shipping companies (especially from Ukraine) claimed that their vessels suffered from "regular pirate attacks", on the Serbian and Romanian stretches of the Danube.[22][23][24] However, these transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery".[25] On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates", and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small-time contraband theft that is taking place along the river. The trading practices were legal along the river, since Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU in 2007 and Romania became European border with Ukraine and Serbia. "Vamesi" the Romanian Border Officers, were confused with the new trading rules and new borders along the river as long as most of the southern Danube border is shared with Bulgaria.[26] Danube Delta[edit] Main article: Danube Delta The Danube Delta (Romanian: Delta Dunării pronounced [ˈdelta ˈdunərij]; Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю, romanized: Del'ta Dunayu) is the largest river delta in the European Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odessa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4,152 km2 (1,603 sq mi), of which 3,446 km2 (1,331 sq mi) are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim-Sinoe (1,015 km2 (392 sq mi) of which 865 km2 (334 sq mi) water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5,165 km2 (1,994 sq mi). The Danube Delta is also the best preserved river Delta in Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and a Ramsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangered pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as the Bystroye Canal.[27] International cooperation[edit] Ecology and environment[edit] Main article: International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River Pelicans in the Danube Delta, Romania The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization which consists of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro and Ukraine) and the European Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and the groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive. Navigation[edit] Main article: Danube Commission The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia, It meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission's working plans. The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states. Geology[edit] Iron Gates, Serbia-Romania border Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station, Romania-Serbia Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the Alps mountains which flows north towards the North Sea, an invisible line beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed. Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one. The Iron Gate, on the Serbian-Romanian border (Iron Gates natural park and Đerdap national park) Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alb, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 kilometres (7 mi) south at the Aachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,500 litres per second (300 cu ft/s), north of Lake Constance—thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung. Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing. The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia at Batina, Dalj, Vukovar and Ilok.[28] History[edit] The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BC Vinča culture, (Vinča, Serbia) are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BC Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics. Darius the Great, king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BC to invade European Scythia and to subdue the Scythians. Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian king Syrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BC. Under the Romans the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From AD 37 to the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I (364–375) the Danubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube into Dacia was achieved by the Imperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town of Drobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia under Decebalus enabled the Province of Dacia to be created, but in 271 it was lost again. Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century. The oldest bridge across the Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus between 103 and 105 CE, directed by Trajan, modern Serbia and Romania. At Esztergom and Štúrovo, the Danube separates Hungary from Slovakia The Danube in Vienna The Danube between Belene and Belene Island, Bulgaria A look upstream from the Donauinsel in Vienna, Austria during an unusually cold winter (February 2006). A frozen Danube usually occurs just once or twice in a lifetime. Bratislava does not usually suffer major floods, but the Danube sometimes overflows its right bank Combat between Russian and Turkish forces on the Danube in 1854, during the Crimean War (1853–1856) Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube[edit] Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282). At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.[29] Rivalry along the Danube[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire competed first with the Kingdom of Serbia, Second Bulgarian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary, Principality of Wallachia, Principality of Moldavia and later with the Austrian Habsburgs, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire for controlling the Danube (Tuna in Turkish), which became the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars (1366–1526) and Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791) were fought along the river. The most important wars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Siege of Belgrade (1456), the Battle of Mohács (1526), the first Turkish Siege of Vienna (1529), the Siege of Esztergom (1543), the Long War (1591–1606), the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Economics[edit] Drinking water[edit] Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people.[30][31] In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such as Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube. In Austria and Hungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.[32] Navigation and transport[edit] Fishing from a Zille on the Danube in Lower Austria, 1982 In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, as The Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot."[33] Today, as "Corridor VII" of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects the Port of Rotterdam and the industrial centres of Western Europe with the Black Sea and, also, through the Danube – Black Sea Canal, with the Port of Constanța. The waterway is designed for large-scale inland vessels (110 × 11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns. Downstream from the Freudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometres (530 mi). The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal at Kelheim, with the Donaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube–Black Sea Canal at Cernavodă. Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Danube–Tisa–Danube Canals, links sections downstream. In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat-bottomed boat called a Zille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area. Fishing[edit] The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry. However, some of the river's resources have been managed in an environmentally unsustainable manner in the past, leading to damage by pollution, alterations to the channel and major infrastructure development, including large hydropower dams.[34] The sturgeon stocks associated with the Danube River basin have, over the centuries, formed the basis of a large and significant commercial fishery, renowned throughout the world. The construction of the dams, beside overfishing and river pollution has a significant role over sturgeon population decline because create a barrier for fish migratory species that usually spawn in the upper parts of the river.[35] The spawning areas of migratory fishes species has been dramatically reduced by the construction of hydropower and navigation systems at Iron Gates I (1974) and Iron Gates II (1984)Corda (1988). "Iron gates II design and performance of dams- geotechnical considerations" (PDF). International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering. Cite journal requires |journal= (help). The initial design of these dams has not included any fish passage facility.[36] The possibility of building a man-made fish pass enabling migration for fish species including the sturgeon, is currently under review by projects such as We Pass.[37] The Upper Danube ecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube–Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many.[38] Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga, Russian sturgeon, bastard sturgeon, sterlet, starry sturgeon and European sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely–or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon–disappeared from the river.[38] The huchen, one of the largest species of salmon, is endemic to the Danube basin, but has been introduced elsewhere by humans.[39] Tourism[edit] Wachau Valley near Spitz, Austria Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau Valley, the Nationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, the Danube Delta in Romania, and the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria. Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go from Passau in Germany to the Danube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic-free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats. The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also due to its fascinating landmarks and sights important for the regional tourism industry. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.[40] The Danube Banks in Budapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city. The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination. Danube Bike Trail[edit] The Danube Bike Trail running along the Schlögener Schlinge The Danube Bike Trail leading through the city Linz The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.[41] The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections: Donaueschingen–Passau (559 km) Passau–Vienna (340 km) Vienna–Budapest (306 km) Budapest–Black Sea (1670 km) Sultans Trail[edit] The Sultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river between Vienna and Smederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating in Istanbul. Sections along the river are as follows. Vienna–Budapest (323 km) Budapest–Smederevo (595 km) Donausteig[edit] Resting area along the Donausteig hiking trail near Bad Kreuzen In 2010 the Donausteig, a hiking trail from Passau to Grein, was opened. It is 450 kilometres (280 mi) long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. An impressive landscape and beautiful viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of the Donausteig.[42] The Route of Emperors and Kings[edit] The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading from Regensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna.[43] The international consortium ARGE Die Donau-Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.[40] In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town, stone bridge and cathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues to Engelhartszell, with the only Trappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight-stops along the Danube, include the "Schlögener Schlinge", the city of Linz, which was European Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, the Melk Abbey, the university city of Krems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Since ancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue travelled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While travelling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today. The route got its name from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and the crusaders as well as from Richard I of England who had been jailed in the Dürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of the Habsburg family. Once crowned in Frankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences and state-run convents were built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock". Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube, but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig" and visit the UNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg, Wachau and Vienna.[44] Important national parks[edit] Naturpark Obere Donau (Germany) Donauauen zwischen Neuburg und Ingolstadt (Germany) – map Nature protection area Donauleiten (Germany) Nationalpark Donau Auen (Austria) – map Chránená krajinná oblasť Dunajské luhy (Slovakia) – map Danube-Ipoly National Park (Hungary) – map Danube-Drava National Park (Hungary) – map Naturalpark Kopački Rit (Croatia) – map Gornje Podunavlje Nature Reserve (Serbia) – map Fruška Gora National Park (Serbia) Koviljsko-petrovaradinski rit Nature Reserve (Serbia) Great War Island Nature Reserve (Serbia) Đerdap National park (Serbia) Iron Gates Natural Park (Romania) Persina Nature Park (Bulgaria) – map Kalimok-Brushlen Protected Site (Bulgaria) – map Srebarna Nature Reserve (Bulgaria) – map Măcin Mountains Natural Park (Romania) Balta Mică a Brăilei Natural Park (Romania) Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (Romania) – map Danube Biosphere Reserve in Ukraine Gornje Podunavlje Special Nature Reserve in Serbia. Golubac Fortress in Đerdap National park, Serbia. In popular culture[edit] This article is in list format, but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (May 2012) 16th-century Danube landscape near Regensburg, by Albrecht Altdorfer – a member of the Danube school. The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous waltz by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, The Blue Danube Waltz (On the Beautiful Blue Danube). This piece is well known across the world and is also used widely as a lullaby. The Waves of the Danube (Romanian: Valurile Dunării) is a waltz by the Romanian composer Iosif Ivanovici (1845–1902); as the Anniversary Song, it has been performed by many vocalists, such as Al Jolson, Rosemary Clooney, Vera Lynn, Tom Jones, and countless others. [It is most commonly known as the Anniversary Waltz, though that is actually a different song and melody.] Joe Zawinul wrote a symphony about the Danube called Stories of the Danube. It was performed for the first time at the 1993 Bruckner festival, at Linz. The Danube figures prominently in the Bulgarian National Anthem, as a symbolic representation of the country's natural beauty. In Lithuanian folklore songs, the appearance of Danube (Dunojus, Dunojėlis) is more common than the appearance of the longest Lithuanian river Neman. The German tradition of landscape painting, the Danube school, was developed in the Danube valley in the 16th century.[citation needed] One of Claudio Magris's masterpieces is called Danube ( ISBN 1-86046-823-3). The book, published in 1986, is a large cultural-historical essay, in which Magris travels the Danube from the first sources to the delta, tracing the rich European ethnic and cultural heritage, literary and ideological past and present along the way. Jules Verne's The Danube Pilot (1908) (Le Pilote du Danube) depicts the adventures of fisherman Serge Ladko as he travels down the river. In the Star Trek universe, the Danube-class runabout is a type of starship used by the Federation Starfleet, most notably in the Deep Space Nine series. Miklós Jancsó's film the Blue Danube Waltz (1992) The Hungarian sweet speciality Duna kavics ("Danube pebbles") is named after the river.[citation needed] A Hungarian folk ensemble, the Danube Folk Ensemble (Duna Művészegyüttes), is named after the river. The group is made up of 30 dancers and musicians. During their performances they show the Hungarian folk music, dance and costumes.[citation needed] There are Hasidic (Chabad Nigunnim) songs called "dunai", dating from around 1800. They are often lullabies and are named after the river Dunay. Farmers around the river used to come to it and sing spiritual songs to thank God for the great beauty which they saw every day.[citation needed] See also[edit] Germany portal Austria portal Slovakia portal Hungary portal Croatia portal Serbia portal Bulgaria portal Romania portal Ukraine portal 2006 European floods Between the Woods and the Water, a travel book telling of a Danubian journey in 1934 The Ister, 2004 film Executive Agency for Exploration and Maintenance of the Danube River List of crossings of the Danube Steamboats on the Danube Black Sea drainage basin References[edit] ^ "Danube River". Britannica.com. ^ "Herodotus, The Histories, book 4, chapter 48". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ a b c d Felecan, Oliviu; Felecan, Nicolae (2015). "Straturi etimologice reflectate în hidronimia românească" (PDF). Quaderns de Filologia: Estudis Lingüístics. Universitat de València. 20 (1): 254. doi:10.7203/qfilologia.20.7521. ^ Dyer, Robert (1974). "Matoas, the Thraco-Phrygian name for the Danube, and the IE root *madų". Glotta. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG). 52 (1/2): 91–95. JSTOR 40266286. ^ Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2009). "Reka kot božanstvo — Sava v antiki" [River as a Deity – The Sava in Antiquity]. In Barachini, Jožef (ed.). Ukročena lepotica: Sava in njene zgodbe [The Tamed Beauty: The Sava and Its Stories] (PDF) (in Slovenian and English). Sevnica: Javni zavod za kulturo, šport, turizem in mladinske dejavnosti. pp. 42–50. ISBN 978-961-92735-0-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. ^ Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre (1829). Nouveaus Mélanges Asiatiques. 2. Paris: Schubart and Heidelhoff. pp. 96–97. ^ Kozma Vasili; Arsen Mustaqi, eds. (1981), Lirika popullore [Folk lyrics], Folklor Shqiptar (in Albanian), 4, Tirana: Akademia e Shkencave e RPS te Shqiperise, Instituti i Kultures Popullore, Sektori i Prozes dhe Poezise, p. 624, Tunë-a lumi i Danubit ^ Triad 35. Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein, pp. 280–285. ^ Mallory, J.P; Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 106.. V. I. Adaev (1949). Осетинский язык и фольклор [Ossetian language and folklore] (PDF) (in Russian). Moscow: Publishing house of Soviet Academy of Sciences. p. 236. ^ Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One. Paris: Mouton. 1976. p. 144. ^ Tonaw in Sebastian Franck (1542). Weltbuch. p. 81. Donaw e.g. in Leonhard Thurneisser zum Thurn (1572). Pison. p. 186. Spelling Donau from the 17th century. ^ Grimm. Deutsche Grammatik. p. 407. ^ a b c d Vékony, Gábor (2000). Dacians, Romans, Romanians. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-882785-13-1. ^ a b "Countries of the Danube River Basin". International Commission for the protection of the Danube River. Retrieved 13 November 2010. ^ Complete table of the Bavarian Waterbody Register by the Bavarian State Office for the Environment (xls, 10.3 MB) ^ Danube River Basin District, Part A – Roof Report, IPCDR, p 8 ^ a b "River Basin | ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River". www.icpdr.org. ^ "Drainage basin of the Black Sea" (PDF). Our Waters: Joining Hands Across Borders. First Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes and Groundwaters. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2007. ^ Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, 24 July 1923, retrieved 6 December 2014 ^ "Ada Kaleh". alexisphoenix.org. ^ "Danube navigation at a glance". ^ Piškor, Mate (12 October 2011). "Riječni gusari u Srbiji pljačkaju hrvatske brodove" (in Croatian). ^ "Ukrainian Danube Shipping Company Says Its Ships Are Being Attacked Frequently in Romanian Part Of River Danube". Un.ua. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012. ^ Гордієва, Олена (20 January 2012). "Українські кораблі все частіше стають жертвами румунських піратів" [Romanian Pirates Attack Ukrainian Ships More Frequently]. Gazeta.ua (in Ukrainian). ^ Pirates on the lower Danube at rivercruiseinfo.com ^ Reports Of 'Pirates Of The Danube' Get The Old Heave-Ho at Radio Free Europe ^ Staras, Mircea (2005). Documentation on the likely significant transboundary impact of the Ukrainian deep-water navigation canal Danube-black sea in the context of Espoo Convention, 1991 (PDF). Tulcea, Romania: Danube Delta National Institute (published February 2005). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020. ^ "Daily hydrological report". State Hydrometeorological Bureau of the Republic of Croatia. Retrieved 9 September 2010. ^ Dacia Preistorica Archived 7 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Nicolae Densusianu (1913). ^ "About Us | ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River". www.icpdr.org. Retrieved 5 February 2021. ^ "Blue River". wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 5 February 2021. ^ "The Danube". International Association of Water Supply Companies in the Danube River Catchment Area. Archived from the original on 19 May 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012. ^ "The Times & The Sunday Times". www.thetimes.co.uk. ^ Holcik, Juraj (1989). The freshwater fishes of Europe Vol.I Part II General introduction to fishes. Wiesbaden: Aula Verlag. ^ Hensel, K; Holcik, J (1997). Past and current status of sturgeons in the upper and middle Danube River. ^ Suciu Radu, Guti Gabor (2012). Have sturgeons a future in the Danube River? (PDF). 39th IAD Conference: Living Danube. Szentendre, Hungary. ^ We Pass - Facilitating Fish Migration and Conservation at the Iron Gates. ICPDR. 11 November 2019. ^ a b Hales, J. (2013). Upper Danube. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Retrieved 25 February 2013. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2013). "Hucho hucho" in FishBase. February 2013 version. ^ a b "Press release of the "ARGE Donau Österreich"" (PDF) (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014. ^ "Die ADFC-Radreiseanalyse 2013 – Zahlen, Daten und Fakten" (in German). Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2014. ^ "Donausteig". Traildino.com. Retrieved 1 April 2014. ^ "Welcome". Straße der Kaiser und Könige. ^ "The Route of Emperors and Kings". bavaria.by. Retrieved 29 March 2014. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Danube. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Danube. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Danube . Geographic data related to Danube at OpenStreetMap Danube watershed map and information from the World Resources Institute Danube Panorama Project сайт о Дунае (in Russian) Danube and the sport of rowing Danube image pool on Flickr Danube Tourist Commission (in German) danubemap.eu – The Tourist Map of the Danube (archive) International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River Bridges of Budapest over the Danube river Description of the Danube estuary in June 1877, The Times of London Old maps of the Danube, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel v t e The Danube Countries Germany Austria Slovakia Hungary Croatia Serbia Bulgaria Romania Moldova Ukraine Cities Ulm Ingolstadt Regensburg Passau Linz Vienna Bratislava Győr Budapest Vukovar Novi Sad Belgrade Vidin Ruse Brăila Galați Izmail Tulcea Tributaries Iller Lech Regen Isar Inn Morava Váh Hron Ipeľ/Ipoly Drava Tisza/Tisa Sava Timiș/Tamiš Great Morava Timok Jiu Iskar Olt Osam Yantra Vedea Argeș Ialomița Siret Prut Canals Rhine–Main–Danube Canal Danube–Black Sea Canal See also Breg Brigach Source Danube Delta List of islands in the Danube List of crossings of the Danube Internationalization v t e Barbarian kingdoms established around the Migration Period Germanic kingdoms Alamannian Kingdom Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy Bavarian Duchy Burgundian Kingdom Frankish Kingdom Frisian Kingdom Gepid Kingdom Herulian Kingdom Lombard Kingdom Suebian Kingdom (Danube) Suebian Kingdom (Gallaecia) Ostrogothic Kingdom Rugian Kingdom Saxonian Duchy Scirian Kingdom Thuringii Kingdom Vandal Kingdom Visigothic Kingdom Hunnic kingdoms Hunnic Empire Avar kingdoms Avar Khaganate Turkic kingdoms Bulgar Khanate Iranian kingdoms Alani Kingdom of Orleans Alani Kingdom of Valencia Celtic kingdoms Bro Gwened Cornouaille Domnonée Dumnonia Hen Ogledd Gaelic Ireland Petty kingdoms of Wales Pictland Sub-Roman Britain Slavic kingdoms Antes Tribal Union Carantian Principality Samo's Empire Sclaveni Berber kingdoms Mauro-Roman Kingdom Kingdom of Altava Kingdom of Ouarsenis Kingdom of the Aures Arab kingdoms Ghassanids Tanukhids Salihids See also Foederati Cantabri Vascones Odoacer's Kingdom(?) 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en-wikipedia-org-32	----	Geminus - Wikipedia Geminus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician Geminus Γεμῖνος ὁ Ῥόδιος Nationality Greece Known for Astronomer and mathematician Scientific career Academic advisors Posidonius Geminus of Rhodes (Greek: Γεμῖνος ὁ Ῥόδιος), was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, who flourished in the 1st century BC. An astronomy work of his, the Introduction to the Phenomena, still survives; it was intended as an introductory astronomy book for students. He also wrote a work on mathematics, of which only fragments quoted by later authors survive. Contents 1 Life 2 Astronomy 3 Mathematics 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 External links Life[edit] Nothing is known about the life of Geminus. It is not even certain that he was born in Rhodes, but references to mountains on Rhodes in his astronomical works suggests that he worked there. His dates are not known with any certainty either. A passage in his works referring to the Annus Vagus (Wandering Year) of the Egyptian calendar of 120 years before his own time, has been used to imply a date of c. 70 BC for the time of writing,[1] which would be consistent with the idea that he may have been a pupil of Posidonius, but a date as late as 50 AD has also been suggested.[2] The crater Geminus on the Moon is named after him. Astronomy[edit] The only work of Geminus to survive is his Introduction to the Phenomena (Greek: Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὰ Φαινόμενα), often just called the Isagoge. This introductory astronomy book, based on the works of earlier astronomers such as Hipparchus, was intended to teach astronomy for beginning students in the subject. In it, Geminus describes the zodiac and the motion of the Sun; the constellations; the celestial sphere; days and nights; the risings and settings of the zodiacal signs; luni-solar periods and their application to calendars; phases of the Moon; eclipses; star phases; terrestrial zones and geographical places; and the foolishness of making weather predictions by the stars.[3] He also wrote a commentary on Posidonius' work On Meteorology. Fragments of this commentary are preserved by Simplicius in his commentary on Aristotle's Physics. Mathematics[edit] Geminus also wrote extensively on mathematics, including a comprehensive Doctrine, (or Theory) of Mathematics.[4] Although this work has not survived, many extracts are preserved by Proclus, Eutocius, and others. He divided mathematics into two parts: Mental (Greek: νοητά) and Observable (Greek: αἰσθητά), or in other words, Pure and Applied. In the first category he placed geometry and arithmetic (including number theory), and in the second category he placed mechanics, astronomy, optics, geodesy, canonics (musical harmony), and logistics. Long extracts of his work are also preserved by Al-Nayrizi in his commentary on Euclid's Elements. Notes[edit] ^ Dicks, D., Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York. (1970). ^ Neugebauer, O., A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. New York. (1975). ^ Evans, J., The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, page 91. Oxford University Press. (1998). ^ Heath, T., A Manual of Greek Mathematics, Dover Publications. (2003). Bibliography[edit] Evans, J., Berggren, J.L., Geminos's Introduction to the Phenomena: A Translation and Study of a Hellenistic Survey of Astronomy. (Princeton University Press, 2006.) (This is the first complete English translation of this book.) External links[edit] Εἰσαγωγή εἰς τὰ Φαινόμενα (Introduction to Phaenomena), original text online Technology Museum of Thessaloniki Entry O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Geminus", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews PDF scans of Manitius' edition of the Geminus' Elementa Astronomiae ("Elements of Astronomy") - public domain (Classical Greek with German translation)] v t e Ancient Greek astronomy Astronomers Aglaonice Agrippa Anaximander Andronicus Apollonius Aratus Aristarchus Aristyllus Attalus Autolycus Bion Callippus Cleomedes Cleostratus Conon Eratosthenes Euctemon Eudoxus Geminus Heraclides Hicetas Hipparchus Hippocrates of Chios Hypsicles Menelaus Meton Oenopides Philip of Opus Philolaus Posidonius Ptolemy Pytheas Seleucus Sosigenes of Alexandria Sosigenes the Peripatetic Strabo Thales Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Timocharis Works Almagest (Ptolemy) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On the Heavens (Aristotle) Instruments Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrolabe Dioptra Equatorial ring Gnomon Mural instrument Triquetrum Concepts Callippic cycle Celestial spheres Circle of latitude Counter-Earth Deferent and epicycle Equant Geocentrism Heliocentrism Hipparchic cycle Metonic cycle Octaeteris Solstice Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Zodiac Influences Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Influenced Medieval European science Indian astronomy Medieval Islamic astronomy v t e Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (Euclidean geometry) Mathematicians (timeline) Anaxagoras Anthemius Archytas Aristaeus the Elder Aristarchus Apollonius Archimedes Autolycus Bion Bryson Callippus Carpus Chrysippus Cleomedes Conon Ctesibius Democritus Dicaearchus Diocles Diophantus Dinostratus Dionysodorus Domninus Eratosthenes Eudemus Euclid Eudoxus Eutocius Geminus Heliodorus Heron Hipparchus Hippasus Hippias Hippocrates Hypatia Hypsicles Isidore of Miletus Leon Marinus Menaechmus Menelaus Metrodorus Nicomachus Nicomedes Nicoteles Oenopides Pappus Perseus Philolaus Philon Philonides Porphyry Posidonius Proclus Ptolemy Pythagoras Serenus Simplicius Sosigenes Sporus Thales Theaetetus Theano Theodorus Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Thymaridas Xenocrates Zeno of Elea Zeno of Sidon Zenodorus Treatises Almagest Archimedes Palimpsest Arithmetica Conics (Apollonius) Catoptrics Data (Euclid) Elements (Euclid) Measurement of a Circle On Conoids and Spheroids On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Euclid's Optics On Spirals On the Sphere and Cylinder Ostomachion Planisphaerium Sphaerics The Quadrature of the Parabola The Sand Reckoner Problems Angle trisection Doubling the cube Squaring the circle Problem of Apollonius Concepts/definitions Circles of Apollonius Apollonian circles Apollonian gasket Circumscribed circle Commensurability Diophantine equation Doctrine of proportionality Golden ratio Greek numerals Incircle and excircles of a triangle Method of exhaustion Parallel postulate Platonic solid Lune of Hippocrates Quadratrix of Hippias Regular polygon Straightedge and compass construction Triangle center Results In Elements Angle bisector theorem Exterior angle theorem Euclidean algorithm Euclid's theorem Geometric mean theorem Greek geometric algebra Hinge theorem Inscribed angle theorem Intercept theorem Pons asinorum Pythagorean theorem Thales's theorem Theorem of the gnomon Apollonius Apollonius's theorem Other Aristarchus's inequality Crossbar theorem Heron's formula Irrational numbers Menelaus's theorem Pappus's area theorem Problem II.8 of Arithmetica Ptolemy's inequality Ptolemy's table of chords Ptolemy's theorem Spiral of Theodorus Centers Cyrene Library of Alexandria Platonic Academy Other Ancient Greek astronomy Greek numerals Latin translations of the 12th century Neusis construction v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Australia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geminus&oldid=1019201346" Categories: Ancient Greek astronomers Ancient Greek mathematicians Ancient Rhodian scientists Roman-era Rhodians Stoic philosophers 1st-century BC Rhodians 1st-century BC writers 1st-century BC mathematicians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Pages using infobox scientist with unknown parameters Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with 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Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Français Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2021, at 01:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3303	----	Quintus Marcius Barea Sura - Wikipedia Quintus Marcius Barea Sura From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman senator Quintus Marcius Barea Sura was a Roman Senator of the first century AD. Sura was a member of the gens Marcia, and the son of the suffect consul Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus; his brother was the suffect consul Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus. He was the father of Marcia Furnilla, the last wife of Titus, and maternal grandfather of Trajan through his other daughter Marcia.[1] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Levick, Barbara (2005). Vespasian. Oxford: Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-415-33866-0. This article about an Ancient Roman politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Marcius_Barea_Sura&oldid=1002396540" Categories: 1st-century Romans Senators of the Roman Empire Marcii Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Ancient Roman politician stubs Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Español Italiano Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 06:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3321	----	Phocas - Wikipedia Phocas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 602 to 610 For other uses, see Phocas (disambiguation). The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Byzantine emperor Phocas 7th century bronze steelyard-weight housed at the British Museum, probably representing Emperor Phocas Byzantine emperor Reign 23 November 602 – 5 October 610 Predecessor Maurice and Theodosius Successor Heraclius Born 547 Thracia (probably) Died 5 October 610 (aged 62–63) Constantinople Spouse Leontia Issue Domentzia Names Flavius Phocas Mother Domentzia Coin of Phocas. Constantinople mint, 4th officina. Struck 604–607. ON FOCAS PЄRP AVI, crowned and cuirassed facing bust, holding globus cruciger / VICTORI A AVςЧ, Angel standing facing, holding globus cruciger and long staff terminating in staurogram; Δ//CONOB. Flavius Phocas (Greek: Φωκᾶς; 547 – 5 October 610) was Byzantine emperor from 602 to 610. The early life of Phocas is largely unknown, but he rose to prominence in 602, as a leader in the revolt against Emperor Maurice. Phocas captured Constantinople and overthrew Maurice on 23 November 602, and declared himself emperor on the same day. Phocas deeply mistrusted the elite of Constantinople, and therefore installed his relatives in high military positions, and brutally purged his opponents. Phocas is widely regarded as an incompetent leader, both of the administration and army.[citation needed] Under his reign the Byzantine Empire was threatened by multiple enemies, with frequent raids in the Balkans from the Avars and Slavs, and a Sassanid invasion of the eastern provinces. Because of Phocas' alleged incompetence and brutality, the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius the Elder, rebelled against him. Heraclius the Elder's son, Heraclius, succeeded in taking Constantinople on 5 October 610, and executed Phocas on the same day, before declaring himself the emperor. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Usurpation 1.3 Foreign conflict 1.4 Administration 1.5 Italian policy 1.6 Downfall 2 Legacy 3 References 3.1 Bibliography 4 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Phocas was probably born in 547, as he was said to be aged 55 when he became emperor.[1] He and his family were likely of Thraco-Roman origin.[2] The life of Phocas before his usurpation of the Byzantine Empire's throne is obscure, but it is known that he served as a low-ranking officer under Emperor Maurice. Usurpation[edit] In 602, the Byzantine army rebelled against Emperor Maurice, largely due to exhaustion and outrage over orders to continue campaigning north of the Danube in winter as well as previous cuts in wages. The army declared Phocas, by then a centurion, to be the new emperor, raising him on a shield (the traditional method of declaring emperors) on 23 November 602.[3][4] Phocas was crowned the new emperor by the patriarch in the church of St John the Baptist at the Hebdomon. Several days afterwards he entered Constantinople unopposed. Maurice fled the city with his sons, Theodosius and Tiberius, but they were soon after captured and executed. Maurice's wife and daughters were put in the monastery of Nea Metanoia and later killed.[5] Foreign conflict[edit] Despite the executions of the previous emperor and his dynastic successors, Phocas remained in a precarious position, which led him to devote his energy to purging enemies and destroying conspiracies. Because of this focus, and the local resistance he faced all throughout the Byzantine Empire, he was unable to confront foreign attacks on the empire's frontiers. The Avars and Slavs launched numerous raids into the Balkan provinces of the Byzantine Empire, and the Sassanian Empire launched an invasion of the eastern provinces of the empire. The Avars were able to take all land in the Balkans north of Thessalonica. The populations of Christian cities were slaughtered or captured. The Byzantines transferred most of their forces to the eastern front due to the threat from the Persians. The Sassanid Persians had formerly been at peace with Maurice as a result of a treaty they made with him in 591. After Phocas usurped and killed Maurice, the Persians invaded the empire in 603. [3] The Sassanids rapidly occupied the eastern provinces, leading the Magister militum per Orientem, Narses, to defect to their side. Phocas swiftly dealt with him, by inviting him to Constantinople under the promise of safe conduct, then having him burnt alive when he arrived. By 607, the Sassanids had occupied Mesopotamia, Syria, and much of Asia Minor, as far as the Bosphorus.[6] By the time his reign ended in 610, the Persians had already crossed the Euphrates and taken Zenobia. Contemporary accounts describe the Persians as being very brutal to the occupied population. The 'miracle of St Demetrios' described the carnage: [T]he devil raised the whirlwind of hatred in all the East, Cilicia, Asia, Palestine and all the lands from there to Constantinople: the factions, no longer content simply to spill blood in public places, attacked homes, slaughtered women, children, the aged, and the young who were sick; those whose youth and frailty impeded their escape from the massacre, [saw] their friends, acquaintances, and parents pillaged, and after all that, even set on fire so that the most wretched inhabitant was not able to escape.[5] The Column of Phocas in Rome Administration[edit] Phocas was unable to control either the state or the army effectively.[7] Due to his distrust of the bulk of Constantinople's elite, with whom he had had no connection before becoming emperor, Phocas practised nepotism, frequently filling senior military positions with his relatives. He installed: his brother Domentziolus as Magister officiorum in 603; his nephew Domentziolus as Magister militum per Orientem in 604, giving him command over the eastern provinces; and his brother Comentiolus as Magister militum per Orientem around 610. All three remained loyal to Phocas until they were killed by Heraclius.[8] Of the three known male blood-relatives of Phocas, all three were appointed to senior posts, two in military positions and one in an administrative position. Phocas also appointed Priscus, who was his son-in-law by way of his marriage to Phocas' daughter Domentzia, as Comes excubitorum, the captain of the Excubitors, in 603.[9] Italian policy[edit] When Phocas was emperor, Byzantine Italy was under continual attack from Lombards, but the Byzantine government spent few resources to aid Italy due to troubles elsewhere. In the entirety of Phocas' reign the only public structure built with government money in the city of Rome was a statue of Phocas completed in 608.[5] When Phocas usurped Maurice, Gregory the Great was bishop of Rome and he praised Phocas as a restorer of liberty. Gregory referred to him as a pious and clement lord, and compared his wife (the new Empress) Leontia to Marcian's consort Pulcheria (whom the Council of Chalcedon called the new Helena). In May 603, portraits of the imperial couple arrived in Rome and were ordered by the pope to be placed in the oratory of St Caesarius in the imperial palace on the Palatine.[5] The deposition of Phocas 610 AD. Imperial approval was needed in that time to appoint a new pope, but the approval was delayed by a year upon the death of Pope Sabinian in 606, as Phocas was occupied with killing internal enemies that threatened his rule.[5] He finally gave approval in 607 and Boniface III became pope. Phocas declared Rome "the head of all churches".[5] Shortly afterwards, Phocas had a gilded statue of himself erected on a monumental column in the Roman Forum, known as the Column of Phocas. Miniature 41 from the Constantine Manasses Chronicle, 14 century: Usurper Phocas and the assault against him from the armies of Heraclius. Downfall[edit] See also: Heraclian revolt Despite being appointed as Comes excubitorum, Priscus was not loyal to Phocas, and in 608 he appealed to Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Carthage, to rebel against Phocas.[9] Heraclius the Elder agreed, and began to prepare to invade, by cutting off the supply of grain to Constantinople and assembling a large army and navy. Heraclius the Elder launched his invasion in 609, with his cousin, Nicetas, marching troops overland to the capital, and his son, Heraclius, leading a naval invasion of Thessalonica, before marching to Constantinople. Heraclius arrived outside Constantinople on 3 October 610, and seized the city on 5 October. Heraclius was declared emperor on the same day, and swiftly had Phocas executed.[10] Legacy[edit] Phocas is generally depicted as a villain by Byzantine and modern historians alike, but some of the earliest sources available about Phocas’ reign were written during the reign of Heraclius. The writings that survive aren't reliably neutral and the writers would have good reason to demonize him in order to strengthen the rule of Heraclius.[11] In the cultural sphere, the reign of Phocas is marked by the change of Imperial fashion set by Constantine the Great. Constantine and all his successors, except Julian the Apostate, were beardless. Phocas again introduced the wearing of the beard. This fashion lasted until the end of the Byzantine Empire.[12] In calling the Pope the "head of all churches", Phocas' decree has been important in discussions about papal primacy and papal supremacy. Some Protestant historicist commentators have seen the decree of Phocas (usually taken to be in 606) as having eschatological significance.[13] For example, in his Horae Apocalypticae, Edward Bishop Elliott took the 1260 days of Revelation 11:3 to be the period between 606 and the Unification of Italy in 1866. References[edit] ^ PLRE 3B p. 1030 ^ Bury, John Bagnell (2009) [1889]. History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene. II. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60520-405-5. ^ a b Kleinhenz 2017, p. 890. ^ Carr 2015, p. 79. ^ a b c d e f Ekonomou, Andrew. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes. Lexington books, 2007 ^ Carr 2015, p. 80. ^ Parnell 2016, p. 6. ^ Parnell 2016, p. 136. ^ a b Parnell 2016, p. 137. ^ Carr 2015, p. 81. ^ Kevin, Crow (2002). "Phocas". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 25 September 2019. ^ "Byzantine first & last times". Byzantium.xronikon.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012. ^ Newsom, Carol A. (2014). Daniel: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 317. ISBN 9781611645392. Retrieved 8 July 2020. Bibliography[edit] Carr, John (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473856400. Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473829510. Kleinhenz, Christopher (2017). Routledge Revivals: Medieval Italy (2004): An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781351664431. Parnell, David Alan (2016). Justinian's Men: Careers and Relationships of Byzantine Army Officers, 518-610. Springer. ISBN 9781137562043. External links[edit] Media related to Phocas at Wikimedia Commons Phocas Non-dynastic Born: unknown Died: 610 Regnal titles Preceded by Maurice Byzantine Emperor 602–610 Succeeded by Heraclius Preceded by Lapsed; no consuls from 583 to 603 Consul of the Roman Empire 603 Succeeded by Lapsed; no consuls appointed until Heraclius the Elder and Heraclius were appointed in 608 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phocas&oldid=1019342376" Categories: 540s births 610 deaths 600s in the Byzantine Empire 6th-century Byzantine military personnel 7th-century Byzantine emperors 7th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire 7th-century murdered monarchs Byzantine rebels Executed Byzantine people Executed monarchs Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Leaders who took power by coup Leaders ousted by a coup People executed by decapitation People of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 Roman-era Thracians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata NPOV disputes from August 2019 All NPOV disputes Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2021, at 20:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3324	----	Category:Philosophers of ethics and morality - Wikipedia Help Category:Philosophers of ethics and morality From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philosophers of ethics and morality. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in category "Philosophers of ethics and morality" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 229 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Robert Merrihew Adams Theodor W. Adorno Hans Albert Samuel Alexander Francis Anderson (philosopher) Karl-Otto Apel Hannah Arendt Aristotle Raymond Aron Robert Arp Robert Audi Augustine of Hippo J. L. Austin Armen Avanessian Averroes Avicenna A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Francis Bacon Roger Bacon Kurt Baier Jean Baudrillard Simone de Beauvoir Friedrich Eduard Beneke Seyla Benhabib Jeremy Bentham Maine de Biran Chris Bobonich Bernard Bolzano Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) F. H. Bradley R. B. Braithwaite Richard Brandt Martin Buber Gautama Buddha Judith Butler Peter Byrne (philosopher) C Claudia Card Peter Carruthers (philosopher) Héctor-Neri Castañeda Sebastian Castellio Cornelius Castoriadis Roderick Chisholm Noam Chomsky Emil Cioran John B. Cobb Hermann Cohen Martin Cohen (philosopher) Auguste Comte Marquis de Condorcet Confucius Frederick Copleston Crates of Thebes Roger Crisp D Gilles Deleuze Daniel Dennett Jacques Derrida René Descartes Philip K. Dick Diogenes Alan Donagan Hubert Dreyfus Émile Durkheim E Jacques Ellul Epictetus Epicurus Bracha L. Ettinger F Al-Farabi Adam Ferguson Ludwig Feuerbach Johann Gottlieb Fichte Luciano Floridi Philippa Foot Charles Fourier Harry Frankfurt Benjamin Franklin Nancy Fraser G David Gauthier Alan Gewirth Allan Gibbard Roger S. Gottlieb John Gray (philosopher) A. C. Grayling T. H. Green Jean-Marie Guyau H Jürgen Habermas Stuart Hampshire R. M. Hare Graham Harman Sam Harris Charles Hartshorne Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Johann Friedrich Herbart Johann Gottfried Herder Thomas Hobbes Baron d'Holbach Robert L. Holmes Ted Honderich Axel Honneth Wilhelm von Humboldt David Hume Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) Aldous Huxley J Jesus Galen Johnson K Immanuel Kant Walter Kaufmann (philosopher) Søren Kierkegaard Iain King Philip Kitcher Ludwig Klages Nikolas Kompridis Mario Kopić Christine Korsgaard Matthew Kramer Karl Christian Friedrich Krause Peter Kropotkin Paul Kurtz L André Lalande (philosopher) Laozi Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Emmanuel Levinas C. I. Lewis David Lewis (philosopher) Hermann Lotze Lucretius David Lyons (philosopher) M Al-Ma'arri Alasdair MacIntyre J. L. Mackie Bryan Magee Salomon Maimon Marcus Aurelius Ruth Barcan Marcus Karl Marx Herbert McCabe John McDowell Colin McGinn Brian Herbert Medlin Mencius Maurice Merleau-Ponty John Stuart Mill G. E. Moore Sidney Morgenbesser Mozi Kevin Mulligan Iris Murdoch Gaius Musonius Rufus Brendan Myers N Thomas Nagel Friedrich Nietzsche David Novak Martha Nussbaum O Charles Kay Ogden Michel Onfray José Ortega y Gasset George Orwell P John Passmore John Perry (philosopher) Plato Plotinus Karl Popper Arthur Prior Protagoras Pythagoras Q Anthony Quinton R Peter Railton Félix Ravaisson-Mollien John Rawls Karl Leonhard Reinhold Richard Rorty W. D. Ross Jean-Jacques Rousseau Bertrand Russell S George Santayana Jean-Paul Sartre Geoffrey Sayre-McCord T. M. Scanlon Richard Schacht Max Scheler Friedrich Schleiermacher Arthur Schopenhauer Seneca the Younger Russ Shafer-Landau Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury Henry Sidgwick Georg Simmel Marcus George Singer Peter Singer Adam Smith Michael A. Smith Robert Rowland Smith Socrates Ivan Soll Robert C. Solomon Herbert Spencer Baruch Spinoza Olaf Stapledon Max Stirner P. F. Strawson (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Philosophers_of_ethics_and_morality&oldid=1021662837" Categories: Ethics Philosophers by field Philosophers of social science Social philosophers Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 201–300 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages বাংলা Esperanto Edit links This page was last edited on 5 May 2021, at 23:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3332	----	Cicero - Wikipedia Cicero From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman statesman, lawyer, orator and philosopher For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). Cicero First-century AD bust of Cicero in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Born 3 January 106 BC Arpinum, Italy, Roman Republic Died 7 December 43 BC (aged 63) Formia, Italy, Roman Republic Cause of death Beheaded by order of Mark Antony Occupation Statesman, lawyer, writer, orator Office Consul (63 BC) Governor of Cilicia (51–50 BC) Political party Optimates Spouse(s) Terentia (79–51 BC) Publilia (46–45 BC) Children Tullia and Cicero Minor Relatives Quintus Tullius Cicero (brother) Writing career Subjects Politics, law, philosophy, rhetoric Literary movement Golden Age Latin Eclectic philosophy Notable works Orations: In Verrem In Catilinam I–IV Philosophy: Academica De Oratore De re publica De Natura Deorum De Officiis Tusculanae Quaestiones De Divinatione De Fato Philosophy career Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Academic skepticism[1] Classical republicanism Main interests Ethics, epistemology, theology Notable ideas Summum bonum Problem of evil Influences Socrates, Plato, Philo of Larissa, Panaetius Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Western philosophy Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero[a] (/ˈsɪsəroʊ/ SISS-ə-roh; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlːijʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher and Academic Skeptic,[3] who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire.[4] His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics, and he is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.[5][6] He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC. His influence on the Latin language was immense. He wrote more than three-quarters of surviving Latin literature from the period of his adult life, and it has been said that subsequent prose was either a reaction against or a return to his style, not only in Latin but in European languages up to the 19th century.[7][8][9] Cicero introduced into Latin the arguments of the chief schools of Hellenistic philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary with neologisms such as evidentia,[10] humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia,[11] distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It was during his consulship that the second Catilinarian conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators. During the chaotic middle period of the 1st century BC, marked by civil wars and the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, Cicero championed a return to the traditional republican government. Following Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. He was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC after having been intercepted during an attempted flight from the Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head were then, as a final revenge of Mark Antony, displayed on the Rostra. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, and classical Roman culture.[12] According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity."[13] The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century Enlightenment,[14] and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as John Locke, David Hume, Montesquieu and Edmund Burke was substantial.[15] His works rank among the most influential in European culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.[16] Contents 1 Personal life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Family 2 Public career 2.1 Early legal activity 2.2 Early political career 3 Consulship 3.1 The Catilinarian Conspiracy 4 Exile and return 5 Governorship of Cilicia 6 Julius Caesar's civil war 7 Opposition to Mark Antony and death 8 Legacy 9 Works 10 In archaeology 11 Notable fictional portrayals 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 14.1 Citations 14.2 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Personal life[edit] Main article: Personal life of Cicero Early life[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC[17] in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome. He belonged to the tribus Cornelia.[18] His father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Although little is known about Cicero's mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Cicero's brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife.[19] Cicero's cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is more likely that Cicero's ancestors prospered through the cultivation and sale of chickpeas.[20] Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames. The famous family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy").[21] The Young Cicero Reading by Vincenzo Foppa (fresco, 1464), now at the Wallace Collection During this period in Roman history, "cultured" meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers, poets and historians; as he obtained much of his understanding of the theory and practice of rhetoric from the Greek poet Archias[22] and from the Greek rhetorician Apollonius.[23] Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite.[24] Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,[25] including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin.[26] In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, the head of the Platonic Academy that was founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy",[27] sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed Carneades' Academic Skeptic philosophy.[28] Cicero said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Zeus were to speak, he would use their language.[29] According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome,[30] affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola.[31] Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and Titus Pomponius. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence.[24] In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of Sulla, as Plutarch claims,[32][33] though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness.[34] In Athens he studied philosophy with Antiochus of Ascalon, the 'Old Academic' and initiator of Middle Platonism.[35] In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking.[36] Charting a middle path between the competing Attic and Asiatic styles, Cicero would ultimately become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators.[37] Family[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero Cicero married Terentia probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to the upper class mores of the day it was a marriage of convenience, but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably the plebeian noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a half-sister named Fabia, who as a child had become a Vestal Virgin, a great honour. Terentia was a strong willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "she took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs."[38] In the 50s BC, Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage simply could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 51 BC or shortly before.[39] In 46 or 45 BC,[40] Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his ward. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the dowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family.[41] This marriage did not last long. Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughter Tullia.[42] When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life" he wrote to Atticus.[43] Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of his bereavement, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus's large library, Cicero read everything that the Greek philosophers had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation."[44] Caesar and Brutus as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus sent him letters of condolence.[45][46] Cicero hoped that his son Marcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for a military career. He joined the army of Pompey in 49 BC and after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of the peripatetic philosopher Kratippos in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink and be merry."[47] After Cicero's death he joined the army of the Liberatores but was later pardoned by Augustus. Augustus's bad conscience for not having objected to Cicero's being put on the proscription list during the Second Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became an augur, and was nominated consul in 30 BC together with Augustus. As such, he was responsible for revoking the honors of Mark Antony, who was responsible for the proscription, and could in this way take revenge. Later he was appointed proconsul of Syria and the province of Asia.[48] Public career[edit] Main article: Political career of Cicero Early legal activity[edit] Cicero wanted to pursue a public career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum. In 90–88 BC, he served both Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla as they campaigned in the Social War, though he had no taste for military life, being an intellectual first and foremost. Cicero started his career as a lawyer around 83–81 BC. The first extant speech is a private case from 81 BC (the pro Quinctio), delivered when Cicero was aged 26, though he refers throughout to previous defenses he had already undertaken.[49] His first major public case, of which a written record is still extant, was his 80 BC defense of Sextus Roscius on the charge of patricide.[50] Taking this case was a courageous move for Cicero; patricide was considered an appalling crime, and the people whom Cicero accused of the murder, the most notorious being Chrysogonus, were favorites of Sulla. At this time it would have been easy for Sulla to have the unknown Cicero murdered. Cicero's defense was an indirect challenge to the dictator Sulla, and on the strength of his case, Roscius was acquitted.[51] Soon after, Cicero again challenged Sulla, by criticising his disenfranchisement of Italian towns in a lost speech on behalf of a woman from Arretium.[52] Cicero's case in the Pro Roscio Amerino was divided into three parts. The first part detailed exactly the charge brought by Ericius. Cicero explained how a rustic son of a farmer, who lives off the pleasures of his own land, would not have gained anything from committing patricide because he would have eventually inherited his father's land anyway. The second part concerned the boldness and greed of two of the accusers, Magnus and Capito. Cicero told the jury that they were the more likely perpetrators of murder because the two were greedy, both for conspiring together against a fellow kinsman and, in particular, Magnus, for his boldness and for being unashamed to appear in court to support the false charges. The third part explained that Chrysogonus had immense political power, and the accusation was successfully made due to that power. Even though Chrysogonus may not have been what Cicero said he was, through rhetoric Cicero successfully made him appear to be a foreign freed man who prospered by devious means in the aftermath of the civil war. Cicero surmised that it showed what kind of a person he was and that something like murder was not beneath him.[53] Early political career[edit] His first office was as one of the twenty annual quaestors, a training post for serious public administration in a diversity of areas, but with a traditional emphasis on administration and rigorous accounting of public monies under the guidance of a senior magistrate or provincial commander. Cicero served as quaestor in western Sicily in 75 BC and demonstrated honesty and integrity in his dealings with the inhabitants. As a result, the grateful Sicilians asked Cicero to prosecute Gaius Verres, a governor of Sicily, who had badly plundered the province. His prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success[54] for Cicero. Governor Gaius Verres hired the prominent lawyer of a noble family Quintus Hortensius Hortalus. After a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won the case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and the prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical skill is shown in his character assassination of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speech Against Verres I, where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, with Marcus Acilius Glabrio as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve".[55] Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither a patrician nor a plebeian noble; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator.[56] Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian eques and a novus homo, but more importantly he was a Roman constitutionalist. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". The optimates faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30), aedile in 69 BC (age 36), and praetor in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 42. Consulship[edit] Cicero Denounces Catiline, fresco by Cesare Maccari, 1882–88 Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC;[57][58] he was elected with the support of every unit of the centuriate assembly, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post–Social War Italy.[58] His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role.[citation needed] He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform.[59][57] Cicero was also active in the courts, defending Gaius Rabirius from accusations of participating in the unlawful killing of plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC.[60] The prosecution occurred before the comita centuriata and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome.[60] Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a senatus consultum ultimum, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions.[60] The Catilinarian Conspiracy[edit] Main article: Second Catilinarian conspiracy Most famously – in part because of his own publicity[58] – he thwarted a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured a senatus consultum ultimum (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force)[58] and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the Catiline Orations), which to this day remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in the Temple of Jupiter Stator), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline.[61] Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral bankrupts and honest fanatics". It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve the Allobroges, a tribe of Transalpine Gaul, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of the senate.[62] The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile – the standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At first Decimus Junius Silanus spoke for the "extreme penalty"; many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. Cato the Younger rose in defense of the death penalty and the entire Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum.[citation needed] Cicero received the honorific "pater patriae" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy, but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial.[citation needed] While the senatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators,[b] Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens.[60] The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventing Crassus or Pompey from exploiting the situation for their own political aims.[63] After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment.[citation needed] Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him.[64] Many Romans at the time, led by Populares politicians Gaius Julius Caesar and patrician turned plebeian Publius Clodius Pulcher believed that Cicero's evidence against Catiline was fabricated and the witnesses were bribed. Cicero, who had been elected consul with the support of the Optimates, promoted their position as advocates of the status quo resisting social changes, especially more privileges for the average inhabitants of Rome.[65] Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus.[66] It cost an exorbitant sum, 3.5 million sesterces, which required Cicero to arrange for a loan from his co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida based on the expected profits from Antonius's proconsulship in Macedonia.[67][68] At the beginning of his consulship, Cicero had made an arrangement with Hybrida to grant Hybrida the profitable province of Macedonia that had been granted to Cicero by the Senate in exchange for Hybrida staying out of Cicero's way for the year and a quarter of the profits from the province.[68] In return Cicero gained a lavish house which he proudly boasted was "in conspectu prope totius urbis" (in sight of nearly the whole city), only a short walk away from the Roman Forum.[69] Exile and return[edit] In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic.[70] During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their stranglehold on politics. They engineered the adoption of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten tribunes of the plebs for 58 BC.[71] Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them all. He introduced several laws (the leges Clodiae) that made him very popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero by threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target.[72] Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey.[73] Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in the proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero.[74] After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile.[72] He arrived at Thessalonica, on 23 May 58 BC.[75][76][77] In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house.[69] After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty (aedes Libertatis) on the vacant spot.[78] Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier".[79] After the intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as a client,[72] the senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing at Brundisium.[80] He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.[81] In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices, Cicero convinced the College of Pontiffs to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine.[82][83] Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator,[72] but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful[71] and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus.[84] The conference at Luca in 56 BC left the three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life.[85] After the conference Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories and grant money to pay his troops.[citation needed] He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (Latin: de provinciis consularibus)[85] which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul.[86] After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.[87] Governorship of Cilicia[edit] In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted a promagistracy (as proconsul) in Cilicia for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of a legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and a provincial command.[88][89] He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51, arriving in the provinces three months later around August.[88] He was given instructions to keep nearby Cappadocia loyal to King Ariobarzanes III, which he achieved 'satisfactorily without war'. In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. This opened up the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing much unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities.[90] He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave the property back.[91] Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives.[92] Previous governors had extorted enormous sums from the provincials in order to supply their households and bodyguards. Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II the king of the Parthians, had crossed the Euphrates, and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besieged Cassius (the interim Roman commander in Syria) in Antioch.[93] Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging the countryside again, Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea.[94] Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based on Mount Amanus and was hailed as imperator by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of Pindenissum. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December.[95] Then Cicero left the province on 30 July[96] to his brother Quintus, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legate.[97] On his way back to Rome he stopped over in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.[98] Julius Caesar's civil war[edit] Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC.[96] He stayed outside the pomerium, to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war.[96] The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar.[99] When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium (Epidamnos), Illyria, where Pompey's staff was situated.[100] Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in 48 BC,[101] though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war.[102] He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with his lictors, in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command.[102] Caesar pardoned him and Cicero tried to adjust to the situation and maintain his political work, hoping that Caesar might revive the Republic and its institutions. In a letter to Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken completely by surprise when the Liberatores assassinated Caesar on the ides of March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination.[103] A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"[104][105] Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been a tyrant, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact.[106] Opposition to Mark Antony and death[edit] Cicero's death (France, 15th century) Cicero and Antony now became the two leading men in Rome: Cicero as spokesman for the Senate; Antony as consul, leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two, never friendly, worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make the same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics,[107] after Demosthenes's denunciations of Philip II of Macedon. At the time Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled.[108] The Vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura y Montaner, 1888 depicting Fulvia inspecting the severed head of Cicero Cicero supported Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina. The Triumvirate began proscribing their enemies and potential rivals immediately after legislating the alliance into official existence for a term of five years with consular imperium. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.[109] Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia.[110] When his killers – Herennius (a Centurion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, a freedman of his brother Quintus Cicero.[110] Cicero about age 60, from a marble bust As reported by Seneca the Elder, according to the historian Aufidius Bassus, Cicero's last words are said to have been "I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck. [...] What would you have done had you come to me as your first victim?"[111] He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According to Cassius Dio (in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch),[112] Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.[113] Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at Actium in 31 BC by Octavian and his commander-in-chief, Agrippa.[citation needed] Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family.[114] However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by the new triumvirate.[115] Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change. "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote C. Asinius Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian.[116][117] Legacy[edit] Part of the Politics series on Republicanism Central concepts Anti-monarchism Liberty as non-domination Popular sovereignty Republic Res publica Social contract Schools Classical Federal Kemalism Nasserism Neo-republicanism Venizelism Types of republics Autonomous Capitalist Christian Corporate Democratic Federal Federal parliamentary Islamic Parliamentary People's Revolutionary Sister Soviet Important thinkers Hannah Arendt Cicero James Harrington Thomas Jefferson John Locke James Madison Montesquieu Polybius Jean-Jacques Rousseau Algernon Sidney Mary Wollstonecraft History Roman Republic Gaṇa sangha Classical Athens Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Dutch Republic American Revolution French Revolution Spanish American wars of independence Trienio Liberal French Revolution of 1848 5 October 1910 revolution Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution German Revolution of 1918–19 Turkish War of Independence Mongolian Revolution of 1921 11 September 1922 Revolution 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt Spanish Civil War 1946 Italian institutional referendum Egyptian revolution of 1952 14 July Revolution North Yemen Civil War Zanzibar Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Cambodian coup of 1970 Metapolitefsi Iranian Revolution 1987 Fijian coups d'état Nepalese Civil War By country Australia Barbados Canada Ireland Jamaica Japan Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Norway Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom Scotland United States Related topics Communitarianism Criticism of monarchy Democracy Liberalism Monarchism Politics portal v t e Henry VIII's childhood copy of De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry" Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, with Quintilian declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself."[118] The English words Ciceronian (meaning "eloquent") and cicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name.[119][120] He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity.[121] Julius Caesar praised Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire".[122] According to John William Mackail, "Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is that he created the language of the civilized world, and used that language to create a style which nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some respects have hardly altered."[123] Cicero was also an energetic writer with an interest in a wide variety of subjects, in keeping with the Hellenistic philosophical and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula, as suggested by a graffito at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".[124] Cicero was greatly admired by influential Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, who credited Cicero's lost Hortensius for his eventual conversion to Christianity,[125] and St. Jerome, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat.[126] This influence further increased after the Early Middle Ages in Europe, which more of his writings survived than any other Latin author. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings on natural law and innate rights.[127][additional citation(s) needed] Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery of classical antiquity led to the Renaissance. Subsequently, Cicero became synonymous with classical Latin to such an extent that a number of humanist scholars began to assert that no Latin word or phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a stance criticised by Erasmus.[128] His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. Cornelius Nepos, the 1st century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period.[129] Among Cicero's admirers were Desiderius Erasmus, Martin Luther, and John Locke.[130] Following the invention of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, De Officiis was the second book printed in Europe, after the Gutenberg Bible. Scholars note Cicero's influence on the rebirth of religious toleration in the 17th century.[131] Cicero was especially popular with the Philosophes of the 18th century, including Edward Gibbon, Diderot, David Hume, Montesquieu, and Voltaire.[132] Gibbon wrote of his first experience reading the author's collective works thus: "I tasted the beauty of the language; I breathed the spirit of freedom; and I imbibed from his precepts and examples the public and private sense of a man...after finishing the great author, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more extensive plan of reviewing the Latin classics..."[133] Voltaire called Cicero "the greatest as well as the most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even staged a play based on Cicero's role in the Catilinarian conspiracy, called Rome Sauvée, ou Catilina, to "make young people who go to the theatre acquainted with Cicero."[134] Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rival Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's own play Catilina, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline.[135] Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language".[136] Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble."[135][137] Internationally, Cicero the republican inspired the Founding Fathers of the United States and the revolutionaries of the French Revolution.[138] John Adams said, "As all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united than Cicero, his authority should have great weight."[139] Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution.[140] Camille Desmoulins said of the French republicans in 1789 that they were "mostly young people who, nourished by the reading of Cicero at school, had become passionate enthusiasts for liberty".[141] Jim Powell starts his book on the history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world."[142] Likewise, no other ancient personality has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in more modern times.[143] His commitment to the values of the Republic accommodated a hatred of the poor and persistent opposition to the advocates and mechanisms of popular representation.[144] Friedrich Engels referred to him as "the most contemptible scoundrel in history" for upholding republican "democracy" while at the same time denouncing land and class reforms.[145] Cicero has faced criticism for exaggerating the democratic qualities of republican Rome, and for defending the Roman oligarchy against the popular reforms of Caesar.[146] Michael Parenti admits Cicero's abilities as an orator, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocritical personality who, when it suited him, could show public support for popular causes that he privately despised. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful.[147] Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy. Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first ... found in Cicero that Hicetas supposed the earth to move."[148] Notably, "Cicero" was the name attributed to size 12 font in typesetting table drawers. For ease of reference, type sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.[149] Works[edit] Marci Tullii Ciceronis Opera Omnia (1566) Main article: Writings of Cicero Cicero was declared a righteous pagan by the Early Church,[150] and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. The Bogomils considered him a rare exception of a pagan saint.[151] Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his works De Re Publica (On the Commonwealth) and De Legibus (On the Laws), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of eight on philosophy. Of his speeches, 88 were recorded, but only 58 survive.[citation needed] In archaeology[edit] Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. In Formia, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, the Tomba di Cicerone, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separate nymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia.[152] A modern villa was built on the site after the Rubino family purchased the land from Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies in 1868. Cicero's supposed tomb is a 24-meter (79 feet) tall tower on an opus quadratum base on the ancient Via Appia outside of Formia. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea.[153] In Pompeii, a large villa excavated in the mid 18th century just outside the Herculaneum Gate was widely believed to have been Cicero's, who was known to have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he called his Pompeianum. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 – it has yet to be re-excavated.[154] However, contemporaneous descriptions of the building from the excavators combined with Cicero's own references to his Pompeianum differ, making it unlikely that it is Cicero's villa.[155] In Rome, the location of Cicero's house has been roughly identified from excavations of the Republican-era stratum on the northwestern slope of the Palatine Hill.[156][157] Cicero's domus has long been known to have stood in the area, according to his own descriptions and those of later authors, but there is some debate about whether it stood near the base of the hill, very close to the Roman Forum, or nearer to the summit.[156][158] During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including the Domus Publica of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius.[159] Notable fictional portrayals[edit] Ben Jonson dramatised the conspiracy of Catiline in his play Catiline His Conspiracy, featuring Cicero as a character.[160] Cicero also appears as a minor character in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar.[161] Cicero was portrayed on the motion picture screen by British actor Alan Napier in the 1953 film Julius Caesar, based on Shakespeare's play.[162] He has also been played by such noted actors as Michael Hordern (in Cleopatra),[163] and André Morell (in the 1970 Julius Caesar).[164] Most recently, Cicero was portrayed by David Bamber in the HBO series Rome (2005–2007) and appeared in both seasons.[165] In the historical novel series Masters of Rome, Colleen McCullough presents a not-so-flattering depiction of Cicero's career, showing him struggling with an inferiority complex and vanity, morally flexible and fatally indiscreet, while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light.[166] Cicero is portrayed as a hero in the novel A Pillar of Iron by Taylor Caldwell (1965). Robert Harris' novels Imperium, Lustrum (published under the name Conspirata in the United States) and Dictator comprise a three-part series based on the life of Cicero. In these novels Cicero's character is depicted in a more favorable way than in those of McCullough, with his positive traits equaling or outweighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depicted as more sinister than in McCullough).[167] Cicero is a major recurring character in the Roma Sub Rosa series of mystery novels by Steven Saylor.[168] He also appears several times as a peripheral character in John Maddox Roberts' SPQR series.[169] Samuel Barnett portrays Cicero in a 2017 audio drama series pilot produced by Big Finish Productions. A full series was released the following year.[170] All Episodes are written by David Llewellyn[171] and directed and produced by Scott Handcock.[172] Llewellyn, Handcock and Barnett re-teamed in the Doctor Who audio-drama Tartarus (also produced by Big Finish) starring Peter Davison as the 5th Doctor. It is not intended to be a part of the Cicero series; in Vortex (Big Finish's official free online magazine) Llewellyn revealed that he was "worried that if we had Cicero meeting aliens people might go back to the Cicero series and see it through a sci-fi lens. Then I remembered that Simon Callow still performs as Charles Dickens, and that he played Dickens before reprising him in the Doctor Who TV episode, The Unquiet Dead – so I got over myself!".[173] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Caecilia Attica Caecilia Metella (daughter of Metellus Celer) Civis romanus sum Clausula (rhetoric) A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions E pluribus unum Esse quam videri Ipse dixit List of ancient Romans Lorem ipsum Marcantonius Majoragio Marcus Tullius Tiro Marius Nizolius O tempora o mores! Otium Socratici viri Tempest in a teapot Translation Writings of Cicero Notes[edit] ^ The name is infrequently anglicized as Tully[2] (/ˈtʌli/). ^ Wiedemann describes the senatus consultum ultimum by the late republic as "little more than a fig-leaf by those who could muster a majority in the senate ... to legitimate the use of force".[60] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ IEP – Cicero: Academic Skepticism ^ E.g., in Howard Jones, Master Tully: Cicero in Tudor England (Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1998). ^ Cicero, Academica Book II, Section 65 ^ Ferguson & Balsdon. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) p. 303 ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) pp. 300–01 ^ Harrison, Stephen (15 April 2008). A Companion to Latin Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4051-3737-9. Latin literature in the period 90–40 BC presents one feature that is unique in Classical, and perhaps even in the whole of Western, literature. Although it is a period from which a substantial amount of literature in a wide variety of genres survives, more than 75 per cent of that literature was written by a single man: Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero wrote speeches, philosophical and rhetorical trea- tises, letters and poetry, which simply in terms of quantity outweigh all other extant writings of the period. ^ Merriam-Webster, Inc (1995). "Ciceronian period". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Merriam-Webster. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-87779-042-6. Retrieved 27 August 2013. ^ Cicero, Selected Works, 1971, p. 24 ^ Q. Acad. 2.17–18 ^ Conte, G.B.: "Latin Literature: a history" (1987) p. 199 ^ Wootton, David (1996). Modern Political Thought: Readings from Machiavelli to Nietzsche. Hackett Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-87220-341-9. Retrieved 27 August 2013. ^ Zieliński, Tadeusz. Cicero Im Wandel Der Jahrhunderte. Nabu Press. ^ Wood, Neal (1991). Cicero's Social and Political Thought. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07427-9. ^ Nicgorski, Walter. "Cicero and the Natural Law". Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. ^ Griffin, Miriam; Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 76ff. ISBN 978-0-19-285436-0. Retrieved 10 August 2011. ^ "UPI Almanac for Thursday, Jan. 3, 2019". United Press International. 3 January 2019. Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019. Roman philosopher Cicero in 106 B.C ^ Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, 747. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, a portrait (1975) pp. 5–6; Cicero, Ad Familiares 16.26.2 (Quintus to Cicero) ^ Trollope, Anthony. The Life of Cicero Volume 1. p. 42 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 1.3–5 ^ Everitt, A.:"Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p.34 ^ Plutarch. "Life of Caesar". University of Chicago. p. 447. After this, Sulla's power being now on the wane, and Caesar's friends at home inviting him to return, Caesar sailed to Rhodes to study under Apollonius the son of Molon, an illustrious rhetorician with the reputation of a worthy character, of whom Cicero also was a pupil. ^ a b Everitt, A.: "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p. 35 ^ De Officiis, book 1, n. 1 ^ Everitt, A.:" Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) pp. 253–55 ^ Rawson: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p.18 ^ J.P.F. Wynne, "Cicero's Skepticism" in Skepticism: From Antiquity to the Present Bloomsbury Academic 2018 p 93 ^ "Plato". www.ellopos.net. ^ Plutarch, Cicero 2.2 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 3.2 ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1940) p. 83 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 3.2–5 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 313–14 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 315 ^ Cicero, Brutus, 316 ^ Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129f ^ Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 25 ^ Susan Treggiari, Terentia, Tullia and Publilia: the women of Cicero's family, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 76ff. ^ Treggiari, op. cit., p. 133 ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 225 ^ Haskell H.J.: This was Cicero, p. 95 ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 249 ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 12.14. Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 225 ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero p. 226 ^ Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters ^ Haskell, H.J (1964). This was Cicero. pp. 103–04. ^ Paavo Castren & L. Pietilä-Castren: Antiikin käsikirja/Encyclopedia of the Ancient World ^ E.g. Cicero, pro Quinctio 4 ^ Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 22 ^ Everitt, A.: "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001) p. 61 ^ Cicero, pro Caecina 97 ^ Vasaly, Ann (1993). Representation: Images of the World in a Ciceronian Territory. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 158–68. ISBN 978-0-520-07755-3. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. ^ Boardman, John (18 January 2001). The Oxford illustrated history of the Roman world. OUP Oxford. pp. 84ff. ISBN 978-0-19-285436-0. Retrieved 10 August 2011. extortionate. ^ Trans. Grant, Michael. Cicero: Selected Works. London: Penguin Books. 1960. ^ "III. The First Oration Against Catiline by Cicero. Rome (218 B.C.-84 A.D.). Vol. II. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations". www.bartleby.com. ^ a b John Leach, Pompey the Great, p.106. ^ a b c d Wiedemann 1994, p. 42. ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 43. ^ a b c d e Wiedemann 1994, p. 44. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971. ^ Cicero, In Catilinam 3.2 (at the Perseus Project); Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 40–45 (at Lacus Curtius); Plutarch, Cicero 18.4 (at Lacus Curtius). ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 46. ^ Clayton, Edward. "Cicero (106–43 BC)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 October 2013. ^ Arthur D. Kahn (2000) [1986]. The Education of Julius Caesar. iUniverse.com, Inc. pp. 149–75.[self-published source] ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 47. ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Orator. Random House. pp. 115–16. ^ a b Dunstan, William (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. pp. 163–64. ISBN 0-7425-6834-2. ^ a b Steven M. Cerutti (1997). "The Location of the Houses of Cicero and Clodius and the Porticus Catuli on the Palatine Hill". 118 (3). American Journal of Philology. p. 417. ^ Rawson, E.: Cicero, 1984 106 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 51. ^ a b c d Wiedemann 1994, p. 50. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, pp. 237–39. ^ Tom Holland, Rubicon, pp. 238–39. ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, (1964) p. 200 ^ Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero, (1964) p. 201 ^ Plutarch. Cicero 32 ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero. Random House. p. 145. ^ Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 201 ^ Cicero, Samtliga brev/Collected letters (in a Swedish translation) ^ Haskell. H.J.: This was Cicero, p. 204 ^ Anthony Everitt (2003). Cicero. Random House. p. 165. ^ Cicero. De Domo Sua. perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Wiedemann 1994, p. 52. ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 53. ^ John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 144. ^ Grant, M: "Cicero: Selected Works", p. 67 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 59. ^ Everitt, A. "Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician" (2001), pp. 186–88 ^ Alfred John Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, (Kindle edition), ch. XIII., loc. 1834 ^ Church, loc. 1871 ^ Church, loc. 1834 ^ Church, loc. 1845; Gareth C. Sampson, The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East, pp. 155–58; Cicero, Letters to friends, 15.3.1. ^ Gareth C. Sampson, The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East, p.159; Cicero, Letters to friends, 2.10.2. ^ Church, loc. 1855 ^ a b c Wiedemann 1994, p. 62. ^ Church, ibid ^ Plutarch, The Life of Cicero, 36. ^ Plutarch. "Life of Caesar". University of Chicago. p. 575. It was Cicero who proposed the first honours for [Caesar] in the senate, and their magnitude was, after all, not too great for a man; but others added excessive honours and vied with one another in proposing them, thus rendering Caesar odious and obnoxious even to the mildest citizens because of the pretension and extravagance of what was decreed for him. ^ Everitt, Anthony: Cicero p. 215. ^ Plutarch, Cicero 38.1 ^ a b Wiedemann 1994, p. 63. ^ Cicero, Second Philippic Against Antony ^ Cicero, Ad Familiares 10.28. ^ Matthew B Schwartz, Finley Hooper, Roman Letters: History from a Personal Point of View, p. 48. ^ Cecil W. Wooten, "Cicero's Philippics and Their Demosthenic Model" University of North Carolina Press ^ "World History in Context". ic.galegroup.com. Retrieved 3 January 2018. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 4.19 ^ Plutarch, Cicero 46.3–5 ^ a b Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) p. 293 ^ Seneca, Suasoria 6:18 (http://www.attalus.org/translate/suasoria6.html) ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.8.4 ^ Everitt, A.: Cicero, A turbulent life (2001) ^ Plutarch, Cicero, 49.5 ^ Baños, José (26 February 2019). "The brutal beheading of Cicero, last defender of the Roman Republic". National Geographic. Retrieved 15 March 2021. ^ Haskell, H.J. "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 296 ^ Castren and Pietilä-Castren: "Antiikin käsikirja" /"Handbook of antiquity" (2000) p. 237 ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 10.1.1 12 ^ Harper, Douglas. "Ciceronian". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Harper, Douglas. "cicerone". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature, "Ciceronian period" (1995) p. 244 ^ Pliny, Natural History, 7.117 ^ Cicero, Seven orations, 1912 ^ Hasan Niyazi, From Pompeii to Cyberspace – Transcending barriers with Twitter "Account Suspended". Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2012. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:4 ^ Jerome, Letter to Eustochium, XXII:30 ^ Goodey, C.F. (2013). A History of Intelligence and 'Intellectual Disability': The Shaping of Psychology in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-8235-2.[page needed] ^ Erasmus, Ciceronianus ^ Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 16, trans. John Selby Watson. ^ Richards 2010, p.121 ^ Gibson, William (2006). "John Marshall. John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture: Religious Toleration and Arguments for Religious Toleration in Early Modern and Early Enlightenment Europe". H-Albion. Retrieved 8 July 2012. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 105. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 56. ^ Peter Gay (1966). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 106. ^ a b Matthew Sharpe. Cicero, Voltaire and the philosophes in the French Enlightenment. p. 329. ^ Montesquieu. Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. pp. 733–37. ^ Montesquieu. Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. p. 734. ^ De Burgh, W.G., "The legacy of the ancient world" ^ American republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Mortimer N. S. Sellers, NYU Press, 1994 ^ Thomas Jefferson, "Letter to Henry Lee," 8 May 1825, in The Political Thought of American Statesmen, eds. Morton Frisch and Richard Stevens (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1973), 12. ^ Aulard, François-Alphonse (1901). Histoire politique de la Révolution française: Origines et Développement de la Démocratie et de la République (1789–1804). Librairie Armand Colin. p. 5. ^ Powell, Jim (2000). The Triumph of Liberty: A 2,000 Year History Told Through the Lives of Freedom's Greatest Champions. Free Press. pp. 2–10. ISBN 978-0-684-85967-5. ^ Bailey, D.R.S. "Cicero's letters to Atticus" (1978) p. 16 ^ Letters to Atticus I & II ^ Noted in Michael Parenti, The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, 2003:86. ISBN 1-56584-797-0 ^ Cicero. "On Duties" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2017. ^ Michael Parenti, The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, 2003, pp. 107–11, 93. ISBN 1-56584-797-0 ^ Spielvogel, Jackson (2011). Western Civilization since 1300. Cengage Learning. p. 492. ISBN 978-1-111-34219-7. ^ Tomiša, Mario. THE IMPACT OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TYPOGRAPHY ON MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES. Varaždin, Croatia. p. 906. ISSN 1330-3651. ^ Everitt, A., Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician (2003), p. 259 ^ De Burgh, W.G. ^ L. Richardson Jr. (1976). "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites". Princeton University Press. ^ Redazione ANSA (25 July 2015). "Mayor launches appeal to save Cicero's villa from ruin". ANSA English. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ "Villa Cicero". pompeiiinpictures.com. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ Mary Beard (2010). The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found. Harvard University Press. p. 45. ^ a b Bolchazy-Carducci (2004). Rome Alive: A Source Guide to the Ancient City. p. Vol. 1.5. ^ "Palatine Hill". archive1.village.virginia.edu. Retrieved 20 June 2018. ^ Filippo Coarelli (2014). Rome and Environs: An Archaeological Guide. p. 93. ^ Samuel Ball Platner & Thomas Ashby (1929). "Palatinus Mons, Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome". Oxford University Press. ^ Mansky, Joseph (March 2019). ""Look No More": Jonson's Catiline and the Politics of Enargeia". PMLA. 134 (2): 332–350. doi:10.1632/pmla.2019.134.2.332. ISSN 0030-8129. ^ "William Shakespeare - Julius Caesar". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 February 2021. ^ Julius Caesar at the TCM Movie Database ^ Cleopatra at the TCM Movie Database ^ Julius Caesar at the TCM Movie Database ^ "Rome – Cast and Crew". HBO. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Faria, Miguel A. (14 August 2013). "Caesar's Women – McCullough's Idolatry and Politics in Ancient Rome". Hacienda Publishing. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (29 June 2018). "Robert Harris: 'I'm not sure you can be the world's superpower and remain a democracy'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ "Roma Sub Rosa Mystery Series". www.stevensaylor.com. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Steel, C.E.W. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Cicero. Cambridge University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-521-50993-0. ^ "1. Cicero Series 01 – Big Finish Originals – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. ^ "David Llewellyn – Contributions – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. ^ "Scott Handcock – Contributions – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. ^ "Issue 127 – Vortex – Big Finish". www.bigfinish.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019. Sources[edit] Badian, E: "Cicero and the Commission of 146 B.C.", Collection Latomus 101 (1969), 54–65. Ferguson, John & Balsdon, J.P.V.D. "Marcus Tullius Cicero". Encyclopædia Britannica (online). Caldwell, Taylor (1965). A Pillar of Iron. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 978-0-385-05303-7. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Cicero's letters to Atticus, Vol, I, II, IV, VI, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain, 1965 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Latin extracts of Cicero on Himself, translated by Charles Gordon Cooper, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1963 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Political Speeches, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1969 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Officiis (On Duties), translated by Walter Miller. Harvard University Press, 1913, ISBN 978-0-674-99033-3, 0-674-99033-1 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971 Cowell, F.R. (1948). Cicero and the Roman Republic. Penguin Books Everitt, Anthony (2001). Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50746-5. Gruen, Erich S. (1974). The Last Generation of the Roman Republic. University of California Press. Haskell, H.J. (1942). This was Cicero. Alfred A. Knopf. March, Duane A. (1989). "Cicero and the 'Gang of Five'". Classical World. 82 (4): 225–34. doi:10.2307/4350381. JSTOR 4350381. Narducci, Emanuele (2009). Cicerone. La parola e la politica. Laterza. ISBN 978-88-420-7605-6. Plutarch Penguins Classics English translation by Rex Warner, Fall of the Roman Republic, Six Lives by Plutarch: Marius, Sulla, Crassus, Pompey, Caesar, Cicero (Penguin Books, 1958; with Introduction and notes by Robin Seager, 1972) Rawson, Beryl: The Politics of Friendship: Pompey and Cicero (Sydney University Press, 1978) Rawson, Elizabeth (1972). "Cicero the Historian and Cicero the Antiquarian". Journal of Roman Studies. 62: 33–45. doi:10.2307/298924. JSTOR 298924. Rawson, Elizabeth. (1975). Cicero : a portrait. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-0864-5. OCLC 1531175. Richards, Carl J. (2010). Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6778-8. Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero, University Paperbacks, Great Britain, 1968 Smith, R.E: Cicero the Statesman (Cambridge University Press, 1966) Stockton, David: Cicero: A Political Biography (Oxford University Press, 1971) Strachan-Davidson, James Leigh (1936). "Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Taylor, H. (1918). "Cicero: A sketch of his life and works". Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Uttschenko, Sergej L. (1978): Cicero, translated from Russian by Rosemarie Pattloch, VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin, Germany.Cicero Wistrand, M. (1979). Cicero Imperator: Studies in Cicero's Correspondence 51–47 B.C. Göteborg. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. (1994). Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 1-85399-193-7. OCLC 31494651. Yates, Frances A. (1974). The Art of Memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-95001-3. Further reading[edit] Boissier, Gaston, Cicéron et ses amis. Étude sur la société romaine du temps de César (1884) Everitt, Anthony (2001). Cicero. A turbulent life. London: John Murray Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7195-5493-3. Fuhrmann, Manfred (1992). Cicero and the Roman Republic. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17879-8. Gildenhard, Ingo (2011). Creative Eloquence: The Construction of Reality in Cicero's Speeches. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. Habicht, Christian (1990). Cicero the politician. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3872-9. Hamza, Gabor, L'optimus status civitatis di Cicerone e la sua tradizione nel pensiero politico. In: Tradizione romanistica e Costituzione. Cinquanta anni della Corte Costituzionale della Repubblica Italiana. vol. II. Napoli, 2006. 1455–68. Hamza, Gabor, Ciceros Verhältnis zu seinen Quellen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Darstellung der Staatslehre in De re publica. KLIO – Beiträge zur alten Geschichte 67 (1985) 492–97. Hamza, Gabor, Cicero und der Idealtypus des iurisconsultus. Helixon 22–27 (1982–1987) 281–96. Hamza, Gabor, Il potere (lo Stato) nel pensiero di Cicerone e la sua attualità. Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano (RIDROM) 10 (2013) 1–25. Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano – Index Hamza, Gabor, Zur Interpretation des Naturrechts in den Werken von Cicero. Pázmány Law Review 2 (2014) 5–15. Macdonald, C. (1986). De imperio (Nachdr. d. Ausg. Basingstoke 1966. ed.). Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-86292-182-8. Palmer, Tom G. (2008). "Cicero (106–43 B.C.)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. p. 63. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n42. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Parenti, Michael (2004). The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome. New York: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-942-6. Powell, J.G.F., ed. (1995). Cicero the philosopher : twelve papers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814751-0. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. (1971). Cicero. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-0574-5. Sihler, Ernest G. (1914). Cicero of Arpinum: A Political and Literary Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press. Treggiari, S. (2007). Terentia, Tullia and Publilia. The women of Cicero's family. London: Routledge Weiskopf, Michael (1991). "CICERO". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume V/5: Chinese-Iranian relations VIII–C̆ihrdād Nask. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 558–59. ISBN 978-0-939214-72-3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Tullius Cicero. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cicero Wikisource has original works written by or about: Cicero Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Marcus Tullius Cicero Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Cicero . Library resources about Cicero Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Cicero Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Cicero Works by Cicero at Perseus Digital Library Works by Cicero at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Cicero at Internet Archive Works by Cicero at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Cicero at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero Dickinson College Commentaries: Against Verres 2.1.53–86 Dickinson College Commentaries: On Pompey’s Command (De Imperio) 27–49 Horace MS 1b Laelius de Amicitia at OPenn Lewis E 66 Epistolae ad familiares (Letters to friends) Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the Parallel Lives Life of Cicero by Anthony Trollope, Volume I & Volume II Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers) Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. Warde Fowler "At Heraklia website". Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 March 2017. Dryden's translation of Cicero from Plutarch's Parallel Lives At Middlebury College website Political offices Preceded by L. Julius Caesar C. Marcius Figulus Roman consul 63 BC With: C. Antonius Hybrida Succeeded by D. Junius Silanus L. Licinius Murena v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero Personal life Political career Writings Treatises Rhetoric and politics De Inventione De Oratore Book III De Partitionibus Oratoriae De Optimo Genere Oratorum Brutus Orator De Legibus Philosophical Hortensius Academica Consolatio De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum Tusculanae Disputationes De Natura Deorum De Divinatione De Fato Cato Maior de Senectute Laelius de Amicitia De Officiis De Re Publica Somnium Scipionis Paradoxa Stoicorum Orations Political De Imperio Cn. 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en-wikipedia-org-3333	----	Enchiridion of Epictetus - Wikipedia Enchiridion of Epictetus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian Enchiridion Chapter 1 of the Enchiridion of Epictetus from a 1683 edition in Greek and Latin Author Epictetus / Arrian Country Greece Language Koine Greek Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 125 The Enchiridion or Handbook of Epictetus (Ancient Greek: Ἐγχειρίδιον Ἐπικτήτου, Enkheirídion Epiktḗtou) is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, a 2nd-century disciple of the Greek philosopher Epictetus. Although the content is mostly derived from the Discourses of Epictetus, it is not a summary of the Discourses but rather a compilation of practical precepts. Eschewing metaphysics, Arrian focuses his attention on Epictetus's work applying philosophy to daily life. Thus, the book is a manual to show the way to achieve mental freedom and happiness in all circumstances. The Enchiridion was well-known in the ancient world, and in the medieval period, it was specially adapted for use in Greek-speaking monasteries. In the 15th-century it was translated into Latin, and then, with the advent of printing, into multiple European languages. It reached the height of popularity in the 17th century, in parallel with the Neostoicism movement. Contents 1 Title 2 Writing 3 Contents 4 Themes 5 Subsequent history 6 The Commentary of Simplicius 7 Christian adaptations 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 External links Title[edit] The word "encheiridion" (Ancient Greek: ἐγχειρίδιον) is an adjective meaning "in the hand" or "ready to hand".[1] The word sometimes meant a handy sword, or dagger, but coupled with the word "book" (biblion, Greek: βιβλίον) it means a handy book or hand-book.[1] Epictetus in the Discourses often speaks of principles which his pupils should have "ready to hand" (Greek: πρόχειρα).[1] Common English translations of the title are Manual or Handbook.[2] Writing[edit] The work consists of fifty-three short chapters typically consisting of a paragraph or two. It was compiled some time in the early 2nd-century. The 6th-century philosopher Simplicius, in his Commentary on the work, refers to a letter written by Arrian which prefaced the text.[3] In this letter Arrian stated that the Enchiridion was selected from the Discourses of Epictetus according to what he considered to be most useful, most necessary, and most adapted to move people's minds.[4] Around half of the material in the Enchiridion has been shown to have been derived from the surviving four books of Discourses but variously modified.[5] Other parts are presumed to be derived from the lost Discourses.[6] Some chapters appear to be reformulations of ideas which appear throughout the Discourses.[6] There are some puzzles concerning the inclusion of two chapters. Chapter 29 is practically word for word identical with Discourse iii. 15.[7] Since it was omitted in one of the early Christian editions (Par), and not commented on by Simplicius, it may not have been in the original edition.[7][8] Chapter 33 consists of a list of moral instructions, which are "not obviously related to Epictetus' normal Stoic framework."[6] The current division of the work into fifty-three chapters was first adopted by Johann Schweighäuser in his 1798 edition; earlier editions tended to divide the text into more chapters (especially splitting chapter 33).[9] Gerard Boter in his 1999 critical edition keeps Schweighäuser's fifty-three chapters but splits chapters 5, 14, 19, and 48 into two parts.[9] Contents[edit] The Enchiridion appears to be a loosely-structured selection of maxims.[10] In his 6th-century Commentary, Simplicius divided the text into four distinct sections suggesting a graded approach to philosophy:[10] Chapters 1–21. What is up to us and not, and how to deal with external things. Chs 1–2. What is up to us and not, and the consequences of choosing either. Chs 3–14. How to deal with external things (reining the reader in from them). Chs 15–21. How to use external things correctly and without disturbance. Chapters 22–28. Advice for intermediate students. Chs 22–25. The problems faced by intermediate students. Chs 26–28. Miscellania: the common conceptions, badness, and shame. Chapters 30–47. Technical advice for the discovery of appropriate actions (kathēkonta). Chs 30–33. Appropriate actions towards (a) other people, (b) God, (c) divination, (d) one's own self. Chs 34–47. Miscellaneous precepts on justice (right actions). Chapters 48–53. Conclusions on the practice of precepts. Ch 48. Final advice and his division of types of people. Chs 49–52. The practice of precepts. Ch 53. Quotations for memorisation. Chapter 29, which was probably absent from the text used by Simplicius, is a one-page Discourse which compares the training needed to become a Stoic with the rigorous approach needed to become an Olympic victor.[11] Themes[edit] The Enchiridion begins with the statement that "Of things, some depend upon ourselves, others do not depend upon ourselves."[12] So it starts with announcing that the business and concern of the real self is with matters subject to its own control, uninfluenced by external chance or change.[13] Epictetus makes a sharp distinction between our own internal world of mental benefits and harms, and the external world beyond our control.[14] Freedom is to wish for nothing which is not up to ourselves.[15] When we are tried by misfortune we should never let our suffering overwhelm our sense of inward mastery and freedom.[13] A constant vigilance is required, and one should never relax attention to one's reason, for it is judgements, not things, which disturb people.[16] What upsets people is not things themselves but their judgments about the things. For example, "death is nothing dreadful (or else it would have appeared dreadful to Socrates) . . ." — Chapter Five[17] Reason is the decisive principle in everything.[14] Thus we must exercise our power of assent over impressions, and wish for nothing nor avoid anything that is up to other people.[18] To a large extent the Enchiridion suppresses many of the more amiable aspects of Epictetus which can be found in the Discourses, but this reflects the nature of the compilation.[19] Unlike the Discourses which seeks to encourage the student through argument and logic, the Enchiridion largely consists of a set of rules to follow.[20] The work is built on the conception that the wise person, by the aid of philosophy, may reap benefit from every experience in life.[21] With proper training the student can flourish in adverse situations as well as favourable ones.[22] The human spirit has capacities as yet undeveloped, but which it is for our good to develop.[23] Thus the book is a manual on how to make progress towards what is necessary and sufficient for happiness.[22][24] Epictetus makes a vivid use of imagery, and analogies include life depicted as: a ship's voyage (Ch. 7), an inn (Ch. 11), a banquet (Chs. 15, 36), and acting in a play (Ch. 17, 37).[25] He takes many examples from everyday life, including: a broken jug (Ch. 3), a trip to the baths (Chs. 4, 43), his own lameness (Ch. 9), the loss of a child (Ch. 11), and the price of lettuce (Ch. 25).[25] Subsequent history[edit] Latin translation by Angelo Poliziano (Basel 1554) For many centuries, the Enchiridion maintained its authority both with Pagans and Christians.[26] Simplicius of Cilicia wrote a commentary upon it in the 6th century, and in the Byzantine era Christian writers wrote paraphrases of it.[26] Over one hundred manuscripts of the Enchiridion survive.[a] The oldest extant manuscripts of the authentic Enchiridion date from the 14th century, but the oldest Christianised ones date from the 10th and 11th centuries, perhaps indicating the Byzantine world's preference for the Christian versions.[27] The Enchiridion was first translated into Latin by Niccolò Perotti in 1450, and then by Angelo Poliziano in 1479.[27] The first printed edition (editio princeps) was Poliziano's Latin translation published in 1497.[27] The original Greek was first published (somewhat abbreviated) with Simplicius's Commentary in 1528.[27] The edition published by Johann Schweighäuser in 1798 was the major edition for the next two-hundred years.[27][28] A critical edition was produced by Gerard Boter in 1999.[29] The separate editions and translations of the Enchiridion are very many.[30] The Enchiridion reached its height of popularity in the period 1550–1750.[31] It was translated into most European languages, and there were multiple translations in English, French, and German.[31] The first English translation was by James Sandford in 1567 (a translation of a French version) and this was followed by a translation (from the Greek) by John Healey in 1610.[32] The Enchiridion was even partly translated into Chinese by the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.[31] The popularity of the work was assisted by the Neostoicism movement initiated by Justus Lipsius in the 16th century.[33] Another Neostoic, Guillaume du Vair, translated the book into French in 1586 and popularised it in his La Philosophie morale des Stoiques.[34] In the English-speaking world it was particularly well-known in the 17th-century: at that time it was the Enchiridion rather than the Discourses which was usually read.[35] It was among the books John Harvard bequeathed to the newly-founded Harvard College in 1638.[36] The work, being written in a clear distinct style, made it accessible to readers with no formal training in philosophy, and there was a wide readership among women in England.[37] The writer Mary Wortley Montagu made her own translation of the Enchiridion in 1710 at the age of twenty-one.[38] The Enchiridion was a common school text in Scotland during the Scottish Enlightenment—Adam Smith had a 1670 edition in his library, acquired as a schoolboy.[39] At the end of the 18th-century the Enchiridion is attested in the personal libraries of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.[40][41] In the 19th-century, Walt Whitman discovered the Enchiridion when he was about the age of sixteen. It was a book he would repeatedly return to, and late in life he called the book "sacred, precious to me: I have had it about me so long—lived with it in terms of such familiarity."[42] The Commentary of Simplicius[edit] In the 6th-century the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote a huge commentary on the Enchiridion, which is more than ten times the bulk of the original text.[43] Chapter after chapter of the Enchiridion is dissected, discussed, and its lessons drawn out with a certain laboriousness.[44] Simplicius' commentary offers a distinctly Platonist vision of the world,[45] one which is often at odds with the Stoic content of the Enchiridion.[46] Sometimes Simplicius exceeds the scope of a commentary; thus his commentary on Enchiridion 27 (Simplicius ch. 35) becomes a refutation of Manichaeism.[47] The Commentary enjoyed its own period of popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries. An English translation by George Stanhope in 1694 ran through four editions in the early 1700s.[37] Edward Gibbon remarked in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that Simplicius' Commentary on Epictetus "is preserved in the library of nations, as a classic book" unlike the commentaries on Aristotle "which have passed away with the fashion of the times."[45] Christian adaptations[edit] The Enchiridion was adapted three different times by Greek Christian writers. The oldest manuscript, Paraphrasis Christiana (Par), dates to the 10th century.[47] Another manuscript, falsely ascribed to Nilus (Nil), dates to the 11th century.[47] A third manuscript, Vaticanus gr. 2231 (Vat), dates to the 14th century.[47] It is not known when the original versions of these manuscripts were first made.[47] These guides served as a rule and guide for monastic life.[48] The most obvious changes are in the use of proper names: thus the name Socrates is sometimes changed to Paul.[44][48] All three texts follow the Enchiridion quite closely, although the Par manuscript is more heavily modified: adding or omitting words, abridging or expanding passages, and occasionally inventing new passages.[49] In the 17th century the German monk Matthias Mittner did something similar, compiling a guide on mental tranquillity for the Carthusian Order by taking the first thirty-five of his fifty precepts from the Enchiridion.[50] Notes[edit] a. ^ Gerard Boter in his 1999 critical edition catalogues 59 extant manuscripts of the Encheiridion proper, and another 27 manuscripts of Simplicius' Commentary which contain the Encheiridion as lemmata (headings). He also lists 37 Christianised manuscripts, (24 Par, 12 Nil, 1 Vat). Cf. Boter 1999, pp. 3ff Citations[edit] ^ a b c Matheson 1916, p. 263 ^ Oldfather 1925, p. xii ^ Boter 1999, p. xiii ^ Long 1877, p. xiii ^ Oldfather 1928, p. 479 ^ a b c Hard 2014, p. 346 ^ a b Oldfather 1928, p. 506 ^ Boter 1999, p. 127 ^ a b Boter 1999, pp. 146–7 ^ a b Brittain & Brennan 2002, p. 6 ^ Hard 2014, p. 331 ^ Rolleston 1881, p. xvii ^ a b Rolleston 1881, p. xviii ^ a b Long 2018, p. xxxvi ^ Long 2018, p. xlv ^ Long 2003, p. 93 ^ Handbook of Epictetus, trans. Nicholas P. White, Hackett Publishing Company, 1983. ^ Long 2018, p. xliv ^ Oldfather 1925, p. xix ^ Wright 2007, p. 333 ^ Rolleston 1881, pp. xxvi–xxvii ^ a b Long 2018, p. xxxv ^ Rolleston 1881, p. xx ^ Long 2018, p. xxxvii ^ a b Brittain & Brennan 2002, p. 7 ^ a b Schmitz 1870, p. 351 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchmitz1870 (help) ^ a b c d e Boter 1999, p. xv ^ Oldfather 1925, p. xxii ^ Boter 1999, p. xvi ^ Oldfather 1925, p. xxx ^ a b c Long 2003, p. 261 ^ Wright 2007, pp. 325–6 ^ Long 2003, p. 262 ^ Long 2003, p. 263 ^ Wright 2007, p. 325 ^ Long 2003, p. 268 ^ a b Wright 2007, p. 326 ^ Grundy, Isobel (1999). Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: Comet of the Enlightenment. Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780198187653. ^ Phillipson, Nicholas (2010). Adam Smith: An Enlightened Life. Yale University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0300174434. ^ Wolf, Edwin; Hayes, Kevin J. (2006). The Library of Benjamin Franklin. American Philosophical Society. p. 278. ISBN 9780871692573. ^ Gilreath, James; Wilson, Douglas L. (2008). Thomas Jefferson's Library: A Catalog with the Entries in His Own Order. The Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 52. ISBN 9781584778240. ^ LeMaster, J.R.; Kummings, Donald D., eds. (1998). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Walt Whitman. Routledge. p. 692. ISBN 9780415890571. ^ Oldfather 1928, p. 480 ^ a b Rolleston 1881, pp. xii–xiii ^ a b Brittain & Brennan 2002, p. vii ^ Brittain & Brennan 2002, p. 4 ^ a b c d e Boter 1999, p. xiv ^ a b Oldfather 1925, p. xxvii ^ Boter 1999, p. 206 ^ Oldfather 1925, p. xxviii References[edit] Boter, Gerard (1999), The Encheiridion of Epictetus and Its Three Christian Adaptations, Brill, ISBN 9004113584 Brittain, Charles; Brennan, Tad (2002), Simplicius. On Epictetus Handbook 1-26, Gerald Duckworth & Co, ISBN 978-0-7156-3068-6 Hard, Robin (2014), Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-199-59518-1 Long, A. A. (2003), Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19924-556-7 Long, A. A. (2018), How to Be Free: An Ancient Guide to the Stoic Life, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-69117-771-7 Long, George (1877), The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheridion and Fragments, George Bell Matheson, Percy Ewing (1916), Epictetus: The Discourses and Manual together with Fragments of his Writings, Oxford University Press Oldfather, William Abbott (1925), Epictetus, the Discourses as reported by Arrian, the Manual, and Fragments, 1, Loeb Classical Library Oldfather, William Abbott (1928), Epictetus, the Discourses as reported by Arrian, the Manual, and Fragments, 2, Loeb Classical Library Rolleston, T. W. H. (1881), The Encheiridion of Epictetus, Kegan, Paul, Trench, & Co   Schmitz, Leonhard (1870). "Arrianus 4". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Wright, Gillian (2007-07-24). "Women Reading Epictetus". Women's Writing. 14 (2): 321–337. doi:10.1080/09699080701314840. S2CID 161602668. External links[edit] English Wikisource has original text related to this article: Enchiridion (Epictetus) Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἐγχειρίδιον The Enchiridon, translated by Elizabeth Carter at Standard Ebooks Text of translation by George Long, 1877, The Enchiridion Text of translation by P. E. Matheson, 1916, The Discourses of Epictetus, The Manual Of Epictetus Text of translation by William Abbott Oldfather, 1928, The Enchiridion The Enchiridion of Epictetus public domain audiobook at LibriVox Simplicius of Cilicia, Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus, translated by George Stanhope, 1722. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos 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en-wikipedia-org-3346	----	Claudius - Wikipedia Claudius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th Roman emperor, from AD 41 to 54 For other people named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). Roman emperor Claudius Bust, Naples National Archaeological Museum Roman emperor Reign 24 January 41 – 13 October 54 Predecessor Caligula Successor Nero Born 1 August 10 BC Lugdunum, Gaul Died 13 October AD 54 (aged 63) Rome, Italy Burial Mausoleum of Augustus Spouse Plautia Urgulanilla Aelia Paetina Valeria Messalina Julia Agrippina Issue among others Claudius Drusus Claudia Antonia Claudia Octavia Britannicus Nero (adopted) Venissa (alleged) Names Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus[i] Regnal name Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Nero Claudius Drusus Mother Antonia the Younger Claudius (/ˈklɔːdiəs/ KLAW-dee-əs; Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54. Born to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor at Lugdunum in Roman Gaul, where his father was stationed as a military legate, he was the first Roman emperor to be born outside Italy. Nonetheless, Claudius was an Italic of Sabine origins[5] and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula in 37. Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to him being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped to restore the empire's finances after the excess of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire started its successful conquest of Britain. Having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of many senators. Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife, Agrippina the Younger. After his death at the age of 63, Nero, his grand-nephew and legally adopted step-son, succeeded him as emperor. Contents 1 Family and early life 1.1 Public life 1.2 Assassination of Caligula (AD 41) 2 As Emperor 2.1 Expansion of the Empire 2.2 Judicial and legislative affairs 2.3 Public works 2.4 Claudius and the Senate 2.4.1 Plots and coup attempts 2.5 Secretariat and centralization of powers 2.6 Religious reforms 2.7 Public games and entertainments 3 Marriages and personal life 3.1 Plautia Urgulanilla 3.2 Aelia Paetina 3.3 Valeria Messalina 3.4 Agrippina the Younger 4 Claudius's affliction and personality 5 Scholarly works and their impact 6 Death 7 After death 7.1 Divine honours 7.2 Views of the new regime 7.3 Flavian and later perspectives 7.4 Views of ancient historians 8 In modern literature, film, and radio 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern biographies Family and early life[edit] Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Aureus of Claudius Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia Minor, may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus's sister, and he was therefore the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Nero Claudius Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, Claudius's father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly from illness. He was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years.[6] Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver"[7] to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests.[8] In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory.[8] Expectations about his future began to increase. Public life[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Claudius's work as a budding historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian,[9] then reigning as Augustus Caesar. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existing party line.[10] When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of the Second Triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honor the Imperial clan in 8 AD, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to paterfamilias of the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius, and Germanicus's children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all.[10] When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius—then aged 23—appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum. Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new Emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, the equites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son, Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius' brother Germanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress.[11] A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. Assassination of Caligula (AD 41)[edit] A coin of Herod of Chalcis, showing him with his brother Agrippa of Judaea crowning Claudius. British Museum. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving Cassius Chaerea – a military tribune in the Praetorian Guard – and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot – particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered.[12] However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family.[13] Detail from A Roman Emperor 41 AD, c. 1871. Proclaiming Claudius Emperor, 1867. Two drastically different oil paintings by Lawrence Alma-Tadema of Claudius' being proclaimed Emperor by Gratus of the Praetorian Guard. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him princeps.[13] A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius,[citation needed] perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection. The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new princeps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus,[14] claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judaean King Herod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role[15] so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in; in return Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy.[16] The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea and Julius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent.[17][18] As Emperor[edit] Aureus of Claudius, struck at the Lugdunum (Lyon) mint, dated 41–42. The depiction on the reverse meant to commemorate the "reception of the emperor" (imperator receptus) at the Praetorian Camp and the protection the Praetorian Guard afforded Claudius in the days following the assassination of Caligula. Issued over a number of years in both gold and silver, these type of coins were struck to serve as part of the annual military payments Claudius had promised the Guard in return for their role in raising him to the throne. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P. / IMPER. RECEPT. Claudius issued this denarius type to emphasize his clemency after Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess Pax-Nemesis, representing subdued vengeance, would be used on the coins of many later emperors. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR. AVG. P. M., TR. P. X. P. P., IMP. XVIII / PACI AVGVSTAE Pax-Nemesis standing right holding caduceus over serpent. Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon").[19] While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus' sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.[20] Since Claudius was the first Emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces.[21] Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign.[22] Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."[23] Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea as senatorial provinces.[24] Expansion of the Empire[edit] Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Lycia, and Judea were annexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces.[25] The most far-reaching conquest was that of Britannia.[26] Bronze head of Claudius found in the River Alde at Rendham, near Saxmundham, Suffolk (British Museum). Potentially taken from the Temple of Claudius in Colonia Victricensis during the Boudican revolt.[27] In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth – mines and slaves – as well as being a haven for Gallic rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The Roman colonia of Colonia Claudia Victricensis was established as the provincial capital of the newly established province of Britannia at Camulodunum,[28] where a large Temple was dedicated in his honour.[28] He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens[29] (adult males with Roman citizenship; women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Judicial and legislative affairs[edit] Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law.[30] He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system.[31] He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool.[31] Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of Alexandria sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to Josephus, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the Empire.[32] One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modern Trento) were not in fact citizens.[33] The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the Tabula clesiana, that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of the Roman equestrian order were sold back into slavery.[34] Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting yew juice as a cure for snakebite.[35] Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health.[36] One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius on Tiber Island to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder.[37] Public works[edit] Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city in 52 and met at the Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo. The Porta Maggiore aqueduct in Rome He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just north of Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine. The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round.[38] A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km2) of new arable land.[39] He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size. Claudius and the Senate[edit] Obverse of Claudius' bronze. Bare hed left; Caption: TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P., IMP. Reverse of Claudius' bronze. Constantia helmeted and in military dress, standing left, holding long spear in left hand; CONSTANTIAE AVGVSTI S. C. meaning "Senatus consultum" Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of Tribune (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a Patrician, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'.[40] In 47 he assumed the office of censor with Lucius Vitellius, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyon Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even jokes about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond Gallia Narbonensis (Lyons, France), i.e. himself. He also increased the number of Patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar. Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial Procurator after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor. Plots and coup attempts[edit] Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances.[37] Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of Dalmatia, and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus's troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term as Censor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus Annal. This section of Tacitus history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife, Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign.[41] Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate–emperor relations. Secretariat and centralization of powers[edit] Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the princeps became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain.[42] Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-known eunuchs."[43] If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius.[42] He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, Felix. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer than Crassus, the richest man of the Republican era.[44] Religious reforms[edit] Portrait of Claudius, National Archaeological Museum of Spain Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the Eleusinian mysteries which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as haruspices) as a replacement. He was especially hard on Druidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its proselytizing activities.[45] Claudius forbade proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship freely. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the Jews within the city caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.[ii] Public games and entertainments[edit] According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters.[46] Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday.[16] Annual games were also held in honour of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor.[47] Claudius organised a performance of the Secular Games, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning.[47] Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine Lake, as well as many other public games and shows. At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought a killer whale which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder: A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia, locked in combat with the emperor Claudius. She had come when he was completing the construction of the harbour, drawn there by the wreck of a ship bringing leather hides from Gaul, and feeding there over a number of days, had made a furrow in the shallows: the waves had raised up such a mound of sand that she couldn't turn around at all, and while she was pursuing her banquet as the waves moved it shorewards, her back stuck up out of the water like the overturned keel of a boat. The Emperor ordered that a large array of nets be stretched across the mouths of the harbour, and setting out in person with the Praetorian cohorts gave a show to the Roman people, soldiers showering lances from attacking ships, one of which I saw swamped by the beast's waterspout and sunk.—"Historia Naturalis" IX.14–15.[48] Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At the Circus Maximus, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track.[49] Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators.[47] Claudius rebuilt Pompey's Theatre after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box.[47] Marriages and personal life[edit] Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being a womanizer. Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to Livia Medullina Camilla, which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day. Plautia Urgulanilla[edit] Plautia Urgulanilla was the granddaughter of Livia's confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, the daughter of Sejanus. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was allegedly one of his own freedmen. This action made him later the target of criticism by his enemies. Claudia Antonia Claudia Octavia Aelia Paetina[edit] Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter, Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability, although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Paetina. Valeria Messalina[edit] Messalina holding her son Britannicus, Louvre Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed (Claudius' grandmother, Octavia the Younger, was Valeria's great-grandmother on both her mother and father's side) and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter, Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a nymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius—Tacitus states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have more sexual partners in a night[50]—and manipulated his policies to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius Silius in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. The Death of Messalina by Georges-Antoine Rochegrosse, 1916 Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the Emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Under Roman law, the spouse needed to be informed that he or she had been divorced before a new marriage could take place; the sources state that Claudius was in total ignorance until after the marriage.[51] Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children.[52][53][54] The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point.[55] Whatever the case, the result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle.[56] Agrippina the Younger[edit] Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, Caligula's third wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia Paetina and Claudius's niece Agrippina the Younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. She gradually seized power from Emperor Claudius and successfully conspired to eliminate his son's rivals and she was able to successfully open the way for her son to become emperor.[57] Sculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero (c. AD 54–59) The truth is probably more political. The attempted coup d'état by Silius and Messalina had probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy.[58] Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future Emperor Nero) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts could rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage, to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches.[58] This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus (Claudius's brother), actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son. Nero was married to Claudius' daughter Octavia, made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, and promoted; Augustus had similarly named his grandson Postumus Agrippa and his stepson Tiberius as joint heirs,[59] and Tiberius had named Caligula joint heir with his grandson Tiberius Gemellus. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome, when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable as was the case during Britannicus' minority. Claudius may have previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign.[60] Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, who was married to Claudius's daughter Claudia Antonia, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side – not close enough to the Imperial family to prevent doubts (although that did not stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half-brother of Valeria Messalina and at this time those wounds were still fresh. Nero was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus. Claudius's affliction and personality[edit] Claudius depicted as the Roman god Jupiter The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius's affliction in relatively good detail.[61] His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius's voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well.[62] However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of dignitas.[61] When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne.[63] Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life.[64] Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century. Prior to World War II, infantile paralysis (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in Robert Graves's Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates cerebral palsy as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon.[65] Tourette syndrome has also been considered a possibility.[66][67] As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the plebeians.[68][69] They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, over-fond of gladiatorial combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper.[70][71] According to the ancient historians he was also excessively trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen.[41][72] But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused.[73][74] Claudius's extant works present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his "Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies. Scholarly works and their impact[edit] Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the reign of Tiberius – which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career – it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both.[75] Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included Tyrrhenica, a twenty-book Etruscan history, and Carchedonica, an eight-volume history of Carthage,[76] as well as an Etruscan dictionary. He also wrote a book on dice-playing. Despite the general avoidance of the Republican era, he penned a defense of Cicero against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. The Claudian letters. He proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of three new letters. He officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.[77] Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) harshly criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches.[78] None of the works survive but live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's Natural History.[79] The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The speech is meticulous in details, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters.[citation needed] This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not but share.[clarification needed] Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.[80] His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly Appius Claudius Caecus, and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect, and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans did) that Caecus had used the censorship to introduce the letter "R"[81] and so used his own term to introduce his new letters. Death[edit] A statue of Claudius in the Vatican museum. The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison—possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather—and died in the early hours of 13 October 54.[82] Nearly all implicate his final and powerful wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on Britannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family.[83] Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power. Some implicate either his taster Halotus, his doctor Xenophon, or the infamous poisoner Locusta as the administrator of the fatal substance.[84] Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.[85] Among contemporary sources, Seneca the Younger ascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors on his poisoning.[86] Some historians have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age.[87] Evidence against his murder include his old age, his serious illnesses in his last years, his unhealthy lifestyle and the fact that his taster Halotus continued to serve in the same position under Nero. On the other hand, some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime.[88] Claudius' ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus on 24 October 54, after a funeral similar to that of his great-uncle Augustus 40 years earlier. After death[edit] Divine honours[edit] Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a living princeps[89] and was worshipped in Britannia in his own temple in Camulodunum. Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately.[90] Views of the new regime[edit] Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence—most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor and many of Claudius' laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them.[91] Seneca's Apocolocyntosis mocks the deification of Claudius and reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius' temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's Golden House.[92] Flavian and later perspectives[edit] The Flavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus, who had been a friend of the Emperor Titus (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero's Golden House was burned, the Temple of Claudius was finally completed on the Caelian Hill.[92] However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all such cults of dead Emperors by Maximinus Thrax in 237–238.[93] The Feriale Duranum, probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of a steer on his birthday, the Kalends of August.[94] And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century.[95] Views of ancient historians[edit] The main ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius (in The Twelve Caesars), and Cassius Dio all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue.[96] Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.[97] He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and often in public life. During his censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius' writings and to have omitted Claudius' character from his works.[98] Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the Emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century, Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.[99] In modern literature, film, and radio[edit] The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius was contained in the books I, Claudius and Claudius the God (published in 1934 and 1935, respectively) by Robert Graves, both written in the first-person to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius's autobiography. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. Claudius's extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, Claudius the God), to add authenticity. In 1937, director Josef von Sternberg attempted a film version of I, Claudius, with Charles Laughton as Claudius. However, the lead actress, Merle Oberon, suffered a near-fatal car accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were featured in the BBC documentary The Epic That Never Was (1965). The motion picture rights for a new film eventually passed to producer Scott Rudin.[100] Graves's two books were the basis for a British television adaptation I, Claudius, produced by the BBC. The series starred Derek Jacobi as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on BBC2.[101] It was a substantial critical success, and won several BAFTA awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on Masterpiece Theatre in 1977. The 1996 7-VHS release and the later DVD release of the television series, include The Epic That Never Was documentary. A radio adaptation of the Graves novels by Robin Brooks and directed by Jonquil Panting, was broadcast in six one-hour episodes on BBC Radio 4 beginning 4 December 2010. The cast featured Tom Goodman-Hill as Claudius, Derek Jacobi as Augustus, Harriet Walter as Livia, Tim McInnerny as Tiberius and Samuel Barnett as Caligula. In 2011, it was announced rights for a miniseries adaptation passed to HBO and BBC Two. Anne Thomopoulos and Jane Tranter, producers of the popular HBO–BBC2 Rome miniseries, were attached to the I, Claudius project. However, as of 2018, it has yet to be produced, and no release date is pending. The 1954 film Demetrius and the Gladiators also portrayed him sympathetically, played by Barry Jones. In the 1960 film Messalina, Claudius is portrayed by Mino Doro. On television, Freddie Jones portrayed Claudius in the 1968 British television series The Caesars. The 1975 TV Special Further Up Pompeii! (based on the Frankie Howerd sit-com Up Pompeii!) featured Cyril Appleton as Claudius. In the 1979 motion picture Caligula, where the role was performed by Giancarlo Badessi, Claudius is depicted as an idiot, in contrast to Robert Graves' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man, who is perceived by others to be an idiot. The 1985 made-for-television miniseries A.D. features actor Richard Kiley as Claudius. Kiley portrays him as thoughtful, but willing to cater to public opinion as well as being under the influence of Agrippina. In the 2004 TV film Imperium: Nero, Claudius is portrayed by Massimo Dapporto. He is portrayed in Season 3 of the Netflix documentary series Roman Empire, which focused on the reign of Caligula, by Kelson Henderson. The series concludes with Claudius's accession. There is also a reference to Claudius' suppression of a coup in the movie Gladiator, though the incident is entirely fictional. In the series Britannia (2018), Claudius visits Britannia, played by Steve Pemberton as a fool who is drugged by Aulus Plautius. In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel The Roman by Mika Waltari. Canadian-born science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt reimagined Robert Graves' Claudius story, in his two novels, Empire of the Atom and The Wizard of Linn. The historical novel Chariot of the Soul by Linda Proud features Claudius as host and mentor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome. When Togidubnus returns to Britain in advance of the Roman army, it is with a mission given to him by Claudius. See also[edit] Julio-Claudian family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Temple of Claudius, Colchester Temple of Claudius, Rome Notes[edit] ^ This was Claudius's name before becoming emperor. Suetonius provides 'Tiberius Claudius Drusus' as his birth name. Simpson[1] and Hurley[2] suggest that he added the surname Germanicus in 9 BC by senatorial decree and switched Drusus for Nero when he became head of the Claudius Nero family in AD 4. Stuart[3] and Levick[4] somewhat ignore Suetonius and propose that his name was always Ti. Claudius Nero, and that he added Germanicus only in AD 4. ^ There is some debate about what actually happened. It is reported by Suetonius and in Acts (18:2), Cassius Dio minimizes the event and Josephus—who was reporting on Jewish events—does not mention it at all. Some scholars hold that it didn't happen, while others have only a few missionaries expelled for the short term. References[edit] ^ Simpson, pp. 365–366. ^ Hurley, p. 68. ^ Stuart, p. 318 (note 7). ^ Levick 2015, pp. 11, 21–22. ^ Tacitus, Annales, xi. 24. ^ Dio Hist. LX 2 ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Claudius. 2. Suet Claud. 4 indicates the reasons for choosing this tutor, as outlined in Leon (1948). ^ a b Suet. Claud. 4. ^ Scramuzza (1940) p. 39. ^ a b Stuart (1936). ^ Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2. Suhr (1955) suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power. ^ Major (1992) ^ a b Josephus Antiquitates Iudiacae XIX. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 1.3 ^ Josephus Ant. Iud. XIX. ^ Josephus Bellum Iudiacum II, 204–233. ^ a b Suetonius, Claud. 11 ^ Josephus Antiquitates Iudiacae XIX, 268–269. ^ Dio Rom. Hist. LX 3, 4. ^ "Claudius". The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt. Retrieved 12 March 2018. ^ Levick 2015, p. 51. ^ Suetonius, Claud. 10 ^ "Coin, Museum No. R1874,0715.4". British Museum Online Collection. Retrieved 26 February 2018. ^ Harris Rackham (1938). "Pliny The Elder, Natural History". Loeb Classical Library. ^ A History of the Roman People; 1984, Fritz Heichelheim, Cedric Veo, Allen Ward, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewoods, N.J. ^ Pliny 5.1–5.2, Cassius Dio, 60.8, 60.9 ^ Scramuzza, Chap. 9 ^ "Head of the Emperor Claudius". British Museum. ^ a b Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ( ISBN 1 897719 04 3) ^ Scramuzza, Chap. 7, p. 142 ^ Suet. Claud. 15. Dio Rom. Hist. LXI 33. ^ a b Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 6 ^ Josephus Ant. Iud. XIX.5.3 (287). ^ Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 7, p. 129 ^ Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 7 ^ Suetonius, Claud. 16 ^ Suetonius, Claud. 32 ^ a b Suetonius. "Life of Claudius 29:1". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ Tacitus Ann. XII 57 ^ Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 9, pp. 173–4 ^ English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D. Hogarth, in Momigliano (1934). ^ a b Suet. Claud. 29. ^ a b Tac. Ann. XII 65. Seneca Ad Polybium. ^ Scholz, Piotr O. (2001). Eunuchs and Castrati: A Cultural History. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-55876-200-8. ^ Pliny Natural History 134. ^ Suetonius. "Life of Claudius 25:3". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 December 2019. ^ Suet. Claud. 12 ^ a b c d Suet. Claud. 21 ^ Translation of Pliny's Historia Naturalis ^ Humphrey, John, Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing, University of California Press, 1986, pp. 100–101 ^ Tac. Ann. XI 10. Also Dio Rom. Hist. LXI 31, and Pliny Nat. Hist. X 172. ^ Levick 2015, p. 74. ^ Scramuzza (1940) p. 90. ^ Momigliano (1934) pp. 6–7. ^ Levick 2015, p. 73. ^ Tac. Ann. XI. 25, 8. ^ Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p. 212. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0-7394-2025-9. ^ Suet. Claud. 26. ^ a b Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91–92. See also Tac. Ann. XII 6, 7; Suet. Claud. 26. ^ Levick (2015) pp. 80–81. See also Scramuzza (1940) p. 92. ^ Oost (1958). ^ a b Suet. Claud. 30. ^ Seneca Apocolo. 5, 6. ^ Suet. Claud. 31. ^ Suet. Claud. 38. ^ Leon (1948). ^ Burden, George. The Imperial Gene Archived 11 June 2001 at the Wayback Machine, The Medical Post, 16 July 1996. Retrieved 24 June 2007. ^ Murad, Ali (2010). "A Neurological Mystery from History: The Case of Claudius Caesar". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 19 (3): 221–7. doi:10.1080/09647040902872775. PMID 20628951. S2CID 205664150. ^ Suet. Claud. 5, 21, 40. ^ Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 5, 12, 31. ^ Suet. Claud. 34, 38. ^ Tacitus Ann. XII 20. ^ Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 8. ^ Suet. Claud. 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. ^ Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 3. ^ Momigliano (1934) pp. 4–6. ^ The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 1937 p. 107 ^ Suet. Claud. 41. ^ See Claudius' letter to the people of Trent (linked below), in which he refers to the "obstinate retirement" of Tiberius. See also Josephus Ant Iud. XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's "madness and lack of understanding." ^ See Momigliano (1934) Chap. 1, note 20 (p. 83). Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35. ^ Levick (1978). ^ Ryan (1993) refers to the historian Varro's account of the introduction ^ cf. Tac. Ann. XII 66–67. ^ Suet. Claud. 43 ^ Accounts of his death: Suet. Claud. 43, 44. Tac. Ann. XII 64, 66–67. Josephus Ant. Iud. XX 148, 151. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 34. Pliny Natural History II xxiii 92, XI lxxiii 189, XXII xlvi 92. ^ Suet. Claud. 44 ^ Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 19:67; 20:148 ^ Scramuzza (1940) pp. 92–93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was truly murdered. The Emperor appears to have been seriously ill since at least 53. Levick (1990) pp. 76–77 raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause. ^ Levick (1990); also as opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an inveterate gossip, doesn't mention it at all. ^ Gradel I. Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-927548-9 ^ Suet. Nero 9 ^ Suet. Nero 33 ^ a b Levick (1990) ^ Gradel I. Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-927548-9 pp. 356–341 ^ Hekster, Olivier (2008). Rome and Its Empire, AD 193–284. ISBN 978-0-7486-2304-4. ^ Gradel I. Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-927548-9 p. 367 ^ Scramuzza, p. 29 ^ Vessey (1971) ^ Griffin (1990). Ann. XI 14 is often thought to be a good example: the digression on the history of writing is actually Claudius' own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no explicit attribution – and so there exists the possibility that the digression is Tacitus' own work or derivative of another source. ^ Levick 2015, p. 229. ^ "I, Claudius (2009) – Synopsis". Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2011. ^ I, Claudius, 6 November 1977, retrieved 14 April 2016 Bibliography[edit] Baldwin, B. (1964). "Executions under Claudius: Seneca's Ludus de Morte Claudii". Phoenix 18 (1): 39–48. JSTOR 1086911 Griffin, M. (1990). "Claudius in Tacitus". Classical Quarterly 40 (2): 482–501. JSTOR 639107 Hurley, Donna W., ed. (2001). Suetonius: Diuus Claudius. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59325-5. Levick, B.M. (1978). "Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?" American Journal of Philology, 99 (1): 79–105.JSTOR 293870 Levick, Barbara (2015) [1990]. Claudius (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-70357-4. Leon, E.F. (1948). "The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 79 79–86.JSTOR 283354 McAlindon, D. (1957). "Claudius and the Senators", American Journal of Philology, 78 (3): 279–286.JSTOR 292122 Major, A. (1992). "Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power", Ancient History, 22 25–31. Malloch, S. J. V. (2013). The Annals of Tacitus, book 11. Cambridge University Press. (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 2, La vie de Messaline, femme de Claude, p. 39–64; ch. 3, La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude, p. 65–96. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1934). Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement Trans. W.D. Hogarth. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons. Oost, S.V. (1958). "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas", American Journal of Philology, 79 (2): 113–139.JSTOR 292103 Osgood, Josiah (2010). Claudius Caesar : image and power in the early Roman empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88181-4. Renucci, Pierre (2012). Claude, l'empereur inattendu, Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-03779-6 Ruth, Thomas De Coursey (1916). The problem of Claudius: Some aspects of a character study. Johns Hopkins University. Ryan, F.X. (1993). "Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47–48", American Journal of Philology, 114 (4): 611–618.JSTOR 295428 Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). The Emperor Claudius Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Simpson, C.J. (1981). "The Early Name of the Emperor Claudius" (PDF). Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 29: 363–368. Stuart, Meriwether (1936). "The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum". American Journal of Archaeology. 40 (3): 314–322. doi:10.2307/498692. JSTOR 498692. Suetonius (1979). The Twelve Caesars. Michael Grant, trans. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044072-0. Suhr, Elmer G. (1955). "A Portrait of Claudius". American Journal of Archaeology. 59 (4): 319–322. doi:10.2307/500799. JSTOR 500799. Vessey, D.W.T.C. (1971). "Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" American Journal of Philology 92 (3) 385–409.JSTOR 292801 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Claudius. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Claudius . Ancient sources[edit] Suetonius Life of Claudius Tacitus Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11 Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12 Dio Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I Cassius Dio's account, part II Josephus The works of Josephus Seneca The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius Claudius Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians Lyons tablet Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet Second half of the Lyons Tablet Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent. Full Latin text here. Modern biographies[edit] Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis Claudius Page Claudius I at BBC History Claudius Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 1 August 10 BC Died: 13 October AD 54 Roman Emperors Preceded by Gaius (Caligula) Roman emperor 41–54 Succeeded by Nero Political offices Preceded by Gn. Acerronius Proculus G. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus Roman consul 37 (suffect) with Caligula Succeeded by A. Caecina Paetus G. Caninius Rebilus Preceded by Caligula Gn. Sentius Saturninus Roman consul II 42–43 with G. Caecina Largus (42) L. Vitellius II (43) Succeeded by T. Statilius Taurus G. Sallustius Passienus Crispus Preceded by M. Junius Silanus G. Terentius Tullius Geminus Roman consul III 47 with L. Vitellius III Succeeded by A. Vitellius L. Vipstanus Poplicola Messalla Preceded by Camerinus Antistius Vetus M. Suillius Nerullinus Roman consul IV 51 with Ser. Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus Succeeded by Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix L. 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en-wikipedia-org-336	----	Malay Peninsula - Wikipedia Malay Peninsula From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Peninsula in Southeast Asia Malay Peninsula Photo of Malay Peninsula taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on board the International Space Station. Location of the Malay Peninsula. Geography Location Southeast Asia Coordinates 7°00′N 100°00′E / 7.000°N 100.000°E / 7.000; 100.000Coordinates: 7°00′N 100°00′E / 7.000°N 100.000°E / 7.000; 100.000 Area 242,363.8 km2 (93,577.2 sq mi) Administration Thailand Myanmar Malaysia Singapore The Malay Peninsula (Malay: Semenanjung Tanah Melayu) is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north–south and, at its terminus, is the southernmost point of the Asian mainland. The area contains Peninsular Malaysia, Southern Thailand, and the southernmost tip of Myanmar (Kawthaung), as well as the city-state of Singapore, historically inhabited by the Malays, an Austronesian people. The Titiwangsa Mountains are part of the Tenasserim Hills system and constitute the backbone of the peninsula. They form the southernmost section of the central cordillera, which runs from Tibet through the Kra Isthmus (the peninsula's narrowest point) into the Malay Peninsula.[1] The Strait of Malacca separates the Malay Peninsula from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, while the south coast is separated from the island of Singapore by the Straits of Johor. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ecology 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Etymology[edit] The Malay term Tanah Melayu is derived from the word Tanah (land) and Melayu (Malays), thus it means "the Malay land". The term can be found in various Malay texts, of which the oldest dating back to the early 17th century.[2] It is frequently mentioned in the Hikayat Hang Tuah, a well-known classic tale associated with the legendary heroes of Malacca Sultanate. Tanah Melayu in the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Malaccan dominance.[3] In the early 16th century, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary who stayed in Malaca from 1512 to 1515, uses an almost identical term, Terra de Tana Malaio, with which he referred to the southeastern part of Sumatra, where the deposed Sultan of Malacca, Mahmud Shah, established his exiled government. The 17th century's account of Portuguese historian, Emanuel Godinho de Erédia, noted on the region of Malaios surrounded by the Andaman Sea in the north, the entire Malacca Strait in the centre, a part of Sunda Strait in the south, and the western part of South China Sea in the east.[4] Prior to the foundation of Malacca, ancient and medieval references to a Malay peninsula exist in various foreign sources. According to several Indian scholars, the word Malayadvipa ("mountain-insular continent"), mentioned in the ancient Indian text, Vayu Purana, may possibly refer to the Malay Peninsula.[5][6][7] Another Indian source, an inscription on the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, recorded the word Malaiur, referring to a kingdom in the Malay Peninsula that had "a strong mountain for its rampart".[8][9] Ptolemy's Geographia named a geographical region of the Golden Chersonese as Maleu-kolon, a term thought to derive from Sanskrit malayakolam or malaikurram.[10] While the Chinese chronicle of the Yuan dynasty mentioned the word Ma-li-yu-er, referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that was threatened by the southward expansion of the Sukhothai Kingdom under King Ram Khamhaeng.[11][12] During the same era, Marco Polo made a reference to Malauir in his travelogue, as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, possibly similar to the one mentioned in the Yuan chronicle.[13][14] The Malay Peninsula was conflated with Persia in old Japan, and was known by the same name.[15] In the early 20th century, the term Tanah Melayu was generally used by the Malays of the peninsula during the rise of Malay nationalism to describe uniting all Malay states on the peninsula under one Malay nation, although this ambition was largely realised with the formation of Persekutuan Tanah Melayu (Malay for "Federation of Malaya") in 1948.[16] Ecology[edit] The Malay Peninsula is covered with tropical moist forests. Lowland forests are dominated by dipterocarp trees, while montane forests are home to evergreen trees in the beech family (Fagaceae), Myrtle family (Myrtaceae), laurel family (Lauraceae), tropical conifers, and other plant families. The peninsula's forests are home to thousands of species of animals and plants. Several large endangered mammals inhabit the peninsula – Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), tiger (Panthera tigris), sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), and siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus).[17] The Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) once inhabited the forests, but Malaysia's last rhinoceroses died in 2019, and the species' few remaining members survive only in Sumatra.[18] The peninsula is home to several distinct ecoregions. The Tenasserim-South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests cover the northern peninsula, including the Tenasserim Hills and the Isthmus of Kra, and extend to the coast on both sides of the isthmus. The Kangar-Pattani floristic boundary crosses the peninsula in southern Thailand and northernmost Malaysia, marking the boundary between the large biogeographic regions of Indochina to the north and Sundaland and Malesia to the south. The forests north of the boundary are characterized by seasonally-deciduous trees, while the Sundaland forests have more year-round rainfall and the trees are mostly evergreen. Peninsular Malaysia is home to three terrestrial ecoregions. The Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests ecoregion covers the mountains above 1000 meters elevation. The lowlands and hills are in the Peninsular Malaysian rain forests ecoregion. The Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests include distinctive waterlogged forests in the lowlands on both sides of the peninsula.[19] Extensive mangroves line both coasts. The Myanmar Coast mangroves are on the western shore of the peninsula, and the Indochina mangroves on the eastern shore. See also[edit] Malay Archipelago Malaya (disambiguation) Tenasserim Hills Malaysia–Thailand border References[edit] ^ The Physical Geography of Southeast Asia, Avijit Gupta ^ Mohamed An war Omar Din (2012). "Legitimacy of the Malays as the Sons of the Soil". Asian Social Science. Canadian Center of Science and Education: 80–81. ISSN 1911-2025. ^ Reid, Anthony (2010). Imperial alchemy : nationalism and political identity in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-521-87237-9. ^ Mohamed Anwar Omar Din (2011). "Asal Usul Orang Melayu: Menulis Semula Sejarahnya (The Malay Origin: Rewrite Its History)". Jurnal Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. pp. 28–30. Retrieved 4 June 2012. ^ Pande, Govind Chandra (2005). India's Interaction with Southeast Asia: History of Science,Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 1, Part 3. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 266. ISBN 978-81-87586-24-1. ^ Mukerjee, Radhakamal (1984). The culture and art of India. Coronet Books Inc. p. 212. ISBN 978-81-215-0114-9. ^ Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan (1970). Some contributions of India to the ancient civilisation of Indonesia and Malaysia. Calcutta: Punthi Pustak. p. 8. ASIN B000PFNF5C. ^ Langer, William Leonard (1973). An Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged. Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-395-13592-1. ^ Kotha, Satchidananda Murthy; S., Sankaranarayanan (2002). Life, thought, and culture in India, c. AD 300-1000. Centre for Studies in Civilizations. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-87586-09-8. ^ Gerini, Gerolamo Emilio (1974). Researches on Ptolemy's geography of eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. p. 101. ISBN 81-7069-036-6. ^ Guoxue (2003). "Chronicle of Mongol Yuan". ^ Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981). History of South East Asia. Macmillan. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-333-24163-9. ^ Cordier, Henri (2009). Ser Marco Polo; notes and addenda to Sir Henry Yule's edition, containing the results of recent research and discovery. Bibliolife. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-110-77685-6. ^ Wright, Thomas (2004). The travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian: the translation of Marsden revised, with a selection of his notes. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. pp. 364–365. ISBN 978-1-4191-8573-1. ^ Ziro Uraki, Utsuho Monogatari footnotes, p. 2 ^ Bunnell, Tim (2004). "From nation to networks and back again: Transnationalism, class and national identity in Malaysia". State/Nation/Transnation: Perspectives on Transnationalism in the Asia Pacific. Routledge: 1984. ISBN 0-415-30279-X. ^ Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press. ^ Williams, David; Ko, Stella (24 November 2019). "The last Sumatran rhino in Malaysia has died and there are less than 80 left in the world". CNN. Retrieved 27 November 2019. ^ Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press. External links[edit] Media related to Malay Peninsula at Wikimedia Commons "Malakka" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Other National Archives (US) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malay_Peninsula&oldid=1027849377" Categories: Malay Peninsula Andaman Sea Flora of Malaya Gulf of Thailand Landforms of Malaysia Landforms of Myanmar Landforms of the South China Sea Landforms of Thailand Malaya Malesia Peninsulas of Asia Regions of Asia Regions of Eurasia Southern Thailand Strait of Malacca Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from July 2018 Use dmy dates from July 2018 Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 10:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3370	----	Artabasdos - Wikipedia Artabasdos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor of the Romans Artabasdos Emperor of the Romans Seal of Artabasdos as kouropalates Emperor of the Byzantine Empire Reign June 741 – November 743 Predecessor Constantine V Successor Constantine V Born Unknown Died Unknown Consort Anna Issue Nikephoros Niketas Names Արտավազդ, Artavazd Dynasty Isaurian dynasty Isaurian or Syrian dynasty Chronology Leo III 717–741 with Constantine V as co-emperor, 720–741 Constantine V 741–775 with Leo IV as co-emperor, 751–775 Artabasdos' usurpation 741–743 Leo IV 775–780 with Constantine VI as co-emperor, 776–780 Constantine VI 780–797 under Irene as regent, 780–790, and with her as co-regent, 792–797 Irene as empress regnant 797–802 Succession Preceded by Twenty Years' Anarchy Followed by Nikephorian dynasty Artavasdos or Artabasdos (Greek: Ἀρταύασδος or Ἀρτάβασδος, from Armenian: Արտավազդ, Artavazd, Ardavazt), Latinized as Artabasdus, was a Byzantine general of Armenian descent who seized the throne from June 741 or 742 until November 743. His reign constitutes a usurpation against Constantine V, who had retained control of several themes in Asia Minor. Contents 1 Rise to power 2 Reign and downfall 3 Family 4 See also 5 Bibliography 6 Further reading Rise to power[edit] In about 713, Emperor Anastasius II appointed the Armenian Artabasdos as governor (stratēgos) of the Armeniac theme (Θέμα Άρμενιάκων, Thema Armeniakōn), the successor of the Army of Armenia, which occupied the old areas of the Pontus, Armenia Minor, and northern Cappadocia, with its capital at Amasea. After Anastasius' fall, Artabasdos made an agreement with his colleague Leo, the governor of the Anatolic theme, to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III. This agreement was sealed with the engagement of Leo's daughter Anna to Artabasdos, and the marriage took place after Leo III ascended the throne in March 717. Artabasdos was awarded the rank of kouropalates ("master of the palace") and became commander (count, komēs) of the Opsikion theme, while retaining control of his original command. In June 741 or 742, after the accession of Leo's son Constantine V to the throne, Artabasdos resolved to seize the throne and attacked his brother-in-law while the latter was traversing Asia Minor to fight the Arabs on the eastern frontier. While Constantine fled to Amorion, Artabasdus seized Constantinople amid popular support and was crowned emperor. Reign and downfall[edit] While it seems Artabasdos abandoned his predecessor's religious policy of Iconoclasm and restored Orthodoxy with some support, there is actually little support from contemporary sources.[1] Soon after his accession, Artabasdus crowned his wife Anna as Augusta and his son Nikephoros as co-emperor, while putting his other son Niketas in charge of the Armeniac theme. But while Artabasdus could rely also on the support of the themes of Thrace and Opsikion, Constantine secured for himself the support of the Anatolic and Thracesian themes. The inevitable clash came in May 743, when Artabasdus led the offensive against Constantine but was defeated. Later the same year Constantine defeated Niketas, and on November 2, 743 Artabasdus' reign came to an end as Constantine V entered Constantinople. Artabasdus, accompanied by his close associate Baktangios fled to the castle of Pouzanes in Opsikion (Asia Minor), where they were apprehended and brought to Constantinople. Artabasdos and his sons were publicly blinded and relegated to the monastery of Chora on the outskirts of Constantinople.[2] The date of his death is unknown. Family[edit] By his wife Anna, the daughter of Emperor Leo III, Artabasdos had nine children, including: Nikephoros, who was co-emperor from 742 to 743. Niketas, who was strategos of the Armeniac theme from 742 to 743. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Bibliography[edit] Notes ^ Brubaker, Haldon, Leslie, John (2011). Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 1107626293. ^ Garland 2006, p. 9 References Garland, Lynda (2006). Byzantine women: varieties of experience 800–1200 (2006 ed.). Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-5737-X. - Total pages: 226 Further reading[edit] Evangelos Venetis "Artabasdos (Byzantium)". Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor. 31 July 2003. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2010-04-27. Artabasdos Isaurian Dynasty Born: unknown Died: 743 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine V Byzantine Emperor 741/2–743 Succeeded by Constantine V v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artabasdos&oldid=994467298" Categories: Isaurian dynasty 743 deaths 8th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine Iconoclasm Byzantine people of Armenian descent Armenian Byzantine emperors Eastern Orthodox monks 8th-century Armenian people Governors of the Armeniac Theme Leo III the Isaurian Kouropalatai Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 21:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3385	----	Constantine Doukas (co-emperor) - Wikipedia Constantine Doukas (co-emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor For other people with the same name, see Constantine Doukas (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine Doukas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Engraving of Constantine Doukas from the Holy Crown of Hungary Byzantine emperor Reign 1074–1078 Predecessor Michael VII Successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates Co-emperors Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071) Nikephoros Diogenes (1070–1071) Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078) Konstantios Doukas (1071–1078) Andronikos Doukas (1068–1070s) Reign 1081–1087 Predecessor Nikephoros III Botaneiates Successor Alexios I Komnenos Born Late 1074 Died c. 1095 Dynasty Doukas Father Michael VII Mother Maria of Alania Constantine Doukas or Ducas (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας, Kōnstantinos Doukas), (late 1074 – c. 1095) was Byzantine junior emperor from 1074 to 1078, and again from 1081 to 1087. He was born to Emperor Michael VII and Empress Maria of Alania in late 1074, and elevated to junior emperor in the same year. He was junior emperor until 1078, when Michael VII was replaced by Nikephoros III Botaneiates. Because Constantine was not made junior emperor under Nikephoros III, his betrothal to Olympias, the daughter of Robert Guiscard, was broken, which Robert Guiscard used as a pretext to invade the Byzantine Empire. John Doukas forced Nikephoros to abdicate to Alexios I Komnenos in 1081, and shortly after Alexios elevated Constantine to junior emperor under himself. Constantine remained junior emperor until 1087, when Alexios had a son, John II Komnenos. Constantine died in c. 1095. Contents 1 Life 2 In media 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography Life[edit] Constantine Doukas was born in late 1074 to Byzantine Emperor Michael VII and his wife Maria of Alania, as a porphyrogennetos, meaning he was born during his father's reign.[1][2] Constantine was elevated to junior emperor in 1074 by Michael VII. Shortly after his birth, in August 1074, Constantine was betrothed to Olympias, the daughter of Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Sicily. This arrangement was cancelled after Michael abdicated in 1078, whereupon Maria and Constantine retired to the Monastery of Petrion.[3][4] Maria married Nikephoros III Botaneiates, who seized power after Michael's abdication, at the urging of Michael's uncle John Doukas, but was unable to convince him to elevate Constantine to junior emperor, thereby breaking the betrothal.[5][6][7] Robert Guiscard therefore launched an invasion of the Byzantine Empire, using the broken betrothal as a pretext.[8] In order to combat this invasion, Alexios I Komnenos was given a large force to repel the Norman army led by Guiscard. John Doukas, who had previously urged Nikephoros to seize power, conspired against Nikephoros, intending to overthrow him and replace him with Alexios.[9] Nikephoros, unable to form an alliance with either the Seljuks or Nikephoros Melissenos, was forced to abdicate to Alexios in 1081.[10] After Alexios ascended the throne in 1081, he elevated Constantine to junior emperor,[11] and betrothed his daughter Anna Komnene to him in 1083, shortly after her birth.[12] However, he was replaced as junior emperor and imperial heir by John II Komnenos, in 1087, shortly after his birth to Alexios and Irene Doukaina.[11] Constantine died in c. 1095.[13] In media[edit] Constantine Doukas is thought to be engraved on the Holy Crown of Hungary, which was given to Hungarian King Géza I of Hungary by Constantine's father Michael VII, depicted alongside King Geza I and Michael VII;[14] although the figure may actually be Konstantios Doukas.[15] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constantine Doukas. Citations[edit] ^ Hill 2014, p. 218. ^ ODB, "Doukas, Constantine" (C. M. Brand), pp. 657–658. ^ Hill 2014, p. 33. ^ Buckley 2014, p. 68. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 57. ^ Norwich 1996, p. 3. ^ Neville 2012, p. 53. ^ Norwich 1996, p. 15. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 60. ^ ODB, "Nikephoros III Botaneiates" (C. M. Brand, A. Cutler), p. 1479. ^ a b Buckley 2014, p. 30. ^ Hill 2014, p. 219. ^ Classen 2013, p. 271. ^ Pevny 2000, p. 100. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 262. Bibliography[edit] Buckley, Penelope (2014). The Alexiad of Anna Komnene: Artistic Strategy In The Making Of A Myth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107037229. Classen, Albrecht (2013). East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World. De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110321517. Finlay, George (1844), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453, 2, William Blackwood & Sons, OCLC 25020128 Hill, Barbara (2014). Imperial Women in Byzantium 1025-1204: Power, Patronage and Ideology. Routledge. ISBN 9781317884668. Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190253233. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Neville, Leonora (2012). Heroes and Romans in Twelfth-Century Byzantium: the Material for the History of Nikephoros Bryennios. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107009455. Norwich, John Julius (1996), Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011449-1 Pevny, Olenka Z. (2000). Perceptions of Byzantium and Its Neighbors: 843-1261 : the Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870999710. Constantine Doukas (co-emperor) Doukid dynasty Born: 1074 Died: 1095 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael VII Doukas Byzantine emperor 1074–1078 with Michael VII Doukas 1071–1078 Succeeded by Nikephoros III Preceded by Nikephoros III Byzantine emperor 1081–1088 with Alexios I Komnenos 1081–1118 Succeeded by Alexios I Komnenos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)&oldid=1027189937" Categories: 1070s births 1090s deaths 11th-century Byzantine emperors Doukid dynasty Porphyrogennetoi Byzantine junior emperors Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Commons link is locally defined Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français 한국어 Italiano Македонски مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3386	----	Tiber - Wikipedia Tiber From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Major river in central Italy This article is about the Italian river. For other uses, see Tiber (disambiguation). Tiber The Tiber in Rome Native name Tevere  (Italian) Location Country Italy Physical characteristics Source    • location Mount Fumaiolo  • elevation 1,268 m (4,160 ft) Mouth    • location Tyrrhenian Sea Length 406 km (252 mi) Basin size 17,375 km2 (6,709 sq mi) Discharge    • average 239 m3/s (8,400 cu ft/s)[citation needed] (in Rome) View of the Tiber looking towards Vatican City Rome flood marker, 1598, set into a pillar of the Santo Spirito Hospital near Basilica di San Pietro Highest level of Tiber for 40+ years, 13 December 2008, at Tiber Island The Tiber (/ˈtaɪbər/; Latin: Tiberis;[1] Italian: Tevere [ˈteːvere])[2] is the third-longest river in Italy and the longest in Central Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing 406 kilometres (252 mi) through Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio, where it is joined by the river Aniene, to the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Ostia and Fiumicino.[3] It drains a basin estimated at 17,375 square kilometres (6,709 sq mi). The river has achieved lasting fame as the main watercourse of the city of Rome, which was founded on its eastern banks. The river rises at Mount Fumaiolo in central Italy and flows in a generally southerly direction past Perugia and Rome to meet the sea at Ostia. Known in ancient times (in Latin) as flavus ("the blond"), in reference to the yellowish colour of its water, the Tiber has advanced significantly at its mouth, by about 3 kilometres (2 miles), since Roman times, leaving the ancient port of Ostia Antica 6 kilometres (4 miles) inland.[4][5] However, it does not form a proportional delta, owing to a strong north-flowing sea current close to the shore, to the steep shelving of the coast, and to slow tectonic subsidence. Contents 1 Sources 2 Etymology 3 History 4 Bridges 5 Representations 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Sources[edit] Column built by Mussolini near the source of Tiber The source of the Tiber consists of two springs 10 metres (33 ft) away from each other on Mount Fumaiolo. These springs are called "Le Vene".[6] The springs are in a beech forest 1,268 metres (4,160 ft) above sea level. During the 1930s, Benito Mussolini had an antique marble Roman column built at the point where the river rises, inscribed QUI NASCE IL FIUME SACRO AI DESTINI DI ROMA ("Here is born the river / sacred to the destinies of Rome"). There is an eagle on the top of the column, part of its fascist symbolism. The first miles of the Tiber run through Valtiberina before entering Umbria.[7] Etymology[edit] It is probable that the genesis of the name Tiber was pre-Latin, like the Roman name of Tibur (modern Tivoli), and may be specifically Italic in origin. The same root is found in the Latin praenomen Tiberius. There are also Etruscan variants of this praenomen in Thefarie (borrowed from Faliscan *Tiferios, lit. '(He) from the Tiber' < *Tiferis 'Tiber') and Teperie (via the Latin hydronym Tiber).[8][9] The legendary king Tiberinus, ninth in the king-list of Alba Longa, was said to have drowned in the river Albula, which was afterward called Tiberis.[8] The myth may have explained a memory of an earlier, perhaps pre-Indo-European name for the river, "white" (alba) with sediment, or "from the mountains" from pre-Indo-European word "alba, albion" mount, elevated area.[10] Tiberis/Tifernus may be a pre-Indo-European substrate word related to Aegean tifos "still water", Greek phytonym τύφη a kind of swamp and river bank weed (Typha angustifolia), Iberian hydronyms Tibilis, Tebro and Numidian Aquae Tibilitanae.[11] Yet another etymology is from *dubri-, water, considered by Alessio as Sicel, whence the form Θύβρις later Tiberis. This root *dubri- is widespread in Western Europe e.g. Dover, Portus Dubris.[12] History[edit] According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC on the banks of the Tiber about 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the sea at Ostia. Tiber Island, in the center of the river between Trastevere and the ancient city center, was the site of an important ancient ford and was later bridged. Legend says Rome's founders, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, were abandoned on its waters, where they were rescued by the she-wolf, Lupa.[13] The river marked the boundary between the lands of the Etruscans to the west, the Sabines to the east and the Latins to the south. Benito Mussolini, born in Romagna, adjusted the boundary between Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna, so that the springs of the Tiber would lie in Romagna. The Tiber was critically important to Roman trade and commerce, as ships could reach as far as 100 kilometres (60 mi) upriver; there is evidence that it was used to ship grain from the Val Teverina as long ago as the 5th century BC.[4] It was later used to ship stone, timber and foodstuffs to Rome. During the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC, the harbour at Ostia became a key naval base. It later became Rome's most important port, where wheat, olive oil, and wine were imported from Rome's colonies around the Mediterranean.[4] Wharves were also built along the riverside in Rome itself, lining the riverbanks around the Campus Martius area. The Romans connected the river with a sewer system (the Cloaca Maxima) and with an underground network of tunnels and other channels, to bring its water into the middle of the city. Wealthy Romans had garden-parks or "horti" on the banks of the river in Rome up through the first century BC.[14] These may have been sold and developed about a century later. The heavy sedimentation of the river made it difficult to maintain Ostia, prompting the emperors Claudius and Trajan to establish a new port on the Fiumicino in the 1st century AD. They built a new road, the via Portuensis, to connect Rome with Fiumicino, leaving the city by Porta Portese ('the port gate'). Both ports were eventually abandoned due to silting. Several popes attempted to improve navigation on the Tiber in the 17th and 18th century, with extensive dredging continuing into the 19th century. Trade was boosted for a while but by the 20th century silting had resulted in the river only being navigable as far as Rome itself.[4] The Tiber was once known for its floods — the Campus Martius is a flood plain and would regularly flood to a depth of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). The river is now confined between high stone embankments which were begun in 1876. Within the city, the riverbanks are lined by boulevards known as lungoteveri, streets "along the Tiber". Because the river is identified with Rome, the terms "swimming the Tiber" or "crossing the Tiber" have come to be the Protestant shorthand term for converting to Roman Catholicism. This is most common if the person who converts had been Anglican, the reverse of which is referred to as "swimming the Thames" or "crossing the Thames". In ancient Rome, executed criminals were thrown into the Tiber. People executed at the Gemonian stairs were thrown in the Tiber during the later part of the reign of the emperor Tiberius. This practice continued over the centuries. For example, the corpse of Pope Formosus was thrown into the Tiber after the infamous Cadaver Synod held in 897. Bridges[edit] Rome Fiumicino airport is also located near the river. In addition to the numerous modern bridges over the Tiber in Rome, there remain a few ancient bridges (now mostly pedestrian-only) that have survived in part (e.g., the Ponte Milvio and the Ponte Sant'Angelo) or in whole (Fabricius' Bridge). Train going over the river In addition to bridges, there are tunnels which the Metro trains use. Representations[edit] Roman representation of Tiber as a god (Tiberinus) with cornucopia at the Campidoglio, Rome Following the standard Roman depiction of rivers as powerfully built reclining male gods, the Tiber, also interpreted as a god named Tiberinus, is shown with streams of water flowing from his hair and beard.[15] See also[edit] Hollywood on the Tiber References[edit] ^ Richard J. A. Talbert, ed. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World: Map-By-Map Directory. I. Princeton, NJ and Oxford, UK: Princeton University Press. p. 630. ISBN 0691049459. ^ (in Italian) Dizionario d'ortografia e di pronunzia ^ Lazio – Latium | Italy Archived 2009-08-28 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d "Tiber River". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006 ^ "Tiber". World Encyclopedia. Philip's, 2005. ^ "Tiber Springs – Mount Fumaiolo". turismo.fc.it. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2019. ^ "Tuscany tours – the origin of the Tiber River". Farm Holidays Le Ceregne. Archived from the original on 11 May 2010. Retrieved 23 February 2019. ^ a b "Tiber". Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. John Everett-Heath. Oxford University Press 2005. ^ George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897) ^ Cf. e.g. G. Alessio "Studi storico-linguisitci messapici" in Archivio Storico Pugliese p. 304; "Sul nome di Brindisi" in Archivio Storico Puglese VIII 1955 p. 211 f.; "Apulia et Calabria nel quadro della toponomastica mediterranea" in Atti del VII Congresso Internazionale di Studi Onomastici Firenze 1962 p. 85. ^ G. Simonetta "La stratificazione linguistica dell' Agro Falisco" p. 6 citing G. Alessio. ^ G. Alessio "Problemi storico-linguistici messapici" in Studi Salentini12 1962 p. 304. ^ Moore, Malcolm (21 November 2007). "The legend of Romulus and Remus". Telegrpah. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 23 February 2019. ^ Horti:LacusCurtius • Gardens of Ancient Rome (Platner & Ashby, 1929) ^ Tiber. Bloomsbury Dictionary of Myth (1996) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tiber. 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en-wikipedia-org-3392	----	Diogenes of Babylon - Wikipedia Diogenes of Babylon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Epicurean philosopher, also from Seleucia, see Diogenes of Seleucia. Diogenes of Babylon (also known as Diogenes of Seleucia; Greek: Διογένης Βαβυλώνιος; Latin: Diogenes Babylonius; c. 230 – c. 150/140 BC[1]) was a Stoic philosopher. He was the head of the Stoic school in Athens, and he was one of three philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC. He wrote many works, but none of his writings survived, except as quotations by later writers. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 2.1 On Music 3 Notes 4 References Life[edit] Born in Seleucia on the Tigris in Babylonia, Diogenes was educated at Athens under the auspices of Chrysippus and succeeded Zeno of Tarsus as head (scholarch) of the Stoic school there in the 2nd century BC. Among his pupils were Panaetius and Antipater of Tarsus who succeeded him as scholarch. He seems to have closely followed the views of Chrysippus, especially on dialectic, in which he is said to have instructed Carneades.[2] Together with Carneades and Critolaus, he was sent to Rome to appeal a fine of five hundred talents imposed on Athens in 155 BC for the sack of Oropus. They delivered their epideictic speeches first in numerous private assemblies, then in the Senate. Diogenes pleased his audience chiefly by his sober and temperate mode of speaking.[3] Cicero speaks of him as deceased by 150 BC,[4] and since Lucian claims that he died at the age of 80,[5] he must have been born around 230 BC. There is some evidence, however, that he may have lived to around 140 BC.[6] Works[edit] Cicero calls Diogenes "a great and important Stoic".[7] In the works of the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus found in carbonized papyrus rolls recovered from the ruins of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, Diogenes is discussed more frequently than any philosopher besides Epicurus himself.[8] He was the author of several works, of which, however, little more than the titles is known: Διαλεκτικὴ τέχνη – Dialectic Art.[9] On Divination.[10] On Athena.[11] Περὶ τοῦ τῆς ψυχῆς ἡγεμονικοῦ – On the Ruling Faculty of the Soul.[12] Περὶ φωνῆς – On Speaking.[13] Περὶ εὐγενείας – Οn Noble Βirth.[14] Περὶ νόμων – On Laws.[15] In addition, it appears from Philodemus that he wrote extensive works On Music and On Rhetoric.[16] Some aspects of his views on these two subjects are recoverable from the critical remarks to be found in Philodemus' works on these two subjects.[16] There are several passages in Cicero from which we may infer that Diogenes wrote on other subjects also, such as duty, the highest good, and the like.[17] On Music[edit] The opinions of Diogenes on music are known through the fragmentary treatise by Philodemus, On Music, which discusses the views of Diogenes.[18] According to Philodemus, Diogenes held that music not only can calm the emotions, but that listening to music can produce harmony and proportion in the soul.[18] Diogenes believed that just as diet and exercise can produce a healthy body, so that music can bring health to the mind and can treat psychological illnesses.[18] Music naturally pushes one to action.[19] Diogenes uses the example of the trumpet, or similar military instrument, which can stir the soldier to bravery.[19] Music is thus an art which leads to virtue.[19] Notes[edit] ^ Dorandi 1999, pp. 50–51. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 30; De Oratore, ii. 38 ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, vii. 14; Cicero, Academica, ii. 45 ^ Cicero, De Senectute, 23 ^ Lucian, Macrobii, 20 ^ "[the traditional] chronology clashes with the dates for Mnesarchus and Dardanus and with the crucial events in the life of Antiochus of Ascalon. The date of Diogenes' death can reasonably be put forward at least a decade, to around 140" (Dorandi 1999, p. 41) ^ Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 12 ^ Obbink 2004, pp. 73–84. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 51. ^ De divinatione: Latin title given in Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 3, ii. 43 ^ De Minerva: Latin title given in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 15 ^ Galen.[full citation needed] ^ Laërtius 1925, § 55. ^ Athenaeus, iv. 168 ^ In several books, the first of which is quoted in Athenaeus, xii.; cf. Cicero, De Legibus iii. 5, where "Dio" is a false reading for "Diogenes" ^ a b Easterling & Knox 1989, pp. 195–196. ^ Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 12, 13, 23; De Finibus, iii. 10, 15 ^ a b c Scade 2017, p. 201 ^ a b c Delattre 2004, p. 254 References[edit] Delattre, Daniel (2004), "Vergil and Music, in Diogenes of Babylon and Philodemus", in Armstrong, David; Fish, Jeffrey; Johnston, Patricia A.; Skinner, Marilyn B. (eds.), Vergil, Philodemus, and the Augustans, University of Texas Press, p. 247, ISBN 0-292-70181-0 Dorandi, Tiziano (1999). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41, 50–51. ISBN 9780521250283. Easterling, P. E.; Knox, Bernard (1989). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Part 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 195–196.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 51, 55. Obbink, D. (2004). "Craft, Cult, and Canon in the Books from Herculaneum". Philodemus and the New Testament World. Leiden: Brill. pp. 73–84. Scade, Paul (2017), "Music and the Soul in Stoicism", in Seaford, Richard; Wilkins, John; Wright, Matthew (eds.), Selfhood and the Soul, Oxford University Press, p. 201, ISBN 978-0-19-877725-0 Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Schmitz, Leonhard (1870). "Diogenes (3. Surnamed the Babylonian)". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 1020. 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en-wikipedia-org-3404	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NSK identifiers.The NSK identifier appears as Croatia in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P1375. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-3439	----	Frieze - Wikipedia Frieze From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wide central section part of an entablature For other uses, see Frieze (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Frieze" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Doric frieze at the Temple of Hephaestus, Athens (449–415 BCE). The Circus (Bath), UK. Architectural detail of the frieze showing the alternating triglyphs and metope. (John Wood, the Elder, architect) Frieze of animals, mythological episodes at the base of Hoysaleswara temple, India The frieze lining the roof of Yankee Stadium In architecture, the frieze /friːz/ is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Paterae are also usually used to decorate friezes. Even when neither columns nor pilasters are expressed, on an astylar wall it lies upon the architrave ("main beam") and is capped by the moldings of the cornice. A frieze can be found on many Greek and Roman buildings, the Parthenon Frieze being the most famous, and perhaps the most elaborate. This style is typical for the Persians. In interiors, the frieze of a room is the section of wall above the picture rail and under the crown moldings or cornice. By extension, a frieze is a long stretch of painted, sculpted or even calligraphic decoration in such a position, normally above eye-level. Frieze decorations may depict scenes in a sequence of discrete panels. The material of which the frieze is made of may be plasterwork, carved wood or other decorative medium.[1] In an example of an architectural frieze on the façade of a building, the octagonal Tower of the Winds in the Roman agora at Athens bears relief sculptures of the eight winds on its frieze. A pulvinated frieze (or pulvino) is convex in section. Such friezes were features of 17th-century Northern Mannerism, especially in subsidiary friezes, and much employed in interior architecture and in furniture. The concept of a frieze has been generalized in the mathematical construction of frieze patterns. Contents 1 Achaemenid friezes 2 Greek friezes 3 Indian friezes 4 References 5 External links Achaemenid friezes[edit] Achaemenid frieze designs at Persepolis. Greek friezes[edit] Ionic frieze of the Erechtheum (Athens), 421–406 BCE Top: Kyanos frieze from Tiryns. Bottom: Frieze of the Erechtheion in (Athens), 4th BCE Frieze from Delphi incorporating lotuses with multiple calyxes Indian friezes[edit] Frieze of the lost capital of the Allahabad pillar, with two lotuses framing a "flame palmette" surrounded by small rosette flowers, 3rd BCE Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes" framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers, 3rd BCE Frieze of the Sankissa elephant, 3rd BCE References[edit] ^ "Parthenon Frieze". www.mcah.columbia.edu. Retrieved May 7, 2017. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Friezes. "Frieze" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Latvia Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frieze&oldid=1010293714" Categories: Friezes Columns and entablature Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from June 2021 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Limburgs Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 March 2021, at 19:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3451	----	Probus (emperor) - Wikipedia Probus (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 276 to 282 Roman emperor Probus Over-life-sized marble bust in the Capitoline Museums, Rome[1][2] Roman emperor Reign c. June 276 – September 282[3] Predecessor Tacitus and Florianus Successor Carus Born 19 August 232[4] Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died September 282 (aged 50)[4] Sirmium Issue Had descendants[4] Names Marcus Aurelius Probus Father Dalmatius[5] Marcus Aurelius Probus (/ˈproʊbəs/; 19 August 232 – September 282) was Roman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated invasions of barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.[6] After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts, but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible.[7] In his reign the facade of the constitutional authority of the Roman Senate was fastidiously maintained, and the conqueror, who had carried his army to victory over the Rhine, professed himself dependent on the sanction of the Senate.[8] Upon defeating the Germans, Probus re-erected the ancient fortifications of emperor Hadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the Agri Decumates,[9] and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers.[10] Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor Carus.[11] Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 3 As emperor 3.1 Assassination 4 Legacy 5 Family tree 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links Early life[edit] Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior,[12] the son of Dalmatius.[5] According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.[13] Military career[edit] Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very young age, in recognition of his latent ability,[citation needed] he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian frontier.[14] During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks, Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east by Shapur I.[15] Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier.[16] Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.[17][18] As emperor[edit] Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia.[19][20] In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions.[21] Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of Gothicus.[12] However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.[22] Antoninianus of Probus minted in 280. Depicts the solar divinity Sol Invictus riding a quadriga. Probus issued many different coins during his six years of rule.Legend: PROBVS P. F. AVG. Gilded bronze head of Probus from Brescia in northern Italy[23] In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory.[24] Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus.[12] Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.[25] After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.[26] The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.[27] One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts,[28] in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.{"120-Interregnum," The History of Rome} In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals.[20] In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.[29][30] In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus.[31] The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain).[32] Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282.[33][34] During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.[34] Radiate of Probus. Legend: IMPerator Caesar Marcus AVrelius PROBVS Pius Felix AVGustus. Gold coin of Probus in military armour. Legend: IMP. PROBVS AVG. Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west.[35] He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city. Assassination[edit] Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.[36] Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282).[37] According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.[38] Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army.[39] Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.[40] Legacy[edit] According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the Augustan History), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome.[41] While his successor Carus (Imp. 282-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.[42] Family tree[edit] previous Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 ∞ Ulpia Severina Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman Emperor 275-276 Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276-282 Carus Roman Emperor 282-283 next Diocletian Roman Emperor 284-305 ∞ Prisca Carinus Roman Emperor 282-284 Galeria Valeria References[edit] ^ Wood, p. 128 (note 70). ^ Fittschen & Zanker. ^ Peachin, p. 47. ^ a b c Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 736. ^ a b Victor, 37:1 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII. p. 284 ^ Gibbon, pp. 289, 290 ^ Gibbon, p. 283 ^ Gibbon, p. 287 ^ Gibbon, p. 288 ^ Gibbon, p. 292 ^ a b c "Roman Emperors - DIR probus". roman-emperors.org. ^ Gibbon, p. 282, note ^ Gibbon, p. 282 ^ Gibbon, ch. X., pp. 226, 227 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 6–7 ^ Gibbon, p. 282 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 10:1 ^ Gibbon, p. 281 ^ a b Zosimus, 1:32 ^ Gibbon, p. 283 ^ Gibbon, p. 284 ^ McCann, p. 90 n. 34. ^ Southern, pg. 129 ^ Gibbon, p. 286 ^ Gibbon, pp. 286-288 ^ Gibbon, p. 291 ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 408. ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 9:3–4 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Victor, 37:2 ^ "Roman Emperors - DIR probus". roman-emperors.org. ^ Crees, James (1911). The reign of the Emperor Probus. University of London Press. p. 122. ^ a b Kreucher, Gerald (2003). Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 164. ISBN 3515083820. ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 20:1 ^ Zonaras, 12:29 ^ Victor, 37:4 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 20:2-3 ^ Gibbon, p. 292 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Cari, 6:1 ^ Gibbon, p. 293 ^ Gibbon, p. 282 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Probus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", DIR Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 The Celator November, 1995. Fittschen, Klaus & Zanker, Paul (1985). Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom. 1. Kaiser-und Prinzenbildnisse [Catalogue of Roman Portraits in the Capitoline Museums and other Municipal Museums of the City of Rome] (in German). Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-0596-6. Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. McCann, Anna Marguerite (1968). The Portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211). Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 30. American Academy in Rome, University of Michigan Press. pp. 4–222. doi:10.2307/4238661. ISSN 0065-6801. JSTOR 4238661. Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Wood, Susan (1987). "Child-Emperors and Heirs to Power in Third-Century Portraiture". In Jiří Frel; Arthur Houghton & Marion True (eds.). Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum: Volume 1. Occasional Papers on Antiquities. 4. Malibu, CA, US: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 115–136. ISBN 0-89236-071-2. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Probus, Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 408. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Probus. Hoeber, Karl (1911). "Marcus Aurelius Probus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. Probus, article at NumisWiki Regnal titles Preceded by Florianus Roman emperor 276–282 Succeeded by Carus Political offices Preceded by M. Claudius Tacitus Aemilianus Roman consul 277–279 with Paulinus, Virius Lupus, Nonnius Paternus Succeeded by Messalla Gratus Preceded by Messalla Gratus Roman consul 281–282 with Junius Tiberianus, Victorinus Succeeded by Carus Carinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Probus_(emperor)&oldid=1026086589" Categories: 232 births 282 deaths 3rd-century murdered monarchs 3rd-century Roman emperors Aurelii Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Gothicus Maximus Imperial Roman consuls Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard People from Sirmium Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 08:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3454	----	Gaius Julius Bassus (consul 139) - Wikipedia Gaius Julius Bassus (consul 139) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator and consul Gaius Julius Bassus was a Roman senator, who was active during the reign of Antoninus Pius. He was suffect consul in the nundinium of November-December 139 as the colleague of Marcus Ceccius Justinus.[1] He was the son of Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, consul in 105.[2] The Julii Bassi were a prominent family of Pergamum, that had descended from the Attalid dynasty and Galatian tetrarchs.[3] Julius Bassus may be identical with one Bassus who was active in the second century; Lucan describes him as an effeminate sophist; the Palatine Anthology preserves a poem by one "Bassus of Smyrna", who need not have been born in that city; Galen dedicated his De libris propriis to one Bassus.[4] Knowledge of the career of Julius Bassus is limited to one appointment, as governor of the imperial province of Dacia Superior; Werner Eck dates his tenure from late 135 (an inscription attests to his governorship on 13 December 135) to 138.[5] References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 72 ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), pp. 318, 323 ^ Edward Dabrowa, Legio X Fretensis: A Prosopographical Study of its Officers (I-III c. A.D.) (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1993), p. 34 ^ G.W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969) p. 25 ^ Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 13 (1983), pp. 176-183 Political offices Preceded by ignotus, and Gaius Julius Scapula as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 139 with Marcus Ceccius Justinus Succeeded by Antoninus Pius III, and Marcus Aurelius as ordinary consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Julius_Bassus_(consul_139)&oldid=1014661678" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Dacia Julii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Español Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2021, at 11:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3461	----	List of schools of philosophy - Wikipedia List of schools of philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Contents 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 E 6 F 7 G 8 H 9 I 10 J 11 K 12 L 13 M 14 N 15 O 16 P 17 Q 18 R 19 S 20 T 21 U 22 V 23 Y A[edit] Absurdism Academic skepticism Achintya Bheda Abheda Advaita Vedanta Agnosticism Ajātivāda Ājīvika Ajñana Alexandrian school Analytic philosophy Analytical Thomism Anarchist schools of thought Antipositivism Antireductionism Aristotelianism Atheism Atomism Augustinianism Australian realism Averroism Avicennism B[edit] Brahmoism British idealism Budapest School Buddhism C[edit] Cambridge Platonists Carolingian Renaissance Cartesianism Charvaka Christian humanism Christian philosophy Classical Marxism Collegium Conimbricense Communitarianism Confucianism Continental philosophy Critical realism (philosophy of perception) Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences) Cynicism Cyrenaics D[edit] Deconstruction Deism Deontological ethics Dialectical materialism Dvaita Vedanta Dvaitadvaita E[edit] Egoism Eleatics Eliminativism Emanationism Emergentism Empiricism Epicureanism Eretrian school Essentialism Existentialism Externism F[edit] Feminist philosophy Fictionalism Frankfurt School G[edit] Gaudiya Vaishnavism German idealism H[edit] Haskalah Hedonism Historicism Huang–Lao Holism Humanism I[edit] Idealism Illuminationism Innatism Intellectualism Intuitionism Ionian School Islamic philosophy J[edit] Jainism K[edit] Kantianism Kyoto School L[edit] Legal positivism Legal realism Legalism (Chinese philosophy) Liberalism Libertarianism Libertinism Lwów–Warsaw school M[edit] Madhyamaka Marburg School Marxist humanism Marxism Marxism-Leninism Materialism Megarian school Mohism Molinism N[edit] Naturalism Neohumanism Neo-Kantianism Neo-Marxism Neoplatonism Neopositivism Neopragmatism Neopythagoreanism Neo-Scholasticism Neostoicism Neo Vedanta Nichiren Buddhism Nihilism Nominalism Nyaya School O[edit] Objectivism Occamism Oxford Calculators Oxford Franciscan school P[edit] Perennial philosophy Peripatetic school Personalism Phenomenology Physicalism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Platonism Pluralist school Port-Royal schools Positivism Postmodernism Pragmatism Praxis school Pre-Socratic philosophy Process philosophy Pyrrhonism Pythagoreanism Post-structuralism Q[edit] Quietism R[edit] Radical behaviorism Rationalism Realism Reductionism Reformational philosophy Romanticism Russian cosmism S[edit] Sarvastivada Satanism Sautrantika Scholasticism School of Names School of Salamanca School of the Sextii Scotism Scottish common sense realism Secularism Shuddhadvaita Shaykhism Skepticism Social liberalism Solipsism Sophists Speculative realism Stoicism Structuralism Sufi philosophy T[edit] Taoism Theism Theosophy Thomism Traditionalist School Transcendental idealism Transcendentalism (New England) Transhumanism U[edit] Utilitarianism Utopian socialism V[edit] Vaibhashika Vedanta Vienna Circle Virtue ethics Vishishtadvaita Vitalism Voluntarism Voluntaryism Vivartavada Y[edit] Yogachara Young Hegelians Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_schools_of_philosophy&oldid=1024705296" Categories: Philosophical schools and traditions Lists related to philosophical movements Philosophical theories Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch فارسی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2021, at 17:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3468	----	File:Socrates.png - Wikipedia File:Socrates.png From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Socrates.png ‎(326 × 500 pixels, file size: 61 KB, MIME type: image/png) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionSocrates.png From http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov Date 29 November 2002 (original upload date) Source Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Author The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia. Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or fewer. 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en-wikipedia-org-3484	----	Zenobia - Wikipedia Zenobia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd-century queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria For other uses, see Zenobia (disambiguation). Augusta Zenobia Augusta Zenobia as empress on the obverse of an antoninianus (272 AD) Empress Tenure 272 AD Predecessor Title created Successor None Queen mother (regent) of Palmyra Tenure 267–272 Predecessor Title created Successor None Queen consort of Palmyra Tenure 260–267 Predecessor Title created Successor None Born Septimia Btzby (Bat-Zabbai) c. 240 Palmyra, Syria Died After 274 Spouse Odaenathus Issue Vaballathus Hairan II Septimius Antiochus Names Septimia Zenobia (Bat-Zabbai) Regnal name Septimia Zenobia Augusta House House of Odaenathus Septimia Zenobia (Palmyrene: Btzby/Bat-Zabbai; c. 240 – c. 274 AD) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner and she married the ruler of the city, Odaenathus. Her husband became king in 260, elevating Palmyra to supreme power in the Near East by defeating the Sassanians and stabilizing the Roman East. After Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became the regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto power throughout his reign. In 270, Zenobia launched an invasion which brought most of the Roman East under her sway and culminated with the annexation of Egypt. By mid-271 her realm extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to southern Egypt, although she remained nominally subordinate to Rome. However, in reaction to the campaign of the Roman emperor Aurelian in 272, Zenobia declared her son emperor and assumed the title of empress (declaring Palmyra's secession from Rome). The Romans were victorious after heavy fighting; the queen was besieged in her capital and captured by Aurelian, who exiled her to Rome, where she spent the remainder of her life. Zenobia was a cultured monarch and fostered an intellectual environment in her court, which was open to scholars and philosophers. She was tolerant toward her subjects and protected religious minorities. The queen maintained a stable administration which governed a multicultural multiethnic empire. Zenobia died after 274, and many tales have been recorded about her fate. Her rise and fall have inspired historians, artists and novelists, and she is a patriotic symbol in Syria. Contents 1 Name, appearance and sources 2 Origin, family and early life 2.1 Contemporary epigraphical evidence 2.2 Ancient sources 2.2.1 Arab traditions and al-Zabba' 3 Queen of Palmyra 3.1 Consort 3.1.1 Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination 3.2 Regent 3.2.1 Consolidation of power 3.2.1.1 Early reign 3.2.2 Expansion 3.2.2.1 Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea 3.2.2.2 Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor 3.2.3 Governance 3.2.3.1 Culture 3.2.3.2 Religion 3.2.3.2.1 Judaism 3.2.3.3 Administration 3.2.3.3.1 Agreement with Rome 3.2.4 Empress and open rebellion 3.2.5 Downfall 4 Captivity and fate 5 Titles 6 Descendants 7 Evaluation and legacy 8 Myth, romanticism and popular culture 8.1 Selected cultural depictions 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 11.3 Further reading 12 External links Name, appearance and sources[edit] Her face was dark and of a swarthy hue, her eyes were black and powerful beyond the usual wont, her spirit divinely great, and her beauty incredible. So white were her teeth that many thought that she had pearls in place of teeth. — Augustan History[1] Zenobia was born c. 240–241.[2] She bore the gentilicium (surname) Septimia,[note 1][5] and her native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet,[6] an Aramaic name meaning "daughter of Zabbai").[7] In Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second language, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia ("one whose life derives from Zeus").[8] The philologist Wilhelm Dittenberger believed that the name Bat Zabbai underwent a detortum (twist), resulting in the name Zenobia.[9] In Palmyra, names such as Zabeida, Zabdila, Zabbai or Zabda were often transformed into "Zenobios" (masculine) and "Zenobia" (feminine) when written in Greek.[10] The historian Victor Duruy believed that the queen used the Greek name as a translation of her native name in deference to her Greek subjects.[11] The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, in his highly fictionalized account,[12] wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.[13] Manichaean sources called her "Tadi".[note 2][15] No contemporary statues of Zenobia have been found in Palmyra or elsewhere, only inscriptions on statues bases survive, indicating that a statue of the queen once stood in the place; most known representations of Zenobia are the idealized portraits of her found on her coins.[16] Palmyrene sculptures were normally impersonal, unlike Greek and Roman ones: a statue of Zenobia would have given an idea of her general style in dress and jewelry but would not have revealed her true appearance.[16] British scholar William Wright visited Palmyra toward the end of the nineteenth century in a vain search for a sculpture of the queen.[17] In addition to archaeological evidence, Zenobia's life was recorded in different ancient sources but many are flawed or fabricated; the Augustan History, a late-Roman collection of biographies, is the most notable (albeit unreliable) source for the era.[18] The author (or authors) of the Augustan History invented many events and letters attributed to Zenobia in the absence of contemporary sources.[18] Some Augustan History accounts are corroborated from other sources, and are more credible.[18] The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras is considered an important source for the life of Zenobia.[18] Origin, family and early life[edit] Palmyrene society was an amalgam of Semitic tribes (mostly Aramean and Arab), and Zenobia cannot be identified with any one group; as a Palmyrene, she may have had both Aramean and Arab ancestry.[19] Information about Zenobia's ancestry and immediate family connections is scarce and contradictory.[20] Nothing is known about her mother, and her father's identity is debated.[21] Manichaean sources mention a "Nafsha", sister of the "queen of Palmyra",[21] but those sources are confused and "Nafsha" may refer to Zenobia herself:[22] it is doubtful that Zenobia had a sister.[15] Apparently not a commoner,[23] Zenobia would have received an education appropriate for a noble Palmyrene girl.[24] The Augustan History contains details of her early life, although their veracity is dubious; according to the Augustan History, the queen's hobby as a child was hunting[23] and, in addition to her Palmyrene Aramaic mother tongue, she was fluent in Egyptian and Greek and spoke Latin.[25][26] When she was about fourteen years old (ca. 255), Zenobia became the second wife of Odaenathus, the ras ("lord") of Palmyra.[23][21] Noble families in Palmyra often intermarried, and it is probable that Zenobia and Odaenathus shared some ancestors.[9] Contemporary epigraphical evidence[edit] Basing their suppositions upon archaeological evidence, various historians have suggested several men as Zenobia's father: Inscription at Palmyra honoring Julius Aurelius Zenobius, believed by some to be Zenobia's father Julius Aurelius Zenobius appears on a Palmyrene inscription as a strategos of Palmyra in 231–232; based on the similarity of the names,[21] Zenobius was suggested as Zenobia's father by the numismatist Alfred von Sallet and others.[27] The archaeologist William Waddington argued in favor of Zenobius' identification as the father, assuming that his statue stood opposite to where the statue of the queen stood in Great Colonnade. However, the linguist Jean-Baptiste Chabot pointed out that Zenobius' statue stood opposite to that of Odaenathus not Zenobia and rejected Waddington's hypothesis.[9] The only gentilicium appearing on Zenobia's inscriptions was "Septimia" (not "Julia Aurelia", which she would have borne if her father's gentilicium was Aurelius),[5] and it cannot be proven that the queen changed her gentilicium to Septimia after her marriage.[note 3][21][27] One of Zenobia's inscriptions recorded her as "Septimia Bat-Zabbai, daughter of Antiochus".[29][30] Antiochus' identity is not definitively known:[20] his ancestry is not recorded in Palmyrene inscriptions, and the name was not common in Palmyra.[31] This, combined with the meaning of Zenobia's Palmyrene name (daughter of Zabbai), led scholars such as Harald Ingholt to speculate that Antiochus might have been a distant ancestor: the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes or Antiochus VII Sidetes, whose wife was the Ptolemaic Cleopatra Thea.[29][31] In the historian Richard Stoneman's view, Zenobia would not have created an obscure ancestry to connect herself with the ancient Macedonian rulers: if a fabricated ancestry were needed, a more direct connection would have been invented.[23] According to Stoneman, Zenobia "had reason to believe [her Seleucid ancestry] to be true".[23] The historian Patricia Southern, noting that Antiochus was mentioned without a royal title or a hint of great lineage, believes that he was a direct ancestor or a relative rather than a Seleucid king who lived three centuries before Zenobia.[31] On the basis of Zenobia's Palmyrene name, Bat Zabbai, her father may have been called Zabbai; alternatively, Zabbai may have been the name of a more distant ancestor.[20] The historian Trevor Bryce suggests that she was related to Septimius Zabbai, Palmyra's garrison leader, and he may even have been her father.[20] The archaeologist Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, attempting to reconcile the meaning of the name "Bat Zabbai" with the inscription mentioning the queen as daughter of Antiochus, suggested that two brothers, Zabbai and Antiochus, existed, with a childless Zabbai dying and leaving his widow to marry his brother Antiochus. Thus, since Zenobia was born out of a levirate marriage, she was theoretically the daughter of Zabbai, hence the name.[32] Ancient sources[edit] In the Augustan History, Zenobia is said to have been a descendant of Cleopatra and claimed descent from the Ptolemies.[note 4][10] According to the Souda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia,[33] after the Palmyrene conquest of Egypt,[34] the sophist Callinicus of Petra wrote a ten-volume history of Alexandria dedicated to Cleopatra.[35] According to modern scholars, by Cleopatra Callinicus meant Zenobia.[note 5][35][37] Apart from legends, there is no direct evidence in Egyptian coinage or papyri of a contemporary conflation of Zenobia with Cleopatra.[38] The connection may have been invented by Zenobia's enemies to discredit her,[note 6][40] but circumstantial evidence indicates that Zenobia herself made the claim; an imperial declaration once ascribed to Emperor Severus Alexander (died 235) was probably made by Zenobia in the name of her son Vaballathus, where the king named Alexandria "my ancestral city", which indicates a claim to Ptolemaic ancestry.[41][42] Zenobia's alleged claim of a connection to Cleopatra seems to have been politically motivated,[19] since it would have given her a connection with Egypt and made her a legitimate successor to the Ptolemies' throne.[43] A relationship between Zenobia and the Ptolemies is unlikely,[44] and attempts by classical sources to trace the queen's ancestry to the Ptolemies through the Seleucids are apocryphal.[45] Arab traditions and al-Zabba'[edit] Although some Arab historians linked Zenobia to the Queen of Sheba, their accounts are apocryphal.[45] Medieval Arabic traditions identify a queen of Palmyra named al-Zabba',[46] and her most romantic account comes from al-Tabari.[47] According to al-Tabari, she was an Amalekite; her father was 'Amr ibn Zarib, an 'Amālīq sheikh who was killed by the Tanukhids.[45] Al-Tabari identifies a sister of al-Zabba' as "Zabibah".[45] Jadhimah ibn Malik, the Tanukhid king who killed the queen's father, was killed by al-Zabba'.[47] According to al-Tabari, al-Zabba' had a fortress along the Euphrates and ruled Palmyra.[12] Al-Tabari's account does not mention the Romans, Odaenathus, Vaballathus or the Sassanians;[12] focusing on the tribes and their relations, it is immersed in legends.[48] Although the account is certainly based on the story of Zenobia,[12] it is probably conflated with the story of a semi-legendary nomadic Arab queen (or queens).[49][48] Al-Zabba''s fortress was probably Halabiye, which was restored by the historic Palmyrene queen and named Zenobia.[12] Queen of Palmyra[edit] Consort[edit] Odaenathus, a bust dated to the 250s During the early centuries AD, Palmyra was a city subordinate to Rome and part of the province of Syria Phoenice.[50] In 260 the Roman emperor Valerian marched against the Sassanid Persian monarch Shapur I, who had invaded the empire's eastern regions; Valerian was defeated and captured near Edessa.[51] Odaenathus, formally loyal to Rome and its emperor Gallienus (Valerian's son),[52] was declared king of Palmyra.[53] Launching successful campaigns against Persia, he was crowned King of Kings of the East in 263.[54] Odaenathus crowned his eldest son, Herodianus, as co-ruler.[55] In addition to the royal titles, Odaenathus received many Roman titles, most importantly corrector totius orientis (governor of the entire East), and ruled the Roman territories from the Black Sea to Palestine.[56] In 267, when Zenobia was in her late twenties or early thirties, Odaenathus and his eldest son were assassinated while returning from a campaign.[55] The first inscription mentioning Zenobia as queen is dated two or three years after Odaenathus' death, so exactly when Zenobia assumed the title "queen of Palmyra" is uncertain.[57] However, she was probably designated as queen when her husband became king.[57] As queen consort, Zenobia remained in the background and was not mentioned in the historical record.[58] According to later accounts, including one by Giovanni Boccaccio, she accompanied her husband on his campaigns.[59] If the accounts of her accompanying her husband are true, according to Southern, Zenobia would have boosted the morale of the soldiers and gained political influence, which she needed in her later career.[58] Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination[edit] According to the Augustan History, Odaenathus was assassinated by a cousin named Maeonius.[60] In the Augustan History, Odaenathus' son from his first wife was named Herodes and was crowned co-ruler by his father.[61] The Augustan History claims that Zenobia conspired with Maeonius for a time because she did not accept her stepson as his father's heir (ahead of her own children).[60] The Augustan History does not suggest that Zenobia was involved in the events leading to her husband's murder,[62] and the crime is attributed to Maeonius' moral degeneration and jealousy.[60] This account, according to the historian Alaric Watson, can be dismissed as fictional.[63] Although some modern scholarship suggests that Zenobia was involved in the assassination due to political ambition and opposition to her husband's pro-Roman policy, she continued Odaenathus' policies during her first years on the throne.[64] Regent[edit] Vaballathus, Zenobia's son and successor of his father Odaenathus (on the obverse of an antoninianus, 272 AD) In the Augustan History, Maeonius was emperor briefly before he was killed by his soldiers,[62] however, no inscriptions or evidence exist for his reign.[65] At the time of Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia might have been with her husband; according to chronicler George Syncellus, he was killed near Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia.[66] The transfer of power seems to have been smooth, since Syncellus reports that the time from the assassination to the army handing the crown to Zenobia was one day.[66] Zenobia may have been in Palmyra, but this would have reduced the likelihood of a smooth transition; the soldiers might have chosen one of their officers, so the first scenario of her being with her husband is more likely.[66] The historical records are unanimous that Zenobia did not fight for supremacy and there is no evidence of delay in the transfer of the throne to Odaenathus and Zenobia's son, the ten-year-old Vaballathus.[67] Although she never claimed to rule in her own right and acted as a regent for her son,[68] Zenobia held the reins of power in the kingdom,[69] and Vaballathus was kept in his mother's shadow, never exercising real power.[70] Consolidation of power[edit] The Palmyrene monarchy was new; allegiance was based on loyalty to Odaenathus, making the transfer of power to a successor more difficult than it would have been in an established monarchy.[71] Odaenathus tried to ensure the dynasty's future by crowning his eldest son co-king, but both were assassinated.[72] Zenobia, left to secure the Palmyrene succession and retain the loyalty of its subjects, emphasized the continuity between her late husband and his successor (her son).[72] Vaballathus (with Zenobia orchestrating the process) assumed his father's royal titles immediately, and his earliest known inscription records him as King of Kings.[72][67] Roman regions under Odaenathus (yellow) and the Palmyrene kingdom (green) Odaenathus controlled a large area of the Roman East,[note 7] and held the highest political and military authority in the region, superseding that of the Roman provincial governors.[74][55] His self-created status was formalized by Emperor Gallienus,[75] who had little choice but to acquiesce.[76] Odaenathus's power relative to that of the emperor and the central authority was unprecedented and elastic, but relations remained smooth until his death.[77] His assassination meant that the Palmyrene rulers' authority and position had to be clarified, which led to a conflict over their interpretation.[77] The Roman court viewed Odaenathus as an appointed Roman official who derived his power from the emperor, but the Palmyrene court saw his position as hereditary.[77] This conflict was the first step on the road to war between Rome and Palmyra.[77] Odaenathus' Roman titles, such as dux Romanorum, corrector totius orientis and imperator totius orientis differed from his royal eastern ones because the Roman ranks were not hereditary.[78] Vaballathus had a legitimate claim to his royal titles, but had no right to the Roman ones—especially corrector (denoting a senior military and provincial commander in the Roman system), which Zenobia used for her son in his earliest known inscriptions with "King of Kings".[72] Although the Roman emperors accepted the royal succession, the assumption of Roman military rank antagonized the empire.[79] Emperor Gallienus may have decided to intervene in an attempt to regain central authority;[30] according to the Augustan History, praetorian prefect Aurelius Heraclianus was dispatched to assert imperial authority over the east and was repelled by the Palmyrene army.[80] The account is doubtful, however, since Heraclianus participated in Gallienus' assassination in 268.[81] Odaenathus was assassinated shortly before the emperor, and Heraclianus would have been unable to be sent to the East, fight the Palmyrenes and return to the West in time to become involved in the conspiracy against the emperor.[note 8][81] Early reign[edit] The citadel of Halabiye, renamed "Zenobia" after its renovation by the queen The extent of Zenobia's territorial control during her early reign is debated; according to the historian Fergus Millar, her authority was confined to Palmyra and Emesa until 270.[note 9][83] If this was the case, the events of 270 (which saw Zenobia's conquest of the Levant and Egypt) are extraordinary.[82] It is more likely that the queen ruled the territories controlled by her late husband,[82] a view supported by Southern and the historian Udo Hartmann,[84] and backed by ancient sources (such as the Roman historian Eutropius, who wrote that the queen inherited her husband's power).[82] The Augustan History also mentioned that Zenobia took control of the East during Gallienus' reign.[82][84] Further evidence of extended territorial control was a statement by the Byzantine historian Zosimus, who wrote that the queen had a residence in Antioch.[note 10][82] There is no recorded unrest against the queen accompanying her ascendance in ancient sources hostile to her, indicating no serious opposition to the new regime.[note 11][86] The most obvious candidates for opposition were the Roman provincial governors, but the sources do not say that Zenobia marched on any of them or that they tried to remove her from the throne.[87] According to Hartmann, the governors and military leaders of the eastern provinces apparently acknowledged and supported Vaballathus as the successor of Odaenathus.[87] During Zenobia's early regency, she focused on safeguarding the borders with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran.[88] To protect the Persian borders, the queen fortified many settlements on the Euphrates (including the citadels of Halabiye—later called Zenobia—and Zalabiye).[89] Circumstantial evidence exists for confrontations with the Sassanid Persians; probably in 269, Vaballathus assumed the victory title of Persicus Maximus (the great victor in Persia); this may be connected to an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to control northern Mesopotamia.[note 12][90][91] Expansion[edit] In 269, while Claudius Gothicus (Gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of Italy and the Balkans against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing her authority; Roman officials in the East were caught between loyalty to the emperor and Zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance.[92] The timing and rationale of the queen's decision to use military force to strengthen her authority in the East is unclear;[92] scholar Gary K. Young suggested that Roman officials refused to recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain Palmyrene dominance.[93] Another factor may have been the weakness of Roman central authority and its corresponding inability to protect the provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that the only way to maintain stability in the East was to control the region directly.[93] The historian Jacques Schwartz tied Zenobia's actions to her desire to protect Palmyra's economic interests, which were threatened by Rome's failure to protect the provinces.[94] Also, according to Schwartz, the economic interests conflicted; Bostra and Egypt received trade which would have otherwise passed through Palmyra.[95] The Tanukhids near Bostra and the merchants of Alexandria probably attempted to rid themselves of Palmyrene domination, triggering a military response from Zenobia.[95] Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea[edit] Bostra, sacked by Palmyra in 270 In the spring of 270, while Claudius was fighting the Goths in the mountains of Thrace, Zenobia sent her general Septimius Zabdas to Bostra (capital of the province of Arabia Petraea);[92] the queen's timing seems intentional.[96] In Arabia the Roman governor (dux), Trassus (commanding the Legio III Cyrenaica),[note 13] confronted the Palmyrenes and was routed and killed.[92] Zabdas sacked the city, and destroyed the temple of Zeus Hammon, the legion's revered shrine.[92] A Latin inscription after the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction:[98] "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which ... rebuilt, with a silver statue and iron doors (?)".[99] The city of Umm el-Jimal may have also been destroyed by the Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids.[98] After his victory, Zabdas marched south along the Jordan Valley and apparently met little opposition.[92] There is evidence that Petra was attacked by a small contingent which penetrated the region.[100] Arabia and Judaea were eventually subdued.[100] Palmyrene dominance of Arabia is confirmed by many milestones bearing Vaballathus' name.[97] Syrian subjugation required less effort because Zenobia had substantial support there, particularly in Antioch,[101] Syria's traditional capital.[85] The invasion of Arabia coincided with the cessation of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean mint, indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her grip on Syria.[101] By November 270, the mint began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name.[102] The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king as a Roman governor and commander, referring to him as vir clarissimus rex consul imperator dux Romanorum.[97] The assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, not yet a usurpation of the imperial title.[103] Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative of the emperor (who was securing the eastern lands of the empire) while the Roman monarch was preoccupied with struggles in Europe.[104] Although Vaballathus' use of the titles amounted to a claim to the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask of subordination to Rome;[78] an "imperator" was a commander of troops, not the equal of an emperor ("imperator caesar").[103] Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor[edit] Main article: Palmyrene invasion of Egypt The invasion of Egypt is sometimes explained by Zenobia's desire to secure an alternative trade route to the Euphrates, which was cut because of the war with Persia.[105] This theory ignores the fact that the Euphrates route was only partially disrupted, and overlooks Zenobia's ambition.[100] The date of the campaign is uncertain; Zosimus placed it after the Battle of Naissus and before Claudius' death, which sets it in the summer of 270.[106] Watson, emphasizing the works of Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, places the invasion in October 270 (after Claudius' death).[107] According to Watson, the occupation of Egypt was an opportunistic move by Zenobia (who was encouraged by the news of Claudius' death in August).[100][108] The appearance of the Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern frontier would have contributed to unrest in the province, whose society was fractured; Zenobia had supporters and opponents among local Egyptians.[100] Palmyra at its zenith in 271 The Roman position was worsened by the absence of Egypt's prefect, Tenagino Probus, who was battling pirates.[100][106] According to Zosimus, the Palmyrenes were helped by an Egyptian general named Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Egypt with 70,000 soldiers, defeating an army of 50,000 Romans.[108][96] After their victory, the Palmyrenes withdrew their main force and left a 5,000-soldier garrison.[96] By early November,[100] Tenagino Probus returned and assembled an army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Alexandria, prompting Zabdas to return.[96] The Palmyrene general aimed a thrust at Alexandria, where he seems to have had local support; the city fell into Zabdas' hands, and the Roman prefect fled south.[100] The last battle was at the Babylon Fortress, where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Romans had the upper hand, since they chose their camp carefully.[101] Timagenes, with his knowledge of the land, ambushed the Roman rear; Tenagino Probus committed suicide, and Egypt became part of Palmyra.[101] In the Augustan History the Blemmyes were among Zenobia's allies,[109] and Gary K. Young cites the Blemmyes attack and occupation of Coptos in 268 as evidence of a Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance.[110] Only Zosimus mentioned two invasions, contrasting with many scholars who argue in favor of an initial invasion and no retreat (followed by a reinforcement, which took Alexandria by the end of 270).[96] During the Egyptian campaign, Rome was entangled in a succession crisis between Claudius' brother Quintillus and the general Aurelian. Egyptian papyri and coinage confirm Palmyrene rule in Egypt; the papyri stopped using the regnal years of the emperors from September to November 270, due to the succession crisis. By December regnal dating was resumed, with the papyri using the regnal years of the prevailing emperor Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus. Egyptian coinage was issued in the names of Aurelian and the Palmyrene king by November 270.[102] There is no evidence that Zenobia ever visited Egypt.[111] Although the operation may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the invasion of Asia Minor did not fully begin until Zabdas' arrival in the spring of 271.[112] The Palmyrenes annexed Galatia and, according to Zosimus, reached Ancyra.[40] Bithynia and the Cyzicus mint remained beyond Zenobia's control, and her attempts to subdue Chalcedon failed.[112] The Asia Minor campaign is poorly documented, but the western part of the region did not become part of the queen's authority;[40][113] no coins with Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Asia Minor, and no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have been found.[113] By August 271 Zabdas was back in Palmyra, with the Palmyrene empire at its zenith.[112] Governance[edit] Zenobia ruled an empire of different peoples; as a Palmyrene, she was accustomed to dealing with multilingual and multicultural diversity since she hailed from a city which embraced many cults.[114] The queen's realm was culturally divided into eastern-Semitic and Hellenistic zones; Zenobia tried to appease both, and seems to have successfully appealed to the region's ethnic, cultural and political groups.[115] The queen projected an image of a Syrian monarch, a Hellenistic queen and a Roman empress, which gained broad support for her cause.[116] Culture[edit] The right colossus of Memnon was probably restored by Zenobia. Zenobia turned her court into a center of learning, with many intellectuals and sophists reported in Palmyra during her reign.[117] As academics migrated to the city, it replaced classical learning centers such as Athens for Syrians.[117] The best-known court philosopher was Longinus,[118] who arrived during Odaenathus' reign and became Zenobia's tutor in paideia (aristocratic education).[119][117] Many historians, including Zosimus, accused Longinus of influencing the queen to oppose Rome.[120][119] This view presents the queen as malleable,[119] but, according to Southern, Zenobia's actions "cannot be laid entirely at Longinus' door".[34] Other intellectuals associated with the court included Nicostratus of Trapezus and Callinicus of Petra.[121] From the second to the fourth centuries, Syrian intellectuals argued that Greek culture did not evolve in Greece but was adapted from the Near East.[121] According to Iamblichus, the great Greek philosophers reused Near Eastern and Egyptian ideas.[122] The Palmyrene court was probably dominated by this school of thought, with an intellectual narrative presenting Palmyra's dynasty as a Roman imperial one succeeding the Persian, Seleucid and Ptolemaic rulers who controlled the region in which Hellenistic culture allegedly originated.[122] Nicostratus wrote a history of the Roman Empire from Philip the Arab to Odaenathus, presenting the latter as a legitimate imperial successor and contrasting his successes with the disastrous reigns of the emperors.[121] Zenobia embarked on several restoration projects in Egypt.[123] One of the Colossi of Memnon was reputed in antiquity to sing; the sound was probably due to cracks in the statue, with solar rays interacting with dew in the cracks.[124] The historian Glen Bowersock proposed that the queen restored the colossus ("silencing" it), which would explain third-century accounts of the singing and their disappearance in the fourth.[125] Religion[edit] Palmyra's most important deities: (right to left) Bel, Yarhibol, Aglibol and Baalshamin Zenobia followed the Palmyrene paganism,[126] where a number of Semitic gods, with Bel at the head of the pantheon, were worshipped.[127] Zenobia accommodated Christians and Jews,[114] and ancient sources made many claims about the queen's beliefs;[37] Manichaean sources alleged that Zenobia was one of their own;[128] a manuscript dated to 272 mentions that the Queen of Palmyra supported the Manichaeans in establishing a community in Abidar, which was under the rule of a king named Amarō, who could be the Lakhmid king Amr ibn Adi.[129] It is more likely, however, that Zenobia tolerated all cults in an effort to attract support from groups marginalized by Rome.[37] Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria wrote that Zenobia did not "hand over churches to the Jews to make them into synagogues";[130] although the queen was not a Christian, she understood the power of bishops in Christian communities.[131] In Antioch—considered representative of political control of the East and containing a large Christian community—Zenobia apparently maintained authority over the church by bringing influential clerics, probably including Paul of Samosata, under her auspices.[131] She may have bestowed on Paul the rank of ducenarius (minor judge); he apparently enjoyed the queen's protection, which helped him keep the diocesan church after he was removed from his office as bishop of Antioch by a synod of bishops in 268.[note 14][135] Judaism[edit] Less than a hundred years after Zenobia's reign, Athanasius of Alexandria called her a "Jewess" in his History of the Arians.[130] In 391, archbishop John Chrysostom wrote that Zenobia was Jewish; so did a Syriac chronicler around 664 and bishop Bar Hebraeus in the thirteenth century.[130] According to French scholar Javier Teixidor, Zenobia was probably a proselyte; this explained her strained relationship with the rabbis.[136] Teixidor believed that Zenobia became interested in Judaism when Longinus spoke about the philosopher Porphyry and his interest in the Old Testament.[136] Although Talmudic sources were hostile to Palmyra because of Odaenathus' suppression of the Jews of Nehardea,[137] Zenobia apparently had the support of some Jewish communities (particularly in Alexandria).[112] In Cairo,[138] a plaque originally bearing an inscription confirming a grant of immunity to a Jewish synagogue in the last quarter of the first millennium BC by King Ptolemy Euergetes (I or II) was found.[138] At a much later date, the plaque was re-inscribed to commemorate the restoration of immunity "on the orders of the queen and king".[123][138] Although it is undated, the letters of the inscription date to long after Cleopatra and Anthony's era; Zenobia and her son are the only candidates for a king and a queen ruling Egypt after the Ptolemies.[123][139] The historian E. Mary Smallwood wrote that good relations with the diaspora community did not mean that the Jews of Palestine were content with Zenobia's reign, and her rule was apparently opposed in that region.[137] The Terumot tells the story of the amoraim Rabbi "Ammi" and Rabbi "Samuel bar Nahmani", who visited Zenobia's court and asked for the release of a Jew ("Zeir bar Hinena") detained on her orders.[140] The queen refused, saying: "Why have you come to save him? He teaches that your creator performs miracles for you. Why not let God save him?"[141] During Aurelian's destruction of Palmyra, Palestinian conscripts with "clubs and cudgels" (who may have been Jews) played a vital role in Zenobia's defeat and the destruction of her city.[142] There is no evidence of Zenobia's birth as a Jew; the names of her and her husband's families belonged to the Aramaic onomasticon (collection of names).[136] The queen's alleged patronage of Paul of Samosata (who was accused of "Judaizing"),[137] may have given rise to the idea that she was a proselyte.[37] Only Christian accounts note Zenobia's Jewishness; no Jewish source mentions it.[143] Administration[edit] The queen probably spent most of her reign in Antioch,[111] Syria's administrative capital.[85] Before the monarchy, Palmyra had the institutions of a Greek city (polis) and was ruled by a senate which was responsible for most civil affairs.[144][145] Odaenathus maintained Palmyra's institutions, as did Zenobia;[146] a Palmyrene inscription after her fall records the name of Septimius Haddudan, a Palmyrene senator.[147] However, the queen apparently ruled autocratically; Septimius Worod, Odaenathus' viceroy and one of Palmyra's most important officials, disappeared from the record after Zenobia's ascent.[148] The queen opened the doors of her government to Eastern nobility.[114] Zenobia's most important courtiers and advisers were her generals, Septemius Zabdas and Septimius Zabbai;[118] both of whom were generals under Odaenathus and received the gentilicium (surname) "Septimius" from him.[149] Odaenathus respected the Roman emperor's privilege of appointing provincial governors,[150] and Zenobia continued this policy during her early reign.[151] Although the queen did not interfere in day-to-day administration, she probably had the power to command the governors in the organization of border security.[152] During the rebellion, Zenobia maintained Roman forms of administration,[40] but appointed the governors herself (most notably in Egypt,[153] where Julius Marcellinus took office in 270 and was followed by Statilius Ammianus in 271).[note 15][152] Agreement with Rome[edit] Palmyrene antoninianus minted in Antioch 271 AD, showing Aurelian (left) as emperor and Vaballathus as king Zenobia initially avoided provoking Rome by claiming for herself and her son the titles, inherited from Odaenathus, of subject of Rome and protector of its eastern frontier.[88] After expanding her territory, she seems to have tried to be recognized as an imperial partner in the eastern half of the empire and presented her son as subordinate to the emperor.[155][104][156] In late 270, Zenobia minted coinage bearing the portraits of Aurelian and Vaballathus; Aurelian was titled "emperor", and Vaballathus "king".[155] The regnal year in early samples of the coinage was only Aurelian's.[155] By March 271,[157] despite indicating Aurelian as the paramount monarch by naming him first in the dating formulae, the coinage also began bearing Vaballathus' regnal year.[158] By indicating in the coinage that Vaballathus' reign began in 267 (three years before the emperor's), Vaballathus appeared to be Aurelian's senior colleague.[158] The emperor's blessing of Palmyrene authority has been debated;[156] Aurelian's acceptance of Palmyrene rule in Egypt may be inferred from the Oxyrhynchus papyri, which are dated by the regnal years of the emperor and Vaballathus.[155][159] No proof of a formal agreement exists, and the evidence is based solely on the joint coinage- and papyri-dating.[156] It is unlikely that Aurelian would have accepted such power-sharing,[155] but he was unable to act in 271 due to crises in the West.[156][155] His apparent condoning of Zenobia's actions may have been a ruse to give her a false sense of security while he prepared for war.[156][155] Another reason for Aurelian's tolerance may have been his desire to ensure a constant supply of Egyptian grain to Rome;[160] it is not recorded that the supply was cut, and the ships sailed to Rome in 270 as usual.[153] Some modern scholars, such as Harold Mattingly, suggest that Claudius Gothicus had concluded a formal agreement with Zenobia which Aurelian ignored.[38] Empress and open rebellion[edit] Coin of Zenobia as empress with Juno on the reverse, 272 AD An inscription, found in Palmyra and dated to August 271, called Zenobia eusebes (the pious);[157] this title, used by Roman empresses, could be seen as a step by the queen toward an imperial title.[161] Another contemporary inscription called her sebaste, the Greek equivalent of "empress" (Latin: Augusta), but also acknowledged the Roman emperor.[161] A late-271 Egyptian grain receipt equated Aurelian and Vaballathus, jointly calling them Augusti.[161] Finally, Palmyra officially broke with Rome;[162] the Alexandrian and Antiochian mints removed Aurelian's portrait from the coins in April 272, issuing new tetradrachms in the names of Vaballathus and Zenobia (who were called Augustus and Augusta, respectively).[161] The assumption of imperial titles by Zenobia signaled a usurpation: independence from, and open rebellion against, Aurelian.[163] The timeline of events and why Zenobia declared herself empress is vague.[164] In the second half of 271,[165] Aurelian marched to the East, but was delayed by the Goths in the Balkans;[163] this may have alarmed the queen, driving her to claim the imperial title.[164] Zenobia also probably understood the inevitability of open conflict with Aurelian, and decided that feigning subordination would be useless;[166] her assumption of the imperial title was used to rally soldiers to her cause.[166] Aurelian's campaign seems to have been the main reason for the Palmyrene imperial declaration and the removal of his portrait from its coins.[161][94] Downfall[edit] Route of Aurelian's campaign The usurpation, which began in late March or early April 272, ended by August.[167] Aurelian spent the winter of 271–272 in Byzantium,[168] and probably crossed the Bosporus to Asia Minor in April 272.[169] Galatia fell easily; the Palmyrene garrisons were apparently withdrawn, and the provincial capital of Ancyra was regained without a struggle.[170] All the cities in Asia Minor opened their doors to the Roman emperor, with only Tyana putting up some resistance before surrendering; this cleared the path for Aurelian to invade Syria, the Palmyrene heartland.[171] A simultaneous expedition reached Egypt in May 272; by early June Alexandria was captured by the Romans, followed by the rest of Egypt by the third week of June.[170] Zenobia seems to have withdrawn most of her armies from Egypt to focus on Syria—which, if lost, would have meant the end of Palmyra.[169] In May 272, Aurelian headed toward Antioch.[172] About 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the city, he defeated the Palmyrene army (led by Zabdas) at the Battle of Immae.[172][173] As a result, Zenobia, who waited in Antioch during the battle, retreated with her army to Emesa.[174] To conceal the disaster and make her flight safer, she spread reports that Aurelian was captured; Zabdas found a man who resembled the Roman emperor and paraded him through Antioch.[175] The following day, Aurelian entered the city before marching south.[174] After defeating a Palmyrene garrison south of Antioch,[176] Aurelian continued his march to meet Zenobia in the Battle of Emesa.[176] The 70,000-strong Palmyrene army, assembled on the plain of Emesa, nearly routed the Romans.[176] In an initial thrill of victory they hastened their advance, breaking their lines and enabling the Roman infantry to attack their flank.[176] The defeated Zenobia headed to her capital on the advice of her war council, leaving her treasury behind.[177] In Palmyra, the queen prepared for a siege;[178] Aurelian blockaded food-supply routes,[179] and there were probably unsuccessful negotiations.[180] According to the Augustan History, Zenobia said that she would fight Aurelian with the help of her Persian allies; however, the story was probably fabricated and used by the emperor to link Zenobia to Rome's greatest enemy.[180] If such an alliance existed, a much-larger frontier war would have erupted; however, no Persian army was sent.[180] As the situation worsened, the queen left the city for Persia intending on seeking help from Palmyra's former enemy; according to Zosimus, she rode a "female camel, the fastest of its breed and faster than any horse".[177][181] Captivity and fate[edit] Hadrian's Villa; Zenobia reportedly spent her last days in a villa near Hadrian's complex in Tibur. Aurelian, learning about Zenobia's departure, sent a contingent which captured the queen before she could cross the Euphrates to Persia;[181] Palmyra capitulated soon after news of Zenobia's captivity reached the city in August 272.[note 16][183][147] Aurelian sent the queen and her son to Emesa for trial, followed by most of Palmyra's court elite (including Longinus).[184] According to the Augustan History and Zosimus, Zenobia blamed her actions on her advisers; however, there are no contemporary sources describing the trial, only later hostile Roman ones.[184] The queen's reported cowardice in defeat was probably Aurelian's propaganda; it benefited the emperor to paint Zenobia as selfish and traitorous, discouraging the Palmyrenes from hailing her as a hero.[184] Although Aurelian had most of his prisoners executed, he spared the queen and her son to parade her in his planned triumph.[185] Zenobia's fate after Emesa is uncertain since ancient historians left conflicting accounts.[186] Zosimus wrote that she died before crossing the Bosporus on her way to Rome; according to this account, the queen became ill or starved herself to death.[186] The generally unreliable chronicler, John Malalas,[187] wrote that Aurelian humiliated Zenobia by parading her through the eastern cities on a dromedary; in Antioch, the emperor had her chained and seated on a dais in the hippodrome for three days before the city's populace.[186][188] Malalas concluded his account by writing that Zenobia appeared in Aurelian's triumph and was then beheaded.[189] Most ancient historians and modern scholars agree that Zenobia was displayed in Aurelian's 274 triumph;[189] Zosimus was the only source to say that the queen died before reaching Rome, making his account questionable.[190] A public humiliation (as recounted by Malalas) is a plausible scenario, since Aurelian would probably have wanted to publicize his suppression of the Palmyrene rebellion.[186] Only Malalas, however, describes Zenobia's beheading; according to the other historians, her life was spared after Aurelian's triumph.[189] The Augustan History recorded that Aurelian gave Zenobia a villa in Tibur near Hadrian's Villa, where she lived with her children.[191][192] Zonaras wrote that Zenobia married a nobleman,[193] and Syncellus wrote that she married a Roman senator.[191] The house she reportedly occupied became a tourist attraction in Rome.[194] Titles[edit] Lead token naming Zenobia as queen c. 268 The queen owed her elevated position to her son's minority.[195] To celebrate Herodianus' coronation, a statue was erected in Palmyra in 263.[196] According to the inscription on the base of the statue, it was commissioned by Septimius Worod, then the duumviri (magistrate) of Palmyra, and Julius Aurelius, the Queen's procurator (treasurer).[197] According to the historian David Potter, Zenobia is the queen mentioned, and the inscription is an evidence for the usage of the title by her during Odaenathus' lifetime.[198] An inscription on a milestone on the road between Palmyra and Emesa, dated to Zenobia's early reign,[199] identifies her as "illustrious queen, mother of the king of kings";[30] this was the first inscription giving her an official position.[200] A lead token from Antioch also identifies Zenobia as queen.[note 17][204][203] The earliest confirmed attestation of Zenobia as queen in Palmyra is an inscription on the base of a statue erected for her by Zabdas and Zabbai, dated to August 271 and calling her "most illustrious and pious queen".[200][205] On an undated milestone found near Byblos, Zenobia is titled Sebaste.[164] The queen was never acknowledged as sole monarch in Palmyra, although she was the de facto sovereign of the empire;[69] she was always associated with her husband or son in inscriptions, except in Egypt (where some coins were minted in Zenobia's name alone).[69] According to her coins, the queen assumed the title of Augusta (empress) in 272,[161] and reigned under the regnal name Septimia Zenobia Augusta.[206] Descendants[edit] Septimius Herodianus, might have been the same person as Hairan II, a probable son of Zenobia Aside from Vaballathus, it is unclear if Zenobia had other children and their alleged identities are subject to scholarly disagreements. The image of a child named Hairan (II) appears on a seal impression with that of his brother Vaballathus; no name of a mother was engraved and the seal is undated.[207] Odaenathus' son Herodianus is identified by Udo Hartmann with Hairan I, a son of Odaenathus who appears in Palmyrene inscriptions as early as 251.[208] David S. Potter, on the other hand, suggested that Hairan II is the son of Zenobia and that he is Herodianus instead of Hairan I.[209] Nathanael Andrade maintained that Hairan I, Herodianus, and Hairan II are the same person, rejecting the existence of a second Hairan.[210] A controversial Palmyrene inscription mentions the mother of the King Septimius Antiochus; the name of the queen is missing, and Dittenberger refused to fill the gap with Zenobia's name, but many scholars, such as Grace Macurdy considered that the missing name is Zenobia.[206] Septimius Antiochus may have been Vaballathus' younger brother, or was presented in this manner for political reasons; Antiochus was proclaimed emperor in 273, when Palmyra revolted against Rome for a second time.[211] If Antiochus was a son of Zenobia, he was probably a young child not fathered by Odaenathus; Zosimus described him as insignificant, appropriate for a five-year-old boy.[212] On the other hand, Macurdy, citing the language Zosimus used when he described him, considered it more plausible that Antiochus was not a son of Zenobia, but a family relation who used her name to legitimize his claim to the throne.[206] The names of Herennianus and Timolaus were mentioned as children of Zenobia only in the Augustan History.[213] Herennianus may be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus; Timolaus is probably a fabrication,[63] although the historian Dietmar Kienast suggested that he might have been Vaballathus.[214] According to the Augustan History, Zenobia's descendants were Roman nobility during the reign of Emperor Valens (reigned 364–375).[215] Eutropius and Jerome chronicled the queen's descendants in Rome during the fourth and fifth centuries.[194][192] They may have been the result of a reported marriage to a Roman spouse or offspring who accompanied her from Palmyra; both theories, however, are tentative.[216] Zonaras is the only historian to note that Zenobia had daughters;[216] he wrote that one married Aurelian, who married the queen's other daughters to distinguished Romans.[193] According to Southern, the emperor's marriage to Zenobia's daughter is a fabrication.[191] Another descent claim is the relation of saint Zenobius of Florence (337–417) with the queen; the Girolami banking family claimed descent from the fifth century saint,[217] and the alleged relation was first noted in 1286.[218] The family also extended their roots to Zenobia by claiming that the saint was a descendant of her.[219] Evaluation and legacy[edit] An evaluation of Zenobia is difficult; the queen was courageous when her husband's supremacy was threatened and by seizing the throne, she protected the region from a power vacuum after Odaenathus' death.[220] According to Watson, she made what Odaenathus left her a "glittering show of strength".[221] In the view of Watson, Zenobia should not be seen as a total powermonger, nor as a selfless hero fighting for a cause; according to the historian David Graf, "She took seriously the titles and responsibilities she assumed for her son and that her program was far more ecumenical and imaginative than that of her husband Odenathus, not just more ambitious".[221] Zenobia has inspired scholars, academics, musicians and actors; her fame has lingered in the West, and is supreme in the Middle East.[19] As a heroic queen with a tragic end, she stands alongside Cleopatra and Boudica.[19] The queen's legend turned her into an idol, that can be reinterpreted to accommodate the needs of writers and historians; thus, Zenobia has been by turns a freedom fighter, a hero of the oppressed and a national symbol.[15] The queen is a female role model;[222] according to the historian Michael Rostovtzeff, Catherine the Great liked to compare herself to Zenobia as a woman who created military might and an intellectual court.[195] During the 1930s, thanks to an Egyptian-based feminist press, Zenobia became an icon for women's-magazine readers in the Arabic-speaking world as a strong, nationalistic female leader.[223] Her most lasting legacy is in Syria, where the queen is a national symbol.[224] Zenobia became an icon for Syrian nationalists; she had a cult following among Western-educated Syrians, and an 1871 novel by journalist Salim al-Bustani was entitled Zenobia malikat Tadmor (Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra).[225] Syrian nationalist Ilyas Matar, who wrote Syria's first history in Arabic in 1874,[226][227] (al-'Uqud al-durriyya fi tarikh al-mamlaka al-Suriyya; The Pearl Necklace in the History of the Syrian Kingdom),[228] was fascinated by Zenobia and included her in his book.[229] To Matar, the queen kindled hope for a new Zenobia who would restore Syria's former grandeur.[229] Another history of Syria was written by Jurji Yanni in 1881,[230] in which Yanni called Zenobia a "daughter of the fatherland", and yearned for her "glorious past".[231] Yanni described Aurelian as a tyrant who deprived Syria of its happiness and independence by capturing its queen.[231] In modern Syria, Zenobia is regarded as a patriotic symbol; her image appeared on banknotes,[224] and in 1997 she was the subject of the television series Al-Ababeed (The Anarchy).[19] The series was watched by millions in the Arabic-speaking world.[19] It examined the Israeli–Palestinian conflict from a Syrian perspective, where the queen's struggle symbolized the Palestinians' struggle to gain the right of self-determination.[224] Zenobia was also the subject of a biography by Mustafa Tlass, Syria's former minister of defense and one of the country's most prominent figures.[224] Myth, romanticism and popular culture[edit] Harold Mattingly called Zenobia "one of the most romantic figures in history".[220] According to Southern, "The real Zenobia is elusive, perhaps ultimately unattainable, and novelists, playwrights and historians alike can absorb the available evidence, but still need to indulge in varied degrees of speculation."[232] She has been the subject of romantic and ideologically-driven biographies by ancient and modern writers.[233][234] The Augustan History is the clearest example of an ideological account of Zenobia's life, and its author acknowledged that it was written to criticize the emperor Gallienus.[234] According to the Augustan History, Gallienus was weak because he allowed a woman to rule part of the empire and Zenobia was a more able sovereign than the emperor. The narrative changed as the Augustan History moved on to the life of Claudius Gothicus, a lauded and victorious emperor, with the author characterizing Zenobia's protection of the eastern frontier as a wise delegation of power by Claudius.[235] When the Augustan History reached the biography of Aurelian, the author's view of Zenobia changed dramatically; the queen is depicted as a guilty, insolent, proud coward;[235] her wisdom was discredited and her actions deemed the result of manipulation by advisers.[48] Zenobia's "staunch" beauty was emphasized by the author of the Augustan History, who ascribed to her feminine timidity and inconsistency (the reasons for her alleged betrayal of her advisers to save herself). The queen's sex posed a dilemma for the Augustan History since it cast a shadow on Aurelian's victory.[236] Its author ascribed many masculine traits to Zenobia to make Aurelian a conquering hero who suppressed a dangerous Amazon queen.[236] According to the Augustan History, Zenobia had a clear, manly voice, dressed as an emperor (rather than an empress), rode horseback, was attended by eunuchs instead of ladies-in-waiting, marched with her army, drank with her generals, was careful with money (contrary to the stereotypical spending habits of her sex) and pursued masculine hobbies such as hunting.[237] Giovanni Boccaccio wrote a fanciful 14th-century account of the queen in which she is a tomboy in childhood who preferred wrestling with boys, wandering in the forests and killing goats to playing like a young girl.[238] Zenobia's chastity was a theme of these romanticized accounts; according to the Augustan History, she disdained sexual intercourse and allowed Odaenathus into her bed only for conception.[238] Her reputed chastity impressed some male historians; Edward Gibbon wrote that Zenobia surpassed Cleopatra in chastity and valor.[238] According to Boccaccio, Zenobia safeguarded her virginity when she wrestled with boys as a child.[238] Seventeenth-century visitors to Palmyra rekindled the Western world's romantic interest in Zenobia.[48] This interest peaked during the mid-nineteenth century, when Lady Hester Stanhope visited Palmyra and wrote that its people treated her like the queen; she was reportedly greeted with singing and dancing, and Bedouin warriors stood on the city's columns.[25] A procession ended with a mock coronation of Stanhope under the arch of Palmyra as "queen of the desert".[25] William Ware, fascinated by Zenobia, wrote a fanciful account of her life. Twentieth-century novelists and playwrights, such as Haley Elizabeth Garwood and Nick Dear, also wrote about the queen.[17] Selected cultural depictions[edit] Harriet Hosmer's Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1857) Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra by Herbert Gustave Schmalz (1888) Sculptures: Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1857) by Harriet Hosmer, exhibited at the Art Institute of Chicago.[239] Zenobia in Chains (1859) by Harriet Hosmer. Two copies were made, one exhibited at the Huntington Library and the other at the St Louis Art Museum.[240] Literature: Chaucer narrates a condensed story of Zenobia's life in one of a series of "tragedies" in "The Monk's Tale".[241][24] La gran Cenobia (1625) by Pedro Calderón de la Barca.[242] Zénobie, tragédie. Où la vérité de l'Histoire est conservée dans l'observation des plus rigoureuses règles du Poème Dramatique (1647) by François Hédelin.[243] Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra; a Narrative, Founded on History. (1814) by Adelaide O'Keeffe.[244] The Queen of the East (1956) by Alexander Baron.[245] Moi, Zénobie reine de Palmyre (1978) by Bernard Simiot.[246] The Chronicle of Zenobia (2006) by Judith Weingarten.[246] Paintings: Queen Zenobia Addressing her Soldiers by Giambattista Tiepolo; it dates to the early eighteenth century but the exact year is not known.[247] This painting (part of a series of tableaux of Zenobia) was painted by Tiepolo on the walls of the Zenobio family palace in Venice, although they were unrelated to the queen.[247] Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra (1888) by Herbert Gustave Schmalz.[248] Operas: Zenobia (1694): Tomaso Albinoni's first opera.[249] Zenobia in Palmira (1725) by Leonardo Leo.[250] Zenobia (1761) by Johann Adolph Hasse.[251] Zenobia in Palmira (1789) by Pasquale Anfossi.[247] Zenobia in Palmira (1790) by Giovanni Paisiello.[247] Aureliano in Palmira (1813) by Gioachino Rossini.[252] Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1882) by Silas G. Pratt.[253] Zenobia (2007) by Mansour Rahbani.[254] Play: Zenobia (1995), by Nick Dear, was first performed at the Young Vic as a co-production with the Royal Shakespeare Company.[255] Song: "Zenobia" (1971), written by the Rahbani Brothers and sang by Fairuz as part of the Rahbani Brothers' 1971 musical play Nas Min Waraq (people of paper).[256] Film: Nel Segno di Roma, a 1959 Italian film starring Anita Ekberg.[257] See also[edit] Crisis of the Third Century Gallic Empire Mavia (queen) Zenobia of Armenia Notes[edit] ^ "Septimius" was Odaenathus' family's gentilicium (surname) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman Severan dynasty,[3] whose emperor Septimius Severus granted the family Roman citizenship in the late second century.[4] ^ Mainly texts written in Sogdian from the Turfan Oasis; they were included in the series named Berliner Turfantexte launched in 1971.[14] ^ Both Dittenberger and von Sallet believed that Zenobia bore the gentilicium Julia Aurelia during her marriage and took the gentilicium Septimia after Odaenathus' death; von Sallet argued that the coins minted by Vaballathus in Alexandria bore the initials of the names "Julius", "Aurelius" and "Septimius", before his own name.[28] Therefore, it is apparent that Vaballathus took his maternal family's name beside his paternal one.[9] ^ The writer of the Augustan History might have based his account on the work of Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about the habits of men in "vaulted baths" and how they extol women "with such disgraceful flattery as the Parthians do Semiramis, the Egyptians their Cleopatras, the Carians [do] Artemisia, or the people of Palmyra [do] Zenobia".[10] If the Augustan History writer did indeed use the words of Ammianus, then the remark about Zenobia's supposed descent loses its merit.[10] ^ The conclusion that Callinicus meant Zenobia is based on the fact that the work was written following Palmyra's invasion of Egypt, combined with what is known about Zenobia's alleged claims of descent from Cleopatra.[34] The first scholar to suggest that, by Cleopatra, Callinicus meant Zenobia was Aurel Stein, in 1923, and his view was accepted by many other historians.[36] ^ The Roman view of Cleopatra was negative; she was portrayed as a traitorous manipulative woman who used her beauty and sex to achieve her goals.[39] ^ The Roman East traditionally included all the Roman lands in Asia east of the Bosphorus.[73] ^ A plausible scenario, according to the historian David Potter, would be that a campaign was sent in 270 by Claudius Gothicus, Gallienus' successor.[80] ^ An often-cited argument for limited territorial control is that the Antiochean Mint did not issue coins in the name of the queen or her son before 270.[82] However, in the opinion of Southern, this can be explained by the existence of Claudius Gothicus on the imperial throne, which made it unnecessary for the queen to issue coins in the name of her son.[82] After Claudius' death in 270, the imperial throne was contested by his brother Quintillus and the army candidate Aurelian, but the Antiochean mint, probably under orders from Zenobia (who apparently did not recognize Quintillus) did not issue coins for both pretenders.[82] When Aurelian prevailed, Zenobia might have found it an opportunity to declare for him; the new coins bore the picture of Aurelian but also, for the first time, Vaballathus.[82] ^ The palace was probably established by Odaenathus who crowned his son in Antioch,[82] Syria's historical capital.[85] ^ According to the Augustan History the emperor Aurelian sent a letter to the Senate saying that the Egyptians, Armenians and Arabs were so afraid of Zenobia that they did not dare revolt; however, the author does not say that the Syrians were afraid of the queen.[86] ^ Ancient sources accused Zenobia of sympathizing with the Persians, claiming that she was worshiped like the Persian leaders and drank wine with their generals;[90] however, the accusations are unfounded since Zenobia fortified the frontier with Persia.[89] ^ Although his name is only mentioned by John Malalas, archaeological evidence supports the Arabian campaign.[97] ^ Paul of Samosata is considered a heretic by mainstream Christianity, accused of denying the preexistence of Christ.[132] The earliest reference to the relationship between Zenobia and Paul of Samosata comes from Athanasius of Alexandria's fourth-century History of the Arians.[133] According to Eusebius, Paul preferred to be called "ducenarius" instead of bishop;[134][131] There is evidence that he held this rank in the service of Zenobia.[135] There is no evidence that Paul was invited to the Palmyrene court, and his relationship with Zenobia was exaggerated by later sources.[114][37] The queen may have supported him as bishop to promote religious tolerance.[114] ^ One of Statilius' inscriptions is firmly dated to spring 272, so he could have been appointed by the Romans who regained Egypt at that time.[154] ^ Many ancient writers, including John Malalas, Rufius Festus, Jordanes, George Syncellus and Jerome, mistakenly wrote that Zenobia was captured at Immae.[182] ^ Dated to 268,[201] its code in Delbert R. Hillers and Eleonora Cussini's work, titled "Palmyrene Aramaic Texts" (PAT),[202] is PAT 2827, and the inscription read: queen Zenobia.[203] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Dodgeon & Lieu 2002, p. 73. ^ Southern 2008, pp. 3, 173. ^ Shahîd 1995, p. 296. ^ Matyszak & Berry 2008, p. 244. ^ a b Sartre 2005, p. 551. ^ Edwell 2007, p. 230. ^ Stoneman 2003, p. 2. ^ Weldon 2008, p. 106. ^ a b c d Macurdy 1937, p. 126. ^ a b c d Teixidor 2005, p. 201. ^ Duruy 1883, p. 295. ^ a b c d e Millar 1993, p. 433. ^ Powers 2010, p. 148. ^ Lieu 1998, p. 37. ^ a b c Southern 2008, p. 2. ^ a b Southern 2008, p. 3. ^ a b Southern 2008, p. 16. ^ a b c d Stoneman 2003, p. 10. ^ a b c d e f Southern 2008, p. 1. ^ a b c d Bryce 2014, p. 297. ^ a b c d e Southern 2008, p. 4. ^ Ball 2016, p. 121. ^ a b c d e Stoneman 2003, p. 112. ^ a b Stoneman 2003, p. 113. ^ a b c Ball 2016, p. 85. ^ Dodgeon & Lieu 2002, p. 73. ^ a b Hartmann 2001, p. 117. ^ Macurdy 1937, p. 125. ^ a b Dodgeon & Lieu 2002, p. 371. ^ a b c 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Hawthorne, Gender, and Death: Christianity and Its Discontents. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61208-2. Wood, Mary P. (2006). "From Bust to Boom: Women and Representations of Prosperity in Italian Cinema of the Late 1940s and 1950s". In Morris, Penelope (ed.). Women in Italy, 1945–1960: An Interdisciplinary Study. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-60143-7. Young, Gary K. (2003). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Further reading[edit] Burgersdijk, Diederik, ed. (2008). Zenobia van Palmyra. Vorstin Tussen Europese en Arabische Traditie. Armada: Tijdschrift voor Wereldliteratuur (in Dutch). 53. Uitgeverij Wereldbibliotheek. ISBN 978-9-028-42256-8. Woltering, Robbert A.F.L (2014). "Zenobia or al-Zabbāʾ: The Modern Arab Literary Reception of the Palmyran Protagonist". Middle Eastern Literatures. Routledge. 17 (1): 25–42. doi:10.1080/1475262X.2014.903047. ISSN 1475-262X. S2CID 162487602. External links[edit] Zenobiaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Vaballathus and Zenobia Zenobia: empress of Palmyra (267–272) v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Palmyra Historic buildings Temples Temple of Bel Temple of Baalshamin Temple of Al-Lat Other Great Colonnade at Palmyra Roman Theatre at Palmyra Valley of the Tombs Tower of Elahbel Camp of Diocletian Canalizations of Zenobia Palmyra Castle Monumental Arch of Palmyra Harbaqa Dam Walls of Palmyra People Monarchs Odaenathus Zenobia Hairan I Vaballathus Septimius Antiochus Tribes Bene Komare Bene Ma'zin Other Maeonius Hairan II Septimius Worod Zabdas Septimius Zabbai Septimius Haddudan Society Art Palmyrene funerary reliefs Lion of Al-lāt Hypogeum of Yarhai Portraits of Odaenathus Language Palmyrene dialect Palmyrene alphabet Palmyrene (Unicode block) Religion Bel Malakbel Aglibol Yarhibol Governance Palmyrene Empire Al Fadl List of Palmyrene monarchs Palmyrene invasion of Egypt Sack of Bostra Category:Palmyra Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway United States Czech Republic Greece Israel Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1026075800" Categories: 240 births 270s deaths 3rd-century Roman women 3rd-century women rulers 3rd-century viceregal rulers Augustae Crisis of the Third Century Palmyrene Empire Roman rebels Rulers of Palmyra Septimii Thirty Tyrants (Roman) Women in 3rd-century warfare Women in ancient Near Eastern warfare Empresses regnant Monarchs captured as prisoners of war 3rd-century Semitic people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-34	----	Marcus (son of Basiliscus) - Wikipedia Marcus (son of Basiliscus) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire Marcus Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire Solidus of Emperor Marcus with his father Basiliscus. Emperor of the Roman Empire (With Basiliscus) Reign 475 – August 476 Predecessor Zeno, deposed Successor Zeno, restored Co-emperor Basiliscus Western Emperors Julius Nepos (475–476) Romulus Augustulus (475–476) Died winter 476–477 Cappadocia Names Flavius Marcus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Marcus Augustus House House of Leo Marcus (Latin: Flavius Marcus Augustus) (died 476/477) was the son of the East Roman or Byzantine general and usurper Basiliscus, and Zenonis. He was acclaimed Caesar in 475 and later promoted to Augustus, ruling as junior co-emperor to his father. When Zeno reoccupied Constantinople in late August 476, Marcus, with his parents, took refuge in a church. Zeno promised not to spill their blood, so he exiled them to Limnae in Cappadocia and subsequently starved them to death. Sources and citations[edit] Elton, Hugh (1998), "Marcus Caesar (AD 475-476)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, retrieved 23 March 2012 Martindale, John R.; Morris, John (1980), "Marcus 4", The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395–527, Cambridge University Press, p. 720, ISBN 978-0521201599 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_(son_of_Basiliscus)&oldid=1020829925" Categories: 470s deaths 5th-century Romans 5th-century Byzantine emperors 5th-century births Caesars (heirs apparent) House of Leo Byzantine junior emperors Deaths by starvation Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Italiano Македонски Nederlands Polski Português Русский Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 08:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3528	----	File:Marco Aurelio bronzo.JPG - Wikipedia File:Marco Aurelio bronzo.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 583 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 233 pixels | 640 × 466 pixels | 1,024 × 746 pixels | 1,280 × 933 pixels | 2,681 × 1,954 pixels. Original file ‎(2,681 × 1,954 pixels, file size: 1.54 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Object Author Anonymous Date circa 175 Medium Bronze Place of discovery Capitoline Museums, Rome, Italy Source/Photographer Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marco_Aurelio_bronzo.JPG Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. This applies to the European Union and those countries with a copyright term of 70 years after the work was made available to the public and the author never disclosed their identity. Important: Always mention where the image comes from, as far as possible, and make sure the author never claimed authorship. Note: In Germany and possibly other countries, certain anonymous works published before July 1, 1995 are copyrighted until 70 years after the death of the author. See Übergangsrecht. Please use this template only if the author never claimed authorship or their authorship never became public in any other way. If the work is anonymous or pseudonymous (e.g., published only under a corporate or organization's name), use this template for images published more than 70 years ago. For a work made available to the public in the United Kingdom, please use Template:PD-UK-unknown instead. Photograph DescriptionMarco Aurelio bronzo.JPG English: Marco Aurelio's original statue. Français : Statue équestre de Marc Aurèle, original déposé au Musée du Capitole à Rome. Italiano: Statua Originale di Marco Aurelio che campeggiava nella piazza del campidoglio e che ora è stata spostata all'interno dei musei capitolini. 中文：马可·奥勒留策马像。 文言: 羅馬帝奧勒留氏策馬像。 Source Own work Author Zanner Other versions Derivative works of this file:  Marco Aurelio bronzo (cropped).JPG Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse I, the copyright holder of this work, release this work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: I grant anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 14:29, 27 December 2011 2,681 × 1,954 (1.54 MB) GianniG46 adjusted light levels; slightly rotated 18:39, 15 December 2007 2,816 × 2,112 (2.77 MB) Zanner {{Information |Description= |Source=self-made |Date= |Author= Zanner |Permission= |other_versions= }} File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Conservation and restoration of metals Costoboci Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on bo.wikipedia.org མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། Usage on en.wikiquote.org Endurance Usage on es.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Costobocios Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle Guerres marcomanes Projet:Aide et accueil/Twitter/Tweets/archives/avril 2021 Usage on gl.wikipedia.org Estatua ecuestre de Marco Aurelio Usage on hr.wikipedia.org Konjanički spomenik Marka Aurelija Usage on it.wikipedia.org Antonino Pio Marco Aurelio Marco Cornelio Frontone Il gladiatore Albero genealogico degli Imperatori adottivi Imperatori adottivi Musei Capitolini Erode Attico Portale:Antica Roma Faustina minore Statua equestre di Marco Aurelio Guerre marcomanniche Colloqui con sé stesso Portale:Antica Roma/L La caduta dell'Impero romano Discussioni utente:Akard/Album Arte dei primi Antonini Arte nell'età di Commodo Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla Domizia Lucilla Monetazione degli Antonini Peste antonina Marco Annio Vero (pretore) Marco Annio Vero (console 97) Età antonina Storia della letteratura latina (117 - 192) Tecnologia della civiltà romana Utente:SteveR2/Marcus Aurelius Quinto Giunio Rustico Wikipedia:Vaglio/Marco Aurelio Claudio Massimo Cronologia degli eventi principali riguardanti la vita di Marco Aurelio Pensiero di Marco Aurelio Template:Marco Aurelio Persecuzione dei cristiani sotto Marco Aurelio Marco Aurelio nell'eredità storica culturale Fonti e storiografia su Marco Aurelio Wikipedia:Vaglio/Archivio/Marzo 2014 Wikipedia:Vetrina/Segnalazioni/Marco Aurelio Wikipedia:Vetrina/Segnalazioni/Archivio/Aprile 2014 View more global usage of this file. 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Camera manufacturer Panasonic Camera model DMC-FX10 Exposure time 1/30 sec (0.033333333333333) F-number f/4.8 ISO speed rating 100 Date and time of data generation 17:42, 18 August 2007 Lens focal length 16.1 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used Ver.1.0 File change date and time 17:42, 18 August 2007 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.21 Date and time of digitizing 17:42, 18 August 2007 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 4 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 3 APEX (f/2.83) Metering mode Pattern Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB Sensing method One-chip color area sensor File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Auto white balance Digital zoom ratio 0 Focal length in 35 mm film 97 mm Scene capture type Standard Scene control None Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Normal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marco_Aurelio_bronzo.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3529	----	Category:Roman-era Stoic philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman-era Stoic philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Roman-era Stoic philosophers" The following 30 pages are in this category, out of 30 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Apollonius of Chalcedon Apollonius of Tyre (philosopher) Arius Didymus Athenodorus Cananites Athenodoros Cordylion B Quintus Lucilius Balbus C Chaeremon of Alexandria Claudius Maximus Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus D Dardanus of Athens Diodotus the Stoic E Publius Egnatius Celer Epictetus Euphrates the Stoic H Hecato of Rhodes Helvidius Priscus Herennius Senecio Hierocles (Stoic) J Arulenus Rusticus Junius Rusticus M Mara bar Serapion Marcus Aurelius Mnesarchus of Athens Gaius Musonius Rufus P Paconius Agrippinus Papirius Fabianus Q Quintus Aelius Tubero (Stoic) S Seneca the Younger Quintus Sextius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman-era_Stoic_philosophers&oldid=495444139" Categories: Stoic philosophers Roman-era philosophers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español فارسی हिन्दी Português Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2012, at 11:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3534	----	De Ira - Wikipedia De Ira From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Ira From the 1643 edition, published by Francesco Baba Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 45 De Ira (On Anger) is a Latin work by Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). The work defines and explains anger within the context of Stoic philosophy, and offers therapeutic advice on how to prevent and control anger. Contents 1 Sources 2 Dating 3 Title and contents 4 Themes 5 Later history 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Sources[edit] Seneca's main sources were Stoic. J. Fillion-Lahille has argued that the first book of the De Ira was inspired by the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus' (3rd-century BCE) treatise On Passions (Peri Pathôn), whereas the second and third drew mainly from a later Stoic philosopher, Posidonius (1st-century BCE), who had also written a treatise On Passions and differed from Chrysippus in giving a bigger role to irrational aspects of the soul.[1] However, more recent research has shown that this view of Posidonius' criticism of Chrysippus was mainly due to Galen's (our main witness for Posidonius' and Chrysippus' now lost works) systematic distorsion of their thinking, and that Posidonius' theory of emotions was actually substantially identical with that of Chrysippus.[2] In consequence, although Seneca may have used both treatises by Chrysippus and Posidonius, his main inspiration is now thought to be chrysippean.[3] Seneca may also have known works written by the Peripatetic philosopher Theophrastus, whom he takes as philosophical adversary in the first book.[1] Parallels have also been suggested with the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus,[4] who had also written a work On Anger.[5] Dating[edit] The exact date of the writing of the work is unknown, apart from an earliest date (terminum post quem), deduced from repeated references by Seneca to the episodic anger of Caligula, who died 24 January 41 AD.[6][7] Seneca refers to his brother by his native name, Novatus, rather than his adoptive one, Gallio, which he bore by 52/53 AD, suggesting the work may date from the mid 40s AD.[6] Book III begins with its own introduction on the horrors of anger,[8] and can be read on its own, which has led to suggestions that it was devised either as a later appendix to the work, or that it was a separate treatise in its own right.[9] Title and contents[edit] Ira is defined as anger, wrath, rage, ire, passion, indignation - primarily, to be angry.[10] De Ira consists of three books.[7] It is part of Seneca's series of Dialogi (dialogues).[11] The essay is addressed to Seneca's elder brother, Lucius Annaeus Novatus. The work’s first sentence reads:[6] You have asked me Novatus to write on how anger can be mitigated Although split into three books, De Ira is effectively divided into two parts. The first part (I–II.17) deals with theoretical questions, whereas the second part (II.18–III end) offers therapeutic advice.[8] The first part begins with a preamble on the horrors of anger, followed by definitions of anger. It continues with questions such as whether anger is natural, whether it can be moderate, whether it is involuntary, and whether it can be erased altogether. The second part (Book II.18 onwards) begins with advice on how the avoidance of bad temper can be taught to both children and adults. This is followed by numerous snippets of advice on how anger can be forestalled or extinguished, and many anecdotes are given of examples to be imitated or avoided. The work concludes with a few tips on mollifying other people, followed by Seneca's summing-up.[8] Themes[edit] We shouldn't control anger, but destroy it entirely—for what "control" is there for a thing that's fundamentally wicked? –Seneca, De Ira, iii.42 De Ira is written within the context of Stoicism, which sought to guide people out of a life enslaved to the vices, to the freedom of a life characterised by virtue. This is achievable by the development of an understanding of how to control the passions (Greek: pathê), anger being classified as a passion, and to make these subject to reason.[12] As a Stoic, Seneca believed the relationship of the passions to reason are that the passions arise in a rational mind as a result of a mis-perceiving or misunderstanding of reality. A passion is a defective belief,[13] they occur when the mind makes errors about the values of things.[14] Seneca states that his therapy has two main aims: one is that we do not become angry (resisting anger), and the other is that we do no wrong when we are angry (restraining anger).[15] Much of the advice is devoted to the first aim of preventing anger. Seneca does offer some practical advice on restraining anger (mostly in III.10-15) although after this he resumes his theme of preventing anger.[15] For the Stoics anger was contrary to human nature, and vengeance considered an evil, which explains Seneca's emphasis on anger prevention. The fact that he offers advice on merely restraining anger shows an awareness that his audience is one of male Roman aristocrats for whom anger was largely a part of everyday routine.[15] Later history[edit] The work survives due to being a part of the Codex Ambrosianus (no. 90) manuscript which dates from the 11th century.[16][17] References[edit] ^ a b Monteleone, Maria (2013). "De Ira". In Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. pp. 131–2. ISBN 978-9004217089. ^ Tieleman, Teun (2003). Chrysippus' On affections : reconstruction and interpretations. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004129987. OCLC 51505522. ^ Williams, Gareth D. (2006). Seeing Seneca whole : perspectives on philosophy, poetry, and politics. Leiden: Brill. pp. 59–60. ISBN 9789004150782. OCLC 290556767. ^ Fillion-Lahille, Janine (1984). Le De ira de Sénèque et la philosophie stoïcienne des passions. Paris: Klincksieck. ISBN 286563082X. OCLC 11799498. ^ Philodemus; Indelli, Giovanni (1988). L'ira : edizione, traduzione e commento (in Italian). Napoli: Bibliopolis. ISBN 8870881857. OCLC 38323927. ^ a b c Monteleone, Maria (2013). "De Ira". In Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. p. 127. ISBN 978-9004217089. ^ a b C Stark. The Self-Divided Dialogical Self in Seneca's De Ira. (Society for Classical Studies). Retrieved 2015-03-15. ^ a b c Cooper, John M.; Procopé, J. F. (1995). Seneca: Moral and Political Essays. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0521348188. ^ Monteleone, Maria (2013). "De Ira". In Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. p. 129. ISBN 978-9004217089. ^ Lewis & Short, Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University : Latin Word Study Tools - ira [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ J Sellars - Stoicism (Routledge, 5 Dec 2014) ISBN 1317493915 [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ B.Inwood - Passions and Perceptions: Studies in Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind (p.165 & 166) (Cambridge University Press, 25 Mar 1993) ISBN 0521402026 [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ R Bett - A Companion to Ancient Philosophy (John Wiley & Sons, 9 Feb 2009) ISBN 1405178256 [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ Brennan, Tad (2003). "Stoic Moral Psychology". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press. p. 276. ^ a b c Kaster, Rober A. (2012). "On Anger". Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge. University of Chicago Press. pp. 9–13. ISBN 978-0226748429. ^ Reynolds, L.D.; Griffin, M.T.; Fantham, E. (29 March 2012). Hornblower, S; Spawforth, A; Eidinow, E (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199545568. Retrieved 2015-03-15. ^ Colish, Marcia L. (1985). The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. 1. BRILL. ISBN 9004072675. Further reading[edit] John M. Cooper, J.F. Procope, (1995). Seneca: Moral and Political Essays (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521348188 Robert A. Kaster, Martha C. Nussbaum, (2012). Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748421 External links[edit] Works related to Of Anger at Wikisource Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks University of Minnesota, Morris - Selections from De Ira - (parts - 1.1 , 2.9 , 2.1 , 1.7 , 1.9 , 1.16) Full text of "Moral essays. With an English translation by J.W. Basore v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Spain France (data) United States Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Ira&oldid=1027358754" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Books about emotions Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3538	----	Category:Social critics - Wikipedia Help Category:Social critics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Social critics. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in category "Social critics" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 421 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Bijan Abdolkarimi Tomoji Abe Ansel Adams Theodor W. Adorno Giorgio Agamben Jalal Al-e-Ahmad Tariq Ali Amy Allen (philosopher) Francis Anderson (philosopher) Nina Andreyeva Ian Angus (philosopher) Giorgio Antonucci Karl-Otto Apel Jacob M. Appel Taís Araújo Hannah Arendt Aristotle Matthew Arnold Raymond Aron David Attenborough Robert Audi Armen Avanessian Averroes A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Babette Babich Marcus Bakker Mikhail Bakunin James Baldwin Roland Barthes Jean Baudrillard James K. 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en-wikipedia-org-3541	----	File:Montecitorio Panini.jpg - Wikipedia File:Montecitorio Panini.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Montecitorio_Panini.jpg ‎(574 × 364 pixels, file size: 22 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Author Giovanni Paolo Panini  (1691–1765)   Description Italian painter, architect and scenographer Date of birth/death 1691 or 1692 date QS:P,+1691-00-00T00:00:00Z/8,P1319,+1691-00-00T00:00:00Z/9,P1326,+1692-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 21 October 1765  Location of birth/death Piacenza Rome Work location Rom, Emilia Authority control : Q286670 VIAF: 95793281 ISNI: 0000 0001 2331 1299 ULAN: 500018296 LCCN: n87901560 NLA: 35722519 WorldCat creator QS:P170,Q286670 Description English: Palazzo Montecitorio by the artist Giovanni Paolo Pannini, c. 1747, from [1] Date 25 October 2006 (original upload date) Source/Photographer Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. The original uploader was Neddyseagoon at English Wikipedia. Permission (Reusing this file) This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse The author died in 1765, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. Other versions Original upload log The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. Date/Time Dimensions User Comment 2006-10-25 15:56 574×364× (22049 bytes) Neddyseagoon [[Palazzo di Montecitorio]] by the artist [[Panini]], from [http://www.artdaily.com/section/news/index.asp?int_sec=2&int_new=17902] File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 11:05, 2 July 2015 574 × 364 (22 KB) Vittalio Transferred from en.wikipedia File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius Giovanni Paolo Panini Marcus Aurelius Palazzo Montecitorio Piazza di Monte Citorio Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on el.wikipedia.org Στήλη του Μάρκου Αυρηλίου Usage on gl.wikipedia.org Palazzo Montecitorio Usage on hu.wikipedia.org Montecitorio palota Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Ջովաննի Պաոլո Պանինի Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius-søylen Usage on uk.wikipedia.org Колона Марка Аврелія Палаццо Монтечиторіо Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Usage on zh.wikipedia.org 安敦宁·毕尤柱 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Montecitorio_Panini.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3559	----	Etruria - Wikipedia Etruria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region of Central Italy This article is about the ancient region of Italy. For the district of Stoke-on-Trent, see Etruria, Staffordshire. For other uses, see Etruria (disambiguation). "Tyrrhenia" redirects here. For other uses, see Tyrrhenia (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Etruria" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The area covered by the Etruscan civilization. Etruria (/ɪˈtrʊəriə/; usually referred to in Greek source texts as Tyrrhenia, Ancient Greek: Τυρρηνία) was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria. Contents 1 Etruscan Etruria 2 Territorial subdivision of Etruria 3 Roman Etruria 4 Etruria in later times 5 Cities 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Etruscan Etruria[edit] The ancient people of Etruria are labeled Etruscans. Their complex culture was centered on numerous city-states that rose during the Villanovan period in the ninth century BC, and they were very powerful during the Orientalizing Archaic periods. The Etruscans were a dominant culture in Italy by 650 BC,[1] surpassing other ancient Italic peoples such as the Ligures, and their influence may be seen beyond Etruria's confines in the Po River Valley and Latium, as well as in Campania and through their contact with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy (including Sicily). Indeed, at some Etruscan tombs, such as those of the Tumulus di Montefortini at Comeana (see Carmignano) in Tuscany, physical evidence of trade with Egypt has been found—fine Egyptian faience cups are an example. Such trade occurred either directly with Egypt or through intermediaries such as Greek or Phoenician sailors. Rome, separated from Etruria by the Silva Ciminia, the Ciminian Forest, was influenced strongly by the Etruscans, with a series of Etruscan kings ruling at Rome until 509 BC when the last Etruscan king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was removed from power and the Roman Republic was established.[2] The Etruscans are credited with influencing Rome's architecture and ritual practice; it was under the Etruscan kings that important structures such as the Capitolium, Cloaca Maxima, and Via Sacra were realized. The Etruscan civilization was responsible for much of the Greek culture imported into early Republican Rome, including the twelve Olympian gods, the growing of olives and grapes, the Latin alphabet (adapted from the Greek alphabet), and architecture like the arch, sewerage and drainage systems. Territorial subdivision of Etruria[edit] Etruscan votive heads IV-II century BC found in various sanctuaries from Etruria Etruria is usually divided into two main territories, called Northern Etruria and Southern Etruria, to which must be added the northernmost territories, called Etruria Padana, and the southernmost territories called Etruria Campana. Northern Etruria. Much of modern Tuscany, from the Arno river to the north, the Apennines to the east, and the Albegna river to the south of Tuscany. Furthermore, the Etruscan territories up to Perugia in modern Umbria. Southern Etruria. Small portions of the most southern areas of Tuscany, all of northern and central Lazio to the gates of Rome. Etruria Padana (Padanian Etruria). Territories in Emilia-Romagna and in the southern extremity of Lombardy and Veneto, in northern Italy. Etruria Campana (Campanian Etruria). Some territories in the Campania region of southern Italy. Roman Etruria[edit] In the Augustan organization of Italy, Etruria was the name of a region (Regio VII), whose borders were the Tiber, the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Apuan Alps and the Apennines, roughly coincident with those of pre-Roman Etruria.[3] Etruria in later times[edit] The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (which existed 1569–1801 and 1814–1859) styled itself in Latin as Magnus Ducatus Etruriae (Grand Duchy of Etruria). The name Etruria was also applied to the Kingdom of Etruria, an ephemeral client state of Napoleon I of France which replaced the Grand Duchy between 1801 and 1807. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H. Lawrence's Sketches of Etruscan Places and other Italian essays. Cities[edit] Main article: Etruscan cities Latin and Italian names are given between parentheses: Arritim (Arretium, Arezzo) Atria (Adria) Caisra (Caere, Cerveteri) Clevsin (Clusium, Chiusi) Curtun (Cortonium, Cortona) Felathri (Volaterrae, Volterra) Fufluna (Populonium, Populonia) Parusia (Perusia, Perugia) Tarchna (Volscian Anxur) (Tarracina, Terracina) Tarchnal (Tarquinii, Tarquinia) Veii (Veii, Veio) Vetluna (Vetulonium, Vetulonia) Vipsul (Faesulae, Fiesole) Velch (Vulci, Volci) Velzna (Volsiniia, Volsinii) There was a period between 600 BC and 500 BC, in which 12 Etruscan city-states formed a loose confederation known as the Etruscan League. Etruscan was the official language for meetings. When Etruria was conquered by the Roman Republic, Latin became the official language. See also[edit] Padanian Etruria Etruscan history Etruscan origins Etruscan cities Etruscan civilization Etruscan society Etruscan language Etruscan mythology Kingdom of Etruria Tuscia References[edit] ^ Rix, Helmut. "Etruscan." In The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 141–164. ^ Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H., A History of Rome. Page 28. 3rd Ed. 1979. ISBN 0-312-38395-9. ^ Baracca, M. (1970). Atlante Storico (in Latin). Novara: De Agostini. p. 15. Bibliography[edit] Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (2003). The Etruscan Language: an Introduction. Manchester: Manchester U.P. ISBN 0719055407. Hall, John F., ed. (1996). Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780842523349. Chronology of Etruscan Italy, [1]. External links[edit] Look up etruria in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, by George Dennis, an overview of Etruscan civilisation "Etruria" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Etruscan-related topics History Origins Villanovan culture Padanian Etruria Founding of Rome Tyrrhenus Tyrrhenians Tarchon Caelius Vibenna Capys Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Tanaquil Servius Tullius Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Aruns (son of Tarquinius Superbus) Lars Porsena Lars Tolumnius Titus Vestricius Spurinna Culture and society Apollo of Veii Architecture Art Chimera of Arezzo Coins Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum Etruscan League Etruscan names for Greek heroes Etruscan Sibyl Extispicy Fanum Voltumnae Haruspex Jewelry Lausus Liver of Piacenza Mezentius Mythological figures Mythology Persius Poppilia Raeti Religion Sarcophagus of the Spouses Tages Terracotta warriors Titus Lartius Tomb of the Roaring Lions Vulca Military history Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC) Siege of Rome (509 BC) Siege of Rome (508 BC) Battle of the Cremera (477 BC) Battle of Cumae (474 BC) Battle of Fidenae (437 BC) Capture of Fidenae (435 BC) Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC) Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC) Battle of Populonia (282 BC) Language Alphabet Cippus Perusinus Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum Liber Linteus Pyrgi Tablets Raetic language Lemnian language Tabula Capuana Tabula Cortonensis Tyrsenian languages Spanish words of Etruscan origin English words of Etruscan origin Archeology Bucchero Cuniculi Etruscology Impasto (pottery) Monteleone Chariot National Etruscan Museum Negau helmet Portonaccio Tomb of Orcus Tumulus of Montefortini Vicus Tuscus Key sites Acquarossa Adria Aleria Baratti Bologna Caere Ceri Cerveteri Civita di Bagnoregio Clusium Cumae Etruria Falerii Fescennia Fidenae Norchia Orvieto Perusia Poggio Colla Populonia Pyrgi Rusellae San Giovenale Spina Tarquinia Tuscania Veii Vetulonia Vie Cave Volsinii Volterra Vulci Portal Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Japan Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Etruria&oldid=1028347632" Categories: Etruria Italian states Etruscan sites History of Umbria Villanovan culture Hidden categories: CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Italy articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 12:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3568	----	Galba - Wikipedia Galba From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 68 to 69 For other uses, see Galba (disambiguation). "Servius Sulpicius Galba" redirects here. For other uses, see Servius Sulpicius Galba (disambiguation). Roman emperor Galba Roman emperor Reign 8 June 68 – 15 January 69 Predecessor Nero Successor Otho Born 24 December 3 BC Near Terracina, Italy, Roman Empire Died 15 January AD 69 (aged 70) Rome, Italy, Roman Empire Spouse Aemilia Lepida Issue Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus (adopted) Names Servius Sulpicius Galba (birth) Lucius Livius Ocella Sulpicius Galba[1] Regnal name Servius Galba Caesar Augustus[2] Father Gaius Sulpicius Galba Mother Mummia Achaica Livia Ocellina (adoptive) Roman imperial dynasties Galba - Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. Laureate head right; IMP. SER. GALBA CAES. AVG. TR. P. Year of the Four Emperors Chronology Galba 68–69 Otho 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasian69–79 Succession Preceded by Julio-Claudian dynasty Followed by Flavian dynasty v t e Servius Galba (/ˈɡælbə/; Latin: [ˈsɛru̯iʊs ˈgaɫba]; 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69), known as Lucius Livius Ocella Sulpicius Galba[note 1] prior to taking the throne, was a Roman emperor who ruled from 68 AD to 69 AD. He was the first emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors and assumed the position following emperor Nero's suicide. Born into a wealthy family, Galba held at various times the positions of praetor, consul, and governor to the provinces of Aquitania, Upper Germany, and Africa during the first half of the first century AD. He retired his positions during the latter part of Claudius' reign (with the advent of Agrippina the Younger) but Nero later granted him the governorship of Hispania. Taking advantage of the defeat of Vindex's rebellion and Nero's suicide, he became emperor with the support of the Praetorian Guard. Galba's physical weakness and general apathy led to him being selected-over by favorites. Unable to gain popularity with the people or maintain the support of the Praetorian Guard, Galba was murdered by Otho, who became emperor in his place. Contents 1 Origins and family life 2 Public service 3 Emperor (June 68) 3.1 Rule 3.2 Mutiny on the frontier and assassination 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Bibliography 7 External links 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources Origins and family life[edit] Galba was not related to any of the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but he was a member of a distinguished noble family. The origin of the cognomen Galba is uncertain. Suetonius offers a number of possible explanations; the first member of the gens Sulpicia to bear the name might have gotten the name from the term galba, which the Romans used to describe the Gauls, or after an insect called galbae.[4] One of Galba's ancestors had been consul in 200 BC, and another of his ancestors was consul in 144 BC; the later emperor's father and brother, both named Gaius, would hold the office in 5 BC and AD 22 respectively.[5][6] Galba's grandfather was a historian and his son was a barrister whose first marriage was to Mummia Achaica, granddaughter of Quintus Lutatius Catulus and great-granddaughter of Lucius Mummius Achaicus;[5] Galba prided himself on his descent from his great-grandfather Catulus. According to Suetonius, he fabricated a genealogy of paternal descent from the god Jupiter and maternal descent from the legendary Pasiphaë, wife of Minos.[7] Reportedly, Galba was distantly related to Livia[8] to whom he had much respect and in turn by whom he was advanced in his career; in her will she left him fifty million sesterces; Emperor Tiberius however cheated Galba by reducing the amount to five hundred thousand sesterces and never even paid Galba the reduced amount.[9] Servius Sulpicius Galba was born near Terracina on 24 December 3 BC. His elder brother Gaius fled from Rome and committed suicide because the emperor Tiberius would not allow him to control a Roman province. Livia Ocellina became the second wife of Galba's father, whom she may have married because of his wealth; he was short and hunchbacked. Ocellina adopted Galba, and he took the name Lucius Livius Galba Ocella. Galba had a sexual appetite for males, whom he preferred over females;[5] according to Suetonius, "he was more inclined to … the hard bodied and those past their prime".[10] Nevertheless, he married a woman named Aemilia Lepida and had two sons.[11] Aemilia and their sons died during the early years of the reign of Claudius (r. 41–54). Galba would remain a widower for the rest of his life.[12] Public service[edit] Galba became praetor in about 30,[11] then governor of Aquitania for about a year,[13] then consul in 33.[11] In 39 the emperor Caligula learned of a plot against himself in which Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, the general of the Upper German legions, was an important figure; Caligula installed Galba in the post held by Gaetulicus.[14] According to one report Galba ran alongside Caligula's chariot for twenty miles.[15] As commander of the legions of Upper Germany, Galba gained a reputation as a disciplinarian.[13] Suetonius writes that Galba was advised to take the throne following the assassination of Caligula in 41, but loyally served Caligula's uncle and successor Claudius (r. 41–54); this story may simply be fictional. Galba was appointed as governor of Africa in 44 or 45. He retired at an uncertain time during the reign of Claudius, possibly in 49. He was recalled in 59 or 60 by the emperor Nero (r. 54–68) to govern Hispania.[14] A rebellion against Nero was orchestrated by Gaius Julius Vindex in Gaul on the anniversary of the death of Nero's mother, Agrippina the Younger, in 68. Shortly afterwards Galba, in rebellion against Nero, rejected the title "General of Caesar" in favor of "General of the Senate and People of Rome". He was supported by the imperial official Tigellinus. At midnight on 8 June, another imperial official, Nymphidius Sabinus, falsely announced to the Praetorian Guard that Nero had fled to Egypt, and the Senate proclaimed Galba emperor. Nero then committed assisted suicide with help from his secretary.[16][21] Emperor (June 68)[edit] Rule[edit] Obverse Portrait of Galba, AD 68–69, Roman Mint. Obverse: Laureate haed right; IMP. SER. GALBA CAESAR AVG. Reverse: Victory standing on globe left, holding wreath and palm branch; VICTORIA P. R. Upon becoming emperor, Galba was faced by the rebellion of Nymphidius Sabinus, who had his own aspirations for the imperial throne. However, Sabinus was killed by the Praetorians before he could take the throne. While Galba was arriving to Rome with the Lusitanian governor Marcus Salvius Otho, his army was attacked by a legion that had been organized by Nero; a number of Galba's troops were killed in the fighting.[22] Galba, who suffered from chronic gout by the time he came to the throne,[5] was advised by a corrupt group which included the Spanish general Titus Vinius, the praetorian prefect Cornelius Laco, and Icelus, a freedman of Galba. Galba seized the property of Roman citizens, disbanded the German legions, and did not pay the Praetorians and the soldiers who fought against Vindex. These actions caused him to become unpopular.[22] Suetonius wrote the following descriptions of Galba's character and physical description: "Even before he reached middle life, he persisted in keeping up an old and forgotten custom of his country, which survived only in his own household, of having his freedmen and slaves appear before him twice a day in a body, greeting him in the morning and bidding him farewell at evening, one by one" "His double reputation for cruelty and avarice had gone before him; men said that he had punished the cities of the Spanish and Gallic provinces which had hesitated about taking sides with him by heavier taxes and some even by the razing of their walls, putting to death the governors and imperial deputies along with their wives and children. Further, that he had melted down a golden crown of fifteen pounds weight, which the people of Tarraco had taken from their ancient temple of Jupiter and presented to him, with orders that the three ounces which were found lacking be exacted from them. This reputation was confirmed and even augmented immediately on his arrival in the city. For having compelled some marines whom Nero had made regular soldiers to return to their former position as rowers, upon their refusing and obstinately demanding an eagle and standards, he not only dispersed them by a cavalry charge, but even decimated them. He also disbanded a cohort of Germans, whom the previous Caesars had made their body-guard and had found absolutely faithful in many emergencies, and sent them back to their native country without any rewards, alleging that they were more favourably inclined towards Gnaeus Dolabella, near whose gardens they had their camp. The following tales too were told in mockery of him, whether truly or falsely: that when an unusually elegant dinner was set before him, he groaned aloud; that when his duly appointed steward presented his expense account, he handed him a dish of beans in return for his industry and carefulness; and that when the flute player Canus greatly pleased him, he presented him with five denarii, which he took from his own purse with his own hand. Accordingly his coming was not so welcome as it might have been, and this was apparent at the first performance in the theatre; for when the actors of an Atellan farce began the familiar lines "Here comes Onesimus from his farm" all the spectators at once finished the song in chorus and repeated it several times with appropriate gestures, beginning with that verse. Thus his popularity and prestige were greater when he won, than while he ruled the empire, though he gave many proofs of being an excellent prince; but he was by no means so much loved for those qualities as he was hated for his acts of the opposite character." Particularly bad was his becoming under the influence of Vinius; Laco and Icelus:"...To these brigands, each with his different vice, he so entrusted and handed himself over as their tool, that his conduct was far from consistent; for now he was more exacting and niggardly, and now more extravagant and reckless than became a prince chosen by the people and of his time of life. He condemned to death distinguished men of both orders on trivial suspicions without a trial. He rarely granted Roman citizenship, and the privileges of threefold paternity to hardly one or two, and even to those only for a fixed and limited time. When the jurors petitioned that a sixth division be added to their number, he not only refused, but even deprived them of the privilege granted by Claudius, of not being summoned for court duty in winter and at the beginning of the year."[23] In regard to his appointment of Vitellius to Lower Germany: "Galba surprised everyone by sending him to Lower Germany. Some think that it was due to Titus Vinius, who had great influence at the time, and whose friendship Vitellius had long since won through their common support of the Blues. But since Galba openly declared that no men were less to be feared than those who thought of nothing but eating, and that Vitellius's bottomless gullet might be filled from the resources of the province, it is clear to anyone that he was chosen rather through contempt than favour."[24] "He was of average height, very bald, with blue eyes and a hooked nose. His hands and feet were so distorted by gout that he could not endure a shoe for long, unroll a book, or even hold one. The flesh on his right side too had grown out and hung down to such an extent, that it could with difficulty be held in place by a bandage. It is said that he was a heavy eater and in winter time was in the habit of taking food even before daylight, while at dinner he helped himself so lavishly that he would have the leavings which remained in a heap before him passed along and distributed among the attendants who waited on him..... He met his end in the seventy-third year of his age and the seventh month of his reign. The senate, as soon as it was allowed to do so, voted him a statue standing upon a column adorned with the beaks of ships, in the part of the Forum where he was slain; but Vespasian annulled this decree, believing that Galba had sent assassins from Spain to Judaea, to take his life."[25] Tacitus (Histories 1.49) comments on the character of Galba: "He seemed too great to be a subject so long as he was subject, and all would have agreed that he was equal to the imperial office if he had never held it."[26] Mutiny on the frontier and assassination[edit] On 1 January 69, the day Galba and Vinius took the office of consul,[27] the fourth and twenty-second legions of Upper Germany refused to swear loyalty to Galba. They toppled his statues, demanding that a new emperor be chosen. On the following day, the soldiers of Lower Germany also refused to swear their loyalty and proclaimed the governor of the province, Aulus Vitellius, as emperor. Galba tried to ensure his authority as emperor was recognized by adopting the nobleman Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his successor. Nevertheless, Galba was killed by the Praetorians on 15 January.[28][29] Otho was angry that he had been passed over for adoption, and organized a conspiracy with a small number of Praetorian Guards to murder the aged emperor and elevate himself. The soldiery in the capital, composed not just of Praetorians but of Galba's legion from Spain and several detachments of men from the Roman fleet, Illyria, Britain, and Germany, were angered at not having received a donative.[30] They also resented Galba's purges of their officers and fellow soldiers (this was especially true of the men from the fleet). Many in the Praetorian Guard were shaken by the recent murder of their Prefect Nymphidius Sabinus - some of the waverers were convinced to come over to Otho's side out of fear Galba might yet take revenge on them for their connection to Sabinus.[31] According to Suetonius, Galba put on a linen corset although remarking it was little protection against so many swords; when a soldier claimed to have killed Otho, Galba snapped "On what authority?". He was lured out to the scene of his assassination in the Forum by a false report of the conspirators. Galba either tried to buy his life with a promise of the withheld bounty or asked that he be beheaded. The only help for him was a centurion in the Praetorian Guard named Sempronius Densus who was killed trying to defend Galba with a pugio; 120 persons later petitioned Otho that they had killed Galba; they would be executed by Vitellius.[32] A company of German soldiers to whom he had once done a kindness rushed to help him; however they took a wrong turn and arrived too late. He was killed near the Lacus Curtius.[33] Vinius tried to run away, calling out that Otho had not ordered him killed, but was run through with a spear.[34] Laco was banished to an island where he was later murdered by soldiers of Otho. Icelus was publicly executed.[35] Piso was also killed; his head along with Galba's and Vinius' were placed on poles and Otho was then acclaimed as emperor.[29] Galba's head was brought by a soldier to Otho's camp where camp boys mocked it on a lance - Galba had angered them previously by remarking his vigor was still unimpeded. Vinius' head was sold to his daughter for 2500 drachmas; Piso's head was given to his wife.[36] Galba's head was bought for 100 gold pieces by a freeman who threw it at Sessorium where his master Patrobius Neronianus had been killed by Galba. The body of Galba was taken up by Priscus Helvidius with the permission of Otho; at night [36] Galba's steward Argivus took both the head and body to a tomb in Galba's private gardens on the Aurelian Way.[37] See also[edit] Sulpicia gens Galba (Suessiones) Notes[edit] ^ As Pharaoh of Egypt, Galba adopted the titulary Autokrator Servios Galbas ("Emperor Servius Galba").[3] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Fasti Ostienses; AE 1978, 295 ^ Mason Hammond, "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, vol. 25 (1957), p. 24 ^ The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt. ^ Suetonius & Rolfe 2018, Life of Galba, p. 193. ^ a b c d Greenhalgh 1975, p. 11. ^ Morgan 2005, p. 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMorgan2005 (help) ^ Morgan 2005, pp. 31–32. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMorgan2005 (help) ^ Suetonius Life of Galba Chapter 23 ^ Suetonius Life of Galba Chapter 3 ^ Suetonius & Rolfe 2018, Life of Galba, p. 227. ^ a b c Lendering 2006. ^ Morgan 2005, p. 32. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMorgan2005 (help) ^ a b Greenhalgh 1975, p. 15. ^ a b Morgan 2005, pp. 33–34. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMorgan2005 (help) ^ [Suentonius "Life of Galba" Chapter 6] ^ Greenhalgh 1975, pp. 7–11. ^ To Autolycus III.27. "7 months 6 days". ^ Wilson, William (trans.) (1867). "The Writings of Clement of Alexandria". p. 444. "Seven months and six days". ^ The Jewish War IV.491. "Reigned seven months and as many days". ^ Epitome de Caesaribus 6. "Ruled seven months and an equal number of days". ^ Theophilus of Antioch (1st century) and Clement of Alexandria (2nd/3rd century) give 9 June as the beginning of Galba's rule.[17][18] Josephus (1st century) and Aurelius Victor (4th century) give 8 June.[19][20] ^ a b Donahue 2009. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDonahue2009 (help) ^ [Suetonius "Life of Galba" Chapters 4; 12-14] ^ [Suetonius "Life of Vitellius" Chapter 7] ^ [Suetonius "Life of Galba" Chapters 21-23] ^ Tacitus Histories 1.49 ^ Wellesley 1989, p. 1. ^ Plutarch 24.1: "the eighteenth before the Calends of February". ^ a b Greenhalgh 1975, pp. 30, 37, 45, 47–54. ^ Tacitus, Histories; Book I. 5-8 ^ Tacitus, Histories; Book I. 25-28 ^ Plutarch "Life of Galba" Chapters 26-27 ^ Suetonius "Life of Galba" Chapters 19-20 ^ Cornelius Tacitus (1770). The Works of Tacitus. J. and F. Rivington. p. 12. ^ [Tacitus p. 46] ^ a b Plutarch "Life of Galba" Chapter 28 ^ [Suetonius "Life of Galba" Chapters 20-21] Bibliography[edit] Donahue, John (7 August 1999). "Galba". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 25 March 2019. "Galba". The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt. Retrieved 13 March 2018. Greenhalgh, P. A. L. (1975). The Year of the Four Emperors. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 9780297768760. Morgan, Gwyn (2006). 69 A.D.: The Year of the Four Emperors. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195124682. Lendering, Jona (2006). Galba. Livius. Retrieved 30 June 2019. Tranquillus, C. Suetonius (2018) [121]. De Vita Caesarum [The Lives of the Twelve Caesars] (in Latin). Translated by Rolfe, J. C. DOVER PUBNS. ISBN 9780486822198. Wellesley, Kenneth (1989). The Long Year A.D. 69. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 9781853990496. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Galba Wikimedia Commons has media related to Galba. Primary sources[edit] Galba Conservation Project: researching Galba's heritage Life of Galba (Plutarch; English translation) Cassius Dio, Book 63 Secondary sources[edit] Galba at RomansOnline Political offices Preceded by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Aulus Vitellius Consul of the Roman Empire 33 with Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix Succeeded by Lucius Salvius Otho, and Gaius Octavius Laenas Preceded by Nero Roman Emperor 68–69 Succeeded by Otho Preceded by Gaius Bellicius Natalis, and Publius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire with Titus Vinius 69 Succeeded by Otho, and Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus II v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-3577	----	Victory column - Wikipedia Victory column From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Monument in the form of a column 19th-century comparison between the Alexander Column, the Column of the Grande Armée, Trajan's Column, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, and "Pompey's Pillar" A victory column, or monumental column or triumphal column, is a monument in the form of a column, erected in memory of a victorious battle, war, or revolution. The column typically stands on a base and is crowned with a victory symbol, such as a statue. The statue may represent the goddess Victoria; in Germany, the female embodiment of the nation, Germania; in the United States either female embodiment of the nation Liberty or Columbia; in the United Kingdom, the female embodiment Britannia, an eagle, or a war hero. Contents 1 Monumental columns 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 Further reading 6 External links Monumental columns[edit] Image Date Monument City Location Height above ground Comment 478 BC Serpent Column Istanbul Hippodrome of Constantinople 8 m Originally part of a tripod at Delphi 115 BC Heliodorus Pillar Vidisha Madhya Pradesh, Central India Erected around 113 BCE in central India in Vidisha (then known as Besnagar), by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra c. 65 Great Column of Jupiter Mainz Landesmuseum Mainz 12.5 m Replica displayed in front of the Landtag 113 Trajan's Column Rome Trajan's Forum 35.07 m[1] Internal spiral staircase, external helical frieze of reliefs. Tomb of the honorand, Trajan. Archetype of victory column. 161 Column of Antoninus Pius Rome Campus Martius 14.75 m Monolithic granite column shaft, c. 14.8 m. Only the base now survives. Before 193 Column of Marcus Aurelius Rome Piazza Colonna 39.72 m[1] Internal spiral staircase, external helical frieze of reliefs. Directly modelled on Trajan's Column c. 200 Column at the end of the Via Appia Brindisi Near the port 18.74 m Between 268 and 337 Column of the Goths Istanbul Gülhane Park 18.5 m 298-302 Pompey's Pillar Alexandria Serapeum of Alexandria 26.85 m[2] Entirely unconnected with Pompey. Dedicated to Diocletian by Aelius Publius, the governor of Aegyptus, between 298 and 302. Monolithic granite column shaft, 20.75 m. Corinthian capital. Originally topped with a statue of the augustus in porphyry, c. 7 m. Possibly accompanied by smaller columns honouring of Diocletian's co-emperors. 11 May 330 Column of Constantine Istanbul Forum of Constantine, Çemberlitaş, Fatih 35 m Upper portion of the column has not survived. 330-400 Column of Phocas Rome Roman Forum 13.6 m Column originally fourth century, Constantinian dynasty or after; imitating the Column and Forum of Constantine in Constantinople. Monolithic fluted marble column shaft. Corinthian capital. Rededicated to Phocas by Smaragdus, the Exarch of Italy, in 608 with an inscription and gilded statue of that augustus; last addition to the Forum Romanum. 386-393/'4 Column of Theodosius Istanbul Forum of Theodosius, Fatih c. 50 m Largest Roman column monument. Internal spiral staircase, external helical frieze of reliefs. Originally topped in 393/'4 with a statue of Theodosius I in bronze. The statue fell in an earthquake in 480. Rededicated to Anastasius I in 506 with a new bronze statue. Demolished 16th century; precise site in Theodoisus's Forum unknown.[3] c. 400 Iron pillar of Delhi Delhi Qutb Complex 7.12 m It was transferred from Udayagiri or Vidisha to Delhi in the 11th century by Iltutmish the Sultan of Delhi. It was originally erected by the Samrat Ashoka the Great. 401-421 Column of Arcadius Istanbul Forum of Arcadius, Fatih c. 46.1 m Internal spiral staircase, external helical frieze of reliefs. 21 monolithic column drums. Doric capital. Originally topped with a statue of Arcadius, c. 8.5 m, similar to the statue on the Column of Theodosius. The statue fell in an earthquake in 740. Demolished 1719; only the base, c. 10.5 m, survives.[4] 450-452 Column of Marcian Istanbul Forum of Marcian, Fatih c. 16.5 m (present) Dedicated to Marcian by Tatianus, prefect of Constantinople between 450 and 452. Monolithic granite column shaft, 8.74 m. Corinthian capital. Originally topped with a statue of the augustus, referred to in the inscription and lost at an unknown date. 457-474 Column of Leo Istanbul Forum of Leo Fatih 21–26 m Built in the reign of Leo I. Eight marble column drums, decorated with wreaths. Corinthian capital. Originally topped with a statue of the augustus. Destroyed before the 1540s; fragments remain in the grounds of the Topkapı Palace. The imperial statue on top may survive in Italy as the Colossus of Barletta. 543 Column of Justinian Istanbul Augustaeum, Fatih Masonry column shaft decorated with wreaths next to Hagia Sophia. Colossal equestrian statue in bronze reused from a Theodosian monument. c. 7 m statue. Column's bronze sheath removed after the Fourth Crusade's1204 Sack of Constantinople. Statue removed soon after 1453 Fall of Constantinople. Toppled by Ottomans in 1515. Socle and statue destroyed in 1529. 595 Mahakuta Pillar Mahakuta c. 850 Pillar of Eliseg Near Valle Crucis Abbey 983 Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar Shravanabelagola 2.3 m c. 1000 Bernward Column Hildesheim Hildesheim Cathedral 3.79 m 11th century Heunensäule Mainz Markt 6.4 m after 1244 Colonna di Santa Felicita Florence In front of Santa Felicita 1268[5] Columns of San Marco and San Todaro Venice Piazza San Marco Before 1333 Colonna di San Zanobi Florence Piazza San Giovanni 1338 Colonna della Croce al Trebbio Florence 1431 Colonna dell'Abbondanza Florence Piazza della Repubblica 1 March 1467 Siena Viale Vittorio Emanuele II 1548? Pestsäule Eching am Ammersee 2 m 1565 Colonna della Giustizia Florence Piazza Santa Trinita Spolia from the 3rd century AD Baths of Caracalla in Rome 1572 Colonna di San Felice Florence In front of San Felice 1572 Colonna di San Marco Florence In front of San Marco 12.9 m 1574 Alameda Hércules column. Roman columns with statues of Hercules (inspired by the Farnese Hercules) and Julius Caesar Seville In front of La Alameda, Seville 10 m 1574 Medici column Paris In front of Paris Bourse 28 m 1614 Column of Peace Rome Piazza del Esqualino, in front of Santa Maria Maggiore 42 m Spolia from the 4th century AD Basilica of Maxentius 1627 Colonna di San Domenico Bologna San Domenico 31 May 1628 Column of Infamy Genoa Piazza Vacchero 1628 Colonna dell'Immacolata Bologna 7 November 1638 Mariensäule Munich Marienplatz 1644 Sigismund's Column Warsaw Castle Square 22 m 1647 Mariensäule Wernstein am Inn 17 m Transferred from original site in Vienna in 1667. 1650 Mary Column Prague Old Town Square 16 m Destroyed in 1918 1654 Victory Column Kronach 1656 Countess Pillar Near Brougham 1666 Colonna di Sant'Oronzo Lecce Originally one of the columns at the end of the Via Appia in Brindisi 1673 Verziere Column Milan Verziere 1674 Mariensäule Freising Marienplatz 1675 Monument to Ludovico Ariosto Ferrara Piazza Ariostea 1677 The Monument London Corner of Monument Street and Fish Street Hill 62 m 1679 Beschornerkreuz Vienna Favoritenstraße Badly damaged in World War II and replaced in 1979. 1680 Dreifaltigkeitssäule Klagenfurt am Wörthersee In front of the Church of the Holy Spirit 1681 Column of the Blessed Virgin Mary Kłodzko 11.5m 1683 Dreifaltigkeitssäule Vienna Landstraße 1693 Pestsäule Vienna Graben 1694 Kolumna Maryjna Prudnik Town Square 1698 Kolumna Maryjna Międzylesie 26 July 1706 St Anna's Column Innsbruck Maria-Theresien-Straße 1714 Pestsäule Mödling 1715 Column of the Virgin Mary Immaculate Kutná Hora Šultysova street 1715? Dreifaltigkeitssäule Poysdorf 2 December 1717 Mariensäule Ochsenhausen Ochsenhausen Abbey Blenheim Column of Victory Blenheim Palace 41 m 1723 Dreifaltigkeitssäule Linz Hauptplatz 20 m 1723 Immaculata Košice Hlavná ulica 14 m 1724 Pestsäule Bleiburg 1727 Kolumna Maryjna Racibórz Town Square 14 m 1728 Colonna dell'Immacolata Palermo Piazza San Domenico 23 November 1730 Coloana Ciumei Timișoara Piața Unirii 1732 Mariensäule Aub Marktplatz 1739 Statue of St Nepomuk and Mary Timișoara Piața Libertății 9 March 1742 Pomnik Trójcy Świętej Lądku-Zdroju 7 m After 1746 Kolumna Trójcy Świętej Bystrzyca Kłodzka 10 m 1749 The Grenville Column Stowe House 1754 Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc Olomouc 35 m 1767 Burton Pynsent Monument Curry Rivel Troy Hill 43 m 1770 Eagle Column Gatchina 1778 Mariensäule Nordheim am Main 1778 Chesme Column Tsarskoye Selo Catharine Palace After 1778 Keppel's Column Near Wentworth and Kimberworth 35 m 15 August 1802 Monument to the Magdeburg Rights Kyiv Podil Raion 23 m August 1809 Nelson's Pillar Dublin O'Connell Street 40.8 m Destroyed in 1966 by Irish Republicans 1809 Nelson's Column Montreal Place Jacques-Cartier 19 m 15 August 1810 Colonne Vendôme Paris Place Vendôme 44.3 m 1811 Rostral Columns Saint Petersburg Old Saint Petersburg Stock Exchange 27 June 1811 Glory Monument Poltava 10.35 m 1814 Camphill Coumn Alnwick 1816 Column of the Duchess of Angoulême Angoulême 1816 Tenantry Column Alnwick 25 m 18 June 1816 Lord Hill's Column Shrewsbury Outside the Shirehall 40.7 m 1819 Britannia Monument Great Yarmouth 44 m 1821 Column of the Grande Armée Wimille Rue Napoleon 53 m 1823 Column of Louis XVI Nantes Place Maréchal-Foch 28 m 1823 Column of the Duchess of Angoulême Saint-Florent-le-Vieil 15 m 4 September 1823 Column of the Pope Nice 1826 Column of Charles Felix Bonneville 6 March 1829 Demidovsky Pillar Yaroslavl 12 m Dismantled 1935, rebuilt 2004. 1829 Washington Monument Baltimore Mount Vernon 54 m 1831 Duke of York Column London Corner of Regent Street and The Mall 41.99 m 1835 Admiral Hood Monument Compton Dundon 33.5 m 18 June 1832 Waterloo Column Hanover Waterlooplatz 46.31 m 1833 La Consulaire Brest Arsenal 7 m Transformed from a captured Barbary cannon. 30 August 1834 Alexander Column Saint Petersburg Palace Square 47.5 m 28 July 1840 July Column Paris Place de la Bastille 47 m November 1843 Nelson's Column London Trafalgar Square 51.6 m 25 August 1844 Column of Louis I of Hesse Darmstadt Luisenplatz 39.5 m 1845 Column of the Goddess Lille Grand Place 15.5 m 1845 Monument to the Third Council of Trent Trento North of Santa Maria Maggiore 22 December 1851 Columna de la Libertad de los Esclavos Ocaña 15 October 1854 & 1855 Prussia Columns Rügen Neukamp and Groß Stresow 15 m Dismantled for repair in 1991 and never rebuilt. 1856 Brock's Monument Queenston 56 m 8 December 1857 Column of the Immaculate Conception Rome Piazza di Spagna 11.81 m September 1858 Mariensäule Cologne 26 September 1859 Congress Column Brussels Place du Congrès 47 m 1861 Westminster Scholars War Memorial London In front of Westminster Abbey 1865 Wellington's Column Liverpool Corner of William Brown Street and Lime Street 40.2 m 8 October 1866 Mariensäule Trier Markusberg 40 m 20 February 1867 Columna de la Paz Montevideo Plaza de Cagancha 1868 Polnische Freiheitssäule Rapperswil Rapperswil Castle 1 June 1869 Soldiers' National Monument Gettysburg Battlefield 18 m 4 July 1870 Civil War Memorial Adrian Memorial Park Recycled from the Bank of Pennsylvania 1873 Mariensäule Düsseldorf Maxplatz 2 September 1873 Berlin victory column Berlin Großer Stern 66.89 m 1874 Column of Pedro IV Lisbon Rossio Square 27.5 m 4 July 1874 Soldiers and Sailors Monument Lancaster, Pennsylvania Penn Square 13 m 2 December 1874 Victory Column Schwerin 23 m 17 September 1877 Soldiers and Sailors Monument Boston Boston Common 38 m 2 September 1879 Hakenberg Victory Column Hakenberg 36 m 1880 Mariensäule Munich Pasing 1881 Soldier's Monument Davenport College Square Historic District 15.25 m 4 July 1884 Soldiers and Sailors Monument Buffalo Lafayette Square 33.7 m 1886 Ivar Huitfeldt Column Copenhagen Langelinie 1887 Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument New Haven East Rock 34 m 1888 Columbus Monument Barcelona La Rambla 60 m 24 June 1889 Column of the Plaza Bolivar Valencia Plaza Bolívar (Valencia) 1891 Alexander II Column Odessa Shevchenko Park 12.6 m 4 July 1894 Cuyahoga County Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument Cleveland Public Square 38 m 1894 Column of Alexander II Rostov-on-Don 11 m 1900 Millenium Monument Budapest Hősök tere 36 m 1904 Mariensäule Appelhülsen 5.4 m 30 October 1904 Column of Adam-Mickiewicz Lviv Stare Misto 21 m 15 November 1908 Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument Brooklyn Fort Greene Park 45 m 1909 Mariensäule Bolzano 1910 Monument to the Viscount of Mauá Rio de Janeiro Praça Mauá 8 m 16 September 1910 El Ángel Mexico City Paseo de la Reforma 45 m 1911 India de El Paraíso Caracas Intersection of Páez, O'Higgins, Teherán and Principal de La Vega 20 October 1912 Monumento a las Batallas de Jaén Jaén Parque de la Concordia 12 m 1915 Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial Put-in-Bay 107 m World's tallest doric column 1916 Columna a los Mártires Tunja Plazoleta de San Laureano 1920 Sanjan Stambh Sanjan 15 m 20 March 1921 Bromley Parish Church Memorial London Bromley 5 m 15 June 1921 Monumento a Cristóbal Colón Buenos Aires Parque Colón 26 m 1923 Colonne de la Victoire Saint-Denis Corner of the Avenue de la Victoire and the Rue de Paris 1924 Jacint Verdaguer Monument Barcelona Plaza de Mosén Jacint Verdaguer 21.6 1926 Astoria Column Astoria City Park 38 m 30 October 1932 Monumento alla Vittoria Forlì Piazzale della Vittoria 32 m 18 November 1935 Freedom Monument Riga Freedom Boulevard 42 m 1 August 1937 Meuse-Argonne American Memorial Montfaucon-d'Argonne 60 m 27 October 1938 Endless Column Târgu Jiu Ensemble 29.3 m 24 June 1941 Victory Monument Bangkok Traffic circle of Phahonyothin Road, Phaya Thai Road, and Ratchawithi Road 50m 1944 Monumento de Santiago Santiago de los Caballeros 67 m 1948 Iglica Wroclaw 96 m Originally 106 m tall 1951 Monumento aos Heróis da Guerra Peninsular Porto Rotunda da Boavista 45 m 1953 Doyle Monument Guernsey Jerbourg Point Replacing an earlier column demolished during the German occupation. 1957 Cenotaph for the Friendship Between China and USSR Lüshun 22.2 m 12 July 1975 Monas Jakarta Merdeka Square 132 m 1985 National Capitol Columns Washington, D.C. National Arboretum Originally from the portico of the United States Capitol 2001 Independence Monument Kyiv Maidan Nezalezhnosti 63 m 15 September 2003 Ángel de la Libertad Chihuahua City Plaza Mayor 35 m 2004 Column of Glory Saint Petersburg Trinity Cathedral 29 m Replaces an identical column, destroyed in 1929 27 March 2004 Thanksgiving Candle Soroca 29.5 m 15 April 2005 Cocking History Column Cocking 4.57 m 10 May 2006 Column of the Archangel Michael Sochi 20 m 23 June 2009 War of Independence Victory Column Tallinn Freedom Square 23.5 m 2010 The Four Columns Barcelona Near the Magic Fountain of Montjuïc 20 m Replace originals, which were demolished in 1928. See also[edit] Record-holding columns in antiquity List of Roman obelisks List of Roman spiral stairs List of Roman triumphal arches Iaat, near Baalbek, Lebanon. List of Roman victory columns Obelisk Rostral column Triumphal arch References[edit] ^ a b Jones 2000, p. 220. ^ Adam 1977, pp. 50f, refers to base, column shaft plus capital. ^ Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2458: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Theodosius I, emperor; later used for statue of Anastasius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Theodosius (Tauros). 386-394 and 506". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2459: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Arcadius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Arcadius. 401-21". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 13 March 2020. ^ San Marco, Byzantium and the Myths of Venice p.79 and note 10 on p.10 Bibliography[edit] Part of this page is based on the article Siegessäule in the German-language Wikipedia. Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63 (50f.), doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2458: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Theodosius I, emperor; later used for statue of Anastasius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Theodosius (Tauros). 386-394 and 506". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 8 May 2020. Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2459: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Arcadius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Arcadius. 401-21". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 8 May 2020. Jones, Mark Wilson (1993), "One Hundred Feet and a Spiral Stair: The Problem of Designing Trajan's Column", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6: 23–38, doi:10.1017/S1047759400011454 Jones, Mark Wilson (2000), Principles of Roman Architecture, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08138-3 Further reading[edit] Beckmann, Martin (2002), "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, 56 (3/4): 348–357, doi:10.2307/1192605, JSTOR 1192605 External links[edit] Media related to Triumph columns at Wikimedia Commons v t e Roman architecture lists Roman Empire Amphitheatres Aqueducts Basilicas Bridges Canals Circuses Cisterns Dams and reservoirs Domes Monoliths Public baths Roofs Spiral stairs Theatres Triumphal arches Victory columns Watermills City of Rome Aqueducts Ancient monuments Bridges Fountains Roman Forum monuments Obelisks Other countries Villas in Belgium Villas in England Villas in Wales Sites in Spain Architectural records of the Greco-Roman World Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victory_column&oldid=1021499430" Categories: Roman victory columns Monumental columns Ancient Roman architecture Lists of ancient Roman buildings and structures Stone monuments and memorials Victory monuments Types of monuments and memorials Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from February 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Čeština Deutsch Esperanto Nederlands Português Română Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 May 2021, at 01:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3584	----	Kathekon - Wikipedia Kathekon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kathēkon (Greek: καθῆκον) (plural: kathēkonta Greek: καθήκοντα) is a Greek concept, forged by the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium. It may be translated as "appropriate behaviour", "befitting actions", or "convenient action for nature",[1] or also "proper function".[2] Kathekon was translated in Latin by Cicero as officium, and by Seneca as convenentia.[3] Kathēkonta are contrasted, in Stoic ethics, with katorthōma (κατόρθωμα; plural: katorthōmata), roughly "perfect action". According to Stoic philosophy, humans (and all living beings) must act in accordance with Nature, which is the primary sense of kathēkon. Contents 1 Kathēkonta and katorthōmata 2 Indifferent things 3 Intentionality and perfection 4 References 5 Bibliography Kathēkonta and katorthōmata[edit] According to Stoic philosophy, each being, whether animate or inanimate (plant, animal or human), carries on fitting actions corresponding to its own nature. They distinguished between "kathēkonta" and "katorthōmata," a perfect action derived from the "orthos logos" (reason) (also "teleion kathēkon": a perfect, achieved kathēkon[4]). They said that the wise person, or sage, necessarily carried out katorthōmata, that is, virtuous kathēkon, and that what distinguished both was not the nature of the act, but the way it was done. Thus, in exceptional circumstances, a sage (a state of being which in Stoic philosophy is nearly impossible to achieve) could carry out a katorthōma which, according to ordinary standards, would be deemed monstruous (for example, having sexual intercourse with one's daughter, if the destiny of humanity is at stake, or mutilating oneself.[5]) Stoic morality is complex, and has various hierarchical levels. On the first, layman level, one must carry out the action corresponding to one's own nature. But, according to the Stoic strict moral ideas, the acts of a layperson are always misguided (ἁμαρτήματα hamartēmata [1] "mistakes," or peccata), while the acts of the rare sage are always katorthōmata, perfect actions. The sage acts in view of the good, while the ordinary being (layperson, animal or plant) acts only in view of its survival. However, both act according to their own nature. Indifferent things[edit] Stoic philosophers distinguished another, intermediary level between kathēkonta and katorthōmata: mesa kathēkonta, or indifferent actions (which are neither appropriate, nor good). A list of kathēkonta would include: to stay in good health, to respect one's parents, etc. Para to kathēkon, or actions contrary to befitting actions, would be the reverse of this type of actions (to insult one's parents, etc.) Intermediary actions refers to "indifferent things" (ἀδιάφορα — adiaphora), which are in themselves neither good nor bad, but may be used in a convenient way or not. Such "indifferent things" include wealth, health, etc. These are not excluded from the domain of morality as one might expect: Cicero thus underlined, in De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum (About the Ends of Goods and Evils, III, 58-59), that when the wise person acts in the sphere of "indifferent things," he still acts conveniently, according to his own nature. Intentionality and perfection[edit] Intentionality is crucial in Stoic ethics: the morality of the act resides not in the act itself, but in the intentionality and the way in which it is realized, in other words, in the moral agent itself. Stobaeus defined kathēkonta as probable actions (probabilis ratio in Latin), or everything done for one reason (eulogos apologia in Greek). Cicero wrote: "quod autem ratione est, id officium appellamus; est igitur officium eius generis, quod nec in bonis ponatur nec in contrariis, in De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, III, 58. Another distinction between kathēkon and katorthōmata has been to say that katorthōmata were kathēkonta which "possessed all the numbers" (pantas apechon tous arithmous),[6] a Stoic expression meaning perfection.[7] Such a katorthōmata is done in harmony with all virtues, while the layperson may only act in accordance with one virtue, but not all of them. Stoics believe that all virtues are intertwined and that the perfect act encompasses all of them.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Nova Roma, interview of A. Poliseno, "Stoicism in Ancient Rome", ^ Section 2: Hellenistic and Roman Ethics Archived 2007-07-29 at the Wayback Machine ^ Two Concepts of Morality: A Distinction of Adam Smith's Ethics and its Stoic Origin, extract on Jstor ^ Stobaeus, in Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary, 59B. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press (SVF III, 494) ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, VII, 108-109 (SVF III, 495, 496; transl. in Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987), 59E) ^ Review of Keimpe Algra, Jonathan Barnes, Jaap Mansfeld, Malcolm Schofield, The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xix + 916. ISBN 0-521-25028-5. ^ According to Long & Sedley, the origin of this image of containing all numbers should be researched in musical harmony, Long & Sedley, 1987, 59K ^ Plutarch, On Stoic Self-Contradictions, in Moralia, 1046 E-F (SVF III, 299, 243 - see Long & Sedley, 1987, 61F) Bibliography[edit] Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kathekon&oldid=960187645" Categories: Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2020, at 15:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3597	----	Ceionia Plautia - Wikipedia Ceionia Plautia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman noblewoman Ceionia Plautia (flourished 2nd century) was a Roman noblewoman and is among the lesser known members of the ruling Nerva–Antonine dynasty of the Roman Empire. Plautia was the second daughter born to Roman Senator Lucius Aelius Caesar, the first adopted heir of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138) and Avidia. Plautia was born and raised in Rome. Her cognomen Plautia, she inherited from her mother and her grandmothers. She had three siblings: a sister called Ceionia Fabia; two brothers the Roman Emperor Lucius Verus who co-ruled with Marcus Aurelius from 161-169 and Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus. Her maternal grandparents were the Roman Senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and the surmised but undocumented noblewoman Plautia. Although her adoptive paternal grandparents were the Roman Emperor Hadrian and Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, her biological paternal grandparents were the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus and noblewoman Plautia. Plautia married Quintus Servilius Pudens consul in 166. Plautia bore Pudens a daughter called Servilia, who married Junius Licinius Balbus, a man of consular rank. Servilia and Balbus had a son called Junius Licinius Balbus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11 Second Edition. 2000 Anthony Richard Birley, Marcus Aurelius. London: Routledge, 2000. Guido Migliorati, Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Antonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi., 2003. C. Konrad, Plutarch's Sertorius: A Historical Commentary. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ceionia_Plautia&oldid=1006571526" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ceionii Plautii 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2021, at 16:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3606	----	Isaac II Angelos - Wikipedia Isaac II Angelos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1185 to 1195 and 1203 to 1204 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Isaac II Angelos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Portrait of Isaac II (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195 Predecessor Andronikos I Komnenos Successor Alexios III Angelos Reign 1 August 1203 – 25 January 1204 Predecessor Alexios III Angelos Successor Alexios V Doukas Co-Emperor Alexios IV Angelos Born September 1156 Died 25 January 1204 (aged 47) Constantinople Spouse Eirene Komnena or Palaiologina (ended 1185) Margaret of Hungary ​ ​ (m. 1185⁠–⁠1204)​ Issue 1st marriage: Anna-Euphrosyne Irene Angelina Alexios IV Angelos 2nd marriage: Manuel Angelos John Angelos Dynasty Angelos Father Andronikos Doukas Angelos Mother Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa Religion Greek Orthodox Isaac II Angelos (Greek: Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος, romanized: Isaakios Angelos; September 1156 – January 1204) was Byzantine Emperor from 1185 to 1195, and again from 1203 to 1204. His father Andronikos Doukas Angelos was a military leader in Asia Minor (c. 1122 – aft. 1185) who married Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa (c. 1125 – aft. 1195). Andronikos Doukas Angelos was the son of Constantine Angelos and Theodora Komnene (b. 15 January 1096/1097), the youngest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Thus Isaac was a member of the extended imperial clan of the Komnenoi. Contents 1 Rising by revolt 2 First reign 3 Second reign 4 Usurpers 5 Historical reputation 6 Family 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links Rising by revolt[edit] Niketas Choniates described Isaac's physical appearance: "He had a ruddy complexion and red hair, was of average height and robust in body".[1] Killing of Stephen Hagiochristophorites, c. 1473, miniature by Jean Colombe in Les Passages d'outremer [fr], BNF. During the brief reign of Andronikos I Komnenos, Isaac was involved (alongside his father and brothers) in the revolt of Nicaea and Prousa. Atypically, the Emperor did not punish him for this disloyalty, and Isaac remained at Constantinople. On 11 September 1185, while Andronikos was absent from the capital, his lieutenant Stephen Hagiochristophorites moved to arrest Isaac. Isaac killed Hagiochristophorites and took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia.[2] Andronikos was a capable ruler in some ways but was hated for his cruelty and his efforts to keep the aristocracy obedient. Isaac appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose that spread rapidly over the whole city. When Andronikos returned he found that he had lost popular support, and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Andronikos attempted to flee by boat but was apprehended. Isaac handed him over to the people of the city, and he was killed on 12 September 1185. First reign[edit] Isaac II Angelos strengthened his position as emperor with dynastic marriages in 1185 and 1186. His niece Eudokia Angelina was married to Stefan, son of Stefan Nemanja of Serbia. Isaac's sister Theodora was married to the Italian marquis Conrad of Montferrat. In January 1186, Isaac himself married Margaret of Hungary (renamed Maria), daughter of King Béla III.[3] Hungary was one of the Empire's largest and most powerful neighbours, and Margaret also had the benefit of high aristocratic descent, being related to the royal families of Kiev, the Holy Roman Empire, Italy, Provence, and earlier Byzantine dynasties. Isaac inaugurated his reign with a decisive victory over the Norman[4] King of Sicily, William II, at the Battle of Demetritzes on 7 November 1185. William had invaded the Balkans with 80,000 men and 200 ships towards the end of Andronikos I's reign. Elsewhere Isaac's policy was less successful. In late 1185, he sent a fleet of 80 galleys to liberate his brother Alexius III from Acre, but the fleet was destroyed by the Normans of Sicily. He then sent a fleet of 70 ships, but it failed to recover Cyprus from the rebellious noble Isaac Komnenos, thanks to Norman interference. This fleet was misinterpreted by many in the Holy Land as naval support for the Muslim offensive in accordance with Isaac's alliance with Saladin.[5] However the theory of a supposed alliance between Isaac and Saladin against the Third Crusade has been debunked by the historian Jonathan Harris.[6] Isaac's administration was dominated by two figures: his maternal uncle Theodore Kastamonites, who became virtually a co-emperor and handled all civil government until his death in 1193; and his replacement, Constantine Mesopotamites, who acquired even more influence over the emperor. The oppressiveness of his taxes, increased to pay his armies and finance his marriage, resulted in a Vlach-Bulgarian uprising[4] late in 1185. The rebellion led to the establishment of the Vlach-Bulgarian Empire under the Asen dynasty. In 1187 Alexios Branas, the victor over the Normans, was sent against the Bulgarians but turned his arms against his master and attempted to seize Constantinople, only to be defeated and slain[4] by Isaac's brother-in-law Conrad of Montferrat. Also in 1187 an agreement was made with Venice, in which the Venetian Republic would provide between 40 and 100 galleys at six months' notice in exchange for favorable trading concessions. Because each Venetian galley was manned by 140 oarsmen, there were about 18,000 Venetians still in the Empire even after Manuel I's arrests.[7] The Emperor's attention was next demanded in the east, where several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In 1189 the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa sought and obtained permission to lead his troops on the Third Crusade through the Byzantine Empire.[4] But Isaac was suspicious that Barbarossa wished to conquer Byzantium: the reasons for this suspicious attitude were the diplomatic contact of Frederick with the Bulgarians and the Serbians, foes of the Byzantine Empire during this period, also Barbarossa's previous feud with Manuel. The rumors of 1160s about a German invasion in the Byzantine Empire were still remembered in the Byzantine court during Isaac’s reign.[8] In retaliation Barbarossa's army occupied the city of Philippopolis and defeated a Byzantine army of 3,000 men that attempted to recapture the city.[9] The Byzantine troops managed to constantly and successfully harass the Crusaders but a group of Armenians revealed to the Germans the strategic plan of the Byzantines. The Crusaders, who outnumbered the Byzantines, caught them unprepared and defeated them.[10] Thus compelled by force of arms, Isaac II was forced to fulfill his engagements[4] in 1190, when he released imprisoned German emissaries who were held in Constantinople, and exchanged hostages with Barbarossa, as a guarantee that the crusaders would not sack local settlements until they departed the Byzantine territory. In March 1190, Barbarossa left Adrianople to Gallipoli at the Dardanelles to embark to Asia Minor.[11] By 1196, Isaac II had allowed the once powerful Byzantine navy to decline to only 30 galleys. The next five years were disturbed by continued warfare with Bulgaria, against which Isaac led several expeditions in person.[4] In spite of their promising start these ventures had little effect, and on one occasion in 1190 Isaac barely escaped with his life. The Byzantines suffered yet another major defeat in the battle of Arcadiopolis in 1194. Isaac organized yet another offensive against Bulgaria in 1195 in cooperation with the Kingdom of Hungary, but Alexios Angelos, the Emperor's older brother, taking advantage of Isaac's absence from camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor and was readily recognised by the soldiers as Emperor[4] Alexios III. Alexios then canceled the expedition. Isaac was blinded and imprisoned in Constantinople.[4] Second reign[edit] After eight years of captivity, Isaac II was raised from the dungeon to the throne once more[4] after the arrival of the Fourth Crusade and the flight of Alexios III from the capital. Both his mind and body had been enfeebled by confinement,[4] and his son Alexios IV Angelos was associated on the throne as the effective monarch. Heavily beholden to the crusaders, Alexios IV was unable to meet his obligations and his vacillation caused him to lose the support of both his crusader allies and his subjects. At the end of January 1204 the influential court official Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos took advantage of riots in the capital to imprison Alexios IV and seize the throne as Emperor Alexios V. At this point Isaac II died, allegedly of shock, while Alexios IV was strangled on 8 February. Usurpers[edit] Several pretenders rose up and attempted to wrest the throne from Isaac during his reign. These included: Alexios Branas Theodore Mangaphas Pseudo-Alexios II Basil Chotzas – initiated a rebellion at Tarsia, near Nicomedia. Initially he had some success, but before long he was seized, blinded, and cast into prison.[12] Isaac Comnenus (nephew of Andronicus I Comnenus) – escaped from prison and fled to Hagia Sophia, where he proceeded to incite a mob. Eventually captured, he was suspended in the air and tortured in order to obtain the names of his accomplices. His internal organs suffered severe damage and he died the next day.[12] Constantine Tatikios – secretly established a group of 500 individuals who hid in Constantinople. Though they managed to escape detection for some considerable time, he was informed against, captured, and blinded.[12] Historical reputation[edit] Isaac has the reputation as one of the most unsuccessful rulers to occupy the Byzantine throne.[4] Surrounded by a crowd of slaves, mistresses, and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the money wrung from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive gifts to the churches of his metropolis.[4] In 1185, the Empire lost Lefkada, Kefallonia, and Zakynthos to the Normans. In the same year the Vlach – Bulgarian Empire was restored after the rebellion of the brothers Asen and Peter, thus losing Moesia and parts of Thrace and Macedonia. After that Cilicia was retaken by the Armenians, and Cyprus wrested from the empire by the Franks. Family[edit] Isaac II's first wife's name, Herina (i.e., Irene), is found on the necrology of Speyer Cathedral, where their daughter Irene is interred. [13][14] Isaac's wife was possibly the daughter of Andronikos I Komnenos, Byzantine Emperor (died 1185). A potential foreign origin is also given to her due to having the same name as her daughter, contrary to long-standing Greek custom. Their third child was born in 1182 or 1183 and she was dead or divorced by 1185, when Isaac remarried. Their children were: Anna-Euphrosyne Angelina, married to Roman the Great. Irene Angelina, married first to Roger III of Sicily and secondly to Philip of Swabia. Isaac is the ancestor of all European monarchs now reigning through Irene's children by Philip. Alexios IV Angelos. By his second wife, Margaret of Hungary (who took the baptismal name "Maria"), Isaac II had two sons: Manuel Angelos (b. after 1195 – d. 1212), he was evidently the elder son, being contemplated in 1205 to ascend the Byzantine throne[15] John Angelos (b. ca. 1193 – d. 1259). He migrated to Hungary and ruled over Syrmia and Bacs (1227–42) as a vassal of king Béla IV of Hungary. See also[edit]  Byzantine Empire portal References[edit] ^ Choniates, Nicetas (1984). O city of Byzantium : annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Translated by Magoulias, Harry J. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0814317642. OCLC 10605650. ^ Harris 2007, p. 71. ^ Burkhardt 2016, p. 50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Isaac II. (Angelus)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 858. ^ Brand, Charles M. (1962). "The Byzantines and Saladin, 1185-1192: Opponents of the Third Crusade". Speculum. 37 (2): 167–181. doi:10.2307/2849946. JSTOR 2849946. ^ Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades (Second ed.). London: Bloomsbury. pp. 140–141. ISBN 9781780937366. OCLC 891400633. ^ J. Norwich, A History of Venice, 121 ^ Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades (Second ed.). London: Bloomsbury. p. 142. ISBN 9781780937366. OCLC 891400633. ^ W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 658 ^ Choniates, Nicetas (1984). O city of Byzantium : annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Translated by Magoulias, Harry J. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0814317642. OCLC 10605650. ^ Freed 2016, pp. 494–504. ^ a b c Harry J. Magoulias, 'O city of Byzantium: annals of Niketas Choniatēs', Wayne State University Press, 1984, pg 233 ^ Klaniczay, Gabor. Holy Rulers and Blessed Princesses: Dynastic Cults in Medieval Central Europe. Translated by Eva Palmai. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 99-100. ^ The first wife of Isaac II is usually considered to be a Byzantine noblewoman of unknown name. In an Italian edition of the chronicle of Nicetas Choniates "Greatness and catastrophe of Byzantium" can be found an interesting note to the XIV Book. The names of Isaac II's first wife and eldest daughter, unknown from Byzantine sources, are found in an obituary in the Cathedral of Speyer, the pantheon of German kings. Here, the wife of Philip of Swabia is said to be the daughter of Isaac and Irene (there is reference to the following article: R. Hiestand, Die erste Ehe Isaaks II. Angelos und seine Kinder, in Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen Byzantinisk, XLVII 1997 pp. 199–208). This Irene could be identified with the daughter of George Paleologus Ducas Comnenus; the son of this one, Andronicus Paleologus Comnenoducas is known as gambrox (gamma alpha mu beta rho o x) of Isaac II. ^ Rodd, Rennell. The Princes of Achaia and the Chronicles of Morea: A Study of Greece in the Middle Ages. 1. Sources[edit] Angold, Michael, The Byzantine Empire: A Political History, 1025–1204, 2nd edition (London and New York, 1997) Brand, Charles M. (1968). Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180–1204. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. LCCN 67-20872. OCLC 795121713. Burkhardt, Stefan (2016). "Between empires: South-eastern Europe and the two Roman Empires in the Middle Ages". In Jaritz, Gerhard; Szende, Katalin (eds.). Medieval East Central Europe in a Comparative Perspective: From Frontier to Lands in Focus. Routledge. Nicetas Choniates, Historia, ed. J.-L. Van Dieten, 2 vols. (Berlin and New York, 1975); trans. as O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, by H. J. Magoulias (Detroit; Wayne State University Press, 1984). Freed, John (2016). Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-122763. Harris, Jonathan (2007). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Hambledon Continuum. Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades (London: Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014). ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Harris, Jonathan, 'Collusion with the infidel as a pretext for military action against Byzantium', in Clash of Cultures: the Languages of Love and Hate, ed. Sarah Lambert and Helen Nicholson (Turnhout, 2012), pp. 99–117 Head, C. (1980) Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing, Byzantion, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1980), Peeters Publishers, pp. 226–240 Hiestand, Rudolf, 'Die Erste Ehe Isaaks II Angelus und Seine Kinder', Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen Byzantinistik, 47 (1997). Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. McDaniel, Gordon L. (1984). "On Hungarian-Serbian Relations in the Thirteenth Century: John Angelos and Queen Jelena" (PDF). Ungarn-Jahrbuch. 12 (1982–1983): München, 1984: 43–50. Moravcsik, Gyula (1970). Byzantium and the Magyars. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade – A New Annotated Translation". Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. pp. 807–840. OCLC 834784665. External links[edit] Foreign policy of the Angeli from A History of the Byzantine Empire by Al. Vasilief Isaac II Angelos Angelid dynasty Born: September 1156 Died: January 1204 Regnal titles Preceded by Andronikos I Komnenos Byzantine emperor 1185–1195 Succeeded by Alexios III Angelos Preceded by Alexios III Angelos Byzantine emperor 1203–1204 with Alexios IV Angelos (1203–1204) Succeeded by Alexios V Doukas v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Italy Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isaac_II_Angelos&oldid=1027192449" Categories: Angelid dynasty 12th-century Byzantine emperors 13th-century Byzantine emperors 1156 births 1204 deaths Christians of the Third Crusade Christians of the Fourth Crusade Eastern Orthodox monarchs Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2020 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter CS1: long volume value CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3613	----	Category:121 births - Wikipedia Help Category:121 births From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to 121 births. Biography portal People born in the year AD 121. See also: 121 deaths. 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 70s 80s 90s 100s 110s 120s 130s 140s 150s 160s 170s Pages in category "121 births" This category contains only the following page. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). M Marcus Aurelius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:121_births&oldid=1023397909" Categories: 120s births Births by year 121 beginnings Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 May 2021, at 05:21 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3620	----	Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Five Good Emperors) Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors from AD 96 to 192 "Antonine" redirects here. For people with the name, see Antonine (name). "Antonines" redirects here. For the Catholic order, see Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony. Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e The Nerva–Antonine dynasty was a dynasty of 7 Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from AD 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus. The first of these before Commodus (and excluding the co-emperor Lucius Verus) are commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors". The first five of the six successions within this dynasty were notable in that the reigning Emperor did not have male son, and had to adopt the candidate of his choice to be his successor. Under Roman law, an adoption established a bond legally as strong as that of kinship. Because of this, all but the first and last of the Nerva–Antonine emperors are called Adoptive Emperors. The importance of official adoption in Roman society has often been considered[1] as a conscious repudiation of the principle of dynastic inheritance and has been deemed one of the factors of the period's prosperity. However, this was not a new practice. It was common for patrician families to adopt, and Roman emperors had adopted heirs in the past: the Emperor Augustus had adopted Tiberius and the Emperor Claudius had adopted Nero. Julius Caesar, dictator perpetuo and considered to be instrumental in the transition from Republic to Empire, adopted Gaius Octavius, who would become Augustus, Rome's first emperor. Moreover, there was a family connection as Trajan adopted his first cousin once removed and great-nephew by marriage Hadrian, and Hadrian made his half-nephew by marriage and heir Antoninus Pius adopt both Hadrian's second cousin three times removed and half-great-nephew by marriage Marcus Aurelius, also Antoninus' nephew by marriage, and the son of his original planned successor, Lucius Verus. The naming of his son Commodus as heir by Marcus Aurelius was considered to be an unfortunate choice and the beginning of the Empire's decline.[2] With Commodus' murder in 192, the Nerva–Antonine dynasty came to an end; it was followed by a period of turbulence known as the Year of the Five Emperors. Contents 1 History 1.1 Nerva–Trajan dynasty 1.2 Antonine dynasty 2 Five Good Emperors 2.1 Alternative hypothesis 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 References History[edit] Nerva–Trajan dynasty[edit] Nerva was the first of the dynasty.[3] Though his reign was short, it saw a partial reconciliation between the army, the senate and the commoners. Nerva adopted as his son the popular military leader Trajan. In turn, Hadrian succeeded Trajan; he had been the latter's heir presumptive and averred that he had been adopted by him on Trajan's deathbed. Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antonine dynasty[edit] The Antonines are four Roman Emperors who ruled between 138 and 192: Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus and Commodus. In 138, after a long reign dedicated to the cultural unification and consolidation of the empire, the Emperor Hadrian named Antoninus Pius his son and heir, under the condition that he adopt both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Hadrian died that same year, and Antoninus began a peaceful, benevolent reign. He adhered strictly to Roman traditions and institutions and shared his power with the Roman Senate. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus succeeded Antoninus Pius in 161 upon that emperor's death, and co-ruled until Verus' death in 169. Marcus continued the Antonine legacy after Verus' death as an unpretentious and gifted administrator and leader. He died in 180 and was followed by his biological son, Commodus. Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Five Good Emperors[edit] The rulers commonly known as the "Five Good Emperors" were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[4] The term was coined by Niccolò Machiavelli in his posthumously published book The Discourses on Livy from 1531: From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.[5] Machiavelli argued that these adopted emperors earned the respect of those around them through good governing: Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate.[5] Edward Gibbon wrote in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that their rule was a time when "the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue".[6] Gibbon believed that these benevolent monarchs and their moderate policies were unusual and contrasted with their more tyrannical and oppressive successors. Alternative hypothesis[edit] One hypothesis posits that adoptive succession is thought to have arisen because of a lack of biological heirs. All but the last of the adoptive emperors had no legitimate biological sons to succeed them. They were therefore obliged to pick a successor somewhere else; as soon as the Emperor could look towards a biological son to succeed him, adoptive succession was set aside. The dynasty may be broken up into the Nerva–Trajan dynasty (also called the Ulpian dynasty after Trajan's gentile name 'Ulpius') and Antonine dynasty (after their common name Antoninus). Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Note: Marcus Aurelius co-reigned with Lucius Verus from 161 until Verus' death in 169. References[edit] ^ E.g. by Machiavelli and Gibbon ^ "Decline of the Roman Empire". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ "Adoptive Succession". Retrieved 2007-09-18. ^ McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D.; Buckler, John; Ebrey, Patricia B.; & Beck, Roger B. (2007). A History of World Societies (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, v–vi. ISBN 978-0-618-61093-8. ^ a b Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, Book I, Chapter 10. ^ Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, I.78. v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=1022554297#Five_Good_Emperors" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Roman imperial dynasties 1st-century Roman emperors 2nd-century Roman emperors European dynasties 96 establishments 192 disestablishments 90s establishments in the Roman Empire 2nd-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 May 2021, at 04:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3627	----	Gallic Empire - Wikipedia Gallic Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Breakaway state from the Roman Empire Gallic Empire 260 AD–274 AD The Gallic Empire under Tetricus I by 271 (in green), with the Roman Empire (in red) and the Palmyrene Empire (in yellow). Capital Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) (260–271) Augusta Treverorum (Trier) (271–274)[1] Common languages Latin (official) Regional / local languages Government Mixed, functionally absolute monarchy Emperor   • 260–269 Postumus • 269 Marius • 269–270 Victorinus • 270–274 Tetricus I • 274 Tetricus II Historical era Late Antiquity • Established 260 AD • Battle of Châlons 274 AD Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Roman Empire The Gallic Empire[a] or the Gallic Roman Empire are names used in modern historiography for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned de facto as a separate state from 260 to 274.[b] It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century, when a series of Roman military leaders and aristocrats declared themselves emperors and took control of Gaul and adjacent provinces without attempting to conquer Italy or otherwise seize the central Roman administrative apparatus.[7] It was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and (for a time) Hispania. After Postumus' assassination in 269 it lost much of its territory, but continued under a number of emperors and usurpers. It was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after the Battle of Châlons in 274. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 After Postumus 2 Causes 3 List of Gallic Emperors 4 Consuls of the Gallic Empire 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links History[edit] Origins[edit] The Roman Crisis of the Third Century continued as the Emperor Valerian was defeated and captured by the Sasanian Empire of Persia in the Battle of Edessa, together with a large part of the Roman field army in the east. This left his son Gallienus in very shaky control. Shortly thereafter, the Palmyrene leader Odaenathus gained control of a wide swath of the east, including Egypt, Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea; while he was nominally loyal to the Roman government, his domain was de facto independent and has come to be referred to as the Palmyrene Empire. The governors in Pannonia staged unsuccessful local revolts. The Emperor left for the Danube to attend to their disruption. This left Postumus, who was governor of Germania Superior and Inferior, in charge at the Rhine border. An exceptional administrator, Postumus had also ably protected Germania Inferior against an invasion led by the Franks in the summer of 260. In fact, Postumus defeated the Frankish forces at Empel so decisively that there would be no further Germanic raids for 10 years. This all would have combined to make Postumus one of the most powerful men in the western reaches of the Roman Empire. The Gallic Empire at its greatest territorial extent, after its creation by Postumus in 260. Gallienus's son Saloninus and the praetorian prefect Silvanus remained at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne), to keep the young heir out of danger and perhaps also as a check on Postumus' ambitions. Before long, however, Postumus besieged Colonia Agrippina and put the young heir and his guardian to death, making his revolt official. Postumus is thought to have established his capital here or at Augusta Treverorum (Trier);[8] Lugdunum (Lyon) was one of the most important cities in the area under his control. Postumus did not make any effort to extend his control into Italy or to depose Gallienus. Instead, he established parallel institutions modeled on the Roman Empire's central government: his regime had its own praetorian guard, two annually elected consuls (not all of the names have survived), and probably its own senate. According to the numismatic evidence, Postumus himself held the office of consul five times. Coin of Tetricus, last emperor (271–274) of the Gallic Empire Postumus successfully fended off a military incursion by Gallienus in 263, and was never challenged by him again. However, in early 269 he was challenged by Laelianus, who was probably one of his own commanders and was declared emperor at Mogontiacum (Mainz) by his Legio XXII Primigenia. Postumus quickly retook Mogontiacum and Laelianus was killed. In the aftermath of the battle, however, Postumus himself was overthrown and killed by his own troops, reportedly because he did not allow them to sack the city.[9][10] After Postumus[edit] Marius was installed as Emperor upon Postumus's death, but died very shortly after; ancient sources writing much later state that he reigned only two days, though it is more likely, based on the numismatic record, that he reigned for a few months.[11] Subsequently, Victorinus came to power, being recognized as Emperor in northern Gaul and Britannia, but not in Hispania.[12] Gallienus had been killed in a coup in 268, and his successor in the central Roman provinces, Claudius Gothicus, re-established Roman authority in Gallia Narbonensis and parts of Gallia Aquitania; there is some evidence that the provinces of Hispania, which did not recognize Postumus's successors in Gaul, may have realigned with Rome then.[12][13] Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops and used her power to influence the selection of his successor.[12] With Victoria's support, Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul that had recognized Victorinus.[14] Tetricus fought off Germanic barbarians who had begun ravaging Gaul after the death of Victorinus, and was able to re-take Gallia Aquitania and western Gallia Narbonensis while Claudius Gothicus's successor Aurelian was in the east fighting the Palmyrene Empire, now in open revolt against Roman authority under Queen Zenobia. Tetricus established the imperial court at Trier, and in 273 he elevated his son, also named Tetricus, to the rank of Caesar. The following year the younger Tetricus was made co-consul with his father, but the area under their control grew weak from internal strife, including a mutiny led by the usurper Faustinus.[14] By that time Aurelian had defeated the Palmyrene Empire and had made plans to reconquer the west. He moved into Gaul and defeated Tetricus at the Battle of Châlons in 274; according to some sources, Tetricus offered to surrender in exchange for clemency for him and his son before the battle.[14] This detail may be later propaganda, but either way, Aurelian was victorious, and the Gallic Empire was effectively ended.[14] In contrast with his propaganda after the recent defeat of Zenobia, Aurelian did not present his recapture of Gaul as a victory over a foreign enemy, and indeed many officials who had served in the army and administration of the Gallic Empire continued their careers—including Tetricus, who was appointed to an administrative post in Italy.[7] Causes[edit] The Gallic Empire was symptomatic of the fragmentation of power during the third-century crisis. It has also been taken to represent autonomous trends in the western provinces, including proto-feudalistic tendencies among the Gaulish land-owning class whose support has sometimes been thought to have underpinned the strength of the Gallic Empire,[15] and an interplay between the strength of Roman institutions and the growing salience of provincial concerns.[16] One of Postumus' primary objectives as emperor was evidently the defence of the Germanic frontier; in 261 he repelled mixed groups of Franks and Alamanni to hold the Rhine limes secure (though lands beyond the upper Rhine and Danube had to be abandoned to the barbarians within a couple of years).[17] In so doing, Postumus positioned himself avowedly as not only the defender and restorer of Gaul, but also as the upholder of the Roman name.[8][c] The usurpation of power over Britain and northern Gaul by Carausius just twenty years later reflects a continuing trend by which local loyalties from the landed aristocracy and deteriorating morale in the legions enabled Carausius to seize power in Britain.[citation needed] Similarly with the withdrawal of legions after 408, many Britons desired a localized Roman authority rather than nationalist revolt. The desire for Roman order and institutions was entirely compatible with a degree of national or regional separatism. List of Gallic Emperors[edit] The Gallic Emperors are known primarily from the coins they minted.[18] The political and military history of the Gallic Empire can be sketched through the careers of these emperors. Their names are as follows:[19] Postumus 260–269 (Laelianus 269, usurper) Marius 269 Victorinus 269–270 (Domitian II 271?, usurper)[20] Tetricus the Elder 270–274 Tetricus the Younger 270–274 (son of Tetricus; Caesar) (Faustinus 274?, usurper) Consuls of the Gallic Empire[edit] Year Consul Consul 260 Postumus (second time)[21] Honoratianus[22] 261 Postumus (third time)[21] unknown[23] 262 unknown[23] 263 264 265 Postumus (fourth time)[21] 266 267 unknown[23] 269 Postumus (fifth time)[23] Victorinus (first time)[23] 269 unknown[23] unknown[23] 270 Victorinus (second time)[21] Sanctus[23] 271 Tetricus (first time)[21] unknown[23] 272 Tetricus (second time)[21] 273 Tetricus (third time)[21] Year and sequence unknown: ? Censor (twice)[23] Lepidus (twice)[23] ? Dialis[23] Bassus[23] ? "Apr."[23] "Ruf."[23] Family tree[edit] Laelianus 269 Postumus 260-269 Marcus Aurelius Marius 269 Victoria 271 Tetricus I 271-274 Postumus Junior 260-269 Victorinus 268-271 Tetricus II 271-274 Victorinus Junior 271 See also[edit] Palmyrene Empire Roman governors of Germania Inferior Bagaudae Notes[edit] ^ The regime had no distinct name or style that has survived on official monuments, inscriptions or coins; its titles and administrative structures followed the models of the central Roman government.[2] Occasionally modern historians use the Latin phrase Imperium Galliarum to refer to the state, derived from a passage in Eutropius: Victorinus postea Galliarum accepit imperium, "Victorinus took command of the Gallic provinces".[3] ^ The year of Postumus' accession was either 259 or 260. In the past, the year 259 was favoured; today, however, most scholars consider that the summer or fall of 260 is the more likely date that Postumus was hailed emperor.[4][5] The exact dating depends on several factors, including when the emperor Valerian was captured and disgraced. Other dates cited in this article must be pushed forward by one year for those who take 259 as the year of Postumus' accession.[6] ^ Gallic emperors are called adsertores Romani nominis in the Historia Augusta. References[edit] ^ Bourne, R. J. (2001) Aspects of the relationship between the Central and Gallic Empires in the mid to late third century AD with special reference to coinage studies. Archaeopress. p. 22. ^ Drinkwater 1987, pp. 126-7. ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 15. ^ Polfer (Postumus) ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 97. ^ Drinkwater 1987, pp. 95-106. ^ a b Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). The Fall of the West. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 116–7. ^ a b Drinkwater 1987, pp. 24-27. ^ Aurelius Victor 33.8. ^ Eutropius 9.9.1. ^ Polfer, Michael (June 24, 1999). "Marius (A.D. 269)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved July 10, 2009. ^ a b c Polfer, Michel (June 3, 2000). "Victorinus (A.D. 269–271)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved July 10, 2009. ^ Weigel, Richard D. (June 19, 2001). "Claudius II Gothicus (268–270)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved July 10, 2009. ^ a b c d Polfer, Michel (January 28, 2000). "Tetricus I (AD 271–273)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved July 10, 2009. ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 239. ^ Drinkwater 1987, pp. 247-8. ^ Drinkwater 1987, pp. 226-7. ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 16. ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 102. ^ Richard Abdy. "The Domitian II coin from Chalgrove: a Gallic emperor returns to history". Retrieved 29 October 2013. ^ a b c d e f g Drinkwater (1987), p. 188. ^ Potter (2004), p. 260 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Polfer, Michel (2000), "Postumus (A.D. 260-269)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Bibliography[edit] Drinkwater, J. F. (1987). The Gallic Empire: Separatism and Continuity in the north-western provinces of the Roman Empire, A.D. 260-274. Stuttgart: Steiner. ISBN 978-3515048064. External links[edit] Gallic Consuls Gallic Empire Jona Lendering, "Gallic Empire" Gallic Empire coinage Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gallic_Empire&oldid=1016333965" Categories: Gallic Empire 260 establishments 274 disestablishments 3rd century in Roman Gaul Former empires in Europe Crisis of the Third Century Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2021, at 16:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3646	----	Theodore I Laskaris - Wikipedia Theodore I Laskaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 12th/13th-century Nicaean emperor Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theodore I Laskaris Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Portrait of Theodore I (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor in exile Reign 1205–1221 Coronation Easter Sunday 1208 Predecessor Alexios V Doukas Successor John III Doukas Vatatzes Born c. 1175 Died November 1221 (aged 46) Wives Anna Komnena Angelina Philippa of Armenia Maria of Courtenay Issue more... Irene Laskarina Maria Laskarina Eudokia Laskarina House Laskaris Father Nicholas (?) Laskaris Religion Greek Orthodox Theodore I  Laskaris or Lascaris (Greek: Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις, romanized: Theodōros Komnēnos Laskaris; c. 1175 – November 1221) was the first Emperor of Nicaea—a successor state of the Byzantine Empire—from 1205 to his death. Although he was born to an obscure Byzantine aristocratic family, his mother was related to the imperial Komnenos clan. He married a younger daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos in 1200. He received the title of despot before 1203, demonstrating his right to succeed his father-in-law on the throne. The Fourth Crusade forced Alexios III to flee from Constantinople in 1203. Theodore was imprisoned by the crusaders (commonly referred to as "Latins" by the Byzantines), but he escaped. After crossing the Bosporus into Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey), he started to organise the local Greeks' resistance against the Latins in Bithynia in his father-in-law's name. He concluded an alliance with the Seljuq Sultan of Rum, but he could not stop the Latins' expansion. Neither could he prevent a claimant to the imperial throne, Alexios Komnenos, from establishing a Byzantine successor state, the Empire of Trebizond, in northern Asia Minor. Theodore's position consolidated only after Tzar Kaloyan of Bulgaria inflicted a crushing defeat on the Latins in the Battle of Adrianople (in Thrace) in 1205. Greeks fleeing from the Latin Empire—the crusader state that emerged in the Byzantine core territories—swarmed to Asia Minor to live under Theodore's rule. The Latins captured Theodore's father-in-law and made an alliance with Alexios I of Trebizond, but Theodore routed their united troops. He secured the support of most Bithynian aristocrats and seized the domains of those who resisted him. In 1205, he assumed the traditional titles of the Byzantine emperors. Three years later, he convoked a Church council to elect a new Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople. The new patriarch crowned Theodore emperor and established his seat at Theodore's capital, Nicaea. The Orthodox population of the Latin Empire regarded Theodore as the main defender of their Church, but the rulers of Epirus—a realm that developed in the western regions of the Byzantine Empire—debated the legality of his coronation. Theodore's father-in-law did not abandon his claim to the throne. After being released from prison, Alexios III persuaded the Seljuqs to invade Nicaea, but Theodore defeated them in 1211. The Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders captured important fortresses in western Asia Minor in 1212, but he ran out of soldiers and could not place garrisons in them. Henry implicitly acknowledged the existence of the Empire of Nicaea in his peace treaty with Theodore. Theodore conquered western Paphlagonia on the Black Sea coast from Alexios I of Trebizond. Around 1220, Theodore tried to persuade the Latins of Constantinople to acknowledge his rule, but they refused. Theodore established a powerful state, located in the vicinity of Constantinople, which enabled his successors to expel the Latins from the city and revive the Byzantine Empire in 1261. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Parentage 1.2 Early career 1.3 Fall of Constantinople 1.4 Resistance 2 Reign 2.1 Coronation 2.2 Wars 2.3 Consolidation 3 Legacy 4 Family 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading Early life[edit] Parentage[edit] Theodore Komnenos Laskaris was born to a noble, but not particularly renowned, Byzantine family around 1175.[note 1][1] His parents' names are unknown. If Theodore followed the Byzantine custom of giving his father's name to his firstborn son, his father was called Nicholas.[2] Theodore's mother belonged to an unidentified branch of the imperial Komnenos family and he proudly adopted her surname.[3][4] Theodore had no less than six brothers—Constantine, George, Alexios, Isaac, Manuel and Michael. Manuel and Michael must have been born to a different mother, as they bore the surname Tzamantouros instead of Komnenos.[2] Theodore was also related to the aristocratic Phokas family, most likely through the marriage of one of his aunts.[5] The Laskaris held estates in western Asia Minor.[5] Both Theodore and his brother, Constantine, had a seal representing Saint George and bearing the inscription Diasorites.[5][6] The seal expressed their connection to the monastery of Saint George Diasorites, located in Pyrgion in the valley of the river Kaistros.[5][7] Early career[edit] The contemporaneous historian Niketas Choniates introduced Theodore as a "daring youth and fierce warrior" in his chronicle.[8] The slightly later historian George Akropolites recorded that Theodore was "small in body but not excessively so, quite dark, and had a flowing beard forked at the end".[9] Theodore rose to prominence through his family ties with the Komnenoi. His first extant seal mentions his titles of sebastos and protovestiarites. The first one was a court title, originally reserved for the Byzantine emperors' relatives, but Emperor Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) started to sell it to wealthy merchants.[10] As protovestiarites, Theodore was the commander of a cadet unit of the guards of the imperial palace.[11] Emperor Alexios III, who had no sons, wanted to solve the problem of succession by marrying off his two eldest daughters.[8] Late in 1200, he gave his firstborn daughter, Irene, in marriage to Alexios Palaiologos, and her younger sister, Anna, to Theodore.[8] Palaiologos was elevated to the rank of despot, demonstrating his right to succeed his father-in-law on the throne.[8] When Palaiologos died before 1203, Theodore received the title of despot.[8] Fall of Constantinople[edit] Crusaders besieging Constantinople in 1204. To seize the Byzantine throne, Emperor Alexios III had blinded and imprisoned his elder brother, Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195).[12][13] Isaac's son, Alexios, fled from Constantinople to Germany to seek his Catholic relatives' assistance. He concluded an agreement with the leaders of the Fourth Crusade, promising a large sum, 800,000 hyperpyra, for their support.[14] The crusaders reached Constantinople and captured Pera on the opposite coast of the Golden Horn on 6 July 1203.[12] Theodore conducted raids against the invaders, but they laid siege to the Byzantine capital.[15] The walls of Constantinople were vulnerable, and Alexios III fled in panic to Thrace during the night of 17–18 July. He drained the treasury and took the imperial insignia with him.[14][16] Isaac II was released and his son was crowned his co-emperor as Alexios IV.[16] Theodore was imprisoned after his father-in-law's flight, but he escaped in September 1203.[16][17] The details of his escape are unknown, but Choniates stated that Theodore left Constantinople "armed only with practical wisdom and a brave spirit".[18][19] For a while, Theodore was hiding in a church dedicated to Saint Michael.[18] Theodore himself claimed that God "miraculously removed" him from the prison and guided him across the Bosporus to Asia Minor. His wife and daughters accompanied him.[18] They reached Nicaea, but the burghers of the town only admitted his family, because they feared Alexios IV's revenge.[20] Theodore, as he later remembered, moved "from one region to another", avoiding the traps that his (unidentified) enemies laid for him.[21] Alexios IV could not pay off the crusaders. They refused to leave Constantinople and raided and plundered the nearby Thracian villages. The Byzantines blamed Alexios IV for the crusaders' acts. The army rebelled and proclaimed the general Alexios Mourtzouphlos Doukas emperor on 28 January 1204.[16][22] Isaac II had already died, and the new emperor had Alexios IV murdered, providing the crusaders with an excuse to lay siege to Constantinople again.[16] When they breached the walls on 12 April, Alexios V fled.[23] A group of burghers offered the imperial crown to Theodore's brother, Constantine, but he rejected it.[23][24] The crusaders captured Constantinople and plundered it completely.[25] Although the Byzantine capital fell to the crusaders, neither Alexios III Angelos nor Alexios V Doukas abandoned their claim to the throne. A third claimant soon appeared on the scene: a grandson of Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos (r. 1183–1185), Alexios, seized Trebizond on the Black Sea coast in Asia Minor and assumed the title of emperor.[26] The crusaders elected one of their leader, Baldwin of Flanders, emperor in May 1204.[27] Resistance[edit] Theodore's realm 1205. By the time of Theodore's arrival, Asia Minor had been a centre of uprisings against the imperial government for decades.[28] A rebellious magnate, Theodore Mangaphas, held Philadelphia; another aristocrat, Sabas Asidenos, ruled Sampson; and Nikephoros Kontostephanos controlled the lands on the upper course of the Maeander River.[29] Theodore appeared as his father-in-law's representative and secured the Bithynian towns' loyalty in Alexios III's name until the end of 1204.[17][29][30] The local Greeks acknowledged him as the strategos (or military leader) of Bithynia.[31] He established his seat in Prussa,[32] but he made frequent journeys to attend assemblies and dinners, encouraging the local Greeks' resistance against the "Latins", as the crusaders were universally called. He also took control of state revenues, and he could offer money to the Seljuq Sultan of Rum, Rukn al-Din Suleiman II, in return for his assistance against the Latins.[21] Suleiman II died and his underage son, Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan III, succeeded him in June 1204.[29] The crusaders set up a commission to distribute the Byzantine territories among them in September.[33] In Asia Minor, the "duchy of Nicaea" was granted to Louis I, Count of Blois, and the "duchy of Philadelphia" to Stephen of Perche, although the Latins had not conquered these lands.[21] The Venetians seized the port of Lampsacus on the Asian side of the Hellespont and a French knight, Peter of Bracieux, captured the nearby Pegai.[21] Emperor Alexios I of Trebizond's brother and co-emperor, David Komnenos, launched a military campaign into Paphlagonia and occupied the towns along the Black Sea coast.[34] His conquest facilitated Bracieux's invasion of Bithynia. He routed Theodore at Poemanenum on 6 December.[34][35] After his victory, Bracieux seized Bithynian forts.[35] The Latins captured and publicly executed Alexios V in Constantinople. They also arrested Alexios III in Thessaly, forcing him to cede the imperial insignia to them early in 1205. A grandson of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), Manuel Maurozomes, and Maurozomes's son-in-law, the deposed Sultan of Rum, Ghiyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw I, came to Nicaea.[35] Theodore detained them,[35] but he soon concluded an agreement with them.[29] He lent money to Kaykhusraw to regain his throne in return for his promise of military support.[29] Kaykhusraw and Maurozomes hurried to Konya, the capital of Rum. They dethroned the underage Kilij Arslan in Kaykhusraw's favor in March 1205.[29][35] By the end of 1204, the Latins had captured Thrace, Thessaly and northern Greece.[36] Emperor Alexios III's cousin, Michael Doukas, who organised the Greeks' resistance in Epirus, was forced to swear fealty to Pope Innocent III to secure his protection. Emperor Baldwin dispatched his brother, Henry, to conquer Asia Minor early in 1205.[34] Henry defeated Theodore Mangaphas and Theodore Laskaris' brother, Constantine, in the Battle of Adramyttion on 19 March 1205.[35] The Latins could not follow up their victory, because Tzar Kaloyan of Bulgaria stirred up a rebellion in Thrace and invaded the province.[32][37] Kaloyan's invasion forced Emperor Baldwin to withdraw his knights from Anatolia.[32][35] Kaloyan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Latin army in the Battle of Adrianople on 14 April 1205.[35] Louis of Blois and Stephen of Perche perished in the battlefield.[35] Baldwin was captured and died in captivity in Bulgaria.[38][39] Theodore emerged as the main beneficiary of Kaloyan's victory.[34][40] The Latins' defeat revealed the fragility of their rule,[38] and secured Theodore's position.[41] Taking advantage of the moment, he expelled the Latin garrisons from most Anatolian fortresses,[42] and transferred his capital from Prussa to Nicaea.[40] Greeks were swarming to his realm from the European territories under Latin rule.[42] Mangaphas ceded Philadelphia to Theodore, and Asidenos's lands were also absorbed into Theodore's realm.[note 2][43][34] The local aristocrats supported Theodore against the rebellious magnates, and he awarded them with court titles.[44] Theodore extracted an oath of fealty from Michael I of Epirus's brother, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who had settled in Asia Minor, before allowing him to leave for Epirus.[45] Reign[edit] Coronation[edit] Ruins of the walls of Nicaea. David Komnenos dispatched an army to Bithynia, but Theodore defeated the invaders and their Latin allies at Nicomedia.[35][46] Sultan Kaykhusraw I sent Seljuq troops to his father-in-law, Maurozomes, to invade the valley of the Maeander River in the spring of 1205, but they were soon defeated.[46][47] Theodore made a peace with Maurozomes, allowing him to rule two fortresses, Chonae and Laodicea on the Lycus, as the Sultan's lieutenant.[46][47] Theodore assumed the title of emperor early in 1205—either after his victory at Nicomedia or after his peace treaty with Maurozomes.[42][43][46] His new title was an open challenge to the legitimacy of the Latin emperor in Constantinople; therefore, the Latins regarded him as an usurper, unlawfully ruling territories of their empire.[30] Many Greeks also refused to recognize Theodore's claim to the emperorship because only coronation by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople could legalize an emperor.[42] Theodore approached Patriarch John Kamateros, who lived in exile in Thrace, offering to move him to Nicaea, but the elderly prelate refused.[42] Byzantine aristocrats, who had lost their Thracian, Thessalian or Peloponnesian estates, came to Nicaea and Theodore gave asylum to them.[note 3][43] He could only finance a simplified state administration, but he invited former high-ranking Byzantine officials to Nicaea.[48] His wife's uncle, the blind Basil Doukas Kamateros—a former logothetes tou dromou (minister of foreign affairs)—assisted him in setting up the new administrative system.[31][49] He hired a Calabrian pirate, John Steiriones, to command his fleet in the Sea of Marmara.[50] Theodore had great confidence in his brothers. He made them military commanders and rewarded them with court titles.[note 4][51] Patriarch John Kamateros died in June 1206. The Orthodox clergy of Constantinople asked Pope Innocent III to authorize them to elect a new patriarch, but the Latin authorities opposed their plan.[17] The new Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Henry of Flanders, made an alliance with David Komnenos against Theodore. Theodore decided to capture Heraclea Pontica from David, but the Latins attacked his army from the rear when he was marching towards the town, and he had to abandon the campaign to chase the Latin troops off. The Latins invaded Asia Minor and captured Nicomedia and Cyzicus during the winter of 1206–1207. Theodore in turn allied himself with Kaloyan, who launched an incursion into Thrace, forcing Emperor Henry to recall his troops from Asia Minor.[52] After Theodore and his brothers had laid siege to Nicomedia, Henry agreed to sign a two-year truce, authorizing Theodore to destroy two fortifications at Nicomedia and Cyzicus.[53][54] The Orthodox clerics' negotiations with the Holy See about the appointment of an Orthodox patriarch proved unsuccessful.[17][30] Theodore addressed a letter to Pope Innocent III, requesting that he authorize the Orthodox clerics to elect the new patriarch.[55] He also tried to persuade the Pope to acknowledge him as the supreme head of the Orthodox community, but the Pope ignored both requests.[56] When the Latins broke the truce early in 1208, Theodore again approached the Pope and asked him to mediate a peace, proposing the Sea of Marmara as the permanent frontier between the Latin Empire and his realm.[53] Orthodox clerics urged Theodore to hold an election to decide a new Ecumenical Patriarch.[30] Theodore convoked a Church council in Nicaea in Holy Week 1208.[42] The assembled prelates elected a high-ranking cleric, Michael Autoreianos, patriarch on 20 March 1208.[17][49] Autoreianos was related to Theodore's chief advisor, Kamateros.[31] As his first act, the new patriarch crowned and anointed Theodore "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" on Easter Sunday.[17][30][49] Theodore's coronation by the new Ecumenical Patriarch sanctioned his claim to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine monarchs.[42] His legitimacy, however, could be challenged, because only a lawful emperor could appoint a legitimate patriarch and only a legitimate patriarch could crown a lawful emperor. Theodore's opponents argued that the council electing Michael Autoreianos was just an assembly of randomly chosen bishops, not a properly convoked synod. In response, his supporters emphasized that the exceptional situation after the fall of Constantinople required a flexible interpretation of laws.[57] Wars[edit] The Latin Empire and the Byzantine successor states—Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus (the borders are uncertain). Four realms developed from the ruins of the Byzantine Empire by 1209.[52] Alexios I and David Komnenos consolidated their Empire of Trebizond in northern Asia Minor; Henry of Flanders integrated Thrace and almost all of Greece into the Latin Empire; Michael I Doukas secured his rule in Epirus; and Theodore I Laskaris emerged as the unrivaled ruler of western Asia Minor.[58] The balance of power, however, remained unstable, because the four monarchs were rivals, always ready to form alliances against their neighbors.[59] Emperor Henry concluded an alliance with Sultan Kaykhusraw I against Theodore, while Theodore allied himself with Kaloyan of Bulgaria's successor, Boril.[60] Henry's vassal, Michael I Doukas, paid off the ransom of Theodore's father-in-law, Alexios III in 1209 or 1210.[60][61] Alexios III avoided Nicaea and went to Konya, seeking asylum at the court of Kaykhusraw I, his adopted son.[60] Both Boril of Bulgaria and Michael I Doukas wanted to expel the Latins from Thessalonica, prompting Emperor Henry to visit the town regularly.[62] Taking advantage of Henry's absence, Theodore sent his fleet to attack Constantinople in the spring of 1211.[60][63] Boril invaded Thrace, but he could not prevent Henry from returning to his capital.[64] Kaykhusraw I and Alexios III invaded Nicaea, forcing Theodore's troops to abandon the siege and hurry back to Asia Minor.[60][63] The two armies met at Antioch on the Maeander in late spring or around 17 June.[60][61] The Seljuq troops were close to winning the battle, but Theodore sought out Kaykhusraw and killed him in single combat.[61][65] Alexios III was captured during the battle, and Theodore had his father-in-law imprisoned.[65] He concluded a peace treaty with Kaykhushraw's son and successor, Kaykaus I.[61] Theodore sent letters to the Greeks under the Latins' rule to inform them of his triumph and to urge them to rise up against the "Latin dogs".[66] However, he had only won a Pyrrhic victory, because his best troops—his Latin mercenaries—perished in the battlefield.[65] Emperor Henry led his army across the Bosporus and routed Theodore's troops on the Rhyndakos River on 15 October 1211. Henry captured Nymphaion and Pergamon. In a circular letter sent to the European monarchs early in 1212, he boasted of having subjugated the Greeks as far as the Seljuq frontier, save the garrisons of some fortresses.[66] Henry had to end his military campaign because he did not have enough troops to garrison the captured fortresses.[60] The two emperors made peace between 1212 and 1214[note 5][60][66] The peace confirmed the Latins' possession of the Troad region.[66] The Latins also seized some strategically important Bithynian fortresses,[note 6] taking control of the roads between the northern and southern territories of Theodore's realm.[65][66] Theodore adopted an intensive fortification program. New fortresses were built, and the old fortresses' walls were restored.[66] He also urged local officials to settle colonists around the new forts, granting arable lands to them.[67] Theodore quickly recovered from his defeat.[68] Taking advantage of a conflict between the Latin Empire and Serbia,[69] Theodore and Sultan Kaykaus I invaded the Empire of Trebizond simultaneously in 1214.[61] Theodore forced David Komnenos to abandon Heraclea Pontica on the Black Sea.[68] Whether he conquered eastern Paphlagonia during this campaign, or only years later, is unclear.[30] His conquest of the region put a narrow strip of land along the Black Sea coast under Nicaean control,[70] and thus removed the emperors of Trebizond from the competition for Constantinople.[65] Consolidation[edit] The Latin clerics wanted to compel the Orthodox population of Constantinople to adopt the Catholic liturgy and to pay the tithe, but they resisted. Pope Innocent III sent Cardinal Pelagius as his legate to Constantinople in 1213 to discipline the Orthodox population for their resistance.[71][72] Pelagius closed Orthodox churches and ordered the imprisonment of the resistant monks, but the Greeks did not give in and many of them fled to Nicaea. The Greek aristocrats approached Emperor Henry, asking him either to stop the persecution of Orthodoxy or to allow them to move to Nicaea. Henry capitulated and ordered the re-opening of Orthodox churches in Constantinople.[72] Pelagius entered into negotiations with Theodore about a possible Church union at Heraclea Pontica, but their discussions proved inconclusive.[71] Michael I Komnenos Doukas was assassinated in late 1214 or in 1215.[45] Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who succeeded him, questioned Theodore Laskaris's claim to supremacy, ignoring his previous oath of fealty.[45] In concert with Demetrios Chomatenos, the ambitious Archbishop of Ochrid, Doukas denied the right of the patriarch residing in Nicaea to appoint bishops to the Balkan episcopal sees under Epirote control.[73] Doukas's expansionist policy forced Emperor Henry to launch a military campaign against him, but Henry died unexpectedly before reaching Epirus.[68] The Latin barons elected his brother-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, as his successor, but he was captured and killed in Epirus during his journey towards Constantinople in 1217.[74] A lasting vacancy followed his death, with his widow, Yolanda of Flanders, ruling the Latin Empire as regent.[75] She gave her daughter, Maria of Courtenay, in marriage to Theodore who agreed to prolong his peace treaty with the Latin Empire.[76] Yolande of Flanders died before October 1219.[77] Theodore sent envoys to Constantinople to announce his claim to succeed her, but the Latin barons ignored it.[30] Theodore proposed new negotiations about the Church union in 1219, taking advantage of the vacancy of the Latin patriarchate of Constantinople.[71] He planned to convoke the Orthodox patriarchs of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria to a synod in Nicaea, but the Orthodox clergy thwarted the idea.[71][78] Jacopo Tiepolo, the Podestà (or head) of the Venetian community in Constantinople, convinced Theodore to spell out the Venetian merchants' privileges in a chrysobull in August 1219.[79] The decree granted the Venetians the right to trade freely in the Empire of Nicaea and exempted them from taxation.[79] The diploma also prohibited each party from copying or counterfeiting coins issued by the other.[80] Theodore attempted to enforce his claim to Constantinople by force in 1220, but the Latins repelled his attack.[77] The new Latin Emperor, Robert of Courtenay, came to Constantinople in March 1221.[77] Peace between the two empires was soon restored.[77] Theodore died in November 1221.[81][82][83] A dynastic conflict followed because his two brothers, Alexios and Isaac, and his son-in-law, John Doukas Vatatzes, claimed the throne.[84] The conflict ended with Vatatzes's victory; Theodore's brothers were forced into exile.[65][81][84] Theodore was buried next to his father-in-law and his first wife in the monastery of Saint Hyakinthos in Nicaea.[85] Legacy[edit] Western Asia Minor developed into an "empire in exile" during Theodore's reign.[37][86] As the Byzantinist Warren Treadgold concludes, "Theodore had built up a functioning [Byzantine] successor state ... from next to nothing".[46] He revived the Ecumenical Patriarchate and other fundamental Byzantine institutions. He also borrowed from the Latins and the Seljuqs—the military offices of konostaulos (a hellenization of "constable") and tzaousios (from Turkish çavuş), are first documented during his reign.[87] He introduced his own currency, issuing electrum and billon coins, but he did not restore the Byzantine system of gold and copper coins.[51] He levied regular taxes from 1216 at the latest.[51] Following Byzantine patterns, he rewarded the aristocrats with tax-collecting rights.[51] The Latins and the Venetians made treaties with him, thus acknowledging that his realm was destined to lasting existence.[88] The defence of the Orthodox faith was the central ideology of Theodore's realm. Niketas Choniates compiled his Treasury of Orthodoxy—a treatise against heresy—in the Nicaean court. He described the fall of Constantinople as a punishment for the Byzantines' sins and compared their exile into Asia Minor to the Israelites' Babylonian captivity.[89] Theodore realized that he was unable to recapture Constantinople from the Latins,[86] but located near the old Byzantine capital, Nicaea was ideally placed for its future reconquest.[37] Historian Dimiter Angelov emphasizes that Theodore's political success was "due, in no small part, to his sanguine and pragmatic approach". He had an itinerant court, travelling from place to place and discussing political issues with the local noblemen. He was not afraid of commanding his armies in person. He hired Latin mercenaries, offering them salaries higher than the rulers of the Latin Empire.[53] Family[edit] Theodore's first wife, Anna Komnene Angelina, was the second daughter of Emperor Alexios III. Her first husband, sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos Vatatzes, was a great-grandson of Emperor John II Komnenos.[90] He died childless in 1196.[91] Theodore and Anna had three daughters and two sons.[67] Irene Laskarina was first given in marriage to the general Andronikos Palaiologos, who died without fathering children in 1212.[92] Irene was married off to Constantine Doukas Palaiologos in 1216, but he also died childless.[92] Irene's third husband, John III Doukas Vatatzes, succeeded Theodore on the throne.[92] Maria Laskarina became the wife of King Béla IV of Hungary.[93][82] Eudokia Laskarina's hand was offered to the Latin Emperor Robert I early in 1221, but the Orthodox patriarch's opposition prevented the marriage.[92][71] Nicholas was declared his father's co-emperor in 1208, but he was not mentioned after 1210.[44][67] John also died in childhood before 1213.[67] Empress Anna died before 1213 and Theodore entered into negotiations about a new marriage with a daughter of Leo I, King of Armenia.[67][94] Leo I sent his niece, Philippa, to Nicaea, and Theodore married her at Christmas 1214.[94] Historian Michael Angold proposes that Pope Innocent III promoted a marriage alliance between Theodore and Leo to secure Theodore's support in his conflict with Emperor Henry during the War of the Antiochene Succession.[94] Theodore repudiated Philippa for an unknown reason and disinherited her son.[67] According to Angold, Theodore was informed only after the marriage that his wife was not Leo's daughter.[82] Her son must have been born in 1214, because he was not yet eight years old when Theodore died.[95] Theodore's third wife, Maria of Courtenay, was the daughter of Yolanda of Flanders and Peter II of Courtenay.[67] Theodore married Maria in the hope of intervening in the administration of the Latin Empire late in 1218 or early in 1219.[67][76] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ George Akropolites stated that Theodore was "more than 45 years old but less than 50" when he died in 1221, implying that he was born between 1171 and 1176. Nicephorus Gregoras said that Theodore was "around 30 years old" when he was proclaimed emperor in 1205. ^ Historian Dimiter Angelov says Theodore seized Philadelphia peacefully, but Warren Treadgold writes that Theodore imprisoned Mangaphas. ^ Members of the Raoul, Vranas, Kantakouzenos and Palaiologos families settled in Nicaea during Theodore's rule. ^ Theodore rewarded Constantine with the title of despot; George, Alexios and Isaac received the rank of sebastokrator. George was also made the doux (governor) of the Thracesian Theme. ^ Treadgold proposes the treaty was most probably concluded in 1212. ^ Adramyttium, Achyraous, Lentiana and Poimanenon were among the fortresses seized by the Latins. References[edit] ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 16, 236. ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 16. ^ Volkoff 2015, p. 198. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 16–17. ^ a b c d Angelov 2019, p. 17. ^ Angold 2011, pp. 69–70. ^ Volkoff 2015, p. 197. ^ a b c d e Angelov 2019, p. 19. ^ Head 1980, p. 238. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 18. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 18–19. ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 20. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 659. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 662. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 20–21. ^ a b c d e Angelov 2019, p. 21. ^ a b c d e f Angold 2017, p. 734. ^ a b c Angelov 2019, p. 23. ^ Angold 2011, p. 69. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 23–24. ^ a b c d Angelov 2019, p. 25. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 664. ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 22. ^ Queller 1977, p. 147. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 666. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 710. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 709–710. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 23–25. ^ a b c d e f Korobeinikov 2017, p. 718. ^ a b c d e f g Van Tricht 2011, p. 352. ^ a b c Angold 2011, p. 70. ^ a b c Fine 1994, p. 81. ^ Nicol 1988, p. 149. ^ a b c d e Treadgold 1997, p. 713. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Angelov 2019, p. 26. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 711–713. ^ a b c Nicol 1988, p. 151. ^ a b Angold 2017, p. 731. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 81–82. ^ a b Nicol 1988, p. 161. ^ Fine 1994, p. 83. ^ a b c d e f g Fine 1994, p. 90. ^ a b c Angelov 2019, p. 27. ^ a b Angold 2011, p. 71. ^ a b c Fine 1994, p. 68. ^ a b c d e Treadgold 1997, p. 714. ^ a b Angelov 2019, pp. 26–27. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 27, 30. ^ a b c Angelov 2019, p. 28. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 27–28. ^ a b c d Angelov 2019, p. 29. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 715. ^ a b c Angelov 2019, p. 30. ^ Van Tricht 2011, p. 110. ^ Angold 2017, pp. 742–743. ^ Angold 2017, p. 742. ^ Fine 1994, p. 91. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 715–716. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 716–717. ^ a b c d e f g h Treadgold 1997, p. 717. ^ a b c d e Korobeinikov 2017, p. 719. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 97–98. ^ a b Fine 1994, p. 99. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 99–100. ^ a b c d e f Angold 2017, p. 737. ^ a b c d e f Angelov 2019, p. 31. ^ a b c d e f g h Angelov 2019, p. 32. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 718. ^ Van Tricht 2011, p. 354. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 49. ^ a b c d e Angold 2017, p. 743. ^ a b Fine 1994, p. 78. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 68, 116. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 718–719. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 719. ^ a b Van Tricht 2011, pp. 364–365. ^ a b c d Van Tricht 2011, p. 365. ^ Van Tricht 2011, pp. 365–366. ^ a b Nicol 1988, p. 163. ^ Nicol 1988, pp. 163–164. ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 57. ^ a b c Angold 2011, p. 52. ^ Van Tricht 2011, p. 366. ^ a b Van Tricht 2011, p. 367. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 44. ^ a b Angelov 2019, pp. 28, 30. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 28, 30, 243 (note 104). ^ Nicol 1988, pp. 162, 164. ^ Angold 2017, p. 735. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 19–20. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 19, 239 (note 37). ^ a b c d Angelov 2019, p. 33. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 32–33. ^ a b c Angold 2011, p. 51. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 244 (note 117). Sources[edit] Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48071-0. Angold, Michael (2011). "The Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1204–1261: Marriage Strategies". Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 47–68. Angold, Michael (2017) [2008]. "After the Fourth Crusade: the Greek rump states and the recovery of Byzantium". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c. 500–1492. Cambridge University Press. pp. 731–758. ISBN 9781409410980. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Head, Constance (1980). "Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing". Byzantion. 50 (1): 226–240. ISSN 0378-2506. Korobeinikov, D. A. (2017) [2008]. "Raiders and neighbours: the Turks (1040–1304)". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c. 500–1492. Cambridge University Press. pp. 692–727. ISBN 978-0-521-83231-1. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Nicol, Donald M. (1988). Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34157-4. Queller, Donald E. (1977). The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople 1201–1204. University of Pennsylvania Press. Van Tricht, Filip (2011). The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20323-5. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Volkoff, Angelina Anne (2015). "Komnenian Double Surnames on Lead Seals: Problems of Methodology and Understanding". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 69: 197–208. JSTOR 26497715. Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Theodore Lascaris . Macrides, Ruth (2007). George Akropolites: The History - Introduction, translation and commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921067-1. Magoulias, Harry J., ed. (1984). O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1764-2. Theodore I Laskaris Laskarid dynasty Born: c. 1175 Died: November 1221 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexios V Doukas Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor 1205–1221 Succeeded by John III Doukas Vatatzes v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Rebellions, secession, and autonomous magnates in the Byzantine Empire, 1182–1205 Under Andronikos I Komnenos (1182–1185) Andronikos Lapardas (Adramyttion) Andronikos Kontostephanos (Asia Minor) Isaac Komnenos (Cyprus) John Komnenos Vatatzes (Philadelphia) Theodore Kantakouzenos (Prussa & Nicaea) Under Isaac II Angelos (1185–1195) Theodore and Ivan Asen (Bulgaria) Alexios Branas (Adrianople) Theodore Mangaphas (Philadelphia) Basil Chotzas (Tarsia) Isaac Komnenos (Constantinople) Constantine Tatikios (Constantinople) Pseudo-Alexios (Maeander River, Paphlagonia, Nicomedia) Under Alexios III Angelos (1195–1203) Ivanko (Thrace) Dobromir Chrysos (Macedonia) Leo Chamaretos (Laconia) Michael Komnenos Doukas (Phrygia) Leo Sgouros (Argolid and Corinthia) John Spyridonakes (Macedonia) John Komnenos the Fat (Constantinople) Manuel Kamytzes (Thessaly) Under Isaac II and Alexios IV Angelos (1203–1204) Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos (Constantinople) Leo Gabalas (Rhodes) After the fall of Constantinople (1204–1205) Sabas Asidenos (Maeander River) Theodore Gabras (Amisus) John Kantakouzenos (Methone) David Komnenos (Paphlagonia) Alexios Komnenos (Trebizond) Michael Komnenos Doukas (Epirus) Theodore Laskaris (Nicaea) Manuel Maurozomes (Phrygia) Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_I_Laskaris&oldid=1024710896" Categories: 1170s births 1221 deaths 13th-century Byzantine emperors Emperors of Nicaea Laskarid dynasty Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars Despots (court title) Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Use British English from March 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-3648	----	Category:2nd-century philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:2nd-century philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Philosophers by century 8th BC • 7th BC • 6th BC • 5th BC • 4th BC • 3rd BC • 2nd BC • 1st BC 1st • 2nd • 3rd • 4th • 5th • 6th • 7th • 8th • 9th 10th • 11th • 12th • 13th • 14th • 15th • 16th • 17th • 18th • 19th 20th • 21st • The main article for this category is Ancient philosophy. Philosophy portal Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. C ► 2nd-century Chinese philosophers‎ (6 P) I ► 2nd-century Indian philosophers‎ (1 P) M ► Marcus Aurelius‎ (3 C, 8 P) P ► Ptolemy‎ (3 C, 13 P) Pages in category "2nd-century philosophers" The following 49 pages are in this category, out of 49 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Adrastus of Aphrodisias Aetius (philosopher) Agathobulus Albinus (philosopher) Alcinous (philosopher) Alexander of Aphrodisias Apollonius of Syria Apuleius Aristides of Athens Aristotle of Mytilene Aspasius Atticus (philosopher) C Lucius Calvenus Taurus Celsus Dio Chrysostom Claudius Maximus Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus Gnaeus Claudius Severus (consul 167) Clement of Alexandria Crescens the Cynic Cronius the Pythagorean D Demonax Diogenes of Oenoanda E Aulus Egnatius Priscillianus Sextus Empiricus Epictetus F Favorinus G Gaius the Platonist H Herminus Hierocles (Stoic) J Sextus Julius Africanus Junius Rusticus L Lakulisha M Marcus Aurelius Maximus of Tyre N Numenius of Apamea O Oenomaus of Gadara P Pancrates of Athens Peregrinus Proteus Plutarch Proclus Mallotes Ptolemy S Secundus the Silent Sextus of Chaeronea Sosigenes the Peripatetic T Theagenes of Patras Theon of Smyrna V Vasumitra (Buddhism) Z Zenobius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:2nd-century_philosophers&oldid=1021041143" Categories: Philosophers by century Ancient philosophers 2nd-century writers 2nd-century scholars Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Brezhoneg Català Čeština Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latviešu മലയാളം 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2021, at 15:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3651	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with PLWABN identifiers.The PLWABN identifier appears as Poland in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P7293. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-3664	----	Theodosius (son of Maurice) - Wikipedia Theodosius (son of Maurice) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine royal; co-emperor from 590-602 For other uses, see Theodosius. Theodosius Augustus Half-Siliqua of Emperor Theodosius Byzantine emperor (with Maurice) Predecessor Maurice Successor Phocas Born August 4, 583/585 Died after November 27, 602 (aged c. 16–19) Chalcedon Burial Saint Mamas Monastery, Constantinople Names Theodosius Regnal name Imperator Caesar Theodosius Augustus Dynasty Justinian Dynasty Father Maurice Mother Constantina Saint Theodosius the Emperor with family Holy and Right-Believing Emperor of the Romans Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy[1] Major shrine Saint Mamas Monastery Feast 28 November Attributes Imperial attire Justinian dynasty Chronology Justin I 518–527 Justinian I 527–565 Justin II 565–578 with Sophia and Tiberius as regents, 574–578 Tiberius II 578–582 Maurice 582–602 with Theodosius as co-emperor, 590–602 Succession Preceded by Leonid dynasty Followed by Phocas and the Heraclian dynasty v t e Theodosius (Greek: Θεοδόσιος; August 4, 583/585 – after November 27, 602) was the eldest son of Byzantine Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) and was co-emperor from 590 until his deposition and execution during a military revolt in November 602.[2][3] Along with his father-in-law Germanus, he was briefly proposed as successor to Maurice by the troops, but the army eventually favoured Phocas instead. Sent in an abortive mission to secure aid from Sassanid Persia by his father, Theodosius was captured and executed by Phocas's supporters a few days after Maurice. Nevertheless, rumours spread that he had survived the execution, and became popular to the extent that a man who purported to be Theodosius was entertained by the Persians as a pretext for launching a war against Byzantium. Contents 1 Biography 2 Rumours of survival and pseudo-Theodosius 3 Coinage 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources Biography[edit] Theodosius was the first child of Maurice and his wife, the Augusta Constantina. He was born on August 4, 583 (according to the contemporary John of Ephesus and other chroniclers) or 585 (according to the later histories of Theophanes the Confessor and Kedrenos).[3][4] He was the first son to be born to a reigning emperor since Theodosius II in 401, and was accordingly named after the previous ruler. The papal envoy, or apocrisiarius, to Constantinople, the future Pope Gregory the Great, acted as his godfather.[3][4] The scholar Evagrius Scholasticus composed a work celebrating Theodosius' birth, for which he was rewarded by Maurice with the rank of consul.[5] A few years after his birth, possibly in 587, Theodosius was raised to the rank of Caesar and thus became his father's heir-apparent, while on March 26, 590, he was publicly proclaimed as co-emperor.[3] In November 601 or early February 602, Maurice married Theodosius to a daughter of the patrician Germanus, a leading member of the Byzantine Senate.[a][9] The historian Theophylact Simocatta, the major chronicler of Maurice's reign, also records that on February 2, 602, Germanus saved Theodosius from harm during food riots in Constantinople.[10] Later in the same year, during the revolt of the Danubian armies in autumn, Theodosius and his father-in-law were hunting in the outskirts of Constantinople. There they received a letter from the mutinous troops, in which they demanded Maurice's resignation, a redress of their grievances, and offered the crown to either of the two.[2][9][11] They presented the letter to Maurice, who rejected the army's demands. The emperor however began suspecting Germanus of playing a part in the revolt. Theodosius promptly informed his father-in-law of this and advised him to hide, and on November 21, Germanus fled first to a local church and then to the Hagia Sophia, seeking sanctuary from the Byzantine emperor's emissaries.[12][13] On the very next day however, Maurice and his family and closest associates fled the capital before the advancing rebel army under Phocas, and crossed over to Chalcedon. From there, Theodosius was dispatched along with the praetorian prefect Constantine Lardys to seek the aid of Khosrau II, the ruler of Sassanid Persia. Maurice, however, soon recalled him, and on his return Theodosius fell into the hands of Phocas' men and was executed at Chalcedon. His father and younger brothers had been executed a few days earlier on November 27.[13][14] Rumours of survival and pseudo-Theodosius[edit] Subsequently, rumours of Theodosius's survival spread far and wide. It was alleged that his father-in-law Germanus had bribed his executioner, a leading Phocas supporter named Alexander, to spare his life. In this story, Theodosius then fled, eventually reaching Lazica, where he died. Theophylact Simocatta reports that he thoroughly investigated these rumours and found them false.[2][15][16] Modern historian Paul Speck, however, argues that doubts about the genuineness of Theodosius only began to be expressed late in the reign of Heraclius.[17] The general Narses, who rose against Phocas in Mesopotamia, exploited the rumours about Theodosius. He produced a man claiming to be Theodosius and then presented him to Khosrau II. The Persian ruler, in turn, used him as a pretext for his own invasion of Byzantium, claiming that it was done in order to avenge the murder of Maurice and his family and place the "rightful" heir Theodosius on the throne.[2][18] According to the Khuzistan Chronicle, he even had Theodosius re-crowned as Roman emperor by the Nestorian patriarch Sabrisho I in a ceremony in Ctesiphon.[17][19][20] In the Armenian campaign of 606–7, the pretender accompanied the commander Ashtat Yeztayar. His presence convinced the garrison of Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) to surrender.[21] According to James Howard-Johnston, it is unlikely that both people of Edessa in 603 and the notables of Theodosiopolis who met him in 608 were deceived by an impostor.[20] Coinage[edit] Theodosius does not appear on most of the regular coinage of Maurice's reign, with two exceptions: the copper nummi of the Cherson mint, which show him along with his father and mother, and a special silver siliqua issue (apparently cut in 591/592 to celebrate his proclamation as co-emperor)[18] from the Carthage mint.[22] Notes[edit] ^ Germanus's identity is unclear. He has been sometimes identified with the son of the magister militum Germanus and Matasuntha,[6] but also with Germanus, a son-in-law of Tiberius II Constantine who became Caesar alongside Maurice but refused the throne.[7][8] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Sanidopoulos 2019. ^ a b c d ODB, "Theodosios" (W. E. Kaegi, A. Kazhdan), p. 2050. ^ a b c d Martindale 1992, p. 1293. ^ a b Whitby 1988, p. 18. ^ Whitby 1988, p. 21. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 528. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 529. ^ Whitby 1988, p. 25. ^ a b Martindale 1992, pp. 531, 1293. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 531. ^ Whitby 1988, p. 168. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 531–532. ^ a b Whitby 1988, p. 26. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 1293–1294. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 47, 532, 1294. ^ Whitby 1988, pp. 312, 316. ^ a b Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 297. ^ a b Martindale 1992, p. 1294. ^ Wilmshurst 2011, p. 46. ^ a b Howard-Johnston 2000. ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002, p. 186. ^ Grierson 1999, pp. 44–45, 58. Sources[edit] Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD). Routledge. Grierson, Philip (1999). Byzantine Coins. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-274-9. Howard-Johnston, James (1 January 2000). "ḴOSROW II". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2020-08-28. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Martindale, John R., ed. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume III, AD 527–641. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20160-8. Sanidopoulos, John (28 November 2019). "Saint Maurice, Emperor of Romans, With His Six Sons". Mystagogy Resource Center. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822945-3. Wilmshurst, David J. (2011). The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East. East and West Publishing. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodosius_(son_of_Maurice)&oldid=1026585106" Categories: Justinian dynasty 580s births 602 deaths 6th-century Byzantine emperors 7th-century Byzantine emperors 7th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire 7th-century murdered monarchs Caesars (heirs apparent) Byzantine junior emperors Executed Byzantine people Executed monarchs Leaders ousted by a coup Maurice (emperor) People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from June 2021 Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 03:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-366	----	Barbara Levick - Wikipedia Barbara Levick From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Barbara M. Levick (born 21 June 1931)[1] is a British historian and epigrapher, focusing particularly on the Late Roman Republic and Early Empire. She is recognised within her field as one of the leading Roman historians of her generation.[2] Contents 1 Education 2 Career 3 Selected publications 3.1 Books 3.2 Articles 4 References Education[edit] Levick was educated at St Hugh's College, Oxford.[3] Her DPhil, on the subject of Roman colonies in South Asia Minor was undertaken in the mid 1950s and supervised by Ronald Syme.[2] For this research she made two solo trips to Turkey, placing herself in a tradition at this time of largely Scottish and male epigraphers travelling in Anatolia.[2] She focused however on Pisidia, a region that lay away from the routes explored by a group of her male contemporaries, although she was the only one to publish a book as a result of research from these expeditions.[2] Career[edit] In 1959 Levick was appointed a university Fellow and tutor for Roman History at St Hilda's College, Oxford, and in 1967 published her first monograph, drawing on material from her doctoral thesis, which forty years after its publication was described as a "resilient classic of Roman history".[3][4][2][5] The importance of this work came from both its focus on the Roman impact on Asia Minor, and the drawing together of both epigraphic and numismatic evidence.[5][2] In this work she used the discoveries she made at Yalvaç, and considered again material that had been neglected since the 1920s.[2] She was an influential editor of inscriptions who shaped the format of the Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua series, directing two volumes of its publication.[2] Her biographies of Roman emperors and Imperial women are widely known and receive largely positive reviews from their critics.[6][7][8][9] Her portrait was painted for St Hilda's College by Jane Cursham.[10] Selected publications[edit] A fuller bibliography of her works up to 2007 can be found in the Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement, No. 100, VITA VIGILIA EST: ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF BARBARA LEVICK (2007).[11] Books[edit] Roman colonies in southern Asia Minor (Oxford: the Clarendon Press, 1967) Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014) Julia Domna, Syrian Empress (London: Routledge, 2007) The Government of the Roman Empire. A Sourcebook (London: Routledge, 1985) Claudius (1990); this biography was translated into French in 2002 by historian Isabelle Cogitore. Nero The Year of the Four Emperors (2000) Vespasian (1999) Tiberius the Politician. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976. Reprint, London: Croom Helm, 1988. ISBN 0-7099-4132-3. Augustus: Image and Substance. London: Longman, 2010. ISBN 9780582894211. Catiline. London: Bloomsbury, 2015. ISBN 9781472534897.[12] Articles[edit] Two Pisidian Colonial Families. In: The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 48, No. 1/2 (1958), pp. 74–78 Acerbissima Lex Servilia. In: The Classical Review, New Series, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Dec., 1967), pp. 256–258 A Cry from the Heart from Tiberius Caesar?. In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 27, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1978), pp. 95–101 Poena Legis Maiestatis. In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 28, No. 3 (3rd Qtr., 1979), pp. 358–379 Claudius Speaks: Two Imperial Contretemps. In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 38, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1989), pp. 112–116 Abdication and Agrippa Postumus. In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 21, No. 4 (4th Qtr., 1972), pp. 674–697 The Beginning of Tiberius' Career. In: The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Nov., 1971), pp. 478–486 Cicero, Brutus 43. 159 ff., and the Foundation of Narbo Martius. In: The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 21, No. 1 (May, 1971), pp. 170–179 References[edit] ^ "Weekend birthdays". The Guardian. 21 June 2014. p. 42. ^ a b c d e f g h MITCHELL, STEPHEN (2007). "Barbara Levick and Asia Minor". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement. 50 (100): xv–xviii. doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.2007.tb02459.x. JSTOR 43767656. ^ a b "Dr Barbara Levick". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2011. ^ Donald Dale Walker (2002). Paul's Offer of Leniency (2 Cor 10:1): Populist Ideology and Rhetoric in a Pauline Letter Fragment. Mohr Siebeck. p. 217. ISBN 978-3-16-147891-8. ^ a b Briscoe, John (March 1969). "Six Augustan Colonies - Barbara Levick: Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor. Pp. xvi+256; 2 maps, 6 plates. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. Cloth, 70s. net". The Classical Review. 19 (1): 86–88. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00328682. ISSN 1464-3561. ^ Lloyd-Jones, Hugh. "Life Styles of the Rich and Famous". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 22 October 2018. ^ John F. Donahue (20 January 2001). "Review: B. Levick, Vespasian". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 17 June 2016. ^ Daly, Megan M. (July 2016). "Review of: Claudius. Second edition (first edition 1990). Roman imperial biographies". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. ISSN 1055-7660. ^ Keegan, Peter (May 2011). "Review of: Augustus: Image and Substance". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. ISSN 1055-7660. ^ "Barbara Levick | Art UK". artuk.org. Retrieved 22 October 2018. ^ "Publications of Barbara Levick". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement (100): xix–xxvii. 2007. JSTOR 43767657. ^ "Catiline by Barbara Levick". Bloomsbury Publishing. Retrieved 17 June 2016. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Levick&oldid=996579568" Categories: 1931 births Living people English biographers British historians Alumni of St Hugh's College, Oxford Fellows of St Hilda's College, Oxford British women historians Women biographers Historians of ancient Rome Hidden categories: Use British English from October 2016 Use dmy dates from March 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français مصرى Nederlands Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 13:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3671	----	Sage (philosophy) - Wikipedia Sage (philosophy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Someone who has attained wisdom "Sage philosophy" redirects here. For the African ethnophilosophical concept, see African philosophy § Ethnophilosophy and philosophical sagacity. For sages in Confucianism, see Four Sages. "Sages" redirects here. For SAGES, see Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons and Study of the Astrophysics of Globular clusters in Extragalactic Systems. See also: Sagacity A sage (Ancient Greek: σοφός, sophos), in classical philosophy, is someone who has attained wisdom. The term has also been used interchangeably with a 'good person' (Ancient Greek: ἀγαθός, agathos), and a 'virtuous person' (Ancient Greek: σπουδαῖος, spoudaios). Among the earliest accounts of the sage begin with Empedocles' Sphairos. Horace describes the Sphairos as "Completely within itself, well-rounded and spherical, so that nothing extraneous can adhere to it, because of its smooth and polished surface."[1] Alternatively, the sage is one who lives "according to an ideal which transcends the everyday."[2] Several of the schools of Hellenistic philosophy have the sage as a featured figure. Karl Ludwig Michelet wrote that "Greek religion culminated with its true god, the sage"; Pierre Hadot develops this idea, stating that "the moment philosophers achieve a rational conception of God based on the model of the sage, Greece surpasses its mythical representation of its gods."[3] Indeed, the actions of the sage are propounded to be how a god would act in the same situation. Contents 1 In Platonism and Aristotelianism 2 In Epicureanism 3 In Stoicism 4 See also 5 References In Platonism and Aristotelianism[edit] What more accurate stand or measure of good things do we have than the Sage? — Aristotle, Protrepticus[4] In Plato's Symposium Socrates says the difference between a sage and a philosopher (Ancient Greek: φιλόσοφος, meaning lover of wisdom) was that the sage has what the philosopher seeks. While analyzing the concept of love, Socrates concludes love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher does not have the wisdom sought, while the sage, on the other hand, does not love or seek wisdom, for it is already possessed. Socrates then examines the two categories of persons who do not partake in philosophy: Gods and sages, because they are wise; Senseless people, because they think they are wise. The position of the philosopher is between these two groups. The philosopher is not wise, but possesses the self-awareness of lacking wisdom, and thus pursues it. Plato is also the first to develop this notion of the sage in various works. Within The Republic, Plato indicates that when a friend of a sage dies, the sage "will not think that for a good man... death is a terrible thing."[5] In the Theaetetus, Plato defines the sage as one who becomes "righteous and holy and wise."[6] The Platonic sage would raise themselves by the life of their mind, while the Aristotelian sages raise themselves to the realm of the divine Mind.[3] In Epicureanism[edit] Epicurus believed that one would achieve ataraxia by intense study and examination of Nature. This sage would be like the gods and would "[watch] the infinity of worlds arising out of atoms in the infinite void"[3] and because of this nothing ever disturbs the peace of his soul. Certainly, they would be "unconcerned by mundane affairs in their bright, eternal tranquility, they spend their time contemplating the infinity of space, time, and the multiple worlds."[7] According to Seneca the Younger, Epicurus believed that the sage rarely gets married, because marriage is accompanied by many inconveniences.[8] Léon Robin, in his commentary on Lucretius, writes "the sage places himself within the immutability of eternal Nature, which is independent of time."[9] In Stoicism[edit] It is the view of Zeno and his Stoic followers that there are two races of men, that of the worthwhile, and that of the worthless. The race of the worthwhile employ the virtues through all of their lives, while the race of the worthless employ the vices. Hence the worthwhile always do the right thing on which they embark, while the worthless do wrong. — Arius Didymus[10] The concept of the sage within Stoicism was an important topic. Indeed, the discussion of Stoic ethics within Stobaeus, which depended on Arius Didymus, spent over a third of its length discussing the sage.[2] The Stoic sage was understood to be an inaccessible ideal rather than a concrete reality.[11] The aim of Stoicism was to live a life of virtue, where "virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."[12] As such, the sage is one who has attained such a state of being and whose life consequently becomes tranquil. The standard was so high that Stoics were unsure whether one had ever existed, if so, possibly only Socrates or Diogenes of Sinope had achieved such a state.[13] Despite this, the Stoics regarded sages as the only virtuous and happy humans. All others are regarded as fools, morally vicious, slaves and unfortunate.[14][15] The Stoics did not admit any middle ground, as Cicero articulated the concept: "every non-sage is mad."[16] The Stoics conceived of the sage as an individual beyond any possibility of harm from fate. The difficulties of life faced by other humans (illness, poverty, criticism, bad reputation, death, etc.) could not cause any sorrow to the sage, while the circumstances of life sought by other people (good health, wealth, praise, fame, long life, etc.) were regarded by the Stoic sage as unnecessary externals. This indifference to externals was achieved by the sage through the correct knowledge of impressions, a core concept in Stoic epistemology.[17] Thus, the sage's happiness, eudaimonia, was based entirely on virtue.[18] 'If thou wouldst know contentment, let thy deeds be few,' said the sage — Marcus Aurelius[19] The difficulty of becoming a sage was often discussed in Stoicism. When Panaetius, the seventh and final scholarch of the Stoa, was asked by a young man whether a sage would fall in love, he responded by saying: "As to the wise man, we shall see. What concerns you and me, who are still a great distance from the wise man, is to ensure that we do not fall into a state of affairs which is disturbed, powerless, subservient to another and worthless to oneself."[20] Epictetus claims that only after the removal of any attachments to things in the external world could a Stoic truly possess friendship.[21] He also outlined that progress towards sagehood would occur when one has learned what is in one's power. This would only come from the correct use of impressions.[22] Marcus Aurelius defines the sage as one "who has knowledge of the beginning and the end, and of that all-pervading Reason which orders the universe in its determinate cycles to the end of time".[23] See also[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sage (philosophy) Arhat Bodhisattva Muni Guled Haji a Somali sage Rishi Sadhu Saint Siddha Wisdom Wise old man References[edit] ^ Pierre Hadot (1998).The Inner Citadel, trans. Michael Chase. Harvard University Press, p. 119 ^ a b Annas, Julia. The Sage in Ancient Philosophy ^ a b c Pierre Hadot (1995). Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, p. 58. "Forms of Life and Forms of Discourse in Ancient Philosophy", Critical Inquiry, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Spring, 1990), pp. 483–505. ^ Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. The Figure of Socrates, p. 147 ^ Plato. The Republic, 387d. ^ "Plato, Theaetetus, section 176b". ^ Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. The View from Above, p. 243 ^ Emily Wilson (2014). The Greatest Empire: A Life of Seneca. Oxford University Press. p. 74 The excerpt Wilson translates from is cited as 'Fragment 5' ^ Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, trans. Michael Chase. Blackwell Publishing, 1995. Only the Present is our Happiness, p. 226 ^ Arius Didymus, Epitome of Stoic Ethics, trans. Arthur J. Pomeroy, p. 73 (John Stobaeus, Anthology, 2.7.11g) ^ Pierre Hadot, The Inner Citadel, trans. Michael Chase. Harvard University Press, 1998. The Discipline Of Actions, Or Action In The Service Of Mankind, p. 192 ^ Russell, Bertrand (2004). A History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. p. 243. ISBN 978-1134343676. ^ Roots, Peter. "The Stoic Sage and The Decline of Stoicism". ancientworlds.net. Archived from the original on 27 February 2008. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (18 April 2018). "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Stoic Ethics. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ John Sellers, Stoicism p. 37, University of California Press ^ R.J.Hankinson, Stoic Epistemology, in The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Brad Inwood editor, p. 59 ^ M.Andrew Holowchak, The Stoics, A Guide for the Perplexed, pp. 19–25 ^ Meditations, Marcus Aurelius, trans. Maxwell Staniforth. §4.24 ^ G. Reydams-Schils. "Authority and Agency in Stoicism". academia.edu. ^ "The Stoics and the Epicureans on Friendship, Sex, and Love - Richard Kreitner". ^ "Epictetus – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". utm.edu. ^ Meditations, Marcus Aurelius, trans. Maxwell Staniforth. §5.32 v t e Philosophy Branches Traditional Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics Philosophy of... 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en-wikipedia-org-3683	----	File:Imperator Antoninus Pius.jpg - Wikipedia File:Imperator Antoninus Pius.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 180 × 240 pixels | 360 × 480 pixels | 576 × 768 pixels | 768 × 1,024 pixels | 2,300 × 3,066 pixels. Original file ‎(2,300 × 3,066 pixels, file size: 2.32 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Object Author Anonymous Date circa 140 Accession number 1861,1127.14 Source/Photographer Cyrenaica, Libya Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. 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en-wikipedia-org-3728	----	Epigraphy - Wikipedia Epigraphy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum Inscription on the pedestal of the statue of Michel Ney from Paris Trilingual inscription of Xerxes I at Van Fortress in Turkey Epigraphy (Ancient Greek: ἐπιγραφή, "inscription") is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers. Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist. For example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and finding any relevant circumstances. It is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practised by the same person. An epigraph (not to be confused with epigram) is any sort of text, from a single grapheme (such as marks on a pot that abbreviate the name of the merchant who shipped commodities in the pot) to a lengthy document (such as a treatise, a work of literature, or a hagiographic inscription). Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography. When compared to books, most inscriptions are short. The media and the forms of the graphemes are diverse: engravings in stone or metal, scratches on rock, impressions in wax, embossing on cast metal, cameo or intaglio on precious stones, painting on ceramic or in fresco. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, such as the baking of a clay tablet in a conflagration. The study of ideographic inscriptions, that is inscriptions representing an idea or concept, may also be called ideography. The German equivalent Sinnbildforschung was a scientific discipline in the Third Reich, but was later dismissed as being highly ideological.[1] Epigraphic research overlaps with the study of petroglyphs, which deals with specimens of pictographic, ideographic and logographic writing. The study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography.[2] Epigraphy also differs from iconography, as it is confines itself to meaningful symbols containing messages. Contents 1 Scope 2 History 3 Form 3.1 Materials and technique 3.1.1 Materials 3.1.2 Styles of cutting 3.2 Symbols and forms of writing 3.3 Position or place 3.4 Chief periods and nationalities 3.5 Methods of dating 4 Content 4.1 Purpose of inscriptions 4.2 Relative inscriptions 4.3 Independent inscriptions 5 Greek inscriptions 5.1 Religious 5.1.1 Temples, their foundation and administration 5.1.2 Priests and other officials 5.1.3 Ritual 5.1.4 Private associations for religious purposes 5.2 Political and social 5.2.1 Codes of law and regulations 5.2.2 Decrees of people and rulers, later of kings and emperors 5.2.3 Public accounts, treasure lists, building inscriptions 5.2.4 Ephebic inscriptions 5.2.5 Treaties and political and commercial agreements; arbitration, etc. 5.2.6 Proxenia decrees 5.2.7 Honours and privileges given to individuals 5.2.8 Signatures of artists 5.2.9 Historical records 5.2.10 Tombs and epitaphs 6 Latin inscriptions 6.1 Religious 6.1.1 Dedications and foundations of temples, etc. 6.1.2 Priests and officials 6.1.3 Regulations as to religion and cult 6.1.4 Colleges 6.2 Political and social 6.2.1 Codes of law and regulations 6.2.2 Laws and plebiscites, senatus consulta, decrees of magistrates or later of emperors 6.2.3 Records of buildings, etc. 6.2.4 Military documents 6.2.5 Treaties and agreements 6.2.6 Proxeny 6.2.7 Honorary 6.2.8 Signatures of artists 6.2.9 Historical records 6.2.10 Inscriptions on tombs 6.2.11 Milestones and boundaries 7 See also 7.1 Related fields of study 7.2 Types of inscription 7.3 Notable inscriptions 8 References 9 External links Scope[edit] Epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures.[3] The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the auxiliary sciences of history.[4] Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery:[5] epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary.[6][7] Arabesque epigraphy with various Maghrebi Arabic scripts in the Myrtle Court of the Alhambra. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a matter quite separate from the nature of the text, which is studied in itself. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are essentially different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however: in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of "Linear B" were revealed to be largely used for economic and administrative record keeping. Informal inscribed texts are "graffiti" in its original sense. History[edit] The high medieval Prüfening dedicatory inscription, composed in Latin and stamped in Roman square capitals The science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first. Individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius (1516–1571); Stefano Antonio Morcelli (1737–1822); Luigi Gaetano Marini (1742–1815); August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815–1877); Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903); Emil Hübner (1834–1901); Franz Cumont (1868–1947); Louis Robert (1904–1985). The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has been published in Berlin since 1863, with wartime interruptions. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions. New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically: all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6. This volume has the greatest number of inscriptions; volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published (2000). Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, not unlike the biologists' Zoological Record— the raw material of history. Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. There are two. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin, 1825-1877. This marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world. Only advanced students still consult it, for better editions of the texts have superseded it. The second, modern corpus is Inscriptiones Graecae arranged geographically under categories: decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral inscriptions, various, all presented in Latin, to preserve the international neutrality of the field of classics. Other such series include the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum (Etruscan inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae (Crusaders' inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum (Celtic inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum (Iranian inscriptions), "Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia" and "Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period" (Sumerian and Akkadian inscriptions) and so forth. Egyptian hieroglyphs were solved using the Rosetta Stone, which was a multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work was done by the French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, and the British scientist Thomas Young. The interpretation of Maya hieroglyphs was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a considerable amount of information on this complex writing system.[8] Form[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Materials and technique[edit] Ostrakon of Megacles, son of Hippocrates (inscription: ΜΕΓΑΚΛΕΣ ΗΙΠΠΟΚΡΑΤΟΣ), 487 BC. On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus A Roman inscription at the castle hill of Trenčín in Slovakia (178–179 AD). Text: Victoriae Augustorum exercitus, qui Laugaricione sedit, mil(ites) l(egiones) II DCCCLV. (Maximi)anus leg(atus leg)ionis II Ad(iutricis) cur(avit) f(aciendum) (Done by 855 Legionaries of the Augustus victorious army, who are stationed in Laugaricio. Done under supervision of Maximus legatus of II legion.) Materials[edit] Inscriptions were commonly incised on stone, marble, metal, terracotta, or wood (though this last material has hardly ever survived, except in Egypt). In Egypt and Mesopotamia hard stones were frequently used for the purpose, and the inscriptions are therefore well preserved and easy to read. In Greece the favourite material, especially in Athens, was white marble, which takes an admirably clear lettering, but is liable to weathering of the surface if exposed, and to wear if rebuilt into pavements or similar structures. Many other kinds of stone, both hard and soft, were often used, especially crystalline limestones, which do not easily take a smooth surface, and which, therefore, are often difficult to decipher, owing to accidental marks or roughness of the material. The metal most commonly used for inscriptions was bronze: flat tablets of this were often made for affixing to the walls of temples and other buildings. Occasionally such tablets were made of silver or gold; and inscriptions were often incised on vessels made of any of these metals. Inscriptions on metal were nearly always incised, not cast. An important class of inscriptions are the legends on coins; these were struck from the die. (cf. numismatics.) Clay was very extensively used for inscriptions in Mesopotamia and in Crete. In this case the symbols were incised or impressed on specially prepared tablets when the clay was soft, and it was subsequently hardened by fire. In Greece, many inscriptions on vases were painted before firing, in that case often having reference to the scenes represented, or incised after firing; potsherds (ostraka) were often used as a cheap writing material. Inscriptions were also often impressed from a mould upon wet clay before firing, in the case of tiles, amphora handles, etc., and in these cases often supply valuable information as to the buildings to which they belong or the place from which they took their origin. The tools used for making inscriptions varied with the material; most of them were some kind of chisel, usually with a square blade; early inscriptions were sometimes made on hard rock by successive blows with a punch or pointed hammer. Sometimes a circular punch was used for O or a letter of which O formed a part. Styles of cutting[edit] Early inscriptions, which are often amateur work, are frequently very irregular in their cutting. But in almost all examples of later work, the inscriptions are evidently cut by professionals, and there are definite styles and methods belonging to various places and periods. In Egypt, for instance, the hieroglyphs are carefully and delicately cut in early times, and in later periods become more careless and conventional. In Greece, the best work was done in the 5th and 4th centuries BC in Athens; the letters were all exact and regular in shape, with no adventitious ornaments, and were, especially in the 5th century, usually exactly aligned with the letters above and below, as well as those on each side. At that time all the strokes were made of equal thickness, but in the 4th century BC and later there came in the custom of holding the chisel obliquely to the surface, thus producing a wedge-shaped stroke. A similar custom in Mesopotamia gave rise to the so-called cuneiform system. On metal inscriptions in Greece this same effect appears earlier than stone or marble. In the 3rd century and later it becomes common to introduce apices or ornamental ends to the strokes, a custom which prevails to the present day in our ordinary capital letters. The custom of making different strokes and different parts of curves of varying thickness became common in Roman inscriptions, which developed a monumental style of their own, varying from period to period. Inscriptions can often be approximately dated by the style of the cutting as well as by the shapes of the letters; skill in doing this can only be acquired by a careful and minute study of originals and facsimiles. (cf. dating methodologies in archaeology.) Inscriptions vary greatly in size according to the position where they were intended to be read, their purpose, and the skill of the cutter. Some inscriptions are of great length, the longest, a statement of accounts of the temple at Delos, under Athenian administration, being nearly half as long as a book of Thucydides; and many other inscriptions approach this in length. Symbols and forms of writing[edit] This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. See also: History of writing Most of the forms of writing known to us originated in some system of picture-writing (cf. also pictography, which developed into a hieroglyphic system. Such systems appear to have originated independently in different parts of the world — in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, among the Hittites and in China and America. The evidence for all of these is mainly to be found in inscriptions. The development from Ideographs (or direct representation of an object or idea) to symbols of phonetic value, and so to syllabaries or alphabets, took place in many different systems to various degrees. But the first people to invent a completely alphabetic system of writing were the Phoenicians, from whom the Greeks borrowed (some scholars believe, but with no proving) it with certain modifications and improvements. From the Greeks was derived the Latin, and from the two all the alphabets of European peoples. It is still a matter of dispute whether the Phoenician was derived from the Egyptian. An inscription using cipher runes, the Elder Futhark, and the Younger Futhark, on the 9th-century Rök runestone in Sweden The hieroglyphic symbols naturally tended to be conventionalised and simplified for convenience of cutting, in accordance with the materials and tools employed. In many cases they developed from a pictorial to a linear form. It is possible that some of these linear forms may not be derived from hieroglyphs, but from purely conventional geometrical forms, such as widely used at all periods and places as owners' or masons' marks. The tendency of linear forms to become wedge-shaped is most conspicuous in cuneiform, but as has been noticed, the same tendency occurs in Greek inscriptions incised on bronze. In the north of Europe the Ogham inscriptions are alphabetic, and are apparently an independent invention on arbitrary lines, like the Morse code; but Runes, which were extensively used in the same region, are derived from the Greek or the Latin alphabets. In most alphabetic systems there are also found in inscriptions certain symbols which are not strictly alphabetic or phonetic in character. The commonest of these are the various systems of numerals that are used in different times and places. It is impossible here to give any full description of these different systems; but a brief account may be given of the principles underlying them. Most of them are based upon a decimal system, doubtless owing to the habit of counting on the fingers. In some cases the symbols are simple and obvious, as in the Cretan script, where circles (or rhombi), dots and lines are used for hundreds, tens and units, each being repeated as often as necessary; and a similar system for the lower denominations is used at Epidaurus in the 4th century BC. In Athens the usual system was to indicate each denomination by its initial, M for Μύριοι (10,000), X for χίλιοι (1,000), H for εκατόν (100), Δ for δέκα (10), π for πεντε (5) and I for units. The other Greek system followed that derived from the Phoenicians, using the letters of the alphabet in their conventional order from one to nine, 10 to 90 and 100 to 900; in this arrangement obsolete letters were retained in their original places so as to give the requisite number of 27 symbols. The Roman system of numerals — M, D, C, L, X, V, I (for 1,000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1) is generally supposed to have arisen from the adaptation of those symbols in the Greek alphabet which the Romans did not want; an alternative theory is that it is simplified from a series of ideographs representing the spread hand, the fingers and so on. Ancient Greek boustrophedon inscription, Gortyn code, Crete, 5th century BC Apart from numerals, the use of initials in the place of complete words was not common in early times. It became, however, very frequent in Roman inscriptions, which sometimes are made up almost entirely of such abbreviations and can only be understood by those familiar with the formulae. A list of the commonest of these will be found under list of classical abbreviations. Compendia or monograms also occur in later Greek and Roman times, and become very common and very difficult to interpret in early Christian and Byzantine inscriptions. Some kind of punctuation is often found in inscriptions of all kinds. In Greek inscriptions a vertical line or a dot, or dots, sometimes indicates the separation between sentences or words, but words are seldom separated by spaces as in modern printing, so that the text is continuous and no division of words exists. This is particularly the case with Greek inscriptions of the best period. In Roman inscriptions it was usual to separate the words by dots. In certain inscriptions a cross () was used to indicate the beginning of an inscription, especially when its direction was erratic. Christian inscriptions sometimes begin with a cross, which doubtless had a symbolic meaning; and a leaf or other device was often placed at the end. The direction of the writing varies greatly in different places and times. The letters or symbols may be arranged vertically below one another, and read from top to bottom, or horizontally, either from right to left or from left to right; they may also be arranged in a kind of pattern — in which case their order may be indeterminate, or in a wandering or curved line, or left to right and right to left alternately (boustrophedon, or as an ox in ploughing). Most Semitic alphabets, including Phoenician, read from right to left; and the earliest Greek inscriptions follow the same direction. But the direction from left to right became regular in Greece after the 6th century BC, and consequently is adopted by the Romans and in all European systems. The individual letters or symbols usually face in the same direction as the writing, as a whole. Position or place[edit] Roman marble funeral stele with inscription: "CIL VI 23414: D(is) M(anibus) / M(arco) Ogulnio / Iusto filio / pientissimo / vix(it) ann(os) XV mens(es) II d(ies) XXII / M(arcus) Ogulnius / Iustus pater / et sibi fecit" - 1st century AD The position or place of inscriptions depends greatly upon their purpose or intention. When they have a direct relation to the sculptures, reliefs or paintings with which they are associated, they often form a kind of pattern to fill the background or vacant spaces between the figures; but sometimes, especially in Mesopotamian statues or reliefs, they are cut right across the figures without any regard to the artistic effect. In late Greek or Roman work it is usual to cut any inscription relative to a statue or relief upon the basis on which this is mounted; but short inscriptions such as dedications or artists' signatures are often placed in some inconspicuous position upon the work itself. In the case of painted vases, the inscriptions relative to the subject represented are usually painted; but dedications and other inscriptions are often incised after the vase has been fired. In Egypt, inscriptions were often inscribed or painted upon inner walls of tombs, whether they referred to religious belief or ritual, or to the honours and possessions of the deceased; they were intended for his benefit and convenience rather than for the information of others, so as to perpetuate his familiar surroundings, not to make him live in the memory of his successors. The information which we derive from such inscriptions is invaluable to us; but such was not the intention with which they were made. On the other hand, inscriptions which were intended to be seen by the public and to perpetuate a record of events, or to supply useful information, were usually placed in places of common resort, above all in temples and sacred precincts. Sometimes they were cut on convenient rock faces, sometimes upon the walls of temples or other buildings. Most frequently the slabs of marble (stelae), stone metal or other material upon which the inscriptions were incised were set up in convenient positions to be read, in any places of public resort. This was the method of publication of all laws, decrees and official notices, of treaties and contracts, of honours to officials or private citizens, of religious dedications and prescriptions of ritual. Inscribed tombstones were set up over graves, which were usually placed along the chief roads leading out of a town, the most familiar example being the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis. Inscriptions commemorative of victories or other great events were only in exceptional cases erected upon the spot; more often such memorials were set up in some great religious centre such as Delphi or Olympia. But boundary stones were necessarily placed on the line which they defined. Chief periods and nationalities[edit] The study of inscriptions supplies an important contribution to the history of many lands and peoples. In some cases, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, it forms almost the only source of information in the absence of literary records; in others, as in Greece and Rome, it offers a most valuable supplement and comment to what is otherwise recorded. Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian inscriptions go back to an extremely early date; it is at present uncertain which is the earlier, but both show, before 3500 BC and possibly much earlier, a complete, organised system of writing which implies many centuries of development behind it. The Egyptian hieroglyphic system, as used in inscriptions, continued without any essential change of character until Roman times, though various systems of hieratic modification were used at different times. On the famous Rosetta Stone, in the British Museum, which first gave the clue to the interpretation of Egyptian writing, hieroglyphic, hieratic and Greek versions of the same decree are given side by side. Its date is 195 BC. The Mesopotamian linear symbols developed mainly for technical reasons, into a wedge-shaped or cuneiform system, which was adopted in modified forms and applied to different languages through some thousands of years, Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian, until it was superseded, after the conquests of Alexander, by Greek. An independent hieroglyphic system, which also developed into various linear scripts, existed in Crete during the Middle and Late Minoan periods, from about 3000, probably, to the fall of Knossos, about 1500 BC. The Hittite hieroglyphs correspond to the period of the Hittite empire in northern Syria and Asia Minor from about 2000 to 800 BC; from it, according to one theory, arose the Cypriot syllabary, which continued in use until the 4th century BC or later. The earliest Phoenician inscriptions known date from about the 10th century BC, and the alphabet remained in use down to the 3rd century BC. Some believe this was modified and adopted by the Greeks at an uncertain date; the earliest Greek inscriptions are generally dated in the 7th century BC. In early times each Greek State had its own alphabet; but in the year 403 BC (the archonship of Eucleides) the Ionian alphabet, which is the one used now for Greek capital letters, was officially adopted by Athens, and soon became universal in Greece. From the various Greek alphabets the different local Italian alphabets, including the Etruscan, were derived with various modifications. The Roman alphabet was among these, being based on the alphabet of Caere, a Chalcidian colony. There are a few very early Roman inscriptions; but they do not become common until the 3rd century BC; from that time the letters took much the same forms as they preserve to the present day. The custom of putting inscriptions in Greek and in Latin on buildings and other monuments continued through medieval times, and is still customary, classical forms being frequently imitated. The latest dated inscription in the Greek Corpus records the building of a bridge in Sicily in AD 1121. The series of Byzantine inscriptions continues practically without interruption to the present day; and Latin retains its use as a universal language in religious, public and private inscriptions. Methods of dating[edit] Main article: Dating methodologies in archaeology It is often possible to date an inscription approximately by the style of the lettering, or even by the alphabet used. Thus at Athens the Ionic alphabet was adopted in place of the early Attic alphabet in the archonship of Eucleides, 403 BC, according to a decree proposed by Archinus.[9] But the change was already in process in private inscriptions, and even in official documents Ionic forms are sometimes found earlier. Inscriptions are dated in various ways, mostly by giving the name of a king, magistrate or priest. In the case of kings, they only give an approximate date, unless the year of his reign is given also. But in the case of most independent cities, the date is given by the name of an annual magistrate, and thus the year is precisely indicated. At Athens, the name used was that of the Eponymous Archon, and as an almost complete list of these has been drawn up from inscriptions and other sources, this means of dating is quite satisfactory. The custom of dating by Olympiads, which is familiar to us from later Greek and Roman writers, was rarely used in early Greece, except in connection with athletic victories. Many inscriptions are dated from various local eras, often based upon historical events, such as the foundation of a town or festival, the organisation of a province, or even a visit of an emperor. The number of these eras in later times, especially in Asia Minor, becomes very bewildering. In Attic decrees, and some others, it was also usual to give the day of the month. In Greek inscription of the Roman period the year of the emperor is defined by the number of his consulate, or other indications or titles, as in the corresponding Latin inscriptions. In later times, the dating is commonly by "Indiction"; but as this only gives the number of the year within the 15-year period, but leaves that period undefined, such dating is very inconvenient except for merely temporary use. In the Eastern Empire the date from the creation of the world (5509 BC) is sometimes given; but the date of the Christian era is hardly ever used. Content[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Inscription on a Roman mosaic from excavations in the Appian Way, Rome. The Greek motto gnōthi sauton ("know thyself", nosce te ipsum) combines with the image to convey the famous warning: Respice post te; hominem te esse memento; memento mori (Look behind; remember that you are mortal; remember death) Purpose of inscriptions[edit] Inscriptions may be roughly divided into two main classes: those in which the inscription was subservient to the use or purpose of the object on which it was inscribed, or at any rate had a direct relation to that object — for example, the name of the owner or the record of dedication to a god — and those in which the inscription existed independently for its own sake, or for the sake of the information which it recorded, and the object on which it was inscribed was either made for the purpose, as a slab of marble or plate of bronze, or was made use of, as in the case of a convenient wall or the surface of a rock, or even a potsherd. The walls of buildings are often covered with such inscriptions, especially if they are in a conspicuous or convenient position, and so offer an obvious means of publicity. For us, accustomed as we are to a vast mass of books, newspapers and other printed or digital documents, it is difficult to realise the extensive use and great convenience assigned to inscriptions in ancient times. Not only were public announcements of all sorts, such as we should make known by advertisements or posters, thus placed before the public, but all kinds of records and enactments — codes of law and political decrees; regulations for all matters, civil and religious; accounts and contracts, public and private; treaties between states; records of public and private benefactions and dedications, and all matters of administration; honours to the living and to the memory of the dead. Many of these were intended to preserve for all time the records which they contained; but others must have been of only temporary interest. It seems, therefore, the more remarkable that they should have been incised on permanent material such as bronze, marble or stone — and incised in the first instance, with a care and perfection of technique which have led to their survival to the present day, so as to preserve for us invaluable evidence as to the life and institutions of the people who made them. Temporary and permanent value are therefore often combined in the same inscription. For instance, any Athenian citizen, visiting the Acropolis or the Agora, could satisfy themselves at first hand as to treaties or decrees of the people, public accounts or state income and expenditure. And at the same time these documents preserved for all time much history, both social and political.[10] Relative inscriptions[edit] Bust of Periander bearing the inscription "Periander, son of Cypselus, Corinthian". Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original by Kresilas, 4th century Inscriptions having a direct relation to the object, or representation, on which they are inscribed, vary greatly in their contents. Those relating to picture or relief chronicles of the victories or exploits of kings, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, serve as a record of the events, and help to interpret the scenes. Such inscriptions are not common in Greek or Roman work; but frequently, especially in early Greek times, and on vases, the names of persons and even of objects are written beside them for the purpose of identification, and sometimes a speech issues from the mouth of the figure. On the carved wooden chest of Cypselus, of about 600 BC hexameter verses were written, curving about among figures, and giving a description of each scene. The bases of statues and reliefs often had inscriptions cut upon them for identification and record. This was particularly the case with honorary statues and tombstones. In other cases, where there is an evident relation between the artistic representation and the inscription, the figures are subordinate and seem merely to illustrate the text, as when a treaty between Athens and Samos has a relief at its head representing the goddess Athena and Hera clasping hands, as representatives of their respective cities. In other cases, the arms or device of a city is carved on an inscription, almost like a seal on a document. In all these cases the figures and the inscription are part of a common design, whether carried out by the same hand or not. But in the case of owners' marks or names cut on vases or other objects, or of the dedication of such objects, the inscription is not necessarily contemporary; it may indeed be misleading, as in the case, mentioned with disapproval by Cicero, of using again old Greek statues and placing new dedicatory inscriptions on them in Roman times, a sort of "recycling": for instance, one of the statues of Athenian knights of the 5th century BC placed at the entrance of the Acropolis, had a later inscription cut on its base to make it serve as an equestrian statue of Germanicus, probably in 18 AD when he visited Athens. In Egypt and Mesopotamia also it is not unusual to find the name of a later king of official cut upon an earlier work.[11] Independent inscriptions[edit] The majority of inscriptions are of independent value and interest, the object on which they are cut being either provided for the purpose or utilised as convenient and suitable. Such inscriptions may be classified as (a) Religious and (b) Political and Social. The distinction between the two is not always easy to draw; for in almost all ancient civilisations religion was a part of the established service of the State, and was under public control, or at least was closely bound up with political administration. It follows that many inscriptions relating to religious matters take the form of political decrees or state documents, and therefore might, especially as far as form is concerned, be included in either category; but it is usually possible to classify them according to their contents and intention. Greek inscriptions[edit] See also: Greek inscriptions and Inscriptiones Graecae This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Religious[edit] The ancient bronze Serpent Column at the Hippodrome of Constantinople. The Obelisk of Theodosius is seen in the background. Temples, their foundation and administration[edit] A temple was often a kind of religious corporation under the control of the State; and its accounts and details of administration were made public at frequent intervals, usually annually, by means of inscriptions, exhibited to public view in its precinct. Many such inscriptions have been found, and supply a great deal of information that can be obtained from no other source. Some great temples, such as that of Apollo on the island of Delos, held great amounts of property, both real and portable, the latter taking the form either of more or less precious offerings dedicated in the temple and its surrounding buildings, or of coined money. The inscriptions accordingly record gifts and acquisitions of landed property, leases and assignments, payments of rent and fines for default, loans and interest and many other business transactions suitable to a great landed proprietor or to a bank. They therefore throw much light upon the social and economic conditions of ancient life, such as are nowhere else recorded. Again, the lists of offerings dedicated in the temple and other buildings enable us to realise almost visually the appearance of their contents. These are described as being on the floor, on the walls, on shelves or in cases; they consisted of vases and other objects suitable for use in the temple service; ornaments and jewels; statuettes, mostly in gold and silver; weapons and tools; coined money; and bullion, mostly melted down from old offerings. The detailed care that was taken in this last case, to ensure that the full weight of these objects was preserved, whether made into a new vessel or not, is recorded in other inscriptions. These elaborate inventories were checked and revised by each successive board of administrators, and gave the best possible security against any robbery or peculation. In addition to such general lists, there are also innumerable records of various gifts and acquisitions, whether of land and houses, or of movable property of all sorts. Buildings and repairs are also recorded, sometimes by the State, sometimes by individuals, whose piety and generosity are suitably honoured. In form, these are often hardly to be distinguished from public works of a secular character, which must be mentioned later.[12] The inscriptions on or belonging to special dedications are often of great historical interest — there need only be quoted the inscription on the famous Serpent Column, once at Delphi and now in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, with the list of the Greek States which took part in the Persian War; and that relating to the Roman arms dedicated by Pyrrhus of Epirus at Dodona after his victories. Most of the great temples being of immemorial sanctity, it is hardly to be expected that any records of their foundation should be found in inscriptions. But on the other hand we have many accounts of the dedication of new temples, either by states or communities or by private individuals. In almost all such cases it was necessary to obtain sanction for the foundation from the State; thus the inscription often takes the form of a decree of the people authorising the foundation of the temple and often giving some privileges to the founder or founders. Priests and other officials[edit] Greek inscription at the south temple, Kom Aushim (Karanis), Faiyum, Egypt Inscriptions give much information as to priests and other religious officials. There are in the first place lists of priests, some of them covering long periods and even going back to mythical times; there are also lists of treasures and administrators, who were usually lay officials appointed for the purpose, either by election or by lot. The duties and privileges of priests are recorded in many inscriptions, and vary considerably from place to place. It is recorded, for instance, what portions of a victim at any sacrifice were to be received by the priest. In any important temple this must evidently have been far more than the priest or his family could consume, and accordingly it must have been sold, and so constituted a considerable source of income. Consequently, a priesthood was an office well paid and much sought after; and we actually find in later Greek times, especially in Asia Minor, that priesthoods were frequently sold, under proper guarantees and with due sureties as to the duties being carried out. Sometimes a fee to the priest had to be paid in cash; in some cases a priest or priestess was allowed to take up a collection on certain days. On the other hand, the duties of a priest are often recorded; he had to see to the cleaning and care of the temple and its contents, to provide flowers and garlands for decorations and to supply the regular daily service. Sacrifices on great occasions were usually provided by the State, as also were important repairs; but in some cases a priest undertook these on his own account, and was honoured accordingly — for instance, by being allowed to inscribe his name in the restored temple. Besides priests, we find many other officials of various ranks attached to temples and recorded in inscriptions. Some of these, especially those who were concerned with buildings or constructions, or with the inventories of temple treasures and the accounts of administration, were lay officials appointed by the State, as in the case of political officers. But many others had specialised sacerdotal functions; for instance, in many places there were manteis or prophets, often of special families with hereditary skills in divination; at Eleusis we find records of the hierophant, the torch-bearer, and others who took part in the celebration of the mysteries. At Olympia, in later Greek times, we find a remarkable list of officials, that is: three priests, three libation pourers, two prophets, three custodians (of keys), a flute-player, an interpreter, a priest for the daily sacrifice, a secretary, a wine-pourer, three dancers at libations, a woodman (to supply wood for the sacrifices), and a steward and cook — the last no sinecure, in view of the numerous sacrificial feasts. There were also many more menial offices in the service of temples which were carried out by slaves. Such slaves were often presented to the temple or acquired in some other way. There is a whole class of inscriptions, found on many sites, in which the sale of slaves to a temple or to the god of a temple is recorded. It is often difficult to know whether such slaves were intended for the service of a temple, or, on the other hand, such service was either purely formal or was not required at all, the sale to the temple being intended as fictitious, so as to enable a slave to acquire his own freedom and at the same time to secure the protection of the god in his free status. Ritual[edit] Votive relief for the cure of a bad leg, inscription from the shrine of Asclepius at Milos, Ægean Sea. The ritual appropriate to different divinities and temples varied greatly from place to place; and it was, therefore, necessary or desirable to set up notices in all public places of worship for the information and guidance of worshippers. The commonest and most essential act of worship was sacrifice; an example of the simplest form of prescription is to be seen in the inscription on the relief from Thasos in the Louvre:— "To the Nymphs and to Apollo the leader of the Nymphs, the worshipper may, if he so choose, sacrifice a male and a female victim. It is not permissible to offer a sheep or a pig. No paean is sung. To the Graces it is not permissible to offer a goat or a pig."[13] It is to be noticed that this order of service contains a prohibition as well as a prescription. Such prohibitions are frequent, and often relate to the need of ceremonial purity in all worshippers entering a sacred precinct. They must for a certain time have abstained from certain prescribed means of pollution, varying from place to place. The officials are sometimes ordered to erect notices giving information on this point; for instance, at the precinct of Alectrona at Ialysus, it was prescribed that "no horse, ass, mule, nor any other animal with a bushy tail should enter, and that nobody should bring such animals in or wear shoes or any article produced from pigs. There is also a fine for driving in sheep." Other precincts were protected in a more general manner from any invasion or violation. It was prohibited to cut wood or to remove earth and stones, or to drive any beasts into some precincts; the right of erecting booths was either restricted or denied altogether. Sometimes more detailed prescriptions are given for the whole organisation of a festival; thus, at Andania, in Messenia, the arrangements for the celebration of the local Eleusinia, the dress of the participants, the officials and policing, are very fully described. Similarly, in the Hall of the Iobacchi, at Athens, the order of proceedings, the officers and the characters in the sacred play, and various administrative details are ordered.[14] When there is any doubt about any ritual or procedure, divination is often resorted to, and the results of such divination are recorded in inscriptions as a guidance for the future; it was also a common practice to consult Delphi or some other oracle in doubtful or difficult cases; there the exact method of procedure is sometimes recorded, as well as the response of the oracle. Forms of worship are often prescribed or recorded, especially hymns, which are sometimes inscribed together with their musical notation. The performance of songs or hymns and dances are also matters of constant reference, especially in connection with lyrical or musical contests; the victorious band or performer often dedicated the prize in honour of the god. A special form of contest was that in dramatic performances, of which many records have survived, both from Athens and from many other parts of the Greek world. The regulation of athletic festivals, and the records of victors in their contests, also form a numerous class of inscriptions. As regards mysteries, though there are numerous regulations affecting the arrangement of celebrations and the conduct of those participating, there is, as was to be expected, very little concerning the actual performances. Another interesting phase of Greek religion known to us mainly from inscriptions is offered by the shrines of healing. The most notable of these is the precinct of Asclepius at Epidaurus. Here have been found, on large slabs of inscription, compiled, in all probability, from earlier documents, lists of the cures effected by Apollo and Asclepius. The cures are of the most varied kinds, from painful diseases or surgical cases to a lost boy and a broken cup. The formula is in almost all cases the same: the consultant come to Epidaurus, sleeps in the abaton, has dreams or sees visions, and comes out whole. In later times, when such faith-healing had probably become less efficacious, elaborate prescriptions of diet and hygiene are recorded.[12] A special form of prayer consists of curses, which were often buried in the ground, probably with the intent to reach the infernal gods. Such curses often give the reason for their being made, usually some injury done to the author of the curse; sometimes they devote the offender to the infernal gods. Athenian text concerning the administration of temples in Salamis, dating from 363 BC Private associations for religious purposes[edit] Another elements in Greek religion which is known to us almost exclusively by means of inscriptions, is to be found in the religious associations that existed in many Greek cities, apart from the organisation of state religion, though sometimes recognised by it. These associations had each its own regulations, which were duly recorded in inscriptions; they varied greatly both in purpose and in character. Many of them had a definitely religious purpose, in the worship of certain gods; sometimes an alien community was given special permission to worship its own god or gods in its own way. Other associations were more social in character and served as clubs, or as burial societies. A remarkable feature about such associations is that the lists of members of many of them include the names of women and of slaves, thus contrasting with the civic basis of established religion in Greece, and anticipating a religion in which "there can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and female."[15] Political and social[edit] Codes of law and regulations[edit] Ancient writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were inscribed upon tablets of wood, put together in a pyramidal shape. These, owing to their material, have perished; but we have some very early codes of law preserved on stone, notably at Gortyna in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of 50 lines each; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements of this sort made when Locrians established a colony in Naupactus; another inscription relates to the Athenian colonisation of Salamis, in the 6th century BC. Decrees of people and rulers, later of kings and emperors[edit] A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter suggests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost all legislative and many administrative measures take this form; often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should be set up. The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary considerably from place to place, and from period to period. Those of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the immense number that have been discovered; and they are so strictly stereotyped that can be classified with the precision of algebraic formulae, and often dated to within a few years by this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been drawn up by epigraphist Wilhelm Larfeld, in his work on the subject.[16] It is usual to record the year (by the name of the eponymous archon), the day of the month and of the prytany (or presiding commission according to tribes), various secretaries, the presiding officials and the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution is passed by the senate (Boule) or the assembly of the people (Ecclesia), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, with such local variations as were required; others were more independent in their development, and different magistracies or forms of government had various results. In the Hellenistic Age, and later, the forms of independent government were, to a great extent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. On the other hand, it is common thing to find letters from kings, and later from Roman emperors, inscribed and set up in public places. Public accounts, treasure lists, building inscriptions[edit] It was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that citizens could verify for themselves the safety and due control of the State in all financial matters. As in the case of temple accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to render to their successors an account of their stewardship, and of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it possible, not only to realise all the technical details and processes employed, but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A notable instance is the arsenal of Philon at the Peiraeus which has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from the building specification.[17] In the case of the Erechtheum, we have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the building in 409 BC, but also accounts of the expenditure and payments to the workmen employed in finishing it. Similar accounts have been preserved of the building of the Parthenon, spread over 15 years; in the case of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, there are included the payments made to those who made the sculptures.[12][18] Naval and military expenditure is also fully accounted for; among other information there are records of the galley-slips at the different harbours of the Piraeus, and of the ships of the Athenian navy, with their names and condition. In short, there is no department of state economy and financial administration that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions.[17] A set of records of high historical value are the "tribute lists", recording the quota paid to Athens by her subject allies during the 5th century BC. These throw much light on her relations with them at various periods.(Cf. Delian League). Stele with an ephebic list, Athens, 4th century BC Ephebic inscriptions[edit] An institution as to which our knowledge is mainly derived from inscriptions is the ephebic system at Athens. There are not only records of lists of ephebi and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from age of 18 to 20, with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, when youths from all parts of the civilised world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university.[19] Treaties and political and commercial agreements; arbitration, etc.[edit] In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others recording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities concerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. Often an oath was prescribed, to be taken by representatives on each side; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to become more complicated and detailed in their provisions.[14] Another series of records of great historical interest is concerned with arbitration between various states on various questions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon for the two disputants to appoint a third party as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, sometimes a specified number of individuals. Thus, in a frontier dispute between Corinth and Epidaurus, 151 citizens of Megara were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised and confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the Achaean League. Proxenia decrees[edit] A very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of proxenia. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed proxenos of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. The office has been compared to the modern appointment of consuls, with the essential difference that the proxenos is always a citizen of the state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. The decrees upon this matter frequently record the appointment of a proxenos, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also contain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the proxenos, and record honours consequently conferred upon him.[20] Honours and privileges given to individuals[edit] This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invitation to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. The bust of Pericles on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor Kresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some detail, the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail. Signatures of artists[edit] Black-figure dinos with stand, Attic, c. 570 BC. Signed by Sophilos: ΣΟΦΙΛΟΣ [...] ΜΕΓΡΑΦΣΕΝ, "Sophilos drew me" These inscriptions are of special interest as throwing much light upon the history of art. The artist's name was usually, especially in earlier times, carved upon the base of the pedestal of a statue, and consequently was easily separated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case where both statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by the Victory, signed on its pedestal by Paeonius at Olympia. Occasionally, and more frequently in later times, the artist's signature was carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But in later copies of well-known works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist who reproduced his work. (see for example, the statue of Hercules/Heracles below) A special class of artists' signatures is offered by the names signed by Attic and other vase painters upon their vases. These have been made the basis of a minute historical and stylistic study of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production.[21] Historical records[edit] The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some instances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set up a list of his victories. The most famous historical record is the autobiographical account of the deeds and administration of Augustus, which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, because the most complete copy of it was found at Ancyra. The Marmor Parium at Oxford, found in Paros, is a chronological record of Greek history, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down.[22] Tombs and epitaphs[edit] This is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his deme. Sometimes a word or two of conventional praise is added, such as "a good and wise man". Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such epitaphs were frequently in metrical form, usually either hexameter or elegiacs. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it becomes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased; but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern tombstones. The age and other facts about the deceased are occasionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect.[23] Latin inscriptions[edit] See also: Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, and List of classical abbreviations Basilica of Aquileia, 4th-century mosaic with Latin inscription: IANUARI DEDEI DONO P * DCCCLXX (Januarius paid for 870 square feet of mosaic) Latin inscriptions may be classified on much the same lines as Greek; but certain broad distinctions may be drawn at the outset. They are generally more standardised as to form and as to content, not only in Rome and Italy, but also throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire. One of the chief difficulties in deciphering Latin Inscriptions lies in the very extensive use of initials and abbreviations. These are of great number and variety, and while some of them can be easily interpreted as belonging to well-known formulae, others offer considerable difficulty, especially to the inexperienced student.[24] Often the same initial may have many different meanings according to the context. Some common formulae such as V.S.L.M. (votum solvit libens merito), or H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur) offer little difficulty, but there are many which are not so obvious and leave room for conjecture. Often the only way to determine the meaning is to search through a list of initials, such as those given by modern Latin epigraphists, until a formula is found which fits the context. Most of what has been said about Greek inscriptions applies to Roman also. The commonest materials in this case also are stone, marble and bronze; but a more extensive use is made of stamped bricks and tiles, which are often of historical value as identifying and dating a building or other construction. The same applies to leaden water pipes which frequently bear dates and names of officials. Terracotta lamps also frequently have their makers' names and other information stamped upon them. Arms, and especially shields, sometimes bear the name and corps of their owners. Leaden discs were also used to serve the same purpose as modern identification discs. Inscriptions are also found on sling bullets — Roman as well as Greek; there are also numerous classes of tesserae or tickets of admission to theatres or other shows. As regards the contents of inscriptions, there must evidently be a considerable difference between records of a number of independent city states and an empire including almost all the civilised world; but municipalities maintained much of their independent traditions in Roman times, and consequently their inscriptions often follow the old formulas. The classification of Roman inscriptions may, therefore, follow the same lines as the Greek, except that certain categories are absent, and that some others, not found in Greek, are of considerable importance. Religious[edit] Dedications and foundations of temples, etc.[edit] Votive plaque for Victoria, set by Flavius Primus, curator of the Turma Maximini[25] These are very numerous; and the custom of placing the name of the dedicator in a conspicuous place on the building was prevalent, especially in the case of dedications by emperors or officials, or by public bodies. Restoration or repair was often recorded in the same manner. In the case of small objects the dedication is usually simple in form; it usually contains the name of the god or other recipient and of the donor, and a common formula is D.D. (dedit, donavit) often with additions such as L.M. (libens merito). Such dedications are often the result of a vow, and V.S. (votum solvit) is therefore often added. Bequests made under the wills of rich citizens are frequently recorded by inscriptions; these might either be for religious or for social purposes. Priests and officials[edit] A priesthood was frequently a political office and consequently is mentioned along with political honours in the list of a man's distinctions. The priesthoods that a man had held are usually mentioned first in inscriptions before his civil offices and distinctions. Religious offices, as well as civil, were restricted to certain classes, the highest to those of senatorial rank, the next to those of equestrian status; many minor offices, both in Rome and in the provinces, are enumerated in their due order. Regulations as to religion and cult[edit] Among the most interesting of these is the ancient song and accompanying dance performed by the priests known as the Arval Brothers. This is, however, not in the form of a ritual prescription, but a detailed record of the due performance of the rite. An important class of documents is the series of calendars that have been found in Rome and in the various Italian towns. These give notice of religious festivals and anniversaries, and also of the days available for various purposes. Colleges[edit] The various colleges for religious purposes were very numerous. Many of them, both in Rome and Italy, and in provincial municipalities, were of the nature of priesthoods. Some were regarded as offices of high distinction and were open only to men of senatorial rank; among these were the Augurs, the Fetiales, the Salii; also the Sodales Divorum Augustorum in imperial times. The records of these colleges sometimes give no information beyond the names of members, but these are often of considerable interest. Haruspices and Luperci were of equestrian rank. Political and social[edit] Codes of law and regulations[edit] Our information as to these is not mainly drawn from inscriptions and, therefore, they need not here be considered. On the other hand, the word lex (law) is usually applied to all decrees of the senate or other bodies, whether of legislative or of administrative character. It is therefore, best to consider all together under the heading of public decrees. Laws and plebiscites, senatus consulta, decrees of magistrates or later of emperors[edit] A certain number of these dating from republican times are of considerable interest. One of the earliest relates to the prohibition of bacchanalian orgies in Italy; it takes the form of a message from the magistrates, stating the authority on which they acted. Laws all follow a fixed formula, according to the body which has passed them. First there is a statement that the legislative body was consulted by the appropriate magistrate in due form; then follows the text of the law; and finally the sanction, the statement that the law was passed. In decrees of the senate the formula differs somewhat. They begin with a preamble giving the names of the consulting magistrates, the place and conditions of the meeting; then comes the subject submitted for decision, ending with the formula QDERFP (quid de ea re fieri placeret); then comes the decision of the senate, opening with DERIC (de ea re ita censuerunt). C. is added at the end, to indicate that the decree was passed. In imperial times, the emperor sometimes addressed a speech to the senate, advising them to pass certain resolutions, or else, especially in later times, gave orders or instructions directly, either on his own initiative or in response to questions or references. The number and variety of such orders is such that no classification of them can be given here. One of the most famous is the edict of Diocletian, fixing the prices of all commodities. Copies of this in Greek as well as in Latin have been found in various parts of the Roman Empire.[26] Records of buildings, etc.[edit] German inscription recording the building of Bozen-Bolzano's Parish Church (South Tyrol) by Hans Lutz of Schussenried, from the early 16th century (1501–1519) A very large number of inscriptions record the construction or repair of public buildings by private individuals, by magistrates, Roman or provincial, and by emperors. In addition to the dedication of temples, we find inscriptions recording the construction of aqueducts, roads, especially on milestones, baths, basilicas, porticos and many other works of public utility. In inscriptions of early period often nothing is given but the name of the person who built or restored the edifice and a statement that he had done so. But later it was usual to give more detail as to the motive of the building, the name of the emperor or a magistrate giving the date, the authority for the building and the names and distinctions of the builders; then follows a description of the building, the source of the expenditure (e.g., S.P., sua pecunia) and finally the appropriate verb for the work done, whether building, restoring, enlarging or otherwise improving. Other details are sometimes added, such as the name of the man under whose direction the work was done. Military documents[edit] Brick stamp with military record: "C(ohors) III BR(acaraugustanorum)", from Bavaria. These vary greatly in content, and are among the most important documents concerning the administration of the Roman Empire. "They are numerous and of all sorts — tombstones of every degree, lists of soldiers' burial clubs, certificates of discharge from service, schedules of time-expired men, dedications of altars, records of building or of engineering works accomplished. The facts directly commemorated are rarely important."[27] But when the information from hundreds of such inscriptions is collected together, "you can trace the whole policy of the Imperial Government in the matter of recruiting, to what extent and till what date legionaries were raised in Italy; what contingents for various branches of the service were drawn from the provinces, and which provinces provided most; how far provincials garrisoned their own countries, and which of them, like the British recruits, were sent as a measure of precaution to serve elsewhere; or, finally, at what epoch the empire grew weak enough to require the enlistment of barbarians from beyond its frontiers."[27] Treaties and agreements[edit] There were many treaties between Rome and other states in republican times; but we do not, as a rule, owe our knowledge of these to inscriptions, which are very rare in this earlier period. In imperial times, to which most Latin inscriptions belong, international relations were subject to the universal domination of Rome, and consequently the documents relating to them are concerned with reference to the central authority, and often take the form of orders from the emperor. Roman copy of Lysippus‘ Hercules (left) and copyist's signature (Glykon Athenaios epoiei→Glycon the Athenian made [me]) on statue (right) Proxeny[edit] See also: Patronage in ancient Rome This custom belonged to Greece. What most nearly corresponded to it in Roman times was the adoption of some distinguished Roman as its patron, by a city or state. The relation was then recorded, usually on a bronze tablet placed in some conspicuous position in the town concerned. The patron probably also kept a copy in his house, or had a portable tablet which would ensure his recognition and reception. Honorary[edit] Honorary inscriptions are extremely common in all parts of the Roman world. Sometimes they are placed on the bases of statues, sometimes in documents set up to record some particular benefaction or the construction of some public work. The offices held by the person commemorated, and the distinctions conferred upon him are enumerated in a regularly established order (cursus honorum), either beginning with the lower and proceeding step by step to the higher, or in reverse order with the highest first. Religious and priestly offices are usually mentioned before civil and political ones. These might be exercised either in Rome itself, or in the various municipalities of the empire. There was also a distinction drawn between offices that might be held only by persons of senatorial rank, those that were assigned to persons of equestrian rank, and those of a less distinguished kind. It follows that when only a portion of an inscription has been found, it is often possible to restore the whole in accordance with the accepted order. Signatures of artists[edit] When these are attached to statues, it is sometimes doubtful whether the name is that of the man who actually made the statue, or of the master whose work it reproduces. Thus there are two well-known copies of a statue of Hercules by Lysippus, of which one is said to be the work of Lysippus, and the other states that it was made by Glycon (see images). Another kind of artist's or artificer's signature that is commoner in Roman times is to be found in the signatures of potters upon lamps and various kinds of vessels; they are usually impressed on the mould and stand out in relief on the terracotta or other material. These are of interest as giving much information as to the commercial spread of various kinds of handicrafts, and also as to the conditions under which they were manufactured. Reproduction of the Columna Rostrata of Gaius Duilius (c. 260 BC) at the Museum of Roman Civilization. Historical records[edit] Many of these inscriptions might well be assigned to one of the categories already considered. But there are some which were expressly made to commemorate an important event, or to preserve a record. Among the most interesting is the inscription of the Columna Rostrata in Rome, which records the great naval victory of Gaius Duilius over the Carthaginians; this, however, is not the original, but a later and somewhat modified version. A document of high importance is a summary of the life and achievements of Augustus, already mentioned, and known as the Monumentum Ancyranum. The various sets of Fasti constituted a record of the names of consuls, and other magistrates or high officials, and also of the triumphs accorded to conquering generals. Inscriptions on tombs[edit] The tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, erected around 150 BC, contains an Old Latin inscription in Saturnian Metre. These are probably the most numerous of all classes of inscriptions; and though many of them are of no great individual interest, they convey, when taken collectively, much valuable information as to the distribution and transference of population, as to trades and professions, as to health and longevity, and as to many other conditions of ancient life. The most interesting early series is that on the tombs of the Scipios at Rome, recording, mostly in Saturnian Metre, the exploits and distinctions of the various members of that family.[28] About the end of the republic and the beginning of the empire, it became customary to head a tombstone with the letters D.M. or D.M.S. (Dis Manibus sacrum), thus consecrating the tomb to the deceased as having become members of the body of ghosts or spirits of the dead. These are followed by the name of the deceased, usually with his father's name and his tribe, by his honours and distinctions, sometimes by a record of his age. The inscription often concludes with H.I. (Hic iacet), or some similar formula, and also, frequently, with a statement of boundaries and a prohibition of violation or further use — for instance, H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur, this monument is not to pass to the heir). The person who has erected the monument and his relation to the deceased are often stated; or if a man has prepared the tomb in his lifetime, this also may be stated, V.S.F. (vivus sibi fecit). But there is an immense variety in the information that either a man himself or his friend may wish to record.[28] Milestones and boundaries[edit] Milestones (miliaria) have already been referred to, and may be regarded as records of the building of roads. Boundary stones (termini) are frequently found, both of public and private property. A well-known instance is offered by those set up by the commissioners called III. viri A.I.A. (agris iudicandis adsignandis) in the time of the Gracchi. Latin inscriptions are the meeting point of Roman history and several arts. These are arts of expression or composition, writing in the strictly physical sense, and design or arrangement. The history is Roman history in its largest sense, involving men and women in many of their affairs, such as life and death, government, law, religious worship — all as illustrated above. The related fields one has to enter in order to fully appreciate the epigraphical study, are many: beside all aspects of Roman history, such more restricted but still large fields as ancient jewelry, Etruscology, Italic and Latin philology, ancient pottery, comparative palaeography, Roman nomenclature, Latin verse, lexicography (including inconsistencies of spelling, the early lack of a standard orthography), Roman architecture and prosopography, and the pronunciation of Greek as revealed by the rendering of Greek words in Latin inscriptions and of Latin words in Greek.[29] See also[edit] Related fields of study[edit] EpiDoc Leiden Conventions Numismatics Palaeography, the study of ancient writing Orthography Papyrology Typography Writing system Types of inscription[edit] Abecedarium Chronogram Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Copper plate inscriptions Arabic Ex libris Early Indian epigraphy Epitaph on a headstone Graffiti Hero stone and Paliya History of Latin Inscriptiones Graecae and Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum Maya script, also known as "Maya glyphs" or "Maya hieroglyphics" Memento mori Monumental inscription Ogham Ogham inscription Kannada inscriptions Old Turkic script Ostracon Petroglyph Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions Roman lead pipe inscription Runestone Stoichedon Tamil-Brahmi Notable inscriptions[edit] Behistun Inscription Bitola inscription Bryggen inscriptions Decree of Themistocles Dipylon inscription Duenos Inscription Edicts of Ashoka Inscription of Abercius Kedukan Bukit Laguna Copperplate Inscription La Mojarra Stela 1 Malia altar stone Phaistos Disc Res Gestae Divi Augusti Rosetta Stone Shugborough inscription Priene Inscription Punic-Libyan Inscription The Antikythera mechanism is notable for the novel techniques used in reading the inscriptions. References[edit] ^ Mees, Bernard Thomas, The Science of the Swastika, Budapest / New York 2008. ^ Brown, Julian. "What is Palaeography?" (PDF). UMassAmherst. Retrieved 21 September 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Bozia, Eleni; Barmpoutis, Angelos; Wagman, Robert S. (2014). "OPEN-ACCESS EPIGRAPHY. Electronic Dissemination of 3D-digitized. Archaeological Material" (PDF). Hypotheses.org: 12. Retrieved 21 September 2018. ^ Drake, Miriam A. (2003). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Dekker Encyclopedias Series. 3. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-2079-2. ^ Orlandi, Silvia; Caldelli, Maria Letizia; Gregori, Gian Luca (November 2014). Bruun, Christer; Edmondson, Jonathan (eds.). "Forgeries and Fakes". The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy. Oxford Handbooks. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195336467.013.003. ISBN 9780195336467. Retrieved 21 September 2018. ^ Silberman, Neil Asher; Goren, Yuval (September–October 2003). "Faking Biblical History: How wishful thinking and technology fooled some scholars—and made fools out of others". Archaeology. Vol. 56 no. 5. Archaeological Institute of America. pp. 20–29. JSTOR 41658744. Retrieved 27 April 2011. ^ Shanks, Hershel. "Related Coverage on the James Ossuary and Forgery Trial". Biblical Archaeology Review. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2012. ^ Michael D. Coe (1992). Breaking the Maya Code. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05061-9. OCLC 26605966. ^ St. Clement of Alexandria | title=Stromata |url=vi. 2 ^ Trudy, Robert; Sharon, Ring; Salkin, Boda (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2. ^ For the Cicero reference cf. Margherita Guarducci (1995). Epigrafia greca. Rome: Ist. Poligrafico dello Stato. pp. 87ff. ^ a b c Ian Jenkins (2006). Greek Architecture And Its Sculpture. Harvard University Press. pp. 118–126. ISBN 978-0-674-02388-8. Retrieved 29 March 2013. ^ Cf. Louvre Ma 696 (Sculpture), Relief Plaques from Thasos; see also classification on Poinikastas:"Thasos, inscriptions" - IG vol. xii.8 no. 358. ^ a b Cf. An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, Cambridge University Press - (undated, no author cited)Googlebook; see also Ancient Athens, Haskell House Publ., 1902 (no author cited) Googlebook ^ Galatians 3:28 ^ Cf. his classic work (downloadable) Griechische Epigraphik (1914) at University of Toronto - Robarts Library, eBook. ^ a b Built under the administration of Lycurgus, Smith, Sir William, ed. (1859). "Philon, A very eminent architect at Athens". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. vol. III. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 314. |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link). E. A. Gardner, op.cit. p. 557, observes that it "is perhaps known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy. Philon's arsenal was destroyed by the forces of Lucius Cornelius Sulla in the Roman conquest of Athens in 86 BC. ^ Jeffrey M. Hurwit (2000). The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42834-3. ^ Cf. O. W. Reinmuth (1971). The Ephebic Inscriptions of the Fourth Century B.C. Leiden Brill. pp. passim. ^ Cf. Enrica Culasso Gastaldi (2004). Le prossenie ateniesi del IV secolo a.C.: gli onorati asiatici (Fonti e studi di storia antica, 10). Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso. pp. passim. ^ Cf. int. al., Joseph Veach Noble (1988). The Techniques of Painted Attic Pottery. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500050477.; Martin Robinson (1992). The Art of Vase-Painting in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0521338813. ^ Cf. P. Botteri; G. Fangi (2003). The Ancyra Project: the Temple of Augustus and Rome. Ankara: ISPRS Archives, volume XXXIV part 5/W12 Commission V. pp. 84–88.; see also The Parian chronicle, or The chronicle of the Arundelian marbles; with a dissertation concerning its authenticity by Joseph Robertson 1788, from the Internet Archive. ^ Cf. int. al. the interesting Epitaph of Seikilos by C. V. Palisca & J. P. Burkholder, 2006. ^ A mere list of such initials and abbreviations occupies 68 pages in René Cagnat's Cours d'épigraphie Latine (repr. 1923). A selection is included in Wikipedia's "List of classical abbreviations". ^ It reads: Victo(riae) Fl(avius) P/rimus cur(ator) / tur(mae) Maxi/mini. ^ Cf. E.R. Graser (1940). T. Frank (ed.). An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome Volume V: Rome and Italy of the Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press — esp. "A text and translation of the Edict of Diocletian". ^ a b Francis Haverfield, "Roman Authority" in S. R. Driver, D. G. Hogarth, F. L. Griffith, et al. Authority and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane: Essays On the Relation of Monuments to Biblical and Classical Literature, Ulan Press (repr. 2012), p. 314. ^ a b Cf. Edward Courtney (1995). MUSA LAPIDARIA: A Selection of Latin Verse Inscriptions. Atlanta: Scholars Press. ^ Cf. Arthur E. Gordon, Latin Epigraphy, University of California Press, 1983, Introd., pp.3-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Epigraphy. Look up epigraphy or inscription in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Epigraphy . "EAGLE: Europeana Network of Ancient Greek and Latin Epigraphy". EAGLE project. Retrieved 20 May 2016. Bodel, John (1997–2009). "U.S. Epigraphy Project". Brown University. Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2009. Centre d'études épigraphiques et numismatiques de la faculté de Philosophie de l'Université de Beograd. "Inscriptions de la Mésie Supérieure" (in French). Archived from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2009. "Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents". Oxford: Oxford University. 1995–2009. Retrieved 22 November 2009. Clauss, Manfred. "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (EDCS)" (in German, Italian, Spanish, English, and French). Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2011. "EAGLE: Electronic Archive of Greek and Latin Epigraphy" (in Italian). Federazione Internazionale di Banche dati Epigrafiche presso il Centro Linceo Interdisciplinare "Beniamino Segre" - Roma. Retrieved 22 November 2009. "Epigraphische Datenbank Heidelberg (EDH)". 1986–2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012. International Federation of Epigraphic Databases. "Epigraphic Database Roma (EDR)" (in Italian). Association Internationale d'Épigraphie Grecque et Latine - AIEGL. Retrieved 22 November 2009. International Federation of Epigraphic Databases. "Epigraphic Database Bari: Documenti epigrafici romani di committenza cristiana - Secoli III - VIII" (in Italian). Association Internationale d'Épigraphie Grecque et Latine - AIEGL. Retrieved 22 November 2009. "Hispania Epigraphica Online (HEpOl)" (in Spanish and English). Retrieved 14 August 2011. Greek Epigraphy Project, Cornell University; Epigraphical Center; Ohio State University (2009). "Searchable Greek Inscriptions". Packard Humanities Institute. Archived from the original on 10 December 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2009. The Institute for Ancient History (1993–2009). "Epigraphic database for ancient Asia Minor". Universität Hamburg. Retrieved 22 November 2009. Reynolds, Joyce; Roueché, Charlotte; Bodard, Gabriel (2007). Inscriptions of Aphrodisias (IAph2007). London: King's College. ISBN 978-1-897747-19-3. "The American Society for Greek and Latin Epigraphy (ASGLE)". Case Western Reserve University. Archived from the original on 30 March 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2009. "Ubi Erat Lupa" (in German). Universität Salzburg. Retrieved 22 November 2009. Poinikastas: Epigraphic Sources For Early Greek Writing, Oxford University Current Epigraphy a journal of news and short reports on inscriptions The Epigraphic Society Formed in 1974 by Professor Barry Fell of Harvard University and Professor Norman Totten of Bentley College, its journal, the Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers (ESOP), is shelved by numerous universities and research institutions worldwide. Signs of Life a Virtual Exhibition on Epigraphy, presenting several aspects of it with examples. Edwin Whitfield Fay (1920). "Inscriptions" . Encyclopedia Americana. v t e Writing and writing material Enduring Plant-based Palm leaf (Borassus) Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Birch bark (Betula) Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Bamboo and wooden slips Paper Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Parabaik (Streblus asper) Samut khoi (S. asper) Kraing (Morus bark) Other materials Clay tablet Wax tablet Metals Stamping Intaglio Stone Animal skin Parchment Vellum Oracle bone Silk text Textile printing Geoglyph Ink Photographic film Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Inscription Bas-relief Scroll Manuscript Palimpsest Codex Book Sign Microform Electronic media Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries Spain France (data) United States Czech Republic Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&oldid=1026682379" Categories: Epigraphy Textual scholarship Inscriptions Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: extra text: authors list CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles that may contain original research from July 2019 All articles that may contain original research Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from July 2019 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Use British English from March 2013 Use dmy dates from March 2013 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Corsu Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Latina Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Türkmençe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 17:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3736	----	Platonism - Wikipedia Platonism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Head of Plato, Roman copy. The original was exhibited at the Academy after the death of the philosopher (348/347 BC). Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary platonists do not necessarily accept all of the doctrines of Plato.[1] Platonism had a profound effect on Western thought. Platonism at least affirms the existence of abstract objects, which are asserted to exist in a third realm distinct from both the sensible external world and from the internal world of consciousness, and is the opposite of nominalism.[1] This can apply to properties, types, propositions, meanings, numbers, sets, truth values, and so on (see abstract object theory). Philosophers who affirm the existence of abstract objects are sometimes called platonists; those who deny their existence are sometimes called nominalists. The terms "platonism" and "nominalism" also have established senses in the history of philosophy. They denote positions that have little to do with the modern notion of an abstract object.[2] In a narrower sense, the term might indicate the doctrine of Platonic realism, a form of mysticism. The central concept of Platonism, a distinction essential to the Theory of Forms, is the distinction between the reality which is perceptible but unintelligible, associated with the flux of Heraclitus and studied by the likes of science, and the reality which is imperceptible but intelligible, associated with the unchanging being of Parmenides and studied by the likes of mathematics. Geometry was the main motivation of Plato, and this also shows the influence of Pythagoras. The Forms are typically described in dialogues such as the Phaedo, Symposium and Republic as perfect archetypes of which objects in the everyday world are imperfect copies. Aristotle's Third Man Argument is its most famous criticism in antiquity. In the Republic the highest form is identified as the Form of the Good, the source of all other Forms, which could be known by reason. In the Sophist, a later work, the Forms being, sameness and difference are listed among the primordial "Great Kinds". Plato established the Academy, and in the 3rd century BC, Arcesilaus adopted academic skepticism, which became a central tenet of the school until 90 BC when Antiochus added Stoic elements, rejected skepticism, and began a period known as Middle Platonism. In the 3rd century AD, Plotinus added additional mystical elements, establishing Neoplatonism, in which the summit of existence was the One or the Good, the source of all things; in virtue and meditation the soul had the power to elevate itself to attain union with the One. Many Platonic notions were adopted by the Christian church which understood Plato's Forms as God's thoughts (a position also known as divine conceptualism), while Neoplatonism became a major influence on Christian mysticism in the West through Saint Augustine, Doctor of the Catholic Church, who was heavily influenced by Plotinus' Enneads,[3] and in turn were foundations for the whole of Western Christian thought.[4] Many ideas of Plato were incorporated by the Roman Catholic Church.[5][6][7][8][9] Contents 1 Philosophy 2 History 2.1 Ancient philosophy 2.1.1 The Academy 2.1.2 The Skeptical Academy 2.1.3 Middle Platonism 2.1.4 Neoplatonism 2.2 Medieval philosophy 2.2.1 Christianity and Platonism 2.3 Modern philosophy 2.3.1 Renaissance 2.4 Contemporary philosophy 2.4.1 Modern Platonism 2.4.1.1 Analytic 2.4.1.2 Continental 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Philosophy[edit] Plato holding his Timaeus, detail from the Vatican fresco The School of Athens The primary concept is the Theory of Forms. The only true being is founded upon the forms, the eternal, unchangeable, perfect types, of which particular objects of moral and responsible sense are imperfect copies. The multitude of objects of sense, being involved in perpetual change, are thereby deprived of all genuine existence.[10] The number of the forms is defined by the number of universal concepts which can be derived from the particular objects of sense.[10] The following excerpt may be representative of Plato's middle period metaphysics and epistemology: [Socrates:] "Since the beautiful is opposite of the ugly, they are two." [Glaucon:] "Of course." "And since they are two, each is one?" "I grant that also." "And the same account is true of the just and unjust, the good and the bad, and all the forms. Each of them is itself one, but because they manifest themselves everywhere in association with actions, bodies, and one another, each of them appears to be many." "That's right." "So, I draw this distinction: On one side are those you just now called lovers of sights, lovers of crafts, and practical people; on the other side are those we are now arguing about and whom one would alone call philosophers." "How do you mean?" "The lovers of sights and sounds like beautiful sounds, colors, shapes, and everything fashioned out of them, but their thought is unable to see and embrace the nature of the beautiful itself." "That's for sure." "In fact, there are very few people who would be able to reach the beautiful itself and see it by itself. Isn't that so?" "Certainly." "What about someone who believes in beautiful things, but doesn't believe in the beautiful itself and isn't able to follow anyone who could lead him to the knowledge of it? Don't you think he is living in a dream rather than a wakened state? Isn't this dreaming: whether asleep or awake, to think that a likeness is not a likeness but rather the thing itself that it is like?" "I certainly think that someone who does that is dreaming." "But someone who, to take the opposite case, believes in the beautiful itself, can see both it and the things that participate in it and doesn't believe that the participants are it or that it itself is the participants--is he living in a dream or is he awake? "He's very much awake." (Republic Bk. V, 475e-476d, translation G.M.A Grube) Book VI of the Republic identifies the highest form as the Form of the Good, the cause of all other Ideas, and that on which the being and knowing of all other Forms is contingent. Conceptions derived from the impressions of sense can never give us the knowledge of true being; i.e. of the forms.[10] It can only be obtained by the soul's activity within itself, apart from the troubles and disturbances of sense; that is to say, by the exercise of reason.[10] Dialectic, as the instrument in this process, leading us to knowledge of the forms, and finally to the highest form of the Good, is the first of sciences.[10] Later Neoplatonism, beginning with Plotinus, identified the Good of the Republic with the transcendent, absolute One[11] of the first hypothesis of the Parmenides (137c-142a). Platonist ethics is based on the Form of the Good. Virtue is knowledge, the recognition of the supreme form of the good.[10] And, since in this cognition, the three parts of the soul, which are reason, spirit, and appetite, all have their share, we get the three virtues, Wisdom, Courage, and Moderation.[10] The bond which unites the other virtues is the virtue of Justice, by which each part of the soul is confined to the performance of its proper function.[10] Platonism had a profound effect on Western thought. In many interpretations of the Timaeus Platonism,[12] like Aristotelianism, poses an eternal universe, as opposed to the nearby Judaic tradition that the universe had been created in historical time, with its continuous history recorded. Unlike Aristotelianism, Platonism describes idea as prior to matter and identifies the person with the soul. Many Platonic notions secured a permanent place in Christianity.[13] History[edit] Ancient philosophy[edit] The Academy[edit] Main article: Platonic Academy Site of Plato's Academy in Athens Platonism was originally expressed in the dialogues of Plato, in which the figure of Socrates is used to expound certain doctrines, that may or may not be similar to the thought of the historical Socrates, Plato's master. Plato delivered his lectures at the Academy, a precinct containing a sacred grove outside the walls of Athens. The school continued there long after Plato's death. There were three periods: the Old, Middle, and New Academy. The chief figures in the Old Academy were Speusippus (Plato's nephew), who succeeded him as the head of the school (until 339 BC), and Xenocrates (until 313 BC). Both of them sought to fuse Pythagorean speculations on number with Plato's theory of forms. The Skeptical Academy[edit] Main article: Academic Skepticism Around 266 BC, Arcesilaus became head of the Academy. This phase, known as the Middle Academy, strongly emphasized philosophical skepticism. It was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics and their assertion of the certainty of truth and our knowledge of it. The New Academy began with Carneades in 155 BC, the fourth head in succession from Arcesilaus. It was still largely skeptical, denying the possibility of knowing an absolute truth; both Arcesilaus and Carneades argued that they were maintaining a genuine tenet of Plato. Middle Platonism[edit] Main article: Middle Platonism Around 90 BC, Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, making way for the period known as Middle Platonism, in which Platonism was fused with certain Peripatetic and many Stoic dogmas. In Middle Platonism, the Platonic Forms were not transcendent but immanent to rational minds, and the physical world was a living, ensouled being, the World-Soul. Pre-eminence in this period belongs to Plutarch. The eclectic nature of Platonism during this time is shown by its incorporation into Pythagoreanism (Numenius of Apamea) and into Jewish philosophy[14] (Philo of Alexandria). Neoplatonism[edit] Main article: Neoplatonism Many Western churchmen, including Augustine of Hippo, have been influenced by Platonism. In the third century, Plotinus recast Plato's system, establishing Neoplatonism, in which Middle Platonism was fused with mysticism. At the summit of existence stands the One or the Good, as the source of all things.[15] It generates from itself, as if from the reflection of its own being, reason, the nous, wherein is contained the infinite store of ideas.[15] The world-soul, the copy of the nous, is generated by and contained in it, as the nous is in the One, and, by informing matter in itself nonexistent, constitutes bodies whose existence is contained in the world-soul.[15] Nature therefore is a whole, endowed with life and soul. Soul, being chained to matter, longs to escape from the bondage of the body and return to its original source.[15] In virtue and philosophical thought it has the power to elevate itself above the reason into a state of ecstasy, where it can behold, or ascend to, that one good primary Being whom reason cannot know.[15] To attain this union with the Good, or God, is the true function of human beings.[15] Plotinus' disciple, Porphyry, followed by Iamblichus, developed the system in conscious opposition to Christianity. The Platonic Academy was re-established during this period; its most renowned head was Proclus (died 485), a celebrated commentator on Plato's writings. The Academy persisted until Roman emperor Justinian closed it in 529. Medieval philosophy[edit] Christianity and Platonism[edit] Main article: Neoplatonism and Christianity Platonism has had some influence on Christianity through Clement of Alexandria and Origen,[13] and the Cappadocian Fathers.[16] St. Augustine was heavily influenced by Platonism as well, which he encountered through the Latin translations of Marius Victorinus of the works of Porphyry and/or Plotinus.[13] Platonism was considered authoritative in the Middle Ages.[13] Platonism also influenced both Eastern and Western mysticism.[13][17] Meanwhile, Platonism influenced various philosophers.[13] While Aristotle became more influential than Plato in the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas's philosophy was still in certain respects fundamentally Platonic.[13] Modern philosophy[edit] Renaissance[edit] The Renaissance also saw a renewed interest in Platonic thought, including more interest in Plato himself.[13] In 16th-, 17th-, and 19th-century England, Plato's ideas influenced many religious thinkers including the Cambridge Platonists.[13] Orthodox Protestantism in continental Europe, however, distrusts natural reason and has often been critical of Platonism.[13] An issue in the reception of Plato in early modern Europe was how to deal with the same-sex elements of his corpus.[18] Christoplatonism is a term used to refer to a dualism opined by Plato, which holds spirit is good but matter is evil,[19] which influenced some christian churches, though the Bible's teaching directly contradicts this philosophy and thus it receives constant criticism from many teachers in the Christian Church today. According to the Methodist Church, Christoplatonism directly "contradicts the Biblical record of God calling everything He created good."[19] Contemporary philosophy[edit] Modern Platonism[edit] See also: Mathematical Platonism, Abstractionist Platonism, Abstract structuralism, and Platonized naturalism Apart from historical Platonism originating from thinkers such as Plato and Plotinus, we also encounter the theory of abstract objects in the modern sense. Platonism is the view that there exist such things as abstract objects — where an abstract object is an object that does not exist in space or time and which is therefore entirely non-physical and non-mental. Platonism in this sense is a contemporary view.[20] Most contemporary Platonists trace their views to those of Gottlob Frege. This modern Platonism has been endorsed in one way or another at one time or another by numerous philosophers, such as Bernard Bolzano, who argue for anti-psychologism. Analytic[edit] In contemporary philosophy, most Platonists trace their ideas to Gottlob Frege's influential paper "Thought", which argues for Platonism with respect to propositions, and his influential book, The Foundations of Arithmetic, which argues for Platonism with respect to numbers and is a seminal text of the logicist project.[20] Contemporary analytic philosophers who espoused Platonism in metaphysics include Bertrand Russell,[20] Alonzo Church,[20] Kurt Gödel,[20] W. V. O. Quine,[20] David Kaplan,[20] Saul Kripke,[20] Edward Zalta[21] and Peter van Inwagen.[22] Iris Murdoch espoused Platonism in moral philosophy in her 1970 book The Sovereignty of Good. Paul Benacerraf's epistemological challenge to contemporary Platonism has proved its most influential criticism. Continental[edit] In contemporary Continental philosophy, Edmund Husserl's arguments against psychologism are believed to derive from a Platonist conception of logic, influenced by Frege and his mentor Bolzano.[23]—Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his position in his Logical Investigations (1900–1). Other prominent contemporary Continental philosophers interested in Platonism in a general sense include Leo Strauss,[24] Simone Weil,[25] and Alain Badiou.[26] See also[edit] Innatism List of ancient Platonists Plato's unwritten doctrines, debates over Plato's esotericism People Harold F. Cherniss, scholar of Plato's relation to Aristotle References[edit] ^ a b " Philosophers who affirm the existence of abstract objects are sometimes called platonists; those who deny their existence are sometimes called nominalists. The terms "platonism" and "nominalism" have established senses in the history of philosophy, where they denote positions that have little to do with the modern notion of an abstract object. In this connection, it is essential to bear in mind that modern platonists (with a small 'p') need not accept any of the doctrines of Plato, just as modern nominalists need not accept the doctrines of medieval Nominalists." "Abstract Objects", Gideon Rosen, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). ^ "Abstract Objects", Gideon Rosen, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). ^ O'Connell SJ, RJ, The Enneads and St Augustine's Vision of Happiness. Vigiliae Christianae 17 (1963) 129-164 (JSTOR) ^ Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol 1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition 100-600; Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol 3: The Growth of Mediaeval Theology 600-1300, section, "The Augustinian Synthesis". ^ The G. K. Chesterton Collection II [65 Books]. Catholic Way Publishing. 2014. ISBN 9781783792108. Plato in some sense anticipated the Catholic realism, as attacked by the heretical nominalism, by insisting on the equally fundamental fact that ideas are realities; that ideas exist just as men exist. ^ G. K. Chesterton (2012). St. Thomas Aquinas. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486122267. The truth is that the historical Catholic Church began by being Platonist; by being rather too Platonist. ^ Peter Stanford (2010). Catholicism: An Introduction: A comprehensive guide to the history, beliefs and practices of the Catholic faith. Hachette UK. ISBN 9781444131031. Both Aristotle and Plato were crucial in shaping Catholic thinking ^ Bob Gillespie (2009). Machiavelli and the Mayflower: How to Understand the Europeans. La Rémige SARL. p. 14. ISBN 9782953386707. Roman Church doctrine is founded on many platforms, such as Plato's concept of the soul and of life after death ^ Between Past and Future. Penguin. 2006. ISBN 9781101662656. To the extent that the Catholic Church incorporated Greek philosophy into the structure of its doctrines and dogmatic beliefs ^ a b c d e f g h Oskar Seyffert, (1894), Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, page 481 ^ Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan Monotheism and Pagan Cult". "Theism" and Related Categories in the Study of Ancient Religions. SCS/AIA Annual Meeting. 75. Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies (University of Pennsylvania). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Historical authors generally refer to “the divine” (to theion) or “the supernatural” (to daimonion) rather than simply “God.” [...] The Stoics, believed in a God identifiable with the logos or hegemonikon (reason or leading principle) of the universe and downgraded the traditional gods, who even disappear during the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical discourse, generally speak of this God, not the gods, as responsible for the creation and providence of the universe. They, too, however, do not seem to have directly practiced a religious cult to their God. ^ cf. Proclus' commentary on the Timaeus; Cornford 1937 ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Platonism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 ^ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Platonism/Medieval-Platonism#ref32576 ^ a b c d e f Oskar Seyffert, (1894), Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, page 484 ^ Armstrong, A. H., ed., The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, Cambridge, 1970. ^ Louth, Andrew. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. ^ Reeser, Todd W. 2016. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ^ a b Robin Russell (6 April 2009). "Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors". UM Portal. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011. Greek philosophers—who believed that spirit is good but matter is evil—also influenced the church, says Randy Alcorn, author of Heaven (Tyndale, 2004). He coined the term "Christoplatonism" to describe that kind of dualism, which directly contradicts God's biblical record calling everything he created "good." ^ a b c d e f g h Platonism in Metaphysics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ^ Linsky, B., and Zalta, E., 1995, "Naturalized Platonism vs. Platonized Naturalism", The Journal of Philosophy, 92(10): 525–555. ^ Van Inwagen, Peter (2009). "God and other uncreated things", in Kevin Timpe & Eleonore Stump (eds.), Metaphysics and God: Essays in Honor of Eleonore Stump. Routledge. ^ Alfred Schramm, Meinongian Issues in Contemporary Italian Philosophy, Walter de Gruyter, 2009, p. 28. ^ Peter Graf Kielmansegg, Horst Mewes, Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt (eds.), Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss: German Émigrés and American Political Thought After World War II, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 97: "Many commentators think that [Strauss's] exposition of the true Platonist was meant as a self-description of Strauss." ^ Doering, E. Jane, and Eric O. Springsted, eds. (2004) The Christian Platonism of Simone Weil. University of Notre Dame Press. p. 29. ^ Sean Bowden, Badiou and Philosophy, Edinburgh University Press, 2012, p. 63. Further reading[edit] Ackermann, C. The Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic philosophy. Translated by Asbury Samuel Ralph. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1861. Cassirer, Ernst. The Platonic Renaissance in England. Translated by James P. Pettegrove. Edinburgh: Nelson, 1953. Kristeller, Paul Oskar, "Renaissance Platonism." In Renaissance Thought: the Classic, Scholastic, and Humanistic Strains. New York: Harper, 1961. Walker, Daniel Pickering. The Ancient Theology: Studies in Christian Platonism from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century. London: Duckworth, 1972. 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in category "Short description is different from Wikidata" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 2,413,227 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)_ (album) - - (disambiguation) -- -.- -gry puzzle -ol ! ! (Cláudia Pascoal album) ! (disambiguation) ! (The Dismemberment Plan album) ! (The Song Formerly Known As) ! 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en-wikipedia-org-3761	----	File:Antioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg - Wikipedia File:Antioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 764 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 306 × 240 pixels | 612 × 480 pixels | 979 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 1,005 pixels | 2,560 × 2,009 pixels | 4,582 × 3,596 pixels. Original file ‎(4,582 × 3,596 pixels, file size: 7.24 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionAntioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg Antioch in Syria from the North West engraving by William Miller after H Warren from a sketch by Capt. Byam Martin R.N. published in The Imperial Bible Dictionary - Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal - Illustrated by numerous engravings - Including the natural history, antiquities, manners, customs, and religious rites and ceremonies mentioned in the scriptures, and an account of the several books of the old and new Testaments. Patrick Fairbairn. London: Blackie and Son, Paternoster Row 1866 Date 1866 Source engraving Author William Miller  (1796–1882)   Alternative names William Frederick Miller I; William Frederick Miller Description Scottish engraver Date of birth/death 28 May 1796  20 January 1882  Location of birth/death Edinburgh Sheffield Authority control : Q2580014 VIAF: 75215312 ISNI: 0000 0000 6708 7623 ULAN: 500003200 LCCN: n82240733 Oxford Dict.: 18745 WorldCat creator QS:P170,Q2580014 Licensing This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. 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Byam Martin R.N. published in The Imperial Bible Dictionary - Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal - Illustrat File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Reign of Marcus Aurelius Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org تاريخ سوريا Usage on azb.wikipedia.org لوسیوس وروس Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Teodor d'Antioquia (filòsof) Usuari:Paucabot/Bot biografies/Imatges substituïdes 4 Usage on de.wikibooks.org Benutzer:Methodios/Vom Werden der Orthodoxie Usage on de.wikiversity.org Kurs Diskussion:Das Große Schisma von 1054 Usage on es.wikipedia.org Iglesia de Antioquía Concilio de Antioquía Campaña parta de Lucio Vero Usage on he.wikipedia.org המצור על אנטיוכיה (1097–1098) Usage on it.wikipedia.org Antiochia Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero Teodoro d'Antiochia Usage on ja.wikipedia.org マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Charonion Usage on nn.wikipedia.org Antakya Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Antakya Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Cerco de Antioquia Concílio de Antioquia Igreja de Antioquia Miguel Burtzes Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Антакья Usage on scn.wikipedia.org Antiochia Usage on sc.wikipedia.org Antakya Usage on simple.wikipedia.org Lucius Verus Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Lucij Ver Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. 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en-wikipedia-org-3796	----	Template talk:Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Template talk:Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search WikiProject Italy (Rated Template-class) Italy portal This template is within the scope of WikiProject Italy, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of articles on Italy on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.ItalyWikipedia:WikiProject ItalyTemplate:WikiProject ItalyItaly articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=640270061" Categories: Template-Class Italy articles NA-importance Italy articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 30 December 2014, at 18:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3803	----	Lucius Vibius Sabinus - Wikipedia Lucius Vibius Sabinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman Senator Lucius Vibius Sabinus was a Roman Senator who lived in the 1st century. His daughter Vibia Sabina married the emperor Hadrian. Little is known about his family, but Sabinus came from a family of consular rank. He may have been related to Lucius Junius Quintus Vibius Crispus, three times consul, and his brother Quintus Vibius Secundus, consul in 86. Sabinus became the second husband of Trajan's niece Salonina Matidia; he and Matidia had a daughter, Vibia Sabina (83-136/137). Sabinus may have died soon after his daughter's birth, for in his funeral speech for Matidia, the emperor Hadrian alludes to her long widowhood.[1] Vibia Sabina married her distant maternal cousin and Trajan's heir, the future emperor Hadrian sometime before the year 101.[2] Ronald Syme has argued that a pair of fragmentary inscriptions from Asisium refer to Sabinus;[3] If correct, this would mean he was a member of the septemviri epulonum, one of the four most prestigious ancient Roman priesthoods.[4] Syme has also argued that, based on a reading preserved in later copies of the Fasti Consulares indicating that Sabinus and Arrius Antoninus were consular colleagues, which means he was suffect consul in the year 97—a reading Theodor Mommsen had judged as unreliable. Anthony Birley accepted Syme's argument.[1] In his own study on the suffect consuls of the year 97, Fausto Zevi rejected Syme's argument on several grounds, and argued that "Sabinus" in the later fasti was a corruption for "Piso"—Calpurnius Piso, the name which this portion of the Fasti Ostienses supports. Zevi also dismisses the identification of Sabinus with the inscriptions from Asisium as based on insufficient information.[5] Based on an inscription that preserves Hadrian's funeral oration on his dead wife Matidia,[6] Sabinus had died no later than the year 98.[4] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius: a biography, Second Edition (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 241 ISBN 0-415-17125-3, ISBN 978-0-415-17125-0 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 242 ^ CIL XI, 5383, CIL XI, 8020 ^ a b Syme, Tacitus (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), p. 795 ^ Zevi, "I consoli del 97 d. Cr. in due framenti gia' editi dei Fasti Ostienses", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 96 (1973), p. 134 and note 47 ^ CIL XIV, 3579 Further reading[edit] Julian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times (London: Routledge, 1997) ISBN 0-415-16524-5, ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2 External links[edit] R. Scott Moore, "The Stemmata [sic] of the Good Emperors" Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Vibius_Sabinus&oldid=1002809707" Categories: 1st-century Romans Ancient Roman politicians Senators of the Roman Empire Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Epulones of the Roman Empire Vibii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Ελληνικά Español Français Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 03:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3806	----	Limes (Roman Empire) - Wikipedia Limes (Roman Empire) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Limes" Roman Empire – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Frontiers of the Roman Empire UNESCO World Heritage Site The limes Germanicus, 2nd century Location The valleys of the Rhine and the Danube; United Kingdom Includes Hadrian's Wall (including the Aesica aqueduct, Arbeia, and Corstopitum), Roman defenses along the Cumbrian coast, and the Limes Germanicus; the Antonine Wall is a later addition to this site Criteria Cultural ii, iii, iv Reference 430 Inscription 1987 (11th session) Extensions 2005, 2008 Area 526.9 ha Buffer zone 5,225.7 ha Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The līmes (Latin, plural: Latin: līmitēs) is a modern term used primarily for the Germanic border defence or delimiting system of Ancient Rome marking the borders of the Roman Empire, but it was not used by the Romans for that purpose.[1][2] The term has been extended to refer to the frontier defences in other parts of the empire, such as in the east and in Africa. The līmes is often associated with Roman forts, but the concept could apply to any adjoining area the Romans exercised loose control with military forces. Contents 1 Overview 2 Etymology 3 Limites in the Roman Empire 3.1 Britain and Gaul 3.2 Saxon Shore 3.3 Lower Germania 3.4 Upper Germania and Rhaetia 3.5 Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) 3.6 Noricum 3.7 Pannonia 4 Southern borders 4.1 Fossatum Africae 5 Post-Roman limites 6 In fiction 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Overview[edit] See also: Borders of the Roman Empire Play media Hadrian's Wall and Limes The Roman frontier stretched for more than 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) from the Atlantic coast of northern Britain, through Europe to the Black Sea, and from there to the Red Sea and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The remains of the limites today consist of vestiges of walls, ditches, forts, fortresses, and civilian settlements. Certain elements of the frontier have been excavated, some reconstructed, and a few destroyed. The two sections of limes in Germany cover a length of 550 kilometres (340 mi) from the north-west of the country to the Danube in the south-east. The 118 km long Hadrian's Wall was built on the orders of the Emperor Hadrian c. AD 122 at the northernmost limits of the Roman province of Britannia. It is a striking example of the organization of a military zone and illustrates the defensive techniques and geopolitical strategies of ancient Rome. The Antonine Wall, a 60 km-long fortification in Scotland, was started by Emperor Antoninus Pius in AD 142 as a defense against the "Barbarians" of the north. It constitutes the northwesternmost portion of the Roman Limes. The soldiers at a līmes were referred to as līmitāneī. Compared to the regular Roman military, they tended to be more likely to be of local descent (rather than Italians), be paid less, and be overall less prestigious. However, they were not expected to win large scales wars, but rather deter small-to-medium-sized raiders. Notable examples of Roman frontiers include: Hadrian's Wall – Limes Britannicus (UNESCO World Heritage ID 430bis–001) Antonine Wall – in Scotland (UNESCO World Heritage Site[3][4]) Saxon Shore, late Roman limes in South-East England Limes Germanicus, with the Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes (UNESCO World Heritage ID 430bis–002) Limes Arabicus, the frontier of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea facing the desert Limes Tripolitanus, the frontier in modern Libya facing the Sahara Limes Alutanus, the eastern border of the Roman province of Dacia Limes Transalutanus, the frontier in the lower Danube Limes Moesiae, the frontier of the Roman province Moesia, from Singidunum Serbia along the Danube to Moldavia. Limes Norici, the frontier of the Roman province Noricum, from the River Inn along the Danube to Cannabiaca (Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing) in Austria. Limes Pannonicus, the frontier of the Roman province Pannonia, along the Danube from Klosterneuburg Austria to Taurunum in Serbia. Fossatum Africae, the southern frontier of the Roman Empire, extending south of the Roman province of Africa in North-Africa. Etymology[edit] The stem of limes, limit-, which can be seen in the genitive case, limitis, marks it as the ancestor of an entire group of words in many languages related to Latin; for example, English limit or French limite. The Latin noun līmes (English: /ˈlaɪmiːz/;[5] Latin pl. līmitēs) had a number of different meanings: a path or balk delimiting fields; a boundary line or marker; any road or path; any channel, such as a stream channel; or any distinction or difference.[6] The term was also commonly used after the 3rd century AD to denote a military district under the command of a dux limitis.[7] An etymology by Julius Pokorny in Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch says that limes comes from Indo-European el-, elei-, lei-, "to bow", "to bend", "elbow". According to Pokorny, Latin limen, "threshold", is related to limes, being the stone over which one enters or leaves the house. Some scholars have viewed the frontier as a threshold. The Merriam–Webster dictionaries take this view, as does J. B. Hofmann in Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen under leimon. The White Latin Dictionary denies any connection, deriving limen from *ligmen, as in lien from *leig-, "tie". In this sense, the threshold ties together the doorway. W. Gebert also wrote an article discussing the term.[8] Some experts suggested that the Germanic limes may have been called Munimentum Traiani (Trajan's Bulwark) by contemporaries, referring to a passage by Ammianus Marcellinus, according to which emperor Julian had reoccupied this fortification in 360 AD.[9] Limites in the Roman Empire[edit] Britain and Gaul[edit] Map of fortifications and castles in North Britain around 155 AD Main articles: Gask Ridge, Antonine Wall, Hadrian's Wall, Stanegate, and Fosse Way This section of limes existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the provinces of: Britannia Inferior Britannia Superior The limes in Britain (Limes Britannicus) is on the territory of the present-day United Kingdom in England, Scotland and Wales. From the 1st to the 2nd century, the Gask Ridge and the Stanegate, with their chains of Roman camps and watchtowers, marked the northern boundary of Britannia. Later the isthmuses in the north between the Firth of Forth and Firth of Clyde were guarded by the defences of the Antonine Wall and the line between the mouth of the Tyne and Solway Firth by Hadrian's Wall. The perimeter defence of Hadrian's Wall was achieved through the construction of camps (castella) on the lowlands, which were built along the most important roads in the north. Security and monitoring on the coasts in the west and southeast was achieved by camps and by chains of watchtowers or signal towers, both along the coastline and along main roads in the interior. The occupying forces, Exercitus Britannicus, consisted mostly of cohorts of auxilia. The strategic reserve comprised three legions based in Eburacum (York), Isca Silurum and Deva. The observation and surveillance of the waters around the British Isles was the responsibility of the Classis Britannica, whose headquarters was in Rutupiae (Richborough). Legions auxilia cohorts and the fleet were commanded by the provincial governors. From the 3rd century, units of comitatenses, limitanei and liburnaria (marines) came under the command of two generals: Comes Britanniarum Dux Britanniarum Saxon Shore[edit] Map of British and Gallic forts on the Saxon Shore Main article: Saxon Shore This section of the limes existed from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD and covered the provinces of: Britannia Inferior Belgica Lugdunensis Aquitania This limes of the Late Antiquity ran through the territory of the present-day United Kingdom and France. In the 3rd century, a separate military district, the Litus Saxonicum, was established on the British side of the English Channel between the estuaries of the Wash and the Solent, to repel Saxon pirates and plunderers. The Gallic side of the English Channel and Atlantic coast were included therein. Monitoring and coastal surveillance were carried out by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers, camps and fortified ports (Gaul). Most of the Saxon Shore camps probably served as naval bases. The garrisons of the camps were composed of infantry and several cavalry regiments. Monitoring and surveillance of the Channel were the responsibility of the Classis Britannica and Classis Sambrica, whose headquarters were in Locus Quartensis (Port d'Etaple), guarding the mouth of the River Somme. The units of comitatenses, limitanei and liburnaria in this area came under the command of three generals: Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam (Count of the Saxon Shore) Dux Belgicae secundae Dux tractus Armoricani et Nervicani Lower Germania[edit] Main article: Lower Germanic Limes Map of the legion camps and forts in Germania Inferior This section of limes existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the province of Lower Germania (Germania Inferior). It lies on the territory of today's Netherlands and Germany. This limes was a river border (limes ripa) on the Rhine, defended by a chain of camps, that ran from the North Sea (Katwijk-Brittenburg camp) to Vinxtbach (opposite Rheinbrohl fort on the Upper Germanic Limes), forming the border between the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, it was not marked by a solid palisade or wall. Neither can any defensive ditch or rampart be identified. The guards were stationed in nearby castra and watchtowers usually built immediately on the Rhine. The limes was served by a well-developed military road. Each camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area, because the Rhine not only formed the border but was also the most important transport and trade route in the region. In the first section, between the camps of Rigomagus (Remagen) and Bonna (Bonn), there were only a few camps. In the second, middle, section between Bonna and Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen), there were considerably more. Here there were also larger legion camps; with one exception, all were cavalry barracks. The landscape of the third section between Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum and Mare Germanicum (the North Sea) was characterised by numerous small streams and boggy marshland. Consequently, in this area there was only one cavalry camp. Border security here consisted mainly of tightly packed, relatively small cohort forts. The occupying troops, Exercitus Germaniae Inferioris, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve comprised three legions stationed in Bonna/Bonn, Novaesium/Neuss, Vetera/Xanten and Noviomagus/Nijmegen. The control and surveillance of the waters of the North Sea, the Rhine estuary and the Lower Rhine was the responsibility of the Classis Germanica whose headquarters was in Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium/Cologne. Legions, auxilia and fleet units were commanded by the respective provincial governor. From the 3rd century the ripenses (river guards), comitatenses, and liburnaria were under the command of the Dux Belgicae secundae. Upper Germania and Rhaetia[edit] Main articles: Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, Wetterau Limes, Main Limes, Neckar-Odenwald Limes, Alblimes, and Lautertal Limes Map of the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes This limes existed from the 1st to 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of: Germania Superior Rhaetia It lay on the territory of the present German states of Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria. To the north, it bordered those parts of the Roman province of Rhaetia that lay north of the Danube and guarded the eastern border of that part of Germania Superior that lay east of the Rhine. In Upper Germania the border defences initially consisted only of a post road. From about 162/63 AD, the Romans constructed a defensive barrier with watchtowers and signal towers, palisades, ditches and earthworks. On one short section of the Rhaetian Limes, a solid stone wall was erected. In its final stages, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes was about 550 kilometres long and ran from Rheinbrohl, in the county of Neuwied in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, as far as Hienheim on the Danube. Between the villages of Osterburken and Welzheim, the limes ran for 81 kilometres almost in a straight line southwards.[10] In the scholarly literature, this unusual section is considered as evidence that this type of boundary wall had never been used for defensive purposes. The land of Agri Decumates that was guarded by this limes had to be vacated by the Romans in 260-285 AD. They moved their bases back to the banks of the Rhine and Danube, which were much easier to defend militarily. The exact route of the limes along the border between Upper Germania and Raetia has not been fully explored. In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, the Rhaetian Limes was reorganized and divided into three sections. The northern border of Rhaetia formed the pars superior (upper part), the western border was the pars media (central part) with the fortified town of Cambodunum and bases from Vemania (Isny im Allgäu) to Cassilacum (Memmingen); the pars inferior (lower part) was the section between Castra Regina (Regensburg) and Batavis (Passau). The defending troops, Exercitus Germaniae superioris and Exercitus Raeticus, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve was formed from three legions stationed in Mogontiacum/Mainz, Argentorate/Strasbourg and Castra Regina/Regensburg. The monitoring of the Upper Rhine was the responsibility of the Classis Germanica; that of the Rhaetic Danube came under the Classis Pannonia, whose headquarters was in Aquincum/Budapest. Legions and auxilia cohorts were under the command of the governor. From the 3rd century the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian border troops (comitatenses, repenses, and liburnaria), were commanded by three generals: Dux Raetiae Dux Mogontiacensis Comes tractus Argentoratensis Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL)[edit] Main article: Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes Location of the Roman camps on the Rhine-Lake Constance line and in the hinterland provinces of Maxima Sequanorum and Raetia I, 3rd century AD This limes existed from the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of: Germania Superior Rhaetia It lies on the territory of present-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. As early as the period 15 BC to about 70 AD, the border between Rome and Germania ran mostly along the line of the late antique Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) before the Romans advanced further north into the Agri decumates. Because of troop withdrawals and massive barbarian invasions, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes were abandoned in the late 3rd century and the Roman forces pulled the border back to the banks of the three rivers. Especially around the year 300, the Emperor Diocletian had new fortifications built directly on the river banks or on major roads in the hinterland here. Around 370 AD, the line of fortifications was considerably strengthened under the Emperor Valentinian I to counter the Alemanni, who were steadily advancing southwards. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, the DIRL primarily fulfilled defensive purposes; its camps had much stronger and higher walls than their High Imperial predecessors. Furthermore, they had in most cases been built to conform to the local topography. This meant that they could not be built in the classical 'pack of cards' shape. Between them a dense chain of watchtowers and signal towers was constructed to provide an additional security measure (burgi). Flotillas of patrol boats were stationed on the large lakes in this region. Lake Constance: Numerus Barcariorum (HQ at Brigantium/Bregenz) Lake Neuchâtel: Classis Barcariorum (HQ at Eburodunum/Yverdon). Comitatenses, ripenses, and liburnaria in this section of the limes were under the command of four generals: Dux Raetiae Dux provinciae Sequanicae Comes tractus Argentoratensis Dux Germaniae primae Noricum[edit] Map of the Norican Limes This section of the limes existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and guarded part of the Roman province of Noricum. It is on the soil of the present-day Austrian states of Upper and Lower Austria. It ran along the Danube from Passau/Boiodurum to Zeiselmauer/Cannabiaca. This is also a ripa (river border), which was guarded by a loose chain of cohort forts. The main road on the Norican Limes was the via iuxta amnem Danuvium. The initially simple wood and earth structures were systematically converted under Emperor Hadrian into stone encampments. During the 4th century, they were brought once more up to date and massively reinforced. Between the camps, in strategic places or good points of observation, were watchtowers or signal towers and, in the Late Antiquity, burgi. In the middle section, between the camps of Favianis and Melk, watchtowers were built only sporadically. Here the narrow valley of the Wachau, with its densely forested escarpments, made access to the riverbank more difficult, providing some defensive function. Every camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area because the Danube was not only border zone, but also the most important transport and trade route in the region. Over time civilian settlements or vici were established immediately next to the camps. In the immediate hinterland of the limes, walled towns or municipia were founded - for example, Aelium Cetium or Ovilava (Wels). They were the administrative or commercial centres of the region. In late antiquity, the Norican area was divided into two parts (pars inferior and pars superior).[11] It is probable that a second, defensive line was created to the rear (Castrum Locus Felicis). The occupying troops, Exercitus Noricus, consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts and a legion stationed in Lauriacum/Enns acted as the strategic reserve. The surveillance and security of the Danube and its tributaries were the responsibility of the Classis Pannonia. Units of the legions, naval and auxiliary forces were commanded by the respective governors. In late antiquity - according to Notitia Dignitatum - four newly established flotillas undertook this task. From the 3rd century, the Norian comitatenses, ripenses and liburnari were under the command of two generals: Comes Illyrici Dux Pannoniae Primae et Norici Ripensis Pannonia[edit] Map of the Pannonian Limes with its perimeter defences This stretch of limes was in use from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD and helped to guard the provinces of: Pannonia inferior Pannonia The Pannonian Limes is situated on the territory of present-day Austria, Slovakia and Hungary. Although this section of the frontier was relatively well protected by the Danube river border or Ripa, the Roman military presence here was always exceptionally strong (three military camps in Pannonia, but only one in Lower Pannonia) because especially after the abandonment of Roman Dacia in the late 3rd century, the pressure of migrant peoples from the east on this section of the limes intensified. The tributaries emptying into the Danube offered cheap transport routes, but also made good approach routes for invaders and raiders. The military camps were therefore built by the most important fords or confluences and road termini. The legion- and auxilia camps were mainly located in the immediate vicinity of the riverbank. The initial wood and earth structures, were systematically converted under Emperor Hadrian into stone barracks and, in the 4th century, redesigned and massively strengthened in order to match new strategic requirements. The gaps between the camps were closed by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers. In late Roman times huge inland camps were built and towns in the hinterland were fortified to create a second line of defence. In addition, at vulnerable points, units of the Danube fleet were stationed. In the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius the first mention is made in Pannonia of stone watchtowers (burgi, panelled towers and fortlets (praesidia). In late antiquity, the Pannonian military district was divided into two parts (pars inferior and pars superior).[11] Advance defences were provided by bridgehead camps (e.g. Castra Contra Aquincum or Celemantia) and military stations on main transport routes in the Barbaricum (e.g. near Musov). Southern borders[edit] Limes Africanus under Septimius Severus (The frontier of Roman Africa (dark tan) in the late 2nd century AD: Septimius Severus expanded the Limes Tripolitanus dramatically (medium tan), even briefly holding a military presence (light tan) in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203) At the greatest extent of the Roman Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East (see Romans in Arabia) and the Sahara in North Africa, which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the Nile many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan.[citation needed] In Africa Romans controlled the area north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, with many sections of limes (Limes Tripolitanus, Limes Numidiae, etc.).[12] The Fossatum Africae ("African ditch") of at least 750 km controlled the southern borders of the Empire and had many similarities of construction to Hadrian's Wall. There are similar, but shorter, fossatae in other parts of North Africa. Between the Matmata and Tabaga ranges in modern Tunisia there is a fossatum which was duplicated during World War II.[13] There also appears to be a 20-km. fossatum at Bou Regreg in Morocco although this would not have been within the scope of the proclamation of the Codex Theodosianus because at that time the province was not in Africa, administratively speaking.[14] In the south of Mauritania Tingitana the frontier in the third century lay just north of Casablanca near Sala and stretched to Volubilis. Septimius Severus expanded the "Limes Tripolitanus" dramatically, even briefly holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by Quintus Anicius Faustus, the legate of Legio III Augusta. Following his African conquests, the Roman Empire may have reached its greatest extent during the reign of Septimius Severus,[15][16] under whom the empire encompassed an area of 2 million square miles[15] (5.18 million square kilometers). Fossatum Africae[edit] Main article: Fossatum Africae Black lines indicating the approximate path of the 4 sections of the Fossatum Africae Fossatum Africae ("African ditch") is a linear defensive structure (limes) that extended over 750 km or more[17] in northern Africa constructed during the Roman Empire to defend and control the southern borders of the Empire in the Roman province of Africa. It is considered to have many similarities of construction to Hadrian's Wall at the northern border of the Empire in Britain. Generally the Fossatum consists of a ditch and earth embankments on either side using the material from the ditch. Sometimes the embankments are supplemented by dry stone walls on one or both sides; rarely, there are stone walls without a ditch. The width of the Fossatum is generally 3–6 m but in exceptional cases may be as much as 20 m. Wherever possible, it or its highest wall is constructed on the counterscarp. Excavations near Gemellae showed the depth there to be 2–3 m, with a width of 1 m at the bottom widening to 2–3 m at the top.[18] The Fossatum is accompanied by many small watchtowers and numerous forts, often built within sight of one another. 1 2 3 4 UNESCO World Heritage sites in Northern England: 1-2 = Hadrian's Wall, 3 = Aesica aqueduct, 4 = Corstopitum 1 2 UNESCO World Heritage sites in Scotland: 1-2 = Antonine Wall, from Old Kilpatrick to Bo'ness 1 2 UNESCO World Heritage sites in Germany: 1-2 = Limes Germanicus, from Rheinbrohl to Eining Post-Roman limites[edit] The Limes Saxoniae in Holstein was established in 810 AD, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Charlemagne considered his empire (later called the Carolingian Empire) as the true successor to the Roman Empire and called himself "Emperor of the Romans". Official edicts were issued in Latin, which affected the naming of the Empire's frontier as well. In fiction[edit] The novel series Romanike is set at the Limes Germanicus in the decades until the first assault of Germanic peoples in 161 AD.[19] Roman Wall: A Novel, by Winifred Bryher is set in 265 during the Limesfall.[20] Gallery[edit] Reconstructed east gate of the fort at Welzheim, Germany Reconstructed wooden tower nearby Rainau, Germany See also[edit] Great Wall, structures of similar scale and function, built by various dynasties in China Sasanian defense lines, the borders of the Neo-Persian Empire Limitanei, soldiers on the late Roman and early Byzantine limites March (territorial entity), medieval European borderlands The Pale, the English-controlled strip of Ireland References[edit] ^ Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", Journal of Roman Studies, 78 (1988), pp. 125–147 ^ Great Walls and Linear Barriers, Peter Spring, Pen and Sword, 2015, Chap. 24. ISBN 1473853842, 9781473853843 ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. New Inscribed Properties ^ "Wall gains World Heritage status'" BBC News. Retrieved 8 July 2008. ^ Oxford English Dictionary (1989) ^ Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", Journal of Roman Studies, 78 (1988), pp. 125–147 ^ Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", Journal of Roman Studies, 78 (1988), pp. 125–147; Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East (Oxford: Oxford University Press, revised edition 1992). ^ W. Gebert, "Limes", Untersuchungen zur Erklärung des Vortes und seiner Anwendung, Bonner Jahrbücher Bd. 119, No. 2, 1910, 158–205. ^ Hessian state archaeologist Prof. E. Schallmeyer, quoted in Schmid, A., Schmid, R., Möhn, A., Die Römer an Rhein und Main (Frankfurt: Societäts-Verlag, revised edition 2006). ^ M.J.T. Lewis: Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-79297-5, pp. 242 245. ^ a b ND occ.: XXXIV ^ Map of Roman Africa ^ Baradez (1949) p. 146. ^ Baradez (1949) p. 114. ^ a b David L. Kennedy, Derrick Riley (2012), Rome's Desert Frontiers, page 13, Routledge ^ R.J. van der Spek, Lukas De Blois (2008), An Introduction to the Ancient World, page 272, Routledge ^ This figure depends very much on the way it is measured over the intervals where the Fossatum was not constructed or has disappeared, and includes a significant section which may not be a fossatum. ^ Baradez (1949) p. 93. ^ The Romanike series, Codex Regius (2006-2014) Archived 2016-08-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ Bryher, Winifred (1954). Roman Wall: A Novel. Pantheon. ISBN 978-0394443249. Retrieved Sep 24, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Limes (frontier). Frontiers of the Roman Empire: UNESCO Official Website Official website of the Verein Deutsche Limes-Straße (in German) antikefan.de (in German), German antiquarian site with maps Vici.org Interactive map with the limes and other Roman castles and sites Livius.org: Limes Antikefan: Roman Limes (German) Derlimes.at Official website of the Limes group in Austria) (in German, Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin) Limes, Italian Review of Geopolitics (Italian) Official website of the Saalburg, the only fully reconstructed Limes fort (in German, English, French) v t e World Heritage Sites in Germany For official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in Germany. Northern ADGB Trade Union School Berlin Modernism Housing Estates Bremen Town Hall and Roland on the Marketplace Fagus Factory in Alfeld Hedeby and the Danevirke Archaeological Border Complex St. Mary's Cathedral and St. Michael's Church at Hildesheim Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin Hanseatic City of Lübeck Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin Mines of Rammelsberg, Historic Town of Goslar and Upper Harz Water Management System Speicherstadt and Kontorhaus District with Chilehaus in Hamburg Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar Central Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm Dresden Elbe Valley (delisted in 2009) Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region1 Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski2 Naumburg Cathedral Collegiate Church, Castle, and Old Town of Quedlinburg Wartburg Castle Classical Weimar Western Aachen Cathedral Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust at Brühl Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe Cologne Cathedral Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey Upper Middle Rhine Valley Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St. Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier Speyer Cathedral Völklingen Ironworks Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex in Essen Southern Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier Town of Bamberg Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura Frontiers of the Roman Empire:3 Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes Maulbronn Monastery Complex Margravial Opera House Monastic Island of Reichenau Old Town of Regensburg with Stadtamhof Pilgrimage Church of Wies Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps4 Water Management System of Augsburg Würzburg Residence with the Court Gardens and Residence Square Natural Messel Pit Fossil Site Ancient Beech Forests5 Wadden Sea6 1 Shared with the Czech Republic 2 Shared with Poland 3 Shared with the United Kingdom 4 Shared with Austria, France, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland 5 Shared with Slovakia and Ukraine 6 Shared with the Netherlands and Denmark Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Coordinates: 54°59′33″N 2°36′04″W / 54.9926°N 2.6010°W / 54.9926; -2.6010 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limes_(Roman_Empire)&oldid=1019094233" Categories: Roman frontiers Roman fortifications Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles needing additional references from April 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Coordinates not on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2021, at 13:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3829	----	Avitus - Wikipedia Avitus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 455 to 456 This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, see Avitus (disambiguation). Roman emperor of the West Avitus Solidus of Emperor Avitus Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in the East) Reign 9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (Eastern emperor: Marcian) Predecessor Petronius Maximus Successor Majorian Born c. 390[1] Clermont Died 456 Burial Brioude Issue Agricola Ecdicius Papianilla Names Eparchius Avitus Father Agricola (possibly) Eparchius Avitus[i] (c. 390 – 457) was Roman emperor of the West from July 455 to October 456. He was a senator of Gallic extraction and a high-ranking officer both in the civil and military administration, as well as Bishop of Piacenza. He opposed the reduction of the Western Roman Empire to Italy alone, both politically and from an administrative point of view. For this reason, as Emperor he introduced several Gallic senators in the Imperial administration; this policy, however, was opposed by the Senatorial aristocracy and by the people of Rome, who had suffered from the sack of the city by the Vandals in 455. Avitus had a good relationship with the Visigoths, in particular with their king Theodoric II, who was a friend of his and who acclaimed Avitus Emperor. The possibility of a strong and useful alliance between the Visigoths and Romans faded, however, when Theodoric invaded Hispania at Avitus' behest, which rendered him unable to help Avitus against the rebel Roman generals who deposed him. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Origins and early career 1.2 Rise to the throne 1.3 Consolidation of power 1.4 Foreign policy 1.5 Fall 1.6 Death 2 Footnotes 3 References 4 Bibliography 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 External links Biography[edit] Origins and early career[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Tremissis of Emperor Avitus Avitus was born in Clermont to a family of the Gallo-Roman nobility. His father was possibly Agricola, consul in 421. Avitus had two sons, Agricola (fl 455 – living 507, a vir illustris) and Ecdicius Avitus (later patricius and magister militum under Emperor Julius Nepos) and a daughter Papianilla; she married Sidonius Apollinaris, whose letters and panegyrics remain an important source for Avitus' life and times. Avitus followed a course of study typical for a young man of his rank, including law. Before 421 he was sent to the powerful patricius Flavius Constantius (briefly Emperor in 421) to ask for a tax reduction for his own country; this embassy was successful. His relative Theodorus was hostage at the court of the King of Visigoths, Theodoric I. In 425/426 Avitus went and met him and the King, who let Avitus enter his own court. Here, around 439, Avitus met the son of Theodoric, Theodoric II, who later became King. Avitus inspired the young Theodoric to study Latin poets. He then started a military career serving under the magister militum Aetius in his campaign against the Juthungi and the Norics (430–431) and against the Burgundians (436). In 437, after being elevated to the rank of vir illustris, he returned to Avernia, where he held a high office, probably magister militum per Gallias. In the same year he defeated a group of Hunnic raiders near Clermont and obliged Theodoric to lift the siege of Narbonne. In 439 he became Praetorian prefect of Gaul and renewed the friendship treaty with the Visigoths. Before the summer of 440, he retired to private life at his estate, Avitacum, near Clermont. Here he lived until 451 when the Huns, led by Attila, invaded the Western Roman Empire; Avitus persuaded Theodoric into an alliance with Rome, and the combined forces of Theodoric and Aetius defeated Attila in the Battle of Châlons; Theodoric died in the battle. Rise to the throne[edit] Petronius Maximus, who obtained the throne at the death of Valentinian III, recalled Avitus from his private life and sent him to ask for support to the Visigoths, but, at the death of Maximus, they acclaimed Avitus Emperor In the late spring of 455, Avitus was recalled to service by emperor Petronius Maximus and was elevated to the rank of magister militum, probably praesentalis; Maximus sent Avitus in an embassy to the court of Theodoric II, who had succeeded to his father, at Toulouse. This embassy probably confirmed the new king and his people as foederati of the Empire and asked for their support for the new Emperor.[2] While Avitus was at Theodoric's court, news came of the death of Petronius Maximus (31 May) and of the sack of Rome by the Vandals of Gaiseric. Theodoric acclaimed Avitus Emperor in Toulouse; on 9 July,[3] the new Emperor was acclaimed by the Gallic chiefs gathered in Viernum,[4] near Arelate (Arles), and later, around 5 August, before Avitus reached Rome, he received the recognition of the Roman Senate.[5] Avitus stayed in Gaul for three months, to consolidate his power in the region that was the center of his support, and later went to Italy with a Gallic army, probably reinforced with a Gothic force. He probably travelled to Noricum to restore the imperial authority in that province, and then passed through Ravenna, where he left a Gothic force under the new patricius and magister militum Remistus, a Visigoth. On 21 September, finally, he entered Rome.[6] Consolidation of power[edit] The effective power of Avitus depended on the support of all the major players in the Western Roman Empire in the mid-5th century. The new Emperor needed the support of both the civil institutions, the Roman senate and the Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian, as well as that of the army and its commanders (the generals Majorian and Ricimer) and the Vandals of Gaiseric. On 1 January 456, Avitus took the consulate,[7] as traditionally the Emperors held the consulate in the first year upon assuming the purple. However, his consulate sine collega (without a second Consul) was not recognised by the Eastern court, which nominated two consuls, Iohannes and Varanes. The fact that the two courts did not agree on a couple of consuls but each nominated its own means that despite the efforts of Avitus to receive the recognition of the Eastern Emperor,[8] the relationship between the two halves of the Empire was not optimal. Foreign policy[edit] Treaties under Marcian and a treaty of 442 between emperor Valentinian III and the Vandal king Gaiseric had failed to reduce Vandal incursions and raids along the Italian coast. Avitus' own efforts secured a temporary winter truce with them; but in March 456, Vandals destroyed Capua. Avitus sent Ricimer to defend Sicily, and the Romans defeated the Vandals twice, once in a land battle near Agrigento and another in a naval battle off Corsica.[9] During the reign of Avitus, the Visigoths expanded into Hispania, nominally under Roman authorisation but actually to promote their own interests. In 455 Avitus had sent an ambassador, comes Fronto, to the Suebi and then to Theodoric II to ask them to formally recognise Roman rule. When the Suebi invaded the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, the Visigoths attacked and defeated them 5 October 456 at the Campus Paramus, twelve miles from Astorga, on the banks of the Órbigo (Urbicus),[10] subsequently occupying the province as nominal foederati of the Empire. Fall[edit] Majorian, comes domesticorum of Avitus, and Ricimer, a general of barbaric descent, rebelled against their Emperor, defeated him near Piacenza, and obliged him to become Bishop of the city. It was Majorian who succeeded Avitus on the throne. In the meantime, resentment amongst the population of Italy against the "foreigner" Avitus grew. The Gallo-Roman Emperor had given many key offices of the public administration, usually filled by Romans, to other members of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy. Furthermore, the population of Rome, devastated by the sack of Rome, suffered from food shortages due to the Vandal control of the naval routes, aggravated by the requirements of the foreign troops that had arrived with Avitus. The imperial treasury was almost empty and, after disbanding his Visigoth guard because of popular pressure, Avitus was obliged to pay their huge wages by melting down and selling the bronze of some statues.[11] Counting on the popular discontent, on the disbandment of the imperial guard, and on the prestige gained through their victories, Ricimer and the comes domesticorum Majorian rebelled against Avitus; the Emperor was obliged to leave Rome in early autumn and to move north. Ricimer had the Roman Senate depose Avitus and ordered the murder of the magister militum Remistus in the Palatium at Classe, ancient port of Ravenna, on 17 September 456.[12] Avitus decided to react. First he chose Messianus, one of his collaborators in his embassy to the Visigoths ordered by Petronius Maximus, as the new magister militum; then he probably went to Gaul (Hydatius says to Arelate)[13] to collect all the available forces, probably the Visigoth guard he had just disbanded; finally he led his forces against the troops of Ricimer, near Piacenza. The Emperor and his army entered the city and attacked the huge army led by Ricimer, but after a great massacre of his men, including Messianus, Avitus fled on 17 or 18 October 456. In the immediate aftermath Ricimer spared his life, but forced him to become Bishop of Piacenza.[14] Death[edit] Avitus' Gallic supporters may still have recognised him as emperor, despite his deposition. Sidonius Apollinaris tells of a failed coup d'état in Gaul organised by one Marcellus[15] and probably aimed at bringing Avitus back on the throne.[16] The contemporary historian Hydatius, who lived in Spain, considered the year 457 the third of Avitus' reign;[17] Avitus' own intentions are not known, nor are the manner and date of his death, of which there are several versions. In some, he was told that the Roman Senate had condemned him to death, and so he tried to flee to Gaul, officially travelling there to bring donations to the basilica of Saint Julian in Avernia, his homeland; according to Gregory of Tours, he died during this journey.[18] Other sources have him strangled or starved to death, by order of his successor. Avitus died in 457, or late in 456, very soon after his deposition, and was buried at Brioude, next to Saint Julian's tomb.[19] Footnotes[edit] ^ This is the name given by the PLRE, RE, OCD and RIC, citing an inscription recorded in Rossi, Inscriptiones christianae Urbis Romae I, p. 344. Ersch & Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste reports that "Marcus Maecilius" and "Flavius Maecilius" are found on Avitus' coins, while "Flavius Eparchius" appears in inscriptions (vol. Appellation – Arzilla, pp. 505–508, Winterhalder [1820]). RE (vol. II,2, col. 2395) notes that one such coin, bearing the inscription M. MAECIL. AVITHUS (sic), Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum viii. 193, was authenticated only by Banduri, and perhaps suspect. J. B. Bury in his History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian (1923) suggested "Marcus Maecilius Flavius Eparchius Avitus". References[edit] ^ Avitus was appointed to his first political task shortly before 421. Sidonius Apollinaris (Carmina VII 208) described him as a iuvenis at the time, so he was probably between the ages of 30 and 45. For iuvenis as an age category, see Andrew Gillet, "The Birth of Ricimer," Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 44, No. 3, 1995, p. 383 note 23. ^ Petronius Maximus ascended to the throne on 17 March 455, after Emperor Valentinian III had been killed by a conspiracy in which Petronius was involved. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores record date about 10 July. ^ According to Sidonius Apollinaris, vii.571–579, Avitus was crowned with a torc, the typical Gallic neck ring with which Julian had also been crowned. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores, n. 575; Cassiodorus, 1264. ^ Auctuarium Prosperi, 7. ^ On this occasion, Sidonius Apollinaris declamed his panegyric. ^ Hydatius writes (Chronicle, 166) that Avitus sent some ambassadors to Marcian to discuss the separation of their spheres of influences, and later (Chronicle, 169) adds that the two emperors ruled in agreement. ^ See Priscus, History, fragment 24, and Hydatius, 176–177. ^ E. A. Thompson, "The End of Roman Spain. Part II", Nottingham Medieval Studies, 1977. ^ John of Antioch, fragment 202. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores, 579; Auctuarium Prosperi Havniense, 1. ^ Hydatius, 177. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores, 580 (reporting 17 October as the day of the battle); Auctuarium Prosperi, s.a. 456 (reporting 18 October); Victor of Tuenna, s.a. 455 (reporting Avitus' consecration by the Bishop of Milan, Eusebius). ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters, i.11.6. ^ Mathisen. ^ Hydatius, Chronicle, 183.. ^ Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, ii.11. ^ For modern scholarly analyses and list of ancient and modern sources for the circumstances of Avitus' final year and death, see Ralph W. Mathisen, "The Third Regnal Year of Eparchius Avitus," Classical Philology, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Oct., 1985), pp. 326-335. For a response, and alternative interpretations of the same materials, see R. W. Burgess, "The Third Regnal Year of Eparchius Avitus: A Reply," Classical Philology, Vol. 82, No. 4 (Oct., 1987), pp. 335-345. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Major source for Avitus' life until his rise to the throne is the panegyric written in occasion of his consulate by Sidonius Apollinaris (431–486): Sidonius Apollinaris, Panegyric for Avitus For the history of his reign, the major sources are the Spaniard historian Hydatius (400 c. – 469 c.) and the Byzantine chronicler John of Antioch (first half of the 7th century): Hydatius, Chronicle John of Antioch, Chronicle Secondary sources[edit] Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, "Eparchius Avitus 5", Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-20159-4, pp. 196–198. Mathisen, Ralph W., "Avitus (9/10 July 455 – 17/18 October 456)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Randers-Pehrson, Justine Davis. "Barbarians and Romans: The Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400–700". Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. p. 251. External links[edit] Media related to Avitus at Wikimedia Commons Gibbon chapter XXXVI Latin text of Sidonius's carmen Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, "M. Maecil. Avitus", Doctrina Numorum Veterum, viii. 193, 2nd Ed. (1828). Arthur Penryhn Stanley, "M. Maecilius Avitus", in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., vol. I, p. 435 (1870). Regnal titles Preceded by Petronius Maximus Western Roman emperor 455–456 Succeeded by Majorian Political offices Preceded by Valentinian Augustus Procopius Anthemius Roman consul 456 with Iohannes and Varanes Succeeded by Constantinus Rufus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avitus&oldid=1023992535" Categories: 4th-century births 457 deaths 5th-century Italian bishops 5th-century Christians 5th-century Gallo-Roman people 5th-century Roman emperors Bishops of Piacenza Imperial Roman consuls Magistri militum Praetorian prefects of Gaul Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from September 2013 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2021, at 14:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3832	----	Pages that link to "Marcus Aurelius" - Wikipedia Help Pages that link to "Marcus Aurelius" ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search What links here Page:  Namespace: all (Article) Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk   Invert selection Filters Hide transclusions | Hide links | Hide redirects The following pages link to Marcus Aurelius External tools: Link count Transclusion count Displayed 50 items. View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Apollo ‎ (links | edit) Ancient philosophy ‎ (links | edit) Anaximander ‎ (links | edit) Antoninus Pius ‎ (links | edit) April 26 ‎ (links | edit) Augustus ‎ (links | edit) Aachen ‎ (links | edit) Severus Alexander ‎ (links | edit) Alexios I Komnenos ‎ (links | edit) Alexios II Komnenos ‎ (links | edit) Alexios III Angelos ‎ (links | edit) Alexios V Doukas ‎ (links | edit) Anaxagoras ‎ (links | edit) Anaximenes of Miletus ‎ (links | edit) Andronikos III Palaiologos ‎ (links | edit) Andronikos II Palaiologos ‎ (links | edit) Andronikos I Komnenos ‎ (links | edit) Apuleius ‎ (links | edit) Ares ‎ (links | edit) Arcadius ‎ (links | edit) Aedile ‎ (links | edit) Aswan ‎ (links | edit) Ab urbe condita ‎ (links | edit) Artemis ‎ (links | edit) List of Byzantine emperors ‎ (links | edit) Bastarnae ‎ (links | edit) Bohemia ‎ (links | edit) Classics ‎ (links | edit) Catullus ‎ (links | edit) Cicero ‎ (links | edit) Cursus honorum ‎ (links | edit) Claudius ‎ (links | edit) Roman censor ‎ (links | edit) Carthage ‎ (links | edit) Constantius II ‎ (links | edit) Constans ‎ (links | edit) Caligula ‎ (links | edit) Constantine II (emperor) ‎ (links | edit) Constantine the Great ‎ (links | edit) Democritus ‎ (links | edit) Demeter ‎ (links | edit) Denarius ‎ (links | edit) Diana (mythology) ‎ (links | edit) Diocletian ‎ (links | edit) Domitian ‎ (links | edit) Europe ‎ (links | edit) Empedocles ‎ (links | edit) Ennius ‎ (links | edit) Epicurus ‎ (links | edit) Talk:Edward Gibbon ‎ (links | edit) View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3839	----	Hecato of Rhodes - Wikipedia Hecato of Rhodes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hecato or Hecaton of Rhodes (Greek: Ἑκάτων; fl. c. 100 BC) was a Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Rhodes, and a disciple of Panaetius,[1] but nothing else is known of his life. It is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. Diogenes Laërtius mentions six treatises written by Hecato:[2] Περὶ ἀγαθῶν – On Goods, in at least nineteen books. Περὶ ἀρετῶν – On Virtues. Περὶ παθῶν – On Passions. Περὶ τελῶν – On Ends. Περὶ παραδόξων – On Paradoxes, in at least thirteen books. Χρεῖαι – Maxims. In addition Cicero writes that Hecato wrote a work on On Duties, (Latin: De Officiis) dedicated to Quintus Tubero.[1] Hecato is also frequently mentioned by Seneca in his treatise De Beneficiis. Seneca also quotes Hecato in his Epistulae morales ad Lucilium; Cease to hope, and you will cease to fear. (Epistle V) What progress, you ask, have I made? I have begun to be a friend to myself.(Epistle VI) I can show you a philtre, compounded without drugs, herbs, or any witch's incantation: 'If you want to be loved, love.' (Epistle IX) According to Diogenes, Hecato divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and those with no such basis (e.g., temperance and the resultant health and vigor). Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, Hecato also held that virtue may be taught. Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions, as, for example, whether a good man who received a coin he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On the whole, he is inclined to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens: It is a wise man's duty to take care of his private interests, at the same time doing nothing contrary to the civil customs, laws, and institutions. But that depends on our purpose in seeking prosperity; for we do not aim to be rich for ourselves alone but for our children, relatives, friends, and, above all, for our country. For the private fortunes of individuals are the wealth of the state.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c Cicero, De Officiis, 3.15. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 103, 101, 127, 125, 90, 110, 87, 102, 124, 26, 172, and vi. 4, 32, 95  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hecato of Rhodes". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 194. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Sweden Other RERO (Switzerland) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hecato_of_Rhodes&oldid=938210988" Categories: 2nd-century BC Rhodians 1st-century BC Rhodians 2nd-century BC philosophers Roman-era Rhodian philosophers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar مصرى Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2020, at 19:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3859	----	Julian (emperor) - Wikipedia Julian (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 361 to 363, philosopher For other people with the same name, see Julian. Roman emperor Julian Emperor Julian on a bronze coin from Antioch. Legend: d n Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug. Roman emperor Augustus 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (proclaimed in early 360) Predecessor Constantius II Successor Jovian Caesar 6 November 355 – early 360 Born 331 Constantinople Died 26 June 363 (aged 31–32) Frygium, Mesopotamia Burial Tarsus, then Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Helena (m. 355, died 360) Names Flavius Claudius Julianus Dynasty Constantinian Father Julius Constantius Mother Basilina Religion Greco-Roman polytheism Previously Christianity Julian[i] (Latin: Flavius Claudius Julianus; Greek: Ἰουλιανός; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek.[4] His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place, caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate by the Christian Church.[5][6] A member of the Constantinian dynasty, Julian was orphaned as a child. He was raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, who had a profound influence on him, providing Julian with literary education.[7] Julian became caesar over the western provinces by order of Constantius II in 355, and in this role he campaigned successfully against the Alamanni and Franks. Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni at the Battle of Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in 357, leading his 13,000 men against a Germanic army three times larger. In 360, Julian was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia.[8] However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital and moved into Persia's heartland, but soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while ceaselessly being harassed by Persian skirmishes. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances.[9][7] He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces.[10] Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters".[11] He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution.[12] He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. His attempt to build a Third Temple in Jerusalem was probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please Jews.[7] Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching and learning classical texts.[13] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Caesar in Gaul 1.2.1 Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms 1.2.2 Taxation and administration 1.3 Rebellion in Paris 1.4 Empire and administration 1.5 Clash with the Antiochenes 1.6 Persian campaign 1.6.1 Into enemy territory 1.6.2 Ctesiphon 1.6.3 Death 1.7 Tomb 2 Religious issues 2.1 Beliefs 2.2 Restoration of state paganism 2.2.1 Paganism's shift under Julian 2.2.2 Juventinus and Maximus 2.2.3 Charity 2.3 Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple 3 Works 3.1 Problems regarding authenticity 4 In popular culture 4.1 Literature 4.2 Film 4.3 Street named 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Ancient sources 7.3 Modern sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Flavius Claudius Julianus was born at Constantinople in 331,[14] the son of Julius Constantius,[15] consul in 335 and half-brother of the emperor Constantine, by his second wife, Basilina, a woman of Greek origin.[16][17] Both of his parents were Christians. Julian's paternal grandparents were the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora. His maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus, Praetorian Prefect of the East under the emperor Licinius from 315 to 324, and consul suffectus in 325.[18] The name of Julian's maternal grandmother is unknown. Julian solidus, c. 361. The obverse shows a bearded Julian inscribed fl·cl·iulianus p·p· aug·, calling Julian "father of the nation" (Latin: Pater Patriae). The reverse depicts an armed Roman soldier bearing a military standard in one hand and subduing a captive with the other, a reference to the military strength of the Roman Empire, inscribed: virtus exercitus romanorum, lit. 'the virtue of the Roman Army' The mint mark sirm. indicates the coin was minted in Sirmium, the home of Constantine's family. In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself and his brothers, Julian's zealous Arian cousin Constantius II appears to have led a massacre of most of Julian's close relatives. Constantius II allegedly ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers Constantine II and Constans I, and their cousins, Julian and Constantius Gallus (Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory. Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education. They were likely saved by their youth and at the urging of the Empress Eusebia. If Julian's later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337. Initially growing up in Bithynia, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven Julian was under the guardianship of Eusebius, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, about whom he later wrote warmly. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were exiled to the imperial estate of Macellum in Cappadocia. Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition. At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia.[19] He became a lector, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life.[20] Julian's conversion from Christianity to paganism happened at around the age of 20. Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way, i.e., the way of Helios.[21] Julian began his study of Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher, and then Aedesius' student Eusebius of Myndus. It was from Eusebius that Julian learned of the teachings of Maximus of Ephesus, whom Eusebius criticized for his more mystical form of Neoplatonic theurgy. Eusebius related his meeting with Maximus, in which the theurgist invited him into the temple of Hecate and, chanting a hymn, caused a statue of the goddess to smile and laugh, and her torches to ignite. Eusebius reportedly told Julian that he "must not marvel at any of these things, even as I marvel not, but rather believe that the thing of the highest importance is that purification of the soul which is attained by reason." In spite of Eusebius' warnings regarding the "impostures of witchcraft and magic that cheat the senses" and "the works of conjurers who are insane men led astray into the exercise of earthly and material powers", Julian was intrigued, and sought out Maximus as his new mentor. According to the historian Eunapius, when Julian left Eusebius, he told his former teacher "farewell, and devote yourself to your books. You have shown me the man I was in search of."[22] Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans. Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper Magnentius. This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor. In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, Gallus, caesar of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year. In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed. Julian was summoned to Constantius' court in Mediolanum (Milan) in 354, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with Claudius Silvanus; he was cleared, in part because Empress Eusebia intervened on his behalf, and he was permitted to study in Athens (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress in his third oration).[23] While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints: Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great. In the same period, Julian was also initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, which he would later try to restore. Caesar in Gaul[edit] After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in Gaul. In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made caesar of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, Helena. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check. At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul.[24] In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the Germanic tribes that had settled on both sides of the Rhine. Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms[edit] During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into Frankish hands, including Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of Senon near Verdun to await the spring.[25] This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general Marcellus deigned to lift the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as magister equitum by Severus.[26][27] The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his magister peditum Barbatio was to come from Milan and amass forces at Augst (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Durocortorum (Rheims). However, while Julian was in transit, a group of Laeti attacked Lugdunum (Lyon) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in Alamanni territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic peoples.[28][29] With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the Battle of Argentoratum. The Romans were heavily outnumbered[ii] and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted,[30] yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in Milan.[31][32] Ammianus, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield[33] and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him Augustus, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor.[34] Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul. At Moguntiacum (Mainz), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the Meuse River.[32][35] In 358, Julian gained victories over the Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of Tongeren, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to Hamaland. Taxation and administration[edit] At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of the province of Belgica Secunda. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as caesar and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the Rhine frontier. However, he sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. He therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy. Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his caesar, which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser Saturninius Secundus Salutius from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius".[36] Rebellion in Paris[edit] 19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the Thermes de Cluny, then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the Frankish manner, in February 360. In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the Sassanid emperor, Shapur II, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of Amida after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the Petulantes, who had no desire to leave Gaul. According to the historian Zosimus, the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract[37] expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius.[38] Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius.[39] The troops proclaimed Julian Augustus in Paris, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks.[40][41] In November, Julian began openly using the title Augustus, even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.[42] Solidus of Julian issued at Ravenna in 361, during his war with Constantius. The reverse reads VIRTUS EXERC(ITUS) GALL(ICARUM), 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor. In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, Vadomarius. Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of Raetia.[43] Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war.[44] (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him [Constantius] merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms..."[45]) However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian.[46] All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety).[47] Civil war was avoided only by the death on 3 November of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor. Empire and administration[edit] The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried. On 11 December 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the Church of the Apostles, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine.[47] This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne.[48] He is also now thought to have been responsible for the building of Santa Costanza on a Christian site just outside Rome as a mausoleum for his wife Helena and sister-in-law Constantina.[49] The new Emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors. He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past. He made no attempt to restore the tetrarchal system begun under Diocletian. Nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat. His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. In his first panegyric to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially primus inter pares ("first among equals"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople, therefore, it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate.[50] He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt and expensive. Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed. He set up the Chalcedon tribunal to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of Magister Militum Arbitio. Several high-ranking officials under Constantius, including the chamberlain Eusebius, were found guilty and executed. (Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signaling his displeasure at their necessity.)[51] He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, secret agents or the imperial postal service. Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs. For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities, city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the aurum coronarium was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax. Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled.[52] This was a key reform reducing the power of corrupt imperial officials, as the unpaid taxes on land were often hard to calculate or higher than the value of the land itself. Forgiving back taxes both made Julian more popular and allowed him to increase collections of current taxes. While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself. For example, new taxes and corvées had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgment of the bureaucratic apparatus. Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms. The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the Empire. If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers. In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the rhetorician Themistius. His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial. One was the very acceptable Claudius Mamertinus, previously the Praetorian prefect of Illyricum. The other, more surprising choice was Nevitta, Julian's trusted Frankish general. This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army. Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him. Clash with the Antiochenes[edit] Julian as portrayed by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri (1583). From Romanorum Imperatorum effigies, preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to Antioch, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363. Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been one reason for his choosing to reside there. It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow.[53] His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the Adonia, a festival which marked the death of Adonis, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival.[54][55] Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices. He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine. When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying to persuade them to take action. Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters.[55] He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of Castalia at the temple of Apollo at Daphne. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century bishop Babylas were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[56][57] When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt. Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices. Julian accused them of price gouging and forced them to sell. Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent[58][59] while Ammianus blames Julian for "a mere thirst for popularity".[60] Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful Emperor who placed himself well above them. Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices.[61] David S. Potter, an assistant secretary of the US Navy, said after nearly two millennia: They expected a man who was both removed from them by the awesome spectacle of imperial power, and would validate their interests and desires by sharing them from his Olympian height (...) He was supposed to be interested in what interested his people, and he was supposed to be dignified. He was not supposed to leap up and show his appreciation for a panegyric that it was delivered, as Julian had done on January 3, when Libanius was speaking, and ignore the chariot races.[62] He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called Misopogon or "Beard Hater". There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul. Even Julian's intellectual friends and fellow pagans were of a divided mind about this habit of talking to his subjects on an equal footing: Ammianus Marcellinus saw in that only the foolish vanity of someone "excessively anxious for empty distinction", whose "desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy persons".[63] On leaving Antioch he appointed Alexander of Heliopolis as governor, a violent and cruel man whom the Antiochene Libanius, a friend of the emperor, admits on first thought was a "dishonourable" appointment. Julian himself described the man as "undeserving" of the position, but appropriate "for the avaricious and rebellious people of Antioch".[64] Persian campaign[edit] v t e Julian's Persian expedition Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Julian's rise to Augustus was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death. This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the Eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the Emperor he had risen against, and he had tried to woo it through the Chalcedon tribunal. However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the Sassanid Persians offered such an opportunity. An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of Ctesiphon and definitively secure the eastern border. Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear. There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully. Julian rejected this offer.[65] Ammianus states that Julian longed for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war.[66] Illustration from The Fall of Princes by John Lydgate (which is a translation of De Casibus Virorum Illustribus by Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor Valerian. Into enemy territory[edit] On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian departed from Antioch with about 65,000–83,000,[67][68] or 80,000–90,000 men[69] (the traditional number accepted by Gibbon[70] is 95,000 effectives total), and headed north toward the Euphrates. En route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted. He did order the Armenian King Arsaces to muster an army and await instructions.[71] He crossed the Euphrates near Hierapolis and moved eastward to Carrhae, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the Tigris.[72] For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate Media in conjunction with Armenian forces.[73] This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed.[74] Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however. He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings. Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon.[73] Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been "regime change" by replacing king Shapur II with his brother Hormisdas.[74][75] After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at the confluence of the Abora (Khabur) and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April.[73] Passing Dura on 6 April, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him. At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of Pirisabora, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris.[76] As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the Sassanids broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into marshland, slowing the progress of the Roman army.[77] Ctesiphon[edit] Julian near Ctesiphon in modern-day Iraq, from a medieval miniature By mid-May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night.[78] The Romans gained a tactical victory over the Persians before the gates of the city, driving them back into the city.[79] However, the Persian capital was not taken, the main Persian army was still at large and approaching, while the Romans lacked a clear strategic objective.[80] In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to mount a siege against the city, given the impregnability of its defences and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force.[81] Julian, not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior, ordering the destruction of the fleet.[79] This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance, burning any food in the Romans' path. Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment, so there was nothing he could do when he found that the Persians had flooded the area behind him, forcing him to withdraw.[82] A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to the safety of Roman borders, not through Mesopotamia, but northward to Corduene.[83][84] Death[edit] Sassanian relief of the investiture of Ardashir II showing Mithra, Shapur II and Ahura Mazda above a defeated Julian, lying prostrate Detail of the fallen Julian During the withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces.[84] In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column. In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail.[85] He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe of his liver, the peritoneum and intestines. The wound was not immediately deadly. Julian was treated by his personal physician, Oribasius of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound. This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark wine, and a procedure known as gastrorrhaphy, the suturing of the damaged intestine. On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night.[86][iii] As Julian wished, his body was buried outside Tarsus, though it was later removed to Constantinople.[87] In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers;[88] this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians. John Malalas reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by Basil of Caesarea.[89] Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a Saracen (Lakhmid) and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Lakhmid auxiliaries in Persian service.[90] Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by Saint Mercurius.[91] Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire. Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that "I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves." However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were νενίκηκάς με, Γαλιλαῖε, or Vicisti, Galilaee ("You have won, Galilean"),[iv] supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion. The phrase introduces the 1866 poem Hymn to Proserpine, which was Algernon Charles Swinburne's elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity. It also ends the Polish Romantic play The Undivine comedy written in 1833 by Zygmunt Krasiński. Tomb[edit] Porphyry sarcophagi outside the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. As he had requested,[93] Julian's body was buried in Tarsus. It lay in a tomb outside the city, across a road from that of Maximinus Daia.[94] However, chronicler Zonaras says that at some "later" date his body was exhumed and reburied in or near the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, where Constantine and the rest of his family lay.[95] His sarcophagus is listed as standing in a "stoa" there by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.[96] The church was demolished by the Ottomans after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Today a sarcophagus of porphyry, believed by Jean Ebersolt to be Julian's, stands in the grounds of the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.[97] 4th-century cameo of an emperor, probably Julian, performing sacrifice (National Archaeological Museum, Florence) Religious issues[edit] Beliefs[edit] Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of a philosophical divinity. The chief surviving sources are his works To King Helios and To the Mother of the Gods, which were written as panegyrics, not theological treatises.[15] As the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian's beliefs are of great interest for historians, but they are not in complete agreement. He learned theurgy from Maximus of Ephesus, a student of Iamblichus;[98] his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of Plotinus; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with Mithraism, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of paganism under High Priests, and his fundamental monotheism) may show Christian influence. Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties.[99] According to one theory (that of Glen Bowersock in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as theurgy and also Neoplatonism. Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a "cultured" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day. Because of his Neoplatonist background Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in Plato's Timaeus. Julian writes, "when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men."[100] Further he writes, "they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once..."[101] His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve. Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, "how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians."[102][103] The Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be Alexander the Great "in another body" via transmigration of souls, "in accordance with the teachings of Pythagoras and Plato".[104] The diet of Julian is said to have been predominantly vegetable-based.[105] Restoration of state paganism[edit] See also: Henosis and Henotheism Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians, by Edward Armitage, 1875 After gaining the purple, Julian started a religious reformation of the empire, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman state. He supported the restoration of Hellenistic polytheism as the state religion. His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of "the governing classes of the empire—much as Chinese Buddhism was driven back into the lower classes by a revived Confucian mandarinate in 13th century China."[106] He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as private courts. He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians. For example, he reversed Constantine's declaration that Majuma, the port of Gaza, was a separate city. Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan. On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion. This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman state did not impose any religion on its provinces. The edict was seen as an act of favor toward the Jews, in order to upset the Christians. Coptic icon showing Saint Mercurius killing Julian. According to a tradition, Saint Basil (an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign. Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death. Since the persecution of Christians by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions were designed to harass Christians and undermine their ability to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire.[107] Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical view of Iamblichus' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the practice of the Christian view of theurgy and demand the suppression of the Christian set of Mysteries.[108] In his School Edict Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries. Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the Iliad, which was widely regarded as divinely inspired)[citation needed] that formed the core of classical education: "If they want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them", the edict says.[106] This was an attempt to remove some of the influence of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism.[citation needed] The edict also dealt a severe financial blow to many Christian scholars, tutors and teachers, as it deprived them of students. In his Tolerance Edict of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of dissident Christian bishops. The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between different Christian sects, since conflict between rival Christian sects was quite fierce.[109] His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Christians was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor—the final provider for all the needs of his people. Within this project, there was no place for a parallel institution, such as the Christian hierarchy or Christian charity.[110] Paganism's shift under Julian[edit] Julian's popularity among the people and the army during his brief reign suggest that he might have brought paganism back to the fore of Roman public and private life.[111] In fact, during his lifetime, neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigned supreme, and the greatest thinkers of the day argued about the merits and rationality of each religion.[112] Most importantly for the pagan cause, though, Rome was still a predominantly pagan empire that had not wholly accepted Christianity.[113] Even so, Julian's short reign did not stem the tide of Christianity. The emperor's ultimate failure can arguably be attributed to the manifold religious traditions and deities that paganism promulgated. Most pagans sought religious affiliations that were unique to their culture and people, and they had internal divisions that prevented them from creating any one ‘pagan religion.’ Indeed, the term pagan was simply a convenient appellation for Christians to lump together the believers of a system they opposed.[114] In truth, there was no Roman religion, as modern observers would recognize it.[115] Instead, paganism came from a system of observances that one historian has characterized as “no more than a spongy mass of tolerance and tradition.”[115] This system of tradition had already shifted dramatically by the time Julian came to power; gone were the days of massive sacrifices honoring the gods. The communal festivals that involved sacrifice and feasting, which once united communities, now tore them apart—Christian against pagan.[116] Civic leaders did not even have the funds, much less the support, to hold religious festivals. Julian found the financial base that had supported these ventures (sacred temple funds) had been seized by his uncle Constantine to support the Christian Church.[117] In all, Julian's short reign simply could not shift the feeling of inertia that had swept across the Empire. Christians had denounced sacrifice, stripped temples of their funds, and cut priests and magistrates off from the social prestige and financial benefits accompanying leading pagan positions in the past. Leading politicians and civic leaders had little motivation to rock the boat by reviving pagan festivals. Instead, they chose to adopt the middle ground by having ceremonies and mass entertainment that were religiously neutral.[118] After witnessing the reign of two emperors bent on supporting the Church and stamping out paganism, it is understandable that pagans simply did not embrace Julian's idea of proclaiming their devotion to polytheism and their rejection of Christianity. Many chose to adopt a practical approach and not support Julian's public reforms actively for fear of a Christian revival. However, this apathetic attitude forced the emperor to shift central aspects of pagan worship. Julian's attempts to reinvigorate the people shifted the focus of paganism from a system of tradition to a religion with some of the same characteristics that he opposed in Christianity.[119] For example, Julian attempted to introduce a tighter organization for the priesthood, with greater qualifications of character and service. Classical paganism simply did not accept this idea of priests as model citizens. Priests were elites with social prestige and financial power who organized festivals and helped pay for them.[117] Yet Julian's attempt to impose moral strictness on the civic position of priesthood only made paganism more in tune with Christian morality, drawing it further from paganism's system of tradition. Indeed, this development of a pagan order created the foundations of a bridge of reconciliation over which paganism and Christianity could meet.[120] Likewise, Julian's persecution of Christians, who by pagan standards were simply part of a different cult, was quite an un-pagan attitude that transformed paganism into a religion that accepted only one form of religious experience while excluding all others—such as Christianity.[121] In trying to compete with Christianity in this manner, Julian fundamentally changed the nature of pagan worship. That is, he made paganism a religion, whereas it once had been only a system of tradition. Juventinus and Maximus[edit] Despite this inadvertent reconciliation of paganism to Christianity, however, many of the Church fathers viewed the emperor with hostility, and told stories of his supposed wickedness after his death. A sermon by Saint John Chrysostom, entitled On Saints Juventinus and Maximinus, tells the story of two of Julian's soldiers at Antioch, who were overheard at a drinking party, criticizing the emperor's religious policies, and taken into custody. According to John, the emperor had made a deliberate effort to avoid creating martyrs of those who disagreed with his reforms; but Juventinus and Maximinus admitted to being Christians, and refused to moderate their stance. John asserts that the emperor forbade anyone from having contact with the men, but that nobody obeyed his orders; so he had the two men executed in the middle of the night. John urges his audience to visit the tomb of these martyrs.[122] Charity[edit] The fact that Christian charities were open to all, including pagans, put this aspect of Roman citizens' lives out of the control of Imperial authority and under that of the Church. Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity, saying: "These impious Galileans not only feed their own poor, but ours also; welcoming them into their agapae, they attract them, as children are attracted, with cakes."[123] Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple[edit] In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to oppose Christianity, he allowed Jews to rebuild their Temple.[124][125][126] The point was that the rebuilding of the Temple would invalidate Jesus’ prophecy about its destruction in 70, which Christians had cited as proof of Jesus' truth.[124] But fires broke out and stopped the project.[127] A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort: Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has been ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363. Although there is contemporary testimony for the miracle, in the Orations of St. Gregory Nazianzen, this may be taken to be unreliable.[128] Other possibilities are accidental fire or deliberate sabotage. Divine intervention was for centuries a common view among Christian historians,[129] and it was seen as proof of Jesus’ divinity.[124] Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".[130] Works[edit] Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us. Budé Date Work Comment Wright I 356/7[131] Panegyric In Honour Of Constantius Written to reassure Constantius that he was on his side. I II ~June 357[131] Panegyric In Honour Of Eusebia Expresses gratitude for Eusebia's support. III III 357/8[132] The Heroic Deeds Of Constantius Indicates his support of Constantius, while being critical. (Sometimes called "second panegyric to Constantius".) II IV 359[36] Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius[133] Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul. VIII V 361[134] Letter To The Senate And People of Athens An attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion. – VI early 362[135] Letter To Themistius The Philosopher Response to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining J.'s political reading – VII March 362[136] To The Cynic Heracleios Attempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities. VII VIII ~March 362[137] Hymn To The Mother Of The Gods A defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition. V IX ~May 362[138] To the Uneducated Cynics Another attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism. VI X December 362[139] The Caesars[140] Satire describing a competition among Roman emperors as to who was the best. Strongly critical of Constantine. – XI December 362[141] Hymn To King Helios Attempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian. IV XII early 363[142] Misopogon, Or, Beard-Hater Written as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings. – – 362/3[143] Against the Galilaeans Polemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments. – – 362[v] Fragment Of A Letter To A Priest Attempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity. – – 359–363 Letters Both personal and public letters from much of his career. – – ? Epigrams Small number of short verse works. – Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's Opera.[vi] Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W.C.Wright's edition of Julian's works. Ioulianou autokratoros ta sozomena (1696) The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the panegyrics to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style. The Misopogon (or "Beard Hater") is a light-hearted account of his clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an Emperor. The Caesars is a humorous tale of a contest among some of the most notable Roman Emperors: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine, and also Alexander the Great. This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions. One of the most important of his lost works is his Against the Galileans, intended to refute the Christian religion. The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by Cyril of Alexandria, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, Contra Julianum. These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments. Problems regarding authenticity[edit] Julian's works have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but many are translated in the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1913, edited by Wilmer Cave Wright. Wright mentions, however, that there are many problems surrounding Julian's vast collection of works, mainly the letters ascribed to Julian.[144] The collections of letters we have today are the result of many smaller collections which contained varying numbers of Julian's works in various combinations. For example, in Laurentianus 58.16 the largest collection of letters ascribed to Julian was found, containing 43 manuscripts. it is unclear what the origins of many letters in these collections are. Joseph Bidez & François Cumont compiled all of these different collections together in 1922 and got a total of 284 items. 157 of these were considered genuine and 127 were regarded spurious. This contrasts starkly with Wright's earlier mentioned collection which contains only 73 items which are considered genuine and 10 apocryphal letter. Michael Trapp notes however that when comparing Bidez & Cumont's work with Wright, they regard as many as sixteen of Wright's genuine letters as spurious.[145] Which works can be ascribed to Julian is thus very much up to debate. The problems surrounding Julian's collection of works are exacerbated by the fact that Julian was a very motivated writer, which means it is possible that many more letters could have circulated, despite his short reign. Julian himself attests to the large amount of letters he had to write in one of the letters which is likely to be genuine.[146] Julian's religious agenda gave him even more work than the average emperor as he sought to instruct his newly-styled pagan priests and he had to deal with discontent Christian leaders and communities. An example of him instructing his pagan priests is visible in a fragment in the Vossianus MS., inserted in the Letter to Themistius.[147] Additionally, Julian's hostility towards the Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions by Christian authors as can be seen in Gregory of Nazianzus' invectives against Julian.[148][149] Christians no doubt suppressed some of Julian's works as well.[150] This Christian influence is still visible in Wright's much smaller collection of Julian's letters. She comments on how some letters are suddenly cut off when the contents become hostile towards Christians, believing them to be the result of Christian censoring. Notable examples of this are in the Fragment of a letter to a Priest and the letter to High-Priest Theodorus.[151][152] In popular culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Julian" emperor – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Literature[edit] In 1681 Lord Russell, an outspoken opponent of King Charles II of England and his brother The Duke of York, got his chaplain to write a Life of Julian the Apostate. This work made use of the Roman Emperor's life in order to address contemporary English political and theological debates – specifically, to reply to the conservative arguments of Dr Hickes's sermons, and defend the lawfulness of resistance in extreme cases. In 1847, the controversial German theologian David Friedrich Strauss published in Mannheim the pamphlet Der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Cäsaren ("A Romantic on the Throne of the Caesars"), in which Julian was satirised as "an unworldly dreamer, a man who turned nostalgia for the ancients into a way of life and whose eyes were closed to the pressing needs of the present". In fact, this was a veiled criticism of the contemporary King Frederick William IV of Prussia, known for his romantic dreams of restoring the supposed glories of feudal Medieval society.[153] Julian's life inspired the play Emperor and Galilean by Henrik Ibsen. The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read an English translation of Julian's work in 1891[154] Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel The Death of the Gods (Julian the Apostate) (1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled "Christ and Antichrist" (1895–1904) by the Russian Symbolist poet, novelist and literary theoretician Dmitrii S. Merezhkovskii. The opera Der Apostat (1924) by the composer and conductor Felix Weingartner is about Julian. In 1945 Nikos Kazantzakis authored the tragedy Julian the Apostate in which the emperor is depicted as an existentialist hero committed to a struggle which he knows will be in vain. It was first staged in Paris in 1948. Julian was the subject of a novel, Julian (1964), by Gore Vidal, describing his life and times. It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity. Julian appeared in Gods and Legions, by Michael Curtis Ford (2002). Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint Caesarius, and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature. Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of Michel Butor's novel La Modification. The fantasy alternate history The Dragon Waiting by John M. Ford, while set in the time of the Wars of the Roses, uses the reign of Julian as its point of divergence. His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the Renaissance. Characters in the novel refer to him as "Julian the Wise". The dystopian speculative fiction novel by Robert Charles Wilson, Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America, parallels the life of Julian with the titular character as the hereditary president of an oligarchic future United States of America who tries to restore science and combat the fundamentalist Christianity that has taken over the country. Film[edit] An Italian movie treatment of his life, Giuliano l'Apostata, appeared in 1919. Street named[edit] 'Julian Way' is a main thoroughfare in Jerusalem named for the Emperor. It was given that name during the British Mandate period, and then changed to King David Street with the creation of the State of Israel.[155][156] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Against the Galilaeans Peroz-Shapur, the ancient town of Perisabora destroyed by Julian in 363 Diodorus of Tarsus Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Rarely Julian II. The designation "Julian I" is then applied either to the emperor Didius Julianus (r.  193),[1] or to the usurper Sabinus Julianus (r.  283–285).[2] Even more rarely called Julian III, with Didius Julianus as "Julian I" and Sabinus Julianus as "Julian II".[3] ^ Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, Res Gestae, 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate – see David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Note that Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae, 25.3.6 & 23) is of the view that Julian died the night of the same day that he was wounded. ^ First recorded by Theodoret[92] in the 5th century. ^ Not dealt with in Athanassiadi, or dated by Bowersock, but reflects a time when Julian was emperor, and he had other issues to deal with later. ^ Julian's Opera, edited by J.Bidez, G.Rochefort, and C.Lacombrade, with French translations of all the principal works except Against the Galilaeans, which is only preserved in citations in a polemic work by Cyril. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ David Sear, Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume 5 (London: Spink, 2014), p. 267. ^ D. Margetić, "Antoniani of Julian of Pannonia", Num. vijesti, broj 63., 2010 ^ Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, "Evil Emperors", 2019 ^ Grant, Michael (1980). Greek and Latin authors, 800 B.C.–A.D. 1000, Part 1000. H. W. Wilson Co. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8242-0640-6. JULIAN THE APOSTATE (Flavins Claudius Julianus), Roman emperor and Greek writer, was born at Constantinople in ad 332 and died in 363. ^ Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 23". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ^ A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. 20 January 2020. ISBN 978-90-04-41631-4. ^ a b c "Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 August 2018. ^ Phang et al. 2016, p. 998. ^ "Ancient Rome: The reign of Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 August 2018. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 289. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Glanville Downey, "Julian the Apostate at Antioch", Church History, Vol. 8, No. 4 (December 1939), pp. 303–315. See p. 305. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 88. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 288. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Tougher, 12, citing Bouffartigue: L'Empereur Julien et la culture de son temps p. 30 for the argument for 331; A.H. Jones, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I", p. 447 (Iulianus 29) argues for May or June 332. Bowersock, p. 22, wrote that the month attribution originated in an error and considers that the weight of evidence points to 331, against 332. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Julian" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 548. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1989). Byzantium: the early centuries. Knopf. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-394-53778-8. Julius Constantius...Constantine had invited him, with his second wife and his young family, to take up residence in his new capital; and it was in Constantinople that his third son Julian was born, in May or June of the year 332. The baby's mother, Basilina, a Greek from Asia Minor, died a few weeks later... ^ Bradbury, Jim (2004). The Routledge companion to medieval warfare. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-22126-9. JULIAN THE APOSTATE, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS, ROMAN EMPEROR (332–63) Emperor from 361, son of Julius Constantius and a Greek mother Basilina, grandson of Constantius Chlorus, the only pagan Byzantine Emperor. ^ Jones, Martindale, and Morris (1971) Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, pp. 148, 478–479. Cambridge. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 44–45. ^ Boardman, p. 44, citing Julian to the Alexandrians, Wright's letter 47, of November or December 362. Ezekiel Spanheim 434D. Twelve would be literal, but Julian is counting inclusively. ^ Julian. "Letter 47: To the Alexandrians", translated by Emily Wilmer Cave Wright, v. 3, p. 149. The full text of Letters of Julian/Letter 47 at Wikisource ^ "Maximus Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists (English translation)". www.tertullian.org. 1921. pp. 343–565. Retrieved 19 March 2019. ^ R. Browning, The Emperor Julian (London, 1975), pp. 74–75. However, Shaun Tougher, "The Advocacy of an Empress: Julian and Eusebia" (The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1998), pp. 595–599), argues that the kind Eusebia of Julian's panegyric is a literary creation and that she was doing the bidding of her husband in bringing Julian around to doing what Constantius had asked of him. See especially p. 597. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 499. ^ Most sources give the town as Sens, which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, OUP Oxford 2007, p. 220. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, p. 49. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 501. ^ David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp. 50–51. ^ D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58–66", Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August 1997), p. 479. ^ David S. Potter, pp. 501–502. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p. 51. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.64–65 ^ John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, pp. 240–241. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 69. ^ grammation: cf. Zosimus, Historia Nova, 3.9, commented by Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 45 ^ Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 20.4.1–2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae, 20.10.1–2 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 56–57. ^ David S. Potter, p. 506. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 58. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 59. ^ In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 27. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 89 ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 60. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 89. ^ Webb, Matilda. The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide, pp. 249–252, 2001, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1-902210-58-1, 978-1-902210-58-2, google books ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, pp. 63–64. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 61. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 65. ^ Bowersock, p. 95. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 69. ^ a b Bowersock, p. 96. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.195 & 16.21 ^ Libanius, Orations, 1.126 & 15.20 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.3 ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, pp. 515–516 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.7.1, 25.4.17 (Commented by Veyne, L"Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 77) ^ See Letter 622 by Libanius: "That Alexander was appointed to the government at first, I confess, gave me some concern, as the principal persons among us were dissatisfied. I thought it dishonourable, injurious, and unbecoming a prince; and that repeated fines would rather weaken than improve the city...." and the translator's note upon it: "This is the Alexander of whom Ammianus says (23.2), "When Julian was going to leave Antioch, he made one Alexander of Heliopolis, governor of Syria, a turbulent and severe man, saying that 'undeserving as he was, such a ruler suited the avaricious and contumellious Antiochians'." As the letter makes clear, Julian handed the city over to be looted by a man he himself regarded as unworthy, and the Christian inhabitants, who had dared to oppose his attempt to restore paganism, to be forced to attend and applaud pagan ceremonies at sword-point; and be 'urged' to cheer more loudly." ^ Libanius, Oration 12, 76–77 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.1–2 ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 3, chapter 12. Zosimus' text is ambiguous and refers to a smaller force of 18,000 under Procopius and a larger force of 65,000 under Julian himself; it's unclear if the second figure includes the first. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425, p. 210, using the higher estimate of 83,000. ^ Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 108. ^ The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chapter XXIV., p. 807 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.2.1–2 ^ Ridley, Notes, p. 318. ^ a b c Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 110. ^ a b David S, Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 517. ^ Libanius, Epistulae, 1402.2 ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 203. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.3.10–11. ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 204. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, p. 75. ^ Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome fell. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 , p. 232 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.7.1. ^ David S. Potter, Rome in the ancient world, pp. 287–290. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.8.1–5. ^ a b Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 205. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 25.3.3 ^ Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619. See p. 618. ^ Grant, Michael. The Roman Emperors. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997), p. 254. ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.274 ^ John Malalas, Chronographia, pp. 333–334. Patrologia Graeca XCII, col. 496. ^ evidence preserved by Philostorgius, see David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 518. ^ Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, 6.2 ^ Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.25 ^ Kathleen McVey (Editor), The Fathers of the Church: Selected Prose Works (1994) p. 31 ^ Libanius, Oration 18, 306; Ammianus Marcellinus 23, 2.5 and 25, 5.1. References from G. Downey,The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) p. 46 ^ Downey gives the text: '...later the body was transferred to the imperial city' (xiii 13, 25) ^ Glanville Downey, The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) 27–51. On p. 34 he states that the Book of Ceremonies of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus gives a list of tombs, ending with: "43. In this stoa, which is to the north, lies a cylindrically-shaped sarcophagus, in which lies the cursed and wretched body of the apostate Julian, porphyry or Roman in colour. 44 Another sarcophagus, porphyry, or Roman, in which lies the body of Jovian, who ruled after Julian." ^ Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. ^ The emperor's study of Iamblichus and of theurgy are a source of criticism from his primary chronicler, Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.13.6–8 and 25.2.5 ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 27ff, 58f. ISBN 9780748618873. ^ Julian, "Letter to a Priest", 292. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 2, p. 307. ^ As above. Wright, v. 2, p. 305. ^ Julian, "Against the Galilaeans", 143. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 357. ^ Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America, 1963 (Southern Methodist University Press) /1997 (Oxford University Press, US), p. 8. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, iii, 21. ^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 22. ^ a b Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, p. 93. ^ Julian, Epistulae, 52.436A ff. ^ Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman (1992). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. p. 22. ISBN 9780791413371. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.5.4. ^ See Roberts and DiMaio. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 3. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 4. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995), 331. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995). ^ a b Jonathan Kirsch, God against the Gods (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), 9. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 333. ^ a b Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 352. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 354. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 178. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 171. ^ James O’Donnell, “The Demise of Paganism,” Traditio 35 (1979): 53, accessed 23 September 2014, JSTOR 27831060 ^ St. John Chrysostom, The Cult of the Saints (select homilies and letters), Wendy Mayer & Bronwen Neil, eds., St. Vladimir's Seminary Press (2006). ^ Quoted in : Schmidt, Charles (1889). The Social Results of Early Christianity (2 ed.). Wm. Isbister. p. 328. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ a b c Jacob Neusner (15 September 2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3. ^ Kavon, Eli (4 December 2017). "Julian and the dream of a Third Temple". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 February 2018. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 8; Volume 12. Little, Brown & Company. 1856. p. 744. In A.D. 363, the Emperor Julian undertook to rebuild the temple, but after considerable preparations and much expense he was compelled to desist by flames which burst forth from the foundations. Repeated attempts have been made to account for these igneous explosions by natural causes; for instance, by the ignition of gases which had long been pent up in the subterraneous vaults. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library), chapter XXIII., pp. 780–82, note 84 ^ See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" Archived 20 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine ^ Falk, Avner, A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews (1996), Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, London, ISBN 0-8386-3660-8. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 61. ^ Athanassiadi, pp. 62–63. ^ The manuscript tradition uses the name "Sallustius", but see Bowersock, p. 45 (footnote #12), and Athanassiadi, p. 20. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 85. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 90. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 131. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 141, "at the same time" as To The Cynic Heracleios. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 137. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 197, written for the Saturnalia festival, which began 21 December. ^ "Julian: Caesars – translation". www.attalus.org. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 148, doesn't supply a clear date. Bowersock, p. 103, dates it to the celebration of Sol Invictus, 25 December, shortly after the Caesars was written. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 201, dates it "towards the end of his stay in Antioch". ^ Athanassiadi, p. 161. – Wikisource:Against the Galileans ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. xxvii–xxviii. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Trapp, Michael (2012). Baker-Brian & Tougher, Nicholas & Shaun (ed.). The Emperor's Shadow: Julian in his Correspondence. Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. p. 105. ISBN 978-1905125500. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 208-209. ISBN 978-0674991736. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Volume II. Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius. To The Senate and People of Athens. To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Loeb Classical Library (Book 29). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 4: First Invective Against Julian". ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 5: Second Invective Against Julian". ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 453–454. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius, To the Senate and People of Athens, To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 338–339. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Christopher Clark, "Iron Kingdom", p. 446 ^ Coustillas, Pierre ed. London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England: the Diary of George Gissing, Novelist. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978, p. 237. ^ Eylon, Lily (1999). "Focus on Israel: Jerusalem-Architecture in the British Mandate Period". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 19 March 2019. ^ "THE GRAND HOTEL OF JERUSALEM". Eretz Magazine. 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2019. Ancient sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25). See J.C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes. Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Full text at Internet Archive at The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Gutenberg etext# 28587. Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works., Translated by C.W. King. George Bell and Sons, London, 1888. At the Internet Archive Claudius Mamertinus, "Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori", Panegyrici Latini, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year Gregory Nazianzen, Orations, "First Invective Against Julian", "Second Invective Against Julian". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888. Libanius, Monody – Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Modern sources[edit] Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1992) [1981]. Julian: An Intellectual Biography. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07763-X. Baker-Brian, Nicholas; Tougher, Shaun. (2012). Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. The Classical Press of Wales. Swansea. ISBN 978-1-905125-50-0. http://www.classicalpressofwales.co.uk/emperor_author.htm Bowersock, G.W. (1978). Julian the Apostate. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1262-X. Browning, Robert (1975). The Emperor Julian. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77029-2. Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363, Routledge, London, 1991. ISBN 0-203-42534-0 Drinkwater, John F., The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis), OUP Oxford 2007. ISBN 0-19-929568-9 Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619 Murdoch, Adrian. The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World, Stroud, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-4048-4 Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter, eds. (2016). Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330 Roberts, Walter E. & DiMaio, Michael (2002), "Julian the Apostate (360–363 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Smith, Rowland. Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate, London, 1995. ISBN 0-415-03487-6 Veyne, Paul. L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Seuil, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich & Stefan Rebenich, eds. (2020). A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-41456-3. Further reading[edit] García Ruiz, María Pilar, "Julian's Self-Representation in Coins and Texts." In Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire, Ed. D.W.P. Burgersdijk and A.J. Ross. Leiden. Brill. 2018. 204-233. ISBN 978-90-04-37089-0. Gardner, Alice, Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity, G.P. Putnam's Son, London, 1895. ISBN 0-404-58262-1 / ISBN 978-0-404-58262-3. Downloadable at Julian, philosopher and emperor. Hunt, David. "Julian". In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-521-30200-5 Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "JULIAN". JULIAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Facs. 3. pp. 242–247. Lenski, Noel Emmanuel Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD University of California Press: London, 2003 Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, From Constantine to Julian: A Source History Routledge: New York, 1996. ISBN 0-203-42205-8 Neander, August, The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture, translated by G.V. Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859. ISBN 0-217-34765-7 / ISBN 9780217347655. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian and his generation. Rendall, Gerald Henry, The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices, George Bell and Sons, London, 1879. ISBN 1-152-51929-8 / ISBN 9781152519299. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian. Rohrbacher, David. Historians of Late Antiquity. Routledge: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-20459-3 Rosen, Klaus. Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Julian Wikiquote has quotations related to: Julian (emperor) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Claudius Julianus. Works by Julian at Project Gutenberg Laws of Julian. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar. Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity. A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum. Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J. Bravo. Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods", Review by Thomas Banchich. Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan at the California Literary Review. The Julian Society. A society of pagans who admire Julian. The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, by Gerald Henry Rendall Julian the Apostate why he was important, and his place in world history, by Andrew Selkirk Letters in Epistolographi graeci, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp. 337–391. Entry in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah12217 Works by Julian at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Julian (emperor) Constantinian dynasty Born: 331 Died: 26 June 363 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius II Roman emperor 361–363 Succeeded by Jovian Political offices Preceded by Arbitio Lollianus Mavortius Consul of the Roman Empire 356–357 with Constantius II Succeeded by Neratius Cerealis Censorius Datianus Preceded by Flavius Eusebius Flavius Hypatius Consul of the Roman Empire 360 with Constantius II Succeeded by Taurus Florentius Preceded by Claudius Mamertinus Nevitta Consul of the Roman Empire 363 with Flavius Sallustius Succeeded by Jovian Varronianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine 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en-wikipedia-org-385	----	Museo del Prado - Wikipedia Museo del Prado From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Spanish national art museum in Madrid, Spain "Prado" redirects here. For other uses, see Prado (disambiguation). Art museum, Historic site in Madrid, Spain Museo Nacional del Prado Exterior of the Prado Museum Established 1819 Location Paseo del Prado, Madrid, Spain Type Art museum, Historic site Visitors 852,161 (2020)[1] Ranked 16th globally (2020)[2] Director Miguel Falomir[3] Public transit access Atocha Main Line Station Banco de España Underground Station Website www.museodelprado.es Museo del Prado (Main wing) Architect Juan de Villanueva Spanish Property of Cultural Interest Official name Museo Nacional del Prado Type Non-movable Criteria Monument Designated 1962 Reference no. RI-51-0001374 The Prado Museum (/ˈprɑːdoʊ/ PRAH-doh; Spanish: Museo del Prado [muˈseo ðel ˈpɾaðo]), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It is widely considered to have one of the world's finest collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on the former Spanish Royal Collection, and the single best collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it also contains important collections of other types of works. The Prado Museum is one of the most visited sites in the world, and it is considered one of the greatest art museums in the world. The numerous works by Francisco Goya, the single most extensively represented artist, as well as by Hieronymus Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Titian, and Diego Velázquez, are some of the highlights of the collection. Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museum's fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now the largest outside Italy. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings, 7,600 paintings, 4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to many other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder were in storage.[4] Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2020 attendance plunged by 76 percent to 852,161. Nonetheless, the Prado was ranked as the 16th most-visited museum in the List of most-visited art museums in the world in 2020.[5] It is one of the largest museums in Spain. Contents 1 History 2 Historic structure 3 Special exhibitions 4 Nearby museums 5 Management 5.1 Funding 5.2 Directors 6 Collection highlights 6.1 Selected works 7 In Google Earth 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] The building that is now the home of the Museo Nacional del Prado was designed in 1785 by architect of the Enlightenment in Spain Juan de Villanueva on the orders of Charles III to house the Natural History Cabinet. Nonetheless, the building's final function was not decided until the monarch's grandson, Ferdinand VII, encouraged by his wife, Queen María Isabel de Braganza, decided to use it as a new Royal Museum of Paintings and Sculptures. The Royal Museum, which would soon become known as the National Museum of Painting and Sculpture, and subsequently the Museo Nacional del Prado, opened to the public for the first time in November 1819. It was created with the double aim of showing the works of art belonging to the Spanish Crown and to demonstrate to the rest of Europe that Spanish art was of equal merit to any other national school. Also, this museum needed several renovations during the 19th and 20th centuries, because of the increase of the collection as well as the increase of the public who wants to see all the collection that the Museum hosted.[6] In the main exhibition hall, first floor The first catalogue of the Museum, published in 1819 and solely devoted to Spanish painting, included 311 paintings, although at that time the Museum housed 1,510 from the various royal residences, the Reales Sitios, including works from other schools. The exceptionally important royal collection, which forms the nucleus of the present-day Museo del Prado, started to increase significantly in the 16th century during the time of Charles V and continued under the succeeding Habsburg and Bourbon monarchs. Their efforts and determination led to the Royal Collection being enriched by some of the masterpieces now to be seen in the Prado. These include The Descent from the Cross by Rogier van der Weyden, The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymous Bosch, Knight with his Hand on his Breast by El Greco, The Death of the Virgin by Mantegna, The Holy Family, known as "La Perla", by Raphael, Charles V at Mülhberg by Titian, Christ Washing the Disciples’ Feet by Tintoretto, Dürer's Self-portrait, Las Meninas by Velázquez, The Three Graces by Rubens, and The Family of Charles IV by Goya.[citation needed] Francisco Goya Francisco Goya, La maja desnuda, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800) Francisco Goya, La maja vestida, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800) In addition to works from the Spanish royal collection, other holdings increased and enriched the Museum with further masterpieces, such as the two Majas by Goya. Among the now closed museums whose collections have been added to that of the Prado were the Museo de la Trinidad in 1872, and the Museo de Arte Moderno in 1971. In addition, numerous legacies, donations and purchases have been of crucial importance for the growth of the collection. Various works entered the Prado from the Museo de la Trinidad, including The Fountain of Grace by the School of Van Eyck, the Santo Domingo and San Pedro Martír altarpieces painted for the monastery of Santo Tomás in Ávila by Pedro Berruguete, and the five canvases by El Greco executed for the Colegio de doña María de Aragón. Most of the Museum's 19th-century paintings come from the former Museo de Arte Moderno, including works by the Madrazos, José de Madrazo y Agudo and Federico de Madrazo, Vicente López, Carlos de Haes, Eduardo Rosales and Sorolla.[citation needed] Upon the deposition of Isabella II in 1868, the museum was nationalized and acquired the new name of "Museo del Prado". The building housed the royal collection of arts, and it rapidly proved too small. The first enlargement to the museum took place in 1918. Since the creation of the Museo del Prado more than 2,300 paintings have been incorporated into its collection, as well as numerous sculptures, prints, drawings and works of art through bequests, donations and purchases, which account for most of the New Acquisitions. Numerous bequests have enriched the Museum's holdings, such as the outstanding collection of medals left to the Museum by Pablo Bosch; the drawings and items of decorative art left by Pedro Fernández Durán as well as Van der Weyden's masterpiece, Duran Madonna; and the Ramón de Errazu bequest of 19th-century paintings. Particularly important donations include Barón Emile d'Erlanger's gift of Goya's Black Paintings in 1881. Among the numerous works that have entered the collection through purchase are some outstanding ones acquired in recent years including two works by El Greco, The Fable and The Flight into Egypt acquired in 1993 and 2001, Goya's The Countess of Chinchon bought in 2000, Velázquez's Portrait of Ferdinando Brandani, acquired in 2003, Bruegel's The Wine of Saint Martin's Day bought in 2010 and Fra Angelico's Madonna of the Pomegranate purchased in 2016.[citation needed] Between 1873 and 1900, the Prado helped decorate city halls, new universities, and churches. During the Second Spanish Republic from 1931 to 1936, the focus was on developing provincial museums. During the Spanish Civil War, upon the recommendation of the League of Nations, the museum staff removed 353 paintings, 168 drawings and the Dauphin's Treasure and sent the art to Valencia, then later to Girona, and finally to Geneva. The art had to be returned across French territory in night trains to the museum upon the commencement of World War II. During the early years of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, many paintings were sent to embassies.[7] A main promenade entrance is dominated by this 1899 bronze statue of Diego Velázquez, by Aniceto Marinas The main building was enlarged with short pavilions in the rear between 1900 and 1960. The next enlargement was the incorporation of two buildings (nearby but not adjacent) into the institutional structure of the museum: the Casón del Buen Retiro, which is equipped to display up to 400 paintings and which housed the bulk of the 20th-century art from 1971 to 1997, and the Salón de Reinos (Throne building), formerly the Army Museum. In 1993, an extension proposed by the Prado's director at the time, Felipe Garin, was quickly abandoned after a wave of criticism.[8] In the late 1990s, a $14 million roof work forced the Velázquez masterpiece Las Meninas to change galleries twice.[9] In 1998, the Prado annex in the nearby Casón del Buen Retiro closed for a $10 million two-year overhaul that included three new underground levels. In 2007, the museum finally executed Rafael Moneo's project to expand its exposition room to 16,000 square meters, hoping to increase the yearly number of visitors from 1.8 million to 2.5 million. The cafeteria in the underground extension by Rafael Moneo A glass-roofed and wedge-shaped foyer now contains the museum's shops and cafeteria, removing them from the main building to make more room for galleries.[9] The 16th-century Cloister of Jerónimo has been removed stone by stone to make foundations for increased stability of surrounding buildings and will be re-assembled in the new museum's extension. Hydraulic jacks had to be used to prevent the basement walls from falling during construction. [10] The enlargement is an underground building which connects the main building to another one entirely reconstructed. In November 2016, it was announced that British architect Norman Foster, in a joint project with Carlos Rubio Carvajal, is to renovate the Hall of Realms, which once formed part of the Buen Retiro palace and transform it into a $32 million extension of the Prado. The museum announced the selection of Foster and Rubio after a jury reviewed the proposals of the eight competition finalists – including David Chipperfield, Rem Koolhaas and Eduardo Souto de Moura –,[11] who had already been shortlisted from an initial list of 47 international teams of architects.[12] The building was acquired by the Prado in 2015, after having served as an army museum until 2005. The project is designed to give the Prado about 61,500 square feet of additional available space, of which about 27,000 square feet will be used to exhibit works.[12] Historic structure[edit] The Goya Gate in the north façade of the museum. The Museo del Prado is one of the buildings constructed during the reign of Charles III (Carlos III) as part of a grandiose building scheme designed to bestow upon Madrid a monumental urban space. The building that lodges the Museum of the Prado was initially conceived by José Moñino y Redondo, count of Floridablanca and was commissioned in 1785 by Charles III for the reurbanización of the Paseo del Prado. To this end, Charles III called on one of his favorite architects, Juan de Villanueva, author also of the nearby Botanical Garden and the City Hall of Madrid.[13] The prado ("meadow") that was where the museum now stands gave its name to the area, the Salón del Prado (later Paseo del Prado), and to the museum itself upon nationalisation. Work on the building stopped at the conclusion of Charles III's reign and throughout the Peninsular War and was only initiated again during the reign of Charles III's grandson, Ferdinand VII. The premises had been used as headquarters for the cavalry and a gunpowder-store for the Napoleonic troops based in Madrid during the war. The next renovations that this Museum will undergo will be conducted by British architect, Norman Foster. This renovation was approved in June 2020 and is expected to take a minimum of four years.[14] Special exhibitions[edit] Between 8 November 2011 and 25 March 2012, a group of 179 works of art were brought to the Museo del Prado from the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.[15] Notable works included: A Scholar (1631), by Rembrandt The Lute Player (c. 1596), by Caravaggio Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647), by Bernini Game of Bowls (1908), by Henri Matisse Bouquet of Cornflowers with Stems of Oats in a Vase (c. 1900), by House of Fabergé Pond at Montgeron (1876), by Claude Monet Belt buckle with a monster attacking a horse, (4th–3rd century BC), (gold ornament from Peter I's Siberian Collection) Moonrise, Two Men on the Shore (c. 1900), by Caspar David Friedrich Composition VI (1913), by Wassily Kandinsky Metaphysical Still life (1918), by Giorgio Morandi Conversely, for the first time in its 200-year history, the Museo del Prado has toured an exhibition of its renowned collection of Italian masterpieces at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia, from 16 May 2014 until 31 August 2014. Many of the works have never before left Spain. Nearby museums[edit] The Prado, with the nearby Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and the Museo Reina Sofía, forms Madrid's Golden Triangle of Art. Nearby is the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. The Museo Arqueológico houses some art of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome formerly in the collection of the Prado. The Naval Museum, managed by the Ministry of Defence, is also nearby. Management[edit] Funding[edit] Until the early 2000s, the Prado's annual income was approximately $18 million, $15 million of which came from the government and the remainder from private contributions, publications, and admissions.[16] In 2001, the conservative government of José María Aznar decided to change the museum's financing platform, ushering in a public-private partnership. Under its new bylaws, which the Cortes Generales approved in 2003, the Prado must gradually reduce its level of state support to 50 percent from 80 percent. In exchange, the museum gained control of the budget — now roughly €35 million — and the power to raise money from corporate donations and merchandising. However, its recent €150 million expansion was paid for by the Spanish state.[17] In 1991, Manuel Villaescusa bequeathed his fortune of nearly $40 million in Madrid real estate to the Prado, to be used solely for the acquisition of paintings. The museum subsequently sold Villaescusa's buildings to realize income from them. The bequest suddenly made the Prado one of the most formidable bidders for paintings in the world.[16] Directors[edit] The first four directors were drawn from nobility. From 1838 to 1960, the directors were mostly artists. Since then, most of them have been art historians. The Marquess of Santa Cruz, 1817–1820 The Prince of Anglona, 1820–1823 José Idiáquez Carvajal [es], 1823–1826 The Duke of Híjar, 1826–1838 José de Madrazo, 1838–1857 Juan Antonio de Ribera, 1857–1860 Federico de Madrazo, 1860–1868 Antonio Gisbert, 1868–1873 Francisco Sans Cabot, 1873–1881 Federico de Madrazo, 1881–1894 Vicente Palmaroli, 1894–1896 Francisco Pradilla, 1896–1898 Luis Álvarez Catalá, 1898–1901 José Villegas Cordero, 1901–1918 Aureliano de Beruete y Moret, 1918–1922 Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor, 1922–1931 Ramón Pérez de Ayala, 1931–1936 Pablo Ruiz Picasso, 1936–1939 Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor, 1939–1960 Francisco Javier Sánchez Cantón, 1960–1968 Diego Angulo Íñiguez, 1968–1971 Xavier de Salas Bosch [es], 1971–1978 José Manuel Pita Andrade [es], 1978–1981 Federico Sopeña [es], 1981–1983 Alfonso Pérez Sánchez [es], 1983–1991 Felipe Garín Llombart [es], 1991–1993 Francisco Calvo Serraller, 1993–1994 José María Luzón Nogué [es], 1994–1996 Fernando Checa Cremades [es], 1996–2002 Miguel Zugaza Miranda [es], 2002–2017 Miguel Falomir [es], 2017 – present Collection highlights[edit] Further information: Category:Collections of the Museo del Prado See also: British paintings in the Museo del Prado Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, between 1480 and 1505. Diego Velázquez, Las Meninas, between 1656 and 1657. Diego Velázquez, The Triumph of Bacchus, 1628–29 Fra Angelico, Annunciation, 1430–32 Raphael, Christ Falling on the Way to Calvary, 1517 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Triumph of Death, c. 1562 Peter Paul Rubens, The Adoration of the Magi, 1609/1628-1629 Peter Paul Rubens, The Three Graces, c.1635 Selected works[edit] Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the Cross, c. 1435 Andrea Mantegna, Death of the Virgin, c. 1461 Antonello da Messina, The Dead Christ Supported by an Angel, c. 1475 Albrecht Dürer Adam and Eve, 1507 Raphael, Portrait of a Cardinal, c. 1510–11 Tintoretto, Christ Washing the Disciples' Feet, c. 1518 Correggio, Noli me tangere, c. 1525 Titian, Bacchanal of the Andrians, c. 1523–1526 Titian, Equestrian Portrait of Charles V, c. 1548 Titian, The Fall of Man, c. 1570 El Greco, The Holy Trinity, 1577–1579 El Greco, The Knight with His Hand on His Breast, c. 1580 Paolo Veronese, Venus and Adonis, c. 1580 Caravaggio, David and Goliath, 1600 Georges de La Tour, Ciego tocando la zanfonía, 1610–1630 Guido Reni, Hipómenes y Atalanta, 1618–19 Joos de Momper, Landscape with Sea and Mountains, c. 1623 Gaspar de Crayer, Caritas Romana, ca. 1625 Nicolas Poussin, Parnassus, c. 1630–31 Rembrandt, Artemisia, c. 1634 Anthony van Dyck, Self-portrait with Endymion Porter, c. 1635 Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634–35 Diego Velázquez, Mars Resting, 1639–1641 José de Ribera, Jacob's Dream, 1639 Peter Paul Rubens, The Judgement of Paris, 1638–39 Claude Lorrain El embarque de santa Paula, 1639–40 Francisco de Zurbarán, Agnus Dei, 1635–1640 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, La Inmaculada de Soult, 1678 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, The Immaculate Conception, 1767 Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814 Francisco Goya, The Dog, 1819–1823 Francisco Goya, Saturn Devouring His Son, 1819–1823 Paul Baudry, The Pearl and the Wave, 1862 Antonio Gisbert Pérez, Execution of Torrijos and his Companions on the Beach at Málaga, 1882 In Google Earth[edit] In 2009, the Prado Museum selected 14 of its most important paintings to be displayed in Google Earth and Google Maps at extremely high resolution, with the largest displayed at 14,000 megapixels. The images' zoom capability allows for close-up views of paint texture and fine detail.[18][19] References[edit] ^ The Art Newspaper, Marc h 31,2021 ^ Top 100 Art Museum Attendance, The Art Newspaper, 2014. Retrieved on 15 July 2014. ^ Barrigós, Concha (21 March 2017). "Miguel Falomir, nuevo director del Prado: "Nunca, nunca pediré el traslado del 'Guernica'"". 20 minutos. Retrieved 1 April 2017. ^ "The Collection: origins". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012.See also Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, No ISBN, which lists about 7,800 paintings. Many works have been passed to the Museo Reina Sofia and other museums over the years; others are on loan or in storage. On the new displays, see El Prado se reordena y agranda. europapress.es here (in Spanish) ^ "The Art Newspaper", 31 march 2021 ^ "La historia del Museo del Prado". Vipealo. Retrieved 13 November 2020. ^ Alan Riding (1 August 1990). "The Prado Finds Out What It Has and Where". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Alan Riding (1 May 1995). "The Prado Embarks On Plans to Expand Into a Complex". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ a b Al Goodman (19 November 1998). "At Long Last, Expanding Spain's Treasure Chest". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ "Chronology of the extension". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Hannah McGivern (25 November 2016), Norman Foster to design Prado extension in historic palace Archived 27 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Art Newspaper. ^ a b Raphael Minder (25 November 2016), Norman Foster to Remodel Palace for Prado Extension New York Times. ^ "Chronology of Museo del Prado, 1785" (in Spanish). Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ "Así es la ampliación del Museo del Prado de Norman Foster". ABC. Retrieved 13 November 2020. ^ "The Hermitage in the Prado". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ a b Michael Kimmelman (21 November 1993). "New Brooms Sweep Madrid's Museums". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Dale Fuchs (24 December 2004). "The art of financing the Prado". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Tremlett, Giles (14 January 2009). "Online gallery zooms in on Prado's masterpieces (even the smutty bits)". The Guardian. London: Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 5 March 2019. ^ "The Prado in Google Earth". Google.com. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009. Further reading[edit] Alcolea Blanch, Santiago. The Prado, translated by Richard-Lewis Rees and Angela Patricia Hall. Madrid: Ediciones Polígrafa 1991. Araujo Sánchez, Ceferino. Los museos de España. Madrid 1875. Blanco, Antonio. Museo del Prado. Catálago de la Escultura. I Esculturas clásicas. II. Escultura, copia e imitaciones de las antiguas) (siglos XVI–XVIII). Madrid 1957. Luca de Tena, Consuelo and Mena, Manuela. Guía actualizada del Prado. Madrid: Alfiz 1985. Rumeu de Armas, Antonio. Origen y fundación del Museo del Prado. Madrid: Instituto de España 1980. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Museo del Prado (category) Official website Masterworks in the collection Prado in Google Earth, extra high resolution v t e National Museums of Spain Prado National Museum (Madrid) Queen Sofía Art Center National Museum (Madrid) Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum (Madrid) Art National Museum and Research Center of Altamira (Santillana del Mar) Museum of the Americas (Madrid) National Museum of Anthropology (Madrid) National Archaeological Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology (Cartagena) National Museum of Architecture and Urbanism (Salamanca and Barcelona) González Martí National Museum of Ceramics and Decorative Arts (Valencia) Museum Cerralbo (Madrid) Cervantes' House Museum (Valladolid) Museum of Garment - Ethnologic Heritage Research Center (Madrid) National Museum of Decorative Arts (Madrid) El Greco Museum (Toledo) Lázaro Galdiano Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Roman Art (Mérida) National Museum of Romanticism (Madrid) National Museum of Sculpture (Valladolid) Sephardic Museum (Toledo) Sorolla Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Theatre (Almagro) Military Museum of the Army (Toledo) Naval Museum (Madrid) Aeronautical and Astronautical Museum (Madrid) Science and Technology Royal Botanical Garden (Madrid) Geomineral Museum (Madrid) Museum of the Royal Mint (Madrid) National Museum of Natural Sciences (Madrid) Railway Museum (Madrid) Catalonia Railway Museum (Vilanova i la Geltrú) National Museum of Science and Technology (La Coruña and Alcobendas) v t e Juan de Villanueva Projects Casita del Infante (1773) House of the Prince in El Escorial (1770s) House of the Prince in El Pardo (1780s) Royal Botanical Garden (1781) Prado Museum (1785) Royal Academy of History (1788) Oratory of the Caballero de Gracia (1789) Royal Observatory of Madrid (1790) Reconstruction of Plaza Mayor (1791) v t e Rafael Moneo Projects National Museum of Roman Art (1986) Madrid Atocha railway station remodeling and extension (1992) Palace of Villahermosa transformation into Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum (1992) Seville Airport main terminal (1992) Davis Museum at Wellesley College (1993) Moderna Museet and Swedish Centre for Architecture and Design complex (1997) L'Auditori (1999) Kursaal Congress Centre and Auditorium (1999) Audrey Jones Beck Building (2000) Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (2002) Valladolid Science Museum (2003) Prado Museum extension (2007) Rhode Island School of Design Museum Chace Center (2008) Princeton Neuroscience Institute Scully Hall (2013) v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 1980s 1981: María Zambrano 1982: Mario Bunge 1983: El País newspaper 1984: Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz 1985: José Ferrater Mora 1986: Grupo Globo 1987: El Espectador and El Tiempo newspapers 1988: Horacio Sáenz Guerrero 1989: Pedro Laín Entralgo and Fondo de Cultura Económica 1990s 1990: José Simeón Cañas Central American University 1991: Luis María Anson 1992: Emilio García Gómez 1993: Vuelta magazine by Octavio Paz 1994: Spanish Missions in Rwanda and Burundi 1995: EFE Agency and José Luis López Aranguren 1996: Indro Montanelli and Julián Marías 1997: Václav Havel and CNN 1998: Reinhard Mohn 1999: Caro and Cuervo Institute 2000s 2000: Umberto Eco 2001: George Steiner 2002: Hans Magnus Enzensberger 2003: Ryszard Kapuściński and Gustavo Gutiérrez Merino 2004: Jean Daniel 2005: Alliance Française, Società Dante Alighieri, British Council, Goethe-Institut, Instituto Cervantes and Instituto Camões 2006: National Geographic Society 2007: Nature and Science journals 2008: Google 2009: National Autonomous University of Mexico 2010s 2010: Alain Touraine and Zygmunt Bauman 2011: Royal Society 2012: Shigeru Miyamoto 2013: Annie Leibovitz 2014: Quino Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 2010s 2015: Emilio Lledó Íñigo 2016: James Nachtwey 2017: Les Luthiers 2018: Alma Guillermoprieto 2019: Museo del Prado 2020s 2020: Guadalajara International Book Fair and Hay Festival of Literature & Arts 2021: Gloria Steinem Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Latvia Czech Republic Australia Israel Croatia Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Microsoft Academic RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Museo_del_Prado&oldid=1026987650" Categories: Museo del Prado Museums in Madrid Art museums and galleries in Madrid Paseo del Prado Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in Madrid Tourism in Madrid Art museums established in 1819 1819 establishments in Spain Juan de Villanueva buildings Neoclassical architecture in Madrid Cultural tourism in Spain Buildings and structures in Jerónimos neighborhood, Madrid Hidden categories: 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en-wikipedia-org-3860	----	User talk:40.76.139.33 - Wikipedia User talk:40.76.139.33 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This user is currently blocked. The latest block log entry is provided below for reference: 16:25, 2 June 2019 SQL talk contribs blocked 40.76.0.0/16 talk with an expiration time of 4 years, 43 minutes and 12 seconds (account creation blocked) ({{Colocationwebhost}} <!-- Microsoft Azure-->) View full log No messages have been posted for this user yet. Post a message to 40.76.139.33. Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function. Titles on Wikipedia are case sensitive except for the first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log, and see Why was the page I created deleted?. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:40.76.139.33" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces User page Talk Variants Views Create New section More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here User contributions User logs Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3884	----	Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree - Wikipedia Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 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en-wikipedia-org-3886	----	Glossary of Stoicism terms - Wikipedia Glossary of Stoicism terms From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia glossary This is a glossary of terms which are commonly found in Stoic philosophy. Contents:  A D E H K L N O P S T A[edit] adiaphora ἀδιάφορα: indifferent things, neither good nor bad. agathos ἀγαθός: good, proper object of desire. anthrôpos ἄνθρωπος: human being, used by Epictetus to express an ethical ideal. apatheia ἀπάθεια: serenity, peace of mind, such as that achieved by the Stoic sage. aphormê ἀφορμή: aversion, impulse not to act (as a result of ekklisis). Opposite of hormê. apoproêgmena ἀποπροηγμένα: dispreferred things. Morally indifferent but naturally undesirable things, such as illness. Opposite of proêgmena. aretê ἀρετή: Virtue. Goodness and human excellence. askêsis ἄσκησις: disciplined training designed to achieve virtue. ataraxia ἀταραξία: tranquillity, untroubled by external things. autarkeia αὐτάρκεια: self-sufficiency, mental independence of all things. D[edit] daimôn δαίμων: divine spirit within humans. diairesis διαίρεσις: analysis, division into parts. Used when distinguishing what is subject to our power of choice from what is not. dikaiosyne δικαιοσύνε: justice, "consonant with the law and instrumental to a sense of duty" (Diogenes Laertius 7.98). One of the four virtues (justice, courage, temperance, wisdom/prudence). dogma δόγμα: principle established by reason and experience. doxa δόξα: belief, opinion. E[edit] ekklisis ἔκκλισις: aversion, inclination away from a thing. Opposite of orexis. ekpyrôsis ἐκπύρωσις: cyclical conflagration of the Universe. eph' hêmin ἐφ' ἡμῖν: up to us, what is in our power, e.g. the correct use of impressions. epistêmê ἐπιστήμη: certain and true knowledge, over and above that of katalêpsis. eudaimonia εὐδαιμονία: happiness, well-being. eupatheia εὐπάθεια: good feeling (as contrasted with pathos), occurring in the Stoic sage who performs correct (virtuous) judgements and actions. H[edit] hêgemonikon ἡγεμονικόν: ruling faculty of the mind. heimarmenê εἱμαρμένη: fate, destiny. hormê ὁρμή: positive impulse or appetite towards an object (as a result of orexis). Opposite of aphormê. hylê ὕλη: matter, material. K[edit] kalos κάλος: beautiful. Sometimes used in a moral sense: honourable, virtuous. katalêpsis κατάληψις: clear comprehension and conviction. kathêkon καθῆκον: duty, appropriate action on the path to Virtue. kosmos κόσμος: order, world, universe. L[edit] logikos λογικός: rational. logos λόγος: reason, explanation, word, argument. Also, the ordering principle in the kosmos. logos spermatikos λόγος σπερματικός: the generative principle of the Universe which creates and takes back all things. N[edit] nomos νόμος: law, custom. O[edit] oiêsis οἴησις: opinion, usually arrogant or self-conceited. oikeiôsis οἰκείωσις: self-ownership and extension. The process of self-awareness in all animals, which in humans leads to a sense of community. orexis ὄρεξις: desire, inclination towards a thing, Opposite of ekklisis. ousia οὐσία: substance, being. P[edit] paideia παιδεία: training, education. palingenesia παλιγγενεσία: periodic renewal of the world associated with ekpyrôsis. pathos πάθος: passion or emotion, often excessive and based on false judgements. phantasiai φαντασία: impression, appearance, the way in which something is perceived. physis φύσις: nature. pneuma πνεῦμα: air, breath, spirit, often as a principle in Stoic physics. proêgmena προηγμένα: preferred things. Morally indifferent but naturally desirable things, such as health. Opposite of apoproêgmena. proficiens Latin for prokoptôn pro(h)airesis προαίρεσις: free will, reasoned choice, giving or withholding assent to impressions. prokopê προκοπή: progress, on the path towards wisdom. prokoptôn προκόπτων: Stoic disciple. A person making progress. Even though one has not obtained the wisdom of a sage; when appropriate actions are increasingly chosen, fewer and fewer mistakes will be made, and one will be Prokoptôn, making progress. prolêpsis πρόληψις: preconception possessed by all rational beings. prosochē προσοχή: attitude and practice of attention, mindfulness. State of continuous, vigilant, and unrelenting attentiveness to oneself (prohairesis) psychê ψυχή: mind, soul, life, living principle. S[edit] sophos σοφός: wise person, virtuous sage, and the ethical ideal. synkatathesis (sunkatathesis) συγκατάθεσις: assent, approval to impressions, enabling action to take place. sympatheia συμπάθεια: sympathy, affinity of parts to the organic whole, mutual interdependence. T[edit] technê τέχνη: craft, art. The practical application of knowledge, especially epistêmê. telos τέλος: goal or objective of life. theôrêma θεώρημα: general principle or perception. theos θεός: god; associated with the order in the Universe. tonos τόνος: tension, a principle in Stoic physics causing attraction and repulsion, and also the cause of virtue and vice in the soul. References[edit] Devettere, R., Glossary, in Introduction to Virtue Ethics: Insights of the Ancient Greeks, pages 139–154. Georgetown University Press. (2002). Haines, C., Glossary of Greek terms, in Marcus Aurelius, pages 411–416. Loeb Classical Library. (1916). Inwood, B., Gerson L., Glossary, in Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings, pages 399–409. Hackett Publishing. (1997). Long, A. A., Glossary, in A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life, pages 275–276. Oxford University Press. (2002) Schofield, M., Index and Glossary of Greek terms, in The Stoic Idea of the City, pages 171–172. Cambridge University Press. (1991). v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms&oldid=998525077" Categories: Philosophy-related glossaries Stoicism Greek words and phrases Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 19:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3891	----	Doric order - Wikipedia Doric order From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Order of ancient Greek and Roman architecture The Doric order of the Parthenon. Triglyphs marked "a", metopes "b", guttae "c" and mutules under the soffit "d". Two early Archaic Doric order Greek temples at Paestum (Italy) with much wider capitals than later Entry to the Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris), with four Doric columns in this photo The Doric order was one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of columns. Originating in the western Doric region of Greece, it is the earliest and, in its essence, the simplest of the orders, though still with complex details in the entablature above. The Greek Doric column was fluted or smooth-surfaced,[1] and had no base, dropping straight into the stylobate or platform on which the temple or other building stood. The capital was a simple circular form, with some mouldings, under a square cushion that is very wide in early versions, but later more restrained. Above a plain architrave, the complexity comes in the frieze, where the two features originally unique to the Doric, the triglyph and guttae, are skeuomorphic memories of the beams and retaining pegs of the wooden constructions that preceded stone Doric temples.[2] In stone they are purely ornamental. The relatively uncommon Roman and Renaissance Doric retained these, and often introduced thin layers of moulding or further ornament, as well as often using plain columns. More often they used versions of the Tuscan order, elaborated for nationalistic reasons by Italian Renaissance writers, which is in effect a simplified Doric, with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae. The Doric order was much used in Greek Revival architecture from the 18th century onwards; often earlier Greek versions were used, with wider columns and no bases to them. The ancient architect and architectural historian Vitruvius associates the Doric with masculine proportions (the Ionic representing the feminine).[3][4] It is also normally the cheapest of the orders to use. When the three orders are superposed, it is usual for the Doric to be at the bottom, with the Ionic and then the Corinthian above, and the Doric, as "strongest", is often used on the ground floor below another order in the storey above.[5] Contents 1 History 1.1 Greek 1.1.1 Spacing the triglyphs 1.1.2 Temples 1.2 Roman 1.2.1 Graphics of ancient forms 1.3 Modern 2 Examples 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Greek[edit] Temple of the Delians, Delos; 19th-century pen-and-wash drawing In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on the flat pavement (the stylobate) of a temple without a base. With a height only four to eight times their diameter, the columns were the most squat of all the classical orders; their vertical shafts were fluted with 20 parallel concave grooves; and they were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam (architrave) that they carried. The Parthenon has the Doric design columns. It was most popular in the Archaic Period (750–480 BC) in mainland Greece, and also found in Magna Graecia (southern Italy), as in the three temples at Paestum. These are in the Archaic Doric, where the capitals spread wide from the column compared to later Classical forms, as exemplified in the Parthenon. Pronounced features of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the alternating triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs are decoratively grooved with two vertical grooves ("tri-glyph") and represent the original wooden end-beams, which rest on the plain architrave that occupies the lower half of the entablature. Under each triglyph are peglike "stagons" or "guttae" (literally: drops) that appear as if they were hammered in from below to stabilize the post-and-beam (trabeated) construction. They also served to "organize" rainwater runoff from above. The spaces between the triglyphs are the "metopes". They may be left plain, or they may be carved in low relief.[6] The Doric corner conflict Spacing the triglyphs[edit] The spacing of the triglyphs caused problems which took some time to resolve. A triglyph is centered above every column, with another (or sometimes two) between columns, though the Greeks felt that the corner triglyph should form the corner of the entablature, creating an inharmonious mismatch with the supporting column. The architecture followed rules of harmony. Since the original design probably came from wooden temples and the triglyphs were real heads of wooden beams, every column had to bear a beam which lay across the centre of the column. Triglyphs were arranged regularly; the last triglyph was centred upon the last column (illustration, right: I.). This was regarded as the ideal solution which had to be reached. Changing to stone cubes instead of wooden beams required full support of the architrave load at the last column. At the first temples the final triglyph was moved (illustration, right: II.), still terminating the sequence, but leaving a gap disturbing the regular order. Even worse, the last triglyph was not centered with the corresponding column. That "archaic" manner was not regarded as a harmonious design. The resulting problem is called the doric corner conflict. Another approach was to apply a broader corner triglyph (III.) but was not really satisfying. Because the metopes are somewhat flexible in their proportions, the modular space between columns ("intercolumniation") can be adjusted by the architect. Often the last two columns were set slightly closer together (corner contraction), to give a subtle visual strengthening to the corners. That is called the "classic" solution of the corner conflict (IV.). Triglyphs could be arranged in a harmonic manner again, and the corner was terminated with a triglyph, though the final triglyph and column were often not centered. Roman aesthetics did not demand that a triglyph form the corner, and filled it with a half (demi-) metope, allowing triglyphs centered over columns (illustration, right, V.). Temples[edit] There are many theories as to the origins of the Doric order in temples. The term Doric is believed to have originated from the Greek-speaking Dorian tribes.[7] One belief is that the Doric order is the result of early wood prototypes of previous temples.[8] With no hard proof and the sudden appearance of stone temples from one period after the other, this becomes mostly speculation. Another belief is that the Doric was inspired by the architecture of Egypt.[9] With the Greeks being present in Ancient Egypt as soon the 7th-century BC, it is possible that Greek traders were inspired by the structures they saw in what they would consider foreign land. Finally, another theory states that the inspiration for the Doric came from Mycenae. At the ruins of this civilization lies architecture very similar to the Doric order. It is also in Greece, which would make it very accessible. Left image: Characteristic shape of the Doric anta capital. Right image: Doric anta capital at the Athenian Treasury (c. 500 BC). Some of the earliest examples of the Doric order come from the 7th-century BC. These examples include the Temple of Apollo at Corinth and the Temple of Zeus at Nemea.[10] Other examples of the Doric order include the 6th-century BC temples at Paestum in southern Italy, a region called Magna Graecia, which was settled by Greek colonists. Compared to later versions, the columns are much more massive, with a strong entasis or swelling, and wider capitals. The Temple of the Delians is a "peripteral" Doric order temple, the largest of three dedicated to Apollo on the island of Delos. It was begun in 478 BC and never completely finished. During their period of independence from Athens, the Delians reassigned the temple to the island of Poros. It is "hexastyle", with six columns across the pedimented end and thirteen along each long face. All the columns are centered under a triglyph in the frieze, except for the corner columns. The plain, unfluted shafts on the columns stand directly on the platform (the stylobate), without bases. The recessed "necking" in the nature of fluting at the top of the shafts and the wide cushionlike echinus may be interpreted as slightly self-conscious archaising features, for Delos is Apollo's ancient birthplace. However, the similar fluting at the base of the shafts might indicate an intention for the plain shafts to be capable of wrapping in drapery. A classic statement of the Greek Doric order is the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, built about 447 BC. The contemporary Parthenon, the largest temple in classical Athens, is also in the Doric order, although the sculptural enrichment is more familiar in the Ionic order: the Greeks were never as doctrinaire in the use of the Classical vocabulary as Renaissance theorists or Neoclassical architects. The detail, part of the basic vocabulary of trained architects from the later 18th century onwards, shows how the width of the metopes was flexible: here they bear the famous sculptures including the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs. The Roman Doric order from the Theater of Marcellus: triglyphs centered over the end column Roman[edit] In the Roman Doric version, the height of the entablature has been reduced. The endmost triglyph is centered over the column rather than occupying the corner of the architrave. The columns are slightly less robust in their proportions. Below their caps, an astragal molding encircles the column like a ring. Crown moldings soften transitions between frieze and cornice and emphasize the upper edge of the abacus, which is the upper part of the capital. Roman Doric columns also have moldings at their bases and stand on low square pads or are even raised on plinths. In the Roman Doric mode, columns are not invariably fluted. Since the Romans did not insist on a triglyph covered corner, now both columns and triglyphs could be arranged equidistantly again and centered together. The architrave corner needed to be left "blank," which is sometimes referred to as a half, or demi-, metope (illustration, V., in Spacing the Columns above). The Roman architect Vitruvius, following contemporary practice, outlined in his treatise the procedure for laying out constructions based on a module, which he took to be one half a column's diameter, taken at the base. An illustration of Andrea Palladio's Doric order, as it was laid out, with modules identified, by Isaac Ware, in The Four Books of Palladio's Architecture (London, 1738) is illustrated at Vitruvian module. According to Vitruvius, the height of Doric columns is six or seven times the diameter at the base.[11] This gives the Doric columns a shorter, thicker look than Ionic columns, which have 8:1 proportions. It is suggested that these proportions give the Doric columns a masculine appearance, whereas the more slender Ionic columns appear to represent a more feminine look. This sense of masculinity and femininity was often used to determine which type of column would be used for a particular structure. The most influential, and perhaps the earliest, use of the Doric in Renaissance architecture was in the circular Tempietto by Donato Bramante (1502 or later), in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio, Rome.[12] Graphics of ancient forms[edit] Original Doric polychromy Upper parts, labelled Three Greek Doric columns The Five Orders illustrated by Vignola, 1640 Modern[edit] The Grange (nearby Northington, England), 1804, Europe's first house designed with all external detail of a Greek temple[citation needed] Before Greek Revival architecture grew, initially in England, in the 18th century, the Greek or elaborated Roman Doric order had not been very widely used, though "Tuscan" types of round capitals were always popular, especially in less formal buildings. It was sometimes used in military contexts, for example the Royal Hospital Chelsea (1682 onwards, by Christopher Wren). The first engraved illustrations of the Greek Doric order dated to the mid-18th century. Its appearance in the new phase of Classicism brought with it new connotations of high-minded primitive simplicity, seriousness of purpose, noble sobriety. In Germany it suggested a contrast with the French, and in the United States republican virtues. In a customs house, Greek Doric suggested incorruptibility; in a Protestant church a Greek Doric porch promised a return to an untainted early church; it was equally appropriate for a library, a bank or a trustworthy public utility. The revived Doric did not return to Sicily until 1789, when a French architect researching the ancient Greek temples designed an entrance to the Botanical Gardens in Palermo. Examples[edit] Ancient Greek, Archaic Temple of Artemis, Corfu, the earliest known stone Doric temple Temple of Hera, Olympia Delphi, temple of Apollo The three temples at Paestum, Italy Valle dei Templi, Agrigento, Temple of Juno, Agrigento and others Temple of Aphaea Ancient Greek, Classical Temple of Zeus, Olympia Temple of Hephaestus Bassae, Temple of Apollo Parthenon, Athens Sounion, Temple of Poseidon Renaissance and Baroque The Tempietto by Donato Bramante, in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio, Rome Palace of Charles V, Granada, 1527, circular arcade in the courtyard, under Ionic in the upper storey Basilica Palladiana, in Vicenza, Andrea Palladio, 1546 on, arcade under Ionic above Valladolid Cathedral, Juan de Herrera, begun 1589 Neoclassical and Greek Revival Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, 1788 The Grange, Northington, 1804 Lord Hill's Column, Shrewsbury, England, 1814, 133 feet 6 inches (40.69 m) high Neue Wache, Berlin, 1816 Royal High School, Edinburgh, completed 1829 Walhalla, Regensburg, Bavaria, 1842 Propylaea, Munich, 1854 United States Second Bank of the United States, Philadelphia, 1824 Naval Medical Center Portsmouth, 1827, pedimented temple front with ten columns Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial in Put-in-Bay, Ohio, is the world's tallest and most massive Doric column at 352 feet (107 m). Harding Tomb in Marion, Ohio, is a circular Greek temple design with Doric columns. Gallery[edit] The ruins of the Temple of Poseidon from Sounion (Greece), 444–440 BC Exterior of the Great Tomb of Lefkadia, circa 300 BC [13] Capital on the Parthenon from Athens Venus Temple at Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli (Italy), detail from the roof Fragment of an Ancient Roman Doric frieze in Palestrina (Italy) Renaissance marble altar enframement, circa 1530-1550, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Engraving of a Doric entablature from Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae, 1536, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art Engraving of a Doric capital from Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae, circa 1537, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art The monumental fireplace in the ballroom of the Palace of Fontainebleau (France), with a Doric frieze on it Door between a pair of Doric pilasters, in Montpellier (France) Door between a pair of Doric pilasters, in Enkhuizen (the Netherlands) Capital of a Doric pilaster from Lviv (Ukraine) Die Sünde, by Franz Stuck, from 1893, in a frame with a pair of engaged Doric columns Interior of the Metropolitan Museum of Art with Doric columns The entrance of La Sorbonne from Paris, with a pair of Doric columns and an entablature with triglyphs and empty metopes See also[edit] Geison References[edit] Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) ^ Art a Brief History 6th Edition ^ Summerson, 13–14 ^ Vitruvius. De architectura. p. 4.1. Retrieved 25 April 2020. ^ Summerson, 14–15 ^ Palladio, First Book, Chapter 12 ^ Summerson, 13–15, 126 ^ Ian Jenkins, Greek Architecture And Its Sculpture (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006), 15. ^ Idid. 16. ^ Ibid. 16–17. ^ Robin F. Rhodes, "Early Corinthian Architecture and the Origins of the Doric Order" in the American Journal of Archaeology 91, no. 3 (1987), 478. ^ "... they measured a man's foot, and finding its length the sixth part of his height, they gave the column a similar proportion, that is, they made its height, including the capital, six times the thickness of the shaft, measured at the base. Thus the Doric order obtained its proportion, its strength, and its beauty, from the human figure." (Vitruvius, iv.6) "The successors of these people, improving in taste, and preferring a more slender proportion, assigned seven diameters to the height of the Doric column." (Vitruvius, iv.8) ^ Summerson, 41–43 ^ Fullerton, Mark D. (2020). Art & Archaeology of The Roman World. Thames & Hudson. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-500-051931. Sources[edit] Labeled Doric Column Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN 0500201773 James Stevens Curl, Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms Georges Gromort, The Elements of Classical Architecture Alexander Tzonis, Classical Architecture: The Poetics of Order (Alexander Tzonis website) External links[edit] Media related to Doric columns at Wikimedia Commons v t e Classical order Canonic orders Doric Ionic Corinthian Other orders Tuscan Composite Aeolic Ammonite Giant Superposed Related articles Colonnade Concatenation Coupled column Engaged column Estipite Intercolumniation Knotted column Pilaster Solomonic column Stoa Waterleaf Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries France (data) United States Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doric_order&oldid=1028454185" Categories: Orders of columns Ancient Greek architecture Dorians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2020 Articles with ibid from March 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 02:30 (UTC). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-3909	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of Trinidad and Tobago Library Canada Find this book in the Canadian union catalogue via Library and Archives Canada Find this book in the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec catalogue Find this book in the NRC Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information (CISTI) catalogue (Canada's National Science Library) Public libraries Find this book in the Barrie Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Burnaby Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Calgary Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Edmonton Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Gatineau Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Hamilton Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Halifax Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Kitchener Public Library catalogue Find this book in the London Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Markham Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Mississauga Library System catalogue Find this book in the Moncton Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Montreal Public Libraries Network catalogue Find this book in the New Brunswick Public Library Service catalogue Find this book in the Ottawa Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Saskatchewan Information and Library Services Consortium catalogue Find this book in the Stratford Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Sudbury Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Surrey Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Thunder Bay Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Toronto Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Waterloo Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Winnipeg Public Library catalogue Find this book in the Vancouver Public Library catalogue Find this book in the West Vancouver Memorial Library catalogue Universities and colleges Find this book in the Carleton University 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Guidelines for use of ISBNs on Wikipedia. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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en-wikipedia-org-390	----	Zenodotus (Stoic) - Wikipedia Zenodotus (Stoic) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Stoic philosopher. For the Neoplatonist philosopher, see Zenodotus (philosopher). For the grammarian, see Zenodotus. Zenodotus (/zəˈnɒdətəs/; Greek: Ζηνόδοτος; fl. 150 BC) was a Stoic philosopher. He was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon. All information about him comes from Diogenes Laërtius, everything else has been lost. Poetry[edit] Diogenes Laërtius recorded the epitaph Zenodotus wrote for Zeno of Citium:[1] You made contentment the chief rule of life, Despising haughty wealth, O God-like Zenon. With solemn look, and hoary brow serene, You taught a manly doctrine; and didst found By your deep wisdom, a great novel school, Chaste parent of unfearing liberty. And if your country was Phoenicia, Why need we grieve, from that land Cadmus came, Who gave to Greece her written books of wisdom. Dedications[edit] Chrysippus dedicated a two-book treatise on Proverbs to Zenodotus.[2] References[edit] ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius. Book: Life of Zeno, Section 30 ^ The Lives of the Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius. Book: Lives of Stoic Philosophers, Section 200 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenodotus_(Stoic)&oldid=1016911103" Categories: 2nd-century BC Greek people Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 9 April 2021, at 18:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3912	----	Han dynasty - Wikipedia Han dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Han Dynasty) This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 10 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd-century BC to 3rd-century AD Chinese dynasty "Eastern Han" and "House of Liu" redirect here. For the Five Dynasties-era kingdom, see Northern Han. For other uses, see House of Liu (disambiguation). Coordinates: 34°09′21″N 108°56′47″E / 34.15583°N 108.94639°E / 34.15583; 108.94639 Han 漢 202 BC–9 AD 25 AD – 220 AD A map of the Western Han dynasty in 2 AD[1]   principalities and centrally-administered commanderies   protectorate of the Western Regions (Tarim Basin) Capital Chang'an (206 BC–9 AD, 190–195 AD) Luoyang (23–190 AD, 196 AD) Xuchang (196–220 AD) Common languages Old Chinese Religion Taoism Chinese folk religion Government Monarchy Emperor   • 202–195 BC (first) Emperor Gaozu • 141–87 BC Emperor Wu • 25–57 AD Emperor Guangwu • 189–220 AD (last) Emperor Xian Chancellor   • 206–193 BC Xiao He • 193–190 BC Cao Can • 189–192 AD Dong Zhuo • 208–220 AD Cao Cao • 220 AD Cao Pi Historical era Imperial • Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as King of Han 206 BC • Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China began 202 BC • Xin dynasty 9 AD–23 AD • Abdication to Cao Wei 220 AD Area 50 BC est. (Western Han peak)[2] 6,000,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi) 100 AD est. (Eastern Han peak)[2] 6,500,000 km2 (2,500,000 sq mi) Population • 2 AD[3] 57,671,400 Currency Ban Liang coins and Wu Zhu coins Preceded by Succeeded by Qin dynasty Eighteen Kingdoms Cao Wei Shu Han Eastern Wu Han dynasty "Han" in ancient seal script (top left), Han-era clerical script (top right), modern Traditional (bottom left), and Simplified (bottom right) Chinese characters Traditional Chinese 漢 Simplified Chinese 汉 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hàn Bopomofo ㄏㄢˋ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hann Wade–Giles Han4 Tongyong Pinyin Hàn Yale Romanization Hàn IPA [xân] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Hon Jyutping Hon3 IPA [hɔ̄ːn] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Hàn Tâi-lô Hàn Middle Chinese Middle Chinese xàn Old Chinese Baxter (1992) *xans Baxter–Sagart (2014) *n̥ˤar-s History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC  Western Zhou  Eastern Zhou    Spring and Autumn    Warring States IMPERIAL Qin 221–207 BC Han 202 BC – 220 AD   Western Han   Xin   Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280   Wei, Shu and Wu Jin 266–420   Western Jin   Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Northern and Southern dynasties 420–589 Sui 581–618 Tang 618–907   (Wu Zhou 690–705) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907–979 Liao 916–1125 Song 960–1279   Northern Song Western Xia   Southern Song Jin Western Liao Yuan 1271–1368 Ming 1368–1644 Qing 1636–1912 MODERN Republic of China on the mainland 1912–1949 People's Republic of China 1949–present Republic of China in Taiwan 1949–present Related articles Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history Women in ancient and imperial China view talk edit The Han dynasty (Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàncháo) was the second imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 220 AD), established by the rebel leader Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. Preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention (206–202 BC), it was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and was separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD)—before being succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and influenced the identity of the Chinese civilization ever since.[4] Modern China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han people", the Sinitic language is known as "Han language", and the written Chinese is referred to as "Han characters".[5] The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer employing an inverted pendulum that could be used to discern the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation,[6] defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior and vassal partner for several decades, but continued their military raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty and control into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, king of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Western Han 2.2 Wang Mang's reign and civil war 2.3 Eastern Han 2.4 End of the Han dynasty 3 Culture and society 3.1 Social class 3.2 Marriage, gender, and kinship 3.3 Education, literature, and philosophy 3.4 Law and order 3.5 Food 3.6 Clothing 3.7 Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics 4 Government and politics 4.1 Central government 4.2 Local government 4.3 Kingdoms and marquessates 4.4 Military 5 Economy 5.1 Currency 5.2 Taxation and property 5.3 Private manufacture and government monopolies 6 Science and technology 6.1 Writing materials 6.2 Metallurgy and agriculture 6.3 Structural and geotechnical engineering 6.4 Mechanical and hydraulic engineering 6.5 Mathematics 6.6 Astronomy 6.7 Cartography, ships, and vehicles 6.8 Medicine 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology[edit] According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi). Following Liu Bang's victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief.[7] History[edit] Main article: History of the Han dynasty Further information: Timeline of the Han dynasty Western Han[edit] See also: Han–Xiongnu War and Southward expansion Further information: Loulan Kingdom, Shule Kingdom, Kingdom of Khotan, Saka, and Tocharians Left image: Western-Han painted ceramic jar garnished with raised reliefs of dragons, phoenixes, and taotie Right image: Reverse side of a Western-Han bronze mirror with painted designs of a flower motif China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion.[8] Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang.[9] Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC).[10] Chang'an (known today as Xi'an) was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han.[11] Thirteen direct-controlled commanderies including the capital region (Yellow) and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms of the early periods, 195 BC At the beginning of the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn), also known as the Former Han (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) dynasty, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms.[12] To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196 BC, the Han court had replaced all but one of these kings (the exception being in Changsha) with royal Liu family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned.[12] After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories into new centrally controlled commanderies.[13] Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court.[14][15] Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes.[14][15] The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.[16] To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu (r. 209–174 BC) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand.[17][18][19] Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group.[20] In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi province, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC.[20][21] After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.[22][23][24] Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods.[25][26][27] In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids.[28][29] However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han.[30][31] When this plot failed in 133 BC,[32] Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert.[33][34] After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. His rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC), was killed by Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou (甘延壽/甘延寿) at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.[35][36] Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei.[37][38][39] The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.[40] On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labor.[41] The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.[42] The ruins of a Han-dynasty watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province, the eastern edge of the Silk Road. Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.[43][44][45][46][47] These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing Han items like silk to Rome and Roman goods such as glasswares to China.[48][49] From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs.[50][51][52][53] The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and colonial establishments of Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery in 108 BC.[54][55] In China's first known nationwide census taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.[3] To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin currency. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty.[56][57][58][59][60][61] The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.[62][63][64] Wang Mang's reign and civil war[edit] Main articles: Wang Mang and Xin dynasty These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城; pinyin: Hécāng chéng), located ~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD).[65] Left image: A Western-Han painted ceramic mounted cavalryman from the tomb of a military general at Xianyang, Shaanxi Right image: A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse statuette with a lead saddle Wang Zhengjun (71 BC–13 AD) was first empress, then empress dowager, and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan (r. 49–33 BC), Cheng (r. 33–7 BC), and Ai (r. 7–1 BC), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent.[66][67] Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC–23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC – 6 AD).[68] When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.[68] Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age.[68] Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD).[69][70][71] Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing land to equally distribute between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage.[72][73][74][75] Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt buildup in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD.[76][77][78] The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive.[76][77][78] Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang.[79][80] The Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25 AD), a descendant of Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi.[81][82] Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), after distinguishing himself at the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.[83][84] Under Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 AD his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason.[84][85] From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.[86][87] The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn) or Former Han (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) (206 BC–9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).[88] Eastern Han[edit] Situation of warlords and peasant forces at the beginning of Eastern Han dynasty The Eastern Han (traditional Chinese: 東漢; simplified Chinese: 东汉; pinyin: Dōnghàn), also known as the Later Han (traditional Chinese: 後漢; simplified Chinese: 后汉; pinyin: Hòuhàn), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han.[89] During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30.[90] The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43.[91][92] Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.[93][94] During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu.[95] Dou Gu (d. 88 AD) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.[96] After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.[96][97] At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains.[96][98] After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.[99] The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. AD 180), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.[100] Ban Chao (d. AD 102) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire, occupying the area of modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana.[101][102] When a request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90 – c. 100 AD) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies.[101][102] In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.[103] Eastern Han inscriptions on a lead ingot, using barbarous Greek alphabet in the style of the Kushans, excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd century AD[104] Preserved arrow, Western Han Foreign travelers to Eastern-Han China include Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, India.[105][106] In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han Empire received gifts from the Parthian Empire, from a king in modern Burma, from a ruler in Japan, and initiated an unsuccessful mission to Daqin (Rome) in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary.[107][108] A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) is recorded in the Weilüe and Hou Hanshu to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD) in AD 166,[109][110] yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants.[111][112] In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China,[113][114] Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam.[114][115] This was near the commandery of Rinan (also Jiaozhi) where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu (in northern India) in the years 159 and 161.[116][110] Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "Cattigara" described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 AD) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), where a Greek sailor had visited.[117][118][119][120] Emperor Zhang's (r. 75–88 AD) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.[121] Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.[122][123] In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong (d. 107 AD), Emperor He (r. 88–105 AD) had Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 AD) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him.[124][125] After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD.[126][127] When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 AD) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide.[128][129] After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng (d. 132 AD) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144 AD). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.[130][131] The regent Liang Ji (d. 159 AD), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 AD), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (later empress) (d. 165 AD) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.[132][133] Students from the Imperial University organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.[134] Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis.[135][136] Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 AD) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.[137] However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.[137] Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168 AD) attempted a coup d'état against the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 AD), Cao Jie (d. 181 AD), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (d. 172 AD) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.[138] Under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices.[139][140] Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.[141] End of the Han dynasty[edit] Main article: End of the Han dynasty The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions.[139] The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Daoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD), respectively. Provinces and commanderies in 219 AD, the penultimate year of the Han dynasty Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD.[142] Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year, however the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.[143] Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militia forces and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.[144] General-in-Chief He Jin (d. 189 AD), half-brother to Empress He (d. 189 AD), plotted with Yuan Shao (d. 202 AD) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution.[145] After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao (何苗) rescind the order.[146][147] The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on September 22, 189 AD. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu (d. 199 AD) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed.[148][149] Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao (r. 189–  AD) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han (r. 189–220 AD). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.[150] General Dong Zhuo (d. 192 AD) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee.[151] After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.[152] Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu (d. 198 AD) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun (d. 192 AD).[153] Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD.[154][155] Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.[156][157] His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (d. 221 AD), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.[156][157] After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating the west.[158][159] Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between three states: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han.[160][161] Culture and society[edit] Main article: Society and culture of the Han dynasty A late Eastern Han (25–220 CE) Chinese tomb mural showing lively scenes of a banquet (yanyin 宴飲), dance and music (wuyue 舞樂), acrobatics (baixi 百戲), and wrestling (xiangbu 相撲), from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓; Dáhǔtíng hànmù), on the southern bank of the Siuhe River in Zhengzhou, Henan province (just west of Xi County) Social class[edit] See also: Chinese nobility, Marquis Baocheng, and Four occupations A mural from an Eastern Han tomb at Zhucun (朱村), Luoyang, Henan province; the two figures in the foreground are playing liubo, with the playing mat between them, and the liubo game board to the side of the mat. In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives.[162] Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan.[15][163] The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves belonged to one of twenty ranks (ershi gongcheng 二十公乘). Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess, came with a state pension and a territorial fiefdom. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule.[164][165] Officials who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses.[166] By the Eastern Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a larger, nationwide gentry class with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship.[167][168] When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.[136][169] The farmer, or specifically the small landowner-cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage laborers, and slaves.[170][171][172][173] The Han dynasty made adjustments to slavery in China and saw an increase in agricultural slaves. Artisans, technicians, tradespeople and craftsmen had a legal and socioeconomic status between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common merchants.[174] State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status.[175][176] These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials.[176][177] Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased.[178] Medical physicians, pig breeders, and butchers had a fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status.[179][180] Brick Relief with Acrobatic Performance, Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) Marriage, gender, and kinship[edit] See also: Women in Han China Detail of a mural showing two women wearing Hanfu silk robes, from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭汉墓; Dáhǔtíng hànmù) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), located in Zhengzhou, Henan Left: a Chinese ceramic statue of a seated woman holding a bronze mirror, Eastern Han period (25–220 CE), Sichuan Provincial Museum, Chengdu Right: a pottery dog found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog collar, indicating their domestication as pets,[181] while it is known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks had kennels for keeping hunting dogs.[182] Late Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) or Xin Dynasty (9–25 CE) wall murals showing men and women dressed in hanfu, with the Queen Mother of the West dressed in shenyi, from a tomb in Dongping County, Shandong province, China The Han-era family was patrilineal and typically had four to five nuclear family members living in one household. Multiple generations of extended family members did not occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties.[183][184] According to Confucian family norms, various family members were treated with different levels of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of a father versus a paternal uncle.[185] Marriages were highly ritualized, particularly for the wealthy, and included many important steps. The giving of betrothal gifts, known as bridewealth and dowry, were especially important. A lack of either was considered dishonorable and the woman would have been seen not as a wife, but as a concubine.[186] Arranged marriages were normal, with the father's input on his offspring's spouse being considered more important than the mother's.[187][188] Monogamous marriages were also normal, although nobles and high officials were wealthy enough to afford and support concubines as additional lovers.[189][190] Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry.[191][192] However, a woman who had been widowed continued to belong to her husband's family after his death. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. Her children would not be allowed to go with her.[186] Left image: A Han pottery female servant in silk robes Right image: A Han pottery female dancer in silk robes Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture; each son received an equal share of the family property.[193] Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually sent his adult married sons away with their portions of the family fortune.[194] Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their marriage dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons.[195] A different distribution of the remainder could be specified in a will, but it is unclear how common this was.[196] Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers.[197] Women were exempt from the annual corvée labor duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.[198] The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, sale at market or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could afford their own silk clothes.[199][200] Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.[201] Education, literature, and philosophy[edit] A Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) fresco depicting Confucius (and Laozi), from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy.[202][203] However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites (bóshì 博士) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics in 136 BCE and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University that he established in 124 BCE.[204][205][206][207] Unlike the original ideology espoused by Confucius, or Kongzi (551–479 BCE), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of ritual, filial piety, and harmonious relationships with five phases and yin-yang cosmologies.[208][209] Much to the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe.[210] The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century CE.[211][212] A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and private schools opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments.[213] Han period inscribed bamboo-slips of Sun Bin's Art of War, unearthed in Yinque Mountain, Linyi, Shandong. A fragment of the Xiping Stone Classics; these stone-carved Five Classics installed during Emperor Ling's reign along the roadside of the Imperial University (right outside Luoyang) were made at the instigation of Cai Yong (132–192 CE), who feared the Classics housed in the imperial library were being interpolated by University Academicians.[214][215][216] Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BCE – 18 CE), Huan Tan (43 BCE – 28 CE), Wang Chong (27–100 CE), and Wang Fu (78–163 CE) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order.[217] The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) and his son Sima Qian (145–86 BCE) established the standard model for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (3–54 CE), his son Ban Gu (32–92 CE), and his daughter Ban Zhao (45–116 CE).[218][219] There were dictionaries such as the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58 – c. 147 CE) and the Fangyan by Yang Xiong.[220][221] Biographies on important figures were written by various gentrymen.[222] Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.[219][223][224][225][226] Law and order[edit] A silk banner from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province. It was draped over the coffin of Lady Dai (d. 168 BCE), wife of the Marquess Li Cang (利蒼) (d. 186 BCE), chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha.[227] Han scholars such as Jia Yi (201–169 BCE) portrayed the previous Qin dynasty as a brutal regime. However, archeological evidence from Zhangjiashan and Shuihudi reveal that many of the statutes in the Han law code compiled by Chancellor Xiao He (d. 193 BCE) were derived from Qin law.[228][229][230] Various cases for rape, physical abuse and murder were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men.[231][232] While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary fines, periods of forced hard labor for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading.[233] Early Han punishments of torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the bastinado.[234] Acting as a judge in lawsuits was one of many duties of the county magistrate and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high-profile or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor.[235] In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a chief of police. Order in the cities was maintained by government officers in the marketplaces and constables in the neighborhoods.[236][237] Food[edit] Two Han-dynasty red-and-black lacquerwares, one a bowl, the other a tray; usually only wealthy officials, nobles, and merchants could afford domestic luxury items like lacquerwares, which were common commodities produced by skilled artisans and craftsmen.[238][239] The most common staple crops consumed during Han were wheat, barley, foxtail millet, proso millet, rice, and beans.[240] Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, red bayberries, jujubes, calabash, bamboo shoots, mustard plant, and taro.[241] Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, Mandarin ducks, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels, and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese bamboo partridge were consumed.[242] Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt, and soy sauce.[243] Beer and wine were regularly consumed.[244][245] Clothing[edit] Further information: Hanfu Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE Carved reliefs on stone tomb doors showing men dressed in Hanfu, with one holding a shield, the other a broom, Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), from Lanjia Yard, Pi County, Sichuan province, Sichuan Provincial Museum of Chengdu. The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and slippers with inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. Peasants commonly wore clothes made of hemp, wool, and ferret skins.[246][247][248] Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics[edit] A part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han Dynasty, unearthed from Mawangdui tomb 3rd, Changsha, Hunan Province. Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at temples and shrines. They believed that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm.[249] It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the spirit-soul (hun 魂) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (xian), and the body-soul (po 魄) which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony.[245][250] An Eastern-Han bronze statuette of a mythical chimera (qilin), 1st century CE In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and the spirits (shen 神) of mountains and rivers.[251] It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases.[252][253][254][255] If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.[255][256][257] It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai.[258][259] Han-era Daoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques and use of medical elixirs.[260] By the 2nd century CE, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. 6th century BCE) was a holy prophet who would offer salvation and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices and chant sections of the Daodejing.[261] Buddhism first entered Imperial China through the Silk Road during the Eastern Han, and was first mentioned in 65 CE.[262][263] Liu Ying (d. 71 CE), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 CE), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily associated with Huang-Lao Daoism.[263] China's first known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was constructed outside the wall of the capital, Luoyang, during Emperor Ming's reign.[264] Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century CE, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra.[265][266] Government and politics[edit] Main article: Government of the Han dynasty See also: List of emperors of the Han dynasty Central government[edit] A scene of historic paragons of filial piety conversing with one another, Chinese painted artwork on a lacquered basketwork box, excavated from an Eastern-Han tomb of what was the Chinese Lelang Commandery in Korean Peninsula. In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-bushel salary-rank or higher.[267][268] Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions.[269][270] If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.[271] Below the emperor were his cabinet members known as the Three Councillors of State (San gong 三公). These were the Chancellor or Minister over the Masses (Chengxiang 丞相 or Da situ 大司徒), the Imperial Counselor or Excellency of Works (Yushi dafu 御史大夫 or Da sikong 大司空), and Grand Commandant or Grand Marshal (Taiwei 太尉 or Da sima 大司馬).[272][273] The Chancellor, whose title was changed to 'Minister over the Masses' in 8 BC, was chiefly responsible for drafting the government budget. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600 bushels.[274][275] The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became oversight of public works projects.[276][277] The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councillors of State.[278][279] A rubbing of a Han pictorial stone showing an ancestral worship hall (citang 祠堂) Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers (Jiu qing 九卿), who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies (Taichang 太常) was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars.[280][281][282] The Minister of the Household (Guang lu xun 光祿勳) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot.[280][283] Animalistic guardian spirits of day and night wearing Chinese robes, Han dynasty paintings on ceramic tile; Michael Loewe writes that the hybrid of man and beast in art and religious beliefs predated the Han and remained popular during the first half of Western Han and the Eastern Han.[284] The Minister of the Guards (Weiwei 衛尉) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces.[285][286] The Minister Coachman (Taipu 太僕) was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces.[285][287] The Minister of Justice (Tingwei 廷尉) was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law.[288][289] The Minister Herald (Da honglu 大鴻臚) was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors.[290][291] The Minister of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng 宗正) oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles.[292][293] The Minister of Finance (Da sinong 大司農) was the treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement.[294][295] The Minister Steward (Shaofu 少府) served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.[294][296] Local government[edit] The Han empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided, in descending order of size, into political units of provinces, commanderies, and counties.[297] A county was divided into several districts (xiang 鄉), the latter composed of a group of hamlets (li 里), each containing about a hundred families.[298][299] The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.[300][301] On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed or prosecuted by the imperial court.[302] A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.[297] A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an Administrator.[297] He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.[303][304][305] The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both could be referred to as Magistrates.[306][307] A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools and supervised public works.[307] Kingdoms and marquessates[edit] Main article: Kings of the Han dynasty Kingdoms—roughly the size of commanderies—were ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semi-autonomous fiefdoms. Before 157 BC some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government.[308][309][310] Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs.[308][309] However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose salaries were higher than 400 bushels.[309] The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.[309] With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.[15] Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.[306][311] The Gansu Flying Horse, depicted in full gallop, bronze sculpture, h 34.5 cm. Wuwei, Gansu, China, AD 25–220 Up until the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the Emperors of the Han had great difficulty bringing the vassal kings under control, as kings often switched their allegiance to the Xiongnu Chanyu whenever threatened by Imperial attempts to centralize power. Within the seven years of Han Gaozu's reign, three vassal kings and one marquess either defected to or allied with the Xiongnu. Even imperial princes in control of fiefdoms would sometimes invite the Xiongnu to invade in response to threats by the Emperor to remove their power. The Han emperors moved to secure a treaty with the Chanyu to demarcate authority between them, recognizing each other as the "two masters" (兩主), the sole representatives of their respective peoples, cemented with a marriage alliance (heqin), before eliminating the rebellious vassal kings in 154 BC. This prompted some vassal kings of the Xiongnu to switch their allegiance to the Han emperor from 147 BC. Han court officials were initially hostile to the idea of disrupting the status quo and expanding into the Xiongnu steppe territory. The surrendered Xiongnu were integrated into a parallel military and political structure under the Han Emperor, and opened the avenue for the Han dynasty to challenge the Xiongnu cavalry on the steppe. This also introduced the Han to the interstate networks in the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang), allowing for the expansion of the Han dynasty from a limited regional state to a universalist and cosmopolitan empire through further marriage alliances with another steppe power, the Wusun.[312] Military[edit] Main article: Army of the Han dynasty A mural showing chariots and cavalry, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭漢墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China A Chinese crossbow mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States Period or the early Han dynasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 87–74 BC) reign.[313] Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry or navy.[314][315] The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital.[314][315] A Han dynasty era pottery soldier, with a now-faded coating of paint, is missing a weapon. During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.[316] The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍).[317] Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.[318][319] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops.[320] The latter were known as buqu 部曲, a special social class in Chinese history.[321] During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun 將軍) led a division, which was divided into regiments led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima 司馬). Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains. Platoons were the smallest units of soldiers.[318][322] Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of the Han dynasty Currency[edit] A wuzhu (五銖) coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter Gold Coins of the Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the government mint in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC), who abolished private minting.[323] In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread inflation that was not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.[323] In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.[324] Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu (五銖) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).[325] The wuzhu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.[326][327][328] Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This Central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.[328][329] Taxation and property[edit] Aside from the landowner's land tax paid in a portion of their crop yield, the poll tax and property taxes were paid in coin cash.[330] The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.[331] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.[332] The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.[333] Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.[334][335] The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.[336][337][338] The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.[59][339] In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,[340][341] and later to a one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.[341] The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.[314][342] Private manufacture and government monopolies[edit] A Han-dynasty iron Ji (halberd) and iron dagger In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.[343][344] To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies.[345][346][347] By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.[345][348] Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately.[349][350] By 110 BC Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants.[59] Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.[351] Science and technology[edit] Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty A gilded bronze oil lamp in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of Dou Wan, wife of Liu Sheng, King of Zhongshan; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body.[71][352] The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[353][354] Writing materials[edit] In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo slips or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, hemp paper,[355][356] and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.[357][358][359] The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC.[360][355] The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (AD 50–121) in 105.[361][362] The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in AD 110, in Inner Mongolia.[363] Metallurgy and agriculture[edit] An array of bronze bells, Western Han dynasty Ornemental belt buckle, decorated with Chinese mythical creatures. Chiseled and hammered gold, late Han period. Left image: A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels (Shanghai Museum) Right image: A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC).[364][365] The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization.[366] Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.[367][368] The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares.[369][370] A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by hand.[371][372][373] The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.[374][375] To protect crops from wind and drought, the grain intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons.[376] Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.[376] Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.[377][378] In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.[379] Structural and geotechnical engineering[edit] Further information: Han dynasty tomb architecture Left image: A pottery model of a palace from a Han-dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to execution.[380] Right image: A painted ceramic architectural model—found in an Eastern-Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province—depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, verandas, tiled rooftops, dougong support brackets, and a covered bridge extending from the third floor of the main tower to the smaller watchtower.[381] Left image: A ceramic architectural model of a grain storage tower with five layers of tiled rooftops and columns supporting the roofs of balconies on the first two floors, dated from the mid Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) to early Eastern Han (25–220 AD) era. Right image: A Han-dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) era pottery model of a granary tower with windows and balcony placed several stories above the first-floor courtyard; Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors.[382] A pair of stone-carved que (闕) located at the temple of Mount Song in Dengfeng. (Eastern Han dynasty) A pair of Han period stone-carved que (闕) located at Babaoshan, Beijing. A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an. (Eastern Han dynasty) [383] An Eastern-Han vaulted tomb chamber at Luoyang made of small bricks Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses.[384] Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.[384][385] The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907).[386] Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.[387] Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu.[388][389][390] [391] The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic water pipes.[392] Monumental stone pillar-gates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites.[393][383] These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and balustrades.[394][383] The courtyard house is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.[384] Ceramic architectural models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archeological sites.[395] Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs.[396] Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.[397] The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.[397] From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and floating pontoon bridges existed in Han China.[398] However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature,[399] and only a single Han relief sculpture in Sichuan depicts an arch bridge.[400] Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100 meters (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores.[401][402] Borehole drilling and derricks were used to lift brine to iron pans where it was distilled into salt. The distillation furnaces were heated by natural gas funneled to the surface through bamboo pipelines.[401][403][404] These boreholes perhaps reached a depth of 600 m (2000 ft).[405] Mechanical and hydraulic engineering[edit] Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavors to be far beneath them.[406] Professional artisan-engineers (jiang 匠) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.[407][408] Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.[409] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15 BC the philosopher and writer Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.[410] The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman Ding Huan are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital.[411] Around AD 180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings.[412] Ding also used gimbals as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known zoetrope lamp.[413] A Han-dynasty pottery model of two men operating a winnowing machine with a crank handle and a tilt hammer used to pound grain. Modern archeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff.[414] The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled.[415] This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.[416] Modern archeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.[417] The waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan about AD 20, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip hammers, and were used in pounding, threshing and polishing grain.[418] However, there is no sufficient evidence for the watermill in China until about the 5th century.[419] The Nanyang Commandery Administrator and mechanical engineer Du Shi (d. 38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that worked the bellows for the smelting of iron.[420][421] Waterwheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century Balanced Discourse.[422] The armillary sphere, a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the celestial sphere, was invented in Han China by the 1st century BC.[423] Using a water clock, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer Zhang Heng (AD 78–139) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.[424][425][426][427] To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the pressure head of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.[424][428] A modern replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" (houfeng didong yi 候風地動儀), which the British biochemist, sinologist, and historian Joseph Needham described as "the ancestor of all seismographs".[429] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away.[424][430][426] It employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.[431] The account of this device in the Book of the Later Han describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (in modern Gansu Province), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device.[432] Mathematics[edit] Further information: Chinese mathematics § Han mathematics Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the Book on Numbers and Computation, the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles, square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods,[433][434] finding more accurate approximations for pi,[435][436] providing mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem,[437][438] use of the decimal fraction,[439] Gaussian elimination to solve linear equations,[440][441][442] and continued fractions to find the roots of equations.[443] One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of negative numbers. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.[434] Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician Diophantus around AD 275, and in the 7th-century Bakhshali manuscript of Gandhara, South Asia,[444] but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century.[434] The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In musical tuning, Jing Fang (78–37 BC) realized that 53 perfect fifths was approximate to 31 octaves while creating a musical scale of 60 tones, calculating the difference at 177147⁄176776 (the same value of 53 equal temperament discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator [1620–1687], i.e. 353/284).[445][446] Astronomy[edit] Further information: Chinese astronomy Mathematics were essential in drafting the astronomical calendar, a lunisolar calendar that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.[447][448] During the spring and autumn periods of the 5th century BC, the Chinese established the Sifen calendar (古四分历), which measured the tropical year at 365.25 days. This was replaced in 104 BC with the Taichu calendar (太初曆) that measured the tropical year at 365+385⁄1539 (~ 365.25016) days and the lunar month at 29+43⁄81 days.[449] However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.[450] Han Chinese astronomers made star catalogues and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the 12 BC appearance of the comet now known as Halley's Comet.[451][452][453][454] Han dynasty astronomers adopted a geocentric model of the universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the earth in the center.[455][456][457] They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.[458] Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle of the evaporation of water into clouds.[459] Cartography, ships, and vehicles[edit] An early Western Han dynasty silk map found in tomb 3 of Mawangdui, depicting the Kingdom of Changsha and Kingdom of Nanyue in southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top). Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han.[460][461] Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb.[460][462] The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century.[463] This date could be revised if the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.[464] Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps.[424][460][465][466] An Eastern Han dynasty pottery boat model with a steering rudder at the stern and anchor at the bow. Han dynasty Chinese sailed in a variety of ships different from those of previous eras, such as the tower ship. The junk design was developed and realized during the Han era. Junk ships featured a square-ended bow and stern, a flat-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western vessels.[467][468] Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.[469][470][471][472][473][474] Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC.[475][476] Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer breast strap.[477] Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534), the fully developed horse collar was invented.[477] Medicine[edit] Further information: Traditional Chinese medicine § Han dynasty The physical exercise chart; a painting on silk depicting the practice of Qigong Taiji; unearthed in 1973 in Hunan Province, China, from the 2nd-century BC Western Han burial site of Mawangdui, Tomb Number 3. Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that qi or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.[478][479][480] For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.[478] Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed moxibustion, acupuncture, and calisthenics as methods of maintaining one's health.[481][482][483][484] When surgery was performed by the Chinese physician Hua Tuo (d. AD 208), he used anesthesia to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds.[481] Whereas the physician Zhang Zhongjing (c. AD 150 – c. 219) is known to have written the Shanghan lun ("Dissertation on Typhoid Fever"), it is thought that both he and Hua Tuo collaborated in compiling the Shennong Ben Cao Jing medical text.[485] See also[edit] Battle of Jushi Campaign against Dong Zhuo Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires Early Imperial China Han Emperors family tree Shuanggudui Ten Attendants References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Barnes (2007), p. 63. ^ a b Taagepera (1979), p. 128. ^ a b Nishijima (1986), pp. 595–596. ^ Zhou (2003), p. 34. ^ Schaefer (2008), p. 279. ^ Bailey (1985), pp. 25–26. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 116. ^ Ebrey (1999), pp. 60–61. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 116–122. ^ Davis (2001), pp. 44–46. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 122. ^ a b Loewe (1986), pp. 122–125. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 139–144. ^ a b Bielenstein (1980), p. 106. ^ a b c d Ch'ü (1972), p. 76. ^ Bielenstein (1980), p. 105. ^ Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 175–189, 196–198. ^ Torday (1997), pp. 80–81. ^ Yü (1986), pp. 387–388. ^ a b Torday (1997), pp. 75–77. 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(2011) [2001], Gender in History: Global Perspectives (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-8995-8 Xue, Shiqi (2003), "Chinese lexicography past and present", in Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.), Lexicography: Critical Concepts, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 158–173, ISBN 978-0-415-25365-9. Young, Gary K. (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-24219-6. Yü, Ying-shih (1967), Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations, Berkeley: University of California Press. ——— (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Yule, Henry (1915), Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, 1, London: Hakluyt Society. Zhang, Guangda (2002), "The role of the Sogdians as translators of Buddhist texts", in Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, ISBN 978-2-503-52178-7. Zhou, Jinghao (2003), Remaking China's Public Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-275-97882-2. Further reading[edit] Yap, Joseph P. (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. ISBN 978-1-7928-2915-4. 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en-wikipedia-org-3928	----	Tiberius II Constantine - Wikipedia Tiberius II Constantine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern Roman emperor in 574–582 Byzantine emperor Tiberius II Constantine Solidus of Emperor Tiberius II Constantine Byzantine emperor Augustus 26 September 578 – 14 August 582 Predecessor Justin II Successor Maurice Caesar 7 December 574 – 578 Born 520 Thracia Died 14 August 582 (aged 62) Constantinople Spouse Ino Anastasia Issue Unknown issue Constantina Charito Names Flavius Tiberius Constantinus[a] Dynasty Justinian Tiberius II Constantine (Latin: Tiberius Constantinus; Greek: Τιβέριος Κωνσταντῖνος, Tiberios Kōnstantînos; 520 – 14 August 582) was Eastern Roman emperor from 574 to 582. Tiberius rose to power in 574 when Justin II, prior to a mental breakdown, proclaimed Tiberius Caesar and adopted him as his own son. In 578, Justin II, before he died, gave him the title of Augustus, under which title he reigned until his death on 14 August 582. Contents 1 Early career 2 Avar War of 570 3 Elevation as Caesar (574–578) 4 Reign as Augustus (578–582) 5 Character and legacy 6 Family 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links Early career[edit] Born in Thrace in the mid-6th century,[3] Tiberius was appointed to the post of notarius. There, sometime after 552, he was introduced by the Patriarch Eutychius to the future emperor, Justin II,[4] with whom he became firm friends.[5] Under Justin's patronage, Tiberius was promoted to the position of Comes excubitorum, which he held from approximately 565 through to 574. He was present during Justin's imperial accession on 14 November 565 and also attended his inauguration as consul on 1 January 566.[4] Justin ceased making payments to the Avars, which had been implemented by his predecessor, Justinian. In 569, he appointed Tiberius to the post of Magister utriusque militiae, with instructions to deal with the Avars and their demands. After a series of negotiations, Tiberius agreed to allow the Avars to settle on Roman territory in the Balkans, in exchange for male hostages taken from various Avar chiefs.[4] Justin, however, rejected the agreement, insisting on taking hostages from the family of the Avar Khan himself. That condition was rejected by the Avars and so Tiberius mobilized for war.[citation needed] Avar War of 570[edit] In 570, he defeated an Avar army in Thrace and returned to Constantinople.[6] While attempting to follow up that victory in late 570 or early 571, Tiberius was defeated in a battle in which he narrowly escaped death, as his army was fleeing the battlefield.[7] Agreeing to a truce, Tiberius provided an escort to the Avar envoys to discuss the terms of a treaty with Justin. On their return, the Avar envoys were attacked and robbed by local tribesmen, prompting them to appeal to Tiberius for help. He tracked down the group responsible and returned the stolen goods.[7] In 574, Justin had a mental breakdown, forcing Empress Sophia to turn to Tiberius to manage the empire, which was fighting the Persians to the east and dealing with the internal crisis of the plague.[5] To achieve a measure of breathing space, Tiberius and Sophia agreed to a one-year truce with the Persians, at the cost of 45,000 nomismata.[5] On 7 December 574, Justin, in one of his more lucid moments, had Tiberius proclaimed Caesar and adopted him as his own son. Tiberius added the name Constantine to his own.[7][3] Although his position was now official, he was still subordinate to Justin. Sophia was determined to remain in power and kept Tiberius tightly controlled until Justin died, in 578.[3][8] Elevation as Caesar (574–578)[edit] The day after his appointment as Caesar, the plague abated, giving Tiberius more freedom of movement than Justin had been able to achieve. Tiberius also charted a very different course from his predecessor and proceeded to spend the money that Justin had doggedly saved in order to defend the imperial frontiers and win over the populace who had turned against him.[5][9] According to Paul the Deacon, Tiberius found two treasures: the treasure of Narses and 1,000 centenaria: 100,000 pounds of gold or 7,200,000 solidi (nomismata), under a slab. The treasures were given away to the poor, to the consternation of Sophia.[10] Alongside generous donations, he also proceeded to reduce state revenue by removing taxes on wine and bread instituted by Justinian I. He continued the official ban on the sale of governorships, which was highly popular. He also negotiated a truce with the Avars, paying them 80,000 nomismata per year for which the Avars agreed to defend the Danube frontier, thereby allowing Tiberius to transfer troops across to the east for a planned renewal of the conflict against the Persians.[11] In 575, Tiberius began moving the armies of Thrace and Illyricum to the eastern provinces. Buying time to make the necessary preparations, he agreed to a three-year truce with the Persians, paying 30,000 nomismata, though the truce excluded action in the region around Armenia.[11] Not content with making preparations, Tiberius also used this period to send reinforcements to Italy under the command of Baduarius with orders to stem the Lombard invasion. He saved Rome from the Lombards and allied the Empire with Childebert II, the King of the Franks, to defeat them. Unfortunately, Baduarius was defeated and killed in 576, allowing even more imperial territory in Italy to slip away.[11] Tiberius was unable to respond as the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau I struck at the empire's Armenian provinces in 576, sacking Melitene and Sebastea. Shifting his attention eastward, Tiberius sent his general Justinian with the eastern armies to push the Persians back across the Euphrates. The Byzantines followed, and pushed deep into Persian territory, culminating in a raid on Atropatene. In 577, however, Justinian was defeated in Persian Armenia, forcing a Byzantine withdrawal.[11] In response to that defeat, Tiberius replaced Justinian with the future emperor Maurice.[9][11] During the truce that Tiberius concluded with Khosrau, he busily enhanced the army of the east not only with transfers from his western armies but also through barbarian recruits, which he formed into a new foederati unit, amounting to some 15,000 troops by the end of his reign.[9][11] Throughout 577 and into 578, Tiberius avoided all other entanglements that would have distracted him from the approaching Persian conflict. He appeased, quite successfully, both Chalcedonian and Monophysite Christians by the use of strategic appointments and the easing of persecutions.[12] He paid the Lombard tribal chieftains some 200,000 nomismata in an attempt to keep them divided and to prevent the election of a king. When the Slavs invaded Illyricum, he transported Avar armies to attack them and force their retreat. Consequently, when Khosrau invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 578, his general, Maurice, was able to invade Persian Arzanene and Mesopotamia, sacking a number of key towns and forcing the Persians to abandon their advance and defend their own territory.[12] It was during that period that the ailing emperor, Justin, finally died in early October 578.[7] Reign as Augustus (578–582)[edit] Solidus of Tiberius II Constantine in consular uniform. On 26 September 578, Tiberius was made Augustus by the rapidly-failing Justin.[7] He used that opportunity to give away 7,200 pounds of gold, a practice that he continued annually throughout the four years of his reign.[13] Sophia, Justin's widow, tried to maintain her power and influence by marrying the new emperor, but he refused her proposal because he was already married to Ino. When Tiberius had first been raised to the rank of Caesar, Sophia had refused the request for Ino and her children to move into the Imperial palace with her husband, forcing them to reside in a small residence nearby and prohibiting them from entering the palace.[8] Once Tiberius was elevated to the rank of Augustus, however, he had his family moved into the palace and renamed Ino as Anastasia, much to Sophia's resentment. Therefore, Sophia sought revenge, and a secret pact was made between the dowager empress and General Justinian, whom Tiberius had replaced the year before. They conspired to overthrow the emperor and seat Justinian in his place. The conspiracy failed, however, and Sophia was reduced to a modest allowance; Justinian was forgiven by Tiberius.[14] The ongoing success against the Persians in the East once again allowed Tiberius to turn his gaze westward. In 579, he again extended his military activities into the remnants of the Western Roman Empire. He sent money and troops to Italy to reinforce Ravenna and to retake the port of Classis.[12] He formed an alliance with one of the Visigothic princes in Spain, who was fomenting rebellion, and his generals defeated the rebellious Berbers under their king Garmul in North Africa.[12] He also intervened in Frankish affairs in the former province of Gaul, which had been largely free of imperial contacts for close to a century.[3] Consequently, he might have been the basis for the fictional emperor Lucius Tiberius of Arthurian legend, who sent envoys to former Roman provinces after a long period without an imperial presence. The reality, however, was that the empire was seriously overextended. In 579, with Tiberius occupied elsewhere, the Avars decided to take advantage of the lack of troops in the Balkans by besieging Sirmium.[15] At the same time, the Slavs began to migrate into Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, which Tiberius was unable to halt as the Persians refused to agree to a peace in the east, which remained the emperor's main priority.[15] Furthermore, the army of the East was beginning to become restless, as it had not been paid, and it threatened to mutiny.[15] In 580, General Maurice launched a new offensive, raiding well beyond the Tigris. The following year, he again invaded Persian Armenia and almost succeeded in reaching the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, before a Persian counterinvasion of Byzantine Mesopotamia forced him to withdraw in order to deal with that threat.[15] By 582, with no apparent end to the Persian war in sight, Tiberius was forced to come to terms with the Avars, and he agreed to pay an indemnity and to hand over the vital city of Sirmium, which the Avars then looted. The migration of the Slavs continued, with their incursions reaching as far south as Athens.[15] Although a new Persian invasion was halted with a significant defeat at Constantina in June 582, by now, Tiberius was dying, apparently having eaten some poorly-prepared or possibly-deliberately poisoned food.[13][16] In his state, Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom married one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to Constantina, and Germanus, related through blood to the great emperor Justinian, was married to Charito.[15] It appears that his plan was to divide the empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western provinces.[15] This plan was never implemented, and on 13 August 582, he elevated Maurice to the rank of Augustus.[16][17] Tiberius died on the following day, 14 August 582, and his last words were spoken to his successor:[18] Let my sovereignty be delivered to thee with this girl. Be happy in the use of it, mindful always to love equity and justice. Character and legacy[edit] A native of the Latin-speaking part of Thrace,[5] Tiberius was nonetheless distinguished as the first of the "Greek[-speaking] Caesars" by Edward Gibbon, who cited the 13th-century Syriac Orthodox patriarch and writer Bar Hebraeus.[19] Tiberius reportedly was tall and handsome, with a regal bearing. He was gentle and humane, both as a man and a ruler, with a reputation for generosity. Unlike his predecessor, he largely refrained from persecuting his Monophysite subjects,[16] but his Arian subjects in the west did not fare as well.[20] He also spent a good deal of money on building projects, most notably the continued expansion of the Great Palace of Constantinople.[3] According to Gibbon, Tiberius II was a good emperor: With the odious name of Tiberius, he assumed the more popular appellation of Constantine, and imitated the purer virtues of the Antonines. After recording the vice or folly of so many Roman princes, it is pleasing to repose, for a moment, on a character conspicuous by the qualities of humanity, justice, temperance, and fortitude; to contemplate a sovereign affable in his palace, pious in the church, impartial on the seat of judgment, and victorious, at least by his generals, in the Persian war. The most glorious trophy of his victory consisted in a multitude of captives, whom Tiberius entertained, redeemed, and dismissed to their native homes with the charitable spirit of a Christian hero. The merit or misfortunes of his own subjects had a dearer claim to his beneficence, and he measured his bounty not so much by their expectations as by his own dignity. This maxim, however dangerous in a trustee of the public wealth, was balanced by a principle of humanity and justice, which taught him to abhor, as of the basest alloy, the gold that was extracted from the tears of the people. For their relief, as often as they had suffered by natural or hostile calamities, he was impatient to remit the arrears of the past, or the demands of future taxes: he sternly rejected the servile offerings of his ministers, which were compensated by tenfold oppression; and the wise and equitable laws of Tiberius excited the praise and regret of succeeding times. Constantinople believed that the emperor had discovered a treasure: but his genuine treasure consisted in the practice of liberal economy, and the contempt of all vain and superfluous expense. The Romans of the East would have been happy, if the best gift of Heaven, a patriot king, had been confirmed as a proper and permanent blessing. But in less than four years after the death of Justin, his worthy successor sunk into a mortal disease, which left him only sufficient time to restore the diadem, according to the tenure by which he held it, to the most deserving of his fellow-citizens.[21] That opinion was not shared by John Bagnall Bury, who commented: But though he might have made a very good minister of war, Tiberius did not make a good Emperor. It was natural that his first acts should be reactionary, as Justin's government had been extremely unpopular. He removed the duty on the "political bread," and remitted a fourth part of the taxes throughout the Empire. Had he been contented with this he might deserve praise, but he began a system of most injudicious extravagance. He gratified the soldiers with large and frequent Augustatica, and he granted donations to members of all the professions scholastics or jurists ("a very numerous profession"), physicians, silversmiths, bankers. This liberality soon emptied the treasury of its wealth. The result was that by the end of the first year of his reign he had spent 7200 pounds of gold, beside silver and silk in abundance; and before he died he was obliged to have recourse to the reserve fund which the prudent economy of Anastasius had laid by, to be used in the case of an extreme emergency. And, notwithstanding these financial difficulties, he laid out money on new buildings in the palace. The consequence of this recklessness was that when Maurice came to the throne he found the exchequer empty and the State bankrupt. There is considerable reason, I think, to remove Tiberius from his pedestal.[22] Family[edit] Originally betrothed as a young man to the daughter of Ino, Tiberius eventually married Ino after her daughter and husband died. She took on the name Anastasia in 578 after his accession to the throne. They had three children together, one of whom died before Tiberius was created Caesar in 574.[23] Of his other two, both daughters, Constantina was married to Tiberius's successor, Maurice, and Charito was married to Germanus.[24] His wife and two daughters all outlived him. Footnotes[edit] Byzantine Empire portal ^ The full imperial titelature of Tiberius is attested in Greek as Αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Κωνσταντῖνος, πιστός ἐν Χριστῷ, ἡμερώτατος, μέγιστος εὐεργέτης, εἰρηνικός, ἀλαμαννικός, γοτθικός, φραγγικός, γερμανικός, ἀλανικός, οὐανδαλικός, ἀφρικός, εὐσεβής, εὐτυχής, ἔνδοξος, νικητής, τροπαιοῦχος, ἀεισέβαστος αὐγουστος ("Autokrator Caesar Flavius Tiberius Constantine, faithful in Christ, most mild, greatest benefactor, peaceable; victor over the Alamanni, Goths, Franks, Germans, Alans, Vandals, in Africa; pious, fortunate, renowned, victorious and triumphant, ever-venerable Augustus").[1][2] References[edit] ^ Rösch 1978, p. 169. ^ Sodini 1973, pp. 379, 383. ^ a b c d e ODB, "Tiberios I" (W. E. Kaegi), pp. 2083–2084. ^ a b c Martindale 1992, p. 1324. ^ a b c d e Treadgold 1997, p. 223. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 1324–1325. ^ a b c d e Martindale 1992, p. 1325. ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 78. ^ a b c Bury 1889, p. 80. ^ Paul the Deacon, Book III, Chapter 12. ^ a b c d e f Treadgold 1997, p. 224. ^ a b c d Treadgold 1997, p. 225. ^ a b Norwich 1990, p. 272. ^ Bury 1889, p. 79. ^ a b c d e f g Treadgold 1997, p. 226. ^ a b c Martindale 1992, p. 1326. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 227. ^ Paul the Deacon, Book III, Chapter 15. ^ O'Rourke, Michael. "'The Rome That Did Not Fall': A Chronology of Byzantium. 578 To 718". Annals of Byzantium. ^ Bury 1889, p. 81. ^ Gibbon, Chapter 45. ^ Bury 1889, pp. 80–81. ^ Martindale 1992, p. 1323. ^ Martindale 1992, pp. 1323–1324. Sources[edit] Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, 395 A.D. to 800 A.D. II. MacMillan & Co. OCLC 168739195. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Martindale, John R., ed. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume III, AD 527–641. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20160-8. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Norwich, John Julius (1990). Byzantium: The Early Centuries. Penguin Books. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Rösch, Gerhard (1978). Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-0260-1. Sodini, Jean-Pierre (1973). "Une titulature faussement attribuée à Justinien Ier. Remarque sur une inscription trouvée à Kythrea, Chypre". Travaux et Mémoires du Centre de Recherche d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance (in French). 5. pp. 373–384. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. [1] Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 45". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Paul the Deacon. "Book III, Chapters 11–15". Historia Langobardorum. Theophylact Simocatta, History External links[edit] Media related to Tiberius II Constantine at Wikimedia Commons Tiberius II Constantine Justinian Dynasty Born: c. 520 Died: 14 August 582 Regnal titles Preceded by Justin II Byzantine emperor 574–582 with Justin II (574–578) Maurice (582) Succeeded by Maurice v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_II_Constantine&oldid=1026937614" Categories: 520 births 582 deaths 6th-century Byzantine emperors Caesars (heirs apparent) Comites excubitorum Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Justinian dynasty People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019 CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons link is defined as the pagename Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 03:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3931	----	John III Doukas Vatatzes - Wikipedia John III Doukas Vatatzes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "John Vatatzes" redirects here. For other uses, see John Vatatzes (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John III Doukas Vatatzes Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of John III (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor Reign 15 December 1222 – 3 November 1254 Predecessor Theodore I Laskaris Successor Theodore II Laskaris Born c. 1193 Didymoteicho, Byzantine Empire Died 3 November 1254 (aged 61) Nymphaion, Byzantine Empire Burial Monastery of Sosandra, region of Magnesia Spouse Irene Laskarina Anna of Hohenstaufen Issue Theodore II Laskaris House Vatatzes Father Basil Vatatzes (?) Mother Unknown Religion Greek Orthodox John III Doukas Vatatzes, Latinized as Ducas Vatatzes (Greek: Ιωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης, Iōannēs Doukas Vatatzēs, c. 1193, Didymoteicho – 3 November 1254, Nymphaion), was Emperor of Nicaea from 1222 to 1254. He was succeeded by his son, known as Theodore II Laskaris. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 Legacy 4 Legend of the Reposed King 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Life[edit] John Doukas Vatatzes, born in about 1192 in Didymoteicho, was probably[1][2] the son of the general Basil Vatatzes, who was killed in battle in 1194, and his wife, a cousin of the Emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos.[3] John Doukas Vatatzes had two older brothers. The eldest was Isaac Doukas Vatatzes (died 1261), who died young. Through his marriage to Eudokia Angelina he fathered Theodora Doukaina Vatatzaina, who later married Michael VIII Palaiologos. The middle brother's name is unknown, but his daughter married the protovestiarios Alexios Raoul.[4][5] A successful soldier from a military family, John was chosen in about 1216 by Emperor Theodore I Laskaris as the second husband for his daughter Irene Laskarina and as heir to the throne, following the death of her first husband, Andronikos Palaiologos. This arrangement excluded members of the Laskarid family from the succession, and when John III Doukas Vatatzes became emperor in mid-December 1221,[6] following Theodore I's death in November,[7][8] he had to suppress opposition to his rule. The struggle ended with the Battle of Poimanenon in 1224, in which his opponents were defeated in spite of support from the Latin Empire of Constantinople. John III's victory led to territorial concessions by the Latin Empire in 1225, followed by John's incursion into Europe, where he seized Adrianople.[9] John III's possession of Adrianople was terminated by Theodore Komnenos Doukas of Epirus and Thessalonica, who drove the Nicaean garrison out of Adrianople and annexed much of Thrace in 1227. The elimination of Theodore by Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria in 1230 put an end to the danger posed by Thessalonica, and John III made an alliance with Bulgaria against the Latin Empire.[10] Gold hyperpyron of John III Vatatzes In 1235 this alliance resulted in the restoration of the Bulgarian patriarchate and the marriage between Elena of Bulgaria and Theodore II, respectively Ivan Asen II's daughter and John III's son. In that same year, the Bulgarians and Nicaeans campaigned against the Latin Empire, and in 1236 they attempted a siege of Constantinople.[10] Subsequently, Ivan Asen II adopted an ambivalent policy, effectively becoming neutral, and leaving John III to his own devices. John III Vatatzes was greatly interested in the collection and copying of manuscripts, and William of Rubruck reports that he owned a copy of the missing books from Ovid's Fasti (poem).[11] Ruburck was critical of the Hellenic traditions he encountered in the Empire of Nicaea, specifically the feast day for Felicitas favored by John Vatatzes, which Risch suggests would have been the Felicitanalia, practiced by Sulla to venerate Felicitas in the 1st Century with an emphasis on inverting social norms, extolling truth and beauty, reciting profane and satirical verse and wearing ornamented "cenatoria", or dinner robes during the day.[12] In spite of some reverses against the Latin Empire in 1240, John III was able to take advantage of Ivan Asen II's death in 1241 to impose his own suzerainty over Thessalonica (in 1242), and later to annex this city, as well as much of Bulgarian Thrace in 1246.[13] Immediately afterwards, John III was able to establish an effective stranglehold on Constantinople in 1247. In the last years of his reign Nicaean authority extended far to the west, where John III attempted to contain the expansion of Epirus. Michael's allies Golem of Kruja and Theodore Petraliphas defected to John III in 1252.[14][15] John III died in Nymphaion in 1254, and was buried in the monastery of Sosandra, which he had founded, in the region of Magnesia.[16] Family[edit] John III Doukas Vatatzes married first Irene Lascarina, the daughter of his predecessor Theodore I Laskaris in 1212.[16] They had one son, the future Theodore II Doukas Laskaris. Irene fell from a horse and was so badly injured that she was unable to have any more children. Irene retired to a convent, taking the monastic name Eugenia, and died there in summer of 1240.[17] John III married as his second wife Constance II of Hohenstaufen,[16] an illegitimate daughter of Emperor Frederick II by his mistress Bianca Lancia. They had no children. Legacy[edit] St. John Vatatzes the Merciful King, Emperor of Nicaea and "the Father of the Greeks." John III Doukas Vatatzes was a successful ruler who laid the groundwork for Nicaea's recovery of Constantinople. He was successful in maintaining generally peaceful relations with his most powerful neighbors, Bulgaria and the Sultanate of Rum, and his network of diplomatic relations extended to the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy, while his armed forces included Frankish mercenaries. John III effected Nicaean expansion into Europe, where by the end of his reign he had annexed his former rival Thessalonica and had expanded at the expense of Bulgaria and Epirus. He also expanded Nicaean control over much of the Aegean and annexed the important island of Rhodes,[18] while he supported initiatives to free Crete from Venetian occupation aiming toward its re-unification with the Byzantine empire of Nicaea.[19] Moreover, John III is credited with carefully developing the internal prosperity and economy of his realm, encouraging justice and charity. In spite of his epilepsy, John III had provided active leadership in both peace and war, claimed to be the true inheritor of the Roman Empire, and was known for bountiful harvest festivals which reportedly drew on traditions from the Felicitas feast days described in the missing 11th book of Ovid's Book of Days.[20] A half-century after his death, John III was canonized as a saint, under the name John the Merciful, and is commemorated annually on November 4.[21][22] George Akropolites mentions that the people saw to the construction of a temple in his honour in Nymphaeum, and that his cult as a saint quickly spread to the people of western Asia Minor.[23] On the same day, since 2010, the Vatatzeia festival is organized at Didymoteicho by the local metropolitan bishop.[24] Alice Gardiner remarked on the persistence of John's cult among the Ionian Greeks as late as the early 20th century, and on the contrast she witnessed where "the clergy and people of Magnesia and the neighbourhood revere his memory every fourth of November. But those who ramble and play about his ruined palace seldom connect it even with his name."[25] His feast day is formally an Eastern Orthodox holiday, although it is not commemorated with any special liturgy; there are two known historical akolouthiai for him, including an 1874 copy of an older Magnesian menaion for the month of November, which shows that in the 15th and 16th century, he was venerated as "the holy glorious equal of the Apostles and emperor John Vatatzes, the new almsgiver in Magnesia."[26] The relevant hymns are preserved in only one known manuscript in the library of the Leimonos monastery on Lesbos, Greece, and include references to the feast day for the almsgiver John Vatazes.[27] John III Vatatzes' feast day has largely fallen out of favor other than in the church dedicated to him in his birth city of Didymoteicho.[28] The generations after John Vatatzes looked back upon him as "the Father of the Greeks."[29][note 1] Legend of the Reposed King[edit] According to the legend, his incorrupt relics were transferred to Constantinople, which had been liberated from the Franks, where the legend of the reposed King became associated with him. At time of the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, his relics were hidden in a catacomb, and were guarded by a family of Crypto-Christians, which kept them secret from generation to generation. The legend states that since that time, he has been awaiting the liberation of Constantinople.[31] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ "Apostolos Vacalopoulos notes that John III Ducas Vatatzes was prepared to use the words 'nation' (genos), 'Hellene' and 'Hellas' together in his correspondence with the Pope. John acknowledged that he was Greek, although bearing the title Emperor of the Romans: "the Greeks are the only heirs and successors of Constantine", he wrote. In similar fashion John’s son Theodore II, acc. 1254, who took some interest in the physical heritage of Antiquity, was prepared to refer to his whole Euro-Asian realm as "Hellas" and a "Hellenic dominion". (What Vacalopoulos does not examine is whether, like the Latins, they also called their Aegean world 'Roman-ia')."[30] References[edit] ^ Polemis 1968, p. 107. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 855–856 (note 20). ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 852–854. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 855–857. ^ Polemis 1968, pp. 107–109. ^ George Akropolites. The History. Trans. Ruth Macrides. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 160. ^ Judith Herrin, Guillaume Saint-Guillain. Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011 ISBN 1409410986 p 52 ^ Carr, John (30 April 2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen and Sword. p. 255. ISBN 147385640X. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 719–721. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, pp. 722–724. ^ Christopher S. Wood, Forgery, Replica, Fiction: Temporalities of German Renaissance Art. University of Chicago Press, 2008 ^ Geschichte der Mongolen und Reisebericht, 1245–1247. (Trans. and ed., Friedrich Risch.). Leipzig: E. Pfeiffer, 1930, p. 174, n.34 ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 728. ^ Ellis, Steven G.; Klusáková, Lud'a (2007). Imagining Frontiers, Contesting Identities. Edizioni Plus. pp. 134–. ISBN 978-88-8492-466-7. ^ George Akropolites: The History: Introduction, translation and commentary. OUP Oxford. 19 April 2007. pp. 73–. ISBN 978-0-19-921067-1. Goulamos defected to the Emperor ^ a b c Michael Borgolte, Bernd Schneidmüller. Hybride Kulturen im mittelalterlichen Europa/Hybride Cultures in Medieval Europe. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1 okt. 2010 ISBN 3050049669 p 73 ^ Cometary records revise Eastern Mediterranean chronology around 1240 CE, 2020, arXiv:2012.00976 ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 729–730. ^ Agelarakis, P. A. (2012), "Cretans in Byzantine foreign policy and military affairs following the Fourth Crusade", Cretika Chronika, 32, 41–78. ^ Lars Brownworth, Lost to the West: the Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization. Broadway Books, 2010, p 254 ^ Great Synaxaristes: (in Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Ἰωάννης ὁ Βατατζὴς ὁ ἐλεήμονας βασιλιὰς. 4 Νοεμβρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ Ostrogorsky, George. History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 1969, p. 444. ^ Banev Guentcho. "John III Vatatzes". Transl. Koutras, Nikolaos. Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor (EHW). 12/16/2002. ^ Lorenzo M. Ciolfi, From Byzantium to the Web: the Endurance of John III Doukas Vatazes’ Legacy. EHESS paris, 2017, p. 64 ^ Gardiner, The Lascarids of Nicaea: The Story of an Empire in Exile, 1912, (Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert, 1964), p. 196 ^ Polemis Demetrios, "Remains of an acoluthia for the emperor John Ducas Vatatzes" in C. Mango & O. Pritsak (eds.), Okeanos. Essays Presented to Ihor Sevcenko on His Sixtieth Birthday by His Colleagues and Students. Ukrainian Research Institute, Harvard University, 1983 ^ Polemis, p.584 ^ Lorenzo M. Ciolfi, "John III Vatazes, Byzantine imperial saint?" BULLETIN OF BRITISH BYZANTINE STUDIES, 2014 ^ A. A. Vasiliev. History of the Byzantine Empire. Vol. 2. University of Wisconsin Press, 1971. pp. 531–534. ^ Michael O'Rourke. Byzantium: From Recovery to Ruin, A Detailed Chronology: AD 1220–1331. Comp. by Michael O'Rourke. Canberra, Australia, April 2010. ^ (in Greek) Ιωάννα Κατσούλα. ΑΓΙΟΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ Ο ΒΑΤΑΤΖΗΣ: Ο μαρμαρωμένος ελεήμων βασιλιάς και η βασιλεύουσα. ΜΗΝΙΑΙΑ ΟΡΘΟΔΟΞΗ ΕΚΚΛΗΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΗ ΕΦΗΜΕΡΙΔΑ – «Στύλος Ορθοδοξίας». ΝΟΕΜΒΡΙΟΣ 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2018. Sources[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "John III (Roman emperor)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 438. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, London: Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 John S. Langdon. Byzantium’s Last Imperial Offensive in Asia Minor: The Documentary Evidence for and Hagiographical Lore About John III Ducas Vatatzes' Crusade Against the Turks, 1222 or 1225 to 1231. New Rochelle, N.Y.: A.D. Caratzas, 1992. Macrides, Ruth (2007). George Akropolites: The History – Introduction, Translation and Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921067-1. George Ostrogorsky. History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 1969. Polemis, Demetrios I. (1968). The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography. London: The Athlone Press. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784665. External links[edit] Media related to John III Doukas Vatatzes at Wikimedia Commons John III Doukas Vatatzes Laskarid dynasty Born: unknown 1192 Died: 3 November 1254 Regnal titles Preceded by Theodore I Laskaris Emperor of Nicaea 1221–1254 Succeeded by Theodore II Doukas Laskaris v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_III_Doukas_Vatatzes&oldid=1021527152" Categories: 1192 births 1254 deaths 13th-century Byzantine emperors 13th-century Greek people 13th-century Christian saints Byzantine saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church Emperors of Nicaea Laskarid dynasty Eastern Orthodox monarchs Saints from Anatolia People from Didymoteicho Vatatzes family People with epilepsy Hidden categories: Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 May 2021, at 05:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3947	----	Eugène Delacroix - Wikipedia Eugène Delacroix From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 19th-century French painter Eugène Delacroix Eugène Delacroix, c. 1857 (portrait by Nadar) Born Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (1798-04-26)26 April 1798 Charenton-Saint-Maurice, Île-de-France, France Died 13 August 1863(1863-08-13) (aged 65) Paris, France Nationality French Known for Painting, Lithography Notable work Liberty Leading the People, (1830) Movement Romanticism Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (/ˈdɛləkrwɑː, ˌdɛləˈkrwɑː/ DEL-ə-krwah, DEL-ə-KRWAH;[1] French: [øʒɛn dəlakʁwa]; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school.[2] In contrast to the Neoclassical perfectionism of his chief rival Ingres, Delacroix took for his inspiration the art of Rubens and painters of the Venetian Renaissance, with an attendant emphasis on colour and movement rather than clarity of outline and carefully modelled form. Dramatic and romantic content characterized the central themes of his maturity, and led him not to the classical models of Greek and Roman art, but to travel in North Africa, in search of the exotic.[3] Friend and spiritual heir to Théodore Géricault, Delacroix was also inspired by Lord Byron, with whom he shared a strong identification with the "forces of the sublime", of nature in often violent action.[4] However, Delacroix was given to neither sentimentality nor bombast, and his Romanticism was that of an individualist. In the words of Baudelaire, "Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, but coldly determined to express passion as clearly as possible."[5] Together with Ingres, Delacroix is considered one of the last old Masters of painting, and one of the few who was ever photographed. As a painter and muralist, Delacroix's use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, Delacroix illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish author Walter Scott and the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Chios and Missolonghi 2.2 Romanticism 2.3 Liberty Leading the People 3 Travel to North Africa 4 Musical Inspirations 5 Murals and later life 6 Gallery 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Early life[edit] Portrait of Delacroix early in his career Eugène Delacroix was born on 26 April 1798 at Charenton-Saint-Maurice in Île-de-France, near Paris. His mother was named Victoire Oeben, the daughter of the cabinet-maker Jean-François Oeben. He had three much older siblings. Charles-Henri Delacroix (1779–1845) rose to the rank of General in the Napoleonic army. Henriette (1780–1827) married the diplomat Raymond de Verninac Saint-Maur (1762–1822). Henri was born six years later. He was killed at the Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807.[6] There are medical reasons to believe that Eugène's legitimate father, Charles-François Delacroix, was not able to procreate at the time of Eugène's conception. Talleyrand, who was a friend of the family and successor of Charles Delacroix as Minister of Foreign Affairs, and whom the adult Eugène resembled in appearance and character, considered himself as his real father.[7] After assuming his office as foreign minister Talleyrand, dispatched Delacroix to The Hague in the capacity of French ambassador to the then Batavian Republic. Delacroix who at the time suffered from erectile dysfunction returned to Paris in early September 1797, only to find his wife pregnant. Talleyrand went on to assist Eugène in the form of numerous anonymous commissions.[8] Throughout his career as a painter, he was protected by Talleyrand, who served successively the Restoration and king Louis-Philippe, and ultimately as ambassador of France in Great Britain, and later by Charles Auguste Louis Joseph, duc de Morny, half-brother of Napoleon III and speaker of the French House of Commons. His legitimate father, Charles Delacroix, died in 1805, and his mother in 1814, leaving 16-year-old Eugène an orphan. His early education was at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, and at the Lycée Pierre Corneille in Rouen[9] where he steeped himself in the classics and won awards for drawing. In 1815 he began his training with Pierre-Narcisse Guérin in the neoclassical style of Jacques-Louis David. An early church commission, The Virgin of the Harvest (1819), displays a Raphael-esque influence, but another such commission, The Virgin of the Sacred Heart (1821), evidences a freer interpretation.[10] It precedes the influence of the more colourful and rich style of the Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens, and fellow French artist Théodore Géricault, whose works marked an introduction to Romanticism in art. The impact of Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa was profound, and stimulated Delacroix to produce his first major painting, The Barque of Dante, which was accepted by the Paris Salon in 1822. The work caused a sensation, and was largely derided by the public and officialdom, yet was purchased by the State for the Luxembourg Galleries; the pattern of widespread opposition to his work, countered by a vigorous, enlightened support, would continue throughout his life.[11] Two years later he again achieved popular success for his The Massacre at Chios. Career[edit] Chios and Missolonghi[edit] Massacre at Chios (1824), Louvre Delacroix's painting of the massacre at Chios shows sick, dying Greek civilians about to be slaughtered by the Turks. One of several paintings he made of this contemporary event, expressed the official policy for the Greek cause in their war of independence against the Turks, war sustained by English, Russian and French governments. Delacroix was quickly recognized by the authorities as a leading painter in the new Romantic style, and the picture was bought by the state. His depiction of suffering was controversial, however, as there was no glorious event taking place, no patriots raising their swords in valour as in David's Oath of the Horatii, only a disaster. Many critics deplored the painting's despairing tone; the artist Antoine-Jean Gros called it "a massacre of art".[11] The pathos in the depiction of an infant clutching its dead mother's breast had an especially powerful effect, although this detail was condemned as unfit for art by Delacroix's critics. A viewing of the paintings of John Constable and the watercolour sketches and art of Richard Parkes Bonnington prompted Delacroix to make extensive, freely painted changes to the sky and distant landscape.[12] Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826), Musée des Beaux-Arts, Bordeaux Delacroix produced a second painting in support of the Greeks in their war for independence, this time referring to the capture of Missolonghi by Turkish forces in 1825.[13] With a restraint of palette appropriate to the allegory, Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi displays a woman in Greek costume with her breast bared, arms half-raised in an imploring gesture before the horrible scene: the suicide of the Greeks, who chose to kill themselves and destroy their city rather than surrender to the Turks. A hand is seen at the bottom, the body having been crushed by rubble. The painting serves as a monument to the people of Missolonghi and to the idea of freedom against tyrannical rule. This event interested Delacroix not only for his sympathies with the Greeks, but also because the poet Byron, whom Delacroix greatly admired, had died there.[2] Romanticism[edit] The Death of Sardanapalus (1827), Philadelphia Museum of Art Horse Frightened by a Storm, watercolour, 1824 A trip to England in 1825 included visits to Thomas Lawrence and Richard Parkes Bonington, and the colour and handling of English painting provided impetus for his only full-length portrait, the elegant Portrait of Louis-Auguste Schwiter (1826–30). At roughly the same time, Delacroix was creating romantic works of numerous themes, many of which would continue to interest him for over thirty years. By 1825, he was producing lithographs illustrating Shakespeare, and soon thereafter lithographs and paintings from Goethe's Faust. Paintings such as The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan (1826), and Woman with Parrot (1827), introduced subjects of violence and sensuality which would prove to be recurrent.[14] These various romantic strands came together in The Death of Sardanapalus (1827–28). Delacroix's painting of the death of the Assyrian king Sardanapalus shows an emotionally stirring scene alive with beautiful colours, exotic costumes and tragic events. The Death of Sardanapalus depicts the besieged king watching impassively as guards carry out his orders to kill his servants, concubines and animals. The literary source is a play by Byron, although the play does not specifically mention any massacre of concubines.[15] Sardanapalus' attitude of calm detachment is a familiar pose in Romantic imagery in this period in Europe. The painting, which was not exhibited again for many years afterward, has been regarded by some critics[who?] as a gruesome fantasy involving death and lust. Especially shocking is the struggle of a nude woman whose throat is about to be cut, a scene placed prominently in the foreground for maximum impact. However, the sensuous beauty and exotic colours of the composition make the picture appear pleasing and shocking at the same time.[original research?] A variety of Romantic interests were again synthesized in The Murder of the Bishop of Liège (1829). It also borrowed from a literary source, this time Scott, and depicts a scene from the Middle Ages, that of the murder of Louis de Bourbon, Bishop of Liège amidst an orgy sponsored by his captor, William de la Marck. Set in an immense vaulted interior which Delacroix based on sketches of the Palais de Justice in Rouen and Westminster Hall, the drama plays out in chiaroscuro, organized around a brilliantly lit stretch of tablecloth. In 1855, a critic described the painting's vibrant handling as "Less finished than a painting, more finished than a sketch, The Murder of the Bishop of Liège was left by the painter at that supreme moment when one more stroke of the brush would have ruined everything".[16] Liberty Leading the People[edit] Main article: Liberty Leading the People Liberty Leading the People (1830), Louvre, Paris Delacroix's most influential work came in 1830 with the painting Liberty Leading the People, which for choice of subject and technique highlights the differences between the romantic approach and the neoclassical style. Less obviously, it also differs from the Romanticism of Géricault, as exemplified by The Raft of the Medusa. Delacroix felt his composition more vividly as a whole, thought of his figures and crowds as types, and dominated them by the symbolic figure of Republican Liberty which is one of his finest plastic inventions...[17] Probably Delacroix's best-known painting, Liberty Leading the People is an unforgettable image of Parisians, having taken up arms, marching forward under the banner of the tricolour representing liberty, equality, and fraternity. Although Delacroix was inspired by contemporary events to invoke this romantic image of the spirit of liberty, he seems to be trying to convey the will and character of the people,[17] rather than glorifying the actual event, the 1830 revolution against Charles X, which did little other than bring a different king, Louis-Philippe, to power. The warriors lying dead in the foreground offer poignant counterpoint to the symbolic female figure, who is illuminated triumphantly against a background of smoke.[18] Christ on the Sea of Galilee, 1854 Although the French government bought the painting, by 1832 officials deemed its glorification of liberty too inflammatory and removed it from public view.[19] Nonetheless, Delacroix still received many government commissions for murals and ceiling paintings.[20] Following the Revolution of 1848 that saw the end of the reign of King Louis Philippe, Delacroix' painting, Liberty Leading the People, was finally put on display by the newly elected President, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III). It is exhibited in the Louvre museum in Paris; although from December 2012 until 2014 it was on exhibit at Louvre-Lens in Lens, Pas-de-Calais.[21] The boy holding a pistol aloft on the right is sometimes thought to be an inspiration for the Gavroche character in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel, Les Misérables.[22] Travel to North Africa[edit] Fanatics of Tangier (1838), Minneapolis Institute of Art In 1832, Delacroix traveled to Spain and North Africa in company with the diplomat Charles-Edgar de Mornay, as part of a diplomatic mission to Morocco shortly after the French conquered Algeria. He went not primarily to study art, but to escape from the civilization of Paris, in hopes of seeing a more "primitive" culture.[17] He eventually produced over 100 paintings and drawings of scenes from or based on the life of the people of North Africa, and added a new and personal chapter to the interest in Orientalism.[23] Delacroix was entranced by the people and their clothes, and the trip would inform the subject matter of a great many of his future paintings. He believed that the North Africans, in their attire and their attitudes, provided a visual equivalent to the people of Classical Rome and Greece: The Greeks and Romans are here at my door, in the Arabs who wrap themselves in a white blanket and look like Cato or Brutus...[17] Self-portrait, 1837. "Eugène Delacroix was a curious mixture of skepticism, politeness, dandyism, willpower, cleverness, despotism, and finally, a kind of special goodness and tenderness that always accompanies genius".[24] He managed to sketch some women secretly in Algiers, as in the painting Women of Algiers in their Apartment (1834), but generally he encountered difficulty in finding Muslim women to pose for him because of Muslim rules requiring that women be covered.[citation needed] Less problematic was the painting of Jewish women in North Africa, as subjects for the Jewish Wedding in Morocco (1837–1841). While in Tangier, Delacroix made many sketches of the people and the city, subjects to which he would return until the end of his life.[25] Animals—the embodiment of romantic passion—were incorporated into paintings such as Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable (1860), The Lion Hunt (of which there exist many versions, painted between 1856 and 1861), and Arab Saddling his Horse (1855). Musical Inspirations[edit] Medea about to Kill Her Children, 1838 The Barque of Dante (1822), Louvre Delacroix drew inspiration from many sources over his career, such as the literary works of William Shakespeare and Lord Byron, and the artistry of Michelangelo. But, throughout his life, he felt a constant need for music, saying in 1855 that "nothing can be compared with the emotion caused by music; that it expresses incomparable shades of feeling." He also said, while working at Saint-Sulpice, that music put him in a state of "exaltation" that inspired his painting. It was often from music, whether the most melancholy renditions of Chopin or the "pastoral" works of Beethoven, that Delacroix was able to draw the most emotion and inspiration. At one point during his life, Delacroix befriended and made portraits of the composer Chopin; in his journal, Delacroix praised him frequently.[26] Lion Hunt (1855), Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Lion Hunt (1860/61), Art Institute of Chicago Murals and later life[edit] In 1838 Delacroix exhibited Medea about to Kill Her Children, which created a sensation at the Salon. His first large-scale treatment of a scene from Greek mythology, the painting depicts Medea clutching her children, dagger drawn to slay them in vengeance for her abandonment by Jason. The three nude figures form an animated pyramid, bathed in a raking light that penetrates the grotto in which Medea has hidden. Though the painting was quickly purchased by the State, Delacroix was disappointed when it was sent to the Lille Musée des Beaux-Arts; he had intended for it to hang at the Luxembourg, where it would have joined The Barque of Dante and Scenes from the Massacres of Chios.[27] From 1833 on Delacroix received numerous commissions to decorate public buildings in Paris. In that year he began work for the Salon du Roi in the Chambre des Députés, Palais Bourbon, which was not completed until 1837, and began a lifelong friendship with the female artist Marie-Élisabeth Blavot-Boulanger. For the next ten years he painted in both the Library at the Palais Bourbon and the Library at the Palais du Luxembourg. In 1843 he decorated the Church of St. Denis du Saint Sacrement with a large Pietà, and from 1848 to 1850 he painted the ceiling in the Galerie d'Apollon of the Louvre. From 1857 to 1861 he worked on frescoes for the Chapelle des Anges at the Church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris. They included "Jacob Wrestling with the Angel", "Saint Michael Slaying the Dragon", and "The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple".[28] These commissions offered him the opportunity to compose on a large scale in an architectural setting, much as had those masters he admired, Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto, and Rubens. The work was fatiguing, and during these years he suffered from an increasingly fragile constitution. In addition to his home in Paris, from 1844 he also lived at a small cottage in Champrosay, where he found respite in the countryside. From 1834 until his death, he was faithfully cared for by his housekeeper, Jeanne-Marie le Guillou, who zealously guarded his privacy, and whose devotion prolonged his life and his ability to continue working in his later years.[29] In 1862 Delacroix participated in the creation of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. His friend, the writer Théophile Gautier, became chairman, with the painter Aimé Millet acting as deputy chairman. In addition to Delacroix, the committee was composed of the painters Carrier-Belleuse and Puvis de Chavannes. Among the exhibitors were Léon Bonnat, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Charles-François Daubigny, Gustave Doré, and Édouard Manet.[citation needed] Just after his death in 1863, the society organized a retrospective exhibition of 248 paintings and lithographs by Delacroix—and ceased to mount any further exhibitions.[citation needed] The winter of 1862–63 was extremely rough for Delacroix; he was suffering from a bad throat infection that seemed to get worse over the course of the season. On a trip to Champrosay, he met a friend on the train and became exhausted after having a conversation. On 1 June he returned to Paris to see his doctor. Two weeks later, on 16 June, he was getting better and returned to his house in the country. But by 15 July he was sick enough to again see his doctor, who said he could do nothing more for him. By then, the only food he could eat was fruit. Delacroix realized the seriousness of his condition and wrote his will, leaving a gift for each of his friends. For his trusted housekeeper, Jenny Le Guillou, he left enough money for her to live on while ordering everything in his studio to be sold. He also inserted a clause forbidding any representation of his features, "whether by a death-mask or by drawing or by photography. I forbid it, expressly."[30] On 13 August, Delacroix died, with Jenny by his side.[31] He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. His house, formerly situated along the canal of the Marne, is now near the exit of the motorway leading from Paris to central Germany. Gallery[edit] Mademoiselle Rose, 1817–1824, Louvre Orphan Girl at the Cemetery, 1823, Louvre Louis of Orléans Unveiling his Mistress, c.1825–26, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Charles Étienne Raymond Victor de Verninac, the painter's nephew, c.1825–26. private collection The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan, 1826, Art Institute of Chicago Woman with a Parrot, 1827, Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon Woman With White Socks, 1825–1830, Louvre A Young Tiger Playing with its Mother, 1830, Louvre The Duke of Morny's Apartment, 1831–1833, Louvre Portrait of Dr. François-Marie Desmaisons, 1832–33, Detroit Institute of Arts Fantasia Arabe, 1833. Frankfurt Städel Museum The Women of Algiers, 1834, Louvre The Battle of Taillebourg (draft), 1834–35, Louvre The Natchez, 1835, Metropolitan Museum of Art Frédéric Chopin, 1838, Louvre George Sand, 1838, Ordrupgaard-Museum Columbus and His Son at La Rábida, 1838, National Gallery of Art Jewish Wedding in Morocco, c.1839, Louvre Hamlet with Horatio, (the gravedigger scene), 1839, Louvre Christ on the Sea of Galilee, 1841, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1844, Walters Art Museum Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, 1844, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon Saint George Fighting the Dragon, 1847, Louvre Museum Desdemona Cursed by her Father (Desdemona maudite par son père), c.1850–1854, Brooklyn Museum Andromeda, 1852, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Perseus and Andromeda, circa 1853, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart 1855, Moroccan Saddles His Horse, Hermitage Museum Rider Attacked by a Jaguar, 1855. National Gallery in Prague The Bride of Abydos, 1857, Louvre The Death of Desdemona, 1858 Horses Leaving the Sea, 1860, The Phillips Collection Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable, 1860 Shipwreck on the Coast, 1862, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Ovid among the Scythians, 1862, version in Metropolitan Museum of Art Winter: Juno and Aeolus, 1856, private collection (sketch for the painting in the São Paulo Museum of Art) Murals for Salon du Roi, Palais Bourbon, Paris, 1833–1837 Charioteers, pen and ink on paper, National Gallery of Art Legacy[edit] Monument to Delacroix, at the Jardin du Luxembourg Delacroix 's tomb in Père Lachaise Cemetery French 100 franc banknote, 1993 At the sale of his work in 1864, 9140 works were attributed to Delacroix, including 853 paintings, 1525 pastels and water colours, 6629 drawings, 109 lithographs, and over 60 sketch books.[32] The number and quality of the drawings, whether done for constructive purposes or to capture a spontaneous movement, underscored his explanation, "Colour always occupies me, but drawing preoccupies me." Delacroix produced several fine self-portraits, and a number of memorable portraits which seem to have been done purely for pleasure, among which were the portrait of fellow artist Baron Schwiter, an inspired small oil of the violinist Niccolò Paganini, and Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand, a double portrait of his friends, the composer Frédéric Chopin and writer George Sand; the painting was cut after his death, but the individual portraits survive. On occasion Delacroix painted pure landscapes (The Sea at Dieppe, 1852) and still lifes (Still Life with Lobsters, 1826–27), both of which feature the virtuoso execution of his figure-based works.[33] He is also well known for his Journal, in which he gave eloquent expression to his thoughts on art and contemporary life.[34] A generation of impressionists was inspired by Delacroix's work. Renoir and Manet made copies of his paintings, and Degas purchased the portrait of Baron Schwiter for his private collection. His painting at the church of Saint-Sulpice has been called the "finest mural painting of his time".[35] Contemporary Chinese artist Yue Minjun has created his own interpretation of Delacroix's painting Massacre of Chios, which retains the same name. Yue Minjun's painting was itself sold at Sotheby's for nearly $4.1 million in 2007.[36] His pencil drawing Moorish Conversation on a Terrace was discovered as part of the Munich Art Hoard.[37] See also[edit] Jean Louis Marie Eugène Durieu, friend, colleague, and photographer List of Orientalist artists Orientalism Musée national Eugène Delacroix, his last apartment in Paris References[edit] ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. ^ a b Noon, Patrick, et al., Crossing the Channel: British and French Painting in the Age of Romanticism, p. 58, Tate Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-85437-513-X ^ Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, pages 504–6. Phaidon Press Limited, 1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X ^ Clark, Kenneth, Civilisation, page 313. Harper and Row, 1969. ^ Wellington, Hubert, The Journal of Eugène Delacroix, introduction, page xiv. Cornell University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8014-9196-7 ^ Sjöberg, Yves (1963). Pour comprendre Delacroix. Editions Beauchesne. p. 29. GGKEY:021FPT3P5E8. Retrieved 15 March 2014. ^ "Eugène Delacroix biography". Web Gallery of Art. Retrieved 14 June 2007. André Castelot (Talleyrand ou le cynisme [Paris, Librairie Perrin, 1980]) discusses and rejects the theory, pointing out that correspondence between Charles and his wife during the pregnancy shows no sign of tension or resentment. ^ Bernard, J.F. (1973). Talleyrand: A Biography. New York: Putnam. p. 210. ISBN 0-399-11022-4. ^ "Lycée Pierre Corneille de Rouen – The Lycée Corneille of Rouen". ac-rouen.fr. ^ Jobert, Barthélémy, Delacroix, page 62. Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-691-00418-8 (Princeton University Press published an expanded edition of this book in 2018. ISBN 978-0691182360) ^ a b Wellington, page xii. ^ Wellington, pages xii, 16. ^ Jobert, page 127. ^ Jobert, page 98. ^ "'The Death of Sardanapalus' – Analysis and Critical Reception". www.artble.com. Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ Jobert, pages 116–18. ^ a b c d Wellington, page xv. ^ Allard, Sébastien, Côme Fabre, Dominique de Font-Réaulx, Michèle Hannoosh, Mehdi Korchane, and Asher Ethan Miller (2018). Delacroix. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 74–76. ISBN 1588396517. ^ Allard, Sébastien, Côme Fabre, Dominique de Font-Réaulx, Michèle Hannoosh, Mehdi Korchane, and Asher Ethan Miller (2018). Delacroix. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 76. ISBN 1588396517. ^ Allard, Sébastien, Côme Fabre, Dominique de Font-Réaulx, Michèle Hannoosh, Mehdi Korchane, and Asher Ethan Miller (2018). Delacroix. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 103. ISBN 1588396517. ^ "Louvre museum gets a sister". USAToday. 23 December 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012. ^ Néret, Gilles Delacroix, page 26. Taschen, 2000. ISBN 3822859885. Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ Jobert, page 140. ^ Baudelaire, quoted in Jobert, page 27. ^ Wellington, page xvi. ^ Jean-Aubry, G. (1920). "A Music-Lover of the Past: Eugène Delacroix". The Musical Quarterly. 6 (4): 478–499. doi:10.1093/mq/vi.4.478. JSTOR 737975. ^ Jobert, pages 245–6. ^ Spector, Jack J. (1985). The Murals of Eugene Delacroix at Saint-Sulpice. Pennsylvania State University Press. ^ Wellington, pages xxvii–xxviii. ^ Deslandres, Yvonne (1963). Delacroix: A Pictorial Biography. Translated by Griffin, Jonathan. New York: Viking Press. p. 126. OCLC 518099. He passed anxiously through the winter of 1862–63: the bad season was always dangerous to his vulnerable throat. On 26 May he met a friend in the train to Champrosay, and the conversation exhausted him ... On 1 June he decided to return to Paris to see his doctor ... On 16 June, as he seemed to be better, he went back to the country ... On 15 July he was at the end of his strength: he was brought back to Paris ... and was fed on fruit, the only food he could take. His doctors could do nothing ... Aware of his condition, he dictated his will ... forgetting none of his friends, he left to each of them something to remember him by, to Jenny enough to live on, and ordered all the contents of his studio to be sold. He also inserted a clause forbidding any representation of his features 'whether by a death-mask or by drawing or by photograph. I forbid it, expressly.' ^ "Biography". Musée National Eugène Delacroix. Retrieved 24 April 2018.[permanent dead link] ^ Wellington, page xxviii. ^ Jobert, page 99. ^ Eugène Delacroix, Journal, nouvelle édition intégrale établie par Michèle Hannoosh, 2 vols., Paris, José Corti, 2009. ISBN 978-2714309990. ^ Wellington, page xxiii. ^ "New record sale of a Chinese contemporary painting: US$5.9 million". Shanghaiist. ^ "Photo Gallery: Munich Nazi Art Stash Revealed". Spiegel. 17 November 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Eugène Delacroix Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix. Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Eugène Delacroix. Works by or about Eugène Delacroix at Internet Archive Bibliothèque numérique de l'INHA – Journal et Correspondance d'Eugène Delacroix Eugène Delacroix's biography, context, style and technique The National Gallery: Delacroix Brief biography at the Getty Museum Le musée national Eugène Delacroix (in French) A free video documentary about Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People Harriet Griffiths & Alister Mill, Delacroix's Salon exhibition record, 1827–1849, Database of Salon Artists, 1827–1850 "Examination of The Shipwreck of Don Juan". Paintings & Drawings. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863): Paintings, Drawings, and Prints from North American Collections, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Romanticism & The School of Nature : Nineteenth-century drawings and paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (see index) Jennifer A. Thompson, "Basket of Flowers and Fruit by Eugège Delacroix (cat. 974)" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication. v t e Eugène Delacroix Paintings The Entombment (1820) The Barque of Dante (1822) Head of a Woman (1823) Mademoiselle Rose (c. 1820–1824) Orphan Girl at the Cemetery (c. 1824) The Massacre at Chios (1824) Horse Frightened by a Thunderstorm (c. 1824) Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826) The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan (1826, 1835, 1856) The Execution of the Doge Marino Faliero (1826) Louis d'Orléans Showing Off His Mistress (1826) Portrait of Louis-Auguste Schwiter (1826-1830) Woman Stroking a Parrot (1827) The Death of Sardanapalus (1827, 1844) Cromwell at Windsor Castle (1828) The Murder of the Bishop of Liège (1829) Liberty Leading the People (1830) A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother (1830–1831) The Battle of Nancy (1831) Cromwell with the Coffin of Charles I (1831) The Picador (1832) Arab Rider Charging (1832) Women of Algiers (1834, 1847–1849) Christ on the Cross (1835) The Battle of Taillebourg, 21 July 1242 (1837) The Kaïd, A Moroccan Chief (1837) Warrior by a Tomb (1838) Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand (1838) Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople (1840) Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1840) The Sultan of Morocco (1845) The Abduction of Rebecca (1846) The Bride of Abydos (pre-1849, 1843–1849) Christ Asleep during the Tempest (c. 1853) Lion Devouring a Rabbit (c. 1855) The Two Foscari (1855) The Lion Hunt (1855) Ovid among the Scythians (1859, 1862) Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable (1860) Horses Leaving the Sea (1860) Jacob wrestling with the Angel (1854–1861) Tiger with a Tortoise (1862) Drawings Sunset (c. 1850) People Charles-François Delacroix (father) Charles-Henri Delacroix (brother) Henriette de Verninac (sister) Jean-François Oeben (grandfather) Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord Henri-François Riesener Jean-Henri Riesener Théodore Géricault Richard Parkes Bonington Paul Huet Ary Scheffer Pierre-Narcisse Guérin Museums Musée national Eugène Delacroix, Paris v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark romanticism Düsseldorf School Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Gothic Revival (architecture) Hudson River School Indianism Jena Romanticism Lake Poets Nazarene movement Ossian Romantic hero Romanticism and Bacon Romanticism in science Romantic nationalism Romantic poetry Opium and Romanticism Transcendentalism Ultra-Romanticism Wallenrodism Writers Abovian Abreu Alencar Alfieri Alves Andersen A. v. 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Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour De Staël Tieck Wackenroder Visual artists Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Friedrich Fuseli Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Loutherbourg Maison Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rude Runge Saleh Scheffer Stattler Stroj Tidemand Todorović Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Related topics German idealism Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Neo-romanticism Preromanticism Post-romanticism Sturm und Drang ← Age of Enlightenment Modernism → Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Australia Art galleries and museums Auckland South Australia Victoria Art research institutes KulturNav (Norway) Photographers' Identities RKD Artists (Netherlands) Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Léonore (France) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugène_Delacroix&oldid=1019905703" Categories: 1798 births 1863 deaths 19th-century French painters French male painters Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts Artist authors Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery French philhellenes French romantic painters Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Lycée Pierre-Corneille alumni Nude art Members of the Académie des beaux-arts Orientalist painters People from Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne 19th-century diarists Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2020 Articles with hCards All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2018 All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from April 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018 Commons link is locally defined Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with AAG identifiers Wikipedia articles with AGSA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NGV identifiers Wikipedia articles with KULTURNAV identifiers Wikipedia articles with PIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with Léonore identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with suppressed authority control identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Picard Piemontèis Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Seeltersk Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2021, at 02:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3987	----	Espejo, Spain - Wikipedia Espejo, Spain From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Espejo, Córdoba) Jump to navigation Jump to search city in Andalusia, Spain Espejo city View of Espejo Seal Country Spain Autonomous community Andalusia Province Córdoba Area  • Total 56 km2 (22 sq mi) Elevation 423 m (1,388 ft) Population (2018)[1]  • Total 3,333  • Density 60/km2 (150/sq mi) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Espejo is a municipality in the province of Córdoba, Spain. References[edit] ^ Municipal Register of Spain 2018. National Statistics Institute. v t e Municipalities in the province of Córdoba Adamuz Aguilar de la Frontera Alcaracejos Almedinilla Almodóvar del Río Añora Baena Belalcázar Bélmez Benamejí Bujalance Cabra Cañete de las Torres Carcabuey Cardeña Castro del Río Conquista Córdoba Doña Mencía Dos Torres El Carpio El Guijo El Viso Encinas Reales Espejo Espiel Fernán Núñez Fuente Carreteros Fuente Obejuna Fuente Palmera Fuente la Lancha Fuente-Tójar Guadalcázar Hinojosa del Duque Hornachuelos Iznájar La Carlota La Granjuela La Guijarrosa La Rambla La Victoria Los Blázquez Lucena Luque Montalbán de Córdoba Montemayor Montilla Montoro Monturque Moriles Nueva Carteya Obejo Palenciana Palma del Río Pedro Abad Pedroche Peñarroya-Pueblonuevo Posadas Pozoblanco Priego de Córdoba Puente Genil Rute San Sebastián de los Ballesteros Santa Eufemia Santaella Torrecampo Valenzuela Valsequillo Villa del Río Villafranca de Córdoba Villaharta Villanueva de Córdoba Villanueva del Duque Villanueva del Rey Villaralto Villaviciosa de Córdoba Zuheros Coordinates: 37°41′N 4°33′W / 37.683°N 4.550°W / 37.683; -4.550 Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States This article about a location in Andalusia, Spain, is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espejo,_Spain&oldid=986407991" Categories: Municipalities in the Province of Córdoba (Spain) Andalusia geography stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with no coordinates Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Bân-lâm-gú Català Cebuano Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego Հայերեն Interlingua Italiano ქართული Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Нохчийн Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Vèneto Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 October 2020, at 17:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3988	----	Marcomanni - Wikipedia Marcomanni From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical ethnical group The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138), showing the location of the Marcomanni in the region of the upper Danube (now northern Austria and Czech Republic) The Marcomanni were a group of early Germanic peoples[1] that eventually came to live in a powerful kingdom north of the Danube, somewhere near modern Bohemia, during the peak of power of the nearby Roman Empire. According to Tacitus and Strabo, they were Suebian. Contents 1 Origin 2 Marcomannic Wars 3 Later history 4 Kings 5 See also 6 References 7 Classical sources 8 External links Origin[edit] It is believed their name may derive from the Proto-Germanic forms of the word "march" (meaning "frontier, border", as in the Welsh marches and the kingdom of Mercia) and the word "men", *Markōmanniz,[2][3][4] which would have been rendered in Latinised form as Marcomanni. The Marcomanni first appear in historical records as confederates of the Suebi of Ariovistus fighting against Julius Caesar in Gaul (now France) after they had crossed the Rhine from what is now southern Germany. The exact position of their lands at the time is not known. The fact that their name existed before the Romans had territory near the Danube or Rhine raises the question of which border they lived near to explain their name. Their name may echo an earlier demarcation between the northern Germanic tribes of the Jastorf cultural circle and those of the maximum expansion of the Celts during the earlier and later Iron Age of La Tène dominance throughout Europe. Findings in the archaeological record show that they had pressed north with some influence as far as into Jutland, but they mostly remained separated in the south and settled in oppida over what is now Thuringia and Saxony along the Hercynian Forest, intrinsically connected to the major trade roads that went into the more evolved centres of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, which were then all still Celtic regions. It has been suggested that they may have lived near the confluence of Rhine and the Main Rivers in areas that had been inhabited but left deserted by the Helvetii and Taurisci. However, the historian Florus reports that Drusus erected a mound of their spoils during his campaign of 12-9 BC after he had defeated the Tencteri and Chatti, and before next turning to Cherusci, Suevi, and Sicambri. That suggests that they were not close to any obvious border at the time.[5] According to the accounts of Tacitus (Germ. 42), Paterculus (2.108), Pliny the Elder, and Strabo (vii. p. 290) they eventually moved into the large area that had been occupied by the Boii, specifically in a region already called Baiohaemum, where their allies and fellow Suevi lived, the Quadi. It was described as being within the Hercynian Forest and was possibly in the region of modern Bohemia, but that is not certain.[6] By 6 BC, their king, Maroboduus, had established a powerful kingdom there that Augustus perceived as a threat to the Roman Empire. Before he could act, however, the revolt in Illyria intervened. Eventually, Maroboduus was deposed and exiled by Catualda (AD 19). Catualda was, in turn, deposed by Vibilius of the Hermunduri that year and succeeded by the Quadian Vannius. Around 50 AD, Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in co-ordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido. In the late 1st century, Tacitus mentions (Germania I.42) the Marcomanni as being under kings appointed by Rome.[7] Marcomannic Wars[edit] Main article: Marcomannic Wars In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples, including the Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatians, against the Roman Empire. It was probably driven by movements of larger tribes, like the Goths. According to the historian Eutropius, the forces of Emperor, Marcus Aurelius battled against the Marcomannic confederation for three years at the fortress of Carnuntum, in Pannonia. Eutropius compared the war and Aurelius's success against the Marcomanni and their allies to the Punic Wars. The comparison was apt in that the war marked a turning point, had significant Roman defeats and caused the death of two Praetorian Guard commanders. The war began in 166, when the Marcomanni overwhelmed the defences between Vindobona and Carnuntum, penetrated along the border between the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum, laid waste to Flavia Solva and could be stopped only shortly before Aquileia, on the Adriatic Sea. The war lasted until Aurelius's death in 180. It would prove to be only a limited success for Rome since the Danube River remained as the frontier of the empire until the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Later history[edit] The Christianisation of the Marcomanni, at least into a Roman orthodox form of Christianity, seems to have occurred under their queen, Fritigil, the wife of an unnamed king, in the mid-4th century. She corresponded with Ambrose of Milan to bring about the conversion. That was the last clear evidence of the Marcomanni having a polity, which was possibly now on the Roman side of the Danube. Soon afterward, the Pannonian and Danubian area went into a long period of turmoil. After crossing the Rhine in 406 and the Pyrenees in 409, a group of Suevi that had migrated with Vandals and Alans, established itself in the Roman province of Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), where it was considered foederati and founded the Suebi kingdom of Gallaecia. The Suevi were probably a mix of Suevian groups from the area north of Danube and Pannonian basin such as the Marcomanni, Quadi and Buri. There, Hermeric swore fealty to the emperor in 410. Bracara Augusta, the modern city of Braga in Portugal, had been the capital of Roman Gallaecia and now became the capital of the Suebic Kingdom. The Danubian area, meanwhile, became the core of Attila the Hunnic Empire, and within it seem to have been many Suebians. One group of them managed to reform into an independent group after the Battle of Nedao in 454, like many other groups that emerged from Attila's confederation. Those Suevi eventually came into conflict with the Ostrogoths, who had lost at Nadao. Jordanes, the historian of the Goths, reported (Getica 280) that after the Battle of Bolia, the Ostrogoths attacked the Suevi (ruled by a man named Hunimund, who also seemingly led an attack on Passau[8]) by crossing the Danube when it was frozen and going into a high Alpine area held by the confederates of the Suevi at the time, the Alamanni. (He said that several streams start in the area and enter the Danube.) The region held by those Suevi was described as having Bavarians to the east, Franks to the west, Burgundians to the south, and Thuringians to the north. The text seems to indicate that the Suevi had moved into the Alamannic area but that Suevi were seen as distinct from both Alamanni and Bavarians. Thay was also the first mention of Bavarians, who are also often proposed to have had Marcomanni in their ancestry. According to historians such as Herwig Wolfram: The Marcomanni and the Quadi gave up their special names after crossing the Danube, in fact both the emigrants and the groups remaining in Pannonia became Suebi again. The Pannonian Suebi became subjects of the Huns. After the battle at the Nadao they set up their kingdom, and when it fell, they came, successively under Herulian and Longobard rule, south of the Danube under Gothic rule, and eventually again under Longobard rule.[9] There is a runic alphabet called the Marcomannic runes, but they are not believed to be related to the Marcomanni. Kings[edit] Maroboduus, c. 9 BC – 18 AD[10] Catualda, 18 – 20[10] Vannius, 20 – c. 50[11] Vangio and Sido, c. 50 – ?[12] Ballomar, c. 166? – 172 or 178? Attalus, c. 260/2[13] Fritigil, mid-4th century, queen See also[edit] History of Portugal History of Spain Irminones List of ancient Germanic peoples Migrations period Timeline of Germanic kingdoms References[edit] ^ Schehl, Franz A. W.; Drinkwater, John Frederick (2012). "Marcoman(n)i". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191735257. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Marcoman(n)i... a west German (Suebic) tribe, the name meaning the inhabitants of a border country (‘march’)... Darvill, Timothy, ed. (2009). "Marcomanni". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191727139. Retrieved January 25, 2020. Marcomanni. ‘Border Men’, a Germanic people... Fischer, Thomas; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). "Marcomanni". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191744457. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Marcomanni. Germanic tribe belonging originally to the Elbe cultural grouping... ^ "mark - Origin and meaning of the name mark by Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018. ^ "man - Origin and meaning of man by Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018. ^ "I-mutation". www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018. ^ Smith, William (1854), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, archived from the original on 2013-11-20 ^ Green, Dennis (2014), "The Boii, Bavaria and Bohemia", The Baiuvarii and Thuringi: An Ethnographic Perspective, p. 20, ISBN 9781843839156, archived from the original on 2016-04-22 ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/tac/g01040.htm ^ Herwig Wolfram, "History of the Goths", p.266 Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine ^ The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, pp. 160–161. ^ a b Tac. Ann. 2.62-3 ^ Tac. Ann. 2.63; 12.29–30 ^ Tac. Ann. 12.29-30 ^ Aur. Vict. Caes. 33,6; Epit. 33,1; SHA Gall. 21,3; PIR2 A 1328; PLRE I Attalus Classical sources[edit] Caesar De Bello Gallico, at The Latin Library Tacitus Germania, at The Latin Library Tacitus Annales, at The Latin Library External links[edit] "Marcomanni" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Germanic monarchs Attested in Antiquity (ca. 3,000 BC–500 AD), Migration Period (c. 300–538 AD), and the Germanic Iron Age (c. 476–793) Cherusci (c. 9 BCE–21 CE) Segimerus (c. 9 BCE–9 CE) Arminius (9–21) Marcomanni (c. 9 BCE–37 CE, c. 166–c. 172) Maroboduus (c. 9 BCE–18 CE) Catualda (18 CE-) Ballomar (c. 166–c. 172) Suebi Ariovistus Hunimund Hermeric (c. 419-438) Rechila (438-448) Rechiar (448-456) Goths Radagaisus (-406) Thervingi Athanaric Greuthungi Ermanaric Vithimiris Visigoths Alaric I (395-410) Athaulf (410-415) Sigeric (415) Wallia (415-418) Theodoric I (418-451) Thorismund (451-453) Theodoric II (453-466) Euric (466-484) Alaric II (484-507) Gesalec (507-513) Amalaric (522-531) Theudis (531-548) Theudigisel (548-549) Agila (549-554) Athanagild (554-567) Liuva I (567-572) Liuvigild (568-586) Reccared I (586-601) Liuva II (601-603) Witteric (603-610) Gundemar ( 610-612) Sisebut (612-621) Reccared II (621) Suintila (621-631) Sisenand (631-636) Chintila (636-639) Tulga (639-642) Chindasuinth (642-653) Recceswinth (649-672) Wamba (672-680) Erwig (680-687) Egica (687-702) Wittiza (694-710) Roderic (710-712) Achila II (711-714) Ardo (714-721) Ostrogoths Valamir (447-469) Theodemir (469-475) Theodoric the Great (475-526) Athalaric (526-534) Amalasuintha (534-535) Theodahad (534-536) Witiges (536-540) Ildibad (540-541) Eraric (541) Totila (541-552) Teia (551-553) Vandals Godigisel (until 406) Gunderic (407–428) Genseric (428–477) Huneric (477–484) Gunthamund (484–496) Thrasamund (496–523) Hilderic (523–530) Gelimer (530–534) Lombards List of legendary kings of the Lombards (3rd-4th centuries) Lething Dynasty (5th-6th centuries) Audoin (546–565) Alboin (568–572) Cleph (572–574) Interregnum (574–584) Authari (584–590) Agilulf (590–616) Adaloald (616–626) Arioald (626–636) Rothari (636-652) Rodoald (652–653) Aripert I (653–661) Godepert (661–662) Perctarit (661–662) Grimoald (662–671) Garibald (671) Perctarit (671–688) Cunipert (688–689) Alahis (689) Cunipert (689–700) Liutpert (700–702) Raginpert (701) Aripert II (702–712) Ansprand (712) Liutprand (712–744) Hildeprand (744) Ratchis (744–749) Aistulf (749–756) Desiderius (756–774) Franks Merovingians (428–751) Chlodio (428–445/448) Merovech (445/448–457) Childeric I (457–481/482) Clovis I (481/482–511) Childebert I (511–558) Chlothar I (511–561) Charibert I (561–567) Guntram (561–593) Chilperic I (561–584) Sigebert I (561–575) Childebert II (575–595) Chlothar II (584–629) Dagobert I (623–639) Sigebert II (639–656) Clovis II (639–657) Chlothar III (657–673) Childeric II (673–675) Theuderic III (675–691) Clovis IV (691–695) Childebert III (695–711) Dagobert III (711–715) Chilperic II (715–721) Chlothar IV (717–719) Theuderic IV (721–737) Childeric III (737–751) Norse Danes List of legendary kings of Denmark (7th–10th centuries) Norwegians Petty kingdoms of Norway (6th–9th century) Swedes List of legendary kings of Sweden Yngling (9th–12th centuries) Ynglingatal House of Munsö List of legendary kings of the Geats v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcomanni&oldid=1023193047" Categories: Marcomanni Early Germanic peoples Suebi Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 23:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3991	----	Bleeding - Wikipedia Bleeding From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hemorrhage) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Hemorrhage" and "Haemorrhage" redirect here. For the song by Fuel, see Hemorrhage (In My Hands). For the band, see Haemorrhage (band). For the deliberate extraction of blood, see Bloodletting. For other uses, see Bleeding (disambiguation). Loss of blood escaping from the circulatory system Medical condition Bleeding Other names Hemorrhaging, haemorrhaging A bleeding wound in the finger Specialty Emergency medicine, hematology Bleeding, also known as a hemorrhage, haemorrhage, or simply blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels.[1] Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, vagina or anus, or through a wound in the skin. Hypovolemia is a massive decrease in blood volume, and death by excessive loss of blood is referred to as exsanguination.[2] Typically, a healthy person can endure a loss of 10–15% of the total blood volume without serious medical difficulties (by comparison, blood donation typically takes 8–10% of the donor's blood volume).[3] The stopping or controlling of bleeding is called hemostasis and is an important part of both first aid and surgery. The use of cyanoacrylate glue to prevent bleeding and seal battle wounds was designed and first used in the Vietnam War. Today many medical treatments use a medical version of "super glue" instead of using traditional stitches used for small wounds that need to be closed at the skin level. Contents 1 Classification 1.1 Blood loss 1.2 Massive hemorrhage 1.3 World Health Organization 2 Types 3 Causes 3.1 Traumatic injury 3.2 Medical condition 3.3 Infection 4 Diagnosis/Imaging 5 Management 6 Etymology 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Classification[edit] A subconjunctival hemorrhage is a common and relatively minor post-LASIK complication. The endoscopic image of a type of stomach cancer known as linitis plastica. The leather bottle-like appearance can also cause bleeding as can be seen in this image. Micrograph showing abundant hemosiderin-laden alveolar macrophages (dark brown), as seen in a pulmonary hemorrhage. H&E stain. Blood loss[edit] Hemorrhaging is broken down into four classes by the American College of Surgeons' advanced trauma life support (ATLS).[4] Class I Hemorrhage involves up to 15% of blood volume. There is typically no change in vital signs and fluid resuscitation is not usually necessary. Class II Hemorrhage involves 15-30% of total blood volume. A patient is often tachycardic (rapid heart beat) with a reduction in the difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The body attempts to compensate with peripheral vasoconstriction. Skin may start to look pale and be cool to the touch. The patient may exhibit slight changes in behavior. Volume resuscitation with crystalloids (Saline solution or Lactated Ringer's solution) is all that is typically required. Blood transfusion is not usually required. Class III Hemorrhage involves loss of 30-40% of circulating blood volume. The patient's blood pressure drops, the heart rate increases, peripheral hypoperfusion (shock) with diminished capillary refill occurs, and the mental status worsens. Fluid resuscitation with crystalloid and blood transfusion are usually necessary. Class IV Hemorrhage involves loss of >40% of circulating blood volume. The limit of the body's compensation is reached and aggressive resuscitation is required to prevent death. This system is basically the same as used in the staging of hypovolemic shock. Individuals in excellent physical and cardiovascular shape may have more effective compensatory mechanisms before experiencing cardiovascular collapse. These patients may look deceptively stable, with minimal derangements in vital signs, while having poor peripheral perfusion. Elderly patients or those with chronic medical conditions may have less tolerance to blood loss, less ability to compensate, and may take medications such as betablockers that can potentially blunt the cardiovascular response. Care must be taken in the assessment. Massive hemorrhage[edit] Although there is no universally accepted definition of massive hemorrhage, the following can be used to identify the condition: "(i) blood loss exceeding circulating blood volume within a 24-hour period, (ii) blood loss of 50% of circulating blood volume within a 3-hour period, (iii) blood loss exceeding 150 ml/min, or (iv) blood loss that necessitates plasma and platelet transfusion."[5] World Health Organization[edit] The World Health Organization made a standardized grading scale to measure the severity of bleeding.[6] Grade 0 no bleeding Grade 1 petechial bleeding; Grade 2 mild blood loss (clinically significant); Grade 3 gross blood loss, requires transfusion (severe); Grade 4 debilitating blood loss, retinal or cerebral associated with fatality Types[edit] Upper head Intracranial hemorrhage – bleeding in the skull. Cerebral hemorrhage – a type of intracranial hemorrhage, bleeding within the brain tissue itself. Intracerebral hemorrhage – bleeding in the brain caused by the rupture of a blood vessel within the head. See also hemorrhagic stroke. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) implies the presence of blood within the subarachnoid space from some pathologic process. The common medical use of the term SAH refers to the nontraumatic types of hemorrhages, usually from rupture of a berry aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation(AVM). The scope of this article is limited to these nontraumatic hemorrhages. Eyes Subconjunctival hemorrhage – bloody eye arising from a broken blood vessel in the sclera (whites of the eyes). Often the result of strain, including sneezing, coughing, vomiting or other kind of strain Nose Epistaxis – nosebleed Mouth Tooth eruption – losing a tooth Hematemesis – vomiting fresh blood Hemoptysis – coughing up blood from the lungs Lungs Pulmonary hemorrhage Gastrointestinal Upper gastrointestinal bleed Lower gastrointestinal bleed Occult gastrointestinal bleed Urinary tract Hematuria – blood in the urine from urinary bleeding Gynecologic Vaginal bleeding Postpartum hemorrhage Breakthrough bleeding Ovarian bleeding – This is a potentially catastrophic and not so rare complication among lean patients with polycystic ovary syndrome undergoing transvaginal oocyte retrieval.[7] Anus Melena – upper gastrointestinal bleeding Hematochezia – lower gastrointestinal bleeding, or brisk upper gastrointestinal bleeding Vascular Ruptured Aneurysm Aortic transection Iatrogenic injury Causes[edit] See also: Wound Bleeding arises due to either traumatic injury, underlying medical condition, or a combination. Traumatic injury[edit] Traumatic bleeding is caused by some type of injury. There are different types of wounds which may cause traumatic bleeding. These include: Abrasion – Also called a graze, this is caused by transverse action of a foreign object against the skin, and usually does not penetrate below the epidermis. Excoriation – In common with Abrasion, this is caused by mechanical destruction of the skin, although it usually has an underlying medical cause. Hematoma – Caused by damage to a blood vessel that in turn causes blood to collect under the skin. Laceration – Irregular wound caused by blunt impact to soft tissue overlying hard tissue or tearing such as in childbirth. In some instances, this can also be used to describe an incision. Incision – A cut into a body tissue or organ, such as by a scalpel, made during surgery. Puncture Wound – Caused by an object that penetrated the skin and underlying layers, such as a nail, needle or knife. Contusion – Also known as a bruise, this is a blunt trauma damaging tissue under the surface of the skin. Crushing Injuries – Caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a period of time. The extent of a crushing injury may not immediately present itself. Ballistic Trauma – Caused by a projectile weapon such as a firearm. This may include two external wounds (entry and exit) and a contiguous wound between the two. The pattern of injury, evaluation and treatment will vary with the mechanism of the injury. Blunt trauma causes injury via a shock effect; delivering energy over an area. Wounds are often not straight and unbroken skin may hide significant injury. Penetrating trauma follows the course of the injurious device. As the energy is applied in a more focused fashion, it requires less energy to cause significant injury. Any body organ, including bone and brain, can be injured and bleed. Bleeding may not be readily apparent; internal organs such as the liver, kidney and spleen may bleed into the abdominal cavity. The only apparent signs may come with blood loss. Bleeding from a bodily orifice, such as the rectum, nose, or ears may signal internal bleeding, but cannot be relied upon. Bleeding from a medical procedure also falls into this category. Medical condition[edit] "Medical bleeding" denotes hemorrhage as a result of an underlying medical condition (i.e. causes of bleeding that are not directly due to trauma). Blood can escape from blood vessels as a result of 3 basic patterns of injury: Intravascular changes – changes of the blood within vessels (e.g. ↑ blood pressure, ↓ clotting factors) Intramural changes – changes arising within the walls of blood vessels (e.g. aneurysms, dissections, AVMs, vasculitides) Extravascular changes – changes arising outside blood vessels (e.g. H pylori infection, brain abscess, brain tumor) The underlying scientific basis for blood clotting and hemostasis is discussed in detail in the articles, coagulation, hemostasis and related articles. The discussion here is limited to the common practical aspects of blood clot formation which manifest as bleeding. Some medical conditions can also make patients susceptible to bleeding. These are conditions that affect the normal hemostatic (bleeding-control) functions of the body. Such conditions either are, or cause, bleeding diatheses. Hemostasis involves several components. The main components of the hemostatic system include platelets and the coagulation system. Platelets are small blood components that form a plug in the blood vessel wall that stops bleeding. Platelets also produce a variety of substances that stimulate the production of a blood clot. One of the most common causes of increased bleeding risk is exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The prototype for these drugs is aspirin, which inhibits the production of thromboxane. NSAIDs inhibit the activation of platelets, and thereby increase the risk of bleeding. The effect of aspirin is irreversible; therefore, the inhibitory effect of aspirin is present until the platelets have been replaced (about ten days). Other NSAIDs, such as "ibuprofen" (Motrin) and related drugs, are reversible and therefore, the effect on platelets is not as long-lived. There are several named coagulation factors that interact in a complex way to form blood clots, as discussed in the article on coagulation. Deficiencies of coagulation factors are associated with clinical bleeding. For instance, deficiency of Factor VIII causes classic hemophilia A while deficiencies of Factor IX cause "Christmas disease"(hemophilia B). Antibodies to Factor VIII can also inactivate the Factor VII and precipitate bleeding that is very difficult to control. This is a rare condition that is most likely to occur in older patients and in those with autoimmune diseases. Another common bleeding disorder is Von Willebrand disease. It is caused by a deficiency or abnormal function of the "Von Willebrand" factor, which is involved in platelet activation. Deficiencies in other factors, such as factor XIII or factor VII are occasionally seen, but may not be associated with severe bleeding and are not as commonly diagnosed. In addition to NSAID-related bleeding, another common cause of bleeding is that related to the medication, warfarin ("Coumadin" and others). This medication needs to be closely monitored as the bleeding risk can be markedly increased by interactions with other medications. Warfarin acts by inhibiting the production of Vitamin K in the gut. Vitamin K is required for the production of the clotting factors, II, VII, IX, and X in the liver. One of the most common causes of warfarin-related bleeding is taking antibiotics. The gut bacteria make vitamin K and are killed by antibiotics. This decreases vitamin K levels and therefore the production of these clotting factors. Deficiencies of platelet function may require platelet transfusion while deficiencies of clotting factors may require transfusion of either fresh frozen plasma or specific clotting factors, such as Factor VIII for patients with hemophilia. Infection[edit] Infectious diseases such as Ebola, Marburg virus disease and yellow fever can cause bleeding. Diagnosis/Imaging[edit] See also: Wound assessment Dioxaborolane chemistry enables radioactive fluoride (18F) labeling of red blood cells, which allows for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of intracerebral hemorrhages.[8] Management[edit] See also: Emergency bleeding control, Wound healing, and Wound bed preparation Acute bleeding from an injury to the skin is often treated by the application of direct pressure.[9] For severely injured patients, tourniquets are helpful in preventing complications of shock.[10] Anticoagulant medications may need to be discontinued and possibly reversed in patients with clinically significant bleeding.[11] Patients that have lost excessive amounts of blood may require a blood transfusion.[12] Etymology[edit] The word "Haemorrhage" (or hæmorrhage; using the æ ligature) comes from Latin haemorrhagia, from Ancient Greek αἱμορραγία (haimorrhagía, "a violent bleeding"), from αἱμορραγής (haimorrhagḗs, "bleeding violently"), from αἷμα (haîma, "blood") + -ραγία (-ragía), from ῥηγνύναι (rhēgnúnai, "to break, burst").[13] See also[edit] Anaesthesia Trauma and Critical Care Aneurysm Autohemorrhaging Anemia Coagulation Contusion Exsanguination Hemophage Hemophilia Hematoma Istihadha References[edit] ^ "Bleeding Health Article". Healthline. Archived from the original on 2011-02-10. Retrieved 2007-06-18. ^ "Dictionary Definitions of Exsanguination". Reference.com. Archived from the original on 2007-07-11. Retrieved 2007-06-18. ^ "Blood Donation Information". UK National Blood Service. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-06-18. ^ Manning JE (2003-11-04). "Fluid and Blood Resuscitation". In Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapczynski JS (eds.). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, Sixth edition. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-07-150091-3. ^ Irita K (March 2011). "Risk and crisis management in intraoperative hemorrhage: Human factors in hemorrhagic critical events". Korean J Anesthesiol. 60 (3): 151–60. doi:10.4097/kjae.2011.60.3.151. PMC 3071477. PMID 21490815. ^ Webert K, Cook RJ, Sigouin CS, Rebulla P, Heddle NM (November 2006). "The risk of bleeding in thrombocytopenic patients with acute myeloid leukemia". Haematologica. 91 (11): 1530–37. PMID 17043016. ^ Liberty G, Hyman JH, Eldar-Geva T, Latinsky B, Gal M, Margalioth EJ (December 2008). "Ovarian hemorrhage after transvaginal ultrasonographically guided oocyte aspiration: a potentially catastrophic and not so rare complication among lean patients with polycystic ovary syndrome". Fertil. Steril. 93 (3): 874–879. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.028. PMID 19064264. ^ Wang, Ye; An, Fei-Fei; Chan, Mark; Friedman, Beth; Rodriguez, Erik A; Tsien, Roger Y; Aras, Omer; Ting, Richard (2017-01-05). "18F-positron-emitting/fluorescent labeled erythrocytes allow imaging of internal hemorrhage in a murine intracranial hemorrhage model". Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism. 37 (3): 776–786. doi:10.1177/0271678x16682510. PMC 5363488. PMID 28054494. ^ "Severe bleeding: First aid". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 15 June 2020. ^ Scerbo, MH; Holcomb, JB; Taub, E; Gates, K; Love, JD; Wade, CE; Cotton, BA (December 2017). "The Trauma Center Is Too Late: Major Limb Trauma Without a Pre-hospital Tourniquet Has Increased Death From Hemorrhagic Shock". J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 83 (6): 1165–1172. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000001666. PMID 29190257. ^ Hanigan, Sarah; Barnes, Geoffrey D. "Managing Anticoagulant-related Bleeding in Patients with Venous Thromboembolism". American College of Cardiology. Retrieved 15 June 2020. ^ Nunez, TC; Cotton, BA (December 2009). "Transfusion Therapy in Hemorrhagic Shock". Curr Opin Crit Care. 15 (6): 536–41. doi:10.1097/MCC.0b013e328331575b. PMC 3139329. PMID 19730099. ^ "Hemorrhage Origin". dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 20 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015. External links[edit] Classification D ICD-10: R58 ICD-9-CM: 459.0 MeSH: D006470 External resources MedlinePlus: 000045 v t e First aid Techniques Abdominal thrusts Airway management Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Emergency bleeding control Equipment Automated external defibrillator Bag valve mask Bandage Dressing First aid kit Nasopharyngeal airway Oropharyngeal airway Mnemonics ABC DCAP-BTLS OPQRST RICE SAMPLE SOAP Certifications Certified first responder Emergency medical technician Wilderness Emergency Medical Technician Topics Bleeding Golden hour Good Samaritan law Wilderness medicine v t e Disorders of bleeding and clotting Coagulation  · coagulopathy  · Bleeding diathesis Clotting By cause Clotting factors Antithrombin III deficiency Protein C deficiency Activated protein C resistance Protein S deficiency Factor V Leiden Prothrombin G20210A Platelets Sticky platelet syndrome Thrombocytosis Essential thrombocythemia DIC Purpura fulminans Antiphospholipid syndrome Clots Thrombophilia Thrombus Thrombosis Virchow's triad Trousseau sign of malignancy By site Deep vein thrombosis Bancroft's sign Homans sign Lisker's sign Louvel's sign Lowenberg's sign Peabody's sign Pratt's sign Rose's sign Pulmonary embolism Renal vein thrombosis Bleeding By cause Thrombocytopenia Thrombocytopenic purpura: ITP Evans syndrome TM TTP Upshaw–Schulman syndrome Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia May–Hegglin anomaly Platelet function adhesion Bernard–Soulier syndrome aggregation Glanzmann's thrombasthenia platelet storage pool deficiency Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome Gray platelet syndrome Clotting factor Hemophilia A/VIII B/IX C/XI von Willebrand disease Hypoprothrombinemia/II Factor VII deficiency Factor X deficiency Factor XII deficiency Factor XIII deficiency Dysfibrinogenemia Congenital afibrinogenemia Signs and symptoms Bleeding Bruise Hematoma Petechia Purpura Nonthrombocytopenic purpura By site head Epistaxis Hemoptysis Intracranial hemorrhage Hyphema Subconjunctival hemorrhage torso Hemothorax Hemopericardium Pulmonary hematoma abdomen Gastrointestinal bleeding Hemobilia Hemoperitoneum Hematocele Hematosalpinx joint Hemarthrosis Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Latvia Japan Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bleeding&oldid=1018038780" Categories: Bleeding Transfusion medicine Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Patois Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 April 2021, at 23:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4002	----	Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo - Wikipedia Help Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Lucius Aelius Caesar Antoninus Pius C Caracalla Commodus F Faustina the Elder Faustina the Younger G Geta (emperor) H Hadrian J Julia Domna L Lucius Verus M Marcus Aurelius S Septimius Severus V Vibia Sabina Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Burials_at_the_Castel_Sant%27Angelo&oldid=824820900" Categories: Castel Sant'Angelo Burial sites of European royal families Burials in Rome by place Burials by mausoleum Burials by castle Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Italiano Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 9 February 2018, at 18:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4023	----	Wikipedia:Community portal - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Community portal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Place to find collaborations, tasks, and news about Wikimedia Community portal Dashboard Departments Maintenance Tasks Discord IRC Meetups Directories (Policies/Guidelines Essays How-to Index Noticeboards WikiProjects) Welcome to the Community portal! Shortcuts P:WP WP:COM This page provides a listing of current collaborations, tasks, and news about English Wikipedia. New to Wikipedia? See the contributing to Wikipedia page or our tutorial for everything you need to know to get started. For a listing of internal project pages of interest, see the department directory. Interact more For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the Dashboard. 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(edit | history) Page used for announcements towards the community members of the project 25 April 2021   From the editor: A change is gonna come Disinformation report: The Trump Organization's paid editors In the media: Fernando, governance, and rugby Opinion: The (Universal) Code of Conduct Op-Ed: A Little Fun Goes A Long Way Changing the world: The reach of protest images on Wikipedia Recent research: Quality of aquatic and anatomical articles Traffic report: The verdict is guilty, guilty, guilty News from Wiki Education: Encouraging professional physicists to engage in outreach on Wikipedia Single page Front page About Subscribe Suggestions Archives This week's article for improvement is: Savoriness Previous selections: Learned society · Trench · Pork chop This week's backlog of the week is: Category:Wikipedia infobox backlog Active Wiki Fixup Projects Article Rescue Squadron Check Wikipedia Cleanup Dead-end pages Disambig pages w/ links Fix common mistakes Free images to Commons Geo-coordinates Missing articles Most-wanted articles Notability Orphaned articles Red Link Recovery Reliability Requested articles Single editor Spell check Stubsensor Articles for improvement Uncategorised articles Unreferenced articles Wikification needed Main · Inactive · Mini v t e General notices Do you have need for a specialized script that doesn't exist yet, or have an idea for a cool new script or gadget? Post requests and ideas at Wikipedia:User scripts/Requests. Projects seeking help Also consider posting WikiProject, Task Force, and Collaboration news at the Signpost's WikiProject Report page. WikiProjects and Task Forces WikiProject Sweep, which aims to comprehensively review every article created in Wikipedia's early days to ensure basic conformity to modern standards, has been launched following a successful proposal at the WikiProject Council. The Wikipedia Help Project seeks assistance expanding and improving the Task Center and other pages within the Help namespace. WikiProject Abandoned Drafts Stale draft drive. An ongoing drive dedicated to reducing the amount of stale user space drafts. Options are to delete, redirect, move to mainspace or blank. Stop by and help the drive out! WikiProject Spoken Wikipedia is looking for people who are interested in helping out in our project to get our articles into an audio format that can be used for any number of uses including, but not limited to, visually impaired or people who just prefer to listen to the article instead of reading it for whatever reason they choose. You can sign up here on our participant's page. We are also in need of native or fluent speakers so that everything is pronounced properly. You can sign up for the Pronunciation task force by adding your name as well as your languages of fluency to section 2. Technical news This section is transcluded from Template:Latest tech news. (edit | history) Group efforts and monthly projects Monthly projects Guild of Copy Editors' editing drive. The May 2021 backlog drive is a one-month-long effort of the Guild of Copy Editors to reduce the backlog of articles that require copy editing; those carrying the {{copy edit}} tag (also {{awkward}}, {{copy edit section}}, {{inappropriate person}}, and {{copy edit inline}} and their redirects) or listed on the GOCE Requests page. It ended on 31 May 2021, 23:59 (UTC). Stay tuned for the next event. Ongoing group efforts The 100,000 Challenge. The quest to bring about 100,000 article improvements and creations globally through a series of 50,000/10,000/1000 Challenges for different regions and countries. This is a loose challenge, a list will not be maintained here, but the components will function independently on each of the subpages. Will be updated every week or two. The 50,000 Destubbing Challenge is a long term challenge to destub 50,000 articles on English Wikipedia for every country and topic. It may take decades to accomplish, it may take ten years, it all depends on how many people actively contribute. Page used for announcements towards the community members of the project Wikipedia:WikiCup. The WikiCup is a championship that has taken place every year on Wikipedia since 2007. The Cup is played and won by skill of editing. The purpose of the Cup is to encourage content creation and improvement and make editing on Wikipedia more fun. There is a new round every month, until the current contest ends; below are the details. May 1 to June 28 – 32 contestants left. July 1 to August 29 – 16 contestants left. September 1 to October 31 – 8 finalists left, the contestant with the highest score will win! WP:The Core Contest is a recurring six-week contest, starting on June 1 in 2021. The purpose is to give a boost to Wikipedia's most important articles, especially those that start out in a bad shape. Monthly contest, WikiProject Military history. The contest department of the Military history WikiProject aims to motivate increased quality in military history articles by offering a form of friendly competition for project members making improvements to them. The primary contest available is a simple rolling competition that awards points for improving articles. The contest runs from the first to last day of each month. WikiProject Medicine Collaboration of the Month. Every month, a topic will be selected from this page that will be the focus of editing for some members of Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine. The article may or may not yet exist. Topics may either relate to medical basic sciences (anatomy, biochemistry, and so on), or clinical medicine (illnesses, surgical procedures, and so on). 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Wikipedia-specific searching with Firefox In Firefox, the search box has a little pull down menu to allow you to choose which search engine it uses. Several popular search engines come included, but not Wikipedia. However, Firefox provides a page on their website listing more search engines you can add to that menu, including Wikipedia's search. To add Wikipedia, simply go here and click on Wikipedia in the list provided, and you are done. To activate it, pull-down the menu at the search box and click on Wikipedia there. Now you have a second Wikipedia search box. Unlike the search box in Wikipedia's sidebar, which disappears off the screen when you scroll down to read a long page, the Firefox search box always remains on the screen, ready to assist. (Keep in mind, typing Alt+F also places the cursor in the Wikipedia search box.) 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en-wikipedia-org-4028	----	Theodore II Laskaris - Wikipedia Theodore II Laskaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theodore II Doukas Laskaris Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Portrait of Theodore II (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor in exile Reign 3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258 Predecessor John III Doukas Vatatzes Successor John IV Laskaris Born 1221/1222 Nicaea (present-day Iznik, Turkey) Died (1258-08-16)16 August 1258 Magnesia (now in Turkey) Spouse Elena of Bulgaria Issue more... Irene Doukaina Laskarina Eudoxia Laskarina John IV Laskaris House Laskaris (matrilineal) Vatatzes (patrilineal) Father John III Doukas Vatatzes Mother Irene Laskarina Theodore II Doukas Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris (Greek: Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις, romanized: Theodōros Doukas Laskaris; 1221/1222 – August 16, 1258) was Emperor of Nicaea from 1254 to 1258. He was the only child of Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Empress Irene Laskarina. His mother was the eldest daughter of Theodore I Laskaris who had established the Empire of Nicaea as a successor state to the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, after the crusaders captured the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Theodore received an excellent education from two renowned scholars, Nikephoros Blemmydes and George Akropolites. He made friends with young intellectuals, especially with a page of low birth, George Mouzalon. Theodore began to write treatises on theological, historical and philosophical themes in his youth. Emperor John III arranged for Theodore to marry Elena of Bulgaria in 1235, to forge an alliance with her father, Ivan Asen II, against the Latin Empire of Constantinople. According to Theodore himself, their marriage was happy, and they had five or six children. From 1241, Theodore acted as his father's lieutenant in Asia Minor during his frequent military campaigns in the Balkan Peninsula. From around 1242, he was his father's co-ruler, but was not crowned as co-emperor. During this period, his relationship with some prominent aristocrats, particularly Theodore Philes and Michael Palaiologos, grew tense. Theodore succeeded his father on 4 November 1254. He dismissed many high officials and army commanders of aristocratic origin, replacing them with loyal friends, including those of low birth. He made a defensive alliance with Kaykaus II, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, against the Mongol Empire. He repelled a Bulgarian invasion of Thrace and Macedonia and forced Michael II Komnenos Doukas, the ruler of Epirus, to cede Dyrrachium on the coast of the Adriatic Sea to Nicaea. He reformed the military, recruiting more soldiers from among the native peasantry of Asia Minor. Eventually, Michael II of Epirus forged an alliance with Stefan Uroš I, King of Serbia, and Manfred of Sicily against Nicaea. Theodore's newly appointed generals could not resist their joint invasion in 1257. Theodore fell seriously ill and could rarely take part in state administration during the last months of his life. He appointed George Mouzalon regent for his underage son, John IV, before he died of either chronic epilepsy or cancer. In ten days, Mouzalon fell victim to an aristocratic plot, and Michael Palaiologos assumed the regency, usurping the throne soon after. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Education 2 Youth 2.1 First administrative tasks 2.2 Friends 2.3 Towards sole rule 3 Reign 3.1 Ascension 3.2 Wars with Bulgaria 3.3 Expansion 3.4 Illness and death 4 Scholarship 5 Family 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading Early life[edit] Childhood[edit] See also: Laskaris and Vatatzes Theodore was born to Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Irene Laskarina in the imperial palace in Nicaea in late 1221 or early 1222.[1] Irene was the eldest daughter of Theodore I Laskaris, the founder of the Empire of Nicaea.[1] Nicaea was a successor state of the Byzantine Empire, established after the West European ("Latin") crusaders captured Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[2][3] Vatatzes was Irene's third husband. He was born into a Byzantine aristocratic family related to the imperial dynasties of Komnenos and Angelos. When he wed Irene, he served as the commander of the imperial guard. Although Irene's two brothers had died prematurely, Theodore I did not name Vatatzes as his official heir. He most likely expected that his third wife, the Latin Maria of Courtenay, would bear sons, but he did not father children with her.[4] Theodore I died in November 1221. Vatatzes had to defeat the late emperor's brothers, Alexios and Isaac Laskaris, to seize the throne. His victory over his wife's uncles and their Latin allies in the Battle of Poimanenon in the winter of 1223–1224 opened the way for the reconquest of Byzantine territories lost to the Latins in Asia Minor.[5] Theodore was his parents' only child as his mother suffered a horse riding accident and could not bear children after his birth. He adopted his mother's family name.[6] He was "raised as usual for a royal child", according to his own words, most probably referring to his upbringing in the women's quarter of the palace and the luxury surrounding him. His childhood was joyful and he "often received greatest solace" from his father. He also remembered his parents did not punish him when his tutor had accused him of misdemeanors.[7] Education[edit] Ruins of the walls of Nicaea. If Theodore's formal education began at the age when most aristocratic children were taught to write and read, he was entrusted to an elementary teacher's care in 1228. As part of his education, he memorized texts from the Bible and prayed three times a day. He could quote from the Psalms and the parables of Jesus by heart until the end of his life.[8] Theodore's secondary education began around 1230. He detested his principal tutor (or baioulos) and described him as a "great babbler" in his works, without mentioning his name. He studied grammar (that is Attic Greek), poetry, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, astronomy, geometry and music for three years. His grammatical studies raised his lifelong interest in words with multiple meaning and in etymologies. The young Theodore was captivated by the orations of Demosthenes and Hermogenes of Tarsus. He also held theologian Gregory of Nazianzus in high esteem. His tutor mocked him for "philosophizing" and urged Theodore to spend more time with military and diplomatic studies. Theodore was a passionate hunter and polo player with remarkable riding skills.[9] Negotiations over Theodore's marriage with Elena of Bulgaria began shortly after the Battle of Klokotnitsa, where Elena's father, Emperor (or Tzar) Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Emperor of Thessalonica and ruler of Epirus, Theodore Komnenos Doukas. The battle weakened Epirus–Thessalonica, Nicaea's western rival for the revival of the Byzantine Empire, and made Bulgaria the dominant power of the Balkan Peninsula.[10] The marriage of Theodore and Elena sealed their fathers' alliance against the Latin Empire of Constantinople in 1235. In the same year, Bulgarian and Nicaean troops laid siege to Constantinople, but could not capture the city. In 1237, Ivan Asen then reversed his position, allying himself with the Latins to stop Nicaean expansion in Thrace, only to return to his alliance with Nicaea before the end of the year. His father-in-law's tactical moves convinced Theodore that he could not fully trust the Bulgarians—a view he held for the rest of his life.[11] Theodore approached a most renowned teacher, Nikephoros Blemmydes, to take philosophy classes from him. Blemmydes was the hegumenos (abbot) of a monastery at Ephesus. Theodore attended his philosophy classes while he was staying in his father's winter palace at nearby Nymphaion. Blemmydes' zealous Aristotelianism had a strong impact on Theodore, who often mentioned Aristotelian notions, like potentiality and actuality, in his writings. Blemmydes was accused of embezzlement by one of his students early in the 1240s. Although Vatatzes' intervention saved him from imprisonment, he abandoned teaching. Theodore continued to visit Blemmydes regularly and maintained a correspondence with him. A young scholar, George Akropolites, replaced Blemmydes as Theodore's principal tutor. Born in Constantinople, Akropolites had firsthand experience with the Latin rule in the city. He completed Theodore's education in logic and mathematics.[3][12] Theodore's mother died late in 1239.[13] Vatatzes re-married in late summer of 1240, taking an illegitimate daughter of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Constanza, whose name was changed to Anna. She was around ten and Vatatzes started a scandalous affair with one of her Italian ladies-in-waiting, named Marchesina. She was granted the right to wear purple shoes and to harness her horse with purple trappings, like the Emperor's closest relatives.[14] Youth[edit] First administrative tasks[edit] John III Vatatzes. If Vatatzes followed the practice of his predecessors, Theodore was proclaimed co-ruler while still a child. In his history, Akropolites mentioned Theodore as a co-emperor when narrating events that occurred from 1235 to 1237 and in 1242. In his correspondence, Theodore referred to himself as "my imperial majesty" from around 1242. He was not crowned during his father's lifetime—a likely explanation for the denial of his co-emperorship by two later Byzantine historians, George Pachymeres and Nicephorus Gregoras.[15] Theodore's authority was considerable: he granted estates and salaries and intervened in legal disputes. On Blemmydes' petition, he ordered Nikephoros, the metropolitan bishop of Ephesus, to return an allegedly unlawfully purchased piece of land to Blemmydes' monastery. During his father's absence, he presided over sessions of the privy council and proposed candidates to vacant Church offices.[16] John III Vatatzes again laid siege to Constantinople in May 1241, but he quickly realized he could not capture the city. He started peace negotiations, and Theodore accompanied his father to the meetings with the Latin envoys. They signed a two-year truce on 24 June. John II Asen died in the same month and his death weakened Bulgaria. Vatatzes launched a military campaign against the Bulgarians' Epirote allies late in 1241. Before departing for the military campaign, he appointed Theodore his lieutenant in Asia Minor. Theodore, like his father and grandfather, held an itinerant court and visited most Anatolian towns and villages.[17] At this time, a Mongol general, Baiju, invaded Nicaea's eastern neighbor, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, from the east and captured Erzurum. Theodore informed his father, who was besieging Thessalonica, but Vatatzes did not abandon the siege. His persistence was rewarded when the ruler of Thessalonica John Komnenos Doukas renounced the title of emperor in return for the Byzantine court title of despot from Vatatzes. The Mongols launched a new military campaign against the Seljuks and routed Sultan Kaykhusraw II at the Battle of Köse Dağ on 26 June 1243. After the Seljuks agreed to pay a yearly tribute to the Mongols, Nicaea remained the only Anatolian state that preserved full independence. The fear of a Mongol invasion became a constant element of Nicaean diplomacy.[18][19] Vatatzes again charged Theodore with the administration of Asia Minor when he launched a new military campaign in Thrace in 1246. After Vatatzes captured Serres, the leading citizens of Thessalonica did not risk a prolonged siege. They opened the gates of their city and paid voluntary homage to Vatatzes. As most Macedonian towns followed their example, Vatatzes almost doubled his empire's territory.[20][21] Friends[edit] Theodore forged a bond of close friendship with a circle of young intellectuals. All born after the Latin conquest of Constantinople, they did not experience the shock of exile, unlike many of their fathers' "humiliated generation" (as Patriarch Germanus II of Constantinople referred to them). His friends' companionship helped Theodore come through his periods of melancholy, likely caused by anxiety over his public duties. His closest friend, George Mouzalon, was a page in his retinue during their childhood. The three Mouzalon brothers—George, Theodore and Andronikos—were, in Blemmydes's words, "of despicably low birth", but they were talented singers and musicians. Most of Theodore's other confidants, like Joseph Mesopotamites and Konstas Hagiotheodorites, were related to high-ranking officials and churchmen.[22] Theodore often made fun of bishops for their self-aggrandizement, their barbaric speech or ignorantly heretical statements, or even for their physical appearance. Theodore was also the subject of mockery: his fellow students teased him for his style of argument during philosophical discussions. Critical remarks made by bishops and aristocrats were more dangerous. Metropolitan Nikephoros of Ephesus rebuked Theodore for his pride and for his non-observance of the rules of fasting. A military commander, Kalothetos, made disrespectful remarks about Theodore. The relationship between Theodore and the governor at Thessalonica, Theodore Philes, was extremely tense. Philes circulated defamatory poems about Theodore's alleged affair with an unnamed woman, while Theodore blamed Philes for the murder of Theodore's friend, Tribides. Tribides' fate shows that Theodore could send his confidants to the newly conquered European territories during his father's reign. Philes' accusations reached the ears of Blemmydes who did not tolerate sexual misconduct. Around 1248, Blemmydes had denied Marchesina and her retinue entry to his monastery at Ephesus. Now, he addressed a mirror for princes (instruction), entitled Imperial Statue, to Theodore and his father, warning them against lechery and squandering public funds. Theodore could not convince him of his innocence.[23] Towards sole rule[edit] Vatatzes was making preparations for a new attack on Constantinople, but the ruler of Epirus, Michael II Komnenos Doukas, invaded Nicaean territory in Macedonia in the spring of 1252. Vatatzes appointed Theodore his viceroy in Asia Minor and launched a counter-attack against Michael II, forcing him to return to Epirus. Elena of Bulgaria died unexpectedly before the end of August. Theodore mourned his wife for more than the customary forty days. He abandoned fasting and wearing black only on his father's command. His wife's death intensified Theodore's melancholy. He secluded himself in the palace and dedicated his time to philosophical studies and writing. He only resumed his regular visits to the towns of Asia Minor in 1253.[24][25] Early in 1253, Emperor Frederick II's son and successor, Conrad, forced most relatives of his father's mistress, Bianca Lancia, into exile. They fled to Nicaea and sought asylum from Bianca's daughter, Empress Constanza-Anna. Since his father was staying in Thrace, the exiles were received by Theodore. Conrad changed his mind and sent the erudite Berthold of Hohenburg, an in-law of the Lancias, to Nicaea to begin negotiations with them. While waiting for his father's return from Thrace, Theodore had philosophical conversations with Hohenburg. The study of ancient Greek philosophers had intensified in Europe, and Hohenburg asked Theodore for Greek philosophical works. This request reinforced Theodore's pride in the Greeks' ancient heritage, and he decided to publish his own works.[26] Vatatzes returned to Nicaea in the winter of 1253. Early in 1254, he fell ill suddenly and never fully recovered. His illness made Theodore the actual ruler of the empire, but the change in his position did not prevent him from making arrangements for the publications of his works. His father was still alive when news of the Mongols' preparations for a new invasion of Asia Minor reached Nicaea.[27] Reign[edit] Ascension[edit] John III Vatatzes died in Nicaea on 4 November 1254, leaving a flourishing empire to Theodore.[3] Theodore was acclaimed emperor, but he was not crowned because the patriarchal throne was vacant. In his funerary speech at Vatatzes' burial, Akropolites expressed his hope that Theodore would lead the Nicaeans to expel the Latins from Constantinople, comparing him with the "pillar of fire" of the Book of Exodus, guiding the Israelites.[28] Theodore could not actually risk launching an attack against Constantinople, because his empire was surrounded by hostile powers.[29] Theodore forbade his father's widow, Anna-Constanza, from returning to her Sicilian homeland. This act outraged her brother, Manfred, who had recently become the actual ruler of the Kingdom of Sicily.[30] Theodore had a meeting with the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kaykaus II, in Philadelphia. They concluded a defensive alliance against the Mongols. Kaykaus had acknowledged the Mongols' suzerainty, but had not visited the court of Great Khan Möngke to pay homage to him.[31][32] Theodore wanted to make Blemmydes the new patriarch, but his old tutor refused. His next candidate, a hermit with an aristocratic background, Arsenios Autoreianos, accepted the offer. The new patriarch crowned and anointed Theodore emperor—according to scholarly consensus, on Christmas 1254. Arsenios' allegedly irregular appointment would give rise to the conflict known as "Arsenite Schism", lasting from 1265 to 1310.[33] Arsenios was always Theodore's loyal supporter and obeyed his commands.[34] Theodore did not trust the aristocrats and wrote of "illicit love affairs and very unjust plots", without naming his opponents, in a letter addressed to George Mouzalon in December 1254. Historian Michael Angold proposes that Emperor Frederick II's similar policy may have inspired Theodore's "more autocratic stance towards his aristocracy".[35] Theodore appointed George Mouzalon to be the commander-in-chief of the mobile army as the new megas domestikos. George's brother, Andronikos, was designated as the new protovestiarites (commander of the guards of the imperial palace). Theodore also demonstrated his favor towards a general of common origin, Constantine Margarites. He also tried to compensate the aristocrats who had been put aside during this father's reign. He recalled his mother's uncles, Michael and Manuel Laskaris, from their exile and made two members of the rebellious Nestongos family, George and Isaac, generals. His appointments offended most aristocrats.[36] Wars with Bulgaria[edit] Theodore wearing imperial insignia. The young Bulgarian Tzar, Michael II Asen, exploited Vatatzes' death to reconquer the lands he had seized from Bulgaria after 1241. Michael invaded Macedonia and Thrace in December 1254 or January 1255.[6][30][37] Most Nicaean garrisons at the fortresses were small, and the local Bulgarians supported the invaders.[37][38] The Bulgarians quickly seized most Thracian fortresses. Two Macedonian towns, Veles and Skopje, also surrendered to them. A hastily summoned council of war accepted George Mouzalon's proposal of an immediate counter-attack. Theodore decided to lead the campaign himself, and entrusted Mouzalon with the administration of Asia Minor in February 1255. His surprise attack forced the invaders to withdraw from Thrace, and he ordered two aristocrats, Alexios Strategopoulos and Demetrios Tornikes, to chase the Bulgarians. The two generals led their troops across the passes of the Rhodope Mountains in constant fear of an ambush. When they unexpectedly heard the sounds of the horns of shepherds and swineherds, they broke into a run in panic, abandoning their baggage. The fiasco outraged Theodore, and he ordered them to hurry to his camp at Adrianople, but both commanders disobeyed.[39][40] A Bulgarian renegade in Nicaean service, Dragotas, switched sides and laid siege to Melnik in the summer. Theodore hastily departed from Adrianople to lead relief forces to the town. The Bulgarians lay an ambush for him along the Rupel Pass, but he avoided it and Dragotas abandoned the siege on Theodore's arrival. From Melnik, Theodore went to Thessalonica and dismissed his old opponent, Philes, from the governorship. He closed down the local mint, because he wanted to establish a centralized system of financial administration in Asia Minor, with a new treasury at Astritzion on the Asian coast of the Hellespont. Theodore invaded Macedonia and forced the Bulgarian garrison in Veles to surrender, but drought prevented him from continuing the military campaign across the arid Ovče Pole. He went to Serres, where he confirmed the fiscal privileges of Macedonian towns. He also ordered the arrest of Constantine Kabasilas, Archbishop of Ohrid, assuming that Kabasilas was Michael II of Epirus' loyal supporter.[41] A report about a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor forced Theodore to leave Macedonia in late autumn of 1255. After the report had proved false, he launched an attack against the fortress of Tzepaina. He had to abandon the campaign, because his army could not pass across the narrow and frosty mountain passes. He returned to Anatolia around the end of the year. He showered his confidants with honors and gifts. He made Manuel Laskaris and Constantine Margarites the commanders-in-chief of his troops in Thrace and charged George Mouzalon with implementing military reforms. He also ordered the punishment of members of old aristocratic families. Constantine Strategopoulos and Theodore Philes were blinded; Alexios Strategopoulos and Alexios Raoul's four sons were imprisoned. Theodore's cousin, Michael Palaiologos, fled to the Seljuks to escape imprisonment. Theodore took advantage of the emperors' right to control aristocratic marriages to establish family ties between his lowborn favorites and the old aristocracy. George Mouzalon married Palaiologos' niece, Theodora Kantakouzene Palaiologina, Andronikos Mouzalon wed a daughter of Alexios Raoul.[42] Theodore decided to resume negotiations about a church union with Pope Alexander IV and sent envoys to Rome in April or May 1256. Divergent views on the procession of the Holy Spirit had always been an important cause of the schism between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Orthodox theologians maintained that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone, while Catholic theologians stated that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father "and the Son". Theodore commissioned Blemmydes to summarize the Orthodox position. Blemmydes adopted a conciliatory approach, concluding that a statement about the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father through the Son was fully in conformity with the Bible and the Church Fathers' works. Theodore did not accept his tutor's view and insisted on the traditional Orthodox doctrine.[43] Michael II of Bulgaria dispatched Cuman raiders to plunder Thrace early in 1256. Although Theodore had instructed Laskaris and Margarites to adopt a defensive strategy, they pursued the Cumans, but the invaders inflicted a heavy defeat on their troops. Theodore assembled a new army, partially mustered among the Anatolian peasantry, and crossed the Hellespont. He sent troops, including Cuman horsemen in his service, against the invaders and they routed the enemy forces in two battles in Thrace.[44] He entered into peace negotiations with Michael II with the mediation of Rostislav Mikhailovich, Duke of Macsó. Michael II had recently married Rostislav's daughter and Rostislav's wife, Anna of Hungary, was Theodore's cousin. Rostislav came to Thrace to reach an agreement with Theodore. Akropolites drafted a treaty about the restoration of the prewar boundaries between Nicaea and Bulgaria. Rostislav accepted it and signed the peace treaty on Michael II's behalf on 29 June. The treaty prescribed that Michael II cede Tzepaina to the Nicaeans, but the Bulgarian garrison was not withdrawn immediately from the fortress. Theodore became convinced that Rostislav had deceived him and ordered the public whipping of Akropolites. His act proved imprudent, because the Bulgarians ceded the fortress in early September. Theodore sent George Mouzalon to Akropolites to seek a reconciliation.[37][45][46] The peace treaty aroused much indignation in Bulgaria, enabling Michael II's cousin, Kaliman, to stage a plot and dethrone the Tzar. Kaliman seized the throne, but he never gained the support of the army. After he fell victim to a new plot, Rostislav Mikhailovich and Michael II's brother-in-law, Mitso, laid claim to the throne. Most boyars (noblemen) preferred a third candidate, one of their number, Konstantin Tih, although he was not related to the ruling Asen dynasty.[47][48][49] Expansion[edit] Theodore's war against Bulgaria brought about a rapprochement between Epirus and Serbia. Michael II of Epirus made a formal alliance with Stefan Uroš I, King of Serbia. He also sent gifts to the Albanian chiefs who had acknowledged Nicaean suzerainty to gain their support. Theodore's daughter, Maria, and Michael II's son and heir, Nikephoros, had been engaged during Vatatzes' reign. After making peace with the Bulgarians, Theodore ordered Michael II to send Nikephoros to Thessalonica to wed Maria. Nikephoros was accompanied by his mother, Theodora Petraliphaina. Theodore took her into custody, only allowing her to return to Epirus after Michael II ceded Servia and Dyrrachium to him. The possession of the two towns secured the Nicaean control of the Via Egnatia, but Michael II remained hostile to Theodore.[6][50] Theodore received the papal legate, Bishop Constantine of Orvieto, in Thessalonica. Their negotiations proved fruitless, because the legate's authorization was limited and Theodore was unwilling to make concessions for the church union. He also preserved the right to convoke the Orthodox bishops to a synod to discuss the conditions of the union. Theodore maintained a correspondence with the Holy See, but he did not initiate new negotiations with it.[51] The Mongols invaded Asia Minor and defeated Kaykaus II on 14 October 1256. Theodore hurried back to Anatolia to oversee the preparations for the defense. Kaykaus sought asylum in Nicaea and the Mongols installed his brother, Kilij Arslan IV, as the new sultan of Rum. Theodore assembled his troops on the plains near Magnesia. The Mongol ruler of Persia, the Ilkhan Hülagü, sent a delegation to Theodore to begin negotiations about Kaykaus' future. Hülegü agreed to withdraw his army from Rum and ordered the division of the sultanate between Kaykaus and Kilij Arslan in the spring of 1257. Before leaving for Rum, Kaykaus ceded four fortresses in the valley of the river Lycus to Nicaea in return for a contingent of 300 auxiliary troops.[52][53] His achievements made Theodore self-confident. He proudly stated that his empire included territories as far as Dyrrachium on the Adriatic Sea and Cape Karambis on the Black Sea. His success during the war against Bulgaria had convinced him he should recruit soldiers from among Anatolian peasants. In a letter to Blemmydes, he stated that the native "Hellenes" were more reliable than foreign mercenaries.[54][55] Illness and death[edit] The restored Byzantine Empire at the beginning of Michael VIII Palaiologos' rule (1263)—most European territories were seized by Theodore's father between 1246 and 1254 Theodore fell seriously ill in November 1257. George Pachymeres, who was less than sixteen years old at the time, diagnosed his illness as epilepsy, mentioning that Theodore had often lost consciousness and "collapsed to the ground". Pachymeres also described Theodore's unusual appointments and his attempts to forge marriage alliances between aristocrats and commoners as symptoms of his disease. Akropolites only noticed extreme weight loss, reducing Theodore's entire body to a skeleton, while Blemmydes described Theodore's illness as "a scourge and a strange disease", also mentioning Theodore's melancholy and phobias. Theodore himself wrote of insufferable aching and paralysis in the arms. Modern historians of diseases have not agreed on a diagnosis of Theodore's illness. John Lascaratos and Panaghiotis V. Zis maintain that Pachymeres' diagnosis was correct, concluding that Theodore developed epilepsy of the tonic-clonic type in his late twenties.[56] Historian Donald M. Nicol proposes that Theodore's illness "made him the prey of his moods, and he compensated for his nervousness by an autocratic and obstinate temper".[34] Medical historian Georgios Makris, however, concludes in his 1995 study on epilepsy in the Byzantine Empire that Theodore did not suffer from epilepsy. Historian Dimiter Angelov, who does not accept Pachymeres' diagnosis, proposes that Theodore most likely had cancer of the brain, the spine or the lungs.[57] His illness prevented Theodore from commanding his troops in person. The commanders of the army in Macedonia, most of them of humble origin, recently appointed by Theodore, could not prevent the Epirotes, Albanians and Serbians from raiding Nicaean territories. Stefan Uroš I defeated the Nicaean troops near Prilep. Michael II's sister-in-law, Maria Petraliphaina, entered into a correspondence with Theodore's commander, Constantine Chabaron, making him believe that she was eager to marry him, but Chabaron was captured during their meeting. Theodore's newly assembled army of Anatolian peasants was routed at Edessa. Michael Palaiologos, who had been allowed to return from his exile, lead a new army to Macedonia. He defeated the Epirotes, but Theodore ordered him to return instead of marching to Prilep. Palaiologos' withdrawal enabled Michael II to seize Prilep and capture Akropolites, who was its governor. Michael II was planning to launch an attack against Thessalonica, but Manfred of Sicily renewed his predecessors' claim to Byzantine territories and invaded Epirus from the west. Michael II, who did not want to abandon his plan, concluded an alliance with Manfred who expelled the Nicaean garrisons from Dyrrachium and other fortresses on the Adriatic by the end of February 1258.[30][58][59] Konstantin Tih of Bulgaria repudiated his first wife and sued for the hand of Theodore's eldest daughter, Irene. He knew that his marriage to Irene, who was Tzar Ivan Asen II's granddaughter, could strengthen his claim to rule. Theodore wanted to confirm his peace treaty with Bulgaria and accepted Konstantin Tih's offer. Irene went to Bulgaria to marry Konstantin Tih.[60][61] Theodore rarely left his palace at Magnesia during the last months of his life. He was convinced that sorcery caused his illness and accused his courtiers of casting spells on him, sending many of them for trial. Michael Palaiologos's sister, Maria-Martha, was the most famous victim of Theodore's paranoia. Theodore had forced her daughter, Theodora, to marry the elderly Basil Kaballarios, but the marriage was never consummated. After Kaballarios had attributed his impotence to his mother-in-law's spells, Theodore had her put into a sack filled with cats that tore her flesh. She was only released because Theodore suddenly panicked, fearing her spells. Also fearing her brother's revenge, Theodore had Michael Palaiologos imprisoned on charges of poisoning, but soon set him free.[45] Theodore named his seven-year-old son, John, as his sole heir, appointing George Mouzalon regent until John came of age. He became a monk, but he kept his baptismal name. He summarized his sins in a treatise and asked the patriarchal synod to grant him absolution. He died in the imperial palace at Magnesia on 16 August 1258.[62] He was buried next to his father in the Sosandra monastery on Mount Sipylus. His grave and the monastery were destroyed after the Turkish conquest of the region in the 14th century.[63] The aristocrats had taken an oath of loyalty to Mouzalon at Theodore's deathbed, but they soon began conspiring against him. In ten days, Mouzalon was murdered, and Michael Palaiologos assumed the regency for the child-emperor, John IV Laskaris. Palaiologos convinced the aristocrats that an empire ruled by a boy could not resist enemy attacks, and he was proclaimed co-emperor as Michael VIII before the end of the year. When Michael VIII and John IV were crowned together early in 1259, the Patriarch put the crown first on Michael VIII's head. After concluding an agreement with Genoa against the Latin Empire, he dispatched Alexios Strategopoulos to spy on the defences of Constantinople. Taking advantage of the absence of the bulk of the Latin army, Strategopoulos seized Constantinople by a surprise attack on 25 July 1261. Michael VIII was crowned for the second time, alone, in the Hagia Sophia.[59][47][64] The child John IV was blinded on 25 December 1261, which prevented him from ruling.[65] In order to emphasize that the Laskaris family had lost their imperial status, Michael VIII married off his three sisters to minor Italian and Bulgarian noblemen.[66] Scholarship[edit] A man of letters devoted to philosophical and theological studies, Theodore transformed his court into a center for renowned scholars shortly after his ascension to the throne.[3] He ordered that books that he and his father had collected in urban libraries be available to all who wanted to read them.[34][67] He began to write treatises on philosophical, theological and historical subjects already during his father's lifetime, but he decided to prepare manuscript editions of his works only after his meeting with Berthold of Hohenburg in 1353. His works were collected in four codices, but only three survived.[68] Theodore's Satire of the Tutor, written most likely in 1240, is his earliest extant work. The satire is dedicated to his principal tutor, portraying him as an under-educated and rude man, who learned magic while staying in Bulgaria. He also wrote encomia in praise of the citizens of Nicaea, his father and Akropolites. Theodore's theological works—including his First Oration against the Latins, or, on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, and his treatise On the Trinity—demonstrate his adherence to Orthodox theology.[69] Theodore's Great Supplicatory Canon to Our Lady, a hymn to the Virgin Mary, is his best known work. He composed it just months before his death and it is still sung in Orthodox ceremonies.[70] Family[edit] Neither Theodore nor Elena had reached the minimum legal age of marriage—fourteen for boys and twelve for girls—when they were married, but such an early marriage was not unique among Nicaean aristocrats and commoners. She was born to Ivan Asen II and Maria of Hungary in 1224. The wedding took place at Lampsakos in early 1235. Two years later, before launching an invasion of Nicaean territories in Thrace, her father forced Elena to return to Bulgaria, but peace was restored between the two empires and Elena returned to Theodore before the end of the year. Years later, Theodore described Elena as the flower of his youth and stated that their "bond of incomparable love" made them "happier than all people". Her sudden death in the spring or summer of 1252 plunged Theodore into grief. She gave birth to four or five daughters, and one son.[71] Their children were: Irene, who married Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria, was Emperor Michael VIII's implacable enemy until her death around 1270.[72] Maria, who married Nikephoros I of Epirus, deceased between early in 1257 and 1265.[73][74] Theodora was married off by Michael VIII to a Moreot nobleman, Maïos Débélikourtos, according to Pachymeres and Nicephorus Gregoras. Historian Albert Failler identifies him as Matthew of Mons who held the Barony of Veligosti in the Principality of Achaea.[75] Eudoxia first married Count William-Peter of Ventimiglia, who died around 1280. Her second husband, Roger Arnau, Count of Pallars, died in 1288. The widowed Euroxia had a love affair with the Aragonese admiral Bernat de Serria. She died in 1309.[76] A Bulgarian boyar, Despot Jacob Svetoslav, married Theodore's unnamed daughter, according to Pachymeres. She may have been Theodore's illegitimate daughter, because other Byzantine historians failed to mention her.[77] Theodore's only son, John, survived his mutilation, but he spent the rest of his life in prison. He died around 1309.[78] Theodore's family and his relationship to Byzantine imperial families ANGELOI KOMNENOI DOUKAI Alexios I Komnenos *c. 1048 †1118 Byzantine Emperor (r. 1081–1118) Irene Doukaina *c. 1066 †1138 Constantine Angelos *c. 1093 †before 1185 Theodora Andronikos Doukas Angelos *c. 1133 †before 1185 Isaac Angelos Doukas Alexios III Angelos *c. 1153 †1211 Byzantine Emperor (r. 1195–1203) Alexios Palaiologos †before 1204 Despot Irene Anna †before 1213 Theodore I Laskaris *c. 1175 †1221 Emperor of Nicaea (r. 1205–1221) Daughter Basil Vatatzes †early 1190 Doux Theodora Andronikos Palaiologos Megas domestikos Irene †1239 John III Doukas Vatatzes *1192 †1221 Emperor of Nicaea (r. 1221–1254) Isaac Doukas Sebastokrator Son Maria-Martha Irene Michael VIII Palaiologos *1223 †1282 Byzantine Emperor (r. 1261–1282) Elena of Bulgaria *1223 †1252 Theodore II Laskaris *1221/22 †1258 Emperor of Nicaea (r. 1254–1258) John Doukas Daughter Alexios Raoul †c. 1258 Protovestiarios Basil Kaballarios Theodora George Mouzalon †1258 Regent for John IV Laskaris Theodora Theodora *c. 1240 †1303 Andronikos Mouzalon †1258 Megas domesticos Daughter PALAIOLOGOI Konstantin Tih †1277 Tzar of Bulgaria (r. 1257–1277) Irene †1270 Nikephoros I *c. 1240 †c. 1297 Ruler of Epirus (r. 1266/68 – c. 1297) Maria †before 1268 Matthew of Mons Baron of Veligosti Theodora William-Peter †c. 1280 Count of Ventimiglia Eudoxia †1309 Roger Arnau †1288 Count of Pallars Jacob Svetoslav †1275/77 Despot in Bulgaria Daughter John IV Laskaris *1250 †c. 1209 Emperor of Nicaea (r. 1258–1261) Counts Lascaris di Ventimiglia See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Angelov 2019, p. 57. ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 10–11. ^ a b c d Lascaratos & Zis 1998, p. 296. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 32–34. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 57–59. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 721. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 59–60, 257 (notes 21–22). ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 64–66. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 68–72, 75–77. ^ Angold 2017, p. 738. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 65, 73–75. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 79, 85, 117–118. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 88. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 90–91. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 61, 258 (notes 34 and 36). ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 98–101. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 100. ^ Korobeinikov 2017, pp. 720–721. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92–96. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 156–157. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 96–97. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 109–118. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 90, 118–125. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 92, 128–132. ^ Fine 1994, p. 158. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 140–145. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 147–148. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 148. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 730. ^ a b c Nicol 1993, p. 28. ^ Korobeinikov 2017, p. 721. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 149–150. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 150, 296 (note 25). ^ a b c Nicol 1993, p. 27. ^ Angold 2017, p. 748. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 151–152. ^ a b c Fine 1994, p. 159. ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 56. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 151–154. ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, pp. 57–58. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 156–159. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 159–162, 169. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 162–163. ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, pp. 59–60. ^ a b Lascaratos & Zis 1998, p. 297. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 164–166. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 722. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 166–167. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 170–172. ^ Fine 1994, p. 160. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 168–169. ^ Korobeinikov 2017, pp. 721–722. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 169–171. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 172–174. ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 68. ^ Lascaratos & Zis 1998, pp. 297–298. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 381–383. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 175–176. ^ a b Fine 1994, p. 161. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 67. ^ Fine 1994, p. 172. ^ ODB, p. 2039 ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 178–180. ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 29–36. ^ Failler 1980, p. 65. ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 44–45. ^ Angelov 2019, p. 106. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 145, 323-326, 329. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 70-71,329-342. ^ Kanellopoulos & Lekea 2007, p. 62. ^ Angelov 2019, pp. 72–75. ^ Failler 1980, p. 67. ^ Failler 1980, p. 68. ^ Fine 1994, p. 169. ^ Failler 1980, pp. 68–70. ^ Failler 1980, pp. 70–72. ^ Failler 1980, pp. 72–73. ^ Failler 1980, pp. 76–77. Sources[edit] Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Thodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48071-0. Angold, Michael (2017) [2008]. "After the Fourth Crusade: the Greek rump states and the recovery of Byzantium". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c. 500–1492. Cambridge University Press. pp. 731–758. ISBN 978-0-521-83231-1. Failler, Albert (1980). "Chronologie et composition dans l'Histoire de Georges Pachymère [Chronology and composition in George Pachymeres' History]". Revue des études byzantines (in French). 38: 5–103. ISSN 0771-3347. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Kanellopoulos, Nicholas S.; Lekea, Joanne K. (2007). "The Struggle Between the Nicean Empire and the Bulgarian State (1254–1256): Towards a Revival of Byzantine Military Tactics under Theodore II Lascaris". In Rogers, Clifford J.; DeVries, Kelly; France, John (eds.). The Journal of Medieval Military History. V. The Boydell Press. pp. 56–69. ISBN 978-1-84383-339-0. Korobeinikov, D. A. (2017) [2008]. "Raiders and neighbours: the Turks (1040–1304)". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.). The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c. 500–1492. Cambridge University Press. pp. 692–727. ISBN 978-0-521-83231-1. Lascaratos, John; Zis, Panaghiotis Vassilios (1998). "The epilepsy of the Emperor Theodore II Lascaris (1254–1258)". Journal of Epilepsy. 11 (6): 296–300. doi:10.1016/S0896-6974(98)00032-2. ISSN 0896-6974. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). London: Rupert Hart-Davis Ltd. ISBN 0-246-10559-3. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Further reading[edit] Angold, Michael (1975). A Byzantine Government in Exile: Government and Society Under the Laskarids of Nicaea (1204-1261). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821854-0. Dimiter G. Angelov, "The 'Moral Pieces' by Theodore II Laskaris", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 65/66 (2011-2012), pp. 237–269 Theodore II Laskaris Laskarid dynasty Born: unknown 1221 Died: 16 August 1258 Regnal titles Preceded by John III Doukas Vatatzes Emperor of Nicaea 1254–1258 Succeeded by John IV Doukas Laskaris v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Italy United States Czech Republic Netherlands Sweden Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_II_Laskaris&oldid=1020192462" Categories: 13th-century Byzantine emperors Emperors of Nicaea Laskarid dynasty 1220s births 1258 deaths Eastern Orthodox monarchs Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars Vatatzes family People with epilepsy 13th-century Byzantine writers 13th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians Hidden categories: Good articles Use dmy dates from May 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2021, at 18:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4032	----	Hadrian's Villa - Wikipedia Hadrian's Villa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Archaeological complex in Tivoli, Italy Villa Adriana (Tivoli) UNESCO World Heritage Site Location Tivoli, Italy Criteria Cultural: (i), (ii), (iii) Reference 907 Inscription 1999 (23rd session) Area 80 ha (200 acres) Buffer zone 500 ha (1,200 acres) Coordinates 41°56′46″N 12°46′21″E / 41.946004°N 12.772515°E / 41.946004; 12.772515Coordinates: 41°56′46″N 12°46′21″E / 41.946004°N 12.772515°E / 41.946004; 12.772515 Location of Hadrian's Villa in Lazio Show map of Lazio Hadrian's Villa (Italy) Show map of Italy Not to be confused with Hadrian's Wall. Hadrian's Villa (Italian: Villa Adriana) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site comprising the ruins and archaeological remains of a large villa complex built c. AD 120 by Roman Emperor Hadrian at Tivoli outside Rome. The site is owned by the Republic of Italy and has been managed since 2014 by the Polo Museale del Lazio. Contents 1 History 2 Structure and architecture 3 Sculptures and artworks 4 Present-day significance 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] A model of Hadrian's Villa A plan of Hadrian's Villa The villa's recreation of Canopus, a resort near Alexandria, as seen from the temple of Serapis The villa was constructed at Tibur (modern-day Tivoli) as a retreat from Rome for Emperor Hadrian during the second and third decades of the 2nd century AD. Hadrian is said to have disliked the palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome, leading to the construction of the retreat. It was traditional that the Roman emperor had constructed a villa as a place to relax from everyday life. Previous emperors and Romans with wealth, such as Trajan, had also constructed villas. Many villas were also self-sustaining with small farms and did not need to import food. The picturesque landscape around Tibur had made the area a popular choice for villas and rural retreats. It was reputedly popular with people from the Spanish peninsula who were residents in the city of Rome. This may have contributed to Hadrian's choice of the property – although born in Rome, his parents came from Spain and he may have been familiar with the area during his early life. There may also have been a connection through his wife Vibia Sabina (83–136/137) who was the niece of the Emperor Trajan. Sabina's family held large landholdings and it is speculated the Tibur property may have been one of them. A villa from the Republican era formed the basis for Hadrian's establishment. During the later years of his reign, Hadrian actually governed the empire from the villa. Hadrian started using the villa as his official residence around AD 128. A large court therefore lived there permanently and large numbers of visitors and bureaucrats would have to have been entertained and temporarily housed on site. The postal service kept it in contact with Rome 29 kilometres (18 mi) away, where the various government departments were located. It is unknown whether Hadrian's wife lived at the villa either on a temporary or permanent basis – his relations with her were apparently rather strained or distant, possibly due to his ambiguous sexuality. Hadrian's parents had died when he was young, and he and his sister were adopted by Trajan. It is possible that Hadrian's court at the villa was predominately male but it is likely that his childhood nurse Germana, to whom he had formed a deep attachment, was probably accommodated there (she actually outlived him). After Hadrian, the villa was occasionally used by his various successors (busts of Antoninus Pius (138–161), Marcus Aurelius (161–180), Lucius Verus (161–169), Septimius Severus and Caracalla have been found on the premises). Zenobia, the deposed queen of Palmyra, possibly lived here in the 270s. During the decline of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, the villa gradually fell into disuse and was partially ruined as valuable statues and marble were taken away. The facility was used as a warehouse by both sides during the destructive Gothic War (535–554) between the Ostrogoths and Byzantines. Remains of lime kilns have been found, where marble from the complex was burned to extract lime for building material. Building material was also reused by the Christians to build basilicas and other buildings. In the 16th century, Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este had much of the remaining marble and statues in Hadrian's Villa removed to decorate his own Villa d'Este located nearby. Since that period excavations have sporadically turned up more fragments and sculptures, some of which have been kept in situ or housed on site in the display buildings. Structure and architecture[edit] Hadrian's Villa is a vast area of land with many pools, baths, fountains and classical Greek and Roman architecture set in what would have been a mixture of landscaped gardens, wilderness areas and cultivated farmlands. Due to Hadrian's travels, he also commissioned Egyptian style buildings and statues, even naming some of the buildings after Egyptian cities or temples. The buildings are constructed in travertine, brick, lime, pozzolana, and tufa. The complex contains over 30 buildings, covering at least a square kilometre (250 acres, an area larger than the city of Pompeii), of which much is still unexcavated. Villas were typically sited on hilltops, but with its fountains, pools and gardens, Hadrian's villa required abundant sources water, which was supplied by aqueducts feeding Rome, including the Aqua Anio Vetus, Aqua Anio Novus, Aqua Marcia, and Aqua Claudia. To avail themselves of those sources, the villa had to be located on land lower than the aqueduct.[1] The ruins of Hadrian's Villa in their present state The complex of the villa contains many structures from different cultures. For example, the villa has a small Nile river running through it that relates back to the Egyptian Nile river. Also, the villa had Poikilos, which are Greek figures that were seen in ancient Greece. Within all the structures in the villa, there is also a grotto called Hades. All these structures relate back to where Emperor Hadrian visited during his reign. The architecture goes beyond the mere naming of its structures naming after places and monuments seen by Hadrian on his extensive travels across the empire. Certain buildings clearly attempt to recreate specific features of landscapes or architecture that had personal significance for the emperor. Thus, the area known as the Canopus, named after the Egyptian city where Antinous drowned, features a long, stately reflecting pool, representing the Nile, which was lined with copies of famous works of sculpture including the caryatids of the Erechtheion, a statue depicting the Egyptian dwarf and fertility god, Bes and a crocodile. The Pecile is modeled after the Stoa Poikile in Athens, a city favored by Hadrian. The structures freely mix traditional Greek and innovative Roman elements. The island enclosure (known as the Maritime Theatre) uses the classical Ionic order, albeit in a novel way; the triclinium of the so-called Piazza d’Oro and the Serapeum were covered with Roman segmented concrete domes, probably designed by Hadrian himself. Hadrian's Pecile located inside the Villa was a huge garden surrounded by a swimming pool and an arcade. The pool's dimensions measure 232 by 97 metres (761 by 318 ft). Originally, the pool was surrounded by four walls with colonnaded interior. These columns helped to support the roof. In the center of the quadriportico was a large rectangular pool. The four walls create a peaceful solitude for Hadrian and guests. One structure in the villa is the so-called "Maritime Theatre". It consists of a round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars. Inside the portico was a ring-shaped pool with a central island. The large circular enclosure 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter has an entrance to the north. Inside the outer wall and surrounding the moat are a ring of unfluted ionic columns. The Maritime Theater includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain.[2] During the ancient times, the island was connected to the portico by two wooden drawbridges. On the island sits a small Roman house complete with an atrium, a library, a triclinium, and small baths. The area was probably used by the emperor as a retreat from the busy life at the court. The villa utilizes numerous architectural styles and innovations. The domes of the steam baths have circular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is reminiscent of the Pantheon, also built by Hadrian. The area has a network of tunnels and were mostly used to transport servants and goods from one area to another. In 1998, the remains of what archaeologists claimed to be the monumental tomb of Antinous, or a temple to him, were discovered at the Villa.[3] This, however, has subsequently been challenged in a study noting the lack of any direct evidence for a tomb of Antinous, as well as a previously overlooked patristic source indicating burial in Egypt at Antinoöpolis, and treating the possibility of a sanctuary of Antinous at Hadrian's Villa as plausible but unproven.[4] Grand Thermae In September 2013, a network of tunnels was investigated, buried deep beneath the villa – these were probably service routes for staff so that the idyllic nature of the landscape might remain undisturbed. The site housed several thousand people including staff, visitors, servants and slaves. Although much major activity would have been engaged in during Hadrian's absence on tours of inspection of the provinces a great many people (and animals) must have been moving about the Tivoli site on a daily basis. The almost constant building activity on top of basic gardening and domestic activities probably led to subterranean routes being resorted to. The villa itself has been described as an architectural masterpiece. A team of caving specialists has discovered that it is even more impressive than previously thought.[5] Sculptures and artworks[edit] A steel engraving depicting Augustus' now lost painting of the death of Cleopatra VII in encaustic, which was discovered at Emperor Hadrian's Villa (near Tivoli, Italy) in 1818;[6] she is seen here wearing the golden radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers,[7] an Isis knot (corresponding to Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis),[8] and being bitten by an asp in an act of suicide. The Warwick Vase. From Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. 2nd century AD, an 18th-century reconstruction. The Burrell Collection, Glasgow, UK. Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy in refined mosaic, from the villa (Capitoline Museum, Rome) "Battle of Centaurs and Wild Beasts" was made for the dining room of Hadrian's Villa and estimated to be made between 120–130 A.D. The mosaic now resides in the Altes Museum in Berlin, Germany. Many beautiful artifacts have been unearthed and restored at the Villa, such as marble statues of Antinous, Hadrian's deified lover, accidentally drowned in Egypt, and mosaics from the theatre and baths.[citation needed] A lifelike mosaic depicted a group of doves around a bowl, with one drinking, seems to be a copy of a work by Sosus of Pergamon as described by Pliny the Elder. It has in turn been widely copied.[9] Many copies of Greek statues (such as the Wounded Amazon) have been found, and even Egyptian-style interpretations of Roman gods and vice versa. Most of these have been taken to Rome for preservation and restoration, and can be seen at the Musei Capitolini or the Musei Vaticani. However, many were also excavated in the 18th century by antiquities dealers such as Piranesi and Gavin Hamilton to sell to Grand Tourists and antiquarians such as Charles Towneley, and so are in major antiquities collections elsewhere in Europe and North America. Artworks found in the villa include: Discobolus Dove Basin mosaic, copy of a famous Hellenistic mosaic, Capitoline Museums Diana of Versailles, Louvre Crouching Venus Capitoline Antinous Young Centaur and Old Centaur (Capitoline versions) Present-day significance[edit] The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated Hadrian's Villa as a World Heritage Site in 1999. The designation specified the boundaries of the site and created a buffer zone around it in which no new construction was permitted. In 2011, the communal government of Tivoli announced plans, later cancelled, to build a waste dump in the vicinity of the villa and approved the construction of public housing on 120,000 sq. meters within the buffer zone. At its 36th Annual Meeting, UNESCO formally addressed these encroachments on the site. While they commended the Italian government for its decision to abandon the construction of a waste dump in the Corcolle area, the committee requested the government “to inform the World Heritage Centre in due time about any major development project planned in the buffer zone of the property, including the housing development at Comprensorio di Ponte Lucano, for which a Heritage Impact Assessment should be included, in accordance with Paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines, before any irreversible commitment is made.” UNESCO also requested “the State Party to submit . . . an updated report on the state of conservation of the property,” by February 2014, reflecting concerns over the deterioration of the exposed ruins.[10] The reasons for making the villa a World Heritage Site are: it is a masterpiece that brings together the material culture of the Mediterranean world, it inspired the Renaissance and baroque period, it inspires the modern world as well, and the villa is an exceptional survival of the early Roman Empire.[11] In 2016, as part of the reorganization of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Hadrian's Villa, the neighboring Villa d’Este and the Temple of Hercules in Tivoli were placed under the supervision of the newly-created Istituto Autonomo di Villa Adriana. The Accademia Adrianea di Architettura ed Archeologia1 issued a call for papers for a conference titled Designing the UNESCO Buffer Aobe. The Academy of the villa was placed on the 100 Most Endangered Sites 2006 list of the World Monuments Watch because of the rapid deterioration of the ruins. In 2019, UNESCO designated Hadrian's Villa as a site with special immunity from wartime activity due to its profound symbolic value.[12] This added level of security prohibits U.N. members from attacking the site or using it for military purposes in the event of a war. In 2021 February, archaeologists led by reseracher Rafael Hidalgo Prieto from the Pablo de Olavide University announced the discovery of remains of Hadrian's breakfast room which used to show his imperial power. They revealed a structure as a water triclinium and a separate dining room that served as a model for the well-known Serapeum.[13][14] “The emperor wanted to show things that would overwhelm the visitor, something that had not been seen anywhere else in the world and that exists only in Villa Adriana” said Prieto.[15][16] See also[edit] List of Roman domes History of Roman and Byzantine domes Villa Romana del Casale ruins of a Roman senators villa References[edit] External video Hadrian's Villa: A Virtual Tour, Smarthistory[17] ^ "The Emperor's Abode: Hadrian's Villa". Italia. Retrieved 3 November 2015. ^ "View Article: Hadrian's Villa: A Roman Masterpiece". ^ Mari, Zaccaria and Sgalambro, Sergio: The Antinoeion of Hadrian's Villa: Interpretation and Architectural Reconstruction, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol 3, No 1, Jan 2007. ^ Renberg, Gil H.: Hadrian and the Oracles of Antinous (SHA, Hadr. 14.7); with an appendix on the so-called Antinoeion at Hadrian’s Villa and Rome’s Monte Pincio Obelisk, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 55 (2010) [2011], 159-198. ^ "Deep inside tunnels revealed under Hadrian's Roman villa". BBC News. ^ Pratt, Frances; Fizel, Becca (1949). Encaustic Materials and Methods. New York: Lear, pp. 14-15. ^ Sartain, John (1885). On the Antique Painting in Encaustic of Cleopatra: Discovered in 1818. Philadelphia: George Gebbie & Co., pp. 41, 44. ^ Plutarch (1920). Plutarch's Lives, translated by Bernadotte Perrin, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd., p 9. ^ Drabble, Margaret (2009-09-16). The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-547-24144-9. Retrieved 2012-10-24. ^ Decisions Adopted by the World Heritage Committee at its 36th Session (WHC-12/36.COM/19), St. Petersburg, 2012, pp. 117-118. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Villa Adriana (Tivoli)". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2020-09-30. ^ Rome, Wanted in (2019-02-25). "Enhanced protection for Villa Adriana in Tivoli". Wanted in Rome. Retrieved 2020-09-30. ^ "Archaeologists Have Found the Roman Emperor Hadrian's Palatial Breakfast Chamber, Where He Dined Before Servants on a Marble Throne". Artnet News. 2021-02-10. Retrieved 2021-02-13. ^ Rome, Philip Willan. "Archaeologists discover table where Roman emperor Hadrian held power breakfasts at foot of Apennines". ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 2021-02-13. ^ McGreevy, Nora. "Archaeologists Discover Ruins of Emperor Hadrian's Ornate Breakfast Chamber". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2021-02-13. ^ "Arqueólogos españoles descubren la sala de banquetes más lujosa del Imperio Romano". abc (in Spanish). 2021-02-09. Retrieved 2021-02-13. ^ "Hadrian's Villa: A Virtual Tour". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved April 30, 2013. Further reading[edit] A. Betori, Z. Mari, 'Villa Adriana, edificio circolare noto come Sepolcro o Tomba: campagna di scavo 2004: breve sintesi dei resultati', in Journal of Fasti Online, www.fastionline.org/docs/2004-14.pdf Hadrien empereur et architecte. La Villa d'Hadrien: tradition et modernite d'un paysage culturel. Actes du Colloque international organise par le Centre Culturel du Pantheon (2002. Geneva) Villa Adriana. Paesaggio antico e ambiente moderno: elementi di novita` e ricerche in corso. Atti del Convegno: Roma 23-24 giugnio 2000, ed. A. M. Reggiani (2002. Milan) E. Salza Prina Ricotti, Villa Adriana il sogno di un imperatore (2001) Hadrien: tresor d'une villa imperiale, ed. J. Charles-Gaffiot, H. Lavagne [exhibition catalogue, Paris] (1999. Milan) W. L. MacDonald and J. A. Pinto, Hadrian's Villa and its legacy (1995) A. Giubilei, 'Il Conte Fede e la Villa Adriana: storia di una collezione d'arte', in Atti e Memorie della Società Tiburtina di Storia e d'arte; 68 (1995), p. 81-121 J. Raeder, Die Statuarische Ausstattung Der Villa Hadriana Bei Tivoli (1983) R. Lanciani, La Villa Adriana (1906)[1] External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Villa Adriana. UNESCO: Villa Adriana (Tivoli) The Digital Hadrian's Villa Project. Tivoli - Hadrian's Villa Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli, Rome Great Buildings: Hadrian's Villa Caryatids at the Canopus View v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) 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"Hadrian's Villa: A Roman Masterpiece". University of Washington Honors Program in Rome. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 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en-wikipedia-org-4033	----	Bardo National Museum (Tunis) - Wikipedia Bardo National Museum (Tunis) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the museum in Algeria, see Bardo National Museum (Algiers). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Bardo National Museum" Tunis – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National museum in Tunis, Tunisia Bardo National Museum Arabic: المتحف الوطني بباردو‎ French: Musée national du Bardo Apartments of the Bey, room called Virgil, after the name of the mosaic of Sousse that was exposed until the extension of the years 2010 Established May 7, 1888 (1888-05-07) Location Le Bardo, Tunis, Tunisia Type National museum Collection size Prehistory and Protohistory Libyco-Punic Islamic Hellenistic Roman Visitors 664,891 (2005) Curator Moncef Ben Moussa Website www.bardomuseum.tn The Bardo National Museum (Arabic: المتحف الوطني بباردو‎, romanized: al-Matḥaf al-Waṭanī bi-Bārdū; French: Musée national du Bardo) is a museum of Tunis, Tunisia, located in the suburbs of Le Bardo. It is one of the most important museums in the Mediterranean region and the second museum of the African continent after the Egyptian Museum of Cairo by richness of its collections.[1] It traces the history of Tunisia over several millennia and across several civilizations through a wide variety of archaeological pieces. Housed in an old beylical palace since 1888, it has been the setting for the exhibition of many major works discovered since the beginning of archaeological research in the country. Originally called Alaoui Museum (Arabic: المتحف العلوي‎, romanized: al-Matḥaf al-ʿAlawī), named after the reigning bey at the time, it takes its current name of Bardo Museum after the independence of the country even if the denomination is attested before that date. The museum houses one of the largest collections of Roman mosaics in the world, thanks to excavations at the beginning of 20th century in various archaeological sites in the country including Carthage, Hadrumetum, Dougga and Utica. Generally, the mosaics of Bardo, such as the Virgil Mosaic, represent a unique source for research on everyday life in Roman Africa. From the Roman era, the museum also contains a rich collection of marble statues representing the deities and the Roman emperors found on different sites including those of Carthage and Thuburbo Majus. The museum also houses pieces discovered during the excavations of Libyco-Punic sites including Carthage, although the National Museum of Carthage is the primary museum of the Carthage archaeological site. The essential pieces of this department are grimacing masks, terracotta statues and stelae of major interest for Semitic epigraphy, and the stele of the priest and the child. The museum also houses Greek works discovered especially in the excavations of the shipwreck of Mahdia, whose emblematic piece remains the bust of Aphrodite in marble,[not verified in body] gnawed by the sea. The Islamic Department contains, in addition to famous works such as the Blue Qur'an of Kairouan, a collection of ceramics from the Maghreb and Anatolia. In order to increase the reception capacity and optimize the presentation of the collections, the museum is the subject of a vast operation which was to be completed initially in 2011 but was not finished until 2012 due to the Tunisian Revolution. The work concerns the increase of the exhibition surfaces by adding new buildings and redeploying the collections. The project aims to make the museum a major pole for a quality cultural development, so that the visitor can appreciate the artistic pieces deposited. On March 18, 2015, an Islamist terrorist group attacked the museum and took tourists hostage in the building. The attack, which killed 22 people including 21 foreign tourists, was claimed by ISIS. Contents 1 Location and description 2 Collections 3 2015 terrorist attack 4 Gallery 5 Technologies 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Location and description[edit] Bardo museum plan. Carthage Room. Sousse Room. Virgile Room. d’Althiburos Room. The Bardo National Museum building was originally a 15th-century Hafsid palace, located in the suburbs of Tunis. The Bardo is one of the most important museums of the Mediterranean basin, and the second largest on the African continent after the Egyptian Museum. It traces the history of Tunisia over several millennia and through many civilizations through a wide variety of archaeological pieces. Being in the former palace, it offers many major works discovered since the beginnings of archaeological research in the country. Originally called Museum Alaoui (المتحف العلوي), the name of the reigning bey at the time, it has had its current name of Museum of Bardo only since the country's independence. In addition to famous works such as the Blue Koran of Kairouan, the Islamic Department contains a collection of ceramics from North Africa and Asia Minor. The Bardo brings together one of the finest and largest collections of Roman mosaics in the world thanks to the excavations undertaken from the beginning of the 20th century on archaeological sites in the country including Carthage, Hadrumetum, Dougga, or Utica. The mosaics represent a unique source for research on everyday life in Roman Africa. The Museum also contains a rich collection of marble statues representing the gods and Roman emperors found on various sites including those of Carthage and Thuburbo Majus. The Bardo has also rich pieces discovered during the excavations of Libyco-Punic sites including mainly Carthage, although the Carthage National Museum also possesses an important collection. The main parts of this Department are grimacing masks, terracotta statues and stelae of major interest for the Semitic epigraphy, the stele of the priest and the child being the most famous. The Museum also houses Greek works discovered in particular in the excavations of the ship of Mahdia, whose iconic piece[according to whom?] is a marble bust of Aphrodite.[attribution needed] The museum underwent a major refurbishment, completed in 2012, that was interrupted due to the Tunisian revolution. The expansion, which added 9,000 square meters to the complex, was designed by SCPA Codou-Hindley (France) and Amira Nouira (Tunisia). Considerable funding came from the World Bank.[2] Collections[edit] Small Patio of the Palace. It contains a major collection of Roman mosaics and other antiquities of interest from Ancient Greece, Carthage, Tunisia, and the Islamic period. The museum displays objects ranging from pre-historical artifacts to modern jewelry. 2015 terrorist attack[edit] Main article: Bardo National Museum attack On 18 March 2015, 24 people were killed in a terrorist attack [3][4] when three terrorists in civil uniform attacked the Bardo National Museum in the Tunisian capital city of Tunis, and took hostages.[5] Twenty-one people, mostly European tourists, were killed at the scene, while an additional victim died ten days later. Around fifty others were injured. This attack took place after the famous Charlie Hebdo attack in Paris where many journalists were killed [3][4][6] Two of the gunmen, Tunisian citizens Yassine Labidi and Saber Khachnaoui, were killed by police, while the third attacker is currently at large.[7] Police treated the event as a terrorist attack.[8][9] It was the deadliest terrorist attack in Tunisian history; surpassing the 2002 Ghriba synagogue bombing, which killed twenty-one people, most of whom were also European tourists, and injured more than thirty others.[6][10] Gallery[edit] Famous Mosaic Detail of the Ulysses Mosaic Ulysses Mosaic Neptune Roman Mosaic Zodiac mosaic SeignorJulius mosaic, 5th CE, Carthage Matron at her toilet, 4th c. CE Carthage Pieces in The Ground Floor The Early Christian Room with Baptistery in The Centre. Museum Entrance. Hallway of Sarcophagi Full with Visitors. Access Door on the First Floor. Roofs of Oudna Room Painted Ceiling of The Oudna Room. Painted Wooden Ceiling. Painted and Gilded Ceiling of The Room Althiburos. Technologies[edit] Starting from June 17, 2014, the museum offers visitors a digital guide in English, French, and Arabic.[11] Developed by Orange Tunisia using Near-field communication technology, it comes in the form of a free downloadable application for smartphones and visitors can also borrow a free smartphone at the museum entrance.[11] It offers audio commentaries, photo slideshows, and a historical and geographical perspective of the displayed works.[11] See also[edit] Architecture portal Africa portal History portal Culture of Tunisia List of museums in Tunisia History of Tunisia History of Carthage Ancient Carthage Mosaic of Dominus Julius, Carthage North Africa during Antiquity Carthage National Museum Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum El Djem Archaeological Museum Nabeul Museum Mosaic of Dominus Julius, Carthage References[edit] ^ Zaiane, Selma (2008). "Le musée national du Bardo en métamorphose. Pour une nouvelle image du tourisme culturel tunisien et de nouveaux visiteurs". Téoros. 69: 2. ^ Daniel E. Coslett, "Heritage, Tourism, and the Challenges of Postcolonial Globalization at Tunis' Bardo Museum", in Neocolonialism and Built Heritage, ed. Daniel E. Coslett (New York: Routledge, 2020), 191–216. ^ a b "The Latest: French President Mourns Tunisia Victims". nytimes.com. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ a b "Museum attack a 'great calamity' for Tunisia's young democracy". latimes.com. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ "Thousands of Tunisians, leaders march after Bardo attack". Reuters. 29 March 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015. ^ a b Death toll rises to 23, msn.com; accessed 19 March 2015. ^ "Third Tunisia museum attacker 'on the run', says president". Yahoo! News. March 22, 2015. Retrieved March 22, 2015. ^ "21 dead in Tunisia attack, Including Gunmen". aljazeera.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ Marszal, Andrew (18 March 2015). "Gunmen 'take hostages' in attack on Tunisia parliament". The Telegraph. Retrieved 18 March 2015. ^ "Tunisia Museum Attack Is Blow to Nation's Democratic Shift". New York Times. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ a b c "Le Musée du Bardo lance le premier guide numérique NFC du continent africain". Orange Tunisie. July 15, 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bardo National Museum. The National Bardo Museum Coordinates: 36°48′33.79″N 10°08′04.23″E / 36.8093861°N 10.1345083°E / 36.8093861; 10.1345083 v t e Islamic museums Africa Egypt (Museum of Islamic Art, Museum of Islamic Ceramics) Libya (Islamic Museum of Tripoli, Red Castle Museum) Morocco (Dar Batha Museum, Majorelle Garden, Marrakech Museum) Tunisia (Bardo National Museum, Mahdia Museum, National Museum of Islamic Art) Asia South Afghanistan (Museum of Islamic Art) India (Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences) Maldives (National Museum) Pakistan (Multan Museum, National Museum of Pakistan) South East Malaysia (Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia, Islamic Heritage Museum, Kelantan Islamic Museum, Malay and Islamic World Museum, Melaka Al-Quran Museum, Melaka Islamic Museum, Penang Islamic Museum, Sabah Islamic Civilisation Museum, Sabah Museum) Philippines (Aga Khan Museum of Islamic Arts) Singapore (Asian Civilisations Museum) West Bahrain (Beit Al Quran) Iran (Astan Quds Razavi Central Museum, Museum of the Islamic Era) Iraq (National Museum of Iraq, Sulaymaniyah Museum) Israel/Palestine (Islamic Museum, Museum for Islamic Art) Jordan (Prophet Mohammad Museum) Kuwait (Dar al Athar al Islamiyyah, Tareq Rajab Museum) Qatar (Museum of Islamic Art, National Museum of Qatar, Qatar National Museum) Syria (National Museum of Damascus, National Museum of Aleppo, Raqqa Museum) Turkey Bursa Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art, İstanbul Archaeology Museums, Istanbul Museum of the History of Science and Technology in Islam, Museum of Turkish Calligraphy Art, Sadberk Hanım Museum, Topkapi Museum, Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum) United Arab Emirates (Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilization, Zayed National Museum) Europe Denmark (David Collection) France (Arab World Institute, Louvre) Germany (Museum of Islamic Art) Greece (Benaki Museum) United Kingdom (British Museum, Burrell Collection, Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage, Victoria and 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en-wikipedia-org-4046	----	Constantine III (Byzantine emperor) - Wikipedia Constantine III (Byzantine emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Second Byzantine emperor in 641 Emperor of the Romans Constantine III Emperor of the Romans Solidus of Emperor Constantine III (right) with his father Heraclius (left) Byzantine emperor Reign 11 February – 25 May 641 Predecessor Heraclius Successor Heraklonas Co-emperor Heraklonas Born 3 May 612[1] Died 25 May 641(?)[a] (aged 29) Chalcedon, Bithynia Spouse Gregoria Issue Constans II Theodosius Names Heraclius Constantinus[1] Regnal name Flavius Heraclius novus Constantinus[1] Dynasty Heraclian dynasty Father Heraclius Mother Eudokia Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Constantine III or Heraclius Constantine (Latin: Heraclius Constantinus; Greek: Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος, Herákleios Kōnstantînos; 3 May 612 – 20 April or 24/26 May 641), was the shortest reigning Byzantine emperor, ruling for three months in 641. He was the eldest son of Emperor Heraclius and his first wife Eudokia. Contents 1 Reign 2 Family 3 Notes 4 See also 5 References 6 Literature Reign[edit] Constantine was crowned co-emperor by his father on 22 January 613 and shortly after was betrothed to his cousin, Gregoria, a daughter of his father's first cousin, Nicetas.[4] As the couple were second cousins, the marriage was technically incestuous, but this consideration must have been outweighed by the advantages of the match to the family as a whole. Furthermore, its illegality paled into insignificance beside Heraclius' marriage to his niece Martina the same year. In comparison, Constantine's marriage was far less scandalous than that of his father.[5] Constantine became senior Emperor when his father died on 11 February 641. He reigned together with his younger half-brother Heraklonas, the son of Martina. His supporters feared action against him on the part of Martina and Heraklonas, and the treasurer Philagrius advised him to write to the army, informing them that he was dying and asking for their assistance in protecting the rights of his children. He also sent a vast sum of money, more than two million solidi (gold coins), to Valentinus, an adjutant of Philagrius, to distribute to the soldiers to persuade them to secure the succession for his sons after his death. He died of tuberculosis after only three months, on 25 May, leaving Heraklonas sole emperor.[5] A rumor that Martina had him poisoned led first to the imposition of Constans II as co-emperor and then to the deposition, mutilation, and banishment of Martina and her sons.[4] Family[edit] In 629 or 630, Constantine married Gregoria, the daughter of Niketas.[4] They had two sons: Constans II, who succeeded as emperor Theodosius[6] Notes[edit] ^ Or, according to the Necrologium, 20 April, which would make a total reign of 99 days (counting from 11 January) as opposed to the "103 days" (from 11 February) stated in De Ceremoniis.[2] The latter date, 11 February, is traditionally the most accepted.[3] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b c Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire III, pp. 349-350 ^ Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042); With an Additional Note". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 1–63. doi:10.2307/1291157. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291157. ^ Franzius, Enno (2021). "Heraclius". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ a b c Khazdan, p. 917 ^ a b Ostrogorski, pp. 100-101. ^ Bury, J.B. (1889). "Genealogical Table of the House of Heraclius". A History of the Later Roman Empire: From Arcadius to Irene. Macmillan Publishers. p. vi. Literature[edit] Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Herakleios Constantine". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 917. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos III. Constantine III (Byzantine emperor) Heraclian dynasty Born: 3 May 612 Died: 20 April or 24/26 May 641 Regnal titles Preceded by Heraclius Byzantine emperor 613–641 with Heraclius, 613–641 Heraklonas, 641 Succeeded by Heraklonas v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-4054	----	Category:Imperial Roman consuls - Wikipedia Help Category:Imperial Roman consuls From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History portal Note: People elected or appointed consul before the Battle of Actium (31 BC) are categorized as Roman Republican consuls, regardless if they held the fasces after; those who were first appointed after the battle are put in this category. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. A ► Aurelian‎ (3 C, 14 P) S ► Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome‎ (427 P) T ► Theodosius II‎ (12 P) Pages in category "Imperial Roman consuls" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 656 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Ablabius (consul) Abundantius (consul) Gnaeus Acerronius Proculus Manius Acilius Aviola Manius Acilius Aviola (consul AD 54) Manius Acilius Glabrio Gnaeus Cornelius Severus Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91) Acilius Severus Septimius Acindynus Aconius Catullinus Philomatius Sextus Aelius Catus Lucius Aelius Lamia (consul 3) Quintus Aelius Tubero (consul 11 BC) Manius Aemilius Lepidus (consul 11) Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 6) Quintus Aemilius Lepidus Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 1) Flavius Aetius Lucius Afinius Gallus Afranius Hannibalianus Agapitus (consul 517) Agricola (consul 421) Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (father of Nero) Albinus (consul 444) Caecina Decius Faustus Albinus Alfenus Varus Anastasius I Dicorus Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Moschianus Probus Magnus Anastasius (consul 517) Anatolius (consul) Anicius Acilius Aginantius Faustus Anicius Auchenius Bassus (consul 408) Anicius Auchenius Bassus (consul 431) Anicius Faustus Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Sextus Anicius Paulinus Anicius Petronius Probus Anicius Probinus Anicius Probus Faustus Lucius Annius Arrianus Marcus Annius Flavius Libo Marcus Annius Libo Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus (consul 108) Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) Lucius Annius Vinicianus Anthemius Anthemius (praetorian prefect) Flavius Antiochianus Antiochus Chuzon Lucius Antistius Burrus Gaius Antistius Vetus (consul 30 BC) Gaius Antistius Vetus (consul 6 BC) Lucius Antistius Vetus (consul 55) Antoninus Pius Marcus Antonius Hiberus Claudius Antonius Iullus Antonius Gaius Annius Anullinus Apollonius (consul 460) Marcus Appius Bradua Marcus Appuleius Apsines Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus Arbitio Arcadius Arcesilaus (consul) Ardabur (consul 447) Ardabur (consul 427) Areobindus (consul 434) Areobindus Dagalaifus Areobindus Arintheus Aristaenetus (consul) Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus Armatus Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus Lucius Arruntius (consul 6) Lucius Arruntius (consul 22 BC) Asclepiodotus (consul 423) Marcus Asinius Agrippa Gaius Asinius Gallus Marcus Asinius Marcellus Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 23) Aspar Aspasius Paternus Turcius Rufius Apronianus Asterius Astyrius Atticus Bradua Herodes Atticus Gaius Aufidius Victorinus Augustus Aurelian Aurelianus (consul 400) Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius) Titus Aurelius Fulvus (grandfather of Antoninus Pius) Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus Quintus Aurelius Symmachus (consul 446) Ausonius Avienus (consul 501) Avitus B Balbinus Basiliscus Basilius Venantius Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius Decius Marius Venantius Basilius Bauto Belisarius Gaius Bellicius Calpurnius Torquatus Gaius Bellicius Flaccus Torquatus Tebanianus Gaius Bellicius Flaccus Torquatus Boethius Boethius (consul 522) Manlius Boethius Gaius Bruttius Praesens Lucius Fulvius Rusticus Gaius Bruttius Praesens (consul 153) Lucius Bruttius Quintius Crispinus C Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus Caecina Decius Basilius Marcus Caeionius Proculus Marcus Caeionius Silvanus Gaius Caesar Caesarius (consul) Lucius Caesennius Paetus Caesonius Bassus Lucius Caesonius Ovinius Manlius Rufinianus Bassus Lucius Calpurnius Piso (consul 57) Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 23 BC) Lucius Calpurnius Piso (consul 1 BC) Gaius Calvisius Sabinus (consul 4 BC) Gaius Calvisius Sabinus (consul 26) Caracalla Carinus Carus Cassiodorus Lucius Cassius Longinus (consul 30) Gaius Cassius Regallianus Castinus Lucius Catilius Severus Sextus Catius Clementinus Priscillianus Publius Catius Sabinus Ceionius Rufius Albinus Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Celer (magister officiorum) Censorius Datianus Cestius Gallus Cicero Minor Claudius Nero Claudius Drusus Claudius Gothicus Claudius Julius Ecclesius Dynamius Claudius Mamertinus Lucius Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus Gnaeus Claudius Severus (consul 167) Clearchus (consul) Clodius Albinus Quintus Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius Titus Clodius Vibius Varus Clovis I Marcus Cocceius Anicius Faustus Flavianus Sextus Cocceius Anicius Faustus Paulinus Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius Commodus Constans Constans (consul 414) Constans II Constantine the Great Constantine II (emperor) Constantine III (Western Roman emperor) Constantinus (consul 457) Constantius II Constantius Chlorus Constantius III Julius Constantius Lucius Corellius Neratius Pansa Publius Cornelius Anullinus Gnaeus Cornelius Cinna Magnus Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 10) Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur Cossus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (consul 26) Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 25) Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 60) Lucius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 3 BC) Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus Publius Cornelius Saecularis Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus (consul 51) Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 16 BC) Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 56) Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (consul 33) Lucius Cornelius Sulla (consul 5 BC) Crispus (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Imperial_Roman_consuls&oldid=981188647" Categories: Roman consuls Government of the Roman Empire People of the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 601–900 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Македонски Монгол 日本語 Polski Português Русский Scots Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 20:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4070	----	Jupiter (mythology) - Wikipedia Jupiter (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King of the gods in ancient Roman religion and myth This article is about the Roman god. For other uses, see Jupiter (disambiguation). "Jove" redirects here. For other uses, see Jove (disambiguation). Jupiter King of the Gods God of the sky and lightning Member of the Archaic and Capitoline Triads A marble statue of Jupiter (center) from c. 100 AD[a] Other names Jove Venerated in Imperial cult of ancient Rome Polytheistic religion Abode the heavens Planet Jupiter[1] Symbol Lightning bolt, eagle, oak tree Day Thursday Personal information Parents Saturn and Ops[2][3] Siblings Roman tradition: Juno, Ceres, Vesta Greco-Roman: Pluto and Neptune Consort Juno Children Mars, Vulcan, Bellona, Juventas, Hercules Equivalents Greek equivalent Zeus Etruscan equivalent Tinia[7] Hinduism equivalent Indra,[citation needed] Dyaus Pita[8][9] Canaanite equivalent Baal[10] Mesopotamian equivalent Enlil,[4] Hadad[5] Hurrian equivalent Teshub[6] Religion in ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius (head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter Practices and beliefs libation sacrifice votum temples festivals ludi funerals imperial cult mystery religions Priesthoods Pontifices Augures Vestales Flamines Fetiales Epulones Fratres Arvales Deities List of Roman deities Twelve major gods Capitoline Triad Aventine Triad underworld gods indigitamenta Deified emperors: Divus Julius Divus Augustus Related topics Glossary of ancient Roman religion Roman mythology Ancient Greek religion Etruscan religion Gallo-Roman religion Interpretatio graeca Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Jupiter (Latin: Iūpiter [ˈjuːpɪtɛr] or Iuppiter [ˈjʊpːɪtɛr],[11] from Proto-Italic *djous "day, sky" + *patēr "father", thus "sky father"),[12] also known as Jove (gen. Iovis [ˈjɔwɪs]), is the god of the sky and thunder and king of the gods in ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as offering, or sacrifice. Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt and his primary sacred animal is the eagle,[13] which held precedence over other birds in the taking of auspices[14] and became one of the most common symbols of the Roman army (see Aquila). The two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins.[15] As the sky-god, he was a divine witness to oaths, the sacred trust on which justice and good government depend. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located. In the Capitoline Triad, he was the central guardian of the state with Juno and Minerva. His sacred tree was the oak. Statue of Jupiter, Vatican, Rome. The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus,[16] and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Iuppiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune and Dīs Pater, the Roman equivalents of Poseidon and Hades respectively. Each presided over one of the three realms of the universe: sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually identified with Jupiter.[17] Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart.[7] Decor Fragment of a triumphal arch: The Emperor's Guards, The Praetorian Guard, featured in a relief with an eagle grasping a thunderbolt through its claws; in reference to Roman equivalent form of Jupiter. Contents 1 Role in the state 1.1 Flamen and Flaminica Dialis 1.2 Augurs 1.3 Fetials 1.4 Jupiter and religion in the secessions of the plebs 2 Myths and legends 2.1 Birth 2.2 Numa 2.3 Tullus Hostilius 2.4 Tarquin the Elder 3 Cult 3.1 Sacrifices 3.2 Temples 3.2.1 Temple of Capitoline Jupiter 3.2.2 Other temples in Rome 3.3 Iuppiter Latiaris and Feriae Latinae 4 Religious calendar 4.1 Ides 4.2 Nundinae 4.3 Festivals 4.3.1 Viniculture and wine 4.3.2 Regifugium and Poplifugium 4.3.3 Epula Iovis 4.3.4 Ludi 4.3.5 Larentalia 5 Name and epithets 5.1 Major epithets 5.1.1 Epithets denoting functionality 5.1.2 Syncretic or geographical epithets 6 Theology 6.1 Sources 6.2 Jovian theology 7 Relation to other gods 7.1 Capitoline Triad 7.1.1 Archaic Triad 7.2 Jupiter and Minerva 7.3 Juno and Fortuna 7.4 Janus 7.5 Saturn 7.6 Fides 7.7 Dius Fidius 7.8 Genius 7.9 Summanus 7.10 Liber 7.11 Veiove 7.12 Victoria 7.13 Terminus 7.14 Iuventas 7.15 Penates 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Role in the state[edit] The Romans believed that Jupiter granted them supremacy because they had honoured him more than any other people had. Jupiter was "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested."[18] He personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization, and external relations. His image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Rome's ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours.[19] The consuls swore their oath of office in Jupiter's name, and honoured him on the annual feriae of the Capitol in September. To thank him for his help, and to secure his continued support, they sacrificed a white ox (bos mas) with gilded horns.[20] A similar sacrificial offering was made by triumphal generals, who surrendered the tokens of their victory at the feet of Jupiter's statue in the Capitol. Some scholars have viewed the triumphator as embodying (or impersonating) Jupiter in the triumphal procession.[21] Jupiter's association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Rome's form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings; after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, the patrician ruling class. Nostalgia for the kingship (affectatio regni) was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state. In the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses (quadriga)—an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. When Marcus Manlius, whose defense of the Capitol against the invading Gauls had earned him the name Capitolinus, was accused of regal pretensions, he was executed as a traitor by being cast from the Tarpeian Rock. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there.[22] Capitoline Jupiter represented a continuity of royal power from the Regal period, and conferred power to the magistrates who paid their respects to him; at the same time he embodied that which was now forbidden, abhorred, and scorned.[23][clarification needed] During the Conflict of the Orders, Rome's plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office. During their first secessio (similar to a general strike), they withdrew from the city and threatened to found their own. When they agreed to come back to Rome they vowed the hill where they had retreated to Jupiter as symbol and guarantor of the unity of the Roman res publica.[24] Plebeians eventually became eligible for all the magistracies and most priesthoods, but the high priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) remained the preserve of patricians.[25] Flamen and Flaminica Dialis[edit] Detail of relief from the Augustan Altar of Peace, showing flamines wearing the pointed apex Main article: Flamen Dialis Jupiter was served by the patrician Flamen Dialis, the highest-ranking member of the flamines, a college of fifteen priests in the official public cult of Rome, each of whom was devoted to a particular deity. His wife, the Flaminica Dialis, had her own duties, and presided over the sacrifice of a ram to Jupiter on each of the nundinae, the "market" days of a calendar cycle, comparable to a week.[26] The couple were required to marry by the exclusive patrician ritual confarreatio, which included a sacrifice of spelt bread to Jupiter Farreus (from far, "wheat, grain").[27] The office of Flamen Dialis was circumscribed by several unique ritual prohibitions, some of which shed light on the sovereign nature of the god himself.[28] For instance, the flamen may remove his clothes or apex (his pointed hat) only when under a roof, in order to avoid showing himself naked to the sky—that is, "as if under the eyes of Jupiter" as god of the heavens. Every time the Flaminica saw a lightning bolt or heard a clap of thunder (Jupiter's distinctive instrument), she was prohibited from carrying on with her normal routine until she placated the god.[29] Some privileges of the flamen of Jupiter may reflect the regal nature of Jupiter: he had the use of the curule chair,[30] and was the only priest (sacerdos) who was preceded by a lictor[31] and had a seat in the senate.[32] Other regulations concern his ritual purity and his separation from the military function; he was forbidden to ride a horse or see the army outside the sacred boundary of Rome (pomerium). Although he served the god who embodied the sanctity of the oath, it was not religiously permissible (fas) for the Dialis to swear an oath.[33] He could not have contacts with anything dead or connected with death: corpses, funerals, funeral fires, raw meat. This set of restrictions reflects the fulness of life and absolute freedom that are features of Jupiter.[34] Augurs[edit] The augures publici, augurs were a college of sacerdotes who were in charge of all inaugurations and of the performing of ceremonies known as auguria. Their creation was traditionally ascribed to Romulus. They were considered the only official interpreters of Jupiter's will, thence they were essential to the very existence of the Roman State as Romans saw in Jupiter the only source of state authority. Fetials[edit] The fetials were a college of 20 men devoted to the religious administration of international affairs of state.[35] Their task was to preserve and apply the fetial law (ius fetiale), a complex set of procedures aimed at ensuring the protection of the gods in Rome's relations with foreign states. Iuppiter Lapis is the god under whose protection they act, and whom the chief fetial (pater patratus) invokes in the rite concluding a treaty.[36] If a declaration of war ensues, the fetial calls upon Jupiter and Quirinus, the heavenly, earthly and chthonic gods as witnesses of any potential violation of the ius. He can then declare war within 33 days.[37] The action of the fetials falls under Jupiter's jurisdiction as the divine defender of good faith. Several emblems of the fetial office pertain to Jupiter. The silex was the stone used for the fetial sacrifice, housed in the Temple of Iuppiter Feretrius, as was their sceptre. Sacred herbs (sagmina), sometimes identified as vervain, had to be taken from the nearby citadel (arx) for their ritual use.[38] Jupiter and religion in the secessions of the plebs[edit] Jupiter's head crowned with laurel and ivy. Sardonyx cameo (Louvre) The role of Jupiter in the conflict of the orders is a reflection of the religiosity of the Romans. On one side, the patricians were able to naturally claim the support of the supreme god as they held the auspices of the State. On the other side, the plebs (plebeians) argued that, as Jupiter was the source of justice, they had his favor because their cause was just. The first secession was caused by the excessive debt burden on the plebs. The legal institute of the nexum permitted a debtor to become a slave of his creditor. The plebs argued the debts had become unsustainable because of the expenses of the wars wanted by the patricians. As the senate did not accede to the proposal of a total debt remission advanced by dictator and augur Manius Valerius Maximus the plebs retired on the Mount Sacer, a hill located three Roman miles to the North-northeast of Rome, past the Nomentan bridge on river Anio.[39] The place is windy and was usually the site of rites of divination performed by haruspices. The senate in the end sent a delegation composed of ten members with full powers of making a deal with the plebs, of which were part Menenius Agrippa and Manius Valerius. It was Valerius, according to the inscription found at Arezzo in 1688 and written on the order of Augustus as well as other literary sources, that brought the plebs down from the Mount, after the secessionists had consecrated it to Jupiter Territor and built an altar (ara) on its summit. The fear of the wrath of Jupiter was an important element in the solution of the crisis. The consecration of the Mount probably referred to its summit only. The ritual requested the participation of both an augur (presumably Manius Valerius himself) and a pontifex.[40] The second secession was caused by the autocratic and arrogant behaviour of the decemviri, who had been charged by the Roman people with writing down the laws in use till then kept secret by the patrician magistrates and the sacerdotes. All magistracies and the tribunes of the plebs had resigned in advance. The task resulted in the XII Tables, which though concerned only private law. The plebs once again retreated to the Sacer Mons: this act besides recalling the first secession was meant to seek the protection of the supreme god. The secession ended with the resignation of the decemviri and an amnesty for the rebellious soldiers who had deserted from their camp near Mount Algidus while warring against the Volscians, abandoning the commanders. The amnesty was granted by the senate and guaranteed by the pontifex maximus Quintus Furius (in Livy's version) (or Marcus Papirius) who also supervised the nomination of the new tribunes of the plebs, then gathered on the Aventine Hill. The role played by the pontifex maximus in a situation of vacation of powers is a significant element underlining the religious basis and character of the tribunicia potestas.[41] Myths and legends[edit] Jupiter in a wall painting from Pompeii, with eagle and globe A dominant line of scholarship has held that Rome lacked a body of myths in its earliest period, or that this original mythology has been irrecoverably obscured by the influence of the Greek narrative tradition.[42] After the influence of Greek culture on Roman culture, Latin literature and iconography reinterpreted the myths of Zeus in depictions and narratives of Jupiter. In the legendary history of Rome, Jupiter is often connected to kings and kingship. Birth[edit] Jupiter is depicted as the twin of Juno in a statue at Praeneste that showed them nursed by Fortuna Primigenia.[43] An inscription that is also from Praeneste, however, says that Fortuna Primigenia was Jupiter's first-born child.[44] Jacqueline Champeaux sees this contradiction as the result of successive different cultural and religious phases, in which a wave of influence coming from the Hellenic world made Fortuna the daughter of Jupiter.[45] The childhood of Zeus is an important theme in Greek religion, art and literature, but there are only rare (or dubious) depictions of Jupiter as a child.[46] Numa[edit] Faced by a period of bad weather endangering the harvest during one early spring, King Numa resorted to the scheme of asking the advice of the god by evoking his presence.[47] He succeeded through the help of Picus and Faunus, whom he had imprisoned by making them drunk. The two gods (with a charm) evoked Jupiter, who was forced to come down to earth at the Aventine (hence named Iuppiter Elicius, according to Ovid). After Numa skilfully avoided the requests of the god for human sacrifices, Jupiter agreed to his request to know how lightning bolts are averted, asking only for the substitutions Numa had mentioned: an onion bulb, hairs and a fish. Moreover, Jupiter promised that at the sunrise of the following day he would give to Numa and the Roman people pawns of the imperium. The following day, after throwing three lightning bolts across a clear sky, Jupiter sent down from heaven a shield. Since this shield had no angles, Numa named it ancile; because in it resided the fate of the imperium, he had many copies made of it to disguise the real one. He asked the smith Mamurius Veturius to make the copies, and gave them to the Salii. As his only reward, Mamurius expressed the wish that his name be sung in the last of their carmina.[48] Plutarch gives a slightly different version of the story, writing that the cause of the miraculous drop of the shield was a plague and not linking it with the Roman imperium.[49] Tullus Hostilius[edit] Throughout his reign, King Tullus had a scornful attitude towards religion. His temperament was warlike, and he disregarded religious rites and piety. After conquering the Albans with the duel between the Horatii and Curiatii, Tullus destroyed Alba Longa and deported its inhabitants to Rome. As Livy tells the story, omens (prodigia) in the form of a rain of stones occurred on the Alban Mount because the deported Albans had disregarded their ancestral rites linked to the sanctuary of Jupiter. In addition to the omens, a voice was heard requesting that the Albans perform the rites. A plague followed and at last the king himself fell ill. As a consequence, the warlike character of Tullus broke down; he resorted to religion and petty, superstitious practices. At last, he found a book by Numa recording a secret rite on how to evoke Iuppiter Elicius. The king attempted to perform it, but since he executed the rite improperly the god threw a lightning bolt which burned down the king's house and killed Tullus.[50] Tarquin the Elder[edit] When approaching Rome (where Tarquin was heading to try his luck in politics after unsuccessful attempts in his native Tarquinii), an eagle swooped down, removed his hat, flew screaming in circles, replaced the hat on his head and flew away. Tarquin's wife Tanaquil interpreted this as a sign that he would become king based on the bird, the quadrant of the sky from which it came, the god who had sent it and the fact it touched his hat (an item of clothing placed on a man's most noble part, the head).[51] The Elder Tarquin is credited with introducing the Capitoline Triad to Rome, by building the so-called Capitolium Vetus. Macrobius writes this issued from his Samothracian mystery beliefs.[52] Cult[edit] Emperor Marcus Aurelius, attended by his family, offers sacrifice outside the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus after his victories in Germany (late 2nd century AD). Capitoline Museum, Rome Sacrifices[edit] Sacrificial victims (hostiae) offered to Jupiter were the ox (castrated bull), the lamb (on the Ides, the ovis idulis) and the wether (castrated male goat or ram) (on the Ides of January).[53] The animals were required to be white. The question of the lamb's gender is unresolved; while a lamb is generally male, for the vintage-opening festival the flamen Dialis sacrificed a ewe.[54] This rule seems to have had many exceptions, as the sacrifice of a ram on the Nundinae by the flaminica Dialis demonstrates. During one of the crises of the Punic Wars, Jupiter was offered every animal born that year.[55] Temples[edit] Temple of Capitoline Jupiter[edit] Main article: Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill) The temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus stood on the Capitoline Hill in Rome.[56] Jupiter was worshiped there as an individual deity, and with Juno and Minerva as part of the Capitoline Triad. The building was supposedly begun by king Tarquinius Priscus, completed by the last king (Tarquinius Superbus) and inaugurated in the early days of the Roman Republic (September 13, 509 BC). It was topped with the statues of four horses drawing a quadriga, with Jupiter as charioteer. A large statue of Jupiter stood within; on festival days, its face was painted red. [57] In (or near) this temple was the Iuppiter Lapis: the Jupiter Stone, on which oaths could be sworn. Jupiter's Capitoline Temple probably served as the architectural model for his provincial temples. When Hadrian built Aelia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem, a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected in the place of the destroyed Temple in Jerusalem. Other temples in Rome[edit] There were two temples in Rome dedicated to Iuppiter Stator; the first one was built and dedicated in 294 BC by Marcus Atilius Regulus after the third Samnite War. It was located on the Via Nova, below the Porta Mugonia, ancient entrance to the Palatine.[58] Legend attributed its founding to Romulus.[59] There may have been an earlier shrine (fanum), since the Jupiter cult is attested epigraphically.[60] Ovid places the temple's dedication on June 27, but it is unclear whether this was the original date,[61] or the rededication after the restoration by Augustus.[62] Altar to Jupiter on the outskirts of legionary fortress, 2nd–3rd century AD. Inscription: "Dedicated by L. Lollius Clarus for himself and his family" A second temple of Iuppiter Stator was built and dedicated by Quintus Caecilus Metellus Macedonicus after his triumph in 146 BC near the Circus Flaminius. It was connected to the restored temple of Iuno Regina with a portico (porticus Metelli).[63] Iuppiter Victor had a temple dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the third Samnite War in 295 BC. Its location is unknown, but it may be on the Quirinal, on which an inscription reading Diovei Victore[64] has been found, or on the Palatine according to the Notitia in the Liber Regionum (regio X), which reads: aedes Iovis Victoris. Either might have been dedicated on April 13 or June 13 (days of Iuppiter Victor and of Iuppiter Invictus, respectively, in Ovid's Fasti).[65] Inscriptions from the imperial age have revealed the existence of an otherwise-unknown temple of Iuppiter Propugnator on the Palatine.[66] Iuppiter Latiaris and Feriae Latinae[edit] The cult of Iuppiter Latiaris was the most ancient known cult of the god: it was practised since very remote times near the top of the Mons Albanus on which the god was venerated as the high protector of the Latin League under the hegemony of Alba Longa. After the destruction of Alba by king Tullus Hostilius the cult was forsaken. The god manifested his discontent through the prodigy of a rain of stones: the commission sent by the Roman senate to inquire was also greeted by a rain of stones and heard a loud voice from the grove on the summit of the mount requesting the Albans perform the religious service to the god according to the rites of their country. In consequence of this event the Romans instituted a festival of nine days (nundinae). Nonetheless a plague ensued: in the end Tullus Hostilius himself was affected and lastly killed by the god with a lightning bolt.[67] The festival was reestablished on its primitive site by the last Roman king Tarquin the Proud under the leadership of Rome. The feriae Latinae, or Latiar as they were known originally,[68] were the common festival (panegyris) of the so-called Priscan Latins[69] and of the Albans.[70] Their restoration aimed at grounding Roman hegemony in this ancestral religious tradition of the Latins. The original cult was reinstated unchanged as is testified by some archaic features of the ritual: the exclusion of wine from the sacrifice[71] the offers of milk and cheese and the ritual use of rocking among the games. Rocking is one of the most ancient rites mimicking ascent to Heaven and is very widespread. At the Latiar the rocking took place on a tree and the winner was of course the one who had swung the highest. This rite was said to have been instituted by the Albans to commemorate the disappearance of king Latinus, in the battle against Mezentius king of Caere: the rite symbolised a search for him both on earth and in heaven. The rocking as well as the customary drinking of milk was also considered to commemorate and ritually reinstate infancy.[72] The Romans in the last form of the rite brought the sacrificial ox from Rome and every participant was bestowed a portion of the meat, rite known as carnem petere.[73] Other games were held in every participant borough. In Rome a race of chariots (quadrigae) was held starting from the Capitol: the winner drank a liquor made with absynth.[74] This competition has been compared to the Vedic rite of the vajapeya: in it seventeen chariots run a phoney race which must be won by the king in order to allow him to drink a cup of madhu, i. e. soma.[75] The feasting lasted for at least four days, possibly six according to Niebuhr, one day for each of the six Latin and Alban decuriae.[76] According to different records 47 or 53 boroughs took part in the festival (the listed names too differ in Pliny NH III 69 and Dionysius of Halicarnassus AR V 61). The Latiar became an important feature of Roman political life as they were feriae conceptivae, i. e. their date varied each year: the consuls and the highest magistrates were required to attend shortly after the beginning of the administration, originally on the Ides of March: the Feriae usually took place in early April. They could not start campaigning before its end and if any part of the games had been neglected or performed unritually the Latiar had to be wholly repeated. The inscriptions from the imperial age record the festival back to the time of the decemvirs.[77] Wissowa remarks the inner linkage of the temple of the Mons Albanus with that of the Capitol apparent in the common association with the rite of the triumph:[78] since 231 BC some triumphing commanders had triumphed there first with the same legal features as in Rome.[79] Religious calendar[edit] See also: Roman calendar Ides[edit] The Ides (the midpoint of the month, with a full moon) was sacred to Jupiter, because on that day heavenly light shone day and night.[80] Some (or all) Ides were Feriae Iovis, sacred to Jupiter.[81] On the Ides, a white lamb (ovis idulis) was led along Rome's Sacred Way to the Capitoline Citadel and sacrificed to him.[82] Jupiter's two epula Iovis festivals fell on the Ides, as did his temple foundation rites as Optimus Maximus, Victor, Invictus and (possibly) Stator.[83] Nundinae[edit] The nundinae recurred every ninth day, dividing the calendar into a market cycle analogous to a week. Market days gave rural people (pagi) the opportunity to sell in town and to be informed of religious and political edicts, which were posted publicly for three days. According to tradition, these festival days were instituted by the king Servius Tullius.[84] The high priestess of Jupiter (Flaminica Dialis) sanctified the days by sacrificing a ram to Jupiter.[85] Festivals[edit] See also: Roman festivals During the Republican era, more fixed holidays on the Roman calendar were devoted to Jupiter than to any other deity.[86] Viniculture and wine[edit] Festivals of viniculture and wine were devoted to Jupiter, since grapes were particularly susceptible to adverse weather.[87] Dumézil describes wine as a "kingly" drink with the power to inebriate and exhilarate, analogous to the Vedic Soma.[88] Three Roman festivals were connected with viniculture and wine. The rustic Vinalia altera on August 19 asked for good weather for ripening the grapes before harvest.[89] When the grapes were ripe,[90] a sheep was sacrificed to Jupiter and the flamen Dialis cut the first of the grape harvest.[91] The Meditrinalia on October 11 marked the end of the grape harvest; the new wine was pressed, tasted and mixed with old wine[92] to control fermentation. In the Fasti Amiternini, this festival is assigned to Jupiter. Later Roman sources invented a goddess Meditrina, probably to explain the name of the festival.[93] At the Vinalia urbana on April 23, new wine was offered to Jupiter.[94] Large quantities of it were poured into a ditch near the temple of Venus Erycina, which was located on the Capitol.[95] Regifugium and Poplifugium[edit] See also: Regifugium and Poplifugia The Regifugium ("King's Flight")[96] on February 24 has often been discussed in connection with the Poplifugia on July 5, a day holy to Jupiter.[97] The Regifugium followed the festival of Iuppiter Terminus (Jupiter of Boundaries) on February 23. Later Roman antiquarians misinterpreted the Regifugium as marking the expulsion of the monarchy, but the "king" of this festival may have been the priest known as the rex sacrorum who ritually enacted the waning and renewal of power associated with the New Year (March 1 in the old Roman calendar).[98] A temporary vacancy of power (construed as a yearly "interregnum") occurred between the Regifugium on February 24 and the New Year on March 1 (when the lunar cycle was thought to coincide again with the solar cycle), and the uncertainty and change during the two winter months were over.[99] Some scholars emphasize the traditional political significance of the day.[100] The Poplifugia ("Routing of Armies"[101]), a day sacred to Jupiter, may similarly mark the second half of the year; before the Julian calendar reform, the months were named numerically, Quintilis (the fifth month) to December (the tenth month).[102] The Poplifugia was a "primitive military ritual" for which the adult male population assembled for purification rites, after which they ritually dispelled foreign invaders from Rome.[103] Epula Iovis[edit] See also: Epulum Jovis There were two festivals called epulum Iovis ("Feast of Jove"). One was held on September 13, the anniversary of the foundation of Jupiter's Capitoline temple. The other (and probably older) festival was part of the Plebeian Games (Ludi Plebei), and was held on November 13.[104] In the 3rd century BC, the epulum Iovis became similar to a lectisternium.[105] Ludi[edit] See also: Ludi The most ancient Roman games followed after one day (considered a dies ater, or "black day", i. e. a day which was traditionally considered unfortunate even though it was not nefas, see also article Glossary of ancient Roman religion) the two Epula Iovis of September and November. The games of September were named Ludi Magni; originally they were not held every year, but later became the annual Ludi Romani[106] and were held in the Circus Maximus after a procession from the Capitol. The games were attributed to Tarquinius Priscus,[107] and linked to the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol. Romans themselves acknowledged analogies with the triumph, which Dumézil thinks can be explained by their common Etruscan origin; the magistrate in charge of the games dressed as the triumphator and the pompa circensis resembled a triumphal procession. Wissowa and Mommsen argue that they were a detached part of the triumph on the above grounds[108] (a conclusion which Dumézil rejects).[109] The Ludi Plebei took place in November in the Circus Flaminius.[110] Mommsen argued that the epulum of the Ludi Plebei was the model of the Ludi Romani, but Wissowa finds the evidence for this assumption insufficient.[111] The Ludi Plebei were probably established in 534 BC. Their association with the cult of Jupiter is attested by Cicero.[112] Larentalia[edit] The feriae of December 23 were devoted to a major ceremony in honour of Acca Larentia (or Larentina), in which some of the highest religious authorities participated (probably including the Flamen Quirinalis and the pontiffs). The Fasti Praenestini marks the day as feriae Iovis, as does Macrobius.[113] It is unclear whether the rite of parentatio was itself the reason for the festival of Jupiter, or if this was another festival which happened to fall on the same day. Wissowa denies their association, since Jupiter and his flamen would not be involved with the underworld or the deities of death (or be present at a funeral rite held at a gravesite).[114] Name and epithets[edit] Neo-Attic bas-relief sculpture of Jupiter, holding a thunderbolt in his right hand; detail from the Moncloa Puteal (Roman, 2nd century), National Archaeological Museum, Madrid The Latin name Iuppiter originated as a vocative compound of the Old Latin vocative *Iou and pater ("father") and came to replace the Old Latin nominative case *Ious. Jove[115] is a less common English formation based on Iov-, the stem of oblique cases of the Latin name. Linguistic studies identify the form *Iou-pater as deriving from the Proto-Italic vocable *Djous Patēr,[12] and ultimately the Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (meaning "O Father Sky-god"; nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr).[116] Older forms of the deity's name in Rome were Dieus-pater ("day/sky-father"), then Diéspiter.[117] The 19th-century philologist Georg Wissowa asserted these names are conceptually- and linguistically-connected to Diovis and Diovis Pater; he compares the analogous formations Vedius-Veiove and fulgur Dium, as opposed to fulgur Summanum (nocturnal lightning bolt) and flamen Dialis (based on Dius, dies).[118] The Ancient later viewed them as entities separate from Jupiter. The terms are similar in etymology and semantics (dies, "daylight" and Dius, "daytime sky"), but differ linguistically. Wissowa considers the epithet Dianus noteworthy.[119][120] Dieus is the etymological equivalent of ancient Greece's Zeus and of the Teutonics' Ziu (genitive Ziewes). The Indo-European deity is the god from which the names and partially the theology of Jupiter, Zeus and the Indo-Aryan Vedic Dyaus Pita derive or have developed.[121] The Roman practice of swearing by Jove to witness an oath in law courts[122] is the origin of the expression "by Jove!"—archaic, but still in use. The name of the god was also adopted as the name of the planet Jupiter; the adjective "jovial" originally described those born under the planet of Jupiter[123] (reputed to be jolly, optimistic, and buoyant in temperament). Jove was the original namesake of Latin forms of the weekday now known in English as Thursday[124] (originally called Iovis Dies in Latin). These became jeudi in French, jueves in Spanish, joi in Romanian, giovedì in Italian, dijous in Catalan, Xoves in Galician, Joibe in Friulian, Dijóu in Provençal. Major epithets[edit] Main article: Epithets of Jupiter The epithets of a Roman god indicate his theological qualities. The study of these epithets must consider their origins (the historical context of an epithet's source). Jupiter's most ancient attested forms of cult belong to the State cult: these include the mount cult (see section above note n. 22). In Rome this cult entailed the existence of particular sanctuaries the most important of which were located on Mons Capitolinus (earlier Tarpeius). The mount had two tops that were both destined to the discharge of acts of cult related to Jupiter. The northern and higher top was the arx and on it was located the observation place of the augurs (auguraculum) and to it headed the monthly procession of the sacra Idulia.[125] On the southern top was to be found the most ancient sanctuary of the god: the shrine of Iuppiter Feretrius allegedly built by Romulus, restored by Augustus. The god here had no image and was represented by the sacred flintstone (silex).[126] The most ancient known rites, those of the spolia opima and of the fetials which connect Jupiter with Mars and Quirinus are dedicated to Iuppiter Feretrius or Iuppiter Lapis.[127] The concept of the sky god was already overlapped with the ethical and political domain since this early time. According to Wissowa and Dumézil[128] Iuppiter Lapis seems to be inseparable from Iuppiter Feretrius in whose tiny templet on the Capitol the stone was lodged. Another most ancient epithet is Lucetius: although the Ancients, followed by some modern scholars such as Wissowa,[118] interpreted it as referring to sunlight, the carmen Saliare shows that it refers to lightning.[129] A further confirmation of this interpretation is provided by the sacred meaning of lightning which is reflected in the sensitivity of the flaminica Dialis to the phenomenon.[130] To the same atmospheric complex belongs the epithet Elicius: while the ancient erudites thought it was connected to lightning, it is in fact related to the opening of the rervoirs of rain, as is testified by the ceremony of the Nudipedalia, meant to propitiate rainfall and devoted to Jupiter.[131] and the ritual of the lapis manalis, the stone which was brought into the city through the Porta Capena and carried around in times of drought, which was named Aquaelicium.[132] Other early epithets connected with the atmospheric quality of Jupiter are Pluvius, Imbricius, Tempestas, Tonitrualis, tempestatium divinarum potens, Serenator, Serenus[133][134] and, referred to lightning, Fulgur,[135] Fulgur Fulmen,[136] later as nomen agentis Fulgurator, Fulminator:[137] the high antiquity of the cult is testified by the neutre form Fulgur and the use of the term for the bidental, the lightning well dug on the spot hit by a lightning bolt.[138] A bronze statue of Jupiter, from the territory of the Treveri A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa (and his followers) as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by Augustine.[139][140] The agricultural ones include Opitulus, Almus, Ruminus, Frugifer, Farreus, Pecunia, Dapalis,[141] Epulo.[142] Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect Varro's: Opitulus because he brings opem (means, relief) to the needy, Almus because he nourishes everything, Ruminus because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, Pecunia because everything belongs to him.[143] Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet Ruminus, as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including Rumina, Ruminalis ficus, Iuppiter Ruminus, which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language (cf. Rumach Etruscan for Roman). However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, Ruma, meant in fact woman's breast.[144] Diva Rumina, as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the ficus ruminalis and was offered only libations of milk.[145] Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by Quintus Valerius Soranus, while hypothesising Iuno (more adept in his view as a breastfeeder), i.e. Rumina instead of Ruminus, might be nothing else than Iuppiter: "Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum...". In Dumézil's opinion Farreus should be understood as related to the rite of the confarreatio the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder.[146] The epithet Dapalis is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus.[147] Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter : it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato' s prayer of s one of sheer offer and no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as summus. The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the epulum Iovis, from which the god derives the epithet of Epulo and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes.[148] Epithets related to warring are in Wissowa's view Iuppiter Feretrius, Iuppiter Stator, Iuppiter Victor and Iuppiter Invictus.[149] Feretrius would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of spolia opima which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with regality and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively. Iuppiter Stator was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who had prayed the god for his almighty help at a difficult time the battle with the Sabines of king Titus Tatius.[150] Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul Marcus Atilius Regulus vowed a temple to Iuppiter Stator if "Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victouriously massacred...It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing...".[151][152] In a similar manner one can explain the epithet Victor, whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of Sentinum by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and who received another vow again in 293 by consul Lucius Papirius Cursor before a battle against the Samnite legio linteata. The religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by a Roman chief at a time of need for divine help from the supreme god, albeit for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the devotio of P. Decius Mus, Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows, i.e. was religiously reprehensible.[153] More recently Dario Sabbatucci has given a different interpretation of the meaning of Stator within the frame of his structuralistic and dialectic vision of Roman calendar, identifying oppositions, tensions and equilibria: January is the month of Janus, at the beginning of the year, in the uncertain time of winter (the most ancient calendar had only ten months, from March to December). In this month Janus deifies kingship and defies Jupiter. Moreover, January sees also the presence of Veiovis who appears as an anti-Jupiter, of Carmenta who is the goddess of birth and like Janus has two opposed faces, Prorsa and Postvorta (also named Antevorta and Porrima), of Iuturna, who as a gushing spring evokes the process of coming into being from non-being as the god of passage and change does. In this period the preeminence of Janus needs compensating on the Ides through the action of Jupiter Stator, who plays the role of anti-Janus, i.e. of moderator of the action of Janus.[154] Epithets denoting functionality[edit] Some epithets describe a particular aspect of the god, or one of his functions: Jove Aegiochus, Jove "Holder of the Goat or Aegis", as the father of Aegipan.[155] Jupiter Caelus, Jupiter as the sky or heavens; see also Caelus. Jupiter Caelestis, "Heavenly" or "Celestial Jupiter". Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter "who calls forth [celestial omens]" or "who is called forth [by incantations]"; "sender of rain". Jupiter Feretrius, who carries away the spoils of war". Feretrius was called upon to witness solemn oaths.[156] The epithet or "numen" is probably connected with the verb ferire, "to strike," referring to a ritual striking of ritual as illustrated in foedus ferire, of which the silex, a quartz rock, is evidence in his temple on the Capitoline hill, which is said to have been the first temple in Rome, erected and dedicated by Romulus to commemorate his winning of the spolia opima from Acron, king of the Caeninenses, and to serve as a repository for them. Iuppiter Feretrius was therefore equivalent to Iuppiter Lapis, the latter used for a specially solemn oath.[157] According to Livy I 10, 5 and Plutarch Marcellus 8 though, the meaning of this epithet is related to the peculiar frame used to carry the spolia opima to the god, the feretrum, itself from verb fero, Jupiter Centumpeda, literally, "he who has one hundred feet"; that is, "he who has the power of establishing, of rendering stable, bestowing stability on everything", since he himself is the paramount of stability. Jupiter Fulgur ("Lightning Jupiter"), Fulgurator or Fulgens Jupiter Lucetius ("of the light"), an epithet almost certainly related to the light or flame of lightningbolts and not to daylight, as indicated by the Jovian verses of the carmen Saliare.[158] Jupiter Optimus Maximus (" the best and greatest"). Optumus[159] because of the benefits he bestows, Maximus because of his strength, according to Cicero Pro Domo Sua.[160] Jupiter Pluvius, "sender of rain". Jupiter Ruminus, "breastfeeder of every living being", according to Augustine.[161] Jupiter Stator, from stare, "to stand": "he who has power of founding, instituting everything", thence also he who bestows the power of resistance, making people, soldiers, stand firm and fast.[162] Jupiter Summanus, sender of nocturnal thunder Jupiter Terminalus or Iuppiter Terminus, patron and defender of boundaries Jupiter Tigillus, "beam or shaft that supports and holds together the universe."[163] Jupiter Tonans, "thunderer" Jupiter Victor, "he who has the power of conquering everything."[163] Syncretic or geographical epithets[edit] Some epithets of Jupiter indicate his association with a particular place. Epithets found in the provinces of the Roman Empire may identify Jupiter with a local deity or site (see syncretism). Jupiter Ammon, Jupiter equated with the Egyptian deity Amun after the Roman conquest of Egypt Jupiter Brixianus, Jupiter equated with the local god of the town of Brescia in Cisalpine Gaul (modern North Italy) Jupiter Capitolinus, also Jupiter Optimus Maximus, venerated throughout the Roman Empire at sites with a Capitol (Capitolium) Jupiter Dolichenus, from Doliche in Syria, originally a Baal weather and war god. From the time of Vespasian, he was popular among the Roman legions as god of war and victory, especially on the Danube at Carnuntum. He is depicted as standing on a bull, with a thunderbolt in his left hand, and a double ax in the right. Jupiter Indiges, "Jupiter of the country," a title given to Aeneas after his death, according to Livy[164] Jupiter Ladicus, Jupiter equated with a Celtiberian mountain-god and worshipped as the spirit of Mount Ladicus in Gallaecia, northwest Iberia,[165] preserved in the toponym Codos de Ladoco.[166] Jupiter Laterius or Latiaris, the god of Latium Jupiter Parthinus or Partinus, under this name was worshiped on the borders of northeast Dalmatia and Upper Moesia, perhaps associated with the local tribe known as the Partheni. Jupiter Poeninus, under this name worshipped in the Alps, around the Great St Bernard Pass, where he had a sanctuary. Jupiter Solutorius, a local version of Jupiter worshipped in Spain; he was syncretised with the local Iberian god Eacus. Jupiter Taranis, Jupiter equated with the Celtic god Taranis. Jupiter Uxellinus, Jupiter as a god of high mountains. In addition, many of the epithets of Zeus can be found applied to Jupiter, by interpretatio romana. Thus, since the hero Trophonius (from Lebadea in Boeotia) is called Zeus Trophonius, this can be represented in English (as it would be in Latin) as Jupiter Trophonius. Similarly, the Greek cult of Zeus Meilichios appears in Pompeii as Jupiter Meilichius. Except in representing actual cults in Italy, this is largely 19th-century usage; modern works distinguish Jupiter from Zeus. Theology[edit] Sources[edit] Marcus Terentius Varro and Verrius Flaccus[167] were the main sources on the theology of Jupiter and archaic Roman religion in general. Varro was acquainted with the libri pontificum ("books of the Pontiffs") and their archaic classifications.[168] On these two sources depend other ancient authorities, such as Ovid, Servius, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, patristic texts, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch. One of the most important sources which preserve the theology of Jupiter and other Roman deities is The City of God against the Pagans by Augustine of Hippo. Augustine's criticism of traditional Roman religion is based on Varro's lost work, Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum. Although a work of Christian apologetics, The City of God provides glimpses into Varro's theological system and authentic Roman theological lore in general. According to Augustine,[169] Varro drew on the pontiff Mucius Scaevola's tripartite theology: The mythic theology of the poets (useful for the theatre) The physical theology of the philosophers (useful for understanding the natural world) The civil theology of the priests (useful for the state)[170] Jovian theology[edit] Georg Wissowa stressed Jupiter's uniqueness as the only case among Indo-European religions in which the original god preserved his name, his identity and his prerogatives.[118] In this view, Jupiter is the god of heaven and retains his identification with the sky among the Latin poets (his name is used as a synonym for "sky".[171]) In this respect, he differs from his Greek equivalent Zeus (who is considered a personal god, warden and dispenser of skylight). His name reflects this idea; it is a derivative of the Indo-European word for "bright, shining sky". His residence is found atop the hills of Rome and of mountains in general; as a result, his cult is present in Rome and throughout Italy at upper elevations.[172] Jupiter assumed atmospheric qualities; he is the wielder of lightning and the master of weather. However, Wissowa acknowledges that Jupiter is not merely a naturalistic, heavenly, supreme deity; he is in continual communication with man by means of thunder, lightning and the flight of birds (his auspices). Through his vigilant watch he is also the guardian of public oaths and compacts and the guarantor of good faith in the State cult.[173] The Jovian cult was common to the Italic people under the names Iove, Diove (Latin) and Iuve, Diuve (Oscan, in Umbrian only Iuve, Iupater in the Iguvine Tables). Wissowa considered Jupiter also a god of war and agriculture, in addition to his political role as guarantor of good faith (public and private) as Iuppiter Lapis and Dius Fidius, respectively. His view is grounded in the sphere of action of the god (who intervenes in battle and influences the harvest through weather).Wissowa (1912), pp. 103–108 In Georges Dumézil's view, Jovian theology (and that of the equivalent gods in other Indo-European religions) is an evolution from a naturalistic, supreme, celestial god identified with heaven to a sovereign god, a wielder of lightning bolts, master and protector of the community (in other words, of a change from a naturalistic approach to the world of the divine to a socio-political approach).[174] One interpretation of the lightning in Giorgione's Tempest is that it represents the presence of Jupiter.[175] In Vedic religion, Dyaus Pitar remained confined to his distant, removed, passive role and the place of sovereign god was occupied by Varuna and Mitra. In Greek and Roman religion, instead, the homonymous gods *Diou- and Διϝ- evolved into atmospheric deities; by their mastery of thunder and lightning, they expressed themselves and made their will known to the community. In Rome, Jupiter also sent signs to the leaders of the state in the form of auspices in addition to thunder. The art of augury was considered prestigious by ancient Romans; by sending his signs, Jupiter (the sovereign of heaven) communicates his advice to his terrestrial colleague: the king (rex) or his successor magistrates. The encounter between the heavenly and political, legal aspects of the deity are well represented by the prerogatives, privileges, functions and taboos proper to his flamen (the flamen Dialis and his wife, the flaminica Dialis). Dumézil maintains that Jupiter is not himself a god of war and agriculture, although his actions and interest may extend to these spheres of human endeavour. His view is based on the methodological assumption that the chief criterion for studying a god's nature is not to consider his field of action, but the quality, method and features of his action. Consequently, the analysis of the type of action performed by Jupiter in the domains in which he operates indicates that Jupiter is a sovereign god who may act in the field of politics (as well as agriculture and war) in his capacity as such, i.e. in a way and with the features proper to a king. Sovereignty is expressed through the two aspects of absolute, magic power (epitomised and represented by the Vedic god Varuna) and lawful right (by the Vedic god Mitra).[176] However, sovereignty permits action in every field; otherwise, it would lose its essential quality. As a further proof, Dumézil cites the story of Tullus Hostilius (the most belligerent of the Roman kings), who was killed by Jupiter with a lightning bolt (indicating that he did not enjoy the god's favour). Varro's definition of Jupiter as the god who has under his jurisdiction the full expression of every being (penes Iovem sunt summa) reflects the sovereign nature of the god, as opposed to the jurisdiction of Janus (god of passages and change) on their beginning (penes Ianum sunt prima).[177] Relation to other gods[edit] Capitoline Triad[edit] See also: Capitoline Triad Capitoline Triad The Capitoline Triad was introduced to Rome by the Tarquins. Dumézil[178] thinks it might have been an Etruscan (or local) creation based on Vitruvius' treatise on architecture, in which the three deities are associated as the most important. It is possible that the Etruscans paid particular attention to Menrva (Minerva) as a goddess of destiny, in addition to the royal couple Uni (Juno) and Tinia (Jupiter).[179] In Rome, Minerva later assumed a military aspect under the influence of Athena Pallas (Polias). Dumézil argues that with the advent of the Republic, Jupiter became the only king of Rome, no longer merely the first of the great gods. Archaic Triad[edit] Main article: Archaic Triad The Archaic Triad is a hypothetical theological structure (or system) consisting of the gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. It was first described by Wissowa,[180] and the concept was developed further by Dumézil. The three-function hypothesis of Indo-European society advanced by Dumézil holds that in prehistory, society was divided into three classes (priests, warriors and craftsmen) which had as their religious counterparts the divine figures of the sovereign god, the warrior god and the civil god. The sovereign function (embodied by Jupiter) entailed omnipotence; thence, a domain extended over every aspect of nature and life. The colour relating to the sovereign function is white. The three functions are interrelated with one another, overlapping to some extent; the sovereign function, although essentially religious in nature, is involved in many ways in areas pertaining to the other two. Therefore, Jupiter is the "magic player" in the founding of the Roman state and the fields of war, agricultural plenty, human fertility and wealth.[181] This hypothesis has not found widespread support among scholars. Jupiter and Minerva[edit] Apart from being protectress of the arts and craft as Minerva Capta, who was brought from Falerii, Minerva's association to Jupiter and relevance to Roman state religion is mainly linked to the Palladium, a wooden statue of Athena that could move the eyes and wave the spear. It was stored in the penus interior, inner penus of the aedes Vestae, temple of Vesta and considered the most important among the pignora imperii, pawns of dominion, empire.[182] In Roman traditional lore it was brought from Troy by Aeneas. Scholars though think it was last taken to Rome in the third or second century BC.[183] Juno and Fortuna[edit] The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on Juno the role of tutelary goddess of marriage (Iuno Pronuba). The couple itself though cannot be reduced to a Greek apport. The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology.[184] Praeneste offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess Fortuna is represented as milking two infants, one male and one female, namely Jove (Jupiter) and Juno.[185] It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia.[186] Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: " Fortunae Iovi puero..." and "Fortunae Iovis puero..."[187] In 1882 though R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called daughter of Jupiter, raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods.[188] Dumezil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this aporia would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of Indoeuropean deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion.[189] The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity Aditi, the Not-Bound or Enemy of Bondage, that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the Aditya she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, Dakṣa, the minor sovereign. who represents the Creative Energy, being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs.[190] Moreover, Aditi is thus one of the heirs (along with Savitr) of the opening god of the Indoiranians, as she is represented with her head on her two sides, with the two faces looking opposite directions.[191] The mother of the sovereign gods has thence two solidal but distinct modalities of duplicity, i.e. of having two foreheads and a double position in the genealogy. Angelo Brelich has interpreted this theology as the basic opposition between the primordial absence of order (chaos) and the organisation of the cosmos.[192] Janus[edit] Main article: Janus The relation of Jupiter to Janus is problematic. Varro defines Jupiter as the god who has potestas (power) over the forces by which anything happens in the world. Janus, however, has the privilege of being invoked first in rites, since in his power are the beginnings of things (prima), the appearance of Jupiter included.[193] Saturn[edit] Main article: Saturn (mythology) The Latins considered Saturn the predecessor of Jupiter. Saturn reigned in Latium during a mythical Golden Age reenacted every year at the festival of Saturnalia. Saturn also retained primacy in matters of agriculture and money. Unlike the Greek tradition of Cronus and Zeus, the usurpation of Saturn as king of the gods by Jupiter was not viewed by the Latins as violent or hostile; Saturn continued to be revered in his temple at the foot of the Capitol Hill, which maintained the alternative name Saturnius into the time of Varro.[194] A. Pasqualini has argued that Saturn was related to Iuppiter Latiaris, the old Jupiter of the Latins, as the original figure of this Jupiter was superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held at the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill in Rome which involved a human sacrifice and the aspersion of the statue of the god with the blood of the victim.[195] Fides[edit] Main article: Fides (mythology) The abstract personification Fides ("Faith, Trust") was one of the oldest gods associated with Jupiter. As guarantor of public faith, Fides had her temple on the Capitol (near that of Capitoline Jupiter).[196] Dius Fidius[edit] Main article: Dius Fidius Dius Fidius is considered a theonym for Jupiter,[197] and sometimes a separate entity also known in Rome as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. Wissowa argued that while Jupiter is the god of the Fides Publica Populi Romani as Iuppiter Lapis (by whom important oaths are sworn), Dius Fidius is a deity established for everyday use and was charged with the protection of good faith in private affairs. Dius Fidius would thus correspond to Zeus Pistios.[198] The association with Jupiter may be a matter of divine relation; some scholars see him as a form of Hercules.[199] Both Jupiter and Dius Fidius were wardens of oaths and wielders of lightning bolts; both required an opening in the roof of their temples.[128] The functionality of Sancus occurs consistently within the sphere of fides, oaths and respect for contracts and of the divine-sanction guarantee against their breach. Wissowa suggested that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter,[200] but the concept of a deity's genius is a development of the Imperial period.[201] Some aspects of the oath-ritual for Dius Fidius (such as proceedings under the open sky or in the compluvium of private residences), and the fact the temple of Sancus had no roof, suggest that the oath sworn by Dius Fidius predated that for Iuppiter Lapis or Iuppiter Feretrius.[202] Genius[edit] Main article: Genius (mythology) Augustine quotes Varro who explains the genius as "the god who is in charge and has the power to generate everything" and "the rational spirit of all (therefore, everyone has their own)". Augustine concludes that Jupiter should be considered the genius of the universe.[203] G. Wissowa advanced the hypothesis that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter.[200] W. W. Fowler has cautioned that this interpretation looks to be an anachronism and it would only be acceptable to say that Sancus is a Genius Iovius, as it appears from the Iguvine Tables.[204] Censorinus cites Granius Flaccus as saying that "the Genius was the same entity as the Lar" in his lost work De Indigitamentis.[205][206] probably referring to the Lar Familiaris. Mutunus Tutunus had his shrine at the foot of the Velian Hill near those of the Di Penates and of Vica Pota, who were among the most ancient gods of the Roman community of according to Wissowa.[207] Dumézil opines that the attribution of a Genius to the gods should be earlier than its first attestation of 58 BC, in an inscription which mentions the Iovis Genius.[208] A connection between Genius and Jupiter seems apparent in Plautus' comedy Amphitryon, in which Jupiter takes up the looks of Alcmena's husband in order to seduce her: J. Hubeaux sees there a reflection of the story that Scipio Africanus' mother conceived him with a snake that was in fact Jupiter transformed.[209] Scipio himself claimed that only he would rise to the mansion of the gods through the widest gate.[210] Among the Etruscan Penates there is a Genius Iovialis who comes after Fortuna and Ceres and before Pales.[211] Genius Iovialis is one of the Penates of the humans and not of Jupiter though, as these were located in region I of Martianus Capella' s division of Heaven, while Genius appears in regions V and VI along with Ceres, Favor (possibly a Roman approximation to an Etruscan male manifestation of Fortuna) and Pales.[212] This is in accord with the definition of the Penates of man being Fortuna, Ceres, Pales and Genius Iovialis and the statement in Macrobius that the Larentalia were dedicated to Jupiter as the god whence the souls of men come from and to whom they return after death.[213] Summanus[edit] Main article: Summanus The god of nighttime lightning has been interpreted as an aspect of Jupiter, either a chthonic manifestation of the god or a separate god of the underworld. A statue of Summanus stood on the roof of the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, and Iuppiter Summanus is one of the epithets of Jupiter.[214] Dumézil sees the opposition Dius Fidius versus Summanus as complementary, interpreting it as typical to the inherent ambiguity of the sovereign god exemplified by that of Mitra and Varuna in Vedic religion.[215] The complementarity of the epithets is shown in inscriptions found on puteals or bidentals reciting either fulgur Dium conditum[216] or fulgur Summanum conditum in places struck by daytime versus nighttime lightning bolts respectively.[217] This is also consistent with the etymology of Summanus, deriving from sub and mane (the time before morning).[218] Liber[edit] See also: Liber Iuppiter was associated with Liber through his epithet of Liber (association not yet been fully explained by scholars, due to the scarcity of early documentation). In the past, it was maintained that Liber was only a progressively-detached hypostasis of Jupiter; consequently, the vintage festivals were to be attributed only to Iuppiter Liber.[219] Such a hypothesis was rejected as groundless by Wissowa, although he was a supporter of Liber's Jovian origin.[220] Olivier de Cazanove[221] contends that it is difficult to admit that Liber (who is present in the oldest calendars—those of Numa—in the Liberalia and in the month of Liber at Lavinium)[222] was derived from another deity. Such a derivation would find support only in epigraphic documents, primarily from the Osco-Sabellic area.[223] Wissowa sets the position of Iuppiter Liber within the framework of an agrarian Jupiter. The god also had a temple in this name on the Aventine in Rome, which was restored by Augustus and dedicated on September 1. Here, the god was sometimes named Liber[224] and sometimes Libertas.[225] Wissowa opines that the relationship existed in the concept of creative abundance through which the supposedly-separate Liber might have been connected[226] to the Greek god Dionysos, although both deities might not have been originally related to viticulture. Other scholars assert that there was no Liber (other than a god of wine) within historical memory.[227] O. de Cazanove[228] argues that the domain of the sovereign god Jupiter was that of sacred, sacrificial wine (vinum inferium),[229] while that of Liber and Libera was confined to secular wine (vinum spurcum);[230] these two types were obtained through differing fermentation processes. The offer of wine to Liber was made possible by naming the mustum (grape juice) stored in amphoras sacrima.[231] Sacred wine was obtained by the natural fermentation of juice of grapes free from flaws of any type, religious (e. g. those struck by lightning, brought into contact with corpses or wounded people or coming from an unfertilised grapeyard) or secular (by "cutting" it with old wine). Secular (or "profane") wine was obtained through several types of manipulation (e.g. by adding honey, or mulsum; using raisins, or passum; by boiling, or defrutum). However, the sacrima used for the offering to the two gods for the preservation of grapeyards, vessels and wine[232] was obtained only by pouring the juice into amphors after pressing.[233] The mustum was considered spurcum (dirty), and thus unusable in sacrifices.[234] The amphor (itself not an item of sacrifice) permitted presentation of its content on a table or could be added to a sacrifice; this happened at the auspicatio vindamiae for the first grape[235] and for ears of corn of the praemetium on a dish (lanx) at the temple of Ceres.[236] Dumézil, on the other hand, sees the relationship between Jupiter and Liber as grounded in the social and political relevance of the two gods (who were both considered patrons of freedom).[237] The Liberalia of March were, since earliest times, the occasion for the ceremony of the donning of the toga virilis or libera (which marked the passage into adult citizenship by young people). Augustine relates that these festivals had a particularly obscene character: a phallus was taken to the fields on a cart, and then back in triumph to town. In Lavinium they lasted a month, during which the population enjoyed bawdy jokes. The most honest matronae were supposed to publicly crown the phallus with flowers, to ensure a good harvest and repeal the fascinatio (evil eye).[222] In Rome representations of the sex organs were placed in the temple of the couple Liber Libera, who presided over the male and female components of generation and the "liberation" of the semen.[238] This complex of rites and beliefs shows that the divine couple's jurisdiction extended over fertility in general, not only that of grapes. The etymology of Liber (archaic form Loifer, Loifir) was explained by Émile Benveniste as formed on the IE theme *leudh- plus the suffix -es-; its original meaning is "the one of germination, he who ensures the sprouting of crops".[239] The relationship of Jupiter with freedom was a common belief among the Roman people, as demonstrated by the dedication of the Mons Sacer to the god after the first secession of the plebs. Later inscriptions also show the unabated popular belief in Jupiter as bestower of freedom in the imperial era.[240] Veiove[edit] Main article: Vejovis Scholars have been often puzzled by Ve(d)iove (or Veiovis, or Vedius) and unwilling to discuss his identity, claiming our knowledge of this god is insufficient.[241] Most, however, agree that Veiove is a sort of special Jupiter or anti-Iove, or even an underworld Jupiter. In other words, Veiove is indeed the Capitoline god himself, who takes up a different, diminished appearance (iuvenis and parvus, young and gracile), in order to be able to discharge sovereign functions over places, times and spheres that by their own nature are excluded from the direct control of Jupiter as Optimus Maximus.[242] This conclusion is based on information provided by Gellius,[243] who states his name is formed by adding prefix ve (here denoting "deprivation" or "negation") to Iove (whose name Gellius posits as rooted in the verb iuvo "I benefit"). D. Sabbatucci has stressed the feature of bearer of instability and antithesis to cosmic order of the god, who threatens the kingly power of Jupiter as Stator and Centumpeda and whose presence occurs side by side to Janus' on January 1, but also his function of helper to the growth of the young Jupiter.[244] In 1858 Ludwig Preller suggested that Veiovis may be the sinister double of Jupiter.[245] In fact, the god (under the name Vetis) is placed in the last case (number 16) of the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver—before Cilens (Nocturnus), who ends (or begins in the Etruscan vision) the disposition of the gods. In Martianus Capella's division of heaven, he is found in region XV with the dii publici; as such, he numbers among the infernal (or antipodal) gods. The location of his two temples in Rome—near those of Jupiter (one on the Capitoline Hill, in the low between the arx and the Capitolium, between the two groves where the asylum founded by Romulus stood, the other on the Tiber Island near that of Iuppiter Iurarius, later also known as temple of Aesculapius)[246]—may be significant in this respect, along with the fact that he is considered the father[247] of Apollo, perhaps because he was depicted carrying arrows. He is also considered to be the unbearded Jupiter.[248] The dates of his festivals support the same conclusion: they fall on January 1,[249] March 7[250] and May 21,[251] the first date being the recurrence of the Agonalia, dedicated to Janus and celebrated by the king with the sacrifice of a ram. The nature of the sacrifice is debated; Gellius states capra, a female goat, although some scholars posit a ram. This sacrifice occurred rito humano, which may mean "with the rite appropriate for human sacrifice".[252] Gellius concludes by stating that this god is one of those who receive sacrifices so as to persuade them to refrain from causing harm. The arrow is an ambivalent symbol; it was used in the ritual of the devotio (the general who vowed had to stand on an arrow).[253] It is perhaps because of the arrow and of the juvenile looks that Gellius identifies Veiove with Apollo[254] and as a god who must receive worship in order to obtain his abstention from harming men, along with Robigus and Averruncus.[255] The ambivalence in the identity of Veiove is apparent in the fact that while he is present in places and times which may have a negative connotation (such as the asylum of Romulus in between the two groves on the Capitol, the Tiberine island along with Faunus and Aesculapius, the kalends of January, the nones of March, and May 21, a statue of his nonetheless stands in the arx. Moreover, the initial particle ve- which the ancient supposed were part of his name is itself ambivalent as it may have both an accrescitive and diminutive value.[256] Maurice Besnier has remarked that a temple to Iuppiter was dedicated by praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo before the battle of Cremona against the Celtic Cenomani of Cisalpine Gaul.[257] An inscription found at Brescia in 1888 shows that Iuppiter Iurarius was worshipped there[258] and one found on the south tip of Tiber Island in 1854 that there was a cult to the god on the spot too.[259] Besnier speculates that Lucius Furius had evoked the chief god of the enemy and built a temple to him in Rome outside the pomerium. On January 1, the Fasti Praenestini record the festivals of Aesculapius and Vediove on the Island, while in the Fasti Ovid speaks of Jupiter and his grandson.[260] Livy records that in 192 BC, duumvir Q. Marcus Ralla dedicated to Jupiter on the Capitol the two temples promised by L. Furius Purpureo, one of which was that promised during the war against the Gauls.[261] Besnier would accept a correction to Livy's passage (proposed by Jordan) to read aedes Veiovi instead of aedes duae Iovi. Such a correction concerns the temples dedicated on the Capitol: it does not address the question of the dedication of the temple on the Island, which is puzzling, since the place is attested epigraphically as dedicated to the cult of Iuppiter Iurarius, in the Fasti Praenestini of Vediove[262] and to Jupiter according to Ovid. The two gods may have been seen as equivalent: Iuppiter Iurarius is an awesome and vengeful god, parallel to the Greek Zeus Orkios, the avenger of perjury.[263] A. Pasqualini has argued that Veiovis seems related to Iuppiter Latiaris, as the original figure of this Jupiter would have been superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held on the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill, the southernmost hilltop of the Quirinal in Rome, which involved a human sacrifice. The gens Iulia had gentilician cults at Bovillae where a dedicatory inscription to Vediove has been found in 1826 on an ara.[264] According to Pasqualini it was a deity similar to Vediove, wielder of lightningbolts and chthonic, who was connected to the cult of the founders who first inhabited the Alban Mount and built the sanctuary. Such a cult once superseded on the Mount would have been taken up and preserved by the Iulii, private citizens bound to the sacra Albana by their Alban origin.[265] Victoria[edit] See also: Victoria (mythology) Coin with laureate head of Jupiter (obverse) and (reverse) Victory, standing ("ROMA" below in relief) Victoria was connected to Iuppiter Victor in his role as bestower of military victory. Jupiter, as a sovereign god, was considered as having the power to conquer anyone and anything in a supernatural way; his contribution to military victory was different from that of Mars (god of military valour). Victoria appears first on the reverse of coins representing Venus (driving the quadriga of Jupiter, with her head crowned and with a palm in her hand) during the first Punic War. Sometimes, she is represented walking and carrying a trophy.[266] A temple was dedicated to the goddess afterwards on the Palatine, testifying to her high station in the Roman mind. When Hieron of Syracuse presented a golden statuette of the goddess to Rome, the Senate had it placed in the temple of Capitoline Jupiter among the greatest (and most sacred) deities.[267] Although Victoria played a significant role in the religious ideology of the late Republic and the Empire, she is undocumented in earlier times. A function similar to hers may have been played by the little-known Vica Pota. Terminus[edit] See also: Terminus (god) Juventas and Terminus were the gods who, according to legend,[268] refused to leave their sites on the Capitol when the construction of the temple of Jupiter was undertaken. Therefore, they had to be reserved a sacellum within the new temple. Their stubbornness was considered a good omen; it would guarantee youth, stability and safety to Rome on its site.[269] This legend is generally thought by scholars to indicate their strict connection with Jupiter. An inscription found near Ravenna reads Iuppiter Ter.,[270] indicating that Terminus is an aspect of Jupiter. Terminus is the god of boundaries (public and private), as he is portrayed in literature. The religious value of the boundary marker is documented by Plutarch,[271] who ascribes to king Numa the construction of temples to Fides and Terminus and the delimitation of Roman territory. Ovid gives a vivid description of the rural rite at a boundary of fields of neighbouring peasants on February 23 (the day of the Terminalia.[272] On that day, Roman pontiffs and magistrates held a ceremony at the sixth mile of the Via Laurentina (ancient border of the Roman ager, which maintained a religious value). This festival, however, marked the end of the year and was linked to time more directly than to space (as attested by Augustine's apologia on the role of Janus with respect to endings).[273] Dario Sabbatucci has emphasised the temporal affiliation of Terminus, a reminder of which is found in the rite of the regifugium.[274] G. Dumézil, on the other hand, views the function of this god as associated with the legalistic aspect of the sovereign function of Jupiter. Terminus would be the counterpart of the minor Vedic god Bagha, who oversees the just and fair division of goods among citizens.[275] Iuventas[edit] See also: Iuventas Along with Terminus, Iuventas (also known as Iuventus and Iuunta) represents an aspect of Jupiter (as the legend of her refusal to leave the Capitol Hill demonstrates. Her name has the same root as Juno (from Iuu-, "young, youngster"); the ceremonial litter bearing the sacred goose of Juno Moneta stopped before her sacellum on the festival of the goddess. Later, she was identified with the Greek Hebe. The fact that Jupiter is related to the concept of youth is shown by his epithets Puer, Iuuentus and Ioviste (interpreted as "the youngest" by some scholars).[276] Dumézil noted the presence of the two minor sovereign deities Bagha and Aryaman beside the Vedic sovereign gods Varuna and Mitra (though more closely associated with Mitra); the couple would be reflected in Rome by Terminus and Iuventas. Aryaman is the god of young soldiers. The function of Iuventas is to protect the iuvenes (the novi togati of the year, who are required to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter on the Capitol)[277] and the Roman soldiers (a function later attributed to Juno). King Servius Tullius, in reforming the Roman social organisation, required that every adolescent offer a coin to the goddess of youth upon entering adulthood.[278] In Dumézil's analysis, the function of Iuventas (the personification of youth), was to control the entrance of young men into society and protect them until they reach the age of iuvenes or iuniores (i.e. of serving the state as soldiers).[279] A temple to Iuventas was promised in 207 BC by consul Marcus Livius Salinator and dedicated in 191 BC.[280] Penates[edit] See also: Penates The Romans considered the Penates as the gods to whom they owed their own existence.[281] As noted by Wissowa Penates is an adjective, meaning "those of or from the penus" the innermost part, most hidden recess;[282] Dumézil though refuses Wissowa's interpretation of penus as the storeroom of a household. As a nation the Romans honoured the Penates publici: Dionysius calls them Trojan gods as they were absorbed into the Trojan legend. They had a temple in Rome at the foot of the Velian Hill, near the Palatine, in which they were represented as a couple of male youth. They were honoured every year by the new consuls before entering office at Lavinium,[283] because the Romans believed the Penates of that town were identical to their own.[284] The concept of di Penates is more defined in Etruria: Arnobius (citing a Caesius) states that the Etruscan Penates were named Fortuna, Ceres, Genius Iovialis and Pales; according to Nigidius Figulus, they included those of Jupiter, of Neptune, of the infernal gods and of mortal men.[285] According to Varro the Penates reside in the recesses of Heaven and are called Consentes and Complices by the Etruscans because they rise and set together, are twelve in number and their names are unknown, six male and six females and are the cousellors and masters of Jupiter. Martianus states they are always in agreement among themselves.[286] While these last gods seem to be the Penates of Jupiter, Jupiter himself along with Juno and Minerva is one of the Penates of man according to some authors.[287] This complex concept is reflected in Martianus Capella's division of heaven, found in Book I of his De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae, which places the Di Consentes Penates in region I with the Favores Opertanei; Ceres and Genius in region V; Pales in region VI; Favor and Genius (again) in region VII; Secundanus Pales, Fortuna and Favor Pastor in region XI. The disposition of these divine entities and their repetition in different locations may be due to the fact that Penates belonging to different categories (of Jupiter in region I, earthly or of mortal men in region V) are intended. Favor(es) may be the Etruscan masculine equivalent of Fortuna.[288] See also[edit] Ver sacrum Japheth Zeus Notes[edit] ^ With 19th-century additions of drapery, scepter, eagle, and Victory References[edit] ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04. ^ Saturni filius, frg. 2 in the edition of Baehrens. ^ Selected Poems: Keats: Keats By John Keats ^ Pleins, J. David (2010). When the great abyss opened : classic and contemporary readings of Noah's flood ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-19-973363-7. ^ https://journals.openedition.org/syria/681 ^ M.L. West, Hesiod Theogony (1966:18-31); G.S. Kirk, Myth: Its Meaning and Function in Ancient and Other Cultures (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1970:214-20.), with Zeus being the Greek equivalent of Jupiter. ^ a b Massimo Pallottino, "Etruscan Daemonology," p. 41, and Robert Schilling, "Rome," pp. 44 and 63, both in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981); Giuliano Bonfante and Larissa Bonfante The Etruscan Language: An Introduction (Manchester University Press, 1983 rev. ed. 2003), pp. 24, 84, 85, 219, 225; Nancy Thomson de Grummond, Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006), pp. 19, 53–58 et passim; Jean MacIntosh Turfa, Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 62. ^ West 2007, p. 171. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWest2007 (help) ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 431. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMalloryAdams2006 (help) ^ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baal-ancient-deity ^ Iūpiter is thought to be the historically older form and Iuppiter to have arosen through the so-called littera-rule. Compare Weiss (2010) Archived 2016-10-17 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Vaan, Michiel de (2018-10-31). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Leiden · Boston, 2008. p. 315. ISBN 9789004167971. ^ Pliny Naturalis Historia X 16. A. Alföldi Zu den römischen Reiterscheiben in Germania 30 1952 p. 188 and n. 11 as cited by G. Dumézil La religion reomaine archaïque Paris 1974 2nd ed., It. tr. Milan 1977 (hereafter cited as ARR) p. 215 n. 58. ^ Servius Ad Aeneidem II 374. ^ Dictionary of Roman Coins, see e.g. reverse of "Consecratio" coin of Emperor Commodus & coin of Ptolemy V Epiphanes minted c. 204–180 BC. ^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. ^ Diespiter should not be confused with Dis pater, but the two names do cause confusion even in some passages of ancient literature; P.T. Eden, commentary on the Apocolocyntosis (Cambridge University Press, 1984, 2002), pp. 111–112. ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 59. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 58. ^ Scheid, in Rüpke (ed), 263–271; G. Dumézil ARR It. tr. p. 181 citing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live édition G. Budé vol. III 1942 Appendix V p. 153 and n. 3. ^ Dumézil 1977 p. 259 note 4: cf. Servius Eclogae X 27 "unde etiam triumphantes habent omnia insignia Iovis, sceptrum palmatamque togam" "wherefore also the triumphing commanders have all the insignia of Jupiter, the sceptre and the toga palmata'". On the interpretation of the triumphal dress and of the triumph, Larissa Bonfante has offered an interpretation based on Etruscan documents in her article : "Roman Triumphs and Etruscan Kings: the Changing Face of the Triumph" in Journal of Roman Studies 60 1970 pp. 49–66 and tables I–VIII. Mary Beard rehearses various views of the triumphator as god or king in The Roman Triumph (Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 226–232, and expresses skepticism. ^ Dumézil 1977 citing Livy V 23, 6 and VI 17, 5. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above 1977 p. 177. ^ Dumézil 1977 p. citing Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities VI 90, 1; Festus s.v. p. 414 L 2nd. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 159 et passim. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16. ^ Matthew Dillon and Lynda Garland, "Religion in the Roman Republic," in Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar (Routledge, 2005), pp. 127, 345. ^ Most of the information about the Flamen Dialis is preserved by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights X 15. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia I 16, 8: flaminica quotiens tonitrua audisset feriata erat, donec placasset deos. The adjective feriatus, related to feriae, "holy days," pertains to keeping a holiday, and hence means "idle, unemployed," not performing one's usual tasks. ^ Livy I 20, 1–2. ^ Plutarch Quaestiones Romanae 113. ^ Livy XXVII 8, 8. ^ Aulus Gellius, 10.15.5: item iurare Dialem fas numquam est; Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464L, or the Hazards of Interpretation," in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 85; Francis X. Ryan, Rank and Participation in the Republican Senate (Franz Steiner, 1998), p. 165. The Vestals and the Flamen Dialis were the only Roman citizens who could not be compelled to swear an oath (Aulus Gellius 10.15.31); Robin Lorsch Wildfang, Rome's Vestal Virgin: A Study of Rome's Vestal Priestesses in the Late Republic and Early Empire (Routledge, 2006), p. 69. ^ Dumézil 1977 p. 147. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 94–96, 169, 192, 502–504; G. Wissowa Religion un Kultus der Römer Munich 1912 p. 104 Hereafter cited as RK). Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Ant. I 21, 1 ; Livy I 32, 4. See also ius gentium. ^ Livy I 24, 8. ^ Livy I 32, 10. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 502–504 and 169. Wissowa (1912), p. 104, citing Paulus p. 92 M.; Servius Aeneis XII 206; Livy I 24, 3–8; IX 5, 3; XXX 43, 9; Festus p. 321 M.; Pliny NH XXII 5; Marcianus apud Digesta I 8, 8 par. 1; Servius Aeneis VIII 641; XII 120. ^ Varro in his Lingua Latina V writes of "Crustumerian secession" ("a secessione Crustumerina"）. ^ F. Vallocchia "Manio Valerio Massimo dittatore ed augure" in Diritto @ Storia 7 2008 (online). ^ C. M. A. Rinolfi "Plebe, pontefice massimo, tribuni della plebe: a proposito di Livio 3.54.5–14" in Diritto @ Storia 5 2006 (online). ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Characteristic Traits of Ancient Roman Religion," in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), p. 241, ascribing the view that there was no early Roman mythology to W.F. Otto and his school. ^ Described by Cicero, De divinatione 2.85, as cited by R. Joy Littlewood, "Fortune," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), vol. 1, p. 212. ^ CIL 1.60, as cited by Littlewood, "Fortune," p. 212. ^ J. Champeaux Fortuna. Le culte de la Fortune à Rome et dans le monde romain. I Fortuna dans la religion archaïque 1982 Rome: Publications de l'Ecole Française de Rome; as reviewed by John Scheid in Revue de l' histoire des religions 1986 203 1: pp. 67–68 (Comptes rendus). ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), pp. 223–225. ^ Dumézil 1977 pp. 51–52 and 197. ^ Ovid Fasti III, 284–392. Festus s.v. Mamuri Veturi p. 117 L as cited by Dumézil 1977 p. 197. ^ Plutarch Numa 18. ^ Dumézil 1977 p. 175 citing Livy I 31. ^ R. Bloch Prodigi e divinazione nell' antica Roma Roma 1973. Citing Livy I 34, 8–10. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia III 6. ^ Ovid Fasti I 587–588. ^ Varro LL VI 16. Sacrifices to Jupiter are also broached in Macrobius Saturnalia III 10. The issue of the sacrificial victims proper to a god is one of the most vexed topics of Roman religion: cf. Gérard Capdeville "Substitution de victimes dans les sacrifices d'animaux à Rome" in MEFRA 83 2 1971 pp. 283–323. Also G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae: 11. Iovi tauro verre ariete immolari non licet" in Revue d'études latins 39 1961 pp. 242–257. ^ Beard et al, Vol 1, 32–36: the consecration made this a "Sacred Spring" (ver sacrum). The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed. All due care would be taken of the animals, but any that died or were stolen before the scheduled sacrifice would count as if already sacrificed. Sacred animals were already assigned to the gods, who ought to protect their own property. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 258–261. ^ Ovid, Fasti, 1.201f. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107; Livy X 36, 1 and 37, 15 f. ^ Livy I 12; Dionysius of Halicarnassus II 59; Ovid Fasti VI 793; Cicero Catilinaria I 33. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107: CIL VI 434, 435; IX 3023, 4534; X59-4; also III 1089. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 198 and n. 1. ^ Based on the tradition of dedicating Jovian temples on the Ides. This assumption is supported by the calendar of Philocalus, which states on the Ides of January (13): Iovi Statori c(ircenses) m(issus) XXIV. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108 and n. 1 citing Vitruvius De Architectura (hereafter Vitruvius) III 1, 5. ^ CIL VI 438. ^ Ovid Fasti IV 621 and VI 650. ^ Protocols of a sacerdotal collegium: Wissowa (1912), citing CIL VI 2004–2009. ^ Livy I 31 1–8. ^ Macrobius I 16. This identification has though been challenged by A. Pasqualini. ^ Festus s.v. prisci Latini p. : "the Latin towns that existed before the foundation of Rome". ^ L. Schmitz in W. Smith Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529. ^ Cicero De Divinatione I 18; Dionysius Hal. AR IV 49, 3; Festus p. 212 L l. 30 f.; Scholiasta Bobiensis ad Ciceronis pro Plancio 23. ^ Festus s.v. oscillantes p. 194 M; C. A. Lobeck Aglaophamus sive de theologiae mysticae Graecorum causis libri tres Königsberg 1829 p. 585. ^ Cicero Pro Plancio 23; Varro LL VI 25; Pliny NH III 69. ^ Pliny XXVII 45. ^ A. Alföldi Early Rome and the Latins Ann Arbor 1965 p. 33 n. 6 cited by O. de Cazanove above p. 252. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 109; L. Schmitz in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529: Niebuhr History of Rome II p. 35 citing Livy V 42, Plutarch Camillus 42. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 110. CIL 2011–2022; XIV 2236–2248. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 110. ^ Livy XLII 21, 7. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Macrobius Saturnalia I 15, 14 and 18, Iohannes Lydus De Mensibus III 7, Plutarch Quaestiones Romanae 24. ^ Rome's surviving calendars provide only fragmentary evidence for the Feriae but Wissowa believes that every Ide was sacred to him. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Varro LL V 47; Festus p. 290 Müller, Paulus p. 104; Ovid Fasti I 56 and 588; Macrobius Sat. I 15, 16. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101: the epula Iovis fell on 13 September and 13 November. The temple foundation and festival dates are 13 September for Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 13 April for Jupiter Victor, 13 June for Jupiter Invictus, and perhaps 13 January for Jupiter Stator. ^ Cassius and Rutilius apud Macrobius I 16, 33. Tuditanus claimed they were instituted by Romulus and T. Tatius I 16, 32. ^ Macrobius I 16, 30: "...flaminica Iovi arietem solet immolare"; Dumézil ARR above p. 163 and n. 42, citing A. Kirsopp Michels The Calendar of the Roman Republic 1967 pp. 84–89. ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 36. ^ Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer Munich 1912 pp. 101–102. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 174. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Pliny NH XVIII 289: "This festival day was established for the placation (i. e. averting) of storms", "Hunc diem festum tempestatibus leniendis institutum". ^ Wissowa (1912), citing Digest II 12, 4. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above Milan 1977 p. 173; Wissowa (1912), p. 102. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 101-102, citing Varro LL VI 21 Novum vetus vinum bibo, novo veteri morbo medeor. ^ G. Dumézil, Fêtes romaines d' été et d' automne, Paris, 1975, pp. 97–108. ^ In Roman legend Aeneas vowed all of that year's wine of Latium to Jupiter before the battle with Mezentius: cf. G. Dumézil ARR above p. 173 ; Ovid Fasti IV 863 ff. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102, citing Varro LL VI 16, Pliny NH XVIII 287, Ovid Fasti IV 863 ff., Paulus p. 65 and 374 M. ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 136. Populus originally meant not "the people," but "army." ^ Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1992, 1996, 2001 printing, originally published 1989 in French), p. 75. Wissowa had already connected the Poplifugia to Jupiter: RK p. 102, citing Cassius Dio XLVII 18 and the Fasti Amiternini (feriae Iovis). ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 137. ^ André Magdelain "Auspicia ad patres redeunt" in Hommage á Jean Bayet Bruxelles 1964 527 ff. See also Jean Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris 1957 p. 99; Jacques Heurgon, Rome et la Méditerranée occcidentale Paris 1969 pp. 204–208.; Paul-M. Martin "La fonction calendaire du roi de Rome et sa participation á certaines fêtes" in Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l' Ouest 83 1976 2 pp. 239–244 part. p. 241; and Dario Sabbatucci La religione di Roma antica: dal calendario festivo all'ordine cosmico Milan 1988, as reviewed by Robert Turcan in Revue del'histoire des religions 206 1989 1 pp. 69–73 part. p. 71. ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 33, note 96. ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 192. ^ Jean Gagé thinks the murder of Servius Tullius occurred on this date, as Tarquin the Proud and his wife Tullia would have taken advtange of the occasion to claim publicly that Servius has lost the favour of the gods (especially Fortuna): Jean Gagé "La mort de Servius Tullius et le char de Tullia" in Revue belge de philologie et d' histoire 41 1963 1 pp. 25–62. ^ Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, p. 132. ^ Henri Le Bonniec Le culte de Cérès á Rome Paris 1958 p. 348, developing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live (Titus Livius AUC libri qui supersunt) ed. G. Budé vol. III Paris 1942 Appendix V pp. 145–153. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 485–486. ^ Mommsen Römischen Forschungen II p. 42 ff. puts their founding on 366 BC at the establishment of the curule aedility. Cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 111. ^ Livy I 35, 9. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 111–112, citing Livy V 41, 2 ; Tertullian De corona militis 13; Dionysius of Halicarnassus Antiq. Rom. VII 72. Marquardt Staatsverwaltung III 508. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 488. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 181 citing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live édition G. Budé vol. III 1942 Appendix V p. 153 and n. 3. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 112, citing Mommsen CIL I 2nd p. 329, 335; Rǒmische Forschungen II 45, 4. ^ In Verrem V 36 and Paulus s.v. ludi magni p. 122 M. ^ Macrobius I 10, 11. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102, citing Gellius X 15, 12. 24; Paulus p. 87 M.; Pliny NH XVIII 119; Plutarch Quaest. Romanae 111. ^ Most common in poetry, for its useful meter, and in the expression "By Jove!" ^ "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 2009-03-01. Retrieved 2008-09-27. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 100, citing Varro LL V 66: "The same peculiarity is revealed even better by the ancient name of Jupiter: since once he was named Diovis and Diespiter, that is Dies Pater (Day Father); consequently the beings issued from him are named dei (gods), dius (god), diuum (day) hence the expressions sub diuo and Dius Fidius. This is why the temple of Dius Fidius has an opening in the roof, in order to allow the view of the diuum i. e. the caelum sky" tr. by J. Collart quoted by Y. Lehmann below; Paulus p. 71:"dium (the divinised sky), who denotes what is in the open air, outside the roof derives from the name of Iupiter, as well as Dialis, epithet of the flamen of Jupiter and dius that is applied to a hero descended from the race of Jupiter" and 87 M. ^ a b c Wissowa (1912), p. 100. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 100, n. 2. ^ CIL V 783: Iovi Diano from Aquileia. ^ H. F. Müller in The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Ancient Greece and Rome s.v. Jupiter p. 161. ^ Samuel Ball Platner, revised by Thomas Ashby: A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929 p. 293 and Der Große Brockhaus, vol. 9, Leipzig: Brockhaus 1931, p. 520 ^ Walter W. Skeat, A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1882, OUP 1984, p. 274 ^ English Thursday, German Donnerstag, is named after Thunor, Thor, or Old High German Donar from Germanic mythology, a deity similar to Jupiter Tonans ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Varro LL V 47 and Festus p. 290 M. s.v. Idulia. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Paulus p. 92 M.; Servius Ad Aeneidem VIII 641. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Festus p. 189 M. s.v. lapis; Polybius Historiae III 25, 6. ^ a b G. Dumézil ARR above p. 169. ^ G. Dumezil ARR above p. 167. The carmen Saliare has: "cume tonas Leucesie prai ted tremonti/ quot tibi etinei deis cum tonarem". ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 167–168. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 168 citing Petronius Satyricon 44. ^ Paulus s. v. p. 94 L 2nd; p. 2 M; Tertullian Apologeticum 40. ^ Apuleius De Mundo 37; cf. Iuppiter Serenus CIL VI 431, 433,; XI 6312; Iuppiter Pluvialis CIL XI 324. ^ Iuppiter Serenus has been recognized as an interpretatio of the Phocean god Ζευς Ούριος: F. Cenerini above p. 104 citing Giancarlo Susini "Iuppiter Serenus e altri dei" in Epigraphica 33 1971 pp. 175–177. ^ Vitruvius I 2, 5; CIL I 2nd p. 331: sanctuary in the Campus Martius, dedicated on October 7 according to calendaries. ^ CIL XII 1807. ^ CIL VI 377; III 821, 1596, 1677, 3593, 3594, 6342 cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 107. ^ Festus s. v. provorsum fulgur p. 229 M: "...; itaque Iovi Fulguri et Summano fit, quod diurna Iovis nocturna Summani fulgura habentur." as cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 107 ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei (herafter CD) VII 11. Pecunia is tentatively included in this group by Wissowa (1912), p. 105 n. 4. Cfr. Augustine CD VII 11 end and 12. ^ Frugifer CIL XII 336. Apuleius De Mundo 37. ^ Cato De Agri Cultura 132; Paulus s. v. p. 51 M. ^ CIL VI 3696. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 105 n. 4 understands Pecunia as protector and increaser of the flock. ^ Bruno Migliorini s.v. Roma in Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti vol. XXIX p. 589; A. W. Schlegel Sämtliche Werke Leipzig 1847 XII p. 488; F. Kort Römische Geschichte Heidelberg 1843 p.32-3. ^ N. G. L. Hammond & H. H. Scullard (Eds.) The Oxford Classical Dictionary Oxford 1970 s. v. p. 940. ^ Servius IV 339. ^ Cato De Agri Cultura 132; Festus s. v. daps, dapalis, dapaticum pp. 177–178 L 2nd. ^ Epulo CIL VI 3696. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 105-108. ^ Livy I 12, 4–6. ^ Livy X 36, 11. ^ Dumézil above pp. 174–75. ^ Livy X 29, 12–17; nefando sacro, mixta hominum pecudumque caedes, "by an impious rite, a mixed slaughter of people and flock" 39, 16; 42, 6–7. ^ Dario Sabbatucci above, as summarized in the review by Robert Turcan above p. 70. ^ Astronomica Archived 2013-06-01 at the Wayback Machine, Hyginus, translated by Mary Grant, pt.1, ch.2, sec.13 ^ Der Große Brockhaus, vol.9, Leipzig: Brockhaus 1931, p. 520 ^ Samuel Ball Platner, revised by Thomas Ashby: A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929 p.293 ^ cume tonas, Leucesie, prai ted tremonti...; G. Dumézil above p. It. tr. Milan 1977 p.168. ^ Optimus is a superlative formed on ops [ability to help], the ancient form is optumus from opitumus, cf. the epithet Opitulus [The Helper]. ^ As cited by Dumézil ARR It tr. p. 177. ^ St. Augustine, The City of God, Books 1-10, Pg 218 ^ St. Augustine, The City of God, Books 1-10< ^ a b Augustine CD VII 11. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita Book 1. ^ CIL II, 2525; Toutain. 1920. 143ff. ^ Smith, Dictionary, s.v. "Ladicus") ^ The work of Verrius Flaccus is preserved through the summary of Sextus Pompeius Festus and his epitomist Paul the Deacon. ^ Georges Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque, Payot, Paris, 1974 2nd "Remarques preliminaires" X; It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 59ff.; citing Lucien Gerschel "Varron logicien" in Latomus 17 1958 pp. 65–72. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei IV 27; VI 5. ^ J. Pépin "La théologie tripartite de Varron" Revue des études augustiniennes 2 1956 pp. 265-294. Dumézil has pointed out that even though Augustine may be correct in pointing out cases in which Varro presented under the civil theology category contents that may look to belong to mythic theology, nevertheless he preserved under this heading the lore and legends ancient Romans considered their own. ^ Wissowa (1912) cites three passages from Horace, Carmina: I 1, 25 manet sub Iove frigido venator; I 22, 20 quod latus mundi nebulae malusque Iuppiter urget; III 10, 7 ut glaciet nives puro numine Iuppiter. ^ On the Esquiline lies the sacellum of Iuppiter Fagutalis (Varro De Lingua Latina V 152 (hereafter LL), Paulus p. 87 M., Pliny Naturalis historia XVI 37 (hereafter NH), CIL VI 452); on the Viminal is known a Iuppiter Viminius (Varro LL V 51, Festus p. 376); a Iuppiter Caelius on the Caelius (CIL VI 334); on the Quirinal the so called Capitolium Vetus (Martial V 22, 4; VII 73, 4). Outside Rome: Iuppiter Latiaris on Mons Albanus, Iuppiter Appenninus (Orelli 1220, CIL VIII 7961 and XI 5803) on the Umbrian Appennines, at Scheggia, on the Via Flaminia, Iuppiter Poeninus (CIL 6865 ff., cfr. Bernabei Rendiconti della Regia Accademia dei Lincei III, 1887, fascicolo 2, p. 363 ff.) at the Great Saint Bernard Pass, Iuppiter Vesuvius (CIL X 3806), Iuppiter Ciminus (CIL XI 2688); the Sabine Iuppiter Cacunus (CIL IX 4876, VI 371). Outside Italy Iuppiter Culminalis in Noricum and Pannonia (CIL III 3328, 4032, 4115, 5186; Supplememtum 10303, 11673 etc.) as cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 102 and Francesca Cenerini "Scritture di santuari extraurbani tra le Alpi e gli Appennini" in Mélanges de l'École française de Rome (hereafter MEFRA) 104 1992 1 pp. 94–95. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 100-101 ^ G. Dumézil above It. tr. pp. 167–168. ^ Salvatore Settis, Giorgione's Tempest: Interpreting the Hidden Subject, University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 62, summarising this scholarly interpretation: "The lightning is Jove." cf Peter Humfrey, Painting in Renaissance Venice, Yale University Press, 1997, p.118f. Archived 2016-04-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ Dumézil above p. 239; It. Tr. p. 171. ^ Varro apud Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 9. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 274 ff. ^ Dumézil ARR above p. 271 citing Ovid Fasti III 815–832. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 23, 133–134; Dumézil Jupiter Mars Quirinus I-IV Paris 1941–1948; ARR above pp. 137–165. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 172 and 175. ^ E. Montanari Mito e Storia nell' annalistica romana delle origini Roma 1990 pp. 73 ff.; citing Cicero Pro Scauro 48: "pignus nostrae salutis atque imperii"; Servius Ad Aeneidem II 188, 16: "Illic imperium fore ubi et Palladium"; Festus s.v. p. 152 L. ^ E. Montanari above citing M. Sordi "Lavinio, Roma e il Palladio" in CISA 8 1982 p. 74 ff.; W. Vollgraf "Le Palladium de Rome" in BAB 1938 pp. 34 ff. ^ G. Dumezil "Déesses latines et mythes vediques. III Fortuna Primigenia" in Coll. Latomus 25 1956 pp. 71–78. ^ Cicero De nat. Deor. II 85-86: "Is est locus saeptus religiose propter Iovis pueri, qui lactens cum Iunone in gremio sedens, mamma appetens, castissime colitur a matribus": "This is an enclosed place for religious reasons because of Iupiter child, who is seated on the womb with Juno suckling, directed towards the breast, very chastely worshipped by mothers". ^ G. Dumezil Déesses latines et mythes vediques p. 96 ff. ^ CIL XIV 2868 and 2862 (mutile). ^ R. Mowat "Inscription latine sur plaque de bronze acquise à Rome par par M. A. Dutuit" in Mem. de la Soc. nat. des Antiquités de France 5me Ser. 3 43 1882 p. 200: CIL XIV 2863: ORCEVIA NUMERI/ NATIONU CRATIA/ FORTUNA DIOVO FILEA/ PRIMOCENIA/ DONOM DEDI. Cited by G. Dumezil above p. 71 ff. ^ G Dumezil Déesses latines et mythes vediques Bruxelles 1956 chapt. 3. ^ Ṛg-Veda X 72, 4-5; G. Dumezil above and Mariages indo-européens pp. 311–312: "Of Aditi Daksa was born, and of Daksa Aditi, o Daksa, she who is your daughter". ^ G. Dumezil Déesses latines... p. 91 n.3. ^ A. Brelich Tre variazioni romane sul tema delle origini. I. Roma e Preneste. Una polemica religiosa nell'Italia antica Pubbl. dell'Univ. di Roma 1955–1956. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 101 and 290. Discussed at length by Augustine, City of God VII 9 and 10. Also Ovid Fasti I 126. ^ D. Briquel "Jupiter, Saturne et le Capitol" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 198 2. 1981 pp. 131–162; Varro V 42; Vergil Aeneis VIII 357-8; Dionysius Hal. I 34; Solinus I 12; Festus p. 322 L; Tertullian Apologeticum 10; Macrobius I 7, 27 and I 10, 4 citing a certain Mallius. See also Macrobius I 7, 3: the annalistic tradition attributed its foundation to king Tullus Hostilius. Studies by E. Gjerstad in Mélanges Albert Grenier Bruxelles 1962 pp. 757–762; Filippo Coarelli in La Parola del Passato 174 1977 p. 215 f. ^ A. Pasqualini "Note sull'ubicazione del Latiar" in MEFRA 111 1999 2 p[. 784–785 citing M. Malavolta "I ludi delle feriae Latinae a Roma" in A. Pasqualini (ed.) Alba Longa. Mito storia archeologia. Atti dell'incontro di studio, Roma-Albano laziale 27-29 gennaio 1994 Roma 1996 pp. 257–273; Eusebius De laude Constantini 13, 7 = MPG XX col. 1403–1404; J. Rives "Human sacrifice among Pagans and Christians" in Journal of Roman Studies LXXXV 1995 pp. 65–85; Iustinus Apologeticum II 12, 4–5; G. Pucci "Saturno: il lato oscuro" in Lares LVIII 1992 p. 5-7. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 100–101; G. Dumézil above p. 348; Cicero De Natura Deorum II 61. ^ G. Dumezil La religion Romaine archaïque Paris, 1974; It. tr. Milan 1977 p.189. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 103. ^ Roger D. Woodard Vedic and Indo-European Sacred Space Chicago Illinois Un. Press 2005 p. 189. The scholar thinks Dius Fidius is the Roman equivalent of Trita Apya, the companion of Indra in the slaying of Vrtra. ^ a b G. Wissowa in Roschers Lexicon 1909 s.v. Semo Sancus col. 3654; Religion und Kultus der Römer Munich, 1912, p. 131 f. ^ W. W. Fowler The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic London, 1899, p. 139. ^ O. Sacchi "Il trivaso del Quirinale" in Revue internationale de droit de l’Antiquité 2001 pp. 309–311, citing Nonius Marcellus s.v. rituis (L p. 494): Itaque domi rituis nostri, qui per dium Fidium iurare vult, prodire solet in compluvium., 'thus according to our rites he who wishes to swear an oath by Dius Fidius he as a rule walks to the compluvium (an unroofed space within the house)'; Macrobius Saturnalia III 11, 5 on the use of the private mensa as an altar mentioned in the ius Papirianum; Granius Flaccus indigitamenta 8 (H. 109) on king Numa's vow by which he asked for the divine punishment of perjury by all the gods. ^ Augustine CD VII 13, referencing also Quintus Valerius Soranus. H. Wagenvoort "Genius a genendo" Mnemosyne 4. Suppl., 4, 1951, pp. 163–168. G. Dumézil ARR above p. 315, discussing G. Wissowa and K. Latte' s opinions. ^ W. W. Fowler The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic London, 1899, p. 189. ^ Censorinus De Die Natali 3, 1. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 318. ^ Wissowa Kultus 1912 p. 243. ^ CIL IX 3513 from the lex templi of the temple of Iuppiter Liber at Furfo, Samnium. ^ Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae VI 1, 6. Silius Italicus Punica XIII 400-413. Cited by G. Dumézil ARR above p. 435, referencing J. Hubeaux Les grands mythes de Rome Paris 1945 pp. 81–82 and J. Aymard "Scipion l' Africain et les chiens du Capitol" in Revue d'études latins 31 1953 pp. 111–116. ^ Cicero De Republica VI 13: = Somnium Scipionis. ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes IV 40, 2. ^ G. Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 213 1996 3. p. 285. ^ Macrobius I 10, 16. ^ E. and A. L. Prosdocimi in Etrennes M. Lejeune Paris 1978 pp. 199–207 identify him as an aspect of Jupiter. See also A. L. Prosdocimi "'Etimologie di teonimi: Venilia, Summano, Vacuna" in Studi linguistici in onore di Vittore Pisani Milano 1969 pp. 777–802. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 184–185 citing his Mitra Varuna, essai sur deux représentations indo-européennes de la souveraineté Paris 1940–1948. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107, citing CIL VI 205; X 49 and 6423. ^ Wissowa (1912), CIL VI 206. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 185. ^ Ludwig Preller Rõmische Mythologie I Berlin 1881 pp. 195–197; E. Aust s. v. Iuppiter (Liber) in Roscher lexicon II column 661 f. ^ Olivier de Cazanove cites Wissowa (1912), p. 120 and A. Schnegelsberg De Liberi apud Romanos cultu capita duo Dissertation Marburg 1895 p. 40. ^ O. de Cazanove "Jupiter, Liber et le vin latin" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 205 1988 3 p. 247 n. 4. ^ a b Augustine CD VII 21. ^ Inscriptions from the territory of the Frentani (Zvetaieff Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum nr. 3); Vestini (CIL IX 3513; I 2nd 756 Furfo); Sabini (Jordan Analecta epigraphica latina p. 3 f.= CIL I 2nd 1838) and Campani (CIL X 3786 Iovi Liber(o) Capua). ^ Fasti Arvales ad 1. September. ^ Monumentum Ancyranum IV 7; CIL XI 657 Faventia; XIV 2579 Tusculum. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 106. ^ Fr. Bömer Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom I Wiesbaden 1957 p. 127 f. cited by Olivier de Cazanove "Jupiter, Liber et le vin" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 205 1988 3 p. 248. ^ O. de Cazanove above p. 248 ff. ^ Trebatius Testa apud Arnobius Ad nationes VII 31: "solum quod inferetur sacrum..." "only that which is spilt is considered sacred...";also Cato De Agri Cultura CXXXII 2; CXXXIV 3; Servius IX 641; Isidore XX 2,7. ^ Marcus Antistius Labeo apud Festus s. v., p. 474 L. ^ Fr. Altheim Terra Mater Giessen 1931 p. 22 and n. 4 while acknowledging the obscurity of the etymology of this word proposed the derivation from sacerrima as bruma from brevissima; Onomata Latina et Graeca s.v.: novum vinum; Corpus Glossatorum Latinorum II p. 264: απαρχη γλεύκους. ^ Columella De Re Rustica XII 18, 4 mentions a sacrifice to Liber and Libera immediately before. ^ Paulus s. v. sacrima p. 423 L; Festus p. 422 L (mutile). ^ Isidore Origines XX 3, 4; Enrico Monatanari "Funzione della sovranitá e feste del vino nella Roma repubblicana" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni 49 1983 pp. 242–262. ^ G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae" 14-16 in Revue d' études latins XXXIX 1961 pp. 261–274. ^ Henri Le Bonniec Le culte de Cérès à Rome Paris 1958 pp. 160–162. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 331–332. ^ Augustine CD VII 3, 1. ^ "Liber et liberi" in Revue d'études latins 14 1936 pp. 52–58. ^ "...curatores Iovi Libertati" CIL XI 657 and "Iovi Obsequenti publice" CIL XI 658 from Bagnacavallo; "Iuppiter Impetrabilis" from Cremella sopra Monza published by G. Zecchini in Rivista di studi italiani e latini 110 1976 pp. 178–182. The double presence of Jupiter and Feronia at Bagnacavallo has led to speculation that the servile manumissio (legal ritual action by which slaves were freed) was practised in this sanctuary : Giancarlo Susini "San Pietro in Sylvis, santuario pagense e villaggio plebano nel Ravennate" in Mélanges offertes à G. Sanders Steenbrugge 1991 pp. 395–400. Cited in F. Cenerini above p. 103. ^ G. Dumézil ARR It. tr. p. 188 n. 44; Kurt Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 81 and n. 3.; W. Warde Fowler The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic London 1899 pp. 121–122. ^ G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Iupiter" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni XXXIV 1963 p. 229-236; E. Gierstad "Veiovis, a pre-indoeuropean God in Rome?" in Opuscola Romana 9, 4 1973 pp. 35–42. ^ Aulus Gellius V 12. ^ D. Sabbatucci above as summarised by R. Turcan above p. 70 and pp. 72–73. On the aspect of making Jupiter grow up Turcan cites the denarii struck by Manius Fonteius and Valerian the younger of the type Iovi crescenti mentioned by A. Alföldi in Studien zur Geschichte der Weltkrisedes 3. Jhd. n.Chr. Darmstadt 1067 p. 112 f. ^ Ludwig Preller Römische Mythologie I p. 262 f. ^ Ovid Fasti I 291–294. ^ Ferruccio Bernini Ovidio. I Fasti (translation and commentary), III 429; Bologna 1983 (reprint). ^ Vitruvius De Architectura IV 8, 4. ^ Ovid above. Fasti Praenestini CIL I 2nd p. 231: Aescu]lapio Vediovi in insula. ^ Fasti Praen.: Non. Mart. F(as)...]ovi artis Vediovis inter duos lucos; Ovid Fasti III 429–430. ^ Ovid above V 721–722. XII Kal. Iun. NP Agonia (Esq. Caer. Ven. Maff.); Vediovi (Ven.). ^ Wissowa on the grounds of Paulus's glossa humanum sacrificium p. 91 L interprets "with a rite proper to a ceremony in honour of the deceased". G. Piccaluga at n. 15 and 21 pp. 231-232 though remarks that Gellius does not state sacrificium humanum but only states...immolaturque ritu humano capra. ^ Livy VIII 9, 6. ^ Gellius V 12, 12. ^ Gellius V 12. The Romans knew and offered a cult to other such deities: among them Febris, Tussis, Mefitis. ^ G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Juppiter" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni XXXIV 1963 p. 233-234 and notes 30, 31 citing Gellius V 12 and Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia XVI 216: "Non et simulacrum Veiovis in arce?". ^ Livy XXXI 21. ^ Ettore Pais CIL Supplementa Italica I addimenta al CIL V in Atti dei Lincei, Memorie V 1888 n. 1272: I O M IUR D(e) C(onscriptorum) S(ententia). ^ CIL I 1105: C. Volcaci C. F Har. de stipe Iovi Iurario... onimentum. ^ Ovid Fasti I 291–295. ^ Livy XXXV 41. ^ Cfr. above: "Aeculapio Vediovi in insula". ^ Maurice Besnier "Jupiter Jurarius" in Mélanges d'archéologie et d' histoire 18 1898 pp. 287–289. ^ CIL XIV 2387 = ILS 2988 = ILLRP 270=CIL I 807: Vediovei patrei genteiles Iuliei leege Albana dicata. ^ A. Pasqualini "Le basi documenatarie della leggenda di Alba Longa" Universita' di Roma Torvergata 2012 online. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 408. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 413. Livy XXVII 2, 10–12. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Antiquities III 69, 5–6. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus above III 69; Florus I 7, 9. ^ CIL XI 351. ^ Plutarch Numa 16. ^ Ovid Fasti II 679. ^ Augustine CD VII 7. ^ D. Sabbatucci above. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 186–187. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 135; G. Dumezil La relig. rom. arch. Paris 1974; It. tr. Milano 1977 pp. 185–186; C. W. Atkins "Latin 'Iouiste' et le vocabulaire religieux indoeuropéen" in Mélanges Benveniste Paris, 1975, pp. 527–535. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 135, citing Servius Danielis Eclogae IV 50. ^ Piso apud Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Antiquities IV 15, 5. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 185–186. ^ Livy XXXV 36, 5. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia III 4, 8–9 citing Varro: "Per quos penitus spiramus". Sabine Mac Cormack The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine University of California Press 1998 p. 77. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above pp. 311–312. ^ Varro De Lingua Latina V 144; Plutarch Coriolanus XXIX 2; Macrobius Saturnalia III 4, 11; Servius Ad Aeneidem II 296: as cited by Dumézil ARR above p. 313. ^ G. Dumézil ARR above p. 313. ^ Arnobius Adversus nationes III 40. Cf. also Lucan Pharsalia V 696; VII 705; VIII 21. ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 40, 3; Martianus Capella De Nuptiis I 41: "Senatores deorum qui Penates ferebantur Tonantis ipsius quorumque nomina, quoniam publicari secretum caeleste non pertulit, ex eo quod omnia pariter repromittunt, nomen eis consensione perficit". ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 40 4; Macrobius Saturnalia III 4 9. ^ Gérard Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 213 1996 3 p. 285 citing Carl Olof Thulin Die Götter des Martianus Capella und der Bronzeleber von Piacenza (=RGVV 3. 1) Giessen 1906 pp. 38–39. On the topic see also A. L. Luschi "Cacu, Fauno e i venti' in Studi Etruschi 57 1991 pp. 105–117. Bibliography[edit] Musei Capitolini Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998). Dumézil, G. (1977) La religione romana arcaica. Con un'appendice sulla religione degli Etruschi. Milano, Rizzoli. Edizione e traduzione a cura di Furio Jesi. Dumézil, G. (1988). Mitra-Varuna: An essay on two Indo-European representations of sovereignty. New York: Zone Books. ISBN 0-942299-13-2 Dumézil, G. (1996). Archaic Roman religion: With an appendix on the religion of the Etruscans. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5481-4 Article "Jupiter" in The Oxford Classical Dictionary. ISBN 0-19-860641-9 Smith, Miranda J., 'Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend' ISBN 0-500-27975-6 Favourite Greek Myths, Mary Pope Osbourne Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi Capitolini Platner, S. B., & Ashby, T. (1929). A topographical dictionary of ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press, H. Milford. OCLC 1061481 Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5 Wissowa, Georg (1912). Religion und Kultus der Römer. Munich. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iupiter. Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,700 images of Jupiter) v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Res divinae Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Etruscan religion Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jupiter_(mythology)&oldid=1027870951" Categories: Jovian deities Sky and weather gods Thunder gods Justice gods Roman gods Mythological kings Mythological rapists Deities in the Aeneid Jupiter (mythology) Baal Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020 Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with text in Italic languages Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2021 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kernowek Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Magyar Македонски Malti मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Монгол Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 13:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4104	----	Constantius II - Wikipedia Constantius II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 337 to 361 Not to be confused with Constantine II or Julius Constantius. Roman emperor Constantius II Presumed bust of Constantius II, from an exhibition at the Colosseum, 2013 Roman emperor Augustus 9 September 337 – 3 November 361 Predecessor Constantine the Great Successor Julian Co-rulers Constantine II (337–340) Constans I (337–350) Magnentius (350–353) Vetranio (350) Constantius Gallus (351-354) Julian (360–361) Caesar 8 November 324 – 9 September 337 Born 7 August 317 Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died 3 November 361 (aged 44) Mopsuestia, Cilicia Burial Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Daughter of Julius Constantius Eusebia Faustina Issue Flavia Maxima Constantia Names Flavius Julius Constantius[1] Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantine the Great Mother Fausta Religion Semi-Arianism Flavius Julius Constantius (Greek: Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361), known as Constantius II, was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples, while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues and usurpations. His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death. Constantius was a son of Constantine the Great, who elevated him to the imperial rank of caesar on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became augustus together with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans on 9 September 337. He promptly oversaw the massacre of his father-in-law, an uncle and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power. The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving Greece, Thrace, the Asian provinces and Egypt in the east. For the following decade a costly and inconclusive war against Persia took most of Constantius's time and attention. In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over the western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west. The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper Magnentius. Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius committed suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of caesar to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus' younger half-brother Julian, to the rank of caesar. As emperor, Constantius promoted Arian Christianity, persecuted pagans by banning sacrifices and closing pagan temples and issued laws discriminating against Jews. His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius traveled to the east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses. However, Julian claimed the rank of augustus in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius' attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed. No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in Mopsuestia, allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death. Contents 1 Early life 2 Augustus in the East 2.1 War against Magnentius 3 Sole ruler of the empire 3.1 Religious issues 3.1.1 Paganism 3.1.2 Christianity 3.1.3 Judaism 3.2 More Crises 3.3 Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east 3.4 Death 4 Marriages and children 5 Reputation 6 References 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Ancient sources 8.2 Modern sources 9 External links Early life[edit] Caesar Constantius II on an early follis of Heraclea 325 Bust of Constantius II while he was a prince, Romano-Germanic Museum, Cologne Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made caesar by his father on 8 November 324.[2] In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia.[3] Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier.[3][4] Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara.[5] Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it Antinopolis.[6] Augustus in the East[edit] Division of the Roman Empire among the caesares appointed by Constantine the Great, before the death of Dalmatius. Bust of youthful Constantius II, Capitoline Museums Bronze coin of Magnentius Gold solidus of Constantius Gallus. A paternal cousin of Constantius, he was made Caesar by Constantius in 350 and was married to the Emperor's sister, Constantina. However, his mismanagement of the eastern provinces led to his downfall and death in 354. In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death.[7] After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[8] Soon after his father's death Constantius supposedly ordered a massacre of his relatives descended from the second marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus, though the details are unclear.[9][10] Eutropius, writing between 350 and 370, states that Constantius merely sanctioned “the act, rather than commanding it”.[11] The massacre killed two of Constantius' uncles and six of his cousins,[12] including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively. The massacre left Constantius, his older brother Constantine II, his younger brother Constans, and three cousins Gallus, Julian and Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in Pannonia at Sirmium to formalize the partition of the empire.[13] Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea.[14] Constantius then hurried east to Antioch to resume the war with Persia.[15] While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia[16] and putting the city of Nisibis under siege.[17] Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall.[15] When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack. Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the aggressive Sassanid Empire under Shapur. These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the major fortresses of Roman Mesopotamia, including Nisibis (Nusaybin), Singara, and Amida (Diyarbakir). Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little.[18][19] However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses.[18][20] Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains.[19] Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans' realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush.[11] As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius.[11][21] War against Magnentius[edit] Main article: Roman civil war of 350–353 As the only surviving son of Constantine the Great, Constantius felt that the position of emperor was his alone,[22] and he determined to march west to fight the usurper, Magnentius. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to caesar of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him.[22] Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as augustus. However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia.[23] In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies.[24][25][26][27] The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube. After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul.[28] In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor.[28] Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353.[29] Sole ruler of the empire[edit] Solidus struck at Mediolanum in 354–357. The reverse reads gloria rei publicae, "glory of the republic". Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus.[30] Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum (Milan).[31] In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus, Gallus’ magister equitum, for reasons that remain unclear.[32] Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina.[33] Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia,[33] Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents,[34] Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio (Ptuj) in Pannonia.[35][36] In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio.[37] Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces.[38] This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus' execution.[39] He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order.[40][41] Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius' eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.[36] Religious issues[edit] Constantius II depicted in the Chronography of 354 dispensing largesse (a Renaissance copy of a Carolingian copy) This section of a belt contains two gold medallions. The larger coin depicts the triumphant emperor in his chariot.[42] The Walters Art Museum. Presumed bust of Constantius II in the University of Pennsylvania's Museum of Archaeology Paganism[edit] See also: Anti-paganism policy of Constantius II In spite of some of the edicts issued by Constantius, he never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins, he never acted against the various pagan schools, and, at times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.[43] Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.[44] Christianity[edit] Although often considered an Arian,[45] Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicene Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism.[46][47] During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. The most notable of these were the Council of Rimini and its twin at Seleucia, which met in 359 and 360 respectively. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian A.H.M. Jones. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church."[48] Christian-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: Exemption from compulsory public service for the clergy[49] Exemption from compulsory public service for the sons of clergy[50] Tax exemptions for clergy and their servants,[51] and later for their family[52] Tax exemption for land owned by the church, but clergy-owned land not tax exempt.[53][54] Clergy and the issue of private property[55] Bishops exempted from being tried in secular courts[56] Christian prostitutes only able to be bought by members of the clergy or other state-approved Christians[57][58] Judaism[edit] Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.[59] Early in his reign, Constantius issued a double edict in concert with his brothers limiting the ownership of slaves by Jewish people[60] and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women.[60] A later edict issued by Constantius after becoming sole emperor decreed that a person who was proven to have converted from Christianity to Judaism would have all of his property confiscated by the state.[61] However, Constantius' actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.[59] Jew-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included: Weaving women who moved from working for the government to working for Jews must be restored to the government[60] Jews may not marry Christian women[60] Jews may not attempt to convert Christian women[60] Any non-Jewish slave bought by a Jew will be confiscated by the state[60] If a Jew attempts to circumcise a non-Jewish slave, the slave will be freed and the Jew shall face capital punishment[60] Any Christian slaves owned by a Jew will be taken away and freed[60] A person who is proven to have converted from Christianity to Judaism shall have their property confiscated by the state[61] More Crises[edit] On 11 August 355, the magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him magister militum in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius' court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355,[62] he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian, to the rank of caesar.[63] A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius.[64] Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul.[64] Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In 357 he visited Rome for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.[65] In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh.[66][67] Despite rejecting these terms,[68][69] Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II.[70][71][72] Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara (Sinjar),[73] and taken Kiphas (Hasankeyf), Amida (Diyarbakır),[74] and Ad Tigris (Cizre),[75] he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat. Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east[edit] Missorium of Kerch depicting Constantius II on horseback with a spear. He is preceded by victory and accompanied by a guardsman. Aureus of Constantius II marked: d·n· constantius p·f· aug· In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian augustus.[76][77][78][79] On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of augustus and be satisfied with that of caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris.[80] After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II.[81] The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.[82] Death[edit] Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.[82] Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.[83] Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.[84] Marriages and children[edit] Constantius II was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3.[85] Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessaloniki, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died in 360.[86] Third and lastly, in 360, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named Flavia Maxima Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian.[87] Reputation[edit] Constantius II is a particularly difficult figure to judge properly due to the hostility of most sources toward him. A. H. M. Jones writes that Constantius "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage."[88] However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that Constantius "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not".[89] References[edit] ^ CIL 06, 40776 = AE 1934, 00158 = AE 1950, 00174 = AE 1951, 00102 = AE 1982, 00011 ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 226. ^ a b Dodgeon, M.H. and Lieu, N.C. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226–363. p152-153 ^ Julian, Orationes I, 13B ^ Festus, breviarum 27, p. 67, 2–3 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII, 9, 1 ^ Chronicon Paschale p.533, 5–17 ^ Julian, or. I, 18D-19A (14.16–22, pp. 31–2, Bidez) ^ X. Lucien-Brun, "Constance II et le massacre des princes," Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé ser. 4 (1973): 585–602; Joe W. Leedom, "Constantius II: Three Revisions," Byzantion 48 (1978): 132–145, and Michael DiMaio and Duane Arnold, "Per Vim, Per Caedem, Per Bellum: A Study of Murder and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Year 337 A.D," Byzantion, 62(1992), 158ff. Cited in DiMaio and Frakes. ^ Zosimus, New History II.57-8 ^ a b c Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9 ^ Julian, epistula ad Athenienses 270C (3.5–8, p. 215, Bidez) ^ Odahl, C.M., Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004), p. 275 ^ Zosimus, New History II.57 ^ a b Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica II, 30, 1–14, GCS ^ Jerome, Chronicon, s. a. 338 p. 234, 17–18 ^ Theodoret, Historia religiosa I, 11–12, edd. Canivet and Leroy-Molinghen, pp. 184–8 ^ a b Festus, Brevarium XXVII ^ a b Dignas, B. & Winter, E., Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (2007), p. 89 ^ Theophanes, Chronicle A.M. 5815 ^ Zosimus New History II.58-9 ^ a b Zosimus, New History II.60 ^ Zosimus, New History II.59 ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.8.5–13 ^ Julian the Apostate, The Caesars XLII.9–10 ^ Zosimus, New History II.46.2 ^ Eutropius, Roman History X.12 ^ a b Potter, D.S., The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (2004), p. 474 ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.12 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 14.1.10 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.10.16 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.3–5 ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.11–12 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.19 ^ a b Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.20 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.22 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.23 ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.9.20 ^ Libanius, Orations XVIII.152 ^ "Belt Section with Medallions of Constantius II and Faustina". The Walters Art Museum. ^ Vasiliev, A.A, History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453 (1958), p. 68 ^ Salzman, M.R., The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire (2002), p. 182 ^ Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 118 ^ Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (1989), pp. 209–10 ^ Gaddis, M., There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ (2005), p. 92 ^ Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 118. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.9 ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.11 ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.8 ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.14 ^ Pharr, Clyde (2001). The Theodosian Code and Novels, and the Sirmondian Constitutions. Princeton University Press. p. 443. taxable units of land that appear to belong to the Church should be relieved of any compulsory public service...As for those clerics who possess landed estates, however, Your Sublime Authority shall decree not only that by no means may they exempt other men's taxable units of land from the payment of taxes, but also that the aforesaid clerics must be compelled to make fiscal payments for the land which they themselves possess. ^ Elliott, T.G. (1978). "The Tax Exemptions Granted to Clerics by Constantine and Constantius II". Phoenix. 32 (4): 333. doi:10.2307/1087959. JSTOR 1087959. Constantius' dispositio exempted Church-owned lands from taxation. Constantius' later sanctio ordered the taxation of clergy-owned lands... ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.15, 12.1.49 & 8.4.7 ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.12 ^ Codex Theodosianus 15.8.1 ^ Pharr, Clyde (2001). The Theodosian Code and Novels, and the Sirmondian Constitutions. Princeton University Press. p. 435. If any man should wish to subject to wantonness the women who are known to have dedicated themselves to the veneration of the holy Christian law and if he should provide that such women should be sold to brothels and compelled to perform the vile service of prostituted virtue, no other person shall have the right to buy such women except either those who are known to be ecclesiastics or those who are shown to be Christian men, upon the payment of the proper price. ^ a b Schäfer, P., The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (2003), pp. 180–1 ^ a b c d e f g h Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 ^ a b Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.17 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.5–16 ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVI.12 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.3–8 ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.25-7 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.9–14 ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.28-9 ^ Libanius, Epistle 331 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.14.1–3 & XVIII.6.17-8 ^ Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists VI. 5.1–10 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.6 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIX ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.7.1–16 ^ Julian the Apostate, Letter To The Senate And People of Athens, X.12–17 ^ Libanius, Orations XII.58 & XVIII.90-1 ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.15.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.4.1–2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.11.6–25 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXI.7.7 & 13.1–5 ^ a b Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (2001), p. 508 ^ The manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 21.15.2 reads tertium nonarum Octobrium, which is the equivalent of 5 October. The latest editor of the Res Gestae accepts Otto Seeck's emendation tertium nonarum Novembrium which is the equivalent of 3 November. T.D. Barnes (Classical Philology, 88 [1993], p. 64f) provides indirect evidence showing 3 November is a better fit. ^ Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. ^ Banchich, Thomas M. "Gallus Caesar (15 March 351 - 354 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 7 September 2018. ^ Juneau, J. (December 1999). "Piety and Politics: Eusebia and Constantius at Court". The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Cambridge University Press. 49 (2): 641–644. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.641-a. JSTOR 639898. ^ Marcellinus, Ammianus (1940). The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 2, Book 21, chapter 15. Translated by Rolfe, J. C. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 11 April 2011. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Jones, A. H. M., Later Roman Empire, p. 116. ^ Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (1978), p. 54 See also[edit] Persian wars of Constantius II Flavia gens Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 References[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae. Yonge, Charles Duke, trans. Roman History. London: Bohn, 1862. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August 2009. Rolfe, J.C., trans. History. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 15 August 2009. Hamilton, Walter, trans. The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378). Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986. [Abridged edition] Athanasius of Alexandria. Festal Index. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Festal Letters. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epistula encyclica (Encyclical letter). Summer 339. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Encyclical letter. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Accessed 15 August 2009. Apologia Contra Arianos (Defense against the Arians). 349. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia Contra Arianos. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 14 August 2009. Apologia ad Constantium (Defense before Constantius). 353. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia ad Constantium. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 14 August 2009. Historia Arianorum (History of the Arians). 357. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Historia Arianorum. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 14 August 2009. De Synodis (On the Councils of Arminium and Seleucia). Autumn 359. Newman, John Henry and Archibald Robertson, trans. De Synodis. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Historia acephala. 368 – c. 420. Robertson, Archibald, trans. Historia Acephala. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Accessed 15 August 2009. Chronica minora 1, 2. Mommsen, T., ed. Chronica Minora saec. IV, V, VI, VII 1, 2 (in Latin). Monumenta Germaniae Historia, Auctores Antiquissimi 9, 11. Berlin, 1892, 1894. Online at "Bayerische StaatsBibliothek". Archived from the original on 2012-07-08.. Accessed 25 August 2009. Codex Theodosianus. Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble. Accessed 25 August 2009. Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at AncientRome.ru. Accessed 15 August 2009. Codex Justinianus. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian, in The Civil Law. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 14 August 2009. Ephraem the Syrian. Carmina Nisibena (Songs of Nisibis). Stopford, J.T. Sarsfield, trans. The Nisibene Hymns. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 13. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 16 August 2009. Bickell, Gustav, trans. S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena: additis prolegomenis et supplemento lexicorum Syriacorum (in Latin). Lipetsk: Brockhaus, 1866. Online at Google Books. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009. Eunapius. Lives of the Sophists. Eusebius of Caesarea. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini (Oration in Praise of Constantine, sometimes the Tricennial Oration). Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine). Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009. Eutropius. Historiae Romanae Breviarium. Watson, John Selby, trans. Abridgment of Roman History. London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Revised and edited for Tertullian by Roger Pearse, 2003. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 11 June 2010. Festus. Breviarium. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People. Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009. Firmicus Maternus. De errore profanarum religionum (On the error of profane religions). Baluzii and Rigaltii, eds. Divi Cæcilii Cypriani, Carthaginensis Episcopi, Opera Omnia; accessit J. Firmici Materni, Viri Clarissimi, De Errore Profanarum Religionum (in Latin). Paris: Gauthier Brothers and the Society of Booksellers, 1836. Online at Google Books. Accessed 15 August 2009. Hilary of Poitiers. Ad Constantium (To Constantius). Feder, Alfred Leonhard, ed. S. Hilarii episcopi Pictaviensis Tractatus mysteriorum. Collectanea Antiariana Parisina (fragmenta historica) cum appendice (liber I Ad Constantium). Liber ad Constantium imperatorem (Liber II ad Constantium). Hymni. Fragmenta minora. Spuria (in Latin). In the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vol. 65. Vienna: Tempsky, 1916. Itinerarium Alexandri (Itinerary of Alexander). Mai, Angelo, ed. Itinerarium Alexandri ad Constantium Augustum, Constantini M. Filium (in Latin). Regiis Typis, 1818. Online at Google Books. Accessed 15 August 2009. Davies, Iolo, trans. Itinerary of Alexander. 2009. Online at DocStoc[dead link]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Jerome. Chronicon (Chronicle). Pearse, Roger, et al., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome, in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts. Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 14 August 2009. de Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Julian. Wright, Wilmer Cave, trans. Works of the Emperor Julian. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1913. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2, 3. Libanius. Oratio 59 (Oration 59). M.H. Dodgeon, trans. The Sons of Constantine: Libanius Or. LIX. In From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History, edited by S.N.C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat, 164–205. London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-09336-8 Origo Constantini Imperatoris. Rolfe, J.C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana, in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 16 August 2009. Papyri Abinnaeus. The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at Perseus and the Duke Data Bank[dead link]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Papyri Laurentius. Dai Papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at Perseus and the Duke Data Bank[dead link]. Accessed 15 August 2009. Philostorgius. Historia Ecclesiastica. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August 2009. Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). Zenos, A.C., trans. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 14 August 2009. Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Sulpicius Severus. Sacred History. Roberts, Alexander, trans. Sacred History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 11. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 14 August 2009. Theodoret. Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church). Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Themistius. Orationes (Orations). Theophanes. Chronicle. Zonaras. Extracts of History. Zosimus. Historia Nova (New History). Unknown trans. The History of Count Zosimus. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August 2009. [An unsatisfactory edition.] Unknown trans. Histoire Nouvelle and ΖΩΣΙΜΟΥ ΚΟΜΙΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΦΙΣΚΟΣΥΝΗΓΟΡΟΥ (in French and Greek). Online at the Catholic University of Louvain. Accessed 16 November 2009. Modern sources[edit] Baker-Brian, N. and Tougher, S., The Sons of Constantine, AD 337-361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian (Palgrave MacMillan, 2020) Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis [1] Dignas, B. & Winter, E., Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2007) DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R., 'DIR-Constantius II' from De Imperatoribus Romanis "Constantius II,". Gaddis, M., There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ (University of California Press, 2005).„ Hunt, Constantius II in the Ecclesiastical Historiansorians, Ph.D. diss. (Fordham University, 2010), AAT 3431914. Jones, A.H.M, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986) Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (Thames and Hudson, 1978) Moser, Muriel. 2018. Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II. Cambridge University Press. Odahl, C.M., Constantine and the Christian Empire (Routledge, 2004) Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (University of Chicago, 1989) Potter, D.S., The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Routledge, 2004) Salzman, M.R., The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 2002) Schäfer, P., The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (Routledge, 2003) Seeck, Otto, "Constantius 4", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume IV.1, Stuttgart, 1900, columns 1044–1094. Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (Taylor & Francis, 2001) Vasiliev, A.A., History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453 (University of Wisconsin Press, 1958) External links[edit] This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constantius II. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Constantius II Constantius II Constantinian dynasty Born: 7 August 317 Died: 3 November 361 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine I Roman emperor 337–361 With: Constantine II and Constans Succeeded by Julian Political offices Preceded by Sex. Anicius Paulinus Julius Julianus Roman consul 326 with Constantine Augustus Succeeded by Flavius Constantius Valerius Maximus Preceded by Ursus Polemius Roman consul II 339 with Constans Augustus Succeeded by Septimius Acindynus L. Aradius Valerius Proculus Preceded by Petronius Probinus Antonius Marcellinus Roman consul III 342 with Constans Augustus II Succeeded by M. Furius Placidus Romulus Preceded by Amantius M. Nummius Albinus Roman consul IV 346 with Constans Augustus III Succeeded by Vulcacius Rufinus Eusebius Preceded by Magnentius Gaiso Roman consul V–VII 352–354 with Constantius Caesar Succeeded by Arbitio Lollianus Mavortius Preceded by Arbitio Lollianus Mavortius Roman consul VIII–IX 356–357 with Julian Caesar Succeeded by Censorius Datianus Neratius Cerealis Preceded by Eusebius Hypatius Roman consul X 360 with Julian Caesar Succeeded by Taurus Florentius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-411	----	Vienna - Wikipedia Vienna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the capital of Austria. For other uses, see Vienna (disambiguation). "Wien" redirects here. For other uses, see Wien (disambiguation). Capital of Austria Coordinates: 48°12′N 16°22′E / 48.200°N 16.367°E / 48.200; 16.367 Capital city and state in Austria Vienna Wien  (German) Capital city and state From top, left to right: Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna City Hall, St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna State Opera, and Austrian Parliament Building Flag Seal Coat of arms Vienna Location within Austria Show map of Austria Vienna Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 48°12′N 16°22′E / 48.200°N 16.367°E / 48.200; 16.367 Country  Austria State Vienna Government  • Body State and Municipality Diet  • Mayor and Governor Michael Ludwig (SPÖ)  • Vice Mayor Christoph Wiederkehr (NEOS) Area[1]  • Capital city and state 414.78 km2 (160.15 sq mi)  • Land 395.25 km2 (152.61 sq mi)  • Water 19.39 km2 (7.49 sq mi) Elevation 151 (Lobau) – 542 (Hermannskogel) m (495–1,778 ft) Population  • Rank 1st in Austria (6th in EU)  • Density 4,326.1/km2 (11,205/sq mi)  • Urban 1,911,191 (01−01−20)  • Metro 2,600,000  • Ethnicity[2][3] 61.2% Austrian 38.8% Other Demonym(s) German: Wiener (m), Wienerin (f) English: Viennese Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 1xx0 (xx = district number) 1300 (airport) 1400 (United Nations) other 1yyy (postal boxes)[4] ISO 3166 code AT-9 Vehicle registration W HDI (2018) 0.940[5] very high · 1st GDP €100 billion (2019)[6] GDP per capita €52,700 (2019)[6] Seats in the Federal Council 11 / 61 GeoTLD .wien Website www.wien.gv.at UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Historic Centre of Vienna Type Cultural Criteria ii, iv, vi Designated 2001 (25th session) Reference no. 1033 UNESCO Region Europe and North America Endangered 2017 (2017)–present[7] Vienna (/viˈɛnə/ (listen);[8][9] German: Wien [viːn] (listen); Austro-Bavarian: Wean) is the national capital, largest city, and one of nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's most populous city, with about 2 million inhabitants[2] (2.6 million within the metropolitan area,[10] nearly one third of the country's population), and its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 6th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century, Vienna was the largest German-speaking city in the world, and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I, the city had 2 million inhabitants.[11] Today, it is the second-largest German-speaking city after Berlin.[12][13] Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations, OPEC and the OSCE. The city is located in the eastern part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city center was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In July 2017 it was moved to the list of World Heritage in Danger.[14] Additionally, Vienna is known as the "City of Music"[15] due to its musical legacy, as many famous classical musicians such as Beethoven and Mozart called Vienna home. Vienna is also said to be the "City of Dreams", because of it being home to the world's first psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud.[16] Vienna's ancestral roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city. It is well known for having played a pivotal role as a leading European music center, from the age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic center of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque palaces and gardens, and the late-19th-century Ringstraße lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.[17] Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first (in a tie with Vancouver and San Francisco) for the world's most livable cities. Between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne.[18] Monocle's 2015 "Quality of Life Survey" ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world "to make a base within."[19] Monocle's 2012 "Quality of Life Survey" ranked Vienna fourth on a list of the top 25 cities in the world "to make a base within" (up from sixth in 2011 and eighth in 2010).[20] The UN-Habitat classified Vienna as the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013.[21] The city was ranked 1st globally for its culture of innovation in 2007 and 2008, and sixth globally (out of 256 cities) in the 2014 Innovation Cities Index, which analyzed 162 indicators in covering three areas: culture, infrastructure, and markets.[22][23][24] Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is often used as a case study by urban planners.[25] Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the world's number-one destination for international congresses and conventions.[26] It attracts over 6.8 million tourists a year.[27] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Austrian Empire and the early 20th century 2.3 Anschluss and World War II 2.4 Four-power Vienna 2.5 Austrian State Treaty and afterwards 3 Demographics 3.1 Religion 4 Geography 4.1 Climate 5 World heritage in danger 6 Districts and enlargement 7 Politics 7.1 Political history 7.2 Government 8 Economy 8.1 Research and development 8.2 Information technologies 8.3 Tourism and conferences 9 Rankings 10 Urban development 10.1 Central Railway Station 10.2 Aspern 10.3 Smart City 11 Culture 11.1 Music, theater and opera 11.2 Actors from Vienna 11.3 Musicians from Vienna 11.4 Notable Jewish cultural figures from Vienna 11.5 Notable writers from Vienna 11.6 Notable politicians from Vienna 11.7 Museums 11.8 Architecture 11.9 Vienna balls 11.10 Language 12 Education 12.1 Universities 12.2 International schools 13 Leisure activities 13.1 Parks and gardens 13.2 Sport 14 Culinary specialities 14.1 Food 14.2 Drinks 14.3 Viennese cafés 15 Tourist attractions 16 Transportation 17 Viennese 18 International relations 18.1 International organizations in Vienna 18.2 Charitable organizations in Vienna 18.3 International city cooperations 18.4 District to district partnerships 19 See also 20 References 21 Further reading 22 External links 22.1 Official websites 22.2 History of Vienna 22.3 Further information on Vienna Etymology[edit] See also Other names of Vienna The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian name. The etymology of the city's name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from vedunia, meaning "forest stream", which subsequently produced the Old High German uuenia (wenia in modern writing), the New High German wien and its dialectal variant wean.[28] Others believe that the name comes from the Roman settlement name of Celtic extraction Vindobona, probably meaning "fair village, white settlement" from Celtic roots, vindo-, meaning "bright" or "fair" – as in the Irish fionn and the Welsh gwyn –, and -bona "village, settlement".[29] The Celtic word vindos may reflect a widespread prehistorical cult of Vindos, a Celtic deity who survives in Irish Mythology as the warrior and seer Fionn mac Cumhaill. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech, Slovak and Polish names of the city (Vídeň, Viedeň and Wiedeń respectively) and in that of the city's district Wieden.[30] The name of the city in Hungarian (Bécs), Serbo-Croatian (Beč; Cyrillic: Беч) and Ottoman Turkish (Beç) has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area.[31] Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the river Danube, on which the city stands. History[edit] Main articles: History of Vienna and Timeline of Vienna Early history[edit] Depiction of Vienna in the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493 Vienna in 1683 Evidence has been found of continuous habitation in the Vienna area since 500 BC, when Celts settled the site on the Danube.[citation needed] In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the frontier city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north. Close ties with other Celtic peoples continued through the ages. The Irish monk Saint Colman (or Koloman, Irish Colmán, derived from colm "dove") is buried in Melk Abbey and Saint Fergil (Virgil the Geometer) served as Bishop of Salzburg for forty years. Irish Benedictines founded twelfth-century monastic settlements; evidence of these ties persists in the form of Vienna's great Schottenstift monastery (Scots Abbey), once home to many Irish monks. Vienna from Belvedere by Bernardo Bellotto, 1758 In 976, Leopold I of Babenberg became count of the Eastern March, a district centered on the Danube on the eastern frontier of Bavaria. This initial district grew into the duchy of Austria. Each succeeding Babenberg ruler expanded the march east along the Danube, eventually encompassing Vienna and the lands immediately east. In 1145, Duke Henry II Jasomirgott moved the Babenberg family residence from Klosterneuburg in Lower Austria to Vienna. From that time, Vienna remained the center of the Babenberg dynasty.[32] In 1440, Vienna became the resident city of the Habsburg dynasty. It eventually grew to become the de facto capital of the Holy Roman Empire (800–1806) in 1437 and a cultural center for arts and science, music and fine cuisine. Hungary occupied the city between 1485 and 1490. In the 16th and 17th centuries Christian forces twice stopped Ottoman armies outside Vienna, in the 1529 Siege of Vienna and the 1683 Battle of Vienna. The Great Plague of Vienna ravaged the city in 1679, killing nearly a third of its population.[33] Austrian Empire and the early 20th century[edit] Vienna's Ringstraße and the State Opera in around 1870 In 1804, during the Napoleonic Wars, Vienna became the capital of the newly formed Austrian Empire. The city continued to play a major role in European and world politics, including hosting the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Vienna remained the capital of what became the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city functioned as a center of classical music, for which the title of the First Viennese School (Haydn/Mozart/Beethoven) is sometimes applied. Colour lithograph of Vienna, 1900 During the latter half of the 19th century, Vienna developed what had previously been the bastions and glacis into the Ringstraße, a new boulevard surrounding the historical town and a major prestige project. Former suburbs were incorporated, and the city of Vienna grew dramatically. In 1918, after World War I, Vienna became capital of the Republic of German-Austria, and then in 1919 of the First Republic of Austria. From the late-19th century to 1938, the city remained a center of high culture and of modernism. A world capital of music, Vienna played host to composers such as Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler and Richard Strauss. The city's cultural contributions in the first half of the 20th century included, among many, the Vienna Secession movement in art, psychoanalysis, the Second Viennese School (Schoenberg, Berg, Webern), the architecture of Adolf Loos and the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle. In 1913 Adolf Hitler, Leon Trotsky, Josip Broz Tito, Sigmund Freud and Joseph Stalin all lived within a few kilometres of each other in central Vienna, some of them becoming regulars at the same coffeehouses.[34] Austrians came to regard Vienna as a center of socialist politics, sometimes referred to as "Red Vienna"(“Das rote Wien”). In the Austrian Civil War of 1934 Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss sent the Austrian Army to shell civilian housing such as the Karl Marx-Hof occupied by the socialist militia. Anschluss and World War II[edit] Main article: Anschluss Crowds greet Adolf Hitler as he rides in an open car through Vienna in March 1938 In 1938, after a triumphant entry into Austria, the Austrian-born German Chancellor Adolf Hitler spoke to the Austrian Germans from the balcony of the Neue Burg, a part of the Hofburg at the Heldenplatz. In the ensuing days the new Nazi authorities oversaw the harassment of Viennese Jews, the looting of their homes, and their on-going deportation and murder.[35][need quotation to verify][36] Between 1938 (after the Anschluss) and the end of the Second World War in 1945, Vienna lost its status as a capital to Berlin, because Austria ceased to exist and became part of Nazi Germany. During the November pogroms on November 9, 1938, 92 synagogues in Vienna were destroyed. Only the city temple in the 1st district was spared, as the data of all Jews in Vienna were collected in the adjacent archives. Adolf Eichmann held office in the expropriated Palais Rothschild and organized the expropriation and persecution of the Jews. Of the almost 200,000 Jews in Vienna, around 120,000 were driven to emigrate and around 65,000 were killed. After the end of the war, the Jewish population of Vienna was about only 5,000.[37][38][39][40] Vienna was also the center of the important resistance group around Heinrich Maier, which provided the Allies with plans for V-1, V-2 rockets, Peenemünde, Tiger tanks, Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and other aircraft. The information was important to Operation Crossbow and Operation Hydra, both preliminary missions for Operation Overlord. In addition, factory locations for war-essential products were communicated as targets for the Allied Air Force. The group was exposed and most of its members were executed after months of torture by the Gestapo in Vienna.[41][42][43][44] The group around the later executed Karl Burian even tried to blow up the Gestapo headquarters in the Hotel Metropole.[45] On 2 April 1945 the Soviet Red Army launched the Vienna Offensive against the Germans holding the city and besieged it. British and American air-raids, as well as artillery duels between the Red Army and the SS and Wehrmacht, crippled infrastructure, such as tram services and water- and power-distribution, and destroyed or damaged thousands of public and private buildings. The Red Army was helped by an Austrian resistance group in the German Wehrmacht. The group tried under the code name Radetzky to prevent the destruction and fighting in the city. Vienna fell eleven days later.[46] At the end of the war, Austria again became separated from Germany, and Vienna regained its status as the capital city of the Republic of Austria, but the Soviet hold[citation needed] on the city remained until 1955, when Austria regained full sovereignty. Four-power Vienna[edit] Further information: Allied-occupied Austria Occupation zones in Vienna, 1945–55 After the war, Vienna was part of Soviet-occupied Eastern Austria until September 1945. As in Berlin, Vienna in September 1945 was divided into sectors by the four powers: the US, the UK, France, and the Soviet Union and supervised by an Allied Commission. The four-power occupation of Vienna differed in one key respect from that of Berlin: the central area of the city, known as the first district, constituted an international zone in which the four powers alternated control on a monthly basis. The control was policed by the four powers on a de facto day-to-day basis, the famous "four soldiers in a jeep" method.[47] The Berlin Blockade of 1948 raised Western concerns that the Soviets might repeat the blockade in Vienna. The matter was raised in the UK House of Commons by MP Anthony Nutting, who asked: "What plans have the Government for dealing with a similar situation in Vienna? Vienna is in exactly a similar position to Berlin."[48] There was a lack of airfields in the Western sectors, and authorities drafted contingency plans to deal with such a blockade. Plans included the laying down of metal landing mats at Schönbrunn. The Soviets did not blockade the city. The Potsdam Agreement included written rights of land access to the western sectors, whereas no such written guarantees had covered the western sectors of Berlin. Also, there was no precipitating event to cause a blockade in Vienna. (In Berlin, the Western powers had introduced a new currency in early 1948 to economically freeze out the Soviets.) During the 10 years of the four-power occupation, Vienna became a hotbed for international espionage between the Western and Eastern blocs. In the wake of the Berlin Blockade, the Cold War in Vienna took on a different dynamic. While accepting that Germany and Berlin would be divided, the Soviets had decided against allowing the same state of affairs to arise in Austria and Vienna. Here, the Soviet forces controlled districts 2, 4, 10, 20, 21, and 22 and all areas incorporated into Vienna in 1938. Barbed wire fences were installed around the perimeter of West Berlin in 1953, but not in Vienna. By 1955, the Soviets, by signing the Austrian State Treaty, agreed to relinquish their occupation zones in Eastern Austria as well as their sector in Vienna. In exchange they required that Austria declare its permanent neutrality after the allied powers had left the country. Thus they ensured that Austria would not be a member of NATO and that NATO forces would therefore not have direct communications between Italy and West Germany. The atmosphere of four-power Vienna is the background for Graham Greene's screenplay for the film The Third Man (1949). Later he adapted the screenplay as a novel and published it. Occupied Vienna is also depicted in the 1991 Philip Kerr novel, A German Requiem. Austrian State Treaty and afterwards[edit] Vienna in 1966 The four-power control of Vienna lasted until the Austrian State Treaty was signed in May 1955. That year, after years of reconstruction and restoration, the State Opera and the Burgtheater, both on the Ringstraße, reopened to the public. The Soviet Union signed the State Treaty only after having been provided with a political guarantee by the federal government to declare Austria's neutrality after the withdrawal of the allied troops. This law of neutrality, passed in late October 1955 (and not the State Treaty itself), ensured that modern Austria would align with neither NATO nor the Soviet bloc, and is considered one of the reasons for Austria's delayed entry into the European Union in 1995. In the 1970s, Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky inaugurated the Vienna International Center, a new area of the city created to host international institutions. Vienna has regained much of its former international stature by hosting international organizations, such as the United Nations (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United Nations Office at Vienna and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1637 60,000 —     1683 90,000 +50.0% 1710 113,800 +26.4% 1754 175,460 +54.2% 1783 247,753 +41.2% 1793 271,800 +9.7% 1830 401,200 +47.6% Year Pop. ±% 1840 469,400 +17.0% 1850 551,300 +17.4% 1857 683,000 +23.9% 1869 900,998 +31.9% 1880 1,162,591 +29.0% 1890 1,430,213 +23.0% 1900 1,769,137 +23.7% Year Pop. ±% 1910 2,083,630 +17.8% 1916 2,239,000 +7.5% 1923 1,918,720 −14.3% 1934 1,935,881 +0.9% 1939 1,770,938 −8.5% 1951 1,616,125 −8.7% 1961 1,627,566 +0.7% Year Pop. ±% 1971 1,619,885 −0.5% 1981 1,535,145 −5.2% 1990 1,492,636 −2.8% 2000 1,548,537 +3.7% 2010 1,689,995 +9.1% 2020 1,911,728 +13.1% 2020 data[49] Significant foreign resident groups[50] Nationality Population as of 1 January 2021  Serbia 77,691  Germany 51,900  Turkey 45,708  Poland 44,173  Romania 38,373  Syria 26,540  Hungary 25,966  Croatia 24,453  Bosnia and Herzegovina 21,818  Bulgaria 20,507 Because of the industrialization and migration from other parts of the Empire, the population of Vienna increased sharply during its time as the capital of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918). In 1910, Vienna had more than two million inhabitants, and was the third largest city in Europe after London and Paris.[51] Around the start of the 20th century, Vienna was the city with the second-largest Czech population in the world (after Prague).[52] After World War I, many Czechs and Hungarians returned to their ancestral countries, resulting in a decline in the Viennese population. After World War II, the Soviets used force to repatriate key workers of Czech, Slovak and Hungarian origins to return to their ethnic homelands to further the Soviet bloc economy.[citation needed] Under the Nazi regime, 65,000 Jews were deported and murdered in concentration camps by Nazi forces; approximately 130,000 fled.[53] By 2001, 16% of people living in Austria had nationalities other than Austrian, nearly half of whom were from former Yugoslavia;[54][55] the next most numerous nationalities in Vienna were Turks (39,000; 2.5%), Poles (13,600; 0.9%) and Germans (12,700; 0.8%).[56] As of 2012[update], an official report from Statistics Austria showed that more than 660,000 (38.8%) of the Viennese population have full or partial migrant background, mostly from Ex-Yugoslavia, Turkey, Germany, Poland, Romania and Hungary.[2][3] From 2005 to 2015 the city's population grew by 10.1%.[57] According to UN-Habitat, Vienna could be the fastest growing city out of 17 European metropolitan areas until 2025 with an increase of 4.65% of its population, compared to 2010.[58] Religion[edit] Karlskirche, located on the south side of Karlsplatz in the 4th city district According to the 2001 census, 49.2% of Viennese were Catholic, while 25.7% were of no religion, 7.8% were Muslim, 6.0% were members of an Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination, 4.7% were Protestant (mostly Lutheran), 0.5% were Jewish and 6.3% were either of other religions or did not reply.[56] A 2011 report by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis showed the proportions had changed, with 41.3% Catholic, 31.6% no affiliation, 11.6% Muslim, 8.4% Eastern Orthodox, 4.2% Protestant, and 2.9% other.[59] Based on information provided to city officials by various religious organizations about their membership, Vienna's Statistical Yearbook 2019 reports in 2018 an estimated 610,269 Roman Catholics, or 32.3% of the population, and 195,000 (10.3%) Muslims, 70,298 (3.7%) Orthodox, 57,502 (3.0%) other Christians, and 9,504 (0.5%) other religions.[60] A study conducted by the Vienna Institute of Demography estimated the 2018 proportions to be 34% Catholic, 30% unaffiliated, 15% Muslim, 10% Orthodox, 4% Protestant, and 6% other religions.[61] Vienna is the seat of the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna, in which is also vested the exempt Ordinariate for Byzantine-rite Catholics in Austria; its Archbishop is Cardinal Christoph Schönborn. Many Catholic churches in central Vienna feature performances of religious or other music, including masses sung to classical music and organ. Some of Vienna's most significant historical buildings are Catholic churches, including the St. Stephen's Cathedral (Stephansdom), Karlskirche, Peterskirche and the Votivkirche. On the banks of the Danube, there is a Buddhist Peace Pagoda, built in 1983 by the monks and nuns of [Nipponzan Myohoji]. Geography[edit] Satellite image of Vienna (2018) Vienna is located in northeastern Austria, at the easternmost extension of the Alps in the Vienna Basin. The earliest settlement, at the location of today's inner city, was south of the meandering Danube while the city now spans both sides of the river. Elevation ranges from 151 to 542 m (495 to 1,778 ft). The city has a total area of 414.65 square kilometers (160.1 sq mi), making it the largest city in Austria by area. Climate[edit] Vienna has an oceanic climate (Köppen classification Cfb). The city has warm summers, with periodical precipitations that can reach its yearly most in July and August (66.6 and 66.5 mm respectively) and average high temperatures from June to September of approximately 21 to 27 °C (70 to 81 °F), with a record maximum exceeding 38 °C (100 °F) and a record low in September of 5.6 °C (42 °F). Winters are relatively dry and cold with average temperatures at about freezing point. Spring is variable and autumn cool, with possible snowfalls already in November. Precipitation is generally moderate throughout the year, averaging around 550 mm (21.7 in) annually, with considerable local variations, the Vienna Woods region in the west being the wettest part (700 to 800 mm (28 to 31 in) annually) and the flat plains in the east being the driest part (500 to 550 mm (20 to 22 in) annually). Snow in winter is common, even if not so frequent compared to the Western and Southern regions of Austria. Climate data for Vienna (Hohe Warte) 1981–2010, extremes 1775–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18.7 (65.7) 20.6 (69.1) 25.5 (77.9) 29.5 (85.1) 34.0 (93.2) 36.5 (97.7) 39.5 (103.1) 38.4 (101.1) 34.0 (93.2) 27.8 (82.0) 21.7 (71.1) 16.1 (61.0) 39.5 (103.1) Average high °C (°F) 3.2 (37.8) 5.2 (41.4) 10.3 (50.5) 16.2 (61.2) 21.1 (70.0) 24.0 (75.2) 26.5 (79.7) 26.0 (78.8) 20.6 (69.1) 14.6 (58.3) 8.1 (46.6) 3.6 (38.5) 14.9 (58.8) Daily mean °C (°F) 0.3 (32.5) 1.5 (34.7) 5.7 (42.3) 10.7 (51.3) 15.7 (60.3) 18.7 (65.7) 20.8 (69.4) 20.2 (68.4) 15.4 (59.7) 10.2 (50.4) 5.1 (41.2) 1.1 (34.0) 10.4 (50.7) Average low °C (°F) −1.9 (28.6) −1.0 (30.2) 2.4 (36.3) 6.3 (43.3) 10.9 (51.6) 14.0 (57.2) 15.9 (60.6) 15.7 (60.3) 11.9 (53.4) 7.3 (45.1) 3.0 (37.4) −0.8 (30.6) 7.0 (44.6) Record low °C (°F) −23.8 (−10.8) −26.0 (−14.8) −16.3 (2.7) −8.1 (17.4) −1.8 (28.8) 3.2 (37.8) 6.9 (44.4) 6.5 (43.7) −0.6 (30.9) −9.1 (15.6) −14.3 (6.3) −20.7 (−5.3) −26.0 (−14.8) Average precipitation mm (inches) 38 (1.5) 40 (1.6) 51 (2.0) 45 (1.8) 69 (2.7) 70 (2.8) 70 (2.8) 72 (2.8) 61 (2.4) 38 (1.5) 49 (1.9) 48 (1.9) 651 (25.6) Average snowfall cm (inches) 18 (7.1) 17 (6.7) 8 (3.1) 1 (0.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (2.4) 17 (6.7) 67 (26) Average relative humidity (%) (at 14:00) 72.4 65.1 58.3 51.9 53.7 55.0 53.3 53.3 59.4 64.8 73.6 77.3 61.5 Mean monthly sunshine hours 70 100 143 197 239 236 263 251 182 133 66 51 1,930 Percent possible sunshine 26.4 36.5 40.2 50.3 53.3 52.0 57.0 59.1 49.8 40.9 24.5 20.5 42.5 Source 1: Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics[62][63][64][65][66][67] Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows),[68] wien.orf.at[69] Climate data for Vienna (Innere Stadt) 1971–2000 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 16.8 (62.2) 19.5 (67.1) 25.4 (77.7) 27.4 (81.3) 31.5 (88.7) 36.5 (97.7) 36.1 (97.0) 37.0 (98.6) 31.8 (89.2) 24.8 (76.6) 21.3 (70.3) 16.4 (61.5) 37.0 (98.6) Average high °C (°F) 3.8 (38.8) 6.1 (43.0) 11.5 (52.7) 16.1 (61.0) 21.3 (70.3) 24.0 (75.2) 26.7 (80.1) 26.6 (79.9) 21.1 (70.0) 15.3 (59.5) 8.1 (46.6) 4.6 (40.3) 15.3 (59.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 1.2 (34.2) 2.9 (37.2) 6.4 (43.5) 11.5 (52.7) 16.5 (61.7) 19.1 (66.4) 21.7 (71.1) 21.6 (70.9) 16.8 (62.2) 11.6 (52.9) 5.5 (41.9) 2.4 (36.3) 11.4 (52.5) Average low °C (°F) −0.8 (30.6) 0.3 (32.5) 3.5 (38.3) 7.8 (46.0) 12.5 (54.5) 15.1 (59.2) 17.4 (63.3) 17.5 (63.5) 13.6 (56.5) 8.8 (47.8) 3.6 (38.5) 0.5 (32.9) 8.3 (46.9) Record low °C (°F) −17.6 (0.3) −16.4 (2.5) −10.8 (12.6) −2.1 (28.2) 4.9 (40.8) 6.8 (44.2) 10.9 (51.6) 10.1 (50.2) 5.6 (42.1) −1.8 (28.8) −7.0 (19.4) −15.4 (4.3) −17.6 (0.3) Average precipitation mm (inches) 21.3 (0.84) 29.3 (1.15) 39.1 (1.54) 39.2 (1.54) 60.9 (2.40) 63.3 (2.49) 66.6 (2.62) 66.5 (2.62) 50.4 (1.98) 32.8 (1.29) 43.9 (1.73) 34.6 (1.36) 547.9 (21.57) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 5.3 6.0 8.1 6.3 8.3 9.3 8.2 8.5 6.9 6.0 7.5 7.6 88.0 Average relative humidity (%) (at 14:00) 75.0 67.6 62.1 53.9 54.3 56.9 54.4 54.4 61.0 64.9 74.9 78.4 63.2 Mean monthly sunshine hours 65.5 105.6 127.7 183.1 238.7 227.5 260.4 251.0 168.2 139.0 66.3 50.6 1,883.6 Average ultraviolet index 1 2 3 4 6 7 7 6 4 3 1 1 4 Source 1: Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics[70] Source 2: Weather Atlas [71] World heritage in danger[edit] Vienna was moved to the UNESCO world heritage in danger list in 2017. The main reason was a planned high-rise development.[72] The city's social democratic party planned construction of a 6,500 square metres (70,000 sq ft) complex in 2019.[72] The plan includes a 66.3 metres (218 ft)-high tower, which was reduced from 75 metres (246 ft) due to opposition.[72] UNESCO believed that the project "fails to comply fully with previous committee decisions, notably concerning the height of new constructions, which will impact adversely the outstanding universal value of the site."[72] UNESCO set the restriction for the height of the construction in the city center to 43 metres (141 ft).[72] The citizens of Vienna also opposed the construction of the complex because they are afraid of losing UNESCO status and also of encouraging future high-rise development.[72] The city officials replied that they will convince the WHC to maintain UNESCO world heritage status and said that no further high-rise developments are being planned.[72] UNESCO is concerned about the height of high-rise development in Vienna as it can dramatically influence the visual integrity of the city,[73] specifically the baroque palaces.[73] Visual impact studies are being done in the Vienna city center to assess the level of visual disturbance to visitors and how the changes influenced the city's visual integrity.[73] Districts and enlargement[edit] Main article: Districts of Vienna Map of the districts of Vienna with numbers Vienna is composed of 23 districts (Bezirke). Administrative district offices in Vienna (called Magistratische Bezirksämter) serve functions similar to those in the other Austrian states (called Bezirkshauptmannschaften), the officers being subject to the mayor of Vienna; with the notable exception of the police, which is under federal supervision. District residents in Vienna (Austrians as well as EU citizens with permanent residence here) elect a District Assembly (Bezirksvertretung). City hall has delegated maintenance budgets, e.g., for schools and parks, so that the districts are able to set priorities autonomously. Any decision of a district can be overridden by the city assembly (Gemeinderat) or the responsible city councilor (amtsführender Stadtrat). Albertina Terrace in the Innere Stadt The heart and historical city of Vienna, a large part of today's Innere Stadt, was a fortress surrounded by fields in order to defend itself from potential attackers. In 1850, Vienna with the consent of the emperor annexed 34 surrounding villages,[74] called Vorstädte, into the city limits (districts no. 2 to 8, after 1861 with the separation of Margareten from Wieden no. 2 to 9). Consequently, the walls were razed after 1857,[75] making it possible for the city center to expand. In their place, a broad boulevard called the Ringstraße was built, along which imposing public and private buildings, monuments, and parks were created by the start of the 20th century. These buildings include the Rathaus (town hall), the Burgtheater, the University, the Parliament, the twin museums of natural history and fine art, and the Staatsoper. It is also the location of New Wing of the Hofburg, the former imperial palace, and the Imperial and Royal War Ministry finished in 1913. The mainly Gothic Stephansdom is located at the center of the city, on Stephansplatz. The Imperial-Royal Government set up the Vienna City Renovation Fund (Wiener Stadterneuerungsfonds) and sold many building lots to private investors, thereby partly financing public construction works. The Ring Road (Ringstraße) with a historical tram From 1850 to 1890, city limits in the West and the South mainly followed another wall called Linienwall at which a road toll called the Liniengeld was charged. Outside this wall from 1873 onwards a ring road called Gürtel was built. In 1890 it was decided to integrate 33 suburbs (called Vororte) beyond that wall into Vienna by 1 January 1892[76] and transform them into districts no. 11 to 19 (district no. 10 had been constituted in 1874); hence the Linienwall was torn down beginning in 1894.[77] In 1900, district no. 20, Brigittenau, was created by separating the area from the 2nd district. From 1850 to 1904, Vienna had expanded only on the right bank of the Danube, following the main branch before the regulation of 1868–1875, i.e., the Old Danube of today. In 1904, the 21st district was created by integrating Floridsdorf, Kagran, Stadlau, Hirschstetten, Aspern and other villages on the left bank of the Danube into Vienna, in 1910 Strebersdorf followed. On 15 October 1938 the Nazis created Great Vienna with 26 districts by merging 97 towns and villages into Vienna, 80 of which were returned to surrounding Lower Austria in 1954.[76] Since then Vienna has had 23 districts. Industries are located mostly in the southern and eastern districts. The Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube, but is bounded by the Donaukanal ("Danube canal"). Vienna's second and twentieth districts are located between the Donaukanal and the Danube. Across the Danube, where the Vienna International Center is located (districts 21–22), and in the southern areas (district 23) are the newest parts of the city. Politics[edit] Political history[edit] The Debating Chamber of the former House of Deputies of Austria in the parliament In the twenty years before the First World War and until 1918, Viennese politics were shaped by the Christian Social Party. In particular, long-term mayor Karl Lueger was able to not apply the general voting rights for men introduced by and for the parliament of imperial Austria, the Reichsrat, in 1907, thereby excluding most of the working class from taking part in decisions. For Adolf Hitler, who spent some years in Vienna, Lueger was a teacher of how to use antisemitism in politics. Vienna is today considered the center of the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ). During the period of the First Republic (1918–1934), the Vienna Social Democrats undertook many social reforms. At that time, Vienna's municipal policy was admired by Socialists throughout Europe, who therefore referred to the city as "Red Vienna" (Rotes Wien). In February 1934 troops of the Austrian federal government under Engelbert Dollfuss, who had closed down the first chamber of the federal parliament, the Nationalrat, in 1933, and paramilitary socialist organizations were engaged in the Austrian Civil War, which led to the ban of the Social Democratic party. The SPÖ has held the mayor's office and control of the city council/parliament at every free election since 1919. The only break in this SPÖ dominance came between 1934 and 1945, when the Social Democratic Party was illegal, mayors were appointed by the austro-fascist and later by the Nazi authorities. The mayor of Vienna is Michael Ludwig of the SPÖ. The city has enacted many social democratic policies. The Gemeindebauten are social housing assets that are well integrated into the city architecture outside the first or "inner" district. The low rents enable comfortable accommodation and good access to the city amenities. Many of the projects were built after the Second World War on vacant lots that were destroyed by bombing during the war. The city took particular pride in building them to a high standard. Government[edit] Main article: Gemeinderat and Landtag of Vienna Interior of Vienna's historical Rathaus, the seat of city mayor Since Vienna obtained federal state (Bundesland) status of its own by the federal constitution of 1920, the city council also functions as the state parliament (Landtag), and the mayor (except 1934–1945) also doubles as the Landeshauptmann (governor/minister-president) of the state of Vienna. The Rathaus accommodates the offices of the mayor (de:Magistrat der Stadt Wien) and the state government (Landesregierung). The city is administered by a multitude of departments (Magistratsabteilungen), politically supervised by amtsführende Stadträte (members of the city government leading offices; according to the Vienna constitution opposition parties have the right to designate members of the city government not leading offices). Under the city constitution of 1920, municipal and state business must be kept separate. Hence, the city council and state parliament hold separate meetings, with separate presiding officers–the chairman of the city council or the president of the state Landtag–even though the two bodies' memberships are identical. When meeting as a city council, the deputies can only deal with the affairs of the city of Vienna; when meeting as a state parliament, they can only deal with the affairs of the state of Vienna. In the 1996 City Council election, the SPÖ lost its overall majority in the 100-seat chamber, winning 43 seats and 39.15% of the vote. The SPÖ had held an outright majority at every free municipal election since 1919. In 1996 the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which won 29 seats (up from 21 in 1991), beat the ÖVP into third place for the second time running. From 1996 to 2001, the SPÖ governed Vienna in a coalition with the ÖVP. In 2001 the SPÖ regained the overall majority with 52 seats and 46.91% of the vote; in October 2005, this majority was increased further to 55 seats (49.09%). In course of the 2010 city council elections the SPÖ lost their overall majority again and consequently forged a coalition with the Green Party – the first SPÖ/Green coalition in Austria.[78] This coalition was maintained following the 2015 election. Economy[edit] Messe Wien Congress Center Austria Center Vienna (ACV) Vienna is one of the wealthiest regions in the European Union: Its gross regional product of EUR 47,200 per capita constituted 25.7% of Austria's GDP in 2013. It amounts to 159% of the EU average.[79] The city improved its position from 2012 on the ranking of the most economically powerful cities reaching number nine on the listing in 2015.[80][81] With a share of 85.5% in gross value added, the service sector is Vienna's most important economic sector. Industry and commerce have a share of 14.5% in gross value added, the primary sector (agriculture) has a share of 0.07% and therefore plays a minor role in the local added value.[82] However, the cultivation and production of wines within the city borders have a high socio-cultural value. The most important business sectors are trade (14.7% of added value in Vienna), scientific and technological services, real estate and housing activities as well as manufacturing of goods. In 2012, Vienna's contribution in Austria's outgoing and incoming foreign direct investments was of about 60%, which demonstrates Vienna's role as an international hub for domestic and foreign companies.[82] Since the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Vienna has expanded its position as gateway to Eastern Europe: 300 international companies have their Eastern European headquarters in Vienna and its environs. Among them are Hewlett Packard, Henkel, Baxalta and Siemens.[83] Companies in Vienna have extensive contacts and competences in business with Eastern Europe due to the city's historical role as center of the Habsburg Empire.[84] The number of international businesses in Vienna is still growing: In 2014 159 and in 2015 175 international firms established offices in Vienna.[85] Altogether, approximately 8,300 new companies have been founded in Vienna every year since 2004.[86] The majority of these companies are operating in fields of industry-oriented services, wholesale trade as well as information and communications technologies and new media.[87] Vienna makes effort to establish itself as a start-up hub. Since 2012, the city hosts the annual Pioneers Festival, the largest start-up event in Central Europe with 2,500 international participants taking place at Hofburg Palace. Tech Cocktail, an online portal for the start-up scene, has ranked Vienna sixth among the top ten start-up cities worldwide.[88][89][90] Research and development[edit] The city of Vienna attaches major importance to science and research and focuses on creating a positive environment for research and development. In 2014, Vienna has accommodated 1,329 research facilities; 40,400 persons are employed in the R&D sector and 35% of Austria's R&D expenses are invested in the city. With a research quota of 3.4% Vienna exceeds the Austrian average of 2.77% and has already met the EU target of 3.0% by 2020.[82] A major R&D sector in Vienna are life sciences. The Vienna Life Science Cluster is Austria's major hub for life science research, education and business. Throughout Vienna, five universities and several basic research institutes form the academic core of the hub with more than 12,600 employees and 34,700 students. Here, more than 480 medical device, biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies with almost 23,000 employees generate around 12 billion euros in revenue (2017). This corresponds to more than 50% of the revenue generated by life science companies in Austria (22.4 billion euros).[91][92] Vienna is home to global players like Boehringer Ingelheim, Octapharma, Ottobock and Takeda.[93] However, there is also a growing number of start-up companies in the life sciences and Vienna was ranked first in the 2019 PeoplePerHour Startup Cities Index.[94] Companies such as Apeiron Biologics, Hookipa Pharma, Marinomed, mySugr, Themis Bioscience and Valneva operate a presence in Vienna and regularly hit the headlines internationally.[95] To facilitate tapping the economic potential of the multiple facettes of the life sciences at Austria's capital, the Austrian Federal Ministry for Digital and Economic Affairs and the local government of City of Vienna have joined forces: Since 2002, the LISAvienna platform is available as a central contact point. It provides free business support services at the interface of the Austrian federal promotional bank, Austria Wirtschaftsservice and the Vienna Business Agency and collects data that inform policy making.[96] The main academic hot spots in Vienna are the Life Science Center Muthgasse with the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), the Austrian Institute of Technology, the University of Veterinary Medicine, the AKH Vienna with the MedUni Vienna and the Vienna Biocenter.[97] Central European University, a graduate institution expelled from Budapest in the midst of a Hungarian government steps to take control of academic and research organizations, welcomes the first class of students to its new Vienna campus in 2019.[98] Information technologies[edit] The Viennese sector for information and communication technologies is comparable in size with the sector in Helsinki, Milan or Munich and thus among Europe's largest IT locations. In 2012 8,962 IT businesses with a workforce of 64,223 were located in the Vienna Region. The main products are instruments and appliances for measuring, testing and navigation as well as electronic components. More than ⅔ of the enterprises provide IT services. Among the biggest IT firms in Vienna are Kapsch, Beko Engineering & Informatics, air traffic control experts Frequentis, Cisco Systems Austria, Hewlett-Packard, Microsoft Austria, IBM Austria and Samsung Electronics Austria.[99][100] The US technology corporation Cisco runs its Entrepreneurs in Residence program for Europe in Vienna in cooperation with the Vienna Business Agency.[101][102] The British company UBM has rated Vienna one of the Top 10 Internet Cities worldwide, by analyzing criteria like connection speed, WiFi availability, innovation spirit and open government data.[103] In 2011 74.3% of Viennese households were connected with broadband, 79% were in possession of a computer. According to the broadband strategy of the city, full broadband coverage will be reached by 2020.[99][100] Tourism and conferences[edit] There were 17.6 million overnight stays in Vienna in 2019 (+6.8% compared to 2018). The top ten incoming markets in 2019 were Germany, Austria, the United States, Italy, United Kingdom, Spain, China, France, Russia and Switzerland.[104] In 2019 the International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA) ranked Vienna 6th in the world for association meetings.[105] The Union of International Associations (UIA) ranked Vienna 5th in the world for 2019 with 306 international meetings, behind Singapore, Brussels, Seoul and Paris.[106] The city's largest conference center, the Austria Center Vienna (ACV) has a total capacity for around 22,800 people and is situated next to the United Nations Headquarters in Vienna.[107] Other centers are the Messe Wien Exhibition & Congress Center (up to 3,000 people) and the Hofburg Palace (up to 4,900 people). Rankings[edit] Regarding quality of living, Vienna leads the 2019 Quality of Living Ranking by the international Mercer Consulting Group for the tenth consecutive year.[108] In the 2015 liveability report by the Economist Intelligence Unit as well as in the Quality of Life Survey 2015 of London-based Monocle magazine Vienna was equally ranked second most livable city worldwide.[109][110] The United Nations Human Settlements Programme UN-Habitat has ranked Vienna the most prosperous city in the world in its flagship report State of the World Cities 2012/2013.[111] According to the 2014 City RepTrack ranking by the Reputation Institute, Vienna has the best reputation in comparison with 100 major global cities.[112] The Innovation Cities Global Index 2014 by the Australian innovation agency 2thinknow ranks Vienna sixth behind San Francisco-San Jose, New York City, London, Boston and Paris.[113] In 2019 PeoplePerHour put Vienna at the top of their Startup Cities Ranking.[114] US climate strategist Boyd Cohen placed Vienna first in his first global smart cities ranking of 2012. In the 2014 ranking, Vienna reached third place among European cities behind Copenhagen and Amsterdam.[115] The Mori Memorial Institute for Urban Strategies ranked Vienna in the top ten of their Global Power City Index 2016.[116] Urban development[edit] “HoHo Wien” in January 2020 Central Railway Station[edit] Vienna's new Central Railway Station was opened in October 2014.[117] Construction began in June 2007 and was due to last until December 2015. The station is served by 1,100 trains with 145,000 passengers. There is a shopping center with approximately 90 shops and restaurants. In the vicinity of the station a new district is emerging with 550,000 m2 (5,920,000 sq ft) office space and 5,000 apartments until 2020.[118][119][120] Aspern[edit] Seestadt Aspern is one of the largest urban expansion projects of Europe. A 5 hectare artificial lake, offices, apartments and a tube station within walking distance are supposed to attract 20,000 new citizens when construction is completed in 2028.[121][122] In addition, the highest wooden skyscraper of the world called “HoHo Wien” will be built within 3 years, starting in 2015.[123] Smart City[edit] In 2014, the Vienna City Council adopted the Smart City Wien Framework Strategy 2050. It is a long-term umbrella strategy that is supposed to establish a conducive, long-term and structural framework in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from 3.1 tonnes per capita to 1 tonne per capita by 2050, have 50% of Vienna's gross energy consumption originate from renewable sources and to reduce motorized individual traffic from the current 28% to 15% by 2030. A stated goal is that, by 2050, all vehicles within the municipal boundaries will run without conventional propulsion technologies. Additionally, Vienna aims to be one of the five biggest European research and innovation hubs in 2050.[124] Culture[edit] Music, theater and opera[edit] See also: Music of Vienna and Music of Austria Monument of Johann Strauss II at Stadtpark, Vienna Famous composers including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler, Robert Stolz, and Arnold Schoenberg have worked there. Art and culture had a long tradition in Vienna, including theater, opera, classical music and fine arts. The Burgtheater is considered one of the best theaters in the German-speaking world alongside its branch, the Akademietheater. The Volkstheater Wien and the Theater in der Josefstadt also enjoy good reputations. There is also a multitude of smaller theaters, in many cases devoted to less mainstream forms of the performing arts, such as modern, experimental plays or cabaret. State Opera (Staatsoper) Vienna is also home to a number of opera houses, including the Theater an der Wien, the Staatsoper and the Volksoper, the latter being devoted to the typical Viennese operetta. Classical concerts are performed at venues such as the Wiener Musikverein, home of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra known across the world for the annual widely broadcast "New Year's Day Concert", as well as the Wiener Konzerthaus, home of the internationally renowned Vienna Symphony. Many concert venues offer concerts aimed at tourists, featuring popular highlights of Viennese music, particularly the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Strauss I, and Johann Strauss II. Hofburg Palace Musikverein Vienna Up until 2005, the Theater an der Wien has hosted premieres of musicals, although with the year of the Mozart celebrations 2006 it has devoted itself to the opera again and has since become a stagione opera house offering one new production each month, thus quickly becoming one of Europe's most interesting and advanced opera houses. Since 2012 Theater an der Wien has taken over the Wiener Kammeroper, a historical small theater in the first district of Vienna seating 300 spectators, turning it into its second venue for smaller sized productions and chamber operas created by the young ensemble of Theater an der Wien (JET). Before 2005 the most successful musical was Elisabeth, which was later translated into several languages and performed all over the world. The Wiener Taschenoper is dedicated to stage music of the 20th and 21st century. The Haus der Musik ("house of music") opened in the year 2000. The Wienerlied is a unique song genre from Vienna. There are approximately 60,000 – 70,000 Wienerlieder.[125] In 1981 the popular British new romantic group Ultravox paid a tribute to Vienna on an album and an artful music video recording called Vienna. The inspiration for this work arose from the cinema production called The Third Man with the title Zither music of Anton Karas. The Vienna's English Theatre (VET) is an English theater in Vienna. It was founded in 1963 and is located in the 8th Vienna's district. It is the oldest English-language theater in continental Europe. In May 2015, Vienna hosted the Eurovision Song Contest following Austria's victory in the 2014 contest. Actors from Vienna[edit] Notable entertainers born in Vienna include Hedy Lamarr, Christoph Waltz, John Banner, Christiane Hörbiger, Eric Pohlmann, Boris Kodjoe, Christine Buchegger, Mischa Hausserman, Senta Berger and Christine Ostermayer. Musicians from Vienna[edit] Notable musicians born in Vienna include Louie Austen, Alban Berg, Falco, Fritz Kreisler, Joseph Lanner, Arnold Schönberg, Franz Schubert, Johann Strauss I, Johann Strauss II, Anton Webern, and Joe Zawinul. Statue of Mozart during spring in Vienna Famous musicians who came here to work from other parts of Austria and Germany were Johann Joseph Fux, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Ferdinand Ries, Johann Sedlatzek, Antonio Salieri, Carl Czerny, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Franz Liszt, Franz von Suppé, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler and Rainhard Fendrich. [126] Notable Jewish cultural figures from Vienna[edit] Among the most notable Viennese Jews, some of whom left Austria before and during Nazi persecution, are the following figures: Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler (who eventually converted to Christianity), Rudolf Dreikurs, Viktor Frankl, Fritz Lang, Peter Lorre, Fred Zinnemann (both of whose parents were murdered in the Holocaust), Stefan Zweig, Simon Wiesenthal, Theodor Herzl, Judah Alkalai, Erich von Stroheim, Hedy Lamarr, Billy Wilder, Franz Werfel, Arnold Schoenberg, Walter Arlen and Fritz Kreisler. Notable writers from Vienna[edit] Notable writers from Vienna include Karl Leopold von Möller, Carl Julius Haidvogel, and Stefan Zweig. Writers who lived and worked in Vienna include Franz Kafka, Arthur Schnitzler, Elias Canetti, Ingeborg Bachmann, Robert Musil, Karl Kraus, Ernst von Feuchtersleben, Thomas Bernhard and Elfriede Jelinek. Notable politicians from Vienna[edit] Notable politicians from Vienna include Karl Leopold von Möller. Museums[edit] See also: List of museums in Vienna Courtyard of the Museumsquartier with Enzi seating furniture The Hofburg is the location of the Imperial Treasury (Schatzkammer), holding the imperial jewels of the Habsburg dynasty. The Sisi Museum (a museum devoted to Empress Elisabeth of Austria) allows visitors to view the imperial apartments as well as the silver cabinet. Directly opposite the Hofburg are the Kunsthistorisches Museum, which houses many paintings by old masters, ancient and classical artifacts, and the Naturhistorisches Museum. Liechtenstein Museum A number of museums are located in the Museumsquartier (museum quarter), the former Imperial Stalls which were converted into a museum complex in the 1990s. It houses the Museum of Modern Art, commonly known as the MUMOK (Ludwig Foundation), the Leopold Museum (featuring the largest collection of paintings in the world by Egon Schiele, as well as works by the Vienna Secession, Viennese Modernism and Austrian Expressionism), the AzW (museum of architecture), additional halls with feature exhibitions, and the Tanzquartier. The Liechtenstein Palace contains much of one of the world's largest private art collections, especially strong in the Baroque. The Belvedere, built under Prince Eugene, has a gallery containing paintings by Gustav Klimt (The Kiss), Egon Schiele, and other painters of the early 20th century, also sculptures by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, and changing exhibitions too. There are a multitude of other museums in Vienna, including the Albertina, the Military History Museum, the Technical Museum, the Burial Museum, the Museum of Art Fakes, the KunstHausWien, Museum of Applied Arts, the Sigmund Freud Museum, and the Mozarthaus Vienna. The museums on the history of the city, including the former Historical Museum of the City of Vienna on Karlsplatz, the Hermesvilla, the residences and birthplaces of various composers, the Museum of the Romans, and the Vienna Clock Museum, are now gathered together under the group umbrella Vienna Museum. The Jewish Museum Vienna, founded 1896, is the oldest of its kind. In addition there are museums dedicated to Vienna's individual districts. They provide a record of individual struggles, achievements and tragedy as the city grew and survived two world wars. For readers seeking family histories these are good sources of information. Architecture[edit] See also: Category:Buildings and structures in Austria Hotel Sacher A variety of architectural styles can be found in Vienna, such as the Romanesque Ruprechtskirche and the Baroque Karlskirche. Styles range from classicist buildings to modern architecture. Art Nouveau left many architectural traces in Vienna. The Secession building, Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, and the Kirche am Steinhof by Otto Wagner rank among the best known examples of Art Nouveau in the world. Wagner's prominent student Jože Plečnik from Slovenia also left important traces in Vienna. His works include the Langer House (1900) and the Zacherlhaus (1903–1905). Plečnik's 1910–1913 Church of the Holy Spirit (Heilig-Geist-Kirche [de]) in Vienna is remarkable for its innovative use of poured-in-place concrete as both structure and exterior surface, and also for its abstracted classical form language. Most radical is the church's crypt, with its slender concrete columns and angular, cubist capitals and bases. Concurrent to the Art Nouveau movement was the Wiener Moderne, during which some architects shunned the use of extraneous adornment. A key architect of this period was Adolf Loos, whose works include the Looshaus (1909), the Kärntner Bar or American Bar (1908) and the Steiner House (1910). The Hundertwasserhaus by Friedensreich Hundertwasser, designed to counter the clinical look of modern architecture, is one of Vienna's most popular tourist attractions. Another example of unique architecture is the Wotrubakirche by sculptor Fritz Wotruba. In the 1990s, a number of quarters were adapted and extensive building projects were implemented in the areas around Donaustadt (north of the Danube) and Wienerberg (in southern Vienna). View of the city from Stephansdom The 220-meter high DC Tower 1 located on the Northern bank of the Danube, completed in 2013, is the tallest skyscraper in Vienna.[127][128] In recent years, Vienna has seen numerous architecture projects completed which combine modern architectural elements with old buildings, such as the remodeling and revitalization of the old Gasometer in 2001. Most buildings in Vienna are relatively low; in early 2006 there were around 100 buildings higher than 40 metres (130 feet). The number of high-rise buildings is kept low by building legislation aimed at preserving green areas and districts designated as world cultural heritage. Strong rules apply to the planning, authorization and construction of high-rise buildings. Consequently, much of the inner city is a high-rise free zone. Vienna balls[edit] Vienna is the last great capital of the 19th-century ball. There are over 450 balls per year, some featuring as many as nine live orchestras.[129] Balls are held in the many palaces in Vienna, with the principal venue being the Hofburg Palace in Heldenplatz. While the Opera Ball is the best known internationally of all the Austrian balls, other balls such as the Kaffeesiederball (Cafe Owners Ball), the Jägerball (Hunter's Ball) and the Life Ball (AIDS charity event) are almost as well known within Austria and even better appreciated for their cordial atmosphere. Viennese of at least middle class may visit a number of balls in their lifetime.[clarification needed] Dancers and opera singers from the Vienna State Opera often perform at the openings of the larger balls. A Vienna ball is an all-night cultural attraction. Major Vienna balls generally begin at 9 pm and last until 5 am, although many guests carry on the celebrations into the next day. The Viennese balls are being exported with the support of the City of Vienna in around 30 cities worldwide such as New York, Barcelona, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Rome, Prague, Bucharest, Berlin and Moscow.[129][130][131] Language[edit] Vienna is part of the Austro-Bavarian language area, in particular Central Bavarian (Mittelbairisch).[132] In recent years, linguistics experts have seen a decline in the use of the Viennese variant.[133][134] Manfred Glauninger, sociolinguist at the Institute for Austrian Dialect and Name Lexica, has observed three issues. First, many parents feel there's a stigma attached to the Viennese dialect so they speak Standard German to their children. Second, many children have recently immigrated to Austria and are learning German as a second language in school. Third, young people are influenced by mass media which is most always delivered in Standard German.[135] Education[edit] Vienna is Austria's main center of education and home to many universities, professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools). Statue of Friedrich Schiller in front of the Academy of Fine Arts The Vienna University of Economics and Business The University of Vienna's main building TU Wien Universities[edit] Academy of Fine Arts Vienna Central European University Diplomatic Academy of Vienna Medical University of Vienna PEF Private University of Management Vienna University of Applied Arts Vienna University of Applied Sciences Campus Vienna University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna University of Vienna Vienna University of Economics and Business University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien TU Wien Webster University Vienna Sigmund Freud University Vienna International Anti-Corruption Academy (in Laxenburg, 24 km (15 mi) south of Vienna) International schools[edit] Danube International School International University Vienna SAE Vienna Lauder Business School Lycée Français de Vienne Vienna Christian School Vienna International School American International School Japanische Schule in Wien (Japanese school) Amadeus International School Leisure activities[edit] Parks and gardens[edit] The Schönbrunn gardens in autumn Vienna possesses many parks, including the Stadtpark, the Burggarten, the Volksgarten (part of the Hofburg), the Schlosspark at Schloss Belvedere (home to the Vienna Botanic Gardens), the Donaupark, the Schönbrunner Schlosspark, the Prater, the Augarten, the Rathauspark, the Lainzer Tiergarten, the Dehnepark, the Resselpark, the Votivpark, the Kurpark Oberlaa, the Auer-Welsbach-Park and the Türkenschanzpark. Green areas include Laaer-Berg (including the Bohemian Prater) and the foothills of the Wienerwald, which reaches into the outer areas of the city. Small parks, known by the Viennese as Beserlparks, are everywhere in the inner city areas. Many of Vienna's parks include monuments, such as the Stadtpark with its statue of Johann Strauss II, and the gardens of the baroque palace, where the State Treaty was signed. Vienna's principal park is the Prater which is home to the Riesenrad, a Ferris wheel, and Kugelmugel, a micronation the shape of a sphere. The imperial Schönbrunn's grounds contain an 18th-century park which includes the world's oldest zoo, founded in 1752. The Donauinsel, part of Vienna's flood defenses, is a 21.1 km (13.1 mi) long artificial island between the Danube and Neue Donau dedicated to leisure activities. Sport[edit] Ernst-Happel-Stadion in the Prater Austria's capital is home to numerous football teams. The best known are the local football clubs include FK Austria Wien (21 Austrian Bundesliga titles and record 27-time cup winners), SK Rapid Wien (record 32 Austrian Bundesliga titles), and the oldest team, First Vienna FC. Other important sports clubs include the Raiffeisen Vikings Vienna (American Football), who won the Eurobowl title between 2004 and 2007 4 times in a row and had a perfect season in 2013, the Aon hotVolleys Vienna, one of Europe's premier Volleyball organizations, the Vienna Wanderers (baseball) who won the 2012 and 2013 Championship of the Austrian Baseball League, and the Vienna Capitals (Ice Hockey). Vienna was also where the European Handball Federation (EHF) was founded. There are also three rugby clubs; Vienna Celtic, the oldest rugby club in Austria, RC Donau, and Stade Viennois Vienna hosts many different sporting events including the Vienna City Marathon, which attracts more than 10,000 participants every year and normally takes place in May. In 2005 the Ice Hockey World Championships took place in Austria and the final was played in Vienna. Vienna's Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue of four Champions League and European Champion Clubs' Cup finals (1964, 1987, 1990 and 1995) and on 29 June it hosted the final of Euro 2008 which saw a Spanish 1–0 victory over Germany. Tennis tournament Vienna Open also takes place in the city since 1974. The matches are played in the Wiener Stadthalle. The Neue Donau, which was formed after the Donauinsel was created, is free of river traffic and has been referred to as an "autobahn for swimmers" due to its use by the public for commuting.[136] Vienna will host the official 2021 3x3 Basketball World Cup.[137] Culinary specialities[edit] Food[edit] See also: Austrian cuisine Sachertorte Vienna is well known for Wiener Schnitzel, a cutlet of veal (Kalbsschnitzel) or pork (Schweinsschnitzel) that is pounded flat, coated in flour, egg and breadcrumbs, and fried in clarified butter. It is available in almost every restaurant that serves Viennese cuisine and can be eaten hot or cold. The traditional 'Wiener Schnitzel' though is a cutlet of veal. Other examples of Viennese cuisine include Tafelspitz (very lean boiled beef), which is traditionally served with Geröstete Erdäpfel (boiled potatoes mashed with a fork and subsequently fried) and horseradish sauce, Apfelkren (a mixture of horseradish, cream and apple) and Schnittlauchsauce (a chives sauce made with mayonnaise and stale bread). Wiener Schnitzel Vienna has a long tradition of producing cakes and desserts. These include Apfelstrudel (hot apple strudel), Milchrahmstrudel (milk-cream strudel), Palatschinken (sweet pancakes), and Knödel (dumplings) often filled with fruit such as apricots (Marillenknödel). Sachertorte, a delicately moist chocolate cake with apricot jam created by the Sacher Hotel, is world-famous. In winter, small street stands sell traditional Maroni (hot chestnuts) and potato fritters. Sausages are popular and available from street vendors (Würstelstand) throughout the day and into the night. The sausage known as Wiener (German for Viennese) in the U.S. and in Germany, is called a Frankfurter in Vienna. Other popular sausages are Burenwurst (a coarse beef and pork sausage, generally boiled), Käsekrainer (spicy pork with small chunks of cheese), and Bratwurst (a white pork sausage). Most can be ordered "mit Brot" (with bread) or as a "hot dog" (stuffed inside a long roll). Mustard is the traditional condiment and usually offered in two varieties: "süß" (sweet) or "scharf" (spicy). Kebab, pizza and noodles are, increasingly, the snack foods most widely available from small stands. The Naschmarkt is a permanent market for fruit, vegetables, spices, fish, meat, etc., from around the world. The city has many coffee and breakfast stores. Drinks[edit] A typical Heurigen-Restaurant in Grinzing Vienna, along with Paris, Santiago, Cape Town, Prague, Canberra, Bratislava and Warsaw, is one of the few remaining world capital cities with its own vineyards.[138] The wine is served in small Viennese pubs known as Heuriger, which are especially numerous in the wine growing areas of Döbling (Grinzing, Neustift am Walde, Nußdorf, Salmannsdorf, Sievering), Floridsdorf (Stammersdorf, Strebersdorf), Liesing (Mauer) and Favoriten (Oberlaa). The wine is often drunk as a Spritzer ("G'spritzter") with sparkling water. The Grüner Veltliner, a dry white wine, is the most widely cultivated wine in Austria.[139] Another wine very typical for the region is "Gemischter Satz", which is typically a blend of different types of wines harvested from the same vineyard.[140] Beer is next in importance to wine. Vienna has a single large brewery, Ottakringer, and more than ten microbreweries. A "Beisl" is a typical small Austrian pub, of which Vienna has many. Also, local soft drinks such as Almdudler are popular around the country as an alternative to alcoholic beverages, placing it on the top spots along American counterparts such as Coca-Cola in terms of market share. Another popular drink is the so-called "Spezi", a mix between Coca-Cola and the original formula of Orange Fanta or the more locally renowned Frucade. Viennese cafés[edit] Demel Café Viennese cafés have an extremely long and distinguished history that dates back centuries, and the caffeine addictions of some famous historical patrons of the oldest are something of a local legend.[citation needed] These coffee houses are unique to Vienna and many cities have unsuccessfully sought to copy them. Some people consider cafés as their extended living room where nobody will be bothered if they spend hours reading a newspaper while enjoying their coffee. Traditionally, the coffee comes with a glass of water. Viennese cafés claim to have invented the process of filtering coffee from booty captured after the second Turkish siege in 1683. Viennese cafés claim that when the invading Turks left Vienna, they abandoned hundreds of sacks of coffee beans. The Polish King John III Sobieski, the commander of the anti-Turkish coalition of Poles, Germans, and Austrians, gave Franz George Kolschitzky (Polish – Franciszek Jerzy Kulczycki) some of this coffee as a reward for providing information that allowed him to defeat the Turks. Kolschitzky then opened Vienna's first coffee shop. Julius Meinl set up a modern roasting plant in the same premises where the coffee sacks were found, in 1891. Tourist attractions[edit] Further information: Tourist attractions in Vienna Major tourist attractions include the imperial palaces of the Hofburg and Schönbrunn (also home to the world's oldest zoo, Tiergarten Schönbrunn) and the Riesenrad in the Prater. Cultural highlights include the Burgtheater, the Wiener Staatsoper, the Lipizzaner horses at the spanische Hofreitschule, and the Vienna Boys' Choir, as well as excursions to Vienna's Heurigen district Döbling. Schönbrunn Palace Gloriette at the Schönbrunn Palace There are also more than 100 art museums, which together attract over eight million visitors per year.[141] The most popular ones are Albertina, Belvedere, Leopold Museum in the Museumsquartier, KunstHausWien, Bank Austria Kunstforum, the twin Kunsthistorisches Museum and Naturhistorisches Museum, and the Technisches Museum Wien, each of which receives over a quarter of a million visitors per year.[142] There are many popular sites associated with composers who lived in Vienna including Beethoven's various residences and grave at Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery) which is the largest cemetery in Vienna and the burial site of many famous people. Mozart has a memorial grave at the Habsburg gardens and at St. Marx cemetery (where his grave was lost). Vienna's many churches also draw large crowds, famous of which are St. Stephen's Cathedral, the Deutschordenskirche, the Jesuitenkirche, the Karlskirche, the Peterskirche, Maria am Gestade, the Minoritenkirche, the Ruprechtskirche, the Schottenkirche, St. Ulrich and the Votivkirche. Modern attractions include the Hundertwasserhaus, the United Nations headquarters and the view from the Donauturm. Albertina Austrian Parliament Building Belvedere Palace Burgtheater Graben Hundertwasserhaus Karlskirche at dusk Kunsthistorisches Museum Naturhistorisches Museum Palais Augarten Rathaus Schönbrunn Zoo Spanish Riding School Stephansplatz St. Stephen's Cathedral Prince Eugene Monument View of Hofburg Vienna Secession building Vienna State Opera Wiener Riesenrad Transportation[edit] Main article: Transportation in Vienna Stephansplatz metro station Vienna Airport terminal 3 arrivals lounge Vienna has an extensive transportation network with a unified fare system that integrates municipal, regional and railway systems under the umbrella of the Verkehrsverbund Ost-Region (VOR). Public transport is provided by buses, trams and five underground metro lines (U-Bahn), most operated by the Wiener Linien. There are also more than 50 S-train stations within the city limits. Suburban trains are operated by the ÖBB. The city forms the hub of the Austrian railway system, with services to all parts of the country and abroad. The railway system connects Vienna's main station Vienna Hauptbahnhof with other European cities, like Berlin, Bratislava, Budapest, Brussels, Cologne, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Ljubljana, Munich, Prague, Venice, Wrocław, Warsaw, Zagreb and Zürich. Vienna has multiple road connections including expressways and motorways. Vienna is served by Vienna International Airport, located 18 km (11 mi) southeast of the city center next to the town of Schwechat. The airport handled approximately 31.7 million passengers in 2019.[143] Following lengthy negotiations with surrounding communities, the airport will be expanded to increase its capacity by adding a third runway. The airport is undergoing a major expansion, including a new terminal building that opened in 2012 to prepare for an increase in passengers. Viennese[edit] Main article: List of people from Vienna International relations[edit] International organizations in Vienna[edit] UN complex in Vienna, with the Austria Center Vienna in front, taken from the Danube Tower in the nearby Donaupark before the extensive building work Many international organizations and offices are located in Donaustadt. Vienna is the seat of a number of United Nations offices and various international institutions and companies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA). Vienna is the world's third "UN city", next to New York, Geneva, and Nairobi. Additionally, Vienna is the seat of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law's secretariat (UNCITRAL). In conjunction, the University of Vienna annually hosts the prestigious Willem C. Vis Moot, an international commercial arbitration competition for students of law from around the world. Diplomatic meetings have been held in Vienna in the latter half of the 20th century, resulting in documents bearing the name Vienna Convention or Vienna Document. Among the more important documents negotiated in Vienna are the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, as well as the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. Vienna also hosted the negotiations leading to the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action on Iran's nuclear program as well as the Vienna peace talks for Syria. Vienna also headquartered the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF). Charitable organizations in Vienna[edit] Alongside international and intergovernmental organizations, there are dozens of charitable organizations based in Vienna. One such organization is the network of SOS Children's Villages, founded by Hermann Gmeiner in 1949. Today, SOS Children's Villages are active in 132 countries and territories worldwide. Others include HASCO. Another popular international event is the annual Life Ball, which supports people with HIV or AIDS. Guests such as Bill Clinton and Whoopi Goldberg were recent attendees. International city cooperations[edit] The general policy of the City of Vienna is not to sign any twin or sister city agreements with other cities. Instead Vienna has only cooperation agreements in which specific cooperation areas are defined.[144] Athens, Greece Belgrade, Serbia Bratislava, Slovakia Brno, Czech Republic Budapest, Hungary Chengdu, China Hamburg, Germany Kraków, Poland Ljubljana, Slovenia Paris, France Tehran, Iran Trieste, Italy Vancouver, Canada Zurich, Switzerland District to district partnerships[edit] In addition, individual Viennese districts have international partnerships all over the world. A detailed list is published on the website of the City of Vienna.[145] See also[edit] Donauinselfest List of honorary citizens of Vienna List of restaurants in Vienna List of Viennese List of World Heritage Sites in Austria OPENCities Outline of Vienna Soviet War Memorial (Vienna) Vienna Biennale Vienna Porcelain Manufactory Viennese German References[edit] ^ "Dauersiedlungsraum der Gemeinden, Politischen Bezirke und Bundesländer, Gebietsstand 1.1.2019". Retrieved 9 November 2019. ^ a b c STATISTIK AUSTRIA. "Bevölkerung zu Jahres-/Quartalsanfang". statistik.at. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ a b "Vienna in figures 2012, Vienna City Administration Municipal Department 23 Economic history, Labour and Statistics Responsible for the contents: Gustav Lebhart, page 6" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2012. ^ "Postlexikon". Post AG. 2018. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. 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Wien.info. ^ "Vienna in figures: Special Issue for the EU Presidency 2006" (PDF). City of Vienna. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2011. ^ "Top 30 Sights, Museums, Exhibition Halls 2005" (xls). Vienna Tourist Board. ^ "FWAG (group) facts & figures". Retrieved 15 February 2020. ^ "City-to-city cooperation". City of Vienna. Retrieved 28 August 2020. ^ "City-to-city cooperation". City of Vienna. Retrieved 28 August 2020. Further reading[edit] Pippal, M.: A Short History of Art in Vienna, Munich: C.H. Beck 2000, ISBN 978-3-406-46789-9, provides a concise overview. Dassanowsky, Robert ed.: "World Film Locations: Vienna", London: Intellect/Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84150-569-5. International films about Vienna or Austria shot on location throughout cinema history. External links[edit] Viennaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Official websites[edit] Wien.gv.at – Official site of the municipality, with interactive map. Wien.info – Official site of the tourism board: events, sightseeing, cultural information, etc. List of Embassies in Vienna Information about Vienna and Centrope countries Geschichtewiki.wien.gv.at – Vienna History Wiki operated by the city of Vienna History of Vienna[edit] Hundreds of articles on historical buildings of Vienna: Churches, Palaces, Art, Culture and History of Vienna German flaktowers in Vienna History of the Coat of Arms of Vienna and all (former) districts and municipalities Further information on Vienna[edit] Vienna Information Sorted by categories. Choose from 5 Languages Vienna insider travel guide Events in Vienna Events and useful information from Vienna WhenWhereWh.at English Guide to Events and Contemporary Culture in Vienna Preceded by Stuttgart, West Germany (1961) World Gymnaestrada host city 1965 Succeeded by Basle, Switzerland (1969) Articles related to Vienna Vienna in Austria v t e Principal cities of Austria Bregenz Feldkirch Graz Innsbruck Klagenfurt Leoben Lienz Linz Salzburg Sankt Pölten Steyr Vienna Villach Wels Wiener Neustadt v t e States of Austria  Burgenland  Carinthia  Lower Austria  Salzburg  Styria  Tyrol  Upper Austria  Vienna  Vorarlberg v t e Administrative seats of Austrian states Bregenz Eisenstadt Graz Innsbruck Klagenfurt Linz Salzburg Sankt Pölten Vienna v t e World Heritage Sites in Austria Historic Centre of the City of Salzburg Palace and Gardens of Schönbrunn Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape Semmering Railway City of Graz – Historic Centre and Schloss Eggenberg Wachau Cultural Landscape Fertő / Neusiedlersee Cultural Landscape1 Historic Centre of Vienna Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps2 Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe3 1 with Hungary 2 with France, Germany, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland 3 with Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Ukraine Vienna in the European Union v t e Capitals of European states and territories Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics. 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en-wikipedia-org-4127	----	Theodosius III - Wikipedia Theodosius III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 715 to 717 For the 10th-century Abkhazian ruler, see Theodosius III of Abkhazia. For the Pope of Alexandria, see Pope Theodosius III of Alexandria. Emperor of the Romans Theodosius III Emperor of the Romans Solidus of Theodosius III. The inscription reads dn teodosius mul a. Byzantine emperor Reign c. May 715 – 25 March 717 Predecessor Anastasios II Successor Leo III Died After 717 Ephesus Issue Theodosius Twenty Years' Anarchy Chronology Leontios 695–698 Tiberius III 698–705 Justinian II 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Philippikos Bardanes 711–713 Anastasios II 713–715 Theodosios III 715–717 Succession Preceded by Heraclian dynasty Followed by Isaurian dynasty v t e Theodosius III or Theodosios III (Greek: Θεοδόσιος Γ΄) was Byzantine emperor from c. May 715 to 25 March 717. Before rising to power and seizing the throne of the Byzantine Empire, he was a tax collector in Adramyttium. In 715, the Byzantine Navy and the troops of the Opsician Theme revolted against Byzantine Emperor Anastasios II (r. 713–715), acclaiming the reluctant Theodosius as Emperor Theodosius III. Theodosius led his troops to Chrysopolis and then Constantinople, seizing the city in November 715, although Anastasios would not surrender until several months later, accepting exile into the monastery in return for safety. Many themes refused to recognize the legitimacy of Theodosius, believing him to be a puppet of the Opsicians, especially the Anatolics and the Armeniacs under their respective strategoi (generals) Leo the Isaurian and Artabasdos. Leo declared himself emperor in the summer of 716 and allied himself with the Umayyad Caliphate; Theodosius allied himself with the Bulgarians under Khan Tervel, setting a firm border at Thrace, ceding the Zagoria region to the Bulgarians, as well as stipulating tribute payment to the Bulgarians. Leo then marched his troops to Constantinople, seizing the city of Nicomedia, capturing many officials, including Theodosius' son. With his son in captivity, Theodosius took the advice of Patriarch Germanus and the Byzantine Senate, and negotiated with Leo in spring 717, agreeing to abdicate and recognize Leo as emperor. Leo entered Constantinople and definitively seized power on 25 March 717, allowing Theodosius and his son to retire to a monastery as monks. Theodosius became bishop of Ephesus, and died at some point after. Contents 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 Rise to the throne 1.3 Reign 1.4 Identity 2 References 2.1 Notes 2.2 Citations 2.3 Sources History[edit] Background[edit] After the Umayyad Caliphate was repelled in the first Arab siege of Constantinople (674–678), the Arabs and Byzantines experienced a period of peace,[1] with hostilities again engaged by Byzantine Emperor Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711), resulting in a string of Arab victories, and the loss of control over the Armenia and the Caucasian principalities for the Byzantines, as well as a gradual encroachment upon Byzantine borderlands. Yearly, generals from the Caliphate would launch raids into Byzantine territory, seizing fortresses and towns.[2][3][4] After 712, the defensives of the Byzantine Empire began to weaken, Arab raids began to penetrate deeper into Byzantine Asia Minor, and Byzantine response to these raids became more scarce.[5][6] The success of these raids emboldened the Arabs, who had begun to prepare for a second assault as early as the reign of Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715); following his death, his successor, Sulayman (r. 715–717) continued planning the campaign,[7][8][9][10][11] Sulayman began assembling his forces in the plain of Dabiq, north of Aleppo, entrusting the command of these forces to his brother Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik.[12] Simultaneous to the threat of the Arabs, the Slavs and Bulgarians were a growing threat to the northern frontier of the Byzantine Empire, threatening Byzantine control in the Balkans and Greece.[13] During the rule of Byzantine Emperor Philippikos Bardanes (r. 711–713), in 712, the Bulgarians under Khan Tervel advanced as far as the walls of Constantinople itself, plundering the surrounding country, including the villas and estates near the capital, where the Byzantine elites often summered.[14] Rise to the throne[edit] Sulayman's preparations, including his construction of a war fleet, were quickly noticed by the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Anastasios II (r. 713–715) began making preparations to defend against this new onslaught, including sending the patrician and urban prefect, Daniel of Sinope to spy on the Arabs, under the pretense of a diplomatic embassy, as well as shoring up the defences of Constantinople,[15][16][17] and strengthening the Byzantine Navy. Theophanes states (A.M. 6206) that in early 715 Anastasius had commanded the elements of the navy to gather at Rhodes to then advance to Phoenix—usually identified with modern Finike in Lycia, it may also be modern Fenaket across Rhodes,[18] or perhaps Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), famed for its cedar forests.[5][19][20][11][21] It was there that the Opsikians mutinied against their commander, John the Deacon, killing him before sailing for Adramyttium, and there declared Theodosius, a tax collector, as Emperor Theodosius III.[5][19][20][11] Following this, according to Theophanes (A.M. 6207):[22] When the malefactors arrived at Adramyttium, being leaderless they found there a local man named Theodosius, a receiver of public revenues, non-political and a private citizen. They urged him to become Emperor. He, however, fled to the hills and hid. But they found him and forced him to accept acclamation as Emperor.[22] He was therefore acclaimed, allegedly unwillingly, as Emperor Theodosius III by the troops at Adramyttium in c. May 715.[23][22] Anastasios led his armies into Bithynia in the Opsician Theme to crush the rebellion, however, rather than remaining to fight Anastasios, Theodosius instead led his fleet to Chrysopolis, across the Bosporus from Constantinople. From Chrysopolis, he launched a six-month-long siege against Constantinople, before supporters within the city managed to open the gates for him, allowing him to seize the city in November 715.[23][24][25][26] Anastasios remained at Nicaea for several months, before finally agreeing to abdicate and retire to a monastery.[23][24][25][26] Reign[edit] One of Theodosius' first acts as emperor was to reinstate the image of the Sixth Ecumenical Synod, which Emperor Philippicus Bardanes had removed, earning himself the epithet of "orthodox" in the Liber Pontificalis for this action.[23][a] The accession of Theodosius, which Byzantine sources convey as being both unwilling and incapable, viewed as a puppet emperor of the Opsicians, was not recognized as legitimate by many other themes, especially the Anatolics and the Armeniacs under their respective strategoi (generals) Leo the Isaurian and Artabasdos.[27][28] Leo proclaimed himself Byzantine emperor in the summer of 716,[28][29][30] and sought the support of the Arabs, who viewed the Byzantine disunity as advantageous, and thought the confusion and weakening of the Byzantine Empire would make it easier to take Constantinople.[31][32] Theodosius negotiated a treaty with the Bulgarian Khan Tervel, likely in order to secure their support against an imminent Arab attack against the Byzantine Empire. The treaty fixed the border between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarian Empire at Thrace, ceding the Zagoria region to the Bulgarians, as well as stipulating tribute payment to the Bulgarians, the return of fugitives, and some trade agreements.[23] Leo began to march his troops to Constantinople soon after declaring himself emperor, first capturing Nicomedia, where he found and captured, among other officials, Theodosius's son, and then marched to Chrysopolis. After his son was captured, Theodosius, taking the advice of Patriarch Germanus and the Byzantine Senate, negotiated with Leo in spring 717, agreeing to abdicate and recognize Leo as emperor.[23][28][33][34][35] Leo entered Constantinople and definitively seized power on 25 March 717, allowing Theodosius and his son to retire to a monastery as monks.[28][33][34][35] The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite gives a different narrative, stating that:[36] When the Emperor (Theodosius Constantine) saw a host was marching against him and that his military commander, Leo by name, had negotiated with them, his heart quaked and his hands shook. He resigned the empire, put down the crown and shaved his head. For there is a custom among Roman emperors, if one of them resigns the empire, he shaves his head and stays in his house, having from that time on no entourage. This one acted likewise. Even when Leo, the military commander, sent him a message, saying: "Strengthen yourself and fear not!" he was not persuaded and firmly resigned the empire. After his retirement to a monastery, Theodosius became bishop of Ephesus.[23] He died at some point after he abdicated, and either he or his son are buried in the Church of St. Philip in Ephesus.[23] Identity[edit] Graham Sumner, the Byzantine historian, suggests that Theodosius might be the same person as Theodosius, the son of Emperor Tiberius III (r. 692–705). He was bishop of Ephesus by c.729, who held this position until his death, sometime after 24 July 754, and was a leading figure of the iconoclastic Council of Hieria in 754.[37] Byzantine historians Cyril Mango and Roger Scott do not view this theory as likely, as it would mean that Theodosius had to have lived for thirty more years after his abdication.[23] References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Some sources, such as George Ostrogorsky, state that Anastasios II was the first to reinstate the image of the Sixth Ecumenical Synod, citing Agathon the Diacon.[14] Citations[edit] ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 81–82, 97–106. ^ Blankinship 1994, p. 31. ^ Haldon 1990, p. 72. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 107–120. ^ a b c Haldon 1990, p. 80. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 120–122, 139–140. ^ Brooks 1899, pp. 20–21. ^ El-Cheikh 2004, p. 65. ^ Guilland 1955, p. 110. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 122. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 344. ^ Guilland 1955, pp. 110–111. ^ Vasiliev 1980, p. 229. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 136. ^ Mango & Scott 1997, p. 534. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 122–123. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 343–344. ^ Mango & Scott 1997, p. 537 (Note #5). ^ a b Mango & Scott 1997, pp. 535–536. ^ a b Lilie 1976, pp. 123–124. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 123 (Note #62). ^ a b c Sumner 1976, p. 291. ^ a b c d e f g h i Neil 2000. ^ a b Haldon 1990, pp. 80, 82. ^ a b Mango & Scott 1997, p. 536. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, pp. 344–345. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 124. ^ a b c d Treadgold 1997, p. 345. ^ Mango & Scott 1997, pp. 538–539. ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 125–126. ^ Guilland 1955, pp. 118–119. ^ Lilie 1976, p. 125. ^ a b Haldon 1990, pp. 82–83. ^ a b Mango & Scott 1997, pp. 540, 545. ^ a b Lilie 1976, pp. 127–128. ^ Harrack 1999, p. 150. ^ Sumner 1976, pp. 291–294. Sources[edit] Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7. Brooks, E. W. (1899). "The Campaign of 716–718 from Arabic Sources". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. XIX: 19–33. doi:10.2307/623841. JSTOR 623841. El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies. ISBN 0-932885-30-6. Guilland, Rodolphe (1955). "L'Expedition de Maslama contre Constantinople (717-718)". Études byzantines (in French). Paris: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Paris: 109–133. OCLC 603552986. Haldon, John F. (1990). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Revised Edition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31917-1. Harrack, Amir (1999). The Chronicle of Zuqnin, Parts III and IV A.D. 488–775. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN 9780888442864. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (1976). Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München. Mango, Cyril; Scott, Roger (1997). The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822568-7. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A.: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-0599-2. Neil, Bronwen (2000). "Theodosius III (715–717)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 30 November 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Sumner, Grant (1976). "Philippicus, Anastasius II and Theodosius III". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. XVII: 287–294. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Vasiliev, A. A. (1980) [1958]. History of the Byzantine Empire: Vol. 1, 324–1453. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-2998-0925-6. 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en-wikipedia-org-4128	----	De Beneficiis - Wikipedia De Beneficiis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First-century AD essay by Seneca the Younger De Beneficiis From the 1643 edition, published by Francesco Baba Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 59 De Beneficiis (English: On Benefits) is a first-century work by Seneca the Younger. It forms part of a series of moral essays (or "Dialogues") composed by Seneca. De Beneficiis concerns the award and reception of gifts and favours within society, and examines the complex nature and role of gratitude within the context of Stoic ethics. Contents 1 Meaning of title 2 Dating of the writing 3 Influences 4 Contents 5 Themes 6 History of transmission, publications and translations 6.1 Earliest 6.2 Later 7 Later reception 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Translations 9.2 Studies 10 External links Meaning of title[edit] Although the title is typically translated as On Benefits,[1] the word Beneficiis is derived from the Latin word beneficium, meaning a favor, benefit, service, or kindness.[2] Other translations of the title have included: On gifts and services;[3] On the Award and Reception of Favors;[4] On Favours;[5] and On kind deeds.[6] The work is dedicated to Aebutius Liberalis who is also the subject of Letter 91.[7] Dating of the writing[edit] It is considered that the work was very likely written between the years 56 and 62 AD.[8][9] Mario Lentano provides a collation of a number of sources who posit different periods of about these years in Brill's Companion to Seneca.[10] Seneca mentions the completed work in his Letters to Lucilius (81. 3) indicating that it was finished by 64.[11] Nero was emperor during the time of writing.[12] Influences[edit] The Greek language term for giving and receiving is δόσις και λῆ(μ)ψις.[8] The Stoic philosopher Hecato of Rhodes is quoted several times in the treatise and was a likely influence for Seneca.[8][10] Contents[edit] De Beneficiis comprises seven books.[13] The first sentence of the work reads: Among the many and diverse errors of those who live reckless and thoughtless lives, almost nothing that I can mention, excellent Liberalis, is more disgraceful than the fact that we do not know how either to give or to receive benefits.[14] Seneca's aim of the work was, through a discussion of benefits (to regulate a practice):[15] maxime humanam societatem alligat which very much holds human society together[16] — - 1.4.2. The giving of beneficia was for Seneca the most important thing that morally bound humans in society: For it follows that if they are ill placed, they are ill acknowledged, and, when we complain, of their not being returned, it is too late, for they were lost at the time they were given. — 1.1-2 [17] Themes[edit] De Beneficiis concerns the nature of relative benefits to persons fulfilling the role in social exchange of either giver or receiver.[18] This includes benefit-exchange,[19] reciprocity,[20] and giving and receiving,[8] within society. The subject of the work might be thought of as social ethics, and specifically Stoic ethics.[21] De Beneficiis deals with ethics with regards to political leadership.[22] As such, the work is concerned with the lives of Roman aristocrats, and the nature of their relationships. This is of the form of and etiquette of bond-formation between persons by the giving and exchanging of gifts or services (favors), and is prescriptive [23] of the way in which the aristocrats might behave, for the good of ancient Roman society.[24][25] Amicitia is the Latin term for friendship in the context of Ancient Roman culture. It represents an ideal. Relationships of this kind would be between elite males of fairly equal social standing.[26] History of transmission, publications and translations[edit] Earliest[edit] The oldest extant copy of the work is of the late 8th to early 9th century.[27][28] After its founding, the monastery of Lorsch acquired the archetype of the work during sometime circa 850,[29] this had been written somewhere in Italy (probably within the area of Milan[30]) about 800, part of a text known as the codex Nazarianus,[31][32] (currently in the Palatine collection of the Vatican library [33]), and after numerous copies were made via monasteries in the Loire.[21][34] The work was subsequently disseminated throughout Western Europe.[35] Later[edit] Three English translations were made during the sixteenth and early seventeenth century.[36] The first translation into English was made in 1569 by Nicolas Haward, of books one to three,[37] while the first full translation into English was made in 1578 by Arthur Golding, and the second in 1614 by Thomas Lodge.[38] Roger L'Estrange made a paraphrased work in 1678,[39][40] he had been making efforts on Seneca's works since at least 1639.[41] A partial Latin publication of books 1 to 3, being edited by M. Charpentier – F. Lemaistre, was made circa 1860, books 1 to 3 were translated into French by de Wailly, and a translation into English was made by J. W. Basore circa 1928-1935.[42] Nicholas Haward chose the title The line of liberalitie: duly directing the well bestowing of benefits and reprehending the common vice of ingratitude.[43][44] Arthur Golding called the work Concerning Benefyting, that is to say the dooing receiyving and requyting of good turnes.[45] The standard English form chosen after the Lodge translation of 1613 is On Benefits.[46] Later reception[edit] The ethics of Seneca's writing were readily assimilated by twelfth century Christian thinkers.[21] Michel de Montaigne was acquainted with the work.[47][48] The work is recognised as having been influential in the writing of the sociologist Marcel Mauss, specifically his essay The Gift,[49] first published in 1925 in French, and translated in 1954 into English.[50] The subject of the gift has become a central concept to the discipline of anthropology since Mauss.[51] References[edit] ^ M.Griffin (14 March 2013). Seneca on Society A Guide to De Beneficiis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924548-2. Retrieved 2015-03-12. ^ Latin Word Study Tool [Retrieved 2015-03-13] ^ M. Griffin (2003). De Beneficiis and Roman Society. Journal of Roman Studies / Volume 93 /. Retrieved 2015-03-12. ^ Review by Oleg V. Bychkov, St. Bonaventure University of Seneca, On Benefits, Miriam Griffin and Brad Inwood (trs.) in Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews Retrieved 2015-03-12 ^ T Krassimirov Christov (2008). Leviathans Tamed: Political Theory and International Relations in Modern Political Thought. p. 94. ISBN 978-0549980131. Retrieved 2015-03-13. ^ Jean-Joseph Goux (2002). The Enigma of Gift and Sacrifice. Fordham University Press. p. 148,149,153. ISBN 0823221660. Retrieved 2015-03-13. ^ Marshall, C. W. (2013). "The works of Seneca the Younger and their dates". In Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. p. 41. ISBN 978-9004217089. ^ a b c d G. W. Peterman (1997). Paul's Gift from Philippi: Conventions of Gift Exchange and Christian Giving. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–4. ISBN 0521572207. Retrieved 2015-03-12. ^ J.M. Cooper; J. F. Procopé (1995). Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought – Seneca: Moral and Political Essays. Cambridge University Press. pp. 183, 184. ISBN 0521348188. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ a b M Lentano (2013). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. p. 201. ISBN 978-9004217089. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ G.B. Conte (University of Pisa) (1999). Latin Literature: A History. JHU Press. p. 412. ISBN 0801862531. Retrieved 2015-03-19.(Translated by J Solodow) ^ PG Walsh writing from translation of Cicero - On Obligation (xxxiv) Oxford University Press, 2000 ISBN 0199240183 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ Miriam T. Griffin - on Society: A Guide to De Beneficiis (Preface - page vii) ISBN 0199245487 [Retrieved 2015-3-12] ^ Translated by John W. Basore courtesy of stoics.com website. From the Loeb Classical Library edition London: W. Heinemann, 1928-1935 [Retrieved 2011-12-05]. ^ M.Griffin in A De Vivo, E Lo Cascio - Seneca uomo politico e l'età di Claudio e di Nerone: atti del Convegno internazionale : Capri 25-27 marzo 1999 page 90, Edipuglia srl, 2003 ISBN 8872283027 [Retrieved 2015-o3-14] ^ Rossi Elena (1999). "Louise Fothergill-Payne (1933-1998)". Bulletin of Hispanic Studies. 76 (2): 297–302. doi:10.1080/000749099753813195. - Seneca and Celestina (page 80) (Cambridge University Press, 1988) ISBN 052132212X [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ Book I Harvard University Press the Loeb Classical Library – DOI: 10.4159/DLCL.seneca_younger-de_beneficiis.1935 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ The European Graduate School Lucius Annaeus Seneca - Biography Archived 2015-03-18 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2015-3-14 ^ S Joubert - Paul as Benefactor: Reciprocity, Strategy and Theological Reflection in Paul's Collection page 40, ISBN 3161473469 [Retrieved 2015-3-12] ^ BJ Malina, JJ Pilch – Social Scientific Models for Interpreting the Bible: Essays by the Context Group in Honor of Bruce J. Malina p.51, BRILL, 2001 [Retrieved 2015-3-12] ^ a b c Lapidge, Michael (1992). "The Stoic Inheritance". In Dronke, Peter (ed.). A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 0521429072. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ J Sellars - Stoicism p.13, (Routledge, 5 Dec 2014) ISBN 1317493915 [Retrieved 2015-3-16] ^ ZA Crook - Reconceptualising Conversion: Patronage, Loyalty, and Conversion in the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean, Issue 130 page 62. Walter de Gruyter, 1 Jan 2004 [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ M. Griffin - De Beneficiis and Roman Society Cambridge Journals: Journal of Roman Studies ( November 2003, pp 92-113) [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ T Fear - Of Aristocrats and Courtesans: Seneca, "De Beneficiis" 1.14 JSTOR, originally published by: Franz Steiner Verlag [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ Description in BASE (Bielefeld University Library) of Francois, D - Amicitia in the plays of Terence University of Texas at Austin: Digital Repository [Retrieved 2015-3-29] ^ WE Trevor (2009). Less than ideal? The intellectual history of male friendship and it's articulation in early modern drama (PDF). University of Birmingham. p. 40. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ M.I. Colish (1985). The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, Volume 1. BRILL. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9004072675. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ M von Albrecht (1997). A History of Roman Literature: From Livius Andronicus to Boethius : with Special Regard to Its Influence on World Literature. BRILL (Editor GL Schmeling). p. 1192. ISBN 9004107118. Retrieved 2015-03-17. ^ M Lentano (2013). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. BRILL. p. 205. ISBN 978-9004217089. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ L.D.Reynolds, M.T.Griffin, E.Fantham (edited by S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, E. Eidinow) (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0199545568. Retrieved 2015-03-14.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)(ed. this text was the first source for latin term) ^ identified as the same as of – written about 800, in John M. Cooper – editors note p.ix [Retrieved 2015-03-14] ^ WM Lindsay (1925). Collectanea Varia : Palaeographia Latina. St. Andrews University publications, Georg Olms Verlag. p. 7. ISBN 3487405385. Retrieved 2015-03-16. ^ L. D. Reynolds; N G Wilson (2013). Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0199686339. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ P. Stacey (2007). Roman Monarchy and the Renaissance Prince. Cambridge University Pres. p. 81. ISBN 978-1139463065. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ V Moul - Jonson, Horace and the Classical Tradition (page 81:footnote 63 Cambridge University Press, 1 Apr 2010 ISBN 1139485792 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ H.H. Davis - An Unknown and Early Translation of Seneca's "De beneficiis" Huntington Library Quarterly Vol. 24, No. 2 (Feb., 1961), pp. 137–144 – Published by: University of California Press [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ B.Y Kunze, D.D. Brautigam – Court, Country, and Culture: Essays on Early Modern British History in Honor of Perez Zagorin (page 112) Boydell & Brewer, 1 Jan 1992 [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ EG Andrew (c.2006 professor emeritus in the Department of Political Science at the University of Toronto) - Patrons of Enlightenment p.59, University of Toronto Press, 2006 ISBN 0802090648 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ Sir Roger L'Estrange - Seneca's Morals by Way of Abstract S. Ballard, 1746 [Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ Charles Antoine de La Serna Santander - Catalogue des livres de la bibliothèque de m. C. de la Serna Santander, rédigé et mis en ordre par lui-même p.1472, (Brussels) 1803[Retrieved 2015-04-02] ^ David Camden (Ph.D. candidate in Classical Philology at Harvard University) forumromanum [Retrieved 2015-3-13] ^ F Heal - The Power of Gifts: Gift Exchange in Early Modern England (page 17) Oxford University Press, 23 Oct 2014 Retrieved 2015-3-13 ^ Religion and Trade: Cross-Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000–1900 (page 70:footnote 26) edited by F Trivellato, L Halevi, C Antunes – published by Oxford University Press, 2014 ISBN 019937919X [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ M Archer - The Meaning of "Grace" and "Courtesy": Book VI of The Faerie Queene JSTOR originally published in SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 (Winter, 1987) [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ J.M. Cooper, J. F. Procopé - Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought - Seneca: Moral and Political Essays (page 184) Cambridge University Press, 22 Jun 1995 ISBN 0521348188 [Retrieved 2015-03-14] ^ the literature of the french renaissance (footnote to page 161) [Retrieved 2015-3-14 ^ Michel de Montaigne - The Complete Essays of Michel de Montaigne Chapter 21: Note 154, Digireads.com Publishing, 1 Jan 2004 ISBN 1596255811 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ SC Stroup in The Gift in Antiquity Chapter 8 - 3rd page of copy, edited by Michael Satlow , published by John Wiley & Sons, 22 Feb 2013 ISBN 1118517903 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ Marcel Mauss - Essai Sur Le Don Psychology Press, 2002 ISBN 0415267498 Retrieved 2015-3-14 ^ M Lentano - De Beneficiis p.204, in Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist BRILL, 13 December 2013 ISBN 9004217088 [Retrieved 2015-3-19] Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Miriam Griffin, Brad Inwood, (2011). Seneca: On Benefits. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 022621222X Studies[edit] Degand, Martin, Sénèque au risque du don. Une éthique oblative à la croisée des disciplines, Turnhout: Brepols, 2015. Fear, Trevor (2007). Of Aristocrats and Courtesans: Seneca, De Beneficiis 1.14. Hermes: Zeitschrift für klassische philologie, 135(4), pp. 460–468. oro.open.ac.uk Griffin, M. (2003) "De Beneficiis and Roman Society" The Journal of Roman Studies. Vol. 93. jstor.org Inwood, Brad "Politics and paradox in Seneca's De Beneficiis". In Laks, A., Schofield, M., Justice and generosity: studies in Hellenistic social and political philosophy : proceedings of the Sixth Symposium Hellenisticum (1995) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521452937 books.google.co.uk Lavery, G. B. 1987 "The Adversarius in Seneca's De Beneficiis". Mnemosyne, Vol. 40. jstor.org External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: On Benefits Aubrey Stewart (1887): Works related to On Benefits at Wikisource Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks John W. Basore, (ed.), (1935), On Benefits at www.stoics.com Latin text at www.perseus.tufts.edu On Benefits public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) United States Poland Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Beneficiis&oldid=1027358918" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Middle English (1100-1500)-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Italiano Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4129	----	File:ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg - Wikipedia File:ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 213 pixels | 640 × 427 pixels | 1,024 × 683 pixels | 1,260 × 840 pixels. Original file ‎(1,260 × 840 pixels, file size: 67 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg The Euphrates River near Raqqa More images of en:Syria are available on www.zeledi.com, my web site. Check out the following direct links: A collection of pictures shot in 2003 in various places in Syria. A picture gallery about a 2005 trip in Syria. 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en-wikipedia-org-4136	----	Roman commerce - Wikipedia Roman commerce From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A Roman fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting a Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Archaeological Museum; silks came from the Han dynasty of China along the Silk Road, a valuable trade commodity in the Roman world, whereas Roman glasswares made their way to Han China via land and sea.[1] Roman commerce was a major sector of the Roman economy during the early Republic and throughout most of the imperial period. Fashions and trends in historiography and in popular culture have tended to neglect the economic basis of the empire in favor of the lingua franca of Latin and the exploits of the Roman legions. The language and the legions were supported by trade and were part of its backbone. The Romans were businessmen, and the longevity of their empire was caused by their commercial trade. Whereas in theory members of the Roman Senate and their sons were restricted when engaging in trade,[2] the members of the equestrian order were involved in businesses despite their upper-class values, which laid the emphasis on military pursuits and leisure activities. Plebeians and freedmen held shop or manned stalls at markets, and vast numbers of slaves did most of the hard work. The slaves were themselves also the subject of commercial transactions. Probably because of their high proportion in society compared to that in Classical Greece, the reality of runaways, and the Servile Wars and minor uprisings, they gave a distinct flavor to Roman commerce. The intricate, complex, and extensive accounting of Roman trade was conducted with counting boards and the Roman abacus. The abacus, which used Roman numerals, was ideally suited to the counting of Roman currency and tallying of Roman measures. Contents 1 Negotiatores, mercatores and pedlars 2 Commercial infrastructure 2.1 Land routes 2.2 Sea routes 2.3 Standard weights and measures 3 Contacts with India and China 3.1 India 3.2 China 4 Commerce and religion 5 The Elite and a dual mentality on trade 6 Commercial Classes 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Negotiatores, mercatores and pedlars[edit] Roman 4-wheeled wagon The negotiatores were in part bankers because they lent money on interest. They also bought and sold staples in bulk or did commerce in wholesale quantities of goods. The argentarii acted as agents in public or private auctions, kept deposits of money for individuals, cashed cheques (prescriptiones) and served as moneychangers. They kept strict books, or tabulae, which were considered as legal proof by the courts. In some instances the argentarii are considered as a subset of the negotiatores and in others as a group apart. The argentarii sometimes did the same kind of work as the mensarii, who were public bankers appointed by the state. The mercatores were usually plebeians or freedmen. They were present in all the open-air markets or covered shops, manning stalls or hawking goods by the side of the road. They were also present near Roman military camps during campaigns, where they sold food and clothing to the soldiers and paid cash for any booty coming from military activities. There is some information on the economy of Roman Palestine from Jewish sources of around the 3rd century AD. Itinerant pedlars (rochel) took spices and perfumes to the rural population.[3] This suggests that the economic benefits of the Empire did reach, at least, the upper levels of the peasantry. Commercial infrastructure[edit] Further information: Roman economy Principal Roman trade routes, internal and external in 180AD The Forum Cuppedinis in ancient Rome was a market which offered general goods. At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as cattle, wine, fish and herbs and vegetables, but the Roman Forum drew the bulk of the traffic. All new cities, like Timgad, were laid out according to an orthogonal grid plan which facilitated transportation and commerce. The cities were connected by good roads. Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug but neither leave such clear archaeology as roads and consequently they tend to be underestimated. Maintaining peace was a major factor in the expansion of trade. All settlements, especially the smaller ones, could be located in economically rational positions. Before and after the Roman Empire, hilltop defensive positions were preferred for small settlements and piracy made coastal settlement particularly hazardous for all but the largest cities. River vessel carrying barrels, assumed to be wine By the 1st century, the provinces of the Roman Empire were trading huge volumes of commodities to one another by sea routes. There was an increasing tendency for specialization, particularly in manufacturing, agriculture and mining. Some provinces specialized in producing certain types of goods, such as grain in Egypt and North Africa and wine and olive oil in Italy, Hispania, and Greece. Knowledge of the Roman economy is extremely patchy. The vast bulk of traded goods, being agricultural, normally leave no direct remains. Very exceptionally, as at Berenice, there is evidence of long distance trade in pepper, almonds, hazelnuts, stone pine cones, walnuts, coconuts, apricots and peaches besides the more expected figs, raisins and dates (Cappers). The wine, olive oil and garum (fermented fish sauce) trades were exceptional in leaving amphorae behind. There is a single reference of the Syrian export of kipi stiff quince jam or marmalade to Rome.[4][5] Land routes[edit] See also: Sino-Roman relations Even before the republic, the Roman Kingdom was engaged in regular commerce using the river Tiber. Before the Punic Wars completely changed the nature of commerce in the Mediterranean, the Roman republic had important commercial exchanges with Carthage. It entered into several commercial and political agreements with its rival city in addition to engaging in simple retail trading. The Roman Empire traded with the Chinese (via Parthian and other intermediaries) over the Silk Road. Sea routes[edit] Further information: Indo-Roman trade relations Maritime archeology and ancient manuscripts from classical antiquity show evidence of vast Roman commercial fleets. The most substantial remains from this commerce are the infrastructure remains of harbors, moles, warehouses and lighthouses at ports such as Civitavecchia, Ostia, Portus, Leptis Magna and Caesarea Maritima. At Rome itself, Monte Testaccio is a tribute to the scale of this commerce. As with most Roman technology, the Roman seagoing commercial ships had no significant advances over Greek ships of the previous centuries, though the lead sheeting of hulls for protection seems to have been more common. The Romans used round hulled sailing ships. Continuous Mediterranean "police" protection over several centuries was one of the main factors of success of Roman commerce, given that Roman roads were designed more for feet or hooves--with most land trade moving by pack mule--than for wheels, and could not support the economical transport of goods over long distances. The Roman ships used would have been easy prey for pirates had it not been for the fleets of Liburna galleys and triremes of the Roman navy. A small coaster Bulky, low-value commodities, like grain and construction materials, were traded only by sea routes, since the cost of sea transportation was 60 times lower than land.[6] Staple goods and commodities like cereals for making bread and papyrus scrolls for book production were imported from Ptolemaic Egypt to Italy in a continuous fashion. The trade over the Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century AD. The sailors made use of the monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of Berenice, Leukos Limen[7] and Myos Hormos on the Red Sea coast of Roman Egypt to the ports of Muziris and Nelkynda in the Malabar Coast. The main trading partners in southern India were the Tamil dynasties of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India; for example, at the archaeological site of Arikamedu, in Puducherry. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek work Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (see article on Indo-Roman trade). Standard weights and measures[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman units of measurement A standard amphora, the amphora capitolina, was kept in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, so that others could be compared to it. The Roman system of measurement was built on the Greek system with Egyptian influences. Much of it was based on weight. The Roman units were accurate and well documented. Distances were measured, and systematically inscribed on stone by agents of the government. A fairly standard and fairly stable and abundant currency, at least up to circa 200 AD, did much to facilitate trade. (Egypt had its own currency in this period and some provincial cities also issued their own coins.) Contacts with India and China[edit] Alexander the Great had conquered as far as India, and the Roman god Bacchus was also said to have journeyed there. The Far East, like sub-Saharan Africa, was a mysterious land to the Romans. India[edit] Main article: Roman trade with India Gold coin of Claudius (50-51 CE) excavated in South India. There was an Indian in Augustus's retinue (Plut. Alex. 69.9), and he received embassies from India (Res Gestae, 31); one which met him in Spain in 25 BC, and one at Samos in 20 BC. The trade over the Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century AD. The sailors made use of the monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of Berenice, Leulos Limen and Myos Hormos on the Red Sea coast of Roman Egypt to the ports of Muziris and Nelkynda in Malabar coast[8] and.[9] The main trading partners in southern India were the Tamil dynasties of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. In Latin texts, the term Indians (Indi) designated all Asians, Indian and beyond. The main articles imported from India were spices such as pepper, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, sandal wood and gems such as pearls, rubies, diamonds, emeralds and ivory. In exchange the Romans traded silver and gold. Hoards of Roman coins have been found in southern India during the history of Roman-India trade. Roman objects have been found in India in the seaside port city of Arikamedu, which was one of the trade centers.[10] Pomponius Mela argued for the existence of Northeast Passage through the northward strait out of the Caspian Sea (which in Antiquity was usually thought to be open to Oceanus in the north). [11] China[edit] See also: Romano-Chinese relations, Roman glass, and Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire Left image: A Roman gilded silver plate with a relief image of Dionysus, dated 2nd-3rd century AD and originally made in the Eastern Mediterranean, found at an archaeological site in Jingyuan County, Gansu, China[12] Right image: Bronze coin of Constantius II (337–361), found in Karghalik, modern China Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China; the first Roman glassware discovered in China, dated early 1st century BC, was excavated from a Western Han tomb in the southern port city of Guangzhou, most likely arriving via the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.[13] There is suggestive archaeological evidence that Roman traders were present in Southeast Asia, which was roughly mapped out by Ptolemy in his Geography where he labelled the land bordering the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) as the Sinae.[14] Their port city of "Cattigara", lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) where a Greek sailor named Alexander allegedly visited, was quite possibly the ancient settlement at Oc Eo, Vietnam, where Roman artefacts from the Antonine period such as medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) have been found.[15] An event recorded in the Chinese Weilue and Book of Later Han for the year 166 seems directly connected to this activity, since these texts claim that an embassy from "Daqin" (i.e. the Roman Empire) sent by their ruler "An Dun" (Chinese: 安敦; i.e. either Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) landed in the southern province of Jiaozhi (i.e. northern Vietnam) and presented tributary gifts to the Chinese ruler Emperor Huan of Han.[16] Rafe de Crespigny and Warwick Ball contend that these were most likely Roman merchants, not official diplomats sent by Marcus Aurelius (given the absence of this event in Roman sources).[17][18] Despite two other Roman embassies recorded in Chinese sources for the 3rd century and several more by the later Byzantine Empire (Chinese: 拂菻; Pinyin: Fú lǐn),[16][18] only sixteen Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius (r. 14-37 AD) to Aurelian (r. 270-275 AD) have been found in China at Xi'an that predate the greater amount of Eastern Roman (i.e. Byzantine) coins from the 4th century onwards.[19][20] Yet this is also dwarfed by the amount of Roman coins found in India, which would suggest that this was the region where the Romans purchased most of their Chinese silk.[19] For that matter, the spice trade remained more important to the Roman economy than the silk one.[21] From the 3rd century a Chinese text, the Weilüe, describes the products of the Roman Empire and the routes to it.[22] Commerce and religion[edit] Mercury, who was originally only the god of the mercatores and the grain trade[citation needed] eventually became the god of all who were involved in commercial activities. On the Mercuralia on May 14, a Roman merchant would do the proper rituals of devotion to Mercury and beseech the god to remove from him and from his belongings the guilt coming from all the cheating he had done to his customers and suppliers. The Elite and a dual mentality on trade[edit] While Livy makes reference to the Lex Claudia (218BC) restricting senators and sons of senators from owning a ship with greater than 300 amphorae capacity (about seven tons), they were still undoubtedly partaking in trade as Cicero mentions this law when attacking Verres, although he makes no move to charge him.[23] Senators were still allowed to own and make use of ships under the size restriction, Cato when advising where to build a farm specifically mentions to have it built near an accessible river, road or port to allow transport of goods[24] which is in direct conflict to Livy’s assertion that all profit made through trade by a senator was dishonorable.[25] Senators often utilized free and enslaved agents as a loophole to legal restrictions, thereby allowing themselves to diversify their sources of income.[26] That is not to say that the acquisition of wealth was not to be desired, Pliny notes that a Roman man should by honorable means acquire a large fortune[27] and Polybius draws a comparison between the attitudes of Carthage and Rome towards profit from trade.[28] Thus starts the confusion in the role of the elite in trade as Terence writes that there is nothing wrong with large scale trade; it is in fact completely honorable and legitimate to import large quantities of product from around the world especially if it happens to lead to a successful trader buying land and investing in Roman agriculture; what is dishonorable is trade on a small scale.[29] Small trade is again shown as vulgar by Tacitus as he describes the involvement of Sempronius Gracchus in petty trade.[30] Cato himself was involved with trade, although he himself cautioned against it as it was a risky occupation,[31] perhaps this was part of the reasoning to keep senators excluded from the trade business, as if they had a severe misfortune with trading they could fall below the financial threshold of being a senator, whereas comparatively land owning was a far safer investment. Plutarch describes Cato’s involvement in trade in great detail, depicting how he would use a proxy (a freedman by the name of Quintio) to run his business through a group of fifty other men.[32] The restriction on senators trading was itself passed initially through the tribune of the plebeians, a class of people who the restrictions would not apply to. It is suspected that this reform could have been the equites and other wealthy merchants trying to muscle the senators out from the rapidly expanding trade business. Commercial Classes[edit] The majority of the people of the Roman Empire were living in rural areas, with a small part of the population engaged in commerce being much poorer than the elite. The industrial output was quite low, due to the fact that the poor majority could not pay for the products. Technological advance was hampered by this fact. Urbanization in the western part of the empire was also limited. Slaves accounting for most of the means of industrial output, rather than technology.[33] See also[edit] Roman Britain: Trade Roman currency Roman finance Roman glass References[edit] ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, pp 83-84. ^ Livy, The History of Rome 21.63[dead link] ^ Safrai, Ze'ev (1994). The Economy of Roman Palestine. London: Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 0203204867. ^ Grant, Mark (2000). Galen on Food and Diet. London: Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 0415232325. ^ Cappers, R. T. J. (2006). Foodprints at Berenike: Archaeobotanical evidence of subsistence and trade in the Eastern desert of Egypt. Monograph. 55. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA. ISBN 1931745269. ^ Hopkins, Keith (2017). Sociological Studies in Roman History. Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9781139093552. ^ Young, Gary K. - "Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305" - Ed. Routledge, (2003) ISBN 1134547935, 9781134547937 p. 35-48 ^ "Radio 4 - Unearthing Mysteries". BBC. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ "South Asia | Search for India's ancient city". BBC News. 2006-06-11. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ Haywood, John (2000). Historical atlas of the classical world, 500 BC–AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 46. ISBN 0-7607-1973-X. Arikamedu was a trading port in the 1st century AD: many Roman artifacts have been excavated there. ^ Book III, Chapter 5 Archived 2006-07-28 at the Wayback Machine, copied by Pliny the Elder. ^ Harper, P.O. (2002), "Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 95–113, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, pp 106-107. ^ An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2010), Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China, London & New York: Continuum, ISBN 9781847252357, pp 58-59. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ a b Friedrich Hirth (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-19. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0, p. 600, ^ a b Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 152. ^ a b Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154. ^ The following source, although printed in 2012, is outdated compared to Ball (2016: 154) in regards to the Principate-era coins found at Xi'an: Valerie Hansen (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 97-98, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, pp 154, 156. ^ "Weilue: The Peoples of the West". Depts.washington.edu. 2004-05-23. Retrieved 2012-11-07. ^ II Verr.V18 ^ Cato De.Agr 1.3 ^ 21.63.3-4 ^ John H. D’Arms, Commerce and Social Standing in Ancient Rome, Harvard University Press, 1981, chapter 3 ^ Pliny NH 7.140 ^ 6.56.1-3) ^ Terrence 151 ^ Tacitus annas 4.13.2 ^ de.Agr. Praefatio ^ Plutarch Cato the Elder 21.5ff ^ Haywood, John (2000). Historical atlas of the classical world, 500 BC–AD 600. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 27. ISBN 0-7607-1973-X. the empire's commercial classes remained small and enjoyed neither wealth nor the status of the landowning aristocracy...most production in the empire was small scale and under-capitalized, the rich preferring to invest in land. It is in any case doubtful, in view of the poverty of most of the empire's population, whether the markets existed to support a greater degree of industrial production. This is probably one of the factors behind the surprising lack of technological innovation in the empire...The ready availability of cheap slave labor may also have deterred investment in expensive machinery....But most of the west was too poor and under-populated to support this level of urbanization and towns remained primarily administrative or military centers. Further reading[edit] Bowman, Alan K., and Andrew Wilson. Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Callataÿ, François de. Quantifying the Greco-Roman Economy and Beyond. Bari: Edipuglia, 2014. Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale In the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Garnsey, Peter, and Richard P. Saller. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. 2nd edition. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2015. Greene, Kevin. The Archaeology of the Roman Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy: Studies In Ancient Economic and Administrative History. Oxford: Blackwell, 1974. Lewit, Tamara. Agricultural Production In the Roman Economy, A.D. 200-400. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum, 1991. Peacock, D. P. S., and D. F. Williams. Amphorae and the Roman Economy: An Introductory Guide. London: Longman, 1986. Russell, Ben. The Economics of the Roman Stone Trade. 1st edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Scheidel, Walter. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Scheidel, Walter, Richard P. Saller, and Ian Morris. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Temin, Peter. The Roman Market Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013. Tomber, R. Indo-Roman Trade: From Pots to Pepper. London: Duckworth, 2008. Vrba, Eric Michael. Ancient German Identity In the Shadow of the Roman Empire: The Impact of Roman Trade and Contact Along the Middle Danube Frontier, 10 BC - AD 166. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2008. 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en-wikipedia-org-4137	----	Britannicus - Wikipedia Britannicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Son of Roman emperor Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina (AD 41-55) For the tragedy by Jean Racine, see Britannicus (play). For other uses of the name among the Romans, see List of Roman imperial victory titles. Britannicus Born 12 February AD 41 Rome Died c.11 February AD 55 (aged 13) Rome Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Names Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus; initially Tiberius Claudius Germanicus House Julio-Claudian Dynasty Father Claudius Mother Valeria Messalina Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus (c. 12 February AD 41 – 11 February AD 55), usually called Britannicus, was the son of Roman emperor Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina. For a time he was considered his father's heir, but that changed after his mother's downfall in 48, when it was revealed she had engaged in a bigamous marriage without Claudius' knowledge. The next year, his father married Agrippina the Younger, Claudius' fourth and final marriage. Their marriage was followed by the adoption of Agrippina's son, Lucius Domitius, whose name became Nero as a result. His step-brother would later be married to Britannicus' sister Octavia, and soon eclipsed him as Claudius' heir. Following his father's death in October 54, Nero became emperor. The sudden death of Britannicus shortly before his fourteenth birthday is reported by all extant sources as being the result of poisoning on Nero's orders—as Claudius' natural son, he represented a threat to Nero's claim to the throne. Contents 1 Name 2 Background and family 3 During his father's marriage to Messalina 3.1 Education 3.2 Fall of Messalina 4 During his father's marriage to Agrippina 4.1 Rise of Nero 5 Death of his father, Claudius 6 Downfall 7 Post mortem 8 Britannicus in popular culture 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 11.1 Primary sources 11.2 Secondary sources 12 External links Name[edit] Britannicus' name at birth was Tiberius Claudius Germanicus. The agnomen, his first surname Germanicus, was first awarded to his paternal grandfather Drusus the Elder after his death in 9 BC to commemorate his victories over the Germanic tribes. Accordingly, Drusus' sons (Claudius and Germanicus) inherited the name and passed it to their sons as well. Britannicus was given to his father in AD 43 following his conquest of Britain. Claudius never used it himself and gave the name to his son instead, and his full name became: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus. He came to be known by his new name which seems to have replaced Germanicus altogether.[1][2] Background and family[edit] A sestertius issued to commemorate Britannicus' birth Britannicus was born on or about 12 February 41 in Rome, to Emperor Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina. As such, he was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, specifically of the gens Claudia.[note 1] Britannicus' father had been reigning for less than a month, and his position was boosted greatly by the birth of an heir. To mark the birth, the emperor issued sestertii with the obverse Spes Augusta – the hope of the imperial family.[3] Britannicus had four siblings: a half-brother, Claudius Drusus, by Claudius' first wife (Plautia Urgulanilla) who died at the age of 3 or 4; a half-sister, Antonia, by Claudius' second wife (Aelia Paetina); a sister by the same mother named Octavia; and an adoptive brother, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future emperor Nero), who was adopted in AD 49 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar as a result.[4][5] Two years later, in 43, Claudius was granted the honorific "Britannicus" by the senate as a reward for his conquest of Britain. The emperor never used the name himself, but allowed his son to inherit it. This is the name by which the boy became known to posterity. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, a Roman historian writing from the late first century, says that Claudius adored Britannicus, carrying him around at public events, and "would wish him happy auspices, joined by the applauding throng."[6] During his father's marriage to Messalina[edit] Education[edit] Britannicus was tutored by Sosibius, who was a close associate of Publius Suillius Rufus and a friend of his mother.[7] He was educated alongside Titus Vespasianus, the future emperor of Rome. They were brought up together and taught similar subjects by the same tutors.[8] In 47, Sosibius gave Claudius a reminder of the power and wealth which threatened the Emperor's throne. His tutor then, as part of his mother's contrivances, told the emperor of Decimus Valerius Asiaticus's involvement in the murder of Caligula and of his growing popularity in Rome. Sosibius went on, saying Asiaticus meant to rally Roman legions in Germany against the throne. Asiaticus was apprehended immediately, and brought to Rome in chains.[7] Sullius successfully pursued charges against other equestrians in the Senate.[9] According to Cassius Dio, Asiaticus was put to death as a favor to Messalina for his property (the Gardens of Lucullus).[10][11] It was later voted by the Senate that Sosibius be given a million sesterces for giving Britannicus the benefit of his teachings and Claudius that of his counsel (i.e. for his involvement in the case against Asiaticus).[12] Fall of Messalina[edit] Messalina holding her son Britannicus, Louvre Britannicus took part in the celebrations of Rome's 800th anniversary (48). It was the sixth ever Ludi Saeculares ("Secular Games") and sixty-four years since the last one held in the summer of 17 BC by Augustus. Britannicus' father was there as was Lucius Domitius and his mother Agrippina who were the last surviving descendants of Germanicus. Claudius watched the young nobility, including Britannicus and Domitius, enact the Battle of Troy in the circus. Tacitus says Domitius was greeted with more enthusiasm than Britannicus.[note 2][13][14] The games were seen as the introduction of Agrippina and Domitius to public life, and Britannicus' mother Messalina must have been aware of this and envious of Agrippina. Tacitus writes that Messalina was too busy engaging in an "insane" affair to plot the destruction of Agrippina.[14] He says:[15] She had grown so frantically enamoured of Gaius Silius, the handsomest of the young nobility of Rome, that she drove from his bed Junia Silana, a high-born lady, and had her lover wholly to herself. Silius was not unconscious of his wickedness and his peril; but a refusal would have insured destruction, and he had some hope of escaping exposure; the prize too was great, and so he consoled himself by awaiting the future and enjoying the present. As for her, careless of concealment, she went continually with a numerous retinue to his house, she haunted his steps, showered on him wealth and honours, and, at last, as though empire had passed to another, the slaves, the freedmen, the very furniture of the emperor were to been seen in the possession of the paramour. — Tacitus, The Annales, 11.12 The affair continued into the next year. It was then that the affair between Messalina and Silius took a new turn. Silius, who had no children of his own, proposed to marry Messalina on condition that she allow him to adopt Britannicus.[note 3] The plan was to overthrow Claudius and rule together as regents of Britannicus. She acquiesced and waited for Claudius to leave Rome before performing the sacrifice and entering the bigamous marriage. The illegal union was made known to Claudius by Callistus and Narcissus, freedmen in his service. Claudius had Messalina, Silius, and others who knew of the affair put to death. Messalina was given a knife to kill herself with, though a tribune of the Praetorian Guard had to force it through her neck.[11] Images and statues of Silius and his associates were ordered to be destroyed.[16][17] During his father's marriage to Agrippina[edit] The fall of Silius and Messalina opened the way for Agrippina the Younger to become his father's fourth wife. His father claimed to be uninterested in another marriage,[18] but it wouldn't be long. Unlike his uncle Germanicus, his father had never been adopted into the Julii. Claudius thought marrying his niece would bring his family closer to that of Augustus, as Agrippina and Domitius were the last living descendants of Germanicus. So, in 49, despite a marriage between uncle and niece being incestuous under Roman law, his father remarried.[19][20] Rise of Nero[edit] Bust of the young Nero In 49, during the term of consul-elect Mammius Pollio (March–June), Domitius was betrothed to his sister Octavia and thus became his equal in rank. Tacitus suggests this move had the support of those who feared the vengeance of Britannicus against those who wronged his mother.[21][5] Through the insistence of Pallas, his father was convinced to adopt Domitius as his son. Claudius was convinced to do as Augustus had done in adopting Gaius and Lucius Caesar, and as Tiberius had done in adopting Germanicus despite having a son already. It was in February 50 that his father passed a law adopting Domitius into the Claudii and naming him Nero, and Domitius became "Nero Claudius Caesar". Nero and Britannicus then became joint-heirs to the emperor, and Agrippina was then given the title of Augusta.[22][5] In AD 51, his brother Nero assumed the toga virilis despite not yet being 14. The Senate also decided then that Nero should hold the consulship during his twentieth year (AD 56) and, as consul-elect, that he should enjoy imperium proconsulare ("proconsular authority") beyond the limits of Rome with the title of princeps iuventutis ("prince of the youth of Rome"). The progress of Nero seems to have followed in the footsteps of Gaius and Lucius Caesar. To mark the occasion, a donative was given to the soldiery of Rome, and presents to the people. His step-brother's status, along with that of Agrippina, is echoed on contemporary coinage.[23][5] By contrast, Britannicus was progressively isolated. At the games of the circus Nero appeared in triumphal robes while Britannicus was still dressed as a boy. Tacitus says their clothing at the games affected the expectations of the people: with Nero in a general's clothing, and Britannicus in the dress of boyhood. He wouldn't be due for the toga until 12 February AD 55. He and his supporters were seen as a potential problem for Nero. Agrippina replaced his tutors with her own nominees, having convinced Claudius to order their executions, including the execution of Sosibius.[23][24] Not just his tutors, but the two prefects of the Praetorian Guard, Lusius Geta and Rufius Crispinus, were replaced as well. They were thought to be sympathetic to the cause of Britannicus and his mother, as Tacitus reports: it would have been risky to surround Nero with any but those loyal to Claudius and Agrippina.[25] His step-mother had them replaced with Sextus Afranius Burrus who was a good soldier, but knew to whom he owed his allegiance.[26][5] Nero's career progressed steadily: he gave speeches in AD 51 and 52. The speech in 51 thanked the emperor for honours given to him, and that of 52 was a vow for the safe recovery of the emperor from illness.[5] It was in 53 that Nero married Britannicus' sister Octavia, who first had to be legally transferred to another family to obviate charges of incest.[27] By this time it became clear that Nero was the unambiguous designate.[28] His step-brother became more politically active following his marriage to Octavia: he exempted the people of Ilium from all public burdens arguing that Rome was descended from Troy through Aeneas (the founder of the Julian line), procured funds for the colony of Bononia (modern Bologna, Italy) which had been devastated by fire, and the people of Rhodes had their freedom restored.[29] Meanwhile, Britannicus himself was kept in reserve in case Nero died, with deaths of princes being recent (such as Tiberius Gemellus). Though Nero was clearly the heir-designate, he was not named princeps designate to avoid hurting both Republican sentiment and the Augustan compromise of a principate that lay between monarchy and magistracy.[30] Death of his father, Claudius[edit] O: head of Claudius TI KΛAYΔIOC KAICAP CΕΒACTOC R: bust of Britannicus BPETANNIKOC ΘECCAΛONI bronze coin struck in Thessalonica 53 - 54 AD; ref.: RPC 1588 Suetonius reports that Claudius wished Rome to have a "real Caesar", and Britannicus enjoyed support from Claudius' loyal and influential freedman, Narcissus. There are possible signs of support for Britannicus seen on coins from Moesia and North Africa, placing Britannicus' head and title on the obverse side.[31] Claudius became aware of his wife's actions and began preparing for the end of her power. His father wished to bestow upon him the toga, and to declare Britannicus as his heir. According to Suetonius, when Claudius mentioned his intention to give Britannicus the toga of manhood he said, "That the Roman people may at last have a genuine Caesar."[32][33][34] The actions Claudius took to preserve his rule in the short-term were not easily undone as Britannicus approached manhood. In late 54, Britannicus was within 6 months of reaching manhood by Roman tradition, and had matured early. According to the historian Suetonius, Claudius began to mention divorcing Agrippina and dismissing Nero now that he was no longer needed. In preparation, to oust Agrippina and replace his son with Nero, But despite many conflicts his with Agrippina and demanding her ouster, But Agrippina was still in administering the empire very powerful and influential as the daughter of Germanicus and Roman Empress. Claudius commended both his son and adopted son to the Senate as equals in his last Senate address. Suetonius reports that Claudius now admonished his son to grow up quickly, implying that everything would be righted when he assumed the toga virilis.[32] On 13 October 54, Claudius died, either by natural causes or poison. In the accounts of his death by poison, Agrippina, aware of Claudius' intentions of placing Britannicus on the throne, had a well-known poisoner, Locusta, infuse mushrooms with poison that were fed to the emperor.[33][34][31] There were those who preferred Britannicus over Nero, such as Claudius' freedman Narcissus.[35] Unfortunately for his cause, Narcissus was away in Campania when the emperor was poisoned, while Britannicus and his sisters, Octavia and Antonia, were kept out of sight in their rooms by Agrippina.[33] Consequently, none could challenge Nero's succession. If one thought that Britannicus' claim should take precedence, the response was that Nero too was the son of Claudius, with Agrippina linking him back to Augustus.[36] It didn't help that many were convinced that Britannicus was no longer in the line of succession, a direct effect of the propaganda against him by Agrippina.[27] Nero spoke the eulogy at the emperor's funeral and took sole power. Claudius' new will, which either granted joint-rule to Britannicus and Nero or just Britannicus, was suppressed by the new emperor's men in the senate.[note 4] Downfall[edit] Agrippina crowns her young son Nero with a laurel wreath. Immediately following the death of Claudius, Agrippina set upon removing those she had seen as a threat. Marcus Junius Silanus, proconsul of Asia whose brother Lucius had been eliminated by her as well, was poisoned for no other reason than that he had been the great-great-grandson of Augustus. Claudius' freedman Narcissus, Britannicus' champion according to Tacitus, had been driven to suicide after a harsh imprisonment. In Tacitus XIII, this was carried out by Agrippina against the wishes of Nero.[37][38] Before Nero's consulship in 55, Nero forbade the persecution of a Julius Densus, an equestrian whose partiality for Britannicus had been construed as a crime.[39] During his consulship, Nero had become more independent from his mother's influence. He began a relationship with a slave girl, and removed Pallas, a favorite of Agrippina, from his post as secretary of the treasury. In response, Agrippina threatened to champion the cause of Britannicus to keep her son in line.[40] In the account of Tacitus, Agrippina says to Nero:[41] that Britannicus was now of full age, he who was the true and worthy heir of his father's sovereignty, which a son, by mere admission and adoption, was abusing in outrages on his mother. She shrank not from an utter exposure of the wickedness of that ill-starred house, of her own marriage, to begin with, and of her poisoner's craft. All that the gods and she herself had taken care of was that her stepson was yet alive; with him she would go to the camp, where on one side should be heard the daughter of Germanicus; on the other, the crippled Burrus and the exile Seneca, claiming, forsooth, with disfigured hand, and a pedant's tongue, the government of the world. — Tacitus, The Annales, 13.14 Tacitus recounts Nero's numerous attempts to publicly undermine Britannicus' image. In one such attempt, during the feast of Saturn (the Saturnalia), he and Nero were playing a game among a group of their friends, and Nero chose Britannicus to sing a song with the expectation that Britannicus would embarrass himself. Britannicus however, not only avoided humiliation, but also generated sympathy amongst the guests, after singing a poem telling the tale of how he had been cast aside in favour of Nero. The young emperor immediately began plotting his step-brother's assassination.[40] According to Suetonius, Nero moved against Britannicus, employing the same poisoner, Locusta, who had been hired to murder his father, Claudius. The first dose failed, and Nero decided to throw caution to the wind. In the account of Suetonius, he had Locusta brought to his room to mix a faster acting poison before his very eyes. After many tests on kids, there was a mixture that killed an animal instantly. Being pleased, Nero had the concoction brought immediately to the dining room.[42] Britannicus was poisoned at a dinner party attended by his sister, Octavia, Agrippina, and several other notables. Tacitus' account of the event is as follows: Britannicus was given a hot drink, which was tested by a food taster, and when he asked for it to be cooled, the poison was added to it with the cold water. The substance was instantly effective, and he "lost alike both voice and breath."[43] Nero claimed to those present that Britannicus was merely suffering from an epileptic fit, and that he had been afflicted with the condition since childhood.[40] He died sometime between December and his 14th birthday, on 11 February 55, when he was to assume manhood, and just four months after his father's death.[40][25] For her service, the emperor had Locusta rewarded with large estates, and even sent her pupils.[42] Post mortem[edit] Britannicus was cremated and his ashes placed with those of his father in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Nero held his funeral the very next day in the rain and gave no eulogy, saying it was "a tradition in the case of untimely deaths not to oppress the public with eulogies and processions." Dio says that Nero had the corpse covered in gypsum to cover the effects of the poison on the skin. While he was being carried through the Forum, the rain had uncovered the body making plain to all who could see that he had been poisoned.[44] Author and historian Beacham considers Dio's account to be "theatrical".[45] Given his and Nero's relationship, it was not surprising when Britannicus died just before his fourteenth birthday. Britannicus criticized Nero's singing voice, and referred to his adoptive brother by his original name of Lucius Domitius.[46] In favoring Nero, Claudius sealed the fate of his son, and perhaps his own. Ominously for Agrippina, Seneca and Burrus did not complain: either they had been bought off, or regarded Britannicus' death as inevitable given his relationship with Nero. Instead, they concentrated on growing their influence with Nero.[47][25] According to Suetonius, Britannicus was good friends with the future Emperor Titus, whose father Vespasian had commanded legions in Britain. As part of the Flavians' attempts to link themselves with the Julio-Claudians, Titus claimed that he had been seated with Britannicus on the night he was killed. He even claimed to have tasted the poison, which resulted in a serious and long illness. Titus would go on to erect a gold statue of his childhood friend, and issue coins in his memory.[48] Britannicus in popular culture[edit] Britannicus is portrayed in Britannicus (1669) by French playwright Jean Racine. [49] He was played by Graham Seed in I, Claudius, a 1976 television series by Jack Pulman.[50] Notes[edit] ^ It is uncertain what the exact date of Britannicus' birthday was, with the earliest possible date being early 39 or 40, and the latest as AD 42. The year 41 is widely accepted due to the fact that Britannicus was almost 14, and therefore on the cusp of assuming the toga virilis, when he was killed in 55 (Smith 1880, p. 505) harv error: no target: CITEREFSmith1880 (help). The day 12 February is based on the testimony of Suetonius that Britannicus was born on the twenty-second day of his fathers' reign. (Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 27 Archived 2017-01-06 at the Wayback Machine). ^ Tacitus claims the enthusiasm in which the future emperor Nero was greeted is a sign of his greatness. He wrote during the reign of Nero and in this same passage claims to have overseen the seventh Ludi Saeculares as it was his duty being a member of the Quindecimviri sacris faciundis and holding the title of praetor (Tacitus, The Annals, XI.11–12). ^ In the account of Cassius Dio, she proposed to marry him as she not only wanted to have affairs, but to hold many husbands as well. She also grants him a royal residence and grants him a consulship (Dio, LX.31). ^ Barrett argues that Tacitus' reference to the will being suppressed so as to prevent outrage about Nero meant that the will did not name Nero as primary or sole heir. Therefore the Senate's elevation of Nero would have caused outrage if the will were read (Barrett 1996, p. 174). References[edit] ^ Hornblower, Spawforth & Esther 2012, p. 325 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.2 for Germanicus; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.22 Archived 2012-07-17 at archive.today for Britannicus ^ Levick 2012, p. 55 ^ Osgood 2011, p. 207 ^ a b c d e f Shotter 1997, p. 9 ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 27 Archived 2012-06-30 at archive.today ^ a b Tacitus, XI.1 ^ Suetonius, Life of Titus, 2 ^ Tacitus, XI.2–3 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.29 ^ a b Dando-Collins 2008, p. 152 ^ Tacitus, XI.4 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, XI.11 ^ a b Shotter 1997, p. 8 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, XI.12 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XI.29–38 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.31 ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius 26 Archived 2012-06-30 at archive.today ^ Osgood 2011, p. 222 ^ Shotter 1997, pp. 6-8 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XII.9 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XII.25–26 ^ a b Tacitus, The Annales, XII.41 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.32 ^ a b c Osgood 2011, p. 333 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XII.42 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.33 ^ Osgood 2011, p. 227 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XII.58 ^ Osgood 2011, p. 232 ^ a b Shotter 1997, p. 10 ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 43 Archived 2012-06-30 at archive.today ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History, LX.34 ^ a b Tacitus, The Annales, XII.65–69 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XII.65 ^ Osgood 2011, p. 247 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XIII.1 ^ Osgood 2011, p. 250 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XIII.10 ^ a b c d Tacitus, The Annales, XIII.12–17 ^ Tacitus, The Annales, XIII.14 ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Nero, 33 ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals, BOOK XIII, chapter 16". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2018-04-08. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.7 ^ Beacham 1999, p. 200 ^ Suetonius, Life of Nero, 7 ^ Shotter 1997, p. 12 ^ Suetonius, Life of Titus, 2 ^ Burgwinkle, Hammond & Wilson 2011, p. 1669 ^ Newcomb 1997, p. 1158 Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Dio Cassius. Historia Romanum. Books LX-LXII. Suetonius. Twelve Caesars. Life of Claudius. Suetonius. Twelve Caesars. Life of Titus. Tacitus. Annals. Books XI-XIII. Secondary sources[edit] Barrett, Anthony A. (1996). Agrippina: Mother of Nero. B. T. Batsford. ISBN 0-203-48106-2. Barrett, Anthony (1999). Agrippina: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Early Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. Beacham, Richard C. (1999). Spectacle Entertainments of Early Imperial Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07382-8. Burgwinkle, William; Hammond, Nicholas; Wilson, Emma (2011). The Cambridge History of French. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521897860. Dando-Collins, Stephen (2008). Blood of the Caesars: How the Murder of Germanicus Led to the Fall of Rome. Wiley. ISBN 9780470137413. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Esther, Eidinow (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199545568. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1934). Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement. Cambridge: Trans. W.D. Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. Oost, S.V. (1958). "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas". American Journal of Philology. 79 (2): 113–139. doi:10.2307/292103. JSTOR 292103. Osgood, Josiah (2011). Claudius Caesar: Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521881814. Newcomb, Horace (1997), Encyclopedia of Television, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-203-93734-1 Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). The Emperor Claudius. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Shotter, David (2014). Nero Caesar Augustus: Emperor of Rome. Routledge. ISBN 9781317865902. Shotter, David (1997). Nero. Routledge. ISBN 9780415129312. Levick, Barbara (2012). Claudius. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9781135107710. Woodman, A.J. (2009), The Cambridge Companion to Tacitus, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521874601 Girolamo Cardano Neronis Encomium Translated by Angelo Paratico as Nero. An Exemplary Life. Inkstone Books, 2012.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1880). "Britannicus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 505.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) External links[edit] (in French) Britannicus de Jean Racine : Analysis, Plot overview Britannicus de Jean Racine in a new translation by Timberlake Wertenbaker Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Poland Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Britannicus&oldid=1019878933" Categories: Julio-Claudian dynasty 41 births 55 deaths Poisoned Romans Claudii Nerones 1st-century Romans Children of Claudius Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template archiveis links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2021, at 22:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4139	----	Portal:Philosophy - Wikipedia Portal:Philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (June 2018) This portal's subpages should be checked. Subpages that are no longer needed should be reported here. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia portal for content related to Philosophy Portal topics Activities Culture Geography Health History Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Random portal The Philosophy Portal a portal for Wikipedia's philosophy resources, 17,765 articles in English. Article · Category · Glossary · Outline · WikiProject Categories · Featured content · A–Z index Introduction to Philosophy The Thinker, a statue by Auguste Rodin, is often used to represent philosophy. Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, philosophia, 'love of wisdom') is the study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some sources claim the term was coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE), others dispute this story, arguing that Pythagoreans merely claimed use of a preexisting term. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a philosopher. From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philosophy" encompassed astronomy, medicine, and physics. For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. Since then, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy have become separate academic disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics. Today, major subfields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of existence and reality; epistemology, which studies the nature of knowledge and belief; ethics, which is concerned with moral value; and logic, which studies the rules of inference that allow one to derive conclusions from true premises. Other notable subfields include philosophy of science, political philosophy, aesthetics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind. ( Read More) Good article - show another This is a Good article, an article that meets a core set of high editorial standards. Buddhaghosa with three copies of Visuddhimagga, Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator, translator and philosopher. He worked in the Great Monastery (Mahāvihāra) at Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka and saw himself as being part of the Vibhajjavāda school and in the lineage of the Sinhalese Mahāvihāra. His best-known work is the Visuddhimagga ("Path of Purification"), a comprehensive summary of older Sinhala commentaries on Theravada teachings and practices. According to Sarah Shaw, in Theravada this systematic work is "the principal text on the subject of meditation." The interpretations provided by Buddhaghosa have generally constituted the orthodox understanding of Theravada scriptures since at least the 12th century CE. (Full article...) List of Good articles Philosophy of science Ontological argument Agnosticism Proof of the Truthful Eliminative materialism Power: A New Social Analysis Hypatia I Ching Teleology in biology Karma in Jainism Swami Vivekananda Kantian ethics Sri Aurobindo Howard Adelman Noam Chomsky Either/Or Manilal Dwivedi Florian Znaniecki Emanuel Lasker Dynamics of the celestial spheres Maitreyi Lucian Anarchism Stoicism Divine command theory Gary Varner From Bakunin to Lacan Selected article of the week Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης; Doric Greek: [ar.kʰi.mɛː.dɛ̂ːs]; c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Considered to be the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems, including: the area of a circle; the surface area and volume of a sphere; area of an ellipse; the area under a parabola; the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution; the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution; and the area of a spiral. His other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi; defining and investigating the spiral that now bears his name; and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. (Full article...) Archive Read more... Academic Branches of Philosophy Philosophy ponders the most fundamental questions humankind has been able to ask. These are increasingly numerous and over time they have been arranged into the overlapping branches of the philosophy tree: Aesthetics: What is art? What is beauty? Is there a standard of taste? Is art meaningful? If so, what does it mean? What is good art? Is art for the purpose of an end, or is "art for art's sake?" What connects us to art? How does art affect us? Is some art unethical? Can art corrupt or elevate societies? Epistemology: What are the nature and limits of knowledge? What is more fundamental to human existence, knowing (epistemology) or being (ontology)? How do we come to know what we know? What are the limits and scope of knowledge? How can we know that there are other minds (if we can)? How can we know that there is an external world (if we can)? How can we prove our answers? What is a true statement? Ethics: Is there a difference between ethically right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Do divine commands make right acts right, or is their rightness based on something else? Are there standards of rightness that are absolute, or are all such standards relative to particular cultures? How should I live? What is happiness? Logic: What makes a good argument? How can I think critically about complicated arguments? What makes for good thinking? When can I say that something just does not make sense? Where is the origin of logic? Metaphysics: What sorts of things exist? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the relationship of the mind to the body? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Do gods exist? Political philosophy: Are political institutions and their exercise of power justified? What is justice? Is there a 'proper' role and scope of government? Is democracy the best form of governance? Is governance ethically justifiable? Should a state be allowed? Should a state be able to promote the norms and values of a certain moral or religious doctrine? Are states allowed to go to war? Do states have duties against inhabitants of other states? 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While Marx addressed a wide range of issues, he is most famous for his analysis of history in terms of class struggles, summed up in the opening line of the introduction to the Communist Manifesto: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle." Marx's thought was strongly influenced by: The dialectical method and historical orientation of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel; The classical political economy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo; French socialist and sociological thought, in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist revolution is inevitable. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his Theses on Feuerbach that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it", and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world. Consequently, most followers of Marx are not fatalists, but activists who believe that revolutionaries must organize social change. ...Archive Read more... 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David Velleman, among others? …that a 2001 discovery of lost manuscripts by Majorcan philosopher and writer Ramon Llull showed that he had indeed discovered the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, and as a result he has been called the father of computation theory? …that although the paradox, Buridan's ass, is named after French priest Jean Buridan, it had already been previously stated in De Caelo by Aristotle? …that besides being a philosopher, Gottfried Leibniz was an engineer, lawyer, philologist, sinophile, and a famed mathematician who co-invented calculus? …that while most Enlightenment scholars criticized the Byzantine system of the Eastern Roman Empire, Konstantin Leontiev, a scholar from the Russian Empire praised it for the very same reasons? …that Marc Sautet started the philosophical cafe known as Café Philosophique? …that criteria of truth are standards and rules used to judge the accuracy of statements and claims? …that a deductive fallacy is an argument that has true premises, but may still have a false conclusion? …that Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers is the first dated book printed in England? …that Wikipedia has information on everything? …that a successful experimental system must be stable and reproducible enough for scientists to make sense of the system's behavior, but unpredictable enough that it can produce useful results? …that the ancient Chinese text Huangdi Yinfujing, attributed to the mythical emperor Huangdi in the 3rd century BCE, may have been a forgery from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)? …that Time magazine editor Otto Fuerbringer was responsible for the controversial 1966 Is God Dead? cover? …that alternative theories of speciation besides natural selection include Lamarckism and orthogenesis? …that before the 17th century it was believed that all organisms grew from miniature versions of themselves that had existed since the beginning of creation, a theory called preformationism? …that children have trouble attributing implicit meaning to aspect verbs implicating non-completion such as start, but find implicit meaning in degree modifiers such as half, as in half-finished? …that the philosopher Sebastian Petrycy (pictured) (1554–1626), in Poland, created a vernacular philosophical terminology not much later than did philosophers in France and Germany? …that Richard Hanley's book South Park and Philosophy: Bigger, Longer, and More Penetrating analyzes issues of applied ethics as presented in South Park? …that subjective logic can help you deal with uncertainty? …that the philosophical question of temporal finitism has never been fully settled? …that The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer, a book that analyzes The Simpsons using philosophical concepts, is the main textbook in some university philosophy courses? …that an appeals court overturned one formulation of the toothpaste tube theory in administrative law?" …that William Frankena "played an especially critical role in defense of fundamental academic freedoms during the McCarthy era" while chair of the philosophy department at the University of Michigan? …that Bron Taylor coined the term "dark green religion" as a set of beliefs characterized by a conviction that "nature is sacred, has intrinsic value, and is therefore due reverent care"? …that Jagadguru Rāmabhadrācārya (pictured), a blind Hindu religious leader, has observed nine Payovrata, a six-month diet of only milk and fruits, per the fifth verse of the Dohāvalī composed by Tulasidāsa, which says that chanting the name of Rāma subsisting on a diet of milk and fruits for six months will result in all the auspiciousness and accomplishments in one's hand? …Archive Add more facts… Topics v t e Philosophy Branches Traditional Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics Philosophy of... 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Lady Welby-Gregory), an 1880 painting by Frank Dicksee Image 2The statue of Immanuel Kant in front of the Immanuel Kant State University of Russia in Kaliningrad. The statue was made by notable sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of Marion Dönhoff. Image 3Niels Bohr (1885–1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research. Image 4Jane Addams (1860–1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate for world peace. 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Image 9Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms. Image 10Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775 (oil on canvas, Gripsholm Castle). Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". Image 11Painting of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz by Christoph Bernhard Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, 1700. Image 12Philosophy, an 1896 mural by Robert Lewis Reid in the North Corridor on the Second Floor of the Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.. The caption underneath reads: "HOW CHARMING IS DIVINE PHILOSOPHY." Image 13Umberto Eco OMRI (1932–2016) was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is widely known for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa (The Name of the Rose), a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies, and literary theory. Image 14Oscar Wilde reclining with Poems, by Napoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer. Image 15Leo Tolstoy in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Image 16Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics. Image 17Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne is an oil on panel painting attributed to the English artist Joan Carlile, and probably completed between 1641 and 1650. The painting depicts English physician Thomas Browne and his wife Dorothy. General images The following are images from various Philosophy-related articles on Wikipedia. Image 1Statue of the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi at the White Deer Grotto Academy in Lushan Mountain (from Philosophy) Image 2Adi Shankara is one of the most frequently studied Hindu philosophers. (from Philosophy) Image 3The School of Athens (1509–1511) by Raphael, depicting famous classical Greek philosophers in an idealized setting inspired by ancient Greek architecture (from Philosophy) Image 4Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an English writer and philosopher. (from Philosophy) Image 5An Iranian portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age. (from Philosophy) Image 6The Beijing imperial college was an intellectual center for Confucian ethics and classics during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. (from Philosophy) Image 7Thomas Hobbes, best known for his Leviathan, which expounded an influential formulation of social contract theory. (from Philosophy) Image 8Statue of Aristotle (384–322 BCE), a major figure of ancient Greek philosophy, in the Aristotlepark, Stagira (from Philosophy) Image 9Martin Luther King Jr. (from Philosophy) Image 10The parable of the blind men and the elephant illustrates the important Jain doctrine of anēkāntavāda (from Philosophy) Image 11A Tlamatini (Aztec philosopher) observing the stars, from the Codex Mendoza. (from Philosophy) Image 12A painting of the influential modern philosopher Immanuel Kant (in the blue coat) with his friends. Other figures include Christian Jakob Kraus, Johann Georg Hamann, Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel and Karl Gottfried Hagen (from Philosophy) Image 13The beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics in an incunabulum decorated with hand-painted miniatures. (from Philosophy) Image 14Dignaga founded a school of Buddhist epistemology and logic. (from Philosophy) Image 15Kitaro Nishida, considered the founder of the Kyoto School of philosophical thought, c. 1943 (from Philosophy) Image 16Painting of Zera Yacob from Claude Sumner's Classical Ethiopian Philosophy. (from Philosophy) Task forces WikiProject Philosophy Philosophers Φ Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Social Φ Ancient Φ Medieval Φ Modern Φ Contemporary Φ Analytic Φ Continental Φ Anarchism Marxism Eastern Φ Φ of Language Φ of Mind Φ of Religion Φ of Science Related WikiProjects Alternative views Arts Atheism Biblical criticism Biography Christianity theology Hindu Philosophy History of Science History Islam Judaism Linguistics Literature Mathematics Middle ages Mythology Physics Rational skepticism Religion Science Spirituality Tasks WikiProject Philosophy task list Falsificationism Looking for comments on lead. Optimism should have a separate page that focuses on the philosophical idea of optimism and distinguishes the philosophical view from "positive thinking" and other everyday uses of the word. Philosophy of social science, has some okay points but requires elaboration on Wittgenstein and Winch, perhaps other linguistic critiques, whether logical positivist or postmodernist. Exchange value needs to be redone, it shouldn't be under 'Marxist theory'- although it's an important component of Marxist theory it's also vital for all economics. That said the article's weight on Marx is also absurd. German Idealism and the articles related to it may need to be rewritten or expanded to avoid undue weight on Arthur Schopenhauer. Protected values first section confuses right action and values and needs a copy edit, moving and wikifying Quality (philosophy) needs a more clear explanation. Socratic dialogues could do with some tidying and clarification. See the talk page for one suggested change. Problem of universals: The introductory definition is (perhaps) fixed. But, the article is poor. Check out the German version. Teleology: the article is shallow and inconsistent. Existentialism: the quality of this article varies wildly and is in desperate need of expert attention. Analytic philosophy This is a very major topic, but still has several sections which are stubs, and several topics which are not covered. Lifeworld A philosophical concept that seems to have fallen exclusively into the hands of the sociologists. Could use some attention; it's a major and complex issue in phenomenology. Perception Needs the attention of philosophically minded Wikipedians. This is only the start of an overhaul of perception and related articles. 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en-wikipedia-org-413	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NLR identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NLR identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NLR identifiers.The NLR identifier appears as Romania in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P1003. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories can be used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with NLR identifiers" The following 155 pages are in this category, out of 155 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Pieter van der Aa Woody Allen Yasser Arafat Hannah Arendt Lance Armstrong Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Attila Margaret Atwood B George Back Leopoldina Bălănuță Marga Barbu Béla Bartók Batavia (1628 ship) Ludwig van Beethoven Otto von Bismarck William Blake Claudiu Bleonț Anthony Blunt Heinrich Böll Jorge Luis Borges Ray Bradbury Johannes Brahms Leonid Brezhnev Lord Byron C Albert Camus Giacomo Casanova Catherine the Great Nicolae Ceaușescu Zoia Ceaușescu Paul Celan Charlie Chaplin Charlemagne Hillary Clinton Constantin Codrescu George Constantin Octavian Cotescu D Mircea Daneliuc Charles Darwin René Descartes Charles Dickens Denis Diderot Mircea Dinescu Gheorghe Dinică Walt Disney David Duchovny E Ilya Ehrenburg Albert Einstein Sergei Eisenstein Mihai Eminescu Adrian Enescu George Enescu Paul Erdős G Galileo Galilei Johann Wolfgang von Goethe H Stephen Hawking Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Thor Heyerdahl Adolf Hitler Enver Hoxha Victor Hugo Alexander von Humboldt Hungarian Theatre of Cluj I Ștefan Iordache Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico Marcel Iureș J Michael Jackson Stefan Jäger Eugen Jebeleanu Julius Caesar K Franz Kafka Frida Kahlo Ioannis Kapodistrias Robert F. 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Tolkien Leo Tolstoy Donald Trump V Tora Vasilescu Andi Vasluianu Aglaja Veteranyi Dorel Vișan Gheorghe Visu Vlad the Impaler Aurel Vlaicu Voltaire W Raoul Wallenberg George Washington Johnny Weissmuller Ernest Wichner Oscar Wilde Z Émile Zola Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NLR_identifiers&oldid=908338592" Categories: Pages with NLR identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Miscellaneous pages with NLR identifiers Tracking categories Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 101–200 pages Template Category TOC with non-left alignment CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Bosanski 한국어 Ilokano עברית 日本語 Sardu Scots Suomi ไทย Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 29 July 2019, at 02:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4142	----	Virtual International Authority File - Wikipedia Virtual International Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VIAF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file For use of VIAF with Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control and Wikipedia:VIAF/errors. Virtual International Authority File Screenshot 2012 Acronym VIAF Organisation OCLC Introduced 6 August 2003 (2003-08-06) Example 106965171 Website viaf.org The Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) is an international authority file. It is a joint project of several national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC).[1] Contents 1 History 2 VIAF clusters 3 Participating libraries and organizations 3.1 Libraries added for testing purposes 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Discussion about having a common international authority started in the late 1800s. After a series of failed attempts to come up with a unique common authority file, the new idea was to link existing national authorities. This would present all the benefits of a common file without requiring a large investment of time and expense in the process.[2] The VIAF concept was introduced at the 2003 World Library and Information Congress, hosted by the International Federation of Library Associations.[3] The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress (LC), the German National Library (DNB) and the OCLC on 6 August 2003.[4][5] The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) joined the project on 5 October 2007. The project transitioned to being a service of the OCLC on 4 April 2012.[6] The aim is to link the national authority files (such as the German Name Authority File) to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together. A VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary "see" and "see also" records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are made available online and are available for research and data exchange and sharing. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) protocol. The file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata.[7][8] Christine L. Borgman groups VIAF with the International Standard Name Identifier and ORCID systems, describing all three as "loosely coordinated efforts to standardize name forms".[9] Borgman characterizes all three systems as attempts to solve the problem of author name disambiguation, which has grown in scale as the quantity of data multiplies.[9] She notes that VIAF, unlike the other two systems, is led by libraries, as opposed to individual authors or creators.[9] VIAF clusters[edit] VIAF's clustering algorithm is run every month. As more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records.[10] Participating libraries and organizations[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Bibliotheca Alexandrina EGAXA Arabic: مكتبة الإسكندرية‎ Alexandria Egypt Biblioteca Nacional de Chile BNCHL Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Santiago Chile Biblioteca Nacional de España BNE Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Madrid Spain Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal PTBNP Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal Lisbon Portugal Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec B2Q French: Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Quebec Canada Bibliothèque nationale de France BnF French: Bibliothèque nationale de France Paris France Bibliothèque Nationale du Royaume du Maroc (BNRM) MRBNR Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية للمملكة المغربية‎ French: Bibliothèque nationale du Royaume du Maroc Rabat Morocco Biografisch Portaal BPN Dutch: Biografisch Portaal The Hague Netherlands British Library – London England Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces Danish: Kulturstyrelsen Copenhagen Denmark Danish Bibliographic Centre DBC Danish: Dansk BiblioteksCenter Ballerup Denmark German National Library (DNB) GND German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Frankfurt Germany International Standard Name Identifier[11] ISNI – London United Kingdom Israel Museum Hebrew: מוזיאון ישראל‎ Jerusalem Israel Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico ICCU SBN Italian: Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico Rome Italy Lebanese National Library LNL Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية‎ Beirut Lebanon Library and Archives Canada LAC French: Bibliothèque et Archives Canada Ottawa, Ontario Canada Library of Congress NACO consortium (Name Authority Cooperative Program)[12] LCCN – Washington, D.C. United States National and University Library in Zagreb NSK Croatian: Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu Zagreb Croatia National and University Library of Slovenia Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica Ljubljana Slovenia National Central Library NCL CYT Chinese: 國家圖書館 Taipei Taiwan National Diet Library NDL Japanese: 国立国会図書館 Tokyo Kyoto Japan National Institute of Informatics NII CiNii Japanese: 国立情報学研究所 Tokyo Japan National Library Board NLB – – Singapore National Library of Australia NLA – Canberra Australia National Library of Brazil BLBNB Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil Rio de Janeiro Brazil National Library of Catalonia BNC Catalan: Biblioteca de Catalunya Barcelona Spain National Library of Estonia ERRR Estonian: Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu Tallinn Estonia National and University Library of Iceland (NULI) UIY Icelandic: Háskólabókasafn Reykjavík Iceland National Library of Ireland N6I Irish: Leabharlann Náisiúnta na hÉireann Dublin Ireland National Library of Israel NLI Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎ Jerusalem Israel National Library of Korea KRNLK Korean: 국립중앙도서관 Seoul Korea National Library of Latvia LNB Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka Riga Latvia National Library of Luxembourg BNL Luxembourgish: Nationalbibliothéik Lëtzebuerg French: Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg City Luxembourg National Library of Mexico BNM Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de México Mexico City Mexico National Library of the Netherlands NTA Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek The Hague Netherlands National Library of New Zealand – Wellington New Zealand National Library of Norway BIBSYS W2Z Norwegian: Nasjonalbiblioteket Trondheim Norway National Library of Poland NLP Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa Warsaw Poland National Library of Russia NLR Russian: Российская национальная библиотека Saint Petersburg Russia National Library of Scotland Scottish Gaelic: Leabharlann Nàiseanta na h-Alba Scots: Naitional Leebrar o Scotland Edinburgh Scotland National Library of South Africa Afrikaans: Staats-Bibliotheek der Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek Cape Town Pretoria South Africa National Library of Sweden SELIBR Swedish: Kungliga biblioteket - Sveriges nationalbibliotek Stockholm Sweden National Library of Wales Welsh: Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru Aberystwyth Wales National Library of the Czech Republic NKC Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky Prague Czech Republic National Széchényi Library NSZL Hungarian: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár Budapest Hungary Perseus Project PERSEUS – Medford, Massachusetts United States RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) RERO German: Westschweizer Bibliothekverbund French: Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Italian: Rete delle bibliotheche della Svizzera occidentale Martigny Switzerland Répertoire International des Sources Musicales RISM – Frankfurt Germany Système universitaire de documentation SUDOC French: Système universitaire de documentation – France Syriac Reference Portal SRP – Nashville, Tennessee United States Swiss National Library SWNL German: Schweizerische Nationalbibliothek French: Bibliothèque nationale suisse Italian: Biblioteca nazionale svizzera Romansh: Biblioteca naziunala svizra Bern Switzerland Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny, NUKAT [pl] NUKAT Polish: Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny – Poland Union List of Artist Names – Getty Research Institute ULAN JPG – Los Angeles, California United States United States National Agricultural Library NALT – Beltsville, Maryland United States United States National Library of Medicine – Bethesda, Maryland United States Vatican Library BAV Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana – Vatican City Vlaamse openbare bibliotheken (VLACC): Bibnet [nl] VLACC Dutch: Vlaamse Centrale Catalogus Brussels Belgium Wikidata WKP – Berlin, Germany International Libraries added for testing purposes[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Lithuanian National Library LIH Lithuanian: Lietuvos nacionalinė Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka Vilnius Lithuania National and University Library of Slovenia / COBISS SIMACOB Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, NUK Ljubljana Slovenia See also[edit] Authority control Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) Integrated Authority File (GND) International Standard Authority Data Number (ISADN) International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) Wikipedia's authority control template for articles References[edit] ^ Kelley, Michael; Schwartz, Meredith (2012). "VIAF service transitions to OCLC". Library Journal. Media Source Inc. 137 (8): 16.  ^ O'Neill, Edward T. (12 August 2016). "VIAF: Origins" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ Loesch, Martha Fallahay (28 February 2011). "The Virtual International Authority File". Technical Services Quarterly. 28 (2): 255–256. doi:10.1080/07317131.2011.546304. ISSN 0731-7131. S2CID 62694070. ^ Morris, Susan R. (September 2003). "Virtual International Authority". Library of Congress Information Bulletin. Library of Congress. Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ Agnew, Grace (2008). Digital Rights Management: A Librarian's Guide to Technology and Practise. Chandos Publishing. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-84334-125-3. OCLC 62715356. ^ Murphy, Bob (4 April 2012). "Virtual International Authority File service transitions to OCLC; contributing institutions continue to shape direction through VIAF Council" (Press release). OCLC. Dublin, OH. ^ Klein, Max; Renspie, Melissa (7 December 2012). "VIAFbot Edits 250,000 Wikipedia Articles to Reciprocate All Links from VIAF into Wikipedia". OCLC. ^ Klein, Maximilian; Kyrios, Alex (14 October 2013). "VIAFbot and the Integration of Library Data on Wikipedia". The Code4Lib Journal (22). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ a b c Borgman 2015, p. 260. ^ Hickey, Thomas B.; Toves, Jenny A. (July 2014). "Managing Ambiguity In VIAF". D-Lib Magazine. Corporation for National Research Initiatives. 20 (7/8). doi:10.1045/july2014-hickey. ^ MacEwan, Andrew (12 August 2016). "ISNI and VIAF" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ "NACO - Name Authority Cooperative Program". Library of Congress. Sources[edit] Borgman, Christine L. (2015). Big Data, Little Data, No Data: Scholarship in the Networked World. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-32786-2. OCLC 900409008. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to VIAF. Wikidata has the property: VIAF ID (P214) (see uses) Official website VIAF at OCLC v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_International_Authority_File&oldid=1021208977" Categories: Identifiers Library cataloging and classification Library of Congress OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Portuguese-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing Danish-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing Croatian-language text Articles containing Slovene-language text Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Japanese-language text Articles containing Catalan-language text Articles containing Estonian-language text Articles containing Icelandic-language text Articles containing Irish-language text Articles containing Korean-language text Articles containing Latvian-language text Articles containing Luxembourgish-language text Articles containing Norwegian-language text Articles containing Polish-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text Articles containing Scots-language text Articles containing Afrikaans-language text Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text Articles containing Czech-language text Articles containing Hungarian-language text Articles containing Romansh-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Lithuanian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Ligure Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2021, at 14:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4161	----	Constantine VII - Wikipedia Constantine VII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 913 to 959 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine VII Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Byzantine emperor Reign 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 Predecessor Alexander Successor Romanos II Co-emperors Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos (924–945) Romanos II (945–959) Born 17 or 18 May 905[1] Constantinople Died 9 November 959 (aged 54)[1] Constantinople Spouse Helena Lekapene Issue Romanos II Theodora Names Konstantinos Flavios Porphyrogennetos ("the Purple-born") Dynasty Macedonian dynasty Father Leo VI the Wise Mother Zoe Karbonopsina Constantine VII Flavius Porphyrogenitus (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Φλάβιος Πορφυρογέννητος, translit. Kōnstantinos Flāvios Porphyrogennētos; 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Alexander. Most of his reign was dominated by co-regents: from 913 until 919 he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945 he shared the throne with Romanos Lekapenos, whose daughter Helena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for the Geoponika (τά γεοπονικά), an important agronomic treatise compiled during his reign, and his four books, De Administrando Imperio (bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ῥωμανόν),[2] De Ceremoniis (Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως), De Thematibus (Περὶ θεμάτων Άνατολῆς καὶ Δύσεως), and Vita Basilii (Βίος Βασιλείου).[3][4] The epithet porphyrogenitus alludes to the Purple chamber of the imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time. Nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimate son, as opposed to all others, who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born "in the purple". Contents 1 Life 1.1 Regency 1.2 Senior emperor 2 Literary activity 3 Family 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Life[edit] Gold solidus of Leo VI and Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, 908–912 Regency[edit] Constantine was born in Constantinople in 905, an illegitimate son of Leo VI before an uncanonical fourth marriage.[5] To help legitimize him, his mother gave birth to him in the Purple Room of the imperial palace, hence his nickname Porphyrogennetos. He was elevated to the throne as a two-year-old child by his father and uncle on May 15, 908.[5] In June 913, as his uncle Alexander lay dying, he appointed a seven-man regency council for Constantine.[6] It was headed by the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, the two magistroi John Eladas and Stephen, the rhaiktor John Lazanes, the otherwise obscure Euthymius and Alexander's henchmen Basilitzes and Gabrielopoulos.[7] Following Alexander's death, the new and shaky regime survived the attempted usurpation of Constantine Doukas,[8] and Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos quickly assumed a dominant position among the regents.[9] Follis of Constantine and his mother Zoe minted during Zoe's regency Patriarch Nicholas was presently forced to make peace with Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, whom he reluctantly recognized as Bulgarian emperor.[10] Because of this unpopular concession, Patriarch Nicholas was driven out of the regency by Constantine's mother Zoe. She was no more successful with the Bulgarians, who defeated her main supporter, the general Leo Phokas, in 917.[11] In March 919, she was replaced as regent by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine.[12] Romanos used his position to advance to the ranks of basileopatōr in May 919, to kaisar (Caesar) in September 920, and finally to co-emperor in December 920.[13] Thus, just short of reaching nominal majority, Constantine was eclipsed by a senior emperor. Constantine's youth had been a sad one due to his unpleasant appearance, his taciturn nature, and his relegation to the third level of succession, behind Christopher Lekapenos, the eldest son of Romanos I Lekapenos.[14][15] Nevertheless, he was a very intelligent young man with a large range of interests, and he dedicated those years to studying the court's ceremonial. Senior emperor[edit] Constantine and Simeon dining Romanos kept and maintained power until December 944, when he was deposed by his sons, the co-emperors Stephen and Constantine.[16][17] Romanos spent the last years of his life in exile on the Island of Prote as a monk and died on June 15, 948.[18] With the help of his wife, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, and on January 27, 945, Constantine VII became sole emperor at the age of 39, after a life spent in the shadow.[19] Several months later, Constantine VII crowned his own son Romanos II co-emperor.[20] Having never exercised executive authority, Constantine remained primarily devoted to his scholarly pursuits and relegated his authority to bureaucrats and generals, as well as to his energetic wife Helena Lekapene. In 947, Constantine VII ordered the immediate restitution of all peasant lands, without compensation; by the end of his reign, the condition of the landed peasantry, which formed the foundation of the whole economic and military strength of the Empire, was better off than it had been for a century.[21] The Madrid Skylitzes' depiction of Constantine on his deathbed In 949, Constantine launched a new fleet of 100 ships (20 dromons, 64 chelandia, and 10 galleys) against the Arab corsairs hiding in Crete, but like his father's attempt to retake the island in 911, this attempt also failed. On the Eastern frontier things went better, even if with alternate success. In the same year, the Byzantines conquered Germanicea, repeatedly defeated the enemy armies, and in 952 they crossed the upper Euphrates. But in 953, the Hamdanid amir Sayf al-Daula retook Germanicea and entered the imperial territory. The land in the east was eventually recovered by Nikephoros Phokas, who conquered Hadath, in northern Syria, in 958, and by the general John Tzimiskes, who one year later captured Samosata, in northern Mesopotamia. An Arab fleet was also destroyed by Greek fire in 957. Constantine's efforts to retake themes lost to the Arabs were the first such efforts to have any real success. Constantine had active diplomatic relationships with foreign courts, including those of the caliph of Cordoba Abd ar-Rahman III and of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. In the autumn of 957 Constantine was visited by Olga of Kiev, regent of the Kievan Rus'. The reasons for this voyage have never been clarified; but she was baptised a Christian with the name Helena, and sought Christian missionaries to encourage her people to adopt Christianity. According to legends, Constantine VII fell in love with Olga, but she found a way to refuse him by tricking him into becoming her godfather. When she was baptized, she said it was inappropriate for a godfather to marry his goddaughter.[22] Constantine VII died at Constantinople in November 959 and was succeeded by his son Romanos II.[23] It was rumored that Constantine had been poisoned by his son or his daughter-in-law Theophano. Literary activity[edit] A gardening calendar from the Geoponika, MS.Laur.Plut.59.32 f.171v Constantine VII was recognized as a writer and scholar. He gathered a circle educated people and they are written several unfinished books with the completed book Life of Basil, grandfather of Constantine VII.[3] He wrote, or had commissioned, the works Geoponika ("On Agriculture", in Greek Τὰ γεοπονικά), a compilation of agronomic works from earlier Greek and Punic texts that are otherwise lost; De Ceremoniis ("On Ceremonies", in Greek, Περὶ τῆς βασιλείου τάξεως), describing the kinds of court ceremonies (also described later in a more negative light by Liutprand of Cremona); De Administrando Imperio ("On the Administration of the Empire", bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον ὑιὸν Ρωμανόν),[2] giving advice on running the Empire internally and on fighting external enemies; a history of the Empire covering events following the death of the chronographer Theophanes the Confessor in 817; and Excerpta Historica ("Excerpts from the Histories"), a collection of excerpts from ancient historians (many of whose works are now lost) in four volumes (1. De legationibus. 2. De virtutibus et vitiis. 3. De insidiis. 4. De sententiis). In The Manuscript Tradition of Polybius, John Michael Moore (CUP, 1965) provides a useful summary of the commission by Porphyrogenitus of the Constantine Excerpts: He felt that the historical studies were being seriously neglected, mainly because of the bulk of the histories. He therefore decided that a selection under fifty-three titles should be made from all the important historians extant in Constantinople; thus he hoped to assemble in a more manageable compass the most valuable parts of each author. ... Of the fifty-three titles into which the excerpts were divided, only six have survived: de Virtutibus et Vitiis; de Sententiis; de Insidiis; de Strategematis; de Legationibus Gentium ad Romanos; de Legationibus Romanorum ad Gentes. The titles of only about half the remaining forty-seven sections are known.[24] Also amongst his historical works is a history eulogizing the reign and achievements of his grandfather, Basil I (Vita Basilii, Βίος Βασιλείου). These books are insightful and of interest to the historian, sociologist, and anthropologist as a source of information about nations neighbouring the Empire. They also offer a fine insight into the Emperor himself. In his book, A Short History of Byzantium, John Julius Norwich refers to Constantine VII as "The Scholar Emperor".[25] Norwich describes Constantine: He was, we are told, a passionate collector—not only of books and manuscripts but works of art of every kind; more remarkable still for a man of his class, he seems to have been an excellent painter. He was the most generous of patrons—to writers and scholars, artists and craftsmen. Finally, he was an excellent Emperor: a competent, conscientious and hard-working administrator and an inspired picker of men, whose appointments to military, naval, ecclesiastical, civil and academic posts were both imaginative and successful. He did much to develop higher education and took a special interest in the administration of justice.[26] Family[edit] By his wife Helena Lekapene, the daughter of Emperor Romanos I, Constantine VII had several children, including: Leo, who died young. Romanos II. Zoe, sent to a convent. Theodora, who married Emperor John I Tzimiskes. Agatha, sent to a convent. Theophano, sent to a convent. Anna, sent to a convent. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b "Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 502. ISBN 0195046528 ^ a b Moravcsik 1967. ^ a b Logos 2019, pp. 10, 10B. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. p. 10. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 260. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 473. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 47–48. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 49–50. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 49ff.. ^ Runciman 1930, p. 275. ^ Garland 1999, p. 121. ^ Garland 1999, p. 123. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 264. ^ Logos 2019, pp. 10, 10B and note 9. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. pp. 10 and note 9. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ Logos 2019, pp. 11-12, 11-12B. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 278. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 278-279. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 279. ^ Norwich, 182-83. ^ S. H. Cross and O. P. Sherbowizt-Wetzor (trans.) (1953). The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text. Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9780915651320. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 283. ^ Moore, 127. ^ Norwich, John Julius. (1997) A Short History of Byzantium. London: Viking, p. 180. ISBN 0-679-45088-2 ^ Norwich, 181. Sources[edit] Constantine VII, De ceremoniis, ed. J. Reiske (2 vols., 1829, 1830). English translation 'The Book of Ceremonies' accompanying the Greek text in 2 volumes by Ann Moffatt and Maxeme Tall, Canberra 2012 (Byzantina Australiensia 18). Constantine VII, 'Story of the Image of Edessa', tr. B. Slater, J. Jackson, in I. Wilson, The Turin Shroud (1978), p. 235-51 Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. Routledge. Constantine VII, Three treatises on Imperial military expeditions, ed. tr. J.F. Haldon (1990). Ферјанчић, Божидар (1959). "Константин VII Порфирогенит". Византиски извори за историју народа Југославије. 2. Београд: Византолошки институт. pp. 1–98. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. Moravcsik, Gyula, ed. (1967) [1949]. Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (2nd revised ed.). Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 9780884020219. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-0599-2. Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521357227. Runciman, Steven (1930). A History of the First Bulgarian Empire. G. Bell & sons Ltd.275 Toynbee, Arnold (1973). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and his world. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-215253-X. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Živković, Tibor (2006). "Constantine Porhyrogenitus and the Ragusan Authors before 1611" (PDF). Историјски часопис. 53: 145–164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-24. Retrieved 2018-12-30. Živković, Tibor (2008). "Constantine Porphyrogenitus' Kastra oikoumena in the Southern Slavs Principalities" (PDF). Историјски часопис. 57: 9–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-24. Retrieved 2018-12-30. Živković, Tibor (2010). "Constantine Porphyrogenitus' Source on the Earliest History of the Croats and Serbs". Radovi Zavoda Za Hrvatsku Povijest U Zagrebu. 42: 117–131. Živković, Tibor (2012). De conversione Croatorum et Serborum: A Lost Source. Belgrade: The Institute of History. Logos, Aleksandar (2019), "De administrando imperio: Time of creation and some corrections for translation", academia.edu, retrieved 2020-11-15 Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Konstantinos VII Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos VII Porphyrogennetos. Cawley, Charles, Listing of Constantine VII and his family in "Medieval Lands", Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes De administrando Imperio chapters 29–36 at the Internet Archive Constantine VII Macedonian Dynasty Born: September 905 Died: 9 November 959 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexander Byzantine emperor 6 June 913 –9 November 959 with Romanos I (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos (924–945) Constantine Lekapenos (924–945) Succeeded by Romanos II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Logothete Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes v t e Byzantine music List of composers Composers Romanos the Melodist Andrew of Crete John of Damascus Cosmas of Maiuma Stephen the Sabaite Theodore the Studite Theophanes the Branded Kassia Joseph the Hymnographer Joseph the Confessor Leo VI the Wise Constantine VII Nikephoros Ethikos Gregorios Glykys John Koukouzelis Xenos Korones Joannes Glykys John Kladas Manuel Chrysaphes* Janus Plousiadenos Theorists Manuel Bryennios Liturgy Paschal troparion Octoechos Associated forms Aposticha Canon Cherubikon Byzantine Rite Kathisma Koinonikon Kontakion Akathist Troparion Sticheron Theory Petasti 72 equal temperament Byzantine Musical Symbols Echos Octoechos Nenano Neobyzantine Octoechos Hagiopolitan Octoechos Papadic Octoechos Nana (echos) Ison Instruments Byzantine lyra Cretan lyra Thaboura Organon See also Protopsaltes Cappella Romana Museum of Ancient Greek, Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Musical Instruments School of Ecclesiastic Music *also music theorist Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Czech Republic Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VII&oldid=1027090718" Categories: Constantine VII 905 births 959 deaths 10th-century Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine writers Macedonian dynasty Byzantine hymnographers Patrons of literature Medieval child rulers Porphyrogennetoi 910s in the Byzantine Empire 920s in the Byzantine Empire 930s in the Byzantine Empire 940s in the Byzantine Empire 950s in the Byzantine Empire 960s in the Byzantine Empire 970s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text 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en-wikipedia-org-4167	----	Romanos II - Wikipedia Romanos II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 959 to 963 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Romanos II Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold solidus with Romanos II and his father, Constantine VII Byzantine emperor Reign 6 April 945 – 9 November 959 (as junior co-emperor) 9 November 959 – 15 March 963 (as senior emperor) Coronation 6 April 945 Predecessor Constantine VII Successor Nikephoros II Co-emperors Constantine VII (6 April 945 – 9 November 959) Basil II (960 – 15 March 963) Constantine VIII (962 – 15 March 963) Born c. 938 Died 15 March 963 (aged 24−25) Spouse Bertha of Italy Theophano Issue Basil II Constantine VIII Anna Porphyrogenita Dynasty Macedonian Father Constantine VII Mother Helena Lekapene Romanos II or Romanus II (Greek: Ρωμανός, c. 938 – 15 March 963) was Byzantine Emperor from 959 to 963. He succeeded his father Constantine VII at the age of twenty-one and died suddenly four years later. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Known as the "Romanos Ivory", this carved ivory plaque is thought by some scholars to represent the marriage of Romanos II and the child bride, Bertha/Eudokia being blessed by Christ. Romanos II was a son of the Emperor Constantine VII and Helena Lekapene, the daughter of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos and his wife Theodora.[1] Named after his maternal grandfather, Romanos was married, as a child, to Bertha, the illegitimate daughter of Hugh of Arles, King of Italy to bond an alliance. She had changed her name to Eudokia after their marriage, but died an early death in 949 before producing an heir, thus never becoming a real marriage, and dissolving the alliance.[2] On 27 January 945, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, the sons of Romanos I, assuming the throne alone. On 6 April 945 (Easter), Constantine crowned his son co-emperor.[3] With Hugh out of power in Italy and dead by 947, Romanos secured the promise from his father that he would be allowed to select his own bride. Romanos chose an innkeeper's daughter named Anastaso, whom he married in 956 and renamed Theophano.[citation needed] In November 959, Romanos II succeeded his father on the throne amidst rumors that he or his wife had poisoned him.[4] Romanos purged his father's courtiers of his enemies and replaced them with friends. To appease his bespelling wife, he excused his mother, Empress Helena, from court and forced his five sisters into convents. Nevertheless, many of Romanos' appointees were able men, including his chief adviser, the eunuch Joseph Bringas. The pleasure-loving sovereign could also leave military matters in the adept hands of his generals, in particular the brothers Leo and Nikephoros Phokas. In 960 Nikephoros Phokas was sent with a fleet of 1,000 dromons, 2,000 chelandia, and 308 transports (the entire fleet consisted of 27,000 oarsmen and marines) carrying 50,000 soldiers to recover Crete from the Muslims.[5] After a difficult campaign and nine-month Siege of Chandax, Nikephoros successfully re-established Byzantine control over the entire island in 961. Following a triumph celebrated at Constantinople, Nikephoros was sent to the eastern frontier, where the Emir of Aleppo Sayf al-Dawla was engaged in annual raids into Byzantine Anatolia. Nikephoros liberated Cilicia and even Aleppo in 962, sacking the palace of the Emir and taking possession of 390,000 silver dinars, 2,000 camels, and 1,400 mules. In the meantime Leo Phokas and Marianos Argyros had countered Magyar incursions into the Byzantine Balkans. Death of Romanos II After a lengthy hunting expedition Romanos II took ill and died on 15 March 963.[6] Rumor attributed his death to poison administered by his wife Theophano, but there is no evidence of this, and Theophano would have been risking much by exchanging the secure status of a crowned Augusta with the precarious one of a widowed Regent of her very young children. Romanos II's reliance on his wife and on bureaucrats like Joseph Bringas had resulted in a relatively capable administration, but this built up resentment among the nobility, which was associated with the military. In the wake of Romanos' death, his Empress Dowager, now Regent to the two co-emperors, her underage sons, was quick to marry the general Nikephoros Phokas and to acquire another general, John Tzimiskes, as her lover, having them both elevated to the imperial throne in succession. The rights of her sons were safeguarded, however, and eventually, when Tzimiskes died at war, her eldest son Basil II became senior emperor. Family[edit] Romanos' first marriage, in September 944,[7] was to Bertha, illegitimate daughter of Hugh of Arles, King of Italy, who changed her name to Eudokia after her marriage. She died in 949, her marriage unconsummated.[8] By his second wife Theophano he had at least three children: Basil II, born in 958[1] Constantine VIII, born in 960[1] Anna Porphyrogenita, born 13 March 963 See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a b c Reuter & McKitterick 1999, p. 699. ^ Ostrogorsky, George (1968). History of Byzantine. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 283. ISBN 0-8135-0599-2. ^ Skylitzes, John (c. 1057). Synopsis of Histories. Translated by John Wortley. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780511779657. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1904). The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire. V. According to Gibbon, "after a reign of four years, she mingled for her husband the same deadly draught which she had composed for his father.". London: Ballantyne, Hanson & CO. p. 247. ^ The above numbers are disputed. Most historians accept 100 dromons, 200 chelandia, 308 transports and a total of 77,000 men. The Byzantine navy was the continuation of the Roman navy. ^ Georgius Cedrenus − CSHB 9: 344: "Anno mundi 6471 mortuus est Romanus imperator, 15 die Martii mensis. indictione 6, annos natus 24. imperavit annos 3, menses 4, dies 5." [10 November 959 − 15 March 963] ^ Theophanes Continuatus records the marriage in September 944 of "Hugonem regem Franciæ...filiam" and "Romanus imperator...Romano Constantini generi sui filio", stating that she lived five years with her husband, although he confuses the identity of Bertha's father. Theophanes Continuatus, VI, Romani imperium, 46, p. 431. ^ Byzantine historian George Kedrenos recorded that that "filia Hugonis", married to "Romano", died a virgin. Liudprandi Antapodosis III.39, Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptorum III, p. 312. References[edit] Leo the Deacon, Histories Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists Who Came to America Before 1700 By Frederick Lewis Weis, Line 147-20 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Romanos II". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1806–1087. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0599-2. John Julius Norwich (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. ISBN 0394537785 Reuter, Timothy; McKitterick, Rosamond, eds. (1999). "Appendix". The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, c.900-c.1024. Cambridge University Press. Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Romanus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 583–584. External links[edit] Media related to Romanus II at Wikimedia Commons Romanos II Macedonian Dynasty Born: 938 Died: 963 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine VII Byzantine emperor 945–963 (with Constantine VII, Basil II, and Constantine VIII) Succeeded by Nikephoros II Phokas v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanos_II&oldid=1028551293" Categories: 10th-century Byzantine emperors Macedonian dynasty Constantine VII 930s births 963 deaths 950s in the Byzantine Empire 960s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 16:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4171	----	Raqqa - Wikipedia Raqqa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Syria. For the town in Tunisia, see Rougga. For the science fiction short film by Neill Blomkamp, see Rakka (film). "Nicephorium" and "Nikephorion" redirect here. For the town in ancient Osrhoene, now in Turkey, see Nicephorium (Osrhoene). City in Syria Raqqa ٱلرَّقَّة Reqa City Raqqa skyline The Euphrates Raqqa city walls Baghdad gate Qasr al-Banat Castle Uwais al-Qarni Mosque Raqqa Location of Raqqa within Syria Coordinates: 35°57′00″N 39°01′00″E / 35.95°N 39.0167°E / 35.95; 39.0167Coordinates: 35°57′00″N 39°01′00″E / 35.95°N 39.0167°E / 35.95; 39.0167 Country Syria Governorate Raqqa District Raqqa Subdistrict Raqqa Founded 244–242 BC Control Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria Area  • City 35 km2 (14 sq mi) Elevation 245 m (804 ft) Population (2019)  • City 300,000[1]  • Pre-Civil War City: 220,488 Nahiyah: 338,773[2] Demonym(s) Arabic: رقاوي‎, romanized: Raqqawi Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) P-Code C5710 Area code(s) 22 Geocode SY110100 Raqqa (Arabic: ٱلرَّقَّة‎, romanized: ar-Raqqah, also Raqa, Rakka and ar-Raqqah) is a city in Syria on the northeast bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 kilometres (99 miles) east of Aleppo. It is located 40 kilometres (25 miles) east of the Tabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine city and bishopric Callinicum (formerly a Latin and now a Maronite Catholic titular see) was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate between 796 and 809, under the reign of Harun al-Rashid. It was also the capital of the Islamic State from 2014 to 2017. With a population of 220,488 based on the 2004 official census, Raqqa is the sixth largest city in Syria.[2] During the Syrian Civil War, the city was captured in 2013 by the Syrian opposition and then by the Islamic State. ISIL made the city its capital in 2014.[3] As a result, the city was hit by airstrikes from the Syrian government, Russia, the United States, and several other countries. Most non-Sunni religious structures in the city were destroyed by ISIL, most notably the Shia Uwais al-Qarni Mosque, while others were converted into Sunni mosques. On 17 October 2017, following a lengthy battle that saw massive destruction to the city, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) declared the liberation of Raqqa from the Islamic State to be complete.[4] Contents 1 History 1.1 Hellenistic and Byzantine Kallinikos 1.2 Early Islamic period 1.3 Decline and period of Bedouin domination 1.4 Second blossoming 1.5 Ottoman period 1.6 20th century 1.7 Syrian civil war 1.7.1 Migrations 1.7.2 Control by the Islamic State (January 2014–October 2017) 1.7.3 Aftermath 1.7.4 Control by Syrian Democratic Forces (October 2017–present) 1.7.5 Scanning for Syria project (2017–2018) 2 Ecclesiastical history 2.1 Bishopric 2.2 Titular sees 2.2.1 Callinicum of the Romans 2.2.2 Callinicum of the Maronites 3 Media 4 Transportation 5 Climate 6 Notable locals 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Current news and events 10.2 Ecclesiastical 10.3 Historical and archeological History[edit] Hellenistic and Byzantine Kallinikos[edit] The area of Raqqa has been inhabited since remote antiquity, as attested by the mounds (tells) of Tall Zaydan and Tall al-Bi'a, the latter being identified with the Babylonian city Tuttul.[5] The modern city traces its history to the Hellenistic period, with the foundation of the city of Nikephorion (Ancient Greek: Νικηφόριον, Latinized as Nicephorion or Nicephorium) by Seleucid King Seleucus I Nicator (reigned 301–281 BC). His successor, Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BC), enlarged the city and renamed it after himself as Kallinikos (Καλλίνικος, Latinized as Callinicum).[5] Isidore of Charax, in the Parthian Stations, writes that it was a Greek city, founded by Alexander the Great.[6][7] In Roman times, it was part of the Roman province of Osrhoene but had declined by the fourth century. Rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor Leo I (r. 457–474 AD) in 466, it was named Leontopolis (in Greek Λεοντόπολις or "city of Leon") after him, but the name Kallinikos prevailed.[8] The city played an important role in the Byzantine Empire's relations with Sassanid Persia and the wars fought between the two empires. By treaty, the city was recognized as one of the few official cross-border trading posts between the two empires, along with Nisibis and Artaxata. The town was near the site of a battle in 531 between Romans and Sasanians, when the latter tried to invade the Roman territories, surprisingly via arid regions in Syria, to turn the tide of the Iberian War. The Persians won the battle, but the casualties on both sides were high. In 542, the city was destroyed by the Persian Emperor Khusrau I (r. 531–579), who razed its fortifications and deported its population to Persia, but it was subsequently rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565). In 580, during another war with Persia, the future Emperor Maurice scored a victory over the Persians near the city during his retreat from an abortive expedition to capture Ctesiphon.[8] Early Islamic period[edit] The remains of the historic Baghdad gate In the year 639 or 640, the city fell to the Muslim conqueror Iyad ibn Ghanm. Since then, it has figured in Arabic sources as al-Raqqah.[5] At the surrender of the city, the Christian inhabitants concluded a treaty with Ibn Ghanm that is quoted by al-Baladhuri. The treaty allowed them freedom of worship in their existing churches but forbade the construction of new ones. The city retained an active Christian community well into the Middle Ages (Michael the Syrian records 20 Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) bishops from the 8th to the 12th centuries[9]), and it had at least four monasteries, of which the Saint Zaccheus Monastery remained the most prominent one.[5] The city's Jewish community also survived until at least the 12th century, when the traveller Benjamin of Tudela visited it and attended its synagogue.[5] Ibn Ghanm's successor as governor of Raqqa and the Jazira, Sa'id ibn Amir ibn Hidhyam, built the city's first mosque. The building was later enlarged to monumental proportions, measuring some 73 by 108 metres (240 by 354 feet), with a square brick minaret added later, possibly in the mid-10th century. The mosque survived until the early 20th century, being described by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld in 1907, but has since vanished.[5] Many companions of Muhammad lived in Raqqa. In 656, during the First Fitna, the Battle of Siffin, the decisive clash between Ali and the Umayyad Mu'awiya took place about 45 kilometres (28 mi) west of Raqqa. The tombs of several of Ali's followers (such as Ammar ibn Yasir and Uwais al-Qarani) are in Raqqa and have become sites of pilgrimage.[5] The city also contained a column with Ali's autograph, but it was removed in the 12th century and taken to Aleppo's Ghawth Mosque.[5] The strategic importance of Raqqa grew during the wars at the end of the Umayyad Caliphate and the beginning of the Abbasid Caliphate. Raqqa lay on the crossroads between Syria and Iraq and the road between Damascus, Palmyra and the temporary seat of the caliphate Resafa, al-Ruha'. Between 771 and 772, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur built a garrison city about 200 metres (660 feet) to the west of Raqqa for a detachment of his army. It was named al-Rāfiqah, "the companion", whose city wall is still visible. Raqqa and al-Rāfiqah merged into one urban complex, together larger than the former Umayyad capital, Damascus. In 796, the caliph Harun al-Rashid chose Raqqa/al-Rafiqah as his imperial residence. For about 13 years, Raqqa was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, which stretched from Northern Africa to Central Asia, but the main administrative body remained in Baghdad. The palace area of Raqqa covered an area of about 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) north of the twin cities. One of the founding fathers of the Hanafi school of law, Muḥammad ash-Shaibānī, was chief qadi (judge) in Raqqa. The splendour of the court in Raqqa is documented in several poems, collected by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahāni in his "Book of Songs" (Kitāb al-Aghāni). Only the small, restored so-called Eastern Palace at the fringes of the palace district gives an impression of Abbasid architecture. Some of the palace complexes dating to the period have been excavated by a German team on behalf of the Director General of Antiquities. There was also a thriving industrial complex located between the twin cities. Both German and English teams have excavated parts of the industrial complex, revealing comprehensive evidence for pottery and glass production. Apart from large dumps of debris, the evidence consisted of pottery and glass workshops, containing the remains of pottery kilns and glass furnaces.[10] Approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of Raqqa lay the unfinished victory monument Heraqla from the time of Harun al-Rashid. It is said to commemorate the conquest of the Byzantine city of Herakleia in Asia Minor in 806. Other theories connect it with cosmological events. The monument is preserved in a substructure of a square building in the centre of a circular walled enclosure, 500 metres (1,600 ft) in diameter. However, the upper part was never finished because of the sudden death of Harun al-Rashid in Greater Khorasan. After the return of the court to Baghdad in 809, Raqqa remained the capital of the western part of the Abassid Caliphate. Decline and period of Bedouin domination[edit] Raqqa's fortunes declined in the late 9th century because of continuous warfare between the Abbasids and the Tulunids, and then with the Shia movement of the Qarmatians. Under the Hamdānids in the 940s, the city declined rapidly. From the late 10th century to the early 12th century, Raqqa was controlled by Bedouin dynasties. The Banu Numayr had their pasture in the Diyār Muḍar, and the Banu Uqay had their centre in Qal'at Ja'bar. Second blossoming[edit] Raqqa experienced a second blossoming, based on agriculture and industrial production, during the Zangid and Ayyubid dynasties during the 12th and the first half of the 13th century. The blue-glazed Raqqa ware dates from this time. The still-visible Bāb Baghdād (Baghdad Gate) and the Qasr al-Banāt (Castle of the Ladies) are notable buildings of the period. The famous ruler 'Imād ad-Dīn Zangī, who was killed in 1146, was initially buried in Raqqa, which was destroyed during the 1260s Mongol invasions of the Levant. There is a report on the killing of the last inhabitants of the ruins of the city in 1288. Ottoman period[edit] Raqqa Museum In the 16th century, Raqqa again entered the historical record as an Ottoman customs post on the Euphrates. The eyalet (province) of Raqqa was created. However, the capital of the eyalet and seat of the Wāli was not Raqqa but Al-Ruha', which is about 160 kilometres (99 mi) north of Raqqa. From the 1820s, Raqqa was a place of wintering for the semi-nomadic Arab 'Afadla tribal confederation and was little more than its extensive archeological remains. It was the establishment in 1864 by the Ottomans of the Karakul Janissary garrison, in the south-east corner of the Abbasid enclosure, that led to the revival of the modern city of Raqqa.[11] Over the following decades, the province became the centre of the Ottoman Empire's tribal settlement (iskân) policy.[12] The first families that settled in Raqqa were nicknamed ''The Ghul'' by the surrounding Arab semi-nomadic tribes from whom they bought the right to settle within the Abbasid enclosure, near the Janissary garrison. They used the ancient bricks of the enclosure to build the first buildings of modern Raqqa. They came under the protection of the surrounding Arab semi-nomadic tribes because they feared attacks from other neighboring tribes on their herds.[11] As a result, these families formed two alliances. One joined Kurds of the Mîlan tribe, Arabs of the Dulaim tribe, and possibly Turks as well. Most of the Kurdish families came from an area called ''Nahid Al-Jilab'', which is 20 kilometres (12 miles) northeast of Şanliurfa.[11] Prior to the Syrian Civil War, there were many families in Raqqa that still belonged to the Mîlan tribe such as Khalaf Al-Qasim, Al-Jado, Al-Hani and Al-Shawakh.[13] They claimed the area west of the Ottoman garrison.[11] The Mîlan tribe had been in Raqqa since 1711. The Ottomans issued an order to deport them from the Nahid Al-Jilab region to the Raqqa area. However most of the tribe was returned to their original home as a result of diseases among their cattle and frequent deaths due to the Raqqa climate. In the mid-18th century, the Ottomans recognised the Kurdish tribal chiefs and appointed Mahmud Kalash Abdi as head of the iskân policy in the region. The tribal chiefs had the power to impose taxes and control over other tribes in the region.[13] Some of the Kurdish families were displaced to the northern countryside of Raqqa by the Arab 'Annazah tribe, after they began working with the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon.[13] The other alliance, Asharin, came from the town of Al-Asharah downstream. It included several Arab tribes of the Al-Bu Badran and Mawali tribes. They claimed the area east of the Ottoman garrison.[11] The Raqqa Museum is housed in a building that was built in 1861 and served as an Ottoman governmental building.[14] 20th century[edit] In the early 20th century, two waves of Cherkess refugees from the Caucasian War were granted lands west of the Abbasid enclosure by the Ottomans.[11] In 1915, Armenians fleeing the Armenian genocide were given safe haven in Raqqa by the Arab Ujayli family. Many moved to Aleppo in the 1920s. Armenians have since then formed the majority of Raqqa's Christian community.[11] In the 1950s, the worldwide cotton boom stimulated unprecedented growth in the city and the recultivation of this part of the middle Euphrates area. Cotton is still the main agricultural product of the region. The growth of the city led to the destruction or removal of much of the archaeological remains of the city's past. The palace area is now almost covered with settlements, as is the former area of the ancient al-Raqqa (today Mishlab) and the former Abbasid industrial district (today al-Mukhtalţa). Only parts were archaeologically explored. The 12th-century citadel was removed in the 1950s (today Dawwār as-Sā'a, the clock-tower circle). In the 1980s, rescue excavations in the palace area began, as well as the conservation of the Abbasid city walls with the Bāb Baghdād and the two main monuments intra muros, the Abbasid mosque and the Qasr al-Banāt. Syrian civil war[edit] Main articles: Battle of Raqqa (2013), Raqqa offensive (2016), and Battle of Raqqa (2017) Raqqa city map In March 2013, during the Syrian Civil War, Islamist jihadist militants from Al-Nusra Front, Ahrar al-Sham, the Free Syrian Army, and other groups[3] overran the government loyalists in the city during the Battle of Raqqa (2013) and declared it under their control, after they had taken the central square and pulled down the statue of the former president of Syria, Hafez al-Assad.[15] Raqqa was the first provincial capital to fall to the Syrian rebels. The Al Qaeda-affiliated Al-Nusra Front set up a sharia court at the sports centre[16] and in early June 2013, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant said that it was open to receive complaints at its Raqqa headquarters.[17] Migrations[edit] Migration from Aleppo, Homs, Idlib and other inhabited places to the city occurred as a result of the ongoing civil war in the country, and Raqqa was known as the hotel of the revolution by some because of the number of people who moved there.[3] Control by the Islamic State (January 2014–October 2017)[edit] Destroyed neighborhood in Raqqa, August 2017 ISIL took complete control of Raqqa by 13 January 2014.[18] ISIL proceeded to execute Alawites and suspected supporters of Bashar al-Assad in the city and destroyed the city's Shia mosques and Christian churches[19] such as the Armenian Catholic Church of the Martyrs, which was then converted into an ISIL police headquarters and an Islamic centre, tasked to recruit new fighters.[20][21][22] The Christian population of Raqqa, which had been estimated to be as much as 10% of the total population before the civil war began, largely fled the city.[23][24][25] On 15 November 2015, France, in response to attacks in Paris two days earlier, dropped about 20 bombs on multiple ISIL targets in Raqqa.[26] Pro-government sources said that an anti-IS uprising took place between 5 and 7 March 2016.[27] On 26 October 2016, US Defense Secretary Ash Carter said that an offensive to take Raqqa from IS would begin within weeks.[28] The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), supported by the US, launched the Second Battle of Raqqa on 6 June 2017 and declared victory in the city on 17 October 2017. Bombardment by the US-led coalition led to the destruction of most of the city, including civilian infrastructure.[29][30][4] Some 270,000 people were said to have fled Raqqa.[31] Aftermath[edit] At the end of October 2017, the government of Syria issued a statement that said: "Syria considers the claims of the United States and its so-called alliance about the liberation of Raqqa city from ISIS to be lies aiming to divert international public opinion from the crimes committed by this alliance in Raqqa province.... more than 90% of Raqqa city has been leveled due to the deliberate and barbaric bombardment of the city and the towns near it by the alliance, which also destroyed all services and infrastructures and forced tens of thousands of locals to leave the city and become refugees. Syria still considers Raqqa to be an occupied city, and it can only be considered liberated when the Syrian Arab Army enters it".[32] Control by Syrian Democratic Forces (October 2017–present)[edit] See also: Eastern Syria Insurgency A Raqqa Internal Security Forces (RISF) member inspecting vehicles at a checkpoint, 18 August 2018 By June 2019, 300,000 residents had returned to the city, including 90,000 IDPs, and many shops in the city had reopened.[1] Through the efforts of the Global Coalition and the Raqqa Civil Council, several public hospitals and schools have been reopened, public buildings like the stadium, the Raqqa Museum, mosques and parks have been restored, anti-extremism educational centers for youth have been established and the rebuilding and restoration of roads, roundabouts and bridges, installation of solar-powered street lighting, water restoration, demining, re-institution of public transportation and rubble removal has taken place.[33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44] However, the Global Coalition's funding of the stabilization of the region has been limited, and the Coalition has stated that any large scale aid will be halted until a peace agreement for the future of Syria through the Geneva process has been reached. Rebuilding of residential houses and commercial buildings has been placed solely in the hands of civilians, there is a continued presence of rubble, unreliable electricity and water access in some areas, schools still lacking basic services and the presence of ISIL sleeper cells and IEDs. Some sporadic protests against the SDF have taken place in the city in the summer of 2018.[45][46][47][48][49] On 7 February 2019, the SDF media center announced the capture of 63 ISIL operatives in the city. According to the SDF, the operatives were a part of a sleeper cell and were all arrested within a 24-hour time span, ending the day-long curfew that was imposed on the city the day before.[50] In mid-February 2019, a mass grave holding an estimated 3,500 bodies was discovered below a plot of farmland in the Al-Fukheikha agricultural suburb. It was the largest mass grave discovered post-ISIL rule thus far. The bodies were reported to be the victims of executions when ISIL ruled the city.[51] In 2019 a project called the "Shelter Project" was launched by international organisations in coordination with the Raqqa Civil Council, providing funding to residents of partially destroyed buildings in order to aid with their reconstruction.[52] In April 2019 the rehabilitation of the Old Raqqa Bridge over the Euphrates was finished. The bridge was originally built by British forces during World War II in 1942.[53] The National Hospital in Raqqa was reopened after rehabilitation work in May 2019.[54] As a consequence of the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, the SDF called on the Syrian Arab Army to enter the areas under its rule, including in the area of Raqqa as part of a deal to prevent Turkish troops from capturing any more territory in northern Syria.[55][56] Scanning for Syria project (2017–2018)[edit] The Raqqa Museum had numerous clay tablets with cuneiform writing and many other objects vanishing in the fog of war. A particular set of those tablets were excavated by archaeologists from Leiden at the Tell Sabi Abyad. The excavation team casted silicone rubber moulds of the tablets before the war to create cast copies for subsequent studies in the Netherlands. As the original tablets were looted, those moulds became the only evidence of parts of the 12th century BC in Northern Syria. Having a lifespan of roughly thirty years, the moulds proved not be a durable solution, hence the need for digitization to counter the loss of the originals. Therefore the Scanning for Syria (SfS) project[57] was initiated by the Leiden University and Delft University of Technology under the auspices of the Leiden-Delft-Erasmus Centre for Global Heritage and Development.[58] The project received a NWO–KIEM Creatieve Industrie grant to use of 3D acquisition and 3D printing technology to make high quality reproductions of the clay tablets.[59] In collaboration with the Catholic University of Louvain and the Heidelberg University several imaging technologies were explored to find the best solution to capture the precious texts hidden within the concavities of the moulds. In the end, the X-ray micro-CT scanner housed at the TU Delft laboratory of Geoscience and Engineering turned out to be a good compromise between time-efficiency, accuracy and text recovery. Accurate digital 3D reconstructions of the original clay tablets were created using the CT data of the silicon moulds.[60] Furthermore, the Forensic Computational Geometry Laboratory in Heidelberg dramatically decreased the time for decipherment of a tablet by automatically computing high quality images using the GigaMesh Software Framework. These images clearly show the cuneiform characters in publication quality, which otherwise would have taken many hours to manually craft a matching drawing.[61] The 3D-models and high-quality images have become accessible to both scholar and non-scholar communities worldwide. Physical replicas were produced using 3D-printing. The 3D-prints serve as teaching material in Assyriology classes as well as for visitors of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden to experience the ingenuity of Assyrian cuneiform writing. In 2020, the SfS received the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage of the Europa Nostra in the category research.[62] Ecclesiastical history[edit] In the 6th century, Kallinikos became a center of Assyrian monasticism. Dayra d'Mār Zakkā, or the Saint Zacchaeus monastery, situated on Tall al-Bi'a, became renowned. A mosaic inscription there is dated to the year 509, presumably from the period of the foundation of the monastery. Daira d'Mār Zakkā is mentioned by various sources up to the 10th century. The second important monastery in the area was the Bīzūnā monastery or Dairā d-Esţunā, the 'monastery of the column'. The city became one of the main cities of the historical Diyār Muḍar, the western part of the Jazīra.[citation needed] Michael the Syrian records twenty Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) bishops from the 8th to the 12th centuries[9]—and had at least four monasteries, of which the Saint Zaccheus Monastery remained the most prominent. In the 9th century, when Raqqa served as capital of the western half of the Abbasid Caliphate, Dayra d'Mār Zakkā, or the Saint Zacchaeus Monastery, became the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, one of several rivals for the apostolic succession of the Ancient patriarchal see, which has several more rivals of Catholic and Orthodox churches. Bishopric[edit] Callinicum early became the seat of a Christian diocese. In 388, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius the Great was informed that a crowd of Christians, led by their bishop, had destroyed the synagogue. He ordered the synagogue rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. Ambrose wrote to Theodosius, pointing out he was thereby "exposing the bishop to the danger of either acting against the truth or of death",[63] and Theodosius rescinded his decree.[64] Bishop Damianus of Callinicum took part in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and in 458 was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the province wrote to Emperor Leo I the Thracian after the death of Proterius of Alexandria. In 518 Paulus was deposed for having joined the anti-Chalcedonian Severus of Antioch. Callinicum had a Bishop Ioannes in the mid-6th century.[65][66] In the same century, a Notitia Episcopatuum lists the diocese as a suffragan of Edessa, the capital and metropolitan see of Osrhoene.[67] Titular sees[edit] No longer a residential bishopric, Callinicum has been listed by the Catholic Church twice as a titular see, as suffragan of the Metropolitan of the Late Roman province of Osroene : first as Latin - (meanwhile suppressed) and currently as Maronite titular bishopric.[68] Callinicum of the Romans[edit] [69] No later than the 18th century, the diocese was nominally restored as Latin Titular bishopric of Callinicum (Latin), adjective Callinicen(sis) (Latin) / Callinico (Curiate Italian). In 1962 it was suppressed, to establish immediately the Episcopal Titular bishopric of Callinicum of the Maronites (see below) It has had the following incumbents, all of the fitting episcopal (lowest) rank : Matthaeus de Robertis (1729.07.06 – death 1733) (born Italy) no prelature Meinwerk Kaup, Benedictine Order (O.S.B.) (1733.09.02 – death 1745.07.24) as Auxiliary Bishop of Paderborn (Germany) (1733.09.02 – 1745.07.24) Anton Johann Wenzel Wokaun (1748.09.16 – 1757.02.07) as Auxiliary Bishop of Praha (Prague, Bohemia) (1748.09.16 – 1757.02.07) Nicolas de La Pinte de Livry, Norbertines (O. Praem.) (born France) (1757.12.19 – death 1795) no prelature Luigi Pietro Grati, Servites (O.S.M.) (born Italy) (1828.12.15 – death 1849.09.17) as Apostolic Administrator of Terracina (Italy) (1829 – 1833), Apostolic Administrator of Priverno (Italy) (1829 – 1833), Apostolic Administrator of Sezze (Italy) (1829 – 1833) and on emeritate Godehard Braun (1849.04.02 – death 1861.05.22) as Auxiliary Bishop of Diocese of Trier (Germany) (1849.04.02 – 1861.05.22) Hilarion Silani, Sylvestrines (O.S.B. Silv.) (1863.09.22 – 1879.03.27) while Bishop of Colombo (Sri Lanka) (1863.09.17 – 1879.03.27) Aniceto Ferrante, Oratorians of Philip Neri (C.O.) (1879.05.12 – death 1883.01.19) on emeritate as former Bishop of Gallipoli (Italy) (1873.03.20 – 1879.05.12) Luigi Sepiacci, Augustinians (O.E.S.A.) (1883.03.15 – cardinalate 1891.12.14) as Roman Curia official : President of Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy (1885.08.07 – 1886.06.28), Secretary of Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars (1886.06.28 – 1892.08.01), created Cardinal-Priest of S. Prisca (1891.12.17 – death 1893.04.26), Prefect of Sacred Congregation of Indulgences and Sacred Relics (1892.08.01 – 1893.04.26) Pasquale de Siena (1898.09.23 – death 1920.11.25) as Auxiliary Bishop of Napoli (Napels, southern Italy) (1898.09.23 – 1920.11.25) Joseph Gionali (1921.11.21 – 1928.06.13) as Abbot Ordinary of Territorial Abbacy of Shën Llezhri i Oroshit (Albania) (1921.08.28 – 1928.06.13), later Bishop of Sapë (Albania) (1928.06.13 – 1935.10.30), emeritate as Titular Bishop of Rhesaina (1935.10.30 – death 1952.12.20) Barnabé Piedrabuena (1928.12.17 – 1942.06.11) as emeritate; previously Titular Bishop of Cestrus (1907.12.16 – 1910.11.08) as Auxiliary Bishop of Tucumán (Argentina) (1907.12.16 – 1910.11.08 - first time), Bishop of Catamarca (Argentina) (1910.11.08 – 1923.06.11), again Bishop of Tucumán (1923.06.11 – retired 1928.12.17) Tomás Aspe, Friars Minor (O.F.M.) (born Spain) (1942.11.21 – 1962.01.22) on emeritate as former Bishop of Cochabamba (Bolivia) (1931.06.08 – 1942.11.21) Callinicum of the Maronites[edit] [70] In 1962 the simultaneously suppressed Latin Titular see of Callinicum (see above) was in turn restored, now for the Maronite Church (Eastern Catholic, Antiochian Rite) as Titular bishopric of Callinicum (Latin), Callinicen(sis) Maronitarum (Latin adjective) / Callinico (Curiate Italian). It has had the following incumbents, so far of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank : Francis Mansour Zayek (1962.05.30 – 1971.11.29) as first Auxiliary Bishop of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) (1962.05.30 – 1966.01.27), then Apostolic Exarch of United States of America of the Maronites (USA) (1966.01.27 – 1971.11.29); later promoted with that see as only Eparch (Bishop) of Saint Maron of Detroit of the Maronites (USA) (1971.11.29 – 1977.06.27), restyled as that see moved to first Eparch (Bishop) of Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites (USA) (1977.06.27 – 1982.12.10), personally promoted Archbishop-Bishop of Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites (1982.12.10 – retired 1996.11.11); died 2010 John George Chedid (1980.10.13 – 1994.02.19) as Auxiliary Bishop of Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites (USA) (1980.10.13 – 1994.02.19); laer first Eparch (Bishop) of its daughter see Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles of the Maronites (East Coast of USA) (1994.02.19 – retired 2000.11.20), died 2012 Samir Mazloum (1996.11.11 – ...), as Bishop of Curia of the Maronites (2000 – retired 2011.08.13) and on emeritate. Media[edit] The Islamic State banned all media reporting outside its own efforts, kidnapping and killing journalists. However, a group calling itself Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently operated within the city and elsewhere during this period.[71] In response, ISIL has killed members of the group.[72] A film about the city made by RBSS was released internationally in 2017, premiering and winning an award at that year's Sundance Film Festival. In January 2016, a pseudonymous French author named Sophie Kasiki published a book about her move from Paris to the besieged city in 2015, where she was lured to perform hospital work, and her subsequent escape from ISIL.[73][74] Transportation[edit] Prior to the Syrian Civil War the city was served by Syrian Railways. Climate[edit] Climate data for Raqqa Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18 (64) 22 (72) 26 (79) 33 (91) 41 (106) 42 (108) 43 (109) 47 (117) 41 (106) 35 (95) 30 (86) 21 (70) 47 (117) Average high °C (°F) 12 (54) 14 (57) 18 (64) 24 (75) 31 (88) 36 (97) 39 (102) 38 (100) 33 (91) 29 (84) 21 (70) 16 (61) 26 (79) Average low °C (°F) 2 (36) 3 (37) 5 (41) 11 (52) 15 (59) 18 (64) 21 (70) 21 (70) 16 (61) 12 (54) 7 (45) 4 (39) 11 (52) Record low °C (°F) −7 (19) −7 (19) −2 (28) 2 (36) 8 (46) 12 (54) 17 (63) 13 (55) 10 (50) 2 (36) −2 (28) −5 (23) −7 (19) Average precipitation mm (inches) 22 (0.9) 18.2 (0.72) 24.3 (0.96) 10.2 (0.40) 4.5 (0.18) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.1 (0.00) 3.1 (0.12) 12.4 (0.49) 13.6 (0.54) 108.4 (4.31) Average precipitation days 7 6 5 5 2 0 0 0 0.1 2 3 6 36.1 Average relative humidity (%) 76 72 60 53 45 34 38 41 44 49 60 73 54 Source 1: [75] Source 2: [76] Notable locals[edit] Al-Battani, astronomer, astrologer and mathematician (c. 858 – 929) Abdul-Salam Ojeili, novelist and politician (1918–2006) Harun al-Rashid, fifth Abbasid Caliph (786–809) Khalaf Ali Alkhalaf, poet and writer (b. 1969) Yassin al-Haj Saleh, writer and dissident (b. 1961) See also[edit] Battle of Callinicum Raqqa offensive (2016) Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently References[edit] ^ a b "Ar-Raqqa Governorate Panoramic Report - December 2019" (PDF). 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Lee, From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565 Archived 26 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Oxford University Press 2013 ISBN 978-0-74866835-9) ^ Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae Archived 26 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Leipzig 1931, p. 437 ^ Michel Lequien, Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus Archived 3 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 969–972 ^ Siméon Vailhé in Échos d'Orient 1907, p. 94 Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine e p. 145 . ^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), p. 856 ^ "Titular See of Callinicum". GCatholic. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0378.htm Archived 18 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine GCatholic ^ K. Shaheen (2 December 2015) - Airstrikes have become routine for people in Raqqa, says activist Archived 25 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian [Retrieved 30 December 2015] ^ British Broadcasting Corporation (28 December 2015) - Anti-Islamic State journalist murdered in Turkey Archived 12 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine BBC [Retrieved 30 December 2015] ^ Willsher, Kim (8 January 2016). "I went to join Isis in Syria, taking my four-year-old. It was a journey into hell". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016. ^ Saavedra, Laetitia; Duquesne, Margaux (8 January 2016). "Les femmes djihadistes étrangères se comportent comme des colons en Syrie". FranceInter (in French). Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016. ^ "Climate statistics for Ar-Raqqah". World Weather Online. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2014. ^ "Averages for Ar-Raqqah". Weather Base. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2014. Further reading[edit] Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2006). Raqqa revisited: ceramics of Ayyubid Syria. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 1588391841. Mango, Marlia M. (1991). "Kallinikos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1094. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Meinecke, Michael (1991). "Raqqa on the Euphrates. Recent Excavations at the Residence of Harun er-Rashid". In Kerner, Susanne (ed.). The Near East in Antiquity. German Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt II. Amman. pp. 17–32. Meinecke, Michael (1991) [1412 AH]. "Early Abbasid Stucco Decoration in Bilad al-Sham". In Muhammad Adnan al-Bakhit – Robert Schick (ed.). Bilad al-Sham During the 'Abbasid Period (132 AH/750 AD – 451 AH/1059 AD). Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference for the History of the Bilad al-Sham 7–11 Sha'ban 1410 AH/4–8 March 1990, English and French Section. Amman. pp. 226–237. Meinecke, Michael (1995). "al-Raḳḳa". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VIII: Ned–Sam. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 410–414. ISBN 90-04-09834-8. Meinecke, Michael (1996). "Forced Labor in Early Islamic Architecture: The Case of ar-Raqqa/ar-Rafiqa on the Euphrates". Patterns and Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture. Local Traditions Versus Migrating Artists. New York, London. pp. 5–30. ISBN 0-8147-5492-9. Meinecke, Michael (1996). "Ar-Raqqa am Euphrat: Imperiale und religiöse Strukturen der islamischen Stadt". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (128): 157–172. Heidemann, Stefan (2002). "Die Renaissance der Städte in Nordsyrien und Nordmesopotamien. Städtische Entwicklung und wirtschaftliche Bedingungen in ar-Raqqa und Harran von der Zeit der beduinischen Vorherrschaft bis zu den Seldschuken". Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts. Leiden: Brill (40). Ababsa, Myriam (2002). "Les mausolées invisibles: Raqqa, ville de pèlerinage ou pôle étatique en Jazîra syrienne?". Annales de Géographie. 622: 647–664. Stefan Heidemann – Andrea Becker (edd.) (2003). Raqqa II – Die islamische Stadt. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Daiber, Verena; Becker, Andrea, eds. (2004). Raqqa III – Baudenkmäler und Paläste I, Mainz. Philipp von Zabern. Heidemann, Stefan (2005). "The Citadel of al-Raqqa and Fortifications in the Middle Euphrates Area". In Hugh Kennedy (ed.). Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria. From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period. History of Warfare. 35. Leiden. pp. 122–150. Heidemann, Stefan (University of Jena) (2006). "The History of the Industrial and Commercial Area of 'Abbasid al-Raqqa Called al-Raqqa al-Muhtariqa" (PDF). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 69 (1): 32–52. doi:10.1017/s0041977x06000024. S2CID 162831514. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2015. Videos "After the fall of ISIS caliphate, its capital remains a city of the dead". PBS Newshour. 4 April 2019. "An inside look at the former capital of ISIS". CBC News. 6 November 2017. "Inside ISIS's Former Capital: The Forgotten People of Raqqa". The New York Times. 1 April 2019. "Life Inside the ISIS Home Base of Raqqa, Syria". The Wall Street Journal. 15 September 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raqqa. Current news and events[edit] eraqqa Website for news relating to Raqqa Ecclesiastical[edit] GCatholic - Latin former titular see GCatholic - Maronite current titular see Historical and archeological[edit] Inscription of Raqqa on the World Heritage Tentative List The Citadel of Raqqa – article in German Industrial Landscape Project – Nottingham University al-Raqqa at the Euphrates: Urbanity, Economy and Settlement Pattern in the Middle Abbasid Period – Jena University v t e Raqqa Governorate Raqqa District Raqqa Abu Susah al-Akirshi al-Fariaa Ghirnatah al-Ghutah al-Hamah al-Hamdaniyah Hittin Huwayjat Shinan Huzaymah al-Jabali Judaydat Kahit Judaydat Khabur Kadiran al-Kalitah al-Karamah Kasrat Shaykh al-Jumaa al-Khamisiyah al-Khatuniyah al-Khayyalah al-Sharqiyah Laksun Maadan Maghlah Kabirah Maghlah Saghirah al-Manamah Masaadah Matab al-Burashid al-Namisah al-Nasirah al-Qahtaniyah Rabi'a, Raqqa al-Rabiyah al-Rahibi Ratlah Samrah al-Sabkhah al-Sahel al-Salhabiyah Gharbiyah Shamrah al-Suwaydah Suwaydiyah Kabirah Tell al-Samen Dahham al-Yaarubiyah al-Yarmouk Tell Abyad District Tell Abyad Ain al-Arous al-Amin Ayn Issa Bir Issa Hawaij Saghir Hayshah Tell Hammam Tell al-Kabir Suluk al-Zaazu' Al-Thawrah District Al-Thawrah Dibsi Afnan Dibsi Faraj Fallah Rabu Jaaidin al-Jarniyah Mahmudli al-Mansurah al-Safsafah Shams al-Din Tell Othman v t e Cities and towns of Syria Governorate centres Aleppo Damascus Daraa Deir ez-Zor Hama al-Hasakah Homs Idlib Latakia Quneitra Raqqa Rif Dimashq as-Suwayda Tartus District centres Abu Kamal Afrin Arihah Atarib Ayn al-Arab Azaz al-Bab Baniyas Darayya Dayr Hafir Douma Duraykish Fiq al-Haffah Harem Izra' Jableh Jarabulus Jisr ash-Shugur Maarat al-Numaan al-Malikiyah Manbij Masyaf Mayadin Mhardeh al-Mukharram al-Foqani an-Nabk Palmyra Qamishli Qardaha Qatana Qudsaya al-Qusayr al-Qutayfah Ra's al-'Ayn al-Rastan as-Safira Safita Salamiyah Salkhad al-Sanamayn Shahba ash-Shaykh Badr al-Suqaylabiyah Talkalakh al-Tall Tell Abyad al-Thawrah Yabroud Zabadani Sub-district centres Abu Qilqil Abu al-Thuhur Akhtarin Amuda Arbeen Arima al-Ariqah al-Arishah Armanaz Arwad al-Asharah Assal al-Ward Awj Ayn al-Fijah Ayn Halaqim Ayn Issa Ayn al-Nasr Babbila Banan Barri Sharqi Beit Jinn Binnish Bir al-Helou Bosra Bulbul Busayrah Da'el al-Dana Darat Izza Darkush al-Darbasiyah Deir Atiyah al-Dimas al-Dumayr Furqlus Ghabaghib Ghandoura al-Ghariyah al-Ghizlaniyah al-Hader Hadidah al-Hajar al-Aswad al-Hajib Hajin al-Hamidiyah al-Hamraa Harasta Harbnafsah Harran al-Awamid al-Hirak Hish Hisyah al-Hawl Huraytan al-Huwash Ibbin Samaan Ihsim Jayrud al-Jalaa al-Janudiyah Jaramana al-Jarniyah Jasim al-Jawadiyah Jubb al-Jarrah Jubb Ramlah Jindires al-Jiza al-Qabu Kafr Batna Kafr Nabl Kafr Takharim Kafr Zita al-Karamah al-Kasrah Kessab al-Khafsah Khan Shaykhun Khasham Kirnaz Kuwayris Sharqi Khanaser Khirbet Ghazaleh Khirbet al-Tin Mahmoud al-Kiswah Ma'arrat Misrin Maabatli Maadan Ma'loula Madaya Mahin Malah al-Malihah al-Mansurah Mare' Markada Mashta al-Helu Maskanah al-Masmiyah al-Mazraa Muhambal Muhasan al-Musayfirah al-Mushannaf Muzayrib al-Nashabiyah al-Nasirah Nawa Nubl al-Qadmus al-Qahtaniyah Qalaat al-Madiq Qarah al-Qaryatayn al-Qurayya Qurqania Rajo Rankus Rasm Harmil al-Imam al-Rai al-Riqama al-Ruhaybah al-Saan Saasaa Sabburah al-Sabe' Biyar al-Sabkhah Sadad Sahnaya Saidnaya Salqin Saraqib Sarmin Sarrin Sawran Sebei al-Shaddadah al-Shajara Shaqqa Sharran Shathah Shaykh al-Hadid al-Shaykh Maskin Shayukh Tahtani Shin Sinjar Sirghaya Slinfah Suluk al-Surah al-Saghirah al-Suwar Suran al-Susah al-Sukhnah al-Tabni Talbiseh Taldou al-Tamanah Tasil Tell al-Daman Tell Hamis Tell Rifaat Tell Salhab Tell Tamer Tedef Thiban Uqayribat Urum al-Kubra Wadi al-Oyun al-Yaarubiyah al-Zirbah az-Ziyarah Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Islam Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raqqa&oldid=1025805385" Categories: Raqqa Cities in Syria Capitals of caliphates Capitals in Asia Populated places in Raqqa District Populated places on the Euphrates River Populated places established in the 3rd century BC 3rd-century BC establishments 240s BC establishments Hellenistic sites in Syria Razed cities Hidden categories: Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: untitled periodical CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Use dmy dates from February 2019 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Arabic-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with possible demonym list Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 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en-wikipedia-org-4188	----	Justinian II - Wikipedia Justinian II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor Emperor of the Romans Justinian II Emperor of the Romans Justinian II, mosaic in basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. Byzantine emperor First reign September 685 – 695 Predecessor Constantine IV Successor Leontios Second reign 705 – 4 November 711 Predecessor Tiberius III Successor Philippikos Bardanes Born 668 or 669 Constantinople Died 4 November 711 (aged 42)[3] Damatrys, Opsikion Spouse Eudokia Theodora of Khazaria Issue Anastasia Tiberius Dynasty Heraclian Father Constantine IV Mother Anastasia Justinian II (Greek: Ἰουστινιανός, romanized: Ioustinianos; 668/9 – 4 November 711), surnamed Rhinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (ὁ Ῥινότμητος, "the slit-nosed"), was the last Byzantine emperor of the Heraclian dynasty, reigning from 685 to 695 and again from 705 to 711. Like Justinian I, Justinian II was an ambitious and passionate ruler who was keen to restore the Roman Empire to its former glories, but he responded brutally to any opposition to his will and lacked the finesse of his father, Constantine IV.[4] Consequently, he generated enormous opposition to his reign, resulting in his deposition in 695 in a popular uprising, and he only returned to the throne in 705 with the help of a Bulgar and Slav army. His second reign was even more despotic than the first, and it too saw his eventual overthrow in 711, abandoned by his army who turned on him before killing him. Contents 1 First reign 2 Exile 3 Second reign 4 Legacy 5 Family 6 Fictional account 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 10 External links First reign[edit] Justinian II was the eldest son of Emperor Constantine IV and Anastasia.[1] His father raised him to the throne as joint emperor in 681 on the fall of his uncles Heraclius and Tiberius.[5] In 685, at the age of sixteen, Justinian II succeeded his father as sole emperor.[1][6] Due to Constantine IV's victories, the situation in the Eastern provinces of the Empire was stable when Justinian ascended the throne.[7] After a preliminary strike against the Arabs in Armenia,[8] Justinian managed to augment the sum paid by the Umayyad Caliphs as an annual tribute, and to regain control of part of Cyprus.[7] The incomes of the provinces of Armenia and Iberia were divided among the two empires.[4] In 687, as part of his agreements with the Caliphate, Justinian removed from their native Lebanon 12,000 Christian Maronites, who continually resisted the Arabs.[9] Additional resettlement efforts, aimed at the Mardaites and inhabitants of Cyprus, allowed Justinian to reinforce naval forces depleted by earlier conflicts.[4] In 688, Justinian signed a treaty with the Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan which rendered Cyprus neutral ground, with its tax revenue split.[10] Justinian took advantage of the peace in the East to regain possession of the Balkans, which were before then almost totally under the heel of Slavic tribes.[9] In 687 Justinian transferred cavalry troops from Anatolia to Thrace. With a great military campaign in 688–689, Justinian defeated the Bulgars of Macedonia and was finally able to enter Thessalonica, the second most important Byzantine city in Europe.[4] The subdued Slavs were resettled in Anatolia, where they were to provide a military force of 30,000 men.[4] Emboldened by the increase of his forces in Anatolia, Justinian now renewed the war against the Arabs.[11] With the help of his new troops, Justinian won a battle against the enemy in Armenia in 693, but they were soon bribed to revolt by the Arabs. The result was that Justinian was comprehensively defeated at the Battle of Sebastopolis,[12] caused by the defection of most of his Slavic troops, while he himself was forced to flee to the Propontis.[11] There, according to Theophanes,[13] he took out his frustration by slaughtering as many of the Slavs in and around Opsikion as he could lay his hands on.[14] In the meantime, a Patrician by the name of Symbatius proceeded to rebel in Armenia,[11] and opened up the province to the Arabs, who proceeded to conquer it in 694–695.[4] The Mutilation of the Byzantine Emperors Justinian II and Phillipicus Meanwhile, the Emperor's bloody persecution of the Manichaeans[6] and suppression of popular traditions of non-Chalcedonian origin caused dissension within the Church.[1] In 692 Justinian convened the so-called Quinisext Council at Constantinople to put his religious policies into effect.[15] The Council expanded and clarified the rulings of the Fifth and Sixth ecumenical councils, but by highlighting differences between the Eastern and Western observances (such as the marriage of priests and the Roman practice of fasting on Saturdays) the council compromised Byzantine relations with the Roman Church.[16] The emperor ordered Pope Sergius I arrested, but the militias of Rome and Ravenna rebelled and took the Pope's side.[4] Justinian contributed to the development of the thematic organization of the Empire, creating a new theme of Hellas in southern Greece and numbering the heads of the five major themes- Thrace in Europe, Opsikion, the Anatolikon, and Armeniakon themes in Asia Minor, and the maritime corps of the Karabisianoi- among the senior administrators of the Empire.[4] He also sought to protect the rights of peasant freeholders, who served as the main recruitment pool for the armed forces of the Empire, against attempts by the aristocracy to acquire their land. This put him in direct conflict with some of the largest landholders in the Empire.[4] While his land policies threatened the aristocracy, his tax policy was very unpopular with the common people.[4] Through his agents Stephen and Theodotos, the emperor raised the funds to gratify his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings.[4][6] This, ongoing religious discontent, conflicts with the aristocracy, and displeasure over his resettlement policy eventually drove his subjects into rebellion.[15] In 695 the population rose under Leontios, the strategos of Hellas, and proclaimed him Emperor.[4][6] Justinian was deposed and his nose was cut off (later replaced by a solid gold replica of his original) to prevent his again seeking the throne: such mutilation was common in Byzantine culture. He was exiled to Cherson in the Crimea.[4] Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Apsimarus, who next assumed the throne.[17][6] Exile[edit] While in exile, Justinian began to plot and gather supporters for an attempt to retake the throne.[18] Justinian became a liability to Cherson and the authorities decided to return him to Constantinople in 702 or 703.[7] He escaped from Cherson and received help from Busir, the khagan of the Khazars, who received him enthusiastically and gave him his sister as a bride.[18] Justinian renamed her Theodora, after the wife of Justinian I.[19] They were given a home in the town of Phanagoria, at the entrance to the sea of Azov. Busir was offered a bribe by Tiberius to kill his brother-in-law, and dispatched two Khazar officials, Papatzys and Balgitzin, to do the deed.[20] Warned by his wife, Justinian strangled Papatzys and Balgitzin with his own hands.[citation needed] He sailed in a fishing boat to Cherson, summoned his supporters, and they all sailed westwards across the Black Sea.[21] As the ship bearing Justinian sailed along the northern coast of the Black Sea, he and his crew became caught up in a storm somewhere between the mouths of the Dniester and the Dnieper Rivers.[20] While it was raging, one of his companions reached out to Justinian saying that if he promised God that he would be magnanimous, and not seek revenge on his enemies when he was returned to the throne, they would all be spared.[21] Justinian retorted: "If I spare a single one of them, may God drown me here".[20] Having survived the storm, Justinian next approached Tervel of Bulgaria.[21] Tervel agreed to provide all the military assistance necessary for Justinian to regain his throne in exchange for financial considerations, the award of a Caesar's crown, and the hand of Justinian's daughter, Anastasia, in marriage.[18] In spring 705, with an army of 15,000 Bulgar and Slav horsemen, Justinian appeared before the walls of Constantinople.[18] For three days, Justinian tried to convince the citizens of Constantinople to open the gates, but to no avail.[22] Unable to take the city by force, he and some companions entered through an unused water conduit under the walls of the city, roused their supporters, and seized control of the city in a midnight coup d'état.[18] Justinian once more ascended the throne, breaking the tradition preventing the mutilated from Imperial rule. After tracking down his predecessors, he had his rivals Leontius and Tiberius brought before him in chains in the Hippodrome. There, before a jeering populace, Justinian, now wearing a golden nasal prosthesis,[23] placed his feet on the necks of Tiberius and Leontios in a symbolic gesture of subjugation before ordering their execution by beheading, followed by many of their partisans,[24] as well as deposing, blinding and exiling Patriarch Kallinikos I of Constantinople to Rome.[25] Second reign[edit] His second reign was marked by unsuccessful warfare against Bulgaria and the Caliphate, and by cruel suppression of opposition at home.[26] In 708 Justinian turned on Bulgarian Khan Tervel, whom he had earlier crowned Caesar, and invaded Bulgaria, apparently seeking to recover the territories ceded to Tervel as a reward for his support in 705.[24] The Emperor was defeated, blockaded in Anchialus, and forced to retreat.[24] Peace between Bulgaria and Byzantium was quickly restored. This defeat was followed by Arab victories in Asia Minor,[6] where the cities of Cilicia fell into the hands of the enemy, who penetrated into Cappadocia in 709–711.[26] He ordered Pope John VII to recognize the decisions of the Quinisext Council and simultaneously fitted out a punitive expedition against Ravenna in 709 under the command of the Patrician Theodore.[27] The expedition was led to reinstate the Western Church's authority over Ravenna, which was taken as a sign of disobedience to the emperor, and revolutionary sentiment.[28][29] The repression succeeded, and the new Pope Constantine visited Constantinople in 710. Justinian, after receiving Holy Communion at the hands of the pope, renewed all the privileges of the Roman Church. Exactly what passed between them on the subject of the Quinisext Council is not known. It would appear, however, that Constantine approved most of the canons.[30] This would be the last time a Pope visited the city until the visit of Pope Paul VI to Istanbul in 1967.[23] Justinian's rule provoked another uprising against him.[31] Cherson revolted, and under the leadership of the exiled general Bardanes the city held out against a counter-attack. Soon, the forces sent to suppress the rebellion joined it.[7] The rebels then seized the capital and proclaimed Bardanes as Emperor Philippicus;[32] Justinian had been on his way to Armenia, and was unable to return to Constantinople in time to defend it.[33] He was arrested and executed in November 711, his head being exhibited in Rome and Ravenna.[1] On hearing the news of his death, Justinian's mother took his six-year-old son and co-emperor, Tiberius, to sanctuary at St. Mary's Church in Blachernae, but was pursued by Philippicus' henchmen, who dragged the child from the altar and, once outside the church, murdered him, thus eradicating the line of Heraclius.[34] Legacy[edit] Justinian's reign saw the continued slow and ongoing process of transformation of the Byzantine Empire, as the traditions inherited from the ancient Latin Roman state were gradually being eroded. This is most clearly seen in the coinage of Justinian's reign, which saw the reintroduction of the Loros, the traditional consular costume that had not been seen on Imperial coinage for a century, while the office itself had not been celebrated for nearly half a century.[35] This was linked to Justinian's decision to unify the office of consul with that of emperor thus making the Emperor the head of state not only de facto but also de jure. Although the office of the consulate would continue to exist until Emperor Leo VI the Wise formally abolished it with Novel 94,[36] it was Justinian who effectively brought the consulate as a separate political entity to an end. He was formally appointed as Consul in 686,[37] and from that point, Justinian II adopted the title of consul for all the Julian years of his reign, consecutively numbered. Though at times undermined by his own despotic tendencies, Justinian was a talented and perceptive ruler who succeeded in improving the standing of the Byzantine Empire.[23] A pious ruler, Justinian was the first emperor to include the image of Christ on coinage issued in his name[1] and attempted to outlaw various pagan festivals and practices that persisted in the Empire.[4] He may have self-consciously modelled himself on his namesake, Justinian I,[8] as seen in his enthusiasm for large-scale construction projects and the renaming of his Khazar wife with the name of Theodora.[4] Among the building projects he undertook was the creation of the triklinos, an extension to the imperial palace,[38] a decorative cascade fountain located at the Augusteum, and a new Church of the Virgin at Petrion.[39] Family[edit] By his first wife Eudokia, Justinian II had at least one daughter, Anastasia, who was betrothed to the Bulgarian ruler Tervel. By his second wife, Theodora of Khazaria, Justinian II had a son, Tiberius, co-emperor from 706 to 711. Fictional account[edit] Justinian, a 1998 novel by Byzantine scholar Harry Turtledove, writing under the name HN Turteltaub, gives a fictionalized version of Justinian's life as retold by a fictionalized lifelong companion, the soldier Myakes.[40] In the novel, Turtledove speculates that while in exile Justinian had reconstructive surgery done by an itinerant Indian plastic surgeon to repair his damaged nose.[41] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Kazhdan, pp. 1084–1085 ^ Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042)". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 50–51. doi:10.2307/1291157. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291157. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium misquotes Philip Grierson's "Tombs and Obits" and states that Justinian II died on November 7,[1] when the text clearly indicates November 4.[2] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Ostrogorsky, pp. 116–122 ^ Homs, George. "Justinian II "the Slit-nosed" Byzantine Emperor Eastern Roman Emperor (± 669-± 711) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogy Online". Genealogy Online. Retrieved 2020-12-24. ^ a b c d e f Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Justinian II." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 602. ^ a b c d Moore, Justinian II ^ a b Norwich, p. 328 ^ a b Bury, p. 321 ^ Romilly J.H. Jenkins, Studies on Byzantine History of the 9th and 10th Centuries, p. 271. ^ a b c Bury, p. 322 ^ Norwich, p. 330 ^ Theophanes: 6183 ^ Norwich, p. 330–331 ^ a b Bury, p. 327 ^ Norwich, p. 332 ^ Bury, p. 354 ^ a b c d e Ostrogorsky, pp. 124–126 ^ Bury, p. 358 ^ a b c Bury, p. 359 ^ a b c Norwich, p. 336 ^ Bury, p. 360 ^ a b c Norwich, p. 345 ^ a b c Bury, p. 361 ^ Norwich, p. 338 ^ a b Norwich, p. 339 ^ Bury, p. 366 ^ Liber pontificalis 1:389 ^ Constance Head, Justinian II of Byzantium (University of Wisconsin Press, 1972). ^ New Advent: Pope Constantine ^ Norwich, p. 342 ^ Norwich, p. 343 ^ Bury, p. 365 ^ Bury, pp. 365–366 ^ Grypeou, Emmanouela, The encounter of Eastern Christianity with early Islam, BRILL, 2006, p. 69 ^ Kazhdan, p. 526 ^ Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Book V Archived 2014-08-14 at the Wayback Machine (Chapter VII) ^ Bury, p. 325 ^ Bury, p. 326 ^ According to Turtletaub/Turtledove, Myakes is a historical character, the soldier in the boat with Justinian in the Black Sea storm, according to history, who unsuccessfully urged Justinian to become less vindictive. See Turtletaub, Justinian, at p. 510. ^ Turtletaub/Turtledove attributes to Richard Delbrück the same conjecture, stating that Delbrück was able to cite iconographic evidence to support the conjecture. See Turteltaub, Justinian, at p. 511. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Theophanes, Chronographia. Secondary sources[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Norwich, John Julius (1990), Byzantium: The Early Centuries, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011447-5 Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Moore, R. Scott (1998) "Justinian II (685–695 & 705–711 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. II, MacMillan & Co. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iustinianus II. Justinian II's profile in Prosopography of the Byzantine World Justinian II Heraclian Dynasty Born: 669 Died: November 711 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine IV Byzantine Emperor 681–695 with Constantine IV (681–685) Succeeded by Leontios Preceded by Tiberius III Byzantine Emperor 705–711 with Tiberius (706–711) Succeeded by Philippikos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina 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Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos 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en-wikipedia-org-4189	----	Laelianus - Wikipedia Laelianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 269 Gallic emperor Laelianus Laelianus on an aureus. Caption: IMP. C. LAELIANVS P. F. AVG. Gallic emperor Reign approximately late February to early June 269 (against Postumus) Predecessor Postumus Successor Marcus Aurelius Marius Born Gaul Died 269 Names Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus v t e Crisis of the Third Century Reign of Maximinus Thrax (235–238) Death of Alexander Severus (235) Usurpation of Magnus (c. 235) Usurpation of Quartinus (235) Year of the Six Emperors (238) Gordian Revolt (238) Carthage (238) Aquileia (238) Reign of Pupienus and Balbinus (238) Invasion of the Carpi (238–239) Reign of Gordian III (238–244) Sabinianus Revolt (240) Fall of Hatra (241) Resaena (243) Misiche (244) Reign of Philip the Arab (244–249) Invasion of the Carpi (245–247) Secular Games of 248 (248) Usurpation of Sponsianus (240s) Usurpation of Pacatianus (248) Usurpation of Jotapianus (249) Usurpation of Silbannacus (249 or 253) Decius' Rebellion (249) Verona (249) Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249–251) Plague of Cyprian (250–270) Decian persecution (250–251) Gothic invasion of Cniva (250–251) Carpi invasion of Dacia (250) Nicopolis ad Istrum (250) Beroe (250) Philippopolis (250) Usurpation of Titus Julius Priscus (251) Abritus (251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Death of Hostilian (251) Mariades' Revolt (252) Nisibis (252) Barbalissos (253) Interamna Nahars (c 253) Death of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus (253) Reign of Aemilianus (253) Antioch (253) Assassination of Aemilianus (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260) Thessalonica (254) Thermopylae (254) Dura-Europos (256) Gothic invasion (256–257) Invasion of Shapur (258) Invasion of the Alemanni (258–260 approx) Mediolanum (259) Scythian invasion (259–260) Edessa (260) Reign of Gallienus (260–268) Caesarea (260) Usurpation of Ingenuus (260) Usurpation of Regalianus (260) Usurpation of Macrianus Major (c. 259–261) Gallic Empire (260–274) Death of Saloninus (260) Roxolani Invasion of Pannonia (260) Campaigns of Odaenathus (260–267) Usurpation of Quietus (261) Usurpation of Balista (261) Usurpation of Valens Thessalonicus (261) Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (261) Usurpation of Macrianus Minor (261) Pannonian Rebellion (261) Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus (261–262) Postumus' Campaign against the Franks (262) Postumus' Campaign against the Alamanni (263) Ctesiphon (263) Scythian Invasion (265–266) Assassination of Odaenathus (267) Usurpation of Maeonius (266–267) Scythian Invasion (267–269) Heruli Raids (267) Athens (267) Usurpation of Manius Acilius Aureolus (268) Reign of Claudius II (268–270) Usurpation of Laelianus (269) Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marius (269) Augustodunum Haeduorum Naissus (268/269) Lake Benacus (268 or 269) Capture of Athens (269) Palmyrene Empire (270–273) Bostra (270) Palmyrene invasion of Egypt (270) Vandal Invasion (270) Reign of Aurelian (270–275) Usurpation of Victorinus Junior (271) Junthungi Invasion (271) Domitianus II (271) Tetricus I & Tetricus II (271–274) Rebellion of Felicissimus (270s) Placentia (271) Fano (271) Pavia (271) Tyana (272) Immae (272) Emesa (272) Razing of Palmyra (273) Usurpation of Faustinus (c. 273) Châlons (274) Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus[1] (also incorrectly referred to as Lollianus and Aelianus)[2] was a usurper against Postumus, the emperor of the Gallic Empire. His revolt lasted from approximately late February to early June 269.[2] Contents 1 Origins 2 Rule 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Secondary sources 6 External links Origins[edit] Little is known about Laelianus. He shares the same nomen as a prominent Hispano-Roman family, the Ulpii, that included Trajan among its members, and may have been a relative.[2] This is supported by the strong allusion to Hispania on an aureus he struck, which featured the design of Hispania reclining with a rabbit to her side. If he indeed was a relative, this may be the reason Hispania allied itself with Claudius II, after the death of Laelianus, seemingly without a struggle. Rule[edit] Laelianus declared himself emperor at Moguntiacum (modern-day Mainz in Germany) in February/March 269,[3] after repulsing a Germanic invasion.[4] Although his exact position is unknown, he is believed to have been a senior officer under Postumus,[5] either the legatus of Germania Superior or the commander of Legio XXII Primigenia.[2] Laelianus represented a strong danger to Postumus because of the two legions he commanded (Primigenia in Moguntiacum and VIII Augusta in Argentoratum);[2] Despite this, his rebellion lasted only about two months before he was executed,[6] reputedly by his own soldiers, or by Postumus' troops after a siege of Laelianus' capital.[1] The siege of Moguntiacum was also fatal for Postumus; it is said he was slain when he refused to allow his troops to plunder the city following its capture.[7] Laelianus (under the name Lollianus) is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta. See also[edit] Ulpia gens References[edit] ^ a b Martindale, pg. 492 ^ a b c d e Polfer, Laelianus ^ Polfer, Laelianus; Potter, pg. 265 ^ Polfer, Laelianus ^ Potter, pg. 265 ^ Polfer, Laelianus ^ Southern, pg. 118 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, The Thirty Tyrants Secondary sources[edit] Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Michel Polfer, "Laelianus (A.D. 269)", De Imperatoribus Romanis] (1999) External links[edit] Media related to Laelianus at Wikimedia Commons v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laelianus&oldid=1017220545" Categories: 269 deaths 3rd-century monarchs in Europe 3rd-century murdered monarchs Cornelii Gallic emperors Murdered Roman emperors Thirty Tyrants (Roman) Ulpii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Short description matches Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 15:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4192	----	Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus - Wikipedia Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Iberian Roman politician and consul (45 – 136) Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus (45 – 136) was an Iberian Roman politician. He was a prominent public figure in the reigns of Roman emperors Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian. He was the last private citizen to receive a third consulship; such honors came to be reserved for members of the emperor's family.[1] According to an inscription found, his full name is Gaius Julius Servilius Ursus Servianus, however, in the Augustan History, he is known as Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus. Contents 1 Life 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 Sources 4 References Life[edit] Little is known about his origins. Ronald Syme has argued that he was originally named Servius Julius Servianus, suffect consul in 90, and that Lucius Julius Ursus adopted him after that year, leading to a name change; no scholar has spoken against this identification, and it has been considered accepted by all.[2] Before the accession of Trajan in 98, Servianus had married Aelia Domitia Paulina, the elder sister of Hadrian, who was thirty years younger than he was. During Trajan's reign (98-117), Paulina and Servianus had a daughter called Julia Serviana Paulina. When Nerva died on January 27 of the year 98, Hadrian travelled to Germany to find Trajan, to announce the death of Nerva. Servianus tried unsuccessfully to stop Hadrian's travel to Germany, because he was jealous of the favor shown Hadrian by Trajan. However, Servianus and Hadrian reconciled and were for a long time on good terms. Servianus served twice as consul under Trajan, and once as consul under Hadrian in 134. As a senator he was a very influential and powerful man. Trajan appointed him governor of Germania Inferior for 97 to 99,[3] and immediately afterwards made him governor of Pannonia for 99 to 100,[4] granting him important military commands against Dacia. Servianus was a friend to the Senator and historian Pliny the Younger; two of Pliny's surviving letters are addressed to him, and Pliny mentions him in two more.[5] Through Servianus' influence, Trajan granted Pliny immunities only usually granted to a father of three, the jus trium liberorum. Before Pliny’s death around 111, Servianus and Paulina had arranged and married their daughter Julia to Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, ordinary consul in 118 as the colleague of emperor Hadrian.[6] Pliny the Younger sent him and his wife a letter of congratulations about their daughter’s wedding. When Trajan died on August 8, 117, his cousin and adopted son Hadrian became emperor. As Emperor, Hadrian treated Servianus with distinguished honor, considering him to be his first successor. When Paulina died in 130, Hadrian and Servianus shared a private ceremony for her. For a long time, the emperor Hadrian had considered Servianus as his unofficial successor. As Hadrian's reign drew to a close, however, he changed his mind. Although the emperor certainly thought Servianus capable of ruling as an emperor after Hadrian's own death, Servianus, by now in his nineties, was clearly too old for the position. Hadrian's attentions turned to Servianus' grandson, who was also named Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, his great-nephew, gave him special status in his court, and groomed him as his heir. Servianus, who always cherished the idea that his youthful grandson would one day succeed his brother-in-law, was overjoyed. However, in 136, Hadrian changed his mind and decided to adopt Lucius Aelius Caesar as his son and heir. Servianus and the younger Salinator were angry with Hadrian and wanted to challenge him over the adoption. It is possible Salinator went so far as to attempt a coup against Hadrian in which Servianus was implicated. In order to avoid any potential conflict in the succession, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Salinator and Servianus.[7] Ironically, Aelius died before Hadrian in 138, forcing Hadrian to adopt Antoninus Pius. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Augustan History - Hadrian https://web.archive.org/web/20070125184755/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3125.html http://www.fofweb.com/Onfiles/Ancient/AncientDetail.asp?iPin=ROME1573 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07104b.htm References[edit] ^ Caillan Davenport, "Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 177 (2011), p. 288 ^ Olli Salomies, Adoptive and Polyonymous Nomenclature in the Roman Empire (Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1992), p. 51 ^ Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 328-330 ^ Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten", pp. 332-334 ^ Pliny, Epistulae 3.17 and VI.26 are addressed to Servianus; he is mentioned in VII.6.9 and X.2.1 ^ Ronald Syme, "A Dozen Early Priesthoods", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 77 (1989), pp. 248-250 ^ Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, pp. 291-292. Political offices Preceded by Lucius Cornelius Pusio Annius Messala, and Marcus Cocceius Nerva II as Ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 90 with Lucius Antistius Rusticus Succeeded by Quintus Accaeus Rufus, and Gaius Caristanius Fronto as Suffect consuls Preceded by Lucius Arruntius Stella, and Lucius Julius Marinus Caecilius Simplex as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 102 with Lucius Licinius Sura II, followed by Lucius Fabius Justus Succeeded by Titus Didius Secundus, and Lucius Publilius Celsus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, and Publius Sufenas Verus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 134 with Titus Vibius Varus Succeeded by Titus Haterius Nepos as Suffect consul Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Julius_Ursus_Servianus&oldid=1017323748" Categories: 45 births 136 deaths 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Pannonia Roman governors of Germania Inferior Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire 2nd-century executions Executed Spanish people Julii Servilii Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Ancient Roman adoptees Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2021, at 03:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4195	----	Sarmatians - Wikipedia Sarmatians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity For other uses, see Sarmatia (disambiguation). For the people group descended from the ancient Hebrews, see Samaritans. Depiction of a Sarmatian from a Roman sarcophagus, second century AD The Sarmatians (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiənz/; Greek: Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται; Latin: Sarmatae [ˈsar.mat̪ae̯], Sauromatae [sau̯ˈrɔmat̪ae̯]) were a large Iranian confederation that existed in classical antiquity, flourishing from about the fifth century BC to the fourth century AD. Originating in the central parts of the Eurasian Steppe, the Sarmatians were part of the wider Scythian cultures.[1] They started migrating westward around the fourth and third centuries BC, coming to dominate the closely related Scythians by 200 BC. At their greatest reported extent, around first century AD, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south. Their territory, which was known as Sarmatia (/sɑːrˈmeɪʃiə/) to Greco-Roman ethnographers, corresponded to the western part of greater Scythia (it included today's Central Ukraine, South-Eastern Ukraine, Southern Russia, Russian Volga, and South-Ural regions, also to a smaller extent northeastern Balkans and around Moldova). In the first century AD, the Sarmatians began encroaching upon the Roman Empire in alliance with Germanic tribes. In the third century AD, their dominance of the Pontic Steppe was broken by the Germanic Goths. With the Hunnic invasions of the fourth century, many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in the settlement of the Western Roman Empire. Since large parts of today's Russia, specifically the land between the Ural Mountains and the Don River, were controlled in the fifth century BC by the Sarmatians, the Volga–Don and Ural steppes sometimes are called "Sarmatian Motherland".[2][3] The Sarmatians were eventually decisively assimilated (e.g. Slavicisation) and absorbed by the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe.[4] Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e Part of a series on the History of Ukraine Prehistory Trypillian–Cucuteni culture Yamnaya culture Catacomb culture Cimmeria Taurica Scythia Bosporan Kingdom Sarmatia Zarubintsy culture Chernyakhov culture Hunnic Empire Early history Early East Slavs Onoghuria White Croatia Rus' Khaganate Khazars Kievan Rus' Kingdom of Rus' Cumania Mongol invasion of Rus' Golden Horde Principality of Moldavia Grand Duchy of Lithuania Crimean Khanate Early modern history Cossacks Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Zaporozhian Host (Sich) Khmelnytsky Uprising The Ruin Cossack Hetmanate Left bank Sloboda Ukraine Right bank Danube Russian Empire Little Russia New Russia Habsburg Monarchy Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Bukovina Carpathian Ruthenia Modern history Ukraine during World War I Ukraine after the Revolution Ukrainian War of Independence Ukrainian People's Republic West Ukrainian People's Republic Ukrainian State Free Territory Directorate of Ukraine Ukrainian SSR Soviet Union Communist Party of Ukraine Holodomor Ukraine in World War II Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Chernobyl Cassette Scandal Orange Revolution Russia–Ukraine gas disputes Euromaidan Russo-Ukrainian War Crimean crisis War in Donbas COVID-19 pandemic Topics by history Name of Ukraine Historical regions Christianity in Ukraine  Ukraine portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Russia Prehistory  • Antiquity  • Early Slavs Rus' people pre–9th century Rus' Khaganate c. 830–899 Kievan Rus' 882–1240 Feudal Rus' (1097–1547) Mongol conquest • Vladimir-Suzdal Grand Duchy of Moscow • Novgorod Republic Tsardom of Russia 1547–1721 Russian Empire 1721–1917 Russian Revolution (1917–1923) February Revolution • Provisional Government Russian Republic • October Revolution • Civil War (Red Army • White Guard • separatists • others) Soviet Union 1922–1991 Russian Federation 1991–present Timeline 860–1721 • 1721–1796 • 1796–1855 1855–1892 • 1892–1917 • 1917–1927 1927–1953 • 1953–1964 • 1964–1982 1982–1991 • 1991–present  Russia portal v t e Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ethnology 3 Speculation about origin 4 Archaeology 5 Language 6 Genetics 7 Appearance 8 Greco-Roman ethnography 9 Decline begins in the fourth century 10 Legacy 10.1 Sarmatism 11 Tribes 12 See also 13 References 14 Sources 15 External links Etymology[edit] Map of the Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing the location of the Sarmatae in the Ukrainian steppe region Sarmatae probably originated as just one of several tribal names of the Sarmatians, but one that Greco-Roman ethnography came to apply as an exonym to the entire group. Strabo in the first century names as the main tribes of the Sarmatians the Iazyges, the Roxolani, the Aorsi, and the Siraces. The Greek name Sarmatai sometimes appears as "Sauromatai" (Σαυρομάται), which is almost certainly no more than a variant of the same name. Nevertheless, historians often regarded these as two separate peoples, while archaeologists habitually use the term 'Sauromatian' to identify the earliest phase of Sarmatian culture. Any idea that the name derives from the word lizard (sauros), linking to the Sarmatians' use of reptile-like scale armour and dragon standards, is almost certainly unfounded.[5] Whereas the word "ὀμμάτιον/ μάτι", meaning eye, would suggest the origin of the name could be due to having what appeared as lizard eyes to Greeks. Both Pliny the Elder (Natural History book iv) and Jordanes recognised the Sar- and Sauro- elements as interchangeable variants, referring to the same people. Greek authors of the fourth century (Pseudo-Scylax, Eudoxus of Cnidus) mention Syrmatae as the name of a people living at the Don, perhaps reflecting the ethnonym as it was pronounced in the final phase of Sarmatian culture. English scholar Harold Walter Bailey (1899–1996) derived the base word from Avestan sar- (to move suddenly) from tsar- in Old Iranian (tsarati, tsaru-, hunter), which also gave its name to the western Avestan region of Sairima (*salm, – *Sairmi), and also connected it to the tenth–eleventh century AD Persian epic Shahnameh's character "Salm".[6] Oleg Trubachyov derived the name from the Indo-Aryan *sar-ma(n)t (feminine – rich in women, ruled by women), the Indo-Aryan and Indo-Iranian word *sar- (woman) and the Indo-Iranian adjective suffix -ma(n)t/wa(n)t.[7] By this derivation was noted the high status of women (matriarchy) that was unusual from the Greek point of view and went to the invention of Amazons (thus the Greek name for Sarmatians as Sarmatai Gynaikokratoumenoi, ruled by women).[7] Ethnology[edit] A Sarmatian diadem, found at the Khokhlach kurgan near Novocherkassk (first century AD, Hermitage Museum) The Sarmatians were part of the Iranian steppe peoples, among whom were also Scythians and Saka.[8] These also are grouped together as "East Iranians".[9] Archaeology has established the connection 'between the Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka and the earlier Timber-grave and Andronovo cultures'.[10] Based on building construction, these three peoples were the likely descendants of those earlier archaeological cultures.[11] The Sarmatians and Saka used the same stone construction methods as the earlier Andronovo culture.[12] The Timber grave (Srubnaya culture) and Andronovo house building traditions were further developed by these three peoples.[13] Andronovo pottery was continued by the Saka and Sarmatians.[14] Archaeologists describe the Andronovo culture people as exhibiting pronounced Caucasoid features.[15] Great steppe of Kazakhstan in early spring 2004 The first Sarmatians are mostly identified with the Prokhorovka culture, which moved from the southern Urals to the Lower Volga and then to the northern Pontic steppe, in the fourth–third centuries BC. During the migration, the Sarmatian population seems to have grown and they divided themselves into several groups, such as the Alans, Aorsi, Roxolani, and Iazyges. By 200 BC, the Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as the dominant people of the steppes.[16] The Sarmatians and Scythians had fought on the Pontic steppe to the north of the Black Sea.[17] The Sarmatians, described as a large confederation,[18] were to dominate these territories over the next five centuries.[19] According to Brzezinski and Mielczarek, the Sarmatians were formed between the Don River and the Ural Mountains.[19] Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) wrote that they ranged from the Vistula River (in present-day Poland) to the Danube. The Sarmatians differed from the Scythians in their veneration of a fire deity rather than a nature deity, and the prominent role of women in warfare that may have served as inspiration for the Amazons. Speculation about origin[edit] There are two theories accounting for the origin of the Sarmatian culture. The first theory holds that the Sarmatian culture was fully formed by the end of the fourth century BC, based on the combination of local Sauromatian culture of Southern Ural and foreign elements brought by tribes advancing from the forest-steppe Zauralye (Itkul culture, Gorohovo culture), from Kazakhstan and possibly from the Aral Sea region.[20] Changes to the culture occurred sometime between the fourth and third century BC, when a mass migration carried nomads of the Southern Ural to the west in the Lower Volga and a smaller migration to the north, south, and east. At the same time, eastern nomads in the Lower Volga, either partly assimilated local Sauromatian tribes or pushed them into the Azov Sea and the Western Caucasus, where they subsequently formed a basis of nomadic association. A merging of the Southern Ural Prokhorovka culture with the Lower Volga or Sauromatian culture is thought to have created the local differences between Prokhorovka monuments of Southern Ural and those of the Volga–Don region within a single culture. The second theory holds that the Sarmatian culture in the Southern Ural evolved from the early Prokhorovka culture and that the culture of the Lower Volga Sauromates developed at the same time as an independent community.[21] Archaeology[edit] A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, second century AD - Tamoikin Art Fund In 1947, Soviet archaeologist Boris Grakov[citation needed] defined a culture flourishing from the sixth century BC to the fourth century AD, apparent in late kurgan graves (buried within earthwork mounds), sometimes reusing part of much older kurgans.[22] It was a nomadic steppe culture ranging from the Black Sea eastward to beyond the Volga that is especially evident at two of the major sites at Kardaielova and Chernaya in the trans-Uralic steppe. The four phases – distinguished by grave construction, burial customs, grave goods, and geographical spread – are:[18][23] Sauromatian, sixth–fifth centuries BC Early Sarmatian, fourth–second centuries BC, also called the Prokhorovka culture Middle Sarmatian, late second century BC to late second century AD Late Sarmatian, late second century AD to fourth century AD While "Sarmatian" and "Sauromatian" are synonymous as ethnonyms, purely by convention they are given different meanings as archaeological technical terms. The term "Prokhorovka culture" derives from a complex of mounds in the Prokhorovski District, Orenburg region, excavated by S. I. Rudenko in 1916.[24] Reportedly, during 2001 and 2006 a great Late Sarmatian pottery centre was unearthed near Budapest, Hungary in the Üllő5 archaeological site. Typical grey, granular Üllő5 ceramics form a distinct group of Sarmatian pottery is found ubiquitously in the north-central part of the Great Hungarian Plain region, indicating a lively trading activity. A 1998 paper on the study of glass beads found in Sarmatian graves suggests wide cultural and trade links.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that Scythian-Sarmatian cultures may have given rise to the Greek legends of Amazons. Graves of armed women have been found in southern Ukraine and Russia. David Anthony noted that approximately 20% of Scythian-Sarmatian "warrior graves" on the lower Don and lower Volga contained women dressed for battle as warriors and he asserts that encountering that cultural phenomenon "probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons".[26] Language[edit] Main article: Scytho-Sarmatian languages Sarmatia and other Eastern Iranian speaking lands (shown in orange) circa 170 BC[citation needed] The Sarmatians spoke an Iranian language that was derived from 'Old Iranian' and it was heterogenous. By the first century BC, the Iranian tribes in what is today South Russia spoke different languages or dialects, clearly distinguishable.[27] According to a group of Iranologists writing in 1968, the numerous Iranian personal names in Greek inscriptions from the Black Sea coast indicate that the Sarmatians spoke a North-Eastern Iranian dialect ancestral to Alanian-Ossetian.[28] However, Harmatta (1970) argued that "the language of the Sarmatians or that of the Alans as a whole cannot be simply regarded as being Old Ossetian".[27] Genetics[edit] A genetic study published in Nature Communications in March 2017 examined several Sarmatian individuals buried in Pokrovka, Russia (southwest of the Ural Mountains) between the fifth century BC and the second century BC. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2. This was the dominant lineage among males of the earlier Yamnaya culture.[29] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to the haplogroups U3, M, U1a'c, T, F1b, N1a1a1a1a, T2, U2e2, H2a1f, T1a, and U5a1d2b.[30] The Sarmatians examined were found to be closely related to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture and to the Poltavka culture.[31] A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of twelve Sarmatians buried between 400 BC and 400 AD.[32] The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1, I2b, R (two samples), and R1.[33] The eleven samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to C4a1a, U4a2 (two samples), C4b1, I1, A, U2e1h (two samples), U4b1a4, H28, and U5a1.[34] A genetic study published in Science Advances in October 2018 examined the remains of five Sarmatians buried between 55 AD and 320 AD. The three samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup R1a1a and R1b1a2a2 (two samples), while the five samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup H2a1, T1a1, U5b2b (two samples), and D4q.[35] A genetic study published in Current Biology in July 2019 examined the remains of nine Sarmatians. The five samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup Q1c-L332, R1a1e-CTS1123, R1a-Z645 (two samples), and E2b1-PF6746, while the nine samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroup W, W3a, T1a1, U5a2, U5b2a1a2, T1a1d, C1e, U5b2a1a1, U5b2c, and U5b2c.[36] In a study conducted in 2014 by Gennady Afanasiev, Dmitry Korobov and Irina Reshetova from the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, DNA was extracted from bone fragments found in seven out of ten Alanic burials on the Don River. Four of them turned out to belong to yDNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them possessed mtDNA haplogroup I.[37] In 2015, the Institute of Archaeology in Moscow conducted research on various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. In these analyses, the two Alan samples from the fourth to sixth century AD turned out to belong to yDNA haplogroups G2a-P15 and R1a-z94, while two of the three Sarmatian samples from the second to third century AD were found to belong to yDNA haplogroup J1-M267 while one belonged to R1a.[38] Three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from the eighth to ninth century AD turned out to have yDNA corresponding to haplogroups G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94.[39] Appearance[edit] In the late second or early third century AD, the Greek physician Galen declared that Sarmatians, Scythians, and other northern peoples had reddish hair.[40] They are said to owe their name (Sarmatae) to that characteristic.[41] The Alans were a group of Sarmatian tribes, according to the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus. He wrote that nearly all the Alani were "of great stature and beauty, their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are frighteningly fierce".[19] Greco-Roman ethnography[edit] Herodotus (Histories 4.21) in the fifth century BC placed the land of the Sarmatians east of the Tanais, beginning at the corner of the Maeotian Lake, stretching northward for a fifteen-day journey, and adjacent to the forested land of the Budinoi. Herodotus (4.110–117) recounts that the Sauromatians arose from marriages of a group of Amazons and young Scythian men. In his account, some Amazons were captured in battle by Greeks in Pontus (northern Turkey) near the river Thermodon, and the captives were loaded into three boats. They overcame their captors while at sea, but were not able sailors. The boats were blown north to the Maeotian Lake (the Sea of Azov) onto the shore of Scythia near the cliff region (today's southeastern Crimea). After encountering the Scythians and learning the Scythian language, the Amazons agreed to marry Scythian men, but only on the condition that they move away from the Scythia and not be required to follow the customs of Scythian women. According to Herodotus, the descendants of this band settled toward the northeast beyond the Tanais (Don) river and became the Sauromatians. His account explains the origins of their language as an "impure" form of Scythian. He credits the unusual social freedoms of Sauromatae women, including participation in warfare, as an inheritance from their Amazon ancestors. Later writers refer to the "woman-ruled Sarmatae" (γυναικοκρατούμενοι).[42] Herodotus (4.118–144) later relates how the Sauromatians under their king Scopasis, answered the Scythian call for help against the Persian King Darius I, to repel his campaign in Scythia, along with the Gelonians and the Boudinians. The Persians invaded much of the Sauromatian territory, but eventually were forced to withdraw due to the tactics used by the tribespeople, of delay and the use of a scorched earth policy.[43] Hippocrates[44] explicitly classes them as Scythian and describes their warlike women and their customs: Their women, so long as they are virgins, ride, shoot, throw the javelin while mounted, and fight with their enemies. They do not lay aside their virginity until they have killed three of their enemies, and they do not marry before they have performed the traditional sacred rites. A woman who takes to herself a husband no longer rides, unless she is compelled to do so by a general expedition. They have no right breast; for while they are yet babies their mothers make red-hot a bronze instrument constructed for this very purpose and apply it to the right breast and cauterize it, so that its growth is arrested, and all its strength and bulk are diverted to the right shoulder and right arm. Polybius (XXV, 1) mentions them for the first time as a force to be reckoned with in 179 B.C.[17] Strabo[45] mentions the Sarmatians in a number of places, but never says much about them. He uses both the terms of Sarmatai and Sauromatai, but never together, and never suggesting that they are different peoples. He often pairs Sarmatians and Scythians in reference to a series of ethnic names, never stating which is which, as though Sarmatian or Scythian could apply equally to them all.[46] Strabo wrote that the Sarmatians extend from above the Danube eastward to the Volga, and from north of the Dnieper River into the Caucasus, where, he says, they are called Caucasii like everyone else there. This statement indicates that the Alans already had a home in the Caucasus, without waiting for the Huns to push them there. Even more significantly, Strabo points to a Celtic admixture in the region of the Basternae and he notes that they were of Germanic origin. He places the Celtic Boii, Scordisci, and Taurisci there as well as a fourth ethnic element interacting and intermarrying, the Thracians (7.3.2), and moreover, that the peoples toward the north were Keltoskythai, "Celtic Scythians" (11.6.2). Strabo portrays the peoples of the region as being nomadic, or Hamaksoikoi, "wagon-dwellers", and Galaktophagoi, "milk-eaters". This latter likely referred to the universal kumis eaten in historical times. The wagons were used for transporting tents made of felt, a type of the yurts used universally by Asian nomads. Pliny the Elder wrote (4.12.79–81): From this point (the mouth of the Danube) all the races in general are Scythian, though various sections have occupied the lands adjacent to the coast, in one place the Getae... at another the Sarmatae... Agrippa describes the whole of this area from the Danube to the sea... as far as the river Vistula in the direction of the Sarmatian desert... The name of the Scythians has spread in every direction, as far as the Sarmatae and the Germans, but this old designation has not continued for any except the most outlying sections  According to Pliny, Scythian rule once extended as far as Germany. Jordanes supports this hypothesis by telling us on the one hand that he was familiar with the Geography of Ptolemy that includes the entire Balto-Slavic territory in Sarmatia,[citation needed] and on the other that this same region was Scythia. By "Sarmatia", Jordanes means only the Aryan territory. The Sarmatians were, therefore, a sub-group of the broader Scythian peoples. In his De Origine et situ Germanorum, Tacitus speaks of "mutual fear" between Germanic peoples and Sarmatians: All Germania is divided from Gaul, Raetia, and Pannonia by the Rhine and Danube rivers; from the Sarmatians and the Dacians by shared fear and mountains. The Ocean laps the rest, embracing wide bays and enormous stretches of islands. Just recently, we learned about certain tribes and kings, whom war brought to light.[47] Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column According to Tacitus, the Sarmatians wore long, flowing robes similar to the Persians (ch 17). He also noted that the Sarmatians exacted tribute from the Cotini and Osi, and that they exacted iron from the Cotini (ch. 43), "to their shame" (presumably because they could have used the iron to arm themselves and resist). By the third century BC, the Sarmatian name appears to have supplanted the Scythian in the plains of what now is south Ukraine. The geographer, Ptolemy,[citation needed] reported them at what must be their maximum extent, divided into adjoining European and central Asian sections. Considering the overlap of tribal names between the Scythians and the Sarmatians, no new displacements probably took place. The people were the same Indo-Europeans, but were referred to under yet another name. Later, Pausanias, viewing votive offerings near the Athenian Acropolis in the second century AD,[48] found among them a Sauromic breastplate. On seeing this a man will say that no less than Greeks are foreigners skilled in the arts: for the Sauromatae have no iron, neither mined by themselves nor yet imported. They have, in fact, no dealings at all with the foreigners around them. To meet this deficiency they have contrived inventions. In place of iron they use bone for their spear-blades and cornel wood for their bows and arrows, with bone points for the arrows. They throw a lasso round any enemy they meet, and then turning round their horses upset the enemy caught in the lasso. Their breastplates they make in the following fashion. Each man keeps many mares, since the land is not divided into private allotments, nor does it bear any thing except wild trees, as the people are nomads. These mares they not only use for war, but also sacrifice them to the local gods and eat them for food. Their hoofs they collect, clean, split, and make from them as it were python scales. Whoever has never seen a python must at least have seen a pine-cone still green. He will not be mistaken if he liken the product from the hoof to the segments that are seen on the pine-cone. These pieces they bore and stitch together with the sinews of horses and oxen, and then use them as breastplates that are as handsome and strong as those of the Greeks. For they can withstand blows of missiles and those struck in close combat. The Tryphon's relief, excavated from Tanais, ancient Greek colony situated in today's Rostov oblast The description by Pausanias is well borne out in a relief from Tanais (see image). These facts are not necessarily incompatible with Tacitus, as the western Sarmatians might have kept their iron to themselves, it having been a scarce commodity on the plains. In the late fourth century, Ammianus Marcellinus[49] describes a severe defeat that Sarmatian raiders inflicted upon Roman forces in the province of Valeria in Pannonia in late 374 AD. The Sarmatians almost destroyed two legions: one recruited from Moesia and one from Pannonia. The latter had been sent to intercept a party of Sarmatians that had been in pursuit of a senior Roman officer named Aequitius. The two legions failed to coordinate, allowing the Sarmatians to catch them unprepared. Decline begins in the fourth century[edit] See also: Alans and Ossetians The Sarmatians remained dominant until the Gothic ascendancy in the Black Sea area (Oium). Goths attacked Sarmatian tribes on the north of the Danube in Dacia, in present-day Romania. The Roman Emperor Constantine I (r. 306–337) summoned his son Constantine II from Gaul to campaign north of the Danube. In 332, in very cold weather, the Romans were victorious, killing 100,000 Goths and capturing Ariaricus, the son of the Gothic king. In their efforts to halt the Gothic expansion and replace it with their own on the north of Lower Danube (present-day Romania), the Sarmatians armed their "servants" Limigantes. After the Roman victory, however, the local population revolted against their Sarmatian masters, pushing them beyond the Roman border. Constantine, on whom the Sarmatians had called for help, defeated the Limigantes, and moved the Sarmatian population back in. In the Roman provinces, Sarmatian combatants enlisted in the Roman army, whilst the rest of the population sought refuge throughout Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy. The Origo Constantini mentions 300,000 refugees resulting from this conflict. Emperor Constantine was subsequently attributed the title of Sarmaticus Maximus.[50] In the fourth and fifth centuries the Huns expanded and conquered both the Sarmatians and the Germanic tribes living between the Black Sea and the borders of the Roman Empire. From bases in modern-day Hungary, the Huns ruled the entire territory formerly ruled by the Sarmatians. Their various constituents flourished under Hunnish rule, fought for the Huns against a combination of Roman and Germanic troops, and departed after the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (451), the death of Attila (453), and the appearance of the Bulgar ruling elements west of the Volga. During the Early Middle Ages, eventually the Proto-Slavic population of Eastern Europe decisively assimilated and absorbed the Sarmatians.[51][52] However, a people related to the Sarmatians, known as the Alans, survived in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, ultimately giving rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.[53] Legacy[edit] Sarmatism[edit] Main article: Sarmatism Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism) is an ethno-cultural concept with a shade of politics designating the formation of an idea of the origin of Poland from Sarmatians within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[54] The dominant Baroque culture and ideology of the nobility (szlachta) that existed in times of the Renaissance to the eighteenth centuries.[54] Together with another concept of "Golden Liberty", it formed a central aspect of the Commonwealth's culture and society. At its core was the unifying belief that the people of the Polish Commonwealth descended from the ancient Iranic Sarmatians, the legendary invaders of Slavic lands in antiquity.[55][56] Tribes[edit] Alans Aorsi Arcaragantes Hamaxobii (possibly) Iazyges Limigantes Ossetians Roxolani Saii Serboi Siraces Spali Taifals (possibly) See also[edit] List of ancient Iranian peoples Alans Cimmerians Early Slavs References[edit] ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, p. 2. "During the first millennium BCE, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BCE chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive ‘Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture... ^ "Sarmatian | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in antiquity : networks, connectivity, and cultural interactions. Kozlovskaya, Valeriya, 1972-. Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 9781108517614. OCLC 1000597862. ^ Tarasov, Илья Тарасов / Ilia. "Балты в миграциях Великого переселения народов. Галинды // Исторический формат, № 3-4, 2017. С. 95-124". Балты в миграциях Великого переселения народов. Галинды – via www.academia.edu. ^ Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002, p. 6. ^ Bailey, Harold Walter (1985). Khotanese Text. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780521257794. ^ a b Gluhak, Alemko (1990), "Podrijetlo imena Hrvat" [The origin of the ethnonym Hrvat], Jezik : Periodical for the Culture of the Standard Croatian Language (in Croatian), 37 (5): 131–133 ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 220. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 445. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. xiv. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 50. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 51. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 64. ^ Kuzmina 2007, p. 78. ^ Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (May 16, 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353. ^ Barry W. Cunliffe (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 402–. ISBN 978-0-19-285441-4. ^ a b Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1. ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 113. ^ a b c Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002. ^ Мошкова М. Г. Памятники прохоровской культуры//САИ, 1963. Д. 1–10 ^ Уральская историческая энциклопедия. — УрО РАН, Институт истории и археологии. Екатеринбург: Академкнига. Гл. ред. В. В. Алексеев. 2000. ^ Граков Б. Н. ГYNAIKOKPATOYMENOI (Пережитки матриархата у сарматов)//ВДИ, 1947. № 3 ^ Genito, Bruno (1 November 2002). The Elusive Frontiers of the Eurasian Steppes. All’Insegna del Giglio. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-7814-283-1. ^ Yablonskii, Leonid; Balakhvantsev, Archil (1 January 2009). "A Silver Bowl from the New Excavations of the Early Sarmatian Burial-Ground Near the Village of Prokhorovka". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 15 (1–2): 167–169. doi:10.1163/092907709X12474657004809. ^ "Chemical Analyses of Sarmatian Glass Beads from Pokrovka, Russia" Archived 2005-04-15 at the Library of Congress Web Archives, by Mark E. Hall and Leonid Yablonsky. ^ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ^ a b Harmatta 1970, 3.4. ^ Handbuch der Orientalistik, Iranistik. By I. Gershevitch, O. Hansen, B. Spuler, M.J. Dresden, Prof M Boyce, M. Boyce Summary. E.J. Brill. 1968. ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, pp. 55, 72. "Individual I0575 (Sarmatian) belonged to haplogroup R1b1a2a2, and was thus related to the dominant Ychromosome lineage of the Yamnaya (Pit Grave) males from Samara..." ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, Supplementary Information, p. 25, Supplementary Table 1. ^ Unterländer et al. 2017, pp. 3–4. "The two Early Sarmatian samples from the West... fall close to an Iron Age sample from the Samara district... and are generally close to the Early Bronze Age Yamnaya samples from Samara... and Kalmykia... and the Middle Bronze Age Poltavka samples from Samara..." ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 19, 21-22, 25, 90-93, 95-97, 116. ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 9, Rows 15, 18, 64, 67, 68. ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Rows 57, 79-80, 84, 25-27, 31-33, 59. ^ Krzewińska et al. 2018, Supplementary Materials, Table S3 Summary, Rows 4-8. ^ Järve et al. 2019, Table S2. ^ Reshetova, Irina; Afanasiev, Gennady. "Афанасьев Г.Е., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К. О культурной, антропологической и генетической специфике донских алан // Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа. М. 2014. С. 312-315" – via www.academia.edu. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ дДНК Сарматы, Аланы Google Maps ^ Reshetova, Irina; Afanasiev, Gennady. "Афанасьев Г.Е., Вень Ш., Тун С., Ван Л., Вэй Л., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К., Ли Х.. Хазарские конфедераты в бассейне Дона // Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии. М. 2015. С.146-153" – via www.academia.edu. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Day 2001, pp. 55–57. ^ Baumgarten, Siegmund Jakob; Beer, Ferdinand Wilhelm; Semler, Johann Salomo (1760). A Supplement to the English Universal History: Lately Published in London: Containing ... Remarks and Annotations on the Universal History, Designed as an Improvement and Illustration of that Work ... E. Dilly. p. 30. ^ Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, 70; cf. Geographi Graeci minores: Volume 1, p.58 ^ Herodotus' Histories, book IV ^ De Aere XVII ^ Strabo's Geography, books V, VII, XI ^ J. Harmatta, Studies in the History and Language of the Sarmatians, 1970, ch.1.2 ^ Germania omnis a Gallis Raetisque et Pannoniis Rheno et Danuvio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo metu aut montibus separatur: cetera Oceanus ambit, latos sinus et insularum inmensa spatia complectens, nuper cognitis quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellum aperuit. ^ Description of Greece 1.21.5–6 ^ Amm. Marc. 29.6.13–14 ^ Eusebius. "IV.6". Life of Constantine.; * Valois, Henri, ed. (1636) [ca. 390]. "6.32". Anonymus Valesianus I/Origo Constantini Imperatoris. ^ Brzezinski & Mielczarek 2002, p. 39. ^ Slovene Studies. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs. ^ Minahan, James (2000). "Ossetians". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Praeger security international. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 518. ISBN 9780313309847. Retrieved 27 March 2020. The Ossetians, calling themselves Iristi and their homeland Iryston, are the most northerly of the Iranian peoples. [...] They are descended from a division of Sarmatians, the Alans, who were pushed out of the Terek River lowlands and into the Caucasus foothills by invading Huns in the fourth century A.D. ^ a b Kresin, O. Sarmatism Ukrainian. Ukrainian History ^ Tadeusz Sulimirski, The Sarmatians (New York: Praeger Publishers 1970) at 167. ^ P. M. Barford, The Early Slavs (Ithaca: Cornell University 2001) at 28. Sources[edit] Books Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450. Men-At-Arms (373). Bloomsbury USA; Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6. Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, Vladimir A.; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley: Zinat Press. ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1. Day, John V. (2001). 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Krzewińska, Maja; et al. (October 3, 2018). "Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads". Science Advances. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 4 (10): eaat4457. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.4457K. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457. PMC 6223350. PMID 30417088. Клепиков, В. М.; Скрипкин, А. С. (1997). "Ранние сарматы в контексте исторических событий Восточной Европы". Донские древности. 5: 28–40. Козлова, Р. М. (2004). О Сормах, Сарматах, Сорматских горах. Студії з ономастики та етимології (in Ukrainian). Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2002). Les Sarmates: amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube, VIIe siècle av. J.-C.-VIe siècle apr. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-235-3. Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2015). "Сарматы, Сарматия и Северное Причерноморье" [Sarmatia, the Sarmatians and the North Pontic Area] (PDF). Вестник древней истории [Journal of Ancient History]. 1 (292): 109–135. Mordvintseva, Valentina I. (2013). "The Sarmatians: The Creation of Archaeological Evidence". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 32 (2): 203–219. doi:10.1111/ojoa.12010. Moshkova, M. G. (1995). "A brief review of the history of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes". Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age: 85–89. Perevalov, S. M. (2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture". Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 40 (4): 7–21. doi:10.2753/aae1061-195940047. S2CID 161826066. Rjabchikov, Sergei V. (2004). "Remarks on the Scythian, Sarmatian and Meotian Beliefs". AnthroGlobe Journal. Симоненко, А. В.; Лобай, Б. И. (1991). "Сарматы Северо-Западного Причерноморья в I в. н. э.". Погребения знати у с. Пороги (in Russian). Unterländer, Martina; et al. (March 3, 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. Nature Research. 8 (14615): 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sarmatians. Yatsenko, S. A. (1992). "CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus". CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 7. pp. 758–760. Ptolemaic Map (Digital Scriptorium) Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Sarmatians v t e Scythia Peoples Scythians Indo-Scythians Hamaxobii Abii Agathyrsi Amyrgians Massagetae Orthocorybantians Spali Tapur Thyssagetae Cimmerians Maeotians Achaei Amazons Sarmatians Agaragantes Alans Aorsi Tatars Cissianti Limigantes Phoristae Rimphaces Roxolani Serboi Siraces Spondolici Yancai Iazyges Arimaspi Budini Gelonians Cercetae Saka Neuri Tauri Zygii Tagar culture Pazyryk culture Sindi Culture Art Jewlery Cultures Religion Languages Regions Kazakh Steppe Sistan Parama Kamboja Kingdom Alania Scythia Minor Sarmatia Sarmatia Asiatica and Sarmatia Europea Pontic–Caspian steppe Related Iranian peoples History of the western steppe Bosporan Kingdom Sarmatism Iranian origin hypotheses of Croats and Serbs Category:Scythia, Category:Populated places in ancient Scythia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarmatians&oldid=1024672837" Categories: Sarmatians Historical Iranian peoples Bosporan Kingdom Peoples of the Caucasus Ancient tribes in Ukraine Ancient peoples of Ukraine Nomadic groups in Eurasia Iranian nomads History of the western steppe History of Eastern Europe Tribes in Greco-Roman historiography Ancient history of Romania History of the Balkans History of Ural Saltovo-Mayaki culture Archaeological cultures of Asia Archaeological cultures of Eastern Europe Archaeological cultures of Southeastern Europe Hidden categories: CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr) Webarchive template other archives CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 CS1 uses Ukrainian-language script (uk) CS1 Ukrainian-language sources (uk) CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Commons link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Адыгабзэ አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar მარგალური مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Qırımtatarca Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2021, at 14:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4224	----	Code of Justinian - Wikipedia Code of Justinian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Codex Justinianeus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Code of Justinian Codex Justinianeus Excerpt from the manuscript "Codex Justiniani I-IX". Medieval copy of the famous Code of Justinian. Copied by Franciscus Accursius in the 13th century. Preserved in the Ghent University Library.[1] Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Roman emperor Territorial extent Eastern Roman Empire Enacted by Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Roman emperor Effective 7 April 529 (529-04-07) Introduced by John of Cappadocia, Tribonian Related legislation Digest · Institutes of Justinian · Novellae Constitutiones The Code of Justinian (Latin: Codex Justinianus, Justinianeus[2] or Justiniani) is one part of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the codification of Roman law ordered early in the 6th century AD by Justinian I, who was an Eastern Roman (Byzantine) emperor in Constantinople. Two other units, the Digest and the Institutes, were created during his reign. The fourth part, the Novellae Constitutiones (New Constitutions, or Novels), was compiled unofficially after his death but is now also thought of as part of the Corpus Juris Civilis.[3] Contents 1 Creation 2 Rediscovery 3 English translations 4 Codex Repetitae Praelectionis 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Creation[edit] Justinian I depicted on a mosaic in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy Shortly after Justinian became emperor in 527, he decided the empire's legal system needed repair. There existed three codices of imperial laws and other individual laws, many of which conflicted or were out of date. The Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus were unofficial compilations. (The term "Codex" refers to the physical aspect of the works, being in book form, rather than on papyrus rolls. The transition to the codex occurred around AD 300.)[4] The Codex Theodosianus was an official compilation ordered by Theodosius II.[4] In February 528, Justinian promulgated the Constitutio Hac quae necessario, by which was created a ten-man commission to review these earlier compilations as well as individual laws, eliminate everything unnecessary or obsolete, make changes as it saw fit, and create a single compilation of imperial laws in force.[5] The commission was headed by the praetorian prefect, John of Cappadocia[6] and also included Tribonian, who was later to head the other Corpus Juris Civilis projects.[7] The commission finished its work in 14 months, and the compilation was promulgated in April 529 by the Constitutio Summa.[8] However, this compilation did not eliminate all the conflicts that had arisen over the years in Roman jurisprudence, and the constitutions in the Code were to be used alongside the conflicting opinions of ancient jurists. "The citation of the said constitutions of Our Code, with the opinions of the ancient interpreters of the law, will suffice for the disposal of all cases."[9] Justinian attempted to harmonize these conflicting opinions by issuing his "Fifty Decisions" and by passing additional new laws. This meant that his Code no longer reflected the latest imperial law. Thus, Justinian ordered a new compilation to supersede the first, and this Codex was published in 534.[10] No copies of the first edition of the Code have survived; only a fragment of an index of contents on an Egyptian papyrus remains.[11] Known as the Codex Repetitae Praelectionis, this second edition of the Code was published on November 16, 534, and took effect on December 30.[12] The Codex consists of twelve books: book 1 concerns ecclesiastical law, sources of law, and the duties of higher offices; books 2–8 cover private law; book 9 deals with crimes; and books 10–12 contain administrative law. The Code's structure is based on ancient classifications set out in the edictum perpetuum (perpetual edict), as is that of the Digest. Rediscovery[edit] In the West, Justinian's Codex was largely lost, or in many places never present, due to the limited western extent of the Byzantine territories. The Latin version known today was painstakingly restored over many centuries. The only known manuscript that once contained the entire Latin Codex is a Veronese palimpsest of the 6th or 7th century; it is now only fragments.[13][14] Within its home in the Byzantine Empire, the code was translated into Greek, which had become the governing language, and adapted, in the 9th century as the Basilika. It appears as if the Latin Code was shortened in the Middle Ages into an "Epitome Codex", with inscriptions being dropped and numerous other changes made.[15] Some time in the 8th or 9th century, the last three books of the Code were separated from the others, and many other laws in the first nine books, including all of those written in Greek, were dropped.[16] Substantially complete versions of Justinian's Codex were restored around the end of the 12th century, and the humanists of the 16th century added the laws originally promulgated in Greek.[17] Paul Krüger created the modern, standard version of the Codex in 1877.[18] English translations[edit] No English translations were made of the Codex until the 20th century. In 1932, the English translation of the entire Corpus Juris Civilis (CJC) by Samuel Parsons Scott was published posthumously.[19] Unfortunately, Scott used the Kriegel brothers' edition of the CJC rather than that of Theodor Mommsen, Paul Krüger, Rudolf Schöll and Wilhelm Kroll, which is accepted as the most reliable, and his translation was severely criticized.[20][21][22] Reviewing Scott's work, the Roman law scholar W. W. Buckland wrote that Scott "...had at his disposal an adequate latinity and has produced a version written in an English which can be read with pleasure. But much more than that was needed, and the work cannot be said to satisfy these further requirements."[23] Around the same time that Scott was active, Wyoming Supreme Court Justice Fred H. Blume was translating the Code and Novels, using the standard Mommsen, Krüger, Schöll, and Kroll version.[24] While this was not printed in his lifetime, in 2005 his translation of both the Code and the Novels was published on the Annotated Justinian Code website.[25] A new English translation of the Codex, based on Blume's, was published in October 2016.[26] Codex Repetitae Praelectionis[edit] The Codex Repetitae Praelectionis was the second edition of the Code of Justinian. It came into force by the constitution Cordi on 16 November 534 and was necessary due to Justinian's own legislative activity in creating new laws since the original code was issued in 529. It consists of 12 books and was written mainly in Latin.[27] See also[edit] Byzantine law Code of Hammurabi Corpus Juris Canonici International Roman Law Moot Court List of Roman laws Twelve Tables References[edit] ^ "Codex Justiniani I-IX, cum glosa /Franciscus Accursius, Guido de Suzaria ... e.a.[manuscript]". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 2020-08-26. ^ Patrick, David; Geddie, William (1923). Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. p. 324. ^ See generally, Honoré, 2003 ^ a b Jolowicz, 1972, p. 463 ^ Jolowicz, 1972, p. 479. ^ Caroline Humfress, "Law and Legal Practice in the Age of Justinian," in The Age of Justinian 161, 163 (Michael Maas ed. 2005). Humfress also describes the diverse forms of imperial enactments that were included. ^ Honoré, 2003, supra note 1 ^ Honoré, 2003, supra note 1 at 803 ^ Humfress, supra note 5 at 165, quoting the Constitutio Summa. ^ Honoré, supra note 1 at 804. For an English translation of the law putting this second edition into force, see "Concerning the Correction of the Justinian Code, and the Second Edition Thereof" (November 16, 534), translated by Justice Fred Blume in the Annotated Justinian Code at page 4. ^ Wolfgang Kunkel, An Introduction to Roman Legal and Constitutional History 166 (J.M. Kelly trans. 2nd ed. 1973). ^ Jolowicz, 1972, supra note 2 at 494. ^ Jolowicz, 1972, supra note 2 at 495 ^ Stephen L. Sass, Research in Roman Law; a Guide to the Sources and Their English Translations, 56 Law Library Journal 210, 225 (1963). ^ Charles M. Radding & Antonio Ciaralli, The Corpus Iuris Civilis in the Middle Ages: Manuscripts and Transmissions from the Sixth Century to the Juristic Revival 133 (2007); pages 133-168 give a detailed account of the Code's transmission in this period. ^ A. Arthur Schiller, Roman law, Mechanisms of Development 37 (1978). ^ Jolowicz, 1972, supra note 2 at 496. ^ Krueger, Paul (1877), Codex iustinianus (in German). ^ The Civil Law including the Twelve Tables, the Institutes of Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Enactments of Justinian, and the Constitutions of Leo..., 17 vols. (1932). Reprinted in 1973 by the AMS Press. ^ Timothy Kearley, "Justice Fred Blume and the Translation of Justinian's Code". ^ Each of the units of Mommsen, Krüger, Schoell and Kroll CJC Archived 2013-04-06 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Miller and Kearley (2013) A selective English translation of Kroll's Preface to Novels. ^ W.W. Buckland, "Book Review," 7 Tulane Law Review 627, 629 (1932–33). ^ See Kearley, supra note 18. ^ "Blume and Justinian". Uwyo.edu. Retrieved October 26, 2016. For further discussion of the work of Scott, Blume, and Clyde Pharr on Roman law translation see Kearley, Timothy G., "From Rome to the Restatement: S.P. Scott, Fred Blume, Clyde Pharr, and Roman Law in Early Twentieth-Century". See also Timothy G. Kearley, Lost in Translations: Roman Law Scholarship and Translation in Early Twentieth-Century America 162–164 (2018). ^ Bruce W. Frier (General Editor), Serena Connolly, Simon Corcoran, Michael Crawford, John Noël Dillon, Dennis P. Kehoe, Noel Lenski, Thomas A.J. McGinn, Charles F. Pazdernik, and Benet Salway, with contributions by T. Kearley. (2016), The Codex of Justinian. A New Annotated Translation, with Parallel Latin and Greek Text (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), p. 2963, ISBN 9780521196826 ^ "Codex Justinianus" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 474. ISBN 0195046528 Sources[edit] Tony Honoré, Oxford Classical Dictionary. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. 3rd rev. ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3. Jolowicz, H. F.; Nicholas, Barry (October 26, 1972), A Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law, CUP Archive, p. 463, ISBN 978-0-521-08253-2. External links[edit] Information on the Justinian Code and its manuscript tradition on the Bibliotheca legum regni Francorum manuscripta website, A database on Carolingian secular law texts (Karl Ubl, Cologne University, Germany). v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Mesopotamia Serbia Spain 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Renaissance Third Rome Megali Idea Byzantine Empire portal Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_of_Justinian&oldid=1019979428" Categories: Byzantine law Justinian I Latin prose texts Roman law Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Français Հայերեն Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Plattdüütsch Polski Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2021, at 14:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-426	----	Modern Stoicism - Wikipedia Modern Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Neostoicism. Modern Stoicism is an intellectual and popular movement that began at the end of the 20th century aimed at reviving the practice of Stoicism. It is not to be confused with neostoicism, an analogous phenomenon in the 17th century. The term "modern Stoicism" covers both the revival of interest in the Stoic philosophy and the philosophical efforts to adjust ancient Stoicism to the language and conceptual framework of the present. The rise of modern Stoicism has received attention in the international media since around November 2012 when the first Annual Stoic Week event was organized.[1] Contents 1 Background 1.1 Philosophy 1.2 Psychology and psychotherapy 1.3 As a popular movement 2 Differences between modern and ancient Stoicism 2.1 Problems with the appeal to nature 2.2 Virtue, agency, happiness 2.3 Degrees of virtue 2.4 Aspirations for universality 2.5 Stoicism versus Aristotelianism 2.6 Dichotomy of control 2.7 Asceticism and renunciation 3 See also 3.1 Movements 3.2 Concepts 3.3 People 4 References Background[edit] Philosophy[edit] Modern Stoicism arose as part of the late 20th century surge of interest in virtue ethics. "The [...] work by philosophers like Philippa Foot, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Martha Nussbaum, among others, have brought back virtue ethics as a viable alternative to the dominant Kantian–deontological and utilitarian–consequentialist approaches."[2] Modern Stoicism draws from the late 20th and early 21st century spike in publications of scholarly works on ancient Stoicism. Beyond that, the modern Stoicism movement traces its roots to the work of Dr. Albert Ellis, who developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy,[3] as well as Aaron T. Beck,[4][circular reference] who is regarded by many as the father to early versions of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Viktor Frankl also found Stoicism useful while he was imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp during World War II; he later developed his theory known as logotherapy.[2] In Lawrence Becker's words, "it is interesting to try to imagine what might have happened if Stoicism had a continuous twenty-three-hundred-year history; if Stoics had had to confront Bacon and Descartes, Newton and Locke, Hobbes and Bentham, Hume and Kant, Darwin and Marx."[5] Or, as Massimo Pigliucci puts it more concisely, "it is worth considering what it means to 'be a Stoic' in the 21st century."[6] The first major work that spelled out the key premises of modern Stoicism was, arguably, A New Stoicism[5] by Lawrence Becker, first published in 1997.[2] Psychology and psychotherapy[edit] Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy, particularly as mediated by Dr. Albert Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the major precursor of CBT. The original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al. states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers".[7] A well-known quotation from Enchiridion of Epictetus was taught to most clients during the initial session of traditional REBT by Ellis and his followers: "It's not the events that upset us, but our judgments about the events." This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly REBT and CBT, was described in detail in The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy by Donald Robertson.[8] Moreover, several early 20th century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism, most notably the "rational persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and psychotherapist Paul DuBois, who drew heavily on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged his clients to study passages from Seneca the Younger as homework assignments. As a popular movement[edit] The modern Stoicism movement relies heavily on global social media and online communities. As E.O. Scott puts it "Modern Stoicism is really a 'Web 2.0' phenomenon."[9] One of the key sites is the modern Stoicism website, which harbors the Stoicism Today blog and hosts the Annual Stoic Week (online) and Stoicon (offline) events.[10] Another important place is the New Stoa, which was founded in May 1996 and is arguably the first lasting Stoic community on the internet. Three key podcasts talking about Stoicism applied to modern thought are the Stoic Solutions Podcast hosted by Justin Vacula,[11] The Practical Stoic Podcast hosted by Simon Drew[12] and Steve Karafit's The Sunday Stoic.[13] Several personal blogs explore Stoicism, some of them run by notable Stoic scholars (e.g., Massimo Pigliucci, William Irvine, John Sellars) and some therapists who explore Stoic applications (e.g., Donald Robertson). Articles on Stoicism have appeared on popular websites.[14][15] In E.O.Scott's words, "[the] potent combination of social media and a few highly publicized books and articles [...] has recently launched Stoicism on an exponential growth curve."[9] There is a variety of Stoic meetups and groups based in places such as Australia, Denver, Dublin, Edinburgh, Fremont, Helsinki, Lisbon, London, Manchester, Milwaukee, New York, Orlando, San Francisco, Toronto and Warsaw, amongst others, as well as several "Stoic Camps" for study and practice.[16][17] According to E.O. Scott, "arguably the most important and influential gathering place for Modern Stoics [online]"[9] is the "stoicism group" on Facebook of ~40 000 people (as of January 2019). The analogous Reddit group has amassed ~118 500 users (as of December 13, 2018). Beyond the Anglophone, there is the "Sztuka życia według stoików" site run by Piotr Stankiewicz, "Stoicyzm Uliczny" run by Marcin Fabjański and Centrum Praktyki Stoickiej run by Tomasz Mazur and others. Applications of modern Stoicism are reported across industries. According to Forbes, modern Stoic thought "hold[s] fascinating promise for business and government leaders tackling global problems in a turbulent, post-recession slump."[18] However, two Stoic academics, Kai Whiting and Leonidas Konstantakos, have warned against using "life-hack Stoicism" or "Silicon Valley Stoicism" as the primary means of understanding Stoic philosophy.[19] Subsequently, they discussed Stoicism's role in advocating for change in society, including when it comes to standing against gender-based discrimination in the workplace[20] and highlighted the fact that women had a vital role in the development of ancient Stoicism[21] Similarities of modern Stoicism and Third Wave CBT have been suggested as well, and its potency in treating depression has been studied.[22] There has also been interest in applying the tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin story,[23] environmental education,[24] vegetarianism[25] and the modern challenges of sustainable development, material consumption and consumerism.[26][27][28] Differences between modern and ancient Stoicism[edit] Problems with the appeal to nature[edit] The ancient Stoics held as unquestionable dogma that in order to live a good life, one needed to live consistently with nature. According to the ancient Stoics, nature was by definition good, and everything which was conformable to nature was deemed good. Moreover, the ancient Stoics had a teleological outlook on the world, that is, they held that everything in the universe was purposefully and rationally organized to a good end. However, this view is much more difficult to uphold in the present day. As Becker puts it, "science presented significant challenges to our [Stoic] metaphysical views."[5]:3 The notion of the rational organization of the world seems much more doubtful in the 21st century than it, presumably, was two millennia ago. "When we face the universe," Becker writes, "we confront its indifference to us and our own insignificance to it. It takes no apparent notice of us, has no role other than Extra for us to play, no aim for us to follow."[5]:11 Even more pressing questions are raised when we face our own human realm, with the long and still expanding record of genocide and atrocity and the manslaughter that followed. These are major challenges for the ancient Stoic view of the world as a rational and essentially good being. An analogous problem appears with human nature (as contrasted to the nature of the universe as a whole). The idea of "following our human nature" also raises serious questions. As Becker describes it, "it is 'natural' to find these [defining] traits in human character and conduct, but it is equally natural to find a significant number of exceptions. As a result, none of these characteristics fits into the most familiar forms of ethical argument from human nature, e.g. (a) that humans are by nature X, and that Y is contrary to X, hence, that Y is contrary to human nature; or (b) that X is what defines the unique function (the essence) of a human being, thus to flourish as a human being is to excel at X."[5] In this vein, "following human nature" yields no specific guidelines for conduct either. All told, this is one of the central problems for modern Stoicism: that in the 21st century it is far more difficult to ground our ethical framework in "nature", be it universal, cosmic nature, or to special human nature. Becker acknowledges this problem and asserts that "Stoic ethics would be much better off without its 'follow nature' slogan."[5] Yet, he reflects that the Stoics are, "however, too deeply branded with it to renounce it now. The best we can do is reinterpret it."[5] The reinterpretation he proposes is this. "Following nature means following the facts. It means getting the facts about the physical and social world we inhabit, and the facts about our situation in it [...] before we deliberate about normative matters. It means facing those facts – accepting them for exactly what they are, no more and no less – before we draw normative conclusions from them. It means doing ethics from the facts constructing normative propositions a posteriori. It means adjusting those normative propositions to fit changes in the facts, and accepting those adjustments for exactly what they are, no more and no less. And it means living within the facts – within the realm of actual rather than hypothetical norm."[5] This process of "getting the facts about the [...] world"[5] happens in some measure (but not exclusively) through science. In Becker's words, "The biological, behavioral, and social sciences contribute to ethics in three important ways: they offer a wealth of material that can be used in the naturalistic arguments [...], they offer explanatory theories (e.g. from evolutionary biology) that help separate relatively fixed traits from transient or malleable ones and they offer powerful, elaborate analyses of learning, rationality, and rational choice."[5] Ethical reasoning of a Stoic "cannot begin until all relevant description, representation, and prediction are in hand, [...] – until, let us say, the empirical work is done."[5] This empirical work may be obtained by the scientific method and thus the principle of "following facts" can be (in some contexts) read as "not contradicting science" (not to be confused with simple "following science", which would be reductive and misleading). However, this issue that is raised with the ancient Stoic and modern Stoic ways of thought on physics can only be attributed to Becker and not all modern Stoics find this to be an issue.[29] As the field of physics is being constantly redefined by different laws and understandings, some stoics believe that Becker was not trying to redefine nature as the ancient stoics saw it but as the neostoics defined when they attempted to combine Christianity and Stoicism in the 16th century. Ancient Stoics simply believed that there was an active and passive material of nature and that one controlled reason and one was acted upon with reason. Virtue, agency, happiness[edit] Becker organizes his reading of Stoic ethics around the concept of agency. "The Development of Virtue [happens through] the Perfection of Agency,"[5] or through the "ideal agency"[5] as he calls it. This can be described as the belief in the "inherent primacy of virtue in terms of maximization of one's agency".[2] This agency is understood in terms of "a balance of control and stability"[5] and is executed all-things-considered, i.e. upon having obtained the most detailed information about the facts as available. Happiness, in this view, is also explained and achieved through agency. "We hold," this is Becker again, "that happiness as understood by mature and fit agents is a property of whole lives, not of transient mental states. We hold that it is achievable only through a proper balance of stability and control in the exercise of agency."[5] And, "this sort of happiness with one's life also appears to be a psychological consequence of healthy agency [...] The life of a Stoic sage is filled with such happiness, as a consequence of virtue."[5] Degrees of virtue[edit] In Becker's version of Stoicism, several dogmas of Ancients Stoicism are questioned or challenged. For example, the traditional Stoic all-or-nothing understanding of virtue is questioned (to some extent). In orthodox ancient Stoicism one was either a perfect sage or no sage at all, there was no middle ground, or in between. The ancient Stoic virtue admits of no degrees. Becker lays ground for a softer, more nuanced approach. "You can drown," he writes, "face down on the calm surface of the sea as surely as at the bottom. [...] We [i.e. the modern Stoics] follow later colleagues in thinking that these doctrines are untenable."[5] Aspirations for universality[edit] Another dogma of the ancient Stoics that is sometimes questioned in modern Stoicism is the idea that the gateways of Stoic philosophy are open to everyone and that living a Stoic life is definitely the best option for every human being. Becker suggests that "acting appropriately, as understood here, is a special kind of optimization project – one that it is logically possible to reject. (Which people with compulsive, obsessive, or addictive personalities may in fact reject.) [Modern Stoicism's] claim is, only healthy agents, at least those well along the road to fitness in their deliberative powers, cannot plausibly reject it."[5] Stoicism versus Aristotelianism[edit] In the orthodox ancient Stoic view there are absolutely no entry conditions to living a Stoic life. One can become a sage no matter the circumstances: be it poverty, illness, physical adversity and so on. This issue has traditionally been a major point of differentiation between the Stoics and the Peripatetics, who held that a certain amount of external goods is necessary for the development of virtue. Becker appears to side with the Aristotelians on this matter, saying "it is [...] plausible to conclude, however, that there is an identifiable kernel of bodily and psychological health that is a necessary condition of all further development. If this kernel is damaged, so is the capacity to develop agency."[5] Dichotomy of control[edit] An important concept of ancient Stoicism is the distinction between things within one's power and not within our power. While this concept is embraced fully by many modern Stoics, some reinterpret it. For instance, Becker points out that the whole idea of the dichotomy is a major oversimplification. As he puts it, "[the] distinction between things that are within our control, or 'up to us', and those who are not [...] [is] misleading."[5] Instead, he proposes to read it along the lines of "it is wise to calibrate the strength, depth, and dissemination of our attachments to the fragility and transience of the objects involved."[5] William Irvine goes even further and undermines the dichotomy's central premise, i.e. that the distinction between things "in our power" and "not in our power" is sharp and that there is no third option. Irvine suggests the possibility of turning the "dichotomy of control" into a "trichotomy of control". Irvine argues that "[w]e can restate Epictetus's dichotomy as follows: There are things over which we have complete control and things over which we have no control at all" as well as suggesting that "the dichotomy is a false dichotomy, since it ignores the existence of things over which we have some but not complete control."[30] Pigliucci describes it as follows: "some things are up to us (chiefly, our judgments and actions), some things are not up to us (major historical events, natural phenomena), but on a number of other things we have partial control. Irvine recasts the third category in terms of internalized goals, which makes more sense of the original dichotomy."[2] Asceticism and renunciation[edit] Modern Stoicism has no unified position regarding the ascetic elements in Stoicism and in defining the sage's attitude towards the ordinary pleasures of life. Becker mentions "the confusion, both among Stoics and their critics" and the "false notion that the Stoic ideal is a life devoid of the ordinary pleasures of sex, food, drink, music, wealth, fame, friends, and so on".[5] According to Becker this confusion happens because "Stoics have occasionally claimed that, for the sage, eudaimonia somehow replaces ordinary happiness."[5] In this vein, Stankiewicz argued against the "ascetic misinterpretation", saying that "Stoicism is not asceticism and a Stoic is not a monk. In fact, it is the school of The Pale Epicureans that is closer to the ideal of abstemiousness. The Stoic proposal is far broader and it extends far beyond the narrow passage of the ascetic way."[31] Thus, "we [the modern Stoics] must face the lushness, diversity and – yes! – sensuality of life and we have to live and thrive inside this world, accepting it as it is. Unlike a monk, a Stoic doesn't dodge the myriad of different aspects of the earthly and sensual life."[31] On the other hand, Kevin Patrick refutes this argument, ridiculing it as "hedonic Stoicism" and saying that the mentioned position "falls into the more common trap and misinterpretation, that since externals are indifferent to us, we should go ahead and indulge in all of those things for which we have a proclivity".[31] "Modern Stoics," he concludes, "ought to be Stoics."[31] Irvine takes a more modest stance and he proposes a program of "voluntary discomfort". As he describes it: "By undertaking acts of voluntary discomfort – by, for example, choosing to be cold and hungry when we could be warm and well fed – we harden ourselves against misfortunes that might befall us in the future. If all we know is comfort, we might be traumatized when we are forced to experience pain or discomfort, as we someday almost surely will. In other words, voluntary discomfort can be thought of as a kind of vaccine: By exposing ourselves to a small amount of a weakened virus now, we create in ourselves an immunity that will protect us from a debilitating illness in the future."[30] See also[edit] Movements[edit] Neostoicism Stoicism Concepts[edit] Applied ethics Aretaic turn Arete Eudaimonism Glossary of Stoic terms Oikeiosis Phronesis Pneuma Rationality Sage (philosophy) Stoic categories Virtue Virtue epistemology Virtue ethics Virtue jurisprudence People[edit] Ryan Holiday Lawrence Becker Alasdair MacIntyre Martha Nussbaum Massimo Pigliucci References[edit] ^ Joe Gelonesi (November 17, 2014). "The rise of Modern Stoicism". ABC - Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ABC - Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 20 July 2017. ^ a b c d e Pigliucci, Massimo (December 14, 2016). "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ "REBT Network". ^ "Arron T Beck". Wiki. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Becker, Lawrence (1997). A New Stoicism. Princeton University Press. ^ Pigliucci, Massimo (2015-02-02). "How To Be A Stoic?". ^ Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery (1979) Cognitive Therapy of Depression, p. 8. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. ^ a b c Scott, E.O. (2016-11-30). "A Quick Map of the Online Stoic Community". ^ AM, Timothy Willis On 12/1/14 at 7:33 (1 December 2014). "Meet the Real Stoics Taking Psychology Back to the 3rd Century BC". Newsweek. ^ "Stoic Solutions Podcast - Practical Wisdom for Everyday Life". Stoic Solutions Podcast. Retrieved 2018-04-09. ^ Development, PodBean. "The Practical Stoic Podcast with Simon Drew". Retrieved 2018-04-09. ^ "Home | Sunday Stoic". Retrieved 2018-05-05. ^ "7 insights from the ancient philosophy of Marcus Aurelius that will change the way you think about life, death, and time". Business Insider. Retrieved 2018-02-05. ^ Shammas, Michael (January 23, 2014). "Want Happiness? Become a Practicing Stoic". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 3, 2018. ^ Colter, Rob. "Stoics on the Frontier". medium.com. Retrieved 18 November 2020. ^ Sadler, Gregory. "Stoic Camp New York 2018". modernstoicism.com. Retrieved 18 November 2020. ^ Sheffield, Carrie. "Want an Unconquerable Mind? Try Stoic Philosophy". ^ Whiting, Kai; Konstantakos, Leonidas (2018-04-17). "Life-Hack Stoicism—Is It Worth It?". The Partially Examined Life Philosophy Podcast. Retrieved 2018-04-26. ^ Whiting, Kai; Konstankos, Leonidas (5 May 2018). "Taking Stoicism Beyond the Self: The Power To Change Society". The Daily Stoic. ^ Whiting, Kai; Konstantakos, Leonidas (2021-05-31). "Stoicism Isn't and Never Was (Merely) a Rich White Man's Philosophy". Blog of the APA. Retrieved 2021-06-03. ^ Evans, Jules (2013-06-29). "Anxious? Depressed? Try Greek philosophy". ^ Whiting, Kai; Konstantakos, Leonidas; Sadler, Greg; Gill, Christopher (2018-04-21). "Were Neanderthals Rational? A Stoic Approach". Humanities. 7 (2): 39. doi:10.3390/h7020039. ^ Carmona, Luis Gabriel; Simpson, Edward; Misiaszek, Greg; Konstantakos, Leonidas; Whiting, Kai (December 2018). "Education for the Sustainable Global Citizen: What Can We Learn from Stoic Philosophy and Freirean Environmental Pedagogies?". Education Sciences. 8 (4): 204. doi:10.3390/educsci8040204. ^ Whiting, Kai (2019-02-11). "The Sustainable Stoic". EIDOLON. Retrieved 2019-02-18. ^ Whiting, Kai; Konstantakos, Leonidas; Carrasco, Angeles; Carmona, Luis Gabriel (2018-02-10). "Sustainable Development, Wellbeing and Material Consumption: A Stoic Perspective". Sustainability. 10 (2): 474. doi:10.3390/su10020474. ^ Modern Stoicism, Stoicon 2018: Kai Whiting on Stoicism and Sustainability, retrieved 2019-01-29 ^ Gregory B. Sadler, A Conversation with Kai Whiting On Stoicism and Sustainability | Ideas That Matter Interview Series, retrieved 2019-01-29 ^ "The Religious Nature of Stoicism – Episode 15". 2018-06-25. ^ a b Irvine, William (2009). A Guide to the Good Life. The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press. ^ a b c d Ussher [ed.], Patrick (2016). Stoicism Today: Selected Writings vol. II. Stoicism Today.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modern_Stoicism&oldid=1026688414" Categories: 21st-century social movements Ethics History of philosophy Philosophical movements Stoicism Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from November 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Eesti Français Magyar Nederlands Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 18:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4279	----	Category:Ancient Roman adoptees - Wikipedia Help Category:Ancient Roman adoptees From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Rome portal People who were adopted in ancient Rome. Pages in category "Ancient Roman adoptees" The following 83 pages are in this category, out of 83 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Marcus Acilius Priscus Egrilius Plarianus Lucius Aelius Caesar Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus Antoninus Pius Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus Augustus Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus Quintus Aurelius Pactumeius Fronto B Marcus Junius Brutus C Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica Drusus Caesar Gaius Caesar Lucius Caesar Lucius Caesennius Paetus Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 148 BC) Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus Gaius Catellius Celer Lucius Catilius Severus Gaius Clodius Nummus Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC) Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus Quintus Cornelius Proculus Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus (consul 51) D Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus Gnaeus Domitius Lucanus Gnaeus Domitius Tullus F Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus Titus Flavius Longinus Quintus Marcius Turbo Quintus Fulvius Gillo Bittius Proculus G Galba Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus Tiberius Gemellus Germanicus H Hadrian J Gaius Javolenus Calvinus Nero Julius Caesar Gaius Antius Aulus Julius Quadratus Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus Lucius Junius Quintus Vibius Crispus L Gaius Laecanius Bassus Caecina Paetus Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Vatia Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi (consul 14 BC) Livia Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus Marcus Livius Drusus Libo Marcus Lollius Paulinus Decimus Valerius Asiaticus Saturninus Lucius Verus M Marcus Aurelius Marcus Marius Gratidianus N Lucius Neratius Marcellus Nero Sextus Nonius Quinctilianus (consul 8) O Gaius Oppius Sabinus Julius Nepos Manius Vibius Sollemnis Severus P Publius Pasidienus Firmus Quintus Petillius Cerialis Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus Pliny the Younger Quintus Pompeius Falco Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavianus Quintus Pompeius Sosius Priscus Titus Pomponius Atticus Pomponius Mamilianus Agrippa Postumus Gaius Prastina Messalinus Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus S Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus Scipio Aemilianus Marcus Scribonius Libo Drusus Sejanus Severus Alexander T Sextus Tedius Valerius Catullus Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus Galeo Tettienus Severus Marcus Eppuleius Proculus Tiberius Caepio Hispo Tiberius Trajan V Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus Lucius Varius Ambibulus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ancient_Roman_adoptees&oldid=927669431" Categories: Adoptees by nationality Ancient Romans Adoption in ancient Rome Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 November 2019, at 00:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-4282	----	Alexios IV Angelos - Wikipedia Alexios IV Angelos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1203 to 1204 "Alexios IV" redirects here. For the emperor of Trebizond, see Alexios IV of Trebizond. This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios IV Angelos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of Alexios IV (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 1 August 1203 – 5 February 1204 Predecessor Alexios III Angelos Successor Alexios V Doukas Co-Emperor Isaac II Angelos Born c. 1182 Died 8 February 1204 (aged 21) Constantinople Dynasty Angelos Father Isaac II Angelos Mother Irene (Palaiologos?) Religion Eastern Orthodox Alexios IV Angelos or Alexius IV Angelus (Greek: Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος) (c. 1182 – 8 February 1204) was Byzantine Emperor from August 1203 to January 1204. He was the son of Emperor Isaac II Angelos and his first wife, an unknown Palaiologina, who became a nun with the name Irene. His paternal uncle was his predecessor Emperor Alexios III Angelos. Contents 1 Prince in exile 2 Emperor 3 Deposition and death 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Prince in exile[edit] The young Alexios was imprisoned in 1195 when Alexios III overthrew Isaac II in a coup. In 1201, two Pisan merchants were employed to smuggle Alexios out of Constantinople to the Holy Roman Empire, where he took refuge with his brother-in-law Philip of Swabia,[1] King of Germany. According to the contemporary account of Robert of Clari it was while Alexios was at Swabia's court that he met with Marquis Boniface of Montferrat, Philip's cousin, who had been chosen to lead the Fourth Crusade, but had temporarily left the Crusade during the siege of Zara in 1202 to visit Philip. Boniface and Alexios allegedly discussed diverting the Crusade to Constantinople so that Alexios could be restored to his father's throne. Montferrat returned to the Crusade while it wintered at Zara and he was shortly followed by Prince Alexios's envoys who offered to the Crusaders 10,000 Byzantine soldiers to help fight in the Crusade, maintain 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy (20 ships) in transporting the Crusader army to Egypt, as well as money to pay off the Crusaders' debt to the Republic of Venice with 200,000 silver marks. Additionally, he promised to bring the Greek Orthodox Church under the authority of the pope. The Venetians and most of the Leaders were in favour of the plan; however, some were not, and there were defections, including Simon of Montfort. In 1202 the fleet arrived at Constantinople. Alexios was paraded outside the walls, but the citizens were apathetic, as Alexios III, though a usurper and illegitimate in the eyes of the westerners, was an acceptable emperor for the Byzantine citizens. Emperor[edit] Alexios comes to Zara to request the assistance of the Crusaders; sketch from a painting in the Doge's Palace, Venice On 18 July 1203 the Crusaders launched an assault on the city, and Alexios III immediately fled into Thrace. The next morning the Crusaders were surprised to find that the citizens had released Isaac II from prison and proclaimed him emperor, despite the fact that he had been blinded to make him ineligible to rule. The Crusaders could not accept this, and forced Isaac II to proclaim his son Alexios IV co-emperor on 1 August. Despite Alexios' grand promises, Isaac, the more experienced and practical of the two, knew that the Crusaders' debt could never be repaid from the imperial treasury. Alexios, however, had apparently not grasped how far the empire's financial resources had fallen during the previous fifty years. Alexios did manage to raise half the sum promised (100,000 silver marks), by appropriating treasures from the church and by confiscating the property of his enemies. He then attempted to defeat his uncle Alexios III, who remained in control of Thrace. The sack of some Thracian towns helped Alexios' situation a little, but meanwhile hostility between the restive Crusaders and the inhabitants of Constantinople was growing. In December 1203 violence exploded between the citizens of Constantinople and the Crusaders. Enraged mobs seized and brutally murdered any foreigner they could lay hands upon, and the Crusaders felt that Alexios had not fulfilled his promises to them. Alexios refused their demands, and is quoted as saying, "I will not do any more than I have done." While relations with the Crusaders were deteriorating, Alexios had become deeply unpopular with the Greek citizenry, and with his own father. Blinded and nearly powerless, Isaac II resented having to share the throne with his son; he spread rumours of Alexios' supposed sexual perversity, alleging he kept company with "depraved men". The chronicler Nicetas Choniates dismissed Alexios as "childish" and criticized his familiarity with the Crusaders and his lavish lifestyle. At the beginning of January 1204, Alexios IV retaliated against the Crusaders by setting fire to 17 ships filled with inflammable materials and sending them against the Venetian fleet, but the attempt failed.[2] Deposition and death[edit] At the end of January 1204, the populace of Constantinople rebelled and tried to proclaim a rival emperor Nicholas Canabus who took sanctuary in the bowels of the Hagia Sophia. Alexios IV attempted to reach a reconciliation with the Crusaders, entrusting the anti-western courtier Alexios Doukas Murzuphlus with a mission to gain Crusader support. However, Alexios Doukas imprisoned both Alexios IV and his father on the night of 27–28 January 1204. Isaac II died soon afterwards, possibly of old age or from poison, and Alexios IV was strangled on 8 February. Alexios Doukas was proclaimed emperor as Alexios V. During Alexios IV's brief reign, the empire's territories along the Black Sea coast declared independence, leading to the Byzantine successor state known as the Empire of Trebizond. The volatile situation in Constantinople at the time ensured that the empire had neither the resources nor wherewithal to maintain control of Trebizond, resulting in a de facto recognition of its Independence, although de jure it remained an Imperial possession. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Philip was married to Irene Angelina a sister of Alexios IV. ^ Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202-04 - the Betrayal of Byzantium. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. p. 65. ISBN 978 1 84908 319 5. References[edit] Angold, Michael, The Fourth Crusade (London and New York, 2004). Brand, C.M., 'A Byzantine Plan for the Fourth Crusade', Speculum, 43 (1968), pp. 462–75. Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades (2nd ed. London and New York, 2014). ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 65–66. Phillips, Jonathan, The Fourth Crusade And The Sack Of Constantinople (London and New York, 2004). Plate, William (1867). "Alexios IV Angelos". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 131. Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade - A New Annotated Translation". Alexios IV Angelos Angelid dynasty Born: unknown 1182 Died: 8 February 1204 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexios III Angelos Byzantine emperor 1203–1204 with Isaac II Angelus Succeeded by Alexios V Doukas v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexios_IV_Angelos&oldid=1027384485" Categories: Angelid dynasty 1180s births 1204 deaths 12th-century Byzantine people 13th-century Byzantine emperors 13th-century murdered monarchs Christians of the Fourth Crusade Deaths by strangulation Eastern Orthodox monarchs Byzantine prisoners and detainees Assassinated Byzantine emperors Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2011 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 16:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4298	----	Nicaea - Wikipedia Nicaea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek city of Asia Minor For other uses, see Nicaea (disambiguation). Nicaea Νίκαια Location of Nicaea within Turkey. Coordinates 40°25.74′N 29°43.17′E / 40.42900°N 29.71950°E / 40.42900; 29.71950Coordinates: 40°25.74′N 29°43.17′E / 40.42900°N 29.71950°E / 40.42900; 29.71950 Nicaea or Nicea (/naɪˈsiːə/; Greek: Νίκαια, Níkaia) was an ancient Greek city in northwestern Anatolia and is primarily known as the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea (the first and seventh Ecumenical councils in the early history of the Christian Church), the Nicene Creed (which comes from the First Council), and as the capital city of the Empire of Nicaea following the Fourth Crusade in 1204, until the recapture of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1261. The ancient city is located within the modern Turkish city of İznik (whose modern name derives from Nicaea's), and is situated in a fertile basin at the eastern end of Lake Ascanius, bounded by ranges of hills to the north and south. It is situated with its west wall rising from the lake itself, providing both protection from siege from that direction, as well as a source of supplies which would be difficult to cut off. The lake is large enough that it could not be blockaded from the land easily, and the city was large enough to make any attempt to reach the harbour from shore-based siege weapons very difficult. The ancient city is surrounded on all sides by 5 kilometres (3 mi) of walls about 10 metres (33 ft) high. These are in turn surrounded by a double ditch on the land portions, and also included over 100 towers in various locations. Large gates on the three landbound sides of the walls provided the only entrance to the city. Today, the walls have been pierced in many places for roads, but much of the early work survives; as a result, it is a tourist destination. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early history 1.2 Roman period 1.3 Byzantine period 1.4 Ottoman Empire 2 Ruins 3 See of Nicaea 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links History[edit] Early history[edit] Constantinople Gate The Lefke Gate, part of Nicaea's city walls. The place is said to have been colonized by Bottiaeans, and to have originally borne the name of Ancore (Ἀγκόρη) or Helicore (Ἑλικόρη), or by soldiers of Alexander the Great's army who hailed from Nicaea in Locris, near Thermopylae. The later version however was not widespread even in Antiquity.[1] Whatever the truth, the first Greek colony on the site was probably destroyed by the Mysians, and it fell to Antigonus I Monophthalmus, one of Alexander's successors (Diadochi) to refound the city ca. 315 BC as Antigoneia (Ἀντιγονεία) after himself.[2] Antigonus is also known to have established Bottiaean soldiers in the vicinity, lending credence to the tradition about the city's founding by Bottiaeans. Following Antigonus' defeat and death at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, the city was captured by Lysimachus, who renamed it Nicaea (Νίκαια, also transliterated as Nikaia or Nicæa; see also List of traditional Greek place names), in tribute to his wife Nicaea, who had recently died.[1] Sometime before 280 BC, the city came under the control of the local dynasty of the kings of Bithynia. This marks the beginning of its rise to prominence as a seat of the royal court, as well as of its rivalry with Nicomedia. The two cities' dispute over which one was the pre-eminent city (signified by the appellation metropolis) of Bithynia continued for centuries, and the 38th oration of Dio Chrysostom was expressly composed to settle the dispute.[3][4] Plutarch mentioned that Menecrates (Μενεκράτης) wrote about the history of the city.[5] Roman period[edit] The theatre, restored by Pliny the Younger. Along with the rest of Bithynia, Nicaea came under the rule of the Roman Republic in 72 BC. The city remained one of the most important urban centres of Asia Minor throughout the Roman period, and continued its old competition with Nicomedia over pre-eminence and the location of the seat of the Roman governor of Bithynia et Pontus.[3] The geographer Strabo (XII.565 ff.) described the city as built in the typical Hellenistic fashion with great regularity, in the form of a square, measuring 16 stadia in circumference, i.e. approx. 700 m × 700 m (2,297 ft × 2,297 ft) or 0.7 km × 0.7 km (0.43 mi × 0.43 mi) covering an area of some 50 ha (124 acres) or 0.5 km2 (0.2 sq mi); it had four gates, and all its streets intersected one another at right angles in accordance with the Hippodamian plan, so that from a monument in the centre all the four gates could be seen.[4][6] This monument stood in the gymnasium, which was destroyed by fire but was restored with increased magnificence by Pliny the Younger, when he was governor there in the early 2nd century AD. In his writings Pliny makes frequent mention of Nicaea and its public buildings.[4] Emperor Hadrian visited the city in 123 AD after it had been severely damaged by an earthquake and began to rebuild it. The new city was enclosed by a polygonal wall of some 5 kilometres in length. Reconstruction was not completed until the 3rd century, and the new set of walls failed to save Nicaea from being sacked by the Goths in 258 AD.[3][6] The numerous coins of Nicaea which still exist attest the interest taken in the city by the Roman emperors, as well as its attachment to the rulers; many of them commemorate great festivals celebrated there in honour of gods and emperors, as Olympia, Isthmia, Dionysia, Pythia, Commodia, Severia, Philadelphia, etc.[4] Byzantine period[edit] By the 4th century, Nicaea was a large and prosperous city, and a major military and administrative centre. Emperor Constantine the Great convened the First Ecumenical Council there, and the city gave its name to the Nicene Creed.[4][7] The city remained important in the 4th century, seeing the proclamation of Emperor Valens (364) and the failed rebellion of Procopius (365). During the same period, the See of Nicaea became independent of Nicomedia and was raised to the status of a metropolitan bishopric. However, the city was hit by two major earthquakes in 363 and 368, and coupled with competition from the newly established capital of the Eastern Empire, Constantinople, it began to decline thereafter. Many of its grand civic buildings began to fall into ruin, and had to be restored in the 6th century by Emperor Justinian I.[7] The city disappears from sources thereafter and is mentioned again in the early 8th century: in 715, the deposed emperor Anastasios II fled there, and the city successfully resisted attacks by the Umayyad Caliphate in 716 and 727.[7] The city was again damaged by the 740 Constantinople earthquake, served as the base of the rebellion of Artabasdos in 741/2, and served as the meeting-place of the Seventh Ecumenical Council, which condemned Byzantine Iconoclasm, in 787 (the council probably met in the basilica of Hagia Sophia).[8] Nicaea became the capital of the Opsician Theme in the 8th century and remained "a center of administration and trade" (C. Foss). A Jewish community is attested in the city in the 10th century. Due to its proximity to Constantinople, the city was contested in the rebellions of the 10th and 11th centuries as a base from which to threaten the capital. It was in the wake of such a rebellion, that of Nikephoros Melissenos, that it fell into the hands of Melissenos' Turkish allies in 1081.[9] The Seljuk Turks made Nicaea the capital of their possessions in Asia Minor until 1097, when it returned to Byzantine control with the aid of the First Crusade after a one month siege.[9] The 12th century saw a period of relative stability and prosperity at Nicaea. The Komnenian emperors Alexios, John and Manuel campaigned extensively to strengthen the Byzantine presence in Asia Minor. Major fortifications were constructed across the region, especially by John and Manuel, which helped to protect the city and its fertile hinterland. There were also several military bases and colonies in the area, for example the one at Rhyndakos in Bithynia, where the emperor John spent a year training his troops in preparation for campaigns in southern Asia Minor. After the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and the establishment of the Latin Empire, Nicaea escaped Latin occupation and maintained an autonomous stance. From 1206 on, it became the base of Theodore Laskaris, who in 1208 was crowned emperor there and founded the Empire of Nicaea. The Patriarchate of Constantinople, exiled from Constantinople, also took up residence in the city until the recapture of Constantinople in 1261. Although Nicaea was soon abandoned as the primary residence of the Nicene emperors, who favoured Nymphaion and Magnesia on the Maeander, the period was a lively one in the city's history, with "frequent synods, embassies, and imperial weddings and funerals", while the influx of scholars from other parts of the Greek world made it a centre of learning as well.[9] After the restoration of the Byzantine Empire in 1261, the city once again declined in importance. The neglect of the Asian frontier by Michael VIII Palaiologos provoked a major uprising in 1262, and in 1265, panic broke out when rumours circulated of an imminent Mongol attack.[9] Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos visited the city in 1290 and took care to restore its defences, but Byzantium proved unable to halt the rise of the nascent Ottoman emirate in the region.[9] After Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos and John Kantakouzenos were defeated at Pelekanon on 11 June 1329, the Byzantine government could no longer defend Nicaea. Nicaea finally surrendered to the Ottomans after a long siege 2 March 1331.[10] Ottoman Empire[edit] Main article: İznik In 1331, Orhan I captured the city from the Byzantines and for a short period the town became the capital of the expanding Ottoman emirate.[11] Many of its public buildings were destroyed, and the materials were used by the Ottomans in erecting their mosques and other edifices. The large church of Hagia Sophia in the centre of the town was converted into a mosque and became known as the Orhan Mosque.[12] A madrasa and baths were built nearby.[13] In 1334 Orhan built a mosque and an imaret (soup kitchen) just outside the Yenişehir gate (Yenişehir Kapısı) on the south side of the town.[14] With the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the town lost a great degree of its importance, but later became a major centre with the creation of a local faïence pottery-making industry in the 17th century. İznik Walls at Yenişehir Gate İznik Walls at Yenişehir Gate İznik Walls at Lefke Gate İznik Walls at Lefke Gate İznik Walls at Istanbul Gate Ruins[edit] Hagia Sophia of Nicaea (İznik) in 2012 The ancient walls, with their towers and gates, are relatively well preserved. Their circumference is 3,100 m (10,171 ft), being at the base from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) in thickness, and from 10 to 13 m (33 to 43 ft) in height; they contain four large and two small gates. In most places they are formed of alternate courses of Roman tiles and large square stones, joined by a cement of great thickness. In some places columns and other architectural fragments from the ruins of more ancient edifices have been inserted. As with those of Constantinople, the walls seem to have been built in the 4th century. Some of the towers have Greek inscriptions.[15] Eight kilometers from the city there is an ancient, human-size, Herakles relief engraved on a rock.[16] The ruins of mosques, baths, and houses, dispersed among the gardens and apartment buildings that now occupy a great part of the space within the Roman and Byzantine fortifications, show that the Ottoman-era town center, though now less considerable, was once a place of importance; but it never was as large as the Byzantine city. It seems to have been almost entirely constructed of the remains of the Byzantine-era Nicaea, the walls of the ruined mosques and baths being full of the fragments of ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine temples and churches. In the northwestern parts of the town, two moles extend into the lake and form a harbour; but the lake in this part has much retreated, and left a marshy plain. Outside the walls are the remnants of an ancient aqueduct.[15] The Church of the Dormition, the principal Greek Orthodox church in Nicaea, was one of the most architecturally important Byzantine churches in Asia Minor. A domed church with a cross-shaped nave and elongated apse, and dating from the perhaps as early as the end of the 6th century, its bema was decorated with very fine mosaics that had been restored in the 9th century. The Church of the Dormition was destroyed by the Turks in 1922; only the lower portions of some of its walls survive today.[17] Excavations are underway in the Ottoman kilns where the historic Nycean tileware were made. The Hagia Sophia of Nicaea is also undergoing restoration. Iznik Church remains Iznik Church remains Iznik Kilns excavations Iznik Kilns excavations See of Nicaea[edit] Main article: See of Nicaea The bishopric of Nicaea remains as a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church,[18] which has left the seat vacant since the death of its last titular bishop in 1976.[19] It is also a titular metropolitan see of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The incumbent 2001–2010 was the former Archbishop of Karelia and All Finland, Metropolitan Johannes (Rinne).[20] Notable people[edit] Hipparchus (2nd century BC) Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician Sporus of Nicaea (c. 240 – c. 300) Greek mathematician and astronomer Georgius Pachymeres (1242 – c. 1310), Byzantine historian Cassius Dio (AD c.165–c.229), Roman historian See also[edit] List of ancient Greek cities References[edit] ^ a b Stefanidou 2003, 2. Foundation, other names. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Nicaea" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 640. ^ a b c Stefanidou 2003, 3. History. ^ a b c d e DGRG, Nicaea ^ Plutarch, Life of Theseus, 26 ^ a b Stefanidou 2003, 5. Culture - architecture. ^ a b c Foss 1991, p. 1463. ^ Foss 1991, pp. 1463–1464. ^ a b c d e Foss 1991, p. 1464. ^ Donald M. Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453, second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), pp. 169f ^ Raby 1989, p. 19–20. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRaby1989 (help) ^ Tsivikis, Nikolaos (23 March 2007), "Nicaea, Church of Hagia Sophia", Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor, Foundation of the Hellenic World, retrieved 20 September 2014. ^ St. Sophia Museum, ArchNet, retrieved 20 September 2014. ^ Raby 1989, p. 20. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRaby1989 (help) ^ a b Comp. William Martin Leake, Asia Minor, pp. 10, foll.; Von Prokesch-Osten, Erinnerungen, iii. pp. 321,foll.; Richard Pococke, Journey in Asia Minor, iii. pp. 181, foll.; Walpole,'Turkey'[', ii. p. 146; Eckhel, Doctr. Num. i. pp. 423, foll.; Rasche, Lexic. Rei Num. iii. l. pp. 1374, foll. ^ 2,000-year-old Hercules relief damaged ^ Cyril Mango, "Byzantine Architecture", p90. ^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), p. 939 ^ Catholic-Hierarchy.org ^ "Biography of Metropolitan Johannes (Rinne) of Nicea" (in Greek). Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Retrieved 2008-10-18. Bibliography[edit] Foss, Clive (1991). "Nicaea". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1463–1464. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Stefanidou, Vera (2003). "Nicaea (Antiquity)". Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor. Foundation of the Hellenic World.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). "Nicaea". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicaea. Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Nicæa" T. Bekker-Nielsen, Urban Life and Local Politics in Roman Bithynia: The Small World of Dion Chrysostomos Aarhus, 2008. Çetinkaya, Halûk. Four Newly Discovered Churches in Bithynia. Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art: Collection of articles. Vol. 9. Ed: A. V. Zakharova, S. V. Maltseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova. Lomonosov Moscow State University/St. Petersburg, NP-Print, 2019, pp. 244–252. ISSN 2312-2129. v t e Hellenistic/Macedonian colonies Africa Alexandria Ptolemais Hermiou Asia Alexandretta Antioch Apamea Alexandria Arachosia Alexandria Eschate Alexandria on the Caucasus Alexandria on the Indus Alexandria on the Oxus Alexandria Prophthasia Attalia Edessa Laodicea Paralos Laodicea in Phoenicia Nicaea Philadelphia Seleucia Seleucia Pieria Serraepolis Europe Antigonia (Paeonia) Alexandropolis Maedica Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicaea&oldid=1028262648" Categories: Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Populated places in Bithynia Populated places of the Byzantine Empire Crusade places Catholic titular sees in Asia Antigonid colonies Roman towns and cities in Turkey İznik Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRG without Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRG Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Русский Sardu Sicilianu Српски / srpski Suomi தமிழ் Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 21:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4312	----	Joannes - Wikipedia Joannes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 423 to 425 "Ioannes" redirects here. For other people with the name, see Ioannes (given name). Roman emperor of the West Joannes Joannes on a solidus Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in the East) Reign 20 November 423 – May 425 Predecessor Honorius Successor Valentinian III Born Sometime in the fourth century Died June or July 425 Aquileia Latin Iohannes Joannes or John (Latin: Iohannes; died June or July 425) was western Roman emperor from 423 to 425. On the death of the Emperor Honorius (15 August 423), Theodosius II, the remaining ruler of the House of Theodosius, hesitated in announcing his uncle's death. In the interregnum, Honorius's patrician at the time of his death, Castinus, elevated Joannes as emperor. History[edit] Joannes was a primicerius notariorum or senior civil servant at the time of his elevation. Procopius praised him as "both gentle and well-endowed with sagacity and thoroughly capable of valorous deeds."[1] Unlike the Theodosian emperors, he tolerated all Christian sects. From the beginning, his control over the empire was insecure. In Gaul, his praetorian prefect was slain at Arles in an uprising of the soldiery there.[2] And Bonifacius, Comes of the Diocese of Africa, held back the grain fleet destined to Rome.[3] "The events of Johannes' reign are as shadowy as its origins," writes John Matthews, who then provides a list of the ruler's known actions in a single paragraph. Joannes was proclaimed at Rome and praetorian games were provided at the expense of a member of the gens Anicia. Johannes then moved his base of operations to Ravenna, knowing full well that the Eastern Empire would strike from that direction. There is a mention of an expedition against Africa, but its fate, presumed unsuccessful, is unrecorded. In Gaul, he appears to have caused offense by submitting clerics to secular courts. And that is all.[4] Joannes had hoped that he could come to an agreement with the Eastern Emperor, but when Theodosius II elevated the young Valentinian III, first to Caesar, then to co-emperor as an Augustus (undoubtedly influenced by Valentinian's mother Galla Placidia), he knew he could only expect war. Late in 424, he gave to one of his younger and most promising followers, Aëtius, an important mission. Aëtius, Governor of the Palace at the time, was sent to the Huns, with whom he had lived as a hostage earlier, to seek military help.[5] While Aëtius was away, the army of the Eastern Empire left Thessalonica for Italy, and soon camped in Aquileia. Although the primary sources state that Ravenna fell to their assault – John of Antioch states that a shepherd led the army of Aspar safely through the marshes that protected the city[6] Stewart Oost believes that Aspar's father, Ardaburius, who had been captured by Joannes' soldiers, convinced the garrison of Ravenna to betray the city.[7] The fallen emperor was brought to Aquileia where first his hand was cut off, then he was paraded on a donkey in the Hippodrome to the insults of the populace. After further insults and injuries, Joannes was finally decapitated in June or July 425.[8] Three days after Joannes's death, Aëtius returned at the head of a substantial Hunnic army. After some skirmishing, Placidia, regent to her son, and Aëtius came to an agreement that established the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum (commander-in-chief of the Roman army).[9] The historian Adrian Goldsworthy writes that "it took a hard-fought campaign by strong elements of the East Roman army and navy, in addition to a fair dose of betrayal," to defeat Joannes.[10] References[edit] ^ Procopius, De Bellus III.3.6. Translated by H.B. Dewing, Procopius (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1979), vol. 2 p. 25 ^ Stewart Oost Galla Placidia Augusta: A biographical essay (Chicago: University Press, 1968), p. 186 ^ Olympiodorus, fragment 40. Translated by C.D. Gordon, Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1966), pp. 44f ^ John Matthews, Western Aristocracies and Imperial Court AD 364 – 425 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp. 379f ^ Renatus Frigeridus, cited in Gregory of Tours, Decem Libri Historiarum, II.8; translated by Lewis Thorpe, History of the Franks (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp. 118f ^ John of Antioch, fragment 195; translated by C.D. Gordon, Age of Attila, p. 47 ^ Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta, pp. 188f ^ Procopius, III.3.9; translated by Dewing, pp. 75ff ^ Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta, pp. 189f ^ Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower, Orion Books Ltd, Paperback Edition 2010, London, pp. 305 and 436 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ioannes. Hugh Elton, "Ioannes", from De Imperatoribus Romanis" Regnal titles Preceded by Honorius Western Roman emperor 423–425 Succeeded by Valentinian III Political offices Preceded by Castinus Victor Roman consul 425 Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus Valentinian Caesar v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joannes&oldid=1022425912" Categories: 425 deaths 4th-century Christians 5th-century Christians 5th-century murdered monarchs 5th-century Roman usurpers Executed Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls People executed by decapitation People executed by the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Romans from unknown gentes Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 10 May 2021, at 12:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4317	----	Patrician (ancient Rome) - Wikipedia Patrician (ancient Rome) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Patrician" ancient Rome – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hereditary nobility of ancient Rome Romulus and his brother, Remus, with the she-wolf. Romulus is credited with creating the patrician class. The patricians (from Latin: patricius) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after the Conflict of the Orders (494 BC to 287 BC). By the time of the late Republic and Empire, membership in the patriciate was of only nominal significance. The social structure of Ancient Rome revolved around the distinction between the patricians and the plebeians. The status of patricians gave them more political power than the plebeians. The relationship between the patricians and the plebeians eventually caused the Conflict of the Orders. This time period resulted in changing the social structure of Ancient Rome. After the Western Empire fell, the term "patrician" continued as a high honorary title in the Byzantine Empire. In the Holy Roman Empire and in many medieval Italian republics, medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of leading Grand Burgher families, especially in Venice and Genoa. Subsequently "patrician" became a vague term used to refer to aristocrats and the higher bourgeoisie in many countries. The legacy of the Roman patrician and plebeian distinction lives on in modern society. Contents 1 Origin 2 Roman Republic and Empire 2.1 Status 2.2 Patricians vs. plebeians 2.3 Marriage 2.4 The Conflict of The Orders 2.5 Fading of distinction 2.6 Modern Day 2.7 Patrician families 2.7.1 Gentes maiores et minores 3 Late Roman and Byzantine periods 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Origin[edit] According to Livy, the first 100 men appointed as senators by Romulus were referred to as "fathers" (Latin patres), and the descendants of those men became the patrician class. This fact is also included in an account by Cicero.[1] The appointment of these one hundred men into the senate gave them a noble status.[1] This noble status is what separated the patricians from the plebeians. Some accounts detail that the one hundred men were chosen because of their wisdom.[1] This would coincide with the idea that Ancient Rome was founded on a merit-based ideal.[1] According to other opinions, the patricians (patricii) were those who could point to fathers, i.e. those who were members of the clans (gentes) whose members originally comprised the whole citizen body.[2] Other noble families which came to Rome during the time of the kings were also admitted to the patriciate, including several who emigrated from Alba Longa, after that city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius. The last-known instance of a gens being admitted to the patriciate prior to the 1st century BC was when the Claudii were added to the ranks of the patricians after coming to Rome in 504 BC, five years after the establishment of the Republic.[3][4][5][6] The criteria for why Romulus chose certain men for this class remains contested by academics and historians, but the importance of the patrician/ plebeian distinction is accounted by all as paramount to Ancient Roman society. The distinction between the noble class, the patricians, and the Roman populace, the plebeians, existed from the beginning of Ancient Rome.[7] This distinction became increasingly important in the society. The patricians were given noble status when named to the Senate, giving them wider political influence than the plebeians, at least in the times of the early Republic.[8] The patricians in Ancient Rome were of the same status as aristocrats in Greek society.[9] Being of the noble class meant that patricians were able to participate in government and politics, while the plebeians could not. This privilege was important in Ancient Roman history and ended up causing a large divide between the two classes. During the middle and late Republic, as this influence gradually eroded, plebeians were granted equal rights in most areas, and even greater in some. For example, only plebeians could serve as the Tribune of the Plebs. There were quotas for official offices. One of the two consulships was reserved for plebeians. Although being a patrician remained prestigious, it was of minimal practical importance. With the exception of some religious offices which were devoid of political power, plebeians were able to stand for all of the offices that were open to patricians. Plebeians of the senatorial class were no less wealthy than patricians at the height of the republic. Originally patrician, Publius Clodius Pulcher willingly arranged to be adopted by a plebeian family in order to qualify to be appointed as the Tribune of the Plebs. Roman Republic and Empire[edit] This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Status[edit] Patricians historically had more privileges and rights than plebeians. This status difference was marked at the beginning of the Republic: patricians were better represented in the Roman assemblies, only patricians could hold high political offices, such as dictator, consul, and censor, and all priesthoods (such as pontifex maximus) were closed to non-patricians. There was a belief that patricians communicated better with the Roman gods, so they alone could perform the sacred rites and take the auspices. Additionally, not only were the patricians of higher status in political offices but they also had the best land in Ancient Rome.[10] Having the best land would allow the patrician class to have more opportunities, such as being able to produce better agriculture. This view had political consequences, since in the beginning of the year or before a military campaign, Roman magistrates used to consult the gods. Livy reports that the first admission of plebeians into a priestly college happened in 300 BC with the passage of the Lex Ogulnia, when the college of Augurs raised their number from four to nine. After that, plebeians were accepted into the other religious colleges. By the end of the Republic, only priesthoods with limited political importance, such as the Salii, the Flamines, and the Rex Sacrorum, were filled exclusively by patricians. While it was not illegal for a plebeian to run for political office, a plebeian would have not have had the backing needed to win a seat.[11] Since society was organized in this way, the patrician class was essentially in complete control of Ancient Rome's government.[11] In Cassius' accounts of Ancient Rome, he details how important and advantaged the patrician class was over the plebeian class.[12] He indicates the status difference between patricians and plebeians by detailing about the specific shoes the patricians wore. Cassius states, "For the shoes worn by the patricians in the city were ornamented with laced straps and the design of the letter, to signify that they were descended from the original hundred men that had been senators."[12] It is clear through Cassius' account that these details mattered and represent the differentiation between classes. For more on Ancient Rome's social class distinction visit Social Class in Ancient Rome. Very few plebeian names appear in lists of Roman magistrates during the early Republic. Two laws passed during the fourth century BC began the gradual opening of magistrates to the plebeians: the Lex Licinia Sextia of 367 BC, which established the right of plebeians to hold the consulship; and the Genucian Law of 342 BC, which required that at least one of the consuls be a plebeian (although this law was frequently violated for several decades). Many of the ancient patrician gentes whose members appear in the founding legends of Rome disappeared as Rome acquired its empire, and new plebeian families rose to prominence. A number of patrician families such as the Horatii, Lucretii, Verginii and Menenii rarely appear in positions of importance during the later republic. Many old families had both patrician and plebeian branches, of which the patrician lines frequently faded into obscurity, and were eclipsed by their plebeian namesakes. The decline accelerated toward the end of the Republic, principally because of the civil wars, from the Social War to the proscriptions of the Triumvirs, which took a heavy toll on them. As a result, several illustrious patrician houses were on the verge of extinction during the 1st century BC, sometimes only surviving through adoptions, such as: Julii Caesares Manlii Torquatii Papirii Masones Postumii Albini Servilii Caepiones However, large gentes with multiple stirpes seem to have coped better; the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Sulpicii, and Valerii all continued to thrive under the Principate. Patricians vs. plebeians[edit] The distinction between patricians and plebeians in Ancient Rome was based purely on birth. Although modern writers often portray patricians as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, plebeians and patricians among the senatorial class were equally wealthy. As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic, many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity. However, no amount of wealth could change one's class.[13] Marriage[edit] A marriage between a patrician and a plebeian was the only way to legally integrate the two classes. However, once the Twelve Tables were written down, a law was written which made the marriage between the two classes illegal.[14] If a marriage was to occur between a patrician and a plebeian, the children of that marriage would then be given patrician status. This law was created to prevent the classes from mixing. In Ancient Rome women did not have power in the household. However, according to Mathisen, having a recognized marriage, so not illegally marrying into the other class, was important.[14] Having a legally recognized marriage ensured that the children born from the marriage were given Roman citizenship and any property they might inherit.[14] The Conflict of The Orders[edit] Eventually, the plebeians became unsatisfied with being the lower class and not having the same rights and privileges as the patricians.[15] This time in Roman history is called the Conflict of the Orders, which took place between 500-287 BCE.[15] Due to the patricians having the political status, the plebeian class had no representation in the government to advocate for their interests.[15] By not having anyone advocating for their interests, this also meant that the Plebeians did not know the laws they had to abide by.[15] Since the patricians were of high social status, they did not want to lose this status; they were not in agreement with changing the structure of society by giving plebeians more status.[15] Eventually, the plebeian class came together and created their own governing body, the Council of the Plebs.[15] Another advancement that came from the Conflict of the Orders was the twelve tables. At this time in Ancient Rome, the monarchy had been overthrown.[16] The plebeians wanted to know the laws, which resulted in the written form of laws: the Twelve Tables.[15] Even once these laws were written down, and the new Centuriate Assembly was created, the patrician class remained in power. The assembly separated citizens into classes, however, the top two class, Equestrians and Patricians, were able to control the majority of the vote.[15] This meant, that while the plebeians were able to vote, if the patrician classes voted together, they could control the vote.[15] Ancient Rome, according to Ralph Mathisen, author of Ancient Roman Civilization: History and Sources, made political reforms, such as the introduction of the Council of the Plebs and the Tribunes of the Plebs. These two political bodies were created to give the plebeians a voice. After the Conflict of the Orders, according to Mathisen, Plebeians were able to rise in politics and become members of the Senate, which used to be exclusively for patricians.[15] Fading of distinction[edit] A series of laws diminished the distinction between the two classes, including Lex Canuleia (445 BC; which allowed the marriage—ius connubii—between patricians and plebeians), Leges Licinae Sextiae (367 BC; which made restrictions on possession of public lands—ager publicus—and also made sure that one of the consuls was plebeian), Lex Ogulnia (300 BC; plebeians received access to priest posts), and Lex Hortensia (287 BC; verdicts of plebeian assemblies—plebiscita—now bind all people). Gradually, by the late Republic, most distinctions between patricians and plebeians had faded away.[17] Modern Day[edit] "Patrician" and "plebeian" are still used today to refer to groups of people of high and lower classes.[18] Patrician families[edit] The following gentes were regarded as patrician, although they may have had plebeian members or branches. Aebutia Aemilia Aquillia Aternia Atilia Claudia Cloelia Cornelia Curtia Fabia Foslia Furia Gegania Genucia Herminia Horatia Julia Lartia Lucretia Manlia Menenia Metilia Minucia Mucia Nautia Numicia Papiria Pinaria Pollia Postumia Potitia Quinctia Quinctilia Romilia Sempronia Sergia Servilia Sestia Siccia Sulpicia Tarpeia Tarquinia Tarquitia Tullia Valeria Verginia Veturia Vitellia Volumnia A number of other gentes originally belonged to the patricians but were known chiefly for their plebeian branches. Antonia Cassia Cominia Curiatia Hostilia Junia Marcia Gentes maiores et minores[edit] Among the patricians, certain families were known as the gentes maiores, the greatest or perhaps the most noble houses. The other patrician families were called the gentes minores. Whether this distinction had any legal significance is not known, but it has been suggested that the princeps senatus, or Speaker of the Senate, was traditionally chosen from the gentes maiores. No list of the gentes maiores has been discovered, and even their number is entirely unknown. It has been suggested that the Aemilii, Claudii, Cornelii, Fabii, Manlii, and Valerii were amongst them. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology suggests that the gentes maiores consisted of families that settled at Rome in the time of Romulus, or at least before the destruction of Alba Longa. The noble Alban families that settled in Rome in the time of Tullus Hostilius then formed the nucleus of the gentes minores. These included the Julii, Tulii, Servilii, Quinctii, Geganii, Curtii, and Cloelii.[4][19] However, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities suggests that the Alban families were also included among the gentes maiores, and that the gentes minores consisted of the families admitted to the patriciate under the Tarquins and in the early years of the Republic. In any case, the distinction cannot have been based entirely on priority, because the Claudii did not arrive at Rome until after the expulsion of the kings.[4][20][21][22] Late Roman and Byzantine periods[edit] Patrician status still carried a degree of prestige at the time of the early Roman Empire, and Roman emperors routinely elevated their supporters to the patrician caste en masse. This prestige gradually declined further, and by the end of the 3rd-century crisis patrician status, as it had been known in the Republic, ceased to have meaning in everyday life. The emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) reintroduced the term as the empire's senior honorific title, not tied to any specific administrative position, and from the first limited to a very small number of holders.[23][24] The historian Zosimus states that in Constantine's time, the holders of the title ranked even above the praetorian prefects.[25] In the late Western Roman Empire, the title was sparingly used and retained its high prestige, being awarded, especially in the 5th century, to the powerful magistri militum who dominated the state, such as Stilicho, Constantius III, Flavius Aetius, Comes Bonifacius, and Ricimer.[23] The eastern emperor Zeno (r. 474–491) granted it to Odoacer to legitimize the latter's rule in Italy after his overthrow of the rebellious magister militum Orestes and his son Romulus Augustulus in 476. In the Eastern Empire, Theodosius II (r. 408–450) barred eunuchs from holding it, although this restriction had been overturned by the 6th century. Under Justinian I (r. 527–565), the title proliferated and was consequently somewhat devalued, as the emperor opened it up to all those above illustris rank, i.e. the majority of the Senate.[26] In the 8th century, the title was further lowered in the court order of precedence, coming after the magistros and the anthypatos. However it remained one of the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the 11th century, being awarded to the most important strategoi (provincial governors and generals) of the Empire.[23] In the court hierarchy, the eunuch patrikioi enjoyed higher precedence, coming before even the anthypatoi-Latn.[27] According to the late 9th-century Kletorologion, the insignia of the dignity were ivory inscribed tablets.[28] During the 11th century, the dignity of patrikios followed the fate of other titles: extensively awarded, it lost in status, and disappeared during the Komnenian period in the early 12th century.[23] The title of prōtopatrikios (πρωτοπατρίκιος, "first patrician") is also evidenced in the East from 367 to 711, possibly referring to the senior-most holder of the office and leader of the patrician order (taxis).[23][29] The feminine variant patrikia (πατρικία) denoted the spouses of patrikioi; it is not to be confused with the title of zostē patrikia ("girded patrikia"), which was a unique dignity conferred on the ladies-in-waiting of the empress.[23] The patrician title was occasionally used in Western Europe after the end of the Roman Empire; for instance, Pope Stephen II granted the title "Patricius of the Romans" to the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short.[23] The revival of patrician classes in medieval Italian city-states, and also north of the Alps, is covered in patricianship. See also[edit] Nobility Aristocracy References[edit] ^ a b c d Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Clay (1911), p. 931 cites Livy ii. 56 ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b c Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1970). ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book II ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, Book I ^ Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Botsford, George Willis (1906). "The Social Composition of the Primitive Roman Populus". Political Science Quarterly. 21 (3): 498–526. doi:10.2307/2140599. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2140599. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b "Cassius Dio — Fragments of Book 2". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-02-23. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Steinberg, Michael (1982). "The Twelve Tables and Their Origins: An Eighteenth-Century Debate". Journal of the History of Ideas. 43 (3): 379–396. doi:10.2307/2709429. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2709429. ^ Tellegen-Couperus, O. E. (1993). A short history of Roman law. Psychology Press. ^ Mathisen, Ralph W., 1947- author. (2019). Ancient Roman civilization : history and sources, 753 BCE to 640 CE. ISBN 978-0-19-084960-3. OCLC 1137838429.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Greenidge, Abel Hendy Jones, Roman Public Life (London: MacMillan, 1901), page 12. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, i. 30, ii. 16. ^ Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Second Edition, Harry Thurston Peck, Editor (1897) ^ a b c d e f g Kazhdan (1991), p. 1600 ^ Paul Stephenson, Constantine, Roman Emperor, Christian Victor, 2010:240. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, II.40.2 ^ Bury (1911), p. 27 ^ Bury (1911), p. 124 ^ Bury (1911), p. 22 ^ Bury (1911), p. 28 Sources[edit] Bury, J. B. (1911). The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos. London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 1046639111. Clay, Agnes Muriel (1911). "Patricians" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 931–933. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Further reading[edit] Ferenczy, Endre. 1976. From the Patrician State to the Patricio-Plebeian State. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert. Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome. University of California Press. Mitchell, Richard E. 1990. Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. 2004. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Raaflaub, Kurt, ed. (2005). Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders. Blackwell Publishing. Rosenstein, Nathan and Robert Morstein-Marx. 2010. A Companion to the Roman Republic. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. Stewart, Roberta. 1998. Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Tatum, W. Jeffrey. 1999. The patrician tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press. Williamson, Callie. 2005. The laws of the Roman people: Public law in the expansion and decline of the Roman Republic. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. External links[edit] Texts on Wikisource: "Patricians". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. "Patrician". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political 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en-wikipedia-org-4348	----	University of Notre Dame - Wikipedia University of Notre Dame From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Private Catholic university in Notre Dame, Indiana, United States For other universities and colleges named "Notre Dame", see Notre Dame (disambiguation). University of Notre Dame Latin: Universitas Dominae Nostrae a Lacu Motto Vita Dulcedo Spes (Latin)[1] Motto in English Life, Sweetness, Hope (In reference to the Blessed Virgin Mary)[2] Type Private research university Established November 26, 1842; 178 years ago (1842-11-26) Founder Edward Sorin Religious affiliation Catholic Church (Congregation of Holy Cross) Academic affiliations ACCU NAICU URA 568 Group Endowment $11.96 billion (2020)[3] Budget $1.3 billion (2019)[4] President John I. Jenkins Provost Marie Lynn Miranda Academic staff 1,396 (Fall 2020)[5] Students 12,681 (Fall 2020)[5] Undergraduates 8,731 (Fall 2020)[5] Postgraduates 3,950 (Fall 2020)[5] Location Notre Dame , Indiana , United States 41°41′59″N 86°14′13″W / 41.6995885°N 86.2370781°W / 41.6995885; -86.2370781Coordinates: 41°41′59″N 86°14′13″W / 41.6995885°N 86.2370781°W / 41.6995885; -86.2370781 Campus Suburban: 1,261 acres (5.10 km2) Colors Blue and gold[6]      Nickname Fighting Irish Sporting affiliations NCAA Division I – FBS (Independent), ACC Big Ten (ice hockey) Mascot Leprechaun Website www.nd.edu [7] The University of Notre Dame du Lac, known simply as Notre Dame (/ˌnoʊtərˈdeɪm/ NOH-tər-DAYM) or ND, is a private Catholic research university in Notre Dame, Indiana, outside the city of South Bend.[8] It was founded in 1842 by Edward Sorin. The main campus covers 1,261 acres (510 ha) in a suburban setting; it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the Word of Life mural (commonly known as Touchdown Jesus), Notre Dame Stadium, and the Basilica. Notre Dame has been recognized as one of the top universities in the United States, in particular for its undergraduate education.[9][10][11][12] The university is organized into seven schools and colleges. The School of Architecture is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the annual Driehaus Architecture Prize. The university offers over 50 year-long study programs abroad and over 15 summer programs.[13] Notre Dame's graduate program has more than 50 master, doctoral and professional degrees offered by the six schools, including the Notre Dame Law School and an MD–PhD program offered in combination with the Indiana University School of Medicine.[14][15] It maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. The majority of the university's 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 31 residence halls, each with its own traditions, legacies, events, and intramural sports teams. The university's approximately 134,000 alumni constitute one of the strongest college alumni networks in the U.S.[16][17][18][19] The university's athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish. Notre Dame is known for its football team, which contributed to its rise to prominence on the national stage in the early 20th century; the team, an Independent with no conference affiliation, has accumulated 11 consensus national championships, seven Heisman Trophy winners, 62 members of the College Football Hall of Fame, and 13 of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.[20] Notre Dame teams in other sports, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have accumulated 17 national championships.[21] The Notre Dame Victory March is one of the most famous and recognizable collegiate fight songs. Notre Dame's profile grew in the early 20th century, aided by the success of its football team under coach Knute Rockne. Major improvements to the university occurred during the administration of Theodore Hesburgh between 1952 and 1987, as his administration greatly increased the university's resources, academic programs, and reputation. The university first enrolled women undergraduates in 1972. Since then, the university has seen steady growth, and under the leadership of the next two presidents, Edward Malloy and John I. Jenkins, many infrastructure and research expansions have been completed. Notre Dame's growth has continued in the 21st century; its $13.8 billion endowment is one of the largest of any U.S. university.[22] Contents 1 History 1.1 Foundations 1.2 Early history 1.3 Growth 1.4 Expansion in the 1930s and 1940s 1.5 Hesburgh era: 1952–1987 1.6 Recent history 2 Campus 2.1 Administration and academic buildings 2.2 Residential and student buildings 2.3 Athletics facilities 2.4 Environmental sustainability 2.5 Global Gateways 2.6 Community development 3 Organization and administration 3.1 Endowment 4 Academics 4.1 Colleges and schools 4.1.1 Special programs 4.2 Graduate education 4.3 Centers and Institutes 4.4 Libraries 4.5 Admissions 4.6 Rankings 5 Research 5.1 Science 5.2 Humanities 5.3 Current research 5.4 European émigrés 6 Student life 6.1 Residence halls 6.2 Student clubs 6.2.1 Student union 6.3 Student events 6.4 Religious life 6.5 Student-run media 7 Athletics 7.1 Football 7.1.1 Football gameday traditions 7.2 Men's basketball 7.3 Other sports 7.4 Band and "Victory March" 8 Alumni 9 Popular culture 9.1 Film 9.2 Television 9.3 Other media 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links History[edit] Main article: History of the University of Notre Dame Foundations[edit] In 1842, the bishop of Vincennes, Célestin Guynemer de la Hailandière, offered land to Edward Sorin of the Congregation of Holy Cross on the condition that he build a college in two years.[23] These 524 acres of land had been bought in 1830 by Rev. Stephen Badin, the first priest ordained in the United States, who had come to the area invited by Potawatomi chief Leopold Pokagon to minister to his tribe. Sorin arrived on the site with eight Holy Cross brothers from France and Ireland on November 26, 1842, and began the school using Badin's old log chapel. After enrolling two students, they soon erected more buildings, including the Old College, the first church, and the first main building.[24] Notre Dame began as a primary and secondary school; in 1844 it received its official college charter from the Indiana General Assembly,[25] under the name of the University of Notre Dame du Lac (University of Our Lady of the Lake).[a] Because the university was originally all-male, the female-only Saint Mary's College was founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross near Notre Dame in 1844.[27] Edward Sorin, founder of the university, photographed in 1890 Early history[edit] The newborn college awarded its first degrees in 1849.[28] As it grew under the presidency of Sorin and his successors, new academic programs were offered and new buildings built to accommodate the growing student and faculty population.[29][25] The brief presidency of Patrick Dillon (1865-1866) saw the replacement of the original main building with a larger one which housed the university's administration, classrooms, and dormitories. Under William Corby's first administration, enrollment at Notre Dame increased to more than 500 students. In 1869, he opened the law school, which offered a two-year course of study, and in 1871 he began construction of Sacred Heart Church, today the Basilica of the Sacred Heart. Two years later, Auguste Lemonnier started a library in the Main Building which reached 10,000 volumes by 1879.[30] The current Main Building, built after the great fire of 1879 The Main Building and the library collection were destroyed by a fire in April 1879; the school closed immediately and students were sent home.[31] Sorin (then provincial Superior) and president Corby immediately planned for the rebuilding of the structure that had housed virtually the entire university. Construction was started on May 17, and by the incredible zeal of administrators and workers, the third and current Main Building was completed before the fall semester of 1879. The library collection was also rebuilt and housed in the new Main Building.[32] The presidency of Thomas E. Walsh (1881-1893) was focused on improving Notre Dame's scholastic reputation and standards. At the time, many students came to Notre Dame for its business courses only, and did not graduate.[33] He started a "Belles Lettres" program, invited many notable lay intellectuals such as Maurice Francis Egan to campus.[34] ashington Hall was built in 1881 as a theater,[35] and the Science Hall (today LaFortune Student Center) was built in 1883 to house the science program (established in 1880) and multiple classrooms and science labs.[36] The construction of Sorin Hall saw the first freestanding residence hall on campus and one of the first in the country to have private rooms for students, a project championed by Sorin and John Zahm.[37][38] During Walsh's tenure, Notre Dame started its football program and awarded the first Laetare Medal.[39] The Law School was reorganized under the leadership of William J. Hoynes (dean from 1883 to 1919) and when its new building was opened shortly after his death it was renamed in Hoynes' honor.[40] Growth[edit] Rev. John Zahm was the Holy Cross Provincial for the United States from 1898 to 1906, with overall supervision of the university. He sought to modernize and expand Notre Dame by erecting buildings and adding to the campus art gallery and library, amassing what became a famous Dante collection, and pushing Notre Dame towards becoming a research university dedicated to scholarship. The congregation did not renew Zahm's term because of fears he had expanded Notre Dame too quickly and had run the order into serious debt.[40] In particular, his vision to make Notre Dame a research university was at odds with that of Andrew Morrissey (president from 1893 to 1905), who hoped to keep the institution a smaller boarding school.[41] Morrissey's presidency remained largely focused on younger students and saw the construction of the Grotto, the addition of wings to Sorin Hall, and the erection of the first gymnasium. By 1900, student enrollment increased to more than 700, with most students still following the Commercial Course.[42] The Basilica of the Sacred Heart, completed in 1888 The movement towards a research university was subsequently championed by John W. Cavanaugh, who modernized educational standards. An intellectual figure known for his literary gifts and his eloquent speeches, he dedicated himself to the school's academic reputation and to increasing number of students awarded bachelor's and master's degrees. As part of his efforts, he attracted a number of eminent scholars, established a chair in journalism, and introduced courses in chemical engineering. During his time as president, Notre Dame also rapidly became a significant force on the football field.[43] In 1917, Notre Dame awarded its first degree to a woman, and its first bachelor's in 1922. However, female undergraduates did not become common until 1972.[44] James A. Burns became president in 1919 and, following in the footsteps of Cavanaugh, in three years he produced an academic revolution that brought the school up to national standards by adopting the elective system and moving away from the traditional scholastic and classical emphasis.[45][46] By contrast, the Jesuit colleges, bastions of academic conservatism, were reluctant to move to a system of electives; for this reason, their graduates were shut out of Harvard Law School.[47] Notre Dame continued to grow over the years, adding more colleges, programs, residence halls, and sports teams.[48][49] By 1921, with the addition of the College of Commerce,[48] Notre Dame had grown from a small college to a university with five colleges and a law school.[50] The University of Notre Dame in 1903 President Matthew Walsh (1922–1928) addressed the material needs of the university, particularly the $10,000 debt and the lack of space for new students. When he assumed the presidency, more than 1,100 students lived off campus while only 135 students paid for room and board. With fund-raising money, Walsh concentrated on the construction of a dormitory system. He built Freshman Hall in 1922 and Sophomore Hall in 1923, and began construction of Morrissey, Howard and Lyons between 1934 and 1925.[51] By 1925 enrollment had increased to 2,500 students, of which 1,471 lived on campus and faculty members increased from 90 to 175. On the academic side, credit hours were reduced to encourage in-depth study and Latin and Greek were no longer required for a degree. In 1928 three years of college were made a prerequisite for the study of law.[52] Walsh also expanded the College of Commerce, enlarged the stadium, completed South Dining Hall, and built the memorial and entrance transept of the Basilica.[53][54] One of the main driving forces in the growth of the university was its football team, the Notre Dame Fighting Irish.[55] Knute Rockne became head coach in 1918. Under Rockne, the Irish would post a record of 105 wins, 12 losses, and five ties.[56] During his 13 years the Irish won three national championships, had five undefeated seasons, won the Rose Bowl in 1925, and produced players such as George Gipp and the "Four Horsemen". Knute Rockne has the highest winning percentage (.881) in NCAA Division I/FBS football history. Rockne's offenses employed the Notre Dame Box and his defenses ran a 7–2–2 scheme.[57] The last game Rockne coached was on December 14, 1930, when he led a group of Notre Dame all-stars against the New York Giants in New York City.[58] The success of Notre Dame reflected the rising status of Irish Americans and Catholics in the 1920s. Catholics rallied around the team and listened to the games on the radio, especially when it defeated teams from schools that symbolized the Protestant establishment in America—Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Army.[55] Its role as a high-profile flagship institution of Catholicism made it an easy target of anti-Catholicism. The most remarkable episode of violence was a clash between Notre Dame students and the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a white supremacist and anti-Catholic movement, in 1924. The Klan decided to have a week-long Klavern in South Bend. Clashes with the student body started on May 17, when students blocked the Klansmen from descending from their trains in the South Bend station and ripped the KKK clothes and regalia. Two days later thousands of students massed downtown protesting the Klavern, and only the arrival of college president Walsh prevented any further clashes. The next day, Rockne spoke at a campus rally and implored the students to obey Walsh and refrain from further violence. A few days later the Klavern broke up, but the hostility shown by the students contributed to the downfall of the KKK in Indiana.[59][60] Expansion in the 1930s and 1940s[edit] South Quad, built in the 1920s–1940s, houses many residential halls Charles L. O'Donnell (1928–1934) and John Francis O'Hara (1934–1939) fueled both material and academic expansion. During their tenures at Notre Dame, they brought numerous refugees and intellectuals to campus; such as W. B. Yeats, Frank H. Spearman, Jeremiah D. M. Ford, Irvin Abell, and Josephine Brownson for the Laetare Medal, instituted in 1883. O'Hara also concentrated on expanding the graduate school.[61] New construction included Notre Dame Stadium, the law school building, Rockne Memorial, numerous residential halls, Cushing Hall of Engineering and a new heating plant. This rapid expansion, which cost the university more than $2.8 million was made possible in large part through football revenues. O'Hara strongly believed that the Fighting Irish football team could be an effective means to "acquaint the public with the ideals that dominate" Notre Dame. He wrote, "Notre Dame football is a spiritual service because it is played for the honor and glory of God and of his Blessed Mother. When St. Paul said: 'Whether you eat or drink, or whatsoever else you do, do all for the glory of God,' he included football."[62] During World War II, O'Donnell offered Notre Dame's facilities to the armed forces. The navy accepted his offer and installed Naval ROTC units on campus as part of the V-12 Navy College Training Program.[63] Soon after the installation there were only a few hundred civilian students at Notre Dame. O'Donnell also continued O'Hara's work with the graduate school. He further formalized the graduate program and replaced the previous committee of graduate studies with a dean.[64] John J. Cavanaugh, president from 1946 to 1952, devoted his efforts to raising academic standards and reshaping the university administration to better serve its educational mission and an expanded student body. He also stressed advanced studies and research while quadrupling the university's student population, with undergraduate enrollment seeing an increase by more than half, and graduate student enrollment growing fivefold. Cavanaugh established the Lobund Institute for Animal Studies and Notre Dame's Medieval Institute,[65] presided over the construction of Nieuwland Science Hall, Fisher Hall, and the Morris Inn, as well as the Hall of Liberal Arts (now O'Shaughnessy Hall), made possible by a donation from I. A. O'Shaughnessy, at the time the largest ever made to an American Catholic university.[66] He also established the university's system of advisory councils.[67][68] Hesburgh era: 1952–1987[edit] The Hesburgh Library, decorated by the Word of Life mural. Theodore Hesburgh served as president for 35 years (1952–1987) and under his presidency Notre Dame underwent huge growth and transformation from a school mostly known for its football to a top-tier university, academic powerhouse, and preeminent Catholic university.[69][70][71][72] In that time the annual operating budget rose by a factor of 18 from $9.7 million to $176.6 million, and the endowment by a factor of 40 from $9 million to $350 million, and research funding by a factor of 20 from $735,000 to $15 million. Enrollment nearly doubled from 4,979 to 9,600, faculty more than doubled 389 to 950, and degrees awarded annually doubled from 1,212 to 2,500.[73] Hesburgh also made Notre Dame coeducational. Women had graduated every year since 1917, but it was mostly religious sisters in graduate programs.[74] In the mid-1960s Notre Dame and Saint Mary's College developed a co-exchange program whereby several hundred students took classes not offered at their home institution, an arrangement that added undergraduate women to a campus that already had a few women in the graduate schools. After extensive debate, merging with St. Mary's was rejected, primarily because of the differential in faculty qualifications and pay scales. "In American college education," explained Charles E. Sheedy, Notre Dame's dean of Arts and Letters, "certain features formerly considered advantageous and enviable are now seen as anachronistic and out of place. ... In this environment of diversity, the integration of the sexes is a normal and expected aspect, replacing separatism." Thomas Blantz, Notre Dame's vice president of Student Affairs, added that coeducation "opened up a whole other pool of very bright students."[75] Two of the residence halls were converted for the newly admitted female students that first year,[76][77] with two more converted the next school year.[78][79] In 1971 Mary Ann Proctor, a transfer from St. Mary's, became the first female undergraduate. The following year Mary Davey Bliley became the first woman to graduate from the university, with a bachelor's degree in marketing.[80][81] In 1978, a historic district comprising 21 contributing buildings was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[82] Recent history[edit] In the 18 years Edward Malloy was president, the school's reputation, faculty, and resources grew rapidly.[83][84][85] He added more than 500 professors and the academic quality of the student body improved dramatically, with the average SAT score rising from 1240 to 1460. The number of minority students more than doubled, the endowment grew from $350 million to more than $3 billion, the annual operating budget rose from $177 million to more than $650 million, and annual research funding improved from $15 million to more than $70 million.[83] Notre Dame's most recent (2014) capital campaign raised $2.014 billion, far exceeding its goal of $767 million. It was the largest in the history of Catholic higher education and the largest of any university without a medical school at the time.[86] The Rev. John I. Jenkins took over from Malloy in 2005 .[87][88] In his inaugural address, Jenkins described his goals of making the university a leader in research that recognizes ethics and builds the connection between faith and studies. During his tenure, Notre Dame has increased its endowment, enlarged its student body, and undergone many construction projects on campus, including Compton Family Ice Arena, a new architecture hall, and additional residence halls.[89] Announced as an integration of "the academy, student life and athletics,"[90] construction on the 750,000-square-foot (70,000 m2) Campus Crossroads project began around Notre Dame Stadium in November 2014. Its three buildings—Duncan Student Center (west), Corbett Family Hall (east) and O'Neill Hall (south) house student life services, an indoor gym, a recreation center, the career center, a 500-seat student ballroom, the departments of anthropology and psychology, a digital media center and the department of music and sacred music program.[91] Campus[edit] Main article: Campus of the University of Notre Dame A view of the old part of the campus, with the Basilica and Main Building Notre Dame's campus is located in Notre Dame, Indiana, an unincorporated community in the Michiana area of Northern Indiana, north of South Bend and four miles (6.4 km) from the Michigan state line.[92] Development of the campus began in the spring of 1843, when Sorin and some of his congregation built the Old College, used as a residence, a bakery, and a classroom. A year later, after an architect arrived, the first Main Building was built and in the decades to follow the university expanded.[93][94] Today it lies on 1,250 acres (5.1 km2) just south of the Indiana Toll Road including around 170 buildings and athletic fields located around its two lakes and seven quadragles.[95] United States historic place University of Notre Dame: Main and South Quadrangles U.S. National Register of Historic Places U.S. Historic district The University's historic center, comprising the Basilica, the Golden Dome, and Washington Hall, was built in the early years of the university. Location Off I-80/90, Notre Dame, Indiana Area 70 acres (28 ha) Built 1842 Architectural style Mixed (more Than 2 Styles From Different Periods) NRHP reference No. 78000053[96] Added to NRHP May 23, 1978 It is consistently ranked and admired as one of the most beautiful university campuses in the United States and around the world, particularly noted for the Golden Dome, the Basilica and its stained glass windows, the quads and the greenery, the Grotto, Touchdown Jesus, and its statues and museums.[97][98][99][100][101] Notre Dame is a major tourist attraction in northern Indiana; in the 2015–2016 academic year, more than 1.8 million visitors, almost half of whom were from outside of St. Joseph County, visited the campus.[102] A 116-acre (47 ha) historic district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 as University of Notre Dame: Main and South Quadrangles. The district includes 21 contributing buildings in the core of the original campus such as Main Administration Building and the Basilica.[82] Administration and academic buildings[edit] The Main Building serves as the center for the university's administrative offices, including the office of the president. Its golden dome, topped by the statue of Mary, is the campus' most recognizable landmark. When the second iteration of the main building burned down in 1879, the third and current was build in record time. The main building is located on Main Quad (also known as God Quad), which is the oldest, most historic, and most central part of campus. Behind the main building stand several facilities with administrative purposes and student services, including Carole Sadner Hall, Brownson Hall, and St' Liam's Hall, the campus health center. There are several religious buildings[103] The current Basilica of the Sacred Heart is located on the spot of Sorin's original church, which had become too small for the growing college. It is built in French Revival style, with stained glass windows imported from France. The interior was painted by Luigi Gregori, an Italian painter invited by Sorin to be an artist in residence. The basilica also features a bell tower with a carillon. Inside the church, there are also sculptures by Ivan Meštrović. The Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes was built in 1896 and serves as a replica of the original in Lourdes and is popular spot for prayer and meditation.[104] The Old College building has become one of two seminaries on the campus run by the Congregation of Holy Cross. The Golden Dome, built under Sorin, has become the symbol of the university Academic buildings are concentrated in the Center-South and Center-East sections of campus. McCourtney Hall, an interdisciplinary research facility, opened its doors for the fall 2016 semester, and ground was broken on the 60,000-square-foot (5,600 m2) Walsh Family Hall of Architecture on the south end of campus near the DeBartolo Performing Arts Center; a late 2018 opening is planned.[105] Since 2004, several buildings have been added, including the DeBartolo Performing Arts Center,[106] the Guglielmino Complex,[107] and the Jordan Hall of Science.[108] A new engineering building, Stinson-Remick Hall, a new combination Center for Social Concerns/Institute for Church Life building, Geddes Hall, and a law school addition were completed at the same time.[109] Many academic buildings were built with a system of libraries, the most prominent of which is the Hesburgh Library, built in 1963 and today containing almost four million books. The Stayer Center for Executive Education, which houses the Mendoza College of Business Executive Education Department opened in March 2013 just South of the Mendoza College of Business building. Residential and student buildings[edit] Main article: University of Notre Dame residence halls There are 31 undergraduate residence halls. The majority of the graduate students on campus live in one of four graduate housing complexes on campus. Additionally, a new residence for men, Dunne Hall, began accepting residents in fall 2016. Flaherty Hall, for women, was completed and opened that semester as well. The student body is served by South Dining Hall and North Dining Hall. Autumn on the Main Quadrangle The campus hosts several entertainment, general purpose, and common spaces. LaFortune Student Center, commonly known as "LaFortune" or "LaFun," it is a four-story building built in 1883 that serves as student union and hosts social, recreational, cultural, and educational activities.[110][111] LaFortune hosts many businesses (including restaurant chains), student services, and divisions of The Office of Student Affairs are found within.[110][112] A second student union came with the addition of Duncan Student Center, which is built onto the Notre Dame Stadium as part of the Campus Crossroads projects. As well as additional food chains, recreation facilities, and student offices, Duncan also hosts a student gym and a ballroom. Historic Washington Hall on the Main Quadrangle, popularly termed the "God Quad"[113] Athletics facilities[edit] Because of its long athletic tradition, the university features many athletic buildings, which are concentrated in the southern and eastern sections of campus. The most prominent is Notre Dame Stadium,[114] home of the Fighting Irish football team; it has been renovated several times and today can seat more than 80,000 people. Prominent venues include also the Edmund P. Joyce Center, with indoor basketball and volleyball courts, and the Compton Family Ice Arena,[115] a two-rink facility dedicated to hockey. There are many outdoor fields, such as the Frank Eck Stadium for baseball.[116] Legends of Notre Dame (commonly referred to as Legends) is a music venue, public house, and restaurant located on campus, just 100 yards (91 m) south of the stadium. The former Alumni Senior Club[117] opened in September 2003 after a $3.5 million renovation and became an all-ages student hang-out. Legends is made up of two parts: The Restaurant and Alehouse and the nightclub.[118] The new wing of the Law School Environmental sustainability[edit] The Office of Sustainability was created in the fall of 2007 at the recommendation of a Sustainability Strategy Working Group and appointed the first director in April 2008. The pursuit of sustainability is directly related to the Catholic mission of the university.[119] In his encyclical Laudato si', Pope Francis stated, "We need a conversation which includes everyone, since the environmental challenge we are undergoing, and its human roots, concern and affect us all."[120] Additionally, other resources and centers on campus focusing on sustainability include the Environmental Change Initiative, Environmental Research Center, and the Center for Sustainable Energy at Notre Dame.[121] The university also houses the Kellog Institute for International Peace Studies. Notre Dame received a gold rating from the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) in 2014; in 2017 it was downgraded to silver.[122] In 2016, the Office of Sustainability released its Comprehensive Sustainability Strategy to achieve its goals in a wide area of university operations.[123] As of April 2018[update], 12 buildings have achieved LEED-Certified status with nine of them earning Gold certification.[124] Notre Dame's dining service sources 40 percent of its food locally and offers sustainably caught seafood as well as many organic, fair-trade, and vegan options.[125] In 2019, irrigations systems improvements lead to 244 million fewer gallons of water being used and a 50 percent reduction in water consumption over 10 years.[126] In 2015, Notre Dame announced major environmental sustainability goals, including eliminating the use of coal by 2020 and reducing its carbon footprint by half by 2030.[121] Both these goals were reached early, in 2019.[127][128] This was achieved by implementing energy conservation, energy efficiency strategies, temperature setpoints, low-flow water devices, and diversifying its energy sources and infrastructures.[127] New sources of renewable energy on campus include geothermal wells on East Quad and by the Notre Dame Stadium, substitution of boilers with gas turbines, solar panels located on Fitzpatrick Hall and Stinson-Remick Hall and off-campus, a hydroelectric facility at Seitz Park in South Bend powered by the St. Joseph River, and heat recovery strategies.[129][128][121] Future projects outlined by the university's utilities long-range plan include continual diversification of its energy portfolio, future geothermal wells in new buildings and some existing facilities, and a collaboration with the South Bend Solar Project. Current goals include cutting Notre Dame's carbon footprint by 83 percent by 2050 and eventually become carbon neutral, diverting 67 percent of all waste from landfills by 2030.[121][128][127] Global Gateways[edit] The former United University Club The university owns several centers around the world used for international studies and research, conferences abroad, and alumni support.[130] London. The university has had a presence in London since 1968. Since 1998, its London center has been based in Fischer Hall, the former United University Club in Trafalgar Square. The center hosts the university's programs in the city, and conferences and symposia.[131] The university also owns a residence facility, Conway Hall, for students studying abroad.[132] Beijing. The university owns space in the Liangmaqiao Station area. The center is the hub of Notre Dame Asia and it hosts a number of programs including study abroad.[133] Kylemore Abbey Dublin. The university owns the O'Connell House, a building in Merrion Square at the heart of Georgian Dublin. It hosts academic programs and summer internships for both undergraduate and graduate students in addition to seminars and is home to the Keough Naughton Centre.[134] Since 2015, the university has partnered with Kylemore Abbey, renovating spaces in the abbey so it could host academic programs.[135] Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Global Gateway shares space with the university's Tantur Ecumenical Institute, in a 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) facility on the seam between Jerusalem and Bethlehem. It hosts religious and ecumenical programs.[136] Rome. The Rome Global Getaway is located in Via Ostilia, very close to the Colosseum. It was recently acquired and renovated, and now has 32,000 square feet (3,000 m2) of space to host a variety of academic activities. The university purchased a second Roman villa on the Caelian hill.[137] In addition to the five Global Getaways, the university also owns the Santa Fe Building in Chicago, where it offers its executive Master of Business Administration program.[138] Community development[edit] The first phase of Eddy Street Commons, a $215 million development adjacent to campus funded by the university, broke ground in June 2008.[139][140] The project drew union protests when workers hired by the City of South Bend to construct the public parking garage picketed the private work site after a contractor hired non-union workers.[141] The $90 million second phase broke ground in 2017.[142] Campus of the University of Notre Dame The central area of the Kresge Law Library University of Notre Dame's replica of the Grotto at Lourdes Basilica and Dome University of Notre Dame: Main and South Quadrangles The Golden Dome in the Winter Notre Dame Golden Dome from West Entrance of Cavanaugh Hall Organization and administration[edit] See also: President of the University of Notre Dame The Rev. Theodore Hesburgh, photographed in 2012, was the 15th and longest-serving president of Notre Dame. The university's president is always a priest of the Congregation of Holy Cross. The first president was The Rev. Edward Sorin and the current president is The Rev. John I. Jenkins. As of July 2020[update], Marie Lynn Miranda is the provost, overseeing academic functions.[143] Until 1967, Notre Dame had been governed directly by the Congregation, but under the presidency of The Rev. Theodore Hesburgh two groups, the Board of Fellows and the Board of Trustees were established to govern the university.[144] The 12 fellows are evenly divided between members of the Holy Cross order and laity; they have final say over the operation of the university. They vote on potential trustees and sign off on all that board's major decisions.[145] The trustees elect the president and provide general guidance and governance to the university.[144] Endowment[edit] Notre Dame's endowment was started in the early 1920s by university president James Burns; it was $7 million by 1952 when Hesburgh became president. By the 1980s it reached $150 million, and in 2000, it returned a 57.9 percent return on its investments, which the university says is a record for any American university in a single year.[146] For the 2007 fiscal year, the endowment had grown to approximately $6.5 billion, putting the endowment among the 15 largest in the country.[147] In 2019, the university reported its endowment at $13.8 billion.[148][149] Academics[edit] Colleges and schools[edit] The College of Arts and Letters was established as the university's first college in 1842, with the first degrees granted seven years later.[150] The university's first academic curriculum was modeled after the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum from Saint Louis University.[151] Today, the college, housed in O'Shaughnessy Hall,[152] includes 20 departments in the areas of fine arts, humanities, and social sciences, and awards Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degrees in nearly 70 majors and minors, making it the largest of the university's colleges. There are more than 3,000 undergraduates and 1,100 graduates enrolled in the college, taught by 500 faculty members.[153] Jordan Hall of Science The College of Science was established in 1865, by president Patrick Dillon. The curriculum involved six years of coursework, including higher-level mathematics.[154] Today, the college, housed in the Jordan Hall of Science,[155] includes over 1,200 undergraduates in several departments, each awarding Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degrees.[156] According to university statistics, its science pre-professional program has one of the highest acceptance rates to medical school of any university in the United States.[157] The College of Engineering was established in 1920;[158] however, courses in civil and mechanical engineering had been taught in the College of Science, since the 1870s.[159] Today, the college, housed in the Fitzpatrick, Cushing, and Stinson-Remick Halls of Engineering,[160] includes five departments of study, with eight B.S. degrees offered. The college also offers five-year dual degree programs with the Colleges of Arts and Letters and of Business awarding additional B.A. and Master of Business Administration (MBA) degrees, respectively.[161] Bond Hall, house of the School of Architecture from 1964 until 2019 The School of Architecture was established in 1899,[162] the year after Notre Dame first granted degrees in the field.[163] Today, the school, housed in Bond Hall,[164] offers a five-year undergraduate program leading to a bachelor's degree. All undergraduates spend their third year in Rome.[165] The faculty teaches (pre-modernist) traditional and classical architecture and urban planning (e.g., following the principles of New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture).[166] It also awards the annual Driehaus Architecture Prize.[167] The Mendoza College of Business was established by John Francis O'Hara in 1921, although a foreign commerce program had been launched in 1917.[168] Today, the college offers degrees in accountancy, finance, management, and marketing and enrolls over 1,600 students.[169] In 2016, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Mendoza's undergraduate program as second in the country,[170] after five consecutive years in the first position.[171] For its 2017 rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked the graduate school 29th, tied with Rice University and Georgia Tech.[172] The Keough School of Global Affairs was established in 2014 by John I. Jenkins. The first new school in nearly a century, it builds on the presence of seven institutes founded for international research, scholarship, and education at Notre Dame. The school offers six doctoral programs related to international peace studies, a Masters in Global Affairs focused either in peace studies or sustainable development, and five undergraduate majors.[173] It is focused on the study of global governance, human rights, and other areas of global social and political policy. The creation of the school was funded by a $50 million gift from Donald Keough, a former Coca-Cola executive, and his wife Marilyn. The school officially opened in August 2017, in Jenkins Hall on Debartolo Quad.[174] The Notre Dame Law School was established in 1869 and was the first law program at a Catholic university in the United States.[175] Today, the program is consistently ranked among the top American law schools by U.S. News & World Report.[176] The law school grants the professional Juris Doctor degree, as well as the graduate Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees.[177] It is ranked 8th in graduates attaining federal judicial clerkships[178] and 7th in graduates attaining Supreme Court clerkships.[179] "The Word of Life", a mural on the Hesburgh Library that is colloquially referred to as "Touchdown Jesus" [180] Special programs[edit] All of Notre Dame's undergraduate students are a part of one of the five undergraduate colleges at the school or are in the First Year of Studies program.[181] The First Year of Studies program was established in 1962 to guide freshmen through their first year at the school before they have declared a major. Each student is given an academic advisor who helps them to choose classes that give them exposure to any major they are interested in.[182] The program also includes a Learning Resource Center which provides time management, collaborative learning, and subject tutoring.[183] It has been recognized as outstanding by U.S. News & World Report.[184] First Year of Studies is designed to encourage intellectual and academic achievement and innovation among first-year students. It includes programs such as FY advising, the Dean's A list, the Renaissance circle, NDignite, the First year Urban challenge and more.[185] Each admissions cycle, the Office of Undergraduate Admissions selects a small number of students for the Glynn Family Honors Program, which grants top students within the College of Arts and Letters and the College of Science access to smaller class sizes taught by distinguished faculty, endowed funding for independent research, and dedicated advising faculty and staff.[186] Graduate education[edit] Each of the five colleges offers graduate education in the form of master's and doctoral programs. Most of the departments from the College of Arts and Letters offer PhDs, while a professional Master of Divinity (M.Div.) program also exists. All of the departments in the College of Science offer PhDs, except for the Department of Pre-Professional Studies. The School of Architecture offers a Master of Architecture, while each of the departments of the College of Engineering offer PhDs. The College of Business offers multiple professional programs including MBA and Master of Science in Accountancy programs. It also operates facilities in Chicago and Cincinnati for its executive MBA program.[177] Additionally, the Alliance for Catholic Education program[187] offers a Master of Education program, where students study at the university during the summer and teach in Catholic elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools across the South for two school years.[188] The Law School in winter The university first offered graduate degrees, in the form of a Master of Arts (MA), in the 1854–1855 academic year. The program expanded to include Master of Laws (LLM) and Master of Civil Engineering in its early stages of growth, before a formal graduate school education was developed with a thesis not required to receive the degrees. This changed in 1924, with formal requirements developed for graduate degrees, including offering doctorates.[189] Although Notre Dame does not have a medical school of its own, it offers a combined MD–PhD though the regional campus of the Indiana University School of Medicine, where Indiana medical students may spend the first two years of their medical education before transferring to the main medical campus at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis.[190][191] Centers and Institutes[edit] The university hosts several different centers and institutes. These include the Center for Social Concerns, the Eck Institute for Global Health, the Institute for Educational Initiatives, the Keough-Naughton Institute for Irish Studies, the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, the McGrath Institute for Church Life, the Medieval Institute, the Nanovic Institute for European Studies, and the Tantur Ecumenical Institute. There are also several college-based institutes such as UNDERC, the Harper Cancer Research Institute, the Initiative for Global Development, the Institute for Flow Physics and Control, the Institute for Latino Studies, the Liu Institute for Asia and Asian Studies, and the Wireless Institute. In 2019, Notre Dame announced plans to rename the Center for Ethics and Culture, an organization focused on spreading Catholic moral and intellectual traditions. The new de Nicola Center for Ethics and Culture was funded by a $10 million gift from Anthony and Christie de Nicola.[192][193] The University is also home to the McGrath Institute for Church Life, which "partners with Catholic dioceses, parishes and schools to address pastoral challenges with theological depth and rigor."[194] The Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, founded in 1986 through the donations of Joan B. Kroc, the widow of McDonald's owner Ray Kroc, and inspired by Father Hesburgh, is dedicated to research, education, and outreach, on the causes of violent conflict and the conditions for sustainable peace. It offers Ph.D., master's, and undergraduate degrees in peace studies. It has contributed to international policy discussions about peacebuilding practices.[195] Libraries[edit] The interior of the Kresge Law Library at the Notre Dame Law School The library system of the university is divided between the main library, the 14-story Theodore M. Hesburgh Library, and each of the colleges and schools. The Hesburgh Library, completed in 1963, is the third building to house the main collection.[196] The front of the library is adorned with the Word of Life mural by Millard Sheets, popularly known as "Touchdown Jesus" because of its proximity to Notre Dame Stadium and Jesus' arms appearing to make the signal for a touchdown.[180][197] The Clarke Memorial Fountain, a war memorial dedicated in 1986, is colloquially known as "Stonehenge"[198] The library system also includes branch libraries for Architecture, Chemistry and Physics, Engineering, Law, and Mathematics as well as information centers in the Mendoza College of Business, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, and a slide library in O'Shaughnessy Hall.[199] A theology library, opened in fall of 2015 on the first floor of Stanford Hall, is the first branch of the library system to be housed in a dorm room. With over three million volumes, the library system was the single largest university library in the world at the time of completion.[200] It remains one of the hundred largest libraries in the country.[201] Admissions[edit] Admission to Notre Dame is highly competitive; the fall 2021 incoming class admitted 3,446 from a pool of 23,639 for 14.5 percent acceptance rate.[202] The academic profile of the enrolled class continues to rate among the top 10 to 15 in the nation for national research universities. Of the most recent class, the class of 2020, 48 percent were in the top 1 percent of their high school, and 94 percent were in the top 10 percent. The median SAT score was 1510 and the median ACT score was 34. The university practices a non-restrictive early action policy that allows admitted students to consider admission to Notre Dame as well as any other colleges that accepted them.[203] This process admitted 1,400 of the 3,577 (39.1 percent) who requested it.[204] Admitted students came from 1,311 high schools; the average student traveled more than 750 miles (1,210 km) to Notre Dame. While all entering students begin in the College of the First Year of Studies, 25 percent have indicated they plan to study in the liberal arts or social sciences, 24 percent in engineering, 24 percent in business, 24 percent in science, and 3 percent in architecture.[205] Rankings[edit] Academic rankings National ARWU[206] 95–114 Forbes[207] 18 THE/WSJ[208] 32 U.S. News & World Report[209] 19 Washington Monthly[210] 23 Global ARWU[211] 301–400 QS[212] 211 THE[213] 170 U.S. News & World Report[214] 238 USNWR graduate rankings[215] Business 30 Engineering 50 Law 22 USNWR graduate departmental rankings[215] Biological Sciences 73 Analytical Chemistry 13 Chemistry 59 Clinical Psychology 37 Computer Science 58 Earth Sciences 68 Economics 47 English 33 Fine Arts 99 History 27 Mathematics 39 Non-profit Business 5 Logic 3 Physics 52 Political Science 37 Political Theory 8 Psychology 60 Sociology 32 For 2020, Notre Dame ranked 11th for best undergraduate teaching, 24th for "best value" school and tied for 15th overall among "national universities" in the United States in U.S. News & World Report's Best Colleges report.[216] In 2015, USA Today ranked Notre Dame 10th overall for American universities.[217] Forbes's "America's Top Value Colleges" ranks Notre Dame 21st among colleges in the United States in 2018, 17th among research universities, and 3rd in the Midwest.[218] U.S. News ranks Mendoza College of Business undergraduate school as tied for 12th best in the U.S. in 2020.[219] The Philosophical Gourmet Report ranks Notre Dame's graduate philosophy program as 17th nationally.[220] According to PayScale, undergraduate alumni of University of Notre Dame have a mid-career median salary $110,000, making it the 24th-highest among colleges and universities in the United States. The median starting salary of $55,300 ranked 58th in the same peer group.[221] Named by Newsweek as one of the "25 New Ivies,"[222] it is also an Oak Ridge Associated University.[223] Research[edit] Science[edit] Joseph Carrier, director of the Science Museum and the library, was a professor of chemistry and physics until 1874. Carrier taught that scientific research and its promise for progress were not antagonistic to the ideals of intellectual and moral culture endorsed by the Catholic Church. One of Carrier's students, John Augustine Zahm, was made professor and co-director of the science department at 23; by 1900 he was a nationally prominent scientist and naturalist. He was active in the Catholic Summer School movement, which introduced Catholic laity to contemporary intellectual issues. His book Evolution and Dogma (1896) defended certain aspects of evolutionary theory as true, and argued, moreover, that even the great Church teachers Thomas Aquinas and Augustine taught something like it. The intervention of Irish American Catholics in Rome prevented Zahm's censure by the Vatican. In 1913, Zahm and former President Theodore Roosevelt embarked on a major expedition through the Amazon.[224] In 1882, Albert Zahm, John's brother, built an early wind tunnel to compare lift to drag of aeronautical models. Around 1899, professor Jerome Green became the first American to send a wireless message.[225] In 1931, Julius Nieuwland performed early work on basic reactions that was used to create neoprene.[226] The study of nuclear physics at the university began with the building of a nuclear accelerator in 1936,[227] and continues now partly through a partnership in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics.[228] Humanities[edit] Hallway within Hurley Hall Richard T. Sullivan taught English from 1936 to 1974 and published six novels, dozens of short stories, and various other efforts. He was known as a regional writer and a Catholic spokesman.[229] Frank O'Malley was an English professor during the 1930s–1960s. Influenced by philosophers Jacques Maritain, John U. Nef, and others, O'Malley developed a concept of Christian philosophy that was a fundamental element in his thought. Through his course "Modern Catholic Writers", O'Malley introduced generations of undergraduates to Gabriel Marcel, Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh, Sigrid Undset, Paul Claudel, and Gerard Manley Hopkins.[230] The Review of Politics, modeled after German Catholic journals, was founded in 1939 by Waldemar Gurian. It quickly emerged as part of an international Catholic intellectual revival, offering an alternative vision to positivist philosophy. For 44 years, the Review was edited by Gurian, Matthew Fitzsimons, Frederick Crosson, and Thomas Stritch. Intellectual leaders included Gurian, Maritain, O'Malley, Leo Richard Ward, F. A. Hermens, and John U. Nef. It became a major forum for political ideas and modern political concerns, especially from a Catholic and scholastic tradition.[231] Kenneth Sayre has explored the history of the Philosophy department. He stresses the abandonment of official Thomism to the philosophical pluralism of the 1970s, with attention to the issue of being Catholic. He pays special attention to the charismatic personalities of Ernan McMullin and Ralph McInerny, key leaders of the department in the 1960s and 1970s.[232] Current research[edit] As of 2019 research continued in many fields. President Jenkins described his hope that Notre Dame would become "one of the pre-eminent research institutions in the world" in his inaugural address.[233] The university has many multi-disciplinary research institutes, including the Medieval Institute, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the Kroc Institute for International Peace studies, and the Center for Social Concerns.[234] Recent research includes work on family conflict and child development,[235][236] genome mapping,[237] the increasing trade deficit of the United States with China,[238] studies in fluid mechanics,[239] computational science and engineering,[240] supramolecular chemistry,[241] and marketing trends on the Internet.[242] As of 2013[update], the university is home to the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index which ranks countries annually based on how vulnerable they are to climate change and how prepared they are to adapt.[243] In the fiscal year 2019, the university received the all-time high research funding of $180.6 million, increased $100 million from 2009 and 275 from the previous year, with top funded and cutting edge projects including vector-borne diseases, urbanism, environmental design, cancer, psychology, economics, philosophy of religion, particle physics, nanotechnology, and hypersonics.[244] Notre Dame has a strong background in the humanities, with 65 National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships, more than any other university. Focus areas includes anti-poverty economic strategy, the premier Medieval Institute, Latino studies, sacred music, Italian studies, Catholic studies, psychology, aging and stress, social good, and theology.[245] In the sciences, research focuses and specilized centers include the Harper Cancer Research Institute, the Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, the Center for Nano Science and Technology, the Center for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, the Eck Institute for Global Health, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the University of Notre Dame Environmental Research Center, Topology and Quantum Field Theory, the Nuclear Physics Research Group, and the Environmental Change Initiative.[246] European émigrés[edit] The Pieta by Ivan Meštrović, a European émigré The rise of Hitler and other dictators in the 1930s forced numerous Catholic intellectuals to flee Europe; president John O'Hara brought many to Notre Dame. From Germany came Anton-Hermann Chroust in classics and law,[247] and Waldemar Gurian a German Catholic intellectual of Jewish descent. Positivism dominated American intellectual life in the 1920s onward but in marked contrast, Gurian received a German Catholic education and wrote his doctoral dissertation under Max Scheler.[248] Ivan Meštrović, a renowned sculptor, brought Croat culture to campus.[249] Yves Simon brought to ND in the 1940s the insights of French studies in the Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition of philosophy; his own teacher Maritain was a frequent visitor to campus.[250] The exiles developed a distinctive emphasis on the evils of totalitarianism. For example, the political science courses of Gerhart Niemeyer discussed communist ideology and were particularly accessible to his students. He came to the university in 1955 and was a frequent contributor to the National Review and other conservative magazines.[251] In 1960 Hesburgh, at the urging of Niemeyer and political science department head, Stanley Parry, C.S.C., invited Eric Voegelin (1901–1985), who had escaped Nazi-occupied Austria, to guest lecture at Notre Dame, which he did until his retirement in 1968.[252] Student life[edit] As of Fall 2020, the Notre Dame student body consisted of 12,681 students, with 8,731 undergraduates and 3,950 graduate and professional (Law, M.Div., Business, MEd) students.[5] An estimated 21–24 percent of students are children of alumni,[253] and the student body represents all 50 states and 100 countries. Thirty-seven percent of students come from the Midwestern United States, and 48% of students are U.S. students of color or international citizens.[254] As of March 2015[update] The Princeton Review ranked Notre Dame as the ninth-highest 'dream school' from a parental perspective.[255] It has also been commended by some diversity-oriented publications; Hispanic Magazine in 2004 ranked the university ninth on its list of the top 25 colleges for Latinos,[256] and The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education recognized the university in 2006 for raising enrollment of African-American students.[257] The strictly measured federal graduation rate for athletes was 98 percent for freshmen who entered between 2007 and 2010, the highest in the country.[258] Residence halls[edit] Main article: List of residence halls at the University of Notre Dame Howard Hall, one of 15 women's dormitories The residence halls, or dorms, are the focus of the student social and intramural life.[259][260] [261] Each hall is led by a rector, a full-time, live-in professional who serves as leader, chief administrator, community builder and university resources to the residents, and is either a priest, religious sister or brother, or layperson trained in ministry and/or education.[262] Rectors direct the hall community, foster bonding, and often coordinate with professors, academic advisors, and counselors to watch over students and assist them with their personal development.[263] Rectors select, hire, train, and supervise hall staff: resident assistants (required to be seniors) and assistant rectors (graduate students).[264] Many residence halls also have a priest or faculty members in residence as faculty fellows, who provide an additional academic and intellectual experience to residential hall life.[265] Every hall has its own chapel, dedicated to the hall's patron saint, and liturgical schedule with masses celebrated multiple times a week during the academic year, in the tradition of individual chapels at English university colleges.[266] Fraternities and sororities are not allowed on campus, as they are described as in opposition to the university's educational and residential mission.[267] The residential halls provide the social and communal aspect of fraternities, but in line with the university's policy of inclusion and zero tolerance of hazing, and according to former director of admissions Dan Saracino without "any of the disadvantages [of the Greek system] – rush, the cliques, deciding on whether you're good enough to join them, monthly ‘dues’ and a much lower diversity of people living together”.[268][269] Over four-fifths of students live in the same residence hall for three consecutive years and about one-third of students live in the same residence hall for all four years As of October 2017[update].[270] A new policy was put into effect which requires undergraduate students to live on-campus for three years starting in 2018. In spring 2019 the university also announced a policy that prohibits students living off-campus from participating in dorm activities such as intramural sports and dorm dances.[271] Most intramural (interhall) sports are based on residence hall teams, where the university offers the only non-military academy program of full-contact intramural American football.[272] At the end of the interhall football season, the championship game is played in Notre Dame Stadium.[273] Student clubs[edit] The hall of the Notre Dame Council of the Knights of Columbus There are over 400 active student clubs at the University of Notre Dame, with the financial oversight of each club delegated the student-run Club Coordination Council.[274] The university subsidizes clubs, providing almost 15 percent of clubs' collective projected expenditures of $2.2 million during the 2018–2019 academic year.[275] There are a variety of student clubs on campus, including nine for students from different states,[276] about three dozen clubs that represent different nationalities and origins,[277] and clubs dedicated to Catholic theology,[278] diverse faith practices, social service, political advocacy and awareness, competitive athletics, professional development and networking, performing arts, academic debate, foreign affairs, fraternal brotherhood, women's empowerment, and many other interests.[279] The university hosts their annual Student Activities Fair early in the fall semester for all students interested in joining clubs or other student organizations.[280] Student union[edit] The Notre Dame Club Coordination Council (or simply the Club Coordination Council (CCC)) is the branch of the Student Union of the university responsible for communicating issues facing undergraduate club issues, providing funding for undergraduate clubs, serving as the representative body of undergraduate student clubs, and working with student clubs to ensure that clubs can coordinate their programming of activities.[281] The CCC is responsible for overseeing around 400 student clubs,[282] each of which serve a unique purpose.[283][284] The approval of the council, along with that of the Notre Dame Student Activities Office, is a requirement for official recognition of student clubs.[285][286][287] Student events[edit] With 6,000 participants, the university's intramural sports program was named the best in the country in 2004 by Sports Illustrated,[288] while in 2007 The Princeton Review named Notre Dame as the top school where "Everyone Plays Intramural Sports."[289] Over 700 teams participate each year in the annual Bookstore Basketball tournament;[290] while the Notre Dame Men's Boxing Club hosts the annual Bengal Bouts tournament to raise money for the Holy Cross Missions in Bangladesh.[291] In the fall, the Notre Dame Women's Boxing Club hosts an annual Baraka Bouts tournament that raises money for the Congregation of the Holy Cross Missions in Uganda.[292] Many of the most popular student events held on campus are organized by the 30 residential halls. Among these, the most notable are the Keenan Revue, the Fisher Hall Regatta, Keenan Hall Muddy Sunday, the Morrissey Hall Medallion Hunt, the Dillon Hall Pep Rally, the Keough Hall Chariot Race and many others. Each dorm also hosts many formal and informal balls and dances each year.[293] Religious life[edit] Basilica of the Sacred Heart at night While religious affiliation is not a criterion for admission, more than 93 percent of students identify as Christian, with over 80 percent of those being Catholic.[294] There are 57 chapels on campus, including one in every residence hall. Collectively, Catholic Mass is celebrated over 100 times per week on campus, and a large campus ministry program provides for the faith needs of the community.[272][295] Fifty-seven chapels are located throughout the campus.[296] There is an also active council of the Knights of Columbus on campus, which is the oldest and largest college council of the international Catholic men's organization.[297][298] Non-Catholic religious organizations on campus include Baptist Collegiate Ministry (BCM), Jewish Club, Muslim Student Association, Orthodox Christian Fellowship, the Chi Alpha Christian Fellowship, and many more.[299] The university is the major seat of the Congregation of Holy Cross (albeit not its official headquarters, which are in Rome).[300] Its main seminary, Moreau Seminary, is located on the campus across St. Joseph lake from the Main Building.[301] Old College, the oldest building on campus and located near the shore of St. Mary lake, houses undergraduate seminarians. Retired priests and brothers reside in Fatima House (a former retreat center), Holy Cross House, as well as Columba Hall near the Grotto.[302] Student-run media[edit] Notre Dame students run nine media outlets: three newspapers, a radio and television station, and several magazines and journals. The Scholastic magazine, begun as a one-page journal in 1876,[303] is issued twice monthly and claims to be the oldest continuous collegiate publication in the United States. The other magazine, The Juggler, is released twice a year and focuses on student literature and artwork.[304] The Dome yearbook is published annually. The newspapers have varying publication interests, with The Observer published daily and mainly reporting university and other news,[305] staffed by students from both Notre Dame and Saint Mary's College. Unlike Scholastic and The Dome, The Observer is an independent publication and does not have a faculty advisor or any editorial oversight from the university.[306] In 2003, when other students believed that the paper had a liberal bias, they started The Irish Rover, a print and digital newspaper published twice per month that features regular columns from alumni and faculty in addition to coverage of campus matters. As of 2005, The Observer and the Irish Rover were distributed to all students.[304] In Spring 2008, Beyond Politics, an undergraduate journal for political science research, made its debut.[307] The television station, NDtv, grew from one show in 2002 to a full 24-hour channel with original programming by 2006.[308] WSND-FM serves the student body and larger South Bend community at 88.9 FM, offering students a chance to become involved in bringing classical music, fine arts and educational programming, and alternative rock to the airwaves. Another radio station, WVFI, began as a partner of WSND-FM;it now airs independently and is streamed on the Internet.[309] Athletics[edit] Main article: Notre Dame Fighting Irish Notre Dame Stadium Notre Dame's sports teams are known as the Fighting Irish. They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports except football since the 2013–14 school year.[310] The Fighting Irish previously competed in the Horizon League for two periods in the 1980s and 1990s, then in the Big East Conference through 2012–13. Notre Dame men compete in baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis and track and field; women's sports are basketball, cross country, fencing, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. The football team competes as a Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) Independent[311] since its inception in 1887 with the exception of 2020, when it competed as part of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Both fencing teams compete in the Midwest Fencing Conference,[312] and the men's ice hockey team competes in the Big Ten Conference. Football Stadium during a game Notre Dame's conference affiliations for all of its sports except football and fencing changed in July 2013 as a result of major conference realignment, and its fencing affiliation changed in July 2014. The Irish left the Big East for the ACC during a prolonged period of instability in the Big East;[313][314] while they maintain their football independence, they have committed to play five games per season against ACC opponents.[315] In ice hockey, the Irish were forced to find a new conference after the Big Ten Conference's decision to add the sport in 2013–14 led to a cascade of conference moves that culminated in the dissolution of the school's former hockey home, the Central Collegiate Hockey Association, following the 2012–13 season. Notre Dame moved its hockey team to Hockey East.[316] After Notre Dame joined the ACC, the conference announced it would add fencing as a sponsored sport beginning in the 2014–15 school year.[317] There are many theories behind the adoption of the team name[318] but it is known that the Fighting Irish name was used in the early 1920s with respect to the football team and was popularized by alumnus Francis Wallace in his New York Daily News columns.[319] The official colors of Notre Dame are navy blue and gold.[320] Green is sometimes worn because of the Fighting Irish nickname.[320] The Notre Dame Leprechaun is the mascot of the athletic teams. Created by Theodore W. Drake in 1964, the leprechaun was first used on the football pocket schedule and later on the football program covers. It was featured on the cover of Time in November 1964.[321] Since its inception in 2011, Fighting Irish Media, made up of part time student workers and full time producers, has filmed nearly all live Fighting Irish sporting events for digital and linear broadcasts.[322] With the installation of a videoboard in Notre Dame Stadium in Fall 2017, FIM has taken over video board production for all Fighting Irish teams.[323] In 2014, the University of Notre Dame and Under Armour reached an agreement in which the company provides uniforms, apparel, equipment, and monetary compensation to Notre Dame for 10 years. This contract, worth almost $100 million, is the most lucrative in the history of the NCAA.[324] According to some analysts without direct connection to the university or its athletic department, Notre Dame promotes Muscular Christianity through its athletic programs.[325][326] Football[edit] Main article: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football Notre Dame playing against Navy The Notre Dame football team's history began when the Michigan team brought the game to Notre Dame in 1887 and played against a group of students.[327] Since then, 13 Fighting Irish teams have won consensus national championships (although the university only claims 11),[310] along with another nine teams being named national champion by at least one source.[328] The program has the most members in the College Football Hall of Fame,[329] is tied with Ohio State for the most Heisman Trophies won by players,[330] and has the highest winning percentage in NCAA history.[331] Notre Dame has accumulated many rivals; the annual game against USC for the Jeweled Shillelagh has been described as one of the greatest in college football.[332][333][334][335][336] Coach Knute Rockne George Gipp was the school's legendary football player of the late 1910s. He played semiprofessional baseball and smoked, drank, and gambled when not playing sports. He was also described as humble, generous to the needy, and a man of integrity.[337] In 1928 coach Knute Rockne used his final conversation with the dying Gipp to inspire the Notre Dame team to beat Army and "win one for the Gipper"; that scene became the climax of 1940 film, Knute Rockne, All American, starring Pat O'Brien as Rockne and Ronald Reagan as Gipp.[338] The team competes in 80,795-seat Notre Dame Stadium.[339] The current head coach is Brian Kelly, hired from the University of Cincinnati in 2009.[340] Kelly's record through his eleventh season at Notre Dame is 100-39. In 2012, his Fighting Irish squad went undefeated and played in the BCS National Championship Game. Six years later it was forced by the NCAA to vacate all those victories because an investigation found that ineligible players had taken part.[341] Kelly succeeded Charlie Weis, who was fired in November 2009 after five seasons.[342][343] Although Weis led his team to two Bowl Championship Series bowl games,[344] his overall record was 35–27,[345] mediocre by Notre Dame standards, and the 2007 team had the most losses in school history.[346] The football team generates enough revenue to operate independently while $22.1 million is retained from the team's profits for academic use. Forbes named the team as the most valuable in college football, worth a total of $101 million in 2007.[347] Football gameday traditions[edit] During home games, activities occur all over campus and dorms decorate their halls with a traditional item (e.g., Zahm Hall's two-story banner). Traditional activities begin at midnight with the Drummers' Circle, involving the Band of the Fighting Irish's drumline and beginning the other festivities that will continue the rest of the gameday Saturday. Later that day, the trumpet section will play the Notre Dame Victory March and the Notre Dame Alma Mater under the dome. The entire band will play a concert at the steps of Bond Hall, then march into the stadium, leading fans and students alike across campus to the game.[348] Football gameday traditions The "HERE COME THE IRISH" gameday sign on Zahm Hall is multiple stories tall The Band of the Fighting Irish plays on the steps of Bond Hall before every home game The Irish Guard leading the Band of the Fighting Irish to the stadium The Band of the Fighting Irish plays inside Notre Dame Stadium. The Band of the Fighting Irish spells out ND through which the Notre Dame Fighting Irish Football Team runs onto the field. Notre Dame Stadium student section wearing "The Shirt" for the 2011 football season Men's basketball[edit] Main article: Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's basketball The Joyce Center, home stadium for Notre Dame's basketball teams As of the 2014–2015 season, the men's basketball team has over 1,898 wins; only eight other schools have more,[349] and Fighting Irish teams have appeared in 28 NCAA tournaments.[350] Former player Austin Carr holds the record for most points scored in a single game of the tournament with 61.[351] Although the team has never won the NCAA Tournament, they were named by the Helms Athletic Foundation as national champions twice.[350] The team has orchestrated a number of upsets of top-ranked teams, the most notable of which was ending UCLA's record 88-game winning streak in 1974.[352] Notre Dame has beaten an additional eight number-one teams, and those nine wins rank second, to UCLA's 10, all-time in wins against the top team.[350] The team plays in the newly renovated Purcell Pavilion (within the Edmund P. Joyce Center), which reopened for the 2009–2010 season.[353] The team is coached by Mike Brey, who, as of the 2019–20 season, his 20th at Notre Dame, has achieved a 412–205 record.[354] In 2009 Notre Dame was invited to the NIT, where they reached the semi-finals. The 2010–11 team concluded its regular season ranked number seven in the country, with a record of 25–5, Brey's fifth straight 20-win season, and a second-place finish in the Big East. During the 2014–15 season, the team went 32–6 and won the ACC tournament, later advancing to the Elite 8, where they lost on a missed final shot against then-undefeated Kentucky. Led by NBA draft picks Jerian Grant and Pat Connaughton, the Fighting Irish beat the eventual national champion Duke Blue Devils twice during the season. The 32 wins were the most by the Fighting Irish team since 1908–09.[355] Other sports[edit] See also: Notre Dame Fighting Irish women's basketball, Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's ice hockey, and Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's lacrosse Notre Dame has won an additional 14 national championships in sports other than football. Three teams have won multiple national championships; the fencing team leads with 10,[356] followed by the men's tennis and women's soccer teams each with two.[357][358] The men's cross country,[358] and golf[358] teams have won one and Notre Dame women's basketball has won two.[359] In the first 10 years that Notre Dame competed in the Big East Conference its teams won a total of 64 championships.[360] As of 2010[update], the women's swimming and diving team holds the Big East record for consecutive conference championships in any sport with 14 straight conference titles (1997–2010).[361] Band and "Victory March"[edit] The Band of the Fighting Irish was formed in 1846 and is the oldest university band in continuous existence.[362] The marching band plays at home games for most sports. It regularly plays the school's fight song, the "Notre Dame Victory March", identified as the most played and most famous fight song by Northern Illinois professor William Studwell.[363] According to College Fight Songs: An Annotated Anthology published in 1998, the Victory March is the greatest fight song.[363] It was honored by the National Music Council as a "Landmark of American Music" during the United States Bicentennial.[364] The song was featured in the movies Knute Rockne, All American, Airplane!, and Rudy.[365] The Notre Dame Band of the Fighting Irish The Victory March was written by two brothers. Michael J. Shea, a 1904 graduate, wrote the music, and his brother, John F. Shea, who earned degrees in 1906 and 1908, wrote the original lyrics. The lyrics were revised in the 1920s; it first appeared under the copyright of the University of Notre Dame in 1928. The chorus is, "Cheer cheer for old Notre Dame, wake up the echos cheering her name. Send a volley cheer on high, shake down the thunder from the sky! What though the odds be great or small, old Notre Dame will win over all. While her loyal sons are marching, onward to victory!"[366] Alumni[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Notre Dame alumni and List of University of Notre Dame athletes. The school has more than 130,000 alumni and 275 alumni clubs around the world.[367][368] Many give yearly monetary support to the university and Notre Dame is ranked among schools with the highest alumni donation rates.[369] A school-record of 53.2 percent of alumni donating was set in 2006.[370] Many buildings on campus are named for major donors, including residence halls,[371][372] classroom buildings,[373] and the performing arts center.[106] Alumni working in politics include state governors,[374] members of the United States Congress,[375] and former United States secretary of state Condoleezza Rice.[376] Notable alumni from the College of Science are Eric F. Wieschaus, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in medicine,[377] and Philip Majerus, discoverer of the cardioprotective effects of aspirin.[378] Many university officials are alumni, including the current president, The Rev. John Jenkins.[379] Alumni in media include talk show hosts Regis Philbin[380] and Phil Donahue,[381] and television and radio personalities such as Mike Golic[382] and Hannah Storm.[383] A number of sports alumni have continued their careers in professional sports, such as Joe Theismann, Joe Montana,[384] Tim Brown, Ross Browner, Rocket Ismail, Ruth Riley, Jeff Samardzija,[385] Jerome Bettis, Justin Tuck, Craig Counsell, Skylar Diggins-Smith, Brett Lebda, Olympic gold medalist Mariel Zagunis, professional boxer Mike Lee, former football coaches such as Charlie Weis,[386] Frank Leahy and Knute Rockne,[387] and Basketball Hall of Famers Austin Carr and Adrian Dantley. Other notable alumni include prominent businessman Edward J. DeBartolo Jr. and astronaut Jim Wetherbee.[388][389] Two alumni have received the Presidential Medal of Freedom (Alan Page and Edward J. DeBartolo Jr.), and two the Congressional Gold Medal (Thomas Anthony Dooley III and Bill Hanzlik). Scientist and explorer, John Augustine Zahm (BA, 1871) Cardinal, Archbishop of Philadelphia, and president of Notre Dame (1943–1945), John Francis O'Hara (1911) 1995 Nobel Prize for Medicine, Eric F. Wieschaus (BS, 1969) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Amy Coney Barrett (JD, 1997) 66th United States Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice (MA, 1975) U.S. Senator and Congressman, Joe Donnelly (BA, 1977; JD, 1981) U.S. Senator from New Jersey, Jeffrey Chiesa (BBA, 1987) 39th President of El Salvador, José Napoleón Duarte (BS, 1948) 33rd President of Panama, Ernesto Pérez Balladares (MA, 1969) Chairman and CEO of Bank of America, Brian Moynihan (JD, 1985) Best-selling author, Nicholas Sparks (BA, 1988) Television personality, Regis Philbin (BA, 1953) Talk show host and creator of The Phil Donahue Show, Phil Donahue (BBA, 1957) Anchor of ESPN's SportsCenter, Hannah Storm (BA, 1983) Former Deputy Administrator of NASA, Dava Newman (BS, 1986) United States Air Force Colonel and NASA astronaut, Kevin Ford (BS, 1982) United States Navy Captain and NASA astronaut, Jim Wetherbee (BS, 1974) Associate Justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court and member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Alan Page (BA, 1967) Former American football quarterback and member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Joe Montana (BBA, 1978) Football coach, Knute Rockne (BS, 1914) Popular culture[edit] The University of Notre Dame is the setting of several works of fiction, as well as the alma mater of some fictional characters.[390] In mid-20th century America it became "perhaps the most popular symbol of Catholicism", as noted by The Routledge Companion to Religion and Popular Culture: By combining religion, ethnicity, masculinity, and athletics into a potent mixture of an aggressive and uniquely Catholic gospel of athletics, Notre Dame football became the emblematic program that represented American Catholic self-identity.[391] Film[edit] Knute Rockne, All American is a 1940 biographical film which tells the story of Knute Rockne, Notre Dame football coach.[392] The "Win one for the Gipper" speech was parodied in the 1980 movie Airplane! when, with the Victory March rising to a crescendo in the background, Dr. Rumak, played by Leslie Nielsen, urged reluctant pilot Ted Striker, played by Robert Hays, to "win just one for the Zipper", Striker's war buddy, George Zipp. The Victory March also plays during the film's credits.[393][394] Rudy is a 1993 account of the life of Daniel "Rudy" Ruettiger, who harbored dreams of playing football at Notre Dame despite significant obstacles.[395] In Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005), Brad Pitt's character Mr. Smith majored in art history at Notre Dame.[396] In the film Something Borrowed, Ginnifer Goodwin's character is not accepted into Notre Dame Law School, which is depicted as a crushing event because her competitive best friend (Kate Hudson) manages to get in. Later, it is revealed that it was a lie and she did not get in.[396] Lt. Walter J. "Touchdown" Schinoski, claims to have played football at Notre Dame in Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket.[397] Television[edit] President Josiah Bartlet from the show The West Wing is a Notre Dame graduate, and the First Lady Abigail Bartlet attended Saint Mary's College. Danny Concannon, member of the White House press corps, is also a graduate of Notre Dame. Actor Martin Sheen specifically asked that his character be a Notre Dame alumnus, due to the Catholicism shared by both the actor and the character.[398] Notre Dame was featured several times on The Simpsons. In the episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday" the character Rudy wearing his ND jacket makes an appearance. On the episode "The Father, the Son, and the Holy Guest Star" Homer and Bart go to Catholic Heaven, where there is a group of Irish, among whom a man wearing an ND sweatshirt.[399] In the drama Friday Night Lights, Jason Street is ranked as one of the top high school quarterbacks in the nation with a scholarship offer to the University of Notre Dame, but during the first game of the season he suffers a severe spinal cord injury.[396] Paul Lassiter, Press secretary on Spin City,[400] Edward Montgomery (Greg's father on Dharma and Greg) and William Walden (Vice President on Homeland) are fictional alumni.[401][402][403] The character Sean Donahue, from the ABC primetime sitcom The Middle attends Notre Dame to become a doctor.[404] Li'l Sebastian, a miniature horse on Parks and Recreation, holds an honorary Notre Dame degree.[405] Other media[edit] The Notre Dame Leprechaun and coach Ara Parseghian were featured on the cover of Time magazine in November 1964.[406] See also[edit] Notre Dame Shakespeare Festival, held on campus every summer Notes[edit] ^ The university's campus actually contains two lakes, but according to legend, when Sorin arrived at the site everything was frozen, so he thought there was only one lake and named the university accordingly[26] References[edit] ^ "The Spirit of Notre Dame". www3.nd.edu. Retrieved October 29, 2019. ^ "Memories and lessons from Notre Dame". Notre Dame Magazine. Retrieved October 29, 2019. ^ As of June 30, 2020. U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 (Report). National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA. February 19, 2021. Retrieved February 19, 2021. ^ "University of Notre Dame Annual Report 2019" (PDF). University of Notre Dame. Retrieved July 28, 2020. ^ a b c d e "About: Notre Dame at a Glance". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved July 21, 2020. ^ "Primary Colors". On Message. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 20, 2019. ^ "University of Notre Dame". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. February 14, 1979. Retrieved October 8, 2020. ^ "University of Notre Dame". carnegieclassifications.iu.edu. Archived from the original on January 3, 2016. 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Father O'Hara of Notre Dame (1967) Massa, Mark S. Catholics and American Culture: Fulton Sheen, Dorothy Day, and the Notre Dame Football Team. (1999). 278 pp. O'Brien, Michael. Hesburgh: A Biography. (1998). 354 pp. O'Connell, Marvin R. Edward Sorin. (2001). 792 pp. Pilkinton, Mark C. Washington Hall at Notre Dame: Crossroads of the University, 1864–2004 (University of Notre Dame Press, 2011) 419 pp. Rice, Charles E., Ralph McInerny, and Alfred J. Freddoso. What Happened to Notre Dame? (2009) laments the weakening of Catholicism at ND Robinson, Ray. Rockne of Notre Dame: The Making of a Football Legend. (1999). 290 pp. Sperber, Murray. Shake Down the Thunder: The Creation of Notre Dame Football. (1993) 634 pp. Yaeger, Don and Looney, Douglas S. Under the Tarnished Dome: How Notre Dame Betrayed Its Ideals for Football Glory. (1993). 299 pp. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to University of Notre Dame. 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en-wikipedia-org-4365	----	Libius Severus - Wikipedia Libius Severus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 461 to 465 Roman emperor of the West Libius Severus Solidus of Emperor Libius Severus Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in the East) Reign 19 November 461 – 14 November 465 Predecessor Majorian Successor Anthemius Co-emperor Leo I (in the East) Born Lucania Died 14 November 465[1] Names Libius Severus Serpentius (possibly)[2] Religion Christianity Libius Severus (died 465), sometimes enumerated as Severus III,[3][4][5][6][7] was Roman emperor of the West from 461 to his death in 465. A Roman senator from Lucania[8] Severus was one of the last Western emperors, emptied of any effective power (the real power was in the hands of the magister militum Ricimer), and unable to solve the many problems affecting the empire; the sources describe him as a pious Christian.[9] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Rise to the throne 1.2 Reign 1.2.1 Unrest in the provinces 1.2.2 Under Ricimer's control 1.2.3 Vandals 1.2.4 Relationship with the Eastern Empire 1.3 Death 2 Notes 3 Bibliography 4 External links Biography[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Rise to the throne[edit] On 7 August 461, the magister militum (commander in chief) of the Western Roman army, Ricimer, had Emperor Majorian killed, thus leaving the western throne empty. A struggle for the succession thus ensued, with the Eastern Emperor, Leo I, the King of the Vandals, Gaiseric, and Ricimer himself involved. The Eastern Emperor traditionally had the right to accept his "colleague," for the empire was nominally still united. Ricimer needed a weak emperor on the throne, in order to control him: his barbaric descent barred him from taking the throne for himself. Gaiseric had captured the wife and the two daughters of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III – Licinia Eudoxia, Placidia and Eudocia – during the sack of Rome (455), and, through the marriage of one of them, Eudocia, with his son Huneric, he had entered the imperial family. Gaiseric's candidate to the Western throne was Olybrius, who had married Placidia and was thus a member of his family. In order to push for Olybrius' election, Gaiseric decided to put pressure on the empire with several raids on the coasts of Italy and Sicily, maintaining that the peace treaty he had signed with Majorian was no longer valid; Ricimer reacted by sending an embassy to Gaiseric and asking him to respect the treaty, while a second embassy was sent by Leo I asking for the end of the raids and the release of the wife and daughters of Valentinian. Despite the pressure of the Vandal raids, Ricimer ignored Olybrius and put the senator Libius Severus on the Western throne; he was probably chosen in order to please the Italian aristocracy. Severus was elected Emperor by the Roman Senate on 19 November 461, in Ravenna.[10] Reign[edit] Severus had to face several problems during his reign, because of the presence of Ricimer and because his rule was not recognised in several provinces. Unrest in the provinces[edit] At the beginning of the 460s the Western Roman Empire no longer ruled several imperial provinces even nominally: Britain had been abandoned; Africa had been conquered by the Vandals; and Hispania was occupied by the Suebi and the Visigoths (who were foederati of the empire). However, the area under Libius' control was even smaller, as the governors of several provinces did not recognise him as Emperor: both Aegidius, who controlled Gaul, and Marcellinus, who ruled semi-autonomously over Illyricum, had been supporters of Majorian and thus did not accept Libius' election. Even the Eastern Emperor Leo did not recognise Libius Severus; the historical sources related to the Eastern part of the empire, Marcellinus Comes and Jordanes, consider Libius a usurper of the Western throne.[11] Libius Severus feared that Marcellinus, who commanded a powerful army, could descend upon Italy, and asked for Leo's help; the Eastern Emperor sent Philarcus as envoy to Marcellinus and dissuaded him from the attack. This episode is also important because it marks the passage of Illyricum from the Western to the Eastern sphere of influence. To oppose Aegidius, Severus appointed his own supporter Agrippinus to the office of magister militum per Gallias, thus officially giving him power over Aegidius. During Majorian's reign Agrippinus had been accused by Aegidius of treachery; found guilty and condemned to death, he had been pardoned, probably because of Ricimer, who then supported him in opposition to Aegidius. Agrippinus asked for support from the Visigoths, and with their help moved against Aegidius and his Frankish allies, led by King Childeric I. In exchange for their support, in 462 the Visigoths received the city of Narbonne from Severus, thus getting access to the Mediterranean Sea and separating Aegidius from the rest of the empire. Among Severus' few official acts is the (464) appointment of Arvandus as Praetorian prefect of Gaul who, in 468, was to be prosecuted for treachery and condemned to death for having tried to obtain the throne. Therefore, Severus actually ruled only over Italy, even if in 465, with the death of Aegidius, Gaul returned to his sphere of influence for a short time. It is probably to this temporary control over Gaul that the limited issue of his coins by the mint of Arelate is to be dated. Under Ricimer's control[edit] Ricimer put Libius Severus on the throne, though he retained actual power. Some coins exist issued in Severus' name yet bearing a monogram sometimes identified with Ricimer; even if these coins were actually issued in the period between the reign of Severus and of his successor, Anthemius, it is nonetheless an honour unheard of for a barbarian, who was even mentioned on the inscriptions just after the emperors («salvis dd. nn. et patricio Ricimere», CIL X, 8072). Ricimer's control was so clear that, in recording the defeat and death of Bergor, the King of the Alans, by his hand (February 6, 464, near Bergamo), the historian Marcellinus Comes calls Ricimer a king: "Bergor, King of the Alans, is killed by King Ricimer" (Beorgor rex Alanorum a Ricimere rege occiditur, Marcellinus Comes, Chronicle, s.a. 464). Vandals[edit] The Vandals continued their raids during the reign of Severus. On one hand Gaiseric justified the raids complaining that he had not received part of Valentinian's legacy; on the other hand, he still hoped to put Olybrius on the Western throne. Vandal raids deeply affected the economy of the Italian landowners, typically senators; some representatives of the Italian aristocracy went to the Emperor to plead for a reconciliation with Gaiseric. Severus chose the patrician Tatian and sent him to the king of the Vandals, who, however, rejected the peace proposal. Relationship with the Eastern Empire[edit] Even if Severus was not officially recognised by Leo, nonetheless the Eastern and Western Empires did collaborate, as shown by the episode of Leo's intercession with Marcellinus and the embassy led by Philarcus. Another sign of the collaboration between the two courts is the choice of Consuls. According to tradition, each court chose a consul and accepted the one chosen by the other court. Without Eastern recognition, Severus named himself consul for 462 (his first year as Emperor) and chose an influential member of the Roman senatorial aristocracy (Caecina Decius Basilius, praetorian prefect of Italy from 463 to 465) for the following year. Severus then decided not to indicate a consul for the years 464 and 465 and chose to accept the two designated by the Eastern court. Death[edit] The details of Severus' death are obscure, but the majority of modern scholars agree that he died of natural causes in 465. In a passage from his Getica, Jordanes claims Severus ruled for only three years;[12] it is probable, however, that this is a mistake by the 6th-century historian. As regards the day of his death, it is recorded as August 15 by Fasti vindobonenses priores, but a law by Severus dated September 25 has been preserved; either he died after that day or the law was issued after his death in his name. Cassiodorus, in the 6th century, maintains that Severus was treacherously poisoned by Ricimer in his own palace,[13] but three years after Severus' death, the poet Sidonius Apollinaris wrote that he had died a natural death.[14] According to modern historians, Ricimer had no reason to kill Severus, who was actually a puppet under his control, unless he was an obstacle to Ricimer's reconciliation with Leo.[15] Notes[edit] ^ PLRE, vol. 2, pp. 1004–1005 ^ The Chronica Paschale and Theophanes Confessor (AM 5955) suggest he had the nickname "Serpentius", but the PLRE (vol. II p. 1004) says the text is corrupt and its meaning uncertain. ^ "Libius Severus (Severus III)". British Museum. Retrieved 2021-04-02. ^ "Severus III (Libius Severus), Roman Imperial Coins of, at WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2021-04-02. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A.; Adkins, Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. (2014). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-8160-7482-2. ^ Nimgade, Ashok (2016). "Instability and violence in Imperial Rome: A "laboratory" for studying social contagion?". Complexity. 21 (S2): 613–622. doi:10.1002/cplx.21839. ISSN 1099-0526. ^ Naylor, John (2020-07-02). "Portable Antiquities Scheme". Medieval Archaeology. 64 (2): 354–375. doi:10.1080/00766097.2020.1835283. ISSN 0076-6097. S2CID 229366624. ^ Cassiodorus, Chronicle; Chronica Gallica of 511, 636. ^ Laterculus imperatorum. ^ Theophanes, Chronografia, AM 5955; Chronica Gallica of 511, 636. ^ Marcellinus, Chronicle, s.a. 465. Jordanes, Romana, 336. ^ Jordanes, Getica, 236. ^ Cassiodorus, Chronicles, s.a. 465. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, ii.317–318. ^ O'Flynn, John Michael, Generalissimos of the Western Roman Empire, University of Alberta, 1983, ISBN 0-88864-031-5, pp. 111–114. Bibliography[edit] Mathisen, Ralph W., "Libius Severus (461–465 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, 1997 D. Woods, "A Misunderstood Monogram: Ricimer or Severus?," Hermathena 172 (2002), 5–21. Ralf Scharf, "Zu einigen Daten der Kaiser Libius Severus und Maiorian, Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 139 (1996), pp. 180–8. https://web.archive.org/web/20120412041230/http://papyri-leipzig.dl.uni-leipzig.de/receive/UBLPapyri_schrift_00002250;jsessionid=D43D2172E6A5E08C1E4AD3DF76DBC021?XSL.Style=print External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Libius Severus. Coins of Libius Severus Regnal titles Preceded by Majorian Western Roman emperor 461–465 Succeeded by Anthemius Political offices Preceded by Severinus Dagalaifus Roman consul 462 with Leo Augustus II Succeeded by Caecina Decius Basilius Vivianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libius_Severus&oldid=1021325338" Categories: 5th-century births 465 deaths 5th-century Christians 5th-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from November 2012 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 May 2021, at 03:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4379	----	Avidius Cassius - Wikipedia Avidius Cassius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman general and usurper (c.130-175) Usurper of the Roman Empire Gaius Avidius Cassius Usurper of the Roman Empire Reign c.April to July 175 AD Born c. 130 AD Cyrrhus, Syria Died July 175 AD Egypt Spouse Volusia Vettia Maeciana Issue Avidius Heliodorus Avidius Maecianus Avidia Alexandra Names Gaius Avidius Cassius Regnal name Imperator Caesar Gaius Avidius Cassius Augustus Gentes Cassia Avidia Father Gaius Avidius Heliodorus Mother Julia Cassia Alexandra Occupation Imperial legate Gaius Avidius Cassius (c. 130 – July 175 AD) was a Roman general and usurper. He was born in Cyrrhus, and was the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, who served as praefectus or governor of Roman Egypt, and Julia Cassia Alexandra, who was related to a number of royal figures, including her descent from both Augustus and Herod the Great. He began his military career under Antoninus Pius, rising to the status of legatus legionis. He served during the Parthian war of Lucius Verus, in which he distinguished himself, for which he was elevated to the Senate, and later made Imperial legate. During the Bucolic War, he was given the extraordinary title of Rector Orientis, giving him Imperium over all of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. In 175 AD, Cassius declared himself emperor, because he had received news, from Marcus Aurelius' wife Faustina the Younger, that the Emperor Marcus Aurelius was about to die. He received broad support in the eastern provinces of Egypt, Syria, Syria Palaestina and Arabia Petraea, especially Syria, which was his homeland. Despite his control of the vital grain production of Egypt, and his command of seven legions, he was heavily outmatched by Aurelius. While Aurelius was amassing a force to defeat Cassius, a centurion of one of Cassius' legions murdered Cassius, sending his head to Aurelius as proof. Contents 1 Early life 2 Early career 3 Usurpation 3.1 Aftermath 4 Personal life 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 In popular culture 7 Footnotes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 Further reading Early life[edit] Avidius Cassius was born around 130 AD, in the town of Cyrrhus, Syria.[1][2][3] He was born to Gaius Avidius Heliodorus and Julia Cassia Alexandra. His father, Heliodorus, was of equestrian status, and served as Ab epistulis for Hadrian.[4] Heliodorus later served as Praefectus augustalis, the prefect of Roman Egypt, from 137 to 142 AD.[5][6] According to Cassius Dio, he received this post, which was one of the highest posts that an equestrian could hold, due to his oratory skills alone.[6] His mother, Julia Cassia, was the great-granddaughter of Junia Lepida, who was herself a great-great-granddaughter of the first Roman emperor, Augustus. She was also a descendant of Herod the Great through her father, Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus.[5] Cassius was also a distant descendant of the Roman client-king Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Commagene, who had been dethroned half a century before.[2][7] Early career[edit] It is thought that Cassius began his career during the reign of Antoninus Pius.[8] He may have been adlected as a quaestor in 154 AD.[9] It is thought that he became a legatus legionis of one of the legions stationed in Moesia Inferior, which guarded against the Sarmatians, during the late years of Pius' rule (138–161), and it is certain that he was a legatus by at least 161 AD, the last year of Pius' reign.[10][11] Cassius rose to prominence rapidly c.164 AD, under the co-emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, during the Parthian war of Lucius Verus, serving as legatus legionis or commander of Legio III Gallica.[2] In 165, he led Legio III Gallica down the Euphrates, and defeated the Parthians at Dura-Europos. Before the end of the year, Cassius and his legion marched to the south, crossed Mesopotamia at its narrowest point, and attacked and sacked the twin Parthian cities of the Tigris river: Seleucia, which was on the right bank; and Ctesiphon, which was on the left bank and was the Parthian capital.[12][13] After capturing Ctesiphon, he burnt the palace of Vologases IV. Despite the fact that Seleucia had surrendered to the Romans, he destroyed it as well, justifying it by claiming that the local population had broken their agreement.[12] Cassius' legion was by this time in dire need of supplies. After showing the first signs of having contracted the plague, Cassius marched back to Syria, carrying with him the spoils taken from his campaign. He sent details of his campaign to Rome, for which he was rewarded with elevation to the Senate. Much of his success was credited to Emperor Lucius Verus, who, although himself an excellent commander, was notedly unafraid of delegating military tasks to more competent generals.[14] In May of 166 AD, Cassius was made suffect consul, a position he held while still stationed outside of Rome.[15] During that year, Lucius Verus and Cassius launched a new campaign against the Parthians, invading across the northern stretch of the Tigris river, into Media. During this time, a false rumor reached Rome that Cassius had led Legio III Gallica across the Indus River.[16] In late 166 AD, Cassius was appointed imperial legate of Syria.[17] In c.170 AD, Cassius was given the extraordinary title of Rector Orientis (literally "Supreme Commander of the Orient"), giving him imperium over the entirety of the eastern section of the empire,[18] in order to combat a large rebellion in Egypt, commonly called the Bucolic War. This rebellion was centered in the area of the Pentapolis of Middle Egypt, and was motivated by a rapid rise of grain prices in the area. The Bucoli[a] came close to capturing Alexandria, but were halted by Cassius' troops.[19] Cassius succeeded in putting down this revolt in 175 AD, after using a strategy of dividing the various revolting tribespeople, and then conquering them.[20][21] Usurpation[edit] In 175 AD, after hearing false reports that Marcus Aurelius had succumbed to his severe illness, Cassius declared himself emperor, claiming that Aurelius' troops in Pannonia, where he had been leading troops as a part of the Marcomannic War, had elected him emperor. Some versions say that Cassius was tricked, or persuaded, by Faustina the Younger, who was the wife of Aurelius, because she feared that Aurelius would die while Commodus, their son, was still young, a situation which would likely have led to a usurper seizing the throne for himself. According to these accounts, Faustina thus tricked, or persuaded, Cassius into rebelling, to ensure the next emperor was someone of her choosing.[18] The exact date of his revolt is unknown, although it is known that he revolted by at least 3 May, due to a document about his emperorship from that date. A papyrus from the Oxyrhynchus Papyri has shown that Cassius was confident of Egyptian support as early as April or even March.[4] Aurelius attempted to suppress news of the revolt, but, when it became widespread throughout his camp, chose to address it in a speech. The exact wording of his speech is unknown, as the record given by Cassius Dio is believed to be a free composition, which followed only the outline of Aurelius' actual speech. In the record, Aurelius laments the betrayal of a dear friend, and says that if the danger had been to him alone, he would be willing to "set the issue" between himself and Cassius, before the Senate and the Army, and would have yielded the empire to Cassius, if the senate and army considered him the better leader.[4] He was also recorded as saying that he hoped that Cassius would not be killed or commit suicide, so that he could show mercy.[22] The Historia Augusta, a work both treasured by historians and notorious for its falsehoods, records that Aurelius formed a peace commission among his advisors.[4] Cassius started the rebellion in a good position. He received large support from the Eastern provinces, especially his homeland of Syria, due to a combination of his distant royal descent, his victories in the Parthian War and the Bucolic War.[23] He received support from the provinces of Egypt, Syria, Syria Palaestina and Arabia Petraea, giving him a potential strength of seven legions: three from Syria, two from Syria Palaestina, one from Roman Arabia, and one from Egypt.[24][18][4] Cassius set his base of operations in Egypt,[24] with two important bases outside of Egypt being Antioch and Cyrrhus, both important military centres.[25] Gaius Calvisius Statianus, the contemporary prefect of Egypt, issued an edict, which has survived in a fragmentary state, ordering the populace of Egypt to rejoice at the accession of Cassius.[4] Despite controlling some of the most important parts of the Roman East, especially Egypt which was a critical supplier of grain for the city of Rome, Cassius failed to win widespread support for his rebellion.[24] The Roman Senate swiftly declared Cassius a public enemy,[4] and Publius Martius Verus, the governor of Cappadocia, who staunchly opposed the rebellion, rallied public support for Aurelius.[4] Cassius, through the marriage of his daughter, Avidia Alexandra, to Titius Claudius Dryantianus Antonius, had connection to the Licinnii of Lycia, including Claudius Dryantianus's father Tiberius Claudius Agrippinus, who was a consul.[26][24] The aristocratic Licinnii are one of the most well known Lycian families.[27] It is unknown how much of a role Claudius Dryantianus played, although it is known that some considered him to be Cassius' partner in crime. Claudius Dryantianus and Avidia Alexandra were pardoned by Marcus Aurelius, although Claudius Dryantianus' estate was confiscated after his death.[28] Many nobles throughout the empire opposed the rebellion, one example being Herodes Atticus, who is recorded as having sent Cassius a letter containing only the word emanes, literally "you are mad". Despite this widespread opposition, the capital of Rome was thrown into a panic, which forced Aurelius to send Gaius Vettius Sabinianus Julius Hospes, the governor of Pannonia Inferior, with troops to secure the city.[29] Aurelius was forced to withdraw from his campaign against the Iazyges, and end the Marcomannic War. Several barbarian tribes sent offers of their assistance to Aurelius, all of which were refused. Aurelius amassed troops and prepared to depart for the East, to depose Cassius.[30] It was soon clear that Aurelius was in a stronger position, with far more legions available to him than to Cassius.[31] When news of Aurelius' plans to invade reached Egypt, a centurion killed Cassius,[32] and sent his head to Aurelius, who refused to see it, and ordered it buried.[22] He was likely killed by at least the end of July 175, as Egypt chose to recognize Aurelius again on 28 July 175. Cassius had rebelled for three months and six days before being killed,[30] during which time no coins were struck bearing his image.[33] Aftermath[edit] After the death of Cassius, Publius Martius Verus swiftly took control of Syria, and burned all of Cassius' correspondences. Even after the news of Cassius' death had reached Marcus Aurelius, Aurelius was still determined to visit the east. He set off with a body of advisors, along with his wife, Faustina,[30] who died along the way, in a village in south Cappadocia, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Tyana, called Halala. The town was renamed in her honor, and his son, Commodus.[34][30] After the death of Faustina, Aurelius wrote to the Senate, asking them for a report on Cassius' supporters, but specifically saying he desired no bloodshed to punish them, as several retributions had already been carried out in the name of Aurelius. Among these were the killing of Avidius Maecianus, a son of Cassius. Aurelius ordered the banishment of Avidius Heliodorus, another son of Cassius. Avidia Alexandra, the daughter of Cassius, and her husband, were placed under the protection of "an uncle by marriage", believed to be Claudius Titianus, a Lycian senator.[34] Personal life[edit] Dio spoke highly of Cassius, saying that he was a "good man" whose only fault was that his father, Heliodorus, was given his post of Praefectus augustalis only because of his speaking abilities.[6] He was labelled as being a strict disciplinarian during his time as commander of Legio III Gallica.[24] Cassius was married to Volusia Vettia Maeciana, daughter of Lucius Volusius Maecianus,[5] and had at least three children (the Historia Augusta implies he may have had more):[35] Avidius Heliodorus – first son of Cassius, who was banished by order of the emperor.[36] Avidius Maecianus – second son of Cassius, who was killed after the revolt had been put down.[36] Avidia Alexandra – daughter of Cassius, who was forced to live under the protection of an uncle, along with her husband.[36] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. In popular culture[edit] Roman Empire: Reign of Blood Gladiator Begins Footnotes[edit] ^ Some sources label them the Bucolic or Boukoloi. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Butcher 2004, p. 441. ^ a b c Birley 2001, p. 130. ^ Kean & Frey 2005, p. 95. ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, Garnsey & Rathbone 2000, p. 177. ^ a b c Astarita 1983, p. 27. ^ a b c Potter 2009, p. 15. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 18. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 31. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 34. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 32. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 38. ^ a b Birley 2001, p. 140. ^ Boatwright, Gargola & Talbert 2006, p. 249. ^ Birley 2001, p. 141. ^ Birley 2001, p. 142. ^ Birley 2001, p. 144. ^ Birley 2001, p. 145. ^ a b c Potter 2009, p. 139. ^ Adams 2013, p. 147. ^ Smith 1870, p. 626. ^ Birley 2001, p. 174. ^ a b Smith 1870, p. 441. ^ Birley 2001, p. 185. ^ a b c d e Birley 2001, p. 186. ^ Butcher 2004, p. 218. ^ Jameson 1966, pp. 125–126. ^ Jameson 1966, p. 125. ^ Jameson 1966, p. 126. ^ Birley 2001, p. 187. ^ a b c d Bowman, Garnsey & Rathbone 2000, p. 178. ^ Birley 2001, p. 188. ^ Birley 2001, p. 189. ^ Butcher 2004, p. 40. ^ a b Bowman, Garnsey & Rathbone 2000, p. 179. ^ Astarita 1983, p. 26. ^ a b c Birley 2001, p. 191. Bibliography[edit] Adams, Geoff W. (2013). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and beyond. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176382. Astarita, Maria Laura (1983). Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Ed. di Storia e Letteratura. ASIN B0000ECRQV. Birley, Anthony (2001). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Roman Imperial Biographies. Taylor & Francis e-Library. ISBN 978-0-415-17125-0. Boatwright, Mary T.; Gargola, Daniel J.; Talbert, Richard J.A. (2006). A Brief History of the Romans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195187144. Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Rathbone, Dominic (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 11. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521263351. Butcher, Kevin (2004). Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC-AD 253. Royal Numismatic Society. ISBN 9780901405586. Jameson, Shelagh (1966). "Two Lycian Families". Anatolian Studies. 16. JSTOR 3642481. Kean, Roger Michael; Frey, Oliver (2005). The Complete Chronicle of the Emperors of Rome. Thalamus. ISBN 9781902886053. Potter, David (2009). A Companion to the Roman Empire. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405199186. Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Vol I. OCLC 2455785. Further reading[edit] Millar, Fergus (1995). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 WorldCat National libraries United States Croatia Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avidius_Cassius&oldid=1018465198" Categories: 130 births 175 deaths 2nd century in Egypt 2nd-century murdered monarchs 2nd-century Roman governors of Syria 2nd-century Roman usurpers Ancient Roman equites Ancient Roman generals Avidii Cassii Generals of Antoninus Pius Generals of Lucius Verus Generals of Marcus Aurelius Herodian dynasty Murdered Roman emperors Orontid dynasty People from Cyrrhus People of the Roman–Parthian Wars Roman governors of Syria Roman legates Roman quaestors Senators of the Roman Empire Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2021, at 06:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4382	----	Taunus - Wikipedia Taunus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Taunus (disambiguation). Taunus The Hochtaunus with the Feldberg summit Highest point Peak Großer Feldberg (Hochtaunus) Elevation 878 m (2,881 ft) Coordinates 50°14′N 08°27′E / 50.233°N 8.450°E / 50.233; 8.450Coordinates: 50°14′N 08°27′E / 50.233°N 8.450°E / 50.233; 8.450 Dimensions Length 75 km (47 mi) NE/SW Width 35 km (22 mi) NW/SE Area 2,700 km2 (1,000 sq mi) Geography Country Germany Region Hesse Parent range Rhenish Slate Mountains Geology Orogeny Variscan Age of rock Devonian Type of rock Phyllite, Greywacke The Taunus is a mountain range in Hesse, Germany, located north of Frankfurt. The tallest peak in the range is Großer Feldberg at 878 m; other notable peaks are Kleiner Feldberg (825 m) and Altkönig (798 m). The Taunus range spans the districts of Hochtaunuskreis, Main-Taunus, Rheingau-Taunus, Limburg-Weilburg, and Rhein-Lahn. The range is known for its geothermal springs and mineral waters that formerly attracted members of the European aristocracy to its spa towns. The car line Ford Taunus is named after it.[1] Contents 1 Description 1.1 Summits 2 History 3 Gallery 4 References 5 External links Description[edit] It is a relatively low range, with smooth, rounded mountains covered with forest. The Taunus is bounded by the valleys of the Rhine, Main, and Lahn rivers and it is part of the Rhenish Slate Mountains. On the opposite side of the Rhine, The Taunus range is continued by the Hunsrück. For geographical, ecological and geological purposes the Taunus is divided in three parts: Anterior Taunus (Vortaunus or Vordertaunus) in the south, next to the cities of Frankfurt am Main and Wiesbaden. This section is mainly made up of old sedimentary rocks with phyllite, greenschist and muscovite. The rocks are often given a greenish hue by the presence of epidote and chlorites. High Taunus (Hoher Taunus). The central region of the range where the highest peaks are found. Its geological composition includes slates, quartzite, and sandstones. Farther Taunus (Hintertaunus) at its northern end is the biggest section by area. The geological materials that compose it include graywacke, claystones, and siltstones. The Taunus range originated during the Devonian period.[2] The geological composition of the mountains was formed in a region covered by an ancient sea that was a few hundred kilometers wide. The mountains are mainly made up of phyllite, greenschist, gneiss, slates, and sandstone.[3] Summits[edit] Großer Feldberg (878 m), Hochtaunuskreis (Kreis = district). Being the highest point in the range, it provides the scenario for the Feldbergrennen hillclimbing and rallying contests. It should not be confused with the Feldberg in the Black Forest Kleiner Feldberg (825 m), Hochtaunuskreis. It has an observatory on the summit. Altkönig (798 m), Hochtaunuskreis. It has the remains of a late Iron Age hill fort (La-Tène A, ca. 400 BC) near the summit. Weilsberg (701 m), Hochtaunuskreis Glaskopf (685 m), Hochtaunuskreis Pferdskopf (663 m), Hochtaunuskreis Kolbenberg (684 m; telecommunication facility), Hochtaunuskreis Klingenkopf (683 m), Hochtaunuskreis Sängelberg (665 m), Hochtaunuskreis Pferdskopf (663 m), Hochtaunuskreis Weißeberg (660 m), Hochtaunuskreis Fauleberg (633 m), Hochtaunuskreis Großer Eichwald (633 m), Hochtaunuskreis Roßkopf (632 m; telecommunication facility), Hochtaunuskreis Kalte Herberge (619 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis Hohe Wurzel (618 m; telecommunication facility), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis Hohe Kanzel (592 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis Herzberg (591m), Hochtaunuskreis Hallgarter Zange (580 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis Erbacher Kopf (580 m), Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis Steinkopf (Hochtaunuskreis) (570 m), Hochtaunuskreis Kuhbett (526 m), Kreis Limburg-Weilburg at Weilrod-Hasselbach Steinkopf (Wetteraukreis) (518 m), Wetteraukreis History[edit] The Roman Limes was built across the Taunus. The Saalburg, a restored Roman castellum, now houses a museum. After the fall of the Limes (in 259/260 AD), the Alamanni settled in the range and for this reason there are some Alemannic cemeteries in the southern foothills of the Taunus (Eschborn). This area of the Taunus became part of the Frankish confederation of Germanic tribes after the Battle of Tolbiac around 500 AD.[4] In past centuries the Taunus became famous among aristocrats for its therapeutic hot springs.[5] Certain towns in the area, such as Bad Homburg vor der Höhe with its Kurpark, have geothermal spas that were formerly renowned. Other spa towns in the Taunus range are Bad Schwalbach (formerly Langenschwalbach) mentioned in documents dating back to the 16th century, Bad Ems, one of the most reputed therapeutic spas in Germany since the 17th century, as well as Bad Weilbach, where a spring reached wide fame for some time. By the 19th century the most famous spa towns in the area were Wiesbaden, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Bad Nauheim, and Bad Soden am Taunus.[6] Gallery[edit] The Taunus with the Grosser Feldberg viewed from Karben The Winterstein and the tower on the Steinkopf from Karben View (from top of Frankfurt) of Altkoenig and Grosser Feldberg Frankfurt am Main, with the Taunus Mountains in the background References[edit] ^ "Ford Taunus Typ TC wird 40 Jahre - Beliebte Supernase mit Knudsen-Genen" (in German). Auto Bild. 23 February 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2019. ^ Zur geologischen Entstehung des Taunus (in German) ^ Geologische Highlights im Geopark Westerwald-Lahn-Taunus (in German) ^ Egon Schallmayer et al. (eds.) Die Römer im Taunus. Frankfurt a. M. 2005, ISBN 3797309554 (in German) ^ "Great Spas of Europe". UNESCO. Retrieved 10 March 2016. Lists Bad Ems, Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, and Wiesbaden among the 16 in total. ^ Heinz Biehn, Der Taunus. Hohe Wälder, weite Täler, warme Quellen. Amorbach 1972 (in German) External links[edit] Media related to Taunus at Wikimedia Commons Look up Taunus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Taunus. There is literature about Taunus in the Hessian Bibliography Umweltatlas Hessen: → Natur und Landschaft → Die Naturräume Hessens bzw. Naturräumliche Gliederung – Naturraum-Haupteinheit 30 (Taunus), auf atlas.umwelt.hessen.de Fremdenverkehrsinformationen, Taunus Tourist Service at taunus.info Webcams at taunus.info Taunus Nature Park at naturpark-taunus.de Feldberg Roman Fort circular path, at feldbergkastell.de Summits in the Taunus by isolation and prominence, at thehighrisepages.de Wehrheim, das Tor zur Bronzezeit im Usinger Land, Infos zu archäologischen Funden in Wehrheim, auf geschichtsverein-usingen.de Das Vortaunusmuseum at vortaunusmuseum.de map and aerial photo of the Taunus with boundaries, rivers and all important summits (Google Earth), at geographie.giersbeck.de#Taunus Placemarks v t e Central Uplands of Germany Arnsberg Forest Bavarian Forest Black Forest Bohemian Forest Ebbe Egge Eifel Elbe Sandstone Mountains Elster Fichtel Franconian Jura Franconian Forest Gladenbach Uplands Habichtswald Harz Hoher Meißner Hunsrück Kaiserstuhl Kellerwald Kaufungen Forest Knüll Kyffhäuser Lusatian Mountains Lenne Lippe Uplands North Palatine Uplands Odenwald Ore Mountains Palatine Forest Rhön Rothaar Saalhausen Hills Swabian Jura Siebengebirge Solling Spessart Taunus Teutoburg Forest Thuringian Highland Thuringian Forest Upper Palatine Forest Vogelsberg Weser Uplands Weser Hills Westerwald Wiehen Hills Zittau Mountains v t e Subdivisions of the Rhenish Massif Ardennes Eifel northern slopes High Fens Hunsrück Kellerwald Lahn Valley Middle Rhine Moselle Valley Süder Uplands Taunus Westerwald Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taunus&oldid=1003300655" Categories: Taunus Regions of Hesse Regions of Rhineland-Palatinate Rhineland Rhenish Massif Mountain ranges of Hesse Mountain ranges of Rhineland-Palatinate Natural regions of the Central Uplands Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with German-language sources (de) Coordinates on Wikidata Wikidata value to be checked for Infobox mountain Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Kiswahili Latina Limburgs Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 January 2021, at 09:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4385	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with BNF identifiers.The BNF identifier appears as France (data) in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P268. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-4397	----	Lucius Annaeus Cornutus - Wikipedia Lucius Annaeus Cornutus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (Ancient Greek: Ἀνναῖος Κορνοῦτος), a Stoic philosopher, flourished in the reign of Nero[1] (c. 60 AD), when his house in Rome was a school of philosophy. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 2.1 Compendium of Greek Theology 2.2 Spurious works 3 Notes 4 Further reading Life[edit] Cornutus was a native of Leptis Magna in Libya, but resided for the most part in Rome.[1] He is best known as the teacher and friend of Persius,[1] whose fifth satire is addressed to him, as well as other distinguished students, such as Claudius Agathemerus.[2] "Through Cornutus Persius was introduced to Annaeus, as well as to Lucan, who was of his own age, and also a disciple of Cornutus".[3] At Persius's death, Cornutus returned to Persius' sisters a bequest made to him, but accepted Persius' library of some 700 scrolls. He revised the deceased poet's satires for publication, but handed them over to Caesius Bassus to edit, at the special request of the latter.[1] Among Persius's satires were lines that, as Suetonius records, "even lashed Nero himself, who was then the reigning prince. The verse ran as follows: Auriculas asini Mida rex habet (King Midas has an ass's ears) but Cornutus altered it to: Auriculas asini quis non habet? Who has not an ass's ears? in order that it might not be supposed that it was meant to apply to Nero."[3] Annaeus Cornutus was banished by Nero nevertheless — in 66 or 68 AD — for having indirectly disparaged the emperor's projected history of the Romans in heroic verse,[4] after which time nothing more is heard of him.[1] Writings[edit] He was the author of various rhetorical works in both Greek and Latin, such as De figuris sententiarum.[1] Excerpts from his treatise De enuntiatione vel orthographia are preserved in Cassiodorus. A commentary on Virgil is frequently quoted by Servius, but tragedies mentioned by Suetonius have not survived. Cornutus wrote a work on Rhetoric,[5] and a commentary on the Categories of Aristotle, (πρὸς Ἁθηνόδωρον καὶ Ἀριστοτέλην)[6] whose philosophy he attacked along with his fellow Stoic Athenodorus.[7] He also wrote a work called On Properties (Περὶ ἐκτῶν).[8] Compendium of Greek Theology[edit] His one major surviving work, the philosophical treatise, Theologiae Graecae compendium ("Compendium of Greek Theology")[9] is a manual of "popular mythology as expounded in the etymological and symbolical interpretations of the Stoics".[1][10] This early example of a Roman educational treatise, provided an account of Greek mythology on the bases of highly elaborated etymological readings. Cornutus sought to recover the earliest beliefs that primitive people had about the world by examining the various names and titles of the gods.[11] The result, to modern eyes, is often bizarre, with many forced etymologies, as can be seen from the opening paragraph, where Cornutus describes Heaven (Ouranos): The Heaven [ouranos], my boy, encompasses round about the earth and the sea and everything both on the earth and the sea. On this account it has acquired its appellation, since it is an "upper limit" [ouros anô] of all things and "marks of the bounds" [horizôn] of nature. Some say, however, that it is called Heaven [ouranos] from its "looking after" [ôrein] or "tending to" [ôreuein] things, that is, from its guarding them, from which also "doorkeeper" [thyrôros] and "watching carefully" [polyôrein] are named. Still others derive its etymology from its "being seen above" [horasthai anô]. Together with everything it encompasses, it is called the "world" [kosmos] from its being "so beautifully ordered" [diakekosmêsthai][12] The book continues in a similar vein, proceeding from such gods as Zeus, Hera, Cronus, and Poseidon, to the Furies, Fates, Muses, and Graces. The work is pervaded throughout with a strong undercurrent of Stoic Physics. We are told that the world has a soul that preserves it called Zeus[13] who dwells in Heaven whose substance is fiery.[14] Zeus is the power that pervades everything,[15] and who assigns Fate to each person.[16] The gods have sent us Reason (Logos),[17] which does not work evil,[18] but which is part of the divine Reason of the universe: "Ocean" is the Logos that "glides swiftly" and changes continuously, whereas Tethys is the stability of the qualities. For from their blending or mixing come about those things that exist; and nothing would exist if either one unmixed gained the upper hand over the other.[19] Spurious works[edit] Scholia to Persius are also attributed to Annaeus Cornutus; the latter, however, are of much later date, and are assigned by Jahn to the Carolingian period.[1][20] The so-called Disticha Cornuti belong to the Late Middle Ages.[1] In 1891, Johannes Graeven proposed that an anonymous rhetorical treatise (the Anonymous Seguerianus) written in the 3rd century was written by a Cornutus. This attribution has not been generally accepted and, in any case, would refer to a later Cornutus.[21] Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cornutus, Lucius Annaeus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ^ Greenhill, William Alexander (1867), "Agathemerus, Claudius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 62 ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Persius. ^ Dio Cassius Roman History, lxii 29. ^ Porphyry, in Cat. 86.21-2 ^ Simplicius, in Cat. 62.25-6 ^ Barnes, J. Aristotle and Stoic Logic, in Ierodiakonou, K., Topics in Stoic Philosophy. Page 59. Oxford University Press. (2001). ^ Sedley, D., Stoic Metaphysics at Rome, in Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought. Page 171. Oxford University Press. (2005). ^ A new edition is in preparation: Cornutus: A Cursory Examination of the Traditions of Greek Theology (Theologiae Graecae Compendium), with text, translation, and commentary, edited by David Armstrong, Pamela Gordon, Loveday Alexander and L. Michael White. ^ John Edwin Sandys ^ Long, A. A., Stoic Studies. Page 71. University of California Press. (1996). ^ Cornutus, 1.1, from Armstrong, White, (translators), Cornutus: A Cursory Examination of the Traditions of Greek Theology. Draft version. (2007). ^ Cornutus, 2. ^ Cornutus, 1.2. ^ Cornutus, 11. ^ Cornutus, 13.1. ^ Cornutus, 16.1. ^ Cornutus, 16.2. ^ Cornutus, 6.4. ^ For a recent study of these scholia, some of which are now thought to be ancient, see J. E. G. Zetzel, Marginal Scholarship and Textual Deviance. The Commentum Cornuti and the Early Scholia on Persius, London, 2005. ^ Anonyme de Séguier. Art du discours politique, review by Malcolm Heath in Bryn Mawr Classical Review Further reading[edit] Ilaria Ramelli (ed.). Anneo Cornuto. Compendio di teologia greca. Milan: Bompiani Il Pensiero Occidentale. 2003. ISBN 88-452-9249-5. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 2 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus&oldid=1007780395" Categories: 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans Philosophers of Roman Italy Romans from Africa Roman-era Stoic philosophers Annaei Roman-era philosophers Hellenistic writers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles containing Latin-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 22:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4400	----	Constantine V - Wikipedia Constantine V From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the emperor. For the religious figure, see Constantine V of Constantinople. Emperor of the Romans Constantine V Emperor of the Romans Constantine V – gold solidus. The inscription reads ∂ N CONSƮANƮINЧS M S. Byzantine emperor Reign 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 Predecessor Leo III the Isaurian Successor Leo IV the Khazar Born July 718 Constantinople Died 14 September 775 (aged 57) Wives Tzitzak ("Irene of Khazaria") Maria Eudokia Issue Leo IV Nikephoros, Caesar, Christopher, Caesar Niketas, Nobelissimos, Eudokimos, Nobelissimos, Anthimos, Nobelissimos, Anthousa (Saint Anthousa the Younger) Dynasty Isaurian dynasty Father Leo III the Isaurian Mother Maria Constantine V (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, translit. Kōnstantīnos; July 718 – 14 September 775 AD) was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able military leader, Constantine took advantage of civil war in the Muslim world to make limited offensives on the Arab frontier. With this eastern frontier secure, he undertook repeated campaigns against the Bulgars in the Balkans. His military activity, and policy of settling Christian populations from the Arab frontier in Thrace, made Byzantium's hold on its Balkan territories more secure. Religious strife and controversy was a prominent feature of his reign. His fervent support of Iconoclasm and opposition to monasticism led to his vilification by later Byzantine historians and writers, who denigrated him as Kopronymos or Copronymus (Κοπρώνυμος), meaning the dung-named. Contents 1 Early life 2 Rebellion of Artabasdos 3 Constantine's support of iconoclasm 4 Domestic policies and administration 5 Campaigns against the Arabs 6 Events in Italy 7 Repeated campaigns against the Bulgarians 8 Assessment and legacy 9 Family 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 Literature 14 External links Early life[edit] Constantine was born in Constantinople, the son and successor of Emperor Leo III and his wife Maria. In August 720, at two years of age, he was associated with his father on the throne, and appointed co-emperor. In Byzantine political theory more than one emperor could share the throne; however, although all were accorded the same ceremonial status, only one emperor wielded ultimate power. As the position of emperor was in theory, and sometimes in practise, elective rather than strictly hereditary, a ruling emperor would often associate a son or other chosen successor with himself as a co-emperor to ensure the eventual succession.[1] To celebrate the coronation of his son, Leo III introduced a new silver coin, the miliaresion; worth a 12th of a gold nomisma, it soon became an integral part of the Byzantine economy. In 726, Constantine's father issued the Ecloga; a revised legal code, it was attributed to both father and son jointly. Constantine married Tzitzak, daughter of the Khazar khagan Bihar, an important Byzantine ally. His new bride was baptized Irene (Eirēnē, "peace") in 732. On his father's death, Constantine succeeded as sole emperor on 18 June 741.[2][3][4][5] Constantine suffered from a chronic medical condition, possibly epilepsy or leprosy; early in his reign this may have been employed by those rebelling against him to question his fitness to be emperor.[6] Rebellion of Artabasdos[edit] In June 742, while Constantine was crossing Asia Minor to campaign on the eastern frontier against the Umayyad Caliphate under Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, his brother-in-law Artabasdos, husband of his older sister, Anna, rebelled. Artabasdos was the stratēgos (military governor) of the Opsikion theme (province) and had effective control of the Armeniac theme. Artabasdos struck against Constantine when their respective troops combined for the intended campaign; a trusted member of Constantine's retinue, called Beser, was killed in the attack. Constantine escaped and sought refuge in Amorion, where he was welcomed by the local soldiers, who had been commanded by Leo III before he became emperor.[7][8] Meanwhile, Artabasdos advanced on Constantinople and, with the support of Theophanes Monutes (Constantine's regent) and Patriarch Anastasius, was acclaimed and crowned emperor. Constantine received the support of the Anatolic and Thracesian themes; Artabasdos secured the support of the theme of Thrace in addition to his own Opsikion and Armeniac soldiers.[9][10] The rival emperors bided their time making military preparations. Artabasdos marched against Constantine at Sardis in May 743 but was defeated. Three months later Constantine defeated Artabasdos' son Niketas and his Armeniac troops at Modrina and headed for Constantinople. In early November Constantine entered the capital, following a siege and a further battle.[11] He immediately targeted his opponents, having many blinded or executed. Patriarch Anastasius was paraded on the back of an ass around the hippodrome to the jeers of the Constantinopolitan mob, though he was subsequently allowed to stay in office.[12][13] Artabasdos, having fled the capital, was apprehended at the fortress of Pouzanes in Anatolia, probably located to the south of Nicomedia. Artabasdos and his sons were then publicly blinded and secured in the monastery of Chora on the outskirts of Constantinople.[14] Constantine's support of iconoclasm[edit] Soldiers deface or demolish an iconodule church on the orders of Constantine V (left), Manasses Chronicle, 14th-century manuscript Gold solidus, Constantine V (left) and his son and co-emperor Leo IV (right) Further information: Byzantine iconoclasm Like his father Leo III, Constantine supported iconoclasm, which was a theological movement that rejected the veneration of religious images and sought to destroy those in existence. Iconoclasm was later definitively classed as heretical. Constantine's avowed enemies in what was a bitter and long-lived religious dispute were the iconodules, who defended the veneration of images. Iconodule writers applied to Constantine the derogatory epithet Kopronymos ("dung-named", from kopros, meaning "faeces" or "animal dung", and onoma, "name"). Using this obscene name, they spread the rumour that as an infant he had defiled his own baptism by defaecating in the font, or on the imperial purple cloth with which he was swaddled.[15] Constantine questioned the legitimacy of any representation of God or Christ. The church father John Damascene made use of the term 'uncircumscribable' in relation to the depiction of God. Constantine, relying on the linguistic connection between 'uncircumscribed' and 'incapable of being depicted', argued that the uncircumscribable cannot be legitimately depicted in an image. As Christian theology holds that Christ is God, He also cannot be represented in an image.[16] The Emperor was personally active in the theological debate; evidence exists for him composing thirteen treatises, two of which survive in fragmentary form.[17] He also presented his religious views at meetings organised throughout the empire, sending representatives to argue his case.[18] In February 754, Constantine convened a synod at Hieria, which was attended entirely by iconoclast bishops. The council agreed with Constantine's religious policy on images, declaring them anathema, and it secured the election of a new iconoclast patriarch. However, it refused to endorse all of Constantine's policies, which were influenced by the more extremist iconoclasts and were critical of the veneration of Mary, mother of Jesus, and of the saints. The council confirmed the status of Mary as Theotokos (Θεοτόκος), or 'Mother of God', upheld the use of the terms "saint" and "holy" as legitimate, and condemned the desecration, burning, or looting of churches in the quest to suppress icon veneration.[19][20][21] The synod of Hieria was followed by a campaign to remove images from the walls of churches and to purge the court and bureaucracy of iconodules. Since monasteries tended to be strongholds of iconophile sentiment and contributed little or nothing towards the secular needs of the state, Constantine specifically targeted these communities. He also expropriated monastic property for the benefit of the state or the army. These acts of repression against the monks were largely led by the Emperor's general Michael Lachanodrakon, who threatened resistant monks with blinding and exile. In the hippodrome he organised the pairing of numerous monks and nuns in forced marriage, publicly ridiculing their vows of chastity.[22] An iconodule abbot, Stephen Neos, was beaten to death by a mob at the behest of the authorities. As a result of persecution, many monks fled to southern Italy and Sicily.[23] The implacable resistance of iconodule monks and their supporters led to their propaganda reaching those close to the Emperor. On becoming aware of an iconodule influenced conspiracy directed at himself, Constantine reacted uncompromisingly; in 765, eighteen high dignitaries were paraded in the hippodrome charged with treason, they were variously executed, blinded or exiled. Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople was implicated and deposed from office, and the following year he was tortured and beheaded.[24] By the end of Constantine's reign, iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand relics and prayers to the saints as heretical, or at least highly questionable. However, the extent of coherent official campaigns to forcibly destroy or cover up religious images or the existence of widespread government-sanctioned destruction of relics has been questioned by more recent scholarship. There is no evidence, for example, that Constantine formally banned the cult of saints. Pre-iconoclastic religious images did survive, and various existing accounts record that icons were preserved by being hidden. In general, the culture of pictorial religious representation appears to have survived the iconoclast period largely intact. The extent and severity of iconoclastic destruction of images and relics was exaggerated in later iconodule writings.[25][26] Iconodules considered Constantine's death a divine punishment. In the 9th century, following the ultimate triumph of the iconodules, Constantine's remains were removed from the imperial sepulchre in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[27] Domestic policies and administration[edit] Map of the themes of Byzantine Asia Minor and the Arab–Byzantine frontier zone in the late 8th century, following the provincial reforms of Constantine V (the border of imperial Thrace does not reflect that Philippopolis was a Byzantine city) Assiduous in courting popularity, Constantine consciously employed the hippodrome, scene of the ever-popular chariot races, to influence the populace of Constantinople. In this he made use of the 'circus factions', which controlled the competing teams of charioteers and their supporters, had widespread social influence, and could mobilise large numbers of the citizenry. The hippodrome became the setting of rituals of humiliation for war captives and political enemies, in which the mob took delight. Constantine's sources of support were the people and the army, and he used them against his iconodule opponents in the monasteries and in the bureaucracy of the capital. Iconoclasm was not purely an imperial religious conviction, it also had considerable popular support: some of Constantine's actions against the iconodules may have been motivated by a desire to retain the approval of the people and the army. The monasteries were exempt from taxation and monks from service in the army; the Emperor's antipathy towards them may have derived to a greater extent from secular, fiscal and manpower, considerations than from a reaction to their theology.[28][29][30] Constantine carried forward the administrative and fiscal reforms initiated by his father Leo III. The military governors (στρατηγοί, strategoi) were powerful figures, whose access to the resources of their extensive provinces often provided the means of rebellion. The Opsikion theme had been the power-base that enabled the rebellion of Artabasdos, and was also the theme situated nearest to the capital within Asia Minor. Constantine reduced the size of this theme, dividing from it the Bucellarian and, perhaps, the Optimaton themes. In those provinces closest to the seat of government this measure increased the number of strategoi and diminished the resources available to any single one, making rebellion less easy to accomplish.[31][32] Constantine was responsible for the creation of a small central army of fully professional soldiers, the imperial tagmata (literally: 'the regiments'). He achieved this by training for serious warfare a corps of largely ceremonial guards units that were attached to the imperial palace, and expanding their numbers. This force was designed to form the core of field armies and was composed of better-drilled, better-paid, and better-equipped soldiers than were found in the provincial themata units, whose troops were part-time soldier-farmers. Before their expansion, the vestigial Scholae and the other guards units presumably contained few useful soldiers, therefore Constantine must have incorporated former thematic soldiers into his new formation.[33] Being largely based at or near the capital, the tagmata were under the immediate control of the Emperor and were free of the regional loyalties that had been behind so many military rebellions.[34][35][36] A mosaic cross in the apse of the Hagia Irene church in Istanbul. It is one of the few artistic remains of iconoclasm. Created during the reign of Constantine it occupies the semi-dome of the apse usually reserved for a devotional image, often a depiction of Christ Pantocrator or the Theotokos The fiscal administration of Constantine was highly competent. This drew from his enemies accusations of being a merciless and rapacious extractor of taxes and an oppressor of the rural population. However, the empire was prosperous and Constantine left a very well-stocked treasury for his successor. The area of cultivated land within the Empire was extended and food became cheaper; between 718 and c. 800 the corn (wheat) production of Thrace trebled. Constantine's court was opulent, with splendid buildings, and he consciously promoted the patronage of secular art to replace the religious art that he removed.[37][38] Constantine constructed a number of notable buildings in the Great Palace of Constantinople, including the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos and the porphyra. The porphyra was a chamber lined with porphyry, a stone of imperial purple colour. In it expectant empresses underwent the final stages of labour and it was the birthplace of the children of reigning emperors. Constantine's son Leo was the first child born here, and thereby obtained the title porphyrogénnētos (born in the purple) the ultimate accolade of legitimacy for an imperial prince or princess. The concept of a 'purple birth' predated the construction of the chamber, but it gained a literal aspect from the chamber's existence.[39] The porphyry was reputed to have come from Rome and represented a direct link to the ancient origins of Byzantine imperial authority.[40] Constantine also rebuilt the prominent church of Hagia Eirene in Constantinople, which had been badly damaged by the earthquake that hit Constantinople in 740. The building preserves rare examples of iconoclastic church decoration.[41] With the impetus of having fathered numerous offspring, Constantine codified the court titles given to members of the imperial family. He associated only his eldest son, Leo, with the throne as co-emperor, but gave his younger sons the titles of caesar for the more senior in age and nobelissimos for the more junior.[42] Campaigns against the Arabs[edit] Further information: Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) and Arab–Byzantine wars § Stabilization of the frontier, 718–863 In 746, profiting by the unstable conditions in the Umayyad Caliphate, which was falling apart under Marwan II, Constantine invaded Syria and captured Germanikeia (modern Marash, his father's birthplace), and he recaptured the island of Cyprus. He organised the resettlement of part of the local Christian population to imperial territory in Thrace, strengthening the empire's control of this region. In 747 his fleet destroyed the Arab fleet off Cyprus. The same year saw a serious outbreak of plague in Constantinople, which caused a pause in Byzantine military operations. Constantine retired to Bithynia to avoid the disease and, after it had run its course, resettled people from mainland Greece and the Aegean islands in Constantinople to replace those who had perished.[43] In 751 he led an invasion into the new Abbasid Caliphate under As-Saffah. Constantine captured Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) and Melitene (Malatya), which he demolished, and again resettled some of the population in the Balkans. The eastern campaigns failed to secure concrete territorial gains, as there was no serious attempt to retain control of the captured cities, except Camachum (modern Kemah, Erzincan), which was garrisoned. However, under Constantine the Empire had gone on the offensive against the Arabs after over a century of largely defensive warfare. Constantine's major goal in his eastern campaigns seems to have been to forcibly gather up local Christian populations from beyond his borders in order to resettle Thrace. Additionally, the deliberate depopulation of the region beyond the eastern borders created a no-man's land where the concentration and provisioning of Arab armies was made more difficult. This in turn increased the security of Byzantine Anatolia. His military reputation was such that, in 757, the mere rumour of his presence caused an Arab army to retreat. In the same year he agreed a truce and an exchange of prisoners with the Arabs, freeing his army for offensive campaigning in the Balkans.[44][45][46][47] Events in Italy[edit] With Constantine militarily occupied elsewhere, and the continuance of imperial influence in the West being given a low priority, the Lombard king Aistulf captured Ravenna in 755, ending over two centuries of Byzantine rule in central Italy.[48][49] The lack of interest Constantine showed in Italian affairs had profound and lasting consequences. Pope Stephen II, seeking protection from the aggression of the Lombards, appealed in person to the Frankish king Pepin the Short. Pepin cowed Aistulf and restored Stephen to Rome at the head of an army. This began the Frankish involvement in Italy that eventually established Pepin's son Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in the West, and also instigated papal temporal rule in Italy with the creation of the Papal States.[50] Constantine sent a number of unsuccessful embassies to the Lombards, Franks and the papacy to demand the restoration of Ravenna, but never attempted a military reconquest or intervention.[51] Repeated campaigns against the Bulgarians[edit] Byzantine and Bulgarian campaigns during the reign of Constantine (741–775) The successes in the east made it possible to then pursue an aggressive policy in the Balkans. Constantine aimed to enhance the prosperity and defence of Thrace by the resettlement there of Christian populations transplanted from the east. This influx of settlers, allied to an active re-fortification of the border, caused concern to the Empire's northern neighbour, Bulgaria, leading the two states to clash in 755. Kormisosh of Bulgaria raided as far as the Anastasian Wall (the outermost defence of the approaches to Constantinople) but was defeated in battle by Constantine, who inaugurated a series of nine successful campaigns against the Bulgarians in the next year, scoring a victory over Kormisosh's successor Vinekh at Marcellae. In 759, Constantine was defeated in the Battle of the Rishki Pass, but the Bulgarians were not able exploit their success.[52][53] Constantine campaigned against the Slav tribes of Thrace and Macedonia in 762, deporting some tribes to the Opsician theme in Anatolia, though some voluntarily requested relocation away from the troubled Bulgarian border region. A contemporary Byzantine source reported that 208,000 Slavs emigrated from Bulgarian controlled areas into Byzantine territory and were settled in Anatolia.[54][55][56] A year later he sailed to Anchialus with 800 ships carrying 9,600 cavalry and some infantry, gaining a victory over Khan Telets. Many Bulgar nobles were captured in the battle, and were later slaughtered outside the Golden Gate of Constantinople by the circus factions. Telets was assassinated in the aftermath of his defeat. In 765 the Byzantines again successfully invaded Bulgaria, during this campaign both Constantine's candidate for the Bulgarian throne, Toktu, and his opponent, Pagan, were killed. Pagan was killed by his own slaves when he sought to evade his Bulgarian enemies by fleeing to Varna, where he wished to defect to the emperor. The cumulative effect of Constantine's repeated offensive campaigns and numerous victories caused considerable instability in Bulgaria, where six monarchs lost their crowns due to their failures in war against Byzantium.[57][58][59] In 775, the Bulgarian ruler Telerig contacted Constantine to ask for sanctuary, saying that he feared that he would have to flee Bulgaria. Telerig enquired as to whom he could trust within Bulgaria, and Constantine foolishly revealed the identities of his agents in the country. The named Byzantine agents were then promptly eliminated.[60] In response, Constantine set out on a new campaign against the Bulgarians, during which he developed carbuncles on his legs. He died during his return journey to Constantinople, on 14 September 775. Though Constantine was unable to destroy the Bulgar state, or impose a lasting peace, he restored imperial prestige in the Balkans.[61][62][63] Assessment and legacy[edit] Soldiers at the tomb of Constantine V, Skylitzes Chronicle Constantine V was a highly capable ruler, continuing the reforms – fiscal, administrative and military – of his father. He was also a successful general, not only consolidating the empire's borders, but actively campaigning beyond those borders, both east and west. At the end of his reign the empire had strong finances, a capable army that was proud of its successes and a church that appeared to be subservient to the political establishment.[64] In concentrating on the security of the empire's core territories he tacitly abandoned some peripheral regions, notably in Italy, which were lost. However, the hostile reaction of the Roman Church and the Italian people to iconoclasm had probably doomed imperial influence in central Italy, regardless of any possible military intervention. Due to his espousal of iconoclasm Constantine was damned in the eyes of contemporary iconodule writers and subsequent generations of Orthodox historians. Typical of this demonisation are the descriptions of Constantine in the writings of Theophanes the Confessor: "a monster athirst for blood", "a ferocious beast", "unclean and bloodstained magician taking pleasure in evoking demons", "a precursor of Antichrist". However, to his army and people he was "the victorious and prophetic Emperor". Following a disastrous defeat of the Byzantines by the Bulgarian Khan Krum in 811 at the Battle of Pliska, troops of the tagmata broke into Constantine's tomb and implored the dead emperor to lead them once more.[65] The life and actions of Constantine, if freed from the distortion caused by the adulation of his soldiers and the demonisation of iconodule writers, show that he was an effective administrator and gifted general, but he was also autocratic, uncompromising and sometimes needlessly harsh.[66][67][68] All surviving contemporary and later Byzantine histories covering the reign of Constantine were written by iconodules. As a result of this, they are open to suspicion of bias and inaccuracy, particularly when attributing motives to the Emperor, his supporters and opponents. This makes any claims of absolute certainty regarding Constantine's policies and the extent of his repression of iconodules unreliable.[69][70] In particular, a manuscript written in north-eastern Anatolia concerning miracles attributed to St. Theodore is one of few probably written during or just after the reign of Constantine to survive in its original form; it contains little of the extreme invective common to later iconodule writings. In contrast, the author indicates that iconodules had to make accommodations with imperial iconoclastic policies, and even bestows on Constantine V the conventional religious acclamations: 'Guarded by God' (θεοφύλακτος) and 'Christ-loving emperor' (φιλόχριστος βασιλεὺς).[71] Family[edit] Icon of St. Anthousa, daughter of Constantine V By his first wife, Tzitzak ("Irene of Khazaria"), Constantine V had one son:[72] Leo IV, who succeeded as emperor. By his second wife, Maria, Constantine V is not known to have had children. By his third wife, Eudokia, Constantine V had five sons and a daughter: Christopher, Caesar (title) Nikephoros, Caesar Niketas, Nobelissimos (title) Eudokimos, Nobelissimos Anthimos, Nobelissimos Anthousa (an iconodule, after her father's death she became a nun, she was later venerated as Saint Anthousa the Younger[73] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Nicol, p. 72 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 165 ^ Finlay, p. 43 ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 349 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 76 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 157 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, pp. 157–158 ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 156–157 ^ Bury, p. 10 ^ Ostrogorsky, pp. 165–166 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 159 ^ Bury, p. 10 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 166 ^ Garland, p. 9 ^ Bury, p. 9 ^ Barnard, p. 13 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 171 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 182 ^ Ostrogorsky, pp. 171–173 ^ Pelikan, pp. 111–112 ^ Loos, p. 32 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 156 ^ Ostrogorsky, pp. 173–175 ^ Bury, p. 14 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, pp. 208–211 ^ Zuckerman pp. 203–204 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 175 ^ Angold, Ch. 5, 'Constantine V', paragraph 7 ^ Magdalino (2015), pp. 177–178 ^ Rochow, pp. 60–62 ^ Bury, p. 3 ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 358 ^ Treadgold (1995), pp. 71–72 ^ Haldon, p. 78 ^ Magdalino (2015), p. 177 ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 358–359 ^ Bury, p. 11 ^ Jenkins, p. 72 ^ Herrin, p. 185 ^ Magdalino (1993), p. 424 ^ Freely and Cakmak, pp. 136–143 ^ Jeffreys, Haldon and Cormack, p. 505 ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 359–360 ^ Bury, p. 10 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 167 ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 360, 362 ^ Bonner, p. 107 ^ Moffat, p. 55 ^ Ostrogorsky, pp. 169–170 ^ Jenkins, p. 71 ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 360 ^ Bury, p. 11 ^ Jenkins, pp. 71–72 ^ Bury, p. 10 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 168 ^ Fine, pp. 76–77 ^ Bury, p. 11 ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 363 ^ Curta, pp. 85–88 ^ Fine, p. 77 ^ Bury, p. 11 ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 169 ^ Curta, p. 88 ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 248 ^ Garland, p. 95 ^ Bury, pp. 9–10 (including quotations from contemporary sources) ^ Ostrogorsky, p. 167, 175 ^ Fine, p. 78 ^ Treadgold (2012), entire chapter ^ Brubaker and Haldon, p. 157 ^ Zuckerman pp. 193–194 ^ Dagron, p. 32 (for the wives and sons) ^ Constas, pp. 21–24 Sources[edit] Angold, M. (2012) Byzantium: The Bridge from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Hachette UK, London ISBN 9780312284299 Barnard, L. (1977) "The Theology of Images", in Iconoclasm, Bryer, A. and Herrin, J. (eds.), Centre for Byzantine Studies University of Birmingham, Birmingham, pp. 7–13 ISBN 0-7044-0226-2 Bonner, M.D. (2004) Arab-Byzantine Relations in Early Islamic Times, Ashgate/Variorum, Farnham ISBN 9780860787167 Brubaker, L. and Haldon, J. (2011) Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, C. 680–850: A History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 9780521430937 Bury, J.B. (1923) The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 4: The Eastern Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 9781456581633 Constas, N. (trans.) (1998) "Life of St. Anthousa, Daughter of Constantine V", in Byzantine Defenders of Images: Eight Saints' Lives in English Translation, Talbot, A-M.M. (ed.), Dumbarton Oaks, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA pp. 21–24 ISBN 9780884022596 Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0. Dagron, G. (2003) Emperor and Priest: The Imperial Office in Byzantium, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 9780521036979 Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Finlay, G. (1906) History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 to 1057, J.M. Dent & Sons, London (Reprint 2010 – Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish Montana ISBN 9781165515721). First published in 1864 as Greece, A History of, From Its Conquest by the Romans to the Present Time: 146 B.C.–1864 A.D. (Final revised ed. 7 vols., 1877) Freely, J. and Cakmak, A. (2004). Byzantine Monuments of Istanbul. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 9780521772570 Garland, L. (1999) Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204, Routledge, London ISBN 0-415-14688-7 Haldon, John (1999). Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204. London: UCL Press. ISBN 1-85728-495-X. Herrin, J. (2007) Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey ISBN 9780691143699 [1] Jeffreys, E., Haldon, J.F. and Cormack, R. (eds.)(2008) The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, Oxford University Press, Oxford ISBN 9780199252466 Jenkins, R.J.H. (1966) Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610-1071, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London ISBN 9781299745629 Loos, M. (1974) Dualist Heresy in the Middle Ages, Martinus Nijhoff NV, The Hague ISBN 90 247 1673 X Magdalino, Paul (2002) [1993]. The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. Magdalino, P. (2015) "The People and the Palace", in The Emperor's House: Palaces from Augustus to the Age of Absolutism, Fethersone, M., Spieser, J-M., Tanman, G. and Wulf-Rheidt, U. (eds.), Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Göttingen ISBN 9783110331769 Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). London: Rupert Hart-Davis Ltd. ISBN 0-246-10559-3. Ostrogorsky, G. (1980) History of the Byzantine State, Basil Blackwell, Oxford ISBN 9780631127826 Pelikan, J. (1977) The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, Volume 2: The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600–1700), University of Chicago Press, Chicago ISBN 9780226653730 Robertson, A. (2017) "The Orient Express: Abbot John's Rapid trip from Constantinople to Ravenna c. AD 700", in Byzantine Culture in Translation, Brown, B. and Neil, B. (eds.), Brill, Leiden ISBN 9789004348868 Rochow, I. (1994) Kaiser Konstantin V. (741–775). Materialien zu seinem Leben und Nachleben (in German), Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Germany ISBN 3-631-47138-6 Treadgold, W.T. (1995) Byzantium and Its Army, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California ISBN 0-8047-3163-2 Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Treadgold, W.T. (2012) "Opposition to Iconoclasm as Grounds for Civil War", in Byzantine War Ideology Between Roman Imperial Concept And Christian Religion, Koder, J. and Stouratis, I. (eds.), Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Vienna ISBN 9783700173076 [2] Zuckerman, C. (1988) The Reign of Constantine V in the Miracles of St. Theodore the Recruit, Revue des Études Byzantines, tome 46, pp. 191–210, Institut Français D'Études Byzantines, Paris, ISSN 0766-5598 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.1988.2230 Literature[edit] The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. External links[edit] Media related to Constantine V at Wikimedia Commons Constantine V Isaurian dynasty Born: 718 Died: 14 September 775 Regnal titles Preceded by Leo III Byzantine Emperor 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 Succeeded by Leo IV v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_V&oldid=1027087970" Categories: 8th-century Byzantine emperors Isaurian dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars 718 births 775 deaths Byzantine Iconoclasm 740s in the Byzantine Empire 750s in the Byzantine Empire 760s in the Byzantine Empire 770s in the Byzantine Empire Leo III the Isaurian Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from September 2020 Good articles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4408	----	Marcia (mother of Trajan) - Wikipedia Marcia (mother of Trajan) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mother of Roman emperor Trajan Marcia (c. 29 – before 100) was an ancient Roman noblewoman and the mother of the emperor Trajan. Contents 1 Family 2 Life 3 Legacy 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 Sources 6 References Family[edit] Marcia came from a noble and politically influential family, the plebeian gens Marcia,[1] which claimed to be descended from the Roman King Ancus Marcius. Marcia was a daughter of the Roman Senator Quintus Marcius Barea Sura and Antonia Furnilla.[2] Quintus Marcius Barea Sura was a friend to future Roman Emperor Vespasian. Her younger sister Marcia Furnilla was the second wife of future Roman Emperor Titus.[3] Marcia was a maternal aunt to Furnilla’s and Titus’ daughter Julia Flavia or Flavia Julia Titi. Marcia’s paternal uncle was the Roman Senator Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus, while her paternal cousin was the noble woman Marcia Servilia Sorana. Marcia’s paternal grandfather was Quintus Marcius Barea, who was Suffect Consul in 34 and Proconsul of the Africa Province in 41-43, while her maternal grandfather could have been Aulus Antonius Rufus, a Suffect Consul either in 45.[4] The family of Marcia was connected to the opponents of Roman Emperor Nero. In 65 after the failure of the Pisonian conspiracy, her family was disfavored by Nero. Life[edit] Marcia was born and raised in Rome. During the reign of Roman Emperor Claudius (41-54), Marcia married a Spanish Roman general and senator called Marcus Ulpius Traianus. Traianus originally came from Italica (near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica. After Marcia married Traianus, for a time they lived in Italica. Marcia bore Traianus two children: A daughter - Ulpia Marciana (48-112/114), who inherited her second name from her mother’s paternal ancestry. Marciana married Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus, who was a wealthy senator and became Praetor. Marciana bore Patruinus a daughter called Salonina Matidia, who was born in 68. A son - Marcus Ulpius Traianus, or known as Trajan (53-117). Trajan became and served as a Roman Emperor from 98 until his death in 117. He married a woman called Pompeia Plotina. Marcia owned clay-bearing estates called the Figlinae Marcianae, which was located in North Italy. When Marcia died, Trajan inherited these estates from his mother. It is unknown if Marcia lived long enough to see Trajan become Emperor. Legacy[edit] Around 100, her son Trajan founded a colony in North Africa which was called Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi (modern Timgad, Algeria). Her son named this town in honor of her, her late husband and her daughter. The colony’s name is also a tribute in honoring her family. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] https://www.jstor.org/pss/638620 http://dcodriscoll.pbworks.com/Marcius_Barea http://www.roman-emperors.org/trajan.htm http://www.roman-emperors.org/wardoc2a.htm https://www.livius.org/le-lh/lepcis_magna/theater2.html https://www.livius.org/le-lh/lepcis_magna/lepcis02.html https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/athens/parthenon/7094/titus1.html&date=2009-10-25+12:55:21 [1] References[edit] ^ Pauly-Wissowa, RE 14.2, 1535-1600. ^ J. K. Evans (1979). "The Trial of P. Egnatius Celer". The Classical Quarterly. 29 (1): 198–202. doi:10.1017/S0009838800035308. JSTOR 638620. ^ Strobel, Karl (2010). Kaiser Traian (in German). Regensburg: Friedrich Pustet. p. 41. ISBN 9783791721729. ^ http://dcodriscoll.pbworks.com/Marcius_Barea Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcia_(mother_of_Trajan)&oldid=1017234956" Categories: 1st-century Romans 1st-century Roman women Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Marcii 20s births 1st-century deaths Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Español Français Galego 한국어 Italiano 日本語 Português Română Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 16:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-441	----	Stoic categories - Wikipedia Stoic categories From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic categories are Stoic ideas regarding categories of being: the most fundamental classes of being for all things. The Stoics believed there were four categories (substance, quality, disposition, relative disposition) which were the ultimate divisions. Since we do not now possess even a single complete work by Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes or Chrysippus what we do know must be pieced together from a number of sources: doxographies and the works of other philosophers who discuss the Stoics for their own purposes.[1] Contents 1 Overview 2 Background 3 Neoplatonic critique 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links Overview[edit] The present information comes from Plotinus and Simplicius, with additional evidence from Plutarch of Chaeronea and Sextus Empiricus. According to both Plotinus and Simplicius there were four Stoic categories, to wit: substance (ὑποκείμενον [hypokeímenon "underlying"]) The primary matter, formless substance (ousia) which makes up things. quality (ποιόν [poión "like what"]) The way in which matter is organized to form an individual object. In Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath) which informs the matter. "somehow disposed" (πὼς ἔχον [pós échon]) Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture. "somehow disposed in relation to something" (πρός τί πως ἔχον [prós tí pos échon]) Characteristics which are related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects. A simple example of the Stoic categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig: I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common quality and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in a certain way; I am the father of my children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to something else.[2] Background[edit] Stoicism, like Aristotelianism is derived from Platonic and Socratic traditions. The Stoics held that all being (ὄντα) — though not all things (τινά) — are corporeal. They accepted the distinction between concrete bodies and abstract ones, but rejected Aristotle's teaching that purely incorporeal being exists. Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras' idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. In addition, the Stoics differed from Aristotle in their sharp distinction between concrete and abstract terms. Technically speaking all four Stoic categories are of concrete bodies. For Aristotle white, whiteness, heat, and hot were qualities. For the Stoics, however, quality refers to white, but not whiteness; hot, but not heat. Furthermore, they believed that there are concrete bodies with no corresponding abstraction, something that makes no sense in Aristotelian terms. It was apparent that the mere distinction between concrete substance and concrete quality was not a sufficient basis for logic. Socrates in the Hippias Major had pointed out problems in Anaxagoras' approach, explaining all attributes through their presence in a body in the way one body may be contained in another. In that dialog, Hippias tried to explain beauty to Socrates. Socrates finds fault with his explanations, that beauty is a beautiful maiden, that beauty is gold, that beauty is health, wealth and a long life. Aristotle solved the problem in proposing that accidental attributes are non-substantial beings that inhere in substances. He defines this presence saying "By being 'present in a subject' I do not mean present as parts are present in a whole, but being incapable of existence apart from the said subject." (The Categories 1a 24–26) Such incorporeal presence caused problems to the Stoics in saying that the οὐσία of a thing is its matter. It is easy to understand the problem. If there is an insubstantial being, in Athens somehow present in Socrates, causing him to be substantially present in Athens we seem to be faced with an infinite regression, for there would seem to be an insubstantial Socrates in the insubstantial Athens in Socrates, in Athens, etc. Ultimately, who is to say who is the real Socrates and what is the real Athens? Similar arguments can be made of Aristotle's other categories. Was there an insubstantial running in Archimedes causing him to run naked through the streets of Syracuse, shouting out his immortal "Eureka"? Was there an insubstantial fist in Athena causing her to strike Aphrodite as the Iliad recounts? Once Hera spoke, Athena dashed off in pursuit, delighted in her heart. Charging Aphrodite, she struck her in the chest with her powerful fist.[1] It was the effort to solve the problems raised by the Platonists and Peripatetics that led the Stoics to develop their categories, somehow disposed and somehow disposed in relation to something. The fact that Stoicism, rather than either Platonism or Aristotelianism became the prominent philosophy of the ancient world is due in part to the approach they took to the problem. According to Stephen Menn the first two categories, substance and quality, were recognized by Zeno. The fourth category somehow disposed in relation to something seems to have been developed by the time of Aristo. The third category, somehow disposed is first seen in Chrysippus. The need for relative terms, seen in the fourth category somehow disposed in relation to something is more obvious than the need for the third category somehow disposed and so it seems to have arisen first. Aristotle had used relative terms in a somewhat general way. "Those things are called relative, which, being either said to be of something else or related to something else, are explained by reference to that other thing." (The Categories 6a 37–38) Thus he says that knowledge and the thing known are relatives. One can certainly consider knowledge as something properly existing in its subject. Aristotle himself recognized a much different kind of relationship. "In respect of relation there is no proper change; for, without changing, a thing will be now greater and now less or equal, if that with which it is compared has changed in quantity." (Metaphysics 1088a 33–35) In the first case, a relative term can be said to be something in its subject. In the second case, it can not. Thus, the need for somehow disposed in relation to something to explain how one thing can be relative to another without the presence of anything corporeal in a subject. According to Stephen Menn, the third category, somehow disposed probably was recognized first in relation to the virtues. According to Socrates, virtue was a sort of knowledge. The wise man will act virtuously, since he will see it as the right thing to do. But the ignorant man can not avoid vice. The Stoic position held that a sage will possess all the virtues in their fullness. Aristo had argued that there is really only one virtue differentiated as somehow disposed in relation to something. This seemed to be too much like the Megarian position. Chrysippus thus came to see the virtues as distinct bodies, inseparable from each other somehow disposed in themselves and not in relation to something. Thus the need for the third category. Neoplatonic critique[edit] Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student Porphyry however defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly as expressions, rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in part, by Aristotle's own words in The Categories. Boethius' acceptance of Porphyry's interpretation led to their being accepted by Scholastic philosophy. The Stoic scheme did not fare as well. Plotinus wrote... Besides, if they make life and soul no more than this "pneuma," what is the import of that repeated qualification of theirs "in a certain state," their refuge when they are compelled to recognize some acting principle apart from body? If not every pneuma is a soul, but thousands of them soulless, and only the pneuma in this "certain state" is soul, what follows? Either this "certain state," this shaping or configuration of things, is a real being or it is nothing. If it is nothing, only the pneuma exists, the "certain state" being no more than a word; this leads imperatively to the assertion that Matter alone exists, Soul and God mere words, the lowest alone is. If on the contrary this "configuration" is really existent- something distinct from the underlie or Matter, something residing in Matter but itself immaterial as not constructed out of Matter, then it must be a Reason-Principle, incorporeal, a separate Nature.[2] Notes[edit] ^ See the entry Stoicism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Jacques Brunschwig "Stoic Metaphysics", p. 228 in Brad Inwood (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 206-232. Further reading[edit] Stephen Menn, "The Stoic Theory of Categories," in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Volume XVII: 1999, (Oxford, Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-825019-3, pp. 215–247 External links[edit] The Stoic Doctrine of Supreme Genera (Categories) with an extensive bibliography v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoic_categories&oldid=1007286152" Categories: Concepts in metaphysics Ontology Philosophical categories Stoicism Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 17 February 2021, at 09:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4425	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-443	----	Daqin - Wikipedia Daqin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Daqin (大秦國) appears at the Western edge of this Chinese world map, the Sihai Huayi Zongtu. Part of a series on Historical Chinese exonyms Anxi (cognates with Arsaces, Persia) Daqin (Roman Empire) Dayuan (Ferghana) Daxia (Bactria) Far West (Europe) Fulin (or Pudzgrums cognates with Byzance) Huanqian (Khwarezm) Tianzhu (cognates with Sindhu, India) Tiaozhi (cognates with Seleucid or Suse, Mesopotamia) Wa (Japan) Nanyang (Southeast Asia) v t e Daqin (Chinese: 大秦; pinyin: Dàqín; Wade–Giles: Ta4-ch'in2; alternative transliterations include Tachin, Tai-Ch'in) is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire or, depending on context, the Near East, especially Syria.[1] It literally means "great Qin"; Qin (Chinese: 秦; pinyin: Qín; Wade–Giles: Ch'in2) being the name of the founding dynasty of the Chinese Empire. Historian John Foster defined it as "the Roman Empire, or rather that part of it which alone was known to the Chinese, Syria".[2] Its basic facets such as laws, customs, dress, and currency were explained in Chinese sources. Its medieval incarnation was described in histories during the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) onwards as Fulin (Chinese: 拂菻; pinyin: Fúlǐn), which Friedrich Hirth and other scholars have identified as the Byzantine Empire.[3] Daqin was also commonly associated with the Syriac-speaking Nestorian Christians who lived in China during the Tang dynasty. Chinese sources describe several ancient Roman embassies arriving in China, beginning in 166 AD and lasting into the 3rd century. These early embassies were said to arrive by a maritime route via the South China Sea in the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (now northern Vietnam). Archaeological evidence such as Roman coins points to the presence of Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia. Later recorded embassies arriving from the Byzantine Empire, lasting from the 7th to 11th centuries, ostensibly took an overland route following the Silk Road, alongside other Europeans in Medieval China. Byzantine Greeks are recorded as being present in the court of Kublai Khan (1260–1294), the Mongol ruler of the Yuan dynasty in Khanbaliq (Beijing), while the Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368–1398), founder of the Ming dynasty, sent a letter of correspondence to Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos. Contents 1 Etymology 1.1 Daqin 1.2 Fulin 2 History 2.1 Early descriptions by Gan Ying 2.2 Geographical descriptions in the Weilüe 2.3 Christianity 2.4 Capital cities 2.5 Embassies 3 Currency and coinage 4 Law and order 5 Naming conventions 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology[edit] Daqin[edit] The term Daqin (Chinese: 大秦; pinyin: Dà qín; Wade–Giles: Ta4-ch'in2, Middle Chinese: /dɑiH d͡ziɪn/), meaning "Great Qin," is derived from the dynasty founded by Qin Shi Huang, ruler of the State of Qin and China's first emperor who unified China's Warring States by 221 BC.[4] The prefix da (大) or "great" signified that the Roman Empire was on par with the might of the Qin dynasty and was viewed as a utopian land located to the northwest of the Parthian Empire.[4] The title Daqin does not seem to have any phonetic derivation from Latin Roma or Greek Romaikē. On the other hand, it is possible that the Latin term used for China, Serica (derived from Greek Serikon, commonly understood as "Land of Silk", from Chinese si Chinese: 絲; pinyin: sī, meaning silk), originated from the name Qin using Early Middle Chinese pronunciation (with the final consonant pronounced with an -r sound).[5] Fulin[edit] The term Daqin was used from the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) onwards,[4] but by the beginning of the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) a new name emerged in Chinese historical records for distinguishing the Eastern Roman Empire: Fulin (Chinese: 拂菻; pinyin: Fú lǐn). Friedrich Hirth surmised that Fulin may have been based on the accusative form of Konstantinoupolis, the Greek name of Constantinople, or rather its paraphrase hē Pólis ("the City"), giving (in the accusative) (tḕn) Pólin.[6] Using historical phonetic pronunciations of Cantonese and Japanese, Hirth also speculated that Fulin in Middle Chinese was pronounced Butlim or Butlam and thus might have also come from the Syriac pronunciation for Bethlehem.[7] While some scholars of the 20th century believed that Fulin was a transliteration of Ephrem, an ancient word for Israel, Samuel N. C. Lieu highlights how more recent scholarship has deduced that Fulin is most likely derived from the Persianate word for the Roman Empire shared by several contemporaneous Iranian languages (Middle Persian: hrwm; Parthian: transl. xpr – transl. frwm; Sogdian: βr'wm-; Bactrian: фромо).[8] History[edit] The Chinese impression of the Daqin people, from the Ming Dynasty encyclopedia Sancai Tuhui. The caption reads: "Daqin: The western merchants end their journeys here. Its king wears embroidered tissues sewn with gold threads on his head. The land produces corals, grows golden flowers, coarse fabrics, pearls, etc." Main article: Sino-Roman relations Further information: Chinese geography and Early Chinese cartography Early descriptions by Gan Ying[edit] Following the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BC, the Chinese thought of the Roman Empire as a civilized counterpart to the Chinese Empire. The Romans occupied one extreme position on the trade route, with the Chinese located on the other. China never managed to reach the Roman Empire directly in antiquity, although general Ban Chao sent Gan Ying as an envoy to "Daqin" in 97 AD. Gan Ying did not reach Daqin: he stopped at the coast of a large sea, because "sailor(s) of the Parthian west border" told him that the voyage to cross the sea might take a long time and be dangerous. Gan Ying left a detailed account of the Roman Empire, but it is generally considered to have been based on second hand information from Parthians: 「大秦國一名犂鞬，以在海西，亦云海西國。地方數千里，有四百餘城。小國役屬者數十。以石為城郭。列置郵亭，皆堊塈之。有松柏諸木百草。」 The Kingdom of Da Qin (the Roman Empire) is also called Lijian. As it is found to the west of the sea, it is also called the Kingdom of Haixi ("West of the Sea"). The territory extends for several thousands of li. It has more than four hundred walled towns. There are several tens of smaller dependent kingdoms. The walls of the towns are made of stone. They have established postal relays at intervals, which are all plastered and whitewashed. There are pines and cypresses, as well as trees and plants of all kinds.[9][10] Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Archaeological Museum Detail of a mural showing two women wearing Hanfu silk robes, from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭汉墓; Dáhǔtíng hànmù) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan, China Gan Ying gives a very idealistic view of Roman governance which is likely the result of some story he was told while visiting the Persian Gulf in 97 AD. He also described, less fancifully, Roman products: 「其王無有常人，皆簡立賢者。國中災異及風雨不時，輒廢而更立，受放者甘黜不怨。其人民皆長大平正，有類中國，故謂之大秦……土多金銀奇寶，有夜光璧、明月珠、駭雞犀、珊瑚、虎魄、琉璃、琅玕、朱丹、青碧。刺金縷繡，織成金縷罽、雜色綾。作黃金塗、火浣布。」 Their kings are not permanent. They select and appoint the most worthy man. If there are unexpected calamities in the kingdom, such as frequent extraordinary winds or rains, he is unceremoniously rejected and replaced. The one who has been dismissed quietly accepts his demotion, and is not angry. The people of this country are all tall and honest. They resemble the people of the Middle Kingdom and that is why this kingdom is called Da Qin. This country produces plenty of gold [and] silver, [and of] rare and precious they have luminous jade, "bright moon pearls", Haiji rhinoceroses, coral, yellow amber, opaque glass, whitish chalcedony [i.e., langgan], red cinnabar, green gemstones, gold-thread embroideries, woven gold-threaded net, delicate polychrome silks painted with gold, and asbestos cloth. 「又有細布，或言水羊毳，野蠶繭所作也。合會諸香，煎其汁以為蘇合。凡外國諸珍異皆出焉。以金銀為錢，銀錢十當金錢一。與安息、天竺交巿於海中，利有十倍。[...]其王常欲通使於漢，而安息欲以漢繒綵與之交市，故遮閡不得自達。」 They also have a fine cloth which some people say is made from the down of "water sheep", but which is made, in fact, from the cocoons of wild silkworms. They blend all sorts of fragrances, and by boiling the juice, make a compound perfume. [They have] all the precious and rare things that come from the various foreign kingdoms. They make gold and silver coins. Ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. They trade with Anxi and Tianzhu by sea. The profit margin is ten to one. ... The king of this country always wanted to send envoys to the Han, but Anxi, wishing to control the trade in multi-coloured Chinese silks, blocked the route to prevent [the Romans] getting through [to China].[9][10] Geographical descriptions in the Weilüe[edit] Main article: Weilüe Further information: Geography of Egypt In the Weilüe written by Yu Huan (c. 239–265), a text that is preserved in the Records of the Three Kingdoms by Pei Songzhi (published in 429), a more detailed description of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire is given, particularly the province of Roman Egypt. The 19th-century sinologist Friedrich Hirth translated the passages and identified the places named in them, which have been edited by Jerome S. Arkenberg in 2000 (with Wade-Giles spelling):[3] Formerly T'iao-chih was wrongly believed to be in the west of Ta-ts'in; now its real position is known to be east. [...] Formerly it was, further, wrongly believed that the Jo-shui was in the west of T'iao-chih; now the Jo-shui is believed to be in the west of Ta-ts'in. Formerly it was wrongly believed that, going over two hundred days west of T'iao-chih, one came near the place where the sun sets; now, one comes near the place where the sun sets by going west of Ta-ts'in. The country of Ta-ts'in, also called Li-kan, is on the west of the great sea [the Indian Ocean] west of Ar-hsi and T'iao-chih. From the city of Ar-ku, on the boundary of Ar-hsi one takes passage in a ship and, traversing the west of the sea, with favorable winds arrives [at Aelana, modern Elat, on the Gulf of Aqaba] in two months; with slow winds, the passage may last a year, and with no wind at all, perhaps three years. This country is on the west of the sea whence it is commonly called Hai-hsi. There is a river [the Nile] coming out from the west of this country, and there is another great sea [the Mediterranean]. In the west of the sea there is the city of Ali-san. Before one arrives in the country one goes straight north from the city of U-tan. In the south-west one further travels by a river which on board ship one crosses in one day [again the Nile]; and again south-west one travels by a river which is crossed in one day [still the Nile]. There are three great divisions of the country [i. e., Delta, Heptanomis, Thebaid]. From the city of Ar-ku one goes by land due north to the north of the sea; and again one goes due west to the west of the sea; and again you go due south to arrive there. At the city of Ali-san, you travel by river on board ship one day, then make a round at sea, and after six days' passage on the great sea [the Mediterranean], arrive in this country. There are in the country in all over four hundred smaller cities; its size is several thousand li in all directions of the compass. The residence of their king lies on the banks of a river estuary [Antioch-on-the-Orontes]. They use stone in making city walls. In this country there are the trees sung [pine], po [cypress], huai [sophora?], tzu [a kind of euphorbia?]; bamboos, rushes, poplars, willows, the wu-t'ung tree, and all kinds of other plants. The people are given to planting on the fields all kinds of grain. Their domestic animals are: the horse, the donkey, the mule, the camel, and the mulberry silk-worm. There are many jugglers who can issue fire from their mouths, bind and release themselves, and dance on twenty balls. In this country they have no permanent rulers, but when an extraordinary calamity visits the country, they elect as king a worthier man, while discharging the old king, who does not even dare to feel angry at this decision. The people are tall, and upright in their dealings, like the Han [Chinese], but wear foreign dress; they call their country another "Middle Kingdom" [probably from "Mediterranean" or "Middle of the Land"].[3] Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China The Weilüe also noted that the Daqin had small "dependent" vassal states, too many to list as the text claims, yet it mentions some as being the Alexandria-Euphrates or Charax Spasinu ("Ala-san"), Nikephorium ("Lu-fen"), Palmyra ("Ch'ieh-lan"), Damascus ("Hsien-tu"), Emesa ("Si-fu"), and Hira ("Ho-lat").[3] Perhaps some of these are in reference to certain states that were temporarily conquered during the Roman–Parthian Wars (66 BC – 217 AD) when, for instance, the army of Roman Emperor Trajan reached the Persian Gulf and captured Characene, the capital of which was Charax Spasinu.[11] The Weilüe provides the traveling directions and approximate distances between each of these cities, counted in ancient Chinese miles (li), and along with the Book of Later Han even mentions the pontoon bridge ("flying bridge") across the Euphrates at the Roman city of Zeugma, Commagene (in modern-day Turkey).[3] Hirth and Arkenberg identified Si-fu (Chinese: 汜復) with Emesa. However, John E. Hill provides evidence that it was most likely Petra (in the Nabataean Kingdom), given the directions and distance from "Yuluo" (i.e. Al Karak) and the fact that it fell under Roman dominion in 106 AD when it was annexed by Trajan.[12] Even more convincing for Hill is the fact that Si-fu in Chinese means "an arm of a river which rejoins the main stream" or more aptly "rejoined water courses".[12] He believes this is directly related to the reservoir and cistern flood-control system harnessing the many streams running through the settlement and nearby canyons, or wadis, such as the Wadi Musa ("Valley of Moses").[12] Christianity[edit] Further information: Daqin Pagoda The Daqin Pagoda, which once formed part of a Nestorian church The Nestorian Stele entitled "Stele to the propagation in China of the luminous religion of Daqin" (大秦景教流行中國碑), was erected in China in 781. In later eras, starting in AD 550, as Syriac Christians settled along the Silk Road and founded mission churches, Daqin or Tai-Ch'in is also used to refer to these Christian populations rather than to Rome or the Roman church.[1] So, for example, when the Taoist Emperor Wuzong of Tang closed Christian monasteries in the mid-9th century, the imperial edict commanded:[13] As for the Tai-Ch'in (Syrian Christian) and Muh-hu (Zoroastrian) forms of worship, since Buddhism has already been cast out, these heresies alone must not be allowed to survive.[14] The name "Daqin" for Rome was used on Chinese maps as late as the 16th century, such as the Sihai Huayi Zongtu. The identification of "Daqin" with the Western Roman Empire, Eastern Roman Empire, or the Church of the East varies with the era and context of the document. The Nestorian Stele erected in 781 in the Tang capital Chang'an contains an inscription that briefly summarizes the knowledge about Daqin in the Chinese histories written up to that point and notes how only the "luminous" religion (i.e. Christianity) was practiced there.[3] Capital cities[edit] To the Chinese, the capital of Daqin was "An-tu", or Antioch, the first great Christian city.[15] However, the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang, which identified Daqin and "Fulin" (拂菻; i.e. the Byzantine Empire) as the same countries, noted a different capital city (Constantinople), one that had walls of "enormous height" and was eventually besieged by the commander "Mo-yi" (Chinese: 摩拽伐之; Pinyin: Mó zhuāi fá zhī) of the Da shi (大食; i.e. the Arabs).[3] Friedrich Hirth identifies this commander as Muawiyah I, who was first governor of Syria before becoming caliph and founder of the Umayyad Caliphate.[3] The city of Rome itself does not appear to have been described. Embassies[edit] Further information: Zhang Qian and Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire Starting in the 1st century BC with Virgil, Horace, and Strabo, Roman histories offer only vague accounts of China and the silk-producing Seres of the distant east.[16] The 2nd-century historian Florus seems to have conflated the Seres with peoples of India, or at least noted that their skin complexions proved that they both lived "beneath another sky" than the Romans.[16] The 1st-century geographer Pomponius Mela noted that their lands formed the center of the coast of an eastern ocean, flanked by India to the south and the Scythians of the northern steppe, while the historian Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330 – c. 400) wrote that the land of the Seres was enclosed by great natural walls around a river called Bautis, perhaps the Yellow River.[16] In his Geography, Ptolemy also provided a rough sketch of the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea, with a port city called Cattigara lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula) visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander.[17] Among the proposed sites for Ptolemy's Cattigara are Oc Eo, Vietnam, where Roman artefacts have been found.[18] Bust of Marcus Aurelius from Probalinthos, Attica (c. 161 AD; now in the Louvre, Paris) In contrast, Chinese histories offer an abundance of source material about their interactions with alleged Roman embassies and descriptions of their country. The first of these embassies is recorded in the Book of Later Han as having arrived by sea in 166 AD and came by way of Jiaozhou, later known as Annam (northern Vietnam), as would later embassies.[3] Its members claimed to be representatives of the Daqin ruler "Andun" (安敦), either Antoninus Pius or his co-emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and offered gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han.[19][20] Other embassies arrived sporadically afterwards. The Book of Liang mentions a Daqin embassy to Sun Quan of Eastern Wu in 226, while the Book of Jin records a Daqin embassy to Emperor Wu of Jin in 284.[3] Although Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618) had desired to send an embassy to Daqin, this never came to fruition.[3][21] Instead, an embassy from a country that was now called Fulin (拂菻, i.e. the Byzantine Empire), which the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang identified as being the same as Daqin, arrived in 643 at the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang and claimed to represent their king Bo duoli (波多力; i.e. Kōnstantinos Pogonatos, "Constantine the Bearded", the nickname of Constans II).[3] Several other Fulin (i.e. Byzantium) embassies during the Tang dynasty are mentioned for the years 667, 701, and 719.[3] The Wenxian Tongkao written by Ma Duanlin (1245–1322) and the History of Song record that the Byzantine emperor Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of Fulin (i.e. Byzantium) sent an embassy to China that arrived in 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085).[3][22] During the subsequent Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), an unprecedented number of Europeans started to visit and live in China, such as Marco Polo and Katarina Vilioni, and papal missionaries such as John of Montecorvino and Giovanni de Marignolli.[23][24][25] The History of Yuan recounts how a man of Fulin named Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph), initially in the service of Güyük Khan, was well-versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of medicine and astronomy.[26] This convinced Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty, to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards, eventually honoring him with the title of Prince of Fulin (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng).[26] His biography in the History of Yuan lists his children by their Chinese names, which are similar to the Christian names Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.[26] The History of Ming explains how the founder of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Hongwu Emperor, sent a merchant of Fulin named "Nieh-ku-lun" (捏古倫) back to his home country with a letter announcing the founding of a new dynasty.[3][27][28] It is speculated that this "merchant" was actually a former bishop of Khanbaliq named Nicolaus de Bentra.[29] The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fulin ceased thereafter, whereas an envoy of the great western sea (i.e. the Mediterranean Sea) did not arrive again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.[3] Currency and coinage[edit] Further information: Roman currency and Byzantine currency Bronze coin of Constantius II (337–361), found in Karghalik, modern China Although the ancient Romans imported Han Chinese silk while the Han-dynasty Chinese imported Roman glasswares as discovered in their tombs,[30][31] Valerie Hansen (2012) claimed that no Roman coins from the Roman Republic (507–27 BC) or the Principate (27 BC–284 AD) era of the Roman Empire have been found in China.[32] Yet this assumption has been overturned; Warwick Ball (2016) notes the discovery of sixteen Roman coins found at Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an) minted during the reign of various emperors from Tiberius (14–37 AD) to Aurelian (270–275 AD).[33] The earliest gold solidus coins from the Eastern Roman Empire found in China date to the reign of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450) and altogether only forty-eight of them have been found (compared to thirteen hundred silver coins) in Xinjiang and the rest of China.[32] However, Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.[17][34] This was the same region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy.[17][3] Chinese histories offer descriptions of Byzantine coins. In discussing trade with India, the Parthian Empire and the Roman Empire, the Book of Jin, as well as the later Wenxian Tongkao, noted how ten ancient Roman silver coins were worth one Roman gold coin.[3] With fluctuations, the Roman golden aureus was worth about twenty-five silver denarii.[35] The History of Song notes how the Byzantines made coins of either silver or gold, without holes in the middle yet with an inscription of the king's name.[3] Law and order[edit] Further information: Roman law and Byzantine law An 1860 sketch depicting a Roman lictor, a bodyguard for Roman magistrates The History of Song described forms of punishment in criminal law as they were carried out in Daqin (Roman Empire) and Fulin (Byzantine Empire). It states that they made a distinction between minor and major offenses, with 200 strikes from a bamboo rod being reserved for major crimes.[3] It described their form of capital punishment as having the guilty person being stuffed into a "feather bag" and thrown into the sea.[3] This seems to correspond with the Romano-Byzantine punishment of poena cullei (from Latin "punishment of the sack"), where those who committed parricide (i.e. murder of a father or mother) were sewn up into a sack, sometimes with wild animals, and thrown into either a river or sea.[36] The History of Song also mentioned how it was forbidden by law to counterfeit the coins minted by Fulin.[3] These descriptions from the History of Song are also found in the Wenxian Tongkao.[3] Naming conventions[edit] Further information: Chinese name, Chinese surname, and Roman naming conventions In the Chinese histories, the names of Romans and Byzantines were often transliterated into Chinese as they were heard, yet occasionally the surname stemmed from their country of origin, Daqin (大秦). For instance, the Roman merchant Qin Lun (秦論), who visited the Eastern Wu court of Sun Quan in 226 AD, bears the surname derived from the name for his homeland, while having a given name that is perhaps derived from the Greek name Leon (e.g. Leon of Sparta).[37] In the Han-era stage of the spoken language intermediate between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese, the pronunciation for his given name "Lun" (論) would have sounded quite different from modern spoken Mandarin: K. 470b *li̯wən / li̯uĕn or *lwən / luən; EMC lwən or lwənh.[37] Granting Roman individuals the surname "Qin" followed a common Chinese naming convention for foreign peoples. For instance, people from the Parthian Empire of ancient Persia such as An Shigao were often given the surname "An" (安) derived from Anxi (安息), the Arsacid dynasty. The Sogdians, an Eastern Iranian people from Central Asia, were also frequently given the surname "An" (e.g. An Chongzhang), especially those from Bukhara, while Sogdians from Samarkand were surnamed "Kang" (康; e.g. Kang Senghui), derived from Kangju, the Chinese term for Transoxiana.[38][39][40][41] The name given for Antoninus Pius/Marcus Aurelius Antoninus in the Chinese histories was "An Dun" (安敦).[19][note 1] See also[edit] Politics portal China portal History portal Ancient Rome portal Christianity in China Daqin Pagoda Europeans in Medieval China Foreign relations of imperial China Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, Chinese visitor to Europe in the 17th century Nestorian Stele (Memorial of the Propagation in China of the Luminous Religion from Daqin) History of the Han Dynasty Seres and Serica, Latin Roman words for Chinese and China, respectively; see also Sinae Sino-Roman relations Zhang Qian, Western-Han Chinese explorer of Central Asia during the 2nd century BC Notes[edit] ^ The surname "An" (安) used here for the surname of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus is the same as the aforementioned surname used for Parthians and Sogdians. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Jenkins, Philip (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: the Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia – and How It Died. New York: Harper Collins. pp. 64–68. ISBN 978-0-06-147280-0. ^ Foster, p. 3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ a b c Lieu (2013), p. 126. ^ Lieu (2013), p. 126 f.; the same character for "Qin" (i.e. 秦) was used by the Chinese of the Han period to transcribe foreign words ending in an -r sound. ^ Lieu (2013), p. 227. ^ Hirth (1939) [1885], pp. 286-290. ^ Lieu (2013), p. 127 f. ^ a b Hill (2009), p. 25. ^ a b Description of the Western regions (in Chinese). ^ Garthwaite, Gene Ralph (2005), The Persians, Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 1-55786-860-3, p. 81. ^ a b c Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 CE [Section 11 – Da Qin (Roman territory/Rome)]". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 2016-09-17. ^ Philip, TV (1998). "Christianity in China". East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2008-11-30. ^ Foster, John (1939). The Church in T'ang Dynasty. Great Britain: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 123. ^ Foster, p. 4. ^ a b c Max Ostrovsky (2007), Y = Arctg X: the Hyperbola of the World Order, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Plymouth: University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-3499-0, p. 44. ^ a b c Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ Granville Allen Mawer (2013), "The Riddle of Catigara" in Robert Nichols and Martin Woods (eds), Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia, 38-39, Canberra: National Library of Australia, ISBN 9780642278098, p. 38. ^ a b de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations", in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377-462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, pp 152-153. ^ Fuat Sezgin; Carl Ehrig-Eggert; Amawi Mazen; E. Neubauer (1996). نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University). p. 25. ISBN 9783829820479. ^ Jonathan D. Spence (1998). "The Chan's Great Continent: China in Western Minds". The New York Times. ISBN 0-393-02747-3. Accessed 15 September 2016. ^ Frances Wood (2002), The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia, University of California Press, pp 125-126, ISBN 0-520-24340-4. ^ Stephen G. Haw (2006), Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan, London & New York: Routledge, p. 172, ISBN 0-415-34850-1. ^ a b c Bretschneider, Emil (1888), Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Vol. 1, Abingdon: Routledge, reprinted 2000, p. 144. ^ R. G. Grant (2005). Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. DK Pub. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-0-7566-1360-0. ^ Hirth, Friedrich (1939) [1885]. China and the Roman Orient: Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records. Leipzig, Munich, Shanghai, & Hong Kong: Georg Hirth; Kelly & Walsh. p. 66. ISBN 9780524033050. ^ Edward Luttwak (1 November 2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. pp. 170–. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5. ^ Brosius, Maria (2006), The Persians: An Introduction, London & New York: Routledge, p. 122 f., ISBN 0-415-32089-5. ^ An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner, Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 79–94, ISBN 2-503-52178-9. ^ a b Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ Warwick Ball (2016), Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6, p. 154. ^ For further information on Oc Eo, see Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, p. 24 f. ^ John Pike. (last modified 11 July 2011). "Roman Money". Globalsecurity.org. Accessed 15 September 2016. ^ Richard A. Bauman (2005), Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome, London & New York: Routledge, reprint of 1996 edition, ISBN 0-203-42858-7, p. 23. ^ a b Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 CE". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 2016-09-17. ^ Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford University Press, p. 98, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p. 872. ^ Hill, John E. (2015) Through the Jade Gate - China to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. CreateSpace, North Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1500696702, note 2.17, p. 183. ^ For information on Kang Senghui, see: Tai Thu Nguyen (2008). The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. CRVP. pp. 36-. ISBN 978-1-56518-098-7. Sources[edit] Bauman, Richard A. (2005). Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome. London & New York: Routledge, reprint of 1996 edition, ISBN 0-203-42858-7. Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6. Bretschneider, Emil (2000) [1888]. Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Vol. 1, reprint edition. Abingdon: Routledge. Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians: An Introduction. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32089-5. Foster, John (1939). The Church in T'ang Dynasty. Great Britain: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Galambos, Imre (2015). "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture. Leiden & Boston: Brill. Garthwaite, Gene Ralph (2005). The Persians. Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 1-55786-860-3. Grant, R. G. (2005). Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. DK Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7566-1360-0. Hansen, Valerie (2012). The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. Haw, Stephen G. (2006). Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34850-1. Hill, John E. (2004). The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation. [1] Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-10. Hirth, Friedrich (1939) [1885]. China and the Roman Orient: Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records (reprint ed.). Leipzig, Munich, Shanghai, & Hong Kong: Georg Hirth; Kelly & Walsh. ISBN 9780524033050. Jenkins, Philip (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: the Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia – and How It Died. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-147280-0. Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2013). "The 'Romanitas' of the Xi'an Inscription," in Li Tang and Deitmer W. Winkler (eds), From the Oxus to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia. Zürich & Berlin: Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-90329-7. Luttwak, Edward. (1 November 2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5. Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Catigara" in Robert Nichols and Martin Woods (eds), Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia, 38–39. Canberra: National Library of Australia. ISBN 9780642278098. Osborne, Milton (2006) [2000]. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition. ISBN 1-74114-893-6. Ostrovsky, Max (2007). Y = Arctg X: the Hyperbola of the World Order. Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Plymouth: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-3499-0. Sezgin, Fuat; Carl Ehrig-Eggert; Amawi Mazen; E. Neubauer (1996). نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University). Wood, Frances(2002). The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24340-4. Young, Gary K. (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24219-3. Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Yule, Henry (1886). Cathay and the Way Thither. Downloaded 22/12/04 from: http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2-F-b-2/V-1/ and http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2-F-b-2/V-2/. Further reading[edit] Leslie, D. D., Gardiner, K. H. J.: "The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources", Studi Orientali, Vol. 15. Rome: Department of Oriental Studies, University of Rome, 1996 Pulleyblank, Edwin G.: "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119, No. 1 (1999), pp. 71–79 External links[edit] Accounts of Daqin in the Chinese history of the Later Han Hou Hanshu Chang'an the ancient capital of China Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daqin&oldid=1019955093" Categories: Foreign relations of ancient Rome Historical Chinese exonyms History of Christianity in China History of the foreign relations of China Hidden categories: Articles containing Chinese-language text Pages using template Zh with sup tags Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bân-lâm-gú Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Suomi 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2021, at 10:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4444	----	Andronikos II Palaiologos - Wikipedia Andronikos II Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328 For other uses, see Constantine Palaiologos (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos II Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Painting of Andronikos II Byzantine emperor Reign 11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328 Coronation 12 December 1282 Predecessor Michael VIII Palaiologos (alone) Successor Andronikos III Palaiologos Born 25 March 1259 Nicaea, Empire of Nicaea Died 13 February 1332(1332-02-13) (aged 75) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Anna of Hungary Yolande of Montferrat Issue Michael IX Palaiologos Constantine Palaiologos John Palaiologos Theodore I, Marquess of Montferrat Demetrios Palaiologos Simonis, Queen of Serbia Irene Palaiologina, Sebastokratorissa of Thessaly (illegitimate) Maria, Khatun of the Golden Horde (illegitimate) Despina, Khatun of the Ilkhanate (illegitimate) Names Andronikos II Doukas Angelos Palaiologos Medieval Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Β′ Παλαιολόγος Dynasty Palaiologos Father Michael VIII Palaiologos Mother Theodora Palaiologina Religion Greek Orthodox Andronikos II Palaiologos (Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Βʹ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Andrónikos Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnós Palaiologos; 25 March 1259– 13 February 1332), usually Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine Emperor from 1282 to 1328.[1] Andronikos' reign was marked by the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. During his reign, the Turks conquered most of the Western Anatolian territories of the Empire and, during the last years of his reign, he also had to fight his grandson Andronikos in the First Palaiologan Civil War. The civil war ended in Andronikos II's forced abdication in 1328 after which he retired to a monastery, where he spent the last four years of his life. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 Foundations 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Andronikos II was born Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος) at Nicaea. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Palaiologina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes. Andronikos was acclaimed co-emperor in 1261, after his father Michael VIII recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire, but he was not crowned until 1272. Sole emperor from 1282, Andronikos II immediately repudiated his father's unpopular Church union with the Papacy, which he had been forced to support while his father was still alive, but he was unable to resolve the related schism within the Orthodox clergy until 1310. Andronikos II was also plagued by economic difficulties. During his reign the value of the Byzantine hyperpyron depreciated precipitously, while the state treasury accumulated less than one seventh the revenue (in nominal coins) that it had previously. Seeking to increase revenue and reduce expenses, Andronikos II raised taxes, reduced tax exemptions, and dismantled the Byzantine fleet (80 ships) in 1285, thereby making the Empire increasingly dependent on the rival republics of Venice and Genoa. In 1291, he hired 50–60 Genoese ships, but the Byzantine weakness resulting from the lack of a navy became painfully apparent in the two wars with Venice in 1296–1302 and 1306–10. Later, in 1320, he tried to resurrect the navy by constructing 20 galleys, but failed. Andronikos II Palaiologos sought to resolve some of the problems facing the Byzantine Empire through diplomacy. After the death of his first wife Anne of Hungary, he married Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat, putting an end to the Montferrat claim to the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Andronikos II also attempted to marry off his son and co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos to the Latin Empress Catherine I of Courtenay, thus seeking to eliminate Western agitation for a restoration of the Latin Empire. Another marriage alliance attempted to resolve the potential conflict with Serbia in Macedonia, as Andronikos II married off his five-year-old daughter Simonis to King Stefan Milutin in 1298. Andronikos II and Michael IX Palaeologus (Silver basilikon) In spite of the resolution of problems in Europe, Andronikos II was faced with the collapse of the Byzantine frontier in Asia Minor, despite the successful, but short, governorships of Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes. The successful military victories in Asia Minor by Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes against the Turks were largely dependent on a considerable military contingent of Cretan escapees, or exiles from Venetian-occupied Crete, headed by Hortatzis, whom Michael VIII had repatriated to Byzantium through a treaty agreement with the Venetians ratified in 1277.[2] Andronikos II had resettled those Cretans in the region of Meander river, the southeastern Asia Minor frontier of Byzantium with the Turks. After the failure of the co-emperor Michael IX to stem the Turkish advance in Asia Minor in 1302 and the disastrous Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantine government hired the Catalan Company of Almogavars (adventurers from Catalonia) led by Roger de Flor to clear Byzantine Asia Minor of the enemy.[3] In spite of some successes, the Catalans were unable to secure lasting gains. Being more ruthless and savage than the enemy they intended to subdue they quarreled with Michael IX, and eventually openly turned on their Byzantine employers after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305; together with a party of willing Turks they devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly on their road to Latin occupied southern Greece. There they conquered the Duchy of Athens and Thebes. The Turks continued to penetrate the Byzantine possessions, and Prusa fell in 1326. By the end of Andronikos II's reign, much of Bithynia was in the hands of the Ottoman Turks of Osman I and his son and heir Orhan.[4] Also, Karasids conquered Mysia-region with Paleokastron after 1296, Germiyan conquered Simav in 1328, Saruhan captured Magnesia in 1313, and Aydinids captured Smyrna in 1310. Gold hyperpyron of Andronikos II, kneeling before Christ The Empire's problems were exploited by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria, who defeated Michael IX and conquered much of northeastern Thrace in c. 1305–07. The conflict ended with yet another dynastic marriage, between Michael IX's daughter Theodora and the Bulgarian emperor. The dissolute behavior of Michael IX's son Andronikos III Palaiologos led to a rift in the family, and after Michael IX's death in 1320, Andronikos II disowned his grandson, prompting a civil war that raged, with interruptions, until 1328. The conflict precipitated Bulgarian involvement, and Michael Asen III of Bulgaria attempted to capture Andronikos II under the guise of sending him military support. In 1328 Andronikos III entered Constantinople in triumph and Andronikos II was forced to abdicate.[3] Andronikos II died as a monk at Constantinople in 1332. Family[edit] On 8 November 1272 Andronikos II married as his first wife Anna of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, with whom he had two sons: Michael IX Palaiologos (17 April 1277 – 12 October 1320). Constantine Palaiologos, despotes (c. 1278 – 1335). Constantine was forced to become a monk by his nephew Andronikos III Palaiologos. Anna died in 1281, and in 1284 Andronikos married Yolanda (renamed Irene), a daughter of William VII of Montferrat, with whom he had: John Palaiologos (c. 1286–1308), despotes. Bartholomaios Palaiologos (born 1289), died young. Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat (1291–1338). Simonis Palaiologina (1294 – after 1336), who married King Stefan Milutin of Serbia. Theodora Palaiologina (born 1295), died young. Demetrios Palaiologos (1297–1343), despotēs. Isaakios Palaiologos (born 1299), died young. Andronikos II also had at least three illegitimate daughters: Irene, who married John II Doukas, ruler of Thessaly. Maria, who married Toqta, Khan of the Golden Horde. A daughter known as Despina Khatun, who married Öljaitü, Khan of the Ilkhanate.[5] Foundations[edit] Ardenica Monastery Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery Zograf monastery See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Rabban Bar Sauma Notes[edit] ^ PLP, 21436. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος II. Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός. ^ Agelarakis, P. A. (2012), Cretans in Byzantine foreign policy and military affairs following the Fourth Crusade. Cretika Chronika, 32, 41-78. ^ a b Chisholm 1911. ^ "Andronicus II." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (9th ed.). 1878. p. 23. ^ Korobeinikov, Dimitri (2014). Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-198-70826-1. References[edit] Bartusis, Mark C. (1997). The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1620-2. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Andronicus II" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 976. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Laiou, Angeliki E. (1972). Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II, 1282–1328. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-16535-7. Κοντογιαννοπούλου, Αναστασία (2004). Η εσωτερική πολιτική του Ανδρονίκου Β΄ Παλαιολόγου (1282–1328). Διοίκηση - Οικονομία. Κέντρο Βυζαντινών Ερευνών Θεσσαλονίκη. ISBN 960-7856-15-5. Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916. Papadakis, Aristeides (1997) [1983]. Crisis in Byzantium: The Filioque Controversy in the Patriarchate of Gregory II of Cyprus (1283–1289) (Rev. ed.). Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881411768. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. External links[edit] Media related to Andronikos II Palaiologos at Wikimedia Commons Andronikos II Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: Unknown 1259 Died: 13 February 1332 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael VIII Byzantine emperor 1272–1328 with Michael VIII (1272-1282) Michael IX (1294–1320) Andronikos III (1325–1328) Succeeded by Andronikos III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) Italy United States Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andronikos_II_Palaiologos&oldid=1027202328" Categories: 1259 births 1332 deaths Palaiologos dynasty 13th-century Byzantine emperors 14th-century Byzantine emperors Monarchs who abdicated Eastern Orthodox monks Eastern Orthodox monarchs Burials at Lips Monastery Founders of Christian monasteries Children of Michael VIII Palaiologos Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2020 Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4451	----	Leo III the Isaurian - Wikipedia Leo III the Isaurian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 717 to 741 For homonyms, see Leo III (disambiguation). Emperor of the Romans Leo III the Isaurian Emperor of the Romans Solidus of Leo III. The inscription reads d no leon pa mul. Byzantine emperor Reign 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 Predecessor Theodosios III Successor Constantine V Born c. 685 Germanikeia, Byzantine Empire Died 18 June 741 (aged 55 or 56) Spouse Maria Issue more... Constantine V Anna Dynasty Isaurian dynasty Leo III the Isaurian (Greek: Λέων Γ ὁ Ἴσαυρος, romanized: Leōn ho Isauros; c. 685 – 18 June 741), also known as the Syrian, was Byzantine Emperor from 717 until his death in 741 and founder of the Isaurian dynasty.[1] He put an end to the Twenty Years' Anarchy, a period of great instability in the Byzantine Empire between 695 and 717, marked by the rapid succession of several emperors to the throne. He also successfully defended the Empire against the invading Umayyads and forbade the veneration of icons.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Siege of Constantinople 3 Administration 4 Iconoclasm 5 Death 6 Footnotes 7 Literature 8 External links Early life[edit] Leo was of Syrian origin,[3][4][5] his original name was Konon, was born in Germanikeia in the Syrian province of Commagene (modern Kahramanmaraş in Turkey). Some, including the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes, have claimed that Konon's family had been resettled in Thrace, where he entered the service of Emperor Justinian II, when the latter was advancing on Constantinople with an army of loyalist followers, and horsemen provided by Tervel of Bulgaria in 705. Leo was fluent in Arabic,[6] possibly as a native language,[7] and was described by Theophanes as "the Saracen minded."[8] After the victory of Justinian II, Konon was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Alania and Lazica to organize an alliance against the Umayyad Caliphate under Al-Walid I. According to the Chronicle of Theophanes Justinian wanted to get rid of Konon and took back the money that had been given to him to help advance Byzantine interests, thus leaving Konon stranded in Alania. The chronicle describes the mission as successful and Konon returning eventually to Justinian after crossing the Caucasus mountains in May with snowshoes and taking the fortress of Sideron (associated with Tsebelda) on the way.[9][10] Konon was appointed commander (stratēgos) of the Anatolic Theme by Emperor Anastasius II. On his deposition, Konon joined with his colleague Artabasdus, the stratēgos of the Armeniac Theme, in conspiring to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III. Artabasdus was betrothed to Anna,[11] daughter of Leo as part of the agreement. Siege of Constantinople[edit] Main article: Siege of Constantinople (717–718) Leo entered Constantinople on 25 March 717 and forced the abdication of Theodosios III, becoming emperor as Leo III. The new emperor was immediately forced to attend to the Second Arab siege of Constantinople, which commenced in August of the same year. The Arabs were Umayyad forces sent by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik and serving under his brother Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik. They had taken advantage of the civil discord in the Byzantine Empire to bring a force of 80,000 to 150,000 men and a massive fleet to the Bosphorus.[12] Careful preparations, begun three years earlier under Anastasius II, and the stubborn resistance put up by Leo wore out the invaders. An important factor in the victory of the Byzantines was their use of Greek fire.[13] The Arab forces also fell victim to Bulgarian reinforcements arriving to aid the Byzantines. Leo was allied with the Bulgarians but the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor was uncertain if they were still serving under Tervel of Bulgaria or his eventual successor Kormesiy of Bulgaria. Unable to continue the siege in the face of the Bulgarian onslaught, the impenetrability of Constantinople's walls, and their own exhausted provisions, the Arabs were forced to abandon the siege in August, 718. Sulayman himself had died the previous year and his successor Umar II would not attempt another siege. The siege had lasted 12 months. Administration[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Byzantine Empire 717 AD. 1. Ravenna 2. Venetia and Istria 3. Rome 4. Naples 5. Calabria 6. Hellas 7. Thrace 8. Opsikion 9. Thrakesion 10. Anatolikon 11. Karabisianoi 12. Armeniakon. Hatched area: Frequently invaded by Umayyad Caliphate Having thus saved the Empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy had become completely disorganized. In 718 he suppressed a rebellion in Sicily and in 719 did the same on behalf of the deposed Emperor Anastasios II. Leo secured the Empire's frontiers by inviting Slavic settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the army to efficiency; when the Umayyad Caliphate renewed its invasions in 726 and 739, as part of the campaigns of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, the Arab forces were decisively beaten, particularly at Akroinon in 740. His military efforts were supplemented by his alliances with the Khazars and the Georgians. Leo undertook a set of civil reforms including the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free tenants and the remodelling of Family law, maritime law and criminal law, notably substituting mutilation for the death penalty in many cases. The new measures, which were embodied in a new code called the Ecloga (Selection), published in 726, met with some opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy. The Emperor also undertook some reorganization of the theme structure by creating new themata in the Aegean region. Iconoclasm[edit] Example of the miliaresion silver coins, first struck by Leo III to commemorate the coronation of his son, Constantine V, as co-emperor in 720. Leo's most striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters, especially iconoclasm ("icon-breaking," therefore an iconoclast is an "icon-breaker").[14] After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and Montanists in the empire (722), he issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images (726–729).[15] A revolt which broke out in Greece, mainly on religious grounds, was crushed by the imperial fleet in 727 (cf. Agallianos Kontoskeles). In 730, Patriarch Germanos I of Constantinople resigned rather than subscribe to an iconoclastic decree. Leo had him replaced by Anastasios,[16] who willingly sided with the Emperor on the question of icons. Thus Leo suppressed the overt opposition of the capital. In the Italian Peninsula, the defiant attitude of Popes Gregory II and later Gregory III on behalf of image-veneration led to a fierce quarrel with the Emperor. The former summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732); in 740 Leo retaliated by transferring Southern Italy and Illyricum from the papal diocese to that of the patriarch of Constantinople.[17] The struggle was accompanied by an armed outbreak in the exarchate of Ravenna in 727, which Leo finally endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. But the destruction of the armament by a storm decided the issue against him; his southern Italian subjects successfully defied his religious edicts, and the Exarchate of Ravenna became effectively detached from the Empire. Scholars have discussed the mutual influence of Muslim and Byzantine iconoclasm, noting that Caliph Yazid II had issued an iconoclastic edict, also targeting his Christian subjects, already in 721.[18] Death[edit] Leo III died of dropsy on 18 June 741. He was succeeded by his son, Constantine V. With his wife Maria, Leo III had four known children: his successor, Constantine V; Anna, who married Artabasdus; Irene; and Kosmo. Footnotes[edit] Byzantine Empire portal ^ Craig, Graham, Kagan, Ozment, and Turner. The Heritage of World Civilizations. Prentice Hall. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-205-80766-6.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Gero, Stephen (1973). Byzantine Iconoclasm during the Reign of Leo III, with Particular Attention to the Oriental Sources. Louvain: Secrétariat du Corpus SCO. ISBN 90-429-0387-2. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J.; Elliott, Carolyn M. (5 January 2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-6662-6. ^ Ekonomou, Andrew J. (26 January 2007). Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern Influences on Rome and the Papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590-752. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-3386-6. ^ whether Leo ' s family wereMonophysites or not , their place of origin makes it certain that they were Syrians.https://books.google.ae/books?id=Y2EbAAAAYAAJ&q=leo%27s+family+they+were+syrians&dq=leo%27s+family+they+were+syrians&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW7PGfvsbuAhVwUhUIHRsRDxEQ6AEwAXoECAEQAg ^ Hitti, Philip (2002). History of The Arabs. Red Globe Press. p. 203. ISBN 0333631420. ^ Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. p. 489. ISBN 0415243572. ^ History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453, Volume 1. University of Wisconsin Press. 1964. p. 255. ^ Theophanes the Confessor (1982). The Chronicle of Theophanes: Anni Mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813). Stanford: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 85. ISBN 0812211286. ^ The association of the Sideron fortress with Tsebelda is made by O. Bgazhba and S. Lakoba in Бгажба, О. Х.; Лакоба, С. З. (2007). История Абхазии с древнейших времен до наших дней (The History of Abkhazia from Ancient Times to Present Day) (in Russian). Алашарбага. p. 134. ^ Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: University of Stanford Press. p. 346. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. ^ (in French) Guilland, Rodolphe. "L’expédition de Maslama contre Constantinople (717–720)" in Études Byzantines. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1959, pp. 109–133. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State, p. 347. ^ Ladner, Gerhart. "Origin and Significance of the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy." Mediaeval Studies, 2, 1940, pp. 127–149. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State, pp. 350, 352–353. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State, p. 353. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State, pp. 354–355. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1956), The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II, A. D. 721, pp. 25-26 Literature[edit] Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Entry of "Leo III" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, ed. Alexander Kazhdan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leon III. Leo III the Isaurian Isaurian dynasty Born: c. 685 Died: 18 June 741 Regnal titles Preceded by Theodosius III Byzantine Emperor 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 Succeeded by Constantine V v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Greece Netherlands Sweden Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_III_the_Isaurian&oldid=1027088115" Categories: Leo III the Isaurian 8th-century Byzantine emperors Isaurian dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars Medieval legislators 685 births 741 deaths Deaths from edema Byzantine Iconoclasm People from Kahramanmaraş 710s in the Byzantine Empire 720s in the Byzantine Empire 730s in the Byzantine Empire 740s in the Byzantine Empire Governors of the Anatolic Theme Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from May 2021 Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles needing additional references from April 2020 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4455	----	Category:Stoic philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Stoic philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Categories: Classical studies, Ancient Rome (Architecture, Culture, People, Philosophy), Ancient Greece (Architecture, Culture, People, Philosophy) This category is part of Wikipedia's series on the civilisations of Classical Greece and Rome. Articles can also be accessed from the category system. This category deals with classical philosophy. Wikipedia has categories about Greek and Roman era philosophy. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stoic philosophers. Subcategories This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total. N ► Neo-Stoics‎ (7 P) R ► Roman-era Stoic philosophers‎ (30 P) Pages in category "Stoic philosophers" The following 47 pages are in this category, out of 47 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   List of Stoic philosophers A Antipater of Tarsus Antipater of Tyre Apollodorus of Athens Apollodorus of Seleucia Apollonides (philosopher) Apollophanes of Antioch Archedemus of Tarsus Areius Aristo of Chios Aristocreon Athenodorus of Soli Attalus (Stoic) B Basilides (Stoic) Boethus of Sidon (Stoic) C Chrysippus Cleanthes Cleomedes Crates of Mallus Crinis D Diogenes of Babylon Dionysius of Cyrene Dionysius the Renegade Dioscorides (Stoic) Diotimus the Stoic G Geminus H Heraclides of Tarsus Herillus Hermagoras of Amphipolis J Jason of Nysa M Marcus Aurelius Marcus Vigellius Mnasagoras N Nestor of Tarsus P Panaetius Pantaenus Persaeus Polemon of Athens Posidonius Proclus Mallotes S Sosigenes (Stoic) Sphaerus Straticles Z Léontine Zanta Zeno of Citium Zeno of Tarsus Zenodotus (Stoic) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Stoic_philosophers&oldid=753708738" Categories: Ancient Greek philosophers by tradition Hellenistic-era philosophers Philosophers by tradition Stoicism Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Novial Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська اردو 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2016, at 19:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4456	----	Emperor Huan of Han - Wikipedia Emperor Huan of Han From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Chinese Han Dynasty emperor from 146 to 168 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Emperor Huan of Han" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor Huan of Han 漢桓帝 Emperor of the Han dynasty Reign 1 August 146 – 25 January 168 Predecessor Emperor Zhi Successor Emperor Ling Born 132 Died 25 January 168 (aged 35–36) Consorts Empress Yixian Deng Mengnü Empress Huansi Issue Princess Yang'an Princess Yingyin Princess Yangdi Full name Family name: Liu (劉) Given name: Zhi (志) Era dates Jianhe (建和) 147–149 Heping (和平) 150 Yuanjia (元嘉) 151–153 Yongxing (永興) 153–154 Yongshou (永壽) 155–158 Yanxi (延熹) 158–167 Yongkang (永康) 167 Posthumous name Xiaohuan (孝桓) Temple name Weizong (威宗) Dynasty Han dynasty Father Liu Yi Mother Empress Xiaochong Emperor Huan of Han Traditional Chinese 漢桓帝 Simplified Chinese 汉桓帝 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hàn Huán Dì Wade–Giles Han Huan-ti Emperor Huan of Han (Chinese: 漢桓帝; pinyin: Hàn Huán Dì; Wade–Giles: Han Huan-ti; 132 – 25 January 168)[1] was the 27th emperor of the Han dynasty after he was enthroned by the Empress Dowager and her brother Liang Ji on 1 August 146.[2] He was a great-grandson of Emperor Zhang. After Emperor Zhi was poisoned to death by the powerful official Liang Ji in 146, Liang Ji persuaded his sister, the regent Empress Dowager Liang to make the 14-year-old Liu Zhi, the Marquess of Liwu, who was betrothed to their sister Liang Nüying (梁女瑩), emperor. As the years went by, Emperor Huan, offended by Liang Ji's autocratic and violent nature, became determined to eliminate the Liang family with the help of eunuchs. Emperor Huan succeeded in removing Liang Ji in 159 but this only caused an increase in the influence of these eunuchs over all aspects of the government. Corruption during this period had reached a boiling point. In 166, university students rose up in protest against the government and called on Emperor Huan to eliminate all corrupt officials. Instead of listening, Emperor Huan ordered the arrest of all students involved. Emperor Huan has largely been viewed as an emperor who might have had some intelligence but lacked wisdom in governing his empire; and his reign contributed greatly to the downfall of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Hou Hanshu (History of the Later Han) recounts that one Roman envoy (perhaps sent by emperor Marcus Aurelius) reached the Chinese capital Luoyang in 166 and was greeted by Emperor Huan. Emperor Huan died in 168 after reigning for 22 years; he was 36. He was succeeded by Emperor Ling of Han. Contents 1 Family background and ascension 2 Early reign under Empress dowager Liang regency and under Liang Ji's shadow 3 Coup d'état against Liang Ji 4 Late reign: empowerment of the eunuchs 5 Era names 6 Family 7 Ancestry 8 See also 9 References Family background and ascension[edit] Liu Zhi was born in 132, to Liu Yi (劉翼), the Marquess of Liwu, and his concubine Yan Ming (匽明). Liu Yi was the son of Liu Kai (劉開), the Prince of Hejian (and therefore a grandson of Emperor Zhang), and he had initially been made the Prince of Pingyuan as the heir of his cousin Liu Sheng (劉勝) by Empress Dowager Deng Sui, the regent for Emperor An, who was impressed with his abilities. That led to rumors that Empress Deng was looking to replace Emperor An, Prince Yi's cousin, with Prince Yi. After Empress Dowager Deng died in 121, Emperor An, bearing a grudge against Prince Yi, demoted him to the rank of Marquess of Duxiang and exiled him to his father's principality. During the reign of Emperor Shun, Prince Kai requested that he be allowed to give Liwu County, part of his principality, to his son, and Emperor Shun permitted it. Marquess Yi thus became the Marquess of Liwu. By 146, Liu Zhi had inherited his father's title and was betrothed to Liang Nüying, the younger sister of the regent Empress Dowager Liang Na and her violent and corrupt brother, Grand Marshal Liang Ji. That year, Liang Ji, bearing a grudge against the eight-year-old Emperor Zhi for calling him an "arrogant general," murdered the young emperor by poison. The officials largely favored Emperor Zhi's first cousin Liu Suan (劉蒜) the Prince of Qinghe, who was described as a solemn and proper man. Prince Suan's age was not given in history, though he appeared to be an adult by this time. However, Liang Ji was hesitant to yield authority to an able emperor. Because Marquess Zhi was betrothed to his sister and relatively young, Liang Ji felt that he could control him and insisted on making him emperor. Marquess Zhi took the throne later that year as Emperor Huan. Early reign under Empress dowager Liang regency and under Liang Ji's shadow[edit] An Eastern Han (25-220 AD) mural of a banquet scene, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of Zhengzhou, Henan province, China Mural of a woman dressed in Hanfu, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China After Emperor Huan's ascension at age 14, Empress Dowager Liang continued to serve as regent. However, her brother Liang Ji came to take on more and more control, even more than the empress dowager. Emperor Huan posthumously honored his grandfather and father as emperors but, because the empress dowager was regent, did not honor his mother Yan Ming as an empress dowager; rather, she was given the title of an imperial consort. His father's wife, Lady Ma, was belatedly honored as an imperial consort as well in 148. In 147, he married Empress Dowager Liang and Liang Ji's sister Liang Nüying, making her empress. It appeared that, while the Liangs were in control, Emperor Huan was not a complete puppet. Instead, as a sign of bad things to come, he trusted eunuchs in his decision-making. That same year, Liang Ji, in conjunction with the eunuchs Tang Heng (唐衡) and Zuo Guan (左悺), but with Emperor Huan's clear approval, falsely accused the honest officials Li Gu (李固) and Du Qiao (杜喬) of conspiring to overthrow Emperor Huan and replace him with Prince Suan. Li and Du were executed, while Prince Suan was demoted to marquess status and committed suicide. In 150, Empress Dowager Liang announced that she was retiring and returning imperial authority to Emperor Huan. Later that year, she died. Emperor Huan then honored his mother as an empress dowager. However, without his sister to curb his power, Liang Ji came to be even more powerful than before. His violence and corruption increased and he stamped out all dissent with threats of death. He even threw his humble and peace-loving brother Liang Buyi (梁不疑) out of the government. In 152, Empress Dowager Yan died. Because Emperor Huan had inherited the throne through a collateral line, he was not permitted by customs to be the mourner. Instead, his brother Liu Shi (劉石) the Prince of Pingyuan served as chief mourner. In 153, the first major public confrontation between an official and a powerful eunuch occurred—foreshadowing many to come. Zhu Mu (朱穆), the governor of Ji Province (modern central and northern Hebei) had found out that the father of the powerful eunuch Zhao Zhong (趙忠) had been improperly buried in a jade vest, an honor that was reserved to imperial princes. He ordered an investigation: Zhao's father was exhumed and the jade vest was stripped away, an act that angered Zhao and Emperor Huan. Zhu was not only removed from his post but was sentenced to hard labor. Coup d'état against Liang Ji[edit] As the years went by, Emperor Huan became increasingly disgruntled at Liang Ji's control of the government and was also angered by Empress Liang's behavior. Because of her position as Empress Dowager Liang and Liang Ji's sister, Empress Liang was wasteful in her luxurious living, far exceeding any past empress, and was exceedingly jealous. She did not have a son and, because she did not want any other imperial consorts to have sons, she would find some way to murder pregnant consorts. Emperor Huan did not dare to react to her due to Liang Ji's power, but rarely had sexual relations with her. In 159, angry and depressed that she had lost her husband's favor, Empress Liang died. This death started a chain of events that led to Liang Ji's downfall later that year. Liang, in order to continue to control Emperor Huan, had adopted his wife's beautiful cousin (the stepdaughter of her uncle Liang Ji (梁紀—note different characters despite the same pronunciation)), Deng Mengnü (鄧猛女), as his own daughter, changing her family name to Liang. He and Sun gave Liang Mengnü to Emperor Huan as an imperial consort. After Empress Liang's death, they hoped that she would eventually be made empress. To completely control her, Liang Ji planned to have her mother, Lady Xuan (宣), killed: he sent assassins against her but the assassination was foiled by the powerful eunuch Yuan She (袁赦), a neighbor of Lady Xuan. Lady Xuan reported the assassination attempt to Emperor Huan, who was greatly angered. He entered into a conspiracy with eunuchs Tang Heng, Zuo Guan, Shan Chao (單超), Xu Huang (徐璜), and Ju Yuan (具瑗) to overthrow Liang—sealing the oath by biting open Dan's arm and swearing by his blood. Liang Ji had some suspicions about what Emperor Huan and the eunuchs were up to, and began an investigation. The five eunuchs quickly reacted. They had Emperor Huan openly announce that he was taking back power from Liang Ji and mobilized the imperial guards to defend the palace against a counterattack by Liang. They surrounded Liang's house and forced him to surrender. Liang and Sun were unable to respond and committed suicide. The entire Liang and Sun clans (except for Liang Ji's brothers Liang Buyi and Liang Meng [梁蒙], who had previously already died) were arrested and slaughtered. A large number of officials were executed or deposed for close association with Liang—so many that the government was almost unable to function for some time. Liang and Sun's properties were confiscated by the imperial treasury, which allowed the taxes to be reduced by 50% for one year. The people greatly celebrated Liang Ji's death. Late reign: empowerment of the eunuchs[edit] After Liang Ji's death, Emperor Huan made Liang Mengnü empress. However, he disliked her family name and therefore ordered her to take the family name Bo (薄). He later found out that her original family name was actually Deng, and therefore had her family name restored. The people had great expectations for Emperor Huan's administration after the death of Liang Ji. However, having been unable to overthrow Liang Ji without the five eunuchs' help, Emperor Huan greatly rewarded them, making them and several other eunuchs who participated in the coup d'état marquesses and further giving them governmental posts that conferred tremendous power. Further, the five eunuch-marquesses openly engaged in massive corruption and became extremely wealthy with Emperor Huan's approval. A song written about the four remaining eunuch-marquesses following Dan's death described them in this way: Zuo can reverse heaven's decision. Ju sits by himself without match. Xu is a lying wolf. Tang's power is as prevalent as the falling rain. Emperor Huan himself was also corrupt and unwilling to accept any criticism. In 159, when the honest county magistrate Li Yun (李雲) submitted a petition urging him to curb the power of the eunuchs, Emperor Huan was deeply offended that he included the phrase, "Is the emperor turning blind?" and, despite intercessions by a number of officials and even some fairly-minded eunuchs, had Li and his friend Du Zhong (杜眾) both executed. In 161, apparently in reaction to spending due to renewed Qiang rebellions and new agrarian revolts, Emperor Huan issued an edict offering minor offices for sale—including imperial guard officer positions. This practice set a bad precedent and would become even more prevalent and problematic under Emperor Huan's successor, Emperor Ling. While Emperor Huan actually was able to find competent generals to suppress the rebellions or to persuade the rebels to surrender, the rampant corruption came to cause new rebellions as soon as the old ones are quelled. In 165, perhaps finally fed up with the eunuchs' excess, Emperor Huan demoted Ju, the only eunuch remaining of the original five. Several other corrupt eunuchs were also demoted or deposed. However, soon thereafter, the eunuchs' powers were restored again. For the rest of Emperor Huan's reign, there would be a cycle of rise and fall of power of the eunuchs after conflicts with officials, but inexorably the eunuchs would return, becoming more powerful than before. Later that year, apparently tired of Empress Deng and sick of her disputes with a favorite consort of his, Consort Guo, Emperor Huan deposed and imprisoned her. She died in anger, and several of her family members were executed. He wanted to make another consort, Tian Sheng (田聖) empress, but officials opposed this on the basis that she was of lowly birth. They recommended that he make Consort Dou Miao (竇妙), the daughter of Dou Wu (竇武), a Confucian scholar and a descendant of Dou Rong (竇融), who had contributed much to the establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty, empress. Even though he did not favor Consort Dou, Emperor Huan gave in to pressure and made her empress. In 166, a major public confrontation between university students and eunuchs evolved into a major incident. The governor of the capital province (modern western Henan and central Shaanxi), Li Ying, had arrested and executed a fortuneteller named Zhang Cheng (張成), who had had his son kill a man, having predicted that a general pardon was coming. Li was arrested and 200 some university students signed a petition requesting his release. This further angered Emperor Huan, who had the students arrested. Only after about a year and Dou Wu's intercession were Li and the university students released, but all of them had their citizenship rights stripped. This incident was later known as the first Disaster of Partisan Prohibition. In 168, Emperor Huan died without a son. Empress Dou, jealous of how he favored Consort Tian, had her immediately put to death. She conducted a survey among the members of the imperial clan and decided on the 11-year-old Liu Hong (劉宏), the Marquess of Jieduting, who then ascended the throne as Emperor Ling. Era names[edit] Jianhe (建和) 147–149 Heping (和平) 150 Yuanjia (元嘉) 151–153 Yongxing (永興) 153–154 Yongshou (永壽) 155–158 Yanxi (延熹) 158–167 Yongkang (永康) 167 Family[edit] Consorts and Issue: Empress Yixian, of the Liang clan (懿獻皇后 梁氏; d. 159), personal name Nüying (女瑩) Empress, of the Deng clan (皇后 鄧氏; d. 165), personal name Mengnü (猛女) Empress Huansi, of the Dou clan of Fufeng (桓思皇后 扶風竇氏; d. 172), personal name Miao (妙) Unknown Princess Yang'an (陽安公主), personal name Hua (華), first daughter Married Fu Wan, Marquis Buqi (伏完; d. 209) Princess Yingyin (潁陰公主), personal name Jian (堅), second daughter Princess Yangdi (陽翟公主), personal name Xiu (修), third daughter Ancestry[edit] Emperor Ming of Han (28–75) Emperor Zhang of Han (57–88) Lady Jia Liu Kai (d. 131) Lady Shen Liu Yi (d. 140) Empress Xiaomu Emperor Huan of Han (132–168) Empress Xiaochong (d. 152) See also[edit] Family tree of the Han Dynasty References[edit] ^ deCrespigny, Rafe. Ladies of the Court of Emperor Huan of Han. Retrieved 9 January 2015. ^ deCrespigny, Rafe. Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling (PDF). Retrieved 9 January 2015. Emperor Huan of Han House of Liu Born: 132 Died: 25 January 168 Regnal titles Preceded by Emperor Zhi of Han Emperor of China Eastern Han 146–168 with Empress Dowager Liang (146–150) Succeeded by Emperor Ling of Han v t e Emperors of the Han dynasty Western Han Gaozu Hui Qianshao Houshao Wen Jing Wu Zhao Liu He Xuan Yuan Cheng Ai Ping Ruzi 漢 (Xin dynasty) (Wang Mang) Lülin & Chimei Gengshi Liu Penzi Eastern Han Guangwu Ming Zhang He Shang An Marquess of Beixiang Shun Chong Zhi Huan Ling Liu Bian Xian Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → 3 Kingdoms → Jìn / 16 Kingdoms → S. Dynasties / N. Dynasties → Sui → Tang → 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms → Liao / Song / W. Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → ROC / PRC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor_Huan_of_Han&oldid=1023155935" Categories: 132 births 168 deaths Eastern Han dynasty emperors Child rulers from Asia 2nd-century Chinese monarchs People from Baoding Leaders who took power by coup Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Bân-lâm-gú Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 18:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4467	----	Gallienus - Wikipedia Gallienus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 253 to 268 Roman emperor Gallienus Roman emperor Reign September 253 – September 268 Predecessor Aemilianus Successor Claudius Gothicus Co-emperor Valerian (253–260) Saloninus (July 260) Born c. 218 Died September 268 (aged 50) Mediolanum, Italy Spouse Cornelia Salonina Issue Detail Valerianus Saloninus Marinianus Names Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus[1] Father Valerian Mother Egnatia Mariniana Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (/ˌɡæliˈɛnəs/; c. 218 – September 268) was Roman emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empire. He won a number of military victories against usurpers and Germanic tribes, but was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces. His 15-year reign was the longest in half a century. Born into a wealthy and traditional senatorial family, Gallienus was the son of Valerian and Mariniana. Valerian became Emperor in September 253 and had the Roman senate elevate Gallienus to the ranks of Caesar and Augustus. Valerian divided the empire between him and his son, with Valerian ruling the east and his son the west. Gallienus defeated the usurper Ingenuus in 258 and destroyed an Alemanni army at Mediolanum in 259. The defeat and capture of Valerian at Edessa in 260 by the Sasanian Empire threw the Roman Empire into the chaos of civil war. Control of the whole empire passed to Gallienus. He defeated the eastern usurpers Macrianus Major and Lucius Mussius Aemilianus in 261–262 but failed to stop the formation of the breakaway Gallic Empire under general Postumus. Aureolus, another usurper, proclaimed himself emperor in Mediolanum in 268 but was defeated outside the city by Gallienus and besieged inside. While the siege was ongoing, Gallienus was stabbed to death by the officer Cecropius as part of a conspiracy. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Rise to power 1.2 Early reign and the revolt of Ingenuus 1.3 Invasion of the Alemanni 1.4 The revolt of Regalianus 1.5 Capture of Valerian, revolt of Macrianus 1.6 The revolt of Postumus 1.7 The revolt of Aemilianus 1.8 Herulian invasions, revolt of Aureolus, conspiracy and death 2 Legacy 2.1 Military reforms 2.2 Decree of Toleration 3 In popular culture 3.1 Films 3.2 Novels 4 Family tree of Licinia gens 5 See also 6 Citations 7 References 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links Life[edit] Rise to power[edit] Bust of Cornelia Salonina The exact birth date of Gallienus is unknown. The 6th-century Greek chronicler John Malalas and the Epitome de Caesaribus report that he was about 50 years old at the time of his death, meaning he was born around 218.[2] He was the son of Emperor Valerian and Mariniana, who may have been of senatorial rank, possibly the daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus, and his brother was Valerianus Minor. Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria, which may have been his birthplace; it has yielded many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii.[3] Gallienus married Cornelia Salonina about ten years before his accession to the throne. She was the mother of three princes: Valerian II, who died in 258; Saloninus, who was named co-emperor but was murdered in 260 by the army of general Postumus; and Marinianus, who was killed in 268, shortly after his father was assassinated.[4] Gallienus' niece might have been Basilla of Rome, who was beheaded for her Christian faith under Valerian's reign.[5] When Valerian was proclaimed emperor in September 253,[6] he asked the Senate to ratify the elevation of Gallienus to caesar and augustus. He was also designated Consul Ordinarius for 254. As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a century earlier, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire. Valerian left for the East to stem the Persian threat, and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube. Division of the empire had become necessary due to its sheer size and the numerous threats it faced, and it facilitated negotiations with enemies who demanded to communicate directly with the emperor. Early reign and the revolt of Ingenuus[edit] Further information: Gallienus usurpers Gallienus depicted on a lead seal. Legend: GALLIENVS P. F. AVG. Gallienus spent most of his time in the provinces of the Rhine area (Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, Raetia, and Noricum), though he almost certainly visited the Danube area and Illyricum in the years from 253 to 258. According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in preventing invaders from attacking the German provinces and Gaul, despite the weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against Aemilianus in 253.[7] According to numismatic evidence, he seems to have won many victories there,[8] and a victory in Roman Dacia might also be dated to that period. Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes success to him at this time.[9] In 255 or 257, Gallienus was made Consul again, suggesting that he briefly visited Rome on those occasions, although no record survives.[10] During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256), he proclaimed his elder son Valerian II caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I; the boy probably joined Gallienus on campaign at that time, and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257, he remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority.[11] Sometime between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), while Valerian was distracted with the ongoing invasion of Shapur I in the East, and Gallienus was preoccupied with his problems in the West, Ingenuus, governor of at least one of the Pannonian provinces,[12] took advantage and declared himself emperor. Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258.[13] Ingenuus may have been responsible for that calamity. Alternatively, the defeat and capture of Valerian at the battle of Edessa may have been the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus, Regalianus, and Postumus.[14] In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed. He left his son Saloninus as caesar at Cologne, under the supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus. He then hastily crossed the Balkans, taking with him the new cavalry corps (comitatus) under the command of Aureolus[15] and defeated Ingenuus at Mursa[16] or Sirmium.[17] The victory must be attributed mainly to the cavalry and its brilliant commander. Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium.[18] Invasion of the Alemanni[edit] A major invasion by the Alemanni and other Germanic tribes occurred between 258 and 260 (it is hard to fix the precise date of these events),[19] probably due to the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus. Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading Gaul, some reaching as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern Tarragona).[20] The Alemanni invaded, probably through Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube),[21] likely followed by the Juthungi.[20] After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern France and Switzerland), they entered Italy, the first invasion of the Italian peninsula, aside from its most remote northern regions, since Hannibal 500 years before. When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate, consisting of local troops (probably praetorian guards) and the strongest of the civilian population.[22] On their retreat through northern Italy, they were intercepted and defeated in the battle of Mediolanum (near present-day Milan) by Gallienus' army, which had advanced from Gaul, or from the Balkans after dealing with the Franks.[22] The battle of Mediolanum was decisive, and the Alemanni did not bother the empire for the next ten years. The Juthungi managed to cross the Alps with their valuables and captives from Italy.[20][23] A historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to jealousy and suspicion by Gallienus, thus contributing to his exclusion of senators from military commands.[24] The revolt of Regalianus[edit] Antoninianus of Regalianus. Legend: IMP. C. P. C. REGALIANVS P. F. AVG. Around the same time, Regalianus, who held some command in the Balkans,[25] was proclaimed emperor. The reasons for this are unclear, and the Historia Augusta (almost the sole resource for these events) does not provide a credible story. It is possible the seizure can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, who felt the defense of the province was being neglected.[26] Regalianus held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image. After some success against the Sarmatians, his revolt ended when the Roxolani invaded Pannonia and killed Regalianus in taking the city of Sirmium.[27] There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited the Roxolani to attack Regalianus, but other historians dismiss the accusation.[28] It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near Verona and that he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person.[29] Capture of Valerian, revolt of Macrianus[edit] A bas relief of Emperor Valerian standing at the background and held captive by Shapur I was found at Naqsh-e Rustam, Shiraz, Iran. The kneeling man is probably Philip the Arab. In the East, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles. Bands of "Scythai" began a naval raid of Pontus, in the northern part of Asia Minor. After ravaging the province, they moved south into Cappadocia. A Roman army from Antioch, under Valerian, tried to intercept them but failed. According to Zosimus, this army was infected by a plague that gravely weakened it. In that condition, this army had to repel a new invasion of the province of Mesopotamia by Shapur I, ruler of the Sassanid Empire. The invasion occurred probably in the early spring of 260.[30] The Roman army was defeated at the Battle of Edessa, and Valerian was taken prisoner. Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia (in present-day Turkey), sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities. It took a rally by an officer named Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus, the remnants of the Roman army in the east, and Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur.[31] The Sassanids were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors.[23] Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the Historia Augusta. At first they met no opposition.[32][33] The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case, the army of the usurpers was defeated and surrendered, and their two leaders were killed.[34] In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. Odenathus received the title of dux Romanorum and besieged the usurpers, who were based at Emesa. Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261.[35] The revolt of Postumus[edit] Antoninianus of Postumus. Legend:IMP. C. POSTVMVS P. F. AVG. After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Britain, Spain, parts of Germania, and a large part of Gaul when another general, Postumus, declared his own realm (usually known today as the Gallic Empire). The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in the East. Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus, in Cologne in 258. Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Rhine, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers. When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him. Postumus made a show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him emperor. Under his command, they besieged Cologne, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed.[36] The dating of these events was long uncertain,[37] but an inscription discovered in 1992 at Augsburg indicates that Postumus had been proclaimed emperor by September 260.[38] Postumus claimed the consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus, but according to D.S. Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy.[39] Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus. The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force to oppose them, however, leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus. After some initial defeats, the army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani, rejoined him, and Postumus was expelled. Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit and deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces.[40] Gallienus returned in 263[41] or 265[42] and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city. During the siege, Gallienus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to leave the field. The standstill persisted until his later death,[43] and the Gallic Empire remained independent until 274. Aureus of Gallienus, minted in Mediolanum (Milan), dated 262 The revolt of Aemilianus[edit] In 262, the mint in Alexandria started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Egypt had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani. In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt. The rebel this time was the prefect of Egypt, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, who had already given support to the revolt of the Macriani. The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Alexandria provides a commentary on the background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age.[44] Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Egyptian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition. The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes, and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus.[45] In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266. Herulian invasions, revolt of Aureolus, conspiracy and death[edit] In the years 267–269, Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the Heruli starting from north of the Black Sea and leading to the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them, Athens and Sparta). Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire. The Romans defeated the barbarians on sea first. Gallienus' army then won a battle in Thrace, and the emperor pursued the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle of Naissus, while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor, Claudius II.[46] In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by Aureolus, commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum (Milan), who was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus. Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself.[47] The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan.[48] Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege. There are differing accounts of the murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus' officials wanted him dead.[49] According to the Historia Augusta, an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes,[50] a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard Aurelius Heraclianus and Lucius Aurelius Marcianus. Marcianus's role in the conspiracy is not confirmed by any other ancient source. Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that the forces of Aureolus were leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius.[51] One version has Claudius selected as emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the Historia Augusta was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts, which do not involve Claudius in the murder. The other sources (Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25) report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius, and Aurelian. According to Aurelius Victor and Zonaras, on hearing the news that Gallienus was dead, the Senate in Rome ordered the execution of his family (including his brother Valerianus and son Marinianus) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor.[52] The tomb of Gallienus is thought to be located to the south of Rome, at the IXth mile of the Via Appia.[53] Arch of Gallienus in Rome, 262 – dedicated to, rather than built by, Gallienus. Legacy[edit] Gallienus was not treated favorably by ancient historians,[54] partly due to the secession of Gaul and Palmyra and his inability to win them back; at the time of Gallienus' death, Palmyra was still nominally loyal to Rome, but, under the leadership of Odaenathus, was independent in nearly every other respect. Palmyra would formally secede after Odaenathus' death and the ascension of his widow Zenobia. It was not until the reign of Aurelian several years later that the breakaway provinces were truly brought back into the Roman fold. According to modern scholar Pat Southern, some historians now see Gallienus in a more positive light.[55] Gallienus produced some useful reforms. About 40 rare gold coins of Gallienus have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s.[56] Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG II ITAL VII P VII F, "Legio II Italica seven times faithful and loyal." Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG III ITAL VI P VI F, "Legio III Italica six times faithful and loyal." Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII MAC VI P VI F, "Legio VII Macedonica six times faithful and loyal." Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII CLA VI P VI F, "Legio VII Claudia six times faithful and loyal." Military reforms[edit] He contributed to military history as the first to commission primarily cavalry units, the Comitatenses, that could be dispatched anywhere in the Empire in short order. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors Diocletian and Constantine I. The biographer Aurelius Victor reports that Gallienus forbade senators from becoming military commanders.[57] This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable equestrian commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's view, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the emperors most responsible for the creation of the Dominate, along with Septimius Severus, Diocletian, and Constantine I.[58] Decree of Toleration[edit] The capture of Valerian in the year 259 forced Gallienus to issue the first official declaration of tolerance with regard to the Christians, restoring their places of worship and cemeteries, therefore implying a recognition of the property of the Church. However, the edict did not turn Christianity into an official religion.[59] In popular culture[edit] Films[edit] Gallienus was played by Franco Cobianchi in the 1964 film The Magnificent Gladiator. Novels[edit] He appears in Harry Sidebottom's historical fiction novel series Warrior of Rome. David Drake's novel Birds of Prey takes place during Gallienus' reign. Family tree of Licinia gens[edit] Aulus Egnatius Priscillianus philosopher Quintus Egnatius Proculus consul suffectus Lucius Egnatius Victor Egnatius Victor Marinianus consul suffectus 1.Mariniana Valerian Roman Emperor 253-260 2.Cornelia Gallonia previous Aemilianus Roman Emperor 253 (1) Gallienus Roman Emperor 253-268 ∞ Cornelia Salonina (2) Valerianus Minor consul suffectus Claudius Gothicus Roman Emperor 268-270 Quintillus Roman Emperor 270 next Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 ∞ Ulpia Severina Valerian II caesar Saloninus co-emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus consul 268 See also[edit] Little Peace of the Church Thirty Tyrants (Roman) Gallienus usurpers Citations[edit] ^ Gallienus' full title at his death was IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS MAXIMVS PERSICVS PONTIFEX MAXIMVS TRIBUNICIAE POTESTATIS XVI IMPERATOR I CONSVL VII PATER PATRIAE, "Emperor Caesar Publius Licinus Egnatius Gallienus Pious Lucky Unconquered Augustus Germanic Maxim Persic Tribunicial Power 16 times Emperor 1 time Consul 7 times Father of the Fatherland". ^ It is generally accepted that he was 35 years old when ascended to the throne in 253, see J. Bray (1997), p.16 ^ R. Syme, Historia Augusta Papers (Oxford, 1983), p. 197. ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.49–51 ^ Dunbar, Agnes B.C. (1901). A Dictionary of Saintly Women. Volume 1. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 104. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Peachin, pp. 37, 39. ^ A. Watson (1999), p.33 ^ Andreas Alfoldi mentions five in The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions, Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, ISBN 0-915018-28-4. ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.56–58 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.56 ^ J. Drinkwater, The Gallic Empire (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1987, ISBN 3-515-04806-5), pp. 21–22. ^ J. Bray (1997), p.57; Drinkwater (1987), p.22 suggests he also had responsibility for Moesia. ^ Drinkwater (1987), p. 22. ^ For a very thorough presentation of the contrasting views, see J. Bray (1997), p.72-73; also, A. Watson (1999), p.230, note 34 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.74–75 ^ Aurelius Victor, 33,2, Orosius, Historiae adversus Paganos 7.10, Eutropius 9.8 ^ Zonaras, 12.24 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.76. J. Fitz, Ingenuus et Regalien, p.44. ^ J. Bray (1997), p.47 ^ a b c A. Watson (1999), p.34 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.78 ^ a b J. Bray (1997), p.79 ^ a b D.S.Potter (2004), p.256 ^ Victor Duruy, History of the Roman Empire, vol VI, part II, p.418, London, 1886 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.82 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.82,83 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.83 ^ T. Nagy, Les moments historiques de Budapest, vol.II, 1962, for the former and J. Fitz, Ingenuus at Regalien, p.50 for the latter, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.83 ^ J. Fitz, LA PANNONIE SOUS GALLIEN, Latomus, vol.148, Brussels, 1976, pp.5–81, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.83 ^ D.S.Potter (2004), p. 255 ^ D.S.Potter (2004), pp.255–256 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.142 ^ Historia Augusta, The two Gallienii, II.6 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.143–144 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.144–145 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.133 ^ Andreas Älfoldi, "The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions", Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.359, note 5 ^ Lothar Bakker. "Raetien unter Postumus. Das Siegesdenkmal einer Juthungenschlacht im Jahre 260 n. Chr. aus Augsburg." Germania 71, 1993, pp. 369–386. ^ D.S.Potter (2004), p.260 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.136–137 ^ Andreas Älfoldi, "The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions", Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.359, note 27 ^ D.S.Potter (2004) p.263 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.138 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.146 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.147 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.279–288, Pat Southern 2001, p.109. Also see Alaric Watson 1999, p.215, David S. Potter 2004, p.266, Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988. ISBN 0-520-06983-8, p.54 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.290–291 ^ J. Bray (1997), p.292 ^ D.S.Potter (2004), p.264 ^ R. Syme (1968) ^ Historia Augusta, The two Gallieni, XIV.4–11 ^ J. Bray (1997), pp.307–309. A. Watson (1999), pp.41–42 ^ Samuel N. C. Lieu, Domikic Montserat (editors). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views: A Source History, Routledge, ISBN 0-203-73029-1, note 38 on pp.54-55 ^ Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, London and New York, 2001, p. 2. ^ Southern, p. 3. ^ Sylvianne Estiot, The Lava Treasure of Roman Gold. Also in Trésors monétaires, volume XXIV, BNF, 2011 ISBN 9782717724929 ^ Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 33–34 ^ Southern, pp. 2-3, 83. ^ Piétri, Charles (2002-01-01). "Prosecutions". In Levillain, Philippe (ed.). The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 1156. ISBN 9780415922302. References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta (Augustan History), The Two Gallieni Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum, extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Lukas de Blois. The policy of the emperor Gallienus, Brill, Leiden, 1976, ISBN 90-04-04508-2 Bray, John. Gallienus : A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics, Wakefield Press, Kent Town, 1997, ISBN 1-86254-337-2 Drinkwater, John F. The Gallic Empire. Separatism and Continuity in the North-Western Provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260–274. Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1987. ISBN 3-515-04806-5 Isbouts, Jean-Pierre "The Biblical World: An Illustrated Atlas" copyright 2007 National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4262-0138-7 Lissner, Ivar. "Power and Folly; The Story of the Caesars". Jonathan Cape Ltd., London, 1958. Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, Oxon, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, London and New York, 2001. Syme, Ronald. Ammianus and the Historia Augusta, The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968. Syme, Ronald. Historia Augusta Papers, The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1983. ISBN 0-19-814853-4 Watson, Alaric. Aurelian and the Third Century, Routledge, Oxon, 1999. ISBN 0-415-30187-4 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gallienus. Wikisource has original text from Encyclopædia Britannica about: Gallienus "Valerian and Gallienus", at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Download an Excel list of all Gallienus bronze and billon coins incl. hoard coins not in RIC etc. Regnal titles Preceded by Valerian Roman emperor 253–268 With: Valerian (253–260) and Saloninus (260) Succeeded by Claudius Gothicus Political offices Preceded by Volusianus L. Valerius Poplicola Roman consul 254–255 with Valerian Succeeded by L. Valerius Maximus M. Acilius Glabrio Preceded by L. Valerius Maximus M. Acilius Glabrio Roman consul 257 with Valerian Succeeded by Marcus Nummius Tuscus Mummius Bassus Preceded by Publius Cornelius Saecularis Gaius Iunius Donatus Roman consul 261–262 with Lucius Petronius Taurus Volusianus Lucius Mummius Faustianus Succeeded by Marcus Nummius Albinus Dexter Preceded by Marcus Nummius Albinus Dexter Roman consul 264 with Saturninus Succeeded by Publius Licinius Valerianus, Lucillus Preceded by Publius Licinius Valerianus, Lucillus Roman consul 266 with Sabinillus Succeeded by Ovinius Paternus Arcesilaus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-4495	----	Column of Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Column of Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman victory column (completed 193) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna Detail from the column. The five horizontal slits (visible in the larger version) allow light into the internal stairway. The Column of Marcus Aurelius (Latin: Columna Centenaria Divorum Marci et Faustinae, Italian: Colonna di Marco Aurelio) is a Roman victory column in Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. It is a Doric column featuring a spiral relief: it was built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and modeled on Trajan's Column. Contents 1 Construction 1.1 Relief 2 Later history 2.1 Restoration 3 Dimensions 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Construction[edit] Because the original dedicatory inscription has been destroyed, it is not known whether it was built during the emperor's reign (on the occasion of the triumph over the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians in the year 176) or after his death in 180; however, an inscription found in the vicinity attests that the column was completed by 193. In terms of the topography of ancient Rome, the column stood on the north part of the Campus Martius, in the centre of a square. This square was either between the temple of Hadrian (probably the Hadrianeum) and the temple of Marcus Aurelius (dedicated by his son Commodus, of which nothing now remains – it was probably on the site of Palazzo Wedekind), or within the latter's sacred precinct, of which nothing remains. Nearby is the site where the emperor's cremation occurred. The column's shaft is 29.6 metres (97 ft) high, on a 10.1 metres (33 ft) high base, which in turn originally stood on a 3 metres (9.8 ft) high platform – the column in total is 39.7 metres (130 ft)[1] About 3 metres of the base have been below ground level since the 1589 restoration. The column consists of 27 or 28 blocks of Carrara marble, each of 3.7 metres (12 ft) diameter, hollowed out whilst still at the quarry for a stairway of 190–200 steps within the column up to a platform at the top. Just as with Trajan's Column, this stairway is illuminated through narrow slits into the relief. Relief[edit] German council of war depicted on the column – considered early evidence of what would become known as the Thing (assembly) The spiral picture relief tells the story of Marcus Aurelius' Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him from 166 to his death. The story begins with the army crossing the river Danube, probably at Carnuntum. A Victory separates the accounts of two expeditions. The exact chronology of the events is disputed; however, the latest theory states that the expeditions against the Marcomanni and Quadi in the years 172 and 173 are in the lower half and the successes of the emperor over the Sarmatians in the years 174 and 175 in the upper half. One particular episode portrayed is historically attested in Roman propaganda – the so-called "rain miracle in the territory of the Quadi", in which a god, answering a prayer from the emperor, rescues Roman troops by a terrible storm, a miracle later claimed by the Christians for the Christian God.[2] In spite of many similarities to Trajan's column, the style is entirely different, a forerunner of the dramatic style of the 3rd century and closely related to the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, erected soon after. The figures' heads are disproportionately large so that the viewer can better interpret their facial expressions. The images are carved less finely than at Trajan's Column, through drilling holes more deeply into the stone, so that they stand out better in a contrast of light and dark. As villages are burned down, women and children are captured and displaced, men are killed, the emotion, despair, and suffering of the "barbarians" in the war, are represented acutely in single scenes and in the figures' facial expressions and gestures, whilst the emperor is represented as protagonist, in control of his environment. The symbolic language is altogether clearer and more expressive, if clumsier at first sight, and leaves a wholly different impression on the viewer to the whole artistic style of 100 to 150 as on Trajan's column. There, cool and sober balance – here, drama and empathy. The pictorial language is unambiguous – imperial dominance and authority is emphasised, and its leadership is justified. Overall, it is an anticipation of the development of artistic style into late antiquity, and a first artistic expression of the crisis of the Roman empire that would worsen in the 3rd century. Later history[edit] In the Middle Ages, climbing the column was so popular that the right to charge the entrance fee was annually auctioned,[citation needed] but it is no longer possible to do so today. Now the Column serves a centrepiece to the piazza in front of the Palazzo Chigi. The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) Inscription describing the restoration Restoration[edit] About three metres of the base have been below ground level since 1589 when, by order of pope Sixtus V, the whole column was restored by Domenico Fontana and adapted to the ground level of that time. Also a bronze statue of the apostle St. Paul was placed on the top platform, to go with that of St. Peter on Trajan's Column (27 October 1588[3]). (Originally the top platform probably had a statue of Marcus Aurelius, but it had been already lost by the 16th century.) That adaptation also removed the damaged or destroyed original reliefs on the base of garland-carrying victories and (on the side facing the via Flaminia ) representations of subjected barbarians, replacing them with the following inscription mistakenly calling this the column of Antoninus Pius, which is now recognised as lost: SIXTVS V PONT MAX Sixtus V High Priest (or Supreme Pontiff), COLVMNAM HANC this column, COCHLIDEM IMP which is spiral, to the emperor ANTONINO DICATAM Antoninus dedicated, MISERE LACERAM sadly broken RVINOSAMQ[UE] PRIMAE and ruinous, into its original FORMAE RESTITVIT form restored. A. MDLXXXIX PONT IV Year 1589, 4th year of his pontificate. Dimensions[edit] Height of base: 1.58 metres (5 ft 2 in)[4] + Height of shaft: 26.49 metres (86.9 ft) Typical height of drums: 1.56 metres (5 ft 1 in) Diameter of shaft: 3.48 metres (11.4 ft) + Height of capital: 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 in) = Height of column proper: 29.62 metres (97.2 ft) (~ 100 Roman feet) + Height of pedestal: ~ 10.1 metres (33 ft) = Height of top of column above ground: ~ 39.72 metres (130.3 ft) See also[edit] List of ancient spiral stairs Ancient Roman architecture References[edit] ^ Height of shaft, base and above ground: Jones 2000, p. 220 ^ See the presumably spurious letter about the miracle found at the end of Justin Martyr's First Apology. ^ Art in Renaissance Italy By John T. Paoletti, Gary M. Radke ^ All data from: Jones 2000, p. 220 Bibliography[edit] Beckmann, Martin (2011). The Column of Marcus Aurelius. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3461-9. Beckmann, Martin (2002). "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius". Phoenix. Classical Association of Canada. 56 (3/4): 348–357. doi:10.2307/1192605. JSTOR 1192605. Caprino, C.; A. M. Colini; G. Gatti; M. Pallottino; P. Romanelli (1955). La Colonna di Marco Aurelio. Coarelli, F. (2008). La Colonna di Marco Aurelio – The Column of Marcus Aurelius. Ferris, Iain (2009). Hate and War: The Column of Marcus Aurelius. Jones, Mark Wilson (2000). Principles of Roman Architecture. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08138-3. Rendina, Claudio (2000). Enciclopedia di Roma. Rome: Newton & Compton. Scheid, J.; V. Huet (2000). Autour de la colonne Aurélienne. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Column of Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-4520	----	File:Aurelius180AD.png - Wikipedia File:Aurelius180AD.png From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata No higher resolution available. Aurelius180AD.png ‎(747 × 493 pixels, file size: 26 KB, MIME type: image/png) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionAurelius180AD.png English: The Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges - perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia - was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and in 180 by his death. The light pink territory to the east is Roman dependencies - the Kingdoms of Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Date 14 March 2011 Source Own work Author Tataryn77 Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license:   This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of their rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedicationfalsefalse Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value Wikimedia username: Tataryn77 URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Tataryn77 author name string: Tataryn77 copyright status copyrighted, dedicated to the public domain by copyright holder copyright license CC0 inception 14 March 2011 source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 05:15, 5 December 2011 747 × 493 (26 KB) Tataryn Slight alterations to limes Arabicus. 06:14, 14 March 2011 804 × 502 (27 KB) Tataryn {{Information |Description ={{en|1=The Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges - perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia - was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avid File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Марк Аврелий Usage on bo.wikipedia.org མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། Usage on de.wikipedia.org 180er Mark Aurel Antoninische Pest Liste der historischen Staaten in Italien Usage on es.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Guerras marcomanas Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle Usage on hak.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on it.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Età antonina Utente:SteveR2/Marcus Aurelius Usage on ja.wikipedia.org マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on tr.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Horizontal resolution 37.8 dpc Vertical resolution 37.8 dpc Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aurelius180AD.png" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4565	----	Quintillus - Wikipedia Quintillus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 270 This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (September 2019) Roman emperor Quintillus Aureus depicting Quintillus. Inscription reads IMP C M AVR QVINTILLVS AVG Roman emperor Reign 270 (17–177 days) Predecessor Claudius Gothicus Successor Aurelian Born unknown date Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died 270 Aquileia, Italy Issue 2 sons Names Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Augustus[1] Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus (died April 270) was Roman emperor for a few months in 270. He was a brother of Emperor Claudius Gothicus. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign of Quintillus 3 Legacy 4 Sources 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 References Early life[edit] Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus[2] was born at Sirmium in Pannonia Inferior.[3] Originating from a low-born family, Quintillus came to prominence with the accession of his brother Claudius Gothicus to the imperial throne in 268. Quintillus was possibly made Procurator of Sardinia during his brother's reign. Reign of Quintillus[edit] Quintillus was declared emperor either by the Senate or by his brother's soldiers upon the latter's death in 270. Eutropius reports Quintillus to have been elected by soldiers of the Roman army immediately following the death of his brother;[4] the choice was reportedly approved by the Roman Senate. Joannes Zonaras reports him elected by the Senate itself.[5] Records, however, agree that the legions which had followed Claudius in campaigning along the Danube were either unaware or disapproving of Quintillus' elevation. They instead elevated their current leader Aurelian as emperor.[6] The few records of Quintillus' reign are contradictory. They disagree on the length of his reign, variously reported to have lasted as few as 17 days and as many as 177 days (about six months).[7] Records also disagree on the cause of his death. Historia Augusta reports him murdered by his own soldiers in reaction to his strict military discipline.[8] Jerome reports him killed, presumably in conflict with Aurelian.[9] John of Antioch and Joannes Zonaras reported Quintillus to have committed suicide by opening his veins and bleeding himself to death;[5][10] John reports the suicide to have been assisted by a physician.[11] Claudius Salmasius noted that Dexippus recorded the death without stating causes.[12] All records however agree in placing the death at Aquileia. Quintillus was reportedly survived by his two sons.[13] The Historia Augusta reports Claudius and Quintillus having another brother named Crispus and through him a niece, Claudia, who reportedly married Eutropius and was mother to Constantius Chlorus.[14] Some historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine I.[15] Legacy[edit] Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium, today in Sremska Mitrovica Surviving Roman records considered Quintillus a moderate and capable Emperor.[16] He was seen as a champion of the Senate and thus compared to previous Emperors Galba and Pertinax. All three were highly regarded by Senatorial sources despite their failure to survive a full year of reign.[15] Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Claudius Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Banchich, Thomas, "Quintillus (270 A.D)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon, Edward. Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 500. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Jones, pg. 759 ^ "These men are usually called the Illyrian emperors since they all were born in that province (Illyricum) and were raised to power by legions stationed there." The Ancient World, Joseph Ward Swain ^ Eutropius IX:12 ^ a b Zonaras, 12:26 ^ Gibbon, Ch. 11 ^ Southern, pg. 110 ^ Historia Augusta, Claudius, 12:5 ^ Jerome, Chronica s.a. 271 ^ "Quintillus". Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2018. ^ John of Antioch, fr. 154 FHG IV, p. 599 ^ Historia Augusta, Claudius, 12:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Claudius, 13:9 ^ Historia Augusta, Claudius, 13:1 ^ a b Banchich, www.roman-emperors.org/quintil.htm ^ See Eutropius, IX:12 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quintillus. Regnal titles Preceded by Claudius II Roman emperor 270 Succeeded by Aurelian v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintillus&oldid=1026076075" Categories: 3rd-century Roman emperors Crisis of the Third Century Ancient Romans who committed suicide Suicides by sharp instrument in Italy 210s births 270 deaths People from Sremska Mitrovica Aurelii Claudii People from Sirmium Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from May 2021 Wikipedia introduction cleanup from September 2019 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2019 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Short description matches Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-457	----	Tetricus I - Wikipedia Tetricus I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 271 to 274 Augustus of Gaul and Britannia Tetricus I Augustus of Gaul and Britannia The obverse of an aureus featuring Tetricus I. Caption: IMP. TETRICVS P. F. AVG. Emperor of the Gallic Empire Reign 271–274 Predecessor Victorinus Successor None (Gallic Empire reconquered by Aurelian) Born Gaul Died Lucania, Italia Issue Tetricus II Names Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Gaius Esuvius Tetricus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was the emperor of the Gallic Empire from 271 to 274. He was originally the praeses (governor) of Gallia Aquitania, and became emperor after the murder of Emperor Victorinus in 271, after receiving the support of Victorinus's mother Victoria. During his reign, he faced external pressure from Germanic raiders, who pillaged the eastern and northern parts of his empire, and the Roman Empire, from which the Gallic Empire had seceded. He also faced increasing internal pressure, which led him to declare his son, Tetricus II, caesar in 273 and possibly co-emperor in 274, although this is debated. The Roman emperor Aurelian invaded in 273 or 274, which culminated in the Battle of Châlons, at which Tetricus surrendered. Whether this was the result of a secret agreement between Tetricus and Aurelian or necessary after his defeat is debated. Aurelian spared Tetricus, and even made him a senator and corrector (governor) of Lucania et Bruttii. He died of natural causes a few years after 274. Contents 1 Background 2 Life 3 Numismatics 4 Historiography 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Ancient sources 6.2 Citations 6.3 Bibliography 7 External links Background[edit] A map of the Gallic Empire in 260, showing the core territory of the Gallic Empire (red), loosely loyal territory of the Gallic Empire (purple), and the territory of the Roman Empire (green) The Gallic Empire is the historiographic name given to a state composed of the Roman provinces which made up Britannia, Hispania, and Gaul, which broke away from the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Gallienus. Gallienus had become emperor after his father, Emperor Valerian, was captured by the Sassanids in 260; his rule was part of the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284), a period of intense political and military power struggles. Gallienus was overwhelmed by numerous issues, including several usurpers, and barbarian attacks in the Balkans and along the Rhine — one attack by the Franks pushed as far as Tarraco (modern-day Tarragona) in Hispania. Because Gallienus was unable to prevent the raids, Postumus, a military commander on the Rhine frontier, rose up and declared himself emperor; at about the same time he assassinated Saloninus, Gallenius' son and co-emperor, in Colonia (modern-day Cologne).[1][2] Postumus focused on defending the Gallic Empire, and, in the words of ancient Roman historian Eutropius:[1] "restored the almost exhausted provinces through his enormous vigour and moderation."[1] Gallienus attempted to invade the Gallic Empire twice, but was repulsed both times, forcing him to acquiesce in the secession. Although he was unable to conquer the Gallic Empire, Gallienus did ensure that the Roman Empire was defended; posting Aureolus, a military commander, in northern Italy, to prevent Postumus from crossing the Alps. Postumus was killed by his own soldiers in 269 in Mogontiacum (modern-day Mainz) while putting down a revolt by the usurper Laelianus, because he refused to allow them to sack the city.[1] After the army killed Postumus, they elected Marcus Aurelius Marius, an officer, as Gallic Emperor. While some ancient sources hold that Marius reigned for only two days before being killed by Victorinus, who had served as praetorian prefect (commander of the praetorian guard) under Postumus, the quantity of coins issued by Marius indicate that he must have served for a longer time, a period of roughly three months. Victorinus declared himself emperor in mid-269 in Augusta Treverorum (modern-day Trier), two days after killing Marius.[1][3][4] Victorinus' rule was recognized by the provinces of Britannia and Gaul, but not by those of Hispania.[5] Life[edit] A map of the Gallic Empire (green), Roman Empire (red), and Palmyrene Empire (yellow), during the reign of Tetricus I Antoninianus of Tetricus II Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus, commonly referred to as Tetricus I, was born in Gaul, at an unknown date, to a noble family.[6][7][8] Little of his early life is known, however he had become a senator and occupied the post of praeses provinciae (governor) of Gallia Aquitania, a province in the south west of what is now France, by 271.[7] In early 271, Emperor Victorinus was murdered in the city of Colonia by Attitianus, an officer in the Gallic army, allegedly because he had seduced Attitianus' wife.[9][10][11] Because the motivation for his assassination was personal, rather than political, Victorinus' mother, Victoria, was able to retain power within the empire; her power allowed her to appoint Tetricus as emperor of the Gallic Empire, after securing the support of the army through bribes.[11] The army proclaimed Tetricus as Gallic emperor in spring of the same year at Burdigala (modern-day Bordeaux), although Tetricus was not present for the proclamation.[11][7] The Gallic Empire mirrored the Roman imperial administrative traditions, and as such Gallic emperors would adopt Roman regnal titles upon their accession; after becoming emperor, Tetricus' name was changed to Imperator Caesar Esuvius Tetricus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus.[1][12] The Gallic Empire also followed the Roman tradition of emperors appointing themselves as consul, with Tetricus appointing himself as consul in 271, 272, 273, and 274; the names of the other consul for 271–273 are not known, but it is known that Tetricus' son, Tetricus II, served as his colleague in 274.[1][13][14] Tetricus was also tribune from 271–274.[15] Tetricus elevated his son, Tetricus II, as caesar in 273[a] to increase the legitimacy of his reign, by founding a dynasty;[17] he may have also elevated his son to co-emperor during the last days of his reign, but this is uncertain.[18][19] The unreliable Historia Augusta, in the biography of Emperor Aurelian, states that Tetricus elevated his son at an unspecified date, however neither of the ancient historians Aurelius Victor and Eutropius mention such an event.[20] During Tetricus' reign, the main threats to the Gallic Empire came from the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes. Tetricus also had to contend with dissent within the army and government.[18] Tetricus was recognized as emperor by all of Gaul — except Gallia Narbonensis, which had been partially reconquered by the Placidianus, a general under Roman emperor Claudius Gothicus — and Brittania. He was not recognized by the province of Hispania, including Hispania Baetica, Lusitania and Hispania Tarraconensis, — which had earlier refused to recognize Victorinus as emperor — along with the city of Argentoratum (modern-day Strasbourg) in Germania; the provinces which did not recognize Tetricus chose instead to recognize Roman Emperor Aurelian, who had been proclaimed emperor in September 270 at Sirmium in Pannonia.[7][17][5] By the time of Tetricus' rule, the Germanic tribes had become increasingly aggressive, launching raids across the Rhine and along the coast.[1][17] Tetricus moved the capital of the Gallic Empire from Colonia to Augusta Treverorum in late 271, in order to guard against the Germanic tribes.[17] Tetricus attacked them with some success, mainly during the early part of his reign, even celebrating a triumph for one of his victories. Later in his reign he was forced to withdraw troops and abandon forts, which allowed the border territories to be pillaged. Later Germanic raids were met with almost no opposition — one penetrated so far into Gallic territory that it reached the Loire.[1][17] While Aurelian was concentrated upon attacking the Palmyrene Empire, which had broken away from the Roman Empire in 270, under Empress Zenobia, Tetricus was able to recover Gallia Narbonensis and south-eastern parts of Gallia Aquitania.[7] During 273–274, Faustinus, provincial governor of Gallia Belgica, rebelled against Tetricus, however his revolt was swiftly crushed.[21] Around this time, Tetricus also held the quinquennalia, public games that took place every four years.[22] After Aurelian had succeeded in his reconquest of the Palmyrene Empire, he turned his attention to the Gallic Empire, beginning preparations for an invasion in either early or late 273. In early 274, Aurelian began to march into northern Gaul, while Tetricus led his troops southward from Augusta Treverorum to meet him. The armies of Aurelian and Tetricus met in February or March 274 at the Battle of Châlons, near modern-day Châlons.[7][17] The army of Tetricus was soundly defeated, and Tetricus surrendered either directly after his defeat or later, with the last possible date for his surrender being in March 274, when the Gallic mints switched from minting coins of Tetricus I and II to those of Aurelian.[7][23][24][25] Ancient sources including Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, the Historia Augusta, and Orosius, report that Tetricus had already made a deal with Aurelian, offering to surrender in exchange for an honorable defeat and no punishment, quoting Virgil: "eripe me his invicte malis" (rescue me undefeated from these troubles). However, this is believed by modern historians to be a product of Roman imperial propaganda;[7][23][24] Aurelian, who was attempting to stabilize his fragile empire, benefited from the account that Tetricus had planned to betray his army, as his troops would then be less likely to rise up again.[7] Upon Tetricus' surrender, the Gallic Empire rejoined the Roman Empire, once more restored to its former borders, and Aurelian held a triumph in Rome,[23][24] involving many chariots, twenty elephants, two hundred beasts, including tigers, giraffes and elk, along with eight hundred gladiators, and prisoners from various barbarian tribes.[26] The leaders of the two secessionist states, Tetricus of the Gallic Empire and Zenobia of the Palmyrene Empire were both paraded during this triumph, along with Tetricus II;[23][24][27] Tetricus and his son were not placed in chains for their march, but instead were made to wear braccae (Gallic trousers).[27] Aurelian pardoned all three of them, and made Tetricus a senator and corrector (governor) of either Lucania et Bruttii, a province in southern Italy,[23][18][28] or all of Italy. The Historia Augusta states that he was made corrector Lucaniae (corrector of Lucania) in the biography of Tetricus, but states he was made corrector totius Italiae (corrector of Italy) in the biography of Aurelian. Epigraphic evidence exists for correctores totius Italiae who predate Tetricus, whereas the first epigraphic evidence for a corrector of a region comes in c. 283, ten years after Aurelian appointed Tetricus as corrector. Because of the contradictions within the Historia Augusta, the opinion of modern scholars is divided. Some, such as David Magie, who edited the Loeb edition of the Historia Augusta, favor Tetricus being made corrector totius Italiae, while others, such as Alaric Watson, support him being made corrector Lucaniae.[29] Tetricus died of natural causes several years later in Italy.[7] Numismatics[edit] See also: Numismatics Reverse of an Aureus bearing the inscription of a standing Felicitas The gold aurei issued during the reign of Tetricus fall into several types. Seven surviving coins feature his image on the obverse, with the reverses showing him riding a horse, a standing Aequitas, a standing Jupiter, a standing Laetitia, a standing Pax, him holding an olive branch and a sceptre, or a standing Spes. One features his face on the obverse and a standing Hilaritas on the reverse. Another displays his head on the obverse and a depiction of the Roman goddess Victoria walking to the right on the reverse. There are two aureus types which depicted Tetricus I and Tetricus II together; both feature jugate images of them on the obverse, with one having a standing Aeternitas on the reverse and the other having a standing Felicitas. A rare quinarius (a silver coin) issued during his reign has a three-quarter facing image of Tetricus on the obverse and Victoria standing with her foot on a globe on the reverse.[30] Most of the coins minted during Tetricus' reign were of low quality, with his antoninianus containing so little silver content that imitations were easy to make, leading to the market being flooded with fakes.[31] The coinage of the Gallic Empire does not give any evidence of public games or festivals, as was common in the Roman Empire, although it is believed that similar games and festivals were held. There are a number of issues of coins in which the emperor's head faces left, rather than the usual right, which are believed to have been used for donatives granted to soldiers upon the emperor's accession or consulships.[1] Historiography[edit] The ancient sources for the Gallic Empire are poor, made up largely of brief notes from late 4th-century Latin authors who depended heavily on the now lost Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte, scattered references from the first book of the ancient Roman historian Zosimus, and from information taken from the coinage minted by the Gallic emperors. While the lives of the Gallic emperors are covered within the Historia Augusta, this information is unreliable due to its interweaving of facts and invention.[1] Tetricus is listed as one of the "Thirty Tyrants" in the Historia Augusta.[32] Epigraphic sources also provide some information, however the usage of epigraphs was in decline during period, and many are undated.[33] Inscriptions bearing Tetricus' name are very common throughout Gaul, although there is a vertical line through inscriptions bearing Aurelian's name, which was made after the surrender of Tetricus. No Tetrican inscriptions overlap with Aurelianic inscriptions, suggesting Tetrican inscriptions were removed in this area.[34] Notes[edit] ^ An inscription in Baeterrae (modern-day Béziers) associates Tetricus II with Tetricus' second tribunician period, moving the date back to 272, however this may be the result of a mason's error.[16] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tetricus I. Ancient sources[edit] These sources were written by early chronicles and have been drawn upon by modern scholars. Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, The Thirty Tyrants Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History, Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Nicholson 2018. ^ Southern 2015, p. 140. ^ PolferA 1999. ^ Southern 2015, p. 118. ^ a b PolferA 2000. ^ Potter 2004, p. 257. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Polfer 2000. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1971, p. 885. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1971, p. 965. ^ Potter 2004, p. 272. ^ a b c Southern 2015, p. 119. ^ Drinkwater 1987, p. 125. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1971, p. 1041. ^ Bourne 2000, pp. 59–60. ^ Bourne 2000, pp. 46 & 51. ^ Bourne 2000, p. 72. ^ a b c d e f Southern 2015, p. 175. ^ a b c Sayles 2007, p. 138. ^ Bourne 2000, p. 60. ^ Bourne 2000, pp. 60–61. ^ Polfer 1999. ^ Bourne 2000, p. 50. ^ a b c d e Southern 2015, p. 176. ^ a b c d Vagi 2000, p. 386. ^ Southern 2008, p. 194. ^ Latowsky 2013, p. 58. ^ a b White 2005, p. 116. ^ Matyszak 2014, p. 134. ^ Southern 2008, p. 160. ^ Friedberg, Friedberg & Friedberg 2017, p. 50. ^ Brulet 2018. ^ Gwynn 2018, p. 1496. ^ Bourne 2000, pp. 46–48. ^ Bourne 2000, p. 68. Bibliography[edit] Bourne, Richard John (2000). Aspects of the Relationship Between the Central and Gallic Empires in the Mid to Late Third Century AD with Special Reference to Coinage Studies (PDF). Durham: British Archaeological Reports. ISBN 978-1841712505. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018. Brulet, Raymond (2018). "Tetricus - Oxford Reference". doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 9780198662778. OCLC 1030905378. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Drinkwater, J.F. (1987). The Gallic Empire: Separatism and Continuity in the North-Western Provinces of the Roman Empire, A.D. 260-274. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden. ISBN 9783515048064. Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S.; Friedberg, Robert (2017). Gold Coins of the World: From Ancient Times to the Present. An Illustrated Standard Catalog with Valuations. Clifton: Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 9780871840097. Gwynn, David (2018). "Thirty Tyrants (Tyranni Triginta)". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 639, 934, 1206, & 1496. ISBN 978-0-192-56246-3. Latowsky, Anne A. (2013). Emperor of the World: Charlemagne and the Construction of Imperial Authority, 800–1229. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-801-45148-5. Matyszak, Philip (2014). The Roman Empire (9th ed.). London: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 9781780744254. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, John Robert; Morris, John (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 222. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Nicholson, Oliver (2018). "Gallic Empire - Oxford Reference". doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 9780198662778. OCLC 1030905378. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9781134694778. Sayles, Wayne G. (2007). Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World – Politics and Propaganda. Iola: KP. ISBN 9780896894785. Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781317496946. Southern, Pat (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-441-17351-5. Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.– A.D. 480. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. White, John F. (2005). Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian. Staplehurst: Spellmount. ISBN 978-1-862-27250-7. External links[edit] PolferA, Michel (2000). "Roman Emperors - DIR Victorinus". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2018. Polfer, Michel (2000). "Roman Emperors - DIR Tetricus I". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 6 August 2018. PolferA, Michel (1999). "Roman Emperors - DIR Marius". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2018. Polfer, Michel (1999). "Roman Emperors - DIR Faustinus". Archived from the original on 27 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018. Regnal titles Preceded by Victorinus Emperor of the Gallic Empire 271–274 AD with Tetricus II (273–274) Succeeded by None Political offices Preceded by Victorinus Consul of the Gallic Empire 271–274 with Tetricus II (274) Succeeded by None v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetricus_I&oldid=1026087766" Categories: Gallic emperors Thirty Tyrants (Roman) Imperial Roman consuls 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century monarchs in Europe Monarchs captured as prisoners of war Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Commons link is on Wikidata CS1 errors: missing periodical Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Lombard Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4580	----	Julia Flavia - Wikipedia Julia Flavia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Daughter of Emperor Titus and Marcia Furnilla See also: Julia (given name) and Flavia (name) Roman imperial dynasties Flavian dynasty Marble bust of Julia Titi Flavia Chronology Vespasian 69–79 AD Titus 79–81 AD Domitian 81–96 AD Family Gens Flavia Flavian tree Category:Flavian dynasty Succession Preceded by Year of the Four Emperors Followed by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Julia Flavia hairstyle, Terracotta made in Smyrna, c. 90 - Louvre Julia Flavia or Julia Titi (8 September 64 – 91) was the daughter and only child to Roman Emperor Titus from his second marriage to the well-connected Marcia Furnilla. Contents 1 Biography 2 Ancestry 3 Family tree 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 Notes 6 Further reference Biography[edit] Julia was born in Rome. Her parents divorced when Julia was an infant, due to her mother's family's connections to the opponents of Emperor Nero. In 65, after the failure of the Pisonian conspiracy, the family of Marcia Furnilla was disfavored by Nero. Julia's father, Titus concluded that he did not want to be connected with any potential plotters and ended his marriage to Marcia Furnilla. Julia was raised by her father. Titus conquered Jerusalem on Julia's sixth birthday. When growing up, Titus offered her in marriage to his brother Domitian, but he refused because of his infatuation with Domitia Longina. Later she married her second paternal cousin Titus Flavius Sabinus, brother to consul Titus Flavius Clemens, who married her first cousin Flavia Domitilla. By then Domitian had seduced her. When her father and husband died, in the words of Dio, Domitian: "lived with [her] as husband with wife, making little effort at concealment. Then upon the demands of the people he became reconciled with Domitia, but continued his relations with Julia nonetheless."[1] Juvenal condemns this liaison as follows: "Such a man was that adulterer [i.e. Domitian] who, after lately defiling himself by a union of the tragic style, revived the stern laws that were to be a terror to all men – ay, even to Mars and Venus – just as Julia was relieving her fertile womb and giving birth to abortions that displayed the likeness of her uncle."[2] Becoming pregnant, Julia died of what was rumoured to be a forced abortion. Julia was deified and her ashes were later mixed and burned with Domitian's by Domitian's former nurse secretly in the Temple of the Flavians.[3] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Julia Flavia 16. Titus Flavius Petro 8. Titus Flavius Sabinus I 17. Tertulla 4. Emperor Vespasian 18. Vespasius Pollio 9. Vespasia Polla 2. Emperor Titus 10. Flavius Liberalis 5. Flavia Domitilla Major 1. Julia Flavia 12. Quintus Marcius Barea 6. Quintus Marcius Barea Sura 3. Marcia Furnilla 14. Aulus Antonius Rufus 7. Antonia Furnilla Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Cassius Dio, 67.3 ^ Juvenal, Satires ii.32. ^ Suetonius, Domitian 17.3 Further reference[edit] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars – Titus & Domitian 17, 22. Dio Cassius, lxvii. 3. Pliny, Ep. iv. 11. § 6. Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. Tyan. vii. 3. Media related to Julia Titi at Wikimedia Commons Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julia_Flavia&oldid=1020382863" Categories: 64 births 91 deaths Flavian dynasty Flavii Sabini 1st-century Romans 1st-century Roman women Deified Roman people Titus Deaths in childbirth Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 28 April 2021, at 19:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4586	----	Domitia Calvilla - Wikipedia Domitia Calvilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Domitia Lucilla Minor) Jump to navigation Jump to search Mother of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Domitia Lucilla from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Domitia Calvilla (also known as Domitia Lucilla Minor and Lucilla, died 155–161), was a noble Roman woman who lived in the 2nd century. She is best known as the mother of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Contents 1 Descent 2 Marriage 3 Widowhood 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Descent[edit] Lucilla was the daughter of Domitia Lucilla Maior (Maior is Latin for the Elder) and the patrician Publius Calvisius Tullus Ruso[1] and was a niece to Gnaeus Domitius Lucanus. The maternal grandfather of the younger Lucilla, Lucius Catilius Severus was twice consul and became city Prefect. Lucilla's father served as consul in AD 109 and the date of his second consulship is unknown.[2][3] Lucilla through her mother had inherited a great fortune, which included a tile and brick factory near Rome, close to the river Tiber. The factory provided bricks to some of Rome's most famous monuments including the Colosseum, Pantheon and the Market of Trajan, and exported bricks to France, Spain, North Africa and all over the Mediterranean.[4] The factory,or part of it, has been excavated at Bomarzo, 40 miles north of Rome. Marriage[edit] Lucilla married Marcus Annius Verus, a praetor, who came from a wealthy senatorial family.[5] Verus' sister Faustina the Elder was a Roman Empress and married the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Verus was a nephew to Roman Empress Vibia Sabina and his maternal grandmother was Salonina Matidia (niece of Roman Emperor Trajan). With Verus, she had two children, a son, the future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (26 April 121) and a daughter Annia Cornificia Faustina (122/123 – between 152 and 158). Widowhood[edit] In 124, her husband died. Her children were raised by herself and they were adopted by her father-in-law. Marcus Aurelius would later inherit the tile and brick factory. In Lucilla's household, the future Roman Emperor Didius Julianus was educated and through her support he was able to start his legal career. Lucilla was a lady of considerable wealth and influence. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius describes her as a 'pious and generous' person who lived a simple life (1.3n). She spent her final years living with her son in Rome. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Calvisia gens References[edit] ^ Geoffrey William Adams (2013). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2. ^ Jo-Ann Shelton (2013). The Women of Pliny's Letters. Routledge. pp. 291–. ISBN 978-0-415-37428-6. ^ Jacqueline M. Carlon (22 June 2009). Pliny's Women: Constructing Virtue and Creating Identity in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-0-521-76132-1. ^ Annelise Freisenbruch (9 November 2010). Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire. Simon and Schuster. pp. 171–. ISBN 978-1-4165-8357-8. ^ Frank McLynn (20 July 2010). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-0-306-81916-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domitia Calvilla. Roman Coinage of Domitia Lucilla Marble portraits of Domitia Lucilla, under the heading for Marcus Aurelius Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domitia_Calvilla&oldid=1024349062" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Roman women 2nd-century deaths Ancient businesswomen Calvisii Ancient Roman businesspeople Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 15:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4603	----	Tacitus (emperor) - Wikipedia Tacitus (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Marcus Claudius Tacitus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 275 to 276 For the first-century Roman historian, see Tacitus. Roman emperor Tacitus Bust of the Emperor Tacitus Roman emperor Reign 25 September 275 – June 276 Predecessor Aurelian Successor Florianus Born c. 200 Interamna, Italy Died June 276 (aged 76) Antoniana Colonia Tyana, Cappadocia Names Marcus Claudius Tacitus[1] Marcus Claudius Tacitus (/ˈtæsɪtəs/; c. 200 – June 276) was Roman emperor from 275 to 276. During his short reign he campaigned against the Goths and the Heruli, for which he received the title Gothicus Maximus. Contents 1 Early life 2 Emperor 2.1 Fighting barbarians 2.2 Death 3 References 4 Sources 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 Further reading Early life[edit] Antoninianus of Tacitus. Legend: IMPerator Caesar Marcus CLavdius TACITVS AVGustus. Tacitus was born in Interamna (Terni), in Italia.[2] He circulated copies of the historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus' work, which was barely read at the time, perhaps contributing to the partial survival of the historian's work. Modern historiography rejects his claimed descent from the historian as a fabrication.[3] In the course of his long life he discharged the duties of various civil offices, holding the consulship twice, once under Valerian and again in 273, earning universal respect.[4] Emperor[edit] After the assassination of Aurelian, the army, apparently in remorse at the effects of the previous centuries' military license, which had brought about the death of the well-liked emperor, relinquished the right of choosing his successor to the Senate.[5] Initially, the Senate hesitated to accept the responsibility, but when the delay had gone on eight months from Aurelian's death it at last determined to settle the matter and offered the throne to the aged Princeps Senatus, Tacitus.[6] Tacitus, after ascertaining the sincerity of the Senate's regard for him, accepted their nomination on 25 September 275,[7] and the choice was cordially ratified by the army.[1] This was the last time the Senate elected a Roman Emperor. The interregnum between Aurelian and Tacitus had been quite long, and there is substantial evidence that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, ruled in her own right before the election of Tacitus.[8][9] Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rome, where he was elected. He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian's murderers.[10] Amongst the highest concerns of the new reign was the restoration of the ancient Senatorial powers. He granted substantial prerogatives to the Senate, securing to them by law the appointment of the emperor, of the consuls, and the provincial governors, as well as supreme right of appeal from every court in the empire in its judicial function, and the direction of certain branches of the revenue in its long-abeyant administrative capacity.[11] Probus respected these changes, but after the reforms of Diocletian in the succeeding decades not a vestige would be left of them. Fighting barbarians[edit] Next he moved against the barbarian mercenaries that had been gathered by Aurelian to supplement Roman forces for his Eastern campaign.[citation needed] These mercenaries had plundered several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after Aurelian had been murdered and the campaign cancelled.[12] His half-brother, the Praetorian Prefect Florianus, and Tacitus himself won a victory against these tribes, among which were the Heruli, gaining the emperor the title Gothicus Maximus.[10] Death[edit] On his way back to the west to deal with a Frankish and Alamannic invasion of Gaul, according to Aurelius Victor, Eutropius and the Historia Augusta, Tacitus died of fever at Tyana in Cappadocia in June 276.[13][14] It was reported that he began acting strangely, declaring that he would alter the names of the months to honor himself, before succumbing to a fever.[citation needed] In a contrary account, Zosimus claims he was assassinated, after appointing one of his relatives to an important command in Syria.[15] References[edit] ^ a b Jones, pg. 873 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Taciti, 15:1 ^ McMahon, Note 3 and accompanying text ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII., p. 276 ^ Gibbon, pp. 274-278 ^ Gibbon, p. 277; He was then 75 years old. ^ Hinson, E. Glenn (1995). The Church Triumphant: A History of Christianity Up to 1300. Mercer University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0865544360. ^ Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. ^ Körner, Christian (December 23, 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved January 6, 2011. ^ a b Southern, pg. 127 ^ Gibbon, p. 279 ^ Gibbon, p. 280 ^ Aurelius Victor, 36:1 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Taciti, 13:5 ^ Zosimus, I:63:2 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Historia Augusta, Vita Taciti, English version of Historia Augusta Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita, ix. 16, English version of Breviarium ab Urbe Condita Aurelius Victor, "Epitome de Caesaribus", English version of Epitome de Caesaribus Zosimus, "Historia Nova", Historia Nova Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Secondary sources[edit] McMahon, Robin, "Tacitus (275–276 A.D)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tacitus, Marcus Claudius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcus Claudius Tacitus. Constantine P. Cavafy, The Complete Poems, Harcourt, Brace & World (1961), p. 201 Alan Dugan, Poems 2, Yale University Press (1963), p. 33 Regnal titles Preceded by Aurelian Roman emperor 275–276 Succeeded by Florianus Political offices Preceded by T. Flavius Postumius Quietus Junius Veldumnianus Roman consul 273 with Julius Placidianus Succeeded by Aurelian Capitolinus Preceded by Aurelian Marcellinus Roman consul 276 with Aemilianus Succeeded by Probus Paulinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-4612	----	Western philosophy - Wikipedia Western philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Western Philosophy) Jump to navigation Jump to search "History of Western philosophy" redirects here. For the 1945 book by Bertrand Russell, see A History of Western Philosophy. Philosophy of the Western world History of Western philosophy The School of Athens fresco by Raphael Western philosophy By era Ancient Medieval Renaissance Modern early modern late modern Contemporary By century 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st See also Religious philosophy Buddhist Christian Hindu Islamic Jain Jewish Sikh Eastern philosophy Chinese Indian Iranian Japanese Korean Western culture Western world v t e Western philosophy refers to the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the pre-Socratics. The word philosophy itself originated from the Ancient Greek philosophía (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom" (φιλεῖν phileîn, "to love" and σοφία sophía, "wisdom"). Contents 1 Ancient 1.1 Pre-Socratics 1.2 Classical period 1.3 Hellenistic and Roman philosophy 2 Medieval 3 Renaissance 4 Modern 4.1 Early modern (17th and 18th centuries) 4.2 Late modern (19th century) 5 Contemporary (20th and 21st centuries) 5.1 Analytic philosophy 5.2 Continental philosophy 5.2.1 Existentialism 5.2.2 German idealism 5.2.3 Marxism and critical theory 5.2.4 Phenomenology and hermeneutics 5.2.5 Structuralism and post-structuralism 5.3 Pragmatism 5.4 Process philosophy 6 Influence by non-Western philosophy 6.1 Eastern philosophy 6.1.1 Pyrrhonism 6.1.2 Cyrenaicism 6.1.3 Spinozism 6.1.4 The self 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Ancient[edit] Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy The scope of ancient Western philosophy included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such as pure mathematics and natural sciences such as physics, astronomy, and biology (Aristotle, for example, wrote on all of these topics). Pre-Socratics[edit] Main article: Pre-Socratic philosophy The pre-Socratic philosophers were interested in cosmology; the nature and origin of the universe, while rejecting mythical answers to such questions.[1] They were specifically interested in the arche (the cause or first principle) of the world. The first recognized philosopher, Thales of Miletus (born c. 625 BCE in Ionia) identified water as the arche (claiming "all is water"). His use of observation and reason to derive this conclusion is the reason for distinguishing him as the first philosopher.[2] Thales' student Anaximander claimed that the arche was the apeiron, the infinite. Following both Thales and Anaximander, Anaximenes of Miletus claimed that air was the most suitable candidate. Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor Pythagoras (born c. 570 BCE), from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, later lived in Croton in southern Italy (Magna Graecia). Pythagoreans hold that "all is number", giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. The discovery of consonant intervals in music by the group enabled the concept of harmony to be established in philosophy, which suggested that opposites could together give rise to new things.[3] They also believed in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation. Parmenides argued that, unlike the other philosophers who believed the arche was transformed into multiple things, the world must be singular, unchanging and eternal, while anything suggesting the contrary was an illusion.[4] Zeno of Elea formulated his famous paradoxes in order to support the Parmenides' views about the illusion of plurality and change (in terms of motion), by demonstrating them to be impossible.[5] An alternative explanation was presented by Heraclitus, who claimed that everything was in flux all the time, famously pointing out that one could not step into the same river twice.[6] Empedocles may have been an associate of both Parmenides and the Pythagoreans.[7] He claimed the arche was in fact composed of multiple sources, giving rise to the model of the four classical elements. These in turn were acted upon by the forces of Love and Strife, creating the mixtures of elements which form the world.[7] Another view of the arche being acted upon by an external force was presented by his older contemporary Anaxagoras, who claimed that nous, the mind, was responsible for that.[8] Leucippus and Democritus proposed atomism as an explanation for the fundamental nature of the universe. Jonathan Barnes called atomism "the culmination of early Greek thought".[9] In addition to these philosophers, the Sophists comprised teachers of rhetoric who taught students to debate on any side of an issue. While as a group, they held no specific views, in general they promoted subjectivism and relativism. Protagoras, one of the most influential Sophist philosophers, claimed that "man is the measure of all things", suggesting there is no objective truth.[10] This was also applied to issues of ethics, with Prodicus arguing that laws could not be taken seriously because they changed all the time, while Antiphon made the claim that conventional morality should only be followed when in society.[11] Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE Classical period[edit] The Classical period of ancient Greek philosophy centers on Socrates and the two generations of students following him. Socrates experienced a life-changing event when his friend, Chaerephon visited the Oracle of Delphi where the Pythia told him that no one in Athens was wiser than Socrates. Learning of this, Socrates subsequently spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to investigate the Pithia's claim.[12] Socrates developed a critical approach, now called the Socratic method, to examine people's views. He focused on issues of human life: eudaimonia, justice, beauty, truth, and virtue. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, two of his disciples, Plato and Xenophon, wrote about some of his conversations, although Plato also deployed Socrates as a fictional character in some of his dialogues. These Socratic dialogues display the Socratic method being applied to examine philosophical problems. Socrates's questioning earned him enemies who eventually accused him of impiety and corrupting the youth. The Athenian democracy tried him, was found guilty, and was sentenced to death. Although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, Socrates chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisted of drinking poison hemlock. He died in 399 BCE. After Socrates' death, Plato founded the Platonic Academy and Platonic philosophy. As Socrates had done, Plato identified virtue with knowledge. This led him to questions of epistemology on what knowledge is and how it is acquired.[13] Plato believed that the senses are illusionary and could not be trusted,[13] illustrating this point with the allegory of the cave. He thought that knowledge had to be sourced from eternal, unchanging, and perfect objects, which led to his theory of forms.[13] Alfred North Whitehead claimed that "Philosophy is footnotes to Plato".[14] Socrates had several other students who also founded schools of philosophy. Two of these were short-lived: the Eretrian school, founded by Phaedo of Elis, and the Megarian school, founded by Euclid of Megara. Two others were long-lasting: Cynicism, founded by Antisthenes, and Cyrenaicism, founded by Aristippus. The Cynics considered life's purpose to live in virtue, in agreement with nature, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame, leading a simple life free from all possessions. The Cyrenaics promoted a philosophy nearly opposite that of the Cynics, endorsing hedonism, holding that pleasure was the supreme good, especially immediate gratifications; and that people could only know their own experiences, beyond that truth was unknowable. Aristotle in The School of Athens, by Raphael The final school of philosophy to be established during the Classical period was the Peripatetic school, founded by Plato's student, Aristotle. Aristotle wrote widely about topics of philosophical concern, including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, and logic. Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. His epistemology comprised an early form empiricism.[15] Aristotle criticized Plato's metaphysics as being poetic metaphor, with its greatest failing being the lack of an explanation for change.[16] Aristotle proposed the four causes model to explain change - material, efficient, formal, and final - all of which were grounded on what Aristotle termed the unmoved mover.[15] His ethical views identified eudaimonia as the ultimate good, as it was good in itself.[17] He thought that eudaimonia could be achieved by living according to human nature, which is to live with reason and virtue,[17] defining virtue as the golden mean between extremes.[17] Aristole saw politics as the highest art, as all other pursuits are subservient to its goal of improving society.[17] The state should aim to maximize the opportunities for the pursuit of reason and virtue through leisure, learning, and contemplation.[18] Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great, who conquered much of the ancient Western world. Hellenization and Aristotelian philosophy have exercised considerable influence on almost all subsequent Western and Middle Eastern philosophers. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy[edit] Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho of Elis took to India Main articles: Hellenistic philosophy and Ancient Roman philosophy The Hellenistic and Roman Imperial periods saw the continuation of Aristotelianism and Cynicism, and the emergence of new philosophies, including Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Neopythagoreanism. Platonism also continued but came under new interpretations, particularly Academic skepticism in the Hellenistic period and Neoplatonism in the Imperial period. The traditions of Greek philosophy heavily influenced Roman philosophy. In Imperial times, Epicureanism and Stoicism were particularly popular.[19] The various schools of philosophy proposed various and conflicting methods for attaining eudaimonia. For some schools, it was through internal means, such as calmness, ataraxia (ἀταραξία), or indifference, apatheia (ἀπάθεια), which was possibly caused by the increased insecurity of the era.[20][21] The aim of the Cynics was to live according to nature and against convention with courage and self-control.[22] This was directly inspiring to the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, who took up the Cynic ideals of steadfastness and self-discipline, but applied the concept of apatheia to personal circumstances rather than social norms, and switched shameless flouting of the latter for a resolute fulfillment of social duties.[23] The ideal of 'living in accordance with nature' also continued, with this being seen as the way to eudaimonia, which in this case was identified as the freedom from fears and desires and required choosing how to respond to external circumstances, as the quality of life was seen as based on one's beliefs about it.[24][25] An alternative view was presented by the Cyrenaics and the Epicureans. The Cyrenaics were hedonists and believed that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures.[26] The followers of Epicurus also identified "the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain" as the ultimate goal of life, but noted that "We do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or of sensuality . . . we mean the absence of pain in the body and trouble in the mind".[27] This brought hedonism back to the search for ataraxia.[28] Roman Epicurus bust Another important strand of thought in post-Classical Western thought was the question of skepticism. Pyrrho of Elis, a Democritean philosopher, traveled to India with Alexander the Great's army where Pyrrho was influenced by Buddhist teachings, most particularly the three marks of existence.[29] After returning to Greece, Pyrrho started a new school of philosophy, Pyrrhonism, which taught that it is one's opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., dogma) that prevent one from attaining ataraxia. To bring the mind to ataraxia, Pyrrhonism uses epoché (suspension of judgment) regarding all non-evident propositions. After Arcesilaus became head of the Academy, he adopted skepticism as a central tenet of Platonism, making Platonism nearly the same as Pyrrhonism.[30] After Arcesilaus, Academic skepticism diverged from Pyrrhonism.[31] The Academic skeptics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.[32] They based this position on Plato's Phaedo, sections 64–67,[33] in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.[34] Following the end of the skeptical period of the Academy with Antiochus of Ascalon, Platonic thought entered the period of Middle Platonism, which absorbed ideas from the Peripatetic and Stoic schools. More extreme syncretism was done by Numenius of Apamea, who combined it with Neopythagoreanism.[35] Also affected by the Neopythagoreans, the Neoplatonists, first of them Plotinus, argued that mind exists before matter, and that the universe has a singular cause which must therefore be a single mind.[36] As such, Neoplatonism become essentially a religion, and had much impact on later Christian thought.[36] Medieval[edit] Main article: Medieval philosophy See also: Christian philosophy Saint Augustine. Medieval philosophy roughly extends from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance.[37] It is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then-widespread sacred doctrines of Abrahamic religion (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) with secular learning. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. A prominent figure of this period was Augustine of Hippo, one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity. Augustine adopted Plato's thought and Christianized it. His influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to the end of era and the rediscovery of Aristotle's texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. Among the issues his philosophy touched upon were the problem of evil, just war and what time is. On the problem of evil, he argued that evil was a necessary product of human free will.[38] When this raised the issue of the incompatibility of free will and divine foreknowledge, both he and Boethius solved the issue by arguing that God did not see the future, but rather stood outside of time entirely.[39] An influential school of thought was that of scholasticism, which is not so much a philosophy or a theology as a methodology, as it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.[40][41] Anselm of Canterbury (called the 'father of scholasticism') argued that the existence of God could be irrefutably proved with the logical conclusion apparent in the ontological argument, according to which God is by definition the greatest thing in conceivable, and since an existing thing is greater than a non-existing one, it must be that God exists or is not the greatest thing conceivable (the latter being by definition impossible).[42] A refutation of this was offered by Gaunilo of Marmoutiers, who applied the same logic to an imagined island, arguing that somewhere there must exist a perfect island using the same steps of reasoning (therefore leading to an absurd outcome).[43] St. Anselm of Canterbury is credited as the founder of scholasticism. Boethius also worked on the problem of universals, arguing that they did not exist independently as claimed by Plato, but still believed, in line with Aristotle, that they existed in the substance of particular things.[27] Another important figure for scholasticism, Peter Abelard, extended this to nominalism, which states (in complete opposition to Plato) that universals were in fact just names given to characteristics shared by particulars.[44] St. Thomas Aquinas, painting by Carlo Crivelli, 1476 Thomas Aquinas, an academic philosopher and the father of Thomism, was immensely influential in medieval Christendom. He was influenced by newly discovered Aristotle, and aimed to reconcile his philosophy with Christian theology.[45] Aiming to develop an understanding of the soul, he was led to consider metaphysical questions of substance, matter, form, and change.[45] He defined a material substance as the combination of an essence and accidental features, with the essence being a combination of matter and form, similar to the Aristotelian view.[46] For humans, the soul is the essence.[46] Also influenced by Plato, he saw the soul as unchangeable and independent of the body.[46] Other Western philosophers from the Middle Ages include John Scotus Eriugena, Gilbert de la Porrée, Peter Lombard, Hildegard of Bingen, Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, Peter John Olivi, Mechthild of Magdeburg, Robert Kilwardby, Albertus Magnus, Henry of Ghent, Duns Scotus, Marguerite Porete, Dante Alighieri, Marsilius of Padua, William of Ockham, Jean Buridan, Nicholas of Autrecourt, Meister Eckhart, Catherine of Siena, Jean Gerson, and John Wycliffe. The medieval tradition of scholasticism continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, in figures such as Francisco Suárez and John of St. Thomas. During the Middle Ages, Western philosophy was also influenced by the Jewish philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides; and the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer, Ibn Khaldūn, and Averroes. Erasmus is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists Renaissance[edit] Main articles: Renaissance philosophy and 16th-century philosophy Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,[47] in which the recovery of ancient Greek philosophical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.[48][49] The study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as humanism.[50][51] Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed Petrarch in making humanity and its virtues the focus of philosophy.[52][53] At the point of passage from Renaissance into early/classical modern philosophy, the dialogue was used as a primary style of writing by Renaissance philosophers, such as Giordano Bruno.[54] The dividing line between what is classified as Renaissance versus modern philosophy is disputed.[55] Modern[edit] Main article: Modern philosophy The term "modern philosophy" has multiple usages. For example, Thomas Hobbes is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy.[56][57] By contrast, René Descartes is often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems of knowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.[58] Portrait of René Descartes, after Frans Hals, second half of 17th century Portrait of John Locke, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1697 Modern philosophy and especially Enlightenment philosophy[59] is distinguished by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism;[60][61] a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building;[62][63] and the emergence of modern physics out of natural philosophy.[64] Early modern (17th and 18th centuries)[edit] Main articles: 17th-century philosophy, Age of Enlightenment, and Early modern philosophy Portrait of David Hume, by Allan Ramsay, 1754 Some central topics of Western philosophy in its early modern (also classical modern)[65][66] period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.[67] These trends first distinctively coalesce in Francis Bacon's call for a new, empirical program for expanding knowledge, and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of René Descartes.[68] Descartes' epistemology was based on a method called Cartesian doubt, whereby only the most certain belief could act as the foundation for further inquiry, with each step to further ideas being as cautious and clear as possible.[69] This led him to his famous maxim cogito ergo sum ('I think, therefore I exist'), though similar arguments had been made by earlier philosophers.[70] This became foundational for much of further Western philosophy, as the need to find a route from the private world of consciousness to the externally existing reality was widely accepted until the 20th century.[70] A major issue for his thought remained in the mind–body problem, however.[70] One solution to the problem was presented by Baruch Spinoza, who argued that the mind and the body are one substance.[71] This was based on his view that God and the universe are one and the same, encompassing the totality of existence.[72] In the other extreme, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, argued instead that the world was composed of numerous individual substances, called monads.[73] Together, Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are considered influential early rationalists.[74] In contrast to Descartes, Thomas Hobbes was a materialist who believed that everything was physical, and an empiricist who thought that all knowledge comes from sensation which is triggered by objects existing in the external world, with thought being a kind of computation.[75] John Locke was another classic empiricist, with his arguments helping it overtake rationalism as the generally preferred approach.[76] Together with David Hume, they form the core of 'British empiricism'.[76] George Berkeley agreed with empiricism, but instead of believing in an ultimate reality which created perceptions, argued in favour immaterialism and the world existing as a result of being perceived.[77] In contrast, the Cambridge Platonists continued to represent rationalism in Britain.[76] In terms of political philosophy, arguments often started from arguing over the first principles of human nature through the through experiment of what the world would look like without society, a scenario referred to as the state of nature. Hobbes believed that this would be a violent and anarchic, calling life under such a state of affairs "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short".[75] To prevent this, he believed that the sovereign of the state should have essentially unlimited power.[78] In contrast, Locke believed the state of nature be one where individuals enjoyed freedom, but that some of that (excluding those covered by natural rights) had to be given up when forming a society, but not to the degree of absolute rule.[79] Jean-Jacques Rousseau meanwhile argued that in nature people were living in a peaceful and comfortable state, and that the formation of society led to the rise of inequality.[80] The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with Immanuel Kant's systematic attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge, and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom.[81][82][83] Whereas the rationalists had believed that knowledge came from a priori reasoning, the empiricists had argued that it came from a posteriori sensory experience, Kant aimed to reconcile these views by arguing that the mind uses a priori understanding to interpret the a posteriori experiences.[84] He had been inspired to take this approach by the philosophy of Hume, who argued that the mechanisms of the mind gave people the perception of cause and effect.[84] Many other contributors were philosophers, scientists, medical doctors, and politicians. A short list includes Galileo Galilei, Pierre Gassendi, Blaise Pascal, Nicolas Malebranche, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Christiaan Huygens, Isaac Newton, Christian Wolff, Montesquieu, Pierre Bayle, Thomas Reid, Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Adam Smith. Late modern (19th century)[edit] Main article: 19th-century philosophy Late modern philosophy Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, steel engraving, after 1828 is usually considered to begin around the pivotal year of 1781, when Gotthold Ephraim Lessing died and Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason appeared.[85] The 19th century saw the beginnings of would later grow into the divide between Continental and analytic traditions of philosophy, with the former more interested in general frameworks of metaphysics (more common in the German-speaking world), and the latter focusing on issues of epistemology, ethics, law and politics (more common in the English-speaking world).[86] German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system.[87] German idealists, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and the members of Jena Romanticism (Friedrich Hölderlin, Novalis, and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel), transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.[88][89] Hegel argued that history was the dialectical journey of the Geist (universal mind) towards self-fulfilment and self-realization.[90] The Geist's self-awareness is absolute knowledge, which itself brings complete freedom.[91] His philosophy was based on absolute idealism, with reality itself being mental.[91] His legacy was divided between the conservative Right Hegelians and radical Young Hegelians, with the latter including David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach.[92] Feuerbach argued for a materialist conception of Hegel's thought, inspiring Karl Marx.[92] Friedrich Nietzsche, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, c. 1875 Arthur Schopenhauer was inspired by Kant and Indian philosophy.[93] Accepting Kant's division of the world into the noumenal (the real) and phenomenal (the apparent) realities, he nevertheless disagreed on the accessibility of former, arguing that it could in fact be accessed.[94] The experience of will was how this reality was accessible, with the will underlying the whole of nature, with everything else being appearance.[94] Whereas he believed the frustration of this will was the cause of suffering, Friedrich Nietzsche thought that the will to power was empowering, leading to growth and expansion, and therefore forming the basis of ethics. Jeremy Bentham established utilitarianism, which was a consequentialist ethic based 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number', an idea taken from Cesare Beccaria.[95] He believed that any act could be measured by its value in this regard through the application of felicific calculus.[96] His associate James Mill's son John Stuart Mill subsequently took up his thought.[97] However, in contrast to the valuation of pure pleasure in Bentham's work, Mill divided pleasures into higher and lower kinds.[98] Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the discipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of George Boole and Gottlob Frege.[99] Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include: Gottlob Frege and Henry Sidgwick, whose work in logic and ethics, respectively, provided the tools for early analytic philosophy. Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, who founded pragmatism. Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, who laid the groundwork for existentialism and post-structuralism. Contemporary (20th and 21st centuries)[edit] Main articles: 20th-century philosophy and Contemporary philosophy Martin Heidegger The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy are analytic philosophy, continental philosophy and pragmatism.[100] They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th-century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre. The publication of Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1) and Russell's The Principles of Mathematics (1903) is considered to mark the beginning of 20th-century philosophy.[101] The 20th century also saw the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the beginning of the current (contemporary) era of philosophy.[102] Since the Second World War, contemporary philosophy has been divided mostly into analytic and continental traditions; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on the continent of Europe. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction's usefulness. Analytic philosophy[edit] Main article: Analytic philosophy Bertrand Russell In the English-speaking world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school for much of the 20th century. The term "analytic philosophy" roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logic and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Though the movement has broadened, it was a cohesive school in the first half of the century. Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by logical positivism, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language. Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis. Russell's classic works The Principles of Mathematics,[103] "On Denoting" and Principia Mathematica (with Alfred North Whitehead), aside from greatly promoting the use of mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, and discussions on the foundations of mathematics. These works also explored issues of ontological commitment and metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell often tackled with the aid of mathematical logic. Gottlob Frege, c. 1905 Gottlob Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) was the first analytic work, according to Michael Dummett (Origins of Analytical Philosophy, 1993). Frege took "the linguistic turn," analyzing philosophical problems through language. Some analytic philosophers held that philosophical problems arise through misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of human language. In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. Years later, he reversed a number of the positions he set out in the Tractatus, in for example his second major work, Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was mainly promoted by Gilbert Ryle and J. L. Austin. In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine was having a major influence, with the paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable. Patricia Churchland, 2005 Notable students of Quine include Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett. The later work of Russell and the philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in the second half of the 20th century. But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new metaphysics" of possible worlds, as in the influential work of David Lewis. Recently, the experimental philosophy movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques. Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, David Lewis, John Searle, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Michael Dummett, John McDowell, Saul Kripke, Peter van Inwagen, and Patricia Churchland. Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls and Anarchy, State, and Utopia by Robert Nozick, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with Roger Scruton, Nelson Goodman, Arthur Danto and others developing the subject to its current shape. Continental philosophy[edit] Main article: Continental philosophy Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, c. 1921[104] Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe. 20th-century movements such as German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism, modern hermeneutics (the theory and methodology of interpretation), critical theory, structuralism, post-structuralism and others are included within this loose category. While identifying any non-trivial common factor in all these schools of thought is bound to be controversial, Michael E. Rosen has hypothesized a few common continental themes: that the natural sciences cannot replace the human sciences; that the thinker is affected by the conditions of experience (one's place and time in history); that philosophy is both theoretical and practical; that metaphilosophy or reflection upon the methods and nature of philosophy itself is an important part of philosophy proper.[105] The founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective, while Martin Heidegger drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to propose an unconventional existential approach to ontology. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism—Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus—and finally post-structuralism—Gilles Deleuze, Jean-François Lyotard (best known for his articulation of postmodernism), Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida (best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction). The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental thought. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism. Søren Kierkegaard, sketch by Niels Christian Kierkegaard, c. 1840 Existentialism[edit] Main article: Existentialism Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[106][107] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[108] In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[109] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[110][111] Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought.[112][113][114] German idealism[edit] Main article: German idealism See also: British idealism and American idealism Portrait of Immanuel Kant, c. 1790 German idealism emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s.[115] Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a conceptual or categorical framework on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that things-in-themselves existed independently of human perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy. The most notable work of absolute idealism was G. W. F. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "Hegelian dialectic". Philosophers influenced by Hegel include Ludwig Feuerbach, who coined the term "projection" as pertaining to humans' inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels; and the British idealists, notably T. H. Green, J. M. E. McTaggart, F. H. Bradley, and R. G. Collingwood. Few 20th-century philosophers embraced the core tenets of German idealism after the demise of British idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic, most notably Frankfurt School critical theorists, Alexandre Kojève, Jean-Paul Sartre (in his Critique of Dialectical Reason), and Slavoj Žižek. A central theme of German idealism, the legitimacy of Kant's "Copernican revolution", remains an important point of contention in 21st-century post-continental philosophy. Marxism and critical theory[edit] Main articles: Marxism and critical theory Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It analyzes class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxist analyses and methodologies influenced political ideologies and social movements. Marxist understandings of history and society were adopted by academics in archeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology and philosophy. In contemporary philosophy, the term "critical theory" describes the Western Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. Critical theory maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle to human emancipation.[116] Phenomenology and hermeneutics[edit] Main articles: Phenomenology (philosophy) and Hermeneutics Edmund Husserl, in the 1910s Edmund Husserl's phenomenology was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general.[117] An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called intentionality.[118] Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses. Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich (Munich phenomenology) and Göttingen (Göttingen phenomenology). Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research assistant and a proponent of hermeneutic phenomenology, a theoretical synthesis of modern hermeneutics and phenomenology), Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism. Structuralism and post-structuralism[edit] Main articles: Structuralism and Post-structuralism Ferdinand de Saussure Inaugurated by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the discourses they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man. Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by post-structuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines. While the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible. Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes and Jacques Lacan. Post-structuralism came to predominate from the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze and even Roland Barthes; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations. Pragmatism[edit] Main article: Pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870.[119] It asserts that the truth of beliefs consists in their usefulness and efficacy rather than their correspondence with reality.[120] Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were its co-founders and it was later modified by John Dewey as instrumentalism. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualized final truth as something established only by the future, final settlement of all opinion.[121] William James in 1906 Pragmatism attempted to find a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. It interpreted the meaning of a statement by the effect its acceptance would have on practice. Inquiry taken far enough is thus the only path to truth.[122] For Peirce commitment to inquiry was essential to truth-finding, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry is not fruitless. The interpretation of these principles has been subject to discussion ever since. Peirce's maxim of pragmatism is, "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object."[123] Critics accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: that because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is an appropriate basis for its truthfulness.[124] Pragmatist thinkers include Dewey, George Santayana, and C. I. Lewis. Pragmatism was later worked on by neopragmatists Richard Rorty who was the first to develop neopragmatist philosophy in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979),[125] Hilary Putnam, W. V. O. Quine, and Donald Davidson. Neopragmatism has been described as a bridge between analytic and continental philosophy.[126] Process philosophy[edit] Main article: Process philosophy Process philosophy is a tradition beginning with Alfred North Whitehead, who began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard University in 1924.[127] This tradition identifies metaphysical reality with change. Process philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy, because it is usually only taught in continental departments.[128] However, other sources state that process philosophy should be placed somewhere in the middle between the poles of analytic versus continental methods in contemporary philosophy.[129][130] Influence by non-Western philosophy[edit] Eastern philosophy[edit] Pyrrhonism[edit] Main article: Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism The Ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho accompanied Alexander the Great in his eastern campaigns, spending about 18 months in India. Pyrrho subsequently returned to Greece and founded Pyrrhonism, a philosophy with substantial similarities with Buddhism. The Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius explained that Pyrrho's equanimity and detachment from the world were acquired in India.[131] Pyrrho was directly influenced by Buddhism in developing his philosophy, which is based on Pyrrho's interpretation of the Buddhist three marks of existence.[132] According to Edward Conze, Pyrrhonism can be compared to Buddhist philosophy, especially the Indian Madhyamika school.[133] The Pyrrhonists' goal of ataraxia (the state of being untroubled) is a soteriological goal similar to nirvana. The Pyrrhonists promoted suspending judgm ient (epoché) about dogma (beliefs about non-evident matters) as the way to reach ataraxia. This is similar to the Buddha's refusal to answer certain metaphysical questions which he saw as non-conductive to the path of Buddhist practice and Nagarjuna's "relinquishing of all views (drsti)". Adrian Kuzminski argues for direct influence between these two systems of thought. In Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism[134] According to Kuzminski, both philosophies argue against assenting to any dogmatic assertions about an ultimate metaphysical reality behind our sense impressions as a tactic to reach tranquility and both also make use of logical arguments against other philosophies in order to expose their contradictions.[134] Cyrenaicism[edit] The Cyrenaic philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene is thought by some to have been influenced by the teachings of Ashoka's Buddhist missionaries.[135] Spinozism[edit] Similarities between Spinozism and Eastern philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the Vedanta tradition of India.[136][137] It has also been said that Spinozism is similar to the Hindu doctrines of Samkhya and Yoga. Though within the various existing Indian traditions there exist many traditions which astonishingly had such similar doctrines from ages, out of which most similar and well known are the Kashmiri Shaivism and Nath tradition, apart from already existing Samkhya and Yoga.[138] The self[edit] Empiricist philosophers, such as Hume and Berkeley, favoured the bundle theory of personal identity.[139] In this theory, the mind is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity.[140] One interpretation of Hume's view of the self, argued for by philosopher and psychologist James Giles, is that Hume is not arguing for a bundle theory, which is a form of reductionism, but rather for an eliminative view of the self. Rather than reducing the self to a bundle of perceptions, Hume rejects the idea of the self altogether. On this interpretation, Hume is proposing a "no-self theory" and thus has much in common with Buddhist thought (see anattā). Psychologist Alison Gopnik has argued that Hume was in a position to learn about Buddhist thought during his time in France in the 1730s.[141] See also[edit] Philosophy portal African philosophy Eastern philosophy Glossary of philosophy History of metaphysical realism History of metaphysical naturalism History of philosophy Index of philosophy List of philosophers List of philosophical theories List of philosophies Pseudophilosophy National traditions American philosophy British philosophy French philosophy German philosophy (including Austrian philosophy) Polish philosophy Non-mainstream movements New realism Objectivism Personalism Post-analytic philosophy Post-Continental philosophy Theosophy (Theosophy and Western philosophy) References[edit] ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019). The history of philosophy. New York. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-9848-7874-8. OCLC 1054371393. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ West, Thomas G., and Platon. Plato's Apology of Socrates: an interpretation, with a new translation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979. ^ a b c Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Evangeliou, Christos C. (2001). "European Philosophy: Simply a Series of Footnotes to Plato?". Mediterranean Studies. 10: 167–180. ISSN 1074-164X. JSTOR 41166929. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ a b c d Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Roman Philosophy (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Annas 1995, p. 231 ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781400866328. ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232 ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231 ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Arcesilaus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ^ "Plato, Phaedo, page 64". ^ Veres, Máté (2009). "Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung". Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107. ^ Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th Edition, page 309 ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Augustine to Scotus (Burns & Oates, 1950), p. 1, dates medieval philosophy proper from the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century to the end of the fourteenth century, though he includes Augustine and the Patristic fathers as precursors. Desmond Henry, in Edwards 1967, pp. 252–257 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEdwards1967 (help) volume 5, starts with Augustine and ends with Nicholas of Oresme in the late fourteenth century. David Luscombe, Medieval Thought (Oxford University Press, 1997), dates medieval philosophy from the conversion of Constantine in 312 to the Protestant Reformation in the 1520s. Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), covers philosophers from Augustine to Ockham. Gracia 2008, p. 620 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGracia2008 (help) identifies medieval philosophy as running from Augustine to John of St. Thomas in the seventeenth century. Kenny 2012, volume II harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKenny2012 (help) begins with Augustine and ends with the Lateran Council of 1512. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 11132-1133 ^ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159 ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ a b c Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5. ^ Schmitt & Skinner 1988, p. 5, loosely define the period as extending "from the age of Ockham to the revisionary work of Bacon, Descartes and their contemporaries. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988 (help) ^ Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez (The Newman Press, 1953), p. 18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy ... one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies." ^ Brian Copenhaver and Charles Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read." ^ Gracia, Jorge J.E. Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject. p. 621. the humanists ... restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato. in Bunnin & Tsui-James 2008 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBunninTsui-James2008 (help). ^ Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez (The Newman Press, 1953), p. 29: "The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians ... but none the less the classical revival ... helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception." ^ Schmitt & Skinner 1988, pp. 61, 63: "From Petrarch the early humanists learnt their conviction that the revival of humanae literae was only the first step in a greater intellectual renewal" [...] "the very conception of philosophy was changing because its chief object was now man—man was at centre of every inquiry." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchmittSkinner1988 (help) ^ Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall, eds. (1948). "Introduction". The Renaissance Philosophy of Man. University of Chicago Press. ^ James Daniel Collins, Interpreting Modern Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 2015, p. 85. ^ Brian Leiter (ed.), The Future for Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 44 n. 2. ^ "Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Hobbes is the founding father of modern political philosophy. Directly or indirectly, he has set the terms of debate about the fundamentals of political life right into our own times." ^ "Contractarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018.: "Contractarianism [...] stems from the Hobbesian line of social contract thought" ^ Diane Collinson (1987). Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide. p. 125. ^ Rutherford 2006, p. xiii, defines its subject thus: "what has come to be known as "early modern philosophy"—roughly, philosophy spanning the period between the end of the sixteenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, or, in terms of figures, Montaigne through Kant." Nadler 2008, p. 1, likewise identifies its subject as "the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNadler2008 (help). Kenny 2012, p. 107, introduces "early modern philosophy" as "the writings of the classical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe". harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKenny2012 (help) ^ Steven Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, 2008, pp. 1–2: "By the seventeenth century [...] it had become more common to find original philosophical minds working outside the strictures of the university—i.e., ecclesiastic—framework. [...] by the end of the eighteenth century, [philosophy] was a secular enterprise." ^ Anthony Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. xii: "To someone approaching the early modern period of philosophy from an ancient and medieval background the most striking feature of the age is the absence of Aristotle from the philosophic scene." ^ Donald Rutherford, The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge." ^ Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, p. 211: "The period between Descartes and Hegel was the great age of metaphysical system-building." ^ Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, pp. 179–180: "the seventeenth century saw the gradual separation of the old discipline of natural philosophy into the science of physics [...] [b]y the nineteenth century physics was a fully mature empirical science, operating independently of philosophy." ^ Jeffrey Tlumak, Classical Modern Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction, Routledge, 2006, p. xi: "[Classical Modern Philosophy] is a guide through the systems of the seven brilliant seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European philosophers most regularly taught in college Modern Philosophy courses". ^ Richard Schacht, Classical Modern Philosophers: Descartes to Kant, Routledge, 2013, p. 1: "Seven men have come to stand out from all of their counterparts in what has come to be known as the 'modern' period in the history of philosophy (i.e., the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries): Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume and Kant". ^ Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, pp. 212–331. ^ Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, pp. 2–3: "Why should the early modern period in philosophy begin with Descartes and Bacon, for example, rather than with Erasmus and Montaigne? [...] Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and especially with Bacon and Descartes, certain questions and concerns come to the fore—a variety of issues that motivated the inquiries and debates that would characterize much philosophical thinking for the next two centuries." ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b c Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Rutherford, Donald (2006-10-12). The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-82242-8. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b c Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. pp. 226–227. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. pp. 251–253. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Rutherford 2006, p. 1: "epistemology assumes a new significance in the early modern period as philosophers strive to define the conditions and limits of human knowledge." ^ Kenny, A New History of Western Philosophy, vol. 3, p. xiii. ^ Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 3. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. pp. 259–261. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Karl Ameriks, Kant's Elliptical Path, Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 307: "The phenomenon of late modern philosophy can be said to have begun right around the pivotal year of 1781, when Kant's Critique of Pure Reason appeared. It was around this time that German thought started to understand itself as existing in a period when philosophy's main traditional options appeared to have been played out, and it no longer seemed appropriate to define oneself as simply modern or enlightened." ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Baldwin 2003, p. Western philosophy, p. 4, at Google Booksby the 1870s Germany contained much of the best universities in the world. [...] There were certainly more professors of philosophy in Germany in 1870 than anywhere else in the world, and perhaps more even than everywhere else put together. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaldwin2003 (help) ^ Beiser, Frederick C., The Cambridge Companion to Hegel (Cambridge, 1993), page 2. ^ Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801, Harvard University Press, 2002, p. viii: "the young romantics—Hölderlin, Schlegel, Novalis—[were] crucial figures in the development of German idealism." ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ Baldwin 2003, p. 119: "within a hundred years of the first stirrings in the early nineteenth century [logic] had undergone the most fundamental transformation and substantial advance in its history." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBaldwin2003 (help) ^ Nicholas Joll, "Contemporary Metaphilosophy" ^ Spindel Conference 2002 – 100 Years of Metaethics. The Legacy of G.E. Moore, University of Memphis, 2003, p. 165. ^ M.E. Waithe (ed.), A History of Women Philosophers: Volume IV: Contemporary Women Philosophers, 1900-Today, Springer, 1995. ^ Russell, Bertrand (22 February 1999). "The Principles of Mathematics (1903)". Fair-use.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ Halberstadt, Max (c. 1921). "Sigmund Freud, half-length portrait, facing left, holding cigar in right hand". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017. ^ Michael Rosen, "Continental Philosophy from Hegel", in A. C. Grayling (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject, Oxford University Press (1998), p. 665. ^ John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pages 18–21. ^ Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), page 259. ^ John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pages 14–15. ^ Robert C. Solomon, Existentialism (McGraw-Hill, 1974), pages 1–2. ^ Ernst Breisach, Introduction to Modern Existentialism, New York (1962), page 5 ^ Walter Kaufmann, Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre, New York (1956), page 12 ^ Matustik, Martin J. (1995). Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20967-2. ^ Solomon, Robert (2001). What Nietzsche Really Said. Schocken. ISBN 978-0-8052-1094-1. ^ Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include Gabriel Marcel, Nicholas Berdyaev, Miguel de Unamuno, and Karl Jaspers (although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers Martin Buber and Lev Shestov have also been associated with existentialism. ^ Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801, Harvard University Press, 2002, part I. ^ Geuss, R. The Idea of a Critical Theory, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, ch. 4. ^ Smith, Woodruff D. (2007). Husserl. Routledge. ^ Dreyfus, Hubert L.; Wrathall, Mark A. (2011). A Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5656-4. ^ Pragmatism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). 13 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013. ^ Rorty, Richard (1982). The Consequences of Pragmatism. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press. p. xvi. ^ Putnam, Hilary (1995). Pragmatism: An Open Question. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 8–12. ^ Peirce, C. S. (1878), "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, 286–302. Reprinted often, including Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 388–410 and Essential Peirce v. 1, 124–41. See end of §II for the pragmatic maxim. See third and fourth paragraphs in §IV for the discoverability of truth and the real by sufficient investigation. Also see quotes from Peirce from across the years in the entries for "Truth" and "Pragmatism, Maxim of..." in the Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms, Mats Bergman and Sami Paavola, editors, University of Helsinki. ^ Peirce on p. 293 of "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 286–302. Reprinted widely, including Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 5, paragraphs 388–410. ^ Pratt, J.B. (1909). What is Pragmatism?. New York: Macmillan. p. 89. ^ Pragmatism – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ William Egginton/Mike Sandbothe (eds.). The Pragmatic Turn in Philosophy. Contemporary Engagement between Analytic and Continental Thought. SUNY Press. 2004. Back cover. ^ "Alfred North Whitehead (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". ^ William Blattner, "Some Thoughts About "Continental" and "Analytic" Philosophy" ^ Seibt, Johanna. "Process Philosophy". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Nicholas Gaskill, A.J. Nocek, The Lure of Whitehead, University of Minnesota Press, 2014, p. 4: "it is no wonder that Whitehead fell by the wayside. He was too scientific for the "continentals," not scientific enough for the "analytics," and too metaphysical—which is to say uncritical—for them both" and p. 231: "the analytics and continentals are both inclined toward Kantian presuppositions in a manner that Latour and Whitehead brazenly renounce." ^ "He would withdraw from the world and live in solitude, rarely showing himself to his relatives; this is because he had heard an Indian reproach Anaxarchus, telling him that he would never be able to teach others what is good while he himself danced attendance on kings in their court. He would maintain the same composure at all times." (Diogenes Laertius, IX.63 on Pyrrhon) ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781400866328. ^ Conze, Edward. Buddhist Philosophy and Its European Parallels. Philosophy East and West 13, p.9-23, no.1, January 1963. University Press of Hawaii. ^ a b Adrian Kuzminski (2008), Pyrrhonism How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism; for a recent study see Georgios T . Halkias, "The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic World", 2015, Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 8, 163–186. ^ "The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene (nicknamed Peisithanatos, "The advocate of death") was a contemporary of Magas and was probably influenced by the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries to Cyrene and Alexandria. His influence was such that he was ultimately prohibited from teaching." Jean-Marie Lafont, Inalco in "Les Dossiers d'Archéologie", No. 254, p. 78 ^ Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32. ^ The Westminster Review, Volumes 78–79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862 ^ Disguised and overt Spinozism around 1700 – Page 133 ^ Dicker, Georges (2002-01-04). Hume's Epistemology and Metaphysics: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-134-71425-4. ^ "Western philosophy | History, Figures, Schools, Movements, Books, Beliefs, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-05-18. ^ Garfield, Jay L. (2015). Engaging Buddhism : why it matters to philosophy. Oxford. pp. 45, 107. ISBN 978-0-19-020434-1. OCLC 884817774. Cite error: A list-defined reference named "philosophical13" is not used in the content (see the help page). Sources[edit] Annas, Julia (1995), The Morality of Happiness, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-509652-5 Reale, Giovanni; Catan, John R. (1986), A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Origins to Socrates, SUNY Press, ISBN 0-88706-290-3 Further reading[edit] Copleston, Frederick (1946–1975). A History of Philosophy, 11 vols. Continuum. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1996) [1892 Kegan Paul]. Haldane, Elizabeth Sanderson, ed. Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie [Hegel's Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 3 vols.]. Humanities Press International. Kenny, Anthony (2010). A New History of Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Russell, Bertrand (1945). A History of Western Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. External links[edit] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Western philosophy at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Western philosophy at PhilPapers v t e Philosophy Branches Traditional Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics Philosophy of... 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en-wikipedia-org-4611	----	Paul the Apostle - Wikipedia Paul the Apostle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Saint Paul) Jump to navigation Jump to search Early Christian apostle and missionary (c. AD 5 - c. AD 64/67) "Saint Paul" redirects here. For other uses, see Saint Paul (disambiguation). Saint Paul the Apostle The Predication of Saint Paul, in Los Angeles County Museum of Art Apostle to the Gentiles, Martyr Born Saul of Tarsus c. 5 AD[1] Tarsus, Cilicia, Roman Empire (modern-day Turkey) Died c. 64/67 AD (aged 61–62 or 64–65)[2][3][4] Rome, Italia, Roman Empire[2][5] Venerated in All Christian denominations that venerate saints Canonized Pre-Congregation Major shrine Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, Rome, Italy Feast 25 January – Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul 10 February – Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta 29 June – Feast of Saints Peter and Paul (with Peter the Apostle) 30 June – Former solo feast day, still celebrated by some religious orders 18 November – Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul Attributes Christian martyrdom, sword, book Patronage Missionaries, theologians, evangelists, and Gentile Christians Theology career Education School of Gamaliel[Acts 22:3] Occupation Christian missionary Notable work Epistle to the Romans Epistle to the Galatians 1st Epistle to the Corinthians 2nd Epistle to the Corinthians 1st Epistle to the Thessalonians Epistle to Philemon Epistle to the Philippians Theological work Era Apostolic Age Language Latin, Koine Greek and Hebrew Tradition or movement Pauline Christianity Main interests Torah, Christology, Eschatology, Soteriology, Ecclesiology Notable ideas Pauline privilege, Law of Christ, Holy Spirit, unknown God, divinity of Jesus, thorn in the flesh, Pauline mysticism, biblical inspiration, supersessionism, non-circumcision, salvation Part of a series on Christianity Jesus Christ Nativity Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Church Creed New Covenant Theology God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition Apostles Peter Paul Mary Early Christianity Church Fathers Constantine Councils Augustine East–West Schism Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther Denominations Groups Western Roman Catholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Moravian Pentecostal Quaker Reformed Eastern Eastern Catholic Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Church of the East (Nestorian) Restorationist Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Iglesia ni Cristo Related topics Art Criticism Ecumenism Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Worship  Christianity portal v t e Paul the Apostle,[note 1][2] commonly known as Saint Paul and also known by his Hebrew name Saul of Tarsus,[note 2][6] was a Christian apostle (although not one of the Twelve Apostles) who spread the teachings of Jesus in the first-century world.[7] Generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age,[6][8] he founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD.[9] According to the New Testament book Acts of the Apostles (often called the Book of Acts or simply Acts), Paul participated in the persecution of early disciples of Jesus, possibly Hellenised diaspora Jews converted to Christianity,[10] in the area of Jerusalem, prior to his conversion.[note 3] In the narrative of Acts, Paul was traveling on the road from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "arrest them and bring them back to Jerusalem" when the ascended Jesus appeared to him in a great bright light. He was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth was the Jewish messiah and the Son of God.[Acts 9:20–21] Approximately half of the Book of Acts deals with Paul's life and works. Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul.[11] Seven of the Pauline epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, with varying degrees of argument about the remainder. Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.[note 4] It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews,[13] but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars.[13][14] The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.[7][6][note 5] Other scholars argue that the idea of a pseudonymous author for the disputed epistles raises many problems.[16] Today, Paul's epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship and pastoral life in the Latin and Protestant traditions of the West, as well as the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions of the East.[17] Paul's influence on Christian thought and practice has been characterized as being as "profound as it is pervasive", among that of many other apostles and missionaries involved in the spread of the Christian faith.[7] Contents 1 Names 2 Available sources 3 Biblical narrative 3.1 Early life 3.2 Persecution and conversion 3.3 Post-conversion 3.4 Early ministry 3.5 First missionary journey 3.6 Council of Jerusalem 3.7 Incident at Antioch 3.8 Second missionary journey 3.9 Interval in Corinth 3.10 Third missionary journey 3.11 Journey from Rome to Spain 3.11.1 Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles 3.11.2 Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest 3.11.3 Two years in Rome 3.11.4 Death 4 Remains 5 Church tradition 6 Physical appearance 7 Writings 7.1 Date 7.2 Authorship 7.3 Acts 8 Views 8.1 Self-view 8.2 Understanding of Jesus Christ 8.3 Atonement 8.4 Relationship with Judaism 8.5 World to come 8.6 Role of women 8.7 Views on homosexuality 9 Influence 9.1 Pauline Christianity 9.2 Marcion 9.3 Augustine 9.4 Reformation 9.5 John Calvin 9.6 Modern theology 10 Views on Paul 10.1 Jewish views 10.2 Gnosticism 10.3 Muslim views 10.4 Other views 11 See also 12 References 12.1 Notes 12.2 Citations 12.3 Bibliography 12.4 Further reading 13 External links Names[edit] Paul's Jewish name was "Saul" (Hebrew: שאול‎, Modern: Sha'ûl, Tiberian: Šāʼûl), perhaps after the biblical King Saul, the first king of Israel and like Paul a member of the Tribe of Benjamin; the Latin name Paul, meaning small, was not a result of his conversion but a second name for use in communicating with a Greco-Roman audience.[18] According to the Book of Acts, he was a Roman citizen.[Acts 22:25–29] As such, he also bore the Latin name of "Paul" (essentially a Latin approximation of Saul) – in biblical Greek: Παῦλος (Paulos),[19] and in Latin: Paulus.[note 6][Acts 16:37][22:25–28] It was typical for the Jews of that time to have two names: one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek.[20][21][22] Jesus called him "Saul, Saul"[Acts 9:4; 22:7; 26:14] in "the Hebrew tongue" in the Book of Acts, when he had the vision which led to his conversion on the road to Damascus.[Acts 26:14] Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".[Acts 9:11] When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".[Acts 9:17; 22:13] In Acts 13:9, Saul is called "Paul" for the first time on the island of Cyprus – much later than the time of his conversion. The author of Luke–Acts indicates that the names were interchangeable: "Saul, who also is called Paul." He refers to him as Paul through the remainder of Luke–Acts. This was apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned, including those that he authored. Adopting his Roman name was typical of Paul's missionary style. His method was to put people at their ease and to approach them with his message in a language and style to which they could relate, as in 1 Cor 9:19–23.[23] Available sources[edit] Further information: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles The Conversion of Saul, fresco by Michelangelo, 1542–1545 The main source for information about Paul's life is the material found in his epistles and in the Book of Acts.[24] However, the epistles contain little information about Paul's pre-conversion past. The Book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his probable but undocumented execution in Rome.[25] Some scholars believe the Book of Acts to also contradict Paul's epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Paul's visits to the church in Jerusalem.[26][27] Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul include: Clement of Rome's epistle to the Corinthians (late 1st/early 2nd century); Ignatius of Antioch's epistles to the Romans and to the Ephesians[28] (early 2nd century); Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians (early 2nd century); Biblical narrative[edit] Early life[edit] Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem to Rome The two main sources of information that give access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Book of Acts and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities.[24] Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.[29] The Book of Acts indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, but Helmut Koester takes issue with the evidence presented by the text.[30][Acts 16:37][Acts 22:25–29] He was from a devout Jewish family[31] based in the city of Tarsus.[18] One of the larger centers of trade on the Mediterranean coast and renowned for its university, Tarsus had been among the most influential cities in Asia Minor since the time of Alexander the Great, who died in 323 BC.[31] Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee".[Phil. 3:5][32] The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees".[Acts 23:6][33] Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16. In Romans 16:7 he states that his relatives, Andronicus and Junia, were Christians before he was and were prominent among the Apostles. The family had a history of religious piety.[2 Timothy 1:3][note 7] Apparently, the family lineage had been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations.[Philippians 3:5–6] Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the leather crafting or tent-making profession.[Acts 18:1–3][34] This was to become an initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila, with whom he would partner in tentmaking[Acts 18:3] and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.[Rom. 16:4] Robert Eisenman argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[35] Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus in Book 20, Chapter 9 of Antiquities of the Jews as "Saulus", who was "kindred to Agrippa".[36] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman". While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of Gamaliel,[Acts 22:3][32] one of the most noted teachers of Jewish law in history. Although modern scholarship agrees that Paul was educated under the supervision of Gamaliel in Jerusalem,[32] he was not preparing to become a scholar of Jewish law, and probably never had any contact with the Hillelite school.[32] Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.[Acts 23:16][18] Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen,[Acts 7:58–60; 22:20] a Hellenised diaspora Jew.[37] Although it is known (from his biography and from Acts) that Paul could and did speak Hebrew,[18] modern scholarship suggests that Koine Greek was his first language.[38][39] In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.[40][41] Persecution and conversion[edit] Main article: Conversion of Paul the Apostle Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601), by Caravaggio Paul says that prior to his conversion[Gal. 1:13–14] [Phil. 3:6] [Acts 8:1–3] he persecuted early Christians "beyond measure", more specifically Hellenised diaspora Jewish members who had returned to the area of Jerusalem.[42][note 3] According to James Dunn, the Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.[43] Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.[44] Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their continuing participation in the Temple cult.[44] Paul's conversion can be dated to 31–36[45][46][47] by his reference to it in one of his letters. In Galatians 1:16 Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also." According to the account in the Book of Acts, it took place on the road to Damascus, where he reported having experienced a vision of the ascended Jesus. The account says that "He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, 'Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?' He asked, 'Who are you, Lord?' The reply came, 'I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting'."[Acts 9:4–5]. According to the account in Acts 9:1–22, he was blinded for three days and had to be led into Damascus by the hand. During these three days, Saul took no food or water and spent his time in prayer to God. When Ananias of Damascus arrived, he laid his hands on him and said: "Brother Saul, the Lord, [even] Jesus, that appeared unto thee in the way as thou camest, hath sent me, that thou mightest receive thy sight, and be filled with the Holy Ghost."[Acts 9:17] His sight was restored, he got up and was baptized.[Acts 9:18] This story occurs only in Acts, not in the Pauline epistles.[48] The author of the Book of Acts may have learned of Paul's conversion from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch, or possibly from Paul himself.[49] According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish Merkabah tradition.[50] Similarly, Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens as the earliest first-person accounts we have of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature. Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.[51] Post-conversion[edit] Caravaggio (1571–1610), The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600 Apostle Paul, by Rembrandt c. 1633 Apostle Paul, by Rembrandt c. 1657 According to Acts, And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, "He is the Son of God." And all who heard him were amazed and said, "Is not this the man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?" But Saul increased all the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that Jesus was the Christ. — Acts 9:20–22 Early ministry[edit] The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus in Damascus Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts 9 states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.[52] Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death.[2 Cor. 11:32] Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.[Gal. 1:17][53] Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually traveled to Mount Sinai for meditations in the desert.[54][55] He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.[Gal. 1:13–24] Paul located Mount Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24–25. Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from man, but directly by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".[Gal 1:11–16] He claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community[56] (possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel.[Gal 1:22–24] He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various growing Gentile churches that he started. In his writings, Paul used the persecutions he endured to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching. Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.[Gal. 2:1–10] It is not known what happened during this time, but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.[57] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him to Antioch.[58]Acts 11:26 The Christian community at Antioch had been established by Hellenised diaspora Jews living in Jerusalem, who played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."[59] From Antioch the mission to the Gentiles started, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.[60] When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46,[61] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[62] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".Acts 11:26 First missionary journey[edit] The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,[Acts 13–14] for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch community,[63] and led initially by Barnabas,[note 8] took Barnabas and Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and finally returning to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician[Acts 13:8–12] who was criticizing their teachings. They sailed to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark left them and returned to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas went on to Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they went to the synagogue. The leaders invited them to speak. Paul reviewed Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduced Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounted the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quoted from the Septuagint[64] to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the "God-fearing" Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.[Acts 13:13–48] Antioch served as a major Christian home base for Paul's early missionary activities,[5] and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples"[Acts 14:28] at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight years.[65] In Raymond Brown's An Introduction to the New Testament (1997), a chronology of events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th-century writings of biblical scholars.[66] The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a "traditional" (and majority) dating of 46–49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of after 37 AD.[67] Council of Jerusalem[edit] Main article: Council of Jerusalem See also: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 by "traditional" (and majority) dating, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of 47/51.[68] The meeting is described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.[25] The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.[69][Acts 15:2][Galatians 2:1] At this meeting, Paul states in his letter to the Galatians, Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters.[70] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief[Acts 11:27–30] apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only).[Gal. 1:18–20][70] FF Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem.[71] Incident at Antioch[edit] Main article: Incident at Antioch Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.[69] Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[Gal. 2:11–14] Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter.[69] The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke".[69] However Paul himself never mentions a victory and L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return".[72] The primary source account of the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.[Gal. 2:11–14] Second missionary journey[edit] Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael, 1515. This sermon addressed early issues in Christology.[73][74] Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,[75] after the meeting of the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean Sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul. Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. Paul and his companions, Silas and Timothy, had plans to journey to the southwest portion of Asia Minor to preach the gospel but during the night, Paul had a vision of a man of Macedonia standing and begging him to go to Macedonia to help them. After seeing the vision, Paul and his companions left for Macedonia to preach the gospel to them.[Acts 16:6–10] The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily.[Acts 16:5] In Philippi, Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided.[Acts 16:16–24] They seized Paul and Silas and dragged them into the marketplace before the authorities and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.[Acts 16:25–40] They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens, where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus. Paul continued from Athens to Corinth. Interval in Corinth[edit] Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth. The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio Inscription).[25] In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila,[Acts 18:2] who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time.[Acts 18:18–21] In 52, departing from Corinth, Paul stopped at the nearby village of Cenchreae to have his hair cut off, because of a vow he had earlier taken.[Acts 18:18] It is possible this was to be a final haircut prior to fulfilling his vow to become a Nazirite for a defined period of time.[76] With Priscilla and Aquila, the missionaries then sailed to Ephesus[Acts 18:19–21] and then Paul alone went on to Caesarea to greet the Church there. He then traveled north to Antioch, where he stayed for some time (Greek: ποιησας χρονον, perhaps about a year), before leaving again on a third missionary journey.[citation needed] Some New Testament texts[note 9] suggest that he also visited Jerusalem during this period for one of the Jewish feasts, possibly Pentecost.[Acts 18:21] Textual critic Henry Alford and others consider the reference to a Jerusalem visit to be genuine[77] and it accords with Acts 21:29, according to which Paul and Trophimus the Ephesian had previously been seen in Jerusalem. Third missionary journey[edit] The Preaching of Saint Paul at Ephesus by Eustache Le Sueur (1649)[78] According to Acts, Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center of early Christianity, and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tentmaker,[Acts 20:34] as he had done when he stayed in Corinth. He is claimed to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions.[25] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.[25] During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in Corinth.[79] The Jerusalem Bible suggests that the letter to the church in Philippi was also written from Ephesus.[80] Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea[Acts 20:1–2] and stayed in Greece, probably Corinth, for three months[Acts 20:1–2] during 56–57 AD.[25] Commentators generally agree that Paul dictated his Epistle to the Romans during this period.[81] He then made ready to continue on to Syria, but he changed his plans and traveled back through Macedonia because of some Jews who had made a plot against him. In Romans 15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca,[82] which was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia.[83] On their way back to Jerusalem, Paul and his companions visited other cities such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea, where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.[Acts 21:8–10] [21:15] According to Charles Woods' studies of Albania from 1918, when St Paul arrived in Illyria, he stated "Round about unto Illyricum I have fully preached the Gospel of Christ".[84] Journey from Rome to Spain[edit] Among the writings of the early Christians, Pope Clement I said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".[85] John Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not".[86] Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".[87] The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain".[88] Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles[edit] This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[70] Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars. Acts Epistles First visit to Jerusalem[Acts 9:26–27] "after many days" of Damascus conversion preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas meets apostles First visit to Jerusalem[Gal. 1:18–20] three years after Damascus conversion[Gal. 1:17–18] sees only Cephas (Peter) and James Second visit to Jerusalem[Acts 11:29–30] [12:25] for famine relief There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief[Acts 11:30, 12:25] or the Jerusalem Council.[Acts 15] If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".[Gal. 2:1] Third visit to Jerusalem[Acts 15:1–19] with Barnabas "Council of Jerusalem" followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch[Acts 15:36–40] Another[note 10] visit to Jerusalem[Gal. 2:1–10] 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?) with Barnabas and Titus possibly the "Council of Jerusalem" Paul agrees to "remember the poor" followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch[Gal. 2:11–14] Fourth visit to Jerusalem[Acts 18:21–22] to "greet the church" Apparently unmentioned. Fifth visit to Jerusalem[Acts 21:17ff] after an absence of several years[Acts 24:17] to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings Paul arrested Another[note 11] visit to Jerusalem.[Romans 15:25],[2 Corinthians 8–9],[1 Corinthians 16:1–3] to deliver the collection for the poor Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest[edit] Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration In 57, upon completion of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for his fifth and final visit with a collection of money for the local community. The Book of Acts reports that he initially was warmly received. However, Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by James and the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being against the Law, saying "they have been told about you that you teach all the Jews living among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs."[Acts 21:21] Paul underwent a purification ritual so that "all will know that there is nothing in what they have been told about you, but that you yourself observe and guard the law."[Acts 21:22-26] When the seven days of the purification ritual were almost completed, some "Jews from Asia" (most likely from Roman Asia) accused Paul of defiling the temple by bringing gentiles into it. He was seized and dragged out of the temple by an angry mob. When the tribune heard of the uproar, he and some centurions and soldiers rushed to the area. Unable to determine his identity and the cause of the uproar, they placed him in chains.[Acts 21:27–36] He was about to be taken into the barracks when he asked to speak to the people. He was given permission by the Romans and proceeded to tell his story. After a while, the crowd responded, "Up to this point they listened to him, but then they shouted, 'Away with such a fellow from the earth! For he should not be allowed to live.'"[Acts 22:22] The tribune ordered that Paul be brought into the barracks and questioned by flogging. Paul asserted his Roman citizenship, which would prevent his flogging. The tribune "wanted to find out what Paul was being accused of by the Jews, the next day he released him and ordered the chief priests and the entire council to meet".[Acts 22:30] Paul spoke before the council and caused a disagreement between the Pharisees and the Sadducees. When this threatened to turn violent, the tribune ordered his soldiers to take Paul by force and return him to the barracks.[Acts 23:10] The next morning, forty Jews "bound themselves by an oath neither to eat nor drink until they had killed Paul", [Acts 23:12] but the son of Paul's sister heard of the plot and notified Paul, who notified the tribune that the conspiracists were going to ambush him. The tribune ordered two centurions to "Get ready to leave by nine o'clock tonight for Caesarea with two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen. Also provide mounts for Paul to ride, and take him safely to Felix the governor."[Acts 23:23] Paul was taken to Caesarea, where the governor ordered that he be kept under guard in Herod's headquarters. "Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against Paul to the governor."[Acts 24:1] Both Paul and the Jewish authorities gave a statement "But Felix, who was rather well informed about the Way, adjourned the hearing with the comment, "When Lysias the tribune comes down, I will decide your case."[Acts 24:22] Marcus Antonius Felix then ordered the centurion to keep Paul in custody, but to "let him have some liberty and not to prevent any of his friends from taking care of his needs."[Acts 24:23] He was held there for two years by Felix, until a new governor, Porcius Festus, was appointed. The "chief priests and the leaders of the Jews" requested that Festus return Paul to Jerusalem. After Festus had stayed in Jerusalem "not more than eight or ten days, he went down to Caesarea; the next day he took his seat on the tribunal and ordered Paul to be brought." When Festus suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar".[25] Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes.[89] Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta),[Acts 27:39–44] where the islanders showed him "unusual kindness" and where he was met by Publius.[Acts 28:1–10] From Malta, he travelled to Rome via Syracuse, Rhegium and Puteoli.[Acts 28:11–14] Two years in Rome[edit] Paul Arrives in Rome, from Die Bibel in Bildern He finally arrived in Rome around 60, where he spent another two years under house arrest.[89] The narrative of Acts ends with Paul preaching in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial.[Acts 28:30–31] Irenaeus wrote in the 2nd century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[90] Paul was not a bishop of Rome, nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there.[Acts 28:14–15] Also, Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome.[Romans 1:1, 7, 11–13; 15:23–29] Paul only played a supporting part in the life of the church in Rome.[91] Death[edit] The Beheading of Saint Paul by Enrique Simonet, 1887 The date of Paul's death is believed to have occurred after the Great Fire of Rome in July 64, but before the last year of Nero's reign, in 68.[2] According to the First Epistle of Clement (95–96 AD),[92] Ignatius (110 AD)[93] and Dionysius of Corinth (166–174 AD)[94][95] Paul was martyred. The apocryphal Acts of Paul (160 AD),[96] Tertullian (200 AD),[97] Eusebius of Caesarea (320 AD),[94] Lactantius (318 AD),[98] Jerome (392 AD),[99] John Chrysostom (c. 349–407)[100] and Sulpicius Severus (403 AD)[101] describe the martyrdom of Paul citing that Nero condemned Paul to death by decapitation at Rome. A legend later[when?] developed that his martyrdom occurred at the Aquae Salviae, on the Via Laurentina. According to this legend, after Paul was decapitated, his severed head rebounded three times, giving rise to a source of water each time that it touched the ground, which is how the place earned the name "San Paolo alle Tre Fontane" ("St Paul at the Three Fountains").[102][103] Remains[edit] According to further legend, Paul's body was buried outside the walls of Rome, at the second mile on the Via Ostiensis, on the estate owned by a Christian woman named Lucina. It was here, in the fourth century, that the Emperor Constantine the Great built a first church. Then, between the fourth and fifth centuries, it was considerably enlarged by the Emperors Valentinian I, Valentinian II, Theodosius I, and Arcadius. The present-day Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls was built there in the early 19th century.[102] Caius in his Disputation Against Proclus (198 AD) mentions this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited: "I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church".[94] Jerome in his De Viris Illustribus (392 AD) writing on Paul's biography, mentions that "Paul was buried in the Ostian Way at Rome".[99] In 2002, an 8-foot (2.4 m)-long marble sarcophagus, inscribed with the words "PAULO APOSTOLO MART" ("Paul apostle martyr") was discovered during excavations around the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls on the Via Ostiensis. Vatican archaeologists declared this to be the tomb of Paul the Apostle in 2005.[104] In June 2009, Pope Benedict XVI announced excavation results concerning the tomb. The sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon-dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings support the conclusion that the tomb is Paul's.[105][106] Church tradition[edit] Greek Orthodox mural painting of Saint Paul Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life. 1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome around the year 90, reports this about Paul: By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance. — Lightfoot 1890, p. 274, The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5–6 Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation".[107] Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero.[94] This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. According to one tradition, the church of San Paolo alle Tre Fontane marks the place of Paul's execution. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, commemorates his martyrdom, and reflects a tradition (preserved by Eusebius) that Peter and Paul were martyred at the same time.[94] The Roman liturgical calendar for the following day now remembers all Christians martyred in these early persecutions; formerly, June 30 was the feast day for St. Paul.[108] Persons or religious orders with a special affinity for St. Paul can still celebrate their patron on June 30. Statue of St. Paul, Community Mausoleum of All Saints Cemetery, Des Plaines, Illinois The apocryphal Acts of Paul and the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some think that Paul could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.[2 Tim. 4:13][note 7] A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. Paul is considered the patron saint of London. The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.[109] Paul is remembered (with Peter) in the Church of England with a Festival on 29 June.[110] Physical appearance[edit] The New Testament offers little if any information about the physical appearance of Paul, but several descriptions can be found in apocryphal texts. In the Acts of Paul[111] he is described as "A man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked".[112] In the Latin version of the Acts of Paul and Thecla it is added that he had a red, florid face. In The History of the Contending of Saint Paul his countenance is described as "ruddy with the ruddiness of the skin of the pomegranate".[113] The Acts of Saint Peter confirms that Paul had a bald and shining head, with red hair.[114] As summarised by Barnes,[115] Chrysostom records that Paul's stature was low, his body crooked and his head bald. Lucian, in his Philopatris, describes Paul as "corpore erat parvo (he was small), contracto (contracted), incurvo (crooked), tricubitali (of three cubits, or four feet six)".[20] Nicephorus claims that Paul was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow, with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled, and a bald head. Pseudo-Chrysostom echoes Lucian's height of Paul, referring to him as "the man of three cubits".[20] Writings[edit] Part of a series of articles on Paul in the Bible Pauline literature Romans I Corinthians II Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians I Thessalonians II Thessalonians Pastoral epistles I Timothy II Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews Authorship Paul the Apostle Related literature Lost epistles Apocalypse of Paul Coptic Apocalypse of Paul Corinthians to Paul Acts of Paul Paul and Thecla Peter and Paul Prayer of Paul See also Apostle (Christian) Pauline Christianity v t e Main article: Pauline epistles Statue of St. Paul in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran by Pierre-Étienne Monnot Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Félicité de La Mennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 14 have been attributed to Paul; 7 of these are widely considered authentic and Paul's own, while the authorship of the other 7 is disputed.[116][117][118] The undisputed letters are considered the most important sources since they contain what everyone agrees to be Paul's own statements about his life and thoughts. Theologian Mark Powell writes that Paul directed these 7 letters to specific occasions at particular churches. As an example, if the Corinthian church had not experienced problems concerning its celebration of the Lord's Supper,[1 Cor. 11:17–34] today it would not be known that Paul even believed in that observance or had any opinions about it one way or the other. Powell asks if we might be ignorant of other matters simply because no crises arose that prompted Paul to comment on them.[119] In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus a description of Christian spirituality. His letters have been characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament after the Gospels of Matthew and John.[6][note 12] Date[edit] Paul's authentic letters are roughly dated to the years surrounding the mid-1st century. Placing Paul in this time period is done on the basis of his reported conflicts with other early contemporary figures in the Jesus movement including James and Peter,[120] the references to Paul and his letters by Clement of Rome writing in the late 1st century,[121] his reported issues in Damascus from 2 Cor. 11:32 which he says took place while King Aretas IV was in power,[122] a possible reference to Erastus of Corinth in Rom. 16:23,[123] his reference to preaching in the province of Illyricum (which dissolved in 80),[124] the lack of any references to the Gospels indicating a pre-war time period, the chronology in the Book of Acts placing Paul in this time, and the dependence on Paul's letters by other 1st-century pseudo-Pauline epistles.[125] Authorship[edit] Paul Writing His Epistles, painting attributed to Valentin de Boulogne, 17th century Main article: Authorship of the Pauline epistles Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name – Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon – are almost universally accepted as being entirely authentic (dictated by Paul himself).[6][116][117][118] They are considered the best source of information on Paul's life and especially his thought.[6] Four of the letters (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are widely considered pseudepigraphical, while the authorship of the other two is subject to debate.[116] Colossians and 2  Thessalonians are possibly "Deutero-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by Paul's followers after his death. Similarly, 1  Timothy, 2  Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death. According to their theories, these disputed letters may have come from followers writing in Paul's name, often using material from his surviving letters. These scribes also may have had access to letters written by Paul that no longer survive.[6] The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as "the image of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel.[126] However, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.[20] Ephesians is a letter that is very similar to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way that contrasts with the reference in 1 Cor. 7:8–9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of the second generation of Christians, "built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets" now past.[127] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul's thinking. It has been said, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters, has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.[128] Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia) Three main reasons have been advanced by those who question Paul's authorship of 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus, also known as the Pastoral Epistles. First, they have found a difference in these letters' vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings. Defenders of the authenticity say that they were probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.[128] Second, there is a difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as it is known.[129] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter.[20] Third, 2  Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds with, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians—yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility that Paul requested one of his companions to write the letter for him under his dictation.[20] Acts[edit] Although approximately half of the Book of Acts deals with Paul's life and works, Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters. Historians believe that the author of Acts did not have access to any of Paul's letters. One piece of evidence suggesting this is that Acts never directly quotes from the Pauline epistles. Discrepancies between the Pauline epistles and Acts would further support the conclusion that the author of Acts did not have access to those epistles when composing Acts.[130][131] British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that Paul — as described in the book of Acts — is quite different from the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts. Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and theological marks.[132] Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.[133] F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism. Views[edit] Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th – early 7th century (Musée de Cluny) Self-view[edit] In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic appointment to preach among the Gentiles[Gal. 1:16] and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ.[6] Paul described himself as set apart for the gospel of God and called to be an apostle and a servant of Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ had revealed Himself to Paul, just as He had appeared to Peter, to James, to the Twelve, after his Resurrection.[1 Cor. 9:1] Paul experienced this as an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful grace, not as the fruit of his reasoning or thoughts.[Gal. 1:12–15] [1 Cor. 15:10] Paul also describes himself as inflicted with a debilitating physical condition akin to having a handicap which he refers to as "a thorn in the flesh".[2 Cor. 12:7] There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the gentiles at the moment of his conversion.[134] Before his conversion he believed his persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal for his religion;[Phil. 3:6] after his conversion he believed Jewish hostility toward the church was sinful opposition, that would incur God's wrath.[1 Thess. 2:14–16][135] Paul believed he was halted by Christ, when his fury was at its height.[Acts 9:1–2] It was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,[Philippians 3:6] and he obtained mercy because he had "acted ignorantly in unbelief".[1 Tim. 1:13][note 7] Understanding of Jesus Christ[edit] Paul's writings emphasized the crucifixion, Christ's resurrection and the Parousia or second coming of Christ.[45] Paul saw Jesus as Lord (kyrios), the true messiah and the Son of God, who was promised by God beforehand, through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures. While being a biological descendant from David ("according to the flesh"),[Rom. 1:3] He was declared to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead. According to E. P. Sanders, Paul "preached the death, resurrection, and lordship of Jesus Christ, and he proclaimed that faith in Jesus guarantees a share in his life."[6] In Paul's view, "Jesus' death was not a defeat but was for the believers' benefit,"[6] a sacrifice which substitutes for the lives of others, and frees them from the bondage of sin. Believers participate in Christ's death and resurrection by their baptism. The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul, bringing the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ returned, those who had died believing in Christ as the saviour of mankind would be brought back to life, while those still alive would be "caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air" [1 Thes. 4:14–18][6] Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the Christian message: "(1) God sent his Son; (2) the Son was crucified and resurrected for the benefit of humanity; (3) the Son would soon return; and (4) those who belonged to the Son would live with him forever. Paul's gospel, like those of others, also included (5) the admonition to live by the highest moral standard: "May your spirit and soul and body be kept sound and blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ" ([1 Thes. 5:23])"[6] In Paul's writings, the public, corporate devotional patterns towards Jesus in the early Christian community are reflective of Paul's perspective on the divine status of Jesus in what scholars have termed a "binitarian" pattern of devotion. For Paul, Jesus receives prayer (1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 12:8–9; 1 Thess. 3:11), the presence of Jesus is confessionally invoked by believers (1 Cor. 16:22; Romans 10:9–13; Phil. 2:10–11), people are baptized in Jesus' name (1 Cor. 6:11; Rom. 6:3), Jesus is the reference in Christian fellowship for a religious ritual meal (the Lord's Supper; 1 Cor. 11:17–34 – in pagan cults, the reference for ritual meals is always to a deity), and Jesus is the source of continuing prophetic oracles to believers (1 Thess. 4:15–17).[136] Atonement[edit] Main article: Atonement in Christianity Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection. His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man.[137] By grace, through faith,[Ephesians 2:8–9] a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.[Galatians 4:4–7] According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role, and salvation by faith, is not the individual conscience of human sinners, and their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the problem of the inclusion of gentile (Greek) Torah observers into God's covenant.[138][139][140][141][note 13] 'Dying for our sins' refers to the problem of gentile Torah-observers, who, despite their faithfulness, cannot fully observe commandments, including circumcision, and are therefore 'sinners', excluded from God's covenant.[142] Jesus' death and resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the gentiles from God's covenant, as indicated by Rom 3:21–26.[143] Paul's conversion fundamentally changed his basic beliefs regarding God's covenant and the inclusion of Gentiles into this covenant. Paul believed Jesus' death was a voluntary sacrifice, that reconciled sinners with God.[Rom. 5:6–10][Phil. 2:8] The law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sin—a power that must be broken by Christ.[Rom. 3:20b][7:7–12] Before his conversion Paul believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel; after his conversion, he believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ Jesus.[Gal. 3:28] Before his conversion he believed circumcision was the rite through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community of God's chosen people;[Phil. 3:3–5] after his conversion he believed that neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is what counts in the sight of God,[Gal 6:15] and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life of believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and Gentiles reconciled with God through faith.[Rom 6:4] According to E.P. Sanders, who initiated the New Perspective on Paul with his 1977 publication Paul and Palestinian Judaism, Paul saw the faithful redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising. Though "Jesus' death substituted for that of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt," a metaphor derived from "ancient sacrificial theology,"[6][note 14] the essence of Paul's writing is not in the "legal terms" regarding the expiation of sin, but the act of "participation in Christ through dying and rising with him."[note 15] According to Sanders, "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."[6] By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit." Relationship with Judaism[edit] Main articles: Paul the Apostle and Judaism and New Perspective on Paul Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a Pharisee and student of Gamaliel as presented by Acts),[148] others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while the majority see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to insistence on keeping the "Ritual Laws" (for example the circumcision controversy in early Christianity) as necessary for entrance into God's New Covenant,[149][150] but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity. Paul redefined the people of Israel, those he calls the "true Israel" and the "true circumcision" as those who had faith in the heavenly Christ, thus excluding those he called "Israel after the flesh" from his new covenant (Galatians 6:16; Philippians 3:3). He also held the view that the Torah given to Moses was valid "until Christ came," so that even Jews are no longer "under the Torah," nor obligated to follow the commandments or mitzvot as given to Moses (Galatians 3–4). — Professor James D. Tabor for the Huffington Post[151] Paul is critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority [Rom. 2:16–26] of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.[9–11] Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that faith in Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent. He argued that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws to be saved.[25] According to Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcision for Gentiles is in line with Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), not as proselytes to Israel."[152] For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions.[152] According to Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right," who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations (Romans 11:25)."[152] According to Sanders, Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of c. 200 BCE until 200 CE, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[147] Sanders' publications[149][153] have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul".[154] N.T. Wright,[155] the Anglican Bishop of Durham, notes a difference in emphasis between Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former. Wright also contends that performing Christian works is not insignificant but rather proof of having attained the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith).[Rom. 2:13ff] He concludes that Paul distinguishes between performing Christian works which are signs of ethnic identity and others which are a sign of obedience to Christ.[155] World to come[edit] See also: Christian eschatology, Second Coming, End times, and World to Come According to Bart Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.[156] Paul expected that Christians who had died in the meantime would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming heavenly, imperishable bodies.[1 Cor. 15:51–53] Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive.[1 Thes. 4:16ff] This suggests an imminent end but he is unspecific about times and seasons and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.[157] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness[2 Thess. 2:3][note 7] whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ. Before his conversion he believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil, and initiate a new age of righteousness; after his conversion, he believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age would continue until Jesus returns.[Rom. 16:25] [1 Cor. 10:11] [Gal. 1:4][135] Role of women[edit] Paul the Apostle, (16th-century) attributed to Lucas van Leyden Main article: Paul the Apostle and women See also: 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman") The second chapter of the first letter to Timothy—one of the six disputed letters—is used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.[158] 9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array; 10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works. 11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection. 12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence. 13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve. 14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression. 15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with sobriety. — 1 Timothy 2:9–15 The KJV translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis-à-vis men.[159] Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk[160] finds evidence in Paul's letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who is described by Paul in Scripture as being respected among the Apostles.[Romans 16:7] It is Kirk's observation that recent studies have led many scholars to conclude that the passage in 1 Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul's original letter to the Corinthians. Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1 Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case where there were local problems of women, who were not allowed in that culture to become educated, asking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not believe it to be a general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right (responsibility) of women to prophesy.[1 Cor. 11][161] Biblical prophecy is more than "fore-telling": two-thirds of its inscripturated form involves "forth-telling", that is, setting the truth, justice, mercy, and righteousness of God against the backdrop of every form of denial of the same. Thus, to speak prophetically was to speak boldly against every form of moral, ethical, political, economic, and religious disenfranchisement observed in a culture that was intent on building its own pyramid of values vis-a-vis God's established system of truth and ethics.[162] There were women prophets in the highly patriarchal times throughout the Old Testament.[162] The most common term for prophet in the Old Testament is nabi in the masculine form, and nebiah in the Hebrew feminine form, is used six times of women who performed the same task of receiving and proclaiming the message given by God. These women include Miriam, Aaron and Moses' sister,[Exod 15:20] Deborah,[Judges 4:4] the prophet Isaiah's wife,[Isa. 8:3] and Huldah, the one who interpreted the Book of the Law discovered in the temple during the days of Josiah.[2 Kings 22:14] [2 Chron. 34:22] There were false prophetesses just as there were false prophets. The prophetess Noadiah was among those who tried to intimidate Nehemiah.[Neh 6:14] Apparently they held equal rank in prophesying right along with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Elisha, Aaron, and Samuel.[162] Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28: There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. — Galatians 3:28 In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome".[163] Classicist Evelyn Stagg and theologian Frank Stagg believe that Paul was attempting to "Christianize" the societal household or domestic codes that significantly oppressed women and empowered men as the head of the household. The Staggs present a serious study of what has been termed the New Testament domestic code, also known as the Haustafel.[164] The two main passages that explain these "household duties" are Paul's letters to the Ephesians 5:22–6:5 and to the Colossians 3:18–4:1. An underlying Household Code is also reflected in four additional Pauline letters and 1 Peter: 1 Timothy 2:1ff., 8ff.; 3:1ff., 8ff.; 5:17ff.; 6:1f.; Titus 2:1–10 and 1 Peter 2:13–3:9. Biblical scholars have typically treated the Haustafel in Ephesians as a resource in the debate over the role of women in ministry and in the home.[165] Margaret MacDonald argues that the Haustafel, particularly as it appears in Ephesians, was aimed at "reducing the tension between community members and outsiders".[166] E. P. Sanders has labeled the Apostle's remark in 1 Cor. 14:34–36 about women not making any sound during worship as "Paul's intemperate outburst that women should be silent in the churches".[149][153] Women, in fact, played a very significant part in Paul's missionary endeavors: He became a partner in ministry with the couple Priscilla and Aquila who are specifically named seven times in the New Testament—always by their couple name and never individually. Of the seven times they are named in the New Testament, Priscilla's name appears first in five of those instances, suggesting to some scholars that she was the head of the family unit.[167] They lived, worked, and traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his honored, much-loved friends and coworkers in Christ Jesus.[168] In Romans 16:3–4, thought to have been written in 56 or 57, Paul sends his greetings to Priscilla and Aquila and proclaims that both of them "risked their necks" to save Paul's life. Chloe was an important member of the church in Corinth[1 Cor. 1:11] Phoebe was a "deacon" and a "benefactor" of Paul and others[Rom. 16:1–2] Romans 16 names eight other women active in the Christian movement, including Junia ("prominent among the apostles"), Mary ("who has worked very hard among you"), and Julia Women were frequently among the major supporters of the new Christian movement[6] Views on homosexuality[edit] See also: Homosexuality in the New Testament Most Christian traditions[169][170][171] say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as sinful in two specific locations: Romans 1:26–27, and 1 Corinthians 6:9–10. Another passage addresses the topic more obliquely: 1 Timothy 1:8–11. Since the nineteenth century, however, most scholars have concluded that 1 Timothy (along with 2 Timothy and Titus) is not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian writing in Paul's name some time in the late-first-to-mid-2nd century.[172][173] Influence[edit] Statue of St. Paul (1606) by Gregorio Fernández Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.[6] Paul declared that "Christ is the end of the law",[Romans 10:4] exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.[25] Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the "Lord's Supper",[1 Corinthians 10:14–17]11:17–34 a rite traditionally identified as the Christian communion or Eucharist. In the East, church fathers attributed the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge.[25] The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology. Pauline Christianity[edit] Main article: Pauline Christianity Paul had a strong influence on early Christianity. Hurtado notes that Paul regarded his own Christological views and those of his predecessors and that of the Jerusalem Church as essentially similar. According to Hurtado, this "work[s] against the claims by some scholars that Pauline Christianity represents a sharp departure from the religiousness of Judean 'Jesus movements'."[174] Marcion[edit] Main articles: Marcion and Marcionites Marcionism, regarded as heresy by contemporary mainstream Christianity, was an Early Christian dualist belief system that originated in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope at Rome around the year 144.[note 16] Marcion asserted that Paul was the only apostle who had rightly understood the new message of salvation as delivered by Christ.[175] Marcion believed Jesus was the savior sent by God, and Paul the Apostle was his chief apostle, but he rejected the Hebrew Bible and the God of Israel. Marcionists believed that the wrathful Hebrew God was a separate and lower entity than the all-forgiving God of the New Testament. Augustine[edit] In his account of his conversion experience, Augustine of Hippo gave his life to Christ after reading Romans 13.[176][177] Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.[25] Reformation[edit] Main article: Reformation In his account of his conversion Martin Luther wrote about righteousness in Romans 1 praising Romans as the perfect gospel, in which the Reformation was birthed.[178] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide. John Calvin[edit] John Calvin said the Book of Romans opens to anyone an understanding to the whole Scripture.[179] Modern theology[edit] Visit any church service, Roman Catholic, Protestant or Greek Orthodox, and it is the apostle Paul and his ideas that are central – in the hymns, the creeds, the sermons, the invocation and benediction, and of course, the rituals of baptism and the Holy Communion or Mass. Whether birth, baptism, confirmation, marriage or death, it is predominantly Paul who is evoked to express meaning and significance. —Professor James D. Tabor for the Huffington Post[180] See also: Pauline Christianity and Jesuism In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. In addition to the many questions about the true origins of some of Paul's teachings posed by historical figures as noted above, some modern theologians also hold that the teachings of Paul differ markedly from those of Jesus as found in the Gospels.[181] Barrie Wilson states that Paul differs from Jesus in terms of the origin of his message, his teachings and his practices.[182] Some have even gone so far as to claim that, due to these apparent differences in teachings, that Paul was actually no less than the "second founder" of Christianity (Jesus being its first).[183][184] As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.[25] Views on Paul[edit] Jewish views[edit] A statue of Paul holding a scroll (symbolising the Scriptures) and the sword (symbolising his martyrdom) Main article: Paul the Apostle and Judaism See also: Messianic Judaism Jewish interest in Paul is a recent phenomenon. Before the positive historical reevaluations of Jesus by some Jewish thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, he had hardly featured in the popular Jewish imagination and little had been written about him by the religious leaders and scholars. Arguably, he is absent from the Talmud and rabbinical literature, although he makes an appearance in some variants of the medieval polemic Toledot Yeshu (as a particularly effective spy for the rabbis).[185] However, with Jesus no longer regarded as the paradigm of gentile Christianity, Paul's position became more important in Jewish historical reconstructions of their religion's relationship with Christianity. He has featured as the key to building barriers (e.g. Heinrich Graetz and Martin Buber) or bridges (e.g. Isaac Mayer Wise and Claude G. Montefiore) in interfaith relations,[186] as part of an intra-Jewish debate about what constitutes Jewish authenticity (e.g. Joseph Klausner and Hans Joachim Schoeps),[187] and on occasion as a dialogical partner (e.g. Richard L. Rubenstein and Daniel Boyarin).[188] He features in an oratorio (by Felix Mendelssohn), a painting (by Ludwig Meidner) and a play (by Franz Werfel),[189] and there have been several novels about Paul (by Shalom Asch and Samuel Sandmel).[190] Jewish philosophers (including Baruch Spinoza, Leo Shestov, and Jacob Taubes)[191] and Jewish psychoanalysts (including Sigmund Freud and Hanns Sachs)[192] have engaged with the apostle as one of the most influential figures in Western thought. Scholarly surveys of Jewish interest in Paul include those by Hagner 1980, pp. 143–65, Meissner 1996, Langton 2010, Langton 2011a, pp. 55–72 and Langton 2011b, pp. 585–87. Gnosticism[edit] In the second (and possibly late first) century, Gnosticism was a competing religious tradition to Christianity which shared some elements of theology. Elaine Pagels concentrated on how the Gnostics interpreted Paul's letters and how evidence from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his letters to combat "gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they possess secret wisdom.[193] Muslim views[edit] Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted the original revealed teachings of Jesus,[194][195][196] through the introduction of such elements as paganism,[197] the making of Christianity into a theology of the cross,[198] and introducing original sin and the need for redemption.[199] Sayf ibn Umar claimed that certain rabbis persuaded Paul to deliberately misguide early Christians by introducing what Ibn Hazm viewed as objectionable doctrines into Christianity.[200][201] Ibn Hazm repeated Sayf's claims.[202] The Karaite scholar Jacob Qirqisani also believed that Paul created Christianity by introducing the doctrine of Trinity.[200] Paul has been criticized by some modern Muslim thinkers. Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas wrote that Paul misrepresented the message of Jesus,[196] and Rashid Rida accused Paul of introducing shirk (polytheism) into Christianity.[197] Mohammad Ali Jouhar quoted Adolf von Harnack's critical writings of Paul.[198] In Sunni Muslim polemics, Paul plays the same role (of deliberately corrupting the early teachings of Jesus) as a later Jew, Abdullah ibn Saba', would play in seeking to destroy the message of Islam from within (by introducing proto-Shi'ite beliefs).[201][202][203] Among those who supported this view were scholars Ibn Taymiyyah (who believed while Paul ultimately succeeded, Ibn Saba failed) and Ibn Hazm (who claimed that the Jews even admitted to Paul's sinister purpose).[200] Other views[edit] Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."[204] Christian anarchists took a similar view.[205][206] See also[edit] Saints portal Achaichus Collegiate Parish Church of St Paul's Shipwreck List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources New Perspective on Paul Old Testament: Christian views of the Law Paul, Apostle of Christ, 2018 film Pauline mysticism Pauline privilege Persecution of Christians in the New Testament Persecution of religion in ancient Rome Peter and Paul, 1981 miniseries Psychagogy St. Paul's Cathedral References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Latin: Paulus; Greek: Παῦλος, romanized: Paulos; Coptic: ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; Hebrew: פאולוס השליח‎; c. 5 – c. 64/67 AD ^ Hebrew: שאול התרסי‎, romanized: Sha'ūl ha-Tarsī; Arabic: بولس الطرسوسي‎; Greek: Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, romanized: Saũlos Tarseús; Turkish: Tarsuslu Pavlus ^ a b Acts 8:1 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:13 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:21 "in Jerusalem"; Acts 26:10 "in Jerusalem". In Galatians 1:13, Paul states that he "persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it," but does not specify where he persecuted the church. In Galatians 1:22 he states that more than three years after his conversion he was "still unknown by sight to the churches of Judea that are in Christ," seemingly ruling out Jerusalem as the place he had persecuted Christians.[26] ^ Tertullian knew the Letter to the Hebrews as being "under the name of Barnabas" (De Pudicitia, chapter 20 where T. quotes Heb. 6:4–8); Origen, in his now lost Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, is reported by Eusebius[12] as having written ". . if any Church holds that this epistle is by Paul, let it be commended for this. For not without reason have the ancients handed it down as Paul's. But who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some who have gone before us is that Clement, bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, and of others, that Luke, the author of the Gospel and the Acts, wrote it ^ Paul's undisputed epistles are 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon. The six letters believed by some to have been written by Paul are Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus.[15] ^ Paulus autem et Barnabas demorabantur Antiochiae docentes et evangelizantes cum aliis pluribus verbum Domini ^ a b c d 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death. ^ The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later in the same chapter, the team is referred to as Paul and his companions. ^ This clause is not found in some major sources: Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus or Codex Laudianus ^ Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this was the second on his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly state that he did not visit Jerusalem in between this and his first visit. ^ Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem ^ Sanders 2019: "Paul [...] only occasionally had the opportunity to revisit his churches. He tried to keep up his converts' spirit, answer their questions, and resolve their problems by letter and by sending one or more of his assistants (especially Timothy and Titus). Paul's letters reveal a remarkable human being: dedicated, compassionate, emotional, sometimes harsh and angry, clever and quick-witted, supple in argumentation, and above all possessing a soaring, passionate commitment to God, Jesus Christ, and his own mission. Fortunately, after his death one of his followers collected some of the letters, edited them very slightly, and published them. They constitute one of history's most remarkable personal contributions to religious thought and practice. ^ Dunn 1982, p. n.49 quotes Stendahl 1976, p. 2 "... a doctrine of faith was hammered out by Paul for the very specific and limited purpose of defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promise of God to Israel" Westerholm 2015, pp. 4–15: "For Paul, the question that 'justification by faith' was intended to answer was, 'On what terms can Gentiles gain entrance to the people of God?" Bent on denying any suggestion that Gentiles must become Jews and keep the Jewish law, he answered, 'By faith—and not by works of the (Jewish) law.'" Westerholm refers to: Stendahl 1963 Westerholm quotes Sanders: "Sanders noted that 'the salvation of the Gentiles is essential to Paul's preaching; and with it falls the law; for, as Paul says simply, Gentiles cannot live by the law (Gal 2.14)' (496). On a similar note, Sanders suggested that the only Jewish 'boasting' to which Paul objected was that which exulted over the divine privileges granted to Israel and failed to acknowledge that God, in Christ, had opened the door of salvation to Gentiles." ^ According to the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), "The Mishnah says that sins are expiated (1) by sacrifice, (2) by repentance at death or on Yom Kippur, (3) in the case of the lighter transgressions of the positive or negative precepts, by repentance at any time [...] The graver sins, according to Rabbi, are apostasy, heretical interpretation of the Torah, and non-circumcision (Yoma 86a). The atonement for sins between a man and his neighbor is an ample apology (Yoma 85b)."[144] The Jewish Virual Library writes: "Another important concept [of sacrifices] is the element of substitution. The idea is that the thing being offered is a substitute for the person making the offering, and the things that are done to the offering are things that should have been done to the person offering. The offering is in some sense "punished" in place of the offerer. It is interesting to note that whenever the subject of Karbanot is addressed in the Torah, the name of G-d used is the four-letter name indicating G-d's mercy."[145] The Jewish Encyclopedia further writes: "Most efficacious seemed to be the atoning power of suffering experienced by the righteous during the Exile. This is the idea underlying the description of the suffering servant of God in Isa. liii. 4, 12, Hebr. [...] of greater atoning power than all the Temple sacrifices was the suffering of the elect ones who were to be servants and witnesses of the Lord (Isa. xlii. 1–4, xlix. 1–7, l. 6). This idea of the atoning power of the suffering and death of the righteous finds expression also in IV Macc. vi. 27, xvii. 21–23; M. Ḳ. 28a; Pesiḳ. xxvii. 174b; Lev. R. xx.; and formed the basis of Paul's doctrine of the atoning blood of Christ (Rom. iii. 25)."[146] ^ Jordan Cooper: "Sanders sees Paul's motifs of salvation as more participationist than juristic. The reformation overemphasized the judicial categories of forgiveness and escape from condemnation, while ignoring the real heart of salvation, which is a mystical participation in Christ. Paul shows this in his argument in his first epistle to the Corinthians when arguing against sexual immorality. It is wrong because it affects one's union with Christ by uniting himself to a prostitute. Sin is not merely the violation of an abstract law. This participationist language is also used in Corinthians in the discussion of the Lord's Supper wherein one participates in the body and blood of Christ."[147] ^ 115 years and 6 months from the Crucifixion, according to Tertullian's reckoning in Adversus Marcionem, xv Citations[edit] ^ "Saul of Tarsus: Rooted in Three Worlds". In the Footsteps of Paul. PBS. 2003. Retrieved November 19, 2010. ^ a b c d Brown 1997, p. 436. ^ Harris 2003, p. 42: He was probably martyred in Rome about 64–65 AD ^ Harris 2003, G-33. ^ a b Harris 2003. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Sanders 2019. ^ a b c Powell 2009. ^ Dunn 2001, p. 577, Ch 32. ^ Rhoads 1996, p. 39. ^ Dunn 2009, pp. 345–346. ^ Brown 1997, p. 407. ^ Eusebius (1885). "Book VI/Chapter 25" . Church History . S.13 – via Wikisource. ^ a b Brown, Fitzmyer & Murphy 1990, p. 920, col.2, Ch 60:2. ^ Kümmel 1975, pp. 392–94, 401–03. ^ "Paul and His Influence in Early Christianity". United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on August 23, 2000. ^ Carson & Moo 2009. ^ Aageson 2008, p. 1. ^ a b c d Dunn 2003, p. 21. ^ Greek lexicon G4569 Σαύλος (Saul) Greek lexicon G3972 Παύλος (Paul) Hebrew lexicon H7586 שׁאוּל (Shaul/Saul) ^ a b c d e f Prat 1911. ^ Lewis & Short 1879, Paulus: "a Roman surname (not a praenomen;)". ^ Cole 1989. ^ "Why did God change Saul's name to Paul?". Catholic Answers. Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved August 31, 2014. ^ a b Dunn 2003, pp. 19–20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Cross & Livingstone 2005, St Paul. ^ a b Martin, Dale B. (2009). "Introduction to the New Testament History and Literature – 5. The New Testament as History". Open Yale Courses. Yale University. ^ Ehrman 2000, pp. 262–65. ^ Ladeuze 1909. ^ White 2007, pp. 145–47. ^ Koester 2000, p. 107. ^ a b Wright 1974, p. 404. ^ a b c d Dunn 2003, pp. 21–22. ^ Dunn 2003, p. 22. ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 41–42. ^ Eisenman 1996, pp. 110–22. ^ Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 20.9.4.. ^ Dunn 2009, pp. 242–44. ^ Bruce 2000, p. 43. ^ Dale Martin 2009. Introduction to New Testament History and Literature on YouTube ^ Lee 2006, pp. 13–26. ^ Kee 1983, p. 208. ^ Dunn 2009, pp. 246–47, 277. ^ Dunn 2009, pp. 246–47. ^ a b Dunn 2009, p. 277. ^ a b Bromiley 1979, p. 689. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 21. ^ Niswonger 1992, p. 200. ^ Aslan 2014, p. 184. ^ McRay 2007, p. 66. ^ Eskola 2001. ^ Churchill 2010. ^ Hengel 1997, p. 43. ^ Lake 1911, pp. 320–23. ^ Wright 1996, pp. 683–92. ^ Hengel 2002, pp. 47–66. ^ Harris 2003, p. 517. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 200. ^ Dunn 2009, p. 369. ^ Dunn 2009, p. 297. ^ Dunn 2009. ^ Ogg 1962. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 83. ^ Dunn 2009, p. 370. ^ "Saul Of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen)". JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. Retrieved February 12, 2020. His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity with the original Hebrew text (..) Nor is there any indication in Paul's writings or arguments that he had received the rabbinical training ascribed to him by Christian writers ^ Spence-Jones 2015, p. 16. ^ Brown 1997, p. 445. ^ Brown 1997, pp. 428–29. ^ Brown 1997, pp. 428–29, 445. ^ a b c d Bechtel 1910. ^ a b c White 2007, pp. 148–49. ^ Bruce 2000, p. 151. ^ White 2007, p. 170. ^ McGrath 2006. ^ Mills 2003, pp. 1109–10. ^ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 400. ^ Driscoll 1911. ^ "Pulpit Commentary on Acts 18". biblehub.com. Retrieved October 4, 2015. ^ Crease 2019, pp. 309–10. ^ McRay 2007, p. 185. ^ Jerusalem Bible (1966), Introduction to Saint Paul, p. 260 ^ Sanday n.d., p. 202. ^ Burton 2000, p. 26. ^ Petit 1909. ^ Woods, H. Charles (1918). "Albania and the Albanians". Geographical Review. 5 (4): 257–273. doi:10.2307/207419. JSTOR 207419. ^ 1st Clement – Lightfoot translation Early Christian Writings 1 Clem 5:5 "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, [5:6] having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance". Where Lightfoot has "had preached" above, the Hoole translation has "having become a herald" See also the endnote (3) by Arthur Cleveland Coxe on the last page of wikisource 1st Clement regarding Paul's preaching in Britain. ^ Chrysostom's Homilies on 2 Timothy, verse 4:20 ^ Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para. 26) ^ The Muratorian Fragment lines 38–39 Bible Research ^ a b Capes, Reeves & Richards 2011, p. 203. ^ Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ... The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate"; Christian Classics Ethereal Library ^ MaGee Greg. "The Origins of the Church at Rome" Bible.org; Accessed March 18, 2013 ^ McDowell 2016, p. 67. ^ Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter XII Christian Classics Ethereal Library ^ a b c d e Eusebius (1885). "Book II/Chapter 25" . Church History  – via Wikisource. ^ Dionysius of Corinth. "Fragments from a Letter to the Roman Church Chapter III". Early Christian Writings. Peter Kirk. Retrieved June 1, 2015. "Therefore you also have by such admonition joined in close union the churches that were planted by Peter and Paul, that of the Romans and that of the Corinthians: for both of them went to our Corinth, and taught us in the same way as they taught you when they went to Italy; and having taught you, they suffered martyrdom at the same time." ^ James 1924, p. 270. ^ Quintus Septimius Florens, Tertullian. "Prescription Against Heretics Chapter XXXVI". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved June 1, 2015. "Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood; where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's; where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's[the Baptist]; where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile." ^ Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, addressed to Donatus Chapter II ^ a b Jerome. "On Illustrious Men : Chapter 5". New Advent. Retrieved June 3, 2015. ^ John Chrysostom. Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4 New Advent ^ Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29 The Latin Library ^ a b Ratzinger, Joseph Aloisius (2009). General Audience of 4 February 2009: St Paul's martyrdom and heritage. Paul VI Audience Hall, Rome: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved April 1, 2016. ^ De Leonardis & Masi 1999, p. 21. ^ Silver 2013, p. 18. ^ St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome from BBC News (December 8, 2006); Vatican to open Apostle Paul's tomb ^ "Remains of St. Paul confirmed". The Washington Times. June 29, 2009. ^ Brown & Meier 1983, p. 124. ^ Butler 1866, June 30: St. Paul, the Apostle. ^ "Chambers' The Book of Days". 1869. Retrieved February 9, 2012. ^ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved March 27, 2021. ^ Barnstone 1984, p. 447. ^ Malherbe 1986, p. 170. ^ Budge 1901, p. 531, The History of the Contending of Saint Paul. ^ Budge 1901, p. 501, The Acts of Saint Peter. ^ Barnes 1844, p. 212. ^ a b c Aune 2010, p. 9. ^ a b Dunn & Rogerson 2003, p. 1274. ^ a b Perkins 1988, pp. 4–7. ^ Powell 2009, p. 234. ^ Tatha Wiley, Original Sin, 2005, p. 21 ^ John Muddiman and John Barton. The Oxford Bible Commentary: The Pauline Epistles. Oxford 2010 p. 53 ^ John Muddiman and John Barton. The Oxford Bible Commentary: The Pauline Epistles. Oxford 2010 p. 39 ^ Bradley Bitner. Paul's Political Strategy in 1 Corinthians 1-4, Cambridge 2015 p. 268 ^ Solomon Andria, Romans, 2012, p. 271 ^ J.D.G. Dunn, "Ephesians" in (ed Barton and Muddiman) The Oxford Bible Commentary: The Pauline Epistles. Oxford 2010 pp. 170–171 ^ MacDonald & Harrington 2000, p. 58. ^ Brown 1984, p. 48. ^ a b Aherne 1908. ^ Barrett 1963, pp. 4ff. ^ Ehrman 2006, p. 98. ^ Williams 1957, pp. 22, 240. ^ Shillington 2007, p. 18. ^ Marshall 1980, p. 42. ^ Horrell 2006, p. 30. ^ a b Powell 2009, p. 236. ^ Hurtado 2005, pp. 134–52. ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, Atonement. ^ Stendahl 1963. ^ Dunn 1982, p. n.49. ^ Finlan 2004, p. 2. ^ Westerholm 2015, pp. 4–15. ^ Mack 1997, pp. 88–89, 92. ^ Mack 1997, pp. 91–92. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, SIN ^ Jewish Virtual Library, Jewish Practices & Rituals: Sacrifices and Offerings (Karbanot) ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), ATONEMENT ^ a b Jordan Cooper, E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia (1915), Volume 4, p. 2276 edited by James Orr ^ a b c Sanders 1977. ^ Dunn 1982. ^ "Paul the Jew as Founder of Christianity?". HuffPost. September 16, 2013. Retrieved August 28, 2017. ^ a b c Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018 ), "When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation" ^ a b Sanders 1983. ^ J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95–122. ^ a b "New Perspectives on Paul". Ntwrightpage.com. August 28, 2003. Retrieved November 19, 2010. ^ Ehrman 2006. ^ Rowland 1985, p. 113. ^ Kroeger & Kroeger 1998. ^ Wright 2006, pp. 5–10. ^ Kirk, J. R. Daniel. "Faculty". fuller.edu. Archived from the original on April 24, 2012. ^ Giguzzi 2004, pp. 95–107. ^ a b c "Prophet, Prophetess, Prophecy". Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. ^ Kirk 2012. ^ Stagg & Stagg 1978. ^ Gombis 2005, pp. 317–30. ^ MacDonald 2004, p. 109. ^ Achtemeier 1985, p. 882. ^ Keller 2010. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – Article 6: The sixth commandment". vatican.va. January 10, 1951. ^ M. Mikhail. "The Coptic Orthodox Church's View on Homosexuality." ^ "Christianity and Homosexuality". CARM – The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry. November 25, 2008. ^ Ehrman 2000, p. 393. ^ Collins 2002, p. 4. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 160. ^ Mack 1995. ^ "Guzik". ^ Augustine, of Hippo, Saint, 354–430, author. (2019). Confessions. ISBN 978-1-62466-782-4. OCLC 1057245526.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ HERRMANN, ERIK H. (2016), "Preface to the Wittenberg Edition of Luther's German Writings, 1539", The Annotated Luther, Volume 4, Augsburg Fortress, pp. 475–488, doi:10.2307/j.ctt19qgg0d.20, ISBN 978-1-4514-6510-5 ^ Parker, Thomas Henry Louis. (1993). Calvin's New Testament commentaries. T. and T. Clark. ISBN 0-567-29241-X. OCLC 716774834. ^ "Christianity Before Paul". HuffPost. November 29, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2017. ^ Maccoby 1998, p. 14. ^ Wilson 2011, chapters 9, 10, 12. ^ Dwyer 1998, p. 27. ^ Wrede 1907, p. 179. ^ Langton (2010), pp. 23–56 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 57–96 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 97–153 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 154–76 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 178–209 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 210–30 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 234–62 ^ Langton (2010), pp. 263–78 ^ Pagels 1992. ^ Hindson & Caner 2008, p. 280. ^ De Young 2004, p. 60. ^ a b Riddell 2001, p. 235. ^ a b Waardenburg 1999, p. 276. ^ a b Waardenburg 1999, p. 255. ^ De Young 2004, p. 64. ^ a b c Adang 1996, pp. 105–06. ^ a b Anthony 2011, p. 68. ^ a b Brann 2010, pp. 65–66. ^ Pall 2013, p. 55. ^ The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Notes, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854. ^ Tolstoy 1891, p. 17 ^ Hennacy 2010 Bibliography[edit] Aageson, James W. (2008). Paul, the Pastoral Epistles, and the Early Church. Hendrickson. ISBN 978-1-59856-041-1. Achtemeier, Paul J. (1985). Harper's Bible dictionary. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-069862-1 – via Society of Biblical Literature. Adang, Camilla (1996). Muslim Writers on Judaism and the Hebrew Bible: From Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hazm. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10034-3. Aherne, Cornelius (1908). "Epistle to the Colossians" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Anthony, Sean (2011). The Caliph and the Heretic: Ibn Sabaʾ and the Origins of Shīʿism. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-21606-8. Aslan, Reza (2014). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-8148-3. Aulén, Gustaf. Christus Victor (SPCK 1931) Aune, David E. (2010). The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-1894-4. Barnes, Albert (1844). Notes on the New Testament Explanatory and Practical. Vol VI. II. Corinthians and Galatians. Glasgow: Blackie & Son. |volume= has extra text (help) Barrett, C. K. (1963). The Pastoral Epistles. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5. Barnett, Paul (2005). The Birth of Christianity: The First Twenty Years. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2781-4. Barnstone, Willis (1984). The Other Bible. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250031-1. Bechtel, Florentine Stanislaus (1910). "Judaizers" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Black, C. Clifton; Smith, D. Moody; Spivey, Robert A., eds. (2019) [1969]. "Paul: Apostle to the Gentiles". Anatomy of the New Testament (8th ed.). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 187–226. doi:10.2307/j.ctvcb5b9q.17. ISBN 978-1-5064-5711-6. OCLC 1082543536. Brann, Ross (2010). Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14673-7. Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Vol A-D. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3781-3. |volume= has extra text (help) Brown, Raymond Edward; Meier, John P. (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-2532-6. Brown, Raymond Edward (1984). The Churches the Apostles Left Behind. Paulist Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-8091-2611-8. Brown, Raymond Edward; Fitzmyer, Joseph A.; Murphy, Roland Edmund (1990). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. G. Chapman. ISBN 978-0-225-66640-3. Brown, Raymond Edward (1997). An Introduction to the New Testament. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-24767-2. Bruce, F. F. "Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?" Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283–305 Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (2000). Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-4778-2. Budge, E.A. Wallis (1901). The Contendings of the Twelve Apostles: Being the Histories and the Lives and Martyrdomes and Deaths of the Twelve Apostles and Evangelists. Vol. 2. The English Translation. London: Henry Frowde. |volume= has extra text (help) Burton, Ernest de Witt (2000). A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-05029-8. Butler, Alban (1866). "Saint Paul, the Apostle. June 30". The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints. Compiled from Original Monuments and Authentic Records. Volume VI: June. Dublin: James Duffy – via bartleby.com. |volume= has extra text (help) Calisi, Antonio. (February 2021). Paul Apostle of Christ: Call, Journeys, Epistles, Teachings, Martyrdom. ISBN 978-9-9189-5171-0. Capes, David B.; Reeves, Rodney; Richards, E. Randolph (2011). Rediscovering Paul: An Introduction to His World, Letters and Theology. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-3941-4. Carson, D. A.; Moo, Douglas J. (2009). An Introduction to the New Testament. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-53955-1. Churchill, Timothy W. R. (2010). Divine Initiative and the Christology of the Damascus Road Encounter. Eugene: Pickwick. Conzelmann, Hans, The Acts of the Apostles – A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987) Cole, R. Alan (1989). The Letter of Paul to the Galatians: An Introduction and Commentary. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0478-5. Collins, Raymond F. (2002). 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22247-5. Crease, Robert P. (March 18, 2019). "The rise and fall of scientific authority – and how to bring it back". Nature. 567 (7748): 309–10. Bibcode:2019Natur.567..309C. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00872-w. S2CID 81987842. Hanging in the Louvre Museum in Paris is an imposing painting, The Preaching of St Paul at Ephesus. In this 1649 work by Eustache Le Sueur, the fiery apostle lifts his right hand as if scolding the audience, while clutching a book of scripture in his left. Among the rapt or fearful listeners are people busily throwing books into a fire. Look carefully, and you see geometric images on some of the pages. Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A., eds. (2005), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd Revised ed.), Oxford: University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3 De Leonardis, Serena; Masi, Stefano (1999). Art and History: Rome and the Vatican. Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 978-88-476-0178-9. De Young, James (2004). Terrorism, Islam, and Christian Hope: Reflections on 9-11 and Resurging Islam. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-59752-005-8. Driscoll, James F. (1911). "Nazarite" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Dunn, James D. G. (1982), The New Perspective on Paul. Manson Memorial Lecture, 4 November 1982 Dunn, James D. G. (1990), Jesus, Paul, and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 0-664-25095-5 Dunn, James (2001). McDonald, Lee Martin; Sanders, James A. (eds.). The Canon Debate. Baker. ISBN 978-1-4412-4163-4. Dunn, James D. G., ed. (2003), The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-78155-8 Dunn, James D. G. (2009), Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Dunn, James D. G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011 Dwyer, John C. (1998). Church History: Twenty Centuries of Catholic Christianity. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-3830-2. Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. Ehrman, Bart D. (2000). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512639-6. Ehrman, Bart D (2006). Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford: University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-19-974113-7. Eisenman, Robert (1996). "Paul as Herodian". Journal of Higher Criticism. 3 (1): 110–22. Retrieved February 13, 2020. Eskola, Timo (2001). Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck. Finlan, Stephen (2004), The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors, Society of Biblical Literature Freeman, Charles (2010). "What Did Paul Achieve?". A New History of Early Christianity. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 45–65. ISBN 978-0-300-12581-8. JSTOR j.ctt1nq44w. LCCN 2009012009. S2CID 170124789. Giguzzi, Giancarlo (2004), "Paolo, un apostolo contro le donne?", Credere Oggi: in dialogo con San Paolo e le sue lettere, Padova: Edizioni Messaggero (124), pp. 95–107 Gombis, Timothy (June 2005). "A Radically Different New Humanity: The Function of the Haustafel in Ephesians" (PDF). Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society. 48 (2): 317–30. Retrieved February 14, 2013. Hagner, Donald (1980). Hagner, Donald (ed.). Paul in Modern Jewish Thought in Pauline Studies. Exeter: Paternoster Press. Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3 Harris, Stephen L. (2003). Understanding the Bible. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-7674-2916-0. OCLC 436028175. Hengel, Martin (1997). Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25736-1. Hengel, Martin (2002). "Paul in Arabia" (PDF). Bulletin for Biblical Research. 12 (1): 47–66. JSTOR 26422340. Hennacy, Ammon (2010). The Book of Ammon. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-60899-053-5. Hindson, Ed; Caner, Ergun (2008). The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity. Harvest House. ISBN 978-0-7369-3635-4. Horrell, David G. (2006). An Introduction to the Study of Paul (2nd ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-04083-1. Hurtado, Larry (2005). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5. Irenaeus, Against Heresies James, Montague Rhodes (1924). "The Acts of Paul". The Apocryphal New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Kee, Howard Clark (1983). Understanding the New Testament. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-936591-1. Keller, Marie Noël (2010). Priscilla and Aquila: Paul's Coworkers in Christ Jesus. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5284-8. Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60899-793-0 Kirk, J. R. Daniel (2012). Jesus Have I Loved, but Paul?: A Narrative Approach to the Problem of Pauline Christianity. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1-4412-3625-8. Koester, Helmut (2000). History and Literature of Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014970-8. Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, Leonard Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&H. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3. Kroeger, Richard Clark; Kroeger, Catherine Clark (1998). I Suffer Not a Woman: Rethinking I Timothy 2:11–15 in Light of Ancient Evidence. Baker. ISBN 978-0-8010-5250-7. Kümmel, Werner Georg (1975). Introduction to the New Testament. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-0-687-19576-3. Ladeuze, Paulin (1909). "Epistle to the Ephesians" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Lake, Kirsopp (1911). The earlier Epistles of St. Paul, their motive and origin. London. Langton, Daniel R. (2010). The Apostle Paul in the Jewish Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51740-9. Langton, Daniel (2011a). Westerholm, Stephen (ed.). Jewish Readings of Paul in Blackwell Companion to Paul. Blackwell. Langton, Daniel (2011b). Levine, Amy-Jill (ed.). Paul in Jewish Thought in The Jewish Annotated New Testament. Oxford University Press. Lee, Michelle V. (2006), Paul, the Stoics, and the Body of Christ, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, 137, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511584541, ISBN 978-0-51-158454-1 Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles, eds. (1879). A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: University Press. Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1890). The Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. Macmillan. p. 274. ISBN 0-8010-5612-8. OCLC 54248207. Maccoby, Hyam (1998). The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6. MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0664244644 MacDonald, Margaret Y.; Harrington, Daniel J. (2000). Colossians and Ephesians. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5819-2. MacDonald, Margaret Y. (2004). The Pauline Churches: A Socio-Historical Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutrero-Pauline Writings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-61605-8. Mack, Burton L. (1995), Who wrote the New Testament? The making of the Christian myth, HarperSan Francisco, ISBN 978-0-06-065517-4 Mack, Burton L. (1997) [1995], Wie schreven het Nieuwe Testament werkelijk? Feiten, mythen en motieven. (Who Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth), Uitgeverij Ankh-Hermes bv Malherbe, Abraham J. (1986). "A Physical Description of Paul". Harvard Theological Review. 79 (1–3): 170–175. doi:10.1017/S0017816000020435. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 1509409. Marrow, Stanley B. (1986). Paul: His Letters and His Theology: An Introduction to Paul's Epistles. Paulist Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0809127443. Marshall, I. Howard (1980). The Acts of the Apostles. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-1423-9. McDowell, Sean (2016). The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-03190-1. McGrath, Alister E. (2006). Christianity: An Introduction. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7. McRay, John (2007). Paul: His Life and Teaching. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1441205742. Meissner, Stefan (1996). Die Heimholung des Ketzers. Tübingen: Mohr. Mills, Watson E. (2003). Mercer Commentary on the New Testament. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-864-0. Montague, George T. (1966). The Living Thought of St. Paul. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co. Ogg, George (1962). "Chronology of the New Testament". In Black, Matthew (ed.). Peake's Commentary on the Bible. Nelson. OL 5847288M. Niswonger, Richard L. (1992). New Testament History. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-31201-7. Pagels, Elaine (1992). The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-85539-591-6. Perkins, Pheme (1988). Reading the New Testament: An Introduction. Paulist Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8091-2939-3. Petit, Louis (1909). "Archdiocese of Durazzo" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Powell, Mark Allan (2009). Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey. Baker. ISBN 978-0-8010-2868-7. Prat, Ferdinand (1911). "St. Paul" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Rhoads, David M. (1996). The Challenge of Diversity: The Witness of Paul and the Gospels. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0617-7. Riddell, Peter G. (2001). Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2473-0. Rowland, Christopher (1985). Christian Origins: An Account of the Setting and Character of the Most Important Messianic Sect of Judaism. SPCK. ISBN 978-0-281-04110-7. Sanday, W. (n.d.). "The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans". In Ellicott, Charles John (ed.). A Bible commentary for English readers. London: Cassell. Sanders, E. P. (1977). Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion. Fortress. ISBN 978-1-4514-0740-2. Sanders, E. P. (1983). Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People. SCM Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0741-9. Sanders, E.P. (December 27, 2019). "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 8, 2013. Seifrid, Mark A. (1992), "Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme", Novum Testamentum : An International Quarterly for New Testament and Related Studies Based on International Cooperation. Supplements., Novum Testamentum Supplements, Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09521-7, ISSN 0167-9732 Shillington, V. George (2007). An Introduction to the Study of Luke-Acts. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-03053-5. Silver, Sandra Sweeny (2013). Footprints in Parchment: Rome Versus Christianity 30-313 Ad. Author House. ISBN 978-1-4817-3374-8. Spence-Jones, Henry (2015). The Pulpit Commentary. Volume 8. Delmarva Publications. GGKEY:EER24GEUYX4. |volume= has extra text (help) Spong, John Shelby, "The Man From Tarsus", in Rescuing the Bible From Fundamentalism, reprint ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1992). Stagg, Evelyn; Stagg, Frank (1978). Woman in the World of Jesus. Westminster Press. ISBN 978-0-664-24195-7. Stendahl, Krister (1963). "The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West" (PDF). Harvard Theological Review. 56 (3): 199–215. doi:10.1017/S0017816000024779. ISSN 0017-8160. Stendahl, Krister (1976). Paul Among Jews and Gentiles, and Other Essays. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-1224-5. Tolstoy, Leo (1891). Church and State and Other Essays: Including Money; Man and Woman: Their Respective Functions; The Mother; A Second Supplement to the Kreutzer Sonata. B. R. Tucker. p. 17. Waardenburg, Jacques (1999). Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535576-5. Westerholm, Stephen (2015). "The New Perspective on Paul in Review". Direction. 44 (1): 4–15. White, L. Michael (2007). From Jesus to Christianity. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-081610-0. Wilken, Robert Louis (2013). "Ephesus, Rome, and Edessa: The Spread of Christianity". The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. Choice Reviews Online. 50. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 17–27. doi:10.5860/choice.50-5552. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1. JSTOR j.ctt32bd7m.6. LCCN 2012021755. S2CID 160590164. Williams, Charles Stephan Conway (1957). A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. Harper. Wilson, Barrie (2011). How Jesus Became Christian: The Early Christians And The Transformation Of A Jewish Teacher Into The Son Of God. Orion. ISBN 978-1-78022-206-6. Wrede, William (1907). Paul. Translated by Edward Lummis. London: Philip Green. Wright, G. Ernest (1974). Great People of the Bible and How They Lived. Pleasantville, NY: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc. Wright, N. T. (1996). "Paul, Arabia, and Elijah (Galatians 1:17)" (PDF). Journal of Biblical Literature. 115 (4): 683–692. doi:10.2307/3266349. ISSN 0021-9231. JSTOR 3266349. Wright, N.T. (2006). "The Biblical Basis for Women's Service in the Church" (PDF). Priscilla Papers. 20 (4). Pall, Zoltan (2013). Lebanese Salafis Between the Gulf and Europe: Development, Fractionalization and Transnational Networks of Salafism in Lebanon. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-8964-451-0. Further reading[edit] Agosto, Efrain (2012). Servant Leadership: Jesus and Paul. Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-8272-3506-9. Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970. ISBN 0-281-02449-9 Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible. London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6 Fredriksen, Paula (2018). When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-24074-0. Hans-Joachim Schoeps. Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Library of Theological Translations); 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July 2002); ISBN 978-0-227-17013-7 Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kündereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166–72. Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel Lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0-8146-5173-9 Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8 Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5 Pinchas Lapide, Peter Stuhlmacher. Paul: Rabbi and Apostle; 77 pages, Augsburg Publishing House; (December 1984) Pinchas Lapide, Leonard Swidler, Jürgen Moltmann. Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine; 94 pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2002) Reece, Steve. Paul's Large Letters: Pauline Subscriptions in the Light of Ancient Epistolary Conventions. London: T&T Clark, 2016. Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919) Ruef, John, Paul's First Letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971) Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1 Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Harvard University Press 1986) ISBN 978-0674750760 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Paul of Tarsus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paul of Tarsus. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Paul Look up Pauline conversion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Listen to this article (1 hour and 14 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 23 February 2019 (2019-02-23), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) St Paul on In Our Time at the BBC Lecture on Paul of Tarsus s by Dr. Henry Abramson Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus Documentary film on Apostle Paul Bartlet, James Vernon (1911). "Paul, the Apostle" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). pp. 938–55. Novena to Saint Paul Apostle Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians. Representations of Saint Paul "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28 Works by or about Paul the Apostle in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora Biblical Archaeology Review Santiebeati: Saint Paul Catholic Online: Saint Paul Footsteps of St. Paul by Christian Tours Old maps showing the travels of Paul from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, National Library of Israel v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. 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en-wikipedia-org-4620	----	Pannonia - Wikipedia Pannonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Province of the Roman Empire (AD 20-107) This article is about the Roman province. For other uses, see Pannonia (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Pannonia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Provincia Pannonia 20 AD–107 AD Province of Pannonia highlighted (red) within the Roman Empire (pink) Capital Carnuntum,[1] Sirmium,[2] Savaria,[3] Aquincum,[4] Poetovio[5] or Vindobona[6] History   • Established 20 AD • Division of Pannonia Between the years 102 and 107, Trajan divided Pannonia into Pannonia Superior (western part with the capital Carnuntum), and Pannonia Inferior (eastern part with the capitals in Aquincum and Sirmium) 107 AD Succeeded by Pannonia Superior Pannonia Inferior Pannonia (/pəˈnoʊniə/, Latin: [panˈnɔnija]) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory of present-day western Hungary, eastern Austria, northern Croatia, north-western Serbia, northern Slovenia and northern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Prior to Roman conquest 2.2 Under Roman rule 2.3 Post-Roman 3 Cities and auxiliary forts 4 Economy and country features 5 Legacy 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Name[edit] Further information: Pannonii Julius Pokorny believed the name Pannonia is derived from Illyrian, from the Proto-Indo-European root *pen-, "swamp, water, wet" (cf. English fen, "marsh"; Hindi pani, "water").[7] Pliny the Elder, in Natural History, places the eastern regions of the Hercynium jugum, the "Hercynian mountain chain", in Pannonia (present-day Hungary) and Dacia (present-day Romania).[8] He also gives us some dramaticised description[9] of its composition, in which the proximity of the forest trees causes competitive struggle among them (inter se rixantes). He mentions its gigantic oaks.[10] But even he—if the passage in question is not an interpolated marginal gloss—is subject to the legends of the gloomy forest. He mentions unusual birds, which have feathers that "shine like fires at night". Medieval bestiaries named these birds the Ercinee. The impenetrable nature of the Hercynia Silva hindered the last concerted Roman foray into the forest, by Drusus, during 12–9 BC: Florus asserts that Drusus invisum atque inaccessum in id tempus Hercynium saltum (Hercynia saltus, the "Hercynian ravine-land")[11] patefecit.[12] History[edit] This article is part of the histories of several countries: Part of a series on the History of Austria Early history Hallstatt culture Noricum - Pannonia - Raetia Marcomanni - Lombards - Bavarians - Suebi Avars Samo's Realm Carantania East Francia Duchy of Bavaria - Margraviate of Austria House of Babenberg Privilegium Minus Habsburg era House of Habsburg Holy Roman Empire Kingdom of Germany Archduchy of Austria Habsburg Monarchy Austrian Empire German Confederation Austria-Hungary World War I Assassination of Franz Ferdinand World War I Interwar years Republic of German-Austria First Austrian Republic Austrofascism Federal State of Austria Anschluss Ostmark (Austria) World War II National Socialism Post-war Austria Allied-occupied Austria Second Austrian Republic Topics Jews (Vienna) Military history Music Timeline  Austria portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Bosnia and Herzegovina Early history Prehistory Neolithic cultures: (Kakanj / Butmir) Illyrian period (Glasinac culture / Central Bosnian culture) Roman Dalmatia Roman Pannonia Middle Ages Bosnia in the Early Middle Ages (before 10th c.) Travunia - Zachumlia (~9th–14th c.) Banate (~1154–1377) - Kingdom (1377-1463) ("zemlje"/counties: Usora / Soli / Donji Kraji / Hum (Herzegovina from 1454) / Podrinje) Bosansko Krajište (1451-1463) Duchy of Herzegovina (1463–1482) Ottoman era Ottoman conquest (Bosansko Krajište (1451-1463)) Ottoman era (Bosnia Sanjak (1463–1580), Sanjak of Herzegovina (1481–1833) / Bosnia Eyalet (1580-1867), Herzegovina Eyalet (1833–1851) / Bosnia Vilayet (1867-1908) / Herzegovina Uprising (1875–1877)) Habsburgs Habsburg era (Bosnian crisis) Yugoslavia Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Drina Banovina) World War II SFR Yugoslavia (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina) Breakup of Yugoslavia Contemporary Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian War (defunct: Herzeg-Bosnia / Western Bosnia) Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska)  Bosnia and Herzegovina portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Croatia Early history History of Croatia before the Croats Roman Pannonia Roman Dalmatia Origins of the Croats White Croatia White Croats Middle Ages Avar Khaganate Duchy of Croatia Lower Pannonia Southern Dalmatia March of Istria Kingdom of Croatia Union with Hungary Republic of Dubrovnik Republic of Poljica Modernity Ottoman Croatia Republic of Venice Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg) Croatian Military Frontier Illyrian Provinces Kingdom of Illyria Kingdom of Slavonia Kingdom of Dalmatia Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia 20th century World War I State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs Kingdom of Yugoslavia Banovina of Croatia World War II Independent State of Croatia Federal State of Croatia Socialist Republic of Croatia Contemporary Croatia Independence War of independence Croatia since 1995 Timeline  Croatia portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Hungary Early history Hungarian prehistory Hungary before the Hungarians Roman Pannonia Hungarian conquest Medieval Principality 895–1000 High Medieval Kingdom 1000–1301 Late Medieval Kingdom 1301–1526 Ottoman Wars 1366–1526 Early modern Habsburg kingdom 1526–1867 Eastern kingdom 1526–1570 Ottoman Hungary 1541–1699 Principality of Transylvania 1570–1711 Late modern Rákóczi's War 1703–1711 Revolution of 1848 1848–1849 Austria-Hungary 1867–1918 Lands of the Crown 1867–1918 World War I 1914–1918 Interwar period 1918–1941 First Hungarian Republic 1918–1920 Hungarian Soviet Republic 1919 Kingdom of Hungary 1920–1946 World War II 1941–1945 Contemporary Second Hungarian Republic 1946–1949 Hungarian People's Republic 1949–1989 Revolution of 1956 1956 Third Hungarian Republic since 1989 By topic Timeline Christianity Military Music Nobility Hungarians Jews Székelys  Hungary portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Serbia By century 9th 10th Prehistory Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age Pre-Roman Illyrians Autariatae Dardani Triballi Moesi Scordisci Dacians Early Roman Illyricum Pannonia Pannonia Inferior Dalmatia Moesia Moesia Superior Dacia Dacia Aureliana Late Roman Moesia Prima Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Praevalitana Pannonia Secunda Diocese of Moesia Diocese of Dacia Diocese of Pannonia Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Early Middle Ages White Serbia around 600 AD Principality of Serbia Duklja, Travunia, Zachlumia, Narentines, Raška, Bosnia 7th–10th century Catepanate of Ras around 969–976 High Middle Ages Duklja (Zeta) 11th–12th century Theme of Sirmium 1018–1071 Grand Principality 1071–1217 Kingdom of Serbia 1217–1346 King Dragutin's realm 1282–1325 Empire · Fall 1346–1371 Prince Lazar's Serbia 1371–1402 Despotate of Serbia 1402–1537 Early Modern Serbia under Turkish rule 1459–1804 Jovan Nenad / Radoslav Čelnik 1526–1530 Banate of Lugoj and Caransebeș 16th–17th Habsburg occupation 1686–1699 Great Serb Migrations 1690 and 1737–1739 Military Frontier 1702–1882 Habsburg Serbia 1718–1739 Koča's frontier 1788–1791 Serbia 1804–1918 Revolution 1804–1815 Principality of Serbia 1815–1882 Serbian Vojvodina 1848–1849 Serbia and Banat 1849–1860 Kingdom of Serbia 1882–1918 Serbia since 1918 Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918–1941 Axis occupation 1941–1944 Federal unit of Yugoslavia 1944–1992 Federal unit of FRY (S&M) 1992–2006 Republic of Serbia 2006–present  Serbia portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Slovenia Italy / Noricum / Pannonia Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps Avars Samo's Realm Carantania Carneola Holy Roman Empire March of Carniola Windic March Duchy of Carniola Venetian Republic Illyrian Provinces Kingdom of Illyria Inner Austria Venezia Giulia Drava Banovina World War II in the Slovene Lands Socialist Republic of Slovenia Ten-Day War Republic of Slovenia  Slovenia portal v t e Prior to Roman conquest[edit] Further information: Prehistoric Hungary, Prehistoric Croatia, Prehistoric Serbia, Prehistoric Slovenia, Prehistoric Bosnia and Herzegovina, Prehistoric Austria, and Prehistoric Slovakia The first inhabitants of this area known to history were the Pannonii (Pannonians), a group of Indo-European tribes akin to Illyrians. From the 4th century BC, it was invaded by various Celtic tribes. Little is known of Pannonia until 35 BC, when its inhabitants, allies of the Dalmatians, were attacked by Augustus, who conquered and occupied Siscia (Sisak). The country was not, however, definitively subdued by the Romans until 9 BC, when it was incorporated into Illyricum, the frontier of which was thus extended as far as the Danube. Under Roman rule[edit] Seuso and his wife at Lacus Pelso (today Lake Balaton) The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), showing, on the middle Danube river, the imperial provinces of Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior and the 2 legions deployed in each in 125 Map showing Constantine I's conquests of areas of present-day eastern Hungary, western Romania and northern Serbia, in the first decades of the 4th century (pink color). In AD 6, the Pannonians, with the Dalmatians and other Illyrian tribes, engaged in the so-called Great Illyrian Revolt, and were overcome by Tiberius and Germanicus, after a hard-fought campaign, which lasted for three years. After the rebellion was crushed in AD 9, the province of Illyricum was dissolved, and its lands were divided between the new provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south. The date of the division is unknown, most certainly after AD 20 but before AD 50. The proximity of dangerous barbarian tribes (Quadi, Marcomanni) necessitated the presence of a large number of troops (seven legions in later times), and numerous fortresses were built on the bank of the Danube. Some time between the years 102 and 107, between the first and second Dacian wars, Trajan divided the province into Pannonia Superior (western part with the capital Carnuntum), and Pannonia Inferior (eastern part with the capitals in Aquincum and Sirmium[13]). According to Ptolemy, these divisions were separated by a line drawn from Arrabona in the north to Servitium in the south; later, the boundary was placed further east. The whole country was sometimes called the Pannonias (Pannoniae). Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after Marcus Aurelius, it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian. Under Diocletian, a fourfold division of the country was made: Pannonia Prima in the northwest, with its capital in Savaria / Sabaria, it included Upper Pannonia and the major part of Central Pannonia between the Raba and Drava, Pannonia Valeria in the northeast, with its capital in Sopianae, it comprised the remainder of Central Pannonia between the Raba, Drava and Danube, Pannonia Savia in the southwest, with its capital in Siscia, Pannonia Secunda in the southeast, with its capital in Sirmium Diocletian also moved parts of today's Slovenia out of Pannonia and incorporated them in Noricum. In 324 AD, Constantine I enlarged the borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the limes that he created: the Devil's Dykes.[citation needed] In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia. It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of Dalmatia, Noricum Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense.[citation needed] Pannonia in the 1st century Pannonia in the 2nd century Pannonia in the 4th century Pannonia with Constantine I "limes" in 330 AD Post-Roman[edit] Gerulata- a Roman military camp located near today's Rusovce, Slovakia. During the Migrations Period in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia were ceded to the Huns in 433 by Flavius Aetius, the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire.[14] After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in the province as foederati. The Eastern Roman Empire controlled southern parts of Pannonia in the 6th century, during the reign of Justinian I. The Byzantine province of Pannonia with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia. Afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, and the Slavs, who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from the 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by the Franks, who used the name "Pannonia" to designate named newly formed frontier province, the March of Pannonia. The term Pannonia was also used for Slavic polity like Lower Pannonia that was vassal to the Frankish Empire. Between the 5th and the 10th centuries, the romanized population of Pannonia developed the Romance Pannonian language, mainly around Lake Balaton in present-day western Hungary, where there was the keszthely culture. This language and the related culture became extinct with the arrival of the Magyars. Cities and auxiliary forts[edit] Aerial photography: Gorsium - Tác - Hungary Aquincum, Hungary Ruins of Imperial Palace in Sirmium The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) containing a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being of Roman origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were: Now in Austria: Carnuntum (Petronell, Bad Deutsch-Altenburg) Vindobona (Vienna) Now in Bosnia and Hercegovina: Saldae (Brčko) Serbinum or Servitium (Gradiška) Castrum and Canabea (Doboj) Now in Croatia: Ad Novas (Zmajevac) Andautonia (Ščitarjevo) Aqua Viva (Petrijanec) Aquae Balisae (Daruvar) Certissa (Đakovo) Cibalae (Vinkovci) Cornacum (Sotin) Cuccium (Ilok) Iovia or Iovia Botivo (Ludbreg) Marsonia (Slavonski Brod) Mursa (Osijek) Siscia (Sisak) Teutoburgium (Dalj) Now in Hungary: Ad Flexum (Mosonmagyaróvár) Ad Mures (Ács) Ad Statuas (Vaspuszta) Ad Statuas (Várdomb) Alisca (Szekszárd) Alta Ripa (Tolna) Aquincum (Óbuda, Budapest) Arrabona (Győr) Brigetio (Szőny) Caesariana (Baláca) Campona (Nagytétény) Cirpi (Dunabogdány) Contra-Aquincum (Budapest) Contra Constantiam (Dunakeszi) Gorsium-Herculia (Tác) Intercisa (Dunaújváros) Iovia (Szakcs) Lugio (Dunaszekcső) Lussonium (Dunakömlőd) Matrica (Százhalombatta) Morgentianae (Tüskevár (?)) Mursella (Mórichida) Quadrata (Lébény) Sala (Zalalövő) Savaria or Sabaria (Szombathely) Scarbantia (Sopron) Solva (Esztergom) Sopianae (Pécs) Ulcisia Castra (Szentendre) Valcum (Fenékpuszta) Now in Serbia: Acumincum (Stari Slankamen) Ad Herculae (Čortanovci) Bassianae (Donji Petrovci) Bononia (Banoštor) Burgenae (Novi Banovci) Cusum (Petrovaradin) Graio (Sremska Rača) Onagrinum (Begeč) Rittium (Surduk) Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) Taurunum (Zemun) Now in Slovakia: Gerulata (Rusovce) Now in Slovenia: Celeia (Celje) Neviodunum (Drnovo) Poetovio (Ptuj) Economy and country features[edit] Ancient peoples in Pannonia The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius. Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley, from which the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the ancients, it is probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Its chief rivers were the Dravus, Savus, and Arrabo, in addition to the Danuvius (less correctly, Danubius), into which the first three rivers flow. Legacy[edit] The ancient name Pannonia is retained in the modern term Pannonian plain. See also[edit] Pannonian plain Roman provinces Diocese of Pannonia References[edit] ^ Vienna, Anthony Haywood, Caroline (CON) Sieg, Lonely Planet Vienna, 2010, page 21. ^ The third book of history: containing ancient history in connection with ancient geography, Samuel Griswold Goodrich, Jenks, Palmer, 1835, page 111. ^ The Archaeology of Roman Pannonia, Alfonz Lengyel, George T. Radan, University Press of Kentucky, 1980, page 247. ^ People and nature in historical perspective, Péter Szabó, Central European University Press, 2003, page 144. ^ Historical outlook: a journal for readers, students and teachers of history, Том 9, American Historical Association, National Board for Historical Service, National Council for the Social Studies, McKinley Publishing Company, 1918, page 194. ^ THE COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, ED.M.PIERCE, 1869, page 915. ^ J. Pokorny, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, No. 1481 Archived 2011-06-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ Pliny, iv.25 ^ The threatening nature of the pathless woodland in Pliny is explored by Klaus Sallmann, "Reserved for Eternal Punishment: The Elder Pliny's View of Free Germania (HN. 16.1–6)" The American Journal of Philology 108.1 (Spring 1987:108–128) pp 118ff. ^ Pliny xvi.2 ^ Compare the inaccessible Carbonarius Saltus west of the Rhine ^ Florus, ii.30.27. ^ The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation, Taylor & Francis, page 381. ^ Attila, the Hun – Google Knihy. 2003. ISBN 0-7910-7221-5. Retrieved 2018-10-17. Sources[edit] Curta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2006). "The Huns and South Pannonia". Byzantinoslavica. 64: 29–76. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2015). "Late Antique Dalmatia and Pannonia in Cassiodorus' Variae". Povijesni prilozi. 49: 9–80. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2016). "Late Antique Dalmatia and Pannonia in Cassiodorus' Variae (Addenda)". Povijesni prilozi. 50: 191–198. Janković, Đorđe (2004). "The Slavs in the 6th Century North Illyricum". Гласник Српског археолошког друштва. 20: 39–61. Mirković, Miroslava B. (2017). Sirmium: Its History from the First Century AD to 582 AD. Novi Sad: Center for Historical Research. Mócsy, András (2014) [1974]. Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge. Popović, Radomir V. (1996). Le Christianisme sur le sol de l'Illyricum oriental jusqu'à l'arrivée des Slaves. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies. Várady, László (1969). Das Letzte Jahrhundert Pannoniens (376–476). Amsterdam: Verlag Adolf M. Hakkert. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan warfare. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wozniak, Frank E. (1981). "East Rome, Ravenna and Western Illyricum: 454-536 A.D." Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 30 (3): 351–382. Zeiller, Jacques (1918). Les origines chrétiennes dans les provinces danubiennes de l'Empire romain. Paris: E. De Boccard. Further reading[edit] Parat, Josip. "Izbori i pregledi antičkih literarnih izvora za povijest južne Panonije" [Selections and Surveys of Ancient Literary Sources for the History of Southern Pannonia]. In: Scrinia Slavonica 15, br. 1 (2015): 9-33. https://hrcak.srce.hr/164529 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pannonia. "Pannonia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 680. "Pannonia". Encyclopædia Britannica (online ed.). 29 March 2018. "Pannonia". unrv.com. Retrieved 6 November 2018. Pannonia map Pannonia map Aerial photography: Gorsium - Tác - Hungary Aerial photography: Aquincum - Budapest - Hungary Coordinates: 44°54′00″N 19°01′12″E / 44.9000°N 19.0200°E / 44.9000; 19.0200 v t e Timeline of the Roman Empire Notes: v t e Hungary articles History Hungarian prehistory Pannonia Principality High Medieval Kingdom Late Medieval Kingdom Ottoman–Hungarian wars Habsburg Kingdom Principality of Transylvania Rákóczi's War Revolution of 1848 Austro-Hungarian Empire World War I First Republic Treaty of Trianon Interwar Kingdom of Hungary World War II Second Republic People's Republic Revolution of 1956 Third Republic Christianity Economic Military Monarchs Nobility Geography Administrative divisions Counties Cities and towns Climate Extreme points Geology Hydrology Islands Lakes Rivers Mountains National parks Regions Politics Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Human rights Intelligence Law Law enforcement Military Nationality Parliament Political parties President list Prime Minister list Economy Agriculture Banks Hungarian National Bank Companies Energy Forint (currency) Industry Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Tourism Trade unions Transport Unemployment Society Anti-Hungarian sentiment Crime Demographics Education Universities and colleges Family policy Health Healthcare Hungarians Hungarian diaspora Irredentism International rankings Languages LGBT Public holidays Religion Women Culture Architecture Castles Palaces and mansions Art Cinema Cuisine Wine Beer Dishes Sausages Dance Fashion Festivals Folklore Inventions Hungarian language Literature Media Music Names Spa culture Sport Symbols Television Theatre World Heritage Sites Outline Index Category Portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pannonia&oldid=1011117873" Categories: Pannonia Provinces of the Roman Empire Provinces of Pannonia Austria in the Roman era Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Roman era Croatia in the Roman era Hungary in the Roman era Illyricum (Roman province) Serbia in the Roman era Slovakia in the Roman era Slovenia in the Roman era Ancient history of Vojvodina States and territories established in the 1st century States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century 20 establishments 20s establishments in the Roman Empire 100s disestablishments in the Roman Empire 107 disestablishments Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2016 All articles needing additional references Former country articles requiring maintenance All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lombard Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 March 2021, at 03:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4634	----	Tribune - Wikipedia Tribune From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elected Roman officials For other uses, see Tribune (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Tribute. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tribune" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Tribune (Latin: Tribunus) was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome. The two most important were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the senate and the annual magistrates, holding the power of ius intercessionis to intervene on behalf of the plebeians, and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also military tribunes, who commanded portions of the Roman army, subordinate to higher magistrates, such as the consuls and praetors, promagistrates, and their legates. Various officers within the Roman army were also known as tribunes. The title was also used for several other positions and classes in the course of Roman history. Contents 1 Tribal Tribunes 2 Tribune of the Celeres 3 Tribune of the Plebs 4 Military Tribunes 5 Consular Tribunes 6 Tribunes of the treasury 7 Later uses of the title 7.1 Republic of Venice 7.2 French revolutionary tribunat 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links Tribal Tribunes[edit] The word tribune is derived from the Roman tribes. The three original tribes known as the Ramnes or Ramnenses, Tities or Titienses, and the Luceres, were each headed by a tribune, who represented each tribe in civil, religious, and military matters.[1]:ii. 7[2][3] Subsequently, each of the Servian tribes was also represented by a tribune.[1]:ii. 14[4] Tribune of the Celeres[edit] Under the Roman Kingdom, the Tribunus Celerum, in English Tribune of the Celeres, or Tribune of the Knights, was commander of the king's personal bodyguard, known as the Celeres. This official was second only to the king, and had the authority to pass law, known as lex tribunicia, and to preside over the comitia curiata. Unless the king himself elected to lead the cavalry into battle, this responsibility fell to the tribune of the celeres. In theory he could deprive the king of his imperium, or authority to command, with the agreement of the comitia curiata.[1]:ii. 13[4] In the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last Roman king, this office was held by Lucius Junius Brutus, the king's nephew, and thus the senior member of the king's household, after the king himself and his sons. It was Brutus who convened the comitia and asked that they revoke the king's imperium.[5]:i. 59 After the fall of the monarchy, the powers of the tribune of the celeres were divided between the Magister Militum, or Master of the Infantry, also known as the Praetor Maximus or dictator, and his lieutenant, the magister equitum or "Master of the Horse". Tribune of the Plebs[edit] Main article: Tribune of the Plebs The Tribuni Plebis, known in English as Tribunes of the Plebs, Tribunes of the People, or Plebeian Tribunes, were instituted in 494 BC, after the first secession of the plebs, in order to protect the interests of the plebeians against the actions of the senate and the annual magistrates, who were uniformly patrician. The ancient sources indicate the tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two aediles plebis, or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although there were at least two exceptions.[6] The tribunes of the plebs had the power to convene the concilium plebis, or plebeian assembly, and propose legislation before it. Only one of the tribunes could preside over this assembly, which had the power to pass laws affecting only the plebeians, known as plebiscita, or plebiscites. After 287 BC, the decrees of the concilium plebis had the effect of law over all Roman citizens. By the 3rd century BC, the tribunes could also convene and propose legislation before the senate.[7] Although sometimes referred to as "plebeian magistrates," technically the tribunes of the plebs were not magistrates, having been elected by the plebeians alone, and not the whole Roman people. However, they were sacrosanct, and the whole body of the plebeians were pledged to protect the tribunes against any assault or interference with their persons during their terms of office. Anyone who violated the sacrosanctity of the tribunes might be killed without penalty.[7][8] This was also the source of the tribunes' power, known as ius intercessionis, or intercessio, by which any tribune could intercede on behalf of a Roman citizen to prohibit the act of a magistrate or other official. Citizens could appeal the decisions of the magistrates to the tribunes, who would then be obliged to determine the legality of the action before a magistrate could proceed. This power also allowed the tribunes to forbid, or veto any act of the senate or another assembly. Only a dictator was exempt from these powers.[7] The tribunicia potestas, or tribunician power, was limited by the fact that it was derived from the oath of the people to defend the tribunes. This limited most of the tribunes' actions to the boundaries of the city itself, as well as a radius of one mile around. They had no power to affect the actions of provincial governors.[7] The powers of the tribunes were severely curtailed during the constitutional reforms of the dictator Sulla in 81 BC. Although many of these powers were restored in further reforms of 75 BC and 70 BC, the prestige and authority of the tribunes had been irreparably damaged. In 48 BC, the senate granted tribunician powers (tribunicia potestas, powers equivalent to those of a tribune without actually being one) to the dictator Julius Caesar. Caesar used them to prevent the other tribunes interfering with his actions. In 23 BC, the senate granted the same power to Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, and from that point onwards it was regularly granted to each emperor as part of their formal titles. Under the Roman Empire, the tribunes continued to be elected, but had lost their independence and most of their practical power. The office became merely a step in the political careers of plebeians who aspired toward a seat in the senate.[7] Military Tribunes[edit] Main article: Military tribune The Tribuni Militum, known in English as Military Tribunes or literally, Tribunes of the Soldiers, were elected each year along with the annual magistrates. Their number varied throughout Roman history, but eventually reached twenty-four. These were usually young men in their late twenties, who aspired to a senatorial career. Each tribune would be assigned to command a portion of the Roman army, subordinate to the magistrates and promagistrates appointed by the senate, and their legates. Within each of the legions, various middle-ranking officers were also styled tribune. These officers included: Tribunus laticlavius, a senatorial officer, second in command of a legion; identified by a broad stripe, or laticlavus. Tribunus angusticlavius, an officer chosen from among the equites, five to each legion; identified by a narrow stripe, or angusticlavus. Tribunus rufulus, an officer chosen by the commander. Tribunus vacans, an unassigned officer in the Late Roman army; a member of the general's staff. Tribunus cohortis, an officer commanding a cohort, part of a legion usually consisting of six centuries. Tribunus cohortis urbanae, commander of one of the urban cohorts, a sort of military police unit stationed at Rome. Tribunus sexmestris, a tribune serving a tour of duty of only six months; there is no evidence to identify this officer as a cavalry commander, as sometimes stated in modern literature. In the late Roman army, a tribunus was a senior officer, sometimes called a comes, who commanded a cavalry vexillatio. As tribounos, the title survived in the East Roman army until the early 7th century. From the use of tribunus to describe various military officers is derived the word tribunal, originally referring to a raised platform used to address the soldiers or administer justice. Military tribunes are featured in notable works of historical fiction, including Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ, by Lew Wallace, and The Robe by Lloyd C. Douglas. Both novels involve characters affected by the life and death of Jesus, and were turned into epic films during the 1950s. Messala, the primary antagonist in Ben-Hur, was played by Stephen Boyd, while Marcellus Gallio, the protagonist of The Robe, was played by a young Richard Burton. Consular Tribunes[edit] Main article: Tribuni militum consulari potestate In 445 BC, the tribunes of the plebs succeeded in passing the lex Canuleia, repealing the law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and providing that one of the consuls might be a plebeian. Rather than permit the consular dignity to pass into the hands of a plebeian, the senate proposed a compromise whereby three military tribunes, who might be either patrician or plebeian, should be elected in place of the consuls. The first tribuni militum consulare potestate, or military tribunes with consular power, were elected for the year 444. Although plebeians were eligible for this office, each of the first "consular tribunes" was a patrician.[5]:iv. 1–6 Military tribunes were elected in place of the consuls in half the years from 444 to 401 BC, and in each instance, all of the tribunes were patricians; nor did any plebeian succeed in obtaining the consulship. The number of tribunes increased to four beginning in 426, and six beginning in 405. At last, the plebeians elected four of their number military tribunes for the year 400; others were elected in 399, 396, 383, and 379. But apart from these years, no plebeian obtained the highest offices of the Roman State. The patricians' monopoly on power was finally broken by Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, tribunes of the people, who in 376 BC brought forward legislation demanding not merely that one of the consuls might be a plebeian, but that henceforth one must be chosen from their order. When the senate refused their demand, the tribunes prevented the election of annual magistrates for five years, before relenting and permitting the election of consular tribunes from 370 to 367. In the end, and with the encouragement of the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus, the senate conceded the battle, and passed the Licinian Rogations. Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul, followed by Licinius two years later; and with this settlement, the consular tribunes were abolished.[1]:xiv. 12[5]:vi. 35, 36, 38, 42, vii. 1, 2[9] Tribunes of the treasury[edit] The exact nature of the Tribuni Aerarii, or Tribunes of the Treasury is shrouded in mystery. Originally they seem to have been tax collectors, but this power was slowly lost to other officials. By the end of the Republic, this style belonged to a class of persons slightly below the equites in wealth. When the makeup of Roman juries was reformed in 70 BC, it was stipulated that one-third of the members of each jury should belong to this class. Later uses of the title[edit] Republic of Venice[edit] In the early history of the Republic of Venice, during the tenure of the sixth Doge Domenico Monegario, Venice instituted a dual Tribunal modeled on the above Roman institution - two new Tribunes being elected each year, with the intention to oversee the Doge and prevent abuse of power (though this aim was not always successfully achieved). French revolutionary tribunat[edit] Main article: Tribunat The "Tribunat", the French word for tribunate, derived from the Latin term tribunatus, meaning the office or term of a Roman tribunus (see above), was a collective organ of the young revolutionary French Republic composed of members styled tribun (the French for tribune), which, despite the apparent reference to one of ancient Rome's prestigious magistratures, never held any real political power as an assembly, its individual members no role at all. It was instituted by Napoleon I Bonaparte's Constitution of the Year VIII "in order to moderate the other powers" by discussing every legislative project, sending its orateurs ("orators", i.e. spokesmen) to defend or attack them in the Corps législatif, and asking the Senate to overturn "the lists of eligibles, the acts of the Legislative Body and those of the government" on account of unconstitutionality. Its 100 members were designated by the Senate from the list of citizens from 25 years up, and annually one fifth was renewed for a five-year term. When it opposed the first parts of Bonaparte's proposed penal code, he made the Senate nominate 20 new members at once to replace the 20 first opponents to his politic; they accepted the historically important reform of penal law. As the Tribunate opposed new despotic projects, he got the Senate in year X to allow itself to dissolve the Tribunate. In XIII it was further downsized to 50 members. On August 16, 1807 it was abolished and never revived. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic List of Roman tribunes References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Romaike Archaiologia. ^ Digesta seu Pandectae. i. tit. 2 s2 § 20. ^ Servius. ad Virg. Aen. 560. ^ a b Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ^ a b c Titus Livius. Ab Urbe Condita. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, ii. 33, 58 (citing Piso, iii. 31) ^ a b c d e "Tribuni Plebis". Oxford Classical Dictionary (2nd ed.). 1970. ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Ginn & Co. pp. 196, 261. ^ Plutarchus. "Life of Camillus". Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Bibliography[edit] Nouveau Larousse illustré (in French). Mackay, Christopher S. Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. p. 135. for information on Tribunes of the Treasury External links[edit] Livius.org: Tribune "Tribune" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns 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en-wikipedia-org-4636	----	Gordian I - Wikipedia Gordian I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 238 Roman emperor Gordian I Bust, Capitoline Museums, Rome Roman emperor Reign 22 March – 12 April 238 Predecessor Maximinus Thrax Successor Pupienus and Balbinus Co-emperor Gordian II Born c. 159 possibly Phrygia Died 12 April 238 (aged 79) Carthage, Africa Proconsularis Spouse Unknown, possibly Fabia Orestilla[1] Issue Gordian II Antonia Gordiana Names Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus[2] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus[3] Dynasty Gordian Father Unknown, possibly Maecius Marullus[4] or Marcus Antonius[5] Mother Unknown, possibly Ulpia Gordiana[4] or Sempronia Romana[5] Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Gordian I (Latin: Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus; c. 159 AD[6] – 12 April 238 AD) was Roman Emperor for 21 days with his son Gordian II in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Caught up in a rebellion against the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, he was defeated by forces loyal to Maximinus, and he committed suicide after the death of his son. Contents 1 Family and background 2 Early life 2.1 Fabia Orestilla 3 Rise to power 4 Legacy 5 Family tree 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 References 8 External links Family and background[edit] Little is known about the early life and family background of Gordian I. There is no reliable evidence on his family origins.[7] Gordian I was said to be related to prominent Senators of his time.[8] His praenomen and nomen Marcus Antonius suggested that his paternal ancestors received Roman citizenship under the Triumvir Mark Antony, or one of his daughters, during the late Roman Republic.[8] Gordian’s cognomen ‘Gordianus’ also indicates that his family origins were from Anatolia, more specifically Galatia or Cappadocia.[9] According to the Augustan History, his mother was a Roman woman called Ulpia Gordiana and his father was the Senator Maecius Marullus.[4] While modern historians have dismissed his father's name as false, there may be some truth behind the identity of his mother. Gordian's family history can be guessed through inscriptions. The name Sempronianus in his name, for instance, may indicate a connection to his mother or grandmother. In Ankara, Turkey, a funeral inscription has been found that names a Sempronia Romana, daughter of a named Sempronius Aquila (an imperial secretary).[8] Romana erected this undated funeral inscription to her husband (whose name is lost) who died as a praetor-designate.[7] Gordian might have been related to the gens Sempronia. French historian Christian Settipani identified Gordian I's parents as Marcus Antonius (b. ca 135), tr. pl., praet. des., and wife Sempronia Romana (b. ca 140), daughter of Titus Flavius Sempronius Aquila (b. ca 115), Secretarius ab epistulis Graecis, and wife Claudia (b. ca 120), daughter of an unknown father and his wife Claudia Tisamenis (b. ca 100), sister of Herodes Atticus.[5] It appears in this family tree that the person who was related to Herodes Atticus was Gordian I's mother or grandmother and not his wife.[8] Also according to the Augustan History, the wife of Gordian I was a Roman woman called Fabia Orestilla,[1] born circa 165, whom the Augustan History claims was a descendant of the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius through her father Fulvus Antoninus.[1] Modern historians have dismissed this name and her information as false.[7] With his wife, Gordian I had at least two children: a son of the same name [10] and a daughter, Antonia Gordiana (who was the mother of the future Emperor Gordian III).[11] His wife died before 238 AD. Christian Settipani identified her parents as Marcus Annius Severus, who was a Suffect Consul, and his wife Silvana, born circa 140 AD, who was the daughter of Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus and his wife Aurelia Fadilla, the daughter of Antoninus Pius and wife Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Elder.[5] Early life[edit] Gordian steadily climbed the Roman imperial hierarchy when he became part of the Roman Senate. His political career started relatively late in his life[7] and his early years were probably spent in rhetoric and literary studies.[8] As a military man, Gordian commanded the Legio IV Scythica when the legion was stationed in Syria.[8] He served as governor of Roman Britain in 216 AD and was a Suffect Consul sometime during the reign of Elagabalus.[7] Inscriptions in Roman Britain bearing his name were partially erased suggesting some form of imperial displeasure during this role.[12] While he gained unbounded popularity on account of the magnificent games and shows he produced as aedile,[13] his prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla, in whose honor he wrote a long epic poem called Antoninias.[14][15]Gordian certainly retained his wealth and political clout during the chaotic times of the Severan dynasty which suggests a personal dislike for intrigue. Philostratus dedicated his work Lives of the Sophists to either him or his son, Gordian II.[16] Fabia Orestilla[edit] Fabia Orestilla was the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius and the wife of Gordian I.[17] She married him probably in 192 and had two sons and a daughter.[17] Orestilla is only mentioned in the Augustan History.[1] In part because the Augustan History also names the father-in-law of the oldest Gordian as "Annius Severus",[18] modern historians do not believe that this is the name of his wife, and dismiss this name and her information as false. An alternative theory many believe is that his wife was the granddaughter of Greek Sophist, consul and tutor Herodes Atticus. Rise to power[edit] During the reign of Alexander Severus, Gordian I (who was by then in his late sixties), after serving his Suffect Consulship prior to 223, drew lots for the proconsular governorship of the province of Africa Proconsularis[7][19] which he assumed in 237.[20] However, prior to the commencement of his promagistrature, Maximinus Thrax killed Alexander Severus at Moguntiacum in Germania Inferior and assumed the throne.[21] Gordian I on a coin, bearing the title AFR, Africanus. Inscription: IMP. CAES. M. ANT. GORDIANVS AFR. AVG. / VICTORIA AVGG. S C. Maximinus was not a popular emperor and universal discontent increased due to his oppressive rule.[22] It culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238 AD. After, Maximinus' fiscal curator was murdered in a riot, people turned to Gordian and demanded that he accept the dangerous honor of the imperial throne.[2] Gordian, after protesting that he was too old for the position, eventually yielded to the popular clamour and assumed both the purple and the cognomen Africanus on 22 March.[23] According to Edward Gibbon: An iniquitous sentence had been pronounced against some opulent youths of [Africa], the execution of which would have stripped them of far the greater part of their patrimony. (…) A respite of three days, obtained with difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in collecting from their estates a great number of slaves and peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their lords and armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The leaders of the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience of the procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, seized on the little town of Thysdrus, and erected the standard of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman empire. (...) Gordianus, their proconsul, and the object of their choice [as emperor], refused, with unfeigned reluctance, the dangerous honour, and begged with tears that they should suffer him to terminate in peace a long and innocent life, without staining his feeble age with civil blood. Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial purple, his only refuge indeed against the jealous cruelty of Maximin (...).[24] Due to his advanced age, he insisted that his son be associated with him.[25] A few days later, Gordian entered the city of Carthage with the overwhelming support of the population and local political leaders.[26] Gordian I sent assassins to kill Maximinus' praetorian prefect, Publius Aelius Vitalianus[27] and the rebellion seemed to be successful.[28] Gordian, in the meantime, had sent an embassy to Rome, under the leadership of Publius Licinius Valerianus,[29] to obtain the Senate’s support for his rebellion.[28] The Senate confirmed the new emperor on 2 April and many of the provinces gladly sided with Gordian.[30] Opposition came from the neighboring province of Numidia.[2] Capelianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax, held a grudge against Gordian[30] and invaded the African province with the only legion stationed in the region, III Augusta, and other veteran units.[31] Gordian II, at the head of a militia army of untrained soldiers, lost the Battle of Carthage and was killed,[30] and Gordian I took his own life by hanging himself with his belt.[32] The Gordians had reigned only 21 days.[7] Gordian was the first emperor to commit suicide since Otho in 69 during The Year of the Four Emperors. Legacy[edit] Gordian's positive reputation can be attributed to his reportedly amiable character. Both he and his son were said to be fond of literature, even publishing their own voluminous works.[24] While they were strongly interested in intellectual pursuits, they possessed neither the necessary skills nor resources to be considered able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced the cause of Gordian, the Senate was obliged to continue the revolt against Maximinus following Gordian's death, appointing Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors.[33] Nevertheless, by the end of 238, the recognised emperor would be Gordian III, Gordian's grandson.[33] Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Herodian, Roman History, Book 7 Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2004) [1994]. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome: Updated Edition. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-5026-0. Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government in Britain, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4 Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Grasby, K.D. (1975). "The Age, Ancestry, and Career of Gordian I". Classical Quarterly. 25 (1): 123–130. doi:10.1017/S000983880003295X. JSTOR 638250. Meckler, Michael L., Gordian I (238 A.D.), De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001) Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004 Settipani, Christian, Continuité gentilice et continuité sénatoriale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale, 2000 Southern, Pat (2015) [2001]. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-73807-1. Syme, Ronald, Emperors and Biography, Oxford University Press, 1971 References[edit] ^ a b c d Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 17:4 ^ a b c Southern, p. 86. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b c Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 2:2 ^ a b c d Settipani, "Continuité gentilice et continuité sénatoriale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale" ^ Gordian I, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire, ed. Matthew Bunson, (Oxford University Press, 1995), 183. ^ a b c d e f g Meckler, Gordian I ^ a b c d e f Birley, pg. 340 ^ Peuch, Bernadette, "Orateurs et sophistes grecs dans les inscriptions d'époque impériale", (2002), pg. 128 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 17:1 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 4:2 ^ Birley, pg. 339 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 3:5 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 3:3 ^ Kemezis, Adam M (2014). Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire Under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge University Press. ^ "Grant, The Roman Emperors", pg. 140 ^ a b Krawczuk, Aleksander (1998). Poczet cesarzowych Rzymu. Warszawa: Iskry. p. 147. ISBN 83-244-0021-4. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018. ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 6:4 ^ Herodian, 7:5:2 ^ Birley, pg. 333 ^ Potter, pg. 167 ^ Cope, Geoffrey. Gordian I, 2, & 3 (238AD-244AD). ^ Herodian, 7:5:8 ^ a b Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, Ch. 7 ^ Adkins, Lesley and Adkins Roy A., Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome: Updated Edition, p. 27: Gordian II was "Proclaimed co-emperor on 22 March 238" with Gordian II ^ Herodian, 7:6:2 ^ Laale, Hans Willer (2011). Ephesus (Ephesos): An Abbreviated History from Androclus to Constantine X. WestBow Press. ISBN 978-144-971-618-9. ^ a b Potter, pg. 169 ^ Zosimus, 1:11 ^ a b c Potter, pg. 170 ^ Herodian, 7.9.3 ^ D'Epiro, Peter (2010). The Book of Firsts: 150 World-Changing People and Events, from Caesar Augustus to the Internet. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-030-747-666-1. ^ a b Southern, p. 87. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gordianus I.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gordian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 247. Regnal titles Preceded by Maximinus Thrax Roman emperor 238 With: Gordian II Succeeded by Pupienus Balbinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordian_I&oldid=1026086701" Categories: 159 births 238 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Crisis of the Third Century Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Britain Deified Roman emperors Ancient Romans who committed suicide Suicides by hanging in Tunisia Antonii Gordian dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4639	----	Valentinian I - Wikipedia Valentinian I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 364 to 375 Roman emperor Valentinian I Solidus of Valentinian Roman emperor (in the West) Reign 26 February 364 – 17 November 375 Predecessor Jovian Successor Gratian and Valentinian II Co-emperor Valens (in the East) Born 3 July 321 Cibalae (Vinkovci, Croatia) Died 17 November 375 (aged 50) Brigetio (Szőny, Hungary) Spouse Marina Severa Justina Issue Gratian Valentinian II Galla Grata Justa Names Flavius Valentinianus Dynasty Valentinianic Father Gratianus Funarius Religion Nicene Christianity Valentinian I (Latin: Flavius Valentinianus; 3 July 321 – 17 November 375), sometimes called Valentinian the Great,[1][2][3][4] was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west. During his reign, Valentinian fought successfully against the Alamanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians. Most notable was his victory over the Alamanni in 367 at the Battle of Solicinium. His general Count Theodosius defeated a revolt in Africa and the Great Conspiracy, a coordinated assault on Roman Britain by Picts, Scots, and Saxons. Valentinian was also the last emperor to conduct campaigns across both the Rhine and Danube rivers. Valentinian rebuilt and improved the fortifications along the frontiers, even building fortresses in enemy territory. He founded the Valentinianic dynasty, with his sons Gratian and Valentinian II succeeding him in the western half of the empire. Contents 1 Early life 2 Service under Constantius and Julian 3 Rise to power 4 Emperor 4.1 Campaigns in Gaul and Germania 4.2 The Great Conspiracy 4.3 Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube 4.3.1 Death 5 Reputation 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary accounts 9 External links Early life[edit] Solidus of Valentinian marked: d·n· valentinianus p·f· aug· Valentinian was born in 321[5] at Cibalae in southern Pannonia (now Vinkovci in Croatia) into an Illyro-Roman family.[6] Valentinian and his younger brother Valens were the sons of Gratianus Funarius, a prominent commander during the reigns of emperors Constantine I and Constans I.[7] He and his brother grew up on the family estate where they were educated in a variety of subjects, including painting and sculpting.[8] Gratianus was promoted to comes Africae in the late 320s or early 330s, and the young Valentinian accompanied his father to Africa.[9] However, Gratian was soon accused of embezzlement and was forced to retire.[9] Valentinian joined the army in the late 330s and later probably acquired the position of protector domesticus.[9] Gratian was later recalled during the early 340s and was made comes of Britannia.[9] After holding this post, Gratianus retired to the family estate in Cibalae.[10] In 350, Constans I was assassinated by agents of the usurper Magnentius, a commander in Gaul proclaimed emperor by his soldiers.[citation needed] Constantius II, older brother of Constans and emperor in the East, promptly set forth towards Magnentius with a large army.[11] The following year the two emperors met in Pannonia. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major resulted in a costly victory for Constantius.[12] Two years later he defeated Magnentius again in southern Gaul at the Battle of Mons Seleucus.[13] Magnentius, now realizing the futility of continuing his revolt, committed suicide in August that year; making Constantius sole ruler of the empire.[14] It was around this time that Constantius confiscated Gratianus' property, for supposedly showing hospitality to Magnentius when he was in Pannonia.[10] Despite his father's fall from favour, Valentinian does not seem to have been adversely affected at this time, making it unlikely he ever fought for the usurper.[15] It is known that Valentinian was in the region during the conflict, but what involvement he had in the war, if any, is unknown.[15] Service under Constantius and Julian[edit] Mutilated bust of Valentinian I or his brother, Valens[16] The conflict between Magnentius and Constantius had allowed the Alamanni and Franks to take advantage of the confusion and cross the Rhine, attacking several important settlements and fortifications.[9][15] In 355, after deposing his cousin Gallus but still feeling the crises of the empire too much for one emperor to handle, Constantius raised his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar.[9] With the situation in Gaul rapidly deteriorating, Julian was made at least nominal commander of one of the two main armies in Gaul, Barbatio being commander of the other.[9] Constantius devised a strategy where Julian and Barbatio would operate in a pincer movement against the Alamanni.[15] However, a band of Alamanni slipped past Julian and Barbatio and attacked Lugdunum (Lyon). Julian sent the tribunes Valentinian and Bainobaudes to watch the road the raiders would have to return by. However, their efforts were hindered by Barbatio and his tribune Cella. The Alamanni king Chnodomarius took advantage of the situation and attacked the Romans in detail, inflicting heavy losses.[15] Barbatio complained to Constantius and the debacle was blamed on Valentinian and Bainobaudes, who were cashiered from the army.[15] With his career in ruins, Valentinian returned to his new family estate in Sirmium. Two years later his first son Gratian was born by his wife Marina Severa.[17] Valentinian's actions and location become uncertain around this time, but he was likely exiled.[18] Theodoret say that this was because he'd reacted angrily when a pagan temple attendant sprinkled water on him, saying "I am not purified, but defiled", and striking the priest.[19] In 357 Valentinian was a tribunus of cavalry, possibly the Joviani in Roman Gaul.[20] In either 359/360 or 360/361 he was in Mesopotamia, and by 362 he was comes and tribunus of the Cornuti.[20] Valentinian was then exiled to Thebes, in the Thebaid of Roman Egypt.[20] Under Jovian he was promoted to tribunus of the scholae secundae scutariorum, a formation of the elite Scholae Palatinae.[20] Rise to power[edit] At the news of Julian's death on a campaign against the Sassanids, the army hastily declared a commander, Jovian, emperor. The army still found itself beleaguered by Persian attacks, forcing Jovian to accept humiliating peace terms.[21] Jovian's authority within the empire was still insecure, so he sent a notary Procopius and the tribune Memoridus west to announce his accession.[21] During Jovian's reign Valentinian was promoted to tribune of a Scutarii (elite infantry) regiment, and was dispatched to Ancyra. Jovian's rule would be short – only eight months – and before he could even consolidate his position in Constantinople he died en route between Ancyra and Nicaea. His death was attributed to either assassination by poisoning or accidental carbon monoxide poisoning. Jovian is remembered mostly for restoring Christianity to its previous favoured status under Constantine and his sons. The army marched to Nicaea, and a meeting of civil and military officials was convened to choose a new emperor. The purple was offered to Salutius, who had refused it once before on Julian's death. The prefect declined, and did so again on behalf of his son when the offer was extended to him.[22] Two different names were proposed: Aequitius, a tribune of the first Scutarii, and Januarius, a relative of Jovian's in charge of military supplies in Illyricum. Both were rejected; Aequitius as too rough and boorish,[23] Januarius because he was too far away.[24] As a man well qualified and at hand, the assembly finally agreed upon Valentinian, and sent messengers to inform him in Ancyra. Valentinian and Valens enthroned on the reverse of a solidus of Valens, marked victoria augg· ("the Victory of Our Augusti"). They hold together the orb, a symbol of power Emperor[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Colossus of Barletta: Statue of a Roman emperor believed to represent Valentinian I Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 26 February 364. As he prepared to make his accession speech the soldiers threatened to riot, apparently uncertain as to where his loyalties lay. Valentinian reassured them that the army was his greatest priority. According to Ammianus the soldiers were astounded by Valentinian’s bold demeanour and his willingness to assume the imperial authority. To further prevent a succession crisis he agreed to pick a co-Augustus. His decision to elect a fellow-emperor could also be construed as a move to appease any opposition among the civilian officials in the eastern portion of the Empire. By agreeing to appoint a co-ruler, he assured the eastern officials that someone with imperial authority would remain in the east to protect their interests. Valentinian selected his brother Valens as co-Augustus at Constantinople on 28 March 364. This was done over the objections of Dagalaifus, the magister equitum. Ammianus makes it clear that Valens was subordinate to his brother. The remainder of 364 was spent delegating administrative duties and military commands. According to the 5th century historian Zosimus, who as a Pagan was inclined to revile the restorer of Christianity, all the ministers and officials appointed by Julian were summarily dismissed in disgrace; modern authorities have qualified the assertion.[25] It is certain that some reshuffling of commands occurred along with the division of the provinces, but the changes were strictly based on merit. The Sophists and philosophers who had proliferated in the court of the apostate, drawing large salaries for delusive services, were cashiered.[26] Valentinian retained the services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to Comes Illyricum. Valens was given the Prefecture of Oriens, governed by prefect Salutius. Valentinian gained control of Italy, Gaul, Africa, and Illyricum. Valens resided in Constantinople, while Valentinian’s court was at Mediolanum. Campaigns in Gaul and Germania[edit] Reverse of a solidus of Valentinian marked: restitutor reipublicae ("restitutor of the Republic") In 365 the Alamanni crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul. Simultaneously, Procopius – the last scion of the Constantinian dynasty – began his revolt against Valens in the east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian received news of both the Alamanni and Procopius' revolt on 1 November while on his way to Paris. He initially sent Dagalaifus to fight the Alamanni[27] while he himself made preparations to march east and help Valens. After receiving counsel from his court and deputations from the leading Gallic cities begging him to stay and protect Gaul, he decided to remain in Gaul and fight the Alamanni.[28][29] Valentinian advanced to Durocortorum and sent two generals, Charietto and Severianus, against the invaders.[30] Both generals were promptly defeated and killed.[31] In 366, Dagalaifus was sent against the Alamanni but he was also ineffective.[32] Late in the campaigning season Dagalaifus was replaced by Jovinus, a general from the court of Valentinian. After several victories along the Meuse river, Jovinus pushed the Alamanni out of Gaul and was awarded the consulate the following year for his efforts.[33] In early 367 Valentinian was distracted from launching a punitive expedition against the Alamanni due to crises in Britain and northern Gaul. The Alamanni promptly re-crossed the Rhine and plundered Moguntiacum. Valentinian succeeded in arranging the assassination of Vithicabius, an Alamannic leader, but Valentinian was more determined to bring the Alamanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the entire winter of 367 gathering a massive army for a spring offensive. He summoned the Comes Italiae Sebastianus,[34] with the Italian and Illyrian legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the magister peditum. In the spring of 368 Valentinian, his eight-year-old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhine and Main rivers into Alamannic territory. They did not encounter any resistance initially – burning any dwellings or food stores they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alamanni in the Battle of Solicinium; the Romans were victorious[35] but suffered heavy casualties.[36] A temporary peace was reached and Valentinian returned to Trier for the winter.[37] During 369, Valentinian ordered new defensive works to be constructed and old structures refurbished along the length of the Rhine’s west bank.[38] Boldly, he ordered the construction of a fortress across the Rhine in the mountains near modern Heidelberg.[39] The Alamanni sent envoys to protest, but they were dismissed. The Alamanni attacked the fortress while it was still under construction and destroyed it.[40] In 370 the Saxons renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, the comes in charge of the troops in northern Gaul, urged Severus to come to his aid. After several modest successes, a truce was called and the Saxons handed over to the Romans young men fit for duty in the Roman military – in exchange for free passage back to their homeland. The Romans ambushed them and destroyed the entire invading force.[41] Valentinian meanwhile tried to persuade the Burgundians – bitter enemies of the Alamanni – to attack Macrian, a powerful Alamannic chieftain. If the Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them with his army. Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in his usual high-handed manner, refused to meet with the Burgundian envoys and personally assure them of Roman support. Nevertheless, rumors of a Roman alliance with the Burgundians did have the effect of scattering the Alamanni through fear of an imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the magister equitum Theodosius to attack the Alamanni[34] through Raetia – taking many Alamannic prisoners. These captured Alamanni were settled in the Po river valley in Italy, where they were still settled at the time Ammianus wrote his history. Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully for four more years to defeat Macrian who in 372 barely escaped capture by Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian continued to recruit heavily from Alamanni friendly to Rome. He sent the Alamannic king Fraomarius, as a Tribune, to Britain in 372-373 with an army in order to replenish troops there and made the noblemen Bitheridius and Hortarius commanders in his army although Hortarius was soon executed for conspiring with Macrian. Valentinian’s Alamannic campaigns, however, were hampered by troubles first in Africa, and later on the Danube river. In 374 Valentinian was forced to make peace with Macrian because the Emperor's presence was needed to counter an invasion of Illyricum by the Quadi and Sarmatians. The Great Conspiracy[edit] In 367, Valentinian received reports from Britain that a combined force of Picts, Attacotti and Scots had killed the Comes litoris Saxonici Nectaridus and Dux Britanniarum Fullofaudes. At the same time, Frankish and Saxon forces were raiding the coastal areas of northern Gaul. The empire was in the midst of the Great Conspiracy – and was in danger of losing control of Britain altogether. Valentinian set out for Britain, sending Comes domesticorum Severus ahead of him to investigate. Severus was not able to correct the situation and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at Samarobriva. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to Britain and promoted Severus to magister peditum. It was at this time that Valentinian fell ill and a battle for succession broke out between Severus, a representative of the army, and Rusticus Julianus, magister memoriae and a representative of the Gallic nobility. Valentinian soon recovered however and in 367 appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the west.[42] Ammianus remarks that such an action was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned saying that he needed more men to take care of the situation. In 368 Valentinian appointed Theodosius as the new Comes Britanniarum with instructions to return Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany the emperor on his campaign against the Alamanni. Theodosius arrived in 368 with the Batavi, Heruli, Jovii and Victores legions. Landing at Rutupiæ, he proceeded to Londinium restoring order to southern Britain. Later, he rallied the remaining garrison which was originally stationed in Britain; it was apparent the units had lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes and Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius sent for Civilis to be installed as the new vicarius of the diocese and Dulcitius as an additional general. In 369, Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of London; putting down the revolt of Valentinus, the brother-in-law of a vicarius, Maximinus. Subsequently, Theodosius restored the rest of Britain to the empire and rebuilt many fortifications – renaming northern Britain 'Valentia'. After his return in 369, Valentinian promoted Theodosius to magister equitum in place of Jovinus. Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube[edit] Silver missorium (heavily worn) believed to depict Valentinian I. The armoured and haloed emperor is flanked by infantry soldiers, he holds a labarum in one hand and an orb surmounted by a figure of Victory in the other, ca. 364-375 In 372, the rebellion of Firmus broke out in the still-devastated African provinces. This rebellion was driven by the corruption of the comes Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa. Resentment of Romanus' peculations and his failure to defend the province from desert nomads caused some of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to restore imperial control. Over the following two years Theodosius uncovered Romanus' crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated Firmus. In 373, hostilities erupted with the Quadi, a group of Germanic-speaking people living on the upper Danube. Like the Alamanni, the Quadi were outraged that Valentinian was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations to the magister armorum per Illyricum Aequitius, who promised to refer the matter to Valentinian. However, the increasingly influential minister Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, blamed Aequitius to Valentinian for the trouble, and managed to have him promote his son Marcellianus to finish the project.[43] The protests of Quadic leaders continued to delay the project, and to put an end to their clamor Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king Gabinius at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war, along with their allies the Sarmatians. During the fall, they crossed the Danube and began ravaging the province of Pannonia Valeria. The marauders could not penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the unprotected countryside. Two legions were sent in but failed to coordinate and were routed by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, another group of Sarmatians invaded Moesia, but were driven back by the son of Theodosius, Dux Moesiae and later emperor Theodosius. Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374. The following spring he set out from Trier and arrived at Carnuntum, which was deserted. There he was met by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian replied that he would investigate what had happened and act accordingly. Valentinian ignored Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided to punish the Quadi. He was accompanied by Sebastianus and Merobaudes, and spent the summer months preparing for the campaign. In the fall he crossed the Danube at Aquincum into Quadi territory.[44] After pillaging Quadi lands without opposition, he retired to Savaria to winter quarters.[45] Death[edit] Without waiting for the spring he decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to Brigetio. Once he arrived on 17 November, he received a deputation from the Quadi. In return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army, the Quadi were to be allowed to leave in peace. However, before the envoys left they were granted an audience with Valentinian. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands; furthermore individual bands of Quadi were not necessarily bound to the rule of the chiefs who had made treaties with the Romans – and thus might attack the Romans at any time. The attitude of the envoys so enraged Valentinian that he suffered a stroke while angrily yelling at them, provoking his death[46] on November 17, 375. He was deified, as was the custom, becoming known in Latin: Divus Valentinianus Senior, lit. 'the Divine Valentinian the Elder'.[47] Modern memorial to Valentinian at Szőny (Latin: Brigetio) in Hungary Reputation[edit] Modern historian A.H.M. Jones writes that although Valentinian I was "less of a boor" than his chief rival for election to the imperial throne, "he was of a violent and brutal temper, and not only uncultivated himself, but hostile to cultivated persons". According to Ammianus, "he hated the well-dressed and educated and wealthy and well-born". He was, however, an able soldier and a conscientious administrator, and took an interest in the welfare of the humbler classes, from which his father had risen. Unfortunately his good intentions were often frustrated by a bad choice of ministers, and "an obstinate belief in their merits despite all evidence to the contrary."[48] He was a founder of schools, and provided medical attendance for the poor of Rome, by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen districts of the city.[49] He also reissued an edict of Constantine I making infanticide a capital offence.[50] Notwithstanding the benevolence of these more generous edicts, Valentinian was remarkable for cruelty and barbarism in his private affairs. He often had servants and attendants executed on trifling charges, and was reportedly accustomed to keep two bears, known as Micca Aurea (golden camel), and Innocence, in an iron cage which was transported wherever he went, whom he employed to execute the sentence, which he often delivered, of capital punishment. At length Innocence, when she was considered to have faithfully discharged her office, was released with the emperor's good wishes into her native wilds.[51] Valentinian was a Christian but permitted liberal religious freedom to all his subjects, proscribing only some forms of rituals such as particular types of sacrifices, and banning the practice of magic. Again, Valentinian steadily set his face against the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. He issued a pointed edict via Pope Damasus I, forbidding the grant of bequests to Christian clergy-men; and another forcing members of the sacerdotal order to discharge the public duties owed on account of their property, or else relinquish it.[52][49] Socrates Scholasticus gives an interesting account in his Historia Ecclesiastica of Valentinian's marriages, that has inspired some to call this emperor polygamous. According to the text: the empress Justina[53] became known to Marina Severa, wife of the emperor Valentinian, and had frequent dialogue with the empress, until their intimacy at length grew to such an extent that they were accustomed to bathe together. When Severa saw Justina in the bath she was greatly struck with the beauty of the virgin, and spoke of her to the emperor; saying that the daughter of Justus was so lovely a creature, and possessed of such symmetry of form, that she herself, though a woman, was altogether charmed with her. The emperor, treasuring this description by his wife in his own mind, considered with himself how he could espouse Justina, without repudiating Severa, as she had borne him Gratian, whom he had created Augustus a little while before. He accordingly framed a law, and caused it to be published throughout all the cities, by which any man was permitted to have two lawful wives. The law was promulgated and he married Justina, by whom he had Valentinian the younger. — Socrates Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiastica, IV.31 This story is known only from Socrates, and there is no trace of any edict by any emperor allowing polygamy. Valentinian I may have divorced Severa according to Roman Law, which allowed for divorce (see Women in ancient Rome).[54] However, since divorce was not acknowledged by Christians,[55] Socrates contemptuously describes him as a bigamist. It is also possible that Socrates attempted to accuse Justina, who was an Arian, of fornication, a common aspersion against other cults. According to John Malalas, the Chronicon Paschale, and John of Nikiu, the empress Severa was banished by Valentinian I for conducting an illegal transaction, before he consorted with Justina. Barnes believes this story to be an attempt to justify the divorce of Valentinian I without accusing the emperor.[56] See also[edit] Roman Empire portal List of Roman emperors Illyrian emperors Notes[edit] ^ Philip Schaff, A Select Library of the Nicene and post Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Volume 3. Eerdmans Publishing, University of California, 1956. p 146 ^ Edward Kenneth Rand, Founders of the Middle Ages. Dover Publications, University of Michigan, 1957. p 76 ^ Michael Whitby, Mary Whitby, Chronicon Paschale 284–628 AD. Liverpool University Press, University of Michigan, 1989. p 51, 53 ^ Gilbert Dagron, Emperor and priest: the imperial office in Byzantium. Cambridge University Press, 2003. p 26 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXX.6.6 ^ Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2002). Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. University of California Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. p. 2. ^ Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus. 45.5 ^ a b c d e f g Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. p. 4. ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXX.7.3 ^ Zosimus, New History II.60 ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.8.5–13 ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.11-2 ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.12 ^ a b c d e f Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. p. 13. ^ Johansen, F., Catalogue of the Roman Portraits III; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (Copenhagen 1995), pp. 178–179 ^ Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. p. 14. ^ Sources give different commands Valentinian held at the time and vastly different places of exile: Philostorgius says Constantius exiled Valentinian to Thebes in Egypt, Sozomen to Melitene in Armenia, the Paschal Chronicle to Selymbria in Thrace, and Theodoret to "a distant fort". Tomlin, p. 14. ^ Gaddis, Michael (18 March 2015). There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0520286245. Retrieved 29 January 2019. ^ a b c d Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Valentinianus". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 313–315. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ a b Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. p. 16. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XXV., pp. 845, 846 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVI.1.4 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVI.1.5 ^ Gibbon, p. 849 note ^ Gibbon, ch. XXIII., pp. 771-73; ch. XXV., p. 849 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVI.5.9 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVI.5.12 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVI.5.13 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.1.2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.1.4 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.2.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.2.10 ^ a b Hughes, Ian (2013). Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople. Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 978-147-382-863-6. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.10.15 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.10.16 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVII.10.17 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVIII.2.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVIII.2.2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXVIII.2.8 ^ Rike, R.L., Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus (1987), pg. 91; Jones, Martindale and Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Vol. I (1971), pgs. 615-616 ^ McEvoy, Meaghan (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455. United Kingdom: OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-019-966-481-8. ^ Gibbon, p. 894 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXX.5.13 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXX.5.14 ^ Lenski, Noel (2014). Failure of Empire. University of California Press. p. 142. ^ Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674660137. ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 139. ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Valentinian I.". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 851. ^ Gibbon, ch. XIV., p. 375; ch. XXV., p. 859 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXIX.3.9; Charles Kingsley, The Roman And The Teuton, A Series Of Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge, (Macmillan And Co., 1889, London), lecture II, The Dying Empire ^ Gibbon, ch. XXV., p. 864; ch. XX., p. 662, editor's note ^ Translated by A.C. Zenos. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890.) ^ Frier, Bruce W. and McGinn, Thomas A.J.: A Casebook on Roman Family Law (American Philological Association) OUP USA 2003. Part D, The End of Marriage ^ Matthew 19, 4–6. ^ Timothy Barnes, "Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality" (1998), p. 123–125 References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus. Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt. W. Seyfarth, ed. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1978. Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 9781889758879. Consularia Constantinopolitana. T. Mommsen ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi. Volume 9. Berlin, 1892. Codex Theodosianus. T. Mommsen, P.M. Meyer, and P. Krüger, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum constitutionibus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes (2 vols.). Berlin, 1905. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Vol. 6. T. Mommsen, ed. Berlin, 1875. Epitome de Caesaribus. F.R. Pichlmayr, ed. Leipzig, 1961. Jerome. Chronicon. R. Helm, ed., in Malcolm Drew Donalson, A Translation of Jerome’s Chronicon with Historical Commentary. Lewiston, NY, 1996. Orosius. Adversus paganos historiarum libri septem. Z. Zangemeister, ed. Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 5. Vienna, 1882. Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864. Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864. Theoderet. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 82. Paris, 1864. Zosimus. Historia nova. François Paschoud, ed. and trans., Zosime: Histoire Nouvelle (3 vols.). Paris, 1971–89. Ammian, Books 26‑30 Uchicago.edu. English summaries. Main text in Latin. Secondary accounts[edit] De Imperatoribus Romanis English text. Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776. M. Grant, The Roman Emperors, 1985. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Valentinian I." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 851. (in German) Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian. Reagieren und Gestalten: der Regierungsstil des spaetroemischen Kaisers am Beispiel der Gesetzgebung Valentinians I. Muenchen: Beck, 2008. 398 p. (Vestigia, Bd. 58). Ernst Stein, Histoire du Bas-Empire, vol. i, chap. 4 (1959). Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Valentinian" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 16. New York: Robert Appleton Company. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Valentinianus. This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valentinian I relating to Christianity. Valentinian I Valentinianic dynasty Born: 321 Died: 17 November 375 Regnal titles Preceded by Jovian Roman emperor 364–375 With: Valens Succeeded by Gratian and Valentinian II Political offices Preceded by Jovian Varronianus Roman consul 365 with Valens Succeeded by Gratian Dagalaifus Preceded by Lupicinus Iovinus Roman consul II 368 with Valens II Succeeded by Valentinianus Galates Victor Preceded by Valentinianus Galates Victor Roman consul III 370 with Valens III Succeeded by Gratian II Sex. Claudius Petronius Probus Preceded by Domitius Modestus Arintheus Roman consul IV 373 with Valens IV Succeeded by Gratian III Equitius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valentinian_I&oldid=1027313753" Categories: 321 births 375 deaths 4th-century Christians 4th-century Roman emperors Anti-German sentiment Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Deified Roman emperors Flavii Illyrian people Imperial Roman consuls Romans from Pannonia Valentinianic dynasty Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles needing additional references from February 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Commons link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 06:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4654	----	Demography of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Demography of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Population of the Roman Empire) Jump to navigation Jump to search The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, in the reign of Trajan, 117 CE Demographically, the Roman Empire was a typical premodern state. It had high infant mortality, a low marriage age, and high fertility within marriage. Perhaps half of Roman subjects died by the age of 5. Of those still alive at age 10, half would die by the age of 50. At its peak, after the Antonine Plague of the 160s CE, it had a population of about 60–70 million and a population density of about 16 people per square kilometer. In contrast to the European societies of the classical and medieval periods, Rome had unusually high urbanization rates. During the 2nd century CE, the city of Rome had more than one million inhabitants. No Western city would have as many again until the 19th century. Contents 1 Background 2 Mortality 3 Fertility 4 Migration 5 Population 5.1 Estimates 6 Urbanization 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 8.2.1 Ancient sources 8.2.2 Modern sources Background[edit] Further information: Latins (Italic tribe) For the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, and their hinterlands, the period from the second millennium BCE to the early first millennium CE was one of substantial population growth. What would become the territory of the Roman Empire saw an average annual population growth of about 0.1 percent from the 12th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, resulting in a quadrupling of the region's total population. Growth was slower around the eastern Mediterranean, which was already more developed at the beginning of the period, on the order of about 0.07 per cent per year.[1] This was stronger growth than that seen in the succeeding period; from about 200 CE to 1800 CE, the European half of the empire only saw about 0.06 to 0.07 percent annual growth (Europe as a whole saw 0.1 per cent annual growth rates), and the north African and west Asian parts of the empire saw almost no growth at all.[2] By comparison, what is now the territory of China experienced 0.1 per cent annual growth from 1 CE to 1800 CE. After population decline following the disintegration of the western half of the Roman state in the fifth and sixth centuries, Europe probably re-attained Roman-era population totals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and, following another decline associated with the Black Death, consistently exceeded them after the mid-15th century.[2] There are no reliable surviving records for the general demography of the Roman Empire. There are no detailed local records, such as underlie the demographic study of early modern Europe, either. Large numbers of impressionistic, moralizing, and anecdotal observations on demography survive from the literary sources. They are of little use in the study of Roman demography, which tends to rely instead on conjecture and comparison, rather than records and observations.[3] Mortality[edit] When the high infant mortality rate is factored in (life expectancy at birth) inhabitants of the Roman Empire had a life expectancy at birth of about 25 years. However, when infant mortality is factored out, life expectancy is doubled to the late-50s. If a Roman survived infancy to their mid-teens, they could, on average, expect near six decades of life, although of course many lived much longer or shorter lives for varied reasons.[clarification needed] Although this figure relies more on conjecture than ancient evidence, which is sparse and of dubious quality, it is a point of general consensus among historians of the period. It originates in cross-country comparison: given the known social and economic conditions of the Roman Empire, we should expect a life expectancy near the lower bound of known pre-modern populations. Roman demography bears comparison to available data for India and rural China in the early 20th century, where life expectancies at birth were also in the low 20s.[4] About 300 census returns filed in Egypt in the first three centuries CE survive. R. Bagnall and B. Frier have used them to build female and male age distributions, which show life expectancies at birth of between 22 and 25 years, results broadly consistent with model life tables.[5] Other sources used for population reconstructions include cemetery skeletons, Roman tombstones in North Africa, and an annuities table known as "Ulpian's life table". The basis and interpretation of these sources is disputed: the skeletons cannot be firmly dated, the tombstones show non-representative sample populations, and the sources of "Ulpian's life table" are unknown. Nonetheless, because they converge with low Roman elite survival rates shown in the literary sources, and because their evidence is consistent with data from populations with comparably high mortality rates, such as in 18th century France, and early 20th century China, India, and Egypt, they reinforce the basic assumption of Roman demography: that life expectancies at birth were in the low 20s.[6] As no population for which accurate observations survive has such a low life expectancy, model life tables must be used to understand this population's age demography. These models, based on historical data, describe 'typical' populations at different levels of mortality. For his demographic synopsis of the Roman Empire, Bruce Frier used the Model West framework, as it is "the most generalized and widely applicable".[7] Because it is based on only one empirical input, the model life table can provide only a very approximate picture of Roman demography. On two important points, the table may seriously misrepresent the Roman situation: the structural relationship between juvenile and adult mortality, and the relative mortality rates across the sexes.[8] In any case, Roman mortality should be expected to have varied greatly across times, places, and perhaps classes.[9][notes 1] A variation of ten years would not have been unusual. A life expectancy range of between 20 and 30 years is therefore plausible,[11] though it may have been exceeded in either direction in marginal regions (e.g., malarious urban districts on one end; high-altitude, low-density settlements on the other).[6] Model West, level 3: a possible life table for the Roman Empire Females Males Age Mortality Cohort Life expectancy Mortality Cohort Life expectancy 0 0.3056 100,000 25.0 0.3517 100,000 22.8 1 0.2158 69,444 34.9 0.2147 64,826 34.1 5 0.0606 54,456 40.1 0.0563 50,906 39.0 10 0.0474 51,156 37.5 0.0404 48,041 36.2 15 0.0615 48,732 34.2 0.0547 46,099 32.6 20 0.0766 45,734 31.3 0.0775 43,579 29.4 25 0.0857 42,231 28.7 0.0868 40,201 26.6 30 0.0965 38,614 26.1 0.1002 36,713 23.9 35 0.1054 34,886 23.7 0.1168 33,035 21.3 40 0.1123 31,208 21.1 0.1397 29,177 18.7 45 0.1197 27,705 18.5 0.1597 25,101 16.4 50 0.1529 24,389 15.6 0.1981 21,092 14.0 55 0.1912 20,661 13.0 0.2354 16,915 11.8 60 0.2715 16,712 10.4 0.3091 12,932 9.6 65 0.3484 12,175 8.4 0.3921 8,936 7.7 70 0.4713 7,934 6.5 0.5040 5,432 6.1 75 0.6081 4,194 4.9 0.6495 2,694 4.6 80 0.7349 1,644 3.6 0.7623 944 3.4 85 0.8650 436 2.5 0.8814 225 2.4 90 0.9513 59 1.8 0.9578 27 1.7 95 1.0000 3 1.2 1.0000 1 1.2 After Frier, "Demography", 789, table 1.[notes 2] The specifics of any ancient age distribution, moreover, would have seen heavy variation under the impact of local conditions.[6] In pre-modern societies, the major cause of death was not the chronic, end-of-life conditions that characterize mortality in industrialized societies, nor primary malnutrition, but acute infectious disease, which has varied effects on age distributions in populations. Pulmonary tuberculosis, for example, characterized much of the Roman region in antiquity; its deaths tend to be concentrated in the early twenties, where model life tables show a mortality trough.[12] Similarly, in pre-modern societies for which evidence is available, such as early modern England and early eighteenth-century China, infant mortality varies independently of adult mortality, to the extent that equal life expectancies at age twenty can be obtained in societies with infant mortality rates of 15% to 35% (life table models omit this; they depend on the assumption that age-specific mortality ratios co-vary in uniform, predictable ratios).[13] No ancient evidence can gauge this effect (the sources have a strong tendency to overlook infant death), and the model life tables might overstate it, but comparative evidence suggests that it is very high: mortality was strongly concentrated in the first years of life.[14] Mortality on this scale: (1) discourages investment in human capital, hindering productivity growth (adolescent mortality rates in Rome were two-thirds higher than in early modern Britain); (2) creates large numbers of dependent widows and orphans; and (3) hinders long-term economic planning. With the prevalence of debilitating diseases, the number of effective working years was even worse: health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE), the number of years lived in good health, varies from life expectancy by no more than 8% in modern societies; in high-mortality societies such as Rome, it could be as much as one-sixth (17%) beneath total life expectancy. A HALE of less than 20 years would have left the empire with very depressed levels of economic productivity.[15] Fertility[edit] See also: Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity To maintain replacement levels under such a mortality regime—much less to achieve sustained growth—fertility figures needed to be very high. With life expectancies of twenty to thirty, women would have to give birth to between 4.5 and 6.5 children to maintain replacement levels. Given elevated levels of divorce, widowhood, and sterility, however, the birth rate would have needed to be higher than that baseline, at around 6 to 9 children per woman.[16] Fertility could not long have either fallen below or outstripped replacement levels. A population which maintained an annual growth or decline of 0.7% would double or halve itself every century. Such rates are feasible locally or over a short period of time, and deaths could consistently outstrip births during epidemics, but, in the long term, convergence to maintenance levels was the rule.[17] The surviving census returns from Roman Egypt speak to a population that had not yet undergone the "fertility transition"; artificial fertility controls like contraception and abortion were not widely used to alter natural fecundity in the Roman period. Only family limitation, in which couples ceased procreating after they had attained an acceptable level of children, could have been widespread.[18] There is no indication that even this limitation was widespread, however; the recorded distribution shows no evidence of being governed by parity or maternal age.[19] Marital fertility in Roman Egypt Age Roman Egypt Natural fertility Attested rates Gompertz Model 12–14 22 23 225 15–19 232 249 420 20–24 343 333 460 25–29 367 325 431 30–34 293 299 396 35–39 218 262 321 40–44 219 166 167 45–49 134 37 24 After Frier, "Natural fertility", 325, table 1.[notes 3] Imperial Rome largely conforms to what is known as the "Mediterranean" pattern of marital fertility: men married late and women married early.[21] The evidence on marriage age is fairly robust for Roman elites: men in the senatorial class were expected to marry in their early twenties; women were expected to marry in their early teens. According to the most plausible interpretation of the evidence from funerary commemoration, in the lower classes, women married in their late teens or early twenties, and men married in their late twenties or early thirties.[22] The Roman pattern thus stands in contrast to the "Eastern" (i.e., East Asian) pattern, in which both men and women married young.[21] China, the major example of the "Eastern" pattern, also had lower levels of fertility than Rome. This was apparently achieved by a combination of prolonged breastfeeding, female infanticide, and male celibacy, though the details are controversial.[23] Roman families share some features of the "Eastern" pattern. Roman Egypt, for example, had a custom of extended breastfeeding, which may have lengthened birth spacing. Egyptian fertility levels are comparable to those recorded in the early modern Japanese village Nakahara, where about half the population practiced family limitation. On the historian Walter Scheidel's judgment, this speaks to the incidence of family limitation even in what are supposedly "natural fertility" regimes.[24] Roman and Greek literary and legal tradition also makes frequent reference to the "Eastern" demographic features infanticide and child exposure. Although the extent of these practices is unlikely to have been small, it is nonetheless impossible to quantify (nor can reported gender ratios permit judgment on the prevalence of femicide). These "Eastern" features did not prevail in medieval[citation needed] or modern Europe, where there were cultural and structural factors directly discouraging them or diminishing their effects on childhood mortality (religious doctrine, legal enforcement, institutions of foundling care, child labor, wet-nursing, etc.). These constraints were weak or absent in Greek and Roman society.[25] Migration[edit] According to the Cavalli–Sforza reconstruction of genetic history, there was little migration in Europe after the Iron Age. Most population growth can therefore be ascribed to the gradual expansion of local populations under conditions of improving fertility, rather than inter-regional transfer. That said, local migration from village to village may have been substantial; for the successful dedication and expansion of new settlements, it would have been necessary. The geography of the Mediterranean made this fairly convenient;[26] at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces.[27] Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and Octavian–Augustus settled many of their veterans in colonies, in Italy, and the provinces. Those established in Italy up to 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of the achievements of his long reign (Res Gestae), Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE.[28] Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited" – which would thus be the Veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus; The Lex Calpurnia however also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery – as example the 1,000 Socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) or the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after Zela. By the time of Augustus the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls.[29] Historian Theodore Mommsen estimated that under Hadrian nearly 1/3 of the eastern Numidia population (roughly modern Tunisia) was descended from Roman veterans.[30] Population[edit] Modern estimates of the population of the Roman Empire derive from the fundamental work of 19th-century historian Karl Julius Beloch.[31] His estimates of the area of different components of the empire, based on planimetric estimates by contemporary military cartographers, have not been challenged by any more modern analyst. By providing a check to population densities, these area figures compel a baseline level of plausibility.[32] Beloch's 1886 estimate of the population of the empire in 14 CE has withstood contemporary and more recent criticism, and underlies modern analysis (his 1899 revision of those figures is less esteemed). Only his estimates for Anatolia and Greater Syria required extensive revision; Beloch estimated population figure, 19 million, produced population densities not otherwise achieved in those areas until the 20th century. Bruce Frier, in a recent estimate of the population of the empire, suggested a figure of 12 million as "considerably more plausible".[33] Beloch's figures for Spain and Africa have also been revised downwards.[34] This estimate produces a population density of 13.6 inhabitants per square kilometer, a very low figure by modern standards (the United Kingdom, for example, has a population density of 254.7/km2). The population density in the Greek East was 20.9/km2, twice as dense as the Latin West at 10.6/km2; only the Western provinces of Italy and Sicily had a density comparable to the East.[35] Estimate of the Population of the Empire Region Area (1000 km2) 14 CE Population (millions) 14 CE Density (per km2) 164 CE Population (millions) 164 CE Density (per km2) Population increase (per cent) Greek peninsula[notes 4] 267 2.8 10.5 3.0 11.2 7.1 Anatolia 547 8.2 15.0 9.2 16.8 12.2 Greater Syria[notes 5] 109 4.3 39.4 4.8 44.0 11.6 Cyprus 9.5 0.2 21.2 0.2 21.1 – Egypt[notes 6] 28 4.5 160.7 5.0 178.6 11.1 Libya[notes 7] 15 0.4 26.7 0.6 40.0 50.0 Greek East 975.5 20.4 20.9 22.9 23.5 12.3 Annexations 0.2 Greek East (with annexations) 23.1 Italy 250 7.0 28.0 7.6 30.4 8.6 Sicily 26 0.6 23.1 0.6 23.1 – Sardinia and Corsica 33 0.5 15.2 0.5 15.2 – Maghreb[notes 8] 400 3.5 8.8 6.5 16.3 85.7 Iberia 590 5.0 8.5 7.5 12.7 50.0 Gaul and Germany 635 5.8 9.1 9.0 14.2 55.2 Danube Region[notes 9] 430 2.7 6.3 4.0 9.3 48.1 Latin West 2,364 25.1 10.6 35.7 15.1 42.2 Annexations 2.5 Latin West (with annexations) 38.2 Roman Empire 3,339.5 45.5 13.6 61.4 15.9 34.9 "Area" includes the client kingdoms taken over soon after 14 CE. After Frier, "Demography", 812, table 5, 814, table 6. Slaves constituted about 15 percent of the Empire's total population; the proportionate figure would be much higher in Italy and much lower in Africa and Egypt.[37] Estimated Distribution of Citizenship in the Roman Empire[38] Region Citizens (per cent) Noncitizen residents (per cent) Slaves (per cent) Rome 55 15 30 Italy 70 5 25 Spain and Gaul 10 70 20 Other Western Provinces 3 80 17 Greece and Asia Minor 3 70 27 North African Provinces 2 70 28 Other Eastern Provinces 1 80 19 There are few recorded population numbers for the whole of antiquity, and those that exist are often rhetorical or symbolic. Unlike the contemporaneous Han Dynasty, no general census survives for the Roman Empire. The late period of the Roman Republic provides a small exception to this general rule: serial statistics for Roman citizen numbers, taken from census returns, survive for the early Republic through the 1st century CE.[39] Only the figures for periods after the mid-3rd century BCE are reliable, however. Fourteen figures are available for the 2nd century BCE (from 258,318 to 394,736). Only four figures are available for the 1st century BCE, and are feature a large break between 70/69 BCE (910,000) and 28 BCE (4,063,000). The interpretation of the later figures—the Augustan censuses of 28 BCE, 8 BCE, and 14 CE—is therefore controversial.[40] Alternate interpretations of the Augustan censuses (such as those of E. Lo Cascio[41]) produce divergent population histories across the whole imperial period.[42] Population of Italy and the islands in 165 CE Population (millions) Area (1000 km2) Density (per km2) Standard interpretation of the Augustan censuses 8–9 310 26–29 Revised interpretation of the Augustan censuses 12–13 310 39–42 After Scheidel, "Demography", 47 n. 42, 47. The enfranchisement of the Cisalpine provinces and the Italian Allies after the Social War would account for some of the population growth of the 1st century BCE.[43] Alternate readings of the Augustan census both accept the basic accuracy of the figures, but assume different methods on the part of the census-takers. The standard interpretation assumes that the census-takers included all citizens—men, women, and children—in the Augustan censuses; the revised interpretation assumes that the census-takers only counted adult men, as they had during the Republican period. The standard interpretation is not supported by any evidence internal to the text, but reduces the implied population totals for 28 BCE Italy from 10 million to a more plausible 4 million.[44] The high total earns support from recorded conflict over land in the late Republic and other indications of population pressure, but does not accord well with comparative evidence from other periods and other parts of the empire.[45] Estimates[edit] Beloch's 1886 estimate for the population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:[46][47] Region Population (in millions) Total Empire 54 European part 23 Asian part 19.5 North African part 11.5 Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 350 CE:[47] Region Population (in millions) Total Empire 39.3 European part 18.3 Asian part 16 North African part 5 Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million (comparable to the contemporaneous and similarly sized Han empire in China), with one-tenth of them located in Italy itself, to more than 100 million.[48] The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial Period. Data source: Hanson, J. W. (2016), Cities database, (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. (link). Urbanization[edit] Cartogram of the estimated populations of cities in the Roman world in the Imperial period (after Hanson 2016 and Hanson and Ortman 2017). By the standards of pre-modern economies, the Roman Empire was highly urbanized. According to recent work, there were some 1,400 sites with urban characteristics in the Roman world in the Imperial period.[49] At its peak, the city of Rome had at least one million inhabitants, a total not equaled again in Europe until the 19th century.[49][50] As the imperial capital, Rome was sustained by transfers in kind from throughout the empire; no other city could be sustained at this level. Other major cities in the empire (Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus, Salona etc.) had populations of about a few hundred thousand.[49][50] Of the remaining cities, most were quite small, usually possessing only 10–15,000 inhabitants. The cumulative urban population of the empire is estimated at around 14 million (using a population threshold of 5,000 individuals), indicating an urbanization rate of at least 25–30% to be consistent with conventional estimates for the total population, comparable to those in the 19th century.[49][50] High mortality rates and pre-modern sanitary conditions made urban regions net population sinks, with more local deaths than births. They could only be sustained by constant immigration.[51] The large cities provided a major stimulus to demand, and not only for agricultural products, but for manufactured goods and luxury items as well.[52] Russell estimated the urban population in Late Antiquity, as follows.[47] City Population (thousands) Region Rome 350 Italy Alexandria 216 Egypt Antioch 90 Syria Smyrna 90 Asia Minor Cadiz 65 Hispania Salona 60 Dalmatia Ephesus 51 Asia Minor Carthage 50 Africa Corinth 50 Greece Jerash 40 Jordan Apamea 37 Syria Capua 36 Italy Ancyra 34 Asia Minor Nicomedia 34 Asia Minor Oxyrhyncus 34 Egypt Memphis 34 Egypt Damascus 31 Syria Bostra 30 Syria Athens 28 Greece Tarragona 27 Hispania Cyzicus 24 Asia Minor Hermopolis 24 Egypt Pergamum 24 Asia Minor Mytilene 23 Asia Minor Arsinoe 20 Egypt Cordoba 20 Hispania Cirta 20 Africa Hadrumetum 20 Africa Pisa 20 Italy Rusicade 20 Africa Tyre 20 Syria Catania 18 Italy Nicaea 18 Asia Minor Antiochia 17 Asia Minor Antinoe 16 Egypt Sicca V. 16 Africa Mérida 15 Hispania Miletus 15 Asia Minor Naples 15 Italy Heliopolis 14 Egypt Baalbek 13.5 Syria Thugga 13 Africa Isaura 12 Asia Minor Sidon 12 Syria Bologna 10 Italy Cartagena 10 Hispania Hippo Regis 10 Africa Jerusalem 10 Syria Lambraesis 10 Africa Pamplona 10 Hispania Thysdrus 10 Africa Trebizond 10 Asia Minor Notes[edit] ^ Frier elsewhere quotes material to the effect that cross-class variation in life expectancy in high mortality societies is small.[10] ^ "Mortality" is a function predicting the likelihood that a person aged exactly (x) will die before the next indicated interval; "cohort" lists the number of survivors to exact age (x). ^ The Gompertz figures are obtained using linear regression on the census figures to create a relational fertility model, producing a probable schedule of true fertility rates. The model uses two values, α and β, that determine the model's relationship to a standard of early marriage and natural fertility. For this dataset, α, which indicates variation from median age of marital maternity, is −0.05, and β, which indicates the degree of fertility concentration, is 0.80. As the standard figure for β is 1.0, the dataset for Roman Egypt shows a wider spread of childbearing than is typical of the standard.[20] ^ Roughly includes the southern Balkan peninsula; Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, Serbia, about half of Bulgaria and European Turkey. Or approximately the Roman provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Epirus and Thracia.[36] ^ Defined to include the modern territories of Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, as well as approximately the western half of Syria (i.e. the coastal Levant).[36] ^ Area figure is only the narrow strip of land along the Nile and its delta. Not the vast deserts of Egypt.[36] ^ Refers only to the coastal area of Cyrenaica.[36] ^ Refers to the coastal area of North Africa. i.e. Northern areas of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and most of coastal Libya (except Cyrenaica).[36] ^ Areas generally south of the river Danube. Includes the Roman provinces of Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia Superior, Pannonia Inferior, Illyricum (or Dalmatia) and Moesia (Superior and Inferior). Parts of modern Switzerland, southern Germany and Austria, western Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, central Serbia and northern Bulgaria.[36] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 42–43. ^ a b Scheidel, "Demography", 43. ^ Frier, "Demography", 787; Scheidel, "Demography", 42. ^ Frier, "Demography", 788. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 38–39. ^ a b c Scheidel, "Demography", 39. ^ Frier, "Demography", 788. On this model, Frier cites A. J. Coale and P. Demeny Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations, 2nd ed. (Princeton, 1983). ^ Frier, "Demography", 789. See also the extensive criticism in Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 1–26. ^ Frier, "Demography", 789. ^ Frier, "Roman life expectancy", 228 n. 36. ^ Frier, "Demography", 789; Scheidel, "Demography", 39. ^ Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 8. ^ Scheidel, "Roman age structure", 6–7. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 40. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 40–41. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 41. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 41–42. ^ Frier, "Natural fertility", 318–26; Scheidel, "Demography", 66–67. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 67. ^ Frier, "Natural fertility", 325–26. ^ a b Scheidel, "Demography", 68. ^ Saller, "Household", 90. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 68–69. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 69. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 69–70. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50, 64, 64 n. 114, citing P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.–A.D. 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 263. ^ Pat Southern – The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (2006/Oxford Uni.) ^ B. Campbell The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 p.9 ^ Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1970, 1977) at 35–37. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811; Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 32–33. ^ Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 33. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811, 811 n. 95. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811 n. 97. ^ Frier, "Demography", 811–12. ^ a b c d e f Frier, "Demography", 812 table 5. ^ Frier, "Demography", 812. ^ Goldhill, Simon (2006). Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 42. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45. Augustan census figures are recorded in the Res Gestae 8. ^ Lo Cascio, "Size of the Roman Population", 23–40. ^ Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 33; Scheidel, "Demography", 47 n. 42, 47. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45 n. 35. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 45. ^ Scheidel, "Demography", 47. ^ Beloch, Karl Julius (1886). Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt. p. 507. ^ a b c Russell, J. C. (1958). "Late ancient and medieval population". Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Scheidel, Walter (April 2006) "Population and demography" in Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, p. 9 ^ a b c d Hanson, J. W. (2016). An Urban Geography of the Roman World, 100 BC to AD 300. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 9781784914721. ^ a b c Hanson, J. W.; Ortman, S. G. (15 November 2017). "A systematic method for estimating the populations of Greek and Roman settlements". 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"The Early Roman Empire: Production", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 543–69. Lo Cascio, Elio (1994). "The Size of the Roman Population: Beloch and the Meaning of the Augustan Census Figures". Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 23–40. doi:10.2307/300868. JSTOR 300868. Lo Cascio, Elio. "The Early Roman Empire: The State and the Economy", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 619–47. Maddison, Angus. Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Morris, Ian, Richard P. Saller, and Walter Scheidel. "Introduction", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 1–12. Saller, Richard P. "Household and Gender", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 87–112. Scheidel, Walter (2001). "Roman Age Structure: Evidence and Models". Journal of Roman Studies. 91: 1–26. doi:10.1017/s0075435800015811. Scheidel, Walter. "Demography", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 38–86. Scheidel, Walter (2010). "Real Wages in Early Economies: Evidence for Living Standards from 1800 BCE to 1300 CE". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 53 (3): 425–62. doi:10.1163/156852010x506038. Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven J. (2009). "The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire". Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 61–91. doi:10.3815/007543509789745223. Temin, Peter. "Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire", in E. 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en-wikipedia-org-4662	----	View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty ← Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-4664	----	Indo-Roman relations - Wikipedia Indo-Roman relations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman maritime trade in the Scythia and India according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei, 1st century CE. Indo-Roman relations began during the reign of Augustus (16 January 27 BCE – 19 August 14 CE), the first emperor of the Roman Empire. The presence of Romans in the Scythia and India and the relations between these regions during the period of the Roman Empire are poorly documented. Before the conquests of Alexander in India, there are no surviving accounts by contemporaries or near-contemporaries, so modern understanding depends on more abundant literary, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, mainly relating to the trade between them. Contents 1 Early contacts 2 The Periplus 3 Pliny's accounts 4 Trajan 5 Later references 6 Archaeological record 7 Numismatic record 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 External links Early contacts[edit] Kushan ring with portraits of Septimus Severus and Julia Domna, a testimony to Indo-Roman relations. Further information: Sino-Roman relations and Indo-Roman trade relations Indo-Roman relations were built on trade. Roman trade in the India began with overland caravans and later by direct maritime trade following the conquest of Egypt by Augustus in 30 BCE. According to Strabo (II.5.12), not long after Augustus took control of Egypt, while Gallus was Prefect of Egypt (26–24 BCE), up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to modern-day India: "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." — Strabo II.5.12. [2] Augustus maintained the Ptolemaic Red Sea ports and the picket service from the Red Sea to the Nile, whence goods could be carried downstream to the ports of Pelusium and Alexandria. He also replaced the Ptolemaic patrol fleet on the Red Sea to keep piracy in check. He received embassies from Indian kings in 26 and 20 BCE and, although little specific is known about them, as Carey puts it: "These missions were certainly intended for something more than an exchange of empty compliments."[1] By the time of Augustus, if not before, a sea-captain named Hippalus had "discovered" (or, rather, brought news to the West of) the relatively safe and punctual contact over the open sea to India by leaving from Aden on the summer monsoon and returning on the anti-trade winds of winter. This would be made safer and more convenient by the Roman sack of Aden in a naval raid c. 1 BCE.[2] Cassius Dio (d. sometime after 229 CE) in his Hist. Rom. 54.9 wrote: Many embassies came to him (Augustus), and the Indians having previously proclaimed a treaty of alliance, concluded it now with the presentation, among other gifts, of tigers, animals which the Romans, and, if I mistake not, the Greeks as well, saw for the first time. . . .[3] The overland caravans would gain more convenient access into India after the expansion of the Kushans into northern India during the 1st century CE, and then down the Ganges Valley in the early 2nd century.[4] "From those land routes at least in the time of Augustus several embassies reached Rome. At least four such embassies are mentioned in the Latin literature, namely 1) the embassy from Puru country (the territory between the Jhelum and Beas) took with it to Rome serpents, monals, tigers and a letter written in Greek language, 2) the embassy from Broach was accompanied by a Buddhist monk named Germanos, 3) an embassy from the Chera country. It was reported in Rome that at Muziris (near Cranganore) was built a temple in honour of Augustus and 4) and embassy from the Paṇḍya country (Pandya Kingdom) brought with it precious stones, pearls and an elephant. We know that in the time of Augustus commercial relations between India and Rome grew but in this the balance of trade was in favour of India from the very beginning and as a result of this Roman gold poured into the country."[5] The Periplus[edit] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by an anonymous sea-captain in Greek, can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70[6] and, probably, between 40 and 50 CE.[7] The author of the Periplus lists ports from Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus in the west near modern Karachi, right around the southern tip of the Indian peninsula and north as far as the mouth of the Ganges near modern Kolkata (Calcutta). In contrast to the wealth of information on some of the west coast ports, the author gives no political information on the ports up the east coast of India,[8] perhaps indicating that he had not personally visited them. In fact the text seems to imply that western vessels normally did not travel beyond the tip of Indian peninsula, probably leaving onward trade to local boats as the passage between India and the northern tip of Palaisimundu or Taprobanê (Sri Lanka) was very shallow for trans-oceanic vessels, while the route around the island was long[9] and may have forced skippers to pass another season in the region before the winds were right for the return to Egypt. Pliny's accounts[edit] Indian art also found its way into Italy: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi was found in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE). Gaius Plinius Secundus (23–79 CE), generally known as Pliny the Elder, writing c. 77 CE, left probably the most important account of India and its trade with Rome that has survived in Classical literature. He gives quite a lot of detail about India, albeit not all accurate, but his observations do more than just outline the bare bones of history, and help give us some picture of how intimately Indian culture and trade was becoming known: "Coral is as highly valued among the Indians as Indian pearls. It is also found in the Red Sea, but there it is darker in colour. The most prized is found in the Gallic Gulf around the Stoechades Islands, in the Sicilian Gulf around the Aeolian Islands, and around Drepanum. . . . Coral-berries are no less valued by Indian men than specimen Indian pearls by Roman ladies. Indian soothsayers and seers believe that coral is potent as a charm for warding off dangers. Accordingly they delight in its beauty and religious power. Before this became known, the Gauls used to decorate their swords, shields and helmets with coral. Now it is very scarce because of the price it commands, and is rarely seen in its natural habitat." Pliny. Natural History (77 CE) (XXXII, chaps. 21, 23).[10] Although his estimate of the value of Rome's trade to the East at some 100 million sesterces annually (Pliny, NH, VI, 26, 6 & NH, XII, 41, 2) has often been thought to be an exaggeration but, if it is interpreted as referring to the total value of the trade rather than as coinage, it becomes quite believable: "For example, just one documented consignment from Muziris (Chera kingdom, modern-day South India) to Alexandria consisted of 700-1,700 pounds of nard (an aromatic balsam), over 4,700 pounds of ivory and almost 790 pounds of textiles. This has been calculated as worth a total value of 131 talents, enough to purchase 2,400 acres of the best farmland in Egypt. When it is borne in mind that an average Roman cargo ship would have held about 150 such consignments, Pliny's figure becomes entirely plausible. With such staggering profits it is little wonder that the Roman government in Egypt encouraged – and profited by! – the trade: a 25 per cent tax on all goods from India was levied by the Romans at the Red Sea port of Leuce Come."[11] Trajan[edit] After the Roman Emperor Trajan defeated the Dacians and annexed the Nabataean Arabs centered in Petra c. 105 CE, he returned to Rome where: "...ever so many embassies came to him from various barbarians, including the Sindi [people of the Indus Valley]. And he gave spectacles on one hundred and twenty-three days, in the course of which some eleven thousand animals, both wild and tame, were slain, and ten thousand gladiators fought."[12] Trajan later defeated Parthia and, sailing down the Tigris River (115–16), reached the northern shores of the Persian Gulf.[13] "Roman troops had beaten the might of Parthia from the field and had reached the Persian Gulf; and their victorious Imperator, Trajan, had dreamed of repeating Alexander's march to the northwestern subcontinent, only to acquiesce in giving up the project on account of his age."[14] Later references[edit] Muziris, near the southern tip of India, in the Peutinger Table. The Peutinger Table, a medieval copy of a 4th or early 5th century map of the world, shows a "Temple to Augustus" at Muziris, one of the main ports for trade to the Roman Empire on the southwest coast of India.[15] This and evidence of agreements for loans between agents, one of whom most likely lived in Muziris, and a rather oblique reference in the Periplus, all seem to point to a settlement of Roman subjects living in the region.[16] Embassies are recorded as arriving from the "Indians of the East" at the court of Constantine the Great (c. 272–337): "Ambassadors from the Indians of the East brought presents . . . . which they presented to the king (Constantine the Great) as an acknowledgment that his sovereignty extended to their ocean. They told him, too, how Princes of India had dedicated pictures and statues in his honour in token that they had recognised him as their autocrat and king." Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263–339) De Vita Constant. IV. 50.[17] More embassies are mentioned from "the Indian nations" in 361 CE: "Embassies from all quarters flocked to him (the Emperor Julian in 361 A.D.), the Indian nations vying with emulous zeal in sending their foremost men with presents, as far as from the Divi (Maldives) and the Serendivi (Cylonese)[sic]." Ammianus Marcellinus. History XXII.vii.10.[18] Finally, Johannes Malala or John Malalas (c. 491–578), p. 477, records that, in 530 CE, "an ambassador of the Indians was sent to Constantinople."[17] Archaeological record[edit] Roman piece of pottery from Arezzo in Italy, found at Virampatnam, Arikamedu (1st century CE). The best archeological record of Roman presence can be found in southern India, specifically at Arikamedu. Arikamedu was a Tamil fishing village which was formerly a major Chola port dedicated to bead making and trading with Roman traders. It flourished for centuries until the Romans left in the 5th century CE. Various Roman artifacts, such as a large number of amphorae bearing the mark of Roman potter schools VIBII, CAMURI and ITTA, have been found at the site, supporting the view on a huge ancient trade between Rome and the ancient Tamil country, which today include Tamil Nadu and regions of Sri Lanka. Another place full of archeological records is Muziris, in the Kerala region. Muziris was a major centre of trade in Tamilakkam between the Chera Empire and the Roman Empire. Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found in the town of Pattanam have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.[19] Numismatic record[edit] Numerous hoards of Roman gold coins from the time of Augustus and emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries CE have been uncovered in India, predominantly, but not exclusively, from southern India. Attention may be drawn to the large number of Roman aurei and denarii of Augustus to Nero spanning approximately 120 years, found all along the route from about Mangalore through the Muziris area and around the southern tip of India to the south eastern Indian ports. Under the rule of Augustus, (63 BCE–CE 14) the silver content of the denarius fell to 3.9 grams. It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (CE 37–68).[20][21] This would also indicate that the land route from the West coast to the East coast via the Palghat pass in the Western Ghats was much more popular than the risky or circuitous sea route rounding the Cape or Sri Lanka.[22] See also[edit] Indo-Roman trade relations Periplus Maris Erythraei Indus-Mesopotamia relations Maritime history of India Indian Ocean trade Silk route Ancient maritime history Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations Footnotes[edit] ^ Carey (1954), p. 496. ^ Carey (1954), pp. 567. ^ Majumdar (1960), pp. 451–452. ^ Hill (2003). ^ Chandra (1977), p. 111. ^ Casson (1989) p. 7. ^ Fussman (1991), pp. 37–38. ^ Casson (1989), p. 47. ^ Casson (1989), pp. 24, 83, 89. ^ Healy (1991), p. 281. ^ Ball (2000), p. 123. ^ Dio Cassius, Roman History Bk. 68 [1] ^ Carey (1954), p. 646. ^ Narain (1968), p. 233. ^ Ball (2000), p. 123 ^ Casson (1989), p. 24. ^ a b Majumdar (1960), p. 453. ^ Majumdar (1960), p. 452. ^ BBC News: Search for Muziris ^ George Menachery, 'Kodungallur...' (1987, repr. 2000) ^ http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/Books.htm ^ George Menachery, 'Kodungallur...' (1987, repr. 2000) References[edit] Ball, Warwick. (2000). Rome in the East: The transformation of an empire. Routledge. London and New York. ISBN 0-415-11376-8. Begley, Vimala and de Puma, Richard Daniel (eds). (1991). Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-12640-4. Carey, M. (1954). A History of Rome down to the reign of Constantine. 1st edition 1935,. 2nd edition 1954. Reprint 1970 by Macmillan, St. Martin's Press. Casson, Lionel. The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-691-04060-5. Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” Azania Vol. XXXIV, pp. 1–10. Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." From: Red Sea Trade and Travel. The British Museum. Organised by The Society for Arabian Studies. Chandra, Moti. (1977). Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications. New Delhi. Fussman, G. 1991. "Le Periple et l'histoire politique del'Inde". Journal Asiatique 279 (1991):31–38. Healy, John F. (1991). Pliny the Elder. Natural History: A Selection. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044413-0. Hill, John. (2004). A draft annotated translation of "The Peoples of the West" from the Weilüe: A Chinese description of the West, including the Roman Empire (Da Qin), especially Sections 11–21 and notes at: [3]. Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1., See especially Sections 11–16 and notes. Huntingford, G. W. B. (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, transl. (Hakluyt Society). ISBN 0-904180-05-0 (also includes translation of Red Sea material from Agatharchides) Majumdar, R. C. (1960). The Classical Accounts of India. Firma KLM Private Ltd., Calcutta. Reprint 1981. Menachery, George, "Kodungallur the Cradle of Christianity in India", Azhikode, 1987, repr.2000. Menachery, George, "The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India", Ed. George Menachery, Vol.I 1982, II 1973, III 2009. Menachery, George, The Indian Church History Classics, Vol.I, "The Nazranies", SARAS, Ollur, 1998. Miller, J. Innes. 1969. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. Nagaswamy, R. 1995 Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Brahad Prakashan, Madras. Narain, A. K. (1968). "The Date of Kaniṣka." In: Papers on the Date of Kaniṣka. Edited by A. L. Basham. Leiden. E. J. Brill. Robin, C. 1991. "L'Arabie du sud et la date du Périple de la mer érythrée". Journal Asiatique 279:1–30. Schoff, Wilfred Harvey, translator (1912). Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated. (First published 1912, New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.) Reprinted 1995, New Delhi: Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers, ISBN 81-215-0699-9 . Smith, Vincent A. (1908). The Early History of India: From 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan Conquest including the invasion of Alexander the Great. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. External links[edit] [4] "The present text has been digitalized from the translation of William H. Schoff, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912). Some additional commentary including alternate spellings or translations from Lionel Casson's more recent edition are given in square brackets." Ancient history sourcebook: The basic text from Schoff's 1912 translation. v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_relations&oldid=1007772090" Categories: Foreign relations of ancient India Foreign relations of ancient Rome Bilateral trading relationships Maritime history of India Economic history of India History of Pakistan 1st century BC in international relations Ancient international relations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Español Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 21:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4668	----	Vatican Library - Wikipedia Vatican Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Vatican library) Jump to navigation Jump to search Library of the Holy See in Vatican City Vatican Apostolic Library Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana Pope Sixtus IV Appoints Bartolomeo Platina Prefect of the Vatican Library, fresco by Melozzo da Forlì, 1477, now in the Vatican Museums Country   Vatican City Type Research library Established 1475 (546 years ago) (1475) Coordinates 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444Coordinates: 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444 Collection Size 75,000 codices 1.1 million printed books Other information Director José Tolentino de Mendonça Website www.vaticanlibrary.va Map Location on a map of Vatican City This article is part of a series on Vatican City History Duchy of Rome 533–751 Donation of Pepin 750s Papal States 754–1870 Annates Congregation for Borders Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church Capture of Rome 1870 "Prisoner in the Vatican" 1870–1929 Roman Question Law of Guarantees Lateran Treaty 1929 Vatican City 1929–present Governor of Vatican City 2010 Vatican sex scandal History of the Catholic Church since 1962 History of the Papacy Roman Historical Institutes Savoyard Era Vatileaks scandal Vatican Historical Museum Vatican City during World War II Law Acta Apostolicae Sedis Fundamental Law of Vatican City State Capital punishment in Vatican City Crime in Vatican City Lateran Treaty Legal status of the Holy See (Alperin v. 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Vatican, 1941 documentary Buildings/geography Apostolic Nunciature Apostolic Palace Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore Borgia Apartments Bramante Staircase Domus Sanctae Marthae Fountains of St. Peter's Square Gardens of Vatican City Geography of Vatican City Gregorian Tower Mater Ecclesiae (monastery) Monument to the Royal Stuarts Palace of the Holy Office Palazzi Pontifici Papal Apartments Saint Peter's Basilica Saint Peter's Square Saint Peter's tomb Lateran Basilica Lateran Palace Leonine City Niccoline Chapel Old St. Peter's Basilica Papal tombs Papal tombs in Old St. Peter's Basilica Paul VI Audience Hall Tomb of the Julii Torre San Giovanni Scala Regia Via della Conciliazione Vatican Climate Forest Vatican Heliport Vatican Hill Vatican Necropolis Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah Postage stamps and postal history of Vatican City Public holidays in Vatican City Vatican Secret Archives St. Peter's Baldachin Sala Regia San Pellegrino in Vaticano Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri Santa Maria della Pietà in Camposanto dei Teutonici Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope Vatican Observatory Vatican Pharmacy Bibliotheca Palatina Cappella Giulia Cappella Paolina Cardinal Secretary of State Casina Pio IV Circus of Nero Redemptoris Mater Chapel Saints Martin and Sebastian of the Swiss Santo Stefano degli Abissini Santo Stefano degli Ungheresi Teutonic Cemetery Cortile del Belvedere Passetto di Borgo Porta San Pellegrino Vatican Museums Vatican Museums Gallery of Maps Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling Collection of Modern Religious Art Raphael Rooms Redemptoris Mater Chapel Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes Sistine Chapel Sistine Chapel ceiling The Last Judgment by Michelangelo Outline Index  Vatican City portal  Catholicism portal v t e The Vatican Apostolic Library (Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Italian: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana), more commonly known as the Vatican Library or informally as the Vat,[1] is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City. Formally established in 1475, although it is much older—it is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. It has 75,000 codices from throughout history,[2] as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. The Vatican Library is a research library for history, law, philosophy, science, and theology. The Vatican Library is open to anyone who can document their qualifications and research needs. Photocopies for private study of pages from books published between 1801 and 1990 can be requested in person or by mail. Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) envisioned a new Rome with extensive public works to lure pilgrims and scholars to the city to begin its transformation. Nicolas wanted to create a "public library" for Rome that was meant to be seen as an institution for humanist scholarship. His death prevented him from carrying out his plan, but his successor Pope Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established what is now known as the Vatican Library. In March 2014, the Vatican Library began an initial four-year project of digitising its collection of manuscripts, to be made available online. The Vatican Apostolic Archive was separated from the library at the beginning of the 17th century; it contains another 150,000 items. Contents 1 Historical periods 1.1 Pre-Lateran 1.2 Lateran 1.3 Avignon 1.4 Pre-Vatican 1.5 Vatican 2 Location and building 2.1 Architecture and art 3 Library organization 3.1 Catalogue 3.2 Reading and lending 4 Collections 4.1 Manuscripts 4.1.1 Manuscripts relating to Christianity 4.1.2 Classic Greek and Latin texts 4.1.3 Alternative 4.1.4 Qurans 4.2 Digitization projects 4.3 Gallery of holdings 5 Related libraries 5.1 Vatican Secret Archives 5.2 Vatican Film Library 6 Staff 6.1 List of librarians 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Works cited 10 Further reading 11 External links Historical periods[edit] Scholars have traditionally divided the history of the library into five periods, Pre-Lateran, Lateran, Avignon, Pre-Vatican and Vatican.[3] Pre-Lateran[edit] The Pre-Lateran period, comprising the initial days of the library, dating from the earliest days of the Church. Only a handful of volumes survive from this period, though some are very significant. Lateran[edit] The Lateran era began when the library moved to the Lateran Palace and lasted until the end of the 13th century and the reign of Pope Boniface VIII, who died in 1303, by which time he possessed one of the most notable collections of illuminated manuscripts in Europe. However, in that year, the Lateran Palace was burnt and the collection plundered by Philip IV of France.[4] Avignon[edit] The Avignon period was during the Avignon Papacy, when seven successive popes resided in Avignon, France. This period saw great growth in book collection and record-keeping by the popes in Avignon, between the death of Boniface and the 1370s when the Papacy returned to Rome. Pre-Vatican[edit] The Pre-Vatican period ranged from about 1370 to 1447. The library was scattered during this time, with parts in Rome, Avignon, and elsewhere. Pope Eugenius IV possessed 340 books by the time of his death.[5] Vatican[edit] In 1451, bibliophile Pope Nicholas V sought to establish a public library at the Vatican, in part to re-establish Rome as a destination for scholarship.[6][7] Nicholas combined some 350 Greek, Latin and Hebrew codices inherited from his predecessors with his own collection and extensive acquisitions, among them manuscripts from the imperial Library of Constantinople. Pope Nicholas also expanded his collection by employing Italian and Byzantine scholars to translate the Greek classics into Latin for his library.[7] The knowledgeable Pope already encouraged the inclusion of pagan classics.[1] Nicolas was important in saving many of the Greek works and writings during this time period that he had collected while traveling and acquired from others. In 1455, the collection had grown to 1200 books, of which 400 were in Greek.[8] Nicholas died in 1455. In 1475 his successor Pope Sixtus IV founded the Palatine Library.[7] During his papacy, acquisitions were made in "theology, philosophy and artistic literature".[4] The number of manuscripts is variously counted as 3,500 in 1475[4] or 2,527 in 1481, when librarian Bartolomeo Platina produced a signed listing.[9] At the time it was the largest collection of books in the Western world.[8] Pope Julius II commissioned the expansion of the building.[7] Around 1587, Pope Sixtus V commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana to construct a new building for the library, which is still used today. After this, it became known as the Vatican Library.[7] During the Counter-Reformation, access to the library's collections was limited following the introduction of the Index of banned books. Scholars' access to the library was restricted, particularly Protestant scholars. Restrictions were lifted during the course of the 17th century, and Pope Leo XIII formally reopened the library to scholars in 1883.[6][7] In 1756, Abbot Piaggio conserver of ancient manuscripts in the Vatican Library used a machine he also invented,[10] to unroll the first Herculaneum papyri, which took him months.[11] In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte arrested Pope Pius VII and removed the contents of the library to Paris. The contents were returned in 1817, three years after the defeat of Napoleon.[7] In 1992 the library had almost 2 million catalogued items.[6] In 1995 art history teacher Anthony Melnikas from Ohio State University stole three leaves from a medieval manuscript once owned by Francesco Petrarch.[12][13] One of the stolen leaves contains an exquisite miniature of a farmer threshing grain. A fourth leaf from an unknown source was also discovered in his possession by U.S. Customs agents. Melnikas was trying to sell the pages to an art dealer, who then alerted the librarian director.[13] Location and building[edit] Ancient Roman sculpture, maybe of Saint Hippolytus of Rome, found in 1551 at Via Tiburtina, Rome, and now at the Vatican Library The Library is located inside the Vatican Palace, and the entrance is through the Belvedere Courtyard.[14] When Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) commissioned the expansion and the new building of the Vatican Library, he had a three-story wing built right across Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere, thus bisecting it and changing Bramante's work significantly.[1] At the bottom of a grand staircase a large statue of Hippolytus decorates the La Galea entrance hall.[15] In the first semi-basement there is a papyrus room and a storage area for manuscripts.[15] The first floor houses the restoration laboratory, and the photographic archives are on the second floor.[15] The Library has 42 kilometres (26 mi) of shelving.[16] The Library closed for renovations on 17 July 2007[17] and reopened on 20 September 2010.[18] The three year, 9 million euro renovation involved the complete shut down of the library to install climate controlled rooms.[19] Architecture and art[edit] In the Sala di Consultazione or main reference room of the Vatican Library looms a statue of St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1910), sculpted by Cesare Aureli. A second version of this statue (c. 1930) stands under the entrance portico of the Pontifical University of St Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum.[a][21] The Sistine Hall of the Vatican Library. Golden Rose stored in the Vatican Library. Ceiling fresco of the sistine hall, photograph by Jean-Pol Grandmont Library organization[edit] Catalogue[edit] The collection was originally organized through notebooks used to index the manuscripts. As the collection grew to more than a few thousand, shelf lists were used.[7] The first modern catalogue system was put in place under Father Franz Ehrle between 1927 and 1939, using the Library of Congress card catalogue system. Ehrle also set up the first program to take photographs of important works or rare works.[7] The library catalogue was further updated by Rev. Leonard E. Boyle when it was computerized in the early 1990s.[7] Reading and lending[edit] Bookcase in the Vatican Library Historically, during the Renaissance era, most books were not shelved but stored in wooden benches, which had tables attached to them. Each bench was dedicated to a specific topic. The books were chained to these benches, and if a reader took out a book, the chain remained attached to it. Until the early 17th century, academics were also allowed to borrow books. For important books, the pope himself would issue a reminder slip.[7] Privileges to use the library could be withdrawn for breaking the house rules, for instance by climbing over the tables. Most famously Pico Della Mirandola lost the right to use the library when he published a book on theology that the Papal curia did not approve of.[22] In the 1760s, a bill issued by Clement XIII heavily restricted access to the library's holdings.[1] The Vatican Library can be accessed by 200 scholars at a time,[23] and it sees 4,000 to 5,000 scholars a year, mostly academics doing post-graduate research.[19] Collections[edit] A miniature from the Syriac Gospel Lectionary (Vat. Syr. 559), created ca. 1220 near Mosul and exhibiting a strong Islamic influence. While the Vatican Library has always included Bibles, canon law texts, and theological works, it specialized in secular books from the beginning. Its collection of Greek and Latin classics was at the center of the revival of classical culture during the Renaissance age.[8] The oldest documents in the library date back to the first century.[16] The library was founded primarily as a manuscript library, a fact reflected in the comparatively high ratio of manuscripts to printed works in its collection. Such printed books as have made their way into the collection are intended solely to facilitate the study of the much larger collection of manuscripts.[24] The collection also includes 330,000 Greek, Roman, and papal coins and medals.[6] Every year about 6,000 new books are acquired.[6] The library was enriched by several bequests and acquisitions over the centuries. In 1623, the hereditary Palatine Library of Heidelberg containing about 3,500 manuscripts were given to the Vatican by Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria (who had just acquired it as loot in the Thirty Years' War) in thanks for the adroit political maneuvers of Pope Gregory XV that had sustained him in his contests with Protestant candidates for the electoral seat. A token 39 of the Heidelberg manuscripts were sent to Paris in 1797 and were returned to Heidelberg at the Peace of Paris in 1815, and a gift from Pope Pius VII of 852 others was made in 1816 to the University of Heidelberg, including the Codex Manesse. Aside from that, the Palatine Library remains in the Vatican Library to this day. In 1657, the manuscripts of the Dukes of Urbino were acquired. In 1661, the Greek scholar Leo Allatius was made librarian. Queen Christina of Sweden's important library (mostly amassed by her generals as loot from Habsburg Prague and German cities during the Thirty Years War) was bought by Pope Alexander VIII on her death in 1689. It represented, for all practical purposes, the entire royal library of Sweden at the time. If it had remained where it was in Stockholm, it would all have been lost in the destruction of the royal palace by fire in 1697. Among the most famous holdings of the library is the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, the oldest known nearly complete manuscript of the Bible. The Secret History of Procopius was discovered in the library and published in 1623. Pope Clement XI sent scholars into the Orient to bring back manuscripts, and is generally accepted as the founder of the Oriental section.[7] A School of library science is associated with the Vatican Library. In 1959, a Film Library was established.[25] This is not to be confused with the Vatican Film Library, which was established in 1953 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri. The Library has a large collection of texts related to Hinduism, with the oldest editions dating to 1819.[26] During the library's restoration between 2007 and 2010, all of the 70,000 volumes in the library were tagged with electronic chips to prevent theft.[19] Manuscripts[edit] The Abyss of Hell, coloured drawing on parchment by Sandro Botticelli (1480s) Wandalbert von Prüm, July, Martyrologium (c860) Main page: Category:Manuscripts of the Vatican Library Notable manuscripts in the Library include: Illuminated manuscripts: Manuscripts relating to Christianity[edit] Barberini Gospels Gelasian Sacramentary, one of the oldest books on Christian liturgy Joshua Roll Lorsch Gospels, an illuminated gospel book written and illustrated from 778 to 820, which is spread up between various museums. The carved ivory rear cover and the Gospels of Luke and John are kept in the Vatican Library. Menologion of Basil II[27] Vatican Croatian Prayer Book Vergilius Vaticanus Classic Greek and Latin texts[edit] Vergilius Romanus, Virgil's Aeneid Codex Vaticanus Ottobonianus Latinus 1829, an important 14th-century manuscript of Catullus' poems Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868, a 9th-century facsimile of Terence's comedies[28] Parts of Euclid's Elements, most notable Book I, Proposition 47, one of the oldest Greek texts on the Pythagorean Theorem[1] Alternative[edit] Codex Borgia, an extensive mesoamerican manuscript that depicts mythology and foundational rituals in the hieroglyphic texts and iconography made of animal skins. Codex Vat. Arabo 368, the sole manuscript of the Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, an Arabic love story[29] Codex Vaticanus 3738, the Codex Ríos,[30] an accordion folded Italian translation of a Spanish colonial-era manuscript, with copies of the Aztec paintings from the original Codex Telleriano-Remensis, believed to be written by the Dominican friar Ríos in 1566. De arte venandi cum avibus, a Latin treatise on falconry in the format of a two-column parchment codex of 111 folios written in the 1240s. Texts: Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256, four leaves of the Vergilius Augusteus[31] Codex Vaticano Rossi 215, fragments of the Rossi Codex[32] Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, one of the oldest extant Bibles in Greek language Libri Carolini Vaticanus Graecus 1001, the original manuscript of the Secret History[33] One fragment of Heliand and three fragments of the Old Saxon Genesis comprise the Palatinus Latinus 1447.[34] Qurans[edit] The Library contains over 100 Quran manuscripts from various collections, cataloged by the Italian Jewish linguist, Giorgio Levi Della Vida: Vaticani arabi 73; Borgiani arabi 25; Barberiniani orientali 11; Rossiani 2. The largest manuscript in the library, Vat. Ar. 1484, measures 540x420mm. The smallest, Vat. Ar. 924, is a circle of 45mm diameter preserved in an octagonal case.[35] Digitization projects[edit] In 2012, plans were announced to digitize, in collaboration with the Bodleian Library, a million pages of material from the Vatican Library. On 20 March 2014, the Holy See announced that NTT Data Corporation and the Library concluded an agreement to digitize approximately 3,000 of the Library's manuscripts within four years.[36] NTT is donating the equipment and technicians, estimated to be worth 18 million Euros.[37] It noted that there is the possibility of subsequently digitizing another 79,000 of the Library's holdings. These will be high-definition images available on the Library's Internet site. Storage for the holdings will be on a three petabyte server provided by EMC.[38] It is expected that the initial phase will take 4 years.[39] DigiVatLib is the name of the Vatican Library's digital library service. It provides free access to the Vatican Library's digitized collections of manuscripts and incunabula.[40] The scanning of documents is impacted by the material used to produce the texts. Books using gold and silver in the illuminations require special scanning equipment.[23] Digital copies are being served using the CIFS protocol, from network-attached storage hardware by Dell EMC.[16] Gallery of holdings[edit] Gospel of Matthew in Persian, the first Persian manuscript to enter the Vatican Library Manuscript page with the five-voice "Kyrie" of the Missa Virgo Parens Christi by Jacques Barbireau Mappamondo Borgiano, also known as "Tavola di Velletri", consisting of two copper tablets (1430) Month of May from in the Chronography of 354 by the 4th century kalligrapher Filocalus Anton Raphael Mengs, The Triumph of History over Time (Allegory of the Museum Clementinum), ceiling fresco in the Camera dei Papiri, Vatican Library Illumination from the legend of Sain Emerich of Hungary's, c. 1335 Battle between David and Goliath, Book of Psalms, c. 1059 The ivory panels from the back cover of Codex Aureus of Lorsch Related libraries[edit] Vatican Secret Archives[edit] Main article: Vatican Secret Archives The Vatican Secret Archives, located in Vatican City, is the central archive for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See, as well as the state papers, correspondence, papal account books,[41] and many other documents which the church has accumulated over the centuries. In the 17th century, under the orders of Pope Paul V, the Secret Archives were separated from the Vatican Library, where scholars had some very limited access to them, and remained absolutely closed to outsiders until 1881, when Pope Leo XIII opened them to researchers, more than a thousand of whom now examine its documents each year.[42] Vatican Film Library[edit] Main article: Vatican Film Library The Vatican Film Library in St. Louis, Missouri is the only collection, outside the Vatican itself, of microfilms of more than 37,000 works from the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, the Vatican Library in Europe. It is located in the Pius XII Library on the campus of Saint Louis University.[43] The Library was created by Lowrie J. Daly (1914–2000), with funding from the Knights of Columbus.[44] The goal was to make Vatican and other documents more available to researchers in North America.[45] Microfilming of Vatican manuscripts began in 1951, and according to the Library's website, was the largest microfilming project that had been undertaken up to that date.[46] The Library opened in 1953, and moved to the St. Louis University campus, in the Pius XII Memorial Library, in 1959. The first librarian was Charles J. Ermatinger, who served until 2000. As of 2007[update], the Library has microfilmed versions of over 37,000 manuscripts, with material in Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew and Ethiopic, as well as several more common Western European languages. There are reproductions of many works from the Biblioteca Palatina and Biblioteca Cicognara at the Vatican, as well as Papal letter registers from the Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Vatican Secret Archives) from the 9th to 16th centuries, in the series Registra Vaticana and Registra Supplicationium.[2] Staff[edit] The director of the library was made a cardinal and given the title Cardinal Librarian.[7] Individual library staff were called "Custodians".[7] After the reopening of the library in 1883, Pope Leo XIII changed the title to Prefect.[7][47][48] The library currently has 80 staff who work in five departments: manuscripts and archival collections, printed books/drawings, acquisitions/cataloguing, coin collections/museums and restoration/photography.[6] List of librarians[edit] (P) Indicates time spent as Pro-Librarian. This is the role of acting librarian, often a librarian who is not a Cardinal.[49] Name Lifetime Title Duration as Librarian[50][51] Marcello Cervini 1501–1555 Bibliothecarius I 24 May 1550–9 April 1555 Roberto de' Nobili 1541–1559 Bibliothecarius II 1555–18 January 1559 Alfonso Carafa 1540–1565 Bibliothecarius III 1559–29 August 1565 Marcantonio da Mula 1506–1572 Bibliothecarius IV 1565–17 March 1572[52] Guglielmo Sirleto 1514–1585 Bibliothecarius V 18 March 1572–16 October 1585 Antonio Carafa 1538–1591 Bibliothecarius VI 16 October 1585–13 January 1591 Marco Antonio Colonna 1523 ca.–1597 Bibliothecarius VII 1591–13 March 1597 Cesare Baronio 1538–1607 Bibliothecarius VIII May 1597–30 June 1607[53] Ludovico de Torres 1552–1609 Bibliothecarius IX 4 July 1607–8 July 1609 Scipione Borghese Caffarelli 1576–1633 Bibliothecarius X 11 June 1609–17 February 1618[54] Scipione Cobelluzzi 1564–1626 Bibliothecarius XI 17 February 1618–29 June 1626 Francesco Barberini 1597–1679 Bibliothecarius XII 1 July 1626–13 December 1633 Antonio Barberini 1569–1646 Bibliothecarius XIII 13 December 1633–11 September 1646 Orazio Giustiniani 1580–1649 Bibliothecarius XIV 25 September 1646–25 July 1649 Luigi Capponi 1583–1659 Bibliothecarius XV 4 August 1649–6 April 1659 Flavio Chigi 1631–1693 Bibliothecarius XVI 21 June 1659–19 September 1681[55] Lorenzo Brancati 1612–1693 Bibliothecarius XVII 19 September 1681–30 November 1693 Girolamo Casanate 1620–1700 Bibliothecarius XVIII 2 December 1693–3 March 1700 Enrico Noris 1631–1704 Bibliothecarius XIX 26 March 1700–23 February 1704 Benedetto Pamphili 1653–1730 Bibliothecarius XX 26 February 1704–22 March 1730 Angelo Maria Querini 1680–1755 Bibliothecarius XXI 4 September 1730–6 January 1755 Domenico Passionei 1682–1761 Bibliothecarius XXII 10 July 1741–12 January 1755(P) 12 January 1755–5 July 1761 Alessandro Albani 1692–1779 Bibliothecarius XXIII 12 August 1761–11 December 1779 Francesco Saverio de Zelada 1717–1801 Bibliothecarius XXIV 15 December 1779–29 December 1801 Luigi Valenti Gonzaga 1725–1808 Bibliothecarius XXV 12 January 1802–29 December 1808 Giulio Maria della Somaglia 1744–1830 Bibliothecarius XXVI 26 January 1827–2 April 1830 Giuseppe Albani 1750–1834 Bibliothecarius XXVII 23 April 1830–3 December 1834 Luigi Lambruschini 1776–1854 Bibliothecarius XXVIII 11 December 1834–27 June 1853 Angelo Mai 1782–1854 Bibliothecarius XXIX 27 June 1853–9 September 1854 Antonio Tosti 1776–1866 Bibliothecarius XXX 13 January 1860–20 March 1866 Jean Baptiste François Pitra 1812–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXI 19 January 1869–9 February 1889[56] Placido Maria Schiaffino 1829–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXII 20 February 1889–23 September 1889 Alfonso Capecelatro 1824–1912 Bibliothecarius XXXIII 29 August 1890–14 November 1912[57] Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro 1843–1913 Bibliothecarius XXXIV 26 November 1912–16 December 1913 Francesco di Paola Cassetta 1841–1919 Bibliothecarius XXXV 3 January 1914–23 March 1919 Aidan [Francis Neil] Gasquet 1845–1929 Bibliothecarius XXXVI 9 May 1919–5 April 1929 Franz Ehrle 1845–1934 Bibliothecarius XXXVII 17 April 1929–31 March 1934 Giovanni Mercati 1866–1957 Bibliothecarius XXXVIII 18 June 1936–23 August 1957 Eugène Tisserant 1884–1972 Bibliothecarius XXXIX 14 September 1957–27 March 1971 Antonio Samoré 1905–1983 Bibliothecarius XL 25 January 1974–3 February 1983 Alfons Maria Stickler 1910–2007 Bibliothecarius XLI 7 September 1983–27 May 1985(P) 27 May 1985–1 July 1988 Antonio María Javierre Ortas 1921–2007 Bibliothecarius XLII 1 July 1988–24 January 1992 Luigi Poggi 1917–2010[58] Bibliothecarius XLIII 9 April 1992–29 November 1994(P) 29 November 1994–25 November 1997 Jorge María Mejía 1923–2014 Bibliothecarius XLIV 7 March 1998–24 November 2003 Jean-Louis Tauran 1943–2018 Bibliothecarius XLV 24 November 2003–25 June 2007 Raffaele Farina 1933– Bibliothecarius XLVI 25 June 2007–9 June 2012 Jean-Louis Bruguès 1943– Bibliothecarius XLVII 26 June 2012–1 September 2018 José Tolentino de Mendonça 1965– Bibliothecarius XLVIII 1 September 2018– See also[edit] Vatican City portal Catholicism portal Archive of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Index of Vatican City-related articles The Vatican Splendors Notes[edit] ^ This sculpture is described in the following words: "S. Tommaso seduto, nella sinistra tiene il libro della Summa theologica, mentre stende la destra in atto di proteggere la scienza cristiana. Quindi non siede sulla cattedra di dottore, ma sul trono di sovrano protettore; stende il braccio a rassicurare, non a dimostrare. Ha in testa il dottorale berretto, e conservando il suo tipo tradizionale, rivela nel volto e nell'atteggiamento l'uomo profondamente dotto. L'autore non ha avuto da ispirarsi in altr'opera che esistesse sul soggetto, quindi ha dovuto, può dirsi, creare questo tipo, ed è riuscito originale e felice nella sua creazione."[20] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Mendelsohn, Daniel (3 January 2011). "God's Librarians". The New Yorker. 86 (42). p. 24. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 3 August 2014. ^ a b Vatican Film Library informational pamphlet[full citation needed] ^ Strayer, Joseph, ed. (1989). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Scribner. ISBN 0684190737. ^ a b c Wiegand, Wayne A.; Davis, Donald G., eds. (1994). Encyclopedia of Library History. New York: Garland. p. 653. ISBN 0824057872. ^ Mycue, David (1981). "Founder of the Vatican Library: Nicholas V or Sixtus IV?". The Journal of Library History. University of Texas Press. 16 (1): 121–133. JSTOR 25541179. Retrieved 7 October 2020. ^ a b c d e f Bloom, Ocker. "The Vatican Library and its History". Ibiblio. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Meert, Deborah. "A History of the Vatican Library". capping.slis.ualberta.ca. University of Alberta. Retrieved 31 July 2014. ^ a b c "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - The City Reborn: How the City Came Back to Life". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ Clark, John Willis (1899). On the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV. ^ Giacomo Castrucci (1856). "Tesoro letterario di Ercolano, ossia, La reale officina dei papiri ercolanesi". ^ "Herculaneum Papyri in the National Library in Naples". The Phraser. 2015. ^ HONAN, WILLIAM H. (30 May 1995). "Teacher Tied to Stolen Manuscript Pages Faced Prior Ethics Questions, Colleagues Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b MONTALBANO, WILLIAM D. (25 May 1995). "U.S. Scholar Suspected in Theft of Manuscript Pages". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library". Vaticanstate.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ a b c The Pope’s Visit to the Vatican Library 19 December 2010 In: L'Osservatore Romano. Retrieved 2 August 2014 ^ a b c Del Nibletto, Paolo. "The Vatican Library CIO's sacred mission: To digitize everything". itworldcanada.com. IT World Canada. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Willey, David (17 July 2007). "Vatican Library closure irks scholars". BBC News. Retrieved 17 July 2007. ^ "Vatican Library Homepage". Retrieved 13 September 2010. ^ a b c Winfield, Nicole (15 November 2010). "Vatican library reopens after 3-year restoration". NBC News. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Hendrix, John (2003). History and culture in Italy. University Press of America. ISBN 9780761826286. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ Vaticana, Biblioteca Apostolica (1893). Nel giubileo episcopale di Leone XIII. omaggio della Biblioteca vaticana XIX febbraio anno MDCCCXCIII. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - A Library Takes Shape: Books, Benches, and Borrowers". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ a b Taylor, Lesley Ciarula (2 May 2013). "Digitizing history: 82,000-manuscript collection Vatican Library goes online". Toronto Star. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "The Vatican Palace, as a Scientific Institute". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Statute of the Vatican Film Library". vatican.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "Vatican Library carries extensive collection of ancient Hindu scriptures". eurasia review. 29 June 2014. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John W. Wohlfarth (1 September 2001). Elysium. AuthorHouse. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7596-5406-8. ^ C. R. Dodwell (2000). Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-66188-1. ^ D’Ottone, Arianna (2010). "Il manoscritto Vaticano arabo 368: Hadith Bayad wa Riyad. Il codice, il testo, le immagini". Rivista di Storia della Miniatura (in Italian). Centro Di. 14: 55. Retrieved 25 July 2014. ^ "FAMSI - Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz - Codex Vaticanus 3738". Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz CODICES. FAMSI. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Vergilius Augusteus : vollst. Faks.-Ausg. im Originalformat : Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256 d. Biblioteca apostolica vaticana u. Codex Latinus fol. 416 d. Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Catalog - UW-Madison Libraries. University of Wisconsin Madison Libraries. 1976. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Christopher Kleinhenz (8 January 2004). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-135-94880-1. ^ Charney, Noah (16 November 2011). "Vatican Mysteries: What's So Secret about Procopius' "Secret History?"". Blouinartinfo. Louise Blouin Media. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John M. Jeep (2001). Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8240-7644-3. ^ Ezra Gozeler, A Study on Qurʾān Manuscripts in the Vatican Library in terms of Physical and Content Features, Cumhuriyet Theology Journal, 15 June 2018 ^ McKenna, Josephine (20 March 2014). "Vatican library plans to digitise 82,000 of its most valuable manuscripts". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Greiner, Lynn (23 July 2014). "Storage giant EMC looks to ease concerns about Flash technology". Financial Post.com. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "DigiVatLib". digi.vatlib.it. Retrieved 17 January 2017. ^ von Pastor, Ludwig Freiherr (1906). The History of the Popes: From the Close of the Middle Ages. Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources, Volume 3. Trübner & Company Ltd. p. 31. Retrieved 28 July 2014. papal account books. ^ "Table of Admittances to the Vatican Secret Archives in the Last Years". Archived from the original on 6 May 2011. ^ "Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library - Home Page". slu.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2007. ^ "LOWRIE J. DALY, S.J., MEMORIAL LECTURE ON MANUSCRIPT STUDIES". Libraries at Saint Louis University. Saint Louis University. Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ C. Krohn, Ernst (June 1957). "Notes Second Series, Vol. 14, No. 3". Notes. Music Library Association. 14 (3): 317–324. doi:10.2307/891821. JSTOR 891821. ^ "Kentucky New Era - Aug 14, 1954". Kentucky New Era. 14 August 1954. Retrieved 30 July 2014. ^ "Government | Sito ufficiale dell'Archivio Segreto Vaticano – Città del Vaticano". Archiviosegretovaticano.va. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "BAV - Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ Guruge, Anura. "Replacement For Cardinal Farina As The Archivist; Cardinal Antonelli's Replacement, Vincenzo Paglia, Immediately A Cardinalabili". Popes and Papacy. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Library History". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library - Institute Connected with the Holy See". GCatholic.org. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of February 26, 1561 (II)". 5 August 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of September June 5, 1596 (II)". 15 April 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 18, 1605 (I)". Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of April 9, 1657 (I)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of March 16, 1863 (XIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 27, 1885 (VIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Luigi Poggi". Retrieved 7 October 2013. Works cited[edit] Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Miranda, Salvador. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University Libraries. Further reading[edit] Hanson, James Christian Meinich. “Cataloguing Rules of the Vatican Library.” Library Quarterly 1 (January 3, 1931): 340–46. Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture, an online exhibition from the Library of Congress. Vatican to digitize Apostolic Library of 1.6 million volumes for general perusal, PCWorld.com, 29 October 2002. A joint effort between the Vatican and Hewlett-Packard. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Official website Vatican Library old home page, with online catalog search History of the Vatican Library, from the Library's site Treasures of the Vatican Library Exposed via The European Library Toward On-line, worldwide access to Vatican Library materials (1996). A collaborative effort (pioneered by Fr. Leonard Boyle OP Prefect of the Vatican Library) between the Vatican Library and IBM, the primary goal of which is to "provide access via the Internet to some of the Library's most valuable manuscripts, printed books, and other sources to a scholarly community around the world." Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library. Saint Louis University library that focuses on the collection of the Vatican Library. The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius. An article by art historian Noah Charney about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius. The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome, a book from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on the library (p. 280-290) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Roman Curia of the Holy See 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en-wikipedia-org-467	----	Help:Pronunciation respelling key - Wikipedia Help:Pronunciation respelling key From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia information page Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcuts H:RESPELL H:PRK This page contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. The following pronunciation respelling key is used in some Wikipedia articles to respell the pronunciations of English words. It does not use special symbols or diacritics apart from the schwa (ə), which is used for the first sound in the word "about". Contents 1 Key 1.1 Syllables and stress 2 When to use and when not to use 3 See also 4 Notes Key Both the IPA and respelling for English on Wikipedia are designed to record all distinctive sounds found in major varieties of English. That is, we record differences found in some varieties but not in others, such as those between "father" and "farther", "wine" and "whine", and "cot" and "caught". This does not mean these differences are, or must be, always distinguished; if you speak a dialect that does not distinguish "father" and "farther", for example, simply ignore the difference between FAH-dhər and FAR-dhər. For a more thorough discussion of the sounds and dialectal variation, see Help:IPA/English. Vowels Rspl. Example(s) IPA a[1] bat /æ/ ah father /ɑː/ air bear, Mary /ɛər/ ar farther /ɑːr/ arr marry /ær/ aw bought /ɔː/ ay bait /eɪ/ e[1] bet /ɛ/ eh[2] prestige ee beat /iː/ happy, serious /i/ eer beer, nearer /ɪər/ err merry /ɛr/ ew[3] cute, beauty, dew /juː/ ewr[3] cure, lure /jʊər/ eye[4] item, yikes /aɪ/ i[1] bit /ɪ/ ih[5] historic ire hire /aɪər/ irr mirror /ɪr/ o[1] bot /ɒ/ oh boat /oʊ/ oir coir /ɔɪər/ oo boot, you /uː/ influence, fruition /u/ oor poor, tourist /ʊər/ or horse, hoarse, pour, forum /ɔːr/ orr moral /ɒr/ ow bout, vow /aʊ/ owr flour /aʊər/ oy choice, boy /ɔɪ/ u[1] but /ʌ/ uh[6] frustration ur bird, furry /ɜːr/ urr hurry /ʌr/ uu[1] book /ʊ/ uurr courier /ʊr/ y[4] bite, bide /aɪ/ ə about, comma /ə/ ər letter /ər/ Consonants Rspl. Example(s) IPA b buy /b/ ch[7] church, nature /tʃ/ d dye, ladder /d/ dh thy, this /ð/ f fight /f/ g go /ɡ/ gh[8] guess, guitar h high /h/ j jive /dʒ/ k kite, sky, lock /k/ kh loch, Chanukah /x/ l lie, sly /l/ m my /m/ n nigh /n/ ng ring, singer /ŋ/ nk[9] sink /ŋk/ p pie, spy /p/ r rye, try /r/ s sigh /s/ ss[10] ice, tense sh shy /ʃ/ t tie, sty, latter /t/ tch[7] church, natural /tʃ/ th thigh /θ/ v vine /v/ w wine /w/ wh whine /hw/ y you /j/ z zoo /z/ zh pleasure /ʒ/ Syllables and stress Syllables are separated by hyphens ("-"). The stress on a syllable is indicated by capital letters. For example, the word "pronunciation" (/prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən/) is respelled prə-NUN-see-AY-shən. In this example, the primary and secondary stress are not distinguished, as the difference is automatic. In words where primary stress precedes secondary stress, however, the secondary stress should not be differentiated from unstressed syllables; for example, "motorcycle" (/ˈmoʊtərˌsaɪkəl/) would be respelled as MOH-tər-sy-kəl, as MOH-tər-SY-kəl would incorrectly suggest the pronunciation /ˌmoʊtərˈsaɪkəl/. When to use and when not to use As designated in Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation, the standard set of symbols used to show the pronunciation of English words on Wikipedia is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA has significant advantages over this respelling system, as it can be used to accurately represent pronunciations from any language in the world, and (being an international standard) is often more familiar to European/Commonwealth and non-native speakers of English. On the other hand, the IPA (being designed to represent sounds from any language in the world) is not as intuitive for those chiefly familiar with English orthography, for whom this respelling system is likely to be easier for English words and names. So, while the IPA is the required form of representing pronunciation, respelling remains optional. It should not be used for representing non-English words or an approximation thereof. See documentation for {{Respell}} for examples and instructions on using the template. Sometimes another means of indicating a pronunciation is more desirable than this respelling system, such as when a name is intended to be a homonym of an existing English word or phrase, or in case of an initialism or a name composed of numbers or symbols. When citing a homonym, it should not be enclosed in the {{respell}} template. In such cases, an IPA notation is usually nevertheless needed, but not necessarily so; see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Other transcription systems for further discussion. Respelling should also be avoided when a respelled syllable would be the same as an existing word that is pronounced differently. "Maui" /ˈmaʊi/ respelled as MOW-ee, "metonymy" /mɛˈtɒnɪmi/ as meh-TON-im-ee, and "cobalt" /ˈkoʊbɒlt/ as KOH-bolt are susceptible to being misinterpreted as /ˈmoʊi/, /mɛˈtʌnɪmi/, and /ˈkoʊboʊlt/, because of the words "mow", "ton", and "bolt", so only IPA should be provided for such words, if any. Particularly, respelling /aʊ/ could prove problematic as there are a variety of monosyllabic words spelled with "ow" and pronounced with /oʊ/: blow, blown, bow, bowl, flow, flown, glow, grow, grown, growth, low, mow, mown, own, row, show, slow, snow, sow, sown, stow, strow, throw, tow, and trow. There is no universal solution to this problem ("ou" also varies as in loud, soup, soul, and touch), so respelling a word including /aʊ/ may be best avoided altogether; however, sometimes the benefit of respelling may outweigh the disadvantage, especially for longer words, so exercise discretion. See also Help:IPA/Conventions for English Help:IPA/English {{Respell}}: the template and instructions for adding pronunciation respelling Pronunciation respelling for English Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation Notes ^ a b c d e f /æ, ɛ, ɪ, ɒ, ʌ, ʊ/ (a, e(h), i(h), o, u(h), uu) are checked vowels, meaning never occurring at the end of a word or before a vowel. When a checked vowel is followed by a consonant and a stressed vowel, which is rare nonetheless, it is acceptable in some cases to attribute the following consonant to the same syllable as the checked vowel, as in bal-AY, even though in IPA it is customary to attribute it to the following syllable, as in /bæˈleɪ/. However, when the following consonant is a voiceless plosive (/p, t, k/) pronounced with aspiration (a slight delay in the following vowel), it must be attributed to the same syllable as the following vowel, as in ta-TOO, because tat-OO may result in a different pronunciation than intended (compare "whatever" whot-EV-ər, whut-, wherein /t/ is not aspirated and may be glottalized or flapped). Similarly, when a vowel is followed by /s/, one or more consonants, and a stressed vowel, the syllabification must be retained, as in fruh-STRAY-shən, because frus-TRAY-shən may result in a different pronunciation than intended. ^ /ɛ/ in syllable-final positions may be respelled eh instead of e when otherwise it may be misinterpreted as another sound such as /i(ː)/ or /eɪ/. ^ a b ew and ewr are for when /juː/ or /jʊər/ takes place right after a consonant within the same syllable. When /juː/ or /jʊər/ begins a syllable (e.g. "youth", "Europe", "value"), use yoo(r)—unless it is subject to yod-dropping or yod-coalescence: "Lithuania" LITH-ew-AY-nee-ə. ^ a b /aɪ/ is respelled eye when it begins a syllable or is preceded by /j/ and otherwise y. When y is followed by a consonant within the same syllable, place an e after the consonant as necessary: "price" PRYSE, "tight" TYTE. ^ /ɪ/ in syllable-final positions may be respelled ih instead of i when otherwise it may be misinterpreted as another sound such as /aɪ/. ^ /ʌ/ in syllable-final positions is respelled uh instead of u to better distinguish it from /u(ː), ʊ/. ^ a b /tʃ/ after a vowel in the same syllable is respelled tch instead of ch to better distinguish it from /k, x/. ^ /ɡ/ may be respelled gh instead of g when otherwise it may be misinterpreted as /dʒ/. ^ /ŋk/ is respelled nk rather than ngk, since the assimilation is mandatory, except beyond a syllable boundary: "tinker" TING-kər. ^ /s/ may be respelled ss instead of s when otherwise it may be misinterpreted as /z/: "ice" EYESS, "tense" TENSS (compare eyes, tens). v t e International Phonetic Alphabet keys Adyghe Afrikaans Albanian Amharic Arabic Modern Standard Egyptian Hejazi Lebanese Tunisian Armenian Assamese Asturian Australian languages Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Berber Breton Bulgarian Burmese Catalan Chinese Mandarin Cantonese Taiwanese Hokkien Wu Corsican Czech Danish Dari Dutch English Old English Emilian-Romagnol Esperanto Estonian Extremaduran Fijian Finnish Franco-Provençal French Galician Georgian German Standard Alemannic Colognian Greek Gujarati Haitian Creole Hawaiian Hebrew Hindi Hmong Hungarian Icelandic Indonesian Inuktitut Inupiaq Irish Isan Italian dialects Japanese Kazakh Khmer Korean Kurdish Kyrgyz Lao Latin Latvian Ligurian Lithuanian Lombard Luxembourgish Macedonian Maithili Malagasy Malay Malayalam Maltese Manx Māori Marathi Marshallese Mauritian Creole Mayan Mongolian Mirandese Nahuatl Navajo Neapolitan Nepali Northern Thai Norwegian Occitan Odia Persian Piedmontese Polish Portuguese Punjabi Quechua Romanian Romansh Russian Sanskrit Sardinian Scottish Gaelic Serbo-Croatian Shan Sicilian Slovak Slovene Spanish Swahili Swazi Swedish Tagalog Tai Lue Tajik Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Tibetan Tigrinya Turkish Turkmen Ukrainian Urdu Uzbek Venetian Vietnamese Walloon Welsh West Frisian Xhosa Yiddish Zulu Comparisons IPA conventions for English English dialects Wikipedia pronunciation respelling Other English pronunciation respellings Introductory guides Symbols For English speakers Manual of Style: Pronunciation Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key&oldid=1016691242" Categories: Wikipedia information pages Wikipedia pronunciation Hidden categories: Help pages with short description Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages অসমীয়া भोजपुरी Bahasa Indonesia Jawa ଓଡ଼ିଆ Scots Simple English Тоҷикӣ اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2021, at 15:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4686	----	Julian (emperor) - Wikipedia Julian (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Julian the Apostate) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 361 to 363, philosopher For other people with the same name, see Julian. Roman emperor Julian Emperor Julian on a bronze coin from Antioch. Legend: d n Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug. Roman emperor Augustus 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (proclaimed in early 360) Predecessor Constantius II Successor Jovian Caesar 6 November 355 – early 360 Born 331 Constantinople Died 26 June 363 (aged 31–32) Frygium, Mesopotamia Burial Tarsus, then Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Helena (m. 355, died 360) Names Flavius Claudius Julianus Dynasty Constantinian Father Julius Constantius Mother Basilina Religion Greco-Roman polytheism Previously Christianity Julian[i] (Latin: Flavius Claudius Julianus; Greek: Ἰουλιανός; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek.[4] His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place, caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate by the Christian Church.[5][6] A member of the Constantinian dynasty, Julian was orphaned as a child. He was raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, who had a profound influence on him, providing Julian with literary education.[7] Julian became caesar over the western provinces by order of Constantius II in 355, and in this role he campaigned successfully against the Alamanni and Franks. Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni at the Battle of Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in 357, leading his 13,000 men against a Germanic army three times larger. In 360, Julian was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia.[8] However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital and moved into Persia's heartland, but soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while ceaselessly being harassed by Persian skirmishes. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded under mysterious circumstances.[9][7] He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces.[10] Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters".[11] He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution.[12] He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. His attempt to build a Third Temple in Jerusalem was probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please Jews.[7] Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching and learning classical texts.[13] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Caesar in Gaul 1.2.1 Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms 1.2.2 Taxation and administration 1.3 Rebellion in Paris 1.4 Empire and administration 1.5 Clash with the Antiochenes 1.6 Persian campaign 1.6.1 Into enemy territory 1.6.2 Ctesiphon 1.6.3 Death 1.7 Tomb 2 Religious issues 2.1 Beliefs 2.2 Restoration of state paganism 2.2.1 Paganism's shift under Julian 2.2.2 Juventinus and Maximus 2.2.3 Charity 2.3 Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple 3 Works 3.1 Problems regarding authenticity 4 In popular culture 4.1 Literature 4.2 Film 4.3 Street named 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Ancient sources 7.3 Modern sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Flavius Claudius Julianus was born at Constantinople in 331,[14] the son of Julius Constantius,[15] consul in 335 and half-brother of the emperor Constantine, by his second wife, Basilina, a woman of Greek origin.[16][17] Both of his parents were Christians. Julian's paternal grandparents were the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora. His maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus, Praetorian Prefect of the East under the emperor Licinius from 315 to 324, and consul suffectus in 325.[18] The name of Julian's maternal grandmother is unknown. Julian solidus, c. 361. The obverse shows a bearded Julian inscribed fl·cl·iulianus p·p· aug·, calling Julian "father of the nation" (Latin: Pater Patriae). The reverse depicts an armed Roman soldier bearing a military standard in one hand and subduing a captive with the other, a reference to the military strength of the Roman Empire, inscribed: virtus exercitus romanorum, lit. 'the virtue of the Roman Army' The mint mark sirm. indicates the coin was minted in Sirmium, the home of Constantine's family. In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself and his brothers, Julian's zealous Arian cousin Constantius II appears to have led a massacre of most of Julian's close relatives. Constantius II allegedly ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers Constantine II and Constans I, and their cousins, Julian and Constantius Gallus (Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory. Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education. They were likely saved by their youth and at the urging of the Empress Eusebia. If Julian's later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337. Initially growing up in Bithynia, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven Julian was under the guardianship of Eusebius, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, about whom he later wrote warmly. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were exiled to the imperial estate of Macellum in Cappadocia. Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition. At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia.[19] He became a lector, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life.[20] Julian's conversion from Christianity to paganism happened at around the age of 20. Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way, i.e., the way of Helios.[21] Julian began his study of Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher, and then Aedesius' student Eusebius of Myndus. It was from Eusebius that Julian learned of the teachings of Maximus of Ephesus, whom Eusebius criticized for his more mystical form of Neoplatonic theurgy. Eusebius related his meeting with Maximus, in which the theurgist invited him into the temple of Hecate and, chanting a hymn, caused a statue of the goddess to smile and laugh, and her torches to ignite. Eusebius reportedly told Julian that he "must not marvel at any of these things, even as I marvel not, but rather believe that the thing of the highest importance is that purification of the soul which is attained by reason." In spite of Eusebius' warnings regarding the "impostures of witchcraft and magic that cheat the senses" and "the works of conjurers who are insane men led astray into the exercise of earthly and material powers", Julian was intrigued, and sought out Maximus as his new mentor. According to the historian Eunapius, when Julian left Eusebius, he told his former teacher "farewell, and devote yourself to your books. You have shown me the man I was in search of."[22] Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans. Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper Magnentius. This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor. In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, Gallus, caesar of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year. In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed. Julian was summoned to Constantius' court in Mediolanum (Milan) in 354, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with Claudius Silvanus; he was cleared, in part because Empress Eusebia intervened on his behalf, and he was permitted to study in Athens (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress in his third oration).[23] While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints: Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great. In the same period, Julian was also initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, which he would later try to restore. Caesar in Gaul[edit] After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in Gaul. In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made caesar of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, Helena. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check. At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul.[24] In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the Germanic tribes that had settled on both sides of the Rhine. Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms[edit] During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into Frankish hands, including Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of Senon near Verdun to await the spring.[25] This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general Marcellus deigned to lift the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as magister equitum by Severus.[26][27] The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his magister peditum Barbatio was to come from Milan and amass forces at Augst (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Durocortorum (Rheims). However, while Julian was in transit, a group of Laeti attacked Lugdunum (Lyon) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in Alamanni territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic peoples.[28][29] With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the Battle of Argentoratum. The Romans were heavily outnumbered[ii] and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted,[30] yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in Milan.[31][32] Ammianus, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield[33] and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him Augustus, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor.[34] Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul. At Moguntiacum (Mainz), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the Meuse River.[32][35] In 358, Julian gained victories over the Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of Tongeren, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to Hamaland. Taxation and administration[edit] At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of the province of Belgica Secunda. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as caesar and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the Rhine frontier. However, he sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. He therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy. Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his caesar, which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser Saturninius Secundus Salutius from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius".[36] Rebellion in Paris[edit] 19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the Thermes de Cluny, then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the Frankish manner, in February 360. In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the Sassanid emperor, Shapur II, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of Amida after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the Petulantes, who had no desire to leave Gaul. According to the historian Zosimus, the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract[37] expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius.[38] Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius.[39] The troops proclaimed Julian Augustus in Paris, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks.[40][41] In November, Julian began openly using the title Augustus, even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.[42] Solidus of Julian issued at Ravenna in 361, during his war with Constantius. The reverse reads VIRTUS EXERC(ITUS) GALL(ICARUM), 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor. In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, Vadomarius. Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of Raetia.[43] Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war.[44] (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him [Constantius] merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms..."[45]) However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian.[46] All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety).[47] Civil war was avoided only by the death on 3 November of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor. Empire and administration[edit] The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried. On 11 December 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the Church of the Apostles, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine.[47] This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne.[48] He is also now thought to have been responsible for the building of Santa Costanza on a Christian site just outside Rome as a mausoleum for his wife Helena and sister-in-law Constantina.[49] The new Emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors. He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past. He made no attempt to restore the tetrarchal system begun under Diocletian. Nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat. His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. In his first panegyric to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially primus inter pares ("first among equals"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople, therefore, it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate.[50] He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt and expensive. Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed. He set up the Chalcedon tribunal to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of Magister Militum Arbitio. Several high-ranking officials under Constantius, including the chamberlain Eusebius, were found guilty and executed. (Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signaling his displeasure at their necessity.)[51] He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, secret agents or the imperial postal service. Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs. For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities, city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the aurum coronarium was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax. Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled.[52] This was a key reform reducing the power of corrupt imperial officials, as the unpaid taxes on land were often hard to calculate or higher than the value of the land itself. Forgiving back taxes both made Julian more popular and allowed him to increase collections of current taxes. While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself. For example, new taxes and corvées had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgment of the bureaucratic apparatus. Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms. The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the Empire. If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers. In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the rhetorician Themistius. His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial. One was the very acceptable Claudius Mamertinus, previously the Praetorian prefect of Illyricum. The other, more surprising choice was Nevitta, Julian's trusted Frankish general. This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army. Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him. Clash with the Antiochenes[edit] Julian as portrayed by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri (1583). From Romanorum Imperatorum effigies, preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to Antioch, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363. Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been one reason for his choosing to reside there. It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow.[53] His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the Adonia, a festival which marked the death of Adonis, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival.[54][55] Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices. He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine. When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying to persuade them to take action. Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters.[55] He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of Castalia at the temple of Apollo at Daphne. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century bishop Babylas were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[56][57] When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt. Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices. Julian accused them of price gouging and forced them to sell. Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent[58][59] while Ammianus blames Julian for "a mere thirst for popularity".[60] Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful Emperor who placed himself well above them. Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices.[61] David S. Potter, an assistant secretary of the US Navy, said after nearly two millennia: They expected a man who was both removed from them by the awesome spectacle of imperial power, and would validate their interests and desires by sharing them from his Olympian height (...) He was supposed to be interested in what interested his people, and he was supposed to be dignified. He was not supposed to leap up and show his appreciation for a panegyric that it was delivered, as Julian had done on January 3, when Libanius was speaking, and ignore the chariot races.[62] He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called Misopogon or "Beard Hater". There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul. Even Julian's intellectual friends and fellow pagans were of a divided mind about this habit of talking to his subjects on an equal footing: Ammianus Marcellinus saw in that only the foolish vanity of someone "excessively anxious for empty distinction", whose "desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy persons".[63] On leaving Antioch he appointed Alexander of Heliopolis as governor, a violent and cruel man whom the Antiochene Libanius, a friend of the emperor, admits on first thought was a "dishonourable" appointment. Julian himself described the man as "undeserving" of the position, but appropriate "for the avaricious and rebellious people of Antioch".[64] Persian campaign[edit] v t e Julian's Persian expedition Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Julian's rise to Augustus was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death. This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the Eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the Emperor he had risen against, and he had tried to woo it through the Chalcedon tribunal. However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the Sassanid Persians offered such an opportunity. An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of Ctesiphon and definitively secure the eastern border. Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear. There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully. Julian rejected this offer.[65] Ammianus states that Julian longed for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war.[66] Illustration from The Fall of Princes by John Lydgate (which is a translation of De Casibus Virorum Illustribus by Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor Valerian. Into enemy territory[edit] On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian departed from Antioch with about 65,000–83,000,[67][68] or 80,000–90,000 men[69] (the traditional number accepted by Gibbon[70] is 95,000 effectives total), and headed north toward the Euphrates. En route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted. He did order the Armenian King Arsaces to muster an army and await instructions.[71] He crossed the Euphrates near Hierapolis and moved eastward to Carrhae, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the Tigris.[72] For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate Media in conjunction with Armenian forces.[73] This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed.[74] Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however. He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings. Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon.[73] Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been "regime change" by replacing king Shapur II with his brother Hormisdas.[74][75] After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at the confluence of the Abora (Khabur) and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April.[73] Passing Dura on 6 April, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him. At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of Pirisabora, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris.[76] As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the Sassanids broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into marshland, slowing the progress of the Roman army.[77] Ctesiphon[edit] Julian near Ctesiphon in modern-day Iraq, from a medieval miniature By mid-May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night.[78] The Romans gained a tactical victory over the Persians before the gates of the city, driving them back into the city.[79] However, the Persian capital was not taken, the main Persian army was still at large and approaching, while the Romans lacked a clear strategic objective.[80] In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to mount a siege against the city, given the impregnability of its defences and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force.[81] Julian, not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior, ordering the destruction of the fleet.[79] This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance, burning any food in the Romans' path. Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment, so there was nothing he could do when he found that the Persians had flooded the area behind him, forcing him to withdraw.[82] A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to the safety of Roman borders, not through Mesopotamia, but northward to Corduene.[83][84] Death[edit] Sassanian relief of the investiture of Ardashir II showing Mithra, Shapur II and Ahura Mazda above a defeated Julian, lying prostrate Detail of the fallen Julian During the withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces.[84] In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column. In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail.[85] He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe of his liver, the peritoneum and intestines. The wound was not immediately deadly. Julian was treated by his personal physician, Oribasius of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound. This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark wine, and a procedure known as gastrorrhaphy, the suturing of the damaged intestine. On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night.[86][iii] As Julian wished, his body was buried outside Tarsus, though it was later removed to Constantinople.[87] In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers;[88] this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians. John Malalas reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by Basil of Caesarea.[89] Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a Saracen (Lakhmid) and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Lakhmid auxiliaries in Persian service.[90] Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by Saint Mercurius.[91] Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire. Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that "I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves." However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were νενίκηκάς με, Γαλιλαῖε, or Vicisti, Galilaee ("You have won, Galilean"),[iv] supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion. The phrase introduces the 1866 poem Hymn to Proserpine, which was Algernon Charles Swinburne's elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity. It also ends the Polish Romantic play The Undivine comedy written in 1833 by Zygmunt Krasiński. Tomb[edit] Porphyry sarcophagi outside the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. As he had requested,[93] Julian's body was buried in Tarsus. It lay in a tomb outside the city, across a road from that of Maximinus Daia.[94] However, chronicler Zonaras says that at some "later" date his body was exhumed and reburied in or near the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, where Constantine and the rest of his family lay.[95] His sarcophagus is listed as standing in a "stoa" there by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.[96] The church was demolished by the Ottomans after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Today a sarcophagus of porphyry, believed by Jean Ebersolt to be Julian's, stands in the grounds of the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.[97] 4th-century cameo of an emperor, probably Julian, performing sacrifice (National Archaeological Museum, Florence) Religious issues[edit] Beliefs[edit] Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of a philosophical divinity. The chief surviving sources are his works To King Helios and To the Mother of the Gods, which were written as panegyrics, not theological treatises.[15] As the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian's beliefs are of great interest for historians, but they are not in complete agreement. He learned theurgy from Maximus of Ephesus, a student of Iamblichus;[98] his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of Plotinus; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with Mithraism, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of paganism under High Priests, and his fundamental monotheism) may show Christian influence. Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties.[99] According to one theory (that of Glen Bowersock in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as theurgy and also Neoplatonism. Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a "cultured" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day. Because of his Neoplatonist background Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in Plato's Timaeus. Julian writes, "when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men."[100] Further he writes, "they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once..."[101] His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve. Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, "how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians."[102][103] The Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be Alexander the Great "in another body" via transmigration of souls, "in accordance with the teachings of Pythagoras and Plato".[104] The diet of Julian is said to have been predominantly vegetable-based.[105] Restoration of state paganism[edit] See also: Henosis and Henotheism Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians, by Edward Armitage, 1875 After gaining the purple, Julian started a religious reformation of the empire, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman state. He supported the restoration of Hellenistic polytheism as the state religion. His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of "the governing classes of the empire—much as Chinese Buddhism was driven back into the lower classes by a revived Confucian mandarinate in 13th century China."[106] He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as private courts. He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians. For example, he reversed Constantine's declaration that Majuma, the port of Gaza, was a separate city. Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan. On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion. This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman state did not impose any religion on its provinces. The edict was seen as an act of favor toward the Jews, in order to upset the Christians. Coptic icon showing Saint Mercurius killing Julian. According to a tradition, Saint Basil (an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign. Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death. Since the persecution of Christians by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions were designed to harass Christians and undermine their ability to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire.[107] Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical view of Iamblichus' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the practice of the Christian view of theurgy and demand the suppression of the Christian set of Mysteries.[108] In his School Edict Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries. Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the Iliad, which was widely regarded as divinely inspired)[citation needed] that formed the core of classical education: "If they want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them", the edict says.[106] This was an attempt to remove some of the influence of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism.[citation needed] The edict also dealt a severe financial blow to many Christian scholars, tutors and teachers, as it deprived them of students. In his Tolerance Edict of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of dissident Christian bishops. The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between different Christian sects, since conflict between rival Christian sects was quite fierce.[109] His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Christians was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor—the final provider for all the needs of his people. Within this project, there was no place for a parallel institution, such as the Christian hierarchy or Christian charity.[110] Paganism's shift under Julian[edit] Julian's popularity among the people and the army during his brief reign suggest that he might have brought paganism back to the fore of Roman public and private life.[111] In fact, during his lifetime, neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigned supreme, and the greatest thinkers of the day argued about the merits and rationality of each religion.[112] Most importantly for the pagan cause, though, Rome was still a predominantly pagan empire that had not wholly accepted Christianity.[113] Even so, Julian's short reign did not stem the tide of Christianity. The emperor's ultimate failure can arguably be attributed to the manifold religious traditions and deities that paganism promulgated. Most pagans sought religious affiliations that were unique to their culture and people, and they had internal divisions that prevented them from creating any one ‘pagan religion.’ Indeed, the term pagan was simply a convenient appellation for Christians to lump together the believers of a system they opposed.[114] In truth, there was no Roman religion, as modern observers would recognize it.[115] Instead, paganism came from a system of observances that one historian has characterized as “no more than a spongy mass of tolerance and tradition.”[115] This system of tradition had already shifted dramatically by the time Julian came to power; gone were the days of massive sacrifices honoring the gods. The communal festivals that involved sacrifice and feasting, which once united communities, now tore them apart—Christian against pagan.[116] Civic leaders did not even have the funds, much less the support, to hold religious festivals. Julian found the financial base that had supported these ventures (sacred temple funds) had been seized by his uncle Constantine to support the Christian Church.[117] In all, Julian's short reign simply could not shift the feeling of inertia that had swept across the Empire. Christians had denounced sacrifice, stripped temples of their funds, and cut priests and magistrates off from the social prestige and financial benefits accompanying leading pagan positions in the past. Leading politicians and civic leaders had little motivation to rock the boat by reviving pagan festivals. Instead, they chose to adopt the middle ground by having ceremonies and mass entertainment that were religiously neutral.[118] After witnessing the reign of two emperors bent on supporting the Church and stamping out paganism, it is understandable that pagans simply did not embrace Julian's idea of proclaiming their devotion to polytheism and their rejection of Christianity. Many chose to adopt a practical approach and not support Julian's public reforms actively for fear of a Christian revival. However, this apathetic attitude forced the emperor to shift central aspects of pagan worship. Julian's attempts to reinvigorate the people shifted the focus of paganism from a system of tradition to a religion with some of the same characteristics that he opposed in Christianity.[119] For example, Julian attempted to introduce a tighter organization for the priesthood, with greater qualifications of character and service. Classical paganism simply did not accept this idea of priests as model citizens. Priests were elites with social prestige and financial power who organized festivals and helped pay for them.[117] Yet Julian's attempt to impose moral strictness on the civic position of priesthood only made paganism more in tune with Christian morality, drawing it further from paganism's system of tradition. Indeed, this development of a pagan order created the foundations of a bridge of reconciliation over which paganism and Christianity could meet.[120] Likewise, Julian's persecution of Christians, who by pagan standards were simply part of a different cult, was quite an un-pagan attitude that transformed paganism into a religion that accepted only one form of religious experience while excluding all others—such as Christianity.[121] In trying to compete with Christianity in this manner, Julian fundamentally changed the nature of pagan worship. That is, he made paganism a religion, whereas it once had been only a system of tradition. Juventinus and Maximus[edit] Despite this inadvertent reconciliation of paganism to Christianity, however, many of the Church fathers viewed the emperor with hostility, and told stories of his supposed wickedness after his death. A sermon by Saint John Chrysostom, entitled On Saints Juventinus and Maximinus, tells the story of two of Julian's soldiers at Antioch, who were overheard at a drinking party, criticizing the emperor's religious policies, and taken into custody. According to John, the emperor had made a deliberate effort to avoid creating martyrs of those who disagreed with his reforms; but Juventinus and Maximinus admitted to being Christians, and refused to moderate their stance. John asserts that the emperor forbade anyone from having contact with the men, but that nobody obeyed his orders; so he had the two men executed in the middle of the night. John urges his audience to visit the tomb of these martyrs.[122] Charity[edit] The fact that Christian charities were open to all, including pagans, put this aspect of Roman citizens' lives out of the control of Imperial authority and under that of the Church. Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity, saying: "These impious Galileans not only feed their own poor, but ours also; welcoming them into their agapae, they attract them, as children are attracted, with cakes."[123] Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple[edit] In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to oppose Christianity, he allowed Jews to rebuild their Temple.[124][125][126] The point was that the rebuilding of the Temple would invalidate Jesus’ prophecy about its destruction in 70, which Christians had cited as proof of Jesus' truth.[124] But fires broke out and stopped the project.[127] A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort: Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has been ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363. Although there is contemporary testimony for the miracle, in the Orations of St. Gregory Nazianzen, this may be taken to be unreliable.[128] Other possibilities are accidental fire or deliberate sabotage. Divine intervention was for centuries a common view among Christian historians,[129] and it was seen as proof of Jesus’ divinity.[124] Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene".[130] Works[edit] Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us. Budé Date Work Comment Wright I 356/7[131] Panegyric In Honour Of Constantius Written to reassure Constantius that he was on his side. I II ~June 357[131] Panegyric In Honour Of Eusebia Expresses gratitude for Eusebia's support. III III 357/8[132] The Heroic Deeds Of Constantius Indicates his support of Constantius, while being critical. (Sometimes called "second panegyric to Constantius".) II IV 359[36] Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius[133] Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul. VIII V 361[134] Letter To The Senate And People of Athens An attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion. – VI early 362[135] Letter To Themistius The Philosopher Response to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining J.'s political reading – VII March 362[136] To The Cynic Heracleios Attempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities. VII VIII ~March 362[137] Hymn To The Mother Of The Gods A defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition. V IX ~May 362[138] To the Uneducated Cynics Another attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism. VI X December 362[139] The Caesars[140] Satire describing a competition among Roman emperors as to who was the best. Strongly critical of Constantine. – XI December 362[141] Hymn To King Helios Attempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian. IV XII early 363[142] Misopogon, Or, Beard-Hater Written as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings. – – 362/3[143] Against the Galilaeans Polemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments. – – 362[v] Fragment Of A Letter To A Priest Attempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity. – – 359–363 Letters Both personal and public letters from much of his career. – – ? Epigrams Small number of short verse works. – Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's Opera.[vi] Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W.C.Wright's edition of Julian's works. Ioulianou autokratoros ta sozomena (1696) The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the panegyrics to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style. The Misopogon (or "Beard Hater") is a light-hearted account of his clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an Emperor. The Caesars is a humorous tale of a contest among some of the most notable Roman Emperors: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine, and also Alexander the Great. This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions. One of the most important of his lost works is his Against the Galileans, intended to refute the Christian religion. The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by Cyril of Alexandria, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, Contra Julianum. These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments. Problems regarding authenticity[edit] Julian's works have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but many are translated in the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1913, edited by Wilmer Cave Wright. Wright mentions, however, that there are many problems surrounding Julian's vast collection of works, mainly the letters ascribed to Julian.[144] The collections of letters we have today are the result of many smaller collections which contained varying numbers of Julian's works in various combinations. For example, in Laurentianus 58.16 the largest collection of letters ascribed to Julian was found, containing 43 manuscripts. it is unclear what the origins of many letters in these collections are. Joseph Bidez & François Cumont compiled all of these different collections together in 1922 and got a total of 284 items. 157 of these were considered genuine and 127 were regarded spurious. This contrasts starkly with Wright's earlier mentioned collection which contains only 73 items which are considered genuine and 10 apocryphal letter. Michael Trapp notes however that when comparing Bidez & Cumont's work with Wright, they regard as many as sixteen of Wright's genuine letters as spurious.[145] Which works can be ascribed to Julian is thus very much up to debate. The problems surrounding Julian's collection of works are exacerbated by the fact that Julian was a very motivated writer, which means it is possible that many more letters could have circulated, despite his short reign. Julian himself attests to the large amount of letters he had to write in one of the letters which is likely to be genuine.[146] Julian's religious agenda gave him even more work than the average emperor as he sought to instruct his newly-styled pagan priests and he had to deal with discontent Christian leaders and communities. An example of him instructing his pagan priests is visible in a fragment in the Vossianus MS., inserted in the Letter to Themistius.[147] Additionally, Julian's hostility towards the Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions by Christian authors as can be seen in Gregory of Nazianzus' invectives against Julian.[148][149] Christians no doubt suppressed some of Julian's works as well.[150] This Christian influence is still visible in Wright's much smaller collection of Julian's letters. She comments on how some letters are suddenly cut off when the contents become hostile towards Christians, believing them to be the result of Christian censoring. Notable examples of this are in the Fragment of a letter to a Priest and the letter to High-Priest Theodorus.[151][152] In popular culture[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Julian" emperor – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Literature[edit] In 1681 Lord Russell, an outspoken opponent of King Charles II of England and his brother The Duke of York, got his chaplain to write a Life of Julian the Apostate. This work made use of the Roman Emperor's life in order to address contemporary English political and theological debates – specifically, to reply to the conservative arguments of Dr Hickes's sermons, and defend the lawfulness of resistance in extreme cases. In 1847, the controversial German theologian David Friedrich Strauss published in Mannheim the pamphlet Der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Cäsaren ("A Romantic on the Throne of the Caesars"), in which Julian was satirised as "an unworldly dreamer, a man who turned nostalgia for the ancients into a way of life and whose eyes were closed to the pressing needs of the present". In fact, this was a veiled criticism of the contemporary King Frederick William IV of Prussia, known for his romantic dreams of restoring the supposed glories of feudal Medieval society.[153] Julian's life inspired the play Emperor and Galilean by Henrik Ibsen. The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read an English translation of Julian's work in 1891[154] Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel The Death of the Gods (Julian the Apostate) (1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled "Christ and Antichrist" (1895–1904) by the Russian Symbolist poet, novelist and literary theoretician Dmitrii S. Merezhkovskii. The opera Der Apostat (1924) by the composer and conductor Felix Weingartner is about Julian. In 1945 Nikos Kazantzakis authored the tragedy Julian the Apostate in which the emperor is depicted as an existentialist hero committed to a struggle which he knows will be in vain. It was first staged in Paris in 1948. Julian was the subject of a novel, Julian (1964), by Gore Vidal, describing his life and times. It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity. Julian appeared in Gods and Legions, by Michael Curtis Ford (2002). Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint Caesarius, and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature. Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of Michel Butor's novel La Modification. The fantasy alternate history The Dragon Waiting by John M. Ford, while set in the time of the Wars of the Roses, uses the reign of Julian as its point of divergence. His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the Renaissance. Characters in the novel refer to him as "Julian the Wise". The dystopian speculative fiction novel by Robert Charles Wilson, Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America, parallels the life of Julian with the titular character as the hereditary president of an oligarchic future United States of America who tries to restore science and combat the fundamentalist Christianity that has taken over the country. Film[edit] An Italian movie treatment of his life, Giuliano l'Apostata, appeared in 1919. Street named[edit] 'Julian Way' is a main thoroughfare in Jerusalem named for the Emperor. It was given that name during the British Mandate period, and then changed to King David Street with the creation of the State of Israel.[155][156] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Against the Galilaeans Peroz-Shapur, the ancient town of Perisabora destroyed by Julian in 363 Diodorus of Tarsus Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361 List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Rarely Julian II. The designation "Julian I" is then applied either to the emperor Didius Julianus (r.  193),[1] or to the usurper Sabinus Julianus (r.  283–285).[2] Even more rarely called Julian III, with Didius Julianus as "Julian I" and Sabinus Julianus as "Julian II".[3] ^ Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, Res Gestae, 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate – see David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Note that Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae, 25.3.6 & 23) is of the view that Julian died the night of the same day that he was wounded. ^ First recorded by Theodoret[92] in the 5th century. ^ Not dealt with in Athanassiadi, or dated by Bowersock, but reflects a time when Julian was emperor, and he had other issues to deal with later. ^ Julian's Opera, edited by J.Bidez, G.Rochefort, and C.Lacombrade, with French translations of all the principal works except Against the Galilaeans, which is only preserved in citations in a polemic work by Cyril. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ David Sear, Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume 5 (London: Spink, 2014), p. 267. ^ D. Margetić, "Antoniani of Julian of Pannonia", Num. vijesti, broj 63., 2010 ^ Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, "Evil Emperors", 2019 ^ Grant, Michael (1980). Greek and Latin authors, 800 B.C.–A.D. 1000, Part 1000. H. W. Wilson Co. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8242-0640-6. JULIAN THE APOSTATE (Flavins Claudius Julianus), Roman emperor and Greek writer, was born at Constantinople in ad 332 and died in 363. ^ Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 23". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ^ A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. 20 January 2020. ISBN 978-90-04-41631-4. ^ a b c "Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 August 2018. ^ Phang et al. 2016, p. 998. ^ "Ancient Rome: The reign of Julian". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 August 2018. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 289. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Glanville Downey, "Julian the Apostate at Antioch", Church History, Vol. 8, No. 4 (December 1939), pp. 303–315. See p. 305. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 88. ^ Potter, David (2009). Rome in the Ancient World - From Romulus to Justinian. Thames & Hudson. p. 288. ISBN 978-0500251522. ^ Tougher, 12, citing Bouffartigue: L'Empereur Julien et la culture de son temps p. 30 for the argument for 331; A.H. Jones, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I", p. 447 (Iulianus 29) argues for May or June 332. Bowersock, p. 22, wrote that the month attribution originated in an error and considers that the weight of evidence points to 331, against 332. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Julian" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 548. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1989). Byzantium: the early centuries. Knopf. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-394-53778-8. Julius Constantius...Constantine had invited him, with his second wife and his young family, to take up residence in his new capital; and it was in Constantinople that his third son Julian was born, in May or June of the year 332. The baby's mother, Basilina, a Greek from Asia Minor, died a few weeks later... ^ Bradbury, Jim (2004). The Routledge companion to medieval warfare. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-22126-9. JULIAN THE APOSTATE, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS, ROMAN EMPEROR (332–63) Emperor from 361, son of Julius Constantius and a Greek mother Basilina, grandson of Constantius Chlorus, the only pagan Byzantine Emperor. ^ Jones, Martindale, and Morris (1971) Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, pp. 148, 478–479. Cambridge. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 44–45. ^ Boardman, p. 44, citing Julian to the Alexandrians, Wright's letter 47, of November or December 362. Ezekiel Spanheim 434D. Twelve would be literal, but Julian is counting inclusively. ^ Julian. "Letter 47: To the Alexandrians", translated by Emily Wilmer Cave Wright, v. 3, p. 149. The full text of Letters of Julian/Letter 47 at Wikisource ^ "Maximus Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists (English translation)". www.tertullian.org. 1921. pp. 343–565. Retrieved 19 March 2019. ^ R. Browning, The Emperor Julian (London, 1975), pp. 74–75. However, Shaun Tougher, "The Advocacy of an Empress: Julian and Eusebia" (The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1998), pp. 595–599), argues that the kind Eusebia of Julian's panegyric is a literary creation and that she was doing the bidding of her husband in bringing Julian around to doing what Constantius had asked of him. See especially p. 597. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 499. ^ Most sources give the town as Sens, which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, OUP Oxford 2007, p. 220. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, p. 49. ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 501. ^ David S. Potter, p. 501. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp. 50–51. ^ D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58–66", Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August 1997), p. 479. ^ David S. Potter, pp. 501–502. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p. 51. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.64–65 ^ John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213–496, pp. 240–241. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 69. ^ grammation: cf. Zosimus, Historia Nova, 3.9, commented by Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 45 ^ Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 20.4.1–2 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae, 20.10.1–2 ^ Cambridge Ancient History, v. 13, pp. 56–57. ^ David S. Potter, p. 506. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 58. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 59. ^ In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 27. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 89 ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 60. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 89. ^ Webb, Matilda. The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide, pp. 249–252, 2001, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1-902210-58-1, 978-1-902210-58-2, google books ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, pp. 63–64. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 61. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 65. ^ Bowersock, p. 95. ^ Cambridge Ancient History v. 13, p. 69. ^ a b Bowersock, p. 96. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.195 & 16.21 ^ Libanius, Orations, 1.126 & 15.20 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.1 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.3 ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, pp. 515–516 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.7.1, 25.4.17 (Commented by Veyne, L"Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 77) ^ See Letter 622 by Libanius: "That Alexander was appointed to the government at first, I confess, gave me some concern, as the principal persons among us were dissatisfied. I thought it dishonourable, injurious, and unbecoming a prince; and that repeated fines would rather weaken than improve the city...." and the translator's note upon it: "This is the Alexander of whom Ammianus says (23.2), "When Julian was going to leave Antioch, he made one Alexander of Heliopolis, governor of Syria, a turbulent and severe man, saying that 'undeserving as he was, such a ruler suited the avaricious and contumellious Antiochians'." As the letter makes clear, Julian handed the city over to be looted by a man he himself regarded as unworthy, and the Christian inhabitants, who had dared to oppose his attempt to restore paganism, to be forced to attend and applaud pagan ceremonies at sword-point; and be 'urged' to cheer more loudly." ^ Libanius, Oration 12, 76–77 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.1–2 ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 3, chapter 12. Zosimus' text is ambiguous and refers to a smaller force of 18,000 under Procopius and a larger force of 65,000 under Julian himself; it's unclear if the second figure includes the first. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425, p. 210, using the higher estimate of 83,000. ^ Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 108. ^ The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chapter XXIV., p. 807 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.2.1–2 ^ Ridley, Notes, p. 318. ^ a b c Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p. 110. ^ a b David S, Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 517. ^ Libanius, Epistulae, 1402.2 ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 203. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.3.10–11. ^ Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 204. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, p. 75. ^ Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome fell. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 , p. 232 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.7.1. ^ David S. Potter, Rome in the ancient world, pp. 287–290. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.8.1–5. ^ a b Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p. 205. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 25.3.3 ^ Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619. See p. 618. ^ Grant, Michael. The Roman Emperors. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997), p. 254. ^ Libanius, Orations, 18.274 ^ John Malalas, Chronographia, pp. 333–334. Patrologia Graeca XCII, col. 496. ^ evidence preserved by Philostorgius, see David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, p. 518. ^ Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, 6.2 ^ Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.25 ^ Kathleen McVey (Editor), The Fathers of the Church: Selected Prose Works (1994) p. 31 ^ Libanius, Oration 18, 306; Ammianus Marcellinus 23, 2.5 and 25, 5.1. References from G. Downey,The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) p. 46 ^ Downey gives the text: '...later the body was transferred to the imperial city' (xiii 13, 25) ^ Glanville Downey, The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) 27–51. On p. 34 he states that the Book of Ceremonies of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus gives a list of tombs, ending with: "43. In this stoa, which is to the north, lies a cylindrically-shaped sarcophagus, in which lies the cursed and wretched body of the apostate Julian, porphyry or Roman in colour. 44 Another sarcophagus, porphyry, or Roman, in which lies the body of Jovian, who ruled after Julian." ^ Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. ^ The emperor's study of Iamblichus and of theurgy are a source of criticism from his primary chronicler, Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.13.6–8 and 25.2.5 ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 27ff, 58f. ISBN 9780748618873. ^ Julian, "Letter to a Priest", 292. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 2, p. 307. ^ As above. Wright, v. 2, p. 305. ^ Julian, "Against the Galilaeans", 143. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 357. ^ Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America, 1963 (Southern Methodist University Press) /1997 (Oxford University Press, US), p. 8. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, iii, 21. ^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 22. ^ a b Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, p. 93. ^ Julian, Epistulae, 52.436A ff. ^ Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman (1992). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. p. 22. ISBN 9780791413371. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.5.4. ^ See Roberts and DiMaio. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 3. ^ Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 4. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995), 331. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995). ^ a b Jonathan Kirsch, God against the Gods (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), 9. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 333. ^ a b Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 352. ^ Scott Bradbury, "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice," Phoenix 49 (1995): 354. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 178. ^ Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 171. ^ James O’Donnell, “The Demise of Paganism,” Traditio 35 (1979): 53, accessed 23 September 2014, JSTOR 27831060 ^ St. John Chrysostom, The Cult of the Saints (select homilies and letters), Wendy Mayer & Bronwen Neil, eds., St. Vladimir's Seminary Press (2006). ^ Quoted in : Schmidt, Charles (1889). The Social Results of Early Christianity (2 ed.). Wm. Isbister. p. 328. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ a b c Jacob Neusner (15 September 2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3. ^ Kavon, Eli (4 December 2017). "Julian and the dream of a Third Temple". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 February 2018. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 8; Volume 12. Little, Brown & Company. 1856. p. 744. In A.D. 363, the Emperor Julian undertook to rebuild the temple, but after considerable preparations and much expense he was compelled to desist by flames which burst forth from the foundations. Repeated attempts have been made to account for these igneous explosions by natural causes; for instance, by the ignition of gases which had long been pent up in the subterraneous vaults. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library), chapter XXIII., pp. 780–82, note 84 ^ See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" Archived 20 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine ^ Falk, Avner, A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews (1996), Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, London, ISBN 0-8386-3660-8. ^ a b Athanassiadi, p. 61. ^ Athanassiadi, pp. 62–63. ^ The manuscript tradition uses the name "Sallustius", but see Bowersock, p. 45 (footnote #12), and Athanassiadi, p. 20. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 85. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 90. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 131. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 141, "at the same time" as To The Cynic Heracleios. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 137. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 197, written for the Saturnalia festival, which began 21 December. ^ "Julian: Caesars – translation". www.attalus.org. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 148, doesn't supply a clear date. Bowersock, p. 103, dates it to the celebration of Sol Invictus, 25 December, shortly after the Caesars was written. ^ Athanassiadi, p. 201, dates it "towards the end of his stay in Antioch". ^ Athanassiadi, p. 161. – Wikisource:Against the Galileans ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. xxvii–xxviii. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Trapp, Michael (2012). Baker-Brian & Tougher, Nicholas & Shaun (ed.). The Emperor's Shadow: Julian in his Correspondence. Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. p. 105. ISBN 978-1905125500. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 208-209. ISBN 978-0674991736. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Volume II. Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius. To The Senate and People of Athens. To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Loeb Classical Library (Book 29). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 4: First Invective Against Julian". ^ Pearse, Roger (2003). "Oration 5: Second Invective Against Julian". ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 453–454. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1913). Julian, Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius, To the Senate and People of Athens, To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 338–339. ISBN 978-0674990326. ^ Wright, Wilmer (1923). Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9781258198077. ^ Christopher Clark, "Iron Kingdom", p. 446 ^ Coustillas, Pierre ed. London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England: the Diary of George Gissing, Novelist. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978, p. 237. ^ Eylon, Lily (1999). "Focus on Israel: Jerusalem-Architecture in the British Mandate Period". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 19 March 2019. ^ "THE GRAND HOTEL OF JERUSALEM". Eretz Magazine. 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2019. Ancient sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25). See J.C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes. Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Full text at Internet Archive at The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Gutenberg etext# 28587. Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works., Translated by C.W. King. George Bell and Sons, London, 1888. At the Internet Archive Claudius Mamertinus, "Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori", Panegyrici Latini, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year Gregory Nazianzen, Orations, "First Invective Against Julian", "Second Invective Against Julian". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888. Libanius, Monody – Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Modern sources[edit] Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1992) [1981]. Julian: An Intellectual Biography. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07763-X. Baker-Brian, Nicholas; Tougher, Shaun. (2012). Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate. The Classical Press of Wales. Swansea. ISBN 978-1-905125-50-0. http://www.classicalpressofwales.co.uk/emperor_author.htm Bowersock, G.W. (1978). Julian the Apostate. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1262-X. Browning, Robert (1975). The Emperor Julian. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77029-2. Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363, Routledge, London, 1991. ISBN 0-203-42534-0 Drinkwater, John F., The Alamanni and Rome 213–496 (Caracalla to Clovis), OUP Oxford 2007. ISBN 0-19-929568-9 Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619 Murdoch, Adrian. The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World, Stroud, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-4048-4 Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter, eds. (2016). Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330 Roberts, Walter E. & DiMaio, Michael (2002), "Julian the Apostate (360–363 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Smith, Rowland. Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate, London, 1995. ISBN 0-415-03487-6 Veyne, Paul. L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Seuil, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich & Stefan Rebenich, eds. (2020). A Companion to Julian the Apostate. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-41456-3. Further reading[edit] García Ruiz, María Pilar, "Julian's Self-Representation in Coins and Texts." In Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire, Ed. D.W.P. Burgersdijk and A.J. Ross. Leiden. Brill. 2018. 204-233. ISBN 978-90-04-37089-0. Gardner, Alice, Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity, G.P. Putnam's Son, London, 1895. ISBN 0-404-58262-1 / ISBN 978-0-404-58262-3. Downloadable at Julian, philosopher and emperor. Hunt, David. "Julian". In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-521-30200-5 Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "JULIAN". JULIAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Facs. 3. pp. 242–247. Lenski, Noel Emmanuel Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD University of California Press: London, 2003 Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, From Constantine to Julian: A Source History Routledge: New York, 1996. ISBN 0-203-42205-8 Neander, August, The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture, translated by G.V. Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859. ISBN 0-217-34765-7 / ISBN 9780217347655. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian and his generation. Rendall, Gerald Henry, The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices, George Bell and Sons, London, 1879. ISBN 1-152-51929-8 / ISBN 9781152519299. Downloadable at The Emperor Julian. Rohrbacher, David. Historians of Late Antiquity. Routledge: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-20459-3 Rosen, Klaus. Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Julian Wikiquote has quotations related to: Julian (emperor) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Claudius Julianus. Works by Julian at Project Gutenberg Laws of Julian. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar. Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity. A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum. Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J. Bravo. Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods", Review by Thomas Banchich. Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan at the California Literary Review. The Julian Society. A society of pagans who admire Julian. The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity, by Gerald Henry Rendall Julian the Apostate why he was important, and his place in world history, by Andrew Selkirk Letters in Epistolographi graeci, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp. 337–391. Entry in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah12217 Works by Julian at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Julian (emperor) Constantinian dynasty Born: 331 Died: 26 June 363 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius II Roman emperor 361–363 Succeeded by Jovian Political offices Preceded by Arbitio Lollianus Mavortius Consul of the Roman Empire 356–357 with Constantius II Succeeded by Neratius Cerealis Censorius Datianus Preceded by Flavius Eusebius Flavius Hypatius Consul of the Roman Empire 360 with Constantius II Succeeded by Taurus Florentius Preceded by Claudius Mamertinus Nevitta Consul of the Roman Empire 363 with Flavius Sallustius Succeeded by Jovian Varronianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Platonists Academics Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptics Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonists Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Alexander Peloplaton Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonists Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Gaius Marius Victorinus Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus David the Invincible Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic 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en-wikipedia-org-4692	----	Xi'an - Wikipedia Xi'an From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Dowager Empress of China, see Empress Dowager Ci'an. "Xian" redirects here. For other uses, see Xian (disambiguation). Sub-provincial & prefecture-level city in Shaanxi, China Xi'an 西安市 Sian, Hsi-an Sub-provincial & prefecture-level city From top: Xian Terracotta Warriors Museum, Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, Drum Tower of Xi'an, Bell Tower of Xi'an, City wall of Xi'an, Tang Paradise at night Location of Xi'an City jurisdiction in Shaanxi Xi'an Location in China Coordinates (Shaanxi provincial government): 34°15′54″N 108°57′14″E / 34.265°N 108.954°E / 34.265; 108.954Coordinates: 34°15′54″N 108°57′14″E / 34.265°N 108.954°E / 34.265; 108.954 Country China Province Shaanxi Municipal seat Weiyang District Government  • Type Sub-provincial city  • Body Xi'an Municipal People's Congress  • CCP Secretary Wang Hao  • Congress Chairman Hu Runze  • Mayor Li Mingyuan  • CPPCC Chairman Yue Huafeng Area  • Sub-provincial & prefecture-level city 9,983 km2 (3,854 sq mi)  • Urban (2018)[1] 1,088 km2 (420 sq mi)  • Metro 3,866.25 km2 (1,492.77 sq mi) Elevation 405 m (1,329 ft) Population (2010)  • Sub-provincial & prefecture-level city 8,467,838  • Density 850/km2 (2,200/sq mi)  • Urban (2018)[1] 7,135,000 (10th)  • Metro[2] 12,900,000  • Metro density 3,300/km2 (8,600/sq mi) Time zone UTC+8 (CST) Postal code 710000–710090 Area code(s) 29 ISO 3166 code CN-SN-01 GDP (2020) – Total CNY1002 billion (US$154.2 billion) – Per capita CNY98205 (US$15,108) License plate prefixes 陕A,陕U City Flower Pomegranate flower City Tree Pagoda tree Website XA.gov.cn Xī'ān "Xi'an" in Chinese characters Chinese name Chinese 西安 Postal Sianfu Literal meaning "Western Peace" Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Xī'ān Bopomofo ㄒㄧ   ㄢ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Shi'an Wade–Giles Hsi1-an1 Yale Romanization Syīān IPA [ɕí.án] (listen) Wu Romanization Si平oe平 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Sāi-ōn Jyutping Sai1-on1 IPA [sɐ́i.ɔ́ːn] Southern Min Tâi-lô Se-an Cháng'ān Simplified Chinese 长安 Traditional Chinese 長安 Literal meaning "Perpetual Peace" Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Cháng'ān Bopomofo ㄔㄤˊ   ㄢ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Charng'an Wade–Giles Chʻang2-an1 IPA [ʈʂʰǎŋ.án] (listen) Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chèuhng-ōn Jyutping Coeng4-on1 Southern Min Tâi-lô Tn̂g-an Middle Chinese Middle Chinese ɖjang-an Xi'an dialect (Zhongyuan Mandarin) name Xi'an dialect (Zhongyuan Mandarin) 西安: [ɕi²¹.ŋã²¹] 長安: [ʈ͡ʂʰaŋ²⁴.ŋã²¹] Xi'an (UK: /ʃiːˈæn/ shee-AN, US: /ʃiːˈɑːn/ shee-AHN;[3][4][5][6] Chinese: [ɕí.án] (listen)), also known as Sian, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain in Northwest China,[7] it is one of the oldest cities in China, the oldest prefecture capital and one of the Chinese Four Great Ancient Capitals, having held the position under several of the most important dynasties in Chinese history,[8] including Western Zhou, Qin, Western Han, Sui, Northern Zhou and Tang.[8] Xian is the starting point of the Silk Road and home to the Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang.[9] Since the 1980s, as part of the economic growth of inland China especially for the central and northwest regions, the city of Xian has re-emerged as a cultural, industrial, political and educational centre of the entire central-northwest region, with many facilities for research and development, national security and space exploration. Xian currently holds sub-provincial status, administering 11 districts and 2 counties.[10] As of 2007[update] Xi'an has a population of 4,000,500. It is the most populous city in Northwest China, as well as the third most populous city in Western China, the other two being Chongqing and Chengdu.[11] In 2019, it was named as one of the 7 main emerging megacities, or megalopolises, in China and designated as a metropolis that also consists of areas surrounding the city itself[citation needed]. Xi'an is also one of the top 40 science cities in the world by scientific research output as tracked by the Nature Index,[12] and home to multiple China's prestige universities,[13] including Xi'an Jiaotong University, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Chang'an University, Xidian University, Shaanxi Normal University and Northwest University. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Ancient era 2.3 Imperial era 2.4 Modern era 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 National Time Service Centre 4 Demographics 5 Administrative divisions 6 Transportation 6.1 Metro 6.2 Taxi 6.3 Rail 6.4 Expressways 6.5 Air 7 Culture 7.1 Arts district 7.2 Resident artists 7.3 Xi'an cuisine 7.4 Opera 7.5 Dance and Music Show 7.6 Cinema 8 Religion 8.1 Chinese traditional religion and Taoism 8.2 Buddhism 8.3 Christianity 8.4 Islam 9 Economy 9.1 Industrial zones 9.2 Software and outsourcing industries 9.3 Aerospace industry 9.4 Notable businesspeople 10 Education 10.1 Public 10.2 Military 10.3 Private 11 International events 11.1 World Horticultural Expo 2011 12 Tourism 12.1 Sites 12.2 Museums 12.3 National parks 12.4 Food 13 Sports 14 Media 14.1 Television and radio 14.2 Printed media 14.3 Online media 15 International relations 16 See also 17 References 17.1 Citations 17.2 Bibliography 18 External links Name[edit] "Xi'an" is the atonal pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of its name 西安, which means "Western Peace" in Chinese. (The apostrophe – known in Chinese as a 隔音符號, géyīn fúhào – should be included to distinguish its pronunciation from the single syllable xian.) The name was adopted in 1369 under the early Ming dynasty. Jesuit missionaries recorded its name as "Si-ngan" or "Si-ngan-fou"[14] from its status as the seat of a prefecture (府, fǔ). This form still appears in the Latin name of the Catholic diocese of Xi'an, archidioecesis Singanensis. The name was later romanized as "Hsi-an" by Wade & Giles and as "Sianfu"[15] or "Sian"[9] by the Qing imperial post office, both of which were common until the general adoption of pinyin. The area of present-day Xi'an has been the site of several important former Chinese cities. The capital of the Western Zhou were the twin cities of Feng and Hao, known collectively as Fenghao, located on opposite banks of the Feng River at its confluence with the southern bank of the Wei in the western suburbs of present-day Xi'an.[16] The Qin capital Xianyang was erected north of the Wei during the Warring States period and was succeeded by the Western Han capital of Chang'an (長安), meaning "Perpetual Peace", which was located south of the Wei and covered the central area of present-day Xi'an. During the Eastern Han, Chang'an was also known as Xijing (西京) or the "Western Capital", relative to its position to the main capital at Luoyang. Under the Sui, its name became Daxing (大興, "Greatly Prosperous") in AD 581. Under the Tang, the name reverted to Chang'an in 618.[9] Under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (13th & 14th centuries), it held a succession of names: Fengyuan (奉元), Anxi (安西, "Peaceful West") and Jingzhao (京兆). The Ming name "Xi'an" was changed back to Xijing ("Western Capital", as above) between 1930 and 1943. History[edit] Main articles: History of Xi'an and Chang'an Prehistory[edit] Xi'an has a rich and culturally significant history. The Lantian Man was discovered in 1963 in Lantian County, 50 km (31 mi) southeast of Xi'an, and dates back to at least 500,000 years before the present time. A 6,500-year-old Neolithic village, Banpo, was discovered in 1953 on the eastern outskirts of the city proper, which contains the remains of several well organized Neolithic settlements carbon dated to 5600–6700 years ago.[17][18][19][20] The site is now home to the Xi'an Banpo Museum, built in 1957 to preserve the archaeological collection.[21] Ancient era[edit] Remains of carriages and horses in Fenghao during the Western Zhou (11th–8th cent. BC) Xi'an became a cultural and political centre of China in the 11th century BC with the founding of the Zhou dynasty. The capital of Zhou was established in the twin settlements of Fengjing (丰京) and Haojing, together known as Fenghao, located southwest of contemporary Xi'an. The settlement was also known as Zōngzhōu (宗周) to indicate its role as the capital of the vassal states.[22] In 738 BC, King Ping of Zhou moved the capital to Luoyang due to political unrest.[23][24] Imperial era[edit] A map of the city walls of settlements in Xi'an from the Zhou to Qing dynasties Terracotta Army inside the Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum, 3rd century BC. Map of Chang'an under the Tang (7th–10th cent.) Following the Warring States period, China was unified under the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) for the first time, with the capital located at Xianyang, just northwest of modern Xi'an.[25] The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Terracotta Army and his mausoleum just to the east of Xi'an almost immediately after his ascension to the throne.[26] In 202 BC, the founding emperor Liu Bang of the Han dynasty established his capital in Chang'an County; his first palace, Changle Palace (長樂宮, "Perpetual Happiness") was built across the river from the ruin of the Qin capital. This is traditionally regarded as the founding date of Chang'an. Two years later, Liu Bang built Weiyang Palace (未央宮, "Never Ending Palace") north of modern Xi'an. Weiyang Palace was the largest palace ever built on Earth, covering 4.8 square kilometres (1,200 acres), which is 6.7 times the size of the current Forbidden City and 11 times the size of the Vatican City.[27] The original Xi'an city wall was started in 194 BC and took 4 years to finish. Upon completion, the wall measured 25.7 km (15.97 mi) in length and 12 to 16 m (39.37–52.49 ft) in thickness at the base, enclosing an area of 36 km2 (13.90 sq mi). In the year 190, amidst uprisings and rebellions just prior to the Three Kingdoms Period, a powerful warlord named Dong Zhuo moved the court from Luoyang to Chang'an in a bid to avoid a coalition of other powerful warlords against him. Following several hundred years of unrest, the Sui dynasty united China again in 582. The emperor of Sui ordered a new capital to be built southeast of the Han capital, called Daxing. It consisted of three sections: the Imperial City, the palace section, and the civilian section, with a total area of 84 km2 (32 sq mi) within the city walls. At the time, it was the largest city in the world. The city was renamed Chang'an by the Tang dynasty.[28] In the mid-7th century, after returning from his pilgrimage to India, the Buddhist monk Xuanzang established a translation centre for Sanskrit scriptures. Construction of the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda began in 652. This pagoda was 64 m (209.97 ft) in height, and was built to store the translations of Buddhist sutras obtained from India by Xuanzang. In 707, construction of the Small Wild Goose Pagoda began. This pagoda measured 45 m (147.64 ft) tall at the time of completion, and was built to store the translations of Buddhist sutras by Yijing. The massive 1556 Shaanxi earthquake eventually damaged the tower and reduced its height to 43.4 m (142.39 ft).[29] The Nestorian Stele is a Tang Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of early Christianity in China.[30] It is a 279 cm tall limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. It reveals that the initial Nestorian Christian church had met recognition by the Tang Emperor Taizong, due to efforts of the Christian missionary Alopen in 635.[31] Chang'an was devastated at the end of the Tang dynasty in 904. Residents were forced to move to the new capital city in Luoyang. Only a small area in the city continued to be occupied thereafter. During the Ming dynasty, a new wall was constructed in 1370 and remains intact to this day. The wall measures 11.9 km (7.4 mi) in circumference, 12 m (39.37 ft) in height, and 15 to 18 m (49.21–59.06 ft) in thickness at the base; a moat was also built outside the walls. The new wall and moat would protect a much smaller city of 12 km2 (4.6 sq mi). Modern era[edit] In October 1911, during the Xinhai revolution, revolutionaries stormed the Manchu fort in Xi'an. Most of the city's 20,000 Manchus were killed.[32][33] The city's Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) joined the revolutionaries, although Hui Muslims in Shaanxi and Gansu generally supported the Qing.[34][35][36] Some wealthy Manchus survived by being ransomed. Wealthy Han Chinese enslaved Manchu girls[37] and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women as wives.[38] Hui Muslims also seized young pretty Manchu girls and raised them as Muslims.[39] A British missionary who witnessed the massacre commented that "Old and young, men and women, children alike, were all butchered... Houses were plundered and then burnt; those who would fain have laid hidden till the storm was past, were forced to come out into the open. The revolutionaries, protected by a parapet of the wall, poured a heavy, unceasing, relentless fire into the doomed Tartar (Manchu) city, those who tried to escape thence into the Chinese city were cut down as they emerged from the gates."[32][40] In 1936, the Xi'an Incident took place inside the city during the Chinese Civil War. The incident brought the Kuomintang (KMT) and Communist Party of China to a truce in order to concentrate on fighting against the Japanese Invasion.[41] On March 11, 1938, an aerial battle broke out for the first time over Xi'an as Imperial Japanese Army Air Force aircraft attacked the city and was engaged by Chinese Air Force I-15 fighter planes led by Lt. Cen Zeliu of the 5th Pursuit Group, 17th Squadron.[42] While repeatedly attacked by air, Shaanxi was heavily fortified by units of the Eighth Route Army; Xi'an was never taken by the Japanese forces.[43] On May 20, 1949, the Communist-controlled People's Liberation Army captured the city of Xi'an from the Kuomintang force.[44] Xi'an made headlines for being one of the many cities where the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations occurred.[45][46][47] Geography[edit] Map including Xi'an (labeled as HSI-AN (SIAN) (walled)) (AMS, 1955) Map including Xi'an (DMA) Xi'an lies on the Guanzhong Plain in the south-central part of Shaanxi province, on a flood plain created by the eight surrounding rivers and streams. The city has an average elevation of 400 metres (1,312 ft) above sea level and an annual precipitation of 553 mm (21.8 in). The urban area of Xi'an is located at 34°16′N 108°56′E / 34.267°N 108.933°E / 34.267; 108.933. The Wei River provides potable water to the city. The city borders the northern foot of the Qin Mountains (Qinling) to the south, and the banks of the Wei River to the north. Hua Shan, one of the five sacred Taoist mountains, is located 100 km (62 mi) away to the east of the city. Not far to the north is the Loess Plateau. At the beginning of Han dynasty, Prime Minister Zhang Liang advised the emperor Liu Bang to choose Guanzhong as the capital of the Han dynasty: "Guanzhong Plain, which is located behind Xiao Pass and Hangu Pass, connects Long (Gansu) and Shu (Sichuan). Lands of thousand miles rich in harvest be found here, as if this place belongs to the nation of heaven." (关中左崤函，右陇蜀，沃野千里，此所谓金城千里，天府之国也) Since then, Guanzhong is also known as the 'Nation of the Heaven'.[48] Climate[edit] Xi'an Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     6.9     5 −4     9.6     8 −1     29     14 4     43     21 10     60     26 14     54     31 19     99     32 22     71     31 21     92     25 16     60     20 10     24     12 3     5.8     6 −3 Average max. and min. temperatures in °C Precipitation totals in mm Source: China Meteorological Administration Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     0.3     41 25     0.4     47 30     1.1     57 38     1.7     70 49     2.4     79 58     2.1     88 67     3.9     90 71     2.8     87 70     3.6     78 61     2.4     67 50     0.9     54 37     0.2     44 28 Average max. and min. temperatures in °F Precipitation totals in inches Xi'an has a temperate climate that is influenced by the East Asian monsoon, classified under the Köppen climate classification as situated on the borderline between a semi-arid climate (BSk) and humid subtropical climate (Cwa). The Wei River valley is characterised by hot, humid summers, cold, dry winters, and dry springs and autumns. Most of the annual precipitation is delivered from July to late October. Snow occasionally falls in winter but rarely settles for long. Dust storms often occur during March and April as the city rapidly warms up. Summer months also experience frequent but short thunderstorms. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from around the freezing mark in January to 27.0 °C (80.6 °F) in July, with an annual mean of 14.08 °C (57.3 °F). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 31 percent in December to 47 percent in August, the city receives 1,536 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −20.6 °C (−5 °F) on January 11, 1955 to 41.8 °C (107 °F) on June 21, 1998. A highest record of 42.9 °C (109 °F) was registered in another station on June 17, 2006.[49][50] Climate data for Xi'an (normals 1981–2010, extremes 1951–2013) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 17.0 (62.6) 24.1 (75.4) 31.3 (88.3) 34.9 (94.8) 38.6 (101.5) 41.8 (107.2) 41.0 (105.8) 40.0 (104.0) 38.5 (101.3) 34.1 (93.4) 24.5 (76.1) 21.6 (70.9) 41.8 (107.2) Average high °C (°F) 5.1 (41.2) 8.9 (48.0) 14.4 (57.9) 21.5 (70.7) 26.6 (79.9) 31.4 (88.5) 32.4 (90.3) 30.3 (86.5) 25.6 (78.1) 19.3 (66.7) 12.4 (54.3) 6.3 (43.3) 19.5 (67.1) Daily mean °C (°F) 0.3 (32.5) 3.6 (38.5) 8.7 (47.7) 15.4 (59.7) 20.5 (68.9) 25.3 (77.5) 27.0 (80.6) 25.1 (77.2) 20.3 (68.5) 14.1 (57.4) 7.2 (45.0) 1.5 (34.7) 14.1 (57.4) Average low °C (°F) −3.3 (26.1) −0.4 (31.3) 4.1 (39.4) 10.3 (50.5) 15.1 (59.2) 19.9 (67.8) 22.3 (72.1) 21.0 (69.8) 16.5 (61.7) 10.2 (50.4) 3.2 (37.8) −2.2 (28.0) 9.7 (49.5) Record low °C (°F) −20.6 (−5.1) −18.7 (−1.7) −7.6 (18.3) −4 (25) 3.5 (38.3) 9.2 (48.6) 15.1 (59.2) 12.1 (53.8) 4.8 (40.6) −1.9 (28.6) −16.8 (1.8) −19.3 (−2.7) −20.6 (−5.1) Average precipitation mm (inches) 6.7 (0.26) 9.8 (0.39) 27.1 (1.07) 37.5 (1.48) 54.9 (2.16) 64.5 (2.54) 97.5 (3.84) 78.6 (3.09) 94.1 (3.70) 61.7 (2.43) 21.5 (0.85) 7.3 (0.29) 561.2 (22.1) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 3.4 4.0 6.4 7.8 8.2 8.8 9.9 10.0 11.6 9.9 5.5 3.6 89.1 Average relative humidity (%) 65 62 64 64 65 61 68 75 77 76 73 68 68 Mean monthly sunshine hours 88.4 96.1 116.6 142.8 169.5 179.7 181.1 168.1 121.0 98.9 92.4 81.0 1,535.6 Percent possible sunshine 32 34 33 38 40 43 44 47 34 32 32 31 37 Source: China Meteorological Administration,[51] all-time extreme temperature[50] National Time Service Centre[edit] The Shaanxi Astronomical Observatory was established in 1966. In 1975, according to the Geodetic Origin Report of the People's Republic of China, 'in order to avoid bias in the mensuration as much as possible, the Geodetic Origin would be in central mainland China.' Lintong (临潼), a town near Xi'an was chosen. Since 1986, Chinese Standard Time (CST) was set from NTSC. The NTSC in Lintong is 36 km (22 mi) away from Xi'an. National Time Service Centre (NTSC), the Chinese Academy of Sciences is an institute which is mainly engaged in the service and research on time and frequency. NTSC takes charge of generating and maintaining the national standard time scale, disseminating the time and frequency signals. The autonomous standard time scales of universal time and atomic time and the dissemination techniques with LF radio and HF radio were established successively during the 1970s and 1980s, which meet all the requirements for different applications on the whole, such as the scientific researches, national economy, etc.[52] Demographics[edit] Muslim Quarter in Xi'an As of 2007[update] Xi'an has a population of 4.07 million.[53] Compared to the census data from 2000, the population has increased by 656,700 persons from 4.05 million. In contrast, the population in 2010 has steadily increased.[54] The population is 51.66 percent male and 48.34 percent female.[54] Among its districts, Yanta has the largest population, with 1.08 million inhabitants.[54] The encompassing Xi'an-Xianyang metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) to have, as of 2010[update], a population of 12.9 million,[2] and locally as 13,569,700,[55][failed verification] of which 5,740,000 is urban.[56] The majority of Xi'an residents are Han Chinese, who make up 99.1 percent of the city's total population. There are around 81,500 people belonging to ethnic minorities living in Xi'an, including 30,000 Hui people.[citation needed] During World War II, Xi'an became a destination for many refugees from other provinces of China, especially neighboring Henan Province. Because Xi'an was far inland, the invading Japanese army only managed a few aerial assaults on the city. As a result, Xi'an suffered minimal destruction. After 1949, the national government tried to balance the development in different regions of China, and relocated a number of factories and universities from other cities to Xi'an. Modern Xi'an Jiaotong University was relocated from its original campus in Shanghai. Breakdown of Xi'an population by district and county Division Permanent residents[57] Hukou residents[58] Total Percentage Population density (persons/km2) Xi'an City 8,467,837 100 838.66 7,827,260 Xincheng District 589,739 6.96 19,574.51 503,641 Beilin District 614,710 7.26 26,298.54 732,494 Lianhu District 698,513 8.25 18,226.61 640,911 Baqiao District 595,124 7.03 1,833.97 508,535 Weiyang District 806,811 9.53 3,051.39 516,968 Yanta District 1,178,529 13.92 7,782.38 793,103 Yanliang District 278,604 3.29 1,139.26 252,449 Lintong District 655,874 7.75 716.04 697,586 Chang'an District 1,083,285 12.79 681.94 980,803 Gaoling District 333,477 3.94 1,169.98 294,507 Huyi District 556,377 6.57 434.87 597,071 Lantian County 514,026 6.07 256.25 643,605 Zhouzhi County 562,768 6.65 191.08 665,587 Administrative divisions[edit] The sub-provincial city of Xi'an has direct jurisdiction over 11 districts and 2 counties: Map 1 2 3 Baqiao Weiyang Yanta Yanliang Lintong Chang'an Lantian County Zhouzhi County Huyi Gaoling 1. Xincheng 2. Beilin 3. Lianhu Division code[59] English Chinese Pinyin Area in km2[60] Seat Postal code Subdivisions[61] Subdistricts Towns Residential communities Villages 610100 Xi'an 西安市 Xī'ān Shì 10,096.81 Weiyang District 710000 113 55 766 2984 610102 Xincheng District 新城区 Xīnchéng Qū 30.13 Xiyi Road Subdistrict (西一路街道) 710000 9 105 610103 Beilin District 碑林区 Bēilín Qū 23.37 Zhangjiacun Subdistrict (张家村街道) 710000 8 100 610104 Lianhu District 莲湖区 Liánhú Qū 38.32 Beiyuanmen Subdistrict (北院门街道) 710000 9 127 5 610111 Baqiao District 灞桥区 Bàqiáo Qū 324.50 Fangzhicheng Subdistrict (纺织城街道) 710000 9 40 223 610112 Weiyang District 未央区 Wèiyāng Qū 264.41 Zhangjiabao Subdistrict (张家堡街道) 710000 12 114 147 610113 Yanta District 雁塔区 Yàntǎ Qū 151.45 Xiaozhai Road Subdistrict (小寨路街道) 710000 8 123 84 610114 Yanliang District 阎良区 Yánliáng Qū 244.55 Fenghuang Road Subdistrict (凤凰路街道) 710089 5 2 23 80 610115 Lintong District 临潼区 Líntóng Qū 915.97 Lishan Subdistrict (骊山街道) 710600 23 36 284 610116 Chang'an District 长安区 Cháng'ān Qū 1,588.53 Weiqu Subdistrict (韦曲街道) 710100 25 47 659 610117 Gaoling District 高陵区 Gāolíng Qū 285.03 Luyuan Subdistrict (鹿苑街道) 710200 3 3 8 88 610118 Huyi District 鄠邑区 Hùyì Qū 1,279.42 Ganting Subdistrict (甘亭街道) 710300 1 13 21 518 610122 Lantian County 蓝田县 Lántián Xiàn 2,005.95 Languan Subdistrict (蓝关街道) 710500 1 18 8 520 610124 Zhouzhi County 周至县 Zhōuzhì Xiàn 2,945.20 Erqu Subdistrict (二曲街道) 710400 1 19 14 376 Transportation[edit] Xi'an Metro Yongningmen Metro Station Xi'an Railway Station Xi'an North Railway Station Bell Tower Underpass Xi'an Xianyang International Airport Xi'an has many areas that are easily accessible on foot. In many commercial, residential, educational zones in the city, especially in the shopping and entertainment districts around the Bell Tower, underpasses and overpasses have been built for the safety and convenience of pedestrians. Electric bikes are popular[citation needed] among students and offer easy transportation in and around the city for many residents. A bicycle-sharing network started operating in 2013 and today has 52,000 bikes, used by over 200,000 people per day.[62] Taxi services are numerous, but many citizens of Xi'an still commute to work using the city's 270 official municipal bus routes serviced by a fleet of over 7,800 buses, with an average system-wide ridership of over 4 million people per day.[62] The bus network is complemented by a rapidly expanding subway system that carries over 1.5 million commuters per day.[62] There are more than 2 million registered automobiles[63] in Xi'an; the growing number of personal automobiles also means traffic jams are a common urban issue. Metro[edit] Main article: Xi'an Metro Line 2, running through the city from north (North Railway Station) to south (Weiqu Nan), was the first line opened to the public on September 16, 2011.[64] Operations began on September 28, 2011.[64] This line is 19.9 kilometres (12.4 miles) long with 17 stations.[65] Line 1 opened on September 15, 2013. As a west–east railway, its 19 stations connect Houweizhai and Fangzhicheng. Line 3 runs from northeast (Baoshuiqu) to southwest (Yuhuazhai) and opened on November 8, 2016. Line 4, which is basically parallel to Line 2 on its east except for the northern parts, runs from the North Square of the North Railway Station [Beikezhan (Beiguangchang)] to south (Hangtianxincheng) and was available publicly on December 26, 2018. Eight lines are planned to be finished around 2021. It will mainly service the urban and suburban districts of Xi'an municipality and part of nearby Xianyang City.[66] The subway system covers some of the most famous attractions, such as Banpo Museum (Banpo Station, Line 1), Bell and Drum Tower (Line 2), Fortifications of Xi'an (Line 2), the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (Line 3 and Line 4), the Daminggong National Heritage Park (Line 4) and Shaanxi History Museum (Line 2, 3 and 4), etc.[67] The first metro departure time for Line 1, 2, 3 and 4 is 6:00, the last metro departure time for Line 3 and 4 is 23:00, for Line 1 is 23:30, and for Line 2 is 23:50.[68] On December 30, 2008, a fire accident occurred that was extinguished within an hour and all workers evacuated safely. Sixty-six hours later, on January 2, another fire occurred at another station on Line 2.[69] Taxi[edit] Taxis in Xi'an are predominantly BYD Auto made in Xi'an. Most, if not all, taxis in Xi'an run on compressed natural gas. For the taxis' fare, during the period of 06:00 through 23:00, ¥9/2 kilometres (1.2 miles) for the fare fall and ¥2.3/km later, at night ¥10 for the fare fall and ¥2.7/km later. Rail[edit] There are 6 passenger transport railway stations in Xi'an. Xi'an railway station, located just north of Xi'an walled city, is one of the eight major national railway stations, and the main railway transportation hub of Shaanxi Province. The new Xi'an North railway station, situated a few miles to the north, is the station for the high-speed trains of the Zhengzhou–Xi'an High-Speed Railway. With 34 platforms, it is the largest railway station in Northwest China.[70] Construction of the station began on September 19, 2008.[71] The station was opened on January 11, 2011.[70] As of May 2012, Xi'an North Station is served only by the fast (G-series and D-series) trains running on the Zhengzhou–Xi'an high-speed railway; one of them continues south to Hankou.[72] The city's other stations include Xi'an West, Xi'an East, Xi'an South, Sanmincun, and Fangzhicheng railway stations. Xi'an Railway Station covers 597,000 square metres (6,430,000 square feet), has 5 passenger platforms, and 24 tracks. It provides 112 services to 80 000 people daily. Among the destinations served by direct trains from Xi'an are Beijing, Zhengzhou, Lanzhou, Baoji, and Mount Hua. China Railway High-speed 2 now run an express services from Xi'an to Baoji and Xi'an to Zhengzhou; with a total running time to Baoji of under 90 minutes, and 2 hours to Zhengzhou. The Zhengzhou–Xi'an high-speed railway also serves Xi'an. Construction work began on September 25, 2005, the railway opened for service on February 6, 2010.[73][74] The railway has made air service between Zhengzhou and Xi'an uncompetitive. All passenger flights between the two cities were suspended within 48 days of start of regular high-speed rail service.[75] Expressways[edit] Xi'an currently has three ring road systems, the Second Ring road and the Third Ring road which encircle the city. These ring roads are similar to freeways, except where there are traffic signals on the Second Ring road. As a tourist city, Xi'an has built expressways to Lintong, Tongchuan and Baoji, with well-maintained roads to famous scenic spots in suburban counties and to the north slope of the Qin Mountains. Since its construction in September 2007, the G5 Beijing–Kunming Expressway connects Hanzhong and Xi'an through the Qinling. China National Highway 108 China National Highway 210 China National Highway 211 China National Highway 312 Air[edit] Xi'an Xianyang International Airport (airport code: XIY) is the major airport serving the city and it is the largest airport in the northwestern part of China. It is 41 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Xi'an city centre, and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) northeast of the centre of Xianyang.[76] China Eastern Airlines, Hainan Airlines and China Southern Airlines are the main airlines using the airport. Terminal 3 and the second runway were opened on May 3, 2012.[77] International Routes: There are direct flights from Xi'an to many major cities in Asia, including Bangkok, Busan, Fukuoka, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Osaka, Sapporo, Singapore Seoul, and Taipei. First direct route between Xi'an and Europe was launched by Finnair on June 14, 2013. There are 3 three frequencies per week via Helsinki hub to many major cities in Europe during the summer season. United Airlines begun non-stop service to San Francisco since May 2016. Germany's Fraport, the operator of Frankfurt Airport, has paid 490  million yuan to obtain a 24.5  percent stake in the Xianyang International Airport, offering opportunities to upgrade and expand the facility. Figures along the Airport Express highway leading to Xi'an Xianyang International Airport On June 6, 1994, China Northwest Airlines flight 2303 broke up in mid-air and crashed near Xi'an, en route to Guangzhou from Xian.[78][79] A maintenance error was responsible. All 160 people on board died. As of 2016[update], it remains the deadliest airplane crash ever to occur in mainland China.[80] Culture[edit] A typical Chinese pavilion located in Xi'an Traditional Chinese musical performances at Xi'an Yangrou Paomo, a well-known Xi'an dish This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The culture of Xi'an descends from one of the world's earliest civilizations. The Guanzhong Ren (simplified Chinese: 关中人; traditional Chinese: 關中人; pinyin: Guānzhōng rén) culture is considered the cultural antecedent of Xi'anese; their features are satirized as the "Ten Strangenesses of Guanzhong Ren" (simplified Chinese: 关中十大怪; traditional Chinese: 關中十大怪; pinyin: Guānzhōng shí dà guài). Xi'an is also known for the "Eight Great Sights of Chang'an" (simplified Chinese: 长安八景; traditional Chinese: 長安八景; pinyin: Cháng'ān bājǐng), a collection of scenic areas in the region. Xi'an guyue is named for Xi'an. Arts district[edit] Much like Beijing 1798 and Shanghai 1933, Xi'an has an art district called Textile Town (Chinese: 纺织城; pinyin: Fǎngzhī chéng). The district derives its name from the many textile factories built there since the 1950s.[citation needed] Today it is no longer a centre for the textile industry but a new art factory with 4 workshops in total. Resident artists[edit] Xi'an is home to contemporary Chinese stars such as Xu Wei,[81] Zhang Chu and Zheng Jun. Xi'an cuisine[edit] Main article: Shaanxi cuisine Yangrou paomo (flat bread soaked in lamb soup; simplified Chinese: 羊肉泡馍; traditional Chinese: 羊肉泡饃; pinyin: Yángròu pàomó)[82] is a well known Xi'anese dish. Liang pi (cold rice noodles; simplified Chinese: 凉皮; traditional Chinese: 涼皮; pinyin: liángpí ) are wheat or rice noodles served cold with vinegar and chili oil. Biangbiang mian, also known as youpo chemian (simplified Chinese: 油泼扯面; traditional Chinese: 油潑扯麵; pinyin: Yóupō chěmiàn), are thick and long hand-pulled noodles, often served with red hot pepper. Roujiamo (meat buns; simplified Chinese: 肉夾馍; traditional Chinese: 肉夾饃; pinyin: Ròujiāmó) is a type of steamed bun, filled with meat (usually pork, but other types of meat may also be found). It is equivalent to chinese hamburgers. Opera[edit] Qinqiang (Voice of Qin) is the oldest and most extensive of the four major types of Chinese opera.[83] Also called "random pluck" (Chinese: 乱弹; pinyin: Luàntán), Qinqiang is the main type of drama in Shaanxi province.[84] As the earliest ancestor of Peking opera, Yu Opera, Sichuan opera and Hebei Opera, Qinqiang has developed its own system of unique vocal music, spoken parts, facial makeup, posture, role, category and acting. It can be traced to Xi Qinqiang (Chinese: 西秦腔; pinyin: Xi qínqiāng; lit. 'Voice of West Qin') in Qin dynasty, and blossomed until Qing dynasty, with direct influences on many branches of Chinese Opera.[85] Dance and Music Show[edit] The Empress of the Great Tang is China's first Tang Dynasty dance and music show. The story is based on the life of the famous Chinese historical figure, Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty. Through live performances by a classical Chinese orchestra and state-of-the-art stage design, this show will take you back to the glory of the legendary Empress Wu Zetian and the Great Tang Empire. Cinema[edit] Zhang Yimou and Gu Changwei are directors from Xi'an. Zhang Yimou is also the only director in China to win the Golden Bear (Berlin Film Festival) twice. The first film is Red Sorghum and the second one is Tuya's Marriage. They are produced by Xi'an Filmmaking Factory (now called Xi'an Qujiang Filmmaking Group) and Xi'an Filmmaking Company, respectively. Religion[edit] Chinese traditional religion and Taoism[edit] A pavilion of the City God Temple of Xian. The most influential religions in Xi'an are the Chinese traditional religion and Taoist schools, represented by many major and minor temples. Among these there are a City God Temple, completely reconstructed in the 2010s, and a Temple of Confucius. Buddhism[edit] Chinese Buddhist nuns and laywomen at a temple in Xi'an. Buddhism has a large presence in the city, with temples of the Chinese and Tibetan schools. Christianity[edit] See also: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Xi'an The first recorded Christian missionary in China was Alopen, a Syriac-speaker, who arrived in Xi'an (then known as Chang'an) in 635 along the Silk Road. The Nestorian Stele, now located in Xi'an's Beilin Museum, is a Tang Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents the 150 years of early Christianity in China following Alopen.[30] It is a 279-centimetre-tall (110-inch) limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. The Daqin Pagoda, a Buddhist pagoda in Zhouzhi County of Xi'an, has been suggested to have originally been a Nestorian Christian church from the Tang Dynasty.[86] Baptist missionaries from England ran a hospital in Xi'an.[87] In 1892, Arthur Gostick Shorrock[88] and Moir Duncan[89] founded the Sianfu Mission, in present-day Xi'an.[90][91][92] Islam[edit] Xi'an was the first city in China to be introduced to Islam. Xi'an has a large Muslim community, the significant majority are from the Hui group, there are an estimated 50,000 Hui Muslims in Xi'an.[93] There are seven mosques in Xi'an, the best known being the Great Mosque.[94] Economy[edit] Xi'an Second Ring Road As part of the China Western Development policy, Xi’an became a major target for accelerated attention. From 1997 to 2006, the industrial output value of Xi’an's service industry increased at an annual average rate of 13 percent, compared to traditional service industries of 0.74 percent, representing a growth from US$8.113 billion to US$25.85 billion.[95] Xi'an is the largest economy of the Shaanxi province, with a GDP of 324.1 billion Yuan in 2010. On average this value increases by 14.5 percent annually, and accounts for approximately 41.8 percent of Shaanxi's total GDP.[95][96] At least fifty-eight countries have established over 2,560 enterprises in Xian, including nineteen of the Fortune 500 enterprises. These include ABB Group, Mitsubishi, Panasonic, Toshiba, Fujitsu, Coca-Cola, and Boeing.[97] Important industries include equipment manufacturing, tourism, and service outsourcing.[98] The manufacturing industry had an annual output of RMB 36.5 billion, accounting for 44.5 percent of the city's total.[96] Furthermore, as one of China's four ancient capitals,[99] Xi'an's many cultural sites, including the Terracotta Army, the City Wall of Xi'an, and the Famen Temple, make tourism an important industry as well. In 2010, 52 million domestic tourists visited Xi'an, earning a total income of RMB 40.52 billion. On average, revenue increases by 36.4 percent per year, and foreign-exchange earnings (530 million in 2009) increase by around 35.8 percent.[96] Xi'an is also one of the first service outsourcing cities in China, with over 800 corporations in the industry. The city's output value from this sector exceeded RMB 23 billion in 2008. Employment in the sector doubled from 1997–2006, from a base of 60,000, and computer consulting also doubled from 16,000 to 32,000.[95] As a result of the importance of the software-outsourcing industry, the city planned construction of a Software New Town, which is scheduled to be completed in 2015 with 30 billion RMB investment.[96] Other major export goods include lighting equipment and automobile parts, while its major import goods are mechanical and electrical products. Internationally, Xi'an's largest trade partner is the United States.[96] Xi'an is part of the West Triangle Economic Zone, along with Chengdu and Chongqing. Industrial zones[edit] This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Inadequate English Please help improve this section if you can. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Xi'an Hi-Tech Industries Development Zone Major industrial zones in Xi'an include: Xi'an Economic and Technological Development Zone Xi'an Hi-Tech Industries Development Zone a daily average of 3.7 technology enterprises established in Xi'an Hi-Tech Industries Development Zone in the year of 2005, from XINHUANET.com July 28, 2005[100] Xi'an Hi-Tech Industries Development Zone has more than 16,000 enterprises which ranked second place in all the 88 hi-tech ZONES in China, achieved a total revenue of 522.223 billion yuan. It is worth mentioning that 13 enterprise's annual income is over a hundred billion yuan, 19 enterprise's annual income more than 50 billion, more than 265 enterprise earns over billion yuan each year, Listed companies at home and abroad have accumulated 50, of which the domestic A-share market issued 21 of them, accounting for more than 60% of the province; 4 GEM listed companies, ranking first in the Midwest high-tech zones. The Jiangcungou landfill in Xi'an was China's largest landfill site before its closure in 2019.[101] Software and outsourcing industries[edit] The growing economy of Xi'an supports the development of a software industry, and the city is a pioneer in software industry in China. The Xi'an Software Park within the Xi'an Hi-Tech Industries Development Zone (XDZ) has attracted over 1,085 corporations and 106,000 employees as of 2012.[102] A Silicon.com article describes Xi'an: "But Xi'an is selling on its own merits—with a large pool of cheap human resources from the 100 universities in the area, it hoovers up around 3,000 computer graduates every year, each earning approximately $120 a month—half the wages for the equivalent job in Beijing."[103][104] Aerospace industry[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In November 2006, Xi'an and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation jointly set up Xi'an Aerospace Science and Technology Industrial Base. From its establishment, the base has focused on the development of the civil space industry, including equipment manufacturing, software and service outsourcing, new materials and solar photovoltaics. Apart from the core area, the base will cover Xi'an and the Guanzhong area and the expansion zone will reach other parts of Northwest China and Southwest China. It is expected that by 2012 the total industry output can reach 2.8 billion us dollars with about 10 to 20 brand products with intellectual property rights and 5 to 8 products with global competitiveness. In 2008, after the launch of the initial aerospace centre in Shanghai, the PRC is constructing another civil aerospace centre in the Shaanxi province. The State Development and Reform Commission approved the planning of Xi'an National Civil Aerospace Industrial Base on December 26, 2007. The National Civil Aerospace Industrial Base of Xi'an, set to cover 23 km2 (8.9 sq mi), will focus on developing satellites, new materials, energies, IT and other technologies for civil applications. Notable businesspeople[edit] Zhang Chaoyang (张朝阳), the CEO of SOHU (Nasdaq), born and raised in Xi'an, is a prominent leader in the Chinese Internet industry. Liu Chuanzhi, the founder and president of Lenovo Group Limited, completed his tertiary degree from Xidian University in the 1960s. Education[edit] Further information: List of universities in China Public[edit] Xi'an Jiaotong University Xi'an Jiaotong University (西安交通大学) Northwestern Polytechnical University (西北工业大学) Xidian University (西安电子科技大学) Chang'an University (长安大学) Northwest University (西北大学) Northwest University of Political Science and Law (西北政法大学) Shaanxi Normal University (陕西师范大学) Xi'an Academy of Fine Arts (西安美术学院) Xi'an Conservatory of Music (西安音乐学院) Xi'an Institute of Post & Telecommunications (西安邮电大学) Xi'an International Studies University (西安外国语大学) Xi'an Physical Education Institute (西安体育学院) Xi'an Polytechnic University (西安工程大学) Xi'an Petroleum University (西安石油大学) Xi'an Technological University (西安工业大学) Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology (西安建筑科技大学) Xi'an University of Arts and Science（Xi‘an University） (西安文理学院) Xi'an University of Finance and Economics (西安财经学院) Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (陕西科技大学) Xi'an University of Science and Technology (西安科技大学) Xi'an University of Technology (西安理工大学) Military[edit] Air Force Engineering University (空军工程大学) The Air Force Medical University(空军军医大学) PLA Rocket Force University of Engineering (解放军火箭军工程大学) (PLA) Xi'an Telecommunication College (西安通信学院) Private[edit] Xi'an Innovation College of Yan'an University (延安大学西安创新学院) Shaanxi Institute of International Commerce (陕西国际学院) Xi'an Eurasia University (西安欧亚学院) Xi'an Fanyi University (西安翻译学院) Xi'an International University (西安外事学院) Xi'an Peihua University (西安培华学院) Xi'an Siyuan University (西安思源学院) Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed. See also: List of universities in China International events[edit] World Horticultural Expo 2011[edit] Xi’an was chosen to host the 2011 World Horticultural Exposition by the Association of International Producers of Horticulture (AIPH) at its 59th congress, held in Brighton, United Kingdom on September 4, 2007. The 2011 World Horti-Expo was held from April 28 to October 28, 2011. The exhibition was located in a new district of the city, Chanba district, and was expected to bring some 10 million visitors to Xi’an.[105] Tourism[edit] Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Bell Tower Drum Tower Ming dynasty city wall The Great Mosque of Xi'an Reconstructed Danfeng Gate in Daming Palace National Heritage Park Shaanxi History Museum Pit in underground museum of Han Yang Ling, Mausoleum of Han Emperor Jingdi Mount Taibai National Forest Park Grand Metro Park Hotel Xi'an The number of travelers is often greater during Summer (May–August), although the most pleasant season for visiting Xi'an is Autumn.[citation needed] Sites[edit] Because of the city's many historical monuments and a plethora of ancient ruins and tombs in the vicinity,[9] tourism has been an important component of the local economy, and the Xi'an region is one of the most popular tourist destinations in China.[9] The city has many important historical sites, and some are ongoing archaeological projects, such as the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang and his Terracotta Army. There are several burial mounds, tombs of the Zhou dynasty kings located in the city.[8] Xi'an also contains some 800 royal mausoleums and tombs from the Han dynasty,[106] with some of them yielding hundreds of sculpted clay soldiers, and remains of sacrificial temples from the Han era.[106] The city has numerous Tang dynasty pagodas and is noted for its history museum and its stele forest, which is housed in an 11th-century Confucian temple containing large stone tablets from various dynasties.[106] Some of the most well-known sites in Xi'an are: The city is surrounded by a well-preserved city wall which was re-constructed in the 14th century during the early Ming dynasty and was based on the inner imperial palace of Tang dynasty. The Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang and his Terracotta Army are located 40 km (25 mi) to the east of the city centre, in the city's suburbs. The Bell Tower and Drum Tower, both are located at the city's central axis. The city's Muslim Quarter, which is home to the Great Mosque of Xi'an. The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and Small Wild Goose Pagoda are both spectacular towers and both are well over 1,000 years old and have survived great earthquakes. The former is next to a large square with the largest fountain in Asia which projects water high into the air, rising and falling in time to music during one of the daily performances (usually at noon and soon after sunset). They protected Buddhist writings in the past. The Stele Forest is famous for its numerous historic inscriptions and stoneworks[107] The Famen Temple and its towering pagoda located 120 kilometres (75 miles) west of Xi'an Xi Ming Temple Wolong Temple at Kaitong lane Xingjiao Temple at Shaolin Yuan (where Xuanzang's Tomb lies) Jianfu Temple Blue Dragon Temple Wangji Temple The Banpo Neolithic village is located on the outskirt of the city proper The Shaanxi History Museum has a large collection of artifacts both modern and ancient. Mount Zhongnan (终南山) Mount Li Huaqing Hot Springs, at the foot of Mt. Li, have a history of 6,000 years, the adjacent Huaqing Palace has a history of 3,000 years. Ranked among the Hundred Famous Gardens in China, it also has the status as a National Cultural Relic Protection Unit and a National Key Scenic Area. Daming Palace National Heritage Park, site of the former royal residence of the Tang dynasty emperors Museums[edit] Shaanxi History Museum Stele Forest Xi'an Museum (located next to the Small Wild Goose Pagoda). On October 20, 2006, international council of monuments sites (ICOMOS) international protection centre (IICC) was formally established here. National parks[edit] Mount Cuihua National Geological Park (翠华山国家地质公园) Chanba National Wetland Park (浐灞国家湿地公园) Daming Palace National Heritage Park Mount Li National Forest Park Mount Wangshun National Forest Park (王顺山国家森林公园) Mount Zhongnan National Forest Park Hei He National Forest Park (黑河国家森林公园) Louguantai National Forest Park (楼观台国家森林公园) Taiping National Forest Park (太平国家森林公园) Zhuque National Forest Park (朱雀国家森林公园) Food[edit] Roujiamo Chinese Hamburger (肉夹馍) Liangpi (凉皮) Paomo Mutton, beef, and Bread Pieces in Soup (牛羊肉泡馍) Biang Biang Noodles Jinggao Steamed rice cake stuffed with honey dates and black beans (甑糕) Meatball Hulatang (肉丸胡辣汤) Sports[edit] Cuju is a very old football game: It was improved during the Tang dynasty (618–907). First of all, the feather-stuffed ball was replaced by an air-filled ball with a two-layered hull. Also, two different types of goalposts emerged: One was made by setting up posts with a net between them and the other consisted of just one goal post in the middle of the field. Chang'an was filled with cuju football fields, in the backyards of large mansions, and some were even established in the grounds of the palaces. The level of female cuju teams also improved. Records indicate that once a 17-year-old girl beat a team of army soldiers. Cuju football became popular among the scholars and intellectuals, and if a courtier lacked skill in the game, he could pardon himself by acting as a scorekeeper. Professional sports teams in Xi'an include: Chinese Pingpong Association Super League Shaanxi Galaxy (陕西银河) Former Professional sports teams in Xi'an: Chinese Jia-A League Shaanxi Guoli F.C. (陕西国力) Team dissolved in 2005 Chinese Football Association Super League Shaanxi Renhe Commercial Chanba F.C. (陕西人和商业浐灞) Team moved to Guizhou for the 2012 Chinese Super League season. Chinese Basketball Association Shaanxi Dongsheng (陕西东盛) Team moved to Foshan and renamed themselves Foshan Dralions in 2010. Xi'an is also the Chinese Boxing training base for the national team. The 60,000-capacity Xi’an Olympic Sports Centre Stadium, which opened in 2020, is the largest sports venue by capacity in Xi’an. It is used mostly for association football matches. Media[edit] Television and radio[edit] China Central Television's channel 1 through 12 is broadcast nationwide. Shaanxi Television (SXTV) provincial station, broadcasts on eight channels as well as a satellite channel for other provinces. Xi'an Television (XATV) municipal station, has six channels for specialized programming. Shaanxi Radio broadcasts music, news. Xi'an Music Radio: FM 93.1, broadcasts music, news and talkshows. Shaanxi Music Radio: Fm 98.8, broadcasts music, news and talkshows. Printed media[edit] Chinese Business View (华商报) is a popular daily newspaper. Xi'an Evening News (Xi'an Wanbao) (西安晚报), with a history of more than 50 years, is one of the oldest newspapers. Sanqin Daily (三秦都市报) covers the news of Shaanxi Province. Shaanxi Daily (陕西日报) covers the news of Shaanxi Province and Xi'an. Online media[edit] Xianease is a popular online and print magazine in Xi'an. International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in China Xi'an's twin towns and sister cities are: Nara, Nara Prefecture, Japan (1974) Kyoto, Japan (1974)[108] Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom (1985)[109][110] Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Aquitaine, France (1986) Kansas City, Missouri, United States (1989) Esfahan, Iran (1989) Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (1991)[111] Lahore, Pakistan (1992) Funabashi, Chiba, Japan (1994) Iași, Romania (1994) Dnipro, Ukraine (1995) Istanbul, Turkey (1996) Kathmandu, Nepal (1996) Brasília, Brazil (1997) Cairo, Egypt (1997) Quebec City, Quebec, Canada (2001) Córdoba, Argentina (2006) Pompei, Campania, Italy (2007) Athens, Greece Kalamata, Greece (2009) Birmingham, United Kingdom Cusco, Peru Samarkand, Uzbekistan Mary, Türkmenistan (2014) [112] Melbourne, Tasmania, Australia (2015) Gyumri, Armenia (2013) Taupo, New Zealand Groningen, The Netherlands (2011) George Town, Penang, Malaysia (2014)[113] Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia (2019)[114][115] See also[edit]  China portal Chang'an Historical capitals of China References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Cox, W (2018). 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(1964), "A Newly Discovered Mandible of the Sinanthropus Type: Sinanthropus Lantianensis", Scientia Sinica, 13: 801–811, PMID 14170540. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xi'an. Look up Xi'an, Hsi-an, Sian, or Xian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Xi'an. Xi'an City Government official website Xi'an National Hi-tech Development Zone Xi'an in Chinese history Preceded by Yin Capital of China (as Hao) 1046–771 BC Succeeded by Luoyang Preceded by Xianyang Capital of China (as Chang'an) 206 BC – 25 Succeeded by Luoyang Preceded by Luoyang Capital of China (as Chang'an) 190–196 Succeeded by Xuchang Preceded by Jiankang Capital of China (as Daxing) 581–618 Succeeded by itself, as Chang'an Preceded by itself, as Daxing Capital of China (as Chang'an) 618–907 Succeeded by Kaifeng Links to related articles v t e Xi'an Districts Lianhu Xincheng Beilin Baqiao Weiyang Yanta Yanliang Lintong Chang'an Gaoling Huyi Counties Lantian Zhouzhi Landmarks City wall Daming Palace National Heritage Park Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor and the Terracotta Army Bell Tower Chang'an Flower Drum Tower Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Small Wild Goose Pagoda Stele Forest Xingjiao Temple Banpo Qianling Mausoleum Culture Qinqiang Education Xi'an Jiaotong University Xidian University Northwestern Polytechnical University Northwest University Chang'an University Shaanxi Normal University Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology Xi'an University of Technology Xi'an Shiyou University Xi'an International Studies University Northwest University of Political Science and Law Xi'an University of Science and Technology Xi'an Institute of Post & Telecommunications Xi'an University of Finance and Economics Xi'an Polytechnic University Xi'an Conservatory of Music Xi'an Physical Education Institute Xi'an Technological University Xi'an Academy of Fine Arts Shaanxi Institute of Education Xi'an Institute of Arts and Science Transport Xi'an Metro Xi'an Railway Station Xi'an North Railway Station Xi'an Xianyang International Airport China National Highway 210 China National Highway 211 China National Highway 312 Closed Xi'an Xiguan Airport v t e County-level divisions of Shaanxi Province Xi'an (capital) Sub-provincial city Xi'an Xincheng District Lianhu District Beilin District Baqiao District Weiyang District Yanta District Yanliang District Lintong District Chang'an District Gaoling District Huyi District Lantian County Zhouzhi County Prefecture-level cities Tongchuan Yaozhou District Wangyi District Yintai District Yijun County Baoji Weibin District Jintai District Chencang District Fengxiang County Qishan County Fufeng County Mei County Long County Qianyang County Linyou County Feng County Taibai County Xianyang Qindu District Weicheng District Yangling District Xingping city Binzhou city Sanyuan County Jingyang County Qian County Liquan County Yongshou County Changwu County Xunyi County Chunhua County Wugong County Weinan Linwei District Huazhou District Huayin city Hancheng city Tongguan County Dali County Pucheng County Chengcheng County Baishui County Heyang County Fuping County Yan'an Baota District Ansai District Zichang city Yanchang County Yanchuan County Zhidan County Wuqi County Ganquan County Fu County Luochuan County Yichuan County Huanglong County Huangling County Hanzhong Hantai District Nanzheng District Chenggu County Yang County Xixiang County Mian County Ningqiang County Lueyang County Zhenba County Liuba County Foping County Yulin Yuyang District Hengshan District Shenmu city Fugu County Jingbian County Dingbian County Suide County Mizhi County Jia County Wubu County Qingjian County Zizhou County Ankang Hanbin District Xunyang city Hanyin County Shiquan County Ningshan County Ziyang County Langao County Pingli County Zhenping County Baihe County Shangluo Shangzhou District Luonan County Danfeng County Shangnan County Shanyang County Zhen'an County Zhashui County   v t e Largest cities in Shaanxi Source: China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population Rank Pop. Rank Pop. Xi'an Xianyang 1 Xi'an 5,866,100 11 Xingping 225,800 Baoji Yulin 2 Xianyang 1,023,100 12 Shenmu 211,800 3 Baoji 893,200 13 Hancheng 173,200 4 Yulin 631,100 14 Yangling 154,900 5 Hanzhong 569,500 15 Huayin 115,500 6 Weinan 551,600 16 Binzhou 114,100 7 Yan'an 416,700 8 Tongchuan 413,300 9 Ankang 350,700 10 Shangluo 262,500 v t e Metropolitan cities of China Major Metropolitan regions Jing-Jin-Ji (BJ-TJ-HE) Yuegang'ao Greater Bay Area (GD-HK-MO) Yangtze Delta (SH-JS-ZJ) Zhongyuan Chengyu Cross-Strait Western Coast Guanzhong Mid-Southern Liaoning Shandong Peninsula Yangtze River Midstream (Yangtze River Valley) Major cities National Central Cities Beijinga Chongqinga Guangzhoub2 Shanghaia2 Tianjina2 Special administrative regions Hong Kong Macau Regional Central Cities Chengdub Nanjingb Shenyangb Shenzhenc1 Wuhanb Xi'anb Sub-provincial cities Changchunb Chengdub Dalianc2 Guangzhoub2 Hangzhoub Harbinb Jinanb Nanjingb Ningboc2 Qingdaoc2 Shenyangb Shenzhenc1 Wuhanb Xiamenc1 Xi'anb Provincial capitals (Prefecture-level) Changsha Fuzhou2 Guiyang Haikou Hefei Kunming Lanzhou Nanchang Shijiazhuang Taiyuan Xining Zhengzhou Taibei5 Autonomous regional capitals Hohhot Lhasa Nanning Ürümqi Yinchuan Comparatively large cities Anshan Baotou Benxi Datong Fushun Handan Huainan Jilin Luoyang Qiqihar Suzhou Tangshan Wuxi Xuzhou Zibo Prefecture-level cities by Province Hebei Shijiazhuang* Tangshan* Qinhuangdao2 Handan* Xingtai Baoding Zhangjiakou Chengde Cangzhou Langfang Hengshui Shanxi Taiyuan* Datong* Yangquan Changzhi Jincheng Shuozhou Jinzhong Yuncheng Xinzhou Linfen Lüliang Inner Mongolia Hohhot* Baotou* Wuhai Chifeng Tongliao Ordos Hulunbuir Bayannur Ulanqab Liaoning Shenyang* Dalian* Anshan* Fushun* Benxi* Dandong Jinzhou Yingkou Fuxin Liaoyang Panjin Tieling Chaoyang Huludao Jilin Changchun* Jilin Siping Liaoyuan Tonghua Baishan Songyuan Baicheng Heilongjiang Harbin* Qiqihar* Jixi Hegang Shuangyashan Daqing Yīchun Jiamusi Qitaihe Mudanjiang Heihe Suihua Jiangsu Nanjing* Wuxi* Xuzhou* Changzhou Suzhou* Nantong Lianyungang2 Huai'an Yancheng Yangzhou Zhenjiang Tàizhou Suqian Zhejiang Hangzhou* Ningbo* Wenzhou2 Jiaxing Huzhou Shaoxing Jinhua Quzhou Zhoushan Tāizhou Lishui Anhui Hefei* Wuhu Bengbu Huainan* Ma'anshan Huaibei Tongling Anqing Huangshan Chuzhou Fuyang Sùzhou Lu'an Bozhou Chizhou Xuancheng Fujian Fuzhou* Xiamen* Putian Sanming Quanzhou Zhangzhou Nanping Longyan Ningde Jiangxi Nanchang* Jingdezhen Pingxiang Jiujiang Xinyu Yingtan Ganzhou Ji'an Yíchun Fǔzhou Shangrao Shandong Jinan* Qingdao* Zibo* Zaozhuang Dongying Yantai2 Weifang Jining Tai'an Weihai Rizhao Laiwu Linyi Dezhou Liaocheng Binzhou Heze Henan Zhengzhou* Kaifeng Luoyang* Pingdingshan Anyang Hebi Xinxiang Jiaozuo Puyang Xuchang Luohe Sanmenxia Nanyang Shangqiu Xinyang Zhoukou Zhumadian Hubei Wuhan* Huangshi Shiyan Yichang Xiangyang Ezhou Jingmen Xiaogan Jinzhou Huanggang Xianning Suizhou Hunan Changsha* Zhuzhou Xiangtan Hengyang Shaoyang Yueyang Changde Zhangjiajie Yiyang Chenzhou Yongzhou Huaihua Loudi Guangdong Guangzhou* Shaoguan Shenzhen* Zhuhai1 Shantou1 Foshan Jiangmen Zhanjiang2 Maoming Zhaoqing Huizhou Meizhou Shanwei Heyuan Yangjiang Qingyuan Dongguan Zhongshan Chaozhou Jieyang Yunfu Guangxi Nanning* Liuzhou Guilin Wuzhou Beihai2 Fangchenggang Qinzhou Guigang Yùlin Baise Hezhou Hechi Laibin Chongzuo Hainan1 Haikou* Sanya Sansha4 Danzhou Sichuan Chengdu* Zigong Panzhihua Luzhou Deyang Mianyang Guangyuan Suining Neijiang Leshan Nanchong Meishan Yibin Guang'an Dazhou Ya'an Bazhong Ziyang Guizhou Guiyang* Liupanshui Zunyi Anshun Bijie Tongren Yunnan Kunming* Qujing Yuxi Baoshan Zhaotong Lijiang Pu'er Lincang Tibet Lhasa* Shigatse Chamdo Nyingchi Shannan Shaanxi Xi'an* Tongchuan Baoji Xianyang Weinan Yan'an Hanzhong Yúlin Ankang Shangluo Gansu Lanzhou* Jiayuguan Jinchang Baiyin Tianshui Wuwei Zhangye Pingliang Jiuquan Qingyang Dingxi Longnan Qinghai Xining* Haidong Ningxia Yinchuan* Shizuishan Wuzhong Guyuan Zhongwei Xinjiang Ürümqi* Karamay Turpan Hami Taiwan5 (none) Other cities (partly shown below) Prefecture-level capitals (County-level) (Inner Mongolia: Ulanhot Xilinhot) Jiagedaqi3, Heilongjiang Enshi, Hubei Jishou, Hunan (Sichuan：Xichang Kangding Barkam) (Guizhou: Xingyi Kaili Duyun) (Yunnan: Chuxiong Mengzi Wenshan Jinghong Dali Mangshi Shangri-La Lushui) (Gansu: Linxia Hezuo) (Qinghai: Yushu Delingha) (Xinjiang: Changji Bole Korla Yining Artux Aksu Kashgar1 Hotan Tacheng Altay) Province-governed cities (Sub-prefecture-level) Jiyuan, Henan (Hubei: Xiantao Qiánjiang Tianmen Shennongjia) (Hainan1: Wuzhishan Qionghai Wenchang Wanning Dongfang) (Xinjiang - XPCC(Bingtuan) cities: Shihezi Aral Tumxuk Wujiaqu Beitun Tiemenguan Shuanghe Kokdala Kunyu) Former Prefecture-level cities Chaohu, Anhui Yumen，Gansu Dongchuan, Yunnan Shashi, Hubei (Sichuan: Fuling Wanxian) (Jilin: Meihekou Gongzhuling) Sub-prefecture-level cities (Prefecture-governed) Qian'an, Hebei Manzhouli, Inner Mongolia Erenhot, Inner Mongolia Golmud, Qinghai County-level cities by Province Hebei Xinji Jinzhou Xinle Zunhua Qian'an* Wu'an Nangong Shahe Zhuozhou Dingzhou Anguo Gaobeidian Botou Renqiu Huanghua Hejian Bazhou Sanhe Shenzhou Shanxi Gujiao Lucheng Gaoping Jiexiu Yongji Hejin Yuanping Houma Huozhou Xiaoyi Fenyang Inner Mongolia Holingol Manzhouli* Yakeshi Zhalantun Ergun Genhe Fengzhen Ulanhot* Arxan Erenhot* Xilinhot* Liaoning Xinmin Wafangdian Zhuanghe Haicheng Donggang Fengcheng Linghai Beizhen Gaizhou Dashiqiao Dengta Diaobingshan Kaiyuan Beipiao Lingyuan Xingcheng Jilin Yushu Dehui Jiaohe Huadian Shulan Panshi Gongzhuling Shuangliao Meihekou Ji'an Linjiang Fuyu Taonan Da'an Yanji Tumen Dunhua Hunchun Longjing Helong Heilongjiang Shangzhi Wuchang Nehe Hulin Mishan Tieli Tongjiang Fujin Fuyuan Suifenhe Hailin Ning'an Muling Dongning Bei'an Wudalianchi Anda Zhaodong Hailun Jiangsu Jiangyin Yixing Xinyi Pizhou Liyang Changshu Zhangjiagang Kunshan Taicang Qidong Rugao Haimen Dongtai Yizheng Gaoyou Danyang Yangzhong Jurong Jingjiang Taixing Xinghua Zhejiang Jiande Lin'an Yuyao Cixi Fenghua Rui'an Yueqing Haining Pinghu Tongxiang Zhuji Shengzhou Lanxi Yiwu Dongyang Yongkang Jiangshan Wenling Linhai Longquan Anhui Chaohu Jieshou Tongcheng Tianchang Mingguang Ningguo Fujian Fuqing Changle Yong'an Shishi Jinjiang Nan'an Longhai Shaowu Wuyishan Jian'ou Zhangping Fu'an Fuding Jiangxi Leping Ruichang Gongqingcheng Lushan Guixi Ruijin Jinggangshan Fengcheng Zhangshu Gao'an Dexing Shandong Zhangqiu Jiaozhou Jimo Pingdu Laixi Tengzhou Longkou Laiyang Laizhou Penglai Zhaoyuan Qixia Haiyang Qingzhou Zhucheng Shouguang Anqiu Gaomi Changyi Qufu Zoucheng Xintai Feicheng Rongcheng Rushan Laoling Yucheng Linqing Henan Gongyi Xingyang Xinmi Xinzheng Dengfeng Yanshi Wugang Ruzhou Linzhou Weihui Huixian Qinyang Mengzhou Yuzhou Changge Yima Lingbao Dengzhou Yongcheng Xiangcheng Jiyuan* Hubei Daye Danjiangkou Yidu Dangyang Zhijiang Laohekou Zaoyang Yicheng Zhongxiang Yingcheng Anlu Hanchuan Shishou Honghu Songzi Macheng Wuxue Chibi Guangshui Enshi* Lichuan Xiantao* Qianjiang* Tianmen* Hunan Liuyang Liling Xiangxiang Shaoshan Leiyang Changning Wugang Miluo Linxiang Jinshi Yuanjiang Zixing Hongjiang Lengshuijiang Lianyuan Jishou* Guangdong Lechang Nanxiong Taishan Kaiping Heshan Enping Lianjiang Leizhou Wuchuan Gaozhou Huazhou Xinyi Sihui Xingning Lufeng Yangchun Yingde Lianzhou Puning Luoding Guangxi Cenxi Dongxing Guiping Beiliu Jingxi Yizhou Heshan Pingxiang Hainan Wuzhishan* Qionghai* Wenchang* Wanning* Dongfang* Sichuan Dujiangyan Pengzhou Qionglai Chongzhou Jianyang Guanghan Shifang Mianzhu Jiangyou Emeishan Langzhong Huaying Wanyuan Barkam* Kangding* Xichang* Guizhou Qingzhen Chishui Renhuai Xingyi* Kaili* Duyun* Fuquan Yunnan Anning Xuanwei Tengchong Chuxiong* Mengzi* Gejiu Kaiyuan Mile Wenshan* Jinghong* Dali* Ruili Mangshi* Lushui* Shangri-La* Tibet (none) Shaanxi Xingping Hancheng Huayin Gansu Yumen Dunhuang Linxia* Hezuo* Qinghai Yushu* Golmud* Delingha* Ningxia Lingwu Qingtongxia Xinjiang Changji* Fukang Bole* Alashankou Korla* Aksu* Artux* Kashgar* Hotan* Yining* Kuytun Korgas Tacheng* Wusu Altay* Shihezi* Aral* Tumxuk* Wujiaqu* Beitun* Tiemenguan* Shuanghe* Kokdala* Kunyu* Taiwan5 (none) Notes * Indicates this city has already occurred above. aDirect-administered Municipalities. bSub-provincial cities as provincial capitals. cSeparate state-planning cities. 1Special economic-zone Cities. 2Open Coastal Cities. 3Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner, Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. 4Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. 5The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template:Administrative divisions of Taiwan instead. All provincial capitals are listed first in prefecture-level cities by province.   v t e Largest cities or municipalities in the People's Republic of China China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. Shanghai Beijing 1 Shanghai SH 24,237,800 11 Nanjing JS 6,572,000 Guangzhou Shenzhen 2 Beijing BJ 18,634,000 12 Hangzhou ZJ 6,504,900 3 Guangzhou GD 13,154,200 13 Zhengzhou HA 6,261,900 4 Shenzhen GD 13,026,600 14 Xi'an SN 5,866,100 5 Tianjin TJ 12,968,100 15 Shenyang LN 5,651,200 6 Chongqing CQ 11,488,000 16 Qingdao SD 5,127,000 7 Wuhan HB 9,180,000 17 Harbin HL 4,860,000 8 Chengdu SC 8,379,700 18 Changchun JL 4,564,000 9 Hong Kong HK 7,448,900 19 Hefei AH 4,292,400 10 Dongguan GD 6,850,300 20 Jinan SD 4,154,900 v t e Capitals of China by jurisdiction National: CN Beijing Provinces: AH Hefei FJ Fuzhou GD Guangzhou GS Lanzhou GZ Guiyang HA Zhengzhou HB Wuhan HE Shijiazhuang HI Haikou HL Harbin HN Changsha JL Changchun JS Nanjing JX Nanchang LN Shenyang QH Xining SC Chengdu SD Jinan SN Xi'an SX Taiyuan TW Taipei¹ YN Kunming ZJ Hangzhou Autonomous Regions: GX Nanning NM Hohhot NX Yinchuan XJ Ürümqi XZ Lhasa Municipalities: BJ Beijing CQ Chongqing SH Shanghai TJ Tianjin SARs: HK Hong Kong MO Macau ¹ — Taiwan is administered as a streamlined province by the Republic of China, but claimed by the PRC. 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en-wikipedia-org-4704	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Family origins=== Marcus's paternal family was of Roman [[Annia gens#Anni Verii|Italo-Hispanic origins]]. His father was [[Marcus Annius Verus (III)]].<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45180 | page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45180/page/n225 439] | quote=Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. |title = The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography| publisher=Bradbury & Evans |last1 = Knight|first1 = Charles|year = 1856}}</ref> The [[Annia gens|gens Annia]] was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from [[Numa Pompilius]]) and a branch of it moved to [[Espejo, Córdoba|Ucubi]], a small town south east of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in Iberian [[Baetica]].<ref name=' Sánchez2010' >Sánchez, p. 165.</ref><ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 14.</ref> This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the ''Annii Veri'', rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a [[Roman Senate|senator]] and (according to the ''Historia Augusta'') ex-[[praetor]]; his grandfather [[Marcus Annius Verus (II)]] was made [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] in 73–74.<ref>''HA Marcus'' i. 2, 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 28; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 14.</ref> Through his grandmother [[Rupilia]], Marcus was a member of the [[Nerva-Antonine dynasty]]; the emperor [[Trajan]]'s [[Ulpia Marciana|sororal]] niece [[Salonia Matidia]] was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife [[Vibia Sabina|Sabina]].<ref>Giacosa, p. 8.</ref><ref>Levick, pp. 161, 163.</ref>{{refn|Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.<ref>Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that [[Rupilia|Rupilia Faustina]] was the daughter of the consular senator [[Libo Rupilius Frugi]] and [[Salonina Matidia|Matidia]], who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of [[Vibia Sabina]], Hadrian's wife.<ref>''Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum'' 14.3579 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, ''Roman Papers'' 1.244.</ref>|group=note}} Marcus's mother, [[Domitia Lucilla Minor]] (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]]'s letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the ''Horti Domitia Calvillae'' (or ''Lucillae''), a villa on the [[Caelian hill]] of Rome.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 29, citing Pliny, ''Epistulae'' 8.18.</ref><ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 30.</ref> Marcus himself was born and raised in the ''Horti'' and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/fronto.html | title=M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/newtopographical0000rich | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/newtopographical0000rich/page/198 198] | quote=horti domizia lucilla. |title = A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome| publisher=JHU Press |isbn = 9780801843006|last1 = l. Richardson|first1 = jr|last2 = Richardson|first2 = Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L.|date = October 1992}}</ref><ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman [[Aurelia gens#Aueli Fulvi|Italo-Gallic origins]]: the [[Aurelia gens|gens Aurelia]], into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a [[Sabine]] gens; [[Antoninus Pius]], his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in [[Roman Gaul]]. Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4708	----	Edessa - Wikipedia Edessa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Edessa, Mesopotamia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city in upper Mesopotamia, modern day Urfa, Southeast Turkey This article is about the city in Mesopotamia. For the Greek city, see Edessa, Greece. For the city in Ukraine, see Odessa. For the bishopric, see Bishopric of Edessa. For other uses, see Edessa (disambiguation). This article is about the ancient history of Edessa. For its modern successor, see Urfa. Upper Mesopotamia and surrounding regions during the Early Christian period, with Edessa in the upper left quadrant Edessa (/ɪˈdɛsə/; Ancient Greek: Ἔδεσσα, romanized: Édessa) was an ancient city (polis) in Upper Mesopotamia, founded during the Hellenistic period by King Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC), founder of the Seleucid Empire. It later became capital of the Kingdom of Osroene, and continued as capital of the Roman province of Osroene. During the Late Antiquity, it became a prominent center of Christian learning and seat of the Catechetical School of Edessa. During the Crusades, it was the capital of the County of Edessa. The city was situated on the banks of the Daysan River (Latin: Scirtus; Turkish: Kara Koyun), a tributary of the Khabur, and was defended by Şanlıurfa Castle, the high central citadel. Ancient Edessa is the predecessor of modern Urfa (Turkish: Şanlıurfa; Kurdish: Riha‎; Arabic: الرُّهَا‎, romanized: ar-Ruhā; Armenian: Ուռհա, romanized: Urha), in the Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Modern names of the city are likely derived from Urhay or Orhay (Classical Syriac: ܐܘܪܗܝ‎, romanized: ʾŪrhāy / ʾŌrhāy), the site's Assyrian name before the re-foundation of the settlement by Seleucus I Nicator. After the defeat of the Seleucids in the Seleucid–Parthian Wars, Edessa became capital of the Kingdom of Osroene, with a mixed Hellenistic and Semitic civilization. The origin of the name of Osroene itself is probably related to Orhay.[1][2] The Roman Republic began exercising political influence over the Kingdom of Osroene and its capital Edessa from 69 BC. It became a Roman colonia in 212 or 213, though there continued to be local kings of Osroene until 243 or 248. In Late Antiquity, Edessa was an important city on the Roman–Persian frontier with the Sasanian Empire. It resisted the attack of Shapur I (r. 240–270) in his third invasion of Roman territory. The 260 Battle of Edessa saw Shapur defeat the Roman emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) and capture him alive, an unprecedented disaster for the Roman state. The Late Antique Laterculus Veronensis names Edessa as the capital of the Roman province of Osroene. The Roman soldier and Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus described the city's formidable fortifications and how in 359 it successfully resisted the attack of Shapur II (r. 309–379).[3] The city was a centre of Greek and Assyrian (Syriac) theological and philosophical thought, hosting the famed School of Edessa. Edessa remained in Roman hands until its capture by the Persians during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, an event recorded by the Greek Chronicon Paschale as occurring in 609. Roman control was restored by the 627 and 628 victories of Heraclius (r. 610–641) in the Byzantine–Sasanian War, but the city was lost to the Romans again in 638, to the Rashidun Caliphate during the Muslim conquest of the Levant. It did not return to the Romans' control until the Byzantine Empire temporarily recovered the city in the mid-10th century after a number of failed attempts.[3] The Byzantine Empire regained control in 1031, though it did not remain under their rule long and changed hands several times before the end of the century. The County of Edessa, one of the Crusader states set up after the success of the First Crusade, was centred on the city, the crusaders having seized the city from the Seljuks. The county survived until the 1144 Siege of Edessa, in which Imad al-Din Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty, captured the city and, according to Matthew of Edessa, killed many of the Edessenes. The Turkic Zengid dynasty's lands were eventually absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1517 after the 1514 Battle of Chaldiran. Contents 1 Names 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Late Antiquity 3.2.1 Early Christian centre 3.2.2 Islamic rule 3.3 Middle Ages 3.4 Subsequent history 4 Syriac literature 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Names[edit] The heritage of Roman Edessa survives today in these columns at the site of Urfa Castle, dominating the skyline of the modern city of Urfa. The earliest name of the city was Admaʾ (also written Adme, Admi, Admum; Aramaic: אדמא‎), recorded in Assyrian cuneiform in the second millennium BCE.[4] The ancient town was refounded as a Hellenistic military settlement by Seleucus I Nicator in c. 303 BCE, and named Edessa after the ancient capital of Macedonia, perhaps due to its abundant water, just like its Macedonian eponym.[5][6][7][8] It was later renamed Callirrhoe or Antiochia on the Callirhoe (Ancient Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Καλλιρρόης; Latin: Antiochia ad Callirhoem) in the 2nd century BC (found on Edessan coins struck by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, r. 175–164 BC).[9][6][7] After Antiochus IV's reign, the name of the city reverted to Edessa, in Greek,[6] and also appears in Armenian as Urha or Ourha (Ուռհա), in Aramaic (Syriac) as Urhay or Orhay (Classical Syriac: ܐܘܪܗܝ‎, romanized: ʾŪrhāy / ʾŌrhāy), in local Neo-Aramaic (Turoyo) as Urhoy, in Arabic as ar-Ruhā (الرُّهَا), in the Kurdish languages as Riha, Latinized as Rohais, and finally adopted into Turkish as Urfa or Şanlıurfa ("Glorious Urfa"), its present name.[10] This originally Aramaic and Syriac name for the city may have been derived from the Persian name Khosrow.[6] It was named Justinopolis in the early 6th century. According to some Jewish and Muslim traditions, it is Ur of the Chaldees, the birthplace of Abraham. Geography[edit] Edessa was situated on a ridge in the middle of a ring of hills surrounded by a fertile plain, and was therefore considered to be favourably situated.[6][7] The ridge in turn was an extension of Mount Masius, part of the Taurus Mountains of southern Asia Minor.[6] The city was located at a crossroads; the east–west highway from Zeugma on the Euphrates to the Tigris, and the north–south route from Samosata (modern-day Samsat) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (modern-day Harran) met at the ridge where Edessa was located.[6] History[edit] Antiquity[edit] Further information: Kingdom of Osroene, Abgarid dynasty, and Osroene (Roman province) In the second half of the second century BC, as the Seleucid Empire disintegrated during wars with Parthia (145–129 BC), Edessa became the capital of the Abgarid dynasty, who founded the kingdom of Osroene (also known as Edessa). This kingdom was established by Arabs from the northern Arabian Peninsula and lasted nearly four centuries (c. 132 BC to A.D. 214), under twenty-eight rulers, who sometimes called themselves "king" on their coinage. Edessa was at first more or less under the protectorate of the Parthians, then of Tigranes of Armenia, Edessa was Armenian Mesopotamia's capital city, then from the time of Pompey under the Roman Empire. Following its capture and sack by Trajan, the Romans even occupied Edessa from 116 to 118, although its sympathies towards the Parthians led to Lucius Verus pillaging the city later in the 2nd century. Christianity is attested in Edessa in the 2nd century; the gnostic Bardaisan was a native of the city and a philosopher at its court.[3] From 212 to 214 the kingdom was a Roman province. silver tetradrachm struck in Edessa by Macrinus 217-218 AD The Roman emperor Caracalla was assassinated on the road from Edessa to Carrhae (now Harran) by one of his guards in 217. Edessa became one of the frontier cities of the province of Osroene and lay close to the border of the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Edessa took place between the Roman armies under the command of the emperorValerian and the Sasanian forces under emperor Shapur I in 260.[6] The Roman army was defeated and captured in its entirety by the Persian forces, including Valerian himself, an event which had never previously happened. The literary language of the tribes that had founded this kingdom was Aramaic, from which Syriac developed.[11] Traces of Hellenistic culture were soon overwhelmed in Edessa, which employed Syriac legends on coinage, with the exception of the client king Abgar IX (179–214), and there is a corresponding lack of Greek public inscriptions.[12] Late Antiquity[edit] Further information: Diocese of the East According to the Chronicle of Edessa, a Syriac chronicle written after 540, the cathedral church of Edessa was founded immediately after the end of the Diocletianic Persecution and the 313 Letter of Licinius, which ended the general persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The cathedral church was dedicated to the Holy Wisdom. Around 23 different monasteries and churches are known to have existed in the city, with at least as many again just outside town; these attracted many pilgrims. Eusebius of Caesarea even claimed in his Church History that "the whole city" was "devoted to the name of Christ" in the early 4th century; in fact the city had at least some pagan inhabitants into the early 5th century, as well as Jewish ones.[3] Eusebius also claimed to quote the Letter of Abgar to Jesus and the Letter of Jesus to Abgar in the state archives of Edessa, foundational texts of the Abgar Legend.[13][3] Egeria, a high-status Roman lady and author, visited Edessa in 384 on her way to Jerusalem; she saw a martyrium of Thomas the Apostle and the text of the Letter of Jesus inscribed on the city walls, said to protect the city.[3] She saw a longer version of the Letters than she was previously familiar with, and was assured that the holy words had repelled a Persian assault on the city.[13] According to the Chronicle of Edessa, in 394 the relics of Saint Thomas were translated into the great Church of St Thomas and in 442 they were encased in a silver casket. According to the late-6th-century Frankish hagiographer and bishop Gregory of Tours, the relics had themselves been brought from India, while in Edessa an annual fair (and alleviation of customs duties) was held at the church in July in the saint's honour (the feast of St Thomas was observed on 3 July) during which, Gregory alleged, water would appear in shallow wells and flies disappeared. According to Joshua the Stylite, a shrine to some martyred saints was built outside the city walls in 346 or 347.[3] A more elaborate version of the Abgar Legend is recorded in the early 5th-century Syriac Doctrine of Addai, purportedly based on the state archives of Edessa, and including both a pseudepigraphal letter from Abgar V to Tiberius (r. 14–37) and the emperor's supposed reply.[13] This text is the earliest to allege that a painting (or icon) of Jesus was enclosed with the reply to Abgar and that the city of Edessa was prophesied never to fall.[13] According to this text, Edessenes were early adopters of Christianity; the inhabitants of the neighbouring city of Carrhae (Harran), by contrast, were pagans. According to the Chronicle of Edessa, the early 5th-century theologian and bishop Rabbula built a church dedicated to Saint Stephen in a building that had been a synagogue.[3] When Nisibis (Nusaybin) was ceded to the Persians along with the five Transtigritine provinces in 363, Ephrem the Syrian left his native town for Edessa, where he founded the celebrated School of Edessa. This school, largely attended by the Christian youth of Persia, and closely watched by Rabbula, the friend of Cyril of Alexandria, on account of its Nestorian tendencies, reached its highest development under bishop Ibas, famous through the Three-Chapter Controversy, was temporarily closed in 457, and finally in 489, by command of Emperor Zeno and Bishop Cyrus, when the teachers and students of the School of Edessa repaired to Nisibis and became chief writers of the Church of the East.[14] Miaphysitism prospered at Edessa after the Arab conquest. Under the Sasanian emperor Kavad I (r. 488–531), the Persians attacked Edessa, and according to Joshua the Stylite the shrine outside the walls set up in the 340s was burnt.[3] Edessa was rebuilt by Justin I (r. 518–527), and renamed Justinopolis after him.[15] The Greek historian Procopius, in his Persian Wars, describes the inscription of the Letter of Jesus's text on the city gates of Edessa, which he stated made the defences impregnable.[13] An unsuccessful Sasanian siege occurred in 544. The city was taken in 609 by the Sasanian Empire, and retaken by Heraclius, but lost to the Muslim army under the Rashidun Caliphate during the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 638. Early Christian centre[edit] King Abgar holding the Image of Edessa. See also: School of Edessa and Early centers of Christianity § Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire The precise date of the introduction of Christianity into Edessa is not known. However, there is no doubt that even before AD 190 Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that shortly after the royal house joined the church.[16][better source needed] According to a legend first reported by Eusebius in the fourth century, King Abgar V was converted by Thaddeus of Edessa,[17][better source needed] who was one of the seventy-two disciples, sent to him by "Judas, who is also called Thomas".[18] However, various sources confirm that the Abgar who embraced the Christian faith was Abgar IX.[19][20][21] Under him Christianity became the official religion of the kingdom.[22] He was succeeded by Aggai, then by Saint Mari, who was ordained about 200 by Serapion of Antioch. Thence came to us in the second century the famous Peshitta, or Syriac translation of the Old Testament; also Tatian's Diatessaron, which was compiled about 172 and in common use until Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa (412–435), forbade its use. Among the illustrious disciples of the School of Edessa, Bardaisan (154–222), a schoolfellow of Abgar IX, deserves special mention for his role in creating Christian religious poetry, and whose teaching was continued by his son Harmonius and his disciples.[citation needed] A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197.[23][better source needed] In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood, and the Christian church was destroyed.[24] In 232 the relics of the apostle Thomas were brought from Mylapore, India, on which occasion his Syriac Acts were written. Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa: Sharbel and Barsamya, under Decius; Sts. Gûrja, Shâmôna, Habib, and others under Diocletian. In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and Persia, and established the first Churches in the Sasanian Empire. Atillâtiâ, Bishop of Edessa, assisted at the First Council of Nicaea (325). The Peregrinatio Silviae (or Etheriae)[25] gives an account of the many sanctuaries at Edessa about 388. As metropolis of Osroene, Edessa had eleven suffragan sees.[26] Michel Le Quien mentions thirty-five bishops of Edessa, but his list is incomplete.[27] The Eastern Orthodox episcopate seems to have disappeared after the 11th century. Of its Jacobite bishops, twenty-nine are mentioned by Le Quien (II, 1429 sqq.), many others in the Revue de l'Orient chrétien (VI, 195), some in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft (1899), 261 sqq. Moreover, Nestorian bishops are said to have resided at Edessa as early as the 6th century. Islamic rule[edit] The Armenian chronicler Sebeos, bishop of Bagratid Armenia writing in the 660s, gives the earliest narrative accounts of Islam in any language today.[citation needed] Sebeos writes of a Jewish delegation going to an Arab city (possibly Medina) after the Byzantines conquered Edessa: Twelve peoples [representing] all the tribes of the Jews assembled at the city of Edessa. When they saw that the Iranian troops had departed ... Thus Heraclius, emperor of the Byzantines, gave the order to besiege it. (625) ... So they departed, taking the road through the desert to Tachkastan to the sons of Ishmael. [The Jews] called [the Arabs] to their aid and familiarized them with the relationship they had through the books of the [Old] Testament. Although [the Arabs] were convinced of their close relationship, they were unable to get a consensus from their multitude, for they were divided from each other by religion. In that period a certain one of them, a man of the sons of Ishmael named Mahmet, a merchant, became prominent. A sermon about the Way of Truth, supposedly at God's command, was revealed to them... he ordered them all to assemble together and to unite in faith... He said: "God promised that country to Abraham and to his son after him, for eternity. And what had been promised was fulfilled during that time when [God] loved Israel. Now, however, you are the sons of Abraham, and God shall fulfill the promise made to Abraham and his son on you. Only love the God of Abraham, and go and take the country which God gave to your father, Abraham. No one can successfully resist you in war, since God is with you. Muslim tradition tells of a similar account, known as the second pledge at al-Aqabah. Sebeos' account suggests that Muhammad was actually leading a joint venture toward Palestine, instead of a Jewish-Arab alliance against the Meccan pagans toward the south. Middle Ages[edit] Further information: County of Edessa The Byzantine Empire often tried to retake Edessa, especially under Romanos I Lekapenos, who obtained from the inhabitants the "Image of Edessa", an ancient portrait of Christ, and solemnly transferred it to Constantinople, August 16, 944. This was the final great achievement of Romanus's reign. This venerable and famous image, which was certainly at Edessa in 544, and of which there is an ancient copy in the Vatican Library, was looted and brought to the West by the Republic of Venice in 1207 following the Fourth Crusade. The city was ruled shortly thereafter by Marwanids. Maniakes defending Edessa. In 1031 Edessa was given up to the Byzantines under George Maniakes by its Arab governor. It was retaken by the Arabs, and then successively held by the Greeks, the Armenians, the Seljuq dynasty (1087), the Crusaders (1098), who established there the County of Edessa and kept the city until 1144, when it was again captured by Imad ad-Din Zengi, and most of its inhabitants were allegedly slaughtered together with the Latin archbishop (see Siege of Edessa).[28] These events are known to us chiefly through the Armenian historian Matthew, who had been born at Edessa. In 1144 the city had an Armenian population of 47,000. In 1146, the city was briefly recaptured by the crusaders and lost after a few days. In the words of Steven Runciman, "the whole Christian population was driven into exile [and t]he great city, which claimed to be the oldest Christian commonwealth in the world, was left empty and desolate, and has never recovered to this day."[29] The Ayyubid Sultanate's leader Saladin acquired the town from the Zengids in 1182. During Ayyubid rule, Edessa had a population of approximately 24,000.[30] The Sultanate of Rûm took Edessa in June 1234, but sometime in late 1234 or 1235, the Ayyubid sultan Al-Kamil re-acquired it. After Edessa had been recaptured, Al-Kamil ordered the destruction of its Citadel.[31] Not long after, the Mongols had made their presence known in Edessa in 1244. Later, the Ilkhanate sent troops to Edessa in 1260 at which point the town voluntarily submitted to them. The populace of Edessa were thus saved from being massacred by the Mongols. Edessa was also held by the Mamluk Sultanate, and the Aq Qoyunlu. Subsequent history[edit] Main article: Urfa Edessa was subsequently controlled by the Safavid dynasty, and from 1517 to 1918 the Ottoman Empire.[32] Under the Ottomans in 1518, the population of Edessa was estimated at a mere 5,500; likely due to the Ottoman–Persian Wars. By 1566, though, the population had risen to an estimated 14,000 citizens. In 1890, the population of Edessa consisted of 55,000, of which the Muslim population made up 40,835.[32] Syriac literature[edit] Further information: Syriac literature The oldest known dated Syriac manuscripts (AD 411 and 462), containing Greek patristic texts, come from Edessa. Following are some of the famous individuals connected with Edessa: Jacob Baradaeus, an ardent Miaphysite who preserved the (Oriental) Orthodox church after the persecution subsequent to the Chalcedonian controversy Jacobites Jacob, Bishop of Edessa, a prolific writer (d. 708); Theophilus, an astronomer, who translated into Syriac verse Homer's Iliad and Odyssey; Stephen Bar Sudaïli, monk and pantheist, to whom was owing, in Palestine, the last crisis of Origenism in the 6th century The anonymous author of the Chronicon Edessenum (Chronicle of Edessa), compiled in 540 The anonymous writer of the story of "The Man of God", in the 5th century, which gave rise to the legend of St. Alexius, also known as Alexius of Rome (because exiled Eastern monks brought his cult and bones to Rome in the 10th century). Basil bar Shumna (d. c. 1170) bishop who wrote a chronicle of the city's history (now lost) Cyrus of Edessa, 6th century Syriac Christian writer John bar Aphtonia, a key figure in the transmission of Greek thought and literary culture into a Syriac milieu Thaddeus of Edessa, Christian saint and one of the seventy disciples of Jesus Maurelius of Voghenza, Syrian priest See also[edit] List of ancient Greek cities Image of Edessa Knanaya List of bishops of Edessa Matthew of Edessa References[edit] ^ Harrak 1992, p. 209-214. ^ Keser-Kayaalp & Drijvers 2018, p. 516–518. ^ a b c d e f g h i Keser-Kayaalp & Drijvers 2018, p. 517. ^ Harrak 1992, p. 212-214. ^ Harrak 1992, p. 209. ^ a b c d e f g h Lieu 1997, pp. 174-175. ^ a b c Gray & Kuhrt 2012. ^ Everett-Heath 2018. ^ Harrak 1992, p. 211. ^ Harrak 1992, p. 209–214. ^ Healey 2007, p. 115–127. ^ Bauer, Walter (1991) [1934]. "1. Edessa". Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity. U Penn. ^ a b c d e Desreumaux, Alain J. (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Abgar legend", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-11-28 ^ Labourt, Le christianisme dans l'empire perse, Paris, 1904, 130–41. ^ Evagrius, Hist. Eccl., IV, viii ^ von Harnack, Adolph (1905). The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. Williams & Norgate. p. 293. there is no doubt that even before AD 190 Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that (shortly after 201 or even earlier?) the royal house joined the church ^ Herbermann, Charles George (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Press. p. 282. ^ {Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine, Book 1 Chapter 13 http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.vi.xiii.html}[permanent dead link] ^ Cheetham, Samuel (1905). A History of the Christian Church During the First Six Centuries. Macmillan and Company. p. 58. ^ von Gutschmid, A. (July 1887). "Untersuchungen über die Geschichte des Königliches Osroëne" [Studies on the history of Royal Osroene]. Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg (in German). Saint Petersburg. 35. ^ Shahid, Irfan (1984). Rome and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 109–12. ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zondervan. p. 260. ISBN 0-310-28011-7. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica, V, 23. ^ Chronicon Edessenum, ad. an. 201. ^ Ed. Gian Francesco Gamurrini, Rome, 1887, 62 sqq. ^ Échos d'Orient, 1907, 145. ^ Oriens christianus II, 953 sqq. ^ El-Azhari 2016, p. 91. ^ Steven Runciman (1951), A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187, Cambridge University Press, p. 240. ^ Shatzmiller, Maya (1993-12-31). Labour in the Medieval Islamic World. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09896-1. ^ From Saladin to the Mongols: Women as Radicals and Conservators. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0727-2. ^ a b al-Ruha, Suraiya Faroqhi, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VIII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, G. Lecomte, (Brill, 1995), 591-593. Sources[edit] Adai, Jacob (2005). "Edessa and the Syriac Language". The Harp. 18: 331–336. doi:10.31826/9781463233068-030. ISBN 9781463233068. Adler, William (2013). "The Kingdom of Edessa and the Creation of a Christian Aristocracy". Jews, Christians, and the Roman Empire: The Poetics of Power in Late Antiquity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 43–62, 277–282. ISBN 9780812208573. Barnard, Leslie W. (1968). "The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A. D." (PDF). Vigiliae Christianae. 22 (3): 161–175. doi:10.1163/157007267X00438. S2CID 161640016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-12. Walter Bauer 1971. Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, 1934, (in English 1971): Chapter 1 "Edessa" (On-line text) Brock, Sebastian P. (2005). "The Theological Schools of Antioch, Edessa and Nisibis". Christianity: A History in the Middle East. Beirut: Middle East Council of Churches. pp. 143–160. ISBN 9789953003436. Brock, Sebastian P. (2009). "Edessene Syriac Inscriptions in Late Antique Syria". From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 289–302. ISBN 9780521875813. Brock, Sebastian P. (2013). "Manuscripts Copied in Edessa". Orientalia Christiana: Festschrift für Hubert Kaufhold zum 70. Geburtstag. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 109–128. ISBN 9783447068857. Drijvers, Hendrik J. W. (1980). Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004060502. El-Azhari, Taef (2016). Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades: The Politics of Jihad. Routledge. Everett-Heath, John (2018). "Şanlıurfa". 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A. von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen über die Geschichte des Königliches Osroëne, in series Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg, series 7, vol. 35.1 (St. Petersburg, 1887) Gray, Eric William; Kuhrt, Amélie (2012). "Edessa". The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. Harrak, Amir (1992). "The Ancient Name of Edessa" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (3): 209–214. doi:10.1086/373553. S2CID 162190342. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-09. Healey, John F. (2007). "The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 10 (2): 115–127. Keser-Kayaalp, Elif; Drijvers, Hendrik J. W. (2018). "Edessa". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 516–518. ISBN 9780192562463. Lieu, Samuel (1997). "Edessa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 8. pp. 174–175. Millar, Fergus (1967). The Roman Empire and Its Neighbours. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 9780440017691. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 BC - AD 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674778863. Millar, Fergus (2004). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society and Culture in the Roman Empire. 2. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807855201. Millar, Fergus (2006). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East. 3. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807876657. Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520253919. Millar, Fergus (2011). "Greek and Syriac in Edessa: From Ephrem to Rabbula (CE 363-435)". Semitica et Classica. 4: 99–114. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508. Millar, Fergus (2012). "Greek and Syriac in Fifth-Century Edessa: The Case of Bishop Hibas". Semitica et Classica. 5: 151–165. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.103053. Reinink, Gerrit J. (1995). "Edessa Grew Dim and Nisibis Shone Forth: The School of Nisibis at the Transition of the Sixth-Seventh Century". Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East. Leiden: Brill. pp. 77–89. ISBN 9004101934. Ross, Steven K. (2001). Roman Edessa: Politics and Culture on the Eastern Fringes of the Roman Empire, 114-242 CE. London-New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781134660636. Segal, Judah B. (1970). Edessa: The Blessed City. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198215455. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edessa, Mesopotamia. Old and new Images from Edessa Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch by the Callirhoe, later Justinopolis (Edessa; Urfa) Turkey" Andre Palmer, in e-journal Golden horn: Journal of Byzantium An essay on Egeria's escorted visit (April 384), and the bishop's tall tales Chronicle of Edessa Ancient Coins of Edessa at wildwinds.com Livius.org: Edessa v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia 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en-wikipedia-org-4717	----	De Tranquillitate Animi - Wikipedia De Tranquillitate Animi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Tranquillitate Animi From the 1594 edition, published by Jean Le Preux Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 60 De Tranquillitate Animi (On the tranquility of the mind) is a Latin work by the Stoic philosopher Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). The dialogue concerns the state of mind of Seneca's friend Annaeus Serenus, and how to cure Serenus of anxiety, worry and disgust with life. Contents 1 Background 2 Dating 3 Title and contents 4 Themes 5 Later history 6 Editions 6.1 Translations 7 References 8 External links Background[edit] Around 400 B.C., Democritus wrote a treatise On Cheerfulness (Greek: Περι εύθυμίης; Peri euthymiés). The term euthymia, or "cheerfulness", can mean steadiness of the mind, well-being of the soul, self-confidence.[1][2] Seneca lauds Democritus in relation to his treatise on the subject,[3] and states that he will use the Latin word tranquillitas as a rough translation of euthymia.[4] Writing a little later than Seneca, Plutarch wrote a similar work, described in the 1589 translation as, "a philosophical treatise concerning the quietness of the mind".[5] Dating[edit] De Tranquillitate Animi is thought to be written during the years 49 to 62 A.D. It has often been dated to around 60 AD on the (possibly wrong) assumption that the theme of the dialogue reflects Seneca's own deteriorating political situation at court.[6] Title and contents[edit] The title when translated into English means on the tranquility of the mind (or) soul. The word animi is translated, in a general sense, as the rational soul, and in a more restricted sense, as the mind as a thing thinking, feeling, willing. T. M. Green provides definitions of animus, animi as being soul, mind and also courage, passion. Monteleone translated tranquillitas animi as, mental equilibrium.[7][8][9] De Tranquillitate Animi is part of Seneca's series of Dialogi (dialogues). The dialogue concerns the state of the animi of Seneca's friend Annaeus Serenus, and how to cure Serenus of anxiety, worry and disgust with life.[10][11] it is more typical of a human to laugh down life than to bewail it — 15.2 [12] Seneca finishes De Tranquillitate with a quote by Aristotle:[13][14] nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtura dementiae fuit no great genius has existed without a strain of madness Themes[edit] Seneca, as with other Stoics, was concerned with providing insight for the development of a practice of life, for others to develop into virtuous individuals and to achieve inner harmony.[15] De Tranquillitate Animi is one of a trio of dialogues to his friend Serenus, which includes De Constantia Sapientis and De Otio. The superior position ho sophos (the sage) inhabits, of detachment from earthly (terrena) possibilities of future events of a detrimental nature, is the unifying theme of the dialogues.[16][17] Compared with the other two works, the intention of De Tranquillitate Animi is more therapeutic.[18] The work opens with Serenus asking Seneca for counsel, and this request for help takes the form of a medical consultation. Serenus explains that he feels agitated, and in a state of unstable immobility, "as if I were on a boat that doesn't move forward and is tossed about."[10] Seneca uses the dialogue to address an issue that cropped up many times in his life: the desire for a life of contemplation and the need for active political engagement.[17] Seneca argues that the goal of a tranquil mind can be achieved by being flexible and seeking a middle way between the two extremes.[17] If we want to achieve peace of mind, Seneca recommends an austere life, oblivious to excessive and useless luxury. He advises us to choose our companions carefully, since if we choose those that are corrupted by the vices, their vices will extend to us (chapter 7). Austerity is the main treatment for peace of mind: we have to learn to know how to contain ourselves, curb our desires, temper gluttony, mitigate anger, to look at poverty with good eyes and to revere self-control (chapter 8). Seneca compares those who have a lot and do not know how to enjoy it to a person who owns a large library of books for mere display (chapter 9). In chapter 11, Seneca introduces the figure of the Stoic sage, whose peace of mind (ataraxia) springs directly from a greater understanding of the world. The sage's complete security and self-sufficiency exclude the unhealthy passions (apatheia), i.e disturbances which cannot upset the person who is, by definition, rational. Only reasoning, caution, and foresight can create in someone the ideal atmosphere of peace. The philosopher, while preserving his peace of mind, does not hate humanity for its injustice, vileness, stupidity and corruption. The times we live in are no worse than the preceding ones, it is not reasonable to waste time raging about these evils, it is more reasonable to laugh at them (chapter 15). Thus the right treatment is to follow nature, find the right balance between sociability and solitude, labour and leisure, sobriety and intoxication, and to "watch over our vacillating mind with intense and unremitting care" (chapter 17). Later history[edit] The first extant copy of the work is as part of the Codex Ambrosianus C 90, of the Ambrosianus library in Milan, dating from the 11th century A.D.[19][20] Editions[edit] Translations[edit] Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, Gareth D. Williams (2014). Hardship and Happiness (The Complete Works of Lucius Annaeus Seneca. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748324. References[edit] ^ OAW Dilke (edited by Wolfgang Haase) (1981). The Interpretation of Horace's Epistles (in) Aufstieg und niedergang der Römischen welt. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1849. ISBN 3110084678. Retrieved 2015-03-16. ^ F Copleston (2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. A&C Black. p. 125. ISBN 0826468950. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ S McElduff (2013). Roman Theories of Translation: Surpassing the Source. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135069063. Retrieved 2015-03-14. ^ GA Kennedy (2008). The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World: 300 B. C. - A. D. 300. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 472. ISBN 978-1556359798. Retrieved 2015-03-16.Volume 2 of History of rhetoric ^ catalogue showing - A philosophicall treatise concerning the quietnes of the mind. Taken out of the morall workes written in Greeke, by the most famous philosopher, & historiographer, Plutarch of Cherronea, ... by Iohn Clapham. [London]: Printed by Robert Robinson for Thomas Newman, 1589 (ed. made available online via Digital Library Production Service (DLPS) & Text Creation Partnership) [Retrieved 2015-3-29] ^ Fritz-Heiner Mutschler in Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, pages 153-4 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ Perseus Digital Library - Tufts University Search Tools - Latin Word Study Tool (for expanded definitions see page under Lewis & Short) [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ T. M. Green, The Greek & Latin Roots of English (Rowman & Littlefield, 17 Jul 2014) ISBN 1442233281 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ M.Monteleone - Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist (head of p.129) (edited by Andreas Heil, Gregor Damschen) [Retrieved 2015-3-15] ^ a b M.Foucault Wrong-Doing, Truth-Telling: The Function of Avowal in Justice (University of Chicago Press, 4 Jun 2014) ISBN 0226257703 [Retrieved 2014-3-14] ^ SENECA AS A MORALIST AND PHILOSOPHER in The National quarterly review -p.18 published 1868 (ed. by E. I. Sears) [Retrieved 2015-3-18] ^ C Star - The Empire of the Self: Self-Command and Political Speech in Seneca and Petronius - JHU Press, 7 Sep 2012 ISBN 1421406748 [Retrieved 2015-3-14] ^ HJ Norman - Genius and Psychiatry Proc R Soc Med. 1923; 16(Sect Psych): 33–38. [Retrieved 2015-3-15] (ed. Norman was the first source here for the latin quote) ^ AL Motto, JR Clark - The Paradox of Genius and Madness: Seneca and his Influence [Retrieved 2015-3-15] (ed. Motto & Clark provided a translation of the Latin, etc) ^ Groenendijk, Leendert F. and de Ruyter, Doret J.(2009) 'Learning from Seneca: a Stoic perspective on the art of living and education', Ethics and Education, 4: 1, 81 — 92 DOI: 10.1080/17449640902816277 [Retrieved 2015-3-17] (ed. <inner harmony> c.f. p.82;1st paragraph;last sentence, <virtuous> p.82;2nd paragraph;3rd from last sentence, <practical> - p.82;3rd paragraph;last sentence) ^ R Bett - A Companion to Ancient Philosophy - p.531 (edited by Mary Louise Gill, Pierre Pellegrin)[Retrieved 2015-3-19] (ed. Bett was source of term ho sophos) ^ a b c Gian Biagio Conte (4 Nov 1999). Latin Literature: A History. Translated by J Solodow. JHU Press. ISBN 0801862531. Retrieved 2015-03-19. ^ M. T. Griffin - Seneca on Society: A Guide to De Beneficiis, page 146. Oxford University Press, 14 Mar 2013 ISBN 0199245487 [Retrieved 2014-3-14] ^ Reynolds, L. D.; Griffin, M. T.; Fantham, E. (2012). "Annaeus Seneca (2), Lucius". In Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A.; Eidinow, E. (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199545568. ^ Colish, Marcia L. (1985). The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. 1. BRILL. ISBN 9004072675. External links[edit] Works related to Of Peace of Mind at Wikisource Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks De Tranquillitate Animi (Latin) (ed. John W. Basore) v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Tranquillitate_Animi&oldid=1027358769" Categories: Philosophy of mind literature Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Italiano Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Early rule=== Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118, citing Werner Eck, ''Die Organization Italiens'' (1979), pp. 146ff.</ref> Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their ''civiliter'' ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157.</ref> Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ''[[ab epistulis]]'' Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of [[Pannonia]] and had served in the war in [[Mauretania]]. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, ''Roman Britain and the Roman Army'' (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff.</ref> Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been [[Augustal prefect|prefectural governor]] of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]] at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (''[[aerarium Saturni]]''). He was made consul soon after.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), no. 141.</ref> Fronto's son-in-law, [[Gaius Aufidius Victorinus]], was appointed governor of [[Germania Superior]].<ref name='HA Marcus 8 1985'>''HA Marcus'' viii. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing W. Eck, ''Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen'' (1985), pp. 65ff.</ref> Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in [[Cirta]] as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff).</ref> The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.1 (= Haines 1.305).</ref> Marcus told Fronto of his reading – [[Lucius Coelius Antipater|Coelius]] and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the ''felicitas temporum'' ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG |alt1=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |image2=Piena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg |alt2=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |footer=[[Tiber Island]] seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the [[Tiber]], December 2008 }} In either autumn 161 or spring 162,{{refn|Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.<ref>Gregory S. Aldrete, ''Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31.</ref> (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'/>)|group=note}} the [[Tiber]] overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref>{{refn|Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the ''curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis'' ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of [[Aulus Platorius Nepos|the builder]] of [[Hadrian's Wall]], whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, [[Marcus Statius Priscus|M. Statius Priscus]]. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+05932&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 5932] (Nepos), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01092&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1092] (Priscus); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref>|group=note}} In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xi. 3, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.16.</ref> Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of [[Cleanthes]] and [[Zeno of Citium|Zeno]], yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.<ref>''De eloquentia'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 127–28.</ref> Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at [[Cyzicus]]. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-4734	----	Constantine IX Monomachos - Wikipedia Constantine IX Monomachos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1042 to 1055 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine IX Monomachos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Mosaic of Emperor Constantine IX at the Hagia Sophia Byzantine emperor Reign 11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055 Coronation 12 June 1042 Predecessor Zoë Porphyrogenita and Theodora Porphyrogenita Successor Theodora Porphyrogenita Co-empresses Zoë Porphyrogenita Theodora Porphyrogenita Born c. 1000 Antioch Died 11 January 1055 (aged 54–55) Constantinople Burial Monastery of Mangana, Constantinople Spouse Two unknown wives Zoë Porphyrogenita Dynasty Macedonian (by marriage) Monomachos family Father Theodosios Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos, Latinized as Monomachus (Medieval Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Θ΄ Μονομάχος, romanized: Kōnstantinos IX Monomachos; c. 1000 – 11 January 1055), reigned as Byzantine emperor from 11 June 1042 to 11 January 1055. He had been chosen by Zoë Porphyrogenita as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian. They ruled together until Zoë died in 1050. During Constantine's reign, the Byzantine Empire fought wars against groups which included the Kievan Rus' and the Seljuq Turks. In the year before his death, the split between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches took place. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 3 Architecture and art 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources Early life[edit] Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII.[1] At some point, Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy and his son's career suffered accordingly.[2] Constantine's position improved after he married his second wife, a niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros.[3] Catching the eye of Zoë Porphyrogenita, he was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Michael IV.[4] Gold histamenon of Zoë and Theodora, 1042. The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece.[5] However, prior to commencing his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople, where the fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, the empresses Zoë and Theodora, was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority.[6] After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances,[3] Zoë remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June 1042, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius I of Constantinople, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses).[2] On the following day, Constantine was formally proclaimed emperor together with Zoë and her sister Theodora. Reign[edit] Gold tetarteron of Constantine IX Monomachos. Reverse. Bust of Constantine IX with a beard; on his head is a crown with a cross; labarum in his right hand, globe with a cross in his left. Constantinople. Coronation of Constantine IX Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court.[7] The new emperor was pleasure-loving[8] and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy.[9] He was heavily influenced by his mistress Maria Skleraina, a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, a certain "Alan princess", probably Irene, daughter of the Georgian Bagratid prince Demetrius.[10] Zoë (left), Constantine IX (centre), and Theodora (right) depicted on the Monomachus Crown In August 1042, the emperor relieved General George Maniakes from his command in Italy, and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September.[11] He transferred his troops into the Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043.[12] Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus';[12] it is "incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion".[13] They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire.[14] Constantine married his relative Anastasia to the future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev, the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise. Constantine's family name Monomachos ("one who fights alone") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh.[1] Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora.[15] This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination.[16] In 1045 Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani,[17] but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046 the Byzantines came into contact for the first time with the Seljuk Turks.[18] They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year.[19] Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the battle of Manzikert in 1071.[20] Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church, trying to force it into union with the Orthodox Church.[18] In 1046,[21] he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy.[22] Leo Tornikios attacks Constantinople, Skylitzes chronicle. In 1047 Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios, who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army.[23][24] Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight.[20] The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in the Balkans, and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs,[25] who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion.[26] Constantine seems to have taken recourse to the pronoia system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces.[4][27] Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold.[28] Dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre In 1054 the centuries-old differences between the Eastern and Western churches led to their final separation. Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates.[29] This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans, who had taken advantage of the disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy.[30] Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year.[31] He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the doux of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon.[32] However, Theodora was recalled from her retirement and named empress.[33] Architecture and art[edit] The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos,[34] whose Chronographia records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his Chronographia: he was "ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal."[35] This description is a very clear depiction of a severe lifelong case of rosacea. Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[36] Permitted by a treaty between al-Hakim's son al-Zahir and Byzantine Emperor Romanos III, it was Constantine IX who finally funded the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land.[37] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Kazhdan, pg. 1398 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 307 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 306 ^ a b Kazhdan, pg. 504 ^ Finlay, pg. 500 ^ Finlay, pg. 499 ^ Finlay, pg. 505 ^ Norwich, pg. 308 ^ Finlay, pg, 510 ^ Lynda Garland with Stephen H. Rapp Jr. (2006). 'of Alania'[permanent dead link]. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved on 3 April 2011. ^ Norwich, pg. 310 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 311 ^ Quoted from: Litavrin, Grigory. Rus'-Byzantine Relations in the 11th and 12th Centuries. // History of Byzantium, vol. 2, chapter 15, p. 347-352. Moscow: Nauka, 1967 (online) ^ Finlay, pg. 514 ^ Norwich, pg. 309 ^ Finlay, pg. 503 ^ Norwich, pg. 340 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 341 ^ Finlay, pg. 520 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 314 ^ John H. Rosser, Historical Dictionary of Byzantium, Scarecrow Press, 2001, p. xxx. ^ Aleksandr Petrovich Kazhdan, Annabel Jane Wharton, Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries, University of California Press, 1985, p. 122. ^ Bréhier, pg. 325 ^ Norwich, pg. 312 ^ Finlay, pg. 515 ^ Norwich, pg. 315 ^ Finlay, pg. 504 ^ Laiou, pg. 3 ^ Norwich, pg. 321 ^ Norwich, pg. 316 ^ Norwich, pg. 324 ^ Finlay, pg. 527 ^ Treadgold, pg. 596 ^ Garland, pg. 246 ^ Psellos, 126:2–5 ^ Finlay, pg. 468 ^ Ousterhout, Robert (1989). "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 48 (1): 66–78. doi:10.2307/990407. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Michael Psellus, Fourteen Byzantine Rulers, trans. E.R.A. Sewter (Penguin, 1966). ISBN 0-14-044169-7 Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. Secondary sources[edit] Blaum, Paul A. (2004). "Diplomacy Gone to Seed: A History of Byzantine Foreign Relations, A.D. 1047-57". International Journal of Kurdish Studies. 18 (1): 1–56. Bréhier, Louis (1946). Le monde byzantin: Vie et mort de Byzance (PDF) (in French). Paris, France: Éditions Albin Michel. OCLC 490176081. Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1902-5322-6. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Laiou, Angeliki E (2002). Economic History of Byzantium. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-288-9. Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Treadgold, Warren T. (1997), A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Angold, Michael. The Byzantine empire 1025–1204 (Longman, 2nd edition, 1997). ISBN 0-582-29468-1 Harris, Jonathan. Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon/Continuum, 2007). ISBN 978-1-84725-179-4 Finlay, George. History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, William Blackwood & Sons, 1853. Garland, Lynda. Conformity and Non-conformity in Byzantium, Verlag Adolf M. Hakkert, 1997. ISBN 978-9-02560-619-0 Constantine IX Monomachos Macedonian dynasty Born: c. 1000 Died: 11 January 1055 Regnal titles Preceded by Zoë Porphyrogenita and Theodora Byzantine emperor 1042–1055 with Zoë Porphyrogenita (1042-1050) and Theodora (1042-1055) Succeeded by Theodora v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-4748	----	Silk Road - Wikipedia Silk Road From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Trade routes through Asia connecting China to the Mediterranean Sea This article is about the series of trade routes. For other uses, see Silk Road (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Silk Road" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article is missing information about the decline and collapse of the Silk Road. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Silk Road Main routes of the Silk Road Route information Time period Around 114 BCE – 1450s CE UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Type Cultural Criteria ii, iii, iv, vi Designated 2014 (38th session) Reference no. 1442 Region Asia-Pacific The Silk Road was and is a network of trade routes connecting the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century.[1][2][3] The Silk Road primarily refers to the land but also sea routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning in the Han dynasty in China (207 BCE–220 CE). The Han dynasty expanded the Central Asian section of the trade routes around 114 BCE through the missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy Zhang Qian, as well as several military conquests.[4] The Chinese took great interest in the security of their trade products, and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route.[5] The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China, Korea,[6] Japan,[2] the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Europe, the Horn of Africa and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations.[7] Though silk was the major trade item exported from China, many other goods and ideas were exchanged, including religions (especially Buddhism), syncretic philosophies, sciences, and technologies like paper and gunpowder. So in addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network.[8] Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Road.[9] In the present day, trade takes place on the Silk Road on land and on the maritime branch. There are several projects under the name of “New Silk Road” to expand the transport infrastructure in the area of the historic trade routes. The best known is probably the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). In June 2014, UNESCO designated the Chang'an-Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site. The Indian portion is on the tentative site list. Contents 1 Name 2 Precursors 2.1 Chinese and Central Asian contacts (2nd millennium BCE) 2.2 Persian Royal Road (500–330 BCE) 2.3 Expansion of the Greek Empire (329 BCE–10 CE) 3 Initiation in China (130 BCE) 4 Evolution 4.1 Roman Empire (30 BCE–3rd century CE) 4.2 Byzantine Empire (6th–14th centuries) 4.3 Tang dynasty (7th century) 4.4 Sogdian–Türkic tribes (4th–8th centuries) 4.5 Islamic era (8th–13th centuries) 4.6 Mongol empire (13th–14th centuries) 4.7 Decline and disintegration (15th century) 4.8 Partial revival in West Asia 4.9 Collapse (18th century) 5 New Silk Road (20th–21st centuries) 5.1 Maritime Silk Road 5.2 Railway (1990) 5.3 Revival of cities (1966) 5.4 Belt and Road Initiative (2013) 6 Routes 6.1 Northern route 6.2 Southern route 6.3 Southwestern route 6.4 Maritime route 7 Expansion of religions 7.1 Transmission of Christianity 7.2 Transmission of Buddhism 7.3 Judaism on the Silk Road 8 Expansion of the arts 9 Commemoration 10 Foreign language terms 11 Gallery 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Citations 13.2 Sources 14 Further reading 15 External links Name Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, dated to the Western Han Era, 2nd century BCE The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk, first developed in China[10][11] and a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network.[12][13] It derives from the German term Seidenstraße (literally "Silk Road") and was first popularized by in 1877 by Ferdinand von Richthofen, who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872.[14][13][15][16] However, the term itself has been in use in decades prior.[17] The alternative translation "Silk Route" is also used occasionally.[18] Although the term was coined in the 19th century, it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century.[16] The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938.[16] Use of the term 'Silk Road' is not without its detractors. For instance, Warwick Ball contends that the maritime spice trade with India and Arabia was far more consequential for the economy of the Roman Empire than the silk trade with China, which at sea was conducted mostly through India and on land was handled by numerous intermediaries such as the Sogdians.[19] Going as far as to call the whole thing a "myth" of modern academia, Ball argues that there was no coherent overland trade system and no free movement of goods from East Asia to the West until the period of the Mongol Empire.[20] He notes that traditional authors discussing East-West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route a "silk" one in particular.[16] The southern stretches of the Silk Road, from Khotan (Xinjiang) to Eastern China, were first used for jade and not silk, as long as 5000 BCE, and is still in use for this purpose. The term "Jade Road" would have been more appropriate than "Silk Road" had it not been for the far larger and geographically wider nature of the silk trade; the term is in current use in China.[21] Precursors Chinese and Central Asian contacts (2nd millennium BCE) Chinese jade and steatite plaques, in the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes. 4th–3rd century BCE. British Museum. Central Eurasia has been known from ancient times for its horse riding and horse breeding communities, and the overland Steppe Route across the northern steppes of Central Eurasia was in use long before that of the Silk Road.[11] Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also produced great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road.[22][23] From the 2nd millennium BCE, nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan to China. Significantly, these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli and spinel ("Balas Ruby") mines in Badakhshan, and, although separated by the formidable Pamir Mountains, routes across them were apparently in use from very early times.[citation needed] Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade.[24] The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it cannot be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which almost certainly came from China) or a type of wild silk, which might have come from the Mediterranean or Middle East.[25] Following contacts between Metropolitan China and nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BCE, gold was introduced from Central Asia, and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes, adopting the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (depictions of animals locked in combat). This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze, with other versions in jade and steatite.[citation needed] An elite burial near Stuttgart, Germany, dated to the 6th century BCE, was excavated and found to have not only Greek bronzes but also Chinese silks.[26] Similar animal-shaped pieces of art and wrestler motifs on belts have been found in Scythian grave sites stretching from the Black Sea region all the way to Warring States era archaeological sites in Inner Mongolia (at Aluchaideng) and Shaanxi (at Keshengzhuang) in China.[26] The expansion of Scythian cultures, stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathian Mountains to the Chinese Kansu Corridor, and linking the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab, undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road. Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt, and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan. These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies, and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities, they also encouraged long-distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade between China and Central Asia along the Silk Roads as late as the 10th century, their language serving as a lingua franca for Asian trade as far back as the 4th century.[27][28] Persian Royal Road (500–330 BCE) Achaemenid Persian Empire at its greatest extent, showing the Royal Road. By the time of Herodotus (c. 475 BCE), the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km (1,775 mi) from the city of Susa on the Karun (250 km (155 mi) east of the Tigris) to the port of Smyrna (modern İzmir in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea.[29] It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire (c. 500–330 BCE) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages and traverse the length of the road in nine days, while normal travelers took about three months.[citation needed] Expansion of the Greek Empire (329 BCE–10 CE) Main article: Alexander the Great Soldier with a centaur in the Sampul tapestry,[30] wool wall hanging, 3rd–2nd century BCE, Xinjiang Museum, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China. The next major step toward the development of the Silk Road was the expansion of the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great into Central Asia. In August 329 BCE, at the mouth of the Fergana Valley, he founded the city of Alexandria Eschate or "Alexandria The Furthest".[31] The Greeks remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries, first through the administration of the Seleucid Empire, and then with the establishment of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BCE) in Bactria (modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) and the later Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE – 10 CE) in modern Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of Euthydemus (230–200 BCE), who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to Sogdiana. There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar on the western edge of the Taklamakan Desert, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 200 BCE.[citation needed] The Greek historian Strabo writes, "they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (China) and the Phryni."[32] Classical Greek philosophy syncretised with Indian philosophy.[33] Initiation in China (130 BCE) Main articles: Protectorate of the Western Regions, War of the Heavenly Horses, Han–Xiongnu War, and History of the Han dynasty See also: Sino-Roman relations, China–India relations, and Zhang Qian The Silk Road was initiated and globalized by Chinese exploration and conquests in Central Asia. With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley, the next step was to open a route across the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor to China Proper. This extension came around 130 BCE, with the embassies of the Han dynasty to Central Asia following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian[34] (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu). Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories of the Yuezhi in Transoxiana, the Bactrian country of Daxia with its remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule, and Kangju. He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (Parthia), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu (Indian subcontinent) and the Wusun.[35] Zhang Qian's report suggested the economic reason for Chinese expansion and wall-building westward, and trail-blazed the Silk road, making it one of the most famous trade routes in history and in the world.[36] After winning the War of the Heavenly Horses and the Han–Xiongnu War, Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia, initiating the Silk Route as a major avenue of international trade.[37] Some say that the Chinese Emperor Wu became interested in developing commercial relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria, and the Parthian Empire: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan "Great Ionians") and the possessions of Bactria (Ta-Hsia) and Parthian Empire (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). Others[38] say that Emperor Wu was mainly interested in fighting the Xiongnu and that major trade began only after the Chinese pacified the Hexi Corridor. The Silk Roads' origin lay in the hands of the Chinese. The soil in China lacked Selenium, a deficiency which contributed to muscular weakness and reduced growth in horses.[39] Consequently, horses in China were too frail to support the weight of a Chinese soldier.[40] The Chinese needed the superior horses that nomads bred on the Eurasian steppes, and nomads wanted things only agricultural societies produced, such as grain and silk. Even after the construction of the Great Wall, nomads gathered at the gates of the wall to exchange. Soldiers sent to guard the wall were often paid in silk which they traded with the nomads.[41] Past its inception, the Chinese continued to dominate the Silk Roads, a process which was accelerated when "China snatched control of the Silk Road from the Hsiung-nu" and the Chinese general Cheng Ki "installed himself as protector of the Tarim at Wu-lei, situated between Kara Shahr and Kucha." "China's control of the Silk Road at the time of the later Han, by ensuring the freedom of transcontinental trade along the double chain of oases north and south of the Tarim, favoured the dissemination of Buddhism in the river basin, and with it Indian literature and Hellenistic art."[42] A ceramic horse head and neck (broken from the body), from the Chinese Eastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd century CE) Bronze coin of Constantius II (337–361), found in Karghalik, Xinjiang, China The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses (named "Heavenly horses") in the possession of the Dayuan (literally the "Great Ionians", the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia), which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu. They defeated the Dayuan in the Han-Dayuan war. The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria. "Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi [Parthia], Yancai [who later joined the Alans ], Lijian [Syria under the Greek Seleucids], Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), and Tianzhu [northwestern India]... As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six." (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire.[43] The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions, and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries (probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu) are recorded, particularly in the 36 BCE battle of Sogdiana (Joseph Needham, Sidney Shapiro). It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions, although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin. R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 BCE, "[a] Han expedition into Central Asia, west of Jaxartes River, apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries. The Romans may have been part of Antony's army invading Parthia. Sogdiana (modern Bukhara), east of the Oxus River, on the Polytimetus River, was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia. The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows, whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armour."[44] The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, which included Seres (China), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE: Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours. — Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither (1866) The Han Dynasty army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as Xiongnu. Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century CE to secure the trade routes, reaching far west to the Tarim Basin. Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea and the borders of Parthia.[45] It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome).[46] The Silk Road essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE, following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. The Silk Roads were a "complex network of trade routes" that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture.[7] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism: Mahayana Buddhism first entered the Chinese Empire (Han dynasty) during the Kushan Era. The overland and maritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".[47] A maritime Silk Route opened up between Chinese-controlled Giao Chỉ (centred in modern Vietnam, near Hanoi), probably by the 1st century. It extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Roman Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea. The earliest Roman glassware bowl found in China was unearthed from a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BCE, indicating that Roman commercial items were being imported through the South China Sea.[48] According to Chinese dynastic histories, it is from this region that the Roman embassies arrived in China, beginning in 166 CE during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Emperor Huan of Han.[49][50][51] Other Roman glasswares have been found in Eastern-Han-era tombs (25–220 CE) more further inland in Nanjing and Luoyang.[52] P.O. Harper asserts that a 2nd or 3rd-century Roman gilt silver plate found in Jingyuan, Gansu, China with a central image of the Greco-Roman god Dionysus resting on a feline creature, most likely came via Greater Iran (i.e. Sogdiana).[53] Valerie Hansen (2012) believed that earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century, during Late Antiquity and the Dominate period, and come from the Byzantine Empire.[54] However, Warwick Ball (2016) highlights the recent discovery of sixteen Principate-era Roman coins found in Xi'an (formerly Chang'an, one of the two Han capitals) that were minted during the reigns of Roman emperors spanning from Tiberius to Aurelian (i.e. 1st to 3rd centuries CE).[55] Helen Wang points out that although these coins were found in China, they were deposited there in the twentieth century, not in ancient times, and therefore do not shed light on historic contacts between China and Rome.[56] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and quite possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.[57][58] Given the archaeological finds of Mediterranean artefacts made by Louis Malleret in the 1940s,[58] Óc Eo may have been the same site as the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 CE),[57] although Ferdinand von Richthofen had previously believed it was closer to Hanoi.[59] Evolution Roman Empire (30 BCE–3rd century CE) Central Asia during Roman times, with the first Silk Road Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Roman Empire inherited eastern trade routes that were part of the Silk Road from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire received new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole.[60] The Roman-style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula.[6] The Greco-Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.[61] The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch[62]) and Barbaricum (known today as the city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan[63]) and continued along the western coast of India.[64] An ancient "travel guide" to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE. The travelling party of Maës Titianus penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world, probably with the aim of regularising contacts and reducing the role of middlemen, during one of the lulls in Rome's intermittent wars with Parthia, which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organised, and protected by the "Great Powers". Intense trade with the Roman Empire soon followed, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians), even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees. This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural Histories "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."[65] The Romans traded spices, glassware, perfumes, and silk.[60] A Westerner on a camel, Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) Roman artisans began to replace yarn with valuable plain silk cloths from China and the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju, Korea.[66][6] Chinese wealth grew as they delivered silk and other luxury goods to the Roman Empire, whose wealthy women admired their beauty.[67] The Roman Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the import of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered decadent and immoral. I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes.... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.[68] The Western Roman Empire, and its demand for sophisticated Asian products, collapsed in the 5th century. The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within the Kushan Empire in the 1st to 3rd centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and Taxila.[69] They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco-Roman world, China, and India, such as in the archeological site of Begram. Byzantine Empire (6th–14th centuries) Further information: Byzantine-Mongol alliance Map showing Byzantium along with the other major silk road powers during China's Southern dynasties period of fragmentation. Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered the way silk was made. From this revelation, monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527–565) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs, resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in Thrace in northern Greece,[70] and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe. In 568 the Byzantine ruler Justin II was greeted by a Sogdian embassy representing Istämi, ruler of the First Turkic Khaganate, who formed an alliance with the Byzantines against Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire that allowed the Byzantines to bypass the Sasanian merchants and trade directly with the Sogdians for purchasing Chinese silk.[71][72][73] Although the Byzantines had already procured silkworm eggs from China by this point, the quality of Chinese silk was still far greater than anything produced in the West, a fact that is perhaps emphasized by the discovery of coins minted by Justin II found in a Chinese tomb of Shanxi province dated to the Sui dynasty (581–618).[74] Coin of Constans II (r. 641–648), who is named in Chinese sources as the first of several Byzantine emperors to send embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty[49] Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang, covering the history of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907), record that a new state called Fu-lin (拂菻; i.e. Byzantine Empire) was virtually identical to the previous Daqin (大秦; i.e. Roman Empire).[49] Several Fu-lin embassies were recorded for the Tang period, starting in 643 with an alleged embassy by Constans II (transliterated as Bo duo li, 波多力, from his nickname "Kōnstantinos Pogonatos") to the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang.[49] The History of Song describes the final embassy and its arrival in 1081, apparently sent by Michael VII Doukas (transliterated as Mie li yi ling kai sa, 滅力伊靈改撒, from his name and title Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar) to the court of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty (960–1279).[49] However, the History of Yuan claims that a Byzantine man became a leading astronomer and physician in Khanbaliq, at the court of Kublai Khan, Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and was even granted the noble title 'Prince of Fu lin' (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng).[75] The Uyghur Nestorian Christian diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma, who set out from his Chinese home in Khanbaliq (Beijing) and acted as a representative for Arghun (a grandnephew of Kublai Khan),[76][77][78][79] traveled throughout Europe and attempted to secure military alliances with Edward I of England, Philip IV of France, Pope Nicholas IV, as well as the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos.[80][78] Andronikos II had two half-sisters who were married to great-grandsons of Genghis Khan, which made him an in-law with the Yuan-dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing, Kublai Khan.[81] The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor, after founding the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh-ku-lun (捏古倫) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371.[82][49] Friedrich Hirth (1885), Emil Bretschneider (1888), and more recently Edward Luttwak (2009) presumed that this was none other than Nicolaus de Bentra, a Roman Catholic bishop of Khanbilaq chosen by Pope John XXII to replace the previous archbishop John of Montecorvino.[83][84][49] Tang dynasty (7th century) Further information: Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, Conquest of the Western Turks, Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks, and Tang dynasty § Trade and spread of culture A Chinese sancai statue of a Sogdian man with a wineskin, Tang dynasty (618–907) The empires and city-states of the Horn of Africa, such as the Axumites were important trading partners in the ancient Silk Road. After the Tang defeated the Gokturks, they reopened the Silk Road to the west. Although the Silk Road was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE), it was reopened by the Tang Empire in 639 when Hou Junji conquered the Western Regions, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640,[85] once again connecting China directly to the West for land-based trade.[86] The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo-Korean General Gao Xianzhi.[87] While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. The Tang dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s.[88] During Emperor Taizong's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the oasis states, and the Xueyantuo. Under Emperor Taizong, Tang general Li Jing conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Under Emperor Gaozong, Tang general Su Dingfang conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate, an important ally of the Byzantine empire.[89] After these conquests, the Tang dynasty fully controlled the Xiyu, which was the strategic location astride the Silk Road.[90] This led the Tang dynasty to reopen the Silk Road, with this portion named the Tang-Tubo Road ("Tang-Tibet Road") in many historical texts. The Tang dynasty established a second Pax Sinica, and the Silk Road reached its golden age, whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. At the same time, the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures, making it very cosmopolitan in its urban centres. In addition to the land route, the Tang dynasty also developed the maritime Silk Route. Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BCE,[91] yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt, Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.[92] Sogdian–Türkic tribes (4th–8th centuries) Marco Polo's caravan on the Silk Road, 1380 The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, it sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese. The Silk Road reached its peak in the west during the time of the Byzantine Empire; in the Nile-Oxus section, from the Sassanid Empire period to the Il Khanate period; and in the sinitic zone from the Three Kingdoms period to the Yuan dynasty period. Trade between East and West also developed across the Indian Ocean, between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China. Persian Sassanid coins emerged as a means of currency, just as valuable as silk yarn and textiles.[93] Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other, tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road, and pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development, were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilisations connected by the routes, taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries.[citation needed] "Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands and to forge strong military empires."[94] Map of Eurasia and Africa showing trade networks, c. 870 The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centres in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia. Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks, whose empire has been described as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians".[69][95] A.V. Dybo noted that "according to historians, the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians, but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian-Türkic culture that often came from mixed families."[96] Their trade, with some interruptions, continued in the 9th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire, which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses. At this time caravans of Sogdians traveling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources. They played an equally important religious and cultural role. Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750–840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west. However, after the end of the Uighur Empire, Sogdian trade went through a crisis. What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids, which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes.[69] The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, ushered the Nestorian, Manichaean, Buddhist, and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China. Islamic era (8th–13th centuries) Further information: History of Islamic economics The Round city of Baghdad between 767 and 912 was the most important urban node along the Silk Road. A lion motif on Sogdian polychrome silk, 8th century, most likely from Bukhara By the Umayyad era, Damascus had overtaken Ctesiphon as a major trade center until the Abbasid dynasty built the city of Baghdad, which became the most important city along the silk road. At the end of its glory, the routes brought about the largest continental empire ever, the Mongol Empire, with its political centres strung along the Silk Road (Beijing) in North China, Karakorum in central Mongolia, Sarmakhand in Transoxiana, Tabriz in Northern Iran, realising the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods.[citation needed] The Islamic world expanded into Central Asia during the 8th century, under the Umayyad Caliphate, while its successor the Abbasid Caliphate put a halt to Chinese westward expansion at the Battle of Talas in 751 (near the Talas River in modern-day Kyrgyzstan).[97] However, following the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) and the conquest of the Western Regions by the Tibetan Empire, the Tang Empire was unable to reassert its control over Central Asia.[98] Contemporary Tang authors noted how the dynasty had gone into decline after this point.[99] In 848 the Tang Chinese, led by the commander Zhang Yichao, were only able to reclaim the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu from the Tibetans.[100] The Persian Samanid Empire (819–999) centered in Bukhara (Uzbekistan) continued the trade legacy of the Sogdians.[97] The disruptions of trade were curtailed in that part of the world by the end of the 10th century and conquests of Central Asia by the Turkic Islamic Kara-Khanid Khanate, yet Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Buddhism in Central Asia virtually disappeared.[101] During the early 13th century Khwarezmia was invaded by the Mongol Empire. The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand burned to the ground after besieging them.[102] However, in 1370 Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the new Timurid Empire. The Turko-Mongol ruler Timur forcefully moved artisans and intellectuals from across Asia to Samarkand, making it one of the most important trade centers and cultural entrepôts of the Islamic world.[103] Mongol empire (13th–14th centuries) See also: Mongol Empire, Pax Mongolica, and Fonthill Vase Yuan Dynasty era Celadon vase from Mogadishu. Map of Marco Polo's travels in 1271–1295 The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road (via Karakorum and Khanbaliq). It also brought an end to the dominance of the Islamic Caliphate over world trade. Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes, trade circulated throughout the region, though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle. The Mongol rulers wanted to establish their capital on the Central Asian steppe, so to accomplish this goal, after every conquest they enlisted local people (traders, scholars, artisans) to help them construct and manage their empire.[104] The Mongols developed overland and maritime routes throughout the Eurasian continent, Black Sea and Mediterranean in the west and Indian Ocean in the south. In the second half of the thirteenth century Mongol-sponsored business partnerships flourished in the Indian Ocean connecting Mongol Middle East and Mongol China[105] The Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287–88 and provided a detailed written report to the Mongols. Around the same time, the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China. His tales, documented in The Travels of Marco Polo, opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East. He was not the first to bring back stories, but he was one of the most widely read. He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck, Benedykt Polak, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, and Andrew of Longjumeau. Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de' Marignolli, John of Montecorvino, Niccolò de' Conti, and Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim traveller who passed through the present-day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz between 1325 and 1354.[106] In the 13th century, efforts were made at forming a Franco-Mongol alliance, with an exchange of ambassadors and (failed) attempts at military collaboration in the Holy Land during the later Crusades. Eventually, the Mongols in the Ilkhanate, after they had destroyed the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties, converted to Islam and signed the 1323 Treaty of Aleppo with the surviving Muslim power, the Egyptian Mamluks.[citation needed] Some studies indicate that the Black Death, which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s, may have reached Europe from Central Asia (or China) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire.[107] One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe; like many other outbreaks of plague, there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders.[108] Decline and disintegration (15th century) This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2020) Port cities on the maritime silk route featured on the voyages of Zheng He.[109] The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire loosened the political, cultural, and economic unity of the Silk Road. Turkmeni marching lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallisation of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilisations equipped with gunpowder.[110] Partial revival in West Asia This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2020) The consolidation of the Ottoman and Safavid empires in the West Asia led to a revival of overland trade, interrupted sporadically by warfare between them.[citation needed] Especially significant is Armenians role in making Europe Asia trade possible by being located in the crossing roads between these two. Armenia had a monopoly on almost all trade roads in this area and a colossal network. From 1700 to 1765, the total export of Persian silk was entirely conducted by Armenians. They were also exporting raisins, coffee beans, figs, Turkish yarn, camel hair, various precious stones, rice, etc., from Turkey and Iran. [111] Collapse (18th century) This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2020) The silk trade continued to flourish until it was disrupted by the collapse of the Safavid Empire in the 1720s.[112] New Silk Road (20th–21st centuries) Plan of the Silk Road with its maritime branch In the 20th century, the Silk Road through the Suez Canal and the overland connections were repeatedly blocked from the First World War on. This also applied to the massive trade barriers of the Cold War. It was not until the 1990s that the "old" trade routes began to reactivate again. In addition to the Chinese activities and the integration of Africa, this also applies to the increasing importance of the Mediterranean region and the connection to Central Europe such as the trade center of Trieste. Trade along the Silk Road could soon account for almost 40% of total world trade, with a large part taking place by sea. The land route of the Silk Road seems to remain a niche project in terms of transport volume in the future. As a result of the Chinese Silk Road Initiative and investments, trade seems to be intensifying on the relevant routes.[113][114][115] Maritime Silk Road Main article: Maritime Silk Road Yangshan Port of Shanghai, China The maritime Silk Road follows the old trade route that was opened by the Chinese admiral Zheng He during the early Ming Dynasty. In particular, the establishment of the lockless Suez Canal then strongly promoted maritime trade between Asia and Europe in this area. While many trade flows were interrupted in the 20th century by the World Wars, the Suez Crisis and the Cold War, from the beginning of the 21st century many of the trading centers that had already existed in the 19th century were activated again.[113][116] The Suez Canal was also continually expanded and its time-saving role in Asia-Europe trade was highlighted. At the beginning of the Maritime Silk Road are the major Chinese ports in Shanghai, Shenzhen and Ningbo-Zhoushan. The Chinese investments in Africa will connect large areas of Central and East Africa to the maritime Silk Road and thus to China and directly to southern Europe via the Suez Canal. The increasing importance of the Mediterranean as a trading center with its direct, fast connections to Central and Eastern Europe is evident from the international investments in port cities of Piraeus and Trieste. Trieste in particular plays a major role in the economic zone in Central Europe known as the Blue Banana. This includes a banana-shaped corridor from southern England via the Benelux region, western Germany and Switzerland to northern Italy. The transport via Trieste instead of northern ports such as Rotterdam and Hamburg shortens the delivery time from Shanghai by ten days and from Hong Kong by nine days. On the maritime Silk Road, on which more than half of all containers in the world are already on the move, deep-water ports are being expanded, logistics hubs are being built and new transport routes such as railways and roads in the hinterland are being created.[115][117][118][114][119][120][121][122][123][124] Port of Trieste Today the maritime silk road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast to the south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo towards the southern tip of India via Malé, the capital of the Maldives, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central Europe and the North Sea. As a result, Poland, the Baltic States, Northern Europe and Central Europe are also connected to the maritime silk road.[113][117][125][126] Railway (1990) Trans-Eurasia Logistics The Eurasian Land Bridge, a railway through China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia, is sometimes referred to as the "New Silk Road".[127] The last link in one of these two railway routes was completed in 1990, when the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan connected at Alataw Pass (Alashan Kou). In 2008 the line was used to connect the cities of Ürümqi in China's Xinjiang Province to Almaty and Nur-Sultan in Kazakhstan.[128] In October 2008 the first Trans-Eurasia Logistics train reached Hamburg from Xiangtan. Starting in July 2011 the line has been used by a freight service that connects Chongqing, China with Duisburg, Germany,[129] cutting travel time for cargo from about 36 days by container ship to just 13 days by freight train. In 2013, Hewlett-Packard began moving large freight trains of laptop computers and monitors along this rail route.[127] In January 2017, the service sent its first train to London. The network additionally connects to Madrid and Milan.[130][131] Revival of cities (1966) After an earthquake that hit Tashkent in Central Asia in 1966, the city had to rebuild itself. Although it took a huge toll on their markets, this commenced a revival of modern silk road cities.[132] Belt and Road Initiative (2013) Main articles: Belt and Road Initiative and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road During a September 2013 a visit to Kazakhstan, China's Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced a plan for a New Silk Road from China to Europe. The latest iterations of this plan, dubbed the "Belt and Road Initiative" (BRI), includes a land-based Silk Road Economic Belt and a 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, with primary points in Ürümqi, Dostyk, Nur-Sultan, Gomel, the Belarussian city of Brest, and the Polish cities of Małaszewicze and Łódź—which would be hubs of logistics and transshipment to other countries of Europe.[133][134][135][136] On 15 February 2016, with a change in routing, the first train dispatched under the scheme arrived from eastern Zhejiang Province to Tehran.[137] Though this section does not complete the Silk Road–style overland connection between China and Europe,[136] but new railway line connecting China to Europe via Istanbul's has now been established.[138] The actual route went through Almaty, Bishkek, Samarkand, and Dushanbe.[136] Routes Further information: Cities along the Silk Road The Silk Road consisted of several routes. As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China, the overland, intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and southern routes bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur. Merchants along these routes were involved in "relay trade" in which goods changed "hands many times before reaching their final destinations."[139] Northern route Main article: Northern Silk Road The Silk Road in the 1st century The northern route started at Chang'an (now called Xi'an), an ancient capital of China that was moved further east during the Later Han to Luoyang. The route was defined around the 1st century BCE when Han Wudi put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes.[140][citation needed] The northern route travelled northwest through the Chinese province of Gansu from Shaanxi Province and split into three further routes, two of them following the mountain ranges to the north and south of the Taklamakan Desert to rejoin at Kashgar, and the other going north of the Tian Shan mountains through Turpan, Talgar, and Almaty (in what is now southeast Kazakhstan). The routes split again west of Kashgar, with a southern branch heading down the Alai Valley towards Termez (in modern Uzbekistan) and Balkh (Afghanistan), while the other travelled through Kokand in the Fergana Valley (in present-day eastern Uzbekistan) and then west across the Karakum Desert. Both routes joined the main southern route before reaching ancient Merv, Turkmenistan. Another branch of the northern route turned northwest past the Aral Sea and north of the Caspian Sea, then and on to the Black Sea. A route for caravans, the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as "dates, saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia; frankincense, aloes and myrrh from Somalia; sandalwood from India; glass bottles from Egypt, and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world."[141] In exchange, the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade, lacquer-ware, and porcelain. Southern route The southern route or Karakoram route was mainly a single route from China through the Karakoram mountains, where it persists in modern times as the Karakoram Highway, a paved road that connects Pakistan and China.[citation needed] It then set off westwards, but with southward spurs so travelers could complete the journey by sea from various points. Crossing the high mountains, it passed through northern Pakistan, over the Hindu Kush mountains, and into Afghanistan, rejoining the northern route near Merv, Turkmenistan. From Merv, it followed a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran, Mesopotamia, and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant, where Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, while land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa. Another branch road travelled from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and on to Alexandria and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome.[citation needed] Southwestern route See also: Tea Horse Road Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, Western Han dynasty period, dated 2nd century BCE The southwestern route is believed to be the Ganges/Brahmaputra Delta, which has been the subject of international interest for over two millennia. Strabo, the 1st-century Roman writer, mentions the deltaic lands: "Regarding merchants who now sail from Egypt...as far as the Ganges, they are only private citizens..." His comments are interesting as Roman beads and other materials are being found at Wari-Bateshwar ruins, the ancient city with roots from much earlier, before the Bronze Age, presently being slowly excavated beside the Old Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. Ptolemy's map of the Ganges Delta, a remarkably accurate effort, showed that his informants knew all about the course of the Brahmaputra River, crossing through the Himalayas then bending westward to its source in Tibet. It is doubtless that this delta was a major international trading center, almost certainly from much earlier than the Common Era. Gemstones and other merchandise from Thailand and Java were traded in the delta and through it. Chinese archaeological writer Bin Yang and some earlier writers and archaeologists, such as Janice Stargardt, strongly suggest this route of international trade as Sichuan–Yunnan–Burma–Bangladesh route. According to Bin Yang, especially from the 12th century the route was used to ship bullion from Yunnan (gold and silver are among the minerals in which Yunnan is rich), through northern Burma, into modern Bangladesh, making use of the ancient route, known as the 'Ledo' route. The emerging evidence of the ancient cities of Bangladesh, in particular Wari-Bateshwar ruins, Mahasthangarh, Bhitagarh, Bikrampur, Egarasindhur, and Sonargaon, are believed to be the international trade centers in this route.[142][143][144] Maritime route Main article: Maritime Silk Road Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesian archipelago, Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.[145] The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including South China Sea, Strait of Malacca, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, Spice trade, Indian Ocean trade and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward to East China Sea and Yellow Sea to connect China with Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago. Expansion of religions The Nestorian Stele, created in 781, describes the introduction of Nestorian Christianity to China Richard Foltz, Xinru Liu, and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.[146] Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.[147] The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to Jerry H. Bentley, also led to syncretism. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.[148] Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.[148] Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.[149][150] Transmission of Christianity Further information: Nestorian Christianity and Church of the East The transmission of Christianity was primarily known as Nestorianism on the Silk Road. In 781, an inscribed stele shows Nestorian Christian missionaries arriving on the Silk Road. Christianity had spread both east and west, simultaneously bringing Syriac language and evolving the forms of worship.[151] Transmission of Buddhism Main articles: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Greco-Buddhism Fragment of a wall painting depicting Buddha from a stupa in Miran along the Silk Road (200AD - 400AD) A blue-eyed Central Asian monk teaching an East-Asian monk, Bezeklik, Turfan, eastern Tarim Basin, China, 9th century; the monk on the right is possibly Tocharian,[152] although more likely Sogdian.[153][154] The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.[155] Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.[156] The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.[157] Buddha's community of followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.[158] As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit.[159] It is believed that under the control of the Kushans, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century.[160] Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.[161] Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE; see Edicts of Ashoka, from Kandahar. This edict advocates the adoption of "godliness" using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma. Kabul Museum. One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first ever Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.[162] Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.[163] From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with Fa-hsien's pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later Xuanzang (629–644) and Hyecho, who traveled from Korea to India.[164] The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey. A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon, from Sarnath, 3,000 km (1,864 mi) southwest of Urumqi, Xinjiang, 8th century There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region.[163] The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.[165] With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.[60] During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.[166] Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.[167] The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society.[168] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia. Judaism on the Silk Road Adherents to the Jewish faith first began to travel eastward from Mesopotamia following the Persian conquest of Babylon in 559 by the armies of Cyrus the Great. Judean slaves freed after the Persian conquest of Babylon dispersed throughout the Persian Empire. Some Judeans could have traveled as far east as Bactria and Sogdia, though there is not clear evidence for this early settlement of Judeans.[169] After settlement, it is likely that most Judeans took up trades in commerce.[169] Trading along the silk trade networks by Judean merchants increased as the trade networks expanded. By the classical age, when trade goods traveled from as far east as China to as far west as Rome, Judean merchants in central Asia would have been in an advantageous position to participate in trade along the Silk Road.[169] A group of Judean merchants originating from Gaul known as the Radanites were one group of Judean merchants that had thriving trade networks from China to Rome. This trade was facilitated by a positive relationship the Radanites were able to foster with the Khazar Turks. The Khazars served as a good spot in between China and Rome, and the Khazars saw a relationship with the Radanites as a good commercial opportunity.[169] This long contact between the Khazars and the Judeans eventually led to the Khazar adopting Judaism as their main religion.[169] According to Richard Foltz "there is more evidence for Iranian influence on the formation of Jewish [religious] ideas than the reverse." Concepts of a paradise for the good and a place of suffering for the wicked, and a form or world ending apocalypse came from Iranian religious ideas, and this is supported by a lack of such ideas from pre-exile Judean sources.[169] The origin of the devil is also said to come from the Iranian Angra Mainyu, an evil figure in Iranian mythology.[169] Expansion of the arts Main article: Silk Road transmission of art Iconographical evolution of the Wind God. Left: Greek Wind God from Hadda, 2nd century. Middle: Wind God from Kizil, Tarim Basin, 7th century. Right: Japanese Wind God Fujin, 17th century. Many artistic influences were transmitted via the Silk Road, particularly through Central Asia, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could intermix. Greco-Buddhist art represents one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. Silk was also a representation of art, serving as a religious symbol. Most importantly, silk was used as currency for trade along the silk road.[170] These artistic influences can be seen in the development of Buddhism where, for instance, Buddha was first depicted as human in the Kushan period. Many scholars have attributed this to Greek influence. The mixture of Greek and Indian elements can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road.[171] The production of art consisted of many different items that were traded along the Silk Roads from the East to the West. One common product, the lapis lazuli, was a blue stone with golden specks, which was used as paint after it was ground into powder.[172] Commemoration On 22 June 2014, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named the Silk Road a World Heritage Site at the 2014 Conference on World Heritage. The United Nations World Tourism Organization has been working since 1993 to develop sustainable international tourism along the route with the stated goal of fostering peace and understanding.[173] To commemorate the Silk Road becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the China National Silk Museum announced a "Silk Road Week" to take place 19–25 June 2020.[174] Bishkek and Almaty each have a major east–west street named after the Silk Road (Kyrgyz: Жибек жолу, Jibek Jolu in Bishkek, and Kazakh: Жібек жолы, Jibek Joly in Almaty). There is also a Silk Road in Macclesfield, UK.[175] Foreign language terms Language Text Transliteration (if applicable) Chinese 絲綢之路 (traditional) 丝绸之路 (simplified) Sīchóu zhī lù Sanskrit / Hindi कौशेय मार्ग Kausheya Maraga Persian جاده ابریشم‎ Jâdeye Abrišam Shâhrâh-i Abrešim Punjabi ریشم راہ‎ (Shahmukhi) ਰੇਸ਼ਮ ਰਾਹ‎ (Gurmukhi) rēsham rāh Urdu شاہراہ ریشم‎ shah rah resham Kannada ರೇಶ್ಮೆ ದಾರಿ Reshme dari Kawi language Sutra dalan Malayalam പട്ടിന്റെ വഴി paṭṭinṟe vaḻi Tamil பட்டு வழி Paṭṭu vaḻi Uzbek إيباك يولي‎ Ipak yo'li Turkmen Ýüpek ýoly Turkish İpek yolu Azeri İpək yolu Arabic طريق الحرير‎ Tarīq al-Ḥarīr Hebrew דרך המשי‎ Derekh ha-Meshi Greek Δρόμος του μεταξιού Drómos tou metaxioú' Latin Via Serica Armenian Մետաքսի ճանապարհ Metaksi chanaparh Tagalog Daang Sutla, Daang Seda Somali Waddada Xariir Korean 비단길 Bidangil Sinhala සේද මාවත Sedha mawatha Bahasa Indonesia Jalur Sutra Vietnamese Con đường tơ lụa Gallery Silk Road and artifacts Caravanserai of Sa'd al-Saltaneh Sultanhani caravanserai Shaki Caravanserai, Shaki, Azerbaijan Two-Storeyed Caravanserai, Baku, Azerbaijan Bridge in Ani, capital of medieval Armenia Taldyk pass Medieval fortress of Amul, Turkmenabat, Turkmenistan Zeinodin Caravanserai Sogdian man on a Bactrian camel, sancai ceramic glaze, Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907) The ruins of a Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) Chinese watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province A late Zhou or early Han Chinese bronze mirror inlaid with glass, perhaps incorporated Greco-Roman artistic patterns A Chinese Western Han dynasty (202 BCE – 9 CE) bronze rhinoceros with gold and silver inlay Han dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang on the Silk Road. Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE) tomb, Guangxi, southern China See also Bronze Age Dvaravati–Kamboja route Dzungarian Gate Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries Godavaya Hippie trail History of silk Incense Route Iron Age List of ports and harbours of the Indian Ocean Maritime Silk Road Mount Imeon One Belt One Road Initiative Serica Silk Road Economic Belt Silk Road Fund Silk Road Numismatics Spice trade Silk Road Textiles Steppe Route Suez Canal Tea Horse Road The Silk Roads Three hares References Citations ^ Miho Museum News (Shiga, Japan) Volume 23 (March 2009). "Eurasian winds toward Silla". Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. ^ a b Gan, Fuxi (2009). Ancient Glass Research Along the Silk Road. Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Ancient Glass Research along the Silk Road, World Scientific ed.). p. 41. ISBN 978-981-283-356-3. 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(Accessed 3 September 2016). ^ Ethnic Sogdians have been identified as the Caucasian figures seen in the same cave temple (No. 9). See the following source: Gasparini, Mariachiara. "A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin, Archived 2017-05-25 at the Wayback Machine" in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), Transcultural Studies, Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp. 134–63. ISSN 2191-6411. See also endnote #32 . (Accessed 3 September 2016.) ^ For information on the Sogdians, an Eastern Iranian people, and their inhabitation of Turfan as an ethnic minority community during the phases of Tang Chinese (7th–8th century) and Uyghur rule (9th–13th century), see Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford University Press, p. 98, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. ^ Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 69, 73. ^ Anderson, James A. (2009). "China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History". World History Connected. 6 (1). Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2013. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 16. ^ Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 37. ^ Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New york: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 51. ^ Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 42. ^ Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road", pp. 37–58 ^ Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 47. ^ a b Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 38. ^ Silkroad Foundation; Adela C.Y. Lee. "Ancient Silk Road Travellers". Archived from the original on 6 August 2009. ^ Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 41. ^ Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 43–44. ^ Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 48. ^ Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 50. ^ a b c d e f g Foltz, Richard (1998). "Judaism and the Silk Route". The History Teacher. 32 (1): 9–16. doi:10.2307/494416. ISSN 0018-2745. JSTOR 494416. ^ Xinru, Liu,The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 21. ^ Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 45. ^ "The Silk Road and Beyond: Travel, Trade, and Transformation". Art Institute of Chicago website. Archived from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2016. ^ "Objectives". Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. ^ http://www.chinasilkmuseum.com/xwdtIR/info_84.aspx?itemid=27701 ^ https://www.streetlist.co.uk/sk/sk10/sk10-1/the-silk-road Sources Baines, John and Málek, Jaromir (1984). Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, Time Life Books. Boulnois, Luce (2004). Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants on the Silk Road. Translated by Helen Loveday with additional material by Bradley Mayhew and Angela Sheng. Airphoto International. ISBN 978-962-217-720-8 hardback, ISBN 978-962-217-721-5 softback. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66991-7. Foltz, Richard, Religions of the Silk Road, Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1 Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 BC to 250. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Herodotus (5th century BCE): Histories. Translated with notes by George Rawlinson. 1996 edition. Ware, Hertfordshire, Wordsworth Editions Limited. Hopkirk, Peter: Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia. The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, 1980, 1984. ISBN 978-0-87023-435-4 Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Hulsewé, A.F.P. and Loewe, M.A.N. (1979). China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E.J. Brill, Leiden. Huyghe, Edith and Huyghe, François-Bernard: "La route de la soie ou les empires du mirage", Petite bibliothèque Payot, 2006, ISBN 978-2-228-90073-7 Juliano, Annette, L. and Lerner, Judith A., et al. 2002. Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China: Gansu and Ningxia, 4th–7th Century. Harry N. Abrams Inc., with The Asia Society. ISBN 978-0-8109-3478-8, 0-87848-089-7. Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1988). Die Seidenstrasse: Handelsweg and Kulturbruecke zwischen Morgen- and Abendland. Koeln: DuMont Buchverlag. Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1993). Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia. Trans. & presented by Hans-Joachim Klimkeit. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-064586-1. Knight, E.F. (1893). Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 978-1-886439-00-9 Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 978-1-886439-02-3 Litvinsky, B.A., ed. (1996). History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: 250 to 750. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Liu, Xinru (2001). "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History, Volume 12, No. 2, Fall 2001. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 261–92. [2]. Liu, Li, 2004, The Chinese Neolithic, Trajectories to Early States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liu, Xinru (2010). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516174-8, 978-0-19-533810-2. McDonald, Angus (1995). The Five Foot Road: In Search of a Vanished China., San Francisco: HarperCollins Malkov, Artemy (2007). The Silk Road: A mathematical model. History & Mathematics, ed. by Peter Turchin et al. Moscow: KomKniga. ISBN 978-5-484-01002-8 Mallory, J.P. and Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson, London. Ming Pao. "Hong Kong proposes Silk Road on the Sea as World Heritage", 7 August 2005, p. A2. Osborne, Milton, 1975. River Road to China: The Mekong River Expedition, 1866–73. George Allen & Unwin Lt. Puri, B.N, 1987 Buddhism in Central Asia, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi. (2000 reprint). Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 2003. The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80455-4, 0-521-01109-4. Sarianidi, Viktor, 1985. The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan. Harry N. Abrams, New York. Schafer, Edward H. 1963. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition: 1985. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2. Stein, Aurel M. 1907. Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford.[3] Stein, Aurel M., 1912. Ruins of Desert Cathay: Personal narrative of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China, 2 vols. Reprint: Delhi. Low Price Publications. 1990. Stein, Aurel M., 1921. Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980.[4] Stein Aurel M., 1928. Innermost Asia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia, Kan-su and Eastern Iran, 5 vols. Clarendon Press. Reprint: New Delhi. Cosmo Publications. 1981. Stein Aurel M., 1932 On Ancient Central Asian Tracks: Brief Narrative of Three Expeditions in Innermost Asia and Northwestern China. Reprinted with Introduction by Jeannette Mirsky. Book Faith India, Delhi. 1999. Thorsten, Marie. 2006 "Silk Road Nostalgia and Imagined Global Community". Comparative American Studies 3, no. 3: 343–59. Waugh, Daniel. (2007). "Richthofen "Silk Roads": Toward the Archeology of a Concept." The Silk Road. Volume 5, Number 1, Summer 2007, pp. 1–10. [5] von Le Coq, Albert, 1928. Buried Treasures of Turkestan. Reprint with Introduction by Peter Hopkirk, Oxford University Press. 1985. Whitfield, Susan, 1999. Life Along the Silk Road. London: John Murray. Wimmel, Kenneth, 1996. The Alluring Target: In Search of the Secrets of Central Asia. Trackless Sands Press, Palo Alto, CA. ISBN 978-1-879434-48-6 Yan, Chen, 1986. "Earliest Silk Route: The Southwest Route." Chen Yan. China Reconstructs, Vol. XXXV, No. 10. October 1986, pp. 59–62. Yule (translator and editor), Sir Henry (1866). Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China. Issue 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society. Printed for the Hakluyt society. Further reading Boulnois, Luce. Silk Road: Monks, Warriors and Merchants on the Silk Road. Odyssey Publications, 2005. ISBN 978-962-217-720-8 Bulliet, Richard W. 1975. The Camel and the Wheel. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-09130-6. Christian, David (2000). "Silk Roads or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History". Journal of World History. 2.1 (Spring): 1. doi:10.1353/jwh.2000.0004. S2CID 18008906. de la Vaissière, E., Sogdian Traders. A History, Leiden, Brill, 2005, Hardback ISBN 978-90-04-14252-7 Brill Publishers, French version ISBN 978-2-85757-064-6 on [6] Elisseeff, Vadime. Editor. 1998. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. UNESCO Publishing. Paris. Reprint: 2000. ISBN 978-92-3-103652-1 softback; ISBN 978-1-57181-221-6, 1-57181-222-9. Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN B005DQV7Q2 Frankopan, Peter. The Silk Roads: A New History of the World (2016), Very wide-ranging scholarly survey, albeit without any maps. Hansen, Valerie. The Silk Road: A New History (Oxford University Press; 2012) 304 pages; Combines archaeology and history in a study of seven oases Hallikainen, Saana: Connections from Europe to Asia and how the trading was affected by the cultural exchange (2002) Hill, John E. (2004). The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation. [7] Hopkirk, Peter: The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia; Kodansha International, New York, 1990, 1992. Kuzmina, E.E. The Prehistory of the Silk Road. (2008) Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4041-2 Larsen, Jeanne. Silk Road: A Novel of Eighth-Century China. (1989; reprinted 2009) Levy, Scott C. (2012). "Early Modern Central Asia in World History". History Compass. 10 (11): 866–78. doi:10.1111/hic3.12004. Li et al. "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age". BMC Biology 2010, 8:15. Liu, Xinru, and Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 2007. Connections Across Eurasia: Transportation, Communication, and Cultural Exchange on the Silk Roads. McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 978-0-07-284351-4. Miller, Roy Andrew (1959): Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty. University of California Press. Omrani, Bijan; Tredinnick, Jeremy (2010). Asia Overland: Tales of Travel on the Trans-Siberian and Silk Road. Hong Kong New York: Odyssey Distribution in the US by W.W. Norton & Co, Odyssey Publications. ISBN 978-962-217-811-3. Polo, Marco, Il Milione. Thubron, C., The Silk Road to China (Hamlyn, 1989) Tuladhar, Kamal Ratna (2011). Caravan to Lhasa: A Merchant of Kathmandu in Traditional Tibet. Kathmandu: Lijala & Tisa. ISBN 978-99946-58-91-6 Watt, James C.Y.; Wardwell, Anne E. (1997). When silk was gold: Central Asian and Chinese textiles. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-825-6. Weber, Olivier, Eternal Afghanistan (photographs of Reza), (Unesco-Le Chêne, 2002) Yap, Joseph P. Wars With the Xiongnu – A Translation From Zizhi Tongjian. AuthorHouse (2009) ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4 National Institute of Informatics – Digital Silk Road Project Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books Digital Silk Road > Toyo Bunko Archive > List of Books External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silk Road. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Silk Road. Silk Road Atlas (University of Washington) The Silk Road, a historical overview by Oliver Wild The Silk Road Journal, a freely available scholarly journal run by Daniel Waugh The New Silk Road – a lecture by Paul Lacourbe at TEDxDanubia 2013 Escobar, Pepe (February 2015). Year of the Sheep, Century of the Dragon? 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en-wikipedia-org-4749	----	Domitia Calvilla - Wikipedia Domitia Calvilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mother of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Domitia Lucilla from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Domitia Calvilla (also known as Domitia Lucilla Minor and Lucilla, died 155–161), was a noble Roman woman who lived in the 2nd century. She is best known as the mother of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Contents 1 Descent 2 Marriage 3 Widowhood 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Descent[edit] Lucilla was the daughter of Domitia Lucilla Maior (Maior is Latin for the Elder) and the patrician Publius Calvisius Tullus Ruso[1] and was a niece to Gnaeus Domitius Lucanus. The maternal grandfather of the younger Lucilla, Lucius Catilius Severus was twice consul and became city Prefect. Lucilla's father served as consul in AD 109 and the date of his second consulship is unknown.[2][3] Lucilla through her mother had inherited a great fortune, which included a tile and brick factory near Rome, close to the river Tiber. The factory provided bricks to some of Rome's most famous monuments including the Colosseum, Pantheon and the Market of Trajan, and exported bricks to France, Spain, North Africa and all over the Mediterranean.[4] The factory,or part of it, has been excavated at Bomarzo, 40 miles north of Rome. Marriage[edit] Lucilla married Marcus Annius Verus, a praetor, who came from a wealthy senatorial family.[5] Verus' sister Faustina the Elder was a Roman Empress and married the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Verus was a nephew to Roman Empress Vibia Sabina and his maternal grandmother was Salonina Matidia (niece of Roman Emperor Trajan). With Verus, she had two children, a son, the future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (26 April 121) and a daughter Annia Cornificia Faustina (122/123 – between 152 and 158). Widowhood[edit] In 124, her husband died. Her children were raised by herself and they were adopted by her father-in-law. Marcus Aurelius would later inherit the tile and brick factory. In Lucilla's household, the future Roman Emperor Didius Julianus was educated and through her support he was able to start his legal career. Lucilla was a lady of considerable wealth and influence. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius describes her as a 'pious and generous' person who lived a simple life (1.3n). She spent her final years living with her son in Rome. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Calvisia gens References[edit] ^ Geoffrey William Adams (2013). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2. ^ Jo-Ann Shelton (2013). The Women of Pliny's Letters. Routledge. pp. 291–. ISBN 978-0-415-37428-6. ^ Jacqueline M. Carlon (22 June 2009). Pliny's Women: Constructing Virtue and Creating Identity in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-0-521-76132-1. ^ Annelise Freisenbruch (9 November 2010). Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire. Simon and Schuster. pp. 171–. ISBN 978-1-4165-8357-8. ^ Frank McLynn (20 July 2010). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-0-306-81916-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domitia Calvilla. Roman Coinage of Domitia Lucilla Marble portraits of Domitia Lucilla, under the heading for Marcus Aurelius Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domitia_Calvilla&oldid=1024349062" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Roman women 2nd-century deaths Ancient businesswomen Calvisii Ancient Roman businesspeople Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 15:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4786	----	Slovakia in the Roman era - Wikipedia Slovakia in the Roman era From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Marcomannia) Jump to navigation Jump to search The light pink area north of the Danube was temporarily occupied by the Romans in 178–179 AD and was meant to become the new Roman province of Marcomannia Part of a series on the History of Slovakia Early history Roman era Lombard state Medieval Slavic states Avar Khaganate Samo's Empire Principality of Nitra Great Moravia Lower Pannonia Kingdom of Hungary (10th century – 1526) High Middle Ages Domain of Máté Csák Domain of Amade Aba Late Middle Ages Ottoman Empire (16th–17th century) Uyvar Eyalet Budin Eyalet Eğri Eyalet Principality of Transylvania Principality of Imre Thököly Habsburg Monarchy (1526–1918) Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary 1848–49 Slovak Uprising Military District of Preßburg Military District of Kaschau Czechoslovakia (1918–1993) Slovaks in Czechoslovakia 1918–1938 Slovak Soviet Republic 1919 Slovak Republic 1939–1945 Slovak National Uprising 1944 Slovaks in Czechoslovakia 1948–1989 Slovak Socialist Republic 1969–1990 Velvet Revolution 1989 Post-revolution Czechoslovakia 1989–1992 Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 1993 Contemporary Slovakia Slovak Republic 1993–present  Slovakia portal v t e Slovakia was partly occupied by Roman legions for a short period of time.[1] Marcomannia was a proposed province of the Roman Empire that Emperor Marcus Aurelius planned to establish in this territory.[2] It was inhabited by the Germanic tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi, and lay in the western parts of the modern states and Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Moravia). Part of the area was occupied by the Romans under Marcus Aurelius between 174 AD and 180 AD. His successors abandoned the project, but the people of the area became steadily Romanized during the next two centuries. The Roman influence was disrupted with the invasions of Attila starting around 434 AD and as Slavic people later began to move into the area.[3] Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Background 3 Marcomannic Wars 3.1 Germanic attacks 166-171 3.2 Roman counter-offensives 172-174 3.3 Rebellion of Avidius Cassius 175-176 3.4 Second Marcomannian campaign 177-180 4 Subsequent Roman influence 5 Disintegration 6 Archaeological remains 6.1 Laugaricio 6.2 Gerulata 6.3 Celemantia 6.4 Other locations 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Further reading Characteristics[edit] After the creation of the fortified limes on the Danube river, the Roman Empire tried to expand in central Europe, mainly during the emperor Marcus Aurelius's rule in the second century. It was an initiative that resulted in an ephemeral conquest of the Germanic tribes living in present-day western Slovakia, the Quadi and the Marcomanni, during the so-called Marcomannic Wars. Under Augustus, the Romans and their armies initially occupied only a thin strip of the right bank of the Danube and a very small part of south-western Slovakia (Celemantia, Gerulata, Devín Castle). Tiberius wanted to conquer all Germania up to the Elbe river and in 6 AD dispatched a military expedition from the fort of Carnuntum to Mušov and beyond,[4] but was forced to stop the conquest because of a revolt in Pannonia. Only in 174 AD did the emperor Marcus Aurelius penetrate deeper into the river valleys of the Váh, Nitra and Hron, where there are some Roman marching camps like Laugaricio.[5] On the banks of the Hron he wrote his philosophical work Meditations[6] The small Roman forts of Zavod and Suchohrad on the Morava river show an intention of penetrating toward northern Bohemia-Moravia[7] and the Oder river (and perhaps southern Poland [8]). The latest archaeological discoveries which have located new Roman enclosures in the surroundings of Brno led to the conclusion that the advance of Roman troops from Carnuntum could have run further to the north-east, into the region of the Polish-Slovak border. Indeed, recent archaeological excavations and aerial surveying have shown further locations in northeast Moravia: three temporary Roman camps (possibly connected to the Laugaricio fort) situated in the foreland of the so-called Moravian Gate (Olomouc-Neředín, Hulín-Pravčice, Osek) have been partly corroborated, the former two clearly by digging.[9] Marcus Aurelius wanted to create a new Roman province called Marcomannia in those conquered territories, but his death put an end to the project. His successors abandoned these territories, but – with the exception of Valentinian I – maintained a relatively friendly relationship with the barbarians living there (who enjoyed a degree of "cultural Romanization" that can be seen in some buildings around present-day Bratislava in Stupava[10]). Indeed, the Romanization of the barbarian population continued into the late Roman period (181-380 AD). Many Roman buildings (with plenty of trade evidence of Roman civilization) appeared on the territory of south-western Slovakia (Bratislava - Dúbravka, Cífer - Pác, Veľký Kýr[11]) in the relatively peaceful period of the 3rd and 4th centuries. These were probably residences of the pro-Roman Quadian (and maybe Marcomannic) aristocracy. Romans in the late fourth century were able to bring Christianity into the area: the Germanic population of the Marcomanni converted when Fritigil, their queen, met a Christian traveller from the Roman Empire shortly before 397 AD. He talked to her of Ambrose, the formidable bishop of Milan (Italy). Impressed by what she heard, the queen converted to Christianity.[12][13] In the Roman ruins of Devín Castle, the first Christian church located north of the Danube has been identified, probably built in the early fifth century. A few years later Attila devastated the area and started the mass migrations that destroyed the Western Roman Empire. Meanwhile, the area was beginning to be occupied by Slavic tribes. Indeed, the first written source suggesting that Slavic tribes established themselves in what is now Slovakia is connected to the migration of the Germanic Heruli from the Middle Danube region towards Scandinavia in 512.[14][15] In that year, according to Procopius, they first passed "through the land of the Slavs", most probably along the river Morava.[16] A cluster of archaeological sites in the valleys of the rivers Morava, Váh and Hron also suggests that at the latest the earliest Slavic settlements appeared in the territory around 500 AD.[17][18] They are characterized by vessels similar to those of the "Mogiła" group of southern Poland and having analogies in the "Korchak" pottery of Ukraine.[19] In those same years the Roman presence disappeared from the area of Danubian limes, but there is a remote possibility that Romans and those early Slavic tribes (who were the first "Slovaks") interacted commercially. Background[edit] Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent client states. The reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) began a long period known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous wars on the frontiers, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus enlarged the empire dramatically, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Raetia, expanded possessions in Africa, and completed the conquest of Hispania. By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.).[20] The Romans and their armies occupied a narrow strip of the right bank of the Danube and a very small part of south-western Slovakia (Celemantia, Gerulata, Devín Castle). Augustus's successor Tiberius (14 AD - 37 AD) wanted to conquer all Germania up to the Elbe river and in 6 AD started a military expedition from the fort of Carnuntum to Mušov and beyond.[21] However, he was forced to abandon the conquest because of a revolt in Pannonia.[22] The expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just north of the Danube. The largest of these were Carnuntum, whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava, and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). The Romans supported the client kingdom of the Quadi, a Germanic tribe, to maintain peace in the Middle Danube area.[23] The Marcomanni were another Germanic tribe said by Tacitus to "stand first in strength and renown".[24] Maroboduus, who ruled in the first quarter of the first century AD, was a powerful ruler with an extensive empire based on modern-day Bohemia that included many smaller tribes. He was fully independent of Rome.[25] Later the Marcomanni also became clients of the Romans.[24] The Romans built forts in the province of Pannonia, bordering on Marcomannic territory, in the earlier Flavian period (69 AD - 96 AD). These included Arrabona and Brigetio in modern Hungary. They built various military installations in the Middle Danube area at the end of the first century including the fort of Gerulata. This fort, rebuilt several times before the end of the fourth century, is still visible in the village of Rusovce in southern Bratislava.[23] Marcomannic Wars[edit] Main article: Marcomannic Wars Germanic attacks 166-171[edit] Pannonia was invaded in late 166 or early 167 by a force of 6,000 Langobardi and Ubii. This invasion was quickly defeated by the Roman cavalry and infantry. In the aftermath the military governor of Pannonia, Iallius Bassus, initiated negotiations with 11 tribes. The Marcomannic king Ballomar, a Roman client, acted as the main negotiator for the tribes. In 168 the Marcomanni and Victohali again crossed the Danube into Pannonia, but when a Roman army advanced to Carnuntum they withdrew, promising good conduct.[26] A much more serious invasion occurred in 169, when Ballomar formed a coalition of Germanic tribes that crossed the Danube and won a decisive victory over a force of 20,000 Roman soldiers near Carnuntum. Ballomar then led the larger part of his host southwards towards Italy, while the remainder ravaged Noricum. The Marcomanni razed Opitergium (Oderzo) and besieged Aquileia.[27] The army of praetorian prefect Furius Victorinus tried to relieve the city, but was defeated and its general slain. The Romans reorganized, brought in fresh troops and managed to eventually evict the invaders from Roman territory by the end of 171.[28] Roman counter-offensives 172-174[edit] Marcus Aurelius started the invasion of what are now Slovak territories in 172 AD, when the Romans crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory. Although few details are known, the Romans achieved success, subjugating the Marcomanni and their allies, the Varistae or Naristi and the Cotini. After the 172 campaigning season Marcus and Commodus were both given the title "Germanicus", and coins were minted with the inscription "Germania subacta" (subjugated Germany). The Marcomanni were subjected to a harsh treaty.[29] In 173 AD the Romans campaigned against the Quadi, who had broken their treaty and assisted their kin, the Marcomanni. The Quadi were defeated and subdued.[30] In 174 AD Marcus Aurelius penetrated deeper into the river valleys of Váh, Nitra and Hron, where there are Roman marching camps like Laugaricio.[31] On the banks of the Hron he wrote his philosophical work "Meditations".[32] In the same year, the legions of Marcus Aurelius again marched against the Quadi. In response, the Quadi deposed their pro-Roman king, Furtius, and installed his rival Ariogaesus in his place. Marcus Aurelius refused to recognize Ariogaesus, and after his capture exiled him to Alexandria.[33] By late 174, the subjugation of the Quadi was complete.[34] Rebellion of Avidius Cassius 175-176[edit] The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna, Rome, depicting his victorious campaign against the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians Marcus Aurelius may have intended to campaign against the remaining tribes of the area that is now western Slovakia and Bohemia, and together with his recent conquests establish two new Roman provinces, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, but whatever his plans, they were cut short by the rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the East.[2] Marcus Aurelius marched eastwards with his army, accompanied by auxiliary detachments of Marcomanni, Quadi, and Naristi under the command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus.[35] After the successful suppression of Cassius' revolt, the emperor returned to Rome for the first time in nearly 8 years. On 23 December 176 AD, together with his son Commodus, he celebrated a joint triumph for his German victories ("de Germanis" and "de Sarmatis"). In commemoration of this, the Aurelian Column was erected, in imitation of Trajan's Column.[36] Second Marcomannian campaign 177-180[edit] In 177 AD, the Quadi again rebelled, soon followed by their neighbours, the Marcomanni. After delays, Marcus Aurelius headed north on 3 August 178 to begin his second Germanic campaign, too late for serious action that year.[37] Publius Tarrutenius Paternus was given supreme command in the campaigning season of 179. The main enemy seems to have been the Quadi and results were positive.[38] The next year, on 17 March 180, the emperor died at Vindobona (modern Vienna), or perhaps at Bononia on the Danube, to the north of Sirmium. He probably died of plague. His death happened just before the campaigning season began, and when his dream of creating the provinces of Marcomannia and Sarmatia seemed close to fulfillment.[39] Subsequent Roman influence[edit] When Commodus succeeded Marcus Aurelius he had little interest in pursuing the war. Against the advice of his senior generals, he negotiated a peace treaty with the Marcomanni and the Quadi, where he agreed to withdraw south of the Danube Limes. Commodus left for Rome at the end of 180 AD, where he celebrated a triumph.[40] Romanization of the barbarian population continued in the late Roman period (181-380 AD). Many Roman-style buildings with evidence of trade with the Roman Empire were built in what is now south-western Slovakia at Bratislava, Dúbravka, Cífer, Pác and Veľký Kýr.[41] Roman influence can be also seen in baths, coins, glass and amphorae dated to this period.[42] The Marcomanni converted to Christianity towards the end of the fourth century when Fritigil, their queen, obtained help from Ambrose, the formidable bishop of Milan (Italy), and also persuaded her husband to place himself and his people under Roman protection.[43] Disintegration[edit] In 373 AD, hostilities erupted between the Romans and the Quadi, who were outraged that Valentinian I was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations that were ignored by Aequitius, the magister armorum per Illyricum. However, by that year the construction of these forts was behind schedule. Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, arranged with Aequitius to promote his son Marcellianus and put him in charge of finishing the project. The protests of Quadian leaders continued to delay the project, and in a fit of frustration Marcellianus murdered the Quadian king Gabinius at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war. Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374 AD. In the fall he crossed the Danube at Aquincum into Quadian and Marcomannic territory.[44] After pillaging the lands of today's western Slovakia nearly without opposition, Valentinian retired to Savaria to winter quarters.[45] In the spring he decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to Brigetio. Once he arrived on November 17, he received a deputation from the Quadi. In return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army, the Quadi were to be allowed to leave in peace. However, before the envoys left they were granted an audience with Valentinian. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands. Furthermore, they said individual bands of Quadi were not necessarily bound to the rule of the chiefs who had made treaties with the Romans, and thus might attack the Romans at any time. This attitude of the envoys so enraged Valentinian I that he suffered a stroke that ended his life.[46] In 434 Attila devastated the area and started the mass migrations that destroyed the Western Roman Empire.[47] Later the area began to be occupied by Slav tribes. The first written source suggesting that Slavic tribes established themselves in what is now Slovakia is connected to the migration of the Germanic Heruli from the Middle Danube region towards Scandinavia in 512.[48][49] In this year, according to Procopius, they first passed "through the land of the Slavs", most probably along the river Morava.[50] A cluster of archaeological sites in the valleys of the rivers Morava, Váh and Hron also suggests that at the latest the earliest Slavic settlements appeared in the territory around 500 AD.[51][52] They are characterized by vessels similar to those of the "Mogiła" group of southern Poland and having analogies in the "Korchak" pottery of Ukraine.[53] Archaeological remains[edit] Laugaricio[edit] A Roman inscription in Laugaricio, ordered by Marcus Valerius Maximianus, at the castle hill of Trenčín (178–179 AD) The winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) lies near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the limes Romanus. This was where the Legio II Adiutrix fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the tribe of Quadi in 179 AD. Laugaricio, not far from the modern Poland-Slovakia border, is the most northern remains of the presence of Roman soldiers in central Europe.[54] Soldiers of the Legio II Adiutrix carved the Roman inscription on the rock below today's castle. It reads: Victoriae Augustorum exercitus, qui Laugaricione sedit, mil(ites) l(egiones) II DCCCLV. (Maximi)anus leg(atus leg)ionis II Ad(iutricis) cur(avit) f(aciendum) (To the Victory of the army of the Augusti, stationed in Laugaricio, 855 legionaries of the II (dedicated this monument), the arrangements being undertaken by Maximian, legate of Legio II Adiutrix.)[55] Gerulata[edit] Ruins of Gerulata Gerulata was a Roman military camp from the second to fourth centuries. It is located near today's Rusovce, on the right side of the Danube to the south of Bratislava.[56] The name was probably taken from the Celtic name for the location, which seems to have been near a ford over the river. The fortified camp was established in the Flavian period, built by the X, XIV and XV Legions, and continued to be occupied and modified throughout the Roman period.[57] The site has been subject to many years of archaeological research. Findings include inscribed stone votive altars and sepulchral monuments richly decorated with plant and figures. Many military artifacts have been discovered, as well as decorative jewelry, clasps and buckles. Jewels include gems, armlets, bracelets, pendants, rings, amulets. Coins include a complete sequence of Roman emperors apart from a short break in the first half of the third century. The findings also include everyday tools and implements – sickles, scissors, chisels, wrenches, clamps, fittings. The soldiers also left behind gambling chips and dice.[57] The findings reflect the cosmopolitan nature of the Roman empire. Troops stationed here also campaigned on the lower Rhine and in Africa. Roman, Etruscan and Greek gods are represented, as well as symbols from the cults of Phrygia, Syria, Africa and elsewhere. There are also early traces of Christianity.[57] Celemantia[edit] Ruins of Roman fort of Celemantia[58] The fortress of Celemantia is within the modern village of Iža-Leányvár on the left side of the Danube, downstream from Gerulata.[59] Brigetio (modern Szőny) on the south bank of the Danube in Pannonia was a thriving urban center, as shown by the remains of temples, mineral spring spas and villas that contained elaborate mosaics, pottery and metalwork. Celementia was purely a military outpost, connected to Brigeto by a pontoon bridge that could be removed in wartime. Construction of the castellum of Celemantia started in 171 AD on the orders of Marcus Aurelius.[60] The fortress was burned down in 179 by the Marcomannic and Quadian tribes, but a stone fort was later built on the same site that lasted into Late Antiquity.[23] Celemantia was a huge fortress. It was laid out as a square with sides about 172 metres (564 ft) long, with rounded corners. The walls were up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide and 5 metres (16 ft) high. The camp had 20 towers with reinforced walls and two towers guarding gates in the center of the sides of the square. The camp buildings included barracks, stables and warehouses constructed on standard designs. The main buildings were entirely built of stone, but most buildings had stone foundations with adobe walls and tile roofs. The camp also contained tanks, wells, cisterns and ovens. A major renovation was undertaken in the fourth century.[61] At the end of the fourth century the camp was destroyed and was not rebuilt. The Germanic Quadi occupied the ruins for a while, but by the middle of the fifth century it had been abandoned. In modern times, the camp was used as a quarry to build the fortress and other buildings in nearby Komárno. Exploratory archaeological work was conducted in 1906-1909, with sporadic projects from then onwards. The layout and methods of construction have gradually been uncovered. Discoveries include coins and other metal objects, an ivory statuette of a comic actor, ceramic fragments, weapons, jewelry, tools and equipment. Stone sculptures show a diversity of religious beliefs.[61] Other locations[edit] One of the first Roman military installations in the Middle Danube region is visible on the steep hill of Devín, where the March flows into the Danube. This may be a small fortress or fortified tower.[23] In the ruins of the Roman castle an iron cross was found in a tomb dating to the fourth century, the earliest relic of Christianity north of the Danube.[62] The small Roman forts of Zavod and Suchohrad in the Morava river region indicate an attempt to penetrate toward northern Bohemia-Moravia and the Oder river, and perhaps into southern Poland.[63][64] A Roman fort from the period of the Marcomannic wars has been excavated near Bratislava in Stupava. Discoveries include documents, ceramics, jewelry, coins, fragments of glass vessels and economic tools.[65] The latest archaeological discoveries which have located new Roman enclosures in the surroundings of Brno led to the conclusion that the advance of Roman troops from Carnumtum could have run further to the north-east, into the region of the Slovak-Polish border. Indeed, recent archaeological excavations and aerial surveys have shown further locations in northeast Moravia: three temporary Roman camps (possibly connected to the Laugaricio fort) situated in the foreland of the so-called Moravian Gate (Olomouc-Neředín, Hulín-Pravčice, Osek) have been partly corroborated, the former two clearly by digging.[66] See also[edit] History of Slovakia Marcus Aurelius Valentinian I Marcus Valerius Maximianus Carnuntum Celemantia Gerulata Devín Castle Notes[edit] ^ Frontier of the Roman Empire in Slovakia Archived 2011-10-05 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Historia Augusta - Aurelius, pp. 24.5. ^ Harmadyova, Rajtar & Schmidtova 2008. ^ Roman army in the Czech Republic (in Czech) ^ Map with Roman fortifications (in german) ^ Krško, Jaromír (June 2003). "Názvy potokov v Banskej Bystrici a okolí". Bystrický Permon. 1 (2): 8. ^ Roman marching camps in Bohemia-Moravia ^ Marching or temporary camps of Roman troops in western Slovakia and eastern Moravia ^ Moravian Gate Map ^ Stupava (in Slovak) ^ Terra sigillata ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 345. ^ Todd 2004, p. 119. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 407-408. ^ Barford 2001, p. 53. ^ Heather 2010, p. 408. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409-410. ^ Barford 2001, p. 54. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 53-54. ^ Eck 2003, pp. 94. ^ The Roman army in the CR. ^ Dio 222, pp. LV. ^ a b c d Frontier Regions - Slovakia. ^ a b Tacitus. ^ Pitts 1989, pp. 46. ^ Dio 222, pp. LXXII.1 ff. ^ McLynn 2009, pp. 327–328. ^ McLynn 2009, pp. 357ff. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 171–174. ^ Dio 222, pp. LXXII.8-10. ^ Der Romische Limes. ^ Krško 2003. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKrško2003 (help) ^ Dio 222, pp. LXXII.13-14. ^ Birley 200, pp. 178. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBirley200 (help) ^ McLynn 2009, pp. 381ff. ^ Beckmann 2002. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 206. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 207. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 209–210. ^ Historia Augusta - Commodus. ^ Kuzmová. ^ Komoróczy & Varsík. ^ Fritigil. ^ Marcellinus 391, pp. XXX.5.13. ^ Marcellinus 391, pp. XXX.5.14. ^ Marcellinus 391, pp. XXX.6. ^ Howarth 1994, pp. 36ff. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 407–408. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 53. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 408. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409–410. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 54. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 53–54. ^ Boundary Productions. ^ Pelikán 1960, pp. 218. ^ Müller & Kelcey 2011, pp. 83. ^ a b c Ancient Gerulata Rusovce. ^ Roman Castle Celemantia... ^ Erdkamp 2008, pp. 410. ^ Schwegler 2008, pp. 24. ^ a b Celemantia - Iža. ^ Castle of the Week. ^ Hanel & Cerdan 2009, pp. 893. ^ Marching or temporary camps... ^ Stupava. ^ Roman marching or temporary camps. Sources "Ancient Gerulata Rusovce" (in Slovak). Bratislava City Museum. Retrieved 2011-08-14. Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell University Press. Cornell. ISBN 0-8014-3977-9. Beckmann, Martin (2002). "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius". Phoenix. Classical Association of Canada. 56 (3/4): 348–357. doi:10.2307/1192605. JSTOR 1192605. Birley, Anthony (2000). Marcus Aurelius. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17125-3. Boundary Productions. "The Danube Limes in Slovakia". Limes World Heritage Site. Archived from the original on 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2011-08-13. "Castle of the Week 108 - Devín Castle, Slovak Republic". Stronghold Heaven. Retrieved 2011-08-13. "Celemantia - Iža (SK)". MAGYAR LIMES SZÖVETSÉG. Retrieved 2011-08-14. "Der Romische Limes in der Slowakei (The Roman Limes in Slovakia)" (in German). Retrieved 2011-08-12. Dio, Cassius (222). Roman History. Eck, Werner (2003). The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5. Erdkamp, Paul (2008). A companion to the Roman army. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. "Fritigil, markomannische Königin". Encyclopedia of Austria. Retrieved 2011-08-13. "Frontier Regions - Slovakia". romanfrontiers.org. Retrieved 2011-08-12. Harmadyova, Katarina; Rajtar, Jan; Schmidtova, Jaroslava (2008). "Frontiers of the Roman Empire - Slovakia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-05. Retrieved 2011-08-12. Hanel, Norbert; Cerdan, Angel Morillo (2009). Limes XX: studies on the Roman frontier of Gladius Schedules. CSIC. ISBN 978-84-00-08854-5. Howarth, Patrick (1994). Attila, King of the Huns: man and myth. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 0-7607-0033-8. Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. Oxford University Press. Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-973560-0. anon (395). Historia Augusta: Marcus Aurelius. anon (395). Historia Augusta: Commodus. Komoróczy, Balázs; Varsík, Vladimír. "Provincial Roman pottery in the region north of the Middle Danube". Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum. Retrieved 2011-08-13. Krško, Jaromír (June 2003). "Názvy potokov v Banskej Bystrici a okolí". Bystrický Permon. 1 (2): 8. Kuzmová, Klára. "Terra sigillata north of the Norican-Pannonian Limes". Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum. Retrieved 2011-08-13.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Marcellinus, Ammianus (391). Res Gestae. "Marching or temporary camps of Roman troops north to the Middle Danube". Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum. Retrieved 2011-08-12. McLynn, Frank (2009). Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2. Müller, Norbert; Kelcey, John G. (2011). Plants and Habitats of European Cities. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-89683-0. Pelikán, Oldřich (1960). Slovensko a Rímske impérium. Slovenské vydavatel̕stvo krásnej literatúry. Pitts, Lynn (1989). "Relations between Rome and the German 'Kings' on the Middle Danube in the First to Fourth Centuries A.D" (PDF). The Journal of Roman Studies. 79: 45–58. doi:10.2307/301180. JSTOR 301180. "Roman Castle Celemantia of Iža Virtual Tour, National Cultural Heritage". Petit Press. Retrieved 2011-08-12. "Roman marching or temporary camps north to the Danube and the main directions of Roman thrusts to the north". Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum. Retrieved 2011-08-13. Schwegler, Brian Alexander (2008). Confronting the devil: Europe, nationalism, and municipal governance in Slovakia. ISBN 978-0-549-45838-8. "Stupava History" (in Czech). Stupava City. Retrieved 2011-08-13. Tacitus. Germany Book 1.40.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) "The Roman army in the CR" (in Czech). Retrieved 2011-08-12. Further reading[edit] Kandler, M. Gli accampamenti militari di Carnuntum (in "Roma sul Danubio") Roma, 2002. Kerr, W.G. A Chronological Study of the Marcomannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius. Princeton University ed. Princeton, 1995 Komoróczy, K otázce existence římského vojenského tábora na počátku 1. st. po Kr. u Mušova (katastr Pasohlávky, Jihomoravský kraj). Kritické poznámky k pohledu římsko provinciální archeologie, in E.Droberjar, - M.Lutovský, Archeologie barbarů, Praha, 2006, pp. 155–205. Kovács, Peter. Marcus Aurelius' Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars. Brill Academic Publishers. Leiden, 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-16639-4 G. Langmann. Die Markomannenkriege 166/167 bis 180. Militärhistor. Schriftenreihe 43. Wien, 1981. Ritterling, E. Legio X Gemina. RE XII, 1925, col.1683-1684. v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovakia_in_the_Roman_era&oldid=1009817531" Categories: Slovakia in the Roman era Ancient Slovakia Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 Slovak-language sources (sk) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 2 March 2021, at 12:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4791	----	Digest (Roman law) - Wikipedia Digest (Roman law) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Digestorum, seu Pandectarum libri quinquaginta. Lugduni apud Gulielmu[m] Rouillium, 1581. Biblioteca Comunale "Renato Fucini" di Empoli The Digest, also known as the Pandects (Latin: Digesta seu Pandectae, adapted from Ancient Greek: πανδέκτης pandéktēs, "all-containing"), is a name given to a compendium or digest of juristic writings on Roman law compiled by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 530–533 AD. It is divided into 50 books. The Digest was part of a reduction and codification of all Roman laws up to that time, which later came to be known as the Corpus Juris Civilis (lit. "Body of Civil Law"[1]). The other two parts were a collection of statutes, the Codex (Code), which survives in a second edition, and an introductory textbook, the Institutes; all three parts were given force of law. The set was intended to be complete, but Justinian passed further legislation, which was later collected separately as the Novellae Constitutiones (New Laws or, conventionally, the "Novels"). Contents 1 History 2 Conflicts of law 3 Contents 4 Editions 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History[edit] Main article: Corpus Juris Civilis The original Codex Justinianus was promulgated in April of 529 by the C. "Summa". This made it the only source of imperial law, and repealed all earlier codifications.[2] However, it permitted reference to ancient jurists whose writings had been regarded as authoritative.[3] Under Theodosus II's Law of Citations, the writings of Papinian, Paulus, Ulpian, Modestinus, and Gaius were made the primary juristic authorities who could be cited in court. Others cited by them also could be referred to, but their views had to be "informed by a comparison of manuscripts".[4] The principal surviving manuscript is the Littera Florentina of the late sixth or early seventh century. In the Middle Ages, the Digest was divided into three parts, and most of the manuscripts contain only one of these parts.[5] The entire Digest was first translated into English in 1985 by the Scottish legal scholar Alan Watson.[6] The Digest was discovered in Amalfi in 1135, prompting a revival of learning of Roman law throughout Europe. Other sources claim it was discovered in 1070 and formed a major impetus for the founding of the first university in Europe, the University of Bologna (1088).[citation needed] Conflicts of law[edit] The codified authorities often conflicted. Therefore, Justinian ordered these conflicts to be settled and fifty of these were published as the "quinquaginta decisiones" (fifty decisions). Soon after, he further decreed that the works of these ancient writers, which totalled over 1,500 books, be condensed into fifty books. These were to be entitled, in Latin, Digesta (Ordered abstracts) or, in Greek, Πανδέκται Pandectae ("Encyclopedia").[7] In response to this order of December 15, 530 ("Deo auctore"), Tribonian created a commission of sixteen members to do the work—one government official, four professors, and eleven advocates.[8] The commission was given the power to condense and alter the texts in order to simplify, clarify, and eliminate conflicts among them.[8] The Digest's organization is complex: each of the fifty books is divided into several titles, each containing several extracts, and many of the extracts have several parts or paragraphs. Research in the modern era has created a highly probable picture of how the commission carried out its task.[9] Contents[edit] Approximately two-fifths of the Digest consists of the writings of Ulpian, while some one-sixth belongs to Paulus.[7] The work was declared to be the sole source of non-statute law: commentaries on the compilation were forbidden, or even the citing of the original works of the jurists for the explaining of ambiguities in the text.[10] Editions[edit] A translation of the Digest can be found in four volumes completed in 1985 by Alan Watson, based on the Latin text published by Theodor Mommsen in 1878.[11] See also[edit] Byzantine law Civil code Corpus Juris Canonici Corpus Juris Civilis International Roman Law Moot Court Law of Citations List of Roman laws Notes[edit] ^ To distinguish it from the Corpus Juris Canonici. ^ For an English translation, see Fred H. Blume, C. Summa in "The Annotated Justinian Code". ^ Tony Honoré, 'Justinian's Codification' in The Oxford Classical Dictionary 803-804. (Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth eds. 3rd rev. ed 2003). ^ H. F. Jolowicz & Barry Nicholas, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law 452 (3rd ed. 1972) ^ Jolowicz & Nicholas, supra note 2 at 491. For a detailed account of how the Digest and other parts of the Corpus Juris Civilis were transmitted from the end of antiquity to the Renaissance, see Charles M. Radding & Antonio Ciaralli, The Corpus Iuris Civilis in the Middle Ages: Manuscripts and Transmissions from the Sixth Century to the Juristic Revival (2007) ^ The Digest of Justinian (Theodor Mommsen, Paul Krueger, & Alan Watson eds., 1985). ^ a b Honoré, supra note 1 at 804. ^ a b Jolowicz & Nicholas, supra note 2 at 480. ^ For a detailed discussion of how the committee worked and how the "Digest" is organized, see Jolowicz & Nicholas, supra note 2 at 483-486. ^ Ferdinand Mackeldey Handbook of the Roman Law pp. 57-58, citing Const. Tanta, § 21; Const. Dedit § 21. ^ ed. Alan Watson, The Digest of Justinian, Volume 1, ibid, The Digest of Justinian, Volume 2, ibid, The Digest of Justinian, Volume 3, ibid, The Digest of Justinian, Volume 1. Links to these volumes can be found here for volume 1, volume 2, volume 3, and volume 4. References[edit] Tony Honoré, 'Justinian's Codification' in The Oxford Classical Dictionary 803-804. (Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth eds. 3rd rev. ed 2003) HF Jolowicz and Nicholas, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law 452 (3rd ed. 1972) CCM Radding and A Ciaralli, The Corpus Iuris Civilis in the Middle Ages: Manuscripts and Transmissions from the Sixth Century to the Juristic Revival (2007) T Mommsen, P Krueger and A Watson, The Digest of Justinian (1985) F Mackeldey Handbook of the Roman Law FH Blume, C. Summa[permanent dead link] Bernardo Moraes, Manual de Introdução ao Digesto (2017), 620pp. External links[edit] Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Digesta Look up pandect in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Latin text at Bibliotheca Augustana SP Scott, The Civil Law (1932) which contains the Digest's 50 volumes. Roman Law Resources, maintained by Prof Ernest Metzger. The Roman Law Library, Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. WW Buckland, A Text-Book of Roman Law from Augustus to Justinian (1921) though there were new editions by Peter Stein in 1963 and 1975. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pandects" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digest_(Roman_law)&oldid=1026819778" Categories: Roman law Byzantine law Latin prose texts 6th-century Latin books Law books 6th century in law Justinian I 6th century in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 12:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4792	----	Tiberius III - Wikipedia Tiberius III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 698 to 705 Emperor of the Romans Tiberius III Emperor of the Romans Solidus bearing the image of Tiberius III. The inscription reads dn tiberius pe av. Byzantine emperor Reign 15 February 698 – 10 July or 21 August 705 Predecessor Leontios Successor Justinian II Born Apsimar Died Constantinople Burial Prote Dynasty Twenty Years' Anarchy Twenty Years' Anarchy Chronology Leontios 695–698 Tiberius III 698–705 Justinian II 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Philippikos Bardanes 711–713 Anastasios II 713–715 Theodosios III 715–717 Succession Preceded by Heraclian dynasty Followed by Isaurian dynasty v t e Tiberius III (Greek: Τιβέριος, romanized: Tiberios) was Byzantine emperor from 15 February 698 to 10 July or 21 August 705 AD. Little is known about his early life, other than that he was droungarios, a mid-level commander, of the Cibyrrhaeots, and that his birth name was Apsimar. In 696, Tiberius was part of an army led by John the Patrician sent by Byzantine Emperor Leontios to retake the city of Carthage in the Exarchate of Africa, which had been captured by the Arab Umayyads. After seizing the city, this army was pushed back by Umayyad reinforcements and retreated to the island of Crete; some of the officers, fearing the wrath of Leontios, killed John and declared Tiberius emperor. Tiberius swiftly gathered a fleet, sailed for Constantinople, and deposed Leontios. Tiberius did not attempt to retake Byzantine Africa from the Umayyads, but campaigned against them along the eastern border with some success. In 705 former Emperor Justinian II, who had been deposed by Leontios, led an army of Slavs and Bulgars to Constantinople, and after entering the city secretly, deposed Tiberius. Tiberius fled to Bithynia, but was captured several months later and beheaded between August 705 and February 706. His body was initially thrown into the sea, but was later recovered and buried in a church on the island of Prote. Contents 1 History 1.1 Rule 1.2 Family 2 References 2.1 Notes 2.2 Citations 2.3 Bibliography History[edit] Very little is known of Tiberius before the reign of Byzantine Emperor Leontios (r. 695–698), except that he was of Germanic origin, as evidenced by his birth name of Apsimar,[a] that he was a droungarios (a commander of about a thousand men) of the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, a military province in southern Anatolia.[3][4] The Byzantist Walter Kaegi states that Tiberius had some unspecified victories over the Slavs in the Balkans during his early military career, which granted him a degree of popularity.[5][6] Starting in 680 AD the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, the primary rival of the Byzantine Empire, erupted into a civil war known as the Second Fitna. The civil war in the Umayyad Caliphate provided an opportunity for the Byzantine Empire to attack its weakened rival, and in 686, Emperor Justinian II sent Leontios to invade Umayyad territory in Armenia and the region of Iberia, where he campaigned against them successfully before leading troops in the region of Azerbaijan and Caucasian Albania.[3][7] Leontios' successful campaigns compelled Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan to sue for peace in 688, agreeing to tender part of the taxes from Umayyad territory in Armenia, Iberia, and Cyprus, and to renew a treaty signed originally under Constantine IV, providing for a weekly tribute of 1,000 pieces of gold, one horse, and one slave.[3] Justinian renewed his invasion of the Caliphate in 692, feeling that it was still in a weak position, but was repulsed at the Battle of Sebastopolis, where a large number of Slavs defected to the Umayyads, ensuring the Byzantine defeat. Afterward, the Umayyads renewed their invasion of North Africa, aimed at seizing the city of Carthage in the Exarchate of Africa. Justinian blamed Leontios for these defeats, and had him imprisoned.[3][8][9] However, after further setbacks in the war Justinian had Leontios released in 695, hoping that he could turn the tide of the war and prevent Carthage from being taken;[3][8][10] once freed Leontios seized the Byzantine throne and exiled Justinian to Cherson, a Byzantine exclave in the Crimea, after having his nose cut off.[3][10][11] In 696, the Umayyads renewed their attack upon the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa, focused upon seizing the city of Carthage and managed to capture it in 697. Leontios sent John the Patrician with an army to retake the city, which John accomplished after launching a surprise attack on its harbor. Despite this initial success, the city was swiftly retaken by Umayyad reinforcements, which forced John to retreat to Crete to regroup. A group of officers who feared Leontios's wrath for failing to recapture Carthage killed John, and declared Apsimar, who took the regnal name Tiberius,[b] emperor.[3] Tiberius gathered a fleet and allied himself with the Green faction (one of the Hippodrome factions), before sailing for Constantinople, which was enduring an outbreak of the bubonic plague.[3] Tiberius and his troops landed at the port of Sykai on the Golden Horn, and then proceeded to lay siege to the city.[13] After approximately six months of siege, on 15 February 698, the gates of Constantinople were opened for Tiberius's forces by members of the Green faction, allowing Tiberius to seize the city and depose Leontios;[3][13][14][15] however, this surrender did not prevent Tiberius' troops from plundering the city.[16] Tiberius had Leontios's nose slit, and sent him to live in the Monastery of Psamathion in Constantinople.[3][14][15] According to chronicler Michael the Syrian, himself citing an unnamed contemporary Syriac source, Tiberius justified his coup by saying:[17] Just as Justinian [II] because of his mismanagement of the Roman empire, especially for pillaging Cyprus and breaking the peace with the Arabs, thus ruining many Roman lands, and other such things, was deprived of rule, so Leontios, though he had been enthroned for being one of the great men, has been cast out for lapsing into similar folly.[17] Rule[edit] Map of the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in 700 AD Tiberius was crowned by Patriarch Callinicus shortly after seizing control of Constantinople and deposing Leontios.[4] Once in power, Tiberius did not attempt to retake Byzantine Africa from the Umayyads but rather focused his attention upon the eastern border of his empire. Tiberius appointed his brother, Heraclius,[c] as patrikios and monostrategos (head general) of the Anatolian themes.[19][20][21][22] Heraclius invaded the Umayyads in late autumn of 698, crossing into the mountain passes of the Taurus Mountains into Cilicia before marching for northern Syria. Heraclius defeated an Arab army sent from Antioch, then raided as far as Samosata before pulling back to the safety of Byzantine lands in spring of 699.[22][23][21] Heraclius' military successes led to a series of punitive Arab attacks, with the Umayyad generals Muhammad ibn Marwan and Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik launching a string of campaigns which conquered the remainder of Byzantine Armenia, which Heraclius was unable to effectively respond to.[23] However, the Armenians launched a large revolt against the Ummayads in 702, requesting Byzantine aid. Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik launched a campaign to reconquer Armenia in 704 but was attacked by Heraclius in Cilicia. Heraclius defeated the Arab army of 10,000–12,000 men led by Yazid ibn Hunain at Sisium, killing most and enslaving the rest; however, Heraclius was not able to stop Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik from reconquering Armenia.[23][20][15] Tiberius attempted to strengthen the Byzantine military by reorganizing its structure, as well as reorganizing the Cibyrrhaeotic Theme,[15][24] and repairing the sea walls of Constantinople.[25] Tiberius also focused his attention on the island of Cyprus, which had been underpopulated since much of the populace was moved to the region of Cyzicus under Justinian:[15][24] Tiberius successfully negotiated with Abd al-Malik in 698/699 to allow the Cypriots who had been moved to Propontis, and those who had been captured by the Arabs and brought to Syria, to return to their homelands,[4][15][24] as well as strengthened the garrison of the island with Mardaite troops from the Taurus Mountains.[24] Tiberius attempted to contain the Arabs at sea by way of creating new military provinces, with the creation of the Theme of Sardinia and separating the Theme of Sicily from the Exarchate of Ravenna.[26] Tiberius also banished the future emperor Philippikos Bardanes, the son of a patrician, to the island of Cephalonia,[27] according to Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor he was exiled for spreading word that he had had a dream in which he was emperor.[28] In 693 Justinian escaped from Cherson and gained the support of Khagan Busir, leader of the Khazars, who gave Justinian his sister Theodora as a bride, and welcomed him to his court in Phanagoria. In 703 reports that Justinian was attempting to gain support to retake the throne reached Tiberius, who swiftly sent envoys to the Khazars demanding that Justinian be handed over to the Byzantines, dead or alive. Justinian eluded capture, and sought the support of the Bulgar king Tervel.[25] In 705 Justinian led an army of Slavs and Bulgars to Constantinople and laid siege to it for three days before scouts discovered an old and disused conduit which ran under the walls of the city. Later, Justinian and a small detachment of soldiers used this route to gain access to the city, exiting at the northern edge of the wall near the Palace of Blachernae, and quickly seizing the building. Tiberius fled to the city of Sozopolis in Bithynia, and eluded his pursuers for several months before being captured.[15] The exact timing of Justinian's siege and Tiberius' capture is convoluted. According to the numismatist Philip Grierson, Justinian entered the city on 21 August,[29][30] however, according to Byzantist Constance Head, Justinian seized the city on 10 July, and the 21 August date is instead the date where Tiberius was captured in Sozopolis, or else the date when he was transported back to Constantinople.[29] On some date between August 705 and February 706, Justinian had both Leontios and Tiberius dragged to the Hippodrome and publicly humiliated, before being taken away to the Cynegion and beheaded.[3][4][25][30] Their bodies were initially thrown into the sea, but were later recovered and buried in a church on the island of Prote.[4] Family[edit] Tiberius had a son, Theodosius, who became bishop of Ephesus by 729, and presided over the Council of Hieria in 754,[31][32] and was a confidant of Emperors Leo III (r. 717–741) and Constantine V (r. 741–775).[33] Byzantine Historian Graham Sumner has suggested that this Theodosius may be the same person as later Emperor Theodosius III (r. 715–717). Sumner presents the evidence that both figures held the Bishopric of Ephesus at similar times: Emperor Theodosius became bishop after 716, according to the Chronicon Altinate et Gradense, and Theodosius the son of Tiberius became bishop by 729, suggesting they may be the same person.[32] Byzantine historians Cyril Mango and Roger Scott do not view this theory as likely, as it would mean that Emperor Theodosius had to have lived for thirty more years after his abdication.[34] References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ The Byzantinists Anthony Bryer and Judith Herrin have suggested that the name Apsimar may be Slav in origin, [1] and scholars Leslie Brubaker and John Haldon have suggested a Turkic origin.[2] ^ Tiberius is often referred to as Tiberius III by modern conventions, and is also sometimes called Tiberius II, when the original Tiberius is excluded from the regnal count.[12] ^ Some scholars, such as Walter Kaegi, identify Heraclius as Tiberius' son, rather than his brother.[18] Citations[edit] ^ Bryer & Herrin 1977, p. 16. ^ Brubaker & Haldon 2011, p. 72. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Moore 1999a. ^ a b c d e PmbZ, Tiberius III (#8483/corr.). ^ Kaegi 1981, p. 189 & 207. ^ Kaegi 1981, p. 318. ^ Brubaker & Haldon 2011, p. 586. ^ a b Bacharach 2010, p. 15. ^ Rosser 2001, p. 2. ^ a b Penna & Morrison 2016, p. 27. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, pp. 116–122. ^ Rosser 2001, p. 473. ^ a b Haldon 2016, p. 49. ^ a b Garland 2017, p. 2. ^ a b c d e f g Moore 1999b. ^ Haldon 2016, p. 185. ^ a b Haldon 2016, p. 93. ^ Kaegi 1981, p. 189. ^ Brubaker & Haldon 2011, p. 738. ^ a b PmbZ, Herakleios (#2558). ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 355. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, "Tiberios II" (P. A. Hollingsworth), p. 2084. ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 339. ^ a b c d Bury 1889, p. 356. ^ a b c Kazhdan 1991, p. 2084. ^ Treadgold 1995, p. 26. ^ Bury 1889, p. 357. ^ Sumner 1976, p. 287. ^ a b Head 1969, p. 105. ^ a b Grierson, Mango & Ševčenko 1962, p. 51. ^ Bryer & Herrin 1977, p. 3. ^ a b Sumner 1976, p. 292. ^ Head 1970, p. 15. ^ Neil 2000. Bibliography[edit] Bacharach, Jere L. (2010). "Signs of Sovereignty: The Shahāda, Quranic verses, and the Coinage of Abd Al-Malik". Muqarnas. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-18511-1. Brubaker, Leslie; Haldon, John (2011). Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, C. 680-850: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43093-7. Bryer, Anthony; Herrin, Judith (1977). "Iconoclasm: Papers Given at the Ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975". Centre for Byzantine Studies. Birmingham. OCLC 3135001. Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, 395 A.D. to 800 A.D. II. MacMillan & Co. OCLC 168739195. Garland, Lynda (2017). Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800-1200. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-95371-9. Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337-1042); With an Additional Note". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 1–63. doi:10.2307/1291157. JSTOR 1291157. Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740. Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674088771. Head, Constance (1970). "Towards a Reinterpretation of the Second Reign of Justinian II: 705-711". Byzantion. 40 (1): 14–32. JSTOR 44170282. Head, Constance (1969). "On the Date of Justinian II's restoration". Byzantion. 39: 104–107. JSTOR 44169943. Kaegi, Walter (1981). Byzantine Military Unrest, 471-843: An Interpretation. Ann Arbor: ACLS Humanities. ISBN 978-1597406321. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). "Tiberius III". Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Moore, R. Scott (1999a). "Leontius (695-98 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2019. Moore, R. Scott (1999b). "Tiberius III (698-705 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019. Neil, Bronwen (2000). "Theodosius III (715–717)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 30 November 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-813-51198-6. Penna, Vasiliki; Morrison, Cecile (2016). Usurpers and Rebels in Byzantium: Image and Message Through Coins: Papers from the 43rd Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Birmingham, March 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-07693-3. Rosser, John H. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-810-86621-8. Sumner, Graham V. (1976). "Philippicus, Anastasius II and Theodosius III". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. XVII. OCLC 595088782. Retrieved 18 February 2020. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Treadgold, Warren (1995). Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081. Stanford: Stanford University. ISBN 978-0804731-63-8. Tiberius III Born: 7th century Died: 15 February 706 Regnal titles Preceded by Leontius Byzantine Emperor 698–705 Succeeded by Justinian II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_III&oldid=1028067415" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors 8th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine admirals 7th-century births 706 deaths Twenty Years' Anarchy 690s in the Byzantine Empire 700s in the Byzantine Empire Executed monarchs People executed by decapitation Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 17:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4801	----	Publius Acilius Attianus - Wikipedia Publius Acilius Attianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search late 1st/early 2nd century Roman praetorian prefect Publius Acilius Attianus Allegiance Roman Empire Years of service ??–119 Rank Praetorian prefect Commands held Praetorian Guard Publius Acilius Attianus (1st – 2nd century AD) was a powerful Roman official who played a significant, though obscured, role in the transfer of power from Trajan to Hadrian. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Imperial succession 1.2 During Hadrian's reign 2 References Life[edit] He was born in Italica, Hispania Baetica, which was also the birthplace of Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, the emperor Hadrian's father. When Afer died about 86, Attianus and the future Emperor Trajan (another native of Italica) became the ten-year-old Hadrian's guardians.[1] Otherwise nothing is known of Attianus's early career, but towards the end of Trajan's reign he was joint Praetorian Prefect with Servius Sulpicius Similis. While Similis remained at Rome, Attianus accompanied the Emperor on campaign in the East. Imperial succession[edit] Shortly before his death, Trajan was said to have composed a letter naming Hadrian as his adopted son and successor. Suspicions were raised because the copy of the letter that reached Rome bore Plotina's signature. It was rumoured that Attianus and the Empress Plotina had been lovers, both very fond of Hadrian their ward, and both present at Trajan's deathbed at Selinus in Cilicia in August 117, the two helped secure Hadrian's succession by forging Trajan's will.[2] Along with Plotina and Matidia, Attianus accompanied Trajan's body to Seleucia and his ashes to Rome. During Hadrian's reign[edit] Early in Hadrian's reign, Attianus counselled the emperor on his accession against various possible opponents, and, according to Hadrian's lost autobiography, was responsible for the murder of the ‘four consulars’ whose deaths were an early stain on his reign. However, the new emperor resented Attianus's power, and, in 119, induced him to request to be relieved of the post of Praetorian Prefect.[3] Attianus was given senatorial rank and the ornamenta consularia on his retirement, but nothing more is heard of him past that point. References[edit] ^ Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 2; translated by Anthony Birley, Lives of the Later Caesars (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 37 ^ Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth-E.A. (edd.), Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 1214. ^ Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 8; translated by Birley, Lives, p. 66 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Publius_Acilius_Attianus&oldid=1017235020" Categories: Acilii 1st-century births 2nd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans Praetorian prefects Romans from Hispania Senators of the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 16:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4811	----	Pontiff - Wikipedia Pontiff From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Pontifex" redirects here. For other uses, see Pontifex (disambiguation). A pontiff (from Latin pontifex) was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion, the College of Pontiffs.[1][2] The term "pontiff" was later applied to any high or chief priest and, in Roman Catholic ecclesiastical usage, to a bishop and more particularly to the Bishop of Rome, the Pope or "Roman Pontiff".[3] Look up pontiff in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ancient Rome 3 Biblical Usage 4 Catholicism 5 Other religions 6 See also 7 References Etymology[edit] The English term derives through Old French pontif[3][4] from Latin pontifex, a word commonly held to come from the Latin root words pons, pont- (bridge) + facere (to do, to make), and so to have the literal meaning of "bridge-builder", presumably between mankind and the deity/deities. The role of bridges in ancient religions, associated with resurrection, redemption and the Judgement Day is already well known.[according to whom?] Uncertainty prevailing, this may be only a folk etymology,[1] but it may also recall ancient tasks and magic rites associated with bridges.[5] Ancient Rome[edit] Main article: College of Pontiffs There were four chief colleges of priests in ancient Rome, the most illustrious of which was that of the pontifices.[2] The others were those of the augures, the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, and the epulones.[5] The same person could be a member of more than one of these groups.[2] Including the pontifex maximus, who was president of the college, there were originally three[5] or five[2] pontifices, but the number increased over the centuries, finally becoming 16 under Julius Caesar.[2][5] By the third century B.C., the pontiffs had assumed control of the state religious system.[5] Biblical Usage[edit] Inspiration for the Christian use of the name "pontiff" for a bishop could be found in the use of the same word (in Latin, pontifex, not "pontifex maximus") for the Jewish High Priest in the Vulgate Latin translation of the Scriptures, where it appears 59 times. For example, in the Vulgate Mark 15:11, "pontifices" (plural) is the Latin term used for "The Chief Priests",[6] and in the Letter to the Hebrews "pontifex" (singular) is repeatedly used with reference to the Jewish High Priest and analogously to Jesus as the High Priest of Christians. Catholicism[edit] The word "pontiff", though now most often used in relation to a pope, technically refers to any bishop. The phrase "Roman Pontiff" is therefore not tautological, but means "Bishop of Rome".[1] In the same way, a Pontifical Mass is a mass celebrated by a bishop, not necessarily a pope. Note also "the Pontifical" (the liturgical book containing the prayers and ceremonies for rites used by a bishop)[7] and "pontificals", the insignia of his order that a bishop uses when celebrating Pontifical Mass.[8] While the pontificals primarily belong to bishops, they have also been granted by papal favour or legally established Church custom to certain presbyters (e.g., abbots). Other religions[edit] The word has been employed in English also for caliphs (Islam) and swamis and jagadgurus (Hinduism).[1] See also[edit] Pontifex Maximus College of Pontiffs References[edit] ^ a b c d "Pontifex". "Oxford English Dictionary", March 2007 ^ a b c d e William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, article Pontifex, pp. 939-942 ^ a b Pontiff, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ^ In modern French the corresponding term is pontife ^ a b c d e Encyclopædia Britannica, article Roman religion ^ Marcus 15:11 ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pontifical ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article pontificals Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pontiff&oldid=1027825847" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Religious leadership roles Christian terminology Catholic ecclesiastical titles Papal titles Hidden categories: All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Eesti Español Esperanto Français Hrvatski Ido Italiano Nederlands Plattdüütsch Polski Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 06:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4814	----	Pneuma (Stoic) - Wikipedia Pneuma (Stoic) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pneuma (disambiguation). In Stoic philosophy, pneuma (Greek: πνεῦμα) is the concept of the "breath of life," a mixture of the elements air (in motion) and fire (as warmth).[1] Originating among Greek medical writers who locate human vitality in the breath, pneuma for the Stoics is the active, generative principle that organizes both the individual and the cosmos.[2] In its highest form, the pneuma constitutes the human soul (psychê), which is a fragment of the pneuma that is the soul of God. As a force that structures matter, it exists even in inanimate objects.[3] Contents 1 Levels of pneuma 2 Pneuma and cosmology 3 Impact on Christianity 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography Levels of pneuma[edit] In the Stoic universe, everything is constituted of matter and pneuma. There are three grades or kinds of pneuma, depending on their proportion of fire and air. The pneuma of state or tension (tonos). This unifying and shaping pneuma provides stability or cohesion (hexis) to things; it is a force that exists even in objects such as a stone, log, or cup. The 4th-century Christian philosopher Nemesius attributes the power of pneuma in Stoic thought to its "tensile motion" (tonicê kinêsis); that is, the pneuma moves both outwards, producing quantity and quality, and at the same time inwards, providing unity and substance. An individual is defined by the equilibrium of its inner pneuma, which holds it together and also separates it from the world around it.[4] The pneuma as life force. The vegetative pneuma enables growth (physis) and distinguishes a thing as alive. The pneuma as soul. The pneuma in its most rarefied and fiery form serves as the animal soul (psychê); it pervades the organism, governs its movements, and endows it with powers of perception and reproduction.[5] This concept of pneuma is related to Aristotle's theory that the pneuma in sperm conveys the capacity for locomotion and for certain sensory perceptions to the offspring.[6] A fourth grade of pneuma may also be distinguished. This is the rational soul (logica psychê) of the mature human being, which grants the power of judgment.[7] Pneuma and cosmology[edit] In Stoic cosmology, everything that exists depends on two first principles which can be neither created nor destroyed: matter, which is passive and inert, and the logos, or divine reason, which is active and organizing.[8] The 3rd-century B.C. Stoic Chrysippus regarded pneuma as the vehicle of logos in structuring matter, both in animals and in the physical world.[9] Pneuma in its purest form can thus be difficult to distinguish from logos or the "constructive fire" (pur technikon)[10] that drives the cyclical generation and destruction of the Stoic cosmos. When a cycle reaches its end in conflagration (ekpyrôsis), the cosmos becomes pure pneuma from which it regenerates itself.[11] The Stoics conceived of the cosmos as a whole and single entity, a living thing with a soul of its own,[12] a spherical continuum of matter held together by the orderly power of Zeus through the causality of the pneuma that pervades it. This divine pneuma that is the soul of the cosmos supplies the pneuma in its varying grades for everything in the world.[13] Impact on Christianity[edit] In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound impact of Stoicism on Christianity. In particular: Another Stoic concept which offered inspiration to the Church was that of 'divine Spirit'. Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's 'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated – in the Christian as in the Stoic mind – with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.[14] See also[edit] Holy Spirit Pneuma (in wider philosophical, medical, and religious contexts) Stoic physics References[edit] ^ "Stoicism," Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Taylor & Francis, 1998), p. 145. ^ David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics," The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 388. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism (University of California Press, 2006), pp. 98-104. ^ Michael J. White, "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)," p. 134, and Dorothea Frede, "Stoic Determinism," p. 186, both in The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics (Cambridge University Press, 2003). ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, p. 91. ^ Friedrich Solmsen, "The Vital Heat, the Inborn Pneuma and the Aether," Journal of Hellenic Studies 77 (1957) 119–123. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, p. 105. ^ Dirk Baltzly, "Stoicism," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics," The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 389. ^ Michael J. White, "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)," The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 136. White suggests that a number of Stoic terms are used interchangeably, or with subtle contextual distinctions, for the principle that acts on and within the physical world: pur, to hêgemonikon, pneuma, theos, nous, sperma, hexis, tonikê kinêsis. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, pp. 98–99. ^ David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics," The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 447. ^ David J. Furley, From Aristotle to Augustine (Routledge, 1999) p. 238; John Sellars, Stoicism, p. 97. ^ Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 0-14044140-9. Bibliography[edit] Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward N. Zalta. Spring 2008. Inwood, Brad, editor. The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-77985-5 Sedley, David. "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics." The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2005. "Stoicism." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 9. Taylor & Francis, 1998. ISBN 0-415-07310-3 Sellars, John. Stoicism. University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0-520-24907-0 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pneuma_(Stoic)&oldid=1021104768" Categories: Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Norsk bokmål Polski Português Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2021, at 22:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4816	----	Auctoritas - Wikipedia Auctoritas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman prestige; contrast with power, imperium Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Auctoritas is a Latin word which is the origin of English "authority". While historically its use in English was restricted to discussions of the political history of Rome, the beginning of phenomenological philosophy in the 20th century expanded the use of the word.[1] In ancient Rome, auctoritas referred to the general level of prestige a person had in Roman society, and, as a consequence, his clout, influence, and ability to rally support around his will. Auctoritas was not merely political, however; it had a numinous content and symbolized the mysterious "power of command" of heroic Roman figures. Noble women could also achieve a degree of auctoritas. For example, the wives, sisters, and mothers of the Julio-Claudians had immense influence on society, the masses, and the political apparatus. Their auctoritas was exercised less overtly than their male counterparts due to Roman societal norms, but they were powerful nonetheless. Contents 1 Etymology and origin 2 Political meaning in ancient Rome 2.1 Auctoritas principis 3 Middle Ages 4 Hannah Arendt 5 See also 6 References and sources Etymology and origin[edit] According to French linguist Emile Benveniste, auctor (which also gives us English "author") is derived from Latin augeō ("to augment", "to enlarge", "to enrich"). The auctor is "is qui auget", the one who augments the act or the juridical situation of another.[2] Arguably[citation needed], Benveniste defended that Latin "auctoritas" was based on a divine conception of power and not on the individual that happened to the position of authority. Auctor in the sense of "author", comes from auctor as founder or, one might say, "planter-cultivator"[citation needed]. Similarly, auctoritas refers to rightful ownership, based on one's having "produced" or homesteaded the article of property in question - more in the sense of "sponsored" or "acquired" than "manufactured". This auctoritas would, for example, persist through an usucapio of ill-gotten or abandoned property. Political meaning in ancient Rome[edit] Politically, the Roman Senate's authority (auctoritas patrum) was connected to auctoritas, not to be confused with potestas or imperium, which were held by the magistrates or the people[citation needed]. In this context, auctoritas could be defined as the juridical[citation needed] power to authorize some other act. The 19th-century classicist Theodor Mommsen describes the "force" of auctoritas as "more than advice and less than command, an advice which one may not ignore." Cicero says of power and authority, "Cum potestas in populo auctoritas in senatu sit." ("While power resides in the people, authority rests with the Senate.")[3] In the private domain, those under tutelage (guardianship), such as women and minors, were similarly obliged to seek the sanction of their tutors ("protectors") for certain actions. Thus, auctoritas characterizes the auctor: The pater familias authorizes – that is, validates and legitimates – his son's wedding in prostate. In this way, auctoritas might function as a kind of "passive counsel", much as, for example, a scholarly authority. Traditional imperial Roman exception to declare any legalistic concept and rule of law null and overrule prior decision making, in some military and political circumstances overrule fundamental body of law within a constitution, whether it is or isn't codified. Imperial prerogative is to protect the state from harm and its peoples. During the overruling of Roman Constitution body of fundamental laws and rule of law, a dictator may be chosen by the senate in Imperial Rome.[citation needed] Auctoritas principis[edit] After the fall of the Republic, during the days of the Roman Empire, the Emperor had the title of princeps ("first citizen" of Rome) and held the auctoritas principis – the supreme moral authority – in conjunction with the imperium and potestas – the military, judiciary and administrative powers. That is to say, there is a non-committal to a separation of powers, some civil rights, constitutionalism, codified constitutional state and legalist concept of law. Middle Ages[edit] The notion of auctoritas was often invoked by the papacy during the Middle Ages, in order to secure the temporal power of the Pope. Innocent III most famously invoked auctoritas in order to depose kings and emperors and to try to establish a papal theocracy. Hannah Arendt[edit] Hannah Arendt considered auctoritas a reference to founding acts as the source of political authority in ancient Rome. She took foundation to include (as augeō suggests), the continuous conservation and increase of principles handed down from "the beginning" (see also pietas). According to Arendt, this source of authority was rediscovered in the course of the 18th-century American Revolution (see "United States of America" under Founding Fathers), as an alternative to an intervening Western tradition of absolutism, claiming absolute authority, as from God (see Divine Right of Kings), and later from Nature, Reason, History, and even, as in the French Revolution, Revolution itself (see La Terreur). Arendt views a crisis of authority as common to both the American and French Revolutions, and the response to that crisis a key factor in the relative success of the former and failure of the latter.[4] Arendt further considered the sense of auctor and auctoritas in various Latin idioms, and the fact that auctor was used in contradistinction to – and (at least by Pliny) held in higher esteem than – artifices, the artisans to whom it might fall to "merely" build up or implement the author-founder's vision and design.[5] See also[edit] History portal Philosophy portal Authoritarianism – Form of social organization characterized by submission to authority Authority – Political power over others Athenian law Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic Discipline – action or inaction that is regulated to be by a particular system of governance Hierarchy – System of elements that are subordinated to each other Mana – Life force Energy, Power, effectiveness, and prestige in Pacific Island culture Mund (law) – Germanic legal relationship Nobility – Official privileged social class Piety Potestas – A Latin word meaning power or faculty Roman law – Legal system of Ancient Rome (c. 449 BC – AD 529) Virtues in ancient Rome Gravitas – An Ancient Roman virtue Pietas – An Ancient Roman virtue Dignitas – Ancient Roman virtue Virtus – Masculine virtue in Ancient Rome References and sources[edit] References ^ "What does auctoritas mean?". Definitions.net. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ J. B. Greenough disputes this etymology of auctor - but not the sense of foundation and augmentation - in "Latin Etymologies", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 4, 1893. ^ De leg. 3. 28 ^ Hannah Arendt, On Revolution, Chapter 5, Section 2. (1965) ^ Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future, Chapter 3, Section IV. (1968) Sources Cicero, De Legibus (1st century BC) Theodor Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, Volume III, Chapter 2. (1887) William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. (1875, 1890 editions) Alvaro d'Ors, Derecho privado romano (10 ed. Eunsa, 2004) Rafael Domingo Osle, Auctoritas (Ariel, 1999) v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Auctoritas&oldid=1014428381" Categories: Latin words and phrases Latin legal terminology Roman law Philosophy of law Ancient Roman virtues Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Latina Nederlands Polski Português Русский Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 27 March 2021, at 00:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4827	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting this IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Attitude towards Christians== In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]] of [[Christians]]. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.<ref>Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'.</ref> The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.<ref name='McLynn2010295'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 295.</ref> The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.<ref>The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-4834	----	Boeotia - Wikipedia Boeotia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Regional unit in Central Greece, Greece Boeotia Περιφερειακή ενότητα Βοιωτίας Regional unit Municipalities of Boeotia Boeotia within Greece Coordinates: 38°25′N 23°05′E / 38.417°N 23.083°E / 38.417; 23.083Coordinates: 38°25′N 23°05′E / 38.417°N 23.083°E / 38.417; 23.083 Country Greece Region Central Greece Capital Livadeia Area  • Total 3,211 km2 (1,240 sq mi) Population (2011)  • Total 117,920  • Density 37/km2 (95/sq mi) Time zone UTC+2  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal codes 32x xx, 190 12 Area codes 226x0 ISO 3166 code GR-03 Car plates ΒΙ Website www.viotia.gr Boeotia, sometimes alternatively Latinised as Boiotia or Beotia (/biːˈoʊʃ(i)ə/ bee-OH-sh(ee-)ə; Greek: Βοιωτία, Modern: [vi.oˈti.a], Ancient: [bojjɔːtí.a]; modern transliteration Voiotía or Viotía), formerly known as Cadmeis, is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, and its largest city is Thebes. Boeotia was also a region of ancient Greece, from before the 6th century BC. Contents 1 Geography 2 Origins 3 Legends and literature 4 History 4.1 Emigration of the Boiotoi 4.2 Fifth century BC 4.3 Boeotian League 4.4 Fourth century BC 4.5 Hellenistic period 4.6 Middle Ages and later 5 Archaeological sites 6 Administration 6.1 Prefecture 6.2 Provinces 7 Economy 7.1 Transport 8 Natives of Boeotia 9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 12 External links Geography[edit] Map of ancient Boeotia Boeotia lies to the north of the eastern part of the Gulf of Corinth. It also has a short coastline on the Gulf of Euboea. It bordered on Megaris (now West Attica) in the south, Attica in the southeast, Euboea in the northeast, Opuntian Locris (now part of Phthiotis) in the north and Phocis in the west. The main mountain ranges of Boeotia are Mount Parnassus in the west, Mount Helicon in the southwest, Cithaeron in the south and Parnitha in the east. Its longest river, the Cephissus, flows in the central part, where most of the low-lying areas of Boeotia are found. Lake Copais was a large lake in the center of Boeotia. It was drained in the 19th century. Lake Yliki is a large lake near Thebes. Origins[edit] The origin of the name "Boeotians" may lie in the mountain Boeon in Epirus.[1] The earliest inhabitants of Boeotia, associated with the city of Orchomenus, were called Minyans. Pausanias mentions that Minyans established the maritime Ionian city of Teos,[2] and occupied the islands of Lemnos and Thera. The Argonauts were sometimes referred to as Minyans. Also, according to legend the citizens of Thebes paid an annual tribute to their king Erginus.[3] The Minyans may have been proto-Greek speakers. Although most scholars today agree that the Myceneans descended from the Minyans of the Middle Helladic period, they believe that the progenitors and founders of Minyan culture were an indigenous people.[4] The early wealth and power of Boeotia is shown by the reputation and visible Mycenean remains of several of its cities, especially Orchomenus and Thebes. Some toponyms and the common Aeolic dialect indicate that the Boeotians were related to the Thessalians. Traditionally, the Boeotians are said to have originally occupied Thessaly, the largest fertile plain in Greece, and to have been dispossessed by the north-western Thessalians two generations after the Fall of Troy (1200 BC). They moved south and settled in another rich plain, while others filtered across the Aegean and settled on Lesbos and in Aeolis in Asia Minor. Others are said to have stayed in Thessaly, withdrawing into the hill country and becoming the perioikoi, ("dwellers around").[5] Boeotia was an early member of the oldest Amphictyonic League (Anthelian), a religious confederacy of related tribes, despite its distance from the League's original home in Anthela.[6][7] Although they included great men such as Pindar, Hesiod, Epaminondas, Pelopidas, and Plutarch, the Boeotian people were portrayed as proverbially dull by the Athenians (cf. Boeotian ears incapable of appreciating music or poetry and Hog-Boeotians, Cratinus.310).[8] Legends and literature[edit] Mount Helicon Map showing ancient regions of central Greece in relation to geographical features Many ancient Greek legends originated or are set in this region. The older myths took their final form during the Mycenean age (1600–1200 BC) when the Mycenean Greeks established themselves in Boeotia and the city of Thebes became an important centre. Many of them are related to the myths of Argos, and others indicate connections with Phoenicia, where the Mycenean Greeks and later the Euboean Greeks established trading posts. Important legends related to Boeotia include: Eros, worshiped by a fertility cult in Thespiae The Muses of Mount Helicon Ogyges and the Ogygian deluge Cadmus, who was said to have founded Thebes and brought the alphabet to Greece Dionysus and Semele Narcissus Heracles, who was born in Thebes The Theban Cycle, including the myths of Oedipus and the Sphinx, and the Seven against Thebes Antiope and her sons Amphion and Zethus Niobe Orion, who was born in Boeotia and said to have fathered 50 sons with the daughters of a local river god. Many of these legends were used in plays by the tragic Greek poets, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides: Aeschylus's Seven Against Thebes Sophocles's Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone, known as the Theban plays Euripides's Bacchae, Phoenician Women, Suppliants, and Heracles They were also used in lost plays such as Aeschylus's Niobe and Euripides's Antiope. Boeotia was also notable for the ancient oracular shrine of Trophonius at Lebadea. Graea, an ancient city in Boeotia, is sometimes thought to be the origin of the Latin word Graecus, from which English derives the words Greece and Greeks. The major poets Hesiod and Pindar were Boeotians. Nonetheless, the French use the term béotien ("Boeotian") to denote Philistinism. History[edit] 18th century map of ancient Boeotia Ruins of the Cadmeia, the central fortress of ancient Thebes Boeotia had significant political importance, owing to its position on the north shore of the Gulf of Corinth, the strategic strength of its frontiers, and the ease of communication within its extensive area. On the other hand, the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development. The importance of the legendary Minyae has been confirmed by archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas"). The Boeotian population entered the land from the north possibly before the Dorian invasion. With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a homogeneous nation. Aeolic Greek was spoken in Boeotia. In historical times, the leading city of Boeotia was Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable capital;[9] other major towns were Orchomenus, Plataea, and Thespiae. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other townships into a single state, just as Athens had annexed the Attic communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy, and only allowed the formation of a loose federation that, initially, was merely religious.[9] Boeotian cup from Thebes painted with birds, 560–540 BC (Louvre) While the Boeotians, unlike the Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the cities was a serious check on the nation's development. Boeotia hardly figures in history before the late 6th century BC. Previous to this, its people are chiefly known as the makers of a type of geometric pottery, similar to the Dipylon ware of Athens. In about 519 BC, the resistance of Plataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507 BC, the Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy. Emigration of the Boiotoi[edit] The word that the Boeotians used for themselves, Boiotoi, is a Greek tribal name. According to the traditions they lived in Thessaly, especially in the area around Arne, though some may have gone to the Pagasitic Gulf before migrating to the land later termed Boeotia. The location of Arne is unknown, though sometimes it is equated with Cierium in Central Thessaly. The presence in Classical times in Boeotia of cults and place-names of Thessalian origin, such as Itonia and Itonian Athena, Homole and Homoloian Zeus, Alalcomenae, Corseia and Pharae, confirm for most scholars the merits of these traditions. It is, therefore, generally believed that the Boeotians originated in Thessaly and lived there as a distinct ethnos, in Phthiotis or in Thessaliotis, before they migrated to Boeotia, no doubt taking elements with them from other parts of Thessaly. Boeotians were expelled from Thessaly after the Trojan war although there are three traditions which disagree on how expulsion played out. One tradition says that the Boiotoi were expelled by the Thessalians who were led by Thessalus, son of Aiatus, son of Pheidippus, son of another Thessalus. Pheidippus appears in the Catalogue of ships as one of the commanders of the force from Cos and Carpathus. He was thought to have been driven to Epirus after the war and to have settled at Ephyra in the Thesprotid. Hence the Boiotoi were expelled two generations after the Trojan War. Hellanicus is probably the source of this tradition, and the source of Thucydides' "sixtieth year," that is, two generations of thirty years. A second tradition puts the expulsion of the Boiotoi in the reign of Aiatus, one generation after the War. To this should also belong the story in Plutarch, which tells how Opheltas king of the Boiotoi took Chaeronea "by force from the barbarians." Opheltas is the son of Peneleus, one of the leaders of the Boeotian contingent in the Catalogue, and living one generation after the War. It is not until the reign of Damasichthon, son of Opheltas, that control of Thebes was gained by the Boiotoi. Hence in this tradition one generation after the War, the Boiotoi were expelled and western Boeotia was invaded; two generations after the War, Thebes was won. A third tradition combines the other two: the two generations until the expulsion from Thessaly after the War and the two generations until Thebes is gained give the four generations cited by Hieronymus in his tale of the Cadmean return to Thebes after the War. The entry-point to Boeotia by Boeotians seems to be put in the same general area by all traditions. The second tradition gives Chaeronea as the first place attacked, while the first says that Coronea and Orchomenus were captured virtually simultaneously and then the sanctuary of Itonian Athena was founded. It is clear that both traditions envisaged the Boiotoi as following a well-known invasion route from Thessaly, the one via Thermopylae and Hyampolis to Chaeronea, where the invaders would be poised to attack both Orchomenus and Coronea. Having gained control of Chaeronea, Orchomenus and Coronea, and their territories, the Boiotoi seem to have paused to digest western Boeotia; the generation or two before Thebes was captured marks this pause in all traditions. The siting close to Coronea of the sanctuary of Itonian Athena, and the celebration of the Pamboeotia there, together with the renaming of rivers and other toponyms, and the sanctity attached to the neighbouring settlement of Alalcomenae, all strengthen the belief that this western section was the area where the first Boeotian settlement took place, and where Boeotian institutions were first established in the new homeland. The advance eastward eventually proceeded both to the north and to the south of Copais lake. On the north side it ultimately reached Anthedon, a town credited with once having been occupied by the Thracians. On the south side it came as far as Thebes and Thespiae. In Thebes, according to one version, Damasichthon took the rule from Autesion, son of Tisamenus, son of Thersander, another stemma that puts the Boeotians in Thebes two generations after the Trojan War. The tradition intimates that there was a peaceful take-over, with Autesion joining the Dorians. There must have been another pause for some time. The next advance, into the Asopus valley, was led by Xanthus, son of Ptolemy, son of Damasichthon, that is, two generations after the gaining of Thebes. The Thebans remembered, according to Thucydides, that the Asopus valley and Plataea were reduced later than the rest of Boeotia and were occupied in accordance with an agreed plan. The Boeotian advance was apparently stalled on what became the Athenian-Boeotian frontier, by the efforts of local forces, if the legend of Xanthus and Melanthus has any historical significance. In any event the death of Xanthus symbolized traditionally the completion of the conquest of Boeotia under the kings and the consequent immediate extinction of the kingship.[10] Fifth century BC[edit] During the Persian invasion of 480 BC, Thebes assisted the invaders. In consequence, for a time, the presidency of the Boeotian League was taken from Thebes, but in 457 BC the Spartans reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression after the Battle of Tanagra. Athens retaliated with a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory at the Battle of Oenophyta took control of the whole country, taking down the wall the Spartans had built. With the victory the Athenians also occupied Phocis, the original source of the conflict, and Opuntian Locris.[11] For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 BC the people revolted, and after a victory at the Battle of Coronea regained their independence.[9] In the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians fought zealously against Athens. Although slightly estranged from Sparta after the peace of Nicias, they never abated their enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse and at the Battle of Arginusae in the closing years of the Pelopennesian War; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory at the Battle of Delium over the Athenian army (424 BC) in which both their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency. Boeotian League[edit] About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign cities and associated townships, each of which elected one Boeotarch or minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about 1000 infantry and 100 cavalry to the federal army. A safeguard against undue encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into four sections, resembling the prytaneis of the Athenian council, which took it in turns to vote on all new measures.[9][12] Two Boeotarchs were provided by Thebes, but by 395 BC Thebes was providing four Boeotarchs, including two who had represented places now conquered by Thebes such as Plataea, Scolus, Erythrae, and Scaphae. Orchomenus, Hysiae, and Tanagra each supplied one Boeotarch. Thespiae, Thisbe, and Eutresis supplied two between them. Haliartus, Lebadea and Coronea supplied one in turn, and so did Acraephia, Copae, and Chaeronea.[13] Fourth century BC[edit] Boeotia took a prominent part in the Corinthian War against Sparta, especially in the battles of Haliartus and Coronea (395–394 BC). This change of policy was mainly due to the national resentment against foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by insisting on the complete independence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387 BC). In 374, Pelopidas restored Theban dominion[9] and their control was never significantly challenged again. Boeotian contingents fought in all the campaigns of Epaminondas against the Spartans, most notably at the Battle of Leuctra in 371, and in the Third Sacred War against Phocis (356–346 BC); while in the dealings with Philip of Macedon the cities merely followed Thebes. The federal constitution was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now prevalent throughout the land. Sovereign power was vested in the popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the Battle of Chaeroneia, in which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the land never again rose to prosperity.[9] Hellenistic period[edit] The destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great (335) destroyed the political energy of the Boeotians. They never again pursued an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers. Although military training and organization continued, the people proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than ever the "dancing-ground of Ares". Although enrolled for a short time in the Aetolian League (about 245 BC) Boeotia was generally loyal to Macedon, and supported its later kings against Rome. Rome dissolved the league in 171 BC, but it was revived under Augustus, and merged with the other central Greek federations in the Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's prosperity was dealt by the devastations during the First Mithridatic War.[9] Middle Ages and later[edit] Main article: Frankokratia Hosios Loukas Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish rulers of Athens (1205–1310), who repaired the underground drainage channels (καταβόθρα katavóthra) of Lake Kopais and fostered agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by occasional barbarian incursions. The first step toward the country's recovery was not until 1895, when the drainage channels of Kopais were again put into working order. Archaeological sites[edit] Ancient theatre of Orchomenus In 1880–86, Heinrich Schliemann's excavations at Orchomenus (H. Schliemann, Orchomenos, Leipzig 1881) revealed the tholos tomb he called the "Tomb of Minyas", a Mycenaean monument that equalled the beehive tomb known as the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae. In 1893, A. de Ridder excavated the temple of Asclepios and some burials in the Roman necropolis. In 1903–05, a Bavarian archaeological mission under Heinrich Bulle and Adolf Furtwängler conducted successful excavations at the site. Research continued in 1970–73 by the Archaeological Service under Theodore Spyropoulos, uncovering the Mycenaean palace, a prehistoric cemetery, the ancient amphitheatre, and other structures. Administration[edit] View of Livadeia town The regional unit Boeotia is subdivided into 6 municipalities. These are (number as in the map in the infobox):[14] Aliartos (2) Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra (3) Livadeia (1) Orchomenos (5) Tanagra (6) Thebes (Thiva, 4) Prefecture[edit] The lion of Chaeronea Boeotia was created as a prefecture in 1836 (Greek: Διοίκησις Βοιωτίας), again in 1899 (Νομός Βοιωτίας) and again in 1943; in all cases it was split from Attica and Boeotia Prefecture. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Boeotia was created out of the former prefecture Boeotia. The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit. At the same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below.[14] New municipality Old municipalities & communities Seat Aliartos Aliartos Aliartos Thespies Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Distomo Distomo Arachova Antikyra Livadeia Livadeia Livadeia Davleia Koroneia Kyriaki Chaironeia Orchomenus Orchomenus Orchomenus Akraifnia Tanagra Tanagra Schimatari Dervenochoria Oinofyta Schimatari Thebes (Thiva) Thebes Thebes Vagia Thisvi Plataies Provinces[edit] The provinces were: Livadeia Province - Livadeia Thebes Province - Thebes Economy[edit] Boeotia is the home of the third largest pasta factory in Europe, built by MISKO, a member of Barilla Group.[15] Also, some of the biggest companies in Greece and Europe have factories in this place. For example, Nestlé and Viohalco have factories in Oinofyta, Boeotia. The 'Meglala Erga' by Hesiod is often used by economists and historians alike to provide invaluable evidence for the Boetian economic system and its developments in the Homeric Age. In the poem Hesiod describes the beginnings of a modern economy, with the use of artisans to 'do the technical work in making his plow and wagon' and the beginnings of sea commerce and its increasing importance in the economic life of Greece.[16] Transport[edit] Greek National Road 1/E75, SE, E, NE Greek National Road 3, S, E, Cen., W, NW Greek National Road 27, W, SW Greek National Road 44, E Greek National Road 48, W Natives of Boeotia[edit] Bakis Corinna Epaminondas Gorgidas Hesiod Luke the Evangelist (traditionally location of his death) Pelopidas Pindar Plutarch Scamander of Boeotia See also[edit] Boeotian helmet Boeotian shield Minyans Ogyges Aeolic Greek List of settlements in Boeotia Graea Graïke References[edit] ^ Sylvain Auroux (2000). History of the language sciences: an international handbook on the evolution. ISBN 9783110111033. ^ Pausanias.Description of Greece 7.3.6 ^ Bibliotheke 2.4.11 records the origin of the Theban tribute as recompense for the mortal wounding of Clymenus, king of the Minyans, with a cast of a stone by a charioteer of Menoeceus in the precinct of Poseidon at Onchestus; the myth is also reported by Diodorus Siculus, 4.10.3. ^ Cambitoglou & Descœudres 1990, p. 7 under "Excavations in the Region of Pylos" by George S. Korrés harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCambitoglouDescœudres1990 (help). ^ L. H .Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece. The Greek city-states 700-500 BC. Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge. pp. 71, 77 ISBN 0-510-03271-0 ^ The Parian marble. Entry No 5: "When Amphictyon son of Hellen became king of Thermopylae brought together those living round the temple and named them Amphictyones; Entry No 6: Graeces-Hellenes [1] ^ L. H . Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece. The Greek city states c. 700-500 B.C. Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge pp. 72, 73 ISBN 0-510-03271-0 ^ The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, Merriam-Webster, 1 Jan 1991, p.360 ^ a b c d e f g  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Boeotia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–115. This cites as authorities: Thucydides iv. 76-101 Xenophon, Hellenica, iii.-vii. Strabo, pp. 400-412 Pausanias ix. Theopompus (or Cratippus) in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol v. (London, 1908, No. 842, col 12 W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835) H. F. Tozer, Geography of Greece (London, 1873), pp. 233-238 W. Rhys Roberts, The Ancient Boeotians (Cambridge, 1895) E. A. Freeman Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. § 2 B. V. Head, Historia Nomorum, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887) W. Larfeld, Sylloge Inscriptionum Boeoticarum (Berlin, 1883). (See also Thebes.) ^ Buck, Robert (1979). A history of Boeotia. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: The University of Alberta Press. pp. 90–94. ISBN 0-88864-051-X. ^ Fine, John VA (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. pp. 354–355. ^ Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the "four councils of the Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states. (Chisholm 1911) ^ Nick Sekunda, The Ancient Greeks, p.27 ^ a b "Kallikratis reform law text" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2011. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 October 2010. Retrieved 3 October 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Trever, Albert Augustus (April 1924). "The Age of Hesiod: A Study in Economic History". Classical Philology. 19 (2): 157–168. doi:10.1086/360574. ISSN 0009-837X. Sources[edit] Victor Davis Hanson (1999). The Soul of Battle. New York: Simon & Schuster. Larson, Stephanie L. Tales of epic ancestry: Boiotian collective identity in the late archaic and early classical periods (Historia Einzelschriften, 197). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2007. 238 p. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boeotia. Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Bœotia". "Boeotia digital cultural encyclopedia". Foundation of the Hellenic World. Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012. v t e Administrative division of the Central Greece Region Area 15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi) Population 547,390 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Lamia Regional unit of Boeotia Aliartos Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Livadeia Orchomenos Tanagra Thebes Regional unit of Euboea Chalcis Dirfys-Messapia Eretria Istiaia-Aidipsos Karystos Kymi-Aliveri Mantoudi-Limni-Agia Anna Skyros Regional unit of Evrytania Agrafa Karpenisi Regional unit of Phocis Delphi Dorida Regional unit of Phthiotis Amfikleia-Elateia Domokos Lamia Lokroi Makrakomi Molos-Agios Konstantinos Stylida Regional governor Kostas Bakoyannis (since 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Prefectures of Greece By name Achaea and Elis Achaea Adrianoplea Aetolia-Acarnania Arcadia Argolis and Corinthia Argolis Argyrokastronb Arta Attica and Boeotia Atticac Boeotia Cephalonia Chalkidiki Chania Chios Corfu Corinthia Cyclades Dodecanese Dramad Elis Euboea Evrosd Evrytania Florina Grevena Heraklion Imathia Ioannina Kallipolisa Karditsa Kastoria Kavalad Kilkis Korytsab Kozani Lacedaemon Laconia Lakoniki Larissa Lasithi Lefkada Lesbos Magnesia Messenia Pella Phocis and Locris Phocis Phthiotis and Phocis Phthiotis Pieria Piraeus Preveza Rethymno Rhaedestosa Rhodoped Samos Saranta Ekklisiesa Serres Sfakia Thesprotia Thessaloniki Trikala Trifylia Xanthid Zakynthos By year established 1800s 1833 Achaea and Elis Aetolia-Acarnania Arcadia Argolis and Corinthia Attica and Boeotia Cyclades Euboea Laconia Messenia Phocis and Locris 1845 Phthiotis and Phocis 1864 Corfu Kefallinia Lefkada Zakynthos 1882 Arta Larissa Trikala 1899 Achaea Argolis Atticac Boeotia Corinthia Elis Evrytania Karditsa Lacedaemon Lakoniki Magnesia Phocis Phthiotis Trifylia 1900s 1912 Chania Heraklion Lasithi Rethymno Sfakia 1914 Thessaloniki 1915 Argyrokastronb Chalkidiki Chios Dramad Florina Ioannina Kavalad Korytsab Kozani Lesbos Preveza Samos Serres 1920 Adrianoplea Evrosd Kallipolisa Rhaedestosa Rhodoped Saranta Ekklisiesa 1930–1944 Pella Kilkis Thesprotia Kastoria Xanthid 1947 Dodecanese Imathia Pieria 1964 Grevena Piraeus a In Eastern Thrace or b Northern Epirus, outside present-day Greece. c From 1971, Attica consisted of four prefecture-level units: Athens, East Attica, Piraeus and West Attica. From 1994, Athens and Piraeus were grouped into a single super-prefecture. d From 1994, Drama / Kavala / Xanthi and Evros / Rhodope prefectures were grouped into super-prefectures. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries United States Other MusicBrainz area Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boeotia&oldid=1027760597" Categories: Boeotia Prefectures of Greece 1836 establishments in Greece Regional units of Central Greece Regions of Europe Historical regions Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 maint: archived copy as title Use dmy dates from March 2017 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with unknown parameters Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 20:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4838	----	Elegeia - Wikipedia Elegeia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elegeia was a city of ancient Armenia located in modern Erzurum Province in northeastern Turkey; several important episodes between the Roman Empire, Armenia and the Parthians took place there. Location[edit] The exact location of Elegeia is not known. It is usually located near Ilıca, between Erzurum and Askale.[1] Ptolemy located Elegeia at roughly the same latitude as Artaxata;[2] Pliny the Elder placed it on the Euphrates river;[3] Stephen of Byzantium indicates that Elegeia was beyond the Euphrates and that it was mentioned in book VIII of the Parthica of Arrian.[4] In any case, Elegeia was an important stage in the road to Satala at the heart of the kingdom of Armenia. History[edit] Due to its strategic location, Elegeia was often the scene of confrontations between Rome, Armenia and the Parthian or Persian empire. At least two important episodes took place there. In 114, King Parthamasiris of Armenia came to meet Emperor Trajan there to receive his investiture. Trajan refused to make him king, and instead conquered Armenia. It was also from Elegeia that Trajan led campaigns against the northern neighbors of Armenia. It was also in Elegeia that at the end of 161 Marcus Sedatius Severianus was defeated by the Parthian army of Vologases IV of Parthia. References[edit] ^ A.B. Bosworth, "Arrian at the Caspian Gates: A Study in Methodology", Classical Quarterly, 33 (1983), p. 271 ^ Geographia, V.13.12 ^ Naturalis Historia, V.84 ^ Bosworth, "Arrian at the Caspian Gates", pp. 265-276 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elegeia&oldid=986729075" Categories: Populated places in Armenia Minor Roman towns and cities in Turkey Populated places in ancient Cappadocia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Français Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2020, at 17:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4839	----	Michael V Kalaphates - Wikipedia Michael V Kalaphates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1041 to 1042 For the Filipino comedian of similar name, see Michael V. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael V Kalaphates Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Histamenon that may have been issued during the reign of Michael V: obverse (left) Christ Pantokrator; reverse (right) the Emperor (crowned by the hand of God) and the Archangel Michael holding a labarum. Byzantine emperor Reign 13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042 Predecessor Michael IV Successor Zoë Porphyrogenita Theodora Porphyrogenita Co-regent Zoë Porphyrogenita Born c. 1015 Paphlagonia Died 24 August 1042 (aged 26–27) Monastery of Stoudios, Constantinople Dynasty Macedonian (by adoption) Father Stephen, a caulker Mother Maria, a Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates (Greek: Μιχαήλ Ε΄; c. 1015 – 24 August 1042) was Byzantine emperor for four months in 1041–1042. He was the nephew and successor of Michael IV and the adoptive son of his wife Empress Zoe. He was popularly called "the Caulker" (Καλαφάτης, Kalaphates) in accordance with his father's original occupation. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading Family[edit] Histamenon of Michael IV Michael V was the son of Stephen by Maria, a sister of Emperor Michael IV. His father had been a caulker before becoming an admiral under Michael IV and botching an expedition to Sicily. Although the emperor preferred another of his nephews, the future Michael V was advanced as heir to the throne by his other uncle John the Orphanotrophos and the Empress Zoe.[1] Shortly before his death, Michael IV granted Michael V the title of Kaisar (Caesar), and, together with Zoe, adopted his nephew as a son.[2] Michael IV died on 10 December 1041 and Michael V was proclaimed emperor three days later by Zoe.[3] Reign[edit] Determined to rule on his own, Michael V came into conflict with his uncle John the Orphanotrophos, whom he almost immediately banished to a monastery.[4] Michael now reversed his uncle's decisions, recalling the nobles and courtiers who had been exiled during the previous reign, including the future patriarch Michael Keroularios and the general George Maniakes. Maniakes was promptly sent back to Southern Italy in order to contain the advance of the Normans. On the night of 18 April to 19 April 1042, Michael V banished his adoptive mother and co-ruler Zoe, for plotting to poison him, to the island of Principo,[2] thus becoming sole Emperor. His announcement of the event in the morning led to a popular revolt; the palace was surrounded by a mob demanding Zoe's immediate restoration.[5] The demand was met, and Zoe was brought back, though in a nun's habit.[2] On 21 April 1042 Zoe's sister Theodora, who had been removed from her nunnery against her will, was declared Empress.[6][7] In response, Michael fled to seek safety in the monastery of the Stoudion together with his remaining uncle.[6] Although he had taken monastic vows, Michael was arrested, blinded[2] (according to legend by future Norwegian king Harald Hardrada), castrated and sent to a monastery. He died as a monk on 24 August 1042.[citation needed] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Gregory 2010, p. 276. ^ a b c d Hussey 1966, p. 198. ^ Skylitzes 2010, pp. 390–391. ^ Tougher 2008, p. 56. ^ Krallis 2006, p. 7. ^ a b Hussey 1966, p. 199. ^ Kahzdan 1991, p. 1366. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKahzdan1991 (help) Sources[edit] Skylitzes, John (2010) [c. 1100]. Synopsis of Histories. Translated by Wortley, John. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139489157. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110022858. Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackwell. Hussey, J.M., ed. (1966). The Cambridge Medieval History:The Byzantine Empire Part 1. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press. Tougher, Shaun (2008). The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society. Routledge. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Krallis, Dimitrios (2006). "Democratic Praxis and Republican Ideology in the Eleventh Century". Byzantine Studies Conference. Dumbarton Oaks.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360. Further reading[edit] Michael Psellus, Fourteen Byzantine Rulers, trans. E.R.A. Sewter (Penguin, 1966). ISBN 0-14-044169-7 Michael Angold, The Byzantine empire 1025–1204 (Longman, 2nd edition, 1997). ISBN 0-582-29468-1 Jonathan Harris, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon/Continuum, 2007). ISBN 978-1-84725-179-4 The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-504652-8 Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society (Stanford University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Michael V Kalaphates Macedonian Dynasty Born: 1015 Died: 24 August 1042[aged 27] Regnal titles Preceded by Michael IV and Zoe Byzantine emperor (with Zoe) 1041–1042 (18 April 1042-20 April 1042 as sole emperor) Succeeded by Zoe and Theodora v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_V_Kalaphates&oldid=1027187854" Categories: Macedonian dynasty 11th-century Byzantine emperors 1010s births 1042 deaths Christian monks Studite monks Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-483	----	Sidonius Apollinaris - Wikipedia Sidonius Apollinaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gallic poet, diplomat, and bishop Saint Sidonius Apollinaris Born c. 430 Lugdunum, Gaul, Western Roman Empire Died c. 485 Kingdom of the Burgundians Venerated in Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Feast 21 August Gaius Sollius Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius, better known as Sidonius Apollinaris (5 November[1] of an unknown year, c. 430 – 481/490 AD), was a poet, diplomat, and bishop. Sidonius is "the single most important surviving author from fifth-century Gaul" according to Eric Goldberg.[2] He was one of four Gallo-Roman aristocrats of the fifth- to sixth-century whose letters survive in quantity; the others are Ruricius, bishop of Limoges (died 507), Alcimus Ecdicius Avitus, bishop of Vienne (died 518) and Magnus Felix Ennodius of Arles, bishop of Ticinum (died 534). All of them were linked in the tightly bound aristocratic Gallo-Roman network that provided the bishops of Catholic Gaul.[3] His feast day is 21 August. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 Sources and further reading 5 External links Life[edit] Sidonius was born in Lugdunum (Lyon). His father (anonymous) was Prefect of Gaul under Valentinian III; he recalls with pride being present with his father at the installation of Astyrius as consul for the year 449.[4] Sidonius' grandfather was Praetorian Prefect of Gaul sometime prior to 409 and a friend of his successor Decimus Rusticus. Sidonius may be a descendant of another Apollinaris who was Prefect of Gaul under Constantine II between 337 and 340. Sidonius married Papianilla, the daughter of Emperor Avitus, around 452.[5] This union produced one son, Apollinaris, and at least two daughters: Sidonius mentions in his letters Severina and Roscia, but a third, Alcima, is only mentioned much later by Gregory of Tours, and Theodor Mommsen has speculated that Alcima may be another name for one of his other daughters.[6] His known acquaintances include bishop Faustus of Riez and his theological adversary Claudianus Mamertus; his life and friendships put him in the center of 5th-century Roman affairs. In 457 Majorian deprived Avitus of the empire and seized the city of Lyons; Sidonius fell into his hands. However, the reputation of Sidonius's learning led Majorian to treat him with the greatest respect. In return Sidonius composed a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of comes. In 467 or 468 the emperor Anthemius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the post of Urban Prefect of Rome, which he held until 469, and afterwards to the dignity of Patrician and Senator. In 470 or 472, he was elected to succeed Eparchius in the bishopric of Averna (Clermont). When the Goths captured Clermont in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its defense; but he was afterwards released from captivity by Euric, king of the Goths, and continued to shepherd his flock as he had done before; he did so until his death. Sidonius's relations have been traced over several generations as a narrative of a family's fortunes, from the prominence of his paternal grandfather's time into later decline in the 6th century under the Franks. Sidonius's son Apollinaris, who was a correspondent of Ruricius of Limoges, commanded a unit raised in Auvergne on the losing side of the decisive Battle of Vouille, and also was bishop of Clermont for four months until he died.[7] Sidonius's grandson Arcadius, on hearing a rumor that the Frankish king Theuderic I had died, betrayed Clermont to Childebert I, only to abandon his wife and mother when Theuderic appeared; his other appearance in the history of Gregory of Tours is as a servant of king Childebert.[8] Sidonius was still living in 481.[9] He was dead before 490, when his successor as bishop, Aprunculus, died. His date of death was 21 or 23 August.[10] Works[edit] Opera (1598) His extant works are his Panegyrics on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian), which document several important political events. Carmen 7 is a panegyric to his father-in-law Avitus on his inauguration as emperor. Carmen 5 is a panegyric to Majorian, which offers evidence that Sidonius was able to overcome the natural suspicion and hostility towards the man who was responsible for the death of his father-in-law. Carmen 2 is a panegyric to the emperor Anthemius, part of Sidonius' efforts to be appointed Urban Prefect of Rome; several samples of occasional verse; and nine books of Letters, about which W.B. Anderson notes, "Whatever one may think about their style and diction, the letters of Sidonius are an invaluable source of information on many aspects of the life of his time."[11] While very stilted in diction, these Letters reveal Sidonius as a man of genial temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. A letter of Sidonius's addressed to Riothamus, "King of the Brittones" (c. 470) is of particular interest, since it provides evidence that a king or military leader with ties to Britain lived around the time frame of King Arthur. The best edition is that in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey of the manuscripts. An English translation of his poetry and letters by W.B. Anderson, with accompanying Latin text, have been published by the Loeb Classical Library (volume 1, containing his poems and books 1-2 of his letters, 1939;[12] remainder of letters, 1965). Among his lost works, is the one on Apollonius of Tyana.[13] Gregory of Tours speaks of Sidonius as a man who could celebrate Mass from memory (without a sacramentary) and give unprepared speeches without any hesitation.[14] Notes[edit] ^ Apollinaris alludes to the date of his birthday in a short poem addressed to his brother-in-law Ecdicius, Carmen 20. ^ The Fall of the Roman Empire Revisited: Sidonius Apollinaris and His Crisis of Identity Archived September 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Epistolography, Literary Circles and Family Ties in Late Roman Gaul" Transactions of the American Philological Association 111 (1981), pp. 95-109. ^ Epistulae, VIII.6.5; translated by W.B. Anderson, Sidonius: Poems and Letters (Harvard: Loeb Classical Library, 1965), vol. 2 p. 423 ^ Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, 2.21. This is confirmed by the otherwise oblique allusion in Sidonius' own Epistuale 2.2.3. ^ Severina, Epistulae II.12.2; Roscia, Epistulae V.16.5; Alcima, Gregory of Tours Decem Libri Historiarum, III.2 ^ Gregory of Tours, 2.37, 3.2 ^ Gregory of Tours, 3.9, 11 ^ Harries 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarries2018 (help) ^ Martindale 1980, p. 118. ^ In his introduction to Sidonius: Poems and Letters (Cambridge: Loeb, 1939), vol. 1, p. lxiv. ^ https://archive.org/details/L296SidoniusI12PoemsLetters ^ http://www.gnosis.org/library/grs-mead/apollonius/apollonius_mead_04.htm ^ Gregory of Tours, 2.22 Sources and further reading[edit] C.E. Stevens, Sidonius Apollinaris and his Age. Oxford: University Press, 1933. K.F. Stroheker. Der senatorische Adel im spätantiken Gallien. Tübingen, 1948. Nora Chadwick, Poetry and Letters in Early Christian Gaul London: Bowes and Bowes, 1955. Harries, Jill (1994). Sidonius Apollinaris and the Fall of Rome, AD 407-485. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814472-4. Harries, Jill (2018). "Sidonius Apollinaris". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Volume 2: J–Z. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1379–1380. ISBN 978-0-19-881625-6. Martindale, John R., ed. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395–527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20159-4. Sigrid Mratschek, "Identitätsstiftung aus der Vergangenheit: Zum Diskurs über die trajanische Bildungskultur im Kreis des Sidonius Apollinaris", in Therese Fuhrer (hg), Die christlich-philosophischen Diskurse der Spätantike: Texte, Personen, Institutionen: Akten der Tagung vom 22.-25. Februar 2006 am Zentrum für Antike und Moderne der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008) (Philosophie der Antike, 28), Johannes A. van Waarden and Gavin Kelly (eds), New Approaches to Sidonius Apollinaris, with Indices on Helga Köhler, C. Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius: Briefe Buch I. Leuven: Peeters, 2013. M. P. Hanaghan, Reading Sidonius' Epistles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. Gavin Kelly and Joop van Waarden (eds), The Edinburgh Companion to Sidonius Apollinaris, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sidonius Apollinaris Apollinaris Sidonius (5 November c.430 - 21 August c.483) – Medieval Lectures. Lynn Harry Nelson. Biographical introduction to the Letters, O. M. Dalton (1915) Complete English translation of the Letters of Sidonius Apollinaris, O. M. Dalton (1915) Sidonius Apollinaris, dedicated site, with bibliography and complete Latin text of the correspondence and the poetry, maintained by Joop van Waarden since 2003, frequently updated Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes   Wace, Henry; Piercy, William C., eds. (1911). "Sidonius Apollinaris, St" . Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sidonius Apollinaris" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Apollinaris Sidonius, Caius Sollius". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Portals Access related topics Saints portal Biography portal Christianity portal Europe portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sidonius_Apollinaris&oldid=1007864711" Categories: Bishops of Clermont Latin letter writers 5th-century Roman poets People from Lugdunum Urban prefects of Rome 5th-century Latin writers 5th-century bishops in Gaul 5th-century Christian saints 430 births 480s deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DCBL with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2021, at 09:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4847	----	Faustina the Elder - Wikipedia Faustina the Elder From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman empress and wife of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius Augusta Faustina the Elder Augusta Bust of Faustina Major in the Altes Museum (Berlin) Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 138–140 Born 16 February c. 100 CE Died October or November 140 (aged 40) near Rome Burial Mausoleum of Hadrian Spouse Antoninus Pius Issue Marcus Aurelius Fulvius Antoninus (died before 138) Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138) Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135) Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger Names Annia Galeria Faustina Regnal name Annia Galeria Faustina Augusta Father Marcus Annius Verus Mother Rupilia Faustina Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder, sometimes referred to as Faustina I[1] (born on February 16[2][3] around 100 CE;[4] died in October or November of 140 CE),[5][6] was a Roman empress and wife of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. The emperor Marcus Aurelius was her nephew and later became her adopted son, along with Emperor Lucius Verus. She died early in the principate of Antoninus Pius, but continued to be prominently commemorated as a diva, posthumously playing a prominent symbolic role during his reign.[7] Contents 1 Early life 2 Empress 3 Death and legacy 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 Notes 6 Sources Early life[edit] Faustina was the only known daughter of consul and prefect Marcus Annius Verus and Rupilia Faustina.[8] Her brothers were consul Marcus Annius Libo and praetor Marcus Annius Verus. Her maternal aunts were Roman Empress Vibia Sabina and Matidia Minor. Her paternal grandfather was named Marcus Annius Verus, like her father, while her maternal grandparents were Salonia Matidia (niece of Roman Emperor Trajan) and suffect consul Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus. Faustina was born and raised in Rome. While a private citizen, she married Antoninus Pius between 110 and 115 CE. Faustina bore four children with Pius: two sons and two daughters.[9] These were: Marcus Aurelius Fulvius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.[8][10] Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.[8][10] He is commemorated by a high-quality series of bronze coins, possibly struck at Rome, though their language is Greek.[11] Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Aelius Lamia Silvanus or Syllanus. She appears to have had no children with her husband and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy.[8][10] Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125-130 to 175), a future Roman Empress; she married her maternal cousin, future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. She was the only child who survived to see Antoninus and Faustina elevated to the imperial rank.[8][10] According to the unreliable Historia Augusta, there were rumours while Antoninus was proconsul of Asia that Faustina conducted herself with "excessive frankness and levity".[12] Empress[edit] Bust of Faustina in the Musei Capitolini (side view; note the distinctive hairstyle) On July 10, 138, her uncle, the emperor Hadrian, died and her husband became the new emperor, as Antoninus was Hadrian's adopted son and heir. Faustina became Roman Empress and the Senate accorded her the title of Augusta.[8] As empress, Faustina was well respected and was renowned for her beauty and wisdom. Throughout her life, as a private citizen and as empress, Faustina was involved in assisting charities for the poor and sponsoring and assisting in the education of Roman children, particularly girls.[citation needed] A letter between Fronto and Antoninus Pius has sometimes been taken as an index of the latter's devotion to her.[13] After Antoninus Pius' accession to the principate, the couple never left Italy; instead, they divided their time between Rome, Antoninus' favourite estate at Lorium, and other properties at Lanuvium, Tusculum, and Signia.[14] Faustina's personal style was evidently much admired and emulated. Her distinctive hairstyle, consisting of braids pulled back in a bun behind or on top of her head, was imitated for two or three generations in the Roman world.[15] Several provincial groups chose to honour her while she was empress: a company of couriers in Ephesus named themselves after her,[16] while a company of clapper-players in Puteoli dedicated an altar to her in her own lifetime.[17] Death and legacy[edit] Statue of Faustina the Elder at Herodes Atticus' nymphaeum at Olympia. Faustina died near Rome in 140, perhaps at Antoninus Pius' estate at Lorium.[18] Antoninus was devastated at Faustina's death and took several steps to honor her memory. He had the Senate deify her (her apotheosis was portrayed on an honorary column) and dedicate the Temple of Faustina to her in the Roman Forum.[8] Because of this, Faustina was the first Roman empress with a permanent presence in the Forum Romanum.[19] The Senate authorized gold and silver statues of her, including an image to appear in the circus,[20] where it might be displayed in a carpentum (a kind of covered waggon) or currus elephantorum (a cart drawn by elephants).[21] Antoninus also ordered various coins with her portrait struck, inscribed DIVA FAVSTINA ("Divine Faustina") and elaborately decorated. He also established a charity called Puellae Faustinianae ("Girls of Faustina") to assist orphaned Roman girls and created a new alimenta (see Grain supply to the city of Rome).[22] Her remains were interred in the Mausoleum of Hadrian.[23][24] Certain cities struck coin issues in honour of the "divine Faustina" (Ancient Greek: ΘΕΑ ΦΑΥϹΤΕΙΝΑ);[25] the most notable such cities were Delphi, Alexandria, Bostra, and Nicopolis.[26] Martin Beckmann suggests that the coins of Nicopolis might have been minted at Rome and given out as imperial largesse at the Actian Games.[27] The coins issued in the wake of Faustina's funeral illustrate her elaborate funeral pyre, which may have influenced the design of later private mausolea;[28] the deities Pietas and Aeternitas, among others;[29] and an eagle (or less often a winged genius) bearing a figure aloft, with the legend CONSECRATIO (i.e. Faustina's ascension into heaven).[30] Coins of Faustina were sometimes incorporated into jewellery and worn as amulets.[31] A denarius struck in honour of Faustina Major, depicting her temple with the abbreviated legend AED DIV FAVSTINAE (‘temple of the divine Faustina’) Depiction of Pius and Faustina being borne aloft on the back of a winged figure. From the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius. The posthumous cult of Faustina was exceptionally widespread, and Faustina's image continued to be omnipresent throughout Antoninus Pius' principate.[32] A colossal marble head, believed to be that of Faustina and discovered in 2008,[33] figured as one of several monumental imperial statues at the ancient site of Sagalassos in today's Turkey. In Olympia, Herodes Atticus dedicated a nymphaeum that displayed statues of Faustina and other Antonines as well as his own ancestors.[34] Faustina also appears on the Parthian Monument at Ephesus commemorating members of the imperial family.[35] Bergmann and Watson have characterized the commemoration of Faustina as central to Antoninus Pius' political persona.[7][34] One larger-than-life statue, discovered in situ near the Termini railway station at Rome, appears to depict Faustina as Concordia, with a patera and cornucopia; it would have been displayed alongside statues of Diana Lucifera and Apollo-Sol in baths privately owned but available to the public.[36] Antoninus and Faustina were officially held up as such exemplars of conjugal harmony that newlyweds were directed to pray at an altar of Antoninus and Faustina that they might live up to their example.[37] This was evidently the case in Ostia,[38] and probably so in Rome.[39] The Temple of Faustina is thought to have been dedicated in 144 CE.[40] It is a grand[41] hexastyle structure[42] with Corinthian columns,[43] possibly designed originally to be a temple of Ceres.[44] Depictions on coins appear to show a cult image of Faustina seated on a throne and holding a tall staff in her left hand.[45] Faustina's portrait on coins from this period is often crowned as well as veiled, which may also recall a feature of Faustina's cult image from the temple.[46] The church of Sant'Urbano alla Caffarella near Rome, originally built as a private shrine of Ceres and Faustina The deified Faustina was associated particularly closely with Ceres, who featured prominently on coins of Faustina; for some years, the torch-bearing Ceres was the dominant motif in her gold coinage.[47] Herodes Atticus venerated Faustina as the “new Demeter” (the Greek equivalent of Ceres) at a private sanctuary he established outside Rome,[48] now the church of Sant'Urbano.[49] In addition to Ceres, Vesta and Juno feature prominently in Faustina's coinage.[50] She was also associated with the Magna Mater and at Cyrene with Isis; at Sardis she was worshipped conjointly with Artemis.[48] Ten years after Faustina's death, a new commemorative coinage was introduced, featuring the legend Aeternitas ('eternity'); such coins may have been introduced to be distributed at a public ceremony in her memory.[51] After Antoninus Pius' death, his adoptive sons and successors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus erected the Column of Antoninus Pius, which dramatically depicted Antoninus and Faustina being elevated heavenward together on the back of a winged figure.[52] Faustina continued to be commemorated in certain Renaissance depictions as a “model wife”.[53] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ An inscription from Liguria (CIL V, 07617) refers to her (in the genitive) as DIVAE FAVSTINAE MAIORIS. ^ Levick (2014), p. 137, citing the Feriale Duranum 3.7. ^ Inscriptiones Italiae 13(02): 43. ^ Levick (2014), p. 169, estimates Faustina the Elder's birth year as c. 97 CE, while noting the estimate of c. 105 in D. Kienast (1990). Römische Kaisertabelle: Grunzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie. Darmstadt: Wissenschaflische Gesellschaft.. ^ Birley, Anthony. Marcus Aurelius, Routledge, p. 243. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 ^ According to S. Vidman's interpretation of the Fasti Ostienses (1982, p. 122; cited by Beckmann (2012), p. 22), Faustina died sometime in the range 21–23 October, while her funeral occurred sometime between 6 and 12 November. See Beckmann (2012), p. 22. ^ a b Bergmann & Watson (1999), p. 6: “Antoninus’s ideological program was based upon his pietas (loyalty to family, state, and the gods) and the most concerted expression of Antoninus’s piety was Faustina’s consecration.” ^ a b c d e f g "Faustina I". Livius.org. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ K.L.M. (1996). "Draped bust of Faustina the Elder (aureus of Antoninus Pius)". Bearers of Meaning: The Ottilia Buerger Collection of Ancient and Byzantine Coins at Lawrence University. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ a b c d "Faustina Senior". FORVM ANCIENT COINS. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 83. His name appears as ΓΑΛΕΡΙΟϹ ΑΝΤⲰΝΙΝΟϹ (Galerios Antôninos) on these coins. ^ Historia Augusta: Antoninus Pius 3.7 (the original phrase is nimiam libertatem et uiuendi facilitatem). Levick (2014), pp. 79-80, analyzes this passage with some scepticism. The Historia Augusta’s reliability as a historical source is considered to be patchy (see the caveats in, for example The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 5, The Later Principate, E. J. Kenney, Wendell Vernon Clausen, pp. 43, 45, Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0521273714; or at Jona Lendering. "Historia Augusta". Retrieved 2015-09-21.). ^ Antoninus Pius declares that he would rather live in exile on the island of Gyaros with Faustina than on the Palatine Hill without her. Fronto ad Antoninum Pium 2.2. However, the "dear Faustina" referred to may instead have been Pius' daughter. Levick (2014), pp. 60-61. ^ Levick (2014), p. 57. ^ Bergmann & Watson (1999), pp. 10, 16. ^ Levick (2014), p. 122. ^ Levick (2014), p. 122. The inscription in question is CIL X, 1643. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 22. ^ Claire Rowan, ‘Communicating a consecratio: the deification coinage of Faustina I’, in: N. Holmes (ed.), Proceedings of the XIV International Numismatic Congress Glasgow, vol. 1, Glasgow (2012), 991. ^ HA Pius 6.7. ^ Beckmann (2012), pp. 32-33. ^ Richard D. Weigel. "Antoninus Pius". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ James Grout (n.d.). "Mausoleum of Hadrian". Encyclopædia Romana. Retrieved 2015-11-12. ^ Paul von Rohden (1894). "Annius 120". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. ^ "Faustina I (138–141, and later deification coins)". Roman Provincial Coinage Online. 2015. Archived from the original on 2013-03-05. Retrieved 2015-09-21. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 75. The spelling ΦΑΥΣΤΙΝΑ was used in Alexandria, ΦΑΥΣΤΕΙΝΑ elsewhere in the East; both spellings could be found in Delphi. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 81. ^ Beckmann (2012), pp. 23-27. ^ Beckmann (2012) considers that Pietas and Aeternitas are evocative of "the 'spiritual side' of Faustina's divinisation" (p. 19). ^ Beckmann (2012), pp. 23, 28-30. ^ Bergmann & Watson (1999), pp. 17-18. ^ Bergmann & Watson (1999), p. 6. ^ "Head of Roman empress unearthed". BBC News. 2008-08-14. Retrieved 2015-09-24. ^ a b Bergmann & Watson (1999), p. 11. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 91. ^ Beckmann (2012), pp. 85-86. The statue is now on display in the Musei Capitolini. ^ Freisenbruch (2010), p. 209. ^ Thus Beckmann (2012), pp. 36-37, arguing from the evidence of an inscription from Ostia (CIL XIV, 5326). ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 37, suggests that Cassius Dio (Roman History 72.31.1) may have been mistaken in stating that such a practice in Rome at the temple precinct of Venus and Dea Roma concerned an altar of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger rather than one of Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 19. ^ Levick (2014), pp. 123-124. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 44. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 46. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 48. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 67. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 50. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 62. ^ a b Bergmann & Watson (1999), p. 14. ^ Levick (2014), p. 127. ^ Beckmann (2012), p. 71. ^ Beckmann (2012), pp. 63-64. ^ Freisenbruch (2010), p. 210. ^ Bergmann & Watson (1999), pp. 12-13. Sources[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Faustina Major. Wikisource has the text of a 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article about Faustina the Elder. Beckmann, Martin (2012). Diva Faustina: coinage and cult in Rome and the provinces. New York: American Numismatic Society. Bergmann, Bettina; Watson, Wendy M. (1999). The Moon and the Stars: Afterlife of a Roman Empress. South Hadley, Massachusetts: Mount Holyoke College Art Museum. Freisenbruch, Annelise (2010). The First Ladies of Rome: The Women Behind the Caesars. London: Jonathan Cape. Lendering, Jona (2015) [2007]. "Faustina I". Livius.org. Retrieved 2015-09-21. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. Weigel, Richard D. (1998). "Antoninus Pius". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 2015-09-21. Honorary titles VacantTitle last held by Sabina Augusta 138–140 VacantTitle next held by Faustina the Younger Roman empress 138–140 Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faustina_the_Elder&oldid=1023802256" Categories: 100s births 140 deaths Roman empresses 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women Deified Roman people Annii Galerii Augustae Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Antoninus Pius Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Euskara Français Frysk Italiano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 May 2021, at 12:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-484	----	Eugenius - Wikipedia Eugenius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 392 to 394 For other uses, see Eugenius (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eugenius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman emperor Eugenius Tremissis depicting emperor Eugenius Roman emperor (unrecognized in the East) Reign 22 August 392 – 6 September 394 (against Theodosius I) Predecessor Valentinian II Successor Theodosius I Died 6 September 394 Frigidus River Names Flavius Eugenius Religion Christianity Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394) was a usurper in the western Roman Empire (392–394) against Emperor Theodosius I. He was the last Emperor to support Roman polytheism.[1] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Rise to power 1.2 Civil, religious, and military policies 1.3 Fall 2 Evaluation 3 References 4 External links Life[edit] A former teacher of grammar and rhetoric, as well as magister scrinorum, Eugenius was an acquaintance of Arbogast, the magister militum. Arbogast was of Frankish origin, and de facto ruler of the western portion of the Empire. Rise to power[edit] Following the death of Valentinian II, Arbogast, who had probably been the cause of Valentinian II's murder or suicide, elevated Eugenius to the purple (22 August 392). Deferring to Eugenius offered Arbogast two strong advantages: first, Eugenius, a Roman, was more suitable than Arbogast, a Frank, as an emperor; furthermore, the Roman Senate would be more likely to support Eugenius. Civil, religious, and military policies[edit] After being installed as Emperor, Eugenius changed the imperial administrators. When Theodosius had left the western half of the empire to Valentinian II, he had put his own men in the highest civil offices, to keep a strong grasp on the whole empire. Eugenius replaced these administrators with others loyal to himself, coming from the senatorial class. Virius Nicomachus Flavianus the Elder became Praetorian Prefect of Italy, his son Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger received the title of Prefect of Rome, while the new praefectus annonae was Numerius Proiectus. Though his actual beliefs are a matter of controversy among ancient and modern historians,[2][3] Eugenius was at least publicly a Christian, and therefore was reluctant to accept a program of imperial support to Polytheism. His men, however, convinced Eugenius to use public money to fund pagan projects, such as the rededication of the Temple of Venus and Rome and the restoration of the Altar of Victory within the Curia (removed by Emperor Gratian). This religious policy created tension with pro-Christian figures, such as Emperor Theodosius and the powerful and influential Bishop Ambrose, who left his see in Milan when the imperial court of Eugenius arrived. Eugenius was also successful in the military field, notably in the renovation of old alliances with Alamanni and Franks. Arbogast, who was a Frank and had also Alamanni and Frankish soldiers in his ranks, marched to the Rhine frontier, where he impressed and pacified the Germanic tribes by parading his army in front of them. Fall[edit] After his election as emperor, Eugenius sent ambassadors to Theodosius's court, asking for recognition of his election. Theodosius received them, but started to gather troops to defeat Eugenius. Theodosius also promoted his eight-year-old son Honorius to the rank of "Augustus" of the West in January 393. Theodosius then moved from Constantinople with his army, and met Eugenius and Arbogast in the Battle of the Frigidus (Vipava Valley, Slovenia) on 6 September 394. The bloody battle lasted two days, and was marked by unusual astronomical and meteorological events, but in the end Theodosius won. Arbogast immediately committed suicide after the defeat, while Eugenius was held for execution as a criminal, his head afterward being displayed in Theodosius' camp. Evaluation[edit] The reign of Eugenius marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new one. Five months later Theodosius died, dividing his empire between his two sons. This had happened many times before in the previous two centuries, but this time it was to be final – the Roman Empire never reunited, even under Leo I the Thracian (when there was no Western Emperor for some periods), and soon after his reign, the western half fell. Eugenius also represented the last opportunity for the pagans, with the senatorial class, to oppose the Christianization of the Empire. The Battle of the Frigidus was part of a trend towards using increasing percentages of barbarian troops, especially in the west, where it led to the weakening of the Empire itself. References[edit] ^ Gerard Friell (1998). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay (Roman Imperial Biographies). (Routledge; 1 edition (May 28, 1998)). ISBN 0-415-17040-0 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. XXVII., p. 996, note; the ecclesiastical historians, Philostorgius and Sozomen, actually state he was a pagan-not very reliable authorities ^ An Encyclopedia Of World History, (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952), chap. II., Ancient History, p. 120 External links[edit] Media related to Eugenius at Wikimedia Commons Roberts, Walter, "Flavius Eugenius (392-394)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Regnal titles Preceded by Valentinian II Roman emperor 392–394 Succeeded by Theodosius I Political offices Preceded by Arcadius Augustus Rufinus Consul of the Roman Empire 393 Succeeded by Virius Nicomachus Flavianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugenius&oldid=1016907648" Categories: 4th-century births 4th-century Christians 4th-century murdered monarchs 4th-century Roman usurpers 394 deaths Ancient Roman generals Executed Roman emperors Flavii Imperial Roman consuls People executed by the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from August 2011 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Frysk Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2021, at 18:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4859	----	Recent changes - Wikipedia Help Recent changes Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a list of recent changes to Wikipedia. Other review tools This page: Discuss this page – What does this page mean? Recent changes for: Featured articles – Good articles – Living people – Vital articles Utilities: RC patrol – New pages – IPs' contribs – Mobile contribs – Cleanup – Vandalism – Deletion – RfC – Backlogs About Wikipedia: Introduction/FAQ/Policy – Stats – News – Village pump – Mailing lists – Chat – Wikipedia Signpost Recent changes options Show last 50 | 100 | 250 | 500 changes in last 1 | 3 | 7 | 14 | 30 days Hide registered users | Hide unregistered users | Hide my edits | Show bots | Hide minor edits | Show page categorization | Show Wikidata | Hide probably good edits Show new changes starting from 16:36, 14 June 2021 Namespace: all (Article) Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk  Invert selection  Associated namespace Tag filter: List of abbreviations (help): D Edit made at Wikidata r Edit flagged by ORES N New page m Minor edit b Bot edit (±123) Page byte size change Temporarily watched page 14 June 2021 diffhist m The Cutter (song)‎ 16:36 0‎ ‎Acalamari talk contribs‎ →‎Formats and track listing: Lowercasing diffhist Sundari Mohan Das‎ 16:36 +51‎ ‎Billjones94 talk contribs‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Saara Deva‎ 16:36 −1‎ ‎106.201.166.58 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Visual edit Manual revert diffhist m 2021 Queen's Club Championships – Singles‎ 16:36 0‎ ‎Wolbo talk contribs‎ →‎Qualifying: MOS:HEADCAPS diffhist Odd Taxi‎ 16:36 0‎ ‎2a04:cec0:118d:7b2d:c265:7a:7ce6:bf50 talk‎ Undid revision 1028540923 by Only1greenyoshi (talk) Tag: Undo diffhist Israeli Labor Party‎ 16:36 +224‎ ‎SecretName101 talk contribs‎ →‎Decline since 2001: updating diffhist User talk:Pournamikavu‎ 16:36 +3,222‎ ‎Jupitus Smart talk contribs‎ declined (AFCH 0.9.1) diffhist Draft:Pournamikavu‎ 16:36 +80‎ ‎Jupitus Smart talk contribs‎ Declining submission: nn - Submission is about a topic not yet shown to meet general notability guidelines (be more specific if possible) (AFCH 0.9.1) diffhist User talk:Ken Tony‎ 16:36 +316‎ ‎Ken Tony talk contribs‎ →‎Bhupinder Singh Mahal: REPLY Tag: 2017 wikitext editor diffhist KLZZ‎ 16:36 +49‎ ‎24.116.55.139 talk‎ Added 1989 airdate diffhist Talk:Demon Slayer‎ 16:36 +326‎ ‎Paintspot talk contribs‎ →‎Requested move 14 June 2021: Support 1st, but make a dab page. Tag: 2017 wikitext editor diffhist Jason Sudeikis‎ 16:36 −25‎ ‎174.112.70.3 talk‎ removed incorrect link diffhist Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park‎ 16:36 +155‎ ‎GuavaTrain talk contribs‎ →‎Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park diffhist Module:Location map/data/Europe Central/doc‎ 16:36 +42‎ ‎Qwerfjkl talk contribs‎ Tag: 2017 wikitext editor diffhist m The Road Home (Heart album)‎ 16:36 +1‎ ‎Lewismaster talk contribs‎ date formats per MOS:DATEFORMAT by script diffhist Berlinguer‎ 16:36 −50‎ ‎Carnby talk contribs‎ diffhist m List of FC Astana records and statistics‎ 16:36 +1‎ ‎Klio654 talk contribs‎ →‎Most appearances diffhist Talk:COVID-19 misinformation‎ 16:36 +235‎ ‎Alexbrn talk contribs‎ →‎Bullying of scientists: yup diffhist m Kahuzi-Biéga National Park‎ 16:36 +10‎ ‎Brshipley talk contribs‎ Page curation log 16:36 John B123 talk contribs tagged Manuela Obrador Narváez with blp sources tag ‎ Tag: PageTriage diffhist Manuela Obrador Narváez‎ 16:36 +32‎ ‎John B123 talk contribs‎ Added tags to the page using Page Curation (blp sources) Tag: PageTriage diffhist N User talk:2409:4055:2DC9:E56A:0:0:E60B:4A13‎ 16:36 +1,129‎ ‎Serols talk contribs‎ Message re. Parkash Singh Badal (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Huggle diffhist User:TigerScientist/CVUA/Academy‎ 16:36 −51‎ ‎TigerScientist talk contribs‎ I realized that people could see that it said rick roll Tags: Visual edit Manual revert Deletion log 16:36 Liz talk contribs deleted page Category talk:Video game companies of Uruguay ‎(G8: Talk page of deleted page "Category:Video game companies of Uruguay") Tag: Twinkle diffhist Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/ClearTax (company)‎ 16:36 0‎ ‎Anthony Appleyard talk contribs‎ →‎ClearTax (company): ed diffhist m Parkash Singh Badal‎ 16:36 −5‎ ‎Serols talk contribs‎ Reverted edits by 2409:4055:2DC9:E56A:0:0:E60B:4A13 (talk) (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Rollback diffhist Eric Linklater‎ 16:36 −10‎ ‎Pol098 talk contribs‎ orkney singular Deletion log 16:36 Liz talk contribs deleted page Category:Video game companies of Uruguay ‎(C1: Empty category) Tag: Twinkle diffhist Badhan, Sanaag‎ 16:36 +152‎ ‎Shirshore talk contribs‎ created new section and added text. diffhist Cuba‎ 16:36 +48‎ ‎Chrisahn talk contribs‎ Undid revision 1028550150 by 151.231.196.178 (talk); not an improvement Tag: Undo diffhist Wikipedia:Requested moves/Technical requests‎ 16:36 −379‎ ‎Iflaq talk contribs‎ →‎Requests to revert undiscussed moves: Done 1. Revert undiscussed move. Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit Manual revert User creation log 16:36 User account Hcieditor talk contribs was created ‎ diffhist Manoj Bajpayee‎ 16:36 +30‎ ‎AmNaTi200 talk contribs‎ →‎Web-Series: Fixed Typo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit diffhist Draft:Eddie Fitte‎ 16:36 −2‎ ‎RamiroEtch talk contribs‎ diffhist m Rathcoole, County Dublin‎ 16:36 −8‎ ‎Sarah777 talk contribs‎ →‎Notable people: twk Tag: 2017 wikitext editor diffhist Music for Cars‎ 16:36 −4‎ ‎(CA)Giacobbe talk contribs‎ →‎Release and reception Tag: 2017 wikitext editor diffhist User talk:82.43.255.74‎ 16:36 +1,115‎ ‎Serols talk contribs‎ Level 2 warning re. Calderside Academy (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Huggle diffhist Religious Zionist Party‎ 16:36 −523‎ ‎Johnnie Bob talk contribs‎ Unsourced. You must provide a citation to a reliable WP:SOURCE for this edit. Tag: Undo diffhist User talk:213.205.240.242‎ 16:36 +835‎ ‎Hydrogenation talk contribs‎ Caution: Adding unreferenced information about living persons (RW 16.1) Tag: RedWarn diffhist m Calderside Academy‎ 16:36 −11‎ ‎Serols talk contribs‎ Reverted edits by 82.43.255.74 (talk) (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Rollback diffhist Saara Deva‎ 16:36 +1‎ ‎106.201.166.58 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Visual edit Reverted User creation log 16:36 User account JIN APICHAI SUMLEEKAEW talk contribs was created ‎ diffhist Political party strength in Rhode Island‎ 16:36 −33‎ ‎WMSR talk contribs‎ →‎top: fix names Tag: Visual edit diffhist Neah Evans‎ 16:36 0‎ ‎Wprlh talk contribs‎ Fixed typo. Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Children of Chance (1949 film)‎ 16:36 +84‎ ‎Lord Cornwallis talk contribs‎ diffhist Wikipedia:Requests for page protection‎ 16:36 +202‎ ‎Wretchskull talk contribs‎ →‎Self-harm: Requesting semi-protection of Self-harm. Tag: Twinkle Block log 16:36 Favonian talk contribs blocked 217.213.64.0/18 talk with an expiration time of 3 months (anon. only, account creation blocked) ‎({{rangeblock}}: block evasion) diffhist Hurricane Sally‎ 16:36 +15‎ ‎Gummycow talk contribs‎ added link Tag: Visual edit diffhist Madelyn Cline‎ 16:36 −6‎ ‎Parekhnish talk contribs‎ Undid revision 1028071988 by 82.130.180.84 (talk) Tag: Undo diffhist Second Boer War‎ 16:36 −18‎ ‎HLGallon talk contribs‎ →‎Cape Colony: does this qualification apply to Scheepers only, or all captured Cape rebels? 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en-wikipedia-org-4867	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-4876	----	Lucius Coelius Antipater - Wikipedia Lucius Coelius Antipater From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lucius Coelius Antipater was a Roman jurist and historian. He is not to be confused with Coelius Sabinus, the Coelius of the Digest. He was a contemporary of C. Gracchus (b. c. 123); L. Crassus, the orator, was his pupil. Contents 1 Style 2 Writings 3 Editions 4 Reception 5 References Style[edit] He was the first who endeavoured to impart to Roman history the ornaments of style, and to make it more than a mere chronicle of events, but his diction was rather vehement and high-sounding than elegant and polished. Pomponius[1] considers him more an orator than a jurist; Cicero, on the other hand, prizes him more as a jurist than as an orator or historian.[2] Writings[edit] None of his juridical writings have been preserved. He wrote a history of the Second Punic War, and composed annals, which were epitomized by Brutus.[3] Antipater followed the Greek history of Silenus Calatinus,[4] and occasionally borrowed from the Origines of Cato the Elder.[5] He is occasionally quoted by Livy, who sometimes, with respectful consideration, dissents from his authority. It is manifest, however, from Cicero and Valerius Maximus that he was fond of relating dreams and portents. Editions[edit] Orelli[6] refers to the dissertations on Antipater by Bavius Antius Nanta and G. Groen van Prinsterer, inserted in the Annals of the Academy of Leyderi for 1821. His fragments, several of which are preserved by Nonius Marcellus, are to be found appended to editions of Sallust by Joseph Wasse, Corte, and Havercamp; and also in Krause's Vitae et Fragmenta vet. Histor, Mom. p. 182, etc. Reception[edit] Hadrian is reported to have preferred him as an historian to Sallust (Historia Augusta, Hadrian, c. 16); by Valerius Maximus[7] he is designated "certus Romanae historiae auctor" (a reliable authority on Roman history). References[edit] ^ Dig. 1. tit. 2. s. 2. § 40. ^ De Oratore ii. 12; de Legg. 1, 2; Brutus c. 26. ^ Cic. ad Ait. xiii. 8.) - indeed, that history may be an extract from the Annals itself. ^ Cic. de Div. i.,24, 49. ^ Gell. x. 24; Macrobius Saturnalia i. 4, extr. ^ Onomast. Cio. ^ i. 7.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Antipater, L. Coelius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 202. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Catalonia United States Israel Netherlands Sweden Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Coelius_Antipater&oldid=1010481830" Categories: Ancient Roman jurists Latin historians Second Punic War 2nd-century BC Romans 2nd-century BC historians Coelii Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Furlan Italiano Nederlands Polski Русский Slovenčina Svenska Tagalog Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 March 2021, at 18:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4927	----	Portal:Current events - Wikipedia Portal:Current events From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (October 2020) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia portal for content related to Current events Edit instructions Worldwide current events Sports events Recent deaths Topics in the news Naftali Bennett A new government is formed in Israel, with Naftali Bennett (pictured) becoming prime minister, ending Benjamin Netanyahu's 12-year tenure. The spacecraft Juno performs a flyby of Jupiter's moon Ganymede. Using a compromised encrypted device network, a multinational sting operation results in hundreds of arrests and the seizure of several tons of illegal drugs. Two trains collide in Sindh, Pakistan, killing at least 63 people. Ongoing: COVID-19 pandemic Recent deaths: Larisa Shoygu Gottfried Böhm Milton Moses Ginsberg Mudcat Grant Ashok Panagariya Geoffrey Edelsten Nominate an article Current events of June 14, 2021 (2021-06-14) (Monday) edithistorywatch Health and Environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra Andorra begins vaccination of children between 16 and 17 years of age with Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. (Diari d'Andorra) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom British media reports that Prime Minister Boris Johnson is expected to announce the delay of the UK's final relaxing of pandemic-related restrictions by at least four weeks, due to the rising prevalence of the delta variant. Reopening has apparently been pushed from 21 June to 19 July. (The Washington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji Fiji reports 89 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours as the government warns that, due to the Delta variant, first detected in India, the situation is worse than that seen in Australia and New Zealand. Fiji now has a total nationwide cases of 1,118. (RNZ International) COVID-19 vaccine Phase III clinical trials for the Novavax COVID-19 vaccine candidate conclude in the U.S. and Mexico, showing an efficacy rating of 90.4%, down from the initial estimate of 96.4% efficacy back in March. (CNN International) The United States is investigating a leak at Taishan Power Plant, China, which is partially owned by EDF who has warned of a radiological threat. The Biden administration believes the facility is not at a crisis level, but has been discussing the situation with the French government, the US Department of Energy, and the Chinese government. (CNN) International relations Russia–United States relations Russian President Vladimir Putin defends himself from accusations of hacking and suppressing dissent, saying the United States does the same. (Yahoo! News) Law and crime Two American citizens, a U.S. Army Special Forces veteran and his son, plead guilty to helping former chairman of Nissan Carlos Ghosn escape from Japan in December 2019. Ghosn escaped to Lebanon - where he grew up - and although Japan has asked for his international capture, Lebanon has so far refused to extradite him. (Reuters) Current events of June 13, 2021 (2021-06-13) (Sunday) edithistorywatch Disasters and accidents 2021 Shiyan pipeline explosion Eleven people are killed and 37 others are seriously injured in a gas explosion in the Zhangwan District of Shiyan, Hubei, China. (CNN International) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia President Iván Duque Márquez receives his first dose of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, COVID-19 vaccination in Germany Germany's Federal Health Ministry demands that Johnson & Johnson deliver 6.5 million doses of its vaccine by July in order to offset a vaccine shortfall. A spokesman for the ministry says that the situation is regretful and that only 1.15 million doses of the vaccine had been administered as of last Friday. (Deutsche Welle) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Russia reports 13,721 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, which is the highest single-day total on daily cases since February 13. (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia Mongolia reports a record 2,188 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, which is the first time the number of daily cases reaches 2,000. It thereby brings the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 76,084. (Xinhua News Agency) Law and crime Trump administration data seizure It is revealed that, in 2018, the Justice Department, through a subpoena, requested from Apple the data of then-White House Counsel Don McGahn. Apple says that it complied and turned over the information to the government, and notified McGahn and his wife last month. (The Hill) Ardea shooting Three people are killed when a gunman opens fire on bystanders at a park in Ardea, Rome, Italy. The attacker, identified as a man with mental problems, commits suicide after barricading himself at his home. (Reuters) Trial of Catalonia independence leaders Thousands of Spaniards protest in Madrid the possible pardons to Catalonian independence advocates. Deputy Spanish Prime Minister Carmen Calvo had said that the move was "close" and had asked the People's Party "not to confront Catalonia". Polls show that 63% of Spanish citizens oppose the pardons as a threat to national unity and 25% support the pardons. (Reuters) Police in Nicaragua arrest opposition activist Suyen Barahona, who is a strong critic of President Daniel Ortega, under the charge of "inciting foreign interference in internal affairs, requesting military interventions and organizing with foreign financing". The arrest is condemned by the opposition. (Reuters) Politics and elections 2019–2021 Israeli political crisis Israel's parliament votes in favour of a new coalition government, ending Benjamin Netanyahu's 12-year tenure as Prime Minister. He has now been replaced by Naftali Bennett. (Reuters) Anti-Netanyahu protesters gather at the Rabin Square in Tel Aviv to celebrate his replacement. (The Jerusalem Post) 2021 Chilean regional elections Opposition candidates win in 13 of 14 regions holding the second round of the regional elections. Chile Vamos, the governing right-wing alliance, wins only in the Araucanía Region. (The Saxon) Christian Democrat Claudio Orrego is elected as the first governor of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, after narrowly defeating Broad Front candidate Karina Oliva. (The Rio Times) 2021 Swiss referendums Swiss citizens head to the polls to decide on two popular initiatives and three facultative referendums regarding a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, police measures to combat terrorism, the existing carbon tax policy, and a potential nationwide ban on the use of synthetic pesticides. (The Australian) Current events of June 12, 2021 (2021-06-12) (Saturday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks War in Afghanistan 2021 Afghanistan attacks Two blasts against minibuses carrying civilians kill at least seven people near the Jinnah Hospital in Kabul. The government says that the number of deaths is expected to increase due to the seriousness of those wounded. No group claims responsibility for the attacks. (TOLO) 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, 2021 Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis Through the mediation efforts of Georgia and the United States, Azerbaijan agrees to release 15 Armenian citizens currently being held in captivity. In exchange, Armenia provides Azerbaijan with maps of 97,000 anti-tank and anti-personnel mines in the Agdam District. (Agenda) Disasters and accidents Eight people die and three others are injured after a toxic chemical leak at a plant in Xiaohe District of Guiyang, southwestern China's Guizhou province. (The Washington Post) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia Mongolia reports a record 1,792 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, thereby bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 73,869. (Xinhua News Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia, Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj Saudi Arabia bans foreign travellers for the second consecutive year for the Hajj pilgrimage, only allowing a maximum of 60,000 citizens and residents between the ages of 18 and 65 who have been vaccinated and are free of chronic diseases to take part in it. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam Vietnam surpasses 10,000 cases of COVID-19. (VnExpress International) The Ministry of Health issues an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, becoming the fourth vaccine to be approved for use in Vietnam. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in South America COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro is fined for violating the mask mandate imposed in São Paulo. (Associated Press) COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia Colombia reports a record 577 deaths of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, thereby bringing the nationwide death toll to 95,192. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo President Félix Tshisekedi says that hospitals in the country's capital, Kinshasa, are "overwhelmed" by COVID-19 patients amid an increase in the number of cases as the country faces its third wave of the pandemic. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Due to a rising number of COVID-19 cases, Moscow's Mayor Sergei Sobyanin announces that enterprises that do not normally work on weekends remain closed for the next week. In addition, food courts and children's play areas in shopping centers are to close for a week beginning tomorrow, and restaurants and bars must limit their service to takeout from 11:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. (France 24) The total number of COVID-19 cases worldwide surpasses 175 million. (Voice of America) Law and crime At least 14 people are injured in a mass shooting in Austin, Texas, United States. A suspect has been arrested while police are still looking for another. (CNN) Hong Kong pro-democracy activist Agnes Chow is released from prison after serving more than six months behind bars for participating in an unauthorized assembly during the 2019 protests. (Voice of America) Dozens of protesters in the Nigerian cities of Lagos and Abuja are arrested or injured after police fired tear gas at the crowds. The protests, coinciding with a public holiday marking Nigeria's transition to democracy, were organized to protest President Muhammadu Buhari's Twitter ban and numerous other issues plaguing his administration, with protestors calling for his resignation. (Al Jazeera English) Violent clashes between the youth and the police break out in the Tunisian capital of Tunis during the evening, following protests over the Tuesday killing of a police detainee. (France 24) Politics and elections 2021 Peruvian general election As counting nears an end and socialist candidate of Free Peru Pedro Castillo is set to win the presidency, right-wing candidate Keiko Fujimori asks for thousands of votes to be annulled and blames "the international left" for Castillo's win. (Reuters) International protests over the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis Protesters in London gather at Downing Street to call for G7 leaders to end their support for Israel ahead of the G7 summit. (Al Jazeera English) 2021 Algerian legislative election Algerian citizens head to the polls to vote for a new session to the People's National Assembly for the first time since former President Abdelaziz Bouteflika was deposed in 2019. Turnout is the lowest in 20 years due to boycotts over the arrest of seven Hirak movement leaders. (Al Jazeera English) Science and technology Google announces that it is building the world's longest undersea cable that will run from the east coast of the United States to Las Toninas, Argentina, with additional connections in Praia Grande, Brazil, and Punta del Este, Uruguay. The cable will ensure fast, low-latency access to Google products, such as Search, Gmail and YouTube, as well as Google Cloud services. (Jagran Josh) Sports 2021 French Open In tennis, Barbora Krejčíková of the Czech Republic defeats Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova of Russia to win the women's singles title at the 2021 French Open, her first Grand Slam singles title. (ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs) UEFA Euro 2020 The group stage match between Denmark and Finland in Copenhagen is suspended following the collapse of Danish player Christian Eriksen during the first half. UEFA reports that Eriksen is in stable condition. (Al Jazeera English) Current events of June 11, 2021 (2021-06-11) (Friday) edithistorywatch Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in Manitoba Manitoba surpasses one million doses of the COVID-19 vaccine administered. (CTV News) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The death toll from COVID-19 surpasses 600,000. The United States accounts for 16% of COVID-related deaths worldwide. (The Washington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in New Jersey New Jersey reports 400 hospitalizations due to COVID-19, the lowest number in eight months. (NJ) COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia Philadelphia lifts their mask mandate and COVID-19 restrictions. However, people who are not fully vaccinated are encouraged to wear masks. (WHTM-TV) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines Fully vaccinated senior citizens will be permitted to go out in areas placed under the General Community Quarantine and Modified General Community Quarantine. (Rappler) The Inter-Agency Task Force on Emerging Infectious Diseases announces that gyms, museums, and other establishments in the Greater Manila Area will be allowed to reopen. (ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia, Malaysian movement control order The government announces the extension of its nationwide total lockdown for another two weeks from June 15 to June 28 as the number of COVID-19 cases in the country continues to remain high. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka surpasses 2,000 deaths from COVID-19 after a record 101 deaths are reported in the past 24 hours. (The Times of India) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic The Robert Koch Institute removes dozens of countries, including the United States, Canada, Austria, and Lebanon, from their travel risk list due to low COVID-19 infection rates. Foreign Minister Heiko Maas later announces that most of the countries still on the list will be removed on July 1. (Deutsche Welle) COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, COVID-19 vaccination in Italy Italy suspends the use of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine in people under the age of 60 nationwide following the death of an 18-year-old woman yesterday and reports of other young people who have been hospitalized in critical condition after receiving their first dose of the vaccine. The Moderna and Pfizer vaccines will be used for the vaccination of people under the age of 60, including for people who already received a first dose of the AstraZeneca vaccine. (Euronews) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Russia reports 12,505 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, which is the highest daily total since February, thereby bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 5.18 million. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Lockdown restrictions are eased in Melbourne after a decrease in COVID-19 cases. Schools and businesses reopen in a limited capacity. People are allowed to travel up to 25 km (16 mi) from their home and hold public gatherings of up to 10 people. However, most home visits remain banned and masks are still mandatory in indoor settings. Restrictions are eased further in regional Victoria, where gyms are reopened and private gatherings of up to two people and public gatherings of up to 20 people are allowed. (The Guardian) 2019–2021 polio outbreak in the Philippines The World Health Organization and UNICEF declare the end of the polio epidemic in the Philippines. (Xinhua News Agency) International relations 2021 United Nations Security Council election Gabon, the United Arab Emirates, Brazil, Ghana and Albania are elected non-permanent members of the United Nations Security Council for the 2022–2023 term. (Reuters) Malawi–South Africa relations The South Africa Department of International Relations orders several Malawian diplomats and their families to leave within 72 hours after police found they were illegally selling duty-free alcohol. (Al Jazeera English) The 47th G7 summit begins in Cornwall, England. It will run until June 13. (CNBC) Former Costa Rican Vice President Rebeca Grynspan is named the new Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) Law and crime Aftermath of the 2021 United States Capitol attack Chicago Police officer Karol Chwiesiuk is arrested for allegedly breaking into U.S. Senator Jeff Merkley (D-OR)'s office during the attack on the United States Capitol. (Chicago Tribune) Amnesty International reports that Algerian authorities arrested two journalists and a prominent activist days before the legislation election, as part of a wider crackdown on Hirak supporters. (Al Jazeera English) Security research firm Nordlocker publishes a report on an anonymous trojan virus program that has stolen 1.2 terabytes of login credential information and personally identifiable information from 26 million users between 2018 and 2020. The login credentials were stored in a cloud database and ranged across a large selection of website types from almost a million websites including Amazon, eBay, Facebook, Twitter, Walmart, Apple, Paypal, Gmail, Netflix, and Steam. The malware also targeted stored files in desktops and Downloads folders. Over 6 million files were stolen, with 50% being text files, 1 million images, and 650,000 Word or PDF files. The malware also took screenshots and images of users with their own webcams. (MSN) (Fox Business) Politics and elections 2021 Peruvian general election Vladimir Cerrón, leader of the socialist Free Peru party, claims victory for leftist candidate Pedro Castillo as vote counting approaches an end with more than 99.5% of votes counted and with Castillo more than 60,000 votes ahead of right-wing candidate Keiko Fujimori. Some countries in the region have already congratulated Castillo on his apparent presidential election win. (Reuters) Viktor Sheiman, who served as head of the Presidential Administration of Belarus, resigns. Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko accepts his resignation. (Belarusian Telegraph Agency) Science and technology Discoveries of exoplanets A group of scientists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of New Mexico announces that water clouds are discovered on TOI-1231 b, a Neptune-like exoplanet that is located 90 light-years away from Earth. (CBS News) COVID-19 misinformation YouTube announces that it has temporarily suspended U.S. Senator Ron Johnson (R-WI) for violating their policies about promoting unproven alternative therapies to treat COVID-19. (NBC News) Sports The investigation into Gansu ultramarathon disaster in China, which resulted in 21 died of hypothermia in May 2021, is released. Investigators say the incident was caused by extreme weather and unprofessional organization. (Al Jazeera English) The UEFA Euro 2020 tournament begins with the opening match between Italy and Turkey in Rome, ending in a 3–0 victory for Italy. (BBC Sport) Current events of June 10, 2021 (2021-06-10) (Thursday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Israeli–Palestinian conflict Israeli soldiers raid a home in the West Bank, due to an arrest warrant for two Palestinians accused of being the perpetrators of a recent shooting attack. One of the suspects is shot dead. Palestinian intelligence officers arrive at the scene after hearing gunfire and reportedly open fire on the Israeli soldiers, but are shot by the soldiers. Two of the Palestinian officers are killed and a third is wounded. (BBC News) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic A report by the International Labour Organization and UNICEF states that approximately 160 million children, over half of them aged between five and 11, are involved in child labour, the highest figures in 20 years. The report blames the COVID-19 pandemic for increasing both the rates of child labour and the hours worked. It also cautions that the amount of children entering the workforce could rise between nine and 46 million by the end of next year if the pandemic is not put under control and if they continue to lack access to important social services. (NPR) Disasters and accidents A Burmese military plane crashes near Mandalay, Myanmar, killing twelve people. (Al Jazeera English) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in India, COVID-19 pandemic in Bihar India reports a world record of 6,148 deaths from COVID-19 in the past 24 hours due to the state of Bihar adding 3,951 backlogged deaths to their previous total of 5,478. This thereby brings Bihar's death toll to 9,429 and the nationwide death toll to 359,676. (Hindustan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Iran Iran surpasses three million cases of COVID-19. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan The Japanese government announces that it will lift the state of emergency in Gunma, Ishikawa, and Kumamoto prefectures on June 14 due to a decrease in the number of COVID-19 cases and hospitalizations. (Kyodo News) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Italy An 18-year-old woman dies in Genova, Italy, after being vaccinated with the first dose of the AstraZeneca vaccine. Five Italian regions already decided days prior to block AstraZeneca to people under the age of 60, a decision that may be imposed in the entire country in the next days amid a medical review. (Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata) (The Local Italy) (The New York Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Cyprus Cyprus lifts their curfew and reopens nightclubs after 15 months. In addition, 50% capacity restrictions for private and public service workers are no longer required. (TheMayor) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, COVID-19 vaccination in Germany The German Standing Committee on Vaccination recommends that only children and teenagers with pre-existing illness conditions be given a dose of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine due to lack of data on the vaccine's long-term effects. (Euronews) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Russia reports 11,699 new cases of COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, which is the highest daily total of cases since February, thereby bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 5,167,949. (Reuters) Researchers from the University of Strathclyde and the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay announce that they have developed a low-cost, portable sensor that can detect fragments of the virus responsible for COVID-19 within wastewater in concentrations as low as 10 picograms per microlitre using the Polymerase Chain Reaction test. (The New Indian Express) U.S. President Joe Biden announces his administration will donate 500 million doses of the Pfizer vaccine to poor countries suffering from supply problems "with no strings attached". (NBC News) 2020–21 North American drought Lake Mead, the reservoir created by the Hoover Dam, drops to its lowest water level ever recorded. (MSN) International relations China–Japan relations, Japan–Taiwan relations, Political status of Taiwan Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Wang Wenbin condemns Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga for referring to Taiwan as a country yesterday during a parliamentary debate, saying it violates the One-China policy. China also condemned Japan's decision to donate COVID-19 vaccines to Taiwan as "political performance". (Kyodo News) United Kingdom–United States relations U.S. President Joe Biden and U.K. Prime Minister Boris Johnson meet a day ahead of the 47th G7 summit to sign the New Atlantic Charter, an updated version of the original 1941 Atlantic Charter signed during World War II. (NPR) Law and crime Authorities in Myanmar charge deposed leader Aung San Suu Kyi with corruption, a charge that carries a maximum sentence of 15 years' imprisonment. Her trial is expected to begin Monday as her lawyers say that all the charges against her are to "keep her out of the public eye". (Deutsche Welle) State-run China Central Television reports that the National People's Congress passed a law aiming to counteract foreign sanctions against China's enterprises and individuals. The law's content has yet to be revealed. (Al Jazeera English) The Frankfurt division of the German Special Task Force is ordered dissolved by Hesse Interior Minister Peter Beuth after 20 active and former members were suspected to be actively participating in far-right chatrooms. (Deutsche Welle) Politics and elections COVID-19 anti-lockdown protests in the United States, COVID-19 pandemic in Oregon Lawmakers in the Oregon Legislative Assembly votes 59-1 to expel Republican State Rep. Mike Nearman for allowing far-right protesters to breach the Oregon State Capitol on December 21, 2020, making it the first time a House member has been expelled in its 160-year history. (NBC News) Pope Francis rejects the offer of resignation by Archbishop of Munich Reinhard Marx over what Marx described as mishandling of the "catastrophe" of sexual abuse in the Church. Francis addresses a letter to Marx where he agrees that it is a worldwide "catastrophe" but that Marx should stay on as Archbishop. Francis further stated that they cannot remain "indifferent in the face of the crime". Marx is seen as a progressive ally of Francis within the Church. (Reuters) King Abdullah II of Jordan issues a royal decree assigning former Prime Minister Samir Rifai to assemble a 92-member committee dedicated to reforming Jordan's current political system. The committee's first areas of focus are on a new electoral law, and a law specifically governing political parties. (Roya News English) The entire cabinet of Central African Republic Prime Minister Firmin Ngrébada, including Ngrébada himself, resigns following the withdrawal of 160 French soldiers from the country earlier this week. The spokesman for President Faustin-Archange Touadéra states that Ngrébada nonetheless could be tapped to head the new administration. (Al Jazeera English) Science and technology Solar eclipse of June 10, 2021 An annular solar eclipse lasting up to 3 minutes and 51 seconds is visible from central and eastern Canada, parts of the Arctic, and the Russian Far East. Observers in northeastern North America, as well as parts of Europe and Africa, also see a partial eclipse. (Space) Current events of June 9, 2021 (2021-06-09) (Wednesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks War in Afghanistan 2021 Afghanistan attacks Ten mine clearers are killed and 12 others are wounded while working at a Halo Trust compound in Baghlan. Afghan officials blamed the Taliban for the attack while the ISIL claimed responsibility for it. The Taliban denied responsibility for the attack and Halo Trust reports that local Taliban militants arrived at the scene of the attack defending the miners and shooting the attackers. (BBC News) Arts and culture The Economist Intelligence Unit releases its annual Global Liveability Ranking assessment, ranking the world's most livable cities. Auckland, New Zealand replaces long-time first place holder Vienna, Austria, largely because of New Zealand's handling of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. (MSN) Business and economy North American energy company TC Energy terminates its Keystone Pipeline project, which many environmentalists and Native Americans have opposed, citing the risk of pollution and potential damage to wildlife. The move comes nearly five months after United States President Joe Biden signed an executive order to revoke the permit that was granted to the company for the construction of the project's fourth phase. (Business Times) El Salvador becomes the first country to accept Bitcoin as legal tender, after the Legislative Assembly votes 62–22 to pass a bill submitted by President Nayib Bukele classifying the cryptocurrency as such. (MercoPress) Disasters and accidents Nine people are killed and eight more wounded as a five-storey building being demolished in Gwangju, South Korea, collapses onto a bus. Authorities are concerned that people may have been buried in the demolition site or on the nearby pavement. (CNA) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France France reopens indoor dining for bars and restaurants as well as gyms as the number of COVID-19 cases continues to decline and the number of vaccinations increases. Rules for travellers from within the European Union are also eased, while cultural venues can relax their measures. The curfew has also been changed to 11:00 p.m. (The Straits Times) COVID-19 pandemic in North Macedonia North Macedonia receives 30,000 doses of Sinovac CoronaVac vaccine donated by Turkey. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal delays its easing of the COVID-19-related lockdown in Lisbon, Braga, Vale de Cambra and Odemira until June 27 amid an increase in the number of COVID-19 cases. (Barron's) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom reports 7,540 new cases in the past 24 hours, the highest single-day total since February 26 amid an increase in the number of Delta variant cases. (ITV News) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Washington (state) Seattle becomes the first major U.S. city to fully vaccinate 70% of residents 12 and older. (The Seattle Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan The number of COVID-19 vaccine doses administered in Pakistan surpasses 10 million. (Arab News) COVID-19 pandemic in Peru Peru reports its first case of the Delta variant, which was originally detected in India in the southern city of Arequipa. (The Rio Times) The World Mosquito Programme reports that an experiment in which mosquitoes purposefully infected with Wolbachia bacteria were released in Yogyakarta, Indonesia saw rates of dengue fever cases in the city drop by 77%, and an 86% reduction in related hospitalizations. (BBC News) Law and crime A court in Russia begins the process of evaluation of a request to label opposition activist Alexei Navalny's network Anti-Corruption Foundation as "extremists", which, according to Navalny's lawyers and allies, would prevent them from running for office and carrying out their activities. (Reuters) Politics and elections 2021 Mongolian presidential election Mongolians head to the polls to elect a new president. (Al Jazeera English) Supreme Court of Vanuatu Justice Oliver Saksak places a stay on speaker Gracia Shadrack's vacation of 18 seats of parliament until a court can formally consider the dispute. (RNZ International) Sports Vietnam announces that it plans to postpone the Southeast Asia Games, one of the five subregional Games of the Olympic Council of Asia, until next year, citing concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic. Eight of the 11 member states of the Southeast Asian Games Federation have objected to Vietnam's proposal to postpone the competition, according to a statement from the Olympic Council of Malaysia. (CNA) Current events of June 8, 2021 (2021-06-08) (Tuesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks War in Afghanistan 2021 Afghanistan attacks Afghanistan's power distributor, Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat, says that 23 electricity pylons have been destroyed or damaged by explosions in the past month, disrupting imported power from Iran and Uzbekistan to numerous provinces and districts. ISIL has claimed responsibility for destroying the towers. (TOLO) Arts and culture A 1933 U.S. double eagle gold coin once owned by King Farouk of Egypt is sold at auction in New York City for US$18.9 million, becoming the most expensive coin ever sold. (BBC News) Business and economy The Iraqi Radioactive Sources Regulatory Authority announces that Iraq is seeking to build eight nuclear reactors capable of producing 11 gigawatts combined to address increasing electricity demand, which is predicted to rise 50% from roughly 28GW today to 42GW by 2030. Average electrical power output currently stands at about 18.4GW, of which 1.2GW is imported. The Authority says that they are in discussions with Korean, Russian, U.S., and French officials on how to implement the plan. (Bloomberg News) ProPublica reveals that it received an anonymous leak of personal tax filings for thousands of the wealthiest Americans over multiple years, and publishes a long form analysis of the 25 wealthiest individuals' filings and rates per year. IRS Commissioner Charles Rettig said that the IRS is investigating the leak of the tax data to ProPublica and that any violations of law would be prosecuted. (ProPublica) (ABC News) Disasters and accidents 2021 Ghotki rail crash The death toll from yesterday's train crash in Ghotki, Sindh, Pakistan, increases to 65 people, as more bodies are recovered from the scene. (Associated Press) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait Kuwait approves the usage of the single-dose Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine, becoming the fourth vaccine to be approved in the country. (Al Arabiya English) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea, COVID-19 vaccination in South Korea South Korea reports a new single-day record of 857,000 doses of the COVID-19 vaccine administered. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Statistics of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Florida, COVID-19 pandemic in Alabama Florida and Alabama will no longer report COVID-19 data as the two U.S. states will move on to their next phase of the pandemic. (CNBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Vermont Vermont reports their first case of the Delta variant in a Chittenden County traveler. (VTDigger) COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina Argentina surpasses four million cases of COVID-19 and 82,000 deaths from COVID-19 amid a second wave of the pandemic. (Trend News Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Uganda Uganda suspends their mass vaccination programme against COVID-19 due to a shortage of vaccines. (Asian News International) International relations Saudi Arabia–Syria relations Syrian opposition group Free Officers Movement reports that Saudi Arabia is close to reaching a re-normalization deal with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, seeing it as vital to reducing Iranian influence in the region. (Al Jazeera English) India-Pakistan relations, Kashmir conflict Pakistan asked India to reverse its “unlawful and destabilizing actions” in Kashmir as a result of large scale movement of Indian army forces into the disputed region. Tension between the states have been high since Narendra Modi stripped Jammu and Kashmir of its autonomy in August 2019. There is concern that the territory would be further partitioned into the state of Jammu and union territory of Kashmir. (Deccan Herald) Law and crime Death of Sarah Everard Former Metropolitan Police officer Wayne Couzens admits to kidnapping, raping and killing Everard, but not to murder. (BBC News) 2021 United States Capitol attack A United States Senate report on the 2021 Capitol attack finds that intelligence was gathered regarding a potential storming of the building in December but was not relayed to the FBI, Homeland Security, the Justice Department or the Defense Department. (Axios) LGBT rights in Ghana A court in Ghana denies bail to 21 gay rights activists arrested nearly three weeks ago during an assembly. The 16 women and five men are being prosecuted under the country's laws against homosexuality where gay sex is punishable with up to three years' imprisonment. A local LGBT organization says that the activists were in a meeting discussing human rights of gay people in Ghana, which is not illegal. The court has set June 16 for the next hearing on the case. (Reuters) ANOM sting operation A global operation where crime gangs were sold encrypted phones that law enforcement could monitor has led to more than 800 arrests and the seizure of 30 tonnes of drugs, millions of dollars in cash, weapons and luxury cars. The FBI helped to infiltrate 12,000 devices into 300 criminal groups in more than 100 countries, providing the FBI and its partner forces around the world with access to 27 million messages. The operation also revealed that gangs were being tipped off about police actions, which prompted "numerous high-level public corruption cases in several countries", according to an affidavit from an FBI agent. (ABC News) Interpol reveals an operation in 92 countries that shut down 113,000 websites and online marketplaces selling counterfeit or illicit medicines and medical products last month, led to the arrests of 227 people worldwide, recovered pharmaceutical products worth $23 million, and led to the seizure of approximately nine million devices and drugs, including large quantities of fake COVID-19 tests and face masks. (The New Indian Express) The UN International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals at The Hague upholds the life sentence of war criminal and Bosnian Serb Army chief Ratko Mladić, who was convicted for his roles in the siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre. The tribunal also rejects attempts by the prosecution to overturn the acquittal of one of Mladić's genocide charges. This was Mladić's final appeal. (Al Jazeera English) Two men are arrested for slapping French President Emmanuel Macron and shouting royalist slogans when Macron was greeting people in Tain-l'Hermitage, Drôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France. (BBC News) Politics and elections 2021 Peruvian general election Left-wing candidate Pedro Castillo takes a very slim but widening lead ahead of right-wing candidate Keiko Fujimori, but the results still remain too close to call as Fujimori warns of "irregularities". (Al Jazeera English) South African Health Minister Zweli Mkhize is put on special leave following allegations that he awarded COVID-19-related contracts to a company headed by his former associates. (Al Jazeera English) Gracia Shadrack, Vanuatu's speaker, declares that the seats of the prime minister Bob Loughman, the deputy prime minister, and 16 other MPs are vacant after they boycott parliament for three days. (RNZ International) Protesters in Faizabad, the capital of Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan have called for the resignation of the governor after five protesters were killed and over 41 wounded in a clash with security forces. The protesters were demonstrating against the lack of regional security, the lack of electricity, and the lack of running water in their homes. The protesters claim the demonstration was non-violent until the arrival of security forces, while the government claims they attacked the governor's compound and the tax office. (TOLO) Science and technology The U.S. Senate votes 68–32 to pass the U.S. Innovation and Competition Act, a bill that is aimed to strengthen the U.S. against competition from China. The bill will head to the U.S. House of Representatives for a vote. (Axios) A global internet outage caused by an internal issue at content delivery network Fastly causes thousands of websites such as the UK Government's website, BBC, The New York Times, CNN, Financial Times, The Guardian, Pinterest, Reddit, Twitch, Spotify, Bloomberg News, and Amazon to be inaccessible for up to an hour. (CNA) (The New Indian Express) (Reuters) One of the largest X-ray surveys using the European Space Agency's XMM-Newton space observatory publishes their initial findings mapping the growth of 12,000 supermassive black holes at the cores of galaxies and galaxy clusters. (Phys) Sports 2020–21 NBA season In basketball, Serbian center Nikola Jokić of the Denver Nuggets wins the Most Valuable Player Award. He is the lowest-ever drafted player to win the award after being picked 41st overall in the 2014 NBA draft. (The Philippine Star) More June 2021 events... Time: 15:39 UTC|Day: 14 June ◀ June 2021 ▶ S M T W T F S     1 2 3 4 5 6 7   8     9     10     11     12     13     14   15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30       More June 2021 events...    About this page Report a dispute • News about Wikipedia Ongoing events Business COVID-19 recession Disasters COVID-19 pandemic 2020–21 European windstorm season 2020–21 H5N8 outbreak 2021 Pacific typhoon season Yemeni famine Politics Afghan peace process Anti-Netanyahu protests Arab protests Armenian protests Belarusian protests Brazilian protests Colombian tax reform protests Greek protests Haitian protests Indian farmers' protests Israel–Palestine crisis Indonesia omnibus law protests Jersey dispute Libyan peace process Myanmar protests Nicaraguan protests Nigerian protests Persian Gulf crisis Peruvian crisis Samoan constitutional crisis Sudanese protests Tigrayan peace process Thai protests United States racial unrest United States Stop Asian Hate protests Venezuelan presidential crisis Yellow vests movement edit section Elections and referendums Recent May 30: Cyprus, House of Representatives 31: Somaliland, House of Representatives June 6: Mexico, Chamber of Deputies 6: Peru, President (2nd) 9: Mongolia, President 12: Algeria, People's National Assembly 13: Switzerland, Referendums Upcoming June 18: Iran, President 20: Armenia, National Assembly 21: Ethiopia, House of Representatives 24: Gibraltar, Referendum 25: Aruba, Parliament edit section Trials Recently concluded Brazil: Wilson Witzel Hong Kong: Jimmy Lai Indonesia: Muhammad Rizieq Shihab Israel: Faina Kirschenbaum Spain: 2017 Barcelona attacks United States: Derek Chauvin, Cristhian Bahena Rivera Ongoing Argentina: Rodolfo Martín Villa Armenia: Serzh Sargsyan Colombia: Álvaro Uribe France: Nicolas Sarkozy India: Disha Ravi Indonesia: Edhy Prabowo, Juliari Batubara Israel: Benjamin Netanyahu Kyrgyzstan: Almazbek Atambayev Malta: Yorgen Fenech South Africa: Jacob Zuma Spain: Bárcenas affair, Barçagate Sudan: Omar al-Bashir International: Ali Kushayb, The Gambia v. Myanmar Upcoming Canada: Raj Grewal Indonesia: Nurdin Abdullah Kosovo: Hashim Thaçi, Kadri Veseli Lesotho: Maesiah Thabane Rwanda: Paul Rusesabagina United Kingdom: Apsana Begum United States: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Elizabeth Holmes, Meng Wanzhou, R. Kelly, Ghislaine Maxwell Zimbabwe: Ignatius Chombo edit section Sport Association football 2021 Copa Libertadores final stages 2020–21 UEFA Nations League 2021 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A 2021 Major League Soccer season UEFA Euro 2020 Women's association football 2021 NWSL season American football 2021 Spring NCAA Division I FCS Baseball 2021 MLB season Basketball 2021 NBA Playoffs Cricket ICC World Test Championship 2019–21 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup Super League 2020–2023 2019–2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup League 2 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup Challenge League 2019–2022 Golf 2021 European Tour 2021 LPGA Tour 2020 PGA Tour Champions 2021 Ladies European Tour 2020–21 PGA Tour Ice hockey 2021 Stanley Cup Playoffs Motorsport 2021 Formula One Championship 2021 Rally Championship 2021 MotoGP 2021 Supercars Championship Rugby league 2021 NRL season 2021 Super League Rugby union 2020–21 Premiership Rugby Pro14 Rainbow Cup 2020–21 Top 14 2021 Bunnings NPC 2021 Super Rugby season Tennis 2021 ATP Tour 2021 WTA Tour 2020–21 Davis Cup (Finals) Other sports seasons 2021 International cricket season More details – current sports events edit section Recent deaths June 13: Ned Beatty 12: Mudcat Grant 11: Geoffrey Edelsten 9: Edward de Bono 9: Libuše Šafránková 8: Joseph Margolis 7: Douglas S. Cramer 7: Jim Fassel 7: Ali Akbar Mohtashamipur 6: Sanyika Shakur 5: T. B. Joshua 5: Richard Robinson 4: Richard R. Ernst 4: John Malcolm Patterson 4: Clarence Williams III 3: F. Lee Bailey 3: Karla Burns 3: Anerood Jugnauth 2: Raymond J. Donovan 1: Amedeo, Duke of Aosta May 31: James Crawford 31: Arlene Golonka 30: Jason Dupasquier 29: Gavin MacLeod 29: Gwen Shamblin Lara 29: Joe Lara 29: Cornelius Sim 29: B.J. Thomas 28: Mark Eaton 27: Shane Briant 27: Carla Fracci 27: Foster Friess 27: Poul Schlüter 26: Jerome Hellman 25: Roger Gifford 25: John Warner 24: Robert Green Hall 24: Anna Halprin 24: Samuel E. Wright 23: Eric Carle 23: Lorrae Desmond 23: Bob Fulton 23: Ron Hill 23: Max Moseley 23: Alex Salaueu 22: Joe Beckwith 22: Cornelia Oberlander 22: Yuan Longping 21: Ibrahim Attahiru 21: Sunderlal Bahuguna 21: Tahir Salahov 21: Klemen Tinal 20: Francisco Brines 20: Margherita Marchione 20: Abubakar Shekau 19: Lee Evans 19: Paul Mooney 18: Franco Battiato 18: Charles Grodin 17: Buddy Roemer 17: Jesús Santrich 17: Héctor Silva 16: Bruno Covas 15: Đorđe Marjanović 15: Eva Wilma edit section Ongoing conflicts Africa Algeria, Libya and Tunisia Maghreb insurgency Cameroon Anglophone Crisis Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria Boko Haram insurgency Central African Republic Civil War Chad Insurgency in Northern Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Kivu conflict Allied Democratic Forces insurgency Ituri conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Ethiopia Tigray War (spillover) Ethiopia and Sudan Sudanese–Ethiopian clashes Ghana Western Togoland Rebellion Mali Mali War Mozambique Insurgency in Cabo Delgado Nigeria Communal conflicts in Nigeria Somalia Civil war Sudan War in Darfur South Kordofan conflict Sudanese nomadic conflicts (incl. 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en-wikipedia-org-4928	----	Hadrian's Wall - Wikipedia Hadrian's Wall From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Defensive fortification in Roman Britain Coordinates: 55°01′27″N 2°17′33″W / 55.02417°N 2.29250°W / 55.02417; -2.29250 The location of Hadrian's Wall in what is now northern England, and the later Antonine Wall in modern-day Scotland Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Hadrian's Wall (Latin: Vallum Aelium), also known as the Roman Wall, Picts' Wall, or Vallum Hadriani in Latin, is a former defensive fortification of the Roman province of Britannia, begun in AD 122 in the reign of the emperor Hadrian.[1] Running "from Wallsend on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness-on-Solway in the west", the Wall covered the whole width of the island, as Jarrett A. Lobell says.[2] In addition to the wall's defensive military role, its gates may have been customs posts.[3] A significant portion of the wall still stands and can be followed on foot along the adjoining Hadrian's Wall Path. The largest Roman archaeological feature in Britain, it runs a total of 73 miles (117.5 kilometres) in northern England.[4] Regarded as a British cultural icon, Hadrian's Wall is one of Britain's major ancient tourist attractions.[5] It was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.[6] In comparison, the Antonine Wall, thought by some to be based on Hadrian's wall (the Gillam hypothesis),[7] was not declared a World Heritage site until 2008.[8][9] Hadrian's Wall marked the boundary between Roman Britannia and unconquered Caledonia to the north.[a] The wall lies entirely within England and has never formed the Anglo-Scottish border.[10][11][12] Contents 1 Dimensions 2 Route 3 Purpose of construction 4 Construction 4.1 "Broad Wall" and "Narrow Wall" 4.2 The Vallum 4.3 Turf wall 4.4 Standards 5 Garrison 6 After Hadrian 6.1 Preservation by John Clayton 6.2 World Heritage Site 6.3 Tourism 6.4 Hadrian's Wall Path 7 Roman-period names 7.1 Forts 8 In popular culture 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Dimensions[edit] The length of the Wall was 80 Roman miles (a unit of length... equivalent to about 1620 yards [or 1480 metres] in the modern measurement), or 73 modern miles.[13] This covered the entire width of the island, from Wallsend on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness-on-Solway in the west.[2] Not long after production began on the Wall, its width was reduced to be about eight feet, or even less depending on the terrain.[2] As some areas were constructed of turf and timber, it would take decades for certain areas to be modified and replaced by stone.[2] Bede, a medieval historian, wrote the Wall to be standing at 12 feet high, with evidence suggesting it could have been a few feet higher at its formation.[2] R.S.O. Tomlin argues that along the miles-long wall there would have been a tower every third of a mile, adding more to the dimensions of the structure. This however is not an argument but a fact, as there are plentiful remains of the turrets.[14] This is a section of Hadrian's Wall emphasizing its length and height. Route[edit] Route of Hadrian's Wall, almost from coast to coast. Ordnance Survey map of Hadrian's Wall, published in 1964. A revised and updated edition was published in 2010. Sections of Hadrian's Wall still remain, particularly in its hilly central sector. Little remains in lowland regions, where the Wall was previously plundered as a source of free stone for new buildings. Hadrian's Wall extended west from Segedunum at Wallsend on the River Tyne, via Carlisle and Kirkandrews-on-Eden, to the shore of the Solway Firth, ending a short but unknown distance west of the village of Bowness-on-Solway.[15] The A69 and B6318 roads follow the course of the wall from Newcastle upon Tyne to Carlisle, then along the northern coast of Cumbria (south shore of the Solway Firth). Although the curtain wall ends near Bowness-on-Solway, this does not mark the end of the line of defensive structures. The system of milecastles and turrets is known to have continued along the Cumbria coast as far as Risehow, south of Maryport.[16] For classification purposes, the milecastles west of Bowness-on-Solway are referred to as Milefortlets. Purpose of construction[edit] Hadrian's Wall facing east towards Crag Lough. The rocky outcrop is the Whin Sill, of volcanic origin. Hadrian's Wall was probably planned before Hadrian's visit to Britain in 122. According to restored sandstone fragments found in Jarrow which date from 118 or 119, it was Hadrian's wish to keep "intact the empire", which had been imposed on him via "divine instruction".[17] Lobell comments on the obvious nature of the Wall, saying "if there are troublesome tribes to the north, and you want to keep them out, you build a strong defensive wall".[2] The Historia Augusta also states that Hadrian was the first to build a wall 80 miles from sea to sea to separate the barbarians from the Romans.[2] However, this reasoning does not cover the various reasonings Hadrian could have had in mind when commissioning the Wall's construction.[2] On Hadrian's accession to the throne in 117, there was unrest and rebellion in Roman Britain and from the peoples of various conquered lands across the Empire, including Egypt, Judea, Libya and Mauretania.[17] These troubles may have influenced his plan to construct the wall as well as his construction of frontier boundaries in other areas of the Empire, but to what extent is unknown. Scholars disagree over how much of a threat the inhabitants of northern Britain really presented and whether there was any economic advantage in defending and garrisoning a fixed line of defences like the Wall, rather than conquering and annexing what has become Northumberland and the Scottish Lowlands and defending the territory with a loose arrangement of forts.[17] Besides a defensive structure made to keep people out, the Wall also served to keep people within the Roman province.[2] Since the Romans had control over who was allowed in and out of the empire, the Wall was invaluable in controlling the markets and economy.[2] Describing the Wall as a major component of the empire's frontier military strategy, Lobell argues for the psychological impact of the Wall: For nearly three centuries, until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410 [CE], Hadrian's Wall was the clearest statement of the might, resourcefulness, and determination of an individual emperor and of his empire.[2] The Wall also provided years of work for thousands of soldiers who were responsible for building and maintaining the structure which gave the further benefit of preventing any boredom for the soldiers.[2] Nick Hodgson suggests that the Wall's primary purpose was as a physical barrier to slow up the crossing of raiders and people intent on getting into the empire for destructive or plundering purposes.[2] Hodgson argues that the Wall was not a last stand type of defensive line, but, instead, an observation point that could alert Romans of an incoming attack and act as a deterrent to slow down enemy forces so that additional troops could arrive for support.[2] This is supported by another defensive measure found in front of the Wall as well – pits or holes which likely held branches or small tree trunks entangled with sharpened branches.[2] Originally thought of as local features for the nearby fort, it is now thought that they are a general feature of Hadrian's Wall.[2] Hodgson argues that this new discovery has reignited the discussion of the purpose of the wall and demanded a reconsideration of the long-held interpretation that it had no defensive or tactical role.[2] Once its construction was finished, it is thought to have been covered in plaster and then whitewashed: its shining surface reflected the sunlight and was visible for miles around.[17] Construction[edit] This bronze head is of the emperor Hadrian. Hadrian is not only the namesake for the Wall but the emperor who commissioned its construction. This head was found in the River Thames in London, which lies over 300 miles south of Hadrian's Wall. Hadrian ended his predecessor Trajan's policy of expanding the empire and instead focused on defending the current borders, namely at the time Britain.[2] Like Augustus, Hadrian believed in making the natural boundaries around the empire as the borders such as the Euphrates, the Rhine, and Danube Rivers.[2] Britain, however, did not have any natural boundaries that could serve this purpose – to divide the province controlled by the Romans from the rebellious Celtic tribes in the north.[2] Construction started in 122.[18] The entire length of the Wall was built with an alternating series of forts, each housing as many as 600 men, and manned milecastles, operated by "between 12 and 20 men".[2] It took six years to build most of Hadrian's Wall with the work coming at the hands of three Roman legions – the II Augusta, VI Victrix, and XX Valeria Victrix, (totalling 15,000 soldiers) – and some members of the Roman fleet.[2] The production of the Wall was not out of the area of expertise for the soldiers as they travelled with their own surveyors, engineers, masons, and carpenters.[2] "Broad Wall" and "Narrow Wall"[edit] The terms "Broad Wall" and "Narrow Wall" are used to describe different sections of Hadrian's Wall. They are aptly named as they are referring to the width of a particular section as some areas are wider than others. R.G. Collingwood found evidence for the existence of a broad section of the Wall and conversely a narrow section.[19] He argues that plans changed during construction of the Wall and its overall width was reduced, resulting in both broad and narrow sections of the Wall.[19] Broad sections of the Wall are around nine and a half feet wide with the narrow sections of the Wall two feet thinner, being around seven and a half feet wide.[19] The narrow sections were found to be built upon broad foundations.[19] Based on this evidence, Collingwood concludes that the Wall was originally due to be built between present-day Newcastle and Bowness, with a uniform width of ten Roman feet, all in stone.[19] However, in the end, only three-fifths of the Wall was built from stone and the remaining part of the Wall in the west was a turf wall.[19] Plans possibly changed due to a lack of resources.[19] In an effort to preserve resources further, the eastern half's width was therefore reduced from the original ten Roman feet to eight, with the remaining stones from the eastern half used for around five miles of the turf wall in the west.[19][14] This reduction from the original ten Roman feet to eight, created the so called "Narrow Wall".[14] The Vallum[edit] This ditch like construction is a section of the Vallum. This particular section is located near Milecastle 42, around modern Cawfields, placing it near the western part of the Wall. South of the Wall there is a ten feet deep, ditch-like construction known as the Vallum, which to its south is a twenty feet high mound of dirt.[19] The Vallum and the Wall have in many ways shared pathways that led many nineteenth century thinkers to note and ponder their relation to one another.[19] Some evidence shows the pathway of the Wall was shifted to avoid the Vallum, possibly pointing to the Vallum being an older construction.[19] Collingwood therefore asserted in 1930, that the Vallum was built before the Wall in its final form.[19] Collingwood also questioned whether the Vallum was in fact an original border built before the Wall, defining the end of Roman territory.[19] Based on this consideration, the Wall could be viewed as a new, replacement border, built to strengthen the Roman's definition of their territory.[19] However, in 1936, further research suggested that the Vallum could not have been built before the Wall because it clearly avoided one of its milecastles.[19] This new discovery was continually supported by more evidence, strengthening the idea that there was a simultaneous construction of the Vallum and the Wall.[19] Other evidence still pointed in other, slightly different directions. Evidence shows that the Vallum preceded sections of the Narrow Wall specifically; and, to account for this discrepancy, Couse suggests that either construction of the Vallum began with the Broad wall, or it began when the Narrow Wall succeeded the Broad Wall but proceeded more quickly than that of the Narrow Wall.[19] Part of Hadrian's Wall heading east from Housesteads fort, showing the Knag Burn Gateway in the valley. The very flat top of the wall at left is a sign of modern consolidation. Turf wall[edit] From Milecastle 49 to the western terminus of the wall at Bowness-on-Solway, the curtain wall was originally constructed from turf, possibly due to the absence of limestone for the manufacture of mortar.[20] Subsequently, the Turf Wall was demolished and replaced with a stone wall. This took place in two phases; the first (from the River Irthing to a point west of Milecastle 54), during the reign of Hadrian, and the second following the reoccupation of Hadrian's Wall subsequent to the abandonment of the Antonine Wall (though it has also been suggested that this second phase took place during the reign of Septimius Severus). The line of the new stone wall follows the line of the turf wall, apart from the stretch between Milecastle 49 and Milecastle 51, where the line of the stone wall is slightly further to the north.[20] In the stretch around Milecastle 50TW, it was built on a flat base with three to four courses of turf blocks.[21] A basal layer of cobbles was used westwards from Milecastle 72 (at Burgh-by-Sands) and possibly at Milecastle 53.[22] Where the underlying ground was boggy, wooden piles were used.[20] At its base, the now-demolished turf wall was 6 metres (20 feet) wide, and built in courses of turf blocks measuring 46 cm (18 inches) long by 30 cm (12 inches) deep by 15 cm (6 inches) high, to a height estimated at around 3.66 metres (12.0 feet). The north face is thought to have had a slope of 75%, whereas the south face is thought to have started vertical above the foundation, quickly becoming much shallower.[20] Standards[edit] Above the stone curtain wall's foundations, one or more footing courses were laid. Offsets were introduced above these footing courses (on both the north and south faces), which reduced the wall's width. Where the width of the curtain wall is stated, it is in reference to the width above the offset. Two standards of offset have been identified: Standard A, where the offset occurs above the first footing course, and Standard B, where the offset occurs after the third (or sometimes fourth) footing course.[23] Garrison[edit] Lobell says that following construction, and "when fully manned" almost 10,000 soldiers were stationed on Hadrian's Wall, made up not of the legions who built it "but by regiments of auxiliary infantry and cavalry drawn from the provinces".[2] Following from this David J. Breeze laid out the two basic functions for soldiers on or around Hadrian's Wall.[24] Breeze says that soldiers who were stationed in the forts around the Wall had the primary duty of defence; at the same time, the troops in the milecastles and turrets had the responsibility of frontier control.[24] Evidence, as Breeze says, for soldiers stationed in forts is far more pronounced than the ones in the milecastles and turrets.[24] Breeze discusses three theories about the soldiers on Hadrian's Wall. One, these soldiers who manned the milecastles and turrets on the Wall came from the forts near the Wall; two, regiments from auxiliaries were specifically chosen for this role; or three, "a special force" was formed to man these stations.[24] Breeze comes to the conclusion that through all the inscriptions gathered there were soldiers from three, or even four, auxiliary units at milecastles on the Wall.[24] These units were "cohors I Batavorum, cohors I Vardullorum, an un-numbered Pannonian cohort, and a duplicarius from Upper Germany".[24] Breeze adds that there appears to be some legionaries as well at these milecastles.[24] Breeze also continues saying that evidence is "still open on whether" soldiers who manned the Wall milecastles were from nearby forts or were specifically chosen for this task, and further adds that "the balance [of evidence] perhaps lies towards the latter".[24] And finally, a surprise for Breeze is that "soldiers from the three British legions" outnumbered the auxiliaries which goes against the assertion "that legionaries would not be used on such detached duties".[24] These are miniature figures of Roman auxiliary cavalry. Auxiliary soldiers, including the cavalry, were the ones stationed on Hadrian's Wall and the surrounding forts. Further information on the garrisoning of the wall has been provided by the discovery of the Vindolanda tablets, such as the record of an inspection on 18 May of a year 92 and 97, where only 456 of the full quota of 756 Belgae troops were present, the rest being sick or otherwise absent.[25] After Hadrian[edit] Leahill Turret in Cumbria, England is a typical example of the intermediate turrets built into the Wall between the milecastles. In the years after Hadrian's death in 138, the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, left the wall occupied in a support role, essentially abandoning it. He began building a new wall called the Antonine Wall about 160 kilometres (100 mi) north, across the isthmus running west-south-west to east-north-east. This turf wall ran 40 Roman miles, or about 60.8 km (37.8 mi), and had significantly more forts than Hadrian's Wall. This area later became known as the Scottish Lowlands, sometimes referred to as the Central Belt or Central Lowlands. Antoninus was unable to conquer the northern tribes, so when Marcus Aurelius became emperor, he abandoned the Antonine Wall and reoccupied Hadrian's Wall as the main defensive barrier in 164. In 208–211, the Emperor Septimius Severus again tried to conquer Caledonia and temporarily reoccupied the Antonine Wall. The campaign ended inconclusively and the Romans eventually withdrew to Hadrian's Wall. The early historian Bede (AD 672/3-735), following Gildas, wrote (circa AD 730): [the departing Romans] thinking that it might be some help to the allies [Britons], whom they were forced to abandon, constructed a strong stone wall from sea to sea, in a straight line between the towns that had been there built for fear of the enemy, where Severus also had formerly built a rampart. — Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, Book I Chapter 12 Two Roman inscriptions found built into St Paul's Church in Jarrow in 1782, mentioning Hadrian above and the Province of Britannia below. They are possibly from a dedication slab or a victory monument at the very eastern end of the Wall.[26] Bede obviously identified Gildas's stone wall as Hadrian's Wall (actually built in the 120s) and he would appear to have believed that the ditch-and-mound barrier known as the Vallum (just to the south of and contemporary with, Hadrian's Wall) was the rampart constructed by Severus. Many centuries would pass before just who built what became apparent.[27] In the same passage, Bede describes Hadrian's Wall as follows: "It is eight feet in breadth, and twelve in height; and, as can be clearly seen to this day, ran straight from east to west." Bede by his own account[28] lived his whole life at Jarrow, just across the River Tyne from the eastern end of the Wall at Wallsend, so as he indicates, he would have been very familiar with the Wall. What he does not say is whether there was a walkway along the top of the wall. It might be thought likely that there was, but if so it no longer exists. In the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline and military coups loosened the Empire's hold on Britain. By 410, the estimated end of Roman rule in Britain, the Roman administration and its legions were gone and Britain was left to look to its own defences and government. Archaeologists have revealed that some parts of the wall remained occupied well into the 5th century. It has been suggested that some forts continued to be garrisoned by local Britons under the control of a Coel Hen figure and former dux. Hadrian's Wall fell into ruin and over the centuries the stone was reused in other local buildings. Enough survived in the 7th century for spolia from Hadrian's Wall (illustrated at right) to find its way into the construction of St Paul's Church in Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey, where Bede was a monk. It was presumably incorporated before the setting of the church's dedication stone, still to be seen in the church, precisely dated to 23 April 685.[29] Building the Roman Wall by William Bell Scott, at Wallington Hall; the face of the centurion is that of the antiquarian John Clayton. The painting might imply that the Wall was built by slaves, which it was not. The wall fascinated John Speed, who published a set of maps of England and Wales by county at the start of the 17th century. He described it as "the Picts Wall" (or "Pictes"; he uses both spellings). A map of Newecastle (sic), drawn in 1610 by William Matthew, described it as "Severus' Wall", mistakenly giving it the name ascribed by Bede to the Vallum. The maps for Cumberland and Northumberland not only show the wall as a major feature, but are ornamented with drawings of Roman finds, together with, in the case of the Cumberland map, a cartouche in which he sets out a description of the wall itself. Preservation by John Clayton[edit] Much of the wall has now disappeared. Long sections of it were used for roadbuilding in the 18th century,[30] especially by General Wade to build a military road (most of which lies beneath the present day B6318 "Military Road") to move troops to crush the Jacobite insurrection. The preservation of much of what remains can be credited to John Clayton. He trained as a lawyer and became town clerk of Newcastle in the 1830s. He became enthusiastic about preserving the wall after a visit to Chesters. To prevent farmers taking stones from the wall, he began buying some of the land on which the wall stood. In 1834, he started purchasing property around Steel Rigg near Crag Lough. Eventually, he controlled land from Brunton to Cawfields. This stretch included the sites of Chesters, Carrawburgh, Housesteads, and Vindolanda. Clayton carried out excavation at the fort at Cilurnum and at Housesteads, and he excavated some milecastles. Clayton managed the farms he had acquired and succeeded in improving both the land and the livestock. He used the profits from his farms for restoration work. Workmen were employed to restore sections of the wall, generally up to a height of seven courses. The best example of the Clayton Wall is at Housesteads. After Clayton's death, the estate passed to relatives and was soon lost at gambling. Eventually, the National Trust began acquiring the land on which the wall stands. At Wallington Hall, near Morpeth, there is a painting by William Bell Scott, which shows a centurion supervising the building of the wall. The centurion has been given the face of John Clayton. World Heritage Site[edit] Hadrian's Wall was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987, and in 2005 it became part of the transnational "Frontiers of the Roman Empire" World Heritage Site, which also includes sites in Germany.[31] Tourism[edit] In 2010, to commemorate the 1600th anniversary of the end of Roman rule in Britain, a series of 500 beacons were successively lit along the length of the wall. Although Hadrian's Wall was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987, it remains unguarded, enabling visitors to climb and stand on the wall, although this is not encouraged, as it could damage the historic structure. On 13 March 2010, a public event Illuminating Hadrian's Wall took place, which saw the route of the wall lit with 500 beacons. On 31 August and 2 September 2012, there was a second illumination of the wall as a digital art installation called "Connecting Light", which was part of the London 2012 Festival. In 2018, the organisations which manage the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's Wall signed an agreement to collaborate for the growth of tourism and for historical and cultural understanding of the monuments.[32] Hadrian's Wall Path[edit] Main article: Hadrian's Wall Path In 2003, a National Trail footpath was opened that follows the line of the wall from Wallsend to Bowness-on-Solway.[33] Because of the fragile landscape, walkers are asked to follow the path only in summer.[34] Roman-period names[edit] Hadrian's Wall was known in the Roman period as the vallum (wall) and the discovery of the Staffordshire Moorlands Pan in Staffordshire in 2003 has thrown further light on its name. This copper alloy pan (trulla), dating to the 2nd century, is inscribed with a series of names of Roman forts along the western sector of the wall: MAIS [Bowness-on-Solway] COGGABATA [Drumburgh] VXELODVNVM [Stanwix] CAMBOGLANNA [Castlesteads]. This is followed by RIGORE VALI AELI DRACONIS. Hadrian's family name was Aelius, and the most likely reading of the inscription is Valli Aelii (genitive), Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that the wall was called by the same name by contemporaries. However, another possibility is that it refers to the personal name Aelius Draco.[35][36] Forts[edit] v t e Hadrian's Wall Route Legend Segedunum (Wallsend) Pons Aelius (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) Condercum (Benwell) Vindobala (Rudchester) Hunnum (Halton Chesters) Coria (Corbridge) Cilurnum (Walwick Chesters) Procolitia (Carrawburgh) Vercovicium (Housesteads) Vindolanda Aesica (Great Chesters) Magnis (Carvoran) Amboglanna (Birdoswald) Camboglanna (Castlesteads) Petriana (Stanwix, Carlisle) Aballava (Burgh-by-Sands) Congavata (Drumburgh) Axeluduno (Bowness-on-Solway) Sources[37] The Latin and Romano-Celtic names of all of the Hadrian's Wall forts are known, from the Notitia Dignitatum and other evidence such as inscriptions: Segedunum (Wallsend) Pons Aelius (Newcastle upon Tyne) Condercum (Benwell Hill) Vindobala (Rudchester)[38] Hunnum (Halton Chesters)[38] Cilurnum (Chesters aka Walwick Chesters)[38] Procolita (Carrowburgh) Vercovicium (Housesteads) Aesica (Great Chesters)[38] Magnis (Carvoran) Banna (Birdoswald) Camboglanna (Castlesteads) Uxelodunum (Stanwix. Also known as Petriana) Aballava (Burgh-by-Sands) Coggabata (Drumburgh) Mais (Bowness-on-Solway) Turrets on the wall include: Leahill Turret Denton Hall Turret Outpost forts beyond the wall include: Habitancum (Risingham) Bremenium (High Rochester)[38] Fanum Cocidi (Bewcastle) (north of Birdoswald) Ad Fines (Chew Green)[39] Supply forts behind the wall include: Alauna (Maryport) Arbeia (South Shields) Coria (Corbridge) Epiacum (Whitley Castle near Alston) Vindolanda (Little Chesters or Chesterholm)[38] Vindomora (Ebchester)[38] In popular culture[edit] Books Nobel Prize-winning English author Rudyard Kipling contributed to the popular image of the "Great Pict Wall" in his short stories about Parnesius, a Roman legionary who defended the Wall against the Picts. These stories are a part of the Puck of Pook's Hill anthology, published in 1906.[40] American author George R. R. Martin has acknowledged that Hadrian's Wall was the inspiration for The Wall in his best-selling series A Song of Ice and Fire, dramatised in the fantasy TV series Game of Thrones, in which the Wall is also in the north of its country and stretches from coast to coast.[41] In M J Trow's fictional Britannia series, Hadrian's Wall is the central location, and Coel Hen and Padarn Beisrudd are portrayed as limitanei (frontier soldiers).[42] Hadrian's Wall by Adrian Goldsworthy is a short history of the wall.[43] Films The 1991 American romantic action adventure film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves uses Sycamore Gap as a location.[44] Music The opening track from Maxim's first solo effort Hell's Kitchen is named "Hadrian's Wall".[45] Television The seventh episode for the eighth season of the documentary television series Modern Marvels, was about Hadrian's Wall.[46] It was released on March 1st, 2001.[46] Poetry The English poet W. H. Auden wrote a script for a BBC radio documentary called Hadrian's Wall, which was broadcast on the BBC's north-eastern Regional Programme in 1937. Auden later published a poem from the script, "Roman Wall Blues", in his book Another Time. The poem is a brief monologue spoken in the voice of a lonely Roman soldier stationed at the wall.[47] Video games Hadrian's Wall also appears in the latest entry in Ubisoft's long-standing historical fiction series Assassin's Creed Valhalla. The site can be visited by protagonist Eivor of the Raven Clan during the 870s.[48] Gallery[edit] Poltross Burn, Milecastle 48, which was built on a steep slope. Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")[49] Hadrian's Wall near Birdoswald Fort, known to the Romans as Banna, with a man spraying weedkiller to reduce biological weathering to the stones. The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, which may provide the ancient name of Hadrian's Wall (it reads in part VALI AELI, ie. the Wall of Hadrian, using his family name of Aelius). The remains of Castle Nick, Milecastle 39, near Steel Rigg, between Housesteads and The Sill Visitor Centre for the Northumberland National Park at Once Brewed. The remains of the southern granary at Housesteads, showing under-floor pillars to assist ventilation. See also[edit] Danevirke English Heritage properties Gask Ridge Hadrianic Society History of Cumbria History of Northumberland History of Scotland Limes (Roman Empire) List of walls Offa's Dyke Scots' Dike Via Hadriana References[edit] ^ The Roman province of Britannia included the territory of what later became Wales and almost all of England. The territory of Caledonia was later to become Scotland and parts of the English counties of Northumberland and Cumbria. ^ "Hadrian's Wall: The Facts". Visit Hadrian's Wall. 8 March 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Lobell, Jarrett A (2017). "The Wall at the End of the Empire". Archaeology. 70 (3): 26–35. ^ "Obituary: Brian Dobson". The Daily Telegraph. London. 21 September 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2012. ^ "Hadrian's Wall: A horde of ancient treasures make for a compelling new Cumbrian exhibition". The Independent. 8 November 2016. ^ "More than 25,000 people see Hadrian's Wall lit up". BBC. 8 November 2016. ^ "Hadrian's Wall". English Heritage. 22 July 2004. Archived from the original on 22 July 2004. ^ Rohl, Darrell, Jesse. "More than a Roman Monument: A Place-centred Approach to the Long-term History and Archaeology of the Antonine Wall" (PDF). Durham Theses. Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online ref: 9458. Retrieved 14 October 2017. ^ "Wall gains World Heritage status" BBC News. Retrieved 8 July 2008. ^ "Frontiers of the Roman Empire". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. ^ English Heritage. 30 Surprising Facts About Hadrian's Wall Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ Financial Times. Borders held dear to English and Scots Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ History.com. Hadrian's Wall. Retrieved 27 August 2020 ^ "Definition of Roman mile in American English". Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 3 April 2021. ^ a b c Tomlin, R.S.O. (2018). Britannia Romana: Roman Inscriptions & Roman Britain. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 100–102. ^ Breeze, David J (November 2006). Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th – November 2006 ed.). Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne (1934). ISBN 978-0-901082-65-7. ^ Breeze, D.J. (2004). "Roman military sites on the Cumbrian coast". In R.J.A. Wilson; I.D Caruana (eds.). Romans on the Solway : essays in honour of Richard Bellhouse. CWAAS Extra Series. 31. Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society on behalf of the Trustees of the Senhouse Roman Museum, Maryport. pp. 66–94. ISBN 978-1873124390. ^ a b c d Anthony Everitt, Hadrian and the Triumph of Rome (2009), Random House, Inc, 448 pages; ISBN 0-8129-7814-5. ^ Breeze, D.J.; Dobson, B. (2000). Hadrian's Wall (4 ed.). London: Penguin Books. p. 86. ISBN 978-0140271829. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Couse, G.S. (December 1990). "Collingwood's Detective Image of the Historian and the Study of Hadrian's Wall". History and Theory. 29 (4): 57–77. ^ a b c d Breeze, David J (1934). Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th – November 2006 ed.). Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. pp. 55–62. ISBN 978-0-901082-65-7. ^ Simpson, F G; Richmond, I A; St Joseph, K (1935), "Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1934", Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, new series, 35: 220–32 ^ Simpson, F G; MacIntyre, J (1933), "Report of the Cumberland Excavation Committee for 1932", Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, new series, 33: 262–70 ^ Breeze, David J. (November 2006) [1934]. Handbook to the Roman Wall (14th ed.). Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-901082-65-7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Breeze, David J. (2003). "Auxiliaries, Legionaries, and the Operation of Hadrian's Wall". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement (81): 147–151. ^ Simon Schama (2000). A History of Britain. BBC Worldwide Ltd. pp. 34–37. ISBN 978-0-563-38497-7. ^ RIB 1051. Imperial dedication, romaninscriptionsofbritain.org ^ "Wall of Severus". Dot-domesday.me.uk. Retrieved 12 April 2016. ^ Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, Book 5 Chapter 24, "I have spent all the remainder of my life in this monastery." ^ The Buildings of England: County Durham by Nikolaus Pevsner and Elizabeth Williamson (1985 edition), p.338. The inscription reads: DEDICATIO BASILICAE SCI PAVLI VIIII KL MAI ANNO XV ECFRIDI REG CEOLFRIDI ABB EIVSDEMQ Q ECCLES DO AVCTORE CONDITORIS ANNO IIII. This translates as "The dedication of the church of St Paul on the ninth before the kalends of May [23 April] in the fifteenth year of King Ecgfrith and the fourth year of Ceolfrith, abbot, and with God's help the founder of this church" (St Paul's Church Jarrow, undated guidebook by Peter Hiscock, p.4). ^ "Hadrian's Wall". English-lakes.com. Retrieved 12 April 2016. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Frontiers of the Roman Empire". Retrieved 26 November 2007. ^ "Two historic structures in wall-to-wall collaboration". The Telegraph. 24 January 2018. ^ "Hadrian's Wall Path". National Trails. Retrieved 26 November 2007. ^ "Every Footstep Counts – The Trail's Country Code". Hadrians Wall Path National Trail. Retrieved 26 November 2007. ^ "The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan". British Museum. Retrieved 25 February 2019. ^ Hodgson, Hadrian's Wall, p. 23 ^ "The Notitia Dignitatum in Britain" (PDF). Retrieved 28 April 2020. ^ a b c d e f g Note the suffix "chester", reflecting the presence of a Roman castra. ^ "GENUKI: The National Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland (1868) – Northumberland". Genuki.bpears.org.uk. 3 August 2010. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013. ^ Mackenzie, Donald (2 August 2005). ""On the Great Wall"". Kipling Society. Retrieved 2 April 2021. ^ Martin, George R.R. "A Conversation With George R.R. Martin". The SF Site. Retrieved 10 September 2011. ^ Trow, M.J. (2014). "The Wall (Britannia #1)". Good Reads. Retrieved 2 April 2021. ^ Hadrian's Wall, Adrian Goldsworthy (2018) – Google Books ^ "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) Filming & Production". IMDb. Retrieved 2 April 2021. ^ "MAXIM : HELLS KITCHEN - the album, scans and info". Nekozine.co.uk. Retrieved 12 April 2016. ^ a b "Modern Marvels (1993-) Hadrian's Wall". IMDb. Retrieved 2 April 2021. ^ "Roman Wall Blues". Kids of the Wild. Retrieved 3 April 2021. ^ "Assassins Creed Valhalla: Is There Anybody Out There trophy - how to unlock?". Game Pressure. Retrieved 3 April 2021. ^ Sycamore Gap, a section of the wall between two crests just east of Milecastle 39, is locally known as the "Robin Hood Tree" for its use in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991). Sources[edit] Birley, A.R. (1963). Hadrians Wall Illustrated Guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). Burton, Anthony. Hadrian's Wall Path. 2004. Aurum Press Ltd. ISBN 1-85410-893-X. Chaichian, Mohammad. 2014. "Hadrian's Wall: An Ill-Fated strategy for Tribal Management in Roman Britain", in Empires and Walls: Globalization, Migration, and Colonial Domination (Brill, pp. 23–52). https://www.amazon.com/Empires-Walls-Globalization-Migration-Domination/dp/1608464229. Davies, Hunter. A Walk along the Wall, 1974. Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London ISBN 0 297 76710 0. de la Bédoyère, Guy. Hadrian's Wall: A History and Guide. Stroud: Tempus, 1998. ISBN 0-7524-1407-0. England's Roman Frontier: Discovering Carlisle and Hadrian's Wall Country. Hadrian's Wall Heritage Ltd and Carlisle Tourism Partnership. 2010. Forde-Johnston, James L. Hadrian's Wall. London: Michael Joseph, 1978. ISBN 0-7181-1652-6. Hadrian's Wall Path (map). Harvey, 12–22 Main Street, Doune, Perthshire FK16 6BJ. harveymaps.co.uk Higgins, Charlotte (2014). "Chapter Seven: Hadrian's Wall". Under Another Sky: Journeys in Roman Britain. London: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-099552-09-3. Hodgson, Nick (2017). Hadrian's Wall. Marlborough, UK: Robert Hale. ISBN 978-0-7198-1815-8. Moffat, Alistair, The Wall. 2008. Birlinn Limited Press. ISBN 1-84158-675-7. Shanks, Michael (2012). "'Let me tell you about Hadrian's Wall ...' Heritage, Performance, Design". Speed, John – A set of Speed's maps were issued bound in a single volume in 1988 in association with the British Library and with an introduction by Nigel Nicolson as The Counties of Britain: A Tudor Atlas by John Speed. Tomlin, R. S. O., "Inscriptions" in Britannia (2004), vol. xxxv, pp. 344–5 (the Staffordshire Moorlands cup naming the Wall). Wilson, Roger J. A., A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain. London: Constable & Company, 1980; ISBN 0-09-463260-X. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hadrian's Wall. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Hadrian's Wall. In Our Time Radio series with Greg Woolf, Professor of Ancient History at the University of St Andrews, David Breeze, Former Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Scotland and Visiting Professor of Archaeology at the University of Durham and Lindsay Allason-Jones OBE, FSA, FSA Scot, Former Reader in Roman Material Culture at the University of Newcastle Hadrian's Wall on the Official Northumberland Visitor website Hadrian's Wall Discussion Forum UNESCO Frontiers of the Roman Empire News on the Wall path English Lakes article iRomans—website with interactive map of Cumbrian section of Hadrian Wall Well illustrated account of sites along Hadrian's Wall v t e Forts and structures of Hadrian's Wall Wall Forts (East to West) Segedunum Pons Aelius Condercum Vindobala Onnum Cilurnum Procolita Vercovicium Aesica Magnis Banna Camboglanna Uxelodunum Aballava Coggabata Maia Outpost Forts Habitancum Fanum Cocidi Castra Exploratorum Blatobulgium Stanegate Forts Corstopitum Newbrough Vindolanda Haltwhistle Burn Magnis Throp Nether Denton Castle Hill Boothby Brampton Old Church Luguvalium Supply Forts Alauna Arbeia Coria Vindomora Cumbrian Coast Forts (North to South) Bibra Alauna Burrow Walls Gabrosentum Milecastles 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 50TW 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Milefortlets MF 1 MF 2 MF 3 MF 4 MF 5 MF 9 MF 10 MF 11 MF 12 MF 13 MF 14 MF 15 MF 16 MF 17 MF 18 MF 19 MF 20 MF 21 MF 22 MF 23 MF 24 MF 25 Other structures on Hadrian's Wall Portgate Planetrees (Hadrian's Wall section) Chesters Bridge Limestone Corner Knag Burn Gateway Peel Gap Tower Willowford Bridge Pike Hill Signal Tower Regular and linear features Vallum Military Way Hadrian's Wall Path Turrets v t e World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom England Bath Blenheim Palace Canterbury Cathedral, St Augustine's Abbey and St Martin's Church Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape Derwent Valley Mills Durham Castle and Cathedral Frontiers of the Roman Empire Hadrian's Wall Ironbridge Gorge Jodrell Bank Observatory Jurassic Coast Kew Royal Botanic Gardens Lake District Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City Maritime Greenwich Saltaire Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites Studley Royal Park and Fountains Abbey Tower of London Westminster Palace, Westminster Abbey and St Margaret's Church Scotland Edinburgh Old Town and New Town Forth Bridge Frontiers of the Roman Empire Antonine Wall Heart of Neolithic Orkney New Lanark St Kilda Wales Blaenavon Industrial Landscape Castles and Town Walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd Pontcysyllte Aqueduct Northern Ireland Giant's Causeway British Overseas Territories Gorham's Cave Complex Gough Island Inaccessible Island Henderson Island Town of St George and Related Fortifications v t e English Heritage sites in Cumbria Dating from Neolithic/Bronze Age Castlerigg Stone Circle King Arthur's Round Table Mayburgh Henge Dating from Roman Britain Ambleside Roman Fort Hadrian's Wall (including Banks East Turret, Birdoswald Roman Fort, Brougham Roman fort, Castle Folds, Hare Hill, Harrows Scar Milecastle and Wall, King's Stables (Milecastle 48), Leahill Turret and Piper Sike Turret, Pike Hill Signal Tower, Willowford Wall Turrets and Bridge) Hardknott Roman Fort Ravenglass Roman Bath House Dating from the Middle Ages Bow Bridge Brough Castle Brougham Castle Carlisle Castle Clifton Hall Furness Abbey Lanercost Priory Penrith Castle Piel Castle Shap Abbey Wetheral Priory Gatehouse Dating from the 17th century onwards Countess Pillar Stott Park Bobbin Mill Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Latvia Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hadrian%27s_Wall&oldid=1027847577" Categories: Hadrian's Wall 122 establishments 128 establishments 120s establishments in the Roman Empire 2nd-century establishments in Roman Britain 2nd-century fortifications Buildings and structures in Roman Britain Anglo-Scottish border Archaeological sites in Cumbria Archaeological sites in Northumberland Archaeological sites in Tyne and Wear Border barriers Buildings and structures completed in the 2nd century Buildings and structures in Cumbria Buildings and structures in Northumberland Buildings and structures in Tyne and Wear English Heritage sites in Cumbria English Heritage sites in Northumberland English Heritage sites in Tyne and Wear Fortification lines Hadrianic building projects Military history of Cumbria Military history of Northumberland Military history of Tyne and Wear Nerva–Antonine dynasty Northern England Roman Britain Roman fortifications in England Roman frontiers Fortifications in Roman Britain Roman sites in Cumbria Roman sites in Northumberland Roman walls in England Ruins in Cumbria Ruins in Northumberland Tourist attractions in Cumbria Tourist attractions in 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en-wikipedia-org-4954	----	Ulpia Marciana - Wikipedia Ulpia Marciana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elder sister of the Roman Emperor Trajan (48-112) Roman imperial dynasties Portrait bust of Ulpia Marciana Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Ulpia Marciana (August 48 – 112) was the beloved elder sister of Roman Emperor Trajan. She was the eldest child born to Roman woman Marcia and the Roman senator Marcus Ulpius Traianus. Her second name Marciana she inherited from her mother’s paternal ancestors. Her birthplace is unknown. Marciana married Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus. Patruinus was a wealthy man, who served as a praetor and later became a senator. He originally came from Vicetia (modern Vicenza in northern Italy). She bore Patruinus a daughter and only child Salonina Matidia, who was born on July 4, 68. Patruinus died in 78 and Marciana never remarried. After Patruinus’ death, Marciana and Matidia went to live with Trajan and his wife. After 105, her brother awarded her with the title of Augusta. She was the first sister of a Roman Emperor to receive this title. Marciana did not accept this at first, but her sister-in-law, the Empress Pompeia Plotina, insisted that she take the title. She thus became part of the official imperial iconography and her statue was placed together with Trajan's and Plotina's over the Arches of Trajan in Ancona. Marciana was very close to Trajan and Plotina. Marciana on a sestertius of Trajan Marciana would often travel with her brother and assist him in decision making. Throughout the Roman Empire, Marciana was honored with monuments and inscriptions in her name. There are two towns that Trajan founded in her honor in the Roman Empire. The first town was called Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi (modern Timgad, Algeria) and was founded around 100. This town was also named after the late parents of Marciana and Trajan. The other town was founded in 106 and was called Marcianopolis (which is now a part of modern Devnya, Bulgaria). Marciana died between 112 and 114 and was deified by the Senate at Trajan's behest.[1][2] Through her daughter Salonina Matidia's third marriage, Marciana was the great-great-great grandmother of future emperor Marcus Aurelius. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Ulpia gens References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ulpia Marciana. ^ E. J. Bickerman, "Diva Augusta Marciana," The Journal of Philology 95.4 (Winter, 1974): 362-376. ^ "Ulpia Marciana". livius.org. Retrieved 11 January 2015. Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ulpia_Marciana&oldid=1007950168" Categories: 48 births 112 deaths Ulpii Marcii 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 1st-century Roman women 2nd-century Roman women Deified Roman people Augustae Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego 한국어 Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2021, at 19:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5005	----	Vaballathus - Wikipedia Vaballathus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Augustus of Syria, Cappadocia and Aegyptus Vaballathus Augustus of Syria, Cappadocia and Aegyptus Vaballathus as King on the observe of a Palmyrene Antoninianus, 271 AD. King of Kings of Palmyra Reign 267–272 AD Predecessor Odaenathus Successor Position abolished Emperor of the Palmyrene Empire Reign 272 Predecessor Maeonius Successor Septimius Antiochus Born c. 259 Palmyra, Syria Died After 274 Rome, Roman Empire Names Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus Augustus House House of Odaenathus Father Odaenathus Mother Zenobia Religion Palmyrene paganism Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus (Palmyrene: ; Arabic: وَهْبُ اللَّات‎ Wahb Allāt; c. 259 – c. 274 AD) was emperor of the Palmyrene Empire centred at Palmyra in the region of Syria. He came to power as a child under his regent mother Zenobia, who led a revolt against the Roman Empire and formed the independent Palmyrene Empire. Contents 1 Early life 2 As King 2.1 Succession to the throne 2.2 Reign 3 Defeat 4 Ancestors 5 References 5.1 Works cited 6 External links Early life[edit] Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus was born and raised in the city of Palmyra, an oasis settlement in the Syrian Desert in 259 to the king of kings of Palmyra, Odaenathus, and his second wife, queen consort of Palmyra, Zenobia. Vaballathus is the Latinized form of his Palmyrene name, Wahballāt, "Gift of Allāt". As the Arabian goddess Allāt came to be identified with Athena, he used Athenodorus as the Greek form of his name.[1] He had a half-brother, Hairan I, born from his father and another woman, who reigned as co-king of kings with his father, and a lesser-known brother, Hairan II. He also might have had other brothers, who were mentioned in (and only known from) the Augustan History, Herennianus and Timolaus.[2] Herennianus may be Hairan; while Timolaus is probably a fabrication.[3] As King[edit] Succession to the throne[edit] In 267, his father Odaenathus and half-brother Hairan I were murdered by a relative, perhaps a cousin of Odaenthus's, named Maeonius. Maeonius ruled as a usurper and crowned himself emperor but was almost immediately killed, as no inscription or evidence for his rule exists. With Odaenathus and his oldest son dead, the succession came to his younger son, Vaballathus. The young Vaballathus was made king (rex consul imperator dux Romanorum, "illustrious King of Kings" and corrector totius orientis) of the Palmyrene Empire at eight years old. Being too young to rule, his mother Zenobia ruled as queen regent and was the de facto ruler of Palmyra. Reign[edit] Coinage bearing Vaballathus's and Aurelian's portraits. Initially the Roman emperor Aurelian recognized Vaballathus' rule, perhaps because he was engaged in conflict with the Gallic Empire in the west and hesitated to incite open warfare with the Palmyrene Empire. This mutual recognition is testified by early coins issued by Zenobia under Vaballathus's name, but also acknowledging Aurelian as emperor. In the coins, Aurelian is shown wearing a radiate crown that signifies his supremacy as emperor, and Vaballathus was crowned with a laurel wreath.[4] The Alexandrian minted coins showed Aurelian in his first year and Vaballathus in his fourth year[5] with Vaballathus adopting honorary titles possibly inherited from his father Odaenathus. Although the Palmyrene Empire was centred in Palmyra, Vaballathus and Zenobia probably spent most of their reign in Antioch,[6] Syria's administrative capital.[7] The relationship between the Roman Empire and the newly established Palmyrene empire deteriorated, and a series of Palmyrene conquests, done under the protective show of subordination to Rome,[8] began around 270. In October of 270,[9] a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt,[10][11] and declared Zenobia, Vaballathus's mother, the Queen of Egypt.[12] The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and killed by Zabdas, a Palmyrene general, who continued his march south and secured Egypt.[13] Afterward, in 271, Zabbai, another Palmyrene general serving Zenobia, started the operations in Anatolia, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year.[14] The Palmyrenes subdued the Asian province of Galatia,[15] and occupied the regional capital of Ancyra, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion.[16] Aurelian disappeared from Palmyrene coinage, while Zenobia and Vaballathus adopted the titles of Augusta and Augustus, respectively. Vaballathus was named in coins "King, Emperor, Dux Romanum leader of the Romans"[17] and an open rebellion against Rome started. Defeat[edit] The route of Aurelian's campaign against Palmyra. In 272, the Emperor Aurelian crossed the Bosporus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.[11] While the Roman general Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra, the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana.[18] Tyana fell from Palmyrene control; Aurelian up to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he allegedly spared Tyana. Whatever the reason for his clemency, it paid off, as many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Passing through Issus, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae near Antioch.[19] The Palmyrene armies retreated to Antioch, then later Emesa, while Aurelian advanced and took the former.[20] The defeat at Emesa forced the Palmyrene armies to evacuate to the capital.[21] The Romans began a siege, and tried to breach the city defences several times but were repelled,[22] however, the situation worsened, so Zenobia, Vaballathus's mother, left the city and headed east to ask the Sasanian Empire for help.[23] The Romans followed the queen, arrested her near the Euphrates, and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace, and the city fell. The Temple of Bel was looted and sacked by the Romans during the razing of Palmyra The end of Vaballathus's nominal rule came after losing the Siege of Palmyra. Vaballathus, his mother and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high-ranking Palmyrene officials were executed,[24] while Zenobia and Vaballathus's fates remain uncertain. Although Aurelian had most of his prisoners executed, he most likely spared the queen and her son to parade her in his planned triumph.[25] According to Zosimus, Vaballathus died on the way to Rome, but this theory has been neither confirmed nor disproved. Other sources have implied that after shipping the defeated Zenobia and Vaballathus to Rome, Aurelian allowed both of the rebels to live, but only after they had been marched through the streets of the imperial city in accordance with Roman traditions of celebrating military victories with a triumphal procession. This would have been humiliating, but better than death. This theory is supported by Aurelian's similar treatment of the Tetrici, Tetricus I and Tetricus II of the Gallic Empire, long-time enemies of Rome whom the emperor allowed to retire following their defeat at the Battle of Châlons in 274. The fate of Palmyra, however took a turn for the worse. In 273, a revolution was started by Septimius Apsaios[26] declaring a relative of Zenobia, Septimius Antiochus, as Augustus.[27] Aurelian marched to Palmyra, razing it. Buildings were smashed, citizens clubbed and massacred and Palmyra's holiest temples pillaged.[28] The city was reduced and disappeared from historical records from that time,[29] thus ending the ascendancy of Palmyra over Roman Asia Minor. Ancestors[edit] Ancestors of Vaballathus 8. Wahb Allat 4. Hairan 2. Odaenathus 1. Vaballathus 3. Zenobia References[edit] ^ Butcher 2003, p. 284. ^ Southern 2008, p. 10. ^ Watson 2004, p. 58. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help) ^ Southern 2015, p. 168. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSouthern2015 (help) ^ Southern 2015, p. 167. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSouthern2015 (help) ^ Teixidor 2005, p. 205. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTeixidor2005 (help) ^ Nakamura 1993, p. 141. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNakamura1993 (help) ^ Watson 2014, p. 79. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2014 (help) ^ Watson 2014, p. 62. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2014 (help) ^ Southern 2008, p. 133. ^ a b Bryce 2014, p. 303. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBryce2014 (help) ^ Bryce 2014, p. 304. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBryce2014 (help) ^ Watson 2014, p. 63. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2014 (help) ^ Watson 2014, p. 64. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2014 (help) ^ Watson 2014, p. 64. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2014 (help) ^ Watson 2002, p. 80. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2002 (help) ^ Ando 2012, p. 210. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAndo2012 (help) ^ Watson 2002, p. 71. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2002 (help) ^ Bryce 2014, p. 309. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBryce2014 (help) ^ Watson 2002, p. 74. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2002 (help) ^ Bryce 2014, p. 310. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBryce2014 (help) ^ Stoneman 1994, p. 175. sfn error: no target: CITEREFStoneman1994 (help) ^ Watson 2004, p. 77. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help) ^ Ware 1838, p. 24. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWare1838 (help) ^ Watson 2004, p. 79, 84. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help) ^ Smith II 2013, p. 180. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith_II2013 (help) ^ Smith II 2013, p. 181. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith_II2013 (help) ^ Ball 2002, p. 81. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBall2002 (help) ^ Pollard 2000, p. 299. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPollard2000 (help) Works cited[edit] Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Southern, Pat (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-7351-5. Sommer, Michael (2017). Palmyra: A History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-34715-0. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vabalathus. Coinage of Vabalathus Long, Jacqueline F. "Vaballathus and Zenobia (270-272 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Other RERO (Switzerland) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vaballathus&oldid=1026088338" Categories: Rulers of Palmyra Emesene dynasty Julii Aurelii Septimii 3rd-century monarchs in the Middle East 3rd-century Romans 250s births 270s deaths 3rd-century Arabs Palmyrene Empire Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Arabic-language text Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5017	----	Internet Archive - Wikipedia Internet Archive From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Internet archive (disambiguation). For help citing the Wayback Machine (an Internet Archive service) in the English Wikipedia, see Help:Using the Wayback Machine. "archive.org" redirects here. It is not to be confused with arXiv.org. American non-profit organization providing archives of digital media since 1996 Coordinates: 37°46′56″N 122°28′18″W / 37.782321°N 122.47161137°W / 37.782321; -122.47161137 Internet Archive Type of business 501(c)(3) nonprofit Type of site Digital library Available in English Founded May 12, 1996; 25 years ago (1996-05-12)[notes 1][1] Headquarters Richmond District San Francisco, California, U.S. Chairman Brewster Kahle Services Archive-It Open Library Wayback Machine (since 2001) Netlabels NASA Images Prelinger Archives Revenue $20.3 million (2018)[2] Employees 168 (2018)[2] URL archive.org Launched 1996 (1996) Current status Active Since late 2009, the headquarters of the Internet Archive has been the building that formerly housed the Fourth Church of Christ, Scientist (San Francisco, California). The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge".[notes 2][notes 3] It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and millions of books. In addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating a free and open Internet. As of April 2021, the Internet Archive holds over 30 million books and texts, 8.9 million movies, videos and TV shows, 649,000 software programs, 13,225,000 audio files, 3.8 million images, and 552 billion web pages in the Wayback Machine. The Internet Archive allows the public to upload and download digital material to its data cluster, but the bulk of its data is collected automatically by its web crawlers, which work to preserve as much of the public web as possible. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains hundreds of billions of web captures.[notes 4][3] The Archive also oversees one of the world's largest book digitization projects. Contents 1 Operations 2 History 3 Web archiving 3.1 Wayback Machine 3.2 Archive-It 3.3 Internet Archive Scholar 4 Book collections 4.1 Text collection 4.2 Number of texts for each language 4.3 Number of texts for each decade 4.4 Open Library 4.5 Digitizing sponsors for books 5 Media collections 5.1 Audio collection 5.2 Brooklyn Museum 5.3 Images collection 5.3.1 Cover Art Archive 5.3.2 Metropolitan Museum of Art images 5.3.3 NASA Images 5.3.4 Occupy Wall Street Flickr archive 5.3.5 USGS Maps 5.4 Machinima archive 5.5 Mathematics – Hamid Naderi Yeganeh 5.6 Microfilm collection 5.7 Moving image collection 5.8 Netlabels 5.9 Open Educational Resources 5.10 TV News Search & Borrow 5.11 Michelson library 6 Other services and endeavors 6.1 Physical media 6.2 Software 6.3 Table Top Scribe System 6.4 Credit Union 7 Controversies and legal disputes 7.1 Grateful Dead 7.2 National security letters 7.3 Opposition to SOPA and PIPA bills 7.4 Opposition to Google Books settlement 7.5 Nintendo Power magazine 7.6 Government of India 7.7 Turkey 7.8 National Emergency Library 7.9 Publishers' lawsuit 8 Ceramic archivists collection 9 Artists in residence 10 See also 10.1 Similar projects 10.2 Other 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Operations[edit] This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2020) Mirror of the Internet Archive in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina The Archive is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit operating in the United States. It has an annual budget of $10 million, derived from revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations, and the Kahle-Austin Foundation.[4] The Internet Archive also manages periodic funding campaigns. For instance, a December 2019 campaign had a goal of reaching $6 million in donations.[citation needed] The Archive is headquartered in San Francisco, California. From 1996 to 2009, its headquarters were in the Presidio of San Francisco, a former U.S. military base. Since 2009, its headquarters have been at 300 Funston Avenue in San Francisco, a former Christian Science Church. At one time, most of its staff worked in its book-scanning centers; as of 2019, scanning is performed by 100 paid operators worldwide.[5] The Archive also has data centers in three Californian cities: San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond. To reduce the risk of data loss, the Archive creates copies of parts of its collection at more distant locations, including the Bibliotheca Alexandrina[notes 5] in Egypt and a facility in Amsterdam.[6] The Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium[7] and was officially designated as a library by the state of California in 2007.[notes 6][8] History[edit] 2008 headquarters Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in May 1996 around the same time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet.[notes 7] In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities,[notes 8] though it saved the earliest pages in May 1996.[9][10] The archived content wasn't available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, beginning with the Prelinger Archives. Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of other projects: the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It, and the wiki-editable library catalog and book information site Open Library. Soon after that, the Archive began working to provide specialized services relating to the information access needs of the print-disabled; publicly accessible books were made available in a protected Digital Accessible Information System (DAISY) format.[notes 9] According to its website:[notes 10] Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture and heritage. Without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form. The Archive's mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced[11] that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for more than 1.3 million existing files, and all newly uploaded files.[12][13] This method is the fastest means of downloading media from the Archive, as files are served from two Archive data centers, in addition to other torrent clients which have downloaded and continue to serve the files.[12][notes 11] On November 6, 2013, the Internet Archive's headquarters in San Francisco's Richmond District caught fire,[14] destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments.[15] According to the Archive, it lost a side-building housing one of 30 of its scanning centers; cameras, lights, and scanning equipment worth hundreds of thousands of dollars; and "maybe 20 boxes of books and film, some irreplaceable, most already digitized, and some replaceable".[16] The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage.[17] In November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the Archive to be based somewhere in Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build a backup archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump.[18][19][20] Kahle was quoted as saying: On November 9th in America, we woke up to a new administration promising radical change. It was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and perpetually accessible. It means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions. It means serving patrons in a world in which government surveillance is not going away; indeed it looks like it will increase. Throughout history, libraries have fought against terrible violations of privacy—where people have been rounded up simply for what they read. At the Internet Archive, we are fighting to protect our readers' privacy in the digital world.[18] Beginning in 2017, OCLC and the Internet Archive have collaborated to make the Archive's records of digitized books available in WorldCat.[21] Since 2018, the Internet Archive visual arts residency, which is organized by Amir Saber Esfahani and Andrew McClintock, helps connect artists with the Archive's over 48 petabytes[notes 12] of digitized materials. Over the course of the yearlong residency, visual artists create a body of work which culminates in an exhibition. The hope is to connect digital history with the arts and create something for future generations to appreciate online or off.[22] Previous artists in residence include Taravat Talepasand, Whitney Lynn, and Jenny Odell.[23] In 2019, its headquarters in San Francisco received a bomb threat which forced a temporary evacuation of the building.[24] The Internet Archive acquires most materials from donations,[notes 13] such as hundreds of thousands of 78 rpm discs from Boston Public Library in 2017,[25] a donation of 250,000 books from Trent University in 2018,[26] and the entire collection of Marygrove College's library in 2020 after it closed.[27] All material is then digitized and retained in digital storage, while a digital copy is returned to the original holder and the Internet Archive's copy, if not in the public domain, is borrowed to patrons worldwide one at a time under the controlled digital lending (CDL) theory of the first-sale doctrine.[28] Web archiving[edit] Wayback Machine[edit] Main article: Wayback Machine Wayback Machine logo, used since 2001 Mark Graham The Internet Archive capitalized on the popular use of the term "WABAC Machine" from a segment of The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle cartoon (specifically, Peabody's Improbable History), and uses the name "Wayback Machine" for its service that allows archives of the World Wide Web to be searched and accessed.[29] This service allows users to view some of the archived web pages. The Wayback Machine was created as a joint effort between Alexa Internet (owned by Amazon.com) and the Internet Archive when a three-dimensional index was built to allow for the browsing of archived web content.[notes 14] Millions of web sites and their associated data (images, source code, documents, etc.) are saved in a database. The service can be used to see what previous versions of web sites used to look like, to grab original source code from web sites that may no longer be directly available, or to visit web sites that no longer even exist. Not all web sites are available because many web site owners choose to exclude their sites. As with all sites based on data from web crawlers, the Internet Archive misses large areas of the web for a variety of other reasons. A 2004 paper found international biases in the coverage, but deemed them "not intentional".[30] A purchase of additional storage at the Internet Archive A "Save Page Now" archiving feature was made available in October 2013,[31] accessible on the lower right of the Wayback Machine's main page.[notes 15] Once a target URL is entered and saved, the web page will become part of the Wayback Machine.[31] Through the Internet address web.archive.org,[32] users can upload to the Wayback Machine a large variety of contents, including PDF and data compression file formats. The Wayback Machine creates a permanent local URL of the upload content, that is accessible in the web, even if not listed while searching in the http://archive.org official website. May 12, 1996, is the date of the oldest archived pages on the archive.org WayBack Machine, such as infoseek.com.[33] In October 2016, it was announced that the way web pages are counted would be changed, resulting in the decrease of the archived pages counts shown.[34] Year Archived pages (billions) 2005 40[notes 16] 2006 85[notes 17] 2007 85[notes 18] 2008 85[notes 19] 2009 150[notes 20] 2010 150[notes 21] 2011 150[notes 22] 2012 150[notes 23] 2013 373[notes 24] 2014 430[35] 2015 479[notes 25] 2016 510[A][notes 26] 273[B][34] 2017 286[notes 27] 2018 344[notes 28] A Using the old counting system used before October 2016 B Using the new counting system used after October 2016 In September 2020, the Internet Archive announced a partnership with Cloudflare to automatically index websites served via its "Always Online" services.[36] Archive-It[edit] Play media Brewster Kahle of the Internet Archive talks about archiving operations Created in early 2006, Archive-It[37] is a web archiving subscription service that allows institutions and individuals to build and preserve collections of digital content and create digital archives. Archive-It allows the user to customize their capture or exclusion of web content they want to preserve for cultural heritage reasons. Through a web application, Archive-It partners can harvest, catalog, manage, browse, search, and view their archived collections.[38] In terms of accessibility, the archived web sites are full text searchable within seven days of capture.[39] Content collected through Archive-It is captured and stored as a WARC file. A primary and back-up copy is stored at the Internet Archive data centers. A copy of the WARC file can be given to subscribing partner institutions for geo-redundant preservation and storage purposes to their best practice standards.[40] Periodically, the data captured through Archive-It is indexed into the Internet Archive's general archive. As of March 2014[update], Archive-It had more than 275 partner institutions in 46 U.S. states and 16 countries that have captured more than 7.4 billion URLs for more than 2,444 public collections. Archive-It partners are universities and college libraries, state archives, federal institutions, museums, law libraries, and cultural organizations, including the Electronic Literature Organization, North Carolina State Archives and Library, Stanford University, Columbia University, American University in Cairo, Georgetown Law Library, and many others. Internet Archive Scholar[edit] In September 2020 Internet Archive announced a new initiative to archive and preserve open access academic journals, called the "Internet Archive Scholar".[41][42] Its fulltext search index includes over 25 million research articles and other scholarly documents preserved in the Internet Archive. The collection spans from digitized copies of eighteenth century journals through the latest Open Access conference proceedings and pre-prints crawled from the World Wide Web. Book collections[edit] Text collection[edit] Internet Archive "Scribe" book scanning workstation The Internet Archive operates 33 scanning centers in five countries, digitizing about 1,000 books a day for a total of more than 2 million books,[43] financially supported by libraries and foundations.[notes 29] As of July 2013[update], the collection included 4.4 million books with more than 15 million downloads per month.[43] As of November 2008[update], when there were approximately 1 million texts, the entire collection was greater than 0.5 petabytes, which includes raw camera images, cropped and skewed images, PDFs, and raw OCR data.[44] Between about 2006 and 2008, Microsoft had a special relationship with Internet Archive texts through its Live Search Books project, scanning more than 300,000 books that were contributed to the collection, as well as financial support and scanning equipment. On May 23, 2008, Microsoft announced it would be ending the Live Book Search project and no longer scanning books.[45] Microsoft made its scanned books available without contractual restriction and donated its scanning equipment to its former partners.[45] An Internet Archive in-house scan ongoing Around October 2007, Archive users began uploading public domain books from Google Book Search.[notes 30] As of November 2013[update], there were more than 900,000 Google-digitized books in the Archive's collection;[notes 31] the books are identical to the copies found on Google, except without the Google watermarks, and are available for unrestricted use and download.[46] Brewster Kahle revealed in 2013 that this archival effort was coordinated by Aaron Swartz, who with a "bunch of friends" downloaded the public domain books from Google slow enough and from enough computers to stay within Google's restrictions. They did this to ensure public access to the public domain. The Archive ensured the items were attributed and linked back to Google, which never complained, while libraries "grumbled". According to Kahle, this is an example of Swartz's "genius" to work on what could give the most to the public good for millions of people.[47] Besides books, the Archive offers free and anonymous public access to more than four million court opinions, legal briefs, or exhibits uploaded from the United States Federal Courts' PACER electronic document system via the RECAP web browser plugin. These documents had been kept behind a federal court paywall. On the Archive, they had been accessed by more than six million people by 2013.[47] The Archive's BookReader web app,[48] built into its website, has features such as single-page, two-page, and thumbnail modes; fullscreen mode; page zooming of high-resolution images; and flip page animation.[48][49] Number of texts for each language[edit] Number of all texts (December 9, 2019) 22,197,912[50] Language Number of texts (November 27, 2015) English 6,553,945[notes 32] French 358,721[notes 33] German 344,810[notes 34] Spanish 134,170[notes 35] Chinese 84,147[notes 36] Arabic 66,786[notes 37] Dutch 30,237[notes 38] Portuguese 25,938[notes 39] Russian 22,731[notes 40] Urdu 14,978[notes 41] Japanese 14,795[notes 42] Number of texts for each decade[edit] XIX century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 1800s 39,842[notes 43] 1810s 51,151[notes 44] 1820s 79,476[notes 45] 1830s 105,021[notes 46] 1840s 127,649[notes 47] 1850s 180,950[notes 48] 1860s 210,574[notes 49] 1870s 214,505[notes 50] 1880s 285,984[notes 51] 1890s 370,726[notes 52] XX century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 1900s 504,000[notes 53] 1910s 455,539[notes 54] 1920s 185,876[notes 55] 1930s 70,190[notes 56] 1940s 85,062[notes 57] 1950s 81,192[notes 58] 1960s 125,977[notes 59] 1970s 206,870[notes 60] 1980s 181,129[notes 61] 1990s 272,848[notes 62] XXI century Decade Number of texts (November 27, 2015) 2000s 579,905[notes 63] 2010s 855,253[notes 64] Open Library[edit] Main article: Open Library The Open Library is another project of the Internet Archive. The wiki seeks to include a web page for every book ever published: it holds 25 million catalog records of editions. It also seeks to be a web-accessible public library: it contains the full texts of approximately 1,600,000 public domain books (out of the more than five million from the main texts collection), as well as in-print and in-copyright books,[51] many of which are fully readable, downloadable[52][53] and full-text searchable;[54] it offers a two-week loan of e-books in its controlled digital lending program for over 647,784 books not in the public domain, in partnership with over 1,000 library partners from 6 countries[43][55] after a free registration on the web site. Open Library is a free and open-source software project, with its source code freely available on GitHub. The Open Library faces objections from some authors and the Society of Authors, who hold that the project is distributing books without authorization and is thus in violation of copyright laws,[56] and four major publishers initiated a copyright infringement lawsuit against the Internet Archive in June 2020 to stop the Open Library project.[57] Digitizing sponsors for books[edit] Many large institutional sponsors have helped the Internet Archive provide millions of scanned publications (text items).[58] Some sponsors that have digitized large quantities of texts include the University of Toronto's Robarts Library, the University of Alberta Libraries, the University of Ottawa, the Library of Congress, Boston Library Consortium member libraries, the Boston Public Library, the Princeton Theological Seminary Library, and many others.[59] In 2017, the MIT Press authorized the Internet Archive to digitize and lend books from the press's backlist,[60] with financial support from the Arcadia Fund.[61][62] A year later, the Internet Archive received further funding from the Arcadia Fund to invite some other university presses to partner with the Internet Archive to digitize books, a project called "Unlocking University Press Books".[63][64] The Library of Congress has created numerous handle system identifiers that point to free digitized books in the Internet Archive.[65] The Internet Archive and Open Library are listed on the Library of Congress website as a source of e-books.[66] Media collections[edit] Media reader Microfilms at the Internet Archive Videocassettes at the Internet Archive In addition to web archives, the Internet Archive maintains extensive collections of digital media that are attested by the uploader to be in the public domain in the United States or licensed under a license that allows redistribution, such as Creative Commons licenses. Media are organized into collections by media type (moving images, audio, text, etc.), and into sub-collections by various criteria. Each of the main collections includes a "Community" sub-collection (formerly named "Open Source") where general contributions by the public are stored. Audio collection[edit] Main articles: Live Music Archive and The Great 78 Project The Audio Archive includes music, audiobooks, news broadcasts, old time radio shows, and a wide variety of other audio files. There are more than 200,000 free digital recordings in the collection. The subcollections include audio books and poetry, podcasts, non-English audio, and many others.[notes 65] The sound collections are curated by B. George, director of the ARChive of Contemporary Music.[67] The Live Music Archive sub-collection includes more than 170,000 concert recordings from independent musicians, as well as more established artists and musical ensembles with permissive rules about recording their concerts, such as the Grateful Dead, and more recently, The Smashing Pumpkins. Also, Jordan Zevon has allowed the Internet Archive to host a definitive collection of his father Warren Zevon's concert recordings. The Zevon collection ranges from 1976 to 2001 and contains 126 concerts including 1,137 songs.[68] The Great 78 Project aims to digitize 250,000 78 rpm singles (500,000 songs) from the period between 1880 and 1960, donated by various collectors and institutions. It has been developed in collaboration with the Archive of Contemporary Music and George Blood Audio, responsible for the audio digitization.[67] Brooklyn Museum[edit] This collection contains approximately 3,000 items from Brooklyn Museum.[notes 66] Images collection[edit] This collection contains more than 3.5 million items.[69] Cover Art Archive, Metropolitan Museum of Art - Gallery Images, NASA Images, Occupy Wall Street Flickr Archive, and USGS Maps and are some sub-collections of Image collection. Cover Art Archive[edit] Logo of Cover Art Archive The Cover Art Archive is a joint project between the Internet Archive and MusicBrainz, whose goal is to make cover art images on the Internet. As of April 2021,[update] this collection contains more than 1,400,000 items.[notes 67] Metropolitan Museum of Art images[edit] The images of this collection are from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This collection contains more than 140,000 items.[notes 68] NASA Images[edit] The NASA Images archive was created through a Space Act Agreement between the Internet Archive and NASA to bring public access to NASA's image, video, and audio collections in a single, searchable resource. The IA NASA Images team worked closely with all of the NASA centers to keep adding to the ever-growing collection.[70] The nasaimages.org site launched in July 2008 and had more than 100,000 items online at the end of its hosting in 2012. Occupy Wall Street Flickr archive[edit] This collection contains creative commons licensed photographs from Flickr related to the Occupy Wall Street movement. This collection contains more than 15,000 items.[notes 69] USGS Maps[edit] This collection contains more than 59,000 items from Libre Map Project.[notes 70] Machinima archive[edit] One of the sub-collections of the Internet Archive's Video Archive is the Machinima Archive. This small section hosts many Machinima videos. Machinima is a digital artform in which computer games, game engines, or software engines are used in a sandbox-like mode to create motion pictures, recreate plays, or even publish presentations or keynotes. The archive collects a range of Machinima films from internet publishers such as Rooster Teeth and Machinima.com as well as independent producers. The sub-collection is a collaborative effort among the Internet Archive, the How They Got Game research project at Stanford University, the Academy of Machinima Arts and Sciences, and Machinima.com.[notes 71] Mathematics – Hamid Naderi Yeganeh[edit] This collection contains mathematical images created by mathematical artist Hamid Naderi Yeganeh.[notes 72] Microfilm collection[edit] This collection contains approximately 160,000 items from a variety of libraries including the University of Chicago Libraries, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of Alberta, Allen County Public Library, and the National Technical Information Service.[notes 73][notes 74] Moving image collection[edit] See also: Wikipedia list of films freely available on the Internet Archive The Internet Archive holds a collection of approximately 3,863 feature films.[notes 75] Additionally, the Internet Archive's Moving Image collection includes: newsreels, classic cartoons, pro- and anti-war propaganda, The Video Cellar Collection, Skip Elsheimer's "A.V. Geeks" collection, early television, and ephemeral material from Prelinger Archives, such as advertising, educational, and industrial films, as well as amateur and home movie collections. Subcategories of this collection include: IA's Brick Films collection, which contains stop-motion animation filmed with Lego bricks, some of which are "remakes" of feature films. IA's Election 2004 collection, a non-partisan public resource for sharing video materials related to the 2004 United States presidential election. IA's FedFlix collection, Joint Venture NTIS-1832 between the National Technical Information Service and Public.Resource.Org that features "the best movies of the United States Government, from training films to history, from our national parks to the U.S. Fire Academy and the Postal Inspectors"[notes 76] IA's Independent News collection, which includes sub-collections such as the Internet Archive's World At War competition from 2001, in which contestants created short films demonstrating "why access to history matters". Among their most-downloaded video files are eyewitness recordings of the devastating 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. IA's September 11 Television Archive, which contains archival footage from the world's major television networks of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, as they unfolded on live television.[notes 77] Netlabels[edit] Not to be confused with Netlabel. The Archive has a collection of freely distributable music that is streamed and available for download via its Netlabels service. The music in this collection generally has Creative Commons-license catalogs of virtual record labels.[notes 78][71] Open Educational Resources[edit] Open Educational Resources is a digital collection at archive.org. This collection contains hundreds of free courses, video lectures, and supplemental materials from universities in the United States and China. The contributors of this collection are ArsDigita University, Hewlett Foundation, MIT, Monterey Institute, and Naropa University.[notes 79] TV News Search & Borrow[edit] TV tuners at the Internet Archive In September 2012, the Internet Archive launched the TV News Search & Borrow service for searching U.S. national news programs.[notes 80] The service is built on closed captioning transcripts and allows users to search and stream 30-second video clips. Upon launch, the service contained "350,000 news programs collected over 3 years from national U.S. networks and stations in San Francisco and Washington D.C."[72] According to Kahle, the service was inspired by the Vanderbilt Television News Archive, a similar library of televised network news programs.[73] In contrast to Vanderbilt, which limits access to streaming video to individuals associated with subscribing colleges and universities, the TV News Search & Borrow allows open access to its streaming video clips. In 2013, the Archive received an additional donation of "approximately 40,000 well-organized tapes" from the estate of a Philadelphia woman, Marion Stokes. Stokes "had recorded more than 35 years of TV news in Philadelphia and Boston with her VHS and Betamax machines."[74] Michelson library[edit] In December 2020, the film research library of Lillian Michelson was donated to the archive.[75] Other services and endeavors[edit] Physical media[edit] A vintage wall intercom, an example of another "archived" item Voicing a strong reaction to the idea of books simply being thrown away, and inspired by the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Kahle now envisions collecting one copy of every book ever published. "We're not going to get there, but that's our goal", he said. Alongside the books, Kahle plans to store the Internet Archive's old servers, which were replaced in 2010.[76] Software[edit] The Internet Archive has "the largest collection of historical software online in the world", spanning 50 years of computer history in terabytes of computer magazines and journals, books, shareware discs, FTP sites, video games, etc. The Internet Archive has created an archive of what it describes as "vintage software", as a way to preserve them.[notes 81] The project advocated for an exemption from the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act to permit them to bypass copy protection, which was approved in 2003 for a period of three years.[notes 82] The Archive does not offer the software for download, as the exemption is solely "for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive."[77] The exemption was renewed in 2006, and in 2009 was indefinitely extended pending further rulemakings.[78] The Library reiterated the exemption as a "Final Rule" with no expiration date in 2010.[79] In 2013, the Internet Archive began to provide abandonware video games browser-playable via MESS, for instance the Atari 2600 game E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial.[80] Since December 23, 2014, the Internet Archive presents, via a browser-based DOSBox emulation, thousands of DOS/PC games[81][82][notes 83][83] for "scholarship and research purposes only".[notes 84][84][85] In November 2020, the Archive introduced a new emulator for Adobe Flash called Ruffle, and began archiving Flash animations and games ahead of the December 31, 2020 end-of-life for the Flash plugin across all computer systems.[86] Table Top Scribe System[edit] A combined hardware software system has been developed that performs a safe method of digitizing content.[notes 85][87] Credit Union[edit] From 2012 to November 2015, the Internet Archive operated the Internet Archive Federal Credit Union, a federal credit union based in New Brunswick, New Jersey, with the goal of providing access to low- and middle-income people. Throughout its short existence, the IAFCU experienced significant conflicts with the National Credit Union Administration, which severely limited the IAFCU's loan portfolio and concerns over serving Bitcoin firms. At the time of its dissolution, it consisted of 395 members and was worth $2.5 million.[88][89] Controversies and legal disputes[edit] See also: Wayback Machine § In legal evidence The main hall of the current headquarters Grateful Dead[edit] In November 2005, free downloads of Grateful Dead concerts were removed from the site. John Perry Barlow identified Bob Weir, Mickey Hart, and Bill Kreutzmann as the instigators of the change, according to an article in The New York Times.[90] Phil Lesh commented on the change in a November 30, 2005, posting to his personal web site: It was brought to my attention that all of the Grateful Dead shows were taken down from Archive.org right before Thanksgiving. I was not part of this decision making process and was not notified that the shows were to be pulled. I do feel that the music is the Grateful Dead's legacy and I hope that one way or another all of it is available for those who want it.[91] A November 30 forum post from Brewster Kahle summarized what appeared to be the compromise reached among the band members. Audience recordings could be downloaded or streamed, but soundboard recordings were to be available for streaming only. Concerts have since been re-added.[notes 86] National security letters[edit] A national security letter issued to the Internet Archive demanding information about a user On May 8, 2008, it was revealed that the Internet Archive had successfully challenged an FBI national security letter asking for logs on an undisclosed user.[92][93] On November 28, 2016, it was revealed that a second FBI national security letter had been successfully challenged that had been asking for logs on another undisclosed user.[94] Opposition to SOPA and PIPA bills[edit] The Internet Archive blacked out its web site for 12 hours on January 18, 2012, in protest of the Stop Online Piracy Act and the PROTECT IP Act bills, two pieces of legislation in the United States Congress that they claimed would "negatively affect the ecosystem of web publishing that led to the emergence of the Internet Archive". This occurred in conjunction with the English Wikipedia blackout, as well as numerous other protests across the Internet.[95] Opposition to Google Books settlement[edit] The Internet Archive is a member of the Open Book Alliance, which has been among the most outspoken critics of the Google Book Settlement. The Archive advocates an alternative digital library project.[96] Nintendo Power magazine[edit] In February 2016, Internet Archive users had begun archiving digital copies of Nintendo Power, Nintendo's official magazine for their games and products, which ran from 1988 to 2012. The first 140 issues had been collected, before Nintendo had the archive removed on August 8, 2016. In response to the take-down, Nintendo told gaming website Polygon, "[Nintendo] must protect our own characters, trademarks and other content. The unapproved use of Nintendo's intellectual property can weaken our ability to protect and preserve it, or to possibly use it for new projects".[97] Government of India[edit] In August 2017, the Department of Telecommunications of the Government of India blocked the Internet Archive along with other file-sharing websites, in accordance with two court orders issued by the Madras High Court,[98] citing piracy concerns after copies of two Bollywood films were allegedly shared via the service.[99] The HTTP version of the Archive was blocked but it remained accessible using the HTTPS protocol.[98] Turkey[edit] See also: Censorship in Turkey On October 9, 2016, the Internet Archive was temporarily blocked in Turkey after it was used (amongst other file hosters) by hackers to host 17 GB of leaked government emails.[100][101] National Emergency Library[edit] In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic which closed many schools, universities, and libraries, the Archive announced on March 24, 2020 that it was creating the National Emergency Library by removing the lending restrictions it had in place for 1.4 million digitized books in its Open Library but otherwise limiting users to the number of books they could check out and enforcing their return; normally, the site would only allow one digital lending for each physical copy of the book they had, by use of an encrypted file that would become unusable after the lending period was completed. This Library would remain as such until at least June 30, 2020 or until the US national emergency was over, whichever came later.[102] At launch, the Internet Archive allowed authors and rightholders to submit opt-out requests for their works to be omitted from the National Emergency Library.[103][104][105] The Internet Archive said the National Emergency Library addressed an "unprecedented global and immediate need for access to reading and research material" due to the closures of physical libraries worldwide.[106] They justified the move in a number of ways. Legally, they said they were promoting access to those inaccessible resources, which they claimed was an exercise in Fair Use principles. The Archive continued implementing their controlled digital lending policy that predated the National Emergency Library, meaning they still encrypted the lent copies and it was no easier for users to create new copies of the books than before. An ultimate determination of whether or not the National Emergency Library constituted Fair Use could only be made by a court. Morally, they also pointed out that the Internet Archive was a registered library like any other, that they either paid for the books themselves or received them as donations, and that lending through libraries predated copyright restrictions.[103][107] However, the Archive had already been criticized by authors and publishers for its prior lending approach, and upon announcement of the National Emergency Library, authors, publishers, and groups representing both took further issue, equating the move to copyright infringement and digital piracy, and using the COVID-19 pandemic as a reason to push the boundaries of copyright (see also: Open Library § Copyright violation accusations).[108][109][110] After the works of some of these authors were ridiculed in responses, the Internet Archive's Jason Scott requested that supporters of the National Emergency Library not denigrate anyone's books: "I realize there's strong debate and disagreement here, but books are life-giving and life-changing and these writers made them."[111] Publishers' lawsuit[edit] The operation of the National Emergency Library is part of a lawsuit filed against the Internet Archive by four major book publishers in June 2020, challenging the copyright validity of the controlled digital lending program.[57] In response, the Internet Archive closed the National Emergency Library on June 16, 2020, rather than the planned June 30, 2020, due to the lawsuit.[112][113] The plaintiffs, supported by the Copyright Alliance,[114] claimed in their lawsuit that the Internet Archive's actions constituted a "willful mass copyright infringement". Additionally, Senator Thom Tillis (R-North Carolina), chairman of the intellectual property subcommittee on the Senate Judiciary Committee, said in a letter to the Internet Archive that he was "concerned that the Internet Archive thinks that it – not Congress – gets to determine the scope of copyright law".[115] In August 2020 the lawsuit trial was tentatively scheduled to begin in November 2021.[116] As part of its response to the publishers' lawsuit, in late 2020 the Archive launched a campaign called Empowering Libraries (hashtag #EmpoweringLibraries) that portrayed the lawsuit as a threat to all libraries.[117] In December 2020, Publishers Weekly included the lawsuit among its "Top 10 Library Stories of 2020".[118] Ceramic archivists collection[edit] Ceramic figures of Internet Archive employees The Great Room of the Internet Archive features a collection of more than 100 ceramic figures representing employees of the Internet Archive. This collection, inspired by the statues of the Xian warriors in China, was commissioned by Brewster Kahle, sculpted by Nuala Creed, and is ongoing.[119] Artists in residence[edit] The Internet Archive visual arts residency,[120] organized by Amir Saber Esfahani, is designed to connect emerging and mid-career artists with the Archive's millions of collections and to show what is possible when open access to information intersects with the arts. During this one-year residency, selected artists develop a body of work that responds to and utilizes the Archive's collections in their own practice.[121] 2019 Residency Artists: Caleb Duarte, Whitney Lynn, and Jeffrey Alan Scudder. 2018 Residency Artists: Mieke Marple, Chris Sollars, and Taravat Talepasand. 2017 Residency Artists: Laura Kim, Jeremiah Jenkins, and Jenny Odell See also[edit] Internet portal History portal Lists of Internet Archive's collections List of online image archives Public domain music Web archiving Similar projects[edit] archive.today Internet Memory Foundation LibriVox National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) National Digital Library Program (NDLP) Project Gutenberg UK Government Web Archive at The National Archives (United Kingdom) UK Web Archive WebCite Other[edit] Archive Team Digital dark age Digital preservation Heritrix Link rot Memory hole PetaBox Web crawler Notes[edit] ^ "Internet Archive: About the Archive". Wayback Machine. April 8, 2000. Archived from the original on April 8, 2000. Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 21, 2009. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ "Internet Archive: Universal Access to all Knowledge". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ "Internet Archive: Projects". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2013. ^ "Donation to the new Library of Alexandria in Egypt" Archived January 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine; Alexandria, Egypt; April 20, 2002. Bibliotheca Alexandrina Archived September 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Internet Archive. ^ "Internet Archive officially a library" Archived February 4, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, May 2, 2007. Internet Archive ^ "Brewster Kahle . In Scientific American". Internet Archive. November 4, 1997. Archived from the original on October 11, 1997. 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Internet Archive. ^ "Download & Streaming : Open Educational Resources : Internet Archive". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on July 2, 2014. Retrieved June 17, 2014. ^ "TV NEWS : Search Captions. Borrow Broadcasts : TV Archive : Internet Archive". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on April 20, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ "The Internet Archive Classic Software Preservation Project". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 19, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2007. ^ "Internet Archive Gets DMCA Exemption To Help Archive Vintage Software". Archived from the original on October 20, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2007. ^ collection:softwarelibrary_msdos Archived June 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine in the Internet Archive (December 29, 2014) ^ "Internet Archive's Terms of Use, Privacy Policy, and Copyright Policy". December 31, 2014. Archived from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved January 8, 2015. Access to the Archive's Collections is provided at no cost to you and is granted for scholarship and research purposes only. ^ "Table Top Scribe System". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 10, 2018. Retrieved October 23, 2018. ^ Kahle, Brewster; Vernon, Matt (December 1, 2005). "Good News and an Apology: GD on the Internet Archive". Live Music Archive Forum. Internet Archive. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Authors and date indicate the first posting in the forum thread. References[edit] ^ "archive.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ a b "Nonprofit Explorer - Internet Archive". ProPublica. Retrieved June 12, 2020. ^ Grotke, A. (December 2011). "Web Archiving at the Library of Congress" Archived December 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Computers In Libraries, v.31 n.10, pp. 15–19. Information Today. ^ Womack, David (Spring 2003). "Who Owns History?". Cabinet Magazine (10). Archived from the original on March 19, 2013. ^ Whitney Kimball. "The Internet Archive Fights Wiki Citation Wars With Books". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on November 5, 2019. Retrieved November 5, 2019. ^ "Brewster Kahle: Universal Access to All Knowledge – The Long Now". longnow.org. 45'47". Archived from the original on October 20, 2016. Retrieved October 18, 2016. ^ "Members". Archived from the original on June 13, 2010. Retrieved April 24, 2011. International Internet Preservation Consortium. Netpreserve.org ^ McCoy, Adrian (June 24, 2007). "The Internet gives birth to an 'official' online library". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved January 5, 2021. ^ "MTV Online: Main Page – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved December 16, 2016. ^ "Infoseek Guide – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved December 16, 2016. ^ Kahle, Brewster (August 7, 2012). "Over 1,000,000 Torrents of Downloadable Books, Music, and Movies" Archived August 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Internet Archive Blogs. ^ a b Ernesto (August 7, 2012). "Internet Archive Starts Seeding 1,398,875 Torrents". TorrentFreak. Archived from the original on August 8, 2012. ^ "Hot List for bt1.us.archive.org (Updated August 7 2012, 7:31 pm PDT)" Archived August 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. US Cluster. Internet Archive. ^ B, Sarah (November 6, 2013). "Part of Internet Archive building badly burned in early morning fire". Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved February 11, 2017. ^ Alexander, Kurtis (November 16, 2013). "Internet Archive's S.F. office damaged in fire". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. ^ "Fire Update: Lost Many Cameras, 20 Boxes. No One Hurt". Internet Archive Blogs. November 6, 2013. Archived from the original on November 7, 2013. ^ Shu, Catherine (November 6, 2013). "Internet Archive Seeking Donations To Rebuild Its Fire-Damaged Scanning Center". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. ^ a b Kahle, Brewster (November 29, 2016). "Help Us Keep the Archive Free, Accessible, and Reader Private". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on May 21, 2017. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Johnson, Tim (December 1, 2016). "Donald Trump scares Internet Archive into moving to Canada". McClatchy DC. Archived from the original on December 2, 2016. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Rothschild, Mike (December 2, 2016). "The Internet Archive Is Moving to Canada to Protect Itself from Trump". Attn. Archived from the original on December 3, 2016. Retrieved December 2, 2016. ^ Michalko, Jim (October 12, 2017). "Syncing Catalogs with thousands of Libraries in 120 Countries through OCLC". blog.archive.org. Internet Archive. Retrieved July 18, 2020. ^ Locker, Melissa (July 3, 2018). "The Internet Archive is helping these artists get inspired by digital history". Fast Company. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018. ^ "Jenny Odell - Neo-Surreal". The Photographers' Gallery. May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on September 27, 2019. Retrieved September 27, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive evacuated due to bomb threat". msn.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2019. ^ "Boston Public Library transfers sound archives collection to Internet Archive for digitization, preservation, and public access". Boston Public Library. October 11, 2017. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "Trent University donates 250,000 books to be digitized by Internet Archive as part of Bata Library transformation". Trent University. September 13, 2018. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ Seltzer, Rick (October 21, 2020). "A new home online for closed college libraries?". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ Matt Enis (May 2, 2019). "Internet Archive Expands Partnerships for Open Libraries Project". Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved May 3, 2019. ^ Green, Heather (February 28, 2002). "A Library as Big as the World". Business Week Online. Archived from the original on June 1, 2002. ^ Thelwall, Mike; Vaughan, Liwen (Spring 2004). "A fair history of the Web? Examining country balance in the Internet Archive" (PDF). Library & Information Science Research. 26 (2): 162–176. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2003.12.009. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2015. ^ a b Rossi, Alexis (October 25, 2013). "Fixing Broken Links on the Internet". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on November 7, 2014. Retrieved December 29, 2013. ^ "Web.archive.org directory". Archived from the original on January 3, 2012. Retrieved March 2, 2014. ^ "Internet Archive Forums: What is the oldest page on the Wayback Machine?". archive.org. Archived from the original on March 11, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ a b Goel, Vinay (October 23, 2016). "Defining Web pages, Web sites and Web captures". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 9, 2018. ^ "430 Billion Web Pages Saved. ... Help Us Do More! | Internet Archive Blogs". blog.archive.org. Archived from the original on July 7, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018. ^ Graham, Mark (September 17, 2020). "Cloudflare and the Wayback Machine, joining forces for a more reliable Web". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved September 17, 2020. ^ "archive-it.org". archive-it.org. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Truman, Gail (January 2016). Web Archiving Environmental Scan. Harvard Library Report. ^ "What is the Difference between the General Archive (sometimes called the Wayback Machine) and Archive-It?" Archived October 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Archive-It How to FAQ. Archive-It. – via Jira.com. ^ "About Archive-It". Archive-It. Archived from the original on February 21, 2014. Retrieved March 3, 2014. ^ Archives, in; Data; Education; Archive, Internet; September 22nd, Libraries |; Comment, 2020 Leave a. "The Internet Archive Will Digitize & Preserve Millions of Academic Articles with Its New Database, "Internet Archive Scholar"". Open Culture. Retrieved September 23, 2020. ^ Bryan, Newbold (March 9, 2021). "Search Scholarly Materials Preserved in the Internet Archive". ^ a b c Hoffelder, Nate (July 9, 2013). "Internet Archive Now Hosts 4.4 Million eBooks, Sees 15 Million eBooks Downloaded Each Month" Archived November 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. The Digital Reader. ^ "Bulk Access to OCR for 1 Million Books" Archived December 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Open Library Blog. November 24, 2008. ^ a b "Book search winding down". MSDN Live Search Blog. May 23, 2008. Archived from the original on August 20, 2008. ^ Books imported from Google have a metadata tag of scanner:google for searching purposes. The archive provides a link to Google for PDF copies, but also maintains a local PDF copy, which is viewable under the "All Files: HTTPS" link. As all the other books in the collection, they also provide OCR text and images in open formats, particularly DjVu, which Google Books doesn't offer. ^ a b Brewster Kahle, Aaron Swartz memorial at the Internet Archive Archived June 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, 2013-01-24, via The well-prepared mind Archived August 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, via S.I.Lex Archived August 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b "Internet Archive BookReader". archive.org. Archived from the original on June 21, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2019. ^ Kaplan, Jeff (December 10, 2010). "New BookReader!". blog.archive.org. Archived from the original on June 21, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive Search". Archived from the original on September 12, 2016. ^ "FAQ on Controlled Digital Lending (CDL)". National Writers Union. Retrieved February 15, 2019. ^ Gonsalves, Antone (December 20, 2006). "Internet Archive Claims Progress Against Google Library Initiative". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. ^ "The Open Library Makes Its Online Debut". The Wired Campus. Chronicle of Higher Education. July 19, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. ^ "Search Inside" Archived October 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine (feature). OpenLibrary.org. ^ Internet Archive (June 25, 2011). "In-Library eBook Lending Program Expands to 1,000 Libraries" Archived August 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Internet Archive Blogs. June 25, 2011. ^ Flood, Alison (January 22, 2019). "Internet Archive's ebook loans face UK copyright challenge". The Guardian. ^ a b Brandom, Russell (June 1, 2020). "Publishers sue Internet Archive over Open Library ebook lending". The Verge. Retrieved June 1, 2020. ^ For example, the Princeton Theological Seminary Library has described how it and other academic libraries are digitization partners with the Internet Archive: "Partnering with the Internet Archive". Princeton Theological Seminary Library. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Search: collection:(texts)". archive.org. Retrieved December 4, 2020. ^ "The MIT Press". archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. ^ Hanamura, Wendy (May 30, 2017). "MIT Press Classics Available Soon at Archive.org". blog.archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. For more than eighty years, MIT Press has been publishing acclaimed titles in science, technology, art and architecture. Now, thanks to a new partnership between the Internet Archive and MIT Press, readers will be able to borrow these classics online for the first time. ^ Green, Alex (December 1, 2019). "New Takes on Academic Publishing: Three university presses find new ways to keep up with a changing market". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved June 27, 2020. Since she became director [of the MIT Press] in 2015, there's little that Brand hasn't reenvisioned at the press. In 2017, the press partnered with the Internet Archive to make its deep backlist available for free at libraries, resurrecting books that had not seen the light of day in generations. ^ Freeland, Chris (May 21, 2018). "Internet Archive awarded grant from Arcadia Fund to digitize university press collections". blog.archive.org. Retrieved June 27, 2020. Internet Archive has received a $1 million dollar grant from Arcadia – a charitable fund of Lisbet Rausing and Peter Baldwin – to digitize titles from university press collections to make them available via controlled digital lending. ^ Albanese, Andrew (May 25, 2018). "Internet Archive Lands Grant to Digitize and Lend University Press Collections". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved June 27, 2020. ^ For example: "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00198115083", retrieved November 25, 2020; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00060921933", retrieved November 25, 2020; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00060927248", retrieved November 25, 2020; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00001740908", retrieved November 25, 2020; "hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0001.00027740005", retrieved November 25, 2020. ^ "External Web Sites – Finding E-books: A Guide – Library of Congress Bibliographies, Research Guides, and Finding Aids (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Retrieved November 25, 2020. The Internet Archive includes the full text of more than 2.5 million e-books, including e-books supplied by the Library of Congress. Books can be read online or downloaded and read in a variety of formats. E-books from the Internet Archive can also be found through Open Library, an Internet Archive initiative devoted to texts. And: "Devices and Formats – Finding E-books: A Guide – Library of Congress Bibliographies, Research Guides, and Finding Aids (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Retrieved November 25, 2020. Library of Congress publications are available for free download to the Kindle from the Internet Archive. ... The iPad can be used as an e-reader via apps such as iBooks, which support both ePub (.epub) and PDF (.pdf) formats. Both formats are available from the Internet Archive. ^ a b Pritchard, Will (August 18, 2017). "How The Great 78 Project is saving half a million songs from obscurity". The Vinyl Factory. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 2, 2017. ^ Tirpack, Alex (June 3, 2009). "Warren Zevon live shows hit the web, possible film in the works". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013. ^ "Image". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved October 12, 2020. ^ "NASA Images" (archive). Internet Archive. Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Boswell, Wendy (October 21, 2006). "Download free music at the Internet Archive". Lifehacker. Archived from the original on May 5, 2012. The Internet Archive has a ginormous collection of free, downloadable music in their NetLabels category ... ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Hagey, Keach (September 18, 2012). "Let's Go to the Videotape: Nonprofit Offers News Clips". The Wall Street Journal Online. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.(subscription required) ^ Kahle, Brewster (September 17, 2012). "Launch of TV News Search & Borrow with 350,000 Broadcasts". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on August 13, 2014. ^ Brownell, Brett; Benjy Hansen-Brandy (May 22, 2014). "Meet the People Behind the Wayback Machine, One of Our Favorite Things About the Internet". Mother Jones. Archived from the original on June 7, 2014. Retrieved June 7, 2014. ^ "Column: Lillian Michelson and her one-of-a-kind film library get a digital Hollywood ending". Los Angeles Times. January 28, 2021. ^ "Internet Archive founder turns to new information storage device – the book". The Guardian. August 1, 2011. Archived from the original on August 22, 2012. Brewster Kahle, the man behind a project to file every webpage, now wants to gather one copy of every published book ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (November 27, 2006). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies". Federal Register. 71 (227): 68472–68480. Archived from the original on November 1, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2007. Computer programs and video games distributed in formats that have become obsolete and that require the original media or hardware as a condition of access, when circumvention is accomplished for the purpose of preservation or archival reproduction of published digital works by a library or archive. A format shall be considered obsolete if the machine or system necessary to render perceptible a work stored in that format is no longer manufactured or is no longer reasonably available in the commercial marketplace. ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (October 28, 2009). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies" (PDF). Federal Register. 27 (206): 55137–55139. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 2, 2009. Retrieved December 17, 2009. ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office (July 27, 2010). "Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies". Federal Register. 75 (143): 43825–43839. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015. ^ Robertson, Adi (October 25, 2013). "The Internet Archive puts Atari games and obsolete software directly in your browser". The Verge. Archived from the original on October 27, 2013. ^ Ohlheiser, Abby (January 5, 2015). "You can now play nearly 2,400 MS-DOS video games in your browser". Washington Post. Archived from the original on January 7, 2015. Retrieved January 8, 2015. ^ Each New Boot a Miracle Archived January 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine by Jason Scott (December 23, 2014) ^ Graft, Kris (March 5, 2015). "Saving video game history begins right now". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on March 7, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2015. ^ Lu, Kathy (January 12, 2015). "Time suck alert: 'Pac-Man' among thousands of MS-DOS games available for free". The Kansas City Star. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2016. ^ O'Neil, Lauren (January 7, 2015). "90's kids rejoice as Internet Archive releases 2,300 MS-DOS games for free – Your Community". CBCNEWS. Archived from the original on October 17, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2016. ^ Campbell, Ian Carlos (November 19, 2020). "The Internet Archive is now preserving Flash games and animations". The Verge. Retrieved November 19, 2020. ^ Stutz, Michael (March 28, 2007). "Linux to help the Library of Congress save American history". Linux.com. The Linux foundation. Archived from the original on October 23, 2017. ^ Strozniak, Peter (December 18, 2015). "Death of a Credit Union: Internet Archive FCU Voluntarily Liquidates". Credit Union Times. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ "Difficult Times at our Credit Union". Internet Archive Blogs. November 24, 2015. Archived from the original on June 16, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019. ^ Leeds, Jeff; Mayshark, Jesse Fox (December 1, 2005). "Wrath of Deadheads stalls a Web crackdown". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 8, 2015. ^ Lesh, Phil (November 30, 2005). "An Announcement from Phil Lesh". Hotline (blog). PhilLesh.net. Archived from the original on July 15, 2007. ^ Broache, Anne (May 7, 2008). "FBI rescinds secret order for Internet Archive records". CNet. Archived from the original on May 15, 2008. ^ Nakashima, Ellen (May 8, 2008). "FBI Backs Off From Secret Order for Data After Lawsuit". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 6, 2008. ^ Crocker, Andrew (December 1, 2016). "Internet Archive Received National Security Letter with FBI Misinformation about Challenging Gag Order". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Archived from the original on December 13, 2016. ^ Kahle, Brewster (January 17, 2012). "12 Hours Dark: Internet Archive vs. Censorship". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on August 13, 2014. ^ "Open Content Alliance". opencontentalliance.org. Archived from the original on April 10, 2013. Retrieved April 13, 2013. ^ Frank, Allegra (August 8, 2016). "Nintendo takes down Nintendo Power collection from Internet Archive after noticing it". Polygon. Archived from the original on August 11, 2016. ^ a b "Indian ISP Ban on Wayback Machine Lifted? Confirmation Awaited". Guiding Tech. August 9, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2020. ^ Kelion, Leo (August 9, 2017). "Bollywood blocks the Internet Archive". BBC. Archived from the original on August 6, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2018. ^ "Turkey restores access to Google Drive after blocking cloud storage services". Turkey Blocks. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved October 10, 2016. ^ "Turkey Country Report | Freedom on the Net 2017". freedomhouse.org. November 14, 2017. Archived from the original on December 27, 2018. Retrieved December 26, 2018. ^ Lee, Timothy B. (March 28, 2020). "Internet Archive offers 1.4 million copyrighted books for free online". Ars Technica. Retrieved April 10, 2020. ^ a b Freeland, Chris (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive responds: Why we released the National Emergency Library". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Cohen, Noam (April 20, 2020). "The National Emergency Library and Its Discontents". Wired. Retrieved April 20, 2020. ^ Flood, Alison (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive accused of using Covid-19 as 'an excuse for piracy'". The Guardian. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Freeland, Chris (March 24, 2020). "Announcing a National Emergency Library to Provide Digitized Books to Students and the Public". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Hurst-Wahl, Jill (April 20, 2020). "Digitization 101: The National Emergency Library". Digitization 101. Retrieved May 26, 2020. ^ Flood, Alison (March 30, 2020). "Internet Archive accused of using Covid-19 as 'an excuse for piracy'". The Guardian. Retrieved March 30, 2020. ^ Dwyer, Colin (March 30, 2020). "Authors, Publishers Condemn The 'National Emergency Library' As 'Piracy'". NPR. Retrieved March 30, 2020. ^ Grady, Constance (April 2, 2020). "Why authors are so angry about the Internet Archive's Emergency Library". Vox. Retrieved April 2, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Controversy". Lotus. May 2, 2020. Retrieved May 25, 2020. ^ Lee, Timothy (June 11, 2020). "Internet Archive ends "emergency library" early to appease publishers". Ars Technica. Retrieved June 14, 2020. ^ Dwyer, Colin (June 3, 2020). "Publishers Sue Internet Archive For 'Mass Copyright Infringement'". NPR. Retrieved October 16, 2020. ^ "Copyright Alliance Statement on Book Publishers' Infringement Suit Against Internet Archive". Copyright Alliance. Retrieved January 17, 2021. ^ Harris, Elizabeth (June 11, 2020). "Internet Archive Will End Its Program for Free E-Books". NY Times. Retrieved June 15, 2020. ^ Albanese, Andrew (September 1, 2020). "Judge sets tentative schedule for Internet Archive copyright case". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved September 7, 2020. ^ Ojala, Marydee (January–February 2021). "Controlled digital lending: legal lending or piracy?". Online Searcher. Vol. 45 no. 1. ^ Albanese, Andrew (December 11, 2020). "The top 10 library stories of 2020". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved February 19, 2021. ^ Levy, Karyne (April 29, 2014). "These Are The Ceramic Action Figures For The Heroes Of The Internet". Business Insider. Insider Inc. Retrieved July 12, 2019. ^ "Internet Archive is a treasure trove of material for artists - SFChronicle.com". sfchronicle.com. August 11, 2017. Archived from the original on August 1, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. ^ "The Internet Archive's 2019 Artists in Residency Exhibition | Internet Archive Blogs". Archived from the original on July 31, 2019. Retrieved August 1, 2019. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Internet Archive Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Kahle, Brewster (November 1996). "Archiving the Internet". Scientific America. Kahle, Brewster (November 6, 2013). "Scanning Center Fire—Please Help Rebuild". Internet Archive Blogs. Lepore, Jill (January 26, 2015). "The Cobweb". The New Yorker. Ringmar, Erik (April 10, 2008). "Liberate and Disseminate". Times Higher Education Supplement. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Internet Archive. 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Marion Stokes The Internet Archive Software Collection Open Educational Resources People Brewster Kahle David Rumsey Rick Prelinger Jason Scott Software Heritrix v t e Ebooks Formats ePub FictionBook CBR/CBZ Kindle File Format Mobipocket PDF Plain text IBA Reading Devices Amazon Kindle Barnes & Noble Nook Bookeen Elonex ebook enTourage eDGe Hanlin eReader iPad iriver Story Kobo eReader Onyx Boox Plastic Logic Reader PocketBook eReader Rocket eBook SoftBook Smartphones Tablets Tolino Software Adobe Acrobat Adobe Digital Editions Aldiko Apple Books (iBooks) Aquafadas Blio Bluefire Reader Calibre FBReader Foliate Google Play Books Kindle app Kitabu Kobo Lector Lektz Lucifox Microsoft Reader MuPDF Okular OverDrive Media Console Snapplify STDU Viewer Sumatra PDF Editing ABBYY FineReader AbiWord Adobe InDesign Adobe RoboHelp Aquafadas Atlantis Word Processor Booktype Calibre Calligra Author Collabora Online eXeLearning Help & Manual HelpNDoc iBooks Author iStudio Publisher LaTeX LibreOffice 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en-wikipedia-org-502	----	POLDAT - Wikipedia POLDAT From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search POLDAT is an acronym for Process, Organization and Location (Business Architecture) and Data, Applications and Technology (Systems Architecture). They are the Domains of Change in DXC Technology's Catalyst Methodology. POLDAT is not a framework, but it is the core of Catalyst, which is a detailed "Business Change through Information Technology" methodology. In more recent times, POLDAT has been complemented with the "CC" prefix making it CCPOLDAT. The "CC" prefix is an acronym for Customer and Channel. The complete version being CCPOLDAT an acronym for Customer, Channel, Process, Organisation, Location, Data, Application and Technology. Catalyst is an extensive program, project and operations management methodology with a range of development paths including an Agile like approach. Some organisations have further enhanced CCPOLDAT to also include :Corporation, Management, Integration, Suppliers, Competitors, Government and Other 3rd parties. Enhanced Domains of Change (CMPOLTAIDCCSCGO): Corporate - the ultimate kernel of the enterprise. Management Process Organisation Location Technology Application Integration Data (ETL) Channel Customer Supplier Competitor Government Other 3rd parties POLDAT is an architectural unification approach to recognize the commonalities between the radical re-engineering, Enterprise Transformation Planning and IS Planning. It dates to Catalyst Release 3 in the early 1990s and was one of the earliest integrated Enterprise methodologies. It is also embedded in Casewise's Corporate Modeler, an early partner in providing automated support to Catalyst in the mid 1990s. This and some other factors has contributed to the POLDAT framework being slightly more prevalent in Europe. References[edit] Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=POLDAT&oldid=962383944" Categories: Enterprise architecture Reference models Methodology Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 13 June 2020, at 18:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5038	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NLG identifiers.The NLG identifier appears as Greece in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P3348. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 19,660 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)0–9 I Corps (United States) A Asger Aaboe Anathon Aall Daniel Aaron Vasile Aaron Edward S. Aarons Ivar Aasen Gustav Abb Jakob Abbadie Claudio Abbado Nicola Abbagnano Charles Greeley Abbot Charles Conrad Abbott Edith Abbott Edwin Abbott Abbott Evelyn Abbott Frank Frost Abbott John Stevens Cabot Abbott Thomas Abbt Ibrahim Abdel Meguid Abdul Hamid II ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Abdulmejid I Kōbō Abe Gilbert Abbott à Beckett Julius Friedrich Heinrich Abegg Richard Abegg Brian Abel-Smith Carl Abel Caspar Abel Félix-Marie Abel Heinrich Friedrich Otto Abel Niels Henrik Abel Rudolf Abel Wilhelm Abel Peter Abelard George O. 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Agrawal Georgius Agricola Johannes Agricola Rodolphus Agricola Agricultural University of Athens Camillo Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_NLG_identifiers&oldid=939139474" Categories: Pages with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Miscellaneous pages with NLG identifiers Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 10,001–20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Bosanski 한국어 Ilokano עברית 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Sardu Scots Suomi ไทย Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 4 February 2020, at 16:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4993	----	France - Wikipedia France From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Country in Western Europe "La France" redirects here. For other uses of "La France", see Lafrance. For other uses of "France", see France (disambiguation). "French Republic" redirects here. For previous republics, see French Republics. Not to be confused with Francia. Coordinates: 47°N 2°E / 47°N 2°E / 47; 2 French Republic République française (French)[1] Flag Emblem Motto: "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" Anthem: "La Marseillaise" Great Seal: Show globe Show map of Europe Show map of French overseas territories Location of France (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) Capital and largest city Paris 48°51′N 2°21′E / 48.850°N 2.350°E / 48.850; 2.350 Official language and national language French[I] Nationality (2018) 93.0% French citizens 7.0% foreign nationals[2] Religion (2019[3]) 51% Christianity 40% No religion 5% Islam 3% Other 1% Undeclared Demonym(s) French Government Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic • President Emmanuel Macron • Prime Minister Jean Castex • President of the Senate Gérard Larcher • President of the National Assembly Richard Ferrand Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house National Assembly Establishment • Reign of Clovis I as King of the Franks 500 • Treaty of Verdun[II] August 843 • Republic established 22 September 1792 • Founded the EEC[III] 1 January 1958 • Current constitution[IV] 4 October 1958 Area • Total 640,679 km2 (247,368 sq mi)​[4] (42nd) • Water (%) 0.86 (as of 2015)[5] • Metropolitan France (IGN) 551,695 km2 (213,011 sq mi)​[V] (50th) • Metropolitan France (Cadastre) 543,940.9 km2 (210,016.8 sq mi)​[VI]​[6] (50th) Population • May 2021 estimate 67,413,000[7] (20th) • Density 104.7109/km2 (106th) • Metropolitan France, estimate as of May 2021[update] 65,239,000[8] (23rd) • Density 116/km2 (300.4/sq mi) (89th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $2.954 trillion[9] (10th) • Per capita $45,454[9] (26th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $2.551 trillion[9] (7th) • Per capita $39,257[9] (20th) Gini (2018)  28.5[10] low HDI (2019)  0.901[11] very high · 26th Currency Euro (€) (EUR)​[VII] CFP franc (XPF)​[VIII] Time zone UTC+1 (Central European Time) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (Central European Summer Time[X]) Note: various other time zones are observed in overseas France.[IX] Although France is in Western European Time/UTC (Z) zone, since 25 February 1940, upon WW2 German occupation, Central European Time/UTC+01:00 was enforced as standard time,[1] with a +0:50:39 offset (and +1:50:39 during DST) from Paris LMT (UTC+0:09:21). Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD) Mains electricity 230 V–50 Hz Driving side right Calling code +33[XI] ISO 3166 code FR Internet TLD .fr[XII] Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km2 (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. The CIA reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi). Official logo of the French Republic France (French: [fʁɑ̃s] ), officially the French Republic (French: République française),[1] is a country primarily located in Western Europe, consisting of metropolitan France and several overseas regions and territories.[XIII] The metropolitan area of France extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea. The overseas territories include French Guiana in South America and several islands in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. France borders Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany to the northeast, Switzerland, Monaco and Italy to the east, Andorra and Spain to the south, as well as the Netherlands, Suriname and Brazil in the Americas. The country's eighteen integral regions (five of which are situated overseas) span a combined area of 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi) and a total population of 67.413 million (as of May 2021[update]).[12] France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Other major urban areas include Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Lille and Nice. France, including its overseas territories, has the most time zones of any country, with a total of twelve. During the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls. The area was annexed by Rome in 51 BC, developing a distinct Gallo-Roman culture that laid the foundation of the French language. The Germanic Franks arrived in 476 and formed the Kingdom of Francia, which became the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 partitioned the empire, with West Francia becoming the Kingdom of France in 987. In the High Middle Ages, France was a highly decentralized feudal kingdom in which the authority of the king was barely felt. King Philip Augustus achieved remarkable success in the strengthening of royal power and the expansion of his realm, doubling its size and defeating his rivals. By the end of his reign, France had emerged as the most powerful state in Europe. In the mid-14th century, French monarchs were embroiled in a series of dynastic conflicts with their English counterparts, collectively known as the Hundred Years' War, from which they ultimately emerged victorious. Disputes with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire soon followed during the Renaissance. Meanwhile, French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established, which by the 20th century would become the second largest in the world.[13] The second half of the 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots), which severely weakened the country. But France once again emerged as Europe's dominant cultural, political, and military power in the 17th century under Louis XIV following the Thirty Years' War.[14] Despite the wealth of the nation, an inadequate financial model and inequitable taxation system coupled with endless and costly wars meant that the kingdom was left in a precarious economic situation by the end of the 18th century. Especially costly were the Seven Years' War and American War of Independence. The French Revolution in 1789 saw the fall of the absolute monarchy that characterized the Ancien Régime and from its ashes, rose one of modern history's earliest republics, which drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The declaration expresses the nation's ideals to this day. Following the revolution, France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under Napoleon Bonaparte, subjugating much of continental Europe and establishing the First French Empire. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of European and world history. After the collapse of the empire and a relative decline, France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating in the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 in the midst of the Franco-Prussian War. France was one of the prominent participants of World War I, from which it emerged victorious, and was one of the Allied powers in World War II, but came under occupation by the Axis in 1940. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all other French colonies became independent in the 1960s, with most retaining close economic and military connections with France. France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science, and philosophy. It hosts the world's fifth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is the leading tourist destination, receiving over 89 million foreign visitors in 2018.[15] France is a developed country with the world's seventh-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the ninth-largest by PPP. In terms of aggregate household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world.[16] France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, and human development.[17][18] It remains a great power in global affairs,[19] being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state. France is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the Eurozone,[20] and a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and La Francophonie. Contents 1 Etymology and pronunciation 2 History 2.1 Prehistory (before the 6th century BC) 2.2 Antiquity (6th century BC–5th century AD) 2.3 Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century) 2.4 High and Late Middle Ages (10th–15th century) 2.5 Early modern period (15th century–1789) 2.6 Revolutionary France (1789–1799) 2.7 Napoleon and 19th century (1799–1914) 2.8 Contemporary period (1914–present) 3 Geography 3.1 Location and borders 3.2 Geology, topography and hydrography 3.3 Climate 3.4 Environment 3.5 Administrative divisions 3.5.1 Regions 3.5.2 Overseas territories and collectivities 4 Politics 4.1 Government 4.2 Law 4.3 Foreign relations 4.4 Military 4.5 Government finance 5 Economy 5.1 Agriculture 5.2 Tourism 5.2.1 Paris region 5.2.2 French Riviera 5.2.3 Châteaux 5.2.4 Other protected areas 5.3 Energy 5.4 Transport 5.5 Science and technology 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Major cities 6.3 Language 6.4 Religion 6.5 Health 6.6 Education 7 Culture 7.1 Art 7.2 Architecture 7.3 Literature 7.4 Philosophy 7.5 Music 7.6 Cinema 7.7 Fashion 7.8 Media 7.9 Society 7.10 Cuisine 7.11 Sports 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Topics 12 External links 12.1 Economy 12.2 Government 12.3 Culture Etymology and pronunciation Main article: Name of France Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or "realm of the Franks".[21] Modern France is still named today Francia in Italian and Spanish, while Frankreich in German, Frankrijk in Dutch and Frankrike in Swedish all mean "Land/realm of the Franks". The name of the Franks is related to the English word frank ("free"): the latter stems from the Old French franc ("free, noble, sincere"), ultimately from Medieval Latin francus ("free, exempt from service; freeman, Frank"), a generalization of the tribal name that emerged as a Late Latin borrowing of the reconstructed Frankish endonym *Frank.[22][23] It has been suggested that the meaning "free" was adopted because, after the conquest of Gaul, only Franks were free of taxation,[24] or more generally because they had the status of freemen in contrast to servants or slaves.[23] The etymology of *Frank is uncertain. It is traditionally derived from the Proto-Germanic word *frankōn, which translates as "javelin" or "lance" (the throwing axe of the Franks was known as the francisca),[25] although these weapons may have been named because of their use by the Franks, not the other way around.[23] In English, 'France' is pronounced /fræns/ FRANSS in American English and /frɑːns/ FRAHNSS or /fræns/ FRANSS in British English. The pronunciation with /ɑː/ is mostly confined to accents with the trap-bath split such as Received Pronunciation, though it can be also heard in some other dialects such as Cardiff English, in which /frɑːns/ is in free variation with /fræns/.[26][27] History Main article: History of France Prehistory (before the 6th century BC) Main article: Prehistory of France One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – approximately 17,000 BC. Lascaux is famous for its "exceptionally detailed depictions of humans and animals".[28] The oldest traces of human life in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago.[29] Over the ensuing millennia, humans were confronted by a harsh and variable climate, marked by several glacial periods. Early hominids led a nomadic hunter-gatherer life.[29] France has a large number of decorated caves from the upper Palaeolithic era, including one of the most famous and best preserved, Lascaux[29] (approximately 18,000 BC). At the end of the last glacial period (10,000 BC), the climate became milder;[29] from approximately 7,000 BC, this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary. After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially working gold, copper and bronze, as well as later iron.[30] France has numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period, including the exceptionally dense Carnac stones site (approximately 3,300 BC). Antiquity (6th century BC–5th century AD) Main articles: Gaul, Celts, and Roman Gaul Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar during the Battle of Alesia. The Gallic defeat in the Gallic Wars secured the Roman conquest of the country. In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks from Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille), on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This makes it France's oldest city.[31][32] At the same time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of Eastern and Northern France, gradually spreading through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[33] The concept of Gaul emerged during this period, corresponding to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. The borders of modern France roughly correspond to ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was then a prosperous country, of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman cultural and economic influences. The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best-preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire. Around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftain Brennus and his troops made their way to Italy through the Alps, defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia, and besieged and ransomed Rome.[34] The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened, and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome.[35] But the Romans and the Gauls would remain adversaries for the next centuries, and the Gauls would continue to be a threat in Italy.[36] Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), which over time evolved into the name Provence in French.[37] Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC.[38] According to Plutarch and the writings of scholar Brendan Woods, the Gallic Wars resulted in 800 conquered cities, 300 subdued tribes, one million men sold into slavery, and another three million dead in battle.[citation needed] Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces.[39] Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period, including Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), which is considered the capital of the Gauls.[39] These cities were built in traditional Roman style, with a forum, a theatre, a circus, an amphitheatre and thermal baths. The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman culture and Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved). The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism. From the 250s to the 280s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its fortified borders being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.[40] Nevertheless, the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul.[41] In 312, Emperor Constantin I converted to Christianity. Subsequently, Christians, who had been persecuted until then, increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire.[42] But, from the beginning of the 5th century, the Barbarian Invasions resumed.[43] Teutonic tribes invaded the region from present-day Germany, the Visigoths settling in the southwest, the Burgundians along the Rhine River Valley, and the Franks (from whom the French take their name) in the north.[44] Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century) Main articles: Francia, Merovingian dynasty, and Carolingian dynasty See also: List of French monarchs and France in the Middle Ages Frankish expansion from 481 to 870 At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the Kingdom of Syagrius. Simultaneously, Celtic Britons, fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, settled the western part of Armorica. As a result, the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany, Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region. The first leader to make himself king of all the Franks was Clovis I, who began his reign in 481, routing the last forces of the Roman governors of the province in 486. Clovis claimed that he would be baptized a Christian in the event of his victory against the Visigoths, which was said to have guaranteed the battle. Clovis regained the southwest from the Visigoths, was baptized in 508, and made himself master of what is now western Germany. Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" (French: La fille aînée de l'Église) by the papacy,[45] and French kings would be called "the Most Christian Kings of France" (Rex Christianissimus). With Clovis's conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right. The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages, except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty, but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis's: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims. The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace (head of household). One mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated an Islamic invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours (732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms. His son, Pepin the Short, seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe. Proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III and thus establishing in earnest the French Government's longtime historical association with the Catholic Church,[46] Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur. Charlemagne's son, Louis I (Emperor 814–840), kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death. In 843, under the Treaty of Verdun, the empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with East Francia going to Louis the German, Middle Francia to Lothair I, and West Francia to Charles the Bald. West Francia approximated the area occupied by, and was the precursor to, modern France.[47] During the 9th and 10th centuries, continually threatened by Viking invasions, France became a very decentralized state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was established feudalism in France. Over time, some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. For example, after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror added "King of England" to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France, creating recurring tensions. High and Late Middle Ages (10th–15th century) Main articles: Kingdom of France, Capetian dynasty, Valois dynasty, and Bourbon dynasty See also: List of French monarchs and France in the Middle Ages Joan of Arc led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), which paved the way for the final victory. Metropolitan France territorial evolution from 985 to 1947 The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of the Franks.[48] His descendants—the Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon—progressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France, which was fully declared in 1190 by Philip II of France (Philippe Auguste). Later kings would expand their directly possessed domaine royal to cover over half of modern continental France by the 15th century, including most of the north, centre and west of France. During this process, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centered on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners. The French nobility played a prominent role in most Crusades to restore Christian access to the Holy Land. French knights made up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly referred to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really came from France.[49] The French Crusaders also imported the French language into the Levant, making French the base of the lingua franca (litt. "Frankish language") of the Crusader states.[49] French knights also made up the majority in both the Hospital and the Temple orders. The latter, in particular, held numerous properties throughout France and by the 13th century were the principal bankers for the French crown, until Philip IV annihilated the order in 1307. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France. In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the crown lands of France.[50] From the 11th century, the House of Plantagenet, the rulers of the County of Anjou, succeeded in establishing its dominion over the surrounding provinces of Maine and Touraine, then progressively built an "empire" that spanned from England to the Pyrenees and covering half of modern France. Tensions between the kingdom of France and the Plantagenet empire would last a hundred years, until Philip II of France conquered, between 1202 and 1214 most of the continental possessions of the empire, leaving England and Aquitaine to the Plantagenets. Following the Battle of Bouvines, the Angevin court retreated to England, but persistent Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry would pave the way for another conflict, the Hundred Years' War. Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328.[51] Under the rules of the Salic law the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line.[51] Accordingly, the crown passed to Philip of Valois, a cousin of Charles, rather than through the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward of Plantagenet, who would soon become Edward III of England. During the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[51] Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[52] and England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War.[53] The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire, strong French counterattacks won back most English continental territories. Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death; half of the 17 million population of France died.[54][55] Early modern period (15th century–1789) Main articles: French Renaissance (c. 1400–c. 1650), Early modern France (1500–1789), French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) and Ancien Régime (c. 1400–1792) The Château de Chenonceau, nowadays part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was built in the early 16th century. The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development and the first standardisation of the French language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe's aristocracy. It also saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars, between France and the House of Habsburg. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire. The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.[56] The Wars of Religion were ended by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. Spanish troops, the terror of Western Europe,[57] assisted the Catholic side during the Wars of Religion in 1589–1594, and invaded northern France in 1597; after some skirmishing in the 1620s and 1630s, Spain and France returned to all-out war between 1635 and 1659. The war cost France 300,000 casualties.[58] Under Louis XIII, the energetic Cardinal Richelieu promoted the centralisation of the state and reinforced the royal power by disarming domestic power holders in the 1620s. He systematically destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private violence (dueling, carrying weapons and maintaining private armies). By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu established "the royal monopoly of force" as the doctrine.[59] During Louis XIV's minority and the regency of Queen Anne and Cardinal Mazarin, a period of trouble known as the Fronde occurred in France. This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal absolute power in France. Louis XIV, the "sun king" was the absolute monarch of France and made France the leading European power. The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century.[60] France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile. Under Louis XV, Louis XIV's great-grandson, France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). Its European territory kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770). An unpopular king, Louis XV's weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions – as well as the debauchery of his court– discredited the monarchy, which arguably paved the way for the French Revolution 15 years after his death.[61][62] Louis XVI, Louis XV's grandson, actively supported the Americans, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain (realised in the 1783 Treaty of Paris). The financial crisis aggravated by France's involvement in the American Revolutionary War was one of many contributing factors to the French Revolution. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the discovery of oxygen (1778) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers (1783), were achieved by French scientists. French explorers, such as Bougainville and Lapérouse, took part in the voyages of scientific exploration through maritime expeditions around the globe. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority, undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and helped pave the way for the French Revolution. Revolutionary France (1789–1799) Main articles: History of France § Revolutionary France (1789–1799), and French Revolution Ouverture des États généraux à Versailles, 5 mai 1789 by Auguste Couder The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789 was the most emblematic event of the French Revolution. Facing financial troubles, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General (gathering the three Estates of the realm) in May 1789 to propose solutions to his government. As it came to an impasse, the representatives of the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, signalling the outbreak of the French Revolution. Fearing that the king would suppress the newly created National Assembly, insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789, a date which would become France's National Day. In early August 1789, the National Constituent Assembly abolished the privileges of the nobility such as personal serfdom and exclusive hunting rights. Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (27 August 1789) France established fundamental rights for men. The Declaration affirms "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men, as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth. In November 1789, the Assembly decided to nationalise and sell all property of the Roman Catholic Church which had been the largest landowner in the country. In July 1790, a Civil Constitution of the Clergy reorganized the French Catholic Church, cancelling the authority of the Church to levy taxes, et cetera. This fueled much discontent in parts of France, which would contribute to the civil war breaking out some years later. While King Louis XVI still enjoyed popularity among the population, his disastrous flight to Varennes (June 1791) seemed to justify rumors he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. His credibility was so deeply undermined that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility. In August 1791, the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia in the Declaration of Pillnitz threatened revolutionary France to intervene by force of arms to restore the French absolute monarchy. In September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly forced King Louis XVI to accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus turning the French absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. In the newly established Legislative Assembly (October 1791), enmity developed and deepened between a group, later called the 'Girondins', who favored war with Austria and Prussia, and a group later called 'Montagnards' or 'Jacobins', who opposed such a war. A majority in the Assembly in 1792 however saw a war with Austria and Prussia as a chance to boost the popularity of the revolutionary government, and thought that France would win a war against those gathered monarchies. On 20 April 1792, therefore, they declared war on Austria.[XIV] Le Serment du Jeu de paume by Jacques-Louis David, 1791 On 10 August 1792, an angry crowd threatened the palace of King Louis XVI, who took refuge in the Legislative Assembly.[63][64] A Prussian Army invaded France later in August 1792. In early September, Parisians, infuriated by the Prussian Army capturing Verdun and counter-revolutionary uprisings in the west of France, murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners by raiding the Parisian prisons. The Assembly and the Paris City Council seemed unable to stop that bloodshed.[63][65] The National Convention, chosen in the first elections under male universal suffrage,[63] on 20 September 1792 succeeded the Legislative Assembly and on 21 September abolished the monarchy by proclaiming the French First Republic. Ex-King Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in January 1793. France had declared war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic in November 1792 and did the same on Spain in March 1793; in the spring of 1793, Austria and Prussia invaded France; in March, France created a "sister republic" in the "Republic of Mainz". Also in March 1793, the civil war of the Vendée against Paris started, evoked by both the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 and the nationwide army conscription early 1793; elsewhere in France rebellion was brewing too. A factionalist feud in the National Convention, smoldering ever since October 1791, came to a climax with the group of the 'Girondins' on 2 June 1793 being forced to resign and leave the convention. The counter-revolution, begun in March 1793 in the Vendée, by July had spread to Brittany, Normandy, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Toulon, and Lyon. Paris' Convention government between October and December 1793 with brutal measures managed to subdue most internal uprisings, at the cost of tens of thousands of lives. Some historians consider the civil war to have lasted until 1796 with a toll of possibly 450,000 lives.[66][67] By the end of 1793 the allies had been driven from France. France in February 1794 abolished slavery in its American colonies, but would reintroduce it later. Political disagreements and enmity in the National Convention between October 1793 and July 1794 reached unprecedented levels, leading to dozens of Convention members being sentenced to death and guillotined. Meanwhile, France's external wars in 1794 were going prosperous, for example in Belgium. In 1795, the government seemed to return to indifference towards the desires and needs of the lower classes concerning freedom of (Catholic) religion and fair distribution of food. Until 1799, politicians, apart from inventing a new parliamentary system (the 'Directory'), busied themselves with dissuading the people from Catholicism and from royalism. Napoleon and 19th century (1799–1914) Main articles: History of France § Napoleonic France (1799–1815); History of France § Long 19th century, 1815–1914; First French Empire; Second French Empire; and French colonial empire See also: France in the 19th century and France in the 20th century Napoleon, Emperor of the French, built a vast empire across Europe. His conquests spread the ideals of the French Revolution across much of the continent, such as popular sovereignty, equality before the law, republicanism and administrative reorganisation while his legal reforms had a major impact worldwide. Nationalism, especially in Germany, emerged in reaction against him.[68] Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799 becoming First Consul and later Emperor of the French Empire (1804–1814; 1815). As a continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic, changing sets of European Coalitions declared wars on Napoleon's Empire. His armies conquered most of continental Europe with swift victories such as the battles of Jena-Auerstadt or Austerlitz. Members of the Bonaparte family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms.[69] These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the metric system, the Napoleonic Code and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. In June 1812, Napoleon attacked Russia, reaching Moscow. Thereafter his army disintegrated through supply problems, disease, Russian attacks, and finally winter. After the catastrophic Russian campaign, and the ensuing uprising of European monarchies against his rule, Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy restored. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.[69] After his brief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the monarchy was re-established (1815–1830), with new constitutional limitations. The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830, which established the constitutional July Monarchy. In that year, French troops conquered Algeria, establishing the first colonial presence in Africa since Napoleon's abortive invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1848 general unrest led to the February Revolution and the end of the July Monarchy. The abolition of slavery and introduction of male universal suffrage, which were briefly enacted during the French Revolution, were re-enacted in 1848. In 1852, the president of the French Republic, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the Second Empire, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in Crimea, in Mexico and Italy which resulted in the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic. By 1875, the French conquest of Algeria was complete and approximately 825,000 Algerians were killed as a result.[70] Animated map of the growth and decline of the French colonial empire France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century, but in the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire extended greatly and became the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty almost reached 13 million square kilometers in the 1920s and 1930s, 8.6% of the world's land. Known as the Belle Époque, the turn of the century was a period characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In 1905, state secularism was officially established. Contemporary period (1914–present) Main article: History of France (1900 to present) French Poilus posing with their war-torn flag in 1917, during World War I France was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out. A small part of Northern France was occupied, but France and its allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers at a tremendous human and material cost. World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population.[71] Between 27 and 30% of soldiers conscripted from 1912 to 1915 were killed.[72] The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government (annual leave, eight-hour workdays, women in government). In 1940, France was invaded by Nazi Germany and Italy. Metropolitan France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north, an Italian occupation zone in the southeast and Vichy France, a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, in the south, while Free France, the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle, was set up in London.[73] From 1942 to 1944, about 160,000 French citizens, including around 75,000 Jews,[74][75][76] were deported to death camps and concentration camps in Germany and occupied Poland.[77] In September 1943, Corsica was the first French metropolitan territory to liberate itself from the Axis. On 6 June 1944, the Allies invaded Normandy and in August they invaded Provence. Over the following year the Allies and the French Resistance emerged victorious over the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored with the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF). This interim government, established by de Gaulle, aimed to continue to wage war against Germany and to purge collaborators from office. It also made several important reforms (suffrage extended to women, creation of a social security system). Charles de Gaulle took an active part in many major events of the 20th century: a hero of World War I, leader of the Free French during World War II, he then became President, where he facilitated decolonisation, maintained France as a major power and overcame the revolt of May 1968. The GPRF laid the groundwork for a new constitutional order that resulted in the Fourth Republic, which saw spectacular economic growth (les Trente Glorieuses). France was one of the founding members of NATO (1949). France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954 at the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Only months later, France faced another anti-colonialist conflict in Algeria. The systematic torture and repression, as well as the extrajudicial killings that were perpetrated to keep control of Algeria, then considered as an integral part of France and home to over one million European settlers,[78][79] wracked the country and nearly led to a coup and civil war.[80] In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which included a strengthened Presidency.[81] In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the Algerian War. The war was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. The Algerian independence came at a high price: namely, the large toll on the Algerian population. It resulted in half million to a million deaths and over 2 million internally displaced Algerians.[82][83][84] A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories. The May 68 protests, a massive social movement, would ultimately led to many social changes, such as the right to abortion, women empowerment as well as the decriminalisation of homosexuality.[85][86] In the context of the Cold War, De Gaulle pursued a policy of "national independence" towards the Western and Eastern blocs. To this end, he withdrew from NATO's military integrated command (while remaining in the NATO alliance itself), launched a nuclear development programme and made France the fourth nuclear power. He restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations. In the wake of the series of worldwide protests of 1968, the revolt of May 1968 had an enormous social impact. In France, it is considered to be the watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted towards a more liberal moral ideal (secularism, individualism, sexual revolution). Although the revolt was a political failure (as the Gaullist party emerged even stronger than before) it announced a split between the French people and de Gaulle who resigned shortly after. In the post-Gaullist era, France remained one of the most developed economies in the world, but faced several economic crises that resulted in high unemployment rates and increasing public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries France has been at the forefront of the development of a supranational European Union, notably by signing the Maastricht Treaty (which created the European Union) in 1992, establishing the Eurozone in 1999 and signing the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.[87] France has also gradually but fully reintegrated into NATO and has since participated in most NATO sponsored wars.[88] Republican marches were organised across France after the January 2015 attacks perpetrated by Islamist terrorists; they became the largest public rallies in French history. Since the 19th century France has received many immigrants. These have been mostly male foreign workers from European Catholic countries who generally returned home when not employed.[89] During the 1970s France faced economic crisis and allowed new immigrants (mostly from the Maghreb)[89] to permanently settle in France with their families and to acquire French citizenship. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of Muslims (especially in the larger cities) living in subsidised public housing and suffering from very high unemployment rates.[90] Simultaneously France renounced the assimilation of immigrants, where they were expected to adhere to French traditional values and cultural norms. They were encouraged to retain their distinctive cultures and traditions and required merely to integrate.[91] Since the 1995 Paris Métro and RER bombings, France has been sporadically targeted by Islamist organisations, notably the Charlie Hebdo attack in January 2015 which provoked the largest public rallies in French history, gathering 4.4 million people,[92][93] the November 2015 Paris attacks which resulted in 130 deaths, the deadliest attack on French soil since World War II[94][95] and the deadliest in the European Union since the Madrid train bombings in 2004,[96] as well as the 2016 Nice truck attack, which caused 87 deaths during Bastille Day celebrations. Opération Chammal, France's military efforts to contain ISIS, killed over 1,000 ISIS troops between 2014 and 2015.[97][98] Geography Main article: Geography of France Location and borders A relief map of Metropolitan France, showing cities with over 100,000 inhabitants Mont Blanc, the highest summit in Western Europe, marks the border with Italy. The vast majority of France's territory and population is situated in Western Europe and is called Metropolitan France, to distinguish it from the country's various overseas polities. It is bordered by the North Sea in the north, the English Channel in the northwest, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and the Mediterranean sea in the southeast. Its land borders consist of Belgium and Luxembourg in the northeast, Germany and Switzerland in the east, Italy and Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra and Spain in the south and southwest. With the exception of the northeast, most of France's land borders are roughly delineated by natural boundaries and geographic features: to the south and southeast, the Pyrenees and the Alps and the Jura, respectively, and to the east, the Rhine river. Due to its shape, France is often referred to as l'Hexagone ("The Hexagon"). Metropolitan France includes various coastal islands, of which the largest is Corsica. Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes 41° and 51° N, and longitudes 6° W and 10° E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern temperate zone. Its continental part covers about 1000 km from north to south and from east to west. France has several overseas regions across the world, which are organized as follows: In South America: French Guiana. In the Atlantic Ocean: Saint Pierre and Miquelon and, in the Antilles: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy. In the Pacific Ocean: French Polynesia, the special collectivity of New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and Clipperton Island. In the Indian Ocean: Réunion island, Mayotte, Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, St. Paul and Amsterdam islands, and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean In the Antarctic: Adélie Land. France has land borders with Brazil and Suriname via French Guiana and with the Kingdom of the Netherlands through the French portion of Saint Martin. Metropolitan France covers 551,500 square kilometres (212,935 sq mi),[99] the largest among European Union members.[20] France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adélie Land), is 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the southeast, the Massif Central in the south central and Pyrenees in the southwest. Due to its numerous overseas departments and territories scattered across the planet, France possesses the second-largest Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 mi2), just behind the EEZ of the United States, which covers 11,351,000 km2 (4,383,000 mi2), but ahead of the EEZ of Australia, which covers 8,148,250 km2 (4,111,312 mi2). Its EEZ covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world. Geology, topography and hydrography Geological formations near Roussillon, Vaucluse Metropolitan France has a wide variety of topographical sets and natural landscapes. Large parts of the current territory of France were raised during several tectonic episodes like the Hercynian uplift in the Paleozoic Era, during which the Armorican Massif, the Massif Central, the Morvan, the Vosges and Ardennes ranges and the island of Corsica were formed. These massifs delineate several sedimentary basins such as the Aquitaine basin in the southwest and the Paris basin in the north, the latter including several areas of particularly fertile ground such as the silt beds of Beauce and Brie. Various routes of natural passage, such as the Rhône Valley, allow easy communications. The Alpine, Pyrenean and Jura mountains are much younger and have less eroded forms. At 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft)[100] above sea level, Mont Blanc, located in the Alps on the French and Italian border, is the highest point in Western Europe. Although 60% of municipalities are classified as having seismic risks, these risks remain moderate. Reed bed on the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe The coastlines offer contrasting landscapes: mountain ranges along the French Riviera, coastal cliffs such as the Côte d'Albâtre, and wide sandy plains in the Languedoc. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. France has an extensive river system consisting of the four major rivers Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, the Rhône and their tributaries, whose combined catchment includes over 62% of the metropolitan territory. The Rhône divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue. The Garonne meets the Dordogne just after Bordeaux, forming the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe which after approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) empties into the Atlantic Ocean.[101] Other water courses drain towards the Meuse and Rhine along the north-eastern borders. France has 11 million square kilometres (4.2×10^6 sq mi) of marine waters within three oceans under its jurisdiction, of which 97% are overseas. Climate Köppen climate classification map of France The French metropolitan territory is relatively large, so the climate is not uniform, giving rise to the following climate nuances: • The hot-summer mediterranean climate (Csa) is found along the Gulf of Lion. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild and wet. Cities affected by this climate: Arles, Avignon, Fréjus, Hyères, Marseille, Menton, Montpellier, Nice, Perpignan, Toulon. • The warm-summer mediterranean climate (Csb) is found in the northern part of Brittany. Summers are warm and dry, while winters are cool and wet. Cities affected by this climate: Belle Île, Saint-Brieuc. • The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) is found in the Garonne and Rhône's inland plains. Summers are hot and wet, while winters are cool and damp. Cities affected by this climate: Albi, Carcassonne, Lyon, Orange, Toulouse, Valence. • The oceanic climate (Cfb) is found around the coasts of the Bay of Biscay, and a little bit inland. Summers are pleasantly warm and wet, while winters are cool and damp. Cities affected by this climate: Amiens, Biarritz, Bordeaux, Brest, Cherbourg-en-Cotentin, Dunkirk, Lille, Nantes, Orléans, Paris, Reims, Tours. • The degraded oceanic climate (degraded-Cfb) is found in the interior plains and in the intra-alpine valleys, far from the ocean (or sea). Summers are hot and wet, while winters are cold and gloomy. Cities affected by this climate: Annecy, Besançon, Bourges, Chambéry, Clermont-Ferrand, Colmar, Dijon, Grenoble, Langres, Metz, Mulhouse, Nancy, Strasbourg. • The subalpine oceanic climate (Cfc) is found at the foot of all the mountainous regions of France. Summers are short, cool and wet, while winters are moderately cold and damp. No major cities are affected by this climate. • The warm-summer mediterranean continental climate (Dsb) is found in all the mountainous regions of Southern France between 700 and 1,400 metres a.s.l. Summers are pleasantly warm and dry, while winters are very cold and snowy. City affected by this climate: Barcelonnette. • The cool-summer mediterranean continental climate (Dsc) is found in all the mountainous regions of Southern France between 1,400 and 2,100 metres a.s.l. Summers are cool, short and dry, while winters are very cold and snowy. Place affected by this climate: Isola 2000. • The warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb) is found in all the mountainous regions of the Northern half of France between 500 and 1,000 metres a.s.l. Summers are pleasantly warm and wet, while winters are very cold and snowy. Cities affected by this climate: Chamonix, Mouthe. In January 1985, in Mouthe, the temperature has dropped under −41 °C. • The subalpine climate (Dfc) is found in all the mountainous regions of the northern half of France between 1,000 and 2,000 metres a.s.l. Summers are cool, short and wet, while winters are very cold and snowy. Places affected by this climate: Cauterets Courchevel, Alpe d'Huez, Les 2 Alpes, Peyragudes, Val-Thorens. • The alpine tundra climate (ET) is found in all the mountainous regions of France, generally above 2,000 or 2,500 metres a.s.l. Summers are chilly and wet, while winters are extremely cold, long and snowy. Mountains affected by this climate: Aiguilles-Rouges, Aravis, the top of Crêt de la neige (rare, altitude 1,718 m) and the top of Grand-Ballon (rare, altitude 1,423 m). • The ice cap climate (EF) is found in all the mountainous regions of France that have a glacier. Summers are cold and wet, while winters are extremely cold, long and snowy. Mountains affected by this climate: Aiguille du midi, Barre des Écrins, Belledonne, Grand-Casse, Mont Blanc (4,810 m), Pic du Midi de Bigorre. • In the overseas regions, there are three broad types of climate: A tropical climate (Am) in most overseas regions including eastern French Guiana: high constant temperature throughout the year with a dry and a wet season. An equatorial climate (Af) in western French Guiana: high constant temperature with even precipitation throughout the year. A subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc), characterised by mild, wet summers and cool, but generally not cold, damp winters. Cities or places affected by this climate: Port-aux-Français, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon. An ice cap climate (EF): extremely cold year-round in Adélie Land. Climate change in France includes above average heating.[102] Environment See also: List of national parks of France and Regional natural parks of France Marine (blue), regional (green) and national (red) parks in France (2019) France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.[103] Although it is one of the most industrialised countries in the world, France is ranked only 19th by carbon dioxide emissions, behind less populous nations such as Canada or Australia. This is due to the country's heavy investment in nuclear power following the 1973 oil crisis,[104] which now accounts for 75 percent of its electricity production[105] and results in less pollution.[106][107] According to the 2018 Environmental Performance Index conducted by Yale and Columbia, France was the second-most environmentally-conscious country in the world (after Switzerland), compared to tenth place in 2016 and 27th in 2014.[108][109] The forest of Rambouillet in Yvelines illustrates France's flora diversity. Like all European Union state members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by the year 2020,[110] compared to the United States plan to reduce emissions by 4% of 1990 levels.[111] As of 2009[update], French carbon dioxide emissions per capita were lower than that of China's.[112] The country was set to impose a carbon tax in 2009 at 17 euros per tonne of carbon emitted,[113] which would have raised 4 billion euros of revenue annually.[114] However, the plan was abandoned due to fears of burdening French businesses.[115] Calanques National Park in Bouches-du-Rhône is one of the best known protected areas of France. Forests account for 31 percent of France's land area—the fourth-highest proportion in Europe—representing an increase of 7 percent since 1990.[116][117][118] French forests are some of the most diverse in Europe, comprising more than 140 species of trees.[119] France had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.52/10, ranking it 123rd globally out of 172 countries.[120] There are nine national parks[121] and 46 natural parks in France,[122] with the government planning to convert 20% of its Exclusive economic zone into a Marine protected area by 2020.[123] A regional nature park[124] (French: parc naturel régional or PNR) is a public establishment in France between local authorities and the national government covering an inhabited rural area of outstanding beauty, to protect the scenery and heritage as well as setting up sustainable economic development in the area.[125] A PNR sets goals and guidelines for managed human habitation, sustainable economic development and protection of the natural environment based on each park's unique landscape and heritage. The parks foster ecological research programs and public education in the natural sciences.[126] As of 2019[update] there are 54 PNRs in France.[127] Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of France The French Republic is divided into 18 regions (located in Europe and overseas), five overseas collectivities, one overseas territory, one special collectivity – New Caledonia and one uninhabited island directly under the authority of the Minister of Overseas France – Clipperton. Regions Hauts-de- France Normandy Île-de- France Grand Est Bourgogne- Franche- Comté Centre- Val de Loire Pays de la Loire Brittany Nouvelle- Aquitaine Auvergne- Rhône-Alpes Occitanie Provence- Alpes- Côte d'Azur Corsica French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique Mayotte Réunion Belgium Luxembourg Germany Switzerland Italy United Kingdom Andorra Brazil Suriname Spain Channel Bay of Biscay Ligurian Sea Mediterranean Sea Since 2016 France is mainly divided into 18 administrative regions: 13 regions in metropolitan France (including the territorial collectivity of Corsica),[128] and five located overseas.[99] The regions are further subdivided into 101 departments,[129] which are numbered mainly alphabetically. This number is used in postal codes and was formerly used on vehicle number plates. Among the 101 departments of France, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are also simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs), enjoy exactly the same status as metropolitan departments and are an integral part of the European Union. The 101 departments are subdivided into 335 arrondissements, which are, in turn, subdivided into 2,054 cantons.[130] These cantons are then divided into 36,658 communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.[130] Three communes—Paris, Lyon and Marseille—are subdivided into 45 municipal arrondissements. The regions, departments and communes are all known as territorial collectivities, meaning they possess local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely administrative divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were territorial collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the Vichy regime and definitely abolished by the Fourth Republic in 1946. Overseas territories and collectivities In addition to the 18 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five overseas collectivities (French Polynesia, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis and Futuna), one sui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), one overseas territory (French Southern and Antarctic Lands), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (Clipperton Island). Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (with the exception of St. Bartelemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and New Caledonia continue to use the CFP franc[131] whose value is strictly linked to that of the euro. In contrast, the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.[132] The lands making up the French Republic, shown at the same geographic scale Name Constitutional status Capital  Clipperton Island State private property under the direct authority of the French government Uninhabited  French Polynesia Designated as an overseas land (pays d'outre-mer or POM), the status is the same as an overseas collectivity. Papeete  French Southern and Antarctic Lands Overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer or TOM) Port-aux-Français  New Caledonia Sui generis collectivity Nouméa  Saint Barthélemy Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) Gustavia  Saint Martin Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) Marigot  Saint Pierre and Miquelon Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a collectivité territoriale. Saint-Pierre  Wallis and Futuna Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a territoire. Mata-Utu Politics Main article: Politics of France Government Emmanuel Macron President Jean Castex Prime minister The French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic with strong democratic traditions.[133] The Constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958.[134] It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to Parliament. The executive branch itself has two leaders. The president of the Republic, currently Emmanuel Macron, is the head of state, elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year term (formerly 7 years).[135] The prime minister, currently Jean Castex, is the head of government, appointed by the president of the Republic to lead the Government of France. The National Assembly is the lower house of the French Parliament. The French Parliament is a bicameral legislature comprising a National Assembly (Assemblée nationale) and a Senate.[136] The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms.[137] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the government; thus the majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms); one half of the seats are submitted to election every 3 years.[138] The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.[139] The Government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. Until World War II, Radicals were a strong political force in France, embodied by the Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party which was the most important party of the Third Republic. Since World War II, they were marginalized while French politics became characterized by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred on the French Section of the Workers' International and its successor the Socialist Party (since 1969); and the other right-wing, centred on the Gaullist Party, whose name changed over time to the Rally of the French People (1947), the Union of Democrats for the Republic (1958), the Rally for the Republic (1976), the Union for a Popular Movement (2007) and The Republicans (since 2015). In the 2017 presidential and legislative elections, radical centrist party En Marche! became the dominant force, overtaking both Socialists and Republicans. As of 2017, voter turnout was 75 percent during recent elections, higher than the OECD average of 68 percent.[140] Law Main article: Law of France France uses a civil legal system, wherein law arises primarily from written statutes;[99] judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law in a common law system). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code (which was, in turn, largely based on the royal law codified under Louis XIV). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, wrote about the management of prisons: Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality. That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy. The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ex post facto laws are prohibited).[141] While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the Court of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by the Council of State. To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the Journal officiel de la République française. France does not recognise religious law as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions; it has long abolished blasphemy laws and sodomy laws (the latter in 1791). However, "offences against public decency" (contraires aux bonnes mœurs) or disturbing public order (trouble à l'ordre public) have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution. Since 1999, civil unions for homosexual couples are permitted, and since 2013, same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption are legal.[142] Laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are as old as 1881. Some consider hate speech laws in France to be too broad or severe, undermining freedom of speech.[143] France has laws against racism and antisemitism,[144] while the 1990 Gayssot Act prohibits Holocaust denial. Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is the basis for laïcité (state secularism): the state does not formally recognize any religion, except in Alsace-Moselle. Nonetheless, it does recognize religious associations. The Parliament has listed many religious movements as dangerous cults since 1995, and has banned wearing conspicuous religious symbols in schools since 2004. In 2010, it banned the wearing of face-covering Islamic veils in public; human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch described the law as discriminatory towards Muslims.[145][146] However, it is supported by most of the population.[147] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of France 88 states and governments are part of La Francophonie,[148] which promotes values of democracy, multilingualism and cultural diversity.[149] France has been a key member of this global organization since its inception in 1970. France is a founding member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council with veto rights.[150] In 2015, France was described as being "the best networked state in the world", because it is a country that "is member of more multi-lateral organisations than any other country".[151] France is a member of the G8, World Trade Organization (WTO),[152] the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)[153] and the Indian Ocean Commission (COI).[154] It is an associate member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)[155] and a leading member of the International Francophone Organisation (OIF) of 84 fully or partly French-speaking countries.[156] As a significant hub for international relations, France hosts the second largest assembly of diplomatic missions in the world and the headquarters of international organisations including the OECD, UNESCO, Interpol, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, and la Francophonie.[157] Postwar French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a founding member. Since the 1960s, France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU.[158] In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the European unification process,[159] seeking to build its own standing in continental Europe. However, since 1904, France has maintained an "Entente cordiale" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially militarily. The European Parliament in Strasbourg, near the border with (Germany). France is a founding member of all EU institutions. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), but under President de Gaulle, it excluded itself from the joint military command to protest the Special Relationship between the United States and Britain and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies. However, as a result of Nicolas Sarkozy's pro-American politics (much criticised in France by the leftists and by a part of the right), France re-joined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.[160][161][162] In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other nations for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia.[163] France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[164][165] straining bilateral relations with the United States[166][167] and the United Kingdom. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies (Françafrique)[168] and has supplied economic aid and troops for peacekeeping missions in Ivory Coast and Chad.[169] Recently, after the unilateral declaration of independence of Northern Mali by the Tuareg MNLA and the subsequent regional Northern Mali conflict with several Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and MOJWA, France and other African states intervened to help the Malian Army to retake control. In 2017, France was the fourth-largest donor (in absolute terms) of development aid in the world, behind the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.[170] This represents 0.43% of its GNP, the 12th highest among the OECD.[171] The organisation managing the French help is the French Development Agency, which finances primarily humanitarian projects in sub-Saharan Africa.[172] The main goals of this support are "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy".[172] Military Main article: French Armed Forces Examples of France's military. Clockwise from top left: nuclear aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle; a Dassault Rafale fighter aircraft; French Chasseurs Alpins patrolling the valleys of Kapisa province in Afghanistan; a Leclerc tank The French Armed Forces (Forces armées françaises) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the President of the Republic as supreme commander. They consist of the French Army (Armée de Terre), French Navy (Marine Nationale, formerly called Armée de Mer), the French Air and Space Force (Armée de l'Air et de l’Espace), and the Military Police called National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale), which also fulfils civil police duties in the rural areas of France. Together they are among the largest armed forces in the world and the largest in the EU. According to a 2018 study by Crédit Suisse, the French Armed Forces are ranked as the world's sixth-most powerful military, and the most powerful in Europe, only behind Russia.[173] While the Gendarmerie is an integral part of the French armed forces (gendarmes are career soldiers), and therefore under the purview of the Ministry of the Armed Forces, it is operationally attached to the Ministry of the Interior as far as its civil police duties are concerned. When acting as general purpose police force, the Gendarmerie encompasses the counter terrorist units of the Parachute Intervention Squadron of the National Gendarmerie (Escadron Parachutiste d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale), the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale), the Search Sections of the National Gendarmerie (Sections de Recherche de la Gendarmerie Nationale), responsible for criminal enquiries, and the Mobile Brigades of the National Gendarmerie (Brigades mobiles de la Gendarmerie Nationale, or in short Gendarmerie mobile) which have the task to maintain public order. The following special units are also part of the Gendarmerie: the Republican Guard (Garde républicaine) which protects public buildings hosting major French institutions, the Maritime Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie maritime) serving as Coast Guard, the Provost Service (Prévôté), acting as the Military Police branch of the Gendarmerie. Bastille Day in Paris National Gendarmerie Combined Arms School National Active Non-Commissioned Officers School As far as the French intelligence units are concerned, the Directorate-General for External Security (Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure) is considered to be a component of the Armed Forces under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. The other, the Central Directorate for Interior Intelligence (Direction centrale du renseignement intérieur) is a division of the National Police Force (Direction générale de la Police Nationale), and therefore reports directly to the Ministry of the Interior. There has been no national conscription since 1997.[174] France has a special military corps, the French Foreign Legion, founded in 1830, which consists of foreign nationals from over 140 countries who are willing to serve in the French Armed Forces and become French citizens after the end of their service period. The only other countries having similar units are Spain (the Spanish Foreign Legion, called Tercio, was founded in 1920) and Luxembourg (foreigners can serve in the National Army provided they speak Luxembourgish). France is a permanent member of the Security Council of the UN, and a recognised nuclear state since 1960. France has signed and ratified the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)[175] and acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. France's annual military expenditure in 2018 was US$63.8 billion, or 2.3% of its GDP, making it the fifth biggest military spender in the world after the United States, China, Saudi Arabia, and India.[176] French nuclear deterrence, (formerly known as "Force de Frappe"), relies on complete independence. The current French nuclear force consists of four Triomphant class submarines equipped with submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60 ASMP medium-range air-to-ground missiles with nuclear warheads,[177] of which around 50 are deployed by the Air and Space Force using the Mirage 2000N long-range nuclear strike aircraft, while around 10 are deployed by the French Navy's Super Étendard Modernisé (SEM) attack aircraft, which operate from the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle. The new Rafale F3 aircraft will gradually replace all Mirage 2000N and SEM in the nuclear strike role with the improved ASMP-A missile with a nuclear warhead. France has major military industries with one of the largest aerospace industries in the world.[178][179] Its industries have produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank among others. Despite withdrawing from the Eurofighter project, France is actively investing in European joint projects such as the Eurocopter Tiger, multipurpose frigates, the UCAV demonstrator nEUROn and the Airbus A400M. France is a major arms seller,[180][181] with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices. France has consistently developed its cybersecurity capabilities, which are regularly ranked as some of the most robust of any nation of the world.[182][183] The Bastille Day military parade held in Paris each 14 July for France's national day, called Bastille Day in English-speaking countries (referred to in France as Fête nationale), is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe. Other smaller parades are organised across the country. Government finance See also: Taxation in France The Government of France has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. As of 2016[update], French government debt levels reached 2.2 trillion euros, the equivalent of 96.4% of French GDP.[184] In late 2012, credit rating agencies warned that growing French Government debt levels risked France's AAA credit rating, raising the possibility of a future downgrade and subsequent higher borrowing costs for the French authorities.[185] However, in July 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the French government issued 10-years bonds which had negative interest rates, for the first time in its history.[186] France also possesses in 2020 the fourth-largest gold reserves in the world.[187] Economy Main article: Economy of France La Défense (as seen from the Eiffel Tower) was in 2017 ranked by Ernst & Young as the leading Central business district in continental Europe, and the fourth in the world.[188] A member of the Group of Seven (formerly Group of Eight) leading industrialized countries, as of 2020[update], it is ranked as the world's tenth largest and the EU's second largest economy by purchasing power parity.[189] France joined 11 other EU members to launch the euro in 1999, with euro coins and banknotes completely replacing the French franc (₣) in 2002.[190] France has a diversified economy,[191] that is dominated by the service sector (which represented in 2017 78.8% of its GDP), whilst the industrial sector accounted for 19.5% of its GDP and the primary sector accounted for the remaining 1.7%.[192] The fifth largest trading nation in the world (and second in Europe after Germany). It is the third largest manufacturing country in Europe behind Germany and Italy. France is also the most visited destination in the world,[193][194] as well the European Union's leading agricultural power.[195] France was in 2019 the largest Foreign Direct Investment recipient in Europe,[196] Europe's second largest spender in Research and development,[197] ranked among the 10 most innovative countries in the world by the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index,[198] as well as the 15th most competitive nation globally, according to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report (up 2 notches compared to 2018).[199] According to the IMF, in 2020, France was the world's 20th country by GDP per capita with $39,257 per inhabitant. In 2019, France was listed on the United Nations's Human Development Index with a value of 0.901 (indicating very high human development) and 23rd on the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2019.[200][201] Composition of the French economy (GDP) in 2016 by expenditure type In 2018, France was the 5th largest trading nation in the world, as well as the second-largest trading nation in Europe (after Germany).[202] France is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue), and of the European Single Market (lighter blue). Financial services, banking and the insurance sector are an important part of the economy. Three largest financial institutions cooperatively owned by their customers are located in France.[203] The Paris stock exchange (French: La Bourse de Paris) is an old institution, created by Louis XV in 1724.[204] In 2000, the stock exchanges of Paris, Amsterdam and Brussels merged into Euronext.[205] In 2007, Euronext merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange.[205] Euronext Paris, the French branch of the NYSE Euronext group is Europe's 2nd largest stock exchange market, behind the London Stock Exchange. French companies have maintained key positions in the insurance and banking industries: AXA was in 2019 the world's third largest insurance company by total non banking assets.[206] The leading French banks are BNP Paribas and the Crédit Agricole, both ranking among the top 10 largest banks by assets according to a 2020 S&P Global Market Intelligence report.[207] According to the same source, Société Générale and Groupe BPCE were in 2020 the world's 17th and 19th largest banks, respectively.[207] France is a member of the Eurozone (around 330 million consumers) which is part of the European Single Market (more than 500 million consumers). Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. France introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002.[208][209] Agriculture Champagne, widely regarded as a luxury good, originates from the Champagne region in Northeast France. France has historically been a large producer of agricultural products.[210] Extensive tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe[211] (representing 20% of the EU's agricultural production)[212] and the world's third biggest exporter of agricultural products.[213] Wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, and pork, as well as internationally recognized processed foods are the primary French agricultural exports. Rosé wines are primarily consumed within the country, but Champagne and Bordeaux wines are major exports, being known worldwide. EU agriculture subsidies to France have decreased in recent years but still amounted to $8 billion in 2007.[214] That same year, France sold 33.4 billion euros of transformed agricultural products.[215] France produces rum via sugar cane-based distilleries almost all of which are located in overseas territories such as Martinique, Guadeloupe and La Réunion. Agriculture is an important sector of France's economy: 3.8% of the active population is employed in agriculture, whereas the total agri-food industry made up 4.2% of French GDP in 2005.[212] Tourism Main article: Tourism in France The Eiffel Tower is the world's most visited paid monument, an icon of both Paris and France. The Château de Marqueyssac, featuring a French formal garden, is one of the Remarkable Gardens of France. With 89 million international tourist arrivals in 2018,[216] France is ranked as the first tourist destination in the world, ahead of Spain (83 million) and the United States (80 million). It is third in income from tourism due to shorter duration of visits.[217] The most popular tourist sites include (annual visitors): Eiffel Tower (6.2 million), Château de Versailles (2.8 million), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (2 million), Pont du Gard (1.5 million), Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Mont Saint-Michel (1 million), Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de Dôme (500,000), Musée Picasso (441,000), and Carcassonne (362,000).[218] Paris region France, especially Paris, has some of the world's largest and most renowned museums, including the Louvre, which is the most visited art museum in the world (5.7 million), the Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million), mostly devoted to Impressionism, the Musée de l'Orangerie (1.02 million), which is home to eight large Water Lily murals by Claude Monet, as well as the Centre Georges Pompidou (1.2 million), dedicated to contemporary art. Disneyland Paris is Europe's most popular theme park, with 15 million combined visitors to the resort's Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park in 2009.[219] French Riviera With more than 10 millions tourists a year, the French Riviera (French: Côte d'Azur), in Southeast France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the Paris region.[220] It benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year, 115 kilometres (71 mi) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants.[221]:31 Each year the Côte d'Azur hosts 50% of the world's superyacht fleet.[221]:66 Châteaux With 6 millions tourists a year, the castles of the Loire Valley (French: châteaux) and the Loire Valley itself are the third leading tourist destination in France;[222][223] this World Heritage site is noteworthy for its architectural heritage, in its historic towns but in particular its castles, such as the Châteaux d'Amboise, de Chambord, d'Ussé, de Villandry, Chenonceau and Montsoreau. The Château de Chantilly, Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, all three located near Paris, are also visitor attractions. Other protected areas France has 37 sites inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, as well as rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées that hosts several million visitors a year. Energy Further information: Energy in France France derives most of its electricity from nuclear power, the highest percentage in the world. Photograph of the Belleville Nuclear Power Plant Électricité de France (EDF), the main electricity generation and distribution company in France, is also one of the world's largest producers of electricity. In 2018, it produced around 20% of the European Union's electricity,[224] primarily from nuclear power. France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the G8, due to its heavy investment in nuclear power.[225] As of 2016[update], 72% of the electricity produced by France is generated by 58 nuclear power plants.[226][227] In this context, renewable energies are having difficulty taking off. France also uses hydroelectric dams to produce electricity, such as the Eguzon dam, Étang de Soulcem and Lac de Vouglans. Transport Main article: Transport in France A TGV Duplex crossing the Cize–Bolozon viaduct. The train can reach a maximum speed of 360 kilometres per hour (220 mph). The railway network of France, which as of 2008[update] stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)[228] is the second most extensive in Western Europe after that of Germany.[229] It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use.[230] The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighboring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services (Paris, Lyon, Lille, Marseille, Toulouse, Rennes) and tramway services (Nantes, Strasbourg, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Montpellier...) complementing bus services. There are approximately 1,027,183 kilometres (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.[231] The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Andorra and Monaco. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, usage of the mostly privately owned motorways is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault, Peugeot and Citroën.[232] France possesses the Millau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[233] and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie. Diesel and gasoline fuelled cars and lorries cause a large part of the country's air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[234][235] Air France is one of the biggest airlines in the world. There are 464 airports in France.[99] Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille,[236] which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[237][238] 12,261 kilometres (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi, which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.[99] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in France and List of French inventions and discoveries France is in 2020 the biggest national financial contributor to the European Space Agency,[239] which conceived the Ariane rocket family, launched from French Guiana (Ariane 5 pictured). Since the Middle Ages, France has been a major contributor to scientific and technological achievement. Around the beginning of the 11th century, Pope Sylvester II, born Gerbert d'Aurillac, reintroduced the abacus and armillary sphere, and introduced Arabic numerals and clocks to Northern and Western Europe.[240] The University of Paris, founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important universities in the Western world.[241] In the 17th century, mathematician René Descartes defined a method for the acquisition of scientific knowledge, while Blaise Pascal became famous for his work on probability and fluid mechanics. They were both key figures of the Scientific Revolution, which blossomed in Europe during this period. The Academy of Sciences was founded by Louis XIV to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest academies of sciences. The Age of Enlightenment was marked by the work of biologist Buffon and chemist Lavoisier, who discovered the role of oxygen in combustion, while Diderot and D'Alembert published the Encyclopédie, which aimed to give access to "useful knowledge" to the people, a knowledge that they can apply to their everyday life.[242] With the Industrial Revolution, the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France with scientists such as Augustin Fresnel, founder of modern optics, Sadi Carnot who laid the foundations of thermodynamics, and Louis Pasteur, a pioneer of microbiology. Other eminent French scientists of the 19th century have their names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré, physicists Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie, who remained famous for their work on radioactivity, the physicist Paul Langevin and virologist Luc Montagnier, co-discoverer of HIV AIDS. Hand transplantation was developed on 23 September 1998 in Lyon by a team assembled from different countries around the world including Jean-Michel Dubernard who, shortly thereafter, performed the first successful double hand transplant.[243] Telesurgery was developed by Jacques Marescaux and his team on 7 September 2001 across the Atlantic Ocean (New-York-Strasbourg, Lindbergh Operation).[244] A face transplant was first done on 27 November 2005[245][246] by Dr. Bernard Devauchelle. The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble France was the fourth country to achieve nuclear capability[247] and has the third largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[248] It is also a leader in civilian nuclear technology.[249][250][251] France was the third nation, after the former USSR and the United States, to launch its own space satellite and remains the biggest contributor to the European Space Agency (ESA).[252][253][254] The European Airbus, formed from the French group Aérospatiale along with DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA) and Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA), designs and develops civil and military aircraft as well as communications systems, missiles, space rockets, helicopters, satellites, and related systems. France also hosts major international research instruments such as the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility or the Institut Laue–Langevin and remains a major member of CERN. It also owns Minatec, Europe's leading nanotechnology research center. The SNCF, the French national railroad company, has developed the TGV, a high speed train which holds a series of world speed records. The TGV has been the fastest wheeled train in commercial use since reaching a speed of 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph) on 3 April 2007.[255] Western Europe is now serviced by a network of TGV lines. The Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) has been ranked by the Nature Index 2020 as the fourth institution with highest share of articles published in scientific journals in the world.[256] France itself was the 6th nation globally with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals according to the Nature Index 2020, which is valid for the calendar year 2019.[257] As of 2018[update], 69 French people have been awarded a Nobel Prize[258] and 12 have received the Fields Medal.[259] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of France and French people Population density in France by arrondissement. The main urban areas are visible, notably the Paris (center-north), Lille (north), Marseille (southeast) and Lyon (center-southeast) urban areas. With an estimated May 2021 population of 67.413 million people,[260] France is the 20th most populous country in the world, the third-most populous in Europe (after Russia and Germany), and the second most populous in the European Union (after Germany). France is an outlier among developed countries in general, and European countries in particular, in having a relatively high rate of natural population growth: by birth rates alone, it was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union in 2006.[261] Between 2006 and 2016, France saw the second highest overall increase in population in the EU, and was one of only four EU countries where natural births accounted for most population growth.[262] This was the highest rate since the end of the baby boom in 1973, and coincides with the rise of the total fertility rate from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994 to 2.0 in 2010. As of January 2021[update] the fertility rate declined slightly to 1.84 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, and considerably below the high of 4.41 in 1800.[263][264][265][266] France's fertility rate and crude birth rate nonetheless remain among the highest in the EU. However, like many developed nations, France's population is aging; the average age is 41.7 years, while about a fifth of French people are 65 or over.[267] Average life expectancy at birth is 82.7 years, the 12th highest in the world. From 2006 to 2011 population growth averaged 0.6 percent per year;[268] since 2011, annual growth has been between 0.4 and 0.5 percent annually.[269] Immigrants are major contributors to this trend; in 2010, 27 percent of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one foreign-born parent and 24 percent had at least one parent born outside of Europe (excluding French overseas territories).[270] Ethnic groups Most French people are of Celtic (Gauls) origin, with an admixture of Italic (Romans) and Germanic (Franks) groups.[271] Different regions reflect this diverse heritage, with notable Breton elements in western France, Aquitanian in the southwest, Scandinavian in the northwest, Alemannic in the northeast and Ligurian in the southeast. Large-scale immigration over the last century and a half has led to a more multicultural society. In 2004, the Institut Montaigne estimated that within Metropolitan France, 51 million people were White (85% of the population), 6 million were Northwest African (10%), 2 million were Black (3.3%), and 1 million were Asian (1.7%).[272][273] Since the French Revolution, and as codified in the 1958 French Constitution, it is illegal for the French state to collect data on ethnicity and ancestry. In 2008, the TeO ("Trajectories and origins") poll conducted jointly by INED and the French National Institute of Statistics[274][275] estimated that 5 million people were of Italian ancestry (the largest immigrant community), followed by 3 million to 6 million[276][277][278] of Northwest African ancestry, 2.5 million of Sub-Saharan African origin, 500,000 ethnic Armenian, and 200,000 people of Turkish ancestry.[279] There are also sizable minorities of other European ethnic groups, namely Spanish, Portuguese, Polish, and Greek.[276][280][281] France has a significant Gitan (Romani) population, numbering between 20,000 and 400,000.[282] Many foreign Roma are expelled back to Bulgaria and Romania frequently.[283] It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration the country has received since the early 20th century;[284] between 1921 and 1935 alone, about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[285] The next largest wave came in the 1960s, when around 1.6 million pieds noirs returned to France following the independence of its Northwest African possessions, Algeria and Morocco.[286][287] They were joined by numerous former colonial subjects from North and West Africa, as well as numerous European immigrants from Spain and Portugal. France remains a major destination for immigrants, accepting about 200,000 legal immigrants annually.[288] In 2005, it was Western Europe's leading recipient of asylum seekers, with an estimated 50,000 applications (albeit 15% decrease from 2004).[289] In 2010, France received about 48,100 asylum applications—placing it among the top five asylum recipients in the world[290] and in subsequent years it saw the number of applications increase, ultimately doubling to 100,412 in 2017.[291] The European Union allows free movement between the member states, although France established controls to curb Eastern European migration,[citation needed] and immigration remains a contentious political issue. In 2008, the INSEE (National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) estimated that the total number of foreign-born immigrants was around 5 million (8% of the population), while their French-born descendants numbered 6.5 million, or 11% of the population. Thus, nearly a fifth of the country's population were either first or second-generation immigrants, of which more than 5 million were of European origin and 4 million of Maghrebi ancestry.[292][293][294] In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[295] In 2014, the INSEE published a study which reported doubling of the number of Spanish immigrants, Portuguese and Italians in France between 2009 and 2012. According to the French Institute, this increase resulting from the financial crisis that hit several European countries in that period, has pushed up the number of Europeans installed in France.[296] Statistics on Spanish immigrants in France show a growth of 107 percent between 2009 and 2012, i.e. in this period went from 5300 to 11,000 people.[296] Of the total of 229,000 foreigners who were in France in 2012, nearly 8% were Portuguese, 5% British, 5% Spanish, 4% Italians, 4% Germans, 3% Romanians, and 3% Belgians.[296] Major cities See also: Urban area (France) and Urban unit France is a highly urbanized country, with its largest cities (in terms of metropolitan area population in 2016[297]) being Paris (12,568,755 inh.), Lyon (2,310,850), Marseille (1,756,296), Toulouse (1,345,343), Bordeaux (1,232,550), Lille (1,187,824), Nice (1,006,402), Nantes (961,521), Strasbourg (785,839) and Rennes (727,357). (Note: There are significant differences between the metropolitan population figures just cited and those in the following table, which indicates the population of the communes). Rural flight was a perennial political issue throughout most of the 20th century.   v t e Largest cities or towns in France 2016 census Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop. Paris Marseille 1 Paris Île-de-France 2,190,327 11 Rennes Brittany 216,268 Lyon Toulouse 2 Marseille Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 862,211 12 Reims Grand Est 183,113 3 Lyon Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 515,695 13 Saint-Étienne Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 171,924 4 Toulouse Occitanie 475,438 14 Le Havre Normandy 170,352 5 Nice Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 342,637 15 Toulon Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur 169,634 6 Nantes Pays de la Loire 306,694 16 Grenoble Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 158,180 7 Montpellier Occitanie 281,613 17 Dijon Bourgogne-Franche-Comté 155,090 8 Strasbourg Grand Est 279,284 18 Angers Pays de la Loire 151,229 9 Bordeaux Nouvelle-Aquitaine 252,040 19 Nîmes Occitanie 151,001 10 Lille Hauts-de-France 232,440 20 Villeurbanne Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes 149,019 Language Main articles: French language, Languages of France, and Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Map of the Francophone world:   Native language   Administrative language   Secondary or non-official language   Francophone minorities According to Article 2 of the Constitution, the official language of France is French,[298] a Romance language derived from Latin. Since 1635, the Académie française has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal weight. There are also regional languages spoken in France, such as Occitan, Breton, Catalan, Flemish (Dutch dialect), Alsatian (German dialect), Basque, and Corsican. Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859.[299] The Government of France does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. The perceived threat from anglicisation has prompted efforts to safeguard the position of the French language in France. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French overseas territories. From the 17th to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe.[300] The dominant position of French language in international affairs was overtaken by English, since the emergence of the United States as a major power.[60][301][302] For most of the time in which French served as an international lingua franca, it was not the native language of most Frenchmen: a report in 1794 conducted by Henri Grégoire found that of the country's 25 million people, only three million spoke French natively; the rest spoke one of the country's many regional languages, such as Alsatian, Breton or Occitan.[303] Through the expansion of public education, in which French was the sole language of instruction, as well as other factors such as increased urbanisation and the rise of mass communication, French gradually came to be adopted by virtually the entire population, a process not completed until the 20th century. As a result of France's extensive colonial ambitions between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to the Americas, Africa, Polynesia, South-East Asia, as well as the Caribbean. French is the second most studied foreign language in the world after English,[304] and is a lingua franca in some regions, notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly extinct in some former French colonies (The Levant, South and Southeast Asia), while creoles and pidgins based on French have emerged in the French departments in the West Indies and the South Pacific (French Polynesia). On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the total number of French speakers is increasing, especially in Africa. It is estimated that between 300 million[305] and 500 million[306] people worldwide can speak French, either as a mother tongue or a second language. According to the 2007 Adult Education survey, part of a project by the European Union and carried in France by the INSEE and based on a sample of 15,350 persons, French was the native language of 87.2% of the total population, or roughly 55.81 million people, followed by Arabic (3.6%, 2.3 million), Portuguese (1.5%, 960,000), Spanish (1.2%, 770,000) and Italian (1.0%, 640,000). Native speakers of other languages made up the remaining 5.2% of the population.[307] Religion Main article: Religion in France Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the Kings of France were crowned until 1825.[XV] France is a secular country in which freedom of religion is a constitutional right. French religious policy is based on the concept of laïcité, a strict separation of church and state under which public life is kept completely secular. According to a survey held in 2016 by Institut Montaigne and Institut français d'opinion publique (IFOP), 51.1% of the total population of France was Christian, 39.6% had no religion (atheism or agnosticism), 5.6% were Muslims, 2.5% were followers of other faiths, and the remaining 0.4% were undecided about their faith.[308] Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely. In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the total number of people of Muslim background to be between 5 and 6 million (8–10%).[309][310] The current Jewish community in France is the largest in Europe and the third-largest in the world after Israel and the United States, ranging between 480,000 and 600,000, about 0.8% of the population as of 2016.[308] Catholicism has been the predominant religion in France for more than a millennium, though it is not as actively practised today as it was. Among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% are Roman Catholic.[311] During the French Revolution, activists conducted a brutal campaign of de-Christianisation, ending the Catholic Church as the state religion. In some cases clergy and churches were attacked, with iconoclasm stripping the churches of statues and ornaments. After alternating between royal and secular republican governments during the 19th century, in 1905 France passed the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, which established the principle of laïcité.[312] To this day, the government is prohibited from recognizing any specific right to a religious community (except for legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and the local law in Alsace-Moselle). It recognizes religious organisations according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organisations are expected to refrain from intervening in policy-making.[313] Certain groups, such as Scientology, Children of God, the Unification Church, and the Order of the Solar Temple are considered cults ("sectes" in French), and therefore do not have the same status as recognized religions in France.[314] Secte is considered a pejorative term in France.[315] Health Main article: Health in France The Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, a teaching hospital in Paris, is one of Europe's largest hospitals.[316] The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the "close to best overall health care" in the world.[317] The French healthcare system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997.[318][319] In 2011, France spent 11.6% of GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita,[320] a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe but less than in the United States. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies.[321] Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases (affections de longues durées) such as cancer, AIDS or cystic fibrosis. Average life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women, one of the highest of the European Union and the World.[322][323] There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,[324] and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.[325] As of 2007[update], approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.[99] Even if the French have the reputation of being one of the thinnest people in developed countries,[326][327][328][329][330] France—like other rich countries—faces an increasing and recent epidemic of obesity, due mostly to the replacement in French eating habits of traditional healthy French cuisine by junk food.[331][326][327][332] The French obesity rate is still far below that of the United States—currently equal to American rate in the 1970s—and is still the lowest of Europe.[327][329][332] Authorities now regard obesity as one of the main public health issues and fight it fiercely.[333] Rates of childhood obesity are slowing in France, while continuing to grow in other countries.[334] Education Main article: Education in France The École normale supérieure (ENS) in Paris, established in the end of the 18th century, produces more Nobel Prize laureates per capita than any other institution in the world.[335] In 1802, Napoleon created the lycée, the second and final stage of secondary education that prepares students for higher education studies or a profession.[336] Nevertheless, Jules Ferry is considered the father of the French modern school, leading reforms in the late 19th century that established free, secular, and compulsory education (currently mandatory until the age of 16).[337][338] French education is centralized and divided into three stages: Primary, secondary, and higher education. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranked France's education as below OECD average in 2018.[339] Primary and secondary education are predominantly public, run by the Ministry of National Education. While training and remuneration of teachers and the curriculum are the responsibility of the state centrally, the management of primary and secondary schools is overseen by local authorities. Primary education comprises two phases, nursery school (école maternelle) and elementary school (école élémentaire). Nursery school aims to stimulate the minds of very young children and promote their socialization and development of a basic grasp of language and number. Around the age of six, children transfer to elementary school, whose primary objectives are learning about writing, arithmetic and citizenship. Secondary education also consists of two phases. The first is delivered through colleges (collège) and leads to the national certificate (Diplôme national du brevet). The second is offered in high schools (lycée) and finishes in national exams leading to a baccalaureate (baccalauréat, available in professional, technical or general flavors) or certificate of professional competence (certificat d'aptitude professionelle). Higher education is divided between public universities and the prestigious and selective Grandes écoles, such as Sciences Po Paris for Political studies, HEC Paris for Economics, Polytechnique, the École des hautes études en sciences sociales for Social studies and the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris that produce high-profile engineers, or the École nationale d'administration for careers in the Grands Corps of the state. The Grandes écoles have been criticized for alleged elitism, producing many if not most of France's high-ranking civil servants, CEOs, and politicians.[340] Culture Main article: Culture of France Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) portrays the July Revolution using the stylistic views of Romanticism. Since Liberty is part of the motto "Liberté, égalité, fraternité", as the French put it, this painting has become the primary symbol of the French Republic. France has been a centre of Western cultural development for centuries. Many French artists have been among the most renowned of their time; France is still recognised in the world for its rich cultural tradition. The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation. The creation of the Ministry of Culture in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists, promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting historical monuments. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a cultural exception to defend audiovisual products made in the country. France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200 museums welcoming more than 50 million people annually.[341] The most important cultural sites are run by the government, for instance through the public agency Centre des monuments nationaux, which is responsible for approximately 85 national historical monuments. The 43,180 buildings protected as historical monuments include mainly residences (many castles) and religious buildings (cathedrals, basilicas, churches), but also statues, memorials and gardens. The UNESCO inscribed 45 sites in France on the World Heritage List.[342] Art Main article: French art The Louvre Museum, widely recognized as one of the finest art museums in the world, was in 2019 both the largest and the most-visited museum in the world.[343] The origins of French art were very much influenced by Flemish art and by Italian art at the time of the Renaissance. Jean Fouquet, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance at first hand. The Renaissance painting School of Fontainebleau was directly inspired by Italian painters such as Primaticcio and Rosso Fiorentino, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of Baroque era, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy. Claude Monet founded the Impressionist movement (Femme avec un parasol, 1886, Musée d'Orsay). The 17th century was the period when French painting became prominent and individualised itself through classicism. Prime Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded in 1648 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture under Louis XIV to protect these artists; in 1666 he also created the still-active French Academy in Rome to have direct relations with Italian artists. French artists developed the rococo style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists Antoine Watteau, François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as Napoleon favoured artists of neoclassic style such as Jacques-Louis David and the highly influential Académie des Beaux-Arts defined the style known as Academism. At this time France had become a centre of artistic creation, the first half of the 19th century being dominated by two successive movements, at first Romanticism with Théodore Géricault and Eugène Delacroix, then Realism with Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet and Jean-François Millet, a style that eventually evolved into Naturalism. In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting became even more important, with the development of new styles of painting such as Impressionism and Symbolism. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were Camille Pissarro, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir.[344] The second generation of impressionist-style painters, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec and Georges Seurat, were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,[345] as well as the fauvist artists Henri Matisse, André Derain and Maurice de Vlaminck.[346][347] At the beginning of the 20th century, Cubism was developed by Georges Braque and the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as Vincent van Gogh, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Wassily Kandinsky. Le Penseur by Auguste Rodin (1902), Musée Rodin, Paris. Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to sculptures and painting works. A huge collection of old masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned Musée du Louvre, such as the Mona Lisa, also known as "La Joconde". While the Louvre Palace has been for a long time a museum, the Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in a major reorganisation of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[348][349] The musée d'Orsay was voted in 2018 the best museum in the world.[350] Modern works are presented in the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.[351] Other national museums hosting paintings include the Grand Palais (1.3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums owned by cities, the most visited being the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (0.8 million entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.[351] Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in Lyon, Lille, Rouen, Dijon, Rennes and Grenoble. Architecture Main article: French architecture Saint Louis's Sainte-Chapelle represents the French impact on religious architecture During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse, the largest romanesque church in Europe,[352] and the remains of the Cluniac Abbey. The Gothic architecture, originally named Opus Francigenum meaning "French work",[353] was born in Île-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be copied in all Europe.[354] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims.[355] Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon. The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the Loire Valley, from 1450 with as a first reference the Château de Montsoreau.[356] Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one.[357] In the secular domain, the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architect of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at Les Invalides.[358] Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[359][360] Place de la Bourse in Bordeaux, an example of French baroque architecture After the Revolution, the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although it was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such buildings as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the first French Empire, the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent the best example of Empire style architecture.[361] Under Napoleon III, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; for example, Haussmann's renovation of Paris. The architecture associated to this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century, Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower. The Capitole de Toulouse hosts Toulouse City Hall In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 metres (121 ft).[362] France's largest financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[363] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel, Dominique Perrault, Christian de Portzamparc or Paul Andreu. Literature Main article: French literature The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects, and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French medieval texts are unknown, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot-Grail. Other authors are known, for example Chrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan. Much medieval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the various chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the medieval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing. An important 16th-century writer was François Rabelais, whose novel Gargantua and Pantagruel has remained famous and appreciated until now. Michel de Montaigne was the other major figure of the French literature during that century. His most famous work, Essais, created the literary genre of the essay.[364] French poetry during that century was embodied by Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Both writers founded the La Pléiade literary movement. During the 17th century, Madame de La Fayette published anonymously La Princesse de Clèves, a novel that is considered to be one of the first psychological novels of all time.[365] Jean de La Fontaine is one of the most famous fabulists of that time, as he wrote hundreds of fables, some being far more famous than others, such as The Ant and the Grasshopper. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, that were seen as helping teaching wisdom and common sense to the young people. Some of his verses have entered the popular language to become proverbs, such as "À l'œuvre, on connaît l'artisan."[A workman is known by his chips].[366] French literary figures. Clockwise from top left: Molière is the most played author in the Comédie-Française;[367] Victor Hugo is one of the most important French novelists and poets; 19th-century poet, writer and translator Charles Baudelaire; 20th-century philosopher and novelist Jean-Paul Sartre Jean Racine, whose incredible mastery of the alexandrine and of the French language has been praised for centuries, created plays such as Phèdre or Britannicus. He is, along with Pierre Corneille (Le Cid) and Molière, considered as one of the three great dramatists of France's golden age. Molière, who is deemed to be one of the greatest masters of comedy of the Western literature,[368] wrote dozens of plays, including Le Misanthrope, L'Avare, Le Malade imaginaire, as well as Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. His plays have been so popular around the world that French language is sometimes dubbed as "the language of Molière" (la langue de Molière),[369] just like English is considered as "the language of Shakespeare". French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries. Denis Diderot's best-known works are Jacques the Fatalist and Rameau's Nephew. He is however best known for being the main redactor of the Encyclopédie, whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century (in fields such as arts, sciences, languages, and philosophy) and to present them to the people, to fight ignorance and obscurantism. During that same century, Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including Puss in Boots, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard. At the start of the 19th century, symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé.[370] The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all time"[371] for excelling in all literary genres. The preface of his play Cromwell is considered to be the manifesto of the Romantic movement. Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles are considered as "poetic masterpieces",[372] Hugo's verse having been compared to that of Shakespeare, Dante and Homer.[372] His novel Les Misérables is widely seen as one of the greatest novel ever written[373] and The Hunchback of Notre Dame has remained immensely popular. Other major authors of that century include Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), Émile Zola (Les Rougon-Macquart), Honoré de Balzac (La Comédie humaine), Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal (The Red and the Black, The Charterhouse of Parma), whose works are among the most well known in France and the world. The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.[374] Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote Little Prince, which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.[375] As of 2014[update], French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation.[376] The first Nobel Prize in Literature was a French author, while France's latest Nobel prize in literature is Patrick Modiano, who was awarded the prize in 2014.[376] Jean-Paul Sartre was also the first nominee in the committee's history to refuse the prize in 1964.[376] Philosophy Main article: French philosophy Medieval philosophy was dominated by Scholasticism until the emergence of Humanism in the Renaissance. Modern philosophy began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of René Descartes, Blaise Pascal and Nicolas Malebranche. Descartes was the first Western philosopher since ancient times to attempt to build a philosophical system from the ground up rather than building on the work of predecessors."[377][378] His Meditations on First Philosophy changed the primary object of philosophical thought and raised some of the most fundamental problems for foreigners such as Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Berkeley, and Kant. René Descartes, founder of modern Western philosophy.[379] French philosophers produced some of the most important political works of the Age of Enlightenment. In The Spirit of the Laws, Baron de Montesquieu theorised the principle of separation of powers, which has been implemented in all liberal democracies since it was first applied in the United States. Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion. 19th-century French thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionary thinkers such as Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald and Félicité Robert de Lamennais, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre is considered, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke, one of the founders of European conservatism, while Comte is regarded as the founder of positivism, which Émile Durkheim reformulated as a basis for social research. In the 20th century, partly as a reaction to the perceived excesses of positivism, French spiritualism thrived with thinkers such as Henri Bergson and it influenced American pragmatism and Whitehead's version of process philosophy. Meanwhile, French epistemology became a prominent school of thought with Jules Henri Poincaré, Gaston Bachelard, Jean Cavaillès and Jules Vuillemin. Influenced by German phenomenology and existentialism, the philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre gained a strong influence after World War II, and late-20th-century-France became the cradle of postmodern philosophy with Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Music Main article: Music of France Claude Debussy France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed a number of talented musicians and composers in the royal court. The most renowned composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers. Rameau became the dominant composer of French opera and the leading French composer for the harpsichord.[380][full citation needed] French composers played an important role during the music of the 19th and early 20th century, which is considered to be the Romantic music era. Romantic music emphasised a surrender to nature, a fascination with the past and the supernatural, the exploration of unusual, strange and surprising sounds, and a focus on national identity. This period was also a golden age for operas. French composers from the Romantic era included: Hector Berlioz (best known for his Symphonie fantastique), Georges Bizet (best known for Carmen, which has become one of the most popular and frequently performed operas), Gabriel Fauré (best known for his Pavane, Requiem, and nocturnes), Charles Gounod (best known for his Ave Maria and his opera Faust), Jacques Offenbach (best known for his 100 operettas of the 1850s–1870s and his uncompleted opera The Tales of Hoffmann), Édouard Lalo (best known for his Symphonie espagnole for violin and orchestra and his Cello Concerto in D minor), Jules Massenet (best known for his operas, of which he wrote more than thirty, the most frequently staged are Manon (1884) and Werther (1892)) and Camille Saint-Saëns (he has many frequently-performed works, including The Carnival of the Animals, Danse macabre, Samson and Delilah (Opera), Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso and his Symphony No. 3). Later came precursors of modern classical music. Érik Satie was a key member of the early-20th-century Parisian avant-garde, best known for his Gymnopédies. Francis Poulenc's best known works are his piano suite Trois mouvements perpétuels (1919), the ballet Les biches (1923), the Concert champêtre (1928) for harpsichord and orchestra, the opera Dialogues des Carmélites (1957) and the Gloria (1959) for soprano, choir and orchestra. Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy are the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music. Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed.[381] Debussy's music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of atonality. The two composers invented new musical forms[382][383][384][385] and new sounds. Ravel's piano compositions, such as Jeux d'eau, Miroirs, Le tombeau de Couperin and Gaspard de la nuit, demand considerable virtuosity. His mastery of orchestration is evident in the Rapsodie espagnole, Daphnis et Chloé, his arrangement of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and his orchestral work Boléro (1928). More recently, the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.[386] Serge Gainsbourg, one of the world's most influential popular musicians French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, French pop music, known as chanson française, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are Édith Piaf, Georges Brassens, Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour and Serge Gainsbourg.[387] Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,[388] bands such as Noir Désir, Mano Negra, Niagara, Les Rita Mitsouko and more recently Superbus, Phoenix and Gojira,[389] or Shaka Ponk, have reached worldwide popularity. Daft Punk, pioneers of the French house movement Other French artists with international careers have been popular in several countries, most notably female singers Dalida, Mireille Mathieu, Mylène Farmer,[389] Alizée and Nolwenn Leroy,[390] electronic music pioneers Jean-Michel Jarre, Laurent Garnier and Bob Sinclar, later Martin Solveig and David Guetta. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), electronic duos Daft Punk, Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.[389][391][392] Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned Paris National Opera (with its two sites Palais Garnier and Opéra Bastille), the Opéra National de Lyon, the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse and the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux. As for music festivals, there are several events organised, the most popular being Eurockéennes (a word play which sounds in French as "European"), Solidays and Rock en Seine. The Fête de la Musique, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French Government in 1982.[393][394] Major music halls and venues in France include Le Zénith sites present in many cities and other places in Paris (Paris Olympia, Théâtre Mogador, Élysée Montmartre). Cinema Main article: Cinema of France A Palme d'Or from the Cannes Film Festival, one of the "Big Three" film festivals alongside the Venice Film Festival and Berlin International Film Festival[395][396][397] Louis de Funès, often called "France's favourite actor", has played over 130 roles in film and over 100 on stage.[398] France has historical and strong links with cinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the Lumière Brothers) credited with creating cinema in 1895.[399] The world's first female filmmaker, Alice Guy-Blaché, was also from France.[400] Several important cinematic movements, including the late 1950s and 1960s Nouvelle Vague, began in the country. It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the Government of France. France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2015[update] producing more films than any other European country.[401][402] The nation also hosts the Cannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[403][404] Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé, Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff, Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke) and Georgia (Géla Babluani, Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such as Luc Besson, Jacques Tourneur or Francis Veber in the United States. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.[405] French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.[405] France is in 2013 the 2nd exporter of films in the world after the United States.[406] Until recently, France had for centuries been the cultural center of the world,[300] although its dominant position has been surpassed by the United States. Subsequently, France takes steps in protecting and promoting its culture, becoming a leading advocate of the cultural exception.[407] The nation succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalised sectors of the WTO in 1993.[408] Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a voting in the UNESCO in 2005: the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory with 198 countries voting for it and only 2 countries, the United States and Israel, voting against.[409] Fashion Main article: French fashion Chanel's headquarters on the Place Vendôme, Paris Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards. The association of France with fashion and style (French: la mode) dates largely to the reign of Louis XIV[410] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (French: couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishing of the great couturier houses such as Chanel, Dior, and Givenchy. The French perfume industry is world leader in its sector and is centered on the town of Grasse.[411] In the 1960s, the elitist "Haute couture" came under criticism from France's youth culture. In 1966, the designer Yves Saint Laurent broke with established Haute Couture norms by launching a prêt-à-porter ("ready to wear") line and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing. With a greater focus on marketing and manufacturing, new trends were established by Sonia Rykiel, Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean-Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1990s saw a conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as LVMH. According to 2017 data compiled by Deloitte, Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey (LVMH), a French brand, is the largest luxury company in the world by sales, selling more than twice the amount of its nearest competitor.[412] Moreover, France also possesses 3 of the top 10 luxury goods companies by sales (LVMH, Kering SA, L'Oréal), more than any other country in the world.[412] Media Main article: Telecommunications in France Parisian headquarters of Agence France-Presse, one of the world's oldest and leading news agencies[413] Best-selling daily national newspapers in France are Le Parisien Aujourd'hui en France (with 460,000 sold daily), Le Monde and Le Figaro, with around 300,000 copies sold daily, but also L'Équipe, dedicated to sports coverage.[414] In the past years, free dailies made a breakthrough, with Metro, 20 Minutes and Direct Plus distributed at more than 650,000 copies respectively.[415] However, the widest circulations are reached by regional daily Ouest France with more than 750,000 copies sold, and the 50 other regional papers have also high sales.[416][417] The sector of weekly magazines is stronger and diversified with more than 400 specialized weekly magazines published in the country.[418] The most influential news magazines are the left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur, centrist L'Express and right-wing Le Point (more than 400.000 copies),[419] but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV magazines and by women's magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers Le Canard Enchaîné and Charlie Hebdo, as well as Paris Match. Like in most industrialized nations, the print media have been affected by a severe crisis in the past decade. In 2008, the government launched a major initiative to help the sector reform and become financially independent,[420][421] but in 2009 it had to give 600,000 euros to help the print media cope with the economic crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[422] Le Figaro was founded in 1826; many of France's most prominent authors have written in its columns over the decades, and it is still considered a newspaper of record.[423] In 1974, after years of centralised monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations[424][425] remained under state-control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending state monopoly on radio.[425] French television was partly liberalized in the next two-decade with the creation of several commercial channels, mainly thanks to cable and satellite television. In 2005 the national service Télévision Numérique Terrestre introduced digital television all over the territory, allowing the creation of other channels. The four existing national channels are owned by state-owned consortium France Télévisions, funded by advertising revenue and TV licence fees. Public broadcasting group Radio France run five national radio stations. Among these public media are Radio France Internationale, which broadcasts programs in French all over the world, and Franco-German TV channel TV5 Monde. In 2006, the government created global news channel France 24. Long-established TV channels TF1 (privatized in 1987), France 2 and France 3 have the highest shares, while radio stations RTL, Europe 1 and state-owned France Inter are the least listened to. Society See also: Human rights in France and LGBT rights in France Sculpture of Marianne, a common national personification of the French Republic According to a BBC poll in 2010, based on 29,977 responses in 28 countries, France is globally seen as a positive influence in the world's affairs: 49% have a positive view of the country's influence, whereas 19% have a negative view.[426][427] The Nation Brand Index of 2008 suggested that France has the second best international reputation, only behind Germany.[428] A global opinion poll for the BBC saw France ranked the fourth most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany, Canada and the United Kingdom) in 2014.[429] According to a poll in 2011, the French were found to have the highest level of religious tolerance and to be the country where the highest proportion of the population defines its identity primarily in term of nationality and not religion.[430] As of 2011[update], 75% of French had a favourable view of the United States, making France one of the most pro-American countries in the world.[431] As of 2017[update], the favourable view of the United States had dropped to 46%.[432] In January 2010, the magazine International Living ranked France as "best country to live in", ahead of 193 other countries, for the fifth year running.[433] The OECD Better Life Index states that "France performs well in many measures of well-being relative to most other countries in the Better Life Index."[434] The French Revolution continues to permeate the country's collective memory. The tricolour flag of France,[435] the anthem "La Marseillaise", and the motto Liberté, égalité, fraternité, defined in Title 1 of the Constitution as national symbols, all emerged during the cultural ferment of the early revolution, along with Marianne, a common national personification. In addition, Bastille Day, the national holiday, commemorates the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789.[436] A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the Gallic rooster. Its origins date back to Antiquity, since the Latin word Gallus meant both "rooster" and "inhabitant of Gaul". Then this figure gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national identity, used for some stamps and coins.[437] French flags displayed on the Champs Elysées after France's victory at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The French Tricolore is enshrined in the French Constitution as the national emblem of the French Republic.[438] France is one of the world leaders of gender equality in the workplace: as of 2017, it has 36.8% of its corporate board seats held by women, which makes it the leader of the G20 for that metric;[439] and was ranked in 2019 by the World Bank as one of the only 6 countries in the world where women have the same work rights as men.[440] France is one of the most liberal countries in the world when it comes to LGBT rights: a 2020 Pew Research Center poll found that 86% of the French think that same-sex relationships should be accepted by society, one of the highest acceptance rates in the world (comparable to that of other Western European nations).[441] France legalized same-sex marriage and adoption in 2013.[442] The government has used its diplomatic clout to support LGBT rights throughout the world, notably in the United Nations.[443] In 2020, France was ranked 5th in the Environmental Performance Index (behind the United Kingdom), out of 180 countries ranked by Yale University in that study.[444] Being the host country of the 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference, the French government was instrumental in securing the 2015 Paris agreement, a success that has been credited to its "openness and experience in diplomacy".[445] Cuisine Main article: French cuisine French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine. French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.[446][447] According to the regions, traditional recipes are different, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the preferred fat for cooking, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the South.[448] Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialties: Cassoulet in the Southwest, Choucroute in Alsace, Quiche in the Lorraine region, Beef bourguignon in the Bourgogne, provençal Tapenade, etc. France's most renowned products are wines,[449] including Champagne, Bordeaux, Bourgogne, and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort and Brie. There are more than 400 different varieties.[450][451] A meal often consists of three courses, hors d'œuvre or entrée (introductory course, sometimes soup), plat principal (main course), fromage (cheese course) or dessert, sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Hors d'œuvres could include terrine de saumon au basilic, lobster bisque, foie gras, French onion soup or a croque monsieur. The plat principal could include a pot au feu or steak frites. The dessert could be mille-feuille pastry, a macaron, an éclair, crème brûlée, mousse au chocolat, crêpes, or Café liégeois. Some French cheeses with fruits French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.[433] A French publication, the Michelin guide, awards Michelin stars for excellence to a select few establishments.[452][453] The acquisition or loss of a star can have dramatic effects on the success of a restaurant. By 2006, the Michelin Guide had awarded 620 stars to French restaurants, at that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than in any other country (by 2010, Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having half the number of Michelin inspectors working there).[454][455] In addition to its wine tradition, France is also a major producer of beer and rum. The three main French brewing regions are Alsace (60% of national production), Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Lorraine. France produces rum via distilleries located on islands such as Reunion Island in the southern Indian Ocean. Sports Main article: Sport in France Starting in 1903, the Tour de France is the oldest and most prestigious of Grands Tours, and the world's most famous cycling race.[456] France hosts "the world's biggest annual sporting event", the Tour de France,[457] and other popular sports played in France include: football, judo, tennis,[458] rugby union[459] and pétanque. France has hosted events such as the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups,[460] the 2007 Rugby World Cup,[461] and will host the 2023 Rugby World Cup. The country also hosted the 1960 European Nations' Cup, UEFA Euro 1984, UEFA Euro 2016 and 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup. The Stade de France in Saint-Denis is France's largest stadium and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup finals. Since 1903, France is famous for its 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race.[462] Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments. French martial arts include Savate and Fencing. Pierre de Coubertin, father of the modern Olympic Games France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.[463][464] After Athens was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Olympics' Greek origins, Paris hosted the second Games in 1900.[465] Paris was the first home of the International Olympic Committee, before it moved to Lausanne.[466] Since 1900, France has hosted the Olympics on 4 further occasions: the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris[464] and three Winter Games (1924 in Chamonix, 1968 in Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville).[464] Similar to the Olympics, France introduced Olympics for the deaf people (Deaflympics) in 1924 with the idea of a French deaf car mechanic, Eugène Rubens-Alcais who paved the way to organise the inaugural edition of the Summer Deaflympics in Paris.[467] Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed "Les Bleus" in reference to the team's shirt colour as well as the national French tricolour flag. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players, and over 18,000 registered clubs.[468] The football team is among the most successful in the world, with two FIFA World Cup victories in 1998 and 2018,[469] one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006,[470] and two UEFA European Championships in 1984[471] and 2000.[472] Zinedine Zidane was named the best European footballer of the past 50 years in a 2004 UEFA poll.[473] The top national football club competition is Ligue 1. France has produced some of the greatest players in the world, including three time FIFA World Player of the Year Zinedine Zidane, three time Ballon d'Or recipient Michel Platini, record holder for most goals scored at a World Cup Just Fontaine, first football player to receive the Légion d'honneur Raymond Kopa, and the record goalscorer for the French national team Thierry Henry.[474] The French Open, also called Roland-Garros, is a major tennis tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at the Stade Roland-Garros in Paris. It is the premier clay court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annual Grand Slam tournaments.[475] Rugby union is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.[476] The national rugby union team has competed at every Rugby World Cup, and takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship. See also France portal Outline of France List of communes in France History of French History of France Footnotes ^ For information about regional languages see Languages of France. ^ Established the Kingdom of the West Franks (the Kingdom of France) from the Carolingian Empire of Francia. ^ European Union since 1993. ^ Established the Fifth Republic ^ French National Geographic Institute data, which includes bodies of water. ^ French Land Register data, which exclude lakes, ponds and glaciers larger than 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) as well as the estuaries of rivers. ^ Whole of the French Republic except the overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean. ^ French overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean only. ^ Time zones across the French Republic span from UTC-10 (French Polynesia) to UTC+12 (Wallis and Futuna). ^ Daylight saving time is observed in metropolitan France and Saint Pierre and Miquelon only. ^ The overseas regions and collectivities form part of the French telephone numbering plan, but have their own country calling codes: Guadeloupe +590; Martinique +596; French Guiana +594, Réunion and Mayotte +262; Saint Pierre and Miquelon +508. The overseas territories are not part of the French telephone numbering plan; their country calling codes are: New Caledonia +687, French Polynesia +689; Wallis and Futuna +681 ^ In addition to .fr, several other Internet TLDs are used in French overseas départements and territories: .re, .mq, .gp, .tf, .nc, .pf, .wf, .pm, .gf and .yt. France also uses .eu, shared with other members of the European Union. The .cat domain is used in Catalan-speaking territories. ^ French Guiana is located in South America; Guadeloupe and Martinique are in the Caribbean Sea; and Réunion and Mayotte are in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Africa. All five are considered integral parts of the French Republic. France also comprises Saint Pierre and Miquelon in North America; Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin in the Caribbean; French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and Clipperton Island in the Pacific Ocean; and finally the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. ^ The present-day state of Austria did not exist as such, its territory was part of the Habsburg Monarchy which also comprised the present-day states of Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Belgium, Slovenia and Croatia: that Habsburg Monarchy was usually called 'Austria'. ^ The last sacre was that of Charles X, 29 May 1825. References ^ a b "France". UNGEGN World Geographical Names. New York, NY: United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. Retrieved 27 November 2020. ^ https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do[dead link] ^ Special Eurobarometer 493, European Union: European Commission, September 2019, pages 229–230 Retrieved 17 January 2020. 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Cambridge Illustrated History of France (Cambridge University Press,1999) Ancient maps of France from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel External links The Wikibook Wikijunior:Countries A-Z has a page on the topic of: France Franceat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity France at Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development France at UCB Libraries GovPubs France at Curlie France at the EU Wikimedia Atlas of France Geographic data related to France at OpenStreetMap Key Development Forecasts for France from International Futures Economy INSEE OECD France statistics Government France.fr (in English) Official French tourism website (in French) Official Site of the Government Official site of the French public service – Links to various administrations and institutions Official site of the National Assembly Culture Contemporary French Civilization, journal, University of Illinois. FranceGuide – Official website of the French Government Tourist Office v t e France topics History Periods Timeline Prehistory Greek colonies Celtic Gaul Roman Gaul Visigothic Kingdom Francia West Francia Middle Ages Early modern era Long nineteenth century Revolutionary era Napoleonic era Belle Époque Twentieth century Regimes Absolute monarchy Ancien Régime First Republic First Empire Constitutional monarchy Bourbon Restoration July Monarchy Second Republic Second Empire Government of National Defense Third Republic France during the Second World War Free France Vichy France Provisional Government of the French Republic Fourth Republic Fifth Republic Geography Administrative divisions Cities Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers World Heritage Sites Politics Constitution Elections presidential Foreign relations Politics Human rights Intersex LGBT Judiciary Law enforcement Military Parliament Political parties Economy Agriculture Automotive industry Banking Central bank Economic history 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en-wikipedia-org-5018	----	Rome - Wikipedia Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital city of Italy This article is about the capital and largest city in Italy. For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation) and Roma (disambiguation). Capital city and comune in Italy Rome Roma  (Italian) Capital city and comune Roma Capitale Clockwise from top: the Colosseum, St. Peter's Basilica, Castel Sant'Angelo, Ponte Sant'Angelo, Trevi Fountain and the Pantheon Flag Coat of arms Etymology: Possibly Etruscan: Rumon, lit. 'river' (See Etymology). Nickname(s): Urbs Aeterna  (Latin) The Eternal City Caput Mundi  (Latin) The Capital of the world Throne of St. Peter The territory of the comune (Roma Capitale, in red) inside the Metropolitan City of Rome (Città Metropolitana di Roma, in yellow). The white spot in the centre is Vatican City. Rome Location within Italy Show map of Italy Rome Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 41°53′N 12°30′E / 41.883°N 12.500°E / 41.883; 12.500Coordinates: 41°53′N 12°30′E / 41.883°N 12.500°E / 41.883; 12.500 Country Italy[a] Region  Lazio Metropolitan city Rome Founded 753 BC Founded by King Romulus Government  • Type Strong Mayor–Council  • Mayor Virginia Raggi (M5S)  • Legislature Capitoline Assembly Area  • Total 1,285 km2 (496.3 sq mi) Elevation 21 m (69 ft) Population (31 December 2019)  • Rank 1st in Italy (3rd in the EU)  • Density 2,236/km2 (5,790/sq mi)  • Comune 2,860,009[1]  • Metropolitan City 4,342,212[2] Demonym(s) Italian: romano (masculine), romana (feminine) English: Roman Time zone UTC+1 (CET) CAP code(s) 00100; 00118 to 00199 Area code(s) 06 Website comune.roma.it UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura Reference 91 Inscription 1980 (4th session) Area 1,431 ha (3,540 acres) Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma [ˈroːma] (listen)) is the capital city and a special comune of Italy (named Comune di Roma Capitale), as well as the capital of the Lazio region. The city has been a major human settlement for almost three millennia. With 2,860,009 residents in 1,285 km2 (496.1 sq mi),[1] it is also the country's most populated comune. It is the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4,355,725 residents, thus making it the most populous metropolitan city in Italy.[2] Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy.[3] Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. Vatican City (the smallest country in the world)[4] is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city; for this reason , Rome has sometimes been defined as the capital of two states.[5][6] Rome's history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe.[7] The city's early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first-ever Imperial city and metropolis.[8] It was first called The Eternal City (Latin: Urbs Aeterna; Italian: La Città Eterna) by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy.[9][10] Rome is also called "Caput Mundi" (Capital of the World). After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century , it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V (1447–1455) pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world.[11] In this way, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Renaissance,[12] and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic. In 2019, Rome was the 11th most visited city in the world with 10.1 million tourists, the third most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist destination in Italy.[13] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[14] The host city for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome is also the seat of several specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The city also hosts the Secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean[15] (UfM) as well as the headquarters of many international business companies such as Eni, Enel, TIM, Leonardo S.p.A., and national and international banks such as Unicredit and BNL. Rome's EUR business district is the home of many companies involved in the oil industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and financial services. The presence of renowned international brands in the city has made Rome an important centre of fashion and design, and the Cinecittà Studios have been the set of many Academy Award–winning movies.[16] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Earliest history 2.1.1 Legend of the founding of Rome 2.2 Monarchy and republic 2.3 Empire 2.4 Middle Ages 2.5 Early modern history 2.6 Late modern and contemporary 3 Government 3.1 Local government 3.1.1 Administrative and historical subdivisions 3.2 Metropolitan and regional government 3.3 National government 4 Geography 4.1 Location 4.2 Topography 5 Climate 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Religion 6.3 Vatican City 7 Pilgrimage 8 Cityscape 8.1 Architecture 8.1.1 Ancient Rome 8.1.2 Medieval 8.1.3 Renaissance and Baroque 8.1.4 Neoclassicism 8.1.5 Fascist architecture 8.2 Parks and gardens 8.3 Fountains and aqueducts 8.4 Statues 8.5 Obelisks and columns 8.6 Bridges 8.7 Catacombs 9 Economy 10 Education 11 Culture 11.1 Entertainment and performing arts 11.2 Tourism 11.3 Fashion 11.4 Cuisine 11.5 Cinema 11.6 Language 12 Sports 13 Transport 14 International entities, organisations and involvement 15 International relations 15.1 Twin towns and sister cities 15.2 Other relationships 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References 19 Bibliography 20 External links Etymology Roman representation of the god Tiber, Capitoline Hill in Rome According to the founding myth of the city by the Ancient Romans themselves,[17] the long-held tradition of the origin of the name Roma is believed to have come from the city's founder and first king, Romulus.[18] However, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself.[19] As early as the 4th century, there have been alternative theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. Several hypotheses have been advanced focusing on its linguistic roots which however remain uncertain:[20] from Rumon or Rumen, archaic name of the Tiber, which in turn is supposedly related to the Greek verb ῥέω (rhéō) 'to flow, stream' and the Latin verb ruō 'to hurry, rush';[b] from the Etruscan word 𐌓𐌖𐌌𐌀 (ruma), whose root is *rum- "teat", with possible reference either to the totem wolf that adopted and suckled the cognately named twins Romulus and Remus, or to the shape of the Palatine and Aventine Hills; from the Greek word ῥώμη (rhṓmē), which means strength.[c] History Main articles: History of Rome and Timeline of the city of Rome Historical affiliations Latins (Italic tribe) c. 2nd millennium – 752 BC Albanis (Latins) 10th century – 752 BC (Foundation of the city) 9th–c. BC Roman Kingdom 752–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC  Roman Empire 27 BC–285 AD Western Roman Empire 285–476 Kingdom of Odoacer 476–493 Ostrogothic Kingdom 493–553 Eastern Roman Empire 553–754 Papal States 754–1870 Kingdom of Italy 1870–1946 Vatican City 1929–present Italian Republic 1946–present Earliest history Main article: Founding of Rome While there have been discoveries of archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago, the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites.[7] Evidence of stone tools, pottery, and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence. Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested since the end of the 14th century BC).[21] However, none of them yet had an urban quality.[21] Nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation ("synoecism") of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine.[21] This aggregation was facilitated by the increase of agricultural productivity above the subsistence level, which also allowed the establishment of secondary and tertiary activities. These, in turn, boosted the development of trade with the Greek colonies of southern Italy (mainly Ischia and Cumae).[21] These developments, which according to archaeological evidence took place during the mid-eighth century BC, can be considered as the "birth" of the city.[21] Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome was founded deliberately in the middle of the eighth century BC, as the legend of Romulus suggests, remains a fringe hypothesis.[22] Legend of the founding of Rome Capitoline Wolf, a sculpture of the mythical she-wolf suckling the infant twins Romulus and Remus Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth. The most familiar of these myths, and perhaps the most famous of all Roman myths, is the story of Romulus and Remus, the twins who were suckled by a she-wolf.[17] They decided to build a city, but after an argument, Romulus killed his brother and the city took his name. According to the Roman annalists, this happened on 21 April 753 BC.[23] This legend had to be reconciled with a dual tradition, set earlier in time, that had the Trojan refugee Aeneas escape to Italy and found the line of Romans through his son Iulus, the namesake of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.[24] This was accomplished by the Roman poet Virgil in the first century BC. In addition, Strabo mentions an older story, that the city was an Arcadian colony founded by Evander. Strabo also writes that Lucius Coelius Antipater believed that Rome was founded by Greeks.[25][26] Monarchy and republic Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire After the foundation by Romulus according a legend,[23] Rome was ruled for a period of 244 years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings. The tradition handed down seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.[23] The Ancient-Imperial-Roman palaces of the Palatine, a series of palaces located in the Palatine Hill, express power and wealth of emperors from Augustus until the 4th century. In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city and established an oligarchic republic. Rome then began a period characterised by internal struggles between patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (small landowners), and by constant warfare against the populations of central Italy: Etruscans, Latins, Volsci, Aequi, and Marsi.[27] After becoming master of Latium, Rome led several wars (against the Gauls, Osci-Samnites and the Greek colony of Taranto, allied with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus) whose result was the conquest of the Italian peninsula, from the central area up to Magna Graecia.[28] The third and second century BC saw the establishment of Roman hegemony over the Mediterranean and the Balkans, through the three Punic Wars (264–146 BC) fought against the city of Carthage and the three Macedonian Wars (212–168 BC) against Macedonia.[29] The first Roman provinces were established at this time: Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Hispania, Macedonia, Achaea and Africa.[30] From the beginning of the 2nd century BC, power was contested between two groups of aristocrats: the optimates, representing the conservative part of the Senate, and the populares, which relied on the help of the plebs (urban lower class) to gain power. In the same period, the bankruptcy of the small farmers and the establishment of large slave estates caused large-scale migration to the city. The continuous warfare led to the establishment of a professional army, which turned out to be more loyal to its generals than to the republic. Because of this, in the second half of the second century and during the first century BC there were conflicts both abroad and internally: after the failed attempt of social reform of the populares Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus,[31] and the war against Jugurtha,[31] there was a first civil war between Gaius Marius and Sulla.[31] A major slave revolt under Spartacus followed,[32][32] and then the establishment of the first Triumvirate with Caesar, Pompey and Crassus.[32] The Imperial fora belong to a series of monumental fora (public squares) constructed in Rome by the emperors. Also seen in the image is Trajan's Market. The conquest of Gaul made Caesar immensely powerful and popular, which led to a second civil war against the Senate and Pompey. After his victory, Caesar established himself as dictator for life.[32] His assassination led to a second Triumvirate among Octavian (Caesar's grandnephew and heir), Mark Antony and Lepidus, and to another civil war between Octavian and Antony.[33] Empire In 27 BC, Octavian became princeps civitatis and took the title of Augustus, founding the principate, a diarchy between the princeps and the senate.[33] During the reign of Nero, two thirds of the city was ruined after the Great Fire of Rome, and the persecution of Christians commenced.[34][35][36] Rome was established as a de facto empire, which reached its greatest expansion in the second century under the Emperor Trajan. Rome was confirmed as caput Mundi, i.e. the capital of the known world, an expression which had already been used in the Republican period. During its first two centuries, the empire was ruled by emperors of the Julio-Claudian,[37] Flavian (who also built an eponymous amphitheatre, known as the Colosseum),[37] and Antonine dynasties.[38] This time was also characterised by the spread of the Christian religion, preached by Jesus Christ in Judea in the first half of the first century (under Tiberius) and popularised by his apostles through the empire and beyond.[39] The Antonine age is considered the apogee of the Empire, whose territory ranged from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates and from Britain to Egypt.[38] The Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD, approximately 6.5 million square kilometres (2.5 million square miles)[40] of land surface. The Roman Forum are the remains of those buildings that during most of Ancient Rome's time represented the political, legal, religious and economic centre of the city and the neuralgic centre of all the Roman civilisation.[41] Trajan's Column, triumphal column and place where the relics of Emperor Trajan are placed. After the end of the Severan Dynasty in 235, the Empire entered into a 50-year period known as the Crisis of the Third Century during which there were numerous putsches by generals, who sought to secure the region of the empire they were entrusted with due to the weakness of central authority in Rome. There was the so-called Gallic Empire from 260 to 274 and the revolts of Zenobia and her father from the mid-260s which sought to fend off Persian incursions. Some regions – Britain, Spain, and North Africa – were hardly affected. Instability caused economic deterioration, and there was a rapid rise in inflation as the government debased the currency in order to meet expenses. The Germanic tribes along the Rhine and north of the Balkans made serious, uncoordinated incursions from the 250s-280s that were more like giant raiding parties rather than attempts to settle. The Persian Empire invaded from the east several times during the 230s to 260s but were eventually defeated.[42] Emperor Diocletian (284) undertook the restoration of the State. He ended the Principate and introduced the Tetrarchy which sought to increase state power. The most marked feature was the unprecedented intervention of the State down to the city level: whereas the State had submitted a tax demand to a city and allowed it to allocate the charges, from his reign the State did this down to the village level. In a vain attempt to control inflation, he imposed price controls which did not last. He or Constantine regionalised the administration of the empire which fundamentally changed the way it was governed by creating regional dioceses (the consensus seems to have shifted from 297 to 313/14 as the date of creation due to the argument of Constantin Zuckerman in 2002 "Sur la liste de Verone et la province de grande armenie, Melanges Gilber Dagron). The existence of regional fiscal units from 286 served as the model for this unprecedented innovation. The emperor quickened the process of removing military command from governors. Henceforth, civilian administration and military command would be separate. He gave governors more fiscal duties and placed them in charge of the army logistical support system as an attempt to control it by removing the support system from its control. Diocletian ruled the eastern half, residing in Nicomedia. In 296, he elevated Maximian to Augustus of the western half, where he ruled mostly from Mediolanum when not on the move.[42] In 292, he created two 'junior' emperors, the Caesars, one for each Augustus, Constantius for Britain, Gaul, and Spain whose seat of power was in Trier and Licinius in Sirmium in the Balkans. The appointment of a Caesar was not unknown: Diocletian tried to turn into a system of non-dynastic succession. Upon abdication in 305, the Caesars succeeded and they, in turn, appointed two colleagues for themselves.[42] The Pyramid of Gaius Cestius and the Aurelian Walls After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305 and a series of civil wars between rival claimants to imperial power, during the years 306–313, the Tetrarchy was abandoned. Constantine the Great undertook a major reform of the bureaucracy, not by changing the structure but by rationalising the competencies of the several ministries during the years 325–330, after he defeated Licinius, emperor in the East, at the end of 324. The so-called Edict of Milan of 313, actually a fragment of a letter from Licinius to the governors of the eastern provinces, granted freedom of worship to everyone, including Christians, and ordered the restoration of confiscated church properties upon petition to the newly created vicars of dioceses. He funded the building of several churches and allowed clergy to act as arbitrators in civil suits (a measure that did not outlast him but which was restored in part much later). He transformed the town of Byzantium into his new residence, which, however, was not officially anything more than an imperial residence like Milan or Trier or Nicomedia until given a city prefect in May 359 by Constantius II; Constantinople.[43] Christianity in the form of the Nicene Creed became the official religion of the empire in 380, via the Edict of Thessalonica issued in the name of three emperors – Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I – with Theodosius clearly the driving force behind it. He was the last emperor of a unified empire: after his death in 395, his sons, Arcadius and Honorius divided the empire into a western and an eastern part. The seat of government in the Western Roman Empire was transferred to Ravenna after the Siege of Milan in 402. During the 5th century, the emperors from the 430s mostly resided in the capital city, Rome.[43] Rome, which had lost its central role in the administration of the empire, was sacked in 410 by the Visigoths led by Alaric I,[44] but very little physical damage was done, most of which were repaired. What could not be so easily replaced were portable items such as artwork in precious metals and items for domestic use (loot). The popes embellished the city with large basilicas, such as Santa Maria Maggiore (with the collaboration of the emperors). The population of the city had fallen from 800,000 to 450–500,000 by the time the city was sacked in 455 by Genseric, king of the Vandals.[45] The weak emperors of the fifth century could not stop the decay, leading to the deposition of Romulus Augustus on 22 August 476, which marked the end of the Western Roman Empire and, for many historians, the beginning of the Middle Ages.[43] The decline of the city's population was caused by the loss of grain shipments from North Africa, from 440 onward, and the unwillingness of the senatorial class to maintain donations to support a population that was too large for the resources available. Even so, strenuous efforts were made to maintain the monumental centre, the palatine, and the largest baths, which continued to function until the Gothic siege of 537. The large baths of Constantine on the Quirinale were even repaired in 443, and the extent of the damage exaggerated and dramatised.[46] However, the city gave an appearance overall of shabbiness and decay because of the large abandoned areas due to population decline. The population declined to 500,000 by 452 and 100,000 by 500 AD (perhaps larger, though no certain figure can be known). After the Gothic siege of 537, the population dropped to 30,000 but had risen to 90,000 by the papacy of Gregory the Great.[47] The population decline coincided with the general collapse of urban life in the West in the fifth and sixth centuries, with few exceptions. Subsidized state grain distributions to the poorer members of society continued right through the sixth century and probably prevented the population from falling further.[48] The figure of 450,000–500,000 is based on the amount of pork, 3,629,000 lbs. distributed to poorer Romans during five winter months at the rate of five Roman lbs per person per month, enough for 145,000 persons or 1/4 or 1/3 of the total population.[49] Grain distribution to 80,000 ticket holders at the same time suggests 400,000 (Augustus set the number at 200,000 or one-fifth of the population). Middle Ages 15th-century illustration depicting the Sack of Rome (410) by the Visigothic king Alaric I The Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles Peter and Paul there. The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter, who is considered the first Bishop of Rome. The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome was first under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city in 546 and 550. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273[50] to 35,000 after the Gothic War (535–554),[51] reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens.[52] It is generally thought the population of the city until 300 AD was 1 million (estimates range from 2 million to 750,000) declining to 750–800,000 in 400 AD, 450–500,000 in 450 AD and down to 80–100,000 in 500 AD (though it may have been twice this).[53] After the Lombard invasion of Italy, the city remained nominally Byzantine, but in reality, the popes pursued a policy of equilibrium between the Byzantines, the Franks, and the Lombards.[54] In 729, the Lombard king Liutprand donated the north Latium town of Sutri to the Church, starting its temporal power.[54] In 756, Pepin the Short, after having defeated the Lombards, gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over the Roman Duchy and the Exarchate of Ravenna, thus creating the Papal States.[54] Since this period, three powers tried to rule the city: the pope, the nobility (together with the chiefs of militias, the judges, the Senate and the populace), and the Frankish king, as king of the Lombards, patricius, and Emperor.[54] These three parties (theocratic, republican, and imperial) were a characteristic of Roman life during the entire Middle Ages.[54] On Christmas night of 800, Charlemagne was crowned in Rome as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III: on that occasion, the city hosted for the first time the two powers whose struggle for control was to be a constant of the Middle Ages.[54] Detail view on an illustration by Raphael portraying the crowning of Charlemagne in Old Saint Peter's Basilica, on 25 December 800 In 846, Muslim Arabs unsuccessfully stormed the city's walls, but managed to loot St. Peter's and St. Paul's basilica, both outside the city wall.[55] After the decay of Carolingian power, Rome fell prey to feudal chaos: several noble families fought against the pope, the emperor, and each other. These were the times of Theodora and her daughter Marozia, concubines and mothers of several popes, and of Crescentius, a powerful feudal lord, who fought against the Emperors Otto II and Otto III.[56] The scandals of this period forced the papacy to reform itself: the election of the pope was reserved to the cardinals, and reform of the clergy was attempted. The driving force behind this renewal was the monk Ildebrando da Soana, who once elected pope under the name of Gregory VII became involved into the Investiture Controversy against Emperor Henry IV.[56] Subsequently, Rome was sacked and burned by the Normans under Robert Guiscard who had entered the city in support of the Pope, then besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo.[56] During this period, the city was autonomously ruled by a senatore or patrizio. In the 12th century, this administration, like other European cities, evolved into the commune, a new form of social organisation controlled by the new wealthy classes.[56] Pope Lucius II fought against the Roman commune, and the struggle was continued by his successor Pope Eugenius III: by this stage, the commune, allied with the aristocracy, was supported by Arnaldo da Brescia, a monk who was a religious and social reformer.[57] After the pope's death, Arnaldo was taken prisoner by Adrianus IV, which marked the end of the commune's autonomy.[57] Under Pope Innocent III, whose reign marked the apogee of the papacy, the commune liquidated the senate, and replaced it with a Senatore, who was subject to the pope.[57] In this period, the papacy played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs and exercising additional political powers.[58][59][60] In 1266, Charles of Anjou, who was heading south to fight the Hohenstaufen on behalf of the pope, was appointed Senator. Charles founded the Sapienza, the university of Rome.[57] In that period the pope died, and the cardinals, summoned in Viterbo, could not agree on his successor. This angered the people of the city, who then unroofed the building where they met and imprisoned them until they had nominated the new pope; this marked the birth of the conclave.[57] In this period the city was also shattered by continuous fights between the aristocratic families: Annibaldi, Caetani, Colonna, Orsini, Conti, nested in their fortresses built above ancient Roman edifices, fought each other to control the papacy.[57] Pope Boniface VIII, born Caetani, was the last pope to fight for the church's universal domain; he proclaimed a crusade against the Colonna family and, in 1300, called for the first Jubilee of Christianity, which brought millions of pilgrims to Rome.[57] However, his hopes were crushed by the French king Philip the Fair, who took him prisoner and killed him in Anagni.[57] Afterwards, a new pope faithful to the French was elected, and the papacy was briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377).[61] During this period Rome was neglected, until a plebeian man, Cola di Rienzo, came to power.[61] An idealist and a lover of ancient Rome, Cola dreamed about a rebirth of the Roman Empire: after assuming power with the title of Tribuno, his reforms were rejected by the populace.[61] Forced to flee, Cola returned as part of the entourage of Cardinal Albornoz, who was charged with restoring the Church's power in Italy.[61] Back in power for a short time, Cola was soon lynched by the populace, and Albornoz took possession of the city. In 1377, Rome became the seat of the papacy again under Gregory XI.[61] The return of the pope to Rome in that year unleashed the Western Schism (1377–1418), and for the next forty years, the city was affected by the divisions which rocked the Church.[61] Early modern history Main article: Roman Renaissance Almost 500 years old, this map of Rome by Mario Cartaro shows the city's primary monuments. Castel Sant'Angelo or Hadrian's Mausoleum, is a Roman monument radically altered in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance built in 134 AD and crowned with 16th and 17th-century statues. Fontana della Barcaccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in 1629 In 1418, the Council of Constance settled the Western Schism, and a Roman pope, Martin V, was elected.[61] This brought to Rome a century of internal peace, which marked the beginning of the Renaissance.[61] The ruling popes until the first half of the 16th century, from Nicholas V, founder of the Vatican Library, to Pius II, humanist and literate, from Sixtus IV, a warrior pope, to Alexander VI, immoral and nepotist, from Julius II, soldier and patron, to Leo X, who gave his name to this period ("the century of Leo X"), all devoted their energy to the greatness and the beauty of the Eternal City and to the patronage of the arts.[61] During those years, the centre of the Italian Renaissance moved to Rome from Florence. Majestic works, as the new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity, although on Roman foundations) were created. To accomplish that, the Popes engaged the best artists of the time, including Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli. The period was also infamous for papal corruption, with many Popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the huge expenses for their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation. Under extravagant and rich popes, Rome was transformed into a centre of art, poetry, music, literature, education and culture. Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture. The Renaissance period changed the face of Rome dramatically, with works like the Pietà by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartments. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. Carnival in Rome, c. 1650 A View of the Piazza Navona, Rome, Hendrik Frans van Lint, c. 1730 In this twenty-year period, Rome became one of the greatest centres of art in the world. The old St. Peter's Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[62] (which by then was in a dilapidated state) was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Bramante, who built the temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican. Raphael, who in Rome became one of the most famous painters of Italy, created frescoes in the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, plus many other famous paintings. Michelangelo started the decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and executed the famous statue of the Moses for the tomb of Julius II. Its economy was rich, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Raphael and a patron of arts. Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins. The War of the League of Cognac caused the first plunder of the city in more than five hundred years since the previous sack; in 1527, the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles V sacked the city, bringing an abrupt end to the golden age of the Renaissance in Rome.[61] Beginning with the Council of Trent in 1545, the Church began the Counter-Reformation in response to the Reformation, a large-scale questioning of the Church's authority on spiritual matters and governmental affairs. This loss of confidence led to major shifts of power away from the Church.[61] Under the popes from Pius IV to Sixtus V, Rome became the centre of a reformed Catholicism and saw the building of new monuments which celebrated the papacy.[63] The popes and cardinals of the 17th and early 18th centuries continued the movement by having the city's landscape enriched with baroque buildings.[63] This was another nepotistic age; the new aristocratic families (Barberini, Pamphili, Chigi, Rospigliosi, Altieri, Odescalchi) were protected by their respective popes, who built huge baroque buildings for their relatives.[63] During the Age of Enlightenment, new ideas reached the Eternal City, where the papacy supported archaeological studies and improved the people's welfare.[61] But not everything went well for the Church during the Counter-Reformation. There were setbacks in the attempts to assert the Church's power, a notable example being in 1773 when Pope Clement XIV was forced by secular powers to have the Jesuit order suppressed.[61] Late modern and contemporary The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798–1800), which was established under the influence of the French Revolution. The Papal States were restored in June 1800, but during Napoleon's reign Rome was annexed as a Département of the French Empire: first as Département du Tibre (1808–1810) and then as Département Rome (1810–1814). After the fall of Napoleon, the Papal States were reconstituted by a decision of the Congress of Vienna of 1814. In 1849, a second Roman Republic was proclaimed during a year of revolutions in 1848. Two of the most influential figures of the Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought for the short-lived republic. Rome then became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification after the rest of Italy was united as the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 with the temporary capital in Florence. That year Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the Pope's control. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under French protection thanks to the foreign policy of Napoleon III. French troops were stationed in the region under Papal control. in 1870 the French troops were withdrawn due to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. Italian troops were able to capture Rome entering the city through a breach near Porta Pia. Pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican. In 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.[64] In 1870 the population of the city was 212,000, all of whom lived with the area circumscribed by the ancient city, and in 1920, the population was 660,000. A significant portion lived outside the walls in the north and across the Tiber in the Vatican area. Bombardment of Rome by Allied planes, 1943 Soon after World War I in late 1922 Rome witnessed the rise of Italian Fascism led by Benito Mussolini, who led a march on the city. He did away with democracy by 1926, eventually declaring a new Italian Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany in 1938. Mussolini demolished fairly large parts of the city centre in order to build wide avenues and squares which were supposed to celebrate the fascist regime and the resurgence and glorification of classical Rome.[65] The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population which surpassed one million inhabitants soon after 1930. During World War II, due to the art treasuries and the presence of the Vatican, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities. However, on 19 July 1943, the San Lorenzo district was bombed by Anglo-American forces, resulting in about 3,000 immediate deaths and 11,000 wounded of whom another 1,500 died. Mussolini was arrested on 25 July 1943. On the date of the Italian Armistice 8 September 1943 the city was occupied by the Germans. The Pope declared Rome an open city. It was liberated on 4 June 1944. Rome developed greatly after the war as part of the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation in the 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, the years of la dolce vita ("the sweet life"), Rome became a fashionable city, with popular classic films such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. The rising trend in population growth continued until the mid-1980s when the comune had more than 2.8 million residents. After this, the population declined slowly as people began to move to nearby suburbs. Government See also: Mayor of Rome, City Council of Rome, Elections in Rome, and Administrative subdivision of Rome Local government Rome constitutes a comune speciale, named "Roma Capitale",[66] and is the largest both in terms of land area and population among the 8,101 comuni of Italy. It is governed by a mayor and a city council. The seat of the comune is the Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitoline Hill, the historic seat of the city government. The local administration in Rome is commonly referred to as "Campidoglio", the Italian name of the hill. Administrative and historical subdivisions The municipi of Rome The Piazza della Repubblica, Rome Since 1972, the city has been divided into administrative areas, called municipi (sing. municipio) (until 2001 named circoscrizioni).[67] They were created for administrative reasons to increase decentralisation in the city. Each municipio is governed by a president and a council of twenty-five members who are elected by its residents every five years. The municipi frequently cross the boundaries of the traditional, non-administrative divisions of the city. The municipi were originally 20, then 19,[68] and in 2013, their number was reduced to 15.[69] Rome is also divided into differing types of non-administrative units. The historic centre is divided into 22 rioni, all of which are located within the Aurelian Walls except Prati and Borgo. These originate from the 14 regions of Augustan Rome, which evolved in the Middle Ages into the medieval rioni.[70] In the Renaissance, under Pope Sixtus V, they again reached fourteen, and their boundaries were finally defined under Pope Benedict XIV in 1743. A new subdivision of the city under Napoleon was ephemeral, and there were no serious changes in the organisation of the city until 1870 when Rome became the third capital of Italy. The needs of the new capital led to an explosion both in the urbanisation and in the population within and outside the Aurelian walls. In 1874, a fifteenth rione, Esquilino, was created on the newly urbanised zone of Monti. At the beginning of the 20th century other rioni were created (the last one was Prati – the only one outside the Walls of Pope Urban VIII – in 1921). Afterwards, for the new administrative subdivisions of the city, the term "quartiere" was used. Today all the rioni are part of the first Municipio, which therefore coincides completely with the historical city (Centro Storico). Metropolitan and regional government Rome is the principal town of the Metropolitan City of Rome, operative since 1 January 2015. The Metropolitan City replaced the old provincia di Roma, which included the city's metropolitan area and extends further north until Civitavecchia. The Metropolitan City of Rome is the largest by area in Italy. At 5,352 square kilometres (2,066 sq mi), its dimensions are comparable to the region of Liguria. Moreover, the city is also the capital of the Lazio region.[71] National government The Palazzo del Quirinale, now seat of the President of the Italian Republic Rome is the national capital of Italy and is the seat of the Italian Government. The official residences of the President of the Italian Republic and the Italian Prime Minister, the seats of both houses of the Italian Parliament and that of the Italian Constitutional Court are located in the historic centre. The state ministries are spread out around the city; these include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is located in Palazzo della Farnesina near the Olympic stadium. Geography Location Rome is in the Lazio region of central Italy on the Tiber (Italian: Tevere) river. The original settlement developed on hills that faced onto a ford beside the Tiber Island, the only natural ford of the river in this area. The Rome of the Kings was built on seven hills: the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Capitoline Hill, the Esquiline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Viminal Hill. Modern Rome is also crossed by another river, the Aniene, which flows into the Tiber north of the historic centre. Although the city centre is about 24 kilometres (15 mi) inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, the city territory extends to the shore, where the south-western district of Ostia is located. The altitude of the central part of Rome ranges from 13 metres (43 ft) above sea level (at the base of the Pantheon) to 139 metres (456 ft) above sea level (the peak of Monte Mario).[72] The Comune of Rome covers an overall area of about 1,285 square kilometres (496 sq mi), including many green areas. Topography Satellite image of Rome Aerial view of part of Rome's Centro Storico Throughout the history of Rome, the urban limits of the city were considered to be the area within the city's walls. Originally, these consisted of the Servian Wall, which was built twelve years after the Gaulish sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome outgrew the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when, in 270 AD, Emperor Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost 19 kilometres (12 mi) long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870. The city's urban area is cut in two by its ring-road, the Grande Raccordo Anulare ("GRA"), finished in 1962, which circles the city centre at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi). Although when the ring was completed most parts of the inhabited area lay inside it (one of the few exceptions was the former village of Ostia, which lies along the Tyrrhenian coast), in the meantime quarters have been built which extend up to 20 km (12 mi) beyond it. The comune covers an area roughly three times the total area within the Raccordo and is comparable in area to the entire metropolitan cities of Milan and Naples, and to an area six times the size of the territory of these cities. It also includes considerable areas of abandoned marshland which is suitable neither for agriculture nor for urban development. As a consequence, the density of the comune is not that high, its territory being divided between highly urbanised areas and areas designated as parks, nature reserves, and for agricultural use. Climate Main article: Climate of Rome Stone pines in the Villa Doria Pamphili Rome has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa),[73] with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters. Its average annual temperature is above 21 °C (70 °F) during the day and 9 °C (48 °F) at night. In the coldest month, January, the average temperature is 12.6 °C (54.7 °F) during the day and 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) at night. In the warmest month, August, the average temperature is 31.7 °C (89.1 °F) during the day and 17.3 °C (63.1 °F) at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with a daily mean temperature of approximately 8 °C (46 °F). Temperatures during these months generally vary between 10 and 15 °C (50 and 59 °F) during the day and between 3 and 5 °C (37 and 41 °F) at night, with colder or warmer spells occurring frequently. Snowfall is rare but not unheard of, with light snow or flurries occurring on some winters, generally without accumulation, and major snowfalls on a very rare occurrence (the most recent ones were in 2018, 2012 and 1986).[74][75][76] The average relative humidity is 75%, varying from 72% in July to 77% in November. Sea temperatures vary from a low of 13.9 °C (57.0 °F) in February to a high of 25.0 °C (77.0 °F) in August.[77] Climate data for Rome Urbe Airport (altitude: 24 m sl, 7 km north from Colosseum satellite view) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.2 (68.4) 23.6 (74.5) 27.0 (80.6) 28.3 (82.9) 33.1 (91.6) 36.8 (98.2) 40.0 (104.0) 39.6 (103.3) 37.6 (99.7) 31.4 (88.5) 26.0 (78.8) 22.8 (73.0) 40.0 (104.0) Average high °C (°F) 12.6 (54.7) 14.0 (57.2) 16.5 (61.7) 18.9 (66.0) 23.9 (75.0) 28.1 (82.6) 31.5 (88.7) 31.7 (89.1) 27.5 (81.5) 22.4 (72.3) 16.5 (61.7) 13.2 (55.8) 21.4 (70.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 7.4 (45.3) 8.4 (47.1) 10.4 (50.7) 12.9 (55.2) 17.3 (63.1) 21.2 (70.2) 24.2 (75.6) 24.5 (76.1) 20.9 (69.6) 16.4 (61.5) 11.2 (52.2) 8.2 (46.8) 15.3 (59.5) Average low °C (°F) 2.1 (35.8) 2.7 (36.9) 4.3 (39.7) 6.8 (44.2) 10.8 (51.4) 14.3 (57.7) 16.9 (62.4) 17.3 (63.1) 14.3 (57.7) 10.5 (50.9) 5.8 (42.4) 3.1 (37.6) 9.1 (48.4) Record low °C (°F) −9.8 (14.4) −6.0 (21.2) −9.0 (15.8) −2.5 (27.5) 3.7 (38.7) 6.2 (43.2) 9.8 (49.6) 8.6 (47.5) 5.4 (41.7) 0.0 (32.0) −7.2 (19.0) −5.4 (22.3) −9.8 (14.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 69.5 (2.74) 75.8 (2.98) 59.0 (2.32) 76.2 (3.00) 49.1 (1.93) 40.7 (1.60) 21.0 (0.83) 34.1 (1.34) 71.8 (2.83) 107.0 (4.21) 109.9 (4.33) 84.4 (3.32) 798.5 (31.44) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 7.6 7.4 7.8 8.8 5.6 4.1 2.3 3.2 5.6 7.7 9.1 8.5 77.7 Mean monthly sunshine hours 120.9 132.8 167.4 201.0 263.5 285.0 331.7 297.6 237.0 195.3 129.0 111.6 2,473 Source: Servizio Meteorologico[78] (1971–2000) Demographics Main article: Demographics of Italy Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1861 194,500 —     1871 212,432 +9.2% 1881 273,952 +29.0% 1901 422,411 +54.2% 1911 518,917 +22.8% 1921 660,235 +27.2% 1931 930,926 +41.0% 1936 1,150,589 +23.6% 1951 1,651,754 +43.6% 1961 2,188,160 +32.5% 1971 2,781,993 +27.1% 1981 2,840,259 +2.1% 1991 2,775,250 −2.3% 2001 2,663,182 −4.0% 2011 2,617,175 −1.7% 2017 2,876,051 +9.9% Source: ISTAT, 2001 In 550 BC, Rome was the second largest city in Italy, with Tarentum being the largest.[citation needed] It had an area of about 285 hectares (700 acres) and an estimated population of 35,000. Other sources suggest the population was just under 100,000 from 600 to 500 BC.[79][80] When the Republic was founded in 509 BC the census recorded a population of 130,000. The republic included the city itself and the immediate surroundings. Other sources suggest a population of 150,000 in 500 BC. It surpassed 300,000 in 150 BC.[81][82][83][84][85] The size of the city at the time of the Emperor Augustus is a matter of speculation, with estimates based on grain distribution, grain imports, aqueduct capacity, city limits, population density, census reports, and assumptions about the number of unreported women, children and slaves providing a very wide range. Glenn Storey estimates 450,000 people, Whitney Oates estimates 1.2 million, Neville Morely provides a rough estimate of 800,000 and excludes earlier suggestions of 2 million.[86][87][88][89] Estimates of the city's population vary. A.H.M. Jones estimated the population at 650,000 in the mid-fifth century. The damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population had already started to decline from the late fourth century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire.[90] According to Krautheimer it was still close to 800,000 in 400 AD; had declined to 500,000 by 452, and dwindled to perhaps 100,000 in 500 AD. After the Gothic Wars, 535–552, the population may have dwindled temporarily to 30,000. During the pontificate of Pope Gregory I (590–604), it may have reached 90,000, augmented by refugees.[91] Lancon estimates 500,000 based on the number of 'incisi' enrolled as eligible to receive bread, oil and wine rations; the number fell to 120,000 in the reform of 419.[92] Neil Christie, citing free rations for the poorest, estimated 500,000 in the mid-fifth century and still a quarter of a million at the end of the century.[93] Novel 36 of Emperor Valentinian III records 3.629 million pounds of pork to be distributed to the needy at 5 lbs. per month for the five winter months, sufficient for 145,000 recipients. This has been used to suggest a population of just under 500,000. Supplies of grain remained steady until the seizure of the remaining provinces of North Africa in 439 by the Vandals, and may have continued to some degree afterwards for a while. The city's population declined to less than 50,000 people in the Early Middle Ages from 700 AD onward. It continued to stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance.[94] When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, the city had a population of about 225,000. Less than half the city within the walls was built up in 1881 when the population recorded was 275,000. This increased to 600,000 by the eve of World War I. The Fascist regime of Mussolini tried to block an excessive demographic rise of the city but failed to prevent it from reaching one million people by the early 1930s.[citation needed][clarification needed] Population growth continued after the Second World War, helped by a post-war economic boom. A construction boom also created many suburbs during the 1950s and 1960s. In mid-2010, there were 2,754,440 residents in the city proper, while some 4.2 million people lived in the greater Rome area (which can be approximately identified with its administrative metropolitan city, with a population density of about 800 inhabitants/km2 stretching over more than 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi)). Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.00% of the population compared to pensioners who number 20.76%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of a Roman resident is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Rome grew by 6.54%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56%.[95] The current[when?] birth rate of Rome is 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.[citation needed] The urban area of Rome extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 3.9 million.[96] Between 3.2 and 4.2 million people live in the Rome metropolitan area.[97][98][99][100][101] Ethnic groups The Esquilino rione According to the latest statistics conducted by ISTAT,[102] approximately 9.5% of the population consists of non-Italians. About half of the immigrant population consists of those of various other European origins (chiefly Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Albanian) numbering a combined total of 131,118 or 4.7% of the population. The remaining 4.8% are those with non-European origins, chiefly Filipinos (26,933), Bangladeshis (12,154), and Chinese (10,283). The Esquilino rione, off Termini Railway Station, has evolved into a largely immigrant neighbourhood. It is perceived as Rome's Chinatown. Immigrants from more than a hundred different countries reside there. A commercial district, Esquilino contains restaurants featuring many kinds of international cuisine. There are wholesale clothes shops. Of the 1,300 or so commercial premises operating in the district 800 are Chinese-owned; around 300 are run by immigrants from other countries around the world; 200 are owned by Italians.[103] Religion Main article: Religion in Rome Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome's Cathedral, built in 324, and partly rebuilt between 1660 and 1734 Religion in Rome (2015), Percentage[104][105][106][107][108][109] Catholicism 82.0 Other or non-religious 8.0 Eastern Orthodoxy 4.0 Islam 3.8 Protestantism 0.8 Judaism 0.7 Hinduism 0.4 Buddhism 0.3 Much like the rest of Italy, Rome is predominantly Christian, and the city has been an important centre of religion and pilgrimage for centuries, the base of the ancient Roman religion with the pontifex maximus and later the seat of the Vatican and the pope. Before the arrival of the Christians in Rome, the Religio Romana (literally, the "Roman Religion") was the major religion of the city in classical antiquity. The first gods held sacred by the Romans were Jupiter, the Most High, and Mars, the god of war, and father of Rome's twin founders, Romulus and Remus, according to tradition. Other deities such as Vesta and Minerva were honoured. Rome was also the base of several mystery cults, such as Mithraism. Later, after St Peter and St Paul were martyred in the city, and the first Christians began to arrive, Rome became Christian, and the Old St. Peter's Basilica was constructed in 313 AD. Despite some interruptions (such as the Avignon papacy), Rome has for centuries been the home of the Roman Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome, otherwise known as the Pope. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, one of the four papal major basilicas and has numerous architectural styles, built between the 4th century and 1743 Despite the fact that Rome is home to the Vatican City and St. Peter's Basilica, Rome's cathedral is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, in the south-east of the city centre. There are around 900 churches in Rome in total. Aside from the cathedral itself, some others of note include the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, the Basilica di San Clemente, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and the Church of the Gesù. There are also the ancient Catacombs of Rome underneath the city. Numerous highly important religious educational institutions are also in Rome, such as the Pontifical Lateran University, Pontifical Biblical Institute, Pontifical Gregorian University, and Pontifical Oriental Institute. Since the end of the Roman Republic, Rome is also the centre of an important Jewish community,[110] which was once based in Trastevere, and later in the Roman Ghetto. There lies also the major synagogue in Rome, the Tempio Maggiore. Vatican City Main article: Vatican City St. Peter's Square in Vatican City The territory of Vatican City is part of the Mons Vaticanus (Vatican Hill), and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields, where St. Peter's Basilica, the Apostolic Palace, the Sistine Chapel, and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city on the west bank of the Tiber, the area was a suburb that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV, later expanded by the current fortification walls of Paul III, Pius IV, and Urban VIII. When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that created the Vatican state was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some parts of the border, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary, and for a small part a new wall was constructed. The territory includes Saint Peter's Square, separated from the territory of Italy only by a white line along with the limit of the square, where it borders Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach was designed by architects Piacentini and Spaccarelli, on the instructions of Benito Mussolini and in accordance with the church, after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies. Pilgrimage St. Peter's Basilica at night from Via della Conciliazione in Rome Rome has been a major Christian pilgrimage site since the Middle Ages. People from all over the Christian world visit Vatican City, within the city of Rome, the seat of the papacy. The city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and holy city for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377). Catholics believe that the Vatican is the last resting place of St. Peter. Pilgrimages to Rome can involve visits to many sites, both within Vatican City and in Italian territory. A popular stopping point is the Pilate's stairs: these are, according to the Christian tradition, the steps that led up to the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem, which Jesus Christ stood on during his Passion on his way to trial.[111] The stairs were, reputedly, brought to Rome by Helena of Constantinople in the fourth century. For centuries, the Scala Santa has attracted Christian pilgrims who wished to honour the Passion of Jesus. Other objects of pilgrimage include several catacombs built in imperial times, in which Christians prayed, buried their dead and performed worship during periods of persecution, and various national churches (among them San Luigi dei francesi and Santa Maria dell'Anima), or churches associated with individual religious orders, such as the Jesuit Churches of Jesus and Sant'Ignazio. Traditionally, pilgrims in Rome (as well as devout Romans) visit the seven pilgrim churches (Italian: Le sette chiese) in 24 hours. This custom, mandatory for each pilgrim in the Middle Ages, was codified in the 16th century by Saint Philip Neri. The seven churches are the four major basilicas (St Peter in the Vatican, St Paul outside the Walls, St John in Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore), while the other three are San Lorenzo fuori le mura (an Early Christian basilica), Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (a church founded by Helena, the mother of Constantine, which hosts fragments of wood attributed to the holy cross) and San Sebastiano fuori le mura (which lies on the Appian Way and is built above the Catacombs of San Sebastiano). Cityscape See also: List of tourist attractions in Rome and List of streets in Rome Architecture Main articles: Architecture of Rome and Churches of Rome The Pantheon, built as a temple dedicated to "all the gods of the past, present and future" The Colosseum is still today the largest amphitheater in the world.[112] It was used for gladiator shows and other public events (hunting shows, recreations of famous battles and dramas based on classical mythology). Rome's architecture over the centuries has greatly developed, especially from the Classical and Imperial Roman styles to modern fascist architecture. Rome was for a period one of the world's main epicentres of classical architecture, developing new forms such as the arch, the dome and the vault.[113] The Romanesque style in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries was also widely used in Roman architecture, and later the city became one of the main centres of Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical architecture.[113] Ancient Rome Main articles: List of ancient monuments in Rome and Ancient Roman architecture One of the symbols of Rome is the Colosseum (70–80 AD), the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire. Originally capable of seating 60,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial combat. Important monuments and sites of ancient Rome include the Roman Forum, the Domus Aurea, the Pantheon, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Market, the Catacombs, the Circus Maximus, the Baths of Caracalla, Castel Sant'Angelo, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the Bocca della Verità. Medieval The medieval popular quarters of the city, situated mainly around the Capitol, were largely demolished between the end of the 19th century and the fascist period, but many notable buildings still remain. Basilicas dating from Christian antiquity include Saint Mary Major and Saint Paul outside the Walls (the latter largely rebuilt in the 19th century), both housing precious fourth century AD mosaics. Notable later medieval mosaics and frescoes can be also found in the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santi Quattro Coronati, and Santa Prassede. Secular buildings include a number of towers, the largest being the Torre delle Milizie and the Torre dei Conti, both next to the Roman Forum, and the huge outdoor stairway leading up to the basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Renaissance and Baroque Rome was a major world centre of the Renaissance, second only to Florence, and was profoundly affected by the movement. Among others, a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Rome is the Piazza del Campidoglio by Michelangelo. During this period, the great aristocratic families of Rome used to build opulent dwellings as the Palazzo del Quirinale (now seat of the President of the Italian Republic), the Palazzo Venezia, the Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Chigi (now seat of the Italian Prime Minister), the Palazzo Spada, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the Villa Farnesina. Panoramic view of Piazza del Campidoglio, with a copy of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Many of the famous city's squares – some huge, majestic and often adorned with obelisks, some small and picturesque – took their present shape during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. The principal ones are Piazza Navona, the Spanish Steps, Campo de' Fiori, Piazza Venezia, Piazza Farnese, Piazza della Rotonda and Piazza della Minerva. One of the most emblematic examples of Baroque art is the Trevi Fountain by Nicola Salvi. Other notable 17th-century baroque palaces are the Palazzo Madama, now the seat of the Italian Senate, and the Palazzo Montecitorio, now the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy. Neoclassicism The Victor Emmanuel II Monument In 1870, Rome became the capital city of the new Kingdom of Italy. During this time, neoclassicism, a building style influenced by the architecture of antiquity, became the predominant influence in Roman architecture. During this period, many great palaces in neoclassical styles were built to host ministries, embassies, and other government agencies. One of the best-known symbols of Roman neoclassicism is the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II or "Altar of the Fatherland", where the Grave of the Unknown Soldier, who represents the 650,000 Italian soldiers who died in World War I, is located. Fascist architecture The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in EUR district See also: Fascist architecture The Fascist regime that ruled in Italy between 1922 and 1943 had its showcase in Rome. Mussolini ordered the construction of new roads and piazzas, resulting in the destruction of older roads, houses, churches and palaces erected during papal rule. The main activities during his government were: the "isolation" of the Capitoline Hill; Via dei Monti, later renamed Via del'Impero, and finally Via dei Fori Imperiali; Via del Mare, later renamed Via del Teatro di Marcello; the "isolation" of the Mausoleum of Augustus, with the erection of Piazza Augusto Imperatore; and Via della Conciliazione. Architecturally, Italian Fascism favoured the most modern movements, such as Rationalism. Parallel to this, in the 1920s another style emerged, named "Stile Novecento", characterised by its links with ancient Roman architecture. Two important complexes in the latter style are the Foro Mussolini, now Foro Italico, by Enrico Del Debbio, and the Città universitaria ("University city"), by Marcello Piacentini, also author of the controversial destruction of part of the Borgo rione to open Via della Conciliazione. The most important Fascist site in Rome is the EUR district, designed in 1938 by Piacentini. This new quarter emerged as a compromise between Rationalist and Novecento architects, the former being led by Giuseppe Pagano. The EUR was originally conceived for the 1942 world exhibition, and was called "E.42" ("Esposizione 42"). The most representative buildings of EUR are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938–1943), and the Palazzo dei Congressi, examples of the Rationalist style. The world exhibition never took place, because Italy entered the Second World War in 1940, and the buildings were partly destroyed in 1943 in fighting between the Italian and German armies and later abandoned. The quarter was restored in the 1950s when the Roman authorities found that they already had the seed of an off-centre business district of the type that other capitals were still planning (London Docklands and La Défense in Paris). Also, the Palazzo della Farnesina, the current seat of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was designed in 1935 in pure Fascist style. Parks and gardens Main article: List of parks and gardens in Rome The Temple of Aesculapius, in the Villa Borghese gardens Public parks and nature reserves cover a large area in Rome, and the city has one of the largest areas of green space among European capitals.[114] The most notable part of this green space is represented by the large number of villas and landscaped gardens created by the Italian aristocracy. While most of the parks surrounding the villas were destroyed during the building boom of the late 19th century, some of them remain. The most notable of these are the Villa Borghese, Villa Ada, and Villa Doria Pamphili. Villa Doria Pamphili is west of the Gianicolo hill, comprising some 1.8 square kilometres (0.7 sq mi). The Villa Sciarra is on the hill, with playgrounds for children and shaded walking areas. In the nearby area of Trastevere, the Orto Botanico (Botanical Garden) is a cool and shady green space. The old Roman hippodrome (Circus Maximus) is another large green space: it has few trees but is overlooked by the Palatine and the Rose Garden ('roseto comunale'). Nearby is the lush Villa Celimontana, close to the gardens surrounding the Baths of Caracalla. The Villa Borghese garden is the best known large green space in Rome, with famous art galleries among its shaded walks. Overlooking Piazza del Popolo and the Spanish Steps are the gardens of Pincio and Villa Medici. There is also a notable pine wood at Castelfusano, near Ostia. Rome also has a number of regional parks of much more recent origin, including the Pineto Regional Park and the Appian Way Regional Park. There are also nature reserves at Marcigliana and at Tenuta di Castelporziano. Fountains and aqueducts Main articles: List of fountains in Rome and List of aqueducts in the city of Rome The Trevi Fountain. Construction began during the time of Ancient Rome and was completed in 1762 by a design of Nicola Salvi. Rome is a city famous for its numerous fountains, built-in all different styles, from Classical and Medieval, to Baroque and Neoclassical. The city has had fountains for more than two thousand years, and they have provided drinking water and decorated the piazzas of Rome. During the Roman Empire, in 98 AD, according to Sextus Julius Frontinus, the Roman consul who was named curator aquarum or guardian of the water of the city, Rome had nine aqueducts which fed 39 monumental fountains and 591 public basins, not counting the water supplied to the Imperial household, baths, and owners of private villas. Each of the major fountains was connected to two different aqueducts, in case one was shut down for service.[115] During the 17th and 18th century, the Roman popes reconstructed other ruined Roman aqueducts and built new display fountains to mark their termini, launching the golden age of the Roman fountain. The fountains of Rome, like the paintings of Rubens, were expressions of the new style of Baroque art. They were crowded with allegorical figures and filled with emotion and movement. In these fountains, sculpture became the principal element, and the water was used simply to animate and decorate the sculptures. They, like baroque gardens, were "a visual representation of confidence and power".[116] Statues See also: Talking statues of Rome Fontana dei Fiumi by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648 Rome is well known for its statues but, in particular, the talking statues of Rome. These are usually ancient statues which have become popular soapboxes for political and social discussion, and places for people to (often satirically) voice their opinions. There are two main talking statues: the Pasquino and the Marforio, yet there are four other noted ones: il Babuino, Madama Lucrezia, il Facchino and Abbot Luigi. Most of these statues are ancient Roman or classical, and most of them also depict mythical gods, ancient people or legendary figures; il Pasquino represents Menelaus, Abbot Luigi is an unknown Roman magistrate, il Babuino is supposed to be Silenus, Marforio represents Oceanus, Madama Lucrezia is a bust of Isis, and il Facchino is the only non-Roman statue, created in 1580, and not representing anyone in particular. They are often, due to their status, covered with placards or graffiti expressing political ideas and points of view. Other statues in the city, which are not related to the talking statues, include those of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, or several monuments scattered across the city, such as that to Giordano Bruno in the Campo de'Fiori. Obelisks and columns Main article: List of obelisks in Rome Flaminio Obelisk, Piazza del Popolo The city hosts eight ancient Egyptian and five ancient Roman obelisks, together with a number of more modern obelisks; there was also formerly (until 2005) an ancient Ethiopian obelisk in Rome.[117] The city contains some of obelisks in piazzas, such as in Piazza Navona, St Peter's Square, Piazza Montecitorio, and Piazza del Popolo, and others in villas, thermae parks and gardens, such as in Villa Celimontana, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Pincian Hill. Moreover, the centre of Rome hosts also Trajan's and Antonine Column, two ancient Roman columns with spiral relief. The Column of Marcus Aurelius is located in Piazza Colonna and it was built around 180 AD by Commodus in memory of his parents. The Column of Marcus Aurelius was inspired by Trajan's Column at Trajan's Forum, which is part of the Imperial Fora[118] Bridges Main article: List of bridges in Rome Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II at sunset The city of Rome contains numerous famous bridges which cross the Tiber. The only bridge to remain unaltered until today from the classical age is Ponte dei Quattro Capi, which connects the Isola Tiberina with the left bank. The other surviving – albeit modified – ancient Roman bridges crossing the Tiber are Ponte Cestio, Ponte Sant'Angelo and Ponte Milvio. Considering Ponte Nomentano, also built during ancient Rome, which crosses the Aniene, currently there are five ancient Roman bridges still remaining in the city.[119] Other noteworthy bridges are Ponte Sisto, the first bridge built in the Renaissance above Roman foundations; Ponte Rotto, actually the only remaining arch of the ancient Pons Aemilius, collapsed during the flood of 1598 and demolished at the end of the 19th century; and Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II, a modern bridge connecting Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Borgo. Most of the city's public bridges were built in Classical or Renaissance style, but also in Baroque, Neoclassical and Modern styles. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the finest ancient bridge remaining in Rome is the Ponte Sant'Angelo, which was completed in 135 AD, and was decorated with ten statues of the angels, designed by Bernini in 1688.[120] Catacombs Main article: Catacombs of Rome The Vatican Caves, the place where many popes are buried Rome has an extensive amount of ancient catacombs, or underground burial places under or near the city, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. Though most famous for Christian burials, they include pagan and Jewish burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together. The first large-scale catacombs were excavated from the 2nd century onwards. Originally they were carved through tuff, a soft volcanic rock, outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. Currently, maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the Papacy which has invested in the Salesians of Don Bosco the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome. Economy As the capital of Italy, Rome hosts all the principal institutions of the nation, including the Presidency of the Republic, the government (and its single Ministeri), the Parliament, the main judicial Courts, and the diplomatic representatives of all the countries for the states of Italy and Vatican City. Many international institutions are located in Rome, notably cultural and scientific ones, such as the American Institute, the British School, the French Academy, the Scandinavian Institutes, and the German Archaeological Institute. There are also specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the FAO. Rome also hosts major international and worldwide political and cultural organisations, such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Food Programme (WFP), the NATO Defense College and the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). Panoramic view of the EUR business district According to the GaWC study of world cities, Rome is a "Beta +" city.[121] The city was ranked in 2014 as 32nd in the Global Cities Index, the highest in Italy.[122] With a 2005 GDP of €94.376 billion (US$121.5 billion),[123][needs update] the city produces 6.7% of the national GDP (more than any other single city in Italy), and its unemployment rate, lowered from 11.1% to 6.5% between 2001 and 2005, is now one of the lowest rates of all the European Union capital cities.[123] Rome's economy grows at around 4.4% annually and continues to grow at a higher rate in comparison to any other city in the rest of the country.[123] This means that were Rome a country, it would be the world's 52nd richest country by GDP, near to the size to that of Egypt. Rome also had a 2003 GDP per capita of €29,153 (US$37,412), which was second in Italy, (after Milan), and is more than 134.1% of the EU average GDP per capita.[124][needs update] Rome, on the whole, has the highest total earnings in Italy, reaching €47,076,890,463 in 2008,[125][needs update] yet, in terms of average workers' incomes, the city places itself 9th in Italy, with €24,509.[125] On a global level, Rome's workers receive the 30th highest wages in 2009, coming three places higher than in 2008, in which the city ranked 33rd.[126][needs update] The Rome area had a GDP amounting to $167.8 billion, and $38,765 per capita.[127] Rome chamber of commerce in the ancient Temple of Hadrian Although the economy of Rome is characterised by the absence of heavy industry and it is largely dominated by services, high-technology companies (IT, aerospace, defence, telecommunications), research, construction and commercial activities (especially banking), and the huge development of tourism are very dynamic and extremely important to its economy. Rome's international airport, Fiumicino, is the largest in Italy, and the city hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Italian companies, as well as the headquarters of three of the world's 100 largest companies: Enel, Eni, and Telecom Italia.[128] Universities, national radio and television and the movie industry in Rome are also important parts of the economy: Rome is also the hub of the Italian film industry, thanks to the Cinecittà studios, working since the 1930s. The city is also a centre for banking and insurance as well as electronics, energy, transport, and aerospace industries. Numerous international companies and agencies headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues, and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR); the Torrino (further south from the EUR); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina. Education The Sapienza University of Rome, founded in 1303 Rome is a nationwide and major international centre for higher education, containing numerous academies, colleges and universities. It boasts a large variety of academies and colleges, and has always been a major worldwide intellectual and educational centre, especially during Ancient Rome and the Renaissance, along with Florence.[129] According to the City Brands Index, Rome is considered the world's second most historically, educationally and culturally interesting and beautiful city.[130] Rome has many universities and colleges. Its first university, La Sapienza (founded in 1303), is one of the largest in the world, with more than 140,000 students attending; in 2005 it ranked as Europe's 33rd best university[131] and in 2013 the Sapienza University of Rome ranked as the 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.[132] and has been ranked among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges.[133] In order to decrease the overcrowding of La Sapienza, two new public universities were founded during the last decades: Tor Vergata in 1982, and Roma Tre in 1992. Rome hosts also the LUISS School of Government,[134] Italy's most important graduate university in the areas of international affairs and European studies as well as LUISS Business School, Italy's most important business school. Rome ISIA was founded in 1973 by Giulio Carlo Argan and is Italy's oldest institution in the field of industrial design. Biblioteca Casanatense Rome contains many pontifical universities and other institutes, including the British School at Rome, the French School in Rome, the Pontifical Gregorian University (the oldest Jesuit university in the world, founded in 1551), Istituto Europeo di Design, the Scuola Lorenzo de' Medici, the Link Campus of Malta, and the Università Campus Bio-Medico. Rome is also the location of two American Universities; The American University of Rome[135] and John Cabot University as well as St. John's University branch campus, John Felice Rome Center, a campus of Loyola University Chicago and Temple University Rome, a campus of Temple University.[136] The Roman Colleges are several seminaries for students from foreign countries studying for the priesthood at the Pontifical Universities.[137] Examples include the Venerable English College, the Pontifical North American College, the Scots College, and the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome. National Central Library Rome's major libraries include: the Biblioteca Angelica, opened in 1604, making it Italy's first public library; the Biblioteca Vallicelliana, established in 1565; the Biblioteca Casanatense, opened in 1701; the National Central Library, one of the two national libraries in Italy, which contains 4,126,002 volumes; The Biblioteca del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, specialised in diplomacy, foreign affairs and modern history; the Biblioteca dell'Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana; the Biblioteca Don Bosco, one of the largest and most modern of all Salesian libraries; the Biblioteca e Museo teatrale del Burcardo, a museum-library specialised in history of drama and theatre; the Biblioteca della Società Geografica Italiana, which is based in the Villa Celimontana and is the most important geographical library in Italy, and one of Europe's most important;[138] and the Vatican Library, one of the oldest and most important libraries in the world, which was formally established in 1475, though in fact much older and has 75,000 codices, as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. There are also many specialist libraries attached to various foreign cultural institutes in Rome, among them that of the American Academy in Rome, the French Academy in Rome and the Bibliotheca Hertziana – Max Planck Institute of Art History, a German library, often noted for excellence in the arts and sciences;[139] Culture Main article: Culture in Rome Entertainment and performing arts Main articles: Music of Rome and Events in Rome The Teatro dell'Opera di Roma at the Piazza Beniamino Gigli Rome is an important centre for music, and it has an intense musical scene, including several prestigious music conservatories and theatres. It hosts the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (founded in 1585), for which new concert halls have been built in the new Parco della Musica, one of the largest musical venues in the world. Rome also has an opera house, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, as well as several minor musical institutions. The city also played host to the Eurovision Song Contest in 1991 and the MTV Europe Music Awards in 2004. Rome has also had a major impact on music history. The Roman School was a group of composers of predominantly church music, which were active in the city during the 16th and 17th centuries, therefore spanning the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. The term also refers to the music they produced. Many of the composers had a direct connection to the Vatican and the papal chapel, though they worked at several churches; stylistically they are often contrasted with the Venetian School of composers, a concurrent movement which was much more progressive. By far the most famous composer of the Roman School is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose name has been associated for four hundred years with smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection. However, there were other composers working in Rome, and in a variety of styles and forms. Between 1960 and 1970 Rome was considered to be as a “new Hollywood” because of the many actors and directors who worked there; Via Vittorio Veneto had transformed into a glamour place where you could meet famous people.[140] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Rome The Spanish Steps Ostia Lido beach Rome today is one of the most important tourist destinations of the world, due to the incalculable immensity of its archaeological and artistic treasures, as well as for the charm of its unique traditions, the beauty of its panoramic views, and the majesty of its magnificent "villas" (parks). Among the most significant resources are the many museums – Musei Capitolini, the Vatican Museums and the Galleria Borghese and others dedicated to modern and contemporary art – aqueducts, fountains, churches, palaces, historical buildings, the monuments and ruins of the Roman Forum, and the Catacombs. Rome is the third most visited city in the EU, after London and Paris, and receives an average of 7–10 million tourists a year, which sometimes doubles on holy years. The Colosseum (4 million tourists) and the Vatican Museums (4.2 million tourists) are the 39th and 37th (respectively) most visited places in the world, according to a recent study.[141] Rome is a major archaeological hub, and one of the world's main centres of archaeological research. There are numerous cultural and research institutes located in the city, such as the American Academy in Rome,[142] and The Swedish Institute at Rome.[143] Rome contains numerous ancient sites, including the Forum Romanum, Trajan's Market, Trajan's Forum,[144] the Colosseum, and the Pantheon, to name but a few. The Colosseum, arguably one of Rome's most iconic archaeological sites, is regarded as a wonder of the world.[145][146] Rome contains a vast and impressive collection of art, sculpture, fountains, mosaics, frescos, and paintings, from all different periods. Rome first became a major artistic centre during ancient Rome, with forms of important Roman art such as architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Metal-work, coin die and gem engraving, ivory carvings, figurine glass, pottery, and book illustrations are considered to be 'minor' forms of Roman artwork.[147] Rome later became a major centre of Renaissance art, since the popes spent vast sums of money for the constructions of grandiose basilicas, palaces, piazzas and public buildings in general. Rome became one of Europe's major centres of Renaissance artwork, second only to Florence, and able to compare to other major cities and cultural centres, such as Paris and Venice. The city was affected greatly by the baroque, and Rome became the home of numerous artists and architects, such as Bernini, Caravaggio, Carracci, Borromini and Cortona.[148] In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the city was one of the centres of the Grand Tour,[149] when wealthy, young English and other European aristocrats visited the city to learn about ancient Roman culture, art, philosophy, and architecture. Rome hosted a great number of neoclassical and rococo artists, such as Pannini and Bernardo Bellotto. Today, the city is a major artistic centre, with numerous art institutes[150] and museums. Internal view of the Colosseum The Vatican Museums are the 3rd most visited art museum in the world. Rome has a growing stock of contemporary and modern art and architecture. The National Gallery of Modern Art has works by Balla, Morandi, Pirandello, Carrà, De Chirico, De Pisis, Guttuso, Fontana, Burri, Mastroianni, Turcato, Kandisky, and Cézanne on permanent exhibition. 2010 saw the opening of Rome's newest arts foundation, a contemporary art and architecture gallery designed by acclaimed Iraqi architect Zaha Hadid. Known as MAXXI – National Museum of the 21st Century Arts it restores a dilapidated area with striking modern architecture. Maxxi[151] features a campus dedicated to culture, experimental research laboratories, international exchange and study and research. It is one of Rome's most ambitious modern architecture projects alongside Renzo Piano's Auditorium Parco della Musica[152] and Massimiliano Fuksas' Rome Convention Center, Centro Congressi Italia EUR, in the EUR district, due to open in 2016.[153] The convention centre features a huge translucent container inside which is suspended a steel and teflon structure resembling a cloud and which contains meeting rooms and an auditorium with two piazzas open to the neighbourhood on either side. Fashion Via Condotti Rome is also widely recognised as a world fashion capital. Although not as important as Milan, Rome is the fourth most important centre for fashion in the world, according to the 2009 Global Language Monitor after Milan, New York, and Paris, and beating London.[154] Major luxury fashion houses and jewellery chains, such as Valentino, Bulgari, Fendi,[155] Laura Biagiotti, Brioni, and Renato Balestra, are headquartered or were founded in the city. Also, other major labels, such as Gucci, Chanel, Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Armani, and Versace have luxury boutiques in Rome, primarily along its prestigious and upscale Via dei Condotti. Cuisine Main article: Roman cuisine Spaghetti alla Carbonara, a typical Roman dish Rome's cuisine has evolved through centuries and periods of social, cultural, and political changes. Rome became a major gastronomical centre during the ancient Age. Ancient Roman cuisine was highly influenced by Ancient Greek culture, and after, the empire's enormous expansion exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. Later, during the Renaissance, Rome became well known as a centre of high-cuisine, since some of the best chefs of the time worked for the popes. An example of this was Bartolomeo Scappi, who was a chef working for Pius IV in the Vatican kitchen, and he acquired fame in 1570 when his cookbook Opera dell'arte del cucinare was published. In the book he lists approximately 1000 recipes of the Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork.[156] Concia di zucchine, an example of Roman-Jewish cuisine The Testaccio rione, Rome's trade and slaughterhouse area, was often known as the "belly" or "slaughterhouse" of Rome, and was inhabited by butchers, or vaccinari.[157] The most common or ancient Roman cuisine included the "fifth quarter".[157] The old-fashioned coda alla vaccinara (oxtail cooked in the way of butchers)[157] is still one of the city's most popular meals and is part of most of Rome's restaurants' menus. Lamb is also a very popular part of Roman cuisine, and is often roasted with spices and herbs.[157] In the modern age, the city developed its own peculiar cuisine, based on products of the nearby Campagna, as lamb and vegetables (globe artichokes are common).[158] In parallel, Roman Jews – present in the city since the 1st century BC – developed their own cuisine, the cucina giudaico-romanesca. Examples of Roman dishes include "Saltimbocca alla Romana" – a veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter; "Carciofi alla romana" – artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Carciofi alla giudia" – artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Spaghetti alla carbonara" – spaghetti with bacon, eggs and pecorino, and "Gnocchi di semolino alla romana" – semolina dumpling, Roman-style, to name but a few.[159] Cinema Main articles: List of films set in Rome and List of films set in ancient Rome Entrance to the Cinecittà studios Roman Holiday with Audrey Hepburn and Gregory Peck, 1953 Rome hosts the Cinecittà Studios,[160] the largest film and television production facility in continental Europe and the centre of the Italian cinema, where many of today's biggest box office hits are filmed. The 99-acre (40 ha) studio complex is 9.0 kilometres (5.6 mi) from the centre of Rome and is part of one of the biggest production communities in the world, second only to Hollywood, with well over 5,000 professionals – from period costume makers to visual effects specialists. More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, from recent features like The Passion of the Christ, Gangs of New York, HBO's Rome, The Life Aquatic and Dino De Laurentiis' Decameron, to such cinema classics as Ben-Hur, Cleopatra, and the films of Federico Fellini.[citation needed] Founded in 1937 by Benito Mussolini, the studios were bombed by the Western Allies during the Second World War. In the 1950s, Cinecittà was the filming location for several large American film productions, and subsequently became the studio most closely associated with Federico Fellini. Today, Cinecittà is the only studio in the world with pre-production, production, and full post-production facilities on one lot, allowing directors and producers to walk in with their script and "walkout" with a completed film.[citation needed] Language This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Roman dialect and Latin Latin inscription, National Roman Museum Although associated today only with Latin, ancient Rome was in fact multilingual. In the highest antiquity, Sabine tribes shared the area of what is today Rome with Latin tribes. The Sabine language was one of the Italic group of ancient Italian languages, along with Etruscan, which would have been the main language of the last three kings who ruled the city till the founding of the Republic in 509 BC. Urganilla, or Plautia Urgulanilla, wife of Emperor Claudius, is thought to have been a speaker of Etruscan many centuries after this date, according to Suetonius' entry on Claudius. However Latin, in various evolving forms, was the main language of classical Rome, but as the city had immigrants, slaves, residents, ambassadors from many parts of the world it was also multilingual. Many educated Romans also spoke Greek, and there was a large Greek, Syriac and Jewish population in parts of Rome from well before the Empire. Latin evolved during the Middle Ages into a new language, the "volgare". The latter emerged as the confluence of various regional dialects, among which the Tuscan dialect predominated, but the population of Rome also developed its own dialect, the Romanesco. The Romanesco spoken during the Middle Ages was more like a southern Italian dialect, very close to the Neapolitan language in Campania. The influence of the Florentine culture during the renaissance, and above all, the immigration to Rome of many Florentines following the two Medici Popes (Leo X and Clement VII), caused a major shift in the dialect, which began to resemble more the Tuscan varieties. This remained largely confined to Rome until the 19th century, but then expanded to other zones of Lazio (Civitavecchia, Latina and others), from the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the rising population of Rome and to improving transportation systems. As a consequence of education and media like radio and television, Romanesco became more similar to standard Italian but does not represent standard Italian. Dialectal literature in the traditional form of Romanesco includes the works of such authors as Giuseppe Gioachino Belli (one of the most important Italian poets altogether), Trilussa and Cesare Pascarella. It is worth remembering though that Romanesco was a "lingua vernacola" (vernacular language), meaning that for centuries, it did not have a written form but it was only spoken by the population. Contemporary Romanesco is mainly represented by popular actors and actresses, such as Alberto Sordi, Aldo Fabrizi, Anna Magnani. Carlo Verdone, Enrico Montesano, Gigi Proietti and Nino Manfredi. Rome's historic contribution to language in a worldwide sense is much more extensive, however. Through the process of Romanization, the peoples of Italy, Gallia, the Iberian Peninsula and Dacia developed languages which derive directly from Latin and were adopted in large areas of the world, all through cultural influence, colonisation and migration. Moreover, also modern English, because of the Norman Conquest, borrowed a large percentage of its vocabulary from the Latin language. The Roman or Latin alphabet is the most widely used writing system in the world used by the greatest number of languages.[161] Rome has long hosted artistic communities, foreign resident communities and many foreign religious students or pilgrims and so has always been a multilingual city. Today because of mass tourism, many languages are used in servicing tourism, especially English which is widely known in tourist areas, and the city hosts large numbers of immigrants and so has many multilingual immigrant areas. Sports Stadio Olimpico, home of A.S. Roma and S.S. Lazio, is one of the largest in Europe, with a capacity of over 70,000.[162] Association football is the most popular sport in Rome, as in the rest of the country. The city hosted the final games of the 1934 and 1990 FIFA World Cup. The latter took place in the Stadio Olimpico, which is also the shared home stadium for local Serie A clubs S.S. Lazio, founded in 1900, and A.S. Roma, founded in 1927, whose rivalry in the Derby della Capitale has become a staple of Roman sports culture.[163] Footballers who play for these teams and are also born in the city tend to become especially popular, as has been the case with players such as Francesco Totti and Daniele De Rossi (both for A.S. Roma), and Alessandro Nesta (for S.S. Lazio). Stadio dei Marmi Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics, with great success, using many ancient sites such as the Villa Borghese and the Thermae of Caracalla as venues. For the Olympic Games many new facilities were built, notably the new large Olympic Stadium (which was then enlarged and renewed to host several matches and the final of the 1990 FIFA World Cup), the Stadio Flaminio, the Villaggio Olimpico (Olympic Village, created to host the athletes and redeveloped after the games as a residential district), ecc. Rome made a bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics but it was withdrawn before the deadline for applicant files.[164][165] Further, Rome hosted the 1991 EuroBasket and is home to the internationally recognised basketball team Virtus Roma. Rugby union is gaining wider acceptance. Until 2011 the Stadio Flaminio was the home stadium for the Italy national rugby union team, which has been playing in the Six Nations Championship since 2000. The team now plays home games at the Stadio Olimpico because the Stadio Flaminio needs works of renovation in order to improve both its capacity and safety. Rome is home to local rugby union teams such as Rugby Roma (founded in 1930 and winner of five Italian championships, the latter in 1999–2000), Unione Rugby Capitolina and S.S. Lazio 1927 (rugby union branch of the multisport club S.S. Lazio). Every May, Rome hosts the ATP Masters Series tennis tournament on the clay courts of the Foro Italico. Cycling was popular in the post-World War II period, although its popularity has faded. Rome has hosted the final portion of the Giro d'Italia three times, in 1911, 1950, and 2009. Rome is also home to other sports teams, including volleyball (M. Roma Volley), handball or waterpolo. Transport Main article: Transport in Rome Rome–Fiumicino Airport was the tenth busiest airport in Europe in 2016. Port of Civitavecchia Rome is at the centre of the radial network of roads that roughly follow the lines of the ancient Roman roads which began at the Capitoline Hill and connected Rome with its empire. Today Rome is circled, at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi) from the Capitol, by the ring-road (the Grande Raccordo Anulare or GRA). Due to its location in the centre of the Italian peninsula, Rome is the principal railway node for central Italy. Rome's main railway station, Termini, is one of the largest railway stations in Europe and the most heavily used in Italy, with around 400 thousand travellers passing through every day. The second-largest station in the city, Roma Tiburtina, has been redeveloped as a high-speed rail terminus.[166] As well as frequent high-speed day trains to all major Italian cities, Rome is linked nightly by 'boat train' sleeper services to Sicily, and internationally by overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna by ÖBB Austrian railways. Rome is served by three airports. The intercontinental Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, Italy's chief airport is located within the nearby Fiumicino, south-west of Rome. The older Rome Ciampino Airport is a joint civilian and military airport. It is commonly referred to as "Ciampino Airport", as it is located beside Ciampino, south-east of Rome. A third airport, the Roma-Urbe Airport, is a small, low-traffic airport located about 6 km (4 mi) north of the city centre, which handles most helicopter and private flights. Although the city has its own quarter on the Mediterranean Sea (Lido di Ostia), this has only a marina and a small channel-harbour for fishing boats. The main harbour which serves Rome is Port of Civitavecchia, located about 62 kilometres (39 miles) northwest of the city.[167] The city suffers from traffic problems largely due to this radial street pattern, making it difficult for Romans to move easily from the vicinity of one of the radial roads to another without going into the historic centre or using the ring-road. These problems are not helped by the limited size of Rome's metro system when compared to other cities of similar size. In addition, Rome has only 21 taxis for every 10,000 inhabitants, far below other major European cities.[168] Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to restrictions being placed on vehicle access to the inner city-centre during the hours of daylight. Areas, where these restrictions apply, are known as Limited Traffic Zones (Zona a Traffico Limitato (ZTL) in Italian). More recently, heavy night-time traffic in Trastevere, Testaccio and San Lorenzo has led to the creation of night-time ZTLs in those districts. Roma Metrorail and Underground map, 2016 Conca d'Oro metro station A 3-line metro system called the Metropolitana operates in Rome. Construction on the first branch started in the 1930s.[169] The line had been planned to quickly connect the main railway station with the newly planned E42 area in the southern suburbs, where 1942 the World Fair was supposed to be held. The event never took place because of war, but the area was later partly redesigned and renamed EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma: Rome Universal Exhibition) in the 1950s to serve as a modern business district. The line was finally opened in 1955, and it is now the south part of the B Line. The A line opened in 1980 from Ottaviano to Anagnina stations, later extended in stages (1999–2000) to Battistini. In the 1990s, an extension of the B line was opened from Termini to Rebibbia. This underground network is generally reliable (although it may become very congested at peak times and during events, especially the A line) as it is relatively short. The A and B lines intersect at Roma Termini station. A new branch of the B line (B1) opened on 13 June 2012 after an estimated building cost of €500 million. B1 connects to line B at Piazza Bologna and has four stations over a distance of 3.9 km (2 mi). A third line, the C line, is under construction with an estimated cost of €3 billion and will have 30 stations over a distance of 25.5 km (16 mi). It will partly replace the existing Termini-Pantano rail line. It will feature full automated, driverless trains.[170] The first section with 15 stations connecting Pantano with the quarter of Centocelle in the eastern part of the city, opened on 9 November 2014.[171] The end of the work was scheduled in 2015, but archaeological findings often delay underground construction work. A fourth line, D line, is also planned. It will have 22 stations over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). The first section was projected to open in 2015 and the final sections before 2035, but due to the city's financial crisis, the project has been put on hold. Above-ground public transport in Rome is made up of a bus, tram and urban train network (FR lines). The bus, tram, metro and urban railways network is run by Atac S.p.A. (which originally stood for the Municipal Bus and Tramways Company, Azienda Tramvie e Autobus del Comune in Italian). The bus network has in excess of 350 bus lines and over eight thousand bus stops, whereas the more-limited tram system has 39 km (24 mi) of track and 192 stops.[172] There is also one trolleybus line, opened in 2005, and additional trolleybus lines are planned.[173] International entities, organisations and involvement FAO headquarters in Rome, Circo Massimo WFP headquarters in Rome Among the global cities, Rome is unique in having two sovereign entities located entirely within its city limits, the Holy See, represented by the Vatican City State, and the territorially smaller Sovereign Military Order of Malta. The Vatican is an enclave of the Italian capital city and a sovereign possession of the Holy See, which is the Diocese of Rome and the supreme government of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome, therefore, hosts foreign embassies to the Italian government, to the Holy See, to the Order of Malta and to certain international organisations. Several international Roman Colleges and Pontifical Universities are located in Rome. The Pope is the Bishop of Rome and its official seat is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran (of which the President of the French Republic is ex officio the "first and only honorary canon", a title held by the heads of the French state since King Henry IV of France). Another body, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), took refuge in Rome in 1834, due to the conquest of Malta by Napoleon in 1798. It is sometimes classified as having sovereignty but does not claim any territory in Rome or anywhere else, hence leading to dispute over its actual sovereign status. Rome is the seat of the so-called Polo Romano[174] made up by three main international agencies of the United Nations: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). Rome has traditionally been involved in the process of European political integration. The Treaties of the EU are located in Palazzo della Farnesina, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, because the Italian government is the depositary of the treaties. In 1957 the city hosted the signing of the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (predecessor to the European Union), and also played host to the official signing of the proposed European Constitution in July 2004. Rome is the seat of the European Olympic Committee and of the NATO Defense College. The city is the place where the Statute of the International Criminal Court and the European Convention on Human Rights were formulated. The city hosts also other important international entities such as the IDLO (International Development Law Organisation), the ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property) and the UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law). International relations Twin towns and sister cities See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Sculpture dedicated to Rome in the square Paul Painlevé in Paris Column dedicated to Paris in 1956 near the Baths of Diocletian Since 9 April 1956, Rome is exclusively and reciprocally twinned only with: Paris, France, 1956 Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi. (in Italian) Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris. (in French) "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris."[175][176][177][178][179] Other relationships This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Rome's other partner cities are:[180] Achacachi, Bolivia Algiers, Algeria Beijing, China[181][182] Belgrade, Serbia Brasília, Brazil Buenos Aires, Argentina Cairo, Egypt Cincinnati, United States Kyiv, Ukraine Kobanî, Syria[183] Kraków, Poland[184] Madrid, Spain[185] Multan, Pakistan[186] New Delhi, India New York City, United States[187] Plovdiv, Bulgaria Seoul, South Korea[188][189] Sydney, Australia Tirana, Albania[190][191] Tehran, Iran Tokyo, Japan[192] Tongeren, Belgium Tunis, Tunisia[193] Washington, D.C., United States[194] See also Italy portal Outline of Rome Tourism in Italy Notes ^ Excluding Vatican City. ^ This hypothesis originates from the Roman Grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus. 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External links Romeat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Comune of Rome (in Italian) APT (official Tourist Office) of the City of Rome (in English) Rome Museums – Official site (in English) Capitoline Museums (in English) Geographic data related to Rome at OpenStreetMap Rome v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. Vitale Other churches List of churches in Rome Castles and palaces Sant'Angelo Castle House of the Knights of Rhodes Domus Internationalis Paulus VI Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Borghese Palazzo della Cancelleria Palazzo Chigi Palazzo Colonna Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo Farnese Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini Palazzo Giustinani Lateran Palace Palazzo Madama Palazzo Malta Palazzo di Giustizia Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Palazzo Mattei Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Pamphilj Palazzo Poli Palazzo Riario Palazzo Ruspoli Palazzo Spada Palazzo Valentini Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli Palazzo del Viminale Palazzo Wedekind Palazzo Zuccari Villa Farnesina Villa Giulia Villa Madama Fountains Api Acqua Felice Acqua Paola Babuino Barcaccia Il Facchino Marforio Moro Nasone Navicella Neptune Nettuno del Pantheon Pianto di Piazza d'Aracoeli di Piazza Colonna di Piazza Farnese della Piazza dei Quiriti di Piazza Nicosia in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere di Ponte Sisto Quattro Fiumi Quattro Fontane Tartarughe Trevi Fountain Tritons Tritone Other landmarks Altare della Patria (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy) Campo Verano Capocci Tower Column of the Immaculate Conception Conti Tower Hospital of the Holy Spirit Milizie Tower Sisto Bridge Spanish Steps Squares, streets and public spaces Appian Way Campo de' Fiori Clivus Capitolinus Piazza Colonna Piazza d'Aracoeli Piazza del Popolo Piazza della Minerva Piazza della Repubblica Piazza Farnese Piazza Navona Piazza di Spagna Piazza Venezia Via dei Coronari Via del Corso Via della Conciliazione Via dei Fori Imperiali Via Sacra Via Veneto Parks, gardens and zoos Bioparco Villa Ada Villa Borghese gardens Villa Doria Pamphili Villa Medici Villa Torlonia Parco degli Acquedotti Museums and art galleries Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Capitoline Museums Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Galleria Borghese Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Galleria Spada Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House MAXXI Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Ara Pacis Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museum of the Liberation of Rome Museo delle Mura Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization National Museum of Oriental Art National Roman Museum Palazzo Colonna Palazzo delle Esposizioni Pigorini National Museum Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Art Apollo Belvedere Augustus of Prima Porta Colossus of Constantine La Bocca della Verità Laocoön and His Sons Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Portonaccio sarcophagus Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel ceiling Velletri Sarcophagus Landscape Seven Hills Aventine Caelian Capitoline Esquiline Palatine Quirinal Viminal Tiber Island Monte Testaccio Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Appian Way Regional Park Capo di Bove Castello Orsini-Odescalchi Frascati Hadrian's Villa Ostia Antica Villa Aldobrandini Villa d'Este Villa Farnese Events and traditions Festa della Repubblica Rome Quadriennale Rome Film Festival Related Vatican City St. Peter's basilica St. Peter's Square Sistine Chapel ceiling v t e Municipi of Rome Municipio I (List of Rioni) Municipio II Municipio III Municipio IV Municipio V Municipio VI Municipio VII Municipio VIII Municipio IX Municipio X Municipio XI Municipio XII Municipio XIII Municipio XIV Municipio XV v t e Rioni of Rome I - Monti II - Trevi III - Colonna IV - Campo Marzio V - Ponte VI - Parione VII - Regola VIII - Sant'Eustachio IX - Pigna X - Campitelli XI - Sant'Angelo XII - Ripa XIII - Trastevere XIV - Borgo XV - Esquilino XVI - Ludovisi XVII - Sallustiano XVIII - Castro Pretorio XIX - Celio XX - Testaccio XXI - San Saba XXII - Prati Category v t e Municipalities of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Affile Agosta Albano Laziale Allumiere Anguillara Sabazia Anticoli Corrado Anzio Arcinazzo Romano Ardea Ariccia Arsoli Artena Bellegra Bracciano Camerata Nuova Campagnano di Roma Canale Monterano Canterano Capena Capranica Prenestina Carpineto Romano Casape Castel Gandolfo Castel Madama Castel San Pietro Romano Castelnuovo di Porto Cave Cerreto Laziale Cervara di Roma Cerveteri Ciampino Ciciliano Cineto Romano Civitavecchia Civitella San Paolo Colleferro Colonna Fiano Romano Filacciano Fiumicino Fonte Nuova Formello Frascati Gallicano nel Lazio Gavignano Genazzano Genzano di Roma Gerano Gorga Grottaferrata Guidonia Montecelio Jenne Labico Ladispoli Lanuvio Lariano Licenza Magliano Romano Mandela Manziana Marano Equo Marcellina Marino Mazzano Romano Mentana Monte Compatri Monte Porzio Catone Monteflavio Montelanico Montelibretti Monterotondo Montorio Romano Moricone Morlupo Nazzano Nemi Nerola Nettuno Olevano Romano Palestrina Palombara Sabina Percile Pisoniano Poli Pomezia Ponzano Romano Riano Rignano Flaminio Riofreddo Rocca Canterano Rocca Priora Rocca Santo Stefano Rocca di Cave Rocca di Papa Roccagiovine Roiate Rome Roviano Sacrofano Sambuci San Cesareo San Gregorio da Sassola San Polo dei Cavalieri San Vito Romano Sant'Angelo Romano Sant'Oreste Santa Marinella Saracinesco Segni Subiaco Tivoli Tolfa Torrita Tiberina Trevignano Romano Vallepietra Vallinfreda Valmontone Velletri Vicovaro Vivaro Romano Zagarolo v t e Capital cities of the member states of the European Union Netherlands: Amsterdam Greece: Athens Germany: Berlin Slovakia: Bratislava Belgium: Brussels Romania: Bucharest Hungary: Budapest Denmark: Copenhagen Ireland: Dublin Finland: Helsinki Portugal: Lisbon Slovenia: Ljubljana Luxembourg: Luxembourg Spain: Madrid Cyprus: Nicosia France: Paris Czech Republic: Prague Latvia: Riga Italy: Rome Bulgaria: Sofia Sweden: Stockholm Estonia: Tallinn Malta: Valletta Austria: Vienna Lithuania: Vilnius Poland: Warsaw Croatia: Zagreb v t e Regional capitals of Italy     L'Aquila, Abruzzo Aosta, Aosta Valley Bari, Apulia Potenza, Basilicata Catanzaro, Calabria Naples, Campania Bologna, Emilia-Romagna Trieste, Friuli-Venezia Giulia Rome, Lazio Genoa, Liguria Milan, Lombardy Ancona, Marche Campobasso, Molise Turin, Piedmont Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Florence, Tuscany Perugia, Umbria Venice, Veneto v t e Summer Olympic Games host cities 1896: Athens 1900: Paris 1904: St. Louis 1908: London 1912: Stockholm 1916: None[c1] 1920: Antwerp 1924: Paris 1928: Amsterdam 1932: Los Angeles 1936: Berlin 1940: None[c2] 1944: None[c2] 1948: London 1952: Helsinki 1956: Melbourne 1960: Rome 1964: Tokyo 1968: Mexico City 1972: Munich 1976: Montreal 1980: Moscow 1984: Los Angeles 1988: Seoul 1992: Barcelona 1996: Atlanta 2000: Sydney 2004: Athens 2008: Beijing 2012: London 2016: Rio de Janeiro 2020: Tokyo[c3] 2024: Paris 2028: Los Angeles [c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II; [c3] Postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic v t e Cities in Italy by population 1,000,000+ Rome Milan 500,000+ Naples Turin Palermo Genoa 200,000+ Bari Bologna Catania Florence Messina Padua Trieste Venice Verona 100,000+ Ancona Andria Arezzo Bergamo Bolzano Brescia Cagliari Ferrara Foggia Forlì Giugliano Latina Livorno Modena Monza Novara Parma Perugia Pescara Piacenza Prato Ravenna Reggio Calabria Reggio Emilia Rimini Salerno Sassari Syracuse Taranto Terni Trento Udine Vicenza v t e Host cities of the World Athletics Championships 1983: Helsinki 1987: Rome 1991: Tokyo 1993: Stuttgart 1995: Gothenburg 1997: Athens 1999: Seville 2001: Edmonton 2003: Saint-Denis 2005: Helsinki 2007: Osaka 2009: Berlin 2011: Daegu 2013: Moscow 2015: Beijing 2017: London 2019: Doha 2022: Eugene 2023: Budapest v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) Brescia Cividale del Friuli Castelseprio Spoleto Temple of Clitumnus located at Campello sul Clitunno Santa Sofia located at Benevento Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo located at Monte Sant'Angelo Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps3 Primeval Beech Forests of Europe4 Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries5 Bergamo Palmanova Peschiera del Garda 1 Shared with Switzerland 2 Shared with the Holy See 3 Shared with Austria, France, Germany, Slovenia, and Switzerland 4 Shared with Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine 5 Shared with Croatia and Montenegro Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland MusicBrainz area National Archives (US) SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rome&oldid=1028401306" 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en-wikipedia-org-5033	----	Frederick the Great - Wikipedia Frederick the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King of Prussia, 1740–1786 Frederick II Portrait by Johann Georg Ziesenis, 1763 King of Prussia Elector of Brandenburg Reign 31 May 1740 – 17 August 1786 Predecessor Frederick William I Successor Frederick William II Chief Ministers See list Heinrich von Podewils Georg Dietlof von Arnim-Boitzenburg Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein Friedrich Anton von Heinitz Born (1712-01-24)24 January 1712 Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia Died 17 August 1786(1786-08-17) (aged 74) Potsdam, Kingdom of Prussia Burial Sanssouci, Potsdam Spouse Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern House Hohenzollern Father Frederick William I of Prussia Mother Sophia Dorothea of Hanover Religion Calvinism Signature Frederick II (German: Friedrich II.; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786) was a Prussian royal and military leader who was King of Prussia from 1740 until his death in 1786. He was the longest reigning monarch of the Hohenzollern dynasty. His most significant accomplishments during his reign included his reorganisation of Prussian armies, his military successes in the Silesian wars and the Partitions of Poland, and his patronage of the arts and the Enlightenment. Frederick was the last Hohenzollern monarch titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after annexing strategic parts of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772. Prussia greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great (German: Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed "The Old Fritz" (German: "Der Alte Fritz") by the Prussian people and eventually the rest of Germany. In his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Nonetheless, upon ascending to the Prussian throne he attacked and annexed the rich Austrian province of Silesia, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia. Toward the end of his reign, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by acquiring Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland. He was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism, stating that the ruler should be the first servant of the state. He modernised the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the judicial system and made it possible for men not of noble status to become judges and senior bureaucrats. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, although he enacted oppressive measures against Polish Catholic subjects in West Prussia. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favoured, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press and literature. Frederick was almost certainly homosexual, and his sexuality has been the subject of much study. Frederick is buried at his favourite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II. Nearly all 19th-century German historians made Frederick into a romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building Prussia into a great power in Europe. Frederick remained an admired historical figure through Germany's defeat in World War I, and the Nazis glorified him as a great German leader pre-figuring Adolf Hitler, who personally idolised him. His reputation became less favourable in Germany after World War II, partly due to his status as a Nazi symbol. Regardless, historians in the 21st century now view Frederick as one of the finest generals and most enlightened monarchs of his age, as well as a capable leader who built the foundation that allowed the Kingdom of Prussia to contest the Austrian Habsburgs for leadership among the German states. Contents 1 Youth 2 Crown Prince 2.1 Katte affair 2.2 Marriage and War of the Polish Succession 3 Inheritance 4 Wars 4.1 War of the Austrian Succession 4.2 Seven Years' War 4.3 First Partition of Poland 4.4 War of the Bavarian Succession 5 Policies 5.1 Military theory 5.2 Administrative modernisation 5.3 Religious policies 5.4 Environment and agriculture 5.5 Arts and education 5.5.1 Architecture and the fine arts 5.5.2 Science and the Berlin Academy 6 Later years and death 7 Historiography and legacy 8 Works by Frederick the Great 9 References 10 External links Youth[edit] Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712, baptised with the single name Friedrich. The birth was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, as his two previous grandsons had both died in infancy. With the death of Frederick I in 1713, his son Frederick William I became King in Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty, but as simple folk. He had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and had her educate his children as well.[1] Frederick William I, popularly dubbed the Soldier King, had created a large and powerful army led by his famous "Potsdam Giants", carefully managed his treasury, and developed a strong centralised government. He was also prey to a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority.[2] In contrast, Frederick's mother Sophia, whose father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, had succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, was polite, charismatic and learned.[3] The political and personal differences between Fredericks parent's created tensions,[4] which impacted Frederick's attitude toward his role as a ruler, his attitude toward culture, and his relationship with his father.[5] During his first seven years, Frederick lived with his mother and older sister Wilhelmine. Frederick and Wilhelmine formed a close relationship at this time,[5] which lasted until her death in 1758.[6] Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. In spite of his father's desire that his education be entirely religious and pragmatic, the young Frederick developed a preference for music, literature and French culture that clashed with his father's militarism, resulting in Frederick William frequently beating and humiliating him.[7] Nevertheless, Frederick, with the help of his tutor Jacques Duhan, procured for himself a three thousand volume secret library of poetry, Greek and Roman classics, and French philosophy to supplement his official lessons.[8] Although his father, Frederick William I, had been raised a Calvinist in spite of the Lutheran state faith in Prussia, he feared he was not one of God's elect. To avoid the possibility of his son Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination. In spite of his father's intention, Frederick appeared to have adopted a sense of predestination for himself.[9] Crown Prince[edit] A 24-year-old Frederick as Crown Prince of Prussia, in 1736, painted by Antoine Pesne See also: Sexuality of Frederick the Great In the mid-1720s, Queen Sophia Dorothea attempted to arrange the marriage of Frederick and his sister Wilhelmine to her brother King George II's children Amelia and Frederick, respectively.[10] Fearing an alliance between Prussia and Great Britain, Field Marshal von Seckendorff, the Austrian ambassador in Berlin, bribed the Prussian Minister of War, Field Marshal von Grumbkow, and the Prussian ambassador in London, Benjamin Reichenbach. The pair slandered the British and Prussian courts in the eyes of the two kings. Angered by the idea of the effete Frederick's being so honoured by Britain, Frederick William presented impossible demands to the British, such as "securing Prussia's rights to the principalities of Jülich-Berg", and after 1728, only Berg,[11] which led to the collapse of the marriage proposal.[12] At age 16, Frederick formed an attachment to the king's 17-year-old page, Peter Karl Christoph von Keith. Wilhelmine recorded that the two "soon became inseparable. Keith was intelligent, but without education. He served my brother from feelings of real devotion, and kept him informed of all the king's actions."[13] The friendship was apparently of a homosexual nature, and when Frederick William heard rumours of it, Keith was sent away to an unpopular regiment near the Dutch frontier.[14] Katte affair[edit] Soon after his affair with Keith, Frederick became close friends with Hans Hermann von Katte, a Prussian officer several years older than Frederick who became one of his boon companions.[15] When he was 18, Frederick plotted to flee to England with Katte and other junior army officers. While the royal retinue was near Mannheim in the Electorate of the Palatinate, Robert Keith, Peter Keith's brother, had an attack of conscience when the conspirators were preparing to escape and begged Frederick William for forgiveness on 5 August 1730;[16] Frederick and Katte were subsequently arrested and imprisoned in Küstrin. Because they were army officers who had tried to flee Prussia for Great Britain, Frederick William levelled an accusation of treason against the pair. The king briefly threatened the crown prince with execution, then considered forcing Frederick to renounce the succession in favour of his brother, Augustus William, although either option would have been difficult to justify to the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire.[17] The king forced Frederick to watch the beheading of his confidant Katte at Küstrin on 6 November, leading the crown prince to faint just before the fatal blow.[18] Frederick was granted a royal pardon and released from his cell on 18 November 1730, although he remained stripped of his military rank.[19] Rather than being permitted to return to Berlin, he was forced to remain in Küstrin and began rigorous schooling in statecraft and administration for the War and Estates Departments. Tensions eased slightly when Frederick William visited Küstrin a year later, and Frederick was allowed to visit Berlin on the occasion of his sister Wilhelmine's marriage to Margrave Frederick of Bayreuth on 20 November 1731.[20] The crown prince returned to Berlin after finally being released from his tutelage at Küstrin on 26 February 1732 on condition that he marry Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern.[21] Marriage and War of the Polish Succession[edit] Frederick's marriage to Elisabeth Christine on 12 June 1733 at Schloss Salzdahlum Initially, Frederick William considered marrying Frederick to Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the niece of Empress Anna of Russia, but this plan was ardently opposed by Prince Eugene of Savoy. Frederick himself proposed marrying Maria Theresa of Austria in return for renouncing the succession.[22] Instead, Eugene persuaded Frederick William, through Seckendorff, that the crown prince should marry Elisabeth Christine, who was a Protestant relative of the Austrian Habsburgs.[23] Frederick wrote to his sister that, "There can be neither love nor friendship between us",[24] and he threatened suicide,[25] but he went along with the wedding on 12 June 1733. He had little in common with his bride, and the marriage was resented as an example of the Austrian political interference that had plagued Prussia.[26] Nevertheless, during their early married life, the royal couple resided at the Crown Prince's Palace in Berlin. Later, Elisabeth Christine accompanied Frederick to Schloss Rheinsberg, where she played an active social role.[27] After his father died and he had secured the throne, Frederick separated from Elisabeth. He granted her the Schönhausen Palace and apartments at the Berliner Stadtschloss, but he prohibited Elisabeth Christine from visiting his court in Potsdam. Frederick and Elisabeth Christine had no children, and Frederick bestowed the title of the heir to the throne, "Prince of Prussia", on his brother Augustus William. Nevertheless, Elisabeth Christine remained devoted to him. Frederick gave her all the honours befitting her station, but never displayed any affection. After their separation, he would only see her on state occasions.[28] These included visits to her on her birthday and were some of the rare occasions when Frederick did not wear military uniform.[29] Rheinsberg Palace, Frederick's residence from 1736 to 1740 In 1732, Frederick was restored to the Prussian Army as Colonel of the Regiment von der Goltz, stationed near Nauen and Neuruppin.[30] When Prussia provided a contingent of troops to aid the Army of the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Polish Succession, Frederick studied under Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall Prince Eugene of Savoy during the campaign against France on the Rhine;[31] he noted the weakness of the Imperial Army under the command of the Archduchy of Austria, something that he would capitalise on at Austria's expense when he later took the throne.[32] Frederick William, weakened by gout and seeking to reconcile with his heir, granted Frederick Schloss Rheinsberg in Rheinsberg, north of Neuruppin. At Rheinsberg, Frederick assembled a small number of musicians, actors and other artists. He spent his time reading, watching and acting in dramatic plays, as well as composing and playing music.[33] Frederick formed the Bayard Order to discuss warfare with his friends; Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué was made the grand master of the gatherings.[34] Later, Frederick regarded this time as one of the happiest of his life.[35] Reading and studying the works of Niccolò Machiavelli, such as The Prince, was considered necessary for any king in Europe to rule effectively. In 1739, Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel, an idealistic rebuttal of Machiavelli. It was written in French – as were all of Frederick's works – and published anonymously in 1740, but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity.[36] Frederick's years dedicated to the arts instead of politics ended upon the 1740 death of Frederick William and his inheritance of the Kingdom of Prussia. Frederick and his father were more or less reconciled at the latter's death, and Frederick later admitted, despite their constant conflict, that Frederick William had been an effective ruler: "What a terrible man he was. But he was just, intelligent, and skilled in the management of affairs... it was through his efforts, through his tireless labour, that I have been able to accomplish everything that I have done since."[37] Inheritance[edit] Europe at the time when Frederick came to the throne in 1740, with Brandenburg–Prussia in violet. Europe at the time of Frederick's death in 1786, with Brandenburg–Prussia in violet, shows that Prussia's territory has been greatly extended by his Silesian Wars, his inheritance of East Frisia and the First Partition of Poland. In one defining respect Frederick would come to the throne with an exceptional inheritance. Frederick William I had left him with a highly militarised state. Prussia was the twelfth largest country in Europe in terms of population, but its army was the fourth largest: only the armies of France, Russia and Austria were larger.[38] Prussia had one soldier for every 28 citizens, whereas Great Britain only had one for every 310, and the military absorbed 86% of Prussia's state budget.[39] Moreover, the Prussian infantry trained by Frederick William I were, at the time of Frederick's accession, arguably unrivalled in discipline and firepower. By 1770, after two decades of punishing war alternating with intervals of peace, Frederick had doubled the size of the huge army he had inherited. The situation is summed up in a widely translated and quoted aphorism attributed to Mirabeau, who asserted in 1786 that "La Prusse n'est pas un pays qui a une armée, c'est une armée qui a un pays"[40] ("Prussia was not a state in possession of an army, but an army in possession of a state").[41] By using the resources his frugal father had cultivated, Frederick was eventually able to establish Prussia as the fifth and smallest European great power.[42] Prince Frederick was twenty-eight years old when his father Frederick William I died and he ascended to the throne of Prussia.[43] Before his accession, Frederick was told by D'Alembert, "The philosophers and the men of letters in every land have long looked upon you, Sire, as their leader and model."[44] Such devotion, consequently, had to be tempered by political realities. When Frederick ascended the throne as the third "King in Prussia" in 1740, his realm consisted of scattered territories, including Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg in the west of the Holy Roman Empire; Brandenburg, Hither Pomerania, and Farther Pomerania in the east of the Empire; and the Kingdom of Prussia, the former Duchy of Prussia, outside of the Empire bordering the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was titled King in Prussia because his kingdom included only part of historic Prussia; he was to declare himself King of Prussia after acquiring most of the rest in 1772.[45] Wars[edit] War of the Austrian Succession[edit] Main articles: First Silesian War and Second Silesian War Frederick's goal was to modernise and unite his vulnerably disconnected lands; toward this end, he fought wars mainly against Austria, whose Habsburg dynasty had reigned as Holy Roman Emperors continuously since the 15th century.[46] Thus, upon succeeding to the throne on 31 May 1740,[47] Frederick declined to endorse the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, a legal mechanism to ensure the inheritance of the Habsburg domains by Maria Theresa of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. Upon the death of Charles VI on 29 October 1740,[48] Frederick disputed the 23-year-old Maria Theresa's right of succession to the Habsburg lands, while simultaneously asserting his own right to the Austrian province of Silesia based a number of old, though ambiguous, Hohenzollern claims to parts of Silesia,[49] Accordingly, the First Silesian War (1740–1742, part of the War of the Austrian Succession) began on 16 December 1740 when Frederick invaded and quickly occupied almost all of Silesia within seven weeks.[43] Though Frederick justified his occupation on dynastic grounds,[50] the invasion of this militarily and politically vulnerable part of the Habsburg empire also had the potential to provide substantial long-term economic and strategic benefits.[51] The occupation of Silesia added one of the most densely industrialised German regions to Frederick's kingdom and gave it control over the navigable Oder River.[52] It nearly doubled Prussia's population and increased its territory by a third.[53] It also prevented Augustus III, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, from seeking to connect his own disparate lands through Silesia.[54] In late March 1741, Frederick set out on campaign again to capture the few remaining fortresses within the province that were still holding out. However, he was surprised by the arrival of an Austrian army, which he fought at the Battle of Mollwitz on 10 April 1741.[55] Though Frederick had served under Prince Eugene of Savoy, this was his first major battle in command of an army. In the course of the fighting, Frederick's cavalry was disorganised by a charge of the Austrian horse. Believing his forces had been defeated, Frederick galloped away to avoid capture,[56] leaving Field Marshal Kurt Schwerin in command to lead the disciplined Prussian infantry to victory. Frederick would later admit to humiliation at his abdication of command[57] and would state that Mollwitz was his school.[58] Disappointed with the performance of his cavalry, whose training his father had neglected in favour of the infantry, Frederick spent much of his time in Silesia establishing a new doctrine for them.[59] Encouraged by Frederick's victory at Mollwitz, the French and their ally, the Electorate of Bavaria, entered the war against Austria in early September 1741 and marched on Prague.[60] Meanwhile, Frederick, as well as other members of the League of Nymphenburg, sponsored the candidacy of his ally Charles of Bavaria to be elected Holy Roman Emperor. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1742 and claimed the crown of Bohemia as his own. With Prague under threat, the Austrians pulled their army out of Silesia to defend Bohemia. When Frederick pursued them into Bohemia and blocked their path to Prague, the Austrians counter-attacked on 17 May 1742, initiating the Battle of Chotusitz. In this battle, Frederick's retrained cavalry proved more effective than at Mollwitz,[61] but once more it was the discipline of the Prussian infantry that won the field[62] and allowed Frederick to claim a major victory.[63] This victory, along with the Franco-Bavarian forces capturing Prague, forced the Austrians to seek peace. The terms of the Treaty of Breslau between Austria and Prussia, negotiated in June 1742, gave Prussia all of Silesia and Glatz County, with the Austrians retaining only the portion called Austrian or Czech Silesia.[64] Battle of Hohenfriedberg, Attack of the Prussian Infantry, by Carl Röchling By 1743, the Austrians had subdued Bavaria and driven the French out of Bohemia. Frederick strongly suspected Maria Theresa would resume war in an attempt to recover Silesia. Accordingly, he renewed his alliance with France and preemptively invaded Bohemia in August 1744, beginning the Second Silesian War.[65] In late August 1744, Frederick's army had crossed the Bohemian frontier, marched directly to Prague, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered on 16 September 1744 after a three-day bombardment.[66] Frederick's troops immediately continued marching into the heart of central Bohemia.[57] However, Saxony had now joined the war against Prussia.[67] Although the combined Austrian and Saxon armies outnumbered Frederick's forces, they refused to directly engage with Frederick's army, harassing his supply lines instead. Eventually, Frederick was forced to withdraw to Silesia as winter approached.[68] In the interim, Frederick also successfully claimed his inheritance to the minor territory of East Frisia on the North Sea coast of Germany, occupying the territory after its last ruler died without issue in 1744.[69] In January 1745, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII of Bavaria died,[70] taking Bavaria out of the war and allowing Maria Theresa's husband Francis of Lorraine to eventually be elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.[71] Now able to focus solely on Frederick's army, the Austrians, who were reinforced by the Saxons, crossed the mountains to invade Silesia. After allowing them across,[a] Frederick pinned them down and decisively defeated them at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg on 4 June 1745.[73] Frederick subsequently advanced into Bohemia and defeated a counterattack by the Austrians at the Battle of Soor.[74] Frederick then turned towards Dresden when he learned the Saxons were preparing to march on Berlin. However, on 15 December 1745, Prussian forces under the command of Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau soundly defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Kesselsdorf.[75] After linking up his army with Leopold's, Frederick occupied the Saxon capitol of Dresden, forcing the Saxon elector, Augustus III, to capitulate.[76] Once again, Frederick's victories on the battlefield compelled his enemies to sue for peace. Under the terms of the Treaty of Dresden, signed on 25 December 1745, Austria was forced to adhere to the terms of the Treaty of Breslau giving Silesia to Prussia.[77] It was after the signing of the treaty that Frederick, then 33 years old, first became known as "the Great" [78] Seven Years' War[edit] Main article: Third Silesian War Though Frederick had withdrawn from the War of the Austrian Succession once Austria guaranteed his possession of Silesia,[79] Austria remain embroiled in the war until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Less than a year after the treaty was signed, Maria Theresa was once more seeking allies, particularly Russia and France, to eventually renew the war with Prussia to regain Silesia.[80] In preparation for a new confrontation with Frederick, the Empress reformed Austria's tax system and military.[81] During the ten years of peace that followed the signing of the Treaty of Dresden, Frederick also prepared to defend his claim on Silesia by further fortifying the province and expanding his army,[82] as well as reorganising his finances.[83] Battle of Rossbach, a tactical victory for Frederick In 1756, Frederick attempted to forestall Britain's financing of a Russian army on Prussia's border by negotiating an alliance with England at the Convention of Westminster, in which Prussia would protect Hanover against French attack and England would no longer subsidise Russia. This treaty triggered the Diplomatic Revolution in which Habsburg Austria and Bourbon France, who had been traditional enemies, allied together with Russia to defeat the Anglo-Prussian coalition.[84] To strengthen his strategic position against this coalition,[85] on 29 August 1756, Frederick's well-prepared army preemptively invaded Saxony. [86] His invasion triggered the Third Silesian War and the larger Seven Years' War, both of which lasted until 1763. Frederick quickly captured Dresden, besieged the trapped Saxon army in Pirna, and continued marching the remainder of his army toward North Bohemia, intending to winter there.[85] At the Battle of Lobositz Frederick claimed a close victory against an Austrian army that was aiming to relieve Pirna,[87] but afterward withdrew his forces back to Saxony for the winter.[88] When the Saxon forces in Pirna finally capitulated in October 1756, Frederick forcibly incorporated them into his own army.[89] This action, along with his initial invasion of neutral Saxony brought Frederick widespread international criticism;[90] but the conquest of Saxony also provided Frederick with significant financial, military, and strategic assets that helped him sustain the war.[85] In the early spring of 1757, Frederick once more invaded Bohemia.[91] He was victorious against the Austrian army at the Battle of Prague on 6 May 1757, but his losses were so great he was unable to take the city itself, and settled for besieging it instead.[92] A month later on 18 June 1757, Frederick suffered his first major defeat at the Battle of Kolin,[93] which forced him to abandon his invasion of Bohemia. However, when the French and the Austrians pursued him into Saxony and Silesia in the fall of 1757, Frederick defeated and repulsed a Franco-Austrian army at the Battle of Rossbach[94] and another Austrian army at the Battle of Leuthen.[95] Frederick hoped these two victories would force Austria to negotiate, but Maria Theresa was determined not to make peace until she had recovered Silesia, and the war continued.[96] Despite its strong performance, the losses suffered from combat losses, disease and desertion had severely reduced the quality of the Prussian army.[97] Frederick leading his troops at the Battle of Zorndorf, by Carl Röchling In the remaining years of the war, Frederick faced a coalition of enemies including Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and the Holy Roman Empire.,[98] and he was only supported by Great Britain and its allies Hesse, Brunswick, and Hanover.[99] He suffered some severe defeats and his kingdom suffered repeated invasions, but he always managed to recover.[100] His position became even more desperate in 1761 when Britain, having achieved victory in the American and Indian theatres of the war, ended its financial support for Prussia after the death of King George II, Frederick's uncle.[101] On 6 January 1762, he wrote to Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein, "We ought now to think of preserving for my nephew, by way of negotiation, whatever fragments of my territory we can save from the avidity of my enemies".[102] With the Russians slowly advancing towards Berlin, it looked as though Prussia was about to collapse.[103] The sudden death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia in January 1762 led to the succession of the Prussophile Peter III, her German nephew, who was also the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.[104] This "Miracle of the House of Brandenburg" led to the collapse of the anti-Prussian coalition; Peter immediately promised to end the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania, returning them to Frederick. One of Peter III's first diplomatic endeavours was to seek a Prussian title from Frederick, which Frederick naturally obliged. Peter III was so enamoured of Frederick that he not only offered him the full use of a Russian corps for the remainder of the war against Austria, he also wrote to Frederick that he would rather have been a general in the Prussian army than Tsar of Russia.[105] More significantly, Russia's about-face from an enemy of Prussia to its patron rattled the leadership of Sweden, who hastily made peace with Frederick as well.[106] With the threat to his eastern borders over, and France also seeking peace after its defeats by Britain, Frederick was able to fight the Austrians to a stalemate and finally brought them to the peace table. While the ensuing Treaty of Hubertusburg simply returned the European borders to what they had been before the Seven Years' War, Frederick's ability to retain Silesia in spite of the odds earned Prussia admiration throughout the German-speaking territories. A year following the Treaty of Hubertusberg, Catherine the Great, Peter III's widow and usurper, signed an eight-year alliance with Prussia, albeit with conditions that favoured the Russians.[107] Frederick and his soldiers after the Battle of Hochkirch in 1758, by Carl Röchling Frederick's ultimate success in the Seven Years' War came at a heavy financial cost to Prussia. Part of the burden was covered by the Anglo-Prussian Convention, in Frederick received from 1758 till 1762 an annual £670,000 in British subsidies.[108] These subsidies ceased when Frederick allied with Peter III,[109] partly because of the changed political situation[110] and also because of Great Britain's decreasing willingness to pay the sums Frederick wanted.[111] Frederick also financed the war by devaluing the Prussian coin five times; debased coins were produced with the help of Leipzig mintmasters, Veitel Heine Ephraim, Daniel Itzig and Moses Isaacs.[112] He also debased the coinage of Saxony and Poland.[113] This debasement of the currency helped Frederick cover over 20 per cent of the cost of the war, but at the price of causing massive inflation and economic upheaval throughout the region.[114] Saxony, occupied by Prussia for most of the conflict, was left nearly destitute as a result.[115] While Prussia lost no territory, the population and army were severely depleted by constant combat and invasions by Austria, Russia and Sweden. The best of Frederick's officer corps were also killed in the conflict. Although Frederick managed to bring his army up to 190,000 men by the time the economy had largely recovered in 1772, which made it the third-largest army in Europe, almost none of the officers in this army were veterans of his generation and the King's attitude towards them was extremely harsh.[116] During this time, Frederick also suffered a number of personal losses. Many of his closest friends and family members— including his brother Augustus William,[117] his sister Wilhelmine, and his mother— had died while Frederick was engaged in the war.[118] First Partition of Poland[edit] Main articles: First Partition of Poland and Prussian Partition The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the First Partition (1772) Frederick sought to exploit and develop Poland economically as part of his wider aim of enriching Prussia.[119] and described it as an "artichoke, ready to be consumed leaf by leaf".[120] As early as 1731 Frederick had suggested that his country would benefit from annexing Polish territory.[121] By 1752, he had prepared the ground for the partition of Poland–Lithuania, aiming to achieve his goal of building a territorial bridge between Pomerania, Brandenburg, and his East Prussian provinces.[122] The new territories would also provide an increased tax base, additional populations for the Prussian military, and serve as a surrogate for the other overseas colonies of the other great powers.[123] Poland was vulnerable to partition due to poor governance, in part due to the interference of foreign powers in its internal affairs.[124] Frederick himself was partly responsible for this weakness by opposing attempts at financial and political reform in Poland,[119]and undermining the Polish economy by inflating its currency by his use of Polish coin dies. The profits exceeded 25 million thalers, twice the peacetime national budget of Prussia.[125] He also thwarted Polish efforts to create a stable economic system by building a customs fort at Marienwerder on the Vistula, Poland's major trade artery,[119] and by bombarding Polish customs ports on the Vistula.[126] Frederick also used Poland's religious dissension to keep the kingdom open to Prussian control.[127] Poland was predominantly Catholic, but approximately ten per cent of Poland's population, 600,000 Eastern Orthodox and 250,000 Protestants were non-Catholic dissenters. During the 1760s, the dissenters' political importance was out of proportion to their numbers. Although dissenters still had substantial rights. Poland had increasingly been reducing their civic rights after a period of considerable religious and political freedom.[128] Soon Protestants were barred from public offices and the Sejm (Polish Parliament).[129] Frederick took advantage of this situation by becoming the protector of Protestant interests in Poland in the name of religious freedom.[130] Frederick further opened Prussian control by signing an alliance with Catherine the Great whom placed Stanisław August Poniatowski, a former lover and favourite, on the Polish throne.[131] King Frederick II, by Anna Dorothea Therbusch, 1772 After Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities in 1769–70, Frederick's representative in Saint Petersburg, his brother Prince Henry, convinced Frederick and Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans. They agreed to the First Partition of Poland in 1772, which took place without war. Frederick claimed most of the Polish province of Royal Prussia. Prussia annexed 38,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi) and 600,000 inhabitants, the least of the partitioning powers.[132] However, Prussia's Polish territory was also the best-developed economically. The newly created province of West Prussia connected East Prussia and Farther Pomerania and granted Prussia control of the mouth of the Vistula River. Maria Theresa had only reluctantly agreed to the partition, to which Frederick sarcastically commented, "she cries, but she takes".[133] War of the Bavarian Succession[edit] Main article: War of the Bavarian Succession Late in his life Frederick involved Prussia in the low-scale War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778, in which he stifled Austrian attempts to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria.[134] For their part, the Austrians tried to pressure the French to participate in the War of Bavarian Succession since there were guarantees under consideration related to the Peace of Westphalia, clauses which linked the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Austria. Unfortunately for the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, the French were unable to provide sufficient manpower and resources to the endeavour since they were already providing support to the American revolutionaries on the North American continent; in any case. Frederick ended up as a beneficiary of the American Revolutionary War, as Austria was left more or less isolated.[135] Moreover, Saxony and Russia, both of which had been Austria's allies in the Seven Years' War, were now allied with Prussia.[136] Although Frederick was weary of war in his old age, he was determined not to allow the Austrians dominance in German affairs.[137] Frederick and Prince Henry marched the Prussian army into Bohemia to confront Joseph's army, but the two forces ultimately descended into a stalemate, largely living off the land and skirmishing rather than actively attacking each other.[138] Frederick's longtime rival Maria Theresa, who was Joseph's mother and his co-ruler, did not want a new war with Prussia, and secretly sent messengers to Frederick to discuss peace negotiations.[139] Finally, Catherine II of Russia threatened to enter the war on Frederick's side if peace was not negotiated, and Joseph reluctantly dropped his claim to Bavaria.[140] When Joseph tried the scheme again in 1784, Frederick created the Fürstenbund (League of Princes), allowing himself to be seen as a defender of German liberties, in contrast to his earlier role of attacking the imperial Habsburgs. In the process of checking Joseph II's attempts to acquire Bavaria, Frederick enlisted two very important players, the Electors of Hanover and Saxony along with several other minor German princes. Perhaps even more significant, Frederick benefited from the defection of the senior prelate of the German Church, the Archbishop of Mainz ,who was also the arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, which further strengthened Frederick and Prussia's standing amid the German states.[141] Policies[edit] Military theory[edit] Frederick the Great and his staff at the Battle of Leuthen, by Hugo Ungewitter Contrary to his father's fears, Frederick became a capable military commander. With the exception of his first battlefield experience at the Battle of Mollwitz, Frederick proved himself courageous in battle.[142] He frequently led his military forces personally and had a number of horses shot from under him during battle.[143] During his reign he commanded the Prussian Army at sixteen major battles and various sieges, skirmishes and other actions, ultimately obtaining almost all his political objectives. He is often admired for his tactical skills, especially for his use of the oblique order of battle,[144] an attack focused on one flank of the opposing line, allowing a local advantage even if his forces were outnumbered overall.[145]Even more important were his operational successes, especially the use of interior lines to prevent the unification of numerically superior opposing armies and defend the Prussian core territory.[146] Napoleon Bonaparte saw the Prussian king as a military commander of the first rank;[147] after Napoleon's victory over the Fourth Coalition in 1807, he visited Frederick's tomb in Potsdam and remarked to his officers, "Gentlemen, if this man were still alive I would not be here".[148] Napoleon frequently "pored through Frederick's campaign narratives and had a statuette of him placed in his personal cabinet".[149] Frederick and Napoleon are perhaps the most admiringly quoted military leaders in Clausewitz' On War. Clausewitz praised particularly the quick and skilful movement of his troops.[150] Frederick the Great's most notable and decisive military victories on the battlefield were the Battles of Hohenfriedberg, fought during the War of Austrian Succession in June 1745;[151] the Battle of Rossbach, where Frederick defeated a combined Franco-Austrian army of 41,000 with only 21,000 soldiers (10,000 dead for the Franco-Austrian side with only 550 casualties for Prussia);[152] and the Battle of Leuthen, a follow-up victory to Rossbach[153] in which Frederick's 39,000 troops inflicted 22,000 casualties, including 12,000 prisoners, on Charles of Lorraine's Austrian force of 65,000.[154] Frederick in a Waffenrock (army tunic) Frederick the Great believed that creating alliances was necessary, as Prussia did not have the resources of nations like France or Austria. Though his reign was regularly involved in war, he did not advocate for protracted warfare. He stated that for Prussia, wars should be short and quick: long wars would destroy the army's discipline, depopulate the country, and exhaust its resources.[155] Frederick was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics.[156] Austrian co-ruler Emperor Joseph II wrote, "When the King of Prussia speaks on problems connected with the art of war, which he has studied intensively and on which he has read every conceivable book, then everything is taut, solid and uncommonly instructive. There are no circumlocutions, he gives factual and historical proof of the assertions he makes, for he is well versed in history."[157] Robert Citino describes Frederick's strategic approach: "In war … he usually saw one path to victory, and that was fixing the enemy army in place, manovering near or even around it to give himself a favorable position for the attack, and then smashing it with an overwhelming blow from an unexpected direction. He was the most aggressive field commander of the century, perhaps of all time, and one who constantly pushed the limits of the possible."[158] Historian Dennis Showalter argues: "The King was also more consistently willing than any of his contemporaries to seek decision through offensive operations."[159] Yet, these offensive operations were not acts of blind aggression; Frederick considered foresight to be among the most important attributes when fighting an enemy, stating that the discriminating commander must see everything before it takes place, so nothing will be new to him.[160] Frederick before the Battle of Torgau, 1760 Much of the structure of the more modern German General Staff owed its existence and extensive structure to Frederick, along with the accompanying power of autonomy given to commanders in the field.[161] According to Citino, "When later generations of Prussian-German staff officers looked back to the age of Frederick, they saw a commander who repeatedly, even joyfully, risked everything on a single day's battle – his army, his kingdom, often his very life."[158] As far as Frederick was concerned, there were two major battlefield considerations – speed of march and speed of fire.[162] So confident in the performance of men he selected for command when compared to those of his enemy, Frederick once quipped that a general considered audacious in another country would be ordinary in Prussia because Prussian generals will dare and undertake anything that is possible for men to execute.[163] After the Seven Years' War, the Prussian military acquired a formidable reputation across Europe.[164] Esteemed for their efficiency and success in battle, the Prussian army of Frederick became a model emulated by other European powers, most notably by Russia and France.[165] To this day, Frederick continues to be held in high regard as a military theorist and has been described as representing the embodiment of the art of war.[166] Administrative modernisation[edit] In his earliest published work, the Anti-Machiavel,[167] and his later Testament politique (Political Testament),[168] Frederick wrote that the sovereign was the first servant of the state.[b] Acting in this role, Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state.[171] He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade. He allowed freedom of speech in press and literature, [172] abolished most uses of judicial torture, [173] and reduced the number of crimes that could be punished by the death sentence.[174] Working with his Grand Chancellor Samuel von Cocceji, he reformed the judicial system and made it more efficient, and he moved the courts toward greater legal equality of all citizens by removing special courts for special social classes.[175] The reform was completed after Frederick's death, resulting in the Prussian Law Code of 1794, which balanced absolutism with human rights and corporate privilege with equality before the law.[176] Frederick strove to put Prussia's fiscal system in order. In January 1750, Johann Philipp Graumann was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, as well as the Director-General of all mint facilities.[177] Graumann's currency reform slightly lowered the silver content of Prussian thaler from 1⁄12 Cologne mark of silver to 1⁄14,[178] which brought the metal content of the thaler into alignment with its face value,[179] and it standardised the Prussian coinage system.[177] As a result, Prussian coins, which had been leaving the country nearly as fast as they were minted,[178] remained in circulation in Prussia.[180] In addition, Frederick estimated that he earned about one million thalers in profits on the seignorage.[178] The coin eventually became universally accepted beyond Prussia and helped increase industry and trade.[179] A gold coin, the Friedrich d'or, was also minted to oust the Dutch ducat from the Baltic trade.[181] However, the fixed ratio between gold and silver lead to the gold coins being perceived as more valuable, which caused them to leave circulation in Prussia. Being unable to meet Frederick's expectations for profit, Graumann was removed in 1754.[181] Although Frederick's debasement of the coinage to fund the Seven Years' War left Prussian monetary system in disarray,[180] the Mint Edict of May 1765 brought it back to stability by fixing rates that depreciated coins would be accepted and requiring tax payments in currency of prewar value. Many other rulers soon followed the steps of Frederick in reforming their own currencies – this resulted in a shortage of ready money, thus lowering prices.[182] However, the functionality and stability of the reform made the Prussian monetary system the standard in Northern Germany.[177] Around 1751 Frederick founded the Emden Company to promote trade with China. He introduced the lottery, fire insurance, and a giro discount and credit bank to stabilise the economy.[183] One of Frederick's achievements after the Seven Years' War included the control of grain prices, whereby government storehouses would enable the civilian population to survive in needy regions, where the harvest was poor.[184] He commissioned Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky to promote the trade and – to take on the competition with France – put a silk factory where soon 1,500 people found employment. Frederick followed his recommendations in the field of toll levies and import restrictions. When Gotzkowsky asked for a deferral during the Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763, Frederick took over his porcelain factory, now known as KPM.[185] Frederick modernised the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm to attract more settlers in East Prussia. With the help of French experts, he organised a system of indirect taxation, which provided the state with more revenue than direct taxation; though French officials administering it may have pocketed some of the profit.[186] In 1781, Frederick made coffee a royal monopoly and employed disabled soldiers, the coffee sniffers, to spy on citizens illegally roasting coffee, much to the annoyance of the general population.[187] Though Frederick started many reforms during his reign, his ability to see them to fulfilment was not as disciplined or thorough as his military successes.[188] Religious policies[edit] Portrait by Wilhelm Camphausen, 1870 Frederick was a religious sceptic, in contrast to his devoutly Calvinist father.[c] Frederick was pragmatic about religious faith. Three times during his lifetime, he presented his own confession of Christian faith: during his imprisonment after Katte's execution 1730, after his conquest of Silesia in 1741, and just before the start of the Seven Years War in 1756; in each case, these also served personal or political pragmatic goals.[191] He tolerated all faiths in his realm, but Protestantism remained the favoured religion, and Catholics were not chosen for higher state positions.[192] Frederick wanted development throughout the country, adapted to the needs of each region. He was interested in attracting a diversity of skills to his country, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers. Frederick retained Jesuits as teachers in Silesia, Warmia, and the Netze District, recognising their educational activities as an asset for the nation.[193] He continued to support them after their suppression by Pope Clement XIV.[194] He befriended the Catholic Prince-Bishop of Warmia, Ignacy Krasicki, whom he asked to consecrate St. Hedwig's Cathedral in 1773.[195] He also accepted countless Protestant weavers from Bohemia, who were fleeing from the devoutly Catholic rule of Maria Theresa, granting them freedom from taxes and military service.[196] Constantly looking for new colonists to settle his lands, he encouraged immigration by repeatedly emphasising that nationality and religion were of no concern to him. This policy allowed Prussia's population to recover very quickly from its considerable losses during Frederick's three wars.[197] Though Frederick was known to be more tolerant of Jews and Catholics than many neighbouring German states, his practical-minded tolerance was not fully unprejudiced. Frederick wrote in his Testament politique: We have too many Jews in the towns. They are needed on the Polish border because in these areas Hebrews alone perform trade. As soon as you get away from the frontier, the Jews become a disadvantage, they form cliques, they deal in contraband and get up to all manner of rascally tricks which are detrimental to Christian burghers and merchants. I have never persecuted anyone from this or any other sect; I think, however, it would be prudent to pay attention, so that their numbers do not increase.[198] The success in integrating the Jews into areas of society where Frederick encouraged them can be seen by Gerson von Bleichröder's role during the 19th century in financing Bismarck's efforts to unite Germany.[199] Frederick was also less tolerant of Catholicism in Poland. He persecuted the Polish Roman Catholic Church in the Polish territories he captured by confiscating its goods and property,[200] making clergy dependent on the government for their pay, and defining how they were to perform their duties.[201] Like many leading figures in the Age of Enlightenment, Frederick was a Freemason,[202] having joined during a trip to Brunswick in 1738.[203] His membership legitimised the group's presence in Prussia and protected it against charges of subversion.[204] Frederick's religious views were sometimes the subject of criticism. About a decade after his death, Frederick's views resulted in his condemnation by the anti-revolutionary French Jesuit Augustin Barruel. In his 1797 book, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du Jacobinisme (Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism), Barruel described an influential conspiracy theory that accused King Frederick of taking part in a plot which led to the outbreak of the French Revolution and having been the secret "protector and adviser" of fellow-conspirators Voltaire, Jean le Rond d’Alembert, and Denis Diderot, who all sought "to destroy Christianity" and foment "rebellion against Kings and Monarchs".[205] Environment and agriculture[edit] Frederick the Great inspects the potato harvest outside Neustettin (now Szczecinek, Poland), Eastern Pomerania Frederick was keenly interested in land use, especially draining swamps and opening new farmland for colonizers who would increase the kingdom's food supply. He called it Peuplierungspolitik (peopling policy). About twelve hundred new villages were founded in his reign that attracted 300,000 immigrants from outside Prussia.[206] He told Voltaire, "Whoever improves the soil, cultivates land lying waste and drains swamps, is making conquests from barbarism".[207] Using improved technology enabled him to create new farmland through a massive drainage programme in the country's Oderbruch marsh-land. This programme created roughly 60,000 hectares (150,000 acres) of new farmland, but also eliminated vast swaths of natural habitat, destroyed the region's biodiversity, and displaced numerous native plant and animal communities. Frederick saw this project as the "taming" and "conquering" of nature,[208] which, in its wild form, was considered "useless"[209]—an attitude that reflected his enlightenment era, rationalist sensibilities.[210] He presided over the construction of canals for bringing crops to market, and introduced new crops, especially the potato and the turnip, to the country. For this, he was sometimes called Der Kartoffelkönig (the Potato King).[211] Frederick's interest in land reclamation may have resulted from his upbringing. As a child, his father, Frederick William I, made young Frederick work in the region's provinces, teaching the boy about the area's agriculture and geography. This created an interest in cultivation and development that the boy retained when he became ruler.[212] Frederick founded the first veterinary school in Prussia. Unusually for the time and his aristocratic background, he criticised hunting as cruel, rough and uneducated. When someone once asked Frederick why he did not wear spurs when riding his horse, he replied, "Try sticking a fork into your naked stomach, and you will soon see why."[18] He loved dogs and his horse and wanted to be buried with his greyhounds. In 1752 he wrote to his sister Wilhelmine that people indifferent to loyal animals would not be devoted to their human comrades either, and that it was better to be too sensitive than too harsh. He was also close to nature and issued decrees to protect plants.[213] Arts and education[edit] The Flute Concert of Sanssouci by Adolph Menzel, 1852, depicts Frederick playing the flute in his music room at Sanssouci as C. P. E. Bach accompanies him on a fortepiano by Gottfried Silbermann Frederick was a patron of music, and the court musicians he supported included C. P. E. Bach, Johann Joachim Quantz, Carl Heinrich Graun and Franz Benda.[214] A meeting with Johann Sebastian Bach in 1747 in Potsdam led to Bach's writing The Musical Offering.[215] He was also a talented musician and composer in his own right, playing the transverse flute,[216] as well as composing 121 sonatas for flute and continuo, four concertos for flute and strings, three military marches, and seven arias.[217] The Hohenfriedberger Marsch was allegedly written by Frederick to commemorate his victory in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg during the Second Silesian War.[218] Frederick also was very interested in philosophy. He wrote philosophical works,[219] publishing some of his writings under the title of The Works of a Sans-Souci Philosopher [220] Frederick corresponded with key French Enlightenment figures, including Voltaire, who at one point declared Frederick to be a philosopher-king,[221] and the Marquis d'Argens, whom he appointed as Royal Chamberlain in 1742 and later as the Director of the Prussian Academy of Arts and Berlin State Opera.[222] Frederick even used the opera to make philosophical points critiquing superstition and the Pietism that still held sway in Prussia.[223] In contrast, his openness to philosophy had its limits. He did not admire the encyclopédistes or the French intellectual avant-garde of his time,[224] though he did shelter Rousseau from persecution for a number of years. Moreover, once he ascended the Prussian throne, he found it increasingly difficult to apply the philosophical ideas of his youth to his role as king.[225] Frederick the Great by Anton Graff, 1781 Like many European rulers of the time who were influenced by the prestige of Louis XIV of France and his court,[226] Frederick adopted French tastes and manners.[227] Though in Frederick's case, the extent of his Francophile tendencies might also have been a reaction to the austerity of the family environment created by his father, who had a deep aversion for France and promoted an austere culture for his state.[228] He was educated by French tutors,[229] and almost all the books in his library, which covered topics as diverse as mathematics, art, politics, the classics, and literary works by 17th century French authors, were written in French. [230] French was Frederick's preferred language for speaking and writing,[231] though he had to rely on proofreaders to correct his difficulties with its spelling.[232] Though Frederick used German as his working language with his administration and with the army, he claimed to have never learned it properly[233] and never fully mastered speaking or writing it.[234] He also disliked the German language.[231] He thought it was unharmonious and awkward,[235] and he once commented that German authors "pile parenthesis upon parenthesis, and often you find only at the end of an entire page the verb on which depends the meaning of the whole sentence".[236] He considered the German culture of his time, particularly literature and theatre, to be inferior to that of France; believing that German it had been hindered by the devastation of the Thirty Years' War[237] He suggested that it could eventually equal or even surpass its rivals, but this would require a complete codification of the German language with the help of official academies, the emergence of talented classical German authors and extensive patronage of the arts from Germanic rulers, a project of a century or more.[238] Frederick's love of French culture was not without limits either. He disapproved of the luxury and extravagance of the French royal court. He also ridiculed German princes, especially the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, Augustus III, who imitated French sumptuousness in his work Des Mœurs, des Coutumes, de L'industrie, des progrès de l'esprit humain dans les arts et dans les sciences (Of Manners, Customs, Industry, and the Progress of the Human Understanding in the Arts and Sciences).[239] His own court remained quite Spartan, frugal and small and restricted to a limited circle of close friends-[240] a layout similar to his father's court, though Frederick and his friends were far more culturally inclined than Frederick William.[241] Despite his distaste for the German language, Frederick did sponsor the 'Königliche Deutsche Gesellschaft (Royal German Society), founded in Königsberg in 1741, the aim of which was to promote and develop the German language. He allowed the association to be titled "royal" and have its seat at the Königsberg Castle. However, he does not seem to have taken much interest in the work of the society. Frederick also promoted the use of German instead of Latin in the field of law, as in the legal document Project des Corporis Juris Fridericiani (Project of the Frederician Body of Laws), which was written in German with the aim of being clear and easily understandable.[242] Moreover, it was under his reign that Berlin became an important centre of German enlightenment.[243] Architecture and the fine arts[edit] South, or garden facade and corps de logis of Sanssouci Frederick had many famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still stand today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library (today the State Library Berlin), St. Hedwig's Cathedral, and Prince Henry's Palace (now the site of Humboldt University).[244] A number of the buildings, including the Berlin State Opera House, a wing of Schloss Charlottenburg,[245] and the renovation Rheinsburg during Frederick's residence were built in a unique Rococo style that Frederick developed in collaboration with Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff.[246] This style became known as Frederician Rococo and is epitomised by Frederick's summer palace, Sanssouci (French for "carefree" or "without worry"),[247] which served as his primary residence and private refuge.[248] As a great patron of the arts, Frederick was a collector of paintings and ancient sculptures; his favourite artist was Jean-Antoine Watteau. His sense of aesthetics can be seen in the picture gallery at Sanssouci, which presents architecture, painting, sculpture and the decorative arts as a unified whole. The gilded stucco decorations of the ceilings were created by Johann Michael Merck (1714–1784) and Carl Joseph Sartori (1709–1770). Both the wall panelling of the galleries and the diamond shapes of the floor consist of white and yellow marble. Paintings by different schools were displayed strictly separately: 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings filled the western wing and the gallery's central building, while Italian paintings from the High Renaissance and Baroque were exhibited in the eastern wing. Sculptures were arranged symmetrically or in rows in relation to the architecture.[249] Science and the Berlin Academy[edit] The Round Table of King Frederick II in Sanssouci by Adolph Menzel with Voltaire, Algoretti, La Mettrie and d'Argens When Frederick ascended the throne in 1740, he reinstituted the Prussian Academy of Sciences (Berlin Academy), which his father had closed down as an economy measure. Frederick's goal was to make Berlin a European cultural centre that rivalled London and Paris in the arts and sciences.[250] To accomplish this goal, he invited numerous intellectuals from across Europe to join the academy, made French the official language and made speculative philosophy the most important topic of study.[251] The membership was strong in mathematics and philosophy and included Immanuel Kant, Jean D'Alembert, Pierre Louis de Maupertuis, and Étienne de Condillac. However the Academy was in a crisis for two decades at mid-century,[243] due in part to scandals and internal rivalries such as the debates between Newtonianism and Leibnizian views, and the personality conflict between Voltaire and Maupertuis. At a higher level Maupertuis, the director 1746–59 and a monarchist, argued that the action of individuals was shaped by the character of the institution that contained them, and they worked for the glory of the state. By contrast d' Alembert took a republican rather than monarchical approach and emphasised the international Republic of Letters as the vehicle for scientific advance.[252] By 1789, the academy had gained an international repute while making major contributions to German culture and thought. For example, the mathematicians he recruited for the Berlin Academy – including Leonhard Euler, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Johann Heinrich Lambert, and Johann Castillon – made it a world-class centre for mathematical research.[253] Other intellectuals attracted to the philosopher's kingdom were Francesco Algarotti, d'Argens, and Julien Offray de La Mettrie.[251] Later years and death[edit] Grave of Frederick at Sanssouci where he was buried only after the German reunification (he wished to rest next to his dogs, but this was originally disobeyed) Near the end of his life, Frederick grew increasingly solitary. His circle of close friends at Sanssouci gradually died off with few replacements, and Frederick became increasingly critical and arbitrary, to the frustration of the civil service and officer corps. Frederick was immensely popular among the Prussian people due to his enlightened reforms and military glory; the citizens of Berlin always cheered him when he returned from military or administrative reviews. Over time, he was nicknamed Der Alte Fritz (The Old Fritz) by the Prussian people, and this name became part of his legacy.[254] However, Frederick evinced little pleasure from his popularity with the common people, preferring instead the company of his pet Italian greyhounds,[255] whom he referred to as his "marquises de Pompadour" as a jibe at the French royal mistress.[256] Even in his late 60s and early 70s when he was increasingly crippled by asthma, gout and other ailments, he rose before dawn, drank six to eight cups of coffee a day, "laced with mustard and peppercorns", and attended to state business with characteristic tenacity.[257] On the morning of 17 August 1786, Frederick died in an armchair in his study at Sanssouci, aged 74. He left instructions that he should be buried next to his greyhounds on the vineyard terrace, on the side of the corps de logis of Sanssouci. His nephew and successor Frederick William II instead ordered Frederick's body to be entombed next to his father, Frederick William I, in the Potsdam Garrison Church. Near the end of World War II, Hitler ordered Frederick's coffin, along with those of his father Frederick William I, World War I Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, and Hindenburg's wife Gertrud, to be hidden in a salt mine as protection from destruction. The United States Army relocated the remains to Marburg in 1946; in 1953, the coffins of Frederick and his father were moved to Burg Hohenzollern.[258] On the 205th anniversary of his death, on 17 August 1991, Frederick's casket lay in state in the court of honour at Sanssouci, covered by a Prussian flag and escorted by a Bundeswehr guard of honour. After nightfall, Frederick's body was finally laid to rest in the terrace of the vineyard of Sanssouci—in the still existing crypt he had built there—without pomp, in accordance with his will.[259] Historiography and legacy[edit] Frederick's legacy has been subject to a wide variety of interpretations.[260] For example, Thomas Carlyle's History of Frederick the Great (8 vol. 1858–1865) emphasised the power of one great "hero", in this case Frederick, to shape history.[261] In German memory, Frederick became a great national icon and many Germans said he was the greatest monarch in modern history. These claims particularly were popular in the 19th century.[262] German historians often made him the romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building up Prussia to a leading role in Europe.[260] Frederick quoted by the Nazi propaganda poster Wochenspruch der NSDAP on 24 August 1941. Translation: "Now we have to think of leading the war in a way that we spoil the desire of the enemies to break the peace once again." Historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Frederick's "heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms ... immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power".[263] Johann Gustav Droysen was even more favourable.[264] Nationalist historian Heinrich von Treitschke presented Frederick as the greatest German in centuries. Onno Klopp was one of the few German historians of the 19th century who denigrated and ridiculed Frederick. The novelist Thomas Mann in 1914 also attacked Frederick, arguing—like Empress Maria Theresa—that he was a wicked man who robbed Austria of Silesia, precipitating the alliance against him. Nevertheless, even after the defeat of World War I, Frederick's popularity as a heroic figure remained high in Germany.[265] Between 1933–1945, the Nazis glorified Frederick as a precursor to Adolf Hitler and presented Frederick as holding out hope that another miracle would again save Germany at the last moment.[266] In an attempt to legitimise the Nazi regime, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels commissioned artists to render fanciful images of Frederick, Bismarck, and Hitler together in order to create a sense of a historical continuum amongst them.[267] Throughout World War II, Hitler often compared himself to Frederick the Great.[268] and he kept a copy of Anton Graff's portrait of Frederick with him to the end in the Führerbunker in Berlin.[269] In 1936, the nationalist historian Gerhard Ritter published a biography of Frederick that directly challenged Nazi claims that there was a continuity between Frederick and Hitler.[270] Ritter also condemned Frederick's brutal seizure in the First Partition of Poland, although he praised the results as beneficial to the Polish people.[271] Frederick's reputation was downgraded after 1945 in East Germany,[272] as well as West Germany,[273] partly due to the Nazis' fascination with him. His supposed connection with Prussian militarism further damaged his reputation. However, since the end of the Cold War, Frederick's reputation in Germany has rebounded.[274] In the 21st century the view of Frederick the Great as a capable and effective leader also remains strong among military historians, and he is held in a high regard for his patronage of the arts.[275] Historians continue to debate the issue of Frederick's achievements,[276] discussing how much of the king's achievement was based on developments already under way[277] and how much of it can be directly attributed to him. In addition, his cultural and intellectual engagement with the Enlightenment in Europe lead to him being seen as an exemplar of "enlightened absolutism" for centuries,[278] though this label has been questioned in the 21st century as many enlightenment principles directly contest his militarism.[279] Works by Frederick the Great[edit] Anti-Machiavel ou Essai de Critique sur le Prince de Machiavel ("Anti-Machiavelli or Critical Essay on Prince Machiavelli", 1739) Histoire de Mon Temps ("The History of My Own Times", 1746) Instructions militaires du Roi de Prusse pour ses Généraux ("Military Instruction from the King of Prussia to His Generals", 1747) Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de Brandebourg ("Memoirs to Serve the History of Brandenburg") Œuvre de Poésie ("Works of Poetry") Histoire de la Guerre de Sept Ans ("The History of the Seven Years' War", 1788) L'art de la guerre ("The Art of War") Collections Oeuvres de Frédéric Le Grandà ("Works of Frederick the Great", 1846—57, J. D. E. Preuss editor, 31 vols.) Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen ("Political Correspondence of Frederick the Great", 1879-1939, 47 vols.) References[edit] Informational notes ^ According to the French diplomat Louis Guy Henri de Valori [fr], when he asked Frederick why he allowed the Saxon and Prussian forces to cross the mountains unopposed in the first place, Frederick answered: "mon ami, quand on veut prendre des souris, il faut tenir la souricière ouverte, ils entreront et je les battrai." ("My friend, when you want to catch mice, you have to keep the mousetrap open, they will enter and I will batter them.")[72] ^ In the second printing of the Anti-Machiavel, Voltaire changed premier domestique (first servant) to premier Magistrat (first magistrate). Compare the Frederick's words from the handwritten manuscript[169] to Voltaire's edited 1740 version[170] ^ However, he remained critical of Christianity.[189] See Frederick's De la Superstition et de la Religion (Superstition and Religion) in which he says in the context of Christianity in Brandenburg: "It is a shame to human understanding, that at the beginning of so learned an age as the XVIIIth [18th century] all manner of superstitions were yet subsisting."[190] Citations ^ Kugler 1845, pp. 21–22. ^ Asprey 1986, pp. 14-15; MacDonogh 2000, pp. 16-17. ^ Kugler 1845, pp. 20–21. ^ Fraser 2001, pp. 12-13; Ritter 1936, pp. 24-25. ^ a b Lavisse, Ernest (1892). "The Conflict between Father and Son". The Youth of Frederick the Great. Translated by Coleman, Mary Bushnell. Chicago: Griggs and Company. pp. 128-220. ISBN 9780226558721. ^ Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1888). Introduction. Memoirs of Wilhelmine, Margravine of Baireuth. By Wilhelmine of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. Translated by Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 11-12. ^ Kugler 1845, pp. 39-38; MacDonogh 2000, p. 47; Ritter 1936, pp. 26-27. ^ MacDonogh 2000, p. 37. ^ MacDonogh 2000, p. 35. ^ Berridge, Vanessa (2015). The Princess's Garden: Royal Intrigue and the Untold Story of Kew. Amberley Publishing Limited. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4456-4336-6. ^ Schieder 2000, p. 92. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 33. ^ Wilhelmine of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1888). Memoirs of Wilhelmine, Margravine of Baireuth. Translated by Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 83. ^ Asprey 1986, pp. 42-43; MacDonogh 2000, p. 49. ^ Asprey 1986, pp. 51-53; Mitford 1984, p. 61. ^ MacDonogh 2000, p. 63. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 41. ^ a b Mitford 1984, p. 61. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 52. ^ Kugler 1845, p. 94. ^ Asprey 1986, pp. 88-89; MacDonogh 2000, pp. 86-89. ^ Reddaway 1904, p. 44. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 63. ^ Crompton 2003, p. 508. ^ MacDonogh 2000, p. 88; Mitford 1984, p. 71. ^ Reddaway 1904, p. 44-46. ^ Kugler 1845, pp. 119–122. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 69. ^ Locke, Ian (1999). Magnificent Monarchs. London: MacMillan. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-330-37496-5. ^ Kugler 1845, p. 96. ^ Kugler 1845, pp. 108–113. ^ Reiners 1960, p. 71. ^ Kugler 1845, p. 122. ^ Kugler 1845, p. 123. ^ Hamilton, Andrew (1880). "The Queen". Rheinsberg: Memorials of Frederick the Great and Prince Henry of Prussia. I. London: John Murray. p. 316. ^ MacDonogh 2000, p. 125. ^ Duffy 1985, p. 20. ^ Ergang, Robert (2017) [1941]. The Potsdam Führer: Frederick William I, Father of Prussian Militarism. Borodino Books. p. 38. ^ Sontheimer, Michael (March 2016). "Der böse Mann: Unterschiedlicher als der Preuße Friedrich II. und die Östericherin Maria Theresa konnten Rivalen kaum sein. Ihr Machtkampf spaltete das Reich" ["The Bad Man": Rivals Could Hardly Be More Different than Prussia's Frederick II and Austria's Maria Theresa. Their Struggle for Power Split the Empire]. Das Reich der Deuschen 962–1871: Eine Nation Entsteht (in German). Der Spiegel: 104–107. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. pp. 106–107: Bei der Thronbesteigung von Friedrich II. kam in Preußen auf 28 Bewohner ein Soldat, in Großbritannien auf 310. Da Preußen nur 2,24 Millionen Bewohner hatte, war die Armee mit 80000 Mann noch relativ klein, verschlang aber 86 Prozent des Staatshaushalts. [Upon Frederick II's accession to the throne Prussia had one soldier for every 28 inhabitants, Great Britain for every 310. 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"Frederick the Great: A Singular Life, Variably Reflected". Historically Speaking. 13 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1353/hsp.2012.0011. S2CID 161323897. Bibliography Anderson, Fred (2001). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-375-70636-3. Aramayo, Roberto R. (2019). The Chimera of the Philosopher King: Around the Kantian Distinction between the Moral Politician and Political Moralist: The Dilemmas of Power, or the Frustrated Love Affair between Ethics and Politics (PDF). Madrid: Ediciones Alamanda. Asprey, Robert B. (1986). Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma. New York: Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 978-0-89919-352-6. Blackbourn, David (2006). The Conquest of Nature. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06212-0. Blanning, Tim (2016). Frederick the Great: King of Prussia. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6812-8. Clark, Christopher (2006). Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600–1947. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02385-7. Crompton, Louis (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03006-0. Connelly, Owen (2002). On War and Leadership: The Words of Combat Commanders from Frederick the Great to Norman Schwarzkopf. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03186-X. Duffy, Christopher (1985). Frederick the Great: A Military Life. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-9649-4. Fraser, David (2001). Frederick the Great: King of Prussia. New York: Fromm International. ISBN 978-0-88064-261-3. Friedrich, Karin (2000). The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58335-0. Goerlitz, Walter (1957) [1950]. History of the German General Staff, 1657–1945. New York: Frederick a. Praeger. Gooch, G. P. (1990) [1947]. Frederick the Great, the Ruler, the Writer, the Man. London: Dorset Press. ISBN 0-88029-481-7. Henderson, W. O. (1963). Studies in the Economic Policy of Frederick the Great. Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor & Francis. Kershaw, Ian (2000). Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis. New York: W W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04994-9. Koch, H. W. (1978). A History of Prussia. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-88029-158-3. Konopczyński, Władysław (1919). A Brief Outline of Polish History. Translated by Benett, Francis. Geneva: Imprimierie Atar. Kugler, Franz Theodor (1845) [1840]. History of Frederick the Great: Comprehending a Complete History of the Silesian Campaigns and the Seven Years' War. Translated by Moriarty, Edward Aubrey. Illustrated by Menzel, Adolph. London: Henry G. Bohn. Longman, Frederick (1899). Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War. F. W. Longman. Luvaas, Jay (1999) [1966]. Introduction. Frederick the Great on the Art of War. By King Frederick II of Prussia. Translated by Luvaas, Jay (ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-306-80908-7. MacDonogh, Giles (2000). Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-25318-4. Mitford, Nancy (1984) [1970]. Frederick the Great. New York: E. P. Dutton. ISBN 0-525-48147-8. Reddaway, William Fiddian (1904). Frederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Reiners, Ludwig (1960). Frederick the Great: A Biography. New York: G. P. Putnam & Sons. Richard, Ernst (1913). History of German Civilization. A General Survey. New York: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-1-330-40480-5. Ritter, Gerhard (1974) [1936]. Frederick the Great: A Historical Profile. Translated by Peter Peret. Berkeley: University of California Press. Schieder, Theodor (2000) [1983]. Frederick the Great. Edited and translated by Berkeley, Sabina and Scott, H. M. Harlow and New York: Addison Wesley Longmann. ISBN 0-582-01768-8. Scott, Hamish (2001). The Emergence of the Eastern Powers 1756–1775. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79269-1. Showalter, Dennis E. (2012). Frederick the Great: A Military History. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781783034796. Stone, David (2006). Fighting for the Fatherland: The Story of the German Soldier from 1648 to the Present Day. Herndon, VA: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-84486-036-4. Further reading de Catt, Henri (1916) [1884]. Frederick the Great: The Memoirs of His Reader, Henri de Catt (1758-1760). Vol I & Vol II. Translated by Flint, F. S. London: Constable and Company. Eyck, Erich. "Frederick the Great". History Today (Oct 1954) 4#10 pp. 651–659. Haworth, Paul Leland. "Frederick the Great and the American Revolution". American Historical Review 9.3 (1904): 460–478. JSTOR free Horn, D.B. Frederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia (Harper & Row, 1969). Hubatsch, Walther (1975). Frederick the Great of Prussia: Absolutism and Administration. London: Thames and Hudson. Johnson, Hubert C. Frederick the Great and His Officials (Yale U.P. 1975) Oleskiewicz, Mary. "The Flutist of Sanssouci: Frederick 'the Great' as Composer and Performer", Flutist Quarterly 18 (Fall 2012): 19–26; a Dutch translation of the same article has been published in FLUIT, the quarterly journal of the Dutch Flute Society. Oleskiewicz, Mary. "Music at the Court of Brandenburg-Prussia", Chapter 3 in: Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities, ed. Samantha Owens, Barbara M. Reul, and Janice B. Stockigt (Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 2011), 79–130. Oleskiewicz, Mary. Four Sonatas for Flute and Basso Continuo, by King Frederick "the Great" of Prussia (first ed.), Breitkopf & Härtel, 2012. Palmer, R.R. "Frederick the Great, Guibert, Bulow", in Peter Paret et al. eds. Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (2010) ch 6 Rose, J. Holland. "Frederick the Great and England, 1756–1763 (Continued)". English Historical Review 29.114 (1914): 257–275. JSTOR Scott, H. M. "Aping the Great Powers: Frederick the Great and the Defence of Prussia's International Position, 1763–86". German History 12.3 (1994): 286. Simon, Edith. The making of Frederick the Great (1963). Telp, Claus. The evolution of operational art, 1740–1813: from Frederick the Great to Napoleon (Routledge, 2004) In German Giersberg, Hans-Joachim; Meckel, Claudia, eds. (1986). Friedrich II. und die Kunst (2 vols.) [Frederick II and Art] (in German). Potsdam: Staatlichen Schlösser und Gärten Potsdam-Sanssouci. Großer Generalstab [Great General Staff] (1890–1914). Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen [The Wars of Frederick the Great] (in German). (19 vols.). Kunisch, Johannes (2011). Friedrich der Grosse. Der König und seine Zeit [Frederick the Great: The King and his Time] (in German). Munich: Beck. Luh, Jürgen (2011). Der Große. Friedrich II. von Preußen [The Great: Frederick II of Prussia] (in German). Munich: Pantheon Verlag. Pangels, Charlotte (1998). Friedrich der Große. Bruder, Freund und König [Frederick the Great: Brother, Friend and King] (in German). Munich: Diederichs. ISBN 978-3-424-01241-5. Seidel, Paul (1892). "Friedrich der Große als Sammler von Gemälden und Skulpturen" [Frederick the Great as Collector of Paintings and Sculptures]. Jahrbuch der Königlich-Preußischen Kunstsammlungen (in German). 13 (4): 183–212. JSTOR 25167311. Recorded flute compositions by Frederick the Great Mary Oleskiewicz, Baroque Flute, Seven Flute Sonatas by King Frederick "The Great", Hungaroton Classic, HCD 32698. Using a historical copy of the King's flute. Recorded in the music room of Palace Sanssouci, Potsdam, Germany. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frederick II of Prussia. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Frederick II of Prussia Wikiquote has quotations related to: Frederick II of Prussia Works by King of Prussia Frederick II at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Frederick the Great at Internet Archive Digital edition of Frederick the Great's Works by Trier University Library (in German and French) Voltaire and Frederick the Great by Lytton Strachey Free scores at the Mutopia Project History of Frederick II of Prussia by Thomas Carlyle Project Gutenberg Ebook Free scores by Frederick the Great at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) "In Our Time: Frederick the Great" BBC discussion with Tim Blanning, Katrin Kohl and Thomas Bishop, hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 2 July 2015. Friedrich (1789). [Opere]. 4. A Berlin: chez Voss et fils, et Decker et fils, et chez Treuttel. Friedrich (1849). Oeuvres poètiques. 2. Berlin: Imprimerie Royale R. Decker. Friedrich (1849). Poésies posthumes. 1. Berlin: Imprimerie Royale R. Decker. Friedrich (1849). Poésies posthumes. 2. Berlin: Imprimerie Royale R. Decker. Friedrich (1850). Oeuvres poètiques de Frédéric 2. roi de Prusse. Berlin: Imprimerie Royale R. Decker. Friedrich (1849). Oeuvres poètiques. 1. Berlin: Imprimerie Royale R. Decker. 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en-wikipedia-org-5056	----	Victoria (mythology) - Wikipedia Victoria (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman goddess of victory Victoria on top of the Berlin Victory Column. Cast by Gladenbeck, Berlin)[1] Victoria in ancient Roman religion was the personified goddess of victory.[2] She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona. She was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill. The goddess Vica Pota was also sometimes identified with Victoria. Victoria is often described as a daughter of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus, Kratos, and Bia.[3] Arch of Trajan (Benevento), with a pair of winged victories in the spandrels Unlike the Greek Nike, the goddess Victoria (Latin for "victory") was a major part of Roman society. Multiple temples were erected in her honor. When her statue was removed in 382 CE by Emperor Gratianus there was much anger in Rome.[4][5] She was normally worshiped by triumphant generals returning from war.[2] Also unlike the Greek Nike, who was known for success in athletic games such as chariot races, Victoria was a symbol of victory over death and determined who would be successful during war.[2] Victoria appears widely on Roman coins,[6] jewelry, architecture, and other arts. She is often seen with or in a chariot, as in the late 18th-century sculpture representing Victory in a quadriga on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany; "Il Vittoriano" in Rome has two. Nike or Victoria was the charioteer for Zeus in his battle to overtake Mount Olympus. Contents 1 Iconography 2 Gallery 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Iconography[edit] Winged figures, very often in pairs, representing victory and referred to as winged victories, were common in Roman official iconography, typically hovering high in a composition, and often filling spaces in spandrels or other gaps in architecture.[7] These represent the spirit of victory rather than the goddess herself. They continued to appear after Christianization of the Empire and gradually evolved into depictions of Christian angels.[8] A pair, facing inwards, fitted very conveniently into the spandrels of arches, and have been very common in Triumphal arches and similar designs where a circular element is framed by a rectangle. Gallery[edit] Gold coin of Constantine II depicting Victoria on the reverse Intaglio in lapis lazuli representing Victoria, 100 - 200 A.D., found in Tongeren Gallo-roman museum, Tongres Roman goddess Victoria in Arretine Ware fragment See also[edit] 12 Victoria, asteroid References[edit] ^ "Oscar Gladenbeck (1850–1921)". ISSUU.com. Retrieved 18 June 2015. ^ a b c "Victoria". talesbeyondbelief.com. Retrieved 5 August 2015. ^ "Nike". theoi.com. Retrieved 5 August 2015. ^ Sheridan, J. J., "The Altar of Victory – Paganism's Last Battle." L'Antiquite Classique 35 (1966): 187. ^ Ambrose Epistles 17–18; Symmachus Relationes 1–3. ^ "All About Gold". numismaclub.com. Retrieved 5 August 2015. ^ "Winged Victoria Spandrels". google.com. Retrieved 5 August 2015. ^ Doyle, Chris (2015). 'Declaring Victory, Concealing Defeat: Continuity and Change in Imperial Coinage of the Roman West, c. 383 – c. 408', in G. Greatrex, H. Elton (eds.) Shifting Genres in Late Antiquity. With the assistance of Lucas McMahon. Pp. xvi + 341, ills. Farnham, United Kingdom: Ashgate. pp. 157–71. ISBN 978-1-4724-4348-9. External links[edit] Media related to Victoria (goddess) at Wikimedia Commons v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Res divinae Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Etruscan religion Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Czech Republic Other SUDOC (France) 1 This article relating to an Ancient Roman myth or legend is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victoria_(mythology)&oldid=1019989444" Categories: Personifications in Roman mythology Roman goddesses Victory War goddesses Victory monuments Ancient Roman mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Jawa Latina Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2021, at 15:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5073	----	Zeno of Tarsus - Wikipedia Zeno of Tarsus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the fourth scholarch of the Stoa. For the founder of Stoicism and its first scholarch, see Zeno of Citium. For other uses, including many other philosophers, see Zeno. Zeno of Tarsus (Greek: Ζήνων ὁ Ταρσεύς, Zenon ho Tarseus; fl. 200 BC) was a Stoic philosopher and the son of Dioscorides. Biography[edit] Zeno was a pupil of Chrysippus,[1] and when Chrysippus died c. 206 BC, he succeeded him to become the fourth scholarch of the Stoic school in Athens.[2] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he wrote very few books, but left a great number of disciples.[1] According to the testimony of Philodemus, Zeno rebutted the opinions of the Peripatetic philosopher Hieronymus of Rhodes in "five books Against Hieronymus" (Philodemus, Sto. hist., col. 48, fr. 18).[3] Little is known about Zeno's philosophical views. He was apparently an orthodox Stoic, but doubted the doctrine of the conflagration of the universe.[2] This was a considerable modification of the physical theory of the Stoics, who held that the universe periodically dissolved into fire. It is not known when he died. He was succeeded as head of the Stoic school by Diogenes of Babylon. References[edit] ^ a b  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Book VII: The Stoics" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 35 Cf. 41, 84. ^ a b Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 15. 18. ^ Shiner, Roger A.; Jost, Lawrence John (2003). Eudaimonia and well-being: ancient and modern conceptions. Academic Printing & Publishing. p. 80. Further reading[edit] "Zeno of Tarsus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 972. Preceded by Chrysippus Leader of the Stoic school 206 – ? BC Succeeded by Diogenes of Babylon v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zeno_of_Tarsus&oldid=889027831" Categories: 3rd-century BC philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers from Anatolia Stoic philosophers People from Tarsus, Mersin Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Íslenska Italiano Magyar Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 March 2019, at 23:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5081	----	Crates of Thebes - Wikipedia Crates of Thebes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Crates of Thebes Κράτης Crates of Thebes. Detail from a Roman wall painting in the Villa Farnesina in Rome Born c. 365 BC Thebes Died c. 285 BC (aged 80) Boeotia Spouse(s) Hipparchia of Maroneia Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Cynicism Main interests Cynicism, Asceticism Influences Diogenes of Sinope Influenced Hipparchia, Metrocles, Zeno of Citium Crates (Greek: Κράτης ὁ Θηβαῖος; c. 365 – c. 285 BC[1]) of Thebes was a Cynic philosopher and the husband of Hipparchia of Maroneia who lived in the same manner as him. Crates gave away his money to live a life of poverty on the streets of Athens. Respected by the people of Athens, he is remembered for being the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. Various fragments of Crates' teachings survive, including his description of the ideal Cynic state. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 3 Later cultural references 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Life[edit] Crates was born c. 365 BC[2] in Thebes. He was the son of Ascondus, and was the heir to a large fortune, which he is said to have renounced to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Diogenes Laërtius[3] preserves several different accounts of this story; one of them has Crates giving his money away to the citizens of Thebes, apparently after seeing the beggar king Telephus in a tragedy; whereas another account has him placing his money in the hands of a banker, with the agreement that he should deliver it to his sons, unless they too became philosophers, in which case he should distribute it among the poor. He moved to Athens where tradition says he became a pupil of Diogenes of Sinope; the precise relationship between Crates and Diogenes is uncertain, but there is one apparent reference to Crates referring to himself as "a fellow-citizen of Diogenes, who defied all the plots of envy".[4] Crates is also described as being the student of Bryson the Achaean,[5] and of Stilpo.[6] He lived a life of cheerful simplicity, and Plutarch, who wrote a detailed biography of Crates which unfortunately does not survive, records what sort of man Crates was: But Crates with only his wallet and tattered cloak laughed out his life jocosely, as if he had been always at a festival.[7] He is said to have been deformed with a lame leg and hunched shoulders.[8] He was nicknamed the Door-Opener (Greek: θυρεπανοίκτης)[9] because he would enter any house and people would receive him gladly and with honour: He used to enter the houses of his friends, without being invited or otherwise called, in order to reconcile members of a family, even if it was apparent that they were deeply at odds. He would not reprove them harshly, but in a soothing way, in a manner which was non-accusatory towards those whom he was correcting, because he wished to be of service to them as well as to those who were just listening.[10] Roman wall painting of Crates and Hipparchia from the Villa Farnesina, Rome. Crates is shown with a staff and satchel, being approached by Hipparchia bearing her possessions in the manner of a potential bride.[11] He attracted the attentions of Hipparchia of Maroneia, the sister of one of Crates' students, Metrocles. Hipparchia is said to have fallen in love with Crates and with his life and teachings, and thus rejecting her wealthy upbringing in a manner similar to Crates, she married him. The marriage was remarkable (for ancient Athens) for being based on mutual respect and equality between the couple. Stories about Hipparchia appearing in public everywhere with Crates are mentioned precisely because respectable women did not behave in that way, and as part of Cynic shamelessness, they had sexual intercourse in public.[12] They had at least two children, a girl, and a boy named Pasicles. We learn that Crates is supposed to have initiated his son into sex by taking him to a brothel,[13] and he allowed his daughter a month's trial marriage to potential suitors.[4] He was the teacher of Zeno of Citium in the last years of the century,[14] and was undoubtedly the biggest influence on Zeno in his development of Stoic philosophy. Zeno always regarded Crates with the greatest respect, and some of the accounts we have of Crates have probably come down to us via Zeno's writings.[15] His other pupils included Metrocles,[16] Monimus,[17] Menippus,[18] Cleomenes,[18] Theombrotus,[18] and Crates' brother Pasicles.[19] He may also have taught Cleanthes,[20] Zeno's successor as head of the Stoic school. Crates was, apparently, in Thebes in 307 BC, when Demetrius Phalereus was exiled there.[21] He is said to have died at a great age (c. 285 BC), and was buried in Boeotia.[22] Philosophy[edit] Crates wrote a book of letters on philosophical subjects, the style of which is compared by Diogenes Laërtius to that of Plato;[22] but these no longer survive. There are 36 surviving Cynic epistles attributed to Crates, but these are later, 1st-century, compositions. Crates was also the author of some philosophical tragedies, and some smaller poems apparently called Games (Ancient Greek: Παίγνια, Paignia). "Diogenes in his barrel and Crates of Thebes who gives up wealth for virtue." 15th-century manuscript. Several fragments of his thought survive. He taught a simple asceticism, which seems to have been milder than that of his predecessor Diogenes: And therefore Crates replied to the man who asked, "What will be in it for me after I become a philosopher?" "You will be able," he said, "to open your wallet easily and with your hand scoop out and dispense lavishly instead of, as you do now, squirming and hesitating and trembling like those with paralyzed hands. Rather, if the wallet is full, that is how you will view it; and if you see that it is empty, you will not be distressed. And once you have elected to use the money, you will easily be able to do so; and if you have none, you will not yearn for it, but you will live satisfied with what you have, not desiring what you do not have nor displeased with whatever comes your way."[23] Some of his philosophical writings were infused with humour, in the form of spoudaiogeloion. He urged people not to prefer anything but lentils in their meals, because luxury and extravagance were the chief causes of seditions and insurrections in a city.[24] This jest would later be the cause of much satire, as in book 4 of Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae where a group of Cynics sit down for a meal and are served course after course of lentil soup.[25] One of his poems parodied a famous hymn to the Muses written by Solon. But whereas Solon wished for prosperity, reputation, and "justly acquired possessions," Crates had typically Cynic desires: Glorious children of Memory and Olympian Zeus, Muses of Pieria, listen to my prayer! Give me without ceasing food for my belly Which had always made my life frugal and free from slavery. . . . Make me useful to my friends, rather than agreeable. As for money, I do not wish to amass conspicuous wealth, But only seek the wealth of the beetle or the maintenance of the ant; Nay, I desire to possess justice and to collect riches That are easily carried, easily acquired, and are of great avail to virtue. If I may but win these, I will propitiate Hermes and the holy Muses, Not with costly dainties, but with pious virtues.[26] Crates disposes of his wealth. From the Allegory of the Hill of Wisdom, Siena Cathedral. Floor mosaic by Pinturicchio (c. 1505). There are also several fragments surviving of a poem Crates wrote describing the ideal Cynic state which begins by parodying Homer's description of Crete.[27] Crates' city is called Pera, which in Greek refers to the beggar's wallet which every Cynic carried: There is a city Pera in the midst of wine-dark Tuphos, Fair and fruitful, filthy all about, possessing nothing, Into which no foolish parasite ever sails, Nor any playboy who delights in a whore's ass, But it produces thyme, garlic, figs, and bread, For which the citizens do not war with each other, Nor do they possess arms, to get cash or fame.[28] The word tuphos (Greek: τῦφος) in the first line, is one of the first known Cynic uses of a word which literally means mist or smoke. It was used by the Cynics to describe the mental confusion which most people are wrapped-up in. The Cynics sought to clear away this fog and to see the world as it really is. Later cultural references[edit] The relationship between Crates and Hipparchia became the subject of a number of fictional accounts, such as the play Spozalizio d' Ipparchia filosofa, written by Italian nun Clemenza Ninci in the 17th century, or Christoph Martin Wieland's novel Krates und Hipparchia (1804). A fictional biography of Crates was written by French author Marcel Schwob in his 1896 work Vies imaginaires. References[edit] ^ Dorandi 1999, p. 52. ^ His year of birth is uncertain. He flourished c. 328–5 BC (Olympiad 113) according to Diogenes Laërtius 1925c, § 87, 365 BC is a reasonable guess for his year of birth. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 87–88. ^ a b Laërtius 1925c, § 93. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 85. ^ Seneca, Epistles, 10.1 ^ Plutarch, Moralia: On the Tranquillity of the Mind. ^ Julian, Orations, 6.201b. ^ Plutarch, Symposiacs, 2.1. ^ Julian (1980). "Orations, 6.201b". The Concept of First Philosophy and the Unity of the Metaphysics of Aristotle. By Reale, G. Suny Press. p. 34.. See also Apuleius, Florida, xiv, who makes a similar statement. ^ Diskin Clay, Picturing Diogenes, in R. Bracht Branham, Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé, (2000), The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy, pp. 372–73. ^ Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I section 153 ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 88. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 15; Laërtius 1925d, § 105; Laërtius 1925e, § 2, etc. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 91. ^ Laërtius 1925c, § 94. ^ Laërtius 1925b, § 82. ^ a b c Laërtius 1925c, § 95 The list of pupils at vi. 95 are at the end of the Life of Metrocles, but probably refer to Crates. Cf. R. Bracht Branham, Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé, (2000), The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy, pp. 392, 398; pointing out that, Diogenes Laërtius 1925c, § 98, also returns to the biography of Crates. ^ Suda, Stilpo ^ The Suda (Cleanthes) is the only source for this claim. ^ Plutarch, Moralia: How to know a Flatterer from a Friend. ^ a b Laërtius 1925c, § 98. ^ Teles (1977). "Fragment 4a". Teles: The Cynic Teacher. By O'Neill, E. Missoula. ^ Plutarch, Moralia: Rules for the Preservation of Health. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists iv. 157 ^ Julian (1996). "Orations, 6.199d-200a". Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. By Navia, L. Greenwood Press. ^ Homer, Odyssey 19.172–74 ^ Crates (2007). "Fragment 6". Guide to Hellenistic Literature. By Gutzwiller, K. Blackwell Publishing. p. 136. Sources[edit] Dorandi, Tiziano (1999). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780521250283.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Seven Sages: Prologue" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:1. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–21.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "The Cynics: Monimus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 81–83. Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "The Cynics: Crates". Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. §85–93   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925d). "The Cynics: Menedemus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 102–105.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925e). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–160. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crates of Thebes. Crates and Hipparchia Handbook v t e Cynic philosophers Greek era Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Roman era Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 3 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Netherlands Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology 2 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crates_of_Thebes&oldid=1020664438" Categories: 4th-century BC Greek people 4th-century BC philosophers Ancient Greek educators Ancient Greek philosophers Ancient Greek political philosophers Ancient Thebans Aphorists Ascetics Cynic philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens Humor researchers Irony theorists Metic philosophers in Classical Athens Moral philosophers Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of mind Political philosophers Proto-anarchists Simple living advocates Virtue Virtue ethicists Virtue ethics Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 April 2021, at 10:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5086	----	Moral intellectualism - Wikipedia Moral intellectualism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Moral intellectualism is a view in meta-ethics according to which genuine moral knowledge must take the form of arriving at discursive moral judgements about what one should do Part of a series on Socrates "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony · Socratic method Socratic paradox · Socratic questioning Socratic problem · Socratici viri Disciples Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus · Aeschines Related topics Academic Skepticism · Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics · Platonism · Aristotelianism · Stoicism · Virtue ethics · The Clouds Category v t e Moral intellectualism or ethical intellectualism is a view in meta-ethics according to which genuine moral knowledge must take the form of arriving at discursive moral judgements about what one should do.[1] One way of understanding this is doing what's right is a reflection of what any being know's right.[2] However, it can also be interpreted as the understanding that a rationally consistent worldview and theoretical way of life, as exemplified by Socrates, is superior to the life devoted to a moral (but merely practical) life.[citation needed] Contents 1 Ancient moral intellectualism 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Ancient moral intellectualism[edit] For Socrates (469–399 BC), intellectualism is the view that "one will do what is right or best just as soon as one truly understands what is right or best"; that virtue is a purely intellectual matter, since virtue and knowledge are cerebral relatives, which a person accrues and improves with dedication to reason.[3][4] So defined, Socratic intellectualism became a key philosophic doctrine of Stoicism.[5] The Stoics are well known for their teaching that the good is to be identified with virtue.[5] The apparent, problematic consequences of this view are "Socratic paradoxes", such as the view that there is no weakness of will (that no one knowingly does, or knowingly seeks to do, what is morally wrong); that anyone who does, or seeks to do, moral wrong does so involuntarily; and that since virtue is knowledge, there cannot be many different virtues such as those defended by Aristotle, and instead, all virtues must be one. The following are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[6] No one desires evil. No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly. Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge. Virtue is sufficient for happiness. Contemporary philosophers dispute that Socrates's conceptions of knowing truth, and of ethical conduct, can be equated with modern, post–Cartesian conceptions of knowledge and of rational intellectualism.[7] Typically, Stoic accounts of care for the self required specific ascetic exercises meant to ensure that not only was knowledge of truth memorized, but learned, and then integrated to the self, in the course of transforming oneself into a good person. Therefore, to understand truth meant "intellectual knowledge", requiring one's integration to the (universal) truth, and authentically living it in one's speech, heart, and conduct. Achieving that difficult task required continual care of the self, but also meant being someone who embodies truth, and so can readily practice the Classical-era rhetorical device of parrhesia: "to speak candidly, and to ask forgiveness for so speaking"; and, by extension, practice the moral obligation to speak the truth for the common good, even at personal risk.[8] This ancient, Socratic moral philosophic perspective contradicts the contemporary understanding of truth and knowledge as rational undertakings. See also[edit] Moral rationalism References[edit] ^ Adams, Zed (2014). "Against Moral Intellectualism". Philosophical Investigations. 37 (1): 37–56. doi:10.1111/phin.12025. ISSN 1467-9205. ^ The Moral Intellectualism of Plato's Socrates The Case of the Hippias Minor ^ "Ancient Ethical Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ "FOLDOC". Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. (Definition and note on Socrates) ^ a b Ancient Ethical Theory ^ p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1, Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964), pp. 147–64. ^ Heda Segvic (2005). "No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism". A Companion to Socrates. pp. 171–185. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch10. ISBN 9780470996218. ^ Gros, Frederic (ed.)(2005) Michel Foucault: The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Lectures at the College de France 1981–1982. Picador: New York Further reading[edit] Virtue Is Knowledge: The Moral Foundations of Socratic Political Philosophy, Lorraine Smith Pangle, University Of Chicago Press, 2014 External links[edit] Socrates' moral intellectualism The Ethics of Socrates Two Interpretations of Socratic Intellectualism v t e Socrates General Trial of Socrates Concepts Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning Legacy Socratic problem Socratici viri Phrases "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" Related Euthyphro dilemma Form of the Good Peritrope Religious skepticism Family Sophroniscus (father) Phaenarete (mother) Xanthippe (wife) Lamprocles (son) Menexenus (son) Myrto (wife) Works that include Socrates Art Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd century sculpture) The Death of Socrates (1787 painting) Socrates (1950 sculpture) Stage The Clouds (423 BC play) Der geduldige Socrates (1721 opera) Socrates (1759 play) Socrate (1919 oratorio) Socrates on Trial (2007 play) Literature De genio Socratis (1st century essay) On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis) The Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel) Other Barefoot in Athens (1966 film) Socrates (1971 film) Dialogues Plato Apology Axiochus Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hipparchus Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Lysis Menexenus Meno Minos On Justice On Virtue Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Theages Timaeus Xenophon Apology Memorabilia Oeconomicus Symposium Other Halcyon Socratic Letters Category v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moral_intellectualism&oldid=1026249146" Categories: A priori Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Concepts in ethics Ethical theories Meta-ethics Rationalism Socrates Stoicism Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Polski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 06:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5092	----	Antipater of Tarsus - Wikipedia Antipater of Tarsus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Antipater of Tarsus (Greek: Ἀντίπατρος ὁ Ταρσεύς; died 130/129 BC[1]) was a Stoic philosopher. He was the pupil and successor of Diogenes of Babylon as leader of the Stoic school, and was the teacher of Panaetius. He wrote works on the gods and on divination, and in ethics he took a higher moral ground than that of his teacher Diogenes. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 3 Notes 4 References Life[edit] Very little is known about Antipater's life, except that he was the disciple and successor of Diogenes of Babylon as leader of the Stoic school in Athens, and he was the teacher of Panaetius.[2] The few extant accounts of his philosophical opinions would not be sufficient grounds for any great reputation, if it were not for the testimony of ancient authors to his merit. Plutarch speaks of him with Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, as one of the principal Stoic philosophers,[3] and Cicero mentions him as remarkable for acuteness.[4] He seems to have taken the lead during his lifetime in the disputes constantly recurring between his own school and the Academy, although he is said to have felt himself so unequal in argument to his contemporary Carneades in public debates, that he confined himself to writing; by which he was called "Pen-noise" (Greek: καλαμοβόας).[5] Philosophy[edit] Antipater taught belief in God as "a Being blessed, incorruptible, and of goodwill to men," and blamed those who ascribed to the gods "generation and corruption," which is said to have been the doctrine of Chrysippus.[6] Besides this treatise on the gods, he also wrote two books on divination, a common topic among the Stoics, in which he proved the truth of the subject from the foreknowledge and benevolence of God, explained dreams to be supernatural intimations of the future, and collected stories of divination attributed to Socrates.[7] He is said to have believed that Fate was a god, though it is not clear what was implied in this expression;[8] and it appears from Athenaeus that he wrote a treatise entitled On Superstition (Greek: Περὶ Δεισιδαιμονίας).[9] Of Antipater's labours in moral philosophy nothing remains except a few scattered statements which concern points of detail, and have more to do with the application of moral precepts than with the principles themselves; such as they were, however, he took higher ground in solving them than his master Diogenes:[10] If a wise man should inadvertently accept counterfeit money for good, will he offer it as genuine in payment of a debt after he discovers his mistake?" Diogenes says, "Yes," Antipater, "No," and I agree with him. If a man knowingly offers for sale wine that is spoiling, ought he to tell his customers? Diogenes thinks that it is not required; Antipater holds that an honest man would do so.[11] Notes[edit] ^ Dorandi, Tiziano (1999). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780521250283. ^ Cicero, de Divinatione, i. 3, de Officiis, iii. 12. ^ Plutarch, de Stoic. Repugnant. ^ Cicero, de Officiis, iii. 12. ^ Plutarch, Moralia: On Talkativeness; Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, xiv. 8. ^ Plutarch, de Stoic. Rep. ^ Cicero, de Divinatione, i. 3, 20, 39, 54. ^ Stobaeus, de Fato, 16 ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, viii. ^ Cicero, de Officiis, iii. 12, 13, 23. ^ Cicero, de Officiis, iii. 23. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Antipater, of Tarsus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. pp. 203–204. Preceded by Diogenes of Babylon Leader of the Stoic school 145–129 BC Succeeded by Panaetius v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Netherlands Poland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antipater_of_Tarsus&oldid=1024880328" Categories: 2nd-century BC philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers from Anatolia Stoic philosophers People from Tarsus, Mersin 130 BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Magyar مصرى Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 15:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-510	----	Historia Augusta - Wikipedia Historia Augusta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Augustan History) Jump to navigation Jump to search late Roman collection of biographies of the Roman Emperors, their colleagues and heirs from 117 to 284 Historia Augusta Cover of a 1698 edition of the Historia Augusta from Ettal Abbey, Germany Author Disputed Original title Historia Augusta Language Latin Subject Roman history Publication date Disputed, possibly 4th century LC Class DE The Historia Augusta (English: Augustan History) is a late Roman collection of biographies, written in Latin, of the Roman emperors, their junior colleagues, designated heirs and usurpers from 117 to 284. Supposedly modeled on the similar work of Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, it presents itself as a compilation of works by six different authors (collectively known as the Scriptores Historiae Augustae), written during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine I and addressed to those emperors or other important personages in Ancient Rome. The collection, as extant, comprises thirty biographies, most of which contain the life of a single emperor, but some include a group of two or more, grouped together merely because these emperors were either similar or contemporaneous.[1] The true authorship of the work, its actual date, its reliability and its purpose have long been matters for controversy by historians and scholars ever since Hermann Dessau in 1889 rejected both the date and the authorship as stated within the manuscript. Major problems include the nature of the sources that it used, and how much of the content is pure fiction. For instance, the collection contains in all about 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to the people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations. Virtually all of them are now considered to be fraudulent.[2] By the second decade of the 21st century, the overall consensus supported the position that there was only a single author, who wrote either in the late 4th century or the early 5th century, who was interested in blending contemporary issues (political, religious and social) into the lives of the 3rd century emperors. There is further consensus that the author used the fictitious elements in the work to highlight references to other published works, such as to Cicero and Ammianus Marcellinus, in a complex allegorical game. Despite the conundrums, it is the only continuous account in Latin for much of its period and so is continually being re-evaluated. Modern historians are unwilling to abandon it as a unique source of possible information, despite its obvious untrustworthiness on many levels.[3] Contents 1 Title and scope 2 Textual transmission 3 The dating problem 4 Six scriptores or a single author? 5 Primary and secondary Vitae 6 Genre and purpose 7 Historical value 7.1 False documents and authorities 7.2 Examples of false historical events and personages 8 Marius Maximus or 'Ignotus'? 9 Literary value 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References 13 Sources 14 External links Title and scope[edit] The name Historia Augusta originated with Isaac Casaubon, who produced a critical edition in 1603, working from a complex manuscript tradition with a number of variant versions.[4] The title as recorded on the Codex Palatinus manuscript (written in the 9th century) is Vitae Diversorum Principum et Tyrannorum a Divo Hadriano usque ad Numerianum Diversis compositae ("The Lives of various Emperors and Tyrants from the Divine Hadrian to Numerian by Various Authors"), and it is assumed that the work may have been originally called de Vita Caesarum or Vitae Caesarum.[4] How widely the work was circulated in late antiquity is unknown, but its earliest use was in a Roman History composed by Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus in 485.[5] Lengthy citations from it are found in authors of the 6th and 9th centuries, including Sedulius Scottus who quoted parts of the Marcus Aurelius, the Maximini and the Aurelian within his Liber de Rectoribus Christianis, and the chief manuscripts also date from the 9th or 10th centuries.[6] The six Scriptores – "Aelius Spartianus", "Julius Capitolinus", "Vulcacius Gallicanus", "Aelius Lampridius", "Trebellius Pollio", and "Flavius Vopiscus (of Syracuse)" – dedicate their biographies to Diocletian, Constantine and various private persons, and so ostensibly were all writing around the late 3rd and early 4th century. The first four scriptores are attached to the lives from Hadrian to Gordian III, while the final two are attached to the lives from Valerian to Numerian. The biographies cover the emperors from Hadrian to Carinus and Numerian. A section covering the reigns of Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus, Aemilian and all but the end of the reign of Valerian is missing in all the manuscripts,[7] and it has been argued that biographies of Nerva and Trajan have also been lost[7] at the beginning of the work, which may suggest the compilation might have been a direct continuation of Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars. It has been theorized that the mid-3rd-century lacuna might actually be a deliberate literary device of the author or authors, saving the labour of covering Emperors for whom little source material may have been available.[8] Despite devoting whole books to ephemeral or in some cases non-existent usurpers,[9][10] there are no independent biographies of the Emperors Quintillus and Florian, whose reigns are merely briefly noted towards the end of the biographies of their respective predecessors, Claudius Gothicus and Tacitus. For nearly 300 years after Casaubon's edition, though much of the Historia Augusta was treated with some scepticism, it was used by historians as an authentic source – Edward Gibbon used it extensively in the first volume of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.[11] However, "in modern times most scholars read the work as a piece of deliberate mystification written much later than its purported date, however the fundamentalist view still has distinguished support. (...) The Historia Augusta is also, unfortunately, the principal Latin source for a century of Roman history. The historian must make use of it, but only with extreme circumspection and caution."[12] Textual transmission[edit] Existing manuscripts and witnesses of the Historia Augusta fall into three groups: A manuscript of the first quarter of the ninth century, Vatican Pal. lat. 899 (Codex Palatinus), known as P, and its direct and indirect copies. P was written at Lorsch in Caroline minuscule. The text in this manuscript has several lacunae marked with dots indicating the missing letters, a confusion in the order of the biographies between Verus and Alexander, and the transposition of several passages: two long ones which correspond to a quire of the original which became loose and was then inserted in a wrong place, and a similar transposition in Carus.[13] P is also distinguished by a succession of six centuries of editorial corrections, beginning with the original scribe, and includes such worthies as Petrarch and Poggio Bracciolini; none of these editors betray any knowledge of any other witness.[14] A group of 15th-century manuscripts, designated as Σ. Not only are the lives rearranged in chronological order, but the corruptions present in P have been subjected to drastic emendations or omitted altogether. Beginning with Dr. Ernst Hohl, some have asserted that the improvements in the text come from a source independent of P. Although admitting that "this question still remains to be answered definitively", author Peter Marshall noted that research undertaken through to the 1980s had improved scholarly knowledge concerning the methods and abilities of early Italian humanists, and concludes by saying that "the Σ manuscripts nowhere provide readings which are beyond the powers of the humanists active at the time.[15] Three different sets of excerpts, one of which Theodor Mommsen suggested was possibly the work of Sedulius Scottus. How any are related to P is unclear.[16] In Marshall's opinion, the best scholarly editions are those by H. Peter (Teubner, 2nd ed. 1884), and E. Hohl (Teubner, 1971, reissue of 1965 revised by Ch. Samberger & W. Seyfarth).[14] A copy of the Codex Palatinus (possibly the one made for Petrarch in 1356) was the basis of the editio princeps of the History, published in Milan in 1475. A subsequent printed version (the Aldine edition) was published at Venice in 1516, and this was followed closely by an edition edited by Desiderius Erasmus, and published by Johann Froben in Basel in 1518.[17] The dating problem[edit] Hermann Dessau, whose groundbreaking work on the Historia Augusta led to its critical re-evaluation in the 20th century In 1776, Gibbon had observed that there was something wrong with the numbers and names of the imperial biographers, and that this had already been recognised by older historians who had written on that subject.[note 1][18][19] A clear example was the referencing of the biographer 'Lampridius' (who was apparently writing his biographies after 324) by 'Vopiscus', who was meant to be writing his biographies in 305-6.[20] Then in 1889, Hermann Dessau, who had become increasingly concerned by the large number of anachronistic terms, Vulgar Latin vocabulary, and especially the host of obviously false proper names in the work, proposed that the six authors were all fictitious personae, and that the work was in fact composed by a single author in the late 4th century, probably in the reign of Theodosius I.[21][22] Among his supporting evidence was that the life of Septimius Severus appeared to have made use of a passage from the mid-4th-century historian Aurelius Victor,[note 2] and that the life of Marcus Aurelius likewise uses material from Eutropius.[note 3][23] In the decades following Dessau, many scholars argued to preserve at least some of the six Scriptores as distinct persons and in favour of the first-hand authenticity for the content. As early as 1890, Theodor Mommsen postulated a Theodosian 'editor' of the Scriptores' work, an idea that has resurfaced many times since.[24] Hermann Peter (editor of the Historia Augusta and of the Historicorum Romanorum reliquiae) proposed a date of 330 for when the work was written, based upon an analysis of style and language.[25] Others, such as Norman H. Baynes, abandoned the early 4th-century date but only advanced it as far as the reign of Julian the Apostate (useful for arguing the work was intended as pagan propaganda).[26] In the 1960s and 1970s however Dessau's original arguments received powerful restatement and expansion from Sir Ronald Syme, who devoted three books to the subject and was prepared to date the writing of the work closely in the region of AD 395. Other recent studies also show much consistency of style,[27] and most scholars now accept the theory of a single author of unknown identity, writing after 395.[28] Although it was believed that the Historia Augusta did not reference any material from Ammianus Marcellinus' history, which was finished before 391 and which covered the same period,[29] this has now been shown not to be the case, and that the Historia Augusta does in fact make reference to Ammianus' history.[30] Not all scholars have accepted the theory of a forger working around the last decades of the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. Arnaldo Momigliano[31][32][33] and A. H. M. Jones[34] were the most prominent 20th century critics of the Dessau-Syme theory amongst English-speaking scholars. Momigliano, summarizing the literature from Dessau down to 1954, defined the question as "res iudicanda" (i.e. "a matter to be decided") and not as "res iudicata" ("a matter that has been decided"). Momigliano reviewed every book published on the topic by Sir Ronald Syme, and provided counter arguments to most if not all of Syme's arguments.[32][33] For instance, the reference in the Life of Probus about the emperor's descendants which has been taken to refer to Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (consul in 371) and his family may, in the opinion of Momigliano, equally refer to the earlier members of the family, which was prominent throughout the 4th century, such as Petronius Probinus (consul in 341) and Petronius Probianus (consul in 322).[35] Momigliano's opinion was that there was insufficient evidence to dismiss a composition date of the early 4th century, and that any post-Constantinian anachronisms could be explained by an editor working on the material at a later date, perhaps during the reigns of Constantius II or Julian.[36] Other opinions included Dr H Stern's, who postulated that the History was composed by a team of writers during the reign of Constantius II after the defeat of Magnentius on behalf of the Senatorial aristocracy who had supported the usurper.[37] In the 21st century, Alan Cameron rebutted a number of Syme's and Barnes' arguments for a composition date c.395–400, suggesting a composition date between 361 and the 380s.[38] Six scriptores or a single author?[edit] Linked to the problem of dating the composition of the History is the question about the authorship of the work. Taking the History at face value, there is clearly a division between the authors named prior and after the presence of the interrupting lacuna. For the first half of the History, four scriptores are present, and the biographies are divided in a remarkably erratic fashion:[39] Aelius Spartianus (7 lives): Hadrian, Aelius, Didius Julianus, Severus, Niger, Caracalla and Geta. Julius Capitolinus (9 lives): Antoninus, Marcus, Lucius Verus, Pertinax, Albinus, Macrinus, The Maximini, The Gordiani, and Maximus and Balbinus. Vulcacius Gallicanus (1 life): Avidius Cassius. Aelius Lampridius (4 lives): Commodus, Diadumenus, Heliogabalus and Severus Alexander. Of these four, Spartianus and Gallicanus claim to be undertaking a complete set of imperial biographies from Julius Caesar onwards, while Lampridius' stated intention was to write a collection of biographies that would deal with the Gordians, Claudius II, Aurelian, Diocletian, Maximian and the four rivals of Constantine. Capitolinus also implied that he was writing more biographies than are present in the History.[40] The second half of the History is divided between two scriptores. Unlike the first half, the emperors tackled in this section are grouped logically, and are divided roughly in half between the two scriptores in chronological sequence: Trebellius Pollio (4 lives): Valerian, Gallienus, Tyranni Triginta and Claudius. Flavius Vopiscus Syracusanus (5 lives): Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Quadrigae Tyrannorum and Carus, Carinus and Numerian. In terms of any acknowledgement of the mutual existence between the scriptores, only Flavius Vopiscus (ostensibly writing in 305 or 306)[note 4][41] refers to any of the other authors (specifically Trebellius Pollio, Julius Capitolinus and Aelius Lampridius). None of the other five demonstrate any awareness of the existence of any of their 'colleagues'.[41] However, these references cause difficulties when these authors also address Constantine in their dedications, as Vopiscus was also doing. For instance, Capitolinus mostly addresses Diocletian, but in the Albinus, Maximini and Gordiani he addresses Constantine in a fashion that suggests he is writing after 306.[20] The theory that there was a single author, as initially postulated by Hermann Dessau, is based on the difficulties inherent in having a single work comprising a number of individuals but without any textual evidence of an editor who brought the material together. This is especially evident in that the text has examples of stated intentions by an author to write a life of one of the emperors, only for that life to be completed by another of the scriptores.[note 5][42] If those statements are true, and those additional lives were completed, then an editor must have been involved in the project in order to select one scriptor's life over another's.[42] However, the presence of a post-Constantinian editor, as originally postulated by Theodore Mommsen, still has notable support, most recently articulated by Daniel Den Hengst, who suggests that the editor was the author of the second half of the History, operating under the pseudonyms of Pollio and Vopiscus. Further, that this editor not only wrote the secondary lives in the first half, but he was also responsible for the insertions into the primary lives in that series.[43] He takes the view that the vast stylistic differences between the two halves of the History means they cannot have been written by the same author.[43] Nevertheless, if the validity of six independent authors is accepted, there are still issues, as the way they approached their work does show similar themes and details.[42] All six not only provide biographies for the emperors, but also for the Caesars and usurpers. They describe their work and approach in very similar language, and quote otherwise unknown historians and biographers, such as Junius Cordus. They collectively share many errors, such as calling Diadumenianus "Diadumenus".[42] They also share much idiosyncratic content and similar language, with particular focus on women, wine and military discipline, and were fixated on poor plays on words ascribing personality traits to certain emperors, for instance Verus was truthful, while Severus was a severe individual.[42] Additionally, the authors shared certain stylistic characteristics that has been suggested would not naturally occur between individuals writing separately. For instance, the authors all happen to use the word occido with respect to killing (a total of 42 occurrences), but only once do any of them use the alternative word of interficio. This ratio is not found with any other writers in this time period and for this genre.[42] Finally, each of the six scriptores authored fictional lives for some of their biographies, all of them using fake sources, documents and acclamations.[44] It has been postulated that the names of the scriptores themselves are also a form of literary playfulness, not only mocking both legitimate authors and historians, but also the narrative itself.[45] The names Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus are sourced in various ways from Cicero's writings,[46] as is the name Capitolinus.[47] Further, the word vopiscus is a rare Latin term, referring to a twin who survives, while its sibling died in utero; this has been interpreted to refer to "Flavius Vopiscus" as being the final one to survive from the six authors of the History.[47] Vulcacius is believed to be a mockery of Volcatius Sedigitus, who was a historical literary critic with some association with humor. The meanings behind the other two scriptores (Spartianus and Lampridius) have eluded interpretation.[48] Finally, it should also be noted that the results of recent computer-assisted stylistic analysis concerning the single vs multiple authorship have proven to be inconclusive: "Computer-aided stylistic analysis of the work has, however, returned ambiguous results; some elements of style are quite uniform throughout the work, while others vary in a way that suggests multiple authorship. To what extent this is due to the fact that portions of the work are obviously compiled from multiple sources is unclear. Several computer analyses of the text have been done to determine whether there were multiple authors. Many of them conclude that there was but a single author, but disagree on methodology. However, several studies done by the same team concluded there were several authors, though they were not sure how many."[49] Primary and secondary Vitae[edit] A unique feature of the Historia Augusta is that it purports to supply the biographies not only of reigning Emperors (called "primary lives" by modern scholars), but also "secondary lives" of their designated heirs, junior colleagues, and usurpers who unsuccessfully claimed the supreme power.[50] Thus among the biographies of 2nd-century and early 3rd-century figures are included Hadrian's heir Aelius Caesar, and the usurpers Avidius Cassius, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, Caracalla's brother Geta and Macrinus' son Diadumenianus. None of these pieces contain much in the way of solid information: all are marked by rhetorical padding and obvious fiction. The biography of Marcus Aurelius' colleague Lucius Verus, which Mommsen thought 'secondary', is however rich in apparently reliable information and has been vindicated by Syme as belonging to the 'primary' series.[51] The 'secondary' lives allowed the author to exercise freedom in the invention of events, places and people without the need to conform to authentic historical facts.[52] As the work proceeds the author's inventiveness undergoes an increasing degree of elaboration as legitimate historical sources begin to run out, eventually composing largely fictional accounts such as the "biographies" of the "Thirty Tyrants", whom the author claimed had risen as usurpers under Gallienus. Moreover, after the biography of Caracalla the 'primary' biographies, of the emperors themselves, begin to assume the rhetorical and fictive qualities previously confined to the 'secondary' ones, probably because the secondary lives were written after the Life of Caracalla.[53] The biography of Macrinus is notoriously unreliable,[54] and after a partial reversion to reliability in the Life of Elagabalus, the Alexander Severus, one of the longest biographies in the entire work, develops into a kind of exemplary and rhetorical fable on the theme of the wise philosopher king.[55] Clearly the author's previous sources had given out, but also his inventive talents were developing. He still makes use of some recognized sources – Herodian up to 238, and probably Dexippus in the later books, for the entire imperial period the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte as well as Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Jerome – but the biographies are increasingly tracts of invention in which occasional nuggets of fact are embedded.[56][30] However, even where recognisable facts are present, their use in the History cannot be taken at face value. In the Life of Alexander Severus, the History makes the claim at 24.4 that Alexander had considered banning male prostitution but had decided against making it illegal, although the author added that the emperor Philip did later ban the practice.[57] Although the claim about Alexander is false, the note about Philip is true – the source of this is Aurelius Victor (28.6–7, and who in turn sourced it from the Kaisergeschichte), and the History even copies Victor's style of moralising asides, which were not in the Kaisergeschichte.[58] Normally, this anecdote would have been included in a Life of Philip, but its absence saw the author include it in another life. This is taken as evidence that the mid-work lacuna is deliberate, as the author was apparently reluctant to abandon any useful material that could be gleaned from the Kaisergeschichte.[57] Estimated amount of reliable historical details in some of the Historia Augusta's secondary and later primary vitae[59] Vita Type of Vita % estimate containing reliable historical details Aelius Secondary 25% Avidius Cassius Secondary 5% Pescennius Niger Secondary 29% Clodius Albinus Secondary 32% Geta Secondary 5% Opellius Macrinus Primary 33% Diadumenianus Secondary 5% Elagabalus Primary 24% Alexander Severus Primary 4% Claudius Primary 10% Aurelian Primary 27% Tacitus Primary 15% Probus Primary 17% Quadrigae Tyrannorum Secondary 0% Carus Primary 17% Genre and purpose[edit] Interpretations of the purpose of the History also vary considerably, some considering it a work of fiction or satire intended to entertain (perhaps in the vein of 1066 and All That), others viewing it as a pagan attack on Christianity, the writer having concealed his identity for personal safety. Under this anti-Christianity theory, the lacuna covering the period from Philip the Arab through to the end of Valerian's reign is seen as deliberate, as it freed the author from addressing Philip's reign, as by the late 4th century, Philip was being claimed as a Christian emperor, as well as not discussing Decius and Valerian's reigns, as they were well known persecutors of the Church. It also avoided dealing with their fates, as Christians saw their ends as divine retribution for their persecutions. In fact, where mentioned, both Decius and Valerian are viewed very positively by the author of the History.[60] Further, it is noted that the History also parodies Christian scripture. For instance, in the Life of Alexander Severus there is: "It is said that on the day after his birth a star of the first magnitude was visible for the entire day at Arca Caesarea",[61] while "where, save at Rome, is there an imperial power that rules an empire?"[62] is considered to be a response to 2 Thessalonians 2:6–7.[63] Syme[64] argued that it was a mistake to regard it as a historical work at all and that no clear propaganda purpose could be determined. He theorized that the History is primarily a literary product – an exercise in satire produced by a 'rogue scholiast' catering to (and making fun of or parodying) the antiquarian tendencies of the Theodosian age, in which Suetonius and Marius Maximus were fashionable reading and Ammianus Marcellinus was producing sober history in the manner of Tacitus. (The History implausibly[65] makes the Emperor Tacitus (275–276) a descendant and connoisseur of the historian). In fact in a passage on the Quadriga tyrannorum[66] — the 'four-horse chariot of usurpers' said to have aspired to the purple in the reign of Probus — the History itself accuses Marius Maximus of being a producer of 'mythical history': homo omnium verbosissimus, qui et mythistoricis se voluminibis implicavit ('the most long-winded of men, who furthermore wrapped himself up in volumes of historical fiction'). The term mythistoricis occurs nowhere else in Latin.[67] Of considerable significance in this regard is the opening section of the life of Aurelian, in which 'Flavius Vopiscus' records a supposed conversation he had with the City Prefect of Rome during the festival of Hilaria in which the Prefect urges him to write as he chooses and invent what he does not know.[68] Cicero, one of the authors whose works the Historia Augusta references obliquely. Other examples of the work as a parody can be taken from the names of the Scriptores themselves. It has been suggested that "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius" were invented, with one theory arguing that their origins are based on passages in Cicero's letters and speeches in the 1st century BC.[63] With respect to "Trebellius Pollio", this is a reference to Lucius Trebellius, a supporter of Mark Antony who was mentioned in the Philippics (Phil, 11.14), and another reference to him in Epistulae ad Familiares along with the term "Pollentiam" reminded the History's author of Asinius Pollio, who was a fellow Plebeian Tribune alongside Lucius Trebellius and a historian as well.[63] This is reinforced by noted similarities between the fictitious criticism of "Trebellius Pollio" by "Flavius Vopiscus" at the start of the Life of Aurelian, with similar comments made by Asinius Pollio about Julius Caesar's published Commentaries.[63] Significantly, Lucius Trebellius adopted the Cognomen Fides for his actions as Plebeian Tribune in 47 BC to resist laws that would abolish debts; later when he fell into debt himself and began supporting debt abolishment, Cicero used his cognomen as a method of abuse and ridicule. According to this theory it is no coincidence that, in selecting the name "Trebellius Pollio", the author is playing with the concepts of fides and fidelitas historica at the precise point in the lives that are assigned to "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius".[69] In the case of "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius", it was argued that it too was inspired by the Philippics' reference to "Caesar Vopiscus" (Phil, 11.11), with Cicero's reference to Vopiscus immediately preceding his reference to Lucius Trebellius.[70] The cognomen "Syracusius" was selected because Cicero's In Verrem is filled with references to "Syracusae" and "Syracusani".[70] Further, in Cicero's De Oratore, Cicero refers to Strabo Vopiscus as an authority on humour, during which he refers to the reputation of Sicilians when it came to humour, and Syracuse was one of the principal cities of Sicily.[70] Such references were intended as a "knowing wink" to the readers of the History, who would recognise the mockery of the historical material by the author.[70] This corresponds with David Rohrbacher's view of the History, who maintains that the author has no political or theological agenda; rather that the History is the equivalent of a literary puzzle or game, with the reader's understanding and enjoyment of the numerous elaborate and complicated allusions contained within it being the only purpose behind its existence.[71] In support of this theory, Rohrbacher provides an example with respect to Ammianus Marcellinus' work. In one passage (Amm. 19.12.14), Ammianus describes the Christian emperor Constantius II's attempts to prosecute cases of magic under treason laws, in particular the death penalty applied to those men who were condemned simply for wearing an amulet to ward off diseases: "si qui remedia quartanae vel doloris alterius collo gestaret" ("For if anyone wore on his neck an amulet against the quartan ague or any other complaint").[72] There is a very similar imperial ruling described in the Life of Caracalla (5.7), which makes no sense in Caracalla's time, and is worded in almost exactly the same way: "qui remedia quartanis tertianisque collo adnexas gestarent" ("wearing them around their necks as preventives of quartan or tertian fever").[72] Other theories include André Chastagnol's minimalist opinion that the author was a pagan who supported the Senate and the Roman aristocracy and scorned the lower classes and the barbarian races,[73] while François Paschoud proposed that the last books of the History are in fact a type of alternative historical narrative, with events and the personalities of recent 4th century emperors woven into the fabric of a series of 3rd century emperors. According to Paschoud, the representation of the emperor Probus is in fact a version of Julian, with Carus substituting for Valentinian I and Carinus for Gratian.[73] Historical value[edit] From the sixth century to the end of the 19th century, historians had recognized that the Historia Augusta was a flawed and not a particularly reliable source, and since the 20th century modern scholars have tended to treat it with extreme caution.[12][74] Older historians, such as Edward Gibbon, not fully aware of its problems with respect to the fictitious elements contained within it, generally treated the information preserved within it as authentic. For instance, in Gibbon's account of the reign of Gallienus, he uncritically reproduces the Historia Augusta's biased and largely fictional account of that reign.[75] So when Gibbon states "The repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul",[76] he is reworking the passage in The Two Gallieni: I am ashamed to relate what Gallienus used often to say at this time, when such things were happening, as though jesting amid the ills of mankind. For when he was told of the revolt of Egypt, he is said to have exclaimed "What! We cannot do without Egyptian linen!" and when informed that Asia had been devastated both by the violence of nature and by the inroads of the Scythians, he said, "What! We cannot do without saltpetre!" and when Gaul was lost, he is reported to have laughed and remarked, "Can the commonwealth be safe without Atrebatic cloaks?" Thus, in short, with regard to all parts of the world, as he lost them, he would jest, as though seeming to have suffered the loss of some article of trifling service.[77] Gibbon then noted after this passage: "This singular character has, I believe, been fairly transmitted to us. The reign of his immediate successor was short and busy; and the historians who wrote before the elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus."[78] Modern scholars now believe that Gallienus' reputation was posthumously maligned, that he was one of the main architects of the later Roman imperial structure, and that his reforms were built upon by succeeding emperors.[79] Nevertheless, it is unwise to dismiss it altogether as it is also the principal Latin source regarding a century of Roman history. For example, scholars had assumed that Veturius Macrinus, mentioned in the Life of Didius Julianus, was an invention of the author, like so many other names. However, an inscription was uncovered which confirmed his existence and his post as Praetorian Prefect in 193.[80] Likewise, the information that Hadrian's Wall was constructed during Hadrian's reign[81] and that the Antonine Wall was built during the reign of Antoninus Pius[82] are recorded by no other extant ancient writer apart from the Historia Augusta,[note 6] the veracity of which has been confirmed by inscriptions.[84] False documents and authorities[edit] A peculiarity of the work is its inclusion of a large number of purportedly authentic documents such as extracts from Senate proceedings and letters written by imperial personages.[85][86] In all it contains around 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to the people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations.[2] Records like these are quite distinct from the rhetorical speeches often inserted by ancient historians – it was accepted practice for the writer to invent these himself[87] – and on the few occasions when historians (such as Sallust in his work on Catiline or Suetonius in his Twelve Caesars) include such documents, they have generally been regarded as genuine;[88] but almost all those found in the Historia Augusta have been rejected as fabrications, partly on stylistic grounds, partly because they refer to military titles or points of administrative organisation which are otherwise unrecorded until long after the purported date, or for other suspicious content.[89][90][91] The History moreover cites dozens of otherwise unrecorded historians, biographers, letter-writers, knowledgeable friends of the writers, and so on, most of whom must be regarded as expressions of the author's creative imagination.[92] For example, the biographer "Cordus" is cited twenty-seven times in the History. Long considered to be a real, but lost, biographer until midway into the 20th century,[93][94] with a couple of minor exceptions where material claimed to be sourced from Cordus is in reality from Suetonius or Cicero, every other citation is fake, providing details which have been invented and ascribed to Cordus. Cordus is mentioned almost exclusively in those Vitae where the History used Herodian as the primary source, and his appearances vanish once Herodian's history comes to an end.[95] The author would also misattribute material taken from a legitimate historian and ascribe it to a fictitious author. For instance, Herodian is used more often than he is explicitly referenced in the History; in addition to the ten times he is correctly cited, three times his material is cited as "Arrianus", probably to multiply the author's sources.[23] Further, not only does the author copy from Herodian without citation (either direct lifts, abbreviations or supplementations), he often distorts Herodian, to suit his literary objective.[23][96] Then there is the deliberate citation of false information which is then ascribed legitimate authors. For instance, at a minimum, five of the History's sixteen citations of Dexippus are considered to be fake, and Dexippus appears to be mentioned, not as a principal source of information, but rather as a contradictory author to be contrasted against information sourced from Herodian or the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte. In addition Quintus Gargilius Martialis, who produced works on horticulture and medicine, is cited twice as a biographer, which is considered to be another false attribution.[97] Examples of false historical events and personages[edit] The untrustworthiness of the History stems from the multifarious kinds of fraudulent (as opposed to simply inaccurate) information that run through the work, becoming ever more dominant as it proceeds.[52] The various biographies are ascribed to different invented 'authors', and continue with the dedicatory epistles to Diocletian and Constantine, the quotation of fabricated documents, the citation of non-historical authorities, the invention of persons (extending even to the subjects of some of the minor biographies), presentation of contradictory information to confuse an issue while making a show of objectivity, deliberately false statements, and the inclusion of material which can be shown to relate to events or personages of the late 4th century rather than the period supposedly being written about.[98] For example: The biography of Geta states he was born in Mediolanum on 27 May; the year is not specified but it was 'in the suffect consulships of Severus and Vitellius'.[99] He was actually born in Rome on 7 March 189; there was no such pair of suffect consuls in this or any other year;[100] however, it has been suggested that the names for these persons be amended to be Severus and Vettulenus, and that these men were suffect consuls sometime before 192.[101] In the Vita Commodi, the biography on emperor Commodus, there is much doubt about the authenticity of the sources used and cited. Lampridius (the pseudonym the author works with here) claims to have used Marius Maximus on multiple occasions for his work.[102] One instance forms a case in point: Lampridius (supposedly) quotes the senatorial speeches in Maximus’ work which were held after Commodus’ death.[103] However, it is unclear whether the references to Maximus are genuine or made up by the author to give himself a sense of authority and expertise.[104] Baldwin thinks that the senatorial speeches are probably a figment of Lampridius’ imagination.[105] Molinier-Arbo, however, believes in their authenticity. She suggests that the full report of the acta senatus (lit. acts of the senate) was handed down in the acta urbis (a kind of city gazette). Marius Maximus could have used this report for his work and Lampridius could have used it later on.[106] A letter of Hadrian written from Egypt to his brother-in-law Servianus is quoted at length (and was accepted as genuine by many authorities well into the 20th century).[107] Servianus is saluted as consul, and Hadrian mentions his (adopted) son Lucius Aelius Caesar: but Hadrian was in Egypt in 130, Servianus' consulship fell in 134, and Hadrian adopted Aelius in 136.[108][109] The letter is said to have been published by Hadrian's freedman Phlegon, with the letter's existence not mentioned anywhere except in the History, in another suspect passage.[110] A passage in the letter dealing with the frivolousness of Egyptian religious beliefs refers to the Patriarch, head of the Jewish community in the Empire. This office only came into being after Hadrian put down the Jewish revolt of 132, and the passage is probably meant in mockery of the powerful late 4th-century Patriarch, Gamaliel.[111] Decius revives the office of Censor; the Senate acclaims Valerian as worthy to hold it in a decree dated 27 October 251. The decree is brought to Decius (on campaign against the Goths) and he summons Valerian to bestow the honour.[112] The revival of the censorship is fictitious, and Decius had been dead for several months by the date stated.[113] Valerian holds an imperial council in Byzantium, attended by several named dignitaries, none of them otherwise attested and some holding offices not known to exist until the following century, at which the general 'Ulpius Crinitus' (a name apparently chosen to evoke the military glories of the Emperor Trajan) takes the young Aurelian (destined to be another military Emperor) as his adopted son. There are no grounds to believe this is anything other than invention.[114] Trebellianus, one of the fictitious tyrants included in the Historia Augusta, drawn by Guillaume Rouillé in Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum- 1553 In the Tyranni Triginta, the author 'Trebellius Pollio' sets out to chronicle 'the 30 usurpers who arose in the years when the Empire was ruled by Gallienus and Valerian'.[115] The number 30 is evidently modelled on the notorious 'Thirty Tyrants' who ruled Athens after the end of the Peloponnesian War.[116] The chapter contains 32 mini-biographies. They include two women, six youths, and seven men who never claimed the imperial power; one usurper of the reign of Maximinus Thrax, one of the time of Decius, and two of the time of Aurelian; and a number who are not historical personages: Postumus the Younger, Saturninus, Trebellianus, Celsus, Titus, Censorinus, and Victorinus Junior.[117] In the Life of Tacitus, the emperor is acclaimed by the Senate, meeting in the Curia Pompiliana, which never existed.[118] The History then lists a number of individuals, all of whom are invented by the author: the consul 'Velius Cornificius Gordianus',[119] 'Maecius Faltonius Nicomachus',[120] the Prefect of the City 'Aelius Cesettianus',[121] and the Praetorian Prefect 'Moesius Gallicanus'.[122] Private letters commending Tacitus are quoted from the senators 'Autronius Tiberianus' and 'Claudius Sapilianus', both of whom are assumed to be non-historical personages.[123] Most of the 'Maecii' and 'Gallicani' in the History are believed to be inventions of the author.[120][122] In the Quadrigae Tyrannorum (Four tyrants: The Lives of Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus[124]), the author includes Firmus, said to have been a usurper in Egypt under Aurelian.[125][126] There is no certainty that this person ever existed; however, there was a Corrector named Claudius Firmus stationed in Egypt in 274, about the time Zosimus states that Aurelian was dealing with some trouble in that province.[127] Nevertheless, the History's wealth of detail about him is considered to be completely invented.[128] For example, he would eat an ostrich a day, he had a carriage drawn by ostriches, he would swim among crocodiles, he built himself a house fitted with square panels of glass.[129] In the Life of Probus,[130] the author 'Flavius Vopiscus of Syracuse' states that the Emperor's descendants (posteri) fled from Rome and settled near Verona. There a statue of Probus was struck by lightning, a portent according to soothsayers 'that future generations of the family would rise to such distinction in the senate they all would hold the highest posts', though Vopiscus (supposedly writing under Constantine) says this prophecy has not yet come to pass. This is one of the strongest indications of the History's late 4th-century date, as it seems to be a fairly transparent allusion to the rich and powerful senator Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (consul in 371) whose two sons held the consulship together in 395.[131][132] Petronius Probus was born in Verona.[133] Marius Maximus or 'Ignotus'?[edit] Certain scholars have always defended the value of specific parts of the work. Anthony Birley, for instance, has argued that the lives up to Septimius Severus are based on the now-lost biographies of Marius Maximus, which were written as a sequel to Suetonius' Lives of the Twelve Caesars.[134] As a result, his translation of the History for Penguin Books covers only the first half, and was published as Lives of the Later Caesars, Birley himself supplying biographies of Nerva and Trajan (these are not part of the original texts, which begin with Hadrian). His view (part of a tradition that goes back to J. J. Müller, who advanced Marius' claims as early as 1870, and supported by modern scholars such as André Chastagnol) was vigorously contested by Ronald Syme, who theorized that virtually all the identifiable citations from Marius Maximus are essentially frivolous interpolations into the main narrative source, which he postulated was a different Latin author whom he styled 'Ignotus ("the unknown one"), the good biographer'.[135][136] His theory argued, firstly, that as Marius wrote a sequel to the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, his work covered the reigns from Nerva to Elagabalus; consequently, this would not have included a biography of Lucius Verus, even though the biography of that Princeps in the History is mainly of good quality.[137] Secondly, that 'Ignotus' only went up to Caracalla, as is revealed by the inferior and mostly fictitious biography of Macrinus.[138] Finally, that the composer of the Historia Augusta wrote the lives of the emperors through to the Life of Caracalla (including Lucius Verus) using Ignotus as his main source, and supplementing with Marius Maximus on occasion.[139] It was only when the source failed that he turned to other less reliable sources (such as Herodian and Maximus),[140] as well as his own fertile imagination, and it was at this juncture that he composed the first five minor lives, through to the Life of Geta.[141] A similar theory to Syme's has been put forward by François Paschoud, who claimed that Maximus was probably a satirical poet, in the same vein as Juvenal and not an imperial biographer at all.[142] His argument rests on the point that, outside of the mentions in the History, the only extant referencing of Marius' work is always in the context of Juvenal, and that the History's description of him as a historian cannot be taken at face value, given how it invents or distorts so many other citations.[97] This theory is rejected by historians such as Anthony Birley[142] and David Rohrbacher.[143] Literary value[edit] The Historia Augusta has been described by Ronald Syme as "the most enigmatic work that Antiquity has transmitted".[74] Although much of the focus of study throughout the centuries has been on the historical content, since the 20th century there has also been an assessment of the literary value of the work. For much of that time the assessment has been critical, as demonstrated by the analysis put forward by David Magie: The literary, as well as the historical, value of the Historia Augusta has suffered greatly as a result of the method of its composition. In the arrangement in categories of the historical material, the authors did but follow the accepted principles of the art of biography as practised in antiquity, but their narratives, consisting often of mere excerpts arranged without regard to connexion or transition, lack grace and even cohesion. The over-emphasis of personal details and the introduction of anecdotal material destroy the proportion of many sections, and the insertion of forged documents interrupts the course of the narrative, without adding anything of historical value or even of general interest. Finally, the later addition of lengthy passages and brief notes, frequently in paragraphs with the general content of which they have no connexion, has put the crowning touch to the awkwardness and incoherence of the whole, with the result that the oft-repeated charge seems almost justified, that these biographies are little more than literary monstrosities.[144] M. L. W. Laistner was of the opinion that "even if the Historia Augusta was propaganda disguised as biography, it is still a wretched piece of literature",[145] while Ronald Syme noted that with respect to the author's Latin prose: He was not an elegant exponent. His normal language is flat and monotonous. But uneven, and significantly so. For this author is erudite, a fancier of words, and a collector. Hence many rarities, or even inventions ... first, when depicting the measures of a military disciplinarian, he brings in technical terms redolent of the camp. Second, archaism, preciosity, and flowery words.[146] Further, the work shows evidence of its having been put together in a very haphazard and hasty fashion, with little to no subsequent editing of the material to form a cohesive narrative.[147] Birley sees an example of the carelessness with which the author approached the work in the construction of Marcus Aurelius' biography, where midway through the Life of Marcus Aurelius the author found himself in a muddle, probably because he had historical material in excess of what he required, and also because he had already used up much of his source to write separate biographies of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius, whose lives intersected with Marcus'.[148] The answer he came up with was to use Eutropius as his source for a brief overview of Marcus' principate following the death of Lucius Verus.[148] However, he found that in doing so, the narrative's ending was too abrupt and so, after including some gossip about Commodus not being his son, he once again began an account of Marcus' reign after the death of Verus.[148] Although these criticisms still form the prevailing view on the History's literary worth, modern scholars such as Rohrbacher have begun to argue that, while it is poorly written and not a stylistic or polished work,[149][150] its use of allusion as a vehicle for parodying popular late 4th century biographical and historiographical works means that the very features which were once a cause for intense criticism (such as the inclusion of irrelevant or contradictory inventions alongside traditionally sourced material) are actually an intentional and integral part of the work, making it one of the most unique pieces of literature to emerge from the ancient world.[151][71] See also[edit] Thirty Tyrants (Roman) – about the Tyranni Triginta, one of the books of the Historia Augusta Titus Aurelius Fulvus Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte Footnotes[edit] ^ Gerardus Vossius, who published de Historicis Latinis in 1627, discussed the problem of the distribution of the various vitae among the scriptores, but also the problems about the authors cited by them. Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, who published Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné durant les six premiers Siècles de l'Eglise in 1690, provided a wholesale denunciation of the biographies as being worthless, full of contradictions and chronological errors. ^ Sev. 17.5–19.4 was copied from Victor, Caes. 20.1 and 10–30; in both passages there is a major error, which mixes up the emperor Didius Julianus with the legal scholar Salvius Julianus ^ MA 16.3–18.2 was lifted from Eutropius 8.11 ^ In the Aurelian, Vopiscus refers to Constantinus Chlorus as emperor and Diocletian as a private citizen, dating this composition between Diocletian's abdication on 1 May 305 and Constantius' death on 25 July 306 ^ For example, Spartianus declares that he is going to write a life of Verus, but that life is attributed to Capitolinus. ^ Where other ancient writers (such as Eutropius) speak of a defensive wall in Britain, they have associated it with the activities of Septimius Severus.[83] References[edit] ^ Magie 1921, p. xii. ^ a b Magie 1921, pp. xx–xxi. ^ Breisach 2007, p. 75. ^ a b Magie 1921, p. xi. ^ Birley 1988, p. 20. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxiv–xxv. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 9. ^ Birley 1967, pp. 125–130. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 118–119. ^ Syme 1971, p. 277. ^ Barnes 1978, p. 12. ^ a b Browning 1983, pp. 43,45. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxxiii. ^ a b Marshall 1983, p. 354f. ^ Marshall 1983, p. 355. ^ Marshall 1983, p. 356. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxviii. ^ Birley 1988, p. 7. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxx–xxxi. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 11. ^ Magie 1921, p. xxxii. ^ Syme 1971, p. 1. ^ a b c Birley 2006, p. 20. ^ Syme 1971, p. 2. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 113. ^ Baynes 1926, pp. 169-169. ^ Hornblower, Spawforth & Eidinow 2012, p. 691. ^ Birley 2006, p. 19. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 13–14. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 20. ^ Momigliano 1954, pp. 22–46. ^ a b Momigliano 1969, pp. 566–569. ^ a b Momigliano 1973, pp. 114–115. ^ Jones 1986, p. 1071, Note 1. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 121. ^ Momigliano 1984, pp. 125, 133. ^ Momigliano 1984, p. 140. ^ Cameron 2010, pp. 743–746. ^ Birley 1988, p. 12. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 11–12. ^ a b Birley 1988, p. 10. ^ a b c d e f Rohrbacher 2016, p. 5. ^ a b Den Hengst 2010, p. 182. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 6. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 20–21. ^ Birley 2006, pp. 25–27. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 23. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 23–24. ^ Prickman 2013. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 54–57. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 56–57. ^ a b Birley 1988, pp. 13–14. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 44, 211, 214. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 57–59. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 146–150. ^ Birley 1988, p. 14. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 151. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, pp. 150–151. ^ Birley 2006, p. 23. ^ Birley 2006, p. 22. ^ Historia Augusta, Alexander Severus, 13.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Alexander Severus, 14.4. ^ a b c d Birley 2006, p. 25. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 12–13. ^ Syme 1983, p. 214. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 1.2. ^ Syme 1971, p. 76. ^ Syme 1968, p. 192. ^ Birley 2006, p. 26. ^ a b c d Birley 2006, p. 27. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 148. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 143. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 147. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2016, p. 4. ^ Bray 1997, pp. 3–4. ^ Gibbon 1776, Ch. 10. ^ Historia Augusta, The Two Gallieni, 6.1–6.8. ^ Gibbon 1776, Ch. 10, Note 156. ^ Bray 1997, p. 4. ^ Mellor 2002, p. 163. ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 11.2. ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius, 5.4. ^ Shorter 2008, pp. 113–114. ^ Birley 1988, p. 13. ^ Potter 2005, p. 150. ^ Campbell 1994, p. 248. ^ Mehl 2011, p. 21. ^ Potter 2005, p. 149. ^ Hadas 2013, pp. 356–357. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 6–8. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 113–114. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 98–99. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xviii–xix. ^ Syme 1968, pp. 96–98. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, p. 161. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 13. ^ a b Rohrbacher 2013, p. 160. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 12–16. ^ Historia Augusta, Geta, 3.1. ^ Syme 1968, p. 123. ^ Birley 1966, pp. 249–253. ^ Syme 1983, p. 31. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 15.3-5 + 18-21. ^ Syme 1983, p. 41. ^ Baldwin 1981, pp. 138-149. ^ Molinier-Arbo 2010, pp. 87-112. ^ Raschke 1976, pp. 761–762. ^ Habelt 1968, p. 121. ^ Birley 2013, p. 3. ^ Syme 1968, p. 60. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 21–24. ^ Historia Augusta, The Two Valerians, 5.4–6.1. ^ Syme 1971, p. 215. ^ Den Hengst 2010, p. 97. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 1.1. ^ Bunson 1991, p. 414. ^ Cancik, Schneider & Salazar 2009, p. 91. ^ Den Hengst 2010, p. 159. ^ Kreucher 2003, p. 105. ^ a b Syme 1971, pp. 4, 12. ^ Syme 1983, p. 117. ^ a b Baldwin 1984, p. 4. ^ Syme 1971, pp. 238–239. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 3.1. ^ Historia Augusta, Aurelian, 32.2. ^ Barnes 1978, p. 71. ^ Den Boeft et al. 2013, pp. 150. ^ Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, 3.2–6.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Probus, 24.1–24.3. ^ Syme 1968, p. 164. ^ Claudian 1922, Panegyric on the Consuls Probinus and Olybrius, Note 1. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1971, pp. 739. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 14–15. ^ Syme 1983, p. 33. ^ Birley 1988, p. 15. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 31–33. ^ Syme 1983, p. 32. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 32–33. ^ Syme 1983, pp. 31–32. ^ Syme 1983, p. 44. ^ a b Birley 2006, p. 21. ^ Rohrbacher 2013, pp. 161–162. ^ Magie 1921, pp. xxiii–xxiv. ^ Laistner 1966, p. 180. ^ Syme 1971, p. 251. ^ Birley 1988, pp. 18–19. ^ a b c Birley 1988, p. 19. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, p. 171. ^ Birley 1988, p. 18. ^ Rohrbacher 2016, pp. 170–172. Sources[edit] Anonymous (c. 395). Historia Augusta [Augustan History] (in Latin). Baldwin, Barry (1984). Studies on Late Roman and Byzantine History, Literature, and Language. Volume 12 of London studies in classical philology. Brill Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-90-70265-56-4. Baldwin, Barry (1981). "Acclamations in the Historia Augusta". Athenaeum. Italy: Pavia. 59: 138–149. Barnes, Timothy (1978). The Sources of the Historia Augusta. Latomus. ISBN 978-2-87031-005-2. Baynes, Norman Hepburn (1926). The Historia Augusta. Its Date and Purpose. Oxford: U.M.I. Birley, Anthony (2013). Hadrian: The Restless Emperor. Roman imperial biographies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-95226-6. Birley, Anthony (1988). Lives of the Later Caesars. United Kingdom: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-193599-7. Birley, Anthony (2006). "Rewriting second- and third-century history in late antique Rome: the Historia Augusta". Classica. Brazil: Belo Horizonte. 19 n.1. Birley, Anthony (1967). "The Augustan History". Latin Biography. Birley, Anthony (1966). "Two Names in the Historia Augusta". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag. 15 (2): 249–253. JSTOR 4434928. Bray, John Jefferson (1997). Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics. Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-86254-337-9. Breisach, Ernst (2007). Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-07284-5. Browning, Robert (1983). "Biography". In Kenney, E. J.; Clausen, Wendell Vernon; Cameron, Averil (eds.). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 5, The Later Principate. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–50. ISBN 978-0-521-27371-8. Bunson, Matthew (1991). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cameron, Alan (2010). The Last Pagans of Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978091-4. Campbell, Brian (1994). The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337: A Sourcebook. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-90940-7. Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth; Salazar, Christine (2009). Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity. 14. Holland: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-14219-0. Den Boeft, Jan; Drijvers, Jan Willem; Den Hengst, Daniël; Teitler, Hans (2013). Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXIX. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-26787-9. Den Hengst, Daniel (2010). Emperors and Historiography. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-17438-2. Gibbon, Edward (1776). Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol I. Habelt, Rudolf (1968). Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium, Volume 4. Rudolf Habelt Verlag. Hadas, Moses (2013). A History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). The Later Roman Empire 284-602, Vol 2. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8018-3354-0. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, John Robert; Morris, John (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I (A.D. 260-395). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07233-5. Kreucher, G (2003). Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit. Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08382-9. Laistner, M. W. L. (1966). The Greater Roman Historians. University of California Press. Magie, David (1921). The Historia Augusta. London & Harvard: Loeb Classical Library. Marshall, Peter K (1983). "Scriptores Historiae Augustae". In Reynolds, Leighton Durham (ed.). Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Clarendon Press. pp. 354ff. ISBN 978-0-19-814456-4. Mehl, Andreas (2011). Roman Historiography. London: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-2183-5. Mellor, Ronald (2002). The Roman Historians. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-81652-1. Molinier-Arbo, Agnès (2010). "Les documents d'archives dans la Vita Commodi : degré zéro de l'histoire ou fiction". Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. France: Persée. suppl. 4.1: 87–112. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1954). "An Unsolved Problem of Historical Forgery: The Scriptores Historiae Augustae". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. Oxford. 17 (1/2) (1/2): 22–46. doi:10.2307/750131. JSTOR 750131. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1969). "Review: Ammianus and the Historia Augusta by Ronald Syme". 332. The English Historical Review 84: 566–569. JSTOR 562486. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Momigliano, Arnaldo (1973). "Review: Emperors and Biography. Studies in the Historia Augusta by Ronald Syme". 346. The English Historical Review 88: 114–115. JSTOR 562570. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Momigliano, Arnaldo (1984). Secondo Contributo Alla Storia Degli Studi Classici. Ed. di Storia e Letteratura. Claudian (1922). Claudian on LacusCurtius. Translated by Platnauer, Maurice. Harvard: Harvard University Press. Potter, David (2005). Literary Texts and the Roman Historian. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-96233-4. Prickman, Greg (2013). "Ninth Century – The Text" in The Atlas of Early Printing – via University Archives at the University of Iowa Libraries.[dead link] Mirror at Archive.org Raschke, Manfred (1976). New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East (PDF). Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). 9. W. de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-007175-7. Rohrbacher, David (2016). The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-30604-5. Rohrbacher, David (2013). "The Sources of the Historia Augusta Re-examined" (PDF). Histos. 7. Shorter, David (2008). Roman Britain: A Sourcebook. Syme, Ronald (1968). Ammianus and the Historia Augusta. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. Syme, Ronald (1971). Emperors and Biography: studies in the 'Historia Augusta'. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198143574. Syme, Ronald (1983). Historia Augusta Papers. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814853-1. External links[edit]  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Historia Augusta Latin text and English translation at LacusCurtius Latin text with concordance and frequency list at the IntraText Digital Library Latin text at The Latin Library Livius.org: Introduction Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historia_Augusta&oldid=1027864476" Categories: Crisis of the Third Century Latin biographies Latin prose texts Roman-era biographers Roman historiography 4th-century history books Forgery controversies Literary forgeries 4th-century Latin books Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: missing periodical All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 13:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5112	----	South China Sea - Wikipedia South China Sea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean South China Sea Satellite image of the South China Sea South China Sea Show map of South China Sea South China Sea Show map of Southeast Asia South China Sea Show map of Asia The northeastern portion of the South China Sea Coordinates 12°N 113°E / 12°N 113°E / 12; 113Coordinates: 12°N 113°E / 12°N 113°E / 12; 113 Type Sea Part of Pacific Ocean River sources Agno Jiulong Mekong Min Pahang Pampanga Pasig Pearl Rajang Red Basin countries List Brunei China Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Taiwan Vietnam Surface area 3,500,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi) Islands List of islands in the South China Sea Trenches Manila Trench Settlements Major cities Alaminos Bà Rịa Bạc Liêu Bacoor Balanga Bintulu Cẩm Phả Cam Ranh Candon Cavite City Da Nang Dagupan Đồng Hới Hạ Long Hà Tĩnh Haikou Haiphong Ho Chi Minh Hội An Hong Kong Kaohsiung Kota Kinabalu Kuala Terengganu Kuantan Kuching Laoag Las Piñas Macau Malolos Manila Mersing Miri Móng Cái Nakhon Si Thammarat Nam Định Nanwan Navotas Nha Trang Olongapo Parañaque Pasay Pattaya Pekan Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm Phan Thiết Quảng Ngãi Qui Nhơn Sầm Sơn San Fernando Sanya Shantou Sihanoukville Sóc Trăng Surat Thani Taitung Tainan Tam Kỳ Thái Bình Thanh Hóa Vigan Tuy Hòa Vũng Tàu Xiamen Zhanjiang The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Philippines (mainly Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan), and in the south by Borneo, eastern Sumatra and the Bangka Belitung Islands, encompassing an area of around 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). It communicates with the East China Sea via the Taiwan Strait, the Philippine Sea via the Luzon Strait, the Sulu Sea via the straits around Palawan (e.g. the Mindoro and Balabac Strait), the Strait of Malacca via the Strait of Singapore, and the Java Sea via the Karimata and Bangka Strait. The Gulf of Thailand and the Gulf of Tonkin are also part of the South China Sea. The shallow waters south of the Riau Islands are also known as the Natuna Sea. The South China Sea is a region of tremendous economic and geostrategic importance. One-third of the world's maritime shipping passes through it, carrying over US$3 trillion in trade each year.[1] Huge oil and natural gas reserves are believed to lie beneath its seabed.[2] It also contain lucrative fisheries, which are crucial for the food security of millions in Southeast Asia. The South China Sea Islands, collectively comprising several archipelago clusters of mostly small uninhabited islands, islets (cays and shoals), reefs/atolls and seamounts numbering in the hundreds, are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are also reflected in the variety of names used for the islands and the sea. Contents 1 Names 2 Geography 3 Extent 4 Geology 5 Islands and seamounts 6 Resources 7 Territorial claims 7.1 Military maneuver 7.2 2016 ruling 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Names South China Sea Chinese name Chinese 南海 Hanyu Pinyin Nán Hǎi Literal meaning South Sea Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Nán Hǎi Bopomofo ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄞˇ Wade–Giles Nan2 Hai3 IPA [nǎn xài] Wu Romanization noe平 he上 Hakka Romanization nam11 hoi31 Yue: Cantonese Jyutping naam4 hoi2 Southern Min Hokkien POJ lâm-hái Hainanese Romanization nâm-hái Alternative Chinese name Simplified Chinese 南中国海 Traditional Chinese 南中國海 Hanyu Pinyin Nán Zhōngguó Hǎi Literal meaning South China Sea Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Nán Zhōngguó Hǎi Bopomofo ㄋㄢˊ ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄏㄞˇ Wade–Giles Nan2 Chung1-kuo2 Hai3 IPA [nǎn ʈʂʊ́ŋkwǒ xài] Wu Romanization noe平 tson平 koh入 he上 Hakka Romanization nam11 dung24 gued2 hoi31 Yue: Cantonese Jyutping naam4 zung1 gwok3 hoi2 Southern Min Hokkien POJ lâm tiong-kok hái Hainanese Romanization nâm tieng-kuōk hái Vietnamese name Vietnamese Biển Đông Chữ Nôm 匾東 Literal meaning East Sea Thai name Thai ทะเลจีนใต้ [tʰā.lēː t͡ɕīːn tâ(ː)j] (South China Sea) RTGS Thale Chin Tai Japanese name Kanji 南支那海 or 南シナ海 (literally "South Shina Sea") Kana みなみシナかい Transcriptions Romanization Minami Shina Kai Malay name Malay Laut Cina Selatan (South China Sea) Laut Nusantara (Nusantara Sea) Indonesian name Indonesian Laut Cina Selatan / Laut Tiongkok Selatan (South China Sea) Laut Natuna Utara (North Natuna Sea; Indonesian official government use; Claimed Indonesian EEZ only)[3] Filipino name Tagalog Dagat Timog Tsina (South China Sea) Dagat Luzon (Luzon Sea) Portuguese name Portuguese Mar da China Meridional (South China Sea) South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and the name in most European languages is equivalent. This name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea (Mare da China); later needs to differentiate it from nearby bodies of water led to calling it the South China Sea.[4] The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as "South China Sea (Nan Hai)".[5] The Yizhoushu, which was a chronicle of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE), gives the first Chinese name for the South China Sea as Nanfang Hai (Chinese: 南方海; pinyin: Nánfāng Hǎi; lit. 'Southern Sea'), claiming that barbarians from that sea gave tributes of hawksbill sea turtles to the Zhou rulers.[6] The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE) also referred to the sea, but by the name Nan Hai (Chinese: 南海; pinyin: Nán Hǎi; lit. 'South Sea') in reference to the State of Chu's expeditions there.[6] Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions.[7] During the Eastern Han dynasty (23–220 CE), China's rulers called the sea Zhang Hai (Chinese: 漲海; pinyin: Zhǎng Hǎi; lit. 'distended sea').[6] Fei Hai (Chinese: 沸海; pinyin: Fèi Hǎi; lit. 'boil sea') became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. Usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai (South Sea), gradually became widespread during the Qing Dynasty.[8] In Southeast Asia it was once called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham, after the maritime kingdom of Champa, which flourished there before the sixteenth century.[9] The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the military acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai "South China Sea". This was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling to 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. "West Philippine Sea" is the official designation by the Philippine government of eastern parts of the South China Sea that are included in the Philippines' exclusive economic zone. The term is also sometimes incorrectly used to refer to the South China Sea as a whole. In China, it is called the "South Sea", 南海 Nánhǎi, and in Vietnam the "East Sea", Biển Đông.[10][11][12] In Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the "South China Sea" (Dagat Timog Tsina in Tagalog, Laut China Selatan in Malay), with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the "Luzon Sea", Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines.[13] However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies started using the name West Philippine Sea. A Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea.[14] In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No. 29, mandating that all government agencies use the name West Philippine Sea to refer to the parts of the South China Sea within the Philippines' exclusive economic zone, including the Luzon Sea as well as the waters around, within and adjacent to the Kalayaan Island Group and Bajo de Masinloc, and tasked the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) to use the name in official maps.[15][16] In July 2017, to assert its sovereignty, Indonesia renamed the northern reaches of its exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea as the "North Natuna Sea", which is located north of the Indonesian Natuna Islands, bordering the southern Vietnam exclusive economic zone, corresponding to the southern end of the South China Sea.[17] The "Natuna Sea" is located south of Natuna Island within Indonesian territorial waters.[18] Therefore, Indonesia has named two seas that are portions of the South China Sea; the Natuna Sea located between Natuna Islands and the Lingga and Tambelan Archipelagos, and the North Natuna Sea located between the Natuna Islands and Cape Cà Mau on the southern tip of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Geography According to International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), it is located[5][failed verification]. south of Chinese mainland, south of Hainan, west of Taiwan; east of Vietnam; west of the Philippines; east of the Malay Peninsula, up to the east entrance of Strait of Singapore, and south of the Bintan and Batam Islands; the northeast coast of Sumatra; and north of the Bangka Belitung Islands and Borneo. However, in its unapproved draft 4th edition (1986),[19] IHO proposed the Natuna Sea, thus the South China Sea southern boundary was shifted northward, from north of the Bangka Belitung Islands to north and northeast of Natuna Islands.[20] States and territories with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Agno, Pampanga, and Pasig Rivers. Extent The International Hydrographic Organization in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows:[5] On the South. The Eastern and Southern limits of Singapore and Malacca Straits [A line joining Tanjong Datok, the Southeast point of Johore ( 1°22′N 104°17′E / 1.367°N 104.283°E / 1.367; 104.283) through Horsburgh Reef to Pulo Koko, the Northeastern extreme of Bintan Island ( 1°13.5′N 104°35′E / 1.2250°N 104.583°E / 1.2250; 104.583). The Northeastern coast of Sumatra] as far West as Tanjong Kedabu ( 1°06′N 102°58′E / 1.100°N 102.967°E / 1.100; 102.967) down the East coast of Sumatra to Lucipara Point ( 3°14′S 106°05′E / 3.233°S 106.083°E / -3.233; 106.083) thence to Tanjong Nanka, the Southwest extremity of Banka Island, through this island to Tanjong Berikat the Eastern point ( 2°34′S 106°51′E / 2.567°S 106.850°E / -2.567; 106.850), on to Tanjong Djemang ( 2°36′S 107°37′E / 2.600°S 107.617°E / -2.600; 107.617) in Billiton, along the North coast of this island to Tanjong Boeroeng Mandi ( 2°46′S 108°16′E / 2.767°S 108.267°E / -2.767; 108.267) and thence a line to Tanjong Sambar ( 3°00′S 110°19′E / 3.000°S 110.317°E / -3.000; 110.317) the Southwest extreme of Borneo. On the East. From Tanjong Sambar through the West coast of Borneo to Tanjong Sampanmangio, the North point, thence a line to West points of Balabac and Secam Reefs, on to the West point of Bancalan Island and to Cape Buliluyan, the Southwest point of Palawan, through this island to Cabuli Point, the Northern point thereof, thence to the Northwest point of Busuanga and to Cape Calavite in the island of Mindoro, to the Northwest point of Lubang Island and to Point Fuego (14°08'N) in Luzon Island, through this island to Cape Engano, the Northeast point of Luzon, along a line joining this cape with the East point of Balintang Island (20°N) and to the East point of Y'Ami Island (21°05'N) thence to Garan Bi, the Southern point of Taiwan (Formosa), through this island to Santyo (25°N) its North Eastern Point. On the North. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao (Turnabout Island) on to the South point of Haitan Tao (25°25'N) and thence Westward on the parallel of 25°24' North to the coast of Fukien. On the West. The Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. However, in a revised edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, 4th edition (1986), the International Hydrographic Organization officially recognized the Natuna Sea. Thus the southern limit of South China Sea is revised from the Bangka Belitung Islands to the Natuna Islands.[20] Geology See also: Tectonics of the South China Sea Sunset on the South China Sea off Mũi Né village on the south-east coast of Vietnam The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf; during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, and Borneo was part of the Asian mainland. The South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the "Dangerous Ground" rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today. Extension ceased around 17 million years ago.[21] Arguments have continued about the role of tectonic extrusion in forming the basin. Paul Tapponnier and colleagues have argued that as India collides with Asia it pushes Indochina to the SE. The relative shear between Indochina and China caused the South China Sea to open.[22] This view is disputed by geologists[who?] who do not consider Indochina to have moved far relative to mainland Asia. Marine geophysical studies in the Gulf of Tonkin by Peter Clift has shown that the Red River Fault was active and causing basin formation at least by 37 million years ago in the NW South China Sea, consistent with extrusion playing a part in the formation of the sea. Since opening the South China Sea has been the repository of large sediment volumes delivered by the Mekong River, Red River and Pearl River. Several of these deltas are rich in oil and gas deposits. Islands and seamounts See also: South China Sea Islands and list of islands in the South China Sea The South China Sea contains over 250 small islands, atolls, cays, shoals, reefs, and sandbars, most of which have no indigenous people, many of which are naturally under water at high tide, and some of which are permanently submerged. The features are: South China Sea The Spratly Islands The Paracel Islands Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks The Macclesfield Bank The Scarborough Shoal The Spratly Islands spread over an 810 by 900 km area covering some 175 identified insular features, the largest being Taiping Island (Itu Aba) at just over 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi) long and with its highest elevation at 3.8 metres (12 ft). The largest singular feature in the area of the Spratly Islands is a 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide seamount called Reed Tablemount, also known as Reed Bank, in the northeast of the group, separated from Palawan Island of the Philippines by the Palawan Trench. Now completely submerged, with a depth of 20 metres (66 ft), it was an island until it sank about 7,000 years ago due to the increasing sea level after the last ice age. With an area of 8,866 square kilometres (3,423 sq mi), it is one of the largest submerged atoll structures in the world. Resources Millions of barrels of crude oil are traded through the South China Sea each day The South China Sea is an extremely significant body of water in a geopolitical sense. It is the second most used sea lane in the world, while in terms of world annual merchant fleet tonnage, over 50% passes through the Strait of Malacca, the Sunda Strait, and the Lombok Strait. Over 1.6 million m³ (10 million barrels) of crude oil a day are shipped through the Strait of Malacca, where there are regular reports of piracy, but much less frequently than before the mid-20th century. The region has proven oil reserves of around 1.2 km³ (7.7 billion barrels), with an estimate of 4.5 km³ (28 billion barrels) in total. Natural gas reserves are estimated to total around 7,500 km³ (266 trillion cubic feet). A 2013 report by the U.S. Energy Information Administration raised the total estimated oil reserves to 11 billion barrels.[23] In 2014 China began to drill for oil in waters disputed with Vietnam.[24] The area in question is known as Vanguard Bank and which Vietnam officials claim lies within their country's 200-mile exclusive economic zone. China, however, disputes this fact.[25] According to studies made by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines, this body of water holds one third of the entire world's marine biodiversity, thereby making it a very important area for the ecosystem. However the fish stocks in the area are depleted, and countries are using fishing bans as a means of asserting their sovereignty claims.[26] Indonesia's maritime waters have been breached by fishing fleets from Vietnam and the Philippines leading to said ships being seized and sunk by Indonesian authorities.[27] China announced in May 2017 a breakthrough for mining methane clathrates, when they extracted methane from hydrates in the South China Sea.[28][29] Territorial claims Main articles: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea and Spratly Islands dispute [Interactive fullscreen map] Location of the major islands in Spratly Islands Legend：  Republic of China 1：Taiping 2：Zhongzhou  People's Republic of China 3：Yongshu 4：Meiji 5：Zhubi 6：Huayang 7：Nanxun 8：Chiguo 9：Dongmen  Philippines 10：Flat Island 11：Lankiam Cay 12：Loaita Cay 13：Loaita Island 14：Nanshan Island 15：Northeast Cay 16：Thitu Island 17：West York Island 18：Commodore Reef 19：Irving Reef 20：Second Thomas Reef  Vietnam 21：Southwest Cay 22：Sand Cay 23：Namyit Island 24：Sin Cowe Island 25：Spratly Island 26：Amboyna Cay 27：Grierson Reef [zh] 28：Central London Reef [zh] 29：Pearson Reef [zh] 30：Barque Canada Reef [zh] 31：West London Reef [zh] 32：Ladd Reef 33：Discovery Great Reef [zh] 34：Pigeon Reef [zh] 35：East London Reef [zh] 36：Alison Reef [zh] 37：Cornwallis South Reef 38：Petley Reef [zh] 39：South Reef [zh] 40：Collins Reef 41：Lansdwone Reef [zh] 42：Bombay Castle 43：Prince of Wales Bank [zh] 44：Vanguard Bank [zh] 45：Prince Consort Bank [zh] 46：Grainger Bank [zh] 47：Alexandra Bank [zh] 48：Grainger Bank [zh] 49：Alexandra Bank [zh]  Malaysia 50：Swallow Reef 51：Ardasier Reef 52：Dallas Reef 53：Erica Reef 54：Investigator Shoal 55：Mariveles Reef  Brunei 56：Louisa Reef Island claims in the South China Sea Map of various countries occupying the Spratly Islands Several countries have made competing territorial claims over the South China Sea. Such disputes have been regarded as Asia's most potentially dangerous point of conflict. Both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) claim almost the entire body as their own, demarcating their claims within what is known as the nine-dotted line, which claims overlap with virtually every other country in the region. Competing claims include: Indonesia, China, and Taiwan over waters NE of the Natuna Islands The Philippines, China, and Taiwan over Scarborough Shoal. Vietnam, China, and Taiwan over waters west of the Spratly Islands. Some or all of the islands themselves are also disputed between Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The Paracel Islands are disputed between China, Taiwan and Vietnam. Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam over areas in the Gulf of Thailand. Singapore and Malaysia along the Strait of Johore and the Strait of Singapore. China and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims. China (various governments) and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief conflict in 1974 resulted in 18 Chinese and 53 Vietnamese deaths, and China has controlled the whole of Paracel since then. The Spratly Islands have been the site of a naval clash, in which over 70 Vietnamese sailors were killed just south of Chigua Reef in March 1988. Disputing claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels.[citation needed] ASEAN in general, and Malaysia in particular, have been keen to ensure that the territorial disputes within the South China Sea do not escalate into armed conflict. As such, Joint Development Authorities have been set up in areas of overlapping claims to jointly develop the area and divide the profits equally without settling the issue of sovereignty over the area. This is true particularly in the Gulf of Thailand. Generally, China has preferred to resolve competing claims bilaterally,[30] while some ASEAN countries prefer multilateral talks,[31] believing that they are disadvantaged in bilateral negotiations with the much larger China and that because many countries claim the same territory only multilateral talks could effectively resolve the competing claims.[32] The overlapping claims over Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Putih including the neighboring Middle Rocks by both Singapore and Malaysia were settled in 2008 by the International Court of Justice, awarding Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore and the Middle Rocks to Malaysia. In July 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called for China to resolve the territorial dispute. China responded by demanding the US keep out of the issue. This came at a time when both countries had been engaging in naval exercises in a show of force to the opposing side, which increased tensions in the region.[citation needed] The US Department of Defense released a statement on August 18 where it opposed the use of force to resolve the dispute, and accused China of assertive behaviour.[33] On July 22, 2011, one of India's amphibious assault vessels, the INS Airavat which was on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was reportedly contacted at a distance of 45 nautical miles (83 km) from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea on an open radio channel by a vessel identifying itself as the Chinese Navy and stating that the ship was entering Chinese waters.[34][35] The spokesperson for the Indian Navy clarified that as no ship or aircraft was visible from INS Airavat it proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy further clarified that "[t]here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be respected by all."[34] In September 2011, shortly after China and Vietnam had signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India's state-run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm ONGC Videsh Limited had signed a three-year deal with PetroVietnam for developing long-term cooperation in the oil sector[36] and that it had accepted Vietnam's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea.[37] In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu issued a protest.[38][39] The spokesman of the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India responded by saying that "The Chinese had concerns but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and have conveyed this to the Chinese."[38] The Indo-Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state-run newspaper Global Times.[37][39] Subi Reef being built by China and transformed into an artificial island, 2015 In 1999, Taiwan claimed the entirety of the South China Sea islands under the Lee Teng-hui administration.[40] The entire subsoil, seabed and waters of the Paracels and Spratlys are claimed by Taiwan.[41] In 2012 and 2013, Vietnam and Taiwan butted heads against each other over anti-Vietnamese military exercises by Taiwan.[42] In May 2014, China established an oil rig near the Paracel Islands, leading to multiple incidents between Vietnamese and Chinese ships.[43][44] In December 2018, retired Chinese admiral Luo Yuan proposed that a possible solution to tensions with the United States in the South China Sea would be to sink one or two United States Navy aircraft carriers to break US morale.[45][46][47][48] Also in December 2018, Chinese commentator and Senior Colonel in the People's Liberation Army Air Force, Dai Xu suggested that China's navy should ram United States Navy ships sailing in the South China Sea.[45][49] The US, although not a signatory to UNCLOS, has maintained its position that its naval vessels have consistently sailed unhindered through the South China Sea and will continue to do so.[50] At times US warships have come within the 12 nautical-mile limit of Chinese-controlled islands (such as the Paracel Islands), arousing China's ire.[51] During the US Chief of Naval Operations' visit to China in early 2019, he and his Chinese counterpart worked out rules of engagement, whenever American warships and Chinese warships met up on the high seas. On 26 June 2020, the 36th Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit was held virtually. Vietnam, as the Chairman of the Summit, released the Chairman's Statement. The Statement said the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is "the basis for determining maritime entitlements, sovereign rights, jurisdiction and legitimate interests over maritime zones, and the 1982 UNCLOS sets out the legal framework within which all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out."[52] Military maneuver It was reported by VOA on 27 August 2020 that a  U.S . defense official said that the People's Liberation Army of China launched four medium-range ballistic missiles from mainland China into an area of the South China Sea.[53] 2016 ruling Main article: Philippines v. China In January 2013, the Philippines formally initiated arbitration proceedings against China's claim on the territories within the "Nine-Dash Line" that includes the Spratly Islands, which it said is unlawful under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).[54][55] On July 12, 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration backed the Philippines, saying that there was no evidence that China had historically exercised exclusive control over the waters or resources, hence there was "no legal basis for China to claim historic rights" over the nine-dash line.[56][57] The tribunal also criticized China's land reclamation projects and its construction of artificial islands in the Spratly Islands, saying that it had caused "severe harm to the coral reef environment".[58] A letter from the Chinese ambassador asserted that some foreign media, the Philippines and the arbitral tribunal are attempting to characterize Taiping island as a "rock" under UNCLOS, and therefore are not entitled to a 200-nautical-mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone.[59] China rejected the ruling, calling it "ill-founded".[60] Taiwan (ROC), which administers Taiping Island, the largest of the Spratly Islands, also rejected the ruling.[61][62] In March 2020, the Philippines expressed its concern about approximately 220 Chinese military vessels that were spotted in the disputed area.[63] See also Oceans portal East China Sea – A marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean between the south of Korea, the south of Kyushu, Japan, the Ryukyu islands and mainland China List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands South China Sea Islands Spratly Islands Spratly Islands dispute Territorial disputes in the South China Sea References ^ [1] ChinaPower, August 4, 2017. ^ A look at the top issues at Asian security meeting Associated Press, Robin McDowell, July 21, 2011. ^ Indonesia, B. B. C. "China Komentari Penamaan Laut Natuna Utara oleh Indonesia". detiknews. ^ Tønnesson, Stein (2005). "Locating the South China Sea". In Kratoska, Paul H.; Raben, Remco; Nordholt, Henk Schulte (eds.). Locating Southeast Asia: Geographies of Knowledge and Politics of Space. Singapore University Press. p. 204. ISBN 9971-69-288-0. The European name 'South China Sea' ... is a relic of the time when European seafarers and mapmakers saw this sea mainly as an access route to China ... European ships came, in the early 16th century, from Hindustan (India) ... The Portuguese captains saw the sea as the approach to this land of China and called it Mare da China. Then, presumably, when they later needed to distinguish between several China seas, they differentiated between the 'South China Sea', ... ^ a b c "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. § 49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2020. ^ a b c Shen, Jianming (2002). "China's Sovereignty over the South China Sea Islands: A Historical Perspective". Chinese Journal of International Law. 1 (1): 94–157. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.cjilaw.a000432. ^ Chang, Chun-shu (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Nation, State, and Imperialism in Early China, ca. 1600 B.C. – A.D. 8. University of Michigan Press. pp. 263–264. ISBN 978-0-472-11533-4. ^ 華林甫 (Hua Linfu), 2006. 插圖本中國地名史話 (An illustrated history of Chinese place names). 齊鲁書社 (Qilu Publishing), page 197. ISBN 7533315464 ^ Bray, Adam (June 18, 2014). "The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines - The ancestors of Vietnam's Cham people built one of the great empires of Southeast Asia". National Geographic. ^ "VN and China pledge to maintain peace and stability in East Sea". Socialist Republic of Vietnam Government Web Portal. ^ "FM Spokesperson on FIR control over East Sea". Embassy of Vietnam in USA. March 11, 2001. ^ "The Map of Vietnam". Socialist Republic of Vietnam Government Web Portal. Archived from the original on 2006-10-06. ^ John Zumerchik; Steven Laurence Danver (2010). Seas and Waterways of the World: An Encyclopedia of History, Uses, and Issues. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 978-1-85109-711-1. ^ Quismundo, Tarra (2011-06-13). "South China Sea renamed in the Philippines". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 2011-06-14. ^ "Administrative Order No. 29, s. 2012". Official Gazette. Government of the Philippines. September 5, 2012. Archived from the original on May 18, 2018. Retrieved May 14, 2018. ^ West Philippine Sea Limited To Exclusive Economic Zone, September 14, 2012, International Business Times ^ Prashanth Parameswaran (17 July 2017). "Why Did Indonesia Just Rename Its Part of the South China Sea?". The Diplomat. ^ Tom Allard; Bernadette Christina Munthe (14 July 2017). "Asserting sovereignty, Indonesia renames part of South China Sea". Reuters. ^ "IHO PUBLICATION S-23, Limits of Oceans and Seas, Draft 4th Edition, 1986". IHO. Archived from the original on 2016-04-12. Retrieved 2017-07-17. ^ a b "Limits of Ocean and Seas" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. pp. 108–109. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-30. Retrieved 2017-07-17. ^ Trần Tất Thắng, Tống Duy Thanh, Vũ Khúc, Trịnh Dánh, Đào Đình Thục, Trần Văn Trị and Lê Duy Bách (2000). Lexicon of Geological Units of Viet Nam. Department of Geology and Mineral of Việt Nam.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Jon Erickson; Ernest Hathaway Muller (2009). Rock Formations and Unusual Geologic Structures: Exploring the Earth's Surface. Infobase Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-4381-0970-1. ^ "U.S. report details rich resources in South China Sea." (archived from the original on 2013-02-133) ^ Johnson, Keith (5 May 2014). "How Do You Say 'Drill, Baby, Drill' in Chinese?". www.foreignpolicy.com. AFP - Getty. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ AP (21 July 2019). "US concerned over China's 'interference' in South China Sea". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 July 2019. ^ Schearf, Daniel. "S. China Sea Dispute Blamed Partly on Depleted Fish Stocks." VOA, May 16, 2012. ^ DFA confirms arrest of 200 Filipino fishermen Archived 2016-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, December 1, 2014 Vietnam 'Deeply Concerned' by Indonesia's War on Illegal Fishing Archived 2016-08-28 at the Wayback Machine, August 21, 2015, The Diplomat. Jakarta sinks three Vietnamese fishing boats caught in its territorial waters, December 5, 2014 Indonesia sinks Vietnam fishing boats, 5 Dec 2014. Indonesia sinks 34 of its neighbors' boats to celebrate Independence Day, and Vietnam isn't happy, August 21, 2015. Indonesia sinks Vietnamese boats to stop illegal fishing, December 5, 2014 Indonesia sinks 3 Vietnamese boats, December 15, 2014. Indonesia sinks 106 foreign boats, October 30, 2015, The Jakarta Post Indonesia sinks 27 foreign boats to stop illegal fishing, 22 February 2016 Indonesia Could Sink 57 More Vessels in War on Illegal Fishing Archived 2016-08-22 at the Wayback Machine, January 08, 2016 ^ "China claims breakthrough in 'flammable ice'". 19 May 2017 – via www.bbc.com. ^ "China Taps Lode of 'Fire Ice' in South China Sea". ^ "Direct bilateral dialogue 'best way to solve disputes'". ^ Resolving S.China Sea disputes pivotal to stability: Clinton archived from the original on 2010-07-27) ^ Wong, Edward (February 5, 2010). "Vietnam Enlists Allies to Stave Off China's Reach". The New York Times. ^ Sinaga, Lidya Christin (2015). "China's Assertive Foreign Policy in South China Sea Under XI Jinping: Its Impact on United States and Australian Foreign Policy". Journal of ASEAN Studies. 3 (2): 133–149. doi:10.21512/jas.v3i2.770. ISSN 2338-1361. ^ a b "India-China face-off in South China Sea: Report". dna. 2 September 2011. ^ "South Asia Analysis Group". Archived from the original on 2012-03-30. ^ GatewayHouse (2015-06-11). "How India is Impacted by China's Assertiveness in the S. China Sea". Gateway House. Retrieved 2017-06-02. ^ a b Reuters Editorial (16 October 2011). "China paper warns India off Vietnam oil deal". Reuters India. ^ a b South Asia Analysis Group[ [2] Archived 2011-09-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Ananth Krishnan (15 September 2011). "China warns India on South China Sea exploration projects". The Hindu. ^ Taiwan sticks to its guns, to U.S. chagrin, July 14, 1999. ^ "Taiwan reiterates Paracel Islands sovereignty claim". Taipei Times. 11 May 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2016. ^ Photo: Taiwan military exercises with Vietnam as an imaginary enemy generals admit Taiping Island, September 5, 2012. Vietnam's angry at Taiwan as it stages live-fire drill in the Spratlys, 12 August 2012. Vietnam Demands Taiwan Cancel Spratly Island Live Fire, March 1, 2013. Taiwan unmoved by Vietnam's protest against Taiping drill, September 5, 2012 ^ "Q&A: South China Sea dispute". BBC News. 12 July 2016. ^ Bloomberg News (6 June 2014). "Vietnam Says China Still Ramming Boats, Airs Sinking Video". Bloomberg. Retrieved 6 June 2014. ^ a b Lockie, Alex (January 11, 2019). "China sets the stage for a 'bloody nose' attack on US aircraft carriers, but it would backfire horribly". Business Insider. ^ Hendrix, Jerry (January 4, 2019). "China should think twice before threatening to attack Americans". Fox News. ^ Chang, Gordon G. (December 31, 2018). "Forty Years After U.S. Recognition, China Is 'America's Greatest Foreign Policy Failure'". The Daily Beast. ^ "罗援少将在2018军工榜颁奖典礼与创新峰会上的演讲 - Major General Luo Yuan's speech at the 2018 Military Industry Awards Ceremony and Innovation Summit". kunlunce.com/. December 25, 2018. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved May 15, 2019. 现在美国有11艘航空母舰，我们是不是要发展12艘航母，才能跟美国抗衡呢？我觉得这种思路错了，我们不能搞军备竞赛。历史的经验告诉我们，美国最怕死人。我们现在有东风21D、东风26导弹，这是航母杀手锏，我们击沉它一艘航母，让它伤亡5000人/ Now there are 11 aircraft carriers in the United States. Do we want to develop 12 aircraft carriers to compete with the United States? I think this kind of thinking is wrong. We can't engage in an arms race. Historical experience tells us that the United States is most afraid of the dead. We now have Dongfeng 21D and Dongfeng 26 missiles. This is the aircraft carrier killer. If we sink an aircraft carrier, it will kill 5,000 people; if we sink two ships, we kill 10,000 people. ^ Deaeth, Duncan (December 8, 2018). "Senior Chinese military official urges PLAN to attack US naval vessels in S. China Sea". Taiwan News. ^ US Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral John M. Richardson, John M. Richardson: "Maintaining Maritime Superiority" on YouTube, Lecture at Atlantic Council's Scowcroft Center. / Feb 2019, minutes 38:22–41:25; 49:39–52:00. ^ Goelman, Zachary (7 January 2019). "U.S. Navy ship sails in disputed South China Sea amid trade talks with Beijing". Reuters. ^ B Pitlo III, Lucio. "ASEAN stops pulling punches over South China Sea". Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020. ^ Babb, Carla. "China Launches 4 Missiles into South China Sea". VOA. Archived from the original on 28 August 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020. ^ "Timeline: South China Sea dispute". Financial Times. 12 July 2016. ^ Beech, Hannah (11 July 2016). "China's Global Reputation Hinges on Upcoming South China Sea Court Decision". TIME. ^ "A UN-appointed tribunal dismisses China's claims in the South China Sea". The Economist. 12 July 2016. ^ Perlez, Jane (12 July 2016). "Beijing's South China Sea Claims Rejected by Hague Tribunal". The New York Times. ^ Tom Phillips, Oliver Holmes, Owen Bowcott (12 July 2016). "Beijing rejects tribunal's ruling in South China Sea case". The Guardian.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ "The Republic of the Philippines v. The People's Republic of China" (PDF). Permanent Court of Arbitration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2016. ^ "South China Sea: Tribunal backs case against China brought by Philippines". BBC. 12 July 2016. ^ Jun Mai, Shi Jiangtao (12 July 2016). "Taiwan-controlled Taiping Island is a rock, says international court in South China Sea ruling". South China Morning Post.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Chow, Jermyn (12 July 2016). "Taiwan rejects South China Sea ruling, says will deploy another navy vessel to Taiping". The Straits Times. Singapore Press Holdings Ltd. Co. ^ "Philippines accuses China of 'incursion' in disputed sea". 21 Mar 2021. Further reading Beckman, Robert et al. (eds.) (2013). Beyond Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea: Legal Frameworks for the Joint Development of Hydrocarbon Resources. Edward Elgar. ISBN 978-1-78195-593-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Francois-Xavier Bonnet, Geopolitics of Scarborough Shoal, Irasec Discussion Paper 14, November 2012 C. Michael Hogan (2011) South China Sea Topic ed. P. Saundry. Ed.-in-chief C.J. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC Clive Schofield et al., From Disputed Waters to Seas of Opportunity: Overcoming Barriers to Maritime Cooperation in East and Southeast Asia (July 2011) UNEP (2007). Review of the Legal Aspects of Environmental Management in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 9. Wang, Gungwu (2003). The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea. Marshall Cavendish International. ISBN 9789812102416. Keyan Zou (2005). Law of the sea in East Asia: issues and prospects. London/New York: Rutledge Curzon. ISBN 0-415-35074-3 United States. Congress. (2014). Maritime Sovereignty in the East and South China Seas: Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Seapower and Projection Forces of the Committee on Armed Services Meeting Jointly with the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on Foreign Affairs (Serial No. 113-137), House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, Hearing held January 14, 2014 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to South China Sea. Wikinews has news related to: South China Sea ASEAN and the South China Sea: Deepening Divisions Q&A with Ian J. Storey (July 2012) Rising Tensions in the South China Sea, June 2011 Q&A with Ian J. 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en-wikipedia-org-5135	----	Quadriga - Wikipedia Quadriga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Quadriga (disambiguation). Horses of Saint Mark in Venice A quadriga (Greek: τέθριππος, translit. tethrippos, lit. "four horses") is a car or chariot drawn by four horses abreast and favoured for chariot racing in Classical Antiquity and the Roman Empire until the Late Middle Ages. The word derives from the Latin contraction of quadriiuga, from quadri- : four, and iugum : yoke; The four-horse abreast arrangement in quadriga is distinct from the more common four-in-hand array of two horses in the front and two horses in the back. Quadriga was raced in the Ancient Olympic Games and other contests. It is represented in profile as the chariot of gods and heroes on Greek vases and in bas-relief. The quadriga was adopted in ancient Roman chariot racing. Quadrigas were emblems of triumph; Victory or Fame often are depicted as the triumphant woman driving it. In classical mythology, the quadriga is the chariot of the gods; Apollo was depicted driving his quadriga across the heavens, delivering daylight and dispersing the night. The word quadriga may refer to the chariot alone, the four horses without it, or the combination. Marcus Aurelius celebrating his Roman triumph in 176 AD over the enemies of the Marcomannic Wars, from his now destroyed triumphal arch in Rome, Capitoline Museums, 176–180 AD Contents 1 Classical sculpture 2 Variations 3 Modern quadrigas 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Classical sculpture[edit] Genesis 41:42–43: "And Pharaoh … made him to ride in the second chariot which he had; and they cried before him, Bow the knee: and he made him ruler over all the land of Egypt." (miniature from the Paris Gregory, a 9th-century Greek manuscript, Bibliothèque nationale de France) Main article: Horses of Saint Mark Modern sculptural quadrigas are based on the four bronze Horses of Saint Mark or the "Triumphal Quadriga", a set of equine Roman or Greek sculptures, the only representation of a quadriga to survive from the classical world, and the pattern for all that follow.[1][need quotation to verify] Their age is disputed. Originally erected in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, possibly on a triumphal arch, they are now in St Mark's Basilica in Venice. Venetian Crusaders looted these sculptures in the Fourth Crusade (which dates them to at least 1204) and placed them on the terrace of St Mark's Basilica. In 1797, Napoleon carried the quadriga off to Paris, but, after Napoleon's fall, in 1815, the horses were returned to Venice by Louis XVIII, King of France. The legitimate king did not want to be the illegitimate owner of a treasure. Due to the effects of atmospheric pollution, the original quadriga was retired to a museum and replaced with a replica in the 1980s. Quadrigae also appear on the frieze of the Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga, which dates to the 2nd century BC. Lucanian fresco from Paestum depicting a quadriga, 340-330 BC (Paestum Archaeological Museum) A Lucanian fresco from Paestum depicting a quadriga, 4th century BC Frieze on the 2nd-century BC Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga Jupiter and Minerva riding a quadriga drawn by pegasi on a 4th-century BC gold Etruscan bulla (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco) Relief of a quadriga of sun-god Surya at Bodh Gaya, India Apollo as the sun god; cast of the "sarcofago matti" (c. 220 AD) (Museum of Roman Civilization) Detail from a plaster cast of the late 4th-century so-called Sarcophagus of Stilicho (Museum of Roman Civilization) 11th-century rook from Northern Italy in the form of Charlemagne in a quadriga (Cabinet des Médailles) Variations[edit] Though quadrigae were usually drawn by horses, occasionally, other animals or mythological creatures were employed in spectacles and in art. Elephants were sometimes used to draw quadrigae in the Roman imperial period, and more frequently elephant quadrigae were depicted on coins and other official images. In art and sculpture, quadrigae ridden in by the gods were appropriate to their characters; Neptune's quadriga was drawn, for example, by hippocampi (mythological sea-horses). The triumph of Neptune and Venus in a quadriga drawn by hippocampi in a mosaic from Utica in Africa (Bardo National Museum) Venus riding in a quadriga drawn by elephants,1st-century AD fresco from Pompeii Medallion of the co-augusti Diocletian and Maximian (r. 285–305) riding in a quadriga drawn by elephants and crowned by Victory Cybele and Adonis riding on a quadriga drawn by lions on the 4th-century Parabiago plate. (Archaeological Museum of Milan) Buddy Bear Quadriga in Berlin, Kurfürstendamm 21 Modern quadrigas[edit] Some of the most significant full-size free-standing sculptures of quadrigas include, in approximate chronological order: 1793 – The Berlin Quadriga was designed by Johann Gottfried Schadow in 1793 as the Quadriga of Victory, perhaps[2] as a symbol of peace (represented by the olive wreath carried by Victory). Located atop the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany, it was seized by Napoleon during his occupation of Berlin in 1806, and taken to Paris. It was returned to Berlin by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher in 1814. Her olive wreath was subsequently supplemented with an Iron Cross. The statue suffered severe damage during the Second World War, and the association of the Iron Cross with Prussian militarism convinced the Communist government of East Germany to remove this aspect of the statue after the war. The iron cross was restored after German reunification in 1990.[3] c. 1815 – The Carrousel quadriga is situated atop the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris, France. The arch itself was built to commemorate the victories of Napoleon, but the quadriga was sculpted by Baron François Joseph Bosio to commemorate the Restoration of the Bourbons. The Restoration is represented by an allegorical goddess driving a quadriga, with gilded Victories accompanying it on each side. 1819–1829 – The Quadriga on the General Staff Building on the Palace Square in Saint Petersburg 1828–1832 – The Quadriga on the Alexandrinsky Theater, in Saint Petersburg c. 1841 – The Panther Quadriga on the Semperoper in Dresden 1845–1848 – The Quadriga on top of Thorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen by Herman Wilhelm Bissen and Stephan Ussing The quadriga driven by Apollo, a sculptural composition on the pediment of the Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow c. 1850 – The Quadriga on the Bolshoi, above the portico of the Bolshoi Theatre designed by sculptor Peter Clodt von Jürgensburg c. 1852 – The Siegestor (Victory Gate) in Munich is topped by a lion quadriga created by Martin von Wagner 1868 – The Quadriga on the ducal palace in Braunschweig was destroyed in 1944 during the Second World War. It was reconstructed in 2008 and is considered the largest one in Europe 1888 - Quadriga de l'Aurora as part of the Font de la cascada that is in Parc de la Ciutadella, Barcelona. Erected by Josep Fontserè (with possible contributions by the young Antoni Gaudí). 1893 – Columbus Quadriga atop the Peristyle Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Daniel Chester French, sculpture.[4] 1895 – The Quadriga of Brabant, situated on top from Parc du Cinquantenaire (1880–1905); built for the 50 years of Belgian Independence, in Brussels, Belgium, was built by Thomas Vinçotte and Jules Lagae c. 1898 – Atop Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch at Grand Army Plaza in Brooklyn, New York, lady Columbia, an allegorical representation of the United States, rides in a chariot drawn by two horses. Two winged Victory figures, each leading a horse, trumpet Columbia's arrival. The sculptor was Frederick William MacMonnies.[5] c. 1900 – Two Quadrigas on the Grand Palais in Paris, the work of French sculptor Georges Récipon 1904[6] – Victory and Progress, horse-drawn chariots by J. Massey Rhind on the Wayne County Building in Detroit, Michigan, though each of the two chariots is drawn by three instead of the customary four horses. 1906 – Progress of the State at the Minnesota State Capitol is unique for being entirely covered in gold leaf, and is situated above a building entrance rather than a triumphal arch. It was sculpted by Daniel Chester French and Edward Clark Potter.[7] 1911–1935 – The Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II (Monument of Victor Emmanuel II, or Altare della Patria (Altar of the Nation), or "Il Vittoriano") in Rome, Italy features two statues of goddess Victoria riding on quadrigas. 1912 – The Wellington Arch Quadriga is situated atop the Wellington Arch in London, England. It was designed by Adrian Jones. The sculpture shows a small boy (actually the son of Lord Michelham, the man who funded the sculpture) leading the quadriga, with Peace descending upon it from heaven. 1919–1923 – The former Banco di Bilbao headquarters at no. 16 Calle de Alcalá in Madrid, now part of Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria, features two quadrigas on a commercial building. The building was designed by Ricardo Bastida, with the sculptor of the chariot Higinio Basterras, and other sculptures by Quentin de la Torre. The charioteers are helmeted men standing on the handrails of the chariots. Height to plinth: about 87 feet (27 meters). 1926 – The Palace of Justice in Rome (seat of the modern Supreme Court of Cassation) features a bronze quadriga by sculptor Ettore Ximenes. 2002 – The Warsaw's Grand Theatre features a quadriga reflecting the original Antonio Corazzi's 1833 plans for the building, but not commissioned and executed until 2002. Gallery[edit] Brandenburg Gate Quadriga at night. The Quadriga dell'Unità at Vittoriano, Rome Quadriga, Wellington Arch, London Brabant Raising the National Flag or Quadriga of Brabant, Parc du Cinquantenaire, Brussels Quadriga, Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Paris Quadriga, Grand Theatre, Warsaw A quadriga sculpted by Peter Clodt von Jürgensburg at Bolshoi Theater by Daniel Chester French, World's Columbian Exposition, 1893 Daniel Chester French & Edward Clark Potter, Minnesota State Capitol 1905 The Seiugae of the Arch of Peace in Milan Quadriga in the Parc de la Ciutadella in Barcelona Wayne County Building, Detroit, Michigan, by J. Massey Rhind See also[edit] Horses of Saint Mark in Venice, remnants of a quadriga of Constantinople taken by Enrico Dandolo. Biga, the ancient two-horse chariot. Trigarium (triga) Troika Coach (carriage) References[edit] ^ Annual Report of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society to the Legislature of the State of New York, Volume 18, by American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, 1913, page 344 ^ "A Point of View: The European dream has become a nightmare". 18 May 2012 – via www.bbc.co.uk. ^ Brandenburg Gate. Archived February 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Berlin – Offizielles Stadtportal der Hauptstadt Deutschlands – Berlin.de. ^ http://photoarchive.lib.uchicago.edu/db.xqy?one=apf3-00089.xml ^ Sprague, Elmer, Brooklyn Public Monuments: Sculpture for Civic Memory and Urban Pride, Dog Ear Publishing, Indianapolis, IN, 2008 p. 76 ^ Rhind, John Massey; Scott, John (31 May 2018). "Victory and Progress" – via siris-artinventories.si.edu Library Catalog. ^ "Historic Adventures". mnhs.org. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quadriga. External links[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Quadriga" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Quadriga Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago Quadriga (in German) Berlin.de: Brandenburger Tor, Pariser Platz, Quadriga Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quadriga&oldid=1027501177" Categories: Chariots Ancient chariot racing History of sculpture Ancient Roman vehicles Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from April 2016 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Italiano עברית Kaszëbsczi Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2021, at 08:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5138	----	Grinnell College - Wikipedia Grinnell College From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa, United States Grinnell College Latin: Collegium Grinnellense Motto Veritas et Humanitas (Latin) Motto in English Truth and Humanity Type Private Established 1846; 175 years ago (1846) Religious affiliation none (historically related to United Church of Christ) Endowment $2.09 billion (2020)[1] President Anne F. Harris Academic staff 175 full-time, 43 part-time (2019)[2] Students 1,733 (2019)[2] Location Grinnell , Iowa , United States Campus Rural, 120 acres (0.49 km2) Colors Scarlet and black[3]      Nickname Pioneers Sporting affiliations NCAA Division III – Midwest Conference Mascot Squirrel (unofficial) Website www.grinnell.edu Grinnell College is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa. It was founded in 1846 when a group of New England Congregationalists established the Trustees of Iowa College. Grinnell is known for its rigorous academics, innovative pedagogy, and commitment to social justice.[4][5][6] Grinnell has the sixth highest endowment-to-student ratio of liberal arts colleges, enabling need-blind admissions and substantial academic merit scholarships to boost socioeconomic diversity. Students receive funding for unpaid or underpaid summer internships and professional development (including international conferences and professional attire).[7] Grinnell participates in a 3–2 engineering dual degree program with Columbia University, Washington University in St. Louis, and California Institute of Technology, a 2–1–1–1 engineering program with Dartmouth College and a Master of Public Health cooperative degree program with University of Iowa.[8][9] Among Grinnell alumni are 14 Rhodes Scholars, 5 Marshall Scholars, 8 Truman Scholars,119 Fulbright Scholars (since 2005), 79 Watson Fellows, 13 Goldwater Scholars, and one Nobel laureate.[10][11] It is one of the top producers of Fulbright scholars.[12] Its alumni include actor Gary Cooper, Nobel chemist Thomas Cech, Intel co-founder Robert Noyce, jazz musician Herbie Hancock, government administrator Harry Hopkins, and comedian Kumail Nanjiani. The 120-acre campus includes several listings on the National Register of Historic Places as well as a César Pelli designed ultra-modern student center, integrated academic complexes, and state-of-the-art athletics facilities.[13] Grinnell College also manages significant real estate adjacent to the campus and in the historic downtown, a free-access golf course, and the 365-acre Conard Environmental Research Area.[14][15] U.S. News & World Report ranked Grinnell tied for 13th best overall and 7th best undergraduate teaching among liberal arts colleges in the U.S. for 2021.[16] Contents 1 History 2 Campus 3 Academics 3.1 Reputation 3.2 Faculty 3.3 Academic program 3.4 Admission 3.5 Graduation rates 4 Tuition and financial aid 5 Athletics 6 Social activities and organizations 6.1 Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers 7 Notable alumni 8 References 9 External links History[edit] See also: List of presidents of Grinnell College Before the June 17, 1882 tornado that destroyed these buildings In 1843, eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to proselytize on the frontier. Each man pledged to gather a church and together the group or band would seek to establish a college. When the group arrived in Iowa later that year, each selected a different town in which to establish a congregation. In 1846, they collectively established Iowa College in Davenport. A few months later, Iowa joined the Union. The first 25 years of Grinnell's history saw a change in name and location. Iowa College moved farther west from Davenport, Iowa, to the town of Grinnell and unofficially adopted the name of its new home, which itself had been named for one of its founders: an abolitionist minister, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell, to whom journalist Horace Greeley supposedly wrote "Go West, young man, go West."[17] However, Greeley vehemently denied ever saying this to Grinnell, or to anyone.[18] The name of the corporation, "The Trustees of Iowa College," remained, but in 1909 the name "Grinnell College" was adopted by the trustees for the institution. Josiah Bushnell Grinnell: one of the four founders of Grinnell, Iowa and benefactor of Grinnell College. In its early years, the College experienced setbacks. Although two students received bachelor of arts degrees in 1854 (the first to be granted by a college west of the Mississippi River), within 10 years the Civil War had claimed most of Grinnell's students and professors. In the decade following the war, growth resumed: women were officially admitted as candidates for degrees, and the curriculum was enlarged to include then-new areas of academic studies, such as natural sciences with laboratory work. After the June 17, 1882 tornado In 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado — then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named. The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both College buildings. Rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasn't limited to architecture: the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science (one of the first in the United States — the University of Minnesota's department was founded in 1879, three years earlier[19]) and modern languages. Grinnell became known as the center of the Social Gospel reform movement,[20] as Robert Handy writes, "The movement centered on the campus of Iowa (now Grinnell) College. Its leading figures were Professor George D. Herron and President George A. Gates".[21] Other firsts pointed to the lighter side of college life: the first intercollegiate football and baseball games west of the Mississippi were played in Grinnell, and the home teams won. As the 20th century began, Grinnell established a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, introduced the departmental "major" system of study, began Grinnell-in-China (an educational mission that lasted until the Japanese invasion and resumed in 1987), and built a women's residence hall system that became a national model.[22] The social consciousness fostered at Grinnell during these years became evident during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, when Grinnell graduates Harry Hopkins '12, Chester Davis '11, Paul Appleby '13, Hallie Flanagan '11, and Florence Kerr '12 became influential New Deal administrators.[23] Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell. As an example, the school's "5th year travel-service program," preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years. Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative pre-professional programs, and programs in quantitative studies and the societal impacts of technology. Every year, the college awards the $100,000 Grinnell College Innovator for Social Justice Prize, which is split between the recipient and their organization.[24] Campus[edit] Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, about halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City. The main campus is bounded by 6th Avenue (which is also US Highway 6) on the south, 10th Avenue on the north, East Street on the east and Park Street on the west. The 120-acre (0.49 km2) campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus. Goodnow Hall and Mears Cottage (1889) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[25][26] Immediately west of the college is the North Grinnell Historic District, which contains over 200 National Register of Historic Places contributing buildings. East Campus dormitories connected by Grinnell's distinctive loggia. The residential part of campus is divided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. North and South Campus' dormitories are modeled explicitly after the residential colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The four East Campus dormitories were designed by William Rawn Associates and feature a modern, LEED-certified design constructed from Iowa limestone.[27][28] All three campuses feature dormitory buildings connected by loggia, an architectural signature of the college. The loggia on South Campus is the only entirely closed loggia, featuring walls on all sides, while the loggias on East and North campus are only partially closed. From the time that the first dorm opened in 1915 until the fall of 1968, the nine north campus dorms were used exclusively for male students, and the six south campus dorms reserved for female students. The dorm halls house significantly fewer students than halls at other colleges.[29] Most academic buildings are located on the southwestern quarter of campus.[30] The athletic facilities are mostly located located north of 10th Avenue.[31] Prairie ecosystem of the Conard Environmental Research Area In addition to the main campus, the college owns much of the adjacent property. Many administrative offices are located in converted houses across Park Street near the older academic buildings, and several residences are used for college-owned off-campus student housing. Carnegie Hall, an academic building used by the humanities and social sciences divisions The college maintains a 365-acre (1.48 km2) environmental research area called the Conard Environmental Research Area (CERA). The U.S. Green Building Council awarded CERA's Environmental Education Center a gold certification.[32] The building is the first in Iowa to receive the designation.[33] During the 2000s, the College completed the Charles Benson Bear '39 Recreation and Athletic Center, the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts, the renovation of the Robert Noyce '49 Science Center and the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center. Internationally renowned architect César Pelli designed the athletics center, the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center, and the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts.[34] The college has recently embarked on a significant period of new construction, which is expected to last until 2034. The first phase of this construction process includes a comprehensive landscaping update, a new Admissions and Financial Aid building, and the Humanities and Social Sciences Complex (HSSC). This first phase will cost $140 million and is projected for completion in mid-2020.[35][36] Academics[edit] Reputation[edit] Academic rankings National Forbes[37] 80 THE/WSJ[38] 57 Liberal arts colleges U.S. News & World Report[39] 13 Washington Monthly[40] 14 Grinnell College is considered one of the 30 Hidden Ivies.[41] John H. T. Main Residence Hall The 2021 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report rates it tied for the 13th best liberal arts college overall in the U.S., 7th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching, 7th for "Best Value", and tied for 18th for "Most Innovative".[16] The College has been consistently ranked in the top 25 liberal arts colleges in the nation since the publication began in 1983.[42] Kiplinger's Personal Finance ranks Grinnell 9th in its 2016 ranking of "best value" liberal arts colleges in the United States.[43] Grinnell is ranked 14th in the 2020 Washington Monthly rankings,[44] which focus on key outputs such as research, dollar value of scientific grants won, the number of graduates going on to earn Ph.D. degrees, and certain types of public service. In Forbes magazine's 2018 rankings of academic institutions, "America's Top Colleges" (which uses a non-traditional ranking system based on RateMyProfessors.com evaluations, notable alumni, student debt, percentage of students graduating in four years, and the number of students or faculty receiving prestigious awards), Grinnell College was ranked 57th among all colleges and universities, 28th among liberal arts colleges, and 8th in the Midwest.[45] Grinnell College graduates enjoy a high acceptance rate to law school; over 46% of all applications submitted by students have been accepted by law schools.[46] Faculty[edit] Grinnell had 175 full-time faculty in Fall 2019, 173 of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field.[2] Academic program[edit] Alumni Recitation Hall Grinnell's open curriculum encourages students to take initiative and to assume responsibility for their own courses of study. The sole core, or general education, requirement is the completion of the First-Year Tutorial, a one-semester, four-credit special topics seminar that stresses methods of inquiry, critical analysis, and writing skills. All other classes are chosen, with the direct guidance of a faculty member in the student's major department, by the student.[citation needed] The academic program at Grinnell College emphasizes active learning and one-on-one interactions between faculty members and students. There are few large lecture classes. In sharp contrast to all public universities and many private universities in the United States, no classes, labs or other courses are taught by graduate students.[citation needed] Grinnell College expects all students to possess significant academic achievements. For example, the math department does not offer any basic-level classes such as college algebra, trigonometry, or pre-calculus,[47] and remedial classes are not offered in any subject. However, several independent, non-credit programs assist students who need help in a specific subject. Among these programs are the Library Lab, Math Lab, Reading Lab, Science Learning Center, and the Writing Lab.[48] While private tutors can be hired, participation in these programs is free for any enrolled student. Grinnell has twenty-six major departments and ten interdisciplinary concentrations. Popular majors include Psychology, Economics, Biology, History, English, and political science. The minimum requirements in a major area of study are typically limited to 32 credits in a single department, with some departments additionally requiring a small number of classes in related fields that are deemed critical for all students in that field. For example, the biology program requires 32 credits in the biology department plus two classes in chemistry and one in math.[49] Many students exceed the minimum requirements. To graduate, students are normally expected to complete at least 32 credits in a major field and a total of 124 credits of academic work. To encourage students to explore courses outside of their primary interest area, no more than 48 credits in one department and no more than 92 credits in one division are counted towards this requirement.[citation needed] Bucksbaum Rotunda Grinnell's commitment to the importance of off-campus study reflects the school's emphasis on social and political awareness and the international nature of its campus. Approximately 60 percent of all Grinnell students participate in at least one of more than seventy off-campus programs, including the Grinnell-in-London program and study tours of China, France, Greece, and Russia. These study programs in Europe (including Russia), Africa, the Near East, and Asia, as well as nine programs in Central and South America, provide the opportunity for research in many disciplines, from archaeology to education to mathematics. In addition to off-campus programs, Grinnell offers internship programs in such areas as urban studies, art, and marine biology for students interested in field-based learning and experience in professional settings. Second- and third-year students may apply for summer internship grants and receive credit for the experience. Semester programs in the United States include those at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Newberry Library, National Theatre Institute, and Grinnell-in-Washington, D.C.[citation needed] Grinnell also has invested in several interdisciplinary programs: the Center for Prairie Studies, Center for the Humanities, Center for International Studies, Noun Program in Women's Studies, Peace Studies Program, Rosenfield Public Affairs Program, and the Donald L. Wilson Program in Enterprise and Leadership.[citation needed] Admission[edit] Freshman Admission Statistics   2019[2] 2018[50] 2017[51] 2016[52] 2015[53] Applicants 8,004 7,349 5,850 7,370 6,414 Admitted 1,847 1,792 1,689 1,488 1,598 Admit rate 23.1% 24.4% 28.9% 20.2% 24.9% Enrolled 460 463 447 414 442 SAT (Math+Reading)* 25th-75th percentile 1398-1510 1370–1530 1310–1510 1320–1530 1300–1510 ACT range 25th-75th percentile 31-34 30–34 30–34 30–33 30–33 * SAT out of 1600 U.S. News & World Report classifies Grinnell's selectivity as "most selective."[16] For Fall 2019, Grinnell received 8,004 freshmen applications; 1,847 were admitted (23.1%).[2] The middle 50% range of SAT scores for the enrolled freshmen was 670–740 for critical reading and 700–790 for math, while the ACT Composite range was 31–34.[2] Grinnell College's admission selectivity rating, according to The Princeton Review in 2018, is a 95 out of 99.[54] This rating is determined by several institutionally reported factors, including: the class rank, average standardized test scores, and average high school GPA of entering freshmen; the percentage of students who hail from out-of-state; and the percentage of applicants accepted.[55] The primary factor in evaluating applicants is the quality of the education they have received, as shown by their transcript. Additional factors include standardized test scores, student writing skills, recommendations, and extracurricular activities.[56] Early decision rounds are offered to students in the fall; most students apply in January of their final year in high school. Admission decisions are released late March or early April of each year. All students begin classes in August.[57] The students' expectation of needing financial assistance does not affect the admission process.[58] Graduation rates[edit] Despite the growing trend of U.S. students taking five or more years to finish an undergraduate degree, Grinnell College is strongly oriented towards students being enrolled full-time in exactly eight consecutive semesters at the college, although exceptions are available for medical issues and other emergencies.[59] To avoid being suspended from the college, students must make "normal progress towards graduation." This generally means that the student must pass at least 12 credits of classes in each individual semester, with grades C or higher, and have accumulated enough credits to make graduation possible at the end of four years, which requires an average of 15.5 credits each semester. A student who is not making normal progress towards graduation is placed on academic probation and may be dismissed from the college.[60] Nationwide, only 20% of college students complete a four-year undergraduate degree within four years, and only 57% of college students graduate within six years.[61] However, at Grinnell College, 84% of students graduate within four years.[62] This is the highest graduation rate of any college in Iowa.[63] Tuition and financial aid[edit] Robert Noyce Science Center Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for the 2019–2020 academic year is $67,646. Tuition and fees are $54,354 and room and board are $13,292.[64] Grinnell College is one of a few dozen US colleges that maintain need-blind admissions and meets the full demonstrated financial need of all U.S. residents who are admitted to the college.[58] Grinnell offers a large amount of need-based and merit-based aid in comparison with peer institutions. 86% of students receive some form of financial aid.[65] In 2018–2019, 20% of students enrolled at Grinnell College were receiving federal Pell Grants, which are generally reserved for students from low-income families.[66] The average financial aid package is over $51,770.[67] With the first-year students enrolled in the 2006–2007 school year, Grinnell has ended its need-blind admissions policy for international applicants. Under the old policy, students from countries outside the U.S. were admitted without any consideration of their ability to afford four years of study at the college. However, financial aid offers to these students were limited to half the cost of tuition.[58] International students frequently carried very high workloads in an effort to pay the bills, and their academic performance often suffered.[68] Under the new "need-sensitive" or "need-aware" policy, international students whose demonstrated financial needs can be met are given a slight admissions edge over applicants who can't. The twin hopes are that the enrolled international students will be able to dedicate more energy to their schoolwork, and also that this will ultimately allow the college to provide higher tuition grants to international students. Additionally, several extremely competitive "special scholarships" were set up to meet the full demonstrated financial needs for students from the following countries or regions: Africa, Eastern and Central Europe, Latin America, Middle East and Asia, Nepal, the People's Republic of China, as well as for native speakers of Russian regardless of citizenship, available every other year.[69] According to data for students enrolled approximately in 2008, the median family income for students was US$119,700 (74th percentile).[70] This is somewhat lower than typical for other highly selective schools. Compared to other schools in the Midwestern Conference and to other highly selective schools, Grinnell College enrolled more students whose family income was in the lowest quintile (6.3% of enrolled students).[70] Athletics[edit] Main article: Grinnell Pioneers Grinnell College MacEachron Field The school's varsity sports teams are named the Pioneers. They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the NCAA Division III level and in the Midwest Conference. In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as volleyball, sailing, water polo, ultimate and rugby union. Nearly one-third of recent Grinnell graduates participated in at least one of varsity sports while attending the college and the college has led the Midwest Conference in the total number of Academic All-Conference honorees in last six years. The Grinnell Pioneers won the first game of intercollegiate football west of the Mississippi when they beat the University of Iowa 24–0 on November 16, 1889.[71][72] A stone marker still stands in Grinnell Field marking the event. The men's water polo team, known as the Wild Turkeys, were runners-up in the 2007 College Water Polo Association (CWPA) Division III Collegiate National Club Championships hosted by Lindenwood University in St. Charles, Missouri. They also qualified for the tournament in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2014.[73] The Men's Ultimate team, nicknamed the Grinnellephants, qualified in 2008 for its first Division III National Championship in Versailles, Ohio. The Women's Ultimate team, nicknamed The Sticky Tongue Frogs, tied for third place in the 2010 Division III National Championship in Appleton, Wisconsin.[74][75] The success was repeated in 2011 when the men's team placed third in 2011 Division III National Championship in Buffalo.[76] In February 2005, Grinnell became the first Division III school featured in a regular season basketball game by the ESPN network family in 30 years when it faced off against the Beloit Buccaneers on ESPN2.[77] Grinnell lost 86–85.[78] Grinnell College's basketball team attracted ESPN due to the team's run and gun style of playing basketball, known in Grinnell simply as "The System." Coach Dave Arseneault originated the Grinnell System that incorporates a continual full-court press, a fast-paced offense, an emphasis on offensive rebounding, a barrage of three-point shots and substitutions of five players at a time every 35 to 40 seconds. This allows a higher average playing time for more players than the "starters" and suits the Division III goals of scholar-athletes. "The System" has been criticized for not teaching the principles of defense. However, under "The System," Grinnell has won three conference championships over the past ten years and have regularly placed in the top half of the conference. Coach Arseneault's teams have set numerous NCAA scoring records and several individuals on the Grinnell team have led the nation in scoring or assists.[79] On November 19, 2011 Grinnell player Griffin Lentsch set a new Division III individual scoring record in a game against Principia College. The 6-foot-4-inch (1.93 m) guard scored 89 points, besting the old record of 77, also set by a Pioneers player—Jeff Clement—in 1998. Lentsch made 27 of his 55 shots, including 15 three-pointers as Grinnell won the high-scoring game 145 to 97.[80] On November 20, 2012 Grinnell's Jack Taylor broke Lentsch's scoring record, as well as the records for NCAA and collegiate scoring, in a 179–104 victory over Faith Baptist Bible College. Taylor scored 138 points on 108 shots, along with 3 rebounds, 6 turnovers and 3 steals. Taylor went 27–71 from behind the arc.[81][82] Taylor scored 109 points in a November 2013 game against Crossroads College to become the first player in NCAA history to have two 100-point games.[83][84] In 2019, the Grinnell women's volleyball team advanced to the NCAA Division III National Tournament for the first time in the 46-year history of the program, defeating St. Norbert College in a five-set thriller during the Midwest Conference Tournament championship match at Cornell College's gymnasium. It also marked Grinnell's first-ever MWC Tournament title in volleyball. [85] Social activities and organizations[edit] Gates Tower and Rawson Hall Students at Grinnell adhere to an honor system known as "self-governance" wherein they are expected to govern their own choices and behavior with minimal direct intervention by the college administration. By cultivating a community based on freedom of choice, self-governance aims to encourage students to become responsible, respectful, and accountable members of the campus, town, and global community.[86] The organizational structure of the Student Government Association, wielding a yearly budget of over $450,000 and unusually strong administrative influence, covers almost all aspects of student activity and campus life. Founded in November 2000, the student-run Student Endowment Investing Group (SEIG), actively invests over $100,000 of Grinnell College's endowment in the stock market. The group's mission is to provide interested students with valuable experience for future careers in finance.[87] Service organizations are popular. The Alternative Break ("AltBreak") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays, and as of 2005, Grinnell had more alumni per capita serving in the Peace Corps than any other college in the nation.[88] The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as Grinnell Corps in Grinnell, China, Namibia, New Orleans, and Thailand, and has previously operated programs in Greece, Lesotho, Macau, and Nepal.[89] The Scarlet and Black is the campus newspaper and KDIC (88.5 FM) is the student-run radio station. The Scarlet and Black, or the S&B is the first college newspaper west of the Mississippi River and is currently in its 130th year of publication. The newspaper, typically 16 tabloid pages in length, is published in print most Fridays of the school year and online. Students primarily write the newspaper, although occasional letters from alumni or faculty are included. Funding comes from student fees and advertisers. The school also has a bi-weekly satirical newspaper, "The B&S", which features articles about current events both on and off campus. "The B&S" satirizes social and political issues in articles, graphics, and crosswords.[90][non-primary source needed] In April 2007, Grinnell College students founded the Social Entrepreneurs of Grinnell, a student-operated microfinance lending institution affiliated with kiva.org. In the next several years, they began the emergency loans and entrepreneurial loans projects targeting the local community. In 2015, the group SEG reorganized to become a community-based volunteer organization. [91][non-primary source needed] Grinnell also has an entirely student-run textbook lending library on campus. Aimed at the economically disadvantaged yet open to all, it allows students to check out books for the semester for free, defraying the high cost of college textbooks.[92] The library has no funding, relying solely on books donated. Since its founding in 2005, the collection has grown to thousands of books due to the generosity of the campus community. The library has expanded to include caps and gowns, which are lent out to graduating seniors every spring.[93] Grinnell hosts the Titular Head student film festival.[94] Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers[edit] In 2016, Grinnell students founded the Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers, or UGSDW, to represent student workers in the college's dining hall.[95] It was the first undergraduate student union at a private college in the United States.[96] In September 2017, UGSDW announced their intention to expand the union to all student workers and create "the most unionized campus in the country",[97] which, if successful, would be another nationwide first. The college administration said that complete unionization "would negatively impact Grinnell’s mission and culture — shifting away from an individually advised, experiential, residential, liberal arts education in which work on campus plays a major educational role."[98] The UGSDW withdrew their petition for expansion from NLRB consideration on December 14, 2018, after the College filed an appeal which UGSDW feared would set legal precedent against the rights of graduate student organizers at other universities.[99][100][101] Notable alumni[edit] Main article: List of Grinnell College alumni William A. Noyes, 1879, an analytical and organic chemist who made pioneering determinations of atomic weights Sen Katayama, 1892, co-founder in 1922 of Japanese Communist Party George A. Wilson, 1903, Iowa Governor and United States Senator Cornelia Clarke, 1909, Nature photographer Hallie Flanagan, 1911, pioneer of experimental theatre and director, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration; first woman to win a Guggenheim Fellowship Harry Hopkins, 1912, senior advisor to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, principal architect of New Deal, WPA administrator.[102] Joseph Welch, 1914, head attorney for United States Army during Army-McCarthy Hearings[103] Gary Cooper, 1922, Academy Award-winning actor, best known for High Noon Frank W. Cyr, 1923, "Father of the Yellow School Bus" K. C. Wu, 1923, Mayor of Shanghai and Governor of Taiwan Province Joseph Rosenfield, 1925, Head of Younkers department store and friend of Warren Buffett[104] Edwina Florence Wills, 1937, artist and composer[105] Clair Cameron Patterson, 1943, American geochemist, measurement of age of Earth, campaign against lead poisoning, J. Lawrence Smith Medal, V. M. Goldschmidt Award Robert Noyce, 1949, co-founder of Intel, co-inventor of the integrated circuit, National Medal of Science recipient Herbie Hancock, 1960, Grammy Award-winning jazz musician and composer Martha Cooper, 1963, Icon of the Street art movement and author of Subway Art[106] Peter Coyote, 1964, American actor, author, director, screenwriter and narrator of films, theatre, television and audiobooks. He is known for his work in various films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) and Erin Brockovich (2000) Mary Sue Coleman, 1965, president of the University of Iowa (1995–2002) and the University of Michigan (2002–2014) David Maxwell, 1966, Scholar of Anton Chekhov and president of Drake University Nordahl Brue, 1967, co-founder of Bruegger's bagels and chair of the PKC Corporation and Franklin Foods[107] John Garang, 1969, founder of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and former Vice President of Sudan Thomas Cech, 1970, co-winner of 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute Greg Thielmann, 1972, Intelligence analyst for the United States Department of State and critic of the 2003 invasion of Iraq[108] Paul McCulley, 1979, American economist and former managing director at PIMCO.[109] Bernice King, 1985, American minister, best known as the youngest daughter of slain civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King Eric E. Whitaker, 1987, Prominent African American physician, health policy expert and close friend to President Barack Obama Thomas Meglioranza, 1992, American operatic baritone Emily Bergl, 1997, English-American actress and singer, best known for her roles as Tammi Bryant on the TNT drama series Southland (TV series) (2009–2013) and Sammi Slott in Shameless (American TV series) (2014–2015) Florin Cîțu, 1999, prime-minister of Romania Kumail Nanjiani, 2001, comedian, actor, screenwriter and podcaster, best known for his role as Dinesh on HBO’s comedy series Silicon Valley, and for co-writing and starring in the romantic comedy The Big Sick. Chase Strangio, 2004, Deputy Director for Transgender Justice at the American Civil Liberties Union, included in 2020's Time 100 most influential people in the world References[edit] ^ As of June 30, 2020. U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 (Report). 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OCLC 16714846. ^ "Notable Alumni | Grinnell College". www.grinnell.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-16. ^ "Notable Alumni | Grinnell College". www.grinnell.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-16. ^ "Notable Alumni | Grinnell College". www.grinnell.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-16. ^ "Trustees | Grinnell College". www.grinnell.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-27. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Grinnell College (category) Official website Grinnell Athletics website The Grinnell Magazine "Iowa College" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. 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en-wikipedia-org-5141	----	Córdoba, Spain - Wikipedia Córdoba, Spain From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Córdoba (disambiguation). Municipality in Andalusia, Spain Córdoba Cordova Municipality Aerial view (November 2020) Flag Seal Nicknames: La Ciudad Califal, Córdoba la Llana Córdoba Location of Córdoba in Spain Show map of Spain Córdoba Córdoba (Andalusia) Show map of Andalusia Córdoba Córdoba (Province of Córdoba (Spain)) Show map of Province of Córdoba (Spain) Coordinates: 37°53′4.226″N 4°46′46.443″W / 37.88450722°N 4.77956750°W / 37.88450722; -4.77956750Coordinates: 37°53′4.226″N 4°46′46.443″W / 37.88450722°N 4.77956750°W / 37.88450722; -4.77956750 Country  Spain Autonomous community  Andalusia Province Córdoba Comarca Córdoba Judicial district Córdoba Government  • Type Mayor-council government  • Body Ayuntamiento de Córdoba  • Mayor José María Bellido[1] (PP) Area[2]  • Total 1,253 km2 (484 sq mi) Elevation[2] 106 m (348 ft) Population (2018)[3]  • Total 325,708  • Density 260/km2 (670/sq mi) Demonyms Cordoban,[4] (Spanish: cordobés/sa, cordobense, cortubí, patriciense) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 14001–14014 Official language Spanish Website www.cordoba.es Córdoba (/ˈkɔːrdəbə/; Spanish: [ˈkoɾðoβa]),[a] or Cordova (/ˈkɔːrdəvə/)[6][7] in English, is a city in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. It is the third most populated municipality in Andalusia, after Sevilla and Málaga, and the 11th overall in the country. It was a Roman settlement on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, taken over by the Visigoths, followed by the Muslim conquests in the eighth century and later becoming the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba. During these Muslim periods, Córdoba was transformed into a world leading center of education and learning, producing figures such as Averroes, Ibn Hazm, and Al-Zahrawi,[8][9] and by the 10th century it had grown to be the second-largest city in Europe.[10][11] Following the Christian conquest in 1236, it became part of the Crown of Castile. Córdoba is home to notable examples of Moorish architecture such as the Mezquita-Catedral, which was named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 and is now a cathedral. The UNESCO status has since been expanded to encompass the whole historic centre of Córdoba, Medina-Azahara and Festival de los Patios. Cordoba has more World Heritage Sites than anywhere in the world, with four.[12] Much of this architecture, such as the Alcázar and the Roman bridge has been reworked or reconstructed by the city's successive inhabitants. Córdoba has the highest summer temperatures in Spain and Europe, with average high temperatures around 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August.[13] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory, antiquity and Roman foundation of the city 2.2 Umayyad rule 2.3 High Middle Ages 2.4 Late Middle Ages 2.5 Modern history 3 Geography 3.1 Location 3.2 Climate 4 Architecture 4.1 Roman 4.2 Islamic 4.2.1 Great Mosque of Córdoba 4.2.2 Minaret of San Juan 4.2.3 Mills of the Guadalquivir 4.2.4 Medina Azahara 4.2.5 Caliphal Baths 4.3 Jewish Quarter 4.4 Christian 4.4.1 Fernandine churches 4.4.2 Other religious structures 4.4.3 Sculptures and memorials 4.4.4 Bridges 5 Gardens, parks and natural environments 6 Museums 7 Festivals 8 Politics and government 9 Notable people 10 Sports 11 Transport 11.1 Rail 11.2 Airports 11.3 Road 11.3.1 Intercity buses 12 Gallery 13 Twin towns – sister cities 14 Notes 15 References 16 External links Etymology[edit] The name Córdoba has attracted a number of fanciful explanations. One is that the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca named the city Kart-Juba, meaning "the City of Juba," a Numidian commander who had died in a battle nearby.[citation needed] Another, suggested in 1799 by José Antonio Conde, is that the name comes from a Phoenician-Punic word qrt ṭwbh meaning 'good town'. After the Roman conquest, the town's name was Latinised as Corduba.[14] History[edit] See also: Timeline of Córdoba, Spain Prehistory, antiquity and Roman foundation of the city[edit] Reconstruction of the Roman temple of Córdoba. The first traces of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 42,000 to 35,000 BC.[15] Pre-urban settlements around the mouth of the Guadalquivir river are known to have existed from the 8th century BC. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy.[citation needed] The first historical mention of a settlement dates to the Carthaginian expansion across the Guadalquivir.[citation needed] Córdoba was conquered by the Romans in 206 BC.[citation needed] In 169 Roman consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, grandson of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who had governed both Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior, respectively), founded a Latin colony alongside the pre-existing Iberian settlement.[16] The date is contested; it could have been founded in 152. Between 143 and 141 BC the town was besieged by Viriatus. A Roman forum is known to have existed in the city in 113 BC.[17] The famous Cordoba Treasure, with mixed local and Roman artistic traditions, was buried in the city at this time; it is now in the British Museum.[18] Corduba became a Roman colonia with the name Colonia Patricia,[19] between 46 and 45 BC. It was sacked by Caesar in 45 because of its fealty to Pompey, and resettled with veteran soldiers by Augustus. It became the capital of Baetica, with a forum and numerous temples, and was the main center of Roman intellectual life in Hispania Ulterior.[20][16] The Roman philosopher Seneca the Younger, his father, the orator Seneca the Elder, and his nephew, the poet Lucan came from Roman Cordoba.[21] In the late Roman period, Corduba's bishop Hosius (Ossius) was the dominant figure of the western Church throughout the earlier 4th cent.[16] Later, Corduba occupied an important place in the Provincia Hispaniae of the Byzantine Empire (552–572) and under the Visigoths, who conquered it in the late 6th century.[22][23] Umayyad rule[edit] Main articles: Emirate of Córdoba and Caliphate of Córdoba Córdoba was captured and mostly destroyed by the Muslims in 711 or 712.[24] Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Arab rule. The new Umayyad commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became a provincial capital,[24] subordinate to the Caliphate of Damascus; in Arabic it was known as قرطبة (Qurṭuba). Mihrab of the Mosque of Córdoba. Different areas were allocated for services in the Saint Vincent Church shared by Christians and Muslims, until construction of the Córdoba Mosque started on the same spot under Abd-ar-Rahman I. Abd al-Rahman allowed the Christians to rebuild their ruined churches and purchased the Christian half of the church of St Vincent. In May 766 Córdoba was chosen as the capital of the independent Umayyad emirate, later caliphate, of al-Andalus. By 800 the megacity of Córdoba supported over 200,000 residents, 0.1 per cent of the global population. During the apogee of the caliphate (1000 AD), Córdoba had a population of about 400,000 inhabitants,.[11] In the 10th and 11th centuries Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world, and a great cultural, political, financial and economic centre.[25][26][27] The Great Mosque of Córdoba dates back to this time. After a change of rulers the situation changed quickly. The vizier al-Mansur–the unofficial ruler of al-Andalus from 976 to 1002—burned most of the books on philosophy to please the Moorish clergy; most of the others were sold off or perished in the civil strife not long after.[28] Dirham emitted by Abd al-Rahman III, coined in Medina Azahara (10th century). Córdoba had a prosperous economy, with manufactured goods including leather, metal work, glazed tiles and textiles, and agricultural produce including a range of fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, and materials such as cotton, flax and silk.[28] It was also famous as a centre of learning, home to over 80 libraries and institutions of learning,[25][29] with knowledge of medicine, mathematics, astronomy, botany far exceeding the rest of Europe at the time.[28] In 1002 Al-Mansur was returning to Córdoba from an expedition in the area of Rioja when he died. His death was the beginning of the end of Córdoba. Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, al-Mansur's older son, succeeded to his father’s authority, but he died in 1008, possibly assassinated. Sanchuelo, Abd al-Malik’s younger brother succeeded him. While Sanchuelo was away fighting Alfonso V of Leon, a revolution made Mohammed II al-Mahdi the Caliph. Sanchuelo sued for pardon but he was killed when he returned to Cardova. The slaves revolted against Mahdi, killed him in 1009, and replaced him with Hisham II in 1010. Hisham II kept a male harem and was forced out of office. In 1012 the Berbers "sacked Cardova." In 1016 the slaves captured Cardova and searched for Hisham II, but he had escaped to Asia. This event was followed by a fight for power until Hisham III, the last of the Umayyads, was routed from Córdoba in 1031.[30] High Middle Ages[edit] As the caliphate collapsed, so did Córdoba's economic and political hegemony and it subsequently became part of the Taifa of Córdoba.[31] In 1070, forces from the Taifa of Seville (ruled by Al-Mu'tamid) entered Córdoba to help in the defence of the city, that had been besieged by Al-Mamun, ruler of Toledo, yet they took control and expelled the last ruler of the taifa of Córdoba, Abd-Al Malik, forcing him to exile.[32] Al-Mamun did not cease in his efforts to take the city, and making use of a Sevillian renegade who murdered the Abbadid governor, he triumphantly entered the city on 15 February 1075, only to die there barely five months later, apparently poisoned.[33] Córdoba was seized by force in March 1091 by the Almoravids.[34] Sworn enemies of the almohads, Ibn Mardanīš (the "Wolf King") and his stepfather Ibrahim Ibn Hamusk allied with Alfonso VIII of Castile and laid siege on Córdoba by 1158–1160, ravaging the surroundings but failing to take the place.[35] Almohad caliph Abdallah al-Adil reshuffled governor Al-Bayyasi [es] (brother of Zayd Abu Zayd, governor of Valencia) from Seville to Córdoba in 1224, only to see the latter became independent from Caliphal rule.[36][37] Al-Bayyasi asked Ferdinand III of Castile for help and Córdoba revolted against him.[38] Years later, in 1229, the city submitted to the authority of Ibn Hud,[39] disavowing him in 1233, joining instead the territories under Muhammad Ibn al-Aḥmar,[40] ruler of Arjona and soon-to-be emir of Granada. Late Middle Ages[edit] Ferdinand III of Castile entered the city on 29 June 1236, following a siege of several months. According to Arab sources, Córdoba fell on 23 Shawwal 633 (that is, on 30 June 1236, a day later than Christian tradition).[41] The conquest was followed by the return to Santiago de Compostela of the church bells that had been looted by Almanzor and moved to Córdoba by Christian war prisoners in the late 10th century.[42] Ferdinand III granted the city a fuero in 1241;[43] it was based on the Liber Iudiciorum and in the customs of Toledo, yet formulated in an original way.[44] The city was divided into 14 colaciones, and numerous new church buildings were added. The centre of the mosque was converted into a large Catholic cathedral. Modern history[edit] Panoramics of Córdoba as drawn by Anton van den Wyngaerde in 1567 In the context of the Early Modern Period, the city experienced a golden age between 1530 and 1580, profiting from an economic activity based on the trade of agricultural products and the preparation of clothes originally from Los Pedroches, peaking at a population of about 50,000 by 1571.[45] A period of stagnation and ensuing decline followed.[45] People in front of an inn in Córdoba (1910). It was reduced to 20,000 inhabitants in the 18th century.[citation needed] The population and economy started to increase again only in the early 20th century. The second half of the 19th century saw the arrival of railway transport via the opening of the Seville–Córdoba line on 2 June 1859.[46] Córdoba became connected by railway to Jerez and Cádiz in 1861 and, in 1866, following the link with Manzanares, with Madrid.[47] The city was also eventually connected to Málaga and Belmez.[48] On 18 July 1936, the military governor of the province, Col.Ciriaco Cascajo [es], launched the Nationalist coup in the city, bombing the civil government and arresting the civil governor, Rodríguez de León;[49] these actions ignited the Spanish Civil War. Following the orders of the putschist General Queipo de Llano, he declared a state of war. The putschists were met by the resistance of the political and social representatives who had gathered in the civil government headquarters,[50] and remained there until the Nationalist rifle fire and the presence of artillery broke their morale. When its defenders began fleeing the building, Rodríguez de León finally decided to surrender and was arrested.[51] In the following weeks, Queipo de Llano and Major Bruno Ibañez carried out a bloody repression in which 2,000 persons were executed.[52][53][54] The ensuing Francoist repression in wartime and in the immediate post-war period (1936–1951) is estimated to have led to around 9,579 killings in the province.[55] Córdoba was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 17 December 1984, but the city has a number of modern areas, including the district of Zoco and the area surrounding the railway station. The regional government (the Junta de Andalucía) has for some time[when?] been studying the creation of a Córdoba Metropolitan Area that would comprise, in addition to the capital itself, the towns of Villafranca de Córdoba, Obejo, La Carlota, Villaharta, Villaviciosa, Almodóvar del Río and Guadalcázar. The combined population of such an area would be around 351,000. The Plano de Córdoba was also known for its books and how they created it. Geography[edit] Location[edit] View of Córdoba from the Sierra foothills. Córdoba is located in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, in the depression formed by the Guadalquivir river, that cuts across the city in a east-north east to west-south west direction. The wider municipality extends across an area of 1,254.25 km2,[56] making it the largest municipality in Andalusia and the fourth largest in Spain.[57] The city of Córdoba lies in the middle course of the river. Three major landscape units in the municipality include the Sierra (as in the southern reaches of Sierra Morena), the Valley proper and the Campiña.[58] The differences in elevation in the Valley are very small, ranging from 100 and 170 metres above sea level,[58] with the city proper located at an average altitude of roughly 125 metres above sea level.[59] The landscape of the valley is further subdivided in the piedmont connecting with the Sierra, the fluvial terraces and the most immediate vicinity of the river course.[58] The Miocene Campiña, located in the southern bank of the Guadalquivir, features a hilly landscape gently increasing in height up to about 200 m.[59] In the Sierra, to the north of the city, the altitude increases relatively abruptly up to 500 meters.[59] Both the Sierra and the Campiña display viewpoints over the valley.[58] Climate[edit] Green fields in Córdoba after December rains. Córdoba has a hot Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa).[60] It has the highest summer average daily temperatures in Europe (with highs averaging 36.9 °C (98 °F) in July) and days with temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) are common in the summer months. August's 24-hour average of 28.0 °C (82 °F) is also one of the highest in Europe, despite relatively cool nightly temperatures. Winters are mild, yet cooler than other low lying cities in southern Spain due to its interior location, wedged between the Sierra Morena and the Penibaetic System. Precipitation is concentrated in the coldest months; this is due to the Atlantic coastal influence. Precipitation is generated by storms from the west that occur most frequently from December to February. This Atlantic characteristic then gives way to a hot summer with significant drought more typical of Mediterranean climates. Annual rain surpasses 600 mm (24 in), although it is recognized to vary from year to year. The registered maximum temperature at the Córdoba Airport, located at 6 kilometres (4 miles) from the city, was 46.9 °C (116.4 °F) on 13 July 2017. The lowest registered temperature was −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), on 28 January 2005.[61] Climate data for Córdoba (1981-2010), extremes (1949-present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 22.9 (73.2) 27.8 (82.0) 33.0 (91.4) 34.0 (93.2) 41.2 (106.2) 45.0 (113.0) 46.9 (116.4) 46.2 (115.2) 45.4 (113.7) 36.0 (96.8) 29.7 (85.5) 23.5 (74.3) 46.9 (116.4) Mean maximum °C (°F) 18.8 (65.8) 22.6 (72.7) 28.2 (82.8) 30.6 (87.1) 35.2 (95.4) 40.4 (104.7) 42.5 (108.5) 42.0 (107.6) 38.2 (100.8) 31.5 (88.7) 24.4 (75.9) 19.8 (67.6) 43.1 (109.6) Average high °C (°F) 14.9 (58.8) 17.4 (63.3) 21.3 (70.3) 22.8 (73.0) 27.4 (81.3) 32.8 (91.0) 36.9 (98.4) 36.5 (97.7) 31.6 (88.9) 25.1 (77.2) 19.1 (66.4) 15.3 (59.5) 25.1 (77.2) Daily mean °C (°F) 9.3 (48.7) 11.1 (52.0) 14.4 (57.9) 16.0 (60.8) 20.0 (68.0) 24.7 (76.5) 28.0 (82.4) 28.0 (82.4) 24.2 (75.6) 19.1 (66.4) 13.5 (56.3) 10.4 (50.7) 18.3 (64.9) Average low °C (°F) 3.6 (38.5) 4.9 (40.8) 7.4 (45.3) 9.3 (48.7) 12.6 (54.7) 16.5 (61.7) 19.0 (66.2) 19.4 (66.9) 16.9 (62.4) 13.0 (55.4) 7.8 (46.0) 5.5 (41.9) 11.4 (52.5) Mean minimum °C (°F) −2.0 (28.4) −0.6 (30.9) 1.8 (35.2) 4.2 (39.6) 7.3 (45.1) 11.8 (53.2) 14.4 (57.9) 15.1 (59.2) 12.9 (55.2) 7.3 (45.1) 1.7 (35.1) −0.6 (30.9) −2.6 (27.3) Record low °C (°F) −8.2 (17.2) −5.0 (23.0) −4.2 (24.4) 0.2 (32.4) 2.4 (36.3) 7.0 (44.6) 11.0 (51.8) 11.0 (51.8) 6.0 (42.8) 1.0 (33.8) −3.6 (25.5) −7.8 (18.0) −8.2 (17.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 66 (2.6) 55 (2.2) 49 (1.9) 55 (2.2) 40 (1.6) 13 (0.5) 2 (0.1) 5 (0.2) 35 (1.4) 86 (3.4) 80 (3.1) 111 (4.4) 605 (23.8) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 7 6 5 7 5 1 0 1 3 7 6 8 57 Average relative humidity (%) 76 71 64 60 55 48 41 43 52 66 73 79 60 Mean monthly sunshine hours 174 186 218 235 289 323 363 336 248 205 180 148 2,905 Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología[61] Architecture[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Exterior of the Mosque-Cathedral, cardenal Herrero street. Córdoba has the second largest Old town in Europe, the largest urban area in the world declared World Heritage by UNESCO. Roman[edit] Roman Mausoleum in the Paseo de la Victoria. The Roman Bridge, over the Guadalquivir River, links the area of Campo de la Verdad with Barrio de la Catedral. It was the only bridge of the city for twenty centuries, until the construction of the San Rafael Bridge in the mid-20th century. Built in the early 1st century BC, during the period of Roman rule in Córdoba, probably replacing a more primitive wooden one, it has a length of about 250 m and has 16 arches. Other Roman remains include the Roman Temple, the Theatre, Mausoleum, the Colonial Forum, the Forum Adiectum, an amphitheater and the remains of the Palace of Emperor Maximian in the archaeological site of Cercadilla. Islamic[edit] Interior of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. Great Mosque of Córdoba[edit] Main article: Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba From 784- 786 AD, Abd al-Rahman I built the Mezquita, or Great Mosque, of Córdoba, in the Umayyad style of architecture with variations inspired by indigenous Roman and Christian Visigothic structures. Later caliphs extended the mosque with more domed bays, arches, intricate mosaics and a minaret, making it one of the four wonders of the medieval Islamic world. After the Christian reconquest of Andalucía, a cathedral was built in the heart of the mosque, however much of the original structure remains. It can be found in the Historic Centre of Córdoba, a recognized World Heritage Site.[62][63][64][65] Minaret of San Juan[edit] Built in 930 AD, the mosque that this minaret adorned has been replaced by a church and the minaret re-purposed as a tower. Even so, it retains the characteristics of Islamic architecture in the region, including two ornamental arches.[64][66] Mills of the Guadalquivir[edit] The Tower of Calahorra to one side of the Roman Bridge. Along the banks of the Guadalquivir are the Mills of the Guadalquivir, Moorish-era buildings that used the water flow to grind flour. They include the Albolafia, Alegría, Carbonell, Casillas, Enmedio, Lope García, Martos, Pápalo, San Antonio, San Lorenzo and San Rafael mills.[67] Medina Azahara[edit] Main article: Medina Azahara On the outskirts of the city lies the archaeological site of the city of Medina Azahara, which, together with the Alhambra in Granada, is one of the main examples of Spanish-Muslim architecture in Spain. Caliphal Baths[edit] Main article: Caliphal Baths Near the stables are located, along the walls, the medieval Baths of the Umayyad Caliphs. Jewish Quarter[edit] Calleja de las Flores, with the Great Cathedral in the background. Main article: Judería de Córdoba Near the cathedral is the old Jewish quarter, which consists of many irregular streets, such as Calleja de las Flores and Calleja del Pañuelo, and which is home to the Synagogue and the Sephardic House. Christian[edit] Puerta del Puente. Surrounding the large Old town are the Roman walls: gates include the Puerta de Almodóvar, the Puerta de Sevilla and Puerta del Puente, which are the only three gates remaining from the original thirteen. Towers and fortresses include the Malmuerta Tower, Torre de Belén and the Puerta del Rincón's Tower. In the south of the Old town and east of the great cathedral, in the Plaza del Potro, is the Posada del Potro, a row of inns mentioned in literary works including Don Quixote and La Feria de los Discretos, and which remained active until 1972. Both the plaza and the inn get their name from the fountain in the centre of the plaza, which represents a foal (potro). Not far from this plaza is the Arco del Portillo (a 14th-century arch). In the extreme southwest of the Old Town is the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, a former royal property and the seat of the Inquisition; adjacent to it are the Royal Stables, where Andalusian horses are bred. Palace buildings in the Old Town include the Palacio de Viana (14th century) and the Palacio de la Merced among others. Other sights include the Cuesta del Bailío (a staircase connecting the upper and lower part of the city). Fernandine churches[edit] The city is home to 12 Christian churches that were built (many as transformations of mosques) by Ferdinand III of Castile after the reconquest of the city in the 13th century. They were to act both as churches and as the administrative centres in the neighborhoods into which the city was divided in medieval times. Some of those that remain are: Iglesia de Santa Marina de Aguas Santas, built in the 13th century. San Nicolás de la Villa. San Miguel. San Juan y Todos los Santos (also known as Iglesia de la Trinidad). Santa Marina de Aguas Santas. San Agustín. Begun in 1328, it has now an 18th-century appearance. The façade bell tower, with four bells, dates to the 16th century. San Andrés, largely renovated in the 14th and 15th centuries. It has a Renaissance portal (1489) and a bell tower from the same period, while the high altar is a Baroque work by Pedro Duque Cornejo. San Lorenzo. Church of Santiago. San Pedro. Santa María Magdalena. Like the others, it combines Romanesque, Mudéjar and Gothic elements. San Pablo. In the church's garden in the 1990s the ruins of an ancient Roman circus were discovered.[68] Other religious structures[edit] Main façade of the Iglesia de San Hipólito. Iglesia de San Hipólito. It houses the tombs of Ferdinand IV and Alfonso XI of Castile, kings of Castile and León. Iglesia de San Francisco Iglesia de San Salvador y Santo Domingo de Silos Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Linares Torre de Santo Domingo de Silos Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Fuensanta Chapel of San Bartolomé Convent of Santa Clara Convent of Santa Cruz Convent of Santa Marta Sculptures and memorials[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Scattered throughout the city are ten statues of the Archangel Raphael, protector and custodian of the city. These are called the Triumphs of Saint Raphael, and are located in landmarks such as the Roman Bridge, the Puerta del Puente and the Plaza del Potro. In the western part of the Historic Centre are the statue of Seneca (near the Puerta de Almodóvar, a gate from the time of Islamic rule, (the Statue of Averroes (next to the Puerta de la Luna), and Maimonides (in the plaza de Tiberiades). Further south, near the Puerta de Sevilla, are the sculpture to the poet Ibn Zaydún and the sculpture of the writer and poet Ibn Hazm and, inside the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, the monument to the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus. There are also several sculptures in plazas of the Old Town. In the central Plaza de las Tendillas is the equestrian statue of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, in the Plaza de Capuchinos is the Cristo de los Faroles, in Plaza de la Trinidad is the statue of Luis de Góngora, in the Plaza del Cardenal Salazar is the bust of Ahmad ibn Muhammad abu Yafar al-Gafiqi, in the Plaza de Capuchinas is the statue to the bishop Osio, in Plaza del Conde de Priego is the monument to Manolete and the Campo Santo de los Mártires is a statue to Al-Hakam II and the monument to the lovers. In the Jardines de la Agricultura is the monument to the painter Julio Romero de Torres, a bust by sculptor Mateo Inurria, a bust of the poet Julio Aumente and the sculpture dedicated to the gardener Aniceto García Roldán, who was killed in the park. Further south, in the Gardens of the Duke of Rivas, is a statue of writer and poet Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas by sculptor Mariano Benlliure. In the Guadalquivir river, near the San Rafael Bridge is the Island of the sculptures, an artificial island with a dozen stone sculptures executed during the International Sculpture Symposium. Up the river, near the Miraflores bridge, is the "Hombre Río", a sculpture of a swimmer looking to the sky and whose orientation varies depending on the current. Bridges[edit] San Rafael Bridge, consisting of eight arches of 25 m span and a length of 217 m. The width is between parapets, divided into 12 m of cobblestone for four circulations and two tiled concrete sidewalks. It was inaugurated on 29 April 1953 joining the Avenue Corregidor with Plaza de Andalucía. In January 2004 the plaques reading "His Excellency the Head of State and Generalissimo of all the Armies, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, opened this bridge of the Guadalquivir on 29 April 1953", which were on both sides of each of the entrances of the bridge, were removed. Andalusia Bridge, a suspension bridge. Puente de Miraflores, known as "the rusty bridge". This bridge links the Street San Fernando and Ronda de Isasa with the Miraflores peninsula. It was designed by Herrero, Suárez and Casado and inaugurated on 2 May 2003. At first, in 1989, a proposal by architect-engineer Santiago Calatrava was considered[69] that would look like the Lusitania Bridge of Mérida, but this was eventually discarded because its height would obscure the view of the Great Mosque. Autovía del Sur Bridge. Abbas Ibn Firnas Bridge, Inaugurated in January 2011 It is part of the variant west of Córdoba. Puente del Arenal, connecting Avenue Campo de la Verdad with the Recinto Ferial (fairground) of Cordoba. Gardens, parks and natural environments[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Jardines de la Victoria. Within the gardens there are two newly renovated facilities, the old Caseta del Círculo de la Amistad, today Caseta Victoria, and the Kiosko de la música, as well as a small Modernist fountain from the early 20th century. The northern section, called Jardines of Duque de Rivas, features a pergola of neoclassical style, designed by the architect Carlos Sáenz de Santamaría; it is used as an exhibition hall and a café bar. Jardines de la Agricultura, located between the Jardines de la Victoria and the Paseo de Córdoba: it includes numerous trails that radially converge to a round square which has a fountain or pond. This is known as the duck pond, and, in the centre, has an island with a small building in which these animals live. Scattered throughout the garden are numerous sculptures such as the sculpture in memory of Julio Romero de Torres, the sculpture to the composer Julio Aumente and the bust of Mateo Inurria. In the north is a rose garden in form of a labyrinth. Parque de Miraflores, located on the south bank of the river Guadalquivir. It was designed by the architect Juan Cuenca Montilla as a series of terraces. Among other points of interest as the Salam and Miraflores Bridge and a sculpture by Agustín Ibarrola. Parque Cruz Conde, located southwest of the city, is an open park and barrier-free park in English gardens style.[70] Paseo de Cordoba. Located on the underground train tracks, it is a long tour of several km in length with more than 434,000 m². The tour has numerous fountains, including six formed by a portico of falling water which form a waterfall to a pond with four levels. Integrated into the tour is a pond of water from the Roman era, and the building of the old train station of RENFE, now converted into offices of Canal Sur. Jardines Juan Carlos I, in the Ciudad Jardín neighborhood. It is a fortress which occupies an area of about 12,500 square metres. Jardines del Conde de Vallellano, located on both sides of the avenue of the same name. It includes a large L-shaped pond with a capacity of 3,000 m3 (105,944.00 cu ft) and archaeological remains embedded in the gardens, among which is a Roman cistern from the second half of the 1st century BC. Parque de la Asomadilla, with a surface of 27 hectares, is the second largest park in Andalusia.[71] The park recreates a Mediterranean forest vegetation, such as hawthorn, pomegranate, hackberry, oak, olive, tamarisk, cypress, elms, pines, oaks and carob trees among others. Balcón del Guadalquivir. Jardines de Colón. Sotos de la Albolafia. Declared Natural monument by the Andalusian Autonomous Government, it is located in a stretch of the Guadalquivir river from the Roman Bridge and the San Rafael Bridge, with an area of 21.36 hectares.[72] Host a large variety of birds and is an important point of migration for many birds. Parque periurbano Los Villares. Museums[edit] The Magdalena by Julio Romero de Torres. The Archaeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba is a provincial museum located near the Guadalquivir River.[73] The museum was officially opened in 1867 and shared space with the Museum of Fine Arts until 1920. In 1960, the museum was relocated to the Renaissance Palace of Páez de Castillo where it remains to present day. The Archaeological and Ethnological Museum has eight halls which contain pieces from the middle to late bronze age, to Roman culture, Visigothic art, and Islamic culture.[74] The Julio Romero de Torres Museum is located next to the Guadalquivir river and was opened in November 1931.[75] The home of Julio Romero de Torres, has undergone many renovations and been turned into a museum and it has also been home to several other historical institutions such as the Archaeological Museum (1868-1917) and the Museum of Fine Arts. Many of the works include paintings and motifs done by Julio Romero de Torres himself.[76] The Museum of Fine Arts is located next to the Julio Romero de Torres Museum which it shares a courtyard with.[77] The building originally was for the old Hospital for Charity but after that the building went under many renovations and renewals to become the renaissance style building it is today.[78][79] The Museum of Fine Arts contains many works from the baroque period, medieval renaissance art, work from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, drawings, mannerist art and other unique works.[80] The Diocesan Museum is located in the Episcopal Palace, Cordoba which was built upon a formerly Arabic castle. The collection within houses many paintings, sculptures and furniture.[81] Other notable museums within Córdoba: The Arab Baths of the Fortress Califal Botanical Museum of Cordova Three Cultures Museum Bullfighting Museum Molino de Martos Hydraulic Museum Museo Palacio de Viana Festivals[edit] Interior patio during the Courtyards Festival of Córdoba - World Heritage Tourism is especially intense in Córdoba during May as this month hosts three of the most important annual festivals in the city:[82] Las Cruces de Mayo (The May Crosses of Córdoba).[83] This festival takes place at the beginning of the month. During three or four days, crosses of around 3m height are placed in many squares and streets and decorated with flowers and a contest is held to choose the most beautiful one. Usually there is regional food and music near the crosses. Los Patios de Córdoba (The Courtyards Festival of Córdoba - World Heritage).[84] This festival is celebrated during the second and third week of the month. Many houses of the historic center open their private patios to the public and compete in a contest. Both the architectonic value and the floral decorations are taken into consideration to choose the winners. It is usually very difficult and expensive to find accommodation in the city during the festival. La Feria de Córdoba (The Fair of Córdoba).[85] This festival takes place at the end of the month and is similar to the better known Seville Fair with some differences, mainly that the Sevilla Fair has majority private casetas (tents run by local businesses), while the Córdoba Fair has majority public ones. Politics and government[edit] Local administration As of 2019[update] José María Bellido Roche (PP) is the mayor of Córdoba. The City Council of Córdoba is divided into different areas: the Presidency; Human Resources, Management, Tax and Public Administration; City Planning, Infraestructure, and Environment; Social; and Development.[86] The Council holds regular plenary sessions once a month, but can hold extraordinary plenary session to discuss issues and problems affecting the city.[87] The Governing Board, chaired by the mayor, consists of four IU councillors, three of PSOE, and three non-elected members.[88][89] The municipal council consists of 29 members: 11 of PP, 7 of PSOE, 4 of IU, 4 of Ganemos Córdoba, 2 of Ciudadanos and 1 of Unión Cordobesa. List of mayors since the democratic elections of 1979 Legislature Name Party 1979–1983 Julio Anguita PCE 1983–1987 Julio Anguita (until 1 February 1986) PCE Herminio Trigo IU 1987–1991 Herminio Trigo IU 1991–1995 Herminio Trigo IU Manuel Pérez Pérez IU 1995–1999 Rafael Merino PP 1999–2003 Rosa Aguilar IU 2003–2007 Rosa Aguilar IU 2007–2011 Rosa Aguilar (until 23 April 2009) IU Andrés Ocaña IU 2011–2015 José Antonio Nieto Ballesteros PP 2015−2019 Isabel Ambrosio Palos PSOE 2019− José María Bellido Roche PP Administrative divisions As of July 2008, the city is divided into 10 administrative districts, coordinated by the Municipal district boards, which in turn are subdivided into neighbourhoods: District District Location Centro Poniente-Sur Levante Sur Noroeste Sureste Norte-Sierra Periurbano Este-Campiña Poniente-Norte Periurbano Oeste-Sierra Notable people[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Abd Allah al-Qaysi - Islamic jurist Vicente Amigo - Flamenco artist Averroes - Islamic philosopher Joaquín Cortés - Flamenco artist Gabi Delgado-López - musician Fosforito - Flamenco artist Luis de Góngora - Renaissance-era poet Ibn Hazm - Islamic theologian and jurist Ibn Maḍāʾ - Islamic linguist Lucan - Roman poet Maimonides - Jewish philosopher and rabbi Manolete - matador Juan de Mena - Medieval poet Mundhir bin Sa'īd al-Ballūṭī - Islamic jurist Paco Peña - Flamenco artist al-Qurtubi - jurist of the Maliki school Julio Romero de Torres - painter Seneca, Stoic philosopher Juan Serrano - Flamenco artist Fernando Tejero - actor Hisae Yanase - artist[90] Sports[edit] Segunda División match between Córdoba C.F. and C.D. Leganés at Estadio Nuevo Arcángel, January 2016. Córdoba's main sports team is its association football team, Córdoba CF, which plays in the Spanish Segunda División B following a brief one-season tenure in La Liga during the 2014-15 season. Home matches are played at the Estadio Nuevo Arcángel, which has 20,989 seats. Córdoba also has a professional futsal team, Córdoba Patrimonio de la Humanidad, which plays in the Primera División de Futsal.[91] The local youth basketball club, CD Cordobasket, had a professional team which played in the Liga EBA for three seasons before going on hiatus in August 2019.[92] The futsal team plays the majority of its home games at the 3,500 seat Palacio Municipal de Deportes Vista Alegre. Transport[edit] Rail[edit] Córdoba railway station is connected by high speed trains to the following Spanish cities: Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Málaga and Zaragoza. More than 20 trains per day connect the downtown area, in 54 minutes, with Málaga María Zambrano station, which provides interchange capability to destinations along the Costa del Sol, including Málaga Airport. Airports[edit] Córdoba has an airport, although there are no airlines operating commercial flights on it. The closest airports to the city are Seville Airport (110 km as the crow flies), Granada Airport (118 km) and Málaga Airport (136 km).[93][94] Road[edit] The city is also well connected by highways with the rest of the country and Portugal. Intercity buses[edit] The main bus station is located next to the train station. Several bus companies operate intercity bus services to and from Cordoba.[93] Gallery[edit] Parque de Miraflores.. Paseo de Córdoba. Fuente de los Jardines de Colón. Gardens of the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos. Mosque–Cathedral. Street scene in Santa Maria, Córdoba. View of Córdoba from Puente Romano. Riverfront viewed from Puente Romano, Córdoba. Twin towns – sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain Córdoba is twinned with:[95] Kairouan, Tunisia (1968) Lahore, Pakistan (1968) Córdoba, Argentina (1969) Córdoba, Mexico (1980) Bukhara, Uzbekistan (1983) Smara, Western Sahara (1987) Fez, Morocco (1990) Old Havana, Cuba (2000) Damascus, Syria (2002) Santiago de Compostela, Spain (2004) Nuremberg, Germany (2010) Nîmes, France (2013) Notes[edit] ^ Former name: Arabic: قُرطبة‎, DIN: Qurṭubah. Qordub in Maltese which derives from Arabic.[5] References[edit] Citations ^ "El mapa de las nuevas alcaldías 2019-2023". El Mundo. Retrieved 15 June 2019. ^ a b "Extensión superficial, altitud y población de hecho de las provincias, capitales y municipios de más de 20.000 habitantes. Península, Islas Baleares y Canarias". Anuario 1996. 1996. Retrieved 16 May 2017. ^ Municipal Register of Spain 2018. National Statistics Institute. ^ "Cordoban". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 June 2020. ^ Wettinger, G. (1989). 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ISSN 0214-4395. ^ a b Villar Movellán 1998, p. 102. ^ López Serrano 2017, p. 587. ^ López Serrano 2017, p. 589. ^ López Serrano 2017, pp. 593–597. ^ Thomas, Hugh (2001). The Spanish Civil War. London: Modern Library. pp. 1096. ISBN 9780375755156. ^ Ponce Alberca & García Bonilla 2008, p. 11. ^ Ponce Alberca, Julio; García Bonilla, Jesús (2008). "Guerra y poder. Los gobernadores civiles en Andalucía (1936-1939)". Guerra, Franquismo y Transición. Los gobernadores civiles en Andalucía (1936-1979) (PDF). Seville: Centro de Estudios Andaluces. p. 11. ISBN 978-84-691-6712-0. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 252. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 253. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 254. ^ Cobo Romero, Francisco (2012). "Las cifras de la violencia institucional y las mecánicas represivas del franquismo en Andalucía". In Cobo Romero, Francisco (ed.). La represión franquista en Andalucía: Balance historiográfico, perspectivas teóricas y análisis de resultados (PDF). pp. 51–66. ISBN 9788493992606. ^ "Datos del Registro de Entidades Locales". Ministerio de Asuntos Económicos y Transformación Digital. Retrieved 15 August 2020. ^ Burgueño & Guerrero Lladós 2014, p. 19. ^ a b c d Torres Márquez 2013, p. 138. ^ a b c Domínguez Bascón 1995, p. 283. ^ M. Kottek; J. Grieser; C. Beck; B. Rudolf; F. Rubel (2006). "World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated". Meteorol. Z. 15 (3): 259–263. Bibcode:2006MetZe..15..259K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130. Retrieved 22 April 2009. ^ a b "Valores climatológicos extremos. Córdoba" (in Spanish). Aemet.es. 30 November 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017. ^ Jayyusi, Salma Khadra (1994). The legacy of Muslim Spain (2nd ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 129–135. ISBN 978-9004099548. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Historic Centre of Cordoba". UNESCO. Retrieved 30 January 2018. ^ a b Michell, George (2011) [1978]. Architecture of the Islamic world its history and social meaning; with a complete survey of key monuments. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 212. ISBN 9780500278475. ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009). The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911. ^ "Minaret of San Juan". english.turismodecordoba.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 30 January 2018. ^ Reina, Carmen (11 November 2014). "Los eternos jornaleros del Guadalquivir". El Diario (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Discovery of a Roman Circus in Cordoba". Artencordoba.co.uk. Archived from the original on 30 August 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2011. ^ "Projects of Santiago Calatrava". Soloarquitectura.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. ^ "Parque Cruz Conde" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. ^ Juan M. Niza (1 November 2005). "El parque de La Asomadilla se inicia con la apertura de pozos". Diario Córdoba (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. ^ Los Sotos de la Albolafia, Inventario de Humedales de Andalucía. ^ TURESPAÑA (23 April 2007). "Museums in Spain: Cordoba Archaeological Museum in Córdoba, Spain | spain.info USA". Spain.info. Retrieved 25 February 2018. ^ "Archaeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba". ArtenCórdoba Guided Tours. Retrieved 25 February 2018. ^ "Mapa del Museo - Museo de Julio Romero de Torres | Visita Virtual". www.museojulioromero.cordoba.es (in Spanish). Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Museum of Julio Romero de Torres, Córdoba". ArtenCórdoba Guided Tours. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ Abdulhameed, Ahmed M (2013). Discover Spain. Lulu Press. ISBN 9781447876564. ^ "Fine Arts Museum". english.turismodecordoba.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Cordoba: Museum of Fine Arts, Cordoba". tripadvisor.com. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Museum of Fine Arts of Córdoba". ArtenCórdoba Guided Tours. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Diocesan Museum (Episcopal Palace)". english.turismodecordoba.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Cordoban May". Retrieved 14 July 2020. ^ "The May Crosses of Cordoba". Retrieved 14 July 2020. ^ "The Courtyards Festival of Cordoba - World Heritage". Retrieved 14 July 2020. ^ "The Fair of Cordoba". Retrieved 14 July 2020. ^ "Áreas de Gobierno" [Areas of Governance]. Ayuntamiento de Córdoba (in Spanish). Retrieved 13 February 2018. ^ "Reglamento Orgánico General del Ayuntamiento de Córdoba" (PDF), B.O.P (in Spanish) (29), p. 1044, 2009, retrieved 13 February 2018 ^ "Junta de Gobierno Local" [Local Government Board]. Ayuntamiento de Córdoba [City Council of Córdoba] (in Spanish). 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. ^ Municipal Elections 2007 in Córdoba: Cargos en la Corporación Municipal – Article of Cordobapedia published in Castilian, GFDL license. ^ Miranda, Luis (21 May 2019). "Muere Hisae Yanase, la artista japonesa que ancló su sonrisa en Córdoba". sevilla (in Spanish). Retrieved 13 January 2020. ^ "El Córdoba Futsal será "Patrimonio de la Humanidad" en la nueva temporada". Mundo Deportivo. 29 July 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2019. ^ prensa (8 August 2019). "Hasta pronto". Cordobasket (in Spanish). Retrieved 14 September 2019. ^ a b "Cordoba: Stations". Travelinho. Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Aeropuerto Córdoba". Aena (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 March 2019. ^ "Las 12 hermanas de Córdoba". diariocordoba.com (in Spanish). Diario Córdoba. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2020. Bibliography Burgueño, Jesús; Guerrero Lladós, Montse (2014). "El mapa municipal de España. Una caracterización geográfica". Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles (64). ISSN 0212-9426. Domínguez Bascón, Pedro (1995). "Inversiones de temperatura en el valle del Guadalquivir: un factor climático de gran influencia en el medio ambiente de la ciudad de Córdoba". Anales de Geografía de la Universidad Complutense (15): 281–288. ISSN 0211-9803. López Serrano, Miguel Jesús (2017). "Los inicios del ferrocarril en la provincia de Córdoba. Una visión a corto plazo" (PDF). Anuario Jurídico y Económico Escurialense. San Lorenzo de El Escorial: Real Centro Universitario Escorial-María Cristina (50): 579–600. ISSN 1133-3677. Torres Márquez, Martín (2013). "Paisajes del Valle medio del Guadalquivir cordobés: Funcionalidad y cambios" (PDF). Revista de Estudios Regionales (96): 135–180. ISSN 0213-7585. Villar Movellán, Alberto (1998). "Esquemas urbanos de la Córdoba renacentista" (PDF). Laboratorio de Arte: Revista del Departamento de Historia del Arte. Seville: Universidad de Sevilla (11): 101–120. ISSN 1130-5762. Further reading See also: Bibliography of the history of Córdoba, Spain Published in the 19th century Arthur de Capell Brooke (1831), "Cordova", Sketches in Spain and Morocco, London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, OCLC 13783280 Richard Ford (1855), "Cordova", A Handbook for Travellers in Spain (3rd ed.), London: J. Murray, OCLC 2145740 John Lomas, ed. (1889), "Cordova", O'Shea's Guide to Spain and Portugal (8th ed.), Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black Published in the 20th century "Cordova". Spain and Portugal (3rd ed.). Leipzig: Karl Baedeker. 1908. OCLC 1581249. Trudy Ring, ed. (1996). "Cordoba". Southern Europe. International Dictionary of Historic Places. 3. Fitzroy Dearborn. OCLC 31045650. Published in the 21st century C. Edmund Bosworth, ed. (2007). "Cordova". Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. Barbara Messina, Geometrie in pietra. La moschea di Cordova. Giannini editore, Napoli 2004, ISBN 9788874312368 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Córdoba, Spain. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Córdoba (city, Spain). "Ayuntamiento de Córdoba" [Córdoba's City Council] (in Spanish). "Córdoba". Tourism of Córdoba. "Córdoba24". Córdoba travel information. "Natural Monument Sotos de la Albolafia". Junta de Andalucia. "168. Cordoba – The City that Changed Thought". The Tudung Traveller. 23 August 2013. "Tourism in Córdoba in Andalusia, Spain | spain.info USA". Tourist Offices of Spain. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2013. "Córdoba | Archnet". archnet.org. MIT School of Architecture and Planning. 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en-wikipedia-org-5142	----	Laodicea in Syria - Wikipedia Laodicea in Syria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Coordinates: 35°31′08″N 35°46′36″E / 35.51892275°N 35.7766297°E / 35.51892275; 35.7766297 Laodicea's "Tetraporticus", built by Septimius Severus in AD 193 Laodicea (Ancient Greek: Λαοδίκεια) was a port city and an important colonia of the Roman Empire in ancient Syria,[1] located near the modern city of Latakia. It was also called Laodicea in Syria or Laodicea ad mare. For a short period of time under Septimius Severus, it became the capital of Roman Syria, and subsequently, it became the capital of the Eastern Roman province of Theodorias from 528 AD until 637 AD. Contents 1 History 2 Bishops of Laodicea 3 Notes 4 Bibliography 5 See also History[edit] Temple of Bacchus in present-day Latakia Map showing Laodicea during Roman times The Phoenician city of Ramitha was located in the coastal area where it is the modern port of Latakia, known to the Greeks as Leukê Aktê or "white coast". Laodicea got its name when was first founded in the fourth century BC under the rule of the Seleucid Empire: it was named by Seleucus I Nicator in honor of his mother, Laodice (Greek: Λαοδίκεια ἡ Πάραλος). The city was subsequently ruled by the Romans until the Arab conquest in 637 AD. The Roman Pompey the Great conquered the city from the Armenian king Tigranes the Great alongside with all of Syria in 64 BCE and later Julius Caesar declared the city "free polis". During the Severan dynasty, a third century imperial dynasty of Rome from Syrian origins, the emperor Septimius Severus named with the title "Metropolis" the city in 194 AD and allowed the Ius Italicum (exemption from empire taxation) to Laodicea, that was later called a "Roman Colonia". Some Roman merchants moved to live in the city under Augustus, but the city was always culturally "greek" influenced. The Romans made a "Pharum" at the port, that was renowned as one of the best of Ancient Levant; then created a Roman road from southern Anatolia toward Berytus and Damascus, that greatly improved the commerce through the port of Laodicea. There are few remains of what was a rich and well-built town (Strab. 16.2.9): colonnades, a monumental arch, sarcophagi, all within the modern town. The sanctuaries, public baths, amphitheater, hippodrome, mentioned by ancient authors or by Greek inscriptions, and the rampart gates depicted on coins, have all disappeared...The town occupies a rocky promontory...Including the port, its area was ca. 220 ha...A wide avenue, bordered with porticos in Roman times, ran N-S across the town, from the tip of the peninsula to the gate where the road to Antioch started; perpendicular to this, three colonnaded streets ran from E to W. The one to the N was centered on the entry to the citadel on the high hill to the NE. The central one came from the E gate, where the Apamea road reached the city. The street today is occupied by the great souk, where there is still an alignment of 13 monolithic granite columns. A tetrapylon marked the crossing of this thoroughfare with the N-S avenue. The S street began at the port and ended to the E at the long steep hill to the SE, where a monumental four-way arch, erroneously called a tetrapylon, closed off the view. This arch consists of four semicircular arches, one on each side, supporting a stone cupola. Columns engaged in pilasters serve as buttresses at the corners of the four masonry moles. Not far away, inside a mosque, is the corner of a Corinthian peristyle, with capitals and entablature. Virtually nothing remains of the theater, which was built against the SE hill and whose cavea had a diameter of ca. 100 m. Princeton: Laodicea ad mare The city enjoyed a huge economic prosperity thanks to the wine produced in the hills around the port and exported to all the empire. The city was famous because of the textile products.[citation needed] Laodicea minted coins from an early Roman date, but the most famous are from Severian times.[2] Classical Statue at the National Museum of Latakia A sizable Jewish population lived in Laodicea during the first century.[3] Under Septimius Severus the city was fortified and was made for a few years the capital of Roman Syria: in this period Laodicea grew to be a city of nearly 40000 inhabitants and had even an hippodrome. Christianity was the main religion in the city after Constantine I and there were many bishops of Laodicea who participated in ecumenical councils, mainly during Byzantine times. The heretic Apollinarius was bishop of Laodicea in the 4th century, when the city was fully Christian but with a few remaining Jews. An earthquake damaged the city in 494 AD[4] and successively Justinian I made Laodicea the capital of the Byzantine province of "Theodorias" in the early sixth century. Laodicea remained its capital for more than a century until the Arab conquest. Bishops of Laodicea[edit] Saint Paul visited Laodicea and converted the first Christians in the city. Slowly the bishops of Laodicea grew in importance but were always under the Patriarch of Antioch. The most important bishops were: Lucius of Cyrene (1st century), mentioned in Acts, considered first bishop by tradition Thelymidres (fl. 250–251), bishop during the Decian persecution[5] Heliodorus, became bishop during the reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253)[5] Socrates (died. c. 264)[5] Eusebius (died c. 268), a native of Alexandria in Egypt[5] Anatolius (c. 268 – 282/283), a native of Alexandria in Egypt[5] Stephen, apostasized during the Diocletianic persecution (303–313)[5] Theodotus (303/313 – c. 335), an Arian[5] George (died 359), an Arian[5] After George there were two rival bishops in Laodicea: Pelagius (360–381/394), an Arian[5] Apollinarius (c. 360 – c. 392), founded the Apollinarians[5] Elpidius, bishop by 394, deposed in 404, restored in 416[5] Macarius (429-451) Maximus (around 458) Nicia Costantinus (510–518) Stephanus (553) Notes[edit] ^ Burns, Ross (30 June 2009). "Monuments of Syria: A Guide". I.B.Tauris. Retrieved 11 June 2016 – via Google Books. ^ "Featured Coin". Retrieved 11 June 2016. ^ "LAODICEA - JewishEncyclopedia.com". Retrieved 11 June 2016. ^ Noelle Watson, ed. (1996), "Latakia", International Dictionary of Historic Places, Fitzroy Dearborn, ISBN 9781884964039 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mark DelCogliano (2008), "The Eusebian Alliance: the Case of Theodotus of Laodicea" (PDF), Zeitschrift für antikes Christentum, 12 (2): 250–266. Bibliography[edit] Butcher, Kevin. Roman Syria and the Near East Getty Publications. Los Angeles, 2003 ISBN 0892367156 ([1]) Ross Burns. Monuments of Syria: A Guide. Publisher I.B.Tauris. New York, 2009 ISBN 0857714899 See also[edit] Berytus Theodorias (province) Apollinaris of Laodicea Antioch v t e Colonies of Ancient Rome With correspondence to modern geography Europe Britannia Superior Camulodunum Lindum Colonia Londinium Britannia Inferior Eboracum Roman Dacia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Gallia Lugdunensis Lugdunum Gallia Narbonensis Narbo Martius Germania Inferior Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium Mogontiacum Hispania Augusta Emerita Italia Aelia Augusta Aeclanum Castra Taurinorum Florentia Mediolanum Placentia Moesia Singidunum Levant Of legion veterans Berytus Caesarea Maritima 2 Aelia Capitolina 1 3 Ptolemais 1 Of late Empire Laodicea Antioch Seleucia Emesa Heliopolis 1 Palmyra 1 3 Damascus 1 3 Arca Caesarea Sidon Tyrus 1 Sebaste Bostra 1 3 Petra 1 Neapolis Philippopolis Dura-Europos 2 Possible colonies Gaza Ascalon Gerasa Gadara Emmaus Nicopolis Neronias Locations with modern names Israel and the Palestinian territories Jerusalem: Aelia Capitolina Acre: Ptolemais Caesarea: Caesarea Maritima Imwas: Emmaus Nicopolis Banias: Neronias Jordan Petra: Petra Umm Qais: Gadara Jerash: Gerasa Lebanon Arqa: Arca Caesarea Beirut: Berytus Baalbek: Heliopolis Saida: Sidon Tyre: Tyrus Syria Bosra: Bostra Damascus: Damascus Dura-Europos: Dura-Europus Homs: Emesa Latakia: Laodicea Shahba: Philippopolis Tadmur: Palmyra Turkey Antakya: Antioch Samandağ: Seleucia 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 2 Proposed; 3 in Danger See also: Legacy of the Roman Empire Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laodicea_in_Syria&oldid=1026078760" Categories: Populated places established in the 4th century BC Populated places disestablished in the 7th century Seleucid colonies Coloniae (Roman) Roman sites in Syria Populated places of the Byzantine Empire Archaeological sites in Latakia Governorate Latakia Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing reorganization from May 2021 Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Ελληνικά Español 한국어 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5146	----	Lucius Aelius Caesar - Wikipedia Lucius Aelius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Roman nobleman and adoptive son of Hadrian (101-138) This article is about the adoptive son of Hadrian. For the Praetorian prefect called Lucius Aelius Sejanus, see Sejanus. This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Lucius Aelius Caesar" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2012) Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius, musée du Louvre Born 13 January 101 Died 1 January 138 (aged 36) Spouse Avidia Issue Lucius Verus Ceionia Fabia Ceionia Plautia Names Lucius Ceionius Commodus (from birth until adoption by Hadrian) Regnal name Lucius Aelius Caesar (as Imperial heir) Father Lucius Ceionius Commodus Hadrian (adoptive) Mother Plautia Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Lucius Aelius Caesar (13 January 101 – 1 January 138) was the father of Emperor Lucius Verus. In 136, he was adopted by Hadrian and named heir to the throne. He died before Hadrian and thus never became emperor. After Lucius' death, he was replaced by Antoninus Pius, who succeeded Hadrian the same year. Contents 1 Life and family 2 Heir to Hadrian 3 Death 4 Sources 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life and family[edit] Denarius of Aelius Denarius of Aelius' son, future Roman emperor Lucius Verus Aelius was born with the name Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and became Lucius Aelius Caesar upon his adoption as Hadrian's heir. He is often sometimes referred to as Lucius Aelius Verus, though this name is not attested outside the Augustan History, where it probably was originally the result of a manuscript error. The young Lucius Ceionius Commodus was of the gens Ceionia. His father, also named Lucius Ceionius Commodus (the author of the Augustan History adds the cognomen Verus), was consul in 106, and his paternal grandfather, also of the same name, was consul in 78. His paternal ancestors were from Etruria, and were of consular rank. His mother was a surmised but otherwise undocumented Roman woman named Plautia.[1] The Augustan History states that his maternal grandfather and his maternal ancestors were of consular rank. Before 130, the younger Lucius Commodus married Avidia, a well-connected Roman noblewoman who was the daughter of the senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus. Avidia bore Lucius two sons and two daughters, who were: Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger – He would become Lucius Verus Caesar, and would co-rule as Roman Emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 161 until his own death in 169. Verus would marry Lucilla, the second daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus – he is known from an inscription found in Rome. Ceionia Fabia – at the time of Marcus Aurelius's adoption, she was betrothed, as part of the adoption conditions, to him. Shortly after Antoninus Pius' ascension, Pius came to Aurelius and asked him to end his engagement to Fabia, instead marrying Antoninus Pius’ daughter Faustina the Younger; Faustina had originally been planned by Hadrian to wed Lucius Verus. Ceionia Plautia Heir to Hadrian[edit] Bust of Hadrian, Musei Capitolini For a long time, the emperor Hadrian had considered his brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus as his unofficial successor. As Hadrian's reign drew to a close, however, he changed his mind. Although the emperor certainly thought Servianus capable of ruling as an emperor after Hadrian's own death, Servianus, by now in his nineties, was clearly too old for the position. Hadrian's attentions turned to Servianus' grandson, Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, his great-nephew, gave him special status in his court, and groomed him as his heir. However, in late 136, Hadrian almost died from a haemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he decided to change his mind, and selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus as his new successor, adopting him as his son.[2] The selection was done invitis omnibus, "against the wishes of everyone";[3] in particular, Servianus and the young Salinator became very angry at Hadrian and wished to challenge him over the adoption. Even today, the rationale for Hadrian's sudden switch is still unclear.[4] It is possible Salinator went so far as to attempt a coup against Hadrian in which Servianus was implicated. In order to avoid any potential conflict in the succession, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Salinator and Servianus.[5] Although Lucius had no military experience, he had served as a senator, and had powerful political connections; however, he was in poor health. As part of his adoption, Lucius Ceionius Commodus took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. Death[edit] After a year's stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the senate on the first day of 138. The night before the speech, however, he grew ill, and died of a haemorrhage late the next day.[6][notes 1] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus (19 September 86 – 7 March 161) as his new successor.[8] After a few days' consideration, Antoninus accepted. He was adopted on 25 February. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus adopted both Lucius Aelius's son (properly called Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger) and Hadrian's great-nephew by marriage, Marcus Aurelius (26 April 121 – 17 March 180). Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus; Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus.[notes 2] At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[9] Marcus Aurelius later co-ruled with Lucius Verus as joint Roman Emperors, until Lucius Verus died in 169, after which Aurelius was sole ruler until his own death in 180. Sources[edit] The major sources for the life of Aelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century, but are in fact written by a single author (referred to here as "the biographer") from the later 4th century (c. 395).[10] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are a tissue of lies and fiction, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[10] For Aelius, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus and Lucius Verus are largely reliable, but that of Avidius Cassius, and even Lucius Aelius' own, is full of fiction.[11] Some other literary sources provide specific detail: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianus on Marcus' legal work.[12] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[13] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended the eventual post-Antoninus succession, anyway.[7] ^ The younger Lucius Commodus did not take the cognomen Verus until his joint accession with Marcus after the death of Pius. All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. References[edit] ^ Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettulani", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), pp. 306–315 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, pp. 291–292. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1–7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Antoninus Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65–74. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Aelius. Political offices Preceded by Publius Rutilius Fabianus, and Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus Aemilius Tuscillus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 136 with Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus Succeeded by Lucius Aelius Caesar II, and Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius as ordinary consuls Preceded by Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 137 with Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius Succeeded by Kanus Junius Niger, and Gaius Pomponius Camerinus as ordinary consuls Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Aelius_Caesar&oldid=1020829164" Categories: 101 births 138 deaths Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Romans Adult adoptees Aelii Ceionii Senators of the Roman Empire Caesars (heirs apparent) Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Ancient Roman adoptees Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Use dmy dates from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2012 All articles needing additional references Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 08:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5147	----	Aelius Aristides - Wikipedia Aelius Aristides From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek (2nd century) rhetorician Aelius Aristides Statue of Aelius Aristides in The Vatican Born 117 (0117) AD Hadriani, Mysia Died 181 (aged 63–64) Language Ancient Greek Genre Oratory Subject Dream interpretation Notable works Sacred Tales Publius Aelius Aristides Theodorus (Greek: Αἴλιος Ἀριστείδης; 117–181 AD) was a Greek orator and author considered to be a prime example of the Second Sophistic, a group of celebrated and highly influential orators who flourished from the reign of Nero until c. 230 AD. More than fifty of his orations and other works survive, dating from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. His early success was interrupted by a decades-long series of illnesses for which he sought relief by divine communion with the god Asclepius, effected by interpreting and obeying the dreams that came to him while sleeping in the god's sacred precinct; he later recorded this experience in a series of discourses titled Sacred Tales (Hieroi Logoi). In his later life, Aristides resumed his career as an orator, achieving such notable success that Philostratus would declare that "Aristides was of all the sophists most deeply versed in his art."[1] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Sacred Tales 4 Text transmission and editions 4.1 Manuscripts 4.2 Editions 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Aristides was probably born at Hadriani in rural area of Mysia.[2] His father, a wealthy landowner, arranged for Aristides to have the finest education available. Aristides first studied under Alexander of Cotiaeum (later a tutor of Marcus Aurelius) at Smyrna, then traveled to various cities to learn from the foremost sophists of the day, including studies in Athens and Alexandria[2] The capstone of his education was a trip to Egypt in 141 AD. Along the way he began his career as an orator, declaiming at Cos, Cnidos, Rhodes, and Alexandria. His travels in Egypt included a journey upriver in hopes of finding the source of the Nile, as he later recounted in "The Egyptian Discourse". Becoming ill, he returned home to Smyrna, and sought to cure himself by turning to the Egyptian god Serapis (as recounted in his earliest preserved speech, "Regarding Serapis"). Hoping to advance his career as an orator, late in 143 AD Aristides traveled to Rome, but his ambitions were thwarted by severe illness. He returned home to Smyrna. Seeking relief, he eventually turned to Asclepius, "the paramount healing god of the ancient world", and traveled to the god's temple in Pergamum, "one of the chief healing sites in the ancient world", where "incubants" slept on the temple grounds, then recorded their dreams in search of prescriptions from the god; for Aristides, these included fasting, unusual diets, bloodletting, enemas, vomiting, and either refraining from bathing or bathing in frigid rivers.[3] Despite recurrent bouts of illness, by 147 AD Aristides resumed his career as a writer and occasional lecturer, though he sought legal immunity from various civic and religious obligations expected of a citizen of his standing. By 154 AD he felt well enough to resume his career on a full scale, including lecture tours to Greece and to Rome, where, in the presence of the imperial court, he delivered what was to become his most famous speech, "Regarding Rome".[4] He also took pupils, the most famous being the sophist Damianus. In 165 AD, Aristides succumbed to the so-called Antonine Plague that ravaged the Roman Empire. He survived, but became less active and renewed his devotion to Asclepius. In 171 AD he set about writing the Sacred Tales to record the numerous omens and insights he had received from Asclepius in his dreams over a period of almost thirty years. His greatest career success came in 176 AD, when Marcus Aurelius visited Smyrna and Aristides delivered an oration that greatly impressed the emperor.[1] His greatest civic success followed in 177 AD when an earthquake destroyed Smyrna; Aristides wrote an appeal to Marcus Aurelius that was so instrumental in securing imperial funds for rebuilding that Philostratus would write, "To say that Aristides founded Smyrna is no mere boastful eulogy but most just and true."[1] A bronze statue of Aristides was set up in the marketplace of Smyrna, inscribed, "For his goodness and speeches".[5] Aristides spent his last years in seclusion at his country estates in Mysia, dying in 181 AD. Living a generation after Aristides, the most famous physician of antiquity, Galen, wrote: "As to them whose souls are naturally strong and whose bodies are weak, I have seen only a few of them. One of them was Aristides... [who] belonged to the most prominent rank of orators. Thus it happened to him, since he was active in teaching and speaking throughout his life, that his whole body wasted away."[6] Works[edit] Aristides' "many-sided literary output...made him a giant in his own day", and the subsequent popularity of his work—addresses for public and private occasions, polemical essays, declamations on historical themes, and prose hymns to various gods—established him (according to Glen Bowersock) as a "pivotal figure in the transmission of Hellenism".[7] Unlike many sophists, Aristides disliked speaking extempore. According to Philostratus, "Since his natural talent was not in the line of extempore eloquence, he strove after extreme accuracy...he was well endowed with native ability and purified his style of any empty verbosity." When he met Marcus Aurelius in Smyrna and the emperor asked him to declaim, Aristides replied: "Propose the theme today and tomorrow come and hear me, for I am one of those who do not vomit their speeches but try to make them perfect."[1] There are five extant works by Aristides regarding the city of Smyrna. The first "Smyrnaean Oration", a sort of guided tour of the city for a visiting official, gives "the best description of ancient Smyrna which we possess".[8] Other works describe the city before and after the devastating earthquake of 177 CE, including "A Letter to the Emperors Concerning Smyrna"; when this plea for help was read to him, Marcus Aurelius was so moved that he "actually shed tears over the pages."[1] In "To Plato: In Defense of the Four", Aristides derisively criticizes a group of people by comparing them to "impious men of Palestine" that "do not believe in the higher powers": These men alone should be classed neither among flatterers nor free men. For they deceive like flatterers, but they are insolent as if they were of higher rank, since they are involved in the two most extreme and opposite evils, baseness and willfulness, behaving like those impious men of Palestine. For the proof of the impiety of those people is that they do not believe in the higher powers. And these men in a certain fashion have defected from the Greek race, or rather from all that is higher.[9] His most famous oration was "Regarding Rome", which he delivered before the imperial household in Rome and in which Aristides glorifies "the Empire and the theory behind it, particularly the Pax Romana",[10] and "paints an impressive picture of the Roman achievement".[7] "The culminating passage...compares the creation of the Roman World with the creation of an orderly universe and represents the Roman World as the perfect state in which the gods can take delight, because it is dedicated to them."[11] This oration would become "the main basis for history's favorable verdict on the Antonines", inspiring Gibbon's famous pronouncement that the period between Domitian and Commodus was the happiest era of human history.[12] Sacred Tales[edit] The six books of Sacred Tales "are in a class apart. A record of revelations made to Aristides in dreams by the healing god Asclepius...they are of major importance, both as evidence for the practices associated with temple medicine, and as the fullest first-hand report of personal religious experience that survives from any pagan writer."[13] Modern scholarship has seen a proliferation of theories about the nature of Aristides' illnesses (real or imagined) and about the meaning of his religious experiences; "a number of scholars have applied psychoanalytical theories to Aristides' self-presentation" and have come to various conclusions.[14] The complete works of Aristides were translated into English by Charles A. Behr and published in two volumes, in 1981 and 1986. Behr also worked out a chronology of Aristides' life and works and composed a lengthy biography which was included in his earlier book Aelius Aristides and the Sacred Tales (1968), in which he set forth the unique importance of the Sacred Tales: Nowhere does the whole person of a figure from the ancient world lie more open to scrutiny than that of Aristides through the prism of the Sacred Tales. If the voluminous and faithful record of dream world and waking life, which is the substance of that work, is correctly employed, for the first time unequaled possibilities are at hand to break the barriers of anonymity which surround the inner life of even the best known figures of antiquity, and without qualification or conjecture, to penetrate to the subconscious level of one of them.[15] Text transmission and editions[edit] Manuscripts[edit] 234 manuscripts of works by Aelius Aristides are catalogued by Charles A. Behr. The earliest of them are four papyrus fragments dating from the fifth to the seventh centuries AD. Two are from Panathenaicus (Or. 1), and the others are from In Defense of the Four (Or. 3) and the Sacred Tales. The earliest surviving medieval manuscript is codex A (written ca.917 by the scribe John the Calligrapher for the archbishop Arethas of Caesarea), now divided in two: Parisinus graecus 2951 and Laurentianus 60.3. It contains 42 of 53 surviving speeches and is the only one to preserve the fragmentary Or. 53. The earliest nearly complete text (missing only the fragmentary Orr. 52-53) is T (Laurentianus graecus 60.8; eleventh century). According to Behr, the whole tradition has one common reconstructable archetype (O) and was divided into two routes via the hyparchetypes ω and φ, both lost. The papyrus fragments represent perhaps a different line of transmission, but they are too short and hence of no great use.[16] Editions[edit] The first speeches by Aelius Aristides to be printed were Panathenaicus and The Encomium on Rome (Orr. 1 and 36) added as appendix to Aldus Manutius's 1513 edition of Isocrates. The first full edition was the Juntine, edited by Eufrosino Bonino and published by Filippo Giunta (Florence, 1517), though it omits Orr. 16 and 53. It was based on two inferior manuscripts and followed the faulty ordering of the speeches. The Latin translation of Aristides was made by Willem Canter (Basel, 1566), who also reordered the speeches. It is this order that remained in all subsequent editions up to and including Dindorf's. These editions combined the Juntine text with Canter's translation. Paul Estienne's (Geneva, 1604) and Samuel Jebb's (Oxford, 1722-1730) are the best ones. Johann Jakob Reiske planned an edition, but never completed the task. In 1761 he published a very acute set of notes and comments on Aristides and made a compilation of scholia.[17] The most important 19th-century edition was Karl Wilhelm Dindorf's 1829. Its first two volumes contain Aristides's text, while the third presents the scholia collected by Reiske. Bruno Keil intended to publish a completely new complete edition, but finished only the second volume (1898; speeches 17—53). He also restored the order of the speeches as it is found in the manuscript T. His work was taken by Friedrich Walter Lenz [de], who prepared speeches 1 and 5—16, but died in 1969. At last Charles Allison Behr completed this task and published the first volume (1976, 1980; speeches 1—16).[18] A complete edition in 4 volumes with Behr's English translation was announced by the Loeb Classical Library, but only the first volume was edited (1973). Instead, Behr's complete English translation of all speeches in 2 volumes was published by Brill (1981, 1986).[19] A new Loeb edition is being prepared by Michael Trapp (with Greek text after Lenz-Behr and Keil), of which vol.1 (2017) is already available (L533). Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e Wright, II.9. ^ a b Saavedra Monroy, Mauricio (2015). The Church of Smyrna: History and Theology of a Primitive Christian Community. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Edition. p. 42. ISBN 9783631662359. ^ Behr (1986), pp. 1-2. ^ Behr (1968), p. 88. ^ Behr (1968), p. 111, note 64. ^ Behr (1968), p. 162. ^ a b Hornblower, p. 160. ^ Behr (1981), p. 356, note 1. ^ Behr (1986), p. 275. ^ Behr (1968), pp. 88-89. ^ Oliver, p. 874. ^ Grant, pp. 104 and 147. ^ Hornblower, pp. 160-161. ^ Petsalis-Diomidis (2010), p. 123. ^ Behr (1968), p. xiii. ^ Trapp (2017), pp. xxiii-xxv ^ Trapp (2017), pp. xxv-xxvii ^ Trapp (2017), pp. xxvi-xxviii ^ Behr (1986), p. vii. References[edit] Behr, C.A., 1968. Aelius Aristides and the Sacred Tales. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Behr, Charles A., trans., 1981. P. Aelius Aristides: The Complete Works, vol. 2 (published first). Leiden: Brill. Behr, Charles A., trans., 1986. P. Aelius Aristides: The Complete Works, vol. 1 (published second). Leiden: Brill. Grant, Michael, 1994. The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. London & New York: Routledge. Hornblower, Simon and Antony Spawforth, editors, 1996. The Oxford Classical Companion, Third Edition. Oxford Univ. Press. Oliver, James H., 1953. "The Ruling Power: A Study of the Roman Empire in the Second Century after Christ through the Roman Oration of Aelius Aristides" (including full Greek text and English translation of the oration) in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 43, No. 4 (1953), pp. 871–1003. Petsalis-Diomidis, Alexia, 2010. Truly Beyond Wonders: Aelius Aristides and the Cult of Asklepios. Oxford Univ. Press (Oxford Studies in Ancient Culture & Representation). Trapp, Michael, ed. and trans. Aelius Aristides: Orations, Volume I. Loeb Classical Library 533. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017. Wright, Wilmer C., trans., 1922. Philostratus: Lives of the Sophists. Loeb Classical Library. External links[edit] Aristides, W. Dindorf (ed.), Lipsiae, libraria Weidmannia, G. Reimer, 1829, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3. Aelii Aristidis Smyrnaei quae supersunt omnia, Bruno Keil (ed.), Berolini apud Weidnannos, 1898: vol.1 (never edited), vol. 2. Aelius Aristides' Orations (Greek) at Perseus Project. Rhetores Graeci, L. Spengel (ed.), Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1854, vol. 2 pp. 457-554. 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en-wikipedia-org-514	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===War with Germanic tribes (166–180)=== {{main|Marcomannic Wars}} [[File:Aurelius180AD.png|thumb|400px|upright=2.5|The [[Roman Empire]] at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called [[Marcomannia]] and Sarmatia<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of [[Avidius Cassius]] and by his death.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 183.</ref> The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], [[Colchis]], [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberia]], and [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]].|alt=Expanse of the Roman Empire during Marcus Aurelius's reign]] {{multiple image|header = Scenes from the [[Marcomannic Wars]], 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the [[Capitoline Museums]]) |image1=0 Relief - Monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle - La soumission des germains (1).JPG |width1=210 |caption1=Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised ''[[vexillum]]'' standards |alt1 =Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius |image2=Rilievo da monumento onorario di Marco Aurelio trionfo, 176-180.JPG |width2=258 |caption2=Marcus Aurelius celebrating [[Roman triumph|his triumph]] over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a ''[[quadriga]]'' chariot |alt2=Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius }} [[File:Marcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Bust of Marcus Aurelius.|Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], flanked by Marcus and [[Lucius Verus]]. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.<ref>Gnecchi, ''Medaglioni Romani'', p. 33.</ref>]] [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 241.</ref>|alt=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius.]] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).<ref>Dio 72.11.3–4; ''Ad amicos'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132.</ref> The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a [[legionary]] legate who was taking bribes.<ref>Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132, citing ''De nepote amisso'' ii (= Haines 2.222); ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.).</ref> Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. [[Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus]], a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced [[Marcus Nonius Macrinus]]. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure [[Tiberius Haterius Saturnius]]. [[Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus]] was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when [[Marcus Iallius Bassus]] had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, ''Konsulat und Senatorenstand'' (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251.</ref> Starting in the 160s, [[Germanic tribes]], and other nomadic people launched raids along the [[limes Germanicus|northern border]], particularly into [[Gaul]] and across the [[Danube#Human history|Danube]]. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.<ref name='McLynn2010'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', pp. 323–24.</ref> Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the [[Marcomanni]] of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the [[Lombards]] and other Germanic tribes.<ref name='Bohec2013'>Le Bohec, p. 56.</ref> Soon thereafter, the Iranian [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] attacked between the Danube and the [[Tisza|Theiss]] rivers.<ref name='Grant2016'>Grant, ''The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition'', p. 29.</ref> The [[Costoboci]], coming from the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] area, invaded [[Moesia]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like [[Dacia]], Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and [[Marcomannia]], including today's [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Hungary]]. Some Germanic tribes who settled in [[Ravenna]] revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.<ref>Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5151	----	John VI Kantakouzenos - Wikipedia John VI Kantakouzenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1347 to 1354 "John Kantakouzenos", "John Cantacuzenus", etc. redirect here. For other people with the same name, see John Kantakouzenos (disambiguation) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John VI Kantakouzenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John VI presiding over a synod Byzantine emperor Reign 21 May 1347 – 10 December 1354 Predecessor John V Palaiologos (alone) Successor John V Palaiologos (alongside Matthew Kantakouzenos) Co-monarch John V Palaiologos Matthew Kantakouzenos Born 1292 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 15 June 1383 (aged 90/91) Peloponnese, Despotate of Morea Burial Mistra, Peloponnese, Greece Spouse Irene Asanina Issue Matthew Kantakouzenos Manuel Kantakouzenos Andronikos Kantakouzenos Maria Kantakouzene Theodora Kantakouzene Helena Kantakouzene Names John VI Kantakouzenos Ἰωάννης Ϛʹ Καντακουζηνός House Kantakouzenos Father Michael Kantakouzenos Mother Theodora Palaiologina Angelina Religion Greek Orthodox John VI Kantakouzenos, Cantacuzenus, or Cantacuzene[1] (Greek: Ἰωάννης ΣΤʹ Ἄγγελος Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός, Iōánnēs Ángelos Palaiológos Kantakouzēnós;[2] Latin: Johannes Cantacuzenus;[3] c. 1292 – 15 June 1383[4]) was a Greek nobleman, statesman, and general. He served as grand domestic under Andronikos III Palaiologos and regent for John V Palaiologos before reigning as Byzantine emperor in his own right from 1347 to 1354. Deposed by his former ward, he was made to retire to a monastery under the name Joasaph Christodoulos and spent the remainder of his life as a monk and historian. At age 90 or 91 at his death, he was the most aged of the Roman emperors. Contents 1 Early life 2 Civil War 3 Reign 4 Retirement 5 Family 6 Works 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources Early life[edit] Born in Constantinople,[3] John Kantakouzenos was the son of Michael Kantakouzenos, governor of the Morea; Donald Nicol speculates that he may have been born after his father's death and raised as an only child.[5] Through his mother Theodora Palaiologina Angelina, he was related to the then-reigning house of Palaiologos.[6] He was also related to the imperial dynasty through his wife Irene Asanina, a second cousin of Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos.[7] Kantakouzenos became a close friend to Andronikos III and was one of his principal supporters in Andronikos's struggle against his grandfather, Andronikos II Palaiologos. On the accession of Andronikos III in 1328, he was entrusted with the supreme administration of affairs and served as grand domestic throughout his reign. He was named regent to Andronikos's successor, the 9-year-old John V, upon the emperor's death in June 1341.[3] Kantakouzenos apparently began with no imperial ambitions of his own, having refused several times to be crowned co-emperor by Andronikos III. After the death of the emperor, Kantakouzenos again refused to take the throne, insisting on the legitimacy of John V's claim and contenting himself with overseeing the empire's administration until the boy came of age: according to the history written by John VI himself. Whether he would have remained loyal is unknowable but, despite his professed devotion to John V and his mother Anna, she came to suspect him of treason.[3] His close friendship with the late emperor and power over his successor had aroused the jealousy of his former protégés, Patriarch John XIV of Constantinople and Alexios Apokaukos;[citation needed] after a series of failed attempts, they succeeded in overthrowing his regency in September 1341 while he was out of the capital readying an army against the Crusader principalities that still held parts of the Peloponnesus. He attempted to negotiate with the usurpers, but this was rebuffed and his army was ordered to disband. Further, his relatives in Constantinople were driven into exile or imprisoned, with their property confiscated by the new regents. His mother Theodora died owing to the mistreatment she suffered while under house arrest.[8]} His army ignored the new regents' orders and proclaimed Kantakouzenos emperor at Didymoteichon in Thrace as John VI.[9] He accepted this, while continuing to style himself as the junior ruler to John V. Civil War[edit] Main article: Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 The ensuing civil war lasted six years; calling in foreign allies and mercenaries of every description, the two sides completely disrupted and almost ruined the empire.[3] At first, John VI marched to Thessalonica, which the ruling families planned to hand over to him. Apokaukos anticipated this move and sent a fleet to reinforce the city, obliging John to flee to Serbia, where Stefan Dušan sheltered him and lent him military support. This proved largely ineffectual, and only the intervention of John's old friend and ally Umur of Aydin broke the regency's siege of his headquarters at Didymoteichon. During another attempt on Thessalonica the following year, the Serbians switched sides to support the regency, leaving John stranded once more before that city. Yet again, Umur came to his rescue, and their combined forces broke out of Macedonia to return to Didymoteichon. The war dragged on another four years as neither side could dislodge the other, although time was on John VI's side. He struck a bargain with the Ottoman Turks, giving Orhan Bey his daughter, Theodora, for his harem and permitting him to take Greek Christians as slaves. The Greco-Turkish force prevailed and John VI entered Constantinople in triumph on 8 February 1347.[10][9][a] Empress Anna and John VI agreed that the latter would rule as senior emperor for ten years, after which John V would reach seniority and share power as an equal to Kantakouzenos. The formal coronation of John VI took place on 21 May.[10][11] Reign[edit] John VI as emperor (left) and monk (right) During John's reign, the empire—already fragmented, impoverished, and weakened—continued to be assailed on every side.[3] The Genoese, disregarding the terms of the treaty which permitted their colony at Galata, began fortifying and arming it. Their customs dues undercut the Byzantines and meant that as much as 87% of the revenue from control of the Bosphorus went to them instead of the empire. John VI attempted to rebuild the shattered Byzantine navy in preparation for the war he expected to follow a reduction of Constantinople's own customs dues. He was able to borrow enough to construct 9 fair-sized ships and about 100 smaller ones before he lowered the rates and began siphoning off Genoa's income. When they did declare war, however, they were able to sink or capture his fleet by early 1349. The Genovese were forced to negotiate after major areas of Galata were burnt, including its wharves and warehouses, but the Byzantine Empire thenceforth was forced to turn to an alliance with the Republic of Venice for naval protection. This led to their involvement in Venice's 1350 war against Genoa, but Paganino Doria was able to force John VI (and the twelve ships he had fielded) out of the war by a Pyrrhic victory off Constantinople the next year.[citation needed] In 1351, Kantakouzenos oversaw the Fifth Council of Constantinople, wherein Gregory Palamas' mystical hesychastic theology was declared Orthodox over the objections of Barlaam of Calabria and other Byzantine philosophers.[12] By this time, Stefan Dušan had taken Albania, Macedonia, and Epirus. John VI secured help against further incursions by again allying with the Turks. Following an earthquake, they annexed Callipolis (Gallipoli)—their first foothold in Europe—in partial payment of his many debts in 1354.[3] He made his son Matthew Kantakouzenos another co-emperor in 1353,[13] but John VI's attempts to expand taxation to repay the government's debts had long been displeasing. He was removed from power by John V at the end of 1354.[3][b] Retirement[edit] Kantakouzenos retired to a monastery, where he assumed the name of Joasaph Christodoulos and occupied himself with literary labors, which have been called eloquent.[3] His 4-volume History of the years 1320-1356 served as an apologia for his actions. They are therefore not always trustworthy, including defects in matters where he was not personally involved, but are supplemented by the contemporary work of Nicephorus Gregoras.[9] It is nevertheless remarkable for being the only surviving account any Byzantine emperor gave of his own reign. In 1367 Joasaph was appointed the representative of the Eastern Orthodox Church to negotiate with the Latin Patriarch Paul to attempt a reconciliation of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. They agreed to call a grand ecumenical council to be attended by the pope and all the patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops of both the eastern and western churches.[17] This plan was subsequently refused by Pope Urban V and eventually nothing came of it.[citation needed] Kantakouzenos died in the Peloponnese and was buried by his sons at Mistra in Laconia.[3] Family[edit] By his wife Irene Asanina, a daughter of Andronikos Asan (son of Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria by Irene Palaiologina, Empress of Bulgaria, herself daughter of Michael VIII Palaiologos), John VI Kantakouzenos had several children, including: Matthew Kantakouzenos, co-emperor 1353–1357, later Despot of the Morea Manuel Kantakouzenos, Despot of the Morea Andronikos Kantakouzenos (died of the Bubonic Plague (specifically the Black Death) in 1347) Maria Kantakouzene, who married Nikephoros II Orsini of Epirus Theodora Kantakouzene, who married Sultan Orhan of the Ottoman Empire[18] Helena Kantakouzene, who married John V Palaiologos Works[edit] Kantakouzenos's 4-volume History was published by J. Pontanus in 1603, by Ludwig Schopen at Bonn as part of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae c. 1830; and by J.-P. Migne at Paris.[19] He also wrote a commentary on the first five books of Aristotle's Ethics and several controversial theological treatises, including a defense of Hesychasm and a work Against Mohammedanism printed in Migne.[20][9] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Demetrios Kydones List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ His entry into the city later formed the subject of Constantine Cavafy's poem "John Kantakouzenos Triumphs". ^ The proposed dates are: 3 December,[11] 9[10][14] and 10.[15][16] References[edit] ^ EB (1911), p. 438. ^ McLaughlin (2017), p. 14 ^ a b c d e f g h i j EB (1878). ^ John VI Cantacuzenus at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Nicol 1968, p. 35f. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicol1968 (help) ^ Nicol 1968, p. 30f. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicol1968 (help) ^ Nicol 1968, p. 104. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicol1968 (help) ^ History of John VI Kantakouzenos, Book II. ^ a b c d EB (1911), p. 439. ^ a b c Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, "Kantakauzenos, Ioannes VI." ^ a b Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, p. 1050 ^ Sherrard 1966, p. 74-75. ^ Teteriatnikov 2013, p. 67. ^ Failler, Albert (1976). «Nouvelle note sur la chronologie du règne de Jean Cantacuzène». Revue des études byzantines 34: 119-124. ^ Speake, Graham (2021). Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. Routledge. p. 850. ISBN 9781135942069. ^ Nicol, Donald (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780521439916. ^ Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996) p. 332 ^ Sugar 1996, p. 15-16. ^ Migne (ed.), Patrologia Graeca (in Latin), Vols. CLIII & CLIV |volume= has extra text (help) & (in Greek) ^ Migne (ed.), Patrologia Graeca (in Latin), Vol. CLIV |volume= has extra text (help) & (in Greek) Sources[edit] Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878), "Johannes Cantacuzenus" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 5 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 27 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "John VI or V" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 15 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 438–439 Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991 Harris, Jonathan (2015), The Lost World of Byzantium, New Haven: Yale University Press Migne (ed.). Patrologia Graeca (in Latin). Vols. CLIII & CLIV. |volume= has extra text (help) & (in Greek) Nicol, Donald M. (1968). The Byzantine Family of Kantakouzenos (Cantacuzenus), ca. 1100–1460: A Genealogical and Prosopographical Study. Dumbarton Oaks studies 11. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. OCLC 390843. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6. Nicol, Donald M. (1996). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295-1383. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521522014. Sherrard, Philip (1966). Byzantium. Time Life Education. pp.74-75 Sugar, Peter F. (1996). Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. University of Washington Press. Teteriatnikov, Natalia (2013). "The Mosaics of the Eastern Arch of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople: Program and Liturgy". Gesta. 52: 61–84. doi:10.1086/669685. S2CID 188005589 – via The University of Chicago Press Journals. John VI Kantakouzenos Kantakouzenos dynasty Born: Unknown 1292 Died: 15 June 1383 Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1347–1353 with John V Palaiologos (1341–1376) Matthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357) Succeeded by John V Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo 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en-wikipedia-org-5160	----	Category:Philosophy writers - Wikipedia Help Category:Philosophy writers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philosophy writers. See also: Category:Philosophical literature Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total. * ► Philosophy academics‎ (4 C, 467 P) H ► Historians of philosophy‎ (2 C, 134 P) J ► Philosophy journalists‎ (5 P) M ► Metaphysics writers‎ (1 C, 44 P) P ► Philosophers‎ (24 C, 10 P) T ► Translators of philosophy‎ (17 P) Pages in category "Philosophy writers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 245 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Richard Aaron Bijan Abdolkarimi Robert Merrihew Adams Theodor W. Adorno Giorgio Agamben Rachel Albeck-Gidron Hans Albert Samuel Alexander Amy Allen (philosopher) Francis Anderson (philosopher) Karl-Otto Apel Hannah Arendt Arif Ahmed (philosopher) Aristotle Robert Arp Adil Asadov Robert Audi Armen Avanessian A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Babette Babich Gaston Bachelard Renaud Barbaras Roland Barthes Jon Barwise Bruno Bauch Thierry Baudet Jean Baudrillard Seyla Benhabib Walter Benjamin Jeremy Bentham Frithjof Bergmann Richard Bithell Chris Bobonich Bernard Bolzano Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Pierre Bourdieu F. H. Bradley Richard Brandt Franz Brentano Judith Butler Peter Byrne (philosopher) C Rudolf Carnap Peter Carravetta Héctor-Neri Castañeda Cornelius Castoriadis Pedro Cerezo Galán David Chalmers Rafe Champion Roderick Chisholm Noam Chomsky Andy Clark Justin Clemens Alan Code Hermann Cohen Martin Cohen (philosopher) Frederick Howard Collins (indexer) Jack Copeland John Corcoran (logician) Roger Crisp Helena Cronin Paul Crowther D Arthur Danto Donald Davidson (philosopher) Gilles Deleuze René Descartes Ghislain Deslandes David Doig Hubert Dreyfus Will Durant Freeman Dyson E John Earman Simo Elaković Jacques Ellul María Elósegui Antonio Escohotado Josef Estermann F Jan Faye Dagfinn Føllesdal Philippa Foot Bo Fowler Manfred Frank Harry Frankfurt Benjamin Franklin Nancy Fraser G Hans-Georg Gadamer Ashok Gangadean Aldo Gargani Richard Gaskin Moritz Geiger Edmund Gettier Allan Gibbard Étienne Gilson Nelson Goodman Roger S. Gottlieb A. C. Grayling T. H. Green Zumrud Gulu-zade Jean-Marie Guyau H Jürgen Habermas Peter Hacker Graham Harman Sam Harris John Hawthorne Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Carl Gustav Hempel Dieter Henrich Richard Hönigswald Robert L. Holmes Ted Honderich Axel Honneth Bell hooks Wilhelm von Humboldt Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) I Don Ihde Roman Ingarden J Richard Jeffrey Galen Johnson K Immanuel Kant David Kaplan (philosopher) Walter Kaufmann (philosopher) Søren Kierkegaard Jaegwon Kim Iain King Patricia Kitcher Philip Kitcher John F. X. Knasas Alexandre Kojève Nikolas Kompridis Mario Kopić Alexandre Koyré Matthew Kramer Karl Christian Friedrich Krause Peter Kropotkin L André Lalande (philosopher) Patrick Laude Claude Lefort Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz C. I. Lewis Gilles Lipovetsky Theodor Lipps Karl Löwith Hermann Lotze György Lukács M Bryan Magee Norman Malcolm Marcus Aurelius Ruth Barcan Marcus Anton Marty Thomas A. 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Schmidt Franz August Schmölders Gershom Scholem Arthur Schopenhauer Gottlob Ernst Schulze (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Philosophy_writers&oldid=1021847328" Categories: Writers by non-fiction subject area Philosophy Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 201–300 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Esperanto فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 7 May 2021, at 00:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5161	----	Leo I (emperor) - Wikipedia Leo I (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern Roman emperor from 457 to 474 Leo I Portrait of Leo at the Louvre Roman emperor of the East Reign 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 Predecessor Marcian Successor Leo II Western emperors Majorian (457–461) Libius Severus (461–465) Anthemius (467–472) Olybrius (472) Glycerius (473–474) Born c. 401 Dacia Aureliana Died 18 January 474 (aged 73)[1] Constantinople Spouse Verina Issue Ariadne, Leontia, unnamed son Dynasty Leonid Saint Leo the Great 16th cent. Russian Icon depecting St. Leo's enshrinement of the Robe of the Theotokos in Sts. Peter and Mark church, Blachernae Holy and Right-Believing Emperor of the Romans Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Feast 20 January Attributes Imperial attire Leo I (Greek: Λέων, translit. Léōn; c. 401 – 18 January 474) was Eastern Roman emperor from 457 to 474. He was a native of Dacia Aureliana near historic Thrace.[2] Sometimes, he is called Leo the Great (Greek: ὁ Μέγας, translit. ho Mégas), probably to distinguish him from his young grandson and co-augustus Leo II (Greek: ὁ Μικρός, translit. ho Mikrós, lit. "the Small").[3] Ruling the Eastern Empire for nearly 20 years, Leo proved to be a capable ruler. He oversaw many ambitious political and military plans, aimed mostly at aiding the faltering Western Roman Empire and recovering its former territories. He is notable for being the first Eastern Emperor to legislate in Koine Greek rather than Late Latin.[4] He is commemorated as a saint in the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on 20 January.[5][6] Contents 1 Reign 2 Marriage and children 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Reign[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Leo I" emperor – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Roman Empire in 460 during the reign of Leo He was born in Thracia or in Dacia Aureliana province in the year 401 to a Thraco-Roman family.[7] His Dacian origin[8] is mentioned by Candidus Isaurus,[9][10] while John Malalas believes that he was of Bessian stock.[9][11] He served in the Roman army, rising to the rank of comes rei militaris. Leo was the last of a series of emperors placed on the throne by Aspar, the Alan serving as commander-in-chief of the army, who thought Leo would be an easy puppet ruler. Instead, Leo became more and more independent from Aspar, causing tension that would culminate in the assassination of the latter. Leo's coronation as emperor on 7 February 457,[12][2] was the first to add a Christian element to the traditional Roman procedure: coronation performed by the Patriarch of Constantinople [13] and thus symbolized the transformation of Roman Imperial Traditions into Byzantium and Christians ones. This medieval Byzantine coronation ritual was later imitated by courts all over Europe.[14] Leo I made an alliance with the Isaurians[clarification needed] and was thus able to eliminate Aspar. The price of the alliance was the marriage of Leo's daughter to Tarasicodissa, leader of the Isaurians, who, as Zeno, became emperor in 474. In 469, Aspar attempted to assassinate Zeno[15] and very nearly succeeded. Finally, in 471, Aspar's son Ardabur was implicated in a plot against Leo but was killed by palace eunuchs acting on Leo's orders.[16] Leo sometimes overestimated his abilities and made mistakes that threatened the internal order of the Empire. The Balkans were ravaged by the Ostrogoths, after a disagreement between the Emperor and the young chief Theodoric the Great, who had been raised at Leo's court in Constantinople, where he was steeped in Roman government and military tactics. There were also some raids by the Huns. However, these attackers were unable to take Constantinople thanks to the walls, which had been rebuilt and reinforced in the reign of Theodosius II and against which they possessed no suitable siege engines. Gold solidus of Leo I, struck 462–473 AD at Constantinople. Leo's reign was also noteworthy for his influence in the Western Roman Empire, marked by his appointment of Anthemius as Western Roman emperor in 467. He attempted to build on this political achievement with an expedition against the Vandals in 468, which was defeated due to the arrogance of Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus. This disaster drained the Empire of men and money. Procopius estimated the costs of the expedition to be 130,000 pounds of gold; John the Lydian estimated the costs to be 65,000 pounds of gold and 750,000 pounds of silver.[17] The expedition consisted of 1,113 ships carrying 100,000 men; 600 of these ships were lost during the expedition. After this defeat, the Vandals raided Greek coasts until a costly peace agreement was signed between Leo and Genseric. Leo became very unpopular in his last days as Emperor for abolishing any non-religious celebration or event on Sundays.[citation needed][18] Leo died of dysentery at the age of 73 on 18 January 474. Marriage and children[edit] Leo and Verina had three children. Their eldest daughter Ariadne was born prior to the death of Marcian (reigned 450 – 457).[19] Ariadne had a younger sister, Leontia. Leontia was first betrothed to Patricius, a son of Aspar, but their engagement was probably annulled when Aspar and another of his sons, Ardabur, were assassinated in 471.[citation needed] Leontia then married Marcian, a son of Emperor Anthemius and Marcia Euphemia. The couple led a failed revolt against Zeno in 478–479. They were exiled to Isauria following their defeat.[20] An unknown son was born in 463. He died five months following his birth. The only sources about him are a horoscope by Rhetorius and a hagiography of Daniel the Stylite.[20] The Georgian Chronicle, a 13th-century compilation drawing from earlier sources, reports a marriage of Vakhtang I of Iberia to Princess Helena of Byzantium, identifying her as a daughter of the predecessor of Zeno.[21] This predecessor was probably Leo I, the tale attributing a third daughter to Leo. Cyril Toumanoff identified two children of this marriage: Mithridates of Iberia; and Leo of Iberia. This younger Leo was father of Guaram I of Iberia. The accuracy of the descent is unknown. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Church of St. Mary of the Spring (Istanbul) Life-giving Spring List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ PLRE 2 p. 664 ^ a b Bury 1958. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBury1958 (help) ^ Bury, J. B. (1958) [1889]. "Chapter X: the reign of Leo I". History of the Later Roman Empire. 1. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 323, note 1. ISBN 978-0-486-14338-5. After the coronation of the child the two Leos would be distinguished as Λέων ὁ Μέγας and Λέων ὁ Μικρός, and this I believe, must be the origin of the designation of Leo as "the Great"; just as reversely Theodosius II. was called "the Small," because in his infancy he had been known as ὁ μικρός βασιλεύς to distinguish him from Arcadius. Leo never did anything which could conceivably earn him the title of Great in the sense in which it was bestowed by posterity on Alexander or Constantine. ^ The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0 (page 90) ^ Great Synaxaristes (in Greek): Ὁ Ἅγιος Λέων Μακέλλης ὁ Μέγας. 20 Ιανουαρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ Mother of God of the "Life-Giving Spring". Self-Ruled Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. Retrieved: 27 October 2012. ^ Friell 1998, pp. 170, 261. ^ Friell 1998, pp. 170. ^ a b Bury 1958, p. 315. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBury1958 (help) ^ Candidus, F.H.G. IV, p.135 ^ John Malalas, XIV, p.369 ^ Edward A. Thompson, "Leo I", Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 13 (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1973), p. 959. Bibl. J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. i, ch. 10 (1923). ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Chap. XXXVI (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1952), p. 582. Bibl. Theophanes, p. 95 [ed. Par.; tom. i p. 170, ed. Bonn]. ^ Herrin, Judith (2007). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Penguin. pp. 53–54. ISBN 0713999977. ^ Norwich, John Julius, 'Byzantium: The Early Centuries', pg 167 ^ "Wace, Henry. Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresie". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 16 February 2014. ^ Bury, John Bagnell (1958). History of the Later Roman Empire: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian. Dover books. 1. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-20398-0. p. 337 ^ The Code of Justinian 3.13.10 ^ Hugh Elton, "Leo I (457–474 A.D.)" ^ a b Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 2 ^ "Georgian Chronicle", Chapters 13–14. Translation by Robert Bedrosian (1991) Sources[edit] Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bury, John Bagnell (1958). History of the Later Roman Empire: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian. Dover books. 1. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-20398-0. Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century. Ancient history. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-15403-1. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Thomas F. Madden (Presenter) (2006). Empire of Gold: A History of the Byzantine Empire; Lecture 2: Justinian and the Reconquest of the West, 457–565 (Audio book). Prince Frederick: Recorded Books. ISBN 978-1-4281-3267-2. Profile of Leo in The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Stephen Williams, Gerard Friell, The Rome that Did Not Fall The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century, Routledge Press, 1999, ISBN 0-415-15403-0 External links[edit] Media related to Flavius Valerius Leo at Wikimedia Commons Leo I Timeline Leo I (emperor) Leonid dynasty Born: 401 Died: 18 January 474 Regnal titles Preceded by Marcian Eastern Roman emperor 457–474 Succeeded by Leo II Political offices Preceded by Constantinus Rufus Roman consul 458 with Majorian Augustus Succeeded by Ricimer Patricius Preceded by Severinus Dagalaifus Roman consul 462 with Libius Severus Augustus Succeeded by Caecina Decius Basilius Vivianus Preceded by Hermenericus Basiliscus Roman consul 466 with Tatianus (Gallia) Succeeded by Pusaeus Iohannes Preceded by Messius Phoebus Severus Iordanes Roman consul 471 with Caelius Aconius Probianus Succeeded by Rufius Postumius Festus Marcianus Preceded by Rufius Postumius Festus Marcianus Roman consul 473 Succeeded by Leo junior Augustus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-5170	----	Irene of Athens - Wikipedia Irene of Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine empress from 797 to 802 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Irene of Athens" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Augusta Irene Sarantapechaina Augusta Empress of the Romans Gold solidus of Empress Irene Sarantapechaina, depicting her bust on both the obverse and reverse sides Byzantine empress Reign 19 August 797 – 31 October 802 Coronation 17 December 769 Predecessor Constantine VI Successor Nikephoros I Byzantine empress consort Tenure 775–780 Born c. 750–755 Athens Died 9 August 803 Spouse Leo IV Issue Constantine VI Family Sarantapechos Dynasty Isaurian Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Irene of Athens (Greek: Εἰρήνη, Eirénē; c. 752 – 9 August 803), surname Sarantapechaina (Σαρανταπήχαινα), was Eastern Roman empress by marriage to Emperor Leo IV from 775 to 780, regent during the childhood of their son Constantine VI from 780 until 790, co-regent from 792 until 797, and finally sole ruler and first empress regnant of the Eastern Roman Empire from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominent Sarantapechos family, she was selected as Leo IV's bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband was an iconoclast, she harbored iconophile sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which condemned iconoclasm as heretical and brought an end to the first iconoclast period (730–787). As Irene's son Constantine reached maturity, he began to move out from under the influence of his mother. In the early 790s, several revolts tried to proclaim him as sole ruler. One of these revolts succeeded, but in 792, Irene was re-established in all imperial powers as co-ruler with Constantine. In 797, Irene organized a conspiracy in which her supporters gouged out her son's eyes, maiming him severely. He was imprisoned and probably died shortly afterwards. With him out of the way, Irene proclaimed herself sole ruler. Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of the Roman Empire led Pope Leo III to proclaim Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day of 800 under the pretext that a woman could not rule and so the throne of the Roman Empire was actually vacant. A revolt in 802 overthrew Irene and exiled her to the island of Lesbos, supplanting her on the throne with Nikephoros I. Irene died in exile less than a year later. Contents 1 Early life 2 Empress consort 3 Regent and co-empress ruling with Constantine 3.1 Ending iconoclasm 4 Return to power and accession 5 Carolingian Empire 6 Deposition and death 7 Legacy 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Early life[edit] Irene was born in Athens sometime between 750 and 755.[1] She was a member of the noble Greek Sarantapechos family, which had significant political influence in central mainland Greece.[1] Although she was an orphan, her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos was a patrician and possibly also a strategos ("general") of the theme of Hellas at the end of the eighth century.[1] Constantine Sarantapechos's son Theophylact was a spatharios and is mentioned as having been involved in suppressing a revolt in 799.[1] Empress consort[edit] Irene was brought to Constantinople by Emperor Constantine V on 1 November 769 and was married to his son Leo IV on 3 November. Her coronation took place the following month, on 17 December.[2][1] It is unclear why she was selected as the bride for the young Leo IV.[1] Especially unusual is that, while Constantine V was a militant iconoclast who was known for persecuting venerators of icons, Irene herself displayed iconophile predilections.[1] This fact, combined with the limited information available about her family, has led some scholars to speculate that Irene may have been selected in a bride-show, in which eligible young women were paraded before the bridegroom until one was finally selected.[1] If this was the case, then she would have been the first imperial bride to be selected in this manner.[1] However, there is no solid evidence to support this hypothesis other than the apparent oddity of Irene's selection as Leo IV's bride.[1] On 14 January 771, Irene gave birth to a son, the future Constantine VI, who was named after his grandfather, Irene's father-in-law, Constantine V.[3] When Constantine V died in September 775, Leo IV ascended to the throne at the age of twenty-five, and Irene became empress.[3] An unnamed female relative of Irene was married to the Bulgar ruler Telerig in 776. Irene also had a nephew.[4] Leo IV, though an iconoclast like his father, pursued a policy of moderation towards iconophiles.[3] He removed the penalties on monasteries that had been imposed by his father and began appointing monks as bishops.[3] When Patriarch Nicetas I of Constantinople died in 780, Leo IV appointed Paul of Cyprus, who had iconophile sympathies, as his successor, although he did force him to swear oaths that he would uphold the official iconoclasm.[3] During Lent of 780, however, Leo IV's policies on iconophiles became much harsher.[3] He ordered for a number of prominent courtiers to be arrested, scourged, tonsured, and tortured after they were caught venerating icons.[3] According to the 11th century historian George Kedrenos, who wrote many centuries after Irene's death, this crackdown on iconophiles began after Leo IV discovered two icons hidden underneath Irene's pillow.[5] Leo IV launched an investigation and discovered the courtiers who had brought the icons.[6] He had them tortured and scolded Irene for violating the law and breaking with her faith.[6] Irene insisted that she had not known the icons were there.[6] After the incident, Leo refused to have marital relations with Irene ever again.[6] Lynda Garland, a historian of the Byzantine Empire, states that this story too closely resembles a different story told about the later empress Theodora, wife of Theophilos, to be historically true.[6] Nonetheless, she maintains that it is possible that Irene may have been trying to fill the palace with supporters of iconophilism, which may have triggered Leo IV's crackdown.[6] Regent and co-empress ruling with Constantine[edit] Gold solidus showing Irene alongside her son Constantine VI Leo IV died on 8 September 780 and Irene became regent for their nine-year-old son Constantine VI.[6] Rumors were circulated claiming that Leo IV had died of a fever after putting on the jeweled crown that had been dedicated by either Maurice (ruled 582 – 602) or Heraclius (ruled 610 – 641).[6] Irene herself may have promoted this rumor in an effort to smear her deceased husband's memory.[6] In October, only six weeks after Leo IV's death, Irene was confronted with a conspiracy led by a group of prominent dignitaries that sought to raise Caesar Nikephoros, a half-brother of Leo IV, to the throne.[6] Irene had Bardas (the former strategos of the Armeniac Theme), Gregory (the logothete of the dromos), and Konstantinos (the count of the excubitors) scourged, tonsured, and banished.[6] She replaced all of them with dignitaries who were loyal to her.[6] She had Nikephoros and his four brothers ordained as priests, a status which disqualified them from ruling, and forced them to serve communion at the Hagia Sophia on Christmas Day 780.[6] On the same day, Irene returned the crown her husband had removed as part of a full imperial procession.[6] Possibly hoping to placate supporters of her husband's family, Irene is reported to have proposed that Leo IV's sister Anthousa should join her as co-regent, but Anthousa is said to have rejected the offer.[7] From the beginning, Irene seems to have taken more power for herself than was traditionally expected of female regents.[8] Her earliest coins depict both herself and her son Constantine VI on the obverse, listing them as co-rulers rather than as ruler and regent.[8] Furthermore, Irene is shown holding the orb, not Constantine, and only Irene's name is listed on the obverse of the coin, with Constantine VI's name only listed on the reverse, the less important side.[8] At the same time, Irene appears to have been well aware that her position as regent was insecure.[8] The last female regent of the Byzantine Empire had been Empress Martina, who had only managed to survive as regent for less than a year before her tongue was cut out and she was exiled to the island of Rhodes.[6] Most people were probably expecting that Irene's reign would come to a similarly swift and bloody end.[6] As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the Carolingian dynasty and the Papacy in Rome. She negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and Rotrude, a daughter of Charlemagne by his third wife Hildegard. During this time Charlemagne was at war with the Saxons, and would later become the new king of the Franks. Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the Frankish princess in Greek; however, Irene herself broke off the engagement in 787, against her son's wishes.[citation needed] Irene next had to subdue a rebellion led by Elpidius, the strategos of Sicily. Irene sent a fleet, which succeeded in defeating the Sicilians. Elpidius fled to Africa, where he defected to the Abbasid Caliphate. After the success of Constantine V's general, Michael Lachanodrakon, who foiled an Abbasid attack on the eastern frontiers, a huge Abbasid army under Harun al-Rashid invaded Anatolia in summer 782. The strategos of the Bucellarian Theme, Tatzates, defected to the Abbasids, and Irene had to agree to pay an annual tribute of 70,000 or 90,000 dinars to the Abbasids for a three-year truce, to give them 10,000 silk garments, and to provide them with guides, provisions, and access to markets during their withdrawal.[citation needed] Ending iconoclasm[edit] Gold solidus of Irene, 797–802, Constantinople Irene's most notable act was the restoration of the veneration of icons (images of Christ or the saints). Having chosen Tarasios, one of her partisans and her former secretary, as Patriarch of Constantinople in 784, she summoned two church councils. The first of these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition of the iconoclast soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the veneration of icons and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome.[9] (See Seventh Ecumenical Council.) While this greatly improved relations with the Papacy, it did not prevent the outbreak of a war with the Franks, who took over Istria and Benevento in 788. In spite of these reverses, Irene's military efforts met with some success: in 782 her favoured courtier Staurakios subdued the Slavs of the Balkans and laid the foundations of Byzantine expansion and re-Hellenization in the area. Nevertheless, Irene was constantly harried by the Abbasids, and in 782 and 798 had to accept the terms of the respective Caliphs Al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid. Return to power and accession[edit] As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restless under the autocratic sway of his mother. An attempt to free himself by force was met and crushed by the Empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the army of the Armeniacs, formally proclaimed Constantine VI as the sole ruler. A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine and Irene, whose title of co-ruler was confirmed in 792; but the rival factions remained, and in 797 Irene, by cunning intrigues with the bishops and courtiers, organized a conspiracy on her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even there participants in the plot surrounded him. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, Constantine was carried back to the palace at Constantinople. His eyes were gouged out, and he died from his wounds several days later. A solar eclipse and darkness lasting 17 days were attributed to the horror of Heaven.[citation needed] Although it is often asserted that, as monarch, Irene called herself "basileus" (βασιλεύς), 'emperor', rather than "basilissa" (βασίλισσα), 'empress', in fact there are only three instances where it is known that she used the title "basileus": two legal documents in which she signed herself as "Emperor of the Romans" and a gold coin of hers found in Sicily bearing the title of "basileus". In relation to the coin, the lettering is of poor quality and the attribution to Irene may be problematic. She used the title "basilissa" in all other documents, coins, and seals.[10] Carolingian Empire[edit] Main article: Carolingian Empire Refusing to recognize Irene's reign, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. Irene's unprecedented position as an empress ruling in her own right was emphasized by the coincidental rise of the Carolingian Empire in Western Europe, which rivaled Irene's Byzantium in size and power. Charlemagne invaded Italy early on in his reign, annexing the Lombard kingdom of Italy. He also campaigned against the Saxon tribes in northern Germany for more than thirty years, annexing their territory and compelling them to convert to Christianity, and defeated the Avars in Central Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula, Charlemagne's expedition against al-Andalus led to the creation of a buffer zone between Francia and the Islamic world called the Spanish Marches. Charlemagne also increasingly modelled his rule after Roman Emperors by sponsoring enormous construction programs, exemplified by the building of his favourite residence at Aachen (in modern-day Germany), standardizing weights and measures and supporting intellectual and artistic endeavors in the Carolingian renaissance. Moreover, Charlemagne issued laws called "capitularies" in the style of a Roman Emperor.[citation needed] Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne as "Augustus". In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the Imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be Emperor; however, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all, remains controversial – his biographer Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope – but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole Roman Empire threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity. Relations between the two Empires remained difficult. Irene is said to have endeavored to bring about a marriage alliance between herself and Charlemagne, but according to Theophanes the Confessor, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favorites.[11] Deposition and death[edit] In 802 the patricians conspired against her, deposing her on 31 October, and placing Nikephoros, the minister of finance (logothetēs tou genikou), on the throne.[12] Irene was exiled to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning wool. She died the following year, on 9 August.[13][12] Legacy[edit] A female relative of Irene, Theophano, was chosen in 807 by Emperor Nikephoros I as the bride of his son and heir Staurakios. Irene's zeal in restoring the icons and monasteries made Theodore the Studite praise her as a saint.[14] She is commemorated by Byzantine Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians on 7 August.[15] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Garland 1999, p. 73. ^ Martindale, J.R., ed. (2001). "Eirene 1". Prosopography of the Byzantine World. ^ a b c d e f g Garland 1999, p. 74. ^ Herrin, p. 56, 70, 134. ^ Garland 1999, pp. 74–75. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Garland 1999, p. 75. ^ Garland 1999, pp. 75–76. ^ a b c d Garland 1999, p. 76. ^ See Alexander, et al., p. 423. ^ Liz James, "Men, Women, Eunuchs: Gender, Sex, and Power" in "A Social History of Byzantium" (J. Haldon, ed.) pp. 45,46; published 2009; ISBN 978-1-4051-3241-1 ^ See Garland, p. 89, who explains that Aetios was attempting to usurp power on behalf of his brother Leo. ^ a b Mango, Cyril A., ed. (1997). "A.M. 6295". The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198225683. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 165. ^ Theodori Studitae Epistulae, Volume 2 (Berlin, 1992). ^ Hieromonk Makarios of Simonos Petra (2008). "The Synaxarion: The Lives of the Saints of the Orthodox Church," Volume Six. Ormylia, Chalkidiki, Greece: Holy Convent of the Annunciation of Our Lady. pp. 403–04. [Irene's] commemoration is . . . to be found in some manuscripts of the "Synaxarion of Constantinople. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources Anastasius Bibliothecarius Chronographia tripartita Theophanes Chronographia Secondary sources Holland, Cecilia (fiction), The Belt of Gold (1984) Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Alexander, Archibald, and André Lagarde, Joseph Turmel. The Latin Church in the Middle Ages, C. Scribner's Sons, 1915. Barbe, Dominique. Irène de Byzance: La femme empereur, Paris, 1990. Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages, second ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 80, 98–99. Sir Steven Runciman. "The Empress Irene." Conspectus of History 1.1 (1974): 1–11.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Irene". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 792. Herrin, Judith (2001). Women in Purple:Rulers of Medieval Byzantium. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-84212-529-X. Garland, Lynda (1999), "Irene (769–802)", Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204, New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge, pp. 73–94, ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3 Wace, Henry and William Smith, A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines, J. Murray, 1882. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Irene of Athens. Byzantine Empire portal De Imperatoribus Romanis – Constantine VI (780–797 A.D.) and Irene (797–802 A.D.) Irene of Athens Isaurian dynasty Born: c. 752 Died: 9 August 803 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine VI Byzantine empress-regnant 19 August 797 – 31 October 802 Succeeded by Nikephoros I Royal titles Preceded by Eudokia Byzantine empress-consort 775–780 Succeeded by Maria of Amnia v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain United States Czech Republic Israel Netherlands Poland Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irene_of_Athens&oldid=1027087478" Categories: Irene of Athens 750s births 803 deaths 780s in the Byzantine Empire 790s in the Byzantine Empire 800s in the Byzantine Empire 8th-century Byzantine emperors 9th-century Byzantine emperors 8th-century women rulers 9th-century women rulers Byzantine regents Isaurian dynasty Byzantine Iconoclasm Empresses regnant Byzantine Athenians Augustae 8th-century Byzantine women 9th-century Byzantine women Byzantine empresses Dethroned monarchs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2019 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from April 2021 Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5177	----	Republic (Zeno) - Wikipedia Republic (Zeno) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e The Republic (Greek: Πολιτεία) was a work written by Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoic philosophy at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Although it has not survived, it was his most famous work, and various quotes and paraphrases were preserved by later writers. The purpose of the work was to outline the ideal society based on Stoic principles, where virtuous men and women would live a life of simple asceticism in an equal society. Contents 1 Content 2 Reception 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading Content[edit] Written, it would seem, in conscious opposition to Plato's Republic,[1] Zeno's Republic (politeia) outlined the principles of an ideal state written from the point of view of early Stoic philosophy. The work has not survived; but it was widely known in antiquity and more is known about it than any of his other works. Plutarch provides a summary of its intent: It is true indeed that the so much admired Republic of Zeno, first author of the Stoic sect, aims singly at this, that neither in cities nor in towns we should live under laws distinct one from another, but that we should look upon all people in general to be our fellow-countryfolk and citizens, observing one manner of living and one kind of order, like a flock feeding together with equal right in one common pasture. This Zeno wrote, fancying to himself, as in a dream, a certain scheme of civil order, and the image of a philosophical commonwealth.[2] It is not obvious from Plutarch's remarks whether he had read the work himself. One person who had read it was "Cassius the Skeptic", whose polemic written against Zeno's Republic is paraphrased by Diogenes Laërtius: Some there are, and among them Cassius the Sceptic and his disciples, who accuse Zeno at length. Their first count is that in the beginning of his Republic he pronounced the ordinary education useless: the next is that he applies to all men who are not virtuous the opprobrious epithets of foemen, enemies, slaves, and aliens to one another, parents to children, brothers to brothers, friends to friends. Again, in the Republic, making an invidious contrast, he declares the good alone to be true citizens or friends or kindred or free men; and accordingly in the view of the Stoics parents and children are enemies, not being wise. Again, it is objected, in the Republic he lays down community of wives, and at line 200 prohibits the building of temples, law-courts and gymnasia in cities; while as regards a currency he writes that we should not think it need be introduced either for purposes of exchange or for travelling abroad. Further, he bids men and women wear the same dress and keep no part of the body entirely covered. [3] Further on, Laërtius makes some further remarks which also seem to be from the same work by Cassius: Further, they say that the wise man will feel affection for the youths who by their countenance show a natural endowment for virtue. So Zeno in his Republic. ... It is also their doctrine that amongst the wise there should be a community of wives with free choice of partners, as Zeno says in his Republic and Chrysippus in his treatise On the Republic, ... under such circumstances we shall feel paternal affection for all the children alike, and there will be an end of the jealousies arising from adultery. [4] These paraphrases by Cassius are not a neutral summary of the Republic, his purpose seems to be to describe all the doctrines in the work which he found shocking. These include Zeno's denouncement of general education; his exhortation that only the virtuous can be regarded as true citizens; his view that men and women should wear the same clothes; and the idea that "there should be a community of wives", which in practice seems to have meant "recognizing no other form of marriage than the union of the man who lives freely with a consenting woman".[5] A few other statements from the Republic are preserved by other writers. We learn from Laërtius that Zeno stated that the wise man will marry and produce children,[6] and several writers mention Zeno's view that there is no need to build temples to the gods, "for a temple not worth much is also not sacred, and nothing made by builders or workmen is worth much".[7] Athenaeus also preserves a quote on the need for a city to be built on the principle of love: And Pontianus said that Zeno of Citium thought that Love was the God of Friendship and Liberty and the author of concord among people, but nothing else. Hence, he says in his Republic, that "Love is a God, who cooperates in securing the safety of the city."[8] Reception[edit] Zeno's Republic seems to have been viewed with some embarrassment by some of the later Stoics. This was not helped when Chrysippus, Zeno's most illustrious successor as the head of the Stoic school, wrote his own treatise On the Republic (probably a commentary on Zeno's work), in which (among many other things) he defended both incest and cannibalism.[9] It is unlikely that Chrysippus urged the adoption of such behaviors; Chrysippus was probably responding to criticisms that in a society practicing free love, in which people often did not know who their relatives were, rare instances of incest would unintentionally occur; his discussion of cannibalism is probably connected with the Stoic contempt for dead bodies as an empty shell. Nevertheless, these points provided extra ammunition for those people who wished to attack both Zeno and Stoicism in general. Some blamed the influence which Crates of Thebes, the famous Cynic philosopher and teacher of Zeno, may have had when he wrote the Republic: it was joked that Zeno "had written it at the tail of the dog."[10] By the 1st century BC, there was an attempt among the Stoics to downplay the involvement which Cynic philosophy had played in the development of early Stoicism; it was said that Zeno had been "young and thoughtless" when he wrote his Republic.[11] It was also said that "by Zeno things were written which they [the Stoics] do not readily allow disciples to read, without their first giving proof whether or not they are genuine philosophers."[12] Regardless of these views, it is clear that Zeno was one of the first philosophers in a long tradition begun by Plato of depicting an ideal society in order to understand ethical principles. Notes[edit] ^ Plutarch, On Stoic self-contradictions, 1034F ^ Plutarch, On the Fortune of Alexander, 329A–B ^ Laërtius 1925b, § 32–33. ^ Laërtius 1925b, § 129–131. ^ A description of a "community of wives" which Diogenes Laërtius uses when discussing the views of Diogenes of Sinope (Laërtius 1925, § 72). ^ Laërtius 1925b, § 121. ^ Plutarch, On Stoic self-contradictions, 1034B; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, v.9 ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, xiii. 561C. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 3.205, 3.247; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 188 ^ The word "Cynic" is derived from the word for "dog" (Laërtius 1925b, § 4). ^ A view attributed to some contemporary Stoics by Philodemus, On the Stoics, c. 2. col 9. ed. Dorandi. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, v.9.58 References[edit]  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Cynics: Diogenes" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 20–81.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–160. Further reading[edit] Dawson, Doyne (1992). Cities of the Gods: Communist Utopias in Greek Thought. Oxford University Press. Schofield, Malcolm (1991). The Stoic Idea of the City. Cambridge University Press. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Republic_(Zeno)&oldid=1028445035" Categories: Hellenistic philosophical literature Political philosophy in ancient Greece Stoicism Utopias Lost books Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Italiano Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 01:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5182	----	Flavian dynasty - Wikipedia Flavian dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman imperial dynasty (r. AD 69–96) "Flavian Dynasty" redirects here. For the Roman imperial dynasty beginning with Constantine the Great, sometimes referred to as the "Neo-Flavian" Dynasty, see Constantinian dynasty. Roman imperial dynasties Flavian dynasty The Flavian family, depicted on The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema Chronology Vespasian 69–79 AD Titus 79–81 AD Domitian 81–96 AD Family Gens Flavia Flavian tree Category:Flavian dynasty Succession Preceded by Year of the Four Emperors Followed by Nerva–Antonine dynasty The Flavian dynasty ruled the Roman Empire between AD 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on December 20. The following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign. The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava. One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus. The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Flavian rule came to an end on September 18, 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty. The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family. Contents 1 History 1.1 Establishment 1.1.1 Family history 1.1.2 Rise to power 1.2 The Flavian Dynasty 1.2.1 Vespasian (69–79) 1.2.2 Titus (79–81) 1.2.3 Domitian (81–96) 2 Administration 2.1 Government 2.2 Financial reforms 3 Challenges 3.1 Military activity 3.2 Natural disasters 3.3 Conspiracies 4 Flavian culture 4.1 Propaganda 4.2 Construction 4.3 Entertainment 5 Legacy 6 Family tree 7 Dynastic timeline 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Secondary material History[edit] Establishment[edit] Family history[edit] Bust of Vespasian, Pushkin Museum, Moscow Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.[1] One such family were the Flavians, or gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[2] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I.[3] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.[3] Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of Titus Flavius Petro and Tertulla. Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45).[4] Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74.[5] The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[6] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,[7] even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).[8] Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.[9] By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.[10] From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.[11] Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65.[12] Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[13][14] He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[15] The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[15] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.[16] In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon.[17] The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions.[18][19] He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion.[20] With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.[20] Rise to power[edit] Main articles: Year of the Four Emperors, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius The Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. Green areas indicate provinces loyal to Vitellius.[dubious – discuss] On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[21] Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[22] Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.[14] Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.[23] When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[24] Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.[24] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.[25] Emperor Vitellius (Louvre) In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.[26] Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.[27] In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,[28] but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.[29] On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.[30] During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters.[30] By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.[30] The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.[31] Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.[30] Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[32] By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor. The Flavian Dynasty[edit] Vespasian (69–79)[edit] Main article: Vespasian Set of three aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.[33] In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him.[34] Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.[35] Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23, 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus.[36] The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.[37] Titus (79–81)[edit] Main article: Titus Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.[38] In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80,[39] but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79, and the fire of Rome of 80.[40] Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[41][42] After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on September 13, 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate.[43] Domitian (81–96)[edit] Main article: Domitian Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage,[44] expanded the border defenses of the Empire,[45] and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome.[46] In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland,[47] but in Dacia, Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians.[48] On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.[49] Administration[edit] Government[edit] Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[50] Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch.[51] The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.[52] He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.[53] That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard.[54] Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.[55] Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade[56] and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.[57] Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship,[58] and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy.[59] Financial reforms[edit] One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,[60] renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,[61] but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[61] Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[61] Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army.[62] The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. Challenges[edit] Military activity[edit] Main articles: First Jewish-Roman War, Siege of Jerusalem (70), Roman conquest of Britain, and Trajan's Dacian Wars This relief from the Arch of Titus depicts Roman soldiers carrying treasures from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah. The city was besieged and destroyed by Titus in 70. The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory.[63] Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.[64] 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala.[64] Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".[65] Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.[66] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah.[67] Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[68] The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.[69] He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.[70] He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.[71] The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil.[70] In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.[72] Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.[70] Limes Germanicus in 70 The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.[73] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.[74] Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus.[75] Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus, was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost.[76] In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed.[77] An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors.[78] For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.[79] Natural disasters[edit] Main articles: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, Pompeii, and Herculaneum Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted,[80] resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava,[81] killing thousands of citizens.[82] Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[83] Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[84] The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried on August 24, 79. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture. During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.[83][84] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others.[84] Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.[84] According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire.[83] The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown. Conspiracies[edit] Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him.[34] Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus.[85] According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus.[86] When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.[87] Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti.[88] The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus.[89] At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.[90] Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.[91] Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.[92][93] At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,[94] including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens.[95] Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion. Flavian culture[edit] Propaganda[edit] Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence.[96] At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace,[97] while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors,[98] and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum.[35] The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed,[99] while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers.[100] The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.[37] Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus.[101] Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.[102] Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.[103] Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal,[104] and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.[105] To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter,[106] most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Construction[edit] Further information: Category:Building projects of the Flavian dynasty, Colosseum, and Rabirius (architect) The most enduring landmark of the Flavian dynasty was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum (in Italian Colosseo). Its construction was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by Titus and Domitian, financed from the spoils of the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple. The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.[107] In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero as a statue of himself, was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus.[108] In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars.[109] Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name.[110] Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.[111] The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.[112] Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius.[113] The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.[105] Entertainment[edit] Main articles: Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre and Capitoline Games Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[110] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[110] An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[114] He also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[115] Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights.[116] Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams. Legacy[edit] The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor, his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquilius, Cassius Dio, and Pliny the Elder, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[117] Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century CE, and the culmination of the 'Pax Romana'. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.[118] Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar Dynastic timeline[edit] See also[edit] Flavian art Notes[edit] ^ Jones (1992), p. 3 ^ Jones (1992), p. 1 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 2 ^ Townend (1961), p. 62 ^ Smith, William, Sir, ed. 1813–1893 (1867). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. Boston: Little, Brown and co. p. 1248.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Jones (1992), p. 8 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 1 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4 ^ Jones (1992), p. 7 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 9–11 ^ Jones & Milns (2002), pp. 95–96 ^ Jones (1992), p. 168 ^ Townend (1961), p. 57 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 11 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 38 ^ Suetonius. "44". Life of Titus.; with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews II.19.9 ^ Jones (1992), p. 13 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.1.2 ^ a b Josephus, The War of the Jews III.4.2 ^ Sullivan (1953), p. 69 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 44 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 45 ^ a b Sullivan (1953), p. 68 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 126 ^ Waters (1964), p. 54 ^ Tacitus, Histories III.34 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 166 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 189 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 14 ^ Wellesley (1956), p. 213 ^ Sullivan (1953), pp. 67–70 ^ Sullivan, Phillip (1953). "A Note on Flavian Accession". The Classical Journal: 67–70. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 25 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 9 ^ Suetonius, Life of Vespasian 23.4 ^ a b "Otho, Vitellius, and the Propaganda of Vespasian", The Classical Journal (1965), pp. 267–269 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 1 ^ Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-06-430158-3. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22–24 ^ Jones, Brian W. The Emperor Titus. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984. 143. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 5 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 2 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 73–75 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 127–144 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 79–88 ^ Jones (1992), p. 131 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 138–142 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 196–198 ^ Waters, K. H. (1963). "The Second Dynasty of Rome". Phoenix. Classical Association of Canada. 17 (3): 198–218. doi:10.2307/1086720. JSTOR 1086720. ^ Jones (1992), p. 164 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 8 ^ Crook, John A. (1951). "Titus and Berenice". The American Journal of Philology. 72 (2): 162–175. doi:10.2307/292544. JSTOR 292544. ^ Jones (1992), p. 18 ^ Jones (1992), p. 20 ^ Jones (1992), p. 22 ^ Jones (1992), p. 107 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 163–168 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 178–179 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVI.2 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 75 ^ Jone (1992), p. 73 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.6.1 ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3 ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.29 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.6 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.6 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 24 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 132 ^ Reed, Nicholas (1971). "The Fifth Year of Agricola's Campaigns". Britannia. 2: 143–148. doi:10.2307/525804. JSTOR 525804. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 29 ^ Jones (1992), p. 127 ^ Jones (1992), p. 131 ^ Jones (1992), p. 138 ^ Jones (1992), p. 141 ^ Jones (1992), p. 142 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.7 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.14 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.23 ^ The exact number of casualties is unknown; however, estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ( "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2009-03-10.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)) and 25,000 ([1]), with at least a thousand bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins. ^ a b c Suetonius, Life of Titus 8 ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.24 ^ Crook (1963), p. 168 ^ Crook (1963), p. 169 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 9 ^ Jones (1992), p. 144 ^ Jones (1992), p. 145 ^ Jones (1992), p. 146 ^ Jones (1992), p. 149 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 45 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 10 ^ For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188 ^ M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187 ^ Charleswroth, M.P. (1938). "Flaviana". Journal of Roman Studies. 27: 54–62. doi:10.2307/297187. JSTOR 297187. ^ Jones, William "Some Thoughts on the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian", The Classical Journal, p. 251 ^ Aqueduct and roads dedication speak of previous emperors' neglect, CIL vi, 1257(ILS 218) and 931 ^ Josephus, Against Apion 9 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 18 ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1; Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus 72; Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, preface. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.12 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.13 ^ Jones (1992), p. 87 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 93 ^ Jones (1992), p. 99 ^ Suetonius (1997). "Life of Vespasian 9". The Lives of Twelve Caesars. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd. ISBN 1-85326-475-X. OCLC 40184695. ^ Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-06-430158-3. OCLC 185448116. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (First ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 276–282. ISBN 0-19-288003-9. ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.25 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 7 ^ Jones (1992), p. 79 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 84–88 ^ Jones (1992), p. 74 ^ Jones (1992), p. 103 ^ Jones (1992), p. 105 ^ Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) ^ Syme (1930), p. 67 References[edit] Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of 96 CE–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3. Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10195-6. Jones, Brian W.; Milns, Robert (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 1-85399-613-0. Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians" (subscription required). Transactions of the American Philological Association. University of Western Ontario. 133 (1): 147–157. doi:10.1353/apa.2003.0008. Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A Note on the Flavian Accession". The Classical Journal. The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. 49 (2): 67–70. JSTOR 3293160. Syme, Ronald (1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan". The Journal of Roman Studies. 20: 55–70. doi:10.2307/297385. JSTOR 297385. Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian Connections". The Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 51 (1 & 2): 54–62. doi:10.2307/298836. JSTOR 298836. Waters, K. H. (1964). "The Character of Domitian". Phoenix. Classical Association of Canada. 18 (1): 49–77. doi:10.2307/1086912. JSTOR 1086912. Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3". The Classical Quarterly. Cambridge University Press. 6 (3/4): 207–214. doi:10.1017/S0009838800020188. JSTOR 636914. Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) [1975]. The Year of the Four Emperors. Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-415-23620-1. Further reading[edit] Jones, Brian W. (1984). The Emperor Titus. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-24443-6. Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16618-7. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vespasianus, Titus and Domitianus. Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 64, English translation Book 65, English translation Book 66, English translation Book 67, English translation Josephus, The War of the Jews, English translation Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars Life of Vespasian, Latin text with English translation Life of Titus, Latin text with English translation Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation Tacitus Agricola, English translation Histories, English translation Secondary material[edit] Donahue, John (2004-09-23). "Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 69-79)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2008-06-30. Donahue, John (2004-10-23). "Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 79-81)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2008-06-30. Donahue, John (1997-10-10). "Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81-96)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2007-02-10. "A Gallery of Flavian Coins". Preceded by Julio-Claudian dynasty Flavian dynasty 69CE – 96 CE Succeeded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flavian_dynasty&oldid=1025545697" Categories: Flavian dynasty Roman imperial dynasties 1st century in the Roman Empire European dynasties 69 establishments 96 disestablishments 60s establishments in the Roman Empire 90s disestablishments in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from December 2011 Good articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Articles which contain graphical timelines Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2021, at 05:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5190	----	Thomas Byam Martin - Wikipedia Thomas Byam Martin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British Royal Navy officer (1773–1854) Sir Thomas Byam Martin Sir Thomas Byam Martin Born (1773-07-25)25 July 1773 Ashtead House, Surrey, England Died 25 October 1854(1854-10-25) (aged 81) Portsmouth, Hampshire, England Buried Kensal Green Cemetery, London Allegiance United Kingdom Service/branch Royal Navy Years of service 1786–1854 Rank Admiral of the Fleet Commands held HMS Tisiphone HMS Modeste HMS Artois HMS Santa Margarita HMS Tamar HMS Dictator HMS Fisgard HMS Impetueux HMS Prince of Wales HMS Implacable Controller of the Navy Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars • Capture of Tamise • Capture of Immortalité Napoleonic Wars • Capture of Sewolod • Siege of Riga Awards Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Other work MP for Plymouth Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin, GCB (25 July 1773 – 25 October 1854) was a Royal Navy officer. As captain of fifth-rate HMS Fisgard he took part in a duel with the French ship Immortalité and captured her at the Battle of Tory Island during the French Revolutionary Wars. Then while in command of the third-rate HMS Implacable in the Baltic Sea and attached to the Swedish Navy he took part in the capture the Russian ship Sewolod (Vsevolod) during the Napoleonic Wars. During his many years of service as Comptroller of the Navy, Martin was credited with reducing the fleet from the enormous size deployed against the French to a much more streamlined service geared toward protecting merchant trade and the British Empire. He also focused heavily on employing highly trained dockyard staff capable of responding rapidly to any international emergency. Martin also sat in Parliament for 14 years and was an outspoken critic of government attempts to reduce the Navy budget which ultimately saw him dismissed in 1831 by his old friend King William IV. Martin died in October 1854, at the early stages of the Crimean War, planning the Baltic Campaign and investigating the possibilities of using poison gas weapons. Contents 1 Early life 2 War service 3 Senior command 4 Family 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Early life[edit] Born the third son of Sir Henry Martin, 1st Baronet (later MP for Southampton) and his wife Eliza Anne Gillman (née Parker), Martin was educated at Freshford School, Southampton Grammar School and later the Royal Grammar School, Guildford.[1] During his education, he was also enrolled on the books of several Navy ships, a custom of the period to ensure that when he was old enough to go to sea he already would have the requisite "experience" to be considered for promotion early.[1] Martin joined the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth in August 1785 and went to sea for the first time as a captain's servant aboard the sixth-rate HMS Pegasus, captained by Prince William Henry, on the North American Station in April 1786.[2] Promoted to midshipman, he transferred to fifth-rate HMS Andromeda in March 1788 and subsequently to the third-rate HMS Colossus, the fifth-rate HMS Southampton, the second-rate HMS Barfleur and then the first-rate HMS Royal George.[2] Promoted to lieutenant on 22 October 1790, Martin served in the third-rate HMS Canada in the Channel Squadron and subsequently in the fifth-rate HMS Inconstant and the fifth-rate HMS Juno.[2] He was promoted to commander on 22 May 1793 and given command of the fire ship HMS Tisiphone in the Mediterranean Fleet.[2] War service[edit] The capture of the French ship Immortalité (left) by the fifth-rate HMS Fisgard commanded by Martin (right) Martin was promoted to captain on 5 November 1793 and given command of the fifth-rate HMS Modeste, a frigate recently captured from the French, and saw action in operations off Toulon at an early stage of the French Revolutionary Wars.[2] He went on to command the fifth-rate HMS Artois and saw action at the siege of Bastia in April 1794.[2] Martin was then transferred to the Channel Fleet and stationed off Ireland in HMS Santa Margarita, in which he captured the French frigate Tamise at the Atlantic raid of June 1796: in the engagement, Tamise was badly damaged and suffered heavy casualties while HMS Santa Margarita's losses were only two killed and three wounded.[1] In December 1796, Martin was sent to the West Indies as captain of the fifth-rate HMS Tamar in which he captured nine privateers.[2] He then moved to the command of the third-rate HMS Dictator before taking over the newly captured fifth-rate HMS Fisgard.[2] On 20 October 1798 HMS Fisgard took part in a duel with the French ship Immortalité and captured her at the Battle of Tory Island.[2] Martin continued to be employed off the French coast, capturing merchant vessels, privateers and warships.[2] Martin was given command of the third-rate HMS Impetueux in May 1803, at the start of the Napoleonic Wars, and in her rescued many survivors from the wreck of HMS Venerable in November 1804.[1] He transferred to the command of the second rate HMS Prince of Wales in the Channel Squadron in 1807 and to the third-rate HMS Implacable in the Baltic Sea in 1808.[2] In HMS Implacable, Martin was attached to the Swedish Navy and took part in the capture the Russian ship Sewolod (Vsevolod) in August 1808, for which he was awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword by the Swedish King Gustaf IV Adolf.[1] The Russian ship Sewolod (Vsevolod) burning: Martin commanded the third-rate HMS Implacable during the attack Senior command[edit] A snuff box owned by Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin GCB Promoted to rear-admiral on 1 August 1811,[3] Martin was despatched with a squadron to the Baltic Sea, with his flag in the third-rate HMS Aboukir, and assisted in the defence of Riga against the Grande Armée during the French invasion of Russia.[2] He became Second-in-Command at Plymouth Command, with his flag in the third-rate HMS Prince Frederick in 1812 and visited the Duke of Wellington's headquarters in Spain to co-ordinate army and navy supply requirements and operations in 1813.[1] He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815.[4] Martin became Deputy Comptroller of the Navy in January 1815, advancing to full Comptroller of the Navy in February 1816, a position he maintained until November 1831 he was the last comptroller to hold the post in its original function .[5] In this role, Martin dominated naval strategy, reducing the fleet from the enormous size deployed against the French to a much more streamlined service geared toward protecting merchant trade and the British Empire.[1] He also focused heavily on employing highly trained dockyard staff capable of responding rapidly to any international emergency.[1] He was promoted to vice-admiral on 12 August 1819,[6] advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 3 March 1830[7] and promoted to full admiral on 22 July 1830.[8] Martin's strong pro-Tory political views eventually caused his downfall, when he used his position in Parliament as member for Plymouth, for which he had been elected in July 1818,[9] to publicly criticise the new Whig government of Earl Grey in 1830.[1] Infuriated, Grey and Sir James Graham, who had become First Lord of the Admiralty that year, approached Martin's old friend King William IV for a solution, resulting in Martin's dismissal for insubordination in 1831.[10] In his later years he lived at No. 53 Wimpole Street in London.[11] Martin was appointed Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom on 5 May 1847[12] and Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom on 10 August 1847[13] before being promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 30 October 1849.[14] As the Crimean War approached he returned to service at Portsmouth planning the Baltic Campaign and investigating the possibilities of using poison gas weapons.[1] He died in this service at the admiral superintendent's house at Portsmouth on 21 October 1854 and was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery in London.[15] There is a memorial to Martin in St Ann's Church in Portsmouth.[16] The Navy Records Society published the letters and papers of Admiral Sir Thomas Byam Martin in 3 volumes from 1898 to 1901.[17][18] Family[edit] Martin married Catherine Fanshawe, daughter of Captain Robert Fanshawe; they had three daughters and three sons (Admiral Sir William Martin, 4th Baronet, Admiral Sir Henry Byam Martin and Lieutenant-colonel Robert Fanshawe Martin).[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Martin, Sir Thomas Byam". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, J. K. Laughton. Retrieved 5 April 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Heathcote, p. 167 ^ "No. 16509". The London Gazette. 30 July 1811. p. 1491. ^ "No. 16972". The London Gazette. 4 January 1815. p. 19. ^ Heathcote, p. 168 ^ "No. 17505". The London Gazette. 12 August 1819. p. 1446. ^ "No. 18661". The London Gazette. 5 March 1830. p. 461. ^ "No. 18709". The London Gazette. 23 July 1830. p. 1539. ^ "No. 17376". The London Gazette. 7 July 1818. p. 1217. ^ "Thomas Byam Martin". History of Parliament. Retrieved 5 April 2015. ^ Hamilton, Admiral Sir Richard Vesey (1901). "Letters of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin GCB". Navy Records Society. Retrieved 5 April 2015. ^ "No. 20731". The London Gazette. 7 May 1847. p. 1669. ^ "No. 20764". The London Gazette. 13 August 1847. p. 2950. ^ "No. 21037". The London Gazette. 13 November 1849. p. 3387. ^ "Sir Thomas Byam Martin". Find-a-grave. Retrieved 5 April 2015. ^ "Sir Thomas Byam Martin". Memorials in Portsmouth. Retrieved 5 April 2015. ^ "Admiral Sir Byam Martin". The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science, and Art. 92 (2395): 369. 21 September 1901. ^ Hamilton, Admiral Sir Richard Vesey (ed.). Letters and papers of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thos. Byam Martin, G.C.B. 3 vols., 1898–1901. London: Navy Records Society. Sources[edit] Heathcote, Tony (2002). The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734 – 1995. Pen & Sword. ISBN 0-85052-835-6. External links[edit] O'Byrne, William Richard (1849). "Martin, Thomas Byam" . A Naval Biographical Dictionary . John Murray – via Wikisource. Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Thomas Byam Martin "Archival material relating to Thomas Byam Martin". UK National Archives. Military offices Preceded by Sir Thomas Thompson Comptroller of the Navy 1816–1831 Succeeded by Post Disbanded Parliament of the United Kingdom Preceded by Sir William Congreve Sir Charles Pole Member of Parliament for Plymouth 1818–1832 With: Sir William Congreve (1818–1828) Sir George Cockburn (1828–1832) Succeeded by John Collier Thomas Beaumont Bewes Honorary titles Preceded by Sir Robert Stopford Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom 1847 Succeeded by Sir George Cockburn Preceded by Sir George Martin Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom 1847–1854 Succeeded by Sir William Hall Gage Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Byam_Martin&oldid=1024274934" Categories: 1773 births 1854 deaths 19th-century Royal Navy personnel People educated at Royal Grammar School, Guildford Royal Navy admirals of the fleet Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Recipients of the Order of the Sword Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Plymouth UK MPs 1818–1820 UK MPs 1820–1826 UK MPs 1826–1830 UK MPs 1830–1831 UK MPs 1831–1832 Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery Younger sons of baronets Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2012 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Français Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 04:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5196	----	Heraclius - Wikipedia Heraclius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor in 610–641 For other uses, see Heraclius (disambiguation). "Heraclius I" redirects here. For the Georgian king, see Heraclius I of Kakheti. For the patriarch, see Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem. Not to be confused with Heraclitus or Heracles. Emperor of the Romans Heraclius Emperor of the Romans Solidus of Emperor Heraclius (aged 35–38). Constantinople mint. Struck 610–613. Helmeted and cuirassed facing bust, holding a cross. Byzantine emperor Reign October 5, 610 – February 11, 641 Coronation October 5, 610 Predecessor Phocas Successor Constantine III Heraklonas Co-emperors Constantine III (613–641) Heraklonas (638–641) Born c. 575 Cappadocia, Byzantine Empire Died February 11, 641 (aged 65) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Eudokia Martina Issue Constantine III Heraklonas John Athalarichos (illegitimate) David Martinos Tiberius Dynasty Heraclian Dynasty Father Heraclius the Elder Mother Epiphania Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Flavius Heraclius[1][2] (Greek: Ἡράκλειος, Iraklios; c. 575 – February 11, 641) was the Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas. Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628. The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh. The Persian king Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II, who soon sued for a peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory. This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires. Heraclius lost many of his newly regained lands to the Muslim conquests. Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire. In 634 the Muslims marched into Roman Syria, defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore. Within a short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia, Armenia and Egypt. Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans. He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites, by promoting a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism. The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in the process.[3] Eventually this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Origins 1.2 Revolt against Phocas and accession 2 Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 2.1 Initial Persian advantage 2.2 Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence 3 War against the Arabs 4 Legacy 4.1 Accomplishments 4.2 Recovery of the True Cross 4.3 Islamic view of Heraclius 5 Family 5.1 Family tree 6 See also 7 Annotations 8 References 8.1 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Early life[edit] Origins[edit] Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder and Epiphania, of a family of possible Armenian origin from Cappadocia,[A 1][4] with speculative Arsacid descent.[5] Beyond that, there is little specific information known about his ancestry. His father was a key general during Emperor Maurice's war with Bahram Chobin, usurper of the Sasanian Empire, during 590.[6] After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa.[6] Revolt against Phocas and accession[edit] Main article: Heraclian revolt Gold solidus of Heraclius and his father in consular robes, struck during their revolt against Phocas In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas, who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as consuls, though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time.[7] Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus.[7] As he approached Constantinople, he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city, and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as Emperor. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors, an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on the spot.[8] He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city.[9] On October 5, 610, Heraclius was crowned for a second time, this time in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace; at the same time he married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia. After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular.[10] In the reign of Heraclius's two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage.[10] Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628[edit] Initial Persian advantage[edit] See also: Byzantine–Sasanian wars and Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 During his Balkan Campaigns, Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny.[11] Khosrow II (Chosroes) of the Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death.[A 2] Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia.[12] Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius, and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as Emperor. Heraclius in 613–616 (aged 38–41). The war initially went the Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610.[13] Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a "tyrant" (in its original meaning of the word, i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession), was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.[14][15] By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin, and the Roman position collapsed; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus.[16] Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621 the whole province was in their hands)[17] and to devastate Anatolia,[A 3] while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613, the Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews, seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross, and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618.[19] When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos, that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become a Persian client state, even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor.[20] In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's "obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things," and even called Khosrow II the "supreme emperor."[21] Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors.[22] With the Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and a thousand virgins to the Persian King.[23] The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.[24] Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence[edit] On April 5, 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia, and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard.[24][25][26][27] Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160–1170, Paris, Louvre). This is an allegory as Khosrau never submitted in person to Heraclius. The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.[28] Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years.[29][30] On March 25, 624 he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina, and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on April 15, he campaigned in the Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan.[31][32] In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena, capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania, resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I.[33] In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople, but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city),[34] while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore. Heraclius in 629–632 (aged 54–57), with his son Constantine. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate, under Ziebel, who invaded Persian Transcaucasia. Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh.[35] Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories.[36] In 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony.[15][37][38] Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of "King of Kings" after his victory. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus, the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Byzantine Emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins.[39] Heraclius's defeat of the Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III, Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz, and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdgerd III, a grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability. But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne.[40][41] The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, who had become newly united by Islam,[42] ultimately leading to the Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651.[43] War against the Arabs[edit] Main articles: Arab–Byzantine wars and List of battles of Muhammad Arab-Byzantine troop movement from September 635 to just before the event of the Battle of Yarmouk v t e Campaigns of Muhammad Abwa' Buwat Safwan Dhu al-'Ushairah Badr Kudr Sawiq Banu Qaynuqa' Dhu 'Amar Bahran Uhud Hamra' al-Asad Banu Nadir Badr al-Maw'id Dhat ar-Riqa' 1st Daumat al-Jandal al-Muraysi' Trench Banu Qurayza Banu Lahyan Hudaybiyyah Fidak Khaybar 3rd Wadi al-Qurra' Mecca Hunayn Autas Ta'if Tabuk By 629, the Islamic Prophet Muhammad had unified all the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians. Now animated by their conversion to Islam, they comprised one of the most powerful states in the region.[44] The first conflict between the Byzantines and Muslims was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Muslim skirmishing force attacked the province of Arabia in response to the Muslim ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed. Because the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region.[45] Also, the Byzantines had little battlefield experience with the Arabs, and even less with zealous soldiers united by a prophet.[46] Even the Strategicon of Maurice, a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length.[46] The following year the Muslims launched an offensive into the Arabah south of Lake Tiberias, taking Al Karak. Other raids penetrated into the Negev, reaching as far as Gaza.[47] The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. By the time of Heraclius's death in Constantinople, on February 11, 641, most of Egypt had fallen as well.[48] Legacy[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Battle between Heraclius's army and Persians under Khosrau II. Fresco by Piero della Francesca, ca. 1452 Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged the Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Accomplishments[edit] Although the territorial gains produced by his defeat of the Persians were lost to the advance of the Muslims, Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman Emperors. His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt.[49] The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ. Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon.[50] Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned.[50] One of the most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek in 610.[51] The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius.[52] The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626).[52][53] At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats, who practiced Slavic paganism.[54] He also created the office of sakellarios, a comptroller of the treasury.[55] Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II.[56] Heraclius returns the True Cross to Jerusalem, anachronistically accompanied by Saint Helena. 15th century, Spain Edward Gibbon, in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In the first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by the exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal, no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire.[57] Recovery of the True Cross[edit] Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians. As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of the war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence, Dastagird near Baghdad, without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II, who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of February 23–24, 628.[58] Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent the True Cross with a negotiator in 628.[36] After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on March 21, 629 or 630.[59][60] For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the "first crusader". The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel (ca. 1060),[61] and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and the Holy Roman Empire.[62] The story was included in the Golden Legend, the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo, and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer (Städel, Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I's mother Saint Helena, traditionally responsible for the excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend, he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord.[citation needed] Local tradition suggests that the Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius[63] Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe, the Persian general Shahrbaraz.[60] Islamic view of Heraclius[edit] Purported letter sent by Muhammad to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium; reproduction taken from Majid Ali Khan, Muhammad The Final Messenger Islamic Book Service, New Delhi (1998). In Surah 30, the Qur'an refers to the Roman-Sasanian wars as follows: 30:2 The Romans have been defeated 3 In the nearest land. But they, after their defeat, will overcome. 4 in a few years..[64] In Islamic and Arab histories Heraclius is the only Roman Emperor who is discussed at any length.[65] Owing to his role as the Roman Emperor at the time Islam emerged, he was remembered in Arabic literature, such as the Islamic hadith and sira. The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka, an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off the shore of present-day Kenya) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The Book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity; he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces.[66] In Muslim tradition he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with the emerging Islamic forces.[67] The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor."[65] Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as the true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity.[68][69][70] Islamic historians often cite a letter that they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you."[67] According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert the ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed his course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity.[71] El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add "little to our historical knowledge" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of "Islamic kerygma," attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet.[72] Most scholarly historians view such traditions as "profoundly kerygmatic" and that "enormous difficulties" exist in using these sources for actual history.[73] Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition.[74] According to Kaegi, there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam,[75] and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews.[46] Family[edit] Solidus showing Heraclius (middle, with the large beard) in his later reign flanked by his sons Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas An early 7th century drawing of Job and his family, likely represented as Heraclius (left), his second wife Martina, his sister Epiphania, and his daughter Eudoxia, on a 5th century biblical manuscript[76]. Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia, a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina. He had two children with Fabia (Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III) and at least nine with Martina, most of whom were sickly children.[A 4][79] Of Martina's children at least two were disabled, which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius (Flavius) had a paralyzed neck and Theodosios was a deaf-mute. The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz, or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius's children would become Emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III), his son from Eudokia, for four months in 641, and Martina's son Constantine Heraclius (Heraklonas), in 638–641.[79] Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos, who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin, the magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni.[A 5] When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off, and he was exiled to Prinkipo, one of the Princes' Islands.[83] Theodorus had the same treatment but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island) with additional instructions to cut off one leg.[83] During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraklonas to assume the throne. When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraklonas to rule jointly with Martina as Empress.[79] Family tree[edit] Main article: Heraclian dynasty family tree See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Cathedral of Mren Flavia (gens) Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era Revolt against Heraclius Annotations[edit] ^ His father referred to retrospectively as Heraclius the Elder. ^ Also referred to as Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" (in Persian: خسرو پرویز). ^ The mint of Nicomedia ceased operating in 613, and Rhodes fell to the invaders in 622/623.[18] ^ The number and order of Heraclius's children by Martina is unsure, with some sources saying nine children[77] and others ten.[78] ^ The illegitimate son is recorded by a number of different spellings including: Atalarichos,[80] Athalaric,[81] At'alarik,[82] etc. References[edit] ^ Gonis 2003, p. 204. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 19. ^ Seleznyov N.N. "Heraclius and Ishoʿyahb II" Archived January 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Simvol 61: Syriaca-Arabica-Iranica. (Paris-Moscow, 2012), pp. 280–300. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 287. ^ "Sasanian Dynasty". Encyclopædia Iranica. July 20, 2005. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2013. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, pp. 24–25. ^ a b Mitchell 2007, p. 411. ^ Olster 1993, p. 133. ^ Charles 2007, p. 177. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 106. ^ Gibbon 1994, chap. 46, ii.902. ^ Foss 1975, p. 722. ^ Gibbon 1994, ii.906. ^ Haldon 1997, p. 41. ^ a b Speck 1984, p. 178. ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, pp. II, 194–195. ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. II, 196. ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. II, 197. ^ Gibbon 1994, ii.908–909. ^ Pourshariati, Parvaneh, author. (March 30, 2017). Decline and fall of the Sasanian empire : the Sasanian-Parthian confederacy and the Arab conquest of Iran. p. 141. ISBN 9781784537470. OCLC 953439586.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Fidler, Richard, 1964– author. (November 13, 2018). Ghost empire : a journey to the legendary Constantinople. p. 159. ISBN 978-1681779010. OCLC 1023526060.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Fidler, Richard, 1964– author. (November 13, 2018). Ghost empire : a journey to the legendary Constantinople. p. 159. ISBN 978-1681779010. OCLC 1023526060.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Gibbon 1994, chap. 46, ii.914. ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. II, 198. ^ Theophanes 1997, pp. 303.12–304.13. ^ Cameron 1979, p. 23. ^ Grabar 1984, p. 37. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 294. ^ Theophanes 1997, pp. 304.25–306.7. ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, p. II, 199. ^ Theophanes 1997, pp. 307.19–308.25. ^ Greatrex-Lieu 2002, pp. II, 202–205. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, article Cartagena, p. 384. ^ Cameron 1979, pp. 5–6, 20–22. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 298. ^ a b Baynes 1912, p. 288. ^ Baynes 1912, passim. ^ Haldon 1997, p. 46. ^ Kouymjian 1983, pp. 635–642. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 227. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 121. ^ Foss 1975, pp. 746–747. ^ Milani 2004, p. 15. ^ Lewis 2002, pp. 43–44. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 231. ^ a b c Kaegi 2003, p. 230. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 233. ^ Franzius. ^ Collins 2004, p. 128. ^ a b Bury 2005, p. 251. ^ Davis 1990, p. 260. ^ a b Kaegi, p. 319. ^ De Administrando Imperio, ch. 32 [Of the Serbs and of the country they now dwell in.]: "the emperor brought elders from Rome and baptized them and taught them fairly to perform the works of piety and expounded to them the faith of the Christians." ^ Deanesly 1969, p. 491. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 227. ^ Haldon 1997, pp. 208ff. ^ Gibbon 1994, chap. 46, ii.914, 918. ^ Thomson 1999, p. 221. ^ Frolow 1953, pp. 88–105. ^ a b Zuckerman, Constantin (2013). Heraclius and the return of the Holy Cross. Constructing the Seventh Century. Travaux et mémoires. Paris: Association des amis du Centre d'histoire et civilisation de Byzance. pp. 197–218. ISBN 978-2-916716-45-9. Archived from the original on February 10, 2018. Retrieved January 8, 2016. ^ Baert 2008, pp. 03–20. ^ Souza 2015, pp. 27–38. ^ Kiilerich, Bente. (2018). The Barletta Colossos revisited. Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia. 28. 55. 10.5617/acta.5832. ^ "Quran". 2015. Archived from the original on May 22, 2015. ^ a b El-Cheikh 1999, p. 7. ^ Summary of the plot of the poem Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine at the Swahili Manuscripts Project at the School of Oriental and African Studies of London. ^ a b El-Cheikh 1999, p. 9. ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p. 12. ^ Conrad 2002, p. 120. ^ Haykal 1994, p. 402. ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p. 14. ^ El-Cheikh 1999, p. 54. ^ Lawrence I. Conrad. 'Heraclius in Early Islamic Kerygma' Edited by Reinink and Stolte. (Leuven, Paris: Peeters, 2002) ^ Walter Emil Kaegi (March 27, 2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013. Retrieved March 23, 2013. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 229. ^ Weitzmann 1979, p. 35-36. See also https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/477154 ^ Alexander 1977, p. 230. ^ Spatharakis 1976, p. 19. ^ a b c Bellinger-Grierson 1992, p. 385. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 120. ^ Charanis 1959, p. 34. ^ Sebeos; Translated from Old Armenian by Robert Bedrosian. "Chapter 29". Sebeos History: A History of Heraclius. History Workshop. Archived from the original on December 9, 2008. Retrieved October 22, 2009.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b Nicephorus 1990, p. 73. Sources[edit] Alexander, Suzanne Spain (April 1977). "Heraclius, Byzantine Imperial Ideology, and the David Plates". Medieval Academy of America. 52 (2): 217–237. JSTOR 2850511. Baert, Barbara (2008). "Héraclius, l'Exaltation de la Croix et le Mont-Saint-Michel au XIe siècle: une lecture attentive du ms. 641 de la Pierpont Morgan Library à New York". Cahiers de Civilisation médiévale (in French) (51): 03–20. Baynes, Norman H. (1912). "The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem". The English Historical Review. 27 (106): 287–299. doi:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287. ISSN 0013-8266. Beckwith, Christopher (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present (illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2. Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip. Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, Volume 2, Parts 1–2 (1992 ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-024-X. Bury, John Bagnell (January 1, 1999). A history of the later Roman empire from Arcadius to Irene (2005 ed.). Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-4021-8368-2. Cameron, Averil (1979). "Images of Authority: Elites and Icons in Late Sixth-century Byzantium". Past and Present. 84: 3. doi:10.1093/past/84.1.3. Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 9781889758879. Charanis, Peter (1959). "Ethnic Changes in the Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Trustees for Harvard University. 13 (1): 23–44. doi:10.2307/1291127. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291127. Collins, Roger (May 21, 2004). Visigothic Spain, 409–711 (2004 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18185-7. Conrad, Lawrence I (2002). Heraclius in early Islamic Kerygma In "The reign of Heraclius (610–641): crisis and confrontation" (2002 ed.). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1228-1. Davis, Leo Donald (1990). The first seven ecumenical councils (325–787): their history and theology (1990 ed.). Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-5616-1. Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History (January 1, 1996 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820171-0. Deanesly, Margaret. A history of early medieval Europe, 476 to 911 (July 1969 ed.). Methuen young books. ISBN 0-416-29970-9. Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00342-3. El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (1999). "Muḥammad and Heraclius: A Study in Legitimacy". Studia Islamica. Maisonneuve & Larose. 62 (89): 5–21. doi:10.2307/1596083. ISSN 0585-5292. JSTOR 1596083. El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium viewed by the Arabs (2004 ed.). Harvard CMES. ISBN 0-932885-30-6.} Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity". The English Historical Review. 90: 721–47. doi:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721. Franzius, Enno. "Heraclius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 11, 2018. Frolow, Anatole (1953). La Vraie Croix et les expéditions d'Héraclius en Perse. Revue des études byzantines. pp. 88–105. Gibbon, Edward (1994). David Womersley (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140433937. Gonis, Nikolaos (2003). "Two Hermopolite Leases of the Reign of Heraclius". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 145: 203–206. JSTOR 20191718. Grabar, André (1984). L'Iconoclasme Byzantin: le Dossier Archéologique (in French). Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-081634-9. Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1994). The Life of Muhammad (1994 ed.). The Other Press. ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7. Kaegi, Walter Emil (March 27, 2003). Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium (2003 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81459-6. Haldon, John (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-31917-X. Kouymjian, Dickran. "Ethnic Origins and the 'Armenian' Policy of Emperor Heraclius". Revue des Études Arméniennes (vol. XVII, 1983 ed.). Lewis, Bernard (March 14, 2002). The Arabs in History (2002 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280310-7. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881410556. Milani, Abbas (2004). Lost wisdom: rethinking modernity in Iran (2004 ed.). Mage Publishers. ISBN 0-934211-89-2. Mitchell, Stephen (September 18, 2006). A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world (2007 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0857-6. Nicephorus (1990). Short history. Translated by Cyril Mango (1990 ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-184-X. Olster, David Michael. The politics of usurpation in the seventh century: rhetoric and revolution in Byzantium (1993 ed.). A.M. Hakkert. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Souza, Guilherme Queiroz de (2015). "Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium" (PDF). Revista Digital de Iconografía Medieval. 7 (14): 27–38. Spatharakis, Iohannis (1976). The portrait in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts (1976 ed.). Brill Archive. ISBN 90-04-04783-2. Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4). Rudolf Halbelt. pp. 175–210. Tarasov, Oleg (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia (January 3, 2004 ed.). Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-118-0. Theophanes the Confessor (1997). The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Translated by Cyril Mango; Roger Scott (July 10, 1997 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822568-7. Thomson, Robert W.; Howard-Johnston, James & Greenwood, Tim (1999). The Armenian history attributed to Sebeos (1999 ed.). Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-564-3.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Treadgold, Warren (October 1997). A History of Byzantine State and Society (1997 ed.). University of Stanford Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century (1979 ed.). Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-179-5. Further reading[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander P. The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium, Volumes 1–3 (1991 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Hovorun, Cyril (2008). Will, Action and Freedom: Christological Controversies in the Seventh Century. Leiden-Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004166660. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Heraclius . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heraclius. "Heraclius" at De Imperatoribus Romanis—online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Heraclius Heraclian Dynasty Born: ca. 575 Died: 11 February 641 Regnal titles Preceded by Phocas Byzantine emperor 610–641 with Constantine III from 613 Succeeded by Constantine III and Heraklonas Political offices Preceded by Phocas, 603, then lapsed Consul of the Roman Empire 608 with Heraclius the Elder Succeeded by Lapsed, then Constantinus in 642 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-5197	----	Piazza Colonna - Wikipedia Piazza Colonna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fresco of Piazza Colonna c. 1586; at center is the Column of Marcus Aurelius (with an earlier version of the pedestal), and to the left is the piazza's fountain.[1] Piazza Colonna is a piazza at the center of the Rione of Colonna in the historic heart of Rome, Italy. It is named for the marble Column of Marcus Aurelius, which has stood there since AD 193. The bronze statue of Saint Paul that crowns the column was placed in 1589, by order of Pope Sixtus V. The Roman Via Lata (now the Via del Corso) runs through the piazza's eastern end, from south to north. Overview[edit] The piazza is rectangular. Its north side is taken up by Palazzo Chigi, formerly the Austria-Hungary's embassy, but is now a seat of the Italian government. The east side is taken up by the 19th century public shopping arcade Galleria Colonna (since 2003 Galleria Alberto Sordi), the south side is taken up by the flank of Palazzo Ferrajoli, formerly the Papal post office, and the little Church of Santi Bartolomeo ed Alessandro dei Bergamaschi (1731-35). The west side is taken up by Palazzo Wedekind (1838) with a colonnade of Roman columns taken from Veii. The piazza has been a monumental open space since Antiquity; the temple of Marcus Aurelius stood on the site of Palazzo Wedekind (TCI). The fountain in the piazza (1577) was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII from Giacomo Della Porta who was assisted by Rocco De Rossi. In 1830, it was restored and had two sets of dolphins side by side, with tails entwined, sculpted by Achille Stocchi, set at either end of the long basin. The central sculpture was then substituted with a smaller sculpture and spray.[2] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piazza Colonna (Rome). ^ Decker, Heinrich (1969). The Renaissance in Italy: Architecture • Sculpture • Frescoes. Viking Press. pp. 282–83. ISBN 9780500231074. ^ Fontana della Piazza Colonna v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. Vitale Other churches List of churches in Rome Castles and palaces Sant'Angelo Castle House of the Knights of Rhodes Domus Internationalis Paulus VI Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Borghese Palazzo della Cancelleria Palazzo Chigi Palazzo Colonna Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo Farnese Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini Palazzo Giustinani Lateran Palace Palazzo Madama Palazzo Malta Palazzo di Giustizia Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Palazzo Mattei Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Pamphilj Palazzo Poli Palazzo Riario Palazzo Ruspoli Palazzo Spada Palazzo Valentini Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli Palazzo del Viminale Palazzo Wedekind Palazzo Zuccari Villa Farnesina Villa Giulia Villa Madama Fountains Api Acqua Felice Acqua Paola Babuino Barcaccia Il Facchino Marforio Moro Nasone Navicella Neptune Nettuno del Pantheon Pianto di Piazza d'Aracoeli di Piazza Colonna di Piazza Farnese della Piazza dei Quiriti di Piazza Nicosia in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere di Ponte Sisto Quattro Fiumi Quattro Fontane Tartarughe Trevi Fountain Tritons Tritone Other landmarks Altare della Patria (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy) Campo Verano Capocci Tower Column of the Immaculate Conception Conti Tower Hospital of the Holy Spirit Milizie Tower Sisto Bridge Spanish Steps Squares, streets and public spaces Appian Way Campo de' Fiori Clivus Capitolinus Piazza Colonna Piazza d'Aracoeli Piazza del Popolo Piazza della Minerva Piazza della Repubblica Piazza Farnese Piazza Navona Piazza di Spagna Piazza Venezia Via dei Coronari Via del Corso Via della Conciliazione Via dei Fori Imperiali Via Sacra Via Veneto Parks, gardens and zoos Bioparco Villa Ada Villa Borghese gardens Villa Doria Pamphili Villa Medici Villa Torlonia Parco degli Acquedotti Museums and art galleries Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Capitoline Museums Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Galleria Borghese Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Galleria Spada Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House MAXXI Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Ara Pacis Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museum of the Liberation of Rome Museo delle Mura Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization National Museum of Oriental Art National Roman Museum Palazzo Colonna Palazzo delle Esposizioni Pigorini National Museum Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Art Apollo Belvedere Augustus of Prima Porta Colossus of Constantine La Bocca della Verità Laocoön and His Sons Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Portonaccio sarcophagus Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel ceiling Velletri Sarcophagus Landscape Seven Hills Aventine Caelian Capitoline Esquiline Palatine Quirinal Viminal Tiber Island Monte Testaccio Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Appian Way Regional Park Capo di Bove Castello Orsini-Odescalchi Frascati Hadrian's Villa Ostia Antica Villa Aldobrandini Villa d'Este Villa Farnese Events and traditions Festa della Repubblica Rome Quadriennale Rome Film Festival Related Vatican City St. Peter's basilica St. Peter's Square Sistine Chapel ceiling Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Coordinates: 41°54′03.8″N 12°28′47.7″E / 41.901056°N 12.479917°E / 41.901056; 12.479917    This Italian history article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Lazio location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piazza_Colonna&oldid=921799663" Categories: Piazzas in Rome Rome R. 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en-wikipedia-org-519	----	Alexander of Cotiaeum - Wikipedia Alexander of Cotiaeum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Greek grammarian Alexander (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος; c. 70–80 AD – c. 150) of Cotiaeum was a Greek grammarian, who is mentioned among the instructors of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius.[1][2] We still possess an epitaph (λόγος ἐπιτάφιος) pronounced upon him by the rhetorician Aelius Aristides,[3][4] who had studied under Alexander.[5] References[edit] ^ Capitolinus, M. Ant. 2 ^ Marcus Aurelius, i. ~ 10 ^ Aelius Aristides, Vol. i. Orat. xii. p. 142, &c. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Alexander". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 116. ^ Wells, Louise (1998). The Greek Language of Healing from Homer to New Testament Times. Walter de Gruyter. p. 93. ISBN 3-11-015389-0.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Alexander". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. p. 116. This article about an Ancient Greek writer or poet is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Cotiaeum&oldid=994238723" Categories: Ancient Greek grammarians 2nd-century Greek people Ancient Greeks in Rome People from Roman Anatolia People from Kütahya Ancient Greek writer stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Français Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 19:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5222	----	Hierocles (Stoic) - Wikipedia Hierocles (Stoic) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people with the same name, see Hierocles (disambiguation). Hierocles (Greek: Ἱεροκλῆς; fl. 2nd century CE) was a Stoic philosopher. Very little is known about his life. Aulus Gellius mentions him as one of his contemporaries, and describes him as a "grave and holy man."[1] Contents 1 Work 2 Notes 3 Further reading 4 External links Work[edit] Hierocles is famous for a book called Elements of Ethics (Greek: Ἠθικὴ στοιχείωσις), part of which was discovered as a papyrus fragment at Hermopolis in 1901. This 300 line fragment discusses self-perception, and argues that all birds, reptiles, and mammals from the moment of birth perceive themselves continuously and that self-perception is both the primary and the most basic faculty of animals.[2] The argument draws heavily on a Stoic concept known as self-ownership or oikeiôsis (Greek: οἰκείωσις) which was based on the view that all animals behave in a self-preserving way and are not just aware of themselves, but are aware of themselves in relation of other animals. Hierocles's argument about self-perception was part of the groundwork for an entire theory of ethics. Some other fragments of Hierocles' writings are preserved by Stobaeus. The most famous fragment[3] describes Stoic cosmopolitanism through the use of concentric circles in regard to oikeiôsis. Hierocles describes individuals as consisting of a series of circles: the first circle is the human mind, next comes the immediate family, followed by the extended family, and then the local community. Next comes the community of neighbouring towns, followed by your country, and finally the entire human race. Our task, according to Hierocles was to draw the circles in towards the centre, transferring people to the inner circles, making all human beings part of our concern. Notes[edit] ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, ix. 5. 8. ^ A.A. Long, Stoic Studies. Chapter 11. Cambridge University Press. (1996). ^ Stobaeus, Florilegium, 4.671 ff. Further reading[edit] Ilaria Ramelli, David Konstan, (2009), Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments, and Excerpts. SBL. ISBN 1-58983-418-6 External links[edit] Hierocles, Ethical fragments of Hierocles preserved by Stobaeus , translated by Taylor, Thomas, Wikisource., as published in Taylor, Thomas, ed. (1822). Political fragments of Archytas and other ancient Pythagoreans. Chiswick, UK: Charles Whittingham. p. 75ff. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Australia Israel Netherlands Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 2 SUDOC (France) 1 2 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hierocles_(Stoic)&oldid=1002960721" Categories: 2nd-century philosophers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Français 한국어 Italiano Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 20:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5228	----	Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category tracks pages tagged with {{Cite EB1911}} (or including it via {{EB1911}} that use the wstitle parameter. 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en-wikipedia-org-5238	----	Marcus Annius Libo - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Libo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator and uncle of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Annius Libo was a Roman Senator active in the early second century AD. He was consul in 128 as the colleague of Lucius Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas.[1] Libo was the paternal uncle of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Libo came from the upper ranks of the Roman aristocracy. He was the son of Marcus Annius Verus, consul III in 126, and Rupilia Faustina. Annius Verus was Spanish of Roman descent. Rupilia was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus and Salonina Matidia (niece of the Emperor Trajan). Libo is known to have had three siblings, two sisters and one brother. His elder sister was the Empress Faustina the Elder (mother of the Empress Faustina the Younger) and his younger sister (whose name is missing, but surmised to be Annia) was the wife of Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Sertorius Severus, suffect consul in 118. His brother was Marcus Annius Verus, the father of Marcus Aurelius.[2] Beyond his consulship, almost nothing is known of his senatorial career. During the reign of his brother-in-law, Antoninus Pius, he was one of seven witnesses to a Senatus consultum issued to the city of Cyzicus in 138, which sought approval for establishing a corpus juvenum for the education of young men.[3] Family[edit] Libo married a noblewoman whose name has been surmised as Fundania, daughter of Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus consul in 116.[4] They are known to have together two children: Marcus Annius Libo, suffect consul in 161. He is known to have a son, Marcus Annius Flavius Libo. Annia Fundania Faustina, wife of Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio, consul II in 176 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] ^ Alison E. Cooley, The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy (Cambridge: University Press, 2012), p. 470 ^ Based on the stemma provided by Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 236 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 54 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 236 Political offices Preceded by Lucius Aemilius Juncus, and Sextus Julius Severus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 128 with Lucius Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas, followed by Lucius Caesennius Antoninus Succeeded by Marcus Junius Mettius Rufus, and Quintus Pomponius Maternus as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Libo&oldid=1002812205" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Romans Senators of the Roman Empire Imperial Roman consuls Annii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:17 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Column of Marcus Aurelius== {{main|Column of Marcus Aurelius}} Marcus's [[victory column]], established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved [[relief]]s wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the [[Middle Ages]]. It was replaced with a statue of [[Saint Paul]] in 1589 by [[Pope Sixtus V]].<ref>[https://curate.nd.edu/show/ft848p61g5s 'Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522142047/https://curate.nd.edu/show/ft848p61g5s |date=22 May 2020 }}. [[University of Notre Dame]], [[Hesburgh Library]]. Accessed 24 November 2018.</ref> The column of Marcus and the [[column of Trajan]] are often compared by scholars given how they are both [[Doric order|Doric]] in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted [[frieze]]s depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.<ref>[https://omeka1.grinnell.edu/Classics/exhibits/show/columns-exhibit 'The Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius']{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. [[Grinnell College]], Classics. Accessed 24 November 2018.</ref> <gallery> File:2006 Piazza Colonna - panoramio.jpg|The [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]] in [[Piazza Colonna]]. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal [[List of ancient spiral stairs|spiral staircase]]. File:Montecitorio Panini.jpg|The column, right, in the background of [[Giovanni Paolo Panini|Panini's]] painting of the [[Palazzo Montecitorio]], with the base of the [[Column of Antoninus Pius]] in the right foreground (1747) </gallery> {{clear}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-5245	----	Marcia Furnilla - Wikipedia Marcia Furnilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wife of emperor Titus This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Marcia Furnilla Bust believed to depict Furnilla Spouse Titus Issue Julia Flavia Marcia Furnilla (also sometimes called Marcia Fulvia) was a Roman noblewoman who lived in the 1st century. Furnilla was the second and last wife of the future Roman Emperor Titus. Contents 1 Family 2 Life 3 Family tree 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 References 6 External links Family[edit] Marcia Furnilla came from a noble and distinguished family. She was from the gens Marcia who were of plebeian status,[1] claiming descent from the Roman king Ancus Marcius. She was a daughter of Roman Senator Quintus Marcius Barea Sura and Antonia Furnilla. Her sister was Marcia, the mother of Ulpia Marciana and of future Roman Emperor Trajan. Her father was a friend to future Roman Emperor Vespasian (who was Titus' father) and her paternal uncle was the senator Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus, while her paternal cousin was the noblewoman Marcia Servilia Sorana. Furnilla's paternal grandfather was Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus, who was Suffect consul in 34 and Proconsul of the Africa Province in 41-43, while her maternal grandfather could have been Aulus Antonius Rufus, a Suffect consul in 45.[2] Life[edit] Marcia Furnilla was born and raised in Rome. She married Titus, widowed from his first marriage, in 63. The marriage between Titus and Furnilla was an arranged one. This marriage for Titus was an influential one and promoted his political career. Suetonius describes Furnilla as a "very well-connected" woman. On September 17, 64, Furnilla bore Titus a daughter, Flavia Julia Titi or Julia Flavia in Rome. Like Titus' first marriage, this one was short. Furnilla's family was connected to the opponents of Roman Emperor Nero and after the failure of the Pisonian conspiracy in 65, they were disfavored by the Emperor. Titus didn't want to be connected with any potential plotters and ended his marriage to Furnilla, but continued raising their daughter. The fate of Furnilla afterwards is unknown. After her death, she was placed along with her mother in the mausoleum of Gaius Sulpicius Platorinus - a magistrate at the time of the first Roman Emperor Augustus - and his sister Sulpicia Platorina in Rome. Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Pauly-Wissowa, RE 14.2, 1535-1600. ^ Brian W. Jones (1992). The Emperor Domitian. ISBN 9780415042291. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcia Furnilla. Statue of Marcia Furnilla, see section 6. Flavian Women, statue J. Jstor.org Roman-emperors.org Dcodriscoll.pbworks.com Livius.org Livius.org Roman-empire.net Ancientlibrary.com Webcitations.org Penelope.uchicago.edu Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcia_Furnilla&oldid=1024623115" Categories: 1st-century Roman women Flavian dynasty Marcii Titus Wives of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2015 All articles lacking in-text citations Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2021, at 07:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5299	----	Synonym - Wikipedia Synonym From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the general meaning of "synonym". For other uses, see Synonym (disambiguation). Words or phrases having the same meaning This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Synonym" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Synonym list in cuneiform on a clay tablet, Neo-Assyrian period[1] A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in the same language. For example, the words begin, start, commence, and initiate are all synonyms of one another; they are synonymous. The standard test for synonymy is substitution: one form can be replaced by another in a sentence without changing its meaning. Words are considered synonymous in only one particular sense: for example, long and extended in the context long time or extended time are synonymous, but long cannot be used in the phrase extended family. Synonyms with exactly the same meaning share a seme or denotational sememe, whereas those with inexactly similar meanings share a broader denotational or connotational sememe and thus overlap within a semantic field. The former are sometimes called cognitive synonyms and the latter, near-synonyms,[2] plesionyms[3] or poecilonyms.[4] Contents 1 Lexicography 2 Etymology 3 Sources of synonyms 4 Uses of synonyms 5 Examples 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Lexicography[edit] Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, connotations, ambiguous meanings, usage, and so on make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy: the White House is used as a synonym of the administration in referring to the U.S. executive branch under a specific president.[5] Thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym.[citation needed] The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and ontology in the information-science senses of those terms.[6] It has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation.[7] Etymology[edit] The word is borrowed from Latin synōnymum, in turn borrowed from Ancient Greek synōnymon (συνώνυμον), composed of sýn (σύν 'together, similar, alike') and -ōnym- (-ωνυμ-), a form of onoma (ὄνομα 'name').[8] Sources of synonyms[edit] Synonyms are often some from the different strata making up a language. For example, in English, Norman French superstratum words and Old English substratum words continue to coexist.[9] Thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English. Loanwords are another rich source of synonyms, often from the language of the dominant culture of a region. Thus most European languages have borrowed from Latin and ancient Greek, especially for technical terms, but the native terms continue to be used in non-technical contexts. In East Asia, borrowings from Chinese in Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese often double native terms. In Islamic cultures, Arabic and Persian are large sources of synonymous borrowings. For example, in Turkish, kara and siyah both mean 'black', the former being a native Turkish word, and the latter being a borrowing from Persian. In Ottoman Turkish, there were often three synonyms: water can be su (Turkish), âb (Persian), or mâ (Arabic): "such a triad of synonyms exists in Ottoman for every meaning, without exception". As always with synonyms, there are nuances and shades of meaning or usage.[10] In English, similarly, we often have Latin and Greek terms synonymous with Germanic ones: thought, notion (L), idea (Gk); ring, circle (L), cycle (Gk). English often uses the Germanic term only as a noun, but has Latin and Greek adjectives: hand, manual (L), chiral (Gk); heat, thermal (L), caloric (Gk). Sometimes the Germanic term has become rare, or restricted to special meanings: tide, time/temporal, chronic.[11][12] Many bound morphemes in English are borrowed from Latin and Greek and are synonyms for native words or morphemes: fish, pisci- (L), ichthy- (Gk). Another source of synonyms is coinages, which may be motivated by linguistic purism. Thus the English word foreword was coined to replace the Romance preface. In Turkish, okul was coined to replace the Arabic-derived mektep and mederese, but those words continue to be used in some contexts.[13] Uses of synonyms[edit] Synonyms often express a nuance of meaning or are used in different registers of speech or writing. Different technical fields may appropriate synonyms for specific technical meanings. Some writers avoid repeating the same word in close proximity, and prefer to use synonyms: this is called elegant variation. Many modern style guides criticize this. Examples[edit] Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the same part of speech. Examples: noun: drink and beverage verb: buy and purchase adjective: big and large adverb: quickly and speedily preposition: on and upon Synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words: pupil as the aperture in the iris of the eye is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. A thesaurus or synonym dictionary lists similar or related words; these are often, but not always, synonyms.[14] The word poecilonym is a rare synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being an autological word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. For example: hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle. Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents (because they are pronounced the same). Homographs are words that have the same spelling but different meanings. For example, one can record a song or keep a record of documents. Homonyms are words that have the same pronunciation and spelling but different meanings. For example, rose (a type of flower) and rose (past tense of rise) are homonyms. See also[edit] -onym Synonym (taxonomy) Cognitive synonymy Elegant variation, the gratuitous use of a synonym in prose Synonym ring Synonymy in Japanese Thesauri and synonym dictionaries – Reference work that lists words grouped by similarity of meaning References[edit] ^ K.4375 ^ Stanojević, Maja (2009), "Cognitive synonymy: a general overview" (PDF), Facta Universitatis, Linguistics and Literature Series, 7 (2): 193–200. ^ DiMarco, Chrysanne, and Graeme Hirst. "Usage notes as the basis for a representation of near-synonymy for lexical choice." Proceedings of 9th annual conference of the University of Waterloo Centre for the New Oxford English Dictionary and Text Research. 1993. ^ Grambs, David. The Endangered English Dictionary: Bodacious Words Your Dictionary Forgot. WW Norton & Company, 1997. ^ "World Architecture Images- The White House". www.essential-architecture.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09. ^ Hirst, Graeme. "Ontology and the lexicon." Handbook on ontologies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009. 269-292. ^ Turney, Peter D. (2008). "A Uniform Approach to Analogies, Synonyms, Antonyms, and Associations". Proceedings of the 22Nd International Conference on Computational Linguistics - Volume 1. COLING '08. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics: 905–912. arXiv:0809.0124. ISBN 978-1-905593-44-6. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1919, s.v. ^ Bradley, Henry (1922). The Making of English. Macmillan and Company, Limited. ^ Ziya Gökalp, The Principles of Turkism, 1968, p. 78 ^ Stavros Macrakis and Angelos Tsiromokos's answers to "Are there any words in English which are synonyms but have separate ancient Greek and Latin origin and the Latin word is not etymologically derivative of the older ancient Greek?" on Quora.com [1] ^ Carl Darling Buck, A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages, 1949, reprinted as ISBN 0226079376 ^ Geoffrey Lewis, The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, 1999, ISBN 0198238568, p. 44, 70, 117 ^ "Synonym dictionary words and phrases". www.allacronyms.com. Retrieved 2018-04-27. External links[edit] Look up synonym in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. v t e Lexicology Major terms Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word Elements Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe Semantic relations Antonymy Holonymy Hyponymy and hypernymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy Functions Function word Headword Fields Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography Linguistics portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synonym&oldid=1028195671" Categories: Lexical semantics Types of words Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from May 2014 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2019 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Pälzisch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Walon 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 13:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5317	----	Wikipedia:Contents - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia's contents Contents Overviews Outlines Lists Portals A–Z index Glossaries Categories Indices Reference Culture Geography Health History Human activities Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Explore Wikipedia's contents For Wikipedia’s internal directory, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. 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en-wikipedia-org-5321	----	List of Stoic philosophers - Wikipedia List of Stoic philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This is a list of Stoic philosophers, ordered (roughly) by date. The criteria for inclusion in this list are fairly mild. See also Category:Stoic philosophers. Name Period Notes 3rd Century BC Zeno of Citium (c. 334-262 BC) Founder of the Stoic school in Athens (c. 300 BC) Persaeus (306-243 BC) Pupil and friend of Zeno Aratus of Soli (c. 315-c. 245 BC) Pupil of Zeno and poet. Athenodorus of Soli fl. 275 BC) Pupil of Zeno and brother of Aratus. Aristo of Chios (c. 310-c. 240 BC) Pupil of Crates, leaned towards Cynicism Apollophanes of Antioch (fl. 250 BC) Stoic philosopher, friend of Aristo of Chios Dionysius the Renegade (c. 325-c. 250 BC) Pupil of Zeno who became a Cyrenaic Sphaerus Pupil of Zeno Moved to Sparta and Alexandria Herillus of Carthage (fl. 250 BC) Pupil of Zeno, who held that knowledge was the highest good Cleanthes (of Assos) (331-232 BC) Second leader of the Stoic school Eratosthenes (of Cyrene) (fl. 225 BC) Pupil of Aristo. Chief librarian at Alexandria Hermagoras of Amphipolis fl. c. 225 BC) Stoic philosopher and follower of Persaeus of Citium Chrysippus (of Soli) (c. 280-c. 206 BC) Third leader of the Stoic school. Wrote 705 books Dioscorides (Stoic) (fl. 225 BC) Pupil of Chrysippus. Father of Zeno of Tarsus Aristocreon (fl. 210 BC) Nephew of Chrysippus 2nd Century BC Zeno of Tarsus (fl. 200 BC) Fourth leader of the Stoic school Eudromus (Stoic) (fl. uncertain) Stoic who wrote a book called "Elements of Ethics" Crates of Mallus (fl. 175 BC) Grammarian. Head of the library at Pergamon Diogenes of Babylon (c. 230-c. 150 BC) Fifth leader of the Stoic school Zenodotus (Stoic) (fl. 150 BC) Pupil of Diogenes of Babylon Apollodorus of Seleucia (fl. 150 BC) Pupil of Diogenes of Babylon Basilides (Stoic) (fl. c. 150 BC) Denied the existence of incorporeal entities Antipater of Tarsus (c. 200-129 BC) Sixth leader of the Stoic school Apollodorus of Athens (fl. 150 BC) Historian. Pupil of Diogenes and Antipater of Tarsus Archedemus of Tarsus (fl. 140 BC) Founded a Stoic school at Babylon Panaetius of Rhodes (185-109 BC) Seventh and last undisputed leader of the Stoic school Boethus of Sidon (fl. 150 BC) Pupil of Diogenes Polemon of Athens (fl. 150 BC) Geographer, follower of Panaetius Gaius Blossius (fl. 133 BC) Pupil of Antipater of Tarsus, insurgent of in the revolt of Aristonikos. Marcus Vigellius (fl. 125 BC) Stoic who lived with Panaetius Heraclides of Tarsus (fl. 125 BC) Pupil of Antipater of Tarsus Dardanus (c. 160-c. 90 BC) Leading figure in the Stoic school in Athens Mnesarchus (c. 160-c. 90 BC) Leading figure in the Stoic school in Athens Publius Rutilius Rufus (158-c. 75 BC) Statesman, orator and historian. Pupil of Panaetius Stilo (c. 154-74 BC) Grammarian and scholar Dionysius of Cyrene (fl. c. 125 BC) Leading figure in the Stoic school in Athens Quintus Lucilius Balbus (fl. c. 125 BC) Stoic philosopher, and a pupil of Panaetius Hecato of Rhodes (fl. 100 BC) Pupil of Panaetius, wrote about ethics Diotimus the Stoic (fl. 100 BC) Stoic who slandered Epicurus 1st Century BC Posidonius (of Apamea) (c. 135-51 BC) A philosopher, astronomer, and geographer Crinis (fl. uncertain) Stoic who wrote about logic Proclus of Mallus (fl. uncertain) Stoic philosopher and writer Diodotus the Stoic (c. 130-59 BC) Stoic teacher of Cicero who lived in Cicero's house Geminus of Rhodes (c. 110-c. 40 BC) Astronomer and mathematician Athenodoros Cordylion (c. 130-60 BC) Librarian at Pergamon, lived with Cato Apollonius of Tyre (philosopher) (fl. 50 BC) Stoic philosopher who wrote a biography of Zeno Cato the Younger (95-46 BC) Statesman who opposed Julius Caesar Antipater of Tyre (c. 100-45 BC) Friend of Cato. Wrote about practical ethics Porcia Catonis (c. 70-43 BC) Female Stoic, daughter of Cato the Younger Apollonides (fl. 46 BC) Stoic philosopher whom Cato consulted before committing suicide Jason of Nysa (fl. 50 BC) Grandson of Posidonius Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC-7 AD) Pupil of Posidonius. Teacher of Augustus Stertinius (Stoic) (fl. 50 BC) Philosopher satirised by the poet Horace Quintus Sextius (fl. 40 BC) Set up a school teaching Stoicism mixed with Pythagoreanism Arius Didymus (of Alexandria) (fl. 10 BC) Collected excerpts from earlier Stoic writers 1st Century AD Theon of Alexandria (fl. 10 AD) Stoic philosopher Attalus (Stoic) (fl. 25 AD) Stoic philosopher frequently visited by Seneca Papirius Fabianus (fl. 30 AD) Teacher of Seneca. Rhetorician and philosopher Julius Canus (fl. 30 AD) Stoic philosopher condemned to death by Caligula Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) Statesman, philosopher, and playwright. Many of his works are extant. Thrasea Paetus (c. 10 AD-66 AD) Roman senator and Stoic Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (c. 20-c. 70 AD) Stoic teacher who wrote a Compendium of Greek Theology Chaeremon of Alexandria (fl. 50 AD) Stoic philosopher and grammarian. Librarian at Alexandria Paconius Agrippinus (fl. 60 AD) Stoic philosopher spoken of with praise by Epictetus Heliodorus (Stoic) (fl. 60 AD) Stoic philosopher. Informer in the reign of Nero Publius Egnatius Celer (fl. 60 AD) Stoic philosopher. Informer in the reign of Nero Persius (34-62AD) Stoic philosopher, poet and satirist Helvidius Priscus (fl. 65 AD) Stoic philosopher and statesman Arulenus Rusticus (c. 30-93 AD) Statesman. Friend and pupil of Thrasea Paetus Musonius Rufus (c. 25-c. 90 AD) Taught Epictetus. Some of his lectures are extant Fannia (c. 100 AD) Another female Stoic Euphrates the Stoic (c. 35-118 AD) Philosopher, orator and pupil of Musonius Rufus 2nd Century AD Cleomedes (fl. uncertain) Astronomer who lived later than Posidonius Epictetus (of Hierapolis) (c. 55-c. 135 AD) Pupil of Musonius Rufus. His Discourses and Enchiridion are extant. Hierocles (Stoic) (fl. 150 AD) Philosopher wrote "Elements of Ethics" Flavius Arrianus (c. 90-175 AD) Historian and pupil of Epictetus Basilides of Scythopolis (fl. 150 AD) Teacher of Marcus Aurelius Apollonius of Chalcedon (fl. 150 AD) Stoic teacher of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Claudius Maximus (fl. 150 AD) Stoic philosopher and friend of Marcus Aurelius Cinna Catulus (fl. 150 AD) Stoic teacher of Marcus Aurelius Junius Rusticus (c. 100-c. 170 AD) Philosopher and Consul. Adviser of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) Roman Emperor from 161-180 AD. His philosophical notebook, Meditations is extant. 3rd Century AD Medius (fl. 250 AD) Debated the Stoic theory of eight parts of the soul with Longinus See also[edit] List of ancient Greek philosophers List of ancient Platonists List of Cynic philosophers List of Epicurean philosophers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Stoic_philosophers&oldid=1002335905" Categories: Stoic philosophers Lists of philosophers Ancient Greek philosophy-related lists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 23:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5351	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,317,224 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai Enthiran (Robot) is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language science fiction film written and directed by S. Shankar. Produced by Kalanithi Maran, it stars Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan (both pictured). The story revolves around a scientist's struggle to control his creation, an android that can comprehend and exhibit human emotions. The project backfires when the robot falls in love with the scientist's girlfriend, and is manipulated by a rival scientist into becoming homicidal. Enthiran received praise for Rajinikanth's performance and for its cinematography, art direction, and visual effects. 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en-wikipedia-org-5352	----	Caesar (title) - Wikipedia Caesar (title) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imperial title of the Roman empire Caesar Julius Caesar Pronunciation English: /ˈsiːzər/ SEE-zər Classical Latin: [ˈkae̯sar] Gender Male Language(s) Latin Origin Meaning Emperor Region of origin Roman Empire Other names Variant form(s) ΚΑΙϹΑΡ Kaiser Tsar Popularity see popular names Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Caesar (Latin: [ˈkae̯.sar] English pl. Caesars; Latin pl. Caesares; in Greek: Καῖσᾰρ Kaîsar) is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman Emperors can be dated to about 68/69 AD, the so-called "Year of the Four Emperors".[dubious – discuss] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sole Roman Emperor 3 Dynastic title 4 Late Empire 4.1 Crisis of the Third Century 4.2 Tetrarchy 4.3 After the Tetrarchy 5 Byzantine Empire 6 Ottoman Empire 7 Legacy 7.1 Title (and name) 7.2 Historiography 8 List of holders 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading Etymology[edit] The meaning of the term is unknown and there are several theories. Julius himself, however, endorsed a meaning where it came from a Punic word meaning elephant (most likely referencing the North African elephant).[citation needed] Sole Roman Emperor[edit] For political and personal reasons, Octavian chose to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar by styling himself simply "Imperator Caesar" (whereto the Roman Senate added the honorific Augustus, "Majestic" or "Venerable", in 27 BC), without any of the other elements of his full name. His successor as emperor, his stepson Tiberius, also bore the name as a matter of course; born Tiberius Claudius Nero, he was adopted by Caesar Augustus on 26 June 4 AD, as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". The precedent was set: the Emperor designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar". The fourth Emperor, Claudius, was the first to assume the name "Caesar" upon accession, without having been adopted by the previous emperor; however, he was at least a member by blood of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula. Claudius in turn adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in the traditional way; his stepson would rule as the Emperor Nero. The first emperor to assume the position and the name simultaneously without any real claim to either was the usurper Servius Sulpicius Galba, who took the imperial throne under the name "Servius Galba Imperator Caesar" following the death of the last of the Julio-Claudians, Nero, in 68 AD. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus. Galba's reign did not last long and he was soon deposed by Marcus Otho. Otho did not at first use the title "Caesar" and occasionally used the title "Nero" as emperor, but later adopted the title "Caesar" as well. Otho was then defeated by Aulus Vitellius, who acceded with the name "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus". Vitellius did not adopt the cognomen "Caesar" as part of his name and may have intended to replace it with "Germanicus" (he bestowed the name "Germanicus" upon his own son that year). Nevertheless, Caesar had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by Titus Flavius Vespasianus ("Vespasian"), whose defeat of Vitellius in 69 AD put an end to the period of instability and began the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian's son, Titus Flavius Vespasianus became "Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus". Dynastic title[edit] By this point the status of "Caesar" had been regularised into that of a title given to the Emperor-designate (occasionally also with the honorific title Princeps Iuventutis, "Prince of Youth") and retained by him upon accession to the throne (e.g., Marcus Ulpius Traianus became Marcus Cocceius Nerva's designated heir as Caesar Nerva Traianus in October 97 and acceded on 28 January 98 as "Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus"). After some variation among the earliest emperors, the style of the Emperor-designate on coins was usually Nobilissimus Caesar "Most Noble Caesar" (abbreviated to NOB CAES, N CAES etc.), though Caesar (CAES) on its own was also used. Late Empire[edit] Crisis of the Third Century[edit] The popularity of using the title Caesar to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming heirs, including Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus and Gallienus. Some of these were promoted to the rank of Augustus within their father's lifetime, for example Philippus II. The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor Tetricus I appointing his heir Tetricus II Caesar and his consular colleague for 274. Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all Caesars would be killed before or alongside their fathers, or at best outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of Hostilian. The sole Caesar to successfully obtain the rank of Augustus and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court. Tetrarchy[edit] On 1 March 293, Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior Emperors and two junior sub-Emperors. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix Invictus Augustus (Elagabalus had introduced the use of Pius Felix, "the Pious and Blessed", while Maximinus Thrax introduced the use of Invictus, "the Unconquered") and were called the Augusti, while the two junior sub-Emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as Nobilissimus Caesar. Likewise, the junior sub-Emperors retained the title "Caesar" upon accession to the senior position. The Tetrarchy was quickly abandoned as a system (though the four quarters of the empire survived as praetorian prefectures) in favour of two equal, territorial emperors, and the previous system of Emperors and Emperors-designate was restored, both in the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East. After the Tetrarchy[edit] The title of Caesar remained in use throughout the Constantinian period, with both Constantine I and his co-emperor and rival Licinius utilising it to mark their heirs. In the case of Constantine, this meant that by the time he died, he had four Caesars: Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and his nephew Dalmatius, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. In the event, Constantine would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances. Constantius II himself would nominate as Caesars his two cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 361, the title Caesar fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to the post of Augustus, as with Gratian. It would be revived only nearly three quarters of a century later when Theodosius II used it to mark his nephew Valentinian III before successfully installing him upon the western throne vacated by the boy's other uncle Honorius. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Roman Empire, for example, in the designation of the future Leo II in the final months of his grandfather's life. Byzantine Empire[edit] The Roman emperor Constantine the Great, mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople Caesar or Kaisar (Καῖσαρ) was a senior court title in the Byzantine Empire. Originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of Theodosius I, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: thus for example Alexios Mosele was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), while Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas.[1][2] An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705.[2] The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, George II of Georgia in 1081. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created the title of sebastokrator, kaisar became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of despot, which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was kaisarissa. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners. According to the Klētorologion of 899, the Byzantine Caesar's insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a Caesar's creation (in this case dating to Constantine V), is included in De Ceremoniis I.43.[3] The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the sebastokratōr (a composite derived from sebastos and autokrator, the Greek equivalents of Augustus and imperator) by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and later of despotēs by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the Palaiologan period, it was held by prominent nobles like Alexios Strategopoulos, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the Balkans such as the princes of Vlachia, Serbia and Thessaly.[2] Seal of the Caesar Michael Angelos In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the sebastokratōr. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the Caesar was equal in precedence to the panhypersebastos, another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of protovestiarios and decreed that to come after the Caesar; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the megas domestikos was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354).[4] According to pseudo-Kodinos, the Caesar's insignia under the Palaiologoi were a skiadion hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the despotēs and the sebastokratōr. He wore a red tunic (rouchon) similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the sebastokratōr, but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed skaranikon, and of the mantle, the tamparion, for the Caesar were not known.[5] Ottoman Empire[edit] Mehmed II and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadios. "Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persians to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors.[6][7] In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in Persian: قیصر روم‎ Qaysar-i Rum, "Caesar of the Romans", from Middle Persian kēsar). Thus, following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to assume the title (in Ottoman Turkish: قیصر روم‎ Kayser-i Rûm). After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title Kayser-i Rûm, claiming succession to the Roman imperium.[8] His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III.[9] Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".[10] Gennadius II, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the Sack of Constantinople committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and ethnarch (or milletbashi) status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.[11] Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos.[12] Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire. In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of the Caesar title according to the Treaty of Konstantiniyye 1533 (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined Moscow as the Third Rome, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia on numerous occasions.[13] The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, and over the Russian Empire with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time. Legacy[edit] Title (and name)[edit] This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Pronunciation hints without IPA; Issues with templating, capitalization, spelling and punctuation Please help improve this section if you can. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The history of "Caesar" as an imperial title is reflected by the following monarchic titles, usually reserved for "emperor" and "empress" in many languages (note that the name Caesar, pronounced /siːzər/ in English, was pronounced [kaisar] in Classical Latin): Afro-Asiatic languages: Arabic: Qays'r قصر;قيصر Qas'r Hebrew: Kesár‎ קיסר (male) and Kesarít קיסרית (female); Albanian: Albanian: Çezar and Qesarinë; Armenian: Armenian: կայսր Kaysr, and Armenian: կայսրություն Kaysrutiun meaning empire; Greek: Modern Greek: Greek: Καίσαρας (Kaisaras), the archaic form Greek: Καίσαρ is rarely used today; Austronesian languages: Bahasa Indonesia: Kaisar; Baltic languages: Latvian: Ķeizars and Ķeizariene; Germanic languages: Danish: Kejser and Kejserinde; Dutch: Keizer and Keizerin; German: Kaiser and Kaiserin; Icelandic: Keisari and Keisaraynja; Faroese: Keisari and Keisarinna; Norwegian: Keiser and Keiserinne (bokmål) / Keisar and Keisarinne (nynorsk); Swedish: Kejsare and Kejsarinna Old English: cāsere Indo-Iranian languages: Persian: Ghaysar‎ قيصر Urdu: Qaysar قيصر used in the title "Kaiser-i-Hind" ("Emperor of India") during the British Raj Kartvelian languages Georgian: კეისარი (Keisari) Romance languages Italian, Cesare, used as a first name. Romanian, cezar as a common noun in certain contexts; Cezar, used as a first name. Spanish, Portuguese and French, César: commonly used as first or second name. Slavic languages: Belarusian: Цар, царыца (transliterated as tsar, tsarytsa) Bulgarian: Цар, царица (transliterated as tsar, tsaritsa); Czech: Císař, císařovna; Macedonian: Цар, царица (transliterated as tsar, tsarica) Polish: Cesarz, Cesarzowa; Russian: Царь, Царица, (transliterated as tsar, tsaritsa); however in the Russian Empire (also reflected in some of its other languages), which aimed to be the "third Rome" as successor to the Byzantine Empire, it was abandoned (not in the foreign language renderings though) as imperial style—in favor of Imperator and Autocrator—and used as a lower, royal style as within the empire in chief of some of its parts, e.g. Georgia and Siberia In the United States and, more recently, Britain, the title "czar" (an archaic transliteration of the Russian title) is a slang term for certain high-level civil servants, such as the "drug czar" for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy and "terrorism czar" for a Presidential advisor on terrorism policy. More specifically, a czar refers to a sub-cabinet-level advisor within the executive branch of the U.S. government. Serbo-Croatian: Car, carica (цар, царица) Slovak: Cisár, cisárovná; Slovene: cesar, cesarica or car, carica; Ukrainian: Цісар, цісарева (tsisar, tsisareva), also Ukrainian: цар/царь, царина (archaic transliteration: czar and czarina), Tsar, tsaryna (modern transliteration) Turkic languages: Turkish: Kayser (historical), Sezar (modern). Kayser-i-Rûm "Caesar of [Constantinople, the second] Rome", one of many subsidiary titles proclaiming the Ottoman Sultan (main imperial title Padishah) as (Muslim) successor to "Rum" as the Turks called the (Christian) Roman Empire (as Byzantium had continued to call itself), continuing to use the name for part of formerly Byzantine territory (compare the Seljuk Rum-sultanate) Uralic languages: Estonian: Keiser and Keisrinna; Finnish: Keisari and Keisarinna or Keisaritar; Hungarian: Császár and Császárnő; In various Romance and other languages, the imperial title was based on the Latin Imperator (a military mandate or a victory title), but Caesar or a derivation is still used for both the name and the minor ranks (still perceived as Latin).[citation needed] There have been other cases of a noun proper being turned into a title, such as Charlemagne's Latin name, including the epithet, Carolus (magnus), becoming Slavonic titles rendered as King: Kralj (Serbo-Croatian), Král (Czech) and Król (Polish), etc.[citation needed] However certain languages, especially Romance languages, also commonly use a "modernized" word (e.g., César in French) for the name, both referring to the Roman cognomen and modern use as a first name, and even to render the title Caesar, sometimes again extended to the derived imperial titles above.[citation needed] Yoruba language: Yoruba: Késárì Translation of the name Caesar first recorded in the first book translated to Yoruba, the bible. The Caesar in the bible refers to Emperor Augustus, who was referred to as Caesar. It was not used as a title for kings as it did not reach the language till the late 19th century and was not widely known till the 20th century. The main title for king was "Kábíyèsi", meaning one who cannot be questioned (Ká-bí-yò-èsi). Historiography[edit] Oswald Spengler used the term, Caesarism, in his book, The Decline of the West. List of holders[edit] This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Titus (proclaimed caesar, 69 AD) (augustus 24 June 79–13 September 81) Domitian (proclaimed caesar, 69 AD) (augustus 14 September 81–18 September 96) Antoninus Pius (proclaimed caesar, 25 February 138 ) (augustus 10 July 138 – 7 March 161) Marcus Aurelius (proclaimed caesar, 5 December 139) (augustus 7 March 161 – 17 March 180) Lucius Verus (proclaimed caesar, 12 October 166) (augustus 7 March 161 – January/February 169) Commodus (proclaimed caesar, 12 October 166) (augustus 27 November 176 – 31 December 192) Caracalla (proclaimed caesar, 195/6) (augustus 4 February 211 – 8 April 217) Geta (proclaimed caesar, 28 January 198) (augustus 4 February 211 – 2 February 212) Diadumenian (proclaimed caesar, April 217) (augustus May – June 218) Gordian III (proclaimed caesar, April 238) (augustus early August 238 – late January/early February 244) Volusianus (proclaimed caesar, June? 251) (augustus late June/early August 251 – late July/early August 253) Maximian (proclaimed caesar, 21 July 285 ) (augustus 1 April 286 – 1 May 305; end 306/early 307 – November 308) Constantius I (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 293) (augustus 1 May 305 – 25 July 306) Galerius (proclaimed caesar, 21 March 293) (augustus 1 May 305 – early May 311) Valerius Severus (proclaimed caesar, 1 May 305) (augustus 25 July 306 – April 307) Maximinus Daia (proclaimed caesar, 1 May 305) (augustus 1 May 310 – summer 313) Maxentius (proclaimed caesar, 28 October 306) (augustus Apr? 307 – 28 October 312) Constantine the Great (proclaimed caesar, 25 July 306) (augustus 25 July 306 – 22 May 337) Crispus (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) Licinius II (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) Constantine II (proclaimed caesar, 1 March 317) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – early April 340) Constans (proclaimed caesar, 25 December 333) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – 18 January 350) Constantius II (proclaimed caesar, 8 November 324) (augustus 9 Sep. 337 – 3 November 361) Constantius Gallus Julian (proclaimed caesar, 6 November 355) (augustus 3 November 361 – 26/7 June 363) Valentinian III (proclaimed caesar, 23 October 424) (augustus 23 October 425 – 16 March 455) Majorian (proclaimed caesar, 1 April 457) (augustus 28 December 457 – 2 August 461) Procopius Anthemius (proclaimed caesar, 25 March 467) (augustus 12 April 467 – 11 July 472) Leo II (proclaimed caesar, October 473) (augustus January – November 474) Byzantine Tervel, khan of the Bulgars, named in 705 by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711). Theophobos, named by Theophilos (r. 829–842).[14] Alexios Mosele, named by Theophilos (r. 829–842). Bardas, named by his nephew Michael III (r. 842–867). Bardas Phokas, named by his son Nikephoros II (r. 963–969). John Doukas, named in 1059 by his brother Constantine X Doukas. Nikephoros Bryennios, named by his father-in-law Alexios I Komnenos Isaac Komnenos, named by his father Alexios I Komnenos (according to Ioannes Zonaras) George II of Georgia, brother of Empress Maria of Alania, in 1081. John Rogerios Dalassenos, named by John II Komnenos. Alexios Strategopoulos, named by Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1261–1282). Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Grand Company, named in 1304 by Andronikos II Palaiologos. Hrelja, likely named by John VI Kantakouzenos. Serbian Grgur Golubić, named in 1347 by Stefan Dušan. Vojihna, named in 1347 by Stefan Dušan. Preljub, named in 1348–49 by Stefan Dušan. Uglješa Vlatković, named by Uroš V. Nikola Radonja, named by Uroš V. Novak, named by Uroš V. See also[edit] Augustus (title) Caesaropapism Khosrow (word) References[edit] ^ Bury 1911, p. 36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBury1911 (help) ^ a b c ODB, "Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363. ^ Bury 1911, pp. 20, 36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBury1911 (help) ^ Verpeaux 1966, pp. 134–136. ^ Verpeaux 1966, pp. 147–149. ^ Middle Persian: 𐭪𐭩𐭮𐭫𐭩‎ kysly (Inscriptional Pahlavi), kysl (Book Pahlavi), transcribed as kēsar ^ Hurbanič, Martin (2019). The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend. Springer. p. 234. ISBN 978-3-030-16684-7. ^ Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009). Archivum Ottomanicum. Mouton. p. 10. ^ Christine Isom-Verhaaren; Kent F. Schull (11 April 2016). Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th Centuries. Indiana University Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-253-01948-6. ^ Crowley, Roger (2009). Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453. Faber & Faber. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-0-571-25079-0. ^ "Gennadios II Scholarios". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 July 2020. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1995). Byzantium:The Decline and Fall. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0-679-41650-1. ^ Halil, Inançik (2017). Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar 1441-1700: Seçme Eserleri - XI. ISBN 978-6052952511. ^ Juan Signes Codoñer (23 March 2016). The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842: Court and Frontier in Byzantium During the Last Phase of Iconoclasm. Routledge. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-1-317-03427-8. Bibliography[edit] Bury, J. B. (1911). The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos. London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 1046639111. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices (in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Further reading[edit] Ferjančić, Božidar (1970). "Севастократори и кесари у Српском царству" [Sebastocrators and Caesares in the Serbian Empire]. Зборник Филозофског факултета. Belgrade: 255–269. 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en-wikipedia-org-5353	----	Victor (emperor) - Wikipedia Victor (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 384 or 387 to 388 Roman emperor Victor Solidus minted for Victor Roman emperor Reign 383/384 or 387 – August 388, in the West (with Magnus Maximus) Predecessor Gratian Successor Valentinian II Died August 388 Trier Names Flavius Victor Father Magnus Maximus Religion Nicene Christianity Flavius Victor (unknown – August 388 AD) was a Western Roman emperor from either 383/384 or 387 to August 388. He was the son of the Magister militum per Gallias Magnus Maximus, who later became an usurper of the Western Roman Empire, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus rose up in 383, and was recognized as the legitimate emperor in the west by Theodosius I. Victor was elevated to augustus of the Western Roman Empire in either 383/384 or mid-387, making him co-emperor with his father. Maximus invaded Italy, in 387, to depose Valentinian II, the brother and successor of the late Gratian. Because of Maximus' invasion, Theodosius invaded the Western Roman Empire in 388. Theodosius defeated Maximus in two battles in Pannonia, before crushing his army at Aquilea, and capturing Maximus. Maximus was executed on 28 August 388. His death was followed quickly by Victor's, who was executed where he had stayed in Trier by the Frankish General Arbogast. Contents 1 History 2 References 2.1 Citations 2.2 Bibliography History[edit] Flavius Victor was born at an unknown date, to Magnus Maximus, the Magister militum per Gallias (Master of the Soldiers in Gaul), and future usurper of the Western Roman Empire. Maximus was declared emperor in July 383 AD while in Britain, in opposition to Gratian.[1][2] Maximus held control over both Gaul and Spain, and was recognized by Theodosius I, the Eastern Roman Emperor, as the true Western Roman Emperor.[2] Victor was elevated to augustus of the Western Roman Empire either 383/384 or mid-387, making him co-emperor with his father Magnus Maximus.[2][3] It is considered highly likely that Maximus had the intent of establishing a dynasty, as the number of coins minted that bore Victor's image was greater even than the number bearing Maximus'.[4] Magnus Maximus invaded Italy in late 387, in order to depose Valentinian II, the brother of Gratian. He gained control of Italy, although he failed to capture Valentinian, who fled to Thessalonica in the Eastern Roman Empire. Once there, Valentinian sent multiple appeals to Theodosius, although for several months they were ignored. Theodosius I then agreed to restore Valentinian II to the throne, although the reasoning for this is disputed. Rufinus says that Valentinian agreed to convert to Orthodoxy, whereas Eunapius says that Valentinian offered his sister, Galla, in marriage to Theodosius, whose wife had recently died, in exchange for assistance in regaining the throne. News that Theodosius was marching to invade the Western Roman Empire arrived in late spring 388, leading Maximus to rush to put together a defence force. His army was defeated twice in Pannonia, at Siscia and Poetovio, before retreating to Italy, where they were crushed in battle on 28 August 388, near Aquilea. During this battle, Maximus himself was captured, and quickly beheaded. Victor, who was still in Gaul, was executed in Trier by the Frankish general Arbogast in the same month.[2][5][6] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Hebblewhite 2016, p. 20. ^ a b c d Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 35. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 91. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 92. ^ Errington 2006, pp. 36–37. ^ Birley 2005, p. 450. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195123326. Birley, Anthony R. (2005). The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199252374. Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807877456. Hebblewhite, Mark (2016). The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317034308. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199664818. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_(emperor)&oldid=1015868051" Categories: 4th-century births 388 deaths 4th-century executions 4th-century murdered monarchs 4th-century Roman usurpers Executed Roman emperors Flavii People executed by the Roman Empire Sons of Roman emperors Valentinianic dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 01:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5385	----	Libo Rupilius Frugi - Wikipedia Libo Rupilius Frugi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman senator and consul Libo Rupilius Frugi (died 101), whose full name was Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus, was a Roman suffect consul and a possible ancestor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. He was one of the sons and among the children born to Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi (consul 64) with his wife Sulpicia Praetextata, daughter of the suffect consul in 46, Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Peticus[1] and a grandson of Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi, who had been consul in 27 and Scribonia. His brother Gaius Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Licinianus[1] had been a consul in 87.[1][2] The father of Frugi was executed by the emperor Nero between 66 and 68, because of information brought against him by Marcus Aquilius Regulus.[3] After the death of his father, his mother took him with his siblings, to a Senate meeting in 70 early in the reign of Vespasian, seeking vengeance for his father’s death.[3] Regulus and his associates were prosecuted by the Senate.[4] According to the Augustan History, Frugi was of consular rank and refers to him as a former consul.[5] Frugi served as a suffect consul in 88.[2] He has been identified with the ex-consul "Libo Frugi" whom Pliny the Younger reports as speaking aggressively in the Senate concerning the case of Norbanus Licinianus.[6] It has been argued that Frugi married the niece of the emperor Trajan, Salonina Matidia, as her third husband. If so, Frugi and Matidia were the parents of Rupilia Faustina,[7] the paternal grandmother of Marcus Aurelius.[5][8] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ a b c Vasily Rudich, Political Dissidence Under Nero: The Price of Dissimulation, Routledge ^ a b Brian W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian, pp. 165-6. Routledge ^ a b J. Shelton, The Women of Pliny's Letters, p. 153. Routledge, 2013 ^ S.H. Rutledge, Imperial Inquisitions: Prosecutors and Informants from Tiberius to Domitian (Google eBook), p. 119. Routledge, 2002 ^ a b Augustan History, Marcus Aurelius, 1.4, where Rupili Boni is emended to Rupili Libonis ^ Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 3.9.33 ^ Matidia the Elder, from Livius.org. ^ "Libo Frugi's wife is unknown, but J. Carcopino, REA 51 (1949) 262 ff. argued that she was Matidia. This was supported by H.-G. Pflaum, HAC 1963 (1964) 106 f. However, Schumacher, Priesterkollegien 195 points out that Libo Frugi's daughter Rupilia Faustina can hardly have been old enough, in that case, to be the mother of Marcus' father. The only way out would be to suppose that Matidia married Libo before her other two husbands; and was divorced from him (as he was still alive in 101). The theory becomes increasingly implausible." Anthony Richard Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 244 Political offices Preceded by Decimus Plotius Grypus, and Lucius Minicius Rufus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 88 with Quintus Ninnius Hasta Succeeded by Marcus Otacilius Catulus, and Sextus Julius Sparsus as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libo_Rupilius_Frugi&oldid=979348271" Categories: 1st-century births 101 deaths 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Licinii Crassi Rupilii Scribonii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Ελληνικά Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 September 2020, at 07:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5395	----	Staurakios - Wikipedia Staurakios From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Byzantine emperor. For the eunuch minister of Empress Irene, see Staurakios (eunuch). Emperor of the Romans Staurakios Emperor of the Romans Staurakios as co-emperor on a gold solidus Byzantine emperor (with Nikephoros I) Tenure 25 December 803 – 26 July 811 Coronation 25 December 803 Successor Staurakios (alone) Byzantine emperor Tenure 26 July – 2 October 811 Coronation 28 July Predecessor Nikephoros I and Staurakios Successor Michael I Born Early 790s AD Died 11 January 812 AD Monastery of Braka Burial Monastery of Braka Consort Theophano of Athens Dynasty Nikephorian Father Nikephoros I Mother Unknown woman, name sometimes given as Prokopia, possibly due to confusion with her daughter, Prokopia Nikephorian dynasty Chronology Nikephoros I 802–811  with Staurakios as co-emperor 803–811  Staurakios 811 Michael I 811–813  with Theophylact as co-emperor 811–813  Succession Preceded by Isaurian dynasty Followed by Leo V and the Amorian dynasty v t e Staurakios or Stauracius (Greek: Σταυράκιος; early 790s – 11 January 812 AD) was Byzantine emperor from 26 July to 2 October 811. He was born in the early 790s, probably between 791 and 793, to Nikephoros I and an unknown woman. Nikephoros seized the throne of the Byzantine Empire from Empress Irene in 802, and elevated Staurakios to co-emperor in December 803. After Nikephoros fell in the Battle of Pliska on 26 July 811, Staurakios was declared emperor, despite his severe injuries from the battle. His reign was short due to the political uncertainties surrounding his wounds, which included the severing of his spine; he was usurped by his brother-in-law, Michael I Rangabe, on 2 October 811. After being removed from power, he was sent to live in a monastery, where he stayed until he died of gangrene or poisoning on 11 January 812. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.2 Reign 2 Historiography 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography 4 External links Biography[edit] Early life[edit] Staurakios was born in the early 790s AD, probably between 791 and 793, to Nikephoros I and an unknown woman, often referred to as Prokopia due to confusion with her daughter, Prokopia.[1][2][3][4] Nikephoros was logothetēs tou genikou (finance minister) at the time of Staurakios' birth, before he revolted against Byzantine Empress Irene in 802 AD, and seized the throne for himself; Staurakios was around 10–12 years old at this time. Nikephoros consolidated power in the throne, instituted caesaropapism, and implemented strict fiscal laws. For these reasons, he was hated by many, especially the contemporary ecclesiastical historians, who are the main source of history for his reign; many modern historians, therefore, doubt their assertions of his malevolent character.[1][5] Staurakios was not given an official government position upon his father's accession to the throne, but, in the summer of 803, Bardanes Tourkos revolted against Nikephoros in the Anatolic Theme; although his revolt was put down by early September, it convinced Nikephoros to consolidate his hold on the throne by declaring Staurakios co-emperor and heir, which he did on 25 December 803.[1][2][6] By doing so, Nikephoros removed any question of the imperial succession and increased his own legitimacy—although Staurakios, now somewhere between the ages of 11 and 13, was not yet old enough to actually exercise power.[1] After Staurakios' elevation to co-emperor, he is not mentioned again in the sources until 807, when Nikephoros decided that Staurakios needed to marry, and thus held an imperial bride show to select a wife on 20 December 807. Theophano of Athens was selected, likely due to the fact that she was a kinswoman of Irene, and therefore would help add legitimacy to both Nikephoros' and Staurakios' rule. According to the heavily-biased Byzantine historian Theophanes, she was chosen despite the fact that she was already engaged to a man, whom she had slept with premaritally, and was not the most beautiful of the women presented at the bride show.[1][7][8] After his marriage, Staurakios is not mentioned again until 811, when Nikephoros prepared his invasion of the Bulgarian Khanate in May of that year. The Bulgarians had been a serious foreign threat to the Byzantine Empire since the reign of Constantine IV (r.  668–685), who had led a disastrous invasion into their lands. Between 808 and 811, the building tension between the two powers resulted in outright warfare. Nikephoros led the campaign over the Balkan Mountains and into the Bulgarian Khanate in person alongside Staurakios, his son-in-law Michael Rhangabe, a kouropalates (high-ranking court official), and many senior Imperial officials. The invasion was initially very successful, with the Byzantine forces attacking the Bulgarian capital of Pliska, defeating first the 12,000-strong garrison of the city, and then an army of 15,000 which had been sent by the Bulgarian khan Krum to relieve the city. In correspondence sent to Constantinople, Nikephoros attributed these military victories to the strategic advice of Staurakios. The victorious Byzantine forces began to march back to the Byzantine Empire, but a desperate Krum managed to trap the Byzantine army in a small valley with palisades, before launching a massive assault two days later, on 26 July 811. This battle, known as the Battle of Pliska, resulted in a Bulgarian massacre of the Byzantine forces. Much of the Byzantine army was destroyed, and Nikephoros himself was slain.[1][7][8] Reign[edit] The remaining Byzantine forces, including a severely wounded Staurakios, retreated to Adrianople over three days. Staurakios' spine had been severed during the battle, which along with Staurakios' demonstrated lack of ability, led the uninjured influential figures in the empire to consider the issue of Nikephoros' successor. Chiefly they were three who had traveled with Nikephoros and Staurakios, the magistros (Master of Offices) Theoktistos, the Domestic of the Schools Stephanos, and Michael Rhangabe. The severity of Staurakios' wounds led to speculation as to whether he would live, although eventually they judged he would make the best candidate, as the legitimate successor, and declared him emperor.[1][9] Staurakios gave a speech to the surviving troops, where he insulted Nikephoros' military judgment, before being acclaimed by the army c. 28 July 811.[1][10] Almost immediately after Staurakios ascended the throne, Michael was pressured to usurp it, due to the legitimacy granted to him by his marriage to Staurakios' sister, Prokopia, and his military abilities. Theoktistos and others attempted to convince Michael to take the throne, although he repeatedly refused at this time.[11] Staurakios was brought by litter to Constantinople. By this time, it had been discovered that he had blood in his urine, and was paralyzed from the waist down. In spite of this, Staurakios did his best to assert his imperial authority, including rebuffing the attempts of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Nikephoros I, to have funds which Nikephoros had collected returned to the church. The severity of his injury, and the lack of any children to nominate as heirs led to a debate about who would succeed him, as his impending death was considered a certainty.[1] Staurakios' sister, Prokopia, backed her husband Michael, while Theophano backed herself, hoping to take the throne the same way her kinswoman Irene had. The only proof of such intrigues given by contemporary historians comes from records that Staurakios became hostile to Theoktistos and Michael, which would suggest he was aware of their plottings, and that he suspected Prokopia of conspiring to kill him.[1][11] Staurakios wavered between two possible options for succession. The first, to make Theophano empress, and the second, attested in a ninth-century chronicle, to institute a form of imperial democracy. The second option is considered by the Byzantine historian J. B. Bury to be the machinations of an addled brain if it did in fact happen.[12] After hearing of the two options Staurakios was considering, Patriarch Nikephoros I aligned himself with Stephanos, Theoktistos, and Michael. Afraid of the possibility of a public uprising due to lack of an heir, Staurakios declared Theophano his successor. This decision united the chief leaders and officials of the Byzantine Empire behind Michael, as they did not desire to return to the uncertainty which had pervaded Irene's rule, due to her ruling despite being a woman.[1] On 1 September 811, Staurakios summoned Stephanos, whom he trusted completely, likely because Stephanos was the first to proclaim Staurakios emperor, to propose blinding Michael; Staurakios was unaware that Michael had the support of Stephanos himself. Stephanos assured Staurakios of the strength of his position, and dissuaded him from having Michael blinded, saying he was too well protected to attempt it.[1][13][14] Stephanos, after swearing he would not reveal the discussion to anyone else, gathered the remaining tagmatic forces and important officials at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, where on 2 October Michael was proclaimed emperor by the army and senate at dawn. Upon hearing of this, Staurakios hastened to abdicate, fearing his execution otherwise.[1][15] Staurakios summoned his relative, Symon the monk, and was tonsured and dressed in monastic garb.[1][13] Staurakios also sent a letter of protest to Patriarch Nikephoros for his role in the coup d’état; Nikephoros answered in person, writing alongside Michael and Prokopia, and assured Staurakios that he had not betrayed him, but rather protected him. Staurakios was unimpressed and informed the Patriarch that "you will not find him (Michael) a better friend", meaning that Michael would not be more useful to Nikephoros than Staurakios himself had been.[1][12] Staurakios lived another three months before dying of gangrene on 11 January 812. He was buried in the Monastery of Braka, which was given to Theophano by Prokopia.[1][16][17] According to the Syriac sources—the Chronicle of 813 and Michael the Syrian—and the chronicle of the Petros of Alexandria, there were rumors that Staurakios had been poisoned by his sister Prokopia, rather than dying of gangrene. Theophanes considered these rumors possible and mentions that Theophano herself considered these rumors true.[4] Historiography[edit] The main source for the reigns of both Nikephoros I and Staurakios is Theophanes' Chronographia, which was tainted by Theophanes' hatred of both men. Although many historians believe that both Nikephoros I and Staurakios have been falsely portrayed as malevolent, few other sources exist for their reign. Most other sources take the form of short references, which provide little insight, and include many errors, especially the Syriac Chronicle of 813. Because of the brevity of Staurakios' reign, and the weakness and bias of the sources, much of his life is unknown.[1][5] Staurakios reigned only two months and eight days, and was therefore unable to leave a mark on the empire as his father had done. Hints from the Chronographia suggest that Staurakios wielded strategic understanding, and perhaps that Staurakios was as strong-willed as his father, but his character is otherwise unknown.[1] Both Nikephoros and Staurakios were generally successful in maintaining the borders of the Byzantine Empire, although they did not achieve much military success, occasionally being forced to make humiliating concessions to powerful enemies, such as the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid.[7][8] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Marsh. ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 14. ^ Bury 1912, p. 14f. ^ a b PmbZ, Staurakios (#6866/corr.). ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 9. ^ Venning & Harris 2006, p. 229. ^ a b c Bury 1912, p. 15. ^ a b c Venning & Harris 2006, p. 234. ^ Bury 1912, p. 16. ^ Bury 1912, p. 16f. ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 17. ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 19. ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 18. ^ Venning & Harris 2006, p. 235. ^ Bury 1912, pp. 18–19. ^ Bury 1912, pp. 16, 21. ^ Lawler 2004, Staurakios (p. 240). Bibliography[edit] Bury, J. B. (1912). A History of the Eastern Roman Empire: From the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867). New York: Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 9781605204215. Lawler, Jennifer (2004). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. Jefferson: McFarland. ISBN 9781476609294. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). "Staurakios". Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Marsh, Matthew (2013). "Staurakios (A. D. 811)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Newport. Archived from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019. Venning, Timothy; Harris, Jonathan (2006). A Chronology of the Byzantine Empire. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230505865. External links[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Media related to Stauracius at Wikimedia Commons Staurakios Nikephorian dynasty Born: After 778 Died: 11 January 812 Regnal titles Preceded by Nikephoros I Byzantine Emperor 26 July – 2 October 811 Succeeded by Michael I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-5397	----	Florianus - Wikipedia Florianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 276 Roman emperor Florianus Illustration based on coins minted bearing his image. Legend: IMP. C. M. AN. FLORIANVS AVG. Roman emperor Reign July–September 276 Predecessor Tacitus Successor Probus Born 19 August 232[1] Terni, Umbria, Italy Died 9 September 276 (aged 44) Tarsus, Cilicia Names Marcus Annius Florianus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Annius Florianus Augustus[2] Marcus Annius Florianus (died 276), also known as Florian, was Roman emperor from the death of his half-brother, Emperor Tacitus, in July 276 until his own murder in September of that year. Florianus' half-brother Tacitus was proclaimed emperor in late 275, after the unexpected death of Emperor Aurelian. After Tacitus died the following year, allegedly assassinated as a consequence of a military plot, Florianus proclaimed himself emperor, with the recognition of the Roman Senate and much of the empire. However, the new emperor soon had to deal with the revolt of Probus, who rose up shortly after Florianus ascended the throne, with the backing of the provinces of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia. Probus took advantage of the terrain of the Cilician Gates, and the hot climate of the area, to which Florianus' army was unaccustomed, to chip away at their morale. Florianus' army rose up against him and killed him. Contents 1 History 2 References 2.1 Citations 2.2 Bibliography 3 External links History[edit] Antoninianus of Tacitus. Legend: IMPerator Caesar Marcus CLavdius TACITVS AVGustus. In late 275, Florianus' maternal half-brother, Tacitus, was proclaimed Roman Emperor after the unexpected death of Emperor Aurelian. Soon after, Tacitus appointed Florianus as praetorian prefect.[3][4] Tacitus then ordered Florianus to lead troops to Pannonia, in order to repel raids into Roman territory by the Goths.[5] After Tacitus died suddenly in July 276, allegedly as a consequence of a military plot, Florianus swiftly proclaimed himself emperor, and was recognized as such by the Roman Senate, and the western provinces.[6] Florianus then continued to campaign against the Goths, winning a major victory before the news reached him of the revolt of Probus, who had served successfully as a commander under both Aurelian and Tacitus. Probus' revolt was supported by the provinces of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia.[6] Despite his military experience, Probus was in a precarious position, as he held the support of only a small part of the Empire, while much of the Empire backed Florianus.[7] Probus also took advantage of his control of Egyptian grain, which he used to swiftly cut off the supply of grain to the rest of the empire. Probus led his troops to Asia Minor, in order to defend the Cilician Gates, allowing him to utilize guerrilla warfare to wage a war of attrition rather than a straightforward confrontation. Florianus led his troops to Cilicia, and billeted his forces in Tarsus. However many of his troops, who were unaccustomed to the hot climate of the area, fell ill due to a summer heat wave. Upon learning of this, Probus launched raids around the city, in order to weaken the morale of Florianus' forces. This strategy was successful, and Florianus lost control of his army, which in September rose up against him and killed him.[6] In total, Florianus' reign lasted less than three months.[6] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Florian". Britannica.com. Retrieved 19 February 2021. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 500. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Meijer 2004, p. 102. ^ Hebblewhite 2016, p. 11. ^ Bédoyère 2017, p. 259. ^ a b c d Meijer 2004, p. 103. ^ Syvanne 2015, p. 171. Bibliography[edit] Bédoyère, Guy de la (2017). Praetorian: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Imperial Bodyguard. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300226270. Hebblewhite, Mark (2016). The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317034308. Meijer, Fik (2004). Emperors Don't Die in Bed. Routledge. ISBN 9780415312011. Syvanne, Ilkka (2015). Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781848848559. External links[edit] Media related to Florianus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Tacitus Roman emperor 276 Succeeded by Probus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florianus&oldid=1023292982" Categories: 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs Crisis of the Third Century Annii Murdered Roman emperors 276 deaths Praetorian prefects Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 15:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5405	----	Gordian III - Wikipedia Gordian III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 238 to 244 Roman emperor Gordian III Bust, 242–244 Roman emperor Augustus 29 July 238 – 11 February 244 Predecessor Pupienus and Balbinus Successor Philip the Arab Caesar 22 April – 29 July 238 Born 20 January 225 Rome, Italy Died 11 February 244(244-02-11) (aged 19) Zaitha Spouse Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Names Marcus Antonius Gordianus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Augustus Dynasty Gordian Father Junius Balbus Mother Antonia Gordiana Gordian III (Latin: Marcus Antonius Gordianus; 20 January 225 – 11 February 244 AD) was Roman emperor from AD 238 to 244. At the age of 13, he became the youngest sole Roman emperor. Gordian was the son of Antonia Gordiana[2] and Junius Balbus who died before 238.[3] Antonia Gordiana was the daughter of Emperor Gordian I[2] and younger sister of Emperor Gordian II. Very little is known of his early life before his acclamation. Gordian had assumed the name of his maternal grandfather in 238 AD. Contents 1 Rise to power 2 Reign 3 Family tree 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Rise to power[edit] Antoninianus of Gordian III. Inscription: IMP. CAES. M. ANT. GORDIANVS AVG. In 235, following the murder of Emperor Alexander Severus in Moguntiacum (modern Mainz),[4] the capital of the Roman province Germania Superior, Maximinus Thrax was acclaimed Emperor.[5] In the following years, there was a growing opposition against Maximinus in the Roman senate and amongst the majority of the population of Rome. In 238 a rebellion broke out in the Africa Province, where Gordian's grandfather and uncle, Gordian I and II, were proclaimed joint emperors.[6] This revolt was suppressed within a month by Cappellianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax.[6] The Senate, showing its hostility towards Maximinus by supporting the Gordiani, elected Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors.[7] These senators were not popular men, so the Senate decided to raise Marcus Antonius Gordianus to the rank of Caesar.[8] Maximinus, moving quickly to attack the senate's newly elected emperors, encountered difficulties marching his army through an Alpine winter.[8] Arriving at Aquileia and short on supplies, Maximinus besieged the city.[8] After four weeks, Maximinus' demoralized army mutinied and the Legio II Parthica murdered him.[9] The situation for Pupienus and Balbinus, despite Maximinus' death, was doomed from the start with popular riots, military discontent and an enormous fire that consumed Rome in June 238. On July 29, Pupienus and Balbinus were killed by the Praetorian Guard and Gordian proclaimed sole emperor.[10] Reign[edit] Silver Antoninianus of Gordian III, mint of Rome, 238–239 AD; Obverse: IMP CAES M ANT GORDIANVS AVG, radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right; Reverse: VIRTVS AVG, Virtus standing facing in military dress, head left, with shield and spear; Reference: RIC 6, RSC 381 Due to Gordian's age, the imperial government was surrendered to the aristocratic families, who controlled the affairs of Rome through the Senate.[11] In 240, Sabinianus revolted in the African province, but he was quickly defeated.[12] In 241, Gordian was married to Furia Sabinia Tranquillina,[13] daughter of the newly appointed praetorian prefect, Timesitheus. As chief of the Praetorian Guard and father in law of the Emperor, Timesitheus quickly became the de facto ruler of the Roman Empire.[14] During Gordian's reign there were severe earthquakes, so severe that cities fell into the ground along with their inhabitants.[15] In response to these earthquakes Gordian consulted the Sibylline books.[15] By the 3rd century, the Roman frontiers weakened against the Germanic tribes across the Rhine and Danube, and the Sassanid Empire across the Euphrates increased its own attacks. When the Sasanians under Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the doors of the Temple of Janus for the last time in Roman history, and sent a large army to the East. The Sassanids were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated in the Battle of Resaena (243).[16] The campaign was a success and Gordian, who had joined the army, was planning an invasion of the enemy's territory, when his father-in-law died in unclear circumstances. Without Timesitheus, the campaign, and the Emperor's security, were at risk. Due to the campaign's success, Gordian celebrated with a triumph and boasted about his achievements to the Senate.[15] Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Gaius Julius Priscus and, later on, his own brother Marcus Julius Philippus, also known as Philip the Arab, stepped in at this moment as the new Praetorian Prefects[17] Gordian would then start a second campaign. Around February 244, the Sasanians fought back fiercely to halt the Roman advance to Ctesiphon. The eventual fate of Gordian after the battle is unclear. Sasanian sources claim that a battle occurred (Battle of Misiche) near modern Fallujah (Iraq) and resulted in a major Roman defeat and the death of Gordian III.[18] One view holds that Gordian died at Zaitha, murdered by his frustrated army, while the role of Philip is unknown.[19] Scholarly analyses suggest the Sasanian version "while defective is superior" to the Roman one.[20] The deposition of Gordian's body is also a matter of controversy. According to David S. Potter, Philip transferred the body of the deceased emperor to Rome and arranged for his deification.[21] Edwell, Dodgeon, and Lieu state that Philip had Gordian buried at Zaitha after the campaign against the Sasanians had ended in failure.[22][23] Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Cooley 2012, p. 497. ^ a b D’Amato 2020, p. 54. ^ Townsend 1934, p. 63. ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 28. ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 29. ^ a b Raven 1993, p. 142. ^ Drinkwater 2007, pp. 31-32. ^ a b c Drinkwater 2007, p. 32. ^ Varner 2004, p. 200. ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 33. ^ Potter 2004, p. 171. ^ Wilhite 2007, p. 31. ^ Townsend 1934, p. 84. ^ Mennen 2011, p. 34. ^ a b c Boin 2018, p. 61. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 147. ^ Potter 2004, p. 236. ^ Brosius 2006, p. 144. ^ Potter 2004, pp. 234,236. ^ Shahbazi 2017. ^ Potter 2004, p. 238. ^ Edwell 2020. ^ Dodgeon & Lieu 1991, p. 41. Sources[edit] Boin, Douglas (2018). A Social and Cultural History of Late Antiquity. Wiley. ISBN 978-111-907-681-0. Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians. Routledge. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. D’Amato, Raffaele (2020). Roman Standards & Standard-Bearers (2): AD 192–500. Osprey Publishing. Dodgeon, Michael H.; Lieu, Samuel N. C., eds. (1991). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226–363): A Documentary History, Part 1. Taylor & Francis. Drinkwater, John (2007). "Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'Crisis'". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337. XII (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Edwell, Peter (2020). Rome and Persia at War: Imperial Competition and Contact, 193–363 CE. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317061267. Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Brill. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395. Routledge. Raven, Susan (1993). Rome in Africa (3rd ed.). Routledge. Shahbazi, Shapur (2017). "ŠĀPUR I". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 24 February 2020. Townsend, Prescott Winson (1934). The Administration of Gordian III. Yale University Press. Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2010). "241-244:Southwest Asia". A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. Varner, Eric R. (2004). Monumenta Graeca et Romana: Mutilation and Transformation : Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Iperial Portraiture. Brill. Wilhite, David E. (2007). Tertullian the African: An Anthropological Reading of Tertullian's Context and Identities. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. External links[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gordian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 247. Meckler, Michael, "Gordian III (238–244 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire (AD354-378), 23.5.7 Media related to Gordian III at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Pupienus and Balbinus Roman emperor 238–244 Succeeded by Philip the Arab Political offices Preceded by Fulvius Pius, and Pontius Proculus Pontianus Consul of the Roman Empire 239 with Manius Acilius Aviola Succeeded by Gaius Octavius Appius Suetrius Sabinus, and Lucius Ragonius Venustus Preceded by Gaius Octavius Appius Suetrius Sabinus, and Lucius Ragonius Venustus Consul of the Roman Empire 241 with Clodius Pompeianus Succeeded by Gaius Vettius Gratus Atticus Sabinianus, and Gaius Asinius Lepidus Praetextatus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordian_III&oldid=1023682833" Categories: 225 births 244 deaths 3rd-century murdered monarchs 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard Deified Roman emperors Ancient child rulers People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Antonii Roman emperors killed in battle Gordian dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 May 2021, at 19:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5410	----	View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree - Wikipedia View source for Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree ← Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Nerva–Antonine family tree== {{chart top|collapsed={{#switch:{{{state|<noinclude>expanded</noinclude>}}}|expanded=no|#default=yes}}|width={{{width|100%}}}|align={{{align|}}}|template_name=Nerva–Antonine family tree|Nerva–Antonine family tree}} {{chart/start}} {{chart | |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.}} {{chart | QBS | | QMB |v| AF | | |!| | | MCN |v| SP | | |!| | | PAH |QBS=[[Barea Soranus|Q.&nbsp;Marcius Barea Soranus]]|QMB=[[Quintus Marcius Barea Sura|Q.&nbsp;Marcius Barea Sura]]|AF=Antonia Furnilla|MCN=M.&nbsp;Cocceius Nerva|SP=Sergia Plautilla|PAH=P.&nbsp;Aelius Hadrianus}} {{chart | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |!}} {{chart | TTS |v| MRF | | MRC |v| MVT | | | | NER | | | | VLP |v| AHM |TTS={{sm|[[Titus]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;79–81)|MRF=[[Marcia Furnilla]]|NER={{sm|[[Nerva]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;96–98)|MRC=[[Marcia (mother of Trajan)|Marcia]]|MVT={{sm|[[Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan)|Trajanus Pater]]}}|VLP=[[Ulpia (grandmother of Hadrian)|Ulpia]]{{efn-lr|Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p.&nbsp;7.}} |AHM=[[Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus]]|boxstyle_ NER=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_ TTS=background-color: #c6bbf9;}} {{chart | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.|F|~|~|J| | | | | | | |!}} {{chart | | | JF | | MAR |v| SAL | | TRA |j| PLO |P| PAA | | AFR |v| DPA | | | | |JF={{sm|[[Julia Flavia]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac8"|Giacosa (1977), p. 8.}} |TRA={{sm|[[Trajan]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;98–117) |PLO={{sm|[[Pompeia Plotina|Plotina]]}}|PAA=[[Publius Acilius Attianus|P.&nbsp;Acilius Attianus]] |SAL=[[Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus|C.&nbsp;Salonius Matidius]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |MAR={{sm|[[Ulpia Marciana|Marciana]]}}{{efn-lr|name="lev161"}} |DPA=[[Paulina#Mother of Hadrian|Paulina Major]]{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"}} |AFR=[[Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer|P.&nbsp;Aelius Afer]]{{efn-lr|name="giac7"}} |boxstyle_ TRA=background-color: #e9a5d8; }} {{chart | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | | | |:| | | | | |!| | | | }} {{chart | LCM |v| SCR |v| MAT |v| VIB | | |L|~|~|~|7|,|*|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.|VIB=[[Lucius Vibius Sabinus|L.&nbsp;Vibius Sabinus]]<br/>(1){{efn-lr|Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |LCM=[[Lucius Mindius]]<br/>(2)|SCR=[[Libo Rupilius Frugi]]<br/>(3)|MAT={{sm|[[Salonia Matidia|Matidia]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac9"}} }} {{chart | | | |!| |,|-|'| | | |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | |:|!|:| | | | | | | | | PAU |v| URS |PAU=[[Paulina#Sister of Hadrian|Paulina Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"}} |URS=[[Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus|L.&nbsp;Julius Ursus Servianus]]{{efn-lr|name="Smith Servianus"|Smith (1870), [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/3125.html "Julius Servianus"].{{Dead link|date=October 2016}} }} |boxstyle_ URS=background-color: #e5e5e5; }} {{chart | | | MAM |!| | | | | | | | SUE |P| SAB |-| HAD |P| AOS | | | | | | | |!| |MAM=[[Matidia Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="giac9"|Giacosa (1977), p. 9.}}|SUE=[[Suetonius]]?{{efn-lr|Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of ''[[Augustan History|HA]] Hadrianus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#11 11:3] }} |SAB={{sm|[[Vibia Sabina|Sabina]]}}{{efn-lr|name="lev161"|Levick (2014), p. 161.}} |HAD={{sm|[[Hadrian]]}}{{efn-lr|name="giac7"|Giacosa (1977), p.&nbsp;7.}}{{efn-lr|name="Smith 1870a p. 319"|Smith (1870), [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1427.html "Hadrian"], pp. 319–322.{{Dead link|date=October 2016}} }}{{efn-lr|name="DIR hadrian"|''DIR'' contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), [http://www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm "Hadrian"].}} (r.&nbsp;117–138) |AOS={{sm|[[Antinous]]}}{{efn-lr|Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p.&nbsp;99 and ''passim''; deification: Lamber (1984), pp.&nbsp;2–5, etc.}} |boxstyle_ HAD=background-color: #e9a5d8; }} {{chart | | | | | |!| | | JBL |P|P|P|P|P|P|Z| | | | |L|~|V|7| | | | | SAL |v| JPA |JPA=[[Paulina#Niece of Hadrian|Julia Serviana Paulina]]|SAL=C.&nbsp;Fuscus Salinator I |JBL=[[Julia Balbilla]]?{{efn-lr|Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), ''Hadrian, the Restless Emperor'', p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion.}} }} {{chart | ANV |v| RPF | | | | | | BP |v| GAA | | | | | |:|:| | | | | | | |`|-|.|RPF=[[Rupilia|Rupilia Faustina]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |BP=Boionia Procilla|GAA=[[Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus|Cn.&nbsp;Arrius Antoninus]] |ANV=[[Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius)|M.&nbsp;Annius Verus]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163.}} }} {{chart | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.|L|~|~|~|~|~|C|:| LCC |v| AS | | STY ||LCC=L.&nbsp;Ceionius Commodus|AS=Appia Severa |STY=C.&nbsp;Fuscus Salinator II|boxstyle_ STY=background-color: #e5e5e5; }} {{chart | | | |!| LCP |-|-|v|-|-| AA | | AF |-|v| TAF |:|:| |,|-|'| |,|-|-|-|.| | | | | |AA=Arria Antonina|AF=Arria Fadilla{{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |TAF=[[Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius)|T.&nbsp;Aurelius Fulvus]] |LCP=L.&nbsp;Caesennius Paetus }} {{chart | | | |!| | | | | LCA | | | | | | | | | |`|-|-|.|:|:| LCC |v| FPL | | IGP |v| GAN |LCA=[[Lucius Caesennius Antoninus|L.&nbsp;Caesennius Antoninus]]|LCC=L.&nbsp;Commodus|FPL=[[Plautia (mother of Aelius Caesar)|Plautia]]|IGP=''ignota''{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |GAN=[[Gaius Avidius Nigrinus|C.&nbsp;Avidius Nigrinus]]}} {{chart | |,|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!|:|L|~|~|7|!| | | | | | | |!| | }} {{chart | MAV |v| DL | | | | FD |-| MAL | | FAU |v| ANT | | | |LAC|-|-|v|-|-|AVP| |DL=[[Domitia Calvilla]]{{efn-lr|Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10.}} |MAV=[[Marcus Annius Verus (praetor)|M. Annius Verus]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |FD=Fundania{{efn-lr|Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163.}} |MAL=[[Marcus Annius Libo|M.&nbsp;Annius Libo]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"}} |FAU=[[Faustina the Elder|F<small>AUSTINA</small>]]{{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |ANT={{sm|[[Antoninus Pius]]}}<br/>(r.&nbsp;138–161){{efn-lr|name="lev162"}} |boxstyle_ ANT=background-color: #e9a5d8; |LAC=[[Lucius Aelius Caesar|L.&nbsp;Aelius Caesar]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |AVP=[[Avidia (mother of Lucius Verus)|Avidia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |boxstyle_LAC=background-color: #f6dbef;}} {{chart| |,|-|^|-|.|F|~|~|~|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|7|,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|.| | }} {{chart|ACF| |MAU|-|v|FAI|P|AVC| | |AFD| |VER|.|CEF|v|PQ| |QSP|v|CEP|MAU=[[Marcus Aurelius|M<small>ARCUS</small> A<small>URELIUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;161–180){{efn-lr|name="giac10"}}|FAI=[[Faustina the Younger|F<small>AUSTINA</small> Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |AVC=[[Avidius Cassius|C.&nbsp;Avidius Cassius]]{{efn-lr|The epitomator of Cassius Dio ([http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html 72.22]) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in ''[[Historia Augusta|HA]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Marcus_Aurelius/2*.html "Marcus Aurelius" 24].}}|ACF=[[Annia Cornificia Faustina|Cornificia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev163"|Levick (2014), p. 163.}} |AFD=Aurelia Fadilla{{efn-lr|name="lev162"|Levick (2014), p. 162.}} |VER=[[Lucius Verus|L<small>UCIUS</small> V<small>ERUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;161–169){{efn-lr|name="lev164"|Levick (2014), p. 164.}}<br/>(1)|PQ=[[Plautius Quintillus]]{{efn-lr|Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164.}} |CEF=[[Ceionia Fabia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |QSP=[[Quintus Servilius Pudens|Q.&nbsp;Servilius Pudens]]|CEP=[[Ceionia Plautia]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} | | |boxstyle_MAU=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_VER=background-color: #e9a5d8; |boxstyle_AVC=background-color: #e5e5e5;}} {{chart| |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|v|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|`|-|.| |`|.| | | | | | |`|.}} {{chart|COR|v|MPS| |COM|!|FAD|.|MAC| |TCP|-|LUC|'|,|MPQ| |JLB|v|SRV|TCP=[[Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus|Ti.&nbsp;Claudius Pompeianus]]<br/>(2)|LUC=[[Lucilla]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |MAC=[[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|M. Annius Verus Caesar]]{{efn-lr|name="giac10"}} |COM=[[Commodus|C<small>OMMODUS</small>]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;177–192){{efn-lr|name="giac10"|Giacosa (1977), p. 10.}} |COR=[[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor|Cornificia Minor]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"}} |MPS=[[Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus|M.&nbsp;Petronius Sura]]|FAD=[[Fadilla]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"|Levick (2014), p. 117.}} |MPQ=[[Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus|M.&nbsp;Plautius Quintillus]]{{efn-lr|name="lev164"}} |JLB=Junius Licinius Balbus|SRV=Servilia Ceionia|boxstyle_COM=background-color: #e9a5d8;|boxstyle_MAC=background-color: #f6dbef;|boxstyle_TCP=background: #e5e5e5;}} {{chart| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |`|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|'| | | | | | | |!}} {{chart| | |PA| |LAA|-|VAS|-|LAB| |PQS| |PS| | |GST| |AG|v|JLB|PA=Petronius Antoninus|LAB=[[Lucius Antistius Burrus|L.&nbsp;Antistius Burrus]]<br/>(1)|LAA=L.&nbsp;Aurelius Agaclytus<br/>(2)|VAS=[[Vibia Aurelia Sabina|Aurelia Sabina]]{{efn-lr|name="lev117"}} |PQS=Plautius Quintillus|PS=Plautia Servilla|GST=[[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|C.&nbsp;Furius Sabinus Timesitheus]]|AG=[[Antonia Gordiana]]|JLB=[[Junius Licinius Balbus]]?}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |`|.| | | | |!}} {{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |TRQ|-|-|GRD|TRQ=[[Tranquillina|Furia Sabina Tranquillina]]|GRD=[[Gordian III|G<small>ORDIAN</small> III]]<br/>(r.&nbsp;238–244)|boxstyle_GRD=background-color: #c6bbf9;}} {{chart/end}} |- |style="text-align: left;"| {| style="border-spacing: 2px; border: 1px solid darkgray;" |- | * (1) = 1st spouse * (2) = 2nd spouse * (3) = 3rd spouse *{{Legend|#e9a5d8|Reddish purple indicates [[Roman emperor|emperor]] of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty}}<br/>{{Legend|#f6dbef|lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned}}<br/>{{Legend|#e5e5e5|grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants}}<br/>{{Legend|#c6bbf9|bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties}} * dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships * {{sm|small caps}} = posthumously deified (''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augusti]], [[Augusta (honorific)|Augustae]],'' or other) |} |- |style="text-align: left;"|'''Notes:''' Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. {{notelist-lr|30em}}<!--- use either {{Efn-lr}} and/or <ref group=lower-roman /> To fill this notelist --> |- |style="text-align: left;"|'''References:''' *{{cite web |author=''DIR'' contributors |year=2000 |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/ |title=De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families |access-date=2015-04-14}} *{{cite book|last=Giacosa |first=Giorgio |title=Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins |others=Translated by R. Ross Holloway |publisher=Edizioni Arte e Moneta |ISBN=0-8390-0193-2 |date=1977 |location=Milan}} *{{cite book|last=Lambert |first=Royston |date=1984 |title=Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous |publisher=Viking |ISBN=0-670-15708-2 |location=New York}} *{{cite book |last=Levick |first=Barbara |title=Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ISBN=978-0-19-537941-9}} *{{cite book |year=1870 |editor=[[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]] |title=[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]}} {{chart bottom}}<noinclude> {{collapsible option|align=1|title-background=1|width=1}} [[Category:Roman family tree templates]] [[Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty|–]] </noinclude> Return to Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree. 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en-wikipedia-org-5418	----	Óc Eo - Wikipedia Óc Eo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Township in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Óc Eo Thị trấn Óc Eo Township (Class-5) Mount Ba Thê, in Óc Eo town, Thoại Sơn district, An Giang Province. Óc Eo Location in Vietnam Coordinates: 10°13′58″N 105°9′6″E / 10.23278°N 105.15167°E / 10.23278; 105.15167Coordinates: 10°13′58″N 105°9′6″E / 10.23278°N 105.15167°E / 10.23278; 105.15167 Country  Vietnam Region Mekong Delta Province An Giang Province District Thoại Sơn District Time zone UTC+7 (ICT) Óc Eo (Khmer: អូរកែវ, Ou Kaev, 'Glass Stream' or 'Crystal Stream') is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta. Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 2nd century BC and 12th century AD.[1] Scholars use the term "Óc Eo Culture" to refer to the archaeological culture of the Mekong Delta region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation. Óc Eo is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam. Contents 1 Archaeological site 2 Remains 3 Óc Eo and Funan 4 Cattigara of Ptolemy 5 Columbus' search for Ciamba 6 References 7 Sources Archaeological site[edit] This map shows the locations of archeological sites associated with Óc Eo culture. It is located at the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh City. Excavation at Óc Eo began on February 10, 1942, after French archaeologists had discovered the site through the use of aerial photography. The first excavations were led by Louis Malleret, who identified the place as the Cattigara of Roman merchants in the first centuries of the Roman empire.[2] The site covers 450 ha. Óc Eo is situated within a network of ancient canals that crisscross the low flatland of the Mekong Delta. One of the canals connects Óc Eo to the town's seaport while another goes 68 kilometres (42 mi) north-northeast to Angkor Borei. Óc Eo is longitudinally bisected by a canal, and there are four transverse canals along which pile-supported houses were perhaps ranged.[3] Archaeological sites reflecting the material culture of Óc Eo are spread throughout southern Vietnam, but are most heavily concentrated in the area of the Mekong Delta to the south and west of Ho Chi Minh City. The most significant site, aside from Óc Eo itself, is at Tháp Muời north of the Tien Giang River, where among other remains a stele with a 6th-century Sanskrit text has been discovered. Aerial photography in 1958 revealed that during the Funan period a distributary of the Mekong entered the Gulf of Thailand in the vicinity of Ta Keo, which was then on the shore but since then become separated by some distance from the sea as a result of siltation. At that time, Ta Keo was connected by a canal with Oc Eo, allowing it access to the Gulf.[4] The distributary of the Mekong revealed in the aerial photography was probably the Saenus mentioned in Ptolemy’s Geography as the western branch of the Mekong, which Ptolemy called the Cottiaris.[5] The Cattigara in Ptolemy's Geography could be derived from a Sanskrit word, either Kottinagara (Strong City) or Kirtinagara (Renowned City).[6] Remains[edit] This statue of Visnu, Hindu deity of Indian-origin religion, from the 6th or 7th century AD was found in Óc Eo and is now housed in the Museum of Vietnamese History. The remains found at Óc Eo include pottery, tools, jewelry, casts for making jewelry, coins, and religious statues.[7] Among the finds are gold jewellery imitating coins from the Roman Empire of the Antonine period.[8]:279[9] Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo, which was near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhou and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy in 166.[10] Many of the remains have been collected and are on exhibition in Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City. Among the coins found at Óc Eo by Malleret were eight made of silver bearing the image of the hamsa or crested argus, apparently minted in Funan.[11] Óc Eo and Funan[edit] See also: Kingdom of Funan The archeological site of Gò Cây Thị, Ba Thê Óc Eo Óc Eo has been regarded as belonging to the historical kingdom of Funan (扶南) that flourished in the Mekong Delta between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century CE. The kingdom of Funan is known to us from the works of ancient Chinese historians, especially writers of dynastic histories, who in turn drew from the testimony of Chinese diplomats and travellers, and of foreign (including Funanese) embassies to the Chinese imperial courts. Indeed, the name "Funan" itself is an artifact of the Chinese histories, and does not appear in the paleographic record of ancient Vietnam or Cambodia. From the Chinese sources, however, it can be determined that a polity called "Funan" by the Chinese was the dominant polity located in the Mekong Delta region. As a result, archeological discoveries in that region that can be dated to the period of Funan have been identified with the historical polity of Funan. The discoveries at Óc Eo and related sites are our primary source for the material culture of Funan. The Vietnamese archaeologist and historian Hà Văn Tấn has written that at the present stage of knowledge, it was impossible to demonstrate the existence of a Funan culture, widely spread from the Mekong Delta through the Chao Praya delta to Burma, with Óc Eo as the typical representative: the presence of similar artefacts such as jewelry and seals from sites in those areas was simply the result of trade and exchange, while each of the sites bore the signs of their own separate cultural development. He supported the view of Claude Jacques that, in view of the complete lack of any Khmer records relating to a kingdom by the name of Funan, use of this name should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Aninditapura, Bhavapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and provide a more accurate idea of the true geography of the ancient Khmer territory.[12] Hà Văn Tấn argued that, from the late neolithic or early metal age, Óc Eo gradually emerged as an economic and cultural centre of the Mekong Delta and, with an important position on the Southeast Asian sea routes, became a meeting place for craftsmen and traders, which provided adequate conditions for urbanization, receiving foreign influences, notably from India, which in turn stimulated internal development.[13] Funan was part of the region of Southeast Asia referred to in ancient Indian texts as Suvarnabhumi, and may have been the part to which the term was first applied.[14] Cattigara of Ptolemy[edit] The ancient canal linking Óc Eo to Angkor Borei Óc Eo may have been the port known to the Romans as Cattigara.[15] Cattigara was the name given by the 2nd-century Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy to the land on the easternmost shore of the Indian Sea at (due to a scribal error) 8½° south of the Equator.[16] The name "Cattigara" was probably derived from the Sanskrit Kirti-nagara कीर्ति- नगर "Renowned City" or Kotti-nagara कोटि-नगर "Strong City".[17] Scholarship has now determined that Ptolemy's Cattigara was at 8½° north of the Equator and was the forerunner of Saigon as the main port and entrepot at the mouth of the Mekong.[18] Mr Caverhill "proves" the ancient Cattigara to be the same with the modern Ponteamass (Banteaymeas), The Monthly Review, Or, Literary Journal, Volume 40, 1769, p.98. John Caverhill deduced in 1767 that Cattigara was the Mekong Delta port Banteaymeas (now Hà Tiên),[19] not far from Óc Eo.[20] The plea in 1979 by Jeremy H.C.S. Davidson for "a thorough study of Hà-tiên in its historical context and in relation to Óc-eo" as indispensable for accurate understanding and interpretation of the site, still remains unanswered.[21] The eighteenth-century French geographer, Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, located Cattigara at the mouth of the Mekong (Cottiaris) River, where it is shown on his map, Orbis Veteribus Notus (The World Known to the Ancients).[22] Cattigara located at the outlet of the river Mekong (Cotiaris), by d' Anville, Orbis Veteribus Notus (The World Known to the Ancients). The Swedish yachtsman and writer Bjorn Landström also concluded, from the sailing directions given by the ancient merchant and seafarer Alexander, that Cattigara lay at the mouth of the Mekong.[23] The "father of Early Southeast Asian History", George Coedès, has said: "By the middle of the 3rd century Fu-nan had already established relations with China and India, and it is doubtless on the west coast of the Gulf of Siam that the furthest point reached by Hellenistic navigators is to be found, that is the harbour of Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy".[verify][24] A.H. Christie said in 1979 that "the presence of objects, however few in number, from the Roman Orient" added some weight to the conjecture that Óc-eo was the Ptolemaic Kattigara.[25] The distinguished German classical scholar, Albrecht Dihle, supported this view, saying: From the account of the voyage of Alexander referred to by Ptolemy, Kattigara can actually be located only in the Mekong delta, because Alexander went first along the east coast of the Malacca peninsula, northward to Bangkok, from thence likewise only along the coast toward the south east, and so came to Kattigara. We hear nothing of any further change of course. In addition, at Óc Eo, an emporium excavated in the western Mekong delta, in the ancient kingdom of Fu-nan, Roman finds from the 2nd century after Christ have come to light.[26] Columbus' search for Ciamba[edit] Guided by Ptolemy, the discoverers of the New World were initially trying to find their way to Cattigara. On the 1489 map of the world made by Henricus Martellus Germanus, revising Ptolemy's work, Asia terminated in its southeastern point in a cape, the Cape of Cattigara. Writing of his 1499 voyage, Amerigo Vespucci said he had hoped to reach Malacca (Melaka) by sailing westward from Spain across the Western Ocean (the Atlantic) around the Cape of Cattigara into the Sinus Magnus ("Great Gulf") that lay to the east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula), of which the Cape of Cattigara formed the southeastern point. The Sinus Magnus was the actual Gulf of Thailand.[27] Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage of 1502–1503, planned to follow the coast of Champa southward around the Cape of Cattigara and sail through the strait separating Cattigara from the New World, into the Sinus Magnus to Malacca. This was the route he thought Marco Polo had gone from China to India in 1292.[28] Columbus planned to meet up with the expedition sent at the same time from Portugal around the Cape of Good Hope under Vasco da Gama, and carried letters of credence from the Spanish monarchs to present to da Gama.[29] On reaching Cariay on the coast of Costa Rica, Columbus thought he was close to the gold mines of Champa. On 7 July 1503, he wrote from Jamaica: "I reached the land of Cariay...Here I received news of the gold mines of Ciamba [Champa] which I was seeking".[30] References[edit] ^ Sen, Võ Văn; Thắng, Đặng Văn (6 October 2017). "Recognition of Oc Eo Culture Relic in Thoai Son District an Giang Province, Vienam". American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS). 36 (1): 271–293. ISSN 2313-4402. ^ Roman merchants in Indochina ^ Paul Lévy, "Recent Archaeological Researches by the École Français d’Extrême Orient, French Indo-China, 1940–1945", in Kalidas Nag (ed.), Sir William Jones: Bicentenary of his Birth Commemoration Volume, 1746–1946, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1948, pp.118-19; paraphrased in R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia, Baroda, B.J. : Sandesara, 1963, pp.12-13. ^ Aulis Lind, "Ancient canals and environments of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam", Journal of Geography, vol.79, no.2, February 1980, pp.74-75. ^ Identified as such by C. E. Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia; Asiatic Society Monographs, Vol. I, 1909, pp.193, 775 and Albert Herrmann, „Die alten Verkehrswege zwischen Indien und Süd-China nach Ptolemäus", Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1913, pp.771-787, p.784. [1] English translation at: [2] ^ Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Cattigara," in Robert Nichols and Martin Woods (eds), Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia, 38-39, Canberra: National Library of Australia. ISBN 9780642278098, p. 38. ^ Louis Malleret, "Le trace de Rome en Indochine", in Zeki Velidi Togan (ed.), Proceedings of the Twenty-Second International Congress of Orientalists held at Istanbul, 1951, Vol.II, Communications, Leiden, Brill, 1957, pp.332-347. ^ Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., ISBN 9786167339443 ^ Brigitte Borell, "Some Western Imports assigned to the Oc Eo Period Reconsidered", in Jean-Pierre Pautreau et al. (eds.), From Homo Erectus to the Living Traditions: Choice of Papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Bougon, 25th–29th September 2006, Chiang Mai, Siam Ratana, c2008, pp.167-174. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ Lương Ninh, "Óc Eo – Cảng thị quốc tế của Vương quốc Phù Nam (Óc Eo – International Trade Port of Funnan Kingdom)", Khảo cổ học / Vietnam Archaeology, 3, 2011, pp.39-44. ^ Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia : Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371-9. ^ Ha Van Tan, "Óc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1-2 (7-8), 1986, pp. 91-101. ^ Pang Khat, «Le Bouddhisme au Cambodge», René de Berval, Présence du Bouddhisme, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, pp.535-551, pp.537, 538; Amarajiva Lochan, "India and Thailand: Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports", S.K. Maity, Upendra Thakur, A.K. Narain (eds,), Studies in Orientology: Essays in Memory of Prof. A.L. Basham, Agra, Y.K. Publishers, 1988, pp.222-235, pp.222, 229-230; Prapod Assavavirulhakarn, The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Chieng Mai, Silkworm Books, 2010, p.55. ^ "Oc-Eo dans le delta du Mékong serait donc une identification plus probable": Germaine Aujac, Claude Ptolémée, Astronome, Astrologue, Géographe: Connaissance et Représentation du Monde habité, Paris, Editions du CTHS, 1993, p.125, n.10. See also Adhir Chakravarti, "The Economic Foundations of Three Ancient Civilizations of South-east Asia: Borobudur, Dvararavati and Angkor: Preliminary Report of a Study Tour in some countries of South-east Asia in April–May 1985", in Haraprasad Ray (ed.), Studies on India, China, and South East Asia: Posthumous Papers of Prof. Adhir Chakravarti, Kolkata, R.N. Bhattacharya, 2007, p.89; and Adhir Chakravarti, "International Trade and Towns of Ancient Siam", Our Heritage: Bulletin of the Department of Post-graduate Training and Research, Sanskrit College, Calcutta, vol. XXIX, part I, January–June 1981, pp1-23, nb p.9. An alternative proposed by J. L. Moens was that the name derived from the Sanskrit, Koti-nagara "Cape City", referring to its location near Cape Ca Mau, the southern point of Indochina: J. L. Moens, "De Noord-Sumatraanse Rijken der Parfums en specerijen in Voor-Moslimse Tijd," Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, LXXXV, 3, 1955, pp.325-336, p.335; also J. L. Moens, "Kotinagara het antieke handescentrum op Yava's. Eindpunt," Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, LXXXV, 3, 1955, pp. 437-48, p.448; and also W.J. van der Meulen, "Ptolemy's Geography of Mainland Southeast Asia and Borneo," Indonesia, no.19, April 1975, pp.1-32, p.17. ^ Paul Schnabel, „Die Entstehungsgeschichte des kartographischen Erdbildes des Klaudios Ptolemaios", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd.XIV, 1930, S.214-250, nb 239-243. Erich Polaschek, ‘Ptolemy's "Geography" in a New Light’, Imago Mundi, Vol. 14, (1959), pp. 17-37, nb pp.25 & 35. Bagrow, L. (1 January 1945). "The Origin of Ptolemy's Geographia". Geografiska Annaler. Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 27. 27: 318–387, nb 322–323. doi:10.2307/520071. ISSN 1651-3215. JSTOR 520071. Claudius Ptolemy, India extra Gangem fluvium Sinarum situs, Rome, Arnoldus Buckinck, 1508 (same map reproduced in the Rome 1478 and 1490 edition). ^ Adhir K. Chakravarti, "Early Sino-Indian Maritime Trade and Fu-Nan", D.C. Sircar (ed.), Early Indian Trade and Industry, Calcutta, University of Calcutta Centre of Advanced Study in Ancient Indian History and Culture, Lectures and Seminars, no. VIII-A, part I, 1972, pp. 101-117; also in The South East Asian Review (Gaya, India), vol. 20, nos.1 & 2, 1995, pp.5-14, p.10; and in India and South-East Asia Socio-econo-cultural Contacts, edited by N.N. Bhattacharyya, Kolkata, Punthi Pustak, 1998, p.413. ^ Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp.123-8; Louis Malleret, L’Archéologie du delta du Mékong, Tome Troisiéme, La culture du Fu-nan, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp.421-54. ^ Nicholas Sellers, The Princes of Hà-Tiên (1682-1867): the Last of the Philosopher-Princes and the Prelude to the French Conquest of Indochina: a Study of the Independent Rule of the Mac Dynasty in the Principality of Hà-Tiên, and the Establishment of the Empire of Vietnam, Brussels, Thanh-long, 1983, p.164. ^ John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies", Philosophical Transactions, vol.57, 1767, pp. 155-174. ^ Jeremy H.C.S. Davidson, "Archaeology in Southern Viet-Nam since 1954", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.215-222, see p.216. ^ Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d' Anville, Eclaircissements géographiques sur la carte de l'Inde, Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1753, pp.160-161; Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' Anville, A Geographical Illustration of the Map of India, Translated by William Herbert, London, 1759, p.78; Atlas de d'Anville, 1786. Orbis Veteribus Notus ^ Bjorn Landström, The quest for India : a History of Discovery and Exploration from the Expedition to the Land of Punt in 1493 B.C. to the Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 A.D., in words and pictures, London, Allen & Unwin, 1964, p.56. ^ George Coedès, "Some Problems in the Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia", Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol.5, no.2, September 1964, pp.1-14. Coedès clarified what he meant in his book, Les Peuples de la Péninsule Indochinoise: Histoire – Civilisations (Paris, Dunod, 1962, pp.62, translated by H.M. Wright, The Making of South East Asia, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1966, p.58-59): "Now Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam". ^ A.H. Christie, "Lin-i, Fu-nan, Java", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.281-7, see p. 286. ^ Albrecht Dihle, Umstrittene Daten: Untersuchenen zum Auftreten der Griechen an Roten Meer, Köln und Opladen, Westdeutsch Verlag, 1964, S.30. ^ Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp. 123-8 ^ George E. Nunn, ‘The Three Maplets attributed to Bartholomew Columbus’, Imago Mundi, vol.9, 1952, 12-22, p.15; Helen Wallis, ‘What Columbus Knew’, History Today, vol.42, May 1992, pp.17-23; Edmundo O'Gorman, The Invention of America: An Inquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of its History, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1961, pp.106-122. ^ The letter, dated 14 March 1502, is published in Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, Coleccion de los Viages y Descubrimientos, 2nd. edn., Madrid, Imprenta Nacional, 1858, p.430; the covering letter to Columbus is published in A. Millares Carlo (ed.), Historia de las Indias por Fray Bartólome de las Casas, México, Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1951, Lib.2, cap.iv, pp.219-20. ^ Letter dated 7 July 1503; quoted in J.M. Cohen (ed.), The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1969, p.287. Sources[edit] Part of a series on Prehistoric and ancient cultures of Vietnam Paleolithic Sơn Vi culture (20,000–12,000 BC) Mesolithic Hoabinhian (12,000–10,000 BC) Neolithic Bắc Sơn culture (10,000–8,000 BC) Quỳnh Văn culture (8,000–6,000 BC) Đa Bút culture (4,000–3,000 BC) Bronze Age Phùng Nguyên culture (2,000–1,500 BC) Đồng Đậu culture (1,500–1,000 BC) Gò Mun culture (1,000–800 BC) Dong Son culture (1,000 BC–100 AD) Iron Age Sa Huỳnh culture (1,000 BC–200 AD) Óc Eo culture (1–630 AD) v t e Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp. 123–8. English translation at [3] Albert Herrmann, "South-Eastern Asia on Ptolemy’s Map", Research and Progress: Quarterly Review of German Science, vol.V, no.2, March–April 1939, pp. 121–127, p. 123. Albert Herrmann, Das Land der Seide und Tibet in Lichte der Antike, Leipzig, 1938, pp. 80, 84. Louis Malleret, L’Archéologie du delta du Mékong, Tome Troisiéme, La culture du Fu-nan, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp. 421–54. John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies", Philosophical Transactions, vol.57, 1767, pp. 155–174. Adhir K. Chakravarti, "Early Sino-Indian Maritime Trade and Fu-Nan", D.C. Sircar (ed.), Early Indian Trade and Industry, Calcutta, University of Calcutta Centre of Advanced Study in Ancient Indian History and Culture, Lectures and Seminars, no. VIII-A, part I, 1972, pp. 101–117. George Cœdès, "Fouilles en Cochinchine: Le Site de Go Oc Eo, Ancien Port du Royaume de Fou-nan", Artibus Asiae, vol.10, no.3, 1947, pp. 193–199. George Coedès, review of Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), in T'oung Pao 通報, vol.49, parts 4/5, 1962, pp. 433–439. George Coedès, "Some Problems in the Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia", Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol.5, no.2, September 1964, pp. 1–14. Albrecht Dihle, "Serer und Chinesen", in Antike und Orient: Gesammelte Aufsätze, Heidelberg, Carl Winter, 1984, S.209. J.W. McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, London, Trubner, 1885, revised edition by Ramachandra Jain, New Delhi, Today & Tomorrow's Printers & Publishers, 1974, p. 204: George E. Nunn, ‘The Three Maplets attributed to Bartholomew Columbus’, Imago Mundi, 9 (1952), 12–22, page 15; and Helen Wallis, ‘What Columbus Knew’, History Today, 42 (May 1992), 17–23. Quoted in J.M. Cohen (ed.), The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1969, p. 287. Ha Van Tan, "Oc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1-2 (7-8), 1986, pp. 91–101. R. Stein, "Le Lin-yi 林邑, sa localisation, sa contribution à la formation de Champa et ses liens avec la Chine", Han-Hiue 漢學, Bulletin du Centre d’Études sinologiques de Pékin, vol.II, pts.1-3, 1948, pp. 115, 122–3. R. Stein, review of Albert Herrmann, Das Land der Seide und Tibet im Lichte der Antike (Leipzig, 1938), in Bulletin de l’École Française d’ Extrême-Orient, tome XL, fasc.2, 1940, p. 459. Paul Lévy, "Le Kattigara de Ptolémée et les Étapes d’Agastya, le Héros de l’Expansion Hindoue en Extrême-Orient", in XXIe Congrès Internationale des Orientalistes, Paris, 1948, Actes, Paris, Société Asiatique de Paris, 1949, p. 223. Paul Demiéville, review of R. Stein, "Le Lin-yi 林邑", (Han-Hiue 漢學, vol.II, pts.1-3, 1948), in T'oung Pao 通報, vol.40, livres 4/5, 1951, pp. 336–351, n.b. pp. 338, 341. Paul Lévy, "Recent Archaeological Researches by the École Français d’Extrême Orient, French Indo-China, 1940–1945", in Kalidas Nag (ed.), Sir William Jones: Bicentenary of his Birth Commemoration Volume, 1746–1946, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1948, pp. 118–19; paraphrased in R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia, Baroda, B.J. : Sandesara, 1963, pp. 12–13. Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam ", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke, Arts of ancient Viet Nam: from River Plain to Open Sea, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009, pp. 100–118. Phạm Dức Mạnh, History of the South from the Original Advent of Civilization & Basic Material Relating to the Kingdom of Funan; Traditional Oc Eo Culture – Later Oc Eo (Research Material), Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City National University Faculty of Social Science & Literature, 2009. Paul Wheatley, prefatory essay in Albert Herrmann, An historical atlas of China, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1966, p.xxviii. Srisakra Vallibotama and Dhida Saraya, "South-East Asia from ad 300 to 700: Oc-éo", in Sigfried J. de Laet, History of Humanity, London, New York and Paris, Routledge and Unesco, Volume III, 1996, Joachim Herrmann and Erik Zürcher (eds.), From the Seventh Century BC to the Seventh Century AD, pp. 428–29. John N. Miksic, Singapore & the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800, Singapore, NUS Press, 2014, pp.33-37, 45-56. v t e An Giang Province Capital: Long Xuyên Long Xuyên Mỹ Bình Mỹ Long Mỹ Xuyên Bình Khánh Mỹ Phước Đông Xuyên Mỹ Quý Mỹ Thạnh Mỹ Thới Bình Đức Mỹ Hòa Mỹ Hòa Hưng Mỹ Khánh Châu Đốc Châu Phú A Châu Phú B Núi Sam Vĩnh Mỹ Vĩnh Nguơn Vĩnh Châu Vĩnh Tế Tân Châu Long Phú Long Châu Long Hưng Long Sơn Long Thạnh Châu Phong Lê Chánh Long An Phú Lộc Phú Vĩnh Tân An Tân Thạnh Vĩnh Hòa Vĩnh Xương An Phú District An Phú Long Bình Đa Phước Khánh An Khánh Bình Nhơn Hội Phú Hội Phú Hữu Phước Hưng Quốc Thái Vĩnh Hậu Vĩnh Hội Đông Vĩnh Lộc Vĩnh Trường Châu Phú District Cái Dầu Bình Chánh Bình Long Bình Mỹ Bình Phú Bình Thủy Đào Hữu Cảnh Khánh Hòa Mỹ Đức Mỹ Phú Ô Long Vĩ Thạnh Mỹ Tây Vĩnh Thạnh Trung Châu Thành District An Châu An Hòa Bình Hòa Bình Thạnh Cần Đăng Hòa Bình Thạnh Tân Phú Vĩnh An Vĩnh Bình Vĩnh Hanh Vĩnh Lợi Vĩnh Nhuận Vĩnh Thành Chợ Mới District Chợ Mới Mỹ Luông An Thạnh Trung Bình Phước Xuân Hòa An Hòa Bình Hội An Kiến An Kiến Thành Long Điền A Long Điền B Long Giang Long Kiến Mỹ An Mỹ Hiệp Mỹ Hội Đông Nhơn Mỹ Tấn Mỹ Phú Tân District Phú Mỹ Chợ Vàm Bình Thạnh Đông Hiệp Xương Hòa Lạc Long Hòa Phú An Phú Bình Phú Hiệp Phú Hưng Phú Lâm Phú Thành Phú Thạnh Phú Thọ Phú Long Phú Xuân Tân Hòa Tân Trung Thoại Sơn District Núi Sập Óc Eo Phú Hòa An Bình Bình Thành Định Mỹ Định Thành Mỹ Phú Đông Phú Thuận Tây Phú Thoại Giang Vĩnh Chánh Vĩnh Khánh Vĩnh Phú Vĩnh Trạch Vọng Đông Vọng Thê Tịnh Biên District Tịnh Biên Chi Lăng Nhà Bàng An Cư An Hảo An Nông An Phú Nhơn Hưng Núi Voi Tân Lập Tân Lợi Thới Sơn Văn Giáo Vĩnh Trung Tri Tôn District Tri Tôn Ba Chúc An Tức Châu Lăng Cô Tô Lạc Quới Lê Trì Lương An Trà Lương Phi Núi Tô Ô Lâm Tà Đảnh Tân Tuyến Vĩnh Gia Vĩnh Phước Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Óc_Eo&oldid=1018858601" Categories: Archaeological sites in Vietnam Ancient Vietnam Archaeological cultures of Southeast Asia Archaeological cultures in Vietnam Iron Age cultures of Asia Buildings and structures in An Giang Province Archaeological cultures in Cambodia 1st-century establishments in Vietnam 7th-century disestablishments in Vietnam Townships in Vietnam Communes of An Giang Province Populated places in An Giang Province Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from December 2019 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Khmer-language text All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Español Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Occitan ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2021, at 08:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5421	----	Jurisprudence - Wikipedia Jurisprudence From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Theoretical study of law For the "jurisprudence" of courts, see Case law. "Concept of law" redirects here. For the book by H. L. A. Hart, see The Concept of Law. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Jurisprudence" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Philosophers of law ask "what is law, and what should it be?" Jurisprudence, or legal theory, is the theoretical study of law. Scholars of jurisprudence seek to explain the nature of law in its most general form and provide a deeper understanding of legal reasoning and analogy, legal systems, legal institutions, and the role of law in society.[1] Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations.[2] General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists.[3] This article addresses three distinct branches of thought in general jurisprudence. Ancient natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. The foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain whatever force they have.[3] Analytic jurisprudence (Clarificatory jurisprudence) rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. It espouses the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems.[4] It encompasses such theories of jurisprudence as "legal positivism", which holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from basic social facts;[5] and "legal realism", which argues that the real-world practice of law determines what law is, the law having the force that it does because of what legislators, lawyers, and judges do with it. Normative jurisprudence is concerned with "evaluative" theories of law. It deals with what the goal or purpose of law is, or what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law. It not only addresses the question "What is law?", but also tries to determine what the proper function of law should be, or what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Natural law 3.1 Aristotle 3.2 Thomas Aquinas 3.3 School of Salamanca 3.4 Lon Fuller 3.5 John Finnis 4 Analytic jurisprudence 4.1 Historical school 4.2 Sociological jurisprudence 4.3 Legal positivism 4.3.1 Thomas Hobbes 4.3.2 Bentham and Austin 4.3.3 Hans Kelsen 4.3.4 H. L. A. Hart 4.3.5 Joseph Raz 4.4 Legal realism 4.5 Critical legal studies 4.6 Critical rationalism 4.7 Legal interpretivism 4.8 Therapeutic jurisprudence 5 Normative jurisprudence 5.1 Virtue jurisprudence 5.2 Deontology 5.3 Utilitarianism 5.4 John Rawls 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology[edit] The English word is derived from the Latin, iurisprudentia.[6] Iuris is the genitive form of ius meaning law, and prudentia meaning prudence (also: discretion, foresight, forethought, circumspection). It refers to the exercise of good judgment, common sense, and caution, especially in the conduct of practical matters. The word first appeared in written English[7] in 1628, at a time when the word prudence meant knowledge of, or skill in, a matter. It may have entered English via the French jurisprudence, which appeared earlier. History[edit] Ancient Indian jurisprudence is mentioned in various Dharmaśāstra texts, starting with the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana.[8] In Ancient China, the Daoists, Confucians, and Legalists all had competing theories of jurisprudence.[9] Jurisprudence in Ancient Rome had its origins with the (periti)—experts in the jus mos maiorum (traditional law), a body of oral laws and customs. Praetors established a working body of laws by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the edicta, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offense, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the edicta. An iudex would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case. The sentences of the iudex were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies. The law was then adjusted with evolving institutiones (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional mode. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience. Under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and practice of the law became more academic. From the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant body of literature was produced by groups of scholars, including the Proculians and Sabinians. The scientific nature of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times. After the 3rd century, juris prudentia became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors. It was during the Eastern Roman Empire (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was born. Natural law[edit] In its general sense, natural law theory may be compared to both state-of-nature law and general law understood on the basis of being analogous to the laws of physical science. Natural law is often contrasted to positive law which asserts law as the product of human activity and human volition. Another approach to natural-law jurisprudence generally asserts that human law must be in response to compelling reasons for action. There are two readings of the natural-law jurisprudential stance. The strong natural law thesis holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it is not properly a "law" at all. This is captured, imperfectly, in the famous maxim: lex iniusta non-est lex (an unjust law is no law at all). The weak natural law thesis holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it can still be called a "law", but it must be recognised as a defective law. Notions of an objective moral order, external to human legal systems, underlie natural law. What is right or wrong can vary according to the interests one is focused on. John Finnis, one of the most important of modern natural lawyers,[10] has argued that the maxim "an unjust law is no law at all" is a poor guide to the classical Thomist position. Strongly related to theories of natural law are classical theories of justice, beginning in the West with Plato's Republic. Aristotle[edit] Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law.[11] Like his philosophical forefathers Socrates and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαίον φυσικόν, Latin ius naturale). His association with natural law is largely due to how he was interpreted by Thomas Aquinas.[12] This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics (Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages,[13] though more recent translations render them more literally.[14] Aristotle's theory of justice is bound up in his idea of the golden mean. Indeed, his treatment of what he calls "political justice" derives from his discussion of "the just" as a moral virtue derived as the mean between opposing vices, just like every other virtue he describes.[15] His longest discussion of his theory of justice occurs in Nicomachean Ethics and begins by asking what sort of mean a just act is. He argues that the term "justice" actually refers to two different but related ideas: general justice and particular justice.[16][17] When a person's actions toward others are completely virtuous in all matters, Aristotle calls them "just" in the sense of "general justice"; as such, this idea of justice is more or less coextensive with virtue.[18] "Particular" or "partial justice", by contrast, is the part of "general justice" or the individual virtue that is concerned with treating others equitably.[17] Aristotle moves from this unqualified discussion of justice to a qualified view of political justice, by which he means something close to the subject of modern jurisprudence. Of political justice, Aristotle argues that it is partly derived from nature and partly a matter of convention.[19] This can be taken as a statement that is similar to the views of modern natural law theorists. But it must also be remembered that Aristotle is describing a view of morality, not a system of law, and therefore his remarks as to nature are about the grounding of the morality enacted as law, not the laws themselves. The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the Rhetoric, where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature.[20] The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle thought that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was adverse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law.[21] Aristotle, moreover, considered certain candidates for a universally valid, natural law to be wrong.[22] Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed.[23] Thomas Aquinas[edit] Main articles: Thomas Aquinas and Treatise on Law Thomas Aquinas was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar. Thomas Aquinas is the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy, for a long time the primary philosophical approach of the Roman Catholic Church. The work for which he is best known is the Summa Theologiae. One of the thirty-five Doctors of the Church, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Church's greatest theologian. Consequently, many institutions of learning have been named after him. Aquinas distinguished four kinds of law: eternal, natural, divine, and human: Eternal law refers to divine reason, known only to God. It is God's plan for the universe. Man needs this plan, for without it he would totally lack direction. Natural law is the "participation" in the eternal law by rational human creatures, and is discovered by reason Divine law is revealed in the scriptures and is God's positive law for mankind Human law is supported by reason and enacted for the common good.[24] Natural law is based on "first principles":[25] ... this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this ... The desires to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all other human values are based. School of Salamanca[edit] Main articles: School of Salamanca and ius gentium Francisco de Vitoria was perhaps the first to develop a theory of ius gentium (the rights of peoples), and thus is an important figure in the transition to modernity. He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to international affairs, concluding that such affairs ought to be determined by forms respecting of the rights of all and that the common good of the world should take precedence before the good of any single state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice. Some scholars have upset the standard account of the origins of International law, which emphasises the seminal text De iure belli ac pacis by Hugo Grotius, and argued for Vitoria and, later, Suárez's importance as forerunners and, potentially, founders of the field.[26] Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.[27] Francisco Suárez, regarded as among the greatest scholastics after Aquinas, subdivided the concept of ius gentium. Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished ius inter gentes from ius intra gentes. Ius inter gentes (which corresponds to modern international law) was something common to the majority of countries, although, being positive law, not natural law, it was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, ius intra gentes, or civil law, is specific to each nation. Lon Fuller[edit] Main article: Lon L. Fuller Writing after World War II, Lon L. Fuller defended a secular and procedural form of natural law. He emphasised that the (natural) law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable). To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argued, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect. Thus, the law must have a morality that goes beyond the societal rules under which laws are made. John Finnis[edit] Main article: John Finnis Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other and may have certain points in common. Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, and the particular influences on the theorist's work. The natural law theorists of the distant past, such as Aquinas and John Locke made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence, while modern natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, who claim to be positivists, still argue that law is moral by nature. In his book Natural Law and Natural Rights (1980, 2011), John Finnis provides a restatement of natural law doctrine.[28] Analytic jurisprudence[edit] Main article: Analytic jurisprudence Analytic, or "clarificatory", jurisprudence means taking a neutral point of view and using descriptive language when referring to various aspects of legal systems. This was a philosophical development that rejected natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be.[4] David Hume argued, in A Treatise of Human Nature,[29] that people invariably slip from describing what the world is to asserting that we therefore ought to follow a particular course of action. But as a matter of pure logic, one cannot conclude that we ought to do something merely because something is the case. So analysing and clarifying the way the world is must be treated as a strictly separate question from normative and evaluative questions of what ought to be done. The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?"; "What is the law?"; "What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?"; and "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there is a growing number of critics who offer their own interpretations. Historical school[edit] Historical jurisprudence came to prominence during the debate on the proposed codification of German law. In his book On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence,[30] Friedrich Carl von Savigny argued that Germany did not have a legal language that would support codification because the traditions, customs, and beliefs of the German people did not include a belief in a code. Historicists believe that law originates with society. Sociological jurisprudence[edit] Main article: Sociology of Law An effort to systematically inform jurisprudence from sociological insights developed from the beginning of the twentieth century, as sociology began to establish itself as a distinct social science, especially in the United States and in continental Europe. In Germany, Austria and France, the work of the "free law" theorists (e.g. Ernst Fuchs, Hermann Kantorowicz, Eugen Ehrlich and Francois Geny) encouraged the use of sociological insights in the development of legal and juristic theory. The most internationally influential advocacy for a "sociological jurisprudence" occurred in the United States, where, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Roscoe Pound, for many years the Dean of Harvard Law School, used this term to characterise his legal philosophy. In the United States, many later writers followed Pound's lead or developed distinctive approaches to sociological jurisprudence. In Australia, Julius Stone strongly defended and developed Pound's ideas. In the 1930s, a significant split between the sociological jurists and the American legal realists emerged. In the second half of the twentieth century, sociological jurisprudence as a distinct movement declined as jurisprudence came more strongly under the influence of analytical legal philosophy; but with increasing criticism of dominant orientations of legal philosophy in English-speaking countries in the present century, it has attracted renewed interest. Increasingly, its contemporary focus is on providing theoretical resources for jurists to aid their understanding of new types of regulation (for example, the diverse kinds of developing transnational law) and the increasingly important interrelations of law and culture, especially in multicultural Western societies.[31] Legal positivism[edit] Main article: Legal positivism Legal positivism is the view that the content of law is dependent on social facts and that a legal system's existence is not constrained by morality.[32] Within legal positivism, theorists agree that law's content is a product of social facts, but theorists disagree whether law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values.[33] Legal positivists who argue against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity are labeled exclusive (or hard) legal positivists. Joseph Raz's legal positivism is an example of exclusive legal positivism. Legal positivists who argue that law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values are labeled inclusive (or soft) legal positivists. The legal positivist theories of H. L. A. Hart and Jules Coleman are examples of inclusive legal positivism.[34] Thomas Hobbes[edit] Main article: Thomas Hobbes Hobbes was a social contractarian[35] and believed that the law had peoples' tacit consent. He believed that society was formed from a state of nature to protect people from the state of war that would exist otherwise. In Leviathan, Hobbes argues that without an ordered society life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."[36] It is commonly said that Hobbes's views on human nature were influenced by his times. The English Civil War and the Cromwellian dictatorship had taken place; and, in reacting to that, Hobbes felt that absolute authority vested in a monarch, whose subjects obeyed the law, was the basis of a civilized society. Bentham and Austin[edit] Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century. Main articles: Jeremy Bentham and John Austin (legal philosopher) John Austin and Jeremy Bentham were early legal positivists who sought to provide a descriptive account of law that describes the law as it is. Austin explained the descriptive focus for legal positivism by saying, "The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry."[37] For Austin and Bentham, a society is governed by a sovereign who has de facto authority. Through the sovereign's authority come laws, which for Austin and Bentham are commands backed by sanctions for non-compliance. Along with Hume, Bentham was an early and staunch supporter of the utilitarian concept, and was an avid prison reformer, advocate for democracy, and firm atheist. Bentham's views about law and jurisprudence were popularized by his student John Austin. Austin was the first chair of law at the new University of London, from 1829. Austin's utilitarian answer to "what is law?" was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".[38] H. L. A. Hart criticized Austin and Bentham's early legal positivism because the command theory failed to account for individual's compliance with the law. Hans Kelsen[edit] Main article: Hans Kelsen Hans Kelsen is considered one of the prominent jurists of the 20th century and has been highly influential in Europe and Latin America, although less so in common-law countries. His Pure Theory of Law describes law as "binding norms", while at the same time refusing to evaluate those norms. That is, "legal science" is to be separated from "legal politics". Central to the Pure Theory of Law is the notion of a "basic norm" (Grundnorm)'—a hypothetical norm, presupposed by the jurist, from which all "lower" norms in the hierarchy of a legal system, beginning with constitutional law, are understood to derive their authority or the extent to which they are binding. Kelsen contends that the extent to which legal norms are binding, their specifically "legal" character, can be understood without tracing it ultimately to some suprahuman source such as God, personified Nature or—of great importance in his time—a personified State or Nation. H. L. A. Hart[edit] Main article: H. L. A. Hart In the English-speaking world, the most influential legal positivist of the twentieth century was H. L. A. Hart, professor of jurisprudence at Oxford University. Hart argued that the law should be understood as a system of social rules. In The Concept of Law, Hart rejected Kelsen's views that sanctions were essential to law and that a normative social phenomenon, like law, cannot be grounded in non-normative social facts. Hart claimed that law is the union primary rules and secondary rules.[39] Primary rules require individuals to act or not act in certain ways and create duties for the governed to obey.[40] Secondary rules are rules that confer authority to create new primary rules or modify existing ones.[40] Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (how to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (how laws are amended), and the rule of recognition (how laws are identified as valid). The validity of a legal system comes from the "rule of recognition", which is a customary practice of officials (especially barristers and judges) who identify certain acts and decisions as sources of law. In 1981, Neil MacCormick[41] wrote a pivotal book on Hart (second edition published in 2008), which further refined and offered some important criticisms that led MacCormick to develop his own theory (the best example of which is his Institutions of Law, 2007). Other important critiques include those of Ronald Dworkin, John Finnis, and Joseph Raz. In recent years, debates on the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained. One important debate is within legal positivism. One school is sometimes called "exclusive legal positivism" and is associated with the view that the legal validity of a norm can never depend on its moral correctness. A second school is labeled "inclusive legal positivism", a major proponent of which is Wil Waluchow, and is associated with the view that moral considerations may, but do not necessarily, determine the legal validity of a norm. Joseph Raz[edit] Main article: Joseph Raz Joseph Raz's theory of legal positivism argues against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity. In Raz's 1979 book The Authority of Law, he criticised what he called the "weak social thesis" to explain law.[42] He formulates the weak social thesis as "(a) Sometimes the identification of some laws turn on moral arguments, but also with, (b) In all legal systems the identification of some law turns on moral argument."[43] Raz argues that law's authority is identifiable purely through social sources, without reference to moral reasoning.[43] This view he calls "the sources thesis".[44] Raz suggests that any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authority is better left to sociology than to jurisprudence.[45] Some philosophers used to contend that positivism was the theory that held that there was "no necessary connection" between law and morality; but influential contemporary positivists—including Joseph Raz, John Gardner, and Leslie Green—reject that view. As Raz points out, it is a necessary truth that there are vices that a legal system cannot possibly have (for example, it cannot commit rape or murder). Legal realism[edit] Main article: Legal realism Oliver Wendell Holmes was a self-styled legal realist. Legal realism is the view that a theory of law should be descriptive and account for the reasons why judges decide cases as they do.[46] Legal realism had some affinities with the sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence. The essential tenet of legal realism is that all law is made by humans and thus should account for reasons besides legal rules that led to a legal decision. There are two separate schools of legal realism: American legal realism and Scandinavian legal realism. American legal realism grew out of the writings of Oliver Wendell Holmes. At the start of Holmes's The Common Law, he claims that "[t]he life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience".[47] This view was a reaction to legal formalism that was popular the time due to the Christopher Columbus Langdell.[48] Holmes's writings on jurisprudence also laid the foundations for the predictive theory of law. In his article "The Path of the Law", Holmes argues that "the object of [legal] study...is prediction, the prediction of the incidence of the public force through the instrumentality of the courts."[49] For the American legal realists of the early twentieth century, legal realism sought to describe the way judges decide cases. For legal realists such as Jerome Frank, judges start with the facts before them and then move to legal principles. Before legal realism, theories of jurisprudence turned this method around where judges were thought to begin with legal principles and then look to facts. It has become common today to identify Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., as the main precursor of American Legal Realism (other influences include Roscoe Pound, Karl Llewellyn, and Justice Benjamin Cardozo). Karl Llewellyn, another founder of the U.S. legal realism movement, similarly believed that the law is little more than putty in the hands of judges who are able to shape the outcome of cases based on their personal values or policy choices.[50] The Scandinavian school of legal realism argued that law can be explained through the empirical methods used by social scientists.[51] Prominent Scandinavian legal realists are Alf Ross, Axel Hägerström, and Karl Olivecrona. Scandinavian legal realists also took a naturalist approach to law.[52] Despite its decline in popularity, legal realism continues to influence a wide spectrum of jurisprudential schools today, including critical legal studies, feminist legal theory, critical race theory, sociology of law, and law and economics.[53] Critical legal studies[edit] Critical legal studies are a new theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s. The theory can generally be traced to American legal realism and is considered "the first movement in legal theory and legal scholarship in the United States to have espoused a committed Left political stance and perspective".[54] It holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group.[55] Critical rationalism[edit] Karl Popper originated the theory of critical rationalism. According to Reinhold Zippelius many advances in law and jurisprudence take place by operations of critical rationalism. He writes, "daß die Suche nach dem Begriff des Rechts, nach seinen Bezügen zur Wirklichkeit und nach der Gerechtigkeit experimentierend voranschreitet, indem wir Problemlösungen versuchsweise entwerfen, überprüfen und verbessern" (that we empirically search for solutions to problems, which harmonise fairly with reality, by projecting, testing and improving the solutions).[56] Legal interpretivism[edit] Main article: Interpretivism (legal) American legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin's legal theory attacks legal positivists that separate law's content from morality.[57] In his book Law's Empire,[58] Dworkin argued that law is an "interpretive" concept that requires barristers to find the best-fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. According to him, law is not entirely based on social facts, but includes the best moral justification for the institutional facts and practices that form a society's legal tradition. It follows from Dworkin's view that one cannot know whether a society has a legal system in force, or what any of its laws are, until one knows some truths about the moral justifications of the social and political practices of that society. It is consistent with Dworkin's view—in contrast with the views of legal positivists or legal realists—that no-one in a society may know what its laws are, because no-one may know the best moral justification for its practices. Interpretation, according to Dworkin's "integrity theory of law", has two dimensions. To count as an interpretation, the reading of a text must meet the criterion of "fit". Of those interpretations that fit, however, Dworkin maintains that the correct interpretation is the one that portrays the practices of the community in their best light, or makes them "the best that they can be". But many writers have doubted whether there is a single best moral justification for the complex practices of any given community, and others have doubted whether, even if there is, it should be counted as part of the law of that community. Therapeutic jurisprudence[edit] Main article: Therapeutic jurisprudence Consequences of the operation of legal rules or legal procedures—or of the behavior of legal actors (such as lawyers and judges)—may be either beneficial (therapeutic) or harmful (anti-therapeutic) to people. Therapeutic jurisprudence ("TJ") studies law as a social force (or agent) and uses social science methods and data to study the extent to which a legal rule or practice affects the psychological well-being of the people it impacts.[59] Normative jurisprudence[edit] Main article: Political philosophy In addition to the question, "What is law?", legal philosophy is also concerned with normative, or "evaluative" theories of law. What is the goal or purpose of law? What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law? What is the proper function of law? What sorts of acts should be subject to punishment, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted? What is justice? What rights do we have? Is there a duty to obey the law? What value has the rule of law? Some of the different schools and leading thinkers are discussed below. Virtue jurisprudence[edit] Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens Main article: Virtue jurisprudence Aretaic moral theories, such as contemporary virtue ethics, emphasize the role of character in morality. Virtue jurisprudence is the view that the laws should promote the development of virtuous character in citizens. Historically, this approach has been mainly associated with Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas. Contemporary virtue jurisprudence is inspired by philosophical work on virtue ethics. Deontology[edit] Main article: Deontological ethics Deontology is the "theory of duty or moral obligation".[60] The philosopher Immanuel Kant formulated one influential deontological theory of law. He argued that any rule we follow must be able to be universally applied, i.e. we must be willing for everyone to follow that rule. A contemporary deontological approach can be found in the work of the legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin. Utilitarianism[edit] Mill believed law should create happiness. Main article: Utilitarianism See also: Lysander Spooner Utilitarianism is the view that the laws should be crafted so as to produce the best consequences for the greatest number of people. Historically, utilitarian thinking about law has been associated with the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. John Stuart Mill was a pupil of Bentham's and was the torch bearer for utilitarian philosophy throughout the late nineteenth century.[61] In contemporary legal theory, the utilitarian approach is frequently championed by scholars who work in the law and economics tradition.[53] John Rawls[edit] Main articles: John Rawls and A Theory of Justice John Rawls was an American philosopher; a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University; and author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Political Liberalism, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, and The Law of Peoples. He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century. His theory of justice uses a method called "original position" to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions of our society if we were behind a "veil of ignorance". Imagine we do not know who we are—our race, sex, wealth, status, class, or any distinguishing feature—so that we would not be biased in our own favour. Rawls argued from this "original position" that we would choose exactly the same political liberties for everyone, like freedom of speech, the right to vote, and so on. Also, we would choose a system where there is only inequality because that produces incentives enough for the economic well-being of all society, especially the poorest. This is Rawls's famous "difference principle". Justice is fairness, in the sense that the fairness of the original position of choice guarantees the fairness of the principles chosen in that position. There are many other normative approaches to the philosophy of law, including critical legal studies and libertarian theories of law. See also[edit] Analytical jurisprudence Artificial intelligence and law Brocard (law) Cautelary jurisprudence Comparative law Constitution Constitutional law Constitutionalism Constitutional economics Critical legal studies Critical race theory Critical rationalism Defeasible reasoning Divine law Feminist jurisprudence Feminist legal theory Fiqh International legal theory Judicial activism Justice Law and economics Law and literature Legal formalism Legal history Legalism Legal pluralism Legal positivism Legal realism Libertarian theories of law Living Constitution Originalism Natural law New legal realism Political jurisprudence Postmodernist jurisprudence Publius Juventius Celsus Philosophy of law Rule of law Rule according to higher law Sociological jurisprudence Sociology of law Strict interpretation Virtue jurisprudence Notes[edit] ^ LII Staff (6 August 2007). "Jurisprudence". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 22 September 2018. ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2009). Black's law dictionary (9th ed.). Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA: West. pp. Jurisprudence entry. ISBN 978-0-314-19949-2. ^ a b Shiner, "Philosophy of Law", Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy ^ a b See H L A Hart, 'Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals' (1958) 71 Harv. L. Rev. 593 ^ Soper, "Legal Positivism", Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy ^ "jurisprudence - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 24 May 2019. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition 1989 ^ Katju, Markandey (27 November 2010). "Ancient Indian Jurisprudence" (PDF). Banaras Hindu University. Retrieved 11 April 2019. ^ Chang, Wejen (Spring 2010). "Classical Chinese Jurisprudence and the Development of the Chinese Legal System". Tsinghua China Law Review. 2 (2). Retrieved 27 June 2019. ^ The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory. Golding, Martin P. (Martin Philip), 1930-, Edmundson, William A. (William Atkins), 1948-, Credo Reference. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Pub. 2013. ISBN 9781782683131. OCLC 841495455.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law." ^ Jaffa, Thomism and Aristotelianism. ^ H. Rackham, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Loeb Classical Library; J. A. K. Thomson, trans. (revised by Hugh Tedennick), Nicomachean Ethics, Penguin Classics. ^ Joe Sachs, trans., Nicomachean Ethics, Focus Publishing ^ "Nicomachean Ethics" Bk. II ch. 6 ^ Terrence Irwin, trans. Nicomachean Ethics, 2nd Ed., Hackett Publishing ^ a b Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. V, ch. 3 ^ "Nicomachean Ethics", Bk. V, ch. 1 ^ Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. V, ch. 7. ^ Rhetoric 1373b2–8. ^ Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law," 75–81 ^ "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. ^ "Greek Theory of Natural Law". ^ Louis Pojman, Ethics (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995) ^ "Summa Theologica". ^ e.g. James Brown Scott, cited in Cavallar, The Rights of Strangers: theories of international hospitality, the global community, and political justice since Vitoria, p.164 ^ Koskenniemi: "International Law and raison d'état: Rethinking the Prehistory of International Law", in Kingsbury & Strausmann, The Roman Foundations of the Law of Nations, pp. 297–339 ^ Finnis, John (1980). Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 18–19. ^ David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739) Etext Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Friedrich Carl von Savigny, On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence (Abraham A. Hayward trans., 1831) ^ For full discussion see Cotterrell 2018 ^ Green, Leslie (Spring 2018). "Legal Positivism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Murphy, Mark C. (2006). Philosophy of law: the fundamentals. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 132–135. ISBN 9781405129466. OCLC 62281976. ^ Himma, Kenneth Einar. "Legal Positivism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 31 May 2019. ^ Martinich, A.P. (2013). Hobbes. New York: Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 9781135180799. ^ Hobbes, Thomas (1668). "Of the Natural Condition of Mankind". In Curley, Edwin (ed.). Leviathan: With selected variants from the Latin edition of 1668. Hackett Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 9781603844857. ^ Austin, John (1832). The province of jurisprudence determined ; and, the uses of the study of jurisprudence. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. p. 184. ISBN 0872204332. OCLC 39539515. ^ John Austin, The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined (1831) ^ Hart, H. L. A. (2012). The Concept of Law (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–99. ^ a b Hart, H. L. A. (2012). The Concept of Law (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 81. ^ "The University of Edinburgh". Archived from the original on 1 June 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2006. ^ Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780199573561. ^ a b Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780199573561. ^ Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 9780199573561. ^ ch. 2, Joseph Raz, The Authority of Law (1979) ^ Leiter, Brian (December 1997). "Rethinking Legal Realism: Toward a Naturalized Jurisprudence". Texas Law Review. 76: 268. ^ Holmes Jr., O.W. (1881). The Common Law. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. p. 1. ^ Langdell, C.C. (1871). A Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. pp. vi. ^ Holmes, O.W. (1897). "The Path of the Law". Harvard Law Review. 10 (8): 457–478. doi:10.2307/1322028. JSTOR 1322028. ^ "Jurisprudence". West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman, Shirelle Phelps. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2005. ^ Schauer, Frederick (2009). Thinking Like a Lawyer. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 124 n.1. ISBN 9780674032705. ^ Olivecrona, Karl (1971). Law as Fact. London: Stevens & Sons. pp. vii. ISBN 978-0420432506. ^ a b Kristoffel Grechenig & Martin Gelter, The Transatlantic Divergence in Legal Thought: American Law and Economics vs. German Doctrinalism, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 2008, vol. 31, pp. 295–360. ^ Alan Hunt, "The Theory of Critical Legal Studies," Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1986): 1-45, esp. 1, 5. See [1]. DOI, 10.1093/ojls/6.1.1. ^ Moore, "Critical Legal Studies", Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy ^ Reinhold Zippelius, Rechtsphilosophie, 6. Aufl. 2011 Vorwort. ^ Brooks, "Review of Dworkin and His Critics with Replies by Dworkin", Modern Law Review, vol. 69 no. 6 ^ Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire (1986) Harvard University Press ^ Wexler, David B; Perlin, Michael L; Vols, Michel; et al. (December 2016). "Editorial: Current Issues in Therapeutic Jurisprudence". QUT Law Review. 16 (3): 1–3. doi:10.5204/qutlr.v16i3.692. ISSN 2201-7275. ^ Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 378 (2d Coll. Ed. 1978). ^ see, Utilitarianism Archived 5 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine at Metalibri Digital Library References[edit] Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 2008, vol. 31, pp. 295–36. Further reading[edit] Austin, John (1831). The Province of Jurisprudence Determined. Cotterrell, R. (1995). Law's Community: Legal Theory in Sociological Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cotterrell, R. (2003). The Politics of Jurisprudence: A Critical Introduction to Legal Philosophy, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cotterrell, R. (2018). Sociological Jurisprudence: Juristic Thought and Social Inquiry. New York/London: Routledge. Freeman, M. D. A. (2014). Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence. 9th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell. Hart, H. L. A. (1994) [1961]. The Concept of Law (2nd (with postscript) ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-876122-8. Hartzler, H. Richard (1976). Justice, Legal Systems, and Social Structure. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. Engle, Eric (July 2010). Lex Naturalis, Ius Naturalis: Law as Positive Reasoning & Natural Rationality. Eric Engle. ISBN 978-0-9807318-4-2. Hutchinson, Allan C., ed. (1989). Critical Legal Studies. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield. Kempin Jr., Frederick G. (1963). Legal History: Law and Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Llewellyn, Karl N. (1986). Karl N. Llewellyn on Legal Realism. Birmingham, AL: Legal Classics Library. (Contains penetrating classic "The Bramble Bush" on nature of law). Murphy, Cornelius F. (1977). Introduction to Law, Legal Process, and Procedure. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing. Rawls, John (1999). A Theory of Justice, revised ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (Philosophical treatment of justice). Wacks, Raymond (2009). Understanding Jurisprudence: An Introduction to Legal Theory Oxford University Press. Washington, Ellis (2002). The Inseparability of Law and Morality: Essays on Law, Race, Politics and Religion University Press of America. Washington, Ellis (2013). The Progressive Revolution, 2007–08 Writings-Vol. 1; 2009 Writings-Vol. 2, Liberal Fascism through the Ages University Press of America. Zinn, Howard (1990). Declarations of Independence: Cross-Examining American Ideology. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Zippelius, Reinhold (2011). Rechtsphilosophie, 6th ed. Munich: C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-61191-9 Zippelius, Reinhold (2012). Das Wesen des Rechts (The Concept of Law), an introduction to Legal Theory, 6th ed., Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer. ISBN 978-3-17-022355-4 Zippelius, Reinhold (2008). Introduction to German Legal Methods (Juristische Methodenlehre), translated from the tenth German Edition by Kirk W. Junker, P. Matthew Roy. Durham: Carolina Academic Press. Heinze, Eric, The Concept of Injustice (Routledge, 2013) Pillai, P. S. A. (2016). Jurisprudence and Legal Theory, 3rd Edition, Reprinted 2016: Eastern Book Company. ISBN 978-93-5145-326-0 External links[edit] Look up jurisprudence in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. John Witte Jr.: A Brief Biography of Dooyeweerd, based on Hendrik van Eikema Hommes, Inleiding tot de Wijsbegeerte van Herman Dooyeweerd (The Hague, 1982; pp. 1–4, 132). Redeemer University College LII Law about ... Jurisprudence. [2]Lircocervo.it "L'Ircocervo. Rivista elettronica italiana di metodologia giuridica, teoria generale del diritto e dottrina dello stato" The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: Nine New Opinions, by Peter Suber (Routledge, 1998.) Lon Fuller's classic of jurisprudence brought up to date 50 years later. The Roman Law Library, incl. Responsa prudentium by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. Evgeny Pashukanis - General Theory of Law and Marxism. Internet Encyclopedia: Philosophy of Law. The Opticon: Online Repository of Materials covering Spectrum of U.S. Jurisprudence. Foundation for Law, Justice and Society Bibliography on the Philosophy of Law. 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en-wikipedia-org-5423	----	Southeast Asia - Wikipedia Southeast Asia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Subregion of Asia Southeast Asia Area 4,545,792 km2 (1,755,140 sq mi) Population 655,298,044 (3rd)[1][2] Population density 135.6/km2 (351/sq mi) GDP (PPP) $9.727 trillion[3] GDP (nominal) $3.317 trillion (exchange rate)[4] GDP per capita $5,017 (exchange rate)[4] HDI 0.723 Ethnic groups Indigenous (Southeast Asians) Austroasiatic, Austronesian, Negrito, Lolo-Burmese and Tai peoples East Asians Han Religions Animism, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Tai folk, Taoism and Vietnamese folk Demonym Southeast Asian Countries 11  Brunei  Cambodia  Indonesia[note 1]  Laos  Malaysia  Myanmar  Philippines  Singapore  Thailand  Timor Leste  Vietnam Dependencies List Andaman & Nicobar Islands (India)  Christmas Island (Australia)  Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) Languages Official languages Burmese English Filipino Khmer Lao Indonesian Malay Mandarin Portuguese Tamil Tetum Thai Vietnamese Other languages Afro-Asiatic: Arabic Austroasiatic: Mon Nicobarese Aslian Austronesian: Tagalog Tetum Javanese Sundanese Cebuano Madurese Ilocano Hiligaynon Minangkabau Batak Bikol Banjar Balinese Waray Kapampangan Pangasinan Masbateño Buginese Cham Acehnese Iban Dusun Kadazan Lun Bawang/Lundayeh Moken Creoles: Chavacano Tok Pisin Kristang Betawi Ambonese Dravidian: Tamil Telugu Malayalam Kannada Great Andamanese: Aka-Jeru (Present Great Andamanese) Indo-European: Bengali English French Persian Portuguese Spanish Hindi Dutch Sinhala Rohingya Urdu Ongan: Onge Jarawa Sentinelese ? Tai–Kadai: Thai Lao Shan Sino-Tibetan: Burmese Rakhine Karen Mandarin Cantonese Min Hmar Mizo Zomi Thadou Meitei Languages of Asia — All of the languages of Asia Time zones 5 time zones UTC+5:30: Andaman and Nicobar Islands UTC+6:30: Cocos (Keeling) Islands • Myanmar UTC+7:00: Cambodia • Christmas Island • Indonesia • Laos • Thailand • Vietnam UTC+8:00: Brunei • Indonesia • Malaysia • Philippines • Singapore UTC+9:00: East Timor • Indonesia Internet TLD .bn, .id, .kh, .la, .mm, .my, .ph, .sg, .th, .tl, .vn Calling code Zone 6 & 8 Largest cities Capital cities Bandar Seri Begawan Phnom Penh Jakarta Vientiane Kuala Lumpur Nay Pyi Daw Manila Singapore Bangkok Dili Ha Noi Largest cities Bandung Bekasi Bangkok Can Tho Da Nang Cebu City Davao City Denpasar Depok George Town Ha Noi Hai Phong Ho Chi Minh City Jakarta Kuala Lumpur Makassar Manila Medan Quezon City Semarang Singapore Surabaya Tangerang Yangon Yogyakarta UN M49 code 035 – South-eastern Asia 142 – Asia 001 – World Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is the geographical southeastern subregion of Asia, consisting of the regions that are south of China, southeast of the Indian subcontinent and north-west of Australia.[5] Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean. Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of Maldives in South Asia, Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. The majority of the subregion is still in the Northern Hemisphere. East Timor and the southern portion of Indonesia are the only parts that are south of the Equator. In contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions: Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula and historically as Indochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Maritime Southeast Asia, also known as the Malay Archipelago and historically as Nusantara, comprising the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Brunei, East Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore.[6] The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Laos, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.[7] It covers about 4,500,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 10.5% of Asia or 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 655 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia.[8] The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups.[9] Ten countries in the region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organization established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration amongst its members.[10] Contents 1 Definitions 1.1 Political divisions 1.1.1 Sovereign states 1.2 Geographical divisions 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era 2.3 Spread of Islam 2.4 Trade and colonisation 2.4.1 Chinese 2.4.2 European 2.4.3 Japanese 2.4.4 Indian 2.4.5 American 2.5 Contemporary history 3 Geography 3.1 Boundaries 3.2 Climate 3.3 Environment 4 Economy 5 Demographics 5.1 Ethnic groups 5.2 Religion 5.3 Languages 5.4 Cities 6 Culture 6.1 Influences 6.2 Arts 6.2.1 Music 6.2.2 Writing 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 10 Further reading 11 External links Definitions[edit] States and regions of Southeast Asia The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as Nanyang ("南洋"), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race.[11] Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia.[12] The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.[13] The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943.[14] SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia," although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged.[15] Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. This conglomeration of countries is based upon the regions of general proximity formerly controlled or dominated by the Western colonial powers of Great Britain, France, Holland, Spain and the U.S. It bears no universal commonality in culture, language, religion, ethnicity, or system of government. Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea. Political divisions[edit] Sovereign states[edit] State Area (km2) Population (2020)[16] Density (/km2) GDP (nominal), USD (2020)[4] GDP (PPP) per capita, Int$ (2020)[4] HDI (2019 report) Capital  Brunei 5,765[17] 437,479 74 12,455,000,000 $85,011 0.838 Bandar Seri Begawan  Cambodia 181,035[18] 16,718,965 90 26,730,000,000 $5,044 0.594 Phnom Penh  East Timor 14,874[19] 1,267,974 85 2,938,000,000 $5,321 0.606 Dili  Indonesia 1,904,569[20] 267,670,543 141 1,111,713,000,000 $14,841 0.718 Jakarta  Laos 236,800[21] 7,061,507 30 19,127,000,000 $8,684 0.613 Vientiane  Malaysia 329,847[22] 31,528,033 96 365,303,000,000 $34,567 0.810 Kuala Lumpur *  Myanmar 676,578[23] 53,708,320 79 65,994,000,000 $7,220 0.583 Nay Pyi Taw  Philippines 300,000[24] 106,651,394 356 356,814,000,000 $10,094 0.718 Manila  Singapore 719.2[25] 5,757,499 8,005 362,818,000,000 $105,689 0.938 Singapore  Thailand 513,120[26] 69,428,453 135 529,177,000,000 $21,361 0.777 Bangkok  Vietnam 331,210[27] 95,545,962 288 261,637,000,000 $8,677 0.704 Hanoi * Administrative centre in Putrajaya. The UN Statistics Division for Asia are based on convenience rather than implying any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories:[28]   Central Asia   East Asia   North Asia   South Asia   Southeast Asia   West Asia Political map of Southeast Asia Geographical divisions[edit] Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Javanese: Nusantara). Mainland Southeast Asia includes: Cambodia Laos Myanmar (Burma) Peninsular Malaysia Thailand Vietnam Maritime Southeast Asia includes: Brunei East Malaysia East Timor Indonesia Philippines Singapore Although Peninsular Malaysia geographically situated in Mainland Southeast Asia, it also shares many similar cultural and ecological affinities with surrounding islands, thus it serves as a bridge of two subregions.[29] Geographically, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India is also considered a part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Mainland Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between South Asia and Southeast Asia.[30] Similarly, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands have strong cultural ties with Maritime Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between Southeast Asia and Australia/Oceania. On some occasions, Sri Lanka has been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural and religious ties to Mainland Southeast Asia.[15][31] The eastern half of the island of New Guinea, which is not a part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included as a part of Maritime Southeast Asia, and so are Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau, which were all parts of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region, specifically, the Philippines.[32] East Timor and the eastern half of Indonesia (east of the Wallace Line in the region of Wallacea) are considered to be geographically associated with Oceania due to their distinctive faunal features. Geologically, the island of New Guinea and its surrounding islands are considered as parts of the Australian continent, connected via the Sahul Shelf. Both Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are located on the Australian Plate, south of the Java Trench. Even though they are geographically closer to Maritime Southeast Asia than mainland Australia, these two Australian external territories are not geologically associated with Asia as none of them is actually on the Sunda Plate. The United Nations geoscheme has classified both island territories as parts of Oceania, under the Australia and New Zealand (Australasia) subregion. Andaman Sea Arafura Sea Bali Sea Banda Sea Ceram Sea Flores Sea Java Sea Molucca Sea Savu Sea South China Sea Timor Sea Bohol Sea Camotes Sea Philippine Sea (Pacific Ocean) Samar Sea Sibuyan Sea Sulu Sea Visayan Sea Celebes Sea Bismarck Sea Coral Sea Solomon Sea Gulf of Thailand Gulf of Tonkin Bay of Bengal Indian Ocean Strait of Malacca Makassar Strait Gulf of Carpentaria Karimata Strait Luzon Strait Gulf of Tomini Sunda Strait Moro Gulf Madura Strait Oceans and Seas in Southeast Asia History[edit] Main article: History of Southeast Asia Prehistory[edit] See also: Australo-Melanesian and Austronesian peoples Megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra, Indonesia 1500 CE The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age.[33] Homo sapiens, the ancestors of modern Australo-Melanesians, reached the region by around 45,000 years ago,[34] having moved eastwards from the Indian subcontinent.[35] Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of Borneo.[36] Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.[37] During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels. The Austronesian expansion In the late Neolithic, the Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines, migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the Austronesian Expansion. They arrived in the northern Philippines in 2200 BC and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC; Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to the rest of Indonesia, Malaysia, southern Vietnam, and Palau by 1000 BC.[38][39] They often settled along coastal areas, assimilating the preexisting Australo-Melanesian peoples such as Orang Asli of peninsular Malaysia, Negritos of the Philippines, and Papuans of New Guinea.[40][41] The Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have been seafarers for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as westwards to Madagascar, becoming the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy people, Micronesians, Melanesians, and Polynesians.[42] Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast.[42] Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were capable to sail across the ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more maneuverable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.[43] A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in Magellan's voyage as a translator. Studies presented by the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China.[44][45] Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.[46] The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.[47][48][49] The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighboring China.[33] Bronze drum from Sông Đà, northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with Indian subcontinent during the 1st century.[50] Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts.[51] Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region.[52][53][54] Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region.[55][56] Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via maritime trade routes between the region and Sri Lanka.[57] Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the 5th century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to Nalanda.[52] It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practiced by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists. The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas.[58] While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence.[59] In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality.[60][61] Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government.[62] Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.[63] Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era[edit] Main articles: Greater India and History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia Spread of Hinduism from South Asia to Southeast Asia After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions.[64][53][54] Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere.[65] Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon.[66] Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced.[67] The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city-states that already existed circa 2nd century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China.[68] Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread.[69][70] In the 1st century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.[42] In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara, established in western Java circa 2nd century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver).[71] Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, and Medang emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait.[42] This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.[72] The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan.[73] Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.[note 2] Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.[75] The Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.[76] During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions, affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols tried to invade Đại Việt and Champa.[77] The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts.[78] The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty.[79][80] However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.[81][82] The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.[83] In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.[84][85] After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.[86](p107) By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.[87][88] Spread of Islam[edit] Main articles: Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and Islam in Southeast Asia Wapauwe Old Mosque is the oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia, and the second oldest in Southeast Asia, built in 1414 Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th-century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes.[89][90][91] However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[92] There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.[93] Trade and colonisation[edit] Strait of Malacca Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country.[94] Chinese[edit] See also: List of tributaries of Imperial China and Chinese Empire From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han. Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.[43] Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled. The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote: "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice". Colonial boundaries in Southeast Asia European[edit] See also: European colonisation of Southeast Asia Fort Cornwallis in George Town marks the spot where the British East India Company first landed in Penang in 1786, thus heralding the British colonisation of Malaya Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand. Duit, a coin minted by the VOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilizations, hunting and gathering was still hard.[95] Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending Royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia. Japanese[edit] See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Empire of Japan, and Japanese war crimes During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10 million romusha in Indonesia.[96] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation.[97] The Allied powers who defeated Japan in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence. Indian[edit] Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries.[93] The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.[93] American[edit] See also: American Philippines The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was granted in 1934, and independence in 1946.[98] Contemporary history[edit] Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its nine-dash line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016), the Court ruled in favor of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.[99][100] Geography[edit] See also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), List of Southeast Asian mountains, and Zomia (geography) Relief map of Southeast Asia Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,503 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest. The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea. Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.[101] Boundaries[edit] Further information: Boundaries between the continents of Earth Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent, the boundary between these two regions runs through Wallacea. Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region of Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua). Both countries share the island of New Guinea. Climate[edit] Southeast Asia map of Köppen climate classification The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the mountainous parts of Laos and Myanmar are the only regions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical climate, which have a cooler winter with potential snow. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shifts in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rainforest is the second largest on Earth (with the Amazon rainforest being the largest). An exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert-like. Southeast Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in the world.[102][103] Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and supply.[104] Climate change is also likely to pose a serious threat to the fisheries industry in Southeast Asia.[102] Despite being one of the most vulnerable regions to the effects of climate change in the world, Southeast Asian countries are lagging behind in terms of their climate mitigation measures.[103] Environment[edit] See also: Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace Line Komodo dragon in Komodo National Park, Indonesia The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of the binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable. Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species. The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia. The Philippine eagle The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world,[105] and is endemic to the Philippines' forests. The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of Bubalus such as anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domestic Asian water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered. The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia), and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.[106] Birds such as the green peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well. The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only a few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java. Wallace's hypothetical line divides Indonesian Archipelago into 2 types of fauna, Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. The deepwater of the Lombok Strait between the islands of Bali and Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish, and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world's "center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity". The whale shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6 species of sea turtles can also be found in the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines. The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo. While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[107] At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution. The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.[108] Economy[edit] The Port of Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container port in the world, and is an important transportation and shipping hub in Southeast Asia Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First, Spaniards (Manila galleon) who sailed from the Americas and Kingdom of Portugal, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam, and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, and the Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to the powerful market demands.[109] The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in the region. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.[110] Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.[111] The region's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber have long been prominent exports. Manufacturing and services are becoming more important.[citation needed] An emerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly industrialised countries include Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singapore and Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors.[citation needed] The region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such as microprocessors, and heavy industrial products such as automobiles.[citation needed] Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.[citation needed] Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the Asia-America Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US[112] This is to avoid disruption of the kind caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the 2006 Hengchun earthquakes. Along with its temples Cambodia has been promoting its coastal resorts. Island off Otres Beach Sihanoukville, Cambodia Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our planet."[113] Since the early 1990s, "even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism industries."[114] In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourism in 2006.[115] Furthermore, Vietnam is considered as a rising power in Southeast Asia due to its large foreign investment opportunities and the booming tourism sector, despite only having their trade embargo lifted in 1995. Indonesia is the only member of G-20 major economies and is the largest economy in the region.[116] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product for 2020 was US$1,088.8 billion (nominal) or $3,328.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US$4,038 (nominal) or $12,345 (PPP).[117] Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the Asia-Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines' PSE leading the way with 22 percent growth, followed by Thailand's SET with 21 percent and Indonesia's JKSE with 19 percent.[118][119] Southeast Asia's GDP per capita is US$4,685 according to a 2020 International Monetary Fund estimates, which is comparable to South Africa, Iraq, and Georgia.[120] Country Currency Population (2020)[16][121] Nominal GDP (2020) $ billion[122] GDP per capita (2020)[120] GDP growth (2020)[123] Inflation (2020)[124] Main industries  Brunei B$ Brunei dollar 437,479 $10.647 $23,117 0.1% 0.3% Petroleum, Petrochemicals, Fishing  Cambodia ៛ Riel 16,718,965 $26.316 $1,572 -2.8% 2.5% Clothing, Gold, Agriculture  East Timor US$ US dollar 1,318,445 $1.920 $1,456 -6.8% 0.9% Petroleum, Coffee, Electronics  Indonesia Rp Rupiah 270,203,917[121] $1,088.768 $4,038 -1.5% 2.1% Coal, Petroleum, Palm oil  Laos ₭ Kip 7,275,560 $18.653 $2,567 0.2% 6.5% Copper, Electronics, Tin  Malaysia RM Ringgit 32,365,999 $336.330 $10,192 -6% -1.1% Electronics, Petroleum, Palm oil  Myanmar K Kyat 54,409,800 $70.890 $1,333 2% 6.1% Natural gas, Agriculture, Clothing  Philippines ₱ Peso 109,581,078 $367.362 $3,373 -8.3% 2.4% Electronics, Timber, Automotive  Singapore S$ Singapore dollar 5,850,342 $337.451 $58,484 -6% -0.4% Electronics, Petroleum, Chemicals  Thailand ฿ Baht 69,799,978 $509.200 $7,295 -7.1% -0.4% Electronics, Automotive, Rubber  Vietnam ₫ Đồng 97,338,579 $340.602 $3,498 2.9% 3.8% Electronics, Clothing, Petroleum Demographics[edit] Population distribution of the countries of Southeast Asia (with Indonesia split into its major islands). Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 square kilometres (1,700,000 sq mi). As of 2018, around 655 million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with 268 million people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.   v t e Largest cities in Southeast Asia Demographia 2020 Rank Name Country Pop. Rank Name Country Pop. Jakarta Manila 1 Jakarta Indonesia 34,540,000 11 Medan Indonesia 3,632,000 Bangkok Ho Chi Minh City 2 Manila Philippines 23,088,000 12 Cebu City Philippines 2,275,000 3 Bangkok Thailand 17,066,000 13 Phnom Penh Cambodia 2,177,000 4 Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam 13,312,000 14 Semarang Indonesia 1,992,000 5 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 8,285,000 15 Johor Bahru Malaysia 1,981,000 6 Bandung Indonesia 7,065,000 16 Makassar Indonesia 1,952,000 7 Hanoi Vietnam 6,576,000 17 Palembang Indonesia 1,889,000 8 Surabaya Indonesia 6,499,000 18 Mandalay Myanmar 1,633,000 9 Yangon Myanmar 6,314,000 19 Hai Phong Vietnam 1,623,000 10 Singapore Singapore 5,745,000 20 Yogyakarta Indonesia 1,568,000 Ethnic groups[edit] Main article: Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia Ati woman in Aklan – the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia. Ethnic mosaic of Southeast Asia The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitants in the region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia, East Timor and Australian Aborigines. In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second-largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese (Kinh people) with around 86 million population, mainly inhabiting in Vietnam, thus forming a significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country, with the Indo-Aryan Rohingya make up a significant minority in Rakhine State. Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split between more than half Malays and one-quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in the West Malaysia however Dayaks make up the majority in Sarawak and Kadazan-dusun makes up the majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the majority in West Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city-state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also called the island their home. The Chams form a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia and form a significant minority in Southern Vietnam and Thailand, the Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam, China, and Laos. Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Visayan (mainly Cebuanos, Warays and Hiligaynons), Ilocano, Bicolano, Moro (mainly Tausug, Maranao, and Maguindanao) and Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan) groups are significant. Religion[edit] See also: Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Islam in Southeast Asia, Shenism in Southeast Asia, Muslim Southeast Asia, and Christianity in Asia Spirit houses are common in areas of Southeast Asia where Animism is a held belief. The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Balinese Hindu temples. Thai Theravada Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The prayer hall of the Goddess of Mercy Temple, the oldest Taoist temple in Penang, Malaysia. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque in Brunei, an Islamic country with Sharia rule. Roman Catholic Cathedral-Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, the metropolitan see of the Archbishop of Manila, Philippines. A Protestant church in Indonesia. Indonesia has the largest Protestant population in Southeast Asia. Jewish Surabaya Synagogue in Indonesia, demolished in 2013. Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. By population, Islam is the most practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40% of the entire population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and in the Southern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim-majority country in the world. There are approximately 205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the second-largest religion in the region, after Islam. Approximately 38% of the global Buddhist population resides in Southeast Asia. Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Singapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore. Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia, and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia.[citation needed] East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Indonesian[125] and Portuguese rule. In October 2019, the number of Christians, both Catholic and Protestant in Southeast Asia, reached 156 million, of which 97 million came from the Philippines, 26 million came from Indonesia, 11 million came from Vietnam, and the rest came from Malaysia, Myanmar, East Timor, Singapore, Laos, Cambodia and Brunei. No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. Some groups are protected de facto by their isolation from the rest of the world.[126] In the world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in the rest of the part of the Philippines, New Guinea, Flores and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia, etc. Garuda, the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines, and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a Nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but with a strong emphasis on ancestor worship. The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken from the CIA World Factbook:[127] Country Religions Andaman and Nicobar Islands Hinduism (69%), Christianity, Islam, Sikhism and others  Brunei Islam (67%), Buddhism, Christianity, others (indigenous beliefs, etc.)  Cambodia Buddhism (97%), Islam, Christianity, Animism, others  East Timor Roman Catholicism (97%), Protestantism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism  Indonesia Islam (87.18%), Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, others[128]  Laos Buddhism (67%), Animism, Christianity, others  Malaysia Islam (60.4%), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism  Myanmar (Burma) Buddhism (89%), Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism, others  Philippines Roman Catholicism (80.6%), Islam (6.9%-11%),[129] Evangelicals (2.7%), Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) (2.4%), Other Protestants (3.8%), Buddhism (0.05%-2%),[130] Animism (0.2%-1.25%), others (1.9%)[131]  Singapore Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Hinduism, others  Thailand Buddhism (94.50%), Islam (4.06%), Christianity (0.7%), Hinduism (0.011%), others (0.094%)  Vietnam Vietnamese folk religion (45.3%), Buddhism (16.4%), Christianity (8.2%), Other (0.4%), Unaffiliated (29.6%)[132] Languages[edit] See also: Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages, Sino-Tibetan languages, Austroasiatic languages, Austronesian languages, Hmong–Mien languages, and Tai–Kadai languages Each of the languages has been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and historical colonization as well. There are nearly 800 native languages in the region. The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages in bold): Country/Region Languages Andaman and Nicobar Islands Bengali, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Shompen, A-Pucikwar, Aka-Jeru, Aka-Bea, Aka-Bo, Aka-Cari, Aka-Kede, Aka-Kol, Aka-Kora, Aka-Bale, Jangil, Jarawa, Oko-Juwoi, Önge, Sentinelese, Camorta, Car, Chaura, Katchal, Nancowry, Southern Nicobarese, Teressa  Brunei Malay, English, Indonesian, Chinese, Tamil and indigenous Bornean dialects (Iban, Murutic language, Lun Bawang,)[133]  Cambodia Khmer, English, French, Teochew, Vietnamese, Cham, Mandarin, others[134]  East Timor Tetum, Portuguese, Indonesian, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede, Bunak, Galoli, Kemak, Fataluku, Baikeno, others[135]  Indonesia Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese, Batak, Minangkabau, Buginese, Banjar, Papuan, Dayak, Acehnese, Ambonese Balinese, Betawi, Madurese, Musi, Manado, Sasak, Makassarese, Batak Dairi, Karo, Mandailing, Jambi Malay, Mongondow, Gorontalo, Ngaju, Kenyah, Nias, North Moluccan, Uab Meto, Bima, Manggarai, Toraja-Sa'dan, Komering, Tetum, Rejang, Muna, Sumbawa, Bangka Malay, Osing, Gayo, Bungku-Tolaki languages, Moronene, Bungku, Bahonsuai, Kulisusu, Wawonii, Mori Bawah, Mori Atas, Padoe, Tomadino, Lewotobi, Tae', Mongondow, Lampung, Tolaki, Ma'anyan, Simeulue, Gayo, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasan, Enggano, Ternate, Tidore, Mairasi, East Cenderawasih Language, Lakes Plain Languages, Tor-Kwerba, Nimboran, Skou/Sko, Border languages, Senagi, Pauwasi, Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Tamil, Punjabi, Bengali, and Arabic. Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago, making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the planet,[136] slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and other formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians speak in their local language(s). For more details, see: Languages of Indonesia.  Laos Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan and others[137]  Malaysia Malaysian, English, Mandarin, Indonesian, Tamil, Kedah Malay, Sabah Malay, Brunei Malay, Kelantan Malay, Pahang Malay, Acehnese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Banjar, Buginese, Tagalog, Hakka, Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew, Fuzhounese, Telugu, Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhala, Malayalam, Arabic, Brunei Bisaya, Okolod, Kota Marudu Talantang, Kelabit, Lotud, Terengganu Malay, Semelai, Thai, Iban, Kadazan, Dusun, Kristang, Bajau, Jakun, Mah Meri, Batek, Melanau, Semai, Temuan, Lun Bawang, Temiar, Penan, Tausug, Iranun, Lundayeh/Lun Bawang, and others[138] see: Languages of Malaysia  Myanmar (Burma) Burmese, Shan, Kayin(Karen), Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon, Kayah, Chinese and other ethnic languages.[139]  Philippines Filipino (Tagalog), English, Bisayan languages (Aklanon, Cebuano, Kinaray-a, Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Waray, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Cuyonon, Surigaonon, Butuanon, Tausug), Ivatan, Ilocano, Ibanag, Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bicolano, Sama-Bajaw, Maguindanao, Maranao, Chavacano The Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without official recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic are on a voluntary and optional basis. Malay (Bahasa Malaysia, Bahasa Indonesia), Mandarin, Lan-nang (Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean are also spoken in the Philippines due to immigration, geographic proximity and historical ties. See: Languages of the Philippines  Singapore English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhala, Javanese, Balinese, Singlish creole and others  Thailand Thai, Isan, Northern Khmer, Malay, Karen, Hmong, Teochew, Minnan, Hakka, Yuehai, Burmese, Mien, Tamil, Bengali, Urdu, Arabic, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Mon and others[140]  Vietnam Vietnamese, Khmer, Cantonese, Hmong, Tai, Cham and others[141] Cities[edit] See also: List of cities in ASEAN by population Jabodetabek (Jakarta/Bogor/Depok/Tangerang/South Tangerang/Bekasi),  Indonesia Metro Manila (Manila/Quezon City/Makati/Taguig/Pasay/Caloocan and 11 others),  Philippines Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Bangkok/Nonthaburi/Samut Prakan/Pathum Thani/Samut Sakhon/Nakhon Pathom),  Thailand Eastern Economic Corridor (Chachoengsao/Chonburi/Rayong),  Thailand Gerbangkertosusila (Surabaya/Sidoarjo/Gresik/Mojokerto/Lamongan/Bangkalan),  Indonesia Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley (Kuala Lumpur/Selangor),  Malaysia Greater Penang (Penang/Kedah/Perak),  Malaysia Sijori Triangle (Singapore/Johor Bahru/Batam),  Singapore  Malaysia  Indonesia Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (Ho Chi Minh City/Vũng Tàu/Bình Dương/Đồng Nai),  Vietnam Hanoi Capital Region (Hà Nội/Hải Phòng/Hạ Long),  Vietnam Da Nang City (Đà Nẵng/Hội An/Huế),  Vietnam Yangon Region (Yangon/Thanlyin),  Myanmar Greater Bandung Metropolitan Area (Bandung/Cimahi),  Indonesia Metro Cebu (Cebu City/Mandaue/Lapu-Lapu City/Talisay City and 11 others),  Philippines Metro Davao (Davao City/Digos/Tagum/Island Garden City of Samal),  Philippines Metro Iloilo-Guimaras (Iloilo City/Pavia/Oton/Leganes/Zarraga/San Miguel/Guimaras) ,  Philippines Metro Cagayan de Oro (Cagayan de Oro/El Salvador and 13 others)  Philippines Phnom Penh City (Phnom Penh/Kandal),  Cambodia Vientiane Prefecture (Vientiane/Don Noun/Tha Ngon),  Laos Brunei-Muara (Bandar Seri Begawan/Muara),  Brunei Dili (Dili),  East Timor Night skylines Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Bangkok, Thailand Singapore Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Jakarta Bangkok Hồ Chí Minh City Hà Nội Singapore Yangon Surabaya Quezon City Medan Hải Phòng Manila Davao City Palembang Kuala Lumpur Makassar Phnom Penh Cần Thơ Mandalay Batam Pekanbaru Bogor Đà Nẵng Bandar Lampung Cebu City Padang Zamboanga City Denpasar Malang Samarinda George Town, Penang Tasikmalaya Cagayan de Oro Banjarmasin Ipoh Balikpapan General Santos Bacolod Nay Pyi Taw Vientiane Nha Trang Chiang Mai Thanh Hóa Jambi Pontianak Most populous cities in Southeast Asia (500,000+ inhabitants) Culture[edit] See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast Asian music Burmese puppet performance The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian, and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Vietnam and Singapore show more Chinese influence[142] in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants,[143] which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct influence from India – only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples. Moreover, Vietnam is also categorized under the East Asian cultural sphere along with China, Korea, and Japan due to a large amount of Chinese influence embedded in their culture and lifestyle. Paddy field in Vietnam Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for millennia, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region. Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This includes weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan. Influences[edit] The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam, India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian-influenced cultures, and the Chinese and Japanese trading era. As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary. Arts[edit] The Royal Ballet of Cambodia (Paris, France 2010) The arts of Southeast Asia have an affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance. Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia are quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu-influenced practices, culture, art, and literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCO on 7 November 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind, the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware. Music[edit] Main article: Music of Southeast Asia Angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region. Of the court and folk genres, Gong chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in the region. On 18 November 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage the Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making. Writing[edit] Main articles: Writing systems of Southeast Asia, Baybayin, Jawi script, S.E.A. Write Award, and Thai alphabet Thai manuscript from before the 19th-century writing system The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region. Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar (see image to the left — magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side). Sign in Balinese and Latin script at a Hindu temple in Bali The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia. In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi'). The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to around 111 B.C. when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chữ Nôm used modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese language. Both classical Chinese and Chữ Nôm were used up until the early 20th century. However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore and Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script. 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The Private Sector's Role in Poverty Reduction in Asia. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-85709-449-0. ^ Federspiel, Howard M. (2007). Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3052-6. ^ Hardt, Doug (2016). Who Was Muhammad?: An Analysis of the Prophet of Islam in Light of the Bible and the Quran. TEACH Services, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4796-0544-6. ^ Anderson, James (21 March 2013). Daily Life Through Trade: Buying and Selling in World History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36325-2. ^ Ayoub, Mahmoud (2013). Islam: Faith and History. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-452-0. ^ Wang Ma, Rosey (2003). Chinese Muslims in Malaysia: History and Development. Center for Asia-Pacific Area Studies, Academia Sinica. ^ a b c Prabhune, Tushar (27 December 2011). "Gujarat helped establish Islam in SE Asia". The Times of India. Ahmedabad. ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. 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G20. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021. ^ "Indonesia Datasets - World Economics Outlook (October 2020)". IMF. October 2020. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021. ^ "SE Asia Stocks-Jakarta, Manila hit record highs, others firm". Reuters. 27 September 2010. ^ Bull Market Lifts PSE Index to Top Rank Among Stock Exchanges in Asia | Manila Bulletin. Mb.com.ph (24 September 2010). Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ a b "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Nominal GDP per capita". IMF. Retrieved 25 January 2021. ^ a b "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Nominal GDP". IMF. Retrieved 25 January 2021. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Real GDP growth". IMF. Retrieved 25 January 2021. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Inflation rate, average consumer prices". IMF. Retrieved 25 January 2021. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. Yale University Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-300-10518-6. ^ CNN (11/21/2018) Tribespeople believed to have 'killed' 27-year-old missionary who trespassed on the remote island ^ "Field Listing – Religions". CIA Factbook. Retrieved 24 February 2007. ^ Indonesia – The World Factbook ^ "National Commission on Muslim Filipinos". www.ncmf.gov.ph. ^ BuddhaNet. "World Buddhist Directory – Presented by BuddhaNet.Net". buddhanet.info. ^ "2015 Philippine Statistical Yearbook" (PDF). psa.gov.ph. Philippine Statistical Authority. October 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2020. ^ "Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages". 18 December 2012. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Brunei. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Cambodia. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – East Timor. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ "Top 20 Countries by Number of Languages Spoken". www.vistawide.com. Retrieved 28 May 2016. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Laos. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Malaysia. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ "Country: Myanmar (Burma)". Joshua Project. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Thailand. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Vietnam. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17 October 2011. ^ http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147804eb.pdf ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Further reading[edit] Acharya, Amitav. The making of Southeast Asia: International relations of a region (Cornell UP, 2013). Ang, Cheng Guan. Southeast Asia After the Cold War: A Contemporary History (Singapore: NUS Press, 2019) online review Ang, Cheng Guan. Southeast Asia’s Cold War: An Interpretive History (University of Hawai’i Press, 2018). online review Barwise, J. M., and Nicholas J. White. A traveller's history of Southeast Asia (2002) online Cady, John F. Southeast Asia: its historical development (McGraw-Hill, 1964) online Cady, John F. The roots of French imperialism in Eastern Asia (1954) online Coedes, George. The Making of South East Asia (2nd ed. U of California Press, 1983). Dutt, Ashok K. Southeast Asia: A Ten Nation Region (1996) excerpt Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online Heidhues, Mary Somers. Southeast Asia : a concise history (2000) online Leinbach, Thomas R., and Richard Ulack. Southeast Asia: diversity and development (Prentice Hall, 1999) online. Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). Osborne, Milton. Region of revolt: focus on Southeast Asia (Elsevier, 2013). online Osborne, Milton (2010; first published in 1979). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-302-7 online Osborne, Milton. River at risk: the Mekong and water politics of China and Southeast Asia (Longueville Media, 2004). Reid, Anthony (1999). Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia Silkworm Books. ISBN 978-974-7551-06-8 Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (2nd ed. 2010) online Ulack, Richard, and Gyula Pauer. Atlas of Southeast Asia (Macmillan, 1989) online. Williams, Lea E. Southeast Asia : a history (1976) online External links[edit] Southeast Asiaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Topography of Southeast Asia in detail (PDF) (previous version) Southeast Asian Archive at the University of California, Irvine at archive.today (archived 12 December 2012) Southeast Asia Digital Library at Northern Illinois University "Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience", exhibit at the University of California, Irvine, Library at archive.today (archived 25 February 2003) Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives Cornell University Library Digital Collection Official website of the ASEAN Tourism Association Art of Island Southeast Asia, a full text exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art v t e Regions 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en-wikipedia-org-5431	----	Paulina - Wikipedia Paulina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prosopographical list of female relatives of Roman emperor Hadrian For other uses, see Paulina (disambiguation). Paulina Paulina Major from Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Issue Hadrian Father Asceplus I Religion Roman Religion Paulina or Paullina (English: /pɔːˈlaɪnə/, Latin pronunciation: [pau̯ˈliːna]) was a name shared by three relatives of the Roman Emperor Hadrian: his mother, his elder sister and his niece. Contents 1 Mother of Hadrian 1.1 Sources 2 Sister of Hadrian 2.1 Sources 3 Niece of Hadrian 3.1 Sources 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree Mother of Hadrian[edit] Domitia Paulina or Paullina, Domitia Paulina Major or Paulina Major, (Major Latin for the elder), also known as Paulina the Elder (?-85/86). Paulina was a Spanish Roman woman who lived in the 1st century. She was a daughter of a distinguished Spanish Roman senatorial family. Paulina originally came from Gades (modern Cádiz, Spain). Gades was one of the wealthiest Roman cities. Little is known of the life of Paulina. Paulina married Spanish Roman Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a praetor who was a paternal cousin of Roman Emperor Trajan. Paulina and Afer had two children, a daughter Aelia Domitia Paulina (75-130) and a son emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76-138). Around 85/86 Paulina died of unknown causes, before her husband. After the death of her husband, her children were raised by Trajan and the Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Sister of Hadrian[edit] Aelia Domitia Paulina or Paullina or Domitia Paulina Minor (Minor Latin for the younger) also known as Paulina the Younger (early 75-130). The younger Paulina was the eldest child and only daughter to Domitia Paulina and praetor Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer. She was Hadrian’s eldest sister and only sibling. She was Spanish, but was of Roman descent. She was most probably born and raised in Italica (a city near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. When her parents died around 86, she and her brother were raised by her father’s paternal cousin, the Roman Emperor Trajan, and Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Before the accession of Trajan to the throne in 98, Trajan had arranged for her to marry the Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus. During Trajan’s reign 98-117, Paulina and Servianus had a daughter called Julia Serviana Paulina. Before Trajan’s death in 117, Paulina and Servianus had arranged for their daughter Julia to marry the Spanish Roman Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who was a man of consular rank. Julia and Salinator, in 118, had a son, a younger Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. When Paulina died, Servianus and Hadrian had a private ceremony for her. Hadrian was ridiculed for not granting her a full state funeral and apotheosis until pressured to do so by the senate, but granting his companion Antinous a sumptuous funeral with full divine honours. Sources[edit] Augustan History: Hadrian Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Ancient Library 3125 Ancient Library Niece of Hadrian[edit] Julia Serviana Paulina or Paullina also known as Julia Paulina was the daughter and only child to Spanish Roman politician Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Aelia Domitia Paulina. Her maternal uncle was Roman Emperor Hadrian and maternal aunt-in-marriage was Roman Empress Vibia Sabina. She was born at an unknown date during the reign of her third cousin emperor Trajan, who reigned 98-117. Her birthplace is unknown. Before Trajan’s death in 117, her parents arranged for her to marry the Roman senator Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, ordinary consul in 118. Roman senator Pliny the Younger sent a letter of congratulations to her parents regarding her wedding (Epistulae, VI.26). Her husband was originally from Barcelona, Spain (this was the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis). Salinator had the same name as his father and his father was a former consul. In 118, during Salinator’s consulship, Julia and Salinator had a son, the younger Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. The elder Salinator and Julia seem to have died before 136. Julia’s father had always cherished the idea that her youthful son would one day succeed Hadrian. The aging Emperor considered Julia’s son as his heir. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, gave him special status in his court and also groomed him for his succession. However, in 136, Hadrian changed his mind and decided to adopt Lucius Aelius Caesar as his heir. Julia’s father and son were angry with Hadrian and wanted to challenge him about the adoption. To avoid any conflict, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Julia’s father and son. Sources[edit] Ancient Library 3125 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulina&oldid=1002429753" Categories: 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans Romans from Hispania Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Aelii Domitii Julii Ancient Roman prosopographical lists of women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 12:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5433	----	Germania Superior - Wikipedia Germania Superior From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman province This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Germania Superior" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Provincia Germania Superior Province of the Roman Empire 83–475 The province of Germania Superior within the Roman Empire, c. 125 Capital Mogontiacum Historical era Antiquity • Established after the Gallic wars 83 • Gallic Empire 260–274 • Frankish Empire 475 Succeeded by Frankish Empire Today part of  France  Germany   Switzerland The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), showing, on the upper Rhine river, the imperial province of Germania Superior (Franche-Comté/Alsace-Lorraine/Baden-Württemberg), and the 2 legions deployed there in 125. Northern part of the province with the Limes Germanicus. Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon (Vesontio), Strasbourg (Argentoratum), Wiesbaden (Aquae Mattiacae), and Germania Superior's capital, Mainz (Mogontiacum). It comprised the Middle Rhine, bordering on the Limes Germanicus, and on the Alpine province of Raetia to the south-east. Although it had been occupied militarily since the reign of Augustus, Germania Superior (along with Germania Inferior) was not made into an official province until c. 85 AD.[1] Contents 1 Origin 1.1 Initial Roman involvement 1.2 Limit of the empire 1.3 Defensive strategy 2 End of the province 3 Governors of Germania Superior 4 Civitates 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Origin[edit] Initial Roman involvement[edit] Main article: Lesser Germania Further information: Romanization (cultural) The terms, "Upper Germania" and "Lower Germania" do not appear in the Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar,[citation needed] yet he writes about reports that the people who lived in those regions were referred to as Germani locally, a term used for a tribe that the Romans called the Germani Cisrhenani, and that the name Germania seems to have been adopted to designate other indigenous tribes in the area.[2][3] Lower Germania was occupied by the Belgae. Upper Germania was occupied by Gaulish tribes including the Helvetii, Sequani, Leuci, and Treveri, and, on the north bank of the middle Rhine, the remnant of the Germanic troops that had attempted to take Vesontio under Ariovistus, but who were defeated by Caesar in 58 BC. The Romans did not abandon this region at any time after then. During a 5-year period in the initial years of his reign (28–23 BC), as Cassius Dio tells us (53.12), Octavian Caesar assumed direct governorship of the major senatorial provinces on grounds that they were in danger of insurrection and he alone commanded the troops required to restore security. They were to be restored to the senate in 10 years under proconsuls elected by the senate. Among these independent provinces were upper Germania. Apparently it had become a province in the last years of the republic. Tacitus also mentions it as the province of Germania Superior in his Annales (3.41, 4.73, 13.53). Cassius Dio viewed the Germanic tribes as Celts, an impression given perhaps by Belgica, the name assigned to lower Germania at the time. Dio does not mention the border, but he views upper Germany as extending to the source of the Rhine. It is not clear if he was aware of the Upper Rhine in Switzerland, upstream from Lake Constance. Today the section of the Rhine running through upper Germania is called the middle Rhine. Limit of the empire[edit] Augustus had planned to incorporate all of central Germania in one province, Germania Magna. This plan was frustrated by the Germanic tribesmen at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Augustus decided to limit the empire at the Rhine-Danube border. Thereafter continual conflict prevailed along it, forcing the Romans to conduct punitive expeditions and fortify Germania Superior. By 12 BC, major bases existed at Xanten (Castra Vetera) and Mainz (Mogontiacum), from which Drusus operated. A system of forts gradually developed around these bases. In 69–70, all the Roman fortications along the Rhine and Danube were destroyed by Germanic insurrections and civil war between the legions. At the conclusion of this violent but brief social storm they were rebuilt more extensively than before, with a road connecting Mainz and Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum). Domitian went to war against the Chatti in 83–85, who were north of Frankfurt (in Hesse named after them). At this time the first line, or continuous fortified border, was constructed. It consisted of a cleared zone of observation, a palisade where practicable, wooden watchtowers and forts at the road crossings. The system reached maximum extent by 90. A Roman road went through the Odenwald and a network of secondary roads connected all the forts and towers. Germania Superior and Germania Inferior in the 3rd century. Defensive strategy[edit] The plan governing the development of the limes was relatively simple. From a strategic point of view, the Agri Decumates, or region between the Rhine and Danube, offers a bulge in the line between the Celts and the Germanics, which the Germanics had tried to exploit under Ariovistus. The bulge divided the densely populated Celtic settlements along the entire river system in two. Invading forces could move up under cover of the Black Forest. Roman defensive works therefore cut across the base of the bulge, denying the protected corridor and shortening the line. The key point was the shoulder of the bulge at Mogontiacum (Mainz) where the masse de manoevre or strategic reserves were located. The forts through the forest were relatively lightly defended and on that account were always being burned by the Alamanni. They gave advance notice, however. On being notified, the legions would strike out in preventative and punitive expeditions from Mainz or Strasburg, or Augsburg on the other side. The entire system could only succeed if heavy troop concentrations were kept at Mainz. Fixed defenses alone are not much of a defense, in either ancient or modern times. Other forces are required for attack. At best the fixed defenses serve to warn or delay until a counterattack can be launched. For more complete details on the development of the limes, or frontier, see under Limes Germanicus. In the subsequent peaceful years, the limes lost its temporary character. Vici, or communities, developed around the forts. By 150, the towers and the bases had been rebuilt in stone. The soldiers now lived in good stone barracks within walls decorated by frescoes. Germanic civilization had changed as well. Where Caesar had described burning the wretched brush hovels of the Suebi who had come to fight for Ariovistus, the Chatti and the Alamanni now lived in comfortable Romanized villages around the limes. Germania Superior was reestablished as an Imperial Roman province in 90, taking large amounts of territory from Gallia Lugdunensis. One of its first and most famous governors was the future Emperor Trajan, who ruled the province from 96 until his accession in 98. The Helvetii settlement area became part of the province of Germania Superior. End of the province[edit] Post 400, as Rome slowly was losing control over its northernmost provinces over a period of 50 years, the southern (Swiss) parts of Germania Superior were incorporated into the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum before they became part of Burgundy in the early 5th century. The northern parts became part of Alemannia. Governors of Germania Superior[edit] Gaius Silius AD 14–16 Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus 29–39 Pomponius Secundus 50-54[citation needed] Hordeonius Flaccus c. 69[4] Gaius Dillius Vocula 69–70 Appius Annius Gallus 70–72 Gnaeus Pinarius Cornelius Clemens 72–75 Quintus Corellius Rufus 79–83 Lucius Antonius Saturninus 87–89 Gaius Octavius Tidius Tossianus Lucius Javolenus Priscus 89–92 Sextus Lusianus Proculus 93–96[5][6] Marcus Ulpius Traianus 96–97; better known as Trajan Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus 97/98 Ignotus 110–112 Kan[us Junius Niger] 116–118[7] Gaius Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus Between 121 and 128 [...]ius Celer 128/129-130/131 Tiberius Claudius Quartinus 133/134-134/135 Titus Caesernius Statianus c. 149 - c. 152[8] Gaius Popilius Carus Pedo c. 152 - c. 155 Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus c. 155 - c. 158 Gaius Aufidius Victorinus c. 162 - c. 166 Lucius Victorinus Flavius Caelianus c. 166 - c. 169 Caerellius Priscus, name uncertain; possibly c. 174 - c. 177 Publius Cornelius Anullinus c. 177 - c. 180 Marcus Helvius Clemens Dextrianus From 187[9] Gaius Caesonius Macer Rufinianus c. 200 - c. 203[9] Titus Statilius Barbarus c. 203[9] Quintus Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus c. 206 - 209[9] [...] Avitius Attested 28 March 213[9] Quintus Junius [...] Quintianus Attested October 213[9] Claudius Aelius Pollio c. 218[9] Maximus Attianus Attested 28 March 229[9] Sextus Catius Clementinus Priscillianus c. 231[9] Civitates[edit] Ladenburg (Lopodunum) = Civitas Ulpia Sueborum Nicretum; Wimpfen = Civitas Alisinensium; Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt Rottenburg (Sumelocenna) = Civitas Sumelocennensis; Rottweil (Arae Flaviae) Baden-Baden (Aquae) = Civitas Aquensis; Mainz (Mogontiacum) = Civitas Aresacium; Worms (Borbetomagus) = Civitas Vangionum; Speyer (Noviomagus) = Civitas Nemetum; Wiesbaden (Mattiacorum) = Civitas Mattiacorum; Heddernheim (Nida) = Civitas Taunensium; Dieburg = Civitas Auderiensium See also[edit] List of Germanic peoples Alamanni Heremus Helvetiorum Notes[edit] References[edit] ^ Rüger, C. (2004) [1996]. "Germany". In Alan K. Bowman; Edward Champlin; Andrew Lintott (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. - A.D. 69. 10 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 526–528. ISBN 0-521-26430-8. ^ Schulze, Hagen (1998). Germany: A New History. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-674-80688-3. OCLC 39042956. ^ Hoad, T. F., ed. (2003) [1st pub. 1996]. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford Reference Online (online ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 641. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192830982.001.0001. ISBN 9780192830982. Retrieved 2016-10-01. ^ Unless otherwise noted, governors from 69 to 112 are taken from Eck, Werner (1982). "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139". Chiron. 12: 281–362. ISBN 3406078524. ISSN 0069-3715. OCLC 932001499. ^ Weiß, Peter (2004). "Ein neuer Legat Domitians von Germania superior in einem Militärdiplom: Sex. Lusianus Proculus". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. Band 147: 229–234. ^ Eck, Werner (2004). "Diplome, Konsuln und Statthalter: Fortschritte und Probleme der kaiserzeitlichen Prosopographie". Chiron. 34: 25–44, here page 37. ^ Unless otherwise noted, governors from 116 to 135 are taken from Eck, Werner (1983). "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139, II". Chiron. Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck. 13: 147–237. ISBN 3406093337. ISSN 0069-3715. OCLC 932001499.CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link) ^ Unless otherwise noted, governors from 149 to 180 are taken from Alföldy, Géza (1977). Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen [Consuls and Senators under the Antonine Emperors]. Volume 27 of Antiquitas: Abhandlungen zur Alten Geschichte [Antiquitas: Essays on Ancient History] (in German). Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag. pp. 228–229. ISBN 978-3-7749-1334-9. OCLC 299616620. Retrieved 12 April 2017. ^ a b c d e f g h i Leunissen, Paul M.M. (1989). Konsuln und konsulare in der zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander: 180-235 n. Chr. Dutch Monographs on Ancient History and Archaeology. VI. Amsterdam: Verlag J.C. Gieben. pp. 245–247. ISBN 90-6053-028-6. OCLC 803822187.CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link) Further reading[edit] Valerie M. Hope: Constructing Identity: The Roman Funerary Monuments of Aquelia, Mainz and Nimes; British Archaeological Reports (16. Juli 2001) ISBN 978-1-84171-180-5 External links[edit] The Fleets and Roman Border Policy LIMES GERMANIAE SUPERIORIS Germany. v t e  Alsace topics Administrative divisions Bas-Rhin (Strasbourg) (Unterelsaß) Arrondissement of Haguenau-Wissembourg Arrondissement of Molsheim Arrondissement of Saverne Arrondissement of Sélestat-Erstein Arrondissement of Strasbourg Haut-Rhin (Colmar) (Oberelsaß) Arrondissement of Altkirch Arrondissement of Colmar-Ribeauvillé Arrondissement of Mulhouse Arrondissement of Thann-Guebwiller Language Alsatian French Culture Coat of arms Flag Anthem People Demographics Kelsch Musée alsacien Hagenau Strasbourg Politics Regional council of Alsace (1982–2015) Alsace independence movement Grand Est (since 2016) European Collectivity of Alsace (since 2021) Religion (according to the 1801 Concordat in Alsace-Moselle, including Lorraine) Catholic Church Archdiocese of Strasbourg Immediately subject to the Holy See (Lorraine: Diocese of Metz) Protestantism Union of Protestant Churches of Alsace and Lorraine Protestant Church of the Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine Protestant Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine Judaism History of the Jews in Alsace consistories Sports RC Strasbourg Alsace SIG Strasbourg SC Schiltigheim FC Sélestat Sélestat Alsace Handball FC Vendenheim Étoile Noire de Strasbourg Internationaux de Strasbourg Rallye de France Alsace Rallye Alsace-Vosges See also: Alsace de Bagnolet (Paris) History Germania Superior (Pagus Alsatiae) (83–475) Argentoratum Route Romane d'Alsace Alemanni (circa 213–496) Alamannia (3rd-century–911) Duchy of Alsace (circa 630–699) Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg (982–1803) County of Ferrette (11th-century–14th-century) Salm (1165−1793) Landgraviate of Alsace (1186–1646) Lower Alsace Upper Alsace Further Austria (13th-century–1648) Décapole (1354–1679) County of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1456–1736) Upper Rhenish Circle (1500-1679) Left Bank of the Rhine (1814-1871) Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine (1871–1918) Gau Baden-Elsaß (1940–1945) Alsace (1945–2016) Grand Est (2016–) v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category v t e Ancient Roman sites in Germany Germania (Germania Superior, Germania Inferior) Cities Trier Mainz Cologne Xanten Barricades Limes Germanicus Camps Flevum Roman camp Bentumersiel Marching camp Ermelo Marching camp Holsterhausen Aliso Cohort camp Haltern Roman camp Olfen Shore fort Beckinghausen Roman fort Bielefeld-Sennestadt Roman camp Oberaden Roman camp Kneblinghausen Roman camp Anreppen Roman camp Porta Westfalica Roman camp Hedemünden Roman camp Limburg Roman camp Oberbrechen Waldgirmes Forum Roman camp Dorlar Roman camp, Marktbreit Marching camp Hachelbich Marching camp Wilkenburg v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Roman governors Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes (Alpes Cottiae, Alpes Maritimae and Alpes Poeninae) Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gaul (Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Narbonensis) Germania (Germania Inferior and Germania Superior) Hispania (Hispania Baetica and Hispania Tarraconensis) Iudaea Lusitania Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania (Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana) Mesopotamia Moesia (Moesia Inferior and Moesia Superior) Noricum Pannonia (Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior) Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia Authority control General Integrated Authority File Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germania_Superior&oldid=1008913845" Categories: States and territories established in the 80s States and territories disestablished in the 5th century Germania Superior Germany in the Roman era Ancient Switzerland 80s establishments in the Roman Empire 470s disestablishments in the Roman Empire 475 disestablishments Former states and territories of Rhineland-Palatinate Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5436	----	Trosius Aper - Wikipedia Trosius Aper From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Roman grammarian Trosius Aper was a grammarian of ancient Rome who served as one of two Latin tutors for the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, along with Tuticius Proculus. He was from Pola (modern Pula) in Istria,[1] and was assigned to Aurelius as a tutor around 132 or 133 AD.[2] As a tutor, Aper would have Aurelius read classical works out loud, and memorize them, later commenting on stylistic matters, and drawing philosophical lessons from the text for his pupil.[2] While it is known that Aper's colleague Tuticius Proculus was rewarded handsomely with a senatorship and consulship,[3] little is known about the life of Aper.[4] Notes[edit] ^ van Ackeren, Marcel (2012). A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. 96. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 141. ISBN 9781405192859. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ a b Stephens, William O. (2011). Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. Guides for the Perplexed. A&C Black. p. 7. ISBN 9781441101792. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (2012). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Roman Imperial Biographies. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9781134695690. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Adams, Geoffrey William (2013). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 61. ISBN 9780739176382. Retrieved 2016-02-21. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trosius_Aper&oldid=1025363130" Categories: Tutors of Marcus Aurelius 2nd-century Romans Grammarians of Latin Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 27 May 2021, at 05:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5437	----	Alexios III Angelos - Wikipedia Alexios III Angelos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1195 to 1203 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios III Angelos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miniature portrait of Alexios III (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 8 April 1195 – 18 July 1203 Predecessor Isaac II Angelos Successor Isaac II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos Born c. 1153 (1153) Died 1211 (Aged 58) Spouse Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera Issue Eirine Angelina Anna Komnene Angelina Eudokia Angelina Dynasty Angelos Father Andronikos Doukas Angelos Mother Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa Religion Greek Orthodox Alexios III Angelos (Medieval Greek: Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος, romanized: Alexios Angelos; c. 1153 – 1211) was Byzantine Emperor from March 1195 to 17/18 July 1203.[1] He reigned under the name Alexios Komnenos (Medieval Greek: Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνὸς, romanized: Alexios Komnēnos), associating himself with the Komnenos dynasty (from which he was descended matrilineally). A member of the extended imperial family, Alexios came to throne after deposing, blinding and imprisoning his younger brother Isaac II Angelos. The most significant event of his reign was the attack of the Fourth Crusade on Constantinople in 1203, on behalf of Alexios IV Angelos. Alexios III took over the defence of the city, which he mismanaged, and then fled the city at night with one of his three daughters. From Adrianople, and then Mosynopolis, he attempted unsuccessfully to rally his supporters, only to end up a captive of Marquis Boniface of Montferrat. He was ransomed, sent to Asia Minor where he plotted against his son-in-law Theodore Laskaris, but was eventually captured and spent his last days confined to the Monastery of Hyakinthos in Nicaea, where he died. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 3 Fourth Crusade 4 Life in exile 5 Family 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Early life[edit] Alexios III Angelos was the second son of Andronikos Doukas Angelos and Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa. Andronikos was himself a son of Theodora Komnene, the youngest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Thus Alexios Angelos was a member of the extended imperial family. Together with his father and brothers, Alexios had conspired against Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos (c. 1183), and thus he spent several years in exile in Muslim courts, including that of Saladin. His younger brother Isaac was threatened with execution under orders of Andronikos I, their first-cousin once-removed, on 11 September 1185. Isaac made a desperate attack on the imperial agents and soon killed their leader Stephen Hagiochristophorites. He then took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia and from there appealed to the populace. His actions provoked a riot, which resulted in the deposition of Andronikos I and the proclamation of Isaac as Emperor. Alexios was now closer to the imperial throne than ever before. Reign[edit] Alexios III from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum By 1190 Alexios had returned to the court of his younger brother, from whom he received the elevated title of sebastokratōr. In March 1195 while Isaac II was away hunting in Thrace, Alexios was acclaimed as emperor by the troops with the covert support of Alexios' wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. Alexios captured Isaac at Stagira in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and thenceforth kept him a close prisoner, despite having previously been redeemed by Alexios from captivity at Antioch and showered with honours.[2] To compensate for this crime and to solidify his position as emperor, Alexios had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. These actions inevitably led to the financial ruin of the state. At Christmas 1196, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI attempted to force Alexios to pay him a tribute of 5,000 pounds (later negotiated down to 1,600 pounds) of gold or face invasion. Alexios gathered the money by plundering imperial tombs at the church of the Holy Apostles and heavily taxing the people through the Alamanikon. Because of Henry's death in September 1197, the gold was never dispatched. The able and forceful empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument in her attempts at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders.[2] In the east the Empire was overrun by the Seljuk Turks; from the north, the Kingdom of Hungary and the rebellious Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the Balkan provinces of the Empire, sometimes penetrating as far as Greece, while Alexios squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means. The Emperor's attempts to bolster the empire's defences by special concessions to pronoiars (notables) in the frontier zone backfired, as the latter increased their regional autonomy. Byzantine authority survived, but in a much weakened state. In 1197, local lord Dobromir Chrysos established himself in region of Vardar Macedonia, defying the imperial power for several years.[3] During first years of Alexios reign, relations between Byzantium and Serbia were good, since his daughter Eudokia Angelina was married to Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić, who was granted the title of sebastokrator. But in 1200, those relations deteriorated. Marriage between Stefan and Eudokia was dissolved, and alliance between Serbia and Byzantium ended, leaving Byzantium without a single ally in Southeastern Europe.[4][5] Fourth Crusade[edit] Soon Alexios was threatened by a new and more formidable danger. In 1202, soldiers assembled at Venice to launch the Fourth Crusade. Alexios IV Angelos, the son of the deposed Isaac II, had recently escaped from Constantinople and now appealed for support to the crusaders, promising to end the East-West Schism, to pay for their transport, and to provide military support if they would help him depose his uncle and ascend to his father's throne.[2] The crusaders, whose objective had been Egypt, were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, arriving there in June 1203, proclaiming Alexios IV as Emperor, and inviting the populace of the capital to depose his uncle. Alexios III took no effective measures to resist, and his attempts to bribe the crusaders failed. His son-in-law, Theodore Laskaris, who was the only one to attempt anything significant, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of Constantinople began. Unfortunately for the city, misgovernment by Alexios III had left the Byzantine navy with only 20 worm-eaten hulks by the time the crusaders arrived. In July, the crusaders, led by the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo, scaled the walls and took control of a major section of the city. In the ensuing fighting, the crusaders set the city on fire, ultimately leaving 20,000 people homeless. On 17 July Alexios III finally took action and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. His courage failed, however, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. His courtiers demanded action, and Alexios III promised to fight. Instead, that night ( 17/18 July), Alexios III hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Eirene, and as much treasure (1,000 pounds of gold) as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to Debeltos in Thrace, leaving his wife and his other daughters behind. Isaac II, drawn from his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son, Alexios IV, in state. Life in exile[edit] Alexios III attempted to organize resistance to the new regime from Adrianople and then Mosynopolis, where he was joined by the later usurper Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos in April 1204, after the definitive fall of Constantinople to the crusaders and the establishment of the Latin Empire. At first Alexios III received Alexios V well, even allowing him to marry his daughter Eudokia Angelina. Later Alexios V was blinded and deserted by his father-in-law, who fled from the crusaders into Thessaly. Here Alexios III eventually surrendered, with Euphrosyne, to Marquis Boniface of Montferrat, who was establishing himself as ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Alexios III attempted to escape Boniface's "protection" in 1205, seeking shelter with Michael I Komnenos Doukas, the ruler of Epirus. Captured by Boniface, Alexios and his retinue were sent to Montferrat before being brought back to Thessalonica in c. 1209. At that point the deposed emperor was ransomed by Michael I, who sent him to Asia Minor, where Alexios' son-in-law Theodore Laskaris - now emperor of Nicaea - was holding his own against the Latins. Here Alexios conspired against his son-in-law after the latter refused to recognize Alexios' authority, receiving the support of Kaykhusraw I, the sultan of Rûm. In the Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211, the sultan was defeated and killed, and Alexios was captured by Theodore Laskaris. Alexios was then confined to a monastery at Nicaea,[6] where he died later in 1211. Family[edit] By his marriage to Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera, Alexios had three daughters: Eirene Angelina, who married (1) Andronikos Kontostephanos, and (2) Alexios Palaiologos, by whom she was the grandmother of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. Anna Angelina, who married (1) the sebastokratōr Isaac Komnenos, great-nephew of emperor Manuel I Komnenos, and (2) Theodore Laskaris, emperor of Nicaea. Eudokia Angelina, who married (1) Serbian King Stefan Nemanjić, then (2) Emperor Alexios V Doukas, and (3) Leo Sgouros, ruler of Corinth.[7] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ http://www.agiasofia.com/emperors/fall1204.html ^ a b c Bury 1911. ^ Fine 1994, p. 29-30. ^ Fine 1994, p. 46. ^ Ćirković 2004, p. 34-35. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 717. ^ Finley, Jr. 1932, p. 484. References[edit] Michael Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History, second edition (London and New York, 1997)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bury, John Bagnell (1911). "Alexius III.". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 577–578. Brand, Charles M. (1968). Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180–1204. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. LCCN 67-20872. OCLC 795121713. Ćirković, Sima (2004). The Serbs. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Finley, Jr., John H. (1932). "Corinth in the Middle Ages". Speculum. 7 (4). Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, (2nd ed. London and New York, 2014). ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Jonathan Harris, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (London and New York, 2007) Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade - A New Annotated Translation". Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784665. Plate, William (1867). "Alexios III Angelos". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 130. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Alexios III Angelos Angelid dynasty Born: 1153 Died: 1211 Regnal titles Preceded by Isaac II Angelos Byzantine emperor 1195–1203 Succeeded by Isaac II Angelos Succeeded by Alexios IV Angelos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexios_III_Angelos&oldid=1027201263" Categories: Angelid dynasty 12th-century Byzantine emperors 13th-century Byzantine emperors Christians of the Crusade of 1197 Christians of the Fourth Crusade 1150s births 1211 deaths Eastern Orthodox monarchs Monarchs captured as prisoners of war Sebastokrators Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles lacking in-text citations from December 2008 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Jawa ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5439	----	Numismatics - Wikipedia Numismatics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about numismatics as an academic discipline. For collecting, see Coin collecting. Study of currencies, coins and paper money Numismatics Currency Coins Banknotes Forgery List ISO Circulating currencies Africa The Americas Europe Asia Oceania Local currencies Company scrip LETS Time dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies Greek Roman China India Persian Tibetan Thai Filipino Malay Byzantine Medieval currencies Production Mint Designers Coining Milling Hammering Cast Exonumia Credit cards Medals Tokens Cheques Notaphily Banknotes Scripophily Stocks Bonds Glossary of numismatics  Numismatics portal  Money portal v t e Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals and related objects. While numismatists are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other payment media used to resolve debts and the exchange of goods. Early money used by people is referred to as "Odd and Curious", but the use of other goods in barter exchange is excluded, even where used as a circulating currency (e.g., cigarettes in prison). As an example, the Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit and gave small change in lambskins;[1] the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horses are not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as cowry shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones, and gems. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History of money 3 History of numismatics 3.1 Modern numismatics 3.2 Subfields 4 Numismatists 5 List of publicly displayed numismatic collections 6 List of important numismatic scholars 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Etymology[edit] First attested in English 1829, the word numismatics comes from the adjective numismatic, meaning "of coins". It was borrowed in 1792 from French numismatiques, itself a derivation from Late Latin numismatis, genitive of numisma, a variant of nomisma meaning "coin".[2] Nomisma is a latinisation of the Greek νόμισμα (nomisma) which means "current coin/custom",[3] which derives from νομίζω (nomizō), "to hold or own as a custom or usage, to use customarily",[4] in turn from νόμος (nomos), "usage, custom",[5] ultimately from νέμω (nemō), "I dispense, divide, assign, keep, hold".[6] History of money[edit] Main article: History of money Throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, such as banknotes. Many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact. Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially a token – an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of the essential properties of money, such as volatility and limited supply. However, these goods are not controlled by one single authority. History of numismatics[edit] A Roman denarius, a standardized silver coin. Coin collecting may have possibly existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus gave "coins of every device, including old pieces of the kings and foreign money" as Saturnalia gifts.[7] Petrarch, who wrote in a letter that he was often approached by vinediggers with old coins asking him to buy or to identify the ruler, is credited as the first Renaissance collector. Petrarch presented a collection of Roman coins to Emperor Charles IV in 1355. The first book on coins was De Asse et Partibus (1514) by Guillaume Budé.[8] During the early Renaissance ancient coins were collected by European royalty and nobility. Collectors of coins were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I, Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg who started the Berlin coin cabinet and Henry IV of France to name a few. Numismatics is called the "Hobby of Kings", due to its most esteemed founders. Professional societies organised in the 19th century. The Royal Numismatic Society was founded in 1836 and immediately began publishing the journal that became the Numismatic Chronicle. The American Numismatic Society was founded in 1858 and began publishing the American Journal of Numismatics in 1866. In 1931 the British Academy launched the Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum publishing collections of Ancient Greek coinage. The first volume of Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles was published in 1958. In the 20th century coins gained recognition as archaeological objects, scholars such as Guido Bruck of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna realised their value in providing a temporal context and the difficulty that curators faced when identifying worn coins using classical literature. After World War II in Germany a project, Fundmünzen der Antike (Coin finds of the Classical Period) was launched, to register every coin found within Germany. This idea found successors in many countries. In the United States, the US mint established a coin cabinet in 1838 when chief coiner Adam Eckfeldt donated his personal collection.[9] William E. Du Bois’ Pledges of History... (1846) describes the cabinet. C. Wyllys Betts' American colonial history illustrated by contemporary medals (1894) set the groundwork for the study of American historical medals. Helen Wang's "A short history of Chinese numismatics in European languages" (2012-2013) gives an outline history of Western countries' understanding of Chinese numismatics.[10] Lyce Jankowski's Les amis des monnaies is an in-depth study of Chinese numismatics in China in the 19th century.[11] Modern numismatics[edit] Two 20 kr gold coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union. Modern numismatics is the study of the coins of the mid-17th century onward, the period of machine-struck coins.[12] Their study serves more the need of collectors than historians and it is more often successfully pursued by amateur aficionados than by professional scholars. The focus of modern numismatics lies frequently in the research of production and use of money in historical contexts using mint or other records in order to determine the relative rarity of the coins they study. Varieties, mint-made errors, the results of progressive die wear, mintage figures and even the sociopolitical context of coin mintings are also matters of interest. Subfields[edit] Main articles: Exonumia, Notaphily, and Scripophily Exonumia (UK English: Paranumismatica)[13] is the study of coin-like objects such as token coins and medals, and other items used in place of legal currency or for commemoration. This includes elongated coins, encased coins, souvenir medallions, tags, badges, counterstamped coins, wooden nickels, credit cards, and other similar items. It is related to numismatics proper (concerned with coins which have been legal tender), and many coin collectors are also exonumists. Notaphily is the study of paper money or banknotes. It is believed that people have been collecting paper money for as long as it has been in use. However, people only started collecting paper money systematically in Germany in the 1920s, particularly the Serienscheine (Series notes) Notgeld. The turning point occurred in the 1970s, when notaphily was established as a separate area by collectors. At the same time, some developed countries such as the United States, Germany and France began publishing their respective national catalogues of paper money, which represented major points of reference literature. Alexander the Great tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint circa 188-170 BC Scripophily is the study and collection of stocks and Bonds. It is an area of collecting due to both the inherent beauty of some historical documents as well as the interesting historical context of each document. Some stock certificates are excellent examples of engraving. Occasionally an old stock document will be found that still has value as a stock in a successor company. Numismatists[edit] The term numismatist applies to collectors and coin dealers as well as scholars using coins as source or studying coins.[14] The first group chiefly derive pleasure from the simple ownership of monetary devices and studying these coins as private amateur scholars. In the classical field amateur collector studies have achieved quite remarkable progress in the field. Examples are Walter Breen, a well-known example of a noted numismatist who was not an avid collector, and King Farouk I of Egypt was an avid collector[15] who had very little interest in numismatics. Harry Bass by comparison was a noted collector who was also a numismatist. The second group are the coin dealers. Often called professional numismatists, they authenticate or grade coins for commercial purposes. The buying and selling of coin collections by numismatists who are professional dealers advances the study of money, and expert numismatists are consulted by historians, museum curators, and archaeologists. The third category are scholar numismatists working in public collections, universities or as independent scholars acquiring knowledge about monetary devices, their systems, their economy and their historical context.[16] An example would be G. Kenneth Jenkins. Coins are especially relevant as source in the pre-modern period. List of publicly displayed numismatic collections[edit] Main article: List of numismatic collections Country State/City Description (Museum Name, etc.) Argentina Retiro, Buenos Aires Casa de Moneda de la República Argentina Argentina Buenos Aires Museo numismático Héctor Carlos Janson [es] at the Central Bank of Argentina Armenia Yerevan History Museum of Armenia Austria Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum Bahrain Manama Central Bank of Bahrain Currency Museum[17] Bangladesh Dhaka Bangladesh Bank Taka Museum[18] Belgium Brussels Coins and Medals Department of the Royal Library of Belgium Belgium Brussels Museum of the National Bank of Belgium[19] Brazil Brasília Museu de Valores do Banco Central [pt] Brazil Rio de Janeiro National Historical Museum Brazil Rio de Janeiro Banco do Brasil's Cultural Center Brazil São Paulo Instituto Itaú Cultural Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan Currency Gallery Brunei Darussalam[20] Bulgaria Sofia Bulgarian National Bank Museum[21] Canada Ottawa Currency Museum Bank of Canada China Beijing China Numismatic Museum[22] China Shanghai Shanghai Museum Colombia Bogotá Casa de Moneda de Colombia Costa Rica San José Numismatic Museum[23] Cuba Havana Numismatic Museum[24] Denmark Copenhagen National Museum of Denmark Ecuador Quito Museo Numismático del Ecuador [es] France Paris Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France France Paris Monnaie de Paris Georgia Tbilisi National Bank of Georgia Germany Berlin Bode Museum, Museumsinsel Germany Dresden Münzkabinett in Dresden Castle[25] Germany Frankfurt Numismatic Museum/Münzkabinett Historical Museum, Frankfurt[26] Germany Jena Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena Germany Munich Staatliche Münzsammlung Munchen Greece Athens Numismatic Museum of Athens Guatemala Guatemala City Museo Numismático de Guatemala[27] Hungary Budapest Visitor centre[28] of the Hungarian National Bank India New Delhi National Museum, New Delhi India Mumbai Reserve Bank of India Museum[29] India Nasik Coin Museum, Nasik[30] India Chennai Government Museum Indonesia Jakarta Bank Indonesia Museum Collection : Money Indonesia Purbalingga Museum Uang Purbalingga Israel Jerusalem Israel Museum Italy Florence Museo della Moneta a Firenze Italy Florence National Archaeological Museum in Florence Italy Lucca Lucca Mint [it][31] Italy Naples Naples National Archaeological Museum Italy Rome National Museum of Rome Crypta Balbi/Museo Nazionale Romano: Crypta Balbi Italy Rome Banca d'Italia Banca d'Italia Museo della Moneta sSchool groups only and by appointment only).[32] Italy Rome Vatican Philatelic and Numismatic Museum [it][33] Italy Venice Museo Correr Japan Tokyo Bank of Japan Money IMES BOJ Currency Museum[34] Lebanon Tripoli The Northern Lebanon & Akkar Museum Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory Bank Negara Malaysia Museum and Art Gallery[35] Mexico Mexico City Mexican Mint[36] Morocco Rabat Bank Al-Maghrib museum[37] Morocco Rabat Musée de la monnaie (Tunisie) [fr] Nepal Kathmandu National Museum of Nepal Netherlands Amsterdam Numismatic collection of De Nederlandsche Bank[38] North Macedonia Skopje Narodna Banka na Republika Severna Makedonija[39] Paraguay Asuncion Numismatica Independencia[40] Pakistan Karachi SBP Museum[41] Peru Lima Museo Numismático del Perú[42] Philippines Manila Museo ng Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas[43] Poland Cracow The Emeryk Hutten-Czapski Museum[44] Portugal Lisbon Museu Numismático Português Qatar Doha Sheikh Faisal Bin Qassim Al Thani Museum Romania Bucharest The Museum of the National Bank of Romania[45] Russia St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum Russia St. Petersburg The Russian Money Museum[46] Sri Lanka Colombo Currency museum, Colombo Serbia Belgrade National Bank of Serbia (Народна Банка Србије)[47] Singapore Singapore Singapore Coins and Notes Museum[48] Slovakia Košice Golden treasure of Kosice [sk], East Slovak Museum[49] Spain Madrid Museo Casa de la Moneda[50] Spain Barcelona Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, numismatic collection[51] South Africa Johannesburg Absa Money Museum Suriname Paramaribo Museum of the Centrale Bank van Suriname[52] Sweden Stockholm Royal Coin Cabinet Sweden Uppsala Uppsala University Coin Cabinet Switzerland Zurich Money Museum Thailand Bangkok Pavilion of Regalia, Royal Decorations and Coins[53] Trinidad and Tobago Port of Spain Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago[54] Turkey Ankara CBRT Numismatics Museum [tr] Ukraine Odessa Odessa Numismatics Museum Ukraine Feodosiya Feodosia Money Museum United Arab Emirates Emirate of Dubai Coins Museum Dubai[55] United Arab Emirates Emirate of Abu Dhabi UAE Currency Museum[56] United Kingdom Cambridge Fitzwilliam Museum United Kingdom Glasgow Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery[57] United Kingdom Birmingham Barber Institute of Fine Arts, Birmingham University United Kingdom London British Museum Department of Coins and Medals United Kingdom London Bank of England Museum United Kingdom Llantrisant Royal Mint Museum United Kingdom Manchester Manchester Museum[58] United Kingdom Oxford Ashmolean Museum United States Colorado Springs American Numismatic Association Money Museum United States Washington, D.C. National Numismatic Collection (NNC), Smithsonian National Museum of American History Uruguay Montevideo Museo del Gaucho y la Moneda [es] Venezuela Caracas Banco Central de Venezuela List of important numismatic scholars[edit] See also: List of coin collectors Andreas Alföldi (1895–1981) Augusto Carlos Teixeira de Aragão Marion Archibald (1935-2016) Simone Assemani (1752–1820) Churchill Babington Anselmo Banduri Georges Bataille Osmund Bopearachchi Bartolomeo Borghesi Guido Bruck Guillaume Budé Francesco Carelli Celestino Cavedoni Joan Clarke Henry Cohen Joe Cribb[59] Théophile Marion Dumersan Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher Giuseppe Fiorelli Martin Folkes Julius Friedländer Andrea Fulvio Raffaele Garrucci Francesco Gnecchi Philip Grierson Claude Gros de Boze P. L. Gupta (1914 – 2001) Nicola Francesco Haym (1678–1729) Stefan Heidemann David Hendin Gene Hessler G. Kenneth Jenkins[60] Joel L. Malter Harold Mattingly Theodor Mommsen B. N. Mukherjee A. K. Narain Eric P. Newman Carlo Ottavio, Count Castiglione Martin Price (numismatist) Louis Robert Desiré-Raoul Rochette Joaquín Rubio y Muñoz Eduard Rüppell Antonio Salinas Gustave Schlumberger Charles Seltman Camillo Serafini Ajay Mitra Shastri Adolf Soetbeer Dmitry Sontsov Frederic Soret Johann Gustav Stickel Charles Surasky Francois Thierry Olaus Gerhard Tychsen Jörgen Zoega See also[edit] Numismatist (specialist) Awards for numismatics Numismatic associations List of numismatic collections List of numismatic journals Silk Road Numismatics Coin collecting Coin grading Coin catalog Coin roll hunting – searching coin rolls for coins of numismatic value Glossary of numismatics Joseph Pellerin Commodity money Money creation Where's George? Where's Willy? Auction catalog Exchange rate Manillas – a form of primitive or archaic money. World Money Fair Leper colony money List of most expensive coins Philately References[edit] ^ Glyn Davies (1996). Chronology of Money 1900 — 1919. ISBN 978-0-7083-1351-0. Archived from the original on 2006-07-14. Retrieved 2006-08-09. ^ nomisma Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus ^ νόμισμα Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ νομίζω Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ νόμος Archived 2011-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ νέμω Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Suetonius, Augustus 75 on-line text Archived 2007-07-26 at WebCite. ^ Brigham Young University library web page Archived 2008-07-25 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kent, Allen (1985). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-8247-2037-7. ^ Helen Wang, "A short history of Chinese numismatics in European languages", in Early China vols 35-36 (2012-2013), pp. 395-429, ^ Jankowski, Lyce (2018). Les amis des monnaies – la sociabilité savante des collectionneurs et numismates chinois de la fin des Qing. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose nlle édition. ISBN 978-2-37701-030-1. ^ "Collectibles". Maritime International. Archived from the original on September 14, 2013. Retrieved June 13, 2013. ^ The First Dictionary of Paranumismatica: All About Tokens, Checks, Tickets, Passes, Medalets, Counters, Tallies and Weights (ed. Brian Edge), 1991. ISBN 978-0951691007 ^ "numismatist". thefreedictionary. Archived from the original on November 5, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2014. ^ Lester, Carl N. "Numismatic "Gumshoe:" On the Trail of King Farouk". Gold Rush Gallery. Archived from the original on 2017-02-27. Retrieved 2013-06-13. ^ "An Overview of Numismatics". Gainesville Coins. Archived from the original on March 20, 2014. Retrieved June 13, 2013. ^ "Central Bank of Bahrain | Home". www.cbb.gov.bh. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Bangladesh Bank Taka Museum | Colors of Bangladesh". web.archive.org. 2015-06-17. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Coins — Museum of the National Bank of Belgium". Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Currency Gallery Brunei Darussalam". gallery.bruneiresources.com. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "(untitled)". www.bnb.bg. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Museum Special: China Numismatic Museum CCTV News - CNTV English". web.archive.org. 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Museo de Numismática - Museos del Banco Central - Costa Rica - Pag 1". web.archive.org. 2011-07-29. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.cuba-museums-guide.com/cuba_museums/numismatic_museum.htm ^ "Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden Münzkabinett". web.archive.org. 2010-05-31. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.historisches-museum.frankfurt.de/index.php?article_id=89 ^ "Consulta nuestra información | Banco de Guatemala". banguat.gob.gt. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Magyar Nemzeti Bank". web.archive.org. 2014-10-23. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Reserve Bank of India- Museum". www.rbi.org.in. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Coin Museum Nashik - Coin Museum Nasik Maharashtra, Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies Maharashtra". www.maharashtratourism.net. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ ".:: ZECCA DI LUCCA ::". web.archive.org. 2010-07-27. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ [https://web.archive.org/web/20100607122642/http://www.bancaditalia.it/servizi_pubbl/museo_mon ^ "The new Museum". web.archive.org. 2007-08-25. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/cm/english/index.html ^ "Museum and Art Gallery Bank Negara Malaysia". www.museum.bnm.gov.my. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Casa de Moneda de México". web.archive.org. 2013-03-09. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.bkam.ma/musee/ ^ "NNC-ontsluiting - DNB.nl - De Nederlandsche Bank". nnc.dnb.nl. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Македонски - Почетна". www.nbrm.mk. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ Digitales, Xnet Soluciones. "NISA S.R.L." nisapy.com.py (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.sbp.org.pk/museum ^ http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Proyeccion-Institucional/Museo/Museo-Numismatico-del-Peru.pdf ^ www.bsp.gov.ph https://www.bsp.gov.ph/about/facilities_money.asp. Retrieved 2021-06-13. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Emeryk Hutten-Czapski museum". web.archive.org. 2014-03-27. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Banca Naţională a României (http://www.bnr.ro)". bnro.ro. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Exhibition center "Mint"". museum.goznak.ru. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://www.nbs.rs/internet/cirilica/75/75_3/75_13.html ^ "Singapore Coins And Notes Museum". web.archive.org. 2011-12-01. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Košice Gold Treasure". web.archive.org. 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ "Numismática - FNMT". www.museocasadelamoneda.es. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ http://art.mnac.cat/collection.html;jsessionid=52ff8b1d3abfeb39855991cf32667965610297c4eb70fa0f58cbf4f918647ae0?colId=numismatica&lang=en ^ http://www.cbvs.sr/english/museum/numis-intro.htm Numismatic ^ "ศาลาเครื่องราชอิสริยยศ เครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ1ค7 และเหรียญกษาปณ1ค7". web.archive.org. 2011-06-28. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ [https://web.archive.org/web/20130127114817/http://www.central-bank.org.tt/node/23 ^ "Coin Museum". dubaiculture.gov.ae. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ "UAE Currency Museum". visitabudhabi.ae. Archived from the original on 2019-08-13. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ University of Glasgow :: Collections :: Collections Summary :: Coins and Medals Archived 2011-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. Gla.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2011-11-24. ^ Money. Manchester Museum ^ Joe Cribb Archived 2008-07-23 at the Wayback Machine. British Museum. Retrieved on 2011-11-24. ^ John Morcom (July 28, 2005). "Obituary: Kenneth Jenkins". The Guardian. Archived from the original on April 24, 2014. Retrieved June 13, 2013. External links[edit] The dictionary definition of numismatics at Wiktionary Media related to Numismatics at Wikimedia Commons v t e Phaleristics Auxiliary science of history and numismatics about orders, decorations, and medals Distinctions (Lists) By conferee Founts of honour* States and their national/public/official authorities Dynasties heads of currently or formerly sovereign royal families Private Ecclesiastical Organisations Commercial (Self-styled order) By type Orders Order of chivalry Military order Colonial order Order of merit Royal family order Titles (Styles, Post-nominal By function Grand master Chancellor Treasurer Assessor Bailiff Prior Chaplain Master of ceremonies Grand Cross/Grand Cordon Commander Officer Hospitaller Knight/Dame Postulant Squire Page Jurisdictions Charter Bailiwick Chapter Commandery Obedience Grand Lodge Lodge Others, by field Military (List) List of highest Campaign medal Law enforcement Civilian (List) Society Peace Intellectual freedom Human rights Law Humanitarianism Politics Volunteer Literature Poetry Art History Music Architecture Theatre Film Science Religions Ecclesiastical Sports Scouting Beauty By insignia (Named after people) For wearing (decorations) Formal Collar Grand Cross/Grand Cordon with sash Medal Necklet Medal bar Medal ribbon Other Rosette Award pin Lapel pin Collar pin Tie pin Badge Heraldic Pilgrim Ring Button Campaign Service Prizes Trophy Plaquette Rosette Money Prizes known as the Nobel of a field Ceremonies and events Accolade Vigil Feoffment Passage fee Festival Vow Collar day Related organisations Fraternity Fraternal order Confraternity Secret society Guild Learned society Fellowship Honor society Hereditary society Club Gentlemen's club International Commission for Orders of Chivalry Related concepts Numismatics Heraldry Vexillology Service flag Battle honour Campaign streamer Nobility Order of precedence Honorary degree Devotional medal Awareness ribbon * = Direct or indirect reference to fount of honour is the accepted criterion for official distinctions Category:Orders, decorations, and medals Wikipedia:WikiProject Orders, decorations, and medals Wikipedia:WikiProject Awards Numismatics portal Business and economics portal Money portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries Spain France (data) United States Other Microsoft Academic National Archives (US) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Numismatics&oldid=1028417947" Categories: Numismatics Currency Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template webcite links CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 errors: missing title CS1 errors: bare URL Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Саха тыла Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Türkmençe Українська Tiếng Việt Walon 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 21:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5443	----	Raetia - Wikipedia Raetia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the EuroCity train service, see Rätia (train). For the canton of the Helvetic Republic, see Canton of Raetia. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Raetia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Raetia Provincia Raetia Province of the Roman Empire 15–476 Capital Augusta Vindelicorum Historical era Antiquity • Established 15 • Ostrogothic conquest[citation needed] 476 Succeeded by Ostrogoths Alemanni Baiuvarii Churraetia The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), showing, on the upper Danube river, the imperial province of Raetia (Switzerland/Tyrol/Germany south of the Danube), with no legions deployed there in 125. Province of Raetia highlighted. Raetia (/ˈriːʃ(i)ə/ REE-sh(ee-)ə; Latin: [ˈrae̯tɪ.a]; also spelled Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian (Raeti or Rhaeti) people. It bordered on the west with the country of the Helvetii, on the east with Noricum, on the north with Vindelicia, on the south-west with Transalpine Gaul and on the south with Venetia et Histria. It thus comprised the districts occupied in modern times by eastern and central Switzerland (containing the Upper Rhine and Lake Constance), southern Germany (Bavaria and most of Baden-Württemberg), Vorarlberg and the greater part of Tyrol in Austria, and part of northern Lombardy in Italy. The region of Vindelicia (today eastern Württemberg and western Bavaria) was annexed to the province at a later date than the others. The northern border of Raetia during the times of Augustus and Tiberius was the River Danube. Later the Limes Germanicus marked the northern boundary, stretching for 166 km north of the Danube. Raetia linked to Italy across the Alps over the Reschen Pass, by the Via Claudia Augusta. The capital of the province was Augusta Vindelicorum, present-day Augsburg in southern Germany. Contents 1 History 2 Economy 3 Geography 3.1 Important cities 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] See also: Switzerland in the Roman era Little is known of the origin or history of the Raetians, who appear in the records as one of the most powerful and warlike of the Alpine tribes. Livy states distinctly[1][2] that they were of Etruscan origin (a belief that was favored by Niebuhr and Mommsen). A tradition reported by Justin[3] and Pliny the Elder[1][4] affirmed that they were a portion of that people who had settled in the plains of the Po and were driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls, when they assumed the name of "Raetians" from an eponymous leader Raetus. Even if their Etruscan origin be accepted, at the time when the land became known to the Romans, Celtic tribes were already in possession of much of it and had amalgamated so completely with the original inhabitants that, generally speaking, the Raetians of later times may be regarded as a Celtic people, although non-Celtic tribes (es. Euganei) were settled among them.[1] The Raetians are first mentioned (but only incidentally) by Polybius,[1][5] and little is heard of them till after the end of the Republic. There is little doubt, however, that they retained their independence until their subjugation in 15 BC by Tiberius and Drusus.[1][6] At first Raetia formed a distinct province, but towards the end of the 1st century AD Vindelicia was added to it; hence Tacitus (Germania, 41) could speak of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg) as "a colony of the province of Raetia". The whole province (including Vindelicia) was at first under a military prefect, then under a procurator; it had no standing army quartered in it but relied on its own native troops and militia for protection until the 2nd century AD.[1] During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Raetia was governed by the commander of the Legio III Italica, which was based in Castra Regina (Regensburg) by 179 AD. Under Diocletian, Raetia formed part of the diocese of the vicarius Italiae, and was subdivided into Raetia prima, with a praeses at Curia Raetorum (Chur) and Raetia secunda, with a praeses at Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), the former corresponding to the old Raetia, the latter to Vindelicia. The boundary between them is not clearly defined, but may be stated generally as a line drawn eastwards from the lacus Brigantinus (Lake Constance) to the Oenus (River Inn).[1] During the last years of the Western Roman Empire, the land was in a desolate condition, but its occupation by the Ostrogoths in the time of Theodoric the Great, who placed it under a dux, to some extent revived its prosperity.[1] Much of Raetia prima remained as a separate political unit, Raetia Curiensis, for several centuries, until it was attached to the Duchy of Swabia in AD 917. Economy[edit] The land was very mountainous, and the inhabitants, when not engaged in predatory expeditions, chiefly supported themselves by breeding cattle and cutting timber, little attention being paid to agriculture. Some of the valleys, however, were rich and fertile, and produced wine, which was considered equal to any in Italia. Augustus Caesar preferred Raetian wine to any other. Considerable trade in pitch, honey, wax, and cheese occurred.[1] Geography[edit] The chief towns of Raetia (excluding Vindelicia) were Tridentum (Trento) and Curia (Coire or Chur). It was traversed by two great lines of Roman roads — the Via Claudia Augusta leading from Verona and Tridentum across the Reschen Pass to the Fern Pass and thence to Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg),[7][1] the other from Brigantium (Bregenz) on Lake Constance by Chur and Chiavenna to Como and Milan.[1] The Rätikon mountain range derives its name from Raetia. Important cities[edit] Alae (Aalen) Arbor Felix (Arbon) Abodiacum (Epfach) Aquileia (Heidenheim an der Brenz) Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg) Ausugum (Borgo Valsugana) Bauzanum or Pons Drusi (Bolzano) Belunum (Belluno) Bilitio (Bellinzona) Brigantium (Bregenz) Cambodunum (Kempten im Allgäu) Castra Batava (Passau) Castra Regina (Regensburg) Clavenna (Chiavenna) Clunia (probably Feldkirch or Balzers) Curia (Chur) Endidae (Neumarkt) Feltria (Feltre) Foetes (Füssen) Guntia (Günzburg) Gamundia Romana (Schwäbisch Gmünd) Oscela (Domodossola) Parthanum (Partenkirchen) Sebatum (San Lorenzo di Sebato/St. Lorenzen) Sorviodurum (Straubing) Sublavio (Ponte Gardena/Waidbruck) Tridentum (Trento) Veldidena (Wilten district of Innsbruck) Vipitenum (Vipiteno/Sterzing) See also[edit] Alpine regiments of the Roman army References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Raetia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 812–813. ^ Ab Urbe Condita v. 33 ^ xx. 5 ^ Naturalis Historia, iii. 24, 133 ^ Histories xxxiv. 10, iS ^ compare Horace, Odes, iv. 4 and 14 ^ http://www.viaclaudia.org/en/introduction/ Further reading[edit] A. Baruffi, Spirit of Rhaetia: The Call of the Holy Mountains (LiteraryJoint, Philadelphia, PA, 2020), ISBN 978-1-716-30027-1 PC von Planta, Das alte Rätien (Berlin, 1872) T Mommsen in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, iii. p. 706 Joachim Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, 1. (2nd ed., 1881) p. 288 Ludwig Steub, Ueber die Urbewohner Rätiens und ihren Zusammenhang mit den Etruskern (Munich, 1843) Julius Jung, Römer und Romanen in den Donauländern (Innsbruck, 1877) Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1873) T Mommsen, The Roman Provinces (English translation, 1886), i. pp. 16, 161, 196 Mary B Peaks, The General Civil and Military Administration of Noricum and Raetia (Chicago, 1907). External links[edit] Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 991348 (Raetia)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) 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en-wikipedia-org-5467	----	Campus Martius - Wikipedia Campus Martius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Public space in ancient Rome This article is about the Field of Mars of ancient Rome. For the pioneer fortification at Marietta, Ohio, see Campus Martius (Ohio). For the park in Detroit, Michigan, see Campus Martius Park. For other uses, see Campus Martius (disambiguation). Model of the ancient Campus Martius around AD 300. The Pantheon, a landmark of the Campus Martius since ancient Rome. The Campus Martius (Latin for the "Field of Mars", Italian Campo Marzio) was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about 2 square kilometres (490 acres) in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers a smaller section of the original area, bears the same name. Contents 1 Antiquity 2 Geography 3 Significance 4 Architecture 4.1 Regal Rome and early Republic 4.2 Hellenistic Age 4.3 Late Republic and early Empire 4.4 Roman Empire 5 Monuments and historical architectural discrepancies 5.1 "Horologium Augusti" 5.2 The Ara Pacis 5.3 Architectural significance 5.4 Historical discrepancies 6 Augustus' rise to power through building on Campus Martius 7 Religious buildings 8 Religious events 9 The Middle Ages 10 Modern Rome 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Antiquity[edit] According to Rome's foundation myth, prior to the founding of the city, Rhea Silvia had her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, taken by the King of Alba Longa. The boys were later discarded in the swelling Tiber River, which would later run along the Campus' western boundary. Washing ashore further downriver, the brothers would return decades later to found a new city. Romulus, who became Rome's sole king (after killing his brother Remus), ruled for many years until sometime in the seventh century B.C. As he came to the end of his life, a storm cloud descended upon the center of the open field outside the city's pomerium in order to lift the elderly king to heaven.[1] This land, "between the city and the Tiber", became the property of Rome's last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus. After his defeat and exile, the plain was dedicated to the god Mars.[2] Roman men assembled every spring before heading off to fight the hostile tribes that surrounded Rome, and citizens gathered for important religious festivals. With the exception of a small altar to Mars near the center of the field, no visible changes were made to the field until the fifth century B.C.[1] In 435 B.C. the Villa Publica was established in a prepared 300-meter clearing. The area was a gathering space for citizens to congregate every five years to be counted in a census, but had no permanent structures; no additions would be made for another two centuries.[3] With the advent of the Punic Wars in the mid-third century B.C., Roman military expansion moved out of the Italian peninsula, resulting in the reduction of seasonal musters on the field. The number of foreign wars, however, greatly increased the amount of wealth flowing into Rome. Generals who had sworn to various deities to build temples in their honor if victorious used the vast amounts of wealth to fund these construction projects. Besides temples and wooden markets, entertainment venues were built as well, though they were to be temporary. Starting in the time of Sulla, building lots were sold or granted to influential Romans, and insulae (apartment blocks) and villas encroached on the common land. It later became the place for comitia centuriata, civic meetings with weapons, and for the city's militia. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent theater, the Theatrum Pompeium, the first stone theater in Rome. When the Curia Hostilia burnt down in 52 BC, the theater was sometimes used as a meeting place for the Senate. The area was also used as the assembling ground for elections. Julius Caesar planned for the Saepta (enclosures used for elections) to be placed there; they were later completed by his heir Augustus (Octavian). In 33 BC, Octavian dedicated the Porticus Octaviae, built from spoils of the Dalmatian War. During the Augustan period of the early Roman Empire, the area became officially part of the city: Rome was split into 14 regions, and the Campus Martius was divided into the VII Via Lata on the east and the IX Circus Flaminius nearer to the river. The Campus Martius also held the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), built by the Senate to mark the establishment of peace by Augustus. It was intended to symbolize the successful completion of Augustus' efforts to stabilize the Empire. Marcus Agrippa had the original swampy ground made into a pool and baths in a setting of parkland and temples, the Laconicum Sudatorium or Baths of Agrippa. Also, he built the Porticus Argonautarum and the Pantheon, which was later rebuilt by Hadrian as it still stands today. In 19 BC, he also completed the Aqua Virgo, to supply water to these new baths and fountains. In the non-populated northern area was the huge Mausoleum of Augustus. Other buildings that were made were the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple for Isis (from around the time of Caligula), the baths and bridge by Nero, and Pompey's Theatre, where Julius Caesar was murdered by Marcus Brutus and his allies. After the great fire of 64 A.D. Domitian rebuilt the burnt monuments plus a stadium (eventually to become today's Piazza Navona) and an Odeion (a small performance hall). In 119 A.D, reinforcing the themes of imperial divinity and apotheosis established by Augustus, Hadrian and the succeeding Antonines added a temple to Hadrian's mother-in-law, the Divine Matidia, and a temple to the Divine Hadrian himself built by Antoninus Pius.[4] As was the case with the first two Flavian and Antonine emperors, the Severans did not commit many resources to construction projects in an already crowded Campus Martius. Their interests lay elsewhere in repairs and commissioning new structures in other regions of the capital.[5] The Campus did not see another major architectural change until the reign of Aurelian. The citizens of Rome took great pride in knowing that Rome required no fortifications because of the stability brought by the Pax Romana under the protection of the Roman Army. In 270 A.D., however, barbarian tribes flooded across the Germanic frontier and reached northern Italy as the Roman Army struggled to stop them. To alleviate the city's vulnerability, the emperor ordered the construction of a 19-kilometer-long, 6- to 8-meter-high brick wall, fortified with defensive turrets, named the Aurelian Walls. Aurelian did not live to see his work completed under his successor Probus, in 276 A.D. With the completion of the walls, the Campus Martius was finally incorporated into the rest of the city.[6] By the mid-fourth century, when emperor Constantius II visited Rome, now the former capital, many of the pagan temples were closed. Buildings dedicated to Christianity began to occupy their spaces. Some were reduced to supporting material, some were razed, and some were given new roles, such as the Pantheon. In 663 A.D. its bronze roof tiles were removed and replaced with lead, an act that Gregorius said was the result of "excessive avarice and the 'excessive greed for gold.'"[7] In the fifth century, Rome was burned and sacked twice: by the Visigoths in 410 A.D. and by the Vandals in 455 A.D. Three earthquakes racked the city between 408 and 508 A.D, and two floods washed over low-lying spaces in 398 and 411 A.D. Many marble facings and columns were tossed into kilns to be burned into lime powder for reuse.[8] Writing in the twelfth or thirteenth century, Magister Gregorius, marveled at those edifices in the Field of Mars whose antiquity was clear but whose names were not as certain.[9] Looking down from the heights of one of Rome's hills, he recorded that the great structures had been replaced by a "forest of [medieval] towers".[10] In 1581, French essayist Michel de Montaigne traveled to Rome and noted that "upon the very wrecks of the ancient buildings, as they fall to ruin, the builders set out casually the foundations of new houses, as if these fragments were great masses of rock, firm and trustworthy. It is evident that many of the old streets lie more than thirty feet below the level of those now in existence."[11] Geography[edit] The Campus Martius was located not in the city proper, but north of the Capitoline Hill.[12] Until the imperial era, most of the region lay outside of the pomerium. The field covered an area of about 250 hectares, or 600 acres (243 ha), extending a little more than two kilometres north and south from the Capitoline to the porta Flaminia, and a little less than two kilometers east and west in its widest part, between the Quirinal and the river. It was low, from 10 to 15 metres above the level of the sea in antiquity, now 13 to 20, and from 3 to 8 above that of the Tiber, and of course subject to frequent inundations. Ancient writers say that there were several recognizable natural points, such as an oak grove north of the Tiber Island and the Palus Caprae, in the center of the space.[13] Significance[edit] In Latin, Campus Martius means "Field of Mars", a god highly considered in the Roman pantheon. Paul W. Jacobs III attributes the significance of Mars to his patronage of both military and agriculture.[14] In the calendar year, March was the month named after Mars: this month first marked the beginning of when the consuls started to work until 153 BC.[15] The Campus Martius may have been named after the Ara Martis ("Mars' altar"), which was talked about starting in the eighth century BC.[16] It is not known exactly when the Ara Martis was built or when it was destroyed.[17] The social climate and events surrounding Campus Martius were significant to Roman culture. Livy describes a horse race called the second Equirria, which started on March 14. The winning horse was killed and sacrificed to Mars.[18] The second event used to support his claim was the Anna Perenna. This event was when the plebs would go out to Campus Martius to eat and drink.[19] The reason why Anna Perenna was important was because she was an ugly hag and she represented the end of a year, and Mars represented the nice beginning of the year.[20] The last event Jacobs II talks about is the Tubilustrium festival, which purified military instruments to summon the cruciate assemblies. This celebration used to validate the emperors' imperium, but later on the festival validated the consuls imperium. Architecture[edit] The style and structure of Campus Martius architecture went through several stages of development between the 6th century BC through Late Antiquity. It is virtually impossible to pinpoint exactly when and why these stages occurred, but some historians have sectionalized different periods where Roman architecture faced relatively significant transformation.[21] Regal Rome and early Republic[edit] Between the mid-6th century BC and the end of the early Republic (324 BC) four “temples” were built.[22] These were Temple of Diana [6th century], Temple of Castor and Pollux [495 BC], Temple of Apollo Sosianus [431 BC] and Temple of Juno Regina [392 BC]. Of these four structures, many view the Temple of Diana (Rome) as semi-legendary since it lacks enough sustainable evidence to prove its existence.[22] The reason these two periods are combined as one is because there is minimal certainty on the structure and style of these temples. The reason for this, out of probability, is because the material used at the time was neither concrete, stone or marble, materials that are sustainable longer term and not only that but over two centuries there is certainly the risk of the destruction of these temples.[23] Hellenistic Age[edit] After the death of Alexander the Great in 324 BC or the beginning of the "wave of Hellenism" there was a drastic increase in terms building construction within the city of Rome.[23] In the case of Campus Martius, specifically during the "wave of Hellenism", there were seven temples built.[24] These new temples constructed were as follows; Temple of Bellona [296 BC], Temple of Fortuna [293 BC], Temple of Juturna [241 BC], Temple of Hercules [221 BC], Temple of Vulcan [214 BC) and Temple of Fortuna Equestris [173 BC]. The one temple excluded on that prior list is a temple built between 190 BC and 179 BC. It is uncertain if this temple was as Cicero writes, the “Temple of Nymphs”, or as other sources believe the “Temple of the Lares Permarini.[25] This “period of Hellenism” was the first major step in which the Roman temples, as well as the temples found in Campus Martius were generally made of stone architecture. This new style was in a way, a step up from the simpler early forms, which often appear coarse and bulky in comparison to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures.[26] This period a transformation occurred from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures.[26] The Hellenistic Period was not only an expansion in terms of temples numerically within the Campus Martius, but also a stylistic transformation. Late Republic and early Empire[edit] Similar to the Hellenistic Period, the Late Republic and Early Empire was also a period of several construction projects within the Campus Martius. This period, chronologically, began at the end of the third and final Punic War and lasted until the end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in 65 AD. During this period there were six temples built in Campus Martius. They were the Temple of Jupiter Stator [146 BC], the Temple of Feronia [Pre-100 BC], the Temple of Neptunus [97 BC], the Temple of Isis and Serapis [43 BC] and the Temple of Mars Ultor [2 BC]. The one temple excluded from this list is the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica. The reason for this exclusion is because it is unknown whether this temple was built by Pompey in 60 BC or built by Augustus in 29 BC. Certain sources support the belief that Dion Cassius attributes this temple to Augustus: "Temple of Minerva, which was called Chalcidicum”[27] Unlike the structural and stylistic transformation from Regal Period to the Hellenistic Period the temples in the Campus Martius were rather consistent. The main reason that these two periods are separated is because the motivation or reasoning for building these temples changed.[23] In the past these temples were more commonly than not, an attribute to certain individuals for their past success by fellow patrons, but following the end of the Hellenistic period these temples became more of political instruments than ever before.[23] Instead of being merely genuine and slightly political “donations” that exemplified the successful of individuals, these temples in Campus Martius now were expected to trigger propaganda values whenever large architectural projects took place.[23] Roman Empire[edit] Alongside Rome, temples built within the Campus Martius faced a “fundamental change in stylistic direction” during the latter half of the first century on.[23] This was a period when the sculptures and linear forms of the classical past was first firmly challenged by the canopied volume of the future.[28] This was a historical period for Roman architecture in that, the catalyst for architects to embrace concrete as a design material or as Nero describes it break free from “the shackles of the classical past”.[28] For possibly the first time Campus Martius and all of Rome faced a period where they moved away from the classical ways of architecture.[29] Monuments and historical architectural discrepancies[edit] "Horologium Augusti"[edit] Main article: Solarium Augusti Before the 1980s, the reconstruction of the obelisk and its usage were erroneous. Prior to that era, Buchner's paper and reconstruction of the obelisk was blindly believed and deemed as accurate. His reconstruction was arguing that the obelisk with the gnomon on top of it was used as a sundial, using the sun's shadow's reflection to keep track of the hours of the day. Furthermore, Buchner argued that the sundial was integrated into the design of the Ara Pacis in a way that the shadow cast directly onto the altar on Augustus’s birthday. The sundial was also integrated in the design of the Mausoleum of Augustus in such a way which illustrated that the entire complex was a cosmic representation of the Principate and the destiny of Augustus, along with his peaceful reign and death. In the mid-1980s Schutz and Bandini challenged the erroneous reconstruction. Bandini found several mistakes made by Buchner on interpreting the ancient texts written by Pliny. Pliny referred to a solar meridian, not a sundial. A solar meridian indicates the length of days and nights, therefore reflecting the timing of the solstices. It was used as an instrument to check the congruence of the civil calendar with the solar year. Further archeological findings where a travertine pavement embedded with a line running north to south with Greek lettering in bronze with zodiac signs confirmed Pliny's writing. Also, the fact that the site was measured to be about a meter too high to be considered of Augustan date, therefore indicated that the instrument built under Augustus lost its accuracy and was renovated by Domitian.[30] Schutz then highlighted some technical failure further refuting the previous reconstruction such as: The erroneous marking of the site where the obelisk lay, the mislabeling of the angles for the relationship between the three monuments and the fact that the gnomon's shadow would cast several football fields away from the obelisk due to the sun's angle.[30] It is worth noting, however, that even after those findings, the relevance and the cosmic meaning of the obelisk and the two other monuments constructed under Augustus's reign remain right. The importance of Augustus's reign is supported by the evidence that Domitian decided to renovate the instrument and keep it dedicated to Augustus. The Ara Pacis[edit] Ara Pacis Augustae, the "Altar of Augustan Peace", as reassembled View of the opposite side Tellus Panel at the left and Roma Panel at the right Map showing the original location of the Ara Pacis The Ara Pacis is an altar that was built during the reign of Augustus; begun in 13 BCE, the monument was dedicated in 9 BCE, on Livia's birthday. Allegedly altars were used for sacrifices to Pagan Gods in Ancient Rome. The Ara Pacis represented Augustus' goal to represent the era of peace that came with the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire. The south panel depicts a religious process with Augustus, Agrippa, Livia, Tiberius and others of the Augustan family. The message conveyed was that the Augustan family was to stand the test of time and stay. The north panel depicted the senate in a procession. The message was that the senate was with Augustus instead of against him. The east panel depicts Tellus, the Roman Goddess of the earth and Pax. The message was that Roman people were no longer starving, which was consistent with Augustus’ promise of “peace and fertility”, where he gave land to farmers to plant in the fall and harvest in the spring. The west panel depicts the sacrifice of either Aeneas, the founder of Rome or Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, it is also where the entrance is located. Architectural significance[edit] The steps leading up to the table on top of the altar represent the ascendence from a public space to a sacred one. Also, the fact that the Ara Pacis did not have a roof or doors and that Gods were depicted looking down from the friezes indicated that the person undertaking vows was looked down upon. When the Senate decreed the building of the Ara Pacis for Augustus, they did not specify any restrictions to the architects. The architects in Ancient Rome used to draw plans with dimensions in proportions and ratios; for instance, the enclosure's size and the number of steps were all specific ratios related to the size of the base. The Ara Pacis’ eclectic art leads us to believe that components might have come from other altars in other provinces most likely salvaged on the troops’ way back to Rome.[31] Historical discrepancies[edit] Before Andersen's studies, it was assumed that the monument's structure was more or less unchanged between its erection and dedication. Andersen relied on evidence from Ovid's Fasti and the “Calendar of the Feasts” which depicts Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, a status that he achieved in 12 BCE; his return from the provinces as victor was celebrated with a massive feast during which, as depicted by Ovid, a white bull was slaughtered. But such a feast could not have taken place in the “complete” Ara Pacis; the elevated area was much too small for such a large gathering. Andersen makes a point that the feast actually took place on the foundation of the Ara Pacis, which was then called Ara Fortunae Reducis; at that time, this was simply a plinth on a step base. After Lepidus’ death and Augustus' election as Pontifex Maximus, the building of the complete Ara Pacis began; steps were carved into the plinth, a table was put on top, and friezes were carved onto panels affixed to the walls. Evidence of this historical discrepancy was made evident by Gatti's reconstruction plans, which contrasted with Moretti's in the lack of moldings for the steps.[32] Augustus' rise to power through building on Campus Martius[edit] A large portion of events occurring on Campus Martius were associated with either Roman military or Roman electoral or political activities. On it, troops trained for war, and successful generals displayed their riches taken from conquered lands, erecting temples and public buildings to impress the Roman populace in order to curry favor in the elections.[33] In the 30s and 20s B.C.E Rome was experiencing unparalleled growth in public building projects sponsored by many different leading men in the Roman State. In Rome, the sponsorship of these public buildings provided special prestige to each of the individual builders and their families.[34] Augustus, however, expanded past receiving simple prestige, in favor of a much more powerful role. Augustus was amongst numerous builders during the time, but by focusing on the construction of buildings to hold political functions, Augustus was able to occupy a central place in Rome's political atmosphere. The first building on Campus Martius to be associated with Augustus was the Saepta Julia, which was designed to manage the crowds at elections and prevent fraud.[34] Voters would gather in the pen space north of the Saepta and enter the structure on its northern end, where they would then cast their ballots. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa completed the Saepta Julia and dedicated it in honor of Augustus. The Pantheon, which was also built by Agrippa and associated with Augustus, was completed within a year of the Saepta Julia and was used for pre-election functions.[34] Agrippa tried to name the Pantheon after Augustus but was denied, instead he erected a statue of Augustus, Julius Caesar and himself in the porch of the Pantheon, forever associating the Pantheon with Augustus, Julius Caesar and Agrippa. So when the crowds gathered to listen to speeches concerning important political events, they did so in buildings dedicated to Augustus, automatically drawing the connection between Augustus and important Roman politics. All of the sites built specifically to host political activities, meetings of the Senate and both legislative and electoral assemblies, were sponsored by or closely associated with Augustus. The ancient Roman historian Strabo describes the presence Augustus left throughout Campus Martius: In fact, Pompey, the Deified Caesar, Augustus, his sons and friends, and wife and sister, have outdone all others in their zeal for buildings and in the expense incurred. The Campus Martius contains most of these, and thus, in addition to its natural beauty, it has received still further adornment as the result of foresight. Indeed, the size of the Campus is remarkable, since it affords space at the same time and without interference, not only for the chariot-races and every other equestrian exercise, but also for all that multitude of people who exercise themselves by ball-playing, hoop-trundling, and wrestling; and the works of art situated around the Campus Martius, and the ground, which is covered with grass throughout the year, and the crowns of those hills that are above the river and extend as far as its bed, which present to the eye the appearance of a stage-painting — all this, I say, affords a spectacle that one can hardly draw away from. For this reason, in the belief that this place was holiest of all, the Romans have erected in it the tombs of their most illustrious men and women. The most noteworthy is what is called the Mausoleum, a great mound near the river on a lofty foundation of white marble, thickly covered with ever-green trees to the very summit. Now on top is a bronze image of Augustus Caesar; beneath the mound are the tombs of himself and his kinsmen and intimates; behind the mound is a large sacred precinct with wonderful promenades; and in the centre of the Campus is the wall (this too of white marble) round his crematorium; the wall is surrounded by a circular iron fence and the space within the wall is planted with black poplars. Such is Rome.[35] As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49-45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32-30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman Provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome's political atmosphere. Religious buildings[edit] In the Campus Martius, many public monuments had a religious significance, as they were temples to various gods that were absorbed into the Roman culture. One of the biggest monuments is the temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger) dedicated to Mars, the god of War. It is in the Forum Augustum and is Augustus's most ambitious architectural building. The construction started in 30BC and took three decades. The exterior of the temple was constructed using the Italian white Luna marble from Carrara[36] and the columns reflect the Corinthians style. The architecture is strongly influenced by the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in terms of its dimensions (36 meters wide and its length is 50 meters.[36] It was also a political entity aimed at magnifying Augustus role in avenging Caesar’s assassination. Some of the most significant temples of the campus are the rectangular temples of Largo di Torre Argentina, located in the southern part of the Campus Martius. It is a religious complex composed of four temples: Temple Juturna, Temple Fortuna Huiusce Diei, Temple Feronia, and Temple Lares Permarini. Those temples demonstrate that religious activity is being spread out across Rome and is not focused on the former religious places of the Capitoline Hill or the Forum Romanum.[36] Art historian Stamper argues that the Largo Argentina has marked the beginning of multiple triumphal processions of successful generals. During the 1st century BC, there was a change from the Ionic style to the Corinthian Order. Acanthus leaves were sculpted on the top of these columns.[36] Two other important temples are the Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Bellona. One is associated with the cult of Apollo, and the other one is dedicated to the goddess of war, respectively. Both temples are located in the Circus Flaminius and were built during the 2nd century BC.[36] Bellona's Temple was rebuilt in marble and travertine with six Corinthian columns along the front and nine along the sides[37] Religious events[edit] The Campus Martius was an area of religious practice. During the Ides of October fall, more specifically the 15th, it was seat of a festival dedicated to Mars takes, the October Horse. This tradition is said to have started during the 6th century B.C.[38] The festival's rituals were supposed to protect the coming year's crop and the soldiers that had returned to Rome after a campaign. This festival was composed of many stages, including horse chariot races and the sacrifice of a horse followed by the decoration of the severed head with leaves.[39] Another important religious event was the Secular Games (Latin: ludi saeculares). Established during the Roman Republic, the games were resurrected by emperor Claudius when a man named Valesius prayed for a cure for his children's illness and was instructed to sacrifice to the underworld deities. Claudius did this as a way to not only appease the gods after several lightning bolts struck the city of Rome, but to emphasize the birth of a Golden Age. These games were a sort of a rite of passage that were held over several days and nights to mark the end of a new saeculum and the beginning of the next one. A saeculum was supposedly the longest possible length of a human life, either to 100 or 110 years old. The procession started at the Temple of Apollo, near the Circus Flaminius, proceeded into the Forum, passed along to the Vicus Tuscus, Velabrum, through the Forum Boarium, and finally ended at the Temple of Juno Regina. Augustus, when he revived the games, changed the destination of the procession from the Temple of Juno Regina to the Temple of Ceres, which is on the Aventine. The Temple of Apollo that was most likely used was that of Apollo Sosianus, establishing a religious connection between the Aventine and the southwestern Campus.[40] One of the last event was the Anna Perenna, also celebrated in the Campus Martius during the Ides of March. The people would go out to the Field of Mars for a day of feasting and drinking.[41] According to historian Johannes Lylud, during the festival they also make public and private sacrific for securing a healthy year.[42] The Middle Ages[edit] After the barbarian invasions cut the aqueducts, the rapidly dwindling population abandoned the surrounding hills and concentrated in the Campus Martius, depending on the Tiber for water, but subject to its flooding. Since it was next to the river and next to the Vatican, the area became the most populous part of Rome in the Middle Ages. The river supported a thriving economy and a supply of water, and the continuous stream of pilgrims to the city brought wealth to the area. The main road connecting Rome to the rest of Europe was the Via Cassia, entering Rome through the Porta del Popolo in the northern part of the Campus Martius. Via Cassia became the most important road in medieval times, because it connected Rome with Viterbo, Siena, and Florence. The other main road to Rome, the Via Aurelia, became unsafe in medieval times with the spread of malaria, because it passed through the unhealthy marshes near several coastal lakes in the Maremma lowlands (as Orbetello lagoon, Capalbio lake, and other Tombolos), and because its route by the sea made it more susceptible to attack from raiders. The coastal towns around Via Aurelia were areas subjected to kidnapping of women and plunder by Muslim Saracen pirates. Because of the increasing importance of the area, several popes decided to improve its conditions. In the period 1513–1521, Pope Leo X built a route connecting Porta del Popolo to the Vatican. This road was first called the Via Leonina after the pope, later the more famous Via di Ripetta after the name of the river port. To improve the hygiene of the area, several ancient Roman aqueducts were restored to operating condition. As the population of Rome greatly increased in the Middle Ages, the Campus Martius became a crowded multi-cultural place where many foreigners settled. In 1555, Pope Paul IV designated part of the southern part of the Campus Martius as the ghetto to contain the city's Jewish population. Modern Rome[edit] After the Renaissance, as was the case for the rest of Rome, the Campus Martius did not change much; there were no other great building projects and the population decreased. This was reversed after Rome became capital of the newly established Kingdom of Italy in 1870. Later, the area became even more crowded, and protecting embankments were built to stop the flooding of the Tiber. This made the area much safer from threat of water, but the tall embankments effectively destroyed the traditional embarkation point called the Ripetta ("little bank"), the narrow streets leading down to the river, and the vernacular buildings along the river edge. See also[edit] Champ de Mars (disambiguation) Field of Mars (disambiguation) Campus Esquilinus Campus Martius Park in Detroit, Michigan, inspired by the Roman site. References[edit] ^ a b Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 3 ^ Livy. Books I and II With An English Translation. Cambridge. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. 2.5.2 ^ Livy. Books III and IV With An English Translation. Cambridge. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. 4.22.7 ^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 331 ^ Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 162 ^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 348-350 ^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 29 ^ Manacorda, Daniele, 2000. Crypta Balbi: Museo nazionale romano. Milan: Electa. 20 ^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 10-15 ^ Gregorius, Magister. 1987. Narracio de mirabilibus urbis Romae. Translated by John Osborne in The Marvels of Rome. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. 18 ^ Montaigne, Michel de. 1983. Montaigne’s Travel Journal. Translated by Donald Murdoch Frame. San Francisco: North Point Press. 100 ^ Jacobs II, P., & Conlin, D. (2015). Campus Martius: The Field of Mars in the Life of Ancient Rome. New York City, New York: Cambridge University Press. 2 ^ Platner, Samuel Ball, and Thomas Ashby. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford UP, H. Milford, 1929. Print. 91-94 ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 29. ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28 ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Marius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 29-30 ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 30 ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28 ^ Jacobs II, Campus Martius (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014)28 ^ Jacobs II, Paul, Campus Martius, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014) 28 ^ Ulrich, Roger & Quenemoen, Caroline (2013). “A Companion to Roman Architecture”. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3 ^ a b Platner, Samuel (1929) Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94 ^ a b c d e f Ulrich, Roger & Quenemoen, Caroline (2013). A Companion to Roman Architecture. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3 ^ Platner, Samuel (1929) Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94 ^ Platner, Samuel (1929) A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. 80-94 ^ a b Stamper, John (2008). The Architecture of the Roman Temples: The Republic of the Middle Empire. Cambridge University Press ^ Middleton, John (2001). The Remains of Ancient Rome. London. Getty Research Institution. pp. 212 ISBN 978-1402174735 ^ a b MacDonald, William (1982). Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300028195 ^ MacDonald, William (1982). Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300028195 ^ a b Heslin, Peter. "Augustus, Domitian and the So-Called Horologium Augusti."JSTOR. The Journal of Roman Studies, 2007. Web. ^ Andersen, Wayne V. The Ara Pacis of Augustus and Mussolini : An Archeological Mystery. p.85, Geneva ; Boston: ©*ditions Fabriart, 2003. ^ Andersen, Wayne V. The Ara Pacis of Augustus and Mussolini : An Archeological Mystery. p. 70-130, Geneva ; Boston: ©*ditions Fabriart, 2003. ^ Rehak, Paul (2006). Imperium and Cosmos, Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius. The university of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0-299-22010-9 ^ a b c Phillips, Darryl (2015). Reading the Civic landscape of Augustan Rome: Aeneid 1.421-429 and the Building Program of Augustus. Urban Dreams and Realities in Antiquity. Remains and Representations of the Ancient City, Brill 229-245 ^ Strabo, Volume 3. English translation by H.L. Jones; 1923. ^ a b c d e Stamper, J (2005). The architecture of Roman temples: the Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge University Press. ^ Jacobs, II, Paul W.; Atnally Conlin, Diane (2014). Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome. New York: Cambridge University Press. ^ Paul W Jacobs, II; Diane Atnally Conlin , 2014, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2014 ^ C. Bennett Pascal, 1981, ‘October Horse’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 85: 261-91 ^ Poe, J. (1984). The Secular Games, the Aventine, and the Pomerium in the Campus Martius.Classical Antiquity, Volume 3(1), 57-81. Retrieved March 23, 2015, from JSTOR ^ Paul W Jacobs, II; Diane Atnally Conlin , 2014, “Campus Martius : the Field of Mars in the life of ancient Rome”, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2014. ^ Johannes Lydud “De Mensibus 4.49” translated by Andrew Eastbourne for Roger Pearse, 2013. Web link: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Lydus/4/March*.html External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Campus Martius. Detailed topographical history of the Campus Martius Models and maps of the Campus Martius in ancient Rome Coordinates: 41°53′52″N 12°28′38″E / 41.8978°N 12.4772°E / 41.8978; 12.4772 Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries United States Israel Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campus_Martius&oldid=1021309115" Categories: Campus Martius Topography of the ancient city of Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 May 2021, at 00:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5483	----	Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition - Wikipedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1910 Encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition First page of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition Country United States Language British English Release number 11 Subject General Publisher Horace Everett Hooper Publication date 1910–11 Media type Print and Digital Preceded by Encyclopædia Britannica Tenth Edition  Followed by Encyclepædia Britannica Twelfth Edition  Text Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition at Wikisource The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1910–11), is a 29-volume reference work, an edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. It was developed during the encyclopaedia's transition from a British to an American publication. Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. This edition of the encyclopaedia, containing 40,000 entries, is now in the public domain, and many of its articles have been used as a basis for articles in Wikipedia.[1] However, the outdated nature of some of its content makes its use as a source for modern scholarship problematic. Some articles have special value and interest to modern scholars as cultural artifacts of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Contents 1 Background 2 Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition 3 1911 Britannica in the 21st century 4 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links 8.1 Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text 8.2 Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text Background[edit] Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled with the management of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper. Hugh Chisholm, who had edited the previous edition, was appointed editor in chief, with Walter Alison Phillips as his principal assistant editor.[2] Originally, Hooper bought the rights to the 25-volume 9th edition and persuaded the British newspaper The Times to issue its reprint, with eleven additional volumes (35 volumes total) as the tenth edition, which was published in 1902. Hooper's association with The Times ceased in 1909, and he negotiated with the Cambridge University Press to publish the 29-volume eleventh edition. Though it is generally perceived as a quintessentially British work, the eleventh edition had substantial American influences, in not only the increased amount of American and Canadian content, but also the efforts made to make it more popular.[3] American marketing methods also assisted sales. Some 14% of the contributors (214 of 1507) were from North America, and a New York office was established to coordinate their work.[4] The initials of the encyclopaedia's contributors appear at the end of selected articles or at the end of a section in the case of longer articles, such as that on China, and a key is given in each volume to these initials. Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, James Hopwood Jeans and William Michael Rossetti. Among the then lesser-known contributors were some who would later become distinguished, such as Ernest Rutherford and Bertrand Russell. Many articles were carried over from the 9th edition, some with minimal updating. Some of the book-length articles were divided into smaller parts for easier reference, yet others much abridged. The best-known authors generally contributed only a single article or part of an article. Most of the work was done by journalists, British Museum scholars and other scholars. The 1911 edition was the first edition of the encyclopædia to include more than just a handful of female contributors, with 34 women contributing articles to the edition.[5] The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes of the format of the Britannica. It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The print type was kept in galley proofs and subject to continual updating until publication. It was the first edition of Britannica to be issued with a comprehensive index volume in which was added a categorical index, where like topics were listed. It was the first not to include long treatise-length articles. Even though the overall length of the work was about the same as that of its predecessor, the number of articles had increased from 17,000 to 40,000. It was also the first edition of Britannica to include biographies of living people. Sixteen maps of the famous 9th edition of Stielers Handatlas were exclusively translated to English, converted to Imperial units, printed in Gotha, Germany, by Justus Perthes and became part this edition. Later editions only included Perthes' maps as low quality reproductions.[6] According to Coleman and Simmons,[7] the content of the encyclopaedia was distributed as follows: Subject Content Geography 29% Pure and applied science 17% History 17% Literature 11% Fine art 9% Social science 7% Psychology 1.7% Philosophy 0.8% Hooper sold the rights to Sears, Roebuck and Company of Chicago in 1920, completing the Britannica's transition to becoming a substantially American publication.[8] In 1922, an additional three volumes (also edited by Hugh Chisholm) were published, covering the events of the intervening years, including World War I. These, together with a reprint of the eleventh edition, formed the twelfth edition of the work. A similar thirteenth edition, consisting of three volumes plus a reprint of the twelfth edition, was published in 1926. The London editor was J.L. Garvin, as Chisholm had died.[9] The twelfth and thirteenth editions were closely related to the eleventh edition and shared much of the same content. However, it became increasingly apparent that a more thorough update of the work was required. The fourteenth edition, published in 1929, was considerably revised, with much text eliminated or abridged to make room for new topics. Nevertheless, the eleventh edition was the basis of every later version of the Encyclopædia Britannica until the completely new fifteenth edition was published in 1974, using modern information presentation. The eleventh edition's articles are still of value and interest to modern readers and scholars, especially as a cultural artifact: the British Empire was at its maximum, imperialism was largely unchallenged, much of the world was still ruled by monarchs, and the tumultuous world wars were still in the future. They are an invaluable resource for topics omitted from modern encyclopaedias, particularly for biography and the history of science and technology. As a literary text, the encyclopaedia has value as an example of early 20th-century prose. For example, it employs literary devices, such as pathetic fallacy (attribution of human-like traits to impersonal forces or inanimate objects), which are not as common in modern reference texts.[7] Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition[edit] 1913 advertisement for the eleventh edition Wikisource has original text related to this article: Misinforming a Nation In 1917, using the pseudonym of S. S. Van Dine, the US art critic and author Willard Huntington Wright published Misinforming a Nation, a 200+ page criticism of inaccuracies and biases of the Encyclopædia Britannica eleventh edition. Wright claimed that Britannica was "characterized by misstatement, inexcusable omissions, rabid and patriotic prejudices, personal animosities, blatant errors of fact, scholastic ignorance, gross neglect of non-British culture, an astounding egotism, and an undisguised contempt for American progress".[10] Amos Urban Shirk, known for having read the eleventh and fourteenth editions in their entirety, said he found the fourteenth edition to be a "big improvement" over the eleventh, stating that "most of the material had been completely rewritten". Robert Collison, in Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout The Ages (1966), wrote of the eleventh edition that it "was probably the finest edition of the Britannica ever issued, and it ranks with the Enciclopedia Italiana and the Espasa as one of the three greatest encyclopaedias. It was the last edition to be produced almost in its entirety in Britain, and its position in time as a summary of the world's knowledge just before the outbreak of World War I is particularly valuable". Sir Kenneth Clark, in Another Part of the Wood (1974), wrote of the eleventh edition, "One leaps from one subject to another, fascinated as much by the play of mind and the idiosyncrasies of their authors as by the facts and dates. It must be the last encyclopaedia in the tradition of Diderot which assumes that information can be made memorable only when it is slightly coloured by prejudice. When T. S. Eliot wrote 'Soul curled up on the window seat reading the Encyclopædia Britannica,' he was certainly thinking of the eleventh edition." (Clark refers to Eliot's 1929 poem "Animula".) It was one of Jorge Luis Borges's favorite works, and was a source of information and enjoyment for his entire working life.[11] In 1912, mathematician L. C. Karpinski criticised the eleventh edition for inaccuracies in articles on the history of mathematics, none of which had been written by specialists.[12] English writer and former priest Joseph McCabe claimed in Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1947) that Britannica was censored under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church after the 11th edition.[13] Authorities ranging from Virginia Woolf to professors criticised the 11th edition for having bourgeois and old-fashioned opinions on art, literature, and social sciences.[5] A contemporary Cornell professor, Edward B. Titchener, wrote in 1912, "the new Britannica does not reproduce the psychological atmosphere of its day and generation... Despite the halo of authority, and despite the scrutiny of the staff, the great bulk of the secondary articles in general psychology ... are not adapted to the requirements of the intelligent reader".[14] In an April 2012 article, Nate Pederson of The Guardian said that the eleventh edition represented "a peak of colonial optimism before the slaughter of war" and that the edition "has acquired an almost mythic reputation among collectors".[15] Critics have charged several editions with racism,[16][17] sexism,[5] and antisemitism.[15] The eleventh edition characterises the Ku Klux Klan as protecting the white race and restoring order to the American South after the American Civil War, citing the need to "control the negro", and "the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men upon white women".[18][19] Similarly, the "Civilization" article argues for eugenics, stating that it is irrational to "propagate low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals ... which to-day constitute so threatening an obstacle to racial progress".[20] The eleventh edition has no biography of Marie Curie, despite her winning of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, although she is mentioned briefly under the biography of her husband Pierre Curie.[21] The Britannica employed a large female editorial staff that wrote hundreds of articles for which they were not given credit.[5] 1911 Britannica in the 21st century[edit] The 1911 edition is no longer restricted by copyright, and it is therefore freely available in several more modern forms. While it may once have been a reliable description of the academic consensus of its time,[according to whom?] many modern readers find fault with the Encyclopedia for several major errors, ethnocentric and racist remarks, and other issues: Contemporary opinions of race and ethnicity are included in the Encyclopædia's articles. For example, the entry for "Negro" states, "Mentally the negro is inferior to the white... the arrest or even deterioration of mental development [after adolescence] is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts."[22] The article about the American War of Independence attributes the success of the United States in part to "a population mainly of good English blood and instincts".[23] Many articles are now outdated factually, in particular those concerning science, technology, international and municipal law, and medicine. For example, the article on the vitamin deficiency disease beriberi speculates that it is caused by a fungus, vitamins not having been discovered at the time. Articles about geographic places mention rail connections and ferry stops in towns that no longer employ such transport (though this in itself can be useful for those looking for historical information). Even where the facts might still be accurate, new information, theories and perspectives developed since 1911 have substantially changed the way the same facts might be interpreted. For example, the modern interpretation of the history of the Visigoths is now very different from that of 1911; readers of the eleventh edition who want to know about the social customs and political life of the tribe and its warriors are told to look up the entry for their king, Alaric I. The eleventh edition of Encyclopædia Britannica has become a commonly quoted source, both because of the reputation of the Britannica and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. It has been used as a source by many modern projects, including Wikipedia and the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia. Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia[edit] The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns. Project Gutenberg's offerings are summarized below in the External links section and include text and graphics. As of 2018[update], Distributed Proofreaders are working on producing a complete electronic edition of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. See also[edit] New American Cyclopedia References[edit] ^ Boyles, Denis (2016). Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911. Knopf. pp. xi–x. ISBN 9780307269171. ^ S. Padraig Walsh, Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography (1968), p. 49 ^ "AuctionZip". AuctionZip. AuctionZip. Retrieved 4 April 2020. ^ Boyles (2016), p. 242. ^ a b c d Thomas, Gillian (1992). A Position to Command Respect: Women and the Eleventh Britannica. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2567-8. ^ Wolfgang Lierz: Karten aus Stielers Hand-Atlas in der „Encyclopaedia Britannica“. In: Cartographica Helvetica. Heft 29, 2004, ISSN 1015-8480, S. 27–34 online Archived 2016-07-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b All There is to Know (1994), edited by Alexander Coleman and Charles Simmons. Subtitled: "Readings from the Illustrious Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". p. 32. ISBN 0-671-76747-X ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica - Eleventh edition and its supplements | English language reference work". Retrieved 2016-08-29. ^ Stewart, Donald E. (Oct 20, 2020). "Encyclopædia Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-03-30. ^ Misinforming a Nation. 1917. Chapter 1. ^ Woodall, James (1996). Borges: A Life. New York: BasicBooks. p. 76. ISBN 0-465-04361-5. ^ Karpinski, L. C. (1912). "History of Mathematics in the Recent Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". Science. 35 (888): 29–31. Bibcode:1912Sci....35...29K. doi:10.1126/science.35.888.29. PMID 17752897. ^ McCabe, J (1947). Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Haldeman-Julius. ASIN B0007FFJF4. Retrieved 2011-06-30. ^ Titchener, EB (1912). "The Psychology of the new 'Britannica'". American Journal of Psychology. University of Illinois Press. 23 (1): 37–58. doi:10.2307/1413113. JSTOR 1413113. ^ a b Pederson, Nate (2012-04-10). "The magic of Encyclopedia Britannica's 11th edition". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-04-28. ^ Chalmers, F. Graeme (1992). "The Origins of Racism in the Public School Art Curriculum". Studies in Art Education. 33 (3): 134–143. doi:10.2307/1320895. JSTOR 1320895. ^ Citing from the article on "Negro" and discussing the consequences of views such as those stated there: Brooks, Roy L., editor. “Redress for Racism?” When Sorry Isn't Enough: The Controversy Over Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice, NYU Press, 1999, pp. 395–398. JSTOR j.ctt9qg0xt.75. Accessed 17 Aug. 2020. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Lynch Law" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Ku Klux Klan" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Williams, Henry Smith (1911). "Civilization" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Curie, Pierre" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 644. ^ Joyce, Thomas Athol (1911). "Negro" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 344. ^ Hannay, David (1911). "American War of Independence" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 845. Further reading[edit] Boyles, Denis. Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910-1911 (2016), ISBN 0307269175, online review External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] via HathiTrust Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed. 1911, separate volumes in several formats, on the Internet Archive: Internet Archive – Text Archives Individual Volumes Volume From To Volume 1 A Androphagi Volume 2 Andros, Sir Edmund Austria Volume 3 Austria, Lower Bisectrix Volume 4 Bisharin Calgary Volume 5 Calhoun, John Caldwell Chatelaine Volume 6 Châtelet Constantine Volume 7 Constantine Pavlovich Demidov Volume 8 Demijohn Edward the Black Prince Volume 9 Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin Evangelical Association Volume 10 Evangelical Church Conference Francis Joseph I Volume 11 Franciscans Gibson, William Hamilton Volume 12 Gichtel, Johann Georg Harmonium Volume 13 Harmony Hurstmonceaux Volume 14 Husband Italic Volume 15 Italy Kyshtym Volume 16 L Lord Advocate Volume 17 Lord Chamberlain Mecklenburg Volume 18 Medal Mumps Volume 19 Mun, Adrien Albert Marie de Oddfellows, Order of Volume 20 Ode Payment of members Volume 21 Payn, James Polka Volume 22 Poll Reeves, John Sims Volume 23 Refectory Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin Volume 24 Sainte-Claire Deville, Étienne Henri Shuttle Volume 25 Shuválov, Peter Andreivich Subliminal self Volume 26 Submarine mines Tom-Tom Volume 27 Tonalite Vesuvius Volume 28 Vetch Zymotic diseases Volume 29 Index List of contributors Volume 1 of 1922 supp Abbe English History Volume 2 of 1922 supp English Literature Oyama, Iwao Volume 3 of 1922 supp Pacific Ocean Islands Zuloaga Reader's Guide – 1913 Year-Book – 1913 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia: Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia As of 16 December 2014[update] Section From To Volume 1:   A  –   Androphagi Volume 2.1:   Andros, Sir Edmund  –   Anise Volume 2.2:   Anjar  –   Apollo Volume 2.3:   Apollodorus  –   Aral Volume 2.4:   Aram, Eugene  –   Arcueil Volume 2.5:   Arculf  –   Armour, Philip Volume 2.6:   Armour Plates  –   Arundel, Earls of Volume 2.7:   Arundel, Thomas  –   Athens Volume 2.8:   Atherstone  –   Austria Volume 3.1:   Austria, Lower  –   Bacon Volume 3.2:   Baconthorpe  –   Bankruptcy Volume 3.3:   Banks  –   Bassoon Volume 3.4:   Basso-relievo  –   Bedfordshire Volume 3.5:   Bedlam  –   Benson, George Volume 3.6:   Bent, James  –   Bibirine Volume 3.7:   Bible  –   Bisectrix Volume 4.1:   Bisharin  –   Bohea Volume 4.2:   Bohemia  –   Borgia, Francis Volume 4.3:   Borgia, Lucrezia  –   Bradford, John Volume 4.4:   Bradford, William  –   Brequigny, Louis Volume 4.5:   Bréquigny  –   Bulgaria Volume 4.6:   Bulgaria  –   Calgary Volume 5.1:   Calhoun  –   Camoens Volume 5.2:   Camorra  –   Cape Colony Volume 5.3:   Capefigue  –   Carneades Volume 5.4:   Carnegie, Andrew  –   Casus Belli Volume 5.5:   Cat  –   Celt Volume 5.6:   Celtes, Konrad  –   Ceramics Volume 5.7:   Cerargyrite  –   Charing Cross Volume 5.8:   Chariot  –   Chatelaine Volume 6.1:   Châtelet  –   Chicago Volume 6.2:   Chicago, University of  –   Chiton Volume 6.3:   Chitral  –   Cincinnati Volume 6.4:   Cincinnatus  –   Cleruchy Volume 6.5:   Clervaux  –   Cockade Volume 6.6:   Cockaigne  –   Columbus, Christopher Volume 6.7:   Columbus  –   Condottiere Volume 6.8:   Conduction, Electric  –   Volume 7.1:   Prependix  –   Volume 7.2:   Constantine Pavlovich  –   Convention Volume 7.3:   Convention  –   Copyright Volume 7.4:   Coquelin  –   Costume Volume 7.5:   Cosway  –   Coucy Volume 7.6:   Coucy-le-Château  –   Crocodile Volume 7.7:   Crocoite  –   Cuba Volume 7.8:   Cube  –   Daguerre, Louis Volume 7.9:   Dagupan  –   David Volume 7.10:   David, St  –   Demidov Volume 8.2:   Demijohn  –   Destructor Volume 8.3:   Destructors  –   Diameter Volume 8.4:   Diameter  –   Dinarchus Volume 8.5:   Dinard  –   Dodsworth Volume 8.6:   Dodwell  –   Drama Volume 8.7:   Drama  –   Dublin Volume 8.8:   Dubner  –   Dyeing Volume 8.9:   Dyer  –   Echidna Volume 8.10:   Echinoderma  –   Edward Volume 9.1:   Edwardes  –   Ehrenbreitstein Volume 9.2:   Ehud  –   Electroscope Volume 9.3:   Electrostatics  –   Engis Volume 9.4:   England  –   English Finance Volume 9.5:   English History  –   Volume 9.6:   English Language  –   Epsom Salts Volume 9.7:   Equation  –   Ethics Volume 9.8:   Ethiopia  –   Evangelical Association Volume 10.1:   Evangelical Church Conference  –   Fairbairn, Sir William Volume 10.2:   Fairbanks, Erastus  –   Fens Volume 10.3:   Fenton, Edward  –   Finistère Volume 10.4:   Finland  –   Fleury, Andre Volume 10.5:   Fleury, Claude  –   Foraker, Joseph Henson Volume 10.6:   Foraminifera  –   Fox, Edward Volume 10.7:   Fox, George  –   France[p.775-p.894] Volume 10.8:   France[p.895-p.929]  –   Francis Joseph I. Volume 11.1:   Franciscians  –   French Language Volume 11.2:   French Literature  –   Frost, William Volume 11.3:   Frost  –   Fyzabad Volume 11.4:   G  –   Gaskell, Elizabeth Volume 11.5:   Gassendi, Pierre  –   Geocentric Volume 11.6:   Geodesy  –   Geometry Volume 11.7:   Geoponici  –   Germany[p.804-p.840] Volume 11.8:   Germany[p.841-p.901]  –   Gibson, William Volume 12.1:   Gichtel, Johann  –   Glory Volume 12.2:   Gloss  –   Gordon, Charles George Volume 12.3:   Gordon, Lord George  –   Grasses Volume 12.4:   Grasshopper  –   Greek Language Volume 12.5:   Greek Law  –   Ground-Squirrel Volume 12.6:   Groups, Theory of  –   Gwyniad Volume 12.7:   Gyantse  –   Hallel Volume 12.8:   Haller, Albrecht  –   Harmonium Volume 13.1:   Harmony  –   Heanor Volume 13.2:   Hearing  –   Helmond Volume 13.3:   Helmont, Jean  –   Hernosand Volume 13.4:   Hero  –   Hindu Chronology Volume 13.5:   Hinduism  –   Home, Earls of Volume 13.6:   Home, Daniel  –   Hortensius, Quintus Volume 13.7:   Horticulture  –   Hudson Bay Volume 13.8:   Hudson River  –   Hurstmonceaux Volume 14.1:   Husband  –   Hydrolysis Volume 14.2:   Hydromechanics  –   Ichnography Volume 14.3:   Ichthyology  –   Independence Volume 14.4:   Independence, Declaration of  –   Indo-European Languages Volume 14.5:   Indole  –   Insanity Volume 14.6:   Inscriptions  –   Ireland, William Henry Volume 14.7:   Ireland  –   Isabey, Jean Baptiste Volume 14.8:   Isabnormal Lines  –   Italic Volume 15.1:   Italy  –   Jacobite Church Volume 15.2:   Jacobites  –   Japan (part) Volume 15.3:   Japan (part)  –   Jeveros Volume 15.4:   Jevons, Stanley  –   Joint Volume 15.5:   Joints  –   Justinian I. Volume 15.6:   Justinian II.  –   Kells Volume 15.7:   Kelly, Edward  –   Kite Volume 15.8:   Kite-flying  –   Kyshtym Volume 16.1:   L  –   Lamellibranchia Volume 16.2:   Lamennais, Robert de  –   Latini, Brunetto Volume 16.3:   Latin Language  –   Lefebvre, Pierre François Joseph Volume 16.4:   Lefebvre, Tanneguy  –   Letronne, Jean Antoine Volume 16.5:   Letter  –   Lightfoot, John Volume 16.6:   Lightfoot, Joseph Barber  –   Liquidation Volume 16.7:   Liquid Gases  –   Logar Volume 16.8:   Logarithm  –   Lord Advocate Volume 17.1:   Lord Chamberlain  –   Luqmān Volume 17.2:   Luray Cavern  –   Mackinac Island Volume 17.3:   McKinley, William  –   Magnetism, Terrestrial Volume 17.4:   Magnetite  –   Malt Volume 17.5:   Malta  –   Map, Walter Volume 17.6:   Map  –   Mars Volume 17.7:   Mars  –   Matteawan Volume 17.8:   Matter  –   Mecklenburg Flash reader (Empanel) with full-page scans Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, www.theodora.com – unedited, html version, from scan/ocr of the original text, with interactive alphabetical index, and Google translation into Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Russian, Hindi, Arabic and Portuguese. 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, StudyLight.org – "Containing 35,820 entries cross-referenced and cross-linked to other resources on StudyLight.org". "Copyright Statement[:] these [EB 1911] files are public domain". The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information (11th edition) at the Online Books Page of the University of Pennsylvania. The Encyclopaedia Britannica in Numerical Recipes bookreader format. The preceding links adopt the spellings used in the target. 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en-wikipedia-org-5472	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead. Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher For other uses, see Marcus Aurelius (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aurelian. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Roman emperor Reign 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Co-emperor Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Born 26 April 121 Rome, Italy Died 17 March 180 (aged 58) Sirmium, Pannonia Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger (145–175, her death) Issue Detail 14, including Commodus, Annius, Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, and Vibia Aurelia Sabina Names Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (see section Name for details) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) Mother Domitia Calvilla Philosophy career Notable work Meditations Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western Philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori[1] Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Epictetus, Quintus, Apollonius, Sextus of Chaeronea Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Stoic philosophy Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Marcus Aurelius Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Part of a series on Marcus Aurelius Early life (121–161 AD) Reign (161–180 AD) Meditations v t e Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs;[2] 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana (27 BC to 180 AD), an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised Marcus. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus' uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. In the East, the Roman Empire fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus' reign, but his involvement in this is unknown. The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 Name 2.2 Family origins 2.3 Childhood 2.4 Succession to Hadrian 2.5 Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) 2.6 Fronto and further education 2.7 Births and deaths 2.8 Antoninus Pius's last years 3 Emperor 3.1 Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) 3.2 Early rule 3.3 War with Parthia (161–166) 3.4 War with Germanic tribes (166–180) 3.5 Legal and administrative work 3.5.1 Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague 3.6 Death and succession (180) 4 Legacy and reputation 5 Attitude towards Christians 6 Marriage and children 7 Nerva–Antonine family tree 8 Writings 9 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 10 Column of Marcus Aurelius 11 In popular culture 12 Notes 13 Citations 14 Sources 14.1 Ancient 14.2 Modern 15 External links Sources Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD.[3] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[4] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.[5] A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.[6][7] Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.[8] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.[9] Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus's legal work.[10] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[11] Early life Main article: Early life of Marcus Aurelius A bust of young Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museum). Anthony Birley, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man.'[12] Name Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,[13] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,[14][15][16] or at the time of his marriage.[17] He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[18] at birth or some point in his youth,[14][16] or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;[19] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[20] Family origins Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III).[21] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.[22][23] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[24] Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.[25][26][note 1] Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.[29][30] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.[31][32][33] The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. Childhood Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.[34] His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.[35][note 2] Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.[37] His mother Lucilla did not remarry[35] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',[38] and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.[16] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.[39] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.[40] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.[41] Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.[42] From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.[43] Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;[44] he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.[45] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.[46] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.[47] A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin[48][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.[50] Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.[51] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's Meditations.[52] Succession to Hadrian Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR. In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[53] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.[54] While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.[55] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.[56] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.[57][note 4] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.[59] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.[60] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[61] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.[62] At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.[63] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.[64] After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.[65] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[66] The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.[67] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.[68] Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145) Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.[69] Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.[70] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.[71] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.[72] Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[73] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[74] direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[75] Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.[74] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'[76] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.[77] As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.[78] But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.[79] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.[80] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.[81] On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.[82] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.[83] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.[84] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.[85] Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.[86] Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.[87] Fronto and further education After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[88] He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,[89] but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.[90] This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[91] Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.[92] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.[93] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.[94] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.[95] Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[96] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[97][note 6] He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[97] A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.[101] The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.[102] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.[103] He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.[104] His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering[105] – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[106] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.[107] Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[108] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.[109] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,[110] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.[111] The outcome of the trial is unknown.[112] By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[113] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.[114] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.[115] Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.[116] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[101] Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.[117] Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.[118] Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.[119][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[121] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;[122] the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).[123] Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.[124] Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'[125] Births and deaths On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.[126] The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.[127] Domitia would die in 151.[128] The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[129] Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[130] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':[131]  leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men. – Iliad vi.146[131] Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.[132] Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.[133] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.[134] By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.[135] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.[136] Antoninus Pius's last years Bust of Antoninus Pius, British Museum Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,[137] and was consul again with Marcus in 161.[138] Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.[139][note 8] He did not marry until 164.[143] In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.[144] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.[136] Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[145] about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[146] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[147] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).[148] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[149] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.[150] Emperor Main article: Reign of Marcus Aurelius Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161) Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.[151] This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.[152] Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.[153] Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.[154] The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.[155] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[156][note 9] It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.[159][note 10] In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.[159] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.[160] Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative.[161] This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.[162] The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.[163] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz).[164] Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.[165] If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.[166] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[163] In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.[167] (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.[168]) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.[169] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[170][note 11] Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.[172] The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.[173] Early rule Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).[174] At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.[175] Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.[176] Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.[177] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.[178] Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.[179] Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.[180] The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'[181] Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.[182] Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.[183] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'[184] Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.[185] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.[186] Tiber Island seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the Tiber, December 2008 In either autumn 161 or spring 162,[note 12] the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.[188][note 13] In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.[190] Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.[191] Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.[192] The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.[193] Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.[194] War with Parthia (161–166) Main article: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 See also: Roman–Persian Wars Coin of Vologases IV of Parthia. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63. On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[195] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[196] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[197] The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.[198] Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,[199] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[200]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.[201] There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[202] Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[203][note 14] More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[205] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.[206] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[207] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[208] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[209] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[210] M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,[211] and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[212] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, Victoria is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.[213] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[214] Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'[215] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[216] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.[217] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.[218] Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'[219] The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in Antioch's open-air taverns than with their units.[220] (Engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) The Euphrates River near Raqqa, Syria Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,[221] and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,[222] but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.[223] Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.[224] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.[225][note 15] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.[227] Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[228] Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,[229] saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',[230] and enjoyed the company of actors.[231][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.[233] Marble statue of Lucilla, 150–200 AD, Bardo National Museum, Tunisia In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.[234] Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.[235] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[236] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,[237] who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.[238] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.[239] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[240] He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[241] The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.[242] At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[243] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.[244] Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.[245] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[246] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[247] In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.[248] In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[249] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[250] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.[251] In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.[252] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.[253] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.[254] By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.[255] Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[256] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.[257] Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[258] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[259] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.[260] War with Germanic tribes (166–180) Main article: Marcomannic Wars The Roman Empire at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called Marcomannia and Sarmatia[261] – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of Avidius Cassius and by his death.[262] The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: Armenia, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Scenes from the Marcomannic Wars, 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Capitoline Museums) Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts Jupiter, flanked by Marcus and Lucius Verus. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.[263] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.[264] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).[265] The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.[266] Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.[267] Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.[268] Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.[269] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.[270] The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[271] Legal and administrative work Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt. Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,[272] but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.[273] He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'[274] and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.[275] He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).[276] Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.[277] In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.[278] In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.[164] Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague Main articles: Sino-Roman relations and Antonine Plague A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.[279][280][281] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[282] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[283][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.[284] The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[285] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.[286] It is believed that the plague was smallpox.[287] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.[288] Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.[289] Death and succession (180) Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1844) by Eugène Delacroix Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.[290] Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.[291] Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.[292] Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;[293] however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.[292] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[294] [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. –Dio lxxi. 36.3–4[294] Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."[295] Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[296] The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.[296] Legacy and reputation Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.[297][298] Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.[299] The last-named went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.[300] The historian Herodian wrote: "Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life."[301] Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: "[The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death."[302] Attitude towards Christians In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.[303] The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.[304] The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr, includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven," after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.[305] Marriage and children Coin of Commodus and Annius, 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus. Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Prado Museum Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[126][306] including two sets of twins.[126][307] One son and four daughters outlived their father.[308] Their children included: Domitia Faustina (147–151)[126][138][309] Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)[129][307][310] Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)[129][307][310] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150[132][309]–182[311]), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus,[138] then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151),[134] married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)[134] Unknown child (died before 158)[136] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160[309][136]),[138] married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus[310] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),[312] twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,[310][313] married Bruttia Crispina, no issue Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162[260]–169[306][314])[138] Hadrianus[138] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170[310]– died before 217[315]),[138] married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue Nerva–Antonine family tree v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Writings Main article: Meditations While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.[316] It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.[317] It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.[318] It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.[319] The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.[320] Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, CO[N]S III.[321] Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelius The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.[322] This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in circa 175, it stands 11.6 ft (3.5 m) and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.[323] A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums A full view of the equestrian statue Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Replica of the statue, Capitoline Hill Column of Marcus Aurelius Main article: Column of Marcus Aurelius Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[324] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[325] The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase. The column, right, in the background of Panini's painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius in the right foreground (1747) In popular culture In the 1965 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. In the 2000 British-American drama Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius. Notes ^ Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[27] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[28] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.[36] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.[49] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.[58] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[81] ^ Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[98] Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[99] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[100] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[120] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[140]) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[141] scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[142] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[157] The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[158] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[159] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[159] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[171] ^ Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[187] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[182]) ^ Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.[189] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' vivente Pio (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[204]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[226] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (HA Verus iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[232] ^ For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1741148930. Citations All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a 'HA'. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ^ Henry Albert Fischel, Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings, E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95. ^ 'Marcus Aurelius' Archived 28 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. ^ Rohrbacher, p. 5. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae' (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. ^ Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. ^ Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Magill, p. 693. ^ a b Historia MA I.9–10 ^ Van Ackeren, p. 139. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus i. 10; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Dio lxix.21.1; HA Marcus i. 9; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. ^ Van Ackeren, p. 78. ^ Dean, p. 32. ^ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa. ^ Sánchez, p. 165. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ^ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ^ Giacosa, p. 8. ^ Levick, pp. 161, 163. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. ^ "M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae". ^ l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. JHU Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780801843006. horti domizia lucilla. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. ^ HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. ^ Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. ^ Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ Robertson, Donald J. "Stoicism as a Martial Art". Medium. Retrieved 23 February 2021. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. ^ HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. ^ HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. ^ Magie & Birley, Lives of the later Caesars, pp. 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, pp. 39ff. ^ HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–30. ^ HA Aelius vi. 2–3 ^ HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. ^ Dio, lxix.17.1; HA Aelius, iii. 7, iv. 6, vi. 1–7; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. ^ Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. ^ HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. ^ HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 108. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 77. ^ HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. ^ Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. ^ HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. ^ HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, pp. 1–2. ^ Mellor, p. 460. ^ Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. ^ De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. ^ Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. ^ Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. ^ a b Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–08. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ a b c d e Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Reed, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius'. Livius.org. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), Antiquité Classique 3 (1934), pp. 173ff. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. ^ Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bury, p. 532. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156. ^ HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. ^ HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117. ^ HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ a b 'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ HA Marcus xix. 1–2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.9. ^ HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. ^ HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator i.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31. ^ HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 (Nepos), 1092 (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–04, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 349. ^ HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 226. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. ^ Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. ^ HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. ^ HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. ^ Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69. ^ HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 "Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2011.; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–31. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. ^ Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ a b Adams, p. 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 183. ^ Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani, p. 33. ^ Mattingly & Sydenham, Roman imperial coinage, vol. III, p. 241. ^ Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. ^ Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–24. ^ Le Bohec, p. 56. ^ Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. ^ Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 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Cary, ad loc. ^ Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 ^ a b Grant, The Climax Of Rome, p. 15. ^ HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. World History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. ^ Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ Thinkers at War. ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ a b Stephens, p. 31. ^ a b c Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. 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New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. External links Marcus Aureliusat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Texts on Wikisource: The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Catholic Encyclopedia. 2. 1907. "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 693–96. "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Works by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Marcus Aurelius at Internet Archive Works by Marcus Aurelius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius Antonine dynasty Born: 26 April 121 Died: 17 March 180 Regnal titles Preceded by Antoninus Pius Roman emperor 161–180 With: Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Succeeded by Commodus Political offices Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–April 140 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus D. Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of Rome January–February 145 With: Antoninus Pius Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. Poblicola Priscus Preceded by Ti. 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en-wikipedia-org-5486	----	Brindisi - Wikipedia Brindisi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Brundisium) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Brindisi (disambiguation). Comune in Apulia, Italy Brindisi Brìnnisi  (Sicilian) Brentésion  (Greek) Comune Comune di Brindisi The Roman pillar marking the end of the ancient Via Appia in Brindisi Location of Brindisi Brindisi Location of Brindisi in Italy Show map of Italy Brindisi Brindisi (Apulia) Show map of Apulia Coordinates: 40°38′N 17°56′E / 40.633°N 17.933°E / 40.633; 17.933Coordinates: 40°38′N 17°56′E / 40.633°N 17.933°E / 40.633; 17.933 Country Italy Region Apulia Province Brindisi (BR) Frazioni Tuturano Government  • Mayor Riccardo Rossi Area[1]  • Total 332.98 km2 (128.56 sq mi) Elevation 15 m (49 ft) Population (31 December 2017)[2]  • Total 87,141  • Density 260/km2 (680/sq mi) Demonym(s) Brindisini Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 72100 Dialing code 0831 Patron saint St. Theodore of Amasea and St. Lawrence of Brindisi Saint day First Sunday in September Website comune.brindisi.it Brindisi Cathedral Brindisi (US: /ˈbrɪndɪzi, ˈbriːn-/ BRIN-diz-ee, BREEN-,[3][4] Italian: [ˈbrindizi] (listen); Brindisino: Brìnnisi; Latin: Brundisium; Ancient Greek: Βρεντέσιον, romanized: Brentésion; Messapic: Brunda) is a city in the region of Apulia in southern Italy, the capital of the province of Brindisi, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Historically, the city has played an important role in trade and culture, due to its strategic position on the Italian Peninsula and its natural port on the Adriatic Sea. The city remains a major port for trade with Greece and the Middle East. Its industries include agriculture, chemical works, and the generation of electricity. The city of Brindisi was the provisional government seat of the Kingdom of Italy from September 1943 to February 1944. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Territory 1.2 Climate 2 History 2.1 Ancient times 2.2 Middle Ages and modern times 3 Etymology 3.1 Heraldry 4 Main sights 4.1 Natural areas 5 Demography 5.1 Migration 5.2 Ethnic groups 5.3 Languages and dialects 5.4 Religion 6 Culture 6.1 Traditions and folklore 6.2 Education 6.2.1 Libraries 6.2.2 University 6.2.3 Museums 6.3 Music and theatre 7 Brindisini 8 Media 8.1 Radio 8.2 Print 8.3 Television 9 Cuisine 9.1 Beverages, spirits, liquors 9.2 Cheese 9.3 Vegetable products, processed or unprocessed 9.4 Pasta, pastry and confectionery 9.5 Wine 9.6 Events 10 Human geography 10.1 Roman period 10.2 Middle Ages 10.3 Modern era 10.4 Contemporary era 11 Economy 11.1 Agriculture 11.2 Industry 11.2.1 Chemical 11.2.2 Energy production 11.2.3 Aviation 11.3 Tourism 12 Infrastructure and transport 12.1 Roads 12.2 Railways 12.3 Seaport 12.4 International airport 12.5 Public transport 13 Government 13.1 Consulates 14 Sports 14.1 Association football 14.2 Basketball 14.3 Other clubs 14.4 Sports venues 15 International relations 15.1 Twin towns – sister cities 16 See also 17 References 18 Bibliography 19 External links Geography[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Brindisi is situated on a natural harbour, that penetrates deeply into the Adriatic coast of Apulia. Within the arms of the outer harbour islands are Pedagne, a tiny archipelago, currently not open and in use for military purposes (United Nations Group Schools used it during the intervention in Bosnia). The entire municipality is part of the Brindisi Plain, characterised by high agricultural uses of its land. It is located in the northeastern part of the Salento plains, about 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the Itria Valley, and the low Murge. Not far from the city is the Natural Marine Reserve of the World Wide Fund for Nature of Torre Guaceto. The Ionian Sea is about 45 kilometres (28 mi) away. Territory[edit] The territory of Brindisi is characterised by a wide flat area from which emerge sub deposits of limestone and sand of marine origin, which in turn have a deeper level clay of the Pleistocene era, and an even later Mesozoic carbonate composed of limestone and soils. The development of agriculture, has caused an increase in the use of water resources resulting in an increase of indiscriminate use.[5] Climate[edit] Brindisi experiences a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa). Summers are hot and dry with abundant sunshine. Summer heat indexes can be regularly over 30 °C (86 °F) and occasionally as high as 37 °C during July and August. Winters are mild with moderate rainfall. Brindisi and the mostly topographically flat Salento peninsula is subject to light winds during the majority of the year. The two main winds in Salento are the Bora and the Sirocco. The northerly Bora wind from the Adriatic sea is cooling, moderating summer heat and increasing winter wind chill. The southerly Sirocco wind from the Sahara, brings higher temperatures and humidity to Salento. During spring and autumn, Sirocco winds can bring thunderstorms, occasionally dropping red sand from the Sahara in the region. Snow is rare in Brindisi but occurred during the January 2017 cold spell which brought snow and ice to much of southern Italy. Climate data for Brindisi Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.6 (69.1) 22.0 (71.6) 23.6 (74.5) 27.4 (81.3) 35.0 (95.0) 43.4 (110.1) 44.4 (111.9) 43.8 (110.8) 37.0 (98.6) 31.6 (88.9) 27.0 (80.6) 22.4 (72.3) 44.4 (111.9) Average high °C (°F) 12.9 (55.2) 13.0 (55.4) 15.7 (60.3) 18.3 (64.9) 23.2 (73.8) 27.3 (81.1) 29.9 (85.8) 29.9 (85.8) 26.1 (79.0) 21.9 (71.4) 17.9 (64.2) 14.1 (57.4) 20.8 (69.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 9.8 (49.6) 9.9 (49.8) 12.1 (53.8) 14.7 (58.5) 19.1 (66.4) 23.3 (73.9) 26.1 (79.0) 26.0 (78.8) 22.4 (72.3) 18.5 (65.3) 14.4 (57.9) 11.1 (52.0) 17.3 (63.1) Average low °C (°F) 7.2 (45.0) 7.1 (44.8) 9.0 (48.2) 11.3 (52.3) 15.3 (59.5) 19.5 (67.1) 22.1 (71.8) 22.3 (72.1) 19.1 (66.4) 15.5 (59.9) 11.6 (52.9) 8.7 (47.7) 14.1 (57.3) Record low °C (°F) −6.4 (20.5) −2.4 (27.7) −1.6 (29.1) 2.0 (35.6) 5.6 (42.1) 9.8 (49.6) 12.4 (54.3) 13.8 (56.8) 9.0 (48.2) 4.0 (39.2) 1.0 (33.8) −1 (30) −6.4 (20.5) Average precipitation mm (inches) 65.3 (2.57) 79.5 (3.13) 64.2 (2.53) 45.9 (1.81) 23.6 (0.93) 14.8 (0.58) 12.1 (0.48) 23.7 (0.93) 49.4 (1.94) 76.8 (3.02) 84.5 (3.33) 65.1 (2.56) 604.9 (23.81) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 8.2 8.3 7.1 6.2 3.8 2.3 1.6 2.6 4.6 6.5 7.7 7.8 66.7 Average relative humidity (%) 78 75 74 72 70 71 70 72 74 76 77 77 74 Mean monthly sunshine hours 120.9 124.2 164.3 201.0 266.6 297.0 334.8 303.8 248.0 192.2 132.2 111.6 2,496.6 Source 1: Servizio Meteorologico (1971–2000 data)[6] Source 2: Servizio Meteorologico (1961–1990 data on humidity and sunshine)[7] History[edit] See also: Timeline of Brindisi Ancient times[edit] 16th century map of Brindisi by Piri Reis There are several traditions concerning its founders; one of them claims that it was founded by the legendary hero Diomedes. The geographer Strabo says that it was colonized from Knossos in Crete.[8] Brindisi was originally a Messapian settlement predating the Roman expansion. The Latin name Brundisium, through the Greek Brentesion, is a corruption of the Messapian Brention meaning "deer's head" and probably referring to the shape of the natural harbour. In 267 BC (245 BC, according to other sources) it was conquered by the Romans and became a Latin colony.[9] In the promontory of the Punta lands, which is located in the outer harbor have been identified as a Bronze Age village (16th century BC) where a group of huts, protected by an embankment of stones, yielded fragments of Mycenaean pottery. Herodotus spoke of the Mycenaean origin for these populations. The necropolis of Tor Pisana (south of the old town of Brindisi) returned Corinthian jars in the first half of the 7th century BC. The Brindisi Messapia certainly entertained strong business relationships with the opposite side of the Adriatic and the Greek populations of the Aegean Sea. After the Punic Wars it became a major center of Roman naval power and maritime trade. In the Social War it received Roman citizenship, and was made a free port by Sulla. It suffered, however, from a siege conducted by Caesar in 49 BC, part of Caesar's Civil War (Bell. Civ. i.) and was again attacked in 42 and 40 BC, with the latter giving rise to the Treaty of Brundisium between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus in the autumn of the same year. The poet Pacuvius was born here about 220 BC, and here the famous poet Virgil died in 19 BC. Under the Romans, Brundisium – a large city in its day with some 100,000 inhabitants – was an active port, the chief point of embarkation for Greece and the East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. It was connected with Rome by the Via Appia and the Via Traiana. The termination of the Via Appia, at the water's edge, was formerly flanked by two fine pillars. Only one remains, the second having been misappropriated and removed to the neighbouring town of Lecce. Middle Ages and modern times[edit] Church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro. Later Brindisi was conquered by Ostrogoths, and reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century AD. In 674 it was destroyed by the Lombards led by Romuald I of Benevento, but such a fine natural harbor meant that the city was soon rebuilt. In the 9th century, a Saracen settlement existed in the neighborhood of the city, which had been stormed in 836 by pirates. In 1070, it was conquered by the Normans and became part of the Principality of Taranto and the Duchy of Apulia, and was the first rule of the Counts of Conversano and then, after the baronial revolt of 1132, city-owned by the will of Roger II of Sicily, the city recovered some of the splendor of the past during the period of the Crusades, when it regained the Episcopal See, saw the construction of the new cathedral and a castle with an important new arsenal, became a privileged port for the Holy Land. It was in the cathedral of Brindisi that the wedding of Norman Prince Roger III of Sicily took place, son of King Tancred of Sicily. Emperor Frederick II, the heir to the crown of Jerusalem and Isabella of Brienne ( 9 November 1225 )[10] started from the port of Brindisi in 1227 for the Sixth Crusade[11] Frederick II erected a castle, with huge round towers, to guard the inner harbour; it later became a convict prison.[12] Like other Pugliese ports, Brindisi for a short while was ruled by Venice, but was soon reconquered by Spain. A plague devastated Brindisi in 1348; it was plundered in 1352 and 1383; and an earthquake struck the city in 1456.[12] Brindisi fell to Austrian rule in 1707–1734, and afterwards to the Bourbons. Between September 1943 and February 1944 the city functioned as the temporary government seat of Italy, and hosted King Victor Emmanuel III, Pietro Badoglio and a part of the Italian armed forces command in September 1943 after the armistice with Italy. In the 21st century, Brindisi serves as the home base of the San Marco Regiment, a marine brigade originally known as the La Marina Regiment. It was renamed San Marco after its noted defense of Venice at the start of World War I.[13] On 19 May 2012, a bomb, made of three gas cylinders, detonated in front of a vocational school in Brindisi, killing a 16-year-old female student.[14][15] Etymology[edit] The name comes through the Latin Brundisium through the Greek Brentesion and Messapi Brention meaning "head of deer" related with Albanian bri, brî - pl. Brini zi ( black horn ) brirë, brinë ("horn"; "antler") [< late Proto-Albanian *brina < earlier *brena ].[16][17] The city's name appears, therefore, to refer to the shape of the port which recalls the shape of the head of the animal. Heraldry[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The emblem of the city of Brindisi relates to certain unique characteristics of the ancient city of Brindisi, some of them still visible today. The head of deer derives from the Messapic name of the city Brention, a name inspired by the shape of the port city, which is reminiscent of the antlers of a stag. This shape is still clearly visible in satellite photos, which show the two racks, to the east and west, into which the port is divided. The emblem also contains the so-called "terminal pillar" of the Appian Way. Main sights[edit] Bell tower of the church of San Benedetto. Church of Santa Maria del Casale. The Castello Svevo or Castello Grande ("Hohenstaufen Castle" or "Large Castle"), built by Emperor Frederick II. It has a trapezoid plan with massive square towers. Under the Crown of Aragon four towers were added to the original 13th-century structure. After centuries of being abandoned, in 1813 Joachim Murat turned it into a prison; after 1909 it was used by the Italian Navy. During World War II it was briefly the residence of King Victor Emmanuel III. The Aragonese Castle, best known as Forte a Mare ("Sea Fort"). It was built by King Ferdinand I of Naples in 1491 on the S. Andrea island facing the port. It is divided into two sections: the "Red Castle" (from the color of its bricks) and the more recent Fort. Two ancient Roman pillars, symbols of Brindisi. They were once thought to mark the ending points of the Appian Way, instead they were used as a port reference for the antique mariners. Only one of the two, standing at 18.74 metres (61.5 ft), is still visible. The other crumbled in 1582, and the ruins was given to Lecce to hold the statue of Saint Oronzo (Lecce's patron), because Saint Oronzo was reputed to have cured the plague in Brindisi. the Duomo (cathedral), built in Romanesque style in the 11th–12th centuries. What is visible today is the 18th-century reconstruction, after the original was destroyed by an earthquake on 20 February 1743. Parts of the original mosaic pavement can be seen in the interior. Church of Santa Maria del Casale (late 13th century), in Gothic-Romanesque style. The façade has a geometrical pattern of gray and yellow stones, with an entrance cusp-covered portico. The interior has early-14th-century frescoes including, in the counter-façade, a Last Judgement in four sections, by Rinaldo da Taranto. They are in late-Byzantine style. Church of San Benedetto, in Romanesque style. Perhaps built before the 11th century as part of a Benedictine nunnery, it has a massive bell tower with triple-mullioned windows and Lombard bands. A side portal is decorated with 11th-century motifs, while the interior has a nave covered by cross vaults, while the aisles, separated by columns with Romanesque capitals, have half-barrel vaults. The cloister (11th century) has decorated capitals. Portico of the Templars (13th century). Despite the name, it was in reality the loggia of the bishop's palace. It is now the entrance to the Museo Ribezzo. the Fontana Grande (Grand Fountain), built by the Romans on the Appian Way. It was restored in 1192 by Tancred of Lecce. Piazza della Vittoria (Victory Square). It has a 17th-century fountain. Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli (1609). Church of the Sacred Heart. Church of San Giovanni al Sepolcro, with circular plan, dating from the 12th century. Church of the Santissima Trinità (or Santa Lucia, 14th century). It has a late 12th-century crypt. the Monument to Italian Sailors Natural areas[edit] Within the territory of the town of Brindisi environmental protected areas are located, some newly established: The Regional Natural Park of Punta della Contessa Salt: wetland of 87 hectares (214 acres) between Capo di Torre Cavallo and Punta della Contessa The Regional Nature Reserve Forest Cerano: a protected natural area that falls within the territory of Brindisi and San Pietro Vernotico; The Regional Nature Reserve Bosco of Santa Teresa and Lucci: it is a protected natural area composed of two forests whose name it bears. With the EU Directive 92/43 EEC, was included in the list of Sites of Community Importance (SCI) ; The Marine Nature Reserve Guaceto Tower: falling mostly in the municipality of Carovigno, are managed by a consortium which includes the municipalities of Brindisi, Carovigno and the WWF. Brindisi Harbour Demography[edit] Migration[edit] Brindisi has been the subject of extensive emigration during the 20th century, as well as all cities in the South. Emigration focused mainly on the lower strata of society who abandoned the countryside. Emigration can be traced in two great waves. The first, which was at its peak in the years immediately before and after the First World War, was almost exclusively to the Americas (and mostly to the United States, Argentina, and Brazil). The second wave of migrants from Apulia headed instead for Northern Europe after the Second World War. Attracted by the industrial development of some northern areas of the country, many Apulian migrants also settled in the Piedmont and Lombardy regions of northern Italy, and particularly in Milan. Since the 1960s, when the large petrochemical companies were joined by mechanical, naval, and aviation corporations, Brindisi was able to create employment opportunities for technicians and workers. The city experienced a small regional immigration, attracting families from neighboring provinces and regions. Another important chapter in the demography of the town was definitely the exodus of people from Albania in 1990–1991, which lasted almost a decade and led to the port of Brindisi receiving waves of Albanian immigrants.[18] Ethnic groups[edit] The largest non-Italian ethnic community is Albanian. The number of those who decided to stay in the city, however, is negligible in light of the number of immigrants who migrated. Brindisi remains the first step towards western Europe for displaced people from the Balkans.[19] The large number of Americans is largely due to a U.S. Air Force station, between Brindisi and San Vito dei Normanni that operated throughout the second half of the 20th century. Although the base is no longer operational, many soldiers have decided to stay.[19] The British presence is the result of a recent phenomenon of families from Northern Europe, especially English and Irish, settling in the region. Many such settlers are pensioners, buying villas in the Brindisi countryside. This phenomenon is relatively recent in Apulia, known as "Salentoshire", a playful neologism along the lines of "Chiantishire" on the consolidation of British tourism in Tuscany.[19] Languages and dialects[edit] The Brindisi dialect is a variant of Salentino and, although there are minor differences between the various municipalities, the root remains unchanged. It is spoken not only in Brindisi, but in some towns of the province of Taranto. The Brindisi also affects some dialects north of Lecce in the south[20] Religion[edit] Brindisi, along with Ostuni, is home of the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni (Archidioecesis Brundusina-Ostunensis in Latin), home of the Catholic Church suffragan of Archdiocese of Lecce and part of the ecclesiastical region of Apulia.[21] The diocese was erected in the 4th century, its first bishop was St. Leucio of Alexandria. In the 10th century following the destruction of the city by the Saracens, the bishops established their residence in Oria. It was in this century that established the Diocese of Ostuni, first joined the Diocese of Conversano-Monopoli and likely heir to the ancient diocese of Egnatia. On 30 September 1986, by decree of the Congregation for Bishops, the Archdiocese of Brindisi and Ostuni diocese were united in the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni plena. The new diocese was recognized civilly 20 October 1986, by decree of the Ministry of Interior. Brindisi contains an Eastern Orthodox Church parish, St. Nicholas of Myra Byzantine Rite. The rite of the Greek presence in Brindisi has long been established since the rule of the Byzantine Empire with a strong spread of the Basilian monks.[22] The Jews were a small but industrious community from 53 AD until the second half of the 16th century. The new Albanian migration has led to the recurrence of some Islamic religious presence. Culture[edit] Traditions and folklore[edit] Significant in Brindisi is the cult of Tarantismo that combines pagan and Christian tradition. In the past it was believed that women who showed forms of hysteria were infected by the bite of a Lycosa tarantula. The only known remedy was to dance continuously for days, so that the poison did not cause greater effect. Through music and dance was created a real exorcism in musical character. Each time a tarantato exhibited symptoms associated with Taranto, the tambourine, fiddle, mandolin, guitar and accordion players went in the house of the tarantato and began to do to play the pinch music with frenetic rhythms. The Brindisi pinch, as opposed to Lecce, is devoid of Christian references[23] and a therapeutic repertoire and musical detail.[24] Education[edit] Libraries[edit] Seminary of Brindisi Library The Provincial Library is a public library located in Commenda avenue. It has over 100,000 books and an extensive newspaper archive and participates in the National Library Service. Inside a modern auditorium, a media office and the secretariats of the university offices of Bari and Lecce operate. The Archbishop Annibale De Leo Library is a prestigious public library housed in the Seminary of Brindisi, in Piazza Duomo. Founded in 1798 by archbishop of Brindisi Annibale De Leo, with an endowment of about 6,000 volumes, today it has over 20,000 volumes, 17 incunable, over 200 16th-century manuscripts. These include some rare works, and various manuscript collections.[25] University[edit] The University of Salento Brindisi has social sciences, politics and geography faculty with courses in Sociology, Social Services and Political Science. The University of Bari has courses in Business Administration, Management and Consulting, Economics, Maritime and Logistics, Information Technology, Design, Nursing and Physiotherapy. Museums[edit] The "F. Ribezzo" Provincial Archaeological Museum is located in Piazza Duomo and has many large rooms, providing visitors with six sections: epigraphy, sculpture, the antiquarium, prehistoric, coins, medieval, modern and bronzes of Punta del Serrone. The Giovanni Tarantini Diocesan Museum is newly established and is housed in the Palazzo del Seminario. It has a collection of paintings, statues, ornaments and vestments from the churches of the diocese. Particularly important is the silver embossed Ark that has the remains of St Theodore of Amasea and a 7th-century pitcher, in which one can recognize the wedding at Cana. The Ethnic Salento Agrilandia Museum of Civilization offers tourists the chance to see many statues in wood and stone. It also features agriculture and interesting tools with the rural culture.[24] Music and theatre[edit] Music and theater in Brindisi have never featured significantly in the cultural life of the city. Having never hosted theatrical and musical training institutes, the city supports amateur companies. Over the past decade the city has developed and consolidated non-amateur theater companies, some dealing with theater for research and actor training. These companies have developed several socio-cultural projects for the promotion of the theater for people with disabilities. The same group of companies has produced six shows.[24] The most important musician from Brindisi is Stefano Miceli, an Italian classical pianist and conductor, globally known for his concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York City, Berlin Philharmonie, Gewandhaus in Leipzig, Forbidden City Concert Hall in Beijing and at the Great Hall in Melbourne. Also a Steinway Artist, he was given a silver medal by the President of Italy Napolitano and has been a visiting and distinguished professor at Boston University, Tanglewood Institute, the University of New Mexico and at many other academical music schools around the world. Brindisini[edit] Flavia Pennetta Marcus Pacuvius (Brundisium, 04.29.220 b.C. – Tarentum, 02.07 130 b.C.) Roman artist, poet and dramatist, nephew of Quintus Ennius. Margaritus of Brindisi (also Margarito; Italian Margaritone or Greek Megareites or Margaritoni [Μαργαριτώνη]: c. 1149–1197), called the new Neptune, was the last great ammiratus ammiratorum (Grand Admiral) of Sicily. First Count of Malta, Prince of Taranto and Duke of Durazzo. St. Lawrence of Brindisi: (born Giulio Cesare Russo, Brindisi, 22 July 1559 – Santa Maria de Belém (Lisbon), 22 July 1619 ) was a priest of the Italian Order of Friars Minor Capuchin. Proclaimed a saint by Pope Leo XIII in 1881, in 1959 was ranked among the Doctors of the Church. Giustino Durano (Brindisi 1923 – Bologna 2002 ), actor Oscar Nuccio (Brindisi 1931-2004), historian of economics Eugenio Barba (Brindisi, 1936 ), director Franco Testini (Brindisi, 7 October 1966) also known as Venerable Shi Yanfan is the first Western Buddhist Monk ever to be ordained at the renowned Songshan Shaolin Temple of China. He is currently the appointed Cultural Ambassador for the Songshan Shaolin Temple. Antonio Benarrivo (Brindisi, 21 August 1968 ) is a former soccer player who held the role of defender. Stefano Miceli (Brindisi, 14 April 1975 ) pianist and conductor Flavia Pennetta (Brindisi, 25 February 1982 ) is a tennis player, reached 6th place in world rankings after winning the 2015 US Open.[26] Cosimo Aldo Cannone (Brindisi, 20 March 1984) is a driver of Powerboating, 2 time world champion, in 2007 and 2008. Antimo Iunco (Brindisi, 10 June 1984 ) is a player for Torino and has the role of attacker. Daniele Vantaggiato (Brindisi, 10 October 1984 ) is a soccer player for Calcio Padova and has the role of attacker . Gianluca Di Giulio (Brindisi, 17 February 1972), footballer Media[edit] Radio[edit] Radio station, CiccioRiccioBrindisi, is heard throughout Apulia, Basilicata, parts of Molise, Campania and Calabria. Radio Dara that started in a workshop, founded in 1980, now broadcasts across the province.[27] Print[edit] As for the press, the La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno publishes the Brindisi Journal. The Nuovo Quotidiano di Puglia, Salento's newspaper, also covers Brindisi. Senzacolonne, which was founded in 2004, is the only one with a central editorial office in Brindisi.[24] "The Nautilus" national scientific magazine based in Brindisi, reports on the sea, ports, transport and recreational boating. Other newspapers that have their headquarters in the city are BrindisiSera and "Brindisi News". Television[edit] Brindisi is home to the television stations Teleradio Agricoltura Informazione and Puglia TV, which began broadcasts in January 1988 in Brindisi. Cuisine[edit] Brindisi's cuisine is simple with basic ingredients used, starting with flour or unrefined barley, which is less expensive than wheat. Vegetables, snails, and bluefish figure prominently into its cuisine. Among the recipes worth mentioning in particular are "Pettole"(fried yeast dough, sweet or savory to taste stuffed maybe with cod or anchovy, with cauliflower or broccoli), "Patani tajedda rice and mussels" (rice, potatoes and mussels), soup, fish, mashed potatoes with fava beans, broad beans and mussels, and "Racana mussels".[28] Beverages, spirits, liquors[edit] Almond milk: made by infusing water with the finely chopped almonds and then squeezing the same to expel the "milk". The region of Apulia has entered the milk of almonds in its list of traditional Italian food products . Limoncello: a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemons and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol.[28] Cheese[edit] Cacioricotta cheese Brindisi cheeses are mostly from sheep, due to the significant ranching of sheep and goats. In the summer they produce ricotta, which can be eaten fresh or matured for a few months so that it has a stronger flavor. Typical of the winter season are the Pecorino, ricotta and strong ricotta (or cottage cheese). It is used to flavor spaghetti sauce or spread on bruschetta.[28] Fresh popular cheeses are burrata, junket, Manteca cheese, mozzarella or Fior di latte. Vegetable products, processed or unprocessed[edit] Vegetables are the true protagonist of the traditional diet of Salento. Depending on season, are the tops of turnips, various types of cabbage, the beet greens from the thistle, peppers, eggplant and zucchini (all served sun-dried or in olive oil), and artichokes. There are also wild vegetables used in traditional cooking such as chicory, dandelion (or zangune), wild asparagus, the Wild mustard, the thistle, the lampascioni also called pampasciuni or pampasciuli, and capers.[28] Frequent, in the Brindisi kitchen, is the use of green or white tomatoes: mainly used for tomato sauce but they are also consumed in olive oil, after a process of natural drying. Significant is also the consumption of green and black olives, crushed or in brine. Finally, legumes such as beans, peas and Vicia faba, eaten fresh or dried in the spring and during the winter season. Among the dishes prepared with fruit are quince, baked figs and dried figs (prepared with a filling of almonds), jam with orange and lemon, and fig jam.[28] Pasta, pastry and confectionery[edit] Taralli Pasta and bread is made with unrefined flour, and thus takes on a dark colour. Durum wheat is mixed with traditional meal. Special local dishes include lasagna with vegetables, cavatelli, orecchiette (stacchioddi in Brindisi dialect) and ravioli stuffed with ricotta. In breadmaking, local custom favours the use of durum wheat, bread flour and barley bread. For bread made with yeast (called criscituni) and cooked on an oven stone, Brindisi bakers use bundles of olive branches to give the bread a particular scent. One type of traditional bread is made with olives (called puccia). It is made with a much more refined wheat flour than for ordinary bread, to which are added black olives. Also important are frisella, a sort of dehydrated hard bread which can be stored for a long time, and tarallini, also easily stored for long periods. The pucce and uliate cakes are also typical. Among local desserts the central place is occupied by almond paste, obtained by grinding shelled almonds and sugar. Another specialty is cartellate, a pastry, particularly prepared around Christmas, made of a thin strip of a dough made of flour, olive oil, and white wine that is wrapped upon itself, intentionally leaving cavities and openings, to form a sort of "rose" shape; the dough is then deep-fried, dried, and soaked in either lukewarm vincotto or honey.[28] Wine[edit] In the area of Brindisi are produced Aleatico di Puglia Doc, Ostuni Doc, Brindisi Rosso DOC, Rosato Brindisi DOC and Puglia IGT.[28] Some grape varieties grown in Brindisi include: Malvasia Nera di Brindisi, Negroamaro; Ottavianello; Sangiovese; Susumaniello. The Brindisi DOC produces both red and rose wines from grapes limited to a harvest yield of 15 tonnes/ha and must produce a wine with a minimum 12% alcohol level. The wines are usually blends made predominantly from Negaroamaro and Malvasia Nera but Sangiovese is allowed to compose up to 10% of the blend with Montepulciano allowed to compose up to another 20% (or 30% if Sangiovese is not included). If it is to be a Reserva, the wine is aged a minimum of 2 years before release and must attain a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%.[29] Events[edit] The day of Corpus Christi. The Procession to the beach of San Lorenzo and San Teodoro, on the first Saturday of September . The Feast of San Teodoro: Feast with candles, food stands, music, fireworks, in the first week of September. Human geography[edit] Roman period[edit] Roman pillar signaling the end of the Appian Way From an urban point of view [58] [59], the city's earliest signs of human settlement are on the promontory of Punta Terre, a coastal area outside the port. As a Roman colony ( 244 BC ), the city experienced a major urban expansion that ensued economic and social development. According to Pliny the Elder, Brindisi was one of the most important Italian cities. Middle Ages[edit] During the Middle Ages, Brindisi suffered a sharp decline, after it was devastated by the Goths in the 6th century; Procopius describes it as a small city without defensive walls. The town shrank to a smaller area, probably around the San Leucio temple, outside the old town. The port was abandoned for several centuries. The rebirth came with the Byzantine domination (11th century ) and especially with the Normans and the Swabians (12th and 13th century), when it became a prime port for the Crusades. The city was divided into three districts or "pittachi": Santo Stefano (in the vicinity of the columns), Eufemia (in Santa Teresa) and San Toma (in the area of Saint Lucia). Under the Aragonese and the Spanish kings, the main efforts were directed mainly around the ramparts (walls, castle and sea fort to provide relief from mostly the Greeks, Albanians and Slavs.[22] Modern era[edit] Only through the reopening of the Pigott channel (1775), the city experienced a new impetus and reopened traffic with the East mainly due to the establishment of the Suez Canal at the end of the 19th century.[22] Contemporary era[edit] Demographic development in the 20th century led to the modern city overlying the ancient one, at the cost of the demolition of the neighbourhoods around San Pietro degli Schiavoni, Teatro Verdi, and the Clock Tower. Today urban planning demands that settlements of significant architectural impact are built outside the city centre. The city has now expanded beyond the walls of the historic centre to form the new suburbs of Commando, Capuchins, Sant'Angelo (1950–1970 ) and St. Clare, St. Elias, and Bozzano (1980–2000).[22] Economy[edit] Agriculture is still prominent in Brindisi The development of industry led to radical changes in the Brindisi economy and consequent development along the coast. Taking advantage of the location of the port, Brindisi is also a major seaport for Greece and Turkey. Agriculture[edit] Brindisi agriculture includes horticulture, viticulture, fruit and olives. The area that marked the territory for centuries is based on the culture of almonds, olives, tobacco, artichokes, and grain. Livestock consists of cattle, goats and sheep. Industry[edit] Industry in Brindisi is mainly identified with the chemical and aerospace industry. Chemical[edit] The chemical industry, in its various forms (food processing, energy, and pharmaceutical) is highly developed in the territory of Brindisi. The Federchimica association recognizes Brindisi as an industrial chemical center. The various establishments of Eni, located as Polimeri Europa, Snam and EniPower are placed in the petrochemical complex of Brindisi, on the outskirts of the city, overlooking the Adriatic Sea. Energy production[edit] Brindisi is a leader in the production of electricity in Italy.[22] ENEL Federico II is a power plant on 4 sections divided by polycombustible thermoelectric power of 660 MW each, came into service between 1991 and 1993. Edipower Brindisi, located in Costa Morena, in the industrial area of Brindisi. Central EniPower Brindisi is a combined cycle power plant EniPower, once completed, with an installed capacity of 1,170 megawatts, will be the most powerful among those of the Eni Company. Regasification terminal at Brindisi, the construction of a regasification terminal by the company's "Brindisi LNG SpA. will heat the area of Porto Exterior, called Capobianco. The authorization process is currently in the process of completion of the national Environmental Impact Assessment, initiated by the company in January 2008. Photovoltaic system, the largest in Europe photovoltaic park (with power of 11 MWp ), which should start operating in 2010, at the former petrochemical site. The industry group responsible for the construction will be joined by the University of Apulia. Aviation[edit] The Alenia Aeronautica plants (specialized in the modification of aircraft from passenger configuration to cargo) are located in Brindisi. Avio (center for military engines) and Agusta (production of helicopter metal structures) are also located there. Tourism[edit] Byzantine fresco in Santa Maria del Casale The city preserves important archaeological finds and coastline, particularly the north coast, where there are many large sand dunes and beaches. Inland agritourism, displays wine (Wine Appia) or olive oil (Collina di Brindisi oil). Brindisi Tourism, however, remains heavily dependent on the Italian tourists (74%, compared with 26% of foreign demand) and is very seasonal. Infrastructure and transport[edit] Roads[edit] The main roads are represented by Bari-Lecce expressway, connecting with Brindisi, Lecce, with Bari and the A14 . Adriatica SS 16 is the Brindisi bypass connecting the city to San Vito dei Normanni and Lecce * Brindisi-Taranto Brindisi with Taranto. Railways[edit] Rail transport is provided through Brindisi railway station, an important Apulian railway junction and an intersecting point between the Adriatic Railway and the Taranto–Brindisi railway. The station is managed by Centostazioni, and links Brindisi with all destinations served by the Adriatic and Ionian coastal railways. Brindisi Marittima railway station closed in 2006. Seaport[edit] The port of Brindisi has always been at the center of trade with Greece. It is one of the most important commercial and industrial seaports on the Adriatic Sea. The trade is mostly in coal, fuel oil, natural gas, and chemicals. The port consists of three parts: The Outer Harbour: the limits of which are in the southern mainland, east of the Pedagne islands and west of the island from the pier in Costa The port is formed by the average area of sea that is before the Pigott Channel, access to the inner harbor, the basin to the north as the Strait of Apulia. The inner harbor is formed by two long wings that touch the heart of Brindisi both the north and east, they are the "bosom of the west" and "within the east." International airport[edit] Brindisi Airport Brindisi is home to Papola-Casale Airport located 6 kilometres (4 miles) outside the city's center. The airport of Brindisi has daily connections with major Italian and European cities. The airport serves the entire province of Brindisi and partly that of Taranto. In 2017, a total of 2,321,147 passengers passed through. It has two runways, one northwest to southeast that is 3,330 metres (10,930 ft) long, and the other northeast to southwest that is 1,950 metres (6,400 ft) long. Their characteristics allow the landing of large transport aircraft such as the Antonov An-124 and Boeing 747. This airport was originally established as a military airbase in the 1920s. As of 2008 it has officially changed its legal status into civilian airport, still maintaining the military facilities attached to it. These are identified as "Military Airport Orazio Pierozzi", named in memory of an Italian airman of the First World War. The strategic position of the airport in the Mediterranean region, along with its natural potential for multi-modal (the port is a few kilometers away) operations, have made it a base of crucial importance for both national defense and NATO. For the same strategic reasons, in 1994 the airport was chosen as the main worldwide logistics base by the United Nations to support its peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations around the globe, which was since then hosted in Pisa Military Airport "San Giusto". In 2000, also the United Nations humanitarian supply depot moved from Pisa to Brindisi. It has since then been managed by the World Food Programme and officially known as the United Nations Humanitarian Response Depot (UNHRD). On behalf of governments, other UN agencies and NGOs, from UNHRD Brindisi humanitarian aid is directed to the most remote and devastated regions around the world. Public transport[edit] The Public Transport Company of Brindisi provides public transport in the city, and is the link with the other municipalities in the province. Moreover, the company provides transport service by sea into inland waters of the port of Brindisi. Brindisi is also a major ferry port, with routes to Greece and elsewhere.[30] Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Brindisi Consulates[edit] Brindisi is home to the following consulates: Denmark France Honorary Consulate of Greece Netherlands Sports[edit] Association football[edit] Brindisi 1912 has played in six championship series. Their football strip colours recall those of the province, white and blue. The club plays in the stadium named after the president of the historical association on the Adriatic shore, Commander Franco Fanuzzi Stadium. ASD Appia Brindisi plays in the Regional Championship of the "First Category". Basketball[edit] The main basketball team in the city and in the wider region of Apulia is New Basket Brindisi, which has played for basketball championships in the top of A1 championships in League 2. Their colours are the same as that of all sports associations in the city, white and blue. The club plays their home games in the sports hall "Elio Pentassuglia". Other clubs[edit] NAFTA rugby Brindisi (C1) Aces Amateur Volleyball 2006 (series B1 female). Sports venues[edit] Franco Fanuzzi Stadium: Municipal Stadium PalaPentassuglia: sports hall PalaMelfi: sports hall Brindisi Tennis Club St. Elias Sports Centre: rugby, sports hall, tennis court International relations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Twin towns – sister cities[edit] Brindisi is twinned with: Lushnje, Albania Patras, Greece Corfu, Greece[31] Amasya, Turkey Charlotte, United States of America See also[edit] References[edit] Notes ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Brindisi". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 30 May 2019. ^ "Brindisi". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 30 May 2019. ^ Spizzico Michele, Nicola Lopez, Donato Sciannamblo, Roccaldo Tinelli. "The Plains of Brindisi: phenomena of interaction between groundwater aquifers in the area." From the "Journal of Applied Geology 3" 2006. ^ "Brindisi (BR) 10 m. s.l.m. (a.s.l.)" (PDF). Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 7 September 2013. ^ "Stazione 320 Brindisi, medie mensili periodo 61 – 90". Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 7 September 2013. ^ Strabo, 6,3,6. ^ "Brundisium (Brindisi) Puglia, Italy". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ Documento sulle nozze di Isabella di Brienne ^ Documento sulla VI Crociata partita da Brindisi ^ a b Ashby, Thomas (1911). "Brindisi" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 572. ^ "Kosovo Force: San Marco". KFOR Chronicle. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ "Bomb kills girl outside school in Brindisi, Italy". BBC. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2019. ^ "Bomba a Brindisi". La Repubblica. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2019. ^ Alessio, Giovanni (1955). Sul nome di Brindisi. Archivio Storico Pugliese VIII (3): 211–238. ^ "CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ALBANIA AND OF ALBANIAN", Selection among Alternates in Language Standardization, DE GRUYTER MOUTON, 1976, doi:10.1515/9783110815931.31, ISBN 9783110815931 ^ Immigrazione albanese sulla stampa quotidiana ^ a b c Statistiche ISTAT – La presenza straniera a Brindisi al 31 dicembre 2008 ^ A. Calabrese, The sentential complementation of salentino: a study of a language without infinitival clauses, 1993. ^ L'arcidiocesi di Brindisi-Ostuni ^ a b c d e Alessio, Giovanni (1955). Sul nome di Brindisi ^ Fernando Giannini in "Tre Violini". ^ a b c d Giacomo Carito, Brindisi. Nuova guida, Brindisi, 1994. ^ Il sito della Biblioteca arcivescovile Annibale De Leo ^ "FLAVIA PENNETTA UP TO WORLD NO. 6=WTATENNIS.COM". 28 September 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2015. ^ Il sito dell'emittente Radio Dara ^ a b c d e f g Rosario Jurlaro, Storia e cultura dei monumenti brindisini, Brindisi, 1976. ^ P. Saunders Wine Label Language pg 131 Firefly Books 2004 ISBN 1-55297-720-X ^ "Greek ferries to Greece and the Greek islands". Greek Ferries Club. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ "Corfu's Twin Cities". allcorfu.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010. Bibliography[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Brindisi External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brindisi. 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en-wikipedia-org-5491	----	Valentinian III - Wikipedia Valentinian III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 425 to 455 Roman emperor in the West Valentinian III Solidus of Valentinian III marked: d·n· pla· valentinianus p·f· aug· Roman emperor in the West Augustus 23 October 425 – 16 March 455 Predecessor Joannes Successor Petronius Maximus Eastern emperors Theodosius II (425–450) Marcian (450–455) Born 2 July 419 Ravenna Died 16 March 455 (aged 35) Rome Burial Mausoleum of Honorius Spouse Licinia Eudoxia Issue Eudocia and Placidia Names Placidus Valentinianus[1] Dynasty Valentinianic and Theodosian Father Constantius III Mother Galla Placidia Religion Christianity Valentinian III (Latin: Placidus Valentinianus; 2 July 419 – 16 March 455) was Roman emperor in the West from 425 to 455. Made emperor in childhood, his reign over the Roman Empire was one of the longest, but was dominated by powerful generals vying for power amid civil wars and the invasions of Late Antiquity's Migration Period, including the campaigns of Attila the Hun. He was the son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III, and as the great-grandson of Valentinian I (r. 364–375) he was the last emperor of the Valentinianic dynasty. As a grandson of Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Valentinian was also a member of the Theodosian dynasty, to which his wife, Licinia Eudoxia, also belonged. A year before assuming the rank of augustus, Valentinian was given the imperial rank of caesar by his half-cousin and co-emperor Theodosius II (r. 402–450). The augusta Galla Placidia had great influence during her son's rule. During his early reign Aetius, Felix, and the comes africae, Bonifacius all competed for power within the western empire. Eventually Aetius would defeat Felix and Bonifacius. Aetius would go on to campaign against the many Germanic tribes invading the empire. During Valentinian's reign the Huns invaded the Roman Empire. Eventually Aetius would defeat the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Once the Huns returned, Pope Leo I and two other senators convinced Attila to leave. Valentinian himself killed Aetius, and in response Aetius's bodyguards assassinated Valentinian. Valentinian's reign was marked by the ongoing collapse of the western empire. Contents 1 Family and infancy 2 Early Reign (423–437) 2.1 Caesar 2.2 Augustus 3 Ascendancy of Aetius (437–455) 4 Hunnic invasions 5 Assassination 6 Character and legacy 7 Portrayal in culture 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Family and infancy[edit] Valentinian was born in the western capital of Ravenna, the only son of Galla Placidia and Flavius Constantius.[2] His mother was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius (r. 393–423), while his father was at the time a patrician and the power behind the throne.[3] Through his mother, Valentinian was a descendant both of Theodosius I, who was his maternal grandfather, and of Valentinian I, who was the father of his maternal grandmother. It was also through his mother's side of the family that he was the nephew of Honorius and first cousin to Theodosius II (the son of Honorius' brother Arcadius), who was eastern emperor for most of Valentinian's life. Valentinian had a full sister, Justa Grata Honoria, who was probably born in 417 or 418 (the history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first when mentioning the children of the marriage, suggesting she was the eldest[4]). His mother had previously been married to Ataulf of the Visigoths, and had borne a son, Theodosius, in Barcelona in 414; but the child had died early in the following year, thus eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line.[5][6] When Valentinian was less than two years old, Honorius appointed Constantius co-emperor, a position he would hold until his death seven months later. As a result of all these family ties, Valentinian was the son, grandson, great-grandson, cousin, and nephew (twice over) of Roman emperors.[7] In either 421 or 423, Valentinian was given the title of nobilissimus by Honorius, although this title was not initially recognized in the eastern court of Theodosius II.[2] After the death of his father in 421, Valentinian followed his mother and his sister (Justa Grata Honoria) to Constantinople, when court intrigue saw Galla Placidia forced to flee from her half-brother, the emperor Honorius, and the young Valentinian went to live at the court of his cousin Theodosius II.[8] Early Reign (423–437)[edit] Caesar[edit] In 423, Honorius died, and his primicerius notariorum, Joannes took power in Rome. To counter this threat to his power, Theodosius belatedly recognised Valentinian's father as augustus and nominated the 5-year-old Valentinian caesar for the West in October 23, 424.[9] Theodosius also betrothed him to his own daughter Licinia Eudoxia (whom Valentinian would eventually marry in 437 when he was 18). It was only in the following year, after Joannes had been defeated in a combined naval and land campaign, that Valentinian was installed by the eastern patricius et magister officiorum, Helion, as augustus in Rome, on October 23, 425, at the age of six.[8] Augustus[edit] Given his minority, the new augustus ruled under the influence of his mother Galla Placidia, one of whose first acts was to install Felix as the magister utriusque militiae in the west.[10] This period was marked by a vigorous imperial policy and an attempt to stabilize the western provinces as far as the stretched resources of the empire could manage. In 425, the court at Ravenna negotiated with the Huns who had accompanied Flavius Aetius to Italy in support of Joannes. They agreed to leave Italy, and to evacuate the province of Pannonia Valeria, which was returned to the empire.[11] This allowed Felix and the imperial government to restructure the defences along the Danubian provinces in 427 and 428.[12] In addition, there were significant victories over the Visigoths in Gaul in 426/7 and 430[13][14] and the Franks along the Rhine in 428 and 432.[15] Nevertheless, there were significant problems that threatened the viability of the Roman state in the west. The Visigoths were a constant presence in south-eastern Gaul and could not be dislodged. The Vandals in Hispania continued their incursions, and, in 429, they commenced their invasion of Mauretania Tingitana.[15] The loss of these territories seriously impacted the state's ability to function. The burden of taxation became more and more intolerable as Rome's power decreased, and the loyalty of its remaining provinces was seriously impaired in consequence.[15] In addition, the initial period of Valentinian's reign was dominated by the struggle among the leaders of the three principal army groups of the west – Flavius Felix, the senior magister militum praesentalis, Bonifacius, the magister militum per Africam and Flavius Aetius, the magister militum per Gallias.[13] In 427, Felix accused Bonifacius of treason and demanded that he return to Italy. Bonifacius refused and defeated an army sent by Felix to capture him. Weakened, Felix was unable to resist Aetius who, with the support of Galla Placidia, replaced him as magister militum praesentalis in 429, before having him killed in 430.[16][17] Bonifacius, in the meantime, had been unable to defeat Sigisvultus, whom Galla Placidia had sent to deal with the rebel. Bonifacius, therefore, entered into an agreement with the Vandals to come to his aid and, in return, they would divide the African provinces between themselves.[18] Concerned by this turn of events and determined to hold onto the African provinces at all costs, the court at Ravenna sought reconciliation with Bonifacius, who agreed in 430 to affirm his allegiance to Valentinian III and stop the Vandal king Gaiseric.[19] In 431, Bonifacius was crushed and fled to Italy, abandoning western North Africa. The imperial court, and especially Galla Placidia, worried about the power being wielded by Aetius, stripped him of his command and gave it to Bonifacius. In the civil war that followed, Bonifacius defeated Aetius at the Battle of Ravenna, but died of his wounds. Aetius fled to the Huns and, with their help, was able to persuade the court to reinstate him to his old position of magister militum praesentalis in 434.[20] As a consequence, in 435, Valentinian was forced to conclude a peace with Gaiseric, whereby the Vandals kept all their possessions in North Africa in return for a payment of tribute to the empire,[21] while the Huns were granted new territory in Pannonia Savia to occupy.[11] Galla Placidia's regency came to an end in 437[12] when Valentinian travelled to Constantinople to marry his fiancée, Licinia Eudoxia. On his return to Rome, he was nominally the emperor, but in truth the management of imperial policy in the west was in the hands of Aetius.[22] Solidus minted in Thessalonica to celebrate Valentinian III's marriage to Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. On the reverse, the three of them in their wedding costume. Ascendancy of Aetius (437–455)[edit] From 436 to 439, Aetius was focused on the situation in Gaul. Serious Gothic defeats in 437 and 438 were undone by a Roman defeat in 439, which saw the status quo restored through a new truce.[23] He also enjoyed initial success against the Franks and the Burgundians, as well as putting down a revolt by the Bagaudae by 437. In 438, peace was also achieved with the Suebi in Spain,[24] the same year Valentinian's daughter, Eudocia, was born.[25] As Aetius was completely occupied with events in Gaul, Valentinian was unable to do anything to prevent the Vandals completely overrunning the remaining western African provinces, culminating in the fall of Carthage on 19 October 439.[26] This was a major blow because taxes and foodstuffs from these wealthy provinces supported Rome.[27] By 440, Vandal fleets were ravaging Sicily and Aetius coordinated a joint response with the eastern court, which saw large numbers of troops arriving in Sicily, with the intent of attacking Gaiseric.[27] These plans were abandoned when pressure from the Huns forced the transfer of these troops to the Danube to repulse the Hunnic invasions.[27] Therefore, in 442, Aetius and Valentinian were forced to acknowledge the Vandal conquests of Proconsular Africa, Byzacena, and western Numidia, in exchange for which Rome was returned the now devastated provinces of Tripolitana, Mauretania Sitifensis, Mauretania Caesariensis, and part of Numidia.[28][29] Regardless, however, Gaiseric had soon retaken Mauretania Sitifensis and Mauretania Caesariensis, as well as taking Sardinia and Corsica, and conducting devastating raids on Sicily.[30] Therefore, Aetius was determined that, if they could not prevent Gaiseric wreaking havoc by military means, then perhaps linking him to the imperial dynasty would be the next best thing. Consequently, sometime before 446, he convinced Valentinian to agree to a marriage between his eldest daughter, Eudocia, and Gaiseric's son, Huneric. Unfortunately, Huneric was already married to the daughter of the king of the Visigoths, so the idea was abandoned.[31] Hispania as well continued to slip away from imperial control during the early to mid 440s as the Suebi extended their control. By 444, all the Spanish provinces bar Hispania Tarraconensis had been lost to the Germanic tribe and even Tarraconensis was under pressure due to continued Bagaudic uprisings.[32] As a consequence of these territorial losses, by the mid 440s the state was experiencing severe financial problems, with the government openly acknowledging that there was insufficient revenue to meet the military needs of the Roman state.[33][34] The emperor issued a law on 14 July 444, stripping the bureaucrats of their exemptions from the recruitment tax.[33] In that year, two additional taxes were issued in Valentinian's name, one a sales tax of around four percent and another on the senatorial class, specifically to raise new troops as well as feeding and clothing them.[34][33] Senators of illustrious rank were required to contribute the money for maintaining three soldiers, senators of the second class money for one soldier, and senators of the third class one-third the cost of maintaining a soldier.[34] Even Valentinian himself was not exempt and he was forced to sacrifice part of his income and use the reduced contents of his personal income to help the State in its financial straits.[34] Hunnic invasions[edit] The Huns continued to pressure the Danubian provinces in the 440s. Sometime before 449, Valentinian granted the honorary title of magister militum of the western empire upon their chieftain, Attila the Hun, and the western court was relieved when he concentrated on raiding the eastern empire's provinces in the Balkans from 441 through to 449.[35][36] In 449, Attila received a message from Honoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into.[35] Attila had been looking for a pretext for invading the West and was allegedly bribed by the Vandal king Gaiseric to attack the Visigoths in Gaul. In 450, he invaded the Gallic provinces, after securing peace with the eastern court.[35] Valentinian was furious over the invasion. The man Honoria sent to Attila with the offer was tortured to reveal all the details of the arrangement and then beheaded. It took a great deal of persuading for Valentinian's mother to get her son to agree to spare his sister's life.[37] In early 451, Attila crossed the Rhine and entered the Belgic provinces, capturing Divodurum Mediomatricum (Metz) on April 7, 451, Aetius gathered together a coalition of forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and raced to prevent Attila from taking the city of Aurelianum (Orléans), successfully forcing the Huns to beat a hasty retreat.[38] The Roman-Germanic forces met Hunnic forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, resulting in a victory for Aetius, who sought to retain his position by allowing Attila and a significant number of his troops to escape.[39] This allowed Attila to regroup, and, in 452, Attila invaded Italy. He sacked and destroyed Aquileia and took Verona and Vincentia (Vicenza) as well.[40] Aetius was shadowing the Huns but did not have the troops to attack, so the road to Rome was open. Although Ravenna was Valentinian's usual residence, he and the court eventually moved back to Rome, where he was as Attila approached.[41] Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern Emperor Marcian had launched an attack on Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn around and leave Italy.[42] The death of Attila in Pannonia in 453 and the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the Hunnic threat to the empire.[43] Assassination[edit] With the Hun invasion thwarted, Valentinian felt secure enough to begin plotting to have Aetius killed, egged on by Petronius Maximus, a high ranking senator who bore Aetius a personal grudge, and his chamberlain, the eunuch Heraclius.[44] Aetius, whose son had married Valentinian's youngest daughter, Placidia, was murdered by Valentinian on 21 September 454.[43] The ancient historian Priscus reported that Aetius was presenting a financial statement before the Emperor when Valentinian suddenly leapt from his throne and accused him of drunken depravity. He held him responsible for the empire's tribulations and accused him of plotting to take the empire away from him. Valentinian then drew his sword and together with Heraclius, rushed at the weaponless Aetius and struck him on the head, killing him on the spot. When Valentinian later boasted that he had done well to dispose of Aetius in such a way, a counsellor famously replied "Whether well or not, I do not know. But know that you have cut off your right hand with your left."[45] On March 16 of the following year, however, the emperor himself was assassinated in Rome by two Scythian followers of Aetius: Optelas and Thraustelas. According to Priscus, these men were put up to it by Petronius Maximus, whose aims of political advancement were thwarted by Heraclius.[46] He may also have been taking revenge for the rape of his wife Lucina by Valentinian.[44] The assassination occurred as Valentinian rode his horse on the Campus Martius. As the emperor dismounted to practise archery, the conspirators attacked. Optelas struck Valentinian on the side of the head, and when he turned to see who had hit him, Optelas delivered the death-blow. Meanwhile, Thraustelas slew Heraclius. Priscus reports a curious occurrence: as the emperor lay dead, a swarm of bees appeared and sucked up his blood.[47] The day after the assassination Petronius Maximus had himself proclaimed emperor by the remnants of the Western Roman army after paying a large donative.[48] He was not as prepared as he thought to take over and stabilize the depleted empire, however; after a reign of only 11 weeks, Maximus was stoned to death by a Roman mob.[49] King Gaiseric and his Vandals captured Rome a few days later and sacked it for two weeks.[50] Character and legacy[edit] Valentinian's reign is marked by the dismemberment of the Western Empire; by the time of his death, virtually all of North Africa, all of western Spain, and the majority of Gaul had passed out of Roman hands. He is described as spoiled, pleasure-loving, and heavily influenced by sorcerers and astrologers. Valentinian was devoted to religion, contributing to churches of Saint Lawrence in both Rome and Ravenna.[51] He also handed over greater authority to the Papacy. On 6 June 445, he issued a decree which recognized the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Saint Peter, the dignity of the city, and the Nicene Creed (in their interpolated form); ordained that any opposition to his rulings, which were to have the force of ecclesiastical law, should be treated as treason; and provided for the forcible extradition by provincial governors of anyone who refused to answer a summons to Rome. Valentinian was also consumed by trivialities: during the 430s, he began expelling all Jews from the Roman army because he was fearful of their supposed ability to corrupt the Christians they were serving with.[citation needed] Some historians throughout 18th to 20th century, including Edward Gibbon and John Bagnall Bury, had unfavourable views of Valentinian III. [52] [53] Portrayal in culture[edit] Valentinian III's life was dramatized by John Fletcher in his play Valentinian, c. 1612 (published 1647). He also appears in Metastasio's opera libretto Ezio, set by Handel for his 1731 opera, by Gluck for his 1750 opera, and by a number of other composers, including two setting by Josef Mysliveček (1775 and 1777). In 1790 his life was again dramatized in the play The Sack of Rome by Mercy Otis Warren. The story of Valentinian and Aetius was recounted in the pages of Hal Foster's Prince Valiant. Valentinian III was played by Roldano Lupi in the 1964 Italian "sword and sandal" film Revenge of The Gladiators (La vendetta dei gladiatori). Valentinian III was played by Reg Rogers in the 2001 miniseries Attila. Valentinian III was portrayed by Alexander Vlahos in the 2016 History Channel docudrama miniseries Barbarians Rising. Valentinian III was played by Walter Coy in the 1954 film Sign of the Pagan. References[edit] ^ PLRE II p. 1138 ^ a b Martindale, pg. 1138 ^ Martindale, pg. 323 ^ Cawley, Charles, Profile of Constantius III, Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy,[self-published source][better source needed] ^ Cawley, Charles, Profile of Ataulf, Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy,[self-published source][better source needed] ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Galla Placidia" ^ Homs, George. "Placidus Valentinianus "Valentinian III Emperor of Rome" (419-455) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogy Online". Genealogy Online. Retrieved 2020-04-24. ^ a b Blockley, pg. 136 ^ Martindale, pg. 1139 ^ Blockley, pg. 137 ^ a b Bury, pg. 272 ^ a b Bury, pg. 240 ^ a b Heather, pg. 5 ^ Bury, pg. 242 ^ a b c Heather, pg. 7 ^ Heather, pgs. 5–6 ^ Bury, pg. 243 ^ Bury, pg. 245 ^ Bury, pg. 247 ^ Bury, pg. 248 ^ Bury, pg. 249 ^ Bury, pgs. 250–251 ^ Heather, pg. 8 ^ Heather, pg. 9 ^ Bury, pg. 251 ^ Bury, pg. 254 ^ a b c Heather, pg. 11 ^ Heather, pgs. 11–12 ^ Bury, pg. 255 ^ Bury, pg. 258 ^ Bury, pg. 256 ^ Heather, pg. 12 ^ a b c Heather, pg. 14 ^ a b c d Bury, pg. 253 ^ a b c Heather, pg. 15 ^ Bury, pgs. 273–276 ^ Bury, pg. 290 ^ Bury, pg. 292 ^ Bury, pg. 293 ^ Bury, pgs. 294–295 ^ Gillett 2001, pp. 131–167. ^ Heather, pgs. 17–18 ^ a b Heather, pg. 18 ^ a b Bury, pg. 299 ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, pp. 125–127. ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, p. 128. ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, p. 129. ^ Bury, pgs. 323–324 ^ Bury, pgs. 324–325 ^ Bury, pg. 325 ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Valentinian III (425–455 A.D)" ^ Gibbon, 1825 & "He faithfully imitated the hereditary weakness of his cousin and his two uncles, without inheriting the gentleness, the purity, the innocence, which alleviate in their characters the want of spirit and ability. Valentinian was less excusable, since he had passions without virtues: even his religion was questionable; and though he never deviated into the paths of heresy, he scandalised the pious Christians by his attachment to the profane arts of magic and divination.", Ch. XXXV. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGibbon1825"He_faithfully_imitated_the_hereditary_weakness_of_his_cousin_and_his_two_uncles,_without_inheriting_the_gentleness,_the_purity,_the_innocence,_which_alleviate_in_their_characters_the_want_of_spirit_and_ability._Valentinian_was_less_excusable,_since_he_had_passions_without_virtues:_even_his_religion_was_questionable;_and_though_he_never_deviated_into_the_paths_of_heresy,_he_scandalised_the_pious_Christians_by_his_attachment_to_the_profane_arts_of_magic_and_divination." (help) ^ Bury, 1924 & "Though he had ruled for thirty years, Valentinian had influenced the destinies of his empire even less than his uncle Honorius. He only flashed once into action, when, piqued by the presumption of Aetius in aspiring to connect himself with the imperial family, he struck him down. He thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne.", pp. 418-419. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBury1924"Though_he_had_ruled_for_thirty_years,_Valentinian_had_influenced_the_destinies_of_his_empire_even_less_than_his_uncle_Honorius._He_only_flashed_once_into_action,_when,_piqued_by_the_presumption_of_Aetius_in_aspiring_to_connect_himself_with_the_imperial_family,_he_struck_him_down._He_thought_he_had_slain_his_master;_he_found_that_he_had_slain_his_protector:_and_he_fell_a_helpless_victim_to_the_first_conspiracy_which_was_hatched_against_his_throne." (help) Primary sources[edit] Priscus of Panium (2015). The Fragmentary History of Priscus: Attila, the Huns and the Roman Empire, AD 430–476. Volume 11 of Christian Roman Empire. Translated by John P. Given. Arx. ISBN 978-1-935228-14-1. Prosper Chronicles Jordanes, Gothic History see The Gothic History of Jordanes Sidonius Apollinaris Secondary sources[edit] Blockley, R. C., The Dynasty of Theodosius in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 (ed. Averil Cameron and Peter Garnsey) (1998), pgs. 111–138 Gibbon, Edward (1825). "Ch XXXV". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 4: Complete in Eight Volumes. London: G. Cowie and Co. Poultry. |volume= has extra text (help) Gillett, Andrew (2001). "Rome, Ravenna and the Last Western Emperors". Papers of the British School at Rome. 69: 131–167. doi:10.1017/S0068246200001781. JSTOR 40311008. Heather, Peter, The Western Empire 425–76 in The Cambridge Ancient History: Late antiquity : empire and successors, A.D. 425–600 (ed. Averil Cameron and Bryan Ward-Perkins) (2000), pgs. 1–32 Martindale, J. R., The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. II, Cambridge University Press (1980) Bury, J. B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I (1889) Bury, J. B. (1924). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. I. |volume= has extra text (help) Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta, University Press, Chicago, 1968. Jones, A.H.M., The Later Roman Empire A.D. 284–602, Volume One. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1986. Elia, Fibronia, Valentiniano III, CULC, Catania, 1999. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013), Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367-455. Oxford: Oxford University Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Placidius Valentinianus. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Valentinian III. . This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valentinian III relating to Christianity. Mathisen, Ralph, "Valentinian III", De Imperatoribus Romanis. Valentinian III Valentinianic dynasty Born: 2 July 419 Died: 16 March 455 Regnal titles Preceded by Honorius Western Roman emperor 425–455 Succeeded by Petronius Maximus Political offices Preceded by Castinus Victor Roman consul 425–426 with Theodosius Augustus Succeeded by Hierius Ardabur Preceded by Florentius Dionysius Roman consul II 430 with Theodosius Augustus Succeeded by Anicius Auchenius Bassus Antiochus Chuzon Preceded by Aspar Areobindus Roman consul III 435 with Theodosius Augustus Succeeded by Anthemius Isidorus Senator Preceded by Theodosius Augustus Festus Roman consul IV 440 with Anatolius Succeeded by Cyrus of Panopolis Preceded by Theodosius Augustus Albinus Roman consul V 445 with Nomus Succeeded by Aetius Q. Aurelius Symmachus Preceded by Astyrius Florentius Romanus Protogenes Roman consul VI 450 with Gennadius Avienus Succeeded by Marcian Augustus Valerius Faltonius Adelfius Preceded by Aetius Flavius Studius Roman consul VII 455 with Procopius Anthemius Succeeded by Avitus Augustus (West) Iohannes (East) Varanes (East) v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Catalonia United States Netherlands Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valentinian_III&oldid=1020830596" Categories: Valentinian III 419 births 455 deaths 5th-century Christians 5th-century murdered monarchs 5th-century Roman emperors Ancient child rulers Caesars (heirs apparent) Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Murdered Roman emperors Nobilissimi Italian rapists People from Ravenna Sons of Roman emperors Theodosian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with self-published sources Articles with self-published sources from August 2012 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from August 2012 Wikipedia articles incorporating an MLCC with a warning Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Commons link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 08:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5492	----	Tiberius - Wikipedia Tiberius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd Roman emperor, from AD 14 to 37 This article is about the Roman emperor. For the personal name, see Tiberius (praenomen). For other persons named Tiberius and other uses, see Tiberius (disambiguation). This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman emperor Tiberius Bust, Romano-Germanic Museum, Cologne Roman emperor Reign 17 September 14 – 16 March 37 Predecessor Augustus Successor Caligula Born 16 November 42 BC Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 16 March AD 37 (aged 77) Misenum, Italy, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Vipsania Agrippina (19–11 BC) Julia the Elder (11–2 BC) Issue more... Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus (adopted) Names Tiberius Claudius Nero Tiberius Caesar Regnal name Tiberius Caesar Augustus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Tiberius Claudius Nero Augustus (adoptive) Mother Livia Tiberius Caesar Augustus (/taɪˈbɪəriəs/ ty-BEER-ee-əs; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor, reigning from AD 14 to 37. He succeeded his stepfather, Augustus. Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals: his conquests of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and (temporarily) parts of Germania laid the foundations for the northern frontier. Even so, he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and somber ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men".[1] After the death of his son Drusus Julius Caesar in AD 23, Tiberius became more reclusive and aloof. During Tiberius's reign, Jews had become more prominent in Rome, and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus Christ began proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments. In 26 AD he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian prefects Sejanus and Naevius Sutorius Macro. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Caligula.[2] Contents 1 Early life (42–6 BC) 1.1 Background 1.2 Civil and military career 2 Midlife (6 BC – 14 AD) 2.1 Retirement to Rhodes (6 BC) 2.2 Heir to Augustus 3 Emperor (14–37 AD) 3.1 Early reign 3.2 Rise and fall of Germanicus 3.3 Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in Rome 3.3.1 Plot by Sejanus against Tiberius 3.4 Final years 3.4.1 Death (37 AD) 4 Legacy 4.1 Historiography 4.1.1 Publius Cornelius Tacitus 4.1.2 Suetonius Tranquillus 4.1.3 Velleius Paterculus 4.2 Gospels, Jews, and Christians 4.3 Archaeology 4.4 Popular culture 5 Children and family 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary material 9 External links Early life (42–6 BC)[edit] Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Aureus of Tiberius Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Tiberius and his mother Livia, AD 14–19, from Paestum, National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid Background[edit] Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla.[3][4] In 39 BC, his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, married Octavian. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.[5] Little is recorded of Tiberius' early life. In 32 BC, Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra.[6] In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.[6] In 23 BC, Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus' heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus' chief problem.[7] In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus' direction, receiving the position of quaestor,[8] and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law.[9] Similar provisions were made for Drusus.[10] Civil and military career[edit] Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate,[11] and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius was sent east under Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.[12] The Parthian Empire had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC).[9] After a year of negotiation, Tiberius led a sizable force into Armenia, presumably to establish it as a Roman client state and end the threat it posed on the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.[9] A bust of Vipsania Agrippina, Tiberius' first wife, recovered from Leptis Magna Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augustus' close friend and greatest general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.[13] He was appointed to the position of praetor, and was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul, conquering Raetia. In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube, and soon afterward the bend of the middle course.[14] Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius was appointed as consul, and around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar, was born.[15] Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus' request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter and Agrippa's widow.[2][13] Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour.[13] Reportedly, Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again, and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging forgiveness;[13] soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again.[16] Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus' death in 9 BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania, both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy. The campaigns of Tiberius, Ahenobarbus, and Saturninus in Germania between 6 BC and 1 BC In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni. Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from the east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania. He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) and control in the East,[17] all of which mirrored positions that Agrippa had previously held. However, despite these successes and despite his advancement, Tiberius was not happy.[18] Midlife (6 BC – 14 AD)[edit] Retirement to Rhodes (6 BC)[edit] In 6 BC, on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes.[19] The precise motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear.[20] Historians have speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had adopted Julia's sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius, and seemed to be moving them along the same political path that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden.[21] Tiberius' move thus seemed to be an interim solution: he would hold power only until his stepsons would come of age, and then be swept aside. The promiscuous, and very public behavior of his unhappily married wife, Julia,[22] may have also played a part.[17] Indeed, Tacitus calls it Tiberius' intima causa, his innermost reason for departing for Rhodes and seems to ascribe the entire move to a hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania.[23] Tiberius had found himself married to a woman he loathed, who publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum, and forbidden to see the woman he had loved.[24] Whatever Tiberius' motives, the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive.[24] Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness.[24] Tiberius' response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes.[25] Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.[26] Heir to Augustus[edit] In 1 AD Augustus sent his stepson Tiberius to subdue the Germanic tribes on the Rhine frontier. In his campaigns, Tiberius eventually extended the Roman border extended as far as the Elbe but was forced to cancel plans to conquer the Suevic Marcomanni when revolt broke out in Illyria in 6 AD.[27] With Tiberius' departure, succession rested solely on Augustus' two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more.[28] In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius.[29][30] The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted as full son and heir, and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus and Augustus' niece Antonia Minor.[29][31] Along with his adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus' maius imperium, something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had.[32] In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus, a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa, to live in solitary confinement.[30][33] Thus, when in AD 13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus' own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval.[34] However, according to Suetonius, after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from 10–12 AD,[35] "Tiberius returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies.”[36] "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies."[37] Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year 12 AD, after Tiberius' return from Germania.[35] "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private."[37] Augustus died in AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday.[38] He was buried with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, deified, his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir.[39] Emperor (14–37 AD)[edit] Early reign[edit] Bronze statue of the Roman emperor Tiberius with head veiled (capite velato) preparing to perform a religious rite found in the theater in Herculaneum 37 CE MANN INV 5615 Aureus of Tiberius, c. 27–30 AD. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF. The Senate convened on 17 September, to validate Tiberius's position as Princeps and, as it had done with Augustus before, extend the powers of the position to him.[40] These proceedings are fully accounted by Tacitus.[41] Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps, all he lacked were the titles—Augustus, Pater Patriae, and the Civic Crown (a crown made from laurel and oak, in honor of Augustus having saved the lives of Roman citizens). Tiberius, however, attempted to play the same role as Augustus: that of the reluctant public servant who wants nothing more than to serve the state.[42][3] This ended up throwing the entire affair into confusion, and rather than humble, he came across as derisive; rather than seeming to want to serve the state, he seemed obstructive.[43] He cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps, stated he did not wish the position, and then proceeded to ask for only a section of the state.[44] Tiberius finally relented and accepted the powers voted to him, though according to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the titles Pater Patriae, Imperator, and Augustus, and declined the most solid emblem of the Princeps, the Civic Crown and laurels.[45] This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberius's entire rule. He seems to have wished for the Senate and the state to simply act without him and his direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debate more on what he actually meant than on passing his legislation.[46] In his first few years, Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act on its own,[47] rather than as a servant to his will as it had been under Augustus. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".[48] Rise and fall of Germanicus[edit] A bust of the adopted son of Tiberius, Germanicus, from the Louvre, Paris. Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps. The Roman legions posted in Pannonia and Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus, and after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming.[49] Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus Julius Caesar, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line.[50] Rather than simply quell the mutiny, however, Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus.[50] Germanicus's forces crossed the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. Additionally, Tacitus records the capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctilius Varus,[51] when three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes.[52] Germanicus had managed to deal a significant blow to Rome's enemies, quell an uprising of troops, and returned lost standards to Rome, actions that increased the fame and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with the Roman people.[53] After being recalled from Germania,[54] Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17,[51] the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus' own in 29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was clearly the successor to Tiberius.[55] Germanicus survived a little over a year before dying, accusing Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.[56] The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius.[57] Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.[58][59] Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point. In AD 22, he shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus,[60] and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus mysteriously died,[61][62] and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. Finally, in AD 26, Tiberius retired from Rome to an Imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure (otium) and a Hellenised lifestyle.[63][64] Tiberius in Capri, with Sejanus in Rome[edit] Left: marble portrait bust of Tiberius in the Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Right: bronze portrait bust of Tiberius in the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of Princeps, he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defense of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself,[65] giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops. The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in Tiberius's eyes, who thereafter refers to him as his 'Socius Laborum' (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city,[66][67] and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.[64] Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla,[68] though under pressure quickly withdrew the request.[69] While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius,[70] the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that.[71] Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, Caligula, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla were the only survivors.[72] Ruins from the Villa Jovis on the island of Capri, where Tiberius spent much of his final years, leaving control of the empire in the hands of the prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Plot by Sejanus against Tiberius[edit] A sardonyx cameo relief of Tiberius, 1st century AD, now in the Hermitage Museum In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia,[73] and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line to place himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps, or as a possible regent.[73] Livilla was later implicated in this plot and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for several years.[74] The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula.[75] Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.[75] In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week.[76] As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro.[76] Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. The hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. As Tacitus vividly describes, Executions were now a stimulus to his fury, and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus. There lay, singly or in heaps, the unnumbered dead, of every age and sex, the illustrious with the obscure. Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them, to weep over them, or even to gaze on them too long. Spies were set round them, who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses, till they were dragged to the Tiber, where, floating or driven on the bank, no one dared to burn or to touch them.[77] However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138: In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius' reign, not more than fifty-two persons were accused of treason, of whom almost half escaped conviction, while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate, not to the Emperor's tyranny.[78] While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, and cruelty,[79] and most of all his paranoia.[80] While heavily sensationalized,[81] Suetonius' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule. A denarius of Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS Final years[edit] The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius' image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius' withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of the Princeps. Suetonius records that he became paranoid,[80] and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. Meanwhile, during this period a short invasion by Parthia, incursions by tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several Germanic tribes occurred.[82] Little was done to either secure his succession or indicate how it was to take place; the Julians and their supporters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus, and his own sons and immediate family were dead. Two of the candidates were either Caligula, the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius' own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus.[83] However, Tiberius only made a half-hearted attempt at the end of his life to make Caligula a quaestor, and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.[84] Death (37 AD)[edit] The Death of Tiberius by Jean Paul Laurens Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March AD 37, a few months shy of his 78th birthday.[85][86][87] Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius' villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. Those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of the emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes.[88] Suetonius reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with a pillow; that recovering, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, he attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead.[89] According to Cassius Dio, Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius' requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes.[90] After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honors that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the Tiber with Tiberius!"; the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt.[91] However, the emperor was cremated, and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum of Augustus, later to be scattered in AD 410 during the Sack of Rome.[92] In his will, Tiberius had left his powers jointly to Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus.[93][94] Caligula's first act on becoming Princeps was to void Tiberius' will.[94] Legacy[edit] Historiography[edit] Bust of Tiberius, housed in the Louvre Statue of Tiberius from Priverno, made shortly after 37 AD, now in the Museo Chiaramonti of the Vatican Museums Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler.[95] Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterization left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death.[94][96] Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.[65] The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire. Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio and Marcus Velleius Paterculus. Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Seneca the Elder. Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost.[97] Publius Cornelius Tacitus[edit] See also: Tacitus The most detailed account of this period is handed down to us by Tacitus, whose Annals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign of Nero in AD 56, and consul suffect in AD 97. His text is largely based on the Acta Senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the Acta Diurna (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such as Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder (all of which are lost).[95] Tacitus' narrative emphasizes both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son Drusus in AD 23.[95] Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal";[98] he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy.[85] Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors, corruption, and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the maiestas law under Augustus.[99] Ultimately, Tacitus' opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book: His character too had its distinct periods. It was a bright time in his life and reputation, while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue, as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive. Again, while his mother lived, he was a compound of good and evil; he was infamous for his cruelty, though he veiled his debaucheries, while he loved or feared Sejanus. Finally, he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace, when fear and shame being cast off, he simply indulged his own inclinations.[85] Suetonius Tranquillus[edit] An example of Indo-Roman trade and relations during the period: silver denarius of Tiberius (14–37) found in India and Indian copy of the same, 1st-century coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus. Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus' own letters.[79] His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary. The most famous sections of his biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri.[79] Nevertheless, Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius' actions during his early reign, emphasizing his modesty.[100] Velleius Paterculus[edit] One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus, who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD 4) in Germany and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus. Paterculus' Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor[8][101] and Sejanus.[102] How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus.[103] Gospels, Jews, and Christians[edit] The tribute penny mentioned in the Bible is commonly believed to be a Roman denarius depicting the Emperor Tiberius. Caption: TI. CAESAR DIVI AVG. F. AVGVSTVS / MAXIM. PONTIF. The Gospels mention that during Tiberius' reign, Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea province. In the Bible, Tiberius is mentioned by name in Luke 3:1,[104] which states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign. The city of Tiberias (named after Tiberius) referenced in John 6:23 [105] is located on the Sea of Galilee, which was also known as the Sea of Tiberias and is referenced in John 6:1.[106] Many other references to Caesar (or the emperor in some other translations), without further specification, would seem to refer to Tiberius. Similarly, the "tribute penny" referred to in Matthew[107] and Mark[108] is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius.[109][110][111] During Tiberius' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments.[112] Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army.[112] Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city.[112] There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism.[112] Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around AD 70.[112] Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct faith.[112] In fact most Romans and Jews, called this new sect (Christianity) "The Way."[113] So it is highly likely that Tiberius referred to Christians as followers of "The Way." Archaeology[edit] Remnants of Tiberius' villa at Sperlonga, on the coast midway between Rome and Naples Possible traces remain of personal renovations done by Tiberius in the Gardens of Maecenas, where he lived upon returning from exile in 2 AD.[30] These persist inside the villa's likely triclinium-nymphaeum, the so-called Auditorium of Maecenas.[114] In an otherwise Late Republican-era building, by nature of its brickwork and flooring, the Dionysian-themed landscape and nature frescos lining the walls are reminiscent of the illusionistic early Imperial paintings in his mother's own subterranean dining room.[115] The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the Palatine Hill, the ruins of which can still be seen today. No major public works were undertaken in the city during his reign, except a temple dedicated to Augustus and the restoration of the theater of Pompey,[116][117] both of which were not finished until the reign of Caligula.[118] In addition, remnants of Tiberius' villa at Sperlonga, which includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculptures were found in fragments, and the Villa Jovis on top of Capri have been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across the island,[64] of which Villa Jovis was the largest. Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god, and allowed only one temple to be built in his honor, at Smyrna.[119] The town Tiberias, in modern Israel on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, was named in Tiberius's honour by Herod Antipas.[120] The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in Arthur Machen's 1895 novel The Three Impostors. Popular culture[edit] Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. One such modern representation is in the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves,[121] and the consequent BBC television series adaptation, where he is portrayed by George Baker.[122] George R. R. Martin, the author of The Song of Ice and Fire series, has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.[123] In the 1968 ITV historical drama The Caesars, Tiberius (by André Morell) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in I, Claudius. He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry, in which he is played by Max von Sydow. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben-Hur (played by George Relph in his last starring role),[124] and in A.D. (played by James Mason). Played by Ernest Thesiger, he featured in The Robe (1953). He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula, portrayed by Peter O'Toole. He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell's 1958 novel, Dear and Glorious Physician, a biography of St Luke the Evangelist, author of the third canonical Gospel. He was played by Kenneth Cranham in A.D. The Bible Continues. In the TV series Roman Empire, Tiberius was portrayed by Craig Walsh-Wrightson. In the 2021 TV series Domina, he was played by Earl Cave. Children and family[edit] Tiberius was married twice, with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood: Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (16–11 BC) Drusus Julius Caesar (14 BC – 23 AD) (Had Issue) Julia the Elder, only daughter of Augustus (11–6 BC) Infant son, (dubbed "Tiberillus" by modern historians), died in infancy. See also[edit] Caesar cut Clutorius Priscus Julio-Claudian family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References[edit] ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23; Capes, p. 71 ^ a b "Tiberius". 2006. Retrieved 2011-02-17. ^ a b "Tiberius | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-03-08. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 5 ^ Levick, p. 15 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 6 ^ Southern, pp. 119–120. ^ a b Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.94 ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 9 ^ Seager, p. xiv. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 8 ^ Levick, p. 24. ^ a b c d Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 7 ^ Strabo, 7. I. 5, p. 292 ^ Levick, p. 42. ^ Seager 2005, p. 20. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.9 ^ Seager 2005, p. 23. ^ Seager 2005, pp. 23–24. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 10 ^ Levick, p. 29. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.100 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.53 ^ a b c Seager 2005, p. 26. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 11 ^ Seager 2005, p. 28. ^ "Legio V Alaudae". livius.org. September 2010. Archived from the original on 2015-04-26. Retrieved 2017-08-23. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 13 ^ a b Tacitus, Annals I.3 ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 15 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.13 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 21. For the debate over whether Agrippa's imperium after 13 BC was maius or aequum, see, e.g., E. Badian (December 1980 – January 1981). "Notes on the Laudatio of Agrippa". Classical Journal. 76 (2): 97–109 [105–106[]. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LV.32 ^ Seager p. xv ^ a b Speidel, Michael Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperorors’ Horse guards19 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 20 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 21 ^ Velleieus Paterculus, Roman History II.123 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.8 ^ Levick, pp. 68–81. «The senatorial decree of 17 September was to make him Divi fiilius, son of the deified Princeps, and the will imposed the title Augustus... Tiberius' powers lapsed on Augustus' death, required redefinition, or were surrendered on 17 September.» ^ Tacitus, Annals I.9–11 ^ Seager 2005, pp. 44–45. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 24 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.12, I.13 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 26 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.32, III.52 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.35, III.53, III.54 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.65 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.16, I.17, I.31 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.6 ^ a b Tacitus, Annals II.41 ^ Tacitus, Annals II.46 ^ Shotter, 35–37. ^ Tacitus, Annals II.26 ^ Tacitus, Annals II.43 ^ Tacitus, Annals II.71 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.16 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 52 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.15 ^ Tacitus, Annals III.56 ^ Tacitus, Annals, IV.7, IV.8 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 62 ^ "We must imagine Tiberius not as brooding in isolation (though it is true enough he was a difficult man, not to say a grouchy one), but as entertaining visitors, discussing affairs, and taking up at least the more important of the obligations imposed upon him by state and family": see p. 185ff in Houston, George W., "Tiberius on Capri", Greece and Rome, Volume 32, No. 2 (Oct., 1985), pp. 179–196, Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association, available at JSTOR (subscription required) [1] ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals IV.67 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 37 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.2 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.21 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.39 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.40, IV.41 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.41 ^ Tacitus, Annals V.3 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 53, 54 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 65 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.22 ^ a b Boddington, Ann (January 1963). "Sejanus. Whose Conspiracy?". The American Journal of Philology. 84 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/293155. JSTOR 293155. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LVIII.10 ^ Tacitus, Annals VI.19 ^ A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138, p. 133, Edward Togo Salmon ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 43, 44, 45 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 60, 62, 63, 64 ^ Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1984) Suetonius: The Scholar and His Caesars, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03000-2 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 41 ^ Tacitus, Annals VI.46 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.23 ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals VI.50, VI.51 ^ Karen Cokayne, Experiencing Old Age In Ancient Rome, p.100 ^ Flavius Josephus, Steve Mason, Translation and Commentary. Vol. 1B. Judean War 2, p. 153 ^ Tacitus, Annales, vi. 50. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 73. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, lviii. 28. ^ Death of Tiberius: Tacitus Annals 6.50; Dio 58.28.1–4; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 73, Gaius 12.2–3; Josephus AJ 18.225. Posthumous insults: Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 75. ^ Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929). "Mausoleum Augusti". A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 332–336. Retrieved 30 June 2011. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 76 ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.1 ^ a b c Tacitus, Annals IV.6 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 37 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 61 ^ Tacitus, Annals, I.6 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.72, I.74, II.27–32, III.49–51, III.66–69 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 26–32 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, II.103–105, II.129–130 ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History II.127–128 ^ Syme, Ronald (1956). "Seianus on the Aventine". Hermes. Franz Steiner Verlag. 84 (3): 257–266. JSTOR 4474933. ^ Luke 3:1 ^ John 6:23 ^ John 6:1 ^ Matthew 22:19 ^ Mark 12:15 ^ Sir William Smith (1896). The Old Testament History: From The Creation To The Return Of The Jews From Captivity (page 704). Kessinger Publishing, LLC (22 May 2010). ISBN 1-162-09864-3. ^ The Numismatist, Volume 29. American Numismatic Association (3 April 2010). 2010. p. 536. ISBN 978-1-148-52633-1. ^ Hobson, Burton (1972). Coins and coin collecting (page 28). Dover Publications (April 1972). ISBN 0-486-22763-4. ^ a b c d e f Jossa, Giorgio (2006). Jews or Christians. pp. 123–126. ISBN 3-16-149192-0. ^ 'Acts 22:4' ^ Häuber, Chrystina. "The Horti of Maecenas on the Esquiline Hill in Rome" (PDF). Retrieved 21 December 2019. ^ Wyler, Stéphanie (2013). "An Augustan Trend towards Dionysos: Around the 'Auditorium of Maecenas'". In Bernabe, Alberto; Herrero deJáuregui, Miguel; San Cristóbal, Ana; Martín Hernández, Raquel (eds.). Redefining Dionysos. ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.45, III.72 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 47 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 21 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.37–38, IV.55–56 ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.2.3 ^ "I, Claudius: From the Autobiography of Tiberius Claudius – Robert Graves". Booktalk.org. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-20. ^ "BBC Four Drama – I, Claudius". BBC. Retrieved 2008-09-20. ^ "Not a Blog: It's the Pits". 2013-01-21. Retrieved 2016-12-27. ^ "Emperor Tiberius Caesar (Character)". Imdb.com. Retrieved 2008-09-20. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Books 57–58, English translation Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, especially ch.6, English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Annals, I–VI, English translation Velleius Paterculus, Roman History Book II, Latin text with English translation Secondary material[edit] Ehrenberg, V.; Jones, A.H.M. (1955). Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Oxford. Capes, William Wolfe, Roman History, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1897 Levick, Barbara (1999) [1976]. Tiberius the Politician (revised ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21753-9. Mason, Ernst (1960). Tiberius. New York: Ballantine Books. (Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction author Frederik Pohl) Seager, Robin (2005) [1972]. Tiberius (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1528-9. Shotter, David (2004) [1992]. Tiberius Caesar (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31946-3. Salmon, Edward T. (1968) [1944]. A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138 (6th ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-10710-9. Southern, Pat (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16631-4. Syme, Ronald (1986). The Augustan Aristocracy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814859-3. Syme, Ronald (1974), "History or Biography: the Case of Tiberius", Historia, volume xxiii, pages 481 to 496 and Roman Papers, volume III, pages 936 to 952. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Tiberius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tiberius. Fagan, Garrett G. (2001), "Tiberius (A.D. 14–37)", De Imperatoribus Romanis "Tiberius (42 BC – 37 AD)" at the BBC "Maps of the Roman Empire under Tiberius at Omniatlas.com" Tiberius Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 16 November 42 BC Died: 16 March 37 AD Roman Emperors Preceded by M. Claudius Marcellus Caesar of the Roman Empire 6 BC – 1 AD Succeeded by Gaius Caesar Preceded by Gaius Caesar Caesar of the Roman Empire 4–14 AD Succeeded by Germanicus Preceded by Augustus Roman emperor AD 14–37 Succeeded by Caligula Political offices Preceded by M. Licinius Crassus Gn. Cornelius Lentulus Augur Consul of Rome 13 BC With: P. Quinctilius Varus Succeeded by M. Valerius Messalla Appianus P. Sulpicius Quirinius Preceded by G. Marcius Censorinus G. Asinius Gallus Consul of Rome 7 BC With: Gn. Calpurnius Piso Succeeded by D. Laelius Balbus G. Antistius Vetus Preceded by G. Vibius Marsus L. Voluseius Proculus Consul of Rome 18 AD With: Germanicus Succeeded by L. Seius Tubero Livineius Regulus Preceded by M. Valerius Messala Barbatus M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus Consul of Rome 21 AD With: Drusus Julius Caesar Succeeded by D. Haterius Agrippa G. Sulpicius Galba Preceded by L. Naevius Surdinus G. Cassius Longinus Consul of Rome 31 AD With: Sejanus Succeeded by Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus L. Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e New Testament people Jesus Christ In Christianity Historical Life of Jesus in the New Testament Gospels Individuals Alphaeus Anna the Prophetess Annas Barabbas Bartimaeus Blind man (Bethsaida) Caiaphas Celidonius Cleopas Clopas Devil Penitent thief ("Dismas") Elizabeth Gabriel Impenitent thief ("Gestas") Jairus' daughter Joanna John the Baptist Joseph Joseph of Arimathea Joses Jude Lazarus Legion Luke Lysanias Malchus Martha Mary, mother of Jesus Mary Magdalene Mary, mother of James Mary of Bethany Mary of Clopas Naked fugitive Son of Nain's widow Nicodemus (Nicodemus ben Gurion) Salome Samaritan woman Satan Simeon Simon, brother of Jesus Simon of Cyrene Simon the Leper Simon the Pharisee Susanna Syrophoenician woman Theophilus Zacchaeus Zebedee Zechariah Multiple people named James people named John people named Judas or Jude people named Mary people named Simon Groups Angels Jesus's brothers Demons Disciples Evangelists Female disciples of Jesus God-fearers Herodians Magi Myrrhbearers Nameless Pharisees Proselytes Sadducees Samaritans Sanhedrin Scribes Seventy disciples Shepherds Women at the crucifixion Zealots Apostles Andrew Bartholomew Nathanael James, son of Alphaeus Less James, son of Zebedee John Evangelist Patmos "Disciple whom Jesus loved" Judas Iscariot Judas Thaddaeus Matthew Philip Simon Peter Simon the Zealot Thomas Acts Aeneas Agabus Ananias (Damascus) Ananias (Judaea) Ananias son of Nedebeus Apollos Aquila Aristarchus Barnabas Blastus Cornelius Damaris Demetrius Dionysius Dorcas Elymas Egyptian Ethiopian eunuch Eutychus Gamaliel James, brother of Jesus Jason Joseph Barsabbas Judas Barsabbas Judas of Galilee Lucius Luke Lydia Manaen (John) Mark Evangelist cousin of Barnabas Mary, mother of (John) Mark Matthias Mnason Nicanor Nicholas Parmenas Paul Philip Priscilla Prochorus Publius Rhoda Sapphira Sceva Seven Deacons Silas / Silvanus Simeon Niger Simon Magus Sopater Sosthenes Stephen Theudas Timothy Titus Trophimus Tychicus Zenas Romans Herod's family Gospels Antipas Archelaus Herod the Great Herodias Longinus Philip Pilate Pilate's wife Quirinius Salome Tiberius Acts Agrippa Agrippa II Berenice Cornelius Drusilla Felix Festus Gallio Lysias Paullus Epistles Achaicus Alexander of Ephesus Alexander the Coppersmith Andronicus Archippus Aretas IV Artemas Carpus Claudia Crescens Demas Diotrephes Epaphras Epaphroditus Erastus Eunice Euodia and Syntyche Herodion Hymenaeus Jesus Justus John the Presbyter Junia Linus Lois Mary Michael Nymphas Olympas Onesimus Onesiphorus Pudens Philemon Philetus Phoebe Quartus Sosipater Tertius Tryphena and Tryphosa Revelation Antipas Four Horsemen Apollyon Two witnesses Woman Beast Three Angels Whore of Babylon v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I of Egypt Bilistiche Chaeron of Pellene Chilon of Patras Chionis of Sparta Cimon Coalemos Coroebus of Elis Cylon of Athens Cynisca of Sparta Damarchus Demaratus of Sparta Desmon of Corinth Diagoras of Rhodes Diocles of Corinth Ergoteles of Himera Euryleonis Herodorus of Megara Hiero I of Syracuse Hypenus of Elis Hysmon of Elis Iccus of Taranto Leonidas of Rhodes Leophron Milo of Croton Nero Caesar Augustus Oebotas of Dyme Onomastus of Smyrna Orsippus of Megara Peisistratos of Athens Phanas of Pellene Philinus of Cos Philip II of Macedon Philippus of Croton Phrynon of Athens Polydamas of Skotoussa Pythagoras of Laconia Pythagoras of Samos Sostratus of Pellene Theagenes of Thasos Theron of Acragas Tiberius Caesar Augustus Timasitheus of Delphi Troilus of Elis Varazdat of Armenia Xenophon of Aegium Xenophon of Corinth Lists of winners Ancient Olympic victors Stadion race Archaic period Classical period Hellenistic period Roman period Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Greece Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican 2 Art galleries and museums Te Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius&oldid=1027473318" Categories: Julio-Claudian dynasty Tiberius 42 BC births 37 deaths 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century Roman emperors Adult adoptees Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Roman military personnel Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Capri, Campania Children of Augustus Claudii Nerones Husbands of Julia the Elder Imperial Roman 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en-wikipedia-org-5495	----	Palmyrene Empire - Wikipedia Palmyrene Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Former country This article is about the political history of the Palmyrene empire between 270 and 273. For the general political, cultural and economic history of the city, see Palmyra. For other uses, see Palmyra (disambiguation). Palmyrene Empire 270–273 The Palmyrene Empire in 271 Capital Palmyra Largest city Alexandria[note 1] Common languages Palmyrene Aramaic[4] Greek[4] Government Monarchy Monarch   • 267/270–272 Vaballathus • 272–273 Zenobia • 273–273 Antiochus Historical era Late Antiquity • Established 270 • Disestablished 273 Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Roman Empire The Palmyrene Empire was a short-lived splinter state of the Roman Empire resulting from the Crisis of the Third Century. Named after its capital city, Palmyra, it encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, and Egypt, as well as large parts of Asia Minor. The Palmyrene Empire was ruled by Queen Zenobia, officially as regent for her son Vaballathus, who inherited the throne in 267 at age ten. In 270, Zenobia rapidly conquered most of the Roman east, attempting to maintain relations with Rome as a legitimate power. In 271 she claimed the imperial title for both herself and her son, fighting a short war with the Roman emperor Aurelian, who conquered Palmyra and captured the self-proclaimed Empress. A year later the Palmyrenes rebelled, which led Aurelian to destroy Palmyra. Despite its brief existence, the Palmyrene Empire is remembered for having been ruled by one of the most ambitious and powerful women in late antiquity. It is also hailed in Syria, where it plays an important role as an icon in Syrian nationalism. Contents 1 Background 2 Establishment 3 Reconquest by Rome 3.1 Aftermath 4 Evaluation and legacy 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Background[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Following the murder of Roman emperor Alexander Severus in 235,[5] general after general squabbled over control of the empire,[6] the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths and Alemanni,[7][8] in addition to outright attacks from the aggressive Sassanids in the east.[9] Finally, Shapur I of Persia inflicted a disastrous defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260,[10] capturing the Roman emperor Valerian and soon, Quietus and Macrianus rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus and usurped the imperial power in Syria.[11] The Palmyrene leader Odaenathus was declared king,[12] and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants to attack Shapur.[note 2][10] In 260, Odaenathus won a decisive victory over Shapur in a battle near the Euphrates.[11] Next, Odaenathus defeated the usurpers in 261,[11] and spent the remainder of his reign fighting the Persians.[14][15][16] Odaenathus received the title Governor of the East,[11] and ruled Syria as the imperial representative,[17] and declared himself King of Kings.[note 3][20] Odaenathus was assassinated along with his son Hairan in 267;[11] according to Joannes Zonaras and the Augustan History, he was killed by his cousin, whose name is given by the latter source as Maeonius.[21] The Augustan History also claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a very brief period, before being executed by the soldiers.[21][22][23] No inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign, and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus.[24][25] Odaenathus was succeeded by his minor son with Zenobia, the ten-year-old Vaballathus.[26] Under the regency of Zenobia,[26][27] Vaballathus was kept in the shadow while his mother assumed actual rule and consolidated her power.[26] The queen was careful not to provoke Rome and took for herself and her son the titles that her husband had, while working on guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia, and pacifying the dangerous Tanukhid tribes in Hauran.[26] Establishment[edit] See also: Sack of Bostra and Palmyrene invasion of Egypt Vaballathus (right) as king on the obverse of an Antoninianus. To the left, Aurelian as Augustus on the reverse. Zenobia started an expedition against the Tanukhids in the spring of 270, during the reign of emperor Claudius Gothicus[28] aided by her generals, Septimius Zabbai (a general of the army) and Septimius Zabdas (the chief general of the army)[29] Zabdas sacked Bosra, killed the Roman governor, and marched south securing Roman Arabia.[28][30] According to the Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, Zenobia herself attacked Dumat Al-Jandal but could not conquer its castle.[31] However, Ibn Khordadbeh is confusing Zenobia with al-Zabbā, a semi-legendary Arab queen whose story is often confused with Zenobia's story.[32][33][34][35] In October of 270,[36] a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt,[37][38] and declared Zenobia queen of Egypt.[39] The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and killed by Zabdas, who continued his march south and secured Egypt.[40] Afterward, in 271, Zabbai started the operations in Asia Minor, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year.[41] The Palmyrenes subdued Galatia,[41] and occupied Ankara, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion.[42] However, the attempts to conquer Chalcedon were unsuccessful.[41] The Palmyrene conquests were done under the protective show of subordination to Rome.[43] Zenobia issued coinage in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian with Vaballathus depicted as king,[note 4] while the emperor allowed the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the Palmyrene royal titles.[44] However, toward the end of 271, Vaballathus took the title of Augustus (emperor) along with his mother.[43] Reconquest by Rome[edit] Vaballathus as Augustus, on the obverse of an Antoninianus. Zenobia as Augusta, on the obverse of an Antoninianus. Aurelian-Zenobia war. In 272, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.[45] According to one account, Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra,[note 5][46] while the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana.[47] The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend; Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.[48] Apollonius implored him, stating: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!".[49] Whatever the reason for his clemency, Aurelian's sparing of Tyana paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them.[48] Entering Issus and heading to Antioch, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae.[50] Zenobia retreated to Antioch then fled to Emesa while Aurelian advanced and took the former.[51] After regrouping, the Romans first destroyed a Palmyrene garrison stationed at the fort of Daphne,[note 6][53] and headed south to Apamea,[54] then continued to Emesa and defeated Zenobia again at the Battle of Emesa, forcing her to evacuate to the capital.[55] Aurelian marched through the desert and was harassed by Bedouins loyal to Palmyra, but as soon as he arrived at the city gates, he negotiated with the Bedouins, who betrayed Palmyra and supplied the Roman army with water and food.[56] Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272,[57] and tried to negotiate with Zenobia, on the condition that she surrender herself in person to him, to which she answered with refusal.[42] The Romans tried to breach the city defenses several times but were repelled,[58] however, as the situation deteriorated, Zenobia left the city and headed east to ask the Persians for help.[59] The Romans followed the empress, captured her near the Euphrates and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace,[59] and the city capitulated.[57][60] Aftermath[edit] Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun. Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers led by a certain Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force.[61] The defenses were destroyed and most of the military equipment was confiscated.[62] Zenobia and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high-ranking Palmyrene officials were executed,[63] while Zenobia's and Vaballathus's fates are uncertain.[64] In 273, Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of a citizen named Septimius Apsaios,[65] and contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia, Marcellinus, offering to help him usurp the imperial power.[65] Marcellinus delayed the negotiations and sent word to the Roman emperor,[65] while the rebels lost their patience and declared a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus.[66] Aurelian marched against Palmyra and was helped by a Palmyrene faction from inside the city, headed by a man with a senatorial rank named Septimius Haddudan.[67][68] Aurelian spared Antiochus,[68] but razed Palmyra.[69] The most valuable monuments were taken by the emperor to decorate his Temple of Sol,[60] while buildings were smashed, people were clubbed and cudgeled and Palmyra's holiest temple pillaged.[60] Evaluation and legacy[edit] The ultimate motive behind the revolt is debated; when dealing with the rise of Palmyra and the rebellion of Zenobia, historians most often interpreted the ascendancy as an indication of cultural, ethnic or social factors.[70] Andreas Alföldi viewed the rebellion as a completely native ethnic opposition against Rome.[70] Irfan Shahîd considered Zenobia's revolt a pan-Arab movement that was a forerunner of the Arab expansion of the Caliphates;[70] an opinion shared by Franz Altheim,[70] and an almost universal view amongst Arab and Syrian scholars such as Philip Khuri Hitti.[71][72] Mark Whittow disagreed that the revolt was ethnic in its nature and emphasized that it was a reaction to the weakness of Rome and its inability to protect Palmyra from the Persians.[73] Warwick Ball viewed the rebellion as aimed at Rome's throne, not just Palmyrene independence.[74] Vaballathus' inscriptions indicated the style of a Roman emperor; according to Ball, Zenobia and Vaballathus were contenders for the Roman imperial throne, following a plan similar to that of Vespasian, who ascended the throne after building his power-base in Syria.[74][73] Andrew M. Smith II considered the revolt as a bid for both independence and the Roman throne.[75] The Palmyrene royalty used Eastern titles such as king of kings, which had no relevance in Roman politics, while the conquests were in the interest of Palmyrene commerce.[75] Finally, it was only in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus that the Roman imperial rank was claimed.[75] Fergus Millar, although tending toward the view that it wasn't only an independence movement, believes there is not yet enough evidence to draw a conclusion on the nature of Palmyra's revolt.[76] During the mid-twentieth century, interest in the Palmyrene Empire was briefly revived by the advent of Syrian nationalism.[77] Modern Syrian nationalists viewed the empire as a uniquely Syrian civilization which attempted to liberate the masses of the Levant from Roman tyranny.[78] A Syrian TV show was produced based on Zenobia's life, and she was the subject of a biography written by Syria's former minister of defense Mustafa Tlass.[78] See also[edit] Gallic Empire Notes[edit] ^ Alexandria was the second largest city in the Roman Empire (after Rome itself),[1] with a population of around 500,000–600,000, during the principate.[2] The population of Palmyra in the middle of the 3rd century is estimated to have been 150,000–200,000.[3] ^ No evidence exists for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.[13] ^ The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as king of kings.[10][18] Odaenathus' son Hairan I is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler; it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.[19] ^ Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.[36] ^ All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia had withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.[46] ^ Daphne was a garden located six miles south of Antioch.[52] References[edit] ^ Koester, Helmut (2012). History and Literature of Early Christianity. p. 225. ^ Delia, Diana (1988). "The Population of Roman Alexandria". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 118: 275–292. doi:10.2307/284172. JSTOR 284172. ^ "Rise and fall of Palmyra , Syria". Bulletin of the Department of Geography of University of Tokyo. 27: 9. 1995. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 280. ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 3. ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ^ Yann Le Bohec (2013). Imperial Roman Army. p. 196. ^ Patrick J. Geary (2003). The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton University Press. p. 81. ^ Nic Fields (2008). The Walls of Rome. p. 12. ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 177. ^ a b c d e David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 398. ^ Beate Dignas; Engelbert Winter (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. p. 159. ^ Pat Southern (17 November 2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4411-7351-5. ^ Edward Gibbon (2004). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 501. ^ Clifford Ando (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. p. 237. ^ Lukas De Blois (1976). The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. p. 3. ^ Nathanael J. Andrade (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. p. 333. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 78. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 72. ^ Maurice Sartre (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. p. 354. ^ a b Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra s Rebel Queen. p. 78. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 292. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 108. ^ Edward Gibbon; Thomas Bowdler (1826). History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire for the use of families and young persons: reprinted from the original text, with the careful omission of all passagers of an irreligious tendency, Volume 1. p. 321. ^ George C. Brauer (1975). The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244-284. Noyes Press. p. 163. ^ a b c d Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 299. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 114. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2004). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 302. ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 48. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 9781134908158. ^ Khaleel Ibrahim Muaikel (1994). Dirasah li-āthār Mintaqat al-Jawf. p. 43. ^ Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. p. 433. ^ Roxani Eleni Margariti; Adam Sabra; Petra Sijpesteijn (2010). Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch. p. 148. ^ Mohammad Rihan (2014). The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period. p. 28. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 296. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 62. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 133. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 303. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 304. ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 63. ^ a b c Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 64. ^ a b Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 80. ^ a b Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 179. ^ David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 365. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 307. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 308. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 71. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 72. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 167. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 309. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 74. ^ John Carne; William Purser (1836). Syria, the Holy Land, Asia Minor, &c. illustrated: In a series of views drawn from nature. Fisher, Son, & Co.; London, Paris, & America. p. 31. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 138. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 75. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 310. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 76. ^ a b Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 52. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 175. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 77. ^ a b c Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 313. ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 78. ^ William Ware (1846). Zenobia, Or, The Fall of Palmyra: A Historical Romance in Letters from L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra, to His Friend Marcus Curtius at Rome. p. 242. ^ Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81. ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 180. ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 181. ^ Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. p. 60. ISBN 9780892367153. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 81. ^ Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 515. ^ a b c d Nakamura 1993, p. 133. ^ Hitti 2002, p. 73. ^ Zahrān 2003, p. 36. ^ a b Whittow 2010, p. 154. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhittow2010 (help) ^ a b Ball 2002, p. 82. ^ a b c Smith II 2013, p. 180. ^ Millar 1993, p. 334. ^ Manley, John (2013). The Romans: All That Matters. John Murray Press. p. 15. ISBN 9781444183887. ^ a b Christian Sahner (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. p. 153. Bibliography[edit] Nakamura, Byron (1993). "Palmyra and the Roman East". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. Duke University, Department of Classical Studies. 34. ISSN 0017-3916. Hitti, Philip K. (2002) [1937]. History of The Arabs (10 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-13032-7. Zahrān, Yāsamīn (2003). Zenobia between reality and legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series. 1169. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84171-537-7. Whittow, Mark (2010). "The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8. Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1. Smith II, Andrew M. (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3. Coordinates: 34°33′36″N 38°16′2″E / 34.56000°N 38.26722°E / 34.56000; 38.26722 v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Emperor== {{Main|Reign of Marcus Aurelius}} ===Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)=== [[File:Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, British Museum (23455313842).jpg|thumb|Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and [[Lucius Verus]] (right), [[British Museum]]|alt=Busts of Marcus Aurelius and his co-ruler Lucius Verus]] After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title ''[[imperator]]'', and he would soon be formally elected as ''Pontifex Maximus'', chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> This may have been a genuine ''horror imperii'', 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116. Birley takes the phrase ''horror imperii'' from ''HA Pert''. xiii. 1 and xv. 8.</ref> Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his ''Meditations''), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.<ref>''HA Verus'' iii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> The senate accepted, granting Lucius the ''imperium'', the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.1; ''Marcus'' vii.5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 116–17.</ref>{{refn|These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the ''Historia Augusta'', our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] shows even more confusion.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117.</ref>|group=note}} It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>{{refn|There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: [[Augustus]] planned to leave [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar]] as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have [[Gaius Caligula]] and [[Tiberius Gemellus]] do so as well; [[Claudius]] left the empire to [[Nero]] and [[Britannicus]], imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>|group=note}} In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more ''[[auctoritas]]'', or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was ''Pontifex Maximus''. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/> As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117, 278 n.4.</ref> Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the [[Castra Praetoria]], the camp of the [[Praetorian Guard]]. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as ''imperatores''. Then, like every new emperor since [[Claudius]], Lucius promised the troops a special donative.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18.</ref> This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 [[sestertius|sesterces]] (5,000 [[denarius|denarii]]) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109.</ref> The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> Upon his accession he also devalued the [[Roman currency]]. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from {{cvt|2.68|g|oz}} to {{cvt|2.57|g|oz}}.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm 'Roman Currency of the Principate']. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001.</ref> Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118, 278 n.6.</ref> If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the [[Campus Martius]], and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A ''[[flamen]]'', or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the [[Temple of Antoninus and Faustina]]. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'/> In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118–19.</ref> (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, [[Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus|Ummius Quadratus]].<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> On 31 August, she gave birth at [[Lanuvium]] to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>{{refn|The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xix. 1–2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.9.</ref>|group=note}} Aside from the fact that the twins shared [[Caligula]]'s birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.<ref>''HA Commodus''. i.4, x.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff.</ref> ===Early rule=== Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118, citing Werner Eck, ''Die Organization Italiens'' (1979), pp. 146ff.</ref> Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their ''civiliter'' ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, 'No one missed the lenient ways of Pius'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157.</ref> Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ''[[ab epistulis]]'' Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of [[Pannonia]] and had served in the war in [[Mauretania]]. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 122–23, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, ''Roman Britain and the Roman Army'' (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff.</ref> Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been [[Augustal prefect|prefectural governor]] of [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]] at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (''[[aerarium Saturni]]''). He was made consul soon after.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'' I–III (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), no. 141.</ref> Fronto's son-in-law, [[Gaius Aufidius Victorinus]], was appointed governor of [[Germania Superior]].<ref name='HA Marcus 8 1985'>''HA Marcus'' viii. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123, citing W. Eck, ''Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen'' (1985), pp. 65ff.</ref> Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in [[Cirta]] as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff).</ref> The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: 'There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing ''Ad Verum Imperator'' i.1 (= Haines 1.305).</ref> Marcus told Fronto of his reading – [[Lucius Coelius Antipater|Coelius]] and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref> Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the ''felicitas temporum'' ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG |alt1=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |image2=Piena del Tevere - Tiber in flood - Ponte Sisto - Rome, Italy - 12 Dec. 2008.jpg |alt2=Tiber Island in flood, December 2008 |footer=[[Tiber Island]] seen at a forty-year high-water mark of the [[Tiber]], December 2008 }} In either autumn 161 or spring 162,{{refn|Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.<ref>Gregory S. Aldrete, ''Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), pp. 30–31.</ref> (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120'/>)|group=note}} the [[Tiber]] overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 120.</ref>{{refn|Since 15 AD, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the ''curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis'' ('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of [[Aulus Platorius Nepos|the builder]] of [[Hadrian's Wall]], whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, [[Marcus Statius Priscus|M. Statius Priscus]]. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+05932&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 5932] (Nepos), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01092&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1092] (Priscus); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref>|group=note}} In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xi. 3, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.16.</ref> Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of [[Cleanthes]] and [[Zeno of Citium|Zeno]], yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.<ref>''De eloquentia'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 127–28.</ref> Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at [[Cyzicus]]. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 128.</ref> ===War with Parthia (161–166)=== {{main|Roman–Parthian War of 161–166}} {{see also|Roman–Persian Wars}} [[Image:VologasesIV.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of [[Vologases IV of Parthia]]. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63.]] On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 114, 121.</ref> One of those kings, [[Vologases IV of Parthia]], made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.<ref>Event: ''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'' 119 (1997): p. 281.</ref> Vologases entered the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – [[Bakur|Pacorus]], an [[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid]] like himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was [[Marcus Sedatius Severianus]], a Gaul with much experience in military matters.<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> Convinced by the prophet [[Alexander of Abonutichus]] that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, ''Pagans and Christians'' (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50.</ref> Severianus led a legion (perhaps the [[Legio IX Hispana|IX Hispana]]<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.19.</ref>) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at [[Elegeia]], a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.<ref>Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 21, 24, 25; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22.</ref> There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in [[Raetia]] and Upper Germany, where the [[Chatti]] of the [[Taunus]] mountains had recently crossed over the ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]''.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 122.</ref> Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' vii.11; ''Marcus'' vii.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 103–04, 122.</ref>{{refn|[[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] adduces the 5th-century writer [[Sidonius Apollinaris]]'s comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' ''vivente Pio'' (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the ''Historia Augusta'' (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.<ref>''Pan. Ath.'' 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's ''Marcus Aurelius'', ''The Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 349.</ref>)|group=note}} More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding [[Legio X Gemina|X Gemina]] at [[Vindobona]] ([[Vienna]]), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 8.7050]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 51]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Three full legions were also sent east: [[Legio I Minervia|I Minervia]] from Bonn in Upper Germany,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01097&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1097]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 98]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Legio II Adiutrix|II Adiutrix]] from Aquincum,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01091&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1091]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> and [[Legio V Macedonica|V Macedonica]] from Troesmis.<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 2311]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xii. 13; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161)|M. Annius Libo]], Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,<ref>''L'Année Épigraphique'' 1972.657 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.<ref>''HA Verus'' 9.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg|thumb|300px|Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 226.</ref>|alt=Coin of Marcus Aurelius. Victoria appears on the reverse, commemorating Marcus's Parthian victory.]] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at [[Alsium]], a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the ''[[palaestra]]'', fishing, and comedy),<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: '<nowiki/>'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=Antioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg |caption1=The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in [[Antioch]]'s open-air taverns than with their units.<ref>''Ad Verum Imperator'' 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129.</ref> (Engraving by [[William Miller (engraver)|William Miller]] after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain [[Thomas Byam Martin|Byam Martin]], R.N., 1866) |alt1=Depiction of Antioch, Syria |image2=ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg |caption2=The Euphrates River near [[Raqqa]], Syria |alt2=Euphrates River }} Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled ''De bello Parthico'' (''On the Parthian War''). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23).</ref> but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.<ref>Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.<ref>''HA Verus'' v. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123, 125.</ref>{{refn|Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref>|group=note}} Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: ''HA Verus'' vi. 7–9; ''HA Marcus'' viii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 125–26.</ref> Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at [[Laodicea in Syria|Laodicea]] and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',<ref>''HA Verus'' iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> and enjoyed the company of actors.<ref>''HA Verus'' viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, ''Principae Historia'' 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref>{{refn|The whole section of the ''vita'' dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (''HA Verus'' iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69.</ref>|group=note}} Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.<ref>''HA Verus'' ix. 2; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' 3.199 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130–31.</ref> [[File:Statue of Lucilla detail.jpg|thumb|Marble statue of [[Lucilla]], 150–200 AD, [[Bardo National Museum (Tunis)|Bardo National Museum]], [[Tunisia]]|alt=Statue of Marcus's daughter Lucilla]] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to [[Ephesus]] to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the ''Vita Abercii'' 44ff.</ref> Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.10; Lucian, ''Imagines'' 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131. Cf. Lucian, ''Imagines'', ''Pro Imaginibus'', ''passim''.</ref> Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> who was made ''[[comes]] Augusti'', 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131, citing ''Année Épigraphique'' 1958.15.</ref> Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He only accompanied the group as far as [[Brundisium]], where they boarded a ship for the east.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 5–6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> The Armenian capital [[Artashat (ancient city)|Artaxata]] was captured in 163.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> At the end of the year, Lucius took the title ''Armeniacus'', despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; ''HA Verus'' vii. 1–2; ''Ad Verrum Imperator'' 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> When Lucius was hailed as ''imperator'' again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the ''Imperator II'' with him.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff.</ref> Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.<ref>Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 113.</ref> A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, [[Sohaemus of Armenia|Gaius Julius Sohaemus]]. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend {{Smallcaps|Rex armeniis Datus}}: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff.</ref> In 163, the Parthians intervened in [[Osroene]], a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], and installed their own king on its throne.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 112.</ref> In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the [[Euphrates]] at a more southerly point.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.<ref>Fronto, ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1098]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130.</ref> In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169.</ref> The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the [[Tigris]].<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, ''Roman Papers'', 5.689ff.</ref> By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: [[Seleucia]] on the right bank of the Tigris and [[Ctesiphon]] on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the [[Seleucid Empire]], one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Diadochi|successor kingdoms]]), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.<ref>''HA Verus'' 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, ''Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date.</ref> Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164.</ref> Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as ''imperatores'' again, earning the title 'imp. III'.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff.</ref> Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into [[Media (region)|Media]]. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, ''Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts'' (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff.</ref> and the emperors were again hailed as ''imperatores'', becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff.</ref> On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]] and [[Commodus]], as [[Caesar (title)|his heirs]].<ref name='auto'>Adams, p. 94.</ref> ===War with Germanic tribes (166–180)=== {{main|Marcomannic Wars}} [[File:Aurelius180AD.png|thumb|400px|upright=2.5|The [[Roman Empire]] at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called [[Marcomannia]] and Sarmatia<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> – was cut short in 175 by the revolt of [[Avidius Cassius]] and by his death.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 183.</ref> The light pink territory represents Roman dependencies: [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], [[Colchis]], [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberia]], and [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]].|alt=Expanse of the Roman Empire during Marcus Aurelius's reign]] {{multiple image|header = Scenes from the [[Marcomannic Wars]], 176–180 AD (bas reliefs from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the [[Capitoline Museums]]) |image1=0 Relief - Monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle - La soumission des germains (1).JPG |width1=210 |caption1=Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised ''[[vexillum]]'' standards |alt1 =Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius |image2=Rilievo da monumento onorario di Marco Aurelio trionfo, 176-180.JPG |width2=258 |caption2=Marcus Aurelius celebrating [[Roman triumph|his triumph]] over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a ''[[quadriga]]'' chariot |alt2=Scene from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius }} [[File:Marcus Aurelius, AE medallion, AD 168, Gnecchi II 52.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Bust of Marcus Aurelius.|Bronze medallion of Marcus Aurelius (AD 168). The reverse depicts [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], flanked by Marcus and [[Lucius Verus]]. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III.<ref>Gnecchi, ''Medaglioni Romani'', p. 33.</ref>]] [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] of Marcus Aurelius (AD 176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, CO[N]S. III, P. P.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 241.</ref>|alt=Aureus of Marcus Aurelius.]] During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).<ref>Dio 72.11.3–4; ''Ad amicos'' 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132.</ref> The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a [[legionary]] legate who was taking bribes.<ref>Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 132, citing ''De nepote amisso'' ii (= Haines 2.222); ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.).</ref> Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. [[Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus]], a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced [[Marcus Nonius Macrinus]]. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure [[Tiberius Haterius Saturnius]]. [[Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus]] was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when [[Marcus Iallius Bassus]] had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, ''Konsulat und Senatorenstand'' (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251.</ref> Starting in the 160s, [[Germanic tribes]], and other nomadic people launched raids along the [[limes Germanicus|northern border]], particularly into [[Gaul]] and across the [[Danube#Human history|Danube]]. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.<ref name='McLynn2010'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', pp. 323–24.</ref> Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the [[Marcomanni]] of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the [[Lombards]] and other Germanic tribes.<ref name='Bohec2013'>Le Bohec, p. 56.</ref> Soon thereafter, the Iranian [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] attacked between the Danube and the [[Tisza|Theiss]] rivers.<ref name='Grant2016'>Grant, ''The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition'', p. 29.</ref> The [[Costoboci]], coming from the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] area, invaded [[Moesia]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like [[Dacia]], Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and [[Marcomannia]], including today's [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Hungary]]. Some Germanic tribes who settled in [[Ravenna]] revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.<ref>Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 253.</ref> ===Legal and administrative work=== [[File:Portrait de Marc Aurèle 2.jpg|thumb|Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Liebieghaus]], Frankfurt.]] Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,<ref>Fergus Millar, ''The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC&nbsp;–&nbsp;AD 337'' (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and ''passim''. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19.</ref> but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.<ref>[http://www.military-history.org/articles/thinkers-at-war-marcus-aurelius.htm 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius']. [http://www.military-history.org ''Military History Monthly''], published 2014. (This is the conclusion of [[Iain King]]'s biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.'</ref> He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'<ref>''Codex Justinianeus'' 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 133.</ref> and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.<ref>''Digest'' 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (''decuriones'').<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.<ref>Irvine, pp. 57–58.</ref> In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.<ref>Dio, lxxii.33</ref> In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from {{cvt|2.57–2.67|g|oz}}. However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'/> ====Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague==== {{main|Sino-Roman relations|Antonine Plague}} A possible contact with [[Han Dynasty|Han China]] occurred in 166 when a [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman traveller visited the Han court]], claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[wikt:安|安]] [[wikt:敦|敦]]), ruler of [[Daqin]], who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.<ref>Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79.</ref><ref>Yü, pp. 460–61.</ref><ref>De Crespigny, p. 600.</ref> In addition to [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era [[Roman glass]]wares found at [[Guangzhou]] along the [[South China Sea]],<ref>An, 83.</ref> Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at [[Óc Eo]], [[Vietnam]], then part of the [[Kingdom of Funan]] near the Chinese province of [[Jiaozhi]] (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of [[Kattigara]], described by [[Ptolemy]] (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name='young 2001 pp. 29-30'>Young, pp. 29–30.</ref><ref group=note>For further information on [[Óc Eo]], see Osborne, Milton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uxF2kH04WKgC ''The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future'']. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. {{ISBN|978-1741148930}}.</ref> Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to [[Aurelian]] have been found in [[Xi'an]], China (site of the Han capital [[Chang'an]]), although the far greater amount of [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Roman coins in India]] suggests the Roman maritime trade for [[History of silk|purchasing Chinese silk]] was centred there, not in China or even the overland [[Silk Road]] running through Persia.<ref name='ball 2016 p154'>Ball, p. 154.</ref> The [[Antonine Plague]] started in [[Mesopotamia]] in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–1098.</ref> mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.<ref name=murphy>Murphy, Verity. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe']. BBC News, 7 November 2005.</ref> It is believed that the plague was [[smallpox]].<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–98.</ref> In the view of historian [[Rafe de Crespigny]], the plagues afflicting the [[Eastern Han]] empire of China during the reigns of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] (r. 146–168) and [[Emperor Ling of Han]] (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.<ref>De Crespigny, p. 514.</ref> Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the [[Indian Ocean]] as proven by the archaeological record spanning from [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] to [[Indo-Roman relations|India]], as well as significantly decreased [[Roman commerce|Roman commercial]] activity in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name='mclaughlin 2010 p59-60'>McLaughlin, pp. 59–60.</ref> ===Death and succession (180)=== [[File:Delacroix-Marc Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|left|''[[Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius]]'' (1844) by [[Eugène Delacroix]]|alt=Painting that depicts Marcus on his deathbed and his son Commodus, surrounded by the emperor's philosopher friends]] Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern [[Sremska Mitrovica]]). He was immediately deified and [[Cremation|his ashes]] were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's [[mausoleum]] (modern [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]) until the [[Visigoth]] [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the city]] in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|column]] and a [[temple of Marcus Aurelius|temple]] built in Rome.<ref name='Kleiner2016'>Kleiner, p. 230.</ref> Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the [[Pax Romana]].<ref name='Merrony2017'>Merrony, p. 85.</ref> Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.<ref name='Birley186–91'>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91.</ref> Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;<ref>Kemezis, p. 45.</ref> however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when [[Vespasian]] was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.<ref name='Birley186–91'/> At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an [[encomium]] to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc">Tr. Cary, ''ad loc''.</ref> <blockquote>[Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. :–Dio lxxi. 36.3–4<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc"/></blockquote> Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."<ref>Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34</ref> [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]], in ''The Climax of Rome'', writes of Commodus:<ref name='Grant2011'/> <blockquote>The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.<ref name='Grant2011'>Grant, ''The Climax Of Rome'', p. 15.</ref></blockquote> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5525	----	File:Marcus Aurelius bust Istanbul Archaeological Museum - inv. 5129 T.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marcus Aurelius bust Istanbul Archaeological Museum - inv. 5129 T.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 160 × 240 pixels | 320 × 480 pixels | 512 × 768 pixels | 682 × 1,024 pixels | 1,365 × 2,048 pixels | 3,454 × 5,181 pixels. Original file ‎(3,454 × 5,181 pixels, file size: 1.76 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Artist Unknown artistUnknown artist Object type statueobject_type QS:P31,Q179700 Description English: Portrait of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey. Français : Portrait de l’empereur Marc Aurèle, Musée archéologique d'Istanbul, Turquie. Português: Retrato do emperador Marco Aurélio, Museu Arqueológico de Istambul, Turquia. Date between 161 and 180 Medium marblemedium QS:P186,Q40861 Collection Istanbul Archaeology Museums    Native name İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzesi Location Istanbul, Turkey Coordinates 41° 00′ 42.01″ N, 28° 58′ 53″ E   Established 13 June 1892 Web page Istanbul Archaeology Museum page Authority control : Q636978 VIAF: 157337842 ULAN: 500300573 LCCN: n82137186 GND: 10004989-8 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q636978 Accession number 5129 T Object history English: found in Kandilli, Bilecik Province Source/Photographer Eric Gaba (User:Sting), May 2013. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 21:10, 6 May 2017 3,454 × 5,181 (1.76 MB) Sting == {{int:filedesc}} == {{Artwork |artist = {{unknown|artist}} |object type = statue |description = {{en|Portrait of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, [[:en:İstanbul Archaeology Museums|Archaeological Museum... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Commodus Faustina the Younger Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Marcus Aurelius User:MAureliusAugustus Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on azb.wikipedia.org مارکوس آئورلیوس Usage on en.wikibooks.org Interesting social sciences/Ethics Usage on en.wiktionary.org gens Usage on incubator.wikimedia.org Wp/mnc/markus aurelius Usage on ko.wikipedia.org 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 Usage on lfn.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Usage on ms.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Cómodo Usage on tr.wikipedia.org Marcus Annius Verus Sezar Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Usage on war.wikipedia.org Commodus Usage on zh.wikipedia.org 羅馬皇帝列表 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. 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Image title Portrait of the emperor Marcus Aurelius found in Kandilli (Bilecik Province), Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey Camera manufacturer Canon Camera model Canon EOS 5D Mark II Author Eric Gaba for Wikimedia Commons Copyright holder Copyright 2013 - Eric Gaba Exposure time 1/40 sec (0.025) F-number f/5 ISO speed rating 3,200 Date and time of data generation 16:43, 9 May 2013 Lens focal length 47 mm Width 3,744 px Height 5,616 px Bits per component 16 16 16 Compression scheme Uncompressed Pixel composition RGB Orientation Normal Number of components 3 Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Data arrangement chunky format Software used Adobe Photoshop CC 2017 (Windows) File change date and time 18:09, 6 May 2017 Exposure Program Aperture priority Exif version 2.3 Date and time of digitizing 16:43, 9 May 2013 Shutter speed 5.321928 APEX aperture 4.643856 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 4 APEX (f/4) Metering mode Spot Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression DateTimeOriginal subseconds 97 DateTimeDigitized subseconds 97 Color space sRGB Focal plane X resolution 3,849.2117888965 Focal plane Y resolution 3,908.1419624217 Focal plane resolution unit inches Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Manual white balance Scene capture type Standard Serial number of camera 3431626426 Lens used EF24-105mm f/4L IS USM Online copyright statement www.ericgabaphoto.com.br Copyright status Copyrighted Date metadata was last modified 15:09, 6 May 2017 Rating (out of 5) 0 Unique ID of original document 064B79A74CC874C4B9B754729201857F Keywords museum Antiquity statue sculpture marble portrait Marcus Aurelius emperor Kandilli Short title 201305_EG028_019.CR2 Usage terms © 2013 - Eric Gaba - all rights reserved IPTC scene code 011700 010100 City shown Istanbul Country shown Turkey Sublocation of city shown Archaeological Museum of Istanbul Code for country shown TUR Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius_bust_Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum_-_inv._5129_T.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5528	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-5529	----	Edward Champlin - Wikipedia Edward Champlin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American historian Edward Champlin Education B.A. History, Toronto 1970 M.A. Classics, Toronto 1972 D.Phil. Literae Humaniores, Oxford 1976 Occupation Professor, writer Employer Princeton University Edward Champlin is a Professor of Classics, Cotsen Professor of Humanities, and former Master of Butler College at Princeton University. He teaches Roman history, Roman law, and Latin literature and has written several books regarding these subjects.[1] He is also the co-editor of The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edition, volume 10, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69 (1996).[2] Contents 1 Works 2 Honors and awards 3 References 4 External links Works[edit] Fronto and Antonine Rome (Harvard University Press, 1980) Final Judgments: Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200 B.C.–A.D. 250 (University of California Press, 1991). Nero (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2003). ISBN 0-674-01192-9 The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. X. (Editor, with Editor, with A.K. Bowman and A. Lintott) The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. - A.D. 69 (Cambridge University Press, 1996). Phaedrus the Fabulous, Journal of Roman Studies 95 (2005) 97-123 Tiberius the Wise, Historia 57 (2008) 408-425 My Sejanus, Humanities 31 (2010) 18-21, 52-53 Honors and awards[edit] Alexander von Humboldt Fellow, Heidelberg University, 1984-1985 Corresponding Member at German Archaeological Institute, 1991 Fowler Hamilton Visiting Research Fellow, Christ Church, Oxford, 1989-1990 NEH Fellow, 2007-2008 Resident in Classics, American Academy in Rome, 1994 References[edit] ^ Classics Faculty Biography, Princeton University. Accessed 4 September 2009. ^ Frontispiece of the same. External links[edit] Classics Faculty biography at Princeton University Curriculum vitae, hosted at Princeton University[permanent dead link] Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Champlin&oldid=985993042" Categories: Living people American classical scholars 21st-century American historians Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford Scholars of Roman history Classical scholars of Princeton University Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth missing (living people) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch مصرى Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 04:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5536	----	Mnesarchus of Athens - Wikipedia Mnesarchus of Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mnesarchus or Mnesarch (Greek: Μνήσαρχος, Mnēsarkhos), of Athens, was a Stoic philosopher, who lived c. 160-c. 85 BC. Biography[edit] Mnesarchus was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus. Cicero says[1] that he was one of the leaders of the Stoic school (Latin: principes Stoicorum) at Athens together with Dardanus at a time when Antiochus of Ascalon was turning away from scepticism (c. 95 BC). He was the teacher of Antiochus for a time,[2] and he may also have taught Philo of Larissa.[3] After the death of Panaetius (109 BC), the Stoic school at Athens seems to have fragmented, and Mnesarchus was probably one of several leading Stoics teaching in this era. He was probably dead by the time Cicero was learning philosophy in Athens in 79 BC. Cicero mentions him several times and seems to have been familiar with some of his writings: Mnesarchus himself, said, that those whom we call orators were nothing but a set of mechanics with glib and well-practised tongues, but that no one could be an orator but a man of true wisdom; and that eloquence itself, as it consisted in the art of speaking well, was a kind of virtue, and that he who possessed one virtue possessed all, and that virtues were in themselves equal and alike; and thus he who was eloquent possessed all virtues, and was a man of true wisdom.[4] Notes[edit] ^ Cicero, Academica, 2. 69. ^ Eusebius, PE 14, 9, 3; Augustin, Con. Acad. 3, 41. His teaching of Antiochus is confirmed by a new papyrus reading: Philodemus,Hist. Acad. col. 34,22–24, cf. Fleischer, K.: Der Stoiker Mnesarch als Lehrer des Antiochus im Index Academicorum. In: Mnemosyne. 68/3, 2015, pp. 413–423, doi:10.1163/1568525X-12341610. ^ Philodemus, Hist. Acad. 33,14, see Brittain, C., Philo of Larissa: The Last of the Academic Sceptics, page 49. Oxford University Press. (2001)and Puglia, E.: Le biografie di Filone e di Antioco nella Storia dell'Academia di Filodemo. In: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 130, 2000, pp. 17–28, here: p. 18. ^ Cicero, On Oratory, 18. References[edit] Algra, K., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Page 41. Cambridge University Press, (1999). Fleischer, K., Der Stoiker Mnesarch als Lehrer des Antiochus im Index Academicorum. In: Mnemosyne. 68/3, 2015, pp. 413–423. Inwood, B., The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Page 27. Cambridge University Press, (2003). v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mnesarchus_of_Athens&oldid=849105022" Categories: 160s BC births 80s BC deaths Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era Stoic philosophers Roman-era Athenian philosophers 2nd-century BC Athenians 1st-century BC philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Italiano Magyar مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 6 July 2018, at 15:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5538	----	View source for Template:Stoicism sidebar - Wikipedia View source for Template:Stoicism sidebar ← Template:Stoicism sidebar Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{ sidebar with collapsible lists | name = Stoicism sidebar | pretitle = Part of a [[:category:stoicism|series]] on | title = [[Stoicism]] | class = plainlist | style = color: black; background-color: White | bodystyle = border-collapse:collapse; | basestyle = background-color:#89CFF0; | listtitlestyle = text-align:center; background-color:#89CFF0; padding:0.2em; | image = [[File:Epictetus.jpg|97px|link=|alt=]][[File:0 Sénèque - Musée du Prado - Cat. 144 - (2).JPG|82px|link=|alt=]][[File:Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg|82px|link=|alt=]] | headingtitlestyle = text-align:center; | expanded = {{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}} | caption = [[Epictetus]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]] | width = | list1name = Background | list1title = Background | list1 = *[[Socrates]] *[[Plato]] *[[Aristotle]] *[[Crates of Thebes]] | list2name = Philosophy | list2title = [[Glossary of Stoicism terms|Philosophy]] | list2 = {{flatlist}} *[[Apatheia]] *[[Ekpyrosis]] *[[Katalepsis]] {{endflatlist}}{{flatlist}} *[[Kathekon]] *[[Logos]] *[[Stoic logic]] {{endflatlist}}{{flatlist}} *[[Stoic categories]] *[[Stoic passions]] {{endflatlist}}{{flatlist}} *[[Stoic physics]] *[[Virtue ethics]] {{endflatlist}} | list3name = Stoics | list3title = [[List of Stoic philosophers|Stoics]] | list3 = *[[Zeno of Citium]] *[[Cleanthes]] *[[Chrysippus]] *[[Panaetius]] *[[Posidonius]] *[[Seneca the Younger]] *[[Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus]] *[[Epictetus]] *[[Junius Rusticus]] *[[Marcus Aurelius]] | list4name = Stoic works | list4title = Stoic works | list4 = * ''[[Discourses of Epictetus]]'' * ''[[Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium]]'' * ''The [[Meditations]]'' | list5name = Similar positions | list5title = Similar positions | list5 = * [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] * [[Aristotelianism]] * [[Platonism#Middle_Platonism|Middle Platonism]] | list6name = Contrary positions | list6title = Contrary positions | list6 = * [[Pyrrhonism]] * [[Academic Skepticism]] * [[Epicureanism]] | list7name = Related | list7title = Related | list7 = | belowstyle = padding-top:0.15em; | below = {{portal-inline|Philosophy|size=tiny}} }}<noinclude> [[Category:Philosophy and thinking templates]] </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Endflatlist (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Flatlist (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Portal-inline (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Arguments (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:No globals (view source) (protected) Module:Portal (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Portal-inline (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Portal/images/p (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Sidebar (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Sidebar/configuration (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Sidebar/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Yesno (view source) (protected) Return to Template:Stoicism sidebar. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Stoicism_sidebar" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5546	----	Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus - Wikipedia Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, consul and governor Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was a Roman senator, who was active during the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He was suffect consul in a nundinium in mid-158 with Quintus Jallius Bassus as his colleague.[1][2] A native of North Africa, Maximus was the younger brother of Marcus Servilius Silanus suffect consul in 152, and a relative of Quintus Servilius Pudens, brother-in-law of emperor Lucius Verus[3] Career[edit] His cursus honorum is partially known from an inscription set up in Rome.[4] His first recorded office was quattuorviri viarum curandarum, one of the magistracies that comprised the vigintiviri; membership in one of these four boards was a preliminary and required first step toward a gaining entry into the Roman Senate. This was followed with his commission as military tribune with Legio I Minervia, stationed at Bonna (modern Bonn), in Germania Inferior. Maximus returned to Rome where he was elected quaestor, which he served at the city of Rome; upon completion of this traditional Republican magistracy he would be enrolled in the Senate.[5] Following this he served as ab actis Senatus, or recorder of the Acta Senatus. Two more of the traditional Republican magistracies followed: curule aedile and praetor. After stepping down from the office of praetor, Maximus was selected to serve as legatus or adjunct to the proconsular governor of Asia; Géza Alföldy dates his office to circa 146. This was followed by a series of imperial appointments. First was curator of the Via Valeria; Alföldy dates his appointment to this curatorship between the years 147 and 150.[6] Then Maximus was commissioned legatus legionis or commander of Legio III Gallica, which was stationed in Syria. Alföldy dates his tenure as commander from around the year 150 to 153.[7] After returning to Rome, he was appointed prefectus aerarum Saturninus, which Alföldy dates between the years 153 and 156.[8] His consulate followed. The consular portion of Maximus included three appointments. First was curator aedium sacrarum, or overseer of temples, which Alföldy dates to around the year 160.[9] His next appointment was as governor of Moesia Superior, which Alföldy dates from the year 161 to 162.[10] In that later year Marcus Jallius Bassus became a member of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius' comes or inner circle of advisors during the Parthian War, and Maximus was appointed to replace him as governor of Moesia Inferior; according to Alföldy, he held this governorship until the year 166.[11] Maximus' life is a blank after he left the second governorship. References[edit] ^ Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl, "Neue Konsulndaten in neuen Diplomen", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 152 (2005), p. 257 (Online) ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 79 ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 314 ^ CIL VI, 1517 ^ Richard Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton: University Press, 1984), p. 16 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 295 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 298 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 292 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 290 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 234 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 232 Political offices Preceded by ignotus, then Sextus Sulpicius Tertullus, and Quintus Tineius Sacerdos Clemens as ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 158 with Quintus Jallius Bassus Succeeded by ignotus, then Quintus Pomponius Musa, and Lucius Cassius Juvenalis as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Servilius_Fabianus_Maximus&oldid=1018463985" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Upper Moesia Roman governors of Lower Moesia Servilii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2021, at 06:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5552	----	History of silk - Wikipedia History of silk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History of silk production This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, a Chinese silk painting by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century The production of silk originated in Neolithic period China within the Yangshao culture (4th millennium BC). Though it would later reach other places in the world, the art of silk production remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the latter part of the 1st millennium BC, though China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years. The use of silk within China was not confined to clothing alone, and silk was used for a number of applications, such as writing. Within clothing, the color of silk worn also held social importance, and formed an important guide of social class during the Tang dynasty. Silk cultivation spread to Japan around 300 AD, and, by 552 AD, the Byzantine Empire managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation; the Arabs also began to manufacture silk at the same time. As a result of the spread of sericulture, Chinese silk exports became less important, although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market. The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe, in particular to many Italian states, which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe. Developments in manufacturing technique also began to take place during the Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) in Europe, with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing at this time. During the 16th century, France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade, though the efforts of most other nations to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful. The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europe's silk industry. Due to innovations in the spinning of cotton, cotton became much cheaper to manufacture, leading to cotton production becoming the main focus for many manufacturers, and causing the more costly production of silk to shrink. New weaving technologies, however, increased the efficiency of producing silk cloth; among these was the Jacquard loom, developed for the production of highly detailed silks with embroidery-like designs. An epidemic of several silkworm diseases at this time caused production to fall, especially in France, where the industry never fully recovered. In the 20th century, Japan and China regained their earlier dominant role in silk production, and China is now once again the world's largest producer of silk. The rise of new imitation silk fabrics, such as nylon and polyester, has reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world, being a cheaper and easier to care for alternative. Silk is now once again thought of as a luxury good, with a greatly reduced importance compared to its historical heyday. Contents 1 Early history 1.1 First appearance of silk 1.2 Myths and legends 2 Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China 2.1 Silk moths and production techniques used in China 3 The Silk Road and trade (2nd–8th century) 4 Global spread of sericulture (4th–16th century) 5 Use of silk in the Medieval period (5th–15th century) 5.1 Importance as a luxury good 5.2 Improved silk production technology 6 The silk industry in France 6.1 Silk industries in other countries 7 Silk in the modern day (1760–present) 7.1 The Industrial Revolution 7.2 Decline in the European silk industry 8 Silk in modern times 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Early history[edit] The cocoon of the domesticated silk moth; unlike wild silk moths, its cocoon is entirely white First appearance of silk[edit] The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County, Shanxi, where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife, dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BC. The species was identified as Bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm. Fragments of a primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemudu culture culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BC. The earliest extant example of a woven silk fabric is from 3630 BC, used as wrapping for the body of a child. The fabric comes from a Yangshao site in Qingtaicun at Rongyang, Henan.[1] Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BC.[2][3] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC).[4] During the later epoch, the knowledge of silk production was spread outside of China, with the Koreans, the Japanese and, later, the Indian people gaining knowledge of sericulture and silk fabric production. Allusions to the fabric in the Old Testament show that it was known in Western Asia in biblical times.[5] Scholars believe that starting in the 2nd century BC, the Chinese established a commercial network aimed at exporting silk to the West.[5] Silk was used, for example, by the Persian court and its king, Darius III, when Alexander the Great conquered the empire.[5] Even though silk spread rapidly across Eurasia, with the possible exception of Japan, its production remained exclusively Chinese for three millennia. The earliest examples of silk production outside China are from silk threads discovered from the Chanhudaro site in the Indus Valley Civilisation, which are dated to 2450–2000 BC.[6][7] The analysis of the silk fibres shows presence of reeling and sericulture, and predates another example of silk found in Nevasa in peninsular India, dated to 1500 BC. The Siberian Ice Maiden, discovered in the Pazyryk burials, was found clad in a long crimson-and-white striped woolen skirt, with white felt stockings. Her yellow blouse was originally thought to be made of wild tussah silk, but closer examination of the fibres revealed the material not to be Chinese in origin, and was instead woven from a wild silk of a different origin, potentially India.[8] Detail of silk ritual garment from a 4th-century BC, Zhou Dynasty, China Myths and legends[edit] A lacquerware painting from the Jingmen Tomb (Chinese: 荊門楚墓; Pinyin: Jīngmén chǔ mù) of the State of Chu (704–223 BC), depicting men wearing traditional silk dress and riding in a two horsed chariot Many myths and legends exist as to the exact origin of silk production; the writings of both Confucius and Chinese tradition recount that, in about 3000 BC, a silk worm's cocoon fell into the teacup of the Empress Leizu.[9] Wishing to extract it from her drink, the 14-year-old girl began to unroll the thread of the cocoon; seeing the long fibers that constituted the cocoon, the Empress decided to weave some of it, and so kept some of the cocoons to do so. Having observed the life of the silkworm on the recommendation of her husband, the Yellow Emperor, she began to instruct her entourage in the art of raising silkworms - sericulture. From this point, the girl became the goddess of silk in Chinese mythology. Knowledge of silk production eventually left China via the heir of a princess who was promised to a prince of Khotan, likely around the early 1st century AD.[10] The princess, refusing to go without the fabric that she loved, decided to break the imperial ban on silkworm exportation. Though silk was exported to foreign countries in great amounts, sericulture remained a secret that the Chinese carefully guarded; consequently, other cultures developed their own accounts and legends as to the source of the fabric. In classical antiquity, most Romans, great admirers of the cloth, were convinced that the Chinese took the fabric from tree leaves.[11] This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Elder in his work Phaedra, and by Virgil in his work Georgics. Pliny the Elder notably accurately determined where silk came from; speaking of the Bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural History that, "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."[12] Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China[edit] Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui Han tombs site, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BC, Western Han dynasty In China, silkworm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed in the silk-making industry. Even though some saw the development of a luxury product as useless, silk provoked such a craze among the high society that the rules in the Li Ji were used to limit its use to the members of the imperial family.[4] For approximately a millennium, the right to wear silk was reserved for the emperor and the highest dignitaries. Silk was, at the time, a sign of great wealth, due to its shimmering appearance, created by the silk fiber's prismatic structure, which refracted light from every angle. After some time, silk gradually extended to other classes of Chinese society, though this was mainly the uppermost noble classes. Silk began to be used for decorative means and also in less luxurious ways; musical instruments, fishing, and bow-making all utilized silk. Peasants, however, did not have the right to wear silk until the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).[4] Paper was one of the greatest discoveries of ancient China. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, paper was made in all sizes with various materials.[13] Silk was no exception, and silk workers had been making paper since the 2nd century BC. Silk, bamboo, linen, wheat and rice straw were all used, and paper made with silk became the first type of luxury paper. Researchers have found an early example of writing done on silk paper in the tomb of a marchioness, who died around 168[vague], in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan. The material was more expensive, but also more practical than bamboo slips. Treatises on many subjects, including meteorology, medicine, astrology, divinity, and even maps written on silk[14] have been discovered. Chinese painting on silk, with playing children wearing silk clothes, by Su Hanchen (active 1130s–1160s), Song dynasty During the Han dynasty, silk became progressively more valuable in its own right, and was used in a greater capacity than as simply a material; lengths of silk cloth were used to pay government officials and to compensate citizens who were particularly worthy. In the same manner that one would sometimes estimate the price of products according to a certain weight of gold, a length of silk cloth became a monetary standard in China, in addition to bronze coins. Many neighbouring countries began to grow envious of the wealth that sericulture provided China, and beginning in the 2nd century BC, the Xiongnu people regularly pillaged the provinces of the Han Chinese for around 250 years. Silk was a common offering by the emperor to these tribes in exchange for peace. Silk is described in a chapter of the Fan Shengzhi shu from the Western Han period (206 BC–9 AD), and a surviving calendar for silk production in an Eastern Han (25–220 AD) document. The two other known works on silk from the Han period are lost.[1] The military payrolls tell us that soldiers were paid in bundles of plain silk textiles, which circulated as currency in Han times. Soldiers may well have traded their silk with the nomads who came to the gates of the Great Wall to sell horses and furs.[15] For more than a millennium, silk remained the principal diplomatic gift of the emperor of China to neighbouring countries or vassal states.[4] The use of silk became so important that the character for silk (糸) soon constituted one of the principal radicals of Chinese script. As a material for clothing and accessories, the use of silk was regulated by a very precise code in China. For example, the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty used colour symbolism to denote the various ranks of bureaucrats, according to their function in society, with certain colours of silk restricted to the upper classes only. Under the Ming Dynasty, silk began to be used in a series of accessories: handkerchiefs, wallets, belts, or even as an embroidered piece of fabric displaying dozens of animals, real or mythical. These fashion accessories remained associated with a particular position: there was specific headgear for warriors, for judges, for nobles, and others for religious use. The women of high Chinese society also followed these codified practices, and used silk in their garments alongside the addition of countless decorative motifs.[4] A 17th century work, Jin Ping Mei, gives a description of one such motif: Golden lotus having a quilted backgammon pattern, double-folded, adorned with savage geese pecking at a landscape of flowers and roses; the dress' right figure had a floral border with buttons in the form of bees or chrysanthemums.[4] Chinese silk making process The silkworms and mulberry leaves are placed on trays. Twig frames for the silkworms are prepared. The cocoons are weighed. The cocoons are soaked and the silk is wound on spools. The silk is woven using a loom. Silk moths and production techniques used in China[edit] Polychrome embroidery in silk, 17th century, Antwerp French silk brocade - Lyon 1760–1770 Silk was made using various breeds of lepidopterans, both wild and domestic. While wild silks were produced in many countries, the Chinese are considered to have been the first to produce silk fabric on a large scale, having the most efficient species of silk moth for silk production, the Bombyx mandarina, and its domesticated descendant, Bombyx mori. Chinese sources claim the existence in 1090 of a machine to unwind silkworm cocoons; the cocoons were placed in a large basin of hot water, the silk would leave the cauldron by tiny guiding rings, and would be wound onto a large spool, using a backward and forward motion.[13] However, little information exists about the spinning techniques previously used in China. The spinning wheel, in all likelihood moved by hand, was known to exist by the beginning of the Christian era.[clarification needed] The first accepted image of a spinning wheel appears in 1210, with an image of a silk spinning machine powered by a water wheel that dates to 1313. More information is known about the looms used. The 'Nung Sang Chi Yao, or Fundamentals of Agriculture and Sericulture (compiled around 1210) is rich with pictures and descriptions, many pertaining to silk.[16] It repeatedly claims the Chinese looms to be far superior to all others, and speaks of two types of loom that leave the worker's arms free: the drawloom, which is of Eurasian origin, and the pedal loom, which is attributed to East Asian origins. There are many diagrams of these that originate in the 12th and 13th centuries. When examined closely, many similarities between Eurasian machines can be drawn. Following the Jin Dynasty (266–420), the existence of silk damasks was well recorded, and beginning in the 2nd century BC, four-shafted looms and other innovations allowed the creation of silk brocades. The Silk Road and trade (2nd–8th century)[edit] Further information: Silk Road and Sino-Roman relations The main silk roads between 500 BC and 500 AD A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, 1st century AD Numerous archaeological discoveries show that silk had become a luxury material appreciated in foreign countries well before the opening of the Silk Road by the Chinese. For example, silk has been found in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt, in the tomb of a mummy dating to 1070 BC.[17] Both the Greeks and the Romans - the latter later than the former - spoke of the Seres, "people of silk", a term used for the inhabitants of the far-off kingdom of China. According to certain historians, the first Roman contact with silk was that of the legions of the governor of Syria, Crassus. At the Battle of Carrhae, near the Euphrates, the legions were said to be so surprised by the brilliance of the banners of Parthia that they fled.[17] The Silk Road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century AD. The main road left from Xi'an, going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert, one of the most arid in the world, before crossing the Pamir Mountains. The caravans that travelled this route to exchange silk with other merchants were generally sizeable, constituting 100 to 500 people, as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kilograms (310 lb) of merchandise. The route linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean, about one year's travel from Xi'an. In the south, a second route went by Yemen, Burma, and India before rejoining the northern route.[18][19] Not long after the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, regular commerce began between the Romans and Asia, marked by the Roman appetite for silk cloth coming from the Far East, which was then resold to the Romans by the Parthians. The Roman Senate tried in vain to prohibit the wearing of silk, for economic reasons as well as moral ones. The import of Chinese silk resulted in vast amounts of gold leaving Rome, to such an extent that silk clothing was perceived as a sign of decadence and immorality. I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes. ... Wretched flocks of maids labor so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body. — Seneca the Younger, Declamations Vol. I.[20] China traded silk, teas, and porcelain, while India traded spices, ivory, textiles, precious stones, and pepper, and the Roman Empire exported gold, silver, fine glassware, wine, carpets, and jewels. Although the term "the Silk Road" implies a continuous journey, very few who traveled the route traversed it from end to end; for the most part, goods were transported by a series of agents on varying routes, and were traded in the bustling markets of the oasis towns.[21] The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian traders, followed by Sogdian traders from the 5th to the 8th century AD, and then followed by Arab and Persian traders. In the late Middle Ages, transcontinental trade over the land routes of the Silk Road declined as sea trade increased.[22] The Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the civilizations of China, India, Ancient Egypt, Persia, Arabia, and Ancient Rome. Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, many other goods were traded, and various technologies, religions and philosophies, as well as the bubonic plague (the "Black Death"), also traveled along the silk routes. Some of the other goods traded included luxuries such as silk, satin, hemp and other fine fabrics, musk, other perfumes, spices, medicines, jewels, glassware, and even rhubarb, as well as slaves.[21] Global spread of sericulture (4th–16th century)[edit] Sassanid inspired two-sided silk cloth, with winged lions and tree of life, from the early Islamic period in Iran, National Museum of Iran. Chinese Embassy, carrying silk and a string of silkworm cocoons, 7th century CE, Afrasiyab, Sogdia.[23] Although silk was well known in Europe and most of Asia, China was able to keep a near-monopoly on silk production for several centuries, defended by an imperial decree and condemning to death anyone attempting to export silkworms or their eggs.[citation needed] According to the Nihongi, sericulture reached Japan for the first time around 300 AD, following a number of Koreans, having been sent from Japan to China, recruiting four young Chinese girls to teach the art of plain and figured weaving in Japan.[24] Techniques of sericulture were subsequently introduced to Japan on a larger scale by frequent diplomatic exchanges between the 8th and 9th centuries. Starting in the 4th century BC, silk began to reach the Hellenistic world by merchants who would exchange it for gold, ivory, horses or precious stones. Up to the frontiers of the Roman Empire, silk became a monetary standard for estimating the value of different products. Hellenistic Greece appreciated the high quality of the Chinese goods and made efforts to plant mulberry trees and breed silkworms in the Mediterranean basin, while Sassanid Persia controlled the trade of silk destined for Europe and Byzantium. The Greek word for "silken" was σηρικός, from Seres (Σῆρες), the name of the people from whom silk was first obtained, according to Strabo.[25] The Greek word gave rise to the Latin 'sericum', and ultimately the Old English 'sioloc', which later developed into the Middle English 'silk'. The monks sent by Justinian give the silkworms to the emperor. According to a story by Procopius,[26] it was not until 552 AD that the Byzantine emperor Justinian obtained the first silkworm eggs. He had sent two Nestorian monks to Central Asia, and they were able to smuggle silkworm eggs to him hidden in rods of bamboo. While under the monks' care, the eggs hatched, though they did not cocoon before arrival. The church manufacture in the Byzantine Empire was thus able to make fabrics for the emperor, with the intention of developing a large silk industry in the Eastern Roman Empire, using techniques learned from the Sassanids. These gynecia had a legal monopoly on the fabric, but the empire continued to import silk from other major urban centers on the Mediterranean.[27] The silk produced by the Byzantines was well known for its high quality, owing to the meticulous attention paid to the execution of its weaving and decoration, with weaving techniques taken from Egypt used to produce the fabric. The first diagrams of semple looms appeared in the 5th century.[28] The Arabs, with their widening conquests, spread sericulture across the shores of the Mediterranean, leading to the development of sericulture in North Africa, Andalusia, Sicily[29] and Southern Italy's Calabria, which was under the Byzantine dominion. According to André Guillou,[30] mulberry trees for the production of raw silk were introduced to southern Italy by the Byzantines at the end of the 9th century. Around 1050, the theme of Calabria had cultivated 24,000, mulberry trees for their foliage, with growth still ongoing. The interactions among Byzantine and Muslim silk-weaving centers of all levels of quality, with imitations made in Andalusia and Lucca, among other cities, have made the identification and date of rare surviving examples difficult to pinpoint.[31] Catanzaro, in the region of Calabria, was the first center to introduce silk production to Italy between the 9th and the 11th century. During the following centuries, the silk of Catanzaro supplied almost all of Europe and was sold in a large market fair in the port of Reggio Calabria to Spanish, Venetian, Genoese, Florentine and Dutch merchants. Catanzaro became the lace capital of Europe, with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in the Vatican. The city was famous for its fine fabrication of silks, velvets, damasks, and brocades.[32][33] While the cultivation of mulberry was moving first steps in Northern Italy, silk made in Calabria reached a peak of 50% of the whole Italian/European production. As the cultivation of mulberry was difficult in Northern and Continental Europe, merchants and operators used to purchase raw materials in Calabria in order to finish the products, before reselling them for a higher price. Genoese silk artisans also used fine Calabrian and Sicilian silk for the production of velvets.[34] While the Chinese lost their monopoly on silk production, they were able to re-establish themselves as major silk suppliers during the Tang dynasty, and to industrialize their production on a large scale during the Song dynasty.[35] China continued to export high-quality fabric to Europe and the Near East along the Silk Road; however, following the beginning of the first Crusades, techniques of silk production began to spread across Western Europe. In 1147, while Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos was focusing all his efforts on the Second Crusade, the Norman king Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centers of Byzantine silk production. They took the crops and silk production infrastructure, and deported all the workers to Palermo and Calabria,[36] thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish.[37] The sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 brought decline to the city and its silk industry, and many artisans left the city in the early 13th century.[29] Italy developed a large domestic silk industry after 2,000 skilled weavers came from Constantinople. Many also chose to settle in Avignon to furnish the popes of Avignon. The sudden boom of the silk industry in the Italian state of Lucca, starting in the 11th and 12th centuries, was due to much Sicilian, Jewish, and Greek settlement, alongside many other immigrants from neighboring cities in southern Italy.[38] With the loss of many Italian trading posts in the Orient, the import of Chinese styles drastically declined. In order to satisfy the demands of the rich and powerful bourgeoisie for luxury fabrics, the cities of Lucca, Genoa, Venice and Florence increase the momentum of their silk production, and were soon exporting silk to all of Europe, with 84 workshops and at least 7,000 craftsmen in Florence in 1472 alone. In 1519, Emperor Charles V formally recognized the growth of the industry of Catanzaro by allowing the city to establish a consulate of the silk craft, charged with regulating and check in the various stages of a production that flourished throughout the 16th century. At the moment of the creation of its guild, the city declared that it had over 500 looms. By 1660, when the town had about 16,000 inhabitants, its silk industry kept 1,000 looms, and at least 5,000 people, in employment. The silk textiles of Catanzaro were not only sold at the Kingdom of Naples's markets, they were also exported to Venice, France, Spain and England.[39] Use of silk in the Medieval period (5th–15th century)[edit] Importance as a luxury good[edit] A mature mulberry tree in Provence. The high Middle Ages (1000–1250 AD) saw continued use of established techniques for silk manufacture without change in either materials or tools used. Small changes began to appear between the 10th and 12th centuries, followed by larger and more radical innovations in the 13th century, resulting in the invention of new fabrics; other, more mundane fabrics made of hemp and cotton also developed. Silk remained a rare and expensive material,[40] but improved technology saw Byzantine magnaneries in Greece and Syria (6th to 8th centuries), silk production centres in Calabria and those of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain (8th to 10th centuries) able to supply the luxury material in much greater abundance.[40] Improved silk production technology[edit] The 13th century saw an improve in the already-changing technology of silk production; as with the Industrial Revolution of late-18th century England, advances in silk production also possibly accompanied more general advances in the technology of modern society as a whole.[41] At the beginning of the 13th century, a primitive form of milling silk yarns was in use; Jean de Garlande's 1221 dictionary and Étienne Boileau's 1226 Livre des métiers (Tradesman's Handbook) both illustrate many types of machinery which can only have been doubling machines. This machinery was further perfected in Bologna between 1270 and 1280. From the start of the 14th century, many documents allude to the use of complex weaving machinery.[42] Depictions of fabric production techniques from this time period can be found in several places; the earliest surviving depiction of a European spinning wheel is a panel of stained glass in the Cathedral of Chartres,[43] alongside bobbins and warping machines appearing both together in the stained glass at Chartres and in a fresco in the Cologne Kunkelhaus (c. 1300). It is possible that the toothed warping machine was created by the silk industry, as it allowed the for a longer length of warp to hold more uniformity throughout the length of the cloth.[42] Towards the end of the 14th century, no doubt on account of the devastation caused mid-century by the Black Death, trends began to shift towards less expensive production techniques. Many techniques that earlier in the century would have been completely forbidden by the guilds for low-quality production were now commonplace (such as using low-quality wool, carding, etc.). In the silk industry, the use of water-powered mills grew. In the second half of the 15th century, drawloom technology was first brought to France by an Italian weaver from Calabria, known as Jean le Calabrais,[44] who was invited to Lyon by Louis XI.[45] He introduced a new kind of machine, which had the ability to work the yarns faster and more precisely. Further improvements to the loom were made throughout the century.[46] The silk industry in France[edit] A picture from the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert, showing the different steps in sericulture and the manufacture of silk. Though highly regarded for its quality, Italian silk cloth was very expensive, both due to the costs of the raw materials and the production process. The craftsmen in Italy proved unable to keep up with the needs of French fashions, which continuously demanded lighter and less expensive materials.[47] These materials, used for clothing, began to be produced locally instead; however, Italian silk remained for a long time amongst the most prized, mostly for furnishings and the brilliant nature of the dyestuffs used. Following the example of the wealthy Italian city-states of the era, such as Venice, Florence, and Lucca (which had become the center of the luxury-textile industry), Lyon obtained a similar function in the French market. In 1466, King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon, and employed a large number of Italian workers, mainly from Calabria. The fame of the master weavers of Catanzaro spread throughout France, and they were invited to Lyon in order to teach the techniques of weaving. The drawloom that appeared in those years in France was called loom by Jean Le Calabrais.[48] In the face of protests by the people of Lyon, Louis XI conceded to move silk production to Tours, but the industry in Tours stayed relatively marginal. His main objective was to reduce France's trade deficit with the Italian states, which caused France to lose 400,000 to 500,000 golden écus a year.[49] It was under Francis I in around 1535 that a royal charter was granted to two merchants, Étienne Turquet and Barthélemy Naris, to develop a silk trade in Lyon. In 1540, the king granted a monopoly on silk production to the city of Lyon. Starting in the 16th century, Lyon became the capital of the European silk trade, notably producing many reputable fashions.[50] Gaining confidence, the silks produced in the city began to abandon their original Oriental styles in favor of their own distinctive style, which emphasized landscapes. Thousand of workers, the canuts, devoted themselves to the flourishing industry. In the middle of the 17th century, over 14,000 looms were used in Lyon, and the silk industry fed a third of the city's population.[50] In the 18th and 19th centuries, Provence experienced a boom in sericulture that would last until World War I, with much of the silk shipped north to Lyon. Viens and La Bastide-des-Jourdans are two of the communes of Luberon that profited the most from its now-extinct mulberry plantations.[51] However, silk centers still operate today.[52] Working at home under the domestic system, silk spinning and silk treatment employed many people and increased the income of the working class. Silk industries in other countries[edit] A former magnanery in Luberon England under Henry IV (1367–1413) also looked to develop a silk industry, but no opportunity arose until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the 1680s, when hundreds of thousands of French Huguenots, many of whom were skilled weavers and experts in sericulture, began immigrating to England to escape religious persecution. Some areas, including Spitalfields, saw many high-quality silk workshops spring up, their products distinct from continental silk largely by the colors used.[53] Nonetheless, the British climate prevented England's domestic silk trade from becoming globally dominant. Many envisioned starting a silk industry in the British colonies in America, starting in 1619 under the reign of King James I of England; however the silk industry in the colonies never became very large. Likewise, silk was introduced to numerous other countries, including Mexico, where it was brought by Cortez in 1522. Only rarely did these new silk industries grow to any significant size.[54] Silk in the modern day (1760–present)[edit] Portrait of Maria Ivanovna Tatischeva by David Lüders (1759) Moscow, State Tretyakov Gallery Mme Tatischeva is shown wearing a paduasoy silk dress. The Industrial Revolution[edit] The start of the Industrial Revolution was marked by a massive boom in the textile industry in general, with remarkable technological innovations made, led by the cotton industry of Great Britain. In its early years, there were often disparities in technological innovation between different stages of fabric manufacture, which encouraged complementary innovations. For example, spinning progressed much more rapidly than weaving. The silk industry, however, did not gain any benefit from innovations in spinning, as silk did not require spinning in order to be woven. Furthermore, the production of silver, and gold silk brocades was a very delicate and precise process, with each color needing its own dedicated shuttle. In the 17th and 18th centuries, progress began to be made in the simplification and standardization of silk manufacture, with many advances following one after another. Bouchon and Falcon's punched card loom appeared in 1775, later improved on by Jacques de Vaucanson. Later, Joseph-Marie Jacquard improved on the designs of Falcon and Vaucanson, introducing the revolutionary Jacquard loom, which allowed a string of punched cards to be processed mechanically in the correct sequence.[55] The punched cards of the Jacquard loom were a direct precursor to the modern computer, in that they gave a (limited) form of programmability. Punched cards themselves were carried over to computers and were ubiquitous until their obsolescence in the 1970s. From 1801, embroidery-style designs became highly mechanized, due to the effectiveness of the Jacquard loom in imitating embroidered fabrics. The mechanism behind the Jacquard looms even allowed complex designs to be mass-produced. The Jacquard loom was immediately denounced by workers, who accused it of causing unemployment, but it soon became vital to the industry. The loom was declared as public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. In 1834, there were a total of 2,885 Jacquard looms in Lyon alone.[50] The Canut revolt in 1831 foreshadowed many of the larger worker uprisings of the Industrial Revolution. The canuts occupied the city of Lyon, refusing to relinquish it until a bloody repression by the army, led by Marshal Soult. A second revolt, similar to the first, took place in 1834. Decline in the European silk industry[edit] The first silkworm diseases began to appear in 1845, creating an epidemic. Among them were pébrine, caused by the microsporidia Nosema bombycis; grasserie, caused by a virus; flacherie, caused by eating infected mulberry leaves; and white muscardine disease, caused by the fungus Beauveria bassiana. The epidemic grew to a massive scale, and spread to infect the mulberry trees after having affected the silkworms. The chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, French minister of agriculture, was charged with stopping the epidemic. In face of sericulturers' call for help, he asked Louis Pasteur to study the disease, starting in 1865.[56] For many years, Pasteur thought that pébrine was not a contagious disease; however, in 1870 he changed his view, and measures were enacted that caused the disease to decline. Nevertheless, the increase in the price of silkworm cocoons and the reduction in the importance of silk in the garments of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century caused the decline of the silk industry in Europe. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the silk shortage in France reduced the price of importing Asian silk, particularly from China and Japan.[57] Starting from the Long Depression (1873–1896), Lyonnais silk production had become totally industrialized, and handlooms were rapidly disappearing. The 19th century saw the textile industry's progress caused by advances in chemistry. The synthesis of aniline was used to make mauveine (aniline purple) dye, and the synthesis of quinine was used to make indigo dye. In 1884, Count Hilaire de Chardonnet invented viscose, intended as an artificial silk, and in 1891 opened a factory dedicated to the production of viscose, which cost much less and in part replaced natural silk. A Jacquard loom. An illustration of spinning, winding, doubling, and throwing machines used in silk textile production in England, 1858. Silk, cotton and gilt-metal-strip-wrapped cotton panel, machine-woven in Scotland c. 1887. The tulip motif is inspired by Turkish textiles. Silk in modern times[edit] A woman weaving with silk threads in Hotan, China. Following the crisis in Europe, the modernization of sericulture in Japan made it the world's foremost silk producer. By the early 20th century, rapidly industrializing Japan was producing as much as 60 percent of the world's raw silk, most exports shipping through the port of Yokohama.[58] Italy managed to rebound from the crisis, but France was unable. Urbanization in Europe saw many French and Italian agricultural workers leave silk growing for more lucrative factory work. Raw silk was imported from Japan to fill the void.[9] Asian countries, formerly exporters of raw materials (cocoons and raw silk), progressively began to export more and more finished garments. During the Second World War, silk supplies from Japan were cut off, so western countries were forced to find substitutes. Synthetic fibers such as nylon were used in products such as parachutes and stockings, replacing silk. Even after the war, silk was not able to regain many of the markets lost, though it remained an expensive luxury product.[9] Postwar Japan, through improvements in technology and a protectionist market policy, became the world's foremost exporter of raw silk, a position it held until the 1970s.[9] The continued rise in the importance of synthetic fibers and loosening of the protectionist economy contributed to the decline of Japan's silk industry, and by 1975 it was no longer a net exporter of silk.[59] With its recent economic reforms, the People's Republic of China has become the world's largest silk producer. In 1996 it produced 58,000 tonnes out of a world production of 81,000, followed by India at 13,000 tonnes. Japanese production is now marginal, at only 2,500 tonnes. Between 1995 and 1997, Chinese silk production went down 40% in an effort to raise prices, reminiscent of earlier shortages.[60] In December 2006 the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of silk and other natural fibres. Notes[edit] ^ a b Vainker, Shelagh (2004). Chinese Silk: A Cultural History. Rutgers University Press. pp. 20, 17. ISBN 978-0813534466. ^ Tang, Chi and Miao, Liangyun, "Zhongguo Sichoushi" ("History of Silks in China") Archived 2007-11-23 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. ^ "Textile Exhibition: Introduction". Asian art. Retrieved 2007-08-02. ^ a b c d e f (in French) Charles Meyer, Des mûriers dans le jardin du mandarin, Historia, n°648, December 2000. ^ a b c (in French) "Soie'" (§2. Historique), Encyclopédie Encarta ^ Meadow, Richard. "New Evidence for Early Silk in the Indus Civilization". Archaeometry. ^ Good, I. L.; Kenoyer, J. M.; Meadow, R. H. (2009). "New Evidence for Early Silk in the Indus Civilization*" (PDF). Archaeometry. 51 (3): 457–466. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00454.x. ISSN 1475-4754. ^ Bahn, Paul G. (2000). The Atlas of World Geology. New York: Checkmark Books. pp. 128. ISBN 978-0-8160-4051-3. ^ a b c d "The History of Silk". The Silk Association of Great Britain. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-10-23. ^ Hill (2009), "Appendix A: Introduction of Silk Cultivation to Khotan in the 1st Century AD.", pp. 466-467. ^ Jean-Noël Robert. "Les relations entre le monde romain et la Chine : la tentation du Far East" (in French). clio.fr. Archived from the original on May 22, 2007. Retrieved May 6, 2007. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 11.xxvi.76 ^ a b (in French) Histoire des techniques p.455 ^ Plous, Estelle. "A History of Silk Maps". TravelLady Magazine. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-05-20. ^ Liu (2010), p. 12. ^ Joseph Needham, Francesca Bray, Hsing-Tsung Huang, Christian Daniels, Nicholas K. Menzies, Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge University Press, 1984 p. 72 ISBN 0-521-25076-5 ^ a b "History of Silk". Silk road Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-08. ^ (in French) "Histoire de la Route de la soie", Encyclopædia Universalis ^ (in French) Charles Meyer, "Les routes de la soie: 22 siècles d'aventure", Historia, n°648 December 2000. ^ Seneca the Younger, Declamations Vol. I. ^ a b Wood, Francis (2002). The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 9, 13–23. ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8. ^ Hogan, C. Michael. "The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map: Silk Road, North China [Northern Silk Road, North Silk Road] Ancient Trackway". www.megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-07-05. ^ Whitfield, Susan. The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. British Library. Serindia Publications, Inc. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2. ^ Cook (1999), 144. ^ Strabo 11.11.1, 15.1.34. The earliest example of the adjective 'σηρικός' was recorded in the 2nd century AD, found in Lucian (De saltatione 63), Cassius Dio (43.24), and Pausanias (6.26.6). ^ [1] ^ (in French) Catherine Jolivet-Lévy and Jean-Pierre Sodini (2006), "Byzance", in Encyclopædia Universalis ^ (in French) Histoire des Techniques p.435 ^ a b (in French) Anne Kraatz, Marie Risselin-Steenebrugen, Michèle Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens and Madeleine Paul-David (2006), "Tissus d'art", in Encyclopædia Universalis ^ Guillou, André; Delogu, Paolo (1983). "Il Mezzogiorno dai Bizantini a Federico II". Storia d'Italia (in Italian). III. UTET. ^ Jacoby, David (2004). "Silk Economics and Cross-Cultural Artistic Interaction: Byzantium, the Muslim World, and the Christian West". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 58: 197–240. doi:10.2307/3591386. ^ https://www.madeinitalyfor.me/en/info/lantica-e-nobile-arte-serica/ ^ https://www.britannica.com/place/Catanzaro-Italy ^ Malanima, Paolo (2004). "Le sete della Calabria". In Fusco, Ida Maria (ed.). La seta. E oltre... (in Italian). Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. pp. 55–68. ISBN 8849509499. ^ Heleanor B. Feltham: Justinian and the International Silk Trade, p. 34 ^ Muthesius, Anna, "Silk in the Medieval World". In Jenkins (2003), p. 331. ^ (in French) Georges Ostrogorsky, Histoire de l'état byzantin, Payot, 1956, reedited in 1977, ISBN 2-228-07061-0 ^ (in French) Histoire des techniques p.551 ^ Sakellariou, Eleni (2012). Southern Italy in the Late Middle Ages: Demographic, Institutional Change in the Kingdom of Naples, c.1440-c.1530. Brill. ISBN 978-900-422-4063. ^ a b Xinru Liu, Silk and Religion: An Exploration of Material Life and the Thought of People AD 600-1200, Oxford University Press US, 1998. ^ (in French) Histoire des Techniques p. 553 ^ a b (in French) Histoire des Techniques p.557 ^ Ronan (1994), 68, ^ (in French) Histoire des Techniques p.639 ^ Rubino, Angela (2006). La seta a Catanzaro e Lione. Echi lontani e attività presente [Silk in Catanzaro and Lyon. Distant echoes and present activity] (in Italian). Calabria Letteraria. ISBN 8875741271. ^ http://media.handweaving.net/DigitalArchive/books/wp_Chapter_01.pdf ^ (in French) Autour du Fil, l'encyclopédie des arts textiles ^ Rossi, Cesare; Russo, Flavio (2016). Ancient Engineers' Inventions: Precursors of the Present. ^ (in French) Georges Duby (ed), Histoire de la France: Dynasties et révolutions, de 1348 à 1852 (vol. 2), Larousse, 1999 p. 53 ISBN 2-03-505047-2 ^ a b c (in French) Gérard Chauvy, "La dure condition des forçats du luxe", Historia, n°648, December 2000 ^ (in French) Guide Gallimard - Parc naturel LUBERON ^ Waters, Sarah. "The Silk Industry in Lyon, France." Museum of the City. Accessed 6 October 2017. http://www.museumofthecity.org/project/the-silk-industry-in-lyon-france/ Archived 2017-10-23 at the Wayback Machine ^ Thirsk (1997), 120. ^ Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer The Encyclopedia of World History, Houghton Mifflin Books, 2001 p. 403 ISBN 0-395-65237-5 ^ (in French) Histoire des techniques p.718 ^ "Louis Pasteur," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Archived 2009-11-01. ^ A. J. H. Latham and Heita Kawakatsu, Japanese Industrialization and the Asian Economy p. 199 ^ Reilly, Benjamin (2009). Disaster and Human History: Case Studies in Nature, Society, and Catastrophe. Jefferson N.C.: McFarland & Company Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-7864-3655-2. ^ "The Cocoon Strikes Back: Innovative Products Could Revive a Dying Industry". Japan Information Network. 2000. Retrieved October 23, 2007. ^ Anthony H. Gaddum, "Silk", Business and Industry Review, (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica References[edit] Main sources: Bertrand Gille. Histoire des techniques, Gallimard, coll. La Pléiade, 1978 ( ISBN 978-2-07-010881-7)(in French) The Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert (in French) Catherine Jolivet-Lévy et Jean-Pierre Sodini, "Byzance", in Encyclopædia Universalis, 2006. (in French) "La Soie, 4000 ans de luxe et de volupté", Historia, n°648, décembre 2000. (in French) Ron Cherry, "Sericulture", Entomological Society of America [2] Cook, Robert. Handbook of Textile Fibres Vol. 1: Natural Fibres. Cambridge: Woodhead, 1999. "Silk", Encyclopædia Britannica "Soie", Encyclopédie Encarta (in French) Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Anne Kraatz, Marie Risselin-Steenebrugen, Michèle Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens et Madeleine Paul-David, "Tissus d'art", in Encyclopædia Universalis, 2006. (in French) Liu, Xinru (2010). The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516174-8; ISBN 978-0-19-533810-2 (pbk). Sakellariou, Eleni, Southern Italy in the Late Middle Ages: Demographic, Institutional and Economic Change in the Kingdom of Naples, c.1440-c.1530, Brill, 2012. ISBN 978-900-422-4063 Toshiharu Furusawa, "The history of Sericulture in Japan – The old and innovative technique for Industry-", Center for Bioresource Field Science, Kyoto Institute of Technology (pdf) "Métiers agricoles - Magnaniers", Institut supérieur de l'agroalimentaire [3] Ronan, Colin. The Shorter Science and Civilization in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1994. (in French) Thirsk, Joan (1997) Alternative Agriculture: A History from the Black Death to the Present Day. Oxford: Oxford University, 1997. Further reading[edit] Watt, James C.Y.; Wardwell, Anne E. (1997). When silk was gold: Central Asian and Chinese textiles. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870998256. External links[edit] China National Silk Museum, Hangzhou, China (中国丝绸博物馆) https://web.archive.org/web/20171203224557/http://en.chinasilkmuseum.com/ "Sericulture in Asia: Yesterday, today, tomorrow", Asia and Pacific Network v t e Silk General History of silk Magnanery Sericulture Silk mill Silk Road Silk throwing Silk waste Types Ahimsa silk Assam silk Atlas silk Byzantine silk Burmese silk Chinese silk Eri silk Pat silk Japanese silk Lao silk Mysore silk Rajshahi silk Sea silk Thai silk Tussar silk Wild silk Industries Silk in the Indian subcontinent Silk industry in China Silk industry of Cheshire Products Sari Tenun Pahang Diraja v t e Silkworm Andy Cohen Tim Midyett Matt Kadane Michael Dahlquist Joel RL Phelps Full-lengths L'ajre (1992) In The West (1994) Libertine (1994) Firewater (1996) Developer (1997) Blueblood (1998) Lifestyle (2000) Italian Platinum (2002) It'll Be Cool (2004) EPs His Absence Is A Blessing EP (1993) The Marco Collins Session EP (1995) You Are Dignified EP (2003) Chokes! 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Byzantine silk Clothing and textiles Silk Quilting Silk in the Indian subcontinent Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods Textiles in the British Industrial Revolution Timeline of textile technology Regional and ethnic African Andean Australian Aboriginal Hmong Burmese Acheik Indonesian Balinese Sumba Indigenous peoples of the Americas Kongo Korean Kuba Māori Mapuche Maya Mexican Navajo Oaxacan Related Blocking Fiber art Mathematics and fiber arts Manufacturing Preservation Recycling Textile industry Textile museums Units of measurement Wearable fiber art Glossaries Dyeing terms Sewing terms Textile manufacturing terms  Clothing portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_silk&oldid=1027352491" Categories: Silk Silk production History of the textile industry History of international trade History of Asian clothing Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with French-language sources (fr) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2020 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Pinyin-language text All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2020 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2021 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021 Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text Articles containing Middle English (1100-1500)-language text Articles containing French-language text Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Español Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 12:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5564	----	Roman consul - Wikipedia Roman consul From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political office in ancient Rome Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of the cursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired). Each year, the citizens of Rome elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holding fasces each month when both were in Rome and a consul's imperium extended over Rome and all its provinces. There were two consuls in order to create a check on the power of any individual. After the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority. Contents 1 History 1.1 Under the Republic 1.2 Under the Empire 2 Powers and responsibilities 2.1 Republican duties 2.1.1 Civil sphere 2.1.2 Military sphere 2.1.3 Abuse prevention 2.1.4 Governorship 2.1.5 Appointment of the dictator 2.2 Imperial duties 3 Consular dating 4 Epigraphy 5 Lists of Roman consuls 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography History[edit] Under the Republic[edit] After the legendary expulsion of the last King, Tarquin the Proud, a harsh ruler at the end of the Roman Kingdom, most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. This change in leadership came about when the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped the wives and daughters of powerful Roman nobles. A group of nobles led by Lucius Junius Brutus, with the support of the Roman Army, expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC. Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul became commonly used.[1] Ancient writers usually derive the title consul from the Latin verb consulere, "to take counsel", but this is most likely a later gloss of the term,[2] which probably derives—in view of the joint nature of the office—from con- and sal-, "get together" or from con- and sell-/sedl-, "sit down together with" or "next to".[3] In Greek, the title was originally rendered as στρατηγὸς ὕπατος, strategos hypatos ("the supreme general"), and later simply as ὕπατος.[2] The consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC. During the 440s, the office was quite often replaced with the establishment of the Consular Tribunes, who was elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the two usual consuls.[4] These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367/366 BC and the consulship was reintroduced.[5] Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative, and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. They were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, which had an aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation.[citation needed] However, they formally assumed powers only after the ratification of their election in the older Comitia Curiata, which granted the consuls their imperium by enacting a law, the "lex curiata de imperio". If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the Comitia Centuriata to serve the remainder of the term as consul suffectus ("suffect consul"). A consul elected to start the year—called a consul ordinarius ("ordinary consul")—held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dating). According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in 367 BC did plebeians win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the Lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families as, according to Gelzer[who?], only fifteen novi homines - "new men" with no consular background - were elected to the consulship until the election of Cicero in 63 BC.[6] Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus, came from a plebeian family.[7] Another possible explanation is that during the 5th-century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite.[8] During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum, the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman who chose to pursue political power and influence. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the minimum age of election to consul became, in effect, 42 years of age.[9] Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a proconsul, the Roman Governor of one of the (senatorial) provinces. The most commonly chosen province for the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul. It would not be uncommon for the patrician consuls of the early republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labor.[10] In Cicero’s words: in agris erant tum senators, id est senes:[11] ‘In those days senators—that is, seniors—would live on their farms’. This practice was obsolete by the 2nd century. Under the Empire[edit] Flavius Anastasius (consul of the Eastern Roman Empire for AD 517) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the mappa, a piece of cloth used to signal the start of chariot races at the Hippodrome. Ivory panel from his consular diptych. On the left: Emperor Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) On the right: Consular diptych of Constantius III (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate of the Western Roman Empire in 413 or 417 Although throughout the early years of the Principate, the consuls were still formally elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were de facto nominated by the princeps.[12] As the years progressed, the distinction between the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.[13] The imperial consulate during the period of the High Empire (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.[14] It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[12] Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, Emperor Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Cassius Dio states that Caligula intended to make his horse Incitatus consul, but was assassinated before he could do so.[15] The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate.[12] During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify the Senate's selections.[16] The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to homines novi tended, over time, to devalue the office.[14] However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors.[12] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.[17] Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still relatively republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.[17] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger, without the significant political careers behind them that was normal previously.[17] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.[17] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.[17] One of the reforms of Constantine I (r. 306–337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I (r. 379–395), the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but the celebrations attending it – above all the chariot races – had come to involve considerable expense, which only a few citizens could afford, to the extent that part of the expense had to be covered by the state.[18] In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under Justinian I (r. 527–565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with Decius Paulinus the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Consular dating had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced dating by the emperor's regnal year and the indiction.[19] In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from Justin II (r. 565–578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future Constans II (r. 641–668) as consul in 632.[20] In the late 9th century, Emperor Leo the Wise (r. 886–912) finally abolished consular dating with Novel 94. By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, "hypatos" and "apo hypaton", had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities.[21] In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel, although he refused it.[22] About 853, Alfred the Great, then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope. Powers and responsibilities[edit] Republican duties[edit] After the expulsion of the kings and the establishment of the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: that of the consuls and the Rex Sacrorum. While the Rex Sacrorum inherited the kings’ position as high priest of the state, the consuls were given the civil and military responsibilities (imperium). However, to prevent abuse of the kingly power, the imperium was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other's actions. The consuls were invested with the executive power of the state and headed the government of the Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the responsibility to conduct the census was taken from the consuls and given to the censors. The second function taken from the consulship was their judicial power. Their position as chief judges was transferred to the praetors in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate. Civil sphere[edit] For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the head of government, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the tribunes of the plebeians, were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls’ supervision. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgment. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates. As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the assemblies. Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might even act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the chief diplomat of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone carried on the negotiations between the Senate and foreign states. The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served as president of the Senate for a month. They could also summon any of the three Roman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus. Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each lictor held a fasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment[citation needed]. When inside the pomerium, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people (populus romanus). Military sphere[edit] Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as commanders-in-chief of all Roman legions. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full imperium. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the levy in the Campus Martius. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome's allies.[23] Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally. Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome was a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war.[24] So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph. The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC). Abuse prevention[edit] Abuse of power by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to veto his colleague. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term. Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office. There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships. Governorship[edit] Main article: Roman governor After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to proconsular Imperium, the consul would become a proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome's many provinces. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years. Appointment of the dictator[edit] In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate.[25] While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator. Imperial duties[edit] After Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC with the establishment of the principate, the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities under the Roman Empire. Though still officially the highest office of the state, with the emperor's superior imperium they were merely a symbol of Rome's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves and eventually became reserved solely for the Emperor. However, the imperial consuls still maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate, exercising this right at the pleasure of the Emperor[citation needed]. They partially administered justice in extraordinary cases, and presented games in the Circus Maximus and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperor at their own expense. After the expiration of their offices, the ex-consuls usually went on to govern one of the provinces that were administered by the Senate. They usually served proconsular terms of three to five years[citation needed]. Consular dating[edit] Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus — although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".[26] The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and from 153 BC onwards it was on 1 January.[27] The practice of dating years ab urbe condita (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used. In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus", translated literally as "Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupius Piso being the consuls", which appears in Caesar's De Bello Gallico. Consular Dating Key 509–479 BC: 1 September–29 August (August had only 29 days in Ancient Rome) 478–451 BC: 1 August–31 July 449–403 BC: 13 December–12 December 402–393 BC: 1 October–29 September (September had 29 days) 392–329 BC: 1 July–29 June (29 days) 222–154 BC: 15 March–14 March 153–46 BC: 1 January–29 December (29 days) [28] Epigraphy[edit] An antoninianus commemorating the third consulate ("COS III") of the emperor Philip (248 AD). The word consul is abbreviated as COS.[29] The disappearance of the N is explained by the fact that in Classical Latin an N before a fricative is pronounced as a nasalization of the previous vowel (meaning consul is pronounced /kõːsul/). Also, consul is pronounced [ko:sul], as shown in ancient writing, "COSOL", whereas the classical spelling (consul) seems like an etymological reminder of the nasal consonant.[30] If a senator held the consulship twice then: COS becomes COS II; thrice becomes COS III, etc. Lists of Roman consuls[edit] For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: List of Roman consuls List of undated Roman consuls List of consuls designate See also[edit] Look up consul in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Constitution of the Roman Republic – The norms, customs, and written laws, which guided the government of the Roman Republic French Consulate References[edit] ^ Lintott, Andrew (2004). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 0198150687. ^ a b Kübler, B. (1900). "Consul". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7, Claudius mons-Cornificius. pp. 1112–1138. ^ Gizewski, Christian (2013). "Consul(es)". Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013. ^ Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 236. ISBN 0520226518. ^ Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 237. ISBN 0520226518. ^ Wirszubzki, Ch. Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate. Reprint. Cambridge University Press, 1960, p. 15. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius ^ T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, chapter 10.4. ^ Telford, L. (2014). Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered. United Kingdom: Pen & Sword Military, pg. 216 ^ Jehne, M. (2011) ‘The rise of the consular as a social type in the third and second centuries BC’ in Becket al. (eds.) Consuls and Res Publica (Cambridge) 212 ^ Cic. Sen. 56 ^ a b c d Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 1. ^ Bury, John B, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893), pg. 29 ^ a b Bagnall et al. 1987, pp. 1–2. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 59:14:7 ^ Michael Gagarin, Elaine Fantham; The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (2010), pgs. 296-297 ^ a b c d e Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 2. ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 527, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526–527, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 526, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, pp. 526, 963–964, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 ^ e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ Polybius - Histories book VI ^ War and society in the Roman World ed. Rich & Shipley ^ Arthur Keaveney, in Sulla, the Last Republican (Routledge, 1982, 2nd edition 2005), p. 162ff online, discusses the appointment of a dictator in regard to Sulla, in which case exceptions were made. ^ Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar Chapter XX. ^ E.J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 64 ^ Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, Commentary on Livy, books 1–5, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 404, 405. ^ (in French) Mireille Cébeillac-Gervasoni, Maria Letizia Caldelli, Fausto Zevi, Épigraphie latine. Ostie : cent inscriptions dans leur contexte, Armand Colin, 2006, ISBN 2-200-21774-9, p. 34. ^ (in French) Pierre Monteil, Éléments de phonétique et de morphologie du latin, Nathan, 1970, p. 75. Bibliography[edit] Bagnall, Roger S; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R; Worp, Klaus Anthony (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Volume 36 of Philological monographs of the American Philological Association. London: Scholar Press. Burgess, R. W. (1989). "Consuls and Consular Dating in the Later Roman Empire". Phoenix (Review). 43 (2): 143–157. doi:10.2307/1088213. Beck, Hans; Duplá, Antonio; Jehne, Martin; et al., eds. (2011). Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-556	----	Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus - Wikipedia Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman senator Quaestor Reading the Death Sentence to Senator Thrasea Paetus, by Fyodor Bronnikov Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (died 66 AD), Roman senator, who lived in the 1st century AD. Notable for his principled opposition to the emperor Nero and his interest in Stoicism, he was the husband of Arria, who was the daughter of A. Caecina Paetus and the elder Arria, father-in-law of Helvidius Priscus, and a friend and relative by marriage of the poet Persius. Thrasea was the most prominent member of the political faction known today as the Stoic Opposition. Contents 1 Origins and early life 2 Political activity under Nero 3 Trial and death 4 In popular culture 5 Notes 6 Ancient sources and further reading Origins and early life[edit] According to Cassius Dio,[1] Thrasea belonged to a distinguished and wealthy family. It is certain that this family came from Patavium,[2] but it is not known whether he was born there or in Rome. Certainly he maintained close links with Patavium, in later life taking an important part in the city's traditional festival.[3] Nothing is known for certain of his early career, nor through whose influence he succeeded in entering the senate. By the year 42, however, he was married to Caecinia Arria, daughter of Caecina Paetus (suffect consul in 37).[4] In that year Caecina was implicated in the revolt of Scribonianus against Claudius, probably with the aim of restoring the republic. According to his daughter Fannia, whose account is preserved in a letter of Pliny, Thrasea attempted unsuccessfully to prevent his mother-in-law Arria from killing herself along with her husband. It was probably after the death of Caecina Paetus that Thrasea added the name Paetus to his own, a very unusual step for a son-in-law and one which advertised his connection with an enemy of the emperor. We have no information on the chronology of Thrasea's progression through the lower ranks of the cursus honorum. It is possible, but by no means certain, that his political career was at a standstill at least in the early years of Claudius' reign. He was suffect consul November to December 56[5] under Nero, perhaps due to the influence of Nero's adviser Seneca, who had preceded him in office in the same year. At some date probably not long after this, he was still in enough favour to be given an honorific priesthood as quindecimvir sacris faciundis.[6] By the time of his consulship he had also acquired an important political ally in his son-in-law Helvidius Priscus.[7] There are some indications that Thrasea's rise to prominence may have been helped by activity in the lawcourts.[8] At some point between 52 and 62 (whether before or after his consulship is not clear) he probably held some provincial governorship; this is the implication of the statement in the Life of Persius that the young poet 'travelled abroad' with his inlaw. Senators did not normally travel outside Italy simply for fun. Political activity under Nero[edit] In 57, Thrasea supported the cause of the Cilicians accusing their late governor, Cossutianus Capito, of extortion, and the prosecution succeeded apparently largely through his influence.[9] But Tacitus' first reference to him in the Annals relates to the following year, when he surprised both friends and enemies by speaking against a routine motion in the senate, a request by the Syracusans to exceed the statutory number of gladiators at their games.[10] The objections to this which Tacitus attributes to (anonymous) 'detractors' show, if accurate, that Thrasea already had a reputation for opposition to the status quo and for dedication to the ideal of senatorial freedom. To his friends, Thrasea explained that he was not unaware of the real state of affairs, but gave the senate the credit of understanding that those who paid attention to trivial matters would not pass over more important ones - leaving unspoken some such phrase as 'if they were permitted real debate on such issues'. In spring of the following year, he first openly showed his disgust at the behaviour of Nero and the obsequiousness of the senate after the emperor's letter justifying the murder of Agrippina had been read, and various motions congratulating Nero proposed. Senatorial procedure required each individual in turn to give his opinion on the motion, and Thrasea chose to walk out of the meeting 'since he could not say what he would, and would not say what he could' (Dio).[11] In 62, the praetor Antistius Sosianus, who had written abusive poems about Nero, was accused on a maiestas charge by Thrasea's old enemy Cossutianus Capito, who had recently been restored to the senate through the influence of his father-in-law Tigellinus. Thrasea dissented from the proposal to impose the death sentence and argued that the proper legal penalty for such an offence was exile. His view won majority assent, and was eventually passed, despite a clearly unfavourable response from Nero, whom the consuls had consulted when the vote was taken. Whether Nero had intended Antistius to be put to death or whether, as many believed, he wished to make a display of his own clemency by saving him from a death sentence imposed by the senate, for the senate to have voted against the death penalty was clearly a serious upset to his plans.[12] In the same year, at the trial of the Cretan Claudius Timarchus in the senate, the defendant was alleged to have said several times that it was in his power whether the proconsul of Crete received the thanks of the province or not. Thrasea proposed that such abuses should be prevented by the prohibition of such votes of thanks. Once again he carried the majority, but a senatus consultum was not passed until the consuls had ascertained the views of the emperor.[13] The following year made plain Nero's displeasure with Thrasea. When a daughter was born to the emperor at Antium, the senate went in a body to offer congratulations, but Thrasea was expressly excluded by Nero.[14] Such 'renunciations of friendship' on the part of the emperor were normally the prelude to the victim's death, but unexpectedly Nero seems to have changed his mind at this point, perhaps due to fluctuating power dynamics with Tigellinus, who as Capito's father-in-law might be presumed to have a strong motive to wish for Thrasea's elimination. It was said that when Nero told Seneca he had been reconciled with Thrasea, Seneca congratulated him on recovering a valuable friendship, rather than praising him for his clemency.[15] From about this time, however, Thrasea withdrew from political life. We do not know exactly when he took this decision (Tacitus makes Capito say in 66 that 'for three years he has not entered the senate-house'[16] but Capito's list of complaints against him is clearly contentious and possibly unreliable), nor what was the catalyst for such a volte-face, but it was clear that it was intended, and understood, as itself a political action, especially coming from one who had previously applied himself so assiduously to senatorial business; it was the ultimate form of protest. During this time, Thrasea continued to look after the interests of his clients. It was probably also in this period that he wrote his Life of Cato, in which he praised the advocate of senatorial freedom against Caesar, with whom he also shared an interest in Stoicism. This work, now lost, was a major source for Plutarch's life of the younger Cato.[17] Trial and death[edit] In 66, Cossutianus Capito finally succeeded in convincing Nero to move against Thrasea. Nero may have hoped to 'bury' his attack on Thrasea and simultaneously on Barea Soranus by acting during the visit of the Armenian king Tiridates to Rome; at all events, he began by excluding Thrasea from the reception of Tiridates. Perhaps, as Tacitus suggests, he wished to panic him into some sort of submission, but Thrasea's reaction was merely to inquire what the charges against him were and to ask for time to prepare a defence—the implication being probably that there was no legal basis for proceedings against him. This was likely true, to judge by the bizarre nature of some of the supporting evidence alleged by Capito[18] (such as not sacrificing to the Heavenly Voice of the emperor), but the trial nonetheless took place in the senate. Thrasea, having consulted with his friends, decided not to attend; he also declined the offer of the young Arulenus Rusticus, one of the tribunes, to use his tribunician veto against the decree of the senate, saying that such an action would merely endanger the life of the tribune without saving his own.[19] On the day of the trial, the meeting-place of the senate was surrounded by armed cohorts of the Praetorian Guard. A letter from Nero was read, mentioning no names but blaming senior senators for neglecting their public duties; then Capito spoke against Thrasea, and was followed by Eprius Marcellus, whom Tacitus regards as the more effective speaker. No speeches for the defence are mentioned; the senators had little alternative but to vote for the death penalty, in the form of the 'free choice of death' (liberum mortis arbitrium), that is, an order to commit suicide. In a separate action, Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were also condemned to death; with Thrasea were condemned, but to lesser penalties, his son-in-law Helvidius Priscus and associates Paconius Agrippinus and Curtius Montanus.[20] When the news was brought to Thrasea at his suburban villa, where he was entertaining a number of friends and sympathisers, he retired to a bedroom, and had the veins of both his arms opened. Calling to witness the quaestor who had brought the death sentence, he identified the shedding of his blood as a libation to Iuppiter Liberator—Jupiter who gives freedom. The surviving text of Tacitus breaks off at the moment when Thrasea was about to address Demetrius, the Cynic philosopher, with whom he had previously that day held a conversation on the nature of the soul. His death, though painful and protracted, contained allusions to the deaths of Socrates and Cato, and was evidently presented by his biographer Arulenus Rusticus, and probably constructed by himself, as a model of a dignified, calm and humane end.[21] In popular culture[edit] Thrasea is mentioned in Quo Vadis, the 1895 novel by Nobel laureate Henryk Sienkiewicz. In the second chapter of Marguerite Yourcenar’s 1951 novel, Memoirs of Hadrian, the emperor alludes to Thrasea’s composure in the face of death when he muses, “If ever I am to undergo torture (and illness will doubtless see to that) I cannot be sure of maintaining the impassiveness of a Thrasea, but I shall at least have the resource of resigning myself to my cries.” Notes[edit] ^ Dio 62.26.1 ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.21, Dio 62,26,4 ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.21, Dio 62,26,4 ^ Pliny the Younger, Epistulae, 3.16.10 ^ Giuseppe Camodeca, "I consoli des 55–56 e un nuovo collega di seneca nel consolato: P. Cornelius Dolabella (TP.75 [=1401 +135)*", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 63 (1986), pp. 201–215. ^ Tacitus Annales 16.22.1 ^ Tacitus, Histories 4.5; Annales 13.28 ^ For instance, Pliny Epistulae 6.29.1, Plutarch Moralia 810a, Tacitus Annales 14.48, 16.24 when taken together suggest considerable legal experience and expertise. ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.21 ^ Tacitus, Annales 13.49 ^ Dio 62.15.2, cf. Tacitus, Annales 14.12. ^ Tacitus, Annales 14.48-9; Thrasea is reported as pointedly referring to publica clementia, mercy shown by the senate rather than the emperor. ^ Tacitus, Annales 15.20-2 ^ Romm, James (December 2014). Dying Every Day (First ed.). New York: Vintage Books. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-307-74374-9. ^ Tacitus, Annales 15.23 ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.22, ^ See J. Geiger, ‘Munatius Rufus and Thrasea Paetus on Cato the Younger’, Athenaeum, 57 (1979), pp. 48-72. ^ Tacitus (Annales 16.22) represents Capito's case against Thrasea as a private conversation with Nero, but the basis for this chapter was probably his speech in the senate. ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.25-6 ^ Tacitus, Annales 16.27-9, 33 ^ Tacitus, Annales 34-5; Dio 62.26.4 Ancient sources and further reading[edit] See Tacitus, Annals 13. 49, 14. 12, 48, 15. 20-22, 16. 21-35, containing a full account of his trial and condemnation, Histories, 2. 91, 4. 5; Pliny the Younger, Letters 3.16.10, 6.29.1-2, 8.22.3; Dio Cassius 61. 15, 62. 26; Juvenal, Satire 5. 36 with scholia. R. Syme, 'A Political Group', Roman Papers VII pp 568–87; C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea in Rome in the late republic and early principate, Cambridge 1950; P.A. Brunt, "Stoicism and the Principate", PBSR, 43 (1975) 7-35; V. Rudich, Political Dissidence under Nero, London 1993; O. Devillers, 'Le rôle des passages relatifs à Thrasea Paetus dans les Annales de Tacite', Neronia VI (Brussels 2002, Collection Latomus 268) 296-311; W. Turpin, 'Tacitus, Stoic exempla, and the praecipuum munus annalium', Classical Antiquity 27 (2008) 359-404; T. E. Strunk, 'Saving the life of a foolish poet: Tacitus on Marcus Lepidus, Thrasea Paetus, and political action under the principate', Syllecta Classica 21 (2010) 119-139. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thrasea Paetus, Publius Clodius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Political offices Preceded by Publius Sulpicius Scribonius Rufus, and Publius Sulpicius Scribonius Proculus as Suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 56 with Lucius Duvius Avitus Succeeded by Nero II, and Lucius Calpurnius Piso as Ordinary consuls Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries United States Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Publius_Clodius_Thrasea_Paetus&oldid=1007794296" Categories: Senators of the Roman Empire Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans 66 deaths Clodii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 23:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5576	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)=== [[File:Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, British Museum (23455313842).jpg|thumb|Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and [[Lucius Verus]] (right), [[British Museum]]|alt=Busts of Marcus Aurelius and his co-ruler Lucius Verus]] After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title ''[[imperator]]'', and he would soon be formally elected as ''Pontifex Maximus'', chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> This may have been a genuine ''horror imperii'', 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116. Birley takes the phrase ''horror imperii'' from ''HA Pert''. xiii. 1 and xv. 8.</ref> Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his ''Meditations''), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.<ref>''HA Verus'' iii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156.</ref> The senate accepted, granting Lucius the ''imperium'', the tribunician power, and the name Augustus.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.1; ''Marcus'' vii.5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 116.</ref> Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 116–17.</ref>{{refn|These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the ''Historia Augusta'', our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] shows even more confusion.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157 n.53.</ref> The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 117.</ref>|group=note}} It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>{{refn|There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past: [[Augustus]] planned to leave [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar]] as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have [[Gaius Caligula]] and [[Tiberius Gemellus]] do so as well; [[Claudius]] left the empire to [[Nero]] and [[Britannicus]], imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/>|group=note}} In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more ''[[auctoritas]]'', or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was ''Pontifex Maximus''. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 117'/> As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117, 278 n.4.</ref> Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the [[Castra Praetoria]], the camp of the [[Praetorian Guard]]. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as ''imperatores''. Then, like every new emperor since [[Claudius]], Lucius promised the troops a special donative.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18.</ref> This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 [[sestertius|sesterces]] (5,000 [[denarius|denarii]]) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 9; ''Verus'' iv.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 117–18. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109.</ref> The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> Upon his accession he also devalued the [[Roman currency]]. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from {{cvt|2.68|g|oz}} to {{cvt|2.57|g|oz}}.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm 'Roman Currency of the Principate']. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001.</ref> Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118, 278 n.6.</ref> If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the [[Campus Martius]], and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A ''[[flamen]]'', or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 118.</ref> The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the [[Temple of Antoninus and Faustina]]. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118'/> In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 118–19.</ref> (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, [[Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus|Ummius Quadratus]].<ref>''HA Marcus'' vii. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> On 31 August, she gave birth at [[Lanuvium]] to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.<ref>''HA Comm''. i.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref>{{refn|The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xix. 1–2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.9.</ref>|group=note}} Aside from the fact that the twins shared [[Caligula]]'s birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.<ref>''HA Commodus''. i.4, x.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119.</ref> The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5585	----	Alexios V Doukas - Wikipedia Alexios V Doukas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor in 1204 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios V Doukas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios V, from an illuminated manuscript (c. 14th century) of Niketas Choniates' history Byzantine emperor Reign 5 February 1204 (possible date of coronation) – 12 April 1204 Predecessor Isaac II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos Nikolaos Kanabos (elected by the Byzantine Senate) Successor Constantine Laskaris (briefly) Baldwin of Flanders (Latin Empire) Theodore I Laskaris (Nicaea) Michael I Komnenos Doukas (Epirus) Alexios Megas Komnenos (Trebizond) Born c. 1140 (1140) Died December 1204 (1205-01) Spouse Eudokia Angelina Dynasty Angelos dynasty Religion Greek Orthodox Alexios V Doukas (Greek: Ἀλέξιος Δούκας; c. 1140 – December 1204), in Latinised spelling Alexius V Ducas, was Byzantine emperor from 5 February to 12 April 1204, just prior to the sack of Constantinople by the participants of the Fourth Crusade. His family name was Doukas, but he was also known by the nickname Mourtzouphlos or Murtzuphlus (Μούρτζουφλος), referring to either bushy, overhanging eyebrows or a sullen, gloomy character.[1] He achieved power through a palace coup, killing his predecessors in the process. Though he made vigorous attempts to defend Constantinople from the crusader army, his military efforts proved ineffective. His actions won the support of the mass of the populace, but he alienated the elite of the city. Following the fall, sack, and occupation of the city, Alexios V was blinded by another ex-emperor and later executed by the new Latin regime. He was the last Byzantine emperor to rule in Constantinople until the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople in 1261. Contents 1 Origins and character 2 Political intrigues and usurpation 3 Emperor 4 The fall of Constantinople, flight and death 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading Origins and character[edit] Though in possession of the surname used by a leading Byzantine aristocratic family, there is very little definitely known concerning the ancestry of Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos. The noble Doukas clan were not the only Doukai, as the surname was also employed by many families of humble origins. It has been claimed that Alexios Doukas was a great-great-grandson of the emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) in the female line (cognatic descent). This is not improbable, as all other Byzantine emperors, and the majority of attempted usurpers, of the period had a connection with the former imperial house of the Komnenoi, either by descent or marriage. A more precise theory has been proposed, that he was the son of an Isaac Doukas, and was the second cousin of Alexios IV Angelos (r. 1203–1204).[2] A letter sent to Pope Innocent III, stated that Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos was 'a blood relation' of Alexios IV Angelos.[3] The contemporary historian Niketas Choniates was dismissed from office as logothete of the sekreta by Mourtzouphlos. His assessment of the emperor's character might therefore be biased; however, Choniates allows that he was extremely clever by nature, though arrogant in his manner and lecherous.[4] Political intrigues and usurpation[edit] The siege of Constantinople in 1204, by Palma il Giovane The participation of Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos in the attempted overthrow of Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) by John Komnenos the Fat in 1200 had led to his imprisonment. Mourtzouphlos was probably imprisoned from 1201 until the restoration to the throne of Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204), the brother and predecessor of Alexios III. Isaac II, along with his son Alexios IV Angelos, were restored to the throne through the intervention of the leaders of the Fourth Crusade in July 1203. On release, Mourtzouphlos was invested with the court position of protovestiarios (head of the imperial finances). He had been married twice but was allegedly the lover of Eudokia Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III.[5] By the beginning of 1204, Isaac II and Alexios IV had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople with their efforts to protect the city from the Latin crusaders and their Venetian allies, and the citizens were becoming restless. The crusaders were also losing patience with the emperors; they rioted and set fires in the city when the money and aid promised by Alexios IV was not forthcoming. The fires affected about a sixth of the area of Constantinople and may have made up to a third of the population homeless; the dislocation and desperation of those affected eventually sapped the will of the people to resist the crusaders. Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos emerged as a leader of the anti-Latin movement in the city. He won the approval of the populace by his valour in leading an attack on the Latins at "Trypetos Lithos"; in this clash his mount stumbled and he would have been killed or captured had a band of youthful archers from the city not defended him. Mourtzouphlos exploited the hatred of the people for the Latins to serve his personal ambition.[6][7][8] The citizens of Constantinople rebelled in late January 1204, and in the chaos an otherwise obscure nobleman named Nicholas Kanabos was acclaimed emperor, though he was unwilling to accept the crown. The two co-emperors barricaded themselves in the Palace of Blachernae and entrusted Mourtzouphlos with a mission to seek help from the crusaders, or at least they informed him of their intentions. Instead of contacting the crusaders, Mourtzouphlos, on the night of 28–29 January 1204, used his access to the palace to bribe the "ax-bearers" (the Varangian Guard), and with their backing arrest the emperors. Choniates states that Mourtzouphlos, when bribing the guards, had the help of a eunuch with access to the imperial treasury. The support of the Varangians seems to have been of major importance in the success of the coup, though Mourtzouphlos also had help from his relations and associates. The young Alexios IV was eventually strangled in prison; while his father Isaac, both enfeebled and blind, died at around the time of the coup, his death variously attributed to fright, sorrow, or mistreatment. Kanabos was initially spared and offered an office under Alexios V, but he refused both this and a further summons from the emperor and took sanctuary in the Hagia Sophia; he was forcibly removed and killed on the steps of the cathedral.[9][10][11] Emperor[edit] Alexios V negotiating with Doge Enrico Dandolo, by Gustave Doré The timing of the deaths of the deposed emperors and of Kanabos, and their relation to the coronation of Alexios V are problematic. Alexios V appears to have been acclaimed emperor as early as the night he moved against the Angeloi co-emperors. Hendrickx and Matzukis suggest that Alexios V assumed the imperial insignia immediately, but was crowned later, possibly on 5 February. Finding the treasury empty, the new emperor confiscated money from the aristocracy and high officials to be put to public use. These actions endeared Alexios V to the citizens, but alienated his relations and other prominent supporters. Once in firm control, Alexios V closed the gates of the city to the crusaders and strengthened the fortifications. Sword in hand, he was active in leading attacks on sorties made by the crusaders in search of supplies. On 2 February, Henry of Flanders led a part of the crusader army to Filea (or Phileas), in order to obtain food supplies. As he returned towards Constantinople, Alexios V attacked his rearguard. The Byzantines were defeated, the imperial standard and an important icon of the Virgin (the Panagia Nikopoios) were captured. The Byzantines lost some of their best soldiers in the clash, and Alexios V was lucky to escape alive. At about this time Alexios V attempted to destroy the crusader fleet with fire-ships, but to little effect.[12][13] The loss of the icon, traditionally seen as a physical embodiment of divine protection for the city, was a severe psychological blow. Its possession by the crusaders convinced many of the population of Constantinople that the victory of the Westerners was now divinely sanctioned, as a punishment for the sins of the Byzantines.[14] On 8 February Alexios V met the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, for peace talks. The conditions demanded by the Venetian, however, were too harsh for the Byzantines to consider. Choniates states that the meeting was brought to a close by a sudden attack by crusader cavalry on Alexios V and his entourage, the emperor narrowly escaping capture. According to Choniates, Alexios IV was killed the same day; the insistence by the crusaders that he be restored to the throne may have precipitated his death.[15][16] When news of the death of Alexios IV reached the crusaders, relations between them and Alexios V deteriorated further. The forcible expulsion of all Latins resident in Constantinople in March seems to have been the tipping point which led the crusaders to begin actively negotiating amongst themselves regarding the partition of the Byzantine Empire. They also began to prepare for their final assault on the city, which took place the following month.[17] The fall of Constantinople, flight and death[edit] Alexios V Doukas, from a 15th-century Byzantine manuscript The defenders of Constantinople held out against a crusader assault on 9 April. The crusaders' second attack three days later, however, proved too strong to repel. Breaking through the walls near the Petria Gate, the crusaders entered the city and looted the Blachernae Palace. Alexios V attempted to rally the people to the defence of the city, but with no success. Alexios V then boarded a fishing boat and fled the city towards Thrace on the night of 12 April 1204, accompanied by Eudokia Angelina and her mother Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. In the Hagia Sophia Constantine Laskaris was acclaimed as emperor, but being unable to persuade the Varangians to continue the fight, in the early hours of 13 April he also fled, leaving Constantinople under crusader control.[18][19] Alexios V and his companions eventually reached Mosynopolis, which had been occupied by the deposed emperor Alexios III Angelos and his followers. At first they were well received, with Alexios V marrying Eudokia Angelina. Later, however, Alexios III arranged for his new son-in-law to be made captive and blinded, thereby rendering him ineligible for the imperial throne. Having been abandoned by both his supporters and his father-in-law, Alexios V was captured near Mosynopolis, or possibly in Anatolia, by the advancing Latins under Thierry de Loos in November 1204.[20][21] On his return to Constantinople as a prisoner, Alexios V was tried for treason against Alexios IV. In his trial the blind ex-emperor argued that it was Alexios IV who had committed treason to his country, through his intention to invite the crusaders to enter Constantinople in force. On being condemned, he was executed by novel means: he was thrown to his death from the top of the Column of Theodosius.[22] The new, alien, Latin regime of conquerors in Constantinople may have viewed the public trial and execution of the man who murdered the last "legitimate emperor" as a way to cast an aura of legitimacy on themselves. Alexios V was the last Byzantine Emperor to reign in Constantinople before the establishment of the Latin Empire, which controlled the city for the next 57 years, until it was recovered by the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261.[23] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Sack of Constantinople (1204) References[edit] ^ Choniates, p. 307, (see also: Head, p. 238) says that Alexios Doukas gained the name 'Mourtzouphlos' in his youth from his companions on account of his eyebrows meeting and overhanging his eyes. ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, p. 111 ^ Akropolites, p. 112 ^ Choniates, pp. 311, 314 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, p. 112-113 ^ Choniates, pp. 303–304, 307 ^ Madden (1992) ^ Madden (1995) p. 742 ^ Choniates, pp. 307–309 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, p. 118-120 ^ Runciman, pp. 120–121 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, pp. 120–122 ^ Choniates, pp.311–312 ^ Giarenis, p. 78 ^ Choniates, p.312 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, pp. 123–124 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, pp. 124–125 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, pp. 121–127 ^ Choniates, p.p. 313-314 ^ Falk, p. 163 ^ Akropolites, p. 117 ^ Choniates, p. 334 ^ Hendrickx and Matzukis, pp. 127–131 Bibliography[edit] Akropolites, G. The History, trans. Ruth Macrides (2007) Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199210671 Choniates, Nicetas (1984). O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Translated by Harry J. Magoulias. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1764-2. Falk, A. (2010) Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades, Karnac Books ISBN 9781855757332 Giarenis, I. (2017) "The Crisis of the Fourth Crusade in Byzantium (1203–1204) and the Emergence of Networks for Anti-Latin Reaction and Political Action", Mediterranean World, 23, pp. 73–80. ISSN 1343-9626 Head, C. (1980) "Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing", Byzantion, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1980), Peeters Publishers, pp. 226–240 Hendrickx, B. and Matzukis, C. (1979) "Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos: His Life, Reign and Death (?–1204)", in Hellenika (Έλληνικά) 31, pp. 111–117 Madden, T.F. (1992) "The Fires of the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople, 1203- 1204: A Damage Assessment", Byzantinische Zeitschrift, lxxxiv–v, pp. 72–93. Madden, T.F. (1995) "Outside and Inside the Fourth Crusade", The International History Review, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Nov., 1995), Taylor and Francis, pp. 726–743 Runciman, Steven (1987) [1954]. A History of the Crusades, Volume III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-14-013705-X. Further reading[edit] Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London and New York, 2nd ed., 2014). ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Jonathan Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London and New York, 2004) Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade – A New Annotated Translation". Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alexius V." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 578. Alexios V Doukas Angelid dynasty Born: unknown Died: December 1204 Regnal titles Preceded by Isaac II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos Byzantine emperor 1204 Succeeded by Constantine Laskaris as Emperor of Nicaea Succeeded by Michael I Komnenos Doukas as Ruler of Epirus Succeeded by Alexios I Megas Komnenos as Emperor of Trebizond Succeeded by Baldwin I as Latin Emperor of Constantinople v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Rebellions, secession, and autonomous magnates in the Byzantine Empire, 1182–1205 Under Andronikos I Komnenos (1182–1185) Andronikos Lapardas (Adramyttion) Andronikos Kontostephanos (Asia Minor) Isaac Komnenos (Cyprus) John Komnenos Vatatzes (Philadelphia) Theodore Kantakouzenos (Prussa & Nicaea) Under Isaac II Angelos (1185–1195) Theodore and Ivan Asen (Bulgaria) Alexios Branas (Adrianople) Theodore Mangaphas (Philadelphia) Basil Chotzas (Tarsia) Isaac Komnenos (Constantinople) Constantine Tatikios (Constantinople) Pseudo-Alexios (Maeander River, Paphlagonia, Nicomedia) Under Alexios III Angelos (1195–1203) Ivanko (Thrace) Dobromir Chrysos (Macedonia) Leo Chamaretos (Laconia) Michael Komnenos Doukas (Phrygia) Leo Sgouros (Argolid and Corinthia) John Spyridonakes (Macedonia) John Komnenos the Fat (Constantinople) Manuel Kamytzes (Thessaly) Under Isaac II and Alexios IV Angelos (1203–1204) Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos (Constantinople) Leo Gabalas (Rhodes) After the fall of Constantinople (1204–1205) Sabas Asidenos (Maeander River) Theodore Gabras (Amisus) John Kantakouzenos (Methone) David Komnenos (Paphlagonia) Alexios Komnenos (Trebizond) Michael Komnenos Doukas (Epirus) Theodore Laskaris (Nicaea) Manuel Maurozomes (Phrygia) Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Netherlands Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexios_V_Doukas&oldid=1027201747" Categories: 12th-century births 1204 deaths 12th-century Byzantine people 13th-century Byzantine emperors Angelid dynasty Blind royalty and nobility Byzantine prisoners and detainees Byzantine usurpers Christians of the Fourth Crusade Deaths from falls Doukas family Executed Byzantine people Executed monarchs Leaders who took power by coup Eastern Orthodox monarchs Monarchs captured as prisoners of war People executed for treason Protovestiarioi Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page 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en-wikipedia-org-5593	----	Castel Sant'Angelo - Wikipedia Castel Sant'Angelo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Mausoleum of Hadrian) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the castle in Rome. For other uses, see Castel Sant'Angelo (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Castel Sant'Angelo" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mausoleum of Hadrian Castel Sant'Angelo in 2019 Built in 123–139 AD Built by/for Hadrian Type of structure Mausoleum Related List of ancient monuments in Rome Mausoleum of Hadrian The Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as Castel Sant'Angelo (Italian pronunciation: [kaˈstɛl sanˈtandʒelo]; English: Castle of the Holy Angel), is a towering cylindrical building in Parco Adriano, Rome, Italy. It was initially commissioned by the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family. The building was later used by the popes as a fortress and castle, and is now a museum. The structure was once the tallest building in Rome. Contents 1 Hadrian's tomb 2 Decline 3 Papal fortress, residence and prison 4 Museum 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 Bibliography 8 References 9 External links Hadrian's tomb[edit] Castel Sant'Angelo from the bridge. The top statue is of Michael the Archangel, the angel from whom the building derives its name. Ponte Sant'Angelos Angel figures The tomb of the Roman emperor Hadrian, also called Hadrian's mole,[1] was erected on the right bank of the Tiber, between AD 134 and 139.[2] Originally the mausoleum was a decorated cylinder, with a garden top and golden quadriga. Hadrian's ashes were placed here a year after his death in Baiae in 138, together with those of his wife Sabina, and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who died in 138. Following this, the remains of succeeding emperors were also placed here, the last recorded deposition being Caracalla in 217. The urns containing these ashes were probably placed in what is now known as the Treasury Room, deep within the building. Hadrian also built the Pons Aelius facing straight onto the mausoleum – it still provides a scenic approach from the center of Rome and the left bank of the Tiber, and is renowned for the Baroque additions of statues of angels holding aloft instruments of the Passion of Christ. Decline[edit] Much of the tomb contents and decorations have been lost since the building's conversion to a military fortress in 401 and its subsequent inclusion in the Aurelian Walls by Flavius Honorius Augustus. The urns and ashes were scattered by Visigoth looters during Alaric's sacking of Rome in 410, and the original decorative bronze and stone statuary were thrown down upon the attacking Goths when they besieged Rome in 537, as recounted by Procopius. An unusual survivor, however, is the capstone of a funerary urn (probably that of Hadrian), which made its way to Saint Peter's Basilica, covered the tomb of Otto II and later was incorporated into a massive Renaissance baptistery.[3] The use of spolia from the tomb in the post-Roman period was noted in the 16th century – Giorgio Vasari writes: ...in order to build churches for the use of the Christians, not only were the most honoured temples of the idols [pagan Roman gods] destroyed, but in order to ennoble and decorate Saint Peter's with more ornaments than it then possessed, they took away the stone columns from the tomb of Hadrian, now the castle of Sant'Angelo, as well as many other things which we now see in ruins.[4] Legend holds that the Archangel Michael appeared atop the mausoleum, sheathing his sword as a sign of the end of the plague of 590, thus lending the castle its present name. A less charitable yet more apt elaboration of the legend, given the militant disposition of this archangel, was heard by the 15th-century traveler who saw an angel statue on the castle roof. He recounts that during a prolonged season of the plague, Pope Gregory I heard that the populace, even Christians, had begun revering a pagan idol at the church of Santa Agata in Suburra. A vision urged the pope to lead a procession to the church. Upon arriving, the idol miraculously fell apart with a clap of thunder. Returning to St Peter's by the Aelian Bridge, the pope had another vision of an angel atop the castle, wiping the blood from his sword on his mantle, and then sheathing it. While the pope interpreted this as a sign that God was appeased, this did not prevent Gregory from destroying more sites of pagan worship in Rome.[5] View from the top of the Castel Sant'Angelo towards the ancient city core of Rome. Papal fortress, residence and prison[edit] The popes converted the structure into a castle, beginning in the 14th century; Pope Nicholas III connected the castle to St Peter's Basilica by a covered fortified corridor called the Passetto di Borgo. The fortress was the refuge of Pope Clement VII from the siege of Charles V's Landsknechte during the Sack of Rome (1527), in which Benvenuto Cellini describes strolling the ramparts and shooting enemy soldiers. Leo X built a chapel with a Madonna by Raffaello da Montelupo. In 1536 Montelupo also created a marble statue of Saint Michael holding his sword after the 590 plague (as described above) to surmount the Castel.[6] Later Paul III built a rich apartment, to ensure that in any future siege the pope had an appropriate place to stay. Montelupo's statue was replaced by a bronze statue of the same subject, executed by the Flemish sculptor Peter Anton von Verschaffelt, in 1753. Verschaffelt's is still in place and Montelupo's can be seen in an open court in the interior of the Castle. The Papal state also used Sant'Angelo as a prison; Giordano Bruno, for example, was imprisoned there for six years. Other prisoners were the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini and the magician and charlatan Cagliostro. Executions were performed in the small inner courtyard. As a prison, it was also the setting for the third act of Giacomo Puccini's 1900 opera Tosca; the eponymous heroine leaps to her death from the Castel's ramparts. Museum[edit] Decommissioned in 1901, the castle is now a museum: the Museo Nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo. It received 1,234,443 visitors in 2016.[7] Gallery[edit] Barberini Faun (Glyptothek, Munich) once part of the Castel Sant'Angelo View from south towards the Castel Sant'Angelo and Ponte Sant'Angelo Castel Sant'Angelo viewed from the other side of the river. The original angel by Raffaello da Montelupo. Bronze statue of Michael the Archangel, standing on top of the Castel Sant'Angelo, modelled in 1753 by Peter Anton von Verschaffelt (1710–1793). Another angle of the angel Giovanni Battista Bugatti, papal executioner between 1796 and 1861 offering snuff to a condemned prisoner in front of Castel Sant'Angelo View of the river Tiber looking south with the Castel Sant'Angelo and Saint Peter's Basilica beyond, Rudolf Wiegmann 1834 See also[edit] List of ancient monuments in Rome Cardinal-nephew Concordat of Worms List of castles in Italy Stand of the Swiss Guard Via della Conciliazione Bibliography[edit] Bruno Contardi; Marica Mercalli; Italy. Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali; Museo nazionale di Castel Sant'Angelo (1987). The angel and Rome : Castel Sant'Angelo, September 29th-November 29th 1987. Rome: Palombi. ISBN 9788876215773. OCLC 555702196.[8] References[edit] ^ Gibbon, Edward (1826). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. 6 (4th American ed.). New York. p. 369. ^ Aicher, Peter J (2004). Rome Alive: A Source-Guide to the Ancient City Volume I. Bolchazy-Carducci. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ Porphyry Baptismal Font ^ "Preface, "Lives of the Artists"". Archived from the original on 2010-12-10. Retrieved 2007-01-23. ^ Account of Pedro Tafur in The Travels of Pero Tafur (1435–1439), Chapter III. ^ Rome (Eyewitness Travel Guides) DK Publishing, London (2003) p. 242 ^ "Musei, monumenti e aree archeologiche statali" [State museums, monuments and archaeological areas] (PDF). ilsole24ore.it (in Italian). 5 January 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2017. ^ Angels: An Indexed and Partially AnnotatedBibliography of Over 4300 Scholarly Books and Articles Since the 7th Century B.C. Jefferson, McFarland. 1999. p. 90. ISBN 9781476609584. OCLC 918854827. Archived from the original on August 24, 2019. Retrieved August 24, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Castel Sant'Angelo (Rome). Official website Site describing arrangement of the original mausoleum. 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en-wikipedia-org-5604	----	Sremska Mitrovica - Wikipedia Sremska Mitrovica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search City in Vojvodina, Serbia Sremska Mitrovica Сремска Митровица (Serbian) City City of Sremska Mitrovica From top: Panorama of the city, Town library, Imperial Palace in Sirmium, Military- border building, Town Gallery, Building of the Police Station, The ,,Stone flower" fountain Coat of arms Location of the city of Sremska Mitrovica within Serbia Coordinates: 44°59′N 19°37′E / 44.983°N 19.617°E / 44.983; 19.617Coordinates: 44°59′N 19°37′E / 44.983°N 19.617°E / 44.983; 19.617 Country  Serbia Province  Vojvodina Region Syrmia District Srem Municipality Sremska Mitrovica Settlements 26 Government  • Mayor Svetlana Milovanovic (SNS) Area[1]  • Urban 49.62 km2 (19.16 sq mi)  • Administrative 762 km2 (294 sq mi) Elevation 82 m (269 ft) Population (2011 census)[2]  • Urban 37,751  • Urban density 760/km2 (2,000/sq mi)  • Administrative 79,940  • Administrative density 100/km2 (270/sq mi) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 22 000 Area code +381(0)22 Car plates SM Website www.sremskamitrovica.rs Sremska Mitrovica (Serbian Cyrillic: Сремска Митровица, pronounced [srêːmskaː mîtroʋitsa]) is a city and the administrative center of the Srem District in the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. It is situated on the left bank of the Sava river. As of 2011[update], the city has a total population of 37,751 inhabitants, while its administrative area has a population of 79,940 inhabitants. As Sirmium, it was a capital of the Roman Empire during the Tetrarchy of 4th century CE. Ten Roman emperors were born in or near this city, Emperors Herennius Etruscus (251), Hostilian (251), Decius Traian (249–251), Claudius Gothicus (268–270), Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270–275), Probus (276–282), Maximian (285–310), Constantius II (337–361) and Gratian (367–383). </ref> Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Ancient Sirmium 2.2 After the Avar conquest 2.3 After the First World War 3 Inhabited places 4 Demographics 4.1 Ethnic groups 4.2 Religion 5 Archeology 6 Climate 7 Economy 8 Sport 9 Famous and notable residents 9.1 Roman emperors 9.2 Classical antiquity 9.3 Middle ages 9.4 Modern period 10 International relations 10.1 Twin towns – sister cities 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Name[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In Serbian, the town is known as Сремска Митровица or Sremska Mitrovica, in Rusyn as Сримска Митровица, in Croatian as Srijemska Mitrovica, in Hungarian as Szávaszentdemeter or Mitrovica, in German as Syrmisch Mitrowitz, in Latin as Sirmium, and in Turkish as Dimitrofça. "Sremska Mitrovica" means "Mitrovica of Syrmia" (Kosovska Mitrovica and Mačvanska Mitrovica also exist), while "Mitrovica" itself stems from the name "Saint Demetrius" or "Sveti Dimitrije" in the Serbian language (in Cyrillic form "Свети Димитрије"). The name of the city during the reign of the Roman Empire was Sirmium. Beginning in 1180 AD the name changed from "Civitas Sancti Demetrii" to "Dmitrovica", "Mitrovica", and finally to the present form - "Sremska Mitrovica". History[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sremska Mitrovica" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Sirmium[edit] Main article: Sirmium Visitors’ Center of the Roman Imperial Palace Coins of Julian, Syrmium, 361 Sremska Mitrovica is one of the oldest cities in Europe. Archaeologists have found a trace of organized human life dating from 5000 BC onwards. Ionian jewellery dating to 500BC was excavated in the city. When the Romans conquered the city in the 1st century BC, Sirmium already was a settlement with a long tradition. In the 1st century, Sirmium gained a status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, and became a very important military and strategic location in Pannonia province. The war expeditions of Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II, were prepared in Sirmium.[citation needed] In 103, Pannonia was split into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, and Sirmium became the capital city of the latter. In 296, Diocletian implemented a new territorial division of Pannonia. Instead of previous two provinces, there were four new provinces established in former territory of original Pannonia: Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda. Capital city of Pannonia Secunda was Sirmium.[citation needed] In 293, with the establishment of tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium became one of the four capital cities of the Empire, the other three being Augusta Treverorum, Mediolanum, and Nicomedia (modern Trier, Milan and Izmit). During the tetrarchy, Sirmium was the capital of emperor Galerius. With the establishment of praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium.[citation needed] Beginning in the 4th century, the city was an important Christian centre, and was a seat of the Episcopate of Sirmium. Four Christian councils were held in Sirmium. At the end of the 4th century, Sirmium was brought under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the Eastern Roman Empire. In 441, Sirmium was conquered by the Huns, and after this conquest, it remained for more than a century in the hands of various Germanic tribes, such were Eastern Goths and Gepids.[citation needed] For a short time, Sirmium was the center of the Gepide State and the king Cunimund minted golden coins in it. After 567, Sirmium was again incorporated into Eastern Roman Empire. The city was conquered and destroyed by Avars in 582. This event marked the end of the period of late Antiquity in the history of Sirmium.[citation needed] 11 luxurious golden belts of Avar handicraft dating to the 6th century was excavated in the vicinity.[3] After the Avar conquest[edit] For the next two centuries Sirmium was a place of little importance. At the end of the 8th century, Sirmium belonged to the Frankish State. The historical role of Sirmium increased again in the 9th century, when it was part of the Bulgarian Empire. Pope Adrian II gave St Methodius the title of Archbishop of Sirmium. After having adopted Christianity, the Bulgarians restored in Sirmium the Christian Episcopate, having in mind old Christian traditions and the reputation this city had in the ancient world.[citation needed] In the 11th century, Sirmium was a residence of Sermon, a duke of Syrmia, who was a vassal of the Bulgarian Samuil. After 1018, the city was again included into the Byzantine Empire, and since the end of the 11th century, Sirmium was a subject of a dispute between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1180 when the Byzantine Empire gave up Sirmium, surrendering it to the Kingdom of Hungary. In the 11th century, a Byzantine province named Theme of Sirmium had its capital in this city.[citation needed] For a while, about 1451, the city was in possession of the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković. In 1521 the city came into Ottoman hands and it remained under the Ottoman rule for almost two centuries. According to Ottoman traveler Evliya Celebi, Mitrovica had been conquered by the Bosnian sanjak bey Husrev-bey. It was renamed as "Dimitrofça".[citation needed] The name of the mayor of the city was Dimitar and since the middle of the 16th century, the city was mostly populated with Muslims. According to the 1566/69 data, the population of the city was composed of 592 Muslim and 30 Christian houses, while according to the 1572 data, it was composed of 598 Muslim and 18 Christian houses.[citation needed] According to the 1573 data, the city had 17 mosques and no Christian church. During the Ottoman rule, Sremska Mitrovica was the largest settlement in Syrmia, and was the administrative center of the Ottoman Sanjak of Syrmia. It was temporarily occupied by Austrian troops between 1688 and 1690. They finally took it in 1717 and took possession of it after signing Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.[citation needed] With the establishment of the Habsburg administration in 1718, the Muslim population fled from the city and was replaced with Serbian, Croatian, and German settlers. According to the 1765 data, the population of the city numbered 809 people, of whom 514 were Serbs and 290 Catholics.[citation needed] Sremska Mitrovica was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier (Slavonian Krajina). In 1848-49, it was part of the Serbian Voivodship, a Serb autonomous region within Austrian Empire, but in 1849, it was returned under administration of the Military Frontier. With the abolition of the Slavonian Military Frontier in 1881, Sremska Mitrovica was included into Syrmia County, which was part of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within Austria-Hungary. According to the 1910 census, the population of the city numbered 12,909 people, of which 8,793 spoke the Serbo-Croatian language (4,878 of those spoke Serbian and 3,915 spoke Croatian) and 2,341 German. The administrative area of the city (which did not included the city itself) had 32,012 inhabitants, of which 28,093 spoke Serbo-Croatian (27,022 of those spoke Serbian and 1,071 spoke Croatian) and 2,324 German.[citation needed] After the First World War[edit] In 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and the Syrmia region first became a part of the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, and then, on 24 November 1918, the assembly of Syrmia in Ruma decided most of Syrmia (including Mitrovica) would join the Kingdom of Serbia.[citation needed] Subsequently, on 1 December 1918, Kingdom of Serbia united with the Kingdom of Montenegro and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed to Yugoslavia in 1929). Between 1918-22, Sremska Mitrovica was part of the Syrmia County, between 1922-29 part of the Syrmia Oblast, between 1929-31 part of the Drina Banovina, and, between 1931–41, part of the Danube Banovina.[citation needed] Josip Broz Tito visit the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica, dedicated to the World War II victims in Syrmia During World War II, the city was occupied by Axis troops and was attached to the Independent State of Croatia. During that time its name was changed to Hrvatska Mitrovica (meaning Croatian Mitrovica). One of the largest Nazi concentration/death camps in the Independent State of Croatia existed in Sremska Mitrovica and as many as 10,000 victims (Serbs, Jews, and antifascists) were killed here.[4][5] The Serbian Jewish population was to be interned in a concentration camp built first in Jarak and then at Zasavica. However, both locations proved to be too flooded for construction. The Germans had to abandon these locations and use Sajmište, which resulted in the destruction of 83% of Serbian Jewry.[citation needed] In the Yugoslav wars in Sremska Mitrovica Prison, some Croatian prisoners of war were kept in this prison. The main prison facility; the largest known in Serbia, was open from November 1991 to August 1992 and was a scene where many prisoners were killed, tortured, abused and raped.[6] Beginning in 1944, the town was part of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina within the new Socialist Yugoslavia and, from 1945, within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. From 1992 to 2003 it was part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was then transformed into the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since the 2006 independence of Montenegro, Sremska Mitrovica is part of an independent Serbia.[citation needed] Inhabited places[edit] Map of the city of Sremska Mitrovica Map of local communities in urban Sremska Mitrovica The city of Sremska Mitrovica includes the town of Mačvanska Mitrovica, and several villages. Villages on the northern bank of the river Sava, in the region of Syrmia: Bešenovački Prnjavor Bešenovo Bosut Čalma Divoš Grgurevci Jarak Kuzmin Laćarak Ležimir Manđelos Martinci Sremska Rača Stara Bingula Šašinci Šišatovac Šuljam Veliki Radinci Villages on the southern bank of the river Sava, in the region of Mačva: Noćaj Radenković Ravnje Salaš Noćajski Zasavica I Zasavica II Demographics[edit] Historical population Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1948 49,017 —     1953 52,959 +1.56% 1961 63,634 +2.32% 1971 78,391 +2.11% 1981 85,129 +0.83% 1991 85,328 +0.02% 2002 85,902 +0.06% 2011 79,940 −0.80% Source: [7] According to the 2011 census results, the city administrative area has a population of 79,940 inhabitants. Sremska Mitrovica downtown Town Gallery Zasavica Nature Reserve Ethnic groups[edit] Most of the settlements in the city have an ethnic Serb majority. Ethnically mixed settlement with relative Serb majority is Stara Bingula. The main concentration of ethnic minorities is in the urban area of the city.[citation needed] The ethnic composition of the city: Ethnic group Population 2011[8] % Serbs 69,849 87.38% Croats 2,112 2.64% Romani 1,194 1.49% Hungarians 696 0.87% Rusyns 620 0.78% Ukrainians 534 0.67% Yugoslavs 290 0.36% Slovaks 281 0.35% Montenegrins 131 0.16% Macedonians 126 0.16% Germans 103 0.13% Others 4,004 5.01% Total 79,940 Religion[edit] In 2002, the population of city of Sremska Mitrovica included 76,290 Orthodox Christians, 3,935 Roman Catholics, 252 Protestants and 106 Muslims. Orthodox Christians in Sremska Mitrovica are belonging to the Eparchy of Syrmia of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Catholics belong to the Diocese of Syrmia, which has its seat in Sremska Mitrovica.[citation needed] Archeology[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) During work on the new Sremska Mitrovica trade center in 1972, a worker accidentally broke into an old Roman pot, about 2m deep, over the site of an old Sirmium settlement. 33 gold Roman coins enclosed in a leather pouch were found inside a Roman house wall, probably the hidden savings of a wealthy Roman family stashed centuries ago. Of this extraordinary rare find of Sirmium minted coins were four Constantius II era coins, considered the most valuable examples from the late Roman empire of the 4th century AD. The young worker whose shovel brought this significant discovery to light was never rewarded. The only known unexcavated Roman horse racing arena in the world is in Sirmium. A colossal building about 150m wide and 450m long lays directly under the Sremska Mitrovica town center and just beside the old Sirmium Emperor's Palace (one of just a few Sirmium publicly accessible archeological sights). The presence of the arena has clearly affected the layout of the present town (Sremska Mitrovica is today about 2-4m above ground line of the former Sirmium settlement). Climate[edit] Sremska Mitrovica has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) bordering very closely on a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb) as well as a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Climate data for Sremska Mitrovica (1981–2010, extremes 1961–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18.8 (65.8) 23.7 (74.7) 28.9 (84.0) 31.4 (88.5) 34.8 (94.6) 36.8 (98.2) 40.7 (105.3) 39.4 (102.9) 37.6 (99.7) 30.2 (86.4) 25.0 (77.0) 22.0 (71.6) 40.7 (105.3) Average high °C (°F) 3.6 (38.5) 6.5 (43.7) 12.5 (54.5) 18.0 (64.4) 23.4 (74.1) 26.1 (79.0) 28.3 (82.9) 28.4 (83.1) 23.7 (74.7) 18.3 (64.9) 10.5 (50.9) 4.8 (40.6) 17.0 (62.6) Daily mean °C (°F) 0.1 (32.2) 1.6 (34.9) 6.4 (43.5) 11.8 (53.2) 17.2 (63.0) 19.9 (67.8) 21.5 (70.7) 21.2 (70.2) 16.6 (61.9) 11.7 (53.1) 5.8 (42.4) 1.4 (34.5) 11.3 (52.3) Average low °C (°F) −3.1 (26.4) −2.5 (27.5) 1.2 (34.2) 5.9 (42.6) 10.9 (51.6) 13.7 (56.7) 15.0 (59.0) 14.8 (58.6) 10.9 (51.6) 6.7 (44.1) 2.2 (36.0) −1.6 (29.1) 6.2 (43.2) Record low °C (°F) −29.5 (−21.1) −22.5 (−8.5) −17.3 (0.9) −7.8 (18.0) −0.3 (31.5) 3.0 (37.4) 6.4 (43.5) 5.8 (42.4) −2.0 (28.4) −6.0 (21.2) −13.5 (7.7) −21.3 (−6.3) −29.5 (−21.1) Average precipitation mm (inches) 37.9 (1.49) 29.2 (1.15) 40.4 (1.59) 48.4 (1.91) 56.2 (2.21) 84.4 (3.32) 61.6 (2.43) 52.8 (2.08) 50.3 (1.98) 54.6 (2.15) 52.8 (2.08) 45.6 (1.80) 614.2 (24.18) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 12 11 11 12 12 12 10 9 10 9 12 13 133 Average snowy days 7 7 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 26 Average relative humidity (%) 87 81 73 69 68 71 71 71 75 78 85 88 76 Mean monthly sunshine hours 62.5 104.3 156.6 189.2 250.6 264.0 292.7 279.8 190.0 153.2 89.5 48.7 2,081.1 Source: Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia[9] Economy[edit] The footbridge of St. Irenaeus of Sirmium, across Sava river is the biggest footbridge in Serbia. The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):[10] Activity Total Agriculture, forestry and fishing 645 Mining and quarrying 16 Manufacturing 5,402 Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply 233 Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities 342 Construction 958 Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles 2,887 Transportation and storage 1,080 Accommodation and food services 447 Information and communication 167 Financial and insurance activities 334 Real estate activities 35 Professional, scientific and technical activities 749 Administrative and support service activities 486 Public administration and defense; compulsory social security 1,610 Education 1,339 Human health and social work activities 1,820 Arts, entertainment and recreation 318 Other service activities 332 Individual agricultural workers 1,098 Total 20,298 Sport[edit] KAF Sirmium Legionaries, an American Football club from Sremska Mitrovica. This is the first club of American Football in Serbia. FK Srem, a football club from Sremska Mitrovica. KK Val, a canoe club from Sremska Mitrovica. Famous and notable residents[edit] Roman emperors[edit] Traianus Decius, Roman Emperor (249–51), born in village Budalia near Sirmium Ten Roman emperors were born in the city and its envirions: Decius Traian (249–51) Herennius Etruscus (251-51) Hostilian (251-51) Claudius II (268-270) Quintillus (270) Aurelian (270–75) Probus (276–82) Maximianus Herculius (285–310) Constantius II (337–61) Gratian (367–83) The last emperor of the united Roman Empire, Theodosius I (378–95), became emperor in Sirmium. The usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus also declared themselves emperors in this city (in 260) and many other Roman emperors spent some time in Sirmium including Marcus Aurelius who might have written parts of his famous work Meditations in the city.[citation needed] Classical antiquity[edit] Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor (161-180), used Sirmium as a residence in between pannonian military campaigns 170-180 Maximinus, Roman emperor (235-238), ruled from residence in Sirmium. Herennius Etruscus, Roman emperor (251), born in Sirmium. Hostilian, Roman emperor (251), born in Sirmium Decius Traian, Roman emperor (249-251), born in village Budalia near Sirmium. Ingenuus, Roman emperor (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium. Regalianus, Roman emperor (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium. Claudius II, Roman emperor (268-270), born in Sirmium and spent most of his life there. Quintillus, Roman emperor (270), born in Sirmium Aurelian, Roman emperor (270-275), born in Sirmium. Probus, Roman emperor (276-282), born in Sirmium. Maximianus Herculius, Roman emperor (285-310), born near Sirmium. Galerius, Roman emperor (305-311), ruled as Caesar during the Tetrarchy from residence in Sirmium (293-296). Crispus, a Caesar of the Roman Empire. He was proclaimed Caesar in Sirmium in 317. Constantine II, a Caesar of the Roman Empire. He was proclaimed Caesar in Sirmium in 317. Vetranion, Roman emperor. Proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium (in 350). Constantius II, Roman emperor (337-361), born in Sirmium. Gratian, Roman emperor (367-383), born in Sirmium. Theodosius I the Great, Roman emperor (378-395). He became emperor in Sirmium. Valerius Licinius, prefect of the Diocese of Pannonia with residence in Sirmium (308-314). Apricanus, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province with residence in Sirmium (355). Mesala, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province (373). Petronius Prob, prefect in Sirmium (374). Aurelius Victor, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province, wrote a History of Rome under the emperor Julian. Leontius, prefect in Sirmium (426). Apraemis, prefect of the Prefecture of Illyricum with residence in Sirmium (before 441). Middle ages[edit] Thraustila, king of the Gepids with residence in Sirmium (473). Cunimund, king of the Gepids with residence in Sirmium. Sermon, duke of Syrmia (11th century). Modern period[edit] Mira Banjac, Serbian actress Vaso Čubrilović, Serbian historian Robert Frangeš-Mihanović, Croatian sculptor Petar Gburčik, Serbian scientist Nikola Hristić (1818–1911), Serbian politician Branislav Ivanović, Serbian footballer Siniša Kovačević, Serbian author Petar Kralj, Serbian actor Mileva Marić, Serbian scientist Đorđe Marković Koder (1806–1891), Serbian writer Dejan Milovanović, Serbian footballer Stjepan Musulin, Croatian linguist and lexicographer Milijana Nikolić, operatic mezzo-soprano Boško Palkovljević Pinki, People's Hero of Yugoslavia Veljko Petrović, Serbian poet Igor Pisanjuk (1989), Canadian football player Mirjana Puhar (1995-2015), Serbian - American model Ilarion Ruvarac (1832–1905), Serbian Churchman and historian Mara Švel-Gamiršek (1900–1975), Croatian writer Dragana Tomašević, Serbian discus thrower Zlatko Tomčić, Croatian politician Slavko Vorkapić, Serbian-American film director and editor International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Serbia Twin towns – sister cities[edit] Sremska Mitrovica is twinned with: Banja Luka, Bosnia-Herzegovina[11] See also[edit] List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina List of cities in Serbia Praetorian prefecture Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Sirmium Councils of Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica prison Tetrarchy Sremska Mitrovica railway station References[edit] ^ "Municipalities of Serbia, 2006". Statistical Office of Serbia. Retrieved 2010-11-28. ^ "2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia: Comparative Overview of the Number of Population in 1948, 1953, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2002 and 2011, Data by settlements" (PDF). Statistical Office of Republic Of Serbia, Belgrade. 2014. p. 45. ISBN 978-86-6161-109-4. Retrieved 2014-06-27. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2009.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Djilas, Aleksa (1991). The Contested Country. ISBN 9780674166981. ^ "Serbian Studies". google.com. 1986. Retrieved 30 July 2018. ^ Archived 2011-01-06 at the Wayback Machine ^ "2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia" (PDF). stat.gov.rs. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Retrieved 4 March 2017. ^ "Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији" (PDF). stat.gov.rs. Republički zavod za statistiku. Retrieved 4 March 2017. ^ "Monthly and annual means, maximum and minimum values of meteorological elements for the period 1981-2010" (in Serbian). Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia. Retrieved 17 March 2017. ^ "MUNICIPALITIES AND REGIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA, 2019" (PDF). stat.gov.rs. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 25 December 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019. ^ Градови партнери [City of Banja Luka - Partner cities]. Administrative Office of the City of Banja Luka (in Serbian). Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2013. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sremska Mitrovica. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sremska Mitrovica. Official website (in Serbian and English) Sremska Mitrovica.org - info, news about Sremska Mitrovica Information portal on culture, sport and fun in Sremska Mitrovica v t e Cities, towns and villages in the Srem District Sremska Mitrovica Bešenovački Prnjavor Bešenovo Bosut Veliki Radinci Grgurevci Divoš Zasavica I Zasavica II Jarak Kuzmin Laćarak Ležimir Manđelos Martinci Mačvanska Mitrovica Noćaj Ravnje Radenković Salaš Noćajski Sremska Rača Stara Bingula Čalma Šašinci Šišatovac Šuljam Inđija Beška Jarkovci Krčedin Ljukovo Maradik Novi Karlovci Novi Slankamen Slankamenački Vinogradi Stari Slankamen Čortanovci Irig Velika Remeta Vrdnik Grgeteg Dobrodol Jazak Krušedol Prnjavor Krušedol Selo Mala Remeta Neradin Rivica Šatrinci Pećinci Ašanja Brestač Deč Donji Tovarnik Karlovčić Kupinovo Obrež Ogar Popinci Prhovo Sibač Sremski Mihaljevci Subotište Šimanovci Ruma Buđanovci Vitojevci Voganj Grabovci Dobrinci Donji Petrovci Žarkovac Klenak Kraljevci Mali Radinci Nikinci Pavlovci Platičevo Putinci Stejanovci Hrtkovci Stara Pazova Belegiš Vojka Golubinci Krnješevci Nova Pazova Novi Banovci Stari Banovci Surduk Šid Adaševci Batrovci Bačinci Berkasovo Bikić Do Bingula Vašica Višnjićevo Gibarac Erdevik Ilinci Jamena Kukujevci Ljuba Molovin Morović Privina Glava Sot Municipalities or cities of Serbia v t e Municipalities and cities of Serbia v t e Municipalities of Belgrade Municipalities Barajevo Čukarica Grocka Lazarevac Mladenovac New Belgrade Obrenovac Palilula Rakovica Savski Venac Sopot Stari Grad Surčin Voždovac Vračar Zemun Zvezdara v t e Municipalities and cities of Vojvodina Cities Kikinda Novi Sad Novi Sad Petrovaradin Pančevo Sombor Sremska Mitrovica Subotica Vršac Zrenjanin Municipalities Ada Alibunar Apatin Bač Bačka Palanka Bačka Topola Bački Petrovac Bečej Bela Crkva Beočin Čoka Inđija Irig Kanjiža Kovačica Kovin Kula Mali Iđoš Nova Crnja Novi Bečej Novi Kneževac Odžaci Opovo Pećinci Plandište Ruma Sečanj Senta Šid Srbobran Sremski Karlovci Stara Pazova Temerin Titel Vrbas Žabalj Žitište v t e Municipalities and cities of Šumadija and Western Serbia Cities Čačak Jagodina Kragujevac Kraljevo Kruševac Loznica Novi Pazar Šabac Užice Užice Sevojno Valjevo Municipalities Aleksandrovac Aranđelovac Arilje Bajina Bašta Batočina Bogatić Brus Čajetina Ćićevac Ćuprija Despotovac Gornji Milanovac Ivanjica Knić Koceljeva Kosjerić Krupanj Lajkovac Lapovo Lučani Ljig Ljubovija Mali Zvornik Mionica Nova Varoš Osečina Paraćin Požega Priboj Prijepolje Rača Raška Rekovac Sjenica Svilajnac Topola Trstenik Tutin Ub Varvarin Vladimirci Vrnjačka Banja v t e Municipalities and cities of Southern and Eastern Serbia Cities Bor Leskovac Niš Crveni Krst Medijana Niška Banja Palilula Pantelej Pirot Požarevac Požarevac Kostolac Prokuplje Smederevo Vranje Vranje Vranjska Banja Zaječar Municipalities Aleksinac Babušnica Bela Palanka Blace Bojnik Boljevac Bosilegrad Bujanovac Crna Trava Dimitrovgrad Doljevac Gadžin Han Golubac Kladovo Knjaževac Kučevo Kuršumlija Lebane Majdanpek Malo Crniće Medveđa Merošina Negotin Petrovac Preševo Ražanj Smederevska Palanka Sokobanja Surdulica Svrljig Trgovište Velika Plana Veliko Gradište Vladičin Han Vlasotince Žabari Žagubica Žitorađa v t e Municipalities and cities of Kosovo i Metohija1 Cities Priština Municipalities Dečani Đakovica Glogovac Gnjilane Gora Kosovo Polje Kosovska Kamenica Kosovska Mitrovica Istok Kačanik Klina Leposavić Lipljan Novo Brdo Obilić Orahovac Peć Podujevo Prizren Srbica Suva Reka Štimlje Štrpce Vitina Vučitrn Zubin Potok Zvečan 1 Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Kosovo and the Republic of Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence on 17 February 2008. Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory. The two governments began to normalise relations in 2013, as part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement. Kosovo is currently (this note self-updates) recognized as an independent state by 98 out of the 193 United Nations member states. In total, 113 UN member states recognized Kosovo at some point, of which 15 later withdrew their recognition. 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en-wikipedia-org-5611	----	Aurelia gens - Wikipedia Aurelia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman family See also: Aurelius (disambiguation) and Aurelia (disambiguation) Denarius of Lucius Aurelius Cotta, 105 BC. The obverse is identical with the coins of Lipara, captured by Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC. The reverse depicts the triumph awarded for this victory.[1] The gens Aurelia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome, which flourished from the third century BC to the latest period of the Empire. The first of the Aurelian gens to obtain the consulship was Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC. From then to the end of the Republic, the Aurelii supplied many distinguished statesmen, before entering a period of relative obscurity under the early emperors. In the latter part of the first century, a family of the Aurelii rose to prominence, obtaining patrician status, and eventually the throne itself. A series of emperors belonged to this family, through birth or adoption, including Marcus Aurelius and the members of the Severan dynasty.[2] In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana of Caracalla (whose full name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) granted Roman citizenship to all free residents of the Empire, resulting in vast numbers of new citizens who assumed the nomen Aurelius, in honour of their patron, including several emperors: seven of the eleven emperors between Gallienus and Diocletian (Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus, Probus, Carus, Carinus, Numerian and Maximian) bore the name "Marcus Aurelius". So ubiquitous was the name in the latter centuries of the Empire that it suffered abbreviation, as Aur., and it becomes difficult to distinguish members of the Aurelian gens from other persons bearing the name.[3] Contents 1 Origin 2 Praenomina 3 Branches and cognomina 4 Members 4.1 Aurelii Cottae 4.2 Aurelii Scauri 4.3 Aurelii Orestides 4.4 Aurelii Fulvi 4.5 Aurelii Galli 4.6 Aurelii Symmachi 4.7 Others 5 Stemma of the Aurelii Cottae 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Ancient sources 9.2 Modern sources Origin[edit] The nomen Aurelius is usually connected with the Latin adjective aureus, meaning "golden", in which case it was probably derived from the color of a person's hair. However, Festus reports that the original form of the nomen was Auselius, and that the medial 's' was replaced by 'r' at a relatively early period; the same process occurred with the archaic nomina Fusia, Numisia, Papisia, Valesia, and Vetusia, which became Furia, Numeria, Papiria, Valeria, and Veturia in classical Latin. According to Festus, Auselius was derived from a Sabine word for the sun.[4][5] Praenomina[edit] All of the praenomina used by the chief families of the Aurelii were common throughout Roman history. The Aurelii of the Republic primarily used Gaius, Lucius, Marcus, and Publius, to which the Aurelii Orestides added Gnaeus. The Aurelii Fulvi of imperial times used Titus, Marcus, and Lucius, while the Aurelii Symmachi used Quintus and Lucius. Branches and cognomina[edit] Denarius of Marcus Aurelius Cotta, 139 BC.[6] There were three main stirpes of the Aurelii in republican times, distinguished by the cognomina Cotta (also spelled Cota), Orestes, and Scaurus. Cotta and Scaurus appear on coins, together with a fourth surname, Rufus, which does not occur among the ancient writers. A few personal cognomina are also found, including Pecuniola, apparently referring to the poverty of one of the Aurelii during the First Punic War.[2] Cotta, the surname of the oldest and most illustrious branch of the Aurelii under the Republic, probably refers to a cowlick, or unruly shock of hair; but its derivation is uncertain, and an alternative explanation might be that it derives from a dialectical form of cocta, literally "cooked", or in this case "sunburnt".[7] Marcus Aurelius Cotta, moneyer in 139 BC, minted an unusual denarius, featuring Hercules in a biga driven by centaurs, presumably alluding to some mythological event connected with the gens, but the exact symbolism is unknown. The Aurelii Cottae were prominent from the First Punic War down to the time of Tiberius, after which they faded into obscurity. The last of this family appearing in history include Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus, a friend of Tiberius, who squandered his family fortune through reckless prodigality, and his son, who received a stipend from Nero in order to maintain his household in a manner befitting his illustrious forebears.[8] The Cottae were related to Julius Caesar and Augustus through Aurelia Cotta, who was Caesar's mother. The Aurelii Scauri were a relatively small family, which flourished during the last two centuries of the Republic. Their surname, Scaurus, belongs to a common class of cognomina derived from an individual's physical features, and referred to someone with swollen ankles.[9][10][7] Orestes, the surname of a family that flourished for about a century toward the end of the Republic, was a Greek name, and belonged to a class of surnames of foreign origin, which appear during the middle and late Republic.[11] In Greek mythology, Orestes was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and avenged his father's murder by slaying his own mother, and after escaping the judgment of the Erinyes, became king of Mycenae. The circumstances by which the name became attached to a branch of the Aurelii are unclear, but perhaps allude to some heroic deed, or military service in Greece.[12] The Aurelii Fulvi, who rose to prominence in imperial times, originally came from Nemausus in Gallia Narbonensis.[13] Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the first of the family to attain the consulship, was made a patrician about AD 73 or 74.[14] In the second century, the Aurelii Fulvi obtained the Empire itself, when the consul's grandson, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, was adopted as the successor to Hadrian, becoming the emperor Antoninus Pius. Most of the emperors who followed were born or adopted into the gens, through the end of the Severan dynasty.[13] The surname Fulvus was a common surname, referring to someone with yellowish, yellow-brown, tawny, or strawberry blond hair.[15] The Aurelii Galli were a family that achieved notability during the second century, attaining the consulship on at least three occasions. Their surname, Gallus, had two common derivations, referring either to a cockerel, or to a Gaul. In the latter case, it might indicate that the first of this family was of Gallic descent, that he was born in Gaul, that he had performed some noteworthy deed in Gaul, or that in some manner he resembled a Gaul.[16] The Aurelii Symmachi were one of the last great families of the western empire, holding the highest offices of the Roman state during the fourth and fifth centuries. The Symmachi were regarded as members of the old Roman aristocracy, and acquired a reputation for their wisdom and learning.[17] Members[edit] This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation. Aurelii Cottae[edit] Gaius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, consul in 252 and 248 BC, during the First Punic War, he fought against the Carthaginians in Sicily, taking the towns of Himera and Lipara, and receiving a triumph for his victories in the former year. He was censor in 241, and magister equitum to the dictator Gaius Duilius in 231.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24] Gaius Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, legate of the consul Claudius Marcellus in 216 BC.[25][26][27][i] Marcus Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, plebeian aedile in 216 BC. In 212, during the Second Punic War, he served under the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher at Puteoli. He was appointed decemvir sacrorum in 203, and the following year was an ambassador to Philip V of Macedon. He died in 201.[28][29][27] Gaius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, praetor urbanus in 202 BC, and consul in 200, carried on the war against the Gauls in Italy. When the enemy was defeated by the praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo, Cotta distracted himself by raiding and plundering the countryside.[30][31][32][33] Marcus Aurelius M. f. C. n. Cotta, served as the legate of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus during the war against Antiochus III in 189 BC. He brought Antiochus' ambassadors and other representatives of the east to Rome, where he gave his report to the senate.[34][35][27] Lucius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, military tribune in 181 BC, was one of the commanders of the third legion in the war against the Ligures, together with Sextus Julius Caesar.[36][37] Lucius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, as tribune of the plebs in 154 BC, attempted to use his sacrosanctity as tribune to evade his creditors. Consul in 144 BC, he was denied the command against Viriathus through the influence of Scipio Aemilianus, who subsequently accused him of various crimes. Cotta was acquitted, chiefly out of spite against Scipio.[38][39][40][41] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 119 BC, attempted to prosecute Gaius Marius, then tribune of the plebs, for a law he had proposed to reduce the influence of the optimates in the comitia. Marius threatened to imprison Cotta, and the senate abandoned the consul's scheme.[42][43][44] Marcus Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 139 BC. He married Rutilia, the sister of Publius Rutilius Rufus, consul in 105, and their three sons Marcus, Gaius, and Lucius became consuls in 74, 75, and 65 respectively.[45][6] Aurelia L. f. L. n., the wife of Gaius Julius Caesar, proconsul of Asia early in the first century BC, and mother of the dictator Caesar. Lucius Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 105 BC and tribune of the plebs circa 103; he tried to obstruct the prosecution of Quintus Servilius Caepio by the tribune Gaius Norbanus, but failed. He was praetor in an uncertain year; Broughton places his praetorship circa 95. Cicero describes him as a mediocre orator, who deliberately presented himself as a rustic.[46][47][1] Marcus Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 74 BC, received the province of Bithynia during the war with Mithradates. He was defeated, and lost his entire fleet, for which he blamed his quaestor, Publius Oppius, whom Cicero defended. Cotta himself was later condemned for extortion in his province, on the accusation of Gaius Papirius Carbo.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Gaius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, a distinguished orator, praised by Cicero. During the Social War, he had supported the cause of the allies, and was subsequently exiled until 82 BC. Consul in 75, he attempted to reverse one of Sulla's most onerous laws, arousing the ire of the optimates. He was granted a triumph for his successes as proconsul of Gaul, but died from an old wound on the day before the ceremony.[58][59][60][61] Lucius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, as praetor in 70 BC, carried the lex Aurelia iudiciaria, expanding the classes of persons who could serve on juries. He became consul in 65, after accusing the consuls elect of ambitus, and became a target of the First Catilinarian conspiracy. He was censor in 64, but the tribunes of the plebs compelled him to resign. He was an ally of both Cicero and Caesar.[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, son of the consul of 74 BC, upon assuming the toga virilis, avenged his father by charging Carbo, his father's accuser, of extortion in his province, the same crime for which the elder Cotta had been condemned. Probably the same Cotta who as propraetor of Sardinia in 49, fled to Africa before the arrival of Caesar's legate, Quintus Valerius Orca.[70][71][72] Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, probably a son of the propraetor Marcus, adopted a son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, who became Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus. Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta Maximus Messalinus, son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, was adopted into the gens Aurelia. He was consul in AD 20, and an intimate friend of the emperor Tiberius. He gained a reputation for hostility and cruelty, causing a number of leading senators to accuse him of majestas. The emperor, however, defended him in a missive to the senate, whereupon Messalinus was acquitted. He was also the patron of Ovid.[73][74][75][76] Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, a nobleman who received an annual stipend from the Emperor Nero in AD 58, because he had dissipated his family estate in profligacy. He was doubtless the son of Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus.[77] Aurelii Scauri[edit] Gaius Aurelius Scaurus, praetor in 186 BC, was assigned the province of Sardinia.[78][79] Marcus Aurelius M. f. Scaurus, triumvir monetalis in 118 BC, perhaps the same as the consul of 108.[80] Marcus Aurelius Scaurus,[ii] consul suffectus in 108 BC. As a legate in Gaul in 105, he was defeated and captured by the Cimbri at the Battle of Arausio. Scaurus was slain by the Cimbric chief, Boiorix, when he warned his captors that they could not hope to defeat Rome.[81][82][83][84] Marcus Aurelius (M. f.) Scaurus, a quaestor mentioned in Cicero's oration against Verres.[85] Aurelii Orestides[edit] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 157 BC.[23][86][87] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 126 BC, was sent against the Sardinians, over whom he triumphed in 122. Gaius Gracchus and Marcus Aurelius Scaurus served under his command. Orestes and his brother, Gaius, were orators mentioned in passing by Cicero.[88][89][90][91][23][92] Gaius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, and his brother, Lucius, were orators briefly mentioned by Cicero.[90] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 103 BC, with Gaius Marius as his colleague. Orestes died during his year of office.[23][93][94] Gnaeus Aurelius Orestes, praetor urbanus in 77 BC, issued a decision that was appealed to the consul Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus. Lepidus sustained the appeal, negating Orestes' decision. Broughton identifies him with the consul of 71.[95][96] Gnaeus Aurelius Cn. f. Orestes, adopted by Gnaeus Aufidius, the historian, assuming the name of Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes. After he failed to win election as tribune of the plebs, he succeeded in obtaining the consulship for 71 BC. Cicero, however, suggests that his election was due largely to the lavish gifts that he distributed among the people.[97][98][99] Aurelia Orestilla, the second wife of Catiline, who reputedly slew his grown son in order to overcome her objection to their marriage. According to Cicero's correspondent, Marcus Caelius Rufus, Aurelia's daughter was betrothed to Quintus Cornificius.[100][101][102] Aurelii Fulvi[edit] Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the grandfather of the emperor Antoninus Pius, was legate of the third legion during the reign of Nero, and subsequently a supporter of Vespasian, under whom he served as consul suffectus circa AD 71, and governor of Hispania Citerior from 75 to 78. He was consul for the second time in 85, together with the emperor Domitian. At one time, he was praefectus urbi.[103][104][105][14] Titus Aurelius T. f. Fulvus, the father of Antoninus Pius, was consul in AD 89, for the first four months of the year.[106][107] Titus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus, afterwards Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius, emperor from AD 138 to 161. He had been consul in AD 120, then distinguished himself as Proconsul of Asia, and was adopted by Hadrian shortly before the emperor's death.[108][109] Marcus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus Antoninus, a son of Antoninus Pius, who must have died before AD 138, as Antoninus had no living sons when he was adopted by Hadrian.[110][109] Marcus Galerius Aurelius T. f. T. n. Antoninus, another son of Antoninus Pius, must also have died before AD 138.[110][109] Aurelia T. f. T. n. Fadilla, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and wife of Lucius Aelius Lamia Silvanus, died shortly after her father was appointed governor of Asia.[109] Anna Galeria T. f. T. n. Faustina, another daughter of Antoninus Pius, married her cousin, Marcus Aurelius, and was empress from AD 161 to her death, about 175. She was noted for her extravagance and intrigues, which the emperor appears to have indulged, or at least tolerated.[111][112][113][114] Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, born Marcus Annius Verus, a nephew of Antoninus Pius, by whom he was adopted on the orders of Hadrian in AD 138, and whom he succeeded as emperor from 161 to 180.[115][116][117] Lucius Aurelius Verus, born Lucius Ceionius Commodus, was adopted by Antoninus Pius upon the latter's adoption by Hadrian in AD 138. He was appointed emperor together with Marcus Aurelius in 161, reigning until his death in 169.[118][119][120][121] Annia Aurelia M. f. Galeria Lucilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married the emperor Lucius Verus. When he died young, a rumour began that Lucilla had poisoned him. Her second husband was the general Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, whom she despised as her inferior. She joined a plot against her brother, the emperor Commodus, but after being detected was banished to Capreae, where she was put to death about AD 183.[122][123][124][125] Annia Galeria M. f. Aurelia Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and wife of Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 167. Their son, Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus, was consul in 200.[126] Titus Aelius Aurelius M. f., son of Marcus Aurelius, probably died young.[117] Titus Aurelius M. f. Fulvus Antoninus Geminus, son of Marcus Aurelius and twin brother of Commodus, died at the age of four, circa AD 165.[117] Domitia M. f. Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, apparently died young.[127] Lucius Aurelius M. f. Commodus Antoninus, son of Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 177 to 192. After a promising beginning, he gave himself over to luxury, self-indulgence, and tyranny. He was assassinated at the end of 192.[128][129][122][130] Annia Aurelia M. f. Fadilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus.[131][132] Vibia Aurelia M. f. Sabina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Lucius Antistius Burrus.[117] Aurelii Galli[edit] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus in an uncertain year between AD 128 and 133.[133] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus Ex. Kal. Jul. in AD 146.[75] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 174.[134] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 198. Lucius Aurelius Gallus, governor of Moesia Inferior from AD 201 to about 204.[135] Aurelii Symmachi[edit] See also: Symmachi Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus, consul in 330. Lucius Aurelius Avianius Symmachus signo Phosphorius, praefectus urbi in AD 364, and consul-designate for 377. He was a superb diplomat, and among the most esteemed members of the senate.[136][137] Quintus Aurelius L. f. Symmachus signo Eusebius, one of the most respected scholars and rhetoricians of the late fourth century, and a passionate defender of Rome's pagan traditions. He was praefectus urbi in AD 384 and consul in 391.[138][139][140] Quintus Fabius Q. f. L. n. Memmius Symmachus, held a number of high offices, including the quaestorship and praetorship, before becoming proconsul of Africa in AD 415. He was praefectus urbi in AD 418.[141] Quintus Aurelius (Q. f. Q. n.) Symmachus, consul in AD 446 with Flavius Aetius. Quintus Aurelius Q. f. (Q. n.) Memmius Symmachus, consul in AD 485, and praefectus urbi, was the father-in-law of Boethius. Others[edit] Publius Aurelius Pecuniola, a kinsman of the consul Gaius Aurelius Cotta, under whom he served during the siege of Lipara in 252 BC. As a result of his negligence, his camp was set on fire, and nearly captured. As a punishment, Pecuniola was scourged, and demoted to the rank of legionary.[142] Lucius Aurelius, quaestor urbanus in 196 BC.[143][144] Aurelius Opilius, a freedman who became a philosopher, rhetorician, and grammarian, and a friend of Publius Rutilius Rufus, whom he accompanied into exile at Smyrna, around 92 BC.[145] Aurelius Cornelius Celsus, a physician, perhaps named Aulus, rather than Aurelius. He probably lived in the time of Augustus, or at the latest in the mid-first century. He employed a scientific approach to medicine, and his treatise, De Medicina, in eight books, still survives.[146][147][148] Lucius Aurelius Priscus, consul suffectus in AD 67.[149][150] Quintus Aurelius Pactumeius Fronto, consul suffectus in AD 80. He entered office on the Kalends of March, and held the consulate for two months.[151][152] Titus Aurelius Quietus, consul suffectus in AD 82. He served from the Kalends of September, perhaps until the end of the year.[153] Aurelia Messalina, the wife of Ceionius Postumius and mother of Clodius Albinus.[154] Aurelius, a physician, one of whose prescriptions is quoted by Galen.[155] Marcus Aurelius Verianus, governor of Roman Egypt in 188.[156] Marcus Aurelius Cleander, a freedman of Commodus, whom the emperor entrusted with the maintenance of his household, and then the imperial bureaucracy. He enriched himself by selling magistracies, but following a grain shortage in AD 190, the praefectus annonae incited a riot against him. The emperor made no effort to defend his favourite, who was put to death to placate the mob.[157][158][159] Quintus Aurelius Polus Terentianus, governor of Dacia in 193. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus, consul in AD 209. Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus, equestrian governor of Mauretania Tingitana from AD 215 to 217.[160] Aurelius Philippus, the tutor of Severus Alexander, who afterward wrote a life of the emperor.[161] Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vabalathus Athenodorus, king of the Palmyrene Empire. Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, an esteemed poet during the reign of the emperor Carus, and the author of Cynegetica, a treatise on hunting with dogs, most of which has been lost. Several fragments of his other works have survived.[162] Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, a jurist, who probably flourished during the fourth century.[163] Sextus Aurelius Victor, a Latin historian of the fourth century, and the author of several important historical and biographical works. He was governor of Pannonia Secunda under the emperor Julian, and prefect of Rome in AD 389 under Theodosius I.[164][165] Aurelius Clemens Prudentius, a jurist, poet, and Christian philosopher of the late fourth and early fifth century.[166] Aurelius Onesimus, a legionary in the Legio I Illyricorum.[167] Stemma of the Aurelii Cottae[edit] Stemma made from Münzer and Badian.[168][27] Legend Red Emperor Orange Dictator Yellow Censor Green Consul C. Aurelius L. Aurelius C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 252, 248 cens. 241; mag. eq. 231 C. Aurelius Cotta leg. 216 M. Aurelius Cotta aed. pl. 216 C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 200 M. Aurelius Cotta leg. 189 L. Aurelius Cotta trib. mil. 181 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 144 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 119 M. Aurelius Cotta tri. mon. 139 Rutilia L. Aurelius Cotta pr. c. 90 Aurelia C. Iulius Caesar pr. c.92 C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 75 M. Aurelius Cotta cos. 74 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 65, cens. 64 Julius Caesar cos. 59, 48, 46–44 dict. 49–44 M. Aurelius Cotta propr. 49 Augustus Emperor 27 BC–AD 14 M. Aurelius Cotta M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus cos. AD 20 Aurelius Cotta See also[edit] List of Roman gentes Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, emperor from 270 AD to 275 AD. Aurelius, one of the Martyrs of Córdoba - see Aurelius and Natalia Ambrosius Aurelianus, possible historical basis for King Arthur Saint Aurelius, a fifth-century Christian saint Contarini Footnotes[edit] ^ His cognomen is guessed by Badian, thanks to the filiation of Gaius Aurelius Cotta, the consul of 200, which shows that both his father and grandfather were named Gaius. ^ Sometimes misidentified as Marcus Aemilius Scaurus; Scaurus was also a cognomen of the Aemilia gens. References[edit] ^ a b Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 321, 322. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 436 ("Aurelia Gens"). ^ Salway, "What's in a Name?", pp. 133–136. ^ Paulus, Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo, p. 23. ^ Chase, p. 124. ^ a b Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, p. 263. ^ a b Chase, pp. 109, 110. ^ Tacitus, Annales, vi. 7; xiii. 34. ^ Horace, Satirae, i. 3. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 735 ("Scaurus"), 738 ("Aurelius Scaurus"). ^ Chase, pp. 114, 115. ^ Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies", p. 157. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 210–212 ("Antoninus Pius"), vol. II, p. 189 ("Fulvus"). ^ a b Jones, The Emperor Domitian, p. 52. ^ New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. fulvus. ^ Chase, pp. 113, 114. ^ Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum, v. 147. ^ Zonaras, viii. 14, 16. ^ Orosius, iv. 9. ^ Cicero, Academica Priora, ii. 26. ^ Frontinus, Strategemata, iv. 1. §§ 22, 31. ^ Valerius Maximus, ii. 7. § 4. ^ a b c d Fasti Capitolini, AE 1927, 101; 1940, 59, 60. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 212, 215, 219, 226. ^ Livy, xxiii. 16. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 251. ^ a b c d Badian, Studies, p. 64. ^ Livy, xxiii. 30, xxv. 22, xxix. 38, xxx. 26, 42, xxxi. 3, 5, 50. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 249, 270, 272 (note 7), 313, 315 (note 7), 318, 321, 322 (note 3). ^ Livy, xxx. 26, 27, xxxi. 5, 6, 10, 11, 21, 22, 47, 49. ^ Zonaras, ix. 15. ^ Orosius, iv. 20. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 316, 320, 323. ^ Livy, xxxvii. 52. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 363. ^ Livy, xl. 27. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 385. ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 4. § 2, 5. § 4; viii. 1. § 11. ^ Cicero, Pro Murena, 28, Pro Fonteio, 13, Brutus, 21, Divinatio in Caecilium, 21. ^ Tacitus, Annales, iii. 66. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 450, 470. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Marius", 4. ^ Cicero, De Legibus, iii. 17. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 525. ^ Cicero, Brutus, 115. ^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 47, iii. 11, 12, Brutus, 36, 74. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 11, 12 (note 1). ^ Livy, Epitome, 93. ^ Eutropius, vi. 6. ^ Sallust, Historiae, fragmenta, iv. ^ Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis in Cornelio, p. 67. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Lucullus", 5, 6, 8. ^ Cicero, In Verrem, v. 13, Pro Murena, 15, Pro Oppio, fragmenta p. 444 (ed. Orelli). ^ Cassius Dio, xxxvi. 23. ^ Appian, Bella Mithridatica, 71. ^ Valerius Maximus, v. 4. § 4. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 88, 92 (note 1), 111. ^ Cicero, De Oratore, i. 7, ii. 23, iii. 3, 8, Brutus, 49, 55, 86, 88, 90, Orator ad Brutum, 30, 38, Epistulae ad Atticum, xii. 20, In Verrem, i. 50, iii. 7, De Lege Agraria, ii. 22, In Pisonem, 26. ^ Sallust, Historiae, fragmenta ii., p. 206 (ed. Gerlach) ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, i. 37. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 86, 88 (note 1), 96, 103, 111, 113. ^ Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis in Cornelio, pp. 64, 67, 78 ff. ^ Cicero, In Pisonem, 16, In Verrem, ii. 71, In Clodio, 7, De Lege Agraria, ii. 17, In Catilinam, iii, 8, Philippicae, ii. 6, De Domo Sua, 26, 32, Pro Sestio, 34, Epistulae ad Atticum, xii. 21, De Legibus, iii. 19, Epistulae ad Familiares, xii. 2. ^ Suetonius, "The Life of Caesar", 79. ^ Livy, Epitome, 97. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 32. ^ Cornelius Nepos, "The Life of Atticus", 4. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Cicero", 27. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 127, 157. ^ Caesar, De Bello Civili, I, 30. ^ Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, x, 16. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 868 ("Aurelius Cotta", No. 10). ^ Pliny, x. 27. ^ Tacitus, Annales, ii. 32, iv. 20, v. 3, vi. 5 ff. ^ a b Fasti Ostienses, CIL XIV, 244, 245, 4531–4546, 5354, 5355. ^ Cassius Dio, lvii. ^ Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 34. ^ Livy, xxxix. 6, 8. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 371. ^ Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum, i. 863, ii. 785, a. ^ Livy, Epitome, 67. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 12. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 37. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 540, 548, 550 (note 2). ^ Cicero, In Verrem, i. 33. ^ Pliny the Elder, xxxiii. 3. s. 17. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 446, 447. ^ Livy, Epitome, 60. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Gaius Gracchus", 1, 2. ^ a b Cicero, Brutus, 28. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus, 72. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 504, 508, 511, 512, 514, 518. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Marius", 14. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 553, 562, 565 (note 1). ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 7. § 6. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 88. ^ Cicero, De Officiis, ii. 17, Pro Domo Sua, 13, Pro Plancio, 21. ^ Eutropius, vi. 8. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 121, 125 (note 2). ^ Sallust, Bellum Catilinae, 15, 35. ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, ii. 2. ^ Marcus Caelius Rufus, Apud Ciceronis ad Familiares, viii. 7. ^ Tacitus, Historiae, i. 79. ^ Alföldy, Fasti Hispanienses, 19 ff. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", pp. 190, 199, 200. ^ Fasti Potentini, AE 1949, 23; 2003, 588; 2005, 457. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 191. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Antoninus Pius". ^ a b c d Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 210–212 ("Antoninus Pius"). ^ a b Cassius Dio, lxix. 21. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. 10, 22, 29, 31. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 6, 19, 26. ^ Eutropius, viii. 5. ^ Eckhel, vii. 76. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius". ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. ^ a b c d Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 439–443 ("Marcus Aurelius Antoninus"). ^ Cassius Dio, lxix. 17, 20, 21, lxxi. 1 ff. ^ Aelius Spartianus, "The Life of Hadrian", 23, "The Life of Aelius Verus". ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Verus", "The Life of Antoninus Pius", 4, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 4, 5, 7 ff. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 817 ("Commodus", No. 4). ^ a b Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 7, 26, "The Life of Lucius Verus", 2. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus", 4, 5. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. 1, lxii. 4. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 824, 825 ("Annia Lucilla"). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 102. ^ Eckhel, vii. 76. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxii, Excerpta Vaticana p. 121 (ed. Sturz). ^ Herodian, i. 10–55. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus". ^ Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae, cclii. 8. ^ Muratori, Veterum Inscriptionum, 242, 3; 590, 4. ^ CIL XVI, 173. ^ CIL XI, 7556. ^ Dicționar de istorie veche a României, pp. 399–401. ^ CIL VI, 1698 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, xxi. 12. § 24, xxvii. 3. § 3. ^ CIL VI, 1699 ^ Codex Theodosianus, 8. tit. 5. s. 25; 12. tit. 1. s. 73. ^ Symmachus, Epistulae, ix. 83. ^ Codex Theodosius, 11. tit. 30. s. 65. ^ Frontinus, Strategemata, iv. 1. § 22. ^ Livy, xxxiii. 42. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 336. ^ Suetonius, De Illustribus Grammaticis, 6. ^ Columella, De Re Rustica, i. 1. 14. ^ Quintilian, xii. 11. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 660, 661 ("Aulus Cornelius Celsus"). ^ AE 1914, 219. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Nero", p. 292. ^ Fasti Septempeda, AE 1998, 419; 2007, 106. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 189. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 210. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Clodius Albinus", 4. ^ Galen, De Compositione Medicamentorum Secundum Locos Conscriptorum, v. 5, xii. 892. ^ Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto", p. 302 ^ Herodian, i. 12, 13. ^ Cassius Dio, lxiii. 9, 12, 13. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus", 6, 7, 11. ^ Spaul, "Governors of Tingitana", p. 249. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Alexander Severus", 3. ^ Wernsdorf, Poëtae Latini Minores, i. 3, 123, 128, 275 ^ Digesta, 1. tit. 11. s. un. § 1; 22. tit. 5. s. 1, 25; 48. tit. 18. s. 10; 50. tit. 4. s. 18. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 20. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 1256 ("Sextus Aurelius Victor"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 557–559 ("Aurelius Clemens Prudentius"). ^ Intagliata, Emanuele (2018). Palmyra after Zenobia. Oxbow. ^ Münzer, Aristocratic Parties, p. 295. Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, Academica Priora, Brutus, De Domo Sua, De Lege Agraria contra Rullum, De Legibus, De Officiis, De Oratore, Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Catilinam, In Pisonem, In Verrem, Orator ad Marcum Brutum, Philippicae, Pro Fonteio, Pro Murena, Pro Plancio, Pro Sestio. Marcus Caelius Rufus, Apud Ciceronis ad Familiares. Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline), Historiae (The Histories). Cornelius Nepos, De Viris Illustribus (On the Lives of Famous Men). Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satirae (Satires). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History. Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Cornelio (Commentary on Cicero's Oration In Cornelio). Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, De Re Rustica. Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Historia Naturalis (Natural History). Sextus Julius Frontinus, Strategemata (Stratagems). Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae, De Origine et Situ Germanorum (The Origin and Situation of the Germans, or "Germania"). Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars), De Illustribus Grammaticis (On the Illustrious Grammarians). Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War). Aelius Galenus (Galen), De Compositione Medicamentorum Secundum Locos Conscriptorum (On the Composition of Medications According to the Place Prescribed). Cassius Dio, Roman History. Herodianus, History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus. Aelius Lampridius, Aelius Spartianus, Flavius Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pollio, and Vulcatius Gallicanus, Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Abridgement of the History of Rome). Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus (On the Caesars), De Viris Illustribus (On Famous Men). Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae. Codex Theodosianus. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Epistulae. Paulus Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos (History Against the Pagans). Digesta, or Pandectae (The Digest). Paulus, Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo de Significatu Verborum (Epitome of Festus' De Significatu Verborum). Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (Epitome of History). Modern sources[edit] Jan Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603). Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum (New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions), Milan (1739–42). Johann Christian Wernsdorf, Poëtae Latini Minores (Minor Latin Poets), Altenburg, Helmstedt (1780–1799). Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum (The Study of Ancient Coins, 1792–1798). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). René Cagnat et alii, L'Année épigraphique (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated AE), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897). Friedrich Münzer, Roman Aristocratic Parties and Families, translated by Thérèse Ridley, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 (originally published in 1920). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952). Ernst Badian, Studies in Greek and Roman History, Blackwell (1964). Anthony R. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, B. T. Batsford, London (1966). Geza Alföldy, Fasti Hispanienses, F. Steiner, Wiesbaden (1969). Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). T. P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome", Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Oct., 1974), pp. 153–164. Guido Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p" (List of the Prefects of Egypt from 30 BC to AD 299), in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 17 (1975). Dicționar de istorie veche a României (Dictionary of Ancient Romanian History), Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică (1976). Paul A. Gallivan, "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 290–311 (1974), "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 31, pp. 186–220 (1981). Brian W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian, Routledge, London (1992). Benet Salway, "What’s in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700", in Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 84, pp. 124–145 (1994). J.E.H. Spaul, "Governors of Tingitana", in Antiquités Africaines, vol. 30 (1994). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aurelia_gens&oldid=1028097470" Categories: Aurelii Roman gentes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 20:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5614	----	Óc Eo - Wikipedia Óc Eo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kattigara) Jump to navigation Jump to search Township in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Óc Eo Thị trấn Óc Eo Township (Class-5) Mount Ba Thê, in Óc Eo town, Thoại Sơn district, An Giang Province. Óc Eo Location in Vietnam Coordinates: 10°13′58″N 105°9′6″E / 10.23278°N 105.15167°E / 10.23278; 105.15167Coordinates: 10°13′58″N 105°9′6″E / 10.23278°N 105.15167°E / 10.23278; 105.15167 Country  Vietnam Region Mekong Delta Province An Giang Province District Thoại Sơn District Time zone UTC+7 (ICT) Óc Eo (Khmer: អូរកែវ, Ou Kaev, 'Glass Stream' or 'Crystal Stream') is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta. Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 2nd century BC and 12th century AD.[1] Scholars use the term "Óc Eo Culture" to refer to the archaeological culture of the Mekong Delta region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation. Óc Eo is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam. Contents 1 Archaeological site 2 Remains 3 Óc Eo and Funan 4 Cattigara of Ptolemy 5 Columbus' search for Ciamba 6 References 7 Sources Archaeological site[edit] This map shows the locations of archeological sites associated with Óc Eo culture. It is located at the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh City. Excavation at Óc Eo began on February 10, 1942, after French archaeologists had discovered the site through the use of aerial photography. The first excavations were led by Louis Malleret, who identified the place as the Cattigara of Roman merchants in the first centuries of the Roman empire.[2] The site covers 450 ha. Óc Eo is situated within a network of ancient canals that crisscross the low flatland of the Mekong Delta. One of the canals connects Óc Eo to the town's seaport while another goes 68 kilometres (42 mi) north-northeast to Angkor Borei. Óc Eo is longitudinally bisected by a canal, and there are four transverse canals along which pile-supported houses were perhaps ranged.[3] Archaeological sites reflecting the material culture of Óc Eo are spread throughout southern Vietnam, but are most heavily concentrated in the area of the Mekong Delta to the south and west of Ho Chi Minh City. The most significant site, aside from Óc Eo itself, is at Tháp Muời north of the Tien Giang River, where among other remains a stele with a 6th-century Sanskrit text has been discovered. Aerial photography in 1958 revealed that during the Funan period a distributary of the Mekong entered the Gulf of Thailand in the vicinity of Ta Keo, which was then on the shore but since then become separated by some distance from the sea as a result of siltation. At that time, Ta Keo was connected by a canal with Oc Eo, allowing it access to the Gulf.[4] The distributary of the Mekong revealed in the aerial photography was probably the Saenus mentioned in Ptolemy’s Geography as the western branch of the Mekong, which Ptolemy called the Cottiaris.[5] The Cattigara in Ptolemy's Geography could be derived from a Sanskrit word, either Kottinagara (Strong City) or Kirtinagara (Renowned City).[6] Remains[edit] This statue of Visnu, Hindu deity of Indian-origin religion, from the 6th or 7th century AD was found in Óc Eo and is now housed in the Museum of Vietnamese History. The remains found at Óc Eo include pottery, tools, jewelry, casts for making jewelry, coins, and religious statues.[7] Among the finds are gold jewellery imitating coins from the Roman Empire of the Antonine period.[8]:279[9] Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo, which was near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhou and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy in 166.[10] Many of the remains have been collected and are on exhibition in Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City. Among the coins found at Óc Eo by Malleret were eight made of silver bearing the image of the hamsa or crested argus, apparently minted in Funan.[11] Óc Eo and Funan[edit] See also: Kingdom of Funan The archeological site of Gò Cây Thị, Ba Thê Óc Eo Óc Eo has been regarded as belonging to the historical kingdom of Funan (扶南) that flourished in the Mekong Delta between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century CE. The kingdom of Funan is known to us from the works of ancient Chinese historians, especially writers of dynastic histories, who in turn drew from the testimony of Chinese diplomats and travellers, and of foreign (including Funanese) embassies to the Chinese imperial courts. Indeed, the name "Funan" itself is an artifact of the Chinese histories, and does not appear in the paleographic record of ancient Vietnam or Cambodia. From the Chinese sources, however, it can be determined that a polity called "Funan" by the Chinese was the dominant polity located in the Mekong Delta region. As a result, archeological discoveries in that region that can be dated to the period of Funan have been identified with the historical polity of Funan. The discoveries at Óc Eo and related sites are our primary source for the material culture of Funan. The Vietnamese archaeologist and historian Hà Văn Tấn has written that at the present stage of knowledge, it was impossible to demonstrate the existence of a Funan culture, widely spread from the Mekong Delta through the Chao Praya delta to Burma, with Óc Eo as the typical representative: the presence of similar artefacts such as jewelry and seals from sites in those areas was simply the result of trade and exchange, while each of the sites bore the signs of their own separate cultural development. He supported the view of Claude Jacques that, in view of the complete lack of any Khmer records relating to a kingdom by the name of Funan, use of this name should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Aninditapura, Bhavapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and provide a more accurate idea of the true geography of the ancient Khmer territory.[12] Hà Văn Tấn argued that, from the late neolithic or early metal age, Óc Eo gradually emerged as an economic and cultural centre of the Mekong Delta and, with an important position on the Southeast Asian sea routes, became a meeting place for craftsmen and traders, which provided adequate conditions for urbanization, receiving foreign influences, notably from India, which in turn stimulated internal development.[13] Funan was part of the region of Southeast Asia referred to in ancient Indian texts as Suvarnabhumi, and may have been the part to which the term was first applied.[14] Cattigara of Ptolemy[edit] The ancient canal linking Óc Eo to Angkor Borei Óc Eo may have been the port known to the Romans as Cattigara.[15] Cattigara was the name given by the 2nd-century Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy to the land on the easternmost shore of the Indian Sea at (due to a scribal error) 8½° south of the Equator.[16] The name "Cattigara" was probably derived from the Sanskrit Kirti-nagara कीर्ति- नगर "Renowned City" or Kotti-nagara कोटि-नगर "Strong City".[17] Scholarship has now determined that Ptolemy's Cattigara was at 8½° north of the Equator and was the forerunner of Saigon as the main port and entrepot at the mouth of the Mekong.[18] Mr Caverhill "proves" the ancient Cattigara to be the same with the modern Ponteamass (Banteaymeas), The Monthly Review, Or, Literary Journal, Volume 40, 1769, p.98. John Caverhill deduced in 1767 that Cattigara was the Mekong Delta port Banteaymeas (now Hà Tiên),[19] not far from Óc Eo.[20] The plea in 1979 by Jeremy H.C.S. Davidson for "a thorough study of Hà-tiên in its historical context and in relation to Óc-eo" as indispensable for accurate understanding and interpretation of the site, still remains unanswered.[21] The eighteenth-century French geographer, Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, located Cattigara at the mouth of the Mekong (Cottiaris) River, where it is shown on his map, Orbis Veteribus Notus (The World Known to the Ancients).[22] Cattigara located at the outlet of the river Mekong (Cotiaris), by d' Anville, Orbis Veteribus Notus (The World Known to the Ancients). The Swedish yachtsman and writer Bjorn Landström also concluded, from the sailing directions given by the ancient merchant and seafarer Alexander, that Cattigara lay at the mouth of the Mekong.[23] The "father of Early Southeast Asian History", George Coedès, has said: "By the middle of the 3rd century Fu-nan had already established relations with China and India, and it is doubtless on the west coast of the Gulf of Siam that the furthest point reached by Hellenistic navigators is to be found, that is the harbour of Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy".[verify][24] A.H. Christie said in 1979 that "the presence of objects, however few in number, from the Roman Orient" added some weight to the conjecture that Óc-eo was the Ptolemaic Kattigara.[25] The distinguished German classical scholar, Albrecht Dihle, supported this view, saying: From the account of the voyage of Alexander referred to by Ptolemy, Kattigara can actually be located only in the Mekong delta, because Alexander went first along the east coast of the Malacca peninsula, northward to Bangkok, from thence likewise only along the coast toward the south east, and so came to Kattigara. We hear nothing of any further change of course. In addition, at Óc Eo, an emporium excavated in the western Mekong delta, in the ancient kingdom of Fu-nan, Roman finds from the 2nd century after Christ have come to light.[26] Columbus' search for Ciamba[edit] Guided by Ptolemy, the discoverers of the New World were initially trying to find their way to Cattigara. On the 1489 map of the world made by Henricus Martellus Germanus, revising Ptolemy's work, Asia terminated in its southeastern point in a cape, the Cape of Cattigara. Writing of his 1499 voyage, Amerigo Vespucci said he had hoped to reach Malacca (Melaka) by sailing westward from Spain across the Western Ocean (the Atlantic) around the Cape of Cattigara into the Sinus Magnus ("Great Gulf") that lay to the east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula), of which the Cape of Cattigara formed the southeastern point. The Sinus Magnus was the actual Gulf of Thailand.[27] Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage of 1502–1503, planned to follow the coast of Champa southward around the Cape of Cattigara and sail through the strait separating Cattigara from the New World, into the Sinus Magnus to Malacca. This was the route he thought Marco Polo had gone from China to India in 1292.[28] Columbus planned to meet up with the expedition sent at the same time from Portugal around the Cape of Good Hope under Vasco da Gama, and carried letters of credence from the Spanish monarchs to present to da Gama.[29] On reaching Cariay on the coast of Costa Rica, Columbus thought he was close to the gold mines of Champa. On 7 July 1503, he wrote from Jamaica: "I reached the land of Cariay...Here I received news of the gold mines of Ciamba [Champa] which I was seeking".[30] References[edit] ^ Sen, Võ Văn; Thắng, Đặng Văn (6 October 2017). "Recognition of Oc Eo Culture Relic in Thoai Son District an Giang Province, Vienam". American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS). 36 (1): 271–293. ISSN 2313-4402. ^ Roman merchants in Indochina ^ Paul Lévy, "Recent Archaeological Researches by the École Français d’Extrême Orient, French Indo-China, 1940–1945", in Kalidas Nag (ed.), Sir William Jones: Bicentenary of his Birth Commemoration Volume, 1746–1946, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1948, pp.118-19; paraphrased in R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia, Baroda, B.J. : Sandesara, 1963, pp.12-13. ^ Aulis Lind, "Ancient canals and environments of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam", Journal of Geography, vol.79, no.2, February 1980, pp.74-75. ^ Identified as such by C. E. Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia; Asiatic Society Monographs, Vol. I, 1909, pp.193, 775 and Albert Herrmann, „Die alten Verkehrswege zwischen Indien und Süd-China nach Ptolemäus", Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1913, pp.771-787, p.784. [1] English translation at: [2] ^ Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Cattigara," in Robert Nichols and Martin Woods (eds), Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia, 38-39, Canberra: National Library of Australia. ISBN 9780642278098, p. 38. ^ Louis Malleret, "Le trace de Rome en Indochine", in Zeki Velidi Togan (ed.), Proceedings of the Twenty-Second International Congress of Orientalists held at Istanbul, 1951, Vol.II, Communications, Leiden, Brill, 1957, pp.332-347. ^ Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., ISBN 9786167339443 ^ Brigitte Borell, "Some Western Imports assigned to the Oc Eo Period Reconsidered", in Jean-Pierre Pautreau et al. (eds.), From Homo Erectus to the Living Traditions: Choice of Papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Bougon, 25th–29th September 2006, Chiang Mai, Siam Ratana, c2008, pp.167-174. ^ Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. ^ Lương Ninh, "Óc Eo – Cảng thị quốc tế của Vương quốc Phù Nam (Óc Eo – International Trade Port of Funnan Kingdom)", Khảo cổ học / Vietnam Archaeology, 3, 2011, pp.39-44. ^ Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia : Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371-9. ^ Ha Van Tan, "Óc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1-2 (7-8), 1986, pp. 91-101. ^ Pang Khat, «Le Bouddhisme au Cambodge», René de Berval, Présence du Bouddhisme, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, pp.535-551, pp.537, 538; Amarajiva Lochan, "India and Thailand: Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports", S.K. Maity, Upendra Thakur, A.K. Narain (eds,), Studies in Orientology: Essays in Memory of Prof. A.L. Basham, Agra, Y.K. Publishers, 1988, pp.222-235, pp.222, 229-230; Prapod Assavavirulhakarn, The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Chieng Mai, Silkworm Books, 2010, p.55. ^ "Oc-Eo dans le delta du Mékong serait donc une identification plus probable": Germaine Aujac, Claude Ptolémée, Astronome, Astrologue, Géographe: Connaissance et Représentation du Monde habité, Paris, Editions du CTHS, 1993, p.125, n.10. See also Adhir Chakravarti, "The Economic Foundations of Three Ancient Civilizations of South-east Asia: Borobudur, Dvararavati and Angkor: Preliminary Report of a Study Tour in some countries of South-east Asia in April–May 1985", in Haraprasad Ray (ed.), Studies on India, China, and South East Asia: Posthumous Papers of Prof. Adhir Chakravarti, Kolkata, R.N. Bhattacharya, 2007, p.89; and Adhir Chakravarti, "International Trade and Towns of Ancient Siam", Our Heritage: Bulletin of the Department of Post-graduate Training and Research, Sanskrit College, Calcutta, vol. XXIX, part I, January–June 1981, pp1-23, nb p.9. An alternative proposed by J. L. Moens was that the name derived from the Sanskrit, Koti-nagara "Cape City", referring to its location near Cape Ca Mau, the southern point of Indochina: J. L. Moens, "De Noord-Sumatraanse Rijken der Parfums en specerijen in Voor-Moslimse Tijd," Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, LXXXV, 3, 1955, pp.325-336, p.335; also J. L. Moens, "Kotinagara het antieke handescentrum op Yava's. Eindpunt," Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, LXXXV, 3, 1955, pp. 437-48, p.448; and also W.J. van der Meulen, "Ptolemy's Geography of Mainland Southeast Asia and Borneo," Indonesia, no.19, April 1975, pp.1-32, p.17. ^ Paul Schnabel, „Die Entstehungsgeschichte des kartographischen Erdbildes des Klaudios Ptolemaios", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd.XIV, 1930, S.214-250, nb 239-243. Erich Polaschek, ‘Ptolemy's "Geography" in a New Light’, Imago Mundi, Vol. 14, (1959), pp. 17-37, nb pp.25 & 35. Bagrow, L. (1 January 1945). "The Origin of Ptolemy's Geographia". Geografiska Annaler. Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 27. 27: 318–387, nb 322–323. doi:10.2307/520071. ISSN 1651-3215. JSTOR 520071. Claudius Ptolemy, India extra Gangem fluvium Sinarum situs, Rome, Arnoldus Buckinck, 1508 (same map reproduced in the Rome 1478 and 1490 edition). ^ Adhir K. Chakravarti, "Early Sino-Indian Maritime Trade and Fu-Nan", D.C. Sircar (ed.), Early Indian Trade and Industry, Calcutta, University of Calcutta Centre of Advanced Study in Ancient Indian History and Culture, Lectures and Seminars, no. VIII-A, part I, 1972, pp. 101-117; also in The South East Asian Review (Gaya, India), vol. 20, nos.1 & 2, 1995, pp.5-14, p.10; and in India and South-East Asia Socio-econo-cultural Contacts, edited by N.N. Bhattacharyya, Kolkata, Punthi Pustak, 1998, p.413. ^ Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp.123-8; Louis Malleret, L’Archéologie du delta du Mékong, Tome Troisiéme, La culture du Fu-nan, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp.421-54. ^ Nicholas Sellers, The Princes of Hà-Tiên (1682-1867): the Last of the Philosopher-Princes and the Prelude to the French Conquest of Indochina: a Study of the Independent Rule of the Mac Dynasty in the Principality of Hà-Tiên, and the Establishment of the Empire of Vietnam, Brussels, Thanh-long, 1983, p.164. ^ John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies", Philosophical Transactions, vol.57, 1767, pp. 155-174. ^ Jeremy H.C.S. Davidson, "Archaeology in Southern Viet-Nam since 1954", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.215-222, see p.216. ^ Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d' Anville, Eclaircissements géographiques sur la carte de l'Inde, Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1753, pp.160-161; Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' Anville, A Geographical Illustration of the Map of India, Translated by William Herbert, London, 1759, p.78; Atlas de d'Anville, 1786. Orbis Veteribus Notus ^ Bjorn Landström, The quest for India : a History of Discovery and Exploration from the Expedition to the Land of Punt in 1493 B.C. to the Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 A.D., in words and pictures, London, Allen & Unwin, 1964, p.56. ^ George Coedès, "Some Problems in the Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia", Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol.5, no.2, September 1964, pp.1-14. Coedès clarified what he meant in his book, Les Peuples de la Péninsule Indochinoise: Histoire – Civilisations (Paris, Dunod, 1962, pp.62, translated by H.M. Wright, The Making of South East Asia, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1966, p.58-59): "Now Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam". ^ A.H. Christie, "Lin-i, Fu-nan, Java", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.281-7, see p. 286. ^ Albrecht Dihle, Umstrittene Daten: Untersuchenen zum Auftreten der Griechen an Roten Meer, Köln und Opladen, Westdeutsch Verlag, 1964, S.30. ^ Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp. 123-8 ^ George E. Nunn, ‘The Three Maplets attributed to Bartholomew Columbus’, Imago Mundi, vol.9, 1952, 12-22, p.15; Helen Wallis, ‘What Columbus Knew’, History Today, vol.42, May 1992, pp.17-23; Edmundo O'Gorman, The Invention of America: An Inquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of its History, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1961, pp.106-122. ^ The letter, dated 14 March 1502, is published in Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, Coleccion de los Viages y Descubrimientos, 2nd. edn., Madrid, Imprenta Nacional, 1858, p.430; the covering letter to Columbus is published in A. Millares Carlo (ed.), Historia de las Indias por Fray Bartólome de las Casas, México, Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1951, Lib.2, cap.iv, pp.219-20. ^ Letter dated 7 July 1503; quoted in J.M. Cohen (ed.), The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1969, p.287. Sources[edit] Part of a series on Prehistoric and ancient cultures of Vietnam Paleolithic Sơn Vi culture (20,000–12,000 BC) Mesolithic Hoabinhian (12,000–10,000 BC) Neolithic Bắc Sơn culture (10,000–8,000 BC) Quỳnh Văn culture (8,000–6,000 BC) Đa Bút culture (4,000–3,000 BC) Bronze Age Phùng Nguyên culture (2,000–1,500 BC) Đồng Đậu culture (1,500–1,000 BC) Gò Mun culture (1,000–800 BC) Dong Son culture (1,000 BC–100 AD) Iron Age Sa Huỳnh culture (1,000 BC–200 AD) Óc Eo culture (1–630 AD) v t e Albert Herrmann, "Der Magnus Sinus und Cattigara nach Ptolemaeus", Comptes Rendus du 15me Congrès International de Géographie, Amsterdam, 1938, Leiden, Brill, 1938, tome II, sect. IV, Géographie Historique et Histoire de la Géographie, pp. 123–8. English translation at [3] Albert Herrmann, "South-Eastern Asia on Ptolemy’s Map", Research and Progress: Quarterly Review of German Science, vol.V, no.2, March–April 1939, pp. 121–127, p. 123. Albert Herrmann, Das Land der Seide und Tibet in Lichte der Antike, Leipzig, 1938, pp. 80, 84. Louis Malleret, L’Archéologie du delta du Mékong, Tome Troisiéme, La culture du Fu-nan, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp. 421–54. John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies", Philosophical Transactions, vol.57, 1767, pp. 155–174. Adhir K. Chakravarti, "Early Sino-Indian Maritime Trade and Fu-Nan", D.C. Sircar (ed.), Early Indian Trade and Industry, Calcutta, University of Calcutta Centre of Advanced Study in Ancient Indian History and Culture, Lectures and Seminars, no. VIII-A, part I, 1972, pp. 101–117. George Cœdès, "Fouilles en Cochinchine: Le Site de Go Oc Eo, Ancien Port du Royaume de Fou-nan", Artibus Asiae, vol.10, no.3, 1947, pp. 193–199. George Coedès, review of Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), in T'oung Pao 通報, vol.49, parts 4/5, 1962, pp. 433–439. George Coedès, "Some Problems in the Ancient History of the Hinduized States of South-East Asia", Journal of Southeast Asian History, vol.5, no.2, September 1964, pp. 1–14. Albrecht Dihle, "Serer und Chinesen", in Antike und Orient: Gesammelte Aufsätze, Heidelberg, Carl Winter, 1984, S.209. J.W. McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, London, Trubner, 1885, revised edition by Ramachandra Jain, New Delhi, Today & Tomorrow's Printers & Publishers, 1974, p. 204: George E. Nunn, ‘The Three Maplets attributed to Bartholomew Columbus’, Imago Mundi, 9 (1952), 12–22, page 15; and Helen Wallis, ‘What Columbus Knew’, History Today, 42 (May 1992), 17–23. Quoted in J.M. Cohen (ed.), The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1969, p. 287. Ha Van Tan, "Oc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", Viet Nam Social Sciences, 1-2 (7-8), 1986, pp. 91–101. R. Stein, "Le Lin-yi 林邑, sa localisation, sa contribution à la formation de Champa et ses liens avec la Chine", Han-Hiue 漢學, Bulletin du Centre d’Études sinologiques de Pékin, vol.II, pts.1-3, 1948, pp. 115, 122–3. R. Stein, review of Albert Herrmann, Das Land der Seide und Tibet im Lichte der Antike (Leipzig, 1938), in Bulletin de l’École Française d’ Extrême-Orient, tome XL, fasc.2, 1940, p. 459. Paul Lévy, "Le Kattigara de Ptolémée et les Étapes d’Agastya, le Héros de l’Expansion Hindoue en Extrême-Orient", in XXIe Congrès Internationale des Orientalistes, Paris, 1948, Actes, Paris, Société Asiatique de Paris, 1949, p. 223. Paul Demiéville, review of R. Stein, "Le Lin-yi 林邑", (Han-Hiue 漢學, vol.II, pts.1-3, 1948), in T'oung Pao 通報, vol.40, livres 4/5, 1951, pp. 336–351, n.b. pp. 338, 341. Paul Lévy, "Recent Archaeological Researches by the École Français d’Extrême Orient, French Indo-China, 1940–1945", in Kalidas Nag (ed.), Sir William Jones: Bicentenary of his Birth Commemoration Volume, 1746–1946, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1948, pp. 118–19; paraphrased in R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia, Baroda, B.J. : Sandesara, 1963, pp. 12–13. Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam ", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke, Arts of ancient Viet Nam: from River Plain to Open Sea, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009, pp. 100–118. Phạm Dức Mạnh, History of the South from the Original Advent of Civilization & Basic Material Relating to the Kingdom of Funan; Traditional Oc Eo Culture – Later Oc Eo (Research Material), Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City National University Faculty of Social Science & Literature, 2009. Paul Wheatley, prefatory essay in Albert Herrmann, An historical atlas of China, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1966, p.xxviii. Srisakra Vallibotama and Dhida Saraya, "South-East Asia from ad 300 to 700: Oc-éo", in Sigfried J. de Laet, History of Humanity, London, New York and Paris, Routledge and Unesco, Volume III, 1996, Joachim Herrmann and Erik Zürcher (eds.), From the Seventh Century BC to the Seventh Century AD, pp. 428–29. John N. Miksic, Singapore & the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800, Singapore, NUS Press, 2014, pp.33-37, 45-56. v t e An Giang Province Capital: Long Xuyên Long Xuyên Mỹ Bình Mỹ Long Mỹ Xuyên Bình Khánh Mỹ Phước Đông Xuyên Mỹ Quý Mỹ Thạnh Mỹ Thới Bình Đức Mỹ Hòa Mỹ Hòa Hưng Mỹ Khánh Châu Đốc Châu Phú A Châu Phú B Núi Sam Vĩnh Mỹ Vĩnh Nguơn Vĩnh Châu Vĩnh Tế Tân Châu Long Phú Long Châu Long Hưng Long Sơn Long Thạnh Châu Phong Lê Chánh Long An Phú Lộc Phú Vĩnh Tân An Tân Thạnh Vĩnh Hòa Vĩnh Xương An Phú District An Phú Long Bình Đa Phước Khánh An Khánh Bình Nhơn Hội Phú Hội Phú Hữu Phước Hưng Quốc Thái Vĩnh Hậu Vĩnh Hội Đông Vĩnh Lộc Vĩnh Trường Châu Phú District Cái Dầu Bình Chánh Bình Long Bình Mỹ Bình Phú Bình Thủy Đào Hữu Cảnh Khánh Hòa Mỹ Đức Mỹ Phú Ô Long Vĩ Thạnh Mỹ Tây Vĩnh Thạnh Trung Châu Thành District An Châu An Hòa Bình Hòa Bình Thạnh Cần Đăng Hòa Bình Thạnh Tân Phú Vĩnh An Vĩnh Bình Vĩnh Hanh Vĩnh Lợi Vĩnh Nhuận Vĩnh Thành Chợ Mới District Chợ Mới Mỹ Luông An Thạnh Trung Bình Phước Xuân Hòa An Hòa Bình Hội An Kiến An Kiến Thành Long Điền A Long Điền B Long Giang Long Kiến Mỹ An Mỹ Hiệp Mỹ Hội Đông Nhơn Mỹ Tấn Mỹ Phú Tân District Phú Mỹ Chợ Vàm Bình Thạnh Đông Hiệp Xương Hòa Lạc Long Hòa Phú An Phú Bình Phú Hiệp Phú Hưng Phú Lâm Phú Thành Phú Thạnh Phú Thọ Phú Long Phú Xuân Tân Hòa Tân Trung Thoại Sơn District Núi Sập Óc Eo Phú Hòa An Bình Bình Thành Định Mỹ Định Thành Mỹ Phú Đông Phú Thuận Tây Phú Thoại Giang Vĩnh Chánh Vĩnh Khánh Vĩnh Phú Vĩnh Trạch Vọng Đông Vọng Thê Tịnh Biên District Tịnh Biên Chi Lăng Nhà Bàng An Cư An Hảo An Nông An Phú Nhơn Hưng Núi Voi Tân Lập Tân Lợi Thới Sơn Văn Giáo Vĩnh Trung Tri Tôn District Tri Tôn Ba Chúc An Tức Châu Lăng Cô Tô Lạc Quới Lê Trì Lương An Trà Lương Phi Núi Tô Ô Lâm Tà Đảnh Tân Tuyến Vĩnh Gia Vĩnh Phước Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Óc_Eo&oldid=1018858601" Categories: Archaeological sites in Vietnam Ancient Vietnam Archaeological cultures of Southeast Asia Archaeological cultures in Vietnam Iron Age cultures of Asia Buildings and structures in An Giang Province Archaeological cultures in Cambodia 1st-century establishments in Vietnam 7th-century disestablishments in Vietnam Townships in Vietnam Communes of An Giang Province Populated places in An Giang Province Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from December 2019 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Khmer-language text All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Español Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Occitan ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2021, at 08:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5619	----	Heraclius (son of Constans II) - Wikipedia Heraclius (son of Constans II) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine co-Emperor For other people with the same name, see Heraclius (disambiguation). Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Constantine IV Heraclius Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Constantine IV Constantine IV with his co-emperor brothers Heraclius and Tiberius to his left, mosaic in basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. Byzantine co-emperor Reign 659–681 (22 years) Coronation 659 Predecessor Constans II Successor Constantine IV Co-emperors Constans II, (659-668) Constantine IV, (659–681) Tiberius, (659–681) Born Constantinople Names Flavius Heraclius Augustus Dynasty Heraclian Father Constans II Mother Fausta Religion Christianity Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Heraclius (Greek: Ἡράκλειος, Herakleios) was Byzantine co-emperor from 659 to 681. He was the son of Emperor Constans II and Fausta, who was elevated in 659, before his father departed for Italy. After the death of Constans, Heraclius' brother Constantine IV ascended the throne as senior emperor. Constantine attempted to have both Heraclius and Tiberius removed as co-emperors. However, this sparked a popular revolt in 681. Constantine ended the revolt by promising to accede to the demands of the rebels, sending them home, but bringing their leaders into Constantinople. Once there, Constantine had them executed, then imprisoned Tiberius and Heraclius and had their noses slit, after which point they disappear from history. Life[edit] Heraclius was one of the sons of Constans II. His mother was Fausta, daughter of the Patrician Valentinus.[1] Although his elder brother Constantine IV had been raised to the rank of co-emperor in 654,[2] in 659, shortly before his departure for Italy, Constans II also elevated Heraclius to the rank of co-emperor, alongside his brother Tiberius.[3] In 663, Constans tried to have his sons join him in Sicily, where he intended to establish Syracuse as the new capital, but this provoked a popular uprising in Constantinople, led by Theodore of Koloneia and Andrew, and the brothers remained in the imperial capital.[3] With Constans II’s death in 668, Constantine IV became the senior emperor.[4] After ruling alongside Heraclius and Tiberius for thirteen years, Constantine attempted to demote his brothers from their imperial positions, but this provoked a military revolt in the Anatolic Theme (in modern Turkey).[5] The army marched to Chrysopolis, and sent a delegation across the straits of the Bosporus to Constantinople, demanding that the two brothers should remain co-emperors alongside Constantine IV.[5] They based their demand on the belief that, since Heaven was ruled by the Trinity, in the same way the empire should be governed by three emperors.[4] Confronted by this situation, Constantine kept a close eye on his brothers, and sent across a trusted officer, Theodore, the captain of Koloneia. Constantine gave Theodore the delicate task of praising the soldiers for their devotion and agreeing with their reasoning, with the objective of persuading them to return to their barracks in Anatolia.[6] He also invited the leaders of the rebellion to come over to Constantinople and consult with the Senate in order that they may begin the process of confirming the army’s wishes.[6] Happy with this apparently positive outcome, the army departed back to Anatolia, while the instigators of the movement entered the city.[6] With the military threat now gone, Constantine moved against the leaders of the revolt, captured them and had them hanged at Sycae.[7] Because he was the focus of a plot to curtail Constantine's power, both he and his brother were now suspect in the senior emperor's eyes; also, the emperor was keen to raise up his own son, the future Justinian II.[8] Sometime between 16 September and 21 December 681, Constantine ordered the mutilation of his brothers by slitting their noses, and ordered that their images no longer appear on any coinage, and that their names be removed from all official documentation,[9] likely to ensure that his son, Justinian II, would succeed him.[8] After this point, neither are mentioned again by history.[10] References[edit] ^ ODB, "Constans II" (P. A. Hollingsworth, A. Cutler) pp. 496–497. ^ ODB, "Constantine IV" (P. A. Hollingsworth, A. Cutler) pp. 500–501. ^ a b PmbZ, Tiberios (#8484/corr.). ^ a b Moore 1997. ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 308. ^ a b c Bury 1889, p. 309. ^ Stratos 1980, p. 139. ^ a b Hoyland 2012, pp. 173–174. ^ Bellinger & Grierson 1968, p. 513. ^ Haldon 2016, pp. 43–45. Sources[edit] Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip (1968). Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Dumbarton Oaks. OCLC 847177622. Bury, J.B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, 395 A.D. to 800 A.D. II. MacMillan & Co. OCLC 168739195. Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674088771. Hoyland, Robert G. (2012). Theophilus of Edessa's Chronicle and the circulation of historical knowledge in late antiquity and early Islam. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1846316975. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Moore, R. Scott (1997). "Constantine IV (668–685 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2010. Stratos, Andreas Nikolaos (1980). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: 634–641. A.M. Hakkert. OCLC 490722634. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)&oldid=1024779834" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine junior emperors Heraclian Dynasty Porphyrogennetoi 660s in the Byzantine Empire 670s in the Byzantine Empire 680s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Polski Português Română Русский Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 02:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-561	----	Tigris - Wikipedia Tigris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search River flowing from Turkey through Iraq and Syria For other uses, see Tigris (disambiguation). Tigris About 100 km from its source, the Tigris enables rich agriculture near Diyarbakır. Map of the Tigris–Euphrates river system Location Country Turkey, Syria, Iraq Cities Diyarbakır, Mosul, Baghdad Physical characteristics Source Lake Hazar[citation needed]  • coordinates 38°29′0″N 39°25′0″E / 38.48333°N 39.41667°E / 38.48333; 39.41667  • elevation 1,150 m (3,770 ft) Mouth Shatt al-Arab  • location Al-Qurnah, Basra Governorate, Iraq Length 1,900 km (1,200 mi) Basin size 375,000 km2 (145,000 sq mi) Discharge    • location Baghdad  • average 1,014 m3/s (35,800 cu ft/s)  • minimum 337 m3/s (11,900 cu ft/s)  • maximum 2,779 m3/s (98,100 cu ft/s) Basin features River system Tigris–Euphrates river system Tributaries    • left Garzan, Botan, Khabur, Greater Zab, Lesser Zab, 'Adhaim, Cizre, Diyala  • right Wadi Tharthar [1][2] Mosul, on the bank of the Tigris, 1861 The Tigris (/ˈtaɪɡrɪs/) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the Persian Gulf. Contents 1 Geography 2 Navigation 3 Etymology 4 Management and water quality 5 Religion and mythology 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links Geography[edit] The Tigris is 1,750 km long, rising in the Taurus Mountains of eastern Turkey about 25 km southeast of the city of Elazig and about 30 km from the headwaters of the Euphrates. The river then flows for 400 km through Southeastern Turkey before becoming part of the Syria-Turkey border. This stretch of 44 km is the only part of the river that is located in Syria.[1] Some of its affluences are Garzan, Anbarçayi, Batman, and the Great and the Little Zab.[3] Close to its confluence with the Euphrates, the Tigris splits into several channels. First, the artificial Shatt al-Hayy branches off, to join the Euphrates near Nasiriyah. Second, the Shatt al-Muminah and Majar al-Kabir branch off to feed the Central Marshes. Further downstream, two other distributary channels branch off (the Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla), to feed the Hawizeh Marshes. The main channel continues southwards and is joined by the Al-Kassarah, which drains the Hawizeh Marshes. Finally, the Tigris joins the Euphrates near al-Qurnah to form the Shatt-al-Arab. According to Pliny and other ancient historians, the Euphrates originally had its outlet into the sea separate from that of the Tigris.[4] Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, stands on the banks of the Tigris. The port city of Basra straddles the Shatt al-Arab. In ancient times, many of the great cities of Mesopotamia stood on or near the Tigris, drawing water from it to irrigate the civilization of the Sumerians. Notable Tigris-side cities included Nineveh, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, while the city of Lagash was irrigated by the Tigris via a canal dug around 2900 B.C. Navigation[edit] The Tigris has long been an important transport route in a largely desert country. Shallow-draft vessels can go as far as Baghdad, but rafts are needed for transport upstream to Mosul. General Francis Rawdon Chesney hauled two steamers overland through Syria in 1836 to explore the possibility of an overland and river route to India. One steamer, the Tigris, was wrecked in a storm which sank and killed twenty. Chesney proved the river navigable to powered craft. In 1855, a convoy of rafts carrying antiquities from Victor Place's expedition to Khorsabad, Rawlinson's to Kuyunjik and Fresnel's to Babylon was sunk by local tribes near Al-Qurnah.[5][6] Later, the Euphrates and Tigris Steam Navigation Company was established in 1861 by the Lynch Brothers trading company, who had two steamers in service. By 1908 ten steamers were on the river. Tourists boarded steam yachts to venture inland as this was the first age of archaeological tourism, and the sites of Ur and Ctesiphon became popular with European travellers. In the First World War, during the British conquest of Ottoman Mesopotamia, Indian and Thames River paddlers were used to supply General Charles Townsend's army, in the Siege of Kut and the Fall of Baghdad (1917).[7] The Tigris Flotilla included vessels Clio, Espiegle, Lawrence, Odin, armed tug Comet, armed launches Lewis Pelly, Miner, Shaitan, Sumana, and sternwheelers Muzaffari/Muzaffar. These were joined by Royal Navy Fly-class gunboats Butterfly, Cranefly, Dragonfly, Mayfly, Sawfly, Snakefly, and Mantis, Moth, and Tarantula. After the war, river trade declined in importance during the 20th century as the Basra-Baghdad-Mosul railway, a previously unfinished portion of the Baghdad Railway, was completed and roads took over much of the freight traffic. Etymology[edit] Bedouin crossing the river Tigris with plunder (c.1860) The Ancient Greek form Tigris (Τίγρις) meaning "tiger" (if treated as Greek) was adapted from Old Persian Tigrā, itself from Elamite Tigra, itself from Sumerian Idigna. The original Sumerian Idigna or Idigina was probably from *id (i)gina "running water",[8] which can be interpreted as "the swift river", contrasted to its neighbour, the Euphrates, whose leisurely pace caused it to deposit more silt and build up a higher bed than the Tigris. The Sumerian form was borrowed into Akkadian as Idiqlat, and from there into the other Semitic languages (cf. Hebrew Ḥîddeqel, Syriac Deqlaṯ, Arabic Dijlah). Another name for the Tigris used in Middle Persian was Arvand Rud, literally "swift river". Today, however, Arvand Rud (New Persian: اروند رود) refers to the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (known in Arabic as the Shatt al-Arab). In Kurdish, it is also known as Ava Mezin, "the Great Water". Mosul, Iraq Outside of Mosul, Iraq The name of the Tigris in languages that have been important in the region: Language Name for Tigris Akkadian 𒁇𒄘𒃼, Idiqlat Arabic دجلة, Dijlah; حداقل, Ḥudaqil Aramaic ܕܝܓܠܐܬ, Diglath Armenian Տիգրիս, Tigris, Դգլաթ, Dglatʿ Greek ἡ Τίγρης, -ητος, hē Tígrēs, -ētos; ἡ, ὁ Τίγρις, -ιδος, hē, ho Tígris, -idos Hebrew חידקל ‎, Ḥîddeqel, biblical חִדֶּקֶל‎, Ḥiddeqel[9] Hurrian Aranzah[10] Persian Old Persian: 𐎫𐎡𐎥𐎼𐎠 Tigrā; Middle Persian: Tigr; Modern Persian:دجله Dejle Sumerian 𒁇𒄘𒃼 Idigna/Idigina Syriac ܕܹܩܠܵܬ Deqlaṯ Turkish Dicle Baghdad Management and water quality[edit] Batman River The Tigris is heavily dammed in Iraq and Turkey to provide water for irrigating the arid and semi-desert regions bordering the river valley. Damming has also been important for averting floods in Iraq, to which the Tigris has historically been notoriously prone following April melting of snow in the Turkish mountains. Recent Turkish damming of the river has been the subject of some controversy, for both its environmental effects within Turkey and its potential to reduce the flow of water downstream. Mosul Dam is the largest dam in Iraq. Water from both rivers is used as a means of pressure during conflicts.[11] In 2014 a major breakthrough in developing consensus between multiple stakeholder representatives of Iraq and Turkey on a Plan of Action for promoting exchange and calibration of data and standards pertaining to Tigris river flows was achieved. The consensus which is referred to as the "Geneva Consensus On Tigris River" was reached at a meeting organized in Geneva by the think tank Strategic Foresight Group.[12] In February 2016, the United States Embassy in Iraq as well as the Prime Minister of Iraq Haider al-Abadi issued warnings that Mosul Dam could collapse.[13] The United States warned people to evacuate the floodplain of the Tigris because between 500,000 and 1.5 million people were at risk of drowning due to flash flood if the dam collapses, and that the major Iraqi cities of Mosul, Tikrit, Samarra, and Baghdad were at risk.[14] Religion and mythology[edit] In Sumerian mythology, the Tigris was created by the god Enki, who filled the river with flowing water.[15] In Hittite and Hurrian mythology, Aranzah (or Aranzahas in the Hittite nominative form) is the Hurrian name of the Tigris River, which was divinized. He was the son of Kumarbi and the brother of Teshub and Tašmišu, one of the three gods spat out of Kumarbi's mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colluded with Anu and the Teshub to destroy Kumarbi (The Kumarbi Cycle). The Tigris appears twice in the Old Testament. First, in the Book of Genesis, it is the third of the four rivers branching off the river issuing out of the Garden of Eden.[9] The second mention is in the Book of Daniel, wherein Daniel states he received one of his visions "when I was by that great river the Tigris".[16] The Tigris River is also mentioned in Islam.[citation needed] The tomb of Imam Ahmad Bin Hanbal and Syed Abdul Razzaq Jilani is in Baghdad and the flow of Tigris restricts the number of visitors.[17] Tigris River in Baghdad (2016) Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the world The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932–1959. See also[edit] Assyria Cradle of civilization Ilisu Dam Campaign campaign against a dam on Tigris in Turkey List of places in Iraq Wildlife of Iraq Notes[edit] ^ a b Isaev, V.A.; Mikhailova, M.V. (2009). "The hydrology, evolution, and hydrological regime of the mouth area of the Shatt al-Arab River". Water Resources. 36 (4): 380–395. doi:10.1134/S0097807809040022. ^ Kolars, J.F.; Mitchell, W.A. (1991). The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-8093-1572-6. ^ "Diyarbakir". europeanwalledtowns. Retrieved 2019-11-10. ^ Pliny: Natural History, VI, XXVI, 128-131 ^ Namio Egami, "The Report of The Japan Mission For The Survey of Under-Water Antiquities At Qurnah: The First Season," (1971-72), 1-45, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/orient1960/8/0/8_0_1/_pdf. ^ Larsen, M.T., The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land, Routledge, 2014, pp 344-49 ^ "Mesopotamia, Tigris-Euphrates, 1914-1917, despatches, killed and died, medals". naval-history.net. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015. ^ F. Delitzsch, Sumerisches Glossar, Leipzig (1914), IV, 6, 21. ^ a b Genesis 2:14 ^ E. Laroche, Glossaire de la langue Hourrite, Paris (1980), p. 55. ^ Vidal, John. "Water supply key to the outcome of conflicts in Iraq and Syria, experts warn" The Guardian, 2 July 2014. ^ "Analysis & Water Agenda". ORSAM. Retrieved 2015-11-28. ^ Borger, Julian (29 February 2016). "Iraqi PM and US issue warnings over threat of Mosul dam collapse". The Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 29 February 2016. ^ "US warns of Mosul dam collapse in northern Iraq". BBC News. BBC. BBC. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016. ^ Jeremy A. Black, The Literature of Ancient Sumer, Oxford University Press 2004, ISBN 0-19-926311-6 p. 220-221 ^ Daniel 10:4 ^ "Sunan Abi Dawud 4306 - Battles (Kitab Al-Malahim) - كتاب الملاحم - Sunnah.com - River of Dajal(Tigris)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 2021-02-10. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Tigris. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tigris. Livius.org: Tigris Hausleiter, A., M. Roaf, St J. Simpson, R. Wenke, P. Flensted Jensen, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 912964 (Tigris/Diglitus fl.)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 9, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Managing the Tigris and Euphrates Watershed Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library Outline of WWI Battles involving the Tigris River Old maps of the Tigris, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel v t e The Tigris Countries Turkey (523 km) Syria (40 km) Iraq (1,377 km) Cities Diyarbakır Bismil Hasankeyf Cizre Mosul Tikrit Samarra Kadhimiya Baghdad Amarah Al-Kūt Tributaries Ambar Kuru Pamuk Hazro Batman Garzan Göksu Savur Botan Little Khabur Great Zab Little Zab 'Adhaim Diyala Dams Dicle Ilısu Cizre Mosul Badush Samarra Kut v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Fertile Crescent Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Hammurabi Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell Religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Sumerian religion List of Deities Mesopotamian myths Divination Prayers Ziggurat (Temple) v t e Iraq articles History Ancient c. 6500-638 Ubaid period Hassuna culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Samarra culture Uruk Period Jemdet Nasr period Sumer Amurru Subartu Saparda Akkadian Empire Simurrum culture Babylonia Assyria Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Sassanid Asorestan 638–1958 Muslim conquest of Persia Abbasid Caliphate Buyid dynasty Kara Koyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Safavids Ottoman Iraq (Mamluk dynasty) Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Kings Arab Federation Republic 1958–1968 1968–2003 2003–2011 2011–present Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (National Command) Saddam Hussein Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq Iran–Iraq War Invasion of Kuwait Gulf War Sanctions Iraq War U.S. invasion Iraqi insurgency U.S. troop withdrawal Insurgency (2011–2013) Civil War (2014–2017) Mosul liberation Insurgency (2017–present) Geography Al-Faw Peninsula Al-Jazira Borders Euphrates river Hamrin Mountains Lakes Islands Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Places Shatt al-Arab Syrian Desert Tigris river Umm Qasr Zagros Mountains Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Council of Representatives (legislative) Elections Foreign aid Foreign relations Government Council of Ministers Presidency Council President List Prime Minister List Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq in Saddam Hussein's Iraq in post-invasion Iraq in ISIL-controlled territory LGBT Freedom of religion Women Law Military Police Political parties Judiciary Wars and conflicts Economy Central Bank Dinar (currency) Infrastructure Oil Industry Oil reserves Reconstruction Stock Exchange Telecommunications Transportation Society Cinema Cuisine Culture Education Health Media Music Smoking Sports Demographics Iraqis diaspora refugees Languages Arabic Aramaic Kurdish Persian Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects Minorities Armenians Assyrians Circassians Kurds Mandaeans Marsh Arabs Persians Solluba Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman Jews Religion Islam Christianity Mandaeism Yazidis Outline Index Category Portal v t e Rivers of Syria by drainage basin Mediterranean Orontes River (Karasu and Afrin River) Nahr al-Kabir Nahr al-Kabir al-Shamali Nahr as-Sinn Persian Gulf Euphrates (Sajur River, Balikh River and Khabur) Tigris endorheic Queiq Awaj Barada Banias River Yarmouk River v t e Rivers of Turkey by drainage basin Black Sea Sakarya Filyos Bartın Kızılırmak (Halys) Gök Terme Yeşilırmak Yağlıdere Aksu Gelevara Kara Dere Çoruh Marmara Biga Susurluk (Simav) Aegean Meriç (Maritsa) Tunca Karamenderes (Scamander) Bakırçay Gediz Küçük Menderes Büyük Menderes Azmak Mediterranean Sea Eşen Aksu Manavgat Köprüçay Kaledran Dragon Sini Soğuksu Babadıl Göksu Limonlu Alata (Sorgun) Tömük Karacaoğlan Tece Mezitli (Liparis) Efrenk (Müftü) Deliçay Berdan (Tarsus) Seyhan Ceyhan Payas Asi (Orontes) Deli Çay Persian Gulf Fırat (Euphrates) Dicle (Tigris) Hezil Caspian Aras Kura  Turkey portal Category Coordinates: 38°26′0″N 39°46′22″E / 38.43333°N 39.77278°E / 38.43333; 39.77278 Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tigris&oldid=1026511130" Categories: Tigris River International rivers of Asia Rivers of Iraq Rivers of Kurdistan Rivers of Syria Rivers of Turkey Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia Tur Abdin Levant Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan Landforms of Elazığ Province Landforms of Diyarbakır Province Landforms of Batman Province Landforms of Siirt Province Landforms of Şırnak Province Border rivers Water and religion Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Akkadian-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Aramaic-language text Articles containing Amharic-language text Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Scots Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 18:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5631	----	Memento mori - Wikipedia Memento mori From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Artistic or symbolic reminder of the inevitability of death This article is about the philosophical reminder of death's inevitability. For other uses, see Memento mori (disambiguation). The outer panels of Rogier van der Weyden's Braque Triptych (c. 1452) show the skull of the patron displayed in the inner panels. The bones rest on a brick, a symbol of his former industry and achievement.[1] Memento mori. Gravestone inscription (1746). Edinburgh. St. Cuthbert's Churchyard. Memento mori (Latin for 'remember that you [have to] die'[2]) is an artistic or symbolic reminder of the inevitability of death.[2] The concept has its roots in the philosophers of classical antiquity, and appeared in funeral art and architecture of the medieval period. Memento mori jewelry with skull or coffin motifs became popular in the late 16th century, and it was reflected in the artistic genre of vanitas, where symbolic objects such as hourglasses and wilting flowers signified the impermanence of human life. Contents 1 Pronunciation and translation 2 History of the concept 2.1 In classical antiquity 2.2 In early Christianity 2.3 In Europe from the medieval era to the Victorian era 2.3.1 Philosophy 2.3.2 Architecture 2.3.3 Visual art 2.3.4 Literature 2.3.5 Music 2.3.6 Danse macabre 2.3.7 Gallery 2.4 The salutation of the Hermits of St. Paul of France 2.5 In Puritan America 2.6 Mexico's Day of the Dead 2.7 Contemporary culture 3 Similar concepts in other religions and cultures 3.1 In Buddhism 3.2 In Japanese Zen and samurai culture 3.3 In Tibetan Buddhism 3.3.1 Lalitavistara Sutra 3.3.2 The Udānavarga 3.3.3 Shantideva, Bodhicaryavatara 3.3.4 In more modern Tibetan Buddhist works 3.4 In Islam 3.5 Iceland 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Pronunciation and translation[edit] In English, the phrase is pronounced /məˈmɛntoʊ ˈmɔːri/, mə-MEN-toh MOR-ee. Memento is the 2nd person singular active imperative of meminī, 'to remember, to bear in mind', usually serving as a warning: "remember!" Mori is the present infinitive of the deponent verb morior 'to die'.[3] In other words, "remember death" or "remember that you die".[4] History of the concept[edit] In classical antiquity[edit] The philosopher Democritus trained himself by going into solitude and frequenting tombs.[5] Plato's Phaedo, where the death of Socrates is recounted, introduces the idea that the proper practice of philosophy is "about nothing else but dying and being dead".[6] The Stoics of classical antiquity were particularly prominent in their use of this discipline, and Seneca's letters are full of injunctions to meditate on death.[7] The Stoic Epictetus told his students that when kissing their child, brother, or friend, they should remind themselves that they are mortal, curbing their pleasure, as do "those who stand behind men in their triumphs and remind them that they are mortal".[8] The Stoic Marcus Aurelius invited the reader to "consider how ephemeral and mean all mortal things are" in his Meditations.[9][10] In early Christianity[edit] The expression memento mori developed with the growth of Christianity, which emphasized Heaven, Hell, and salvation of the soul in the afterlife.[11] The 2nd-century Christian writer Tertullian claimed that during his triumphal procession, a victorious general would have someone (in later versions, a slave) standing behind him, holding a crown over his head and whispering "Respice post te. Hominem te memento" ("Look after you [to the time after your death] and remember you're [only] a man."). Though in modern times this has become a standard trope, in fact no other ancient authors confirm this, and it may have been Christian moralizing rather than an accurate historical report.[12] In Europe from the medieval era to the Victorian era[edit] Dance of Death (15th-century fresco). No matter one's station in life, the Dance of Death unites all. Philosophy[edit] The thought was then utilized in Christianity, whose strong emphasis on divine judgment, heaven, hell, and the salvation of the soul brought death to the forefront of consciousness.[13] In the Christian context, the memento mori acquires a moralizing purpose quite opposed to the nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink) theme of classical antiquity. To the Christian, the prospect of death serves to emphasize the emptiness and fleetingness of earthly pleasures, luxuries, and achievements, and thus also as an invitation to focus one's thoughts on the prospect of the afterlife. A Biblical injunction often associated with the memento mori in this context is In omnibus operibus tuis memorare novissima tua, et in aeternum non peccabis (the Vulgate's Latin rendering of Ecclesiasticus 7:40, "in all thy works be mindful of thy last end and thou wilt never sin.") This finds ritual expression in the rites of Ash Wednesday, when ashes are placed upon the worshipers' heads with the words, "Remember Man that you are dust and unto dust, you shall return." Memento mori has been an important part of ascetic disciplines as a means of perfecting the character by cultivating detachment and other virtues, and by turning the attention towards the immortality of the soul and the afterlife.[14] Architecture[edit] Unshrouded skeleton on Diana Warburton's tomb (dated 1693) in St John the Baptist Church, Chester The most obvious places to look for memento mori meditations are in funeral art and architecture. Perhaps the most striking to contemporary minds is the transi or cadaver tomb, a tomb that depicts the decayed corpse of the deceased. This became a fashion in the tombs of the wealthy in the fifteenth century, and surviving examples still offer a stark reminder of the vanity of earthly riches. Later, Puritan tomb stones in the colonial United States frequently depicted winged skulls, skeletons, or angels snuffing out candles. These are among the numerous themes associated with skull imagery. Another example of memento mori is provided by the chapels of bones, such as the Capela dos Ossos in Évora or the Capuchin Crypt in Rome. These are chapels where the walls are totally or partially covered by human remains, mostly bones. The entrance to the Capela dos Ossos has the following sentence: "We bones, lying here bare, await yours." Visual art[edit] Philippe de Champaigne's Vanitas (c. 1671) is reduced to three essentials: Life, Death, and Time Timepieces have been used to illustrate that the time of the living on Earth grows shorter with each passing minute. Public clocks would be decorated with mottos such as ultima forsan ("perhaps the last" [hour]) or vulnerant omnes, ultima necat ("they all wound, and the last kills"). Clocks have carried the motto tempus fugit, "time flees". Old striking clocks often sported automata who would appear and strike the hour; some of the celebrated automaton clocks from Augsburg, Germany had Death striking the hour. Private people carried smaller reminders of their own mortality. Mary, Queen of Scots owned a large watch carved in the form of a silver skull, embellished with the lines of Horace, "Pale death knocks with the same tempo upon the huts of the poor and the towers of Kings." In the late 16th and through the 17th century, memento mori jewelry was popular. Items included mourning rings,[15] pendants, lockets, and brooches.[16] These pieces depicted tiny motifs of skulls, bones, and coffins, in addition to messages and names of the departed, picked out in precious metals and enamel.[16][17] During the same period there emerged the artistic genre known as vanitas, Latin for "emptiness" or "vanity". Especially popular in Holland and then spreading to other European nations, vanitas paintings typically represented assemblages of numerous symbolic objects such as human skulls, guttering candles, wilting flowers, soap bubbles, butterflies, and hourglasses. In combination, vanitas assemblies conveyed the impermanence of human endeavours and of the decay that is inevitable with the passage of time. See also the themes associated with the image of the skull. Literature[edit] Memento mori is also an important literary theme. Well-known literary meditations on death in English prose include Sir Thomas Browne's Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living and Holy Dying. These works were part of a Jacobean cult of melancholia that marked the end of the Elizabethan era. In the late eighteenth century, literary elegies were a common genre; Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard and Edward Young's Night Thoughts are typical members of the genre. In the European devotional literature of the Renaissance, the Ars Moriendi, memento mori had moral value by reminding individuals of their mortality.[18] Music[edit] Apart from the genre of requiem and funeral music, there is also a rich tradition of memento mori in the Early Music of Europe. Especially those facing the ever-present death during the recurring bubonic plague pandemics from the 1340s onward tried to toughen themselves by anticipating the inevitable in chants, from the simple Geisslerlieder of the Flagellant movement to the more refined cloistral or courtly songs. The lyrics often looked at life as a necessary and god-given vale of tears with death as a ransom, and they reminded people to lead sinless lives to stand a chance at Judgment Day. The following two Latin stanzas (with their English translations) are typical of memento mori in medieval music; they are from the virelai ad mortem festinamus of the Llibre Vermell de Montserrat from 1399: Vita brevis breviter in brevi finietur, Mors venit velociter quae neminem veretur, Omnia mors perimit et nulli miseretur. Ad mortem festinamus peccare desistamus. Life is short, and shortly it will end; Death comes quickly and respects no one, Death destroys everything and takes pity on no one. To death we are hastening, let us refrain from sinning. Ni conversus fueris et sicut puer factus Et vitam mutaveris in meliores actus, Intrare non poteris regnum Dei beatus. Ad mortem festinamus peccare desistamus. If you do not turn back and become like a child, And change your life for the better, You will not be able to enter, blessed, the Kingdom of God. To death we are hastening, let us refrain from sinning. Danse macabre[edit] The danse macabre is another well-known example of the memento mori theme, with its dancing depiction of the Grim Reaper carrying off rich and poor alike. This and similar depictions of Death decorated many European churches. Gallery[edit] Roman mosaic representing the Wheel of Fortune which, as it turns, can make the rich poor and the poor rich; in effect, both states are very precarious, with death never far and life hanging by a thread: when it breaks, the soul flies off. And thus are all made equal. (Collezioni pompeiane. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) Prince of Orange René of Châlon died in 1544 at age 25. His widow commissioned sculptor Ligier Richier to represent him in the Cadaver Tomb of René of Chalon, which shows him offering his heart to God, set against the painted splendour of his former worldly estate. (Church of Saint-Étienne, Bar-le-Duc) French 16th/17th-century ivory pendant, Monk and Death, recalling mortality and the certainty of death (Walters Art Museum) Momento mori ring, with enameled skull and "DIE TO LIVE" message (between 1500 and 1650, British Museum, London, England) Frans Hals, Young Man with a Skull, c. 1626–28 Momento mori in the form of a small coffin, 1700s, wax figure on silk in a wooden coffin (Museum Schnütgen, Cologne, Germany) Mourning brooch with plaited hair, 1843 (Auckland War Memorial Museum Tāmaki Paenga Hira, New Zealand) The salutation of the Hermits of St. Paul of France[edit] Memento mori was the salutation used by the Hermits of St. Paul of France (1620-1633), also known as the Brothers of Death.[19] It is sometimes claimed that the Trappists use this salutation, but this is not true.[20] In Puritan America[edit] Thomas Smith's Self-Portrait Colonial American art saw a large number of memento mori images due to Puritan influence. The Puritan community in 17th-century North America looked down upon art because they believed that it drew the faithful away from God and, if away from God, then it could only lead to the devil. However, portraits were considered historical records and, as such, they were allowed. Thomas Smith, a 17th-century Puritan, fought in many naval battles and also painted. In his self-portrait, we see these pursuits represented alongside a typical Puritan memento mori with a skull, suggesting his awareness of imminent death. The poem underneath the skull emphasizes Thomas Smith's acceptance of death and of turning away from the world of the living: Why why should I the World be minding, Therein a World of Evils Finding. Then Farwell World: Farwell thy jarres, thy Joies thy Toies thy Wiles thy Warrs. Truth Sounds Retreat: I am not sorye. The Eternall Drawes to him my heart, By Faith (which can thy Force Subvert) To Crowne me (after Grace) with Glory. Mexico's Day of the Dead[edit] Posada's 1910 La Calavera Catrina Main article: Day of the Dead Much memento mori art is associated with the Mexican festival Day of the Dead, including skull-shaped candies and bread loaves adorned with bread "bones." This theme was also famously expressed in the works of the Mexican engraver José Guadalupe Posada, in which people from various walks of life are depicted as skeletons. Another manifestation of memento mori is found in the Mexican "Calavera", a literary composition in verse form normally written in honour of a person who is still alive, but written as if that person were dead. These compositions have a comedic tone and are often offered from one friend to another during Day of the Dead.[21] Contemporary culture[edit] Roman Krznaric suggests Memento Mori is an important topic to bring back into our thoughts and belief system; “Philosophers have come up with lots of what I call ‘death tasters’ – thought experiments for seizing the day." These thought experiments are powerful to get us re-oriented back to death into current awareness and living with spontaneity. Albert Camus stated “Come to terms with death, thereafter anything is possible.” Jean-Paul Sartre expressed that life is given to us early, and is shortened at the end, all the while taken away at every step of the way, emphasizing that the end is only the beginning every day.[22] Similar concepts in other religions and cultures[edit] In Buddhism[edit] The Buddhist practice maraṇasati meditates on death. The word is a Pāli compound of maraṇa 'death' (an Indo-European cognate of Latin mori) and sati 'awareness', so very close to memento mori. It is first used in early Buddhist texts, the suttapiṭaka of the Pāli Canon, with parallels in the āgamas of the "Northern" Schools. In Japanese Zen and samurai culture[edit] In Japan, the influence of Zen Buddhist contemplation of death on indigenous culture can be gauged by the following quotation from the classic treatise on samurai ethics, Hagakure:[23] The Way of the Samurai is, morning after morning, the practice of death, considering whether it will be here or be there, imagining the most sightly way of dying, and putting one's mind firmly in death. Although this may be a most difficult thing, if one will do it, it can be done. There is nothing that one should suppose cannot be done.[24] In the annual appreciation of cherry blossom and fall colors, hanami and momijigari, it was philosophized that things are most splendid at the moment before their fall, and to aim to live and die in a similar fashion.[citation needed] In Tibetan Buddhism[edit] Tibetan Citipati mask depicting Mahākāla. The skull mask of Citipati is a reminder of the impermanence of life and the eternal cycle of life and death. In Tibetan Buddhism, there is a mind training practice known as Lojong. The initial stages of the classic Lojong begin with 'The Four Thoughts that Turn the Mind', or, more literally, 'Four Contemplations to Cause a Revolution in the Mind'.[citation needed] The second of these four is the contemplation on impermanence and death. In particular, one contemplates that; All compounded things are impermanent. The human body is a compounded thing. Therefore, death of the body is certain. The time of death is uncertain and beyond our control. There are a number of classic verse formulations of these contemplations meant for daily reflection to overcome our strong habitual tendency to live as though we will certainly not die today. Lalitavistara Sutra[edit] The following is from the Lalitavistara Sūtra, a major work in the classical Sanskrit canon: अध्रुवं त्रिभवं शरदभ्रनिभं नटरङ्गसमा जगिर् ऊर्मिच्युती। गिरिनद्यसमं लघुशीघ्रजवं व्रजतायु जगे यथ विद्यु नभे॥ The three worlds are fleeting like autumn clouds. Like a staged performance, beings come and go. In tumultuous waves, rushing by, like rapids over a cliff. Like lightning, wanderers in samsara burst into existence, and are gone in a flash. ज्वलितं त्रिभवं जरव्याधिदुखैः मरणाग्निप्रदीप्तमनाथमिदम्। भवनि शरणे सद मूढ जगत् भ्रमती भ्रमरो यथ कुम्भगतो॥ Beings are ablaze with the sufferings of sickness and old age, And with no defence against the conflagration of Death The bewildered, seeking refuge in worldly existence Spin round and round, like bees trapped in a jar.[25] The Udānavarga[edit] A very well known verse in the Pali, Sanskrit and Tibetan canons states [this is from the Sanskrit version, the Udānavarga: सर्वे क्षयान्ता निचयाः पतनान्ताः समुच्छ्रयाः | सम्योगा विप्रयोगान्ता मरणान्तं हि जीवितम् |1,22| All that is acquired will be lost What rises will fall Where there is meeting there will be separation What is born will surely die.[26] Shantideva, Bodhicaryavatara[edit] Shantideva, in the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra 'Bodhisattva's Way of Life' reflects at length: कृताकृतापरीक्षोऽयं मृत्युर्विश्रम्भघातकः। स्वस्थास्वस्थैरविश्वास्य आकमिस्मकमहाशनि:॥ २/३४॥ Death does not differentiate between tasks done and undone. This traitor is not to be trusted by the healthy or the ill, for it is like an unexpected, great thunderbolt. BCA 2.33 अप्रिया न भविष्यन्ति प्रियो मे न भविष्यति। अहं च न भविष्यामि सर्वं च न भविष्यति॥ २/३७॥ My enemies will not remain, nor will my friends remain. I shall not remain. Nothing will remain. BCA 2:35 तत्तत्स्मरणताम याति यद्यद्वस्त्वनुभयते। स्वप्नानुभूतवत्सर्वं गतं न पूनरीक्ष्यते॥ २/३६॥ Whatever is experienced will fade to a memory. Like an experience in a dream, everything that has passed will not be seen again. BCA 2:36 रात्रिन्दिवमविश्राममायुषो वर्धते व्ययः। आयस्य चागमो नास्ति न मरिष्यामि किं न्वहम्॥ २/४० Day and night, a life span unceasingly diminishes, and there is no adding onto it. Shall I not die then? BCA 2:39 यमदूतैर्गृहीतस्य कुतो बन्धुः कुतः सुह्रत्। पुण्यमेकं तदा त्राणं मया तच्च न सेवितम्॥ २/४१॥ For a person seized by the messengers of Death, what good is a relative and what good is a friend? At that time, merit alone is a protection, and I have not applied myself to it. BCA 2:41 In more modern Tibetan Buddhist works[edit] In a practice text written by the 19th century Tibetan master Dudjom Lingpa for serious meditators, he formulates the second contemplation in this way:[27][28] On this occasion when you have such a bounty of opportunities in terms of your body, environment, friends, spiritual mentors, time, and practical instructions, without procrastinating until tomorrow and the next day, arouse a sense of urgency, as if a spark landed on your body or a grain of sand fell in your eye. If you have not swiftly applied yourself to practice, examine the births and deaths of other beings and reflect again and again on the unpredictability of your lifespan and the time of your death, and on the uncertainty of your own situation. Meditate on this until you have definitively integrated it with your mind... The appearances of this life, including your surroundings and friends, are like last night’s dream, and this life passes more swiftly than a flash of lightning in the sky. There is no end to this meaningless work. What a joke to prepare to live forever! Wherever you are born in the heights or depths of saṃsāra, the great noose of suffering will hold you tight. Acquiring freedom for yourself is as rare as a star in the daytime, so how is it possible to practice and achieve liberation? The root of all mind training and practical instructions is planted by knowing the nature of existence. There is no other way. I, an old vagabond, have shaken my beggar’s satchel, and this is what came out. The contemporary Tibetan master, Yangthang Rinpoche, in his short text 'Summary of the View, Meditation, and Conduct':[29] །ཁྱེད་རྙེད་དཀའ་བ་མི་ཡི་ལུས་རྟེན་རྙེད། །སྐྱེ་དཀའ་བའི་ངེས་འབྱུང་གི་བསམ་པ་སྐྱེས། །མཇལ་དཀའ་བའི་མཚན་ལྡན་གྱི་བླ་མ་མཇལ། །འཕྲད་དཀའ་བ་དམ་པའི་ཆོས་དང་འཕྲད། འདི་འདྲ་བའི་ལུས་རྟེན་བཟང་པོ་འདི། །ཐོབ་དཀའ་བའི་ཚུལ་ལ་ཡང་ཡང་སོམ། རྙེད་པ་འདི་དོན་ཡོད་མ་བྱས་ན། །འདི་མི་རྟག་རླུང་གསེབ་མར་མེ་འདྲ། ཡུན་རིང་པོའི་བློ་གཏད་འདི་ལ་མེད། །ཤི་བར་དོར་གྲོལ་བའི་གདེངས་མེད་ན། །ཚེ་ཕྱི་མའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་ཨ་རེ་འཇིགས། །མཐའ་མེད་པའི་འཁོར་བར་འཁྱམས་དགོས་ཚེ། །འདིའི་རང་བཞིན་བསམ་ན་སེམས་རེ་སྐྱོ། །ཚེ་འདི་ལ་བློ་གདེངས་ཐོབ་པ་ཞིག །ཅི་ནས་ཀྱང་མཛད་རྒྱུ་བཀའ་དྲིན་ཆེ། །འདི་བདག་གིས་ཁྱོད་ལ་རེ་བ་ཡིན། You have obtained a human life, which is difficult to find, Have aroused an intention of a spirit of emergence, which is difficult to arouse, Have met a qualified guru, who is difficult to meet, And you have encountered the sublime Dharma, which is difficult to encounter. Reflect again and again on the difficulty Of obtaining such a fine human life. If you do not make this meaningful, It will be like a butter lamp in the wind of impermanence. Do not count on this lasting a long time. The Tibetan Canon also includes copious materials on the meditative preparation for the death process and intermediate period bardo between death and rebirth. Amongst them are the famous "Tibetan Book of the Dead", in Tibetan Bardo Thodol, the "Natural Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo". In Islam[edit] The "remembrance of death" (Arabic: تذكرة الموت‎, Tadhkirat al-Mawt) has been a major topic of Islamic spirituality (i.e. "tadhkira[disambiguation needed]" meaning "memoir, memorial, remembrance) since the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in Medina. It is grounded in the Qur'an, where there are recurring injunctions to pay heed to the fate of previous generations.[30] The hadith literature, which preserves the teachings of Muhammad, records advice for believers to "remember often death, the destroyer of pleasures."[31] Some Sufis have been called "ahl al-qubur," the "people of the graves," because of their practice of frequenting graveyards to ponder on mortality and the vanity of life, based on the teaching of Muhammad to visit graves.[32] Al-Ghazali devotes to this topic the last book of his "The Revival of the Religious Sciences".[33] Iceland[edit] The Hávamál ("Sayings of the High One"), a 13th century Icelandic compilation poetically attributed to the god Odin, includes two sections – the Gestaþáttr and the Loddfáfnismál – offering many gnomic proverbs expressing the memento mori philosophy, most famously Gestaþáttr number 77: Deyr fé, deyja frændur, deyr sjálfur ið sama; ek veit einn at aldri deyr, dómr um dauðan hvern. Animals die, friends die, and thyself, too, shall die; but one thing I know that never dies the tales of the one who died. See also[edit] Gerascophobia (fear of aging) Gerontophobia (fear of elderly people) Carpe diem Et in Arcadia ego Mono no aware Mortality salience Sic transit gloria mundi Tempus fugit Terror management theory Ubi sunt Vanitas YOLO (aphorism) References[edit] ^ Campbell, Lorne. Van der Weyden. London: Chaucer Press, 2004. 89. ISBN 1-904449-24-7 ^ a b Literally 'remember (that you have) to die', Oxford English Dictionary, Third Edition, June 2001. ^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, ss.vv. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Third Edition, s.v. ^ Diogenes Laertius Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Book IX, Chapter 7, Section 38 ^ Phaedo, 64a4. ^ See his Moral Letters to Lucilius. ^ Discourses of Epictetus, 3.24. ^ Henry Albert Fischel, Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings, E. J. Brill, 1973, p. 95. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations IV. 48.2. ^ "Final Farewell: The Culture of Death and the Afterlife". Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Missouri. Archived from the original on 2010-06-06. Retrieved 13 January 2015. ^ Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, Harvard University Press, 2009, ISBN 0674032187, p. 85–92 ^ Christian Dogmatics, Volume 2 (Carl E. Braaten, Robert W. Jenson), page 583 ^ See Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living and Holy Dying. ^ Taylor, Gerald; Scarisbrick, Diana (1978). Finger Rings From Ancient Egypt to the Present Day. Ashmolean Museum. p. 76. ISBN 0-900090-54-5. ^ a b "Memento Mori". Antique Jewelry University. Lang Antiques. n.d. Retrieved August 11, 2020. ^ Bond, Charlotte (December 5, 2018). "Somber "Memento Mori" Jewelry Commissioned to Help People Mourn". The Vintage News. Retrieved August 11, 2020. ^ Michael John Brennan, ed., The A–Z of Death and Dying: Social, Medical, and Cultural Aspects, ISBN 1440803447, s.v. "Memento Mori", p. 307f and s.v. "Ars Moriendi", p. 44 ^ F. McGahan, "Paulists", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912, s.v. Paulists ^ E. Obrecht, "Trappists", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912, s.v. Trappists ^ Stanley Brandes. "Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead: The Day of the Dead in Mexico and Beyond". Chapter 5: The Poetics of Death. John Wiley & Sons, 2009 ^ Macdonald, Fiona. "What it really means to 'Seize the day'". BBC. Retrieved 16 June 2019. ^ See a revised selection here. ^ See "A Buddhist Guide to Death, Dying and Suffering". ^ "84000 Reading Room | The Play in Full". 84000 Translating The Words of The Budda. ^ Udānavarga, 1:22. ^ "Foolish Dharma of an Idiot Clothed in Mud and Feathers, in 'Dujdom Lingpa's Visions of the Great Perfection, Volume 1', B. Alan Wallace (translator), Wisdom Publications". An oral commentary by the translator is available on YouTube here. ^ http://www.wisdompubs.org/book/natural-liberation&usg=AOvVaw1Z7bVFdFdlEfoPdRSHHnXc ^ The English text is available here. The Tibetan text is available here. Oral Commentary by a student of Rinpoche, B. Alan Wallace, is available here. ^ For instance, sura "Yasin", 36:31, "Have they not seen how many generations We destroyed before them, which indeed returned not unto them?". ^ "Hadith - The Book of Miscellany - Riyad as-Salihin - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". ^ "Hadith - Book of Funerals (Kitab Al-Jana'iz) - Sunan Abi Dawud - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad". ^ Al-Ghazali on Death and the Afterlife, tr. by T.J. Winter. Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society, 1989. External links[edit] Media related to Memento mori at Wikimedia Commons v t e Death and mortality in art Themes Carpe diem Consolatio Danse Macabre Death and the Maiden Lamentation of Christ Macabre Memento mori Mono no aware Sic transit gloria mundi Ubi sunt Personifications of death Vanitas Forms Death mask Elegy Funerary art Funerary text Lament Memorial Post-mortem photography Requiem Tomb Tragedy Wreath Artwork Architecture Capuchin Crypt Catacombs of Paris Sedlec Ossuary Film The Seventh Seal Literature Ars moriendi Bardo Thodol Book of Job Book of the Dead Hamlet's soliloquy The Masque of the Red Death Music Danse macabre Erlkönig Der Tod und das Mädchen Totentanz Painting Et in Arcadia ego Death and Fire Death and Life Death and the Maiden Death and the Miser Gather Ye Rosebuds While Ye May La Calavera Catrina Plague Pyramid of Skulls Roman Widow Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Fiddle Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette Sleep and His Half-Brother Death The Ambassadors The Garden of Death The Shadow of Death The Three Ages of Man and Death The Triumph of Death Poetry "And death shall have no dominion" "Because I could not stop for Death" "Erlkönig" "Do not go gentle into that good night" v t e Death In medicine Cell death Necrosis Avascular necrosis Coagulative necrosis Liquefactive necrosis Gangrenous necrosis Caseous necrosis Fat necrosis Fibrinoid necrosis Temporal lobe necrosis Programmed cell death AICD Anoikis Apoptosis Autophagy Intrinsic apoptosis Necroptosis Paraptosis Parthanatos Phenoptosis Pseudoapoptosis Pyroptosis Autolysis Autoschizis Eschar Immunogenic cell death Ischemic cell death Pyknosis Karyorrhexis Karyolysis Mitotic catastrophe Suicide gene Abortion Accidental death Autopsy Brain death Brainstem death Clinical death DOA Death by natural causes Death rattle Dysthanasia End-of-life care Euthanasia Lazarus sign Lazarus syndrome Medical definition of death Organ donation Terminal illness Unnatural death Lists Causes of 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en-wikipedia-org-5635	----	Praetor - Wikipedia Praetor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Official of the Roman Republic "Pretor" redirects here. For the village in Macedonia, see Pretor (village). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Praetor (/ˈpriːtər/ PREE-tər, Classical Latin: [ˈprae̯tɔr]), also spelled prætor or pretor in English, was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army (in the field or, less often, before the army had been mustered); and as an elected magistratus (magistrate), assigned various duties (which varied at different periods in Rome's history). The functions of the magistracy, the praetura (praetorship), are described by the adjective:[a] the praetoria potestas (praetorian power), the praetorium imperium (praetorian authority), and the praetorium ius (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the praetores (praetors). Praetorium, as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his castra, the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.[b] Contents 1 History of the title 2 Praetura 3 Praetors and their duties 3.1 Republican 3.1.1 Praetor peregrinus 3.1.2 Praetor urbanus 3.1.3 Additional praetors 3.2 Imperial 4 Praetors as judges 4.1 Actions 4.2 Quaestiones perpetuae 5 Outdoor actions 6 Later Roman era 7 Byzantine Empire 8 Modern era 8.1 In popular culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links History of the title[edit] The Classical-era authors do not describe the events leading to the origin of the title Praetor, but the writings of the late Republican statesman and attorney Cicero explored the philosophy and uses of the term praetor. The prefix prae provides a good indication that the title-holder was prior, in some way, in society. Livy mentions that the Latini were led and governed in warfare by two of them[1] and the Samnites by one.[2] A dictator was called the praetor maximus. The use of the adjectives (praetorius, praetoricius, praetorianus) in a large number of circumstances testify to a general sense. The leadership functions of any corporate body at Rome might be termed[by whom?] praetorial. The praetoria potestas in Republican Rome was at first held by the consuls. These two officials, elected on an annual basis, inherited the power formerly held by the kings of Rome.[3] Very likely, the king himself was the first praetor. The best explanation available is that of Cicero in De legibus, in which he proposes ideal laws based on Roman constitutional theory:[4] Regio imperio duo sunto, iique praeeundo iudicando consulendo praetores iudices consules appellamino. Militiae summum ius habento, ... Let there be two with the authority of the king, and let them be called praetors, judges and consuls from their going before, judging and consulting. Let them have the supreme right of command of the military... This etymology of praetor became and remains the standard.[5][6] Cicero considers the word to contain the same elemental parts as the verb praeire (praeeo: "to go before, to precede, to lead the way"). In exactly what way a praetor goes before did not survive. Livy explains[7] that in the year 366 BC the praetura was set up to relieve the consuls of their judicial duties. The first man to be elected to the new praetura was the patrician Spurius Furius, the son of Marcus Furius Camillus,[8] in exchange for the election of Lucius Sextius, plebeian leader, as one of the consuls for the year. Partisan politics greatly influenced the outcome of elections. The praetor was, in an English sense, the chief justice, and yet more than that. The consuls were his peers; he was elected by the same electorate and sworn in on the same day with the same oath. (The Comitia Centuriata elected consuls and praetors.) Until 337 BC the praetor was chosen only from among the patricians. In that year eligibility for the praetura was opened to the plebeians, and one of them, Quintus Publilius Philo, won the office.[9] From then on, praetors appear frequently in Roman history, first as generals and judges, then as provincial governors. Beginning in the late Republic, a former Praetor could serve as a Propraetor ("in place of the Praetor") and act as the governor of one of Rome's provinces. Praetura[edit] The elected praetor was a magistratus curulis, exercised imperium, and consequently was one of the magistratus majores. He had the right to sit in the sella curulis and wear the toga praetexta.[10] He was attended by six lictors. A praetor was a magistrate with imperium within his own sphere, subject only to the veto of the consuls (who outranked him).[11] The potestas and imperium (power and authority) of the consuls and the praetors under the Republic should not be exaggerated. They did not use independent judgment in resolving matters of state. Unlike today's executive branches, they were assigned high-level tasks directly by senatorial decree under the authority of the SPQR. Livy describes the assignments given to either consuls or praetors in some detail. As magistrates, they had standing duties to perform, especially of a religious nature. However, a consul or praetor could be taken away from his current duties at any time to head a task force, and there were many, especially military. Livy mentions that, among other tasks, these executive officers were told to lead troops against perceived threats (domestic or foreign), investigate possible subversion, raise troops, conduct special sacrifices, distribute windfall money, appoint commissioners and even exterminate locusts. Praetors could delegate at will. The one principle that limited what could be assigned to them was that their duties must not concern them with minima, "little things". They were by definition doers of maxima. This principle of Roman law became a principle of later European law: Non curat minima praetor, that is, the details do not need to be legislated, they can be left up to the courts. Praetors and their duties[edit] Republican[edit] In 246 BC, the Senate created a second Praetura. There were two reasons for this: to relieve the weight of judicial business and to give the Republic a magistrate with imperium who could field an army in an emergency when both consuls were fighting a far-off war. Praetor peregrinus[edit] By the end of the First Punic War, a fourth magistrate entitled to hold imperium appears, the praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit ("the praetor who administers justice among foreigners"). Although in the later Empire the office was titled praetor inter cives et peregrinos ("among citizens and foreigners", that is, having jurisdiction in disputes between citizens and noncitizens), by the time of the 3rd century BC, Rome's territorial annexations and foreign populations were unlikely to require a new office dedicated solely to this task. T. Corey Brennan, in his two-volume study of the praetorship, argues that during the military crisis of the 240s the second praetorship was created to make another holder of imperium available for command and provincial administration inter peregrinos. During the Hannibalic War, the praetor peregrinus was frequently absent from Rome on special missions. The urban praetor more often remained in the city to administer the judicial system.[12] Praetor urbanus[edit] The praetor urbanus presided in civil cases between citizens. The Senate required that some senior officer remain in Rome at all times. This duty now fell to the praetor urbanus. In the absence of the consuls, he was the senior magistrate of the city, with the power to summon the Senate and to organize the defense of the city in the event of an attack.[13] He was allowed to leave the city for no more than ten days at a time. He was therefore given appropriate duties in Rome. He superintended the Ludi Apollinares and was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice and promulgated the Praetor's Edict. These Edicts were statements of praetor's policy as to judicial decisions to be made during his term of office. The praetor had substantial discretion regarding his Edict, but could not legislate. In a sense the continuing Edicts came to form a corpus of precedents. The development and improvement of Roman Law owes much to the wise use of this praetorial discretion.[14] Additional praetors[edit] See also: Prorogatio The expansion of Roman authority over other lands required the addition of praetors. Two were created in 227 BC, for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and two more when the two Hispanic provinces were formed in 197 BC. The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla transferred administration of the provinces to former consuls and praetors, simultaneously increasing the number of praetors elected each year to eight, as part of his constitutional reforms. Julius Caesar raised the number to ten, then fourteen, and finally to sixteen.[c] Imperial[edit] Augustus made changes that were designed to reduce the Praetor to being an imperial administrator rather than a magistrate. The electoral body was changed to the Senate, which was now an instrument of imperial ratification. To take a very simplistic view, the establishment of the principate can be seen as the restoration of monarchy under another name. The Emperor therefore assumed the powers once held by the kings, but he used the apparatus of the republic to exercise them. For example, the emperor presided over the highest courts of appeal. The need for administrators remained just as acute. After several changes, Augustus fixed the number at twelve. Under Tiberius, there were sixteen. As imperial administrators, their duties extended to matters that the republic would have considered minima. Two praetors were appointed by Claudius for matters relating to Fideicommissa (trusts), when the business in that department of the law had become considerable, but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a Praetor for the decision of matters between the Fiscus (treasury) and individuals. Marcus Aurelius[15] appointed a Praetor for matters relating to tutela (guardianship). Praetors as judges[edit] Roman court cases fell into the two broad categories of civil or criminal trials. The involvement of a Praetor in either was as follows. Actions[edit] In an actio, which was civil, the Praetor could either issue an interdictum (interdict) forbidding some circumstance or appoint a iudex (judge). Proceedings before the praetor were technically said to be in iure. At this stage, the Praetor would establish a formula directing the iudex as to the remedy to be given if he found that certain circumstances were satisfied; for instance, "Let X be iudex. If it appears that the defendant ought to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff, let the iudex condemn the defendant to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff. If it does not so appear, let the plaintiff absolve him."[16] After they were handed over to the iudex, they were no longer in iure before the Praetor, but apud iudicem. The iudicium of the iudex was binding. By the time of Diocletian, however, this two-stage process had largely disappeared, and the Praetor would either hear the whole case in person or appoint a delegate (a iudex pedaneus), taking steps for the enforcement of the decision; the formula was replaced by an informal system of pleadings.[17] During the time of the Roman Republic, the Urban Praetor allegedly issued an annual edict, usually on the advice of jurists (since the Praetor himself was not necessarily educated in the law), setting out the circumstances under which he would grant remedies. The legal provisions arising from the Praetor's Edict were known as ius honorarium; in theory the Praetor did not have power to alter the law, but in practice the Edict altered the rights and duties of individuals and was effectively a legislative document. In the reign of Hadrian, however, the terms of the Edict were made permanent and the Praetor's de facto legislative role was abolished.[18] Quaestiones perpetuae[edit] The Praetors also presided at the quaestiones perpetuae (which were criminal proceedings), so-called because they were of certain types, with a Praetor being assigned to one type on a permanent basis. The Praetors appointed judges who acted as jurors in voting for guilt or innocence. The verdict was either acquittal or condemnation. These quaestiones looked into crimina publica, "crimes against the public", such as were worthy of the attention of a Praetor. The penalty on conviction was usually death, but sometimes other severe penalties were used. In the late Republic, the public crimes were: Repetundae[d] Ambitus[e] Majestas[f] Peculatus[g] Falsum[h] De Sicariis et Veneficis[i] De Patricidis[j] The last three were added by the Dictator Sulla in the early 1st century BC. Outdoor actions[edit] When the Praetor administered justice in a tribunal, he sat on a sella curulis, which was that part of the court reserved for the Praetor and his assessors and friends, as opposed to the subsellia, the part occupied by the iudices (judges) and others who were present. In court, the Praetor was referred to as acting e tribunali or ex superiore loco (lit. from a raised platform or from a higher place) but he could also perform ministerial acts out of court, in which case he was said to be acting e plano or ex aequo loco (lit. from the flat ground or from an equal or level place). For instance, he could in certain cases give validity to the act of manumission when he was out-of-doors, such as on his way to the bath or to the theatre. Later Roman era[edit] By 395 AD, the praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role.[19] Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates. The Praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties. Byzantine Empire[edit] Like many other Roman institutions, the praetor (Greek: πραίτωρ, praitōr) survived in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) undertook a major administrative reform beginning in 535, which involved the reunification of civil and military authority in the hands of the governor in certain provinces, and the abolition of the dioceses. The Diocese of Thrace had already been abolished by the end of the 5th century by Anastasius, and its vicarius became the new praetor Justinianus of Thrace, with authority over all the former Thracian provinces except for Lower Moesia and Scythia Minor, which became part of the quaestura exercitus. Similarly, the governors of Pisidia and Lycaonia, as well as Paphlagonia (enlarged by merging it with Honorias) were upgraded to praetores Justiniani, and received the rank of vir spectabilis.[20][21] In addition, in Constantinople he replaced the praefectus vigilum, who was hitherto responsible for security, by a praetor populi (in Greek πραίτωρ [τῶν] δήμων, praitōr [tōn] dēmōn), with wide-ranging police powers.[20][22] In the early 9th century, the praitōr was a junior administrative official in the themata, subordinate to the governing stratēgos. Gradually however, the civil functionaries assumed greater power, and by the late 10th century, the praitores (or kritai, "judges") were placed at the head of the civil administration of a thema.[23] This division of civil and military duties was often abandoned in the 12th century, when the posts of civil praitōr and military doux were frequently held in tandem. The provincial post fell out of use after the collapse of the Empire in 1204.[23] According to Helene Ahrweiler, Emperor Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) reinstituted a praetor in Constantinople, as a high-ranking judge. He is possibly identical to the Palaiologan-era post of the praitōr tou demōu, whose holders are attested until 1355.[23] According to the Book of Offices of pseudo-Kodinos, compiled around the same time, the praitōr tou demōu occupied the 38th place in the imperial hierarchy, between the megas tzaousios and the logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn,[24] but held no official function.[25] His court uniform consisted of a gold-brocaded hat (skiadion), a plain silk kabbadion tunic, and a plain, smooth wooden staff (dikanikion).[26] Modern era[edit] Classical Latin Praetor became medieval Latin Pretor; Praetura, Pretura, etc. During the interwar period the 71 counties of Romania were divided into a various numbers of plăși (singular: plasă), headed by a Pretor, appointed by the Prefect. The institution headed by the Pretor was called Pretură. Currently, this office has survived only in the Republic of Moldova, where praetors are the heads of Chişinău's five sectors. In Italy, until 1998, Praetor was a magistrate with particular duty (especially in civil branch). The Italian-speaking Swiss canton of Ticino has preturi (singular: preture) which is the chief magistrate (civil branch) of a district, heading a pretura (a court).[27] The preturi are appointed by the canton's parliament.[28] In popular culture[edit] In the “Star Trek” franchise, Praetor is the usual title of the leader of the Romulan Empire. In the New Phyrexia expansion of the Magic: the Gathering collectible card game, the five Phyrexian rulers were labeled as praetors. In the 2016 game “Doom”, the armor worn by the protagonist is called the Praetor suit. In the 2017 game “Xenoblade Chronicles 2”, one of the central antagonists Amalthus holds the title of Praetor in the Praetorium of Indol. In the popular book series by Rick Riordan, “The Heroes of Olympus”, there is a Senate with two Praetors, one male and one female. See also[edit] Praetor's Edict Constitution of the Roman Republic List of topics related to ancient Rome Political institutions of Rome List of Praetors of the Roman Republic Category:Roman praetors Notes[edit] ^ In the Latin language, the ending of the adjective agrees with the case, gender, and number, of the noun, which is why the ending of praetori- varies in the phrases given. ^ Most moderate-size Latin dictionaries list the praetorial nouns and adjectives, and uses and major sources. ^ In the late Republic the census was discovering a population of the city of Rome numbering in the millions. ^ Approximately "remedy", the seeking of restitution of property taken illegally by a magistrate and conviction of the perpetrator. Example: an illegal confiscation. ^ "Canvassing", an attempt to influence voters illegally. Example: buying votes. ^ Against the "majesty" of the people; that is, treason. Example: plotting the murder of a magistrate. ^ "Embezzlement", the theft of public property. Example: the misappropriation of public money. ^ "False witness"; i.e., against perjurers. ^ "Concerning stabbers and poisoners"; i.e., against professional assassins and their collaborators. ^ "Patricide", extended to the murder of relatives, presumably for property. References[edit] ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.3 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.26 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 8.32 ^ Cicero, De legibus 3.8 ^ Harper, Douglas. "praetor". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2018-01-19. - "Latin praetor 'one who goes before'". ^ "praetor". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 6.42, 7.1 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 7.1 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 8.15. ^ Livy, 7.1 ^ Nicholas 1975, p. 4. ^ Brennan 2000, p. 604. ^ McCullough 1990, p. 1014. ^ Watson 1974, pp. 31–62. ^ Capitolinus, Vita Marci Antonini Chapter 10. ^ Nicholas 1975, p. 24. ^ Nicholas 1975, p. 28. ^ Nicholas 1975, pp. 22–26. ^ Bury 1923, Volume 1, Chapter 1. ^ a b Wesenberg 1954. ^ Bury 1923, pp. 339–341, Volume 2. ^ Bury 1923, p. 338, Volume 2. ^ a b c ODB, "Praetor" (A. Kazhdan), p. 1710. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 138. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 182. ^ Verpeaux 1966, p. 161. ^ Repubblica e Cantone Ticino (in Italian) ^ Constitution of Ticino Article 36 (in Italian) Sources[edit] Brennan, T. Corey (2000). The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 357–972. ISBN 0-19-513867-8. Bury, John Bagnell (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. London: MacMillan & Co. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. McCullough, Colleen (1990). The First Man in Rome. Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-71081-1. Nicholas, Barry (1975). An Introduction to Roman Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-876063-9. Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices (in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Watson, Alan (1974). Law making in the later Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. Wesenberg, Gerhard (1954). "Praetor". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band XXII, Halbband 44, Praefectura-Priscianus. cols. 1582–1606.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1875). "Praetor". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 956–957. External links[edit] Peck, Harry Thurston, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Praetor[permanent dead link] Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Praetor. Livy, Books 1–5, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Livy, Books 6–10, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Livy, Books 40–45, English, University of Virginia searchable etext. Cicero, de legibus, Book 3, Latin. The Latin Library site. 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en-wikipedia-org-5669	----	Valentinian II - Wikipedia Valentinian II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 375 to 392 Roman emperor Valentinian II statue of Valentinian II Roman emperor Reign 22 November 375 – 15 May 392 Predecessor Valentinian I Successor Eugenius and Theodosius I Co-rulers Valens (East, 375–378) Gratian (375–383) Theodosius I (East, 379–392) Magnus Maximus (383–388) Victor (384–388) Born 371 Western Roman Empire Died 15 May 392 (aged 20) Vienne, Western Roman Empire Names Flavius Valentinianus Dynasty Valentinian Father Valentinian I Mother Justina Religion Christianity Valentinian II (Latin: Flavius Valentinianus; 371 – 15 May 392) was a Roman emperor in the western part of the Roman empire between AD 375 and 392. He was at first junior co-ruler of his brother, was then sidelined by an usurper, and only after 388 sole ruler, be it with limited de facto powers. A son of emperor Valentinian I and empress Justina, he was raised to the imperial office at the age of 4 by military commanders upon his father's death. Until 383, Valentinian II remained a junior partner to his older half-brother Gratian in ruling the Western empire, while the East was governed by his uncle Valens until 378 and Theodosius I from 379. When Gratian was killed by the usurper emperor Magnus Maximus in 383, the court of Valentinian in Milan became the heart of Italy where several religious debates took place. In 387, Maximus invaded Italy, spurring Valentinian and his family to escape to Thessalonica where they successfully sought Theodosius' aid. Theodosius defeated Maximus in battle and re-installed Valentinian in the West. However, Valentinian soon found himself struggling to break free from the control of general Arbogast. In 392, Valentinian was discovered hanged in his room under unknown circumstances. Contents 1 Early life and accession (371–375) 2 Reign from Milan (375–387) 3 Reign from Vienne (388–392) 4 Death 5 Significance 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Early life and accession (371–375) Flavius Valentinianus was born to Emperor Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina. He was the half-brother of Valentinian's other son, Gratian, who had shared the imperial title with his father since 367. He had three sisters: Galla, Grata and Justa. The elder Valentinian died on campaign in Pannonia in 375. Neither Gratian (then in Trier) nor his uncle Valens (emperor for the East) were consulted by the army commanders on the scene. Instead of merely acknowledging Gratian as his father's successor, Valentinian I's leading generals and officials, including Merobaudes, Petronius Probus, and Cerealis, Valentinian II's maternal uncle and Justina's brother, acclaimed the four-year-old Valentinian augustus on 22 November 375 at Aquincum. The army, and its Frankish general Merobaudes, may have been uneasy about Gratian's lack of military ability, and to prevent a split of the army, so raised a boy who would not immediately aspire to military command.[1][2] Also, he may have wanted to prevent more successful military commanders and officials, such as Sebastianus and Count Theodosius, from becoming emperors or gaining independent power, as Sebastianus was removed to a distant posting and Theodosius was executed within a year of Valentinian's elevation.[3] Reign from Milan (375–387) Solidus of Valentinian II Gratian was forced to accommodate the generals who supported his half-brother into his realm, though he purportedly took a liking to educating his brother.[4] According to Zosimus, Gratian governed the trans-alpine provinces (including Gaul, Hispania, and Britain), while Italy, part of Illyricum, and North Africa were under the rule of Valentinian. However, Gratian and his court was essentially in charge of the whole Western empire, including Illyricum, and Valentinian did not issue any laws and was marginalized in textual sources.[5][6][7] In 378, their uncle, the Emperor Valens, was killed in battle with the Goths at Adrianople, and Gratian invited the general Theodosius to be emperor in the East. As a child, Valentinian II was under the pro-Arian influence of his mother, empress Justina, and the courtiers at Milan, an influence contested by the Nicene bishop of Milan, Ambrose.[8] In 383, Magnus Maximus, commander of the armies in Britain, declared himself Emperor and established himself in Gaul and Hispania. Gratian was killed while fleeing him. As a lesser partner to Gratian in the West, Valentinian and his court in Milan had remained ineffectual and obscure until his brother's tragedy finally brought them to the forefront.[9] For a time the court of Valentinian, through the mediation of Ambrose, came to an accommodation with the usurper, and Theodosius recognized Maximus as co-emperor of the West.[citation needed] Valentinian tried to restrain the despoiling of pagan temples in Rome. Buoyed by this instruction, the pagan senators, led by Aurelius Symmachus, the Prefect of Rome, petitioned in 384 for the restoration of the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, which had been removed by Gratian in 382. Valentinian refused the request and, in so doing, rejected the traditions and rituals of pagan Rome to which Symmachus had appealed. While Ambrose participated in the campaign against the reinstatement of Altar of Victory,[10] he admitted he was not the cause of the decision to remove the altar in the first place.[11] In 385 Ambrose refused an imperial request to hand over the Portian basilica for the celebration of Easter by the Imperial court, angering Justina, Valentinian, high-ranking officials, and other Arians at the court, including Goths. Ambrose argued in his letter that Justina used her influence over her young son to oppose the Nicean party which was championed by Ambrose.[12] However, not only Justina, but the wider imperial court also crucially opposed Ambrose's claim, since the praetorian prefect and the emperor's counsellors met him and demanded that he turn over the basilica.[13][14] When Ambrose was summoned to be punished to the Imperial palace, the orthodox populace rioted, and Gothic troops were prevented by the arch-bishop himself, standing in the doorway, from entering the Basilica. Rufinus, influenced by Ambrose's rhetoric over the matter, claimed that when Ambrose was found to have determinedly infracted the new laws, Justina persuaded Valentinian to have him banished, and Ambrose was forced to barricade himself, with the enthusiastic backing of the people, within the walls of the Basilica. Rufinus continues that the imperial troops besieged him, but Ambrose held on, reinforcing the resolution of his followers by allegedly unearthing, beneath the foundations of the church, the bodies of two ancient martyrs. Later, usurper Magnus Maximus was purported to have used the emperor's heterodoxy against him.[15] Maximus indeed wrote a scathing letter attacking Valentinian for plotting against God.[16] In 386 to 387, Maximus crossed the Alps into the Po valley and threatened Milan. Valentinian II and Justina fled to Theodosius in Thessalonica. The latter came to an agreement, cemented by his marriage to Valentinian's sister Galla, to restore the young emperor in the West.[8] In 388, Theodosius marched west and defeated Maximus. Although he was to appoint both of his sons emperor (Arcadius in 383, Honorius in 393), Theodosius tolerated Valentinian, and made him a subordinate ruler to him.[17] Reign from Vienne (388–392) A solidus minted by Valentinian II. On the reverse, both Valentinian and Theodosius I are celebrated as victorious. After the defeat of Maximus, Theodosius remained in Milan until 391. Valentinian took no part in Theodosius's triumphal celebrations over Maximus. Valentinian and his court were installed at Vienne in Gaul, while Theodosius appointed key administrators in the West and had coins minted, which implied his guardianship over the 17-year-old.[18] Justina had already died, and Vienne was far away from the influence of Ambrose. Theodosius's trusted general, the Frank Arbogast, was appointed magister militum for the Western provinces (bar Africa) and guardian of Valentinian. Acting in the name of Valentinian, Arbogast was actually subordinate only to Theodosius.[19] While the general campaigned successfully on the Rhine, the young emperor remained at Vienne, in contrast to his warrior father and his older brother, who had campaigned at his age. Arbogast's domination over the emperor was considerable, and the general even murdered Harmonius, a friend of Valentinian suspected of taking bribes, in the emperor's presence.[20] The crisis reached a peak when Arbogast prohibited the emperor from leading the Gallic armies into Italy to oppose a barbarian threat. Valentinian, in response, formally dismissed Arbogast. The latter ignored the order, publicly tearing it up and arguing that Valentinian had not appointed him in the first place. The reality of where the power lay was openly displayed. Valentinian wrote to Theodosius and Ambrose complaining of his subordination to his general. In explicit rejection of his earlier Arianism, he invited Ambrose to come to Vienne to baptize him.[citation needed] Death On 15 May 392, Valentinian was found hanged in his residence in Vienne. Arbogast maintained that the emperor's death was suicide. Many sources believe, however, that Arbogast murdered him with his own hands, or paid the Praetorians. Zosimus writing in the early sixth century from Constantinople, states that Arbogast had Valentinian murdered;[21] ancient authorities are divided in their opinion and some modern scholars argue for suicide.[22][page needed] Ambrose's eulogy is the only contemporary Western source for Valentinian's death.[23] It is ambiguous on the question of the emperor's death, which is not surprising, as Ambrose represents him as a model of Christian virtue. Suicide, not murder, would make the bishop dissemble on this key question.[24] The young man's body was conveyed in ceremony to Milan for burial by Ambrose, mourned by his sisters Justa and Grata. He was laid in a porphyry sarcophagus next to his brother Gratian, most probably in the Chapel of Sant'Aquilino attached to San Lorenzo.[a] He was deified with the consecratio: Divae Memoriae Valentinianus, lit. 'the Divine Memory of Valentinian'.[26] At first Arbogast recognized Theodosius's son Arcadius as emperor in the West, seemingly surprised by his charge's death.[27] After three months, during which he had no communication from Theodosius, Arbogast selected an imperial official, Eugenius, as emperor. Theodosius initially tolerated this regime but, in January 393, elevated the eight-year-old Honorius as augustus to succeed Valentinian II. Civil war ensued and, in 394, Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogast at the Battle of the Frigidus.[28] Significance Valentinian himself seems to have exercised no real authority, and was a figurehead for various powerful interests: his mother, his co-emperors, and powerful generals. Since the Crisis of the Third Century the empire had been ruled by powerful generals, a situation formalised by Diocletian and his collegiate system which collapsed a year after his abdication in 305. Constantine I and his sons, strong military figures, re-established the practice of hereditary succession, a system that Valentinian I continued to maintain. The obvious flaw in these two competing requirements came in the reign of Valentinian II, a child.[29] His reign was a harbinger of the fifth century, when children or nonentities, reigning as emperors, were controlled by powerful generals and officials in the West and in the East until mid-century.[citation needed] See also List of unsolved murders Illyrian emperors Notes ^ The bottom of the sarcophagus may be identical to a porphyry tub (labrum) now in the Duomo of Milan.[25] References ^ Valentinian II, Roman emperors. ^ Curran 1998, p. 86. ^ McEvoy, Meaghan (2013) Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367–455. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 57–59 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae XXX 10.6 ^ Errington, R.M. "The Accession of Theodosius I." Klio 78 (1996) pp. 440–442 ^ Mcevoy, Child Emperor Rule, pp. 61–64 ^ Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2002). Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. University of California Press. p. 357-361. ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Valentinian I. s.v. Valetinian II." . Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 851–852. ^ Mcevoy, Child Emperor Rule, pp. 61–64 ^ Ambrose, Epistolae 17–18 ^ Ambrose Epistolae 57.2 ^ Ambrose, Epistolae 20 ^ Ambrose, Epistolae 20 ^ McLynn, Neil B. (1994), Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital, The Transformation of the Classical Heritage, 22, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 170-174 ^ Rufinus, Ecclesiastical History 11.15–16 ^ Collectio Avellana 39 ^ Croke 1976, pp. 235–236. ^ Croke 1976, pp. 235f. ^ Williams & Friell, p. 126. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilliamsFriell (help) ^ Croke 1976, p. 237. ^ Historia nova, IV. 53 which relies heavily on the history by the pagan Eunapius ^ Croke 1976. ^ De obitu Valentiniani consolatio ^ of Milan, Ambrose (2005), Political Letters and Speeches, JHWG Liebeschuetz, tr, Liverpool University Press, p. 359 ^ Johnson, Mark J (1991), "On the Burial Places of the Valentinian Dynasty", Historia, 40 (4): 501–6. ^ Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Valentinianus II". Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 321–322. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. ^ Croke 1976, p. 244. ^ Flavius Eugenius (392-394) ^ Williams & Friell, p. 42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilliamsFriell (help) Bibliography Croke, B (1976), "Arbogast and the Death of Valentinian II", Historia, 25 (2). Curran, J (1998), "From Jovian to Theodosius", The Cambridge Ancient History, XIII: the Late Empire AD 337–425, Cambridge: University Press Errington, R.M. (1996), "The Accession of Theodosius I", Klio, 78 (2), doi:10.1524/klio.1996.78.2.438. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013), Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367–455. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, S; Friell, G (1994), Theodosius: the Empire at Bay, Routledge, ISBN 9780713466911 McLynn, Neil B. (1994). Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital. The Transformation of the Classical Heritage. 22. Berkeley: University of California Press. Lenski, Noel (2003). Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23332-8. External links Wikisource has original works written by or about: Valentinian II "Imperial laws chart", Fourth century. This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valentinian II relating to Christianity. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Valentinian II. Roberts, Walter F, "Valentinian II", De Imperatoribus Romanis. Roberts, Walter F, "Flavius Eugenius", De Imperatoribus Romanis. of Milan, Ambrose, To Valentinian II regarding Auexentius (letter), Fordham. Valentinian II Valentinian dynasty Born: 371 Died: 15 May 392 Regnal titles Preceded by Valentinian I Roman emperor 371–392 With: Valens, Gratian and Theodosius I Succeeded by Theodosius I Political offices Preceded by Gratian Equitius Roman consul 376 with Valens Succeeded by Gratian Merobaudes Preceded by Gratian Merobaudes Roman consul 378 with Valens Succeeded by Ausonius Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius Preceded by Honorius Flavius Euodius Roman consul 387 with Eutropius Succeeded by Magnus Maximus, Theodosius I, Maternus Cynegius Preceded by Timasius Promotus Roman consul 390 with Neoterius Succeeded by Eutolmius Tatianus Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-568	----	Epictetus - Wikipedia Epictetus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek Stoic philosopher (c. 50–c. 135) This article is about the philosopher. For the vase painter, see Epiktetos. Epictetus Artistic impression of Epictetus, including his crutch Born c. AD 50 Hierapolis, Phrygia (presumed) Died c. 135 Nicopolis, Achaea Notable work Discourses Enchiridion Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Memento mori[1] Influences Musonius Rufus, Socrates, Diogenes, Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Hippocrates Influenced Arrian, Junius Rusticus, Marcus Aurelius, Albert Ellis, Han Ryner, James Stockdale Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Epictetus (/ˌɛpɪkˈtiːtəs/;[2] Greek: Ἐπίκτητος, Epíktētos; c. 50 – c. 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present day Pamukkale, Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece for the rest of his life. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses and Enchiridion. Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life and not just a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are beyond our control; we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline. Epictetus gave European scholars of the Enlightenment an example of a system of ethics that predated Christianity and was therefore secular, based not on God's law but on reason and observation of the natural world.[3] Contents 1 Life 2 Thought 3 Influence 3.1 Philosophy 3.1.1 Marcus Aurelius 3.1.2 Simplicius of Cilicia 3.1.3 Bernard Stiegler 3.2 Literature 3.2.1 François Rabelais 3.3 Military 3.3.1 James Stockdale 3.4 Psychology 3.5 Religion 3.6 Acting 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Epictetus was born around AD 50,[4][5] presumably at Hierapolis, Phrygia.[6] The name his parents gave him is unknown; the word epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) in Greek simply means "gained" or "acquired";[7] the Greek philosopher Plato, in his Laws, used the term to mean property that is "added to one's hereditary property".[8] He spent his youth as a slave in Rome to Epaphroditos, a wealthy freedman and secretary to Nero.[9] Early in life, Epictetus acquired a passion for philosophy and, with the permission of his wealthy enslaver, he studied Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus,[10] Becoming more educated in this way raised his social status.[11] At some point, he became disabled. Origen wrote that this was because his leg had been deliberately broken by his enslaver.[12] Simplicius, in contrast, wrote that he had simply been disabled from childhood.[13] Roman-era ruins at Nicopolis Epictetus obtained his freedom sometime after the death of Nero in AD 68,[14] and he began to teach philosophy in Rome. Around AD 93, when Emperor Domitian banished all philosophers from the city,[15] Epictetus moved to Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, where he founded a school of philosophy.[16] His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied under him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have written his famous Discourses based on the notes he took on Epictetus’s lectures. Arrian argued that his Discourses should be considered comparable to the Socratic literature.[17] Arrian described Epictetus as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel."[18] Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.[19] Emperor Hadrian was friendly with him,[20] and may have heard him speak at his school in Nicopolis.[21][22] He lived a life of great simplicity, with few possessions.[13] He lived alone for a long time,[23] but in his old age, he adopted a friend's child who otherwise would have been left to die and raised him with the aid of a woman.[24] It is unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.[25] He died sometime around AD 135.[26] After his death, according to Lucian, his oil lamp was purchased by an admirer for 3,000 drachmae.[27] Thought[edit] An eighteenth century engraving of Epictetus No writings by Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his pupil Arrian (author of the Anabasis Alexandri).[18] The main work is The Discourses, four books of which have been preserved (out of the original eight).[28] Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled the Enchiridion, or Handbook. In a preface to the Discourses that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech."[18] Epictetus maintains that the foundation of all philosophy is self-knowledge; that is, the conviction of our ignorance and gullibility ought to be the first subject of our study.[29] Logic provides valid reasoning and certainty in judgment, but it is subordinate to practical needs.[30] The first and most necessary part of philosophy concerns the application of doctrine, for example, that people should not lie. The second concerns reasons, e.g., why people should not lie. While the third, lastly, examines and establishes the reasons.[31] This is the logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and that a given reason is a correct one.[31] This last part is necessary, but only on account of the second, which again is rendered necessary by the first.[32] Both the Discourses and the Enchiridion begin by distinguishing between those things in our power (prohairetic things) and those things not in our power (aprohairetic things).[33] That alone is in our power, which is our own work; and in this class are our opinions, impulses, desires, and aversions. On the contrary, what is not in our power, are our bodies, possessions, glory, and power. Any delusion on this point leads to the greatest errors, misfortunes, and troubles, and to the slavery of the soul.[34] We have no power over external things, and the good that ought to be the object of our earnest pursuit, is to be found only within ourselves.[35] The determination between what is good and what is not good is made by the capacity for choice (prohairesis).[36] Prohairesis allows us to act, and gives us the kind of freedom that only rational animals have.[37] It is determined by our reason, which of all our faculties, sees and tests itself and everything else.[38] It is the correct use of the impressions (phantasia) that bombard the mind that is in our power:[39] Practice then from the start to say to every harsh impression, "You are an impression, and not at all the thing you appear to be." Then examine it and test it by these rules you have, and firstly, and chiefly, by this: whether the impression has to do with the things that are up to us, or those that are not; and if it has to do with the things that are not up to us, be ready to reply, "It is nothing to me."[40] We will not be troubled at any loss, but will say to ourselves on such an occasion: "I have lost nothing that belongs to me; it was not something of mine that was torn from me, but something that was not in my power has left me." Nothing beyond the use of our opinion is properly ours. Every possession rests on opinion. What is to cry and to weep? An opinion. What is misfortune, or a quarrel, or a complaint? All these things are opinions; opinions founded on the delusion that what is not subject to our own choice can be either good or evil, which it cannot.[35] By rejecting these opinions, and seeking good and evil in the power of choice alone, we may confidently achieve peace of mind in every condition of life.[41] Reason alone is good, the irrational is evil, and the irrational is intolerable to the rational.[42] The good person should labour chiefly on their own reason; to perfect this is in our power.[43] To repel evil opinions by the good is the noble contest in which humans should engage; it is not an easy task, but it promises true freedom, peace of mind (ataraxia), and a divine command over the emotions (apatheia).[44] We should especially be on our guard against the opinion of pleasure because of its apparent sweetness and charms.[45] The first object of philosophy, therefore, is to purify the mind.[46] Epictetus teaches that the preconceptions (prolepsis) of good and evil are common to all.[47] Good alone is profitable and to be desired, and evil is hurtful and to be avoided.[48] Different opinions arise only from the application of these preconceptions to particular cases, and it is then that the darkness of ignorance, which blindly maintains the correctness of its own opinion, must be dispelled.[47] People entertain different and conflicting opinions of good, and in their judgment of a particular good, people frequently contradict themselves.[49] Philosophy should provide a standard for good and evil.[50] This process is greatly facilitated because the mind and the works of the mind are alone in our power, whereas all external things that aid life are beyond our control.[50] The essence of divinity is goodness; we have all good that could be given to us.[51] The deities too gave us the soul and reason, which is not measured by breadth or depth, but by knowledge and sentiments, and by which we attain to greatness, and may equal even with the deities. We should, therefore, cultivate the mind with special care.[52] If we wish for nothing, but what God wills, we shall be truly free, and all will come to pass with us according to our desire; and we shall be as little subject to restraint as Zeus himself.[53] Every individual is connected with the rest of the world, and the universe is fashioned for universal harmony.[52] Wise people, therefore, will pursue, not merely their own will, but also will be subject to the rightful order of the world.[54] We should conduct ourselves through life fulfilling all our duties as children, siblings, parents, and citizens.[55] For our country or friends we ought to be ready to undergo or perform the greatest difficulties.[56] The good person, if able to foresee the future, would peacefully and contentedly help to bring about their own sickness, maiming, and even death, knowing that this is the correct order of the universe.[57] We have all a certain part to play in the world, and we have done enough when we have performed what our nature allows.[58] In the exercise of our powers, we may become aware of the destiny we are intended to fulfil.[59] We are like travellers at an inn or guests at a stranger's table; whatever is offered we take with thankfulness, and sometimes, when the turn comes, we may refuse; in the former case we are a worthy guest of the deities, and in the latter we appear as a sharer in their power.[60] Anyone who finds life intolerable is free to quit it, but we should not abandon our appointed role without sufficient reason.[61] The Stoic sage will never find life intolerable and will complain of no one, neither deity nor human.[62] Those who go wrong we should pardon and treat with compassion, since it is from ignorance that they err, being as it were, blind.[63] It is only our opinions and principles that can render us unhappy, and it is only the ignorant person who finds fault with another.[64] Every desire degrades us, and renders us slaves of what we desire.[64] We ought not to forget the transitory character of all external advantages, even in the midst of our enjoyment of them; but always to bear in mind that they are not our own, and that therefore, they do not properly belong to us. Thus prepared, we shall never be carried away by opinions.[65] The final entry of the Enchiridion, or Handbook, begins: "Upon all occasions we ought to have these maxims ready at hand": Conduct me, Zeus, and thou, Destiny, Wherever thy decree has fixed my lot. I follow willingly; and, did I not, Wicked and wretched would I follow still. (Diogenes Laërtius quoting Cleanthes; quoted also by Seneca, Epistle 107.)" Whoe'er yields properly to Fate is deemed Wise among men, and knows the laws of Heaven. (From Euripides' Fragments, 965) Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be. (From Plato's Crito) Anytus and Meletus may indeed kill me, but they cannot harm me. (From Plato's Apology) Influence[edit] Philosophy[edit] Marcus Aurelius[edit] The philosophy of Epictetus was an influence on the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to AD 180) whose reign was marked by wars with the resurgent Parthia in western Asia and against the Germanic tribes in Europe. Aurelius quotes from Epictetus repeatedly in his own work, Meditations, written during his campaigns in central Europe.[66] Simplicius of Cilicia[edit] In the sixth century, the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius, who was persecuted for his pagan beliefs during the reign of Justinian, wrote an extant commentary on the Enchiridion. At the end of the commentary, Simplicius wrote: "Nor does my writing this commentary prove beneficial to others only, for I myself have already found great advantage from it, by the agreeable diversion it has given me, in a season of trouble and public calamity."[67] Bernard Stiegler[edit] When Bernard Stiegler (1952–2020) was imprisoned for five years for armed robbery in France, he assembled an "ensemble of disciplines," which he called (in reference to Epictetus) his melete. This ensemble amounted to a practice of reading and writing that Stiegler derived from the writings of Epictetus. This led to his transformation, and upon being released from incarceration he became a professional philosopher. Stiegler tells the story of this transformation in his book, Acting Out.[68] Literature[edit] The philosophy of Epictetus plays a key role in the 1998 novel by Tom Wolfe, A Man in Full. This was in part the outcome of discussions Wolfe had with James Stockdale (see below). The character Conrad, who through a series of mishaps finds himself in jail, and accidentally gets a copy of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Stoic’s manual, finds a philosophy that strengthens him to endure the brutality of the jail environment. He experiences Joseph Campbell's 'hero's journey' call to action and becomes a strong, honorable, undefeatable protagonist. The importance of Epictetus' Stoicism for Stockdale, its role in A Man in Full, and its significance in Ridley Scott's Gladiator is discussed by William O. Stephens in The Rebirth of Stoicism?.[69] Mohun Biswas, in the novel A House for Mr Biswas (1961), by V.S. Naipaul, is pleased to think himself a follower of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; the irony is that he never actually behaves as a Stoic. "Everything has two handles, the one by which it may be carried, the other by which it cannot" is the theme of Disturbances in the Field (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz. Lydia, the central character, turns often to The Golden Sayings of Epictetus—the latter being a modern selection from Epictetus's writings, compiled and translated by Hastings Crossley. A line from the Enchiridion is used as a title quotation in The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne, which translates to, "Not things, but opinions about things, trouble men."[70] The quotation alludes to a theme of the novel about how the suffering of many of its characters (above all Walter Shandy) is the result of the opinions and assumptions they make about reality. This is similar to Shakespeare's "There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so." (Hamlet: Act 2, Scene 2), and John Milton's "The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven." Epictetus is mentioned in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce: in the fifth chapter of the novel the protagonist Stephen Daedalus discusses Epictetus's famous lamp with a dean of his college.[71] Epictetus also is mentioned briefly in Franny and Zooey by J. D. Salinger, and is referred to by Theodore Dreiser in his novel Sister Carrie. Both the longevity of Epictetus's life and his philosophy are alluded to in John Berryman's poem, "Of Suicide." Epictetus is referred to, but not mentioned by name, in Matthew Arnold's sonnet "To a Friend". Arnold provides three historical personalities as his inspiration and support in difficult times (Epictetus is preceded by Homer and succeeded by Sophocles): Much he, whose friendship I not long since won, That halting slave, who in Nicopolis Taught Arrian, when Vespasian's brutal son Cleared Rome of what most shamed him.[72] François Rabelais[edit] In the Chapter XXX of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c.1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had his head cut off after a battle. After he had his head reattached and was brought back to life, he recounts his experience of the damned in hell: Their estate and condition of living is but only changed after a very strange manner; ...After this manner, those that had been great lords and ladies here, got but a poor scurvy wretched living there below. And, on the contrary, the philosophers and others, who in this world had been altogether indigent and wanting, were great lords there in their turn. ...I saw Epictetus there, most gallantly apparelled after the French fashion, sitting under a pleasant arbour, with store of handsome gentlewomen, frolicking, drinking, dancing, and making good cheer, with abundance of crowns of the sun. Above the lattice were written these verses for his device: To leap and dance, to sport and play, And drink good wine both white and brown, Or nothing else do all the day But tell bags full of many a crown. When he saw me, he invited me to drink with him very courteously, and I was willing to be entreated, tippled and chopined together most theologically. In the meantime came Cyrus to beg one farthing of him for the honour of Mercury, therewith to buy a few onions for his supper. No, no, said Epictetus, I do not use in my almsgiving to bestow farthings. Hold, thou varlet, there's a crown for thee; be an honest man." Military[edit] James Stockdale[edit] Prisoner of war James Stockdale receiving the Medal of Honor from American president Gerald Ford; Stockdale was able to retain his sanity during capture by relying on the philosophy of Epictetus The philosophy of Epictetus is well known in the U.S. military through the writings and example of James Stockdale, the 1992 vice presidential candidate of Ross Perot and a fighter pilot who was shot down while serving in the Vietnam War. He was introduced to the works of Epictetus while at Stanford University. In Courage under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior (1993), Stockdale credits Epictetus with helping him endure his seven and a half years in captivity, which included torture and four years in solitary confinement.[73] When he was shot down, he reportedly said to himself "I'm leaving the world of technology and entering the world of Epictetus!" as he bailed out.[74] Quoting Epictetus, Stockdale concludes the book with: The emotions of grief, pity, and even affection are well-known disturbers of the soul. Grief is the most offensive; Epictetus considered the suffering of grief an act of evil. It is a willful act, going against the will of God to have all men share happiness. [75] Psychology[edit] Psychologist Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, credited Epictetus with providing a foundation for his system of psychotherapy.[76][77][78] Religion[edit] Kiyozawa Manshi, a controversial reformer within the Higashi Honganji branch of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism cited Epictetus as one of the three major influences on his spiritual development and thought.[79] Acting[edit] Epictetus' philosophy is an influence on the acting method introduced by David Mamet and William H. Macy, known as Practical Aesthetics. The main book that describes the method, The Practical Handbook for the Actor, lists the Enchiridion in the bibliography. See also[edit] List of slaves Notes[edit] ^ Discourses of Epictetus, 3.24. ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ "Ada Palmer on Learning From the Past and the Future". Getting Smart. July 29, 2020. Retrieved June 12, 2021. ^ Graver, Margaret. "Epictetus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ The year of his birth is uncertain. He was born a slave. However, we know that he was at least old enough to teach philosophy by the time Domitian banished all philosophers from Rome around 93 AD, because he was among those who left the city. He also described himself as an old man to Arrian around 108 AD cf. Discourses, i.9.10; i.16.20; ii.6.23; etc. ^ Suda. Epictetus. ^ "Perseus Tuft Greek Word Study Tool, 'ἐπίκτητος'". ^ "Plato, Laws, section 924a". ^ Epaphroditus, livius.org ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.7.32. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.9.29. ^ Origen, Contra Celcus. vii. ^ a b Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 13. ^ Douglas J. Soccio, Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy (2012), p. 197 ^ Suetonius, Domitian, x. ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, xv. 11. ^ Hendrik Selle: Dichtung oder Wahrheit – Der Autor der Epiktetischen Predigten. Philologus 145 [2001] 269–290 ^ a b c Epictetus, Discourses, prologue. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.11; ii.14; iii.4; iii. 7; etc. ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 16. ^ Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 pg 578 ^ A surviving second or third century work, Altercatio Hadriani Et Epicteti gives a fictitious account of a conversation between Hadrian and Epictetus. ^ Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. There is a joke at Epictetus' expense in Lucian's Life of Demonax about the fact that he had no family. ^ Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. He may have married her, but Simplicius' language is ambiguous. ^ Lucian, Demoxan, c. 55, torn, ii., ed Hemsterh., p. 393; as quoted in A Selection from the Discourses of Epictetus With the Encheiridion (2009), p. 6 ^ He apparently was alive in the reign of Hadrian (117–138). Marcus Aurelius (born AD 121) was an admirer of him, but never met him, and Aulus Gellius (ii.18.10) writing mid-century, speaks of him as if belonging to the recent past. ^ Lucian, Remarks to an illiterate book-lover. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca, states that there were eight books. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.11.1 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.7.1–8 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 201 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.1–6; Enchiridion, 52 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.1; Enchiridion, 1 ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 204 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 206 ^ Giovanni Reale, John R. Catan, 1990, A History of Ancient Philosophy: The schools of the Imperial Age, p. 80. SUNY Press ^ Christopher Gill, 1995, The Discourses of Epictetus, p. xx. Everyman ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.1.4; i.20 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.19.32. ^ Epictetus, Enchiridion, 1 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.3.14–19; Enchiridion, 6 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.2.1 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.8; iii.15.1–13; Enchiridion, 29 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.18.19–31; iii.3.14–22 ^ Epictetus, Enchiridion, 34. ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 207 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 208 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.22.1; ii.11.3 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.11.8–13; iii.14.11–14 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 209 ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 217 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 218 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.17.22–33 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.12.16–17 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.4 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.20.4–14 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.10.4–5 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.2.33–37; Enchiridion, 24, 37 ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 220 ^ Epictetus, Enchiridion, 11, 15 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.29.29; iii.24.97–101 ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 210 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i.18.6–8; i.28.9–10 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 211 ^ Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 212 ^ Marcus Aurelius, i. 7; iv. 41; vii. 19; xi. 33–37 ^ George Long, (1890), The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheridion and Fragments, p. 390. George Bell and Sons ^ Bernard Stiegler, Acting Out (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009). ^ The Rebirth of Stoicism Archived December 31, 2009, at the Wayback Machine ^ Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, ed. Ian Campbell Ross (Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), p. 540. ^ pp. 202–203 of the Penguin Edition. ^ Matthew Arnold, To A Friend ^ Stockdale, James Bond. 1993. Courage Under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior. Stanford: Hoover Institution/Stanford University. ^ Obituary: Vice Admiral James Stockdale The Guardian 2005 ^ B., Stockdale, James (1995). Thoughts of a philosophical fighter pilot. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0817993916. OCLC 32625408. ^ Green, Adam (2003-10-13). "Ageless, Guiltless". The New Yorker. ^ Schatzman, Morton (2007-07-30). "Albert Ellis: Psychotherapist who preached a rational, behavioural approach". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. ^ Burkeman, Oliver (2007-08-10). "Albert Ellis: Influential American psychologist who led the revolution in cognitive therapy". The Guardian. ^ Blum, Mark L. (1988). "Kiyozawa Manshi and the Meaning of Buddhist Ethics". The Eastern Buddhist. 21 (1): 63. ISSN 0012-8708. A year after his study of the Āgamas, he received a copy of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus from his disciple Akegarasu Haya, and again Kiyozawa was deeply moved. Origen's Contra Celcus, Book vii, episode is in chapter LIII, with a secondary mention of the episode in chapter LIV. Further reading[edit] Primary sources All the Works of Epictetus, Which are Now Extant, Elizabeth Carter (trans.) (1758) ISBN 978-1171001867 Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, Robin Hard (trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0199595181 Discourses and Selected Writings, Robert Dobbin (trans.), Oxford: Penguin Classics, 2008 ISBN 978-0-14-044946-4. The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments), Robin Hard (trans.), Christopher Gill (contrib.), Everyman Edition, 2003 ISBN 0-460-87312-1. Epictetus Discourses: Book 1, Robert Dobbin (trans.), (Clarendon Later Ancient Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998 ISBN 0-19-823664-6. The Handbook, Nicholas P. White (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983 ISBN 0-915145-69-3. Enchiridion, George Long (trans.), New York: A. L. Burt, 1955 (reprint: New York: Dover, 2004) ISBN 0-87975-703-5. The Discourses, trans. W. A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Library edition.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 and 1928. ISBN 0-674-99145-1, 0-674-99240-7. Moral Discourses, Enchiridion and Fragments, Elizabeth Carter (trans.), W.H.D. Rouse (Ed.), London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1910. at Open Library Studies Jonathan Barnes, Logic and Imperial Stoa, Leiden: Brill, 1997 (Chapter Three: Epictetuts, pp. 24–127).[ISBN missing] Adolf Friedrich Bonhoffer, The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus, William O. Stephens trans., Bern: Peter Lang, 2000 ISBN 0-8204-5139-8. Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1981–1982, New York: Picador, 2005 ISBN 0-312-42570-8. Pedro P. Fuentes González. art. "Épictète", in R. Goulet (ed.), Dictionnaire des Philosophes Antiques III, Paris, CNRS, 2000, pp. 106–151 ISBN 2-271-05748-5. Brian E. Johnson, The Role Ethics of Epictetus: Stoicism in Ordinary Life, Lanham: Lexington Books, 2014 ISBN 978-0739179673. A. A. Long, Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-924556-8. Theodore Scaltsas, Andrew S. Mason (ed.), The Philosophy of Epictetus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-1995-8551-9. Keith Seddon, Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes: Guides to Stoic Living, Routledge, 2005. Werner Sohn, Epictetus: Ein erzkonservativer Bildungsroman mit liberalen Eselsohren (German version) Norderstedt: BoD, 2010 ISBN 978-3-8391-5231-7. William O. Stephens, Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom, London: Continuum, 2007 ISBN 0-8264-9608-3. External links[edit] Epictetusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἐπίκτητος Library resources about Epictetus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Epictetus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Epicteti dissertationes ab Arriano digestae, Heinrich Schenkl (ed.), Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1916. Works by Epictetus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Epictetus at Internet Archive Works by Epictetus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Epictetus at the Internet Classics Archive Works by Epictetus at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary Graver, Margaret. "Epictetus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Epictetus". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Dialogue between Hadrian and Epictetus – a fictitious 2nd or 3rd century composition, translated into English in The Knickerbocker magazine, August 1857 Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus by Simplicius of Cilicia (6th century) Stockdale on Stoicism I: The Stoic Warrior's Triad by James Stockdale Who Was Epictetus? 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en-wikipedia-org-5696	----	File:Portrait de Marc Aurèle 2.jpg - Wikipedia File:Portrait de Marc Aurèle 2.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 160 × 240 pixels | 320 × 480 pixels | 512 × 768 pixels | 682 × 1,024 pixels | 1,365 × 2,048 pixels | 2,872 × 4,308 pixels. Original file ‎(2,872 × 4,308 pixels, file size: 5.55 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Object +/− Français : Portrait de Marc-Aurèle   (  ) Artist UnknownUnknown Title Français : Portrait de Marc-Aurèle Object type sculptureobject_type QS:P31,Q860861 Description Français : Deux "verrues" sur le front, une sur la pointe du menton. Côtés et arrière du crâne élaborés librements. 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en-wikipedia-org-5704	----	Michael IX Palaiologos - Wikipedia Michael IX Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael IX Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of Michael IX (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Emperor of the Byzantine Empire Reign 21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320 Coronation 21 May 1294, Hagia Sophia Predecessor Andronikos II Palaiologos (alone) Successor Andronikos II Palaiologos (alone), Andronikos III Palaiologos (usurper in Macedonia from 1321-1325) Co-monarch Andronikos II Palaiologos Born 17 April 1277 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 12 October 1320(1320-10-12) (aged 43) Thessaloniki, Byzantine Empire Spouse Rita of Armenia ​ ​ (m. 1294)​ Issue Andronikos III Palaiologos Manuel Palaiologos, Despotes Anna Palaiologina, Despoina of Epirus and Countess of Cephalonia Theodora Palaiologina, Empress of Bulgaria Names Michael IX Palaiologos Greek: Μιχαήλ Θ' Παλαιολόγος Dynasty Palaiologos Father Andronikos II Palaiologos Mother Anna of Hungary Michael IX Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Μιχαήλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος, Mikhaēl Doukas Angelos Komnēnos Palaiologos; 17 April 1277 — 12 October 1320), was Byzantine Emperor together with his father Andronikos II Palaiologos from 1294 until his death. A man of impeccable morals and a good helper to his father, he was also known as a brave and energetic soldier, willing to make personal sacrifices to pay or encourage his troops; the Catalan military chronicler Ramon Muntaner said about him: "Emperor Michael was one of the bravest knights in the world".[1] Despite his militar prestige, he suffered several defeats, which could be difficult to established the real reason about this: either his inability as a commander, the deplorable state of the Byzantine army or just simply bad luck. The only Palaiologan emperor to predecease his father, his premature death at age 43 was attributed in part to grief over the accidental murder of his younger son Manuel Palaiologos by retainers of his older son and later co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos.[2] In the memory of the Byzantines, Michael IX remained "the most pious lord"[3] and "a true king in name and deeds".[4] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Birth and early years 1.2 Military activity 1.2.1 Clash at Magnesia (1302) 1.2.2 Battle of Skafida (1304) 1.2.3 Battle of Apros (1305) 1.2.4 Turkish fortress (1314) 1.2.5 Michael IX as unsuccessful commander. Reasons for his defeats 1.3 Private life 1.3.1 Betrothals and marriage. Issue 1.3.2 Relationship with stepmother 1.4 Death 1.5 Michael IX and the Church 2 Ancestry 3 Notes 4 References Life[edit] Birth and early years[edit] Michael IX and Andronikos II (Silver basilikon). Michael IX was the eldest son of the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos and his first wife Anna, daughter of King Stephen V of Hungary.[5] He was born at noon on Easter Sunday (17 April) of 1277, which was recognized by the people as a miracle.[3][6][7] The Emperor doted on his firstborn son, which became a great consolation for him after the untimely death of his beloved wife Anna in 1281.[6] Michael IX had only one younger full-brother, Constantine, who was born sometime between 1278 and 1281.[8][9] Andronikos II declared Michael IX a formal Basileus at the age of three (1280),[10] and after his son became an adult, he confirmed his royal authority. On 21 May 1294 at Hagia Sophia, Michael IX was officially crowned as co-Emperor by Patriarch John XII.[3] In subsequent years, Andronikos II entrusted his son with the conduct of wars against internal and external enemies. Military activity[edit] Clash at Magnesia (1302)[edit] In early spring of 1302, Michael IX made his first campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which he was very proud of in advance, for he had long wanted (as the historian George Pachymeres reports) to get a chance to prove himself in battle.[11] Under his command, up to 16,000 soldiers were collected,[1] 10,000 of whom were a detachment of mercenary Alans;[12][13] the latter, however, performed their duty badly and plundered both the Turkish population and the Greek with equal zeal. Michael IX camped at the fortress of Magnesia ad Sipylum in Asia Minor (modern day Manisa, Turkey), not far from Smyrna, where in ancient times a great battle between the Roman Republic and the Seleucid Empire. Seeing the low morale of his people, Michael IX didn't dare to start the battle first, since the Turks managed to take all advantageous positions —the peaks of the surrounding mountains and shelters in the forests— and at the very first collision he would have easily repulsed the onslaught of Greek militia and light Alanian cavalry. Another reason why the young emperor gave his enemies the opportunity to attack first was the problems in his own army. Wayward mercenaries didn't want to carry out his orders, and, according to Nicephorus Gregoras ...often without any order they went out to prey and themselves devastated Roman possessions even more than obvious enemies.[12] Meanwhile, the Turks chose the moment and descended from the mountains. Michael IX ordered to prepare for battle, but no one listened to him — the timid soldiers didn't want to start the battle and thought only about flight, as was recalled by Nicephorus Gregoras: Ours did not wait for the first attack of the enemies and, having withdrawn from there, walked with a quiet step, having barbarians in their rear, who followed them and camped in the closest distance from them. Ours did not even see how great the number of enemies; cowardice happened to them, what happens to drunkards: drunkards see not what it really is, but imagine that it is something else ... Before the enemies have time to attack them, they themselves are already running away from their cowardice ... The Emperor, seeing that the Massagets (that is, the Alans) fled and unable to resist the barbarians with a small number of soldiers, locked himself in the hardest fortress, Magnesia, and limited himself to just observing how it would end. The Massagetae reach the Hellespont itself, devastating all the fields of Christians, and from there they move to Europe.[12] After defeat and a short stay in the fortress of Magnesia, Michael IX retreated to Pergamum[1] and then went to Adramyttium, where he met the New Year of 1303, and by the summer he was in the city of Cyzicus.[14] He still didn't give up his attempts to gather a new army to replace the disintegrated old one and to improve the situation. But by that time the Turks had already seized the area along the lower reaches of the Sakarya River and defeated another Greek army in the town of Bapheus, near Nicomedia (27 July 1302). It was becoming clear to everyone that the Byzantines had lost the war. To top it all off, Michael IX fell seriously ill;[14] having reached the Pegai fortress, he could not continue and went to bed. Many felt that his days were numbered; dying, he sadly watched as the conquerors divided the Byzantine lands that they had captured to the very coast of the Aegean Sea. A year later, the Turkish commander Aydin captured the city of Ephesus (24 October 1304)[15] and, briefly, the island of Rhodes. Michael IX was ill during the last months of 1303. His health recovered only by January 1304, so that he was finally able to leave the fortress and return to Constantinople with his wife Rita, who, after learning about his illness, hurried to Pegai and was devotedly at the side of her husband during all his illness.[14] Battle of Skafida (1304)[edit] Main article: Battle of Skafida Battle of Skafida. During 1303–1304 Tsar Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria invaded Eastern Thrace. Michael IX at this time was engaged in a war with the rebellious Catalan Company (see below), whose leader, Roger de Flor, refused to fight the Bulgarians if Michael IX and his father didn't pay him the agreed sum of money. In order to prevent the unification of the Catalans and Bulgarians, Michael IX had to oppose the latter, sharing authority over the army with the experienced commander Michael Glaber, who, however, fell seriously ill by the decisive battle and was removed from military affairs. By that time, the Bulgarians had already managed to conquer the fortresses of Kopsis, Kryn, Meglij, Vereya, Diavena, Ichera, Mokren, Sliven, Sotir, Pyrgitsion, Diampol, Ktenia, Debelt, Rusokastro, Lardea, Markeli, Aytos, Mesembria, Anchialos, Pyrgos, Apolonia and Ahtopol, all along the southern Black Sea coast. However, subsequent events were initially favorable for the Byzantine Empire. Michael IX defeated the enemies in several skirmishes, after which many fortresses captured by the Bulgarians surrendered to him without a fight. His successes made an impression in Constantinople, where Patriarch Athanasius I, during a sermon, said a word of praise about Michael IX and his victories.[16] There is also a panegyric in which an unknown poet extols the victories of the Byzantine army at that time.[17] In early autumn 1304 the Byzantines counter-attacked and the two armies met near Skafida river. At the beginning of the battle, Michael IX, who fought bravely in the forefront, had an advantage over the enemy. He forced the Bulgarians to retreat along the road to Apolonia, but he was unable to keep his own soldiers heated up in pursuit. Between the Byzantines and the fleeing Bulgarians, there was the deep and very turbulent Skafida river, with the only bridge across which was damaged by the Bulgarians before the battle. When the Byzantine soldiers in a large crowd tried to cross the bridge, it collapsed. Many of the soldiers drowned, the rest began to panic. At that moment, the Bulgarians returned to the bridge and decided the outcome of the battle, snatching victory from the enemies. Several hundred Byzantines were captured. To ransom the captives and recruit a new army, Emperor Andronikos II and his son were forced to sell their own jewelry. With varying degrees of success, hostilities continued for several more years until 1307, when a peace that was clearly unfavorable for the Byzantine Empire was concluded, which remained for the next 15 years; as part of the agreement, Michael IX had to give his daughter Theodora in marriage to the Bulgarian Tsar Theodore Svetoslav, his successful enemy.[15] Battle of Apros (1305)[edit] Main article: Battle of Apros Entry of Roger de Flor in Constantinople by José Moreno Carbonero, 1888. Palacio del Senado, Spain. In the spring of 1305 Michael IX, on his father's instructions, conducted negotiations in Adrianople with the rebellious Catalan condottieri Roger de Flor. According to Nicephorus Gregoras, Roger tried to play a dishonest game: he plundered Greek settlements, made sure that he was given ownership of all of Anatolia with the islands and incomes with the right to distribute fiefs to his vassals and maintain a personal army, and demanded from the Byzantine emperors a salary for his soldiers in the amount of 100,000 gold and extorted another 300,000.[1][18][19] (For comparison: during the "War of the Two Andronikos" Andronikos the Younger needed only 45,000 gold to maintain his army[1][20]): ...leaving the other soldiers in the fortress of Gallipoli, with 200 others, chosen ones, [he decided] to go to Emperor Michael, who was then with an army in Thrace, and demand from him the annual salary due to him with his retinue, and if necessary, then and threaten him. When he did this, the Emperor flared up with anger, which, however, had long been hiding in Roger's soul for a long time, and the soldiers who surrounded the Emperor in large numbers, drawing their swords, immediately hacked Roger and, along with him, some of his companions, near the Imperial headquarters. But most of them fled and hastened to notify the Catalans who were in Gallipoli about the incident.[21] According to other sources,[22] the Catalan condottieri was insidiously killed in a palace in Adrianople during a night drinking with the Byzantine commanders by an Alan teenager named Hyrkon, whose father had been killed by Roger de Flor a few weeks earlier. Ramon Muntaner, unlike Nicephorus Gregoras, speaks only of the three Catalans who survived and names them by name,[22] adding that before the massacre, Michael IX envied Roger de Flor because of his impressive victories over the Turks.[1] It's also known that Michael IX and Roger de Flor were in conflict with each other: so, back in 1303, de Flor with his people arrived in Pegai, where the sick Michael IX was, but he ordered not to let the Catalans into the fortress and refused to accept their leader.[23] It is unclear, however, whether Michael IX was guilty of the murder, or whether everything happened spontaneously and without preparation. In favor of the latter, was the fact that the Catalans and Byzantines drank almost the entire week before the fatal incident happened (30 April 1305). However, for the several thousand angry Catalans who remained in Gallipoli, the details of the massacre didn't matter. Their new leaders, the "megadux" Berenguer VI de Entenza and the brave warrior Bernat de Rocafort, like monarchs of an independent power, sent a proud embassy to Constantinople declaring war, as demanded by knightly etiquette.[1][18] Andronikos II, who did not want war, had to make excuses before two seekers of glory and asking him to believe that de Flor was not killed by his order. But his opponents didn't want to listen to anything. 5,000 Catalans, angry with the Byzantines, united with a Turkish detachment of 500 warriors, fortified in Gallipoli, instantly cutting off all the Greek townspeople, and began to raid Thrace, plundering it day and night. Rocafort took the fortresses of Rodosto and Panido: their population was killed or sold into slavery.[1] Other leaders of the mercenaries settled in Gallipoli — Ramon Muntaner, the future historiographer of the "great campaign", and Fernando Jimenez, who later went over with his detachment to the Byzantines.[19] Since their insolence at that time seemed completely unbearable, Michael IX, taking all the Thracian and Macedonian regiments, the Alan auxiliary cavalry and also adding to them about 1,000 Turcopoles (baptized Turks), led by their commander Melekh, approached the Apros fortress (ancient Theodosiopolis), the plain east of which was occupied by the enemy.[1][21] In total, under his leadership, about 14,000 soldiers were collected (according to other sources 40,000[1]) against 5 or 6,000 Catalans and several hundred Turks: Several days later, some of the inspectors came with the news that the enemies were close. The Emperor stood up and ordered the army to arm itself, and the leaders and commanders to line up and prepare for battle phalanxes with their closest commanders. Seeing that the enemies lined up in three phalanxes, they themselves did the same. The Turcopoles with the Massagets (Alans) made up the left wing, on the right were selected horsemen from the Thracians and Macedonians, and in the middle the rest, a very large part of the cavalry, together with the infantry. The Emperor, circling the ranks, encouraged the soldiers to courageously attack. With sunrise, the enemies came up and lined up opposite, having Turks on both wings, and Catalan heavily armed phalanxes in the middle because of their sluggishness.[21] But as soon as the signal for battle was given, the Catalans rushed into battle with the cry "Aragon! Aragon! Saint George!",[24] as the memorable defeat at Magnesia was repeated. The Turcopoles and Alans suddenly left the battlefield. Such a surprise took all the courage from the Byzantines. Michael IX, seeing that the ranks of his soldiers were mingled, with tears turned to them, begging them to stand firm. But they didn't listen to him at all and rushed to run without looking back. Only about a hundred knights remained with the emperor. Most of the infantry was badly battered by the Catalans, who rushed to pursue the Byzantines.[25] In the middle of such desperate situation, Michael IX carried himself with great courage: Seeing that things had come to a desperate situation, and that most of the infantry had been mercilessly hacked and trampled, the Emperor found it quite decent at this time not to spare himself for his subjects and, having rushed into obvious danger, thereby shaming the treacherous soldiers. Therefore, turning to those around him (there were very few of them), he said: Gentlemen! Now is the time when death is better than life, and life is worse than death. Having said this and summoning divine help, he rushes with them to the enemies and kills some of them who came to hand, tears the phalanx and thereby causes considerable confusion in the enemy army. The arrows rained down on him as on the horse, but he remained intact. When his horse fell, he found himself in danger of being surrounded by enemies, and perhaps it would have come to such a misfortune if one of those who were with him, out of love for his sovereign, he did not sacrifice his life for him, giving him his horse. Through this, the Emperor was saved from the danger that was already hanging over him; and the one who gave him his horse fell under the enemy's horses and lost his life.[21] Michael IX retreated to Didymoteicho, where he met Andronikos II, who gave his son a long and severe reprimand, since he unnecessarily exposed himself to mortal risk.[18][21] At the same time, the co-Emperor became the object of brutal attacks from his stepmother the Empress Irene (born Yolanda of Montferrato), who hated him, since he was the heir in detriment of her sons. As for the victorious Catalans, for the next two years they freely plundered Thrace, then devastated Macedonia and, finally, left to seek glory in Greece. The state of affairs in Asia, where the Turks managed to cut the line of communication between Nicomedia and Nicaea (1307),[15] was not the best either. Turkish fortress (1314)[edit] After the Catalans left in 1314 Thrace, in turn, began to be devastated by the Ottoman Turks. At one time, they accompanied the Catalans, who ravaged Macedonia and Central Greece with fire and sword, and now with their share of the booty were returning home. The Turks asked permission to pass through the Byzantine regions, which they were allowed, but Andronikos II, amazed by the amount of booty and the small number of Turks, decided, without stopping to talk about friendship and alliance, to suddenly hit them and take away all the booty. The plan failed due to the negligence of the Byzantine generals, who acted too slowly and openly. The Turks, once were revealed the intentions of the Byzantines, without hesitation, attacked the nearest fortress, fortified it and, having received help from Asia, began to plunder the country.[26] Michael IX had to gather an army (they collected everyone they could, including ordinary peasants who made up most of the Byzantine army) and lay siege to the fortress. The Byzantines were confident of their success, since they far outnumbered their enemies: the Turks were only 1,300 cavalry and 800 infantry,[26] but as soon as the Turkish horsemen appeared, led by their chief named Khalil, the peasants suddenly fled. Then, little by little, the rest of the Byzantine soldiers began to scatter. When Michael IX tried to put the army in order, there was absolutely no one who could listen to him. In despair, he himself, in tears, took to flight, trembling with impotent rage and thinking that all this was God's clear punishment for old and new sins. The adversaries captured many Byzantine nobles, the imperial treasury, crown (the so-called calipra) and tent; sneering at the defeated Emperor, the Turk Khalil placed the crown of the Byzantine Basileus on his own head. The young talented military leader Philes Palaeologus saved the situation, asking the Emperors for permission to independently recruit troops and commanders to fight the Turks. Having selected a small detachment of the most combat-ready and brave, Philes, a warrior weak in body but strong in spirit, near the river Xirogypsus successfully destroyed 1,200 Ottomans who were returning to the fortress with booty and Greek captives, and after the arrival of reinforcements from the Genoese allied to Constantinople with small losses forced the fortress to surrender.[27] Michael IX as unsuccessful commander. Reasons for his defeats[edit] Alanian, Turkish, Catalan, Serbian mercenary detachments and at times simple peasant militias were the only warriors at the head of which Michael IX had to repulse the enemy. The fact is that the military organization of the Byzantine Empire by that time was actually destroyed after the initiatives carried out by Andronikos II. Andronikos II, a purely civilian man, considered it unreasonably expensive (taking into account the impoverishment of the treasury) and inexpedient (taking into account the greatly reduced empire within the borders) the maintenance of a regular national army.[28][29][30] In theory, her role could be handled by a professional detachment of mercenaries, which (again in theory) was much cheaper to maintain. Andronikos II and his advisers didn't confine themselves to mere arguments. Their own armed forces were soon disbanded, and instead of them, mercenaries were entrusted to guard the borders of the Byzantine Empire. But the commanders were unable to curb cowardice, greed and rebelliousness in their new soldiers, turning into open rebellion and disobedience in a number of cases, which strongly questioned the empire's ability to repel enemies and ultimately led to its destruction.[31] Obedient to his father, Michael IX turned out to be not the person who could radically change the existing system and win victories, commanding the peasant militia and the multi-tribal mercenary rabble, with whom even an outstanding commander could hardly cope and achieve much. It is curious that Philes Palaeologus, the only Byzantine military leader who achieved victory under Michael IX, began by completely refusing to deal with mercenaries and peasant "warriors".[18][26] Therefore, Michael IX was hardly to blame for his own military failures: they seem to be a natural consequence of the suicidal military transformations carried out in the Byzantine Empire at that time. Private life[edit] Betrothals and marriage. Issue[edit] In 1288 Michael IX was betrothed with Catherine of Courtenay, titular Latin Empress of Constantinople.[1][19] The marriage was proposed by Andronikos II in the hope of reducing the threat of restoring the power of the Latins in the Byzantine Empire and reconciling with both the Holy See and the European monarchs, who frightened Constantinople with a new Crusade; however, after several years of fruitless negotiations and the decisive objection from the French king, the purposed union was abandoned by 1295, when Michael IX was already married. Andronikos III Palaiologos, 14th-century miniature. In addition to Catherine of Courtenay, Andronikos II considered a number of other possibles brides for his eldest son: marriage proposals from Constantinople went to the Sicilian and Cypriot courts.[32] At one time everyone thought that Michael IX would become the husband of Yolande of Aragon (sister of King Frederick III of Sicily), but this was also not destined to come true. In addition, Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas, Despot of Epirus proposed his daughter Thamar as a bride for Michael IX, but the matter did not go beyond words. Finally, Andronikos II sent an embassy to Levon II, King of Armenia; although the ambassadors were captured by pirates, the Emperor didn't deterred, and very soon he sent a new embassy mission, led by Theodore Metochites and Patriarch John XII,[32] to ask the hand of the Armenian princess Rita. The ambassadors returned with the young princess, and on their return to Constantinople, on 16 January 1294 at Hagia Sophia,[33] the marriage between Michael IX and Rita (renamed Maria upon her wedding[3][14][32]) took place. At that time, both groom and bride are 16-years-old. They had four children, two sons and two daughters:[34] Andronikos III Palaiologos (25 March 1297 — 15 June 1341), who became Emperor after dethroning his grandfather in 1328.[35] Manuel Palaiologos (died 1320). He was killed by soldiers of his older brother, who had allegedly mistaken him as a rival for the affections of a girl whom young Andronikos III was courting.[2][36] Anna Palaiologina (died 1320), who married firstly in 1307 with Thomas I Komnenos Doukas, Despot of Epirus,[37] and secondly in 1318 with Nicholas Orsini, Count Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos and Despot of Epirus.[34][38] Theodora Palaiologina (died aft. 1330), who married firstly in 1308 with Tsar Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria and secondly in 1324 with Tsar Michael Asen III of Bulgaria.[34][39] Relationship with stepmother[edit] After the death of his first wife Anna of Hungary in 1281, Andronikos II entered into a new marriage in 1284, choosing as his wife the 10-year-old Yolanda of Montferrato, who was renamed Irene [Eirene] upon her wedding (as was customary for foreign princess with strange names in the Byzantine fashion); Michael IX and his brother Constantine were only a few years younger than their stepmother. As it turned out later, this girl became in an ambitious and intriguing woman. From her marriage with Andronikos II, Irene had seven children, of whom only survive four, three sons —John Palaiologos (born in 1286), Theodore Palaiologos (born in 1291) and Demetrios Palaiologos (born in 1297)— and a daughter —Simonis Palaiologina (born in 1294), later wife of King Stefan Uroš II Milutin of Serbia—,[8][9] so she didn't like the prospect that her stepson Michael IX, to the detriment of the interests of her own children, would inherit the entire Empire after his father's death. Over time, Irene was possessed by a deep hatred against her stepson and an obsessive desire to bring her children to the throne: The Empress...didn't cease, day and night alone, to bother him [that is, Andronikos II], so that he did one of two things: either deprived Emperor Michael of the royal power and divided it between her sons, or gave each of them a special part and allocated a special share of their power. When the Emperor said that it was impossible to violate the laws of the state bequeathed and approved by many centuries, the Empress was angry and annoyed her husband in different ways: she was yearning and said that she didn't want to live if she did not see the royal signs on her sons during her lifetime; then she pretended not to think about her children, and kept herself unapproachable, as if enticing her spouse to buy her charms at the cost of fulfilling her views relative to her sons. Since this happened often...the Emperor finally lost his patience...in conclusion, he hated her very bed...[40] After one of the quarrels with her husband, Irene, along with her sons, had to leave Constantinople and retire to Thessaloniki. The conflict between Irene and Michael IX ended only after the death of the Empress in 1317, who, however, before her death had time to disgrace herself and become famous for her unworthy behavior, like her attempts to "wash dirty linen in public" and tell everyone intimate and shameful details of her married life to everyone she met.[41][42] Death[edit] In October 1319, Michael IX was appointed by his father to govern Thessalonica, where, according to Nicephorus Gregoras, he had to try to put an end to the enmity between the Thessalians and the Pelasgians, which had lasted for many years.[43] He humbly accepted his father's will and, together with his wife Rita-Maria, went to live in this city, despite the well-known prophecy at that time, according to which Michael IX was destined to die in Thessaloniki, and which, as they say, worried him greatly. Michael IX died on 12 October 1320 in the city of Thessalonica;[3][44] reportedly, the cause of his death was because he couldn't stand the news of the successive deaths of his daughter Anna and son Manuel, who was mistakenly killed by soldiers of his older brother Andronikos III: When the Despot Manuel died of the wound he had received, and the rumor of this reached Emperor Michael, who was living in Thessaloniki ; then —what to say?— it struck his heart deeper than any arrow, so that, suppressed by obsessive thoughts of an unfortunate adventure, he underwent a terrible illness, which, after a little, brought him to the grave.[34] According to a Byzantine chronicler whose name has not reached today, Michael IX was buried in the same place where he died — in Thessaloniki.[3] Michael IX and the Church[edit] Hagios Demetrios at Thessalonica, destroyed in 1185 and rebuilt by Michael IX. Michael IX was also known for his piety and devotion to the Church. In the last period of his life in Thessalonica, he ordened the restoration of the Hagios Demetrios (church dedicated to Saint Demetrius, the patron saint of Thessaloniki) after being almost completely destroyed by the Normans in 1185. In particular, under his leadership, the vaults were re-painted, the roof made and the temple columns renovated. Over the years, he issued a large number of church decrees —known as chrysobull (Golden bull)—. Of greatest interest are his chrysobull of Iviron (1310) and Hilandar (March 1305) monasteries —by that time plundered by the Catalans after the memorable defeat at Apros— and the Brontochion Monastery (November 1318).[45] According to these documents, the monks of these monasteries were exempted from many duties and taxes, including the delivery of food and drinks to the state.[46] In the chrysobull of Iviron Monastery, Michael IX defined his role in the country and society as "Patron saint of subjects in the interests of the common good".[47] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Michael IX Palaiologos 16. Alexius Doukas Palaiologos 8. Andronikos Doukas Komnenos Palaiologos 17. Eirene Komnene 4. Michael VIII Palaiologos 18. Alexius Komnenos Palaiologos 9. Theodora Angelina Palaiologina 19. Eirene Komnene Angelina 2. Andronikos II Palaiologos 20. Isaac Doukas Vatatzes 10. John Doukas 5. Theodora Palaiologina 22. John Komnenos Angelos 11. Eudokia Angelina 1. Michael IX Palaiologos 24. Andrew II of Hungary 12. Béla IV of Hungary 25. Gertrude of Merania 6. Stephen V of Hungary 26. Theodore I Laskaris 13. Maria Laskarina 27. Anna Komnena Angelina 3. Anna of Hungary 14. Unknown Cuman chieftain (Kuthen?) 7. Elizabeth the Cuman Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k F. Uspensky. "История Византийской империи в 5 томах. Гл. 6. Андроник II Старший [History of the Byzantine Empire in 5 volumes — Ch. 6. Andronicus II the Elder]" (in Russian). ^ a b Nicol 1993, p. 153. ^ a b c d e f "Малые византийские хроники. Хроника № 8 (9, 10, 11c) [Small Byzantine Chronicles. Chronicle number 8 (9, 10, 11c)]" (in Russian). ^ "Малые византийские хроники. Хроника № 14 (99) [Small Byzantine Chronicles. Chronicle № 14 (99)]" (in Russian). ^ Giannouli 2013, p. 206. ^ a b Georges Pachymérès relations historiques, p. 99. ^ A. Failler. "Sur un passage mutile de la Chronique breve de 1352" (PDF) (in French). pp. 61–62. Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 6.2. ^ a b G.M. Shafrov (2011). "Генеалогические таблицы по истории европейских государств. Издание 5 исправленное и дополненное (340 таблиц) [Genealogical tables on the history of European states. Edition 5 revised and supplemented (340 tables)]" (in Russian). Moscow-Yekaterinburg. ^ Hilsdale 2014, p. 193. ^ G.I. Bratianu, Notes sur le projet de mariage entre l’empereur Michel IX Paleologue et Catherine de Courtenay. (in French) — Revue Historique du Sud-Est Européen 1 (1924), pp. 59–62. ^ a b c Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 6.10. ^ Korobeĭnikov 2014, p. 273. ^ a b c d Georges Pachymérès relations historiques, p. 427. ^ a b c J. Norwich. "История Византии [History of Byzantium]" (in Russian). p. 478. Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ A. Talbot, ed. (1975). The Correspondence of Athanasius I, Patriarch of Constantinople: Letters to the Emperor Andronicus II, Members of the Imperial Family, and Officials. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. pp. 30–32. ISBN 978-0-884-02040-0. ^ P. Lamma (1955). Pubblicazioni dell’Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (ed.). "Un discorso inedito per l'incoronacione di Michele IX Paleologo". Aevum (in Italian). Vita e Pensiero. 29 (1): 55–56. JSTOR 25820636. ^ a b c d A.M. Velichko. "История византийских императоров в 5 томах [History of the Byzantine emperors in 5 volumes]" (PDF) (in Russian). pp. 176–177. ^ a b c S.D. Skazkin. "История Византии в 3 томах. Гл. 5 [History of Byzantium in 3 volumes — Ch. 5]" (in Russian). ^ S.B. Dashkov. "Императоры Византии // Андроник III Палеолог [Emperors of Byzantium // Andronicus III Palaeologus]" (in Russian). ^ a b c d e Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 7.3. ^ a b "The Chronicle of Ramon Muntaner" (PDF). Translated by Lady Anna Kinsky Goodenough. Cambridge: Catalan Series. 2000. p. 428. ^ J. Norwich. "История Византии [History of Byzantium]" (in Russian). p. 475. Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The Chronicle of Ramon Muntaner" (PDF). Translated by Lady Anna Kinsky Goodenough. Cambridge: Catalan Series. 2000. p. 436. ^ Bartusis 1992, p. 80. ^ a b c Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 7.8. ^ A.M. Velichko. "История византийских императоров в 5 томах [History of the Byzantine emperors in 5 volumes]" (PDF) (in Russian). pp. 180–181. ^ K. V. Ryzhov (2002). Все монархи мира // Андроник II Палеолог // Михаил IX Палеолог [All the monarchs of the world // Andronicus II Palaeologus // Michael IX Palaeologus] (in Russian). Moscow: Veche. ISBN 5-7838-0528-9. ^ J. Norwich. "История Византии [History of Byzantium]" (in Russian). p. 472. Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ S.B. Dashkov. "Императоры Византии // Андроник II Палеолог [Emperors of Byzantium // Andronicus II Palaeologus ]" (in Russian). ^ A.M. Velichko. "История византийских императоров в 5 томах [History of the Byzantine emperors in 5 volumes]" (PDF) (in Russian). pp. 167–168. ^ a b c Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 6.8. ^ Geanakoplos 1975, p. 43. ^ a b c d Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 8.1. ^ Russell 2013, p. 159. ^ Nicol 1993, p. 161. ^ Fine 1994, p. 237. ^ Nicol 1993, p. 170. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 269–270. ^ Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 7.5. ^ A.M. Velichko. "История византийских императоров в 5 томах [History of the Byzantine emperors in 5 volumes]" (PDF) (in Russian). pp. 184–185. ^ J. Norwich. "История Византии [History of Byzantium]" (in Russian). pp. 478–479. Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, Book 7.15. ^ "Малые византийские хроники. Хроника № 49 (2) [Small Byzantine Chronicles. Chronicle № 49 (2)]" (in Russian). ^ I.P. Medvedev (1971). Мистра. Очерки истории и культуры поздневизантийского города [Mystras. Essays on the history and culture of late Byzantine city] (in Russian). Leningrad. ASIN B071SD4M94. ^ V.A. Smetanin. "Турецкое нашествие и военные издержки Византии (1282—1453) [Turkish invasion and military costs of Byzantium (1282-1453)]" (PDF) (in Russian). ^ K.V. Khvostova. "Общие особенности византийской цивилизации [General features of the Byzantine civilization]" (PDF) (in Russian). Archived 27 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine References[edit] Failler, A., ed. (1999). Georges Pachymérès relations historiques. 3. Paris. Bartusis, Mark C. (1992). The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204-1453. University of Pennsylvania Press. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472082604. Geanakoplos, Deno (1975). "Byzantium and the Crusades, 1261-1354". In Hazard, Harry W. (ed.). A History of the Crusades: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Vol. III. The University of Wisconsin Press. |volume= has extra text (help) Gregoire de Chypre. Eloge d'Andronic II Palaiologos: PG 142. pp. 413–416. Giannouli, Antonia (2013). "Coronation Speeches in the Palaiologan Period". In Beihammer, Alexander; Constantinou, Stavroula; Parani, Maria (eds.). Court Ceremonies and Rituals of Power in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean. Brill. Hilsdale, Cecily J. (2014). Byzantine Art and Diplomacy in an Age of Decline. Cambridge University Press. Korobeĭnikov, Dimitri (2014). Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantine History. 1. Saint Petersburg. 1862. Russell, Eugenia (2013). Literature and Culture in Late Byzantine Thessalonica. Bloomsbury Academic. Schopeni, L., ed. (1828). Ioannis Cantacuzeni eximperatoris historiarum. 1–4. Bonn. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. Michael IX Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 17 April 1277 Died: 12 October 1320[aged 43] Preceded by Andronikos II Palaiologos Byzantine Emperor 1294–1320 with Andronikos II Palaiologos (1272–1328) Succeeded by Andronikos II Palaiologos and Andronikos III Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-5707	----	Ancient Greek sculpture - Wikipedia Ancient Greek sculpture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Riders from the Parthenon Frieze, around 440 BC The sculpture of ancient Greece is the main surviving type of fine ancient Greek art as, with the exception of painted ancient Greek pottery, almost no ancient Greek painting survives. Modern scholarship identifies three major stages in monumental sculpture in bronze and stone: the Archaic (from about 650 to 480 BC), Classical (480–323) and Hellenistic. At all periods there were great numbers of Greek terracotta figurines and small sculptures in metal and other materials. Jockey of Artemision. Late Hellenistic bronze statue of a mounted jockey, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour.[1] Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. The statue, originally single but by the Hellenistic period often in groups was the dominant form, though reliefs, often so "high" that they were almost free-standing, were also important. Contents 1 Materials 2 Painting of sculpture 3 Development of Greek sculptures 3.1 Geometric 3.2 Archaic 3.3 Classical 3.4 Hellenistic 4 Cult images 5 Drapery 5.1 Female 5.2 Male 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Materials[edit] Natural marble By the classical period, roughly the 5th and 4th centuries, monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century; many pieces of sculpture known only in marble copies made for the Roman market were originally made in bronze. Smaller works were in a great variety of materials, many of them precious, with a very large production of terracotta figurines. The territories of ancient Greece, except for Sicily and southern Italy, contained abundant supplies of fine marble, with Pentelic and Parian marble the most highly prized. The ores for bronze were also relatively easy to obtain.[2] Athena in the workshop of a sculptor working on a marble horse, Attic red-figure kylix, 480 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2650) Both marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable; as in most ancient cultures there were no doubt also traditions of sculpture in wood about which we know very little, other than acrolithic sculptures, usually large, with the head and exposed flesh parts in marble but the clothed parts in wood. As bronze always had a significant scrap value very few original bronzes have survived, though in recent years marine archaeology or trawling has added a few spectacular finds, such as the Artemision Bronze and Riace bronzes, which have significantly extended modern understanding. Many copies of the Roman period are marble versions of works originally in bronze. Ordinary limestone was used in the Archaic period, but thereafter, except in areas of modern Italy with no local marble, only for architectural sculpture and decoration. Plaster or stucco was sometimes used for the hair only.[3] Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. Many statues were given jewellery, as can be seen from the holes for attaching it, and held weapons or other objects in different materials.[4] The Victorious Youth (c. 310 BC), a remarkably weather-preserved bronze statue of a Greek athlete in Contrapposto pose Painting of sculpture[edit] Despite appearing white today, Greek sculptures were originally painted.[5][6][7] This color restoration shows what a statue of a Trojan archer from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina would have originally looked like.[6] Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors;[5][6][7] they only appear white today because the original pigments have deteriorated.[5][6] References to painted sculptures are found throughout classical literature,[5][6] including in Euripides's Helen in which the eponymous character laments, "If only I could shed my beauty and assume an uglier aspect/The way you would wipe color off a statue."[6] Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration[5] and archaeologists can reconstruct what they would have originally looked like.[5][6][7] By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces, some of which were still visible. Despite this, influential art historians such as Johann Joachim Winckelmann so strongly opposed the idea of painted Greek sculpture that proponents of painted statues were dismissed as eccentrics, and their views were largely dismissed for more than a century. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high-intensity lamps, ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted. He analyzed the pigments of the original paint to discover their composition. Brinkmann made several painted replicas of Greek statues that went on tour around the world. Also in the collection were replicas of other works of Greek and Roman sculpture, and he demonstrated that the practice of painting sculpture was the norm rather than the exception in Greek and Roman art.[8] Museums that hosted the exhibit included the Glyptothek Museum in Munich, the Vatican Museum, and the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, et al. The collection made its American debut at Harvard University in the Fall of 2007.[9] Brinkmann said that "no other aspect of the art of antiquity is as little understood as is the polychrome painting of temples and sculptures", and that modern sculptures, ostensibly inspired by the Greeks but left unpainted, are "something entirely new".[10] Development of Greek sculptures[edit] Geometric[edit] It is commonly thought that the earliest incarnation of Greek sculpture was in the form of wooden cult statues, first described by Pausanias as xoana.[11] No such statues survive, and the descriptions of them are vague, despite the fact that they were probably objects of veneration for hundreds of years. The first piece of Greek statuary to be reassembled since is probably the Lefkandi Centaur, a terracotta sculpture found on the island of Euboea, dated c. 920 BC. The statue was constructed in parts, before being dismembered and buried in two separate graves. The centaur has an intentional mark on its knee, which has led researchers to postulate[12] that the statue might portray Cheiron, presumably kneeling wounded from Herakles' arrow. If so, it would be the earliest known depiction of myth in the history of Greek sculpture. The forms from the Geometric period (c. 900 to 700 BC) were chiefly terracotta figurines, bronzes, and ivories. The bronzes are chiefly tripod cauldrons, and freestanding figures or groups. Such bronzes were made using the lost-wax technique probably introduced from Syria, and are almost entirely votive offerings left at the Hellenistic civilization Panhellenic sanctuaries of Olympia, Delos, and Delphi, though these were likely manufactured elsewhere, as a number of local styles may be identified by finds from Athens, Argos, and Sparta. Typical works of the era include the Karditsa warrior (Athens Br. 12831) and the many examples of the equestrian statuette (for example, NY Met. 21.88.24 online). The repertory of this bronze work is not confined to standing men and horses, however, as vase paintings of the time also depict imagery of stags, birds, beetles, hares, griffins and lions. There are no inscriptions on early-to-middle geometric sculpture, until the appearance of the Mantiklos "Apollo" (Boston 03.997) of the early 7th century BC found in Thebes. The figure is that of a standing man with a pseudo-daedalic form, underneath which lies the hexameter inscription reading "Mantiklos offered me as a tithe to Apollo of the silver bow; do you, Phoibos [Apollo], give some pleasing favour in return".[13] Apart from the novelty of recording its own purpose, this sculpture adapts the formulae of oriental bronzes, as seen in the shorter more triangular face and slightly advancing left leg. This is sometimes seen as anticipating the greater expressive freedom of the 7th century BC and, as such, the Mantiklos figure is referred to in some quarters as proto-Daedalic. Archaic[edit] Kleobis and Biton, kouroi of the Archaic period, c. 580 BC. Delphi Archaeological Museum. The Sabouroff head, an important example of Late Archaic Greek marble sculpture, and a precursor of true portraiture, ca. 550-525 BCE.[14] Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of ancient Egypt[15] and Mesopotamia, the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660–580 BC, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures such as these, both male and female, began wearing the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic. Three types of figures prevailed—the standing nude male youth (kouros, plural kouroi), the standing draped girl (kore, plural korai), and the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period. The Greeks thus decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was no distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude without any attachments such as a bow or a club, could just as easily be Apollo or Heracles as that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore was also common; Greek art did not present female nudity (unless the intention was pornographic) until the 4th century BC, although the development of techniques to represent drapery is obviously important. As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal—beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. Kouroi were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations. Dipylon Kouros, c. 600 BC, Athens, Kerameikos Museum. The Moschophoros or calf-bearer, c. 570 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum. Phrasikleia Kore, c. 550 BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum. Frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, depicting a Gigantomachy, c. 525 BC, Delphi Archaeological Museum. Euthydikos Kore. c. 490 BC, Athens, authorized replica, original in National Archaeological Museum of Athens An Ethiopian's head and female head, with a kalos inscription. Attic Greek janiform red-figure aryballos, c. 520–510 BC. Classical[edit] Riace bronzes, examples of proto classic bronze sculpture, Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, Reggio Calabria Artemision Bronze, thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus, c. 460 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Found by fishermen off the coast of Cape Artemisium in 1928. The figure is more than 2 m in height. The Classical period saw a revolution of Greek sculpture, sometimes associated by historians with the popular culture surrounding the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture, along with a dramatic increase in the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting realistic human forms. Poses also became more naturalistic, notably during the beginning of the period. This is embodied in works such as the Kritios Boy (480 BC), sculpted with the earliest known use of contrapposto ('counterpose'), and the Charioteer of Delphi (474 BC), which demonstrates a transition to more naturalistic sculpture. From about 500 BC, Greek statues began increasingly to depict real people, as opposed to vague interpretations of myth or entirely fictional votive statues, although the style in which they were represented had not yet developed into a realistic form of portraiture. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, set up in Athens mark the overthrow of the aristocratic tyranny, and have been said to be the first public monuments to show actual individuals. The Classical Period also saw an increase in the use of statues and sculptures as decorations of buildings. The characteristic temples of the Classical era, such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, used relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Most of these works survive only in fragments, for example the Parthenon Marbles, roughly half of which are in the British Museum. Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. This is a notable increase in the level of emotion relative to the Archaic and Geometrical eras. Another notable change is the burgeoning of artistic credit in sculpture. The entirety of information known about sculpture in the Archaic and Geometrical periods are centered upon the works themselves, and seldom, if ever, on the sculptors. Examples include Phidias, known to have overseen the design and building of the Parthenon, and Praxiteles, whose nude female sculptures were the first to be considered artistically respectable. Praxiteles' Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was often referenced to and praised by Pliny the Elder. Lysistratus is said to have been the first to use plaster molds taken from living people to produce lost-wax portraits, and to have also developed a technique of casting from existing statues. He came from a family of sculptors and his brother, Lysippos of Sicyon, produced fifteen hundred statues in his career.[16] The Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos (both chryselephantine and executed by Phidias or under his direction, and considered to be the greatest of the Classical Sculptures), are lost, although smaller copies (in other materials) and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted rivals to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed. Kritios Boy. Marble, c. 480 BC. Acropolis Museum, Athens. Copy of Polyclitus' Diadumenos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. So-called Venus Braschi by Praxiteles, type of the Knidian Aphrodite, Munich Glyptothek. Family group on a grave marker from Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens The Marathon Youth, 4th century BC bronze statue, possibly by Praxiteles, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Hermes, possibly by Lysippos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Terracotta vase in the shape of Dionysus' head, ca. 410 BC; on display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus Pottery vessel, Aphrodite inside a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria cemetery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), early 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg. Athenian cavalryman Dexileos fighting a naked hoplite in the Corinthian War.[17] Dexileos was killed in action near Corinth in the summer of 394 BC, probably in the Battle of Nemea,[17] or in a proximate engagement.[18] Grave Stele of Dexileos, 394-393 BC. Hellenistic[edit] Laocoön and His Sons (Late Hellenistic), Vatican Museum The Hellenistic Pergamon Altar: l to r Nereus, Doris, a Giant, Oceanus Main articles: Hellenistic art and Phidias The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Greek art became increasingly diverse, influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit, by the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 to 323 BC). In the view of some art historians, this is described as a decline in quality and originality; however, individuals of the time may not have shared this outlook. Many sculptures previously considered classical masterpieces are now known to be of the Hellenistic age. The technical ability of the Hellenistic sculptors are clearly in evidence in such major works as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities. By the 2nd century BC, the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition—and an increasing proportion of its products as well. During this period, sculpture again experienced a shift towards increasing naturalism. Common people, women, children, animals, and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens. Realistic figures of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. At the same time, new Hellenistic cities springing up in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and (some) lowering of quality. For these reasons, quite a few more Hellenistic statues survive to the present than those of the Classical period. Alongside the natural shift towards naturalism, there was a shift in expression of the sculptures as well. Sculptures began expressing more power and energy during this time period. An easy way to see the shift in expressions during the Hellenistic period would be to compare it to the sculptures of the Classical period. The classical period had sculptures such as the Charioteer of Delphi expressing humility. The sculptures of the Hellenistic period however saw greater expressions of power and energy as demonstrated in the Jockey of Artemision.[19] Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC), the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the Venus de Milo (mid-2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group Laocoön and His Sons (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted. Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), thought to have been roughly the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as any other very large works of this period that might have existed. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC depiction of Isis. The depiction is unusually sensual for depictions of the Egyptian goddess, as well as being uncharacteristically detailed and feminine, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms around the time of Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt. In Goa, India, were found Buddha statues in Greek styles. These are attributed to Greek converts to Buddhism, many of whom are known to have settled in Goa during Hellenistic times.[20][21] The Hellenistic Prince, a bronze statue originally thought to be a Seleucid, or Attalus II of Pergamon, now considered a portrait of a Roman general, made by a Greek artist working in Rome in the 2nd century BC. The Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic), The Louvre, Paris Sepulchral monument of a dying Adonis, polychrome terracotta, Etruscan art from Tuscana, 250-100 BC Fragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea), Bosporan Kingdom Ancient Greek terracotta head of a young man, found in Tarent, c. 300 BC, Antikensammlung Berlin. Female head incorporating a vase (lekythos), c. 325-300 BC. Bronze portrait of an unknown sitter, with inlaid eyes, Hellenistic period, 1st century BC, found in Lake Palestra of the Island of Delos. Greco-Buddhist frieze of Gandhara with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum. Gravestone of a woman with her child slave attending to her, c. 100 BC (early period of Roman Greece) Cult images[edit] Reproduction of the Athena Parthenos statue at the original size in the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee. All ancient Greek temples and Roman temples normally contained a cult image in the cella. Access to the cella varied, but apart from the priests, at the least some of the general worshippers could access the cella some of the time, though sacrifices to the deity were normally made on altars outside in the temple precinct (temenos in Greek). Some cult images were easy to see, and were what we would call major tourist attractions. The image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, originally less than life-size, then typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in marble or bronze, or in the specially prestigious form of a Chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. Cult images generally held or wore identifying attributes, which is one way of distinguishing them from the many other statues of deities in temples and other locations. The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity. Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze Piraeus Athena (2.35 metres high, including a helmet). In Greek and Roman mythology, a "palladium" was an image of great antiquity on which the safety of a city was said to depend, especially the wooden one that Odysseus and Diomedes stole from the citadel of Troy and which was later taken to Rome by Aeneas. (The Roman story was related in Virgil's Aeneid and other works.) Part of a series on the History of Greek art Greek Bronze Age Cycladic art Minoan art Mycenaean art Ancient Greece Archaic Greek art Ancient Greek art Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek pottery Ancient Greek sculpture Hellenistic art see also: Greco-Buddhist art Medieval Greece Byzantine art Macedonian art Post-Byzantine Greece Cretan School Heptanese School Modern Greece Modern Greek art Modern Greek architecture Munich School Contemporary Greek art v t e Drapery[edit] Female[edit] Diane of Gabies [fr] dressing with a diplax Pallas over a peplos. Chiton Weavers on the Parthenon Frieze Male[edit] Chlamys Parthenon Frieze See also[edit] Meniskos, a device for protecting statues placed outside Notes[edit] ^ Cook, 19 ^ Cook, 74–75 ^ Cook, 74–76 ^ Cook, 75–76 ^ a b c d e f Brinkmann, Vinzenz (2008). "The Polychromy of Ancient Greek Sculpture". In Panzanelli, Roberta; Schmidt, Eike D.; Lapatin, Kenneth (eds.). The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Research Institute. pp. 18–39. ISBN 978-0-89-236-918-8. ^ a b c d e f g Gurewitsch, Matthew (July 2008). "True Colors: Archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann insists his eye-popping reproductions of ancient Greek sculptures are right on target". Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 15 May 2018. ^ a b c Prisco, Jacopo (30 November 2017). "'Gods in Color' returns antiquities to their original, colorful grandeur". CNN style. CNN. Cable News Network. Retrieved 15 May 2018. ^ Gurewitsch, Matthew (July 2008). "True Colors". Smithsonian: 66–71. ^ October 2007, Colorizing classic statues returns them to antiquity: What was really on that Grecian Urn? Harvard University Gazette. ^ Brinkmann, Vinzenz (2008). "The Polychromy of Ancient Greek Sculpture". In Panzanelli, Roberta; Schmidt, Eike D.; Lapatin, Kenneth (eds.). The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Research Institute. pp. 18–39. ISBN 978-0-89-236-918-8. ^ The term xoanon and the ascriptions are both highly problematic. A.A. Donohue's Xoana and the origins of Greek sculpture, 1988, details how the term had a variety of meanings in the ancient world not necessarily to do with the cult objects ^ [1] Archived February 27, 2005, at the Wayback Machine ^ Μαντικλος μ' ανεθεκε ϝεκαβολοι αργυροτοχσοι τας {δ}δε|κατας· τυ δε Φοιβε διδοι χαριϝετταν αμοιϝ[αν]," transliterated as "Mantiklos m’ anetheke wekaboloi argyrotokhsoi tas dekatas; tu de Phoibe didoi khariwettan amoiw[an]" ^ CAHN, HERBERT A.; GERIN, DOMINIQUE (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 20 & Plate 3. JSTOR 42668124. ^ The debt of archaic Greek sculpture to Egyptian canons was recognized in Antiquity: see Diodorus Siculus, i.98.5–9. ^ Gagarin, 403 ^ a b Hutchinson, Godfrey (2014). Sparta: Unfit for Empire. Frontline Books. p. 43. ISBN 9781848322226. ^ "IGII2 6217 Epitaph of Dexileos, cavalryman killed in Corinthian war (394 BC)". www.atticinscriptions.com. ^ Stele, R. Web. 24 November 2013. <http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Sculpture/> ^ Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1. panajim Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, 1979. 1979. pp. (see page 70). ^ (see Pius Melkandathil,Martitime activities of Goa and the Indian ocean.) References[edit] Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661 Gagarin, Michael, Elaine Fantham (contributor), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 9780195170726 Stele, R. Web. 24 November 2013. http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Sculpture/ Bibliography[edit] Boardman, John. Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period: A Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. --. Greek Sculpture: The Classical Period: A Handbook. London: Thames and Hudson, 1985. --. Greek Sculpture: The Late Classical Period and Sculpture In Colonies and Overseas. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995. Dafas, K. A., 2019. Greek Large-Scale Bronze Statuary: The Late Archaic and Classical Periods, Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Monograph, BICS Supplement 138 (London). Dillon, Sheila. Ancient Greek Portrait Sculpture: Contexts, Subjects, and Styles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Furtwängler, Adolf. Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture: A Series of Essays On the History of Art. London: W. Heinemann, 1895. Jenkins, Ian. Greek Architecture and Its Sculpture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Kousser, Rachel Meredith. The Afterlives of Greek Sculpture: Interaction, Transformation, and Destruction. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017. Marvin, Miranda. The Language of the Muses: The Dialogue Between Roman and Greek Sculpture. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2008. Mattusch, Carol C. Classical Bronzes: The Art and Craft of Greek and Roman Statuary. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996. Muskett, G. M. Greek Sculpture. London: Bristol Classical Press, 2012. Neer, Richard. The Emergence of the Classical Style In Greek Sculpture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010. Neils, Jenifer. The Parthenon Frieze. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Palagia, Olga. Greek Sculpture: Function, Materials, and Techniques In the Archaic and Classical Periods. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Palagia, Olga, and J. J. Pollitt. Personal Styles In Greek Sculpture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Pollitt, J. J. The Ancient View of Greek Art: Criticism, History, and Terminology. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974. --. Art In the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo. The Archaic Style In Greek Sculpture. 2nd ed. Chicago: Ares, 1993. --. Fourth-Century Styles In Greek Sculpture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997. Smith, R. R. R. Hellenistic Royal Portraits. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. --. Hellenistic Sculpture: A Handbook. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991. Spivey, Nigel Jonathan. Understanding Greek Sculpture: Ancient Meanings, Modern Readings. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996. --. Greek Sculpture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Stanwick, Paul Edmund. Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings As Egyptian Pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. Stewart, Andrew F. Greek Sculpture: An Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. --. Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. von Mach, Edmund. Greek Sculpture: Its Spirit and Its Principles. New York: Parkstone Press International, 2006. --. Greek Sculpture. New York: Parkstone International, 2012. Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, and Alex Potts. History of the Art of Antiquity. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006. External links[edit] Library resources about Ancient Greek sculpture Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Classic Greek Sculpture to Late Hellenistic Era, lecture by professor Kenney Mencher, Ohlone College Sideris A., Aegean Schools of Sculpture in Antiquity, Cultural Gate of the Aegean Archipelago, Athens 2007 (a detailed per period and per island approach). v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms 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en-wikipedia-org-5727	----	Nicholas Kanabos - Wikipedia Nicholas Kanabos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor-elect of the Byzantine Empire Nicholas Kanabos Νικόλαος Καναβός Emperor-elect of the Byzantine Empire Reign 1204 Predecessor Isaac II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos Successor Alexios V Doukas Born Uncertain, 12th century Died 8 February 1204 (1204-02-09) Nicholas Kanabos was elected Byzantine emperor during the Fourth Crusade on 25 or 27 January 1204 by an assembly of the Byzantine Senate, priests, and the mob of Constantinople in direct opposition to co-emperors Isaac II and Alexios IV.[1] Nicholas was a young noble (probably a relative of Angelid emperors[2]) who was chosen after three days of sorting through several unwilling candidates and refused to assume the lofty position. Though popularly chosen, he never accepted imperial power, and took sanctuary in the bowels of Hagia Sophia. Alexios V Doukas, who had deposed Emperors Isaac II and Alexios IV, offered him a prominent position in his own administration, but Nicholas adamantly rejected these terms. On February 8, after rebuffing an imperial summons, Emperor Nicholas Kanabus was dragged out of the church, in which he had sought refuge, and strangled on the ornate marble steps of Hagia Sophia.[3] The contemporary historian Niketas Choniates described Nicholas Kanabus as a kind, gentle and intelligent man. References[edit] ^ Chambers's Encyclopaedia, vol. II, London, 1868, p. 471 ; Busk, William, Mediaeval Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Crusaders, Or, Germany, Italy, and Palestine, From A.D. 1125 to A.D. 1268, vol. III, London, 1856, p. 35. ^ Cheynet, Jean-Claude, Pouvoir et contestations à Byzance (963–1210), Paris, 1990, p. 142. ^ Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. 2004. pp. 222–226. Sources[edit] Savignac, David. "The Medieval Russian Account of the Fourth Crusade - A New Annotated Translation". v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Kanabos&oldid=1023346841" Categories: 12th-century births 1204 deaths 13th-century Byzantine emperors 13th-century murdered monarchs Byzantine usurpers Christians of the Fourth Crusade Deaths by strangulation Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano Latina 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 22:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5729	----	Lucius Caesennius Antoninus - Wikipedia Lucius Caesennius Antoninus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman aristocrat and politician Lucius Caesennius Antoninus (c. 95 – after 128) was a Roman aristocrat. He was suffect consul for the nundinium of February to March 128 with Marcus Annius Libo as his colleague.[1] His ancestry is uncertain. Ronald Syme stated that it was possible he was the son of Lucius Caesennius Sospes, consul in 114, but in a footnote Syme admitted Antoninus could be the grandson of his brother Lucius Junius Caesennius Paetus, consul in 79.[2] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ E. Mary Smallwood, Principates of Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian (Cambridge: University Press, 1966), p. 9 ^ Syme, "The Enigmatic Sospes", Journal of Roman Studies, 67 (1977), p. 46 and n. 92 Political offices Preceded by Lucius Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas, and Marcus Annius Libo as ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 128 with Marcus Annius Libo Succeeded by Marcus Junius Mettius Rufus, and Quintus Pomponius Maternus as suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Caesennius_Antoninus&oldid=1017232978" Categories: Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Flavian dynasty Caesennii Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Romans 90s births 2nd-century deaths Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 16:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5745	----	Diotimus the Stoic - Wikipedia Diotimus the Stoic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Diotimus (Greek: Διότιμος) was a Stoic philosopher, who lived c. 100 BC. He is said to have accused Epicurus of being depraved, and to have forged fifty letters, professing to have been written by Epicurus, to prove it.[1] According to Athenaeus, who is evidently alluding to the same story in a passage where "Diotimus" apparently should be substituted for "Theotimus", he was convicted of the forgery, at the suit of Zeno the Epicurean, and put to death.[2] We learn from Clement of Alexandria,[3] that he considered happiness or well-being to consist, not in any one good, but in the perfect accumulation of blessings, which looks like a departure from strict Stoicism to the more sober view of Aristotle.[4] Notes[edit] ^ Diogenes Laërtius, x.3 ^ Athenaeus, xiii.611 ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, ii. 21. ^ Aristotle, Eth. Nicom. i. 7, 8.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diotimus_the_Stoic&oldid=1026330161" Categories: Hellenistic-era philosophers Stoic philosophers 2nd-century BC philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 17:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5750	----	Category:Articles with hCards - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with hCards From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is not shown on its member pages unless the appropriate user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. Articles which include mark-up for one or more hCard microformats. See the microformats project for background. (Note: this category is not yet widely applied, and so under-represents the number concerned; see Category:Templates generating hCards for more.) 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en-wikipedia-org-5755	----	Nerva - Wikipedia Nerva From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 96 to 98 For other uses, see Marcus Cocceius Nerva and Nerva (disambiguation). Roman emperor Nerva Roman emperor Reign 18 September 96 – 28 January 98 (15 months) Predecessor Domitian Successor Trajan Born Marcus Cocceius Nerva 8 November 30 Narni, Italy Died 28 January 98 (aged 67) Gardens of Sallust, Rome, Italy Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Issue Trajan (adoptive) Regnal name Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus[1] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Cocceius Nerva Mother Sergia Plautilla Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Nerva (/ˈnɜːrvə/; originally Marcus Cocceius Nerva; 8 November 30 – 28 January 98) was Roman emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became emperor when aged almost 66, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Later, as a loyalist to the Flavians, he attained consulships in 71 and 90 during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian, respectively. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his freedmen. On the same day, Nerva was declared emperor by the Roman Senate, although it is possible they were approving a decision made by the Praetorian Guard, as rare coins show him speaking with this group. As the new ruler of the Roman Empire, he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian. Nerva's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir. After some deliberation Nerva adopted Trajan, a young and popular general, as his successor. After barely fifteen months in office, Nerva died of natural causes on 28 January 98. Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan. Although much of his life remains obscure, Nerva was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians. Nerva's greatest success was his ability to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death by selecting Trajan as his heir, thus founding the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Contents 1 Early career 1.1 Family 1.2 Imperial service 2 Emperor 2.1 Accession 2.2 Administration 2.3 Crisis of succession 3 Death and legacy 4 In popular culture 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary material Early career[edit] Family[edit] Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born in the village of Narni, 50 kilometers north of Rome, as the son of Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suffect consul during the reign of Caligula (37–41), and Sergia Plautilla.[2] Ancient sources report the date as either 30 or 35.[3] He had at least one attested sister, named Cocceia, who married Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus, the brother of the earlier Emperor Otho.[2] Like Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, Nerva was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome.[4] Nevertheless, the Cocceii were among the most esteemed and prominent political families of the late Republic and early Empire, attaining consulships in each successive generation. The direct ancestors of Nerva on his father's side, all named Marcus Cocceius Nerva, were associated with imperial circles from the time of Emperor Augustus (27 BC – AD 14).[5] His great-grandfather was Consul in 36 BC (in replacement, and abdicated), and Governor of Asia in the same year. His grandfather became Consul Suffect in July of either 21 or 22, and was known as a personal friend of Emperor Tiberius (AD 14–37), accompanying the emperor during his voluntary seclusion on Capri from 23 onwards, dying in 33. Nerva's father finally attained the consulship under the emperor Caligula. The Cocceii were connected with the Julio-Claudian dynasty through the marriage of Sergia Plautilla's brother Gaius Octavius Laenas, and Rubellia Bassa, the great-granddaughter of Tiberius.[4] Imperial service[edit] Not much of Nerva's early life or career is recorded, but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career. He was praetor-elect in the year 65 and, like his ancestors, moved in imperial circles as a skilled diplomat and strategist.[2] As an advisor to Emperor Nero, he successfully helped detect and expose the Pisonian conspiracy of 65. His exact contribution to the investigation is not known, but his services must have been considerable, since they earned him rewards equal to those of Nero's guard prefect Tigellinus. He received triumphal honors—which was usually reserved for military victories—and the right to have his statues placed throughout the palace.[2] According to the contemporary poet Martial, Nero also held Nerva's literary abilities in high esteem, hailing him as the "Tibullus of our time".[6] Another prominent member of Nero's entourage was Vespasian, an old and respected general who had celebrated military triumphs during the 40s. It appears Vespasian befriended Nerva during his time as an imperial advisor, and may have asked him to watch over Vespasian's youngest son Domitian when Vespasian departed for the Jewish war in 67.[7] The suicide of Nero on 9 June 68 brought the Julio-Claudian dynasty to an end, leading to the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors, which saw the successive rise and fall of the emperors Galba, Otho and Vitellius, until the accession of Vespasian on 21 December 69. Virtually nothing is known of Nerva's whereabouts during 69, but despite the fact that Otho was his brother-in-law, he appears to have been one of the earliest and strongest supporters of the Flavians.[8] For services unknown, he was rewarded with a consulship early in Vespasian's reign in 71. This was a remarkable honour, not only because he held this office early under the new regime, but also because it was an ordinary consulship (instead of a less prestigious suffect consulship), making him one of the few non-Flavians to be honoured in this way under Vespasian.[8] After 71 Nerva again disappears from historical record, presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous advisor under Vespasian (69–79) and his sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). He re-emerges during the revolt of Saturninus in 89. On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of a tribe of the Chatti.[9] The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front of Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.[10] Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Nerva. Again, the honour suggested Nerva had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to what he did during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Alternatively, Domitian may have selected Nerva as his colleague to emphasise the stability and status-quo of the regime.[8] The revolt had been suppressed, and the Empire could return to order. Emperor[edit] Accession[edit] A bust of emperor Domitian. Capitoline Museums, Rome. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy organised by court officials.[11] The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.[12] Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination, although his probable lack of involvement would have made him acceptable to the Domitianic faction.[13][14] According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, which indicates that he was at least aware of the plot.[15][16] Suetonius by contrast does not mention Nerva, but he may have omitted his role out of tactfulness. Considering the works of Suetonius were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian, it would have been less than sensitive of him to suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder.[15] On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history,[17] but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.[12] Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health, Nerva was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and childless.[18] Furthermore, he had close connections with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate. Nerva had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero; he knew that to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict. Rather than decline the invitation and risk revolts, he accepted.[19] The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither the Senate nor Nerva appears to have been involved in the conspiracy against Domitian.[20] Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian: his statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.[21][22] In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva. This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.[23] In addition, the vast palace which Domitian had erected on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa in the Gardens of Sallust.[24] Administration[edit] The last remaining columns from the largely blind peristyle surrounding a temple to Minerva, located at the heart of the Forum of Nerva. The visible door frame is not an original element but rather one of the many modifications made during the Middle Ages. The change of government was welcome particularly to the senators, who had been harshly persecuted during Domitian's reign. As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters, Nerva publicly swore that no senators would be put to death as long as he remained in office.[25] He called an end to trials based on treason, released those who had been imprisoned under these charges, and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled.[22] All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned to their respective families.[22] Nerva also sought to involve the Senate in his government, but this was not entirely successful. He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors who were known and trusted, and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro-Domitianic faction of the Senate, he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life.[26][27] Since Suetonius says the people were ambivalent at Domitian's death, Nerva had to introduce a number of measures to gain support among the Roman populace. As was custom by this time, a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army. Accordingly, a congiarium of 75 denarii per head was bestowed upon the citizens, while the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard received a donativum which may have amounted to as much as 5000 denarii per person.[28] This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans.[29] To the poorest, Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60 million sesterces.[25] He exempted parents and their children from a 5% inheritance tax, and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of needy families – alimentary schemes which were later expanded by Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[30] Furthermore, numerous taxes were remitted and privileges granted to Roman provinces.[28] Namely, he abolished abuses of the Fiscus Iudaicus, the additional tax which all Jews throughout the Empire had to pay: some of his coins bear the legend FISCI IUDAICI CALUMNIA SUBLATA (abolition of malicious prosecution regarding the Jewish tax). Coins suggest he added new games in the Circus in honor of Neptune. Other coins refer to imperial ideals such as equity, justice, and liberty, which contrasted his reign with Domitian's. Before long, Nerva's expenses strained the economy of Rome and, although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme,[31] necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures.[32] The most superfluous religious sacrifices, games and horse races were abolished, while new income was generated from Domitian's former possessions, including the auctioning of ships, estates, and even furniture.[25] Large amounts of money were obtained from Domitian's silver and gold statues, and Nerva forbade that similar images be made in his honor.[22] Because he reigned only briefly, Nerva's public works were few, instead completing projects which had been initiated under Flavian rule. This included extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the aqueducts.[33] The latter program was headed by the former consul Sextus Julius Frontinus, who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome's water supply, De Aquis Urbis Romae.[34] The only major landmarks constructed under Nerva were a granary, known as the Horrea Nervae,[35] and a small Imperial Forum begun by Domitian, which linked the Forum of Augustus to the Temple of Peace.[36] Little remains, partly because the Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it. Crisis of succession[edit] Roman aureus struck under Nerva, c. 97. The reverse reads Concordia Exercituum, symbolizing the unity between the emperor and the Roman army with two clasped hands over an army standard. Cption: IMP. NERVA CAES. AVG. P. M. TR. P., CO[N]S. III, P. P. / CONCORDIA EXERCITVVM Bronze statue of Nerva in the Forum Romanum, Rome Despite Nerva's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people, support for Domitian remained strong in the army, which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination.[21] In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva had dismissed their prefect Titus Petronius Secundus—one of the chief conspirators against Domitian—and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.[37] Likewise, the generous donativum bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected swiftly to silence any protests against the violent regime change. The Praetorians considered these measures insufficient, however, and demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused.[38] Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to the gravest crisis of Nerva's reign. While the swift transfer of power following Domitian's death had prevented a civil war from erupting, Nerva's position as an emperor soon proved too vulnerable, and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority. Upon his accession, he had ordered a halt to treason trials, but at the same time allowed the prosecution of informers by the Senate to continue. This measure led to chaos, as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies, leading the consul Fronto to famously remark that Domitian's tyranny was ultimately preferable to Nerva's anarchy.[22] Early in 97, a conspiracy led by the senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Licinianus failed, but once again Nerva refused to put the conspirators to death, much to the disapproval of the Senate.[39][40] The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor, made more pressing because of Nerva's old age and sickness.[41] He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives, who were unsuited for political office. A successor would have to be chosen from among the governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that, by 97, Nerva was considering to adopt Marcus Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus, the powerful governor of Syria.[42] This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Marcus Ulpius Traianus, commonly known as Trajan, a general of the armies at the German frontier.[42] In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.[27] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.[43] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius, Domitian's former chamberlain, were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair.[27] Trajan later dispatched those commanders who had ordered the guard to besiege Nerva in his home. He realized that his position was no longer tenable without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people.[37][44] Shortly thereafter, he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor,[27] and with this decision all but abdicated.[45][46] Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with Nerva in 98; in Cassius Dio's words: Thus Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, although there were relatives of Nerva living. But Nerva did not esteem family relationship above the safety of the State, nor was he less inclined to adopt Trajan because the latter was a Spaniard instead of an Italian or Italot, inasmuch as no foreigner had previously held the Roman sovereignty; for he believed in looking at a man's ability rather than at his nationality.[47] Contrary to the view here popularized by Cassius Dio, however, Nerva had in fact little choice with regard to his successor. Faced with a major crisis, he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation.[44] The only candidate with sufficient military experience, consular ancestry, and connections was Trajan.[37] Likewise, Edward Gibbon's assertion that Nerva hereby established a tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good Emperors has found little support among modern historians.[48] Death and legacy[edit] Roman aureus struck under Trajan, c. 115. The reverse commemorates both Trajan's natural father, Marcus Ulpius Traianus (right) and his adoptive father, the Deified Nerva (left). Caption: IMP. TRAIANVS AVG. GER. DAC. P. M., TR. P., CO[N]S. VI, P. P. / DIVI NERVA ET TRAIANVS PAT. On 1 January 98, at the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience.[49] Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust, on 28 January.[50][51] He was deified by the Senate,[50] and his ashes were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Augustus.[52] He was the last Roman emperor to be interred there. Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan, who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm. According to Pliny the Younger, Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva,[53] yet no trace of it has ever been found; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the Deified Nerva issued until ten years after his death. According to Cassius Dio, however, the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, Casperius Aelianus, was 'dismissed' (probably executed) upon Trajan's accession.[54] Due to the lack of written sources on this period, much of Nerva's life has remained obscure. The most substantial surviving account of the reign of Nerva was written by the 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio. His Roman History, which spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229, was composed more than one hundred years after Nerva had died. Further details are added by an abridged biography from the Epitome de Caesaribus, a work alleged to have been authored by the 4th-century historian Aurelius Victor. A more comprehensive text, presumed to describe the life of Nerva in closer detail, is the Histories, by the contemporary historian Tacitus. The Histories is an account of the history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor Nero in 69 until the death of Domitian in 96. However, a substantial part of the work has been lost, with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four Emperors remaining. In the introduction to his biography of Gnaeus Julius Agricola however, Tacitus speaks highly of Nerva, describing his reign as "the dawn of a most happy age, [when] Nerva Caesar blended things once irreconcilable, sovereignty and freedom".[55] The surviving histories speak equally positively of Nerva's brief reign, although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies. Both Cassius Dio and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and moderation,[25][56] with Dio commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir.[47] These views were later popularized by the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon considered Nerva the first of the Five Good Emperors, five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire "was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue" from 96 until 180. Nevertheless, even Gibbon notes that, compared to his successors, Nerva may have lacked the necessary qualifications for a successful reign: Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent of public disorders which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into the guilty.[57] Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment, characterizing Nerva as a well-intentioned but weak and ineffectual ruler. The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule, but Nerva's mismanagement of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis.[28] The mutiny led by Casperius Aelianus was never intended as a coup, but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor.[37] The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected, reliable general as his successor. Murison concludes that Nerva's real talents were in fact ill-suited to the emperorship: Nerva was, it would seem, the ultimate "committee" man. He was not, apparently, a great orator, and one has the impression that he functioned better in small groups, where his generally calm approach to problems will have impressed people. [...] What is well-known today, however, is that, more often than not, if the "super committee man" takes on an important administrative job, the result is quite dreadful. Rome was, indeed, spared catastrophe; but for all that near-contemporary writers were "careful" about what they said, Nerva's administration was fairly inept. It would not be unfair to say that he was a textbook illustration of what nowadays is called the "Peter Principle".[58] His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary, if tumultuous stop-gap before the Trajanic-Antonine dynasties.[18] Even the only major public work completed during his reign, the Forum of Nerva, ultimately became known as the Forum Transitorium, or transitional forum.[59] Two modern statues which commemorate Nerva can be found in towns associated with him. There is an equestrian statue in Gloucester, England, a town which was founded in his honour. It is at the entrance to Southgate Street. There is also a statue at his alleged birthplace, Narni in Italy, at Cocceio Nerva street.[60][61] Bust of Nerva in the Roman-Germanic Museum of Cologne, Germany Bust of Nerva, Museo Nazionale Romano Nerva as Jupiter; cast of a sculpture in the Capitoline Museums (Pushkin Museum, Moscow). Sculpture in Narni town. Unique, late 1st century AD bust of emperor Nerva in chalcedony from private collection. In popular culture[edit] Nerva was played by Norman Wooland in the 1951 film Quo Vadis. He was also played by Giuliano Gemma in the 1964 film Revolt of the Praetorians. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 491. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b c d Grainger (2003), p. 29 ^ "Aurelius Victor records the year as 35, Cassius Dio as 30. The latter has been more widely accepted" (Wend, n. 2). Ronald Syme considered the dates of Nerva's later offices more consistent with 35; see Syme, Ronald (1958). Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 653. ISBN 978-0-19-814327-7. ^ a b Syme (1982), p. 83 ^ Grainger (2003), p. 28 ^ Murison (1003), p. 148 ^ Murison (2003), p. 149 ^ a b c Murison (2003), p. 150 ^ Jones (1992), p. 144 ^ Jones (1992), p. 149 ^ Jones (1992), p. 193 ^ a b Murison (2003), p. 153 ^ Murison (2003), p. 151 ^ Grainger (2003), pp. 4–27 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 194 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.15 ^ Syme, Ronald (1983). "Domitian: The Last Years". Chiron. 13: 121–146. ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 195 ^ Murison, p. 156 ^ Jones (1992), p. 196 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 23 ^ a b c d e Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.1 ^ Last, Hugh (1948). "On the Flavian Reliefs from the Palazzo della Cancelleria". The Journal of Roman Studies. 38 (1–2): 9–14. doi:10.2307/298163. JSTOR 298163. ^ Pliny the Younger, Panegyricus 47.4 ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.2 ^ Wend, David (1997). "Nerva (96–98 A.D.)". Retrieved 23 September 2007. ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.3 ^ a b c Syme (1930), p. 63–65 ^ For a complete overview of financial reforms, see Merlin, Alfred (1906). Les Revers Monétaires de l'Empereur Nerva. Paris. Archived from the original (French) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2007. ^ Ashley, Alice M. (1921). "The 'Alimenta' of Nerva and His Successors". The English Historical Review. 36 (141): 5–16. doi:10.1093/ehr/XXXVI.CXLI.5. ^ Sutherland, C.H.V. (1935). "The State of the Imperial Treasury at the Death of Domitian". The Journal of Roman Studies. 25 (2): 150–162. doi:10.2307/296596. JSTOR 296596. ^ Syme (1930), p. 61 ^ Syme (1930), p. 58 ^ Syme (1930), p. 60 ^ Platner, Samuel Ball (1929). Ashby, Thomas (ed.). A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–263. Retrieved 22 September 2007. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 5 ^ a b c d Lendering, Jona (2005). "Casperius Aelianus". Livius.org. Retrieved 22 September 2007. ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.7 ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.6 ^ Crassus was exiled to Tarentum and later executed under emperor Hadrian. ^ Cassius Dio describes Nerva as having to vomit up his food, see Dio, LXVIII.1.3 ^ a b Lendering, Jona. "Pliny, Nerva and Trajan". Livius.org. Retrieved 13 August 2007. ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.8 ^ a b Syme (1930), p. 62 ^ Pliny the Younger, Panygericus 7.4 ^ Syme, Ronald (1980). "Guard Prefects of Trajan and Hadrian". The Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 64–80. doi:10.2307/299556. JSTOR 299556. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.4 ^ Geer, Russell Mortimer (1936). "Second Thoughts on the Imperial Succession from Nerva to Commodus". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 67: 47–54. doi:10.2307/283226. JSTOR 283226. ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.10 ^ a b Jerome, Chronicle, Romans, p275 ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.11 ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 12.12 ^ Pliny the Younger, Panegyricus 11.1 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.5 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 3. The original phrase is primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar res olim dissociabilis miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem. ^ Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus 11.15 ^ Gibbon, Edward (1906) [1776]. "3". In John Bagnell Bury (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. 1 (J.B. Bury ed.). New York: Fred de Fau and Co. Retrieved 13 August 2007. ^ Murison, pp. 155–156 ^ Platner, Samuel Ball (1929). Ashby, Thomas (ed.). A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome: Forum Nervae. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 227–229. Retrieved 22 September 2007. ^ "The Nerva Statue". Gloucester.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 30 September 2007. ^ "Narnia italy". Retrieved 2 February 2008. References[edit] Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28917-7. Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04229-1. Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 133 (1): 147–157. doi:10.1353/apa.2003.0008. S2CID 162211747. Syme, Ronald (1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan". The Journal of Roman Studies. 20: 55–70. doi:10.2307/297385. JSTOR 297385. Syme, Ronald (1982). "The Marriage of Rubellius Blandus". The American Journal of Philology. 103 (1): 62–85. doi:10.2307/293964. JSTOR 293964. Further reading[edit] Elkins, Nathan T. (2017). The Image of Political Power in the Reign of Nerva, AD 96–98. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190648039. Syme, Ronald (1958). Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814327-7. Syme, Ronald (1983). "Domitian: The Last Years". Chiron. 13: 121–146. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nerva. Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 68, English translation Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus Chapter 12, English translation Secondary material[edit] Narnia web links, International links, International links from Narnia.it web site Wend, David (1998). "Nerva (96–98 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 11 August 2007. Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Nerva, Marcus Cocceius" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 393–394. Nerva Nerva–Antonine dynasty Born: 8 November AD 30 Died: January 25 AD 98 Regnal titles Preceded by Domitian Roman emperor 96–98 Succeeded by Trajan Political offices Preceded by L. Annius Bassus G. Laecanius Bassus Caecina Paetus Consul of Rome January–February 71 With: Vespasian III Succeeded by Domitian Gn. Pedius Cascus Preceded by A. Vicirius Proculus Mn. Laberius Maximus Consul of Rome January–February 90 With: Domitian XV L. Cornelius Pusio Annius Messala Succeeded by L. Antistius Rusticus Ser. Julius Servianus Preceded by Ti. Catius Caesius Fronto Marcus Calpurnius [...]icus Consul of Rome January–February 97 With: L. Verginius Rufus III Succeeded by Gn. Arrius Antoninus II G. Calpurnius Piso Preceded by P. Cornelius Tacitus M. Ostorius Scapula Consul of Rome 1–13 January 98 With: Trajan II Succeeded by Gn. Domitius Afer Curvius Tullus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-5764	----	Iazyges - Wikipedia Iazyges From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical ethnic group and tribe Not to be confused with the Iapydes. Sculpted image of a Sarmatian (an Iazyx would look similar) from the Casa degli Omenoni.[1] The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138), showing the location of the Iazyges in the plain of the Tisza river.[2] The Iazyges (/aɪˈæzɪdʒiːz/),[a] were an ancient Sarmatian tribe that traveled westward in c. 200 BC from Central Asia to the steppes of what is now Ukraine. In c. 44 BC, they moved into modern-day Hungary and Serbia near the Dacian steppe between the Danube and Tisza rivers, where they adopted a semi-sedentary lifestyle. In their early relationship with Rome, the Iazyges were used as a buffer state between the Romans and the Dacians; this relationship later developed into one of overlord and client state, with the Iazyges being nominally sovereign subjects of Rome. Throughout this relationship, the Iazyges carried out raids on Roman land, which often caused punitive expeditions to be made against them. Almost all of the major events of the Iazyges, such as the two Dacian Wars—in both of which the Iazyges fought, assisting Rome in subjugating the Dacians in the first war and conquering them in the second—are connected with war. Another such war is the Marcomannic War that occurred between 169 and 175, in which the Iazyges fought against Rome but were defeated by Marcus Aurelius and had severe penalties imposed on them. The Ninth European Map (in two parts) from a 15th-century Greek manuscript edition of Ptolemy's Geography, showing the Wandering Iazyges in the northwest between Pannonia and Dacia.[3] Contents 1 Culture 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Burial traditions 1.3 Diet 1.4 Military 1.5 Religion 2 Economy 2.1 Imports 3 Geography 4 History 4.1 Early history 4.1.1 Migration 4.1.2 Post-migration 4.2 Dacian wars 4.2.1 First Dacian War 4.2.2 Second Dacian War 4.3 After the Dacian Wars 4.4 Marcomannic Wars 4.5 After the Marcomannic Wars 4.6 Late history and legacy 5 Foreign relations 5.1 The Roman Empire 5.1.1 Archeology 5.2 Roxolani 5.3 Quadi 6 List of princes 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Notes 8.2 Citations 8.3 Primary sources 8.4 Modern sources 8.4.1 Books 8.4.2 Websites 9 Further reading Culture[edit] Although the Iazyges were nomads before their migration to the Tisza plain, they became semi-sedentary once there, and lived in towns,[4][5][6][7][8] although they migrated between these towns to allow their cattle to graze.[9][6][10] Their language was a dialect of Old Iranian, which was quite different from most of the other Sarmatian dialects of Old Iranian.[11] According to the Roman writer Gaius Valerius Flaccus, when an Iazyx became too old to fight in battle, they were killed by their sons[12][13] or, according to Roman geographer Pomponius Mela, threw themselves from a rock.[14] Etymology[edit] The Iazyges' name was Latinized as Iazyges Metanastae (Ἰάζυγες Μετανάσται) or Jazyges,[15] or sometimes as Iaxamatae.[16] They were occasionally referred to as the Iazyigs, Iazygians, Iasians, Yazigs,[17] and Iazuges.[18] Several corruptions of these names, such as Jazamatae,[19] Iasidae,[20] Latiges, and Cizyges existed.[21] The root of the name may be Proto-Iranian *yaz-, "to sacrifice", perhaps indicating a caste or tribe specializing in religious sacrifices.[22] According to Peter Edmund Laurent, a 19th-century French classical scholar, the Iazyges Metanastæ, a warlike Sarmatian race, which had migrated during the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius, and therefore received the name of "Metanastæ", resided in the mountains west of the Theiss (Tisza) and east of the Gran (Hron) and Danube.[23] The Greek Metanastæ (Greek: Μετανάσται) means "migrants". The united Scythians and Sarmatæ called themselves Iazyges, which Laurent connected with Old Church Slavonic ѩзꙑкъ (językŭ, "tongue, language, people").[24] Burial traditions[edit] Illustration of several Iazygian grave sites.[25] The graves made by the Iazyges were often rectangular or circular,[26] although some were ovoid, hexagonal, or even octagonal.[25] They were flat and were grouped like burials in modern cemeteries.[27] Most of the graves' access openings face south, southeast, or southwest. The access openings are between 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in) and 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) wide. The graves themselves are between 5 m (16 ft) and 13 m (43 ft) in diameter.[25] After their migration to the Tisza plain, the Iazyges were in serious poverty.[28] This is reflected in the poor furnishings found at burial sites, which are often filled with clay vessels, beads, and sometimes brooches. Iron daggers and swords were very rarely found in the burial site. Their brooches and arm-rings were of the La Tène type, showing the Dacians had a distinct influence on the Iazyges.[27] Later tombs showed an increase in material wealth; tombs of the 2nd to early 4th century had weapons in them 86% of the time and armor in them 5% of the time.[29] Iazygian tombs along the Roman border show a strong Roman influence.[30] Diet[edit] An illustration of several Iazygian barrel-shaped pots which have been discovered.[31] Before their migration into the Pannonian Basin, while still living north of Tyras, on the north-western coast of the Black Sea, the geographer Strabo states that their diet consisted largely of "honey, milk, and cheese".[32] After their migration, the Iazyges were cattle breeders; they required salt to preserve their meat[33] but there were no salt mines within their territory.[34] According to Cassius Dio, the Iazyges received grain from the Romans.[35] The Iazyges used hanging, asymmetrical, barrel-shaped pots that had uneven weight distribution. The rope used to hang the pot was wrapped around the edges of the side collar; it is believed the rope was tied tightly to the pot, allowing it to spin in circles. Due to the spinning motion, there are several theories about the pot's uses. It is believed the small hanging pots were used to ferment alcohol using the seeds of touch-me-not balsam (Impatiens noli-tangere), and larger hanging pots were used to churn butter and make cheese.[31] Military[edit] The Iazyges wore heavy armor, such as Sugarloaf helms,[b][37] and scale armor made of iron, bronze, horn, or horse hoof, which was sewn onto a leather gown so the scales would partially overlap.[38][39][40][41] They used long, two-handed lances called Contus; they wielded these from horses, which they barded.[c][43] Their military was exclusively cavalry.[44] They are believed to have used saddle blankets on their horses.[45] Although it was originally Gaulic, it is believed the Iazyges used the Carnyx, a trumpet-like wind instrument.[46] Religion[edit] One of the Iazygian towns, Bormanon, is believed to have had hot springs because settlement names starting with "Borm" were commonly used among European tribes to denote that the location had hot springs, which held religious importance for many Celtic tribes. It is not known, however, whether the religious significance of the hot springs was passed on to the Iazyges with the concept itself.[47] The Iazyges used horse-tails in their religious rituals.[48] Economy[edit] When the Iazyges migrated to the plain between the Tisza and the Danube, their economy suffered severely. Many explanations have been offered for this, such as their trade with the Pontic Steppe and Black Sea being cut off and the absence of any mineable resources within their territory making their ability to trade negligible. Additionally, Rome proved more difficult to raid than the Iazyges' previous neighbors, largely due to Rome's well-organized army.[28][49][50] The Iazyges had no large-scale organized production of goods for most of their history.[51] As such, most of their trade goods were gained via small-scale raids upon neighboring peoples, although they did have some incidental horticulture.[52] Several pottery workshops have been found in Banat, which was within the territory of the Iazyges, close to their border with Rome. These pottery workshops were built from the late 3rd century and have been found at Vršac–Crvenka, Grădinari–Selişte, Timişoara–Freidorf, Timişoara–Dragaşina, Hodoni, Pančevo, Dolovo, and Izvin şi Jabuca.[53] The Iazyges' trade with the Pontic Steppe and Black Sea was extremely important to their economy; after the Marcomannic War, Marcus Aurelius offered them the concession of movement through Dacia to trade with the Roxolani, which reconnected them with the Pontic Steppe trade network.[54][55] This trade route lasted until 260, when the Goths took over Tyras and Olbia, cutting off both the Roxolani's and the Iazyges' trade with the Pontic Steppe.[56] The Iazyges also traded with the Romans, although this trade was smaller in scale. While there are Roman bronze coins scattered along the entirety of the Roman Danubian Limes, the highest concentration of them appear in the Iazyges' territory.[57] Imports[edit] Because the Iazyges had no organized production for most of their history, imported pottery finds are sparse. Some goods, such as bronze or silver vessels, amphorae, terracotta wares, and lamps are extremely rare or nonexistent. Some amphorae and lamps have been found in Iazygian territory, often near major river crossings near the border with Rome, but the location of the sites make it impossible to determine whether these goods are part of an Iazygain site, settlement, or cemetery; or merely the lost possessions of Roman soldiers stationed in or near the locations.[58] The most commonly found imported ware was Terra sigillata. At Iazygian cemeteries, a single complete terra sigillata vessel and a large number of fragments have been found in Banat. Terra sigillata finds in Iazygian settlements are confusing in some cases; it can sometimes be impossible to determine the timeframe of the wares in relation to its area and thus impossible to determine whether the wares came to rest there during Roman times or after the Iazyges took control. Finds of terra sigillata of an uncertain age have been found in Deta, Kovačica–Čapaš, Kuvin, Banatska Palanka, Pančevo, Vršac, Zrenjanin–Batka, Dolovo, Delibata, Perlez, Aradac, Botoš, and Bočar. Finds of terra sigillata that have been confirmed to having been made the time of Iazygian possession but of uncertain date have been found in Timișoara–Cioreni, Hodoni, Iecea Mică, Timișoara–Freidorf, Satchinez, Criciova, Becicherecul Mic, and Foeni–Seliște. The only finds of terra sigillata whose time of origin is certain have been found in Timișoara–Freidorf, dated to the 3rd century AD. Amphorae fragments have been found in Timișoara–Cioreni, Iecea Mică, Timișoara–Freidorf, Satchinez, and Biled; all of these are confirmed to be of Iazygian origin but none of them have definite chronologies.[58] In Tibiscum, an important Roman and later Iazygian settlement, only a very low percent of pottery imports were imported during or after the 3rd century. The pottery imports consisted of terra sigillata, amphorae, glazed pottery, and stamped white pottery. Only 7% of imported pottery was from the "late period" during or after the 3rd century, while the other 93% of finds were from the "early period", the 2nd century or earlier.[59] Glazed pottery was almost nonexistent in Tibiscum; the only finds from the early period are a few fragments with Barbotine decorations and stamped with "CRISPIN(us)". The only finds from the late period are a handful of glazed bowl fragments that bore relief decorations on both the inside and the outside. The most common type of amphorae is the Dressel 24 similis; finds are from the time of rule of Hadrian to the late period. An amphora of type Carthage LRA 4 dated between the 3rd and 4th century AD has been found in Tibiscum-Iaz and an amphora of type Opaiţ 2 has been found in Tibiscum-Jupa.[60] Geography[edit] Records of eight Iazygian towns have been documented; these are Uscenum, Bormanum, Abieta, Trissum, Parca, Candanum, Pessium, and Partiscum.[61][23] There was also a settlement on Gellért Hill.[62] Their capital was at Partiscum, the site of which roughly corresponds with that of Kecskemét, a city in modern-day Hungary.[63][64] It is believed that a Roman road may have traversed the Iazyges' territory for about 200 miles (320 km),[65] connecting Aquincum to Porolissum, and passing near the site of modern-day Albertirsa.[66] This road then went on to connect with the Black Sea city states.[67] The area of plains between the Danube and Tisza rivers that was controlled by the Iazyges was similar in size to Italy and about 1,000 mi (1,600 km) long.[68][69] The terrain was largely swampland dotted with a few small hills that was devoid of any mineable metals or minerals. This lack of resources and the problems the Romans would face trying to defend it may explain why the Romans never annexed it as a province but left it as a client-kingdom.[49][50] According to English cartographer Aaron Arrowsmith, Iazyges Metanastæ lived east (sic) of the [Roman] Dacia separating it from [Roman] Pannonia and Germania.[70] Iazyges Metanastæ drove Daci from Pannonia and Tibiscus River (today known as Timiș River).[70] History[edit] Early history[edit] Location of the Iazyges (J) before they moved westward.[71] In the 3rd century BC the Iazyges lived in modern-day south-eastern Ukraine along the northern shores of the Sea of Azov, which the Ancient Greeks and Romans called the Lake of Maeotis. From there, the Iazyges —or at least some of them —moved west along the shores of the Black Sea into modern-day Moldova and south-western Ukraine.[72][73][74] It is possible the entirety of the Iazyges did not move west and that some of them stayed along the Sea of Azov, which would explain the occasional occurrence of the surname Metanastae; the Iazyges that possibly remained along the Sea of Azov, however, are never mentioned again.[75] Migration[edit] Roman Balkans in the 1st century AD with the Jazyges Metanastæ between Roman Pannonia and Dacia.[76] In the 2nd century BC, sometime before 179 BC, the Iazyges began to migrate westward to the steppe near the Lower Dniester. This may have occurred because the Roxolani, who were the Iazyges' eastern neighbors, were also migrating westward due to pressure from the Aorsi, which put pressure on the Iazyges and forced them to migrate westward as well.[19][77][78] The views of modern scholars as to how and when the Iazyges entered the Pannonian plain are divided. The main source of division is over the issue of if the Romans approved, or even ordered, the Iazyges to migrate, with both sides being subdivided into groups debating the timing of such a migration. Andreas Alföldi states that the Iazyges could not have been present to the north-east and east of the Pannonian Danube unless they had Roman approval. This viewpoint is supported by János Harmatta, who claims that the Iazyges were settled with both the approval and support of the Romans, so as to act as a buffer state against the Dacians. András Mócsy suggests that Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur, who was Roman consul in 26 BC, may have been responsible for the settlement of the Iazyges as a buffer between Pannonia and Dacia. However, Mócsy also suggests that the Iazyges may have arrived gradually, such that they initially were not noticed by the Romans. John Wilkes believes that the Iazyges reached the Pannonian plain either by the end of Augustus's rule (14 AD) or some time between 17 and 20 AD. Constantin Daicoviciu suggests that the Iazyges entered the area around 20 AD, after the Romans called upon them to be a buffer state. Coriolan Opreanu supports the theory of the Iazyges being invited, or ordered, to occupy the Pannonian plain, also around 20 AD.[79] Gheorghe Bichir and Ion Horațiu Crișan support the theory that the Iazyges first began to enter the Pannonian plain in large numbers under Tiberius, around 20 AD.[80] The most prominent scholars that state the Iazyges were not brought in by the Romans, or later approved, are Doina Benea, Mark Ščukin, and Jenő Fitz. Doina Benea states that the Iazyges slowly infiltrated the Pannonian plain sometime in the first half of the 1st century AD, without Roman involvement. Jenő Fitz promotes the theory that the Iazyges arrived en masse around 50 AD, although a gradual infiltration preceded it. Mark Ščukin states only that the Iazyges arrived by themselves sometime around 50 AD. Andrea Vaday argued against the theory of a Roman approved or ordered migration, citing the lack of strategic reasoning, as the Dacians were not actively providing a threat to Rome during the 20–50 AD period.[81] The occupation of the lands between the Danube and Tisza by the Iazyges was mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (77–79 AD), in which he says that the Iazyges inhabited the basins and plains of the lands, while the forested and mountainous area largely retained a Dacian population, which was later pushed back to the Tisza by the Iazyges. Pliny's statements are corroborated by the earlier accounts of Seneca the Younger in his Quaestiones Naturales (61–64 AD), where he uses the Iazyges to discuss the borders that separate the various peoples.[79] From 78 to 76 BC, the Romans led an expedition to an area north of the Danube —then the Iazyges' territory —–because the Iazyges had allied with Mithridates VI of Pontus, with whom the Romans were at war.[82][83] In 44 BC King Burebista of Dacia died and his kingdom began to collapse. After this, the Iazyges began to take possession of the Pannonian Basin, the land between the Danube and Tisa rivers in modern-day south-central Hungary.[84] Historians have posited this was done at the behest of the Romans, who sought to form a buffer state between their provinces and the Dacians to protect the Roman province of Pannonia.[85][86][87][88][89][90] The Iazyges encountered the Basternae and Getae along their migration path sometime around 20 AD and turned southward to follow the coast of the Black Sea until they settled in the Danube Delta.[77] This move is attested by the large discrepancy in the location reported by Tacitus relative to that which was earlier given by Ovid.[91] Archeological finds suggest that while the Iazyges took hold of the northern plain between the Danube and the Tisa by around 50 AD, they did not take control of the land south of the Partiscum-Lugio line until the late 1st or early 2nd century.[92] The effects of this migration have been observed in the ruins of burial sites left behind by the Iazyges; the standard grave goods made of gold being buried alongside a person were absent, as was the equipment of a warrior; this may have been because the Iazyges were no longer in contact with the Pontic Steppe and were cut off from all trade with them, which had previously been a vital part of their economy. Another problem with the Iazyges' new location was that it lacked both precious minerals and metals, such as iron, which could be turned into weapons. They found it was much more difficult to raid the Romans, who had organized armies around the area, as opposed to the disorganized armies of their previous neighbors. The cutting-off of trade with the Pontic Steppe meant they could no longer trade for gold for burial sites, assuming any of them could afford it. The only such goods they could find were the pottery and metals of the adjacent Dacian and Celtic peoples. Iron weapons would have been exceedingly rare, if the Iazyges even had them, and would likely have been passed down from father to son rather than buried because they could not have been replaced.[28] Post-migration[edit] Map showing Iazyges in AD 125 west of Roman Dacia After the conquest of the Pannonian Basin, the Iazyges appear to have ruled over some measure of the remaining Germanic, Celtic, and Dacian populations, with the hilly areas north of modern-day Budapest retaining strong Germanic traditions, with a significant presence of Germanic burial traditions.[93] Items of Celtic manufacturing appear up until the late 2nd century AD, in the northern area of the Carpathian Basin.[94] During the time of Augustus, the Iazyges sent an embassy to Rome to request friendly relations.[41] In a modern context, these "friendly relations" would be similar to a non-aggression pact.[95] Around this time, some of the western parts of the land of the Iazyges were occupied, apparently without conflict, by the Quadi, which scholar Nicholas Higham states "suggests long-term collaboration between [them]".[93] Later, during the reign of Tiberius, the Iazyges became one of many new client-tribes of Rome. Roman client states were treated according to the Roman tradition of patronage, exchanging rewards for service.[96][97] The client king was called socius et amicus Romani Populi (ally and friend of the Roman People); the exact obligations and rewards of this relationship, however, are vague.[98] Even after being made into a client state, the Iazyges conducted raids across their border with Rome, for example in 6 AD and again in 16 AD. In 20 AD the Iazyges moved westward along the Carpathians into the Pannonian Steppe, and settled in the steppes between the Danube and the Tisza river, taking absolute control of the territory from the Dacians.[77] In 50 AD, an Iazyges cavalry detachment assisted King Vannius, a Roman client-king of the Quadi, in his fight against the Suevi.[99][100] In the Year of Four Emperors, 69 AD, the Iazyges gave their support to Vespasian, who went on to become the sole emperor of Rome.[101] The Iazyges also offered to guard the Roman border with the Dacians to free up troops for Vespasian's invasion of Italy; Vespasian refused, however, fearing they would attempt a takeover or defect. Vespasian required the chiefs of the Iazyges to serve in his army so they could not organize an attack on the undefended area around the Danube.[102][103][104][105][106] Vespasian enjoyed support from the majority of the Germanic and Dacian tribes.[101] Domitian's campaign against Dacia was mostly unsuccessful; the Romans, however, won a minor skirmish that allowed him to claim it as a victory, even though he paid the King of Dacia, Decebalus, an annual tribute of eight million sesterces in tribute to end the war.[101][107] Domitian returned to Rome and received an ovation, but not a full triumph. Considering that Domitian had been given the title of Imperator for military victories 22 times, this was markedly restrained, suggesting the populace —–or at least the senate —was aware it had been a less-than-successful war, despite Domitian's claims otherwise.[108][d] In 89 AD, however, Domitian invaded the Iazyges along with the Quadi and Marcomanni. Few details of this war are known but it is recorded that the Romans were defeated,[110] it is however known that Roman troops acted to repel simultaneous incursion by the Iazyges into Dacian lands.[111] In early 92 AD the Iazyges, Roxolani, Dacians, and Suebi invaded the Roman province of Pannonia —modern-day Croatia, northern Serbia, and western Hungary.[112][108][113] Emperor Domitian called upon the Quadi and the Marcomanni to supply troops to the war. Both client-tribes refused to supply troops so Rome declared war upon them as well. In May 92 AD, the Iazyges annihilated the Roman Legio XXI Rapax in battle.[108][113][114] Domitian, however, is said to have secured victory in this war by January of the next year.[115] It is believed, based upon a rare Aureus coin showing an Iazyx with a Roman standard kneeling, with the caption of "Signis a Sarmatis Resitvtis", that the standard is taken from the annihilated Legio XXI Rapax was returned to Rome at the end of the war.[116] Although the accounts of the Roman-Iazyges wars of 89 and 92 AD are both muddled, it has been shown they are separate wars and not a continuation of the same war.[117] The threat presented by the Iazyges and neighbouring people to the Roman provinces was significant enough that Emperor Trajan travelled across the Mid and Lower Danube in late 98 to early 99, where he inspected existing fortification and initiated the construction of more forts and roads.[111] Tacitus, a Roman Historian, records in his book Germania, which was written in 98 AD, that the Osi tribes paid tribute to both the Iazyges and the Quadi, although the exact date this relationship began is unknown.[118] During the Flavian dynasty, the princes of the Iazyges were trained in the Roman army, officially as an honor but in reality serving as a hostage, because the kings held absolute power over the Iazyges.[119] There were offers from the princes of the Iazyges to supply troops but these were denied because of the fear they might revolt or desert in a war.[120] Dacian wars[edit] Main article: Trajan's Dacian Wars An alliance between the Iazyges and the Dacians led the Romans to focus more on the Danube than the Rhine.[121] This is shown by the placement of the Roman legions; during the time of Augustus's rule there were eight legions stationed along the Rhine, four stationed in Mainz, and another four in Cologne. Within a hundred years of Augustus' rule, however, Roman military resources had become centered along the Danube rather than the Rhine,[101] with nine legions stationed along the Danube and only one at the Rhine. By the time of Marcus Aurelius, however, twelve legions were stationed along the Danube.[121] The Romans also built a series of forts along the entire right bank of the Danube – from Germany to the Black Sea – and in the provinces of Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia the legions constructed bridge-head forts. Later, this system was expanded to the lower Danube with the key castra of Poetovio, Brigetio, and Carnuntum. The Classis Pannonica and Classis Flavia Moesica were deployed to the right and lower Danube, respectively; they, however, had to overcome the mass of whirlpools and cataracts of the Iron Gates.[121] First Dacian War[edit] Trajan, with the assistance of the Iazyges, led his legions[e] into Dacia against King Decebalus, in the year 101.[122][6] In order to cross the Danube with such a large army, Apollodorus of Damascus, the Romans' chief architect, created a bridge through the Iron Gates by cantilevering it from the sheer face of the Iron Gates. From this he created a great bridge with sixty piers that spanned the Danube. Trajan used this to strike deep within Dacia, forcing the king, Decebalus, to surrender and become a client king.[123] Second Dacian War[edit] As soon as Trajan returned to Rome, however, Decebalus began to lead raids into Roman territory and also attacked the Iazyges, who were still a client-tribe of Rome.[124][125] Trajan concluded that he had made a mistake in allowing Decebalus to remain so powerful.[123] In 106 AD, Trajan again invaded Dacia, with 11 legions, and, again with the assistance of the Iazyges – [122][6]who were the only barbarian tribe that aided the Romans in this war – [f][127] and the only barbarian tribe in the Danube region which did not ally with Dacia.[127] The Iazyges were the only tribe to aid Rome in both Dacian Wars,[6][128] pushed rapidly into Dacia. Decebalus chose to commit suicide rather than be captured, knowing that he would be paraded in a triumph before being executed. In 113 AD Trajan annexed Dacia as a new Roman province, the first Roman province to the east of the Danube. Trajan, however, did not incorporate the steppe between the Tisza river and the Transylvanian mountains into the province of Dacia but left it for the Iazyges.[129] Back in Rome, Trajan was given a triumph lasting 123 days, with lavish gladiatorial games and chariot races. The wealth coming from the gold mines of Dacia funded these lavish public events and the construction of Trajan's Column, which was designed and constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus; it was 100 feet (30 m) tall and had 23 spiral bands filled with 2,500 figures, giving a full depiction of the Dacian war. Ancient sources say 500,000 slaves were taken in the war but moderns sources believe it was probably closer to 100,000 slaves.[130] After the Dacian Wars[edit] Roman cavalry (left) fighting Sarmatian cavalry (right).[g][133] The Limes (Devil's Dykes) built between Roman territory and the tribes (contours around Iazyges' territory).[134][135] Ownership of the region of Oltenia became a source of dispute between the Iazyges and the Roman empire. The Iazyges had originally occupied the area before the Dacians seized it; it was taken during the Second Dacian War by Trajan, who was determined to constitute Dacia as a province.[136][122][137] The land offered a more direct connection between Moesia and the new Roman lands in Dacia, which may be the reason Trajan was determined to keep it.[138] The dispute led to war in 107–108, where the future emperor Hadrian, then governor of Pannonia Inferior, defeated them.[136][122][139] The exact terms of the peace treaty are not known, but it is believed the Romans kept Oltenia in exchange for some form of concession, likely involving a one-time tribute payment.[122] The Iazyges also took possession of Banat around this time, which may have been part of the treaty.[140] In 117, the Iazyges and the Roxolani invaded Lower Pannonia and Lower Moesia, respectively. The war was probably brought on by difficulties in visiting and trading with each other because Dacia lay between them. The Dacian provincial governor Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus was killed in the invasion. The Roxolani surrendered first, so it is likely the Romans exiled and then replaced their client king with one of their choosing. The Iazyges then concluded peace with Rome.[141] The Iazyges and other Sarmatians invaded Roman Dacia in 123, likely for the same reason as the previous war; they were not allowed to visit and trade with each other. Marcius Turbo stationed 1,000 legionaries in the towns Potaissa and Porolissum, which the Romans probably used as the invasion point into Rivulus Dominarum. Marcius Turbo succeeded in defeating the Iazyges; the terms of the peace and the date, however, are not known.[142] Marcomannic Wars[edit] See also: Marcomannic Wars The 174-175 Roman offensive onto Iazigi In 169, the Iazyges, Quadi, Suebi, and Marcomanni once again invaded Roman territory. The Iazyges led an invasion into Alburnum in an attempt to seize its gold mines.[143] The exact motives for and directions of the Iazyges' war efforts are not known.[144] Marcus Claudius Fronto, who was a general during the Parthian wars and then the governor of both Dacia and Upper Moesia, held them back for some time but was killed in battle in 170.[145] The Quadi surrendered in 172, the first tribe to do so; the known terms of the peace are that Marcus Aurelius installed a client-king Furtius on their throne and the Quadi were denied access to the Roman markets along the limes. The Marcomanni accepted a similar peace but the name of their client-king is not known.[146] In 173, the Quadi rebelled and overthrew Furtius and replaced him with Ariogaesus, who wanted to enter into negotiations with Marcus. Marcus refused to negotiate because the success of the Marcomannic wars was in no danger.[146] At that point the Iazyges had not yet been defeated by Rome. having not acted, Marcus Aurelius appears to have been unconcerned, but when the Iazyges attacked across the frozen Danube in late 173 and early 174, Marcus redirected his attention to them. Trade restrictions on the Marcomanni were also partially lifted at that time; they were allowed to visit the Roman markets at certain times of certain days. In an attempt to force Marcus to negotiate, Ariogaesus began to support the Iazyges.[147] Marcus Aurelius put out a bounty on him, offering 1,000 aurei for his capture and delivery to Rome or 500 aurei for his severed head.[148][h] After this, the Romans captured Ariogaesus but rather than executing him, Marcus Aurelius sent him into exile.[150] In the winter of 173, the Iazyges launched a raid across the frozen Danube but the Romans were ready for pursuit and followed them back to the Danube. Knowing the Roman legionaries were not trained to fight on ice, and that their own horses had been trained to do so without slipping, the Iazyges prepared an ambush, planning to attack and scatter the Romans as they tried to cross the frozen river. The Roman army, however, formed a solid square and dug into the ice with their shields so they would not slip. When the Iazyges could not break the Roman lines, the Romans counter-attacked, pulling the Iazyges off of their horses by grabbing their spears, clothing, and shields. Soon both armies were in disarray after slipping on the ice and the battle was reduced to many brawls between the two sides, which the Romans won. After this battle the Iazyges – and presumably the Sarmatians in general – were declared the primary enemy of Rome.[151] The Iazyges surrendered to the Romans in March or early April of 175.[152][153][154] Their prince Banadaspus had attempted peace in early 174 but the offer was refused and Banadaspus was deposed by the Iazyges and replaced with Zanticus.[i][147] The terms of the peace treaty were harsh; the Iazyges were required to provide 8,000 men as auxiliaries and release 100,000 Romans they had taken hostage,[j] and were forbidden from living within ten Roman miles (roughly 9 miles (14 km) of the Danube. Marcus had intended to impose even harsher terms; it is said by Cassius Dio that he wanted to entirely exterminate the Iazyges[157] but was distracted by the rebellion of Avidius Cassius.[147] During this peace deal, Marcus Aurelius broke from the Roman custom of Emperors sending details of peace treaties to the Roman Senate; this is the only instance in which Marcus Aurelius is recorded to have broken this tradition.[158] Of the 8,000 auxiliaries, 5,500 of them were sent to Britannia[159] to serve with the Legio VI Victrix,[160] suggesting that the situation there was serious; it is likely the British tribes, seeing the Romans being preoccupied with war in Germania and Dacia, had decided to rebel. All of the evidence suggests the Iazyges' horsemen were an impressive success.[159] The 5,500 troops sent to Britain were not allowed to return home, even after their 20-year term of service had ended.[161] After Marcus Aurelius had beaten the Iazyges; he took the title of Sarmaticus in accordance with the Roman practice of victory titles.[162] The land of the Iazyges in the 2nd–3rd century.[163] After the Marcomannic Wars[edit] In 177, the Iazyges, the Buri, and other Germanic tribes[k] invaded Roman territory again.[55] It is said that in 178, Marcus Aurelius took the bloody spear from the Temple of Bellona and hurled it into the land of the Iazyges.[164] In 179, the Iazyges and the Buri were defeated, and the Iazyges accepted peace with Rome. The peace treaty placed additional restrictions on the Iazyges but also included some concessions. They could not settle on any of the islands of the Danube and could not keep boats on the Danube. They were, however, permitted to visit and trade with the Roxolani throughout the Dacian Province with the knowledge and approval of its governor, and they could trade in the Roman markets at certain times on certain days.[55][165] In 179, the Iazyges and the Buri joined Rome in their war against the Quadi and the Marcomanni after they secured assurances that Rome would prosecute the war to the end and not quickly make a peace deal.[166] As part of a treaty made in 183, Commodus forbade the Quadi and the Marcomanni from waging war against the Iazyges, the Buri, or the Vandals, suggesting that at this time all three tribes were loyal client-tribes of Rome.[167][168] In 214, however, Caracalla led an invasion into the Iazyges' territory.[169] In 236, the Iazyges invaded Rome but were defeated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax, who took the title Sarmaticus Maximus following his victory.[170] The Iazyges, Marcomanni, and Quadi raided Pannonia together in 248,[171][172] and again in 254.[173] It is suggested the reason for the large increase in the amount of Iazyx raids against Rome was that the Goths led successful raids, which emboldened the Iazyges and other tribes.[174] In 260, the Goths took the cities of Tyras and Olbia, again cutting off the Iazyges' trade with the Pontic Steppe and the Black Sea.[56] From 282 to 283, Emperor Carus lead a successful campaign against the Iazyges.[173][175] The Iazyges and Carpi raided Roman territory in 293, and Diocletian responded by declaring war.[176] From 294 to 295, Diocletian waged war upon them and won.[177][178] As a result of the war, some of the Carpi were transported into Roman territory so they could be controlled.[179] From 296 to 298, Galerius successfully campaigned against the Iazyges.[180][175] In 358, the Iazyges were at war with Rome.[181] In 375, Emperor Valentinian had a stroke in Brigetio while meeting with envoys from the Iazyges.[l][183] Around the time of the Gothic migration, which led the Iazyges to be surrounded on thee northern and eastern borders by Gothic tribes, and most intensely during the reign of Constantine I, a series of earthworks known as the Devil's Dykes (Ördögárok) was built around the Iazygian territory,[184][185] possibly with a degree of Roman involvement. Higham suggests that the Iazyges became more heavily tied to the Romans during this period, with strong cultural influence.[185] Late history and legacy[edit] Iazyges in the 4th century at left bank of Danube (Gepids, Hasdingi), neighboring Gotini are replaced with Suebic Quadi In late antiquity, historic accounts become much more diffuse and the Iazyges generally cease to be mentioned as a tribe.[186][187] Beginning in the 4th century, most Roman authors cease to distinguish between the different Sarmatian tribes, and instead refer to all as Sarmatians.[188] In the late 4th century, two Sarmatian peoples were mentioned ––the Argaragantes and the Limigantes, who lived on opposite sides of the Tisza river. One theory is that these two tribes were formed when the Roxolani conquered the Iazyges, after which the Iazyges became the Limigantes and the Roxolani became the Argaragantes.[186][187] Another theory is that a group of Slavic tribesmen who gradually migrated into the area were subservient to the Iazyges; the Iazyges became known as the Argaragantes and the Slavs were the Limigantes.[189] Yet another theory holds that the Roxolani were integrated into the Iazyges.[190] Regardless of which is true, in the 5th century both tribes were conquered by the Goths[191][192][193][194] and, by the time of Attila, they were absorbed into the Huns.[195] Foreign relations[edit] The Roman Empire[edit] The Iazyges often harassed the Roman Empire after their arrival in the Pannonian Basin, however, they never rose to become a true threat.[196] During the 1st century, Rome used diplomacy to secure their northern borders, especially on the Danube, by way of befriending the tribes, and by sowing distrust amongst the tribes against each other.[197] Rome defended their Danubian border not just by way of repelling raids, but also by levying diplomatic influence against the tribes and launching punitive expeditions.[198][199][200] The combination of diplomatic influence and swift punitive expeditions allowed the Romans to force the various tribes, including the Iazyges, into becoming client states of the Roman Empire.[200] Even after the Romans abandoned Dacia, they consistently projected their power north of the Danube against the Sarmatian tribes, especially during the reigns of Constantine, Constantius II, and Valentinian.[201] To this end, Constantine constructed a permanent bridge across the middle Danube in order to improve logistics for campaigns against the Goths and Sarmatians.[200][202] Another key part of the relationship between the Roman Empire and the Sarmatian tribes was the settling of tribes in Roman lands, with emperors often accepting refugees from the Sarmatian tribes into nearby Roman territory.[203] When the Huns arrived in the Russian steppes and conquered the tribes that were there, they often lacked the martial ability to force the newly conquered tribes to stay, leading to tribes like the Greuthungi, Vandals, Alans, and Goths migrating and settling within the Roman Empire rather than remaining subjects of the Huns.[204] The Roman Empire benefited from accepting these refugee tribes, and thus continued to allow them to settle, even after treaties were made with Hunnic leaders such as Rugila and Attila that stipulated that the Roman Empire would reject all refugee tribes, with rival or subject tribes of the Huns being warmly received by Roman leaders in the Balkans.[205] Archeology[edit] Around the time of Trajan, the Romans established routes between Dacia and Pannonia, with evidence of Roman goods appearing in Iazygian land occurring around 100 AD, largely centered near important river crossings. Additionally, a small number of Roman inscriptions and buildings were made during this period, which scholar Nicholas Higham states suggests either a high degree of Romanization or the presence of diplomatic or military posts within Iazygian territory. Roman goods were widespread in the second and early third century AD, especially near Aquincum, the capital of Roman Pannonia Inferior, and the area east to the Tizsa valley.[206] Roxolani[edit] The Iazyges also had a strong relationship with the Roxolani, another Sarmatian tribe, both economically and diplomatically.[55][165][200][139] During the second Dacian War, where the Iazyges supported the Romans, while the Roxolani supported the Dacians, the Iazyges and Roxolani remained neutral to each other.[207] After the Roman annexation of Dacia, the two tribes were effectively isolated from each other, until the 179 peace concession from Emperor Marcus Aurelius which permitted the Iazyges and Roxolani to travel through Dacia, subject to the approval of the governor.[55][165][200] Because of the new concession allowing them to trade with the Roxolani they could, for the first time in several centuries, trade indirectly with the Pontic Steppe and the Black Sea.[54] It is believed the Iazyges traveled through Small Wallachia until they reached the Wallachian Plain, but there is little archeological evidence to prove this.[208] Cypraea shells began to appear in this area in the last quarter of the 2nd century.[209] Quadi[edit] The scholar Higham suggests that there was some degree of "long-term collaboration" between the Iazyges and the Quadi, noting that they were allied in the late 2nd century AD, and that the Iazyges ceded the western portions of their land to them shortly after arriving in the Pannonian Basin, apparently without conflict.[93] List of princes[edit] Gesander ? – ?[210][211][212] Banadaspus: ? – 174 AD[147] Zanticus: 174 AD–?[147] Benga and Babaï: co-rulers in 470–471 AD[213] See also[edit] Zichia Záh (gens) Gothic Wars Pannonian Avars References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Singular Iazyx, /ˈaɪəzɪks/; classical pronunciation IPA: [ˈjaːzːygeːs] and IPA: [ˈjaːzːyks] respectively; Ancient Greek: Ἰάζυγες, singular Ἰάζυξ. ^ Sugarloaf helms are a type of conical great helm.[36] ^ Barding is the practice of giving armor to a horse to protect it.[42] ^ Some sources say that Domitian was offered a triumph, but refused.[109] ^ Presumably around nine of them, because during this period nine legions were permanently stationed around the Danube.[121] ^ It was said by some Roman leaders, such as Quadratus, that it was crucial to the Romans that the Iazyges not join in on the Dacian side.[126] ^ Cichorius identified them as Iazyges, however Frere and Lepper have identified them as Roxolani.[131][132] ^ The most likely reason Marcus Aurelius offered more for him alive than dead is that he planned to parade him in a triumph, which was the standard Roman treatment of captured leaders.[149] ^ Cassius Dio claims it was Marcus Aurelius rather than the Iazyges who imprisoned Banadaspus.[155] ^ This number is significant, as the Marcomanni, for whom the war is named after, took only 30,000 hostages. 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Ţentea, Ovidiu; Opriș, Ioan C.; Popescu, Mariana-Cristina (2009). Near and Beyond the Roman Frontiers: Proceedings of a Colloquium Held in Târgoviște. National History Museum of Romania. OCLC 909836612. Todd, Malcolm (2002). Migrants & invaders: the movement of peoples in the ancient world. Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-1437-9. Tschen-Emmons, James B. (2015). Artifacts from Medieval Europe. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-622-7. Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (2001). North Pontic Archaeology: Recent Discoveries and Studies. Brill. ISBN 9789004120419. Ulanowski, Krzysztof (2016). The Religious Aspects of War in the Ancient Near East, Greece, and Rome: Ancient Warfare Series (1st ed.). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-32476-3. Vagalinski, Lyudmil Ferdinandov (2007). The lower Danube in antiquity (VI C BC – VI C AD) : international archaeological Conference, Bulgaria-Tutrakan. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, National Institute of Archaeology and Museum. ISBN 978-954-90387-8-1. Várdy, Steven Béla (1991). Attila: King of the Huns. Chelsea House. ISBN 978-1-55546-803-3. Venning, T.; Harris, J. (2006). Chronology of the Byzantine Empire. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-50586-5. von Hesberg, Henner (1990). Bullettino dell'Instituto archeologico germanico, Sezione romana. Philipp von Zabern Verlag. OCLC 637572094. Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European peoples (2nd ed.). Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4964-6. Watson, Paul Barron (1884). Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Harper & brothers. OCLC 940511169. Wellesley, Kenneth (2002). Year of the Four Emperors. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-56227-5. Wijsman, Henri J.W. (2000). Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, Book VI : a commentary. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11718-1. Wilkes, John (1984). The Roman Army: Cambridge Introduction to the History of Mankind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521072434. Williams, Gareth D. (1994). Banished Voices: Readings in Ovid's Exile Poetry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521451369. Williams, Derek (1997). The Reach of Rome: a History of the Roman Imperial Frontier 1st-5th centuries AD. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0312156312. Zahariade, Mihail (1998). The Roman Frontier at the Lower Danube, 4th-6th centuries. Romanian Institute of Thracology. ISBN 978-973-98829-3-4. Websites[edit] Bulat, V. "Ethno-Political map of ancient Eurasia". gumilevica.kulichki.net (in Russian). Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2017. "The British Library MS Viewer". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2017. Muscalu, Bogdan. "Views concerning barrel‑shaped vessels in the Sarmatian Iazyges environment". Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved January 18, 2017. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iazyges. Bennett, Julian. (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps, Indianapolis University Press, Bloomington. ISBN 978-0-415-24150-2 Birley, Anthony. (1987). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, Yale University Press, New Haven. ISBN 978-0-415-17125-0 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Iazyges" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 215. OCLC 954463552 Christian, David. (1999). A History of Russia, Mongolia and Central Asia, Vol. 1. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20814-3 Istvánovits, Eszter; Kulcsár, Valéria (2020). "Sarmatians on the Borders of the Roman Empire: Steppe Traditions and Imported Cultural Phenomena". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 26 (2): 391–402. doi:10.1163/15700577-12341381. Kerr, William George. (1995). A Chronological Study of the Marcomannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. OCLC 32861447 Kristó, Gyula. (1998). Magyarország története – 895–1301 (The History of Hungary – From 895 to 1301), Budapest: Osiris. ISBN 963-379-442-0. Macartney, C.A. (1962). Hungary: A Short History, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-00-612410-8 Peck, Harry Thurston. (1898). Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, New York. Harper and Brothers. ISBN 978-1-163-24933-8 Strayer, Joseph R., editor in chief. (1987). A Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY. ISBN 978-0-684-80642-6 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iazyges&oldid=1028481524" Categories: Sarmatian tribes Historical Iranian peoples Iranian nomads Ancient tribes in Dacia Ancient tribes in Hungary Ancient tribes in Serbia Roman Dacia Serbia in the Roman era Roman buffer states Ancient tribes in Ukraine Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from October 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2018 Good articles Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Church Slavonic-language text CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Serbian-language sources (sr) CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano Қазақша Latina Magyar Nederlands Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 07:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5776	----	Gaius Musonius Rufus - Wikipedia Gaius Musonius Rufus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman Stoic philosopher Gaius Musonius Rufus Born c. AD 20 – 30 Volsinii, Etruria Died As late as AD 101 Nationality Roman Other names Musonius Rufus Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Gaius Musonius Rufus (/ˈruːfəs/; Greek: Μουσώνιος Ῥοῦφος) was a Roman Stoic philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in Rome during the reign of Nero and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under Galba. He was allowed to stay in Rome when Vespasian banished all other philosophers from the city in 71 AD although he was eventually banished anyway, returning only after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of Epictetus. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Philosophy 4 Notes 5 Further reading 5.1 Translations 5.2 Studies 6 External links Life[edit] The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in Volsinii, Etruria[1] about 20–30 AD. By the time of Nero, he was already famous in Rome, where he taught Stoic philosophy. He was associated with the Stoic Opposition against the perceived tyranny of Nero. He followed Rubellius Plautus into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD).[2] He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching Stoicism, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at Nero's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of Gyaros (65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in the Pisonian conspiracy.[3] While Gyaros was "harsh and devoid of human culture",[4] Musonius was able to survive and form a small community of philosophers.[5] He specifically refers to his time in exile in his ninth discourse, pointing out its advantages for a practitioner of Stoicism.[6] He returned under Galba (68 AD). When Marcus Antonius Primus, the general of Vespasian, was marching upon Rome (69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by Vitellius to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop.[7] When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of, Publius Egnatius Celer, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned Barea Soranus.[8] It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught Epictetus, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD),[9] but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.[10] Writings[edit] Chapter 1, page 1, of the works of Gaius Musonius Rufus, in Greek, edited by Otto Hense in the Teubner series, 1905. The Suda states that there are "speeches about philosophy bearing his name," and mentions letters to Apollonius of Tyana.[11] The letters that survive[12] are certainly not authentic.[13] It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of Discourses, by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by Stobaeus.[14] A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers.[15] The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows: That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue That Women Too Should Study Philosophy Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons? Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice? On Training That One Should Disdain Hardships That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy That Exile is not an Evil Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury? What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher? On Sexual Indulgence What is the Chief End of Marriage Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy? Should Every Child that is Born be Raised? Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances? What is the Best Viaticum for Old Age? On Food On Clothing and Shelter On Furnishings On Cutting the Hair Philosophy[edit] Papyrus fragment P.Harr. I 1, showing a section of Discourse 15 of Gaius Musonius Rufus. 3rd century. His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. The philosophy he would have everyone cultivate is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but one that everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for himself.[16] Still, he considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair to grow, and to retire from general society.[16] At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind.[17] His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action.[17] He does not reject logic: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the fallacy which perplexes it;[18] yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the sophists.[19] He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines of the Stoics; he asserts that the gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown.[19] The human soul he considers to be akin to the gods,[19] and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed.[20] He strongly asserts the liberty of the rational soul (Greek: διάνοια).[20] Musonius pays much more attention to ethics than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and women, should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue.[20] He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the mind is filled from childhood, and the evil habits confirmed by practices.[21] Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept.[21] He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.[22] A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature.[22] He combats all selfishness, and regards marriage not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race.[22] He zealously protests against the exposure of children as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of benevolence.[22] His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet, the care of the body, clothing, and even furniture. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the beard on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body.[22] He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.[22] Musonius argued because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue is the same, both should be trained in philosophy.[23] Notes[edit] ^ Suda μ 1305, Musonius ^ Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 59 ^ Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71; Cassius Dio, lxii. 27; Philostratus, Vit. Apoll., vii. 16 ^ … addidit insulam Gyarum immitem et sine cultu hominum esse: In the Annales, Tiberius is portrayed as extraordinarily cruel and vengeful, making his hesitance to exile a criminal to Gyaros particularly pointed. ^ Dillon, J. T. (2004). Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0761829027. ^ "Lecture IX - TheStoicLife.org". www.thestoiclife.org. Retrieved 2019-04-19. ^ Tacitus, Histories, iii. 81 ^ Tacitus, Histories, iv. 10, 40 ^ Cassius Dio, lxv. 13 ^ Pliny, Epistles, iii. 11 ^ Suda μ 1305, Musonius ^ Philostratus, Vit. Apoll., iv. 46 ^ Maria Dzielska, (1986), Apollonius of Tyana in Legend and History, page 41. ISBN 88-7062-599-0 ^ Stobaeus, Floril. xxix. 78, lvi. 18 ^ e.g. Aulus Gellius, v. 1, ix. 2, xvi. 1 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, The History of Ancient Philosophy, Alexander James William Morrison, tr. (London, 1846), vol. IV, p. 190. ^ a b Ritter, p. 191. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 7 ^ a b c Ritter, p. 192. ^ a b c Ritter, p. 193. ^ a b Ritter, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f Ritter, p. 195. ^ Diotima, Philosophers on the Role of Women Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Cora Lutz, (1947), Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates. Printed in: Yale Classical Studies, Volume X. Edited by A. R. Bellinger. Yale University Press. Cynthia King, (2011), Musonius Rufus: Lectures and Sayings. Edited by William B. Irvine. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1-4564-5966-6 Studies[edit] J. T. Dillon, (2004), Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue. University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2902-4 L. Dottarelli, (2015), "Musonio l'Etrusco. La filosofia come scienza di vita", Annulli Editori ISBN 9788895187457. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gaius Musonius Rufus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gaius Musonius Rufus Diotima, Philosophers on the Role of Women International Vegetarian Union: C. RUFUS MUSONIUS Musonius Rufus entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online edition of Lectures and Fragments v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Musonius_Rufus&oldid=1027622217" Categories: 1st-century births 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans Ethicists Feminist philosophers Logicians Male feminists Members of the Pisonian conspiracy Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of sexuality Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers Virtue ethicists Ancient Roman delatores Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 00:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5796	----	Category:Roman philhellenes - Wikipedia Help Category:Roman philhellenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Roman philhellenes" The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). H Hadrian Horace J Julian (emperor) M Marcus Aurelius N Nero Q Titus Quinctius Flamininus S Scipio Aemilianus Scipio Africanus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Roman_philhellenes&oldid=744505872" Categories: Philhellenes Ancient Romans Greco-Roman relations in classical antiquity Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 15 October 2016, at 17:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5801	----	Limes Germanicus - Wikipedia Limes Germanicus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The Limes Germanicus (Latin for Germanic frontier) is the name given in modern times to a line of frontier (limes) fortifications that bounded the ancient Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Raetia, dividing the Roman Empire and the unsubdued Germanic tribes from the years 83 to about 260 AD. The Limes used either a natural boundary such as a river or typically an earth bank and ditch with a wooden palisade and watchtowers at intervals. A system of linked forts was built behind the Limes. The path of the limes changed over time following advances and retreats due to pressure from external threats. At its height, the Limes Germanicus stretched from the North Sea outlet of the Rhine to near Regensburg (Castra Regina) on the Danube. These two major rivers afforded natural protection from mass incursions into imperial territory, with the exception of a gap stretching roughly from Mogontiacum (Mainz) on the Rhine to Castra Regina. The Limes Germanicus was divided into: The Lower Germanic Limes, which extended from the North Sea at Katwijk in the Netherlands along the then main Lower Rhine branches (modern Oude Rijn, Leidse Rijn, Kromme Rijn, Nederrijn) The Upper Germanic Limes started from the Rhine at Rheinbrohl (Neuwied (district)) across the Taunus mountains to the river Main (East of Hanau), then along the Main to Miltenberg, and from Osterburken (Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis) south to Lorch (in Ostalbkreis, Württemberg) in a nearly perfect straight line of more than 70 km; The Rhaetian Limes extended east from Lorch to Eining (close to Kelheim) on the Danube. The total length was 568 km (353 mi). It included at least 60 forts and 900 watchtowers. The potentially weakest, hence most heavily guarded, part of the Limes was the aforementioned gap between the westward bend of the Rhine at modern-day Mainz and the main flow of the Danube at Regensburg. This 300-kilometre (190 mi) wide land corridor between the two great rivers permitted movement of large groups of people without the need for water transport, hence the heavy concentration of forts and towers there, arranged in depth and in multiple layers along waterways, fords, roads, and hilltops. Contents 1 History 1.1 Augustus 1.2 14 to c. 73 1.3 Flavian dynasty 1.4 Hadrian and the Antonines 1.5 Late Roman Empire 2 Description and functionality of the limes 3 Roman forts along the limes 3.1 Lower Germanic Limes 3.2 Upper Germanic Limes 3.3 Rhaetian Limes 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links History[edit] Map showing the Roman province of Germania with the Limes Germanicus Reconstructed Limes near Saalburg, Germany. Reconstructed stone wall near Rainau-Buch. In the foreground: stone tower "WP 12/77" Roman border defences have become much better known through systematic excavations financed by Germany and through other research connected to them. In 2005, the remnants of the Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes were inscribed on the List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as Frontiers of the Roman Empire,[1] with lower Limes being placed on the tentative list in 2011, aiming to extend the world heritage site to the whole limes.[2] The Saalburg is a reconstructed fortification and museum of the Limes near Frankfurt. Augustus[edit] The first emperor who began to build fortifications along the border was Augustus, shortly after the devastating Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. Originally there were numerous Limes walls, which were then connected to form the Upper Germanic Limes along the Rhine and the Rhaetian Limes along the Danube. Later these two walls were linked to form a common borderline. 14 to c. 73[edit] From the death of Augustus (14 AD) until after 70 AD, Rome accepted as her Germanic frontier the water-boundary of the Rhine and upper Danube. Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of Frankfurt, opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the southernmost slopes of the Black Forest and a few scattered bridge-heads. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary until the empire fell. The southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory between the modern Baden and Württemberg. The Germanic populations of these lands seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern Alsace-Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards. The motives alike of geographical convenience and of the advantages to be gained by recognising these movements of Roman subjects combined to urge a forward policy at Rome, and when the vigorous Vespasian had succeeded Nero, a series of advances began which gradually closed up the acute angle, or at least rendered it obtuse. Roman limes and modern boundaries. Flavian dynasty[edit] The first advance came about 74 AD, when what is now Baden was invaded and partly annexed and a road carried from the Roman base on the upper Rhine, Straßburg, to the Danube just above Ulm. The point of the angle was broken off. The second advance was made by Domitian about 83 AD. He pushed out from Moguntiacum, extended the Roman territory east of it and enclosed the whole within a systematically delimited and defended frontier with numerous blockhouses along it and larger forts in the rear. Among the blockhouses was one which by various enlargements and refoundations grew into the well-known Saalburg fort on the Taunus near Bad Homburg. This advance necessitated a third movement, the construction of a frontier connecting the annexations of 74 and 83 AD. We know the line of this frontier which ran from the Main across the upland Odenwald to the upper waters of the Neckar and was defended by a chain of forts. We do not, however, know its date, save that, if not Domitian's work, it was carried out soon after his death, and the whole frontier thus constituted was reorganised, probably by Hadrian, with a continuous wooden palisade reaching from Rhine to Danube. Hadrian and the Antonines[edit] The tower "WP 14/55" at the Upper German-Raetian border wall The angle between the rivers was now almost full. But there remained further advance and further fortification. Either Hadrian or, more probably, his successor Antoninus Pius pushed out from the Odenwald and the Danube, and marked out a new frontier roughly parallel to, but in advance of these two lines, though sometimes, as on the Taunus, coinciding with the older line. This is the frontier which is now visible and visited by the curious. It consists, as we see it today, of two distinct frontier works, one, known as the Pfahlgraben, is a palisade of stakes with a ditch and earthen mound behind it, best seen in the neighbourhood of the Saalburg but once extending from the Rhine southwards into southern Germany. The other, which begins where the earthwork stops, is a wall, though not a very formidable wall, of stone, the Teufelsmauer; it runs roughly east and west parallel to the Danube, which it finally joins at Heinheim near Regensburg. The southern part of the Pfahlgraben is remarkably straight; for over 50 km (31 mi) it points almost absolutely true for Polaris. This frontier remained for about 100 years, and no doubt in that long period much was done to it to which precise dates are difficult to fix. It cannot even be absolutely certain when the frontier laid out by Pius was equipped with the manpitts and other special fortifications. But we know that the pressure of the barbarians began to be felt seriously in the later part of the 2nd century, and after long struggles the whole or almost the whole district east of the Rhine and north of the Danube was lost, seemingly all within one short period, about 250. Late Roman Empire[edit] Germanic invasions in the late 3rd century led to the abandonment of the so-called "Upper Raetian Limes" in favour of a Roman defence line along the rivers Rhine, Iller and Danube (Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes). Support was provided to some degree by fast river boats, the navis lusoria being the standard type, that could reach outposts or points of crisis quickly. Watch towers were in sight contact and heavily fortified castra placed at important passes (e.g. Castrum Rauracense instead of the previously unwalled Augusta Raurica near to Basel) and in the hinterland of the frontier (e.g. Vindonissa in today's Switzerland). Description and functionality of the limes[edit] Reconstructed tower near Kastell Zugmantel. The limes itself is a relatively simple construction. It is similar to the fortification that a travelling troop of Roman soldiers would construct every evening to protect their camp from attacks. On the outside, the soldiers dug a ditch. The earth from the ditch was used to build a mound. On top of the mound, stakes were attached. The limes had a deeper ditch and a higher mound than a camp fortification. The stakes were higher, too, and placed in front of the ditch; on several parts of the limes, instead of stakes, there was a simple stone wall. Behind the wall or mound a system of control towers, built of wood or stone, was installed, each within sight of the next one, and usually able also to signal to the forts several kilometers to the rear. The Saalburg, a reconstruction of a Roman fort. The limes was never able to prevent whole Germanic tribes from entering the territory of the Roman Empire. This was not the intention of the builders. Near the watch towers, the limes was open to passage, especially by traders or persons coming to live or work within the Empire. The purpose of the limes was control of this traffic. To cross the limes it was necessary to pass the towers and so come to the notice of the garrison, or try to climb or destroy the wall and the stakes. Only individuals or small groups could climb the obstacles without being noticed, and they could not drive much stolen livestock with them. Large groups would be noticed; they could destroy one or several towers, but this also would draw the attention of the Romans. This knowledge of all traffic crossing the border was crucial to the Roman military. For a territory as large as the Roman Empire, there were few soldiers, and almost all of the legions were based close to the frontiers. Any hostile band that managed to pass this outer area of defense could travel within the Empire without much resistance. The limes provided an early warning system, deterrence of casual small-scale raiding, and the ability to counteract attacks while the enemy was still near the border fortresses and garrisons. The limes may also have been a bulwark to control the movement of groups of people, like the fence system along the American-Mexican border.[3] Roman forts along the limes[edit] See also: Romans in the Netherlands and The German Wikipedia on these forts Lower Germanic Limes Upper Germanic & Raetian Limes Lower Germanic Limes[edit] The Netherlands:[4] Katwijk (Lugdunum Batavorum) Valkenburg (Praetorium Agrippinae) Leiden-Roomburg (Matilo) Alphen aan den Rijn (Albaniana) Zwammerdam (Nigrum Pullum) Bodegraven Woerden (Laurium) Vleuten (Fletio) Utrecht (Traiectum) Vechten (Fectio) Rijswijk (Levefanum) Maurik (Mannaricium) Kesteren (Carvo) Arnhem-Meinerswijk (believed to be Castra Herculis) Duiven Herwen-De Bijland (Carvium) Germany: Kleve-Rinderen (Harenatium)[5] Bedburg-Hau-Qualburg (Quadriburgium) Till-Moyland (now known as Kastell Steincheshof) Kalkar-Altkalkar (Burginatium) Xanten (Castra Vetera) Wesel-Büderich (Kastell Wesel-Büderich) Halen (Calo)[6] Duisburg-Baerl Moers-Asberg (Asciburgium) Rheinhausen-Werthausen (Kleinkastell Werthausen) Krefeld-Gellep-Stratum (Gelduba) Neuss-Gnadental (Novaesium) Neuss-Grimlinghausen Monheim am Rhein (Burungum) Dormagen (Durnomagus) Köln (Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium) Bonn (Bonnensia) Remagen (Rigomagus) Upper Germanic Limes[edit] Rheinbrohl (now known by the name Kleinkastell Rheinbrohl) Bad Ems (now known as Kastell Ems) Adolfseck (Kleinkastell Adolfseck) Bad Homburg (Saalburg) Wetterau (Civitas Taunensium) Marköbel Großkrotzenburg am Main Hainstadt Miltenberg Rehberg Walldüm Buchen Osterburken Jagsthausen Welzheim (Kastelle von Welzheim) Haghof Lorch (probably Lauriacum)[7] Rhaetian Limes[edit] Aalen (Alae) Ruffenhofen Gunzenhausen (Kastell Gunzenhausen) Weißenburg (Biriciana) Kipfenberg (Kastell Böhming) Eining (Abusina) Regensburg (Castra Regina) Pfünz (Castra Vetoniana) See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Danevirke Danube Limes Limesfall Silesia Walls References[edit] This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Limes Germanicus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) ^ "Frontiers of the Roman Empire". UNESCO. ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5636/ ^ such as Klee, M., quoted in Schmid, A., Schmid, R., Möhn, A., Die Römer an Rhein und Main (Frankfurt: Societäts-Verlag, revised edition 2006). ^ As with the Upper Germanic Limes, sorted in geographical order: from northwest to southeast. For the location of these castella, see: the Tabula Peutingeriana; Ravennatis Anonymus Cosmographia IV.24. ^ Tacitus Histories 5.20 gives Arenacium, while the Tabula Peutingeriana gives Arenatio. The older Itinerarium Antonini gives its name as Harenatium. ^ In the Itinerarium Antonini nine leagues (ca. 20 km) south of Vetera and nine leagues north of Gelduba. ^ Based on the Roman name for the town of Lorch (Austria). See the article on Lauriacum. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Tabula Peutingeriana Secondary sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Limes Germanicus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 695–696. A good English account can be found in H. F. Pelham's essay in Trans. of the Royal Hist. Soc. vol. 20, reprinted in his Collected Papers, pp. 178–211 (Oxford, 1910), where the German authorities are fully cited. D.J. Woolliscroft, Roman Military Signalling. Stroud and Charleston: Tempus Publishing, 2001. p. 191. ISBN 0-7524-1938-2. A study mainly of intervisibility along the Rhine and British limites. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Limes Germanicus. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for The German Limes Road. Vici.org[permanent dead link] Interactive map of the full Limes Germanicus Interactive map of the Deutsche Limeskommission The Upper German-Raetian border wall v t e World Heritage Sites in Germany For official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in Germany. Northern ADGB Trade Union School Berlin Modernism Housing Estates Bremen Town Hall and Roland on the Marketplace Fagus Factory in Alfeld Hedeby and the Danevirke Archaeological Border Complex St. Mary's Cathedral and St. Michael's Church at Hildesheim Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin Hanseatic City of Lübeck Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin Mines of Rammelsberg, Historic Town of Goslar and Upper Harz Water Management System Speicherstadt and Kontorhaus District with Chilehaus in Hamburg Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar Central Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm Dresden Elbe Valley (delisted in 2009) Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region1 Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski2 Naumburg Cathedral Collegiate Church, Castle, and Old Town of Quedlinburg Wartburg Castle Classical Weimar Western Aachen Cathedral Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust at Brühl Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe Cologne Cathedral Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey Upper Middle Rhine Valley Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St. Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier Speyer Cathedral Völklingen Ironworks Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex in Essen Southern Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier Town of Bamberg Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura Frontiers of the Roman Empire:3 Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes Maulbronn Monastery Complex Margravial Opera House Monastic Island of Reichenau Old Town of Regensburg with Stadtamhof Pilgrimage Church of Wies Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps4 Water Management System of Augsburg Würzburg Residence with the Court Gardens and Residence Square Natural Messel Pit Fossil Site Ancient Beech Forests5 Wadden Sea6 1 Shared with the Czech Republic 2 Shared with Poland 3 Shared with the United Kingdom 4 Shared with Austria, France, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland 5 Shared with Slovakia and Ukraine 6 Shared with the Netherlands and Denmark v t e Ancient Roman sites in Germany Germania (Germania Superior, Germania Inferior) Cities Trier Mainz Cologne Xanten Barricades Limes Germanicus Camps Flevum Roman camp Bentumersiel Marching camp Ermelo Marching camp Holsterhausen Aliso Cohort camp Haltern Roman camp Olfen Shore fort Beckinghausen Roman fort Bielefeld-Sennestadt Roman camp Oberaden Roman camp Kneblinghausen Roman camp Anreppen Roman camp Porta Westfalica Roman camp Hedemünden Roman camp Limburg Roman camp Oberbrechen Waldgirmes Forum Roman camp Dorlar Roman camp, Marktbreit Marching camp Hachelbich Marching camp Wilkenburg Coordinates: 50°18′00″N 7°48′00″E / 50.3000°N 7.8000°E / 50.3000; 7.8000 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limes_Germanicus&oldid=1026143320" Categories: World Heritage Sites in Germany History of Baden-Württemberg History of Hesse History of Bavaria Landmarks in Germany Fortification lines Roman fortifications in the Netherlands Roman frontiers Linear earthworks Roman fortifications in Germania Inferior Roman fortifications in Germania Superior Roman fortifications in Rhaetia Buildings and structures in Utrecht (city) Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles needing additional references from January 2013 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages العربية Català Dansk Español Euskara Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių მარგალური Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 16:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5833	----	Liebieghaus - Wikipedia Liebieghaus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Liebieghaus is a late 19th-century villa in Frankfurt, Germany. It contains a sculpture museum, the Städtische Galerie Liebieghaus, which is part of the Museumsufer on the Sachsenhausen bank of the River Main. Max Hollein (b. 1969, Vienna) has been the director of the Städel Museum since January 2006. The Liebieghaus. Abbot Saint, unknown artist show depot St Mary Magdalene, Hans Multscher Dannecker's Ariadne on the Panther. Contents 1 History 2 Collection 3 Exhibitions (temporary) 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links History[edit] The Liebieghaus was built in 1896, in a palatial, Historicist style, as a retirement home for the Bohemian textile manufacturer Baron Heinrich von Liebieg (1839–1904). The city of Frankfurt acquired the building in 1908 and devoted it to the sculpture collection.[1] A renovation was completed in October 2009. This included adding a publicly accessible "Open Depot", making it possible for the first time to view certain parts of the collection that are not in the permanent exhibition.[1] Collection[edit] The museum includes ancient Greek, Roman and Egyptian sculpture, as well as Medieval, Baroque, Renaissance and Classicist pieces, and works from the Far East.[2][3] The collection was built up mostly through endowments and international purchases, and is universal in scope, with no particular link to the art or history of Frankfurt. The building stands on the Schaumainkai, in a garden in which a number of sculptures are also on display, including a replica of Dannecker's Ariadne on the Panther. The original, which was acquired by the banker Simon Moritz von Bethmann in 1810, is currently in the depot. Other major exhibits include:[4][5] A marble discobolus A marble statue of Athena, a Roman copy of a Greek original by Myron Carolingian reliefs carved from ivory (mid-9th century) An Ottonian crucifix (mid-11th century) A Romanesque king's head from a statue from the Île-de-France Fragments from a Florentine tomb by Tino di Camaino (probably after 1318) An alabaster sculpture of the Trinity by Hans Multscher (c.1430) A Woman of the Apocalypse by Tilman Riemenschneider The Rimini Altar, an alabaster calvary from northern France (c.1430) A late-Gothic/early-Renaissance bust of Bärbel von Ottenheim, the mistress of Jakob von Lichtenberg (the Vogt of Strasbourg), by Nikolaus Gerhaert (1463–64). Exhibitions (temporary)[edit] 2012: From June 20 to September 23, 2012, Jeff Koons. The Sculptor (at the Liebieghaus) 2011/12: From October 27, 2011 to March 4, 2012, Niclaus Gerhaert. The Medieval Sculptor See also[edit] Museumsufer List of museums in Germany List of art museums Notes[edit] ^ a b The Liebieghaus / History (in English) ^ Artworks (in English) ^ Sahure: Death and Life of a Great Pharaoh at Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung Marius Becker, ArtDaily. (in English) ^ Bildindex der Kunst und Architektur (in German) ^ Germany – Tourist Guide. Michelin et Cie. Watford (UK) / Clermont-Ferrand (France), 1996. ISBN 2-06-150402-7. ISSN 0763-1383. (in English) Further reading[edit] Wolf-Christian Setzepfandt: Architekturführer Frankfurt am Main. Third edition. Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 2002. ISBN 3-496-01236-6. (in German) Vinzenz Brinkmann, Maraike Bückling, Stefan Roller: Meisterwerke im Liebieghaus. Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung. Petersberg, Imhof, 2008. ISBN 978-3-86568-364-9. (in German) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liebieghaus. Home page in English Die neue Antike: una visita alle sale di scultura classica della Liebieghaus di Francoforte Anna Anguissola, LARTTE, 30 October 2009. 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en-wikipedia-org-583	----	Apatheia - Wikipedia Apatheia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic concept of equanimity or dispassion Apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; from a- "without" and pathos "suffering" or "passion"), in Stoicism, refers to a state of mind in which one is not disturbed by the passions. It is best translated by the word equanimity rather than indifference. The meaning of the word apatheia is quite different from that of the modern English apathy, which has a distinctly negative connotation. According to the Stoics, apatheia was the quality that characterized the sage. Whereas Aristotle had claimed that virtue was to be found in the golden mean between an excess and a deficiency of emotion (metriopatheia), the Stoics thought that living virtuously provided freedom from the passions, resulting in apatheia.[1] It meant eradicating the tendency to react emotionally or egotistically to external events, the things that cannot be controlled. For Stoics, it was the optimally rational response to the world, for things cannot be controlled if they are caused by the will of others or by Nature; only one's own will can be controlled. That did not mean a loss of feeling, or total disengagement from the world. The Stoic who performs correct (virtuous) judgments and actions as part of the world order experiences contentment (eudaimonia) and good feelings (eupatheia). Pain is slight if opinion has added nothing to it;... in thinking it slight, you will make it slight. Everything depends on opinion; ambition, luxury, greed, hark back to opinion. It is according to opinion that we suffer.... So let us also win the way to victory in all our struggles, – for the reward is... virtue, steadfastness of soul, and a peace that is won for all time. — Seneca, Epistles, lxxviii. 13–16 The term was later adopted by Plotinus in his development of Neoplatonism, in which apatheia was the soul's freedom from emotion achieved when it reaches its purified state. The term passed into early Christian teaching in which apatheia meant freedom from unruly urges or compulsions. It is still used in that sense in Orthodox Christian spirituality, and especially in monastic practice. Apatheia is contrasted with ataraxia, a related concept in Epicureanism and Pyrrhonism, although some Latin Stoic authors, such as Seneca the Younger use the term interchangeably with apatheia. In Epicureanism ataraxia comes from freedom from pain and fear. In Pyrrhonism it comes from the eradication of disturbing feelings that depend on beliefs about non-evident matters (i.e., dogma). See also[edit] Look up apatheia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Detachment, a related concept in Ignatian spirituality Nirvana, a similar unconditioned state described in Buddhism Upekkha, a related concept described in Buddhism Vairagya, a related concept in Hindu philosophy. Notes[edit] This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Apatheia and the Stoic Treatment of Emotions" References[edit] Richard Sorabji, (2002), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation, Oxford University Press v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Ancient Greek philosophical concepts Adiaphora (nonmoral) Anamnesis (recollection) Apatheia (equanimity) Apeiron (the unlimited) Aponia (pleasure) Aporia (impasse) Arche (first principle) Arete (excellence) Ataraxia (tranquility) Becoming Being Cosmos (order) Demiurge (creator) Diairesis (division) Diegesis (narrate) Differentia / Genus Doxa (common opinion) Dunamis / Energeia (potentiality / actuality) Episteme (knowledge) Epoché (suspension) Ethos (character) Eudaimonia (flourishing) Henosis (oneness) Hexis (active condition) Hyle (matter) Hylomorphism (matter and form) Hylozoism (matter and life) Hypokeimenon (substratum) Hypostasis (underpinning) Idea (Idea) Katalepsis (comprehension) Kathēkon (proper function) Logos (reasoned discourse) Metempsychosis (reincarnation) Mimesis (imitation) Monad (unit) Nous (intellect) Oikeiôsis (affinity) Ousia (substance) Pathos (emotional) Phronesis (practical wisdom) Physis (natural law) Sophia (wisdom) Telos (purpose) Tetractys (fourth triangular number) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatheia&oldid=1017451022" Categories: Concepts in ancient Greek philosophy of mind Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2016 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Polski Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2021, at 20:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5857	----	Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Adoptive father of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (c. 50 – 138 AD) This article is about the Roman senator and three-times consul. For his son the praetor, see Marcus Annius Verus (praetor). For his grandson the emperor, see Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Verus (II) (c. 50 – 138 AD) was the grandfather and adoptive father of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and father-in-law of Emperor Antoninus Pius. Contents 1 Biography 2 Family 3 Nerva–Antonine family tree 4 References 5 Further reading Biography[edit] Verus was the son of an elder Marcus Annius Verus, who gained the rank of senator and praetor. His family originated from Uccibi (modern Espejo) near Corduba (modern Córdoba) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. The family came to prominence and became wealthy through olive oil production in Spain.[1] He was close friends with the emperor Hadrian. He was prefect of Rome and was enrolled as a patrician when Vespasian and Titus were censors. Verus was three times consul, the first time as a suffect in 97,[2] then as ordinary consul in both 121 and 126. This is apparently the cause for a "very strange inscription, found on a large marble tablet excavated in the sixteenth century at St. Peter's in Rome" which alludes to this achievement while celebrating his skill "playing with a glass ball". Edward Champlin notes it was likely the creation of a friendly rival, Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, who also held the consulate three times the last after Verus.[3] One explanation is that the whole thing is a joke, based on the connection between Verus' known passion for playing ball and the notion of the ball game as political juggling: an elegant, self-deprecating and rather bitter joke, one not wholly complimentary to Verus. The aged L. Iulius Servianus wrote the piece himself, had it engraved on a marble slab - perhaps accompanying it with the statue of a toga-clad bear playing ball? - and had it delivered to M. Annius Verus on the Kalends of January, 126. When next they met, the two old men affected to laugh heartily at the joke. Fantasy perhaps, but this is a very strange inscription. He died in 138, nearly aged ninety. Marcus Aurelius says in his "Meditations": "From my grandfather Verus, [I learned] a kindly disposition and sweetness of temper".[4] In his elder years, he had a mistress, of whom he expresses gratitude that "I wasn’t raised by my grandfather's mistress for longer than I was".[5] Family[edit] Verus married Rupilia Faustina, a daughter of the niece of Trajan, Matidia, and had at least three children:[6] Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Elder, a future Empress, having married the future Emperor Antoninus Pius; Marcus Annius Libo, a future consul; and, Marcus Annius Verus (III), a praetor who married Domitia Lucilla and became father to future Emperor Marcus Aurelius (also named Marcus Annius Verus at birth) and his sister Annia Cornificia Faustina. Ronald Syme suggests, based on onomastic evidence, that they had a fourth child, a daughter Annia, who married Gaius Ummidius Quadratus Sertorius Severus.[7] After Verus the son died in 124, the elder Verus adopted, and, together with their mother Domitia, raised their two grandchildren.[8] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, a Biography (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 28 ^ Fausto Zevi "I consoli del 97 d. Cr. in due framenti gia' editi dei Fasti Ostienses", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 96 (1973), pp. 125-137 ^ Champlin, "The Glass Ball Game", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 60 (1985), pp. 159-163 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i.1 ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i.17 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 28f ^ Syme, "Ummidius Quadratus, Capax Imperii", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83 (1979), p. 308 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31 Further reading[edit] Marcus Aurelius on Roman Empire.net Historia Augusta on Marcus Aurelius Meditations by Marcus Aurelius Political offices Preceded by Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus II, and Gaius Calpurnius Piso as Suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 97 with Lucius Neratius Priscus Succeeded by Lucius Domitius Apollinaris, and Sextus Hermentidius Campanus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Gaius Carminius Gallus, and Gaius Atilius Serranus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 121 with Gnaeus Arrius Augur Succeeded by Marcus Herennius Faustus, and Quintus Pomponius Marcellus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Quintus Vetina Verus, and Publius Lucius Cosconianus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 126 with Gaius Eggius Ambibulus Succeeded by Lucius Valerius Propinquus, and Gaius Eggius Ambibulus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Verus_(grandfather_of_Marcus_Aurelius)&oldid=1002811120" Categories: 50s births 138 deaths Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Imperial Roman consuls Urban prefects of Rome Annii 2nd-century Romans Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Estremeñu Euskara Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5881	----	Annia gens - Wikipedia Annia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Families from Ancient Rome who shared the Annius nomen Denarius of Gaius Annius, minted c. 81 BC, on his way to fight Sertorius. The obverse depicts Anna Perenna.[1] The gens Annia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Livy mentions a Lucius Annius, praetor of the Roman colony of Setia, in 340 BC, and other Annii are mentioned at Rome during this period. Members of this gens held various positions of authority from the time of the Second Punic War, and Titus Annius Luscus attained the consulship in 153 BC. In the second century AD, the Annii gained the Empire itself; Marcus Aurelius was descended from this family.[2] Contents 1 Origin 2 Praenomina 3 Branches and cognomina 4 Members 4.1 Annii Lusci 4.2 Annii Bellieni 4.3 Annii Veri 4.4 Others 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography Origin[edit] The Annii claimed a descent from the goddess Anna Perenna, the sister of Dido, portrayed on the coins of Gaius Annius Luscus.[3] The nomen Annius was classified by Chase as one of Picentine origin, while the first of the Annii appearing in history (in 340 BC) was praetor of Setia, originally a Volscian town, captured by the Romans in 382 BC. Both the Picentes and the Volsci spoke Umbrian languages, so it may be that Annius was a member of an old Volscian family, rather than one of the Latin colonists, on whose behalf he spoke.[4][5] It seems the gens acquired the citizenship soon after, since a Roman senator named Annius is recorded a generation later. Praenomina[edit] The main families of the Annii at Rome used the praenomina Titus, Marcus, Lucius, and Gaius. Other names occur infrequently, although in imperial times several of the Annii used Appius, an otherwise uncommon praenomen chiefly associated with the Claudii. Branches and cognomina[edit] A number of Annii during the Republic bore no cognomen. The main family of the Annii was surnamed Luscus, "bleary-eyed" or, "one-eyed". One member of this family bore the additional surname Rufus, probably in reference to his red hair.[6][7] A variety of surnames were borne by individual Annii, including Asellus, a diminutive of asinus, a donkey; Bassus, stout; Cimber, one of the Cimbri; Faustus, fortunate; Gallus, a Gaul or cockerel; and Pollio, a polisher.[8][9] Bellienus or Billienus, sometimes described as a cognomen of the Annii, was in fact a separate gens, although Cicero refers to a Gaius Annius Bellienus; it is not certain which of the Bellieni mentioned below actually belong to the Annia gens.[10] Members[edit] This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation. Annii Lusci[edit] Marcus Annius (Luscus), triumvir for the founding of colonies in Cisalpine Gaul in 218 BC, obliged by a sudden rising of the Boii to take refuge in Mutina.[11] Titus Annius M. f. Luscus, sent as an envoy to Perseus in 172 BC, and triumvir for augmenting the colony at Aquileia in 169.[12] Titus Annius T. f. M. n. Luscus, consul in 153 BC, an orator who opposed Tiberius Gracchus in 133.[13] Titus Annius T. f. T. n. Luscus, surnamed Rufus, consul in 128 BC.[14] Gaius Annius T. f. T. n. Luscus, commander of the garrison at Leptis Magna under Metellus Numidicus during the Jugurthine War in 108 BC, and later sent by Sulla against Sertorius in 81, whom he compelled to retire to Carthago Nova.[15][16] Annia T. f. T. n., the wife of Gaius Papius Celsus and mother of Titus Annius Papianus Milo.[17] Titus Annius Papianus Milo, the son of Celsus and Annia, was adopted by his grandfather, Titus Annius Luscus, whose name he assumed. He was tribune of the plebs in 57 BC, and became a staunch opponent of Publius Clodius Pulcher, for whose murder he was unsuccessfully defended by Cicero in 52.[17] Annii Bellieni[edit] Lucius Annius C. f. Bellienus, praetor in 105 BC, served under Gaius Marius in the war against Jugurtha and Bocchus.[18][19] Gaius Annius Bellienus, legate of Marcus Fonteius in Gallia Narbonensis, circa 74 BC.[20] Lucius Annius Bellienus, uncle of Catiline, ordered by Sulla to kill Quintus Lucretius Afella, and condemned in 64 BC.[21] Lucius Annius Bellienus, whose house was burnt down after the murder of Caesar in 44 BC.[22] Annii Veri[edit] Marcus Annius Verus, a senator of Spanish descent, was the great-grandfather of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius M. f. Verus, the grandfather of Marcus Aurelius, obtained the consulship in an uncertain year under Domitian, and twice under Hadrian, in AD 121 and 126. Annia M. f. M. n. Galeria Faustina, better known as Faustina Major or Faustina the Elder, was the wife of Antoninus Pius, and Roman empress from AD 138 to 140; Marcus Aurelius was her nephew. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Libo, the uncle of Marcus Aurelius, was consul in AD 128 and 161. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Verus, the father of Marcus Aurelius, attained the praetorship, but died circa AD 124, leaving his children to be raised by their paternal grandfather. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Libo, son of Marcus Annius Libo, the consul of AD 128 and 161, was governor of Syria in AD 162. Annia M. f. M. n. Fundania Faustina, daughter of Marcus Annius Libo, the consul of AD 128 and 161, married Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio. She was later murdered on the orders of her cousin, the emperor Commodus. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Verus, afterwards Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 161 to 180. Annia M. f. M. n. Cornificia Faustina, the sister of Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, the twelfth son of Marcus Aurelius. Annia Faustina, the granddaughter of Annia Cornificia Faustina. Annia Aurelia Faustina, the daughter of Annia Faustina, married the emperor Elagabalus. Others[edit] Lucius Annius, praetor of Setia in 340 BC, demanded equality for the Latins. Lucius Annius, a senator in 307 BC, who was expelled from the senate by the censors.[23][24] Annius, a freedman, and reportedly the father of Gnaeus Flavius, curule aedile in 304 BC.[25][26] Gaius Annius C. f., a quaestor or praetor during the third century BC.[27][28] Annius, a Campanian ambassador to Rome in 216 BC, demanded that one of the consuls should henceforth be a Campanian.[29][30] Gaius Annius C. f., a senator in 135 BC.[31] Lucius Annius L. f., a senator in 135 BC.[31] Gaius Annius C. f., a senator in 129 BC, should probably be distinguished from the Gaius Annius of 135, who was a member of the tribus Camilia, while the senator of 129 was from Arniensis.[32] Marcus Annius P. f., quaestor in Macedonia circa 119 BC, won a victory over the Celts who had killed the propraetor Sextus Pompeius.[33][34] Lucius Annius, tribune of the plebs in 110 BC, possibly the son of Lucius Annius, senator in 135, wished to continue in office the next year, but was resisted by his colleagues.[35] Publius Annius, a military tribune in 87 BC, murdered Marcus Antonius, the orator, and brought his head to Marius.[36][37] Annia, the wife of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who died in 84 BC, and afterwards of Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus, whom Sulla compelled to divorce her, because of her former marriage to Cinna.[38] Publius Annius Asellus, a senator who died in 75 BC, leaving his only daughter as his heiress. His property was seized by the praetor Verres. He was quaestor in Sicily soon before.[39][40][41] Quintus Annius Chilo, a senator, and one of Catiline's conspirators in 63 BC.[42] Lucius Annius, a quaestor in Sicily before 50 BC.[40] Sextus Annius, a quaestor in Sicily before 50 BC.[40] Quintus Annius, an officer of Sextus Pompey in Sicily between 43 and 36 BC.[43] Gaius Annius Cimber, a supporter of Marcus Antonius in 43 BC. Annius, triumvir monetalis in 9 BC.[44] Gaius Annius C. f. Pollio, a senator known from the columbarium of his freedmen. Possibly the same as the triumvir monetalis of 9 BC; believed to be the father of Gaius Annius Pollio, consul in 21 or 22.[45] Gaius Annius C. f. C. n. Pollio, consul suffectus in either AD 21 or 22. Accused of majestas during the reign of Tiberius.[46][47] Lucius Annius Vinicianus, one of the men involved in the assassination of Caligula.[48] Gaius Annius Pollio, consul suffectus circa AD 66. An intimate friend of Nero, banished after being accused of participating in the conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso.[49] Lucius Annius L. f. Vinicianus, son of the Vinicianus who conspired against Caligula, was involved in a plot against Nero. He took his own life rather than defend himself. Annius Faustus, a man of equestrian rank, and one of the informers (delatores) in the reign of Nero, was condemned by the Senate in AD 69, on the accusation of Vibius Crispus.[50] Marcus Annius Afrinus, consul suffectus in AD 66. Appius Annius Gallus, consul suffectus in AD 67 and Roman general under the emperors Otho and Vespasian. Annius Bassus, commander of a legion under Marcus Antonius Primus in AD 70.[51] Appius Annius (Ap. f.) Trebonius Gallus, perhaps the son of Appius Annius Gallus, the consul of AD 67; consul in 108.[52] Appius Annius Ap. f. (Ap. n.) Trebonius Gallus, consul in AD 139.[53][54] father of: Appius Annius Ap. f. Ap. n. Atilius Bradua, consul in AD 160.[53][54][55] Appia Annia Ap. f. Ap. n. Regilla Atilia Caucidia Tertulla, better known as Aspasia Annia Regilla, daughter of the consul of AD 139, married Herodes Atticus.[52][53] Lucius Annius Arrianus, consul in AD 243. Annia Cupressenia Herennia Etruscilla, wife of the emperor Decius, and Roman empress from AD 248 to 251. She served as regent during the brief reign of her son Hostilian, who died in an epidemic before the end of 251. See also[edit] List of Roman gentes References[edit] ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 381-386. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 180 ("Annia Gens"), 439–443 ("Aurelius", "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus"). ^ Babelon, Monnaies de la République romaine, vol. I, p. 139. ^ Chase, p. 128. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed., p. 1131 ("Volsci"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 842, 843 ("Luscus", "Annius Luscus"). ^ Chase, pp. 109, 110. ^ Chase, p. 110–112, 114. ^ New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. Cimber. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 481 ("Bellienus"). ^ Livy, xxi. 25. ^ Livy, xlii. 25, xliii. 17. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Tiberius Gracchus", 14. ^ Fasti Capitolini, AE 1927, 101; 1940, 59, 60. ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 77. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Sertorius", 7. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 1085, 1086 ("Titus Annius Papianus Milo"). ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 104. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 551, 552 (note 3). ^ Cicero, Pro Fonteio 4. ^ Quintus Asconius Pedianus, in Toga Candida p. 92, ed. Orelli. ^ Cicero, Philippicae ii. 36. ^ Valerius Maximus, ii. 9 § 2. Some manuscripts give him the name of L. Antonius, but Syme restored his name. ^ Syme, "Missing Senators", p. 55. ^ Aulus Gellius, vii. 9. ^ Livy, ix. 46. ^ CIL 12.20 ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 462, 474. ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 4. § 1. ^ Livy, xxiii. 6, 22. ^ a b SIG, 688. ^ Sherk, "Senatus Consultum De Agro Pergameno", p. 367. ^ SIG, 700. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 526. ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 37. ^ Valerius Maximus, ix. 2. § 2. ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, i. 72. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 41. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Verrem i. 41 ff. ^ a b c Broughton, vol. II, p. 478. ^ Syme, "Missing Senators", p. 55. Syme explains that the praenomen Gaius found in the manuscript of Cicero is a mistake, as the other mentions of his name in the rest of the book mention him as Publius. ^ Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilinae, 17, 50. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 479. ^ Sutherland, Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. I, p. 74. ^ CIL VI, 7395 = ILS 7852 ^ Tacitus, Annales vi. 9 ^ CIL VI, 14221 ^ Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae xviii. 20. ^ Tacitus, Annales xv. 56, 71, xvi. 30. ^ Tacitus, Historiae ii. 10. ^ Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Historiae iii. 50. ^ a b Birley, The Roman government of Britain p. 112 ^ a b c Pomeroy, The murder of Regilla. ^ a b Birley, The Roman government of Britain p. 114. ^ de:Appius Annius Atilius Bradua Bibliography[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Verrem, Philippicae, Pro Fonteio. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Jugurthinum (The Jugurthine War), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History. Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Toga Candida (Commentary on Cicero's Oration In Toga Candida). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). Wilhelm Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (Collection of Greek Inscriptions, abbreviated SIG), Leipzig (1883). Ernest Babelon, Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la République romaine, Rollin et Feuardent, Paris (1885). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103–184 (1897). Harold Mattingly, Edward Allen Sydenham, C. H. V. Sutherland et alii, The Roman Imperial Coinage, London (1923–1984). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986). Ronald Syme, "Missing Senators", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 4, H. 1 (1955), pp. 52–71. Robert K. Sherk, "The Text of the Senatus Consultum De Agro Pergameno", in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, vol. 7, pp. 361–369 (1966). Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). Anthony R. Birley, The Roman Government of Britain, Oxford University Press (2005). Sarah B. Pomeroy, The Murder of Regilla: a Case of Domestic Violence in Antiquity, Harvard University Press (2007). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annia_gens&oldid=1014947837" Categories: Annii Roman gentes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Español Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 22:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5894	----	Hesburgh Library - Wikipedia Hesburgh Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hesburgh Library The Hesburgh Library, the reflection pool, and the Word of Life mural Country United States Type Academic library Established September 18, 1963 (1963-09-18) Location Notre Dame, Indiana Coordinates 41°42′09″N 86°14′03″W / 41.70250°N 86.23417°W / 41.70250; -86.23417Coordinates: 41°42′09″N 86°14′03″W / 41.70250°N 86.23417°W / 41.70250; -86.23417 Branch of Hesburgh Libraries Branches 9 Collection Size 3 million+ books 3 million+ microform units 34,000+ electronic titles 28,850+ audiovisual items Access and use Access requirements Students, faculty, and staff Circulation 329,511 Population served 14,000 Other information Budget $27 million Director Diane Walker, University Librarian Website library.nd.edu/hesburgh Map References: [1][2] Theodore Hesburgh Library is the primary building of the University of Notre Dame's library system. The present-day building opened on September 18, 1963, as Memorial Library. In 1987, it was renamed Hesburgh Library, in honor of Rev. Theodore Hesburgh, C.S.C., who served as the university's president from 1952 to 1987. The library's exterior façade that faces the university's football stadium includes a large, 134-foot (41 m) by 68-foot (21 m) mural called The Word of Life, or more commonly known as Touchdown Jesus. As of 2009, the library ranked as the 61st largest collection among research universities in the United States, with an estimated 3.39 million volumes. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early libraries 1.2 Current library 2 Word of Life/Touchdown Jesus mural 2.1 History 2.2 Description 2.3 Nickname 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] Early libraries[edit] Before the establishment of a library for students, students took the initiative to establish literary societies, that served as the source of literature and discussion of scholarly topics. The first one was the St. Aloysius Literary Society, which was founded in 1850 and six years later established the first student library.[3] It was followed by the Aloysius Philodemics, the Philopatrians and the St Edwards Library Society. The first circulating library at Notre Dame was created in 1873, by President Rev. Augustus Lemonnier, and incorporate the previously existing student libraries. It was housed on the third floor of the Main Building and its first librarian was Jimmie Edwards, CSC. In 1879 the Main Building was destroyed by fire and 500 books were lost. After the Main Building was rebuilt, a new library was established with a budget of $500 and comprised 16,000 volumes. In 1888, during the golden jubilee of Fr. Edward Sorin, a new library was opened on the third floor. By 1900, it contained 52,000 books. In 1907 the university hired Florence Espy, a professional librarian, to catalog the collection. After the death of Edwards, Paul Foik, came to Notre Dame in 1912, and took over his positions; he pushed for the construction of a library building. A new building (the present-day Bond Hall) to house the library was built in 1917. It was dedicated during the 75th anniversary of the University, with President William Taft in attendance. By 1920, its collection reached 103,000 volumes. The Dewey Decimal Classification has been used to classify the library's holdings, since 1929. Thematic collections were established in other buildings in subsequent decades. A separate engineering library opened in 1933, followed by a biology library in 1938, the Medieval Institute in 1946, and the Nieuwland science library for chemistry, physics, and mathematics in 1953.[4] Current library[edit] In 1959, Father Theodore Hesburgh, the university's president, announced plans for construction of a new library. Ground was broken in 1961, with the Ellerbe Company of Saint Paul, Minnesota, as the project's architect. Construction took three years. Memorial Library officially opened on September 18, 1963.[5][6] The finished structure, which is 210 feet (64 m) tall, is built on a site that encompasses 315 square feet (29.3 m2). The interior of 429,780 square feet (39,928 m2) has two lower floors that serve as a base for a narrower and nearly windowless 13-story tower capped with a smaller penthouse. Interior floors have few walls and are supported by bare columns to create a flexible space to arrange stacks of books. The size of the windows was minimized to reduce glare and avoid uneven light from the outside. The two lower floors feature a more extensive use of glass, as well as brick and tweed granite, while the upper floors are finished in Makato stone.[6] The library's collection reached one million volumes in 1970 and surpassed 1.5 million volumes in 1986.[4] In 1987 the library was renamed Hesburgh Library in honor of Fr. Hesburgh, the university's retiring president, who served as Notre Dame's president for thirty-five years (1952–1987). In his retirement, Hesburgh maintained an office on the library's thirteenth floor, overlooking the Main Quad.[5][7] As of 2009, the library housed 3.39 million volumes. The Association of Research Libraries ranked it the 61st largest collection among research universities in the United States.[8] In 2015, the university began major renovations to the library that will modernize its interior design. Word of Life/Touchdown Jesus mural[edit] The Word of Life mural The side of the library facing the stadium is covered with a mural called The Word of Life, more commonly known as Touchdown Jesus, that measures 134 feet (41 m) high and 68 feet (21 m) wide.[9] History[edit] When the library opened in 1963, the mural had not yet been installed. American artist Millard Sheets was commissioned to create a work large enough to cover the entire side of the library facing Notre Dame's football stadium. Fr. Theodore Hesburgh suggested that the theme should be saints and scholars through the ages. The artwork cost $200,000 and was donated by Mr. and Mrs. Howard V. Phalin of Winnetka, Illinois. Installation took place in the spring of 1964; the dedication ceremony was held on May 7, 1964. The mural is composed of 324 panels. It consists of 81 different stones from 16 countries in 171 finishes that includes 46 granites and syenites, 10 gabbros and labradorites, 4 metamorphic gneisses, 12 serpentines, 4 crystalline marbles, and 5 limestones.[10] Description[edit] The artwork depicts a procession of figures representing Christian saints, thinkers, teachers, and writers, a topic that connected to the idea of the library. Figures were selected from different centuries and places to convey the concept of the Catholic Church's historical continuity. At the top of the procession the central figure is the resurrected Jesus Christ, conceived as the great teacher and master, and the fountain of knowledge contained in the library. The artwork, which is titled Word of Life, is 134 feet (41 m) tall and 68 feet (21 m) wide. Nickname[edit] The mural's image of Jesus, visible from Notre Dame's football stadium, has arms raised in the same fashion as a referee signifying a touchdown. From this similarity came the mural's nickname, Touchdown Jesus.[11] A stadium expansion partially obscures views of the mural from the field. Notes[edit] ^ "Hesburgh Library" (PDF). ^ "Hesburgh Library". ^ Kavanaugh, Cricky (12 December 1991). "Glancing Back" (PDF). Scholastic. p. 26. ^ a b "Chronology of Notre Dame Libraries". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 29, 2017. ^ a b Michael O'Brien (1998). Hesburgh: A Biography. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. p. 303. ISBN 0-8132-0921-8. See also: "Father Theodore M. Hesburgh". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 27, 2017. ^ a b "Theodore M. Hesburgh Library". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 27, 2017. ^ Hesburgh joined the Notre Dame faculty as an instructor in the religion department in 1945 and was named head of the school’s theology department in 1948. He was appointed as the university's executive vice president in 1949 and succeeded John J. Cavanaugh, C.S.C., as president in 1952. See Linda C. Gugin and James E. St. Clair, eds. (2015). Indiana's 200: The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. pp. 169–71. ISBN 978-0-87195-387-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) See also: Martin L. McAuliffe Jr. (1970). Profiles of Excellence. Evansville, Indiana: University of Evansville Press. pp. 114–20. OCLC 575784. ^ "The Future of Hesburgh Library". The Observer. Notre Dame, Indiana. September 2, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2017. ^ "Romancing the Golden Dome". ^ "Hesburgh Library". ^ Why Irish eyes are smiling References[edit] "Chronology of Notre Dame Libraries". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 29, 2017. "Father Theodore M. Hesburgh". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 27, 2017. "The Future of Hesburgh Library". The Observer. Notre Dame, Indiana. September 2, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2017. Gugin, Linda C., and James E. St. Clair, eds. (2015). Indiana's 200: The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. pp. 169–71. ISBN 978-0-87195-387-2.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) McAuliffe Jr., Martin L. (1970). Profiles of Excellence. Evansville, Indiana: University of Evansville Press. pp. 114–20. OCLC 575784. O'Brien, Michael (1998). Hesburgh: A Biography. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0921-8. "Theodore M. Hesburgh Library". University of Notre Dame. Retrieved June 27, 2017. Further reading[edit] Stevenson, Marsha. "Style and Symbol: Library Buildings at Notre Dame." In Maureen Gleason, Mareen, and Katharina J. Blackstead, eds. (1994). What Is Written Remains: Historical Essays On The Libraries Of Notre Dame. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 9780268019495.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Winkler, Erhard M. (October 1967). "'Word of Life': Stone Mural Dominates Notre Dame Library". Stone Magazine. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theodore Hesburgh Library. Official website Hesburgh Library 50th Anniversary v t e University of Notre Dame Topics Alumni History Campus Coat of arms Commencement Congregation of Holy Cross Notre Dame, Indiana President Schools and Colleges College of Arts and Letters College of Engineering College of Science Law School Mendoza College of Business School of Architecture Academics Center for the Study of Religion and Society Environmental Research Center History of Science Society Journal of Legislation Medieval Institute Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics & Public Policy Notre Dame OpenCourseWare ESTEEM Program Driehaus Architecture Prize The American Midland Naturalist Campus buildings Basilica of the Sacred Heart Bond Hall Cartier Field Compton Family Ice Arena DeBartolo Performing Arts Center Edmund P. 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Jenkins Knute Rockne Frank Leahy Ara Parseghian Dan Devine Lou Holtz Muffet McGraw Brian Kelly Authority control General WorldCat (via Library of Congress) National libraries United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hesburgh_Library&oldid=1009933617" Categories: 1963 establishments in Indiana Academic libraries Libraries in Indiana Library buildings completed in 1963 University and college academic libraries in the United States University and college buildings completed in 1963 University of Notre Dame buildings and structures Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Coordinates not on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-LCCN identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 3 March 2021, at 01:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5896	----	Column of Antoninus Pius - Wikipedia Column of Antoninus Pius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Honorific column devoted to Roman emperor Antoninus Pius This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The base today This article deals with the lost column dedicated to Antoninus Pius. For the column previously erroneously called this before the Renaissance, see Column of Marcus Aurelius, and specifically Column of Marcus Aurelius#Restoration The Column of Antoninus Pius (Italian: Colonna di Antonino Pio) is a Roman honorific column in Rome, Italy, devoted in AD 161 to the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, in the Campus Martius, on the edge of the hill now known as Monte Citorio, and set up by his successors, the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Contents 1 History 1.1 Construction 1.2 Rediscovery 2 Base iconography 2.1 Apotheosis scene 2.2 Decursio 3 Notes 4 Sources 5 External links History[edit] Construction[edit] Coin showing the column with surmounting statue of Antoninus The column itself was 14.75 metres (48.4 ft) high and 1.9 metres (6 ft 3 in) in diameter and was constructed of red granite, with no decorating reliefs as on the otherwise similar columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. It was quarried out in 106 (as shown by the masons' inscription on its lower end, IG xiv.2421.1). Architecturally it belonged to the Ustrinum, 25 metres (82 ft) north of it on the same orientation, with the main apotheosis scene facing in that direction, and was surmounted by a statue of Antoninus, as is represented on coins issued after his death (Cohen, Ant. Pius 353‑6). Rediscovery[edit] The column's base (right foreground, showing one of the decursio sides), in Panini's 1747 painting of the Palazzo Montecitorio, with the Column of Marcus Aurelius in the background. Previous to the 18th century the base was completely buried, but the lower part of the shaft projected about 6m above the ground. In 1703, when some buildings were demolished in the area of Montecitorio, the rest of the column and the base were discovered and excavated. The column was raised from the ground by Carlo Fontana's son Francesco (1668–1708), but no decision was made about its use. It remained lying on the ground under some sheds, and was damaged by fire in 1759. Unsuccessful attempts were made to repair it soon afterwards in 1764, with some pieces from it being used in 1789 to restore the obelisk of Augustus that is now in the Piazza di Monte Citorio. Meanwhile, the base (of white Italian marble) was restored in 1706-08 and erected in the centre of Piazza di Montecitorio by Ferdinando Fuga in 1741, before being taken to the Vatican Museums in 1787, where it has been in the Michelangelo niche in the Cortile della Pigna from 1885 until its final move to its current position in the courtyard outside the entrance to the Vatican Pinacoteca. Base iconography[edit] One side of the base has a dedicatory inscription (CIL vi.1004), two sides record the funerary decursio or decursus (a ceremony performed by the Roman cavalry), and one side shows the apotheosis or ascent to the gods of the emperor and his wife . Apotheosis scene[edit] A winged genius (sometimes identified as Aion, Eternity) carries Antoninus and his wife Faustina to Heaven. The Emperor holds a sceptre crowned with an eagle, whilst eagles also fly upwards with them. The personified male figure (left) holding the obelisk represents the Campus Martius. Augustus had placed this obelisk there as a sundial and it was the site of the ritual of imperial deification ceremonies. The personified female figure in armour (right) saluting the emperor and empress represents Roma, and her shield depicts the legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, suckled by a she-wolf. Decursio[edit] On these two almost identical sides, members of the cavalry circle the standing figures, two carrying military standards and the rest fully armored. Lacking a sense of space and perspective, these scenes are often criticized for their lack of stylistic sophistication. Instead of naturalism, both a bird's eye view of the circular manoeuvre and a ground-level view of each figure are provided. The repetition of the scenes can best be explained by the fact that Antoninus Pius was succeeded by two emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, who reigned jointly until the latter died. The decursio depictions, as well as the language on the inscription, can be taken to show a stable and justified transition to the two co-rulers. Notes[edit] Sources[edit] Mitt. 1889, 41‑48 S.Sculpt. 270‑3 SScR 249‑253; LS iii.145 Amelung, Kat. Vat. i. pp. 883‑893 Vogel, L., The Column of Antoninus Pius, Harvard University Press, 1973 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Column of Antoninus Pius. http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/romanpius/romanpius.html, for images Columna Antonini Pii History of its restoration v t e Ancient columns of Rome Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius Column of Phocas Trajan's Column List of Roman victory columns v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. 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12.47611 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column_of_Antoninus_Pius&oldid=1013377813" Categories: 161 2nd-century Roman sculptures Antoninus Pius Buildings and structures completed in the 2nd century Cultural depictions of Romulus and Remus Monumental columns in Rome Roman victory columns Sculptures of Greco-Roman mythology She-wolf (Roman mythology) Roman sculpture portraits of emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2015 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Italian-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 March 2021, at 09:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5897	----	Comes - Wikipedia Comes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin word for companion, Roman court title This article is about the Roman and feudal title. For other uses, see Comes (disambiguation). Comes (/ˈkoʊmiːz/ KOH-meez), plural comites (/ˈkɒmɪtiːz/ KOM-i-teez), is the Latin word for "companion", either individually or as a member of a collective denominated a "comitatus", especially the suite of a magnate, being in some instances sufficiently large and/or formal to justify specific denomination, e.g. a "cohors amicorum". "Comes" derives from "com-" ("with") and "ire" ("go"). Contents 1 Ancient Roman religion 2 Imperial Roman curial titles and offices styled Comites 2.1 At court or in the Imperial domains 2.2 comes rei militaris 2.3 comites dominorum nostrorum 3 Medieval adaptations of comital offices 3.1 Gothic Comites 3.2 Frankish Gaugraf 3.3 Feudalism 4 See also 5 References Ancient Roman religion[edit] Constantine I SOLI INVICTO COMITI (Comes to Sol Invictus) Comes was a common epithet or title that was added to the name of a hero or god in order to denote relation with another god. The coinage of Roman Emperor Constantine I declared him "comes" to Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") qua god. Imperial Roman curial titles and offices styled Comites[edit] Historically more significant, "comes" became a secular title granted to trusted officials of the Imperial Curia ("Court"), present or former, and others as sign of Imperial confidence. It developed into a formal, dignitary title, derived from the "Companions" of Alexander the Great and rather equivalent to the Hellenistic title of "philos basilikos" or the paladin title of a knight of the Holy Roman Empire and a Papal Palatinus. Thus the title was retained when the titulary was appointed, often promoted, to an office away from court, frequently in the field or a provincial administration. Subsequently, it was thought logical to connect the title to specific offices that demanded an incumbent official of high dignity, and even to include it as part of the official title. As the Imperial Roman Curia increased in number and assimilated all political power, the Roman Emperors instituted a casual practice of appointing faithful servants to offices. This had been done elsewhere, e. g. regarding the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard and the amici principis. As Imperial administration expanded, however, new offices became necessary and decentralization demanded modifications. The result was the institution of the rank of "comes". The "comites", often translated "counts", though they were neither feudal nor hereditary, became principal officials of the later Roman Empire. They held offices of all kinds from the army to the civil service, while retaining their direct access to the Emperor. Emperor Constantine I finalized them as the governmental echelon of "comites provinciarum" ("Counts of the Provinces"); the comites of the new echelon were assigned alongside the vicarii in the civil dioceses of the latter so that the comites became permanent fixtures of Imperial government. The comites were fully enumerated as early as the beginning of the AD 5th century in the Notitia Dignitatum,[1] but as offices were later added, it is not historically exhaustive. The following sections describe examples of the kinds of comites. At court or in the Imperial domains[edit] See also: praepositus sacri cubiculi Several of the major departments of the Imperial Curia ("Court") and household had a principal official who was styled "comes" and assisted by an "officium" ("staff") very similar to that of a Roman governor. They included: comes dispositonum: A deputy to the very powerful magister officiorum (Master of Offices) responsible for organizing the Imperial calendar and preparing the correspondence for distribution to the proper offices for transcription. comes domesticorum: A vir illustris who was principal of the domestici, a corps of bodyguards of the Emperor who were stationed in the Imperial Palace. There were two of these comital commanders, the comes domesticorum equitum for the equestrian knights and the comes domesticorum peditum for the foot soldiers. comes privatae largitionis: The custodian of the privy purse, who answered and was subordinate to the comes rerum privatarum (see next title). comes rerum privatarum: A powerful Imperial official responsible for the private estates and holdings of the Emperor and his family ("res privata"). He maintained the properties and collected the rents, of which most were deposited in the Aerarium, i. e., the treasury of the public funds of the State, and some in the Fiscus, i. e., the treasury of privy funds of the Emperor that the comes privatae largitionis administered. comes sacrarum largitionum: A vir illustris who was custodian of the sacrae largitiones ("Sacred Largesses") of the Emperor and manager of the Imperial finances. He controlled all of the mints, each managed by a procurator; was the principal of numerous officials, including more procuratores, rationales, and praepositi, who collected senatorial taxes, custom duties, and some land taxes; was responsible for the yields of the mines; provided budgets for the civil service and armies; supplied all uniforms; and was competent for the minor offices of: comes auri: The official responsible for gold. comes sacrae vestis: The master of the wardrobe of the Emperor. The 3 comites largitionum: The regional financial administrators of Italy, Africa, and Illyricum. comes commerciorum for Illyricum. comes metallorum per Illyricum: The official responsible for that region's gold mines. Exceptionally, a gubernatorial position was styled "comes". For example, the comes Orientis, actually one of the vicarii, was an official who controlled the large and strategically important Imperial Diocese of the East by supervising the governors of this collection of provinces, but he was in turn supervised by the praefectus praetorio Orientis. Further, the principal officials of some less important governmental departments who were under the authority of otherwise styled, high ranking, territorial officials could be titled "comes", e. g. under the praefectus urbi of Rome, himself a vir illustris, was a comes formarum, comes riparum et alvei Tiberis et Cloacarum ("Count of the Coast of the Tiber and the Canalisation"), and comes Portus ("Count of the Port"). The title "comes consistorianus" or "comes consistorialis" indicated specially appointed members to the consistorium, the council of the Roman emperor's closest advisors. comes rei militaris[edit] The comes rei militaris held martial appointments, and were commanders of comitatenses.[2] They ranked superior to a dux but inferior to the magister peditum and magister equitum; they were the superiors of a series of military stations, each commanded by a praepositus limitis ("border commander") and/or unit commanders, e. g., tribunes of cohorts, alae (auxiliary equivalents), numeri, and in the Eastern Empire even legions. The Notitia Dignitatum of the early AD 5th century enumerates 6 such offices, being of the dignity of vir spectabilis, in the Western Empire: comes Italiae, comes Africae, comes Tingitaniae, comes Tractus Argentoratensis, and comes Britanniarum ad Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam; and 2 in the Eastern Empire: comes (limitis) Aegypti and comes Isauriae. comes Africae: Official responsible for the defense of Roman Africa. comes tractus Argentoratensis: Official responsible for the defense of part of Gallia. comes Avernorum: Official responsible for the defense of the other part of Gallia. comes Britanniarum: Official responsible for the defense of Britannia. This office presumably expired circa AD 410 when the last Roman troops left that province. comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam: Official responsible for the defense of the Saxon shore of Britannia. comes Hispaniarum: Official responsible for the defense of Hispania. As the number of comites increased, that dignity was devalued. This caused the introduction of classes of comites, denominated and ranked the first, second, and third "ordines". comites dominorum nostrorum[edit] The comites dominorum nostrorum (plural of Comes D. N., (literally "Companions of Our Lords [Emperors]") were a mounted Imperial bodyguard during the tetrarchy of Emperor Diocletian in circa AD 300. Medieval adaptations of comital offices[edit] Gothic Comites[edit] The Goths that ruled Spain and Italy followed the Roman tradition of granting the title of "Comes" to the various principals of the departments of their royal households, including but not limited to the: Comes Cubiculariorum: Count in charge of the chamberlains (L. cubicularii). Comes Scanciorum: The Count who commanded the cup bearers. Comes Stabulorum: The Count who commanded the equerries and stables. Comes Notariorum: The Count who commanded the chancery, i. e., the writing office. Comes Thesaurorum: The Count who commanded the officials of the treasury. Frankish Gaugraf[edit] The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained much of Roman administration, including the office and title of "comes", the original meaning of which they preserved, i. e., a companion of the king and a royal servant of high dignity.[3] Under the early Frankish kings some comites did not have definite functions: they were merely attached to the person of the King and executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, e. g. the Comes Palatii and Comes Stabuli[3] (from which the contemporary title of "constable" derives). Yet other comites served as regional officials. For administrative purposes, the Kingdom of the Franks was divided into small districts denominated "pagi" (hence the French "pays" and the German "Gaue"), corresponding generally to the Roman civitas[3] ("city" qua polity). The principal of a pagus was the Comes, corresponding to the German Graf (in full, "Gaugraf").[3] The King appointed the Comites to serve at his pleasure, and they were originally chosen from all classes, sometimes even from enfranchised serfs. The essential competences of the Comes' were comprehensive in his pagus: martial, judicial, and executive; and in documents he is often described as the "agens publicus" ("public agent") of the King or "judex publicus/fiscalis"[3] ("royal judge"). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, and was responsible for the execution of the sentences as well. As the delegate of the executive power, he had the right to exercise the "bannis regis" ("royal ban"), which gave him the right to command his military in the name of the King and to act as necessary to preserve the peace. As the King's representative, he exercised the royal right of protection ("mundium regis") of churches, widows, orphans, and the like.[3] He enjoyed a triple "wergeld", but had no definite salary, being remunerated by receipt of specific revenues, which system contained the germs of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private obligations.[3] According to philologists, the Anglo-Saxon word "gerefa", denoting "illustrious chief", however, is not connected to the German "Graf", which originally meant "servant"; compare the etymologies of the words "knight" and "valet". It is the more curious that the "gerefa" should end as a subservient reeve[3] while the "graf" became a noble count. Feudalism[edit] In the feudal tradition, Latin was, especially in law, the official language, and therefore the rendering in Latin was equal in importance to the vernacular title. Thus, "comes" has been used as the Latin equivalent, or part of it, of all titles of comital office, whether containing "count" or some other word etymologically derived from "comes" or "graf". Similarly, it is part of the rendering, not always exclusive, of derived inferior titles containing such words, notably "vicecomes" for "viscount" and "burgicomes" and "burgravio" for "burgrave". See also[edit] Abbacomes Aerarium Agentes in rebus Comitatenses Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary) Congiarium Donativum Fiscus Mund (law) Notitia Dignitatum Rationalis A rationibus Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Roman finance References[edit] ^ A schematic cartograph of comital martial offices translated into English is available at the Friesian.com Friesian Project ^ A.H.M Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602 II, p. 1090 ^ a b c d e f g h  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Count". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 312–314. Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comes&oldid=1012253472" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Court titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Roman Empire Economy of ancient Rome Comites Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 March 2021, at 12:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5902	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting this IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Legal and administrative work=== [[File:Portrait de Marc Aurèle 2.jpg|thumb|Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the [[Liebieghaus]], Frankfurt.]] Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,<ref>Fergus Millar, ''The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC&nbsp;–&nbsp;AD 337'' (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and ''passim''. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19.</ref> but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.<ref>[http://www.military-history.org/articles/thinkers-at-war-marcus-aurelius.htm 'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius']. [http://www.military-history.org ''Military History Monthly''], published 2014. (This is the conclusion of [[Iain King]]'s biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.'</ref> He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law'<ref>''Codex Justinianeus'' 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 133.</ref> and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.<ref>''Digest'' 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (''decuriones'').<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 133.</ref> Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.<ref>Irvine, pp. 57–58.</ref> In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.<ref>Dio, lxxii.33</ref> In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from {{cvt|2.57–2.67|g|oz}}. However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.<ref name='TulaneUniversity'/> ====Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague==== {{main|Sino-Roman relations|Antonine Plague}} A possible contact with [[Han Dynasty|Han China]] occurred in 166 when a [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman traveller visited the Han court]], claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[wikt:安|安]] [[wikt:敦|敦]]), ruler of [[Daqin]], who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.<ref>Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79.</ref><ref>Yü, pp. 460–61.</ref><ref>De Crespigny, p. 600.</ref> In addition to [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era [[Roman glass]]wares found at [[Guangzhou]] along the [[South China Sea]],<ref>An, 83.</ref> Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at [[Óc Eo]], [[Vietnam]], then part of the [[Kingdom of Funan]] near the Chinese province of [[Jiaozhi]] (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of [[Kattigara]], described by [[Ptolemy]] (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name='young 2001 pp. 29-30'>Young, pp. 29–30.</ref><ref group=note>For further information on [[Óc Eo]], see Osborne, Milton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uxF2kH04WKgC ''The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future'']. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. {{ISBN|978-1741148930}}.</ref> Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to [[Aurelian]] have been found in [[Xi'an]], China (site of the Han capital [[Chang'an]]), although the far greater amount of [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Roman coins in India]] suggests the Roman maritime trade for [[History of silk|purchasing Chinese silk]] was centred there, not in China or even the overland [[Silk Road]] running through Persia.<ref name='ball 2016 p154'>Ball, p. 154.</ref> The [[Antonine Plague]] started in [[Mesopotamia]] in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–1098.</ref> mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.<ref name=murphy>Murphy, Verity. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe']. BBC News, 7 November 2005.</ref> It is believed that the plague was [[smallpox]].<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–98.</ref> In the view of historian [[Rafe de Crespigny]], the plagues afflicting the [[Eastern Han]] empire of China during the reigns of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] (r. 146–168) and [[Emperor Ling of Han]] (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.<ref>De Crespigny, p. 514.</ref> Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the [[Indian Ocean]] as proven by the archaeological record spanning from [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] to [[Indo-Roman relations|India]], as well as significantly decreased [[Roman commerce|Roman commercial]] activity in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name='mclaughlin 2010 p59-60'>McLaughlin, pp. 59–60.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5910	----	Giovanni Paolo Panini - Wikipedia Giovanni Paolo Panini From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian painter (1691-1765) Giovanni Paolo Panini Portrait of Panini by Louis Gabriel Blanchet Born (1691-06-17)17 June 1691 Piacenza, Duchy of Parma, Holy Roman Empire Died 21 October 1765(1765-10-21) (aged 74) Rome, Papal States (now Italy) Nationality Italian Known for painter Notable work veduta Giovanni Paolo Panini or Pannini (17 June 1691 – 21 October 1765) was a painter and architect who worked in Rome and is primarily known as one of the vedutisti ("view painters"). As a painter, Panini is best known for his vistas of Rome, in which he took a particular interest in the city's antiquities. Among his most famous works are his view of the interior of the Pantheon (on behalf of Francesco Algarotti), and his vedute—paintings of picture galleries containing views of Rome. Most of his works, especially those of ruins, have a fanciful and unreal embellishment characteristic of capriccio themes. In this they resemble the capricci of Marco Ricci. Panini also painted portraits, including one of Pope Benedict XIV.[1] Contents 1 Biography 2 Legacy 3 Gallery 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] As a young man, Panini trained in his native town of Piacenza, under Giuseppe Natali and Andrea Galluzzi, and with stage designer Francesco Galli-Bibiena. In 1711, he moved to Rome, where he studied drawing with Benedetto Luti. In Rome, Panini earned a name for himself as a decorator of palaces. Some of his works included the Villa Patrizi (1719–1725), the Palazzo de Carolis (1720), and the Seminario Romano (1721–1722). In 1719, Panini was admitted to the Congregazione dei Virtuosi al Pantheon. He taught in Rome at the Accademia di San Luca and the Académie de France, where he is said to have influenced Jean-Honoré Fragonard. In 1754, he served as the prince (director) of the Accademia di San Luca. The Spanish monarchs appreciated his work in such a way that, commissioned by Filippo Juvarra, he sent paintings to decorate the Lacquer Room of the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso. In addition, King Carlos IV, when he was Prince, bought several of his works that are still preserved in the Prado Museum and in the royal palaces.[2] Panini died in Rome on 21 October 1765.[1] Legacy[edit] Panini's studio included Hubert Robert and his son Francesco Panini. His style influenced other vedutisti, such as his pupils Antonio Joli and Charles-Louis Clérisseau, as well as Canaletto and Bernardo Bellotto, who sought to meet the need of visitors for painted "postcards" depicting the Italian environs.[citation needed] Some British landscape painters, such as Marlow, Skelton and Wright of Derby, also imitated his capricci.[citation needed] In addition to being a painter and architect, Panini was a professor of perspective and optics at the French Academy of Rome. His masterful use of perspective was later the inspiration for the creation of the "Panini Projection", which is instrumental in rendering panoramic views. [1][2] Panini's works are held in the permanent collections of many museums worldwide, including the Prado Museum,[2] the Louvre,[3] the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte,[4] the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza,[4] the Hermitage,[4] the Pushkin Museum,[4] the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart,[4] the Staatliche Museen,[4] the Palazzo del Quirinale,[4] the Toledo Museum of Art,[5] the University of Michigan Museum of Art,[6] the Brooklyn Museum,[7] the Saint Louis Art Museum,[8] the Detroit Institute of Arts,[9] the Museum of Fine Arts Boston,[10] the Getty Center,[11] the Metropolitan Museum of Art,[12] the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,[13] the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts,[14] the Walters Art Museum,[15] the Harvard Art Museums,[16] the Philadelphia Museum of Art,[17] and the Indianapolis Museum of Art.[18] Gallery[edit] Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, c. 1734 Saint Paul Preaching in Athens, 1734, National Gallery of Art Roman Capriccio: The Pantheon and Other Monuments (1735), Indianapolis Museum of Art A Capriccio of the Roman Forum (1741) Ancient Rome (1757), Metropolitan Museum of Art Modern Rome (1757), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The Lottery at Palazzo Montecitorio, now in the National Gallery, London St. Peter's Basilica, from the entrance Adoration of the Shepherds, Adoration of the Magi (1755), shown here at the Brooklyn Museum in New York City View of the Colosseum (1747), at The Walters Art Museum German soldiers in 1944 posing with a Pannini picture – Carlo III di Borbone che visita il papa Benedetto XIV nella coffee-house del Quirinale a Roma – at the time looted from the Naples Museum A Concert Given by the duc de Nivernais to mark the Birth of the Dauphin, 1751 at Waddesdon Manor Ruins of Ancient Rome Christ casting the Money Changers out of the Temple. ca. 1725. Prado Museum, Madrid.[19] The pool at Bethesda, (1724), at the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid.[20] Death Leap of Marcus References[edit] ^ a b Anna Maria Ferrari. "Panini, Giovanni Paolo." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 27 March 2010. ^ a b "Panini, Giovanni Paolo - Colección - Museo Nacional del Prado". www.museodelprado.es. Retrieved 28 December 2020. ^ "Louvre Museum Official Website". cartelen.louvre.fr. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ a b c d e f g "Web Gallery of Art, searchable fine arts image database". www.wga.hu. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "St. Peter's Square, Rome". emuseum.toledomuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Exchange: Landscape with Classical Ruins". exchange.umma.umich.edu. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Brooklyn Museum". www.brooklynmuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Interior of St. Peter's, Rome". Saint Louis Art Museum. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "View of the Colosseum". www.dia.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Picture Gallery with Views of Modern Rome". collections.mfa.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Three Figure Studies (Getty Museum)". The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ www.metmuseum.org https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/437244?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Giovanni+Paolo+Panini&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1. Retrieved 2021-02-19. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Giovanni Paolo Panini – Artists/Makers – The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art". art.nelson-atkins.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "The Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine (Primary Title) - (65.27)". Virginia Museum of Fine Arts |. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Giovanni Paolo Panini |". The Walters Art Museum. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ Harvard. "From the Harvard Art Museums' collections Adoration of the Magi". harvardartmuseums.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Philadelphia Museum of Art - Collections Object : Roman Monuments". www.philamuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Roman Capriccio: The Pantheon and Other Monuments". Indianapolis Museum of Art Online Collection. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ "Christ casting the Money Changers out of the Temple - The Collection - Museo Nacional del Prado". www.museodelprado.es. Retrieved 28 December 2020. ^ "The pool at Bethesda". Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza. Retrieved 2020-12-28. Further reading[edit] Arisi, Ferdinando (1986). Gian Paolo Panini e i fasti della Roma del '700 [Gian Paolo Panini and events in 18th c. Rome.] (in Italian). ISBN 88-7003-016-4. Arisi, Ferdinando,Giovanni Paolo Panini 1691-1765, Milano, 1993. Horak, Marco, Ritornato a Piacenza il dipinto di Panini passato all'asta lo scorso anno a Londra: si tratta dell' "opera prima", pendant di quello esposto alla Glauco Lombardi di Parma, in "Strenna Piacentina 2013", Piacenza, 2013. Horak, Marco, Quell'opera prima di Panini gemella del dipinto esposto al Lombardi di Parma, in "L'Urtiga - Quaderni di cultura Piacentina", Piacenza, n. 4, 2013. Horak, Marco, L'opera prima del Panini in una collezione privata, in "Panorama Musei", anno XVIII, n.3, dicembre 2013 Horak, Marco, G.P. Panini al Fine Art Museum di San Francisco, in "Panorama Musei", anno XXI, n. 2, settembre 2016 Horak, Marco, Giovanni Ghisolfi tra Salvator Rosa e Giovanni Paolo Panini, Piacenza, 2020 External links[edit] 68 artworks by or after Giovanni Paolo Panini at the Art UK site Media related to Giovanni Paolo Pannini at Wikimedia Commons Art and the empire city: New York, 1825-1861, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Panini (see index) Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Panini (see index) Capriccio of Roman Ruins with Figures, from the Permanent Collection of the Utah Museum of Fine Arts Panini at Waddesdon Manor Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) Italy United States Australia Netherlands Poland Vatican Art galleries and museums Victoria Te Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes KulturNav (Norway) RKD Artists (Netherlands) Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Paolo_Panini&oldid=1027730762" Categories: Italian Baroque painters 1691 births 1765 deaths Paintings by Giovanni Paolo Panini Italian decorators Italian vedutisti Painters of ruins People from Piacenza Italian male painters 18th-century Italian painters Waddesdon Manor 18th-century Italian architects Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing title CS1 errors: bare URL Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NGV identifiers Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers Wikipedia articles with KULTURNAV identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 17:18 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Childhood=== Marcus's sister, [[Annia Cornificia Faustina]], was probably born in 122 or 123.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 31, 44.</ref> His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref>{{refn|Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine.<ref>Farquharson, 1.95–96.</ref>|group=note}} Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his ''Meditations'' that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.<ref>''Meditations'' 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 31.</ref> His mother Lucilla did not remarry<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31'/> and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 1 and ''Meditations'' v. 4, qtd. in Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 32.</ref> and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of ''[[patria potestas]]'' over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different ''patria potestas''. [[Lucius Catilius Severus]], described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'/> Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the [[Caelian Hill]], an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the [[Lateran Palace|Lateran]], where he would spend much of his childhood.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 31–32.</ref> Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 35.</ref> He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 35.</ref> Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 23; cf. ''Meditations'' i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103.</ref> From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for [[wrestling]] and [[boxing]]. Marcus trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and led a dance troupe called the College of the Salii. They performed ritual dances dedicated to Mars, the god of war, while dressed in arcane armour, carrying shields and weapons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Donald J. |title=Stoicism as a Martial Art |url=https://medium.com/stoicism-philosophy-as-a-way-of-life/stoicism-as-a-martial-art-3ab9302071f9 |website=Medium |access-date=23 February 2021}}</ref> Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;<ref>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', 20–21.</ref> he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.<ref>''Meditations'' 1.4; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 20.</ref> One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 2, iv. 9; ''Meditations'' i. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 37; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', pp. 21–22.</ref> In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough [[Pallium (Roman cloak)|Greek cloak]], and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 38; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 21.</ref> A new set of tutors – the [[Homer]]ic scholar [[Alexander of Cotiaeum]] along with [[Trosius Aper]] and [[Tuticius Proculus]], teachers of [[Latin]]<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 40, citing Aristides, ''Oratio'' 32 K; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 21.</ref>{{refn|Birley amends the text of the ''HA Marcus'' from 'Eutychius' to 'Tuticius'.<ref>Magie & Birley, ''Lives of the later Caesars'', pp. 109, 109 n.8; ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.27, citing ''Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia'' 1966/7, pp. 39ff.</ref>|group=note}} – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.27.</ref> Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.<ref>''Meditations'' i. 10; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 40; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 22.</ref> Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's ''Meditations''.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, ''The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus'' (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-5929	----	Basil I - Wikipedia Basil I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 867 to 886 For other people with the same name, see Basil I (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Basil I Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Basil, his son Constantine, and his second wife, Empress Eudokia Ingerina Byzantine emperor Reign 867–886 Predecessor Michael III Successor Leo VI the Wise Born 811 Macedonia Died August 29, 886 (0886-08-30) (aged 75) Consort Eudokia Ingerina Wives Maria Eudokia Ingerina Issue Detail Emperor Leo VI (paternity uncertain) Emperor Alexander III Patriarch Stephen I (paternity uncertain) Dynasty Macedonian dynasty Basil I, called the Macedonian (Greek: Βασίλειος ὁ Μακεδών, Basíleios ō Makedṓn; 811 – August 29, 886), was a Byzantine Emperor who reigned from 867 to 886. Born a simple peasant in the theme of Macedonia, he rose in the Imperial court. He entered into the service of Theophilitzes, a relative of Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867), and was given a fortune by the wealthy Danielis. He gained the favour of Michael III, whose mistress he married on the emperor's orders, and was proclaimed co-emperor in 866. He ordered the assassination of Michael the next year. Despite his humble origins, he showed great ability in running the affairs of state. He was the founder of the Macedonian dynasty. He was succeeded upon his death by his son (perhaps actually Michael III's son) Leo VI. Contents 1 From peasant to emperor 2 Reign 2.1 Domestic policies 2.2 Foreign affairs 2.3 Last years and succession 3 Family 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links From peasant to emperor[edit] Basil was born to peasant parents in late 811 (or sometime in the 830s in the estimation of some scholars) at Chariopolis in the Byzantine theme of Macedonia (an administrative division corresponding to the area of Adrianople in Thrace).[1][2] The name of his father was Bardas, the name of his grandfather was Maïktes, his mother was named Pankalo (Παγκαλώ), and her father was called Leo.[3] His ethnic origin is unknown, and has been a subject of debate. During Basil's reign, an elaborate genealogy was produced that purported that his ancestors were not mere peasants, as everyone believed, but descendants of the Arsacid (Arshakuni) kings of Armenia, and also of Constantine the Great.[4][5] The Armenian historians Samuel of Ani and Stephen of Taron record that he hailed from the village of Thil in Taron.[3] In contrast, Persian writers such as Hamza al-Isfahani,[6] or al-Tabari, call both Basil and his mother Saqlabi, an ethnogeographic term that usually denoted the Slavs, but can also be interpreted as a generic term encompassing the inhabitants of the region between Constantinople and Bulgaria.[7] Claims have therefore been made for an Armenian,[8] Slavic,[6][9] or indeed "Armeno-Slavonic"[2] origin for Basil I. The name of his mother points to a Greek origin on the maternal side.[7] The general scholarly consensus is that Basil's father was "probably" of Armenian origin, and settled in Byzantine Thrace.[3] The author of the only dedicated biography of Basil I in English has concluded that it is impossible to be certain what the ethnic origins of the emperor were, though Basil was definitely reliant on the support of Armenians in prominent positions within the Byzantine Empire.[10] Basil victorious in a wrestling match against a Bulgarian champion (far left), from the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. One story asserts that he had spent a part of his childhood in captivity in Bulgaria, where his family had, allegedly, been carried off as captives of the Khan Krum (r. 803–814) in 813. Basil lived there until 836, when he and several others escaped to Byzantine-held territory in Thrace.[1] Basil was ultimately lucky enough to enter the service of Theophilitzes, a relative of the Caesar Bardas (the uncle of Emperor Michael III), as a groom. While serving Theophilitzes, he visited the city of Patras, where he gained the favour of Danielis, a wealthy woman who took him into her household and endowed him with a fortune.[11] He also earned the notice of Michael III by his abilities as a horse tamer and in winning a victory over a Bulgarian champion in a wrestling match; he soon became the Byzantine Emperor's companion, confidant, and bodyguard (parakoimomenos).[12] Symeon Magister describes Basil as "... most outstanding in bodily form and heavy set; his eyebrows grew together, he had large eyes and a broad chest, and a rather downcast expression".[13] The coronation of Basil I as co-emperor, from the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript On Emperor Michael's orders, Basil divorced his wife Maria and married Eudokia Ingerina, Michael's favourite mistress, in around 865.[11] During an expedition against the Arabs, Basil convinced Michael III that his uncle Bardas coveted the Byzantine throne, and subsequently murdered Bardas with Michael's approval on April 21, 866. Basil then became the leading personality at court and was invested in the now vacant dignity of kaisar (Caesar), before being crowned co-emperor on May 26, 866. This promotion may have included Basil's adoption by Michael III, himself a much younger man. It was commonly believed that Leo VI, Basil's successor and reputed son, was really the son of Michael.[11] Although Basil seems to have shared this belief (and hated Leo), the subsequent promotion of Basil to caesar and then co-emperor provided the child with a legitimate and Imperial parent and secured his succession to the Byzantine throne. When Leo was born, Michael III celebrated the event with public chariot races, whilst he pointedly instructed Basil not to presume on his new position as junior emperor.[14] When Michael III started to favour another courtier, Basiliskianos, Basil decided that his position was being undermined. Michael threatened to invest Basiliskianos with the Imperial title and this induced Basil to pre-empt events by organizing the assassination of Michael on the night of September 23/24, 867. Michael and Basiliskianos were insensibly drunk following a banquet at the palace of Anthimos when Basil, with a small group of companions (including his father Bardas, brother Marinos, and cousin Ayleon),[note 1] gained entry. The locks to the chamber doors had been tampered with and the chamberlain had not posted guards; both victims were then put to the sword.[note 2] On Michael III's death, Basil, as an already acclaimed co-emperor, automatically became the ruling basileus.[18] Reign[edit] Basil I became an effective and respected monarch, ruling for 19 years, despite being a man with no formal education and little military or administrative experience. Moreover, he had been the boon companion of a debauched monarch and had achieved power through a series of calculated murders. That there was little political reaction to the murder of Michael III is probably due to his unpopularity with the bureaucrats of Constantinople because of his disinterest in the administrative duties of the Imperial office. Also, Michael's public displays of impiety had alienated the Byzantine populace in general.[citation needed] Once in power Basil soon showed that he intended to rule effectively and as early as his coronation he displayed an overt religiosity by formally dedicating his crown to Christ. He maintained a reputation for conventional piety and orthodoxy throughout his reign.[19] Basil I on horseback Domestic policies[edit] Because of the great legislative work which Basil I undertook, he is often called the "second Justinian." Basil's laws were collected in the Basilika, consisting of sixty books, and smaller legal manuals known as the Eisagoge. Leo VI was responsible for completing these legal works. The Basilika remained the law of the Byzantine Empire down to its conquest by the Ottomans. Ironically, this codification of laws seems to have begun under the direction of the caesar Bardas who was murdered by Basil.[20] Basil personally oversaw the construction of the Nea Ekklesia cathedral.[21][22] His ecclesiastical policy was marked by good relations with Rome. One of his first acts was to exile the Patriarch of Constantinople, Photios, and restore his rival Ignatios, whose claims were supported by Pope Adrian II.[1] Foreign affairs[edit] Emperor Basil's reign was marked by the troublesome ongoing war with the heretical Paulicians, centered on Tephrike on the upper Euphrates, who rebelled, allied with the Arabs, and raided as far as Nicaea, sacking Ephesus. Basil's general, Christopher, defeated the Paulicians in 872, and the death of their leader, Chrysocheir, led to the definite subjection of their state.[23] Basil was the first Byzantine emperor since Constans II (r. 641–668) to pursue an active policy to restore the Empire's power in the West. Basil allied with Holy Roman Emperor Louis II (r. 850–875) against the Arabs and sent a fleet of 139 ships to clear the Adriatic Sea of their raids. With Byzantine help, Louis II captured Bari from the Arabs in 871. The city eventually became Byzantine territory in 876. However, the Byzantine position on Sicily deteriorated, and Syracuse fell to the Emirate of Sicily in 878. This was ultimately Basil's fault as he had diverted a relief fleet from Sicily to haul marble for a church instead. Although most of Sicily was lost, the general Nikephoros Phokas (the Elder) succeeded in taking Taranto and much of Calabria in 880. The successes in the Italian peninsula opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in the Mediterranean Sea, and especially the Adriatic.[24] Last years and succession[edit] Basil I and his son Leo. Leo is discovered carrying a knife in the emperor's presence. Basil's spirits declined in 879, when his eldest and favorite son Constantine died. Basil now raised his youngest son, Alexander, to the rank of co-emperor. Basil disliked the bookish Leo, on occasion physically beating him; he probably suspected Leo of being the son of Michael III. In his later years, Basil's relationship with Leo was clouded by the suspicion that the latter might wish to avenge the murder of Michael III. Leo was eventually imprisoned by Basil after the detection of a suspected plot, but the imprisonment resulted in public rioting; Basil threatened to blind Leo but was dissuaded by Patriarch Photios. Leo was eventually released after the passage of three years.[25] Basil died on August 29, 886, from a fever contracted after a serious hunting accident when his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer, and he was allegedly dragged 16 miles through the woods. He was saved by an attendant who cut him loose with a knife, but he suspected the attendant of trying to assassinate him and had the man executed shortly before he himself died.[26] One of the first acts of Leo VI as ruling emperor was to rebury, with great ceremony, the remains of Michael III in the Imperial Mausoleum within the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. This did much to confirm in public opinion the view that Leo considered himself to have been Michael's son.[27] Family[edit] Aspects of the family relationships of Basil I are uncertain and open to a variety of interpretations. Therefore, the information given below should not be treated as comprehensive or definite:[28] By his first wife Maria, Basil I had several children, including: Bardas. Anastasia, who married the general Christopher. Constantine (circa 865 – September 3, 879), co-emperor to Basil from January 6, 868, to his death. According to George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky, Constantine was betrothed to Ermengard of Provence, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Louis II and Engelberga in 869. The marital contract was broken in 871 when relations between Basil and Louis broke down. By Eudokia Ingerina, Basil I officially had the following children: Leo VI, who succeeded as Byzantine emperor and may actually have been a son of Michael III. Stephen I, Patriarch of Constantinople, who may also actually have been a son of Michael III. Alexander, who succeeded as Byzantine emperor in 912. Anna Porphyrogenita, a nun at the convent of St. Euphemia in Petrion. Helena Porphyrogenita, a nun at the convent of St. Euphemia in Petrion. Maria Porphyrogenita, a mother of nuns at the convent of St. Euphemia in Petrion. Leo VI's son Constantine VII wrote a biography of his grandfather, the Vita Basilii, around 950.[29] In popular culture[edit] Harry Turtledove, a historian noted for his speculative fiction based on alternative history, has written several series set in a place called Videssos, which is a thinly disguised Byzantine Empire. The Tale of Krispos trilogy – Krispos Rising (1991), Krispos of Videssos (1991), and Krispos the Emperor (1994) – are fictionalized tellings of the rise of Basil and his sons.[30] Stephen Lawhead's book, Byzantium (1996), uses the succession of Basil I as seed for the conspiracy which occupies most of the novel.[31] Robert Greene's book The 48 Laws of Power (1998), features Basil I's rise to power, by way of his interactions and later his manipulations of Michael III, as an example of a "transgression of the law" for Law #2, "Never put too much trust in friends, learn how to use enemies".[32] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ The name of the father of Basil is unrecorded; however, Byzantine naming conventions are sometimes used to predict that of a relative. The names of Basil's male siblings and other relatives are recorded from later in his reign.[15][16] ^ A man named John of Chaldia killed Michael III, cutting off both the Emperor's hands before returning to stab him in the heart.[17] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Treadgold 1997, p. 455. ^ a b Vasiliev 1928–1935, p. 301. ^ a b c PmbZ, Basileios I. (#832/add. corr.). ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 457. ^ Vogt & Hausherr 1932, p. 44. ^ a b Tobias 2007, p. 20. ^ a b PmbZ, Pankalo (#5679). ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 455. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 213. ^ Tobias 2007, p. 264. ^ a b c Bury 1911. ^ Gregory 2010, p. 242. ^ Head, pp. 231–232. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 453. ^ Tougher, p. 26. ^ Herlong, M. (1987) Kinship and social mobility in Byzantium, 717–959, Catholic University of America, pp. 76–77. ^ Finlay 1853, pp. 180–181 ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 453–455. ^ Finlay 1853, pp. 214–215. ^ Finlay 1853, pp. 221–226. ^ Mango 1986, p. 194. ^ Magdalino 1987, p. 51. ^ Jenkins 1987, p. 191. ^ Jenkins 1987, pp. 185–187. ^ Jenkins 1987, pp. 196–197. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 461. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 241. ^ Tougher, pp. 7–8, 30–31, 42–50 ^ Kazhdan & Cutler 1991. ^ Turtledove, Harry (25 July 2006). "Introduction". In Martin, George R. R.; Dick, Philip K.; McCaffrey, Anne (eds.). The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century: Stories. Random House Publishing Group. p. xii. ISBN 9780345494290. Retrieved 27 August 2018. ^ "BYZANTIUM by Stephen R. Lawhead". Kirkus Reviews. 15 July 1996. Retrieved 27 August 2018. ^ Greene, Robert. (1998). The 48 laws of power. Elffers, Joost. (1st ed.). New York: Viking. p. 9. ISBN 0-670-88146-5. OCLC 39733201. Sources[edit] Bury, John Bagnell (1911). "Basil I." . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 03 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 467. Finlay, George (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from DCCXVI to MLVII. Edinburgh, Scotland; London, England: William Blackwood and Sons. Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium. Malden, Massachusetts; West Sussex, England: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7. Head, C. (1980) Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing, Byzantion, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1980), Peeters Publishers, pp. 226-240 Jenkins, Romilly (1987). Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610–1071. Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6667-4. Kazhdan, Alexander; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Vita Basilii". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Zielke, Beate; Pratsch, Thomas, eds. (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). De Gruyter. Magdalino, Paul (1987). "Observations on the Nea Ekklesia of Basil I". Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik (37): 51–64. ISSN 0378-8660. Mango, Cyril (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312–1453: Sources and Documents. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6627-5. Tobias, Norman (2007). Basil I, Founder of the Macedonian Dynasty: A Study of the Political and Military History of the Byzantine Empire in the Ninth Century. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5405-7. Tougher, S. (1997) The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People. Brill, Leiden. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804726306. Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). History of the Byzantine Empire. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-80925-0. Vogt, Albert; Hausherr, Isidorous, eds. (1932). "Oraison funèbre de Basile I par son fils Léon VI le Sage". Orientalia Christiana Periodica (in French). Rome, Italy: Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. 26 (77): 39–78. Further reading[edit] Bury, John Bagnell (1912). A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867). London, United Kingdom: Macmillan and Company. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Mango, Cyril (1973). "Eudocia Ingerina, the Normans, and the Macedonian Dynasty". Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta. 14–15: 17–27. Živković, Tibor (2013). "On the Baptism of the Serbs and Croats in the Time of Basil I (867–886)" (PDF). Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana (1): 33–53. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Basileios I. Basil I – World History Encyclopedia Basil I Macedonian Dynasty Born: c. 811 Died: 29 August 886 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael III Byzantine emperor 867–886 Succeeded by Leo VI Court offices Preceded by Damian Parakoimomenos 865–866 Succeeded by Rentakios v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain 2 France (data) Italy United States Czech Republic Greece Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basil_I&oldid=1027499613" Categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors Macedonian dynasty Armenian Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars 811 births 886 deaths Hunting accident deaths Parakoimomenoi Protostratores 860s in the Byzantine Empire 870s in the Byzantine Empire 880s in the Byzantine Empire Medieval bodyguards Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2021, at 08:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5934	----	Eutychius Proclus - Wikipedia Eutychius Proclus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tuticius Proculus) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Greek grammarian and writer Eutychius Proclus (Ancient Greek: Εὐτύχιος Πρόκλος, Eutychios Proklos, or Tuticius Proculus in some sources) was a grammarian who flourished in the 2nd century AD. He served as one of two Latin tutors for the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, along with Trosius Aper.[1][2] He was from the North African city of Sicca Veneria (modern El Kef in Tunisia).[3] It is possibly this Proclus who is mentioned by Trebellius Pollio as the most learned grammarian of his age.[4] For his work with the emperor, Proculus was later given senatorial rank, and a consulship,[5][6] though it is not clear what year he served as consul. He also required financial support from Marcus in order to carry the financial burdens of a senatorial career, so from here we may assume he was not born into a wealthy or aristocratic family.[7] Works[edit] His writings are now lost, though there is a (probably fictitious) work occasionally attributed to him titled De peregrinis regionibus.[8] This is likely because of some of the confusion over his identity. Some scholars through the 19th century believed that he was to be identified with the author of a Chrestomathy which is our most important source of information on the Epic Cycle.[9] Most modern scholars consider this attribution likely incorrect however, as this was a Greek work and Eutychius Proclus was a grammarian of Latin.[10] Identity[edit] There was historically some confusion over his identity based on earlier scholarship. Raffaello Maffei, the Italian historian and humanist of the 15th and 16th centuries, published information about Proculus in his Commentariorum rerum urbanarum libri XXXVIII, which was a historical source for many later writers. The work itself was quite unreliable in many places. Maffei identifies the 5th-century Platonist philosopher Proclus with "Tuticius Proculus", even though the two men lived three centuries apart, and states that the philosopher was the one who was Aurelius's tutor. Numerous other confusions stemmed from this error, including attribution of works not actually authored by him, and many later writers made similar errors based on Maffei's writings.[3] As to his name, scholar Anthony Birley has suggested that the name "Eutychius" is actually a corruption of the text, and in all cases should properly read "Tuticius".[11] We have an inscription from El Kef that mentions a "Marcus Tuticius Proculus" as procurator Augusti (that is, financial procurator, or CFO of a Roman province). This could be the same man, or a relative.[12] Notes[edit] ^ Jul. Capit. Vit. Ant. c. 2. ^ van Ackeren, Marcel (2012). A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. 96. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 141. ISBN 9781405192859. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ a b Goulding, Robert (2010). Defending Hypatia: Ramus, Savile, and the Renaissance Rediscovery of Mathematical History. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 164–167. ISBN 9789048135424. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Pollio Aemil. Tyr. ^ Fabric. Bibl. Graec. ix.365. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (2012). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Roman Imperial Biographies. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9781134695690. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Saller, Richard P. (2002). Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44, 63, 184. ISBN 9780521893923. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Gatti, Paolo (2016). "Eutychius Proculus". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.). Brill's New Pauly. ISBN 9789004122598. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ See e.g. D.B. Monro 1883, "On the fragment of Proclus' abstract of the Epic Cycle contained in the Codex Venetus of the Iliad", Journal of Hellenic Studies 4: 305-334. ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1921). A History of Classical Scholarship. 1 (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 379. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Adams, Geoffrey William (2013). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 133. ISBN 9780739176382. Retrieved 2016-02-21. ^ Barnes, Timothy David (1978). The sources of the Historia Augusta. Collection Latomus : revue d'études latines. 155. Latomus. ISBN 9782870310052. Retrieved 2016-02-21. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Other SUDOC (France) 1  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eutychius_Proclus&oldid=1018309452" Categories: 2nd-century writers Tutors of Marcus Aurelius 2nd-century Romans Grammarians of Latin Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Беларуская Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Italiano Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2021, at 10:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5961	----	Constans II - Wikipedia Constans II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 641 to 668 For the Western Roman usurper, see Constans II (son of Constantine III). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Constans II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor of the Romans Constans II Emperor of the Romans A solidus of Constans II c. 651–654, wearing a diadem and holding the globus cruciger. The inscription reads dn constantinus pp av. Byzantine emperor Reign 9 November 641 – 15 July 668 Coronation September 641 Predecessor Heraklonas Successor Constantine IV Co-emperor Constantine IV (654–668) Born 7 November 630 Constantinople Died 15 July 668 (aged 37) Syracuse, Sicily Spouse Fausta Issue Detail Constantine IV Heraclius Tiberius Names Flavius Heraclius Constantinus Dynasty Heraclian Father Constantine III Mother Gregoria Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Constans II (Greek: Κώνστας, Kōnstas; 7 November 630 – 15 July 668), nicknamed "the Bearded" (ὁ Πωγωνάτος; ho Pogonatos), was emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 641 to 668. He was the last emperor to serve as consul, in 642.[1][2] Constans is a nickname given to the Emperor, who had been baptized Flavius Heraclius (Flavios Herakleios) and reigned officially as "Constantine". The nickname established itself in Byzantine texts and has become standard in modern historiography. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life and reign as co-emperor 1.2 As sole emperor 1.3 Death and succession 2 Record in Chinese sources 3 Family 4 Ancestry 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Life[edit] Early life and reign as co-emperor[edit] Constans was the son of Constantine III and Gregoria.[3] After the death of Constantine III's father Heraclius, Constantine ruled with his half-brother Heraklonas through Heraclius' second marriage to Martina. Due to rumors that Heraklonas and Martina poisoned Constantine III, Constans II was named co-emperor. Later that same year, his uncle was deposed by the general Valentinus, one of Heraclius’ most trusted generals, and Constans II was left as sole emperor. Constans owed his rise to the throne to a popular reaction against his uncle and to the protection of the soldiers led by the general Valentinus. Although the precocious emperor addressed the senate with a speech blaming Heraklonas and Martina for eliminating his father, he reigned under a regency of senators led by Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople. In 644 Valentinus attempted to seize power for himself but failed. As sole emperor[edit] Under Constans, the Byzantines completely withdrew from Egypt in 642, and Caliph Uthman launched numerous attacks on the islands of the Mediterranean Sea and Aegean Sea. A Byzantine fleet under the admiral Manuel occupied Alexandria again in 645, and the Alexandrians hailed him as a liberator, since the caliphate levied heavier taxes and showed less respect for their religion. However, Manuel squandered his time and popularity in plundering the countryside, and eventually the Arab army managed to force him to embark for home.[4] The situation was complicated by the violent opposition to Monothelitism by the clergy in the west and the related rebellion of the Exarch of Carthage, Gregory the Patrician. The latter fell in battle against the army of Caliph Uthman, and the region remained a vassal state under the Caliphate until civil war broke out and imperial rule was again restored. Byzantine Empire in 650 under Constans II Hexagram of Constans II Constans attempted to steer a middle line in the church dispute between Orthodoxy and Monothelitism by refusing to persecute either and prohibiting further discussion of the natures of Jesus Christ by decree in 648 (the Type of Constans). Naturally, this live-and-let-live compromise satisfied few passionate participants in the dispute. Meanwhile, the advance of the Caliphate continued unabated. In 647 they entered Armenia and Cappadocia and sacked Caesarea Mazaca.[5] In the same year, they raided Africa and killed Gregory.[6] In 648 the Arabs raided into Phrygia, and in 649 they launched their first maritime expedition against Crete. A major Arab offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Emperor to enter into negotiations with Caliph Uthman's governor of Syria, Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. In 654, however, Muawiyah renewed his raids by sea, plundering Rhodes. Constans led a fleet to attack the Muslims at Phoinike (off Lycia) in 655 at the Battle of the Masts, but he was defeated: 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and the Emperor himself was almost killed. The sea battle was so devastating that the emperor escaped only by trading clothes with one of his men.[7] Before the battle, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence "thes allo niken", which means "gave victory to another (the enemy)".[8] Caliph Uthman was preparing to attack Constantinople, but he did not carry out the plan, as the first Fitna broke out in 656. A tremissis coin of Constans II Pogonatos In 658, with the eastern frontier under less pressure, Constans defeated the Slavs in the Balkans, temporarily reasserting some notion of Byzantine rule over them and resettled some of them in Anatolia (ca. 649 or 667). In 659 he campaigned far to the east, taking advantage of a rebellion against the Caliphate in Media. The same year he concluded peace with the Arabs. Now Constans could turn to church matters once again. Pope Martin I had condemned both Monothelitism and Constans' attempt to halt debates over it in the Lateran Council of 649. Now the Emperor ordered his Exarch of Ravenna to arrest the Pope. Exarch Olympius excused himself from this task, but his successor, Theodore I Calliopas, carried it out in 653. Pope Martin was brought to Constantinople and condemned as a criminal, ultimately being exiled to Cherson, where he died in 655. Constans grew increasingly fearful that his younger brother, Theodosius, could oust him from the throne; he therefore obliged Theodosius to take holy orders and later had him killed in 660. Constans' sons Constantine, Heraclius, and Tiberius had been associated on the throne since the 650s. However, having attracted the hatred of the citizens of Constantinople, Constans decided to leave the capital and to move to Syracuse in Sicily. On his way, he stopped in Greece and fought the Slavs at Thessalonica with success. Then, in the winter of 662-663, he made his camp at Athens.[9] From there, in 663, he continued to Italy. He launched an assault against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento, which then encompassed most of Southern Italy. Taking advantage of the fact that Lombard king Grimoald I of Benevento was engaged against Frankish forces from Neustria, Constans disembarked at Taranto and besieged Lucera and Benevento. However, the latter resisted and Constans withdrew to Naples. During the journey from Benevento to Naples, Constans II was defeated by Mitolas, Count of Capua, near Pugna. Constans ordered Saburrus, the commander of his army, to attack the Lombards again, but he was defeated by the Beneventani at Forino, between Avellino and Salerno. In 663 Constans visited Rome for twelve days—the only emperor to set foot in Rome for two centuries—and was received with great honor by Pope Vitalian (657–672). Although on friendly terms with Vitalian, he stripped buildings, including the Pantheon, of their ornaments and bronze to be carried back to Constantinople, and in 666 declared the Pope of Rome to have no jurisdiction over the Archbishop of Ravenna, since that city was the seat of the exarch, his immediate representative. His subsequent moves in Calabria and Sardinia were marked by further strippings and request of tributes that enraged his Italian subjects. Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate with figure of Constans II standing facing, holding cross-tipped staff and globus cruciger. Pseudo-Byzantine types. Struck circa 647-670. According to Warren Treadgold, the first themes were created between 659 and 661, during the reign of Constans II.[10] Death and succession[edit] On 15 July 668,[11] he was assassinated in his bath by his chamberlain, according to Theophilus of Edessa, with a bucket. His son Constantine succeeded him as Constantine IV. A brief usurpation in Sicily by Mezezius was quickly suppressed by the new emperor. Record in Chinese sources[edit] Further information: Sino-Roman relations and Europeans in Medieval China A solidus (coin) of Constans II that was minted in Carthage. 643 CE. Chang'an. Meeting of the ambassadors of Constans II with the emperor Tang Taizong. The subject of negotiations was cargo delays on the Silk Road due to tribal conflict in the Western Turkic Khaganate, which was responsible for the safety of goods on the Silk Road. To restore order, Tai-Tsung supported the election of the head of the kaganate khan Irbis and it was necessary to inform the authorities of Byzantium Empire, which was the main recipient of the goods. The Chinese dynastic histories of the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (拂菻), which they equated with Daqin (the Roman Empire).[12] These are recorded as having begun in the year 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli (波多力, Constans II Pogonatos) to Emperor Taizong of Tang, bearing gifts such as red glass and green gemstones.[12] Other contacts are reported taking place in 667, 701, and perhaps 719, sometimes through Central Asian intermediaries.[13][verification needed] These histories also record that the Arabs (Da shi 大食) sent their commander "Mo-yi" (Chinese: 摩拽伐之, Pinyin: Mó zhuāi fá zhī), to besiege the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and forced the Byzantines to pay them tribute.[12] This Arab commander "Mo-yi" was identified by historian Friedrich Hirth as Muawiyah I (r. 661–680), the governor of Syria before becoming the Umayyad caliph.[12] The same books also described Constantinople in some detail as having massive granite walls and a water clock mounted with a golden statue of man.[12] The Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, writing during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), relayed information about China's geography, its capital city Khubdan (Old Turkic: Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an), its current ruler Taisson whose name meant "Son of God" (Chinese: Tianzi), and correctly pointed to its reunification by the Sui Dynasty (581–618) as occurring during the reign of Maurice, noting that China had previously been divided politically along the Yangzi River by two warring nations.[14] Family[edit] By his wife Fausta, a daughter of the patrician Valentinus, Constans II had three sons: Constantine IV, who succeeded him as Emperor Heraclius, co-emperor from 659 to 681 Tiberius, co-emperor from 659 to 681 Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Constans II 8. Heraclius the Elder 4. Heraclius I, Byzantine emperor 9. Epiphania 2. Constantine III, Byzantine emperor 10. Rogas 5. Fabia Eudokia 1. Constans II, Byzantine emperor 12. Gregoras (brother of Heraclius the Elder) 6. Niketas 3. Gregoria See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ JSTOR: The Last Consul: Basilius and His Diptych ^ JSTOR: The Iranian Factor in Byzantium during the Reign of Heraclius ^ Bury 1889, p. vi. ^ Treadgold, Warren. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. p. 312 ^ Browning 1992, p. 45. ^ Pringle 1981, p. 47. ^ Bennett, Judith M. (20 January 2010). Medieval Europe: a short history (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 70. ISBN 9780073385501. ^ "θὲς ἄλλῳ νὶκην", see Bury, John Bagnell (1889), A history of the later Roman empire from Arcadius to Irene, Adamant Media Corporation, 2005, p.290. ISBN 1-4021-8368-2 ^ Cheetham, Nicolas. Mediaeval Greece. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. ^ Warren Treadgold, Byzantium and Its Army 284–1081 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). pp. 23-25;72-3. ^ Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042)". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 49–50. doi:10.2307/1291157. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291157. ^ a b c d e Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ Mutsaers, Inge (2009). Marlia Mundell Mango (ed.). Byzantine Trade, 4th–12th Centuries. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ Yule, Henry (1915), Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, 1, London: London: Hakluyt Society, pp. 29–31, see also footnote #4 on p. 29, footnote #2 on p. 30, and footnote #3 on page 31, retrieved 21 September 2016 Sources[edit] Browning, Robert (1992). The Byzantine Empire. The Catholic University of America Press. Bury, John Bagnell (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (395 A. D. to 800 A.D.). II. Macmillan and Co. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Pringle, Denys (1981). The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest: An Account of the Military History and Archaeology of the African Provinces in the Sixth and Seventh Century. Oxford, United Kingdom: British Archaeological Reports. ISBN 0-86054-119-3. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. Liber Pontificalis Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum, Book V External links[edit] Constans II's profile in Prosopography of the Byzantine World. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constans II. Constans II Heraclian Dynasty Born: 7 November 630 Died: 15 September 668 Regnal titles Preceded by Heraklonas Byzantine Emperor 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–685) Heraclius (659–681) Tiberius (659–681) Succeeded by Constantine IV Political offices VacantTitle last held by Heraclius Consul of the Roman Empire 642 VacantTitle next held by Justinian II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constans_II&oldid=1021100051" Categories: 630 births 668 deaths 7th-century Byzantine emperors 7th-century murdered monarchs Heraclian Dynasty Medieval child rulers Assassinated Byzantine emperors Imperial Roman consuls 640s in the Byzantine Empire 650s in the Byzantine Empire 660s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from September 2012 All articles needing additional references Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2019 Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2021, at 22:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-596	----	Heraklonas - Wikipedia Heraklonas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor of the Romans Heraklonas Emperor of the Romans Solidus depicting Heraklonas, marked: dn constantinus pp avg[a] Byzantine emperor Reign February–September/October 641 Coronation 4 July 638[2] Predecessor Heraclius Successor Constans II Co-emperor Constantine III (February–April/May 641) Born 3 May 626 Lazica Died 642 (aged 15-16) Rhodes Names Constantinus Heraclius (Heraclianus) Dynasty Heraclian Dynasty Father Heraclius Mother Martina Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Constantine Heraclius (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος, romanized: Kōnstantînos Hērákleios; 626–641), commonly known by the diminutive Heraklonas or Herakleonas (Greek: Ἡρακλ[ε]ωνᾶς), and more rarely as Heraclius II,[3] was the son of Heraclius and his niece Martina. His father had stipulated in his will that both of his sons, Heraklonas and Constantine III, should rule jointly upon his death. Heraclius also specified that his wife, Martina, was to be called "Mother and Empress" insofar as she might have influence at court as well.[4] The emperor Heraclius died in February 641 from edema. When Martina did make the late Emperor's will public she faced staunch resistance to her playing any active role in government, but both Heraklonas and Constantine were proclaimed joint-emperors in February 641 without incident. After Constantine died of tuberculosis in April/May 641, Heraklonas became sole emperor, under the regency of his mother due to his young age. He reigned from April/May – September/October 641, when he was overthrown by Valentinus, a general and usurper of Armenian extract, who installed Constans II, the son of Constantine III. Valentinus had Heraklonas' nose cut off, then exiled him to Rhodes, where he is believed to have died in the same year. Contents 1 Early life 2 Heraklonas' joint rule with Constantine III 3 Sole rule and fall 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Citations 5.3 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Early life[edit] Heraklonas was born on 3 May 626, in the suburban Palace of Sophianae. He was the son of Emperor Heraclius, and his niece-wife Martina.[5][6][7] Under Heraclius, the Byzantine Empire was invaded in 639 by the Arabs, due to the failure of the Theme of Mesopotamia to pay tribute. The cities of Edessa and Dara were quickly captured. In the same year, another group of Arabs, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As, invaded Byzantine Egypt. He quickly occupied the coastal towns of Egypt, but was unable to cross the Nile, due to stiff resistance by Byzantine forces led by John. After a bloody battle between John and 'Amr, in which John perished, 'Amr was forced to appeal to the Rashidun Caliph Umar for more troops. John was replaced by another general, Theodore, who gathered his forces around Babylon Fortress, a major fortress in Egypt. By summer 640, 'Amr's forces had swelled to around 15,000 men.[8] With these men, 'Amr decisively defeated Theodore north of Babylon, before laying siege to the fortress itself.[9] Heraklonas' joint rule with Constantine III[edit] Heraclius died of edema on 11 February 641, leaving The Empire jointly to his eldest son, Constantine III, and Heraklonas,[7][9][10] who were both proclaimed emperor in late May 641.[7] At the time of his elevation to co-emperor, Heraklonas was only 15 years old, whereas Constantine was 28 or 29, which effectively gave the real power to Constantine. Much of the Byzantine public objected to Heraclius' will, as Heraklonas was the result of an avunculate marriage—a marriage between an uncle and niece—which many felt was illegal, thereby making Heraklonas a bastard. Also considered objectionable was the fact that Constantine's ten-year-old son, Constans II, was not elevated alongside Constantine and Heraklonas, breaking the tradition of the succession of senior emperorship from father to eldest son, when possible. It was also thought that the lack of elevation could have precluded him from the succession entirely.[6][10] Shortly after Constantine took the throne, he was informed by his finance minister, Philagrius, that Heraclius had created a secret fund for Martina, administered by Patriarch Pyrrhus. Constantine confiscated this account, using it to help meet the budget for the spring military payroll, which, along with the traditional accessional donatives that comprised half of the payroll,[11] totaled 2,016,000 nomisma.[12] Constantine appointed Valentinus as the commander of the main eastern army, in the hopes of retaining at least the Egyptian coastline. However the Byzantine general Theodore was still unable to repel the Arab attacks. Constantine summoned Cyrus of Alexandria, made him Prefect of Egypt, and instructed him to prepare to reinforce Alexandria. Before this invasion could take place, Babylon surrendered to the Arabs, allowing them to besiege Alexandria.[12] Heraclius' will also stated that Martina should server as mother and empress-regent, but this part was rejected by the Senate. Because of Heraklonas' young age, Martina ruled through him, consistently opposing the policies of Constantine, leading to the creation of two different political factions. Constantine's faction was initially the more powerful of the two, but this control was weakened by a flagging economy and the loss of Egypt to the Arabs. Shortly after, on 20/24 April or 26 May 641, Constantine died of an advanced case of tuberculosis, although some supporters of Constantine alleged that Martina had him poisoned, leaving Heraklonas as the sole ruler, under the regency of Martina.[10][13][14] Sole rule and fall[edit] Martina maintained the plans of Constantine, and sent Cyrus to Alexandria, with much of the praesental army. She then summoned the Thracian army to Constantinople, to replace them.[12][15][16] Around this time, the Patriarch Pyrrhus, an influential advisor of Martina, succeeded in reviving the policy of Monothelitism. As a result of this policy, Kyros, a monothelete, regained control of the see of Alexandria, giving him both religious and secular control. Martina instructed Kyros to attempt to negotiate with the Arabs, as they believed that they were unable to defeat them militarily.[10] Martina was opposed by Valentinus, who was beyond her reach in Anatolia, although she exiled his patron, Philagrius, to Africa.[12][15][16] Heraklonas and Martina lost the support of the Byzantine Senate and people due to the rumors that Martina had poisoned Constantine and their support for Monothelitism;[10] Also at this time, both Heraklonas and Martina's relations with the army suffered as a result of Martina's inability to raise enough funds to match the donative given by Constantine.[12][15][16] In August 641, Valentinus marched his troops to Chalcedon, to force Martina to elevate Constans II to co-emperor. While Valentinus was encamped across the Bosphorus from Constantinople, a mob rose up in the city, demanding that Pyrrhus crown Constans II as emperor,[12][15][16] and then abdicate, to be replaced by his steward Paul II. Martina, now in a truly desperate situation, offered the military further donatives, recalled Philagrius from Africa, and offered Valentinus the title of Count of the Excubitors.[12][14] In late September/October, Martina elevated Constans to co-emperor, but also raised Heraklonas' brothers, Martinos and Tiberius to co-emperors alongside them.[7] Despite these offers, Valentinus entered the city in September/October, deposed Heraklonas and Martina, and then elevated Constans to emperor.[12][14] Valentinus was unwilling to kill a woman and child, but had Martina's tongue slit and Heraklonas' nose cut off in January 642, then exiled them to Rhodes; this is believed to be the first time that the political mutilation of Byzantine prisoners was utilized to signify that the person could no longer hold political power.[10] After this, nothing is known of them, although it is believed that Heraklonas died in 642.[7][14][17] Notes[edit] ^ Though the coins of Heraklonas only use the name Constantine, official documents from his reign instead for the most part only use the name Heraclius, hence his modern numbering, if given one, being Heraclius II, rather than Constantine IV. The name Heraklonas is a diminutive form of the name Heraclius.[1] References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Breviarium by Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos.[18] Citations[edit] ^ Foss 2005, p. 96. ^ PLRE, p. 588 ^ Bellinger & Grierson 1992, p. 389. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, pp. 112–114. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 324. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 307. ^ a b c d e PmbZ, Heraklonas (#2565/corr.). ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 305. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 306. ^ a b c d e f Moore. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 308. ^ a b c d e f g h Treadgold 1997, p. 309. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 308–309. ^ a b c d Bellinger & Grierson 1992, p. 390. ^ a b c d Stratos 1980, p. 88. ^ a b c d Stratos 1980, p. 179. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 310. ^ Fontaine 2004, p. 42. Bibliography[edit] Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip, eds. (1992). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: Phocas to Theodosius III, 602-717. Part 1. Phocas and Heraclius (602–641). 2. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-884-02024-0. Fontaine, P.F.M. (2004). The Light and the Dark: A Cultural History of Dualism. The dualism in byzantine history, 638-1453 and in the East-West relationship of the Middle ages. Groningen: J.C. Gieben. ISBN 978-9-051-79134-1. Foss, Clive (2005). "Emperors named Constantine". Revue numismatique (in French). 6 (161): 93–102. doi:10.3406/numi.2005.2594.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). "Heraklonas". Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Moore, R. Scott (1996). "Heraklonas (April/May - September 641 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2019. Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A.: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-0599-2. Stratos, A. N. (1980). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: Justinian II, Leontius and Tiberius 685-711. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 978-9-025-60852-1. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-804-72630-6. Further reading[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Heracleonas". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 308. Heraklonas' profile in Prosopography of the Byzantine World Byzantine Empire portal External links[edit] Media related to Heraclonas at Wikimedia Commons Heraklonas Heraclian Dynasty Born: 626 Died: after 641 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine III, Heraclius Byzantine Emperor 641 with Constantine III Succeeded by Constans II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Netherlands Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heraklonas&oldid=1026787888" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors Heraclian Dynasty Medieval child rulers Rulers deposed as children 626 births 640s in the Byzantine Empire Heraclius Byzantine exiles Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Good articles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter CS1 maint: ref duplicates default CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 07:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5973	----	Homer - Wikipedia Homer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 13 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). "Homeric" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Homerian. Name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey "Homeric" and "Homerus" redirect here. For other uses, see Homeric (disambiguation) and Homerus (disambiguation). Roman bust of Homer from the second century AD, portrayed with traditional iconography, based on a Greek original dating to the Hellenistic period[1] Homer (/ˈhoʊmər/; Ancient Greek: Ὅμηρος [hómɛːros], Hómēros) was the presumed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems that are the foundational works of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary.[2][3][4] The Homeric Question – concerning by whom, when, where and under what circumstances the Iliad and Odyssey were composed – continues to be debated. Modern scholarship considers that the two works were written by different authors. It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.[5] The poems are in Homeric Greek, also known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant influence is Eastern Ionic.[6][7] Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.[8] From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.[9] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[10][11] Contents 1 Works attributed to Homer 2 Ancient biographical traditions 3 History of Homeric scholarship 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Modern 3.3 Contemporary 4 Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society 5 Homeric language 6 Homeric style 7 Textual transmission 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Selected bibliography 10.1 Editions 10.2 Interlinear translations 10.3 English translations 10.4 General works on Homer 10.5 Influential readings and interpretations 10.6 Commentaries 10.7 Dating the Homeric poems 11 Further reading 12 External links Works attributed to Homer[edit] Homer and His Guide (1874) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau Today only the Iliad and the Odyssey are associated with the name 'Homer'. In antiquity, a very large number of other works were sometimes attributed to him, including the Homeric Hymns, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, the Little Iliad, the Nostoi, the Thebaid, the Cypria, the Epigoni, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"), the Margites, the Capture of Oechalia, and the Phocais. These claims are not considered authentic today and were by no means universally accepted in the ancient world. As with the multitude of legends surrounding Homer's life, they indicate little more than the centrality of Homer to ancient Greek culture.[12][13][14] Ancient biographical traditions[edit] Further information: Ancient accounts of Homer Some ancient claims about Homer were established early and repeated often. They include that Homer was blind (taking as self-referential a passage describing the blind bard Demodocus[15][16]), that he was born in Chios, that he was the son of the river Meles and the nymph Critheïs, that he was a wandering bard, that he composed a varying list of other works (the "Homerica"), that he died either in Ios or after failing to solve a riddle set by fishermen, and various explanations for the name "Homer". The two best known ancient biographies of Homer are the Life of Homer by the Pseudo-Herodotus and the Contest of Homer and Hesiod.[17][18] In the early 4th century BC Alcidamas composed a fictional account of a poetry contest at Chalcis with both Homer and Hesiod. Homer was expected to win, and answered all of Hesiod's questions and puzzles with ease. Then, each of the poets was invited to recite the best passage from their work. Hesiod selected the beginning of Works and Days: "When the Pleiades born of Atlas ... all in due season". Homer chose a description of Greek warriors in formation, facing the foe, taken from the Iliad. Though the crowd acclaimed Homer victor, the judge awarded Hesiod the prize; the poet who praised husbandry, he said, was greater than the one who told tales of battles and slaughter.[19] History of Homeric scholarship[edit] Further information: Homeric scholarship and Homeric Question Ancient[edit] Part of an eleventh-century manuscript, "the Townley Homer". The writings on the top and right side are scholia. The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.[20][21][22] Nonetheless, the aims of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia.[20] The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics such as the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral.[22] The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by arguing that the Homeric poems are allegories.[22] The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely used as school texts in ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultures.[20][22][23] They were the first literary works taught to all students.[23] The Iliad, particularly its first few books, was far more intently studied than the Odyssey during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[23] As a result of the poems' prominence in classical Greek education, extensive commentaries on them developed to explain parts of the poems that were culturally or linguistically difficult.[20][22] During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many interpreters, especially the Stoics, who believed that Homeric poems conveyed Stoic doctrines, regarded them as allegories, containing hidden wisdom.[22] Perhaps partially because of the Homeric poems' extensive use in education, many authors believed that Homer's original purpose had been to educate.[22] Homer's wisdom became so widely praised that he began to acquire the image of almost a prototypical philosopher.[22] Byzantine scholars such as Eustathius of Thessalonica and John Tzetzes produced commentaries, extensions and scholia to Homer, especially in the twelfth century.[24][22] Eustathius's commentary on the Iliad alone is massive, sprawling over nearly 4,000 oversized pages in a twenty-first century printed version and his commentary on the Odyssey an additional nearly 2,000.[22] Modern[edit] Homer as depicted in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle In 1488, the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles published the editio princeps of the Homeric poems.[22] The earliest modern Homeric scholars started with the same basic approaches towards the Homeric poems as scholars in antiquity.[22][21][20] The allegorical interpretation of the Homeric poems that had been so prevalent in antiquity returned to become the prevailing view of the Renaissance.[22] Renaissance humanists praised Homer as the archetypically wise poet, whose writings contain hidden wisdom, disguised through allegory.[22] In western Europe during the Renaissance, Virgil was more widely read than Homer and Homer was often seen through a Virgilian lens.[25] In 1664, contradicting the widespread praise of Homer as the epitome of wisdom, François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac wrote a scathing attack on the Homeric poems, declaring that they were incoherent, immoral, tasteless, and without style, that Homer never existed, and that the poems were hastily cobbled together by incompetent editors from unrelated oral songs.[21] Fifty years later, the English scholar Richard Bentley concluded that Homer did exist, but that he was an obscure, prehistoric oral poet whose compositions bear little relation to the Iliad and the Odyssey as they have been passed down.[21] According to Bentley, Homer "wrote a Sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small Earnings and good Cheer at Festivals and other Days of Merriment; the Ilias he wrote for men, and the Odysseis for the other Sex. These loose songs were not collected together in the Form of an epic Poem till Pisistratus' time, about 500 Years after."[21] Friedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,[26][27][21] which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey in the sixth century BC by literate authors.[26][27][21] After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.[26][27][21] Wolf and the "Analyst" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.[26][27][21][28] Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the "lay theory", which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,[21] and proponents of the "nucleus theory", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.[21] A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed "Unitarians", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.[26][27][21] By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not "Homer" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed "the Homeric Question".[21] Following World War I, the Analyst school began to fall out of favor among Homeric scholars.[21] It did not die out entirely, but it came to be increasingly seen as a discredited dead end.[21] Starting in around 1928, Milman Parry and Albert Lord, after their studies of folk bards in the Balkans, developed the "Oral-Formulaic Theory" that the Homeric poems were originally composed through improvised oral performances, which relied on traditional epithets and poetic formulas.[29][28][21] This theory found very wide scholarly acceptance[29][28][21] and explained many previously puzzling features of the Homeric poems, including their unusually archaic language, their extensive use of stock epithets, and their other "repetitive" features.[28] Many scholars concluded that the "Homeric question" had finally been answered.[21] Meanwhile, the 'Neoanalysts' sought to bridge the gap between the 'Analysts' and 'Unitarians'.[30][31] The Neoanalysts sought to trace the relationships between the Homeric poems and other epic poems, which have now been lost, but of which modern scholars do possess some patchy knowledge.[21] Neoanalysts hold that knowledge of earlier versions of the epics can be derived from anomalies of structure and detail in the surviving versions of the Iliad and Odyssey. These anomalies point to earlier versions of the Iliad in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was actually mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans. They point to earlier versions of the Odyssey in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors.[32] Contemporary[edit] Most contemporary scholars, although they disagree on other questions about the genesis of the poems, agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not produced by the same author, based on "the many differences of narrative manner, theology, ethics, vocabulary, and geographical perspective, and by the apparently imitative character of certain passages of the Odyssey in relation to the Iliad."[33][34][35][21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey are unified poems, in that each poem shows a clear overall design, and that they are not merely strung together from unrelated songs.[21] It is also generally agreed that each poem was composed mostly by a single author, who probably relied heavily on older oral traditions.[21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Doloneia in Book X of the Iliad is not part of the original poem, but rather a later insertion by a different poet.[21] Some ancient scholars believed Homer to have been an eyewitness to the Trojan War; others thought he had lived up to 500 years afterwards.[36] Contemporary scholars continue to debate the date of the poems.[37][38][21] A long history of oral transmission lies behind the composition of the poems, complicating the search for a precise date.[39] At one extreme, Richard Janko has proposed a date for both poems to the eighth century BC based on linguistic analysis and statistics.[37][38] Barry B. Powell dates the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey to sometime between 800 and 750 BC, based on the statement from Herodotus, who lived in the late fifth century BC, that Homer lived four hundred years before his own time "and not more" (καὶ οὐ πλέοσι), and on the fact that the poems do not mention hoplite battle tactics, inhumation, or literacy.[40] Martin Litchfield West has argued that the Iliad echoes the poetry of Hesiod, and that it must have been composed around 660–650 BC at the earliest, with the Odyssey up to a generation later.[41][42][21] He also interprets passages in the Iliad as showing knowledge of historical events that occurred in the ancient Near East during the middle of the seventh century BC, including the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BC and the Sack of Thebes by Ashurbanipal in 663/4 BC.[21] At the other extreme, a few American scholars such as Gregory Nagy see "Homer" as a continually evolving tradition, which grew much more stable as the tradition progressed, but which did not fully cease to continue changing and evolving until as late as the middle of the second century BC.[37][38][21] "'Homer" is a name of unknown etymological origin, around which many theories were erected in antiquity. One such linkage was to the Greek ὅμηρος (hómēros), "hostage" (or "surety"). The explanations suggested by modern scholars tend to mirror their position on the overall Homeric question. Nagy interprets it as "he who fits (the song) together". West has advanced both possible Greek and Phoenician etymologies.[43][44] Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society[edit] Main article: Historicity of the Homeric epics Greece according to the Iliad Scholars continue to debate questions such as whether the Trojan War actually took place – and if so when and where – and to what extent the society depicted by Homer is based on his own or one which was, even at the time of the poems' composition, known only as legends. The Homeric epics are largely set in the east and center of the Mediterranean, with some scattered references to Egypt, Ethiopia and other distant lands, in a warlike society that resembles that of the Greek world slightly before the hypothesized date of the poems' composition.[45][46][47][48] In ancient Greek chronology, the sack of Troy was dated to 1184 BC. By the nineteenth century, there was widespread scholarly skepticism that the Trojan War had ever happened and that Troy had even existed, but in 1873 Heinrich Schliemann announced to the world that he had discovered the ruins of Homer's Troy at Hissarlik in modern Turkey. Some contemporary scholars think the destruction of Troy VIIa circa 1220 BC was the origin of the myth of the Trojan War, others that the poem was inspired by multiple similar sieges that took place over the centuries.[49] Most scholars now agree that the Homeric poems depict customs and elements of the material world that are derived from different periods of Greek history.[28][50][51] For instance, the heroes in the poems use bronze weapons, characteristic of the Bronze Age in which the poems are set, rather than the later Iron Age during which they were composed;[28][50][51] yet the same heroes are cremated (an Iron Age practice) rather than buried (as they were in the Bronze Age).[28][50][51] In some parts of the Homeric poems, heroes are accurately described as carrying large shields like those used by warriors during the Mycenaean period,[28] but, in other places, they are instead described carrying the smaller shields that were commonly used during the time when the poems were written in the early Iron Age.[28] In the Iliad 10.260–265, Odysseus is described as wearing a helmet made of boar's tusks. Such helmets were not worn in Homer's time, but were commonly worn by aristocratic warriors between 1600 and 1150 BC.[52][53][54] The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and continued archaeological investigation has increased modern scholars' understanding of Aegean civilisation, which in many ways resembles the ancient Near East more than the society described by Homer.[55] Some aspects of the Homeric world are simply made up;[28] for instance, the Iliad 22.145–56 describes there being two springs that run near the city of Troy, one that runs steaming hot and the other that runs icy cold.[28] It is here that Hector takes his final stand against Achilles.[28] Archaeologists, however, have uncovered no evidence that springs of this description ever actually existed.[28] Homeric language[edit] Main article: Homeric Greek Detail of The Parnassus (painted 1509–1510) by Raphael, depicting Homer wearing a crown of laurels atop Mount Parnassus, with Dante Alighieri on his right and Virgil on his left The Homeric epics are written in an artificial literary language or 'Kunstsprache' only used in epic hexameter poetry. Homeric Greek shows features of multiple regional Greek dialects and periods, but is fundamentally based on Ionic Greek, in keeping with the tradition that Homer was from Ionia. Linguistic analysis suggests that the Iliad was composed slightly before the Odyssey, and that Homeric formulae preserve older features than other parts of the poems.[56][57] Homeric style[edit] The Homeric poems were composed in unrhymed dactylic hexameter; ancient Greek metre was quantity-based rather than stress-based.[58][59] Homer frequently uses set phrases such as epithets ('crafty Odysseus', 'rosy-fingered Dawn', 'owl-eyed Athena', etc.), Homeric formulae ('and then answered [him/her], Agamemnon, king of men', 'when the early-born rose-fingered Dawn came to light', 'thus he/she spoke'), simile, type scenes, ring composition and repetition. These habits aid the extemporizing bard, and are characteristic of oral poetry. For instance, the main words of a Homeric sentence are generally placed towards the beginning, whereas literate poets like Virgil or Milton use longer and more complicated syntactical structures. Homer then expands on these ideas in subsequent clauses; this technique is called parataxis.[60] The so-called 'type scenes' (typische Scenen), were named by Walter Arend in 1933. He noted that Homer often, when describing frequently recurring activities such as eating, praying, fighting and dressing, used blocks of set phrases in sequence that were then elaborated by the poet. The 'Analyst' school had considered these repetitions as un-Homeric, whereas Arend interpreted them philosophically. Parry and Lord noted that these conventions are found in many other cultures.[61][62] 'Ring composition' or chiastic structure (when a phrase or idea is repeated at both the beginning and end of a story, or a series of such ideas first appears in the order A, B, C ... before being reversed as ... C, B, A) has been observed in the Homeric epics. Opinion differs as to whether these occurrences are a conscious artistic device, a mnemonic aid or a spontaneous feature of human storytelling.[63][64] Both of the Homeric poems begin with an invocation to the Muse.[65] In the Iliad, the poet invokes her to sing of "the anger of Achilles",[65] and, in the Odyssey, he asks her to sing of "the man of many ways".[65] A similar opening was later employed by Virgil in his Aeneid.[65] Textual transmission[edit] A Reading from Homer (1885) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The orally transmitted Homeric poems were put into written form at some point between the eighth and sixth centuries BC. Some scholars believe that they were dictated to a scribe by the poet and that our inherited versions of the Iliad and Odyssey were in origin orally-dictated texts.[66] Albert Lord noted that the Balkan bards that he was studying revised and expanded their songs in their process of dictating.[67] Some scholars hypothesize that a similar process of revision and expansion occurred when the Homeric poems were first written down.[68][69] Other scholars hold that, after the poems were created in the eighth century, they continued to be orally transmitted with considerable revision until they were written down in the sixth century.[70] After textualisation, the poems were each divided into 24 rhapsodes, today referred to as books, and labelled by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Most scholars attribute the book divisions to the Hellenistic scholars of Alexandria, in Egypt.[71] Some trace the divisions back further to the Classical period.[72] Very few credit Homer himself with the divisions.[73] In antiquity, it was widely held that the Homeric poems were collected and organised in Athens in the late sixth century BC by the tyrant Peisistratos (died 528/7 BC), in what subsequent scholars have dubbed the "Peisistratean recension".[74][22] The idea that the Homeric poems were originally transmitted orally and first written down during the reign of Peisistratos is referenced by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero and is also referenced in a number of other surviving sources, including two ancient Lives of Homer.[22] From around 150 BC, the texts of the Homeric poems seem to have become relatively established. After the establishment of the Library of Alexandria, Homeric scholars such as Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzantium and in particular Aristarchus of Samothrace helped establish a canonical text.[75] The first printed edition of Homer was produced in 1488 in Milan, Italy. Today scholars use medieval manuscripts, papyri and other sources; some argue for a "multi-text" view, rather than seeking a single definitive text. The nineteenth-century edition of Arthur Ludwich mainly follows Aristarchus's work, whereas van Thiel's (1991, 1996) follows the medieval vulgate. Others, such as Martin West (1998–2000) or T.W. Allen, fall somewhere between these two extremes.[75] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Poetry portal Literature portal Achaeans (Homer) Aeneid Bibliomancy Catalogue of Ships Creophylus of Samos Cyclic Poets Deception of Zeus Epithets in Homer Geography of the Odyssey Greek mythology Hector Historicity of Homer Homeric scholarship Ithaca List of Homeric characters Peisistratos Sortes Homericae Tabula iliaca Telemachy The Golden Bough Trojan Battle Order Trojan War in popular culture Troy VII Venetus A Manuscript Notes[edit] ^ "Portrait Bust". The British Museum. ^ Wilson, Nigel (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 366. ISBN 978-1136788000. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0226143125. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0521809665. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Croally, Neil; Hyde, Roy (2011). Classical Literature: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 978-1136736629. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (2015). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 445. ISBN 978-1118885956. ^ Miller, D. Gary (2013). Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus. Walter de Gruyter. p. 351. ISBN 978-1614512950. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna (1996). The Odyssey Re-formed. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483356. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Latacz, Joachim (1996). Homer, His Art and His World. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472083534. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Too, Yun Lee (2010). The Idea of the Library in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. p. 86. ISBN 978-0199577804. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ MacDonald, Dennis R. (1994). Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0195358629. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Homerica". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0606. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes (2005). Homer: The Resonance of Epic. A&C Black. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0715632826. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–168. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Odyssey, 8:64ff. ^ Lefkowitz, Mary R. (2013). The Lives of the Greek Poets. A&C Black. pp. 14–30. ISBN 978-1472503077. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Biographies of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0243. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ West, M. L. Theogony & Works and Days. 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ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Finley, Moses I. (1991). The World of Odysseus. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140136869. ^ Wees, Hans van (2009). War and Violence in Ancient Greece. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-1910589298. ^ Morris, Ian (1986). "The Use and Abuse of Homer". Classical Antiquity. 5 (1): 81–138. doi:10.2307/25010840. JSTOR 25010840. ^ Dowden, Ken; Livingstone, Niall (2011). A Companion to Greek Mythology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 440. ISBN 978-1444396935. ^ a b c Sacks, David; Murray, Oswyn; Brody, Lisa R. (2014). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Infobase Publishing. p. 356. ISBN 978-1438110202. ^ a b c Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. pp. 434–435. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Wood, Michael (1996). In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Schofield, Louise (2007). The Mycenaeans. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-89236-867-9. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Everson, Tim (2004). Warfare in Ancient Greece: Arms and Armour from the Heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great. Brimscombe Port: The History Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-7524-9506-4. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. p. 625. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Willi, Andreas (2012). "Language, Homeric". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0792. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Bakker, Egbert J. (2010). A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. John Wiley & Sons. p. 401. ISBN 978-1444317404. ^ W. Edwards, Mark (2012). "Meter". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0913. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nussbaum, G.B. (1986). Homer's Metre: A Practical Guide for Reading Greek Hexameter Poetry. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0862921729. ^ Edwards, Mark W. (2012). "Style". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1377. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Reece, Steve T. (2012). "Type-Scenes". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1488. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Edwards, MW (1992). "Homer and Oral Tradition: The Type-Scene". Oral Tradition. 7: 284–330. ^ Stanley, Keith (2014). The Shield of Homer: Narrative Structure in the Illiad. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400863372. ^ Minchin, Elizabeth (2012). "Ring Composition". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1287. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d Adler, Eve (2003). Vergil's Empire: Political Thought in the Aeneid. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7425-2167-4. ^ Steve Reece, "Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: From Oral Performance to Written Text", in Mark Amodio (ed.), New Directions in Oral Theory (Tempe: Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2005) 43-89. ^ Albert B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). ^ Kirk, G.S. (1976). Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0521213097. ^ Foley, John Miles (2012). "Oral Dictated Texts". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1029. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nagy, Gregory (1996). Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521558488. ^ U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Homerische Untersuchungen (Berlin, 1884) 369; R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship (Oxford, 1968) 116-117. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Book Division". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0253. ISBN 978-1405177689.; S. West, The Ptolemaic Papyri of Homer (Cologne, 1967) 18-25. ^ P. Mazon, Introduction à l'Iliade (Paris, 1912) 137-40; C.H. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge [Mass.], 1958) 282-83; G.P. Goold, "Homer and the Alphabet", TAPA 96 (1960) 272-91; K. Stanley, The Shield of Homer (Princeton, 1993) 37, 249ff. ^ Jensen, Minna Skafte (1980). The Homeric Question and the Oral-formulaic Theory. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-8772890968. ^ a b Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413. ISBN 978-1405177689. Selected bibliography[edit] Editions[edit] Texts in Homeric Greek Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488 the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517) 1st ed. with comments, Micyllus and Camerarius, Basel, 1535, 1541 (improved text), 1551 (incl. the Batrachomyomachia) Th. Ridel, Strasbourg, c. 1572, 1588 and 1592. Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807) Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836) Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858) La Roche (Odyssey, 1867–1868; Iliad, 1873–1876, both at Leipzig) Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889–1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907) W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed. 1900–1902) William Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i–xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886) Monro (Odyssey xiii–xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901) Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917–1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad=3rd edition, Odyssey=2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN 0-19-814534-9 H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09459-2 M. L. West 1998–2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1 P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7 M. L. West 2017, Homerus Odyssea, Berlin/Boston. ISBN 3-11-042539-4 Interlinear translations[edit] The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text ISBN 978-1-60725-298-6 English translations[edit] Main article: English translations of Homer This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Augustus Taber Murray (1866–1940) Homer: Iliad, 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1999). Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1995). Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985) The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1 The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9 Robert Fagles (1933–2008) The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3 The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3 Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943) Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2 Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7 Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3 Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7 The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1 The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5 Barry B. Powell (b. 1942) "Iliad", Oxford University Press (2013) ISBN 978-0-19-932610-5 "Odyssey", Oxford University PressI (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-936031-4 Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: The Essential Books, Oxford University Press (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-939407-4 Samuel Butler (1835–1902) The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1 The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8 Herbert Jordan (b. 1938) Iliad, University of Oklahoma Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-8061-3974-6 (soft cover) Emily Wilson (b. 1971) The Odyssey, W.W. Norton & Company (2017) ISBN 978-0-393-08905-9 Rodney Merrill The Iliad, University of Michigan Press (2007) ISBN 978-0-472-11617-1 The Odyssey, University of Michigan Press (2002) ISBN 978-0-472-11231-9 General works on Homer[edit] Carlier, Pierre (1999). Homère (in French). Paris: Les éditions Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-60381-0. de Romilly, Jacqueline (2005). Homère (5th ed.). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-054830-0. Fowler, Robert, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01246-1. Latacz, J.; Windle, Kevin, Tr.; Ireland, Rosh, Tr. (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0. In German, 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig, 2005. In Spanish, 2003, ISBN 84-233-3487-2. In modern Greek, 2005, ISBN 960-16-1557-1. Monro, David Binning (1911). "Homer" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 626–39. Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B., eds. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09989-0. Powell, Barry B. (2007). Homer (2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2000). Le monde d'Homère (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-01181-9. Wace, A.J.B.; F.H. Stubbings (1962). A Companion to Homer. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-07113-7. Influential readings and interpretations[edit] Auerbach, Erich (1953). "Chapter 1". Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11336-4. (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern) de Jong, Irene J.F. (2004). Narrators and Focalizers: the Presentation of the Story in the Iliad (2nd ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-658-0. Edwards, Mark W. (1987). Homer, Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3329-8. Fenik, Bernard (1974). Studies in the Odyssey. Hermes, Einzelschriften 30. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Finley, Moses (2002). The World of Odysseus. New York: New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-017-5. Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Nagy, Gregory (2010). Homer: the Preclassic. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95024-5. Reece, Steve. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Commentaries[edit] Iliad: P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2 G.S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985–1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7, ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN 0-521-31209-4 J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002 Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913) (6 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1 N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter. ISBN 0-85989-684-6 M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5 Odyssey: A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990–1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981–1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0 P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8 I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2 Dating the Homeric poems[edit] Janko, Richard (1982). Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronic Development in Epic Diction. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23869-4. Further reading[edit] Buck, Carl Darling (1928). The Greek Dialects. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Evelyn-White, Hugh Gerard (tr.) (1914). Hesiod, the Homeric hymns and Homerica. The Loeb Classical Library. London; New York: Heinemann; MacMillen. Ford, Andrew (1992). Homer : the poetry of the past. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2700-8. Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Perception of Epic. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kirk, G.S. (1962). The Songs of Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library. Murray, Gilbert (1960). The Rise of the Greek Epic (Galaxy Books ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Schein, Seth L. (1984). The mortal hero : an introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05128-7. Silk, Michael (1987). Homer: The Iliad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83233-5. Smith, William, ed. (1876). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. I, II & III. London: John Murray. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homer. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Homer Wikisource has original works written by or about: Homer Library resources about Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Homer at Perseus Digital Library Works by Homer at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Homer at Internet Archive Works by Homer at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Homer; Murray, A.T. (1925). The Iliad with an English Translation (in Ancient Greek and English). I, Books I–XII. London; New York: William Heinemann Ltd.; G.P. Putnam's Sons; Internet Archive. The Chicago Homer Daitz, Stephen (reader). "Homer, Iliad, Book I, lines 1–52". Society for the Reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL). Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2008-05-09. Heath, Malcolm (May 4, 2001). "CLAS3152 Further Greek Literature II: Aristotle's Poetics: Notes on Homer's Iliad and Odyssey". Department of Classics, University of Leeds; Internet Archive. Archived from the original on September 8, 2008. Retrieved 2014-11-07. Bassino, Paola (2014). "Homer: A Guide to Selected Sources". Living Poets: a new approach to ancient history. Durham University. Retrieved November 18, 2014. v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams ("Kiln") Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Strategos Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People List of ancient Greeks Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing Coinage Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Folklore Homosexuality Law Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wedding customs Wine Arts and science Architecture Greek Revival architecture Astronomy Literature Mathematics Medicine Music Musical system Pottery Sculpture Technology Theatre Greco-Buddhist art Religion Funeral and burial practices Mythology mythological figures Temple Twelve Olympians Underworld Greco-Buddhism Greco-Buddhist monasticism Sacred places Eleusis Delphi Delos Dion Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Structures Athenian Treasury Lion Gate Long Walls Philippeion Theatre of Dionysus Tunnel of Eupalinos Temples Aphaea Artemis Athena Nike Erechtheion Hephaestus Hera, Olympia Parthenon Samothrace Zeus, Olympia Language Proto-Greek Mycenaean Homeric Dialects Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic Doric Epirote Ionic Locrian Macedonian Pamphylian Koine Writing Linear A Linear B Cypriot syllabary Greek alphabet Greek numerals Attic numerals Greek colonisation South Italy Alision Brentesion Caulonia Chone Croton Cumae Elea Heraclea Lucania Hipponion Hydrus Krimisa Laüs Locri Medma Metapontion Neápolis Pandosia (Lucania) Poseidonia Pixous Rhegion Scylletium Siris Sybaris Sybaris on the Traeis Taras Terina Thurii Sicily Akragas Akrai Akrillai Apollonia Calacte Casmenae Catana Gela Helorus Henna Heraclea Minoa Himera Hybla Gereatis Hybla Heraea Kamarina Leontinoi Megara Hyblaea Messana Naxos Segesta Selinous Syracuse Tauromenion Thermae Tyndaris Aeolian Islands Didyme Euonymos Ereikousa Hycesia Lipara/Meligounis Phoenicusa Strongyle Therassía Sardinia Olbia Cyrenaica Balagrae Barca Berenice Cyrene (Apollonia) Ptolemais Iberian Peninsula Akra Leuke Alonis Emporion Helike Hemeroscopion Kalathousa Kypsela Mainake Menestheus's Limin Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus Rhode Salauris Zacynthos Illyria Aspalathos Apollonia Epidamnos Epidauros Issa Melaina Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Akra Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline Associated subjects v t e Theban Cycle Poems Oedipodea Thebaid Epigoni Alcmeonis Nominal authors Cinaethon (Oedipodea) Homer (Thebaid, Epigoni) Antimachus of Teos (Epigoni) v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony v t e Homer's Odyssey (8th century BC) Characters House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea (1911 Italian) Ulysses (1954 Italian) The Return of Ringo (1965 Italian) Nostos: The Return (1989 Italian) Ulysses' Gaze (1995 Greek) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) Keyhole (2012) TV The Odyssey (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature A True Story (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Circe (2018) Poems "Ulysses" (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" (song) "The Odyssey" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca On the Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey Rediscovering Homer "Odysseus' scar" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey v t e Homer's Iliad (8th century BC) Characters Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon Major deities Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Hades Hephaestus Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus Minor deities Deimos Eris Iris Leto Phobos Proteus Scamander Thetis Sections Catalogue of Ships Deception of Zeus Trojan Battle Order Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Historicity of the Homeric epics "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" (1939 essay) Milawata letter Rediscovering Homer Dactylic hexameter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Manuscripts Ambrosian Iliad Codex Nitriensis Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Uncial 098 Venetus A Venetus B Alternate versions Ilias Latina (60–70 CE) Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani (4th century ?) 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iliaca The Apotheosis of Homer The Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles The Loves of Paris and Helen Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus Orestes Pursued by the Furies The Revelers Vase Statue of Zeus at Olympia Phrases "Ever to Excel" "Hold your horses" "In medias res" "Noblesse oblige" Other Warriors: Legends of Troy (video game) Age of Bronze (comics) Sortes Homericae Heraclitus Weighing of souls Where Troy Once Stood Blood rain Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Russia 2 Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz artist RISM (France) 1 RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-5980	----	Richard Duncan-Jones - Wikipedia Richard Duncan-Jones From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Richard Phare Duncan-Jones, FBA, FSA (born 14 September 1937) is a British historian of the ancient world who specialises in Roman economy and society. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Career 3 Works 4 References Early life and education[edit] Duncan-Jones is the son of philosopher Austin and playwright and literary scholar Elsie Duncan-Jones; his sister is the Shakespeare scholar Katherine Duncan-Jones. He was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and King's College, Cambridge (BA 1959, MA 1963, PhD 1965).[1] Career[edit] In 1963, he was elected a fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge University. He was a college lecturer in classics and is a Life Fellow of the college.[2][3][4] Works[edit] The economy of the Roman Empire (1974) Structure and scale in the Roman economy (1990) Money and government in the Roman Empire (1994) Power and privilege in Roman society (2016) References[edit] ^ A Register of Admissions to King's College, Cambridge, 1945-1970, ed. R. H. Bulmer. L. P. Wilkinson, King's College Association, 1973, p. 161 ^ "Dr Richard Duncan-Jones FBA". People. Gonville & Caius College. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 19 October 2014. ^ Duncan Jones ^ * ‘Duncan-Jones, Richard Phare’, Who's Who 2012, A & C Black, 2012; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2011; online edn, Nov 2011 http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whoswho/U14305, accessed 19 Feb 2012 (subscription required) Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Netherlands Sweden Other SUDOC (France) 1 This article about a British historian or genealogist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Duncan-Jones&oldid=964441304" Categories: 1937 births Living people British historians Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge Fellows of the British Academy Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London British historian stubs Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 25 June 2020, at 14:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-59	----	Macedonia (Roman province) - Wikipedia Macedonia (Roman province) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman province Province of Macedonia Provincia Macedoniae ἐπαρχία Μακεδονίας Province of the Roman Empire 146 BC–7th century The province of Macedonia within the Roman Empire, circa 125 Capital Thessalonica in Late Antiquity: Thessalonica (Macedonia Prima) and Stobi (Macedonia Salutaris)[1] Historical era Antiquity • Established after the Fourth Macedonian War 146 BC • Balkan interior raided by Slavs 7th century Preceded by Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Today part of  Greece  North Macedonia  Albania  Bulgaria The Roman province of Macedonia (Latin: Provincia Macedoniae, Ancient Greek: Ἐπαρχία Μακεδονίας) [2][3] was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon, the last self-styled king of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia in 148 BC, and after the four client republics (the "tetrarchy") established by Rome in the region were dissolved. The province incorporated the former kingdom of Macedonia with the addition of Epirus, Thessaly, and parts of Illyria, Paeonia and Thrace. This created a much larger administrative area, to which the name of 'Macedonia' was still applied. Contents 1 Description 1.1 Organization 1.2 Achaea 1.3 Epirus Vetus 1.4 Epirus Nova 1.5 Macedonia Prima 1.6 Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris 1.7 Thessalia 1.8 Economy 2 List of Roman governors 2.1 Republican 2.2 Imperial 3 Notable individuals 3.1 Citizens 3.2 Saints and clerics 3.3 Writers 3.4 Physicians 4 See also 5 References Description[edit] Organization[edit] After the reforms of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, Epirus Vetus was split off, and sometime in the 4th century, the province of Macedonia itself was divided into Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris in the north. These provinces were all subordinate to the Diocese of Macedonia, one of three dioceses comprising the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. When the Prefecture was divided between the Western and Eastern Empires in 379, the Macedonian provinces were included in Eastern Illyricum. With the permanent division of the Empire in 395, Macedonia passed to the East, which would evolve into the Byzantine Empire. The Dardanians, to the north of the Paeonians, were not included in the Roman province of Macedonia, and they initially had supported the Romans in their conquest of Macedonia, but later felt into confrontation with Rome.[4] Achaea[edit] Achaea or Achaia was initially part of the Roman Province of Macedonia (from 146 to 27 BC). It later became a separate Province by the Augustan Settlement of 27 BC, which established the Roman Empire. Epirus Vetus[edit] The Roman provinces of Epirus Vetus and Epirus nova in relation to modern borders. Epirus, later Epirus Vetus ("Old Epirus"; Ancient Greek: Παλαιᾶ Ἤπειρος), was a province in the Roman Empire that corresponded to the region of Epirus. Between 146 BC and 27 BC, it was part of the province of Macedonia, after which it became part of Achaea, before becoming a separate province under Emperor Trajan. Epirus Nova[edit] Epirus Nova ("New Epirus", Ancient Greek: Νέα Ἤπειρος) or Illyria Graeca[5][6][7] or Illyris proper was a province of the Roman Empire established by Diocletian during his restructuring of provincial boundaries. Until then, the province belonged to the province of Macedonia.[8][9] Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus) was established as the capital of Epirus Nova.[10] The region of Epirus Nova corresponded[11] to a portion of Illyria that was then "partly Hellenic and partly Hellenized".[12] Macedonia Prima[edit] Roman provinces, 400 Macedonia Prima ("First Macedonia") was a province encompassing most of the kingdom of Macedonia, coinciding with most of the modern Greek region of Macedonia, and had Thessalonica as its capital. Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris[edit] Macedonia Salutaris ("Wholesome Macedonia"), also known as Macedonia Secunda ("Second Macedonia") was a province partially encompassing both Pelagonia and Dardania and containing the whole of Paeonia. The province mostly coincides with the present-day North Macedonia. The town of Stobi located to the junction of the Crna Reka and Vardar (called in Greek Axios) rivers, which was the former capital of Paeonia, arose later in the capital city of Macedonia Salutaris. Thessalia[edit] This province was encompassing the area of ancient Thessaly, which was right in the south of ancient Macedonia. Also herein are being mentioned the subdivisions of Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda. Economy[edit] A tetradrachm of Thasos from Roman controlled Macedonia. It was minted between 148 and 80 BC. Obverse shows Dionysos and reverse shows Herakles. The reign of Augustus ( 27 BC–14 AD ) began a long period of peace, prosperity and wealth for Macedonia, although its importance in the economic standing of the Roman world diminished when compared to its neighbor, Asia Minor. The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia during 130s and 120s BC, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor. The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–38), showing the senatorial province of Macedonia' in southeastern Europe The improvement of the living conditions of the productive classes brought about an increase in the number artisans and craftspeople to the region. Stonemasons, miners, blacksmiths, etc. were employed in every kind of commercial activity and craft. Greek people were also widely employed as tutors, educators and doctors throughout the Roman world. The export economy was based essentially on agriculture and livestock, while iron, copper, and gold along with such products as timber, resin, pitch, hemp, flax, and fish were also exported. Another source of wealth was the kingdom's ports, such as Dion, Pella, Thessalonica, Cassandreia.[13][better source needed] List of Roman governors[edit] Republican[edit] Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus (147 BC); Gnaeus Egnatius (146/145 BC); Lucius Julius Caesar (93/92 BC); Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella (80—78 BC); Appius Claudius Pulcher (78—76 BC); Gaius Scribonius Curio (75—74 BC); Rubrius (67 BC); Lucius Manlius Torquatus (64/63 BC); Gaius Antonius Hybrida (62/61 BC); Gaius Octavius (60/59 BC); Lucius Appuleius (c. 58 BC); Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (57—55 BC); Quintus Ancharius (c. 54 BC); Titus Antistius (50 BC); Marcus Favonius propraetor (?) (48 BC) Imperial[edit] Marcus Licinius Crassus (29-27 BC) M. Primus (c.24/23 BC)[14] Lucius Tarius Rufus (18-16 BC) Publius Vinicius (AD 2/3) Publius Memmius Regulus (with Achaea, between AD 31 and 37) Marcus Helvius Geminus (before 54)[15] Marcus Julius Romulus (between 54 and 68)[16] Marcus Vettius Bolanus (before 66)[16] Lucius Antonius Saturninus (76/77)[17] P. Tullius Varro (between 70 and 79) Lucius Baebius Honoratus (before 83) Gaius Salvius Liberalis (84/85) L. Cocceius Justus (c. 100) Q. Annius Maximus (113/114) M. Arruntius Claudianus (between 96 and 118) Octavius Antoninus (119/120) Lucius Varius Ambibulus (124/125) Junius Rufinus (between 118 and 138) Q. Gellius Sentius Augurinus (between 118 and 139) [Iul]ius [Fr]ugi (c. 138) Sextus Pedius Hirrutus Lucilius Pollio (c. 148)[18] P. Antius Orestes (164/165) Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus (c. 166) [... A]qu[i]linus (between 139 and 180) Cornelius Rufus (between 161 and 180) Ti. Claudius Gordianus (between 187 and 192)[19] Junius Rufinus (192/193) Marcus Antius Crescens Calpurnianus (c. 200) (M. Ulipus ?) Tertullianus Aquila (212/213 or 213/214) P. Aelius Coeranus (c. 224) T. Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus (c. 223) Q ? or C(L.)? Valerius Rufrius Justus (between 220 and 230) P. Julius Junianus Martialianus (signo Leontius) (between 222 and 235) C. Caerellius (Fufidius Annius Ravus) Pollittianus (between 222 and 235) Dulcitius (c. 300) Calliopius of Antioch (362) Notable individuals[edit] Citizens[edit] Damon of Thessalonica 2nd century BC Saints and clerics[edit] Agape, Chionia, and Irene(died 304) Agathopous, deacon Aristarchus of Thessalonica, 1st century Demophilus of Constantinople (died 386), Bishop, born in Thessalonica Epaphroditus, first bishop of Philippi Gaius, first Bishop of Thessalonica Lydia of Thyatira, 1st century Matrona of Thessalonica Onesimus, first bishop of Beroea Saint Demetrius, patron saint of the city of Salonika, martyred in 306 Theodulus, Lector Writers[edit] Craterus of Amphipolis (c. 100-30 BC) Rhapsode winner in Amphiarian games[20] Phaedrus of Pieria (c. 15 BC – c. AD 50), fabulist Antipater of Thessalonica (late 1st century BC), epigrammatic poet and governor of the city Philippus of Thessalonica (late 1st century AD), epigrammatic poet and compiler of the Greek Anthology Archias, epigrammatist Antiphanes (late 1st century), epigrammatist Parmenio (late 1st century), epigrammatist Criton of Pieria, historian Polyaenus, (2nd century), military writer Stobaeus (5th century), anthologist of Greek authors Macedonius of Thessalonica (6th century), epigrammatist of Greek Anthology Physicians[edit] Athryilatus of Thasos Alexander of Pella Damian of Thessalonica Anthemius of Edessa Paul of Philippi Theodorus of Kato Kleines, Florina C. Iulius Nicetas of Lyke (Lyki) in Pella Aurelius Isidorus of Thessalonica Sextus Iulius Chariton of Amphipolis Servia of Thessalonica Pubicius [sic?] Lalus and Publicius Hermias of Beroea Aelius Nicolaus of Edessa Aptus of Dion[21] See also[edit] Diocese of Macedonia Macedon Macedonia (region) References[edit] ^ A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, By Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, page 549 ^ [1] Archived 2017-04-24 at the Wayback Machine D. C. Samsaris, Historical Geography of the Roman province of Macedonia (The Department of Western Macedonia today) (in Greek), Thessaloniki 1989 (Society for Macedonian Studies).ISBN 960-7265-01-7. ^ [2] Archived 2017-04-24 at the Wayback Machine D. C. Samsaris, Historical Geography of Eastern Macedonia during the Antiquity (in Greek), Thessaloniki 1976 (Society for Macedonian Studies). ISBN 960-7265-16-5. ^ "With the arrival of the Romans in the territory of Illyricum in 200 B.C., the Dardani took the side of the (Roman) Republic and significantly strengthened their positions against Macedonia by occupying the area of Paeonia. However, after the defeat of Perseus in 168 B.C., and especially from 148 B.C., when Macedonia ceased to be independent and fell under Roman rule, the Dardani, left without constant raids against their southern neighbor, now entered into confrontation with Rome. The Roman occupation and annexation of Dardania was not carried out in a short time – it was a process unfolding through several war conflicts and, I would say, with certain reluctance." For more see: Vladimir P. (2006). "Pre-roman and Roman Dardania historical and geographical considerations". Balcanica (37): 7–23. ^ The Loeb Editor's Notes, 28 Nova Epirus or Illyris Graeca ^ A new classical dictionary of Greek and Roman biography, mythology, and geography: partly based upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology by Sir William Smith,1851, page 392 ^ Catholic Encyclopedia - Durazzo ^ Handbook of Ancient Geography and History by Ptz Wilhelm, ISBN 1-113-19974-1, The (734) southern portion, or Illyria Graeca, belonged to the province of Macedonia. ^ Atlas of Classical History by R. Talbert, 1989, page 175: "... divided the diocese of Moesia into two, styled Thracia and Macedonia, the latter consisting of the provinces from Epirus Nova and Macedonia southward. But there is evidence that Constantine considered ..." ^ Hendry, p. 299. The geography is entirely correct for Servius' time, since Diocletian's rearrangement of provincial boundaries included the creation of the province of Epirus Nova out of southern Illyricum with Dyrrachium (=Epidamnus) as its capital. ^ Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, ISBN 0-631-19807-5, Page 210 ^ Athanassakis, A.N. (1977), "N.G.L. Hammond, Migrations and Invasions in Greece and Adjacent Areas (review)", American Journal of Philology, 99: 263–6, doi:10.2307/293653, JSTOR 293653 ^ Macedonia - Province of the Roman Empire ^ Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: University Press, 1939), p.330 n. 3 ^ CIL III, 6074 = ILS 975 ^ a b Werner Eck, "Über die prätorischen Prokonsulate in der Kaiserzeit. Eine quellenkritische Überlegung", Zephyrus 23/24 (1972/73), pp. 240f ^ Unless otherwise stated, the names of the proconsular governors from 69 to 139 are taken from Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 281–362; 13 (1983), pp. 147–237 ^ Unless otherwise stated, the names of the proconsular governors from 139 to 180 are taken from Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 265 ^ Unless otherwise stated, the names of the proconsular governors from 187 to 235 are taken from Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (180-235 n. Chr.), (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben 1989), pp. 302-304 ^ Amphiareion — c. 80-50 BC Epigraphical Database ^ www.phl.uoc.gr/eulimene/eulimene03.pdf v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(Roman_province)&oldid=1024913140" Categories: States and territories established in the 2nd century BC States and territories disestablished in the 7th century Macedonia (Roman province) Ancient Macedonia Roman Balkans Greece in the Roman era Albania in the Roman era Roman Epirus Illyricum (Roman province) 2nd-century BC establishments in Greece 7th-century disestablishments in the Byzantine Empire 7th-century disestablishments in Europe Romanization of Southeastern Europe 140s BC establishments Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски Malagasy मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 18:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6001	----	Marcus Statius Priscus - Wikipedia Marcus Statius Priscus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, general and consul Marcus Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus (M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus)[note 1] was a Roman senator and general active during the reigns of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Contemporary sources refer to him as Marcus Statius Priscus or simply Statius Priscus.[1] He was consul for the year 159 as the colleague of Plautius Quintillus; Priscus was one of only two homines novi to attain the ordinary consul in the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading Life[edit] The cursus honorum of Statius Priscus is preserved in an inscription found in Rome.[3] His career began as an equestrian officer, first as praefectus or commander of the Cohors IV Lingonum, an auxilia nominally one thousand men in strength. Next he was a military tribune in three different legions: Legio III Gallica, Legio X Gemina, and Legio I Adiutrix. It was at this time he received dona militaria, or decorations while fighting in the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132-136; Anthony Birley believes Priscus was commissioned with the III Gallica when he earned this distinction.[4] His third step in his equestrian career was as praefectus with an ala stationed in Cappadocia. He then advanced from military appointments, and served as procurator of the vicesima hereditatium in Gallia Narbonensis and Aquitania. At this point Statius Priscus entered the Senate. No details are provided, but we can surmise a few details. One is that this happened under emperor Antoninus Pius. Another was that he owed his advance to the patronage of Quintus Lollius Urbicus, of whom Birley writes, "his influence in the 140s was no doubt considerable."[5] More importantly, instead of being adlected into the Senate at praetorian or even quaestorian rank, he was forced to proceed through the traditional Republican magistracies of quaestor, plebeian tribune, and peregrine praetor. "This reflects the conservatism of the reign of Antoninus Pius," Birley explains. "Priscus must have been well over thirty when he entered the senate as a quaestor, and well over fifty when he finally became consul."[5] It was at this point he was admitted into the priesthood of the sacerdoti Titali. Once praetor, Priscus was commissioned legatus legionis or commander of Legio XIV Gemina; Birley suggests this was while Claudius Maximus, a friend of heir apparent Marcus Aurelius governed Pannonia Superior.[5] Statius Priscus was appointed governor of Dacia between 157 and 158, as attested by a number of surviving military diplomas. Birley notes that Priscus had distinguished himself in Dacia: "he undoubtedly had some military success in Dacia, as a number of inscriptions from that province reveal."[6] His success was recognized upon his return to Rome, with his ordinary consulship. The following year he was made curator alvei Tiberis et cloacarum urbis, the official responsible for maintaining the channels of the Tiber River, as well as the sewers of Rome, but his tenure was brief. Priscus is attested as governor of Moesia Superior by another military diploma dated to February 161, as well as a dedication he erected after the death of Antoninus Pius to the new emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus at Viminacium.[7] The northern frontier of Roman Britain came under threat that required an experienced general, so the new emperors reassigned him there later that year. He had been in Britain only a few months when a more serious threat presented itself -- the war with Parthia. In 162 Vologases IV defeated Marcus Sedatius Severianus in Armenia; Roman Syria was threatened. Priscus was made governor of Cappadocia. His forces, made up of Eastern auxiliaries and several legions transferred from the Rhine and the Danube, quickly crushed the Parthians and destroyed the town of Artaxata.[8] Priscus then installed Sohaemus, who was under the protection of Rome, on the Armenian throne, and rebuilt the city of Valarshapat.[9] The satirist Lucian records how one contemporary historian described "how Priscus the general merely shouted out and 27 of the enemy dropped dead."[10] Birley comments, "It is foolhardy to try to squeeze some truth out of evidence of this kind, but one might perhaps suppose, at least, that Priscus was a man with an aggressive and boisterous style of leadership."[11] According to Cassius Dio, when Avidius Cassius (the governor of Egypt and Syria) was declared emperor by his legions, it was Priscus who informed Emperor Aurelius. Cassius declared himself emperor at the behest of Aurelius' wife who convinced Cassius and his legions that the emperor had died.[12] Aurelius quickly defeated Cassius and installed Priscus as governor of Syria.[13] Family[edit] Although no wife is attested for Priscus, Giuseppe Camodeca published the inscription of a statue honouring one Fufidia Clementiana, a clarissima puella, who is described as the granddaughter of Priscus. This implies he had a daughter, who married Lucius Fufidius Pollio, ordinary consul in 166.[14] There is also a Marcus Statius Longinus, governor of Moesia Inferior under the emperor Macrinus, who is possibly Statius Priscus' grandson.[15] If Longinus is his grandson, the existence of a son follows. Notes[edit] ^ The name M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus says he is the son of a Marcus as M. f.; Cl. refers to the tribe he belonged to, which in this case was "Claudia". See Roman naming conventions References[edit] ^ Olli Salomies, Adoptive and Polyonymous Nomenclature in the Roman Empire (Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1992), p. 145 ^ Géza Alföldy, "Consuls and Consulars under the Antonines: Prosopography and History", Ancient Society, 7 (1976), p. 294. The other man was the jurist, Salvius Julianus. ^ CIL VI, 1523 = ILS 1092 ^ Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 124 ^ a b c Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 125 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 126 ^ AE 1910, 86 ^ Augustan History, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 9 ^ Cassius Dio Book 71.2 ^ Lucian, Quomodo Historia conscribenda sit, 20 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 126f ^ Birley (2001), p. 184. ^ Cassius Dio 71.23 ^ Camodeca, "Fufidia Clementiana, c(larissima) p(uella), e i suoi avi consolari in una nuova iscrizione da Teanum del tempo di M. Aurelio", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 179 (2011), pp. 231-238 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, p. 127 Further reading[edit] Augustan History The Life of Lucius Verus 3 E. E. Bryant The Reign of Antoninus Pius Cassius Dio 71.23 Augustan History The Life of Marcus Aurelius 9 Inscriptions: AE 1993, 1342CIL III, 1061, CIL III, 0940, CIL III, 1299, CIL III, 7882, CIL III, 1416, CIL III, 7505, CIL VI, 32321, CIL VI, 1523, CIL XVI, 107, and CIL XVI, 108. Political offices Preceded by Quintus Pomponius Musa, and Lucius Cassius Juvenalis Consul of the Roman Empire 159 with Plautius Quintillus Succeeded by Marcus Pisibanius Lepidus, and Lucius Matuccius Fuscinus Preceded by Longinus Roman governors of Britain 161- later in the 160s Succeeded by Uncertain, then Sextus Calpurnius Agricola Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Statius_Priscus&oldid=1014831398" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Britain Roman governors of Dacia Roman governors of Syria Roman governors of Upper Moesia Roman governors of Cappadocia Statii Licinii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 09:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6016	----	Harold Mattingly - Wikipedia Harold Mattingly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Harold Mattingly (1884 - 26 January 1964) was a British art historian and numismatist, who specialised in the history of Ancient Rome, especially Etruscan and Roman currency. His son, Harold B. Mattingly (1923-2015) was also a celebrated numismatist, and President of the Royal Numismatic Society 1999-2004.[1] Contents 1 Biography 2 Publications 3 Notes and references 4 External links Biography[edit] Harold Mattingly was born in Sudbury, Suffolk in 1884. He studied at Gonville and Caius College of the University of Cambridge. In 1910 he joined the Department of Printed Books of the British Museum. In 1909 and 1914, showing his interest in Roman history, he published two books on the subject. During the First World War, worked for the Postal Censorship Bureau. At the close of hostilities he returned to his work at the British Museum and his attention carried him towards the study of antique coins. From 1912, Harold Mattingly was a member of the Royal Numismatic Society.[2] He completely revised of the chronology used for the study of Roman coins. He was awarded the medal of the Royal Numismatic Society in 1941.[3] He also translated Tacitus' works "Agricola" and "The Germania". These two translations were published together in 1948 by Penguin Books under the title "Tacitus on Britain and Germany".[4] 27,000 copies of this book were sold in that year.[5] It was reprinted in 1951, 1954,[6] 1960, 1962, 1964 and 1965.[7] The second edition, revised by S A Handford, was published in 1970 under the title "The Agricola and the Germania". The book was revised again in 2009 by J B Rives.[8] Mattingly's translation is considered one of the best and is still used (albeit in edited format) today. He died on 26 January 1964 at the age of 79 in Chesham, Buckinghamshire. Publications[edit] Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, 6 tomes, British Museum, London, 1923. (with Edward Allen Sydenham), The Roman Imperial Coinage, 10 v., Spink, London, 1923-1994. Roman Coins from the Earliest to the Fall of the Western Empire, Methuen & Co., London, 1928. The Date of the Roman Denarius and Other Landmarks in Early Roman Coinage. H. Milford, London, 1933 Some New Studies of the Roman Republican Coinage. Proceedings of the British Academy : pp. 239–285, 1953. Notes and references[edit] "Dr Harold Mattingly, Distinguished Numismatist", The Times, 1 February 1964, p 10 R A G Carson, "Harold Mattingly 1884-1964" (1965) Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, 7th Series, vol 5, p 239 ^ https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/sep/28/harold-mattingly-obituary ^ Numismatic Chronicle, Chronicle of the Royal Numismatic Society. ^ http://numismatics.org.uk/medals-honorary-fellowship-prizes/the-societys-medal/ ^ Harold Mattingly and Cornelius Tacitus. Tacitus on Britain and Germany. Penguin Books. 1948. Google Books. ^ Jeremy Munday, Evaluation in Translation: Critical Points of Translator Decision-making, Routledge, 2012, p 105 ^ Harold Mattingly and Cornelius Tacitus. Tacitus on Britain and Germany. Penguin Books. 1948. Reprinted 1954. Google Books ^ Harold Mattingly and Cornelius Tacitus. Tacitus on Britain and Germany. Penguin Books. 1948. Reprinted 1965. Google Books. ^ For reviews of, and other commentary on the various editions of this book, see (1971) 1-3 American Classical Review 158 [1]; (1950) 33 Saturday Review of Literature 46 [2] [3]; (1949) 81 Journal of Education 686 [4] [5]; D M Loades, Readers Guide to British History, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2003, vol 2, p 1136 [6]; (1968) Arion, p 473 [7]; (1948) 89-100 British Book News 690 [8]; Tacitus: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide, OUP, 2010, p 14 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Harold Mattingly" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) External links[edit] Works by Harold Mattingly at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Harold Mattingly at Internet Archive Harold Mattingly, Dictionary of Art Historians Roman Imperial Coinage illustrated Roman Imperial Coinage (Fr) History portal Italy portal United Kingdom portal Numismatics portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Australia Greece Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) 2 Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Mattingly&oldid=951852063" Categories: People from Sudbury, Suffolk English classical scholars English numismatists English art historians Etruscan scholars 1884 births 1964 deaths Presidents of the Royal Numismatic Society Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from July 2015 Use British English from July 2015 Articles needing additional references from March 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Deutsch Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina مصرى Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2020, at 07:11 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-604	----	Nero - Wikipedia Nero From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 54 to 68 For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). Roman emperor Nero Bust, Musei Capitolini, Rome Roman emperor Reign 13 October 54 – 9 June 68 AD Predecessor Claudius Successor Galba Born 15 December 37 AD Antium, Italy Died 9 June 68 AD (aged 30) Outside Rome, Italy Burial Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, Pincian Hill, Rome Spouse Claudia Octavia Poppaea Sabina Statilia Messalina Sporus Pythagoras (freedman) Issue Claudia Augusta Names Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (birth) Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (AD 50)[1] Regnal name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus Claudius (adoptive) Mother Agrippina the Younger Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Coin from Blaundos (c. 50-55 CE) of Nero. Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (/ˈnɪəroʊ/ NEER-oh;[i] 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 AD), originally named Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, was the fifth emperor of Rome, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty line of emperors following his suicide. He was adopted by the Roman emperor Claudius at the age of thirteen, and succeeded him to the throne at the age of seventeen. Nero was popular with the lower-class Roman citizens during his time and his reign is commonly associated with unrestricted tyranny, extravagance, religious persecution and debauchery.[2][ii][iii] Nero was born in Antium, south of Rome, in 37 AD. When Nero was two years old, his father died of edema, which enabled his mother (Agrippina the Younger) to marry the emperor Claudius. Nero was initially heavily guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and Roman official Afranius Burrus. Nero received a classical education (including Greek, philosophy and rhetoric) under the tutelage of Seneca, who was to become a major influence throughout his early reign. However, these early years saw Nero attempting to free himself from all such advisors and become his own man. As time passed, Nero played a more active role in government and foreign policy and came to rely much less on his initial influences. Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy and trade, as well as on the cultural life of the empire. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters and promoted athletic games. He also made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer. This extravagant, empire-wide program of public and private works was funded by a rise in taxation—a move that was much resented by the upper-class. In contrast, his populist-style of rule remained well-admired among the lower classes (of both Rome and the Roman provinces) until his death and beyond. Most Roman sources (including the Ancient Roman historians Suetonius and Cassius Dio) offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. The contemporary historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed that the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero as a way to clear land for his planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.[3] Also, according to Tacitus, he was said to have seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire, and had them made burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice but by personal cruelty.[4] Some modern historians question the reliability of the ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts[5][6] due to the overwhelming evidence of his popularity among the Roman commoners (especially in the eastern provinces of the Empire, where a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return). After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" in order to gain popular support. A significant event that took during his reign was the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, where the prestigious general Corbulo had acted as commander and had successfully negotiated peace with the hostile Parthian Empire as a result of the war. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus had also quashed a major revolt in Britain led by the Iceni tribal Queen Boudica. The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. During Nero's reign, various plots against his life developed, and Nero had many of those involved in these conspiracies put to death. In AD 68, the Roman senator Vindex, who had support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, rebelled against Nero. Vindex's revolt failed in its immediate aim; however, Nero fled Rome when its discontented civil and military authorities eventually chose Galba as emperor. On 9 June in AD 68, Nero committed suicide, becoming the first Roman Emperor to do so. He made this decision after learning that he had been tried in absentia and condemned to death as a public enemy.[7][8] His death ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty, sparking a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign (54–68 AD) 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Matricide 2.3 Decline 2.4 Great Fire of Rome 2.5 Later years 2.6 Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death 2.7 After Nero 3 Military conflicts 3.1 Boudica's uprising 3.2 Peace with Parthia 3.3 First Jewish War 4 Pursuits 5 Historiography 6 In Jewish and Christian tradition 6.1 Jewish tradition 6.2 Christian tradition 6.2.1 Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul 6.2.2 Antichrist 7 Ancestry 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 11.1 Primary sources 11.2 Secondary sources 12 External links Early life Anzio, the birthplace of emperor Nero Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December 37 AD in Antium (modern Anzio).[9][10]:87 He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Caligula.[11]:5 Nero was also the great-great grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia).[12]:2 The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position".[13]:3 Nero's father, Domitius, died in 40 AD. A few years before his fathers' death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal.[13]:3 His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were exiled to a remote island in the Mediterranean Sea.[12]:4 His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula.[9] Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida the Younger, the mother of the later emperor Claudius' third wife, Messalina.[14]:11 After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new Roman Emperor.[15] Nero's mother married Claudius in 49 AD, becoming his fourth wife.[iv][9] By February, 49 AD, his mother had persuaded Claudius to adopt her son Nero.[v] After Nero's adoption by the emperor, "Claudius" became part of his name: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus.[vi][16] Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.[17]:119 Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making."[18]:231 However, David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.[16]:52 Nero formally entered public life as an adult in 51 AD at approximately 14 years old.[16]:51 When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between the years 51 AD and 53 AD, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire.[18]:231 An aureus of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, c. 54. Caption: NERONIS CAES MATER AGRIPP. AVG. DIVI CLAVD. / NERONI CLAVD. DIVI F. CAES. AVG. GERM. IMP. TR. P. – EX SC Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c. 50. Caption: ΚΛΑΥΔΙΟΥ ΚAICΑΡΟC CΕΒΑCTOY / ΝΕΡΩΝΟC ΚΑΙCΑΡΟC ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΟΥ Claudius died in 54 AD; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina.[19] Shotter has written that "Claudius' death in 54 AD has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son". He also notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor.[16]:53 Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived.[16]:53 Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina.[vii] Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does not mention mushrooms at all.[16]:54 Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars.[21]:589 Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide).[14]:13 Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was subsequently able to assume power without incident.[9][22]:417 Reign (54–68 AD) Most of what we know about Nero's reign comes from three ancient writers: Tacitus, Suetonius, and Greek historian Cassius Dio.[23]:37 According to these ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".[24][25] Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public-works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.[26] Early reign Statue of Nero as a boy Nero became emperor in 54 AD, aged sixteen years. This made him the youngest sole emperor until Elagabalus, who became emperor aged 14 in 218.[2] The first five years of Nero's reign were described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan; the interpretation of the phrase is a matter of dispute amongst scholars.[12]:17 As Pharaoh of Egypt, Nero adopted the royal titulary Autokrator Neron Heqaheqau Meryasetptah Tjemaahuikhasut Wernakhtubaqet Heqaheqau Setepennenu Merur ('Emperor Nero, Ruler of rulers, chosen by Ptah, beloved of Isis, the sturdy-armed one who struck the foreign lands, victorious for Egypt, ruler of rulers, chosen of Nun who loves him').[27] Nero's tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".[12]:16 H.H. Scullard writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."[28]:257 His respect of the Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the Roman Senate.[12]:18 Emperor Nero being instructed by Seneca, work by Spanish sculptor Eduardo Barrón Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son".[28]:257 Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, a great grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus.[28]:257 One of the earliest coins that Nero issues during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's obverse side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two lictors during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the Vestalis Maxima.[12]:16 In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence."[14]:12 Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.[14]:12 Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,[viii] exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.[28]:257 Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish taxes in 58 AD. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.[12]:19 Matricide Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina Billon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. KΛAY. KAIΣ. ΣEB. ΓΕΡ. AY. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠOΠΠAIA ΣEBAΣTH. Year LI = 10 = 63–64. The Remorse of Nero after the Murder of his Mother, by John William Waterhouse The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in 59 AD are "not fully understood".[9] According to Tacitus, the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when the affair began.[11]:214 In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink".[11]:215 A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62 AD.[29][11]:215 Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."[11]:215 According to Suetonius, Nero had his former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.[9][30] Decline Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the Nile river sources with a successful expedition.[31] After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.[28]:258 However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.[9]:22 Miriam T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as 55 AD with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death.[23]:84 Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".[23]:84[32] He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60.[33] It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.[34] [35] In 62 AD, Nero's adviser Burrus died.[9] That same year Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[23]:53[36] He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus.[12] Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."[12] After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian Prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.[28]:26 According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[23]:99[37] After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus and she was executed.[23]:99[38] In 64 AD during the Saturnalia, Nero married Pythagoras, a freedman.[39][40][41][42] Great Fire of Rome Main article: Great Fire of Rome The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 to 19 July, AD 64. The fire started on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus.[43][44] The Fire of Rome by Hubert Robert (1785) Tacitus, the main ancient source for information about the fire, wrote that countless mansions, residences and temples were destroyed.[43] Tacitus and Cassius Dio have both written of extensive damage to the Palatine, which has been supported by subsequent archaeological excavations.[45] The fire is reported to have burned for over a week.[28]:260 It destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven more.[28]:260[46] Coin showing Nero distributing charity to a citizen. c. 64–66. Obverse: Laureate head right; NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. GER. P. M., TR. P., IMP., P. P. Reverse: Nero togate, seated right on curule chair on low platform and praefectus annonae standing behind him; on ground an attendant standing left distributes tessera (theater tickets) or coins to a citizen, holding out folds of his toga to receive them; a tetrastyle building to the left of them; statue of Minerva standing before temple in background, holding owl and spear; CONG II DAT POP S.C. Tacitus wrote that some ancient accounts described the fire as an accident, while others had claimed that it was a plot of Nero. Tacitus is the only surviving source which does not blame Nero for starting the fire; he says he is "unsure". Pliny the Elder, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all wrote that Nero was responsible for the fire. These accounts give several reasons for Nero's alleged arson like Nero's envy of King Priam and a dislike for the city's ancient construction. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire because he wanted the space to build his Golden House.[47] This Golden House or Domus Aurea included lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero. The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).[48][49][50] Tacitus wrote that Nero accused Christians of starting the fire to remove suspicion from himself.[51] According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".[52] Suetonius and Cassius Dio alleged that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.[53][54] The popular legend that Nero played the fiddle while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of Flavian propaganda [...] which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule".[17]:2 In fact, the first recorded reference to the bowed lira, the ancestor of most European stringed instruments, was in the 9th century by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911). According to Tacitus, Nero was in Antium during the fire. Upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[55][56] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.[55] In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads.[57] Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.[58] The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. Nero devalued the Roman currency for the first time in the Empire's history. He reduced the weight of the denarius from 84 per Roman pound to 96 (3.80 grams to 3.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3.80 grams to 2.97 grams. Furthermore, Nero reduced the weight of the aureus from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7.9 grams to 7.2 grams).[59] Later years Nero's Sestertius. Obverse: Laureate head right, countermark on neck "X above bar" of Legio X Gemina; NERO CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. GER. P. M., TR. P., IMP., P. P. Reverse: Nero riding right escorted by a soldier holding vexillum; DECVRSIO – S. C. Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse. Caption: IMP. NERO CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. POT., P. P. / ARA PACIS – S. C. In 65 AD, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[60] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the Republic.[61] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos.[62] As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Lucan, the poet.[63] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.[64] Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 AD, before she could have his second child.[65] Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.[66] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous state funeral, divine honors, and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where.[67] In 67, Nero married Sporus, a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated, tried to make a woman out of him, and married him in a dowry and bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.[68][69] Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine. In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.[70][71] Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[72] In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[73] At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.[72] However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him. While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy ("hostis publicus"[74]). The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba. In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.[75] Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber.[75] Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, located 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditos, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. At this time, a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy, that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death, and that armed men had been sent to apprehend him for the act to take place in the Roman Forum. The Senate actually was still reluctant and deliberating on the right course of action, as Nero was the last member of the Julio-Claudian family. Indeed, most of the senators had served the imperial family all their lives and felt a sense of loyalty to the deified bloodline, if not to Nero himself. The men actually had the goal of returning Nero back to the Senate, where the Senate hoped to work out a compromise with the rebelling governors that would preserve Nero's life, so that at least a future heir to the dynasty could be produced.[76] Nero, however, did not know this, and at the news brought by the courier, he prepared himself for suicide, pacing up and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist dies in me").[77] Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditos, to perform the task.[78] An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsul Caius Vibius Marianus. When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!"[79] He died on 9 June 68,[80] the anniversary of the death of his first wife Claudia Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome.[79] According to Sulpicius Severus, it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.[81] With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.[82]:19 When news of his death reached Rome, the Senate posthumously declared Nero a public enemy to appease the coming Galba (as the Senate had initially declared Galba as a public enemy) and proclaimed Galba as the new emperor. Chaos would ensue in the year of the Four Emperors.[83] After Nero See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.[84][85] Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper class.[86] The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.[86] Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but had been bribed to overthrow him.[87] Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"[88] and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them".[89] Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia".[23]:186[90] Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".[91] Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.[92] This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously[93] (see damnatio memoriae).[92] Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[94] Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer-blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the United Kingdom[95] (see damnatio memoriae).[92] The civil war during the year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.[83] According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.[86] Galba began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.[96] One such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of Emperor Caligula.[97] Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[98] It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[99] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[99] Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[100] After Nero's death in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[101] This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422.[102] At least three Nero impostors emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.[103] After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.[103] Sometime during the reign of Titus (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.[104] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,[105] and the matter almost came to war.[83] Military conflicts Boudica's uprising Further information: Boudica In Britannia (Britain) in 59 AD, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client king of Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King (leaving control of the Iceni to his daughters) was denied. When the roman procurator Catus Decianus scourged the former King Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the Celtic Trinovantes tribe and their uprising became the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st century AD.[14]:32[28]:254 Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a substantial body of Roman legion infantry were eliminated. The governor of the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces and defeated the Britons. Although order was restored for some time, Nero considered abandoning the province.[106] Julius Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over.[28]:265 Nero decided to adopt a more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.[14]:33 Peace with Parthia Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the Parthian king Vologeses set his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne. Around 57 AD and 58 AD Domitius Corbulo and his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capital Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia. The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in 63 AD to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his diadem from Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy 66 AD. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you as Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero in the East including "The New Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly relations were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia.[28]:265–66[14]:35 First Jewish War Main article: First Jewish–Roman War In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.[107] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.[108] This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[109] This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.[110] Pursuits Nero studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played the cithara (a type of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class.[23]:41–42 Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."[45]:53 In 67 AD Nero participated in the Olympics. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate,[111] and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.[112] Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have been oblivious of reality."[45]:54–55 Nero established the Neronian games in 60 AD. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included "music" "gymnastic" and "questrian" contents. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the Campus Martius.[45]:288 Historiography The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.[113] The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.[114] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[115] A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[116] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.[117] The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero. A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favourable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.[citation needed] Cassius Dio Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.[citation needed] Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.[citation needed] Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared: Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.[118] Epictetus Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.[119] He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.[120] A circa 18th century woodcut of the historian Josephus (c. 37–100) who accused other historians of slandering Nero. Josephus The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said: But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.[121] Lucan Although more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.[122] Philostratus Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172–250) spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.[citation needed] Pliny the Elder The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind".[123] Plutarch Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species.[124] Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better. Seneca the Younger It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC–65 AD), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.[125] Suetonius Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, Nero raped the vestal virgin Rubria.[126] Tacitus Main article: Annals (Tacitus) The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66 AD. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced: The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[127] Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[128] Girolamo Cardano In 1562 Girolamo Cardano published in Basel his Encomium Neronis, which was one of the first historical references of the Modern era to portray Nero in a positive light.[citation needed] In Jewish and Christian tradition Jewish tradition At the end of 66 AD, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).[129] Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the Second Temple to be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.[130] Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess lived in the time of the Mishnah, and was a prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the third generation (139–163). According to the Talmud, his father was a descendant of Nero who had converted to Judaism. His wife Bruriah is one of the few women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah.[131] Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism.[132] There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months. Christian tradition Nero's Torches, Henryk Siemiradzki Non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64.[4] Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire.[133] Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine."[134] Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".[135] as does Sulpicius Severus.[136] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").[137] These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).[138] Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul The first text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter by Clement to the Corinthians traditionally dated to around AD 96.[139] The apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to Nero.[140] Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero.[141] He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the 1st century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to Hispania, before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death.[142] Peter is first said to have been crucified specifically upside-down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200).[143] The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians. By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.[144] Antichrist Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), and Number of the beast The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.[145][146] Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,[147] fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.[135][148] In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,'[149] he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist."[102] Some modern biblical scholars[150][151] such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford Study Bible and Harper Collins Study Bible, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero,[152] a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries.[153][154] The statement concerns Revelation 17:1–18, "the longest explanatory passage in Revelation", which predicts the destruction of Rome by work of an eight emperor who was also one of the seven kings of the most extended and powerful empire ever known in the human history: according to this lecture, Babylon the Great is identified with Rome[155] which has poured the blood of saints and martyrs (verse 6) and subsequently become the seat of the Vatican State, reigning over all the kings existing on Earth. Ancestry This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancestors of Nero 16. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus 8. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus 17. Porcia (sister of Cato the Younger) 4. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus 9. Aemilia Lepida 2. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus 20. Marcus Antonius Creticus 10. Mark Antony 21. Julia 5. Antonia Major 22. Gaius Octavius 11. Octavia 23. Atia 1. Nero 24. Tiberius Claudius Nero 12. Drusus 25. Livia 6. Germanicus 26. Mark Antony [=10] 13. Antonia Minor 27. Octavia [=11] 3. Agrippina the Younger 28. Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa 14. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 7. Agrippina the Elder 30. Augustus 15. Julia the Elder 31. Scribonia See also Nero in popular culture Notes ^ Classical Latin spelling and reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation of the names of Nero: LV́CIVS DOMITIVS AHÉNOBARBVS IPA: [ˈluːkijʊs dɔˈmɪtijʊs a(h)eːnɔˈbarbʊs] NERÓ CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMÁNICVS IPA: [ˈnɛroː ˈklau̯dijʊs ˈkae̯sar au̯ˈɡʊstʊs ɡɛrˈmaːnɪkʊs]. ^ Kragelund, Patrick. 2000. "Nero's Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia." The Classical Quarterly:494–515. (cites Tacitus, Annals I.16): Galba criticized the excesses (luxuria) of Nero's public and private spending. ^ References to Nero's matricide appear in: the Sibylline Oracles 5.490–520; Chaucer, "The Monk's Tale," Canterbury Tales; and Shakespeare, Hamlet 3.ii. ^ Tacitus wrote the following about Agrippina's marriage to Claudius: "From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman—and not a woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs. This was a rigorous, almost masculine, despotism. In public, Agrippina was austere and often arrogant. Her private life was chaste—unless power was to be gained. Her passion to acquire money was unbounded; she wanted it as a stepping stone to supremacy."[14]:11 ^ According to The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome Nero was adopted in 50 AD.[9] ^ For further information see adoption in Rome. ^ Suetonius wrote "It is commonly agreed that Claudius was killed by poison. There is, however, disagreement as to where and by whom it was administered. Some record that, when he was at a feast with priests on the citadel, it was given to him by his taster, the eunuch Halotus, others that it was given him at a family dinner by Agrippina herself, offering him the drug in a dish of mushrooms, a kind of food to which he was very partial...His death was concealed until all arrangements were in place with regard to his successor."[20]:193 ^ Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard). 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Roman History. pp. LXII, 28. ^ Suetonius (2016), Kaster, Robert A (ed.), "Nero", Studies on the Text of Suetonius' 'De Vita Caesarum', Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00233087, ISBN 978-0-19-875847-1 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.22. ^ Donahue, John, "Galba (68–69 A.D.)" Archived 11 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine at De Imperatoribus Romanis. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.24. ^ Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Galba 5. ^ Garzetti, Albino (2014). From Tiberius to the Antonines (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Roman Empire AD 14–192. Taylor & Francis. pp. 220–. ISBN 978-1-317-69843-2. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 47. ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.72. ^ Buckley, Emma; Dinter, Martin T. (2013). A Companion to the Neronian Age. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-31659-7. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015. ^ Bunson, Matthew (2009). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. 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Internet Archaeology (42). doi:10.11141/ia.42.2. ^ Champlin, pp. 29–31. ^ Russell, Miles; Manley, Harry (2013). "Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano-British sculpture". Internet Archaeology (32). doi:10.11141/ia.32.5. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.6. ^ Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba 9. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.13. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 7. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 Archived 24 June 2014 at WebCite. ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, City of God. XX.19.3 Archived 2 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Tacitus, Histories II.8. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 Archived 24 June 2014 at WebCite. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57. ^ Suetonius, Nero 18, 39–40 ^ Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1. ^ Judith., Swaddling (1984) [1980]. The ancient Olympic games (1st University of Texas Press ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292703735. OCLC 10759486. ^ "Going for Gold: A History of Olympic Controversies". www.randomhistory.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2018. ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3; Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola 10; Tacitus, Annals XIII.20. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Tacitus, Annals XIV.2. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20. ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3. ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty. ^ "Epictetus – The Core Curriculum". www.college.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017. ^ "Epictetus, Discourses, book 3, About Cynism". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 May 2021. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3. ^ Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65) Archived 26 July 2007 at archive.today. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories VII.8.46. ^ Plutach, Moralia, ed. by G. P. Goold, trans. by Phillip H. De Lacy and Benedict Einarson, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 7: 269–99. ^ Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis 4 Archived 3 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Suetonius Twelve Caesars: Nero chapter 28 ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1. ^ Tacitus, History I.1. ^ Ezekiel 25:14 ^ Talmud, tractate Gitin 56a-b ^ Kaplan, Drew. 5 July 2011. "Rabbinic Popularity in the Mishnah VII: Top Ten Overall [Final Tally]" Drew Kaplan's Blog. Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Isaac, Benjamin. 2004. The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. pp. 440–91. ISBN 978-0691125985. ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, chapter 16. ^ Tertullian. Apologeticum (Lost text), quoted in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, II.25.4, translated by A. C. McGiffert. Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine, ^ a b Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II Archived 7 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28 Archived 1 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 25 Archived 30 June 2012 at archive.today. ^ Acts of the Apostles 18:2 ^ Champlin, p. 123 ^ Ascension of Isaiah Chapter 4.2 Archived 25 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.5 Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine. ^ In the apocryphal Acts of Paul Archived 20 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine; in the apocryphal Acts of Peter Archived 12 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine; in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6 Archived 20 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine; and in The Muratorian Fragment Archived 18 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Apocryphal Acts of Peter Archived 12 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Lactantius wrote that Nero "crucified Peter, and slew Paul.", Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II Archived 7 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine; John Chrysostom wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4 Archived 3 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine; Sulpicius Severus says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29 Archived 1 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Sibylline Oracles 5.361–76, 8.68–72, 8.531–157 Archived 3 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Griffin, Miriam T. (2002). Nero: The End of a Dynasty. Routledge. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-1-134-61044-0. ^ Sulpicius Severus and Victorinus of Pettau also say that Nero is the Antichrist, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29 Archived 1 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine; Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse 17 Archived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Champlin, p. 20 ^ "2 Thessalonians 2:7 – Passage Lookup – King James Version". BibleGateway.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2010. ^ Cory, Catherine A. (2006). The Book of Revelation. Liturgical Press. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-0-8146-2885-0. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015. ^ Garrow, A.J.P. (2002). Revelation. Taylor & Francis. pp. 86–. ISBN 978-0-203-13308-8. Archived from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015. ^ Hillers, Delbert (1963). "Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba'at". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 170 (170): 65. doi:10.2307/1355990. JSTOR 1355990. S2CID 163790686. ^ Brown, Raymond E.; Fitzmyer, Joseph A. and Murphy, Roland E. eds. (1990). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 1009. ISBN 978-0136149347 ^ Just, S.J. "The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements, University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community". Archived from the original on 1 June 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007. ^ Sinclair, Scott Gambrill (3 March 2016). The Book of Revelation (Course Lecture Notes) (pdf). The Scott Sinclair Lecture Notes Collection. Dominican University of California - Department of Religion and Philosophy. pp. 36–37. Nero persecuted the church at Rome, and the Beast whose number is 666 probably represents him. [...] Revelation also draws many parallels between "Babylon" (Rome) and the New Jerusalem. [...] In John's social situation the emperor did appear to be the Almighty, and Rome did appear to be the Heavenly City (attributed to the public domain) Bibliography Primary sources Tacitus, Histories, I–IV (c. 105) Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117) Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II–VI (c. 94) Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94) Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229) Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110) Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of Nero (c. 121) Secondary sources Benario, Herbert W. Nero at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Champlin, Edward (2005). Nero. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01822-8. Cronin, Vincent. Nero. London: Stacey International, 2010 ( ISBN 1-906768-14-5). Grant, Michael. Nero. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 ( ISBN 0-88029-311-X). Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-03285-4); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-7134-4465-7). Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ISBN 0-7509-2876-X). (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 4, La vie de Poppée, femme de Néron, pp. 97–120 ( ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0). Rogers, Robert Samuel (1955). "Heirs and Rivals to Nero". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 86: 190–212. doi:10.2307/283618. ISSN 0065-9711. JSTOR 283618. Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7011-1438-X); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-393-00542-9); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1454-1). (Russian) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky "The Pisonian Conspiracy"(Заговор Пизона)docudrama based on Tacitus Annals 15 and other sources. Failed conspiracy against Nero led to tragic death of 26 year old Great Roman poet Lucan and his famous uncle Seneca, executed by Nero order. Moscow, Wagrius plus, 2008. ISBN 978-598525-045-9 Nero Nero: The Actor-Emperor Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Nero basic data & select quotes posted by Romans On Line The Life and Times of Nero By Carlo Maria Franzero (BTM format). Nero's depiction in Tacitus' Annals Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus entry in the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Nero" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 390–393. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Nero Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nero. Russell, Miles; Manley, Harry (2013). "Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano-British sculpture". Internet Archaeology (32). doi:10.11141/ia.32.5. International Society for Neronian Studies Nero, Roman Emperor, Encyclopædia Britannica online The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero, PBS.org Nero (37 AD – 68 AD), BBC.co.uk Emperor Nero: Facts & Biography, Live Science online Roman Emperor Nero: Rethinking Nero, National Geographic online PBS: Secrets of the Dead-documentary "The Nero Files – Cause for a Cold Case Investigation?" Nero Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 15 December 37 Died: 9 June 68 Political offices Preceded by Claudius Roman emperor 54–68 Succeeded by Galba Preceded by Marcus Aefulanus, and ignotus as Suffect consuls Roman consul 55 with Lucius Antistius Vetus Succeeded by Numerius Cestius as Suffect consul Preceded by Lucius Duvius Avitus, and Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus as Suffect consuls Roman consul 57–58 with Lucius Calpurnius Piso (57) Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus (58) Succeeded by Gaius Fonteius Agrippa as Suffect consul Preceded by Titus Sextius Africanus, and Marcus Ostorius Scapula as Suffect consuls Roman consul 60 with Cossus Cornelius Lentulus Succeeded by Gaius Velleius Paterculus, and Marcus Manilius Vopiscus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus, and Publius Galerius Trachalus as Ordinary consuls Roman consul 68 (suffect) sine collega Succeeded by Gaius Bellicius Natalis, and Publius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus as Suffect consuls v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I of Egypt Bilistiche Chaeron of Pellene Chilon of Patras Chionis of Sparta Cimon Coalemos Coroebus of Elis Cylon of Athens Cynisca of Sparta Damarchus Demaratus of Sparta Desmon of Corinth Diagoras of Rhodes Diocles of Corinth Ergoteles of Himera Euryleonis Herodorus of Megara Hiero I of Syracuse Hypenus of Elis Hysmon of Elis Iccus of Taranto Leonidas of Rhodes Leophron Milo of Croton Nero Caesar Augustus Oebotas of Dyme Onomastus of Smyrna Orsippus of Megara Peisistratos of Athens Phanas of Pellene Philinus of Cos Philip II of Macedon Philippus of Croton Phrynon of Athens Polydamas of Skotoussa Pythagoras of Laconia Pythagoras of Samos Sostratus of Pellene Theagenes of Thasos Theron of Acragas Tiberius Caesar Augustus Timasitheus of Delphi Troilus of Elis Varazdat of Armenia Xenophon of Aegium Xenophon of Corinth Lists of winners Ancient Olympic victors Stadion race Archaic period Classical period Hellenistic period Roman period Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway Chile Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Israel Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz artist Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nero&oldid=1028306820" Categories: Julio-Claudian dynasty Nero 37 births 68 deaths 1st-century Roman emperors Ancient LGBT people Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Romans who committed suicide LGBT royalty Children of Claudius Claudii Nerones Domitii Ahenobarbi Forced suicides Italian rapists LGBT heads of state LGBT people from Italy Matricides People from Anzio People of the Year of the Four Emperors Persecution of Christians Poppaea Sabina Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Roman-era Olympic competitors Roman philhellenes Suicides by sharp instrument in Italy Talmud people Uxoricides Anti-Christian sentiment in Europe Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Webarchive template other archives Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template webcite links Webarchive template archiveis links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use dmy dates from April 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Articles needing 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en-wikipedia-org-6061	----	Michael Grant (classicist) - Wikipedia Michael Grant (classicist) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article uses bare URLs, which may be threatened by link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation). (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) For others of the same name, see Michael Grant (disambiguation). British classicist, numismatist, historian and author (1914-2004) Michael Grant Born 21 November 1914 London, United Kingdom Died 4 October 2004(2004-10-04) (aged 89) Tuscany, Italy Occupation Author, professor Language English Genre History Michael Grant CBE (21 November 1914 – 4 October 2004) was an English classicist, numismatist, and author of numerous books on ancient history.[1] His 1956 translation of Tacitus's Annals of Imperial Rome remains a standard of the work. Having studied and held a number of academic posts in the United Kingdom and the Middle East, he retired early to devote himself fully to writing. He once described himself as "one of the very few freelancers in the field of ancient history: a rare phenomenon". As a populariser, his hallmarks were his prolific output and his unwillingness to oversimplify or talk down to his readership. He published over 70 works. Contents 1 Biography 2 Degrees, honours and accolades 3 Bibliography 3.1 Original works 3.2 Translations 3.3 Editor/reviser 3.4 Contributor 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Grant was born in London, the son of Col. Maurice Grant who served in the Boer War and later wrote part of its official history. Young Grant attended Harrow and read classics (1933–37) at Trinity College, Cambridge. His speciality was academic numismatics. His research fellowship thesis later became his first published book – From Imperium to Auctoritas (1946), on Roman bronze coins. Over the next decade he wrote four books on Roman coinage; his view was that the tension between the eccentricity of the Roman emperors and the traditionalism of the Roman mint made coins (used as both propaganda and currency) a unique social record. During World War II, Grant served for a year as an intelligence officer in London after which he was assigned (1940) as the UK's first British Council representative in Turkey. In this capacity he was instrumental in getting his friend, the eminent historian Steven Runciman, his position at Istanbul University. While in Turkey, he also married Anne-Sophie Beskow (they had two sons). At war's end, the couple returned to the UK with Grant's collection of almost 700 Roman coins (now in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge). After a brief return to Cambridge, Grant applied for the vacant chair of Humanity (Latin) at Edinburgh University which he held from 1948 until 1959. During a two-year (1956–58) leave of absence he also served as vice-chancellor (president) of the University of Khartoum – upon his departure, he turned the university over to the newly independent Sudanese government. He was then vice-chancellor of Queen's University of Belfast (1959–66), after which he pursued a career as a full-time writer. According to his obituary in The Times he was "one of the few classical historians to win respect from [both] academics and a lay readership".[2] Immensely prolific, he wrote and edited more than 70 books of nonfiction and translation, covering topics from Roman coinage and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius to the Gospels. He produced general surveys of ancient Greek, Roman and Israelite history as well as biographies of giants such as Julius Caesar, Herod the Great, Cleopatra, Nero, Jesus, St. Peter and St. Paul.[3] As early as the 1950s, Grant's publishing success was somewhat controversial within the classicist community. According to The Times: Grant's approach to classical history was beginning to divide critics. Numismatists felt that his academic work was beyond reproach, but some academics balked at his attempt to condense a survey of Roman literature into 300 pages, and felt (in the words of one reviewer) that "even the most learned and gifted of historians should observe a speed-limit". The academics would keep cavilling, but the public kept buying.[4] From 1966 until his death, Grant lived with his wife in Gattaiola, a village near Lucca in Tuscany. His autobiography, My First Eighty Years, appeared in 1994. Degrees, honours and accolades[edit] Litt.D. (Cambridge) Hon. Litt. D. (Dublin) Hon. LL. D. (Queen's University, Belfast) Honorary Fellow, Royal Numismatic Society Medal of the Royal Numismatic Society, 1962[5] President, Royal Numismatic Society Archer M. Huntington Medalist, American Numismatic Society OBE (1946) CBE (1958) Bibliography[edit] Original works[edit] From Imperium to Auctoritas (1946; rev. ed., 1971) Aspects of the Principate of Tiberius: Historical Comments on the Colonial Coinage Issued Outside Spain (1950), New York: American Numismatic Society (Series: Numismatic Notes and Monographs, no. 116). Roman Anniversary Issues: An Exploratory Study of the Numismatic and Medallic Commemoration of Anniversary Years, 49 B.C. – A.D. 375. (1950), Cambridge University Press Ancient History (1952) The Six Main Aes Coinages of Augustus (1953), Edinburgh: University Press. Roman Imperial Money (1954), Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd. Roman History from Coins (1958; Rev ed, 1968, Cambridge University Press) The World of Rome (1960; rev. eds., 19??/1974/1987) The Ancient Mediterranean (1961; rev. ed., 1969) Myths of the Greeks and Romans (1962; new biblio: 1986 & 1995) ISBN 0-452-01162-0 Greece and Rome: The Birth of Western Civilization (1964; rev. ed., 1986) The Civilizations of Europe (1965) The Gladiators (1967) The Climax of Rome: The Final Achievements of the Ancient World, AD 161–337 (1968; rev. eds., 19??/1974) Julius Caesar (1969) The Ancient Historians (1970) The Roman Forum (1970; rev. ed., 1974) Nero (1970) Herod the Great (1971) Roman Myths (1971; rev. eds., 1972/1973) Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum (1971) Atlas of Classical History (1971; rev. eds., 1974/1986/1989/1994) [a.k.a. Ancient History Atlas] Cleopatra (1972; rev. ed., 1974), Weidenfeld & Nicolson The Jews in the Roman World (1973; rev. ed., 1984) Gods and Mortals in Classical Mythology, with John Hazel (1973), G. & C. Merriam Co Who's Who in Classical Mythology, with John Hazel (1973; Slightly revised 1993 & 2002) Caesar (1974), introduction by Elizabeth Longford (Reprint of 1969 book?) The Army of the Caesars (1974) Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum (1974) The Twelve Caesars (1975) Erotic Art in Pompeii: The Secret Collection of the National Museum of Naples (1975), London: Octopus Books Ltd; Photos by Antonia Mulas, Collection descriptions by Antonio De Simone and Maria Teresa Merella (Original publication in Italian, 1974) The Fall of the Roman Empire (1976; rev. ed., 1990) ISBN 0-02-028560-4 Saint Paul (1976) London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson ISBN 0-297-77082-9 New York: Charles Scribner's Sons ISBN 0-684-14682-7 Reprint: New York: Crossroad, 1982 ISBN 0-824-50434-8 Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels (1977) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons ISBN 0-684-14889-7 Reprint: 2004 ISBN 1-898-79988-1 History of Rome (1978) ISBN 0-02-345610-8 ISBN 978-0-571-11461-0 Greece and Italy in the Classical World (1978; rev. ed., 19??) The Art and Life of Pompeii and Herculaneum (1979) The Etruscans (1980) Greek and Latin Authors: 800 BC – AD 1000 (1980) Dawn of the Middle Ages (1981) — coffee table book From Alexander to Cleopatra: the Hellenistic World (1982) [a.k.a. The Hellenistic Greeks (1990)] The History of Ancient Israel (1984) The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome 31 B.C. - A.D. 476 (1985) Gods and Mortals in Classical Mythology: A Dictionary, with John Hazel (1985), Dorset Press A Guide to the Ancient World: A Dictionary of Classical Place Names (1986) The Rise of the Greeks (1987) The Classical Greeks (1989) The Visible Past: Greek and Roman History from Archaeology, 1960–1990 (1990) [a.k.a. The Visible Past: An Archaeological Reinterpretation of Ancient History] Founders of the Western World: A History of Greece and Rome (1991) [a.k.a. A Short History of Classical Civilization] Greeks and Romans: A Social History (1992) [a.k.a. A Social History of Greece and Rome] The Emperor Constantine (1993) [a.k.a. Constantine the Great: The Man and His Times (1994)] The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition (1994) St Peter: A Biography (1994) My First Eighty Years (1994), Autobiography The Sayings of the Bible (1994), Duckworth Sayings Series Greek and Roman Historians: Information and Misinformation (1995) Art in the Roman Empire (1995) The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire (1996) From Rome to Byzantium: The Fifth Century (1998) Collapse and Recovery of the Roman Empire (1999; series: Routledge Key Guides) Sick Caesars (2000) Translations[edit] Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome (1956; Rev. ed., 1977) Cicero, Selected Works (1960; Rev. eds., 1965, 1971) Cicero, Selected Political Speeches (1969) Cicero, Cicero on the Good Life (1971) Cicero, Murder Trials (1975) Cicero, On Government (1993) Editor/reviser[edit] Roman Literature (1954; Rev. eds., 1958/1964); Cambridge University Press Roman Readings (1958; Rev. ed., 1967) [a.k.a. Latin Literature: An Anthology (1979; New biblio: 1989)] Greek Literature in Translation (1973) [a.k.a. Greek Literature: An Anthology: Translations from Greek Prose and Poetry] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: An Illustrated Edition (1979; Revision of Robert Graves' 1957 translation) Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean (with R. Kitzinger, 1988) Apuleius, The Golden Ass (1990; Revision of Robert Graves' 1950 translation) Readings in the Classical Historians (1992) Contributor[edit] "Translating Latin Prose", ARIEL: A Review of International English Literature, Vol. 2, No. 2; April 1971. (Reprinted in Radice William and Barbara Reynolds (1987), The Translator's Art: Essays in Honor of Betty Radice, Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp 81–91.) Foreword (1993), In: Reprint of Liddell Hart, B.H., Scipio Africanus, Greater than Napoleon (1994), New York: Da Capo Press, pp v–xi. Entry, "Julius Caesar" [Review of the 1953 film], In: Carnes, Mark C., ed. (1995), Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, New York: Henry Holt and Company (Series: A Society of American Historians Book), pp 44–47. References[edit] ^ "Professor Michael Grant". Daily Telegraph. 8 October 2004. Retrieved 26 August 2020. ^ "Michael Grant" [Obit.], The Times, 13 October 2004. ^ Martin, Douglas, "Michael Grant, Who Wrote Histories of the Ancient World, Is Dead at 89" [Obit., The New York Times, 25 October 2004. ^ "Michael Grant" [Obit.], The Times, 13 October 2004. ^ http://numismatics.org.uk/medals-honorary-fellowship-prizes/the-societys-medal/ External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Michael Grant (classicist) Translated Penguin Book - at Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books. Academic offices Preceded by Lord Ashby of Brandon President and Vice-Chancellor of Queen's University Belfast 1959–1966 Succeeded by Sir Arthur Vick Professional and academic associations Preceded by Humphrey Sutherland President of the Royal Numismatic Society 1953–1956 Succeeded by Christopher Blunt Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Grant_(classicist)&oldid=1026006342" Categories: 1914 births 2004 deaths English classical scholars English numismatists Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Critics of the Christ myth theory People educated at Harrow School Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Academics of the University of Edinburgh Vice-Chancellors of Queen's University Belfast University of Khartoum faculty 20th-century English historians English expatriates in Italy Presidents of the Royal Numismatic Society Hidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from May 2021 Articles with bare URLs for citations from May 2021 All articles with bare URLs for citations Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from May 2021 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano مصرى Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2021, at 21:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6069	----	Osroene - Wikipedia Osroene From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia (132 BC-214 AD) For the Roman province, see Osroene (Roman province). Kingdom of Osroene ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܐܘܪܗܝ 132 BC–AD 214[1] Map includes Osroene as a tributary kingdom of the Armenian Empire under Tigranes the Great Status Kingdom, vassal state, province Capital Edessa Common languages Aramaic (official) Koine Greek Armenian Government Monarchy King   Historical era Hellenistic Age • Established 132 BC • Disestablished AD 214[1] Preceded by Succeeded by Seleucid Empire Roman Empire Osroene (/ɒzˈriːniː/; Ancient Greek: Ὀσροηνή / Osrhoēnē, Romanized as Osroëne, or Osrhoene) was an ancient region and state in Upper Mesopotamia.[2] The Kingdom of Osroene, also known as the "Kingdom of Edessa" (Classical Syriac: ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܐܘܪܗܝ‎ / "Kingdom of Urhay"), according to the name of its capital city (now Şanlıurfa, Turkey), existed from the 2nd century BCE, up to the 3rd century CE, and was ruled by the Abgarid dynasty.[3][4][5][6][1][7] Generally allied with the Parthians,[1][8] the Kingdom of Osroene enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 214. Though ruled by a dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture.[9] In addition, the city's cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic, alongside strong Parthian influences, though some Arab cults were also attested at Edessa.[8][10] The ruling Abgarid dynasty was deposed by the Romans during the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla (r. 211–217), probably in 214 or 216, and Osroene was incorporated as a province,[1] but it was briefly reestablished during the reign of Roman emperor Gordianus III (238-244). Christianity came early to Osroene. From 318, Osroene was a part of the Diocese of the East. By the 5th century, Edessa had become a main center of Syriac literature and learning. In 608, the Sasanian emperor, Khosrow II (r. 590–628), took Osroene. It was briefly reconquered by the Byzantines, but in 638 it fell to the Arabs as part of the Muslim conquests. Contents 1 Background and context 2 Population and culture 3 In Roman sources 4 Roman province 5 Rulers 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Background and context[edit] Historical Arab states and dynasties Ancient Arab States Kingdom of Qedar 800 BC–300 BC kingdom of Ma'in 600 BC–150 BC Kingdom of Lihyan 600 BC–100 BC Nabataean Kingdom 400 BC–106 AD Qatabān kingdom 400 BC–200 AD Kingdom of Awsan 230s BC–115s BC Kingdom of Kindah 200 BC–633 AD Kingdom of Osroene 132 BC–244 AD Himyarite Kingdom 110 BC-525 AD Emesan dynasty 64 BC–300s AD Kingdom of Hatra 100s–241 AD Tanukhids 196–1100 AD Ghassanids 220–638 AD Salihids 300s–500s AD Lakhmids 300s–602 AD Arab Empires Rashidun 632–661 Umayyads 661–750 Abbasids 750–1258 Fatimids 909–1171 Eastern Dynasties Emirate of Armenia 654–884 Emirate of Tbilisi 736–1122 Emirate of Crete 824–961 Dulafids 840–897 Habbarids 854–1011 Kaysites 860–964 Shirvanshah 861-1538 Alavids 864–928 Hamdanids 890–1004 Rawadids 955–1071 Mazyadids 961–1150 Jarrahids 970–1107 Uqaylids 990–1096 Numayrids 990–1081 Mirdasids 1024–1080 Munqidhites 1025–1157 Ma'anids 1517–1697 Harfushs 1517–1865 Shihabids 1697–1842 Saghirids 1712–1989 Western Dynasties Emirate of Córdoba 756–929 Muhallabids 771–793 Idrisids 788–974 Aghlabids 800–909 Sulaymanids 814–922 Emirate of Sicily 831–1091 Caliphate of Córdoba 929–1031 Kanzids 1004–1412 Bakrids 1012–1051 Tujibids 1013–1039 Amirids 1020–1086 Abbadids 1023–1091 Yahsubids 1023–1062 Hammudids 1026–1057 Muzaynids 1027–1063 Jawharids 1031–1091 Hudids 1039–1110 Sumadihids 1041–1091 Tahirids 1049–1078 Nasrids 1230–1492 Saadids 1554–1659 Senussids 1837–1969 Arabian Peninsula Imamate of Oman 751–1970 Ziyadids 819–1138 Yufirids 847–997 Ukhaidhirds 865–1066 Rassids 897–1962 Qarmatians 899–1077 Wajihids 926–965 Sharifate of Mecca 968–1925 Sulayhids 1047–1138 Sulaymanids 1063–1174 Uyunids 1076–1253 Zurayids 1083–1174 Nabhanids 1154–1624 Mahdids 1159–1174 Rasulids 1229–1454 Usfurids 1253–1320 Jarwanids 1305–1487 Kathirids 1395–1967 Tahirids 1454–1526 Jabrids 1463–1521 Qasimids 1597–1872 Ya'arubids 1624–1742 Upper Yafa 1800–1967 Muscat and Oman 1820–1970 Rashidids 1836–1921 Qu'aitids 1858–1967 Emirate of Beihan 1903–1967 Idrisids 1906–1934 Mutawakkilite Kingdom 1926–1970 East Africa Makhzumi dynasty (Shewa) 896–1279 Nabahani dynasty (Pate Island) 1203–1894 Mahdali dynasty (Kilwa) 1277–1495 Mazrui dynasty (Mombasa) 1746–1828 Nabahani dynasty (Wituland) 1858–1895 Sultanate of Zanzibar 1856–1964 Tippu Tip's State 1860–1887 Current monarchies Alaouites (Morocco) 1631–present Al Qasimi (Ras al Khaymah) 1727–present Al Qasimi (Sharjah) 1727–present Al Saud (Saudi Arabia) 1744–present Al Said (Oman) 1749–present Al Sabah (Kuwait) 1752–present Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) 1761–present Al Nuaim (Ajman ) 1810–present Al Mu'alla (Umm al-Quwain) 1775–present Al Khalifa (Bahrain) 1783–present Al Maktoum (Dubai) 1833–present Al Thani (Qatar) 1868–present Al Sharqi (Fujairah) 1900–present Hashemites (Jordan) 1921–present v t e Roman dependencies, including of Osroene (as of 31 BCE) Anatolia in the early 1st century AD with Osroëne as a client state of the Parthian Empire Kingdom of Osroene (gray shade) and the surrounding regions during the 1st century AD See also: Abgarid dynasty Osroene, or Edessa, was one of several states that acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid Empire through a dynasty of the nomadic Nabataean Arab tribe from Southern Canaan and North Arabia, the Osrhoeni, from 136 BC. Osroene's name either derives from the name of this tribe, or from Orhay (Urhay), the original Aramaic name of Edessa.[11] Arab influence had been strong in the region.[8] Osroene endured for four centuries, with twenty-eight rulers occasionally named "king" on their coins. Most of the kings of Osroene were called Abgar or Manu and settled in urban centers.[12] Osroene was generally allied with the Parthian Empire.[1][8] After a period under the rule of the Parthian Empire, it was absorbed into the Roman Empire in 114 as a semiautonomous vassal state, and incorporated as a simple Roman province in 214. There is an apocryphal legend that Osroene was the first state to have accepted Christianity as state religion,[13][14] but there is not enough evidence to support that claim.[15][16][17] Population and culture[edit] Ancient mosaic from Edessa (2nd century CE) with inscriptions in the Aramaic language Though most of Osroene's rulers were from the Abgarid dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture.[18] In addition, though Arab cults were attested at Edessa (the twins Monimos and Azizos), its cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic, alongside strong Parthian influences.[8][10] Thus, according to Maurice Sartre: "It would hence be absurd to regard Edessa as solely an Arab city, for its culture owed very little to the nomadic Arabs of the region".[10] Later, within the Roman Empire, Edessa was the most important center of Syriac Christianity.[19] Under the Nabataean dynasties, Osroëne became increasingly influenced by Syriac Christianity,[20] and was a centre of local reaction against Hellenism. In his writings, Pliny the Elder refers to the natives of Osroene and the Kingdom of Commagene as Arabs and the region as Arabia.[21] Abgar II is called "an Arab phylarch" by Plutarch,[22] while Abgar V is described as "king of the Arabs" by Tacitus.[23] The Edessene onomastic contains many Arabic names.[24] The most common one in the ruling dynasty of Edessa being Abgar, a well-attested name among Arabic groups of antiquity.[25] Some members of the dynasty bore Iranian names, while others had Arab names.[1] Judah Segal notes that the names ending in "-u" are "undoubtedly Nabatean".[1] The Abgarid dynasts spoke "a form of Aramaic".[1] It was in the region in which the legend of Abgar V originated. In Roman sources[edit] The area of the kingdom was perhaps roughly coterminous with that of the Roman province of Osrhoene. The great loop of the Euphrates was a natural frontier to the north and west. In the south Batnae was capital of the semi-autonomous principality of Anthemusia until its annexation by Rome, in AD 115. The eastern boundary is uncertain; it may have extended to Nisibis or even to Adiabene in the first century AD. Ḥarrān, however, only 40 km south of Edessa, always maintained its independent status as a Roman colonia.[1] Edessa, the capital of the ancient kingdom, was a fortress of considerable strength and a staging post both large and nearest to the Euphrates. It was an important road junction; an ancient highway, along which caravans carried merchandise from China and India to the West, met there a north-south road connecting the Armenian Highlands with Antioch. Inevitably, Edessa figured prominently on the international stage.[1] In 64 BC, as Pompey waged war on the Parthian Empire, Abgar II of Osrhoene had sided with the Romans when Lucius Afranius occupied Upper Mesopotamia. The king was initially an ally of the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus in his campaign against the Parthians in 53 BC, but Roman historians allege that he betrayed Crassus by leading him to deviate from his safe route along the river and instead into an open desert, where the troops suffered from the barrenness and thus were vulnerable to cavalry attack. Abgar is said to have met with Surenas, the Parthian general, and informed him of the Roman movements. The enormous and infamous Battle of Carrhae followed and destroyed the entire Roman army. Just prior to the battle, Abgar made a pretext to ride away. However, modern historians have questioned whether Abgar intended to betray the Romans and instead may have simply been leading them along an old Arab trade route.[26] According to a Syriac source, Abgar died later that year.[1] In the early 2nd century AD, King Abgar VII joined the Emperor Trajan's campaign into Mesopotamia and entertained him at court. The king later rebelled against the Romans, however, which led to the Roman general Lucius Quietus sacking Edessa and putting an end to Osrhoene's independence in 116. In 123, during the reign of Hadrian, the Abgarid dynasty was restored with the installation of Ma'nu VII, and Osroene was established as a client kingdom of the Empire.[27] After the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 under Marcus Aurelius, forts were built and a Roman garrison was stationed in Nisibis (now Nusaybin. In 195, following a civil war in which the kingdom had supported his rival Pescennius Niger, Septimius Severus mounted an invasion and annexed the territory as a new province, making Nisibis the capital.[28] However, the emperor did allow the king, Abgar XI, to retain the city of Edessa and a small territory surrounding it.[29] In 213, the reigning king was deposed by Caracalla, and the remaining territory was incorporated into the Roman province of Osroene.[30] According to legends (without historical justification), by 201 AD or earlier, under King Abgar the Great, Osroene became the first Christian state.[31][32] It is believed that the Gospel of Thomas emanated from Edessa around 140. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from the region such as Tatian the Assyrian, who came to Edessa from Hadiab (Adiabene). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. Tatian was the editor of the Diatessaron, which was the primary sacred text of Syriac-speaking Christianity until in the 5th century the bishops Rabbula and Theodoret suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels (as in the Syriac Sinaiticus and Curetonian Gospels).[33] Then, Edessa was again brought under Roman control by Decius and it was made a center of Roman operations against the Sasanian Empire. Amru, possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the Paikuli inscription, recording the victory of Narseh in the Sassanid civil war of 293. Historians identify that Amru as Amru ibn Adi, the fourth king of the Lakhmids, which was then still based in Harran, not yet moved to al-Hirah in southern Mesopotamia.[34] Many centuries later, Dagalaiphus and Secundinus duke of Osrhoene, accompanied Julian in his war against the Sasanian emperor, Shapur II, in the 4th century.[35] Roman province[edit] Roman province of Osroene, highlighted within the Roman Empire Map showing the Eastern Roman provinces, including Osroene, in the 5th century Main article: Osroene (Roman province) The independence of the state ended probably in c. 214; during Caracalla's reign the monarchy was abolished by the Roman Empire and Osroene was incorporated it as a province (colonia).[1] It was a frontier province, lying close to the Persian empires with which the Romans were repeatedly at war, and was taken and retaken several times. As it was on the frontier it had a Roman legion stationed there. Legio III Parthica and its Castrum (homebase) may have been Rhesaina, but that is uncertain. Following Emperor Diocletian's tetrarchy reform during his reign (284-305), it was part of the diocese of the East, in the praetorian prefecture of the same name. According to the late-4th-century Notitia Dignitatum, it was headed by a governor of the rank of praeses, and it was also the seat of the dux Mesopotamiae, who ranked as vir illustris and commanded (c. 400) the following army units: Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani, garrisoned at Ganaba. Equites Promoti Illyriciani, Callinicum. Equites Mauri Illyriciani, Dabana. Equites Promoti indigenae, Banasam Equites Promoti indigenae, Sina Iudaeorum. Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Oraba. Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Thillazamana. Equites Sagittarii indigenae Medianenses, Mediana. Equites Primi Osrhoeni, Rasin. Praefectus legionis quartae Parthicae, Circesium. (an illegible command, possibly Legio III Parthica), Apatna. as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries: Ala Septima Valeria Praelectorum, Thillacama. Ala Prima Victoriae, Tovia -contra Bintha. Ala Secunda Paflagonum, Thillafica. Ala Prima Parthorum, Resaia. Ala Prima nova Diocletiana, inter Thannurin et Horobam. Cohors Prima Gaetulorum, Thillaamana. Cohors Prima Eufratensis, Maratha. Ala Prima Salutaria, Duodecimo constituta. According to Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance Bardaisan, who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son Harmonius. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that Arianism, a more successful heresy, met with opposition there. Rulers[edit] Coin of king Abgar, who ruled in Osroene during the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) Coin of king Abgar, who ruled in Osroene during the reign of Roman emperor Gordianus III (238-244) Main article: Abgarid dynasty Aryu (132–127 BC) Abdu bar Maz'ur (127–120 BC) Fradhasht bar Gebar'u (120–115 BC) Bakru I bar Fradhasht (115–112 BC) Bakru II bar Bakru (112–94 BC) Ma'nu I (94 BC) Abgar I Piqa (94–68 BC) Abgar II bar Abgar (68–52 BC) Ma'nu II (52–34 BC) Paqor (34–29 BC) Abgar III (29–26 BC) Abgar IV Sumaqa (26–23 BC) Ma'nu III Saphul (23–4 BC) Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu (Abgarus of Edessa) (4 BC–AD 7) Ma'nu IV bar Ma'nu (AD 7–13) Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu (AD 13–50) Ma'nu V bar Abgar (AD 50–57) Ma'nu VI bar Abgar (AD 57–71) Abgar VI bar Ma'nu (AD 71–91) Sanatruk (AD 91–109) Abgar VII bar Ezad (AD 109–116) Roman interregnum (AD 116–118) Yalur (AD 118–122, co-ruler with Parthamaspates) Parthamaspates (AD 118–123) Ma'nu VII bar Ezad (AD 123–139) Ma'nu VIII bar Ma'nu (AD 139–163) Wa'il bar Sahru (AD 163–165) Ma'nu VIII bar Ma'nu (AD 165–167) Abgar VIII (AD 167–177) Abgar IX (the Great) (AD 177–212) Abgar X Severus bar Ma'nu (AD 212–214) Abgar (X) Severus Bar Abgar (IX) Rabo (AD 214–216) Ma’nu (IX) Bar Abgar (X) Severus (AD 216–242) Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu (IX) (AD 242–244) See also[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Osroene . Christianity portal Edessa Arameans Aramaic language Syriac language Syria (region) Diocese of the Orient References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Segal 1982, p. 210-213. ^ Dupuy, Richard Ernest; Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1970). The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present. Harper & Row. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-06-011139-7. ^ Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521301992. ^ https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene ^ Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 9780028659435. ^ Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199936762. ^ Laet, Sigfried J. de; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. ISBN 9789231028120. ^ a b c d e Lieu 1997, p. 174-175. ^ Drower, Gray & Sherwin-White 2012, (...) the population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture. ^ a b c Sartre 2005, p. 500. ^ Mango 1991. ^ Fortescue, Adrian (1923). The uniate Eastern churches: the Byzantine rite in Italy, Sicily, Syria and Egypt. Burns, Oates & Washbourne, ltd. p. 22. ^ Ball, W (2001). Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-415-24357-5. ^ Frankfurter, David (1998). Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt. BRILL. p. 383. ISBN 90-04-11127-1.It was around 200 CE that Abgar IX adopted Christianity, thus enabling Edessa to become the first Christian state in history whose ruler was officially and openly a Christian. ^ Osroene at Encyclopædia Iranica The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa. ^ Brock, Sebastian (2004). "The earliest Syriac literature". In Young, Frances; Ayres, Lewis; Louth, Andrew; Casiday, Augustine (eds.). The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-521-46083-5. Modern scholars have taken basically two very different approaches to this legend (which obviously reflects the general search for apostolic origins, characteristics of the fourth century). Some would dismiss it totally, while others prefer to see it as a retrojection into the first century of the conversion of the local king at the end of the second century. In other words Abgar (V) the Black of the legend in fact represents Abgar (VIII) the Great (c. 177-212), contemporary of Badaisan. Attractive though this second approach might seem, there are serious objections to it, and the various small supportive evidence that Abgar (VIII) the Great became Christian disappears on closer examination. ^ Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Psychology Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-415-11376-2. More significant than Bardaisan's conversion to Christianity was the conversion -reported by Bardaisan - of Abgar the Great himself." The conversion is controversial, but whether or not he became a Christian, Abgar had the wisdom to recognise the inherent order and stability in Christianity a century before Constantino did. Ho encouraged it as essential for maintaining Edessa's precarious balance between Rome and Iran. Thus, it is Abgar the Great who lays claim to being the world's first Christian monarch and Edessa the first Christian state. More than anything else, a major precedent had been set for the conversion of Rome itself. // The stories of the conversions of both Abgar V and Abgar VIII may not be true, and have been doubted by a number of Western authorities (with more than a hint at unwillingness to relinquish Rome's and St Peter's own primogeniture?). But whether true or not. the stories did establish Edessa as one of the more important centres for early Christendom." ^ Drower, Gray & Sherwin-White 2012. ^ Keser-Kayaalp & Drijvers 2018, p. 516–518. ^ Harrak 1992, p. 209–214. ^ H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, "Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3)", Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983. ^ Ring, Steven. "History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity - Table 1". www.syriac.talktalk.net. Archived from the original on 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2018-02-26. ^ Guscin, Mark (2016). The Tradition of the Image of Edessa. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13. ^ Drijvers 1980, p. 153. ^ Retso, Jan (2013). The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads. Routledge. p. 419."Abgar, is a well-known name among Arabic-speaking groups in antiquity, the Nabataeans included." ^ Sheldon, Mary Rose, "Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome: Trust in the Gods But Verify", pg. 92 ^ Ball, W (2001). Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire. Routledge. p. 90. ^ Southern, Pat, "The Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen", 2009: pg. 36 ^ Birley, Anthony, "Septimius Severus: The African Emperor", 1999: pg. 115 ^ Sinclair, T.A., "Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume IV: pg. 196 ^ Cheetham, Samuel (1905). A History of the Christian Church During the First Six Centuries. Macmillan and Co. p. 58. ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zondervan. p. 260. ISBN 0310280117. ^ L.W. Barnard, The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A.D., Vigiliae Christianae, pp.161-175, 1968 (see pp. 162,165,167,169). ^ A. T. Olmstead, "The Mid-Third Century of the Christian Era. II", Classical Philology (1942): 398-420 (see p. 399) ^ E. Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol. I, Chapter XXIV [1] Archived 2007-02-04 at the Wayback Machine. Sources[edit] Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107244566. Drijvers, Hendrik J. W. (1980). Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004060502. Drower, Margaret Stephana; Gray, Eric William; Sherwin-White, Susan Mary (2012). "Osroëne". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. Griffith, Sidney H. (1986). "Ephraem, the Deacon of Edessa, and the Church of the Empire". Diakonia: Studies in Honor of Robert T. Meyer. Washington: CUA Press. pp. 25–52. ISBN 9780813205960. Griffith, Sidney H. (2002). "Christianity in Edessa and the Syriac-Speaking World: Mani, Bar Daysan, and Ephraem, the Struggle for Allegiance on the Aramean Frontier". Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies. 2: 5–20. Harrak, Amir (1992). "The Ancient Name of Edessa" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (3): 209–214. doi:10.1086/373553. S2CID 162190342. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-09. Healey, John F. (2007). "The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 10 (2): 115–127. Keser-Kayaalp, Elif; Drijvers, Hendrik J. W. (2018). "Edessa". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 516–518. ISBN 9780192562463. Lieu, Samuel (1997). "EDESSA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2. pp. 174–175. Mango, Marlia M. (1991). "Osrhoene". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. Millar, Fergus (1967). The Roman Empire and Its Neighbours. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 9780440017691. Millar, Fergus (1987). "Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman Near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jews and Arabs". Journal of Jewish Studies. 38 (2): 143–164. doi:10.18647/1337/JJS-1987. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 BC - AD 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674778863. Millar, Fergus (2004). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society and Culture in the Roman Empire. 2. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807855201. Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520253919. Millar, Fergus (2006). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East. 3. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807876657. Millar, Fergus (2011). "Greek and Syriac in Edessa: From Ephrem to Rabbula (CE 363-435)". Semitica et Classica. 4: 99–114. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508. Millar, Fergus (2012). "Greek and Syriac in Fifth-Century Edessa: The Case of Bishop Hibas". Semitica et Classica. 5: 151–165. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.103053. Sartre, Maurice (2005). "The Arabs and the desert peoples". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521301992. Segal, Judah (1982). "Abgar". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 2. pp. 210–213. External links[edit] Notitia dignitatum Coordinates: 37°09′30″N 38°47′30″E / 37.1583°N 38.7917°E / 37.1583; 38.7917 v t e Assyrian people Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the Middle East with various additional self-identification, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans Identity Assyrian continuity Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora Chaldean Catholics Terms for Syriac Christians Assyrian flag Aramean-Syriac flag Chaldean flag Syriac Christianity West Syriac Rite Syriac Orthodox Church (518–) Syriac Catholic Church (1662–) Assyrian Evangelical Church (1870–) Assyrian Pentecostal Church (1940–) East Syriac Rite Chaldean Catholic Church (1552–) Assyrian Church of the East (1692–) Ancient Church of the East (1968–) Aramaic/Syriac languages Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Turoyo Bohtan Neo-Aramaic Hertevin Senaya Mlaḥsô Syriac script Culture Assyrian folk/pop music Music of Mesopotamia Syriac sacral music Folk dance Cuisine Clothing History (including related contexts) Ancient Assyria Early period (2600–2025 BCE) Old Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Middle Empire (1392–934 BCE) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE) Achaemenid Assyria (539–330 BCE) Ancient Mesopotamian religion Arameans Assyrian tribes Classical antiquity Seleucid Empire (312–63 BCE) Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE) Osroene (132 BCE–244 CE) Syrian Wars (66 BCE–217 CE) Roman Syria (64 BCE–637 CE) Adiabene (15–116) Roman Assyria (116–118) Christianization (1st to 3rd c.) 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en-wikipedia-org-606	----	Middle Ages - Wikipedia Middle Ages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Period of European history from the 5th to the late 15th-century This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see Middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times. The Cross of Mathilde, a crux gemmata made for Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the enamel plaque. The figure of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in Cologne or Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques: cast figurative sculpture, filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical cameos and engraved gems. In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. Population decline, counterurbanisation, the collapse of centralized authority, invasions, and mass migrations of tribes, which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in Northern Italy in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens from the south. During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism, the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles, and feudalism, the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors, were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages. The Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation-states, reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. The theology of Thomas Aquinas, the paintings of Giotto, the poetry of Dante and Chaucer, the travels of Marco Polo, and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages. The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period. Contents 1 Terminology and periodisation 2 Later Roman Empire 3 Early Middle Ages 3.1 New societies 3.2 Byzantine survival 3.3 Western society 3.4 Rise of Islam 3.5 Trade and economy 3.6 Church and monasticism 3.7 Carolingian Europe 3.8 Carolingian Renaissance 3.9 Breakup of the Carolingian Empire 3.10 New kingdoms and Byzantine revival 3.11 Art and architecture 3.12 Military and technological developments 4 High Middle Ages 4.1 Society and economic life 4.2 Rise of state power 4.3 Crusades 4.4 Intellectual life 4.5 Technology and military 4.6 Architecture, art, and music 4.7 Church life 5 Late Middle Ages 5.1 War, famine, and plague 5.2 Society and economy 5.3 State resurgence 5.4 Collapse of Byzantium 5.5 Controversy within the Church 5.6 Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration 5.7 Technological and military developments 5.8 Late medieval art and architecture 6 Modern perceptions 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Terminology and periodisation The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: classical civilisation or Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Period.[1] The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season".[2] In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in 1604,[3] and media saecula, or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625.[4] The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval"[5] or "mediæval"),[6] meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from medium aevum.[5] Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages" or the "Four Empires", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.[7] When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".[8] In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christian period as nova (or "new").[9] Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark" compared to the "light" of classical antiquity.[10] Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries".[11] Tripartite periodisation became standard after the 17th-century German historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern.[4] The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500,[12] with the date of 476 first used by Bruni.[11][A] Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe.[14] For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages,[15] but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used.[16] English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period.[17] For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516, the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492.[18] Historians from Romance-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late".[1] In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "Dark Ages",[19] but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.[7] Later Roman Empire Further information: Late Antiquity, Roman Empire, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Byzantium under the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties A late Roman sculpture depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in Venice, Italy[20] The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.[21] Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century, with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers.[22] Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire, which revived in the middle of the 3rd century.[23] The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the Roman legion as the main tactical unit.[24] The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial, or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns.[23] More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in the empire than tax-payers.[24] The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other.[25][B] In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople.[26] Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others.[27] Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach.[28] For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.[29] Another change was the Christianisation, or conversion of the empire to Christianity, a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.[30][31] Map of the approximate political boundaries in Europe around 450 AD In 376, the Goths, fleeing from the Huns, received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder.[C] Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378.[33] In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems.[34] In 400, the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 sacked the city of Rome.[35] In 406 the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi crossed into Gaul; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern-day Spain.[36] The Migration Period began, when various peoples, initially largely Germanic peoples, moved across Europe. The Franks, Alemanni, and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain,[37] and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of Africa.[38] In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king Attila (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452.[39] The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart.[40] These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.[37] By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century.[41] The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.[13][D] By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths.[42] The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula (Gothic War) in the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.[43] Early Middle Ages Main article: Early Middle Ages New societies Main articles: Migration Period and fall of the Western Roman Empire Barbarian kingdoms and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration.[44] The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aetius (d. 454), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common.[45] This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state.[46] Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.[47] Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.[48] An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed.[49] Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.[50][E] A coin of the Ostrogothic leader Theoderic the Great, struck in Milan, Italy, circa AD 491–501 Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government.[48] The Ostrogoths, a Gothic tribe, settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic the Great (d. 526) and set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign.[52] The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436 formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's Geneva and Lyon, it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.[53] Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities. Francia was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods, which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.[54] Under Childeric's son Clovis I (r. 509–511), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of Britannia – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now Brittany.[55][F] Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa.[53] In the sixth century, the Lombards settled in Northern Italy, replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the Kingdom of the Lombards.[56] The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. Latin, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by vernacular languages which evolved from Latin, but were distinct from it, collectively known as Romance languages. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe.[57] Byzantine survival Main articles: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty A mosaic showing Justinian with the bishop of Ravenna (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.[58] As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the Sasanian Empire, the traditional enemy of Rome, lasted throughout most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of Roman law; the first effort—the Codex Theodosianus—was completed in 438.[59] Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the Corpus Juris Civilis.[60] Justinian also oversaw the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths,[61] under Belisarius (d. 565).[62] The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.[61] At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of most of Italy, North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Justinian's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.[63] In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium, and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551. In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube; by the end of the 6th-century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.[64] An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories.[65] Western society See also: Early medieval European dress and medieval cuisine In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, Jerome (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading Cicero than the Bible. By the 6th century, Gregory of Tours (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning shorthand.[66] By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book.[67] Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some original works were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris (d. 489), Cassiodorus (d. c. 585), and Boethius (d. c. 525) were typical of the age.[68] Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.[G] Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation.[71] Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.[72] Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes.[73] Landholding patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy.[74] Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems.[75] Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.[76] Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use.[77] In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals.[78] Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities, the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas.[79] Rise of Islam Main articles: Spread of Islam and Early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests   Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632   Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661   Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Judaism was an active proselytising faith, and at least one Arab political leader converted to it.[H] Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' Zoroastrianism in seeking converts, especially among residents of the Arabian Peninsula. All these strands came together with the emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (d. 632).[81] After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with Syria in 634–635, continuing with Persia between 637 and 642, reaching Egypt in 640–641, North Africa in the later seventh century, and the Iberian Peninsula in 711.[82] By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called Al-Andalus.[83] The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the Aghlabids controlled North Africa, and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt.[84] By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old Roman economy. Franks traded timber, furs, swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.[85] Trade and economy Main article: Medieval economic history The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the Muslim conquests, African products were no longer found in Western Europe. The replacement of goods from long-range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In the northern parts of Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally.[86] The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693-94 when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the denarius or denier, while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a penny. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000 AD. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.[87] Church and monasticism Main article: Christianity in the Middle Ages An 11th-century illustration of Gregory the Great dictating to a secretary Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and liturgy from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm, clerical marriage, and state control of the Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities.[88] The formal break, known as the East–West Schism, came in 1054, when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern branch the Eastern Orthodox Church.[89] The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.[90] Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such monks as Columba (d. 597) and Columbanus (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.[91] The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism, which was pioneered by Pachomius (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony.[92] Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) wrote the Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot.[93] Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation.[94] They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages.[95] Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.[96] Carolingian Europe Main articles: Francia and Carolingian Empire Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814 The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria.[97] Such warfare was exploited by Pippin (d. 640), the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later members of his family inherited the office, acting as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, Charles Martel (d. 741), won the Battle of Poitiers in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees.[98][I] Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, and East Anglia which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts.[100] Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland, of varying importance.[101] The Carolingian dynasty, as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and Carloman (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne, embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and Saxony. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.[102] In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States.[103][J] Charlemagne's palace chapel at Aachen, completed in 805[105] The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors.[106] It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state.[107] There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms. Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean.[106] The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts, who administered the counties the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials called missi dominici, who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.[108] Carolingian Renaissance Main article: Carolingian Renaissance Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "Carolingian Renaissance". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's chancery—or writing office—made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule,[K] allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.[110] Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called Medieval Latin.[111] Breakup of the Carolingian Empire Main articles: Holy Roman Empire and Viking Age Territorial divisions of the Carolingian Empire in 843, 855, and 870 Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy.[L] Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.[113] A three-year civil war followed his death. By the Treaty of Verdun (843), a kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.[113] Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.[114][M] In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of Hugh Capet (r. 987–996) as king.[N][O] In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of Louis the Child,[117] and the selection of the unrelated Conrad I (r. 911–918) as king.[118] The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy.[119][P] The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invader's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955.[121] The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.[122] New kingdoms and Byzantine revival Main articles: Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty, Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty, First Bulgarian Empire, Christianisation of Bulgaria, Kingdom of Germany, Christianisation of Scandinavia, and Christianisation of Kievan Rus' See also: Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) and Byzantine–Bulgarian wars Europe in 900 Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In Anglo-Saxon England, King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia.[123] By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain.[124] In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba.[125] In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany, and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I (r. 936–973) as Holy Roman Emperor.[126] In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II (r. 967–983) to Theophanu (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959–963).[127] By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability;[128] Otto III (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom.[129] The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.[130] 10th-century Ottonian ivory plaque depicting Christ receiving a church from Otto I Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became Russia and Iceland. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907.[131] Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León.[132] In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–959), members of the Macedonian dynasty. Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–976) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance. Writers such as John Geometres (fl. early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works.[133] Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians, Bulgars, Bohemians, Poles, Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus'. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of Moravia, Bulgaria, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'.[134] Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea.[135] By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.[136] Art and architecture Main articles: Medieval art and Medieval architecture See also: Migration Period art, Pre-Romanesque art and architecture, and Carolingian art A page from the Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century[137] Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.[138] One feature of the basilica is the use of a transept,[139] or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave.[140] Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church, usually at the west end of the building.[141] Carolingian art was produced for a small group of figures around the court, and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and Byzantine art, but was also influenced by the Insular art of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of Irish Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Germanic styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly illuminated manuscripts and carved ivories, originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down.[142][143] Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the Cross of Lothair, several reliquaries, and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo and the hoards of Gourdon from Merovingian France, Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain and Nagyszentmiklós near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large brooches in fibula or penannular form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish Tara Brooch.[144] Highly decorated books were mostly Gospel Books and these have survived in larger numbers, including the Insular Book of Kells, the Book of Lindisfarne, and the imperial Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, which is one of the few to retain its "treasure binding" of gold encrusted with jewels.[145] Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art,[146] and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches.[147] Military and technological developments During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured cataphract-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.[148] During the early invasion period, the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider.[149] The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier, and weaker, Scythian composite bow.[150] Another development was the increasing use of longswords[151] and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour.[152] The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of militia-type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period.[153] Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry, rather than true cavalry.[154] One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the fyrd, which were led by the local elites.[155] In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow, which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages.[156] Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.[157] High Middle Ages Main article: High Middle Ages Society and economic life Further information: Agriculture in the Middle Ages Medieval French manuscript illustration of the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the clergy) those who fought (the knights), and those who worked (the peasantry).[158] The relationship between these classes was governed by feudalism and manorialism.[159] (Li Livres dou Sante, 13th century) The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous expansion of population. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.[160][161] As much as 90 per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as manors or villages.[161] These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services, in a system known as manorialism. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond,[162] with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of assarting, or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to the expansion of population.[163] The open-field system of agriculture was commonly practiced in most of Europe, especially in "northwestern and central Europe".[164] Such agricultural communities had three basic characteristics: individual peasant holdings in the form of strips of land were scattered among the different fields belonging to the manor; crops were rotated from year to year to preserve soil fertility; and common land was used for grazing livestock and other purposes. Some regions used a three-field system of crop rotation, others retained the older two-field system.[165] Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townsmen. Nobles, both the titled nobility and simple knights, exploited the manors and the peasants, although they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of feudalism. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or fiefs, came to be considered hereditary, and in most areas they were no longer divisible between all the heirs as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.[166][Q] The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as heavy cavalry, control of castles, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.[R] Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and provided protection from invaders as well as allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords.[168] Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller areas of land and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land, and had to serve other nobles.[169][S] The clergy was divided into two types: the secular clergy, who lived out in the world, and the regular clergy, who lived isolated under a religious rule and usually consisted of monks.[171] Throughout the period monks remained a very small proportion of the population, usually less than one percent.[172] Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local parish priests were often drawn from the peasant class.[173] Townsmen were in a somewhat unusual position, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townsmen expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded.[174] But throughout the Middle Ages the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 percent of the total population.[175] 13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed Jewish hat) and the Christian Petrus Alphonsi debating Jews also spread across Europe during the period. Communities were established in Germany and England in the 11th and 12th centuries, but Spanish Jews, long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity.[79] Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants.[176][T] Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe—pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.[177] Women in the Middle Ages were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows, who were often allowed much control over their own lives, were still restricted legally. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for taking care of the household, child-care, as well as gardening and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest-time, they were also expected to help with field-work.[178] Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household, and could also engage in trade. What trades were open to women varied by country and period.[179] Noblewomen were responsible for running a household, and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of nuns, as they were unable to become priests.[178] In central and northern Italy and in Flanders, the rise of towns that were to a degree self-governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the Hanseatic League, and the Italian Maritime republics such as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean.[U] Great trading fairs were established and flourished in northern France during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.[181] In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in The Travels of Marco Polo written by one of the traders, Marco Polo (d. 1324).[182] Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements enabled an increase in crop yields, which in turn allowed the trade networks to expand.[183] Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of double-entry bookkeeping; letters of credit also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.[184] Rise of state power Main articles: England in the Middle Ages, France in the Middle Ages, Germany in the Middle Ages, Italy in the Middle Ages, Scotland in the Middle Ages, Spain in the Middle Ages, and Poland in the Middle Ages Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190 The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions.[185] New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland, after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers.[186] The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King Árpád (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century.[187] The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III (pope 1198–1216).[188] Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.[189] During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the Ottonian dynasty, which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over territorial duchies tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the Salian dynasty, who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor Henry IV (r. 1084–1105) over Church appointments as part of the Investiture Controversy.[190] His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor Henry V (r. 1111–25), who died without heirs, until Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1155–90) took the imperial throne.[191] Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century.[192] Barbarossa's grandson Frederick II (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of heresy.[193] He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the Mongols into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus' principalities and then invaded Eastern Europe in 1241, 1259, and 1287.[194] The Bayeux Tapestry (detail) showing William the Conqueror (centre), his half-brothers Robert, Count of Mortain (right) and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux in the Duchy of Normandy (left) Under the Capetian dynasty the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the Île-de-France to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries.[195] They faced a powerful rival in the Dukes of Normandy, who in 1066 under William the Conqueror (duke 1035–1087), conquered England (r. 1066–87) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.[196][197] Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when Robert Guiscard (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the Kingdom of Sicily.[198] Under the Angevin dynasty of Henry II (r. 1154–89) and his son Richard I (r. 1189–99), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France,[199][V] brought to the family by Henry II's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France.[201][W] Richard's younger brother John (r. 1199–1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King Philip II Augustus (r. 1180–1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility, while John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to Magna Carta, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under Henry III (r. 1216–72), John's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished.[202] The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king's personal rule and centralising the royal administration.[203] Under Louis IX (r. 1226–70), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.[204][X] In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the Reconquista.[206] By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal.[207] Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as taifas,[206] who fought with the Christians until the Almohad Caliphate re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s.[208] Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of Seville in 1248.[209] Crusades Main articles: Crusades, Reconquista, and Northern Crusades See also: Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty Krak des Chevaliers was built during the Crusades for the Knights Hospitallers.[210] In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV (r. 1068–71). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars.[211] The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria, which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.[212] The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control. The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II (pope 1088–99) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099.[213] One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade,[79] when the Jewish communities in Cologne, Mainz, and Worms were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and the Rhine.[214] Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers, which fused monastic life with military service.[215] The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between them and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from the crusader states to the papacy led to further crusades,[213] such as the Third Crusade, called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by Saladin (d. 1193) in 1187.[216][Y] In 1203, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople[218] and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261, but never regained their former strength.[219] By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland, although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards.[220] Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic.[213] The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century.[221] Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the Order of the Sword Brothers. Another order, the Teutonic Knights, although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia.[222] Intellectual life Main articles: Renaissance of the 12th century, Medieval philosophy, Medieval literature, Medieval poetry, and Medieval medicine of Western Europe During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of "universals". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism. Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.[223] Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities.[224] Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason[225] and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who wrote the Summa Theologica, or Summary of Theology.[226] A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds", such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand.[227] Secular and religious histories were also produced.[228] Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur.[229] Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury's (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.[228] Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.[230] Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.[231] Technology and military Main articles: Medieval technology, Medieval warfare, and History of science § Science in the Middle Ages Further information: List of medieval European scientists Portrait of Cardinal Hugh of Saint-Cher by Tommaso da Modena, 1352, the first known depiction of spectacles[232] In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe.[233] Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.[234] The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops[161][Z] increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.[235] The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.[236] Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.[237] The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns.[238] Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.[239] In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers.[240] Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[156][AA] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour.[242] Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.[243] Architecture, art, and music Further information: Medieval architecture, Medieval art, and Medieval music The Romanesque Church of Maria Laach, Germany In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe.[244] Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.[245] The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.[246] According to art historian C. R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.[247] Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.[248] Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège,[249] contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, on the barrel-vaulted roof.[250] The Gothic interior of Laon Cathedral, France From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England.[251] Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.[252] During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",[253] and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.[254] In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco.[255] Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.[256] Church life Main articles: Gregorian Reform and Church and state in medieval Europe Francis of Assisi, depicted by Bonaventura Berlinghieri in 1235, founded the Franciscan Order.[257] Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear.[258] Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.[259] Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals upon which it was based were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.[258] Sénanque Abbey, Gordes, France The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter, in particular, expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life.[215] Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.[260] In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.[261] Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another movement condemned as heretical by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.[262] Late Middle Ages Main article: Late Middle Ages War, famine, and plague Main article: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17.[263] The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures.[264] The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures.[265] The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.[266] Execution of some of the ringleaders of the jacquerie, from a 14th-century manuscript of the Chroniques de France ou de St Denis These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.[267][AB] The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.[AC] Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe.[270] Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of Jews.[271] Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.[267] Society and economy Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas.[272] Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free.[273] Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents.[274] The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 percent by the end of the period.[170] Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death.[274] Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.[275] Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, settling in Poland and Hungary.[276] The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland.[79] The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.[277][AD] State resurgence Map of Europe in 1360 Strong, royalty-based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in England, France, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled.[278] Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased.[279] The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.[280] Joan of Arc in a 15th-century depiction Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.[281] They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years' War,[282] waged from 1337 to 1453.[283] Early in the war the English under Edward III (r. 1327–77) and his son Edward, the Black Prince (d. 1376),[AE] won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of much of France.[AF] The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war.[286] In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.[287] The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.[288] The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War,[289] and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.[243] In modern-day Germany, the Holy Roman Empire continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form.[290] Further east, the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia grew powerful.[291] In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula;[292] Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns.[293][294] After losing the Hundred Years' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, which lasted into the 1490s[294] and only ended when Henry Tudor (r. 1485–1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over Richard III (r. 1483–85) at Bosworth in 1485.[295] In Scandinavia, Margaret I of Denmark (r. in Denmark 1387–1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar, which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city-states that traded from Western Europe to Russia.[296] Scotland emerged from English domination under Robert the Bruce (r. 1306–29), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.[297] Collapse of Byzantium Main articles: Decline of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty, Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty, Byzantine–Ottoman Wars, and Rise of the Ottoman Empire Although the Palaeologi emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they were never able to regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the Black Sea and around the Aegean Sea. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new Kingdom of Serbia, the Second Bulgarian Empire and the city-state of Venice. The power of the Byzantine emperors was threatened by a new Turkish tribe, the Ottomans, who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and steadily expanded throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis.[298] Constantinople was finally captured by the Ottomans in 1453.[299] Controversy within the Church Main articles: Western Schism, Bohemian Reformation, and Hussites Guy of Boulogne crowning Pope Gregory XI in a 15th-century miniature from Froissart's Chroniques During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309–76,[300] also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy" (a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews),[301] and then to the Great Schism, lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states.[302] Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes, leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417, the council elected Martin V (pope 1417–31) as pope.[303] Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which turned into heresies. John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the Eucharist that were contrary to Church doctrine.[304] Wycliffe's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia.[305] The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415, after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages.[306] Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312, and the division of their great wealth between the French King Philip IV (r. 1285–1314) and the Hospitallers.[307] The papacy further refined the practice in the Mass in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as Meister Eckhart (d. 1327) and Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread, and by the late 15th century the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484, and the publication in 1486 of the Malleus Maleficarum, the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.[308] Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration See also: Europeans in Medieval China During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as John Duns Scotus (d. 1308) and William of Ockham (d. c. 1348)[225] led a reaction against intellectualist scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing Platonic idea of universals. Ockham's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy.[309] Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by customary law. The lone exception to this trend was in England, where the common law remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and Lithuania.[310] Clerics studying astronomy and geometry, French, early 15th century Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the trivium—grammar, rhetoric, logic—were studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose, but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of 10 per cent of males and 1 per cent of females in 1500.[311] The publication of vernacular literature increased, with Dante (d. 1321), Petrarch (d. 1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400) and William Langland (d. c. 1386) in England, and François Villon (d. 1464) and Christine de Pizan (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious in character, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages.[310] This was fed by the growth of the Devotio Moderna movement, most prominently in the formation of the Brethren of the Common Life, but also in the works of German mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Johannes Tauler (d. 1361).[312] Theatre also developed in the guise of miracle plays put on by the Church.[310] At the end of the period, the development of the printing press in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.[313] In the early 15th century, the countries of the Iberian Peninsula began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) went around the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498.[314] The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) in 1492 that discovered the Americas.[315] The English crown under Henry VII sponsored the voyage of John Cabot (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on Cape Breton Island.[316] Technological and military developments Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry.[317] The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success.[318] Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and plate armour was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed.[319] Pole arms reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.[320] In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the spinning wheel replaced the traditional distaff for spinning wool, tripling production.[321][AG] A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer.[323] Windmills were refined with the creation of the tower mill, allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing.[324] The blast furnace appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality.[325] The first patent law in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.[326] Late medieval art and architecture February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry The Late Middle Ages in Europe as a whole correspond to the Trecento and Early Renaissance cultural periods in Italy. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century, until almost the end of the period. International Gothic was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.[327] All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, ivory caskets, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery. These objects also included the Hispano-Moresque ware produced by mostly Mudéjar potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge collections of plate, little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup.[328] Italian silk manufacture developed, so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders tapestry weaving of sets like The Lady and the Unicorn became a major luxury industry.[329] The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea. Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common, especially as churches created many side-chapels. Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (d. 1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500,[330] by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images.[331] Modern perceptions See also: Dark Ages (historiography), Medieval studies, and Middle Ages in popular culture Medieval illustration of the spherical Earth in a 14th-century copy of L'Image du monde The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."[332] This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.[16] Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".[333] Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".[334] The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century[335] and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat.[335] This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.[336] Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".[337] Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by historical research.[338] Notes ^ This is the year the last Western Roman Emperors were driven from Italy.[13] ^ This system, which eventually encompassed two senior co-emperors and two junior co-emperors, is known as the Tetrarchy.[25] ^ The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.[32] ^ An alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor Julius Nepos died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto Dalmatia.[13] ^ The English word "slave" derives from the Latin term for Slavs, slavicus.[51] ^ Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.[55] ^ Such entourages are named comitatus by historians, although it is not a contemporary term. It was adapted in the 19th century from a word used by the 2nd-century historian Tacitus to describe the close companions of a lord or king.[69] The comitatus comprised young men who were supposed to be utterly devoted to their lord. If their sworn lord died, they were expected to fight to the death also.[70] ^ Dhu Nuwas, ruler of what is today Yemen, converted in 525 and his subsequent persecution of Christians led to the invasion and conquest of his kingdom by the Axumites of Ethiopia.[80] ^ Muslim armies had earlier conquered the Visigothic kingdom of Spain, after defeating the last Visigothic King Ruderic (d. 711 or 712) at the Battle of Guadalete in 711, finishing the conquest by 719.[99] ^ The Papal States endured until 1870, when the Kingdom of Italy seized most of them.[104] ^ The Carolingian minuscule was developed from the uncial script of Late Antiquity, which was a smaller, rounder form of writing the Latin alphabet than the classical forms.[109] ^ Italy at the time did not include the entire peninsula but only part of the north.[112] ^ There was a brief re-uniting of the Empire by Charles III, known as "the Fat", in 884, although the actual units of the empire were not merged and retained their separate administrations. Charles was deposed in 887 and died in January 888.[115] ^ The Carolingian dynasty had earlier been displaced by King Odo (r. 888–898), previously Count of Paris, who took the throne in 888.[116] Although members of the Carolingian dynasty became kings in the western lands after Odo's death, Odo's family also supplied kings—his brother Robert I became king for 922–923, and then Robert's son-in-law Raoul was king from 929 to 936—before the Carolingians reclaimed the throne once more.[117] ^ Hugh Capet was a grandson of Robert I, an earlier king.[117] ^ This settlement eventually expanded and sent out conquering expeditions to England, Sicily, and southern Italy.[120] ^ This inheritance pattern is known as primogeniture.[167] ^ Heavy cavalry had been introduced into Europe from the Persian cataphract of the 5th and 6th centuries, but the addition of the stirrup in the 7th allowed the full force of horse and rider to be used in combat.[168] ^ In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the ministerialis, who were in effect unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, which increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs as well as become knights while still being technically serfs.[170] ^ A few Jewish peasants remained on the land under Byzantine rule in the East as well as some on Crete under Venetian rule, but they were the exception in Europe.[176] ^ These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated in the Hanseatic League, in contrast with the Italian city-states who engaged in internecine strife.[180] ^ This grouping of lands is often called the Angevin Empire.[200] ^ Eleanor had previously been married to Louis VII of France (r. 1137–80), but their marriage was annulled in 1152.[201] ^ Louis was canonised in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII.[205] ^ Military religious orders such as the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller were formed and went on to play an integral role in the crusader states.[217] ^ It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000, and had reached Poland by the 12th century.[235] ^ Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges the slowness is not as big a disadvantage, as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.[241] ^ The historical consensus for the last 100 years has been that the Black Death was a form of bubonic plague, but some historians have begun to challenge this view in recent years.[268] ^ One town, Lübeck in Germany, lost 90 percent of its population to the Black Death.[269] ^ As happened with the Bardi and Peruzzi firms in the 1340s when King Edward III of England repudiated their loans to him.[277] ^ Edward's nickname probably came from his black armour, and was first used by John Leland in the 1530s or 1540s.[284] ^ Calais remained in English hands until 1558.[285] ^ This wheel was still simple, as it did not yet incorporate a treadle-wheel to twist and pull the fibres. 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Loyn "Hundred Years' War" Middle Ages p. 176 ^ Barber Edward pp. 242–243 ^ Davies Europe p. 545 ^ Watts Making of Polities pp. 180–181 ^ Watts Making of Polities pp. 317–322 ^ Davies Europe p. 423 ^ Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 186 ^ Watts Making of Polities pp. 170–171 ^ Watts Making of Polities pp. 173–175 ^ Watts Making of Polities p. 173 ^ Watts Making of Polities pp. 327–332 ^ a b Watts Making of Polities p. 340 ^ Davies Europe pp. 425–426 ^ Davies Europe p. 431 ^ Davies Europe pp. 408–409 ^ Davies Europe pp. 385–389 ^ Davies Europe p. 446 ^ Thomson Western Church pp. 170–171 ^ Loyn "Avignon" Middle Ages p. 45 ^ Loyn "Great Schism" Middle Ages p. 153 ^ Thomson Western Church pp. 184–187 ^ Thomson Western Church pp. 197–199 ^ Thomson Western Church p. 218 ^ Thomson Western Church pp. 213–217 ^ Loyn "Knights of the Temple (Templars)" Middle Ages pp. 201–202 ^ Davies Europe pp. 436–437 ^ Davies Europe pp. 433–434 ^ a b c Davies Europe pp. 438–439 ^ Singman Daily Life p. 224 ^ Keen Pelican History of Medieval Europe pp. 282–283 ^ Davies Europe p. 445 ^ Davies Europe p. 451 ^ Davies Europe pp. 454–455 ^ Davies Europe p. 511 ^ Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 180 ^ Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 183 ^ Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 188 ^ Nicolle Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom p. 185 ^ Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 193–194 ^ Singman Daily Life p. 36 ^ Singman Daily Life p. 38 ^ Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 200–201 ^ Epstein Economic and Social History pp. 203–204 ^ Epstein Economic and Social History p. 213 ^ Benton Art of the Middle Ages pp. 253–256 ^ Lightbown Secular Goldsmiths' Work p. 78 ^ Benton Art of the Middle Ages pp. 257–262 ^ British Library Staff "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue" British Library ^ Griffiths Prints and Printmaking pp. 17–18; 39–46 ^ Lindberg "Medieval Church Encounters" When Science & Christianity Meet p. 8 ^ Grant God and Reason p. 9 ^ Quoted in Peters "Science and Religion" Encyclopedia of Religion p. 8182 ^ a b Russell Inventing the Flat Earth pp. 49–58 ^ Grant Planets, Stars, & Orbs pp. 626–630 ^ Lindberg and Numbers "Beyond War and Peace" Church History p. 342 ^ Numbers "Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective" Lecture archive Archived 11 October 2017 References Adams, Laurie Schneider (2001). 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Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81358-0. Keen, Maurice (1988) [1968]. The Pelican History of Medieval Europe. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-021085-7. Kitzinger, Ernst (1955). Early Medieval Art at the British Museum (Second ed.). London: British Museum. OCLC 510455. Knox, E. L. "History of the Idea of the Renaissance". Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Boise State University. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. Lasko, Peter (1972). Ars Sacra, 800–1200. Penguin History of Art (now Yale). New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-056036-X. Lawrence, C.H (2001). Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (Third ed.). Harlow, UK: Longman. ISBN 0-582-40427-4. Lightbown, Ronald W. (1978). Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-99027-1. Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science". Church History. 55 (3): 338–354. doi:10.2307/3166822. JSTOR 3166822. Lindberg, David C. (2003). "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor". In Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (eds.). When Science & Christianity Meet. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-48214-6. Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge Companion to the Crusades. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-39312-4. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Avignon". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 45. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Eleanor of Aquitaine". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 122. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Famine". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 127–128. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Great Schism". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 153. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Hundred Years' War". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 176. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Jews". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 190–192. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Knights of the Temple (Templars)". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 201–202. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Language and dialect". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 204. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Loyn, H. R. (1989). "Scholasticism". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 293–294. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Martin, Janet (1993). Medieval Russia 980–1584. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36832-4. "Mediaeval". The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Complete Text Arranged Micrographically: Volume I A–0. Glasgow: Oxford University Press. 1971. p. M290. LCCN 72177361. OCLC 490339790. "Middle Ages". Dictionary.com. 2004. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Miglio, Massimo (2006). "Curial Humanism seen through the Prism of the Papal Library". In Mazzocco, Angelo (ed.). Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism. Brill's Studies in Intellectual History. Leiden: Brill. pp. 97–112. ISBN 978-90-04-15244-1. Mommsen, Theodore E. (April 1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". Speculum. 17 (2): 226–242. doi:10.2307/2856364. JSTOR 2856364. Morris, Rosemary (1998). "Northern Europe invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200". In Holmes, George (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 175–234. ISBN 0-19-285220-5. Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?". Essays in Medieval Studies. 21: 1–22. doi:10.1353/ems.2005.0010. Nees, Lawrence (2002). Early Medieval Art. Oxford History of Art. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284243-5. Nicolle, David (1999). Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare In Western Christendom. London: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 1-86019-889-9. Numbers, Ronald (11 May 2006). "Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective" (PDF). Lecture archive. The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion. Retrieved 25 January 2013. Payne, Robert (2000). The Dream and the Tomb: A History of the Crusades (First paperback ed.). New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1086-7. Peters, Ted (2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. 12 (Second ed.). Detroit, MI: MacMillan Reference. p. 8182. ISBN 978-0-02-865980-0. Pounds, N. J. G. (1990). An Historical Geography of Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521322170. Power, Daniel (2006). The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320. The Short Oxford History of Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925312-8. Reilly, Bernard F. (1993). The Medieval Spains. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39741-3. Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1989). "Crusades". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 106–107. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Rosenwein, Barbara H. (1982). Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-7830-5. Russell, Jeffey Burton (1991). Inventing the Flat Earth-Columbus and Modern Historians. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-95904-X. Saul, Nigel (2000). A Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2969-8. Schove, D. Justin (1989). "Plague". In Loyn, H. R. (ed.). The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 267–269. ISBN 0-500-27645-5. Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999). Daily Life in Medieval Europe. Daily Life Through History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30273-1. Stalley, Roger (1999). Early Medieval Architecture. Oxford History of Art. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284223-7. Tansey, Richard G.; Gardner, Helen Louise; De la Croix, Horst (1986). Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Eighth ed.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-503763-3. Thomson, John A. F. (1998). The Western Church in the Middle Ages. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-60118-3. Vale, Malcolm (1998). "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In Holmes, George (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 297–351. ISBN 0-19-285220-5. Watts, John (2009). The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79664-4. Whitton, David (1998). "The Society of Northern Europe in the High Middle Ages, 900–1200". In Holmes, George (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 115–174. ISBN 0-19-285220-5. Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1. Further reading Cantor, Norman F. (1991). Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-09406-5. Gurevich, Aron (1992). Howlett, Janet (translator) (ed.). Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31083-1. Holmes, Catherine; Standen, Naomi, "Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages", Past& Present, 238: 1–44, doi:10.1093/pastj/gty030 Smith, Julia (2005). Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924427-0. Stuard, Susan Mosher (1987). Women in Medieval History and Historiography. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1290-7. External links ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies Academic peer-reviewed articles and encyclopedia. The Labyrinth Resources for Medieval Studies. NetSERF The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources. De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History Medievalmap.org Interactive maps of the Medieval era (Flash plug-in required). Medieval Realms Learning resources from the British Library including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts. Medievalists.net News and articles about the period. Medieval Worlds, Official Website Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period. 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en-wikipedia-org-6070	----	Philip the Arab - Wikipedia Philip the Arab From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Emperor Philip" and "Roman emperor Philip" redirect here. For other people, see Emperor Philip (disambiguation). Roman emperor from 244 to 249 Roman emperor Philip the Arab Roman emperor Reign February 244 – September 249 Predecessor Gordian III Successor Decius Co-emperor Philip II (248–249) Born c. 204 Philippopolis, Arabia Petraea Died September 249 (aged 45) Verona, Italia Spouse Marcia Otacilia Severa Issue Philip II Names Marcus Julius Philippus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus[1] Religion Early Christianity (allegedly)[2] Philip the Arab (Latin: Marcus Julius Philippus 'Arabs';[3] c. 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Aurantis, Arabia, in a city situated in modern-day Syria. After the death of Gordian III in February 244, Philip, who had been Praetorian prefect, achieved power. He quickly negotiated peace with the Persian Sassanid Empire and returned to Rome to be confirmed by the senate. During his reign, the city of Rome celebrated its millennium. He also introduced the Actia-Dusaria Festivities in Bostra, capital of Arabia.[4] Dusaria is Dushara, the main Nabataean deity. Philip was betrayed and killed at the Battle of Verona in September 249 following a rebellion led by his successor, Gaius Messius Quintus Decius. Philip's reign of five years was uncommonly stable in a turbulent third century.[5][6] During the late 3rd century and into the 4th, it was held by some churchmen that Philip had been the first Christian emperor; he was described as such in Jerome's Chronicon (Chronicle), which was well known during the Middle Ages, in Orosius' highly popular Historia Adversus Paganos (History Against the Pagans), and was presented as a Christian in Eusebius of Caesarea's Historia Ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical History).[7] Modern scholars are divided on the issue. Contents 1 Early life 2 Accession to the throne 3 Reign 3.1 At the frontiers of the empire 3.2 Ludi Saeculares 4 Downfall 5 Religious beliefs 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links Early life[edit] Portrait head possibly of Empress Otacilia Severa, wife of Emperor Philip the Arab 250–300 CE Little is known about Philip's early life and political career. He was born in what is today Shahba, Syria, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Damascus, in Trachonitis.[8] His birth city, later renamed Philippopolis, lay within Aurantis, an Arab district which at the time was part of the Roman province of Arabia.[9] It is accepted by historians that Philip was indeed an ethnic Arab.[10][11][12][13][14] He was the son of a local citizen, Julius Marinus, possibly of some importance.[15] Allegations from later Roman sources (Historia Augusta and Epitome de Caesaribus) that Philip had a very humble origin or even that his father was a leader of brigands are not accepted by modern historians.[16] While the name of Philip's mother is unknown, he did have a brother, Gaius Julius Priscus, an equestrian and a member of the Praetorian Guard under Gordian III (238–244).[17] In 234, Philip married Marcia Otacilia Severa, daughter of a Roman Governor. They had three children, a son named Marcus Julius Philippus Severus (Philippus II), born in 238,[15] a daughter called Julia Severa or Severina who is known from numismatic evidence but is never mentioned by the ancient Roman sources and a son named Quintus Philippus Severus, born in 247.[18] The rise to the purple of the Severans from nearby Emesa is noted as a motivational factor in Philip's own ascent, due to geographic and ethnic similarity between himself and the Emesan emperors.[19][20] Accession to the throne[edit] Coin of Marcia Otacilia Severa, wife of Philip. The Greek legend states she received the title of Augusta. ΜΑΡ. ΩΤΑΚΙΛ. CEOΥHPAN CEB. / ZEYΓMATEΩN. (Greek inscription for MAR. OTACIL. SEVERAN AVG. / citizens of ZEVGMA). Rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rustam of Shapur I (on horseback) with Philip the Arab and Emperor Valerian kneeling in surrender to the Persian king.[21][22][23] Philip's rise to prominence began through the intervention of his brother Priscus, who was an important official under the emperor Gordian III.[15] His big break came in 243, during Gordian III's campaign against Shapur I of Persia, when the Praetorian prefect Timesitheus died under unclear circumstances.[24] At the suggestion of his brother Priscus, Philip became the new Praetorian prefect, with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents.[15] Following a military defeat, Gordian III died in February 244 under circumstances that are still debated. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts (including one coming from the Persian point of view) state that Gordian died in battle.[25] Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordian's death. According to Edward Gibbon: His rise from so obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire seems to prove that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to serve, his indulgent master.[26] Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to Rome in order to secure his position with the senate.[8] However, his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur, and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation.[27] Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory, the actual terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been.[28] Philip apparently retained Timesitheus’ reconquest of Osroene and Mesopotamia, but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence.[29] He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 gold denarii.[30] Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians (pax fundata cum Persis).[28] Leading his army back up the Euphrates, south of Circesium Philip erected a cenotaph in honor of Gordian III, but his ashes were sent ahead to Rome, where he arranged for Gordian III's deification.[31] Whilst in Antioch, he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces, with the title of rector Orientis.[32] Moving westward, he gave his brother-in-law Severianus control of the provinces of Moesia and Macedonia.[33] He eventually arrived in Rome in the late summer of 244, where he was confirmed Augustus.[8] Before the end of the year, he nominated his young son Caesar and heir, his wife, Otacilia Severa, was named Augusta, and he also deified his father Marinus, even though the latter had never been emperor.[28] While in Rome, Philip also claimed an official victory over the Persians with the titles of Parthicus Adiabenicus, Persicus Maximus and Parthicus Maximus.[citation needed] Reign[edit] Cippus commemorating Roman Millennium. Inscription: IMP. PHILIPPVS AVG. / SAECVLARES AVGG. In an attempt to shore up his regime, Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate, and from the beginning of his reign, he reaffirmed the old Roman virtues and traditions.[28] He quickly ordered an enormous building program in his home town, renaming it Philippopolis, and raising it to civic status, while he populated it with statues of himself and his family.[34] This creation of a new city, piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Persians, as well as the necessary donative to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession, meant Philip was desperately short of money.[34] To pay for it, he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation, while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Danube that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers.[35] Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign.[36] At the frontiers of the empire[edit] In 245, Philip was forced to leave Rome as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death, Gordian's defeat in the east and Philip's decision to cease paying the subsidies.[37] The Carpi moved through Dacia, crossed the Danube and emerged in Moesia where they threatened the Balkans.[38] Establishing his headquarters in Philippopolis in Thrace, he pushed the Carpi across the Danube and chased them back into Dacia, so that by the summer of 246, he claimed victory against them, along with the title "Carpicus Maximus".[39] In the meantime, the Arsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Persian king Shapur I, and war with Persia flared up again by 245.[36] Ludi Saeculares[edit] Nevertheless, Philip was back in Rome by August 247, where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign – the Ludi Saeculares, which coincided with the one thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome.[40] So in April 248 AD (April 1000 A.U.C.), Philip had the honor of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rome, which according to tradition was founded on April 21, 753 BC by Romulus. Commemorative coins, such as the one illustrated here, were issued in large numbers and, according to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games, ludi saeculares, and theatrical presentations throughout the city.[41] In the Colosseum, in what had been originally prepared for Gordian III's planned Roman triumph over the Persians,[42] more than 1,000 gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos, leopards, lions, giraffes, and one rhinoceros.[43] The events were also celebrated in literature, with several publications, including Asinius Quadratus's History of a Thousand Years, specially prepared for the anniversary.[15] At the same time, Philip elevated his son to the rank of co-Augustus.[15] Downfall[edit] Despite the festive atmosphere, there were continued problems in the provinces. In late 248, the legions of Pannonia and Moesia, dissatisfied with the result of the war against the Carpi, rebelled and proclaimed Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus emperor.[15] The confusion that this entailed tempted the Quadi and other Germanic tribes to cross the frontier and raid Pannonia.[40] At the same time, the Goths invaded Moesia and Thrace across the Danube frontier, and laid siege to Marcianopolis,[44] as the Carpi, encouraged by the Gothic incursions, renewed their assaults in Dacia and Moesia.[40] Meanwhile, in the East, Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule of Priscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces.[45] Two other usurpers, Marcus Silbannacus and Sponsianus, are reported to have started rebellions without much success.[15] Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers, Philip offered to resign, but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor, with a certain Gaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators.[46] Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces. This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions.[47] Although Decius managed to quell the revolt, discontent in the legions was growing.[36] Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rome.[48] Yet even before he had left the region, the situation for Philip had turned even more sour. Financial difficulties had forced him to debase the Antoninianus, as rioting began to occur in Egypt, causing disruptions to Rome's wheat supply and further eroding Philip's support in the capital.[49] Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip,[46] Philip's army met the usurper near modern Verona that summer. Decius easily won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249,[50] either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler.[15] Philip's eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace.[51] Religious beliefs[edit] Further information: Philip the Arab and Christianity Some later traditions, first mentioned by the historian Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, held that Philip was the first Christian Roman Emperor. According to Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. VI.34), Philip was a Christian, but was not allowed to enter Easter vigil services until he confessed his sins and was ordered to sit among the penitents, which he did willingly. Later versions located this event in Antioch.[52] However, historians generally identify the later Emperor Constantine, baptized on his deathbed, as the first Christian emperor, and generally describe Philip's adherence to Christianity as dubious, because non-Christian writers do not mention the fact, and because throughout his reign, Philip to all appearances (coinage, etc.) continued to follow the state religion.[53] Critics ascribe Eusebius' claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians. References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ McGuckin, John Anthony (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8. ^ The Latin form "Philippus Arabs" is found in Historia Augusta "The Three Gordians" ch. 29; "Marcus Iulius Philippus Arabs" in Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus ch. 28 ^ Bowersock, Glen W., Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, P. 121-122 ^ Bowersock, Glen (1994). Roman Arabia. Harvard University Press. p. 124. The five years of Philip's reign were a time of uncommon stability and repose in a century notorious for turbulence. ^ Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East. Routledge. p. 468. Philip's reign was brief – just five years – but it was a stable one in the unstable third century. ^ Shahîd, Rome and the Arabs, Dumbarton Oaks, p. 65–93. ^ a b c Bowman, pg. 36 ^ Bowersock, Glen W., Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, 1994, pg. 122 ^ Bowersock, Glen (1994). Roman Arabia. Harvard University Press. p. 122. ^ Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. p. 418. ^ Shahid, Irfan (1984). Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 36. ^ "Philip | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-07-15. ^ Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London: NLB, 1974), 87–88. ^ a b c d e f g h i Meckler, Philip the Arab ^ Bowersock, Glen W., Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, 1994, pp. 122–123 ^ Potter, p. 232 ^ Westropp, Hodder Michael (1867). Handbook of archæology. ^ Bowersock, Glen (1994). Roman Arabia. Harvard University Press. p. 122. Severus deserves the ultimate credit for making possible the emergence of a figure such as Philip. ^ Shahid, Irfan (1984). Rome and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 37. The spectacle of Arab and half-Arab emperors from neighboring Emesa must have left a deep impression on Marcus Julius Philippus. ^ Overlaet, Bruno (2017). "ŠĀPUR I: ROCK RELIEFS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described: Philip the Arab is kneeling, asking for peace, and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Šāpur. Consequently, the relief must be made after 260 CE. ^ Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 274. ISBN 978-1610693912. (...) while another figure, probably Philip the Arab, kneels, and the Sasanian king holds the ill-fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist. ^ Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0521521574. He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh-i Rustam and on the Ka'aba-i Zardušt near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis, preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors, one kneeling (probably Philip the Arab, also defeated by Shapur) and the second (Valerian), uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king. ^ Southern, pg. 70 ^ Southern, pg. 70; Bowman, pg. 36; Potter, pg. 234 ^ The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. I, p. 234, Edward Gibbon (The Online Library of Liberty). [1]. ^ Bowman, pg. 36; Southern, pg. 71 ^ a b c d Southern, pg. 71 ^ Potter, pg. 237 ^ Potter, pg. 237; Southern, pg. 71 ^ Bowman, pg. 36; Potter, pg. 238 ^ Bowman, pg. 36; Southern, pg. 71; Meckler, Philip the Arab ^ Potter, pg. 239 ^ a b Potter, pg. 238 ^ Potter, pgs. 238-239 ^ a b c Potter, pg. 240 ^ Bowman, pg. 36; Potter, pg. 240 ^ Bowman, pgs. 36-37 ^ Bowman, pg. 37; Southern, pgs 71-72 ^ a b c Bowman, pg. 37 ^ Southern, pg. 72 ^ Martial; Coleman, Kathleen M., M. Valerii Martialis Liber Spectaculorum (2006), pg. lvi ^ Graham, T. (Writer and Director). (2000). The Fall [Television series episode]. In T. Graham (Producer), Rome: Power and Glory. Military Channel. ^ Southern, pg. 73 ^ Meckler, Philip the Arab; Potter, pg. 239 ^ a b Southern, pg. 74 ^ Southern, pg. 74; Bowman, pg. 37 ^ Southern, pg. 74; Meckler, Philip the Arab ^ Bowman, pg. 38 ^ Potter, pg. 241; Bowman, pg. 38 ^ Potter, pg. 241 ^ Philip the Arab and Rival Claimants of the later 240s ^ Cruse, C.F., translator. Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History, Hendrickson Publishers, 1998 (fourth printing, 2004), pp. 220–221. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Orosius, Histories against the Pagans, vii.20 Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Bowman, Alan K., The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337, Cambridge University Press, 2005 Meckler, Michael L "Philip the Arab (244–249 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (1999) Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philip the Arab. A brief bio from an educational Site on Roman Coins "Philip the Arabian" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. "Philippus, Marcus Julius" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Regnal titles Preceded by Gordian III Roman Emperor 244–249 Succeeded by Decius Political offices Preceded by Tiberius Pollenius Armenius Peregrinus, Fulvius Aemilianus Consul of the Roman Empire 245 with Gaius Maesius Titianus Succeeded by Gaius Bruttius Praesens, Gaius Allius Albinus Preceded by Gaius Bruttius Praesens, Gaius Allius Albinus Consul of the Roman Empire 247–248 with Philippus II Succeeded by Lucius Fulvius Gavius Numisius Aemilianus, Lucius Naevius Aquilinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Netherlands Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philip_the_Arab&oldid=1026439672" Categories: Philip the Arab 200s births 249 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Praetorian prefects Roman emperors killed in battle People from as-Suwayda Governorate Arabs in the Roman Empire Julii 3rd-century Arabs Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 08:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6073	----	Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus - Wikipedia Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman noble and consul (died 205) Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus (died 205) was a Roman noble closely related by birth, adoption, and marriage to the Nerva-Antonine emperors. Through his marriage to Fadilla, the daughter of Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Empress Faustina the Younger, he became the brother-in-law to the future emperor, Commodus.[1] Despite his position, he never became emperor himself. After Commodus was assassinated in 192, he fell out of favor with Septimus Severus during the Year of the Five Emperors. In 205, he committed suicide after Septimus issued an order for his execution. Contents 1 Early life 2 Antonine era 3 Year of the Five Emperors 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 References 6 Sources Early life[edit] Plautius was the son of Ceionia Fabia, the daughter of Lucius Aelius, the first adoptive heir of Hadrian who had died before ascending to the throne; his birth father is believed to be Plautius Quintillus, consul in 159. At some point, he was adopted as the heir of Marcus Peducaeus Stloga Priscinus, consul in 141.[2] Through his adopted father, as well as his natural father and mother, he could claim descent from families of the highest nobility. Antonine era[edit] When Plautius married Fadilla, he became son-in-law to Marcus Aurelius and brother-in-law to Commodus. They had two children: a son, (Plautius) Quintillus, and a daughter, Plautia Servilla. In 177, Plautius served as ordinary consul as the colleague of Commodus, and then again with Commodus at an unknown date in his reign (180-192). Plautius was also an Augur. When Marcus Aurelius died in 180, Commodus succeeded him, and Plautius was one of his main advisers. Year of the Five Emperors[edit] After the assassination of Commodus, in December 192, the civil war that ensued saw five different men assume the throne; Plautius was not one of them. When Septimus Severus, the victor of the civil war, advanced on Rome, Didius Julianus proposed that the Senate and the Vestal Virgins meet Severus' advancing army as supplicants, a proposal Plautius intervened forcefully against.[3] Plautius afterwards retired to his country villa. In 205, he was the target of a delator or informer, and Septimus ordered his execution. When he heard of the order, Plautius called for his funeral shroud. "What is this?" Plautius asked, observing how tattered it had become with age, "we are late!" Then preparing to take his own life, he burned incense before uttering his last words: "I make the same prayer that Servianus made for Hadrian" — that is, that Severus would one day wish to die, but would be unable to.[3] It is unknown whether Fadilla was still alive then. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Anthony Richard Birley, Marcus Aurelius, revised edition (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1999), p. 182 ^ Olli Salomies, Adoptive and Polyonymous Nomenclature in the Roman Empire (Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1992), p. 101 ^ a b Anthony Richard Birley, Septimius Severus: the African emperor, second edition (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 165 Sources[edit] Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192 (1974) Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11, second edition (2000) https://www.livius.org/di-dn/divi_fratres/fadilla.html http://img249.imageshack.us/img249/6756/gensadoptengbf2.swf Political offices Preceded by Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio II Marcus Flavius Aper II Consul of the Roman Empire 177 with Commodus Succeeded by Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus Decimus Velius Rufus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Peducaeus_Plautius_Quintillus&oldid=1026107068" Categories: 2nd-century births 205 deaths Imperial Roman consuls 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans Peducaei Plautii Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ancient Roman politicians who committed suicide Politicians from Rome Ancient Roman adoptees Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 12:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6089	----	Media (region) - Wikipedia Media (region) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rock relief of a Median man, Persepolis Media (Old Persian: 𐎶𐎠𐎭 Māda, Middle Persian: Mād) is a region of north-western Iran, best known for having been the political and cultural base of the Medes.[N 1] During the Achaemenid period, it comprised present-day Azarbaijan, Iranian Kurdistan and western Tabaristan. As a satrapy under Achaemenid rule, it would eventually encompass a wider region, stretching to southern Dagestan in the north.[2] However, after the wars of Alexander the Great, the northern parts were separated due to the Partition of Babylon and became known as Atropatene, while the remaining region became known as Lesser Media. Contents 1 History 1.1 Under the Medes 1.2 Under the Achaemenids 1.3 Under the Seleucids 1.4 Under the Arsacids 2 Language and literature 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Under the Medes[edit] Horseman in "Median dress". Achaemenid art, 6th-4th century BC. British Museum. In 678 BC, Deioces united the Median tribes of Media and made the first Iranian empire. His grandson Cyaxares managed to unite all Iranian tribes of Ancient Iran and made his empire a major power. When Cyaxares died he was succeeded by his son, Astyages, who was the last king of the Median Empire. Under the Achaemenids[edit] The Ganj Nameh (lit.: Treasure epistle) in Ecbatana. The inscriptions are by Darius I and his son Xerxes I Apadana Hall, 5th-century BC carving of Persian archers and Median soldiers in traditional costume (Medians are wearing rounded hats and boots) In 553 BC, Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, rebelled against his grandfather, the Median King, Astyages son of Cyaxares; he finally won a decisive victory in 550 BC resulting in Astyages' capture by his own dissatisfied nobles, who promptly turned him over to the triumphant Cyrus.[3] After Cyrus's victory against Astyages, the Medes were subjected to their close kin, the Persians.[4] In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honor and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. At the beginning the Greek historians referred to the Achaemenid Empire as a Median Empire. After the assassination of the usurper Smerdis, a Mede Fravartish (Phraortes), claiming to be a scion of Cyaxares, tried to restore the Mede kingdom, but was defeated by the Persian generals and executed in Ecbatana (Darius I in the Behistun inscription). Another rebellion, in 409 BC, against Darius II[5] was of short duration. But the Iranian[6] tribes to the north, especially the Cadusii, were always troublesome; many abortive expeditions of the later kings against them are mentioned.[7] Under Persian rule, the country was divided into two satrapies: the south, with Ecbatana and Rhagae (Rey near modern Tehran), Media proper, or Greater Media, as it is often called, formed in Darius I the Great's organization the eleventh satrapy,[8] together with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians; the north, the district of Matiane, together with the mountainous districts of the Zagros and Assyria proper (east of the Tigris) was united with the Alarodians and Saspirians in eastern Armenia, and formed the eighteenth satrapy.[9] Caucasian Albania (roughly comprising modern-day Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan) was rapidly incorporated by the Achaemenid Persians and were under the command of the satrapy of Media[10][11] in the later period. When the Persian empire decayed and the Cadusii and other mountainous tribes made themselves independent, eastern Armenia became a special satrapy, while Assyria seems to have been united with Media; therefore Xenophon in the Anabasis always designates Assyria by the name of "Media".[7] Under the Seleucids[edit] Main article: Atropatene Following Alexander's invasion of the satrapy of Media in the summer of 330 BC, he appointed as satrap a former general of Darius III the Great named Atropates (Atrupat) in 328 BC, according to Arrian. In the partition of his empire, southern Media was given to the Macedonian Peithon; but the north, far off and of little importance to the generals squabbling over Alexander's inheritance, was left to Atropates. While southern Media, with Ecbatana, passed to the rule of Antigonus, and afterwards (about 310 BC) to Seleucus I, Atropates maintained himself in his own satrapy and succeeded in founding an independent kingdom. Thus the partition of the country, that Persia had introduced, became lasting; the north was named Atropatene (in Pliny, Atrapatene; in Ptolemy, Tropatene), after the founder of the dynasty, a name still said to be preserved in the modern form 'Azerbaijan'. The capital of Atropatene was Gazaca in the central plain, and the castle Phraaspa, discovered on the Araz river by archaeologists in April 2005. Atropatene is that country of western Asia which was least of all other countries influenced by Hellenism; there exists not even a single coin of its rulers. Southern Media remained a province of the Seleucid Empire for a century and a half, and Hellenism was introduced everywhere. Media was surrounded everywhere by Greek towns, in pursuance of Alexander's plan to protect it from neighboring barbarians, according to Polybius.[12] Only Ecbatana retained its old character. But Rhagae became the Greek town Europus; and with it Strabo[13] names Laodicea, Apamea Heraclea or Achais. Most of them were founded by Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I. Under the Arsacids[edit] In 221 BC, the satrap Molon tried to make himself independent (there exist bronze coins with his name and the royal title), together with his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis, but they were defeated and killed by Antiochus the Great. In the same way, the Mede satrap Timarchus took the diadem and conquered Babylonia; on his coins he calls himself the great king Timarchus; but again the legitimate king, Demetrius I, succeeded in subduing the rebellion, and Timarchus was slain. But with Demetrius I, the dissolution of the Seleucid Empire began, brought about chiefly by the intrigues of the Romans, and shortly afterwards, in about 150, the Parthian king Mithradates I conquered Media.[14] Antiochus VII Sidetes briefly reasserted Seleucid control over the region in 130 BC, but his defeat and death at the Battle of Ecbatana marked the final loss of Seleucid influence in Media. From this time Media remained subject to the Arsacids or Parthians, who changed the name of Rhagae, or Europus, into Arsacia,[15] and divided the country into five small provinces.[16] From the Parthians, it passed in 226 to the Sassanids, together with Atropatene. Language and literature[edit] The Medes spoke Median, a Northwestern Iranian language. Notes[edit] ^ A)"..and the Medes (Iranians of what is now north-west Iran).." EIEC (1997:30). B) "Archaeological evidence for the religion of the Iranian-speaking Medes of the .." (Diakonoff 1985, p. 140) harv error: no target: CITEREFDiakonoff1985 (help). C) ".. succeeded in uniting into a kingdom the many Iranian-speaking Median tribes" ( from Encyclopædia Britannica [1]). D) "Proto-Iranian split into Western (Median, ancient Persian, and others) and Eastern (Scythian, Ossetic, Saka, Pamir and others)..." (Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007), The origin of the Indo-Iranians, J. P. Mallory (ed.), BRILL, p. 303, ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5) ... References[edit] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online Media (ancient region, Iran) ^ Bruno Jacobs, "ACHAEMENID RULE IN Caucasus" in Encyclopædia Iranica. January 9, 2006. Excerpt: "Achaemenid rule in the Caucasus region was established, at the latest, in the course of the Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513-12 BCE. The Persian domination of the cis-Caucasian area (the northern side of the range) was brief, and archeological findings indicate that the Great Caucasus formed the northern border of the empire during most, if not all, of the Achaemenid period after Darius" ^ Briant, Pierre (2006). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 31. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, p. 93. ^ Xenophon, Hellen. 2, 19 ^ Rudiger Schmitt, "Cadusii" in Encyclopedia Iranica[permanent dead link] ^ a b Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Media" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ^ Herodotus iii. 92 ^ Herod. iii. 94; cf. v. 49, 52, VII. 72 ^ Chaumont, M. L. Albania Archived 2007-03-10 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Bruno Jacobs, "ACHAEMENID RULE IN Caucasus" in Encyclopædia Iranica. January 9, 2006. Excerpt: "Achaemenid rule in the Caucasus region was established, at the latest, in the course of the Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513-12 BCE. The Persian domination of the cis-Caucasian area (the northern side of the range) was brief, and archeological findings indicate that the Great Caucasus formed the northern border of the empire during most, if not all, of the Achaemenid period after Darius" ^ Polybius, x. 27 ^ Strabo, xi. 524 ^ Justin xli. 6 ^ Strabo xi. 524 ^ Isidorus Charac. External links[edit] Media related to Median Empire at Wikimedia Commons v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persis Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen * indicates short living provinces Coordinates: 37°N 47°E / 37°N 47°E / 37; 47 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Media_(region)&oldid=1012687912" Categories: Medes Iranian countries and territories Achaemenid satrapies Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Historical regions of Iran History of Iranian Azerbaijan Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Қазақша Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Татарча/tatarça Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 March 2021, at 19:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6127	----	Template talk:Stoicism - Wikipedia Template talk:Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search WikiProject Philosophy (Rated Template-class) Philosophy portal This template is within the scope of WikiProject Philosophy, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of content related to philosophy on Wikipedia. If you would like to support the project, please visit the project page, where you can get more details on how you can help, and where you can join the general discussion about philosophy content on Wikipedia.PhilosophyWikipedia:WikiProject PhilosophyTemplate:WikiProject PhilosophyPhilosophy articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.     Welcome to the Stoicism Template. This is all a bit experimental at this stage. I'm not sure I've got the balance of philosophers quite right, nor whether every "concept" I've put on here deserves to be here. Feel free to suggest ways which this template can be improved. Singinglemon 18:50, 10 October 2007 (UTC) The list of concepts is a mixed bag, but this is the fault of the encyclopedia's deficient treatment of the concepts in Stoicism, not of the template. I linked the template only from those articles on terminology that actually have something substantial to say about the term in Stoicism. The other articles—well, if anyone wants to write about Stoicism on Wikipedia, they would be a good place to start! (I also only linked the boldfaced names from the Middle and Late Stoa, but this was only because I ran out of steam/time.) Wareh 18:54, 10 October 2007 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Stoicism&oldid=294048683" Categories: Template-Class Philosophy articles NA-importance Philosophy articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 2 June 2009, at 23:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6138	----	Matthew Arnold - Wikipedia Matthew Arnold From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English poet and cultural critic This article is about the poet. For other uses, see Matthew Arnold (disambiguation). Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold, by Elliott & Fry, circa 1883. Born 24 December 1822 (1822-12-24) Laleham, England Died 15 April 1888 (1888-04-16) (aged 65) Liverpool, England Occupation Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools Nationality British Period Victorian Genre Poetry; literary, social and religious criticism Notable works "Dover Beach", "The Scholar-Gipsy", "Thyrsis", Culture and Anarchy, Literature and Dogma Spouse Frances Lucy Children 6 Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Liberal democracy Economic liberalism Equality Gender Legal Freedom Market Press Religion Speech Trade Harm principle Internationalism Invisible hand Laissez-faire Liberty Negative Positive Market economy Non-aggression principle Open society Permissive society Popular sovereignty Private property Rights Civil and political Natural and legal Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Veil of ignorance Schools of thought Classical Conservative Cultural Democratic Feminist Equity Green Internationalist Muscular National Neo Ordo Radical Radical centrism Religious Christian Catholic Islamic Jewish Secular Social Techno Philosophers Acton Arnold Aron Badawi Bastiat Bentham Berlin Burke Čapek Cassirer Collingwood Condorcet Constant Croce Emerson Friedman Guizot Hayek Hu Humboldt Kant Keynes Korais Kymlicka List Locke Martineau Mill Milton Mises Montesquieu Nozick Ortega Paine Popper Priestley Rawls Ricardo Say Sen Smith Spencer Spinoza Staël Tocqueville Turgot Voltaire Weber Wollstonecraft Politicians Artigas Bright Broglie Cavour Cobden Deák Deakin George Gladstone Gokhale Itagaki Jefferson Juárez Kemal King Kołłątaj Kossuth Lamartine Levski Lincoln Macaulay Madison Mazzini Milyukov Mommsen Naoroji Ohlin Pearson Rathenau Roosevelt Sarmiento Ståhlberg Venizelos Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Venizelism Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Cobdenism Gladstonian Manchester Whiggism United States Arizona School Classical Jeffersonian Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Anti-authoritarianism Anti-communism Bias in academia Bias in the media Capitalism Democratic Centrism Economic freedom Egalitarianism Empiricism Humanism Individualism Anarchist Libertarianism Left Right Pirate Party Progressivism Utilitarianism  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 – 15 April 1888) was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the celebrated headmaster of Rugby School, and brother to both Tom Arnold, literary professor, and William Delafield Arnold, novelist and colonial administrator. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a sage writer, a type of writer who chastises and instructs the reader on contemporary social issues.[1] He was also an inspector of schools for thirty-five years, and supported the concept of state-regulated secondary education.[2] Contents 1 Early years 2 Marriage and career 3 Literary career 4 Death 5 Character 6 Poetry 7 Prose 7.1 Literary criticism 7.2 Social criticism 7.3 Journalistic criticism 7.4 Religious criticism 8 Reputation 9 Family 10 Selected bibliography 10.1 Poetry 10.2 Prose 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Citations 13.2 Sources 14 External links Early years[edit] He was the eldest son of Thomas Arnold and his wife Mary Penrose Arnold (1791–1873), born on 24 December 1822 at Laleham-on-Thames, Middlesex.[3] John Keble stood as godfather to Matthew. In 1828, Thomas Arnold was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School, where the family took up residence, that year. From 1831, Arnold was tutored by his clerical uncle, John Buckland, in Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a holiday home, Fox How, in the Lake District. There William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend. In 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School. He moved to the sixth form in 1838 and so came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for a family magazine, and won school prizes, His prize poem, "Alaric at Rome", was printed at Rugby. In November 1840, aged 17, Arnold matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, where in 1841 he won an open scholarship, graduating B.A. in 1844.[3][4] During his student years at Oxford, his friendship became stronger with Arthur Hugh Clough, a Rugby pupil who had been one of his father's favourites. He attended John Henry Newman's sermons at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of heart disease in 1842, and Fox How became the family's permanent residence. His poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize.[5] He graduated in the following year with second class honours in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after a short interlude of teaching at Rugby, Arnold was elected Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council. In 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller. In 1850 Wordsworth died; Arnold published his "Memorial Verses" on the older poet in Fraser's Magazine. Marriage and career[edit] Wishing to marry but unable to support a family on the wages of a private secretary, Arnold sought the position of and was appointed in April 1851 one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. Two months later, he married Frances Lucy, daughter of Sir William Wightman, Justice of the Queen's Bench. Arnold often described his duties as a school inspector as "drudgery" although "at other times he acknowledged the benefit of regular work."[6] The inspectorship required him, at least at first, to travel constantly and across much of England. "Initially, Arnold was responsible for inspecting Nonconformist schools across a broad swath of central England. He spent many dreary hours during the 1850s in railway waiting-rooms and small-town hotels, and longer hours still in listening to children reciting their lessons and parents reciting their grievances. But that also meant that he, among the first generation of the railway age, travelled across more of England than any man of letters had ever done. Although his duties were later confined to a smaller area, Arnold knew the society of provincial England better than most of the metropolitan authors and politicians of the day."[7] Literary career[edit] Caricature by James Tissot published in Vanity Fair in 1871 In 1852, Arnold published his second volume of poems, Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems. In 1853, he published Poems: A New Edition, a selection from the two earlier volumes famously excluding Empedocles on Etna, but adding new poems, Sohrab and Rustum and The Scholar Gipsy. In 1854, Poems: Second Series appeared; also a selection, it included the new poem, Balder Dead. Arnold was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford in 1857, and he was the first in this position to deliver his lectures in English rather than in Latin.[8] He was re-elected in 1862. On Translating Homer (1861) and the initial thoughts that Arnold would transform into Culture and Anarchy were among the fruits of the Oxford lectures. In 1859, he conducted the first of three trips to the continent at the behest of parliament to study European educational practices. He self-published The Popular Education of France (1861), the introduction to which was later published under the title Democracy (1879).[9] Matthew Arnold's grave at All Saints' Church, Laleham, Surrey. In 1865, Arnold published Essays in Criticism: First Series. Essays in Criticism: Second Series would not appear until November 1888, shortly after his untimely death. In 1866, he published Thyrsis, his elegy to Clough who had died in 1861. Culture and Anarchy, Arnold's major work in social criticism (and one of the few pieces of his prose work currently in print) was published in 1869. Literature and Dogma, Arnold's major work in religious criticism appeared in 1873. In 1883 and 1884, Arnold toured the United States and Canada[10] delivering lectures on education, democracy and Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1883.[11] In 1886, he retired from school inspection and made another trip to America. An edition of Poems by Matthew Arnold, with an introduction by A. C. Benson and illustrations by Henry Ospovat, was published in 1900 by John Lane.[12] Death[edit] Arnold died suddenly in 1888 of heart failure whilst running to meet a train that would have taken him to the Liverpool Landing Stage to see his daughter, who was visiting from the United States where she had moved after marrying an American. He was survived by his wife, who died in June 1901.[13] Character[edit] Caricature from Punch, 1881: "Admit that Homer sometimes nods, That poets do write trash, Our Bard has written "Balder Dead," And also Balder-dash" "Matthew Arnold," wrote G. W. E. Russell in Portraits of the Seventies, is "a man of the world entirely free from worldliness and a man of letters without the faintest trace of pedantry".[14] Arnold was a familiar figure at the Athenaeum Club, a frequent diner-out and guest at great country houses, charming, fond of fishing (but not of shooting),[15] and a lively conversationalist, with a self-consciously cultivated air combining foppishness and Olympian grandeur. He read constantly, widely, and deeply, and in the intervals of supporting himself and his family by the quiet drudgery of school inspecting, filled notebook after notebook with meditations of an almost monastic tone. In his writings, he often baffled and sometimes annoyed his contemporaries by the apparent contradiction between his urbane, even frivolous manner in controversy, and the "high seriousness" of his critical views and the melancholy, almost plaintive note of much of his poetry. "A voice poking fun in the wilderness" was T. H. Warren's description of him. Poetry[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Matthew Arnold" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Arnold is sometimes called the third great Victorian poet, along with Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning.[16] Arnold was keenly aware of his place in poetry. In an 1869 letter to his mother, he wrote: My poems represent, on the whole, the main movement of mind of the last quarter of a century, and thus they will probably have their day as people become conscious to themselves of what that movement of mind is, and interested in the literary productions which reflect it. It might be fairly urged that I have less poetical sentiment than Tennyson and less intellectual vigour and abundance than Browning; yet because I have perhaps more of a fusion of the two than either of them, and have more regularly applied that fusion to the main line of modern development, I am likely enough to have my turn as they have had theirs.[17] Stefan Collini regards this as "an exceptionally frank, but not unjust, self-assessment. ... Arnold's poetry continues to have scholarly attention lavished upon it, in part because it seems to furnish such striking evidence for several central aspects of the intellectual history of the nineteenth century, especially the corrosion of 'Faith' by 'Doubt'. No poet, presumably, would wish to be summoned by later ages merely as an historical witness, but the sheer intellectual grasp of Arnold's verse renders it peculiarly liable to this treatment."[18] Harold Bloom echoes Arnold's self-characterization in his introduction (as series editor) to the Modern Critical Views volume on Arnold: "Arnold got into his poetry what Tennyson and Browning scarcely needed (but absorbed anyway), the main march of mind of his time." Of his poetry, Bloom says, Whatever his achievement as a critic of literature, society, or religion, his work as a poet may not merit the reputation it has continued to hold in the twentieth century. Arnold is, at his best, a very good but highly derivative poet. ... As with Tennyson, Hopkins, and Rossetti, Arnold's dominant precursor was Keats, but this is an unhappy puzzle, since Arnold (unlike the others) professed not to admire Keats greatly, while writing his own elegiac poems in a diction, meter, imagistic procedure, that are embarrassingly close to Keats.[19] Sir Edmund Chambers noted that "in a comparison between the best works of Matthew Arnold and that of his six greatest contemporaries ... the proportion of work which endures is greater in the case of Matthew Arnold than in any one of them."[20] Chambers judged Arnold's poetic vision by its simplicity, lucidity, and straightforwardness; its literalness ... ; the sparing use of aureate words, or of far-fetched words, which are all the more effective when they come; the avoidance of inversions, and the general directness of syntax, which gives full value to the delicacies of a varied rhythm, and makes it, of all verse that I know, the easiest to read aloud.[21] His literary career — leaving out the two prize poems — had begun in 1849 with the publication of The Strayed Reveller and Other Poems by A., which attracted little notice and was soon withdrawn. It contained what is perhaps Arnold's most purely poetical poem, "The Forsaken Merman." Empedocles on Etna and Other Poems (among them "Tristram and Iseult"), published in 1852, had a similar fate. In 1858 he published his tragedy of Merope, calculated, he wrote to a friend, "rather to inaugurate my Professorship with dignity than to move deeply the present race of humans," and chiefly remarkable for some experiments in unusual – and unsuccessful – metres. His 1867 poem, "Dover Beach," depicted a nightmarish world from which the old religious verities have receded. It is sometimes held up as an early, if not the first, example of the modern sensibility. In a famous preface to a selection of the poems of William Wordsworth, Arnold identified, a little ironically, as a "Wordsworthian." The influence of Wordsworth, both in ideas and in diction, is unmistakable in Arnold's best poetry. Arnold's poem, "Dover Beach" was included in Ray Bradbury's novel, Fahrenheit 451, and is also featured prominently in the novel Saturday by Ian McEwan. It has also been quoted or alluded to in a variety of other contexts (see Dover Beach). Henry James wrote that Matthew Arnold's poetry will appeal to those who "like their pleasures rare" and who like to hear the poet "taking breath." In his poetry he derived not only the subject matter of his narrative poems from traditional or literary sources, and much of the romantic melancholy of his earlier poems from Senancour's "Obermann". Prose[edit] Assessing the importance of Arnold's prose work in 1988, Stefan Collini stated, "for reasons to do with our own cultural preoccupations as much as with the merits of his writing, the best of his prose has a claim on us today that cannot be matched by his poetry."[22] "Certainly there may still be some readers who, vaguely recalling 'Dover Beach' or 'The Scholar Gipsy' from school anthologies, are surprised to find he 'also' wrote prose."[23] George Watson follows George Saintsbury in dividing Arnold's career as a prose writer into three phases: 1) early literary criticism that begins with his preface to the 1853 edition of his poems and ends with the first series of Essays in Criticism (1865); 2) a prolonged middle period (overlapping the first and third phases) characterised by social, political and religious writing (roughly 1860–1875); 3) a return to literary criticism with the selecting and editing of collections of Wordsworth's and Byron's poetry and the second series of Essays in Criticism.[24] Both Watson and Saintsbury declare their preference for Arnold's literary criticism over his social or religious criticism. More recent writers, such as Collini, have shown a greater interest in his social writing,[25] while over the years a significant second tier of criticism has focused on Arnold's religious writing.[26] His writing on education has not drawn a significant critical endeavour separable from the criticism of his social writings.[27] Selections from the Prose Work of Matthew Arnold[28] Literary criticism[edit] Arnold's work as a literary critic began with the 1853 "Preface to the Poems". In it, he attempted to explain his extreme act of self-censorship in excluding the dramatic poem "Empedocles on Etna". With its emphasis on the importance of subject in poetry, on "clearness of arrangement, rigor of development, simplicity of style" learned from the Greeks, and in the strong imprint of Goethe and Wordsworth, may be observed nearly all the essential elements in his critical theory. George Watson described the preface, written by the thirty-one-year-old Arnold, as "oddly stiff and graceless when we think of the elegance of his later prose."[29] Criticism began to take first place in Arnold's writing with his appointment in 1857 to the professorship of poetry at Oxford, which he held for two successive terms of five years. In 1861 his lectures On Translating Homer were published, to be followed in 1862 by Last Words on Translating Homer. Especially characteristic, both of his defects and his qualities, are on the one hand, Arnold's unconvincing advocacy of English hexameters and his creation of a kind of literary absolute in the "grand style," and, on the other, his keen feeling of the need for a disinterested and intelligent criticism in England. Although Arnold's poetry received only mixed reviews and attention during his lifetime, his forays into literary criticism were more successful. Arnold is famous for introducing a methodology of literary criticism somewhere between the historicist approach common to many critics at the time and the personal essay; he often moved quickly and easily from literary subjects to political and social issues. His Essays in Criticism (1865, 1888), remains a significant influence on critics to this day, and his prefatory essay to that collection, "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time", is one of the most influential essays written on the role of the critic in identifying and elevating literature — even while admitting, "The critical power is of lower rank than the creative." Comparing himself to the French liberal essayist Ernest Renan, who sought to inculcate morality in France, Arnold saw his role as inculcating intelligence in England.[30] In one of his most famous essays on the topic, "The Study of Poetry", Arnold wrote that, "Without poetry, our science will appear incomplete; and most of what now passes with us for religion and philosophy will be replaced by poetry". He considered the most important criteria used to judge the value of a poem were "high truth" and "high seriousness". By this standard, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales did not merit Arnold's approval. Further, Arnold thought the works that had been proven to possess both "high truth" and "high seriousness", such as those of Shakespeare and Milton, could be used as a basis of comparison to determine the merit of other works of poetry. He also sought for literary criticism to remain disinterested, and said that the appreciation should be of "the object as in itself it really is." Social criticism[edit] He was led on from literary criticism to a more general critique of the spirit of his age. Between 1867 and 1869 he wrote Culture and Anarchy, famous for the term he popularised for the middle class of the English Victorian era population: "Philistines", a word which derives its modern cultural meaning (in English – the German-language usage was well established) from him. Culture and Anarchy is also famous for its popularisation of the phrase "sweetness and light," first coined by Jonathan Swift.[31] In Culture and Anarchy, Arnold identifies himself as a Liberal and "a believer in culture" and takes up what historian Richard Bellamy calls the "broadly Gladstonian effort to transform the Liberal Party into a vehicle of political moralism."[32][33] Arnold viewed with skepticism the plutocratic grasping in socioeconomic affairs, and engaged the questions which vexed many Victorian liberals on the nature of power and the state's role in moral guidance.[34] Arnold vigorously attacked the Nonconformists and the arrogance of "the great Philistine middle-class, the master force in our politics."[35] The Philistines were "humdrum people, slaves to routine, enemies to light" who believed that England's greatness was due to her material wealth alone and took little interest in culture.[35] Liberal education was essential, and by that Arnold meant a close reading and attachment to the cultural classics, coupled with critical reflection.[36] Arnold saw the "experience" and "reflection" of Liberalism as naturally leading to the ethical end of "renouncement," as evoking the "best self" to suppress one's "ordinary self."[33] Despite his quarrels with the Nonconformists, Arnold remained a loyal Liberal throughout his life, and in 1883, William Gladstone awarded him an annual pension of 250 pounds "as a public recognition of service to the poetry and literature of England."[37][38][39] Many subsequent critics such as Edward Alexander, Lionel Trilling, George Scialabba, and Russell Jacoby have emphasized the liberal character of Arnold's thought.[40][41][42] Hugh Stuart Jones describes Arnold's work as a "liberal critique of Victorian liberalism" while Alan S. Kahan places Arnold's critique of middle-class philistinism, materialism, and mediocrity within the tradition of 'aristocratic liberalism' as exemplified by liberal thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexis de Tocqueville.[43][44] Arnold's "want of logic and thoroughness of thought" as noted by John M. Robertson in Modern Humanists was an aspect of the inconsistency of which Arnold was accused.[45] Few of his ideas were his own, and he failed to reconcile the conflicting influences which moved him so strongly. "There are four people, in especial," he once wrote to Cardinal Newman, "from whom I am conscious of having learnt – a very different thing from merely receiving a strong impression – learnt habits, methods, ruling ideas, which are constantly with me; and the four are – Goethe, Wordsworth, Sainte-Beuve, and yourself." Dr. Arnold must be added; the son's fundamental likeness to the father was early pointed out by Swinburne, and was later attested by Matthew Arnold's grandson, Mr. Arnold Whitridge. Others such as Stefan Collini suggest that much of the criticism aimed at Arnold is based on "a convenient parody of what he is supposed to have stood for" rather than the genuine article.[33] Journalistic criticism[edit] In 1887, Arnold was credited with coining the phrase "New Journalism", a term that went on to define an entire genre of newspaper history, particularly Lord Northcliffe's turn-of-the-century press empire. However, at the time, the target of Arnold's irritation was not Northcliffe, but the sensational journalism of Pall Mall Gazette editor, W.T. Stead.[46] Arnold had enjoyed a long and mutually beneficial association with the Pall Mall Gazette since its inception in 1865. As an occasional contributor, he had formed a particular friendship with its first editor, Frederick Greenwood and a close acquaintance with its second, John Morley. But he strongly disapproved of the muck-raking Stead, and declared that, under Stead, "the P.M.G., whatever may be its merits, is fast ceasing to be literature."[47] He was appalled at the shamelessness of the sensationalistic new journalism of the sort he witnessed on his tour the United States in 1886. In his account of that tour, "Civilization in the United States", he observed, "if one were searching for the best means to efface and kill in a whole nation the discipline of self-respect, the feeling for what is elevated, he could do no better than take the American newspapers."[48] Religious criticism[edit] His religious views were unusual for his time and caused sorrow to some of his best friends.[49] Scholars of Arnold's works disagree on the nature of Arnold's personal religious beliefs. Under the influence of Baruch Spinoza and his father, Dr. Thomas Arnold, he rejected the supernatural elements in religion,[50] even while retaining a fascination for church rituals. In the preface to God and the Bible, written in 1875, Arnold recounts a powerful sermon he attended discussing the "salvation by Jesus Christ", he writes: "Never let us deny to this story power and pathos, or treat with hostility ideas which have entered so deep into the life of Christendom. But the story is not true; it never really happened".[51] He continues to express his concern with Biblical truth explaining that "The personages of the Christian heaven and their conversations are no more matter of fact than the personages of the Greek Olympus and their conversations."[51] He also wrote in Literature and Dogma: "The word 'God' is used in most cases as by no means a term of science or exact knowledge, but a term of poetry and eloquence, a term thrown out, so to speak, as a not fully grasped object of the speaker's consciousness – a literary term, in short; and mankind mean different things by it as their consciousness differs."[52] He defined religion as "morality touched with emotion".[53] However, he also wrote in the same book, "to pass from a Christianity relying on its miracles to a Christianity relying on its natural truth is a great change. It can only be brought about by those whose attachment to Christianity is such, that they cannot part with it, and yet cannot but deal with it sincerely."[54] A London County Council blue plaque for Arnold at 2 Chester Square, Belgravia Reputation[edit] Harold Bloom writes that "Whatever his achievement as a critic of literature, society or religion, his work as a poet may not merit the reputation it has continued to hold in the twentieth century. Arnold is, at his best, a very good, but highly derivative poet, unlike Tennyson, Browning, Hopkins, Swinburne and Rossetti, all of whom individualized their voices."[55] The writer John Cowper Powys, an admirer, wrote that, "with the possible exception of Merope, Matthew Arnold's poetry is arresting from cover to cover – [he] is the great amateur of English poetry [he] always has the air of an ironic and urbane scholar chatting freely, perhaps a little indiscreetly, with his not very respectful pupils."[56] Family[edit] Frances Lucy Arnold—"Flu" to Matthew—1883 photograph The Arnolds had six children: Thomas (1852–1868); Trevenen William (1853–1872); Richard Penrose (1855–1908), an inspector of factories;[note 1] Lucy Charlotte (1858–1934) who married Frederick W. Whitridge of New York, whom she had met during Arnold's American lecture tour; Eleanore Mary Caroline (1861–1936) married (1) Hon. Armine Wodehouse (MP) in 1889, (2) William Mansfield, 1st Viscount Sandhurst, in 1909; Basil Francis (1866–1868). Selected bibliography[edit] Poetry[edit] Stanzas in Memory of the Author of "Obermann" (1849) The Strayed Reveller, and Other Poems (1849) Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems (1852) Sohrab and Rustum (1853) The Scholar-Gipsy (1853) Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse (1855) Memorial Verses to Wordsworth Rugby Chapel (1867) Thyrsis (1865) Prose[edit] Essays in Criticism (1865, 1888) Culture and Anarchy (1869) Friendship's Garland (1871) Literature and Dogma (1873) God and the Bible (1875) See also[edit] English translations of Homer: Matthew Arnold Notes[edit] ^ Composer Edward Elgar dedicated one of the Enigma Variations to Richard. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Landow, George. Elegant Jeremiahs: The Sage from Carlyle to Mailer. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1986. ^ Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. 1985–1993. p. 22. ISBN 0-19-869129-7. OCLC 11814265.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b Collini, Stefan. "Arnold, Matthew". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/679. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Foster, Joseph (1888–1892). "Arnold, Matthew (2)" . Alumni Oxonienses: the Members of the University of Oxford, 1715–1886. Oxford: Parker and Co – via Wikisource. ^ Cromwell: A Prize Poem, Recited in the Theatre, Oxford; June 28, 1843 at Google Books ^ Collini, 1988, p. 21. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 21 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 23 July 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Super, CPW, II, p. 330. ^ "Literary Gossip". The Week : A Canadian Journal of Politics, Literature, Science and Arts. 1. 1: 13. 6 December 1883. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 25 April 2011. ^ Poems by Matthew Arnold. London: John Lane. 1900. pp. xxxiv+375; with an introduction by A. C. Benson; illustrated by Henry OspovatCS1 maint: postscript (link) ^ "Obituary – Mrs. Matthew Arnold". The Times (36495). London. 1 July 1901. p. 11. ^ Russell, 1916[page needed] ^ Andrew Carnegie described him as the most charming man that he ever knew (Autobiography, p 298) and said, "Arnold visited us in Scotland in 1887, and talking one day of sport he said he did not shoot, he could not kill anything that had wings and could soar in the clear blue sky; but, he added, he could not give up fishing — 'the accessories are so delightful.'" Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 301; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ Collini, 1988, p. 2. ^ Lang, Volume 3, p. 347. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 26. ^ Bloom, 1987, pp. 1–2. ^ Chambers, 1933, p. 159. ^ Chambers, 1933, p. 165. ^ Collini, 1988, p. vii. ^ Collini, 1988, p. 25. ^ Watson, 1962, pp. 150–160. Saintsbury, 1899, p. 78 passim. ^ Collini, 1988. Also see the introduction to Culture and Anarchy and other writings, Collini, 1993. ^ See "The Critical Reception of Arnold's Religious Writings" in Mazzeno, 1999. ^ Mazzeno, 1999. ^ Arnold, Matthew (1913). William S. Johnson (ed.). Selections from the Prose Work of Matthew Arnold. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9781414233802. ^ Watson, 1962, p. 147. ^ Machann, C (1998). Matthew Arnold: A Literary Life. Springer. pp. 45–61. ^ The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Sweetness and light. Houghton Mifflin Company. ^ Born, Daniel (1995). The Birth of Liberal Guilt in the English Novel: Charles Dickens to H.G. Wells. UNC Press Books. p. 165. ^ a b c Caufield, James Walter (2016). Overcoming Matthew Arnold: Ethics in Culture and Criticism. Routledge. pp. 3–7. ^ Malachuk, D. (2005). Perfection, the State, and Victorian Liberalism. Springer. pp. 87–88. ^ a b Brendan A. Rapple (2017). Matthew Arnold and English Education: The Poet's Pioneering Advocacy in Middle Class Instruction. McFarland. pp. 98–99. ^ Brendan A. Rapple (2017). Matthew Arnold and English Education: The Poet's Pioneering Advocacy in Middle Class Instruction. McFarland. p. 116. ISBN 9781476663593. ^ Machann, C (1998). Matthew Arnold: A Literary Life. Springer. p. 19. ^ Bush, Douglas (1971). Matthew Arnold: A Survey of His Poetry and Prose. Springer. p. 15. ^ Jones, Richard (2002). "Arnold "at Full Stretch"". Virginia Quarterly Review. 78 (2). ^ Jacoby, Russell (2005). Picture Imperfect: Utopian Thought for an Anti-Utopian Age. Columbia University Press. p. 67. ^ Alexander, Edward (2014). Matthew Arnold and John Stuart Mill. Routledge. I have tried to show to what a considerable extent each shared the convictions of the other; how much of a liberal Arnold was and how much of a humanist Mill was. ^ Rodden, John (1999). Lionel Trilling and the Critics. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 215–222. ^ Campbell, Kate (2018). Matthew Arnold. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ Kahan, Alan S. (2012). "Arnold, Nietzsche and the Aristocratic Vision". History of Political Thought. 33 (1): 125–143. ^ Robertson, John M. (1901). Modern Humanists. S. Sonnenschein. p. 145. If, then, a man come to the criticism of life as Arnold did, with neither a faculty nor a training for logic ... it is impossible that he should escape frequent error or inconsistency ... ^ We have had opportunities of observing a new journalism which a clever and energetic man has lately invented. It has much to recommend it; it is full of ability, novelty, variety, sensation, sympathy, generous instincts; its one great fault is that it is feather-brained." Mathew Arnold, The Nineteenth century No. CXXIII. (May 1887) pp. 629–643. Available online at attackingthedevil.co.uk ^ Quoted in Harold Begbie, The Life of General William Booth Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, (2 vols., New York, 1920). Available [online] ^ Gurstein, Rochelle (2016). The Repeal of Reticence: America's Cultural and Legal Struggles Over Free Speech, Obscenity, Sexual Liberation, and Modern Art. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 57–58. ^ When visiting the grave of his godfather, Bishop Keble, in about 1880 with Andrew Carnegie, he said 'Ah, dear, dear Keble! I caused him much sorrow by my views upon theological subjects, which caused me sorrow also, but notwithstanding he was deeply grieved, dear friend as he was, he travelled to Oxford and voted for me for Professor of English Poetry.' "Later the subject of his theological views was referred to. He said they had caused sorrow to his best friends."Mr. Gladstone once gave expression to his deep disappointment, or to something like displeasure, saying I ought to have been a bishop. No doubt my writings prevented my promotion, as well as grieved my friends, but I could not help it. I had to express my views." Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 298; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ Andrew Carnegie, who knew and admired him, said Arnold was a "seriously religious man ... No irreverent word ever escaped his lips ... and yet he had in one short sentence slain the supernatural. 'The case against miracles is closed. They do not happen.'". Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie, The Riverside Press Cambridge (1920), p 299; https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 ^ a b Super, CPW, VII, p. 384. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 171. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 176. ^ Super, CPW, VI, p. 143. ^ Poets and Poems, Harold Bloom, p. 203. ^ The Pleasures of Literature, John Cowper Powys, pp. 397–398. Abbreviation: CPW stands for Robert H. Super (editor), The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold, see Bibliography. Sources[edit] Primary sources George W. E. Russell (editor), Letters of Matthew Arnold, 1849–88, 2 vols. (London and New York: Macmillan, 1895) Published seven years after their author's death these letters were heavily edited by Arnold's family. Howard F. Lowry (editor), The Letters of Matthew Arnold to Arthur Hugh Clough (New York: Oxford University Press, 1932) C. B. Tinker and H. F. Lowry (editors), The Poetical Works of Matthew Arnold, Oxford University Press, 1950 standard edition, OCLC 556893161 Kenneth Allott (editor), The Poems of Matthew Arnold (London and New York: Longman Norton, 1965) ISBN 0-393-04377-0 Part of the "Annotated English Poets Series," Allott includes 145 poems (with fragments and juvenilia) all fully annotated. Robert H. Super (editor), The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold in eleven volumes (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1960–1977) Miriam Allott and Robert H. Super (editors), The Oxford Authors: Matthew Arnold (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 1986) A strong selection from Miriam Allot, who had (silently) assisted her husband in editing the Longman Norton annotated edition of Arnold's poems, and Robert H. Super, editor of the eleven volume complete prose. Stefan Collini (editor), Culture and Anarchy and other writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) part of the Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought series. Collini's introduction to this edition attempts to show that "Culture and Anarchy, first published in 1869, has left a lasting impress upon subsequent debate about the relation between politics and culture" —Introduction, p. ix. Cecil Y. Lang (editor), The Letters of Matthew Arnold in six volumes (Charlottesville and London: The University Press of Virginia, 1996–2001) Biographies (by publication date) George Saintsbury, Matthew Arnold (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1899) Saintsbury combines biography with critical appraisal. In his view, "Arnold's greatness lies in 'his general literary position' (p. 227). Neither the greatest poet nor the greatest critic, Arnold was able to achieve distinction in both areas, making his contributions to literature greater than those of virtually any other writer before him." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 8. Herbert W. Paul, Mathew Arnold (London: Macmillan, 1902) G. W. E. Russell, Matthew Arnold (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904) Lionel Trilling, Matthew Arnold (New York: Norton, 1939) Trilling called his study a "biography of a mind." Park Honan, Matthew Arnold, a life (New York, McGraw–Hill, 1981) ISBN 0-07-029697-9 "Trilling's book challenged and delighted me but failed to take me close to Matthew Arnold's life. ... I decided in 1970 to write a definitive biography ... Three-quarters of the biographical data in this book, I may say, has not appeared in a previous study of Arnold." —Preface, pp. viii–ix. Stefan Collini, Arnold (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988) A good starting point for those new to Arnold's prose. "Like many late century scholars, Collini believes Arnold's chief contribution to English literature is as a critic. ... Collini insists Arnold remains a force in literary criticism because 'he characterizes in unforgettable ways' the role that literary and cultural criticism 'can and must play in modern societies'" (p. 67). Mazzeno, 1999, pp. 103–104. Nicholas Murray, A Life of Matthew Arnold (New York: St. Martin's, 1996) "...focuses on the conflicts between Arnold's public and private lives. A poet himself, Murray believes Arnold was a superb poet who turned to criticism when he realised his gift for verse was fading." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 118. Ian Hamilton, A Gift Imprisoned: A Poetic Life of Matthew Arnold (London: Bloomsbury, 1998) "Choosing to concentrate on the development of Arnold's talents as a poet, Hamilton takes great pains to explore the biographical and literary sources of Arnold's verse." Mazzeno, 1999, p. 118. Bibliography Thomas Burnett Smart, The Bibliography of Matthew Arnold 1892, (reprinted New York: Burt Franklin, 1968, Burt Franklin Bibliography and Reference Series #159) Laurence W. Mazzeno, Matthew Arnold: The Critical Legacy (Woodbridge: Camden House, 1999) Not a true bibliography, nonetheless, it provides thorough coverage and intelligent commentary for the critical writings on Arnold. Writings on Matthew Arnold or containing significant discussion of Arnold (by publication date) Stephen, Leslie (1898). "Matthew Arnold". Studies of a Biographer. 2. London: Duckworth and Co. pp. 76–122. G. W. E. Russell, Portraits of the Seventies (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916) Sir Edmund Chambers, "Matthew Arnold," Watson Lecture on English Poetry, 1932, in English Critical Essays: Twentieth century, Phyllis M. Jones (editor) (London: Oxford University Press, 1933) T. S. Eliot, "Matthew Arnold" in The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933) This is Eliot's second essay on Matthew Arnold. The title of the series consciously echoes Arnold's essay, "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" (1864). Professors Chauncey Brewster Tinker and Howard Foster Lowry, The Poetry of Matthew Arnold: A Commentary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940) Alibris ID 8235403151 W. F. Connell, The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd, 1950) Mazzeno describes this as the "definitive word" on Arnold's educational thought. Mazzeno, 1999, p. 42. George Watson, "Matthew Arnold" in The Literary Critics: A Study of English Descriptive Criticism (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1962) A. Dwight Culler, "Imaginative Reason: The Poetry of Matthew Arnold" (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966). Described by Stefan Collini as "the most comprehensive discussion" of the poetry in his "Arnold" Past Masters, p. 121. David J. DeLaura, "Hebrew and Hellene in Victorian England: Newman, Arnold, and Pater" (Austin: University of Texas Pr, 1969). This celebrated study brilliantly situates Arnold in the intellectual history of his time. Northrop Frye, The Critical Path: An Essay on the Social Context of Literary Criticism (in "Daedalus", 99, 2, pp. 268–342, Spring 1970; then New York: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983) ISBN 0-7108-0641-8 Joseph Carroll, The Cultural Theory of Matthew Arnold. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) Ruth apRoberts, Arnold and God (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) Harold Bloom (editor), W. H. Auden, J. Hillis Miller, Geoffrey Tillotson, G. Wilson Knight, William Robbins, William E. Buckler, Ruth apRoberts, A. Dwight Culler, and Sara Suleri, Modern Critical Views: Matthew Arnold (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987) David G. Riede, Matthew Arnold and the Betrayal of Language (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1988) "...explores Arnold's attempts to find an authoratative language, and argues that his occasional claims for such language reveal more uneasiness than confidence in the value of 'letters.' ... Riede argues that Arnold's determined efforts to write with authority, combined with his deep-seated suspicion of his medium, result in an exciting if often agonised tension in his poetic language." –from the book flap. Donald Stone, Communications with the Future: Matthew Arnold in Dialogue (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997) Linda Ray Pratt, Matthew Arnold Revisited, (New York: Twayne Publishers, 2000) ISBN 0-8057-1698-X Francesco Marroni, Miti e mondi vittoriani (Rome: Carocci, 2004) Renzo D'Agnillo, The Poetry of Matthew Arnold (Rome: Aracne, 2005) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Matthew Arnold. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Matthew Arnold Wikisource has original works written by or about: Matthew Arnold Portraits of Matthew Arnold at the National Portrait Gallery, London "MATTHEW ARNOLD (Obituary Notice, Tuesday, April 17, 1888)". Eminent Persons: Biographies reprinted from The Times. IV (1887-1890). London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. 1893. pp. 87-96. Retrieved 12 March 2019 – via Internet Archive. Works by Matthew Arnold at Project Gutenberg Works by Matthew Arnold at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Matthew Arnold at Internet Archive Works by Matthew Arnold at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Full text of 'The Function of Criticism at the Present Time' at The Fortnightly Review. Poetry of Matthew Arnold at Poetseers Matthew Arnold, by G. W. E. Russell, at Project Gutenberg The Letters of Matthew Arnold Digital Edition, at the University of Virginia Press "Archival material relating to Matthew Arnold". UK National Archives.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource. A Bibliography of the Works of Matthew Arnold by Tod E. Jones Plaque #38 on Open Plaques Anonymous (1873). Cartoon portraits and biographical sketches of men of the day. Illustrated by Frederick Waddy. London: Tinsley Brothers. pp. 136–37. Retrieved 13 March 2011. Matthew Arnold at University of Toronto Libraries Literature and Science (1882) Mathew Arnold Letters and Works at Texas Tech University Libraries Matthew Arnold Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. v t e Matthew Arnold Prose On Translating Homer (1861) Culture and Anarchy (1869) Poetry Tristram and Iseult (1852) "To Marguerite: Continued" (1852) "The Scholar Gipsy" (1853) Sohrab and Rustum (1853) Balder Dead (1855) "Thyrsis" (1865) "Dover Beach" (1867) Family Tom Arnold (brother) Thomas Arnold (father) William Delafield Arnold (brother) Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel 2 3 4 5 6 7 Korea Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz artist Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Arnold&oldid=1019826703" Categories: 1822 births 1888 deaths Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford English Anglicans Members of The Club 19th-century English poets English essayists English literary critics 19th-century English educators Huxley family Literary critics of English People educated at Rugby School Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford People from Laleham English people of Cornish descent Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Victorian poets 19th-century English non-fiction writers Burials in Surrey Oxford Professors of Poetry 19th-century British journalists English male journalists Male essayists Social critics English male poets Members of the Athenaeum Club, London People educated at Winchester College Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty CS1 maint: postscript Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2017 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from August 2014 Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1: long volume value Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from SBDEL with no article parameter Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية अवधी تۆرکجه भोजपुरी Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Latina Latviešu Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2021, at 17:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6145	----	Panaetius - Wikipedia Panaetius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Panaetius Panaetius, depicted as a medieval scholar in the Nuremberg Chronicle Born 185/180 BC Rhodes Died 110/109 BC Athens Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Influences Diogenes of Babylon, Antipater of Tarsus Influenced Hecato, Posidonius, Cicero Panaetius (/pəˈniːʃiəs/; Greek: Παναίτιος Panetios; c. 185 – c. 110/109 BC)[1] of Rhodes was a Stoic philosopher. He was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus in Athens, before moving to Rome where he did much to introduce Stoic doctrines to the city, thanks to the patronage of Scipio Aemilianus. After the death of Scipio in 129 BC, he returned to the Stoic school in Athens, and was its last undisputed scholarch. With Panaetius, Stoicism became much more eclectic. His most famous work was his On Duties, the principal source used by Cicero in his own work of the same name. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 3 Writings 3.1 On Duties 3.2 Other works 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading Life[edit] Panaetius, son of Nicagoras, was born around 185-180 BC,[2] into an old and eminent Rhodian family.[3] He is said to have been a pupil of the linguist Crates of Mallus,[4] who taught in Pergamum, and moved to Athens where he attended the lectures of Critolaus and Carneades, but attached himself principally to the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon and his disciple Antipater of Tarsus.[5] Although it is often thought that he was chosen by the people of Lindos, on Rhodes, to be the priest of Poseidon Hippios, this was actually an honour bestowed upon his grandfather, who was also called Panaetius, son of Nicagoras[6][7] Probably through Gaius Laelius, who had attended the lectures of Diogenes and then of Panaetius,[8] he was introduced to Scipio Aemilianus and, like Polybius before him,[9] gained his friendship.[10] Both Panaetius and Polybius accompanied him on the Roman embassy that Scipio headed to the principal monarchs and polities of the Hellenistic east in 139-138 BC.[11] Along with Polybius, he became a member of the Scipionic Circle. He returned with Scipio to Rome, where he did much to introduce Stoic doctrines and Greek philosophy. He had a number of distinguished Romans as pupils, amongst them Q. Scaevola the augur and Q. Aelius Tubero the Stoic. After the death of Scipio in spring 129 BC, he resided by turns in Athens and Rome, but chiefly in Athens, where he succeeded Antipater of Tarsus as head of the Stoic school.[12] The right of citizenship was offered him by the Athenians, but he refused it. His chief pupil in philosophy was Posidonius. He died in Athens[13] sometime in 110/09 BC,[2] the approximate year in which L. Crassus the orator found there no longer Panaetius himself, but his disciple Mnesarchus.[14] Philosophy[edit] With Panaetius began the new eclectic shaping of Stoic theory; so that even among the Neoplatonists he passed for a Platonist.[15] For this reason also he assigned the first place in philosophy to Physics, not to Logic,[16] and appears not to have undertaken any original treatment of the latter. In Physics he gave up the Stoic doctrine of the conflagration of the universe;[17] tried to simplify the division of the faculties of the soul;[18] and doubted the reality of divination.[19] In Ethics he recognised only a two-fold division of virtue, the theoretical and the practical, in contrast to the dianoetic and the ethical of Aristotle.[16][20] He attempted to bring the ultimate goal of life closer to natural impulses,[21] and to show by similes the inseparability of the virtues.[22] He argued that the recognition of the moral, as something to be striven after for its own sake, was a fundamental idea in the speeches of Demosthenes.[23] He rejected the doctrine of apatheia,[24] and instead affirmed that certain pleasurable sensations could be regarded as in accordance with nature.[25] He also insisted that moral definitions should be laid down in such a way that they might be applied by the person who had not yet attained to wisdom.[26] Writings[edit] On Duties[edit] The principal work of Panaetius was, without doubt, his treatise On Duties (Greek: Περί του Καθήκοντος 'Peri tou Kathēkontos' (Classical) or 'Peri tou Kathikodos' (Modern)) composed in three books. In this he proposed to investigate, first, what was moral or immoral; then, what was useful or not useful; and lastly, how the apparent conflict between the moral and the useful was to be decided; for, as a Stoic, he could only regard this conflict as apparent not real. The third investigation he had expressly promised at the end of the third book, but had not carried out;[27] and his disciple Posidonius seems to have only timidly and imperfectly supplied what was needed.[28] Cicero wrote his own work On Duties in deliberate imitation of Panaetius,[29] and stated that in the third section of the subject that he did not follow Posidonius, but instead that he had completed independently and without assistance what Panaetius had left untouched.[30] To judge from the insignificant character of the deviations, to which Cicero himself calls attention, as for example, the attempt to define moral obligation,[31] the completion of the imperfect division into three parts,[32] the rejection of unnecessary discussions,[33] small supplementary additions,[34] in the first two books Cicero has borrowed the scientific contents of his work from Panaetius, without any essential alterations. Cicero seems to have been induced to follow Panaetius, passing by earlier attempts of the Stoics to investigate the philosophy of morals, not merely by the superiority of his work in other respects, but especially by the effort that prevailed throughout it, laying aside abstract investigations and paradoxical definitions, to demonstrate the philosophy of morals in its application to life.[35] Generally speaking, Panaetius, following Aristotle, Xenocrates, Theophrastus, Dicaearchus, and especially Plato, had softened down the severity of the earlier Stoics, and, without giving up their fundamental definitions, had modified them so as to be capable of being applied to the conduct of life, and clothed them in the garb of eloquence.[36] That Cicero has not reproduced the entire contents of the three books of Panaetius, we see from a fragment, which is not found in Cicero, preserved by Aulus Gellius,[37] and which acquaints us with Panaetius's treatment of his subject in its rhetorical aspects. Other works[edit] Panaetius also wrote treatises concerning On Cheerfulness;[38] on the Magistrates;[39] On Providence;[40] On Divination;[19] a political treatise used by Cicero in his De Republica; and a letter to Quintus Aelius Tubero.[41] His work On Philosophical Schools[42] appears to have been rich in facts and critical remarks, and the notices which we have about Socrates, and on the books of Plato and others of the Socratic school, given on the authority of Panaetius, were probably taken from that work. Notes[edit] ^ Dorandi 1999, pp. 41–42. ^ a b Dorandi 1999, pp. 41-42. ^ Suda, Panaitios; Strabo, xiv 2.13 = 655 ed. Casaubon, includes Panaetius' ancestors (hoi progonoi) among the most memorable Rhodian commanders and athletes ^ Strabo, xiv 5.16 = 676 ed.Casaubon ^ Suda Panaitios; Cicero, de Divinatione, i. 3 ^ P. E. Easterling, Bernard Knox, (1989), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Part 3, page 196. Cambridge University Press ^ Erskine, A (1990). The Hellenistic Stoa: political thought and action. Bristol UK: Bristol Classical Press. p. 211. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, ii. 8 ^ Suda, Panaitios, comp. Polybios ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 9, de Officiis, i. 26, de Amicitia, 27, comp. pro Murena, 31, Velleius i.13.3 ^ Cicero de Re Publica vi. 11, A. E. Astin, Classical Philology 54 (1959), 221-27, and Scipio Aemilianus (Ox., 1967), 127, 138, 177 ^ Cicero, de Divinatione, i. 3 ^ Suda, Panaitios ^ Cicero, de Oratore, i. 11 ^ Proclus, in Plat. Tim. ^ a b Laërtius 1925b, § 41 ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii. 46, comp. 142; Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. i. ^ Nemes. de Nat. Hom. c. 15; Tertull. de Anima, c. 14 ^ a b Cicero, de Divinatione, i. 3, ii. 42, 47, Academica, ii. 33, comp. Epiphanius, adv. Haeres. ii. 9 ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, VI. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, ii. ^ Stobaeus, Ecl. Eth. ii. ^ Plutarch, Demosthenes ^ Aulus Gellius, xii. 5 ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. xi. 73 ^ Seneca, Epistles, 116. 5 ^ Cicero, ad Atticum, xvi. 11, de Officiis, iii. 2, 3, comp. i. 3, iii. 7, ii. 25 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, iii. 2 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, ii. 17, iii. 2, i. 2, ad Atticum, xvi. 11 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, iii. 7 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, i. 2 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, i. 3, comp. ii. 25 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, ii. 5 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, ii. 24, 25 ^ Cicero, de Officiis, ii. 10 ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 28, Tusculanae Quaestiones, i. 32, de Legibus, iii. 6; comp. Plutarch, de Stoic. Repugnant. ^ Aulus Gellius, xiii. 27 ^ Peri Euthumias: Laërtius 1925c, § 20, which Plutarch probably had before him in his composition of the same name. ^ Cicero, de Legibus, iii. 5, 6 ^ Cicero, ad Atticum, xiii. 8 ^ Cicero, De Finibus, iv. 9, 23 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 87. References[edit] Dorandi, Tiziano (1999). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 41-42. ISBN 9780521250283.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Aristippus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:2. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "Others: Xenophanes" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:9. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Aristotle. “Book VI”. Nicomachean Ethics.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help) Further reading[edit] Library resources about Panaetius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Panaetius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Panaetius . Gill, Christopher. 1994. "Peace of Mind and Being Yourself: Panaetius to Plutarch." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.36.7. Edited by Wolfgang Haase and Hildegard Temporini, 4599–4640. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Dyck, Andrew R. 1979. "The Plan of Panaetius' Περι τοῦ καθήκοντος." American Journal of Philology C: 408-416. Morford, Mark P. O. 1999. "The Dual Citizenship of the Roman Stoics." In Veritatis Amicitiaeque Causa: Essays in Honor of Anna Lydia Motto and John R. Clark. Edited by Anna Lydia Motto, 147-164. Wauconda (Ill.) : Bolchazy-Carducci. Roskam, Geert. 2005. "The Doctrine of Moral Progress in Later Stoic Thinking.” On the Path to Virtue: The Stoic Doctrine of Moral Progress and its Reception in (Middle-) Platonism. Ancient and Medieval Philosophy 33. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univ. Press. Sandbach, Francis Henry. 1975. The Stoics. Ancient Culture and Society. London: Chatto & Windus. Schofield, Malcolm. 2012. "The Fourth Virtue." Cicero's Practical Philosophy. Edited by Water Nicgorski, 43-57. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Stone, A. M. 2008. "Greek Ethics and Roman Statesmen: De Officiis and the Philippics." In Cicero’s Philippics: History, rhetoric and ideology. Edited by Tom Stevenson and Marcus Wilson, 214–239. Prudentia 37–38. Auckland, New Zealand: Polygraphia. Straaten, M. van. 1976. "Notes on Panaetius' Theory of the Constitution of Man." In Images of Man in Ancient and Medieval Thought: Studia Gerardo Verbeke ab amicis et collegis dicata. Edited by Gérard Verbeke & Fernand Bossier. Leuven: Leuven University Press. Tieleman, Teun L. 2007. "Panaetius’ Place in the History of Stoicism, with Special Reference to his Moral Psychology." In Pyrrhonists, Patricians, Platonizers: Hellenistic Philosophy in the Period 155–86 BC; Tenth Symposium Hellenisticum. Edited by Anna Maria Ioppolo and David N. Sedley, 104–142. Naples: Bibliopolis. Walbank, Frank William. 1965. "Political Morality and the Friends of Scipio." Journal of Roman Studies 55.1–2: 1–16. Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich. 2018. "A Stoic Ethic for Roman Aristocrats? Panaitios' Doctrine of Behavior, its Context and its Adressees". In The Polis in the Hellenistic World. Edited by Henning Börm and Nino Luraghi, 229–258. Stuttgart: Steiner. Preceded by Antipater of Tarsus Leader of the Stoic school 129–110 BC Last undisputed head v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Netherlands Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panaetius&oldid=1018171266" Categories: 180s BC births 110s BC deaths 2nd-century BC Greek people 2nd-century BC philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers Roman-era Rhodian philosophers Roman-era students in Athens Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Кыргызча Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2021, at 16:28 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Fronto and further education=== After taking the ''[[toga virilis]]'' in 136, Marcus probably began his training in [[Eloquence|oratory]].<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 61.</ref> He had three tutors in [[Greek language|Greek]] – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and [[Herodes Atticus]] – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,<ref>''HA Marcus'' iii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 62.</ref> but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ii. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 62.</ref> This was the age of the [[Second Sophistic]], a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his ''Meditations'', Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.<ref>Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's ''Marcus Aurelius'', ''Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 347.</ref> Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.<ref>''Vita Sophistae'' 2.1.14; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 63–64.</ref> Atticus was an inveterate opponent of [[Stoicism]] and philosophic pretensions.<ref>[[Aulus Gellius]], ''[[Noctes Atticae]]'' 9.2.1–7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 64–65.</ref> He thought the Stoics' desire for [[apatheia]] was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.<ref>[[Aulus Gellius]], ''[[Noctes Atticae]]'' 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 65.</ref> In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his ''Meditations'', in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 65.</ref> Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'', esp. chs. 3 and 4.</ref> he was thought of as second only to [[Cicero]], perhaps even an alternative to him.<ref name='ReferenceB'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 65–67.</ref>{{refn|Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Niebhur]], thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, [[Samuel Adrian Naber|Naber]], found him contemptible.<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', pp. 1–2.</ref> Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.<ref>Mellor, p. 460.</ref> Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.<ref>Cf., e.g.: Mellor, p. 461 and ''passim''.</ref>|group=note}} He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure [[synonym]]s, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.<ref name='ReferenceB'/> A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 69.</ref> The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 76.</ref> Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 76–77.</ref> He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.<ref>Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138.</ref> Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 73.</ref> Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, ''Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire'' (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, ''Herodes Atticus'' (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140.</ref> Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 77–78.</ref> Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 78.</ref> but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 79.</ref> The outcome of the trial is unknown.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 80.</ref> By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in [[jurisprudence]], and showed some signs of general [[malaise]]. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to ''be'' a judge is noble work'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 93.</ref> Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 94.</ref> In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.<ref>''HA Marcus'' iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 94.</ref> Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 69.</ref> He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with [[Apollonius of Chalcedon]] and others in this circle.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69'/> Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.<ref>''De Eloquentia'' iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (''The Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's ''Conversion'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'.</ref> Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94, 105.</ref> Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but [[Junius Rusticus|Quintus Junius Rusticus]] would have the strongest influence on the boy.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95; Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 120.</ref>{{refn|Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the ''Meditations'' is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 174 n. 12.</ref>|group=note}} He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.<ref>''Ad Antoninum Imperator'' i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 95.</ref> He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of [[Arulenus Rusticus]], one of the martyrs to the tyranny of [[Domitian]] (''r''. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of '[[Stoic Opposition]]' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94–95, 101.</ref> the true successor of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).<ref>Champlin, ''Fronto'', p. 120.</ref> Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing'<nowiki/>'.<ref>''Meditations'' i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 94–95.</ref> [[Philostratus]] describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under [[Sextus of Chaeronea]]: <blockquote>The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the [[Boeotia]]n philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his [[wax tablet|tablets]] and goes to school.'<ref>Philostratus, ''Vitae sophistorum'' ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, ''Markos''</ref></blockquote> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-6154	----	On Weights and Measures - Wikipedia On Weights and Measures From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Literary work composed by Epiphanius of Salamis On Weights and Measures is a historical, lexical, metrological, and geographical treatise compiled in 392 CE in Constantia by Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 315–403). The greater part of the work is devoted to a discussion on ancient Greek and Roman weights and measures. The composition was written at the request of a Persian priest, sent to Epiphanius by letter from the Roman emperor in Constantinople.[1][2] Although five fragments of an early Greek version are known to exist, with one entitled Περὶ μέτρων καὶ στάθμων (On Weights and Measures), added by a later hand,[3] this Syriac version is the only complete copy that has survived. Partial translations in Armenian and Georgian[4] are also known to exist. Its modern title belies its content, as the work also contains important historical anecdotes about people and places not written about elsewhere. Two manuscripts of On Weights and Measures, written in Syriac on parchment, are preserved at the British Museum in London. The older (Or. Add. 17148) was found in Egypt and, according to the colophon, was written in the Seleucid era, in "nine-hundred and sixty-[...]" (with the last digit effaced, meaning, that it was written between the years 649 CE–659 CE). The younger manuscript is designated "Or. Add. 14620".[5] The first to attempt a modern publication of Epiphanius' work was Paul de Lagarde in 1880, who reconstructed the original Syriac text by exchanging it with Hebrew characters,[6] and who had earlier published excerpts from several of the Greek fragments treating on weights and measures in his Symmicta.[7] In 1973, a critical edition of the Greek text was published by E.D. Moutsoulas in Theologia.[8] Contents 1 Synopsis 2 Chronology of the Ptolemies 3 Chronology of the Roman emperors 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Synopsis[edit] Part One In folios [54b–55c], Hadrian's journey and arrival in the East is dated "47 years after the destruction of Jerusalem." Translations In folios [47a–49a]; [51d–52a]; [56d–57b] Epiphanius names four major translations of the Hebrew Bible, made in the Greek tongue: the LXX made by the seventy-two translators, another by Aquila of Pontus, one by Theodotion, and yet another by Symmachus. A fifth Greek translation was discovered in wine jars in Jericho, and a sixth in Nicopolis near Actium. Afterwards, Origen arranged six columns of the extant Greek translations and two of the Hebrew side by side, naming it the Hexapla.[9] Epiphanius expands his description of the translation of the seventy-two translators (known as the Septuagint) and how they were assigned thirty-six cells, two to each cell, on the Pharian island. Two translators translated the Book of Genesis, another two the Book of Exodus, another two the Book of Leviticus, and so forth, until the entire 22 canonical books of the Hebrew Bible had all been translated into the Greek tongue.[10] The seventy-two translators were drawn from the twelve tribes of Israel, six men to each tribe who were skilled in the Greek language. In folios [49a–50a] Epiphanius gives a description of the canonical books of the Hebrew Bible and translations made of the same. In his day, he notes that the Scroll of Ruth and the Book of Judges were joined together, and considered as one book. So, too, the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah were joined, and considered as one book, as were First and Second Chronicles (Paraleipomena) considered as one book, as were the First and Second Samuel (Book of First and Second Kingdoms) considered as one book, and the First and Second Kings (Book of Third and Fourth Kingdoms) considered as one book.[11] Part Two Prominent figures In spite of Epiphanius' interest in Jewish themes, his narrative often takes on a distorted and stereotypical view of Judaism. Still, he is an invaluable source on the lives of people and places that figure highly in Jewish lore. In folios [54a–55c]; [55c–55d] Epiphanius treats on the lives of two prominent persons who became proselytes to the Jewish religion; the one Aquila (known also as Onkelos) who was a relation of Hadrian, and whom he made the overseer of Jerusalem's rebuilding around 115 CE.[12] The other person of interest who is described by him is Symmachus, also known as Sūmkos (Hebrew: סומכוס‎) in rabbinic literature.[13] Symmachus is mentioned as belonging originally to the Samaritan nation, and is said to have converted to Judaism during the reign of Verus.[14] He subsequently underwent a second circumcision[15] and became a disciple of Rabbi Meir.[16] Symmachus belonged to the fifth generation (165–200 CE) of Rabbinical teachers referred to in the text of the Mishnah.[17] The Emperor Hadrian is said to have passed through Palestine while en route to Egypt, some 47 years after the destruction of Jerusalem.[18] Part Three Weights and Measures Folios [61d–73b] contain a treatise on the known weights and measures used in his day among the Hebrews, the Greeks and the Romans. He states the equivalent weights for the kab (cab),[19] kor,[20] the lethekh (Lethek), homer, bath, modius (Hebrew: seah = lit. "measure"),[21] and mina (Hebrew: maneh),[22] among others. Epiphanius, explaining the sense of certain obscure passages in the original Aramaic New Testament, writes: "The talent is called Maneh (mina) among the Hebrews," the equivalent of 100 denarii. In folios [62b–62c] Epiphanius distinguishes between "a handful" (Hebrew: מְלֹא כַף‎) in I Kings 17:12 and "a handful" (Hebrew: מְלֹא חֹפֶן‎) in Exodus 9:8 and Leviticus 16:12; in the former case it refers to only one handful, but in latter cases it refers to "a measure of two handfuls."[23] Part Four Geography of Palestine, Asia Minor and the Levant In folios [73b–75a] Epiphanius gives the names of several cities and places of renown, both in his time and in ancient times, such as: Mount Ararat (§ 61), Aṭaṭ (§ 62), or what is known as the "threshing floor of the thorn bush" (Hebrew: גרן האטד‎), and whose description echoes that of Rashi's commentary on Genesis 50:10,[24] Abarim (§ 63); Aviʿazar (§ 68), or what is Eḇen haʿezer of I Samuel 4:1, said to be "fourteen [Roman] miles distant east and north of Eleutheropolis, in a valley"; Carmel (§ 77); Carmel of the sea (§ 78); Akko (§ 76); Anathoth (§ 66); Azekah (§ 64) - a city in whose time was called Ḥǝwarta;[25] Bethel (§ 73); Ophrah (§ 67); Carthage (§ 79) - where the Canaanites had migrated from Phoenicia and who were called in his day Bizakanoi (scattered people); Rekem (§ 71), Jaffa (§ 75), Jerusalem (§ 74), et al. Chronology of the Ptolemies[edit] Ptolemy, also called Soter (of the Rabbit [Lagos]) = reign: 40 years[26] Ptolemy Philadelphus = reign: 38 years Ptolemy the Well-Doer (Euergetes) = reign: 24 years Ptolemy Philopator = reign: 21 years Ptolemy Epiphanes = reign: 22 years Ptolemy Philometor = reign: 34 years Ptolemy the Lover of Learning and the Well-Doer = reign: 29 years Ptolemy the Savior (Soter) = reign: 15 years Ptolemy who is also Alexas = reign: 12 years Ptolemy, the brother of Alexas = reign: 8 years Ptolemy Dionysius = reign: 31 years Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy = reign: 32 years Chronology of the Roman emperors[edit] Augustus = reign: 56 years, 6 months[27] Tiberius = reign: 23 years Gaius = reign: 3 years, 9 months, 29 days Claudius = reign: 13 years, 1 month, 28 days Nero = reign: 13 years, 7 months, 27 days Galba = reign: 7 months, 26 days Otho = reign: 3 months, 5 days Vitellius = reign: 8 months, 12 days Vespasian = reign: 9 years, 7 months, 12 days Titus = reign: 2 years, 2 months, 2 days Domitian = reign: 15 years, 5 months Nerva = reign: 1 year, 4 months Trajan = reign: 19 years Hadrian = reign: 21 years Antoninus, surnamed Pius = reign: 22 years Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (otherwise known as Verus, as also known as Commodus Lucius) = reign: 19 years[28] Of these years, 7 years he ruled jointly with Lucius Aurelius Commodus Commodus II = reign: 13 years Pertinax = reign: 6 months Severus (reigned jointly with his son, Antoninus) = reign: 18 years Caracalla, also called Geta, who is also Antoninus = reign: 7 years (ruled jointly with Lucius Aurelius Commodus) Macrinus = reign: 1 year Antoninus II = reign: 4 years Alexander, the son of Mammaea = reign: 13 years Maximian = reign: 3 years Gordian = reign: 6 years[29] Philip = reign: 7 years Decius = reign: 1 year, 3 months Gallienus (Gallus), who ruled jointly with Volusianus = reign: 2 years, 4 months Valerian, who ruled jointly with Gallienus, also known as Gallus = reign: 12 years Claudius = reign: 1 year, 9 months Aurelian = reign: 5 years, 6 months Tacitus = reign: 6 months Probus = reign: 6 years, 4 months Carus, who ruled jointly with his sons, Carinus and Numerian = reign: 2 years Diocletian, who ruled jointly with Maximian, Constantine and Maxentius = reign: 20 years Maximian, Licinius and Constantine, who ruled in succession one after the other = reign: 32 years[30] Constans, Constantine and Constantius, followed by Julian, Jovian, Valentinian the Great, Valens, Gratian the son of Valentinian, Valentinian the younger (son of Valentinian), Theodosius, Arcadius the son of Theodosius, Honorius the Illustrious, who was the son of Theodosius, as far as the time of Epiphanius, during the second consulship of Arcadius Augustus and Rufus = years collected altogether: 57 years The regnal years of the Caesars as stated by Epiphanius differ slightly in some places from the extant Greek sources. With respect to events in Rome after the reign of Pertinax, both Epiphanius and Jerome do not mention the ascension of Didius Julianus after the assassination of Pertinax, but write only that Severus succeeded him.[31] This may have been because they did not consider his 9-week reign, which he obtained through usurpation, to be legitimate. Similarly, Epiphanius does not mention the ascension of Aemilian. It can be adduced from Jerome's Chronicon that Aemilian, who "caused a revolt in Moesia," was never officially confirmed by the Senate in Rome.[32] Epiphanius' method of recording the regnal years from Augustus to Hadrian, with his pinpoint recollection of the number of months and days to each reign, can be said to be accurate, based on Josephus' own testimony about himself, saying that he was aged 56 in the 13th year of the reign of Caesar Domitian,[33] and that he (Josephus) was born in the 1st year of Caesar Gaius.[34] Using Epiphanius' chronology, the years are indeed collected as 56. By comparison, the span of years in Suetonius' De vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars), which gives 14 years for Claudius and 15 years for Nero, the same time frame would span a period of some 58 years.[35] See also[edit] List of Roman emperors Ptolemaic dynasty References[edit] ^ Allen A. Shaw, On Measures and Weights by Epiphanius, National Mathematics Magazine 11.1 (October 1936: 3–7). ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 11 (note 3). The letter was apparently signed jointly by Valentinian II, emperor of the West, and Theodosius, emperor of the East, as well as Theodosius' two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. ^ The Codex Parisinus Graecus 835, as noted by J.E. Dean (ed.), in Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, (Chicago 1935), Introduction p. 2 ^ Found in the “Shatberd codex” MS. 1141, in the library of the Obshchestvo rasprostranenifa gramotnosti sredi gruzin, Tiflis ^ William Wright, Catalogue of Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum 2 756 (pp. 717–718) ^ Paul de Lagarde, Veteris Testamenti ab Origene recensiti fragmenta apud Syros servata quinque. Praemittitur Epiphanii de mensuris et ponderibus liber nunc primum integer et ipse syriacus, Gootingae 1880 ^ Paul de Largarde, Symmicta I, Göttingen 1877, pp. 210–225 ^ E.D. Moutsoulas, ed., "Epiphanius of Salamis, Concerning Weights and Measures" (Introduction, Commentary, Text and Notes), Theologia, 44 (1973), pp. 157–198 ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, pp. 33–34, 36 ^ Excluding Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon, which books had only later been added to the canon, according to Jewish tradition. ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, pp. 18-19 ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 30 ^ See: Mishnah Eruvin 3:1; Baba Metzia 6:5; Ḥullin 5:3 in The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press, 1974; the Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 13b, Baba Bathra 73a, Baba Kamma 46a, et al. ^ According to Epiphanius, Marcus Aurelius was also called Verus. ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 32 ^ Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 13b ^ The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1977, Appendix III, pp. 799–800 ISBN 0 19 815402 X ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 30 ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 68 ^ A measure of capacity equal to 30 modii (seahs). v. Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 12 (folio 45d). The same is defined in the Talmud (Baba Bathra 86b, 105a) as equal to thirty seahs, a capacity equal to about 395.533 cubic centimeters. ^ A measure of capacity equivalent to the volume of 144 medium-sized eggs (about 8.5 litres); Marcus Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature (2nd edition), Massachusetts 2006, s.v. מודיא p. 738. Cf. Herbert Danby (ed.), The Mishnah, Oxford University Press: Oxford 1977, Appendix II (Liquid and Dry Measure), p. 798 ISBN 0 19 815402 X, who, like all the earlier and later rabbinic writers, prescribe 6 kabs to each seah; 4 logs to each kab; the content of 6 eggs to each log. ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, pp. 60 (§ 51), 65; a weight in silver that was equal to 100 denaria. ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 47 ^ Said to be a place about two miles from the Jordan River, called Beth-ḥagla (lit. "the place of the circuit"). ^ R. Steven Notley & Ze'ev Safrai, in their book, "Eusebius, Onomasticon - The Place Names of Divine Scripture (Brill: Leiden 2005, p. 19, note 47), have noted: "According to his (Epiphanius') formulation, it would seem that he was of the opinion that Hiwarta, which means 'white' (lavan), is the translation of Azekah. About five kilometers to the southeast of Tell Zechariah is a high hill called Tell el-Beida, meaning in Arabic 'white'. In current maps, the site is named Tell Livnin, which means the hill of bricks (livanim), and it is to this that Eusebius (who also wrote about Azekah) most probably referred. 'Azekah' is not 'white', either in Hebrew or in Aramaic. Le-azek in Hebrew means to remove stones, and then the soil appears a bit paler. It therefore appears that Epiphanius, who was born in Beit Zedek, near Eleutheropolis, identified Azekah with Tell el-Beida. Azekah is six kilometers from Eleutheropolis, and Tell Livnin is eight kilometers from there. Epiphanius adapted the new name to the identification by means of an etymological exegesis that has no linguistic basis. At any rate, no settlement existed on Tell Azekah in the Roman-Byzantine period. The early site moved from the high hill to the fields in the plain at the foot of the tell. It may possibly have moved as fr as Kh. el-Beida, although this is difficult to accept." ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, pp. 28–29 ^ J.E. Dean (ed.), in Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, (Chicago 1935), pp. 28–29; the chronology of the Caesars resuming on pp. 32, 34–35, and again on pp. 37–39 ^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 35 (top) ^ Modern chroniclers put Gordian's reign at no more than 21 days. Perhaps Epiphanius simply consolidated the reigns of Gordian I, Gordian II and Gordian III, since they were of the same family. ^ According to Gildas Sapiens’ De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, Maximian, Licinius and Constantine ruled jointly over the Roman Empire, lasting altogether for 32 years. ^ Cf. Chronicon of Jerome, 2005 online edition (tertullian.org), year 193. Epiphanius, by his own admittance (On Weights and Measures, p. 66 [folio 71c]), was familiar with Eusebius' Chronicle from which Jerome had based his Chronicon and may have used it to construct his own chronologies. ^ Chronicon of Jerome, 2005 online edition (tertullian.org), year 254 ^ Josephus, Antiquities (20.11.3) ^ Josephus, Vita § 1 ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars (the Loeb Classical Library series), vol. ii, book v, paragraph xlv Further reading[edit] Renan Baker, "Epiphanius, 'On Weights and Measures' §14: Hadrian's Journey to the East and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem", pub. in: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 182 (2012), pp. 157–167 (JSTOR 23849839) External links[edit] Epiphanius’ Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC) OCLC 912074, 949045253 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=On_Weights_and_Measures&oldid=1028359368" Categories: 4th-century books Texts in Syriac 4th-century history books Works by Epiphanius of Salamis Christian apologists Chronologists Holy Land during Byzantine rule Greek chronicles Roman-era biographers Textual scholarship Byzantine writers History of the Levant Obsolete units of measurement Units of volume Systems of units Human-based units of measurement Roman emperors Christian apologetic works Treatises Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Hebrew-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 14:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6156	----	Costoboci - Wikipedia Costoboci From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Map of Roman Dacia showing Costoboci to the north. The Costoboci (/ˌkɒstəˈboʊsaɪ/; Latin: Costoboci, Costobocae, Castabocae, Coisstoboci, Ancient Greek: Κοστωβῶκοι, Κοστουβῶκοι or Κοιστοβῶκοι[1]) were an ancient people located, during the Roman imperial era, between the Carpathian Mountains and the river Dniester. During the Marcomannic Wars the Costoboci invaded the Roman empire in AD 170 or 171, pillaging its Balkan provinces as far as central Greece, until they were driven out by the Romans. Shortly afterwards, the Costoboci's territory was invaded and occupied by Vandal Hasdingi and the Costoboci disappeared from surviving historical sources, except for a mention by the late Roman Ammianus Marcellinus, writing around AD 400. Contents 1 Name etymology 2 Territory 3 Material culture 4 Onomastics 4.1 Inscription 4.2 Translation 4.3 Name analysis 5 Ethnolinguistic affiliation 5.1 Dacian 5.2 Thracian 5.3 Celtic 5.4 Scytho-Sarmatian 6 Conflict with Rome 6.1 The invasion of 170/1 6.1.1 Northern Balkans 6.1.2 Greece 6.1.3 Dacia 6.2 The coming of the Vandals 7 See also 8 Citations 9 Bibliography Name etymology[edit] The name of the tribe is attested in a variety of spellings in Latin: Costoboci, Costobocae, Castaboci, Castabocae, Coisstoboci and in Ancient Greek: Κοστωβῶκοι, Κοστουβῶκοι, Κοιστοβῶκοι.[2][3] According to Ion I. Russu, this is a Thracian compound name meaning "the shining ones".[4] The first element is the perfect passive participle Cos-to-, derived from the Proto-Indo-European root kʷek̂-, kʷōk̂- "to seem, see, show", and the second element is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root bhā-, bhō- "to shine", extended by the suffix -k-.[3] Ivan Duridanov considered it a Dacian name with unclear etymology.[5] Some scholars argue that "Costoboci" has a Celtic etymology.[6] N.B. Georgiev considers all etymologies based on Indo-European root-words (so-called Wurzeletymologien) to be "devoid of scientific value":[7] the root-words themselves are reconstructions, are necessarily incomplete and can have multiple descendants in several IE languages. In this case, the name Costoboci could mean "the shining ones" in languages other than Thracian (e.g. in Iranic or Celtic languages) or it could have a different root(s) than the ones surmised by Russu. Territory[edit] 2nd century pottery of the Lipița culture, associated by some scholars with the Costoboci, Archaeological Museum of Kraków. Mainstream modern scholarship locates this tribe to the north or north-east of Roman Dacia.[8][9][10] Some scholars considered that the earliest known mention of this tribe is in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder, published c. AD 77, as a Sarmatian tribe named the Cotobacchi living in the lower Don valley.[11][12][13][14] Other scholars have challenged this identification and have recognised the "Cotobacchi" as a distinct tribe.[8][15][16][17] Ammianus Marcellinus, writing c. 400, locates the Costoboci between the Dniester and Danube rivers,[8][18] probably to the north-east of the former Roman province of Dacia.[19] In his Geographia (published between 135 and 143 AD),[20] the Greek geographer Ptolemy seems to indicate that the Costoboci inhabited north-western [21] or north-eastern Dacia.[8] In addition, some scholars identify the people called Transmontanoi (literally: "people beyond the mountains") by Ptolemy, located to the north of the Carpathians, as Dacian Costoboci.[22][23][12] Material culture[edit] Further information: Lipiţa culture The archaeological cultures of Eastern Europe in the late 1st century AD. The Lipiţa culture is located in the northern part of the Dacian cultural area.[24] Some scholars associate the Costoboci with the Lipiţa culture.[25][26] However Roger Batty, reluctant to correlate material culture with group identity, argues that Lipiţa culture belonged either to a subgroup of the Costoboci or to some population they ruled over.[27] This culture developed on the northern side of the Carpathians in the Upper Dniester and Prut basins in the Late La Tène period.[28][29] The bearers of this culture had a sedentary lifestyle and practiced agriculture, cattle-breeding, iron-working and pottery.[28] The settlements were not fortified and contained sunken floored buildings, surface buildings, storage pits, hearths, ovens and kilns.[28] There are numerous pottery finds of various types, both wheel and hand-made, with similarities in shape and decoration to the pottery of the pre-Roman Dacia.[28] The pottery finds of the northern Lipiţa sites in the upper Zolota Lypa basin are similar to that of the Zarubintsy culture.[26]The cemeteries were found close to settlements. The predominant funeral rite was cremation, with urns containing ashes buried in plain graves, but several inhumation graves were also excavated.[28] Onomastics[edit] Further information: List of Dacian names CIL VI, 1801 = ILS 854, inscription in Rome dedicated to Zia or Ziais, the wife of Pieporus, the king of the Costoboci.[30][31] A Latin-language funerary inscription found in Rome, believed to date from the 2nd century AD, was dedicated to Zia or Ziais the Dacian, the daughter of Tiatus and the wife of Pieporus, a king of the Costoboci. The monument was set up by Natoporus and Drigisa, Zia's grandsons.[30][31][32] The inscription was first published by the Italian scholar Mariangelus Accursius in the 16th century, but it is now lost.[31][15] Inscription[edit] D(is) M(anibus) ZIAI TIATI FIL(iae) DACAE. UXORI PIEPORI. REGIS COISSTOBOCENSIS NATOPORUS ET DRIGISA AVIAE CARISS(imae) B(ene) M(erenti) FECER(unt) Translation[edit] "To the Spirits of the Dead. (Dedicated) to ZIA(IS) the Dacian, Daughter of TIATUS, Wife of PIEPORUS, Costobocan king. NATOPORUS and DRIGISA made (this memorial) for their most dear, well-deserving grandmother." Name analysis[edit] Drigisa: a Thracian[33][34] or Dacian[35][36][37][38] name. It is considered a variant with the infix -l- of the name Drigis(s)a,[33][36][38] the name of the Roman veteran Aurelius Drigisa from Moesia Inferior and of the legionary Titus Aurelius Drigissa from Moesia Superior. The final element -gis(s)a is frequent in Dacian onomastics.[37] Natoporus: a Thracian[39][40] or Dacian[41][36][42][43] name. A soldier Natopor is known from several ostraca found at Mons Claudianus in eastern Egypt.[42][43] A Roman military diploma was issued in 127 in Mauretania Caesariensis for a Dacian soldier and his two children, a son Nattoporis and a daughter Duccidava.[42][43] It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element.[44][45][46][47] On a military diploma issued in 127 in Germania Inferior, a Dacian soldier's father is named Natusis, a name formed with the same first element nat- and a suffix -zi-/-si-.[42][43] Pieporus: a Thracian[48][49] or Dacian[44][36][47] name. It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element.[44][45][46][47] Tiatus: a Thracian[50][51] or Dacian[52][53][54][47] name. Tiatus is maybe a name starting in thia-, typical for Dacians.[55][56] A name Tiato is attested on a fragmentary dipinto found at Maximianon, a Roman fort in eastern Egypt.[54] Zia or Ziais: a Thracian[57][58] or Dacian[59][53][47] name. Zia is a female name attested in Moesia Inferior.[58][59][47] Ethnolinguistic affiliation[edit] The ethnic and linguistic affiliation of the Costoboci is uncertain due to lack of evidence.[60] The mainstream view is that they were a Dacian tribe, among the so-called "Free Dacians" not subjected to Roman rule.[61][62][63] However some scholars suggested they were Thracian, Sarmatian,[64][13] Slavic,[65] Germanic,[66] Celtic,[citation needed] or Dacian with a Celtic superstratum.[67] Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, showing the Costoboci to the east. The evidence adduced in support of the main ethnic hypotheses may be summarised as follows: Dacian[edit] Onomastics: The family of a Costobocan king called Pieporus (2nd century) had names considered by some scholars to be of Dacian origin . The rubric Dacpetoporiani on the Tabula Peutingeriana has been interpreted by some scholars as an elision of "Daci Petoporiani" meaning the "Dacians of King Petoporus".[48][68][69] Schütte argued Petoporus is one and the same as Pieporus, the king of the Costoboci.[70] Archaeology: The Costoboci have been linked, on the basis of their geographical location, with the Lipitsa culture.[71][72][73] This culture's features, especially its pottery styles and burial customs, have been identified as Dacian by some scholars,[74][75] leading to the conclusion that the Costoboci were an ethnic-Dacian tribe.[76] Name etymology: According to Schütte, the Dacian element -bokoi is also occurring in the name of another Dacian tribe, the Sabokoi.[77] However, Roger Batty argues that the Lipitsa culture is a poor fit for the Costoboci, not least because it appears to have disappeared during the 1st century BC, long before the period AD 100-200 when they are attested in and around Dacia by surviving historical documents.[78] Thracian[edit] Onomastics: Some scholars consider the names of Pieporus and of his grandsons to be Thracian (see Onomastics, above). Archaeology: According to Jazdewski, in the early Roman period, on the Upper Dniestr, the features of the Lipitsa culture indicate ethnic Thracians under strong Celtic cultural influence, or who had simply absorbed Celtic ethnic components.[79] The fact that queen Zia is specifically characterised as "Dacian" may indicate that Pieporus and the Costoboci were not themselves Dacians. Celtic[edit] The name Costoboci is considered by some scholars to be of Celtic etymology. In particular, they see the first element of their name as a corruption of coto-, a Celtic root meaning "old" or "crooked" (cf. Cotini, an eastern Celtic tribe in the same Carpathian region; Cottius, a king of the Celtic Taurini in the western Alps. One Pliny manuscript variant of the name Costoboci is Cotoboci). However, Faliyeyev argues that while possible, a Celtic derivation is less likely than an "autochthonous" one.[80] During the period 400-200 BC, Transylvania and Bessarabia saw intensive Celtic settlement, as evidenced by heavy concentrations of La Tène-type cemeteries.[81] Central Transylvania appears to have become a Celtic enclave or unitary kingdom, according to Batty.[82] Ptolemy lists 3 tribes as present in Transylvania: (west to east): the Taurisci, Anartes and Costoboci.[83] The first two are generally considered by scholars to be of Celtic origin. The Lipitsa culture displays numerous Celtic features.[84][79] Scytho-Sarmatian[edit] According to some scholars, the Costoboci were not a sedentary group at all, but a semi-nomadic steppe horse-based culture of Scytho-Sarmatian character. This hypothesis was originally proposed by the eminent 19th-century German classical scholar Theodor Mommsen.[85] The tribe called Cotobacchi (or Cotoboci or other manuscript variants) in a list of Sarmatian tribes in Pliny's Naturalis Historia[86] is considered by some scholars to refer to the Costoboci.[11][12][13][14] However, Russu and other scholars consider the Cotobacchi to be a distinct group, unconnected to the Costoboci.[15][87] The statement by Ammianus Marcellinus (ca, AD 400), that a region of the north Pontic steppes was inhabited by "the European Alans, the Costobocae and innumerable Scythian tribes".[88] According to some scholars, the region referred to is the entire steppe between the Danube and the river Don and the passage identifies the Costobocae as an Iranic steppe-nomadic people.[89][11][13][14] However, other scholars argue that the region referred to is much smaller, that between the Danube and Dniester.[8][18] The presence, throughout the region identified by ancient geographers as inhabited by the Costoboci (SW Ukraine, northern Moldavia and Bessarabia), interspersed among the sites of sedentary cremation cultures such as Lipitsa, of distinct Sarmatian-style inhumation cemeteries dating from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.[90] An inscription found in the Sanctuary of the Mysteries at Eleusis in Greece, which is believed to have been carved by priests after this temple was sacked by the Costoboci during their invasion of 170/1. The inscription refers to the "crimes of the Sarmatians". Some scholars argue that this proves the Costoboci were Sarmatians.[91][92] However, other scholars suggest that the name of the Sarmatians was used as an umbrella term for raiders crossing the lower Danube,[61][93] or that it attests a joint invasion by Costoboci and Sarmatians.[94][95] Conflict with Rome[edit] Further information: Marcomannic Wars Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. It may have been erected in 176 or 177 to commemorate his campaigns on the northern borders.[96] During the rule of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire fought the Marcomannic Wars, a vast and protracted struggle against Marcomanni, Quadi, and other tribes along the middle Danube. The Costoboci also joined the anti-Roman coalition at some stage.[97][95] The invasion of 170/1[edit] Legio V Macedonica marked brick from Potaissa In AD 167 the Roman legion V Macedonica, returning from the Parthian War, moved its headquarters from Troesmis in Moesia Inferior to Potaissa in Dacia Porolissensis,[98][99] to defend the Dacian provinces against the Marcomannic attacks.[100] Other auxiliary units from Moesia Inferior participated in the middle Danube campaigns, leaving the lower Danube frontier defenses weakened.[100] Taking the opportunity,[100] in 170[101][94][102] or 171,[94][103] the Costoboci invaded Roman territory.[95] Meeting little opposition, they swept through and raided the provinces of Moesia Inferior, Moesia Superior, Thracia, Macedonia and Achaea.[60][95][104] Northern Balkans[edit] Crossing the Danube, the Costoboci burnt down a district of Histria which was thus abandoned.[105][106] Their attacks also affected Callatis and the walls of the city required repairs.[107][105] Two funerary inscriptions discovered at Tropaeum Traiani in Moesia Inferior commemorate Romans killed during the attacks: Lucius Fufidius Iulianus, a decurion and duumvir of the city and a man named Daizus, son of Comozous.[105] A vexillatio made of detachments of the legions I Italica and V Macedonica was deployed at Tropaeum in this period, perhaps to defend against these attacks.[108][100] The raiders then moved west reaching Dardania.[106] A tombstone found at Scupi in Moesia Superior was dedicated to Timonius Dassus, a decurion from the Roman auxiliary cohort II Aurelia Dardanorum, who fell in combat against the Costoboci.[109][106] Their offensive continued southwards, through Macedonia into Greece.[106] Greece[edit] In his description of the city of Elateia in central Greece, the contemporaneous travel-writer Pausanias mentioned an incident involving the local resistance against the Costoboci:[110] An army of bandits, called the Costobocs, who overran Greece in my day, visited among other cities Elateia. Whereupon a certain Mnesibulus gathered round him a company of men and put to the sword many of the barbarians, but he himself fell in the fighting. This Mnesibulus won several prizes for running, among which were prizes for the foot-race, and for the double race with shield, at the two hundred and thirty-fifth Olympic festival. In Runner Street at Elateia there stands a bronze statue of Mnesibulus. Pausanias, Description of Greece, X, 34, 5.[111] Ruins at Eleusis. View over the excavation site towards the Saronic Gulf. Thereafter, the barbarians reached Athens where they sacked the famous shrine of the Mysteries at Eleusis.[112][94][104][113] In May[104] or June[110] 171, the orator Aelius Aristides delivered a public speech in Smyrna, lamenting the limited damage recently inflicted to the sacred site.[114][94][104][110][115] Three local inscriptions praise an Eleusinian priest for saving the ritual's secrets.[116][117] Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procurator Lucius Julius Vehilius Gratus Julianus was sent to Greece with a vexillatio to clear out the remnants of the invaders.[118][119][94][120] The Costoboci were thus defeated.[121][115] Dacia[edit] In the same period the Costoboci may have attacked Dacia. A bronze hand dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus by a soldier from a cohort stationed in Dacia was found at Myszków in Western Ukraine. It has been suggested that this may have been loot from a Costobocan raid.[122][123][124] Some scholars suggest that it was during this turbulent period that members of King Pieporus' family were sent to Rome as hostages.[125][126][124][32] The coming of the Vandals[edit] Soon after AD 170,[127] the Vandal Astingi, under their kings, Raus and Raptus, reached the northern borders of Roman Dacia and offered the Romans their alliance in return for subsidies and land. Sextus Cornelius Clemens, the governor of the province, refused their demands, but he encouraged them to attack the troublesome Costoboci while offering protection for their women and children.[128][121][129][130] The Astingi occupied the territory of the Costoboci but they were soon attacked by another Vandal tribe, the Lacringi.[129][130][127] Both Astingi and Lacringi eventually became Roman allies, allowing the Romans to focus on the middle Danube in the Marcomannic wars.[129][130] Scholars variously suggest that the remnants of this tribe were subdued by the Vandals[73][127] or fled and sought refuge in the neighbouring territories of the Carpi[73][131] or in the Roman province of Dacia.[132] See also[edit] Dacia (Roman province) Free Dacians Marcomannic Wars Citations[edit] ^ Frazer 1898, p. 430 ^ Frazer 1898, p. 430. ^ a b Russu 1969, p. 116. ^ Russu 1969, p. 98. ^ Duridanov 1995, p. 836. ^ Faliyeyev (2007) Entry: "Costoboci" ^ Georgiev 1977, p. 271. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGeorgiev1977 (help) ^ a b c d e von Premerstein 1912, p. 146. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 165,167. ^ Talbert 2000, map 22. ^ a b c Frazer 1898, pp. 429-430. ^ a b c von Premerstein 1912, p. 145. ^ a b c d Ormerod 1997, p. 259. ^ a b c Batty 2008, p. 374. ^ a b c Russu 1959, p. 346. ^ Talbert 2000, pp. 336,1209. ^ Talbert 2000, maps 22,84. ^ a b Den Boeft et al. 1995, p. 105. ^ Den Boeft et al. 1995, p. 138. ^ Maenchen-Helfen Otto J. (1973) 448 ^ Frazer 1898, p. 429. ^ Opreanu 1994, p. 197. ^ Schütte 1917, pp. 100-101. ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 285. ^ Bichir 1980, p. 445. ^ a b Shchukin 1989, pp. 285,306. ^ Batty 2008, p. 375. ^ a b c d e Bichir 1980, p. 446. ^ Mikołajczyk 1984, p. 62. ^ a b Muratori 1740, p. 1039. ^ a b c Dessau 1892, p. 191. ^ a b Petersen & Wachtel 1998, p. 161. ^ a b Tomaschek 1980b, p. 35. ^ Detschew 1957, pp. 157-158. ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 35,47-48. ^ a b c d Georgiev 1983, p. 1212. ^ a b Dana 2003, p. 174. ^ a b Dana 2006, p. 119. ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 27. ^ Detschew 1957, p. 328. ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 36,48. ^ a b c d Dana 2003, p. 178. ^ a b c d Dana 2006, pp. 118-119. ^ a b c Alföldi 1944, pp. 36,49. ^ a b Georgiev 1983, p. 1200. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGeorgiev_1983 (help) ^ a b Dana 2003, pp. 179-181. ^ a b c d e f Dana 2006, p. 118. ^ a b Tomaschek 1980b, p. 20. ^ Detschew 1957, p. 366. ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 36. ^ Detschew 1957, p. 503. ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 37,50. ^ a b Georgiev 1983, p. 1212. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGeorgiev_1983 (help) ^ a b Dana 2003, p. 180. ^ Dana 2003, pp. 179-180. ^ Dana 2006, pp. 109-110,118. ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 40. ^ a b Detschew 1957, p. 186. ^ a b Alföldi 1944, pp. 37,51. ^ a b Birley 2000, p. 165. ^ a b von Premerstein 1912, p. 147. ^ Batty 2008, p. 22. ^ Heather 2010, p. 131. ^ Frazer 1898, p. 535. ^ Müllenhoff 1887, pp. 84–87. ^ Musset 1994, pp. 52,59. ^ Nandris 1976, p. 729. ^ Detschew 1957, p. 365. ^ Dana 2003, p. 179. ^ Schütte 1917, p. 82. ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 306. ^ Macrea 1970, p. 1039. ^ a b c Bichir 1976, p. 161. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBichir1976 (help) ^ Kazanski, Sharov & Shchukin 2006, p. 20. ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 280. ^ Bichir 1976, p. 164. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBichir1976 (help) ^ Schütte 1917, p. 99. ^ Batty (2008) 375 ^ a b Jazdewski 1948, p. 76. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJazdewski1948 (help) ^ Faliyeyev (2007) Entry on Costoboci ^ Philips Atlas of the Celts, p. 69. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPhilips_Atlas_of_the_Celts (help) ^ Batty 2009, p. 279. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBatty2009 (help) ^ Ptolemy Geographia III.8.1 ^ Sulimirski 1972, p. 104. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSulimirski1972 (help) ^ Mommsen (1996) 315 ^ Pliny NH VI.6 ^ Talbert 2000, pp. 336,1209, maps 22,84. ^ Amm. XXII.8.42 ^ Mommsen (1996) 315 ^ Batty (2008) map ^ Marquand 1895, p. 550. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMarquand1895 (help) ^ Frazer 1898, pp. 429, 535. ^ Chirică 1993, p. 158. ^ a b c d e f Kovács 2009, p. 198. ^ a b c d Croitoru 2009, p. 402. ^ Colledge 2000, p. 981. ^ Kovács 2009, pp. 201,216. ^ Aricescu 1980, pp. 11,46. ^ Kovács 2009, p. 207. ^ a b c d Aricescu 1980, p. 46. ^ Cortés 1995, pp. 191-193. ^ Birley 2000, p. 168. ^ Schiedel 1990. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchiedel1990 (help) ^ a b c d Johnson 2011, p. 206. ^ a b c Matei-Popescu & 2003-2005, p. 309. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatei-Popescu2003-2005 (help) ^ a b c d Petolescu 2007, p. 377. ^ Aricescu 1980, p. 86. ^ Tocilescu 1903, p. 31. ^ Basotova 2007, p. 409. ^ a b c Robertson Brown 2011, p. 80. ^ Jones 1935, p. 577. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 164-165. ^ Robertson Brown 2011, pp. 80,82. ^ Cortés 1995, pp. 188-191. ^ a b Robertson Brown 2011, p. 82. ^ Clinton 2005, pp. 414-416. ^ Schuddeboom 2009, pp. 213-214,231. ^ Kłodziński 2010, pp. 7,9. ^ Birley 2000, pp. 165,168. ^ Robertson Brown 2011, pp. 81-82. ^ a b Croitoru 2009, p. 403. ^ AE 1998 1113 ^ Croitoru 2009, p. 404. ^ a b Opreanu 1997, p. 248. ^ Mateescu 1923, p. 255. ^ Bichir 1980, p. 449. ^ a b c Opreanu 1997, p. 249. ^ Kovács 2009, p. 228. ^ a b c Merills & Miles 2010, p. 27. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMerillsMiles2010 (help) ^ a b c Birley 2000, p. 170. ^ Parker 1958, p. 24. ^ Schütte 1917, p. 143. Bibliography[edit] AE: L'Année épigraphique Alföldi, Andreas (1944). Zu den Schicksalen Siebenbürgens im Altertum. Budapest. Aricescu, Andrei (1980). The army in Roman Dobrudja. Basotova, Maja (2007). "A new veteran of the legion VII Claudia from the colonia Flavia Scupi". Arheološki Vestnik. 58: 405–409. Batty, Roger (2008). Rome and the Nomads: the Pontic-Danubian region in Antiquity.[unreliable source?] Bichir, Gheorghe (1976): History and Archaeology of the Carpi from the 2nd to the 4th centuries AD (English Trans. BAR Series 16 i) Bichir, Gheorghe (1980). "Dacii liberi în secolele II - IV e.n.". Revista de Istorie. 33 (3): 443–468. Birley, Anthony R. (2000) [1987]. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (2 ed.). Routledge. Chirică, Eduard (1993). "Une invasion "barbare" dans la Grèce Centrale au temps de Marc-Aurèle". Thraco-Dacica. 14: 157–158. Clinton, Kevin (2005). Eleusis, The Inscriptions on Stone: Documents of the Sanctuary of the Two Goddesses and Public Documents of the Deme. 1. Colledge, Malcolm A. R. (2000). "Art and architecture". Cambridge Ancient History. XI (2 ed.). pp. 966–983. Cortés, Juan Manuel (1995). "La datación de la expedición de los Costobocos: la subscripción de XXII K de Elio Arístides". Habis. 25: 187–193. Croitoru, Costin (2009). "Despre organizarea limes-ului la Dunărea de Jos. Note de lectură (V)". Istros. XV: 385–430. Dana, Dan (2003). "Les daces dans les ostraca du désert oriental de l'Égypte. Morphologie des noms daces". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 143: 166–186. Dana, Dan (2006). "The Historical Names of the Dacians and Their Memory: New Documents and a Preliminary Outlook". Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai - Historia (1): 99–127. Duridanov, Ivan (1995). "Thrakische und dakische Namen". Namenforschung. Ein Internationales Handbuch zur Onomastik. 1. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. pp. 820–840. Den Boeft, Jan; Drijvers, Jan Willem; Den Hengst, Daniel; Teitler, Hans C. (1995). Philological and Historical Commentaries on Ammianus Marcellinus. XXII. Groningen. Dessau, Hermann (1892). Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. 1. Berlin. Detschew, Dimiter (1957). Die thrakischen Sprachreste. Vienna. Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): Celtic Dacia Frazer, James George (1898). Pausanias's Description of Greece. 5. Georgiev, Vladimir (1983). "Thrakische und Dakische Namenkunde". Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. II.29.2. Berlin - New York. pp. 1195–1213. Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. Oxford University Press. Jazdzewski, Konrad (1948). Atlas to the prehistory of the Slavs: Issue 2, Part 1. Lodz Towarzystwo Naukowe. Johnson, Diane (2011). "Libanius' Monody for Daphne (Oration 60) and the Eleusinios Logos of Aelius Aristides". In Schmidt, Thomas; Fleury, Pascale (eds.). Perceptions of the Second Sophistic and its times. pp. 199–214. Jones, William Henry Samuel (1935). Pausanias Description of Greece, Books VIII.22-X. Harvard University Press. Kazanski, Michel; Sharov, Oleg; Shchukin, Mark B. (2006) [2006]. Des Goths Aux Huns: Archaeological Studies on Late Antiquity and Early Medieval Europe (400-1000 A.D.): Le Nord De La Mer Noire Au Bas-Empire Et a L'epoque Des Grandes Migrations. : British Archaeological Reports. ISBN 978-1-84171-756-2. Kłodziński, Karol (2010). "Equestrian cursus honorum basing on the careers of two prominent officers of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius". In Tempore. 4: 1–15. Kolendo, Jerzy (1978). "Un Romain d'Afrique élevé dans le pays de Costoboces: à propos de CIL VIII 14667". Acta Musei Napocensis. 15: 125–130. Kovács, Péter (2009). Marcus Aurelius' rain miracle and the Marcomannic wars. Brill. Kropotkin, Vladislav V. (1977). "Denkmäler der Przeworsk-Kultur in der Westukraine und ihre Beziehungen zur Lipica- und Cernjachov-Kultur". In Chropovský, Bohuslav (ed.). Symposium. Ausklang der Latène-Zivilisation und Anfänge der germanischen Besiedlung im mittleren Donaugebiet. Bratislava. pp. 173–200. Macrea, Mihail (1970). "Les Daces libres à l'époque romaine". In Filip, Jan (ed.). Actes du VIIe Congrés International des Sciences Prehistoriques et Protohistoriques, Prague 21-27 août 1966. 2. pp. 1038–1041. Mateescu, George G. (1923). "I Traci nelle epigrafi di Roma". Ephemeris Dacoromana. Rome. I: 57–290. Matei-Popescu, Florian (2003–2005). "Note epigrafice I". SCIVA. 54–56: 303–312. Merrills, Andrew H.; Miles, Richard (2010), The Vandals, Wiley-Blackwell Maenchen-Helfen Otto J. (1973) The world of the Huns : studies in their history and culture edited by Max Knight, published by Berkeley, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-01596-7 Mikołajczyk, Andrzej (1984). "The Transcarpathian finds of Geto-Dacian coins". Archaeologia Polona. 23: 49–66. Marquand, Allan in American Journal of Archaeology" (1895) Vol. 10, no.4 Müllenhoff, Karl (1887). Deutsche altertumskunde. 2. Berlin. Mommsen, Theodor (1885/6, 1996 Eng. translation): A History of Rome under the Emperors Muratori, Lodovico Antonio (1740). Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum. 2. Milan. Musset, Lucien (1994) [1965]. Les invasions: les vagues germaniques (3 ed.). Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Nandris, John (1976). "The Dacian Iron Age: A comment in a European Context". Festschrift für Richard Pittioni zum siebzigsten Geburtstag. I. Wien. pp. 723–736. ISBN 978-3-7005-4420-3. Opreanu, C. (1997). "Roman Dacia and its barbarian neighbours. Economic and diplomatic relations". Roman frontier studies 1995: proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. pp. 247–252. Opreanu, C. (1994). "Neamurile barbare de la frontierele Daciei Romane si relatiile lor politico-diplomatice cu Imperiul". Ephemeris Napocensis, EPH IV – 14. Institutul de Arheologie şi Istoria Artei Cluj. ISSN 1220-5249. Ormerod, Henry Arderne (1997) [1924]. Piracy in the ancient world: an essay in Mediterranean history. Parker, Henry Michael Deane (1958) [1935]. A history of the Roman world from AD 138 to 337. London: Methuen. Petersen, Leiva; Wachtel, Klaus (1998). Prosopographia Imperii Romani. Saec. I, II, III. VI. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. Petolescu, Constantin C. (2007). "Cronica epigrafică a României (XXVI, 2006)". SCIVA. 58 (3–4): 365–388. von Premerstein, Anton (1912). "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Marcus". Klio. 12: 139–178. Robertson Brown, Amelia (2011). "Banditry or Catastrophe? History, Archaeology, and Barbarian Raids on Roman Greece". In Mathisen, Ralph W.; Shanzer, Danuta (eds.). Romans, barbarians, and the transformation of the Roman world. pp. 79–95. Russu, Ion Iosif (1959). "Les Costoboces". Dacia. NS 3: 341–352. Russu, Ion Iosif (1969). "Die Sprache der Thrako-Daker" ('Thraco-Dacian language'). Editura Stiintifica. Scheidel, Walter (1990). "Probleme der Datierung des Costoboceneinfalls im Balkanraum unter Marcus Aurelius". Historia. 39: 493–498. Schuddeboom, Feyo L. (2009). Greek Religious Terminology - Telete & Orgia. Brill. Schütte, Gudmund (1917). Ptolemy's maps of northern Europe: a reconstruction of the prototypes. Copenhagen. Shchukin, Mark B. (1989). Rome and the Barbarians in Central and Eastern Europe: 1st century B.C.-1st century A.D. Talbert, Richard J. A. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Tocilescu, Grigore G. (1903). "Câteva monumente epigrafice descoperite în România". Revista pentru istorie, archeologie şi filologie. 9 (1): 3–83. Tomaschek, Wilhelm (1980a) [1893]. Die alten Thraker. I (2 ed.). Vienna. Tomaschek, Wilhelm (1980b) [1894]. Die alten Thraker. II.2 (2 ed.). Vienna. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Costoboci&oldid=1019781201" Categories: Ancient tribes in Dacia Dacian tribes Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from January 2011 CS1: long volume value Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Ελληνικά Español Français Hrvatski Italiano Magyar Nederlands Polski Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2021, at 11:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6158	----	Timothy Barnes - Wikipedia Timothy Barnes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Tennessee state senator, see Tim Barnes. Timothy D. Barnes Born (1942-03-13) March 13, 1942 (age 79) Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom Citizenship British Alma mater Balliol College Occupation Historian Employer University of Edinburgh Awards Conington Prize, Philip Schaff Prize Timothy David Barnes, FBA, FRSC (born 13 March 1942) is a British classicist. Contents 1 Biography 2 Selected works 3 Notes 4 References Biography[edit] Barnes was born in Yorkshire on 13 March 1942. He was educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield until 1960, going up to Balliol College, Oxford, where he read Literae Humaniores, taking his BA in 1964 and MA in 1967. He was Harmsworth Senior Scholar of Merton College, Oxford 1964–66 and Junior Research Fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford 1966–70. He was awarded his DPhil in 1970. In 1974 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the Conington prize. On receiving his doctorate he was immediately appointed assistant professor of Classics at University College, University of Toronto and in 1972 he was appointed associate professor. In 1976 he became professor of Classics, a post he held for thirty-one years until his retirement in 2007. He was three times associate chairman of Classics (1979–83, 1986–89, 1995–96). In the year 1976/7 he was a visiting member of the Institute for Advanced Study. 1983/4 he was Visiting Fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford and 1984/5 he was Connaught Senior Fellow in the Humanities. In 1989 he was elected a Fellow of the University of Trinity College. He delivered the Townsend Lectures at Cornell University in 1994. In 1982 he was awarded both the Philip Schaff Prize by the American Society of Church History for Constantine and Eusebius[1] and the Charles Goodwin Award of Merit by the American Philological Association. In 1985 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and in 2009 Foreign Member of the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters. In December 2007, he officially retired from the University of Toronto, and returned to the United Kingdom. He is currently an honorary fellow at the University of Edinburgh's School of Divinity,[2] working with the Centre for the Study of Christian Origins.[3] Most of Barnes' work has concerned the position of Christianity in the Later Roman Empire, both before state recognition of the Church and the working in practice of the latter. Many of his articles have challenged traditionally held chronologies and explored the implications of fresh dating. Selected works[edit] Barnes, Timothy D (1971), Tertullian a historical and literary study, Oxford Clarendon Press, OCLC 265040582 Barnes, Timothy David (1978), The sources of the Historia Augusta, Latomus, ISBN 978-2-87031-005-2 Barnes, Timothy David (1981), Constantine and Eusebius, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 Barnes, Timothy David (1982), The new empire of Diocletian and Constantine, London, ISBN 0-7837-2221-4 Barnes, Timothy David (1984), Early Christianity and the Roman Empire, CS 207, Variorum Reprints, ISBN 978-0-86078-155-4, OCLC 251547581 Barnes, Timothy David (1993), Athanasius and Constantius : theology and politics in the Constantinian empire, Harvard University Press, hdl:2027/heb.01088, ISBN 978-0-674-00549-5 Barnes, Timothy D (1994), From Eusebius to Augustine : selected papers 1982 – 1993, Collected studies series, 438, Aldershot Variorum, ISBN 978-0-86078-397-8, OCLC 260175509 Barnes, Timothy David (1998), Ammianus Marcellinus and the representation of historical reality, Cornell studies in classical philology, v. 56., Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-3526-3 Notes[edit] ^ ASCH Schaff Prize Archived 7 May 2012 at archive.today. American Society of Church History. Accessed 20 September 2008. ^ Academic Staff in the School of Divinity Archived 8 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine. University of Edinburgh, 2009. Accessed 27 September 2009. ^ Academic Staff Principally Involved with the CSCO Archived 11 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine. University of Edinburgh, 2009. Accessed 27 September 2009. References[edit] "Timothy David BARNES". Canadian Who's Who. University of Toronto Press. 1997.[permanent dead link] Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timothy_Barnes&oldid=1012905212" Categories: 1942 births Living people Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada University of Toronto faculty Fellows of The Queen's College, Oxford Fellows of Wolfson College, Oxford Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Alumni of Merton College, Oxford People educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield Academics of the University of Edinburgh Fellows of the British Academy Hidden categories: Webarchive template archiveis links Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from September 2017 Use British English from September 2017 Articles with hCards All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français 日本語 Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 18 March 2021, at 23:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6160	----	Licinius - Wikipedia Licinius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 308 to 324 For other Romans of this name, see Licinia gens. Roman emperor Licinius Licinius in a follis minted at Londinium, c. 311. Legend: imp licinius p f aug. Roman emperor Reign 11 November 308 – 19 September 324 Predecessor Severus Successor Constantine I (alone) Alongside Galerius (East, 308–311) Constantine I (West, 308–324) Maximinus Daza (311–313) Valens (316–317) Martinianus (324) Born c. 265[1] Moesia Superior, Roman Empire Died Spring of 325 (aged around 60) Thessalonica Spouse Flavia Julia Constantia Issue Licinius Caesar Names Valerius Licinianus Licinius[1] Religion Paganism Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c. 265 – 325) was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan, AD 313, that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis (AD 324), and was later executed on the orders of Constantine I. Contents 1 Early Reign 2 Conflict with Constantine I 3 Character and legacy 4 See also 5 References and sources 5.1 References 5.2 Sources 6 External links Early Reign[edit] Born to a Dacian[1][2] peasant family in Moesia Superior, Licinius accompanied his close childhood friend, the future emperor Galerius, on the Persian expedition in 298.[1] He was trusted enough by Galerius that in 307 he was sent as an envoy to Maxentius in Italy to attempt to reach some agreement about the latter's illegitimate political position.[1] Galerius then trusted the eastern provinces to Licinius when he went to deal with Maxentius personally after the death of Flavius Valerius Severus.[3] Upon his return to the east Galerius elevated Licinius to the rank of Augustus in the West on 11 November 308, and under his immediate command were the Balkan provinces of Illyricum, Thrace and Pannonia.[2] In 310 he took command of the war against the Sarmatians, inflicting a severe defeat on them.[4] On the death of Galerius in May 311,[5] Licinius entered into an agreement with Maximinus Daza to share the eastern provinces between them. By this point, not only was Licinius the official Augustus of the west but he also possessed part of the eastern provinces as well, as the Hellespont and the Bosporus became the dividing line, with Licinius taking the European provinces and Maximinus taking the Asian.[2] An alliance between Maximinus and Maxentius forced the two remaining emperors to enter into a formal agreement with each other.[3] So in March 313 Licinius married Flavia Julia Constantia, half-sister of Constantine I,[citation needed] at Mediolanum (now Milan); they had a son, Licinius the Younger, in 315. Their marriage was the occasion for the jointly-issued "Edict of Milan" that reissued Galerius' previous edict allowing Christianity (and any religion one might choose) to be professed in the Empire,[2] with additional dispositions that restored confiscated properties to Christian congregations and exempted Christian clergy from municipal civic duties.[6] The redaction of the edict as reproduced by Lactantius - who follows the text affixed by Licinius in Nicomedia on 14 June 313, after Maximinus' defeat - uses neutral language, expressing a will to propitiate "any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens".[7] Nummus of Licinius Daza in the meantime decided to attack Licinius. Leaving Syria with 70,000 men, he reached Bithynia, although harsh weather he encountered along the way had gravely weakened his army. In April 313, he crossed the Bosporus and went to Byzantium, which was held by Licinius' troops. Undeterred, he took the town after an eleven-day siege. He moved to Heraclea, which he captured after a short siege, before moving his forces to the first posting station. With a much smaller body of men, possibly around 30,000,[8] Licinius arrived at Adrianople while Daza was still besieging Heraclea. Before the decisive engagement, Licinius allegedly had a vision in which an angel recited him a generic prayer that could be adopted by all cults and which Licinius then repeated to his soldiers.[9] On 30 April 313, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Tzirallum, and in the ensuing battle Daza's forces were crushed. Ridding himself of the imperial purple and dressing like a slave, Daza fled to Nicomedia.[3] Believing he still had a chance to come out victorious, Daza attempted to stop the advance of Licinius at the Cilician Gates by establishing fortifications there. Unfortunately for Daza, Licinius' army succeeded in breaking through, forcing Daza to retreat to Tarsus where Licinius continued to press him on land and sea. The war between them ended only with Daza's death in August 313.[2] Given that Constantine had already crushed his rival Maxentius in 312, the two men decided to divide the Roman world between them. As a result of this settlement, the Tetrarchy was replaced by a system of two emperors, called Augusti: Licinius became Augustus of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, became Augustus of the West.[5] After making the pact, Licinius rushed immediately to the East to deal with another threat, an invasion by the Persian Sassanid Empire.[3] Conflict with Constantine I[edit] Sculptural portraits of Licinius (left) and his rival Constantine I (right). In 314, a civil war erupted between Licinius and Constantine, in which Constantine used the pretext that Licinius was harbouring Senecio, whom Constantine accused of plotting to overthrow him.[3] Constantine prevailed at the Battle of Cibalae in Pannonia (8 October 314).[2] Although the situation was temporarily settled, with both men sharing the consulship in 315, it was but a lull in the storm. The next year a new war erupted, when Licinius named Valerius Valens co-emperor, only for Licinius to suffer a humiliating defeat on the plains in the Battle of Mardia (also known as the Battle of Campus Ardiensis) in Thrace. The emperors were reconciled after these two battles and Licinius had his co-emperor Valens killed.[2] Over the next ten years, the two imperial colleagues maintained an uneasy truce.[3] Licinius kept himself busy with a campaign against the Sarmatians in 318,[2] but temperatures rose again in 321 when Constantine pursued some Sarmatians, who had been ravaging some territory in his realm, across the Danube into what was technically Licinius's territory.[2] When he repeated this with another invasion, this time by the Goths who were pillaging Thrace under their leader Rausimod, Licinius complained that Constantine had broken the treaty between them. Constantine wasted no time going on the offensive. Licinius's fleet of 350 ships was defeated by Constantine's fleet in 323. Then in 324, Constantine, tempted by the "advanced age and unpopular vices"[5][3] of his colleague, again declared war against him and having defeated his army of 165,000 men[10] at the Battle of Adrianople (3 July 324), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium.[5][2] The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius in the Battle of the Hellespont by Crispus, Constantine's eldest son and Caesar, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the Battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18 September),[5] resulted in Licinius' final submission.[3] In this conflict Licinius was supported by the Gothic prince Alica. Due to the intervention of Flavia Julia Constantia, Constantine's sister and also Licinius' wife, both Licinius and his co-emperor Martinian were initially spared, Licinius being imprisoned in Thessalonica, Martinian in Cappadocia; however, both former emperors were subsequently executed. After his defeat, Licinius attempted to regain power with Gothic support, but his plans were exposed, and he was sentenced to death. While attempting to flee to the Goths, Licinius was apprehended at Thessalonica. Constantine had him hanged, accusing him of conspiring to raise troops among the barbarians.[3][11] Character and legacy[edit] One of a hoard of 5 or 6 identical silver plates celebrating Licinius's 10th anniversary as Emperor, discovered in Niš, Serbia and now in the British Museum in London[12] Another plate from the same hoard in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna After defeating Daza, he had put to death Flavius Severianus, the son of the emperor Severus, as well as Candidianus, the son of Galerius.[3] He also ordered the execution of the wife and daughter of the Emperor Diocletian, who had fled from the court of Licinius before being discovered at Thessalonica.[3] As part of Constantine's attempts to decrease Licinius's popularity, he actively portrayed his brother-in-law as a pagan supporter. This may not have been the case; contemporary evidence tends to suggest that he was at least a committed supporter of Christians at one point.[citation needed] He co-authored the Edict of Milan which ended the Great Persecution, and re-affirmed the rights of Christians in his half of the empire. He also added the Christian symbol to his armies, and attempted to regulate the affairs of the Church hierarchy just as Constantine and his successors were to do. His wife was a devout Christian.[13] It is even a possibility that he converted.[14] However, Eusebius of Caesarea, writing under the rule of Constantine, charges him with expelling Christians from the Palace and ordering military sacrifices to pagan gods, as well as interfering with the Church's internal procedures and organization.[15] It has been theorized that he originally supported Christians along with Constantine, but later in his life turned against them and to paganism.[14] Finally, on Licinius's death, his memory was branded with infamy; his statues were thrown down; and by edict, all his laws and judicial proceedings during his reign were abolished.[3] See also[edit] Civil wars of the Tetrarchy References and sources[edit] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Jones, A.H.M.; Martindale, J.R. (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD 260–395. Cambridge University Press. p. 509. ^ a b c d e f g h i j DiMaio, Michael, Jr. (23 February 1997). "Licinius (308–324 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter XIV". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. II. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Lendering, Jona. "Licinius". Livius.org. ^ a b c d e  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Licinius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 587. ^ Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rousselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation: des Sévères à Constantin, 192-337. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. p. 228. ISBN 2-02-025819-6. ^ Lactantius, De Mort. Pers., ch. 48, cf. Internet History Sourcebooks Project, Fordham University, [1]. Accessed 31 July 2012 ^ Kohn, George Childs, Dictionary Of Wars, Revised Edition, pg 398. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain en Mutation, 229 ^ Grant p. 46 ^ Grant, pp. 47–48 ^ British Museum Collection ^ Peter J. Leithart, Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL: 2010, ISBN 978-0-8308-2722-0, page 101 ^ a b Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. The History of Christianity. ^ James Richard Gearey, "The Persecution of Licinius". MA thesis, University of Calgary, 1999, Chapter 4. Available at [2]. Accessed 31 July 2012. Sources[edit] Grant, Michael (1993), The Emperor Constantine, London. ISBN 0-7538-0528-6 Pears, Edwin. “The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 324.” The English Historical Review, Vol. 24, No. 93 (January 1909): 1–17. Seeck, Otto, "Licinius 31a", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, XIII (1), columns 222–231 (Stuttgart, 1926). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Licinius. De Imperatoribus Romanis: Licinius Socrates Scholasticus account of Licinius' end Roman and Greek Coins Regnal titles Preceded by Valerius Severus Roman emperor 308–324 With: Galerius, Constantine I, Maximinus, Valens and Martinianus Succeeded by Constantine I Political offices Preceded by Diocletian Galerius Roman consul 309 with Constantine Augustus Succeeded by Tatius Andronicus Pompeius Probus Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Daza Roman consul II 312–313 with Constantine Augustus Succeeded by G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul III 315 with Constantine Augustus Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus G. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus Preceded by Ovinius Gallicanus Caesonius Bassus Roman consul IV 318 with Crispus Succeeded by Constantine Augustus Licinius Caesar Preceded by Constantine Augustus Constantine Caesar Roman consul V 321 with Licinius Caesar Succeeded by Petronius Probianus Amnius Anicius Julianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries United States Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Licinius&oldid=1028317575" Categories: 260s births 325 deaths 4th-century executions 4th-century murdered monarchs 4th-century Roman emperors Constantinian dynasty Dacians Executed Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Licinii People executed by hanging People executed by the Roman Empire People from Zaječar District Tetrarchy Valerii Hidden categories: CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 07:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6172	----	Caracalla - Wikipedia Caracalla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 198 to 217 For the felid species, see Caracal. For the racehorse, see Caracalla (horse). Roman emperor Caracalla Bust, National Archaeological Museum, Naples Roman emperor Reign 28 January 198 – 8 April 217 Predecessor Septimius Severus Successor Macrinus Co-rulers Septimius Severus (198–211) Geta (209–211) Born Lucius Septimius Bassianus 4 April 188 Lugdunum Died 8 April 217 (aged 29) On the road between Edessa and Carrhae Spouse Fulvia Plautilla Names Marcus Aurelius Antoninus[1] Dynasty Severan Father Septimius Severus Mother Julia Domna Roman imperial dynasties The Severan Tondo Severan dynasty Chronology Septimius Severus 193–211 Caracalla 198–217 Geta 209–211 Interlude: Macrinus 217–218 —with Diadumenian 218 Elagabalus 218–222 Severus Alexander 222–235 Dynasty Severan dynasty family tree All biographies Succession Preceded by Year of the Five Emperors Followed by Crisis of the Third Century Caracalla (/ˌkærəˈkælə/ KARR-ə-KAL-ə;[2] 4 April 188 – 8 April 217), formally known as Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), was Roman emperor from 198 to 217. He was a member of the Severan dynasty, the elder son of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. Co-ruler with his father from 198, he continued to rule with his brother Geta, emperor from 209, after their father's death in 211. His brother was murdered by the Praetorian Guard later that year, supposedly under orders from Caracalla himself, who then reigned afterwards as sole ruler of the Roman Empire. He found administration to be mundane, leaving those responsibilities to his mother, Julia Domna, to attend to. Caracalla's reign featured domestic instability and external invasions by the Germanic peoples. Caracalla's reign became notable for the Antonine Constitution (Latin: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Roman Empire. The edict gave all the enfranchised men Caracalla's adopted praenomen and nomen: "Marcus Aurelius". Domestically, Caracalla became known for the construction of the Baths of Caracalla, which became the second-largest baths in Rome; for the introduction of a new Roman currency named the antoninianus, a sort of double denarius; and for the massacres he ordered, both in Rome and elsewhere in the empire. In 216, Caracalla began a campaign against the Parthian Empire. He did not see this campaign through to completion due to his assassination by a disaffected soldier in 217. Macrinus succeeded him as emperor three days later. The ancient sources portray Caracalla as a tyrant and as a cruel leader, an image that has survived into modernity. Dio Cassius (c. 155 – c. 235) and Herodian (c. 170 – c. 240) present Caracalla as a soldier first and an emperor second. In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth started the legend of Caracalla's role as the king of Britain. Later, in the 18th century, the works of French painters revived images of Caracalla due to apparent parallels between Caracalla's tyranny and that ascribed to Louis XVI of France (r. 1774–1792). Modern works continue to portray Caracalla as an evil ruler, painting him as one of the most tyrannical of all Roman emperors. Contents 1 Names 2 Early life 2.1 Caesar 2.2 Co-augustus 3 Reign as senior emperor 3.1 Geta as co-augustus 3.2 Geta's murder 4 Reign as sole emperor 4.1 Alamannic war 4.2 Provincial tour 4.3 Baths 4.4 Caracalla and Serapis 4.5 Constitutio Antoniniana 4.6 Monetary policy 4.7 Military policy 4.8 Parthian war 5 Death 6 Portraiture 7 Legacy 7.1 Damnatio memoriae 7.2 Classical portrayal 7.3 Medieval legends 7.4 Eighteenth-century artworks and the French Revolution 7.5 Modern portrayal 8 Severan dynasty family tree 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 External links Names Caracalla's name at birth was Lucius Septimius Bassianus. He was renamed Marcus Aurelius Antoninus at the age of seven as part of his father's attempt at union with the families of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.[3][4][1] According to the 4th century historian Aurelius Victor in his Epitome de Caesaribus, he became known by the agnomen "Caracalla" after a Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore and made fashionable.[5] He may have begun wearing it during his campaigns on the Rhine and Danube.[6] Dio generally referred to him as Tarautas, after a famously diminutive and violent gladiator of the time.[7] Early life Bust of Septimius Severus, Caracalla's father (Glyptothek) Bust of Publius Septimius Geta, Caracalla's brother (Louvre) Caracalla & Geta: Bearfight in the Colosseum, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1907 Caracalla was born in Lugdunum, Gaul (now Lyon, France), on 4 April 188 to Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) and Julia Domna, thus giving him Punic paternal ancestry and Arab maternal ancestry.[8] He had a slightly younger brother, Geta, with whom Caracalla briefly ruled as co-emperor.[3][9] Caracalla was five years old when his father was acclaimed augustus on 9 April 193.[10] Caesar In early 195, Caracalla's father Septimius Severus had himself adopted posthumously by the deified emperor (divus) Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180); accordingly, in 195 or 196 Carcalla was given the imperial rank of caesar, adopting the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caesar, and was pronounced Latin: imperator destinatus (or designatus) in 197, possibly on his birthday, 4 April, and certainly before 7 May.[10] He thus became part of the well-remembered Antonine dynasty.[11] Co-augustus Caracalla's father appointed Caracalla joint augustus and full emperor from 28 January 198.[12][13] This was the day of Septimius Severus's triumph was celebrated, in honour of his victory over the Parthian Empire in the Roman–Persian Wars; he had successfully sacked the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, after winning the Battle of Ctesiphon, probably in October 197.[14] He was also awarded tribunician power and the title of imperator.[10] In inscriptions, Caracalla is given from 198 the title of the chief priesthood, pontifex maximus.[11][10] His brother Geta was proclaimed nobilissimus caesar on the same day, and their father Septimius Severus was awarded the victory name Parthicus Maximus.[10] In 199 he was inducted into the Arval Brethren.[11] By the end of 199, he was entitled pater patriae.[11] In 202 he was Roman consul, having been named consul designatus the previous year.[11] His colleague was his father, serving his own third consulship.[14] In 202 Caracalla was forced to marry the daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, Fulvia Plautilla, a woman whom he hated, though for what reason is unknown.[15] The wedding took place between the 9 and the 15 April.[11] In 205 Caracalla was consul for the second time, in company with Geta – his brother's first consulship.[11] By 205 Caracalla had got Plautianus executed for treason, though he had probably fabricated the evidence of the plot.[15] It was then that he banished his wife, whose later killing might have been carried out under Caracalla's orders.[3][15] On 28 January 207, Caracalla celebrated his decennalia, the tenth anniversary of the beginning of his reign.[11] 208 was the year of his third and Geta's second consulship.[11] Geta was himself granted the rank of augustus and tribunician powers in September or October 209.[11][16][10] During the reign of his father, Caracalla's mother Julia Domna had played a prominent public role, receiving titles of honour such as "Mother of the camp", but she also played a role behind the scenes helping Septimius administer the empire.[17] Described as ambitious,[18] Julia Domna surrounded herself with thinkers and writers from all over the empire.[19] While Caracalla was mustering and training troops for his planned Persian invasion, Julia remained in Rome, administering the empire. Julia's growing influence in state affairs was the beginning of a trend of emperors' mothers having influence, which continued throughout the Severan dynasty.[20] Reign as senior emperor On 4 February 211, Septimius Severus died, leaving his two sons and co-augusti to rule the empire. On the death of his father, Caracalla adopted his father's cognomen, Severus, and assumed the chief priesthood as pontifex maximus.[11] His name became Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Pius Augustus.[11] Geta as co-augustus Geta Dying in his Mother's Arms, Jacques-Augustin-Catherine Pajou, 1766–1828 (Staatsgalerie Stuttgart) Septimius Severus had died at Eboracum (present day York, England) while on campaign in Caledonia, to the north of Roman Britain.[21] Caracalla and his brother, Geta, jointly inherited the throne upon their father's death.[16][21] Caracalla and Geta ended the Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210 after concluding a peace with the Caledonians that returned the border of Roman Britain to the line demarcated by Hadrian's Wall.[16][22] During the journey back to Rome with their father's ashes, Caracalla and his brother continuously argued with one another, making relations between them increasingly hostile.[16][22] Caracalla and Geta considered dividing the empire in half along the Bosphorus to make their co-rule less hostile. Caracalla was to rule in the west and Geta was to rule in the east. They were persuaded not to do this by their mother.[22] Geta's murder On 26 December 211, at a reconciliation meeting arranged by their mother, Geta was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard loyal to Caracalla. Geta died in his mother's arms. It is widely accepted, and clearly most likely, that Caracalla ordered the assassination himself, as the two had never been on favourable terms with one another, much less after succeeding their father.[21] Caracalla then persecuted and executed most of Geta's supporters and ordered a damnatio memoriae pronounced by the Senate against his brother's memory.[5][23] Geta's image was removed from all paintings, coins were melted down, statues were destroyed, his name was struck from papyrus records, and it became a capital offence to speak or write Geta's name.[24] In the aftermath of the damnatio memoriae, an estimated 20,000 people were massacred.[23][24] Those killed were Geta's inner circle of guards and advisers, friends, and other military staff under his employ.[23] Reign as sole emperor Alamannic war Bust of Julia Domna (Museo Chiaramonti) In 213, about a year after Geta's death, Caracalla left Rome, never to return.[25] He went north to the German frontier to deal with the Alamanni, a confederation of Germanic tribes who had broken through the limes in Raetia.[25][26] During the campaign of 213–214, Caracalla successfully defeated some of the Germanic tribes while settling other difficulties through diplomacy, though precisely with whom these treaties were made remains unknown.[26][27] While there, Caracalla strengthened the frontier fortifications of Raetia and Germania Superior, collectively known as the Agri Decumates, so that it was able to withstand any further barbarian invasions for another twenty years. When Geta died in 211, Julia Domna's responsibilities increased, because Caracalla found administrative tasks to be mundane.[17] She may have taken on one of the more important civil functions of the emperor; receiving petitions and answering correspondence.[28] The extent of her role in this position, however, is probably overstated. She may have represented her son and played a role in meetings and answering queries; however, the final authority on legal matters was Caracalla.[28] The emperor filled all of the roles in the legal system as judge, legislator, and administrator.[28] Provincial tour The Roman Empire during the reign of Caracalla In spring 214, Caracalla departed for the eastern provinces, travelling through the Danubian provinces and arriving in Asia and Bithynia.[11] The winter of 214/215 he spent at Nicomedia. Before 4 April 214 he had left Nicomedia, and in the summer he was at Antioch on the Orontes.[11] From December 215 he was at Alexandria in the Nile Delta, where he stayed until March or April 216.[11] When the inhabitants of Alexandria heard of Caracalla's claims that he had killed his brother Geta in self-defence, they produced a satire mocking this as well as Caracalla's other pretensions.[29][30] In 215 Caracalla travelled to Alexandria and responded to this insult by slaughtering the deputation of leading citizens who had unsuspectingly assembled before the city to greet his arrival, before setting his troops against Alexandria for several days of looting and plunder.[25][31] In spring 216 he arrived again at Antioch and before 27 May had set out for his Persian War.[11] For the winter of 215/216 he was at Edessa.[11] Caracalla moved east into Armenia. By 216 he had pushed through Armenia and south into Parthia.[32] Baths The Baths of Caracalla Caracalla, 211 AD, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1902 Main article: Baths of Caracalla Construction on the Baths of Caracalla began in 211 at the start of Caracalla's rule. The thermae are named for Caracalla, though it is most probable that his father was responsible for their planning. In 216 a partial inauguration of the baths took place, but the outer perimeter of the baths was not completed until the reign of Severus Alexander.[33] These large baths were typical of the Roman practice of building complexes for social and state activities in large densely populated cities.[33] The baths covered around 50 acres (or 202,000 square metres) of land and could accommodate around 1,600 bathers at any one time.[33] They were the second largest public baths built in ancient Rome and were complete with swimming pools, exercise yards, a stadium, steam rooms, libraries, meeting rooms, fountains, and other amenities, all of which were enclosed within formal gardens.[33][34] The interior spaces were decorated with colourful marble floors, columns, mosaics, and colossal statuary.[35] Caracalla and Serapis Caracalla as Pharaoh, Temple of Kom Ombo At the outset of his reign, Caracalla declared divine support for Serapis – god of healing. The Iseum et Serapeum in Alexandria was apparently renovated during Caracalla's co-rule with his father Septimius Severus. The evidence for this exists in two inscriptions found near the temple that appear to bear their names. Additional archaeological evidence exists for this in the form of two papyri that have been dated to the Severan period and also two statues associated with the temple that have been dated to around 200 AD. Upon Caracalla's ascension to being sole ruler in 212, the imperial mint began striking coins bearing Serapis' image. This was a reflection of the god's central role during Caracalla's reign. After Geta's death, the weapon that had killed him was dedicated to Serapis by Caracalla. This was most likely done to cast Serapis into the role of Caracalla's protector from treachery.[36] Caracalla also erected a temple on the Quirinal Hill in 212, which he dedicated to Serapis.[31] A fragmented inscription found in the church of Sant' Agata dei Goti in Rome records the construction, or possibly restoration, of a temple dedicated to the god Serapis. The inscription bears the name "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus", a reference to either Caracalla or Elagabalus, but more likely to Caracalla due to his known strong association with the god. Two other inscriptions dedicated to Serapis, as well as a granite crocodile similar to one discovered at the Iseum et Serapeum, were also found in the area around the Quirinal Hill.[37] Constitutio Antoniniana Face of Caracalla from a bronze statue (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Main article: Constitutio Antoniniana The Constitutio Antoniniana (lit. "Constitution of Antoninus", also called "Edict of Caracalla" or "Antonine Constitution") was an edict issued in 212 by Caracalla declaring that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship,[38] with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.[39][40][41][42][43] Before 212 the majority of Roman citizens had been inhabitants of Roman Italia, with about 4–7% of all peoples in the Roman Empire being Roman citizens at the time of the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Outside Rome, citizenship was restricted to Roman coloniae[a] – Romans, or their descendants, living in the provinces, the inhabitants of various cities throughout the Empire – and small numbers of local nobles such as kings of client countries. Provincials, on the other hand, were usually non-citizens, although some magistrates and their families and relatives held the Latin Right.[b][47] Dio maintains that one purpose for Caracalla issuing the edict was the desire to increase state revenue; at the time, Rome was in a difficult financial situation and needed to pay for the new pay raises and benefits that were being conferred on the military.[48] The edict widened the obligation for public service and gave increased revenue through the inheritance and emancipation taxes that only had to be paid by Roman citizens.[25] However, few of those that gained citizenship were wealthy, and while it is true that Rome was in a difficult financial situation, it is thought that this could not have been the sole purpose of the edict.[48] The provincials also benefited from this edict because they were now able to think of themselves as equal partners to the Romans in the empire.[25] Another purpose for issuing the edict, as described within the papyrus upon which part of the edict was inscribed, was to appease the gods who had delivered Caracalla from conspiracy.[49] The conspiracy in question was in response to Caracalla's murder of Geta and the subsequent slaughter of his followers; fratricide would only have been condoned if his brother had been a tyrant.[50] The damnatio memoriae against Geta and the large payments Caracalla had made to his own supporters were designed to protect himself from possible repercussions. After this had succeeded, Caracalla felt the need to repay the gods of Rome by returning the favour to the people of Rome through a similarly grand gesture. This was done through the granting of citizenship.[50][51] Another purpose for issuing the edict might have been related to the fact that the periphery of the empire was now becoming central to its existence, and the granting of citizenship may have been simply a logical outcome of Rome's continued expansion of citizenship rights.[51][52] Monetary policy O: laureate head of Caracalla ANTONINVS PIVS AVG. GERM. R: Sol holding globe, rising hand Pontifex Maximus, TRibunus Plebis XVIIII, COnSul IIII, Pater Patriae silver denarius struck in Rome 216 AD; ref.: RIC 281b, C 359 The expenditures that Caracalla made with the large bonuses he gave to soldiers prompted him to debase the coinage soon after his ascension.[5] At the end of Severus' reign, and early into Caracalla's, the Roman denarius had an approximate silver purity of around 55%, but by the end of Caracalla's reign the purity had been reduced to about 51%.[53][54] In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus, a coin intended to serve as a double denarius.[55] This new currency, however, had a silver purity of about 52% for the period between 215 and 217 and an actual size ratio of 1 antoninianus to 1.5 denarii. This in effect made the antoninianus equal to about 1.5 denarii.[56][57][58] The reduced silver purity of the coins caused people to hoard the old coins that had higher silver content, aggravating the inflation problem caused by the earlier devaluation of the denarii.[55][56] Military policy During his reign as emperor, Caracalla raised the annual pay of an average legionary from 2000 sesterces (500 denarii) to 2700–3000 sesterces (675–750 denarii). He lavished many benefits on the army, which he both feared and admired, in accordance with the advice given by his father on his deathbed always to heed the welfare of the soldiers and ignore everyone else.[16][26] Caracalla needed to gain and keep the trust of the military, and he did so with generous pay raises and popular gestures.[59] He spent much of his time with the soldiers, so much so that he began to imitate their dress and adopt their manners.[5][60][61] After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with the Greek-Macedonian general and conqueror Alexander the Great.[62][63] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[62][63][64] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[64] As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii.[64] Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.[63] Parthian war Main article: Parthian war of Caracalla In 216 Caracalla pursued a series of aggressive campaigns in the east against the Parthians, intended to bring more territory under direct Roman control. He offered the king of Parthia, Artabanus V of Parthia, a marriage proposal between himself and the king's daughter.[6][65] Artabanus refused the offer, realizing that the proposal was merely an attempt to unite the kingdom of Parthia under the control of Rome.[65] In response, Caracalla used the opportunity to start a campaign against the Parthians. That summer Caracalla began to attack the countryside east of the Tigris in the Parthian war of Caracalla.[65] In the following winter, Caracalla retired to Edessa, modern Şanlıurfa in south-east Turkey, and began making preparations to renew the campaign by spring.[65] Death At the beginning of 217, Caracalla was still based at Edessa prior to renewing hostilities against Parthia.[6] On 8 April 217 Caracalla was travelling to visit a temple near Carrhae, now Harran in southern Turkey, where in 53 BC the Romans had suffered a defeat at the hands of the Parthians.[6] After stopping briefly to urinate, Caracalla was approached by a soldier, Justin Martialis, and stabbed to death.[6] Martialis had been incensed by Caracalla's refusal to grant him the position of centurion, and the praetorian prefect Macrinus, Caracalla's successor, saw the opportunity to use Martialis to end Caracalla's reign.[65] In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla's death, his murderer, Martialis, was killed as well.[6] When Caracalla was murdered, Julia was in Antioch sorting out correspondence, removing unimportant messages from the bunch so that when Caracalla returned, he would not be overburdened with duties.[17] Three days later, Macrinus declared himself emperor with the support of the Roman army.[66][67] Gold medallion of Caracalla (Bode Museum) Portraiture This medallion exemplifies the typical manner in which Caracalla was depicted (Walters Art Museum) Caracalla's official portrayal as sole emperor marks a break from the detached images of the philosopher-emperors who preceded him: his close-cropped haircut is that of a soldier, his pugnacious scowl a realistic and threatening presence. This rugged soldier-emperor, an iconic archetype, was adopted by most of the following emperors, such as Maximinus Thrax, who were dependent on the support of the troops to rule the empire.[68][69] Herodian describes Caracalla as having preferred northern European clothing, Caracalla being the name of the short Gaulish cloak that he made fashionable, and he often wore a blond wig.[70] Dio mentions that when Caracalla was a boy, he had a tendency to show an angry or even savage facial expression.[71] The way Caracalla wanted to be portrayed to his people can be seen through the many surviving busts and coins. Images of the young Caracalla cannot be clearly distinguished from his younger brother Geta.[72] On the coins, Caracalla was shown laureate after becoming augustus in 197; Geta is bareheaded until he became augustus himself in 209.[73] Between 209 and their father's death in February 211, both brothers are shown as mature young men who were ready to take over the empire. Between the death of the father and the assassination of Geta towards the end of 211, Caracalla's portrait remains static with a short full beard while Geta develops a long beard with hair strains like his father. The latter was a strong indicator of Geta's effort to be seen as the true successor to their father, an effort that came to naught when he was murdered.[73] Caracalla's presentation on coins during the period of his co-reign with his father, from 198 to 210, are in broad terms in line with the third-century imperial representation; most coin types communicate military and religious messages, with other coins giving messages of saeculum aureum and virtues.[74] During Caracalla's sole reign, from 212 to 217, a significant shift in representation took place. The majority of coins produced during this period made associations with divinity or had religious messages; others had non-specific and unique messages that were only circulated during Caracalla's sole rule.[75] Legacy Damnatio memoriae Caracalla was not subject to a proper damnatio memoriae after his assassination; while the Senate disliked him, his popularity with the military prevented Macrinus and the Senate from openly declaring him to be a hostis. Macrinus, in an effort to placate the Senate, instead ordered the secret removal of statues of Caracalla from public view. After his death, the public made comparisons between him and other condemned emperors and called for the horse race celebrating his birthday to be abolished and for gold and silver statues dedicated to him to be melted down. These events were, however, limited in scope; most erasures of his name from inscriptions were either accidental or occurred as a result of re-use. Macrinus had Caracalla deified and commemorated on coins as Divus Antoninus. There does not appear to have been any intentional mutilation of Caracalla in any images that were created during his reign as sole emperor.[76] Bronze portrait of Caracalla (Antikensammlung Berlin) Classical portrayal Caracalla wearing nemes and uraeus headdress as Roman pharaoh, from the Nile bank opposite Terenouthis. (Alexandria National Museum)[77] Caracalla is presented in the ancient sources of Dio, Herodian, and the Historia Augusta as a cruel tyrant and savage ruler.[78] This portrayal of Caracalla is only further supported by the murder of his brother Geta and the subsequent massacre of Geta's supporters that Caracalla ordered.[78] Alongside this, these contemporary sources present Caracalla as a "soldier-emperor" for his preference of the soldiery over the senators, a depiction that made him even less popular with the senatorial biographers.[78] Dio explicitly presented Caracalla as an emperor who marched with the soldiers and behaved like a soldier. Dio also often referred to Caracalla's large military expenditures and the subsequent financial problems this caused.[78] These traits dominate Caracalla's image in the surviving classical literature.[79] The Baths of Caracalla are presented in classical literature as unprecedented in scale, and impossible to build if not for the use of reinforced concrete.[80] The Edict of Caracalla, issued in 212, however, goes almost unnoticed in classical records.[79] The Historia Augusta is considered by historians as the least trustworthy for all accounts of events, historiography, and biographies among the ancient works and is full of fabricated materials and sources.[81][82][83][84][85] The works of Herodian of Antioch are, by comparison, "far less fantastic" than the stories presented by the Historia Augusta.[81] Historian Andrew G. Scott suggests that Dio's work is frequently considered the best source for this period.[86] However, historian Clare Rowan questions Dio's accuracy on the topic of Caracalla, referring to the work as having presented a hostile attitude towards Caracalla and thus needing to be treated with caution.[87] An example of this hostility is found in one section where Dio notes that Caracalla is descended from three different races and that he managed to combine all of their faults into one person: the fickleness, cowardice, and recklessness of the Gauls, the cruelty and harshness of the Africans, and the craftiness that is associated with the Syrians.[87] Despite this, the outline of events as presented by Dio are described by Rowan as generally accurate, while the motivations that Dio suggests are of questionable origin.[87] An example of this is his presentation of the Edict of Caracalla; the motive that Dio appends to this event is Caracalla's desire to increase tax revenue. Olivier Hekster, Nicholas Zair, and Rowan challenge this presentation because the majority of people who were enfranchised by the edict would have been poor.[48][87] In her work, Rowan also describes Herodian's depiction of Caracalla: more akin to a soldier than an emperor.[88] Medieval legends Amethyst intaglio of Caracalla, later re-carved as Saint Peter inscribed with the Greek: Ο ΠΕΤΡΟϹ, translit. o Petros, lit. "the stone" (treasury of Sainte-Chapelle) Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain makes Caracalla a king of Britain, referring to him by his actual name "Bassianus", rather than by the nickname Caracalla. In the story, after Severus' death the Romans wanted to make Geta king of Britain, but the Britons preferred Bassianus because he had a British mother. The two brothers fought until Geta was killed and Bassianus succeeded to the throne, after which he ruled until he was overthrown and killed by Carausius. However, Carausius' revolt actually happened about seventy years after Caracalla's death in 217.[89] Eighteenth-century artworks and the French Revolution Septimius Severus and Caracalla, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, 1769 (Louvre) Caracalla's memory was revived in the art of late eighteenth-century French painters. His tyrannical career became the subject of the work of several French painters such as Greuze, Julien de Parme, David, Bonvoisin, J.-A.-C. Pajou, and Lethière. Their fascination with Caracalla was a reflection of the growing discontent of the French people with the monarchy. Caracalla's visibility was influenced by the existence of several literary sources in French that included both translations of ancient works and contemporary works of the time. Caracalla's likeness was readily available to the painters due to the distinct style of his portraiture and his unusual soldier-like choice of fashion that distinguished him from other emperors. The artworks may have served as a warning that absolute monarchy could become the horror of tyranny and that disaster could come about if the regime failed to reform. Art historian Susan Wood suggests that this reform was for the absolute monarchy to become a constitutional monarchy, as per the original goal of revolution, rather than the republic that it eventually became. Wood also notes the similarity between Caracalla and his crimes leading to his assassination and the eventual uprising against, and death of, King Louis XVI: both rulers had died as a result of their apparent tyranny.[90] Modern portrayal Caracalla has had a reputation as being among the worst of Roman emperors, a perception that survives even into modern works.[91] The art and linguistics historian John Agnew and the writer Walter Bidwell describe Caracalla as having an evil spirit, referring to the devastation he wrought in Alexandria.[92] The Roman historian David Magie describes Caracalla, in the book Roman Rule in Asia Minor, as brutal and tyrannical and points towards psychopathy as an explanation for his behaviour.[93][94] The historian Clifford Ando supports this description, suggesting that Caracalla's rule as sole emperor is notable "almost exclusively" for his crimes of theft, massacre, and mismanagement.[95] 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon, author of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, takes Caracalla's reputation, which he had received for the murder of Geta and subsequent massacre of Geta's supporters, and applied it to Caracalla's provincial tours, suggesting that "every province was by turn the scene of his rapine and cruelty".[91] Gibbon compared Caracalla to emperors such as Hadrian who spent their careers campaigning in the provinces and then to tyrants such as Nero and Domitian whose entire reigns were confined to Rome and whose actions only impacted upon the senatorial and equestrian classes residing there. Gibbon then concluded that Caracalla was "the common enemy of mankind", as both Romans and provincials alike were subject to "his rapine and cruelty".[25] This representation is questioned by the historian Shamus Sillar, who cites the construction of roads and reinforcement of fortifications in the western provinces, among other things, as being contradictory to the representation made by Gibbon of cruelty and destruction.[96] The history professors Molefi Asante and Shaza Ismail note that Caracalla is known for the disgraceful nature of his rule, stating that "he rode the horse of power until it nearly died of exhaustion" and that though his rule was short, his life, personality, and acts made him a notable, though likely not beneficial, figure in the Roman Empire.[97] Severan dynasty family tree v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. See also Ancient Rome portal Biography portal Monarchy portal Severan dynasty family tree Notes ^ Coloniae are cities of Roman citizens built in conquered provinces. Non-Romans living in a colonia were allowed to become citizens when they accepted the rule of Rome.[44] ^ The Latin Rights or ius Latii were an intermediate or probationary stage for non-Romans obtaining full Roman citizenship. Aside from the right to vote, and ability to pursue a political office, the Latin Rights were just a limited Roman citizenship.[45][46] References Citations ^ a b Hammond 1957, pp. 35–36. ^ "Caracalla". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 2019-11-06. ^ a b c Gagarin, Michael (2009). Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 51. ^ Tabbernee, William; Lampe, Peter (2008). Pepouza and Tymion: The Discovery and Archaeological Exploration of a Lost Ancient City and an Imperial Estate. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-020859-7. ^ a b c d Dunstan, William, E. (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 405–406. 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The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-317-49694-6. ^ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. ^ a b Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ a b c Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75. ^ a b c Christopher, Matthew (2015). An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action. Casemate Publishers. p. 403. ^ a b c d e Dunstan, William, E. (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 406–407. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 75. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. ^ Hekster, Olivier; Zair, Nicholas (2008). Debates and Documents in Ancient History: Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284. EUP. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-7486-2992-3. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art: Portrait head of the Emperor Caracalla". acc. no. 40.11.1a ^ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 4.7.3. ^ Dio, Cassius (n.d.). Roman History. pp. 78.11.1. ^ Varner, Eric, R. (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. p. 169. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. ^ a b Pangerl, Andreas (2013). Porträttypen des Caracalla und des Geta auf Römischen Reichsprägungen – Definition eines neuen Caesartyps des Caracalla und eines neuen Augustustyps des Geta. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt des RGZM Mainz 43. pp. 99–116. ^ Manders, Erika (2012). Impact of Empire: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Brill Academic. p. 251. ^ Manders, Erika (2012). Impact of Empire: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Brill Academic. pp. 251–252. ^ Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. p. 184. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. ^ Guides, Rough (2011). The Rough Guide to Cairo & the Pyramids. Rough Guides UK. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-4053-8625-8. ^ a b c d Manders, Erika (2012). Impact of Empire: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Brill Academic. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-04-18970-6. ^ a b Manders, Erika (2012). Impact of Empire: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors in Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Brill Academic. p. 227. ISBN 978-90-04-18970-6. ^ Tuck, Steven L. (2014). A History of Roman Art. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4443-3026-7. ^ a b Mehl, Andreas (2011). Roman Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 171. ^ Breisach, Ernst (2008). Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Third Edition. University of Chicago Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-226-07284-5. ^ Hadas, Moses (2013). History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3. ^ Leistner, M. W. L. (1966). The Greater Roman Historians. University of California Press. p. 180. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Mohr Siebeck. p. 55. ISBN 3-16-148076-7. ^ Scott, Andrew G. (2015). Cassius Dio, Caracalla, and the Senate. De Gruyter Publishers. p. 157. ^ a b c d Rowan, Clare (2012). Under Divine Auspices: Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ^ Rowan, Clare (2012). Under Divine Auspices: Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. ^ Ashley, Mike (2012). The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. Hachette UK. p. B21;P80. ISBN 978-1-4721-0113-6. ^ Wood, Susan (2010). "Caracalla and the French Revolution: A Roman tyrant in eighteenth-century iconography". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. ^ a b Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. p. iii. ^ Agnew, John; Bidwell, Walter (1844). The Eclectic Magazine: Foreign Literature, Volume 2. Leavitt, Throw and Company. p. 217. ^ Magie, David (1950). Roman Rule in Asia Minor. Princeton University Press. p. 683. ^ Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. p. 127. ^ Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. ^ Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. pp. 46–47. ^ Asante, Molefi K.; Ismail, Shaza (2016). "Interrogating the African Roman Emperor Caracalla: Claiming and Reclaiming an African Leader". Journal of Black Studies. 47: 41–52. doi:10.1177/0021934715611376. S2CID 147256542. Sources Agnew, John; Bidwell, Walter (1844). The Eclectic Magazine: Foreign Literature. II. Leavitt, Throw and Company. Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. Asante, Molefi K.; Shaza, Ismail (2016). "Interrogating the African Roman Emperor Caracalla: Claiming and Reclaiming an African Leader". Journal of Black Studies. 47: 41–52. doi:10.1177/0021934715611376. S2CID 147256542. Ashley, Mike (2012). The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-1-4721-0113-6. Benario, Herbert (1954). "The Dediticii of the Constitutio Antoniniana". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 85: 188–196. doi:10.2307/283475. JSTOR 283475. Bergeron, David (2008). "Roman Antoninianus". Bank of Canada Review. Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel, J; Talbert, Richard J.A (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511875-8. Brauer, G (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. Breisach, Ernst (2008). Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-07284-5. Cairns, John (2007). Beyond Dogmatics: Law and Society in the Roman World: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3177-3. Castex, Jean (2008). Architecture of Italy. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32086-6. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Dio, Cassius. (n.d.). Roman History. Dunstan, William (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. Fisher, Warren (2010). The Illustrated History of the Roman Empire: From Caesar's Crossing the Rubicon (49 Bc) to Empire's Fall, 476 Ad. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-7739-6. Gagarin, Michael (2009). Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. Geoffrey of Monmouth. (c 1136) Historia Regum Britanniae Gibbon, Edward. (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire. Psychology Press. Hadas, Moses (2013). History of Latin Literature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51487-3. Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) Harl, Kenneth (1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. JHU Press. p. 128. ISBN 0-801-85291-9. Hekster, Olivier; Zair, Nicholas (2008). Debates and Documents in Ancient History: Rome and its Empire. EUP. ISBN 978-0-7486-2992-3. Herodian of Antioch. (n.d.) History of the Roman Empire. Johnson, Allan; Coleman-Norton, Paul; Bourne, Frank; Pharr, Clyde (1961). Ancient Roman Statutes: A Translation with Introduction, Commentary, Glossary, and Index. The Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 1-58477-291-3. Lavan, Myles (2016). "The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14–212 CE: Quantification in the Face of High Uncertainty" (PDF). Past and Present. 230: 3–46. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtv043. hdl:10023/12646. Leistner, M. W. L. (1966). The Greater Roman Historians. University of California Press. Levine, Lee (1975). Caesarea Under Roman Rule. Brill Archive. ISBN 90-04-04013-7. Lim, Richard (2010). The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Rome and Greece: Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. Magie, David (1950). Roman Rule in Asia Minor. Princeton University Press. Manders, Erika (2012). Impact of Empire: Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193–284. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-18970-6. Matthew, Christopher (2015). An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action. Casemate Publishers. Mehl, Andres (2011). Roman Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. Melton, Gordon, J. (2014). Faiths Across Time: 5000 Years of Religious History. Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Impact of Empire. XII. Brill Academic. OCLC 859895124. Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesenPress. ISBN 978-1-4602-8027-0. Oman, C (1916). The Decline and Fall of the Denarius in the Third Century A.D. Royal Numismatic Society. Oetelaar, Taylor (2014). "Reconstructing the Baths of Caracalla". Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural History. Pangerl, Andreas (2013). Porträttypen des Caracalla und des Geta auf Römischen Reichsprägungen – Definition eines neuen Caesartyps des Caracalla und eines neuen Augustustyps des Geta. RGZM Mainz. Rowan, Clare (2012). Under Divine Auspices: Divine Ideology and the Visualisation of Imperial Power in the Severan Period. Cambridge University Press. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148076-7. Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0-549-89041-6. OCLC 430652279. Scott, Andrew G. (2015). Cassius Dio, Caracalla and the Senate. De Gruyters. Sillar, Shamus (2001). Quinquennium in provinciis: Caracalla and Imperial Administration 212–217. Tuck, Steven L. (2014). A History of Roman Art. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3026-7. Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49694-6. Tabbernee, William; Lampe, Peter (2008). Pepouza and Tymion: The Discovery and Archaeological Exploration of a Lost Ancient City and an Imperial Estate. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-020859-7. Tuori, Kaius (2016). "Judge Julia Domna? A Historical Mystery and the Emergence of Imperial Legal Administration". The Journal of Legal History. 37 (2): 180–197. doi:10.1080/01440365.2016.1191590. S2CID 147778542. Varner, Eric (2004). Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Brill Academic. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. Whittock, Martyn John; Whittock, Martyn (1991). The Roman Empire. Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 0-435-31274-X. Wood, Susan (2010). "Caracalla and the French Revolution: A Roman tyrant in eighteenth-century iconography". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. Zoch, Paul (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 91. ISBN 0-8061-3287-6. External links Kettenhofen, Erich (1990). "CARACALLA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 790–792. Life of Caracalla (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 21 (translation). For information on the caracallus garment, see William Smith Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: "Caracalla" Roman Currency of the Principate, from Tulane University: http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm#_ftnref1 Caracalla Severan dynasty Born: 4 April 188  Died: 8 April 217 Regnal titles Preceded by Septimius Severus Roman emperor 198–217 with Septimius Severus (198–211) and Geta (209–211) Succeeded by Macrinus Political offices Preceded by L. Annius Fabianus M. Nonius Arrius Mucianus Consul of the Roman Empire 202 with Septimius Severus Succeeded by T. Murrenius Severus C. Cassius Regallianus Preceded by L. Fabius Cilo M. Annius Flavius Libo Consul of the Roman Empire 205 with P. Septimius Geta Caesar Succeeded by M. Nummius Umbrius Primus Senecio Albinus L. Fulvius Gavius Numisius Petronius Aemilianus Preceded by L. Annius Maximus C. Septimius Severus Aper Consul of the Roman Empire 208 with P. Septimius Geta Caesar Succeeded by L. Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus Q. Hedius Lollianus Plautius Avitus Preceded by Gaius Julius Asper II, and Gaius Julius Camilius Asper Consul of the Roman Empire 213 with Balbinus Succeeded by L. Valerius Messalla C. 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en-wikipedia-org-6180	----	Cirta - Wikipedia Cirta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Sirte. Cirta Detail of Triumph of Neptune and Amphitrite (c. 315-325), a vast Roman mosaic from Cirta. Now in the Louvre Shown within Algeria Location Algeria Region Constantine Province Coordinates 36°22′03″N 6°36′43″E / 36.3675°N 6.611944°E / 36.3675; 6.611944 Cirta, also known by various other names in antiquity, was the ancient Berber and Roman settlement which later became Constantine, Algeria. Cirta was the capital city of the Berber kingdom of Numidia; its strategically important port city was Russicada. Although Numidia was a key ally of the ancient Roman Republic during the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), Cirta was subject to Roman invasions during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Eventually it fell under Roman dominion during the time of Julius Caesar. Cirta was then repopulated with Roman colonists by Caesar and Augustus and was surrounded by the autonomous territory of a "Confederation of four free Roman cities" (with Chullu, Rusicade, and Milevum),[1] ruled initially by Publius Sittius. The city was destroyed in the beginning of the 4th century and was rebuilt by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, who gave his name to the newly constructed city, Constantine. The Vandals damaged Cirta, but emperor Justinian I reconquered and improved the Roman city. It declined in importance after the Muslim invasions, but a small community continued at the site for several centuries. Its ruins are now an archaeological site. Contents 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Numidian Kingdom 2.2 Roman Empire 2.3 Islamic conquest 3 Bishops 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography Names[edit] Further information: Maghreb placename etymology The town's Punic name krtn[2][3] (𐤊𐤓𐤕𐤍, probably pronounced "Kirthan",[4] with a hard, breathy /tʰ/ sound) is probably not the Punic word meaning "town", which was written with a Q (i.e., qoph) rather than a K (kaph).[5] Instead, it is likely a Punic transcription of an existing Berber placename.[4] This was later Latinized as Cirta. Under Julius Caesar, the Sittian settlement was known as Respublica IIII Coloniarum Cirtensium;[6] Pliny also knew it as Cirta Sittianorum ("Cirta of the Sittians").[7] Under Augustus, in 27 or 30 BC, its official name was Colonia Julia Juvenalis Honoris et Virtutis Cirta;[8] this was sometimes reduced to Cirta Julia ("Julian Cirta"),[9] 'Colonia Cirta or simply Cirta.[8] This name was rendered as Ancient Greek: Κίρτα, romanized: Kírta by the historians Diodorus Siculus, Polybius, Appian, Cassius Dio, and Procopius and by the geographers Ptolemy and Strabo.[10] After its refounding as Constantina (Latin: Civitas Constantina Cirtensium) by Constantine the Great after AD 312, Cirta became known as Constantine.[11] Following its Muslim conquest, it was known as Qusantina. History[edit] Cirta in Roman times was protected to the south and west by the Roman limes, the Fossatum Africae Cirta on the map of Roman Numidia[12] Numidian Kingdom[edit] Cirta was the capital of the Berber kingdom of Numidia, an important political, economic, and military site west of the mercantile empire run by the Phoenician settlement of Carthage to its east. During the second of Rome's wars against Carthage, the 203 BC Battle of Cirta was a decisive victory for Scipio Africanus. The kingdom remained an independent Roman ally following the destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War, but Roman commercial influence and political involvement grew.[13] When King Micipsa died in 118 BC, a civil war broke out between the king's natural son Adherbal and his adoptive son Jugurtha. Adherbal appealed for Roman help and a senatorial commission brokered a seemingly successful division of the kingdom between the two heirs. Jugurtha followed this mediation, however, by besieging Cirta and killing both Adherbal and the Romans who defended him. Rome then persecuted the Jugurthine War against his reunited Numidian state[13] to assert their hegemony over the region[citation needed] and to secure the protection of its citizens abroad. As Cirta rebuilt in the 1st century BC, its population was quite diverse: native Numidians alongside Carthaginian refugees and Greek, Roman, and Italian merchants, bankers,[14] settlers, and army veterans.[15] This expatriate community made it an important business hub of Rome's African holdings, even while it remained technically outside the lands of the Roman Republic.[14] Roman Empire[edit] Cirta fell under direct Roman rule in 46 BC, following Julius Caesar's conquest of North Africa.[16] P. Sittius Nucerinus was chosen by Caesar to romanize the locals.[17] His men, the "Sittians" (Sittiani), were Campanian legionaries who controlled Cirta's lands on Rome's behalf.[6] Together with the colonies at Rusicade, Milevum, and Chullu, their Cirta formed an autonomous territory within "New Africa": the Confederatio Cirtense. Its magistrates and municipal assembly were those of the confederation. Cirta administered fortifications (castella) in the High Plains and at the north end of the colonies: Castellum Mastarense, Elephantum, Tidditanorum, Cletianis, Thibilis, Sigus, and others. In 27 and 26 BC,[17] the area's administration was restructured under Augustus, who split Cirta into communities (Latin: pagi) separating the Numidians from the Sittiani and other newly settled Romans.[18] With the expansion of the Roman limes, this colony at Cirta was at the center of the most Romanized area of Roman Africa. It was protected by the Fossatum Africae stretching from Sitifis and Icosium (present-day Algiers) to Capsa on the Gulf of Gabès. Robin Daniel estimates that by the end of the 2nd century, Cirta had nearly 50,000 inhabitants.[19] Numidia Cirtense (green borders) Cirta in 303 AD was the administrative capital of the newly created Numidia Cirtense, a small province -named from Cirta- made by emperor Diocletian in Roman Numidia in the last years of the third century.[20] Numidia was divided in two: Numidia Cirtensis (or Cirtense), with capital at Cirta, and Numidia Militiana ("Military Numidia"), with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis. The newly created province was enlarged in 310 AD by the emperor Constantine. Christianity arrived early on: while little remains of African Christianity before AD 200, records of Christians martyred at Cirta existed by the mid-3rd century.[21] It became the chief town of an ecclesiastical district.[clarification needed] Around 305, the Synod of Cirta was held to elect a new bishop, accidentally precipitating the Donatist movement. After the dissolution of its confederation of colonies in the 4th century, Cirta recovered its role as a capital when it headed the territory of Numidia Cirtensis created under Diocletian: however, after some decades, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces created in 303 (Cirtensis & Militiana) in a single one, administered from Cirta, which was renamed Constantina (modern Constantine). Indeed the city was destroyed after a siege by Rufius Volusianus, the praefectus praetorio of the augustus Maxentius; Maxentius's forces defeated the imperial claimant Domitius Alexander in 310.[11] Constantine the Great rebuilt under his own name after 312 and his own victory over Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.[11] Constantine made Constantina the capital of all Roman Numidia.[22] In 320 the bishop of Cirta was accused of having handed over (Latin: traditio) Christian texts to the authorities during the Diocletianic Persecution, which had begun in 303 in Cirta.[23] The bishop Silvanus was a Donatist and was prosecuted in December 320 by Domitius Zenophilus, the consularis and proconsul of Africa; the records of the proceedings (commentarii) are preserved in the Latin: Gesta apud Zenophilum, lit. 'Deeds of Zenophilus', a text collected in the Optatan Appendix.[23][11][24] A cave for the practice of Mithraism also existed in the 4th century.[11] In 412, Cirta was host to another important Christian council, overseen by St Augustine. According to Mommsen, Cirta was fully Latin-speaking and Christian by the time the Vandals arrived in AD 430.[25] Under the emperor Justinian I, the city walls were reinforced and the city was named capital of its region with a resident commander (dux). Cirta was part of the Byzantine Africa from 534 to 697. Islamic conquest[edit] Further information: Islamic conquest of the Maghreb and Constantine, Algeria During the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, Constantine was unsuccessfully defended by the Berber queen Kahina.[citation needed] Although many Roman, Byzantine, and Vandal cities were destroyed during the expansion of the Caliphate, Constantine survived in reduced form[26] with a small Christian community as late as the 10th century. The town's further development is detailed under the article Constantine. Bishops[edit] The bishopric of Cirta was venerable and prominent in the African church. Several of its bishops are known: Paulus fl. 303-305 (Catholic)[27] Siluanus 303-320.[28][29] Petilianus 354-422 (Donatist)[30] Profutrus 391-397 (Catholic) Fortunatus 401-425 (Catholic), attendee of the council of 411[31] Delphinus 411 (Catholic) Honoratus Antonius fl. 437 (Catholic) Victor 484 (Catholic) See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Constantine, Algeria Mauretania Caesariensis Confederatio Cirtense Caesarea Auzia Rapidum Chullu Milevum References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Map of the 'Confederatio Cirtense' ^ Ghaki (2015), p. 67. ^ Head & al. (1911), p. 886. ^ a b "Cirta", Encyclopedie Berbère. (in French) ^ Mazard,[who?] Corpus, n° 523-529. ^ a b Jacques Heurgon, "Les origines campaniennes de la Confédération cirtéenne"; François Bertrandy, "L'État de P. Sittius et la région de Cirta – Constantine (Algérie), Ier siècle avant J.-C. – Ier siècle après J.-C.", in L'Information historique, 1990, pp. 69-73. ^ Pliny, Natural History, Book V, sect. 22. ^ a b LOUIS, RENÉ. “A LA RECHERCHE DE ‘CIRTA REGIA’ CAPITALE DES ROIS NUMIDES.” Hommes Et Mondes, vol. 10, no. 39, 1949, pp. 276–287. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44207191. Accessed 19 Feb. 2020. ^ Joseph Bingham, Origines Ecclesiasticae, Volume 3 p11. ^ "Κίρτα - Cirta/Constantine, major city of Numidia, modern Constantine, Algeria". ToposText (topostext.org). Retrieved 2020-05-13. ^ a b c d e Bockmann, Ralf (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Cirta", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1078, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-05-13 ^ Atlas Antiquus, H. Kiepert, 1869. ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History. 2nd ed., vol. 9, p. 29 ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History. 2nd ed., vol. 9, p. 638 ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. 2nd ed., vol. 9, p. 28 London: Cambridge University Press, 1970. ^ Roman History, Cassius Dio, vol. 43, ch. 9 ^ a b Classical Gazetteer, page 321 Archived March 11, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. 2nd ed., vol. 10, p. 607 ^ Robin Daniel, History of Christianity in Roman Africa ^ [J. kuijck "Africa in late antiquity"; Radboud University. Nijmeden, 2016 (Map of Numidia Cirtensis p.9) ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. 2nd ed., vol. 12, p. 585, 645 ^ "General View, Constantine, Algeria". World Digital Library. 1899. Retrieved 2013-09-25. ^ a b Lunn-Rockliffe, Sophie (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Optatan Appendix", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3457, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-05-13 ^ Corcoran, Simon (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Zenophilus, Domitius", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-5136, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-05-13 ^ Theodore Mommsen. The Provinces of the Roman Empire Section:Africa ^ "CIRTA (Constantine) Algeria". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Retrieved 2015-04-12. ^ Wace, Henry, Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature (Delmarva Publications, Inc., 1911). ^ Wace, Henry, Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature (Delmarva Publications, Inc., 1911). ^ Maureen A. Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World (Fortress Press , 1997) p79. ^ Wace, Henry, Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature (Delmarva Publications, Inc., 1911). ^ Saint Augustine, Letters, Volume 2 (83–130) (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 18) letter 115. Bibliography[edit] Head, Barclay; et al. (1911), "Numidia", Historia Numorum (2nd ed.), Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 884–887. Ghaki, Mansour (2015), "Toponymie et Onomastique Libyques: L'Apport de l'Écriture Punique/Néopunique" (PDF), La Lingua nella Vita e la Vita della Lingua: Itinerari e Percorsi degli Studi Berberi, Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi, No. 4, Naples: Unior, pp. 65–71, ISBN 978-88-6719-125-3, ISSN 2283-5636. (in French) Heurgon, Jacques. Les origines campaniennes de la Confédération cirtéenne in "Libyca" magazine, 5, 1957 (pp. 7–27) Laffi, Umberto. Colonie e municipi nello Stato romano Ed. di Storia e Letteratura. Roma, 2007 ISBN 8884983509 Mommsen, Theodore. The Provinces of the Roman Empire Section: Roman Africa. (Leipzig 1865; London 1866; London: Macmillan 1909; reprint New York 1996) Barnes & Noble. New York, 1996 Smyth Vereker, Charles. Scenes in the Sunny South: Including the Atlas Mountains and the Oases of the Sahara in Algeria. Volume 2. Publisher Longmans, Green, and Company. University of Wisconsin. Madison,1871 ( Roman Cirta ) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cirta" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Phoenician cities and colonies Algeria Camarata Cartennae (Tenes) Hippo Regius Icosium (Algiers) Igilgili (Jijel) Iol (Cherchell) Iomnium (Tigzirt) Kirtan (Constantine) Kissi (Djinet) Macomades Malaca Rachgoun Rusazus (Azeffoun) Rusguniae (Tamentfoust) Rusicade (Skikda) Rusippisir (Taksebt) Rusubbicari (Zemmouri El Bahri) Rusuccuru (Dellys) Sarai (Aïn Oulmene) Thagora (Taoura) Tipasa in Mauretania Tipasa in Numidia Timici Cyprus Dhali Kition (Larnaca) Lapathus Marion Greece Callista (Santorini) Paxi Rhodes Israel Achzib Akka (Acre) Dora Michal Jaffa Reshef Shikmona (Haifa) Strato's Tower (Caesarea) Italy Agrigento Bitan (Chia) Cape Melqart (Cefalù) Drepanum (Trapani) Eryx (Erice) Heraclea Minoa Kapara (Soluntum) Karaly (Cagliari) Lilybaeum Motya Neapolis Nora Olbia Pantelleria Selinunte Sulci (Sant'Antioco) Tharros Ziz (Palermo) Lebanon Amia Ampi Arqa Athar (Tripoli) Baalbek Birut (Beirut) Botrys Gebal (Byblos) Sarepta Sur (Tyre) Sidon Ushu Libya Lepcis (Khoms) Oyat (Tripoli) Tsabratan Malta Maleth (Mdina) Gaulos (Gozo) Għajn Qajjet Mtarfa Ras il-Wardija Tas-Silġ Morocco Azama (Azemmour) Arambys (Mogador) Caricus Murus Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) Likush (Larache) Shalat (Chellah) Tamusida Tinga (Tangier) Portugal Portus Hannibalis Portus Magonis (Portimão) Olissipona (Lisbon) Ossonoba (Faro) Spain Abdera (Adra) Abyla (Ceuta) Akra Leuka (Alicante) Gadir (Cadiz) Herna Iboshim (Ibiza) Mahón Malake (Málaga) Onoba Carthage (Cartagena) Rushadir (Melilla) Saguntum Sexi (Almunecar) Tagilit (Tíjola) Toscanos (Velez) Tyreche Syria Aynook (Arwad) Marat (Amrit) Safita Shuksi Sumur Ugarit Tunisia Aspis (Kelibia) Bulla Regia Carthage Hadrumetum (Sousse) Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) Kerkouane Lepcis (Monastir) Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) Meninx (Djerba) Ruspe Ruspina Sicca (El Kef) Tabarka Tayinat (Thyna) Thapsus Thysdrus (El Djem) Utica Other Myriandus Phoenicus  /  Gibraltar v t e Romano-Berber cities in Roman North Africa Sorted by contemporary national borders Morocco Anfa Iulia Constantia Zilil Iulia Valentia Banasa Iulia Campestris Babba Lixus 2 Mogador Sala 1 Tamuda 1 Thamusida Tingis Volubilis 1 Algeria Aquae Calidae Albulae Altava Auzia Calama Caesarea Cartennas Castellum Dimmidi Castellum Tingitanum Castra Nova Cirta Civitas Popthensis Chullu Cohors Breucorum Cuicul 1 Diana Veteranorum Gemellae Gunugus Hippo Regius Icosium 1 Igilgili Iomnium Lamasba Lambaesis Madauros Mascula Mesarfelta Milevum Oppidum Novum Parthenia Pomaria Portus Divinus Portus Magnus Quiza Xenitana Rapidum Rusguniae Rusucurru Saldae Setifis Siga Thagaste Thamugadi 1 Theveste Thibilis Thubursicum Tiddis Tingartia Tipasa 1 Tubusuctu Tubunae Unica Colonia Uzinaza Vescera Zaraï Zuccabar Tunisia Althiburos Bulla Regia Capsa Carthago 1 Cillium Dougga 1 Gightis Hadrumetum 1 Hippo Diarrhytus Kelibia Leptis Parva Mactaris Pheradi Majus Pupput Rucuma Ruspae Scillium Sicca Simitthus Sufetula Tacapae Taparura Sufes Thabraca Thanae Thapsus Thuburbo Majus Thuburnica Thysdrus Turris Tamalleni Utica Uthina Vaga Zama Regia Egypt Siwa Qara Farafra Spain Septem Rusadir Kingdoms and provinces Mauretania Mauretania Tingitana Mauretania Caesariensis Numidia Numidia of Cirta Roman Africa Creta et Cyrenaica Roman Egypt Diocese of Africa Zeugitana Byzacena Vandal Kingdom Praetorian prefecture of Africa Exarchate of Africa Related articles North Africa during Antiquity African Romance Roman Africans Limes Tripolitanus Christianity in Roman Africa Early African Church Church of Carthage Roman colonies in Berber Africa 1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites 2 Proposed Coordinates: 36°22′03″N 6°36′43″E / 36.36750°N 6.61194°E / 36.36750; 6.61194 Authority control VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cirta&oldid=1009531132" Categories: Archaeological sites in Algeria Roman towns and cities in Mauretania Caesariensis Numidia 4th-century disestablishments Constantine, Algeria Ancient Berber cities Phoenician colonies in Algeria Hidden categories: Articles with French-language sources (fr) All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2018 Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Punic-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2020 CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Cebuano Deutsch Español Euskara Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 March 2021, at 01:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6187	----	Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus - Wikipedia Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman senator and consul For the second century jurist, see Gaius Arrius Antoninus. Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus (born AD 31) was the maternal grandfather of the Emperor Antoninus Pius. A member of gens Arria, a family of consular rank, Antoninus was also an office holder, having been twice consul: the first time was in 69 with Aulus Marius Celsus as his colleague,[1] and the second in 97 with Gaius Calpurnius Piso as his colleague.[2] Antoninus was also proconsul of Asia in 78/79.[3] Antoninus was a friend of and correspondent to the senator and historian Pliny the Younger. The Historia Augusta describes him as a "righteous person", who pitied Nerva when he became Emperor in 96.[4] John Grainger notes "he was the senior figure in a potent aristocratic network which centered on Gallia Narbonensis and extended into Spain, whose members included T. Aurelius Fulvus, P. Julius Lupus and M. Annius Verus."[5] Antoninus married Boionia Procilla, by whom he had two daughters: Arria Antonina and Arria Fadilla. Fadilla married Titus Aurelius Fulvus, ordinary consul in 89; their only child was Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius, who, as Antoninus Pius, became Emperor (138-161). Antoninus Pius' father had died when he was young. Following Fulvus's death, Fadilla married Publius Julius Lupus, suffect consul in 98, and bore him two daughters, Julia Fadilla and Arria Lupula. Antoninus raised his grandson, and when he died Antoninus Pius inherited his money. Through the inheritances of both sides, Antoninus Pius became one of the wealthiest men in Rome. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ G.B. Townend, "The Consuls of A. D. 69/70", American Journal of Philology, 83 (1962), pp. 113-129 ^ As determined by Fausto Zevi "I consoli del 97 d. Cr. in due framenti gia' editi dei Fasti Ostienses", Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 96 (1973), pp. 125–137 ^ Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), p. 300 ^ Historia Augusta, "Antoninus Pius", 1.4 ^ Grainger, Nerva and the Roman succession crisis of AD 96-99 (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 41 Sources[edit] Antoninus Pius biography Political offices Preceded by Titus Flavius Sabinus, and Gnaeus Arulenus Caelius Sabinus Consul of the Roman Empire 69 with Aulus Marius Celsus Succeeded by Fabius Valens, and Aulus Caecina Alienus Preceded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva III, and Lucius Verginius Rufus III as Ordinary consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 97 with Gaius Calpurnius Piso Succeeded by Marcus Annius Verus, and Lucius Neratius Priscus as Suffect consuls This article about an Ancient Roman politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gnaeus_Arrius_Antoninus&oldid=995953933" Categories: 31 births Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Asia 1st-century Romans Arrii Ancient Roman politician stubs Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Latina Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 19:25 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6195	----	Palazzo Montecitorio - Wikipedia Palazzo Montecitorio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Palazzo Ludovisi" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Palazzo Boncompagni Ludovisi. Palazzo Montecitorio Chamber of Deputies of the Italian Republic Palazzo Montecitorio, seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies General information Town or city Rome Country Italy Coordinates 41°54′05″N 12°28′43″E / 41.9014°N 12.4786°E / 41.9014; 12.4786 Client Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi Design and construction Architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini Carlo Fontana Ernesto Basile The Palazzo Montecitorio (Italian pronunciation: [paˈlattso ˌmontetʃiˈtɔːrjo]) is a palace in Rome and the seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. Contents 1 History 2 See also 3 Gallery 4 External links History[edit] The palace's name derives from the slight hill on which it is built, which was claimed to be the Mons Citatorius, the hill created in the process of clearing the Campus Martius in Roman times. The building was originally designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini for the young Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi, nephew of Pope Gregory XV. However, with the death of Gregory XV by 1623, work stopped, and was not restarted until the papacy of Pope Innocent XII (Antonio Pignatelli), when it was completed by the architect Carlo Fontana, who modified Bernini's plan with the addition of a bell gable above the main entrance. The building was designated for public and social functions only, due to Innocent XII's firm antinepotism policies which were in contrast to his predecessors. In 1696 the Curia apostolica (papal law courts) was installed there. Later it was home to the Governatorato di Roma (the city administration during the papal period) and the police headquarters. The excavated obelisk of the Solarium Augusti, now known as the Obelisk of Montecitorio, was installed in front of the palace by Pius VI in 1789. With the Unification of Italy in 1861 and the transfer of the capital to Rome in 1870, Montecitorio was seized by the Italian government and chosen as the seat of the Chamber of Deputies, after consideration of various possibilities. The former internal courtyard was roofed over and converted into a semi-circular assembly room by Paolo Comotto. The Chamber was inaugurated on 21 November 1871. But the building proved wholly inadequate: the acoustics were terrible, it was very cold in winter and very hot in summer. As a result of extensive damage from water seepage, the palace was condemned in 1900. An attempt to build a new palace for the Chamber of Deputies on the Via Nazionale failed, and a provisional meeting hall was built on the Via della Missione. Only in 1918 was the Chamber definitively returned to the Palazzo Montecitorio. The return of the Chamber of Deputies to the palace followed extensive renovations, which left only the facade intact. The architect, Ernesto Basile, was an exponent of Art nouveau, known in Italy as Liberty style. He reduced the courtyard, demolished the wings and rear of the palace, constructing a new structure dominated by four red-brick and travertine towers at the corners. Basile also added the so-called Transatlantico, the long and impressive salon which surrounds the debating chamber and now acts as the informal centre of Italian politics. The debating chamber is characterized by numerous decorations in the Art Nouveau style: the impressive canopy of coloured glass (the work of Giovanni Beltrami), the pictorial frieze entitled The Italian People (by Giulio Aristide Sartorio) which surrounds the chamber, the bronze figures flanking the presidential and government benches, and the panels depicting The Glory of the Savoy Dynasty by Davide Calandra. See also[edit] Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Madama Palazzo Chigi Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo di Giustizia Gallery[edit] Montecitorio Panini by Giovanni Paolo Pannini, c. 1747 Square with the obelisk Front façade Rear façade Debating chamber of the chamber of deputies, designed by Ernesto Basile (1902-1918) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palazzo Montecitorio. Virtual Tour Very short history of the palace Panoramic virtual tour of the Palace & the sundial obelisk Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palazzo_Montecitorio&oldid=1005909269" Categories: Houses completed in 1697 Palaces in Rome Legislative buildings in Europe Gian Lorenzo Bernini buildings Seats of national legislatures Art Nouveau architecture in Italy Art Nouveau government buildings Rome R. III Colonna 1697 establishments in the Papal States 1697 establishments in Italy Hidden categories: Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Беларуская Български Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 February 2021, at 01:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6200	----	Marcus Nonius Macrinus - Wikipedia Marcus Nonius Macrinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, general and proconsul Inscription (CIL V, 4343) Marcus Nonius Macrinus was a Roman senator and general during the reigns of the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, and Marcus Aurelius. Macrinus was suffect consul in the nundinium of April-June 154 as the colleague of [Prifernius ?] Paetus. According to his tomb's inscriptions, he was originally from Brescia. He was an advisor to Marcus Aurelius.[1] Nonius Macrinus served as legate of Pannonia Inferior (c. 152-c. 154),[2] Pannonia Superior (c. 159-c. 162) and proconsul of the Roman province of Asia (170/171).[3] In October 2008, Nonius Macrinus' tomb was discovered by archaeologists on the banks of the river Tiber, near the Via Flaminia north of Rome.[4] [5] In December 2012, in light of a lack of reconstruction funding, his tomb was reburied in order to preserve its fragile marble. [6] In popular culture[edit] Macrinus' life inspired Russell Crowe's character Maximus Decimus Meridius in the 2000 feature film Gladiator.[7] Marcus Nonius Macrinus and the fictitious Maximus Decimus Meridius are placed within the same time period. Further, both Marcus and the fictitious Maximus are liked and well known by Marcus Aurelius. However, Marcus Nonius Macrinus went on to enjoy a successful career and died a wealthy man. In contrast, the character Maximus Decimus Meridius loses his family and is sold into slavery. References[edit] ^ "'Gladiator' tomb is found in Rome". BBC News. 2008-10-17. Retrieved 2008-10-17. ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 77 ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 236 ^ "Tomb of Real 'Gladiator' Found in Rome". Fox News. 2008-10-17. Retrieved 2008-10-17. ^ "Tomb of 'Gladiator' Roman general unearthed". CBC News. 2008-10-19. Retrieved 2008-10-19. ^ "Tomb of Roman general who inspired Gladiator reburied". PreHist.org - Preserving History. 2012-12-06. Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2012-12-06. ^ Owen, Richard (2008-10-17). "Tomb of the real 'Gladiator' discovered in Italy". The Times. Retrieved 2008-10-17. External links[edit] Lost tomb of 'Gladiator' real life Roman inspiration found at Wikinews Political offices Preceded by Lucius Verus, and Titus Sextius Lateranus as consules ordinarii Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 154 with Prifernius Paetus Succeeded by Marcus Valerius Etruscus, and Lucius Aemilius Juncus as consules suffecti Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Nonius_Macrinus&oldid=1016649958" Categories: 2nd-century Romans People from the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital People from the Province of Brescia Nonii Ancient Roman generals Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Pannonia Inferior Roman governors of Pannonia Superior Roman governors of Asia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Polski Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2021, at 10:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6214	----	Nikephoros II Phokas - Wikipedia Nikephoros II Phokas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 963 to 969 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Nikephoros II Phokas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas Byzantine emperor Reign 16 August 963 – 11 December 969 Predecessor Romanos II Successor John I Tzimiskes Born c. 912 Cappadocia Died 11 December 969 (aged 57) Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles Spouse Theophano Issue Basil II, Constantine VIII (Stepsons) Dynasty Macedonian dynasty Father Bardas Phokas Saint Nikephoros II Phokas Emperor of Rome Venerated in Eastern Orthodox Church Feast December 11 Nikephoros II Phokas (Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς; c. 912 – 11 December 969), Latinized Nicephorus II Phocas, was Byzantine emperor from 963 to 969. His brilliant military exploits contributed to the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire during the 10th century. His reign, however, included controversy. In the west, he inflamed conflict with the Bulgarians and saw Sicily completely turn over to the Muslims, while he failed to make any serious gains in Italy following the incursions of Otto I. Meanwhile, in the east, he completed the conquest of Cilicia and even retook the island of Cyprus, thus opening the path for subsequent Byzantine incursions reaching as far as Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant. His administrative policy was less successful, as in order to finance these wars he increased taxes both on the people and on the church, while maintaining unpopular theological positions and alienating many of his most powerful allies. These included his nephew John Tzimiskes, who would take the throne after killing Nikephoros in his sleep. Contents 1 Early life and career 1.1 Early Eastern Campaigns 1.2 Conquest of Crete 1.3 Later Eastern Campaigns 2 Ascension to the throne 3 Reign 3.1 Western Wars 3.2 Eastern Wars 3.3 Civil administration 3.4 Death 4 Legacy 4.1 Family 4.2 Contemporary descriptions 4.3 Descendants 4.4 Praecepta Militaria 4.5 Modern honours 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Early life and career[edit] Nikephoros Phokas was born around 912 and belonged to a Cappadocian Greek family which had produced several distinguished generals, including Nikephoros' father Bardas Phokas, brother Leo Phokas, and grandfather Nikephoros Phokas the Elder, who had all served as commanders of the field army (domestikos tōn scholōn). His mother, whose name is unknown, was a member of another powerful Anatolian Greek clan, the Maleinoi.[1][2] Early in his life Nikephoros had married Stephano. She had died before he rose to fame, and after her death he took an oath of chastity. Early Eastern Campaigns[edit] Nikephoros joined the army at an early age. He was appointed the military governor of the Anatolikon Theme in 945 under Emperor Constantine VII. In 954 or 955 Nikephoros was promoted to Domestic of the Schools, replacing his father, Bardas Phokas, who had suffered a series of defeats by the Hamdanids and by the Abbasids. The new position essentially placed Nikephoros in charge of the eastern Byzantine army. From 955, the Hamdanids in Aleppo entered a period of unbroken decline until their destruction in 1002. In June 957 Nikephoros managed to capture and destroy Hadath. The Byzantines would continue to push their advantage against the Arabs until the collapse of the Hamdanids, except for the period from 960 to 961, when the army turned its focus to the reconquest of Crete. Conquest of Crete[edit] Main article: Siege of Chandax Depiction of the Siege of Chandax by Phokas, winter 960-61 From the ascension of Emperor Romanos II in 959, Nikephoros and his younger brother Leo Phokas were placed in charge of the eastern and western field armies respectively. In 960, 27,000 oarsmen and marines were assembled to man a fleet of 308 ships carrying 50,000 troops.[3][4] At the recommendation of the influential minister Joseph Bringas, Nikephoros was entrusted to lead this expedition against the Muslim Emirate of Crete. Nikephoros successfully led his fleet to the island and defeated a minor Arab force upon disembarking near Almyros. He soon began a nine-month siege of the fortress town of Chandax. Following a failed assault and many raids into the countryside, Nikephoros entered Chandax on 6 March 961 and soon wrested control of the entire island from the Muslims.[5] Upon returning to Constantinople, he was denied the usual honor of a triumph, being permitted a mere ovation in the Hippodrome.[6] Later Eastern Campaigns[edit] Following the conquest of Crete, Nikephoros returned to the east and marched a large and well-equipped army into Cilicia. In February 962 he captured Anazarbos, while the major city of Tarsus ceased to recognize the Hamdanid Emir of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawla.[7] Nikephoros continued to ravage the Cilician countryside, defeating the governor of Tarsus, ibn al-Zayyat, in open battle; al-Zayyat later committed suicide on account of the loss. Thereafter, Nikephoros returned to the regional capital of Caesarea. Upon the beginning of the new campaigning season al-Dawla entered the Byzantine Empire to conduct raids, a strategy which left Aleppo dangerously undefended. Nikephoros soon took the city of Manbij.[8] In December, an army split between Nikephoros and John I Tzimiskes marched towards Aleppo, quickly routing an opposing force led by Naja al-Kasaki. Al-Dawla's force caught up with the Byzantines, but he too was routed, and Nikephoros and Tzimiskes entered Aleppo on 24[7] or 23 December. The loss of the city would prove to be both a strategic and moral disaster for the Hamdanids. It was probably on these campaigns that Nikephoros earned the sobriquet, "The Pale Death of the Saracens". During the capture of Aleppo, the Byzantine army took possession of 390,000 silver dinars, 2,000 camels, and 1,400 mules. Ascension to the throne[edit] On 15 March 963, Emperor Romanos II died unexpectedly at the age of twenty-six of uncertain cause. Both contemporary sources and later historians seem to either believe that the young Emperor had exhausted his health with the excesses of his sexual life and his heavy drinking, or suspect that the Empress Theophano (c. 941–after 976), his wife, poisoned him. Theophano had already gained a reputation as an intelligent and ambitious woman. Unfavorable accounts of her by later historians would characterize her as a woman known for ruthlessness in achieving her goals. Romanos had already crowned as co-emperors his two sons Basil II and Constantine VIII. At the time that Romanos died, however, Basil was five years old and Constantine only three years old, so Theophano was named regent. Nikephoros' entry into Constantinople as Emperor through the Golden Gate in summer 963 Theophano, however, was not allowed to rule alone. Joseph Bringas, the eunuch palace official who had become Romanos' chief councilor, maintained his position. According to contemporary sources he intended to keep authority in his own hands. He also tried to reduce the power of Nikephoros Phokas. The victorious general had been accepted as the actual commander of the army and maintained a strong connection to the aristocracy. Bringas was afraid that Nikephoros would attempt to claim the throne with the support of both the army and the aristocracy. This is exactly what he did. On July 2 in Caesarea, his armies, along with his highest-ranking officers, proclaimed Nikephoros emperor. From his position in Caesarea, and in advance of the news of his proclamation as emperor, Nikephoros sent a fleet to secure the Bosphorus Strait against his enemies.[9] Around the same time, he appointed Tzimiskes as Domestic of the East, now taking on the formal roles of emperor. He then sent a letter to Constantinople requesting to be accepted as co-emperor. In response, Bringas locked down the city, forcing Nikephoros' father Bardas Phokas to seek sanctuary in the Hagia Sophia, while his brother Leo Phokas escaped the city in disguise. Bringas was able to garner some support within the city from a few high-ranking officers, namely Marianos Argyros, but he himself was not a skilled orator, and he was unable to obtain the support of other popular officials such as the Patriarch Polyeuctus and the general Basil Lekapenos. The people of Constantinople soon turned against his cause, killing Argyros in a riot and soon forcing Bringas to flee.[10][11] On August 16, Nikephoros was proclaimed emperor and married the empress Theophano.[12] Reign[edit] Western Wars[edit] Nikephoros II was not very successful in his western wars. Under his reign, relations with the Bulgarians worsened. It is likely that he bribed the Kievan Rus' to raid the Bulgarians in retaliation for them not blocking Magyar raids.[13] This breach in relations triggered a decades-long decline in Byzantine-Bulgarian diplomacy and was a prelude to the wars fought between the Bulgarians and later Byzantine emperors, particularly Basil II. Nikephoros' first military failures would come in Sicily. In 962 the son of the governor of Fatimid Sicily, Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi, captured and reduced the city of Taormina, one of the last Byzantine strongholds on the island. The last major Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, Rometta, soon appealed to the newly crowned emperor Nikephoros for aid against the approaching Muslim armies. Nikephoros soon renounced his payments of tribute to the Fatimid caliphs, and sent a huge fleet, purportedly boasting a size of around 40,000 men, under Patrikios Niketas and Manuel Phokas, to the island. The Byzantine forces, however, were swiftly routed in Rometta and at the Battle of the Straits, and Rometta soon fell to the Muslims, completing the Islamic conquest of Sicily.[14][15] In 967, the Byzantines and the Fatimids hastily concluded a peace treaty to cease hostilities in Sicily. Both empires had grander issues to attend to: the Fatimids were preparing to invade Egypt, and tensions were flaring up on mainland Italy between the Byzantines and the German emperor Otto I. The constant tension between the Germans and the Byzantines was largely due to mutual cultural biases, but also to the fact that both empires claimed to be the successors of Rome.[16] Conflicts in southern Italy were preceded by religious contests between the two empires and by the malicious writings of Liutprand of Cremona. Otto first invaded Byzantine Apulia in 968 and failed to take Bari. Early the next year, he once again moved against Byzantine Apulia and Calabria, but, unable to capture Cassano or Bovino, failed to make any progress. In May he returned north, leaving Pandulf Ironhead to take charge of the siege. However, he was quickly routed by the Byzantine general Eugenios and taken captive in Constantinople. Eugenios went on to besiege Capua and enter Salerno. The two empires would continue to skirmish with each other until after the reign of Nikephoros, but neither side was able to make permanent or significant gains.[citation needed] Eastern Wars[edit] Main article: Byzantine conquest of Cilicia Further information: Sayf al-Dawla § Wars with the Byzantines From 964 to 965, Nikephoros led an army of 40,000 men which conquered Cilicia and conducted raids in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria, while the patrician Niketas Chalkoutzes recovered Cyprus.[17] In the spring of 964, Nikephorus headed east. During the summer he captured Anazarbos and Adana before withdrawing. Later that year, Nikephoros attempted to quickly take Mopsuestia, but failed, returning to Caesarea. It was around this time that Niketas Chalkoutzes instigated a coup in Cyprus, which at the time was a shared condominium between the Byzantines and the Arabs. In the summer of 965, the conquest of Cilicia began in earnest. Nikephorus and Tzimiskes seized Mopsuestia July 13, while Leo Phokas invested Tarsus and Nikephoros and Tzimiskes arrived soon after. Nikephoros won a pitched battle against the Tarsiots, routing their forces with his "ironclad horsemen", referencing the Byzantine cataphracts. Within a fortnight, Tarsus surrendered on August 16 to Nikephoros who allowed the inhabitants to leave the city unharmed but plundered the city. With the fall of these two strongholds, Cilicia was in the hands of the Byzantines.[18][19] In June 966, there was an exchange of prisoners between Sayf al-Dawla and the Byzantines, held at Samosata.[20] In October 966, Nikephoros led an expedition to raid Amida, Dara and Nisibin, then he marched towards Manbij, where he took a relic with the image of Jesus to be later placed in the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos in Constantinople.[20] He later sent a detachment to Balis which returned with 300 prisoners, then he went to raid Wadi Butnan, Qinnasrin, Tizin,[a] and Artah, before laying siege to Antioch, but it was abandoned after eight days due to the lack of supplies.[21] In 967 or 968, Nikephoros annexed the Armenian state of Taron by diplomacy,[22] in addition to Arzen and Mayyafariqin.[23] In October 968, Nikephoros conducted another expedition which started by besieging Antioch for thirteen days,[23] then he went south raiding and sacking most of the fortresses and cities along his path including Maarrat Misrin, Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Kafartab, Shaizar, Hama and Homs in the Orontes valley until he reached the city of Tripoli, then he went to take Tell Arqa, Tartus, Maraqiyah, Jableh and received the submission of Latakia.[24] His aim was to cut off Antioch from its allies: the city was unsuccessfully blockaded two times in 966 and 968, and so the emperor decided to take it by hunger (so as not to damage to city) and left a detachment (a taxiarchy) of 1500 men in the fort of Baghras, which lies on the road from Antioch to Alexandretta. The commander of the fort, the patrikios Michael Bourtzes, disobeyed the emperor's orders and took Antioch with a surprise attack, supported by the troops of the stratopedarch Petros, eunuch of the Phokas family. Bourtzes was disgraced for his insubordination, and later joined the plot that killed Phokas. Civil administration[edit] Nikephoros II (at right) and his stepson Basil II Nikephoros' popularity was largely based on his conquests. Due to the resources he allocated to his army, Nikephoros was compelled to exercise a rigid economic policy in other departments. He retrenched court largess and curtailed the immunities of the clergy, and while he had an ascetic disposition, he forbade the foundation of new monasteries. By his heavy imposts and the debasement of the Byzantine currency, along with the enforcement and implementation of taxes across the centralized regions of the empire, he forfeited his popularity with the people and gave rise to riots. Nikephoros also disagreed with the church on theological grounds. He wished the church to elevate those soldiers who died in battle against the Saracens to the positions of martyrs in the church - similar to the status of "Shahid" which the Emperor's Muslim foes bestowed on their own fallen soldiers. However, in the Christian context, this was a highly controversial and unpopular demand.[25] In 967, he sparked a controversy in the capital by making a display of his military maneuvers in the Hippodrome similar in style to those displayed by the emperor Justinian centuries earlier preceding the Nika Revolt and its violent suppression within the stadium itself. The crowd within the Hippodrome panicked and began a stampede to retreat from the stadium, resulting in numerous deaths.[citation needed] Nikephoros was the author of extant treatises on military tactics, most famously the Praecepta Militaria, which contains valuable information concerning the art of war in his time, and the less-known On Skirmishing (Περὶ Παραδρομῆς Πολέμου in the original Greek), which concerned guerrilla-like tactics for defense against a superior enemy invasion force — though it is likely that this latter work, at least, was not composed by the Emperor but rather for him: translator and editor George T. Dennis suggests that it was perhaps written by his brother Leo Phokas, then Domestic of the West.[26] Nikephoros was a very devout man, and he helped his friend, the monk Athanasios, found the monastery of Great Lavra on Mount Athos.[citation needed] Death[edit] The plot to assassinate Nikephoros began when he dismissed Michael Bourtzes from his position following his disobedience in the siege of Antioch. Bourtzes was disgraced, and he would soon find an ally with whom to plot against Nikephoros. Towards the end of 965, Nikephoros had John Tzimiskes exiled to eastern Asia Minor for suspected disloyalty, but was recalled on the pleading of Nikephoros' wife, Theophano. According to Joannes Zonaras and John Skylitzes, Nikephoros had a loveless relationship with Theophano. He was leading an ascetic life, whereas she was secretly having an affair with Tzimiskes. Theophano and Tzimiskes plotted to overthrow the emperor. On the night of the deed, she left Nikephoros' bedchamber door unlocked, and he was assassinated in his apartment by Tzimiskes and his entourage on 11 December 969.[12] Following his death, the Phokas family broke into insurrection under Nikephoros' nephew Bardas Phokas, but their revolt was promptly subdued as Tzimiskes ascended the throne. Legacy[edit] Family[edit] By his first marriage to an unnamed Maleina, Nikephoros II Phokas had a son: Bardas Phokas, who died before 960. By his second marriage to Empress Theophano, Nikephoros II had no children. Contemporary descriptions[edit] The tension between East and West resulting from the policies pursued by Nikephoros may be glimpsed in the unflattering description of him and his court by Bishop Liutprand of Cremona in his Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana.[27] His description of Nikephoros was clouded by the ill-treatment he received while on a diplomatic mission to Constantinople. Nikephoros, a man of war, was not apt at diplomacy. To add insult to injury, Pope John XIII sent a letter to Nikephoros while Liutprand was in Constantinople calling Otto I Emperor of Rome and even more insultingly referring to Nikephoros merely as Emperor of the Greeks. Liutprand failed in his goal of procuring an Imperial princess as a wife for Otto's young son, the future emperor Otto II. Bishop Liutprand described Nikephoros as: ...a monstrosity of a man, a pygmy, fat-headed and like a mole as to the smallness of his eyes; disgusting with his short, broad, thick, and half hoary beard; disgraced by a neck an inch long; very bristly through the length and thickness of his hair; in color an Ethiopian; one whom it would not be pleasant to meet in the middle of the night; with extensive belly, lean of loin, very long of hip considering his short stature, small of shank, proportionate as to his heels and feet; clad in a garment costly but too old, and foul-smelling and faded through age; shod with Sicyonian shoes; bold of tongue, a fox by nature, in perjury, and lying a Ulysses.[28] Whereas Bishop Liutprand describes the emperor's hair as being bristly, Leo the Deacon says it was black with "tight curls" and "unusually long". John Julius Norwich says, about his murder and burial, "It was a honourable place; but Nikephoros Phocas, the White Death of the Saracens, hero of Syria and Crete, saintly and hideous, magnificent and insufferable, had deserved a better end".[29] Descendants[edit] During the last decades of the tenth century, the Phokades repeatedly tried to get their hands again on the throne, and almost succeeded when Nikephoros' nephew, Bardas Phokas the Younger, rebelled against the rule of Basil II. His death, possibly by cardiac arrest, put an end to the rebellion, and ultimately to the political prominence of the Phokades, although Bardas the Younger's own son, Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos, launched another abortive revolt in 1022 along with Nikephoros Xiphias. Praecepta Militaria[edit] Phokas was the author of a military manual, the Praecepta Militaria.[30][31] Modern honours[edit] On 19 November 2004, the Hellenic Navy named its tenth Kortenaer-class frigate in his honour as Nikiforos Fokas F-466 (formerly HNLMS Bloys Van Treslong F-824). Also, in the Rethymno regional unit in Crete, a municipality (Nikiforos Fokas) is named after him, as are many streets throughout Greece. See also[edit] Phokas (Byzantine family) Notes[edit] ^ Its location is uncertain, as the homonymous village in Syria, Tayzin, is located very far in the south of Qinnasrin and Artah. References[edit] ^ Krsmanović 2003 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKrsmanović2003 (help), Chapter 2. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1276. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 495. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 175–178. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 493–495. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 961. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, p. 39. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 49. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 41. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 498–499. ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 348–349. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhittow1996 (help) ^ a b Leo the Deacon (c. 971). History. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 98-143. ISBN 9780884023241. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 56. ^ PmbZ, al-Ḥasan b. ‘Ammār al-Kalbī (#22562). ^ Brett 2001, p. 242. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrett2001 (help) ^ Keller & Althoff 2008, pp. 221–224. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKellerAlthoff2008 (help) ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 948. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 278–279. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKennedy2004 (help) ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 500–501. ^ a b Fattori 2013, p. 117. ^ Fattori 2013, pp. 117–118. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 50. ^ a b Fattori 2013, p. 119. ^ Fattori 2013, pp. 120–121. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 52. ^ George T. Dennis, Three Byzantine Military Treatises, (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2008), p. 139. ^ H. Mayr-Harting, Liudprand of Cremona’s Account of his Legation to Constantinople (968) and Ottonian Imperial Strategy, English Historical Review (2001), pp. 539–56. ^ Liutprand of Cremona (968), Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana ad Nicephorum Phocam ^ Norwich 1991, p. 210. ^ Sowing the dragon's teeth : Byzantine warfare in the tenth century. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1995. p. 178. ISBN 9780884022244. ^ Luttwak, Edward (2009). The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 363. ISBN 978-0674035195. Sources[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Nikephoros II Phocas". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Nicephorus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 647–648. Norwich, John Julius (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-53779-3. Dennis, George T. (2008). Three Byzantine Military Treatises. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-339-5. Garrood, William (2008). "The Byzantine Conquest of Cilicia and the Hamdanids of Aleppo, 959–965". Anatolian Studies. British Institute at Ankara. 58: 127–140. doi:10.1017/s006615460000870x. ISSN 0066-1546. JSTOR 20455416. S2CID 162596738. Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190253226. Taxiarchis Kolias, " Nicephorus II Focas 963–969, The Military Leader Emperor and his reforms ", Vasilopoulos Stefanos D. Athens 1993, ISBN 9789607100658, (Worldcat, Greek National Bibliography 1993, Biblionet). Ioannes A. Melisseides & Poulcheria Zavolea Melisseidou, "Nikefhoros Phokas (El) Nikfur", ek ton Leontos tou Diakonou, Kedrenou, Aboul Mahasen, Zonara, Ibn El Athir, Glyka, Aboulfeda k.a. Historike Melete, Vol.1–2, Vergina, Athens 2001, ISBN 9789607171887 (Vol.1) ISBN 9789607171894 (Vol.2), (Worldcat, Greek National Bibliography 2001/2007/2009, Biblionet). Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1473845701. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Fattori, Niccolò (June 2013). "The Policies of Nikephoros II Phokas in the context of the Byzantine economic recovery" (PDF). Middle East Technical University. Treadgold, W. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2421-0. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nikephoros II Phokas. A more detailed profile of the Emperor Nicephorean coinage Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Nikephoros II Phokas Macedonian dynasty Born: c. 912 Died: 11 December 969 Regnal titles Preceded by Romanos II Byzantine emperor 963–969 With: Basil II Succeeded by John I Military offices Preceded by Bardas Phokas the Elder Domestic of the Schools of the East 954– 963 Succeeded by John Tzimiskes v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-6215	----	John I Tzimiskes - Wikipedia John I Tzimiskes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 969 to 976 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John I Tzimiskes Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold histamenon of John Tzimiskes, showing him crowned by the Virgin Mary Byzantine emperor Reign 11 December 969 – 10 January 976 Predecessor Nikephoros II Phokas Successor Basil II Born c. 925 Constantinople Died 10 January 976 (aged 50) Constantinople Spouse Maria Skleraina Theodora Dynasty Macedonian John I Tzimiskes (Greek: Ἰωάννης ὁ Τζιμισκής, romanized: Iōánnēs ho Tzimiskēs; c. 925 – 10 January 976) was the senior Byzantine Emperor from 11 December 969 to 10 January 976. An intuitive and successful general, he strengthened the Empire and expanded its borders during his short reign.[1] Contents 1 Background 2 Rise to the throne 3 Reign 4 Death 5 Miscellaneous 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Further reading 9 External links Background[edit] Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes was born to a father belonging to the Kourkouas family of Armenian origin,[2] and a mother belonging to the Phokas family of Cappadocian Greek origin.[3] Scholars have speculated that his nickname "Tzimiskes" was derived either from the Armenian Chmushkik (Չմշկիկ), meaning "red boot", or from an Armenian word for "short stature". A more favorable explanation is offered by the medieval Armenian historian Matthew of Edessa, who states that Tzimiskes was from the region of Khozan, from the area which is now called Chmushkatzag."[4] Khozan was located in the region of Paghnatun, in the Byzantine province of Fourth Armenia (Sophene).[5] Tzimiskes was born sometime around 925 to an unnamed member of the Kourkouas family and the sister of the future Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas. Both the Kourkouai and the Phokadai were distinguished Cappadocian families, and among the most prominent of the emerging military aristocracy of Asia Minor. Several of their members had served as prominent army generals, most notably the great John Kourkouas, who conquered Melitene and much of Armenia. Contemporary sources describe Tzimiskes as a rather short but well-built man, with reddish blonde hair and beard and blue eyes who was attractive to women.[6] He seems to have joined the army at an early age, originally under the command of his maternal uncle Nikephoros Phokas. The latter is also considered his instructor in the art of war. Partly because of his familial connections and partly because of his personal abilities, Tzimiskes quickly rose through the ranks. He was given the political and military command of the theme of Armenia before he turned twenty-five years old. His marriage to Maria Skleraina, daughter of Pantherios Skleros and sister of Bardas Skleros, linked him to the influential Skleros family. Little is known about her; she died before his rise to the throne, and the marriage was apparently childless. The contemporary historian Leo the Deacon remarks that she excelled in both beauty and wisdom.[7] Rise to the throne[edit] The coronation of John Tzimiskes, from the Madrid Skylitzes The Byzantine Empire was at war with its eastern neighbors, the various autonomous and semi-autonomous emirates emerging from the break-up of the Abbasid Caliphate. The most prominent among them was the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo, under Sayf al-Dawla. Armenia served as the borderland between the two Empires, and Tzimiskes successfully defended his province. He and his troops joined the main part of the army, which was campaigning under the command of Nikephoros Phokas. By 962 the Hamdanids had sued for peace with favorable terms for the Byzantines, securing the eastern border of the Empire for some years. Tzimiskes distinguished himself during the war both at the side of his uncle and at leading parts of the army to battle under his personal command, as in the Battle of Raban in 958. He was rather popular with his troops and gained a reputation for taking the initiative during battles, turning their course. On the death of Emperor Romanos II in 963, Tzimiskes urged his uncle to seize the throne. After helping Nikephoros to the throne and continuing to defend the Empire's eastern provinces, Tzimiskes was deprived of his command by an intrigue, for which he retaliated by conspiring with Nikephoros' wife Theophano and a number of disgruntled leading generals (Michael Bourtzes and Leo Balantes) to assassinate Nikephoros. Reign[edit] Meeting of Svyatoslav I with Emperor John Tzimiskes The Bamberger Gunthertuch, a Byzantine silk tapestry depicting the return of John Tzimiskes from a successful campaign After his coronation in December 969, Tzimiskes dispatched his brother-in-law Bardas Skleros to subdue a rebellion by Bardas Phokas, a cousin of Tzimiskes who aspired to succeed their uncle as emperor. To solidify his position, Tzimiskes married Theodora, a daughter of Emperor Constantine VII. He proceeded to justify his usurpation by repelling the foreign invaders of the Empire. The tributary of Aleppo was soon assured under the Treaty of Safar. In a series of campaigns against the Kievan Rus' encroachment on the Lower Danube in 970–971, he drove the enemy out of Thrace in the Battle of Arcadiopolis, crossed Mt. Haemus, and besieged the fortress of Dorostolon (Silistra) on the Danube for sixty-five days, where after several hard-fought battles he defeated Great Prince Svyatoslav I of Rus'. Tzimiskes and Svyatoslav ended up negotiating a truce, in which weaponry, armor and provisions were exchanged for the famished Rus' departure. On his return to Constantinople, Tzimiskes celebrated a triumph, built the Church of Christ of the Chalke as thanksgiving, divested the captive Bulgarian Emperor Boris II of the Imperial symbols, and proclaimed Bulgaria annexed. He further secured his northern frontier by transplanting to Thrace some colonies of the Paulicians, whom he suspected of sympathising with their Muslim neighbours in the east.[citation needed] In 972, Tzimiskes turned against the Abbasid Empire and its vassals, beginning with an invasion of Upper Mesopotamia. A second campaign, in 975, was aimed at Syria, where his forces took Homs, Baalbek, Damascus, Tiberias, Nazareth, Caesarea, Sidon, Beirut, Byblos, and Tripoli, but they failed to take Jerusalem.[8] Death[edit] Tzimiskes died suddenly in 976 returning from his second campaign against the Abbasids and was buried in the Church of Christ Chalkites, which he had rebuilt. Several sources state that the Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos poisoned the Emperor to prevent him from stripping Lekapenos of his ill-gotten lands and riches.[9][10] Tzimiskes left all his own personal wealth to the poor and the sick.[10] He was succeeded by his ward and nephew, Basil II, who had been nominal co-emperor since 960. Miscellaneous[edit] Today, Tsimiski Street, the main commercial road in the center of Thessaloniki, is named after him. Çemişgezek in the Tunceli Province, modern day Turkey, is named after him, as he was born there. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 512. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. ^ John H. Rosser. Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. — Second Edition.— Scarecrow Press, 2011. — p. 52.:"Beginning in the sixth century, Armenians emigrated to Byzantium in great numbers, becoming the most assimilated of any ethnic group, while, at the same time, maintaining their distinct literature, religion, and art. Thousands of Armenian soldiers served in imperial forces, and a number of important military leaders and civil administrators were Armenian, including emperors Leo V, Basil I, Romanos I Lekapenos, and John I Tzimiskes." ^ Whittow, Mark (1996). "The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025". doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24765-3. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ (in Armenian) Matthew of Edessa. Մատթեոս Ուռհայեցի`Ժամանակնագրություն (The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa). Translation and commentary by Hrach Bartikyan. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Hayastan Publishing, 1973, pp. 12–13. ^ See Matthew of Edessa. The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, p. 301, note 52. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State and Society, pp. 505, 506. ^ PmbZ, Maria Skleraina (#24924). ^ Romane 2015, p. 73. ^ Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State and Society, p. 512. ^ a b Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium: The Apogee (First American ed.). New York: Knopf. p. 229. ISBN 0394537785. OCLC 18164817. Further reading[edit] Andriollo, Lisa (2012), "Les Kourkouas (IXe-XIe siècle)", in Cheynet, Jean-Claude; Sode, Claudia (eds.), Studies in Byzantine Sigillography (in French), 11, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 57–88, ISBN 978-3-11-026668-9 Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Zielke, Beate; Pratsch, Thomas, eds. (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). De Gruyter. Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-1473845701. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "John I (Roman emperor)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 438. Norwich, John J. (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Walker, Paul E. (1977). "The "Crusade" of John Tzimisces in the light of new Arabic evidence". Byzantion. 47: 301–327. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ioannes I Tzimiskes. Profile of Emperor John Coinage of Tzimiskes John I Tzimiskes Macedonian dynasty Born: c. 925 Died: 10 January 976 Regnal titles Preceded by Nikephoros II Phokas Byzantine emperor 969–976 (with Basil II and Constantine VIII) Succeeded by Basil II and Constantine VIII Military offices Preceded by Nikephoros Phokas Domestic of the Schools of the East 963–? UnknownTitle next held by Melias v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-6218	----	Paradoxa Stoicorum - Wikipedia Paradoxa Stoicorum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Paradoxa Stoicorum Marcus Tullius Cicero Author Cicero Country Roman Republic Language Classical Latin Subject Stoicism Genre Philosophy Publication date 46 BCE The Paradoxa Stoicorum (English: Stoic Paradoxes) is a work by the Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero in which he attempts to explain six famous Stoic sayings that appear to go against common understanding: (1) virtue is the sole good; (2) virtue is the sole requisite for happiness; (3) all good deeds are equally virtuous and all bad deeds equally vicious; (4) all fools are mad and enslaved; (5) only the wise are free; and (6) only the wise are rich. Contents 1 History 2 Contents 2.1 I: Virtue is the only good 2.2 II: Virtue is sufficient for happiness 2.3 III: All the vices and all virtues are equal 2.4 IV: All fools are mad 2.5 V: The sage alone is free 2.6 VI: Only the wise person is rich 3 Editions 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The work was written sometime around 46 BC.[1] The work is dedicated to Marcus Brutus.[2] In the introduction, Cicero praises Brutus' uncle Cato the Younger who was still alive at this date.[2] Cicero was motivated to write the work in order to re-express Stoic arguments within the language of rhetorical Latin. Cicero states his intention is to make a version of an original Greek work in a language appropriate for the mode of the Forum.[3] He defends the paradoxes with popular arguments, sometimes hardly more than a play upon words, and illustrates them with anecdotes from history.[4] It is thought that he did not regard these essays as serious works of philosophy, but rather as rhetorical exercises.[4][5] Elsewhere Cicero criticizes these paradoxes: especially De Finibus iv. 74-77 and Pro Murena 60-66.[4] The earliest manuscript dates are from the 9th century.[6] The Paradoxa Stoicorum is notable for being one of the first printed books.[6] In 1465 Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer printed the work together with Cicero's de Officiis having taken control of the Gutenberg press at Mainz.[6] In the 16th century, Marcantonius Majoragio wrote a work criticising Cicero, entitled the Antiparadoxon.[7] Majoragio believed that Cicero's work was un-Socratic, and furthermore that the arguments were unskilful and false.[7] Contents[edit] The subject of the work is to examine a principle of Stoic thought: the paradoxes.[1] The work is concerned specifically with six of these:[5] I: Virtue is the only good[edit] In this book Cicero presents the Stoic classifications of what elements of life are genuinely good, and what elements are not good. There are three different qualities of something being genuinely good: righteousness (rectum), intrinsic honor or nobility (honestum), and intrinsic virtue (cum virtute). This can be understood as the inner person, and the choices and actions that they engage in. Pleasure and wealth cannot be genuine goods because they lack the crucial properties that a genuine good should have.[3] Genuine goods should satisfy desire and make their possessor happy.[3] Spurious or apparent goods do not satisfy desires, but rather, arouse yet more desire, as well as fear that one might lose these things that they presently possess.[3] Cicero also argues that something cannot be a good if an evil person can possess it.[3] Thus wealth and pleasure cannot be a genuine good.[3] Humans alone among all animals possess reason, and this alone allows humans to pursue the good.[5] The good therefore should be defined exclusively in rational terms and thus the moral life should be ordered according to reason.[5] II: Virtue is sufficient for happiness[edit] Virtue is all that is needed for happiness.[8] Happiness depends on a possession which cannot be lost, and this only applies to things within our control.[5] III: All the vices and all virtues are equal[edit] All good deeds are equally meritorious and all bad deeds equally heinous.[4] All virtues are equal as this corresponds to the same impulse towards the good.[5] Cicero does not attempt to defend the Stoic position of the moral equality of all offenses; instead he offers a weakened version that offenses of the same sort are equal.[3] He notes the Stoic position that all crimes are equal since they all involve the same intent to break the law, but he then argues that crimes do not bear the same penalty since the matter depends on the status of the person injured and that of the criminal.[5] Thus he ends up imposing gradations of vice based on external factors.[5] IV: All fools are mad[edit] There is a substantial lacuna at the beginning of this section.[3] The remaining part argues that every fool is an exile and the wise person cannot be harmed.[3] Cicero attacks an unnamed personal enemy for causing his exile.[5] The essay is thought to be a thinly veiled attack on Cicero's enemy Clodius.[4] Cicero asserts that his own exile was not a hardship since he possessed the correct Stoic wisdom and virtue.[5] V: The sage alone is free[edit] Only the sage is free and every fool is a slave.[8] Cicero attacks an unnamed military leader who is unworthy of command because he cannot control his passions and thus is not free.[5] The target here may be Lucullus.[4] Cicero satirizes costly luxury and affectation of connoisseurship in collecting works of art.[4] Freedom involves the rational control of one's will. Only the sage is free since he freely chooses the good.[5] VI: Only the wise person is rich[edit] If a rich person's wealth is measured by the quantity of their goods, then a wealthy person with no virtue is poor, since virtue is the only good.[3] People confuse reasonable needs with unreasonable desires and this leads people in power to pursue irrational passions.[5] Editions[edit] Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum (Latin) (ed. J. G. Baiter, C. L. Kayser) "The booke of Marcus Tullius Cicero entituled Paradoxa Stoicorum. Contayninge a precise discourse of diuers poinctes and conclusions of vertue and phylosophie according the traditions and opinions of those philosophers, whiche were called Stoikes. Wherunto is also annexed a philosophicall treatyse of the same authoure called Scipio hys dreame. Anno. 1569". Published in the year 1569, translated by Thomas Newton. References[edit] ^ a b D Mehl (2002). C Damon; JF Miller; KS Myers (eds.). The Stoic Paradoxes according to Cicero (in) Vertis in Usum. Walter de Gruyter. p. 39. ISBN 3598777108. Archived from the original on 2017-12-01. Retrieved 2015-03-19. ^ a b W Englert (2011). "Bringing to the Light: Cicero's Paradoxa Stoicorum". Apeiron. 23 (4): 117–142. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1990.23.4.117. S2CID 170539684. ^ a b c d e f g h i j M.O. Webb (1985). Cicero's Paradoxica Stiocorum: A New Translation with Philosophical Commentary (PDF). Texas Tech University. ^ a b c d e f g Rackham, H. Cicero: De Oratore Vol. II. Loeb Classical Library. p. 252. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Colish, Marcia L. (1990). The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages: Stoicism in classical latin literature. BRILL. pp. 128–131. ISBN 9004093273.Studies in the History of Christian Thought ^ a b c Ronnick, Michele V. (1994). "The Raison d'Etre of Fust and Schoeffer's de Officiis et Paradoxa Stoicorum, 1465, 1466". In Clogan, Paul Maurice (ed.). Medievalia et Humanistica: Studies in Medieval & Renaissance Culture: Breaching Boundaries. 20. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 123–4. ISBN 0847678822. ^ a b Papy, J. (2009). "The First Christian Defender of Stoic Virtue? Justus Lipsius and Cicero's Paradoxa Stoicorum". In AAA MacDonald; ZRWM von Martels; J Riepke Veenstra (eds.). Christian Humanism: Essays in Honour of Arjo Vanderjagt. BRILL. p. 139. ISBN 978-9004176317. Archived from the original on 2017-12-01. Retrieved 2015-04-08. ^ a b S Ebbesen (21 June 2004). Steven K. Strange; Jack Zupko (eds.). Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1139453769. Archived from the original on 2017-12-01. Retrieved 2015-03-19. External links[edit] H. Rackham, (1948) Cicero: De Oratore, Vol. ii, Loeb Classical Library. [Paradoxa Stoicorum between pages 252-305] Cicero, Stoic Paradoxes, translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds, 1892. v t e Marcus Tullius Cicero Personal life Political career Writings Treatises Rhetoric and politics De Inventione De Oratore Book III De Partitionibus Oratoriae De Optimo Genere Oratorum Brutus Orator De Legibus Philosophical Hortensius Academica Consolatio De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum Tusculanae Disputationes De Natura Deorum De Divinatione De Fato Cato Maior de Senectute Laelius de Amicitia De Officiis De Re Publica Somnium Scipionis Paradoxa Stoicorum Orations Political De Imperio Cn. Pompei In Catilinam I–IV In Toga Candida Pro Milone Pro Marcello Pro Ligario Philippicae Judicial Pro Quinctio Pro Roscio Amerino Divinatio in Caecilium In Verrem Pro Tullio Pro Caecina Pro Cluentio Pro Archia Poeta Pro Caelio Letters Epistulae ad Atticum Epistulae ad Brutum Epistulae ad Familiares Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem Related Summum bonum v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Spain France (data) United States Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paradoxa_Stoicorum&oldid=1026633140" Categories: Philosophical works by Cicero Stoicism Hidden categories: Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 11:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6230	----	Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century) - Wikipedia Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine empress from 1042 to 1056 Empress and Autokratess of the Romans Theodora Porphyrogenita Empress and Autokratess of the Romans Coin of Theodora Byzantine empress Reign 21 April 1042 – 31 August 1056 Predecessor Zoë and Michael V Successor Michael VI Co-regent Zoë (1042–1050) Constantine IX (1042–1055) Born c. AD 980 Constantinople Died 31 August 1056 (aged 75–76) Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Dynasty Macedonian Father Constantine VIII Mother Helena Theodora Porphyrogenita (Greek: Θεοδώρα Πορφυρογενίτη, Theodōra Porphyrogenítē; c. 980 – 31 August 1056) was Byzantine Empress from 19 April 1042 to her death on 31 August 1056. She was sole ruler from 11 January 1055. She was born into the Macedonian dynasty that ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost two hundred years. Theodora became involved in political matters only late into her life. Her father Constantine VIII was co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire for 63 years then sole emperor from 1025 to 1028. After he died his older daughter, Zoë, co-ruled with her husbands then her adopted son, Michael V, keeping Theodora closely watched. After two foiled plots, Theodora was exiled to an island monastery in the Sea of Marmara in 1031. A decade later, the people of Constantinople rose against Michael V and insisted that she return to rule alongside her sister, Zoë. After 65 days Zoë married again to Constantine IX, who assumed the imperial responsibilities. Theodora seemingly retired to a convent after the death of Zoë in 1050. When Constantine died, the seventy-four-year-old Theodora returned to the throne despite fierce opposition from court officials and military claimants. For sixteen months she ruled as empress in her own right before succumbing to a sudden illness and dying aged seventy-six. She was the last ruler of the Macedonian line. Contents 1 Early life 2 Co-empress with Zoë 3 Return to power 4 See also 5 Citations 6 General sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Early life[edit] Histamenon depicting Basil II and Constantine VIII, holding a cross. Theodora was the third and youngest daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII and Helena, daughter of Alypius.[1]:503 She was Porphyrogenita,[2]:259 "born into the purple"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. Her father became co-emperor in 962 and sole emperor upon the death of his brother Basil II in 1025. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 15 November 1028.[1]:503–504 As an eligible imperial princess, Theodora was considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor in the west, Otto III, in 996. However, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoë. Otto III died before any marriage could occur.[2]:253, 259 Basil II prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, calculating that such a marriage would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women, Theodora and Zoë were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage.[3] Consequently, Theodora lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum (women's quarters).[2]:269 Intelligent and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied Constantine--by then, sole emperor--by refusing to marry the man her father had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, stating that Romanos was already married—his wife having become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family.[4]:465 Theodora further claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur.[2]:270 Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Theodora's sister. Zoë married Romanos three days before her father died.[5]:584 Empress Zoë tonsures her sister Theodora With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the gynaeceum, with its daily religious routines.[2]:276 Still, Zoë persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her.[4]:469 Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to marry the Bulgarian prince Presian and usurp the throne with him. Presian was blinded and sent to a monastery; Theodora was not punished. In 1031 she was implicated in a similar conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium.[1]:627 Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. During a visit, Zoë compelled her sister to take Holy Orders.[4]:471 Theodora remained there for the next eleven years, as Zoë managed the empire with her husbands Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV.[6] Co-empress with Zoë[edit] With Michael IV's death in December 1041, Zoë adopted Michael's nephew, who was crowned as Michael V.[4]:495 Although he promised to respect Zoë, he promptly banished her to a monastery on the Princes' Islands on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople, and on 19 April 1042, the people revolted against Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoë back from Princes' Island and displayed her to the people,[2]:295, 297 but the population rejected his proposal that he continue to rule alongside Zoë.[4]:496 Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoë needed a co-ruler, and backed the people's demand that it should be Theodora.[1]:2038[2]:298 A delegation, headed by the patrician Constantine Cabasilas,[2]:298 went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress.[4]:496 Theodora, accustomed to a life of religious contemplation, rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia, the people escorted the now furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress with Zoë. They were both crowned at dawn on April 21.[1]:2038 After the ceremony, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery.[2]:298–300 Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign.[4]:497 As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was far more strict. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety before ordering that he be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk.[2]:301 With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received a formal invitation from Zoë, some 24 hours after they had been crowned.[2]:304 Officially Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoë's on all public occasions. In practice she was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters administered the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice.[4]:498 Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they conscientiously rectified the abuses of the previous reigns.[2]:305 Although Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Still jealous of Theodora, Zoë had no desire to administer the empire, but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. Court factions formed behind each empress.[2]:306 After two months of increasing acrimony between them, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence through her obvious talents for governing.[4]:499 She eventually married Constantine IX, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him.[2]:307 Although Theodora and Zoë continued to be recognised as empresses, and although Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless, Theodora exerted influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch, the powerful administrator who had been the chief minister of Romanos III, the brother of Michael IV, and the uncle of Michael V; he had lived in exile after the fall of Michael V.[4]:505 Constantine IX's preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign caused rumours that he was planning to murder Theodora and Zoë.[2]:309 This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople.[7] The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the mob they were in no danger of assassination.[4]:503 Gold histamenon of Zoë and Theodora, 1042. Zoë (left), Constantine IX (centre), and Theodora (right) depicted on the Monomachus Crown Return to power[edit] Hagia Sophia mosaic of a seated Christ Pantocrator, with Zoë standing to his left and Constantine IX standing to his right After Zoë's death in 1050, Theodora seems to have retired to a convent, leaving Constantine IX to rule alone until his own death on 11 January 1055. As Constantine lay dying, he was persuaded by his councilors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the doux (Duke) of the Byzantine Theme of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon.[4]:527 However, Theodora preempted their plans when, despite her advanced age, she vigorously asserted her right to rule. She came out of retirement and convened the Senate, and the imperial guard proclaimed her "emperor" shortly before Constantine's death.[8][5]:596 A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios, whom the western tagmata apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was dismissed and exiled on Theodora's orders,[1]:329[5]:597 after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court.[4]:527 Theodora controlled the nobles and checked numerous abuses. She damaged her reputation, however, with excessive severity toward private enemies and undue employment of such menials as Leo Paraspondylos as her advisors.[4]:528 Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and such able commanders as Isaac Komnenos were replaced with minor functionaries.[4]:528 Determined to centralize as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women.[1]:2038 When Theodora was seventy-six, the patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, in order to assure a succession. She refused to consider marriage, no matter how token. She also refused to name an heir to the throne. Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056. On 31 August her advisors, chaired by Leo Paraspondylos, met to decide whom to recommend to her as a successor. According to Psellus, they selected Michael Bringas, an aged civil servant and former military finance minister whose main attraction was that "he was less qualified to rule than he was to be ruled and directed by others". Theodora was unable to speak, but Paraspondylos decided that she had nodded at an appropriate moment. Hearing of this the Patriarch refused to believe it. Eventually he was persuaded and Bringas was crowned as Michael VI. Theodora died a few hours later and with her death, the Macedonian dynasty's 189-year rule ended.[4]:529[2]:327 See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Kazhdan ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Norwich ^ Garland, Zoe Porphyrogenita ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Finlay. ^ a b c Treadgold (1997). ^ Norwich 276, 279. ^ Finlay, pg. 503 ^ Garland (1999), pp. 165–66 General sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Michael Psellus, Chronographia. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8. OCLC 1025783. Secondary sources[edit] George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire from 716–1057, William Blackwood & Sons, 1853 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Theodora" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 765. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. Mitchell, Linda Elizabeth (2004). "Women Where They Ought Not to Be? Revising the View of the Medieval World". Journal of Women's History. 16 (1): 183–189. doi:10.1353/jowh.2004.0031. S2CID 144044065. Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, London: Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-011448-5 Treadgold, Warren T. (1997), A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 External links[edit] Theodora coinage Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century) Macedonian dynasty Born: 984 Died: after 31 August 1056 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael V and Zoe Byzantine Empress 1042–1056 with Zoe (1042–1050) Constantine IX (1042–1055) Succeeded by Michael VI v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodora_Porphyrogenita_(11th_century)&oldid=1023115869" Categories: 1040s in the Byzantine Empire 1050s in the Byzantine Empire 1056 deaths 10th-century Byzantine people 10th-century Byzantine women 11th-century Byzantine emperors 11th-century Byzantine women 11th-century women rulers 980s births Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine empresses Daughters of Byzantine emperors Eastern Orthodox monarchs Empresses regnant Macedonian dynasty Porphyrogennetoi Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from July 2018 Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 13:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6234	----	File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Marcus_Aurelius,_aureus,_AD_161-180,_RIC_III_362.jpg ‎(800 × 399 pixels, file size: 127 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionMarcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 161-180, RIC III 362.jpg English: Marcus Aurelius. AD 161-180. AV Aureus (20mm, 7.62 g, 12h). Rome mint. Struck AD 176-177. M ANTONINVS AVG GERM SARM, laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / TR P XXXI IMP VIII COS III P P, DE GERM in exergue, pile of arms and armor. RIC III 362; MIR 18, 368-15/37; Calicó 1845 (this coin illustrated); BMCRE 737; Biaggi –. Good VF. Ex Continental Collection; Numismatic Fine Arts XXIX (13 August 1992), lot 379; Numismatic Fine Arts XXVII (5 December 1991), lot 134; Numismatic Fine Arts FPL 35 (Summer 1988), no 130. It was a great misfortune that Rome’s most philosophically-minded emperor spent much of his reign preoccupied with the practical affairs of waging war. The Parthian War (AD 161-166) demanded that many troops stationed in the northern provinces be moved east. The Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatiae all quickly capitalized on the decreased military presence and swarmed southward, even posing a threat to Italy. Marcus took personal command in AD 167 and managed to establish peace through a series of hard-fought victories, which this scarce issue commemorates. It was during these campaigns that Marcus began writing his famous philosophical work, Meditations. 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en-wikipedia-org-6236	----	Christina, Queen of Sweden - Wikipedia Christina, Queen of Sweden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Christina of Sweden) Jump to navigation Jump to search 17th-century queen of Sweden For other Swedish royalty named Christina, see Christina of Sweden (disambiguation). Queen of Sweden Christina Portrait by Sébastien Bourdon, who exaggerated her eyes.[1] Queen of Sweden Reign 16 November [O.S. 6 November] 1632 – 16 June [O.S. 6 June] 1654 Coronation 20 October 1650 Predecessor Gustav II Adolf Successor Charles X Gustav Born 18 December [O.S. 8 December] 1626 Tre Kronor Castle, Stockholm Died 19 April 1689(1689-04-19) (aged 62) Rome, Papal States Burial 22 June 1689 St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City Names Christina Augusta or Christina Alexandra House Vasa Father Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Mother Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg Religion Catholic (1654–1689) Lutheran (1626–1654) Signature Christina (Swedish: Kristina; 18 December 1626 – 19 April 1689), a member of the House of Vasa, was Queen of Sweden from 1632 until her abdication in 1654.[note 1] She succeeded her father Gustavus Adolphus upon his death at the Battle of Lützen, but began ruling the Swedish Empire when she reached the age of 18.[7] Christina argued for peace in the Thirty Years' War and received indemnity. The Peace of Westphalia allowed her also to establish an academy or university when and wherever she wanted.[8] The Swedish queen is remembered as one of the most learned women of the 17th century.[9] She was fond of books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculptures. With her interest in religion, philosophy, mathematics and alchemy, she attracted many scientists to Stockholm, wanting the city to become the "Athens of the North". She caused a scandal when she decided not to marry,[10] and in 1654 when she abdicated her throne and converted to Catholicism. Christina's financial extravagance brought the state to the verge of bankruptcy, and the financial difficulties caused public unrest after ten years of ruling. At the age of 28, the "Minerva of the North" relinquished the throne to her cousin and moved to Rome.[11] Pope Alexander VII described Christina as "a queen without a realm, a Christian without faith, and a woman without shame."[10] Notwithstanding, she played a leading part in the theatrical and musical community and protected many Baroque artists, composers, and musicians. Being the guest of five consecutive popes,[12] and a symbol of the Counter Reformation, she is one of the few women buried in the Vatican grotto. Her unconventional lifestyle and masculine dressing have been featured in countless novels, plays, operas, and film. In all the biographies about Christina, her gender and cultural identity play an important role.[13] Contents 1 Early life 2 Regency 3 Personal rule 3.1 Thirty Years' War 3.2 Patronage of the arts 3.3 Marriage issue 3.4 Religion and personal views 4 Abdication 5 Departure and exile 5.1 Setting off to Rome 5.2 Palazzo Farnese 6 Visits to France and Italy 6.1 The death of Monaldeschi 7 Back to Rome 8 Revisiting Sweden 9 Later life 10 Death and burial 11 Art collector 12 Appearance 12.1 Gender ambiguity and sexuality 13 Legacy 14 Family tree 15 Footnotes 16 References 17 Bibliography 18 Further reading 19 External links Early life[edit] Tre Kronor in Stockholm by Govert Dircksz Camphuysen. Most of Sweden's national library and royal archives were destroyed when the castle burned in 1697. Christina was born in the royal castle Tre Kronor on 18 December [O.S. 8 December] 1626. Her parents were the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus and his German wife, Maria Eleonora. They had already had three children: two daughters (a stillborn princess in 1621, and then the first Princess Christina, who was born in 1623 and died the following year) and a stilborn son in May 1625.[note 2] Excited expectation surrounded Maria Eleonora's fourth pregnancy in 1626. When the baby was born, it was first thought to be a boy as it was "hairy" and screamed "with a strong, hoarse voice."[14] She later wrote in her autobiography that, "Deep embarrassment spread among the women when they discovered their mistake." The king, though, was very happy, stating, "She'll be clever, she has made fools of us all!"[15] From most accounts, Gustav Adolf appears to have been closely attached to his daughter, and she appears to have admired him greatly. The Crown of Sweden was hereditary in the House of Vasa, but from King Charles IX's time onward (reigned 1604–11), it excluded Vasa princes descended from a deposed brother (Eric XIV of Sweden) and a deposed nephew (Sigismund III of Poland). Gustav Adolf's legitimate younger brothers had died years earlier. The one legitimate female left, his half-sister Catharine, came to be excluded in 1615 when she married a non-Lutheran. So Christina became the undisputed heir presumptive. From Christina's birth, King Gustav Adolph recognized her eligibility even as a female heir, and although called "queen", the official title she held as of her coronation by the Riksdag in February 1633 was king.[16] Regency[edit] Christina's parents c. 1632 Before Gustav Adolf left for Germany to defend Protestantism in the Thirty Years' War, he secured his daughter's right to inherit the throne, in case he never returned, and gave orders to Axel Gustafsson Banér,[11] his marshal, that Christina should receive an education of the type normally only afforded to boys.[17] Her mother, of the House of Hohenzollern, was a woman of volatile temperament. It is possible she was insane. After the king died on 6 November 1632 on the battlefield, his corpse was brought home in a coffin, with his heart in a separate box. Maria Eleonora ordered that the king should not be buried until she could be buried with him. She also demanded that the coffin be kept open, and went to see it regularly, patting it and taking no notice of the putrefaction. Eventually, the embarrassed chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, saw no other solution than to have a guard posted at the room to prevent further episodes.[18] As a result, he was not buried until 22 June 1634, more than eighteen months later. In 1634, the Instrument of Government, a new constitution, was introduced by Oxenstierna. The constitution stipulated that the "King" must have a Privy Council, which was headed by Oxenstierna himself.[19] Maria Eleanora had been indifferent to her daughter but now, belatedly, Christina became the center of her mother's attention. Gustav Adolf had decided that in the event of his death, his daughter should be cared for by his half-sister, Catherine of Sweden[note 3] and half-brother Carl Gyllenhielm as regent. This solution did not suit Maria Eleonora, who had her sister-in-law banned from the castle. In 1636, Chancellor Oxenstierna saw no other solution than to exile the widow to Gripsholm castle, while the governing regency council would decide when she was allowed to meet her nine-year-old daughter.[20] For the subsequent three years, Christina thrived in the company of her aunt Catherine and her family. In 1638, after the death of her aunt and foster mother Catherine of Sweden, the Royal Regency Council under Axel Oxenstierna saw the need to appoint a new foster mother to the underage monarch (her mother being exiled), which resulted in a reorganization of the queen's household. In order to prevent the young queen from being dependent upon a single individual and favorite mother figure, the Royal Council decided to split the office of head lady-in-waiting (responsible for the queen's female courtiers) and the office royal governess (or foster mother) in four, with two women appointed to share each office. Accordingly, Ebba Leijonhufvud and Christina Natt och Dag were appointed to share the position of royal governess and foster mother with the title Upptuktelse-Förestånderska ('Castigation Mistress'), while Beata Oxenstierna and Ebba Ryning were appointed to share the position of head lady-in-waiting, all four with the formal rank and title of Hovmästarinna.[21] The 14-year-old Christina as queen, painting by Jacob Heinrich Elbfas The Royal Council's method of giving Queen Christina several foster mothers to avoid her forming an attachment to a single person appears to have been effective, as Christina did not mention her foster mothers directly in her memoirs and did not seem to have formed any attachment to any of them; in fact, with only a few exceptions, such as Ebba Sparre, Lady Jane Ruthven and Louise van der Nooth, Christina did not show any interest in any of her female courtiers, and she generally mentions them in her memoirs only to compare herself favorably toward them by referring to herself as more masculine than they.[21] Christina was educated as a royal male would have been. The theologian Johannes Matthiae Gothus became her tutor; he gave her lessons in religion, philosophy, Greek and Latin. Chancellor Oxenstierna taught her politics and discussed Tacitus with her. Oxenstierna wrote proudly of the 14-year-old girl that, "She is not at all like a female" and that she had "a bright intelligence". Christina seemed happy to study ten hours a day. Besides Swedish she learned at least seven other languages: German, Dutch, Danish, French, Italian, Arabic and Hebrew.[note 4] In 1636–1637, Peter Minuit and Samuel Blommaert negotiated with the government to found New Sweden, the first Swedish colony in the New World. In 1638, Minuit erected Fort Christina in what is now Wilmington, Delaware; the Christina River was also named after her. The Queen Village neighborhood in Center City, Philadelphia takes its name from the neighborhood street named in her honor. Personal rule[edit] In 1644, Christina was declared an adult, although the coronation was postponed because of the war with Denmark. In December 1643, Swedish troops overran Holstein and Jutland in the Torstenson War. The Swedes achieved much from their surprise attack. At the Treaty of Brömsebro Denmark handed over the isles of Gotland and Ösel to Sweden while Norway lost the districts of Jämtland and Härjedalen. Sweden now virtually controlled the Baltic Sea, had unrestricted access to the North Sea and was no longer encircled by Denmark–Norway.[22] In 1648 she commissioned 35 paintings from Jacob Jordaens for a ceiling in Uppsala Castle. In 1649, 760 paintings, 170 marble and 100 bronze statues, 33,000 coins and medallions, 600 pieces of crystal, 300 scientific instruments, manuscripts and books (including the Sanctae Crucis laudibus by Rabanus Maurus, the Codex Argenteus and the Codex Gigas[23]) were transported to Stockholm. The art, from Prague Castle, had belonged to Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and was captured by Hans Christoff von Königsmarck during the Battle of Prague and the negotiations of the Peace of Westphalia.[24] By 1649–1650, "her desire to collect men of learning round her, as well as books and rare manuscripts, became almost a mania," Goldsmith wrote.[25] To catalogue her new collection she asked Isaac Vossius to come to Sweden and Heinsius to purchase more books on the market.[26] In 1649, with the help of her uncle, John Casimir, and her cousins, Christina tried to reduce the influence of Oxenstierna, and she declared Casimir's son, her cousin Charles Gustav, as her heir presumptive. The following year, Christina resisted demands from the other estates (clergy, burghers and peasants) in the Riksdag of the Estates for the reduction of tax-exempt noble landholdings. She never implemented the policy.[27] Thirty Years' War[edit] An image of Christina on a 1645 Erfurt 10 ducat coin. Between 1631 and 1648, during the Thirty Years' War, Erfurt was occupied by Swedish forces.[28][note 5] Her father, Gustavus Adolphus, had come to the aid of the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, to diminish Catholic influence and gain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea. He won several battles, and in 1631, Cardinal Richelieu decided France would support Sweden with money and soldiers. But Gustavus was killed in 1632. Count Oxenstierna became regent and continued Sweden's part in the war. Defeated in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634), the Swedish army retreated from southern Germany to Pomerania. Though Sweden won some later battles, the war effort was exhausting. Christina reached her majority in 1644, and Chancellor Oxenstierna soon discovered that her political views differed from his own. In 1645 he sent his son, Johan Oxenstierna, to the Peace Congress in the Westphalian city of Osnabrück, to argue against peace with the Holy Roman Empire. Christina, however, wanted peace at any cost and sent her own delegate, Johan Adler Salvius. The Peace of Westphalia was signed between May and October 1648, effectively ending the European wars of religion. Sweden received an indemnity of five million thalers, used primarily to pay its troops. Sweden further received Western Pomerania (henceforth Swedish Pomerania), Wismar, the Archbishopric of Bremen, and the Bishopric of Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gaining a seat and vote in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire and in the respective diets (Kreistag) of three Imperial Circles: the Upper Saxon Circle, Lower Saxon Circle, and Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle; the city of Bremen was disputed.[31] Shortly before the conclusion of the peace settlement, she admitted Salvius into the council, against Chancellor Oxenstierna's wishes. Salvius was no aristocrat, but Christina wanted opposition to the aristocracy present. Patronage of the arts[edit] Queen Christina (at the table on the right) in discussion with French philosopher René Descartes. (Romanticized painting by Nils Forsberg (1842-1934), after Pierre Louis Dumesnil In 1645 Christina invited Hugo Grotius to become her librarian, but he died on his way in Rostock. That same year she founded Ordinari Post Tijdender ("Regular Mail Times"), the oldest currently published newspaper in the world. In 1647 Johann Freinsheim was appointed as her librarian. After the Battle of Prague (1648), where her armies looted Prague Castle, many of the treasures collected by Rudolph II were brought back to Stockholm. Hence Christina acquired for her library a number of valuable illustrated works and rare manuscripts. The inventory drawn up at the time mentions 100 an allerhand Kunstbüchern ("a hundred art books of different kinds"), among them two world-famous manuscripts: Codex Gigas and Codex Argenteus.[32] The "Semiramis from the North" corresponded with Pierre Gassendi, her favorite author. Blaise Pascal offered her a copy of his pascaline. She had a firm grasp of classical history and philosophy.[33] Christina studied Neostoicism, the Church Fathers, and Islam; she systematically looked for a copy of the Treatise of the Three Impostors, a work bestowing doubt on all organized religion.[34] In 1651 the kabbalist Menasseh ben Israel offered to become her agent or librarian for Hebrew books and manuscripts; they discussed his messianic ideas as he had recently spelled them out in his latest book, Hope of Israel. Other illustrious scholars who came to visit were Claude Saumaise, Johannes Schefferus, Olaus Rudbeck, Johann Heinrich Boeckler, Gabriel Naudé, Christian Ravis, Nicolaas Heinsius and Samuel Bochart, together with Pierre Daniel Huet and Marcus Meibomius, who wrote a book about Greek dance. Christina was interested in theatre, especially the plays of Pierre Corneille; she was herself an amateur actress.[35][36] In 1647 the Italian architect Antonio Brunati was ordered to build a theatrical setting in one of the larger rooms of the palace.[37] The court poet Georg Stiernhielm wrote several plays in the Swedish language, such as Den fångne Cupido eller Laviancu de Diane, performed with Christina in the main part of the goddess Diana.[35][36] She invited foreign companies to play at Bollhuset, such as an Italian opera troupe in 1652 with Vincenzo Albrici and a Dutch theater troupe with Ariana Nozeman and Susanna van Lee in 1653.[35][36] Among the French artists she employed was Anne Chabanceau de La Barre, who was made court singer.[35] From 1638 Oxenstierna employed a French ballet troupe under Antoine de Beaulieu, who also had to teach Christina to move around more elegantly.[35][36] In 1646 Christina's good friend, the French ambassador Pierre Chanut, met and corresponded with the philosopher René Descartes, asking him for a copy of his Meditations. Upon showing the queen some of the letters, Christina became interested in beginning a correspondence with Descartes. She invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until she asked him to organize a scientific academy. Christina sent a ship to pick up the philosopher and 2,000 books.[38] Descartes arrived on 4 October 1649. He resided with Chanut, and finished his Passions of the Soul. It is highly unlikely Descartes wrote a "Ballet de la Naissance de la Paix", performed on her birthday.[39] On the day after, 19 December 1649, he probably started his private lessons for the queen. With Christina's strict schedule he was invited to the cold and draughty castle at 5:00 AM daily to discuss philosophy and religion. Soon it became clear they did not like each other; she disapproved of his mechanical view, and he did not appreciate her interest in Ancient Greek.[40] On 15 January Descartes wrote he had seen Christina only four or five times.[41] On 1 February 1650 Descartes caught a cold. He died ten days later, early in the morning on 11 February 1650, and according to Chanut the cause of his death was pneumonia.[42][note 6] Marriage issue[edit] Christina by David Beck Already at the age of nine Christina was impressed by the Catholic religion and the merits of celibacy.[47] She read a biography on the virgin queen Elizabeth I of England with interest. Christina understood that it was expected of her to provide an heir to the Swedish throne. Her first cousin Charles was infatuated with her, and they became secretly engaged before he left in 1642 to serve in the Swedish army in Germany for three years. Christina revealed in her autobiography that she felt "an insurmountable distaste for marriage" and "for all the things that females talked about and did." As she was chiefly occupied with her studies, she slept three to four hours a night, forgot to comb her hair, donned her clothes in a hurry and wore men's shoes for the sake of convenience. Her unruly hair became her trademark. Her closest female friend was Ebba Sparre, with whom she shared a bed and possibly a sexual relationship.[48] Christina, said to possess charm, called her "Belle" and most of her spare time was spent with la belle comtesse. She introduced the passion of her youth to the English ambassador Whitelocke as her "bed-fellow" and praised both her mind and her beauty.[49][50] When Christina left Sweden, she continued to write passionate letters to Sparre, in which she told her that she would always love her.[50] On 26 February 1649, Christina announced that she had decided not to marry and instead wanted her first cousin Charles to be heir to the throne. While the nobility objected to this, the three other estates – clergy, burghers, and peasants – accepted it. The coronation took place on 22 October 1650. Christina went to the castle of Jacobsdal where she entered in a coronation carriage draped in black velvet embroidered in gold and pulled by three white horses. The procession to Storkyrkan was so long that when the first carriages arrived, the last ones had not yet left Jacobsdal (a distance of roughly 10.5 km or 6.5 miles). All four estates were invited to dine at the castle. Fountains at the market place splashed out wine for three days, roast was served, and illuminations sparkled, followed by a themed parade (The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity) on 24 October.[51] Religion and personal views[edit] Sébastien Bourdon, Christina of Sweden, 1653. Given by Pimentel to Philip IV of Spain, the painting is now in the Museo del Prado.[52][53][54] Her tutor, Johannes Matthiae, influenced by John Dury and Comenius, who since 1638 had been working on a new Swedish school system, represented a gentler attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested a new church order, but it was voted down as this was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism. Queen Christina defended him against the advice of Chancellor Oxenstierna, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, the clergy wanted to introduce the Book of Concord (Swedish: Konkordieboken) – a book defining correct Lutheranism versus heresy, making some aspects of free theological thinking impossible. Matthiae was strongly opposed to this and was again backed by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced.[55] She had long conversations about Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Bacon, and Kepler with Antonio Macedo, secretary and interpreter for Portugal's ambassador.[56] Macedo was a Jesuit, and in August 1651 smuggled on his person a letter from Christina to his general in Rome.[57] In reply, Paolo Casati and Francesco Malines came to Sweden in the spring of 1652, trained in both natural sciences and theology. She had more conversations with them, being interested in Catholic views on sin, immortality of the soul, rationality and free will. The two scholars revealed her plans to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. Around May 1652 Christina decided to become Catholic. She sent Matthias Palbitzki to Madrid; in August King Philip IV of Spain sent the Spanish diplomat Antonio Pimentel de Prado to Stockholm.[58][59] After reigning almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina had what some have interpreted as a nervous breakdown. She suffered with high blood pressure, complained about bad eyesight and pain in her neck. Grégoire François Du Rietz, since 1642 the court physician,[60] was called when she suddenly collapsed in 1651.[note 7] In February 1652 the French doctor Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Unlike most doctors of that time, he held no faith in blood-letting; instead, he ordered sufficient sleep, warm baths and healthy meals, as opposed to Christina's hitherto ascetic way of life. She was only twenty-five, and advising that she should take more pleasure in life, Bourdelot asked her to stop studying and working so hard[64] and to remove the books from her apartments. For years, Christina knew by heart all the sonnets from the Ars Amatoria and was keen on the works by Martial[65] and Petronius. The physician showed her the 16 erotic sonnets of Pietro Aretino, which he kept secretly in his luggage. By subtle means Bourdelot undermined her principles. She now became an Epicurean.[66] Her mother and de la Gardie were very much against the activities of Bourdelot and tried to convince her to change her attitude towards him; Bourdelot returned to France in 1653 "laden in riches and curses".[67] Abdication[edit] Christina told the councils: "I do not intend to give you reasons, [I am] simply not suited to marriage." The councils refused and Christina agreed to stay on the condition they never again asked her to marry. In 1651, Christina lost much of her popularity after the beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius, together with his 17-year-old son, who had accused her of serious misbehavior and of being a "Jezebel".[68][69] According to them "Christina was bringing everything to ruin, and that she cared for nothing but sport and pleasure."[70] Christina's abdication in 1654, drawing by Erik Dahlberg In 1653, she founded the Amaranten order. Antonio Pimentel was appointed as its first knight; all members had to promise not to marry (again).[71] In 1653, she ordered Vossius (and Heinsius) to make a list of about 6,000 books and manuscripts to be packed and shipped to Antwerp. In February 1654, she plainly told the Council of her plans to abdicate. Oxenstierna told her she would regret her decision within a few months. In May, the Riksdag discussed her proposals. She had asked for 200,000 rikstalers a year, but received dominions instead. Financially she was secured through a pension and revenue from the town of Norrköping, the isles of Gotland, Öland Ösel and Poel, Wolgast, and Neukloster in Mecklenburg and estates in Pomerania.[72] Her plan to convert[73] was not the only reason for her abdication, as there was increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful ways. Within ten years, she and Oxenstierna[74] had created 17 counts, 46 barons and 428 lesser nobles. To provide these new peers with adequate appanages, they had sold or mortgaged crown property representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rikstalers.[75] During the ten years of her reign, the number of noble families increased from 300 to about 600,[76] rewarding people like Lennart Torstenson, Du Rietz, Louis De Geer and Johan Palmstruch for their efforts. These donations took place with such haste that they were not always registered, and on some occasions the same piece of land was given away twice.[77] Christina abdicated her throne on 6 June 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustav.[73] During the abdication ceremony at Uppsala Castle, Christina wore her regalia, which were ceremonially removed from her, one by one. Per Brahe, who was supposed to remove the crown, did not move, so she had to take the crown off herself. Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech with a faltering voice, thanked everyone and left the throne to Charles X Gustav, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe felt that she "stood there as pretty as an angel." Charles Gustav was crowned later on that day. Christina left the country within a few days. Departure and exile[edit] Portrait by Jacob Ferdinand Voet In the summer of 1654, Christina left Sweden in men's clothing with the help of Bernardino de Rebolledo, and rode as Count Dohna, through Denmark. Relations between the two countries were still so tense that a former Swedish queen could not have traveled safely in Denmark. Christina had already packed and shipped abroad valuable books, paintings, statues and tapestries from her Stockholm castle, leaving its treasures severely depleted.[78][79] Christina visited Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and while there thought that her successor should have a bride. She sent letters recommending two of the Duke's daughters to Charles. Based on this recommendation, he married Hedwig Eleonora.[80] On 10 July Christina arrived in Hamburg and stayed with Jacob Curiel at Krameramtsstuben. Christina visited Johann Friedrich Gronovius, and Anna Maria van Schurman in the Dutch Republic. In August, she arrived in the Southern Netherlands, and settled down in Antwerp. For four months Christina was lodged in the mansion of a Jewish merchant. She was visited by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria; the Prince de Condé, ambassador Pierre Chanut, as well as the former governor of Norway, Hannibal Sehested. In the afternoons she went for a ride, and each evening parties were held; there was a play to watch or music to listen to. Christina ran quickly out of money and had to sell some of her tapestries, silverware and jewelry. When her financial situation did not improve, the archduke invited her to his Brussels palace on Coudenberg. On 24 December 1654, she converted to the Catholic faith in the archduke's chapel in the presence of the Dominican Juan Guêmes,[81] Raimondo Montecuccoli and Pimentel.[82] Baptized as Kristina Augusta, she adopted the name Christina Alexandra.[note 8] She did not declare her conversion in public, in case the Swedish council might refuse to pay her alimony. In addition, Sweden was preparing for war against Pomerania, which meant that her income from there was considerably reduced. The pope and Philip IV of Spain could not support her openly either, as she was not publicly a Catholic yet. Christina succeeded in arranging a major loan, leaving books and statues to settle her debts.[84] In September, she left for Italy with her entourage of 255 persons and 247 horses. The pope's messenger, the librarian Lucas Holstenius, himself a convert, waited for her in Innsbruck. On 3 November 1655, Christina announced her conversion to Catholicism in the Hofkirche and wrote to Pope Alexander VII and her cousin Charles X about it. To celebrate her official conversion, L'Argia, an opera by Antonio Cesti, was performed. Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria, already in financial trouble, is said to have been almost ruined by her visit. Her departure was on 8 November.[85] Setting off to Rome[edit] Celebrations for Christina at Palazzo Barberini on 28 February 1656 The southbound journey through Italy was planned in detail by the Vatican and had a brilliant triumph in Ferrara, Bologna, Faenza and Rimini. In Pesaro, Christina became acquainted with the handsome brothers Santinelli, who so impressed her with their poetry and adeptness of dancing that she took them into service, as well as a certain Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi. The official entry into Rome took place on 20 December, in a couch designed by Bernini[86] through Porta Flaminia, which today is known as Porta del Popolo.[note 9] Christina met Bernini on the next day, she invited him to her apartment the same evening and they became lifelong friends. "Two days afterwards she was conducted to the Vatican Basilica, where the pope gave her confirmation. It was then that she received from the pope her second name of Alexandra, the feminine form of his own."[87] She was granted her own wing inside the Vatican, decorated by Bernini. Christina's visit to Rome was the triumph of Pope Alexander VII and the occasion for splendid Baroque festivities. For several months, she was the only preoccupation of the Pope and his court. The nobles vied for her attention and treated her to a never-ending round of fireworks, jousts, mock duels, acrobatics, and operas. On 31 January Vita Humana an opera by Marco Marazzoli was performed. At the Palazzo Barberini, where she was welcomed on 28 February by a few hundred privileged spectators, she watched an amazing carousel in the courtyard.[88][89] Palazzo Farnese[edit] Letter from Queen Christina to Decio Azzolino in the National Archives of Sweden Christina had settled down in the Palazzo Farnese, which belonged to the Duke of Parma. Every Wednesday she held the palace open to visitors from the higher classes who kept themselves busy with poetry and intellectual discussions. Christina opened an academy in the palace on 24 January 1656, called Academy of Arcadia, where the participants enjoyed music, theater, and literature. The poet Reyer Anslo was presented to her. Belonging to the Arcadia-circle was also Francesco Negri, a Franciscan from Ravenna who is regarded as the first tourist to visit North Cape, Norway.[note 10] Another Franciscan was the Swede Lars Skytte, who, under the name pater Laurentius, served as Christina's confessor for eight years.[note 11] Twenty-nine-year-old Christina gave occasion to much gossip when socializing freely with men her own age. One of them was Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who had been a secretary to the ambassador in Spain, and responsible for the Vatican's correspondence with European courts.[90] He was also the leader of the Squadrone Volante, the free thinking "Flying Squad" movement within the Catholic Church. Christina and Azzolino were so close that the pope asked him to shorten his visits to her palace; but they remained lifelong friends. In a letter on 26 January 1676[91] to Azzolino Christina writes (in French) that she would never offend God or give Azzolino reason to take offense, but this "does not prevent me from loving you until death, and since piety relieves you from being my lover, then I relieve you from being my servant, for I shall live and die as your slave." As he had promised to remain celibate, his replies were more reserved.[note 12] In the meantime Christina learned that the Swedes had confiscated all her revenue as the princess had become a Catholic. Visits to France and Italy[edit] Decio Azzolino by Jacob Ferdinand Voet King Philip IV of Spain ruled the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. The French politician Mazarin, an Italian himself, had attempted to liberate Naples from Spanish rule, against which the locals had fought before the Neapolitan Republic was created. A second expedition in 1654 had failed and the Duke of Guise gave up. Christina's goal was to become a mediator between France and Spain in their contest to control Naples. Her plan detailed that she would lead French troops to take Naples and rule until bequeathing the crown to France after her death. Christina sent home all her Spanish servants, including her confidant Pimentel and her confessor Guêmes.[93] On 20 July 1656 Christina set sail from Civitavecchia for Marseille where she arrived nine days later. In early August she traveled to Paris, accompanied by the Duke of Guise. Mazarin gave her no official sponsorship, but gave instructions that she be celebrated and entertained in every town on her way north. On 8 September she arrived in Paris and was shown around; ladies were shocked by her masculine appearance and demeanor and the unguarded freedom of her conversation. When visiting the ballet with la Grande Mademoiselle, she, as the latter recalls, "surprised me very much – applauding the parts which pleased her, taking God to witness, throwing herself back in her chair, crossing her legs, resting them on the arms of her chair, and assuming other postures, such as I had never seen taken but by Travelin and Jodelet, two famous buffoons... She was in all respects a most extraordinary creature".[94] Christina was treated with respect by the young Louis XIV and his mother, Anne of Austria, in Compiègne. On 22 September 1656, the arrangement between her and Louis XIV was ready. He would recommend Christina as queen to the Kingdom of Naples, and serve as guarantor against Spanish aggression. As Queen of Naples she would be financially independent of the Swedish king, and also capable of negotiating peace between France and Spain.[note 13] On her way back Christina visited the beautiful and atheistic Ninon de l'Enclos in the convent at Lagny-sur-Marne. In early October she left France and arrived in Torino. During the winter Christina lived in the apostolic palace in Pesaro, probably to flee the plague in Rome. (The plague infested several regions including Naples, where 250,000 people died within two years.[95]) In July 1657 she returned to France, likely being impatient. It is not known where she stayed that summer. In Fontainebleau she was ordered by the court to halt. The death of Monaldeschi[edit] On 15 October 1657 apartments were assigned to her at the Palace of Fontainebleau, where she committed an action that stained her memory: the execution of marchese Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi, her master of the horse and formerly leader of the French party in Rome.[96][97] For two months she had suspected Monaldeschi of disloyalty; she secretly seized his correspondence, which revealed that he had betrayed her interests. Christina gave three packages of letters to Le Bel, a priest, to keep them for her in custody. Three days later, at one o'clock on Saturday afternoon, she summoned Monaldeschi into the Galerie des Cerfs, discussing the matter and letters with him. He insisted that betrayal should be punished with death. She was convinced that he had pronounced his own death sentence. After an hour or so Le Bel was to receive his confession. Both Le Bel and Monaldeschi entreated for mercy, but he was stabbed by her domestics – notably Ludovico Santinelli – in his stomach and in his neck. Wearing his coat of mail, which protected him, he was chased around in an adjacent room before they finally succeeded in dealing him a fatal wound in his throat. "In the end, he died, confessing his infamy and admitting [Santinelli's] innocence, protesting that he had invented the whole fantastic story in order to ruin [him]."[98] Galerie des Cerfs Father Le Bel was told to have him buried inside the church, and Christina, seemingly unfazed, paid an abbey to say a number of Masses for his soul. She "was sorry that she had been forced to undertake this execution, but claimed that justice had been carried out for his crime and betrayal.[99] Mazarin, who had sent her old friend Chanut, advised Christina to place the blame due to a brawl among courtiers, but she insisted that she alone was responsible for the act. She wrote to Louis XIV who two weeks later paid her a friendly visit without mentioning it. In Rome, people felt differently; Monaldeschi had been an Italian nobleman, murdered by a foreign barbarian with Santinelli as one of her executioners. The letters proving his guilt are gone; Christina left them with Le Bel and only he confirmed that they existed. Christina never revealed what was in the letters, but according to Le Bel, it is supposed to have dealt about her "amours", either with Monaldeschi or another person. She herself wrote her version of the story for circulation in Europe. The killing of Monaldeschi in a French palace was legal, since Christina had judicial rights over the members of her court, as her vindicator Gottfried Leibniz claimed.[100] As her contemporaries saw it, Christina as queen had to emphasize right and wrong, and her sense of duty was strong. She continued to regard herself as queen regnant all her life. She would gladly have visited England, but she received no encouragement from Cromwell and stayed in Fontainebleau as nobody else offered her a place. Anne of Austria, the mother of Louis XIV, was impatient to be rid of her cruel guest; Christina had no choice but to depart. She returned to Rome and dismissed Santinelli in 1659, claiming to be her ambassador in Vienna without her approval.[101] Back to Rome[edit] Christina's bedroom in the Palazzo Corsini. On 15 May 1658, Christina arrived in Rome for the second time, but this time it was definitely no triumph. With the execution of Monaldeschi her popularity was lost. Pope Alexander VII remained in his summer residence and wanted no further visits from her. He described her as 'a woman born of a barbarian, barbarously brought up and living with barbarous thoughts [...] with a ferocious and almost intolerable pride'.[102] She stayed at the Palazzo Rospigliosi, which belonged to Mazarin, the French cardinal, situated close to the Quirinal Palace; so the pope was enormously relieved when in July 1659 she moved to Trastevere to live in Palazzo Riario, below the Janiculum, designed by Bramante. It was Cardinal Azzolino, her "bookkeeper" who signed the contract, as well as provided her with new servants to replace Francesco Santinelli, who had been Monaldeschi's executioner.[note 14] The Riario Palace became her home for the rest of her life. She decorated the walls with tapestries by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi[104] and paintings, mainly from the Venetian School and Renaissance; and almost no paintings from northern European painters, except Holbein, Van Dyck and Rubens. Her collections included very little religious subject matter and an abundance of mythological imagery, so it seems that Christina was also much interested in classical history, prompting misbegotten academic speculation about the genuineness of her conversion.[105] No Roman collection of art could match hers. She owned Correggio's Danaë and two versions of Titian's Venus and Adonis, tapestries, sculpture, medaillons, drawings by Raphael, Michelangelo, Caravaggio, Titian, Veronese and Goltzius and portraits of her friends Azzolino, Bernini, Ebba Sparre, Descartes, ambassador Chanut and doctor Bourdelot. Revisiting Sweden[edit] Portrait of Christina; painted in 1661 by Abraham Wuchters. In April 1660 Christina was informed that Charles X Gustav had died in February. His son, Charles XI, was only five years old. That summer, she went to Sweden, pointing out that she had left the throne to her first cousin and his descendant, so if Charles XI died, she would take over the throne again. But as she was a Catholic that was impossible, and the clergy refused to let the priests in her entourage celebrate any Masses. Christina left Stockholm and went to Norrköping. Eventually she submitted to a second renunciation of the throne, spending a year in Hamburg to get her finances in order on her way back to Rome. Already in 1654 she had left her income to the banker Diego Teixeira in return for him sending her a monthly allowance and covering her debts in Antwerp. She visited the Teixeira family at Jungfernstieg and entertained them in her own lodgings.[106] In the summer of 1662, she arrived in Rome for the third time, followed by some fairly happy years. A variety of complaints and allegations made her resolve in 1666 once more to return to Sweden. She proceeded no farther than Norrköping, where she received a decree she was only allowed to settle in Swedish Pomerania. Christina immediately decided to go back to Hamburg. There she was informed that Alexander VII, her patron and tormentor, had died in May 1667. The new pope, Clement IX, a victory for the squadrone,[107][108] had been a regular guest at her palace. In her delight at his election she threw a brilliant party at her lodgings in Hamburg, with illuminations and wine in the fountain outside. The party enraged Hamburg's Lutheran populace, and the party ended in shooting, an attempt to seize the Queen, and her escape in disguise through a back door.[109] Again she met with the charlatan Giuseppe Francesco Borri.[110] On 16 September 1668, John II Casimir abdicated the Polish–Lithuanian throne, and returned to France. The Polish monarchy was elective and Christina, as a member of the House of Vasa, put herself forward as a candidate for the throne.[111] She recommended herself being Catholic, an old maid and intended to remain one.[112] She had Pope Clement IX's support; but her failure seemed to please her since this meant that she could return to her beloved Azzolino.[112] She left the city on 20 October 1668.[113] [114] Later life[edit] The elderly Christina Christina's fourth and last entry in Rome took place on 22 November 1668. Clement IX often visited her; they had a shared interest in plays. Christina organized meetings of the Accademia in the Great Hall[115] which had ‘a platform for singers and players’.[116] When the pope suffered a stroke, she was among the few he wanted to see at his deathbed. In 1671 Christina established Rome's first public theatre in a former jail, Tor di Nona.[117] The new pope, Clement X, worried about the influence of theatre on public morals. When Innocent XI became pope, things turned even worse; within a few years he made Christina's theatre into a storeroom for grain, although he had been a frequent guest in her royal box with the other cardinals. He forbade women to perform with song or acting, and the wearing of decolleté dresses. Christina considered this sheer nonsense, and let women perform in her palace. In 1675 she invited António Vieira to become her confessor.[118] Itinerant doctor and scapegrace, Nicolaas Heinsius the Younger, the legitimized son of a former literatus at Christina's court in Stockholm, arrived in Rome in 1679, converted and was appointed the Queen's personal physician until about 1687, providing autobiographical material for his picaresque novel,The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of Mirandor (1695).[119] Christina wrote an unfinished autobiography, of which there are several drafts extant,[120] essays on her heroes Alexander the Great, Cyrus the Great and Julius Cæsar, on art and music (“Pensées, L’Ouvrage du Loisir” and “Les Sentiments Héroïques”)[33] and acted as patron to musicians and poets as Vincenzo da Filicaja.[note 15] Carlo Ambrogio Lonati and Giacomo Carissimi were Kapellmeister; Lelio Colista luteplayer; Loreto Vittori and Marco Marazzoli singers and Sebastiano Baldini librettist.[121][122] She had Alessandro Stradella and Bernardo Pasquini to compose for her; Arcangelo Corelli dedicated his first work, Sonata da chiesa opus 1, to her.[123][124] On 2 February 1687 Corelli or Alessandro Scarlatti directed a tremendous orchestra [125] performing a Pasquini cantata in praise for James II, England's first Catholic monarch since Mary I[126] to welcome Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine as the new ambassador to the Vatican, accompanied by the painter John Michael Wright, who knew Rome and spoke Italian.[127] In 1656 Christina had appointed Carissimi as her maestro di cappella del concerto di camera. Lars Englund of Uppsala University' Department of Musicology has hypothesized that Christina’s early involvement with Italian music, and in particular church music from Rome, "was part of a deliberate self-transformation, from a ruling Lutheran regent to a Catholic Queen without a land."[128] Christina's politics and rebellious spirit persisted long after her abdication of power. When Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, abolishing the rights of French Protestants (Huguenots), Christina wrote an indignant letter, dated 2 February 1686, directed at the French ambassador Cesar d'Estrees. Louis did not appreciate her views, but Christina was not to be silenced. In Rome, she made Pope Clement X prohibit the custom of chasing Jews through the streets during the carnival. On 15 August 1686, she issued a declaration that Roman Jews were under her protection, signed la Regina – the queen.[129][130] Christina remained very tolerant towards the beliefs of others all her life. She on her part felt more attracted to the views of the Spanish priest Miguel Molinos, whom she employed as a private theologian. He had been investigated by the Holy Inquisition for proclaiming that sin belonged to the lower sensual part of man and was not subject to man's free will. Christina sent him food and hundreds of letters when he was locked up in Castel Sant'Angelo.[67] Death and burial[edit] In February 1689, the 62-year-old Christina fell seriously ill after a visit to the temples in Campania, and received the last rites. She suffered from diabetes mellitus.[1] Christina seemed to recover, but in the middle of April she developed an acute streptococcus bacterial infection known as erysipelas, then contracted pneumonia and a high fever. On her deathbed she sent the pope a message asking if he could forgive her insults. She died on 19 April 1689 in Palazzo Corsini at six in the morning.[131] Christina's sarcophagus in the extensive papal crypt at the Vatican Christina had asked for a simple burial in the Pantheon, Rome, but the pope insisted on her being displayed on a lit de parade for four days in the Riario Palace. She was embalmed, covered with white brocade, a silver mask, a gilt crown and scepter. "The Queen wore a thin mantle, decorated with hundreds of crowns and fur bordered with ermine, under this a splendid garment in two pieces, thin gloves and drawers of knitted silk and a pair of elegant textile bootees".[132] In similar fashion to the popes, her body was placed in three coffins – one of cypress, one of lead and finally one made of oak. The funeral procession on 2 May led from Santa Maria in Vallicella to St. Peter's Basilica, where she was buried within the Grotte Vaticane – one of only three women ever given this honour (the other two being Matilda of Tuscany and Maria Clementina Sobieska). Her intestines were placed in a high urn.[note 16] In 1702 Clement XI commissioned a monument for the queen, in whose conversion he vainly foresaw a return of her country to the Faith and to whose contribution towards the culture of the city he looked back with gratitude. This monument was placed in the body of the basilica and directed by the artist Carlo Fontana.[note 17] Christina had named Azzolino her sole heir to make sure her debts were settled, but he was too ill and worn out even to join her funeral, and died in June the same year. His nephew, Pompeo Azzolino, was his sole heir, and he rapidly sold off Christina's art collections. Art collector[edit] Christina by David Beck Until 1649, when Christina was twenty-three, the Swedish royal art collection was unimpressive, with good tapestries but for paintings, little more than "about a hundred works by minor German, Flemish, and Swedish painters".[133] But in May 1649 the fabulous loot from the occupation of Prague Castle the previous year arrived, with the pick of the collection amassed by the obsessive collector Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552–1612), one of the most important in Europe. Rudolf's bulk purchases had included the famous collection of Emperor Charles V's leading minister Cardinal Granvelle (1517–86), which he had forced Granvelle's nephew and heir to sell to him. Granvelle had been the "greatest private collector of his time, the friend and patron of Titian and Leoni and many other artists",[134] Christina was entranced by her new possessions, and remained a keen collector for the rest of her life, and as a female art collector is only exceeded by Catherine the Great of Russia in the Early Modern period. Rudolf had collected old and contemporary works from both Italy and northern Europe, but it was the Italian paintings that excited Christina, and by her death her collection contained relatively few northern works other than portraits.[135] Most of the Prague booty remained in Sweden after Christina's departure for exile: she only took about 70 to 80 paintings with her, including about 25 portraits of her friends and family, and some 50 paintings, mostly Italian, from the Prague loot, as well as statues, jewels, 72 tapestries, and various other works of art. She was concerned that the royal collections would be claimed by her successor, and prudently sent them ahead to Antwerp in a ship in August 1653, almost a year before she abdicated, an early sign of her intentions.[136] Christina greatly expanded her collection during her exile in Rome, for example adding the five small Raphael predella panels from the Colonna Altarpiece, including the Agony in the Garden now reunited with the main panel in New York, which were bought from a convent near Rome.[137] She was apparently given Titian's Death of Actaeon by the greatest collector of the age, Archduke Leopold William of Austria, Viceroy in Brussels – she received many such gifts from Catholic royalty after her conversion,[138] and gave some generous gifts herself, notably Albrecht Dürer's panels of Adam and Eve to Philip IV of Spain (now Prado). She also gave away two paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Dull Gret and The Cripples (now Louvre). In such ways the balance of her collection shifted to Italian art.[139] The Riario Palace finally provided a suitable setting for her collection, and the Sala dei Quadri ("Paintings Room") had her finest works, with thirteen Titians and eleven Veroneses, five Raphaels and several Correggios.[140] Titian's Venus Anadyomene was among them. Venus mourns Adonis by Veronese was from Prague, and is now back in Sweden (Nationalmuseum). Bust of Christina by Giulio Cartari in Palacio Real de La Granja de San Ildefonso Christina liked to commission portraits of herself, friends, and also notable people she had not met, from 1647 sending David Beck, her Dutch court painter, to several countries to paint notabilities.[141] She encouraged artists to study her collection, including the drawings, and exhibited some of her paintings, but apart from portraits she commissioned or bought few works by living painters, except for drawings. Sculptors did rather better, and Bernini was a friend, while others were commissioned to restore the large collection of classical sculpture which she had begun to assemble while still in Sweden.[142] On her death she left her collection to Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who himself died within a year, leaving the collection to his nephew, who sold it to Don Livio Odescalchi, commander of the Papal army,[143] at which point it contained 275 paintings, 140 of them Italian.[144] The year after Odescalchi's death in 1713, his heirs began protracted negotiations with the great French connoisseur and collector Pierre Crozat, acting as intermediary for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, from 1715 the Regent of France. The sale was finally concluded and the 123 paintings included in the sale delivered in 1721, forming the core of the Orleans Collection, the paintings from which were mostly sold in London after the French Revolution, with many of them being on display in the National Gallery.[145] The French experts complained that Christina had cut down several paintings to fit her ceilings,[146] and had over-restored some of the best works, especially the Correggios, implicating Carlo Maratti.[147] At first, removing her collections from Sweden was seen as a great loss to the country; but in 1697 Stockholm castle burned down with the loss of almost everything inside, so they would have been destroyed if they had remained there. The sculpture collection was sold to the King of Spain, and mostly remains in Spanish museums and palaces.[148] Her large and important library was bought by Alexander VIII for the Vatican library, while most of the paintings ended up in France, as the core of the Orleans Collection – many remain together in the National Gallery of Scotland. 1700 drawings from her collection (among them works by Michelangelo (25) and Raphael) were acquired in 1790 by Willem Anne Lestevenon for the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands.[149] Appearance[edit] Persian coat owned by Christina, probably woven under Shah Abbas II's Government (1586–1628) Historical accounts of Christina include regular reference to her physical features, mannerisms and style of dress. Christina was known to have a bent back, a deformed chest, and irregular shoulders. Some historians have speculated that references to her physical attributes may be over-represented in related historiography, thus giving the impression that this was of greater interest to her contemporaries than was actually the case.[150] However, given how influential Christina became in her own era (especially for those in Rome), it is likely her style and mannerisms were at least of general interest to those around her, and this is reflected in many accounts.[90][150] As a result of conflicting and unreliable accounts (some no better than gossip), the way in which Christina is described, even today, is a matter of debate.[132] According to Christina's autobiography, the midwives at her birth first believed her to be a boy because she was "completely hairy and had a coarse and strong voice". Such ambiguity did not end with her birth; Christina made cryptic statements about her "constitution" and body throughout her life. Christina also believed a wet-nurse had carelessly dropped her to the floor when she was a baby. A shoulder bone broke, leaving one shoulder higher than the other for the rest of her life.[note 18] A number of her contemporaries made reference to the differing height of her shoulders.[152] As a child, Christina's mannerisms could probably best be described as those of a tomboy. Her father insisted she should receive "the education of a prince", and some have interpreted this as acceptance, on the part of the king, that she had masculine features or that there was some form of gender ambiguity in her upbringing.[67] She was educated as a prince and taught (and enjoyed) fencing, horse riding and bear hunting.[153][129] As an adult, it was said that Christina "walked like a man, sat and rode like a man, and could eat and swear like the roughest soldiers".[67] Christina's contemporary John Bargrave described her comportment in a similar fashion but said witnesses ascribed her style more to childishness or madness than masculinity.[90] When she arrived in Rome in 1655, she had shaven her head and wore a big, dark wig.[67] By 1665, according to Edward Browne, she regularly wore a velvet justacorps, cravat and man's perruke.[67] While Christina may not have been alone in her own time for choosing masculine dress (Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, for example, was known for dressing the same way), she also had physical features some described as masculine.[67][note 19][154] According to Henry II, Duke of Guise, "she wears men's shoes and her voice and nearly all her actions are masculine".[155] When she arrived in Lyon, she again wore a toque and had styled her hair like that of a young man. It was noted that she also wore large amounts of powder and face cream. In one account she "was sunburnt, and she looked like a sort of Egyptian street girl, very strange, and more alarming than attractive".[67] Christina in her later years Living in Rome, she formed a close relationship with Cardinal Azzolino, which was controversial but symbolic of her attraction to relationships which were not typical for a woman of her era and station.[90][156] She abandoned her manly clothes and took to wearing décolleté dresses so risqué that they drew a rebuke from the Pope.[67] As an older woman, Christina's style changed little. François Maximilian Misson (visiting Rome in the spring of April 1688) wrote: She is over sixty years of age, very small of stature, exceedingly fat and corpulent. Her complexion and voice and face are those of a man. She has a big nose, large blue eyes, blonde eyebrows, and a double chin from which sprout several tufts of beard. Her upper lip protrudes a little. Her hair is a light chestnut colour, and only a palms breadth in length; she wears it powdered and standing on end, uncombed. She is very smiling and obliging. You will hardly believe her clothes: a man's jacket, in black satin, reaching to her knees, and buttoned all the way down; a very short black skirt, and men's shoes; a very large bow of black ribbons instead of a cravat; and a belt drawn tightly under her stomach, revealing its rotundity all too well.[67] Gender ambiguity and sexuality[edit] Ebba Sparre married in 1652 a brother of Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie. Painting by Sébastien Bourdon In her Autobiography (1681) Christina is flirting with her androgynous personality.[13] The question of her sexuality has been debated, even as a number of modern biographers generally consider her to have been a lesbian, and her relationships with women were noted during her lifetime;[50] Christina seems to have written passionate letters to Ebba Sparre, and Guilliet suggested a relationship between Christina and Gabrielle de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Rachel, a niece of Diego Teixeira,[157] and the singer Angelina Giorgino.[12] Some historians assert she maintained heterosexual,[10] non-sexual,[158] lesbian,[159] or bisexual relationships during the course of her life depending on which source is consulted.[160][161] According to Veronica Buckley, Christina was a "dabbler" who was "...painted a lesbian, a prostitute, a hermaphrodite, and an atheist" by her contemporaries, though "in that tumultuous age, it is hard to determine which was the most damning label".[67][162] Christina wrote near the end of her life that she was "neither Male nor Hermaphrodite, as some People in the World have pass'd me for".[67] Bargrave recounted that Christina's relationship with Azzolino was both "familiar" (intimate) and "amorous" and that Azzolino had been sent (by the Pope) to Romania as punishment for maintaining it.[90] Buckley, on the other hand, believed there was "in Christina a curious squeamishness with regard to sex" and that "a sexual relationship between herself and Azzolino, or any other man, seems unlikely".[67] Based on historical accounts of Christina's physicality, some scholars believe that she may have been an intersex individual.[67][163][47] In 1965 these conflicting accounts led to an investigation of Christina's remains. Physical anthropologist Carl-Herman Hjortsjö, who undertook the investigation, explained: "Our imperfect knowledge concerning the effect of intersex on the skeletal formation [...] makes it impossible to decide which positive skeletal findings should be demanded upon which to base the diagnosis" of an intersex condition. Nevertheless, Hjortsjö speculated that Christina had reasonably typical female genitalia because it is recorded by her physicians Bourdelot and Macchiati that she menstruated.[164] Hjortsjö's osteological analysis of Christina's skeleton led him to state that they were of a "typically female" structure.[165] Some of the symptoms could be due to polycystic ovary syndrome, a complex multi-endocrine disorder including hirsutism (male pattern/type hair growth) due to increased androgen hormone levels, and abdominal obesity due to the hormone insulin receptor defects. Buckley suggested that her low comprehension of the need for most social norms, little desire to act, dress, or do other social norms and her preference to wear, act, and do only that which she deemed logically practical, point to her having a pervasive developmental disorder, such as Asperger syndrome.[67] Legacy[edit] The complex character of Christina has inspired numerous plays, books, and operatic works: Jacopo Foroni's 1849 opera Cristina, regina di Svezia is based on the events surrounding her abdication. Other operas based on her life, include Alessandro Nini's Cristina di Svezia (1840), Giuseppe Lillo's Cristina di Svezia (1841), and Sigismond Thalberg's Cristina di Svezia (1855) August Strindberg's published Kristina (1901) Zacharias Topelius wrote a historical allegory Stjärnornas Kungabarn (1899–1900) Christina's life was famously fictionalised in the classic feature film Queen Christina (1933). This film, starring Greta Garbo, depicted a heroine whose life diverged considerably from that of the real Christina. In the Italian film Love and Poison (1950/52) Christina is played by actress Lois Maxwell. Kaari Utrio published Kartanonherra ja kaunis Kristin (1969). In The Abdication (1974), starring Liv Ullmann, Christina arrives in the Vatican and falls in love with cardinal Azzelino. The script was based on a play by Ruth Wolff. Herta J. Enevoldsen wrote two novels in Danish on her life, Heltekongens Datter (1975) and En Dronning Værdig (1976). Laura Ruohonen wrote "Queen C" (2003), which presents a woman centuries ahead of her time who lives by her own rules. In Eric Flint 's alternative history 1632 series, part of his Assiti Shards universe, she is a major character. Comedian Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed her (2004) in the solo musical ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World Vol. 2. Michel Marc Bouchard's play Christina, The Girl King, is a biographical depiction of Queen Christina's short rule premiered in 2012. Mika Kaurismäki's film, The Girl King, based on the play, premièred December 11, 2015. She is featured as the leader of the Swedish civilization in the video game expansion pack Civilization VI: Gathering Storm, although her name is spelt Kristina. Her unique ability grants her buildings and wonders with Great Works slots (Must be 3 slots for buildings and 2 slots for wonders) automatic theming (granting Tourism and Culture bonuses) once they are filled with Great Works without regard to normal theming rules. In addition, she has a unique Government Plaza building that grants her multiple Great Works slots and extra points towards Great People that can create said Great Works. Place names: Kristiine District of Tallinn, Estonia. Queen Village, Philadelphia. Christina River Kristinestad, Finland. Family tree[edit] Charles IX Maria Eleonora Gustavus Adolphus Catherine John Casimir Carl Gyllenhielm Christina Charles X Gustav Footnotes[edit] ^ With the titles of Queen of the Swedes, Goths (or Geats) and Wends[2] (Suecorum, Gothorum Vandalorumque Regina);[3] Grand Princess of Finland, and Duchess of Estonia, Livonia and Karelia,[4] Bremen-Verden, Stettin, Pomerania, Cassubia and Vandalia,[5] Princess of Rugia, Lady of Ingria and of Wismar.[6] ^ The three were buried in Riddarholmskyrkan in Stockholm. ^ She was married to John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg, and moved home to Sweden after the outbreak of the Thirty Years' war. Their children were Maria Eufrosyne, who later married one of Christina's close friends Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, and Karl Gustav, who inherited the throne after Christina. ^ Letters still exist, written by her in German to her father when she was five. When the ambassador of France, Pierre Hector Chanut, arrived in Stockholm in 1645, he stated admiringly, "She talks French as if she was born in the Louvre!" (According to B. Guilliet she spoke with a sort of Liège dialect.) ^ There are seven gold coins known to exist bearing the effigy of Queen Christina: a unique 1649 five ducat,[29] and six 1645 10 ducat specimen.[30] ^ Over time there have been speculations regarding the death of the philosopher.[43] Theodor Ebert claimed that Descartes did not meet his end by being exposed to the harsh Swedish winter climate, as philosophers have been fond of repeating, but by arsenic poisoning.[44][45] It has been suggested Descartes was an obstacle to Christina's becoming a true Catholic.[46] ^ Petrus Kirstenius was invited by Axel Oxenstierna to become a personal physician of Queen Christina of Sweden and Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University in 1636. Grégoire François Du Rietz became the physician in 1642. Around 1645? she appointed Benedict (Baruch) Nehamias de Castro from Hamburg as her Physician in ordinary. Wullenius was her physician since 1649, and when Descartes fell ill. Hermann Conring was invited in 1650, but he seems to have rejected the offer. Du Rietz was called when she suddenly collapsed in 1651. For an hour she seemed to be dead. In August 1651, she asked for the Council's permission to abdicate, but gave in to their pleas for her to retain the throne. In February 1652, the French doctor Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Otto Sperling [de], who was doctor at the household of Leonora Christine, met Christina in Sweden in the winter of 1653. In July 1654, the English physician Daniel Whistler returned to London. In Rome Giuseppe Francesco Borri came to see her in 1655 and after 1678 when he was released from prison; Cesare Macchiati traveled with her to Sweden, and was her physician until her death;[61] Romolo Spezioli after 1675.[62][63] Nikolaes Heinsius the Younger arrived in Rome in 1679, when he became her personal physician until about 1687. ^ Alexandra was a confirmation name in 1654, chosen in honour of the reigning pope, Alexander VII, and one of her heroes, Alexander the Great. The pope had urged her to also add "Maria" in honour of the Virgin, but she refused.[83] ^ Bernini had decorated the gate with Christina's coat of arms (an ear of corn) beneath that of Pope Alexander (six mountains with a star above). Also today one can read the inscription Felici Faustoq Ingressui Anno Dom MDCLV ("to a happy and blessed entry in the year 1655"). ^ Negri wrote eight letters about his walk through Scandinavia all the way up to "Capo Nord" in 1664. ^ He too had been a pupil of Johannes Matthiae, and his uncle had been Gustav Adolf's teacher. As a diplomat in Portugal he had converted, and asked for a transfer to Rome when he learnt of Christina's arrival. ^ Christina wrote him many letters during her travels. After her death, Azzolino burnt most of their correspondence; about 80 have survived. Some details were written in a code that was decrypted by Carl Bildt, in Rome around 1900.[92] ^ Mazarin however found another arrangement to ensure peace; he strengthened this with a marriage arrangement between Louis XIV and his first cousin, Maria Theresa of Spain – the wedding took place in 1660. But this was unknown to Christina, who sent different messengers to Mazarin to remind him of their plan. ^ Monaldeschi was a traitor, Santinelli had stolen from Christina' for years.[103] ^ In her basement there was a laboratory, where she, Giuseppe Francesco Borri and Azzolino experimented with alchemy. ^ From 2005 to 2011, her marble sarcophagus was positioned next to that of Pope John Paul II when his grave was moved. ^ Christina was portrayed on a gilt and bronze medallion, supported by a crowned skull. Three reliefs below represented her relinquishment of the Swedish throne and abjugation of Protestantism at Innsbruck, the scorn of the nobility, and faith triumphing over heresy. It is an unromantic likeness, for she is given a double chin and a prominent nose with flaring nostrils. ^ E. Essen-Möller and B. Guilliet suggest it had to do with her alleged intersex condition.[151] ^ Her contemporary Samuel Pepys, for example, describes women riding horses in mannish clothing. References[edit] ^ a b Nathan Alan Popp Beneath the surface: the portraiture and visual rhetoric of Sweden's Queen Christina ^ J. Guinchard (1914). Sweden: Historical and statistical handbook. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner. p. 188. ^ Stefan Donecker/Roland Steinacher (2009) Der König der Schweden, Goten und Vandalen. Königstitulatur und Vandalenrezeption im frühneuzeitlichen Schweden. In: Vergangenheit und Vergegenwärtigung. Frühes Mittelalter und europäische Erinnerungskultur. Ed. by Helmut Reimitz and Bernhard Zeller (= Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 14; Wien 2009). ^ Stolpe 1974 pp. 142 & 145 ^ Stefan Donecker/Roland Steinacher, Rex Vandalorum. The Debates on Wends and Vandals in Swedish Humanism as an Indicator for Early Modern Patterns of Ethnic Perception. In: Der Norden im Ausland – das Ausland im Norden. Formung und Transformation von Konzepten und Bildern des Anderen vom Mittelalter bis heute, ed. Sven Hakon Rossel (Wiener Studien zur Skandinavistik 15, Wien 2006) 242–252 ^ A Journal of the Swedish Embassy in the Years 1653 and 1654, Vol II. by Whitlocke. 2005-12-28. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via www.gutenberg.org. ^ "Sweden". World Statesmen. Retrieved 19 January 2015. ^ Instrumentum Pacis Osnabrugensis ^ Stephan, Ruth: Christina, Queen of Sweden. Britannica. Accessed December 10, 2018. ^ a b c Lindsay, Ivan (2 June 2014). The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 9781906509576. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ a b Script from Clark.edu by Anita L. Fisher Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Hofmann, Paul (8 October 2002). The Vatican's Women: Female Influence at the Holy See. St. Martin's Press. p. 42. ISBN 9781429975476. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Internet Archive. ^ a b Zimmermann, Christian von (10 July 2017). Frauenbiographik: Lebensbeschreibungen und Porträts. Gunter Narr Verlag. ISBN 9783823361626. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Zirpolo, Lilian H. (2005) Christina of Sweden's Patronage of Bernini: The Mirror of Truth Revealed by Time, Vol. 26, No. 1 pp. 38-43 ^ Aasen, Elisabeth Barokke damer, dronning Christinas europeiske reise (2005) ISBN 82-530-2817-2 (edited by Pax, Oslo. 2003, ISBN 82-530-2817-2) ^ "Expressions of power: Queen Christina of Sweden and patronage in Baroque Europe, p. 57 by Nathan A. Popp". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Christina Alexandra" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Peter Englund: Sølvmasken (s. 159), edited by Spartacus, Oslo 2009, ISBN 978-82-430-0466-5 ^ Stephan, Ruth. "Christina Queen of Sweden". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-12-07. ^ "Who's Who in Queen Christina's Life by Tracy Marks". Windweaver.com. 2001-03-30. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ a b Marie-Louise Rodén: Drottning Christina : en biografi (2008) p. 62 ^ "Antique map of Scandinavia by Blaeu W. & J." www.sanderusmaps.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2015-12-07. ^ "Codex Gigas – Kungliga biblioteket". National Library of Sweden. 2007-05-30. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ Trevor Roper, HR (1970) Plunder of the arts in the XVIIth century ^ Goldsmith, Margaret (1935) Christina of Sweden: a psychological biography.Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc. ^ "The Correspondence of Isaac Vossius (currently 1,702 letters) – EMLO". emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk. ^ Lockhart, Paul Douglas (13 February 2004). Sweden in the Seventeenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230802551. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Cuhaj, George S., ed. (2009a). Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins 1601–Present (6 ed.). Krause. pp. 490–491. ISBN 978-1-4402-0424-1. ^ Friedberg, Arthur; Friedberg, Ira (2009). Gold Coins of the World: From Ancient Times to the Present (8 ed.). The Coin & Currency Institute. pp. 688–89. ISBN 978-0-87184-308-1. ^ Kunker Rarities Auction, retrieved 1 March 2015 ^ Böhme, Klaus-R (2001). "Die sicherheitspolitische Lage Schwedens nach dem Westfälischen Frieden." In Hacker, Hans-Joachim. Der Westfälische Frieden von 1648: Wende in der Geschichte des Ostseeraums (in German). Kovač. p. 35. ISBN 3-8300-0500-8. ^ Andersson, Åsa. "War booty – Kungliga biblioteket". www.kb.se. Retrieved 2017-07-16. ^ a b Waithe, Mary Ellen (1991) Modern women philosophers, 1600–1900 (Springer) ^ Peter Englund: Sølvmasken (p. 27) ^ a b c d e Leif Jonsson, Ann-Marie Nilsson & Greger Andersson: Musiken i Sverige. Från forntiden till stormaktstidens slut 1720 (Enligsh: "Music in Sweden. From Antiquity to the end of the Great power era 1720") (in Swedish) ^ a b c d Lars Löfgren: Svensk teater (English: "Swedish Theatre") (in Swedish) ^ Marker, Frederick J. & Marker, Lise-Lone (1996) A History of Scandinavian Theatre (Cambridge University Press) ^ Watson, Richard (10 July 2017). Cogito, Ergo Sum: The Life of René Descartes. David R. Godine Publisher. ISBN 9781567923353. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "René Descartes in Sweden". Archived from the original on 2014-11-05. Retrieved 2014-12-21. ^ Shorto, Russell (2008-10-14). Descartes' Bones. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 30. ISBN 9780385528375. ^ Watson, Richard (2007). Cogito, Ergo Sum. ISBN 9781567923353. ^ Il y a des preuves que René Descartes a été assassiné » ^ Lacombe, Jacques (1766). The History of Christina. G. Kearsly. p. 96. ^ "Was Descartes murdered in Stockholm?". Archived from the original on 2014-12-15. ^ "Theodor Ebert – Philosophy On The Mesa". Archived from the original on 2014-12-15. Retrieved 2014-12-15. ^ Green, Ronald (26 August 2011). Nothing Matters: a book about nothing. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 9781780990163. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ a b Garstein, Oskar (10 July 1992). Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: The Age of Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden, 1622-1656. BRILL. ISBN 9004093958. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Buckley, pp. 71–2 ^ Aldrich, Robert; Wotherspoon, Garry, eds. (2002). Who's who in Gay and Lesbian History: From Antiquity to World War II. Psychology Press. p. 292. ISBN 9780415159838. ^ a b c Crompton, Louis (2009). Homosexuality and Civilization. Harvard University Press. pp. 357–60. ISBN 9780674030060. ^ "Expressions of power: Queen Christina of Sweden and patronage in Baroque Europe by Nathan A. Popp, University of Iowa". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Danielsson, Arne (2008-09-01). "Sébastien Bourdon's equestrian portrait of queen Christina of Sweden—Addressed to "his Catholic Majesty" Philip IV". Konsthistorisk Tidskrift. 58 (3): 95–108. doi:10.1080/00233608908604229. ^ Arne Danielsson (1989) Sébastien Bourdon‘s equestrian portrait of Queen Christina of Sweden –addressed to― His Catholic Majesty Philip IV. Konsthistorisk tidskrift, Vol. 58, no. 3, p. 95. ^ Beneath the surface: the portraiture and visualrhetoric of Sweden's Queen ChristinaNathan Alan Popp ^ "The Formula of Concord in the History of Swedish Lutheranism, p. 6 By Docent Seth Erlandsson, Uppsala" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Converts, Conversion, and the Confessionalization Thesis, Once Again". H-net.org. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ Likely Goswin Nickel rather than Francesco Piccolomini who had died in June of that year. ^ Garstein, O. (1992) Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: The age of Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden (1662–1656). Studies in history of Christian thought. Leiden. ^ Ranke, Leopold von (2009) History of the popes; their church and state (Volume III) (Wellesley College Library) ^ Raymond, Jean-François de (10 July 1999). Pierre Chanut, ami de Descartes: un diplomate philosophe. Editions Beauchesne. ISBN 9782701013831. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ FABIOLA ZURLINI, UNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI MACERATA The Correspondence between the Personal Physician of the Queen Christina of Sweden Cesare Macchiati and the Cardinal Decio Azzolino Junior in the Seventeenth Century ^ "The physician Romolo Spezioli (1642 -1723) and his private library in the Public Library of Fermo" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Wärnhjelm, Vera Nigrisoli. "Romolo Spezioli, medico di Cristina di Svezia". Letters from Queen Christina's Court. Italians Meet the North Europes. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Lanoye, D. (2001) Christina van Zweden : Koningin op het schaakbord Europa 1626–1689, p. 24. ^ Quilliet, B. (1987) Christina van Zweden : een uitzonderlijke vorst, p. 79–80. ^ "By subtle means Bourdelot undermined her principles". Freefictionbooks.org. Archived from the original on 2012-03-31. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Buckley, Veronica (2004). Christina, Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric (HarperCollins, ISBN 9780060736187) ^ «The case of Arnold Johan Messenius», In: Oskar Garstein, Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: the age of Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden, 1622-1656, Leiden: Brill Editore, 1992, pp. 285-295, ISBN 90-04-09395-8, ISBN 9789004093959 (Google books) ^ Henry Woodhead, Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, 2 vol., London: Hurst and Blackett, 1863, Vol. II, pp. 86–97 (Internet Archive) ^ Henry Woodhead, Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, 2 vol., London: Hurst and Blackett, 1863, Vol. II, pp. 89 (Internet Archive) ^ Woodhead, Henry (1863). Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden. ^ Woodhead, Henry (10 July 1863). "Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden: In 2 volumes. II". Hurst and Blackett. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ a b Granlund 2004, p. 57. ^ "The Diet also argued that Oxenstierna's policy of giving away crown lands, in the hope that they would yield more revenue when taxed than when farmed, benefited none but the aristocracy."[1] ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Christina of Sweden". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 291–292. ^ Peter Englund: Sølvmasken (p. 61) ^ Peter Englund: Sølvmasken (p. 64) ^ Ragnar Sjöberg in Drottning Christina och hennes samtid, Lars Hökerbergs förlag, Stockholm, 1925, page 216 ^ Granlund 2004, pp. 56–57. ^ Granlund 2004, p. 58. ^ "HISTORY OF THE POPES". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Königin Christina von Schweden". www.koni.onlinehome.de. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Buckley, p. 15; 182–3. ^ Lanoye, D. (2001) Christina van Zweden : Koningin op het schaakbord Europa 1626–1689, p. 114. ^ Garstein, Oskar (10 July 1992). Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: The Age of Gustavus Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden, 1622-1656. BRILL. ISBN 9004093958. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Bernini, Domenico; Bernini, Gian Lorenzo; Mormando, Franco (10 July 2017). The Life of Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0271037486. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Pope Alexander VII • Biographical Sketch by Montor". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Price, Curtis (9 November 1993). The Early Baroque Era: From the late 16th century to the 1660s. Springer. ISBN 9781349112944. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Exhibitions". Europeana Exhibitions. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ a b c d e Pope Alexander the Seventh and the College of Cardinals by John Bargrave, edited by James Craigie Robertson (reprint; 2009) ^ D. Lanoye, p. 157. ^ "Christina's letters". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ D. Lanoye, p. 150. ^ Memoirs of Mademoiselle de Montpensier. H. Colburn, 1848. Page 48. ^ Scasciamacchia, S; Serrecchia, L; Giangrossi, L; Garofolo, G; Balestrucci, A; Sammartino, G; Fasanella, A (2012). "Plague epidemic in the Kingdom of Naples, 1656-1658". Emerg Infect Dis. 18 (1): 186–8. doi:10.3201/eid1801.110597. PMC 3310102. PMID 22260781. ^ Orr, Lyndon. "Famous Affinities of History: Queen Christina of Sweden and the Marquis Monaldeschi". Authorama. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ "The Terrific Register: Or, Record of Crimes, Judgments, Providences, and Calamities ..." Sherwood, Jones, and Company. 10 July 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Gribble, Francis (2013) The Court of Christina of Sweden, and the Later Adventures of the Queen in Exile, pp. 196–7". Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Moffatt, John M. (10 July 2017). "Christina's revenge; or, The fate of Monaldeschi: with other poems". J.m.moffatt. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Gribble, Francis. (2013). pp. 196–7. The Court of Christina of Sweden, and the Later Adventures of the Queen in Exile". Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Rabuck, by Mark W.; findingaids.feedback@yale.edu, File format (1 December 1997). "Guide to the Italian Castle Archive". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Pierre Signac (French, 1623 OR 1624-1684". www.christies.com. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved March 20, 2021. ^ "Gribble, Francis. (2013). pp. 196–7. The Court of Christina of Sweden, and the Later Adventures of the Queen in Exile. London: Forgotten Books. (Original work published 1913)". Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Georgina Masson (1968) Queen Christina ^ "DISPLAY AS IDENTITY: QUEEN CHRISTINA OF SWEDEN'S CONSTRUCTION OF A PUBLIC IMAGE THROUGH HER STANZA DEI QUADRI By KATHERINE AUNE (2012)" (PDF). Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Singer, Isidore; Kayserling, Meyer (1906). "Teixeira". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York City: Funk and Wagnalls. Retrieved 12 September 2018. ^ "Archivum Historiae Pontificiae". Gregorian Biblical BookShop. 10 July 1992. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Cardinal Stories. Cardinal Decio Azzolino (the younger) – Popes and Papacy". popes-and-papacy.com. Archived from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ The History of Christina: Queen of Sweden. G. Kearsly. 10 July 1766. p. 223. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Internet Archive. ^ "Queen Christina of Sweden (1626-1689), the Porta Magica and the Italian poets of the Golden- and Rosy Cross". www.levity.com. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Lewis, Brenda Ralph (1 December 2011). Dark History of the Kings & Queens of Europe. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 9781908696342. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ a b Gribble, Francis (1 June 2010). The Court of Christina of Sweden, and the Later Adventures of the Queen in Exile. Wildside Press LLC. ISBN 9781434420466. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Nouvelles de la République Des Lettres". Prismi. 10 July 1992. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ F.F. Blok, C.S.M. Rademaker en J. de Vet, ‘Verdwaalde papieren van de familie Vossius uit de zeventiende eeuw’, in Lias 33 (2006), p. 50–107, de briefuitgave op p. 101–105. ^ Queen Christina of Sweden as a Patron of Music in Rome in the Mid-Seventeenth Century by TESSA MURDOCH. In: The Music Room in Early Modern France and Italy. Published by British Academy, 2012. ^ Spaces for Musical Performance in Seventeenth-Century Roman Residences by ARNALDO MORELLI, p. 315 ^ Fenlon, Iain (19 March 2009). Early Music History: Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Music By Iain Fenlon. ISBN 9780521104319. ^ "Antonio Vieira – Portuguese author and diplomat". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Den Vermakelijken Avanturier, ofte de Wispelturige en niet min wonderlijke levensloop van Mirandor; behelsende verscheide kluchtige en vermakelijke bejegeningen, toevallen, amourettes, enz. door N.H. (Amst. 1695) ^ Magill, Frank N. (13 September 2013). The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. ISBN 9781135924140. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Losleben, Katrin (2006). "Music and gender: Kristina of Sweden". Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg. Archived from the original on August 30, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2021. ^ Talbot, Michael (2009). Aspects of the secular cantata in late Baroque Italy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9780754657941. ^ "MuseData: Arcangelo Corelli". Wiki.ccarh.org. 2011-02-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-31. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ Gordillo, Bernard (2011-03-07). "Queen Christina of Sweden". Indiana Public Media. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ Winn, James Anderson (10 July 2017). Queen Anne: Patroness of Arts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199372195. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Bianconi, Lorenzo (1987). Music in the seventeenth century. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-521-26290-3. Retrieved 2012-03-09. ^ "Collection Highlight: Wright. Raggvaglio della Solenne... – RBSCP". www.lib.rochester.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Seminari in lingua inglese 2019: Lars Berglund (Professor at the Department of Musicology, Uppsala University) presents his ongoing research Queen Christina and Giacomo Carissimi: From Curiosity to Musical Patronage Svenska Institutet i Rom/Istituto Svedese di Studi Classici a Roma access date 4 May 2021 ^ a b "Wasa, Kristina – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ "Kristina by August Strindberg". www.jsnyc.com. Archived from the original on 2015-09-15. Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Franckenstein, Christian Gottfried (10 July 1697). "Het leven en bedryf van Christina, koninginne van Sweeden, &c. sedert haar geboorte tot op des zelfs dood ..." by Boudewyn vander Aa. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ a b "The methods of treatment of Indian archaeological cashmere textile in Applied Art Museum, Cairo, Egypt طرق علاج نسيج کشمير هندى أثري بمتحف کلية الفنون التطبيقية, القاهرة، مصر". 2017. doi:10.21608/CGUAA.2017.29861. Retrieved March 21, 2021. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Watson, 97 ^ Trevor-Roper, 112. ^ Watson, 97–98 ^ Watson, 127–9 ^ Watson, 158. The other panels are now in London: two at the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the other National Gallery; National Gallery page on the division of the Raphael altarpiece. ^ Penny, 255. It is clearly shown in one of the Tenier's views of Leopold's galleries. Leopold's collection is now part of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. ^ Grate ^ Watson, 160–161; not all these attributions would hold today. ^ Watson, 120–121 ^ Grate; Watson, 110, 142, 152–162 ^ Watson,168–9; Odescalchi was the nephew of Pope Innocent XI, though in fact his money was inherited and his career greatly improved after his uncle's death. ^ Watson, 170; Penny 463 has different numbers, saying Crozat initially saw over 400 paintings. ^ Penny, 462–3, and Metropolitan ^ Penny, 462 ^ Watson, 196–7 ^ Penny, 463 ^ "The Royal Drawings". The Oval Room 1784. Teylers Museum. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ a b Kandare, Camilla Eleonora (2009) Figuring a queen; Queen Christina of Sweden and the embodiment of sovereignty ^ Quilliet, Bernard (4 June 2003). Christine de Suède. Fayard. ISBN 9782213649474. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ "Christina – queen of Sweden". Retrieved 10 July 2017. ^ Magill, Frank N. (13 September 2013). The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. ISBN 9781135924140. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Stolpe, Sven (1966) Christina of Sweden (Burns & Oates) p. 340 ^ Masson, Georgina (1968) Queen Christina (Secker & Warburg) p. 274 ^ Herman, Eleanor (2009) Mistress of the Vatican: The True Story of Olimpia Maidalchini: The Secret Female Pope (HarperCollins) ^ Quilliet, Bernard (4 June 2003). Christine de Suède. Fayard. ISBN 9782213649474. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Zapperi, Roberto (12 February 2013). Alle Wege führen nach Rom: Die ewige Stadt und ihre Besucher. C.H.Beck. ISBN 9783406644528. Retrieved 10 July 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Sarah Waters (1994) A Girton Girl on a Throne: Queen Christina and Versions of Lesbianism, 1906-1933 In: Feminist Review. No. 46, Sexualities: Challenge & Change (Spring, 1994), pp. 41–60 [2] ^ Popp, Nathan Alan (2010) "Beneath the surface: the portraiture and visual rhetoric of Sweden's Queen Christina." – thesis, University of Iowa. ^ Egherman, Mara (2009) Kristina of Sweden and the History of Reading in Europe: Crossing Religious and Other Borders(University of Iowa, Graduate School of Library and Information Science) ^ Wilson, Frances (2004-04-10). "Review: Christina, Queen of Sweden by Veronica Buckley". the Guardian. ^ Platen, Magnus von (1966). Queen Christina of Sweden: documents and studies. Nationalmuseum. p. 154. ^ Hjortsjö, Carl-Herman (1966/7) "Queen Christina of Sweden: A Medical/Anthropological Investigation of Her Remains in Rome" pp. 15–16 ^ González, Eduardo (2006). Cuba And the Tempest: Literature & Cinema in the Time of Diaspora. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 211. ISBN 9780807856833. Retrieved 3 August 2012. Bibliography[edit] Åkerman, S. (1991). Queen Christina of Sweden and her circle : the transformation of a seventeenth century philosophical libertine. New York: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09310-2. Buckley, Veronica (2004). Christina; Queen of Sweden. London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-1-84115-736-8. Clarke, Martin Lowther (1978) "The Making of a Queen: The Education of Christina of Sweden." In: History Today, Volume 28 Issue 4, April 1978 Essen-Möller, E. (1937). Drottning Christina. En människostudieur läkaresynpunkt. Lund: C.W.K. Gleerup. Goldsmith, Margaret L. (1935). Christina of Sweden; a psychological biography. London: A. Barker Ltd. Granlund, Lis (2004). "Queen Hedwig Eleonora of Sweden: Dowager, Builder, and Collector". In Campbell Orr, Clarissa (ed.). Queenship in Europe 1660-1815: The Role of the Consort. Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–76. ISBN 978-0-521-81422-5. Grate, Pontus, "Vasa, House of. (5) Christina, Queen of Sweden" Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed July 22, 2017, subscription required Hjortsjö, Carl-Herman (1966). The Opening of Queen Christina's Sarcophagus in Rome. Stockholm: Norstedts. Hjortsjö, Carl-Herman (1966). Queen Christina of Sweden: A medical/anthropological investigation of her remains in Rome (Acta Universitatis Lundensis). Lund: C.W.K. Gleerup. Jonsson, L. Ann-Marie Nilsson & Greger Andersson (1994) Musiken i Sverige. Från forntiden till stormaktstidens slut 1720 ("Music in Sweden. From Antiquity to the end of the Great power era 1720") (in Swedish) Löfgren, Lars (2003) Svensk teater (Swedish Theatre) (in Swedish) Mender, Mona (1997). Extraordinary women in support of music. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. pp. 29–35. ISBN 978-0-8108-3278-7. Meyer, Carolyn (2003). Kristina, the Girl King: Sweden, 1638. Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540-1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd, ISBN 1857099133 Platen, Magnus von (1966). Christina of Sweden: Documents and Studies. Stockholm: National Museum. Stolpe, Sven (1996). Drottning Kristina. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonnier. Torrione, Margarita (2011), Alejandro, genio ardiente. El manuscrito de Cristina de Suecia sobre la vida y hechos de Alejandro Magno, Madrid, Editorial Antonio Machado (212 p., color ill.) ISBN 978-84-7774-257-9. Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976 Turner, Nicholas, Federico Barocci, 2000, Vilo Watson, Peter; Wisdom and Strength, the Biography of a Renaissance Masterpiece, Hutchinson, 1990, ISBN 009174637X Daniela Williams, "Joseph Eckhel (1737-1798) and the coin collection of Queen Christina of Sweden in Rome", Journal of the History of Collections 31 (2019). Further reading[edit] Christina, Queen of Sweden at Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christina of Sweden. Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about "Christina, Queen of Sweden". "Kristina Wasa". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Project presentation Queen Christina of Sweden, the European Encyclopædia Britannica "Queen Christina of Sweden". About: Women's History. Retrieved 2007-01-20. Coins of Sweden by David Ruckser Queen Christina of Sweden Windweaver "Christina, queen of Sweden" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879. Christina House of Vasa Born: 8 December 1626 Died: 19 April 1689 Regnal titles Preceded by Gustav II Adolf Queen of Sweden 1632–1654 Succeeded by Charles X Gustav New title Duchess of Bremen and Verden 1648–1654 v t e Swedish princesses by birth The generations indicate descent form Gustav I, from the House of Vasa, and continues through the Houses of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, Holstein-Gottorp; and the Bernadotte, the adoptive heirs of the House of Holstein-Gottorp, who were adoptive heir of the Palatinate-Zweibrückens. 1st generation Catharina, Countess of Ostfriesland Cecilia, Margravine of Baden-Rodemachern Anna, Countess Palatine of Veldenz Sophia, Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg Elizabeth, Duchess of Mecklenburg-Gadebusch 2nd generation Princess Sigrid Princess Anna Catharina, Countess Palatine of Zweibrücken Princess Maria Elizabeth, Duchess of Östergötland[2] 3rd generation Anna Catharina Constance, Hereditary Countess Palatine of Neuburg[3] Queen Christina Maria Eufrosyne, Countess Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie 5th generation Hedvig Sophia, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp Queen Ulrika Eleonora 6th generation None 7th generation Princess Sophia Albertina 9th generation Sophie, Grand Duchess of Baden Princess Amalia Cecilia, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg 10th generation Carola, Queen of Saxony Princess Eugenie[1] 11th generation Louise, Queen of Denmark[1] 12th generation Margaretha, Princess Axel of Denmark[1] Märtha, Crown Princess of Norway[1] Astrid, Queen of the Belgians 13th generation Ingrid, Queen of Denmark 14th generation Princess Margaretha, Mrs. Ambler Birgitta, Princess Johann Georg of Hohenzollern Désirée, Baroness Nils August Silfverschiöld Princess Christina, Mrs. Magnuson 15th generation Crown Princess Victoria, Duchess of Västergötland Princess Madeleine, Duchess of Hälsingland and Gästrikland 16th generation Princess Estelle, Duchess of Östergötland Princess Adrienne, Duchess of Blekinge 1 also princess of Norway 2 also princess of Sweden by marriage 3 also princess of Poland and Lithuania by birth v t e Monarchs of Sweden Munsö c. 970–c. 1060 Eric the Victorious Olof Skötkonung Anund Jacob Emund the Old Stenkil c. 1060–c. 1130 1160–1161 Stenkil Eric and Eric Halsten Anund Gårdske Håkan the Red Halsten / Inge the Elder Blot-Sweyn Inge the Elder Philip / Inge the Younger Ragnvald Knaphövde Magnus I (House of Estridsen) Sverker · Eric c. 1130–1250 Sverker I Eric the Holy Magnus II (House of Estridsen) Charles VII Kol / Boleslaw Canute I Sverker II Eric "X" John I Eric "XI" Canute II the Tall 1 Eric "XI" Bjelbo 1250–1364 Valdemar Magnus III Birger Ingeborg of Norway2 Magnus IV3 Eric "XII" Magnus IV / Haakon3 Mecklenburg 1364–1389 Albert Kalmar Union Italics indicate regents 1389–1523 Margaret4 (House of Estridsen) / Eric of Pomerania4 (House of Griffins) Eric of Pomerania4 (House of Griffins) Charles (VIII) Eric of Pomerania4 (House of Griffins) Charles (VIII) Christopher of Bavaria4 (House of Wittelsbach) Bengt Jönsson (Oxenstierna) / Nils Jönsson (Oxenstierna) Charles VIII3 (House of Bonde) Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna / Erik Axelsson Tott Christian I4 (House of Oldenburg) Kettil Karlsson (Vasa) Charles VIII (House of Bonde) Kettil Karlsson (Vasa) Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna Erik Axelsson Tott Charles VIII (House of Bonde) Sten Sture the Elder John II4 (House of Oldenburg) Sten Sture the Elder Svante Nilsson Eric Trolle Sten Sture the Younger Christian II4 (House of Oldenburg) Gustav (I) Vasa 1523–1654 Gustav I Eric XIV John III Sigismund5 Charles IX Gustav II Adolf Christina Palatinate- Zweibrücken (Wittelsbach) Hesse-Kassel 1654–1751 Charles X Gustav Charles XI Charles XII Ulrika Eleonora Frederick I Holstein-Gottorp (Oldenburg) 1751–1818 Adolf Frederick Gustav III Gustav IV Adolf Charles XIII3 Bernadotte since 1818 Charles XIV John3 Oscar I3 Charles XV3 Oscar II3 Gustaf V Gustaf VI Adolf Carl XVI Gustaf 1 Lineage uncertain 2 Regent 3 Also Norwegian monarch 4 Also Norwegian and Danish monarch 5 Also king of Poland Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Japan Czech Republic Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes RKD Artists (Netherlands) Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RISM (France) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christina,_Queen_of_Sweden&oldid=1026594845" Categories: 1626 births 1689 deaths 17th-century Swedish monarchs 17th-century women rulers 17th-century Swedish women Swedish queens Queens regnant Rulers of Finland Dukes of Bremen and Verden Candidates for the Polish elective throne House of Vasa Swedish Roman Catholics Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism Women rulers of Finland Modern child rulers Aphorists Burials at St. Peter's Basilica Monarchs who abdicated People of the Swedish Empire Christina, Queen of Sweden Swedish salon-holders Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with Swedish-language sources (sv) CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from September 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Italian-language text SKBL template using Wikidata property P4963 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The American Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from The 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en-wikipedia-org-625	----	Category:Aurelii Fulvi - Wikipedia Help Category:Aurelii Fulvi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Aurelii Fulvi" The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Aurelii Fulvi A Antoninus Pius Titus Aurelius Fulvus (grandfather of Antoninus Pius) F Fadilla Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina L Lucilla Lucius Verus M Marcus Aurelius S Vibia Aurelia Sabina T Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Aurelii_Fulvi&oldid=997321327" Categories: Aurelii Roman stirpes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 31 December 2020, at 00:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6263	----	Pope Sixtus V - Wikipedia Pope Sixtus V From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pope Pope Sixtus V Bishop of Rome Diocese Diocese of Rome See Holy See Papacy began 24 April 1585 Papacy ended 27 August 1590 Predecessor Gregory XIII Successor Urban VII Orders Ordination 1547 Consecration 12 January 1567 by Antonio Lauro Created cardinal 17 May 1570 by Pius V Personal details Birth name Felice Piergentile, then Felice Peretti Born (1521-12-13)13 December 1521 Grottammare, Papal States Died 27 August 1590(1590-08-27) (aged 68) Rome, Papal States Previous post(s) Bishop of Fermo (1571–1577) Bishop of Sant'Agata de' Goti (1566–1571) Cardinal-Priest of San Girolamo dei Croati (1570–1585) Coat of arms Other popes named Sixtus Pope Sixtus V (13 December 1521 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Piergentile, was head of the Catholic Church from 24 April 1585 to his death. As a youth, he joined the Franciscan order, where he displayed talents as a scholar and preacher, and enjoyed the patronage of Pius V, who made him a cardinal. As a cardinal, he was known as Cardinal Montalto. As Pope, he energetically rooted out corruption and lawlessness across Rome, and launched a far-sighted rebuilding programme that continues to provoke controversy, as it involved the destruction of antiquities. The cost of these works was met by heavy taxation that caused much suffering. His foreign policy was regarded as over-ambitious, and he excommunicated both Queen Elizabeth I of England and King Henry IV of France. He is recognized as a significant figure of the Counter-Reformation. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Franciscan 1.2 Cardinal 2 Papacy 2.1 Election as pope 2.2 Church administration 2.3 Sixtine Vulgate and Septuagint 2.4 Consistories 2.5 Foreign relations 2.6 Vittoria Accoramboni affair 2.7 Contraception, abortion, adultery 2.8 Death and legacy 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Early life[edit] Felice Piergentile was born on 13 December 1521 at Grottammare, in the Papal States,[1][2] to Francesco Piergentile (also known as Peretto di Montalto, from the city of origin Montalto delle Marche), and Mariana da Frontillo. His father had taken refuge in Grottammare to escape the oppression of the Duke of Urbino, finding there a job as a gardener. Felice later adopted Peretti as his family name in 1551, and as a cardinal was known as "Cardinal Montalto" (to reflect his affection to his homeland).[3] Franciscan[edit] At the age of 9 years old, Felice came back in Montalto to join his uncle in the Franciscan Convent of San Francesco delle Fratte. At the age of 12 he was initiated as a novice of the Franciscan Order, assuming the name of Fra Felice (Friar Felix) in 1535, maintaining his birth name. From this year, he started philosophical and theological studies, moving between different convents of the Order. He finally completed his studies in the Franciscan Magna Domus of Bologna on September 1544. He had three years earlier already been ordained as a deacon. About 1552 he was noticed by Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Protector of the Franciscan order, Cardinal Ghislieri (later Pope Pius V) and Cardinal Caraffa (later Pope Paul IV), and from that time his advancement was assured. He was sent to Venice as inquisitor general of the Venetian Holy Inquisition,[4] but was so severe and conducted matters in such a high-handed manner that he became embroiled in quarrels. In 1560, the Venetian government asked for his recall. After a brief term as procurator of his order, he was attached in 1565 to the papal legation to Spain headed by Cardinal Ugo Boncampagni (later Pope Gregory XIII) which was sent to investigate a charge of heresy levelled against Bartolomé Carranza, Archbishop of Toledo. The violent dislike which Peretti conceived for Boncampagni had a marked influence upon his subsequent actions. He hurried back to Rome upon the accession of Pius V, who made him apostolic vicar of his order, and, later (1570), cardinal.[4] Cardinal[edit] During the pontificate of his political enemy Gregory XIII (1572–1585), Cardinal Montalto, as he was generally called, lived in enforced retirement, occupied with the care of his property,[4] the Villa Montalto, erected by Domenico Fontana close to the cardinal's beloved church on the Esquiline Hill, overlooking the ancient Baths of Diocletian. The first phase (1576–1580) of building was enlarged after Peretti became pope and was able to clear buildings to open four new streets in 1585–86. The villa contained two residences, the Palazzo Sistino or "Palazzo di Termini"[5] and the casino, called the Palazzetto Montalto e Felice. This clearance programme was an undoubted gain in the relief it brought to the congestion of the crowded medieval city. Clearly, however, Romans displaced by it were furious, and resentment was still felt centuries later, until the decision was taken to build the central railroad station, inaugurated by Pope Pius IX in 1863, the chosen site being the area of the Villa, which became doomed to destruction. Cardinal Montalto's other occupation at this period was with his studies, one of the fruits of which was an edition of the works of Ambrose.[4] As pope he would personally supervise the printing of an improved edition of Jerome's Vulgate. Papacy[edit] Election as pope[edit] Though not neglecting to follow the course of affairs, Felice carefully avoided every occasion of offence. This discretion contributed not a little to his election to the papacy on 24 April 1585, with the title of Sixtus V. One of the things that commended his candidacy to certain cardinals may have been his physical vigour, which seemed to promise a long pontificate.[4] The terrible condition in which Pope Gregory XIII had left the ecclesiastical states called for prompt and stern measures. Sixtus proceeded with an almost ferocious severity against the prevailing lawlessness. Thousands of brigands were brought to justice: within a short time the country was again quiet and safe.[4] It was claimed[6] that there were more heads on spikes across the Ponte Sant'Angelo than melons for sale in the marketplace. And clergy and nuns were executed if they broke their vows of chastity.[7] Next Sixtus set to work to repair the finances. By the sale of offices, the establishment of new "Monti" and by levying new taxes, he accumulated a vast surplus, which he stored up against certain specified emergencies, such as a crusade or the defence of the Holy See. Sixtus prided himself upon his hoard, but the method by which it had been amassed was financially unsound: some of the taxes proved ruinous, and the withdrawal of so much money from circulation could not fail to cause distress.[4] Immense sums were spent upon public works,[4] in carrying through the comprehensive planning that had come to fruition during his retirement, bringing water to the waterless hills in the Acqua Felice, feeding twenty-seven new fountains; laying out new arteries in Rome, which connected the great basilicas, even setting his engineer-architect Domenico Fontana to replan the Colosseum as a silk-spinning factory housing its workers. Inspired by the ideal of the Renaissance city, Pope Sixtus V's ambitious urban reform programme transformed the old environment to emulate the "long straight streets, wide regular spaces, uniformity and repetitiveness of structures, lavish use of commemorative and ornamental elements, and maximum visibility from both linear and circular perspective."[8] The Pope set no limit to his plans, and achieved much in his short pontificate, always carried through at top speed: the completion of the dome of St. Peter's; the loggia of Sixtus in the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano; the chapel of the Praesepe in Santa Maria Maggiore; additions or repairs to the Quirinal, Lateran and Vatican palaces; the erection of four obelisks, including that in Saint Peter's Square; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the aqueduct of Septimius Severus ("Acqua Felice");[4] the integration of the Leonine City in Rome as XIV rione (Borgo).[9] Besides numerous roads and bridges,[4] he sweetened the city air by financing the reclamation of the Pontine Marshes. Consequently, the spatial organization, monumental inscriptions and restorations throughout the city reinforced the control, surveillance, and authority that alluded to the power of Pope Sixtus V.[10] Good progress was made, with more than 9,500 acres (38 km2) reclaimed and opened to agriculture and manufacture. The project was abandoned upon his death. Sixtus had no appreciation of antiquities, which were employed as raw material to serve his urbanistic and Christianising programs: Trajan's Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius (at the time misidentified as the Column of Antoninus Pius) were made to serve as pedestals for the statues of SS Peter and Paul; the Minerva of the Capitol was converted into an emblem of Christian Rome; the Septizodium of Septimius Severus was demolished for its building materials.[4] Church administration[edit] The subsequent administrative system of the Catholic Church owed much to Sixtus. He limited the College of Cardinals to seventy. He doubled the number of the congregations and enlarged their functions, assigning to them the principal role in the transaction of business (1588). He regarded the Jesuits with disfavour and suspicion. He mediated radical changes to their constitution, but death prevented the execution of his purpose.[4] In 1588, he established the 15 congregations by his constitution Immensa Aeterni Dei.[citation needed] Sixtine Vulgate and Septuagint[edit] Main articles: Sixtine Vulgate and Roman Septuagint See also: Sixto-Clementine Vulgate and Nova Vulgata In May 1587, the Sixtine Septuagint was published under the auspices of Sixtus V.[11] In May 1590 the Sixtine Vulgate was issued.[12] The edition was preceded by the Bull Aeternus ille, in which the Pope declared the authenticity of the new Bible.[13][14] The bull stipulated "that it was to be considered as the authentic edition recommended by the Council of Trent, that it should be taken as the standard of all future reprints, and that all copies should be corrected by it."[15] "This edition was not to be reprinted for 10 years except at the Vatican, and after that any edition must be compared with the Vatican edition, so that "not even the smallest particle should be altered, added or removed" under pain of the "greater excommunication.""[13] Jaroslav Pelikan, without giving any more details, says that this edition "proved to be so defective that it was withdrawn".[16] Consistories[edit] Main article: Cardinals created by Sixtus V Sixtus V created 33 cardinals in eight consistories during his reign, which included his grandnephew Alessandro Peretti di Montalto and his future successor Ippolito Aldobrandini who would later become Pope Clement VIII. Foreign relations[edit] Pope Sixtus V In his larger political relations, Sixtus entertained fantastic ambitions, such as the annihilation of the Turks, the conquest of Egypt, the transport of the Holy Sepulchre to Italy, and the accession of his nephew to the throne of France. The situation in which he found himself was difficult: he could not countenance the designs of those he considered as heretical princes, and yet he mistrusted King Philip II of Spain and viewed with apprehension any extension of his power.[4] Sixtus agreed to renew the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and to grant a large subsidy to the Armada of Philip II, but, knowing the slowness of Spain, would give nothing until the expedition actually landed in England. This way, he saved a fortune that would otherwise have been lost in the failed campaign. Sixtus had Cardinal William Allen draw up the An Admonition to the Nobility and People of England and Ireland, a proclamation to be published in England if the invasion had been successful. The extant document comprised all that could be said against Elizabeth I, and the indictment is therefore fuller and more forcible than any other put forward by the religious exiles, who were generally reticent in their complaints. Allen carefully consigned his publication to the fire, and it is only known of through one of Elizabeth's spies, who had stolen a copy.[17] Sixtus excommunicated King Henry III of Navarre, who was the heir presumptive to the throne of France,[18] and contributed to the Catholic League, but he chafed under his forced alliance with King Philip II of Spain, and looked for escape. The victories of Henry and the prospect of his conversion to Catholicism raised Sixtus V's hopes, and in corresponding degree determined Philip II to tighten his grip upon his wavering ally. The Pope's negotiations with Henry's representative evoked a bitter and menacing protest and a categorical demand for the performance of promises. Sixtus took refuge in evasion, and temporised until his death on 27 August 1590.[4] Vittoria Accoramboni affair[edit] In 1581 Francesco Peretti, the nephew of the then Cardinal Montalto, had married Vittoria Accoramboni, a woman famous for her great beauty and accomplishments who had many admirers. The future pope's nephew was, however, soon assassinated, and his widow married the powerful Paolo Giordano I Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, who was widely considered to have been involved in the killing of her first husband. On becoming pope, Sixtus V immediately vowed vengeance on both the Duke of Bracciano and Vittoria Accoramboni. Warned in time, they fled – first to Venice and then to Salò in Venetian territory. Here the Duke of Bracciano died in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal property to his widow. A month later Vittoria Accoramboni, who went to live in Padua, was assassinated by a band of bravi hired by Lodovico Orsini, a relative of her late husband. Contraception, abortion, adultery[edit] Sixtus extended the penalty of excommunication relating to the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on contraception and abortion. While the Church taught that abortion and contraception were gravely sinful actions ("mortal sins"), it did not apply to all mortal sins the additional penalty of excommunication[citation needed]. Although homicide had always required this penalty, contraception had not. Patristic and Medieval theologians and physicians had long speculated and debated over the exact moment the fertilised egg became a human being. While there was broad agreement among them that life was present at conception and that it could only become a human being, the thinking was that this did not necessarily mean God had infused the rational, immortal soul into the body at conception. Following Aristotle, many in the West had theorized that the matter had to be prepared to a certain point before this could happen and, prior to then, there was only a vegetative or sensitive soul, but not a human soul. This meant that killing an organism before the human soul is infused would still be a grave sin of abortion (or at least contraception), but that it was not properly a homicide and, thus, did not require excommunication[citation needed]. Some theologians argued that only after proof of the "quickening" (when the mother can feel the fetus's movement in her womb, usually about 20 weeks into gestation) that there was incontrovertible evidence that ensoulment had already occurred. Until Sixtus V, canon lawyers had applied the code from Gratian whereby excommunications were only given to abortions after the quickening. In 1588 the pope issued a papal bull, Effraenatam or Effrenatam ("Without Restraint"), which declared that the canonical penalty of excommunication would be levied for any form of contraception and for abortions at any stage in fetal development.[19] The reasoning on the latter would be that the soul of the unborn child would be denied Heaven.[20] Sixtus also attempted in 1586 to introduce into the secular law in Rome the Old Testament penalty for adultery, which is death. The measure ultimately failed.[21] Death and legacy[edit] Sixtus V died on 27 August 1590 from malarial fever. He was the last pope to date to use the name Sixtus. The pope became ill with a fever on 24 August; it intensified the following day. As Sixtus V lay on his deathbed, he was loathed by his political subjects, but history has recognized him as one of the most important popes. On the negative side, he could be impulsive, obstinate, severe, and autocratic. On the positive side, he was open to large ideas and threw himself into his undertakings with energy and determination; this often led to success. His pontificate saw great enterprises and great achievements.[4] The changes wrought by Sixtus on the street plan of Rome were documented in a film, Rome: Impact of an Idea, featuring Edmund N. Bacon and based on sections of his book Design of Cities. About 5,000 bandits were executed by Sixtus V in the five years before his death in 1590, but there were reputedly 27,000 more at liberty throughout Central Italy.[22] Notes[edit] ^ Richard P. McBrien, Lives of the Pope, (HarperCollins, 2000), 292. ^ Name and date information sourced from Library of Congress Authorities data, via corresponding WorldCat Identities linked authority file (LAF). ^ "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church – Biographical Dictionary – Consistory of 17 May 1570". ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Collier, Theodore Freylinghuysen (1911). "Sixtus". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ "Termini" was the name given to that district, derived in turn from the ruins of the immense Baths of Diocletian (in Latin, thermae) ^ Ludwig Pastor, History of the Popes, St. Louis, 1898/99, vol 21, p.83 ^ Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A history of the popes, Yale, 2006, p219 ^ Petrucci, Armando (1993). Public Lettering. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 36. ^ Della trasportatione dell'obelisco Vaticano et delle fabriche di Nostro Signore Papa Sisto V, fatte dal caualier Domenico Fontana architetto di Sua Santita, In Roma, 1590 ^ Drucker, Johanna (2010). "Species of Espaces and other spurious concepts addressed to reading invisible features of signs within systems of relations". Design and Culture. 2 (2): 135–153. doi:10.2752/175470710X12696138525541. S2CID 144253902. ^ Swete, H. B. (1914). "Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek. Additional Notes. CHAPTER VI. PRINTED TEXTS OF THE SEPTUAGINT". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Archived from the original on 3 November 2019. Retrieved 3 November 2019. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (1977). The Early Versions of the New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 348. ^ a b "Vulgate in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia". International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ Hastings, James (2004) [1898]. "Vulgate". A Dictionary of the Bible. 4, part 2 (Shimrath - Zuzim). Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific. p. 881. ISBN 978-1-4102-1729-5. ^ Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose; Edward Miller (1894). A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament. 2 (4 ed.). London: George Bell & Sons. p. 64. ^ Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan (1996). "1 : Sacred Philology". The reformation of the Bible, the Bible of the Reformation. Dallas : Bridwell Library ; Internet Archive. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 14. ^ Catholic encyclopedia, "Spanish Armada". ^ R.J. Knecht, Hero or Tyrant? Henry III, King of France, 1574-89, (Routledge, 2016), 238. ^ [1] Archived 18 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Effraenatam in English". Who will not detest such an abhorrent and evil act, by which are lost not only the bodies but also the souls? (Popes believe in the limbo of the little ones) Who will not condemn to a most grave punishment the impiety of him who will exclude a soul created in the image of God and for which Our Lord Jesus Christ has shed His precious Blood, and which is capable of eternal happiness and is destined to be in the company of angels, from the blessed vision of God, and who has impeded as much as he could the filling up of heavenly mansions (left vacant by the fallen angels), and has taken away the service to God by His creature? ^ Diarmuid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700 (London, 2008) ^ Ruggiero, Guido (2006). A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 143. ISBN 1-4051-5783-6. References[edit] Ott, Michael (1912). "Pope Sixtus V" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pope Sixtus V. 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en-wikipedia-org-6269	----	Laurel wreath - Wikipedia Laurel wreath From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Laurel crown) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wreath made of branches and leaves of the bay laurel A laurel wreath decorating a memorial at the Folketing, the national parliament of Denmark. A laurel wreath is a round wreath made of connected branches and leaves of the bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), an aromatic broadleaf evergreen, or later from spineless butcher's broom (Ruscus hypoglossum) or cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus). It is a symbol of triumph and is worn as a chaplet around the head, or as a garland around the neck. The symbol of the laurel wreath traces back to Greek mythology. Apollo is represented wearing a laurel wreath on his head, and wreaths were awarded to victors in athletic competitions, including the ancient Olympics — for which they were made of wild olive-tree known as "kotinos" (κότινος),[1] (sc. at Olympia)—and in poetic meets. In Rome they were symbols of martial victory, crowning a successful commander during his triumph. Whereas ancient laurel wreaths are most often depicted as a horseshoe shape, modern versions are usually complete rings.[citation needed] In common modern idiomatic usage, it refers to a victory. The expression "resting on one's laurels" refers to someone relying entirely on long-past successes for continued fame or recognition, where to "look to one's laurels" means to be careful of losing rank to competition.[2] Contents 1 Background 2 Academic use 3 Architectural and decorative arts motif 4 As used in heraldry 5 Wreath of service 6 Further reading 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Background[edit] Apollo and Daphne Apollo, the patron of sport, is associated with the wearing of a laurel wreath.[3] This association arose from the ancient Greek mythology story of Apollo and Daphne. Apollo mocked the god of love, Eros (Cupid), for his use of bow and arrow, since Apollo is also patron of archery. The insulted Eros then prepared two arrows—one of gold and one of lead. He shot Apollo with the gold arrow, instilling in the god a passionate love for the river nymph Daphne. He shot Daphne with the lead arrow, instilling in her a hatred of Apollo. Apollo pursued Daphne until she begged to be free of him and was turned into a laurel tree.[3] Apollo vowed to honor Daphne forever and used his powers of eternal youth and immortality to render the laurel tree evergreen. Apollo then crafted himself a wreath out of the laurel branches and turned Daphne into a cultural symbol for him and other poets and musicians.[3] Academic use[edit] An actress performing a play. She wears a laurel wreath and stands in front of a statue of a woman from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Room 21, The British Museum, London In some countries the laurel wreath is used as a symbol of the master's degree. The wreath is given to young masters at the university graduation ceremony. The word "laureate" in 'poet laureate' refers to the laurel wreath. The medieval Florentine poet and philosopher Dante Alighieri, a member of the Sicilian School,[4][failed verification] is often represented in paintings and sculpture wearing a laurel wreath. In Italy, the term laureato is used in academia to refer to any student who has graduated. Right after the graduation ceremony, or laurea in Italian, the student receives a laurel wreath to wear for the rest of the day. This tradition originated at the University of Padua[citation needed] and has spread in the last two centuries to all Italian universities. Ovid with laurel wreath, common in poets At Connecticut College in the United States, members of the junior class carry a laurel chain, which the seniors pass through during commencement. It represents nature and the continuation of life from year to year. Immediately following commencement, the junior girls write out with the laurels their class year, symbolizing they have officially become seniors and the period will repeat itself the following spring.[5] At Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts, USA, laurel has been a fixture of commencement traditions since 1900, when graduating students carried or wore laurel wreaths. In 1902, the chain of mountain laurel was introduced; since then, tradition has been for seniors to parade around the campus, carrying and linked by the chain. The mountain laurel represents the bay laurel used by the Romans in wreaths and crowns of honor.[6] At Reed College in Portland, Oregon, United States, members of the senior class receive laurel wreaths upon submitting their senior thesis in May. The tradition stems from the use of laurel wreaths in athletic competitions; the seniors have "crossed the finish line," so to speak.[7] At St. Mark's School in Southborough, Massachusetts, students who successfully complete three years of one classical language and two of the other earn the distinction of the Classics Diploma and the honor of wearing a laurel wreath on Prize Day.[citation needed] In Sweden, those receiving a doctorate or an honorary doctorate at the Faculty of Philosophy (meaning philosophy, languages, arts, history and social sciences), receive a laurel wreath during the ceremony of conferral of the degree.[citation needed] In Finland, in University of Helsinki a laurel wreath is given during the ceremony of conferral for master's degree.[citation needed] See also: Doctoral hat Architectural and decorative arts motif[edit] Alexander Garden Grille The laurel wreath is a common motif in architecture, furniture, and textiles.[8] The laurel wreath is seen carved in the stone and decorative plaster works of Robert Adam, and in Federal, Regency, Directoire, and Beaux-Arts periods of architecture. In decorative arts, especially during the Empire period, the laurel wreath is seen woven in textiles, inlaid in marquetry, and applied to furniture in the form of gilded brass mounts. Alfa Romeo added a laurel wreath to their logo after they won the inaugural Automobile World Championship in 1925 with the P2 racing car.[citation needed] As used in heraldry[edit] A laurel wreath in the emblem of the Spanish anarcho-syndicalist labor union, the CNT Media related to Laurel in heraldry at Wikimedia Commons Laurel wreaths are sometimes used in heraldry. They may be used as a charge in the shield, around the shield, or on top of it like an annular form.[9] Wreaths are a form of headgear akin to circlets.[10] In heraldry, a twisted band of cloth holds a mantling onto a helmet.[10] This type of charge is called a "torse".[10] A wreath is a circlet of foliage, usually with leaves, but sometimes with flowers.[10] Laurel wreaths are used the arms of a territorial branch.[10] Wreaths may also be made from oak leaves, flowers, holly and rosemary; and are different from chaplets. While usually annular, they may also be penannular like a brooch.[10] Wreath of service[edit] Wreath of Service The "wreath of service" is located on all commissioner position patches in the Boy Scouts of America. This is a symbol for the service rendered to units and the continued partnership between volunteers and professional Scouter. The wreath of service represents commitment to program and unit service.[11] Further reading[edit] Carruthers, Emile (2017-05-04). "The Ancient Origins of the Flower Crown". The Iris. The Getty. Retrieved 2019-02-14. See also[edit] Civic Crown Corolla (headgear) Grass Crown Kether Laureate Mural crown Naval crown Nobel laureate Olive wreath Polos Coat of arms of Greece References[edit] ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1843). A Greek-English Lexicon (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864226-8. Retrieved 13 February 2019. κότι^νος ^ "look to one's laurels". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved November 13, 2012. ^ a b c Paulson, Ronald; Eisenman, Peter (2007). Sin and Evil: Moral Values in Literature. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300120141. ^ Alighieri, Dante (October 29, 2007). "Dante Alighieri". Dante Alighieri. Retrieved August 23, 2017. ^ "Commencement Traditions". Connecticut College. Retrieved 13 February 2019. ^ Loomer, Jennifer. "Traditions: Laurel Parade". Mount Holyoke Historical Atlas: Traditions of Mount Holyoke College. Mount Holyoke College. Retrieved 28 February 2012. ^ Hernadez, Romel. "The Turning of the Thesis". Reed Magazine. Reed College. Retrieved 2013-05-07. ^ Brown, Richard (1841). Domestic architecture: containing a history of the science, and the principles of designing public edifices, private dwelling-houses. G. Virtue. p. 200. ^ "Heraldic Meanings". American College of Heraldry. Retrieved 13 February 2019. ^ a b c d e f Baron, Bruce. "Wreath". Dictionary. Mistholme. Retrieved 2019-09-17. ^ "The History of Commissioner Service". Golden Empire Council. Retrieved 9 June 2006. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Laurel wreaths. Look up rest on one's laurels in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikisource has original text related to this article: A Complete Guide to Heraldry/Chapter 18 Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laurel_wreath&oldid=1019262963" Categories: Headgear Visual motifs Architectural elements Headgear in heraldry Roman-era clothing Plants in culture Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2019 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2021 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Commons category link is locally defined Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Limburgs Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 April 2021, at 10:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6276	----	Category:Articles with LibriVox links - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with LibriVox links From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Articles with external links including {{Librivox author}} and {{Librivox book}}. This category is not shown on its member pages unless the appropriate user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. 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en-wikipedia-org-6282	----	Philosopher king - Wikipedia Philosopher king From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King who rules through love and knowledge, as described by Plato For other uses, see Philosopher King. Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e According to Plato, a philosopher king is a ruler who possesses both a love of wisdom, as well as intelligence, reliability, and a willingness to live a simple life. Such are the rulers of his utopian city Kallipolis. For such a community to ever come into being, Plato said "philosophers [must] become kings…or those now called kings [must]…genuinely and adequately philosophize".[1] Contents 1 In Book VI of The Republic 2 Examples 2.1 Magna Graecia 2.2 Macedonia 2.3 Roman Empire 2.4 Sasanian Empire 2.5 Hungary 2.6 Modern Iran 3 Criticism 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links In Book VI of The Republic[edit] Plato defined a philosopher firstly as its eponymous occupation: "wisdom-lover." He then distinguishes between one who loves true knowledge (as opposed to mere experience or education) by saying that the philosopher is the only person who has access to ideas – the archetypal entities that exist behind all representations of the form (such as Beauty itself as opposed to any one particular instance of beauty). It is next and in support of the idea that philosophers are the best rulers that Plato fashions the Ship of State metaphor, one of his most often cited ideas (along with his allegory of the cave): a "true pilot must of necessity pay attention to the seasons, the heavens, the stars, the winds, and everything proper to the craft if he is really to rule a ship".[2] Examples[edit] Magna Graecia[edit] Archytas was a Pythagorean philosopher and political leader in the ancient Greek city of Tarentum, in Italy. He was a close friend of Plato, and some scholars assert that he may have been an inspiration for Plato's concept of a philosopher-king. Dion of Syracuse was a disciple of Plato. He overthrew the tyrant Dionysius II of Syracuse and was installed as leader in the city, only to be made to leave by the Syracusans who were unhappy with his opposition to democratic reforms. He was later re-invited to the city, where he attempted to establish an aristocracy along Platonic lines, but he was assassinated by plotters in the pay of the former tyrant. Macedonia[edit] As the student of Aristotle, some argue that Alexander the Great at least partially demonstrated certain qualities of a philosopher king.[3][4] This view was put forward by Onesictritus who described him as a "[p]hilosopher in arms," as well as by Plutarch who also believed him to be both a civilized and civilizing philosopher king.[5] However, Alexander remains a controversial figure in relation to the notion of the philosopher king, as various historians have characterized his life quite differently depending on the time period and geography of the chronicler.[6] Roman Empire[edit] It is widely argued that Marcus Aurelius is a prominent example of the philosopher king ideal.[7][8][9][10] His Stoic tome Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a philosophy of service and duty, describing how to find and preserve equanimity in the midst of conflict by following nature as a source of guidance and inspiration. Sasanian Empire[edit] In the west, some considered Khosrow I as the philosopher king. He was admired, both in Persia and elsewhere, for his character, virtues, and knowledge of Greek philosophy.[11][12][13] Hungary[edit] Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), who was king of Hungary and Croatia from 1458, was influenced by the Italian Renaissance and strongly endeavored to follow in practice the model and ideas of the philosopher-king as described in The Republic.[14] Modern Iran[edit] Ayatollah Khomeini is said to have been inspired by the Platonic vision of the philosopher king while in Qum in the 1920s when he became interested in Islamic mysticism and Plato's Republic. As such, it has been speculated that he was inspired by Plato's philosopher king, and subsequently based elements of his Islamic republic on it, despite it being a republic which deposed the former Pahlavi dynasty.[15] Criticism[edit] Karl Popper blamed Plato for the rise of totalitarianism in the 20th century, seeing Plato's philosopher kings, with their dreams of "social engineering" and "idealism", as leading directly to Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin (via Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx respectively).[16] See also[edit] Benevolent dictator Enlightened absolutism Geniocracy Noocracy Technocracy Theocracy References[edit] ^ Plato, The Republic, 5.473d ^ Plato, The Republic, 6.488d ^ Pointer, Mica (2016-01-01). "Alexander the Great and Aristotle's Philosopher King". 2016 Symposium. ^ "Socrates Taught Plato, Who Taught Aristotle, Who Taught Alexander the Great - Fact or Myth?". Fact / Myth. Retrieved 2021-03-17. ^ Buckley-Gorman, Richard (2016). "'If I were not Alexander...' An Examination of the Political Philosophy of Plutarch's Alexander-Caesar" (PDF). MA thesis in Classics, School of Art History, Classics and Religious Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. ^ Martyn, John R. C. (2014-02-28). "From Tyrant to Philosopher–King: A Literary History of Alexander the Great in Medieval and Early Modern England by Charles Russell Stone (review)". Parergon. 31 (2). ISSN 1832-8334. ^ "Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-03-17. ^ Nasr, Simon (2020-08-12). "Who is Marcus Aurelius? – Plato's Ideal Philosopher King". The Wise Mind. Retrieved 2021-03-17. ^ May 16, Peter Tafuri |; 2015 (2015-05-16). "Marcus Aurelius: The Philosopher King". L'Italo-Americano – Italian American bilingual news source. Retrieved 2021-03-17.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Winters, Riley. "The Philosopher-King of Ancient Rome: Marcus Aurelius' Imperium". www.ancient-origins.net. Retrieved 2021-03-17. ^ Axworthy, Michael (2008). Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day. Penguin Adult. p. 65. ISBN 9780141036298. ^ Wākīm, Salīm (1987). Iran, the Arabs, and the West: the story of twenty-five centuries. Vantage Press. p. 92. ^ Rose, Jenny (2011). Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. p. 133. ISBN 9781848850880. ^ "Marsilio Ficino: Magnus of the Renaissance, Shaper of Leaders". integralleadershipreview.com. Feature Articles / March 2007. ^ Anderson, Raymond H. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader. The New York Times, 4 June 1989. ^ Popper, Karl. The Poverty of Historicism. Routledge, 2002. Bibliography[edit] Desmond, William D. Philosopher-Kings of Antiquity. Continuum / Bloomsbury, 2011. C.D.C. Reeve, Philosopher-Kings: The Argument of Plato's Republic, Princeton University Press, 1988. Plato (1991). The Republic: the complete and unabridged Jowett translation. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-73387-6. External links[edit] Text of section of The Republic pertaining to philosopher-kings. v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Kyklos Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Apology Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Laws Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII Eryxias Halcyon Hipparchus Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Plato's Dream Poitier Meets Plato Oxyrhynchus Papyri 23 228 229 List of speakers in Plato's dialogues List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Authority control National libraries United States Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosopher_king&oldid=1027088992" Categories: Platonism Political philosophy in ancient Greece Political systems Hidden categories: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia עברית Nederlands 日本語 Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6289	----	Iain King - Wikipedia Iain King From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British writer King (centre) in Afghanistan, 2009 Iain Benjamin King CBE FRSA is a British writer.[1] King was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2013 Birthday Honours, for services to governance in Libya, Afghanistan and Kosovo.[2][3] He is a Scholar at the United States Military Academy at West Point,[4] and a former Fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies,[5] and at Cambridge University.[6][7][8][1] After seven years work on the Northern Ireland peace process in the 1990s,[5] Iain King held a senior political role in Kosovo’s UN Administration,[9] and co-authored a book on the history of Kosovo and the difficulties of post-war state-building in the Balkans, called Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo. His 2008 book, How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time: Solving the Riddle of Right and Wrong, starts with a history of moral philosophy and then develops a hybrid methodology for ethical decision-making.[10] King's approach has been described as quasi-utilitarian,[11][12] and credited with reconciling competing systems of ethics.[13][14][15] Secrets of The Last Nazi, based on extensive research of the Nazi era, was King's debut novel, first published in 2015.[16][17] The Sun wrote: "A brilliant but unconventional academic races shadowy agents, a deranged killer and power-mad priests to expose a vast conspiracy."[18] A sequel followed in 2016.[16] Making Peace in War is about Afghanistan.[19] King has been featured as a foreign policy analyst on CNN and BBC,[5] and has written for multiple outlets, many of them based in the US, including NBC,[20] Defense One,[21] Prospect,[6] and National Interest.[22] Bibliography[edit] King, Iain; Mason, Whit (2006). Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801445392. King, Iain (2008). How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time: Solving the Riddle of Right and Wrong. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84706-347-2. King, Iain (2014). Making Peace in War. Amazon Media. King, Iain (2015). Secrets of The Last Nazi. Bookouture. ISBN 1910751103 King, Iain (2016). Last Prophecy of Rome. Bookouture. References[edit] ^ a b "Iain King". Bloomsbury. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Queen's birthday honours list 2013: GCB, DBE and CBE" in The Guardian. 15 June 2013. Archived 21 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Birthday Honours lists 2013" at gov.uk Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Modern War Institute Scholars". Retrieved 3 September 2020. ^ a b c "CSIS Expert Page". CSIS. 18 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019. ^ a b "About the Author: Iain King". Prospect. 24 April 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "War Philosophers: How much were our ideas shaped by war?". University of Cambridge, United Kingdom. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Philosophy Now". Philosophy Now. 31 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2017. Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help) ^ Oisín Tansey. Review of Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo by Iain King, Whit Mason in International Journal, Vol. 62, No. 3, "What Kind of Security? Afghanistan and Beyond" (Summer, 2007), pp. 717-720. ^ Geoff Crocker. An Enlightened Philosophy: Can an Atheist Believe Anything? John Hunt Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1846944246 pp. 85–86 ^ Vardy, Charlotte and Peter (2012). Ethics Matters. SCM Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-334-04391-1. ^ How to Make Good Decisions… a 62 Point Summary at iainbking.com ^ Chandler Brett (16 July 2014). "24 and Philosophy". Blackwell. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.at ^ Frezzo, Eldo (25 October 2018). Medical Ethics: A Reference Guide. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1138581074. ^ Zuckerman, Phil (10 September 2019). What it Means to be Moral. Counterpoint. p. 21. ISBN 978-1640092747. ^ a b "Fantastic Fiction: Iain King". Retrieved 18 December 2019. ^ "Bookouture snaps up Nazi conspiracy thriller". The Bookseller. Retrieved 9 September 2015. ^ Tom Wright. Review in The Sun. 16 July 2015, p. 54. Accessed 24 August 2015. ^ "Making Peace in War". British Army Review. 23 December 2014. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ Iain King (9 November 2019). "Democracy seemed to have won out, but we were wrong". NBC. Retrieved 18 December 2019. ^ Iain King (30 September 2019). "Why It's Really Hard to Buy Peace in Afghanistan". Defense One. Retrieved 18 December 2019. ^ Iain King (27 November 2019). "NATO". National Interest. Retrieved 18 December 2019. External links[edit] "Moral Laws of the Jungle" (article in Philosophy Now magazine) "Thinkers At War" (history series on the military experiences of philosophers) Author's website Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Czech Republic Korea Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iain_King&oldid=1016642014" Categories: 1971 births 21st-century English male writers 21st-century British novelists 21st-century British philosophers Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford British ethicists British male novelists British social commentators Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Consequentialists British cultural critics English novelists Epistemologists Living people Metaphysicians Moral philosophers Ontologists People from Gloucestershire Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of history Philosophers of mind Philosophy writers Political philosophers Social critics Social philosophers Utilitarians Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2014 Use British English from July 2014 Pages using Template:Post-nominals with missing parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Français Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2021, at 08:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6299	----	Andronikos IV Palaiologos - Wikipedia Andronikos IV Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1376 to 1379 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos IV Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of Andronikos IV (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379 Predecessor John V Palaiologos Successor John V Palaiologos Born 11 April 1348 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 25 or 28 June 1385 (aged 37) Selymbria, Byzantine Empire Burial Pantokrator Monastery Spouse Keratsa of Bulgaria Issue John VII Palaiologos Names Andronikos Komnenos Palaiologos House Palaiologos Father John V Palaiologos Mother Helena Kantakouzene Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Δʹ Παλαιολόγος; 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385), often Latinized as Andronicus IV Palaeologus, was the eldest son of Emperor John V Palaiologos. Appointed co-emperor since 1352, he had a troubled relationship with his father: he launched a failed rebellion in 1373, usurped the throne in 1376–1379, and remained engaged in a bitter struggle with John V until his death in 1385. This civil war depleted Byzantium's scarce resources and greatly facilitated the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, most notably through the cession of Gallipoli by Andronikos. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Reign 2 Family 3 Ancestry 4 References 5 Sources Life[edit] Born on 11 April 1348, Andronikos IV Palaiologos was the eldest son of Emperor John V Palaiologos by his wife Helena Kantakouzene.[1] In 1352 he was already associated as co-emperor with his father,[1] and when John V left for Italy in 1369 to affirm his submission to the Pope, John left Andronikos behind in Constantinople as regent, while his younger son Manuel II Palaiologos was sent to govern Thessalonica.[2] During his stay in Italy, John attempted to settle his accounts with the Republic of Venice; this included not only John's own loans, but also the loan of 30,000 ducats (and the associated interest) that his mother, Anne of Savoy, had taken during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, with the Byzantine crown jewels as collateral. John went in person to Venice, but he lacked the funds to pay off the loans, or even to secure a ship for his voyage home. As a result, he proposed to cede to the Venetians the island of Tenedos, strategically located at the entrance of the Dardanelles, in exchange for further funds and six warships. The Venetians accepted, but when news reached Constantinople, Andronikos IV, likely urged by the Genoese, Venice's commercial rivals, refused to honour his father's agreement. This left John stranded in Venice, effectively as a captive debtor of the Republic; when he suggested that funds be raised to secure his release by selling precious objects from the churches, Andronikos again refused, claiming that this was impious. In the end, it was only the intervention of Manuel, who went from Thessalonica to Venice in person, that secured John's release. It was not until October 1371 that the emperor returned to Constantinople.[3] Andronikos IV rebelled when the Ottoman sultan Murad I forced John V into vassalage in 1373. Andronikos IV had allied with Murad's son Savcı Bey, who was rebelling against his own father, but both rebellions failed. Andronikos was imprisoned and subjected to blinding–the traditional Byzantine punishment for rebellion—but apparently only in one eye. His brother Manuel replaced him as heir.[4] Reign[edit] Further information: Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379 In July 1376, the Genoese helped Andronikos to escape from prison, whence he went straight to sultan Murad I, and agreed to return Gallipoli in return for his support. Gallipoli had been retaken by the Byzantines ten years before, with the assistance of Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy. The sultan duly provided a mixed force of cavalry and infantry and with these, Andronikos was able to take control of Constantinople. Here he was able to capture and imprison both John V and his son Manuel. However, he made the mistake of favouring the Genoese too highly by awarding them Tenedos. The governor there refused to hand it over, and passed it on to Venice. In the same year, 1377, he crowned his young son John VII as co-emperor. However, in 1379 John and Manuel escaped to sultan Murad, and with the assistance of the Venetians, overthrew Andronikos later in the year. The Venetians restored John V to the throne, and Manuel II. Andronikos fled to Galata, staying there until 1381, when he was once again made co-emperor and heir to the throne despite his earlier treachery. Andronikos IV was also given the approaches to Constantinople with the city of Selymbria (Silivri) as his personal domain. In 1385, he rebelled again, but died soon after, on 25 or 28 June, at Selymbria.[4] He was buried in the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople.[1] Family[edit] In 1356, Andronikos IV married Keratsa of Bulgaria, a daughter of Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria. The couple had one son, John VII Palaiologos.[1] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Andronikos IV Palaiologos 16. Andronikos II Palaiologos 8. Michael IX Palaiologos 17. Anna of Hungary 4. Andronikos III Palaiologos 18. Leo II, King of Armenia 9. Rita of Armenia 19. Keran of Armenia 2. John V Palaiologos 20. Thomas II, Count of Piedmont 10. Amadeus V, Count of Savoy 21. Beatrice di Fieschi 5. Anna of Savoy 22. John I, Duke of Brabant 11. Maria of Brabant 23. Margaret of Flanders, Duchess of Brabant 1. Andronikos IV Palaiologos 12. Michael Kantakouzenos 6. John VI Kantakouzenos 13. Theodora Palaiologina Angelina Kantakouzene 3. Helena Kantakouzene 28. Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria 14. Andronikos Asen 29. Irene Palaiologina 7. Irene Asanina References[edit] ^ a b c d PLP, 21438. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος IV. [Κομνηνός]. ^ Nicol 1993, p. 270. ^ Nicol 1993, pp. 271–273. ^ a b ODB, "Andronikos IV Palaiologos" (A. M. Talbot), pp. 95–96. Sources[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Harris, Jonathan, The End of Byzantium. Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-11786-8 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Necipoğlu, Nevra (2009). Byzantium between the Ottomans and the Latins: Politics and Society in the Late Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-40388-8. Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Andronikos IV Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 2 April 1348 Died: 28 June 1385 Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1376–1379 with John VII Palaiologos (1377–1379) Succeeded by John V Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Netherlands Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andronikos_IV_Palaiologos&oldid=1027203330" Categories: 1348 births 1385 deaths 14th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars Byzantine usurpers Eastern Orthodox monarchs Palaiologos dynasty Byzantine prisoners and detainees Prisoners and detainees of the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Ido Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6303	----	File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Marcus_Aurelius,_aureus,_AD_166,_RIC_III_160.jpg ‎(800 × 380 pixels, file size: 115 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionMarcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg English: Marcus Aurelius. AD 161-180. AV Aureus (19mm, 7.20 g, 6h). Rome mint. Struck AD 166. M ΛNTONINVS ΛVG ΛRM PΛRTH MΛX, laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / TR P XX IMP IIII COS III, Victory standing facing, head right, holding palm frond in right hand, resting left on round shield, inscribed VIC/PAR in two lines, set on palm tree. RIC III 160; MIR 18, 141-2/37; Calicó 1992; BMCRE 405 (same obv. die); Biaggi 897. EF, lightly toned. Ex Leu 2 (25 April 1972), lot 407. Date 9 January 2018 Source https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=349927 Author CNG Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius,_aureus,_AD_166,_RIC_III_160.jpg Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. 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en-wikipedia-org-6308	----	Roman Gaul - Wikipedia Roman Gaul From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gaul as a province of the Roman Empire For Gallia or Gaul before the Roman conquest, see Gaul. Part of a series on the History of France Ancient Prehistory   Greek colonies 600 BC – 49 BC Celtic Gaul   until 50 BC Roman Gaul 50 BC – 486 AD Middle Ages Francia and the Franks   Merovingians 481–751 Carolingians 751–987 Direct Capetians 987–1328 Valois 1328–1498 Early modern Ancien Régime Valois-Orléans kings 1498–1515 Valois-Angoulême kings 1515–1589 Bourbon kings 1589–1792 Long 19th century French Revolution 1789–1799 Kingdom of France 1791–1792 First Republic 1792–1804 First Empire 1804–1814 Restoration 1814–1830 July Monarchy 1830–1848 Second Republic 1848–1852 Second Empire 1852–1870 Third Republic 1870–1940 20th century Third Republic 1870–1940 Free France Vichy France 1940–1944 Provisional Republic 1944–1946 Fourth Republic 1946–1958 Fifth Republic 1958–present Timeline  France portal v t e Roman Gaul refers to Gaul[note 1] under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. Contents 1 History 1.1 During the Republic 1.2 Gallic wars 1.3 Under the Empire 2 After the fall of Rome 3 Geographical divisions 4 Language and culture 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History[edit] Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars (58 BC) Principal ancient Roman roads Major cities of Roman Gaul Invasions of the Roman Empire During the Republic[edit] The Roman Republic's influence began in southern Gaul. By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille) and entered into an alliance with them, by which it agreed to protect the town from local Gauls, including the nearby Aquitani and from sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for land that it wanted in order to build a road to Hispania, to assist in troop movements to its provinces there. The Mediterranean settlements on the coast continued to be threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north and in 122 BC the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges followed by Quintus Fabius Maximus against the Arverni under King Bituitus in 121 BC.[1] The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the Gauls had sacked Rome, which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot.[2] In 109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved by Gaius Marius only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 62 BC, when a Roman client state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nations east of the Rhine to attack the Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni sought Ariovistus's aid and defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at the Battle of Magetobriga.[3][4] Gallic wars[edit] Main article: Gallic Wars As 58 BC dawned, most of Gaul was still under independent rule. It was beginning to urbanize and shared many aspects of Roman civilization. Into this picture came the rising general Julius Caesar, who had ensured himself the position of Governor of both Transalpine and Cisapline Gaul. He sought to pay off debts and find glory for himself, and so began a series of aggressive campaigns to conquer the Gallic tribes.[5] The wars began with conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii nearly defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, Caesar sought to boost his public image, and undertook first of their kind expeditions across the Rhine river and the English Channel. Upon his return from Britain, Caesar was hailed as a hero, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he went back with a proper army and conquered much of Britain. However, tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a draconian campaign against the Gauls in an attempt to pacify them. This failed, and the Gauls staged a mass revolt under the leadership of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia utterly defeated the Gallic coalition.[5] In 51 BC and 50 BC, there was little resistance, and Caesar's troops were mostly mopping up. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no clear end-date for the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him extremely wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and declare himself dictator, in what would eventually lead to the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire.[5] Under the Empire[edit] At the end of the Gallic Wars, the Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be made formally into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently, and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. There may have been unrest in the region as late as 70 AD.[6] Massilia was allied to Pompey in Caesar's civil war which led to its eventual defeat at the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC after which it lost its territories but was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus was given responsibility for Gallia Narbonensis (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul.[7] In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul was reorganised establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis. Parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia (15 BC) and Germania Superior (AD 83). Citizenship was granted to all in 212 by the Constitutio Antoniniana. Generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla. Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family. In the Crisis of the Third Century around 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, invaded Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Châlons in 274. In 286/7 Carausius commander of the Classis Britannica, the fleet of the English Channel, declared himself Emperor of Britain and northern Gaul.[8] His forces comprised his fleet, the three legions stationed in Britain and also a legion he had seized in Gaul, a number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty.[9] In 293 emperor Constantius Chlorus isolated Carausius by besieging the port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and invaded Batavia in the Rhine delta, held by his Frankish allies, and reclaimed Gaul. A migration of Celts from Britain appeared in the 4th century in Armorica led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc.[citation needed] They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.[citation needed] The Goths who had sacked Rome in 410 established a capital in Toulouse and in 418 succeeded in being accepted by Honorius as foederati and rulers of the Aquitanian province in exchange for their support against the Vandals.[10] The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians, and these mercenaries destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila, became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. After the fall of Rome[edit] The Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy. Between 455 and 476 the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul. However, certain aspects of the ancient Celtic culture continued after the fall of Roman administration and the Domain of Soissons, a remnant of the Empire, survived from 457 to 486. In 486 the Franks defeated the last Roman authority in Gaul at the Battle of Soissons. Almost immediately afterwards, most of Gaul came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of a proto-France. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at the Battle of Vouillé.[11] They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great. Certain Gallo-Roman aristocratic families continued to exert power in episcopal cities (such as the Mauronitus family in Marseilles and Bishop Gregory of Tours). The appearance of Germanic given and family names becomes noticeable in Gallia/Francia from the middle of the 7th century on, most notably in powerful families, indicating that the centre of gravity had definitely shifted. The Gallo-Roman (or Vulgar Latin) dialect of the late Roman period evolved into the dialects of the Oïl languages and Old French in the north, and into Occitan in the south. The name Gallia and its equivalents continued in use, at least in writing, until the end of the Merovingian period in the 750s. Slowly, during the ensuing Carolingian period (751-987), the expression Francia, then Francia occidentalis spread to describe the political reality of the kingdom of the Franks (regnum francorum). Geographical divisions[edit] Roman Gaul after Diocletian's reorganisation (1886) Before 22 BC Gaul had three geographical divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces: Gallia Cisalpina or "Gaul this side of the Alps", covered most of present-day northern Italy. It was conquered by the Romans around 121 BC, but was not made a formal province until 81 BC. By the end of the republic, it was annexed into Italy itself. Gallia Transalpina, or "Gaul across the Alps", was originally conquered and annexed in 121 BC in an attempt to solidify communications between Rome and the Iberian peninsula. It comprised most of what is now southern France, along the Mediterranean coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps. It was later renamed Gallia Narbonensis, after its capital city, Narbo. Gallia Comata, "free Gaul" or "long haired Gaul", encompassed the remainder of present-day France, Belgium, and westernmost Germany, including Aquitania, Gallia Celtica and Belgica. It had tributary status throughout the second and first centuries BC, but was still formally independent of Rome. It was annexed into the Empire as a result of Julius Caesar's victory in the Gallic Wars in 50 BC. After 22 BC the Romans divided Gallia Comata into three provinces, the Tres Galliae (the 3 Gauls): Gallia Aquitania, corresponding to central and western France; Gallia Belgica, corresponding to northeastern France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany; capital at Reims, later Trier Gallia Lugdunensis, corresponding to eastern and northern France; capital at Lugdunum (Lyon) The Romans divided these huge provinces into civitates corresponding more or less with the pre-Conquest communities or polities sometimes described misleadingly as "tribes," such as the Aedui, Allobroges, Bellovaci, and Sequani (see List of Celtic tribes) but the civitates were too large and in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi, a term that eventually became the modern French word "pays".[12] These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French revolution. Language and culture[edit] Roman Bronze Statuette of a Captive Gaul, 2nd Century AD Main article: Gallo-Roman culture Northern Gaul "sou", 440–450, 4240 mg. In the five centuries between Caesar's conquest and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Gaulish language and cultural identity underwent a syncretism with the Roman culture of the new governing class, and evolved into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture that eventually permeated all levels of society.[citation needed] Gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. Current historical research suggests that Roman Gaul was "Roman" only in certain (albeit major) social contexts, the prominence of which in material culture has hindered a better historical understanding of the permanence of many Celtic elements.[citation needed] The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of civic religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I, and in later centuries Christianity was introduced. The prohibition of Druids and the syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood: current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland and Wales. The Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic (especially in terms of monumental art and architecture) and literary culture.[citation needed] They wore the Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing.[citation needed] The Vachères warrior, 1st century BC, a statue depicting a Romanized Gaulish warrior wearing chainmail and a Celtic torc around his neck, wielding a Celtic-style shield.[13] Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century. For example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel (more durable than the Roman amphora) and chain mail were adopted by the Romans. The Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language (see History of French). Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets and transcribers of popular farces.[14] The last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century.[citation needed] Gaulish was held to be attested by a quote from Gregory of Tours written in the second half of the 6th century,[15] which describes how a shrine "called 'Vasso Galatae' in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.[16] Throughout the Roman rule over Gaul, although considerable Romanization in terms of material culture occurred, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and continued to be spoken, coexisting with Latin.[15] Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers (with Roman approval). In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium, the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland, and the Burgundians in Savoie. See also[edit] Asterix, French comic set in 50 BC Gaul Roman Britain's continental trade Notes[edit] ^ The territory of Gaul roughly corresponds to modern-day France, Belgium and Luxembourg, and adjacient parts of the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany. References[edit] ^ Drinkwater, John (2014). Roman Gaul (Routledge Revivals): The Three Provinces, 58 BC-AD 260. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317750741 p.6 ^ Gilliver 2003, p. 11. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). Caesar, Life of a Colossus. London: Orion Books. ISBN 978-0300126891. ^ Grant, Michael (1974) [1969]. Julius Caesar. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ^ a b c Gilliver, Catherine (2003). Caesar's Gallic wars, 58–50 BC. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-49484-4. OCLC 57577646. ^ Gilliver 2003, pp. 83–88. ^ Boatwright et al., The Romans, From Village to Empire, p.272 ISBN 978-0-19-511876-6 ^ Panegyrici Latini, 8:6; Aurelius Victor, Book of Caesars 39:20-21; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 21; Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans 7:25.2-4 ^ Panegyrici Latini 8:12 ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph. "Spain: The Visigothic Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ Bennett, Matthew (2004). "Goths". In Holmes, Richard; Singleton, Charles; Jones, Spencer (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 367. ISBN 9780191727467 ^ Patrick Galliou and Michael Jones, The Bretons, 1991, p. 79. ^ Ashton, Kasey. "The Celts Themselves." University of North Carolina. Accessed 5 November 2017. ^ Histoire de France, ed. Les Belles lettres, Paris. ^ a b Laurence Hélix. Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7. ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise. ^ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Gaul. Romans in Gaul : A Webliography - A Teacher Workshop held at Temple University, November 3, 2001. 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en-wikipedia-org-6311	----	Marcus Annius Verus Caesar - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Verus Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Caesar of the Roman Empire (c.162-169) Caesar of the Roman Empire Annius Verus Caesar of the Roman Empire A bust of Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Reign 12 October 166 – 10 September 169 Died 10 September 169 (aged 7) Names Marcus Annius Verus Regnal name Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Dynasty Antonine Father Marcus Aurelius Mother Faustina the Younger Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (born 162 or 163 AD) was the 12th of 13 children of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Empress Faustina the Younger. Annius was made caesar on 12 October 166 AD, alongside his brother Commodus, designating them co-heirs of the Roman Empire. Annius died on 10 September 169, at age seven, due to complications from a surgery to remove a tumor from under his ear. His death left Commodus as the sole heir. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 References 3.1 Bibliography 3.2 Websites 4 Further reading 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree Life[edit] Bust of Marcus Aurelius, Annius' father Marcus Annius Verus was born in late 162 or 163 AD,[1] the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. He was given the name of Marcus Annius Verus because it was the original name of his father, Marcus Aurelius.[2] On 12 October 166 AD, during a triumph celebrating the victory of the Romans in the Parthian War of Lucius Verus, Annius and his elder brother Commodus were both made caesars, designating them as co-heirs to the Roman Empire. At the time, Annius was three, and Commodus was five.[3][4] This was the first time such an explicit declaration of heirship had been made at such a young age,[5] and showed a marked shift from the traditional cursus honorum, in which a presumed heir would be gradually raised through offices of increasing importance, in order to learn the skills of all positions, to a new system of imperial succession, wherein dynastic hereditary descent was the path to the throne, with heirs being instructed in how to be an emperor.[6] Annius died on 10 September 169 AD, at seven years of age, due to complications in removing a tumor from under his ear.[7][8][9] This left Commodus as the sole heir.[3] His father, Marcus Aurelius, mourned his death for just five days, while still continuing public work.[8] Aurelius argued that because the games of Jupiter Optimus Maximus were ongoing, he should not interrupt them with his mourning. His lack of mourning was likely influenced by his Stoic philosophy, which taught of the dangers of emotion, and the brutal culture of the Romans, which considered hysterical grief at the loss of loved ones as unmanly and unnatural.[10] Aurelius ordered statues to be made in his honor, and a golden image of him to be carried during the procession of the games.[10] Aurelius also had his name inserted into the Carmen Saliare, the ritual songs sung by the Salii, a group of 12 priests.[11][10] Family[edit] Annius Verus was the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Annius was the younger brother of, in order of birth: Domitia Faustina, Titus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Aelius Aurelius, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, Titus Aelius Antoninus, an unnamed son, Annia Aurelia Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus). Annius was the older brother of Hadrianus and Vibia Aurelia Sabina.[12][13] References[edit] ^ Adams 2013a, p. 99. ^ Stephens 2012, p. 22. ^ a b Adams 2013b, p. 82. ^ Adams 2013a, p. 94. ^ Adams 2013b, p. 95. ^ Adams 2013b, p. 99. ^ Adams 2013a, p. 104. ^ a b Stephens 2012, p. 31. ^ Klonnek 2014, p. 169. ^ a b c McLynn 2009, p. 116. ^ Adams 2013a, p. 105. ^ Livius. ^ Birley 1993, p. Table F. Bibliography[edit] Adams, Geoff W. (2013a). Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176382. Adams, Geoff W. (2013b). The Emperor Commodus: Gladiator, Hercules or a Tyrant?. Boca Raton: Universal-Publishers. ISBN 9781612337227. Birley, Anthony (1993). Marcus Aurelius, a Biography. London: Routledge. OCLC 957321189. Klonnek, Martin (2014). Chronologie des Römischen Reiches 2: 2. Jh. - Jahr 100 bis 199 [Chronology of the Roman Empire 2: 2nd century - year 100 to 199] (in German). Online: Berlin epubli GmbH. ISBN 9783737507028. McLynn, Frank (2009). Marcus Aurelius: a Life. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780786745807. Stephens, William O. (2012). Marcus Aurelius: a Guide for the Perplexed. New York: Continuum International Publications Group. ISBN 9781441108104. Websites[edit] "Marcus Aurelius - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2 January 2018. Further reading[edit] Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 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en-wikipedia-org-6328	----	Andronikos V Palaiologos - Wikipedia Andronikos V Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos V Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos V (center), as depicted in a 15th-century ivory pyxis, together with his father John VII (left) and mother Irene (right) Byzantine co-emperor in Thessalonica Reign 1403 – 24 September 1407 Predecessor John VII Palaiologos (alone) Successor John VII Palaiologos (alone) Co-emperor John VII Palaiologos Born 1400 Constantinople Died September 24, 1407(1407-09-24) (aged 7) Thessalonica Dynasty Palaiologos Father John VII Palaiologos Mother Irene Gattilusio Andronikos V Palaiologos or Andronicus V Palaeologus (Greek: Ανδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Andronikos Palaiologos; 1400 – 24 September 1407) was the only son of Byzantine emperor John VII Palaiologos, who had briefly ruled at Constantinople in 1390. During John VII's tenure as despot of Thessalonica 1400–1408, where he ruled with full imperial style as Byzantine co-emperor, the young Andronikos was raised by his father to the position of co-emperor. Per succession agreements between John VII and the reigning emperor in Constantinople, Manuel II Palaiologos, Andronikos V was also designated to be third-in-line to the position of senior emperor, after Manuel II, John VII and Manuel's son John VIII, though Andronikos died young, predeceasing all of them. Life[edit] Andronikos V Palaiologos was the only known son of Emperor John VII Palaiologos and Irene Gattilusio, daughter of Francesco II Gattilusio. At the time of his birth John VII was Regent of the Byzantine Empire for his uncle Manuel II Palaiologos. At an unknown date, probably after his father settled in Thessalonica, Andronikos V was proclaimed co-emperor, probably by 1403/1404. He predeceased his father, dying in 1407. References[edit] Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. G. Dennis, "An unknown Byzantine Emperor", JÖBG 16 (1967) N. Oikonomides, "John VII Palaeologus and the Ivory Pyxis at Dumbarton Oaks", DOP 31 (1977) Andronikos V Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: Unknown 1400 Died: Unknown 1407 Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos Byzantine Emperor ca. 1403–1407 with John VII Palaiologos Succeeded by John V Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andronikos_V_Palaiologos&oldid=1022838979" Categories: 1400 births 1407 deaths Palaiologos dynasty Eastern Orthodox monarchs 15th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine junior emperors Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Italiano ქართული Македонски 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 May 2021, at 19:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6333	----	Constantine IV - Wikipedia Constantine IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Constantine IV (disambiguation). Byzantine emperor (b. 652 d. 685) Constantine IV Emperor of the Romans Constantine IV, mosaic in basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. Byzantine emperor Reign September 668 – September 685 Coronation c. 13 April 654[1] Predecessor Constans II Successor Justinian II Co-emperors Constans II (654–668) Tiberius (659–681) Heraclius (659–681) Justinian II (681–685) Born c. 652 Constantinople Died September 685 (aged 33)[2] Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Anastasia Issue Justinian II Heraclius Dynasty Heraclian Father Constans II Mother Fausta Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Saint Constantine the New Holy and Right-Believing Emperor of the Romans Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy[3] Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles Feast 3 September Attributes Imperial attire Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Constantine IV (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, romanized: Kōnstantinos; died 685), called the Younger (Greek: ὁ νέος, ho neos)[4][5] and sometimes incorrectly Pogonatos (Greek: Πωγωνάτος, "the Bearded") out of confusion with his father,[6] was Byzantine Emperor from 668 to 685. His reign saw the first serious check to nearly 50 years of uninterrupted Islamic expansion, while his calling of the Sixth Ecumenical Council saw the end of the monothelitism controversy in the Byzantine Empire; for this, he is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with his feast day on September 3.[3] Contents 1 Early career 2 The Siege of Constantinople (674–678) 3 Later reign 4 Family 5 In art and popular culture 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Early career[edit] The eldest son of Constans II, Constantine IV had been named a co-emperor with his father in 654.[7] He had been given the responsibility of managing the affairs at Constantinople during his father's extended absence in Italy[citation needed] and became senior Emperor when Constans was assassinated in 668.[8] His mother was Fausta, daughter of patrician Valentinus.[9] The first task before the new Emperor was the suppression of the military revolt in Sicily under Mezezius which had led to his father's death.[10] Within seven months of his accession, Constantine IV had dealt with the insurgency with the support of Pope Vitalian,[11] but this success was overshadowed by troubles in the east. As early as 668 the Caliph Muawiyah I received an invitation from Saborios, the commander of the troops in Armenia, to help overthrow the Emperor at Constantinople.[12] He sent an army under his son Yazid against the Byzantine Empire. Yazid reached Chalcedon and took the important Byzantine center Amorion.[13] While the city was quickly recovered, the Arabs next attacked Carthage and Sicily in 669.[14] In 670 the Arabs captured Cyzicus and set up a base from which to launch further attacks into the heart of the Empire.[8] Their fleet captured Smyrna and other coastal cities in 672.[15] Finally, in 672, the Arabs sent a large fleet to attack Constantinople by sea.[15] While Constantine was distracted by this, the Slavs laid siege to Thessalonica.[8] The Siege of Constantinople (674–678)[edit] Main article: Siege of Constantinople (674–678) Coin issued by Constantine. Commencing in 674, the Arabs launched the long-awaited siege of Constantinople. The great fleet that had been assembled set sail under the command of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr[14] before the end of the year; during the winter months some of the ships anchored at Smyrna, the rest off the coast of Cilicia.[14] Additional squadrons reinforced the forces of Abd ar-Rahman before they proceeded to the Hellespont, into which they sailed in about April 674.[14] From April to September 674 the fleet lay moored from the promontory of Hebdomon, on the Propontis, as far as the promontory of Kyklobion, near the Golden Gate, and throughout those months continued to engage with the Byzantine fleet which defended the harbour from morning to evening.[14] Knowing that it was only a matter of time before Constantinople was under siege, Constantine had ensured that the city was well provisioned.[14] He also constructed a large number of fireships and fast-sailing boats provided with tubes or siphons for squirting fire. This is the first known use of Greek fire in combat,[15] which was one of the key advantages that the Byzantines possessed. In September the Arabs, having failed in their attempts to take the city, sailed to Cyzicus, which they made their winter quarters.[16] Over the following five years, the Arabs returned each spring to continue the siege of Constantinople, but with the same results.[14] The city survived, and finally in 678 the Arabs were forced to raise the siege. The Arabs withdrew and were almost simultaneously defeated on land in Lycia in Anatolia.[8] This unexpected reverse forced Muawiyah I to seek a truce with Constantine. The terms of the concluded truce required the Arabs to evacuate the islands they had seized in the Aegean, and to pay an annual tribute to the Emperor consisting of fifty slaves, fifty horses, and 300,000 nomismata.[16] The raising of the siege allowed Constantine to go to the relief of Thessalonica, still under siege from the Sclaveni.[8] Later reign[edit] A solidus showing Constantine and his brothers, minted before 681 when the latter were mutilated. With the temporary passing of the Arab threat, Constantine turned his attention to the Church, which was torn between Monothelitism and Orthodoxy.[17] In November 680 Constantine convened the Sixth Ecumenical Council (also known as the Third Council of Constantinople).[8] Constantine presided in person during the formal aspects of the proceedings (the first eleven sittings and then the eighteenth), surrounded by his court officials, but he took no active role in the theological discussions.[18] The Council reaffirmed the Orthodox doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon in 451.[citation needed] This solved the controversy over monothelitism; conveniently for the Empire, most monothelites were now under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate.[8] The council closed in September 681.[19] Due to the ongoing conflicts with the Arabs during the 670s, Constantine had been forced to conclude treaties in the west with the Lombards, who had captured Brindisi and Taranto.[20] Also in 680, the Bulgars under Khan Asparukh crossed the Danube into nominally Imperial territory and began to subjugate the local communities and Slavic tribes.[8] In 680, Constantine IV led a combined land and sea operation against the invaders and besieged their fortified camp in Dobruja.[21] Suffering from bad health, the Emperor had to leave the army, which panicked and was defeated by the Bulgars.[22] In 681, Constantine was forced to acknowledge the Bulgar state in Moesia and to pay tribute/protection money to avoid further inroads into Byzantine Thrace.[17] Consequently, Constantine created the Theme of Thrace.[20] His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius had been crowned with him as Augusti during the reign of their father,[23] and this was confirmed by the demand of the populace,[24] but in 681 Constantine had them mutilated by slitting their noses so they would be considered ineligible to rule.[8] At the same time he associated on the throne his own young son Justinian II. Constantine died of dysentery in September 685.[25] Family[edit] By his wife Anastasia, Constantine IV had at least two sons: Justinian II, who succeeded him as emperor Heraclius, known only from an episode in which his father sent locks of his and his brother's hair to Pope Benedict II.[26][27] In art and popular culture[edit] Constantine IV was portrayed by Iossif Surchadzhiev in the 1981 Bulgarian movie Aszparuh, directed by Ludmil Staikov. Constantine IV is the subject of the song "Imperator" ("Emperor"), released by the Bulgarian heavy metal band Epizod in their 2012 album Moyata molitva ("My prayer"). Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Theophanes the Confessor, Chronographia. Secondary sources[edit] Bury, J.B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. II, MacMillan & Co., 1889 Garland, Lynda, "Anastasia (Wife of Constantine IV)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. 15 July 2000. Retrieved 27 February 2019. Gibbon, Edward (1827). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 6. Oxford: William Pickering. Grumel, Venance. "Quel est l'empereur Constantin le nouveau commémoré dans le Synaxaire au 3 septembre?." Analecta Bollandiana 84.1–2 (1966): 254–260. doi:10.1484/J.ABOL.4.02605 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Moore, R. Scott, "Constantine IV (668 -685 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997) Norwich, John Julius (1990), Byzantium: The Early Centuries, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011447-5 Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society (Stanford University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Zuckerman, C. (1995). "A Gothia in the Hellespont in the Early Eighth Century". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 19 (1): 234–242. doi:10.1179/030701395790836649. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ PBW, "Konstantinos IV". ^ 10 July 685 according to the Chronicon Altinate ^ a b September 3/September 16. Orthodox Calendar (PRAVOSLAVIE.RU). ^ Zuckerman 1995. ^ Grumel 1966. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrumel1966 (help) ^ Norwich, p. 316 ^ Kazhdan, p. 500 ^ a b c d e f g h i Moore, Constantine IV ^ Kazhdan, p. 496 ^ Bury, p. 303 ^ Bury, p. 315 ^ Bury, p. 306 ^ Bury, p. 307 ^ a b c d e f g Bury, p. 310 ^ a b c Norwich, p. 323 ^ a b Norwich, p. 324 ^ a b Norwich, p. 326 ^ Bury, p. 317 ^ Bury, p. 316 ^ a b Kazhdan, p. 501 ^ Bury, pp.333-334 ^ Norwich, p. 325 ^ Dumbarton Oaks, Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Vol. II, Part 2 (1968), p. 513 ^ Bury, p. 308 ^ Norwich, p. 327 ^ Garland, 2000 ^ Gibbon 1827, p. 99. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos IV. Constantine IV Heraclian Dynasty Born: 652 Died: 685 Regnal titles Preceded by Constans II Byzantine Emperor 15 September 668 – September 685 with Constans II, 654–668 Heraclius and Tiberius, 659–681 Succeeded by Justinian II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Mesopotamia Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central Emperors Coronation Family tree Empresses Imperial bureaucracy Medieval Greek Senate Early Praetorian prefects Magister 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Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_IV&oldid=1021056426" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors Heraclian Dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars 652 births 685 deaths Deaths from dysentery Porphyrogennetoi 660s in the Byzantine Empire 670s in the Byzantine Empire 680s in the Byzantine Empire Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-6338	----	Basiliscus - Wikipedia Basiliscus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in the East from 475 to 476 For other uses, see Basiliscus (disambiguation) and Basilisk (disambiguation). Roman emperor of the East Basiliscus Solidus of Emperor Basiliscus Roman emperor of the East Reign 12 January 475 – August 476, with his son Marcus Predecessor Zeno, deposed Successor Zeno, restored Western emperors Julius Nepos (474–480) Romulus Augustulus (475–476) Died winter 476–477 Cappadocia Spouse Aelia Zenonis Issue Marcus Names Flavius Basiliscus Dynasty Leonid Religion Miaphysitism Flavius Basiliscus (Greek: Βασιλίσκος, Basilískos; died 476/477) was Eastern Roman emperor from 475 to 476. A member of the House of Leo, he came to power when Emperor Zeno was forced out of Constantinople by a revolt. Basiliscus was the brother of Empress Aelia Verina, who was the wife of Emperor Leo I (457–474). His relationship with the Emperor allowed him to pursue a military career that, after minor initial successes, ended in 468, when he led the disastrous Roman invasion of Vandal Africa, in one of the largest military operations of Late Antiquity. Basiliscus succeeded in seizing power in 475, exploiting the unpopularity of Emperor Zeno, the "barbarian" successor to Leo, and a plot organised by Verina that had caused Zeno to flee Constantinople. However, during his short rule, Basiliscus alienated the fundamental support of the Church and the people of Constantinople, promoting the Miaphysite christological position in opposition to the Chalcedonian faith. Also, his policy of securing his power through the appointment of loyal men to key roles antagonised many important figures in the imperial court, including his sister Verina. So, when Zeno tried to regain his empire, he found virtually no opposition, triumphantly entering Constantinople, and capturing and killing Basiliscus and his family. The struggle between Basiliscus and Zeno impeded the Eastern Roman Empire's ability to intervene in the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in early September 476. When the chieftain of the Heruli, Odoacer, deposed Western Emperor Romulus Augustus, sending the imperial regalia to Constantinople, Zeno had just regained his throne, and was in no position to take any action but appoint Odoacer dux of Italy, thereby ending the Western Roman Empire. Contents 1 Origins and early career 2 Disastrous expedition against the Vandals 3 Rise to power 4 Rule 4.1 Corruption and the fire of Constantinople 4.2 Tensions with his collaborators 4.3 Religious controversies 5 Fall and death 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Origins and early career[edit] Tremissis issued in the name of Aelia Verina, wife and later widow of Emperor Leo I. As sister of Basiliscus, Verina helped him in both his military and political career – even if unwillingly supporting his bid for the purple. Likely of Balkan origin,[1] Basiliscus was the brother of Aelia Verina, wife of Leo I. It has been argued that Basiliscus was uncle to the chieftain of the Heruli, Odoacer. This link is based on the interpretation of a fragment by John of Antioch (209.1), which states that Odoacer and Armatus, Basiliscus' nephew, were brothers.[2] However, not all scholars accept this interpretation, since sources do not say anything about the foreign origin of Basiliscus.[3] It is known that Basiliscus had a wife, Zenonis, and at least one son, Marcus.[citation needed] Basiliscus' military career started under Leo I. The Emperor conferred upon his brother-in-law the dignities of dux, or commander-in-chief, in Thrace.[4] In this country Basiliscus led a successful military campaign against the Bulgars in 463. He succeeded Rusticius as magister militum per Thracias (464), and had several successes against the Goths and Huns (466 or 467).[5] Basiliscus's value rose in Leo's consideration. Verina's intercession in favour of her brother helped Basiliscus' military and political career, with the conferral of the consulship in 465 and possibly of the rank of patricius.[6] However, his rise was soon to meet a serious reversal.[1] Disastrous expedition against the Vandals[edit] Cap Bon, in modern Tunisia is the place where the Roman fleet led by Basiliscus landed to launch an attack upon the Vandal capital of Carthage. Further information: Battle of Cape Bon (468) In 468, Leo chose Basiliscus as leader of the famous military expedition against Carthage. All accounts agree that the invasion of the kingdom of the Vandals was one of the largest military undertakings recorded, although estimates of its exact size vary. According to Priscus and Nicephorus Gregoras, 100,000 ships were assembled. Modern scholars consider Cedrenus's figure of 1,113 vessels, each carrying 100 men, more likely.[7][8] Peter Heather estimates a strength of 30,000 soldiers for the expedition and 50,000 total, when including sailors and the additional forces of Marcellinus and Heraclius of Edessa.[9] The most conservative estimation for expedition expenses is of 64,000 pounds of gold, a sum that exceeded a whole year's revenue.[10] The purpose of the operation was to punish the Vandal king Geiseric for the sacking of Rome in 455, in which the former capital of the Western Roman Empire was overwhelmed, and the Empress Licinia Eudoxia (widow of Emperor Valentinian III) and her daughters were taken as hostages.[1][4] The plan was concerted between Eastern Emperor Leo, Western Emperor Anthemius, and General Marcellinus, who enjoyed independence in Illyricum. Basiliscus was ordered to sail directly to Carthage, while Marcellinus attacked and took Sardinia, and a third army, commanded by Heraclius, landed on the Libyan coast east of Carthage, making rapid progress. It appears that the combined forces met in Sicily, whence the three fleets moved at different periods.[4] Sardinia and Libya were already conquered by Marcellinus and Heraclius when Basiliscus cast anchor off the Promontorium Mercurii, now Cap Bon, opposite Sicily, about forty miles from Carthage. Geiseric requested Basiliscus to allow him five days to draw up the conditions of peace.[11] During the negotiations, Geiseric gathered his ships and suddenly attacked the Roman fleet. The Vandals had filled many vessels with combustible materials. During the night, these fire ships were propelled against the unguarded and unsuspecting Roman fleet. The Roman commanders tried to rescue some ships from destruction, but these manoeuvres were blocked by the attack of other Vandal vessels.[4] Basiliscus fled in the heat of the battle.[12] One half of the Roman fleet was burned, sunk, or captured, and the other half followed the fugitive Basiliscus. The whole expedition had failed. Heraclius effected his retreat through the desert into Tripolitania, holding the position for two years until recalled; Marcellinus retired to Sicily, where he was reached by Basiliscus;[13] the general was, however, assassinated, perhaps at the instigation of Ricimer, by one of his own captains, and the king of the Vandals expressed his surprise and satisfaction that the Romans themselves would remove from the world his most formidable antagonists.[4] After returning to Constantinople, Basiliscus hid in the church of Hagia Sophia to escape the wrath of the people and the revenge of the Emperor. By the mediation of Verina, Basiliscus obtained the Imperial pardon and was punished merely with banishment to Heraclea Sintica, in Thrace.[14] Rise to power[edit] In 471 and 472, Basiliscus helped Leo I get rid of the Germanic influence in his court, helping in the murder of the Alan Magister militum Aspar. The death of Aspar caused a revolt in Thrace, led by the Thracian Ostrogoth Theodoric Strabo, and Basiliscus was dispatched to suppress the revolt, something he successfully did with the aid of his nephew Armatus. In 474 he received the rank of caput senatus, "first among the senators".[5] At the death of Leo, Zeno, who was a "barbarian" of Isaurian stock, but at the same time son-in-law of Leo, became sole Emperor, after a short co-reign with his own son Leo II (474). The "barbarian" origins of the Emperor caused antipathy towards Zeno among the people of Constantinople. Furthermore, the strong Germanic portion of the military, led by Theodoric Strabo, disliked the Isaurian officers that Leo I brought to reduce his dependency on the Ostrogoths. Finally, Zeno alienated his fellow Isaurian general Illus, who was bribed by Basiliscus. In the middle of the conspiracy was Verina, who fomented a popular revolt against the Emperor. The uprising, supported by Theodoric Strabo, Illus and Armatus, was successful, and Verina convinced the Emperor to leave the city. Zeno fled to his native lands, bringing with him some of the Isaurians living in Constantinople, and the Imperial treasury. Basiliscus was then acclaimed as Augustus on 12 January 475[15] at the Hebdomon palace, by the palace ministers and the Senate.[16] The mob of Constantinople got its revenge against Zeno, killing almost all of the Isaurians left in the city.[13][14] In the beginning, everything seemed to go well for the new Emperor, who even tried to set up a new dynasty by conferring the title of Augusta upon his wife Aelia Zenonis and naming his son Marcus Caesar, and later Augustus;[17] however, due to his mismanagement as emperor, Basiliscus quickly lost most of his supporters.[citation needed] Rule[edit] Europe and the Mediterranean in 476 AD Corruption and the fire of Constantinople[edit] The most urgent problem facing the new Emperor was the scarcity of resources left in the imperial treasury. Basiliscus was forced to raise heavy taxes, and to revert to the practice of auctioning the offices, obviously causing a diffuse discontent in the population. He also extorted money from the church, with the help of the Prefect Epinicus, Verina's long-time favourite.[13] Early in his reign, Constantinople suffered a massive fire, which destroyed houses, churches, and completely incinerated the huge library built by Emperor Julian.[18] The fire was seen as a bad omen for the rule of Basiliscus.[14] Tensions with his collaborators[edit] Basiliscus had relied on the support of some major figures of the court in his bid for power. However, he quickly lost most of them. First, Basiliscus alienated his own sister Verina, executing the Magister officiorum Patricius. Patricius was the lover of Verina, and the empress had planned to raise him to the imperial rank and to marry him: the very revolt against Zeno was organised to make Patricius emperor. Basiliscus, however, had out-witted his sister, and, after the flight of Zeno, had the ministers and the Senate choose him, and not Patricius, as Emperor. Basiliscus ordered the death of Patricius, as the officer was a natural candidate to overthrow the new Emperor; as a consequence, Verina later intrigued against Basiliscus.[19] Also, Theodoric Strabo, whose hatred of the Isaurian Zeno had compelled him to support Basiliscus' revolt, left the new Emperor's side. Basiliscus had in fact raised his own nephew Armatus, who was rumoured to be also the lover of Basiliscus' wife, to the rank of magister militum, the same that Strabo held. Finally, the support of Illus was most likely wavering, given the massacre of the Isaurians allowed by Basiliscus.[4][13] Religious controversies[edit] In that time, the Christian faith was shaken by the conflict between Miaphysites and Chalcedonians, representing two opposing christological positions: the Chalcedonians claimed that Christ had both human and divine natures, while the Miaphysites claimed he had only one nature. The Council of Chalcedon, convoked by Emperor Marcian in 451, had ruled out Miaphysitism, with the support of the pope in the West and many bishops in the East. However, the Miaphysite position was still strong: the two Miaphysite Patriarchs Timothy Aelurus of Alexandria and Peter the Fuller of Antioch were deposed.[20] From the beginning of his rule, Basiliscus showed his support for the Miaphysites. Zacharias Scholasticus reports how a group of Egyptian Miaphysite monks, having heard of Emperor Leo's death, had traveled from Alexandria to Constantinople to petition Zeno in favour of Timothy, but, on their arrival in the capital, they found the newly-elected Basiliscus instead. The Magister Officiorum Theoctistus, the former physician of Basiliscus, was the brother of one of the monks, so the delegation obtained an audience with Basiliscus, and, with the support of Theoctistus and of the Empress, they convinced Basiliscus to recall from exile the banished Miaphysite Patriarchs.[21] Basiliscus re-instated Timothy Aelurus and Peter the Fuller to their sees,[22] and, persuaded by the former, issued a circular letter (Enkyklikon) on 9 April 475 to the bishops calling them to accept as valid only the first three ecumenical synods, and reject the Council of Chalcedon.[20] All bishops were to sign the edict. While most of the Eastern bishops accepted the letter, Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople refused, with the support of the population of the city, clearly showing his disdain towards Basiliscus by draping the icons in Hagia Sophia in black.[23] Fall and death[edit] Tremissis issued by Emperor Zeno. Soon after his elevation, Basiliscus had despatched Illus and his brother Trocundus against Zeno, who, now in his native fortresses, had resumed the life of an Isaurian chieftain. Basiliscus, however, failed to fulfill the promises he made to the two generals; furthermore, they received letters from some of the leading ministers at the court, urging them to secure the return of Zeno, for the city now preferred a restored Isaurian to a Miaphysite whose unpopularity increased with the fiscal rapacity of his ministers.[14] During his operations in Isauria, Illus took Zeno's brother Longinus prisoner and kept him in an Isaurian fortress. Because he thought he would have significant influence over a restored Zeno, he changed sides and marched with Zeno towards Constantinople in the summer of 476. When Basiliscus received news of this danger, he hastened to recall his ecclesiastical edicts and to conciliate the Patriarch and the people, but it was too late.[14] Armatus, as magister militum, was sent with all available forces in Asia Minor, to oppose the advancing army of the Isaurians, but secret messages from Zeno, who promised to give him the title of magister militum for life and to confer the rank of Caesar on his son, induced him to betray his master.[24] Armatus avoided the road by which Zeno was advancing and marched into Isauria by another way. This betrayal decided the fate of Basiliscus.[14] In August 476, Zeno besieged Constantinople.[25] The Senate opened the gates of the city to the Isaurian, allowing the deposed emperor to resume the throne. Basiliscus fled to sanctuary in a church, but he was betrayed by Acacius and surrendered himself and his family after extracting a solemn promise from Zeno not to shed their blood. Basiliscus, his wife Aelia Zenonis and his son Marcus were sent to a fortress in Cappadocia,[26] where Zeno had them enclosed in a dry cistern, to die from exposure.[1][27] Basiliscus had ruled for twenty months. He is described by sources as a successful general, but slow of understanding and easy to deceive.[5] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Flavia gens List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b c d Elton. ^ Krautschick. ^ Macgeorge. ^ a b c d e f Smith. ^ a b c Martindale. ^ Martindale. It is also possible that he attained the rank of patricius in 471/472, for helping Leo to get rid of the Germanic influence in his court, but there is a reference to Basiliscus as patricius earlier, in 468. ^ Priscus, fragment 42; translated by Colin D. Gordon, The Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1966), p. 120f. See Gordon's note 11 on the emendation. ^ Georgius Cedrenus, through Smith. ^ Heather 2006, p. 400. ^ Boardman. ^ Procopius suggests that Geiseric supported his request for a truce with a bribe. ^ Basiliscus' lieutenant, Joannes, when overpowered by the Vandals, refused the pardon that was promised him by Genso, the son of Gaiseric, and leaped overboard in heavy armor and drowned himself in the sea. His last words were that he could not bear to surrender to those "impious dogs" of the Vandals – the Vandals, in fact, were Arians (Procopius). ^ a b c d Friell. ^ a b c d e f Bury. ^ There exists a horoscope made on the day of Basiliscus' coronation – 12 January 475, at 9 a.m. – probably by a supporter of Zeno. The horoscope, preserved with the horoscopes of other two usurpers of Zeno through Arab sources, correctly predicts the end of Basiliscus' rule in two years. See Barton, Tamsyn (2002). Power and knowledge: Astrology, physiognomics, and medicine under the Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-472-08852-1. ^ Tradition allowed the Senate to recognise a usurper; thus, Basiliscus was the new lawful ruler, albeit Julius Nepos, who technically had become senior emperor, refused to accept Basiliscus as his colleague. However, it was the first military-based succession in the last one hundred years (Friell). ^ Basiliscus also issued coins celebrating the joint rule with his son Marcus;[1] Also, gold and bronze coins were minted in honour of Aelia Zenonis, Augusta [2] The coins bear the legend AVGGG, with the three 'G' referring to the three Augusti. See Yonge Akerman, John (2002) [1834]. A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare and Unedited Roman Coins. Adamant Media Corporation. p. 383. ISBN 1-4021-9224-X. ^ This library, which was housed within a basilica next to the underground cisterna built by Justinian I, contained 120,000 volumes, including the famous parchment, 35 m (115 ft) long, upon which were inscribed Homer's Iliad and Odyssey in golden letters. ^ Bury. According to Candidus, after the death of Patricius, Verina intrigued in favour of Zeno, but her plan was discovered by Basiliscus, and only the intercession of Armatus spared her life. ^ a b "Pope St. Simplicius", Catholic Encyclopedia. ^ Zacharias Scholasticus. ^ Samuel. ^ Evagrius Scholasticus. ^ According to Procopius, Armatus surrendered his army to Zeno, on the condition that Zeno would appoint Armatus' son Basiliscus as Caesar, and recognise him as successor to the throne upon his death. After Zeno had regained the Empire, he carried out his pledge to Armatus by appointing his son, named Basiliscus, Caesar, but not long afterwards he both stripped him of the office and put Armatus to death. ^ The leader of the Pannonian Goths, Theodoric the Amal (later known as Theodoric the Great) had allied to Zeno. Theodoric would have attacked Basiliscus and his Thracian Goth foederati led by Theodoric Strabo, receiving, in exchange, the title of magister militum held by Strabo and the payments previously given to the Thracian Goths. It has been suggested that Constantinople was defenseless during Zeno's siege because the Magister Militum Strabo had moved north to counter this menace. See Heather, Peter (May 1998). Goths. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-631-20932-8. ^ Elton refers that the name of the stronghold was Limnae, while Smith has Cucusus, and Evagrius Scholasticus reports Acusus. ^ Procopius. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiae iii. 4–8 Georgius Cedrenus (1647). Goar and Fabrot (ed.). Compendium Historiarum ab Orbe Condita ad Isaacum Comnenum (1057) (in Latin). Paris. pp. 349–350. Procopius, Bellum Vandalicum i.6–8 Zacharias Scholasticus, Syriac Chronicle, v.1 [3]. Secondary sources[edit] "Pope St. Simplicius". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1917. Archived from the original on 19 August 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. Boardman, John (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-521-32591-9. Bury, John Bagnall (1958) [1923]. "XII.1 The Usurpation of Basiliscus (A.D. 475‑476)". History of the Later Roman Empire. Dover Books. pp. 389–395. Retrieved 23 August 2006. Elton, Hugh (10 June 1998). "Flavius Basiliscus (AD 475–476)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. Friell, Gerard; Stephen Williams (December 1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall. Routledge. pp. 184–186. ISBN 0-415-15403-0. Heather, P. (2006). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532541-6. Krautschick, Stefan (1986). "Zwei Aspekte des Jahres 476". Historia (35): 344–371. Macgeorge, Penny (2003). Late Roman Warlords. Oxford University Press. pp. 284–285. ISBN 0-19-925244-0. Martindale, J.R. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–214. ISBN 0-521-20159-4. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Samuel, Vilakuvel Cherian (2001) [1977]. The Council of Chalcedon Re-Examined. Xlibris Corporation (Reprinted ed.). Madras: Christian Literature Society. pp. 134–139. ISBN 1-4010-1644-8. Smith, William (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Boston: C. Little and J. Brown. p. 466. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Basiliscus (emperor). Wikisource has original text related to this article: Circular letter of Basiliscus to the bishops, promoting the Monophysite doctrine Basiliscus Leonid Dynasty Born: unknown Died: 476/477 Regnal titles Preceded by Zeno Eastern Roman Emperor 475–476 with Marcus (since 475) Succeeded by Zeno Political offices Preceded by Flavius Rusticius, Flavius Anicius Olybrius Consul of the Roman Empire 465 with Flavius Hermenericus Succeeded by Imp. Caesar Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus III, Tatianus Preceded by Imp. Caesar Flavius Zeno Augustus II, Post consulatum Leonis Augusti (East) Consul of the Roman Empire 476 with Flavius Armatus VacantPost consulatum Basilisci Augusti II et Armati Title next held by Illus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-6348	----	Denarius - Wikipedia Denarius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman coin This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Denarius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Top row left to right: 157 BC Roman Republic, AD 73 Vespasian, AD 161 Marcus Aurelius, AD 194 Septimius Severus; Second row left to right: AD 199 Caracalla, AD 200 Julia Domna, AD 219 Elagabalus, AD 236 Maximinus Thrax The denarius (Latin: [deːˈnaːriʊs], pl. dēnāriī [deːˈnaːriiː]) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War c. 211 BC[1] to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the Antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the tetrarchy (293–313).[2]:87 The word dēnārius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 assēs.[note 1] The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (denaro), Slovene (denar), Portuguese (dinheiro), and Spanish (dinero). Its name also survives in the dinar currency. Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), however it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay). Contents 1 History 2 Debasement and evolution 3 Value, Comparisons and silver content 4 Influence 5 Use in the Bible 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links History[edit] Starting with Nero in AD 64, the Romans continuously debased their silver coins until, by the end of the 3rd century AD, hardly any silver was left. A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War,[3] with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or 1⁄48 of a Roman pound. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin of didrachm weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy.[4] These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or pay soldiers. The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC.[5] Classical historians have sometimes called these coins heavy denarii, but they are classified by modern numismatists as quadrigati, a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse,. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.[6][7][8] Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or 1⁄72 of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman republic and the early empire.[9] The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC to AD 14) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of 1⁄84 of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to 1⁄96 of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.[10] The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the so-called antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between AD 270 and 275, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian. ('Denarius', in A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins, by John R. Melville-Jones (1990)).[11][12] Debasement and evolution[edit] Year Event Weight Purity Note[13] 267 BC Predecessor 6.81 g ? 1⁄48 pound. Equals 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". The original copper coinage was weight-based, and was related to the Roman pound, the libra, which was about 325 g. The basic copper coin, the as, was to weigh 1 Roman pound. This was a large cast coin, and subdivisions of the as were used. The "pound" (libra etc.) continued to be used as a currency unit, and survives e.g. in the British monetary system, which still uses the pound, abbreviated as £. 211 BC Introduction 4.55 g 95–98% 1⁄72 pound. Denarius first struck. According to Pliny, it was established that the denarius should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the quinarius for five pounds, and the sestertius for two-and-a-half. But when the as was reduced in weight to one ounce, the denarius became equivalent to 16 asses, the quinarius to eight, and the sestertius to four; although they retained their original names. It also appears, from Pliny and other writers, that the ancient libra was equivalent to 84 denarii. 200 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% 1⁄84 pound. 141 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% 1⁄84 pound. Retariffed to equal 16 asses due to the decrease in weight of the as. 44 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% Death of Julius Caesar, who set the denarius at 3.9 g. Legionary (professional soldier) pay was doubled to 225 denarii per year. AD 14–37 3.9 g 97.5–98% Tiberius slightly improved the fineness as he gathered his infamous hoard of 675 million denarii. 64–68 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% 1⁄96 pound. This more closely matched the Greek drachma. In AD 64, Nero reduced the standard of the aureus to 45 to the Roman pound (7.2 g) and of the denarius to 96 to the Roman pound (3.30 g). He also lowered the denarius to 94.5% fine. Successive emperors lowered the fineness of the denarius; in 180 Commodus reduced its weight by one-eighth to 108 to the pound. 85–107 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% Reduction in silver content under Domitian 148–161 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% 193–235 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% Several emperors (193–235) steadily debased the denarius from a standard of 78.5% to 50% fine. In 212 Caracalla reduced the weight of the aureus from 45 to 50 to the Roman pound. They also coined the aes from a bronze alloy with a heavy lead admixture, and discontinued fractional denominations below the as. In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus (5.1 g; 52% fine), a double denarius, containing 80% of the silver of two denarii. The coin invariably carried the radiate imperial portrait. Elagabalus demonetized the coin in 219, but the senatorial emperors Pupienus and Balbinus in 238 revived the antoninianus as the principal silver denomination which successive emperors reduced to a less intrinsically valuable billon coin (2.60 g; 2% fine). 241 Debasement 3.41 g 48% 274 Double Denarius 3.41 g 5% In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate aurelianianus of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational[clarification needed] denarii (sometimes called "common denarii" or "denarii communes" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text). The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1). Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 sestertii[clarification needed] (or 5 denarii), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained 1⁄20 or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation. The aureus (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 denarii, equivalent to 120 to 200 aurelianiani. Rare fractions of billion[clarification needed] denarii, and of bronze sestertii and asses, were also coined. At the same time, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine tetradrachmon that might[clarification needed] have been tariffed at par with the aurelianianus. The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the aurelianianus and halved its tariffing[clarification needed] to 2.5 d.c. (hence[clarification needed] coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the aurelianianus to the standard and tariffing[clarification needed] of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. 735 Novus denarius (new penny) Pepin the Short (r. 751–768– ), the first king of the Carolingian dynasty and father of Charlemagne, minted the novus denarius ("new penny"): 240 pennies minted from one Carolingian pound. So a single coin contained 21 grains of silver. Around 755, Pepin's Carolingian Reform established the European monetary system, which can be expressed as: 1 pound = 20 shillings = 240 pennies. Originally the pound was a weight of silver rather than a coin, and from a pound of pure silver 240 pennies were struck. The Carolingian Reform restored the silver content of the penny that was already in circulation and was the direct descendant of the Roman denarius. The shilling was equivalent to the solidus, the money of account that prevailed in Europe before the Carolingian Reform; it originated from the Byzantine gold coin that was the foundation of the international monetary system for more than 500 years. Debts contracted before the Reform were defined in solidi. For three centuries following the reform, the only coin minted in Europe was the silver penny. Shillings and pounds were units of account used for convenience to express large numbers of pence, not actual coins. The reform also reduced the number of mints, strengthened royal authority over the mints, and provided for uniform design of coins. All coins bore the ruler's name, initial, or title, signifying royal sanction of the quality of the coins. Charlemagne spread the Carolingian system throughout Western Europe. The Italian lira and the French livre were derived from the Latin word for pound. Until the French Revolution, the unit of account in France was the livre, which equalled 20 sols or sous, each of which in turn equaled 12 deniers. During the Revolution the franc replaced the livre, and Napoleon's conquest spread the franc to Switzerland and Belgium. The Italian unit of account remained the lira, and in Britain the pound-shilling-penny relationship survived until 1971. Even in England the pennies were eventually debased, leaving 240 pennies representing substantially less than a pound of silver, and the pound as a monetary unit became divorced from a pound weight of silver. After the breakup of the Carolingian Empire pennies debased much faster, particularly in Mediterranean Europe, and in 1172 Genoa began minting a silver coin equal to four pennies. Rome, Florence, and Venice followed with coins of denominations greater than a penny, and late in the 12th century Venice minted a silver coin equal to 24 pennies. By the mid-13th century Florence and Genoa were minting gold coins, effectively ending the reign of the silver penny (denier, denarius) as the only circulating coin in Europe. 757–796 Penny Offa, king of Mercia, minted and introduced to England a penny of 22.5 grains of silver. The coin's designated value, however, was that of 24 troy grains of silver (one pennyweight, or 1⁄240 of a troy pound, or about 1.56 grams), with the difference being a premium attached by virtue of the minting into coins (seigniorage). The penny led to the term "penny weight". 240 actual pennies (22.5 grains; minus the 1.5 grain for the seigniorage) weighed only 5,400 troy grains, known as a Saxon pound and later known as the tower pound, a unit used only by mints. The tower pound was abolished in the 16th century. However, 240 pennyweights (24 grains) made one troy pound of silver in weight, and the monetary value of 240 pennies also became known as a "pound". The silver penny remained the primary unit of coinage for about 500 years. 790 Penny 1.76g 95–96% Charlemagne new penny with smaller diameter but greater weight. Average weight of 1.7 g, but ideal theoretical[clarification needed] mass of 1.76 g. Purity is from 95% to 96%. c. 1527 Penny 1.58g 99% Tower pound of 5400 grains abolished and replaced by the Troy pound of 5760 grains. 1158 Penny 92.5% The purity of 92.5% silver (i.e. sterling silver) was instituted by Henry II in 1158 with the "Tealby Penny" — a hammered coin. 1500s Penny By the 16th century it contained about a third the silver content of a Troy pennyweight of 24 grains. 1915 Penny A penny was worth around one-sixth of its value during the Middle Ages. British government sources suggest that prices have risen over 61-fold since 1914. Value, Comparisons and silver content[edit] Marco Sergio Silo: 116–115 BC Helmeted head of Rome Galloping Knight holding the sword and a barbarian's head Denarius: Sergio 1 Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian and mother of Titus and Domitian. Quintus Antonius Balbus (c. 83–82 BC) 1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes[when?] It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC–27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day) Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 denarii/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms[citation needed], while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii.[citation needed]. By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (c. 27 BC), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms.[14] Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a 1⁄10 troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.[15] At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546ml or about 2 1/4 cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one Dupondius (⅛ of a Denarius), after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices were issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6,400% inflation. Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius. Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or 1⁄10 (0.105ozt) troy ounce. The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by AD 200, and plummeted to 5% purity by AD 300.[16] By the reign of Gallienus, the antoninianus was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.[17] Influence[edit] In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down denarii.[18] The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various denarii such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius.[19][18] Even after the denarius was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar. The lasting legacy of the denarius can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971.[20] It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was dinar, and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word denaro, the Spanish word dinero, the Portuguese word dinheiro, and the Slovene word denar, all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as lsd, with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny. Use in the Bible[edit] In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2,[21] John 12:5).[22] In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius.[23] Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times.[24] Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages. The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as "tribute penny". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius. See also[edit] Money portal Numismatics portal Denarius of L. Censorinus, for the detailed description of a specific Roman denarius Dupondius French denier Gold Dinar Macedonian denar Sestertius Solidus (coin) Tribute penny Notes[edit] ^ Its value was increased to 16 assēs in the middle of the 2nd century BC. References[edit] ^ Crawford, Michael H. (1974). Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press, 2 Volumes. ISBN 0-521-07492-4 ^ David. L. Vagi. Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 BC–AD 480. II. Sydney, Ohio: Coin World. ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, William Smith, D.C.l., LL, D., John Murray, London 1875 Pg 393, 394 ^ Metcalf, William E. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016: Oxford University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-19-937218-8.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ The Numismatic Circular, Volume 8–9, Spink & Son, 1899–1900 Piccadilly West, London ^ Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. Oxford University Press, New York 1994. ^ As the Romans Did, Jo-Ann Shelton. Oxford University Press, New York 1998 ^ Plutarch's Lives, Vol 2, John Langhorne, DD, William Langhorne, AM, London 1813 ^ The New Deal in Old Rome, HJ Haskell, Alfred K Knoff New York 1939 ^ Ancient coin collection 3Wayne G Sayles Pg 21–22 ^ "Aurelian, Roman Imperial Coinage reference, Thumbnail Index". Wildwinds.com. Retrieved 24 August 2006. ^ "Aurelian Æ Denarius. Rome mint. IMP AVRELIANVS AVG, laureate, draped & cuirassed bust right". Wildwinds.com. Archived from the original on 12 June 2006. Retrieved 24 August 2006. ^ Kenneth W. Harl (12 July 1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. JHU Press. pp. 94–5. ISBN 978-0-8018-5291-6.. ^ Buying Power of Ancient Coins ^ "XE: Convert XAG/USD. Silver to United States Dollar". www.xe.com. Retrieved 2021-01-28. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2015-12-01.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Katsari, Constantina (2002). "The Concept of Inflation in the Roman Empire". Retrieved 2006-12-06. ^ a b De Jersey, Philip (1996). Celtic Coinage in Britain. Shire Publications. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-7478-0325-0. ^ Bean, Simon C (1994). "The coinage of Eppilus". The coinage of Atrebates and Regni (PDF) (Ph.D.). University of Nottingham. pp. 341–347. Retrieved 14 July 2016. ^ English Coinage 600–1900 by C.H.V. Sutherland 1973 ISBN 0-7134-0731-X p.10 ^ "Matthew 20:2 NIV – He agreed to pay them a denarius". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2013-10-02. ^ "Jn 12:5; NIV – "Why wasn't this perfume sold ..." Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2013-10-02. ^ Revelation 6:6 ^ The New International Commentary on the New Testament, "The Book of Revelation," p. 155) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Denarius. Denarius From Octavian to Augustus: Images Illustrating His Rise to Power Denarius – A Roman soldier's daily pay v t e Currencies of Ancient Rome Proto-currency Bronze Aes rude Aes signatum Republican era Gold Aureus Silver Denarius Sestertius Victoriatus Quadrigatus Bronze and copper Dupondius (2 asses) As (1) Dodrans ( 3⁄4) Bes ( 2⁄3) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quincunx ( 5⁄12) Triens ( 1⁄3) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Sextans ( 1⁄6) Uncia ( 1⁄12) Semuncia ( 1⁄24) Early Empire Gold Aureus Dacicus Silver Antoninianus (32 asses) Denarius (16) Quinarius (8) Copper Double sestertius (8) Sestertius ( 2+1⁄2; later 4) Dupondius (2) As (1) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Diocletian era Gold Solidus Silver Argenteus Nummus Copper Radiate Laureate Denarius Late Empire Gold Solidus Tremissis Silver Miliarense Siliqua Copper and bronze Follis Nummus Constantinian bronzes Centenionalis Ancient Rome Portal Numismatics Portal v t e Currencies named dinar or similar Circulating Algerian dinar (دينار) Bahraini dinar (دينار) Iraqi dinar (دينار) Jordanian dinar (دينار) Kuwaiti dinar (دينار) Libyan dinar (دينار) Macedonian denar (денар) Serbian dinar (динар) Tunisian dinar (دينار) Obsolete Bosnia and Herzegovina dinar Croatian dinar French denier Iraqi "Swiss" dinar Krajina dinar (динар) Islamic gold dinar (Modern use) Portuguese dinheiro Republika Srpska dinar (динар) South Arabian dinar South Yemeni dinar (دينار) Spanish dinero Sudanese dinar (دينار) Yugoslav dinar (динар) As subunit Iranian qiran (قران) Iranian rial (ریال) See also Andorran diner (commemorative) Kelantanese dinar (unofficial) denarius Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries France (data) United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denarius&oldid=1023904859" Categories: Dinar Coins of ancient Rome Coins in the Bible New Testament Latin words and phrases Numismatics Silver coins Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from July 2015 All articles needing additional references Use American English from June 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2018 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from July 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014 Articles containing Slovene-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 贛語 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2021, at 00:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6349	----	Concordia (mythology) - Wikipedia Concordia (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Concordia, standing with a patera and two cornucopiae, on the reverse of this coin of Aquilia Severa. In ancient Roman religion, Concordia is the goddess who embodies agreement in marriage and society. Her Greek equivalent is usually regarded as Harmonia, with musical harmony a metaphor for an ideal of social concord or entente in the political discourse of the Republican era. She was thus often associated with Pax ("Peace") in representing a stable society.[1] As such, she is more closely related to the Greek concept of homonoia (likemindedness), which was also represented by a goddess.[2] Concordia Augusta was cultivated in the context of Imperial cult. Dedicatory inscriptions to her, on behalf of emperors and members of the imperial family, were common.[3] Contents 1 In art and numismatics 1.1 Curiosities 2 Temples 3 Modern religion 4 Namesakes 5 References 6 External links In art and numismatics[edit] In art, Concordia was depicted sitting, wearing a long cloak and holding onto a patera (sacrificial bowl), a cornucopia (symbol of prosperity), or a caduceus (symbol of peace). She was often shown in between two other figures, such as standing between two members of the Imperial family shaking hands. She was associated with a pair of female deities, such as Pax and Salus, or Securitas and Fortuna. She was also paired with Hercules and Mercury, representing "Security and Luck" respectively.[4] Worth of note was the production of coins depicting the Goddess Concordia in imperial Rome, such as between Marcus Aurelius e Lucius Verus, or among armies. Curiosities[edit] The representation of Goddess Concordia on a Roman coin of Gens Aemilia (denarius of Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus) inspired Laura Cretara for the obverse of Italy's commemorative 1000 lire of 1970, "Roma Capitale". Italy, 1000 lire "Roma capitale", 1970. Obverse (Laura Cretara: image of the Goddess Concordia inside a beaded circle, which was taken from a roman denar of the Gens Aemilia. Reverse (Guerrino Mattia Monassi): reproduction of the pavement of Piazza del Campidoglio, by Michelangelo at the top and the value with mintmark at right below. Composition: silver (.835). Weight: 14.6 g. Diameter:31.4 mm. Thickness: 2.4 mm. Temples[edit] The oldest Temple of Concord, built in 367 BC by Marcus Furius Camillus,[5] stood on the Roman Forum. Other temples and shrines in Rome dedicated to Concordia were largely geographically related to the main temple, and included (in date order): a bronze shrine (aedicula) of Concord erected by the aedile Gnaeus Flavius in 304 BC "in Graecostasis" and "in area Volcani" (placing it on the Graecostasis, close to the main temple of Concord). He vowed it in the hope of reconciling the nobility who had been outraged by his publication of the calendar, but the senate would vote no money for its construction and this thus had to be financed out of the fines of condemned usurers.[6] It must have been destroyed when the main temple was enlarged by Opimius in 121 BC. one built on the arx (probably on the east side, overlooked the main temple of Concord below). It was probably vowed by the praetor Lucius Manlius in 218 BC after quelling a mutiny among his troops in Cisalpine Gaul,[7] with building work commencing in 217 and dedication occurring on 5 February 216.[8] a temple to Concordia Nova, marking the end Julius Caesar had brought to civil war. It was voted by the senate in 44 BC.[9] but was possibly never built. a shrine or temple dedicated by Livia according to Ovid's Fasti VI.637‑638 ("te quoque magnifica, Concordia, dedicat aede Livia quam caro praestitit ipsa viro" - the only literary reference to this temple). Ovid's description of the Porticus Liviae in the same poem suggests that the shrine was close to or within the porticus. It is possibly to be identified with the small rectangular structure marked on the Marble Plan (frg. 10), but scholarly opinion has been divided on this.[10] In Pompeii, the high priestess Eumachia dedicated a building to Concordia Augusta.[11] Modern religion[edit] Harmonians and some Discordians equate Concordia with Aneris.[12] Her opposite is thus Discordia, or the Greek Eris. Namesakes[edit] The asteroid 58 Concordia is named after her. References[edit] ^ Carlos F. Noreña, Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 132. ^ Anna Clark, Divine Qualities: Cult and Community in Republican Rome (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 31. ^ H.L. Wilson (1912). "A New Collegium at Rome". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 16 (1): 94–96. doi:10.2307/497104. JSTOR 497104. ^ Claridge, Amanda. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. (The section about the Temple of Concordia Augusta) ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Concordia (goddess)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 834. ^ Liv. IX.46; Plin. NH XXXIII.19; Jord. I.2.339. ^ Liv. XXII.33.7; cf. XXVI.23.4. ^ Liv. XXIII.21.7; Hemerol. Praen. ad Non. Feb., Concordiae in Arce;1 CIL I2 p233, 309; p138Fast. Ant. ap. NS 1921, 86, Concordiae in Capitolio; Hermes 1875, 288; Jord. I.2.112. ^ Cass. Dio XLIV.4. ^ Flory, Marleen Boudreau (1984). "Sic Exempla Parantur: Livia's Shrine to Concordia and the Porticus Liviae". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 33 (3): 310. JSTOR 4435892. ^ Dunn,Jackie and Bob Dunn. Pompeii In Pictures. Inscription from the Eumachia Building ^ "Mythics of Harmonia". Retrieved 2007-12-20. External links[edit] Media related to Concordia at Wikimedia Commons v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Res divinae Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Etruscan religion Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Concordia_(mythology)&oldid=1001934181" Categories: Roman goddesses Peace goddesses Personifications in Roman mythology Discordianism Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 01:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6355	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == In popular culture == * In the 1965 epic drama ''[[The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire_(film)|The Fall of The Roman Empire]]'', [[Alec Guinness]] portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from 'Meditations'. * In the 2000 British-American drama ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'', [[Richard Harris]] portrays Marcus Aurelius in a fictionalized version. * In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries ''[[Roman Empire (TV series)|Roman Empire]]'', [[John Bach]] portrays Marcus Aurelius. Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6357	----	List of ancient spiral stairs - Wikipedia List of ancient spiral stairs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Section view of the interior stairway and the pedestal of Trajan's Column (click on interactive image) The list of ancient spiral stairs contains a selection of Greco-Roman spiral stairs constructed during classical antiquity. The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC,[1] it was only in the wake of the influential design of the Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in ancient Roman architecture.[2] Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.[2] Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering.[2] By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, like in the Basilica of San Vitale. The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture. Contents 1 Spiral stairs 2 Gallery 3 See also 4 Footnotes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Spiral stairs[edit] Monument Location Country Date of construction Height Number of stairways Comment Temple A[1] Selinunte Italy c. 480 BC 2 Temple of Bel[3] Palmyra Syria 1st century Trajan's Column[4] Rome Italy 113 29.68 m 1 14 steps per turn Column of Marcus Aurelius[5] Rome Italy Late 2nd century 29.62 m 1 14 steps per turn Baths of Caracalla[6] Rome Italy 212–216 2 Baths of Diocletian[6] Rome Italy 298–305 4 Round Temple at Ostia[6] Rome Italy 3rd century 1 Santa Costanza[6] Rome Italy c. 350 1 Tomb of Galerius[6] Thessaloniki Greece Early 4th century 2 Imperial Baths[6] Trier Germany Early 4th century 8 Column of Theodosius[7] Constantinople Turkey 386–393/4 c. 50 m[8] 1 Total former column height St. Gereon's Basilica[9] Cologne Germany Late 4th century 16.50 m[A 1] 1 Column of Arcadius[7] Constantinople Turkey 401–421 c. 46.09 m[10] 1 Total former column height Basilica of San Vitale[11] Ravenna Italy 527–548 2 A pair of stair towers Gate of the Great Palace[12] Constantinople Turkey 532[A 2] ? ? Procopius (Pers. 1.24.43) refers to sortie down a spiral stairway Sangarius Bridge[13] Adapazarı Turkey 559–562 10.37 m[A 3] 1 Located in pier of triumphal arch at entrance of bridge Gallery[edit] Plan of ground floor of the Greek Temple A at Selinunte. The remains of the two spiral stairs between the pronaos and the cella are the oldest known to date (c. 480 BC).[1] Column of Marcus Aurelius. An almost 30 m high spiral staircase winds up inside, with 14 steps per full turn. See also[edit] Greek architecture Greek technology Roman technology Roman engineering Footnotes[edit] ^ Ancient staircase preserved to this height ^ Date of evidence ^ Height of arched doorway References[edit] ^ a b c Beckmann 2002, p. 354; Ruggeri 2006, p. 77 ^ a b c Beckmann 2002, pp. 353–356 ^ Beckmann 2002, p. 355 ^ Jones 1993, pp. 28, 31 ^ Jones 1993, pp. 28, 38 ^ a b c d e f Beckmann 2002, p. 354 ^ a b Beckmann 2002, p. 352 ^ Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2458: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Theodosius I, emperor; later used for statue of Anastasius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Theodosius (Tauros). 386-394 and 506". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 2020-05-08. ^ Schäfke 1984, p. 102 ^ Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2459: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Arcadius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Arcadius. 401-21". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 2020-03-13. ^ Rasch 1985, p. 123, fn. 27 ^ Beckmann 2002, p. 349 ^ Whitby 1985, p. 129 Bibliography[edit] Beckmann, Martin (2002), "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, 56 (3/4): 348–357, doi:10.2307/1192605, JSTOR 1192605 Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2458: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Theodosius I, emperor; later used for statue of Anastasius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Theodosius (Tauros). 386-394 and 506". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 2020-05-08. Gehn, Ulrich (2012). "LSA-2459: Demolished spiral column once crowned by colossal statue of Arcadius, emperor. Constantinople, Forum of Arcadius. 401-21". Last Statues of Antiquity. Oxford University. Retrieved 2020-05-08. Jones, Mark Wilson (1993), "One Hundred Feet and a Spiral Stair: The Problem of Designing Trajan's Column", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6: 23–38, doi:10.1017/S1047759400011454 Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura, 15, pp. 117–139 Ruggeri, Stefania (2006), Selinunt, Messina: Edizioni Affinità Elettive, ISBN 88-8405-079-0 Schäfke, Werner (1984), Kölns romanische Kirchen. Architektur, Ausstattung, Geschichte, Köln, ISBN 3-7701-1360-8 Whitby, Michael (1985), "Justinian's Bridge over the Sangarius and the Date of Procopius' de Aedificiis", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 105: 129–148, doi:10.2307/631526, JSTOR 631526 Further reading[edit] Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology, 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969 External links[edit] Media related to Roman stairs at Wikimedia Commons Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works v t e Roman architecture lists Roman Empire Amphitheatres Aqueducts Basilicas Bridges Canals Circuses Cisterns Dams and reservoirs Domes Monoliths Public baths Roofs Spiral stairs Theatres Triumphal arches Victory columns Watermills City of Rome Aqueducts Ancient monuments Bridges Fountains Roman Forum monuments Obelisks Other countries Villas in Belgium Villas in England Villas in Wales Sites in Spain Architectural records of the Greco-Roman World Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ancient_spiral_stairs&oldid=965584630" Categories: Stairs Stairways Lists of ancient Roman buildings and structures Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek buildings and structures Ancient Roman architectural elements Church architecture History of construction Lists of ancient Greek buildings and structures Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 2 July 2020, at 06:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6367	----	Marcian - Wikipedia Marcian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern Roman emperor from 450 to 457 For other uses, see Marcian (disambiguation). Roman emperor of the East Marcian Solidus of Marcian Roman emperor of the East Reign 25 August 450 – 27 January 457 Predecessor Theodosius II Successor Leo I Western emperors Valentinian III (450–455) Petronius Maximus (455) Avitus (455–456) Born c. 392 Thrace or Illyria Died 27 January 457 (aged 65)[1] Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Pulcheria (450–453) Issue Marcia Euphemia Latin Marcianus Dynasty Theodosian dynasty Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Marcian (/ˈmɑːrʃən/; Latin: Marcianus; Greek: Μαρκιανός, translit. Markianós; c. 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor is known, other than that he was a domesticus (personal assistant) who served under the commanders Ardabur and his son Aspar for fifteen years. After the death of Emperor Theodosius II on 28 July 450, Marcian was made a candidate for the throne by Aspar, who held much influence because of his military power. After a month of negotiations Pulcheria, Theodosius' sister, agreed to marry Marcian. Flavius Zeno, a military leader whose influence was similar to Aspar's, may have been involved in these negotiations, as he was given the high-ranking court title of patrician upon Marcian's accession. Marcian was elected and inaugurated on 25 August 450. Marcian reversed many of the actions of Theodosius II in the Eastern Roman Empire's relationship with the Huns under Attila and in religious matters. Marcian almost immediately revoked all treaties with Attila, ending all subsidy payments to him. In 452, while Attila was raiding Italy, then a part of the Western Roman Empire, Marcian launched expeditions across the Danube into the Great Hungarian Plain, defeating the Huns in their own heartland. This action, accompanied by the famine and plague that broke out in northern Italy, allowed the Western Roman Empire to bribe Attila into retreating from the Italian peninsula. After Attila's death in 453, Marcian took advantage of the resulting fragmentation of the Hunnic confederation by settling Germanic tribes within Roman lands as foederati ("federates" providing military service in exchange for benefits). Marcian also convened the Council of Chalcedon, which declared that Jesus had two "natures": divine and human. This led to the alienation of the population of the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, as many of them were miaphysites, rejecting the new official Christology. Marcian died on 27 January 457, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire with a treasury surplus of seven million solidi coins, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon the Eastern Roman Empire by the Huns and Theodosius' tribute payments. After his death, Aspar passed over Marcian's son-in-law, Anthemius, and had a military commander, Leo I, elected as emperor. Contents 1 Early life 2 Background 2.1 Reign of Theodosius II 2.2 Rise to the throne 3 Reign 3.1 Conflict with the Huns 3.2 Religious policy 3.3 Economic and legal policy 3.4 Politics 3.5 Foreign relations 3.6 Relationship with the Western Roman Empire 4 Death 5 Legacy 6 In popular culture 7 Ancient sources 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 External links Early life[edit] Marcian was born in c. 392,[2][3] in either Thrace[4] or Illyria.[3] The ancient historian John Malalas describes him as being tall and having some sort of foot impediment.[5] Little of Marcian's early life is known. His father had served in the military and at a young age Marcian enlisted at Philippopolis in Thrace. By the time of the Roman–Sassanian War of 421–422, Marcian had likely reached the military rank of tribune—the historian Theophanes the Confessor mentions him commanding a military unit. He did not see action in the war, having become ill in Lycia. There he was cared for by Tatianus, who would be made praefectus urbi (prefect of Constantinople) by Marcian, and Tatianus' brother Iulius.[3][1][6][7] Marcian eventually rose to become the domesticus (personal assistant) of Aspar, the magister militum (commander-in-chief) of the Eastern Roman Empire. Despite being half-Alanic and half-Gothic, Aspar held much influence in the empire.[3][7][8] In the early 430s, Marcian served under Aspar in Roman Africa, where he was captured by Vandals. Evagrius Scholasticus, Procopius and later authors give a likely false account in which Marcian, while in captivity, met the Vandal king Gaiseric, who predicted he would later become emperor. After his capture, Marcian is not mentioned again until the death of the eastern emperor, Theodosius II.[3] Background[edit] Reign of Theodosius II[edit] The Eastern Roman Empire was plagued by external threats during the reign of Theodosius II. In 429 the Vandals, led by Gaiseric, began to conquer Roman Africa. Theodosius immediately organized a response, sending Aspar and three other commanders to attempt to repel them in the summer of 431. To the north, the Huns, who had customarily attacked the empire whenever its armies were preoccupied, withdrawing as those forces returned, sent ambassadors to Theodosius in 431, demanding tribute. He agreed to their demand to pay 350 pounds (160 kg) of gold each year. In 434, the Eastern Roman armies were still campaigning against the Vandals in Africa, having faced initial defeats and the withdrawal of many of the Western Roman soldiers. In the face of Eastern Roman weakness, the Huns doubled their demand, asking for 700 pounds (320 kg) of gold per year, which Theodosius agreed to. The threat the Huns posed to his weakly protected empire was enough that Theodosius recalled many of his forces from Africa. With large numbers of the Eastern Roman armies home, and Attila, who had just taken power in the Hunnic Confederation, busy campaigning to the north, Theodosius refused to pay the tribute and continued to refuse to until 439.[9] On 19 October 439, the Vandals defeated the weakened Eastern Roman armies and captured the major city of Carthage. Both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires began preparing a massive counter-offensive, stripping the Balkan provinces of protection. In the spring of 440, 1,100 ships set sail from Constantinople for Africa;[9] sending away so many of the Eastern Roman forces was a huge gamble on Theodosius' part. He was betting the fortified cities along the Danube could delay the Huns long enough for the invasion force to gain a secure foothold in Africa, allowing troops to be withdrawn back to the northern frontier. This gamble worked until 442 when the bishop of Margus led a raiding party into the Huns' territory and desecrated their royal tombs. In response to this desecration, Attila demanded that the bishop be handed over. To ensure his own safety, the bishop struck a deal with Attila, surrendering the city of Margus to him in exchange for his own life. With control of Margus, Attila had a foothold across the Danube, which he aggressively exploited, capturing and destroying the cities of Viminacium, Singidunum, and Sirmium. Theodosius recalled Aspar to Constantinople and launched a counterattack. After his force was decisively defeated, Theodosius undertook to pay tribute to the Huns every year, which he did until his death in 450.[10] Rise to the throne[edit] After Theodosius II died unexpectedly in a riding accident on 28 July 450, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its first succession crisis in 60 years. Theodosius had no sons, nor had he designated a successor.[3][11] Some later sources state that he willed the throne to Marcian on his deathbed, but this is thought to be propaganda created by Marcian's supporters after his election.[3] Marcian had served Aspar and his father Ardabur loyally for fifteen years. Aspar conspired to have Marcian elected and was able to negotiate with other powerful figures to have him made the emperor, despite his relative obscurity.[7] There was a one-month interregnum where negotiations for the succession took place, one of which was with Pulcheria, Theodosius II's sister, who agreed to marry Marcian;[7] it is thought that Pulcheria agreed to marry Marcian on the condition that he would abandon Theodosius II's religious policies and convoke a Church council.[12] Their marriage helped to legitimize Marcian's rule, as Pulcheria's family, the Theodosian dynasty, had direct ties to the throne.[7] Despite being married to Marcian, Pulcheria kept the vow of virginity she had made in 413, at age 14, during her three years of marriage to him.[7][13][14] Historian Doug Lee proposes that negotiations were also needed between Aspar and Flavius Zeno, who was in a similar position of military power. Zeno was given the prestigious rank of patrician upon Marcian's ascension in 450, suggesting a deal whereby Zeno was rewarded for supporting Marcian instead of claiming the throne for himself;[7] Zeno would ultimately die within a year of Marcian's accession.[15] Aspar's son, Ardabur, was promoted to command the army of the Perfecture of the East as the new magister militum per Orientem, soon after Marcian's accession.[3][15][16] Marcian was elevated on 25 August 450, and Pulcheria's agreement to marry him likely boosted Marcian's legitimacy further.[3][17] Marcian took the regnal name of Imperator Caesar Flavius Marcianus Augustus upon his coronation.[18] The election of Marcian in 450 resulted in large changes to eastern imperial policy. Chrysaphius, the eunuch and spatharios (guard of the imperial chambers), who had exercised much influence over Theodosius, was either murdered or executed. Both Pulcheria and Zeno were opposed to Chrysaphius' influence, which may have motivated Marcian's actions. Marcian took a tougher stance against the Huns and a more direct role in ecclesiastical affairs. Byzantist Constance Head considers Marcian to be "an independent-minded emperor."[19] Lee states that Marcian "can appear as a stronger figure than many other fifth-century incumbents of the imperial office", but notes that "Flavius Zeno and Pulcheria had both been opponents of Chrysaphius, so the changes may be more a reflection of their influence."[3][20] Reign[edit] Conflict with the Huns[edit] A map of Europe in A.D. 451, showing the Hunnic confederation under Attila with a name, and the Roman Empire in purple Almost immediately after becoming emperor, Marcian revoked Theodosius' treaties with Attila and proclaimed the end of subsidies. He stated that he might grant gifts if Attila was friendly, but Attila would be repelled if he attempted to raid the Eastern Roman Empire. At this time Attila was preparing to invade the Western Roman Empire, under the guise of helping Emperor Valentinian III against the Visigoths. Attila reacted angrily to Marcian's proposal, demanding tribute, but did not alter his invasion plans. He led his horde from Pannonia in spring 451 into the Western Roman Empire.[6] Flavius Aetius, who was the supreme commander of the Western Roman army as Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae, organized a defense and called upon the Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, Alans, Saxons, Celtic Armoricans, and other tribal groups numbering about 60,000 to aid him. Attila's forces were made up of Gepids, Alans, Scirii, Heruli, Rugians, along with some Franks, Burgundians, and Ostrogoths.[21] Attila sacked Metz and attempted a siege of Orléans, before meeting Aetius' forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, in northeast Gaul. This battle involved around 100,000 men and resulted in very large losses on both sides. After the battle, Attila retreated to the Great Hungarian Plain, and Aetius dismissed his coalition of tribes, sending them back to their own territories. In spring 452, Attila again launched a raid, into Italy, which was almost entirely undefended. He was likely motivated by a desire for revenge, along with a need to raid to stabilize his tribal state, which was dependent upon raiding for loot and resources. Attila captured the city of Aquileia after a long and difficult siege,[22] and sacked it. He then raided across northern Italy, taking Mediolanum (Milan) and other important cities. There was much fear that Attila would attack Rome itself, the walls of which were weaker than those of some cities he had already captured. During this period, other than cutting his lines of communication and harassing his rear forces, Aetius did not launch a direct attack on Attila.[23] Despite the plunder he now had from capturing Aquileia, Milan, and other cities, Attila was quickly placed in a precarious situation, because of the actions of both Eastern and Western Rome. In Italy, he was seriously lacking in funds, having not received subsidies from either Eastern or Western Rome for two years. Constant warfare had depleted his forces. As well, Attila's homeland was threatened by the Eastern Empire which, despite the punitive raids he ordered, took the offensive against the Great Hungarian Plain in mid-452, attacking across the Danube and inflicting a defeat upon the Huns.[23] The area attacked by the Eastern Romans was home to Ostrogoths and Gepids, two groups bitterly opposed to Hunnic rule, and was the breadbasket of the Hunnic Empire. The loss of food supply from Attila's own land coupled with a famine that Italy was suffering at the time, along with a plague that followed it, placed yet more strain upon Attila, allowing the Western Roman Empire to bribe him into retreating to his homeland. After returning to the Great Hungarian Plain, he threatened to invade the Eastern Empire the following spring and conquer it entirely.[23][24] Marcian and Aspar ignored his threats. They reasoned, based upon the previous treaties that Attila had broken, that he could not be permanently deterred even by tons of gold. The pair believed the gold would be better spent building up armies, not appeasing threats. Also, the rich Asian and African provinces, which were protected behind Constantinople, were secure enough to allow the Eastern Empire to retake any European provinces it might lose. This campaign never came to fruition, as Attila died unexpectedly in 453, either from hemorrhaging or alcoholic suffocation, after celebrating a marriage to one of his many wives. After his death, his tribal confederation rapidly fell apart, starting first with rebellions of the Ostrogoths.[25] This fragmentation allowed the Eastern Empire to resume its policy of playing off barbarians against each other, to stop any one tribe from becoming too powerful. It is almost certain that the Gepid king Ardaric came to an agreement with Marcian. Ardaric had formed a coalition of the Rugians, Sciri, Heruli, and his own Gepids, which he led against the remaining Hunnic confederation. Ardaric, alongside the Ostrogoth leaders Theodemir, Valamir and Videmir, decisively defeated Attila's oldest son, Ellac, at the Battle of Nedao in 455, where he was slain. After this battle, the Hunnic confederation could no longer sustain the cohesion of its previous days, although they still remained prominent.[26] In the wake of the reduced power of the Hunnic Empire, Marcian accepted the Ostrogoths, who had established themselves in Pannonia Prima and Valeria—nominally two Western Roman provinces—as foederati.[3][27][28] This marked the continuation of the tacit abandonment of a rigid Danube barrier, which had previously been manned by Roman laeti, barbarians settled directly in Roman land in exchange for military service. For some time before Marcian, the laeti had been replaced by foederati, although the distinction between the two was increasingly breaking down. Marcian's successors would grant the status of foederati to multiple peoples and ceding them lands in the recovered European provinces: the Rugians in eastern Thrace, Sciri in Lower Moesia and Scythia, Gepids in Dacia. This network of subject peoples, who were generally reliable and manageable, was beneficial to the Eastern Empire. The tribal peoples generally kept each other's power in check without Roman intervention. They could also be induced to serve the empire against its enemies by way of gifts, subsidies, and treaties.[3][27] With the Hunnic empire's diminished might after the death of Attila, Marcian enjoyed a relatively peaceful reign, although he won some small campaigns against the Saracens in Syria and against the Blemmyes in Egypt.[3][29] Religious policy[edit] Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, 1876 painting by Vasily Surikov During the time period of the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of Jesus Christ were associated, following the Arian controversy. The School of Alexandria, including theologians such as Athanasius, asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The School of Antioch, including theologians such as Theodore of Mopsuestia, determined not to lose the human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity.[30] Shortly before Marcian became emperor, the Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, called miaphysis; this was rejected by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople because of disputes on the matter of Christology, as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw the belief in miaphysis as heretical.[31][32][33] To repudiate the Second Council of Ephesus, Marcian convened a new council of the imperial church, deemed to pass universally respected canons, in 451. Pulcheria may have influenced this decision or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar to marry Marcian. The council was to take place near Constantinople so that the government could watch the proceedings closely. Initially, it was to be held at the city of Nicaea, which held enormous religious importance to the early church, as it was the site of its first council, the First Council of Nicaea in 325. However, Marcian successfully requested the transfer of the location to Chalcedon. This was closer to Constantinople and would allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube frontier. The Council of Chalcedon met in October 451. About 500 bishops attended it, most of them Eastern Roman, although two African bishops and two Papal legates sent by Pope Leo I attended.[31][34][35] This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature (physis) and a human nature, united in one person (hypostasis), "without confusion, change, division, or separation."[36] The council also agreed to condemn the Coptic Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria, who had overseen the Second Council of Ephesus, and revoke the condemnations of Ibas of Edessa and Theodoret, which had taken place during this Council. The council also repeated the importance of the See of Constantinople, placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, over the objection of Pope Leo I;[3][37][38] the Patriarchs of Alexandria also objected to the elevation of the See of Constantinople.[39] The council ended in November 451, after which Marcian issued numerous edicts confirming the outcomes of the council;[3][37][38] showing that the outcome of the council was not universally accepted.[40] One such edict ordered the repression of Eutychianists, who did not believe in the hypostatic union of the two natures of Jesus, barring them from holding state offices, forbidding them from criticizing the Council of Chalcedon, and ordering their literature, along with that of the Nestorians, to be burned.[41] The anti-Miaphysite resolutions of the council led to a large increase in civil disruption in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, where the majority of the population was Miaphysitic. Several violent revolts were put down with military force after significant bloodshed, in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch;[42] as well as sending the military to suppress monks in Palestine and placing troops in Alexandria to ensure the installation of Proterius of Alexandria, who was to replace the deposed Pope Dioscorus I.[3] According to the Byzantist Alexander Vasiliev, even after these revolts were put down, the popular dissatisfaction with the state church among the Miaphysite and Nestorian population remained, as the eastern provinces became increasingly convinced of their need for independence from the Eastern Roman Empire. Vasiliev states that this would lead to long-lasting disloyalty toward the Eastern Roman government among the eastern provinces, ultimately facilitating the loss of these provinces to the Sassanians and later to the Arabs.[43] Another result of the council and the subsequent edicts was that many Christians who disagreed with the council, including many Nestorians, migrated to the Sassanian Empire.[44] The separation of the Miaphysites from the churches accepting Chalcedonian doctrine would be made final after the failed attempts of reconciliation under Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565), the Miaphysites splitting the Oriental Orthodox Churches from the main body of Christians.[45] Marcian also funded Pulcheria's extensive building projects until her death in July 453. All of them focused on the construction of religious buildings,[3] including the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae and the Hodegon Monastery.[46] Marcian was compared to both Paul the Apostle and the Biblical king David,[47] by the legates at the Council of Chalcedon.[48] Economic and legal policy[edit] At the beginning of Marcian's reign, the Eastern Roman treasury was almost bankrupt, the result of the huge tributes paid to Attila by Theodosius. Marcian reversed this near bankruptcy, not by levying new taxes, but by cutting expenditure.[49] Upon his accession, he declared a remission of all debts owed to the state.[3] Marcian attempted to improve the efficiency of the state in multiple ways.[49] Marcian laid out legal reforms in his novels, or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full.[50][51] Marcian mandated that the office of praetorship (officer in charge of public games and works) could only be given to senators who resided in Constantinople, attempted to curb the practice of selling administrative offices, and decreed that consuls should be responsible for the maintenance of Constantinople's aqueducts. He repealed the follis, a tax on senators' property that amounted to seven pounds of gold per annum.[49] Marcian removed the financial responsibilities of the consuls and praetors, held since the time of the Roman Republic, to fund public sports and games or give wealth to the citizens of Constantinople, respectively. He further decreed that only a vir illustris (a high-ranking man) could hold either office.[3] He also partially repealed a marriage law enacted by Constantine I, which decreed that a man of senatorial status could not marry a slave, freedwoman, actress, or woman of no social status (humilis), which had been created in an attempt to preserve the purity of the senatorial class. Marcian adjusted this law by declaring that the law should not exclude a woman of good character, regardless of her social status or wealth.[49] By the time of his death, Marcian's shrewd cutting of expenditures and his avoidance of large-scale wars left the Eastern Roman treasury with a surplus of 100,000 pounds (45,000 kg) of gold.[3] In 451, Marcian decreed that anyone who performed pagan rites would lose their property and be condemned to death and that no pagan temples, which had previously been closed, could be reopened. To ensure this law was implemented, he set a penalty of 50 pounds (23 kg) of gold for any judge, governor or official who did not enforce the law.[52] Politics[edit] When Marcian became emperor, he was influenced by Flavius Zeno, Pulcheria, and Aspar. Flavius Zeno died soon after Marcian ascended the throne, possibly as early as the end of 451,[3][53] and Pulcheria died in July 453, leaving Aspar as the only major influence in the court of the Eastern Roman Empire. This influence was enhanced by the promotion of his son Ardabur to magister militum per Orientem.[3][15] It is unknown if Aspar and Ardabur influenced Marcian's policies directly, but if so, they were extremely careful to avoid upsetting the ruling elites of Constantinople. Despite Aspar's great influence, the Eastern Roman elites retained much of their anti-German sentiment.[3] Marcian's principal advisors were Pulcheria, Euphemius the magister officiorum (master of offices), Palladius the praetor, and Anatolius of Constantinople.[54] In 453, Marcian had his daughter from a previous marriage, Marcia Euphemia, marry Anthemius, an aristocrat and talented general.[3][55] Marcian patronized the Blues, who were one of the two circus teams, the other being the Greens. The two teams had become more like political parties than sports teams by his time, wielding large influence in the empire; both vied for power. After the Greens responded angrily to his patronage, Marcus censured them, forbidding any of them to hold any public office for three years. Marcian's patronage of the Blues may have had personal motivations, as the once powerful Chrysaphius had been favorable to the Greens.[3][56][57] Foreign relations[edit] The Armenian king Vardan II Mamikonian, who was leading a revolt against the Sassanian Empire, sent an embassy to Theodosius in 450, composed of his brother Hmayeak Mamikonian, along with Atom Gnuni, Vardan Amatuni, and Meruzhan Artsruni, to ask for assistance. Theodosius received it favorably. Any plans were cut short by his death and the accession of Marcian.[58][59] Marcian was counseled by the diplomat Anatolius and patricius Florentius not to make war with the Sassanians, as it would engulf a large amount of the Eastern Roman military resources, and thus Marcian did not agree to help them.[60][61] King Gubazes I of Lazica—a Caucasian state in theory under Eastern Roman suzerainty—was attempting to form an alliance with the Sassanians to break free of Roman control in 456.[62] Marcian's troops invaded Lazica and restored Roman rule.[63] In 455 Marcian banned the export to barbarian tribes of weapons and the tools used to manufacture them.[64] Relationship with the Western Roman Empire[edit] Marcian was elected without any consultation with the Western Roman Emperor, Valentinian III—a clear indication of further separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires than before his reign.[65][66] Valentinian would later recognize Marcian as the Eastern Roman Emperor, although the date of his recognition is disputed; Lee states that Valentinian recognized Marcian in March 452,[16] whereas historian Timothy E. Gregory states that Marcian was recognized by Valentinian on 30 March 451.[67] Marcian's appointment marked a further stage of separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires.[65] One source, John of Antioch's Excerpta de insidiis, even suggest that Valentinian would have attempted to depose Marcian, but for Aetius' opposition.[68] Valentinian also did not recognize the Eastern Roman consuls for 451 or 452.[69] The Western Roman chronicler Hydatius suggests that Marcian made Eastern Roman troops available to Valentinian to repel the Huns, confusingly led by a man named Aetius, which may simply be a muddling of Aetius' campaign against Attila and Marcian's campaign against the Huns on the Danube.[70] When Marcian granted part of Pannonia to the Ostrogoths, and the Tisza region to the Gepids, he was accused of encroaching upon the border of Western Roman land.[71] Marcian avoided involving himself with the affairs of the Western Roman Empire when possible. When the Vandals sacked Rome in 455, after Petronius Maximus assassinated Valentinian III and broke an engagement treaty with the Vandals, Marcian did not respond violently, possibly because of the influence of Aspar. He merely sent an envoy demanding that the Vandals return the Dowager Empress, Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters by Valentinian III, Placidia and Eudocia.[3] A likely false account is given that Marcian, while captured by the Vandals in his youth, was shaded by an eagle while the other prisoners suffered the hot sun. According to this account, the Vandal King Gaiseric recognized that Marcian would later be emperor. In exchange for being released, he made Marcian pledge not to attack the Vandals should he become emperor.[a] This account originates from Priscus, who served as an advisor to Marcian's confidant, Euphemius. Because of Euphemius' influence over foreign policy, some historians, such as Edward Arthur Thompson, have suggested that this account was a part of official imperial propaganda, which was generated to excuse Marcian's lack of retribution towards the Vandals, and quell any discontent.[73] Marcian made several diplomatic attempts to have the prisoners returned, before finally beginning to plan an invasion of the Vandal's territory shortly before his death.[74] The historian Frank Clover has suggested that this sudden reversal of policy was caused by the marriage of Eudocia to Huneric, the son of Gaiseric, which led to such pressure from Eastern Roman elites that Marcian was forced to begin preparations for war to ensure the return of the hostages. Around this time, Marcian made peace with Lazica, which would allow him to direct his attention elsewhere. The East Roman historian Theodorus Lector speaks of Marcian's sudden reversal of policy, and Evagrius Scholasticus, a Roman historian writing a century after the event, states that the Vandals released Licinia Eudoxia, Placidia, and Eudocia to Marcian after he threatened them with war, in either late 456 or early 457.[75][76] Marcian did not recognize any Western Emperor after Valentinian, denying Petronius Maximus, now Western Emperor, when he sent an embassy requesting it, and similarly refusing to recognize Avitus, who succeeded Maximus.[29][77] Marcian's exact treatment of Avitus is debated. The Roman historian Hydatius states that in 455 Avitus sent ambassadors to Marcian "for the sake of unanimity of power," and that, "Marcian and Avitus make use of Roman power in concord". The exact usage of concord (concordia in the original Latin) has led to debate among scholars. Some such as Thomas Hodgkin, J. B. Bury, and William Bayless consider it grounds for the belief that Marcian may have recognized Avitus. Most scholars take a more conservative stance on it; Ernst Stein suggests that it is merely a reflection of West Roman propaganda, whereas Norman Baynes believes it indicates that Marcian was cordial to Avitus, neither hostile nor friendly.[78][79] Classicist Courtenay Edward Stevens interprets the phrase as meaning only that the meeting of the diplomats was amicable, rather than reflecting a relationship between the two states.[78] The historian Geoffrey Nathan suggests the fact that only two Western delegates attended the Council of Chalcedon points to a new level of Western Roman self-absorption in their own political and religious affairs. He mentions that the canon from this council delegating authority over the whole east to the See of Constantinople marks a religious separation. Authority over the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire would prove a point of contention between Rome and Constantinople, leading up to the East–West Schism.[3] Death[edit] Marcian's reign ended on 27 January 457, when he died, possibly of gangrene.[80][67][81] Theodorus Lector and Theophanes the Confessor say that Marcian died after a long religious procession from the Grand Palace to the Hebdomon, where he made the journey on foot, despite the fact that he could barely walk because of severe foot inflammation, possibly gout.[3][82][83] He was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in Constantinople, next to his wife Pulcheria,[3][82] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.[84] He left the Eastern Empire with seven million solidi in its treasury, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon Eastern Rome by the Huns, both through warfare and the massive subsidies they received under Theodosius.[85] Although Marcian had a son-in-law, Anthemius, he did not have any connection to the Theodosians, which Marcian himself had gained through his marriage to Pulcheria, and thus would not be considered a legitimate dynastic heir, so Aspar was once again left to play the role of emperor-maker. He selected Leo I, a fifty-year-old officer commanding a unit in one of the praesental armies—two field armies based near Constantinople. A later source claims that the Eastern Roman Senate offered to elect Aspar himself, but he declined, with the cryptic comment: "I fear that a tradition in ruling might be initiated through me". This comment has often been interpreted to be a reference to the fact that he was an Arian,[3][82][86] or else to his Alanic heritage.[87] Anthemius would later be sent by Leo to become the Western Roman emperor;[3][55][88] Leo nominated him to be Western Emperor in the spring of 467, to fill the vacancy left by the death of Emperor Libius Severus since 465. Leo sent Anthemius to Rome with an army, headed by Marcellinus, the magister militum of Dalmatia; upon nearing Rome, Anthemius was installed as emperor on 12 April 467.[88] Legacy[edit] The Column of Marcian in 2011 Marcian was regarded favorably by Eastern Roman and Byzantine sources, often compared to Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I.[67] Marcian's reign was seen by many later Byzantine writers, such as Theophanes the Confessor, as a golden age: Marcian secured the Eastern Empire both politically and financially, set an orthodox religious line that future emperors would follow, and stabilized the capital city politically. Some later scholars attribute his success not just to his skill, but also to a large degree of luck. Not only had he been fortunate enough to have Pulcheria to legitimize his rule, but for much of it the two greatest external threats to Rome, the Sassanian Empire and the Huns, were absorbed with their own internal problems. Further, no natural disasters or plagues occurred during his reign.[3][46][67] He was remembered fondly by the people of Constantinople, who would shout "Reign like Marcian!" at the installation of future emperors.[71] The Prefect of Constantinople Tatianus built a column dedicated to Marcian, sometime between 450 and 452.[89][90] It still stands in Istanbul, near the north branch of the Mese,[91] though the statue of Marcian that originally topped it has been lost.[92] Marcian also had a statue in the Forum of Arcadius, which contained the statues of several of the successors of Emperor Arcadius.[93] Marcian may have been the sponsor of the Chrysotriklinos of the Great Palace of Constantinople. The Patria of Constantinople states that Marcian constructed it, whereas the 10th century encyclopedia Suda states that Emperor Justin II built it, a view with which most historians agree. The Byzantine historian Joannes Zonaras states that Justin II actually rebuilt an older construction, which some historians identify as the Heptaconch Hall of Emperor Justinian.[94] In popular culture[edit] Marcian is played by the Hollywood star Jeff Chandler in the 1954 period adventure Sign of the Pagan. Jack Palance co-stars as Attila and Ludmilla Tchérina plays Pulcheria.[95] Ancient sources[edit] Chronicon Paschale Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History Hydatius, Chronicle John Malalas, Chronographia John of Nikiû, Chronicle Jordanes, Romana George Kedrenos, Synopsis historion Marcellinus Comes, Annales Michael the Syrian, Chronicle Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos, Historia Ecclesiastica Priscus, History of Byzantium Pseudo-Dionysius, Corpus Areopagiticum John Rufus, Plerophoriae Theophanes the Confessor, Chronographia Theodorus Lector, Historia Ecclesiastica Zacharias Rhetor, Church History Joannes Zonaras, Extracts of History Zosimus, Historia Nova Notes[edit] ^ Propaganda involving the story of an eagle blocking the sun, and another figure recognizing they would be emperor, was used by both Byzantine emperors Philippikos Bardanes and Basil I.[72] References[edit] ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 714–715. ^ Meijer 2004, p. 153. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Nathan 1998. ^ Vasiliev 1980, p. 104. ^ Baldwin 1982, p. 98. ^ a b Friell & Williams 2005, p. 84. ^ a b c d e f g Lee 2013, p. 96. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 45, 75, 84. ^ a b Thompson 1950, pp. 60–65. ^ Thompson 1950, pp. 60–78. ^ Lee 2013, p. 94. ^ Lee 2013, p. 104. ^ Smith 2008, p. 537. ^ Holum 1989, p. 209. ^ a b c Lee 2013, p. 98. ^ a b Lee 2001, p. 43. ^ Burgess 1993–1994. ^ Babcock 2005, p. 157. ^ Head 1982, p. 20. ^ Lee 2013, pp. 97–98. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 85. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 86. ^ a b c Friell & Williams 2005, p. 87. ^ Thompson 1950, p. 70. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 88. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 89. ^ a b Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 89–91. ^ Elton 2018, p. 172. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 1296. ^ Lee 2013, p. 137. ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 145. ^ Vasiliev 1980, pp. 99 & 105. ^ Davis 2004, p. 81. ^ Gallagher 2008, p. 585. ^ Whitworth 2017, p. 360. ^ Lee 2013, p. 146. ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 147. ^ a b Lee 2001, p. 814. ^ Bauer 2010, p. 122. ^ Lee 2013, p. 148. ^ Bury 2012, p. 380. ^ Vasiliev 1980, p. 105. ^ Vasiliev 1980, pp. 105–106. ^ Bauer 2010, pp. 122–123. ^ Meyendorff 1989, pp. 194–202. ^ a b Grant 1985, p. 306. ^ Herrin 2009, p. 11. ^ Bjornlie 2016, p. 60. ^ a b c d Bury 2012, pp. 236–237. ^ Jones 1986, p. 217. ^ Pharr, Davidson & Pharr 2001, p. 562. ^ Evans 2002, p. 66. ^ Lee 2013, p. 97. ^ Grant 1985, p. 305. ^ a b Dzino & Parry 2017, p. 258. ^ Christophilopoulou 1986, p. 286. ^ Bury 1923, p. 85. ^ Manoogian 1984, p. 23. ^ Lacey 2016, p. 142. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 85–86. ^ Amirav 2015, p. 55 & 93. ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 346. ^ Elton 2018, p. 174. ^ Holmes, Singleton & Jones 2001. ^ a b Gallagher 2008, p. 243. ^ Lee 2001, p. 42. ^ a b c d Kazhdan 1991. ^ Lee 2001, p. 43f. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 290, note 84. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 294. ^ a b Grant 1985, p. 307. ^ Lilie 2014, p. 193. ^ Thompson 1950, p. 68. ^ Clover 1978, pp. 193–194. ^ Clover 1978, p. 194. ^ Mathisen 1981, p. 243. ^ Kazhdan 1991a, p. 704. ^ a b Mathisen 1981, p. 237. ^ Baynes 1922, p. 223. ^ Croke, Brian (1978). "The date and circumstances of Marcian's decease". Byzantion. 48: 5–9. ^ Lee 2001, p. 45. ^ a b c Meijer 2004, p. 154. ^ Kelly 2013, p. 240. ^ Vasiliev 1948, pp. 1, 3–26. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, p. 127. ^ Lee 2013, pp. 92, 98. ^ Norwich 1998, p. 51. ^ a b Mathisen 1998. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 1053–1054. ^ D'Ayala & Fodde 2008, p. 1167. ^ Gallagher 2008, p. 204. ^ Freely & Çakmak 2004, p. 63. ^ Kazhdan 1991b. ^ Kostenec 2008. ^ Kelly 2010, p. 326. Sources[edit] Amirav, Hagit (2015). Authority and Performance: Sociological Perspectives on the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451). Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3647208688. Babcock, Michael A. (2005). The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun (1st ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. ISBN 9780425202722. Baldwin, Barry (1982). "Some Addenda to the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 31 (1): 97–111. JSTOR 4435791. 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Emperors Don't Die in Bed. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1343-8406-8. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial Unity and Christian Divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442241466. Manoogian, Torkom (1984). Vardanankʻ ew Vahaneankʻ. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. OCLC 31636926. Nathan, Geoffrey S. (1998). "Roman Emperors – DIR Marcian". www.roman-emperors.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018. Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-6797-7269-9. Pharr, Clyde; Davidson, Theresa Sherrer; Pharr, Mary Brown (2001) [1952]. The Theodosian Code and Novels, and the Sirmondian Constitutions. Union: Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 978-1-5847-7146-3. Smith, Bonnie G. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. 1st. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195148909. Thompson, E. A. (1950). "The Foreign Policies of Theodosius II and Marcian". Hermathena. 76 (76): 58–75. JSTOR 23037876. Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. Vasiliev, A. A. (1980) [1958]. History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453. Volume I. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-2998-0925-6. Whitworth, Patrick (2017). Constantinople to Chalcedon: Shaping the World to Come. Sacristy Press. ISBN 978-1910519479. External links[edit] Media related to Flavius Marcianus at Wikimedia Commons Preceded by Theodosius II Eastern Roman emperor 450–457 Succeeded by Leo I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-6380	----	Majorian - Wikipedia Majorian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 457 to 461 Roman emperor of the West Majorian Solidus depicting Majorian Roman emperor of the West Reign 28 December 457 – 2 August 461 Predecessor Avitus Successor Libius Severus Co-emperor Leo I (in the East) Born c. 420 Died 7 August 461 Dertona Burial Near Dertona Names Julius Valerius Maiorianus Father Domninus (possibly) Mother Daughter of Maiorianus Religion Christianity Majorian (Latin: Julius Valerius Maiorianus; c. 420 – 7 August 461) was the western Roman emperor from 457 to 461. A prominent general of the Roman army, Majorian deposed Emperor Avitus in 457 and succeeded him. Majorian was the last emperor to make a concerted effort to restore the Western Roman Empire with its own forces. Possessing little more than Italy, Dalmatia, and some territory in northern Gaul, Majorian campaigned rigorously for three years against the Empire's enemies. His successors until the fall of the Empire, in 476/480, were actually instruments of their barbarian generals, or emperors chosen and controlled by the Eastern Roman court. After defeating a Vandal attack on Italy, Majorian launched a campaign against the Visigothic Kingdom in southern Gaul. Defeating king Theodoric II at the Battle of Arelate, Majorian forced the Goths to abandon their possessions in Septimania and Hispania and return to federate status immediately. Majorian then attacked the Burgundian Kingdom, defeating them at the Siege of Lugdunum, expelling them from the Rhone valley and reducing them to federate status. In 460, Majorian left Gaul to consolidate his hold on Hispania. His generals launched a campaign against the Suebic Kingdom in northwest Hispania, defeating them at the battles of Lucus Augusti and Scallabis and reducing them to federate status as well. His fleet for his planned campaign to recover Africa from the Vandals was destroyed due to treachery. Majorian sought to reform the imperial administration in order to make it more efficient and just. The powerful general Ricimer deposed and killed Majorian, who had become unpopular with the senatorial aristocracy because of his reforms. To historian Edward Gibbon, Majorian "presents the welcome discovery of a great and heroic character, such as sometimes arise, in a degenerate age, to vindicate the honour of the human species".[1] Contents 1 Early life 2 Rise to the throne 3 Foreign affairs 3.1 Defence of Italy 3.2 Re-conquest of Gaul 3.3 Campaign in Hispania 4 Domestic policy 4.1 Fiscal policy and coinage 4.2 Natalist policies 4.3 Relationship with the senatorial aristocracy 4.4 Conservation of the monuments of Rome 5 Fall and death 6 Legacy 7 Notes 8 Sources 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 8.3 Further reading 9 External links Early life[edit] Coin of Majorian The life of Majorian and his reign are better known than those of the other Western Emperors of the same period. The most important sources are the chronicles that cover the second half of the 5th century — those of Hydatius and Marcellinus Comes, as well as the fragments of Priscus and John of Antioch.[citation needed] Besides these sources, which are useful also for the biographies of the other emperors, some peculiar sources are available that make Majorian's life known in some detail, both before and after his rise to the throne. The Gallo-Roman aristocrat and poet Sidonius Apollinaris was an acquaintance of the Emperor and composed a panegyric that is the major source for Majorian's life up to 459. As regards his policy, twelve of his laws have been preserved: the so-called Novellae Maioriani were included in the Breviarium that was compiled for the Visigothic king Alaric II in 506, and help to understand the problems that pressed Majorian's government.[2] Majorian was probably born after 420, as in 458 he is defined as a iuvenis, a "young man". He belonged to the military aristocracy of the Roman Empire. His grandfather of the same name reached the rank of magister militum under Emperor Theodosius I and, as commander-in-chief of the Illyrian army, was present at his coronation at Sirmium in 379. The daughter of the magister militum then married an officer, probably called Domninus,[3] who administered the finances of Aetius, the powerful magister militum of the West. The couple gave the name Maiorianus to their child in honour of his influential grandfather.[2] Placidia was the younger daughter of Emperor Valentinian III, who planned to marry her to Majorian (450 ca.). As the powerful magister militum Aetius realised that this marriage would weaken his position, he sent Majorian away from his staff to private life, thus hindering the marriage. It was under the same Aetius that Majorian started his military career.[4] He followed Aetius to Gallia, where he met two officers also under Aetius' command who were to play an important role in Majorian's life: the Suevic-Visigoth Ricimer[5] and the Gallo-Roman Aegidius.[6] Majorian distinguished himself in the defence of the city of Turonensis (modern Tours) and in a battle against the Franks of king Clodio, near Vicus Helena[7] (447 or 448). In the latter, Majorian fought at the head of his cavalry on a bridge, while Aetius controlled the roads leading to the battlefield:[8] There was a narrow passage at the junction of two ways, and a road crossed both the village of Helena... and the river. [Aëtius] was posted at the cross-roads while Majorian warred as a mounted man close to the bridge itself... — Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.207–227. Anderson tr. Around 450, the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III considered the possibility of marrying his daughter Placidia to Majorian. Valentinian had two daughters and no sons, and therefore no heir to the throne. Having Majorian as son-in-law would have strengthened Valentinian in the face of other powerful generals and would have solved the problem of the succession. Furthermore, as Emperor, Majorian could have led the army himself, freed from the dangerous bond with a powerful general, such as Valentinian had been obliged to contract with Aetius.[9] The intention of this plan was to avoid the possibility that barbarian generals like Huneric or Attila should succeed to Aetius, but clashed with the plans of Aetius himself. The Roman general, in fact, planned to marry his own son Gaudentius to Placidia. He therefore opposed Valentinian's plan, and put an end to Majorian's military career, expelling him from his staff and sending him to his country estate.[9] According to the poet Sidonius Apollinaris, the cause of the fall of Majorian was the jealousy of Aetius' wife, who feared that Majorian could overshadow Aetius' prestige.[10] It was only in 454 that Majorian was able to return to public life. In that year, Valentinian III killed Aetius with his own hands but, fearing that Aetius' troops might revolt, called Majorian back to office to quell any dissent.[11] In the following year, Valentinian III was killed by two former officers of Aetius' staff. There was then a fight for the succession, as no heir existed. Majorian played the role of the candidate for the throne of Licinia Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, and of Ricimer, who reserved for himself a role similar to Aetius'.[12] In the end, the new Emperor was Petronius Maximus, a senator involved in Valentinian's murder, who outmanoeuvred the other candidates. To strengthen his position, he obliged Licinia to marry him and promoted Majorian to the rank of comes domesticorum (commander-in-chief of the imperial guard).[13] Petronius ruled only for a few weeks, as he was killed during the Vandal sack of Rome (May 455). He was succeeded, not by Majorian, but by the Gallic-Roman noble Avitus, who had the support of the Visigoths. Both Majorian, comes domesticorum, and Ricimer, comes rei militaris of Italy, initially supported Avitus, but when the Emperor lost the loyalty of the Italian aristocracy, the two generals revolted against him. First Majorian and Ricimer killed Remistus, the magister militum entrusted by Avitus with the defence of the capital, Ravenna. Then Ricimer defeated Avitus' troops near Placentia, taking the Emperor himself prisoner, and obliging him to abdicate. Finally, Majorian caused Avitus' death, possibly starving him, in early 457.[14] Rise to the throne[edit] Avitus was dead and the Western throne without a pretender. It was thus for the Eastern Roman Emperor to choose the successor, but Marcian could do nothing, as he died on January 27, 457. His successor on the Eastern throne was the general Leo I, who did not, however, select a colleague for the West, possibly because he intended to reign alone.[citation needed][15] On the other hand, Leo rewarded both Majorian and Ricimer: the former was appointed magister militum, the latter patricius and magister militum (February 28, 457).[16] While the situation was in a precarious equilibrium, a troop of 900 Alemanni invaded Italy. They entered from Raetia and penetrated Italian territory down to Lake Maggiore. There they were intercepted and defeated by the troops of comes Burco, sent by Majorian to stop them:[17] The savage Alaman had scaled the Alps and had emerged, plundering the Roman land; he had sent 900 foemen to scour for booty... By this time you were Master [of Soldiers], and you sent forth Burco with a band of followers... Fortune brought about a triumph not through numbers but through their love of you... You fought with the authority of a Master but the destiny of an Emperor — Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.373–385. Anderson tr. This victory was celebrated as Majorian's own, and the magister militum was acclaimed Emperor by the army on April 1, six miles outside Ravenna, at a place called ad Columellas, "at the Little Columns".[16] There were actually two magistri militum to choose between, Majorian and Ricimer, but the barbarian origin of the latter barred him from the throne. Ricimer could, however, expect to exert a great influence on the new Western Emperor, because of their relationship dating back to the time of their service under Aetius and because of his control of the army as magister militum.[citation needed] In his panegyric to Majorian, the poet Sidonius Apollinaris tells that Majorian initially refused the election:[18] The world trembled with alarm while you were loath to permit your victories to benefit you, and because, overly modest, you grieved because you deserved the throne and because you would not undertake to rule what you had deemed worth defending — Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.9–12. Anderson tr. Modern historians think that it was Leo I who initially refused to recognize Majorian as his colleague, although the general chosen by the army must have seemed the only viable candidate to the throne. The Eastern court was not displeased with the deposition of Avitus, an Emperor chosen by the Visigoths, whereas the only other candidate, Olybrius, had a politically difficult relationship with the Vandal king Genseric and no influence on the army.[citation needed] Majorian was formally declared emperor on 28 December, but apparently never obtained recognition from the eastern court.[19] Leo I and Majorian jointly assumed the consulate for the year 458; it was customary that a new Emperor took this magistracy on the first year started as Emperor.[2] Foreign affairs[edit] Defence of Italy[edit] The first problems Majorian had to handle were the consolidation of his rule over Italy and the recovery of Gaul, since this province had rebelled after the deposition of the Gallo-Roman emperor Avitus. The recovery of the lost provinces of Hispania and Africa was a project that Majorian had to leave for later.[citation needed] In summer 457, a group of Vandals, led by the brother-in-law of Genseric, landed in Campania, at the mouth of the Liri or the Garigliano river, and started devastating and sacking the region. Majorian personally led the Roman army to a victory over the invaders near Sinuessa and followed the defeated Vandals, loaded with their booty, as far as their own ships, killing many of them including their commander.[20] After this event, Majorian understood that he had to take the initiative, if he wanted to defend the heart of his Empire, the only territory he actually controlled. So he decided to strengthen its defences. First, he issued a law, the Novella Maioriani 8 known as De reddito iure armorum ("On the Return of the Right to Bear Arms"), concerning the personal right to bear arms; in 440 Valentinian III had already promulgated a law with the same name, Novella Valentiniani 9, after another attack of the Vandals. It is probably to this time that another law is to be dated, the Novella Maioriani 12 known as De aurigis et seditiosis ("Concerning Charioteers and Seditious Persons"), to quell the disorders that sprang up during the chariot races. Both these laws are now lost.[2] He then strengthened the army, recruiting a large number of barbarian mercenaries, including Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugii, Burgundians, Huns, Bastarnae, Suebi, Scythians and Alans.[21] Finally, he rebuilt two fleets, probably those of Miseno and Ravenna, since the Vandals had a strong navy:[22] Meanwhile you built on the two shores fleets for the upper and lower sea. Down into the water falls every forest of the Apennines — Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.441–442. Anderson tr. Re-conquest of Gaul[edit] During his four-year reign Majorian reconquered most of Hispania and southern Gaul, meanwhile reducing the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suevi to federate status. After consolidating his position in Italy, Majorian concentrated on the recovery of Gaul. When news of the deposition of the Gallo-Roman emperor Avitus arrived in Gaul, the province refused to recognize Majorian as his successor. An important clue to this is an inscription found in Lugdunum (modern Lyons) and dating to 458: according to Roman custom, the inscriptions were dated reporting the name of the consuls in office, who that year were Leo I and Majorian. This inscription, instead, records only the name of Eastern Emperor, showing that Majorian was not recognized as lawful Emperor.[23] Another clue is the fact that, at the death of Avitus, the citizens of Lugdunum had allowed the Burgundians of king Gondioc to occupy the city,[citation needed] and that they sent an envoy to Leo, and not to Majorian, to ask for a reduction of taxation.[24] Finally, there is a record of a failed usurpation in Gaul, around this time.[25] In late 458, Majorian entered Gaul, with an army strengthened by barbarian units.[26] The Emperor personally led the army, leaving Ricimer in Italy and choosing Aegidius and the magister militiae Nepotianus as collaborators. The imperial army defeated the Visigoths under king Theodoric II at the Battle of Arelate, forcing the Visigoths to abandon Septimania and withdraw west to Aquitania. The Roman victory was decisive: under the new treaty the Visigoths had to relinquish their vast conquests in Hispania and return to federate status. Majorian chose his trusted general Aegidius as the new magister militum per Gallias (military commander of Gaul) and sent an envoy to Hispania, to report the victory over the Visigoths and the new treaty with Theodoric II.[27] With the help of his new foederati, Majorian entered the Rhone Valley, conquering its populations "some by arms and some by diplomacy".[28] He defeated the Burgundians and besieged and conquered the city of Lugdunum: the rebel city was heavily fined, while the Bagaudae were forced to join the Empire.[2] Despite the fact that the Gallo-Roman aristocracy had sided with Avitus, Majorian wanted a reconciliation, not a punishment. With the intercession of Majorian's magister epistolarum Petrus, Sidonius Apollinaris, the son-in-law of Avitus, was allowed to deliver a panegyric[29] in honour of the Emperor (early January 459), receiving in reward the appointment to the rank of comes spectabilis. Much more effective was, however, the granting of the tax remission that the citizens of Lugdunum had requested from Leo I.[30] Campaign in Hispania[edit] The Roman Empire in 460 during the reign of Majorian. In the wake of the Vandal sack of Rome (455), the Visigoths had conquered Hispania, formally in the name of the new Western Emperor Avitus, actually controlling the territory themselves. Majorian planned to reconquer Hispania and use it as the base for the conquest of Africa. This rich province of the Western Empire, which provided for the very important grain supply to the city of Rome, was in fact under Vandal control.[citation needed] According to the historian Procopius, Majorian, "who surpassed in every virtue all who have ever been emperors of the Romans"[citation needed], wanted to know personally the military readiness of the Vandals and how the local populations would react to the Roman invasion. He dyed black his fair hair, for which he was famous, and went to Genseric claiming to be an envoy of the Western Emperor. Genseric tried to impress the enemy ambassador by showing him the arms collected in the warehouses and sent him back.[31] This story is probably only a legend of Italian folklore,[32] but it is a clue to the care with which the expedition was prepared. Majorian collected information on the enemy and gathered a fleet of three hundred ships to support the army in the reconquest of Hispania and in the invasion of Africa.[2] It was probably during the preparation of this operation that Majorian sent the comes and patricius Occidentis Marcellinus to Sicily with an army of Huns, to take the island back from the Vandals. Marcellinus was the comes rei militaris (governor) of Illyricum, but he had become practically independent since the death of Aetius, not recognizing the imperial authority. Majorian convinced him to accept him as Emperor and even to collaborate with his troops in the military recovery of the Empire.[33] The campaign started with an operation against the Suebi in North-Western Hispania, lasting the whole of 459, led by the magister militiae Nepotianus and the Gothic comes Sunieric. Majorian gathered the main part of the army in Liguria, then entered Aquitaine and Novempopulania coming from Theodoric's court in Toulouse (May 460). Genseric, fearing the Roman invasion, tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. The Vandal king then decided to devastate Mauretania, his own territory, because he thought that the Roman army would land there, and also ordered his navy to prepare incursions in the waters near the probable invasion area.[28] In the meantime, Majorian was conquering Hispania. While Nepotianus and Sunieric defeated the Suebi at Lucus Augusti (modern Lugo) and conquered Scallabis in Lusitania (modern Santarém, Portugal), the Emperor passed through Caesaraugusta (Saragossa), where he performed a formal imperial adventus.[34] Finally he reached Carthaginiensis, where his fleet, docked at Portus Illicitanus (near Elche), was destroyed by traitors paid by the Vandals:[35] While Majorian was campaigning in the province of Carthaginiensis the Vandals destroyed, through traitors, several ships that he was preparing for himself for a crossing against the Vandals from the shore of Carthaginiensis. Majorian, frustrated in this manner from his intention, returned to Italy. — Hydatius, Chronicle, 200, s.a. 460. Majorian, deprived of the fleet that was necessary for the invasion, cancelled the attack on the Vandals. He received the ambassadors of Genseric, with whom he agreed to conclude peace, which probably included the recognition of the de facto occupation of Mauretania by the Vandals. On his way back to Italy, the Emperor stopped at Arelate.[36] Domestic policy[edit] Majorian's domestic policy is known thanks to some of the laws he issued, the so-called Novellae Maioriani, that were included in a collection of Roman law entitled Breviarium, requested from some Gallo-Roman jurists in 506 by the Visigothic king Alaric II .[2][37] The preserved laws are: Novella Maioriani 1, De ortu imperii domini Majoriani Augusti, "The Beginning of the Reign of Our Lord Majorian Augustus", opening speech of his reign, addressed to the Roman Senate (given in Ravenna, on January 11, 458); Novella Maioriani 2, De indulgentiis reliquorum, "On the Remission of Past-Due Accounts" (given in Ravenna, on March 11, 458, to Basilius, Praetorian prefect of Italy); Novella Maioriani 3, De defensoribus civitatum, "The Defenders of the Municipalities", on the office of defensor civitatum (given in Ravenna, on May 8, 458, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 4, De aedificiis pubblicis, "Public Buildings", on the preservation of the monuments of Rome (given in Ravenna, on July 11, 458, to Aemilianus, praefectus urbi of Rome, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 5, De bonis caducis sive proscriptorum, "On Abandoned Property and That of Proscribed Persons" (given in Ravenna, on September 4, 458, to Ennodius,[38] comes privatae largitionis, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 6, De sanctimonialibus vel viduis et de successionibus earum, "Holy Maidens, Widows, and Their Succession" (given in Ravenna, on October 26, 458, to Basilius, Praetorian prefect of Italy, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 7, De curialibus et de agnatione vel distractione praediorum et de ceteris negotiis, "Curiales, Their Children and The Sale of Their Landed Estates" (given in Ravenna, on November 6, 458, to Basilius, Praetorian prefect of Italy, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 8, De reddito iure armorum, "On the Return of the Right to Bear Arms", whose text is lost; Novella Maioriani 9, De adulteriis, "Adultery", confirming that the adulterers are to be put to death (given in Arelate, on April 17, 459, to Rogatianus, governor of Suburbicarian Tuscany, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 10, about the right of the Roman senators and of the Church to keep the goods received in a will, whose text is lost; Novella Maioriani 11, De episcopali iudicio et ne quis invitus clericus ordinetur vel de ceteris negotiis, "Episcopal Courts; No Person Shall Be Ordained A Cleric Against His Will; Various Matters", (given in Arelate, on March 28, 460, to Ricimer, also in the name of Leo I); Novella Maioriani 12, De aurigis et seditiosis, "Charioteers and Seditious Persons", whose text is lost. Fiscal policy and coinage[edit] Tremissis minted by a Visigothic king in the name of Majorian. These coins were minted in Arelate between 457 and 507 by the Visigoths, but they carried the portrait and the name of the Roman Emperor, corrupted in iviivs haiorianvs. Even if their style was close to the Roman originals, Visigothic coins contained less precious metal; it was probably for this reason that Majorian issued a law obliging the tax collectors to accept golden coins at their nominal value, with the exception of the "Gallic" coin, of lesser value.[39] Majorian understood that he could reign effectively only with the support of the senatorial aristocracy, whom he wanted to return to its pristine political prominence. At the same time, he planned to reduce the abuses perpetrated by the senators, many of whom cultivated their local interests disregarding the imperial policies, even refusing to pay taxes and keeping for themselves the taxes they had exacted. This fiscal evasion had a cascade effect that affected the small landowners, the citizens and the local civil magistrates.[2] For example, the decurions had personally to compensate the imperial treasury for all taxes not exacted. Sometimes, oppressed by the debts accumulated in this way, the decurions abandoned their status, a problem already addressed by Emperor Julian (361–363). Majorian also cancelled tax arrears, knowing that fiscal policy could not be effective if taxpayers had to pay large accumulated arrears.[2] On March 11, 458, Majorian issued a law entitled De indulgentiis reliquorum, "On the Remission of Past-Due Accounts" (Novella Maioriani 2). This law remitted all the tax arrears of the landowners. This same law explicitly prohibited public administrators, who had a record of keeping the collected money for themselves, from collecting taxes. This task was to be reserved to the governors alone. Another law issued to reorganise the tax system was issued on September 4 of the same year, and was entitled De bonis caducis sive proscriptorum, "On Abandoned Property and That of Proscribed Persons" (Novella Maioriani 5): the comes privatae largitionis Ennodius was to admonish the provincial judges against defrauding the imperial treasure by keeping for themselves a part of the money collected.[2] The Emperor was also interested in repairing the backbone of the imperial administration. On 8 May 458, Majorian issued a law entitled De defensoribus civitatum, "The Defenders of the Municipalities" (Novella Maioriani 3), to re-establish the office of the defensor civitatis. This city magistrate represented the interests of the citizens in trials against the public administration, particularly in fiscal matters; this magistracy was still in existence, but actually ineffective, since it was often held by the same officials who cheated the population.[2] Another law was issued on November 6 to strengthen the magistracy of the decurions. De curialibus et de agnatione vel distractione praediorum et de ceteris negotiis, "Decurions, Their Children and The Sale of Their Landed Estates" (Novella Maioriani 7), was issued to forgive past abuses perpetrated by the decurions. This forbade them from leaving their status (going into hiding or marrying slave or tenant farmers) or alienating their own properties.[2] Majorian minted coins in gold, silver and bronze. Gold coinage was minted in great quantities. On these coins the Emperor is depicted, with few exceptions, with a combat helmet, a spear, a shield and a chi-rho, looking towards right; this typology was derived from a rare type minted in Ravenna for Honorius and used in great quantities only by Majorian, while it was dropped by his successors. The first series of solidi were minted probably in Ravenna, and bear at the obverse the joint portrait of Majorian and Leo I, thus celebrating the mutual recognition of the two Roman emperors. The mints of Ravenna and Milan issued both solidi and tremisses from the beginning of Majorian's reign.[2][40] No series of semisses are attested for these two mints, probably because the semisses were typically minted by the mint of Rome and this mint was not active under Majorian, who never visited the ancient capital of his Empire during his four years of rule. The minting of solidi is attested for the mint of Arelate in 458, a fact compatible with the presence of Majorian in Gaul in that year. This mint was again active in 460, when the Emperor returned from his campaign in Hispania. The Visigoths minted some reproductions of his solidi, modelled after the issues of the Arelate mint: as Arelate issued only solidi, the Visigoths used those designs also for the tremissis.[2][40] Silver coinage was issued almost exclusively by the Gallic mints; it has been suggested that these series were not issued by Majorian, but by Aegidius after the Emperor's death, to mark the fact that he did not recognize his successor, Libius Severus. Majorian also produced great quantities of nummi of great weight, mostly minted at Ravenna and Milan, and some contorniates, mostly in Rome, but probably also in Ravenna.[2][40] Natalist policies[edit] The diffusion of Christianity in the Empire caused some social changes within the aristocratic families. In several wealthy families, daughters were obliged to take religious vows and never marry, so that the family wealth would not be dispersed in dowries. Majorian thought that this behaviour was harmful to the State, because it reduced the number of Roman children, and because it caused the girls to start illicit affairs. On October 26, 458, the Emperor addressed a law, the Novella Maioriani 6, to the Praetorian prefect of Italy, Caecina Decius Basilius.[41] This law, titled De sanctimonialibus vel viduis et de successionibus earum ("Holy Maidens, Widows, and Their Succession"), imposed a minimum age of 40 for taking religious vows, considering that at this age the sexual drives of the initiated would be dormant. The law also granted women who had been forced to take religious vows, and were subsequently disinherited, the same rights on the legacy of parents as their brothers and sisters.[41] In order to solve this same problem of the decline of the Roman population, in particular compared with the growth of the barbarians allocated within the imperial boundaries, Majorian addressed the problem of young women widowed and without children who never remarried because of the influence of the clergy, to whom they destined their goods in their will.[42] The young widows were prohibited from taking religious vows.[42] By the same measure, departing in this from the policy of the Eastern Empire, Majorian insisted that a marriage without dowry and pre-wedding exchange of gifts (first from the bride's family to the groom, then in the opposite direction) was invalid; he simultaneously ended the practice of requesting pre-wedding gifts of a value considerably higher than the dowry.[43] Relationship with the senatorial aristocracy[edit] Avitus, the predecessor of Majorian on the imperial throne, had alienated the support of the Roman senatorial aristocracy by appointing members of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy, of which he was a part, to the most important offices of the imperial administration. He was overthrown by Majorian, who did not repeat the error and rotated the main offices between representatives of the two aristocracies. When Majorian took power by deposing Avitus, the province of Gaul, where Avitus' power was based, did not recognize the new Emperor. When Majorian re-conquered the province, he chose to forgive this rebellion. The reason was that Majorian understood that one of the mistakes of his predecessor was to promote and trust only the senatorial aristocracy of Gaul, the region he came from, favouring it over the senatorial aristocracy of Italy.[2][38] Majorian, instead, decided to gain the favour of the wealthy and noble families of the recovered province by involving them in the imperial administration, together with the Italian aristocracy that had supported him since the beginning. For evidence of this policy, one can point to the origins of the high civil servants of his administration, in particular of the consuls, whom the Emperor appointed jointly with his Eastern colleague.[2][38] In the first year (458) Majorian reserved the honour for himself, as was usual for the augusti, while in the second year he appointed his former colleague and powerful magister militum, Ricimer. Then, for the year 460, he choose the Gallic senator Magnus, and for the next year the Italian senator Severinus. Magnus had been appointed Praetorian prefect of Gaul in 458, while the Praetorian prefect of Italy was Caecina Decius Basilius, who was the patron of the Gallic senator (and poet) Sidonius Apollinaris, while the comes privatae largitionis, Ennodius, was related to a family with interests in Arelate.[2][38] Majorian also showed great respect towards the Roman senate, as suggested by the message he addressed to it on the eve of his coronation: he promised the senators he would not take into account the accusations of informers, which were much feared as they might be used by the Emperor to cause the fall of influential figures.[44] He followed through on his promises, as told by Sidonius Apollinaris, who had been anonymously accused of the authorship of a pamphlet against some influential figures: during a dinner together, Majorian defused the risky situation with a witticism.[45] Conservation of the monuments of Rome[edit] From the beginning of the 4th century, the monuments of Rome, and more generally all buildings of some value that were in a state of neglect for various reasons, were increasingly used as quarries for valuable building materials. This practice, in fact, was cheaper and more convenient than import from remote locations, which was sometimes rendered difficult or impossible by the control of the sea by the Vandals.[46] Roman officials conceded upon petition the use for construction of marble, stone and brick recovered from demolition of ancient monuments: Hence the occasion now arises that also each and every person who is constructing a private edifice through the favoritism of the judges who are situated in the City, does not hesitate to take presumptuously and to transfer the necessary materials from the public places, although those things which belong to the splendor of the cities ought to be preserved by civic affection, even under the necessity of repair. — Novella Maioriani 4, Clyde Pharr (ed.), The Theodosian code: and Novels The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2001 ISBN 1-58477-146-1, pp. 553–4. To cope with this phenomenon, Majorian promulgated a law, Novella Maioriani 4, De aedificiis pubblicis ("Public Buildings"), in Ravenna on July 11, 459, addressed to Aemilianus, praefectus urbi of Rome. The punishment for judges who had allowed the destruction of ancient public buildings was 50 pounds of gold, while their subordinates were whipped and had both hands amputated. Those who had removed materials from public buildings were to return them. The Senate had the power to decide whether there were extreme conditions that justified the demolition of an old building and, if it decided for the demolition, the Emperor still had the right to order that the resulting materials should be used to decorate other public buildings.[citation needed] Fall and death[edit] As coin of Majorian. Just as Avitus had been betrayed by Ricimer and Majorian and by the dismissal of his German guard, so the fate of Majorian himself was decided by the disbandment of his army and a plot organized by Ricimer. In fact, while the Emperor was busy away from Italy, the barbarian patricius et magister militum had gathered around himself the aristocratic opposition to his former comrade with whom, just a few years earlier, he had cultivated dreams of power. Majorian's legislation had shown that he intended to intervene decisively on issues that plagued the empire, even if they countered the interests of influential aristocrats.[2][47] After spending some time at Arelate, his base at the end of the operation against the Vandals in Hispania,[36] Majorian disbanded his barbarian mercenaries and, accompanied by some guards, set off to Rome, where he intended to carry out reforms. Ricimer went to meet Majorian with a military detachment; the magister militum met the Emperor near Tortona (not far from Piacenza, where Avitus had been killed), and had him arrested and deposed (August 3).[36] The Emperor was deprived of his dress and diadem, beaten and tortured. After five days, Majorian was beheaded near the river Iria (August 7, 461):[48] He was about forty years old and had reigned for four years. The city of Tortona now hosts, in the church of St. Matthew, a building traditionally identified as the "mausoleum of Majorian".[49] After the death of Majorian, Ricimer waited for three months before placing on the imperial throne a person he believed he could manipulate. He finally chose Libius Severus, a senator of no political distinction, probably selected to please the Italian senatorial aristocracy. The new emperor was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor Leo I, nor by any of the generals who had served under Majorian: not by Aegidius in Gaul, not by Marcellinus in Sicily and Illyria, and not by Nepotianus in Hispania.[33][50] Legacy[edit] According to historian Edward Gibbon, Majorian "presents the welcome discovery of a great and heroic character, such as sometimes arise, in a degenerate age, to vindicate the honour of the human species".[1] The Encyclopædia Britannica likewise calls him "the only man to hold that office [i.e. the imperial throne] in the 5th century who had some claim to greatness."[51] Notes[edit] ^ a b Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XXXVI, "Total Extinction Of The Western Empire". ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Mathisen. ^ This identification, based on a passage in the work of Priscus, is not universally accepted by the historians. See MacGeorge, p. 188, for a summary of the arguments in favour of the identification, and Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, "Domninus 3", Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-20159-4, p. 373, for the arguments against it. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.198–200. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.266–268. ^ Priscus, fragment 50. ^ The exact location of Vicus Helena is unknown, but it was in Northern France, probably near modern Arras (Jan Willem Drijvers, Helena Augusta, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-09435-0, p. 12). ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.207–227. ^ a b O'Flynn, pp. 94–95. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.290–300. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.305–308. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.312–314; John of Antioch, fragment 201.6. ^ It is however possible that Majorian was appointed comes domesticorum by Valentinian when he was recalled back in service after Aetius' murder (Mathisen). ^ John of Antioch, fragment 202. ^ After the death of Libius Severus in 465, Leo waited two years to select a new colleague, Anthemius. ^ a b Fasti vindobonenses priores, 583. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.373–385. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.9–12. ^ The date 1 April 457 is probably a mistake in the Fasti vindobonenses for the official proclamation of the eastern emperor Leo in the west (1 April 458). Timothy Barnes, "Review: Late Roman Prosopography: Between Theodosius and Justinian", Phoenix, vol. 37, no. 3 (1983), pp. 268–269 ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.385–440 and A. Loyen, Recherches historiques sur les panégiriques de Sidonine Apollinaire, Paris 1942, pp. 76–77 and note 5. Cited in Savino, Eliodoro, Campania tardoantica (284–604 d.C.), Edipuglia, 2005, ISBN 88-7228-257-8, p. 84. ^ Gibbon. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.441–442. ^ CIL XIII, 2363, to be compared to CIL XIII, 2359. ^ Gregory of Tours, Glory of the Confessors 62. Cited in Mathisen. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris tells (Letters, I.11.6) that this usurpation regarded some Marcellus. The hypothesis that this Marcellus is to be identified with the semi-independent comes of Illyricum Marcellinus has been rejected, as this conspiracy was to put Avitus back on the throne, or to oppose a Gallo-Roman noble to Majorian. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.474–477. ^ Hydatius, 197, s.a. 459; Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, II.11. ^ a b Priscus, fragment 27. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris' Carmen V. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, V.574–585. ^ Procopius, VII.4–13. ^ MacGeorge, p. 214. ^ a b Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, JHU Press, 1986, ISBN 0-8018-3353-1, p. 241. MacGeorge, however, maintains that Marcellinus' return under the Western Emperor's rule is not attested, and thinks that Marcellinus was in Sicily either to take part independently in the campaign against the Vandals or, by order of the Eastern Emperor, to put pressure on Geiseric for the restitution of Empress Eudoxia and her daughters (pp. 46–48). ^ Roger Collins, Visigothic Spain, 409–711, Blackwell Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-631-18185-7, p. 32. ^ Chronica gallica anno 511, 634; Marius Aventicensis, s.a. 460; Hydatius, 200, s.a. 460. ^ a b c Chronica gallica anno 511. ^ Clyde Pharr, The Theodosian code and novels, and the Sirmondian constitutions, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2001, ISBN 1-58477-146-1, pp. 551–561. ^ a b c d This Ennodius was a relative of the poet and bishop Magnus Felix Ennodius (474–521). ^ Novella Maioriani 7.14, November 6, 458, cited in Mathisen. ^ a b c Vagi, David, Coinage and history of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 1-57958-316-4, p. 567. ^ a b Novella Maioriani 6.1–3, cited in Grubbs, p. 110. ^ a b Novella Maioriani 6.5–8, cited in Grubbs, pp. 232–234. ^ Novella Maioriani 6.9–103, cited in Grubbs, p. 119. ^ Novella Maioriani 1, De ortu imperii domini Majoriani Augusti, "The Beginning of the Reign of Our Lord Majorian Augustus". ^ This event took place in 461, and is recorded in a letter (Letters, I.11.2–15) of Apollinaris to a friend (Mathisen). ^ Paolo Delogu, Le invasioni barbariche nel meridione dell'impero: Visigoti, Vandali, Ostrogoti, Rubettino, p. 336. ^ Hydatius, 210. ^ John of Antioch, fragment 203; Marcellinus, sa 461; Fasti vindobonenses priores, No 588. Procopius (VII.14–15) does not mention the Emperor's return from Hispania and said that Majorian died of dysentery: it is possible that the news has been put about by Ricimer (Fik Meijer, Emperors Do not Die in Bed, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-31201-9, p. 155). Victor of Tonnena erroneously claims that Majorian reached Rome and was killed there, and puts this event in 463 (Chronica, s.a. 463). ^ "Mausoleo di Maiorano (Sec. I a.C.)" Archived 2006-05-15 at the Wayback Machine, Città di Tortona. ^ O'Flynn, p. 111. ^ "Majorian". Encyclopædia Britannica. August 9, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2017. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Hydatius, Chronicle John of Antioch, Historia chronike Jordanes, Getica Marcellinus Comes, Annales Priscus, History Procopius, Vandal War Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina; Letters. Translation: Anderson, W.B., Sidonius. Poems and Letters, 2 vols. (Loeb, 1936–1965). Secondary sources[edit] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XXXVI "Total Extinction Of The Western Empire". Judith Evans Grubbs, Women and the Law in the Roman Empire, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-15240-2. Penny MacGeorge, Late Roman Warlords, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-925244-0. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Julius Valerius Maiorianus (18 February/28 December 457 – 2/7 August 461)", De Imperatoribus Romanis. John Michael O'Flynn, Generalissimos of the Western Roman Empire, University of Alberta, 1983, ISBN 0-88864-031-5. Fabrizio Oppedisano, L'impero d'Occidente negli anni di Maioriano, Roma : «L’Erma» di Bretschneider, 2013, ISBN 978-88-913-0285-4. Further reading[edit] Ralph W. Mathisen, "Resistance and Reconciliation: Majorian and the Gallic Aristocracy after the Fall of Avitus," Francia 7 (1979) pp. 597–627. Gerald E. Max, Majorian Augustus. PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1975. Gerald E. Max, "Political Intrigue during the Reigns of the Western Roman Emperors Avitus and Majorian," Historia 28 (1979) pp. 225–237. Meyer, Helmut, "Der Regierungsantritt Kaiser Majorians," Byzantinische Zeitschrift 62 (1969) pp. 5–12. Stewart I. Oost, "Aëtius and Majorian," Classical Philology 59 (1964) pp. 23–29. Fabrizio Oppedisano, "Il generale contro l'imperatore. La politica di Maioriano e il dissidio con Ricimero," Athenaeum 97 (2009) pp. 543–561. Fabrizio Oppedisano, "Maioriano, la plebe e il defensor civitatis," RIvista di filologia e di istruzione classica 139 (2011), pp. 422–448. External links[edit] Media related to Majorian at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Avitus Western Roman emperor 457–461 Succeeded by Libius Severus Preceded by Constantinus Rufus Roman consul 458 with Leo Augustus Succeeded by Ricimer Patricius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-6381	----	Wrestling - Wikipedia Wrestling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Form of combat sport involving grappling type techniques "Wrestler" and "Wrestlers" redirect here. For other uses, see The Wrestler. For other uses, see Wrestling (disambiguation). Wrestling Wrestling at the 2016 Summer Olympics Focus Grappling Olympic sport Freestyle and Greco-Roman Wrestling is a combat sport involving grappling-type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. The sport can either be genuinely competitive or sportive entertainment (see professional wrestling). Wrestling comes in different types[1] such as folkstyle, freestyle, Greco-Roman, catch, submission, judo, sambo and others. A wrestling bout is a physical competition, between two (occasionally more) competitors or sparring partners, who attempt to gain and maintain a superior position. There are a wide range of styles with varying rules with both traditional historic and modern styles. Wrestling techniques have been incorporated into other martial arts as well as military hand-to-hand combat systems. The term wrestling is attested in late Old English, as wræstlunge (glossing palestram).[2] Contents 1 History 1.1 By country 1.2 Mythology 1.3 Gallery 2 Modern international disciplines 2.1 Greco-Roman 2.2 Freestyle wrestling 2.3 Amateur pankration 2.4 Belt wrestling alysh 2.5 Beach wrestling 3 Folk styles 3.1 Oil wrestling 4 Collegiate wrestling 5 Professional wrestling 5.1 Sports entertainment 5.2 British/European wrestling 5.3 Puroresu 5.4 Lucha libre 5.5 Circus wrestling 6 Sambo 7 Mixed martial arts 8 See also 9 References 10 Notes 11 External links History Main articles: History of wrestling and History of professional wrestling See also: History of physical training and fitness Detail of the Ancient Egyptian wrestling scenes in tomb 15 (Baqet III) at Beni Hasan. Wrestlers take centre stage on an Ancient Greek relief of the pentathlon, 500 BC. To the left is a sprinter in the starting position, and to the right is a javelin thrower adjusting his grip. Wrestling represents one of the oldest forms of combat. The origins of wrestling go back 15,000 years through cave drawings. Babylonian and Egyptian reliefs show wrestlers using most of the holds known in the present-day sport. Literary references to it occur as early as the Old Testament and the ancient Indian Vedas[specify]. In the Book of Genesis, the Patriarch Jacob is said to have wrestled with God or an angel.[3] The Iliad, in which Homer recounts the Trojan War of the 13th or 12th century BC, also contains mentions of wrestling.[4] Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata contain references to martial arts including wrestling. In ancient Greece wrestling occupied a prominent place in legend and literature; wrestling competition, brutal in many aspects, served as the focal sport of the ancient Olympic Games. The ancient Romans borrowed heavily from Greek wrestling, but eliminated much of its brutality. During the Middle Ages (fifth century to fifteenth century) wrestling remained popular and enjoyed the patronage of many royal families, including those of France, Japan and England. Early British settlers in America brought a strong wrestling tradition with them. The settlers also found wrestling to be popular among Native Americans.[5] Amateur wrestling flourished throughout the early years of the North American colonies and served as a popular activity at country fairs, holiday celebrations, and in military exercises. The first organized national wrestling tournament took place in New York City in 1888. Wrestling has also been an event at every modern Olympic Games since the 1904 games in St. Louis, Missouri (a demonstration had been performed at the first modern Olympics). The international governing body for the sport, United World Wrestling (UWW), was established in 1912 in Antwerp, Belgium as the International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (FILA). The 1st NCAA Wrestling Championships were also held in 1912, in Ames, Iowa. USA Wrestling, located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, became the national governing body of U.S. amateur wrestling in 1983. By country In Pharaonic Egypt, wrestling has been evidenced by documentation on tombs (circa 2300 BC) and Egyptian artwork (2000-1085 BC). Greek wrestling was a popular form of martial art, at least in Ancient Greece (about 1100 to 146 BC).[6] Oil wrestling is the national sport of Turkey and it can be traced back to Central Asia. After the Roman conquest of the Greeks, Greek wrestling was absorbed by the Roman culture and became Roman wrestling during the period of the Roman Empire (510 BC to AD 500).[citation needed] Shuai jiao, a wrestling style originating in China, which according to legend, has a reported history of over 4,000 years. Arabic literature depicted Muhammad as a skilled wrestler, defeating a skeptic in a match at one point. The Byzantine emperor Basil I, according to court historians, won in wrestling against a boastful wrestler from Bulgaria in the eighth century.[7] In 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold pageant, Francis I of France threw fellow king Henry VIII of England in a wrestling match.[7] The Lancashire style of folk wrestling may have formed the basis for Catch wrestling, also known as "catch as catch can." The Scots later formed a variant of this style, and the Irish developed the "collar-and-elbow" style which later found its way into the United States.[8] A Frenchman[n 1] "is generally credited with reorganizing European loose wrestling into a professional sport", Greco-Roman wrestling.[9] This style which was finalized by the 19th century and by then, wrestling was featured in many fairs and festivals in Europe.[10] Greco-Roman wrestling and contemporary freestyle wrestling were soon regulated in formal competitions, in part resulting from the rise of gymnasiums and athletic clubs. On continental Europe, prize money was offered in large sums to the winners of Greco-Roman tournaments, and freestyle wrestling spread rapidly in the United Kingdom and in the United States after the American Civil War. Wrestling professionals soon increased the popularity of Greco-Roman and freestyle wrestling, worldwide.[8][11] Greco-Roman wrestling became an event at the first modern Olympic games, in Athens in 1896. Since 1908, the event has been in every Summer Olympics. Freestyle wrestling became an Olympic event, in 1904. Women's freestyle wrestling was added to the Summer Olympics in 2004. Since 1921, United World Wrestling (UWW) has regulated amateur wrestling as an athletic discipline, while professional wrestling has largely become infused with theatrics but still requires athletic ability. Today, various countries send national wrestling teams to the Olympics, including Russia, Iran, Turkey, Mongolia, Azerbaijan, Japan, South Korea, Gambia, the United States and several ex-U.S.S.R. nations. In Switzerland the local derivate of the German ringen, called schwingen, is a popular folk sport with local Schwingfest where regional competitions are played throughout the country. Mythology Main article: Wrestling mythology Some of the earliest references to wrestling can be found in wrestling mythology. The Epic of Gilgamesh: Gilgamesh established his credibility as a leader, after wrestling Enkidu. Greek mythology celebrates the rise of Zeus as ruler of the earth after a wrestling match with his father, Cronus. Both Heracles and Theseus were famous for their wrestling against man and beast. The Mahabharata describes a malla-dwandwa (wrestling match) between the accomplished wrestlers Bhima and Jarasandha. Rustam of the Shahnameh (Book Of Kings) is regarded by Iranian pahlevans as the greatest wrestler. Gallery Historical wrestling in art and photography Statuette Karajà, wrestlers - Muséum de Toulouse (MHNT) Jacob Wrestling with the Angel illustration by Gustave Doré (1855) Michiel Sweerts, Wrestling Match, 1649 Tibetan wrestlers in 1938 Indian wrestler exercising near Varanasi, 1973 Modern international disciplines Wrestling disciplines, as defined by UWW, are broken down into two categories: International wrestling disciplines and folk wrestling disciplines. UWW currently recognizes six wrestling disciplines in all. Three are Olympic disciplines: Greco-Roman wrestling, men's freestyle wrestling and female wrestling (i.e. women's freestyle wrestling). The other three are amateur pankration, belt wrestling alysh and beach wrestling.[12] Greco-Roman Main article: Greco-Roman wrestling A Greco-Roman wrestling match in the United States Greco-Roman is an international discipline and an Olympic sport. In Greco-Roman style, it is forbidden to hold the opponent below the belt, to make trips, and to actively use the legs in the execution of any action. Recent rule changes in Greco-Roman increase opportunities for and place greater emphasis on explosive, 'high amplitude' throws. Pinning one's opponent to the mat is one way of winning. One of the most well known Greco-Roman wrestlers is Alexander Karelin from Russia. Freestyle wrestling Main article: Freestyle wrestling Freestyle wrestling is an international discipline and an Olympic sport, for both men and women. This style allows the use of the wrestler's or his opponent's legs in offense and defense. Freestyle wrestling has its origins in catch-as-catch-can wrestling and the prime victory condition in this style involves the wrestler winning by throwing and pinning his opponent on the mat. American high school and men's college wrestling is conducted under different rules and is termed scholastic and collegiate wrestling. American women's college wrestling uses freestyle rules. Women's freestyle wrestling Amateur pankration Main article: Pankration Pankration, from the Greek words pan and kratos and meaning "all of power", is a world heritage martial art which was introduced to the Ancient Olympic Games in 648 BC. Modern amateur pankration is a form of mixed martial arts (MMA) that incorporates techniques from multiple systems. Matches are fought with both grappling holds and by striking techniques.[13] Belt wrestling alysh Main article: Alysh Alysh is a Turkic term for a Central Asian folk wrestling style which involves the wearing of jackets, trousers and thick belts. Throughout the contest the wrestlers must retain their hold on each other's belt. For this reason it is also referred to as 'belt wrestling alysh' or 'alysh belt wrestling'. Beach wrestling Anthony Gallton (left) vs Robert Teet (right) at the 2010 USA Wrestling Beach Wrestling World Team Trials UWW, then known as FILA, codified the form of beach wrestling in 2004.[14] Beach wrestling is standing wrestling done by wrestlers, male or female, inside a sand-filled circle measuring 7 meters (23 ft) in diameter. The style originally mirrored the rules used before the use of wrestling mats,[15] and beach wrestling has been regarded as the oldest version of international competitive wrestling.[16] The wrestlers wear swimsuits rather than special wrestling uniforms. Wrestlers may also wear spandex or athletic shorts. The international rules have been modified in 2015 by UWW, with the current rules allowing wrestlers to score points via takedowns, pushing their opponent out of bounds, or bringing the opponent down to their back.[17] In addition to the annual World Beach Wrestling Championships, beach wrestling has been contested at Youth Olympic Games, Asian Games, Down Under Games, Mediterranean Games and at the 2019 World Beach Games.[18] Folk styles Khuresh (Tuvan wrestling) Indian wrestlers from Davangere in 2005 Main article: Folk wrestling Folk wrestling describes a traditional form of wrestling unique to a culture or geographic region of the world that FILA does not administer rules for. Examples of the many styles of folk wrestling, include backhold wrestling (from Europe), Cumberland Wrestling and Catch-as-catch-can (from England), kurash from Uzbekistan, gushteengiri from Tajikistan, khuresh from Siberia, Lotta Campidanese from Italy, koshti pahlavani from Iran, naban from Myanmar, pehlwani from India, penjang gulat from Indonesia, schwingen from Switzerland, tigel from Ethiopia, shuai jiao from China, and ssireum from Korea. Folk wrestling styles are not recognized as international styles of wrestling by UWW. Oil wrestling Oil wrestling (Turkish: yağlı güreş), also called grease wrestling, is the Turkish national sport. It is so called because the wrestlers douse themselves with olive oil. It is related to Uzbek kurashcode: uzb promoted to code: uz , Tuvan khuresh and Tatar and Bashkir көрәш (köräş). The wrestlers, known as pehlivanlar meaning "champion" wear a type of hand-stitched lederhosen called a kispetler, which are traditionally made of water buffalo hide, and most recently have been made of calfskin. Unlike Olympic wrestling, oil wrestling matches may be won by achieving an effective hold of the kisbet. Thus, the pehlivan aims to control his opponent by putting his arm through the latter's kisbet. To win by this move is called paça kazık. Originally, matches had no set duration and could go on for one or two days, until one man was able to establish superiority, but in 1975 the duration was capped at 40 minutes for the başpehlivan and 30 minutes for the pehlivan category. If no winner is determined, another 15 minutes—10 minutes for the pehlivan category—of wrestling ensues, wherein scores are kept to determine the victor. The annual Kırkpınar tournament, held in Edirne in Turkish Thrace since 1362, is the oldest continuously running, sanctioned sporting competition in the world. In recent years this style of wrestling has also become popular in other countries. Collegiate wrestling Main article: Collegiate wrestling Two high school students competing in scholastic wrestling (collegiate wrestling done at the high school and middle school level) Collegiate wrestling (sometimes known as scholastic wrestling or folkstyle wrestling) is the commonly used name of wrestling practiced by men at the college and university level in the United States. This style, with modifications, is also practiced at the high school and middle school levels, and also for younger participants. The term is used to distinguish the style from other styles of wrestling used in other parts of the world, and from those of the Olympic Games: Greco-Roman wrestling, and Freestyle wrestling. Some high schools in the U.S. have developed junior varsity and freshman teams alongside varsity teams. Junior varsity and freshman wrestling teams restrict competitors not only by weight, but also by age and the amount of wrestling a competitor can partake in. For example, some junior varsity and freshman competitors are not allowed in tournament competition due to the amount of mat time a wrestler would accrue in a short time period. Women's college wrestling in the U.S. does not use the collegiate ruleset, instead being conducted under standard freestyle rules.[19] There are currently several organizations which oversee collegiate wrestling competition: Divisions I, II, and III of the NCAA, the NAIA, the NJCAA, and the NCWA. NCAA Division I wrestling is considered the most prestigious and challenging level of competition. A school chooses which athletic organization to join, although it may compete against teams from other levels and organizations during regular-season competition. The collegiate season starts in October or November and culminates with the NCAA tournament held in March.[20] Professional wrestling Main article: Professional wrestling Professional wrestling is often concluded in a raised ring; akin to boxing. American and British professional wrestling was considered a genuinely competitive sport up until around the mid-1920s, with occasional shoot matches still occurring well into the 1930s and 40s. The roots of professional wrestling lay in the catch-as-catch-can contests of the late 19th century. Whereas the Europeans favored the more controlled and classical Greco-Roman style, the Americans preferred the more wide-open style of wrestling that later became known as freestyle. When the best American catch wrestlers discovered they could earn money with their skills, the professional counterpart was born. Initially, the contests were similar to amateur matches, except there were no time limits, and submission and choke holds were allowed. Amateur wrestling coexisted peacefully alongside its professional counterpart until around the late 1930s before the sport grew more theatrical.[21] Popular wrestlers from this era include Martin "Farmer" Burns, Frank Gotch, Tom Jenkins, Joe Stecher, Earl Caddock, Stanislaus Zbyszko, Ed "Strangler" Lewis, Ad Santel, John Pesek and transitional figure Lou Thesz. Modern day professional wrestling (also known as sports entertainment), although advertised as contests, are actually exhibitions with winners generally pre-determined to increase entertainment value. Sports entertainment Main article: Sports entertainment Sometimes referred as "American-Style" professional wrestling, companies such as WWE, AEW, Impact Wrestling and ROH run touring professional wrestling events throughout the world. Matches are highly theatrical, with dramatic stories such as feuds between the athletes developed and performed as part of build-up and promotion for matches. Before its increase in popularity in the mid 1980s, professional wrestling in the United States was organised as a cartel of regional monopolies, known as "territories." Wrestling in some of these areas (particularly the Southern and Midwestern United States) was performed in a relatively less theatrical more serious style, which could vary from realistically sporting to darkly violent, depending on local preference. British/European wrestling Main article: Professional wrestling in the United Kingdom A different style of professional wrestling evolved in the United Kingdom and spread across Western Europe (where it was known as "Catch" in the non English speaking countries of mainland Europe.) Traditionally in this style, there was less use of storylines and angles to promote the matches which, for the most part, had the atmosphere of real wrestling competition. In many countries such as the UK, this form of professional wrestling achieved mainstream popularity with television making household names of its stars, but later declined and was supplanted both on television and in wider culture by imported American wrestling. Some promoters in the UK (and to a lesser extent France and Germany) still produce live shows in this style but face stiff competition from more American-styled rivals. Puroresu Main article: Puroresu Japanese professional wrestling, also known as puroresu, is also treated more as a sport than the entertainment style of wrestling common in North America. As with British/European wrestling, there are fewer and less contrived storylines and angles and there is a similar atmosphere of realistic sporting competition. Popular Japanese wrestlers include Rikidozan, Giant Baba, Antonio Inoki, Mitsuharu Misawa, Kenta Kobashi, Shinya Hashimoto and Keiji Mutoh.[22] Shoot style wrestling evolved from traditional puroresu in an attempt to create a combat-based style. Shoot style featured a mix of amateur and catch wrestling, kickboxing and submission grappling. Shoot style wrestling is retrospectively considered a precursor to mixed martial arts. Lucha libre Main article: Lucha libre Mexican professional wrestling, also known as lucha libre, is a style of wrestling using special holds. Most performers, known as luchadores (singular luchador), begin their careers wearing masks, but most will lose their masks during their careers. Traditionally a match involves the best of three rounds, with no time limit. Each luchador uses his own special wrestling style or "estilo de lucha" consisting of aerial attack moves, strikes and complex submission holds. Popular luchadores in Mexico and Puerto Rico are El Santo, Blue Demon, Mil Máscaras, Perro Aguayo, Carlos Colón, Konnan, La Parka and Místico. Several wrestlers who performed in Mexico also had success in the United States, including Eddie Guerrero, Rey Mysterio (Jr.) and Dos Caras Jr./Alberto Del Rio. Circus wrestling In France in the 19th century, early professional wrestling shows in the Greco-Roman style were often performed at the circus by the resident strongmen. This style later spread to circuses in Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia where it was a staple part of circuses in the Soviet era, where it was often advertised as "French wrestling."[23] Ivan Poddubny achieved major stardom in his homeland and beyond during the interwar period. Sambo Main article: Sambo (martial art) Sambo is a martial art that originated in the Soviet Union (specifically Russia) in the 20th century. It is an acronym for "self-defence without weapons" in Russian and had its origins in the Soviet armed forces. Its influences are varied, with techniques borrowed from sports ranging from the two international wrestling styles of Greco-Roman and freestyle to judo, jujitsu, European styles of folk wrestling, and even fencing. The rules for sport sambo are similar to those in competitive judo, with a variety of leg locks and defense holds from the various national wrestling styles in the Soviet Union, while not allowing chokeholds.[24] Mixed martial arts Main article: Mixed martial arts The Ancient Greek version of MMA was called the pankration. Similar to modern MMA, it freely employed wrestling techniques. Two MMA fighters grappling in a mixed martial arts event The rapid rise in the popularity of mixed martial arts (MMA) has increased interest in wrestling due to its effectiveness in the sport.[25] It is considered one of five core disciplines in MMA together with muay Thai,[26] kickboxing, judo[27] and Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Already in the early stages of MMA development, wrestling gained respect due to its effectiveness against traditional martial artists. Wrestlers, Dan Severn, Don Frye, Mark Coleman, Randy Couture and Mark Kerr went on to win early Ultimate Fighting Tournaments. Ken Shamrock won the first UFC Superfight Championship in the UFC and was also the first King of Pancrase in Japan. UFC color commentator Joe Rogan stated: “I personally think that the very best skill for MMA is wrestling, I think that's the number one base to come from because those guys just flat out dictate where the fight takes place [standing or on the ground]." "There is no better base for entering into mixed martial arts than the highly successful competitor as a wrestler. The competitive wrestlers, the highly successful amateur wrestlers have such tremendous mental toughness. If you can just get through the room, the wrestling room practices at like really high level universities, NCAA division one teams; those guys are savages. The stuff they go through, just the overtraining, just the mental toughness that you have to develop."[28][29] Successful fighters in modern MMA who began their training in various forms of wrestling include former UFC Lightweight Champion Frankie Edgar, 2000 Olympic silver medalist Yoel Romero, 2009 world champion and former ONE FC Welterweight Champion Ben Askren, former Olympic wrestler and former UFC Light Heavyweight and Heavyweight Champion Daniel Cormier, 2008 Olympic Gold medalist and former UFC Flyweight Champion and Bantamweight Champion Henry Cejudo and former Pride FC Middleweight and Light Heavyweight Champion Dan Henderson, who competed extensively in collegiate and Greco-Roman wrestling before beginning his career in mixed martial arts.[30] See also Amateur wrestling List of famous amateur wrestlers List of World Champions in Men's Freestyle Wrestling Aquathlon (underwater wrestling) Arm wrestling Catch wrestling Indian wrestling Grappling Malla-yuddha Mixed martial arts Pankration Professional wrestling List of professional wrestlers WrestleMania Skin infections and wrestling Sumo United World Wrestling (UWW) Wrestling at the Summer Olympics References ^ "Different types of wrestling". 14 February 2013. ^ OED; see also Dictionary.com. "Wrestle". dictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-10-08. ^ New International Version Genesis 32:24-32 ^ "The Historical origins of Wrestling". collegesportsscholarships.com. Retrieved 21 November 2010. ^ Salamone, Frank (2013). The Native American Identity in Sports. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 123. ISBN 9780810887084. ^ Miller, Christopher. "Submission Fighting and the Rules of Ancient Greek Wrestling". Retrieved 2007-10-08. ^ a b "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present, Vol. 3, p. 1193, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996). ^ a b "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present, Vol. 3, p. 1190, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996). ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 1981, p. 1026. ^ International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles. "Greco-Roman Wrestling". FILA. Archived from the original on 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2007-08-09. ^ "Wrestling, Greco-Roman" by Michael B. Poliakoff from Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present, Vol. 3, p. 1194, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996). ^ "Disciplines". United World Wrestling. Retrieved 31 October 2014. ^ "Pankration". FILA. Retrieved 2011-07-28. ^ 'Beach Wrestling " Archived 2012-10-24 at the Wayback Machine, fila-official.com ^ Teet, Rob (2016-03-07). Hosting Beach Wrestling Events on Google Books. ISBN 9781329956216. Retrieved 14 December 2016. ^ "SandWrestling.com". Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016. ^ "Beach Wrestling Rules Adjusted". United World Wrestling. Retrieved 14 December 2016. ^ "UWW Disciplines". Retrieved 15 December 2016. ^ "Growing Wrestling: Women's Collegiate Wrestling Association". National Wrestling Coaches Association. Retrieved June 23, 2020. ^ "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from Encyclopedia of World the Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present, Vol. 3, p. 1192, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996). ^ Chapman, Mike (1990). Encyclopedia of American Wrestling. Champaign, Illinois: Leisure Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780880113427. ^ Wilson, Kevin. "Legends". Puroresu Central. Retrieved 2009-07-26. ^ Art Ukraine.com - Posters for State Circus in Ukraine advertising "French Wrestling" (professional Greco Roman wrestling) - Accessed 17 June 2018 ^ International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles. "Sambo". FILA. Retrieved 2007-08-09. ^ "Can mixed martial arts save wrestling?". USATODAY.COM. ^ WTBA Administrator (April 29, 2018). "History". thaiboxing.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. ^ "The Gentle Way Part II: Olympians Ronda Rousey and Rick Hawn Adapt to MMA". Bleacher Report. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved January 19, 2015. ^ "Rogan: The very best skill for MMA is wrestling". The Underground. 19 May 2010. ^ "UFC® FIGHT PASS™ - Chael Sonnen vs. Nate Marquardt UFC 109". UFC.TV. ^ Coach Mike R (11 August 2013). "Factgrinder: The 25 Greatest Wrestlers in UFC History". Bloody Elbow. Notes ^ Exbroyat of Lyon. He died in 1868. Another claim, is that the founder of Greco-Roman wrestling, was Frenchman Jean Broyasse (death 1872), according to the encyclopedia Gyldendals store konversasjonsleksikon, 1981, p. 2564. External links Look up Wrestling or Grappling in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wrestling. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women's Wrestling. 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en-wikipedia-org-6383	----	Epiphanius of Salamis - Wikipedia Epiphanius of Salamis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th century Christian bishop and saint Saint Epiphanius of Salamis St. Epiphanius in a fresco painting (Gračanica Monastery) Bishop of Salamis (Cyprus), Oracle of Palestine Born c. 310–320 Judea Died 403 (aged 82–93) at sea Venerated in Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Feast 12 May[1] 17 Pashons (Coptic Orthodoxy) Attributes Vested as a bishop in omophorion, sometimes holding a scroll Controversy Iconoclasm Epiphanius of Salamis (Greek: Ἐπιφάνιος; c. 310–320 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy. He is best known for composing the Panarion, a very large compendium of the heresies up to his own time, full of quotations that are often the only surviving fragments of suppressed texts. According to Ernst Kitzinger, he "seems to have been the first cleric to have taken up the matter of Christian religious images as a major issue", and there has been much controversy over how many of the quotations attributed to him by the Byzantine Iconoclasts were actually by him. Regardless of this he was clearly strongly against some contemporary uses of images in the church.[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Origenist controversy and death 3 The curtain incident 4 Writings 4.1 Panarion 4.2 Other works 5 Works 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life[edit] Epiphanius was either born into a Romaniote Christian family or became a Christian in his youth. Either way, he was a Romaniote Jew who was born in the small settlement of Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis (modern-day Beit Guvrin, Palestine,[3] and lived as a monk in Egypt, where he was educated and came into contact with Valentinian groups. He returned to Palestine around 333, when he was still a young man, and he founded a monastery at Ad nearby,[4] which is often mentioned in the polemics of Jerome with Rufinus and John, Bishop of Jerusalem. He was ordained a priest, and lived and studied as superior of the monastery in Ad that he founded for thirty years and gained much skill and knowledge in that position. In that position he gained the ability to speak in several tongues, including Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin, and was called by Jerome on that account Pentaglossos ("Five tongued").[5] His reputation for learning prompted his nomination and consecration as Bishop of Salamis, Cyprus,[6] in 365 or 367, a post which he held until his death. He was also the Metropolitan of the Church of Cyprus. He served as bishop for nearly forty years, as well as travelled widely to combat unorthodox beliefs. He was present at a synod in Antioch (376) where the Trinitarian questions were debated against the heresy of Apollinarianism. He upheld the position of Bishop Paulinus, who had the support of Rome, over that of Meletius of Antioch, who was supported by the Eastern Churches. In 382 he was present at the Council of Rome, again upholding the cause of Paulinus. Origenist controversy and death[edit] Main article: Origenist Crises During a visit to Palestine in 394 or 395, while preaching in Jerusalem, he attacked Origen's followers and urged the Bishop of Jerusalem, John II, to condemn his writings. He urged John to be careful of the "offence" of images in the churches. He noted that when travelling in Palestine he went into a church to pray and saw a curtain with an image of Christ or a saint which he tore down. He told Bishop John that such images were "opposed . . . to our religion" (see below).[7] This event sowed the seeds of conflict which erupted in the dispute between Rufinus and John against Jerome and Epiphanius. Epiphanius fuelled this conflict by ordaining a priest for Jerome's monastery at Bethlehem, thus trespassing on John's jurisdiction. This dispute continued during the 390s, in particular in the literary works by Rufinus and Jerome attacking one another. In 399, the dispute took on another dimension, when the Bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, who had initially supported John, changed his views and started persecuting Origenist monks in Egypt. As a result of this persecution, four of these monks, the so-called Tall Brothers, fled to Palestine, and then travelled to Constantinople, seeking support and spreading the controversy. John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, gave the monks shelter. Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria saw his chance to use this event to bring down his enemy Chrysostom: in 402 he summoned a council in Constantinople, and invited those supportive of his anti-Origenist views. Epiphanius, by this time nearly 80, was one of those summoned, and began the journey to Constantinople. However, when he realised he was being used as a tool by Theophilus against Chrysostom, who had given refuge to the monks persecuted by Theophilus and who were appealing to the emperor, Epiphanius started back to Salamis, only to die on the way home in 403.[8] The curtain incident[edit] Letter LI in Jerome's letters gives Jerome's Latin translation, made at Epiphanius' request, of his letter, originally in Greek from c. 394, "From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem" (see previous section for wider context). The final section covers the often quoted incident of the curtain, which unlike other passages attributed to Epiphanius and quoted by the Iconoclasts, is accepted as authentic by modern scholars:[9] 9. Moreover, I have heard that certain persons have this grievance against me: When I accompanied you to the holy place called Bethel, there to join you in celebrating the Collect, after the use of the Church, I came to a villa called Anablatha and, as I was passing, saw a lamp burning there. Asking what place it was, and learning it to be a church, I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loth that an image of a man should be hung up in Christ’s church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person. They, however, murmured, and said that if I made up my mind to tear it, it was only fair that I should give them another curtain in its place. As soon as I heard this, I promised that I would give one, and said that I would send it at once. Since then there has been some little delay, due to the fact that I have been seeking a curtain of the best quality to give to them instead of the former one, and thought it right to send to Cyprus for one. I have now sent the best that I could find, and I beg that you will order the presbyter of the place to take the curtain which I have sent from the hands of the Reader, and that you will afterwards give directions that curtains of the other sort—opposed as they are to our religion—shall not be hung up in any church of Christ. A man of your uprightness should be careful to remove an occasion of offence unworthy alike of the Church of Christ and of those Christians who are committed to your charge. Beware of Palladius of Galatia—a man once dear to me, but who now sorely needs God's pity—for he preaches and teaches the heresy of Origen; and see to it that he does not seduce any of those who are intrusted to your keeping into the perverse ways of his erroneous doctrine. I pray that you may fare well in the Lord.[10] Writings[edit] Panarion[edit] His best-known book is the Panarion (from Latin panarium, "bread basket" < panis, "bread"), also known as Adversus Haereses, "Against Heresies", presented as a book of antidotes for those bitten by the serpent of heresy. Written between 374 and 377, it forms a handbook for dealing with the arguments of heretics. It lists, and refutes, 80 heresies, some of which are not described in any other surviving documents from the time. Epiphanius begins with the 'four mothers' of pre-Christian heresy – 'barbarism', 'Scythism', 'Hellenism' and 'Judaism' – and then addresses the 16 pre-Christian heresies that have flowed from them: four philosophical schools (Stoics, Platonists, Pythagoreans and Epicureans), and 12 Jewish sects. There then follows an interlude, telling of the Incarnation of the Word. After this, Epiphanius embarks on his account of the 60 Christian heresies, from assorted gnostics to the various trinitarian heresies of the fourth century, closing with the Collyridians and Messalians.[11] While Epiphanius often let his zeal come before facts – he admits on one occasion that he writes against the Origenists based only on hearsay (Panarion, Epiphanius 71) – the Panarion is a valuable source of information on the Christian Church of the fourth century. It is also an important source regarding the early Jewish gospels such as the Gospel according to the Hebrews circulating among the Ebionites and the Nazarenes, as well as the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus.[12] One unique feature of the Panarion is in the way that Epiphanius compares the various heretics to different poisonous beasts, going so far as to describe in detail the animal's characteristics, how it produces its poison, and how to protect oneself from the animal's bite or poison. For example, he describes his enemy Origen as "a toad noisy from too much moisture which keeps croaking louder and louder." He compares the Gnostics to a particularly dreaded snake "with no fangs." The Ebionites, a Christian sect that followed Jewish law, were described by Epiphanius as "a monstrosity with many shapes, who practically formed the snake-like shape of the mythical many-headed Hydra in himself." In all, Epiphanius describes fifty animals, usually one per sect.[13] Another feature of the Panarion is the access its earlier sections provide to lost works, notably Justin Martyr's work on heresies, the Greek of Irenaeus' Against Heresies, and Hippolytus' Syntagma.[14] The Panarion was first translated into English in 1987 and 1990. Other works[edit] His earliest known work is the Ancoratus (the well anchored man), which includes arguments against Arianism and the teachings of Origen. Aside from the polemics by which he is known, Epiphanius wrote a work of biblical antiquarianism, called, for one of its sections, On Weights and Measures (περὶ μέτρων καὶ στάθμων). It was composed in Constantinople for a Persian priest, in 392,[15] and survives in Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian translations (this last is found in Shatberd ms 1141 along with Physiologus and De Gemmis).[16] The first section discusses the canon of the Old Testament and its versions, the second of measures and weights, and the third, the geography of Palestine. The texts appear not to have been given a polish but consist of rough notes and sketches, as Allen A. Shaw, a modern commentator, concluded; nevertheless Epiphanius' work on metrology was important in the history of measurement. Another work, On the Twelve Gems (De Gemmis), survives in a number of fragments, the most complete of which is the Georgian.[17] The letter written by Epiphanius to John, Bishop of Jerusalem, in 394 and preserved in Jerome's translation, is discussed above.[18] The collection of homilies traditionally ascribed to a "Saint Epiphanius, bishop" are dated in the late fifth or sixth century and are not connected with Epiphanius of Salamis by modern scholars.[19] Such was Epiphanius's reputation for learning that the Physiologus, the principal source of medieval bestiaries, came to be widely falsely attributed to him.[20] Works[edit] The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2 The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book II and III (Sects 47–80, De Fide) Frank Williams, translator, 1993 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-09898-4 The Panarion of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis Philip R. Amidon, translator, 1990 (Oxford University Press, New York) (This translation contains selections rather than the full work.) ISBN 0-19-506291-4 Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, James Elmer Dean, ed, 1935. (Chicago) [English translation of On Weights and Measures; available at http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/epiphanius_weights_03_text.htm] Epiphanius de Gemmis: the Old Georgian Version and the Fragments of the Armenian Version. ed. Robert Pierpont Blake; de Vis, H. (1934). London: Christophers. Epiphanius von Salamis, Über die zwölf Steine im hohepriesterlichen Brustschild (De duodecim gemmis rationalis). Nach dem Codex Vaticanus Borgianus Armenus 31 herausgegeben und übersetzt by Felix Albrecht and Arthur Manukyan (Gorgias Eastern Christian Studies 37), 2014 (Gorgias Press: Piscataway) ISBN 978-1-4632-0279-8 (German edition). Anacephalaiosis (originally thought to be the work of Epihanius of Salamis, although this opinion is now disputed).[21] Notes[edit] ^ (in Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Ἐπιφάνιος Ἐπίσκοπος Κωνσταντίας καὶ Ἀρχιεπίσκοπος Κύπρου. 12 Μαΐου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ Kitzinger, 92–93, 92 quoted ^ The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: Book I (Sects 1–46), By Epiphanius, Epiphanius of Salamis, Translated by Frank Williams, 1987 ISBN 90-04-07926-2 p xi ^ The more famous Monastery of Epiphanius near Thebes, Egypt was founded by an anchorite named Epiphanius towards the end of the sixth century; it was explored by an expedition from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1912–14. ^ Ruf 3.6 ^ Salamis was also known as Constantia after Constantine II. ^ Part 9, Letter LI. From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem (c. 394), http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001051.htm. ^ Frances Young with Andrew Teal, From Nicaea to Chalcedon: A Guide to the Literature and its Background, (2nd edn, 2004), pp202-3 ^ Kitzinger, 92–93 and long note ^ NPNF2-06. Jerome: The Principal Works of St. Jerome, CCEL ^ Andrew Louth, 'Palestine', in Frances Young, Lewis Ayres and Andrew Young, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p286 ^ Epiphanius, Panarion, 30 iii 7 ^ Verheyden, Joseph (2008). "Epiphanius of Salamis on Beasts and Heretics". Journal of Eastern Christian Studies. 60 (1–4): 143–173. doi:10.2143/jecs.60.1.2035279. ^ Andrew Louth, 'Palestine', in Frances Young, Lewis Ayres and Andrew Young, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), 286 ^ Allen A. Shaw, "On Measures and Weights by Epiphanius" National Mathematics Magazine 11.1 (October 1936: 3–7). ^ English translation is Dean (1935) ^ Frances Young with Andrew Teal, From Nicaea to Chalcedon: A Guide to the Literature and its Background, (2nd edn, 2004), p201 ^ Ep 51, available at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.v.LI.html ^ Alvar Erikson, Sancti Epiphani Episcopi Interpretatio Evangelorum (Lund) 1938, following Dom Morin. ^ Frances Young with Andrew Teal, From Nicaea to Chalcedon: A Guide to the Literature and its Background, (2nd edn, 2004), p202 ^ Saint Augustine (of Hippo), Arianism and Other Heresies, p.22 (note 10), the University of Michigan Libraries: Quote: For a discussion on the question of the authorship of the Anacephalaiosis, see L.G. Müller, The De Haeresibus of Saint Augustine: A Translation with an Introduction and Commentary (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1956), 23–25. Contemporary scholars are generally in agreement that the Anacephalaiosis is not the work of Epiphanius, [although attributed unto him]. See K. Holl, "Die Unechtheit der Anakephalaiosis," Texte und Untersuchungen 36.2 (Leipzig, 1910), 95–98 References[edit] Kitzinger, Ernst, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 8, (1954), pp. 83–150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, JSTOR Kim, Young Richard. Epiphanius of Cyprus: Imagining an Orthodox World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015. Jacobs, Andrew S. Epiphanius of Cyprus: A Cultural Biography of Late Antiquity. Christianity in Late Antiquity. Oakland: University of California Press, 2016. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Epiphanius of Salamis St Epiphanius of Salamis Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion   Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Epiphanius of Salamis". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Epiphanius, On Biblical Weights and Measures English translation of a Syriac text Some excerpts from the Panarion (The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Book I Sects 1-46) Letter from Epiphianus, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Stephen Craft Goranson, The Joseph of Tiberias Episode in Epiphanius: Studies in Jewish and Christian Relations (1990)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Epiphanius of Salamis". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Portals Access related topics Saints portal Biography portal Christianity portal Cyprus portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epiphanius_of_Salamis&oldid=1026995129" Categories: 4th-century births 403 deaths 4th-century Byzantine bishops 4th-century Christian saints 5th-century Byzantine bishops Ancient Christians involved in controversies Christian anti-Gnosticism Archbishops of Cyprus Church Fathers Cypriot Jews Cypriot non-fiction writers Cypriot Roman Catholic saints Doctors of the Church Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire People who died at sea Romaniote Jews Saints from the Holy Land Aniconism 4th-century Byzantine writers Hidden categories: Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia without Wikisource reference Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Malagasy مصرى Mirandés Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 12:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6384	----	Apollodorus of Seleucia - Wikipedia Apollodorus of Seleucia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Apollodorus of Seleucia (Greek: Ἀπολλόδωρος; flourished c. 150 BC), or Apollodorus Ephillus, was a Stoic philosopher, and a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon. He wrote a number of handbooks (Greek: εἰσαγωγαί) on Stoicism, including ones on Ethics and Physics which are frequently cited by Diogenes Laërtius.[1] Apollodorus is famous for describing Cynicism as "the short path to virtue",[1] and he may have been the first Stoic after the time of Zeno to systematically attempt to reconcile Stoicism with Cynicism. The lengthy account of Cynicism given by Diogenes Laërtius,[2] which is presented from a Stoic point of view, may be derived from Apollodorus,[3] and it is possible that he was the first Stoic to promote the idea of a line of Cynic succession from Socrates to Zeno (Socrates - Antisthenes - Diogenes - Crates - Zeno). His book on Physics was well known in ancient times, and the Stoic Theon of Alexandria wrote a commentary on it in the 1st century AD.[4] It is quoted several times by Diogenes Laërtius, and Stobaeus records Apollodorus' views on the nature of time: Time is the dimension of the world's motion; and it is infinite in just the way that the whole number is said to be infinite. Some of it is past, some present, and some future. But the whole of time is present, as we say that the year is present on a larger compass. Also, the whole of time is said to belong, though none of its parts belong exactly.[5] References[edit] ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, VII ^ Diogenes Laërtius, The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, VI ^ Dawson, D., Cities of the Gods: Communist Utopias in Greek Thought, Oxford University Press. (1992). ^ Suda, Theo. ^ Stobaeus, 1.105, 8–16 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Netherlands Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollodorus_of_Seleucia&oldid=1010132779" Categories: Hellenistic-era philosophers from Syria Stoic philosophers 2nd-century BC Greek people 2nd-century BC philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Italiano مصرى Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 3 March 2021, at 23:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6386	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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en-wikipedia-org-6421	----	Antioch - Wikipedia Antioch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city in Turkey For other places with the same name, see Antioch (disambiguation). This article is about the historical city. For the modern city, see Antakya. Antioch on the Orontes Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου (in Ancient Greek) Map of Antioch in Roman and early Byzantine times Shown within Turkey Alternative name Syrian Antioch Location Antakya, Hatay Province, Turkey Coordinates 36°12′17″N 36°10′54″E / 36.20472°N 36.18167°E / 36.20472; 36.18167Coordinates: 36°12′17″N 36°10′54″E / 36.20472°N 36.18167°E / 36.20472; 36.18167 Type Settlement Area 15 km2 (5.8 sq mi) History Builder Seleucus I Nicator Founded 300 BC Periods Hellenistic to Medieval Cultures Greek, Roman, Armenian, Arab, Turkish Events First Crusade Site notes Excavation dates 1932–1939 Condition Mostly buried Antioch on the Orontes (/ˈænti.ɒk/; Ancient Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou; also Syrian Antioch)[note 1] was an ancient Greek city[1] on the eastern side of the Orontes River. Its ruins lie near the current city of Antakya, Turkey, to which the ancient city lends its name. Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The city's geographical, military, and economic location benefited its occupants, particularly such features as the spice trade, the Silk Road, and the Royal Road. It eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the Near East. The city was the capital of the Seleucid Empire until 63 BC, when the Romans took control, making it the seat of the governor of the province of Syria. From the early fourth century, the city was the seat of the Count of the Orient, head of the regional administration of sixteen provinces.[citation needed] It was also the main center of Hellenistic Judaism at the end of the Second Temple period. Antioch was one of the most important cities in the eastern Mediterranean half of the Roman Empire. It covered almost 1,100 acres (4.5 km2) within the walls of which one quarter was mountain, leaving 750 acres (3.0 km2) about one-fifth the area of Rome within the Aurelian Walls. Antioch was called "the cradle of Christianity" as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of both Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity.[2] The Christian New Testament asserts that the name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch.[3] It was one of the four cities of Seleucis of Syria, and its residents were known as Antiochenes. The city may have had up to 250,000 people during Augustan times,[4] but it declined to relative insignificance during the Middle Ages because of warfare, repeated earthquakes, and a change in trade routes, which no longer passed through Antioch from the far east following the Mongol invasions and conquests. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Foundation by Seleucus I 2.3 Hellenistic age 2.4 Roman period 2.4.1 Age of Julian and Valens 2.4.2 Christianity 2.4.3 Theodosius and after 2.4.4 Arab conquest and Byzantine reconquest 2.5 Crusader era 2.5.1 Second Crusade 2.5.2 After the Second Crusade 2.5.3 Third Crusade 2.5.4 Battles for sovereignty 2.5.5 Fifth Crusade and afterwards 2.5.6 Fall of Antioch 3 Archaeology 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 References and sources 6.1 Notes 6.2 References 6.3 Sources 7 External links Geography[edit] Two routes from the Mediterranean Sea, lying through the Orontes river gorge and the Belen Pass, converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake, now called Lake Amik, and are met there by the road from the Amanian Gate (Baghche Pass) and western Kingdom of Commagene, which descends the valley of the Karasu to the Afrin River the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (now Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Queiq, and the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. A single route proceeds south in the Orontes valley.[5] History[edit] King Šuppiluliuma (de) of Pattin, ca. 860 BC in Hatay Archaeology Museum An artifact from the middle and late Bronze Age, 2000–1200 BC in Hatay Archaeology Museum Prehistory[edit] The settlement called Meroe pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of the Semitic goddess Anat, called by Herodotus the "Persian Artemis", was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of Mount Silpius named Io, or Iopolis. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians—an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (Javan). John Malalas also mentions an archaic village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.[5] Foundation by Seleucus I[edit] Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus; it lay in the northwest of the future city.[5] This account is found only in the writings of Libanius, a fourth-century orator from Antioch,[6] and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But the story is not unlikely in itself.[7] After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals, the Diadochi, divided up the territory he had conquered. After the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father Antiochus;[8] according to the Suda, it might be named after his son Antiochus.[9] He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs.[10] Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An eagle, the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. Seleucus did this on the 22nd day of the month of Artemísios in the twelfth year of his reign, equivalent to May 300 BC.[11] Antioch soon rose above Seleucia Pieria to become the Syrian capital. Mosaic of Eros standing on the wings of two Psyches and whipping them on in Hatay Archaeology Museum Dionysus mosaic in Hatay Archaeology Museum Hellenistic age[edit] The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the grid plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mount Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I Soter, which, from an expression of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own.[5] In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began a third walled "city", which was finished by Antiochus III the Great. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about 6 kilometres (4 miles) in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens.[5] The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers.[7] During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, Antioch's population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates generally are 200,000–250,000) and was the third largest city in the Empire after Rome and Alexandria. In the second half of the 4th century Libanius gives the figure 150,000 and John Chrysostom, 200,000 (without children and slaves counted).[12] About 6 kilometres (4 miles) west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the ancient world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame.[13] Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamon.[14] The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in the Hellenistic period, apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for being "a populous city, full of most erudite men and rich in the most liberal studies",[15] but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period that have come down to us are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce.[14] The epithet "Golden" suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas. It occurred in 148 BC and did immense damage.[14][16] Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 BC, and Demetrius II Nicator in 129 BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes the Great to occupy the city in 83 BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII Asiaticus in 65 BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, but remained a civitas libera.[14] Roman period[edit] Ancient Roman road located in Syria which connected Antioch and Chalcis. This argenteus was struck in the Antioch mint, under Constantius Chlorus. Rare Domitian Tetradrachm struck in the Antioch Mint. Only 23 known examples. Note the realist portrait, typical of the Antioch Mint. A Greek rider seizes a mounted Amazonian warrior (armed with a double-headed axe) by her Phrygian cap; Roman mosaic emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of Antioch-on-the-Orontes (now Antakya in Turkey) The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Julius Caesar visited it in 47 BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius.[14] Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod (most likely the great builder Herod the Great), erected a long stoa on the east, and Agrippa (c. 63–12 BC) encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this.[14] One of the most famous urban additions to Antioch, done by the Romans probably under Augustus when the city had more than half a million inhabitants, was the Circus of Antioch: it was a Roman hippodrome. Used for chariot racing, it was modelled on the Circus Maximus in Rome and other circus buildings throughout the empire. Measuring more than 490 metres (1,610 feet) in length and 30 metres (98 feet) of width,[17] the Circus could house up to 80,000 spectators. Zarmanochegas (Zarmarus) a monk of the Sramana tradition of India, according to Strabo and Dio Cassius, met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch around 13 AD as part of a Mission to Augustus.[18][19] At Antioch Germanicus died in 19 AD, and his body was burnt in the forum.[14] An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign.[14] Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over one of the gates.[14] In 115 AD, during Trajan's travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was convulsed by a huge earthquake. The landscape altered, and the emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days.[14] He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned. Commodus (r. 177–192 AD) had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch.[14] The Antioch Chalice, first half of 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the Persians under Shapur I, and many of the people were slain in the theatre.[14] It was recaptured by the Roman emperor Valerian the following year. Age of Julian and Valens[edit] When the emperor Julian visited in 362 on a detour to Persia, he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of Constantinople. Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which Ammianus Marcellinus implies lived quite harmoniously together. However Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with a lament for Adonis, the doomed lover of Aphrodite. Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne,[20] he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.[21][22] Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochene; Julian had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some 200 years before. However Antioch's city councilmen showed themselves unwilling to shore up Antioch's food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them. The city's impiety to the old religion was clear to Julian when he attended the city's annual feast of Apollo. To his surprise and dismay the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a goose. The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his billeted troops, wrote Ammianus. The soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan Gallic soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye. Even Julian's piety was distasteful to the Antiochenes even to those who kept the old religion. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated Neoplatonist circles. The irony of Julian's enthusiasm for large scale animal sacrifice could not have escaped the hungry Antiochenes. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only the nickname axeman, wrote Ammianus. The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard.[23] Julian's successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood until the Persian sack in 538, by Chosroes.[14] Christianity[edit] Antioch was a chief center of early Christianity during Roman times.[24] The city had a large population of Jewish origin in a quarter called the Kerateion, and so attracted the earliest missionaries.[25] Evangelized, among others, by Peter himself, according to the tradition upon which the Patriarch of Antioch[citation needed] still rests its claim for primacy,[26] and certainly later[27] by Barnabas and Paul during Paul's first missionary journey. Its converts were the first to be called Christians.[28] This is not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia, to which the early missionaries later travelled.[29] Surrounding the city were a number of Greek, Syrian, Armenian, and Latin monasteries.[30] A bronze coin from Antioch depicting the emperor Julian. Note the pointed beard. The Christian population was estimated by Chrysostom at about 100,000 people at the time of Theodosius I. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the five original patriarchates,[14] along with Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Rome (see Pentarchy). The Maronite Catholic Church's patriarch is called the Patriarch of Antioch and all the East. He currently resides in Bkerke - Lebanon. The Maronites continue the Antiochene liturgical tradition and the use of the Syrian-Aramaic (Syro-Aramaic or Western Aramaic) language in their liturgies.[31][circular reference] One of the canonical Eastern Orthodox churches is still called the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, although it moved its headquarters from Antioch to Damascus, Syria, several centuries ago (see list of Patriarchs of Antioch), and its prime bishop retains the title "Patriarch of Antioch", somewhat analogous to the manner in which several Popes, heads of the Roman Catholic Church remained "Bishop of Rome" even while residing in Avignon, France in the 14th century. Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, is an Oriental Orthodox Church with autocephalous patriarchate founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the 1st century, according to its tradition. The Syriac Orthodox Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, a distinct communion of churches claiming to continue the patristic and Apostolic Christology before the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Theodosius and after[edit] In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status.[14] He divided the Roman Empire, and since then Antioch was under Constantinople's rule. The Peutinger Map showing Antioch, Alexandria and Seleucia in the 4th century. Antioch and its port, Seleucia Pieria, were severely damaged by the great earthquake of 526. Seleucia Pieria, which was already fighting a losing battle against continual silting, never recovered.[32] Justinian I renamed Antioch Theopolis ("City of God") and restored many of its public buildings, but the destructive work was completed by the Persian king, Khosrau I, twelve years later, who deported the population to a newly built city in Persian Mesopotamia, Weh Antiok Khosrow. Antioch lost as many as 300,000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.[14] During the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 the Emperor Heraclius confronted the invading Persian army of Khosrow II outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan at the Battle of Antioch, after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia. Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who lived an extremely ascetic life atop a pillar for 40 years some 65 kilometres (40 miles) east of Antioch. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo.[14] Arab conquest and Byzantine reconquest[edit] Byzantine recapture of Antioch in 969 The ramparts of Antioch climbing Mons Silpius during the Crusades (lower left on the map, above left) In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as أنطاكية Anṭākiyah. Since the Umayyad dynasty was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline. In 969, the city was recovered for the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter. It soon became the seat of a doux, the civil governor of the homonymous theme, but also the seat of the somewhat more important Domestic of the Schools of the Orient, the supreme military commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. Sometimes both offices were held by the same person, usually military officers such as Nikephoros Ouranos, or Philaretos Brachamios, who managed to retain the integrity of the eastern borderline after the Seljuk conquest of Anatolia. As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the Komnenian restoration, Dux of Antioch & Domestic of the Schools of the East Philaretos Brachamios held the city until the Seljuk Turks captured it from him in 1084. The Sultanate of Rum held it only fourteen years before the Crusaders arrived. Crusader era[edit] Main article: Principality of Antioch See also: Timeline of the Principality of Antioch The Capture of Antioch by Bohemund of Taranto in June 1098. The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch conquered the city in 1098. At this time, the bulk of far eastern trade traveled through Egypt, but in the second half of the 12th century Nur ed-Din and later Saladin brought order to Muslim Syria, opening up long-distance trade routes, including to Antioch and on to its new port, St Symeon, which had replaced Seleucia Pieria. However, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century altered the main trade routes from the far east, as they encouraged merchants to take the overland route through Mongol territory to the Black Sea, reducing the prosperity of Antioch.[33] In 1100, Tancred became the regent of Antioch after his uncle and predecessor Bohemond I of Antioch was taken prisoner for three years (1100–03) by Gazi Gümüshtigin of the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene. Tancred expanded the territory of Antioch by conquering Byzantine Cilicia, Tarsus, and Adana in 1101 and founding the principality, Byzantine Latakia, in 1103. In 1107 Bohemond enraged by an earlier defeat when he, allianced with Edessa, attacked Aleppo, and Baldwin of Bourcq and Joscelin of Courtenay (Bourcq's most powerful vassal) were briefly captured, as well as the Byzantines recapturing of Cilicia and the harbor and lower town of Lattakieh, he renamed Tancred as the regent of Antioch and sailed for Europe with the intent of gaining support for an attack against the Greeks.[34][35] From 1107 to 1108, Bohemond led a 'crusade' against Byzantium, with the Latins crossing the Adriatic in October 1107 and laying siege to the city of Durrës (in modern Albania), which is often regarded as the western gate of the Greek empire. Bohemond was outwitted by Alexius, who deployed his forces to cut the invaders' supply lines whilst avoiding direct confrontation. The Latins were weakened by hunger and proved unable to break the defenses of Durrës. Bohemond capitulated in September 1108 and was forced to accede to a peace accord, the Treaty of Devol. The terms of this agreement stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Devol in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1158 that it truly became a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire.[36][37] Six months after the Treaty of Devol Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112. After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to Roger of Salerno, who helped rebuild Antioch after an earthquake destroyed its foundations in 1114. With the defeat of Roger's crusading army and his death at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119 the role of regent was assumed by Baldwin II of Jerusalem, lasting until 1126, with the exception from 1123 to 1124 when he was briefly captured by the Artuqids and held captive alongside Joscelin of Courtenay. In 1126 Bohemond II arrived from Apulia in order to gain regency over Antioch. In February 1130 Bohemond was lured into an ambush by Leo I, Prince of Armenia who allied with the Danishmend Gazi Gümüshtigin, and was killed in the subsequent battle, his head was then embalmed, placed in a silver box, and sent as a gift to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.[38][39] Antioch was again ruled by a regency, firstly being Baldwin II, after his daughter and Bohemond II's wife, Alice of Antioch attempted to block Baldwin from entering Antioch, but failed when Antiochene nobles such as Fulk of Jerusalem (Alice's brother-in-law) opened up the gates for representatives of Baldwin II. Alice was then expelled from Antioch. With the death of Balwin in 1131, Alice briefly took control of Antioch and allied herself with Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin II of Edessa in an attempt to prevent Fulk, King of Jerusalem from marching north in 1132, however this attempt failed and Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again. In 1133 the king chose Raymond of Poitiers as a groom for Constance of Antioch, daughter of Bohemund II of Antioch and Alice, princess of Jerusalem.[40] The marriage took place in 1136 between the 21-year-old Raymond and the 9-year-old Constance. Immediately after assuming control, Raymond was involved in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus who had come south to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. The engagement lasted until 1137 when emperor John II arrived with an army before the walls of Antioch. Although the basileus did not enter the city, his banner was raised atop the citadel and Raymond was compelled to do homage. Raymond agreed with the emperor that if he was capable of capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, and Homs, he would exchange Antioch for them.[41] John went on to attack Aleppo with the aid of Antioch and Edessa, and failed to capture it, with the Franks withdrawing their support when he moved on to capture Shaizar. John returned to Antioch ahead of his army and entered Antioch, only to be forced to leave when Joscelin II, Count of Edessa rallied the citizens to oust him. In 1142 John then returned but Raymond refused to submit and John was forced to return to Cilicia again due to the coming winter, to plan an attack the following season. However the emperor died on April 8, 1143.[41] Second Crusade[edit] The following year after the death of John II Comnenus, Imad ad-Din Zengi lay siege to Edessa, the crusader capital, and with the death of Imad ad-Din Zengi in 1146, he was succeeded by his son, Nur ad-Din Zangi. Zangi attacked Antioch in both 1147 and 1148 and succeeded during the second venture in occupying most of the territory east of the Orontes including Artah, Kafar Latha, Basarfut, and Balat, but failing to capture Antioch itself. With the Second Crusades army previously nearly entirely defeated by the Turks and by sickness, Louis VII of France arrived in Antioch on March 19, 1148 after being delayed by storms. Louis was welcomed by the uncle of his spouse Eleanor of Aquitaine, Raymond of Poitiers. Louis refused to help Antioch defend against the Turks and to lead an expedition against Aleppo, and instead decided to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the Crusades. With Louis quickly leaving Antioch again and the Crusades returning home in 1149,[42] Nur ad-Din launched an offensive against the territories which were dominated by the Castle of Harim, situated on the eastern bank of the Orontes, after which Nur besieged the castle of Inab. Raymond of Poitiers quickly came to the aid of the citadel, where he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Inab, Raymond's head was then cut off and sent to Nur, who sent it to the caliph in Baghdad. However, Nur ad-Din did not attack Antioch itself and was content with capturing all of Antiochene territory that lay east of the Orontes.[43][44] After the Second Crusade[edit] With Raymond dead and Bohemond III only five years of age, the principality came under the control of Raymond's widow Constance of Antioch, however real control lay with Aimery of Limoges. In 1152 Baldwin III of Jerusalem came of age, but from 1150 he had proposed three different but respectable suitors for Constance's hand in marriage, all of whom she rejected. In 1153 however, she chose Raynald of Châtillon and married him in secret without consulting her first cousin and liege lord, Baldwin III, and neither Baldwin nor Aimery of Limoges approved of her choice.[45] In 1156 Raynald claimed that the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus had reneged on his promises to pay Raynald a sum of money, and vowed to attack the island of Cyprus in revenge. However Aimery refused to finance Raynald's expedition, so in turn Raynald had the Patriarch seized, beaten, stripped naked, covered in honey, and had him left in the burning sun on top of the citadel to be attacked by insects. When the Patriarch was released, he collapsed in exhaustion and agreed to finance Raynald's expedition.[46] In the meantime, Raynald had allied himself with the Armenian prince, Thoros II. In 1156 Raynald's forces attacked Cyprus, ravaging the island over a three-week period, with rapine, killing, and plundering its citizens. After which, Manuel I Comnenus raised an army and began their march towards Syria, as a result Raynald threw himself to the mercy of the emperor who insisted on the installation of a Greek Patriarch and the surrender of the citadel in Antioch. The following spring, Manuel made a triumphant entry into the city and established himself as the unquestioned suzerain of Antioch. In 1160 Raynald was captured by Muslims during a plundering raid against the Syrian and Armenian peasants of the neighborhood of Marash. He was held captive for sixteen years, and as the stepfather of the Empress Maria, he was ransomed by Manuel for 120,000 gold dinars in 1176 (about 500 kg of gold, worth approximately £16 million or US$26 million as of October 2010[update]). With Raynald disposed of for a long time, the patriarch Aimery became the new regent, chosen by Baldwin III. To further consolidate his own claim over Antioch, Manuel chose Maria of Antioch as his bride, daughter of Constance of Antioch and Raymond of Poitiers. But the government of Antioch remained in crisis up until 1163, when Constance asked the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia to help maintain her rule, as a result the citizens of Antioch exiled her and installed her son Bohemond III and now brother-in-law to the emperor, as regent.[47] One year later, Nur ad-Din Zangi captured Bohemond III when he defeated a joint Antiochene-Tripolitan army. Bohemond III was soon released, however Harem, Syria which Raynald had recaptured in 1158, was lost again and the frontier of Antioch was permanently placed west of the Orontes. Byzantine influence remained in Antioch and in 1165, Bohemond III married a niece of the emperor, Maria of Antioch, and installed a Greek patriarch in the city, Athanasius II, Patriarch of Antioch, who remained in his position until he died in an earthquake five years later.[48][49] Third Crusade[edit] On October 29, 1187, Pope Gregory VIII issued the papal bull Audita tremendi, his call for the Third Crusade.[50] Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I of England, and Philip II of France answered the summons. With Richard and Philip deciding to take a sea route, Frederick lacked the necessary ships and took a land route where he pushed on through Anatolia, defeating the Turks in the Battle of Iconium, however upon reaching Christian territory in Lesser Armenia (Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia) the emperor drowned in the river Saleph. The emperor was buried at Antioch and the Germans became an insignificant contingent during the crusade. Throughout the Third Crusade Antioch remained neutral, however with the end of the Third Crusade (1192), they were included in the Treaty of Ramla between Richard and Saladin.[51][52][53][54] Battles for sovereignty[edit] With no heir after the death of Raymond III, Count of Tripoli in the Battle of Hattin he left his godson, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli, the eldest son of Bohemond III. However Bohemond installed his younger, the future prince Bohemond IV of Antioch, as count of Tripoli. Shortly after the end of the Third Crusade, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli married Alice of Armenia, the niece of Leo II, or Leo I, King of Armenia, and a vassal to Antioch. Alice bore Raymond IV a son in 1199, Raymond-Roupen, after which Raymond IV died in the coming months. In 1194 Leo II tricked Bohemond III making him believe that the new born prince had been captured by the Roupenians. Leo made a failed attempt at capturing Antioch believing the city would be weakened with the absence of Bohemond. Henry II, Count of Champagne nephew to both Richard I and Philip II, travelled to Lesser Armenia and managed to persuade Leo that in exchange for Antioch, renouncing its overlordship to Lesser Armenia and to release Bohemond, who in 1201 died. With the death of Bohemond III there followed a 15-year struggle for power of Antioch, between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia. According to the rules of primogeniture Leo's great nephew Raymond-Roupen was the rightful heir of Antioch, and Leo's position was supported by the pope. However, on the other hand, the city commune of Antioch supported Bohemond IV of Antioch, on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the last ruling prince, Bohemond III. In 1207 Bohemond IV installed a Greek patriarch in Antioch, despite the East-West Schism, under the help of Aleppo, Bohemond IV drove Leo out of Antioch.[55][56] Fifth Crusade and afterwards[edit] See also: Armeno-Mongol relations In 1213 Pope Innocent III's papal bull Quia maior called for all of Christendom to lead a new (Fifth) crusade. This strengthened the support of sultan al-Adil I, an Ayyubid-Egyptian general who supported Raymond-Roupen's claims in Antioch. In 1216 Leo installed Raymond-Roupen as prince of Antioch, and ending all military aspect of the struggle between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia, but the citizens again revolted against Raymond-Roupen in c. 1219 and Bohemond of Tripoli was recognised as the fourth prince of that name. Bohemond IV and his son Bohemond V remained neutral in the struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines to the south which arose when Frederich II married Isabella II, and in 1233 Bohemond IV died. From 1233 onwards Antioch declined and appeared rarely in records for 30 years, and in 1254 the altercations of the past between Antioch and Armenia were laid to rest when Bohemond VI of Antioch married the then 17‑year‑old Sibylla of Armenia, and Bohemond VI became a vassal of the Armenian kingdom. Effectively, the Armenian kings ruled Antioch while the prince of Antioch resided in Tripoli. The Armenians drew up a treaty with the Mongols, who were now ravaging Muslim lands, and under protection they extended their territory into the lands of the Seljuq dynasty in the north and the Aleppo territory to the south. Antioch was part of this Armeno-Mongol alliance. Bohemond VI managed to retake Lattakieh and reestablished the land bridge between Antioch and Tripoli, while the Mongols insisted he install the Greek patriarch there rather than a Latin one, due to the Mongols attempting to strengthen ties with the Byzantine Empire. This earned Bohemond the enmity of the Latins of Acre, and Bohemond was excommunicated by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Pope Urban IV,[57] which was later suspended.[58][59] Fall of Antioch[edit] See also: Siege of Antioch (1268) In 1259 the Mongols captured the Syrian city of Damascus, and eventually in 1260, Aleppo. The Mamluk sultan Saif ad-Din Qutuz looked to ally with the Franks, who declined. In September 1260, the Mamluks defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut, shortly after Qutuz was assassinated at Al-Salihiyya, and according to various sources his successor Baibars was involved in his murder.[60][61] (Baibars "came to power with [the] regicide [of Qutuz] on his conscience" according to Tschanz.) Despite this, Baibars was named sultan, and in 1263 sacked Nazareth, threatened Antioch with invasion, and appeared before the walls of Acre. In January 1265 Baibars launched an offensive against the Latins, starting with Acre, the capital of the remnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but was unable to take it, but defeated the Crusaders in many other battles in Arsuf, Athlith, Haifa, etc. And in 1268 Baibars besieged Antioch, capturing the city on May 18. Baibars promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but broke his promise and razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population upon their surrender.[62] Antioch's ruler, Prince Bohemond VI was then left with no territories except the County of Tripoli. Without any southern fortifications and with Antioch isolated it could not withstand the onslaught of resurgent Muslim forces, and with the fall of the city, the remainder of northern Syria eventually capitulated, ending the Latin presence in Syria.[63] The Mamluk armies killed or enslaved every Christian in Antioch.[64] In 1355 it still had a considerable population, but by 1432 there were only about 300 inhabited houses within its walls, mostly occupied by Turcomans.[65] Archaeology[edit] The Týkhē (Fortune) of Antioch, Galleria dei Candelabri, the Vatican Museums. Few traces of the once great Roman city are visible today aside from the massive fortification walls that snake up the mountains to the east of the modern city, several aqueducts, and the Church of St Peter (St Peter's Cave Church, Cave-Church of St. Peter), said to be a meeting place of an Early Christian community.[66] The majority of the Roman city lies buried beneath deep sediments from the Orontes River, or has been obscured by recent construction. Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the "Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity", which was made up of representatives from the Louvre Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Worcester Art Museum, Princeton University, Wellesley College, and later (1936) also the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University and its affiliate Dumbarton Oaks. The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including Constantine's Great Octagonal Church or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Seleucia Pieria. The principal excavations of Mosaics at Antioch led by Princeton University in March 1932 recovered nearly 300 mosaics. Many of these mosaics were originally displayed as floor mosaics in private homes during the 2nd through 6th centuries AD, while others were displayed in baths and other public buildings. The majority of the Antioch mosaics are from the fourth and fifth centuries, Antioch's golden age, though others from earlier times have survived as well .[67] The mosaics depict a variety of images including animals, plants, and mythological beings, as well as scenes from the daily lives of people living in the area at the time. Each mosaic is bordered by intricate designs and contains bold, vibrant colors.[68] One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya. A collection of mosaics on both secular and sacred subjects which were once in churches, private homes, and other public spaces now hang in the Princeton University Art Museum[69] and museums of other sponsoring institutions. A statue in the Vatican and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch – a majestic seated figure, crowned with the ramparts of Antioch's walls and holding wheat stalks in her right hand, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet. According to William Robertson Smith the Tyche of Antioch was originally a young virgin sacrificed at the time of the founding of the city to ensure its continued prosperity and good fortune.[citation needed] The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum. In April 2016, archaeologists discovered a Greek mosaic showing a skeleton lying down with a wine pitcher and loaf of bread alongside a text that reads: "Be cheerful, enjoy your life", it is reportedly from the 3rd century BC. Described as the "reckless skeleton" or "skeleton mosaic", the mosaic is once thought to have belonged in the dining room of an upper-class home.[70][71] Notable people[edit] Asclepiades of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch Saint Barnabas, one of the prominent Christian disciples in Jerusalem Saint Domnius, Bishop of Salona and patron saint of Split George of Antioch, the first to hold the office of ammiratus ammiratorum Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch John Malalas, a Greek chronicler John Chrysostom (349–407) Patriarch of Constantinople Libanius, 4th century AD, pagan sophist and confidant of Emperor Julian Saint Luke, 1st century AD, Christian evangelist and author of the Gospel of St. Luke and Acts of the Apostles Severus of Antioch, was the Patriarch of Antioch, and the head of the Syriac Orthodox Church Aulus Licinius Archias, Greek poet Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, Roman Politician and General Saint Maron, Patriarch of the Maronite Church See also[edit] Antiochene Rite Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch from Monty Python List of Greek place names The Martyr of Antioch Theophilus of Antioch References and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Koinē Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ "Antioch on Daphne"; orἈντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη "Antioch the Great"}}; Latin: Antiochia ad Orontem; Armenian: Անտիոք Antiokʽ; Syriac: ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ‎ Anṭiokya; Hebrew: אנטיוכיה‎, Anṭiyokhya; Arabic: انطاكية‎, Anṭākiya; Persian: انطاکیه‎; Turkish: Antakya. References[edit] ^ Sacks, David; Oswyn Murray (2005). Lisa R. Brody (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World (Facts on File Library of World History). Facts on File Inc. p. 32. ISBN 978-0816057221. ^ "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file. Warning: Takes several minutes to download). ^ "Acts of the Apostles 11:26". ^ Kloeg, Paul. “Antioch the Great: Population and Economy of Second-Century Antioch.” Masters, Leiden University, 2013. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/21549. ^ a b c d e Rockwell 1911, p. 130. ^ Libanius (2000). Antioch as a Centre of Hellenic Culture as Observed by Libanius. Translated with an introduction by A.F. Norman. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-85323-595-8. ^ a b Glanville Downey, Ancient Antioch (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963). Available as PDF[permanent dead link] ^ "Syrian Antioch and Pisidian Antioch". Bible Wise. Retrieved 22 September 2017. ^ "s.v. Ἀντιόχεια". Suda. At the Suda On Line project of the Stoa Consortium. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Easton, Matthew George (1897). Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.199–202 ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Vol. II 1984 pp. 1040 and 1409 ISBN 0-8018-3354-X ^ Rockwell 1911, pp. 130-131. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Rockwell 1911, p. 131. ^ Cicero Pro Archia, 4 ^ John Malalas, Book 8, pp.207–208 ^ John Humphrey (13 February 1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Charioteers. University of California Press. pp. 446–. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5. Retrieved 25 August 2012. ^ Strabo, 15.7.73 [1]. ^ Dio Cassius, liv, 9. ^ "St John Chrysostom's homily on Saint Babylas". Archived from the original on 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2012-01-24. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 ^ Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 ^ Ridebatur enim ut Cercops...barbam prae se ferens hircinam. Ammianus XXII 14. ^ Edwards, Robert W., "Antioch (Seleukia Pieria)" (2016). The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology, ed., Paul Corby Finney. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-8028-9016-0. ^ Acts 11:19 ^ Acts 11 ^ Acts 11:22 ^ Acts 11:26 ^ Acts 13:14–50 ^ Byzantine Religious Culture: Studies in Honor of Alice-Mary Talbot, Alice-Mary Maffry Talbot, Denis Sullivan, Elizabeth A. Fisher, Stratis Papaioannou, p.281 ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronite_Catholic_Patriarchate_of_Antioch. Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Seleucia in Pieria, Ancient Warfare Magazine ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press, 1955, pp. 326, 354–359 ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268. Oxford, Blackwell. 1921. Retrieved 2013-03-25. ^ Antioch (International Internet Preservation Consortium) ^ The Crusades The War For The Holy Land by Thomas Asbridge page 114 (p.3) to page 115 ^ Ibn al-Athir vol. 2, p. 320; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic perspectives, pp. 175–85 ^ A History of the Crusades – Volume II.: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East: 1100–1187. ^ The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins (1080–1393). ^ Usmah Ibn Munqidh (1095–1188): Autobiography: Excerpts on the Franks, c. 1175 CE. ^ a b Annales Herbipolenses, s.a. 1147: A Hostile View of the Crusade ^ The Crusades: A Documentary Survey Brundage ^ Studies in the History of Relations between Orient and Occident in the Middle Ages. Cairo 2003 ^ Islamic Imperialism: A History By Efraim Karsh ^ Les Familles d'Outremer ^ od's War: A New History of the Crusade ^ Religious and Military Crusader Orders in Syria in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Amman 2003. ^ Seeing Islam as Others Saw Athanasius II ^ Earthquakes in Syria during the Crusades. Cairo 1996. ^ J. N. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, New York: Oxford UP, 1986, 183. ^ Axelrod, Alan and Charles L. Phillips, editors. "Encyclopedia of Historical Treaties and Alliances, Vol. 1". Zenda Inc., New York, 2001 ^ Wolff p.113 ^ Konstam, Historical Atlas of the Crusades, 162 ^ Comyn, pg. 267 ^ A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.-A.D. 1268 (1921) ^ Riley-Smith, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades ^ Runciman, pp. 306–307. "To the Latins at Acre Bohemond's subservience seemed disgraceful, especially as it involved the humiliation of the Latin Church at Antioch...Bohemond was excommunicated by the Pope for this alliance (Urban IV, Registres, 26 May 1263) ^ Jean Richard, The Crusades: c. 1071 – c. 1291, pp 423–426 ^ "Ghazan resumed his plans against Egypt in 1297: the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, in spite of the loss of Acre by the Franks, and the conversion of the Persian Mongols to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mumluks, which was only signed in 1322 by the khan Abu Said", Jean Richard, p.468 ^ Al-Maqrizi, p. 519/vol. 1. ^ See Perry (p. 150), Riley-Smith (p. 237, Baybars ... murdered Qutuz"), Amitai-Preiss (p. 47, "a conspiracy of amirs, which included Baybars and was probably under his leadership"), Holt et al. ^ Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars Archived 2009-01-08 at the Wayback Machine ^ New scourge from Egypt, A History of Armenia by Vahan M. Kurkjian ^ Michaud, The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 18; available in full at Internet Archive. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol.3, p.22) for much of the information he has concerning the Mussulmans. ^ Runciman, op. cit., p. 326. ^ "Sacred Destinations". Retrieved 2008-07-01. ^ Downey, Glanville (1938). "Personifications of Abstract Ideas in the Antioch Mosaics". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 6: 349–363. doi:10.2307/283184. JSTOR 283184. ^ Fant, Clyde E.; Reddish, Mitchell G. (2003). A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-19-513918-1. ^ Jones, Frances F (1981). "Antioch Mosaics in Princeton". Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. 40 (2): 2–26. doi:10.2307/3774611. JSTOR 3774611. ^ Archaeologists discover ancient mosaic with message: 'Be cheerful, enjoy your life' ^ 2,400 year-old mosaic found in southern Turkey says 'be cheerful, enjoy your life' Sources[edit] Karl Otfried Müller, Antiquitates Antiochenae (1839) Albin Freund, Beiträge zur antiochenischen und zur konstantinopolitanischen Stadtchronik (1882) R. Forster, in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897) Ulrich Wickert. "Antioch." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 81–82. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. ISBN 0802824137  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Rockwell, William Walker (1911). "Antioch". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–132. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antioch. The Ancient City of Antioch Map Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey" Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics Antiochepedia Blog News and information about ancient Antioch Hatay Archaeology Museum website (mosaics from Antioch) v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) 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Tell Tayinat Telmessos Telmessos (Caria) Tenedos Termessos Tetrapyrgia in Cappadocia Tetrapyrgia in Pamphylia Titiopolis Tityassus Tlos Toriaeum Tragalassus Trebendae Trebenna Trysa Tyberissus Tyinda Tymandus Tynada Typallia Xanthos Yanıkhan Yumuktepe Zephyrium on the Calycadnus Southeastern Anatolia Amida Antioch in the Taurus Antioch in Mesopotamia (Constantia) Apamea on the Euphrates Carcathiocerta Carchemish Çayönü Dabanas Dara Doliche Edessa Göbekli Tepe Hallan Çemi Tepesi Harran Khashshum Kussara Nevalı Çori Nicopolis in Cilicia Nisibis Sakçagözü Sam'al Samosata Sareisa Seleucia at the Zeugma Sitai Sultantepe Tille Tushhan Urima Urshu Zeugma v t e People and things in the Quran Characters Non-humans Allāh ('The God') Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous) Animals Related The baqarah (cow) of Israelites The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey) The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave The namlah (female ant) of Solomon The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah The nāqat (she-camel) of Saleh Non-related ʿAnkabūt (Female spider) Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth) Ḥimār (Wild ass) Naḥl (Honey bee) Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter') Malāʾikah (Angels) Angels of Hell Mālik Zabāniyah Bearers of the Throne Harut and Marut Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) Raqib Atid Munkar and Nakir Riḍwan Archangels Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief) Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit') Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael) Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael) Mīkāil (Michael) Jinn (Genies) Jann ʿIfrīt Qarīn Shayāṭīn (Demons) Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil) Mārid ('Rebellious one') Others Ghilmān or Wildān Ḥūr Prophets Mentioned Ādam (Adam) Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha) Ayyūb (Job) Dāwūd (David) Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?) Hārūn (Aaron) Hūd (Eber?) Idrīs (Enoch?) Ilyās (Elijah) ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam) Isḥāq (Isaac) Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) Dhabih Ullah Lūṭ (Lot) Ṣāliḥ Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?) Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David) ʿUzair (Ezra?) Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah) Yaʿqūb (Jacob) Isrāʾīl (Israel) Yūnus (Jonah) Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)') Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale') Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob) Zakariyyā (Zechariah) Ulul-ʿAzm ('Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will') Muḥammad Aḥmad Other names and titles of Muhammad ʿĪsā (Jesus) Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah) Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary) Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God) Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God) Nūḥ (Noah) Debatable ones Dhūl-Qarnain Luqmān Maryam (Mary) Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?) Implied Irmiyā (Jeremiah) Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel) Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses) People of Prophets Good ones Adam's immediate relatives Martyred son Wife Believer of Ya-Sin Family of Noah Father Lamech Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos Luqman's son People of Abraham Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo Ishmael's mother Isaac's mother People of Jesus Disciples (including Peter) Mary's mother Zechariah's wife People of Solomon Mother Queen of Sheba Vizier Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son) People of Joseph Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon) Egyptians ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin) Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd)) Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah) Mother People of Aaron and Moses Egyptians Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura) Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses) Magicians of the Pharaoh Wise, pious man Moses' wife Moses' sister-in-law Mother Sister Evil ones Āzar (possibly Terah) Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time) Hāmān Jālūt (Goliath) Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses) As-Sāmirī Abū Lahab Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr) Implied or not specified Abraha Abu Bakr Bal'am/Balaam Barṣīṣā Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua Luqman's son Nebuchadnezzar II Nimrod Rahmah the wife of Ayyub Shaddad Groups Mentioned Aṣḥāb al-Jannah People of Paradise People of the Burnt Garden Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath) Christian apostles Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus) Companions of Noah's Ark Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim? Companions of the Elephant People of al-Ukhdūd People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin People of Yathrib or Medina Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah) Nation of Noah Tribes, ethnicities or families ‘Ajam Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans') Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel) Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah) People of Ibrahim People of Ilyas People of Nuh People of Shuaib Ahl Madyan People of Madyan) Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood') Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah) Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog People of Fir'aun Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad) Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad) Anṣār (literally 'Helpers') Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina) People of Mecca Wife of Abu Lahab Children of Ayyub Sons of Adam Wife of Nuh Wife of Lut Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog) Son of Nuh Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins) ʿĀd (people of Hud) Companions of the Rass Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba) People of Sabaʾ or Sheba Quraysh Thamūd (people of Saleh) Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland') Ahl al-Bayt ('People of the Household') Household of Abraham Brothers of Yūsuf Lot's daughters Progeny of Imran Household of Moses Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim Daughters of Muhammad Muhammad's wives Household of Salih Implicitly mentioned Amalek Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah) Banu Nadir Banu Qaynuqa Banu Qurayza Iranian people Umayyad Dynasty Aus and Khazraj People of Quba Religious groups Ahl al-Dhimmah Kāfirūn disbelievers Majūs Zoroastrians Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites) Muslims Believers Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil) Ruhban (Christian monks) Qissis (Christian priest) Yahūd (Jews) Ahbār (Jewish scholars) Rabbani/Rabbi Sabians Polytheists Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot Locations Mentioned Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land') 'Blessed' Land' Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden') Jahannam (Hell) Door of Hittah Madyan (Midian) Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn Miṣr (Mainland Egypt) Salsabīl (A river in Paradise) In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan) Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills') Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars) Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib) ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām Al-Ḥijr (Hegra) Badr Ḥunayn Makkah (Mecca) Bakkah Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure') Kaʿbah (Kaaba) Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham) Safa and Marwa Sabaʾ (Sheba) ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba) Rass Sinai Region or Tīh Desert Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa) Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai) Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place') Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor In Mesopotamia Al-Jūdiyy Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed') Bābil (Babylon) Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh) Religious locations Bayʿa (Church) Miḥrāb Monastery Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration') Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove') Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration') Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca) Masjid al-Dirar A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque) The Prophet's Mosque Salat (Synagogue) Implied Antioch Antakya Arabia Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier') Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il Cave of Hira Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull) Hudaybiyyah Ta'if Ayla Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia) Canaan Cave of Seven Sleepers Dār an-Nadwa Jordan River Nile River Palestine River Paradise of Shaddad Events, incidents, occasions or times Incident of Ifk Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree) Event of Mubahala Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba) The Farewell Pilgrimage Treaty of Hudaybiyyah Battles or military expeditions Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates') Battle of Badr Battle of Hunayn Battle of Khaybar Battle of Uhud Expedition of Tabuk Conquest of Mecca Days Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday) As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday) Days of battles Days of Hajj Doomsday Months of the Islamic calendar 12 months: Four holy months Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month) Ramaḍān Pilgrimages Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage) Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage) Times for prayer or remembrance Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ): Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night) Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings') Al-Bukrah ('The Morning') Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning') Al-Layl ('The Night') Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night') Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon') Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun') Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening') Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)') Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon') Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon') Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun') Al-Fajr ('The Dawn') Implied Event of Ghadir Khumm Laylat al-Mabit The first pilgrimage Other Holy books Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus) Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad) Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham) At-Tawrāt (The Torah) Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses) Tablets of Stone Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David) Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)') Objects of people or beings Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles Noah's Ark Staff of Musa Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah) Throne of Bilqis Trumpet of Israfil Mentioned idols (cult images) 'Ansāb Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god) Of Israelites Baʿal The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites Of Noah's people Nasr Suwāʿ Wadd Yaghūth Yaʿūq Of Quraysh Al-Lāt Al-ʿUzzā Manāt Celestial bodies Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'): Al-Qamar (The Moon) Kawākib (Planets) Al-Arḍ (The Earth) Nujūm (Stars) Ash-Shams (The Sun) Plant matter Baṣal (Onion) Fūm (Garlic or wheat) Shaṭʾ (Shoot) Sūq (Plant stem) Zarʿ (Seed) Fruits ʿAdas (Lentil) Baql (Herb) Ḥabb dhul-ʿaṣf (Corn of the husk) Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber) Rummān (Pomegranate) Tīn (Fig) Ukul khamṭ (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba) Zaytūn (Olive) In Paradise Forbidden fruit of Adam Bushes, trees or plants Plants of Sheba Athl (Tamarisk) Sidr (Lote-tree) Līnah (Tender Palm tree) Nakhl (Date palm) Rayḥān (Scented plant) Sidrat al-Muntahā Zaqqūm Liquids Māʾ (Water or fluid) Nahr (River) Yamm (River or sea) Sharāb (Drink) Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship) v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antioch&oldid=1025242194" Categories: History of Antioch Ancient Greek cities in Anatolia Roman towns and cities in Turkey Populated places along the Silk Road Former populated places in Turkey Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Archaeological sites in Hatay Province Coloniae (Roman) Crusade places Geography of Hatay Province Holy cities New Testament cities Roman sites in Turkey Seleucid colonies in Anatolia Populated places established in the 4th century BC 290s BC establishments Razed cities Hidden categories: Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Easton's Bible Dictionary CS1 errors: bare URL Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with Ancient Greek-language sources (grc) Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from October 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2010 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Asturianu تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latviešu Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray Wolof 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 May 2021, at 14:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6436	----	De Clementia - Wikipedia De Clementia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Essay by Seneca De Clementia From the 1594 edition, published by Jean Le Preux Author Lucius Annaeus Seneca Country Ancient Rome Language Latin Subject Ethics Genre Philosophy Publication date AD c. 55 De Clementia (frequently translated as On Mercy in English) is a two volume (incomplete) hortatory essay written in AD 55–56 by Seneca the Younger, a Roman Stoic philosopher, to the emperor Nero in the first five years of his reign.[1] Contents 1 Date and writing 2 The essay 3 Legacy 4 John Calvin's commentary on De Clementia 5 Quotation 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Translations 8.2 Editions 9 External links Date and writing[edit] The work was written after Nero had become emperor and clearly dates from an early part of Nero's reign.[2] From Seneca's remarks, it would appear that it was written after Nero had turned eighteen, which would place it after the murder of his rival Britannicus in AD 55.[2] It may therefore been written partly as an apology, perhaps as a means of assuring the Roman nobility that the murder would be the end, not the beginning of bloodshed.[3] The work survives in a fragmentary state. Of an original three books, only the first and the beginning of the second survive.[4] The essay[edit] Seneca's De Clementia is an instructional contrast between the good ruler and the tyrant, and an evaluation of the relationship between ruler and subject. A survey of history is made in the first volume to select different rulers to point out as examples, including Dionysius of Syracuse and Sulla being used as cautionary tales and young Augustus as the exemplar. An extended illustration of Augustus showing mercy to the rebellious Cinna alongside an example from Nero's own life is meant to encourage the aspiring emperor to likewise show clemency. While the first volume is accommodated to popular understanding[5] the second book touches on stoic paradoxes and scholastic details. In general, the two books are not overly concerned with historical accuracy. Within his essay, Seneca does not discuss the constitutional legitimacy of the principate, but rather deals with the problem of having a good sovereign. The only real power, in his view, was power which was guided by the Stoic conception of logos (universal reason). Thus, clemency, not pity or unmotivated generosity, is the reasonable approach which guarantees the consent and devotion of the emperor's subjects and provides the state's security.[6] Legacy[edit] De Clementia is a rare survival of a Roman work dedicated to political advice.[7] It is particularly unusual in its discussion of mercy, as later panegyrics tend to emphasise imperial piety and majesty.[8] The text has come down to us together with De Beneficiis in one of the earliest surviving Senecan manuscripts, as part of the 8th century Codex Nazarianus (Vat. Pal. 1547).[4] In the 12th century copies of De Clementia were circulating Europe nearly always attached to De Beneficiis, and in this form it reached the Renaissance.[8] Although always regarded as a minor work of Seneca's, it received one significant appraisal in 1532 when John Calvin published his commentary on it.[9] John Calvin's commentary on De Clementia[edit] Shortly after finishing his legal studies, a young John Calvin wrote his first book, a commentary on De Clementia. The commentary consists mostly of philological notes and context with other Latin writers interspersed with notes on Seneca's style and ideas. There have been three suggested reasons for this. First, Erasmus wrote the preface to his 1529 translation of Seneca that he welcomed editorial comments by young scholars. In taking up this invitation, some believe Calvin was attempting to establish his reputation as a humanist among the intellectual elite.[10] Second, because there was a general revival of Stoicism in Renaissance times, it may have been simply because Calvin wanted more popularity for Seneca. Theodore Beza, who was Calvin's successor in Geneva, mentions Seneca as "a great favorite for him" because he was "obviously in accord with Calvin."[11] The third possibility, generally rejected by scholars[who?], is that he was writing to the French King Francis I. The lack of a dedication to him, mention of him, and gross error that would have been made comparing Francis with Nero all lead to the theory's disuse.[12] In writing his Commentary, Calvin made use of the texts of two "ancient pillars," Cicero and Seneca, and two "modern pillars," Erasmus and Budaeus. Ford Lewis Battles argues there is a third "modern pillar," Philipus Beroaldus the Elder. When quoting from sources, he is less versed in Greek literature than in Latin.[13] It is worth noting that Calvin's brief biographical sketch of Seneca at the outset is taken almost entirely from Tacitus, while ignoring the less noble picture from Dio Cassius. Fundamentally, Calvin at this point in his career is acting as a humanist and not a Protestant reformer.[12] Calvin and Seneca agree that all men are sinners and sin needs to be punished, and both are committed to a deterministic theism.[14] However, it becomes clear that Calvin had not intended to pass Stoic elements into Protestant theology, and in fact Calvin attacks the Stoic creed more often than he approves it.[15] Beyond theological critique, Calvin also reproves Seneca's style as too luxuriant, and remarks, "I also miss the orderly arrangement of matter, which is certainly not the least quality of a good style."[16] We can already begin to see the anticipation of Calvin's full development in his writing method and can expect the transformation of Calvin's classical learning and the seriousness of the Stoic ethic into Christian faith.[17] Quotation[edit] No creature is more fretful, or to be treated with greater skill, than man, and none should be treated with greater forbearance. — From Seneca.[18] Notes[edit] ^ James R. Harrison, Paul and the Imperial Authorities at Thessalonica and Rome, 2011, p. 292 ^ a b Malaspina 2013, p. 174 ^ Habinek 2013, p. 10 ^ a b Reynolds, Griffin & Fantham 2012, p. 93 ^ Battles 1992, p. 48 ^ Gian Conte, Latin Literature – A History, 1999, pp. 412–413 ^ Malaspina 2013, p. 175 ^ a b Malaspina 2013, p. 179 ^ Malaspina 2013, p. 179 ^ Salley 1992, p. 75 ^ Tracts relating to the reformation. by John Calvin. With his life by Theodore Beza, vol. I, 1844–1851, p. xxiv ^ a b Salley 1992, p. 93 ^ Battles 1992, p. 52 ^ Salley 1992, p. 82 ^ Edward F. Meylan, A Stoic Doctrine in Calvin, in The Romanic Review, 1937, pp. 105–115 ^ John Calvin, Commentary on De Clementia, preface iii. ^ Battles 1992, p. 57 ^ John Davie, Seneca – Dialogues and Essays, Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-280714-4 References[edit] Battles, Ford Lewis (1992), "Sources of Calvin's Seneca Commentary", Articles on Calvin and Calvinism Habinek, Thomas (2013), "Imago Suae Vitae: Seneca's Life and Career", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 9004217088 Malaspina, Ermanno (2013), "De Clementia", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, BRILL, ISBN 9004154612 Reynolds, L. D.; Griffin, M. T.; Fantham, E. (2012), "Annaeus Seneca (2), Lucius", in Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A.; Eidinow, E. (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199545561 Salley, Luise (1992), "A French Humanist's Chef-D'Oeuvre: The Commentaries on Seneca's "De Clementia" by John Calvin", Articles on Calvin and Calvinism Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] John M. Cooper, J.F. Procope, (1995). Seneca: Moral and Political Essays (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521348188 Robert A. Kaster, Martha C. Nussbaum, (2012). Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748421 Editions[edit] Braund, Susanna (2011) Seneca: De Clementia. Oxford University Press. External links[edit] Works related to Of Clemency at Wikisource  Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: De Clementia Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) United States Australia Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Clementia&oldid=1027358780" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Mirrors for princes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2012 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6441	----	Aerarium - Wikipedia Aerarium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Aerarium Saturni) Jump to navigation Jump to search Aerarium (from Latin "aes", in its derived sense of "money") was the name (in full, "aerarium stabulum" - treasure-house) given in Ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense to the public finances.[1] Contents 1 Aerarium populi Romani 2 Aerarium sanctius 3 Aerarium militare 4 Tribuni aerarii 5 Publicum 6 References 7 External links Aerarium populi Romani[edit] The treasury contained the monies and accounts of the state finances. It also held the standards of the legions; the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the Senate and other papers and registers of importance. These public treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn at the Forum Romanum, on the eastern slope of the Capitoline Hill. During the republic, they were in the charge of the urban quaestors, under the supervision and control of the Senate.[1] This arrangement continued (except for the year 43 BC, when no quaestors were chosen) until 28 BC, when Augustus transferred the aerarium to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the Senate from ex-praetors. In 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of office. Claudius in 44 restored the quaestors, but had them nominated by the emperor for three years. In 56, Nero substituted two ex-praetors selected under the same conditions.[1] Aerarium sanctius[edit] In addition to the common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund, also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium sanctum (or sanctius). This fund probably originally consisted of the spoils of war. Afterwards it was maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manumitted slaves. This source of revenue was established by a lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in cases of extreme necessity.[1] Under the emperors, the Senate continued to have at least the nominal management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate exchequer, called fiscus. However, after a time, as the power of the emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended until the Senate existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased.[1] Aerarium militare[edit] Main article: aerarium militare Besides creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in AD 6 a military treasury (aerarium militare) as a fund for veterans' retirement benefits. It was largely endowed by the emperor himself and supported by the proceeds of new taxes, an inheritance tax and a sales tax on auctions. Its administration was in the hands of three praefecti aerarii militaris. At first these were appointed by lot, but afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank, for three years.[1] Tribuni aerarii[edit] The tribuni aerarii ("tribunes of the treasury") have been the subject of much discussion. They are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores tribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian organization, levied the war-tax (tributum) in the tribes and the poll-tax on the aerarii. They also acted as paymasters of the equites and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the lex Aurelia (70 BC) the list of judices was composed, in addition to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these were the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain.[1] According to Theodor Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed from the list of judices by Julius Caesar, but replaced by Augustus. According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii were not officials at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite distinct from the curatores tribuum, who undertook certain financial work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended to include all those who possessed the property qualification that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni aerarii.[1] Publicum[edit] Prior to the decemvirate in 451 BC, there was a separate institution known as the publicum. On a number of occasions it is recorded that various patricians incurred the anger of the plebs by paying the spoils from war into the publicum rather than the aerarium, for example Quintus Fabius Vibulanus in 485 BC following a victory over the Volsci and Aequi.[2] From this it has been argued that the publicum was a fund administered by the patricians,[3] but this has been disputed by others.[4] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aerarium". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 259. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.42 ^ Barthold Georg Niebuhr, Roman History, II, p.25 ^ Albert Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, II, 286 External links[edit] Aerarium (article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerarium&oldid=1007739220#Aerarium_sanctius" Categories: Economy of ancient Rome Government of the Roman Empire Economic history of Italy Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Монгол Nederlands Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Vèneto Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 17:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6443	----	Crisis of the Third Century - Wikipedia Crisis of the Third Century From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 235-284 events; almost destroyed Roman Empire This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (November 2015) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the German article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 6,472 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. 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(November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The divided Empire in 271 The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (235–284 AD), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into the Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions, political instability (with multiple usurpers competing for power), Roman reliance on (and growing influence of) barbarian mercenaries known as foederati and commanders nominally working for Rome (but increasingly independent), plague, debasement of currency, and economic depression. The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235. This initiated a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. The same number of men became accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors. By 268, the empire had split into three competing states: the Gallic Empire (including the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and, briefly, Hispania); the Palmyrene Empire (including the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus); and, between them, the Italian-centered independent Roman Empire proper. Later, Aurelian (270–275 CE) reunited the empire. The crisis ended with the ascension of Diocletian and his implementation of reforms in 284. The crisis resulted in such profound changes in the empire's institutions, society, economic life, and religion that it is increasingly seen by most historians as defining the transition between the historical periods of classical antiquity and late antiquity.[1] Contents 1 History 2 Causes 2.1 The problem of succession and civil war 2.2 Natural disasters 2.3 Foreign invasions 3 Economic impact 3.1 Breakdown of internal trade network 3.2 Increased militarization 4 Emperors 4.1 Gordian dynasty 4.2 Decian dynasty 4.3 Valerian dynasty 4.4 Gordian dynasty continued ? 4.5 Tacitus 4.6 Caran dynasty 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading History[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Roman imperial dynasties Crisis of the Third Century Chronology Barracks Emperors 235–284 Gordian dynasty 238–244 Valerian dynasty 253–261 Gallic Emperors 260–274 Illyrian Emperors 268–284 Caran dynasty 282–285 Britannic Emperors 286–297 Succession Preceded by Severan dynasty Followed by Diocletian and the Tetrarchy v t e Crisis of the Third Century Reign of Maximinus Thrax (235–238) Death of Alexander Severus (235) Usurpation of Magnus (c. 235) Usurpation of Quartinus (235) Year of the Six Emperors (238) Gordian Revolt (238) Carthage (238) Aquileia (238) Reign of Pupienus and Balbinus (238) Invasion of the Carpi (238–239) Reign of Gordian III (238–244) Sabinianus Revolt (240) Fall of Hatra (241) Resaena (243) Misiche (244) Reign of Philip the Arab (244–249) Invasion of the Carpi (245–247) Secular Games of 248 (248) Usurpation of Sponsianus (240s) Usurpation of Pacatianus (248) Usurpation of Jotapianus (249) Usurpation of Silbannacus (249 or 253) Decius' Rebellion (249) Verona (249) Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249–251) Plague of Cyprian (250–270) Decian persecution (250–251) Gothic invasion of Cniva (250–251) Carpi invasion of Dacia (250) Nicopolis ad Istrum (250) Beroe (250) Philippopolis (250) Usurpation of Titus Julius Priscus (251) Abritus (251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Death of Hostilian (251) Mariades' Revolt (252) Nisibis (252) Barbalissos (253) Interamna Nahars (c 253) Death of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus (253) Reign of Aemilianus (253) Antioch (253) Assassination of Aemilianus (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260) Thessalonica (254) Thermopylae (254) Dura-Europos (256) Gothic invasion (256–257) Invasion of Shapur (258) Invasion of the Alemanni (258–260 approx) Mediolanum (259) Scythian invasion (259–260) Edessa (260) Reign of Gallienus (260–268) Caesarea (260) Usurpation of Ingenuus (260) Usurpation of Regalianus (260) Usurpation of Macrianus Major (c. 259–261) Gallic Empire (260–274) Death of Saloninus (260) Roxolani Invasion of Pannonia (260) Campaigns of Odaenathus (260–267) Usurpation of Quietus (261) Usurpation of Balista (261) Usurpation of Valens Thessalonicus (261) Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (261) Usurpation of Macrianus Minor (261) Pannonian Rebellion (261) Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus (261–262) Postumus' Campaign against the Franks (262) Postumus' Campaign against the Alamanni (263) Ctesiphon (263) Scythian Invasion (265–266) Assassination of Odaenathus (267) Usurpation of Maeonius (266–267) Scythian Invasion (267–269) Heruli Raids (267) Athens (267) Usurpation of Manius Acilius Aureolus (268) Reign of Claudius II (268–270) Usurpation of Laelianus (269) Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marius (269) Augustodunum Haeduorum Naissus (268/269) Lake Benacus (268 or 269) Capture of Athens (269) Palmyrene Empire (270–273) Bostra (270) Palmyrene invasion of Egypt (270) Vandal Invasion (270) Reign of Aurelian (270–275) Usurpation of Victorinus Junior (271) Junthungi Invasion (271) Domitianus II (271) Tetricus I & Tetricus II (271–274) Rebellion of Felicissimus (270s) Placentia (271) Fano (271) Pavia (271) Tyana (272) Immae (272) Emesa (272) Razing of Palmyra (273) Usurpation of Faustinus (c. 273) Châlons (274) Further information: Alemanni § Conflicts with the Roman Empire After the Roman Empire had been stabilized, once again, after the turmoil of the Year of the Five Emperors (193) in the reign of Septimius Severus, the later Severan dynasty lost more and more control. The army required larger and larger bribes to remain loyal.[2] Septimius Severus raised the pay of legionaries, and gave substantial donativum to the troops.[3][4] The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.[5] His son Caracalla raised the annual pay and lavished many benefits on the army in accordance with the advice of his father to keep their loyalty,[6][7][8] and considered dividing the Empire into eastern and western sectors with his brother Geta to reduce the conflict in their co-rule. But with the major influence of their mother, Julia Domna, this division of the empire was not possible.[9] Instead of warring in foreign lands, the Roman empire was increasingly put on the defensive by marauding enemies and civil wars. This cut off the essential source of income gained from plundering enemy countries, while opening up the Roman countryside to economic devastation from looters both foreign and domestic. Frequent civil wars contributed to depletion of the army's manpower, and drafting replacement soldiers strained the labour force further. Fighting on multiple fronts, increasing size and pay of the army, increasing cost of transport, populist "bread and circuses" political campaigns, inefficient and corrupt tax collection, unorganised budgeting, and paying off foreign nations for peace all contributed to financial crisis. The emperors responded by confiscating assets and supplies to combat the deficit.[10] The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in 235. Many Roman legions had been defeated during a previous campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, while the emperor Severus Alexander had been focused primarily on the dangers from the Sassanid Empire. Leading his troops personally, the emperor resorted to diplomacy and accepting tribute to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly, rather than military conquest. According to Herodian this cost Severus Alexander the respect of his troops, who may have felt that more severe punishment was required for the tribes that had intruded on Rome's territory.[11] The troops assassinated Severus Alexander and proclaimed the new emperor to be Maximinus Thrax, commander of one of the legions present. Maximinus was the first of the barracks emperors – rulers who were elevated by the troops without having any political experience, a supporting faction, distinguished ancestors, or a hereditary claim to the imperial throne. As their rule rested on military might and generalship, they operated as warlords reliant on the army to maintain power. Maximinus continued the campaigns in Germania but struggled to exert his authority over the whole empire. The Senate was displeased at having to accept a peasant as Emperor.[12] This precipitated the chaotic Year of the Six Emperors during which all of the original claimants were killed: in 238 a revolt broke out in Africa led by Gordian I and Gordian II,[13] which was soon supported by the Roman Senate,[14] but this was quickly defeated with Gordian II killed and Gordian I committing suicide. The Senate, fearing Imperial wrath,[15] raised two of their own as co-Emperors, Pupienus and Balbinus with Gordian I's grandson Gordian III as Caesar.[16] Maximinus marched on Rome but was assassinated by his Legio II Parthica, and subsequently Pupienus and Balbinus were murdered by the Praetorian Guard. In the following years, numerous generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the empire and neglected their duties of defending it from invasion. There were frequent raids across the Rhine and Danube frontier by foreign tribes, including the Carpians, Goths, Vandals, and Alamanni, and attacks from Sassanids in the east. Climate changes and a sea level rise disrupted the agriculture of what is now the Low Countries, forcing tribes residing in the region to migrate into Roman lands.[17] Further disruption arose in 251, when the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox) broke out. This plague caused large-scale death, severely weakening the empire.[18][19] The situation was worsened in 260 when the emperor Valerian was captured in battle by the Sassanids (he later died in captivity). Throughout the period, numerous usurpers claimed the imperial throne. In the absence of a strong central authority, the empire broke into three competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire in 260. The eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine, and Aegyptus also became independent as the Palmyrene Empire in 267. The remaining provinces, centered on Italy, stayed under a single ruler but now faced threats on every side.[citation needed] Gothic raids in the 3rd century An invasion of Macedonia and Greece by Goths, who had been displaced from their lands on the Black Sea, was defeated by emperor Claudius II Gothicus at the Battle of Naissus in 268 or 269. Historians see this victory as the turning point of the crisis. In its aftermath, a series of tough, energetic barracks emperors were able to reassert central authority. Further victories by Claudius Gothicus drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. He died of the plague in 270 and was succeeded by Aurelian, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus. Aurelian reigned (270–275) through the worst of the crisis, gradually restoring the empire. He defeated the Vandals, Visigoths, Palmyrene Empire, and finally the remainder of the Gallic Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire had been reunited into a single entity. However, Aurelian was assassinated in 275, sparking a further series of competing emperors with short reigns. The situation did not stabilize until Diocletian, himself a barracks emperor, took power in 284.[citation needed] More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the Western Empire, had been ruined. Their populations dead or dispersed, these cities could not be rebuilt, due to the economic breakdown caused by constant warfare. The economy was also crippled by the breakdown in trading networks and the debasement of the currency. Major cities and towns, including Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries, but now surrounded themselves with thick walls.[citation needed] Fundamental problems with the empire still remained. The right of imperial succession had never been clearly defined, which was a factor in the continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate, and other parties put forward their favored candidate for emperor. The sheer size of the empire, which had been an issue since the late Roman Republic three centuries earlier, continued to make it difficult for a single ruler to effectively counter multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems were addressed by the radical reforms of Diocletian, who broke the cycle of usurpation. He began by sharing his rule with a colleague, then formally established the Tetrarchy of four co-emperors in 293.[20] Historians regard this as the end of the crisis period, which had lasted 58 years. However the trend of civil war would continue after the abdication of Diocletian in the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324) until the rise of Constantine the Great as sole Emperor.[21] The empire survived until 476 in the West and until 1453 in the East. Causes[edit] The problem of succession and civil war[edit] From the beginning of the Principate there were no clear rules for the imperial succession, largely because the empire maintained the facade of a republic.[22] During the early Principate, the process for becoming an emperor relied on a combination of proclamation by the Senate, popular approval, and acceptance by the army, in particular the Praetorian Guard. A family connection to a previous emperor was beneficial, but it did not determine the issue in the way a formal system of hereditary succession would. From the Julio-Claudian dynasty onwards there was sometimes tension between the Senate's preferred choice and the army. As the Senatorial class declined in political influence and more generals were recruited from the provinces this tension increased. Whenever the succession appeared uncertain, there was an incentive for any general with support of a sizable army to attempt to seize power, sparking civil war. The most recent example of this prior to the Crisis was the Year of the Five Emperors which resulted in the victory of Septimius Severus. After the overthrow of the Severan dynasty, for the rest of the 3rd century, Rome was ruled by a series of generals, coming into power through frequent civil wars which devastated the empire.[23] Natural disasters[edit] The first and most immediately disastrous of the natural disasters that the Roman Empire faced during the Third Century was the plague. The Antonine Plague that preceded the Crisis of the Third Century sapped manpower from Roman armies and proved disastrous for the Roman economy.[24] From 249 CE to 262 CE, the Plague of Cyprian devastated the Roman Empire so much so that some cities, such as the city of Alexandria, experienced a 62% decline in population. These plagues greatly hindered the Roman Empire's ability to ward off barbarian invasions but also factored into problems such as famine, with many farms becoming abandoned and unproductive.[25] A second and longer-term natural disaster that took place during the third century was the increased variability of weather. Drier summers meant less agricultural productivity and more extreme weather events led to agricultural instability. This could also have contributed to the increased barbarian pressure on Roman borders, as they too would have experienced the detrimental effects of climate change and sought to push inward to more productive regions of the Mediterranean.[26] Foreign invasions[edit] Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Barbarian invasions came in the wake of civil war, plague, and famine. Distress caused in part by the changing climate led various barbarian tribes to push into Roman territory. Other tribes coalesced into more formidable entities (notably the Alamanni and Franks), or were pushed out of their former territories by more dangerous peoples such as the Sarmatians (the Huns did not appear west of the Volga for another century). Eventually, the frontiers were stabilized by the Illyrian Emperors. However, barbarian migrations into the empire continued in greater and greater numbers. Though these migrants were initially closely monitored and assimilated, later tribes eventually entered the Roman Empire en masse with their weapons, giving only token recognition of Roman authority.[27] The defensive battles that Rome had to endure on the Danube since the 230s, however, paled in comparison to the threat the empire faced in the East. There, Sassanid Persia represented a far greater danger to Rome than the isolated attacks of Germanic tribes.[28] The Sassanids had in 224 and 226 overthrown the Parthian Arsacids, and the Persian King Ardashir I, who also wanted to prove his legitimacy through military successes, had already penetrated into Roman territory at the time of Severus Alexander, probably taking the strategically important cities of Nisibis and Carrhae.[29] Economic impact[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor Diocletian. With his rise to power in 284, the Crisis of the Third Century ended and gave rise to the Tetrarchy Internally, the empire faced hyperinflation caused by years of coinage devaluation.[30] This had started earlier under the Severan emperors who enlarged the army by one quarter,[31][self-published source?] and doubled the base pay of legionaries. As each of the short-lived emperors took power, they needed ways to raise money quickly to pay the military's "accession bonus" and the easiest way to do so was by inflating the coinage severely, a process made possible by debasing the coinage with bronze and copper. This resulted in runaway rises in prices, and by the time Diocletian came to power, the old coinage of the Roman Empire had nearly collapsed. Some taxes were collected in kind and values often were notional, in bullion or bronze coinage. Real values continued to be figured in gold coinage, but the silver coin, the denarius, used for 300 years, was gone (1 pound of gold = 40 gold aurei = 1,000 denarii = 4,000 sestertii).[citation needed] This currency had almost no value by the end of the third century, and trade was carried out without retail coinage. Breakdown of internal trade network[edit] One of the most profound and lasting effects of the Crisis of the Third Century was the disruption of Rome's extensive internal trade network. Ever since the Pax Romana, starting with Augustus, the empire's economy had depended in large part on trade between Mediterranean ports and across the extensive road systems to the Empire's interior. Merchants could travel from one end of the empire to the other in relative safety within a few weeks, moving agricultural goods produced in the provinces to the cities, and manufactured goods produced by the great cities of the East to the more rural provinces. Large estates produced cash crops for export and used the resulting revenues to import food and urban manufactured goods. This resulted in a great deal of economic interdependence among the empire's inhabitants. The historian Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort Moss describes the situation as it stood before the crisis: Along these roads passed an ever-increasing traffic, not only of troops and officials but of traders, merchandise and even tourists. An interchange of goods between the various provinces rapidly developed, which soon reached a scale unprecedented in the previous history and not repeated until a few centuries ago. Metals mined in the uplands of Western Europe, hides, fleeces, and livestock from the pastoral districts of Britain, Spain, and the shores of the Black Sea, wine and oil from Provence and Aquitaine, timber, pitch and wax from South Russia and northern Anatolia, dried fruits from Syria, marble from the Aegean coasts, and – most important of all – grain from the wheat-growing districts of North Africa, Egypt, and the Danube Valley for the needs of the great cities; all these commodities, under the influence of a highly organized system of transport and marketing, moved freely from one corner of the Empire to the other.[32] With the onset of the Crisis of the Third Century, however, this vast internal trade network broke down. The widespread civil unrest made it no longer safe for merchants to travel as they once had, and the financial crisis that struck made exchange very difficult with the debased currency. This produced profound changes that, in many ways, foreshadowed the very decentralized economic character of the coming Middle Ages.[33] Large landowners, no longer able to successfully export their crops over long distances, began producing food for subsistence and local barter. Rather than import manufactured goods from the empire's great urban areas, they began to manufacture many goods locally, often on their own estates, thus beginning the self-sufficient "house economy" that would become commonplace in later centuries, reaching its final form in the manorialism of the Middle Ages. The common, free people of the Roman cities, meanwhile, began to move out into the countryside in search of food and better protection.[34] Made desperate by economic necessity, many of these former city dwellers, as well as many small farmers, were forced to give up hard-earned basic civil rights in order to receive protection from large land-holders. In doing so, they became a half-free class of Roman citizen known as coloni. They were tied to the land, and in later Imperial law, their status was made hereditary. This provided an early model for serfdom, the origins of medieval feudal society and of the medieval peasantry. The decline in commerce between the imperial provinces put them on a path toward increased self-sufficiency. Large landowners, who had become more self-sufficient, became less mindful of Rome's central authority, particularly in the Western Empire, and were downright hostile toward its tax collectors. The measure of wealth at this time began to have less to do with wielding urban civil authority and more to do with controlling large agricultural estates in rural regions since this guaranteed access to the only economic resource of real value — agricultural land and the crops it produced. The common people of the empire lost economic and political status to the land-holding nobility, and the commercial middle classes waned along with their trade-derived livelihoods. The Crisis of the Third Century thus marked the beginning of a long gradual process that would transform the ancient world of classical antiquity into the medieval one of the Early Middle Ages.[35] However, although the burdens on the population increased, especially the lower strata of the population, this can not be generalized to the whole empire, especially since the living conditions were not uniform. Although the structural integrity of the economy suffered from the military conflicts of that time and the inflationary episode of the 270s, it did not collapse, especially because of the complex regional differences. Recent research has shown that there were regions that prospered even further, such as Egypt, Africa and Hispania. But even for Asia Minor, which was directly affected by attacks, no general decline can be observed.[36] While commerce and the economy flourished in several regions, with several provinces not affected by hostilities, other provinces experienced some serious problems, as evidenced by personal hoards in the northwestern provinces of the empire. However, there can be no talk of a general economic crisis throughout the whole of Empire.[37] Even the Roman cities began to change in character. The large cities of classical antiquity slowly gave way to the smaller, walled cities that became common in the Middle Ages. These changes were not restricted to the third century, but took place slowly over a long period, and were punctuated with many temporary reversals. In spite of extensive reforms by later emperors, however, the Roman trade network was never able to fully recover to what it had been during the Pax Romana (27 BCE – CE 180). This economic decline was far more noticeable and important in the western part of the empire, which was also invaded by barbarian tribes several times during the century. Hence, the balance of power clearly shifted eastward during this period, as evidenced by the choice of Diocletian to rule from Nicomedia in Asia Minor, putting his second in command, Maximian, in Milan. This would have a considerable impact on the later development of the empire with a richer, more stable eastern empire surviving the end of Roman rule in the west.[38] While imperial revenues fell, imperial expenses rose sharply. More soldiers, greater proportions of cavalry, and the ruinous expense of walling in cities all added to the toll. Goods and services previously paid for by the government were now demanded in addition to monetary taxes. The empire suffered from a crippling labour shortage. The steady exodus of both rich and poor from the cities and now-unprofitable professions forced Diocletian to use compulsion; conscription was made universal, most trades were made hereditary, and workers could not legally leave their jobs or travel elsewhere to seek better-paying ones. This included the unwanted middle-class civil service positions and under Constantine, the military. Constantine also tried to provide social programs for the poor to reduce the labour shortage.[39] Increased militarization[edit] All the Barracks Emperors based their power on the military and on the soldiers of the field armies, not on the Praetorians in Rome. Thus, Rome lost its role as the political center of the empire during the third century, although it remained ideologically important. In order to legitimize and secure their rule, the emperors of the third century needed above all military successes.[40] The centre of decision-making shifted away from Rome and to wherever the emperor was with his armies, typically, in the east. This led to the transfer of the capital to the four cities Milan, Trier, Nicomedia, and Sirmium, and then to Constantinople. The Senate ceased to be the main governing organ and instead members of the equestrian class who filled the military officer corps became increasingly prominent.[41] Emperors[edit] Main article: List of Roman emperors § 235–285: Crisis of the Third Century Several emperors who rose to power through acclamation of their troops attempted to create stability by appointing their descendants as Caesar, resulting in several brief dynasties. These generally failed to maintain any form of coherence beyond one generation, although there were exceptions. Gordian dynasty[edit] Main article: Gordian dynasty Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Gordian I CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS c. 159 CE, Phrygia? Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus Thrax. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimized by the accession of Gordian III March 22, 238 CE – April 12, 238 CE April 238 CE Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II 21 days Gordian II CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS c. 192 CE, ? Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate March 22, 238 CE – April 12, 238 CE April 238 CE Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army 21 days Pupienus (non-dynastic) CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS c. 178 CE, ? Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus April 22, 238 CE – July 29, 238 CE July 29, 238 CE Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard 3 months and 7 days Balbinus (non-dynastic) CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS ? Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III April 22, 238 CE – July 29, 238 CE July 29, 238 CE Assassinated by Praetorian Guard 3 months and 7 days Gordian III CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS AVGVSTVS January 20, 225 CE, Rome Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I and II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238 CE. Grandson of Gordian I April 22, 238 CE – February 11, 244 CE February 11, 244 CE Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I 5 years, 9 months and 20 days Philip the Arab (non-dynastic) CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILIPPVS AVGVSTVS with Philip II MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS c. 204 CE, Shahba, Syria Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II co-emperor in summer 247 CE February 244 CE – September/October 249 CE September/October 249 CE (aged 45) Killed in the Battle of Verona by Decius 5 years Decian dynasty[edit] Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Trajan Decius CAESAR GAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS with Herennius Etruscus c. 201 CE, Budalia, Pannonia Inferior Governor under Philip I; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating & killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus co-emperor in early 251 CE September/ October 249 CE – June 251 CE June 251 CE Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths 2 years Hostilian CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS Sirmium Son of Trajan Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate June 251 CE – late 251 CE September/October 251 CE Natural causes (plague) 4–5 months Trebonianus Gallus (non-dynastic) CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS with Volusianus GAIVS VIBIVS VOLVSIANVS AVGVSTVS 206 CE, Italia Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251 CE. June 251 CE – August 253 CE August 253 CE (aged 47) Assassinated by their own troops, in favor of Aemilian 2 years Aemilian (non-dynastic) CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS c. 207 or 213 CE Africa Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus August 253 CE – October 253 CE September/October 253 CE (aged 40 or 46) Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of Valerian 2 months Valerian dynasty[edit] Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Valerian CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS c. 195 CE Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian October 253 CE – 260 CE After 260 CE Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity 7 years Gallienus CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS with Saloninus 218 CE Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253 CE; his son Saloninus is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by Postumus October 253 CE – September 268 CE September 268 CE Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders 15 years Gordian dynasty continued ?[edit] Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Claudius II CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS May 10, 210 CE, Sirmium Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death According to Epitome de Caesaribus He was a bastard son of Gordian II September 268 CE – January 270 CE January 270 CE (aged 60) Natural causes (plague) 1 year, 4 months Quintillus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS c.210 CE, Sirmium Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death January 270 CE – September(?) 270 CE 270 CE (aged around 60) Unclear; possibly suicide or murder Unknown Aurelian (non-dynastic) CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS September 9, 214 CE/215 CE, Sirmium Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus September(?) 270 CE – September 275 CE September 275 CE (aged 60–61) Assassinated by Praetorian Guard 5 years Tacitus[edit] Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Tacitus CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS c. 200, Interamna Nahars, Italia Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum September 25, 275 CE – June 276 CE June 276 CE (aged 76) Shot by lightning bolt (possibly assassinated) 9 months Florianus CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS ? Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him June 276 CE – September? 276 CE September? 276 CE (aged ?) Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of Probus 3 months Probus (non-dynastic) CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS 232 CE, Sirmium Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian September? 276 CE – September/ October 282 CE September/ October 282 CE (aged 50) Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of Carus 6 years Caran dynasty[edit] Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office Carus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS c. 230 CE, Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son Carinus co-emperor in early 283 CE September/ October 282 CE – late July/ early August 283 CE Late July/early August 283 CE Natural causes? (Possibly killed by lightning) 10–11 months Numerian CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS ? Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus Late July/early August 283 CE – 284 CE? 284 CE Unclear; possibly assassinated 1 year Carinus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS ? Son of Carus, ruled shortly with him and then with his brother Numerian Early 283 CE – 285 CE 285 CE Died in the Battle of the Margus 2 years See also[edit] Bagaudae Sengoku period – a similar period in Japanese history Warring States period and Three Kingdoms period – similar periods in Chinese history Notes[edit] ^ Brown, Peter Robert Lamont (1971). The World of Late Antiquity. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 22. ISBN 978-0500320228. ^ Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395 Routledge history of the ancient world. Psychology Press. pp. 85, 167. ISBN 978-0415100588. ^ "Septimius Severus:Legionary Denarius". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-10. ^ Kenneth W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700, p.216 ^ R.J. van der Spek, Lukas De Blois (2008), An Introduction to the Ancient World, page 272 Archived 2017-07-30 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge ^ Grant, Michael (1996). The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire. Psychology Press. p. 42. ^ Dunstan, William, E. (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. ^ Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). The Romans, from village to empire. Oxford University Press. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-19-511875-9. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. pp. 11–13. ISBN 1134908156. ^ " Herodian says "in their opinion, Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence" (Herodian vi.7.10). ^ Southern, Pat The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001, p. 64 ^ Southern, Pat The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001, p. 66 ^ Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 12:16 ^ Southern, Pat The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001, p. 67 ^ Meckler, Michael L., Maximinus Thrax (235–238 A.D.), De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997) ^ Southern, Pat (2011-02-17). "Third Century Crisis of the Roman Empire". BBC History, 17 February 2011. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/thirdcenturycrisis_article_01.shtml.[permanent dead link] ^ Zosimus (1814) [translation originally printed]. The New History, Book 1. (scanned and published online by Roger Pearse). London: Green and Chaplin. pp. 16, 21, 31. Retrieved 2016-04-22. ^ Sherman, Irwin W. (2006). The power of plagues by Irwin W. Sherman. ISBN 9781555816483. ^ Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie. Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?, Berlin: de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010934-4 ^ MacMullen, Ramsay. Constantine. New York: Dial Press, 1969. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 ^ "Res Publica Restituta? Republic and Princeps in the Early Roman Empire – Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History". www.armstrong.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-11-12. Retrieved 2018-10-19. ^ Freedman, Paul (Fall 2011). "The Crisis of the Third Century and the Diocletianic Reforms". Yale University. Archived from the original on 2017-12-08. Retrieved 2018-10-19. ^ Sabbatani, S.; Fiorino, S. (December 2009). "The Antonine Plague and the decline of the Roman Empire". Le Infezioni in Medicina: Rivista Periodica di Eziologia, Epidemiologia, Diagnostica, Clinica e Terapia delle Patologie Infettive. 17 (4): 261–275. ISSN 1124-9390. PMID 20046111. ^ Harper, Kyle (2017-11-01). "Solving the Mystery of an Ancient Roman Plague". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2018-01-21. Retrieved 2018-10-20. ^ Light, John A. (26 January 2011). "Was the Roman Empire a victim of climate change?". Need to Know. PBS. Archived from the original on 2018-10-20. ^ Nigel., Rodgers (2006). Roman Empire. Dodge, Hazel. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 978-0754816027. OCLC 62177842. ^ Josef Wiesehöfer: Das Reich der Sāsāniden, in Klaus Peter Johne, Udo Hartmann, Thomas Gerhardt, Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284) 2008, p. 531ff. ^ Erich Kettenhofen: Die Eroberung von Nisibis und Karrhai durch die Sāsāniden in der Zeit Kaiser Maximins, 235/236 AD. In: Iranica Antiqua 30 (1995), pp. 159–177 ^ "This infographic shows how currency debasement contributed to the fall of Rome". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2017-10-20. ^ Flichy, Thomas. Financial crises and renewal of empires. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781291097337.[self-published source] ^ Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort Moss (1935). The Birth of the Middle Ages 395–814. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 1. ^ H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) ISBN 0-19-500260-1 ^ H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) ISBN 0-19-500260-1 pp. 29-30 ^ H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) ISBN 0-19-500260-1 pp. 26, 28-29 ^ Ruffing, Kai (2006). Deleto paene imperio Romano: Transformationsprozesse des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert und ihre Rezeption in der Neuzeit. Stuttgart: Steiner. p. 223. ISBN 978-3-515-08941-8. OCLC 180946164. ^ Hekster, Olivier. (2008). Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7486-2992-3. OCLC 271165910. ^ H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) ISBN 0-19-500260-1 pp. 7, 30 ^ Joseph Tainter (1988). The Collapse of Complex Societies. Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ISBN 052138673X. ^ Johne, Klaus-Peter; Hartmann, Udo; Gerhardt, Thomas (2008). Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284). Rome: Akademie Verlag. p. 1026. ISBN 978-3050045290. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. pp. 14–15. ISBN 1134908156. Bibliography[edit] Allen, Larry (2009). The Encyclopedia of Money (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 346–348. ISBN 978-1598842517. Davies, Glyn (1997) [1994]. A History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (Reprint ed.). Cardiff: University of Wales Press. pp. 95–99. ISBN 978-0708313510. Olivier Hekster, Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284 (Edinburgh 2008) ISBN 978 0 7486 2303 7 Klaus-Peter Johne (ed.), Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser (Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2008). Alaric Watson, Aurelian and the Third Century (Taylor & Francis, 2004) ISBN 0-415-30187-4 John F. White, Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian (Spellmount, 2004) ISBN 1-86227-250-6 H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) ISBN 0-19-500260-1 Ferdinand Lot, End of the Ancient World and the Beginnings of the Middle Ages (Harper Torchbooks Printing, New York, 1961. First English printing by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1931). Further reading[edit] Crisis of The Third Century, Hugh Kramer. Map, University of Calgary. The Crisis of The Third Century, OSU. v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudican revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e History of Europe Prehistory Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe Classical antiquity Classical Greece Roman Republic Hellenistic period Roman Empire Early Christianity Christianity in late antiquity Crisis of the Third Century Fall of the Western Roman Empire Late antiquity Middle Ages Early Middle Ages Migration Period Christianity in the Middle Ages Christianization Francia Byzantine Empire Papal States Bulgarian Empire First Second Maritime republics Venice Genoa Pisa Amalfi Viking Age Kievan Rus' Crown of Aragon Holy Roman Empire High Middle Ages Republic of Florence Feudalism Crusading movement Crusades Mongol invasion Serbian Empire Late Middle Ages Black Death Hundred Years' War Kalmar Union Early modern Renaissance Christianity in the modern era Reformation Age of Discovery Baroque Grand Duchy of Tuscany Thirty Years' War Absolute monarchy Ottoman Empire Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Early modern France Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack Hetmanate Swedish Empire Dutch Republic British Empire Habsburg Monarchy Russian Empire Age of Enlightenment Modern Great Divergence Industrial Revolution French Revolution Napoleonic Wars Nationalism Revolutions of 1848 World War I Russian Revolution Interwar period World War II Cold War European integration COVID-19 pandemic See also Art of Europe Genetic history of Europe History of Christianity History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime history of Europe Military history of Europe v t e Financial crises Banking panic Bear market Commodity price shocks Credit crunch Credit cycle Currency crisis Debt crisis Energy crisis Flash crash Hyperinflation Liquidity crisis Minsky moment Stock market crash Pre-1000 Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE) 1000–1760 Great Bullion Famine (c. 1400–c. 1500) The Great Debasement (1544–1551) Dutch Republic stock market crashes (c. 1600–1760) Kipper und Wipper (1621–1623) Tulip mania crash (1637) South Sea bubble crash (1720) Mississippi bubble crash (1720) 1760–1840 Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763 Bengal bubble crash (1769–1784) Crisis of 1772 Dutch Republic financial collapse (c. 1780–1795) Panic of 1785 Copper Panic of 1789 Panic of 1792 Panic of 1796–1797 Danish state bankruptcy of 1813 Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks (1815–1816) Panic of 1819 Panic of 1825 Panic of 1837 1840–1870 European Potato Failure (1845–1856) Great Irish Famine Highland Potato Famine Panic of 1847 Panic of 1857 Panic of 1866 Black Friday (1869) 1870–1914 Panic of 1873 Paris Bourse crash of 1882 Panic of 1884 Arendal crash (1886) Baring crisis (1890) Encilhamento (1890–1893) Panic of 1893 Australian banking crisis of 1893 Black Monday (1894) Panic of 1896 Panic of 1901 Panic of 1907 Shanghai rubber stock market crisis (1910) Panic of 1910–11 1918–1939 Early Soviet hyperinflation (1917–1924) Weimar Republic hyperinflation (1921–1923) Shōwa financial crisis (1927) Wall Street Crash of 1929 Panic of 1930 1945–1973 Kennedy Slide of 1962 1973–1982 1970s energy crisis (1973–1980) 1973 oil crisis 1973–1974 stock market crash Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975 Steel crisis (1973–1982) Latin American debt crisis (1975–1982) 1976 British sterling crisis 1979 oil crisis Brazilian hyperinflation (1980–1982) 1982–2007 Steel crisis (1982–1988) Brazilian hyperinflation (1982–1994) Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash (1982) Chilean crisis of 1982 1983 Israel bank stock crisis Black Saturday (1983) Savings and loan crisis (1986–1995) Black Monday (1987) 1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis Friday the 13th mini-crash (1989) Japanese asset price bubble crash (1990–1992) 1990 oil price shock Rhode Island banking crisis (1990–1992) 1991 Indian economic crisis 1990s Swedish financial crisis (1991–1992) 1990s Finnish banking crisis (1991–1993) 1990s Armenian energy crisis (1991–1995) Cuban Special Period (1991–2000) Black Wednesday (1992) Yugoslav hyperinflation (1992–1994) 1992 Colombian energy crisis 1994 bond market crisis Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994 Mexican peso crisis (1994–1996) 1997 Asian financial crisis October 27, 1997 mini-crash 1998 Russian financial crisis 1998–99 Ecuador financial crisis Samba effect (1999) California electricity crisis (2000–2001) Dot-com bubble crash (2000–2004) 2001 Turkish economic crisis 9/11 stock market crash (2001) Stock market downturn of 2002 South American economic crisis of 2002 2002 Uruguay banking crisis 2003 Myanmar banking crisis 2000s energy crisis (2003–2008) 2004 Argentine energy crisis Nigerian energy supply crisis (2005–) U.S. housing market correction (2006–2007) 2007 Chinese stock bubble crash Zimbabwean hyperinflation (2007–) 2007–present Financial crisis of 2007–2008 Subprime mortgage crisis U.S. bear market of 2007–2009 Global financial crisis in September 2008 Global financial crisis in October 2008 Global financial crisis in November 2008 Global financial crisis in December 2008 2008 Bulgarian energy crisis 2008 Central Asia energy crisis 2008 Latvian financial crisis 2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis 2008–09 Russian financial crisis 2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis 2008–2011 Irish banking crisis 2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis Global financial crisis in 2009 Blue Monday Crash 2009 European debt crisis Greek government-debt crisis 2009 Ecuador electricity crisis 2009 Dubai debt standstill Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010 2010 flash crash 2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis Energy crisis in Venezuela (2010–) 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami stock market crash August 2011 stock markets fall Black Monday 2011 Bangladesh share market scam 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis Venezuela economic crisis (2013–) Gaza electricity crisis (2013–) 2014–2016 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en-wikipedia-org-6446	----	Marcomannic Wars - Wikipedia Marcomannic Wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search War between Roman Empire and Germanic peoples (166-180) Marcomannic Wars Part of the Roman–Germanic Wars Detail of a relief scene on the Column of Marcus Aurelius (in Rome, Italy), depicting a battle of the Marcomannic Wars, late 2nd century AD Date AD 166–180 (14 years) Location Whole length of river Danube, the northeastern European border of Roman Empire Result Roman success: Barbarian invasions of Empire repelled; main belligerents forced to accept terms favourable to Rome Territorial changes Status quo ante bellum. Roman plans to annex "Sarmatia" (Hungarian Plain) and "Marcomannia" (Moravia, Slovakia and Bavaria north of Danube) abandoned. Belligerents Roman Empire Full list of participating military units Principal belligerents: Marcomanni, Quadi, Iazyges Also involved: Naristi, Chatti, Chauci, Langobardi, Hermunduri, Suebi, Buri, Cotini, Vandals (Astingi, Lacringi, and Victohali), Roxolani, Bastarnae, Costoboci Commanders and leaders Imperial family: Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus  Ti. Claudius Pompeianus Commodus Praetorian prefects: Titus Furius Victorinus Marcus Bassaeus Rufus Marcus Macrinius Vindex † P. Tarrutenius Paternus Field marshals (legati): Publius Helvius Pertinax Marcus Claudius Fronto † Marcus Didius Julianus Gaius Pescennius Niger Decimus Clodius Albinus M. Valerius Maximianus Lucius Gallus Julianus Gaius Vettius Sabinianus Titus Vitrasius Pollio Marcomanni: Ballomar Quadi: Ariogaesus Iazyges: Banadaspus, Zanticus Naristi: Valao Strength 13 legions 2 vexillationes Danubian fleet 58 auxiliary cohorts 977,000[a] Casualties and losses Moderate Heavy v t e Roman–Germanic wars Cimbrian War (113 BC – 101 BC) Noreia Burdigala Arausio Aquae Sextiae Vercellae Gallic Wars (58 BC – 57 BC) Vosges Sabis Clades Lolliana (16 BC) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Arbalo Lupia River Teutoburg Forest Pontes Longi Idistaviso Angrivarian Wall Marcomannic Wars (166–180) (participating Roman units) Carnuntum Gothic invasion of the Balkans (250–251) Nicopolis ad Istrum Beroe Philippopolis Abritus Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254) Thessalonica Thermopylae Heruli invasion of the Balkans (267–268) Naissus Roman–Alemannic Wars Mediolanum Lake Benacus Placentia Fano Pavia Lingones Vindonissa Durocortorum Argentoratum Solicinium Campi Cannini Gothic War (367–369) Noviodunum Gothic War (376–382) Marcianople Ad Salices Dibaltum Adrianople Adrianople Siege Constantinople Thessalonica Visigothic Wars Pollentia Verona Florence Faesulae Rome (410) Massilia 1st Arelate 2nd Arelate Narbonne Toulouse Châlons 3rd Arelate Orleans Déols 4th Arelate Vandalic Wars Rhine Nervasos Mountains Tarraco Hippo Regius Carthage Rome (455) Agrigentum Corsica Garigliano Cartagena Cap Bon Anglo-Saxon Wars Groans of the Britons Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain Treachery of the Long Knives Wippedesfleot Mercredesburne Mons Badonicus Dyrham Woden's Burg Raith Vandalic War (533–534) Ad Decimum Tricamarum Gothic War (535–554) Panormus Naples (536) Rome (537–538) Treviso Verona Faventia Mucellium Naples (542–543) Rome (546) Rome (549–550) Sena Gallica Taginae Mons Lactarius The Marcomannic Wars (Latin: bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum,[b] "German and Sarmatian War") were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about 166 until 180 AD. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges; there were related conflicts with several other Germanic, Sarmatian and Gothic peoples along both sides of the whole length of the Roman Empire's northeastern European border, the river Danube. The struggle against the Germans and Sarmatians occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work Meditations.[c] Contents 1 Background 2 First Marcomannic War 2.1 First invasions 2.2 First Roman expedition in Pannonia (168) 2.3 Roman expedition against the Iazyges and the Germanic invasion of Italy 2.4 Roman counter-offensive and defeat of the Marcomanni 3 Second Marcomannic War 4 Third Marcomannic War 5 Aftermath 6 In popular culture 7 Maps 8 References 8.1 Notes 8.2 Citations 9 Bibliography 10 External links Background[edit] Secure for many years following his ascension to power, the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius never left Italy; neither did he embark on substantial conquests, all the while allowing his provincial legates to command his legions entirely.[3] Historian Adrian Goldsworthy posits that Pius's reluctance to take aggressive military action throughout his reign may have contributed to Parthian territorial ambitions.[4] The resulting war between Parthia and Rome lasted from 161 to 166 AD (under the joint rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus) and, although it ended successfully, its unforeseen consequences for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them a plague (the so-called Antonine Plague), which would eventually kill an estimated 7 to 8 million people, severely weakening the Empire.[5] Despite the consequences of the plague, historian Kyle Harper contends that the event should not be treated as a fatal blow to the Empire.[5] Instead, Rome's resilience was demonstrated since the Empire remained intact and Roman birth rates in the decade following the plague subsequently skyrocketed.[6] At the same time, in Central Europe during the second-century AD, the first movements of the Great Migrations were occurring, as the Goths began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at the mouth of River Vistula (see Wielbark culture), putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic peoples launched raids south and west across Rome's northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube.[7] Whether this sudden influx of peoples with which Marcus Aurelius had to contend was the result of climate change or overpopulation remains unknown.[8] Theories exist that the various Germanic tribes along the periphery of the Empire may have conspired to test Roman resolve as part of an attempt to bring to possible fruition, Arminius's dream of a future united Germanic empire.[9] Up until these subsequent wars, the Marcomanni and Quadi generally enjoyed amicable relations and access to the Empire's wares—archaeological evidence of Roman household goods and practices illustrate such contact.[10] As with almost all areas within the Empire's reach, the Romans aimed for a combination of military-territorial dominance, while at the same time, engaging in mutually beneficial commerce.[11] First Marcomannic War[edit] First invasions[edit] By the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 161 AD, the pressures along the Roman frontier had reached a critical point as the Germanic tribes along its borders at the Rhine and Danube came to the conclusion that their survival meant breaking into Rome's territories.[12] Beginning in 162 and continuing until 165, an invasion of Chatti and Chauci in the provinces of Raetia and Germania Superior was repulsed. In late 166 or early 167, a force of 6,000 Langobardi and Lacringi invaded Pannonia. This invasion was defeated by local forces (vexillations of the Legio I Adiutrix commanded by a certain Candidus and the Ala Ulpia contariorum commanded by Vindex) with relative ease, but they marked the beginning of what was to come. In their aftermath, the military governor of Pannonia, Marcus Iallius Bassus, initiated negotiations with 11 tribes.[d] In these negotiations, the Marcomannic king Ballomar, a Roman client, acted as a mediator. In the event, a truce was agreed upon and the tribes withdrew from Roman territory, but no permanent agreement was reached. In the same year, Vandals (Astingi and Lacringi) and the Sarmatian Iazyges invaded Dacia, and succeeded in killing its governor, Calpurnius Proculus. To counter them, Legio V Macedonica, a veteran unit of the Parthian campaign, was moved from Moesia Inferior to Dacia Superior, closer to the enemy. First Roman expedition in Pannonia (168)[edit] During that time, as plague was ravaging the empire, Marcus Aurelius was unable to do more, and the punitive expedition he was planning to lead in person was postponed until 168. In the spring of that year, Marcus Aurelius, together with Lucius Verus, set forth from Rome, and established their headquarters at Aquileia. The two emperors supervised a reorganization of the defences of Italy and the Illyricum, raised two new legions, Legio II Italica and Legio III Italica, and crossed the Alps into Pannonia. The Marcomanni and the Victuali had crossed the Danube into the province, but, at least according to the Historia Augusta, the approach of the imperial army to Carnuntum was apparently sufficient to persuade them to withdraw and offer assurances of good conduct. The two emperors returned to Aquileia for the winter, but on the way, in January 169, Lucius Verus died.[13] Marcus returned to Rome to oversee his co-emperor's funeral. Roman expedition against the Iazyges and the Germanic invasion of Italy[edit] In the autumn of 169, Marcus set out from Rome, together with his son-in-law Claudius Pompeianus, who would become his closest aide during the war. The Romans had gathered their forces and intended to subdue the independent tribes (especially the Iazyges), who lived between the Danube and the Roman province of Dacia. The Iazyges defeated and killed Marcus Claudius Fronto, Roman governor of Lower Moesia. However, while the Roman army was entangled in this campaign, making little headway, several tribes used the opportunity to cross the frontier and raid Roman territory. To the east, the Costoboci crossed the Danube, ravaged Thrace and descended into the Balkans, reaching Eleusis, near Athens, where they destroyed the temple of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Germanic tribes of Central Europe in the mid-1st century. The Marcomanni and the Quadi are in the area of modern Bohemia. The most important and dangerous invasion, however, was that of the Marcomanni in the west. Their leader, Ballomar, had formed a coalition of Germanic tribes. They crossed the Danube and won a decisive victory over a force of 20,000 Roman soldiers near Carnuntum, in what is sometimes known the Battle of Carnuntum. Ballomar then led the larger part of his host southwards towards Italy, while the remainder ravaged Noricum. The Marcomanni razed Opitergium (Oderzo) and besieged Aquileia. This was the first time that hostile forces had entered Italy since 101 BC, when Gaius Marius defeated the Cimbri. The army of praetorian prefect Titus Furius Victorinus tried to relieve the city, but was defeated and possibly killed during the battle (other sources have him die of the plague). There is no consensus amongst scholars as to the year that the great Germanic invasion towards Aquileia took place. Several authors, like Marcus Aurelius' biographer Frank McLynn, accepting the date of defeat near Carnuntum as 170, place the great Germanic invasion itself three years earlier. They maintain it happened in 167 because by the year 170 the Germans would have been checked by the Praetentura Italiae et Alpium—the fortifications which were erected in 168–169 to block a breakthrough of the Alps to Northern Italy – whereas all sources confirm it to be a military walkover. A further argument is that the panic which gripped Rome in 167–168 would make no sense if the Germanic tribes were still on the opposite side of the Danube. Also, no source mentions the emperor being near the front when the disaster occurred, whereas by 170 Marcus Aurelius had settled there. McLynn maintains that Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus went to Aquileia in 168 to restore morale after the disaster as Aquileia makes no geographical, logistical or military sense as a base of operations for launching a campaign on the Danube in Pannonia. The reason McLynn maintains that 170 is proposed by other authors is that too much weight is given to Lucian's testimony regarding the influence of Alexander of Abonoteichos as a scapegoat for the disaster whereas it is uncertain whether Alexander was still alive by 170 and Lucian's chronology is at certain points suspect.[14] Deviating from the above discussion in English literature, researchers in Slovenia, one of the regions affected by the Germanic invasion, accept the year 168 as the proper date, based, among other arguments, on a portrait of Lucius Verus found in Ptuj[15] Roman counter-offensive and defeat of the Marcomanni[edit] The "Miracle of the Rain", from the Aurelian column. An unidentified "rain god" (top right) saves the Roman army. This disaster forced Marcus to re-evaluate his priorities. Forces from the various frontiers were dispatched against Ballomar. They came under the command of Claudius Pompeianus, with the future emperor Pertinax as one of his lieutenants. A new military command, the praetentura Italiae et Alpium was established to safeguard the roads into Italy, and the Danubian fleet was strengthened. Aquileia was relieved, and by the end of 171, the invaders had been evicted from Roman territory. Intense diplomatic activity followed, as the Romans tried to win over various barbarian tribes in preparation for a crossing of the Danube. A peace treaty was signed with the Quadi and the Iazyges, while the tribes of the Hasdingi Vandals and the Lacringi became Roman allies. In 172, the Romans crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory. Although few details are known, the Romans achieved success, subjugating the Marcomanni and their allies, the Varistae or Naristi and the Cotini. This fact is evident from the adoption of the title "Germanicus" by Marcus Aurelius, and the minting of coins with the inscription "Germania capta" ("subjugated Germania"). During this campaign, the chief of the Naristi was killed by the Roman General Marcus Valerius Maximianus. In 173, the Romans campaigned against the Quadi, who had broken their treaty and assisted their kin, and defeated and subdued them. During this campaign, a famous incident, the so-called "miracle of the rain", occurred, which was later depicted on the column of Marcus Aurelius and on coins. According to Cassius Dio, the legio XII Fulminata was hemmed in by a superior Quadi force and almost forced to surrender because of the heat and thirst. They were saved, however, by a sudden shower, which refreshed the Romans, while lightning struck the Quadi.[e] Contemporaries and historians attributed it to divine intervention: Dio stated that it was called by an Egyptian magician praying to Mercury, while Christian writers such as Tertullian attributed it to a prayer by Christians. Bas-relief scenes depicting events of the Marcomannic Wars Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of the vanquished, with raised vexillum standards Marcus Aurelius celebrating his triumph over Rome's enemies in 176 AD, riding in a quadriga chariot Reliefs come from the (now destroyed) Arch of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, 176–180 AD, Capitoline Museums In the same year, Didius Iulianus, the commander of the Rhine frontier, repelled another invasion of the Chatti and the Hermunduri, while the Chauci raided the shoreline of Gallia Belgica. In the next year, the Romans marched against the Quadi, whereupon the Quadi deposed their pro-Roman king, Furtius, and installed his rival, Ariogaesus, in his place. Marcus Aurelius refused to recognize him, and turning back, deposed and exiled him to Alexandria.[f] Thus, by late 174, the subjugation of the Quadi was complete. In typical Roman fashion, they were forced to surrender hostages and provide auxiliary contingents for the Roman army, while garrisons were installed throughout their territory. After this, the Romans focused their attention on the Iazyges living in the plain of the river Tisza (expeditio sarmatica). After a few victories, in 175, a treaty was signed. According to its terms, the Iazyges King Zanticus delivered 100,000 Roman prisoners and, in addition, provided 8,000 auxiliary cavalrymen, most of whom (5,500) were sent to Britain.[g] Upon this, Marcus assumed the victory title "Sarmaticus". Marcus Aurelius may have intended to campaign against the remaining tribes, and together with his recent conquests establish two new Roman provinces, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, but whatever his plans, they were cut short by the rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the East.[16] Marcus Aurelius marched eastwards with his army, accompanied by auxiliary detachments of Marcomanni, Quadi and Naristi under the command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus. After the successful suppression of Cassius' revolt, the emperor returned to Rome for the first time in nearly 8 years. On 23 December 176, together with his son Commodus, he celebrated a joint triumph for his German victories ("de Germanis" and "de Sarmatis"). In commemoration of this, the Aurelian Column was erected, in imitation of Trajan's Column. Second Marcomannic War[edit] Celemantia- a Roman castellum on the left bank of Danube in Slovakia. The respite was to be brief. In 177, the Quadi rebelled, followed soon by their neighbours, the Marcomanni, and Marcus Aurelius once again headed north, to begin his second Germanic campaign (secunda expeditio germanica). He arrived at Carnuntum in August 178, and set out to quell the rebellion in a repeat of his first campaign, moving first against the Marcomanni, and in 179–180 against the Quadi. Under the command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus, the Romans fought and prevailed against the Quadi in a decisive battle at Laugaricio (near modern Trenčín, Slovakia). The Quadi were chased westwards, deeper into Greater Germania, where the praetorian prefect Publius Tarrutenius Paternus later achieved another decisive victory against them, but on 17 March 180, the emperor died at Vindobona (modern Vienna). His successor Commodus had little interest in pursuing the war. Against the advice of his senior generals, after negotiating a peace treaty with the Marcomanni and the Quadi, he left for Rome in early autumn 180, where he celebrated a triumph on October 22. Third Marcomannic War[edit] Operations continued against the Iazyges, the Buri and the so-called "free Dacians" living between the Danube and Roman Dacia. Not much is known about this war, except that the Roman generals included Marcus Valerius Maximianus, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. At any rate, the victories they achieved were deemed sufficient for Emperor Commodus to claim the victory title "Germanicus Maximus" in mid-182. An inscription (CIL III 5937) describes a campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Lugii or Burii (Expeditio Burica). Aftermath[edit] The wars had exposed the weakness of Rome's northern frontier, and henceforth, half of the Roman legions (16 out of 33) would be stationed along the Danube and the Rhine. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new occurrence, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic and Slovakia. Some Germans who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not to bring more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[h] The Germanic tribes were temporarily checked, but the Marcomannic Wars were only the prelude of the invasions that would eventually disassemble and end the Western Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries. In popular culture[edit] Two films, The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) and Gladiator (2000), open with a fictionalized portrayal of a final battle of the Marcomannic Wars. A fictional account of the motivations that led to the Chattic invasion of Germania Superior in 162 is given in the novel series Romanike (2006–2014).[17] Maps[edit] Key: Red arrows: Romans. Green arrows: Marcomanns. Italy and Adriatic Sea at bottom left corner. First Marcomannic war Roman expedition against the Iazyges in the eastern Pannonian Plain and the great Marcomannic invasion (either 167 or 170). Roman counter-offensive across the Danube, 171-175 Second Marcomannic war Roman operations 180–182 References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Justin Martyr, The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, : [1] ^ Historian Péter Kovács spells out the various Latin derivatives for each of the Marcomannic Wars.[1] ^ Marcus Aurelius mentions these peoples in Book 1, annotating them with the note "Among the Quadi at the Granua".[2] ^ Cassius Dio, LXXII, p.12. ^ Cassius Dio, LXXII.8–10. ^ Cassius Dio, LXXII.13–14. ^ A branch of the Sarmatians, the Iazyges were much prized as heavy, or "cataphract", cavalry. Cassius Dio, LXXII.16. ^ Cassius Dio, LXXII, p.11. Citations[edit] ^ Kovács 2009, pp. 202–203. ^ Marcus Aurelius 2007. ^ Goldsworthy 2016, p. 183. ^ Goldsworthy 2016, p. 341. ^ a b Harper 2017, p. 115. ^ Harper 2017, p. 116. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 40–43. ^ McLynn 2009, pp. 328–329. ^ McLynn 2009, pp. 329–330. ^ Goldsworthy 2016, p. 393. ^ Goldsworthy 2016, p. 394. ^ Bunson 1995, p. 260. ^ Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 9.7–11 ^ McLynn 2009, p. 628. ^ Curk, I., Arma virumque, DZS, 1999, ISBN 86-341-2168-2 ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 24.5 ^ The Romanike series, Codex Regius (2006–2014) Archived 2016-08-06 at the Wayback Machine Bibliography[edit] Bunson, Matthew (1995). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19510-233-8. Cassius Dio, Historia romana, Books LXXII & LXXIII Goldsworthy, Adrian (2016). Pax Romana. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30017-882-1. Harper, Kyle (2017). The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69116-683-4. Historia Augusta, The. Lives of Marcus Aurelius. 1 & 2, Lucius Verus and Commodus (Loeb Classical Library edition). Kovács, Péter (2009). Marcus Aurelius' Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-9-00416-639-4. Herodian, History of the Roman Empire since the Death of Marcus Aurelius, Book I, Ch. 1–6 Marcus Aurelius (2007). "Meditations". Internet Classics Archive. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-09-04. McLynn, Frank (2009). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-30681-830-1. Robertson, Donald. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Wolfram, Herwig (1988). History of the Goths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05259-5. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marcomannic Wars. 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en-wikipedia-org-6454	----	File:Commodus-AnniusVerus tarsos 161-165 AE17 CNG.jpg - Wikipedia File:Commodus-AnniusVerus tarsos 161-165 AE17 CNG.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. Commodus-AnniusVerus_tarsos_161-165_AE17_CNG.jpg ‎(196 × 198 pixels, file size: 14 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Description: DescriptionCommodus-AnniusVerus tarsos 161-165 AE17 CNG.jpg English: Brothers Commodus and Annius Verus facing in a bronze coin from Tharsos, Cilicia, 161-165. Greek legend CEBACTOC Italiano : I fratelli Commodo e Annio Vero di faccia su una moneta di bronzo da Tharsos, Cilicia, 161-165. Legenda: CEBACTOC Nederlands: De broers Commodus en Annius Verus op een bronzen munt uit Tarsos, Cilicië uit 161-165. 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en-wikipedia-org-6457	----	Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). 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(previous page) (next page)0–9 2 B R 0 2 B 6th Minnesota Infantry Regiment .007 23 skidoo (phrase) 48th Highlanders of Canada 50th (Northumbrian) Division 54-40 or Fight (book) 221B Baker Street 1500 1500s (decade) 1601 (Mark Twain) 1886 St. Croix River log jam 1910s in Western fashion 1922 British Mount Everest expedition 1936 Governor General's Awards 1937 Governor General's Awards 1938 Governor General's Awards 1939 Governor General's Awards 1940 Governor General's Awards 1941 Governor General's Awards 1942 Governor General's Awards 1943 Governor General's Awards 1944 Governor General's Awards 1946 Governor General's Awards 1952 Governor General's Awards 1955 Governor General's Awards A A few acres of snow A Trilogia das Barcas Jeppe Aakjær Hans Aanrud Aaron's Rod (novel) Alexander Aaronsohn Giuseppe Cesare Abba Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie Ernst Abbe Henry Abbey Francis Ellingwood Abbot The Abbot Willis J. 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en-wikipedia-org-6482	----	Dardanus of Athens - Wikipedia Dardanus of Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dardanus (/ˈdɑːrdənəs/; Greek: Δάρδανος, Dardanos) was a Stoic philosopher, who lived c. 160 – c. 85 BC. He was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus. Cicero mentions him[1] as being one of the leaders of the Stoic school (Latin: principes Stoicorum) at Athens together with Mnesarchus at a time when Antiochus of Ascalon was turning away from scepticism (c. 95 BC). After the death of Panaetius (109 BC), the Stoic school at Athens seems to have fragmented, and Dardanus was probably one of several leading Stoics teaching in this era. Nothing else is known about his life, and he was presumably dead by the time Cicero was learning philosophy in Athens in 79 BC. Notes[edit] ^ Cicero, Academica, 2. 69. References[edit] Algra, K., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Page 41. Cambridge University Press, (1999). Inwood, B., The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Page 27. Cambridge University Press, (2003). v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dardanus_of_Athens&oldid=1024819994" Categories: Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era Stoic philosophers Roman-era Athenian philosophers 2nd-century BC Athenians 1st-century BC Athenians 1st-century BC philosophers 160s BC births 80s BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Italiano مصرى Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 07:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6486	----	Gaius Musonius Rufus - Wikipedia Gaius Musonius Rufus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century AD Roman Stoic philosopher Gaius Musonius Rufus Born c. AD 20 – 30 Volsinii, Etruria Died As late as AD 101 Nationality Roman Other names Musonius Rufus Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Gaius Musonius Rufus (/ˈruːfəs/; Greek: Μουσώνιος Ῥοῦφος) was a Roman Stoic philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in Rome during the reign of Nero and so was sent into exile in 65 AD, returning to Rome only under Galba. He was allowed to stay in Rome when Vespasian banished all other philosophers from the city in 71 AD although he was eventually banished anyway, returning only after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of Epictetus. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 3 Philosophy 4 Notes 5 Further reading 5.1 Translations 5.2 Studies 6 External links Life[edit] The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in Volsinii, Etruria[1] about 20–30 AD. By the time of Nero, he was already famous in Rome, where he taught Stoic philosophy. He was associated with the Stoic Opposition against the perceived tyranny of Nero. He followed Rubellius Plautus into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD).[2] He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching Stoicism, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at Nero's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of Gyaros (65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in the Pisonian conspiracy.[3] While Gyaros was "harsh and devoid of human culture",[4] Musonius was able to survive and form a small community of philosophers.[5] He specifically refers to his time in exile in his ninth discourse, pointing out its advantages for a practitioner of Stoicism.[6] He returned under Galba (68 AD). When Marcus Antonius Primus, the general of Vespasian, was marching upon Rome (69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by Vitellius to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop.[7] When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of, Publius Egnatius Celer, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned Barea Soranus.[8] It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught Epictetus, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD),[9] but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when Pliny speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.[10] Writings[edit] Chapter 1, page 1, of the works of Gaius Musonius Rufus, in Greek, edited by Otto Hense in the Teubner series, 1905. The Suda states that there are "speeches about philosophy bearing his name," and mentions letters to Apollonius of Tyana.[11] The letters that survive[12] are certainly not authentic.[13] It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of Discourses, by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by Stobaeus.[14] A second collection was compiled by one Pollio; it has been lost, but some fragments survive in quotations by later writers.[15] The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows: That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue That Women Too Should Study Philosophy Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons? Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice? On Training That One Should Disdain Hardships That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy That Exile is not an Evil Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury? What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher? On Sexual Indulgence What is the Chief End of Marriage Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy? Should Every Child that is Born be Raised? Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances? What is the Best Viaticum for Old Age? On Food On Clothing and Shelter On Furnishings On Cutting the Hair Philosophy[edit] Papyrus fragment P.Harr. I 1, showing a section of Discourse 15 of Gaius Musonius Rufus. 3rd century. His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. The philosophy he would have everyone cultivate is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but one that everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for himself.[16] Still, he considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the hair to grow, and to retire from general society.[16] At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind.[17] His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action.[17] He does not reject logic: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the fallacy which perplexes it;[18] yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the sophists.[19] He gives only a little attention to the physical doctrines of the Stoics; he asserts that the gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown.[19] The human soul he considers to be akin to the gods,[19] and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed.[20] He strongly asserts the liberty of the rational soul (Greek: διάνοια).[20] Musonius pays much more attention to ethics than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and women, should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue.[20] He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the mind is filled from childhood, and the evil habits confirmed by practices.[21] Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept.[21] He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.[22] A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature.[22] He combats all selfishness, and regards marriage not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole human race.[22] He zealously protests against the exposure of children as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of benevolence.[22] His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for diet, the care of the body, clothing, and even furniture. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the beard on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body.[22] He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.[22] Musonius argued because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue is the same, both should be trained in philosophy.[23] Notes[edit] ^ Suda μ 1305, Musonius ^ Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 59 ^ Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71; Cassius Dio, lxii. 27; Philostratus, Vit. Apoll., vii. 16 ^ … addidit insulam Gyarum immitem et sine cultu hominum esse: In the Annales, Tiberius is portrayed as extraordinarily cruel and vengeful, making his hesitance to exile a criminal to Gyaros particularly pointed. ^ Dillon, J. T. (2004). Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0761829027. ^ "Lecture IX - TheStoicLife.org". www.thestoiclife.org. Retrieved 2019-04-19. ^ Tacitus, Histories, iii. 81 ^ Tacitus, Histories, iv. 10, 40 ^ Cassius Dio, lxv. 13 ^ Pliny, Epistles, iii. 11 ^ Suda μ 1305, Musonius ^ Philostratus, Vit. Apoll., iv. 46 ^ Maria Dzielska, (1986), Apollonius of Tyana in Legend and History, page 41. ISBN 88-7062-599-0 ^ Stobaeus, Floril. xxix. 78, lvi. 18 ^ e.g. Aulus Gellius, v. 1, ix. 2, xvi. 1 ^ a b Heinrich Ritter, The History of Ancient Philosophy, Alexander James William Morrison, tr. (London, 1846), vol. IV, p. 190. ^ a b Ritter, p. 191. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 7 ^ a b c Ritter, p. 192. ^ a b c Ritter, p. 193. ^ a b Ritter, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f Ritter, p. 195. ^ Diotima, Philosophers on the Role of Women Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Cora Lutz, (1947), Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates. Printed in: Yale Classical Studies, Volume X. Edited by A. R. Bellinger. Yale University Press. Cynthia King, (2011), Musonius Rufus: Lectures and Sayings. Edited by William B. Irvine. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1-4564-5966-6 Studies[edit] J. T. Dillon, (2004), Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue. University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2902-4 L. Dottarelli, (2015), "Musonio l'Etrusco. La filosofia come scienza di vita", Annulli Editori ISBN 9788895187457. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gaius Musonius Rufus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gaius Musonius Rufus Diotima, Philosophers on the Role of Women International Vegetarian Union: C. RUFUS MUSONIUS Musonius Rufus entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online edition of Lectures and Fragments v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Musonius_Rufus&oldid=1027622217" Categories: 1st-century births 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Romans Ethicists Feminist philosophers Logicians Male feminists Members of the Pisonian conspiracy Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of sexuality Philosophers of Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers Virtue ethicists Ancient Roman delatores Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 00:56 (UTC). 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{Navbox | name = Roman emperors | title = [[List of Roman emperors|Roman]] and [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine]] emperors and [[List of Roman and Byzantine empresses|ruling empresses]] | listclass = hlist | state = {{{state<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} | group1 = [[Principate]]<br />27 BC – AD 235 | list1 = * [[Augustus]] * [[Tiberius]] * [[Caligula]] * [[Claudius]] * [[Nero]] * [[Galba]] * [[Otho]] * [[Vitellius]] * [[Vespasian]] * [[Titus]] * [[Domitian]] * [[Nerva]] * [[Trajan]] * [[Hadrian]] * [[Antoninus Pius]] * [[Marcus Aurelius]] * [[Lucius Verus]] * [[Commodus]] * [[Pertinax]] * [[Didius Julianus]] * (<u>[[Pescennius Niger]]</u>) * (<u>[[Clodius Albinus]]</u>) * [[Septimius Severus]] * [[Caracalla]] * [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]] * [[Macrinus]] * [[Diadumenian]] * [[Elagabalus]] * [[Severus Alexander]] | group2 = [[Crisis of the Third Century|Crisis]]<br />235–285 | list2 = * [[Maximinus Thrax]] * [[Gordian I]] * [[Gordian II]] * [[Pupienus]] * [[Balbinus]] * [[Gordian III]] * [[Philip the Arab]] * [[Philip II (emperor)|Philip II]] * [[Decius]] * [[Herennius Etruscus]] * [[Hostilian]] * [[Trebonianus Gallus]] * [[Volusianus]] * [[Aemilianus]] * [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] * [[Gallienus]] * [[Saloninus]] * [[Claudius Gothicus]] * [[Quintillus]] * [[Aurelian]] * [[Ulpia Severina]] * [[Marcus Claudius Tacitus|Tacitus]] * [[Florianus|Florian]] * [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]] * [[Carus]] * [[Carinus]] * [[Numerian]] {{Navbox|child | group1 = [[Gallic Empire|Gallic emperors]] | list1 = * [[Postumus]] * (<u>[[Laelianus]]</u>) * [[Marcus Aurelius Marius|Marius]] * [[Victorinus]] * (<u>[[Domitianus II]]</u>) * [[Tetricus I]] ''with [[Tetricus II]] as caesar'' }} {{Navbox|child | group1 = [[Palmyrene Empire|Palmyrene emperors]] | list1 = * [[Vaballathus]] * [[Zenobia]] * [[Septimius Antiochus]] }} | group3 = [[Dominate]]<br />284–395 | list3 = * [[Diocletian]] * [[Maximian]] * [[Galerius]] * [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius I]] * [[Valerius Severus|Severus]] * [[Constantine the Great]] * [[Maxentius]] * [[Licinius]] * [[Maximinus Daza]] * (<u>[[Valerius Valens]]</u>) * (<u>[[Martinian (emperor)|Martinian]]</u>) * [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] * [[Constantius II]] * [[Constans I]] * ''[[Magnentius]]'' * [[Vetranio]] * [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] * [[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]] * [[Valentinian I]] (west) * [[Valens]] (east) * [[Gratian]] (west) * [[Valentinian II]] (west) * [[Theodosius I]] * [[Magnus Maximus]] * [[Victor (emperor)|Victor]] * (<u>[[Eugenius]]</u>) | group4 = [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]]<br />395–480 | list4 = * [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] * [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]] ''with son <u>[[Constans II (son of Constantine III)|Constans II]]</u>''<!--Please Note: Constans II being marked both as a co-emperor and usurper is not a mistake. While Constantine III was recognized for a time by Honorius, Constans II was never recognized.--> * [[Constantius III]] * <u>[[Joannes]]</u> * [[Valentinian III]] * [[Petronius Maximus]] * [[Avitus]] * [[Majorian]] * [[Libius Severus]] * [[Anthemius]] * [[Olybrius]] * [[Glycerius]] * [[Julius Nepos]] * <u>[[Romulus Augustulus]]</u> | group5 = [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern/<br />Byzantine Empire]]<br />395–1204 | list5 = * [[Arcadius]] * [[Theodosius II]] * [[Marcian]] * [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] * [[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]] * [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] * [[Basiliscus]] * [[Marcus (son of Basiliscus)|Marcus]] * [[Anastasius I Dicorus]] * [[Justin I]] * [[Justinian I]] * [[Justin II]] * [[Tiberius II Constantine]] * [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ''with son [[Theodosius (son of Maurice)|Theodosius]] as co-emperor'' * [[Phocas]] * [[Heraclius]] * [[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine III]] * [[Heraklonas]] * [[Constans II]] * [[Constantine IV]] ''with brothers [[Heraclius (son of Constans II)|Heraclius]] and [[Tiberius (son of Constans II)|Tiberius]] and then [[Justinian II]] as co-emperors'' * [[Justinian II]] (first reign) * [[Leontios]] * [[Tiberius III]] * [[Justinian II]] (second reign) ''with son [[Tiberius (son of Justinian II)|Tiberius]] as co-emperor'' * [[Philippikos Bardanes|Philippikos]] * [[Anastasios II]] * [[Theodosius III]] * [[Leo III the Isaurian]] * [[Constantine V]] * [[Artabasdos]] * [[Leo IV the Khazar]] * [[Constantine VI]] * [[Irene of Athens|Irene]] * [[Nikephoros I]] * [[Staurakios]] * [[Michael I Rangabe]] ''with son [[Theophylact (son of Michael I)|Theophylact]] as co-emperor'' * [[Leo V the Armenian]] ''with [[Constantine (son of Leo V)|Symbatios-Constantine]] as junior emperor'' * [[Michael II|Michael II the Amorian]] * [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] * [[Michael III]] * [[Basil I|Basil I the Macedonian]] * [[Leo VI the Wise]] * [[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]] * [[Constantine VII|Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos]] * [[Romanos I Lekapenos]] ''with sons [[Christopher Lekapenos|Christopher]], [[Stephen Lekapenos|Stephen]] and [[Constantine Lekapenos|Constantine]] as junior co-emperors'' * [[Romanos II]] * [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] * [[John I Tzimiskes]] * [[Basil II]] * [[Constantine VIII]] * [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]] (first reign) ''and'' [[Romanos III Argyros]] * [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]] (first reign) ''and'' [[Michael IV the Paphlagonian]] * [[Michael V Kalaphates]] * [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]] (second reign) ''with'' [[Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)|Theodora]] * [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]] (second reign) ''and'' [[Constantine IX Monomachos]] * [[Constantine IX Monomachos]] (sole emperor) * [[Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)|Theodora]] * [[Michael VI Bringas]] * [[Isaac I Komnenos]] * [[Constantine X Doukas]] * [[Romanos IV Diogenes]] * [[Michael VII Doukas]] ''with brothers [[Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)|Andronikos]] and [[Konstantios Doukas|Konstantios]] and son [[Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)|Constantine]]'' * [[Nikephoros III Botaneiates]] * [[Alexios I Komnenos]] * [[John II Komnenos]] ''with [[Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)|Alexios Komnenos]] as co-emperor'' * [[Manuel I Komnenos]] * [[Alexios II Komnenos]] * [[Andronikos I Komnenos]] ''with [[John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)|John Komnenos]] as co-emperor'' * [[Isaac II Angelos]] * [[Alexios III Angelos]] * [[Alexios IV Angelos]] * <u>[[Nicholas Kanabos]]</u> (chosen by the [[Byzantine Senate|Senate]]) * [[Alexios V Doukas]] | group6 = [[Empire of Nicaea]]<br />1204–1261 | list6 = * [[Constantine Laskaris]] * [[Theodore I Laskaris]] * [[John III Doukas Vatatzes]] * [[Theodore II Laskaris]] * [[John IV Laskaris]] | group7 = [[Byzantine Empire]]<br />1261–1453 | list7 = * [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] * [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] ''with [[Michael IX Palaiologos]] as co-emperor'' * [[Andronikos III Palaiologos]] * [[John V Palaiologos]] * [[John VI Kantakouzenos]] ''with [[John V Palaiologos]] and [[Matthew Kantakouzenos]] as co-emperors'' * [[John V Palaiologos]] * [[Andronikos IV Palaiologos]] * [[John VII Palaiologos]] * [[Andronikos V Palaiologos]] * [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] * [[John VIII Palaiologos]] * [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] | below = Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. }}<noinclude> {{collapsible option}} [[Category:Ancient Rome templates|Emperors]] [[Category:Byzantine Empire templates|Emperors]] [[Category:Ruler navigational boxes]] </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Big (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Collapsible option (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Para (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Pp-template (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Template link expanded (view source) (protected) Template:Template other (view source) (protected) 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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Roman_emperors" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6511	----	Ptolemy - Wikipedia Ptolemy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 12 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Ptolemy (name), Ptolemy (disambiguation), and Ptolemaeus (disambiguation). 2nd-century Greco-Egyptian writer and astronomer This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ptolemy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ptolemy Early Baroque artist's rendition[1] Born c. 100 AD[2] Egypt, Roman Empire Died c. 170 (aged 69–70) AD[2] Alexandria, Egypt, Roman Empire Occupation Mathematician Geographer Astronomer Astrologer Naturalist Philosopher Claudius Ptolemy (/ˈtɒləmi/; Koinē Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios Ptolemaîos, [ˈklaw.di.os pto.lɛˈmɛ.os]; Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus; c. 100 – c. 170 AD)[2] was a mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, geographer and astrologer who wrote several scientific treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and Western European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was originally entitled the Mathematical Treatise (Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις) and then known as The Great Treatise (Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatiká (Ἀποτελεσματικά) but more commonly known as the Tetrábiblos from the Koine Greek (Τετράβιβλος) meaning "Four Books" or by the Latin Quadripartitum. Ptolemy lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt under the rule of the Roman Empire,[3] had a Latin name (which several historians have taken to imply he was also a Roman citizen),[4] cited Greek philosophers, and used Babylonian observations and Babylonian lunar theory. The 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes gave his birthplace as the prominent Greek city Ptolemais Hermiou (Πτολεμαΐς ‘Ερμείου) in the Thebaid (Θηβᾱΐς). This attestation is quite late, however, and there is no evidence to support it.[5] He died in Alexandria around 168.[6] Contents 1 Naming and nationality 2 Astronomy 3 The Geography 4 Astrology 5 Music 6 Optics 7 Named after Ptolemy 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 External links Naming and nationality[edit] Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy being guided by the muse of Astronomy, Urania, from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor Reisch, 1508. Although Abu Ma'shar believed Ptolemy to be one of the Ptolemaic pharaohs who ruled Egypt after the conquest of Alexander the Great, the title "King Ptolemy" is generally viewed as a mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated standing in science. Ptolemaeus (Πτολεμαῖος Ptolemaîos) is an ancient Greek personal name. It occurs once in Greek mythology and is of Homeric form.[7] It was common among the Macedonian upper class at the time of Alexander the Great and there were several of this name among Alexander's army, one of whom made himself pharaoh in 323 BC: Ptolemy I Soter, the first pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. All subsequent pharaohs of Egypt until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, ending the Macedonian family's rule, were also Ptolemies.[8][9] The name Claudius is a Roman name, belonging to the gens Claudia; the peculiar multipart form of the whole name Claudius Ptolemaeus is a Roman custom, characteristic of Roman citizens. Several historians have made the deduction that this indicates that Ptolemy would have been a Roman citizen.[11] Gerald Toomer, the translator of Ptolemy's Almagest into English, suggests that citizenship was probably granted to one of Ptolemy's ancestors by either the emperor Claudius or the emperor Nero.[12] The 9th century Persian astronomer Abu Maʻshar presents Ptolemy as a member of Egypt's royal lineage, stating that the descendants of the Alexandrine general and Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter were wise "and included Ptolemy the Wise, who composed the book of the Almagest". Abu Maʻshar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line "composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy". We can infer historical confusion on this point from Abu Maʿshar's subsequent remark: "It is sometimes said that the very learned man who wrote the book of astrology also wrote the book of the Almagest. The correct answer is not known."[13] Not much positive evidence is known on the subject of Ptolemy's ancestry, apart from what can be drawn from the details of his name (see above), although modern scholars have concluded that Abu Maʻshar's account is erroneous.[14] It is no longer doubted that the astronomer who wrote the Almagest also wrote the Tetrabiblos as its astrological counterpart.[15] Ptolemy wrote in ancient Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data.[16][17] He might have been a Roman citizen, but was ethnically either a Greek[2][18][19] or a Hellenized Egyptian.[18][20][21] He was often known in later Arabic sources as "the Upper Egyptian",[22] suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt.[23] Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him as Baṭlumyus (Arabic: بَطْلُمْيوس‎).[24] Astronomy[edit] Further information: Almagest Ptolemy with an armillary sphere model, by Joos van Ghent and Pedro Berruguete, 1476, Louvre, Paris Ptolemy's Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Babylonian astronomers had developed arithmetical techniques for calculating astronomical phenomena; Greek astronomers such as Hipparchus had produced geometric models for calculating celestial motions. Ptolemy, however, claimed to have derived his geometrical models from selected astronomical observations by his predecessors spanning more than 800 years, though astronomers have for centuries suspected that his models' parameters were adopted independently of observations.[25] Ptolemy presented his astronomical models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets.[26] The Almagest also contains a star catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus. Its list of forty-eight constellations is ancestral to the modern system of constellations, but unlike the modern system they did not cover the whole sky (only the sky Hipparchus could see). Across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa in the Medieval period, it was the authoritative text on astronomy, with its author becoming an almost mythical figure, called Ptolemy, King of Alexandria.[27] The Almagest was preserved, like most of extant Classical Greek science, in Arabic manuscripts (hence its familiar name). Because of its reputation, it was widely sought and was translated twice into Latin in the 12th century, once in Sicily and again in Spain.[28] Ptolemy's model, like those of his predecessors, was geocentric and was almost universally accepted until the appearance of simpler heliocentric models during the scientific revolution. His Planetary Hypotheses went beyond the mathematical model of the Almagest to present a physical realization of the universe as a set of nested spheres,[29] in which he used the epicycles of his planetary model to compute the dimensions of the universe. He estimated the Sun was at an average distance of 1,210 Earth radii (now known to actually be ~23,450 radii), while the radius of the sphere of the fixed stars was 20,000 times the radius of the Earth.[30] Ptolemy presented a useful tool for astronomical calculations in his Handy Tables, which tabulated all the data needed to compute the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets, the rising and setting of the stars, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Ptolemy's Handy Tables provided the model for later astronomical tables or zījes. In the Phaseis (Risings of the Fixed Stars), Ptolemy gave a parapegma, a star calendar or almanac, based on the appearances and disappearances of stars over the course of the solar year.[31] The Geography[edit] Main article: Geography (Ptolemy) Further information: Ptolemy's world map Geography by Ptolemy, Latin manuscript of the early 15th century Ptolemy's second main work is his Geography (also called the Geographia), a compilation of geographical coordinates of the part of the world known to the Roman Empire during his time. He relied somewhat on the work of an earlier geographer, Marinos of Tyre, and on gazetteers of the Roman and ancient Persian Empire.[citation needed] He also acknowledged ancient astronomer Hipparchus for having provided the elevation of the north celestial pole[32] for a few cities.[33] The first part of the Geography is a discussion of the data and of the methods he used. As with the model of the Solar System in the Almagest, Ptolemy put all this information into a grand scheme. Following Marinos, he assigned coordinates to all the places and geographic features he knew, in a grid that spanned the globe. Latitude was measured from the equator, as it is today, but Ptolemy preferred[34] to express it as climata, the length of the longest day rather than degrees of arc: the length of the midsummer day increases from 12h to 24h as one goes from the equator to the polar circle. In books 2 through 7, he used degrees and put the meridian of 0 longitude at the most western land he knew, the "Blessed Islands", often identified as the Canary Islands, as suggested by the location of the six dots labelled the "FORTUNATA" islands near the left extreme of the blue sea of Ptolemy's map here reproduced. A 15th-century manuscript copy of the Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography (circa AD 150), indicating the countries of "Serica" and "Sinae" (China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (Malay Peninsula). Prima Europe tabula. A 15th-century copy of Ptolemy's map of Britain and Ireland. Ptolemy also devised and provided instructions on how to create maps both of the whole inhabited world (oikoumenè) and of the Roman provinces. In the second part of the Geography, he provided the necessary topographic lists, and captions for the maps. His oikoumenè spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Blessed Islands in the Atlantic Ocean to the middle of China, and about 80 degrees of latitude from Shetland to anti-Meroe (east coast of Africa); Ptolemy was well aware that he knew about only a quarter of the globe, and an erroneous extension of China southward suggests his sources did not reach all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The maps in surviving manuscripts of Ptolemy's Geography, however, only date from about 1300, after the text was rediscovered by Maximus Planudes. It seems likely that the topographical tables in books 2–7 are cumulative texts – texts which were altered and added to as new knowledge became available in the centuries after Ptolemy.[35] This means that information contained in different parts of the Geography is likely to be of different dates. A printed map from the 15th century depicting Ptolemy's description of the Ecumene, (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver). Maps based on scientific principles had been made since the time of Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, but Ptolemy improved map projections. It is known from a speech by Eumenius that a world map, an orbis pictus, doubtless based on the Geography, was on display in a school in Augustodunum, Gaul in the 3rd century.[36] In the 15th century, Ptolemy's Geography began to be printed with engraved maps; the earliest printed edition with engraved maps was produced in Bologna in 1477, followed quickly by a Roman edition in 1478 (Campbell, 1987). An edition printed at Ulm in 1482, including woodcut maps, was the first one printed north of the Alps. The maps look distorted when compared to modern maps, because Ptolemy's data were inaccurate. One reason is that Ptolemy estimated the size of the Earth as too small: while Eratosthenes found 700 stadia for a great circle degree on the globe, Ptolemy uses 500 stadia in the Geography. It is highly probable that these were the same stadion, since Ptolemy switched from the former scale to the latter between the Syntaxis and the Geography, and severely readjusted longitude degrees accordingly. See also Ancient Greek units of measurement and History of geodesy. Because Ptolemy derived many of his key latitudes from crude longest day values, his latitudes are erroneous on average by roughly 1 degree (2 degrees for Byzantium, 4 degrees for Carthage), though capable ancient astronomers knew their latitudes to more like a minute. (Ptolemy's own latitude was in error by 14'.) He agreed (Geography 1.4) that longitude was best determined by simultaneous observation of lunar eclipses, yet he was so out of touch with the scientists of his day that he knew of no such data more recent than 500 years before (Arbela eclipse). When switching from 700 stadia per degree to 500, he (or Marinos) expanded longitude differences between cities accordingly (a point first realized by P. Gosselin in 1790), resulting in serious over-stretching of the Earth's east-west scale in degrees, though not distance. Achieving highly precise longitude remained a problem in geography until the application of Galileo's Jovian moon method in the 18th century. It must be added that his original topographic list cannot be reconstructed: the long tables with numbers were transmitted to posterity through copies containing many scribal errors, and people have always been adding or improving the topographic data: this is a testimony to the persistent popularity of this influential work in the history of cartography. Astrology[edit] Main article: Tetrabiblos The mathematician Claudius Ptolemy 'the Alexandrian', as depicted by a 16th-century engraving[1] Ptolemy has been referred to as "a pro-astrological authority of the highest magnitude".[37] His astrological treatise, a work in four parts, is known by the Greek term Tetrabiblos, or the Latin equivalent Quadripartitum: "Four Books". Ptolemy's own title is unknown, but may have been the term found in some Greek manuscripts: Apotelesmatika, roughly meaning "Astrological Outcomes", "Effects" or "Prognostics".[38][39] As a source of reference, the Tetrabiblos is said to have "enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more".[40] It was first translated from Arabic into Latin by Plato of Tivoli (Tiburtinus) in 1138, while he was in Spain.[41] The Tetrabiblos is an extensive and continually reprinted treatise on the ancient principles of horoscopic astrology. That it did not quite attain the unrivaled status of the Almagest was, perhaps, because it did not cover some popular areas of the subject, particularly electional astrology (interpreting astrological charts for a particular moment to determine the outcome of a course of action to be initiated at that time), and medical astrology, which were later adoptions. The great popularity that the Tetrabiblos did possess might be attributed to its nature as an exposition of the art of astrology, and as a compendium of astrological lore, rather than as a manual. It speaks in general terms, avoiding illustrations and details of practice. Ptolemy was concerned to defend astrology by defining its limits, compiling astronomical data that he believed was reliable and dismissing practices (such as considering the numerological significance of names) that he believed to be without sound basis. Much of the content of the Tetrabiblos was collected from earlier sources; Ptolemy's achievement was to order his material in a systematic way, showing how the subject could, in his view, be rationalized. It is, indeed, presented as the second part of the study of astronomy of which the Almagest was the first, concerned with the influences of the celestial bodies in the sublunary sphere. Thus explanations of a sort are provided for the astrological effects of the planets, based upon their combined effects of heating, cooling, moistening, and drying. Ptolemy's astrological outlook was quite practical: he thought that astrology was like medicine, that is conjectural, because of the many variable factors to be taken into account: the race, country, and upbringing of a person affects an individual's personality as much as, if not more than, the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the precise moment of their birth, so Ptolemy saw astrology as something to be used in life but in no way relied on entirely. A collection of one hundred aphorisms about astrology called the Centiloquium, ascribed to Ptolemy, was widely reproduced and commented on by Arabic, Latin and Hebrew scholars, and often bound together in medieval manuscripts after the Tetrabiblos as a kind of summation. It is now believed to be a much later pseudepigraphical composition. The identity and date of the actual author of the work, referred to now as Pseudo-Ptolemy, remains the subject of conjecture.[dubious – discuss] Despite Ptolemy's prominence as a philosopher, the Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes the Tetrabiblos, stating that "it only remains puzzling that the very writer of the Almagest, who had taught how to develop astronomy from accurate observations and mathematical constructions, could put together such a system of superficial analogies and unfounded assertions."[42] Music[edit] See also: Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale Ptolemy also wrote an influential work, Harmonics, on music theory and the mathematics of music.[43] After criticizing the approaches of his predecessors, Ptolemy argued for basing musical intervals on mathematical ratios (in contrast to the followers of Aristoxenus and in agreement with the followers of Pythagoras), backed up by empirical observation (in contrast to the overly theoretical approach of the Pythagoreans). Ptolemy wrote about how musical notes could be translated into mathematical equations and vice versa in Harmonics. This is called Pythagorean tuning because it was first discovered by Pythagoras. However, Pythagoras believed that the mathematics of music should be based on the specific ratio of 3:2, whereas Ptolemy merely believed that it should just generally involve tetrachords and octaves. He presented his own divisions of the tetrachord and the octave, which he derived with the help of a monochord. His Harmonics never had the influence of his Almagest or Planetary Hypotheses, but a part of it (Book III) did encourage Kepler in his own musings on the harmony of the world (Kepler, Harmonice Mundi, Appendix to Book V).[44] Ptolemy's astronomical interests also appeared in a discussion of the "music of the spheres". Optics[edit] Main article: Optics (Ptolemy) His Optics is a work that survives only in a somewhat poor Latin version, which, in turn, was translated from a lost Arabic version by Eugenius of Palermo (c. 1154). In it, Ptolemy writes about properties of sight (not light), including reflection, refraction, and colour. The work is a significant part of the early history of optics[45] and influenced the more famous 11th-century Book of Optics by Ibn al-Haytham. It contains the earliest surviving table of refraction from air to water, for which the values (with the exception of the 60° angle of incidence), although historically praised as experimentally derived, appear to have been obtained from an arithmetic progression.[46] However, according to Mark Smith, Ptolemy's table was based on real experiments.[47] The work is also important for the early history of perception. Ptolemy combined the mathematical, philosophical and physiological traditions. He held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer's intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. Size and shape were determined by the visual angle subtended at the eye combined with perceived distance and orientation. This was one of the early statements of size-distance invariance as a cause of perceptual size and shape constancy, a view supported by the Stoics.[48] Ptolemy offered explanations for many phenomena concerning illumination and colour, size, shape, movement and binocular vision. He also divided illusions into those caused by physical or optical factors and those caused by judgmental factors. He offered an obscure explanation of the sun or moon illusion (the enlarged apparent size on the horizon) based on the difficulty of looking upwards.[49][50] Named after Ptolemy[edit] There are several characters or items named after Ptolemy, including: The crater Ptolemaeus on the Moon The crater Ptolemaeus on Mars The asteroid 4001 Ptolemaeus Messier 7, sometimes known as the Ptolemy Cluster, an open cluster of stars in the constellation of Scorpius The Ptolemy stone used in the mathematics courses at both St. John's College campuses in the U.S. Ptolemy's theorem on distances in a cyclic quadrilateral, and its generalization, Ptolemy's inequality, to non-cyclic quadrilaterals Ptolemaic graphs, the graphs whose distances obey Ptolemy's inequality Ptolemy Project, a project at University of California, Berkeley, aimed at modeling, simulating and designing concurrent, real-time, embedded systems Ptolemy Slocum, actor See also[edit] Astronomy portal Equant Messier 7 – Ptolemy Cluster, star cluster described by Ptolemaeus Pei Xiu Ptolemy's Canon – a dated list of kings used by ancient astronomers. Ptolemy's table of chords Zhang Heng Footnotes[edit] ^ a b Since no contemporary depictions or descriptions of Ptolemy are known to have existed, later artists' impressions are unlikely to have reproduced his appearance accurately. ^ a b c d Ptolemy at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Heath, Sir Thomas (1921). A History of Greek Mathematics. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. vii, 273. ^ Neugebauer, Otto E. (2004). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 834. ISBN 978-3-540-06995-9.; "Ptolemy | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. ^ a b Neugebauer (1975, p. 834); G. J. Toomer, "Ptolemy (or Claudius Ptolemaeus)". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com. 21 January 2013. Concerning the possibility that Ptolemy might have been born in Ptolemais Hermiou, Toomer writes: [T]he only place mentioned in any of Ptolemy's observations is Alexandria, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived anywhere else. The statement by Theodore Meliteniotes that he was born in Ptolemais Hermiou (in Upper Egypt) could be correct, but it is late (ca. 1360) and unsupported. ^ Jean Claude Pecker (2001), Understanding the Heavens: Thirty Centuries of Astronomical Ideas from Ancient Thinking to Modern Cosmology, p. 311, Springer, ISBN 3-540-63198-4. ^ "Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary, Πτολεμαῖος". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Hill, Marsha (2006). "Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 April 2020. ^ Pearson, Richard. The History of Astronomy. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-0-244-86650-1. ^ Solin (2012). ^ .[5] "Claudius" is a Roman nomen. These were not borne by provincial non-citizens.[10] ^ Toomer (1970, p. 187) ^ Abu Maʻshar, De magnis coniunctionibus, ed.-transl. K. Yamamoto, Ch. Burnett, Leiden, 2000, 2 vols. (Arabic & Latin text); 4.1.4. ^ Jones (2010). "Ptolemy's Doctrine of the Terms and Its Reception" by Stephan Heilen, p. 68. ^ Robbins, Ptolemy Tetrabiblos "Introduction"; p. x. ^ Asger Aaboe, Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy, New York: Springer, 2001, pp. 62–65. ^ Alexander Jones, "The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy", in The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, p. 99. ^ a b But what we really want to know is to what extent the Alexandrian mathematicians of the period from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD were Greek. Certainly, all of them wrote in Greek and were part of the Greek intellectual community of Alexandria. Most modern studies conclude that the Greek community coexisted ... So should we assume that Ptolemy and Diophantus, Pappus and Hypatia were ethnically Greek, that their ancestors had come from Greece at some point in the past but had remained effectively isolated from the Egyptians? It is, of course, impossible to answer this question definitively. But research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities ... And it is known that Greek marriage contracts increasingly came to resemble Egyptian ones. In addition, even from the founding of Alexandria, small numbers of Egyptians were admitted to the privileged classes in the city to fulfill numerous civic roles. Of course, it was essential in such cases for the Egyptians to become "Hellenized", to adopt Greek habits and the Greek language. Given that the Alexandrian mathematicians mentioned here were active several hundred years after the founding of the city, it would seem at least equally possible that they were ethnically Egyptian as that they remained ethnically Greek. In any case, it is unreasonable to portray them with purely European features when no physical descriptions exist. — Victor J. Katz (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, p. 184. Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-321-01618-1 ^ "Ptolemy". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006. ^ George Sarton (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World", Osiris 2, p. 406–463 [429]. ^ John Horace Parry (1981). The Age of Reconnaissance, p. 10. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04235-2. ^ J. F. Weidler (1741). Historia astronomiae, p. 177. Wittenberg: Gottlieb. (cf. Martin Bernal (1992). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science", Isis 83 (4), p. 596–607 [606].) ^ Martin Bernal (1992). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science", Isis 83 (4), p. 596–607 [602, 606]. ^ Shahid Rahman; Tony Street; Hassan Tahiri, eds. (2008). "The Birth of Scientific Controversies, The Dynamics of the Arabic Tradition and Its Impact on the Development of Science: Ibn al-Haytham's Challenge of Ptolemy's Almagest". The Unity of Science in the Arabic Tradition. 11. Springer Netherlands. pp. 183–225 [183]. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8405-8. ISBN 978-1-4020-8404-1. ^ "Dennis Rawlins". The International Journal of Scientific History. Retrieved 7 October 2009. ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (1997). "Saving the Phenomena: The Background to Ptolemy's Planetary Theory". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 28 (1): 1–12. Bibcode:1997JHA....28....1G. doi:10.1177/002182869702800101. S2CID 118875902. ^ S. C. McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. 1998, pp. 20–21. ^ Charles Homer Haskins, Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science, New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1967, reprint of the Cambridge, Mass., 1927 edition ^ Dennis Duke, Ptolemy's Cosmology ^ Bernard R. Goldstein, ed., The Arabic Version of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57, no. 4 (1967), pp. 9–12. ^ Evans, James; Berggren, J. Lennart (5 June 2018). Geminos's Introduction to the Phenomena: A Translation and Study of a Hellenistic Survey of Astronomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-18715-0. ^ The north celestial pole is the point in the sky lying at the common centre of the circles which the stars appear to people in the northern hemisphere to trace out during the course of a sidereal day. ^ Shcheglov D.A. (2002–2007): "Hipparchus’ Table of Climata and Ptolemy’s Geography", Orbis Terrarum 9 (2003–2007), 177–180. ^ "DIO". www.dioi.org. ^ Bagrow 1945. ^ Talbert, Richard J. A. (2012). "Urbs Roma to Orbis Romanus". In Talbert (ed.). Ancient Perspectives: Maps and Their Places in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Chicago. pp. 170–72. ISBN 978-0-226-78940-8. ^ Jones (2010). The Use and Abuse of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos in Renaissance and Early Modern Europe by H. Darrel Rutkin, p. 135. ^ Robbins, Ptolemy Tetrabiblos, "Introduction" p. x. ^ Jones (2010) p. xii. ^ Robbins, Ptolemy Tetrabiblos, 'Introduction' p. xii. ^ F. A. Robbins, 1940; Thorndike 1923 ^ Dijksterhuis, Eduard Jan (1969). The mechanization of the world picture. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 88. ^ Wardhaugh, Benjamin (5 July 2017). Music, Experiment and Mathematics in England, 1653–1705. London and New York: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-351-55708-5. ^ Hetherington, Norriss S. Encyclopedia of Cosmology (Routledge Revivals): Historical, Philosophical, and Scientific Foundations of Modern Cosmology Routledge, 8 April 2014 ISBN 978-1-317-67766-6 p 527 ^ Smith, A. Mark (1996). Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception– An English translation of the Optics. The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-862-5. Retrieved 27 June 2009. ^ Carl Benjamin Boyer, The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics (1959) ^ Smith, Mark (2015). From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 116–118. ^ H. W. Ross and C. Plug, "The History of Size Constancy and Size Illusions", in V. Walsh & J. Kulikowski (eds.) Perceptual Constancy: Why Things Look as They Do. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 499–528. ^ H. E. Ross and G. M. Ross, "Did Ptolemy Understand the Moon Illusion?", Perception 5 (1976): 377–395. ^ A. I. Sabra, "Psychology Versus Mathematics: Ptolemy and Alhazen on the Moon Illusion", in E. Grant & J. E. Murdoch (eds.) Mathematics and Its Application to Science and Natural Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 217–247. References[edit] Quadripartitum, 1622 Bagrow, L. (1 January 1945). "The Origin of Ptolemy's Geographia". Geografiska Annaler. Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 27. 27: 318–387. doi:10.2307/520071. ISSN 1651-3215. JSTOR 520071. Berggren, J. Lennart, and Alexander Jones. 2000. Ptolemy's Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01042-0. Campbell, T. (1987). The Earliest Printed Maps. British Museum Press. Hübner, Wolfgang, ed. 1998. Claudius Ptolemaeus, Opera quae exstant omnia Vol III/Fasc 1: ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΙΚΑ (= Tetrabiblos). De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-598-71746-8 (Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana). (The most recent edition of the Greek text of Ptolemy's astrological work, based on earlier editions by F. Boll and E. Boer.) Lejeune, A. (1989) L'Optique de Claude Ptolémée dans la version latine d'après l'arabe de l'émir Eugène de Sicile. [Latin text with French translation]. Collection de travaux de l'Académie International d'Histoire des Sciences, No. 31. Leiden: E.J.Brill. Neugebauer, Otto (1975). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. I–III. Berlin and New York: Springer Verlag. Nobbe, C. F. A., ed. 1843. Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia. 3 vols. Leipzig: Carolus Tauchnitus. (Until Stückelberger (2006), this was the most recent edition of the complete Greek text.) Peerlings, R.H.J., Laurentius F., van den Bovenkamp J.,(2017) The watermarks in the Rome editions of Ptolemy's Cosmography and more, In Quaerendo 47: 307-327, 2017. Peerlings, R.H.J., Laurentius F., van den Bovenkamp J.,(2018) New findings and discoveries in the 1507/8 Rome edition of Ptolemy’s Cosmography, In Quaerendo 48: 139-162, 2018. Ptolemy. 1930. Die Harmonielehre des Klaudios Ptolemaios, edited by Ingemar Düring. Göteborgs högskolas årsskrift 36, 1930:1. Göteborg: Elanders boktr. aktiebolag. Reprint, New York: Garland Publishing, 1980. Ptolemy. 2000. Harmonics, translated and commentary by Jon Solomon. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum, 0169-8958, 203. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11591-9 Robbins, Frank E. (ed.) 1940. Ptolemy Tetrabiblos. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library). ISBN 0-674-99479-5. Sidoli, Nathan; J. L. Berggren (2007). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's Planisphere or Flattening the Surface of the Sphere: Text, Translation, Commentary" (PDF). Sciamvs. 37. 8 (139). Smith, A.M. (1996) Ptolemy's theory of visual perception: An English translation of the Optics with introduction and commentary. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 86, Part 2. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. Solin, Heikke (2012), "names, personal, Roman.", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, retrieved 8 June 2019. Stevenson, Edward Luther (trans. and ed.). 1932. Claudius Ptolemy: The Geography. New York: New York Public Library. Reprint, New York: Dover, 1991. (This is the only complete English translation of Ptolemy's most famous work. Unfortunately, it is marred by numerous mistakes and the placenames are given in Latinised forms, rather than in the original Greek). Stückelberger, Alfred, and Gerd Graßhoff (eds). 2006. Ptolemaios, Handbuch der Geographie, Griechisch-Deutsch. 2 vols. Basel: Schwabe Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7965-2148-5. (Massive 1018 pp. scholarly edition by a team of a dozen scholars that takes account of all known manuscripts, with facing Greek and German text, footnotes on manuscript variations, color maps, and a CD with the geographical data) Taub, Liba Chia (1993). Ptolemy's Universe: The Natural Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Ptolemy's Astronomy. Chicago: Open Court Press. ISBN 0-8126-9229-2. Ptolemy's Almagest, Translated and annotated by G. J. Toomer. Princeton University Press, 1998 Sir Thomas Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1921. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemy. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ptolemy Wikisource has original works written by or about: Ptolemy Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos at LacusCurtius (Transcription of the Loeb Classical Library's English translation) Entire Tetrabiblos of J.M. Ashmand's 1822 translation. Ptolemy's Geography at LacusCurtius (English translation, incomplete) Extracts of Ptolemy on the country of the Seres (China) (English translation) Almagest books 1–13 The complete text of Heiberg's edition (PDF) Greek. Almagest books 1–6 (in Greek) with preface (in Latin) at archive.org Geography, digitized codex made in Italy between 1460 and 1477, translated to Latin by Jacobus Angelus at Somni. Also known as codex valentinus, it is the oldest manuscript of the codices with maps of Ptolemy with the donis projections. Hieronymi Cardani ... In Cl. Ptolemaei ... IIII De astrorum judiciis From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress Almagestū Cl. Ptolemei From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress Franz Boll (1894), "Studien über Claudius Ptolemaeus. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Astrologie" In: Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie und Pädagogik, Supplementband 21,2. Teubner, Leipzig, pp. 49–244. Arnett, Bill (2008). "Ptolemy, the Man". obs.nineplanets.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2005. Retrieved 24 November 2008. Danzer, Gerald (1988). "Cartographic Images of the World on the Eve of the Discoveries". The Newberry Library. Retrieved 26 November 2008. Haselein, Frank (2007). "Κλαυδιου Πτολεμιου: Γεωγραφικῆς Ύφηγήσεως (Geographie)" (in German and English). Frank Haselein. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2008. Houlding, Deborah (2003). "The Life & Work of Ptolemy". Skyscript.co. Retrieved 24 November 2008. Jones, Alexander (ed.) 2010. Ptolemy in Perspective: Use and Criticism of his Work from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. New York: Series: Archimedes, Vol. 23., ISBN 978-90-481-2787-0 Toomer, Gerald J. (1970). "Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemæus)" (PDF). In Gillispie, Charles (ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 11. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. pp. 186–206. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9. Sprague, Ben (2001–2007). "Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy): Representation, Understanding, and Mathematical Labeling of the Spherical Earth". Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science. Retrieved 26 November 2008. Java simulation of the Ptolemaic System – at Paul Stoddard's Animated Virtual Planetarium, Northern Illinois University Animation of Ptolemy's Two Solar Hypotheses on YouTube Epicycle and Deferent Demo – at Rosemary Kennett's website at the University of Syracuse Flash animation of Ptolemy's universe. (best in Internet Explorer) Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. High resolution images of works by Ptolemy in .jpg and .tiff format. Codex Vaticanus graecus 1291 (Vat.gr.1291) in Vatican Digital Library - Complete reproduction of the 9th century manuscript of Ptolemy's Handy Tables. v t e Ancient Greek astronomy Astronomers Aglaonice Agrippa Anaximander Andronicus Apollonius Aratus Aristarchus Aristyllus Attalus Autolycus Bion Callippus Cleomedes Cleostratus Conon Eratosthenes Euctemon Eudoxus Geminus Heraclides Hicetas Hipparchus Hippocrates of Chios Hypsicles Menelaus Meton Oenopides Philip of Opus Philolaus Posidonius Ptolemy Pytheas Seleucus Sosigenes of Alexandria Sosigenes the Peripatetic Strabo Thales Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Timocharis Works Almagest (Ptolemy) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On the Heavens (Aristotle) Instruments Antikythera mechanism Armillary sphere Astrolabe Dioptra Equatorial ring Gnomon Mural instrument Triquetrum Concepts Callippic cycle Celestial spheres Circle of latitude Counter-Earth Deferent and epicycle Equant Geocentrism Heliocentrism Hipparchic cycle Metonic cycle Octaeteris Solstice Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Zodiac Influences Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Influenced Medieval European science Indian astronomy Medieval Islamic astronomy v t e Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (Euclidean geometry) Mathematicians (timeline) Anaxagoras Anthemius Archytas Aristaeus the Elder Aristarchus Apollonius Archimedes Autolycus Bion Bryson Callippus Carpus Chrysippus Cleomedes Conon Ctesibius Democritus Dicaearchus Diocles Diophantus Dinostratus Dionysodorus Domninus Eratosthenes Eudemus Euclid Eudoxus Eutocius Geminus Heliodorus Heron Hipparchus Hippasus Hippias Hippocrates Hypatia Hypsicles Isidore of Miletus Leon Marinus Menaechmus Menelaus Metrodorus Nicomachus Nicomedes Nicoteles Oenopides Pappus Perseus Philolaus Philon Philonides Porphyry Posidonius Proclus Ptolemy Pythagoras Serenus Simplicius Sosigenes Sporus Thales Theaetetus Theano Theodorus Theodosius Theon of Alexandria Theon of Smyrna Thymaridas Xenocrates Zeno of Elea Zeno of Sidon Zenodorus Treatises Almagest Archimedes Palimpsest Arithmetica Conics (Apollonius) Catoptrics Data (Euclid) Elements (Euclid) Measurement of a Circle On Conoids and Spheroids On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus) On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus) On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus) Euclid's Optics On Spirals On the Sphere and Cylinder Ostomachion Planisphaerium Sphaerics The Quadrature of the Parabola The Sand Reckoner Problems Angle trisection Doubling the cube Squaring the circle Problem of Apollonius Concepts/definitions Circles of Apollonius Apollonian circles Apollonian gasket Circumscribed circle Commensurability Diophantine equation Doctrine of proportionality Golden ratio Greek numerals Incircle and excircles of a triangle Method of exhaustion Parallel postulate Platonic solid Lune of Hippocrates Quadratrix of Hippias Regular polygon Straightedge and compass construction Triangle center Results In Elements Angle bisector theorem Exterior angle theorem Euclidean algorithm Euclid's theorem Geometric mean theorem Greek geometric algebra Hinge theorem Inscribed angle theorem Intercept theorem Pons asinorum Pythagorean theorem Thales's theorem Theorem of the gnomon Apollonius Apollonius's theorem Other Aristarchus's inequality Crossbar theorem Heron's formula Irrational numbers Menelaus's theorem Pappus's area theorem Problem II.8 of Arithmetica Ptolemy's inequality Ptolemy's table of chords Ptolemy's theorem Spiral of Theodorus Centers Cyrene Library of Alexandria Platonic Academy Other Ancient Greek astronomy Greek numerals Latin translations of the 12th century Neusis construction v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia 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(Switzerland) 1 2 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Encyclopedia of Islam Trove (Australia) 1 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy&oldid=1028172920" Categories: Ptolemy 100 births 170 deaths 1st-century Romans 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century philosophers 2nd-century poets Egyptian calendar Ancient Greek astrologers Ancient Greek astronomers Ancient Greek mathematicians Ancient Greek music theorists Astrological writers Claudii Egyptian astronomers Egyptian mathematicians Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology 2nd-century Egyptian people Ancient Greek geographers Roman-era geographers 2nd-century geographers 2nd-century mathematicians Hidden categories: Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Use dmy dates from February 2021 Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 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en-wikipedia-org-6524	----	Arethas of Caesarea - Wikipedia Arethas of Caesarea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Arethas of Caesarea A portion of Plato's Phaedrus from the Codex Clarkianus believed to have been commissioned by Arethas of Caesarea (from the Bodleian Library Collection) Born c. 860 AD Patrae Died c. 939 AD Era Middle Ages Region Byzantine philosophy School Macedonian Renaissance Main interests Patristic theology, Christian eschatology, Christian theology, Stoicism, Greek commentaries, the reproduction and preservation of ancient texts Influences St. Photius, Andrew of Caesarea, Marcus Aurelius, St. Justin the Martyr Influenced Leo VI the Wise Arethas of Caesarea (Greek: Ἀρέθας; born c. 860 AD) was Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (modern Kayseri, Turkey) early in the 10th century, and is considered one of the most scholarly theologians of the Greek Orthodox Church. The codices produced by him, containing his commentaries are credited with preserving many ancient texts, including those of Plato and Marcus Aurelius' "Meditations".[1][2] Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Notes 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links Life[edit] He was born at Patrae (modern-day Greece). He was a disciple of Photius. He studied at the University of Constantinople. He became Deacon of Patrea around 900 and was made Archbishop of Caesarea by Nikolas of Constantinople in 903.[3] He was deeply involved in court politics and was a principal actor in the controversy over the scandal created when Emperor Leo VI attempted to marry a fourth time after his first three wives had died and left him without an heir.[4] Despite Arethas' fame as a scholar, Jenkins thinks little of him as a person. When recounting the details of the scandal, Arethas is described as "...narrow-minded, bad-hearted... morbidly ambitious and absolutely unscrupulous..."[5] Works[edit] Arethas' comment on Lucian of Samosata from Harley MS 5694, mentioning the Meditations by Marcus Aurelius. His are the earliest direct references to the work. He is the compiler of a Greek commentary (scholia) on the Apocalypse, for which he made considerable use of the similar work of his predecessor, Andrew of Caesarea. Albert Ehrhard inclines to the opinion that he wrote other scriptural commentaries. To his interest in the earliest Christian literature, caught perhaps from the above-named Andrew, we owe the Arethas Codex, through which the texts of almost all of the ante-Nicene Greek Christian apologists have, in a great measure, reached us.[6] This unique codex was copied by several Italian scribes in the 11th to 14th centuries[7] and eventually taken to Paris, probably acquired in the time of François I.[8] It was assigned number 2271 in the inventory of 1682[9] and Parisinus graecus 451 in the current numbering. It was first printed in 1535 as an appendix to the works of Oecumenius.[10] The Stromata manuscript in Florence is also believed to derive from Arethas. He is also known as a commentator of Plato and Lucian; the famous manuscript of Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), taken from Patmos to London, was copied by order of Arethas. Other important Greek manuscripts, e.g. of Euclid,[11] the rhetor Aristides, and perhaps of Dio Chrysostom, are owed to him. Karl Krumbacher emphasizes his fondness for ancient classical Greek literature and the original sources of Christian theology. Arethas' works also contain the oldest known references to the Meditations (written c. 175 AD) by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius.[12] Arethas admits to holding the work in high regard in letters to the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise and in his comments to Lucian and Dio Chrysostom'. Arethas is credited with reintroducing the Meditations to public discourse. Up through the 19th century, scholars believed there to be an earlier Arethas, also an archbishop of Caesarea, who had authored the works on the Apocalypse, around the year 540. Modern scholars believe this to be incorrect, and there to have been only one Arethas.[13] Notes[edit] ^ Hadot, Pierre (1998). The Inner Citadel The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (Translated by Michael Chase). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 24. ^ Novotny 1977, p. 282-283. ^ Jenkins, Romilly (1987). Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries Ad 610-1071. Canada: University of Toronto Press. pp. 219–229. ^ Jenkins, p. 220-226. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJenkins (help) ^ Jenkins, p. 219. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJenkins (help) ^ Otto Bardenhewer, Patrologie, 40. ^ Marcovich (2000). Athenagorae qui fertur: De resurrectione mortuorum. BRILL. p. 7. ISBN 9789004313194. ^ Sandy, Gerald N. The Classical Heritage in France. BRILL. pp. 74–5. ISBN 978-90-04-11916-1. ^ Catalogue détaillé des manuscrits grecs et latins de la bibliothèque du roi, portés à l'inventaire de 1682. Latin 9355. ^ It is found in P.G., CVI, 493. ^ L.D. Reynolds and Nigel G. Wilson, Scribes and Scholars 2nd. ed. (Oxford, 1974) p. 57 ^ Gourinat, Jean-Baptiste (2 April 2012). "Chapter 27: Ethics". In Marcel van Ackeren (ed.). A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons. p. 420. ISBN 978-1-118-21984-3. Retrieved 23 December 2016. ^ Smith, William. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Aretas". References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Shahan, Thomas Joseph (1907). "Arethas of Caesarea". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Sources[edit] Novotny, Frantisek (1977). The Posthumous Life of Plato. The Hague: Springer Science & Business Media, Dec 6, 2012. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Arethas . Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arethas_of_Caesarea&oldid=1025059681" Categories: 860s births 930s deaths 9th-century Byzantine people 10th-century Byzantine bishops 10th-century Byzantine writers 9th-century Greek people 10th-century Greek people 9th-century Greek philosophers 10th-century Greek philosophers 10th-century Christian theologians Writers from Patras Byzantine theologians Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 25 May 2021, at 14:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6532	----	Martinian (emperor) - Wikipedia Martinian (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 324 Roman emperor Martinian Follis of Martinian He is shown wearing the 'radiate crown' associated with solar deities. The reverse shows the god Jupiter holding a winged victory. This is a visual example of the conservative political and religious stance of the Licinian regime. Roman emperor Reign July – 18 September 324 Co-rulers Licinius Constantine I Died 325 Cappadocia, Pontus Names Mar. Martinianus 16th century image of Martinian Mar. Martinianus,[1] anglicized as Martinian (died in 325), was Roman emperor from July to 18 September 324. He had been appointed co-emperor by Licinius. Contents 1 Elevation 2 Military activities 3 Fate 4 Notes 5 References Elevation[edit] In 324, as the second civil war between Licinius and Constantine I was at its height, the situation for Licinius was not promising. Following his defeat at the Battle of Adrianople, he decided to replace Constantine (in name only) as western Augustus. As his replacement he named Martinian co-emperor, as he had previously appointed Valens[2] during his earlier war with Constantine. Prior to his elevation, which took place some time after the Battle of Adrianople (July 3, 324), Martinian was serving as magister officiorum at Licinius' court.[3] Licinius lacked the aid of a loyal deputy that Constantine possessed in the person of his eldest son Crispus; Licinius appointed Martinian, though not a relative, to make up this deficiency.[4] Military activities[edit] In the wake of his defeat at Adrianople Licinius sent Martinian, with an army including Visigothic auxiliaries,[5] to Lampsacus (on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont or Dardanelles) to prevent Constantine from using his fleet to effect a crossing from Thrace into Mysia and Bithynia in Asia Minor. A naval battle in the Hellespont resulted in the destruction of Licinius' navy by Constantine's son Crispus.[6] Following this defeat Licinius withdrew his forces from Byzantium, which was being besieged by Constantine, to Chalcedon on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphoros. Constantine then crossed the Bosphoros to Asia Minor, using a flotilla of light transports he had built independently from his main fleet on the Hellespont, in order to evade the forces of Martinian.[7] Licinius recalled Martinian from Lampsacus to reinforce his main army.[8][9] It is not clear whether Martinian's forces reached Licinius before September 18 when Licinius was defeated for the last time at the Battle of Chrysopolis.[10] Fate[edit] Due to the intervention of Flavia Julia Constantia, Constantine's sister and also Licinius' wife, both Licinius and Martinian were initially spared, Licinius being imprisoned in Thessalonica, Martinian in Cappadocia; however, Constantine seems to have soon regretted his leniency as both former emperors were subsequently executed. Martinian was probably executed in the spring of 325, in Cappadocia.[11] Notes[edit] ^ T.D. Barnes, New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine (1982), p. 15 ^ Grant (1993), pp. 42–43. Aurelius Valerius Valens was raised by Licinius to the position of Augustus in 316, following his defeat Licinius appeased Constantine by deposing and executing Valens. ^ Jones, pg. 563 ^ Lenski, p.76 ^ Grant (1993), p. 57 ^ DiMaio, Michael, "Licinius (308 – 324 A.D.)" ^ Grant (1985), p. 236 ^ Grant (1993), pp. 46–47 ^ Odahl, p. 180 ^ Lenski, p. 76 ^ Grant (1993), pp. 47–48 References[edit] DiMaio, Michael, "Licinius (308 – 324 A.D.)", DIR (1997). Grant, Michael (1985), The Roman Emperors: A biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome 31 BC-AD 476, London. ISBN 0-297-78555-9 Grant, Michael (1993), The Emperor Constantine, London. ISBN 0-7538-0528-6 Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Lenski, Noel E. (2011) The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Cambridge University Press. Odahl, C.M., (2004) Constantine and the Christian Empire, Routledge 2004. ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Regnal titles Preceded by Licinius Roman emperor 324 With: Licinius Succeeded by Constantine I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martinian_(emperor)&oldid=1023694530" Categories: 325 deaths 4th-century executions 4th-century murdered monarchs 4th-century Roman emperors Executed Roman emperors Magistri officiorum People executed by the Roman Empire Tetrarchy Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kiswahili Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 17 May 2021, at 20:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6556	----	Pacorus of Armenia - Wikipedia Pacorus of Armenia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bakur) Jump to navigation Jump to search Parthian Prince and King of Armenia from 161 to 163 Pacorus King of Armenia Reign 161–163 Predecessor Sohaemus Successor Sohaemus Dynasty Arsacid dynasty Father Vologases IV Religion Zoroastrianism Pacorus, also known as Aurelius Pacorus or Bakur[1] (Latinized: Bacurius, Aurelius Pacorus Greek: Αύρήλιος Πάκορος) was a Parthian Prince who served as one of the Kings of Armenia in the 2nd century. Pacorus was a son of the Parthian monarch Vologases IV (r. 147–191).[2] He is known from a Greek funeral inscription[3] in Rome[4] as a dedication from him in honoring the memory of his brother Aurelius Merithates.[5] In the inscription dedication Pacorus describes himself as: Αύρήλιος Πάκορος βασιλεύς μεγάλης Άρμενίας[6] or from the Greek translation Aurelius Pacorus King of Greater Armenia[7] From the inscription it is evident that Pacorus' brother lived and died in Rome.[8] The inscription also shows that Pacorus lived for a time in Rome and had friends in Rome.[9] The name Aurelius points to a close connection with the imperial house[10] of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. At some point Pacorus and his brother received Roman citizenship[11] from an Emperor of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, perhaps from Lucius Verus[12] either before or after Pacorus' Armenian Kingship.[13] Pacorus is known to have ruled Armenia in the second century and is the only Pacorus to be appointed as King of Armenia by a ruling King of Parthia who was removed by Lucius Verus.[14] During the Roman Parthian War of 161-166, Vologases IV of Parthia in 161/162 entered the Roman Client Kingdom of Armenia, expelled the Roman Client Armenian King Sohaemus and installed Pacorus as a Parthian Client King of Armenia.[15][16] Pacorus served as an Armenian King from 161 until 163 when Lucius Verus arrived with the Roman Army in Armenia.[17] Pacorus was dethroned by the Romans when they captured Armenia and the Armenian capital.[18] After Pacorus was dethroned, Sohaemus was reinstalled to his Armenian Kingship.[19] Pacorus' fate is unknown afterwards, however he may have been brought to Rome by Lucius Verus to live.[20] References[edit] ^ Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, p.70 ^ Russell 1987, p. 161. ^ De Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, p.315 ^ Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, p.70 ^ Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, p.70 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, p.70 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.p.43&45 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.p.43&45 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.p.43&45 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.43 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p.121 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, p.302 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.43 ^ Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, p.45 Sources[edit] Schottky, Martin (2010). "Armenische Arsakiden zur Zeit der Antonine. Ein Beitrag zur Korrektur der armenischen Königsliste". ANABASIS Studia Classica et Orientalia. 1: 208–224. ISSN 2082-8993. (in German) Federico, Frasson (2016). "Armenia and Armenians in Asinius Quadratus' Παρθικά". In Traina, Giusto; Pagani, Lara; Gazzano, Francesca (eds.). Greek Texts and Armenian Traditions: An Interdisciplinary Approach. De Gruyter. pp. 163–194. ISBN 9783110488661. Juntunen, Kai (2014). "The Arrogant Armenian – Tiridates (Bagratuni) in Cassius Dio and Movses Khorenats'i". Arctos - Acta Philologica Fennica. 47: 153–172. ISSN 0570-734X. Russell, James R. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674968509. D. Braund, Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship, Taylor & Francis, 1984 A. De Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, BRILL, 1997 M.C. Fronto & M.P.J. Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, BRILL, 1999 A. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, Routledge, 2000 R.G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 See also[edit] Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Emperorship of Marcus Aurelius v t e Armenian kings Orontid Dynasty Orontes I Sakavakyats Tigranes Vahagn Hidarnes I Hidarnes II Hidarnes III Artasyrus (satrap) Orontes I (satrap) Darius III (satrap) Orontes II (satrap) Mithrenes (satrap) Orontes III Sames Arsames I Xerxes Orontes IV Artaxiad Dynasty Artaxias I Tigranes I Artavasdes I Tigranes the Great Artavasdes II Artaxias II Tigranes III Tigranes IV with Erato Roman and Parthian non-dynastic candidates Ariobarzanes II Artavasdes III Tigranes V Vonones I Artaxias III Arsaces I Orodes Mithridates Rhadamistus Tiridates I Arsacid Dynasty Tigranes VI Sanatruk Axidares Parthamasiris Vologases I Sohaemus Bakur Vologases II Khosrov I Tiridates II Khosrov II Tiridates III Khosrov III Tiran Arshak II Pap Varazdat Arshak III Khosrov IV Vramshapuh Artaxias IV Bagratid Armenia Ashot I Smbat I Ashot II Abas I Ashot III Smbat II Gagik I Hovhannes-Smbat III Ashot IV Gagik II Cilicia Leo I Isabella Hethum I Leo II Hethum II Thoros Sempad Constantine I Leo III Oshin Leo IV Constantine II Constantine III Constantine IV Leo V v t e Arsacid kings of Armenia (66–428) Tiridates I Tigranes VI Tiridates I Sanatruces (Sanatruk) Axidares (Ashkhadar) Parthamasiris (Partamasir) Roman Province Vologases I Sohaemus Bakur Sohaemus Vologases II Khosrov I Tiridates II Khosrov II Hormizd I (Sasanian Kingship) Narseh (Sasanian Kingship) Tiridates III Khosrov III Tigranes VII (Tiran) Arsaces II (Arshak II) Sasanian Kingship Papas (Pap) Varasdates (Varazdat) Arsaces III (Arshak III) with Vologases III Khosrov IV Vramshapuh Shapur IV (Sasanian Kingship) Artaxias IV (Artashir IV) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacorus_of_Armenia&oldid=1023463699" Categories: 2nd-century kings of Armenia Arsacid kings of Armenia 2nd-century Iranian people Parthian princes 2nd-century Romans People of the Roman–Parthian Wars Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Français Հայերեն ქართული Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 May 2021, at 14:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6564	----	File:L'Image et le Pouvoir - Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle agé - 3.jpg - Wikipedia File:L'Image et le Pouvoir - Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle agé - 3.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 160 × 240 pixels | 320 × 480 pixels | 512 × 768 pixels | 683 × 1,024 pixels | 1,509 × 2,263 pixels. Original file ‎(1,509 × 2,263 pixels, file size: 1.8 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Contents 1 Summary 1.1 Object 1.2 Photograph 2 Licensing Summary Object anonymous: Bust of Marcus Aurelius Ra 61 b    Artist anonymous   Title French: Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle âgé  Bust of Marcus Aurelius Ra 61 btitle QS:P1476,fr:"Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle âgé " label QS:Lfr,"Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle âgé " label QS:Len,"Bust of Marcus Aurelius Ra 61 b" Object type sculpture / archaeological artifact  Genre portrait  Depicted people Marcus Aurelius  Date 0170s date QS:P,+0170-00-00T00:00:00Z/8   Medium Q64569171  Dimensions Height: 76.5 cm (30.1 in) ; Width: 53.5 cm (21 in) ; Thickness: 29 cm (11.4 in) dimensions QS:P2048,+76.5U174728 dimensions QS:P2049,+53.5U174728 dimensions QS:P2610,+29U174728 Collection Musée Saint-Raymond    Native name Musée Saint-Raymond Location Toulouse, France Coordinates 43° 36′ 28.33″ N, 1° 26′ 28.03″ E   Established 1891 Web page saintraymond.toulouse.fr Authority control : Q1376 VIAF: 128969666 ISNI: 0000 0001 2323 4385 ULAN: 500311605 LCCN: n81055239 GND: 1091399-3 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q1376 Accession number RA 61 b (Musée Saint-Raymond)  30108 Place of discovery Chiragan Roman villa  Object history discovered (Chiragan Roman villa) Exhibition history L'Image et le Pouvoir  Age of Classics Le regard de Rome References described at URL: Les sculptures de la villa romaine de Chiragan  described at URL: Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle âgé-Sketchfab described at URL: Marc Aurèle-NESP described at URL: Portrait de Marc Aurèle âgé-2000 ans 2000 images described at URL: Marcus Aurelius Bust-My Mini Factory Joconde database: entry 05630000115 Authority control : Q24266956 Joconde: 05630000115 Photograph DescriptionL'Image et le Pouvoir - Buste cuirassé de Marc Aurèle agé - 3.jpg Photograph taken at: L'Image et le Pouvoir : le siècle des Antonins, Musée Saint-Raymond, 19 November 2011–18 March 2012 . Date 8 January 2012 Source Self-photographed Author Pierre-Selim Permission (Reusing this file) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 CC BY-SA 3.0 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 truetrue Camera Model Canon EOS 7D Aperture 4 Film speed (ISO) 1250 Lens EF-S 60mm USM macro Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 CC BY-SA 3.0 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 truetrue Quality image This image has been assessed using the Quality image guidelines and is considered a Quality image. 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Items portrayed in this file depicts digital representation of Bust of Marcus Aurelius Ra 61 b copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Commons quality assessment Wikimedia Commons quality image source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 22:57, 19 January 2012 1,509 × 2,263 (1.8 MB) PierreSelim File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Financial endowment Marcus Aurelius Stoicism User:KTucker/Libre knowledge (draft) User:MarcusAvrelius2017 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org البشارات ببعثة الرسول محمد دانيال 7 في الإسلام Usage on ast.wikipedia.org Marcu Aureliu Usage on bs.wikipedia.org Marko Aurelije Usage on en.wikiquote.org Future Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle Bonheur Wikipédia:Lumière sur/Octobre 2020 Wikipédia:Lumière sur/Marc Aurèle Usage on hak.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on hi.wikipedia.org मार्कस ऑरेलियस Usage on hy.wikiquote.org Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Usage on it.wikipedia.org Aurelio Diarchia Utente:SteveR2/Marcus Aurelius Pensiero di Marco Aurelio Persecuzione dei cristiani sotto Marco Aurelio Usage on ka.wikipedia.org სტოიციზმი Usage on kk.wikipedia.org Философия Usage on ku.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on lfn.wikipedia.org Sentenio 2 Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on oc.wikipedia.org Sègle II apC Usage on pl.wikisource.org Autor:Marek Aureliusz Usage on pnb.wikipedia.org مارکس اورلیس Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Guerra romano-parta de 161–166 Usage on ro.wikipedia.org 17 martie Utilizator:Babu/Marcus Aurelius Usage on sh.wikipedia.org Rimsko Carstvo Usage on sr.wikipedia.org Марко Аурелије Римско царство Istorijat transseksualizma Usage on tr.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Usage on zh-yue.wikipedia.org 奧理略 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Software used Picasa Exif version 2.2 Unique image ID 2141c3732aec0857329acd07fd794751 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:L%27Image_et_le_Pouvoir_-_Buste_cuirassé_de_Marc_Aurèle_agé_-_3.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6586	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-6593	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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en-wikipedia-org-6626	----	Vexillum - Wikipedia Vexillum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Military standard of the Ancient Roman army For the gastropod of Costellariidae family, see Vexillum (gastropod). Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The only extant Roman vexillum, 3rd century AD. Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, Russia The vexillum (/vɛkˈsɪləm/; plural vexilla) was a flag-like object used as a military standard by units in the Ancient Roman army. Contents 1 Use in Roman army 2 Appearance 3 General and later use 4 See also 4.1 In taxonomy 5 References 6 External links Use in Roman army[edit] Further information: Roman Empire Standards Modern reproduction of a Roman cavalry vexillum The word vexillum is a derivative of the Latin word, velum, meaning a sail, which confirms the historical evidence (from coins and sculpture) that vexilla were literally "little sails": flag-like standards. In the vexillum, the cloth was draped from a horizontal crossbar suspended from a staff. That is unlike most modern flags in which the "hoist" of the cloth is attached directly to a vertical staff. The bearer of a vexillum was known as a vexillarius or vexillifer.[1] Just as in the case of the regimental colors or flags of early modern Western regiments, the vexillum was a treasured symbol of the military unit that it represented and it was closely defended in combat. It was the main standard of some types of units, especially cavalry; however, it was regarded as less important than a legion's aquila, or eagle, and may have represented a subdivision of a legion. However, that is not entirely clear from surviving sources (see vexillatio).[1] The only existent Roman military vexillum is dated to the first half of the 3rd century AD and is housed in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. It is an almost square piece of coarse linen cloth with the image of the goddess Victoria and measures 47×50 cm.[2] The lower edge has the remains of a fringe.[2] The vexillum was once attached to a piece of reed wood.[2] It is unknown to which military unit the vexillum belonged. The vexillum was found in Egypt shortly before 1911, but its exact provenance is also unclear.[3] Appearance[edit] It is sometimes reported that the vexillum of the Ancient Roman Republic was red in color and had the letters SPQR (which means "the Senate and People of Rome") in yellow on it,[citation needed] however "it is difficult to find any evidence that they were ever on military flags carried by the army."[4] General and later use[edit] Roman ensigns, standards, trumpets etc. The term vexillum (plural vexilla) is used more generally for any object, such as a relic or icon, used as a standard in battle, and may be considered the offensive equivalent of the more defensive palladium in this context.[5] Vexillology, or the study of flags, derives its name from this word and a vexilloid is a standard that is not of conventional flag form. Nearly all of the present-day regions of Italy preserve the use of vexilla. Many Christian processional banners are in the vexillum form; usually these banners are termed labara (Greek: λάβαρον) after the standard adopted by the first Christian Roman emperor Constantine I replaced the usual spear point with the "Chi-Rho" symbol ☧. For example, a vexillum is used by the Legion of Mary as the term for its standards. A small version is used on the altar and a larger one leads processions. In the Middle Ages, the type of banner draped from a horizontal crossbar became known as a gonfalon. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Vexilla Regis, early Christian hymn whose first line uses this word, referring to the cross as a standard In taxonomy[edit] Vexillum (botany), the large upper petal of a papilionaceous flower Vexillum (gastropod), a genus of snails in the family Costellariidae Inquisitor vexillum, a sea snail species References[edit] ^ a b Vexillum. Flagspot.net, retrieved March 18, 2011 ^ a b c Rostovtzeff, Michael (1942). "Vexillum and Victory". The Journal of Roman Studies. 32: 92. doi:10.2307/296463. JSTOR 296463. ^ Rostovtzeff, p. 106 ^ Bond, Sarah. "The Misuse of an Ancient Roman Acronym by White Nationalist Groups". Hyperallergc. Retrieved 2020-08-13. ^ Ryan, William Francis,The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia, pp. 237-239, 1999, Penn State Press, ISBN 0271019670, 9780271019673 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vexillum. Luca's Fabrica v t e Heraldry Armiger Law of heraldic arms Grant of arms Blazon Officials Authorities Officers of arms King of Arms, Herald, Pursuivant Private Officer of Arms Conventional elements of coats of arms Coat of arms (emblazoned onto an escutcheon) Supporter Supporter Slogan (battle cry) Crest Torse Mantling Helmet/Galero Crown/Coronet Compartment Order Motto Heraldic tinctures Types National Dominion Civic Ecclesiastical Papal Burgher Women Socialist Attributed Charges of heraldic achievem -ents (List) See also: Canting Alliance (Courtesy) Funerary Escutcheon (shield) Modern French Field Divisions Variations Charge Chief Lines Ordinary Augmentation Abatement Cadency Distinction Marshalling Quartering Impalement Bar Bend Bordure Canton Chevron Cross Fess Flaunch Gyron Label Lozenge Orle Pale Pall Pile Roundel Saltire Creatures Attitudes Erasure Beasts Bear Boar Bull/Ox Dog/Hound Camelopard (giraffe) Hind/Stag (deer) Kangaroo Leopard Lion Wolf Bird species Avalerion Black swan Cock Corvus Dove Eagle Martlet Pelican Sea creatures Dolphin Ged Lucy (esox) Scallop Legendary creatures Allocamelus Alphyn Amphiptere Basilisk Biscione Chollima Cockatrice Dragon Enfield Garuda Griffin/Keythong Harpy Hippocampus Hippogriff Lampago Lindworm Manticore Mermaid Ouroboros Pantheon Panther Pegasus Phoenix Salamander Sea-lion Tyger Unicorn Woodwose Wyvern Yale Others Reremouse Bee Crapaudy (toad) Emmet (ant) Serpent Knots Bourchier Bowen Cavendish/Savoy Dacre Harrington Hastings/Hungerford Heneage Hinckaert Hungerford knot Lacy Medici Morvillier Ormonde/Wake Savoy Shakespeare Stafford Trafford Tristram/Bowen Wake Tinctures Rules Tricking Hatching Fimbriation (with black and white rendering) Metals     Argent (white)     Or (gold) Colours     Gules (red)     Sable (black)     Azure (blue)     Vert (green)     Purpure (purple) Furs Ermines Erminois Erminites Pean Vair Potent Stains     Murrey (mulberry)     Sanguine (blood red)     Tenné Non-tra ditional1 Metals   Copper   Buff (treated as a metal in United States heraldry) Colours     Bleu celeste   Brunâtre (brown)   Buff (treated as a color in Canadian heraldry)   Carnation   Cendrée   Ochre   Orange   Rose External Crowns and coronets Crest Compartment Helmet Mantling And pavilion Motto Slogan Supporter Torse Applications Clothing (Tabard) Flag (Banner of arms) Badge Jewellery Seal Equestrian Bookplate Trophy of arms See also Roll of arms Phaleristics List of oldest heraldry Vexillology Mon Emblem Logotype 1 Non-traditional, rarely used traditions in italic (typically regional or modern, sometimes considered unheraldic)  Heraldry portal Portal:Heraldry/Web resources Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vexillum&oldid=1028504041" Categories: Ancient Roman military standards History of flags Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Latina Lietuvių 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 10:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6627	----	Constantine VIII - Wikipedia Constantine VIII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1025 to 1028 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine VIII Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine VIII, 15th-century miniature portrait from the Mutinensis gr. 122 Byzantine emperor Reign 962–1025 (as co-emperor)[notes 1] Predecessor Romanos II Successor Himself (as sole emperor) Reign 15 December 1025 – 11 November 1028 (as sole emperor) Predecessor Basil II (as senior emperor) Himself (as junior co-emperor) Successor Romanos III Argyros and Zoë Porphyrogenita Born 960 Died 11/12 November 1028 (aged 67–68) Spouse Helena Issue Eudokia Zoë Theodora Names Constantine VIII Dynasty Macedonian dynasty Father Romanos II Mother Theophano Constantine VIII Porphyrogenitus (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Η΄ Πορφυρογέννητος, Kōnstantinos VIII Porphyrogénnetos; 960 – 11/12 November 1028) was de jure Byzantine Emperor from 962 until his death. He was the younger son of Emperor Romanos II and Empress Theophano. He was nominal co-emperor for 63 years, successively with his father; stepfather, Nikephoros II Phokas; uncle, John I Tzimiskes; and brother, Basil II. Basil II died childless on 15 December 1025 and thus left the rule of the Byzantine Empire in Constantine's hands. Constantine had no interest in politics, statecraft or the military. His brief reign is said to have been "an unmitigated disaster", sparking "a collapse of the military power of the Empire". Constantine had no sons, so shortly before his death he married his daughter Zoë to his chosen successor, Romanos Argyros. Contents 1 Family 2 Life 2.1 Childhood 2.2 Adulthood 2.3 Emperor 3 Ancestry 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Bibliography 6.2.1 Primary sources 6.2.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Family[edit] Gold histamenon of Constantine's daughters Zoë and Theodora Constantine's father, Romanos II, was the sixth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty. After the death of his first wife, Bertha (who took the name Eudocia), daughter of Hugh of Arles, he fell in love with and married an innkeeper's daughter from the Peloponnese, Theophano. Contemporaries called Theophano the most beautiful woman in Christendom as well as ambitious, an inveterate schemer and utterly amoral. She bore Romanos four children, including Constantine, born in 960, and his elder brother Basil, born in 958.[1] His sister Anna's hand was considered such a prize that Vladimir I of Kiev converted to Christianity in order to marry her.[2] Aged eight, Constantine was engaged to a daughter of Emperor Boris II of Bulgaria but in the end he married a Byzantine aristocrat, Helena, daughter of Alypius. By Helena he had three daughters: Eudokia, who became a nun; Zoë, who was empress for 22 years; and Theodora, who reigned for 18 months and was the last of the Macedonian line.[3] Life[edit] Gold solidus of Romanos II's father Constantine VII (left) and Romanos II (right) Histamenon of Nikephoros II (left) and Basil II (right) Histamenon of John Tzimiskes crowned by the Virgin Mary Histamenon of Basil II (left) and Constantine VIII (right) All coins show a haloed Christ on obverse. Childhood[edit] Romanos died in 963, amidst rumours that Theophano had poisoned him; Constantine was three years old. Constantine and his brother had been crowned co-emperors by their father in March 962.[4] The widowed Theophano installed herself as regent for her sons and promptly purged the imperial government, appointing her own men. Passing over a bevy of suitors among Constantinople's courtiers, she made an alliance with Nikephoros Phokas. Nikephoros, a physically repulsive ascetic twice her age, was the greatest military hero of the Empire. In return for her hand, the childless Nikephoros gave his sacred pledge to protect her children and their interests. Nikephoros entered Constantinople three months after Romanos' death, breaking the resistance of Joseph Bringas, a eunuch palace official who had been Romanos' chief counsellor, in street fighting.[5] Nikephoros was crowned emperor in the presence of his nominal co-emperors, Constantine and Basil. A month later he married their mother.[6] Six years later, Nikephoros was murdered at Theophano's instigation and her lover and co-conspirator John Tzimiskes was acclaimed emperor. Tzimiskes proposed to marry Theophano but the Empress had by then been too damaged by gossip and rumours, many of them accurate. Patriarch Polyeuktos refused to perform the coronation unless Tzimiskes removed the "scarlet empress" from the court. Tzimiskes calculated that his legitimacy would be better enhanced by church approval than betrothal to the unpopular empress and acceded to the Patriarch's demands. Theophano was sent into exile and Tzimiskes was crowned, again with Constantine and Basil as co-emperors.[7][8] He married Theodora, Constantine's aunt.[9] Adulthood[edit] Following the death of Tzimiskes in January 976, Basil and Constantine took power. Although the sixteen year old Constantine was nominally co-emperor it was clear that Basil was the senior Basileus.[10] Constantine as a young man was tall and graceful, he was a superb horseman and trained his own horses. He competed in athletic and wrestling competitions, which he brought back into fashion. He had an excellent speaking voice and a good grasp of rhetoric. He was a gourmet and a gourmand.[11] He had no interest in politics, statecraft or the military and never developed any.[12] Constantine led troops alongside his brother in 989; the campaign ended without any combat and Constantine was not appointed to military command again.[13] Emperor[edit] Histamenon of Constantine VIII. On the reverse is an image of Christ. Basil II had an illustrious reign, earning the sobriquet "Bulgar-slayer" (Bulgaroktonus). He died childless on 15 December 1025 and Constantine, a sixty-five-year-old widower, became sole emperor as Constantine VIII. He had been a co-emperor for sixty-three years but had always been content to enjoy the privileges of imperial status, without concerning himself with state affairs.[4] He spent his life in the search of pleasure and entertainment, or amusing himself with riding and hunting. He was "of frivolous disposition, he desired nothing more than to pass his life wallowing in extravagant pleasures."[14] Constantine as emperor carried on as he always had – hunting, feasting, and enjoying life – and avoided state business as much as possible.[14] By the time he became emperor he had chronic gout and could hardly walk. He met challenges with impulsive cruelty, persecuting the nobility and ordering an orgy of torture; blinding was a favoured punishment for crimes real or imagined. He filled the senior court and state positions with nonentities. Within months the land laws of Basil II were dropped, under pressure from the Anatolian aristocracy. "Devoid of any semblance of moral fibre"[15] he would grant any concession.[15] Favouritism failed to win him friends and he persecuted the nobility when he felt threatened by conspiracy. The start of the decline of the Byzantine Empire has been linked to Constantine's accession to the throne.[16] His reign has been described as "an unmitigated disaster", "a break up of the system" and causing "a collapse of the military power of the Empire".[17][10] Miliaresion of Romanos III. On the reverse is the Virgin Mary holding the infant Christ. He ruled for less than three years before his death on 11/12 November 1028.[18][19][20] On his deathbed, and without a male heir, Constantine recalled the senior aristocrat Constantine Dalessenos, Duke of Antioch, to the capital in order to marry his daughter Zoë. The Dalassenus were one of the few powerful patrician families who had been unswervingly loyal to the Macedonian dynasty.[21] Constantine Dalassenos set out from his estates in the Armeniac Theme, but before reaching Constantinople the situation changed: the emperor's advisors preferred a weak ruler whom they could control, and, typically, Constantine was persuaded. He choose Romanos Argyros instead, forcing him to divorce his wife and marry Zoë. The wedding took place only three days before Constantine died on 11 November 1028. Romanos was crowned Romanos III (r. 1028–1034) four days later.[22][23] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Constantine VIII 16. Basil I[24] or possibly Michael III[27] 8. Leo VI the Wise[24] 17. Eudokia Ingerina[24] 4. Constantine VII[24] 9. Zoe Carbonopsina[24] 2. Romanos II[24] 20. Theophylact Abaktistos or Abastaktos[26] 10. Romanos I Lekapenos[24] 5. Helena Lekapene[24][26] 11. Theodora[26] 1. Constantine VIII 6. Krateros (a tavern keeper)[25] 3. Theophano[25][24] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Co-Emperor with Romanos II (962–963), Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969), John I Tzimiskes (969–976) and Basil II (962–1025) References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Norwich 1991, p. 174. ^ Skylitzes & Wortley 2010, p. 319 (footnote). ^ Garland 1999, pp. 165–66. ^ a b Brand & Cutler 1991, pp. 503–504. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrandCutler1991 (help) ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 284. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 174–75, 183–190. ^ Ash 1995, p. 248. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 240. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 261. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 264. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 267, 269. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 231. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 242–43. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 265. ^ a b Norwich 1991, p. 268. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 283. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 283, 268. ^ Lupus Protospatharius; 1029: "mortuus est Constantinus Imperator in vigilia S. Martini." On the eve of Martin of Tours', that is, the day before 12 November (unless he is referring to the very same day). ^ Georgius Cedrenus − CSHB 9: 484-5: "Nona Novembris die, indictione 12, anno 6537, subito morbo correptus Constantinus... triduo post Constantinus vivendi finem fecit, cum vixisset annos." The latin translation indicates that he fell ill on the 9th and died 3 days later. However, the text could also be interpreted as the third day since his illness, that is, 11 November. ^ Yahya of Antioch gives 12 November. (ODB p. 503) ^ Norwich 1991, p. 269. ^ Patlagean 2007, pp. 131–132; Treadgold 1997, p. 584. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 322. ^ a b c d e f g h i ODB, "Macedonian dynasty" genealogical table, p. 1263. ^ a b Garland (1999), pp. 126, 128 ^ a b c ODB, "Lekapenos" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1203–1204. ^ Charanis (1963), p. 35. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Psellus, Michael (1979). Chronographia [Chronicle]. Penguin classics (Fourteen Byzantine Rulers: The Chronographia of Michael Psellus ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044169-7. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum [John Scylitzes: A Synopsis of Histories]. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8. Secondary sources[edit] Ash, John (1995). A Byzantine Journey. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-015-5. Brand, C. M.; Cutler, A. (1991). "Constantine VIII". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Charanis, Peter (1963). The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. OCLC 17186882. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Norwich, John (1991). Byzantium: the Apogee. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-80252-4. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of The Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 422217218. Patlagean, Évelyne (2007). Un Moyen Âge Grec: Byzance, IXe–XVe siècle (in French). Paris, France: Albin Michel. ISBN 978-2-226-17110-8. Skylitzes, John; Wortley, John (2010). A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76705-7. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos VIII. Constantine VIII coinage Constantine VIII Macedonian dynasty Born: 960 Died: 15 November 1028 Regnal titles Preceded by Basil II Byzantine emperor 962–1028 with Romanos II (962–963) with Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969) with John I Tzimiskes (969–976) with Basil II (962–1025) Succeeded by Zoë and Romanos III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VIII&oldid=1028063182" Categories: 1000s in the Byzantine Empire 1010s in the Byzantine Empire 1020s in the Byzantine Empire 1028 deaths 11th-century Byzantine emperors 960 births 960s in the Byzantine Empire 970s in the Byzantine Empire 980s in the Byzantine Empire 990s in the Byzantine Empire Basil II Macedonian dynasty Medieval child rulers Porphyrogennetoi Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2019 Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 16:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6641	----	Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Wikipedia Help Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nerva–Antonine dynasty. This category contains articles on the Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) of Roman emperors, particularly articles on individuals who were a member of it by blood, marriage alliance or association. The dynasty consisted of the six "Good Emperors" (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, and Marcus Aurelius) in addition to Marcus Aurelius' son Commodus. Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. L ► Lucius Verus‎ (1 C, 4 P) M ► Marcus Aurelius‎ (3 C, 8 P) N ► Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty‎ (2 C, 20 P) Pages in category "Nerva–Antonine dynasty" The following 64 pages are in this category, out of 64 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Nerva–Antonine dynasty - Template:Nerva–Antonine dynasty – Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree * Taurobolic Altar (Lyon) A Aelia Capitolina Lucius Aelius Caesar Quintus Aemilius Laetus Agaclytus (freedman) Annia Faustina Marcus Annius Libo Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161) Antinous Lucius Antistius Burrus Antonine Itinerary Antonine Plague Antoninus Pius Athenaeum (ancient Rome) Publius Atilius Aebutianus Marcus Aurelius Cleander Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus Avidia (mother of Lucius Verus) B Junius Licinius Balbus C Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Lucius Caesennius Antoninus Ceionia Fabia Ceionia Plautia Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Commodus Commodus as Hercules Annia Cornificia Faustina Bruttia Crispina F Fadilla The Fall of the Roman Empire (film) Faustina the Younger Annia Faustina (daughter of Ummidia Cornificia Faustina) Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor Ummidia Cornificia Faustina Vitrasia Faustina G Gladiator (2000 film) H Hadrian's Wall J Julius Alexander Lucius Junius Caesennius Paetus L Lucilla Domitia Calvilla Lucius Verus M Marcia (mistress of Commodus) Marcus Aurelius Meditations N Narcissus (wrestler) P Tigidius Perennis Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus Q Plautius Quintillus R Reign of Marcus Aurelius S Vibia Aurelia Sabina Sohaemus of Armenia Sextus Attius Suburanus T Temple of Marcus Aurelius Tropaeum Traiani U Ulpia (grandmother of Hadrian) V Velletri Sarcophagus Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Nerva–Antonine_dynasty&oldid=1024944836" Categories: Roman imperial dynasties 1st century in the Roman Empire 2nd century in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after dynasties Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Čeština Español فارسی 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Македонски Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 21:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6671	----	Capitoline Museums - Wikipedia Capitoline Museums From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search archaeology, Art museum, Historic site in Rome, Italy Capitoline Museums Musei Capitolini The Palazzo dei Conservatori is one of the three main buildings of the Capitoline Museums. Location within Rome Established 1734 (1734) open to public, 1471 (1471) bronzes donated by Pope Sixtus IV to the people of Rome Location Piazza del Campidoglio 1, 00186 Rome, Italy Coordinates 41°53′34″N 12°28′57″E / 41.8928°N 12.4824°E / 41.8928; 12.4824Coordinates: 41°53′34″N 12°28′57″E / 41.8928°N 12.4824°E / 41.8928; 12.4824 Type archaeology, Art museum, Historic site Director Maria Vittoria Marini Clarelli Website www.museicapitolini.org Michelangelo's design for Capitoline Hill, now home to the Capitoline Museums. Engraved by Étienne Dupérac, 1568. The Capitoline Museums (Italian: Musei Capitolini) is a single museum containing a group of art and archaeological museums in Piazza del Campidoglio, on top of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, Italy. The historic seats of the museums are Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo, facing on the central trapezoidal piazza in a plan conceived by Michelangelo in 1536 and executed over a period of more than 400 years. The history of the museum can be traced to 1471, when Pope Sixtus IV donated a collection of important ancient bronzes to the people of Rome and located them on the Capitoline Hill. Since then, the museums' collection has grown to include many ancient Roman statues, inscriptions, and other artifacts; a collection of medieval and Renaissance art; and collections of jewels, coins, and other items. The museums are owned and operated by the municipality of Rome. The statue of a mounted rider in the centre of the piazza is of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is a copy, the original being housed on-site in the Capitoline museum. Opened to the public in 1734 under Clement XII, the Capitoline Museums are considered the first museum in the world, understood as a place where art could be enjoyed by all and not only by the owners.[1] Contents 1 Buildings 1.1 Palazzo dei Conservatori 1.1.1 Main staircase 1.1.2 2nd floor 1.1.3 3rd floor 1.2 Palazzo Nuovo 1.3 Galleria di Congiunzione 1.4 New wing 2 Centrale Montemartini 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Buildings[edit] Capitoline Museums gallery Palazzo Nuovo Esquiline Venus. This section contains collections sorted by building, and brief information on the buildings themselves. For the history of their design and construction, see Capitoline Hill#Michelangelo. The Capitoline Museums are composed of three main buildings surrounding the Piazza del Campidoglio and interlinked by an underground gallery beneath the piazza. The three main buildings of the Capitoline Museums are: Palazzo Senatorio, built in the 12th century and modified according to Michelangelo's designs; Palazzo dei Conservatori, built in the mid-16th century and redesigned by Michelangelo with the first use of the giant order column design; and Palazzo Nuovo, built in the 17th century with an identical exterior design to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which it faces across the palazzo. In addition, the 16th century Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino, located off the piazza adjacent to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, was added to the museum complex in the early 20th century. Palazzo dei Conservatori[edit] The collections here are ancient sculpture, mostly Roman but also Greek and Egyptian. Main staircase[edit] Features the relief from the honorary monument to Marcus Aurelius. 2nd floor[edit] The second floor of the building is occupied by the Conservator's Apartment, a space now open to the public and housing such famous works as the bronze she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, which has become the emblem of Rome. The Conservator's Apartment is distinguished by elaborate interior decorations, including frescoes, stuccos, tapestries, and carved ceilings and doors. 3rd floor[edit] The third floor of the Palazzo dei Conservatori houses the Capitoline Art Gallery, housing the museums' painting and applied art galleries. The Capitoline Coin Cabinet, containing collections of coins, medals, jewels, and jewelry, is located in the attached Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino. Palazzo Nuovo[edit] Statues, inscriptions, sarcophagi, busts, mosaics, and other ancient Roman artifacts occupy two floors of the Palazzo Nuovo. In the Hall of the Galatian can also be appreciated the marble statue of the "Dying Gaul" also called “Capitoline Gaul” and the statue of Cupid and Psyche. Also housed in this building are: The colossal statue restored as Oceanus, located in the museum courtyard of this building A fragment of the Tabula Iliaca located at the Hall of the Doves The statue of Capitoline Venus, from an original by Praxiteles (4th century BC) Galleria di Congiunzione[edit] The Galleria di Congiunzione is located beneath the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the piazza itself, and links the three palazzos sitting on the piazza. The gallery was constructed in the 1930s. It contains in situ 2nd century ruins of ancient Roman dwellings, and also houses the Galleria Lapidaria, which displays the Museums' collection of epigraphs. New wing[edit] The new great glass covered hall — the Sala Marco Aurelio — created by covering the Giardino Romano is similar to the one used for the Sala Ottagonale and British Museum Great Court. The design is by the architect Carlo Aymonino. Its volume recalls that of the oval space designed by Michelangelo for the piazza. Its centerpiece is the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which was once in the centre of Piazza del Campidoglio and has been kept indoors ever since its modern restoration. Moving these statues out of the palazzo allows those sculptures temporarily moved to the Centrale Montemartini to be brought back. It also houses the remaining fragments of the bronze colossus of Constantine and the archaeological remains of the tuff foundations of the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, with a model, drawn and computer reconstructions and finds dating from the earliest occupation on the site (in the mid Bronze Age: 17th-14th centuries B.C.) to the foundation of the temple (6th century BC). In the three halls adjacent to the Appartamento dei Conservatori are to be found the showcases of the famous Castellani Collection with a part of the set of Greek and Etruscan vases that was donated to the municipality of Rome by Augusto Castellani in the mid-19th century. Centrale Montemartini[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) The Centrale Montemartini[2] is a former power station of Acea (active as a power-station between the 1890s and 1930s) in southern Rome, between Piramide and the basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura, close to the Metro station Garbatella. In 1997, the Centrale Montemartini was adapted to temporarily accommodate a part of the antique sculpture collection of the Capitoline museums, at that time closed for renovation; the temporary exhibition was so appreciated that the venue was eventually converted into a permanent museum.[3] Its permanent collection comprises 400 ancient statues, moved here during the reorganisation of the Capitoline Museums in 1997, along with tombs, busts, and mosaics. Many of them were excavated in the ancient Roman horti (e.g. the Gardens of Sallust) between the 1890s and 1930s, a fruitful period for Roman archaeology. They are displayed there along the lines of Tate Modern, except that (unlike there) the machinery has not been moved out.[4] Gallery[edit] The wounded Amazon, copy from original work by Phidias Capitoline Antinous Apollo Citharoedus Bust of Alexander-Helios Probably a copy of the statue of Artemis by Kephisodotos Bust of Augustus Bust of Cleopatra, Centrale Montemartini, Rome Commodus as Hercules Head of the bronze colossus of Constantine Head of the marble colossus of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius Cupid and Psyche Eros Capitolini Eros Thanatos The Dying Gaul Heracles fighting Statue from Horti Lamiani Dancing Maenad Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Mosaic. - Roman artwork from the 2d quarter of the 4th century AD Bernini's Medusa Statue of Athena, Centrale Montemartini, Rome Resting Satyr Leaning Satyr Leda and the Swan The Spinario Triton The Capitoline Venus (a Venus Pudica) Capitoline Wolf Wounded Warrior Roman Trophy displayed inside the Musei Capitolini courtyard Baby Herakles strangling a snake sent to kill him in his cradle (Roman marble, 2nd century AD) Play media Courtyard of the Capitoline Museum Panorama of busts displayed at Capitoline museum, Rome See also[edit] Capitoline Brutus References[edit] ^ AA. VV. Roma e dintorni, edito dal T.C.I. nel 1977, pag. 83. ISBN 88-365-0016-1. Sandra Pinto, in Roma, edito dal gruppo editoriale L'Espresso su licenza del T.C.I. nel 2004, pag. 443. ISBN 88-365-0016-1. AA. VV. La nuova enciclopedia dell'arte Garzanti, Garzanti editore, 2000, ISBN 88-11-50439-2, alla voce "museo". ^ Centrale Montemartini Archived October 5, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Centrale Montemartini". Inexhibit magazine. Retrieved March 7, 2016. ^ "Classical art & industrial archaeology". likealocalguide.com. Retrieved July 7, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Musei Capitolini. Capitoline Museums official website (English language version). Retrieved April 26, 2010. Capitoline Museums research website (English/German/Italian language versions). v t e Museums and art galleries in Rome List of museums in Rome National museums Galleria Borghese Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Galleria Spada MAXXI Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria National Museum of Oriental Art Pigorini National Museum Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Corsini National Roman Museum Baths of Diocletian Civic museums Capitoline Museums Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museo delle Mura Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization Museum of the Ara Pacis Ara Pacis Other Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Liberation of Rome Palazzo Colonna Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Vatican Museums Modern Religious Art Pio Cristiano Museum Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel Vatican Historical Museum v t e Michelangelo List of works ✻ attributed · lost Sculptures Florence, c. 1488–1492 Head of a Faun Madonna of the Stairs Battle of the Centaurs Crucifix Bologna, 1494–1495 Additions to the Arca di San Domenico St Petronius St Proclus Angel Rome, 1496–1500 Sleeping Cupid Bacchus Standing Cupid Pietà Florence, 1501–1505 David Madonna of Bruges Additions to the Piccolomini Altarpiece Saints Peter, Paul, Pius and Gregory Pitti Tondo Taddei Tondo St. Matthew Rothschild Bronzes Tomb of Julius II, 1505–1545 Moses Rebellious Slave Dying Slave Young Slave Bearded Slave Atlas Slave Awakening Slave The Genius of Victory Rachel Leah Florence, 1516–1534 Christ Carrying the Cross Medici Chapel Giuliano de' Medici Night Day 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en-wikipedia-org-6675	----	Alsium - Wikipedia Alsium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Alsium (Greek: Ἄλσιον; modern: Palo) was an ancient city on the coast of Etruria, between Pyrgi and Fregenae, at the distance of 18 miles (29 km) from the Portus Augusti (mod. Porto) at the mouth of the Tiber (Itin. Ant. p. 301.), on the Via Aurelia,[1] by which it is about 35 km from Rome.[2] It was one of the oldest cities of Etruria, but does not appear in history until the Roman colonization of 247 BCE, and was never of great importance, except as a resort of wealthy Romans, many of whom (including Pompey and the Antonine emperors) had villas there.[3][4][5] Contents 1 History 2 The site 3 Notes 4 References History[edit] Its name is mentioned by Dionysius among the cities which were founded by the Pelasgians in connection with the aborigines, and afterwards wrested from them by the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans).[6] But no mention of it occurs in history as an Etruscan city, or during the wars of that people with Rome. In 247 BCE, a Roman colony was established there, which was placed on the same footing with the other coloniae maritimae; and in common with these claimed exemption from all military service, a claim which was, however, overruled during the exigencies of the Second Punic War.[7][8] No subsequent notice of it occurs in history, but its name is mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, and we learn from an inscription of the time of Caracalla that it still retained its colonial rank, and corresponding municipal organization.[9][10] It appears to have early become a favorite resort with the wealthy Romans as a place of retirement and pleasure;[11] thus we find that Pompey the Great had a villa there, and Julius Caesar also, where he landed on his return from Africa, and at which all the nobles of Rome hastened to greet him.[12] Another is mentioned as belonging to Lucius Verginius Rufus, the guardian of Pliny, and we learn from Fronto that the emperor Marcus Aurelius had a villa there, to which several of his epistles are addressed.[13] At a later period the town itself had fallen into utter decay, but the site was still occupied by villas, as well as that of the neighbouring Pyrgi.[14] The site[edit] The site of Alsium is clearly fixed by the distance from Porto, at the modern village of Palo, with a fort and mole of the 17th century, in the construction of which many ancient materials have been used. Besides these, the whole shore to the east of the village, for the space of more than a mile, is occupied by the remains of buildings which appear to have belonged to a Roman villa of imperial date, and of the most magnificent scale and style of construction.[4] Northeast of Palo is a row of large mounds called I Monteroni, which belong to tombs of the Etruscan cemetery. Considerable remains of ancient villas still exist along the low sandy coast, one of which, just east of Palo, occupies an area of some 400 by 250 yards (370 by 230 m).[3] The medieval castle belongs to the Odescalchi family. Palo includes today only the old castle: it is part of the comune of Ladispoli, a bathing resort founded by Prince Ladislao Odescalchi[3] in 1888. Notes[edit] ^ "Alsivm" http://www.cambridge.org/us/talbert/talbertdatabase/TPPlace1259.html ^ Quilici, L.; S. Quilici Gigli; DARMC; R. Talbert; S. Gillies; J. Åhlfeldt; J. Becker; T. Elliott. "Places: 422831 (Alsium)". Pleiades. Retrieved October 18, 2015. ^ a b c Chisholm 1911. ^ a b Smith 1854, p. 112. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) ^ Luisa Banti (1973). Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California Press. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-0-520-01910-2. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Dionysius i. 20 ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Velleius Paterculus i. 14; Livy xxvii. 38. ^ Patrick Bruun (1972). Studies in the romanization of Etruria. Aziende tipografiche eredi G. Bardi. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Strabo pp. 225, 226; Pliny iii. 5. s. 8; Ptolemy iii. 1. § 4; Gruter, Inscr. p. 271. 3. ^ Andrew Stephenson (1891). Public Lands and Agrarian Laws of the Roman Republic. Johns Hopkins Press. pp. 60–. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites maritimus et voluptarius locus: Fronto, Ep. p. 207, ed. Rom. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Cicero pro Milon. 20, ad Fam. ix. 6, ad Att. xiii. 50. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Pliny Ep. vi. 10; Fronto, Ep. pp. 205-15. ^ Smith 1854, p. 112 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1854 (help) cites Rutilius Itin. i. 223 (English translation). References[edit] Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alsium". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 757. This cites G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 219.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1854). "Alsium". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. 1. London: John Murray. p. 112. Coordinates: 41°56′N 12°06′E / 41.933°N 12.100°E / 41.933; 12.100 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alsium&oldid=1007740701" Categories: Roman towns and cities in Italy Etruscan sites Coloniae (Roman) Former populated places in Italy Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRG without Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRG Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 18:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6676	----	Sack of Rome (410) - Wikipedia Sack of Rome (410) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Visigoth siege and looting of Rome in 410 For other uses, see Sack of Rome. Sack of Rome (410) Part of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410 by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre, 1890 Date 24 August 410 AD Location Rome Result Decisive Visigothic Victory Belligerents Western Roman Empire Visigoths Commanders and leaders Honorius Alaric I Ataulf Strength Unknown Possibly 40,000 soldiers[1] Unknown number of civilian followers Casualties and losses Unknown Unknown v t e Fall of the Western Roman Empire Gothic War (376–382) Gothic War (401-403) Florence Faesulae Crossing of the Rhine Ostia Rome (410) Massilia Nervasos Mountains Tarraco Arles (425) Mérida Hippo Regius Rimini Arles (435) Narbonne Carthage Toulouse (439) Vicus Helena Utus Catalaunian Plains (Chalons) Aquileia Rome (455) Aylesford Agrigentum Corsica Garigliano Camp Cannini Toulouse (458) Arelate Cartagena Orleans Bergamo Cape Bon Déols Arles (471) Rome (472) Ravenna (475) Pavia Ravenna (476) Soissons The Sack of Rome on 24 August 410 AD was undertaken by the Visigoths led by their king, Alaric. At that time, Rome was no longer the capital of the Western Roman Empire, having been replaced in that position first by Mediolanum in 286 and then by Ravenna in 402. Nevertheless, the city of Rome retained a paramount position as "the eternal city" and a spiritual center of the Empire. The sack was a major shock to contemporaries, friends and foes of the Empire alike. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy. The previous sack of Rome had been accomplished by the Gauls under their leader Brennus in 387/6 BC. The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote; "the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken."[2] Contents 1 Background 1.1 Visigothic invasion of Rome 2 First Visigothic invasion of Italy 3 Second Visigothic invasion of Italy 3.1 First siege of Rome 3.2 Second siege 3.3 Third siege and sack 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading Background[edit] Further information: Migration period and Fall of the Western Roman Empire The Germanic tribes had undergone massive technological, social, and economic changes after four centuries of contact with the Roman Empire. From the first to fourth centuries, Germanic populations, economic production, and tribal confederations grew, and their ability to conduct warfare increased to the point of challenging Rome.[3] The Goths, one of the Germanic tribes, had invaded the Roman Empire on and off since 238.[4] But in the late 4th century, the Huns began to invade the lands of the Germanic tribes, and pushed many of them into the Roman Empire with greater fervor.[5] In 376, the Huns forced many Therving Goths led by Fritigern and Alavivus to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Soon after, starvation, high taxes, hatred from the Roman population, and governmental corruption turned the Goths against the empire.[6] The Goths rebelled and began looting and pillaging throughout the eastern Balkans. A Roman army, led by the Eastern Roman emperor Valens, marched to put them down. At the Battle of Adrianople in 378, Fritigern decisively defeated emperor Valens, who was killed in battle.[6] Peace was eventually established in 382 when the new Eastern emperor, Theodosius I, signed a treaty with the Thervings, who would become known as the Visigoths. The treaty made the Visigoths subjects of the empire as foederati. They were allotted the northern part of the dioceses of Dacia and Thrace, and while the land remained under Roman sovereignty and the Visigoths were expected to provide military service, they were considered autonomous.[7] Fritigern died around 382.[8] In 391, a Gothic chieftain named Alaric was declared king by a group of Visigoths, though the exact time this happened (Jordanes says Alaric was made king in 400[9] and Peter Heather says 395[10]) and nature of this position are debated.[11][12] He then led an invasion into Eastern Roman territory outside of the Goths' designated lands. Alaric was defeated by Theodosius and his general Flavius Stilicho in 392, who forced Alaric back into Roman vassalage.[11][13] In 394, Alaric led a force of Visigoths as part of Theodosius' army to invade the Western Roman Empire. At the Battle of the Frigidus, around half the Visigoths present died fighting the Western Roman army led by the usurper Eugenius and his general Arbogast.[14] Theodosius won the battle, and although Alaric was given the title comes for his bravery, tensions between the Goths and Romans grew as it seemed the Roman generals had sought to weaken the Goths by making them bear the brunt of the fighting. Alaric was also enraged he had not been granted a higher office in the imperial administration.[15] Visigothic invasion of Rome[edit] The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395, under Theodosius I When Theodosius died on January 10, 395, the Visigoths considered their 382 treaty with Rome to have ended.[16] Alaric quickly led his warriors back to their lands in Moesia, gathered most of the federated Goths in the Danubian provinces under his leadership, and instantly rebelled, invading Thrace and approaching the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople.[17][18] The Huns, at the same moment, invaded Asia Minor.[17] The death of Theodosius had also wracked the political structure of the empire: Theodosius' sons, Honorius and Arcadius, were given the Western and Eastern empires, respectively, but they were young and needed guidance. A power struggle emerged between Stilicho, who claimed guardianship over both emperors but was still in the West with the army that had defeated Eugenius, and Rufinus, the praetorian prefect of the East, who took the guardianship of Arcadius in the Eastern capital of Constantinople. Stilicho claimed that Theodosius had awarded him with sole guardianship on the emperor's deathbed and claimed authority over the Eastern Empire as well as the West.[19] Rufinus negotiated with Alaric to get him to withdraw from Constantinople (perhaps by promising him lands in Thessaly). Whatever the case, Alaric marched away from Constantinople to Greece, looting the diocese of Macedonia.[20][21] Magister utriusque militiae Stilicho marched east at the head of a combined Western and Eastern Roman army out of Italy. Alaric fortified himself behind a circle of wagons on the plain of Larissa, in Thessaly, where Stilicho besieged him for several months, unwilling to seek battle. Eventually, Arcadius, under the apparent influence of those hostile to Stilicho, commanded him to leave Thessaly. Stilicho obeyed the orders of his emperor by sending his Eastern troops to Constantinople and leading his Western ones back to Italy.[21][22] The Eastern troops Stilicho had sent to Constantinople were led by a Goth named Gainas. When Rufinus met the soldiers, he was hacked to death in November 395. Whether that was done on the orders of Stilicho, or perhaps on those of Rufinus' replacement Eutropius, is unknown.[23] The withdrawal of Stilicho freed Alaric to pillage much of Greece, including Piraeus, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta. Athens was able to pay a ransom to avoid being sacked.[21] It was only in 397 that Stilicho returned to Greece, having rebuilt his army with mainly barbarian allies and believing the eastern Roman government would now welcome his arrival.[24] After some fighting, Stilicho trapped and besieged Alaric at Pholoe.[25] Then, once again, Stilicho retreated to Italy, and Alaric marched into Epirus. Why Stilicho once again failed to dispatch Alaric is a matter of contention. It has been suggested that Stilicho's mostly-barbarian army had been unreliable or that another order from Arcadius and the Eastern government forced his withdrawal.[24] Others suggest that Stilicho made an agreement with Alaric and betrayed the East.[26] Whatever the case, Stilicho was declared a public enemy in the Eastern Empire the same year.[25] Alaric's rampage in Epirus was enough to make the eastern Roman government offer him terms in 398. They made Alaric magister militum per Illyricum, giving him the Roman command he wanted and giving him free rein to take what resources he needed, including armaments, in his assigned province.[24] Stilicho, in the meantime, put down a rebellion in Africa in 399, which had been instigated by the eastern Roman empire, and married his daughter Maria to the 11-year-old Western emperor, Honorius, strengthening his grip on power in the West.[24] First Visigothic invasion of Italy[edit] Aurelianus, the new praetorian prefect of the east after Eutropius' execution, stripped Alaric of his title to Illyricum in 400.[27] Between 700 and 7,000 Gothic soldiers and their families were slaughtered in a riot at Constantinople on July 12, 400.[28][29] Gainas, who at one point had been made magister militum, rebelled, but he was killed by the Huns under Uldin, who sent his head back to Constantinople as a gift. With these events, particularly Rome's use of the feared Huns and cut off from Roman officialdom, Alaric felt his position in the East was precarious.[28] So, while Stilicho was busy fighting an invasion of Vandals and Alans in Rhaetia and Noricum, Alaric led his people into an invasion of Italy in 401, reaching it in November without encountering much resistance. The Goths captured a few unnamed cities and besieged the Western Roman capital Mediolanum. Stilicho, now with Alan and Vandal federates in his army, relieved the siege, forcing a crossing at the Adda river. Alaric retreated to Pollentia.[30] On Easter Sunday, April 6, 402, Stilicho launched a surprise attack which became the Battle of Pollentia. The battle ended in a draw, and Alaric fell back.[31] After brief negotiations and maneuvers, the two forces clashed again at the Battle of Verona, where Alaric was defeated and besieged in a mountain fortress, taking heavy casualties. At this point, a number of Goths in his army started deserting him, including Sarus, who went over to the Romans.[32] Alaric and his army then withdrew to the borderlands next to Dalmatia and Pannonia.[33] Honorius, fearful after the near capture of Mediolanum, moved the Western Roman capital to Ravenna, which was more defensible with its natural swamps and more escapable with its access to the sea.[34][35] Moving the capital to Ravenna may have disconnected the Western court from events beyond the Alps towards a preoccupation with the defense of Italy, weakening the Western Empire as a whole.[36] In time, Alaric became an ally of Stilicho, agreeing to help claim the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum for the Western Empire. To that end, Stilicho named Alaric magister militum of Illyricum in 405. However, the Goth Radagaisus invaded Italy that same year, putting any such plans on hold.[37] Stilicho and the Romans, reinforced by Alans, Goths under Sarus, and Huns under Uldin, managed to defeat Radagaisus in August 406, but only after the devastation of northern Italy.[38][39] 12,000 of Radagaisus' Goths were pressed into Roman military service, and others were enslaved. So many were sold into slavery by the victorious Roman forces that slave prices temporarily collapsed.[40] Only in 407 did Stilicho turn his attention back to Illyricum, gathering a fleet to support Alaric's proposed invasion. But then the Rhine limes collapsed under the weight of hordes of vandals, Suebi, and Alans who flooded into Gaul. The Roman population there thus attacked rose in rebellion under the usurper Constantine III.[37] Stilicho reconciled with the Eastern Roman Empire in 408, and the Visigoths under Alaric had lost their value to Stilicho. Alaric then invaded and took control of parts of Noricum and upper Pannonia in the spring of 408. He demanded 288,000 solidi (four thousand pounds of gold), and threatened to invade Italy if he did not get it.[37] This was equivalent to the amount of money earned in property revenue by a single senatorial family in one year.[41] Only with the greatest difficulty was Stilicho able to get the Roman Senate to agree to pay the ransom, which was to buy the Romans a new alliance with Alaric who was to go to Gaul and fight the usurper Constantine III.[42] The debate on whether to pay Alaric weakened Stilicho's relationship with Honorius.[43] Ivory diptych of Stilicho (right) with his wife Serena and son Eucherius, ca. 395 Before payment could be received, however, the Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius died on May 1, 408, of illness. He was succeeded by his young son, Theodosius II. Honorius wanted to go East to secure his nephew's succession, but Stilicho convinced him to stay and allow Stilicho himself to go instead. Olympius, a palatine official and an enemy of Stilicho's, spread false rumors that Stilicho planned to place his own son Eucherius on the throne of the East, and many came to believe them. Roman soldiers mutinied and began killing officials who were known supporters of Stilicho.[44] Stilicho's barbarian troops offered to attack the mutineers, but Stilicho forbade it. Stilicho instead went to Ravenna to meet with the Emperor to resolve the crisis. Honorius, now believing the rumors of Stilicho's treason, ordered his arrest. Stilicho sought sanctuary in a church in Ravenna, but he was lured out with promises of safety. Stepping outside, he was arrested and told he was to be immediately executed on Honorius’ orders. Stilicho refused to allow his followers to resist, and he was executed on August 22, 408. The half-Vandal, half-Roman general is credited with keeping the Western Roman Empire from crumbling during his 13 years of rule, and his death would have profound repercussions for the West.[44] His son Eucherius was executed shortly after in Rome.[45] Stilicho's execution stopped the payment to Alaric and his Visigoths, who had received none of it.[42] Olympius was appointed magister officiorum and replaced Stilicho as the power behind the throne. His new government was strongly anti-Germanic and obsessed with purging any and all of Stilicho's former supporters. Roman soldiers began to indiscriminately slaughter allied barbarian foederati soldiers and their families in Roman cities.[46] Thousands of them fled Italy and sought refuge with Alaric in Noricum.[47] Zosimus reports the number of refugees as 30,000, but Peter Heather and Thomas Burns believe that number is impossibly high.[47] Heather argues that Zosimus had misread his source and that 30,000 is the total number of fighting-men under Alaric's command after the refugees joined Alaric.[48] Second Visigothic invasion of Italy[edit] First siege of Rome[edit] Attempting to come to an agreement with Honorius, Alaric asked for hostages, gold, and permission to move to Pannonia, but Honorius refused.[47] Alaric, aware of the weakened state of defenses in Italy, invaded six weeks after Stilicho's death. He also sent word of this news to his brother-in-law Ataulf to join the invasion as soon as he was able with reinforcements.[49] Alaric and his Visigoths sacked Ariminum and other cities as they moved south.[50] Alaric's march was unopposed and leisurely, as if they were going to a festival, according to Zosimus.[49] Sarus and his band of Goths, still in Italy, remained neutral and aloof.[46] The city of Rome may have held as many as 800,000 people, making it the largest in the world at the time.[51] The Goths under Alaric laid siege to the city in late 408. Panic swept through its streets, and there was an attempt to reinstate pagan rituals in the still religiously mixed city to ward off the Visigoths.[52] Pope Innocent I even agreed to it, provided it be done in private. The pagan priests, however, said the sacrifices could only be done publicly in the Roman Forum, and the idea was abandoned.[53] The Sack of Rome by Évariste Vital Luminais. New York, Sherpherd Gallery. Serena, the wife of the proscribed Stilicho and a cousin of emperor Honorius, was in the city and believed by the Roman populace, with little evidence, to be encouraging Alaric's invasion. Galla Placidia, the sister of the emperor Honorius, was also trapped in the city and gave her consent to the Roman Senate to execute Serena. Serena was then strangled to death.[54] Hopes of help from the Imperial government faded as the siege continued and Alaric took control of the Tiber River, which cut the supplies going into Rome. Grain was rationed to one-half and then one-third of its previous amount. Starvation and disease rapidly spread throughout the city, and rotting bodies were left unburied in the streets.[55] The Roman Senate then decided to send two envoys to Alaric. When the envoys boasted to him that the Roman people were trained to fight and ready for war, Alaric laughed at them and said, "The thickest grass is easier to cut than the thinnest."[55] The envoys asked under what terms the siege could be lifted, and Alaric demanded all the gold and silver, household goods, and barbarian slaves in the city. One envoy asked what would be left to the citizens of Rome. Alaric replied, "Their lives."[55] Ultimately, the city was forced to give the Goths 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of pepper in exchange for lifting the siege.[56] The barbarian slaves fled to Alaric as well, swelling his ranks to about 40,000.[57] Many of the barbarian slaves were probably Radagaisus' former followers.[1] To raise the needed money, Roman senators were to contribute according to their means. This led to corruption and abuse, and the sum came up short. The Romans then stripped down and melted pagan statues and shrines to make up the difference.[58] Zosimus reports one such statue was of Virtus, and that when it was melted down to pay off barbarians it seemed "all that remained of the Roman valor and intrepidity was totally extinguished".[59] Honorius consented to the payment of the ransom, and with it the Visigoths lifted the siege and withdrew to Etruria in December 408.[46] Second siege[edit] Alaric and the Visigoths in Athens. Illustration from the 1920s In January 409,[60] the Senate sent an embassy to the imperial court at Ravenna to encourage the Emperor to come to terms with the Goths, and to give Roman aristocratic children as hostages to the Goths as insurance. Alaric would then resume his alliance with the Roman Empire.[46][61] Honorius, under the influence of Olympius, refused and called in five legions from Dalmatia, totaling six thousand men. They were to go to Rome and garrison the city, but their commander, a man named Valens, marched his men into Etruria, believing it cowardly to go around the Goths. He and his men were intercepted and attacked by Alaric's full force, and almost all were killed or captured. Only 100 managed to escape and reach Rome.[60][62] A second Senatorial embassy, this time including Pope Innocent I, was sent with Gothic guards to Honorius to plead with him to accept the Visigoths' demands.[63] The imperial government also received word that Ataulf, Alaric's brother-in-law, had crossed the Julian Alps with his Goths into Italy with the intent of joining Alaric. Honorius summoned together all available Roman forces in northern Italy. Honorius placed 300 Huns of the imperial guard under the command of Olympius, and possibly the other forces as well, and ordered him to intercept Ataulf. They clashed near Pisa, and despite his force supposedly killing 1,100 Goths and losing only 17 of his own men, Olympius was forced to retreat back to Ravenna.[63][64] Ataulf then joined Alaric. This failure caused Olympius to fall from power and to flee for his life to Dalmatia.[65] Jovius, the praetorian prefect of Italy, replaced Olympius as the power behind the throne and received the title of patrician. Jovius engineered a mutiny of soldiers in Ravenna who demanded the killing of magister utriusque militae Turpilio and magister equitum Vigilantius, and Jovius had both men killed.[65][66][67] Jovius was a friend of Alaric's and had been a supporter of Stilicho, and thus the new government was open to negotiations.[65] Alaric went to Ariminum to meet Jovius and offer his demands. Alaric wanted yearly tribute in gold and grain, and lands in the provinces of Dalmatia, Noricum, and Venetia for his people.[65] Jovius also wrote privately to Honorius, suggesting that if Alaric was offered the position of magister utriusque militae, they could lessen Alaric's other demands. Honorius rejected the demand for a Roman office, and he sent an insulting letter to Alaric, which was read out in the negotiations.[68][69] Western Roman Emperor Honorius depicted on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) Infuriated, Alaric broke off negotiations, and Jovius returned to Ravenna to strengthen his relationship with the Emperor. Honorius was now firmly committed to war, and Jovius swore on the Emperor's head never to make peace with Alaric. Alaric himself soon changed his mind when he heard Honorius was attempting to recruit 10,000 Huns to fight the Goths.[65][70] He gathered a group of Roman bishops and sent them to Honorius with his new terms. He no longer sought Roman office or tribute in gold. He now only requested lands in Noricum and as much grain as the Emperor found necessary.[65] Historian Olympiodorus the Younger, writing many years later, considered these terms extremely moderate and reasonable.[69] But it was too late: Honorius' government, bound by oath and intent on war, rejected the offer. Alaric then marched on Rome.[65] The 10,000 Huns never materialized.[71] Alaric took Portus and renewed the siege of Rome in late 409. Faced with the return of starvation and disease, the Senate met with Alaric.[72] He demanded that they appoint one of their own as Emperor to rival Honorius, and he instigated the election of the elderly Priscus Attalus to that end, a pagan who permitted himself to be baptized. Alaric was then made magister utriusque militiae and his brother-in-law Ataulf was given the position comes domesticorum equitum in the new, rival government, and the siege was lifted.[65] Heraclian, governor of the food-rich province of Africa, remained loyal to Honorius. Attalus sent a Roman force to subdue him, refusing to send Gothic soldiers there as he was distrustful of their intentions.[73] Attalus and Alaric then marched to Ravenna, forcing some cities in northern Italy to submit to Attalus.[69] Honorius, extremely fearful at this turn of events, sent Jovius and others to Attalus, pleading that they share the Western Empire. Attalus said he would only negotiate on Honorius' place of exile. Jovius, for his part, switched sides to Attalus and was named patrician by his new master. Jovius wanted to have Honorius mutilated as well (something that was to become common in the Eastern Empire), but Attalus rejected it.[73] Increasingly isolated and now in pure panic, Honorius was preparing to flee to Constantinople when 4,000 Eastern Roman soldiers appeared at Ravenna's docks to defend the city.[74] Their arrival strengthened Honorius' resolve to await news of what had happened in Africa: Heraclian had defeated Attalus' force and cut supplies to Rome, threatening another famine in the city.[74] Alaric wanted to send Gothic soldiers to invade Africa and secure the province, but Attalus again refused, distrustful of the Visigoths' intentions for the province.[73] Counseled by Jovius to do away with his puppet emperor, Alaric summoned Attalus to Ariminum and ceremonially stripped him of his imperial regalia and title in the summer of 410. Alaric then reopened negotiations with Honorius.[74] Third siege and sack[edit] An anachronistic fifteenth-century French miniature depicting the sack of 410 Honorius arranged for a meeting with Alaric about 12 kilometres outside of Ravenna. As Alaric waited at the meeting place, Sarus, who was a sworn enemy of Ataulf and now allied to Honorius, attacked Alaric and his men with a small Roman force.[74][75] Peter Heather speculates Sarus had also lost the election for the kingship of the Goths to Alaric in the 390s.[75] Alaric survived the attack and, outraged at this treachery and frustrated by all the past failures at accommodation, gave up on negotiating with Honorius and headed back to Rome, which he besieged for the third and final time.[76] On August 24, 410, the Visigoths entered Rome through its Salarian Gate, according to some opened by treachery, according to others by want of food, and pillaged the city for three days.[77][78] Many of the city's great buildings were ransacked, including the mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian, in which many Roman Emperors of the past were buried; the ashes of the urns in both tombs were scattered.[79] Any and all moveable goods were stolen all over the city. Some of the few places the Goths spared were the two major basilicas connected to Peter and Paul, though from the Lateran Palace they stole a massive, 2,025-pound silver ciborium that had been a gift from Constantine.[76] Structural damage to buildings was largely limited to the areas near the old Senate house and the Salarian Gate, where the Gardens of Sallust were burned and never rebuilt.[80][81] The Basilica Aemilia and the Basilica Julia were also burned.[82][83] The city's citizens were devastated. Many Romans were taken captive, including the Emperor's sister, Galla Placidia. Some citizens would be ransomed, others would be sold into slavery, and still others would be raped and killed.[84] Pelagius, a Roman monk from Britain, survived the siege and wrote an account of the experience in a letter to a young woman named Demetrias. This dismal calamity is but just over, and you yourself are a witness to how Rome that commanded the world was astonished at the alarm of the Gothic trumpet, when that barbarous and victorious nation stormed her walls, and made her way through the breach. Where were then the privileges of birth, and the distinctions of quality? Were not all ranks and degrees leveled at that time and promiscuously huddled together? Every house was then a scene of misery, and equally filled with grief and confusion. The slave and the man of quality were in the same circumstances, and every where the terror of death and slaughter was the same, unless we may say the fright made the greatest impression on those who had the greatest interest in living.[85] Many Romans were tortured into revealing the locations of their valuables. One was the 85-year-old[86] Saint Marcella, who had no hidden gold as she lived in pious poverty. She was a close friend of St. Jerome, and he detailed the incident in a letter to a woman named Principia who had been with Marcella during the sack. When the soldiers entered [Marcella's house] she is said to have received them without any look of alarm; and when they asked her for gold she pointed to her coarse dress to show them that she had no buried treasure. However they would not believe in her self-chosen poverty, but scourged her and beat her with cudgels. She is said to have felt no pain but to have thrown herself at their feet and to have pleaded with tears for you [Principia], that you might not be taken from her, or owing to your youth have to endure what she as an old woman had no occasion to fear. Christ softened their hard hearts and even among bloodstained swords natural affection asserted its rights. The barbarians conveyed both you and her to the basilica of the apostle Paul, that you might find there either a place of safety or, if not that, at least a tomb.[87] Marcella died of her injuries a few days later.[88] The sack was nonetheless, by the standards of the age (and all ages), restrained. There was no general slaughter of the inhabitants and the two main basilicas of Peter and Paul were nominated places of sanctuary. Most of the buildings and monuments in the city survived intact, though stripped of their valuables.[76][79] Refugees from Rome flooded the province of Africa, as well as Egypt and the East.[89][90] Some refugees were robbed as they sought asylum,[90] and St. Jerome wrote that Heraclian, the Count of Africa, sold some of the young refugees into Eastern brothels.[91] Who would believe that Rome, built up by the conquest of the whole world, had collapsed, that the mother of nations had become also their tomb; that the shores of the whole East, of Egypt, of Africa, which once belonged to the imperial city, were filled with the hosts of her men-servants and maid-servants, that we should every day be receiving in this holy Bethlehem men and women who once were noble and abounding in every kind of wealth but are now reduced to poverty? We cannot relieve these sufferers: all we can do is to sympathize with them, and unite our tears with theirs. [...] There is not a single hour, nor a single moment, in which we are not relieving crowds of brethren, and the quiet of the monastery has been changed into the bustle of a guest house. And so much is this the case that we must either close our doors, or abandon the study of the Scriptures on which we depend for keeping the doors open. [...] Who could boast when the flight of the people of the West, and the holy places, crowded as they are with penniless fugitives, naked and wounded, plainly reveal the ravages of the Barbarians? We cannot see what has occurred, without tears and moans. Who would have believed that mighty Rome, with its careless security of wealth, would be reduced to such extremities as to need shelter, food, and clothing? And yet, some are so hard-hearted and cruel that, instead of showing compassion, they break up the rags and bundles of the captives, and expect to find gold about those who are nothing than prisoners.[90] The historian Procopius records a story where, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", Honorius was initially shocked, thinking the news was in reference to a favorite chicken he had named "Rome": The Favorites of the Emperor Honorius, by John William Waterhouse, 1883 At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Rome had perished. And he cried out and said, 'And yet it has just eaten from my hands!' For he had a very large cock, Rome by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Rome which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: 'But I thought that my fowl Rome had perished.' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.[92] While the tale is discounted as false by more recent historians like Edward Gibbon, it is useful in understanding Roman public opinion towards Honorius.[93] Regarding the anecdote, it was recently demonstrated that the bird observations in Procopius’ work had direct connection with Rome and its prospective rulers. The tale's cock and Rome were not two entities but one, the opportunity of Honorius of being an emperor ruling over the both sides of the empire.[94] Aftermath[edit] The chaotic political situation of the Roman Empire at the end of 410   Legitimate Western Roman Empire under Honorius   Area controlled by the usurper Constantine III   Area in revolt against Constantine III   Franks, Alemanni, and Burgundians   Area controlled by the usurper Maximus   Silingi Vandals   Hasdingi Vandals and Suebi   Alans   Visigoths After three days of looting and pillage, Alaric quickly left Rome and headed for southern Italy. He took with him the wealth of the city and a valuable hostage, Galla Placidia, the sister of emperor Honorius. The Visigoths ravaged Campania, Lucania, and Calabria. Nola and perhaps Capua were sacked, and the Visigoths threatened to invade Sicily and Africa.[95] However, they were unable to cross the Strait of Messina as the ships they had gathered were wrecked by a storm.[74][96] Alaric died of illness at Consentia in late 410, mere months after the sack.[74] According to legend, he was buried with his treasure by slaves in the bed of the Busento river. The slaves were then killed to hide its location.[97] The Visigoths elected Ataulf, Alaric's brother-in-law, as their new king. The Visigoths then moved north, heading for Gaul. Ataulf married Galla Placidia in 414, but he died one year later. The Visigoths established the Visigothic Kingdom in southwestern Gaul in 418, and they would go on to help the Western Roman Empire fight Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields in 451.[98] The Visigothic invasion of Italy caused land taxes to drop anywhere from one-fifth to one-ninth of their pre-invasion value in the affected provinces.[99] Aristocratic munificence, the local support of public buildings and monuments by the upper classes, ended in south-central Italy after the sack and pillaging of those regions.[100] Using the number of people on the food dole as a guide, Bertrand Lançon estimates the city of Rome's total population fell from 800,000 in 408 to 500,000 by 419.[101] This was the first time the city of Rome had been sacked in almost 800 years, and it had revealed the Western Roman Empire's increasing vulnerability and military weakness. It was shocking to people across both halves of the Empire who viewed Rome as the eternal city and the symbolic heart of their empire. The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.[102] St. Jerome wrote in grief, "If Rome can perish, what can be safe?"[103] In Bethlehem, he detailed his shock in the preface to his commentary on Ezekiel. [...] intelligence was suddenly brought me of the death of Pammachius and Marcella, the siege of Rome, and the falling asleep of many of my brethren and sisters. I was so stupefied and dismayed that day and night I could think of nothing but the welfare of the community; it seemed as though I was sharing the captivity of the saints, and I could not open my lips until I knew something more definite; and all the while, full of anxiety, I was wavering between hope and despair, and was torturing myself with the misfortunes of other people. But when the bright light of all the world was put out, or, rather, when the Roman Empire was decapitated, and, to speak more correctly, the whole world perished in one city, 'I became dumb and humbled myself, and kept silence from good words, but my grief broke out afresh, my heart glowed within me, and while I meditated the fire was kindled.'[90] The Roman Empire at this time was still in the midst of religious conflict between pagans and Christians. The sack was used by both sides to bolster their competing claims of divine legitimacy.[104] Paulus Orosius, a Christian priest and theologian, believed the sack was God's wrath against a proud and blasphemous city, and that it was only through God's benevolence that the sack had not been too severe. Rome had lost its wealth, but Roman sovereignty endured, and that to talk to the survivors in Rome one would think "nothing had happened."[105] Other Romans felt the sack was divine punishment for turning away from the traditional pagan gods to Christ. Zosimus, a Roman pagan historian, believed that Christianity, through its abandonment of the ancient traditional rites, had weakened the Empire's political virtues, and that the poor decisions of the Imperial government that led to the sack were due to the lack of the gods' care.[106] The religious and political attacks on Christianity spurred Saint Augustine to write a defense, The City of God, which went on to become foundational to Christian thought.[107] The sack was a culmination of many terminal problems facing the Western Roman Empire. Domestic rebellions and usurpations weakened the Empire in the face of external invasions. These factors would permanently harm the stability of the Roman Empire in the west.[108] The Roman army meanwhile became increasingly barbarian and disloyal to the Empire.[109] A more severe sack of Rome by the Vandals followed in 455, and the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed in 476 when the Germanic Odovacer removed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and declared himself King of Italy. See also[edit] Gothic War (376–382) Visigothic Kingdom Fall of the Western Roman Empire Sack of Rome References[edit] ^ a b Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 224. ^ St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 paragraph 12. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 84–100. ^ The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1, (Cambridge University Press, 1911), p. 203. ^ Gordon M. Patterson, Medieval History: 500 to 1450 AD Essentials, (Research & Education Association, 2001), p. 41. ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 95-101. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 133. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 77. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 176. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 462. ^ a b Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), 91. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), pp. 143-146. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 136. ^ Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), 91–92. ^ Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), 92. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 139. ^ a b Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples,(University of California Press, 1997), 92–93. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 140. ^ Warren T. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, (Stanford University Press, 1997), pp. 77-78. ^ Warren T. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, (Stanford University Press, 1997), p. 79. ^ a b c Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 141. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 113-114, 430. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 114. ^ a b c d The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 115. ^ a b Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 142. ^ Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), p. 94. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 178. ^ a b Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), pp. 149–150. ^ John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), p. 134. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 151. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 152. ^ Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), pp. 152–153. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 431. ^ Adolph Ludvig Køppen, "The World in the Middle Ages, an Historical Geography", (D. Appleton and Company, 1854), p. 14. ^ Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), 96. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 120. ^ a b c Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 153. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 121. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 194. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 198. ^ Bertrand Lançon, Rome in Late Antiquity, Trans. Antonia Nevill, (Rutledge, 2001), pp. 36-37. ^ a b Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, Trans. Thomas J. Dunlap, (University of California Press, 1988), p. 154. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 123. ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 123-124. ^ John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), p. 172. ^ a b c d The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 125. ^ a b c Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 275. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 514. ^ a b Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 277. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), pp. 94–95. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), p. 23. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), pp. 97-98. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 235. ^ John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), p. 175. ^ a b c Zosimus. "New History," 5.40. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 134 ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), p. 101. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 234. ^ Zosimus. "New History," 5.41. ^ a b John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), pp. 177-178. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 224-225 ^ Zosimus. "New History," 5.42. ^ a b Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 236. ^ John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), p. 178. ^ a b c d e f g h The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 126. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 236-238. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 175. ^ John Bagnell Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire volume 1, (Dover edition, St Martins Press, 1958), p. 179. ^ a b c Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 226. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 186. ^ Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964), p. 199. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 240-241. ^ a b c The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 126-127. ^ a b c d e f The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 127. ^ a b Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 227. ^ a b c Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 227-228. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 244. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), pp. 124-126. ^ a b Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), p. 126. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 227–228. ^ Jeremiah Donovan, "Rome, Ancient and Modern: And Its Environs" Volume 4, (Crispino Puccinelli, 1842), p. 462. ^ David Watkin, The Roman Forum, (Profile Books, 2009), p. 82. ^ Arthur Lincoln Frothingham, The Monuments of Christian Rome from Constantine to the Renaissance, (The Macmillan Company, 1908), pp. 58–59. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), pp. 131-133. ^ William Jones, Ecclesiastical history, in a course of lectures, Vol. 1, (G. Wightman, Paternoster Row and G. J. McCombie, Barbican, 1838), p. 421. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), p. 12. ^ St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 paragraph 13. ^ St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 paragraph 14. ^ R. H. C. Davis, A History of Medieval Europe: From Constantine to Saint Louis, (3rd ed. Rutledge, 2006), p. 45. ^ a b c d Henry Wace and Philip Schaff, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912), pp. 499-500. ^ Bertrand Lançon, Rome in Late Antiquity, Trans. Antonia Nevill, (Rutledge, 2001), p. 39. ^ Procopius, The Vandalic War (III.2.25–26) ^ Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Volume 3 (Harrison and Sons, 1854), p. 460. ^ Kovács, Tamás (2020). "410: Honorius, his Rooster, and the Eunuch (Procop. Vand. 1.2.25–26)" (PDF). Graeco-Latina Brunensia. 25 (2): 131–148. ^ Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard, AD410: The Year that Shook Rome, (The British Museum Press, 2010), p. 134. ^ Herwig Wolfram, The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples, (University of California Press, 1997), pp. 99-100. ^ Stephen Dando-Collins, The Legions of Rome, (Random House Publisher Services, 2010), p. 576. ^ Michael Frassetto, The Early Medieval World, (ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2013), pp. 547-548. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 14, (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 14. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 380. ^ Bertrand Lançon, Rome in Late Antiquity, Trans. Antonia Nevill, (Rutledge, 2001), pp. 14, 119. ^ Eric H. Cline and Mark W. Graham, Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 303. ^ Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (Rev. ed. University of California Press, 2000), p. 288. ^ Thomas S. Burns, Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, (Indiana University Press, 1994), p. 233. ^ Paulus Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans 2.3, 7.39–40. ^ Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (Blackwell Publishing, 2007), p. 27. ^ Michael Hoelzl and Graham Ward, Religion and Political Thought (The Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006), p. 25. ^ Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 229. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13, (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 111-112. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sack of Rome (410). The Histories of Olympiodorus of Thebes New History of Zosimus Michael Kulikowski, Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric, Cambridge University Press, 2007. Kovács, Tamás. “410: Honorius, His Rooster, and the Eunuch (Procop. Vand. 1.2.25–26).” Graeco-Latina Brunensia 25, no. 2 (2020): 131–48. https://doi.org/10.5817/GLB2020-2-10. 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en-wikipedia-org-6696	----	Hellenistic philosophy - Wikipedia Hellenistic philosophy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy and Ancient Greek philosophy during the Hellenistic period. Contents 1 Background 2 Developments and debates in thought 2.1 Epistemology 3 Platonism 3.1 Old Academy 3.2 Academic skepticism 3.3 Middle Platonism 3.4 Neoplatonism 4 Cyrenaicism 5 Cynicism 6 Peripatetic school 7 Pyrrhonism 8 Epicureanism 9 Stoicism 10 Hellenistic Judaism 11 Neopythagoreanism 12 Hellenistic Christianity 13 See also 14 References 15 Sources 16 External links Background[edit] The Hellenistic world in 300 BCE. The Hellenistic period followed the conquests of Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE), who had spread Ancient Greek culture throughout the Middle East and Western Asia, following the previous cultural period of Classical Greece. The classical period in Ancient Greek philosophy had begun with Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE), whose student Plato had taught Aristotle, who in turn had tutored Alexander. While the classical thinkers were mostly based in Athens, the Hellenistic period saw philosophers active around the empire. The period began with the death of Alexander in 323 BCE (following that of Aristotle in 322 BCE), and was followed by the predominance of Ancient Roman philosophy during the Roman Imperial period. Developments and debates in thought[edit] The founders of the Academy, the Peripatetics, Cynicism and Cyrenaicism had all been students of Socrates, while Stoicism was indirectly influenced by him.[1] Socrates' thought was therefore influential for many of these schools of the period, leading them to focus on ethics and how to reach eudaimonia (the good life), and some of them followed his example of using self-discipline and autarky to this end.[2] According to A. C. Grayling, the greater insecurity and loss of autonomy of the era drove some to use philosophy as a means to seek inner security from the external world.[3] This interest in using philosophy to improve life was captured in Epicurus' claim that "empty are the words of that philosopher who offers therapy for no human suffering".[4] Epistemology[edit] The epistemology of the Epicureans was empiricist, with knowledge being ultimately sourced from the senses.[4] Epicurus argued that sensory information is never false, though it may be misleading sometimes, and that "If you fight against all sensations, you will not have a standard against to which judge even those of them you say are mistaken".[5] He responded to an objection to empiricism made by Plato in Meno, according to which one cannot search for information without having some pre-existing idea of what to search for, hence meaning that knowledge must precede experience.[6] The Epicurean response is that prolepsis (preconceptions) are general concepts which allow particular things to be recognised, and that these emerge from repeated experiences of similar things.[6] Platonism[edit] Platonism represents the philosophy of Socrates' student, Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it. Old Academy[edit] Early Platonism, known as the "Old Academy" begins with Plato, followed by Speusippus (Plato's nephew), who succeeded him as the head of the school (until 339 BC), and Xenocrates (until 313 BC). Both of them sought to fuse Pythagorean speculations on number with Plato's theory of forms. Academic skepticism[edit] Carneades, Roman copy after the statue exhibited on the agora of Athens, c. 150 BC, Glyptothek Museum Academic skepticism is the period of ancient Platonism dating from around 266 BC, when Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy, until around 90 BC, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individual philosophers, such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch continued to defend Academic skepticism after this date. The Academic skeptics maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of truth-likeness, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics and on the Stoic dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge. Arcesilaus (316–232 BC) Carneades (214–129 BC) Cicero (106–43 BC) Middle Platonism[edit] Around 90 BC, Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, making way for the period known as Middle Platonism, in which Platonism was fused with certain Peripatetic and many Stoic dogmas. In Middle Platonism, the Platonic Forms were not transcendent but immanent to rational minds, and the physical world was a living, ensouled being, the World-Soul. The eclectic nature of Platonism during this time is shown by its incorporation into Pythagoreanism (Numenius of Apamea) and into Jewish philosophy[7] (Philo of Alexandria). Plutarch (46–after 119 AD) Neoplatonism[edit] Neoplatonism, or Plotinism, is a school of religious and mystical philosophy founded by Plotinus in the 3rd century AD and based on the teachings of Plato and the other Platonists. The summit of existence was the One or the Good, the source of all things. In virtue and meditation the soul had the power to elevate itself to attain union with the One, the true function of human beings. Non-Christian Neoplatonists used to attack Christianity until Christians such as Augustine, Boethius, and Eriugena adopted Neoplatonism. Plotinus (205–270 AD) Porphyry (233–309 AD) Iamblichus of Chalcis (245–325 AD) Proclus (412–485 AD) Cyrenaicism[edit] Cyrenaicism was founded in the fourth century BC by Aristippus (ca. 435-356), who was a student of Socrates. Aristippus the Younger, the grandson of the founder, argued that the reason pleasure was good was that it was evident in human behavior from the youngest age, because this made it natural and therefore good (the so-called cradle argument).[8] The Cyrenaics also believed that present pleasure freed one from anxiety of the future and regrets of the past, leaving one at peace of mind.[9] These ideas were taken further by Anniceris (fl. 300 BCE), who expanded pleasure to include things like friendship and honour.[10] Theodorus (ca. 340-250) disagreed with this, and instead argued that social ties should be cut and self-sufficiency be espoused instead.[11] Hegesias of Cyrene (fl. 290) on the other hand claimed that life could ultimately not be overall pleasurable.[11] Cynicism[edit] The Cynics thought was based on living with bare necessities and in accordance with nature.[12] The first Cynic was Antisthenes (ca. 446–366 BCE), who was a student of Socrates.[13] He introduced the ideas of ascetism and opposition to social norms.[14] His follower was Diogenes (ca. 412–323 BCE), who followed in this direction.[15] Instead of pleasure, the Cynics promoted purposefully living in hardship (ponos.)[15] All of this was because it was seen as natural and therefore as good, whereas society was innately unnatural and therefore bad, as were material benefits.[15] Pleasures provided by nature (which would be immediately accessible) were acceptable, however.[16] The Cynic Crates of Thebes (365–285 BC) hence claimed that "Philosophy is a quart of beans and to care for nothing".[16] Other Cynics included Menippus (c. 275 BCE) and Demetrius (10–80 CE). Peripatetic school[edit] A marble bust of Aristotle Peripatetic school composed the philosophers who maintained and developed the philosophy of Aristotle. They advocated examination of the world to understand the ultimate foundation of things. The goal of life was the eudaimonia which originated from virtuous actions, which consisted in keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little. Theophrastus (371–287 BC) Strato of Lampsacus (335–269 BC) Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 AD) Aristocles of Messene (c. 1st century AD) Pyrrhonism[edit] Pyrrho of Elis, marble head, Roman copy, Archeological Museum of Corfu Pyrrhonism is a school of philosophical skepticism that originated with Pyrrho in the 3rd century BC, and was further advanced by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC. Its objective is ataraxia (being mentally unperturbed), which is achieved through epoché (i.e. suspension of judgment) about non-evident matters (i.e., matters of belief). Pyrrho (365–275 BC) Timon of Phlius (320–230 BC) Aenesidemus (1st century BC) Sextus Empiricus (2nd century AD) Epicureanism[edit] Roman Epicurus bust Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus in the 3rd century BC. Its epistemology was based on empiricism, believing that sensual experiences cannot be false, even if they can be misleading, as they are product of the world interacting with one's body.[17] Repeated sensory experiences can then be used to form concepts (prolepsis) about the world, and such concepts which are widely shared ('common conceptions') can further provide the basis for philosophy.[17] Applying his empricism, Epicurus supported atomism by noting that matter could not be destroyed as it would eventually dwindle down to nothing, and that there must be void for matter to move around.[18] While this in itself did not prove the existence of atoms, he argued against the alternative by noting that infinitely divisible objects would be infinitely large, similar to Zeno's paradoxes.[19] It viewed the universe as being ruled by chance, with no interference from gods. It regarded absence of pain as the greatest pleasure, and advocated a simple life. Epicurus (341–270 BC) Metrodorus (331–278 BC) Hermarchus (325-250 BC) Zeno of Sidon (1st century BC) Philodemus (110–40 BC) Lucretius (99–55 BC) Stoicism[edit] Zeno of Citium (333–263 BC), the founder of Stoicism Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BC. Based on the ethical ideas of the Cynics, it taught that the goal of life was to live in accordance with Nature. It advocated the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. Zeno of Citium (333–263 BC) Cleanthes (331–232 BC) Chrysippus (280–207 BC) Panaetius (185–110 BC) Posidonius (135–51 BC) Seneca (4 BC – 65 AD) Epictetus (55–135 AD) Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD) Hellenistic Judaism[edit] Hellenistic Judaism was an attempt to establish the Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Its principal representative was Philo of Alexandria. Philo of Alexandria (30 BC – 45 AD) Josephus (37–100 AD) Neopythagoreanism[edit] Neopythagoreanism was a school of philosophy reviving Pythagorean doctrines, which was prominent in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. It was an attempt to introduce a religious element into Greek philosophy, worshipping God by living an ascetic life, ignoring bodily pleasures and all sensuous impulses, to purify the soul. Nigidius Figulus (98–45 BC) Apollonius of Tyana (15/40–100/120 AD) Numenius of Apamea (2nd century AD) Hellenistic Christianity[edit] Hellenistic Christianity was the attempt to reconcile Christianity with Greek philosophy, beginning in the late 2nd century. Drawing particularly on Platonism and the newly emerging Neoplatonism, figures such as Clement of Alexandria sought to provide Christianity with a philosophical framework. Clement of Alexandria (150–215 AD) Origen (185–254 AD) Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) Aelia Eudocia (401–460 AD) See also[edit] Alexandrian school Ancient Greek philosophy Ancient philosophy Hellenistic period Hellenistic religion Hellenocentrism Hundred Schools of Thought References[edit] ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Although the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, lived nearly a century later – he was a child of eight when Aristotle died in 322 BCE – his school shared these Socratic roots; he was influenced by the Cynics who had taken their cue from the hardier and more convention-opposing aspects of Socrates’ outlook and style of life. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Grayling, A. C. (2019-06-20). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. ^ a b Sellars, John (2018). Hellenistic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-19-967412-1. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Sellars, John (2018). Hellenistic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-967412-1. ^ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Platonism/Medieval-Platonism#ref32576 ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b c Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. Sources[edit] A. A. Long, D. N. Sedley (eds.), The Hellenistic Philosophers (2 vols, Cambridge University Press, 1987) Giovanni Reale, The Systems of the Hellenistic Age: History of Ancient Philosophy (Suny Series in Philosophy), edited and translated from Italian by John R. Catan, Albany, State of New York University Press, 1985, ISBN 0887060080. "Platonism." Cross, F. L., ed. in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hellenistic philosophy. The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Post-Aristotelian philosophy "Readings in Hellenistic Philosophy" on PhilPapers, edited by Dirk Baltzly v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger Theodorus the Atheist Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade Euhemerus Eretrian Phaedo of Elis Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius Megarian Euclid of Megara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Platonic Plato Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Hellenistic Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro 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en-wikipedia-org-6706	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)=== [[File:Antoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Sestertius]] of [[Antoninus Pius]] (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and [[Faustina the Younger]] in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of [[Concordia (mythology)|Concordia]] and clasping hands with [[Faustina the Elder]]. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE S.C.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 108.</ref>|alt=Coin commemorating the betrothal of Marcus Aurelius to his eventual wife Faustina.]] [[File:Antoninus Pius, with Marcus Aurelius Caesar, denarius, AD 139, RIC III 412a.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Denarius]] of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 77.</ref>|alt=Coin of Antoninus Pius, Marcus's predecessor, depicting Antoninus on the obverse and Marcus on the reverse.]] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to [[Ceionia Fabia]] would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to [[Faustina the Younger|Faustina]], Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vi. 2; ''Verus'' ii. 3–4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 53–54.</ref> He was made [[Roman consul|consul]] for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a ''seviri'', one of the [[Equites|knights]]' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became ''princeps iuventutis'', head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.<ref>Dio 71.35.5; ''HA Marcus'' vi. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 56.</ref> Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the [[Tyrian purple|purple dye]] – for that can happen'.<ref>''Meditations'' vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57; cf. ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation.</ref> At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (''[[Pontiff|pontifices]]'', ''[[augur]]es'', ''[[quindecimviri sacris faciundis]]'', ''[[Epulones|septemviri epulonum]]'', etc.);<ref name='ReferenceA'>''HA Marcus'' vi. 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 57.</ref> direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the [[Arval Brethren]].<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing ''Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00032&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 6.32], [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 6.379], cf. ''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+00360&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 360].</ref> Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the ''aulicum fastigium'' or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections.<ref name='ReferenceA'/> Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'<ref>''Meditations'' 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57.</ref> – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the ''Meditations'' for 'abusing court life' in front of company.<ref>''Meditations'' 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 57.</ref> As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 57–58.</ref> But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 90.</ref> He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.<ref>''HA Marcus'' vi. 5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 58.</ref> He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...]{{refn|The manuscript is corrupt here.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89'/>|group=note}} I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.<ref>Dio 71.36.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 89.</ref> In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 90–91.</ref> Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 91.</ref> Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 91.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-6714	----	Category:Social philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Social philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social philosophers Literature Concepts Theories Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 8 subcategories, out of 8 total. * ► Philosophers of education‎ (1 C, 244 P) ► Philosophers of sexuality‎ (1 C, 64 P) B ► Isaiah Berlin‎ (2 C, 1 P) E ► Philosophers of ethics and morality‎ (229 P) L ► Emmanuel Levinas‎ (2 C, 2 P) ► Philosophers of love‎ (48 P) S ► Philosophers of social science‎ (3 C, 136 P) V ► Giambattista Vico‎ (1 C, 4 P) Pages in category "Social philosophers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 329 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Bijan Abdolkarimi Anthony Abela Hans Achterhuis Max Adler (Marxist) Theodor W. Adorno Michel Aflaq Giorgio Agamben Hans Albert Tariq Ali Amy Allen (philosopher) Francis Anderson (philosopher) Ian Angus (philosopher) Karl-Otto Apel Hannah Arendt Aristotle Raymond Aron Zaki al-Arsuzi Robert Audi Armen Avanessian Averroes A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Babette Babich A. J. Baker Mikhail Bakunin Elizabeth Barnes Roland Barthes Gad Barzilai Jean Baudrillard Simone de Beauvoir Regina Becker-Schmidt Seyla Benhabib Walter Benjamin Jane Bennett (political theorist) Jeremy Bentham Sandrine Bergès Frithjof Bergmann Isaiah Berlin Peg Birmingham Ernst Bloch Lawrence Blum Chris Bobonich Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Eileen Hunt Botting Pierre Bourdieu F. H. Bradley Jan Broekman Stephen Bronner Martin Buber Gautama Buddha Rudolf Burger Edmund Burke Judith Butler C Aldo Capitini Sebastian Castellio Cornelius Castoriadis Émile Chartier Noam Chomsky Andy Clark Justin Clemens John B. Cobb Hermann Cohen Martin Cohen (philosopher) Samuel Taylor Coleridge Auguste Comte Marquis de Condorcet Confucius John Corvino Helena Cronin Paul Crowther Ann Cudd D Norman Daniels Arthur Danto Guy Debord Gilles Deleuze Daniel Dennett Jacques Derrida Antoine Destutt de Tracy Philip K. Dick Wilhelm Dilthey Diogenes Leonidas Donskis Will Durant Émile Durkheim E Umberto Eco Margaret Elizabeth Egan María Elósegui Ben Eltham Ralph Waldo Emerson Friedrich Engels Epicurus Antonio Escohotado Josef Estermann Bracha L. Ettinger F Al-Farabi Brian Fay Joel Feinberg Oliver Feltham Adam Ferguson Ludwig Feuerbach Johann Gottlieb Fichte Luciano Floridi Takis Fotopoulos Michel Foucault Charles Fourier Benjamin Franklin Nancy Fraser Sadayoshi Fukuda Francis Fukuyama Buckminster Fuller G Hans-Georg Gadamer Jean-Paul Gagnon Stefan Gandler Ashok Gangadean Dora Elvira García González Fuad Gasimzade Richard Gaskin Allan Gibbard William Gibson Étienne Gilson André Gorz John Gray (philosopher) A. C. Grayling Richard Gregg (social philosopher) Margaret Morganroth Gullette H Jürgen Habermas John Haddox Stuart Hampshire Han Fei R. M. Hare Graham Harman Sam Harris Thom Hartmann Sally Haslanger Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Martin Heidegger Johann Gottfried Herder Peter Herrmann (social philosopher) Alexander Herzen Christopher Hitchens Thomas Hobbes Eric Hoffer Baron d'Holbach Martin Hollis (philosopher) Robert L. Holmes Ted Honderich Ross Honeywill Axel Honneth Bell hooks Max Horkheimer Wilhelm von Humboldt Francis Hutcheson (philosopher) I Shuji Imamoto Index of sociopolitical thinkers J Rahel Jaeggi Alison Jaggar William James Galen Johnson K Milan Kangrga Immanuel Kant Kojin Karatani Walter Kaufmann (philosopher) Djémil Kessous Søren Kierkegaard Iain King Philip Kitcher Eva Kittay Naomi Klein Alexandre Kojève David Kolb Nikolas Kompridis Feliks Koneczny Mario Kopić Richard Kosolapov Alexandre Koyré Karl Christian Friedrich Krause Peter Kropotkin L Laozi Henri Lefebvre Claude Lefort Norbert Leser Claude Lévi-Strauss Emmanuel Levinas Pierre Lévy Gilles Lipovetsky Gregory Loewen Karl Löwith György Lukács Simon Lumsden M Gerald C. MacCallum Jr. Alasdair MacIntyre Bryan Magee Nicolas Malebranche Marcus Aurelius Karl Marx Noëlle McAfee Thomas A. McCarthy Rachel McCleary Colin McGinn Marshall McLuhan (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Social_philosophers&oldid=994842569" Categories: Philosophers by field Social philosophy Hidden categories: Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages বাংলা Беларуская Català Чӑвашла Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی 한국어 ქართული Latina 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Русский Scots کوردی اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 20:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6720	----	Quadi - Wikipedia Quadi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Germanic tribe who lived north of what is now Vienna This article is about Germanic tribe. For the Muslim judge, see Qadi. For other uses, see Kadi. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Quadi" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (October 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117-38), showing the location of the Quadi in the northern Carpathian mountains (from 1993 Slovakia) The Quadi were an early Germanic[1] people who lived approximately in the area of modern Moravia in the time of the Roman Empire. The only known information about the Germanic tribe the Romans called the 'Quadi' comes through reports of the Romans themselves, whose empire had its border on the River Danube just to the south of the Quadi. They associated the Quadi with their neighbours the Marcomanni, and described both groups as having entered the region after the Celtic Boii had left it deserted. The Quadi are thought[citation needed] to have been an important part of the Suebian group who crossed the Rhine with the Vandals and Alans in the 406 Crossing of the Rhine, and later founded a kingdom in northwestern Iberia. Contents 1 1st century BC/AD 2 2nd century 3 3rd and 4th centuries 4 After the 4th century 5 See also 6 References 7 External links 1st century BC/AD[edit] In the 1st century BC, according to Roman written sources, the more numerous Marcomanni, whose name simply means the "men of the borderlands", moved themselves from settlements elsewhere into a hilly area in the Hercynian forest known as Baiohaemum, which is generally considered to have been the same as, or near to, modern Bohemia. It is said that the Quadi also lived in the same general region, and were also Suebians, like the Marcomanni.[citation needed] The Quadi lived in what is now Moravia, western Slovakia and Lower Austria where they had displaced Celtic cultures and were first noticed by Romans in 8–6 BC, briefly documented by Tacitus in his Germania.[page needed] They came to be part of the Marcomannic confederation that fought the future emperor Tiberius in 6 AD.[citation needed] There may be an earlier reference to the Quadi in the Geography of Strabo (7.1.3). In a parenthetical expression, often removed from the main text, he mentions a branch of the Suevi called the Koldouoi, transliterated to Latin Coldui (Strabo wrote in Greek).[citation needed] Part of their range is Bohemia, the domain of Maroboduus. The amendment of Coldui to Coadui (Quadi) is generally considered correct.[citation needed] Tacitus' Germania[2] mentions the Quadi in the same breath as the Marcomanni, alike in warlike spirit, alike governed by "kings" of their own noble stock, "descended from the noble line of Maroboduus and Tudrus". (Maroboduus ruled the Marcomanni and their alliance generally, so the "Tudric" line were apparently kings among the Quadi.) The royal powers of both tribes were also alike, according to Tacitus, in being supported by Roman silver.[citation needed] In The Annals, Tacitus writes that Maroboduus was deposed by the exile Catualda around 18 AD. Catualda was in turn defeated by the Hermunduri Vibilius, after which the realm was ruled by the Quadian Vannius. Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in coordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido, who divided his realm between themselves as Roman client kings.[citation needed] Their neighbours for the next 350 years or more were the Marcomanni to the west, Buri to the north, Sarmatian Iazygians and Asding Vandals arriving to the east somewhat later, and the Roman Empire to the south, across the Danube. Tacitus writes: Behind them [the Quadi and Marcomanii] the Marsigni, Gotini, Osi, and Buri, close in the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, the Marsigni and Buri, in their language and manner of life, resemble the Suevi. The Gotini and Osi are proved by their respective Gallic and Pannonian tongues, as well as by the fact of their enduring tribute, not to be Germans. Tribute is imposed on them as aliens, partly by the Sarmatæ, partly by the Quadi. The Gotini, to complete their degradation, actually work iron mines. All these nations occupy but little of the plain country, dwelling in forests and on mountain-tops.[3] These Gotini, or Cotini, are also mentioned in other Roman sources and appear to have been a remnant of an older Celtic population.[citation needed] 2nd century[edit] In the later 2nd century AD, Marcus Aurelius fought them in the Marcomannic Wars, for which our source is an abridgement of lost books of Dio Cassius' history. The troubles began in late 166 when the Langobardi (the Lombards) and Obii (otherwise unknown, but possibly the Ubii) crossed the Danube into Roman Moesia. They must have done so with the consent of the Quadi, through whose territory they had to cross. Presumably, the Quadi wished to avoid trouble themselves by allowing these tribes to pass through into Roman territory. This invasion was apparently thrown back into Quadi territory without too much difficulty as far as the Romans were concerned, but the incursion marked the start of a long series of attempts to cross the border.[citation needed] A few years later, the Marcomanni and Quadi, with assistance from other tribes that had crossed the Danube, overwhelmed a Roman army, passed over the plain at the head of the Adriatic, and put the town of Aquileia in northern Italy under siege. After initial Roman losses, the Marcomanni were defeated in 171, and Marcus Aurelius managed to make peace with some of the tribes along the Danube, including the Quadi. But in 172, he launched a major attack into the territory of the Marcomanni, and then turned on the Quadi, who had been aiding Marcomanni refugees. In a major battle in that year, his troops were almost defeated, until a sudden rainstorm allowed them to defeat the Quadi.[4] The Quadi were ultimately eliminated as a direct threat in 174. Marcus' planned counteroffensive across the Danube was prevented in 175, however, by insurrection within the Empire.[citation needed] Though Marcus Aurelius successfully suppressed the revolt, it was not until 178 that he was able to pursue the Quadi over the Danube into Bohemia. He executed a successful and decisive battle against them in 179 at Laugaricio Trenčín - Slovakia under the command of legate and procurator Marcus Valerius Maximianus of Poetovio Pannonia (modern-day Ptuj, Slovenia). He was planning to advance the Roman border east and north to the Carpathian Mountains and Bohemia when he became ill and died in 180.[citation needed] 3rd and 4th centuries[edit] The wars of Marcus Aurelius appeared to have been successful in that the Quadi remained quiet for several generations, though sources become scarcer and of poorer quality during the third century. In the 4th century, the emperor Valentinianus spent much of his reign defending the Danube frontier against a mixed horde of Sarmatians, Goths, and Quadi under their king Gabinius, because a Quadi king was slain at a treaty table by the Roman Marcellinus, son of the praefect of Gaul, Maximinus. Valentinian died in 375 after having received a deputation of Quadi to discuss a treaty. The insolent behavior of the proud barbarians so enraged the emperor, apparently, that he died of a stroke.[5][citation needed] After the 4th century[edit] After about 400, the old cremation burials typical of Suebians like the Quadi disappear from the archaeological record, and the names of the distinct tribes disappeared from the written record. They and other Suebian groups apparently reformed into several new groups. During the same period the Pannonian region was affected by the Gothic armies of Radagaisus and possibly also that of Alaric.[citation needed] According to historians such as Herwig Wolfram: The Marcomanni and the Quadi gave up their special names after crossing the Danube, in fact both the emigrants and the groups remaining in Pannonia became Suebi again. The Pannonian Suebi became subjects of the Huns. After the battle at the Nadao they set up their kingdom, and when it fell, they came, successively under Herulian and Longobard rule, south of the Danube under Gothic rule, and eventually again under Longobard rule.[6] One group identified as Suebi crossed the Rhine in 406, together with Hasdingi and Silingi Vandals, and Alans, all neighbours of the Quadi, and therefore it is thought[by whom?] that these Suebi included a significant Quadi component. Jerome explicitly lists the Quadi amongst those peoples. His list is sometimes seen as being deliberately classical and literary, not necessarily accurate, but on the other hand the Quadi appear at the start of the list along with the other Pannonian groups, and he goes out of his way to say that even Pannonian citizens, from within the empire, were among the moving people.[citation needed] In the Merovingian period, a new Suebian entity formed close to the Quadi homelands, the Bavarians, whose name references some type of ancestral connection to Bohemia. The "Upper German" dialects of German are today found along the old Danubian frontier of the Roman empire, although eventually replaced by a Slavic language in Moravia and Slovakia, and probably descend from the languages of the southern Suebi such as the Quadi. The western area, inhabited by the Alemanni in late classical times, is home to Alemannic dialects. Dialects of Bavaria and Austria are in the related linguistically Bavarian group, which is geographically closer to the Quadi homeland.[citation needed] See also[edit] List of ancient Germanic peoples Migrations period Timeline of Germanic kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula History of Portugal Gallaecia History of Spain References[edit] ^ Schehl, Franz A. W.; Drinkwater, John Frederick (2012). "Quadi". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191735257. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Quadi, a German tribe of the Suebic group... Fischer, Thomas; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). "Quadi". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191744457. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Quadi. Small Germanic tribe originally belonging to the Elbe Germanic cultural group. Darvill, Timothy, ed. (2009). "Quadi". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191727139. Retrieved January 25, 2020. Quadi. Germanic tribe... ^ Germania, Chapter 42. ^ Germania, Chapter 43. ^ 5 Dio, 72(71).3.2., 8.1.; Rubin, Z. H. (1979) "Weather Miracles under Marcus Aurelius," Athenaeum 57: 362–80; Guey, J. (1948) "Encore la 'pluie miraculeuse'," Rev. Phil. 22: 16–62; Olli, S. (1990) "A Note on the Establishment of the Date of the Rain Miracle under Marcus Aurelius," Arctos 24: 107; Israelovwich, I. (2008) "The Rain Miracle of Marcus Aurelius: (Re-)Construction of Consensus," Greece & Rome 55 (1): 85. ^ Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian Migration and the Roman West, 376-568. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1. ^ The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples pp.160-1. External links[edit] J. B. Rives, Commentary on Tacitus' Germania. v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quadi&oldid=1028096979" Categories: Quadi Early Germanic peoples Suebi Roman buffer states Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles lacking reliable references from October 2020 All articles lacking reliable references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2020 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 20:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6721	----	Rupilia - Wikipedia Rupilia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman noblewoman This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Rupilia Faustina Born c. 87 A.D. Died before 138 A.D. Nationality Roman Occupation Noblewoman Spouse(s) Marcus Annius Verus Children Faustina the Elder Marcus Annius Libo Marcus Annius Verus Parent(s) Libo Rupilius Frugi Salonina Matidia Rupilia Faustina (c. 87 A.D. – before 138 A.D.) was an influential Roman noblewoman. She was the daughter of Salonina Matidia and suffect consul Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus. She possibly had another sister called Rupilia Annia. Her mother’s maternal uncle was the Roman Emperor Trajan. Her elder half-sisters were Roman Empress Vibia Sabina and Matidia Minor. The sisters lived and were raised as a part of the household of Trajan, his wife Pompeia Plotina and her father. Roman Emperor Hadrian was her brother-in-law and third cousin. Faustina married Marcus Annius Verus, who was a prefect in Rome and served as consul three times. Their children were: Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Elder, a Roman Empress who married Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Marcus Annius Libo, a consul. Marcus Annius Verus, a praetor who married Domitia Lucilla and became father to future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his sister Annia Cornificia Faustina. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] Aurelius, Marcus (167). Meditations. Birley, Anthony Richard (2000). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (2nd revised ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17125-3. "Matidia the Elder". Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2020. "Faustina, Annia Galeria (1)". Fofweb.com. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 26 January 2007. Rodgers, N. (2005). The History and Conquests of Ancient Rome. Hermes House. ISBN 1844773337. "The Life of Marcus Aurelius: Part 1". Historia Augusta. Loeb Classical Library. 1921. Retrieved 27 June 2015. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rupilia&oldid=1007797333" Categories: 87 births 2nd-century deaths Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty 1st-century Roman women 2nd-century Roman women Rupilii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from June 2015 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with hCards AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Ελληνικά Español Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Nederlands Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2021, at 00:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6722	----	Capitoline Hill - Wikipedia Capitoline Hill From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search One of the seven hills of Rome, Italy Not to be confused with Capitol Hill. Coordinates: 41°53′36″N 12°28′59″E / 41.89333°N 12.48306°E / 41.89333; 12.48306 The Capitoline Hill One of the seven hills of Rome Latin name Collis Capitolinus Italian name Campidoglio Rione Campitelli Buildings Capitoline Museums and Piazza del Campidoglio, Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Palazzo Nuovo, Tabularium, Aedes Tensarum Churches Santa Maria in Aracoeli Ancient Roman religion Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Veiovis, Ludi Capitolini, Aedes Tensarum Roman sculptures Colossus of Constantine Model of the Capitoline Hill in ancient times, at the Museo della Civiltà Romana Schematic map of Rome showing the Seven Hills and the Servian Wall The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill (/ˈkæpɪtəlaɪn, kəˈpɪt-/ KAP-it-ə-lyne, kə-PIT-;[1][2] Italian: Campidoglio [kampiˈdɔʎʎo]; Latin: Mons Capitolinus [ˈmõːs kapɪtoːˈliːnʊs]), between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was earlier known as Mons Saturnius, dedicated to the god Saturn.[citation needed] The word Capitolium first meant the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus later built here, and afterwards it was used for the whole hill (and even other temples of Jupiter on other hills), thus Mons Capitolinus (the adjective noun of Capitolium). In an etymological myth, ancient sources connect the name to caput ("head", "summit") and the tale was that, when laying the foundations for the temple, the head of a man was found,[3] some sources even saying it was the head of some Tolus or Olus. The Capitolium was regarded by the Romans as indestructible, and was adopted as a symbol of eternity.[4][5] By the 16th century, Capitolinus had become Capitolino in Italian, and Capitolium Campidoglio. The Capitoline Hill contains few ancient ground-level ruins, as they are almost entirely covered up by Medieval and Renaissance palazzi (now housing the Capitoline Museums) that surround a piazza, a significant urban plan designed by Michelangelo. The word Capitolium still lives in the English word capitol, and Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. is widely assumed to be named after the Capitoline Hill. Contents 1 Ancient history 2 Medieval history 3 Michelangelo 3.1 Piazza 3.1.1 Marcus Aurelius 3.2 Palazzi 3.2.1 Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino 3.2.2 Palazzo dei Conservatori 3.2.3 Palazzo Senatorio 3.2.4 Palazzo Nuovo 3.3 Balustrade 3.4 Cordonata 4 Influence 5 See also 6 Footnotes 7 References 8 External links Ancient history[edit] At this hill, the Sabines, creeping to the Citadel, were let in by the Roman maiden Tarpeia. For this treachery, Tarpeia was the first to be punished by being flung from a steep cliff overlooking the Roman Forum. This cliff was later named the Tarpeian Rock after the Vestal Virgin, and became a frequent execution site. The Sabines, who immigrated to Rome following the Rape of the Sabine Women, settled on the Capitoline.[6] The Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), an 8th-century BC sacred precinct, occupied much of the eastern lower slopes of the Capitoline, at the head of what would later become the Roman Forum. The summit was the site of a temple for the Capitoline Triad, started by Rome's fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616–579 BC), and completed by the seventh and last king, Tarquinius Superbus (535–496 BC). It was considered one of the largest and the most beautiful temples in the city (although little now remains). The city legend starts with the recovery of a human skull (the word for head in Latin is caput) when foundation trenches were being dug for the Temple of Jupiter at Tarquin's order. Recent excavations on the Capitoline uncovered an early cemetery under the Temple of Jupiter.[7] There are several important temples built on Capitoline hill: the temple of Juno Moneta, the temple of Virtus, and the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus is the most important of the temples. It was built in 509 BC and was nearly as large as the Parthenon. The hill and the temple of Jupiter became the symbols of Rome, the capital of the world.[8] The Temple of Saturn was built at the foot of Capitoline Hill in the western end of the Forum Romanum. The Capitoline Hill cordonata (centre of picture) leading from Via del Teatro di Marcello to Piazza del Campidoglio. When the Senones Gauls (settled in central-east Italy) raided Rome in 390 BC, after the battle of River Allia, the Capitoline Hill was the one section of the city to evade capture by the barbarians, due to its being fortified by the Roman defenders.[9] According to legend Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was alerted to the Gallic attack by the sacred geese of Juno. When Julius Caesar suffered an accident during his triumph, clearly indicating the wrath of Jupiter for his actions in the Civil Wars, he approached the hill and Jupiter's temple on his knees as a way of averting the unlucky omen (nevertheless he was murdered six months later, and Brutus and his other assassins locked themselves inside the temple afterward).[10] Vespasian's brother and nephew were also besieged in the temple during the Year of Four Emperors (69). The Tabularium, located underground beneath the piazza and hilltop, occupies a building of the same name built in the 1st century BC to hold Roman records of state. The Tabularium looks out from the rear onto the Roman Forum. The main attraction of the Tabularium, besides the structure itself, is the Temple of Veiovis. During the lengthy period of ancient Rome, the Capitoline Hill was the geographical and ceremonial center. However, by the Renaissance, the former center was an untidy conglomeration of dilapidated buildings and the site of executions of criminals.[11] Medieval history[edit] The church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli is adjacent to the square, located near where the ancient arx, or citadel, atop the hill it once stood. At its base are the remains of a Roman insula, with more than four storeys visible from the street. In the Middle Ages, the hill's sacred function was obscured by its other role as the center of the civic government of Rome, revived as a commune in the 12th century. The city's government was now to be firmly under papal control, but the Capitoline was the scene of movements of urban resistance, such as the dramatic scenes of Cola di Rienzo's revived republic. In 1144, a revolt by the citizens against the authority of the Pope and nobles led to a senator taking up his official residence on the Capitoline Hill. The senator's new palazzo turned its back on the ancient forum, beginning the change in orientation on the hill that Michelangelo would later accentuate. A small piazza was laid out in front of the senator's palazzo, intended for communal purposes. In the middle of the 14th century, the guilds' court of justice was constructed on the southern end of the piazza. This would later house the Conservatori in the 15th century.[12] As a result, the piazza was already surrounded by buildings by the 16th century. Michelangelo[edit] View from the Piazza del Campidoglio Piazza del Campidoglio, on the top of Capitoline Hill, with the façade of Palazzo Senatorio Piazza del Campidoglio at night The existing design of the Piazza del Campidoglio and the surrounding palazzi was created by Renaissance artist and architect Michelangelo Buonarroti in 1536–1546. At the height of his fame, he was commissioned by the Farnese Pope Paul III, who wanted a symbol of the new Rome to impress Charles V, who was expected in 1538. This offered him the opportunity to build a monumental civic plaza for a major city as well as to reestablish the grandeur of Rome. Michelangelo's first designs for the piazza and remodeling of the surrounding palazzi date from 1536. His plan was formidably extensive. He accentuated the reversal of the classical orientation of the Capitoline, in a symbolic gesture turning Rome's civic center to face away from the Roman Forum and instead in the direction of Papal Rome and the Christian church in the form of St. Peter's Basilica. This full half circle turn can also be seen as Michelangelo's desire to address the new, developing section of the city rather than the ancient ruins of the past.[13] An equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius was to stand in the middle of the piazza set in a paved oval field.[12] Michelangelo was required to provide a setting for the statue and to bring order to an irregular hilltop already encumbered by two crumbling medieval buildings set at an acute angle to one another.[14] The Palazzo del Senatore was to be restored with a double outer stairway, and the campanile moved to the center axis of the palazzo. The Palazzo dei Conservatori was also to be restored, and a new building, the so-called Palazzo Nuovo, built at the same angle on the north side of the piazza to offset the Conservatori, creating a trapezoidal piazza. A wall and balustrade were to be built at the front of the square, giving it a firm delineation on the side facing the city. Finally, a flight of steps was to lead up to the enclosed piazza from below, further accentuating the central axis.[12] A close-up of the cordonata on the Capitoline Hill. The steps on the left lead to the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. The sequence, Cordonata piazza and the central palazzo are the first urban introduction of the "cult of the axis" that was to occupy Italian garden plans and reach fruition in France.[15] Executing the design was slow: Little was actually completed in Michelangelo's lifetime (the Cordonata Capitolina was not in place when Emperor Charles arrived, and the imperial party had to scramble up the slope from the Forum to view the works in progress), but work continued faithfully to his designs and the Campidoglio was completed in the 17th century, except for the paving design, which was to be finished three centuries later. Piazza[edit] Michelangelo's systematizing of the Campidoglio, engraved by Étienne Dupérac, 1569[16] The bird's-eye view of the engraving by Étienne Dupérac shows Michelangelo's solution to the problems of the space in the Piazza del Campidoglio. Even with their new facades centering them on the new palazzo at the rear, the space was a trapezoid, and the facades did not face each other squarely. Worse still, the whole site sloped (to the left in the engraving). Michelangelo's solution was radical. The three remodelled palazzi enclose a harmonious trapezoidal space, approached by the ramped staircase called the cordonata. The stepped ramp of the cordonata was intended, like a slow-moving escalator, to lift its visitors toward the sky and deposit them on the threshold of municipal authority.[13] The oval shape combined with the diamond pattern within it was a play on the previous Renaissance geometries of the circle and square. The travertine design set into the paving is perfectly level: Around its perimeter, low steps arise and die away into the paving as the slope requires. Its centre springs slightly, so that one senses that he/she is standing on the exposed segment of a gigantic egg all but buried at the centre of the city at the centre of the world, as Michelangelo's historian Charles de Tolnay pointed out.[17] An interlaced twelve-pointed star makes a subtle reference to the constellations, revolving around this space called Caput mundi, Latin for "head of the world." This paving design was never executed by the popes, who may have detected a subtext of less-than-Christian import, but Benito Mussolini ordered the paving completed to Michelangelo's design in 1940. Michelangelo looked at the center to find a solution to the Capitoline disorder. The statue provided a center and a focus. The buildings defined the space, and it is this space, as much as the buildings, that is the impressive achievement of the Capitoline complex. It is a giant outdoor room, a plaza enclosed and protected but open to the sky and accessible through five symmetrical openings.[11] Axiality and symmetry govern all parts of the Campidoglio. The aspect of the piazza that makes this most immediately apparent is the central statue, with the paving pattern directing the visitors’ eyes to its base. Michelangelo also gave the medieval Palazzo del Senatore a central campanile, a renovated façade, and a grand divided external staircase. He designed a new façade for the colonnaded Palazzo dei Conservatori and projected an identical structure, the Palazzo Nuovo, for the opposite side of the piazza. On the narrow side of the trapezoidal plan, he extended the central axis with a magnificent stair to link the hilltop with the city below.[18] The Horse statue in the entrance to Capitoline Hill, watercolor by Stanisław Masłowski, 1904 Marcus Aurelius[edit] Main article: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Replica of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius In the middle, and not to Michelangelo's liking, stood the original equestrian statue of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Michelangelo provided an unassuming pedestal for it. The sculpture was held in regard because it was thought to depict Emperor Constantine, the first Christian Emperor. The bronze now in position is a modern copy; the original is in the Palazzo dei Conservatori nearby. Palazzi[edit] Main article: Capitoline Museums He provided new fronts to the two official buildings of Rome's civic government, the Palazzo dei Conservatori, the Senatorio, and finally the Nuovo. Michelangelo designed a new façade for the dilapidated Palazzo dei Conservatori and he designed the Palazzo Nuovo to be a mirror complement, thereby providing balance and coherence to the ragged ensemble of existing structures.[11] The construction of these two buildings were carried out after his death under the supervision of Tommaso Cavalieri.[13] The sole arched motif in the entire Campidoglio design is the segmental pediments over their windows, which give a slight spring to the completely angular vertical-horizontal balance of the design. The three palazzi are now home to the Capitoline Museums. Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino[edit] Adjacent and now serving as an annex to the Palazzo dei Conservatori is Palazzo Caffarelli Clementino; here, short-term exhibitions are held. The palazzo was built between 1576 and 1583 by Gregory Canonico for Gian Pietro Caffarelli II. Until the cessation of World War I, the palazzo served as the German Embassy to Rome. Following the war, it was claimed by the Comune di Roma, which demolished a large section of the palazzo's east wing to create the Caffarelli Terrace. Palazzo dei Conservatori[edit] The Palazzo dei Conservatori ("palazzo of the Conservators") was built in the Middle Ages for the local magistrates (named "Conservatori of Rome") on top of a sixth-century BC temple dedicated to Jupiter "Maximus Capitolinus". Michelangelo's renovation of it incorporated the first use of a giant order that spanned two storeys, here with a range of Corinthian pilasters and subsidiary Ionic columns flanking the ground-floor loggia openings and the second-floor windows. Michelangelo's new portico is a reinvention of older ideas. The portico contains entablatures and a flat, coffer-like ceiling. The entablatures rest on columns set at the front of each bay, while matching half-columns stand against the back wall. Each pilaster forms a compound unit with the pier and column on either side of it. Colossal pilasters set on large bases join the portico and the upper story. All of the windows are capped with segmental pediments.[12] A balustrade fringing the roof emphasizes the emphatic horizontality of the whole against which the vertical lines of the orders rise in majestic contrast.[19] The verticality of the colossal order creates the feeling of a self-contained space while the horizontality of the entablatures and balustrades emphasize the longitudinal axis of the piazza. The palazzo's facade was updated by Michelangelo in the 1530s and again later numerous times. In Rome the portico of the Palazzo dei Conservatori sheltered offices of various guilds. Here disputes arising in the transaction of business were adjudicated, unless they were of sufficient importance to go before a communal tribunal, such as that of the conservatori. It was a natural place for such activity. Until the 1470s the main market of the city was held on and around the campidoglio, while cattle continued to be taxed and sold in the ancient forum located just to the south.[20] Palazzo Senatorio[edit] Built during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Palazzo Senatorio ("Senatorial palazzo") stands atop the Tabularium, which had once housed the archives of ancient Rome. Peperino blocks from the Tabularium were re-used in the left side of the palazzo and a corner of the bell tower. It now houses the Roman city hall, after having been converted into a residence by Giovanni Battista Piranesi for the Senator Abbondio Rezzonico in the 18th century.[21] Its double ramp of stairs was designed by Michelangelo. This double stairway to the palazzo replaced the old flight of steps and two-storied loggia, which had stood on the right side of the palazzo. The staircase cannot be seen solely in terms of the building to which it belongs but must be set in the context of the piazza as a whole.[12] The steps, beginning at the center of each wing, move gently upward until they reach the inner corner, level off and recede to the main surface of the façade. They then continue an unbroken stateliness toward each other, converging on the central doorway of the second story.[13] This interruption of the diagonal line and the brief inward change of direction both absorbs the central axis and links the two sides. The fountain in front of the staircase features the river gods of the Tiber and the Nile as well as Dea Roma (Minerva). The upper part of the facade was designed by Michelangelo with colossal corinthian pilasters harmonizing with the two other buildings.[22] Its bell-tower was designed by Martino Longhi the Elder and built between 1578 and 1582. Its current facade was built by Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi. Palazzo Nuovo[edit] To close off the piazza's symmetry and cover up the tower of the Aracoeli, the Palazzo Nuovo, or "New palazzo", was constructed in 1603, finished in 1654, and opened to the public in 1734. Its facade duplicates to that of Palazzo dei Conservatori. In other words, it is an identical copy made using Michelangelo's blueprint when he redesigned the Palazzo dei Conservatori a century earlier. Balustrade[edit] A balustrade, punctuated by sculptures atop the giant pilasters, capped the composition, one of the most influential of Michelangelo's designs. The two massive ancient statues of Castor and Pollux that decorate the balustrades are not the same as those posed by Michelangelo, which now are in front of the Palazzo del Quirinale.[8] Cordonata[edit] Next to the older and much steeper stairs leading to the Aracoeli, Michelangelo devised a monumental wide-ramped stair, the cordonata, gradually ascending the hill to reach the high piazza, so that the Campidoglio resolutely turned its back on the Roman Forum that it had once commanded. It was built to be wide enough for horse riders to ascend the hill without dismounting. The railings are topped by the statues of two Egyptian lions in black basalt at their base and the marble renditions of Castor and Pollux at their top. Influence[edit] Influenced by Roman architecture and Roman republican times, the word Capitolium still lives in the English word capitol.[23] The Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. is widely assumed to be named after the Capitoline Hill.[24] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Seven hills of Rome Aventine Hill (Aventino) Caelian Hill (Celio) Capitoline Brutus Cispian Hill (Cispio) Esquiline Hill (Esquilino) Janiculum Hill (Gianicolo) Monte Mario Oppian Hill (Oppio) Palatine Hill (Palatino) Pincian Hill (Pincio) Quirinal Hill (Quirinale) Vatican Hill (Vaticano) Velian Hill (Velia) Viminal Hill (Viminale) Footnotes[edit] ^ "Capitoline". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. ^ "Capitoline - definition of Capitoline in English from the Oxford dictionary". OxfordDictionaries.com. Retrieved 2016-01-20. ^ La Regina, Adriano, ed. (2007) [2004]. Archaeological Guide to Rome. Richard Sadleir (trans.) (New update ed.). Electa. p. 105. ^ Capitolium in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press ^ Serv. ad Verg. A. 8, 345, and Arn. 6, p. 194 ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:33 ^ Albertoni and Damiani 2008 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAlbertoni_and_Damiani2008 (help) ^ a b "Campidoglio" accessed march 23, 2012 ^ Aicher 2004 ^ Ancient Worlds: "Mons Capitolinus" Archived 2005-05-22 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b c Wallace, William (2010). Michelangelo: The Artist, the Man, and His Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–231. ^ a b c d e Von Einem, Herbert (1973). Michelangelo. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd. pp. 197–206. ^ a b c d Morgan, Charles H. (1966). The Life of Michelangelo. New York: Reynal and Company. pp. 209–211. ^ Fazio, Michael (2008). Buildings across Time: Third Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 310–311. ^ Giedion, Siegfried (1941). Space, Time and Architecture. ^ Decker, Heinrich (1969). The Renaissance in Italy: Architecture • Sculpture • Frescoes. Viking Press. p. 283. ISBN 9780500231074. ^ Charles De Tolnay, 1930. ^ Fazio, Michael (2008). Buildings across Time. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 310–311. ^ Morgan, Charles H. (2008). The Life of Michelangelo. New York: Reynal and Company. pp. 209–211. ^ Charles Burroughs, Michelangelo at the Campidoglio: Artistic Identity, Patronage, and Manufacture (IRSA s.c., 1993) pp. 91 "Palazzo dei Conservatori, Campidoglio (The Capitoline Hill)" Accessed March 21, 2012 http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/michel/michel.html ^ Lowe, Adam. "Messing About With Masterpieces: New Work by Giambattista Piranesi (1720-1778)," Art in Print, Vol. 1 No. 1 (May-June 2011), p. 23 fn. 3. ^ Ackerman, James. The architecture of Michelangelo. Chicago, 1986, 154. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Capitol". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Hodgkins, George W. (1960). "Naming the Capitol and the Capital". Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 60/62: 36–53. JSTOR 40067217. References[edit] Aicher, Peter J. (2004), Rome Alive: A Source Guide to the Ancient City, Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, ISBN 978-0-86516-473-4. Albertoni, M.; Damiani, I. (2008), Il tempio di Giove e le origini del colle Capitolino, Milan: Mondadori Electa, ISBN 978-88-370-6062-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Campidoglio. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cordonata (Roma). 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en-wikipedia-org-6724	----	Zoë Porphyrogenita - Wikipedia Zoë Porphyrogenita From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine empress regnant in 1042 For the fourth wife of Emperor Leo VI, who was an ancestor of Zoë Porphyrogenita, see Zoe Karbonopsina. For his second wife, see Zoe Zaoutzaina. Empress and Autocratess of the Romans Zoë Porphyrogenita Empress and Autocratess of the Romans Mosaic of Zoë at the Hagia Sophia Byzantine empress regnant Reign 21 April – 12 June 1042 Predecessor Michael V Kalaphates Successor Constantine IX and Theodora Co-regents Romanos III (1028–1034) Michael IV (1034–1041) Michael V (1041–1042) Theodora (1042–1050) Constantine IX (1042–1050) Born c. 978 Constantinople Died 11 June 1050 (aged 72) Constantinople Burial Constantinople[1] Spouse Romanos III (1028–1034) Michael IV (1034–1041) Constantine IX (1042–1050) Issue (adopted) Michael V Dynasty Macedonian Father Constantine VIII Mother Helena Zoë Porphyrogenita (Greek: Ζωή Πορφυρογέννητη Medieval Greek: [zo'i] "life"; c. 978 – 1050) was Byzantine Empress from 11 November 1028 until her death in 1050, briefly ruling in her own right from April to June 1042, alongside her sister Theodora Porphyrogenita. Zoë was born when her father Constantine was nominal co-emperor to his brother, Basil II. Basil died in 1025 when Zoë was 47. Her father ascended the Byzantine throne as Constantine VIII. As he had no sons, Constantine hoped to continue the dynasty by marrying off one of his daughters. Zoë, aged 50, was married to Romanos Argyros. They took the throne the next day on her father's death. The marriage of Zoë and Romanos III was troubled, and Romanos was found dead in his bath in 1034. His death has been variously attributed to Zoë, her young lover, or both. They were married on the same day as the supposed murder, and he was crowned Emperor Michael IV on the following day. In 1041, Zoë was persuaded to adopt her dying husband's nephew, Michael Kalaphates. Once Michael V became emperor, he promptly exiled Zoë. This action sparked a popular revolt which dethroned him and installed Zoë and her sister Theodora as joint empresses. After a two-month joint reign Zoë married a former lover who was installed as Constantine IX, transferring power to him. However, she continued to rule the empire as its heir and as the Byzantine empress. Eight years later, Zoë died aged 72. Her reign saw the decline of the Roman army, and first incursions by the Turks into eastern Anatolia. Contents 1 Early life: c. 978–1028 2 From Romanos III to Michael V: 1028–1042 3 Ruling with Theodora and Constantine IX: 1042–1050 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources Early life: c. 978–1028[edit] Histamenon depicting Basil II and Constantine VIII, holding a cross Zoë was Porphyrogenita,[2] "born into the purple"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. She was the second daughter of Constantine VIII and his wife Helena.[3] Her father became co-emperor, at the age of two, in 962.[4] His brother Basil II, the senior co-ruler, prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, as this would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women they were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage.[5] Consequently, Zoë lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum (women's quarters) for many years.[6] As an eligible imperial princess Zoë was considered a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto III, in 996.[7] A second embassy sent in 1001, headed by Arnulf II, Archbishop of Milan,[8] was tasked with selecting Otto's bride from among Constantine's three daughters. The eldest, Eudocia, was disfigured by smallpox, while the youngest, Theodora, was a very plain girl. Arnulf therefore selected the attractive 23-year-old Zoë, to which Basil II agreed.[2] In January 1002 she accompanied Arnulf back to Italy, only to discover when the ship reached Bari that Otto had died, forcing her to return home.[2] When Basil II died, Constantine VIII took the throne. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 11 November 1028.[3] Another opportunity for Zoë to marry arose in 1028, when an embassy from the Holy Roman Empire arrived in Constantinople with a proposal for an imperial marriage. Constantine and Zoë rejected the idea out of hand when it was revealed that the intended groom, Henry, the son of Conrad II, was only ten years old.[6] Constantine determined that the ruling house would be continued by one of his daughters being married to an appropriate aristocrat. The first potential match was the distinguished noble Constantine Dalassenos, the former dux of Antioch.[9] The emperor's advisors preferred a weak ruler whom they could control and they persuaded him to reject Dalassenos after he had already been summoned to the capital.[5] Romanos Argyros, the urban prefect of Constantinople, was the next to be considered as a match.[5] Theodora defied her father by refusing to marry Romanos, arguing that he was already married – his wife having been forced to become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family[10] – and that as third cousins they had too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur.[11] Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Zoë to be Romanos's wife.[11][12] Zoe and Romanos married on 10 November 1028 in the imperial chapel of the palace. The next day Constantine died and the newly-weds were seated on the imperial throne.[13] From Romanos III to Michael V: 1028–1042[edit] Silver miliaresion of Romanos III Spending years in the same restrictive quarters with her sister, Zoë had come to loathe Theodora.[6] Zoë convinced Romanos to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her.[14] Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to usurp the throne, first with Presian in 1030, followed by Constantine Diogenes, the governor of Sirmium, in 1031.[15] Zoë accused her of being part of the conspiracy, and Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. Zoë later visited her sister and forced her to take religious vows.[16] Zoë was obsessed with continuing the Macedonian dynasty.[5] Almost immediately upon marrying Romanos the fifty-year-old Zoë tried desperately to become pregnant. She used magic charms, amulets, and potions, all without effect.[17] This failure to conceive helped alienate the couple, and soon Romanos refused to share the marriage bed with her.[18] Romanos limited his wife's spending and paid her little attention.[19] Zoë, furious and frustrated, engaged in a number of affairs. Romanos tolerated these and took a mistress himself.[20] In 1033 Zoë became enamoured of a low-born servant called Michael. She flaunted her lover openly and spoke about making him emperor. Hearing the rumours, Romanos was concerned and confronted Michael, but he denied the accusations.[19] In early 1034 Romanos became ill and it was widely believed that Zoë and Michael were conspiring to have him poisoned.[21] On 11 April Romanos was found dying in his bath.[20] According to court official and later chronicler Michael Psellus some of his retinue had "held his head for a long time beneath the water, attempting at the same time to strangle him".[21] John Scylitzes writes as a simple fact that Romanos was drowned on Michael's orders.[21] Matthew of Edessa's account has Zoë poisoning Romanos.[21] Histamenon of Michael IV Zoë and Michael were married on the same day that Romanos III died.[5] The next day they summoned the Patriarch Alexios I to officiate at the coronation of the new emperor.[22] Although he initially refused to co-operate, the payment of 50 pounds of gold helped change his mind.[5] He proceeded to crown Michael as the new emperor of the Romans, to reign as Michael IV until his death in 1041.[23][24] Although Zoë believed Michael would prove to be a more devoted husband than Romanos, she was mistaken. Michael IV was concerned about Zoë turning on him the way she had turned on Romanos,[25] so he excluded Zoë from politics by placing all power in the hands of his brother, the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos.[26] Zoë was confined again to the palace gynaeceum, and kept under strict surveillance.[25] The disgruntled empress conspired against John but in vain.[5] By 1041 it was obvious that Michael IV was dying.[27] Eager to ensure that power remained in his hands, John the Eunuch forced Zoë to adopt Michael, the son of his and Michael IV's sister.[20] On 10 December 1041, Michael IV died, refusing to the last to see his wife who begged that she be allowed to visit him one more time,[28] and his nephew Michael V was crowned emperor.[29][30] Gold histamenon of Zoë and Theodora, 1042. Although he had pledged to respect Zoë, Michael V promptly banished her to a monastery on Principus, an island in the Sea of Marmara, on charges of attempted regicide. She was forcibly tonsured and sworn into a religious order.[31] This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian Dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, brought Zoë back from Principus and displayed her to the people,[32] but his insistence that he continue to rule alongside her was in vain. On 19 April 1042 the mob revolted against Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but also Theodora.[33] A delegation headed by Patrician Constantine Cabasilas[34] went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. Accustomed to a life of religious contemplation Theodora rejected them and sought sanctuary in the convent chapel. In the event she was carried forcibly back to the capital.[33] At an assembly in Hagia Sophia the people escorted a furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress along with Zoë.[35] They were both crowned on 21 April and Michael V was forced to take refuge in a monastery.[36] Ruling with Theodora and Constantine IX: 1042–1050[edit] Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the sisters should jointly reign.[37] As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was clear and adamant. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety, but then ordered him to be blinded and to spend the rest of his life as a monk.[38] A Hagia Sophia mosaic of Constantine IX Officially Zoë was the senior empress, and her throne was situated slightly in front of Theodora's on all public occasions. In practice Theodora was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters proceeded to administer the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice.[39] Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they were very conscientious in rectifying the abuses of the previous reigns.[40] Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate and gave public audiences, but it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under strain.[41] Zoë was still jealous of Theodora and had no desire to administer the empire; but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. The court began to split, with factions forming behind each empress.[41] After two months of increasing acrimony, Zoë decided to search for a new husband – thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence.[42] By the rules of the Orthodox Church her next marriage, her third, was the last she was permitted.[5] Zoë (left), Constantine IX (centre), and Theodora (right) depicted on the Monomachus Crown Her preference was for Constantine Dalassenos, who had been her father's first choice as her husband back in 1028. He was brought for an audience before the Empress, but during their conversation his independent and forceful manner displeased Zoe, and he was dismissed from her presence.[41] Her next choice was the married Constantine Atroklines, a court official with whom it was rumoured that she had had an affair during the reign of Romanos III.[20] He died under mysterious circumstances a few days before the wedding was to take place, possibly poisoned by his own soon to be ex-wife.[41] Zoë then remembered the handsome and urbane[41] Constantine Monomachos, another former lover.[20] The pair were married on 11 June 1042, without the participation of Patriarch Alexios, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses).[43] On the following day Constantine was formally proclaimed emperor together with Zoë and Theodora.[43] Zoë got more than she bargained for when Constantine decided to bring with him to his new station his long-standing mistress Maria Skleraina.[44] Not content with bringing her to court, he insisted that he be allowed to publicly share his life with her, and that she obtain some official recognition.[45] The 64-year-old Zoë did not object to sharing her bed and her throne with Skleraina. Skleraina was given the title of sebaste, ranking behind Zoë and Theodora, and was addressed as mistress or empress, like them. At official events Skleraina took position immediately behind the sisters.[5] In the eyes of the public however, Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Skleraina was a scandal, and eventually rumours began to spread that Skleraina was planning to murder Zoë, and possibly Theodora.[46] This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople.[47] The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination.[47] It is said that Zoë was stunningly beautiful, and Michael Psellos in his Chronographia commented that "every part of her was firm and in good condition".[48] Zoë recognised her own beauty and its use as a tool of statecraft. Attempting to maximise and prolong its effect she had a variety of creams and treatments prepared in the gynaeceum, and was said to have carried out experiments attempting to improve their efficacy. She operated a cosmetics laboratory in her rooms in the palace, where perfumes and unguents were constantly being prepared. Psellus reports that her face looked youthful into her sixties.[5][49] Zoë died in 1050, aged 72.[50] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Norwich 1993, p. 325. ^ a b c Norwich 1993, p. 259. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 503. ^ Kazhdan 1991, pp. 503–504. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Garland 2006. ^ a b c Norwich 1993, p. 269. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 253. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 258. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 464. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 465. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 270. ^ Candui, p. 257.[citation needed] sfn error: no target: CITEREFCandui (help) ^ Norwich 1993, p. 271. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 469. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 627. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 289. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 272. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 275. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 276. ^ a b c d e Kazhdan 1991, p. 2228. ^ a b c d Norwich 1993, p. 278. ^ Norwich 1993, pp. 276, 279. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 586. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 478. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 280. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 480. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 286. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 289. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 495. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 2038. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 295. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 297. ^ a b Finlay 1853, p. 496. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 298. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 299. ^ Georgius Cedrenus − CSHB 9: 540: "Michaelus in monasterium Elegmorum, 21 die Aprilis". ^ Finlay 1853, p. 497. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 301. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 498. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 305. ^ a b c d e Norwich 1993, p. 306. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 499. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 307. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 501. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 308. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 309. ^ a b Finlay 1853, p. 503. ^ Sherrard 1966, p. 79. ^ Panas et al. 2012. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 526. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Michael Psellus (c. 1080). Chronographia. Michael Psellus (1953). Chronographia [English translation]. Translated by E. R. A. Sewter. London. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8. Secondary sources[edit] Finlay, George (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from 716–1057. William Blackwood & Sons. Garland, Lynda (2006). "Zoe Porphyrogenita (wife of Romanus III, Constantine IX, and Michael IV)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Norwich, John Julius (1993). Byzantium: The Apogee. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-011448-5. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of The Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 422217218. Panas, Marios; Poulakou-Rebelakou, Effie; Kalfakis, Nicoalos; Vassilopoulos, Dimitrios (September 2012). "The Byzantine Empress Zoe Porphyrogenita and the quest for eternal youth". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 11 (3): 245–248. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2012.00629.x. PMID 22938012. S2CID 25156633. Sherrard, Philip (1966). Byzantium. Time-Life Books. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Zoë Porphyrogenita Macedonian dynasty Born: c. 978 Died: June 1050 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine VIII Byzantine Empress 11 November 1028 – June 1050 with Romanos III (1028–1034) with Michael IV (1034–1041) with Michael V (1041–1042) with Theodora (1042–1050) with Constantine IX (1042–1050) Succeeded by Constantine IX and Theodora v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zoë_Porphyrogenita&oldid=1028544688" Categories: 970s births 1050 deaths Byzantine empresses Macedonian dynasty 10th-century Byzantine people 11th-century Byzantine emperors 11th-century women rulers 10th-century Byzantine women 11th-century Byzantine women Women of the Byzantine Empire Remarried royal consorts Empresses regnant Porphyrogennetoi Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles 1040s in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021 Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2020 Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 16:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6726	----	Plautia (mother of Aelius Caesar) - Wikipedia Plautia (mother of Aelius Caesar) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman woman of senatorial rank This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Plautia was a Roman woman of senatorial rank whom Classical scholars believe lived in the late first century and early second century AD, but about whom no direct evidence of her existence has yet been found. Ronald Syme comments about her situation, "Plautia exemplifies a common phenomenon in the history of Imperial Rome; a fragment of knowledge rescued from the waters of oblivion, but a figure of consequence in the social and political history of the time."[1] Contents 1 History 1.1 Issue 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading History[edit] Edmund Groag first suggested her existence to explain otherwise baffling and contradictory statements about the familial relationships of senators related to the Antonine dynasty, taking her name from Avidia Plautia, daughter of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, suffect consul in 110.[2] Syme later identified more of her husbands and children, wryly commenting that while "it would be refreshing to discover aspects of social life not revealed in the correspondence of Pliny (divorce has no place in his decorous pages)", he admits the alternative to accepting Plautia's existence was to assume "Hadrian, freshly married to Vibia Sabina, chose to seduce the wife of Ceionius Commodus."[3] More recently, Anthony Birley accepted her existence by placing her in his family tree of the relatives of Lucius Aelius Caesar, where she appears as the daughter of Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, suffect consul in 80.[4] Issue[edit] Plautia is believed to have married three different men, by whom she had at least four children:[5] Lucius Ceionius Commodus, consul in 106 Lucius Aelius Caesar, father of the emperor Lucius Verus; A Ceionius, identified as the surmised father of Marcus Caeionius Silvanus, consul in 156; Second wife of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, suffect consul in 110, who died in the year 118 Avidia Plautia[a] who married Lucius Titius Epidius Aquilinus Second wife of Sextus Vettulenus Civica Cerialis, consul in 106 Marcus Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, consul in 157 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Vistilia Postumia (mother of Decimus Brutus Albinus) Notes[edit] ^ This is not the same Avidia as the one who married Lucius Aelius Caesar mentioned above. References[edit] ^ Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettulani", Athenaeum 35 (1957), p. 308 ^ Groag, Prosopographia Imperii Romani, second edition, A1408 ^ Syme, "Antonine Relatives", p. 309 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, a Biography, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 238 ^ Stemma from Syme, "Antonine Relatives", p. 314 Further reading[edit] Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Antonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi by Guido Migliorati, 2003 – Italian Historical Secondary Source The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11 by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone Limited preview - Edition: 2 - Item notes: v. 11 – 2000 Plutarch's Sertorius: A Historical Commentary by C. Konrad; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994 Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000 A Dictionary of the Roman Empire by Matthew Bunson – 1995 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plautia_(mother_of_Aelius_Caesar)&oldid=1006577430" Categories: 1st-century Roman women 2nd-century Roman women Plautii Unidentified people Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Accuracy disputes from August 2020 All accuracy disputes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Français Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2021, at 17:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6770	----	Gaius Aufidius Victorinus - Wikipedia Gaius Aufidius Victorinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, general and governor Gaius Aufidius Victorinus was a Roman senator and general of the second century. A friend of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius and the son-in-law of the advocate and orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto, he was twice consul and governor of several Roman provinces. Contents 1 Career 2 Family 3 References 4 Further reading Career[edit] Victorinus came from Pisaurum in Umbria.[1] He was a student of Fronto at the same time as Marcus Aurelius, where their friendship began.[2] In 155 Victorinus became suffect consul, then from c. 162 to c. 166 he was governor of Germania Superior, where he was commissioned to repulse the invading Chatti, which he did successfully.[3] Two letters Fronto wrote to him while governor survive. In the first, Fronto petitions for his help in getting a position for the rhetorician Antoninus Aquila.[4] In the second, Fronto updates Victorinus about his two sons, whom Victorinus had left with Fronto while in Germania Superior.[5] After his tenure in Germania Superior, Victorinus became governor of Dacia (168/9), then Hispania Baetica (probably 170/1) and Hispania Tarraconensis (171-172).[6] Victorinus then held the Proconsulate of Africa (c. 173/5)[7] and between 177 and 179 was governor of Syria.[8] In the last year of his tenure as Urban prefect (probably from 179 to 183),[9] Victorinus was consul a second time with Commodus as his colleague. At the death of Marcus Aurelius and the beginning of Commodus' tenure, Victorinus was still in high esteem, but Cassius Dio suggests that Commodus, probably at the instigation of the powerful Praetorian prefect Sextus Tigidius Perennis, sought to kill Victorinus.[10] Family[edit] Victorinus married Fronto's daughter Gratia.[11] They had at least three sons. One died at the age of three in Germania Superior while Victorinus was governor of that province.[12] The other two are Marcus Aufidius Fronto (consul ordinarius 199) and Gaius Aufidius Victorinus (consul ordinarius 200). References[edit] ^ CIL XI, 6334 ^ Historia Augusta, "Marcus Aurelius", ch. 2 ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag 1977), pp. 228f ^ Fronto, Ad Amicos I.7; translated by C.R. Haines, The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto (London: Heineman, 1919), vol. 2 pp. 169f ^ Fronto, Ad Amicos I.12; translated by Haines, Correspondence, vol. 2 pp. 171f ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 230 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 210 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 240 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, pp. 287f ^ Dio, Roman History 72.11.1-2 ^ Fronto writes of their betrothal in Ad Amicos II.11; translated by Haines, Correspondence, vol. 1 p. 293 ^ Fronto, De nepote Amiss, II; Ad Verum Imp. II.9; both translated by Haines, Correspondence, vol. 2 pp. 223-234. Further reading[edit] H.-G. Pflaum, "La carriere de C. Aufidius Victorinus condisciple de Marc Aurele", CRAI, 100 (1956), pp. 189-200 Political offices Preceded by Gaius Julius Severus, and Marcus Junius Rufinus Sabinianus as consules ordinarii Consul of the Roman Empire 155 with Marcus Gavius Appalius Succeeded by Antius Pollio, and Minicius Opimianus as consules suffecti Preceded by Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, and Quintus Tineius Rufus as consules ordinarii Consul of the Roman Empire 183 with Commodus IV Succeeded by Lucius Tutilius Pontianus Gentianus, and ignotus as consules suffecti Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Aufidius_Victorinus&oldid=1016278943" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Germania Superior Roman governors of Dacia Roman governors of Hispania Baetica Roman governors of Hispania Tarraconensis Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2021, at 09:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6797	----	Marius Maximus - Wikipedia Marius Maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman consul and historian (c.160 – c.230) This article is about the Roman biographer and historian. For other people with the name Marius, see Marius. Lucius Marius Maximus Perpetuus Aurelianus (more commonly known as Marius Maximus) (c. AD 160 – c. AD 230) was a Roman biographer, writing in Latin, who in the early decades of the 3rd century AD wrote a series of biographies of twelve Emperors, imitating and continuing Suetonius. Marius's work is lost, but it was still being read in the late 4th century and was used as a source by writers of that era, notably the author of the Historia Augusta. The nature and reliability of Marius's work, and the extent to which the earlier part of the HA draws upon it, are two vexed questions among the many problems that the HA continues to pose for students of Roman history and literature. Contents 1 Career 2 The biographies 3 Marius and the Historia Augusta 4 See also 5 Fragments and Testimonia 6 Sources 7 References 8 External links Career[edit] It is more or less agreed that Marius Maximus the biographer is identical with one of the most successful senators of the Severan dynasty whose career is known from inscriptions, namely Lucius Marius Maximus Perpetuus Aurelianus, twice consul and once Prefect of the City of Rome.[1] His family may have hailed from Africa and was not senatorial; his father, L. Marius Perpetuus, was an Equestrian procurator in Gaul but evidently secured entry to the senatorial order for his son as a novus homo. Probably born about 160 AD, Marius Maximus’ military career began in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, when he was Tribunus laticlavius of the Legio XXII Primigenia. Around 178 to 180, he held the same rank in the Legio III Italica. During Marcus Aurelius’ reign, he was also one of the quattuorviri viarum curandarum (or officer in charge of the roads outside of the walls of Rome). Around AD 182/183, Marius Maximus was the quaestor urbanus before being nominated as a candidate for the office of Plebeian Tribune. He became a senator under Commodus, and was adlected into the praetorship. Around AD 190, Marius Maximus was the curator of the Via Latina before becoming curator rei publicae of Faventia. In 193, when Septimius Severus seized power, he was the Legatus legionis of Legio I Italica on the lower Danube and was involved in the campaign against Pescennius Niger. Then sometime between 193 and 196 he was the dux exercitus of Moesia and Byzantium. In 197, Marius Maximus was the dux exercitus of Moesia and Lugdunum. It was during this time he fought at the Battle of Lugdunum against Clodius Albinus, after which he was appointed Legatus Augusti pro praetore (or governor) of Gallia Belgica, which he held probably until AD 199. Probably during the last year of his governorship, he held his first consulship as suffect consul (c. AD 199 or 200).[2] His next posting was as Legatus Augusti pro praetore of Germania Inferior, followed by the imperial governorship of Coele-Syria, probably from 205 until 208. Then, between the years 213 and 217, Marius Maximus became the first ex-consul ever to hold both the Proconsulship of Asia, and that of Africa, in succession. The order is not certain, although it is more likely that he held the governorship of Africa from 213/214, followed by the governorship of Asia from 215 to 216. Regardless, it was unprecedented to hold both Proconsulships, as either one of which conventionally crowned a senator's career. Further, he held the proconsular governorship of Asia for two consecutive years, which was also extraordinary. This suggests he was held in great esteem by Caracalla.[3] His career continued after Caracalla's murder, with his appointment as Praefectus urbi of Rome, by Macrinus in 218, which he held until 219. Although he held no post during the reign of Elagabalus, under Alexander Severus he was made consul for a second time in AD 223, alongside Lucius Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus. Marius Maximus had a son, Lucius Marius Maximus, who was consul in AD 232. Marius also had a brother who was a suffect consul around AD 203, Lucius Marius Perpetuus. The biographies[edit] It is not known for certain when Marius wrote his work, apparently entitled Caesares, but presumably towards the end of his career. It was intended as a continuation of the Twelve Caesars of Suetonius, and apparently covered the next twelve reigns, from Nerva to that of Elagabalus. As an eyewitness who experienced at least seven of these reigns from positions of authority, Maximus could have taken up the writing of history like his contemporary Dio Cassius, but he preferred the anecdotal and, indeed, frivolous forms of biography. His writings come in for adverse criticism from Jerome, Ammianus Marcellinus, and also the anonymous author of the Historia Augusta, who nevertheless cites him directly at least twenty-six times (apparently in most cases quoting or summarizing passages from Marius's lost work) and probably uses him in many places elsewhere. Marius's intention seems to have been to follow and out-perform Suetonius in serving up gossip, spicy details of the Emperors’ private lives, cynical comments, scandalous anecdotes, and curiosa. He also quoted from letters, senatorial edicts and so on, but seems to have invented some of these – a practice which the HA author adopted with enormous enthusiasm and bravura. However his work, sensationalist or not, must have contained much valuable information. The HA’s narration of the assassination of Elagabalus, well told and full of authentic-seeming circumstantial detail, is generally considered to derive from Marius Maximus. Marius and the Historia Augusta[edit] There has long been a school of thought that holds that the lives of the Emperors Hadrian to Elagabalus in the HA employ Marius as their primary source material. Anthony Birley has recently offered the most detailed defense of this position. There is however a contrary view, most convincingly put by Sir Ronald Syme, who points out that all the passages in which Marius is cited by name can be shown to be interpolations in the author’s main narrative, brought in to provide colour, frivolous anecdote or critical comment. Examples include the meat dish (tetrafarmacum) that Aelius Verus invented, Hadrian’s supposed expertise in astrology, various stories to the discredit of Marcus Aurelius and his consort Faustina the Younger, the Senate’s craven catalogue of acclamations for Commodus, and so on. It is more likely in Syme's opinion that Marius was a secondary source, and that the HA author was following in the main a more sober source, ‘Ignotus, the Good Biographer’. See also[edit] Maria gens Fragments and Testimonia[edit] Peter, HRR (1906) clxxx ff.; 121 ff. Sources[edit] Anthony Birley, "Marius Maximus: The Consular Biographer," ANRW II.34.3 (1997) 2678-2757. Inge Mennen, Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284 (BRILL, 2011) Sir Ronald Syme, Ammianus and the Historia Augusta (Oxford, 1968) Sir Ronald Syme, Emperors and Biography (Oxford, 1971) References[edit] ^ Mennen, pgs. 109-110 ^ Mennen, pg. 109 ^ Mennen, pg. 111 External links[edit] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Lucius Perpetuus Aurelianus Marius Maximus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Political offices Preceded by Uncertain Consul suffectus of the Roman Empire around AD 199/200 Succeeded by Uncertain Preceded by Elagabalus, and Alexander Severus Consul of the Roman Empire 223 with Luscius Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus Succeeded by Appius Claudius Julianus, and Gaius Bruttius Crispinus Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway United States Netherlands Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marius_Maximus&oldid=1013749898" Categories: 160 births 230 deaths 3rd-century Roman governors of Syria Latin historians Imperial Roman consuls Latin writers known only from secondary sources Post–Silver Age Latin writers Roman-era biographers Roman governors of Africa Roman governors of Asia Roman governors of Gallia Belgica Roman governors of Germania Inferior Roman governors of Syria Urban prefects of Rome 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century Latin writers 3rd-century historians Marii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 March 2021, at 07:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6844	----	Roman Egypt - Wikipedia Roman Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman province that encompassed most of modern-day Egypt Roman Egypt Latin: Aegyptus Koinē Greek: Αἴγυπτος Aigýptos Province of the Roman Empire 30 BC – 641 AD (Sasanian-occupied 619–628) Province of Aegyptus in AD 125 Capital Alexandria Population   • 1st century AD 4 to 8 million.[1] Historical era Classical antiquity Late antiquity • Conquest of Ptolemaic Kingdom 30 BC • Formation of the Diocese 390 • Muslim conquest 641 Preceded by Succeeded by Ptolemaic Kingdom Sasanian Egypt Rashidun Caliphate Today part of Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead Dynasty 332–310 BC Ptolemaic dynasties 310–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1953 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Egypt (Latin: Aegyptus [ae̯ˈɡʏptʊs]; Koinē Greek: Αἴγυπτος Aígyptos [ɛ́ːɡyptos]) was a subdivision of the Roman Empire from Rome's annexation of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in 30 BC to its loss by the Byzantine Empire to the Islamic conquests in AD 641. The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai, and was bordered by the provinces of Crete and Cyrenaica to the west and Judea, later Arabia Petraea, to the East. Egypt came to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman province,[2][3] and by far the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italy.[4] The population of Roman Egypt is unknown; although estimates vary from 4 to 8 million.[1] In Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the largest port, and was the second largest city of the Roman Empire.[citation needed] After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the Ptolemaic Kingdom (r. 305–30 BC), which had ruled Egypt since the Wars of Alexander the Great brought an end to Achaemenid Egypt (the Thirty-first Dynasty), took the side of Mark Antony in the Last war of the Roman Republic, against the eventual victor Octavian, who as Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC, having defeated Mark Antony and the pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, at the naval Battle of Actium.[5] After the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, the Roman Republic annexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.[5] Augustus and many subsequent emperors ruled Egypt as the Roman pharaohs.[5] The Ptolemaic institutions were dismantled, and though some bureaucratic elements were maintained the government administration was wholly reformed along with the social structure.[5] The Graeco-Egyptian legal system of the Hellenistic period continued in use, but within the bounds of Roman law.[5] The tetradrachm coinage minted at the Ptolemaic capital of Alexandria continued to be the currency of an increasingly monetized economy, but its value was made equal to the Roman denarius.[5] The priesthoods of the Ancient Egyptian deities and Hellenistic religions of Egypt kept most of their temples and privileges, and in turn the priests also served the Roman imperial cult of the deified emperors and their families.[5] From the 1st century BC, the Roman governor of Egypt was appointed by the emperor for a multi-year term and given the rank of prefect (Latin: praefectus).[5] Both the governor and the major officials were of equestrian rank (rather than of senatorial rank).[5] Three Roman legions garrisoned Egypt in the early Roman imperial period, with the garrison later reduced to two, alongside auxilia formations of the Roman army.[5] Augustus introduced land reforms that enabled wider entitlement to private ownership of land (previously rare under the Ptolemaic cleruchy system of allotments under royal ownership) and the local administration reformed into a Roman liturgical system, in which land-owners were required to serve in local government.[5] The status of Egypt's cities were increased, particularly the major towns of each nome (administrative region), known as a mētropolis (Koinē Greek: μητρόπολις, lit. 'mother city').[5] The mētropoleis were governed by magistrates drawn from the liturgy system; these magistrates, as in other Roman cities, practised euergetism and built public buildings. In 200/201, the emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) allowed to each metropolis, and to the city of Alexandria, a Boulē (a Hellenistic town council).[5] The Antonine Plague had struck in the latter 2nd century, but Roman Egypt had recovered by the 3rd century.[5] Having escaped much of the Crisis of the Third Century, Roman Egypt fell under the control of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire after the invasion of Egypt by Zenobia in 269.[6] The emperor Aurelian (r. 270–275) successfully besieged Alexandria and recovered Egypt, as did Diocletian (r. 284–305) in his 297–298 campaign against the usurpers Domitius Domitianus and Achilleus.[6] The inhabitants of Roman Egypt were divided by social class along ethnic and cultural lines.[5] Roman citizens and citizens of Alexandria were exempted from the poll tax paid by the other inhabitants, the "Egyptians", and had other defined legal distinctions.[5] Egyptians legally resident in the metropolis of the nomoi paid a reduced poll tax and had more privileges than other Egyptians, and within these mētropoleis there were the Hellenic socio-political élite, who as an urban, land-owning aristocracy dominated Egypt by the 2nd and throughout the 3rd centuries through their large private estates.[5] Most inhabitants were peasants, many working as tenant-farmers for high rents in kind, cultivating sacred land belonging to temples or public land formerly belonging to the Egyptian monarchy.[5] The division between the rural life of the villages, where the Egyptian language was spoken, and the metropolis, where the citizens spoke Koine Greek and frequented the Hellenistic gymnasia, was the most significant cultural division in Roman Egypt, and was not dissolved by the Constitutio Antoniniana of 212, which made all free Egyptians Roman citizens.[5] There was considerable social mobility however, accompanying mass urbanization, and participation in the monetized economy and literacy in Greek by the peasant population was widespread.[5] In Late Antiquity, the administrative and economic reforms of Diocletian (r. 284–305) coincided with the Christianization of the Roman Empire, especially the growth of Christianity in Egypt.[6] After Constantine the Great gained control of Egypt from his erstwhile co-augustus Licinius (r. 308–324), the emperors promoted Christianity.[6] The latest stage of Egyptian language, Coptic, emerged as literary language among the Christians of Roman Egypt.[5] Under Diocletian the frontier was moved downriver to the First Cataract of the Nile at Syene (Aswan), withdrawing from the Dodekaschoinos region.[6] This southern frontier was largely peaceful for many centuries, as attested by serving military documents from the late 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries from garrisons at Syene, Philae, and Elephantine.[6] These soldiers of the Late Roman army were likely limitanei, but regular units also served in Egypt, including the Scythae Iustiniani of Justinian the Great (r. 527–565), known to have been stationed in the Thebaid. Constantine's currency reforms, including the introduction of the gold solidus, stabilized the economy and ensured Roman Egypt remained a monetized system, even in the rural economy.[6] The trend towards private ownership of land became more pronounced in the 5th century and peaked in the 6th century, with large estates built up from many individual plots.[6] Some large estates were owned by Christian churches, and smaller land-holders included those who were themselves both tenant farmers on larger estates and landlords of tenant-farmers working their own land.[6] The First Plague Pandemic arrived in the Mediterranean Basin with the emergence of the Justinianic Plague at Pelusium in Roman Egypt in 541. Egypt ceased to be a part of the Roman Empire in 641, when it became part of the Rashidun Caliphate following the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Contents 1 Roman government in Egypt 2 Military 3 Society 4 Economy 5 Architecture 6 Religion 6.1 Imperial cult 6.2 Cult of Serapis and Isis 6.3 Temples 6.4 Christianity 7 History 7.1 Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century) 7.2 Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries) 7.2.1 Episcopal sees 7.3 Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD) 7.4 Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD) 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Roman government in Egypt[edit] Further information: List of governors of Roman Egypt As Rome overtook the Ptolemaic system in place for areas of Egypt, they made many changes. The effect of the Roman conquest was at first to strengthen the position of the Greeks and of Hellenism against Egyptian influences. Some of the previous offices and names of offices under the Hellenistic Ptolemaic rule were kept, some were changed, and some names would have remained but the function and administration would have changed. The Romans introduced important changes in the administrative system, aimed at achieving a high level of efficiency and maximizing revenue. The duties of the prefect of Aegyptus combined responsibility for military security through command of the legions and cohorts, for the organization of finance and taxation, and for the administration of justice. A 1st-century AD Roman emperor wearing nemes with a uraeus, as pharaoh (Louvre) The Egyptian provinces of the Ptolemaic Kingdom remained wholly under Roman rule until the administrative reforms of the augustus Diocletian (r. 284–305).[7]:57 In these first three centuries of Roman Egypt, the whole country came under the central Roman control of single governor, officially called in Latin: praefectus Alexandreae et Aegypti, lit. 'prefect of Alexandria and Egypt' and more usually referred to as the Latin: praefectus Aegypti, lit. 'prefect of Egypt' or the Koinē Greek: ἔπαρχος Αἰγύπτου, romanized: eparchos Aigyptou, lit. 'Eparch of Egypt'.[7]:57 The double title of the governor as prefect "of Alexandria and Egypt" reflects the distinctions between Upper and Lower Egypt and Alexandria, since Alexandria, outside the Nile Delta, was not within the then-prevailing traditional geographic boundaries of Egypt.[7]:57 Roman Egypt was the only Roman province whose governor was of equestrian rank in the Roman social order; all others were of the senatorial class and served as Roman senators, including former Roman consuls, but the prefect of Egypt had more or less equivalent civil and military powers (imperium) to a proconsul, since a Roman law (a lex) granted him "proconsular imperium" (Latin: imperium ad similitudinem proconsulis).[7]:57 Unlike in senatorially-governed provinces, the prefect was responsible for the collection of certain taxes and for the organization of the all-important grain shipments from Egypt (including the annona).[7]:58 Because of these financial responsibilities, the governor's administration had to be closely controlled and organized.[7]:58 The governorship of Egypt was the second-highest office available to the equestrian class on the cursus honorum (after that of the praetorian prefect (Latin: praefectus praetorio), the commander of the imperial Praetorian Guard) and one of the highest-paid, receiving an annual salary of 200,000 sesterces (a "ducenarian" post).[7]:58 The prefect was appointed at the emperor's discretion; officially the governors' status and responsibilities mirrored those of the augustus himself: his fairness (aequitas, 'equality') and his foresight (providentia, 'providence').[7]:58 From the early 2nd century, service as the governor of Egypt was frequently the penultimate stage in the career of a praetorian prefect.[7]:58 The first generations of the imperial Severan dynasty depicted on the "Severan Tondo" from Egypt (Antikensammlung Berlin) The governor's powers as prefect, which included the rights to make edicts (ius edicendi) and, as the supreme judicial authority, to order capital punishment (ius gladii, 'right of swords'), expired as soon as his successor arrived in the provincial capital at Alexandria, who then also took up overall command of the Roman legions of the Egyptian garrison.[7]:58 (Initially, three legions were stationed in Egypt, with only two from the reign of Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD).)[7]:58 The official duties of the praefectus Aegypti are well known because enough records survive to reconstruct a mostly complete official calendar (fasti) of the governors' engagements.[7]:57 Yearly in Lower Egypt, and once every two years in Upper Egypt, the praefectus Aegypti held a conventus (Koinē Greek: διαλογισμός, romanized: dialogismos, lit. 'dialogue'), during which legal trials were conducted and administrative officials' practices were examined, usually between January (Ianuarius) and April (Aprilis) in the Roman calendar.[7]:58 Evidence exists of more than 60 edicts issued by the Roman governors of Egypt.[7]:58 To the government at Alexandria besides the prefect of Egypt, the Roman emperors appointed several other subordinate procurators for the province, all of equestrian rank and, at least from the reign of Commodus (r. 176–192) of similar, "ducenarian" salary bracket.[7]:58 The administrator of the Idios Logos, responsible for special revenues like the proceeds of bona caduca property, and the iuridicus (Koinē Greek: δικαιοδότης, romanized: dikaiodotes, lit. 'giver of laws'), the senior legal official, were both imperially appointed.[7]:58 From the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138), the financial powers of the prefect and the control of the Egyptian temples and priesthoods was devolved to other procurators, a dioiketes (διοικητής), the chief financial officer, and an archiereus (ἀρχιερεύς, 'archpriest').[7]:58 A procurator could deputize as the prefect's representative where necessary.[7]:58 Statue of an orator, wearing a himation, from Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt (Egyptian Museum, Cairo) Procurators were also appointed from among the freedmen (manumitted slaves) of the imperial household, including the powerful procurator usiacus, responsible for state property in the province.[7]:58 Other procurators were responsible for revenue farming of state monopolies (the procurator ad Mercurium), oversight of farm lands (the procurator episkepseos), of the warehouses of Alexandria (the procurator Neaspoleos), and of exports and emigration (the procurator Phari, 'procurator of the Pharos').[7]:58 These roles are poorly attested, with often the only surviving information beyond the names of the offices is a few names of the incumbents. In general, the central provincial administration of Egypt is no better-known than the Roman governments of other provinces, since, unlike in the rest of Egypt, the conditions for the preservation of official papyri were very unfavourable at Alexandria.[7]:58 Local government in the hinterland (Koinē Greek: χώρα, romanized: khṓrā, lit. 'countryside') outside Alexandria was divided into traditional regions known as nomoi.[7]:58 To each nome the prefect appointed a strategos (Koinē Greek: στρατηγός, romanized: stratēgós, lit. 'general'); the strategoi were civilian administrators, without military functions, who performed much of the government of the country in the prefect's name and were themselves drawn from the Egyptian upper classes.[7]:58 The strategoi in each of the mētropoleis were the senior local officials, served as intermediaries between the prefect and the villages, and were legally responsible for the administration and their own conduct while in office for several years.[7]:58 Each strategos was supplemented by a royal scribe (βασιλικός γραμματεύς, basilikós grammateús, 'royal secretary').[7]:58 These scribes were responsible for their nome's financial affairs, including administration of all property, land, land revenues, and temples, and what remains of their record-keeping is unparalleled in the ancient world for its completeness and complexity.[7]:58 The royal scribes could act as proxy for the strategoi, but each reported directly to Alexandria, where dedicated financial secretaries – appointed for each individual nome – oversaw the accounts: an eklogistes and a graphon ton nomon.[7]:58 The eklogistes was responsible for general financial affairs while the graphon ton nomon likely dealt with matters relating to the Idios Logos.[7]:58–59 Bronze statue of a nude youth, from Athribis in Lower Egypt (British Museum, London) The nomoi were grouped traditionally into those of Upper and Lower Egypt, the two divisions each being known as an "epistrategy" after the chief officer, the epistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος, epistratēgós, 'over-general'), each of whom was also a Roman procurator. Soon after the Roman annexation, a new epistrategy was formed, encompassing the area just south of Memphis and the Faiyum region and named "the Heptanomia and the Arsinoite nome".[7]:58 In the Nile Delta however, power was wielded by two of the epistrategoi.[7]:58 The epistrategos's role was mainly to mediate between the prefect in Alexandria and the strategoi in the mētropoleis, and they had few specific administrative duties, performing a more general function.[7]:58 Their salary was sexagenarian – 60,000 sesterces annually.[7]:58 Each village or kome (κώμη, kṓmē) was served by a village scribe (κωμογραμματεύς, kōmogrammateús, 'secretary of the kome'), whose term, possibly paid, was usually held for three years.[7]:59 Each, to avoid conflicts of interest, was appointed to a community away from their home village, as they were required to inform the strategoi and epistrategoi of the names of persons due to perform unpaid public service as part of the liturgy system.[7]:59 They were required to be literate and had various duties as official clerks.[7]:59 Other local officials drawn from the liturgy system served for a year in their home kome; they included the practor (πράκτωρ, práktōr, 'executor'), who collected certain taxes, as well as security officers, granary officials (σιτολόγοι, sitologoi, 'grain collectors'), public cattle drivers (δημόσιοι kτηνοτρόφοι, dēmósioi ktēnotróphoi, 'cattleherds of the demos'), and cargo supervisors (ἐπίπλοοι, epiploöi).[7]:59 Other liturgical officials were responsible for other specific aspects of the economy: a suite of officials was each responsible for arranging supplies of particular necessity in the course of the prefect's official tours.[7]:59 The liturgy system extended to most aspects of Roman administration by the reign of Trajan (r. 98–117), though constant efforts were made by people eligible for such duties to escape their imposition.[7]:59 A 2nd-century AD Roman emperor wearing nemes, as pharaoh (Museum Carnuntinum [de], Bad Deutsch-Altenburg) The reforms of the early 4th century had established the basis for another 250 years of comparative prosperity in Aegyptus, at a cost of perhaps greater rigidity and more oppressive state control. Aegyptus was subdivided for administrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces, and separate civil and military officials were established; the praeses and the dux. The province was under the supervision of the count of the Orient (i.e. the vicar) of the diocese headquartered in Antioch in Syria. Emperor Justinian abolished the Diocese of Egypt in 538 and re-combined civil and military power in the hands of the dux with a civil deputy (praeses) as a counterweight to the power of the church authorities. All pretense of local autonomy had by then vanished. The presence of the soldiery was more noticeable, its power and influence more pervasive in the routine of town and village life. Encaustic and tempera painted mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 160 – c. 170, with a green sagum, gold fibula, white tunic, and red leather balteus (British Museum) Military[edit] The Roman army was among the most homogenous Roman structures, and the organization of the army in Egypt differed little from its organization elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The Roman legions were recruited from Roman citizens and the Roman auxilia recruited from the non-citizen subjects.[8]:69 Egypt was unique in that its garrison was commanded by the praefectus Aegypti, an official of the equestrian order, rather than, as in other provinces, a governor of the senatorial class.[8]:75 This distinction was stipulated in a law promulgated by Augustus, and, because it was unthinkable that an equestrian should command a senator, the commanders of the legions in Egypt were themselves, uniquely, of equestrian rank.[8]:75 As a result of these strictures, the governor was rendered unable to build up a rival power base (as Mark Antony had been able to do), while the military legati commanding the legions were career soldiers, formerly centurions with the senior rank of primus pilus, rather than politicians whose military experience was limited to youthful service as a military tribune.[8]:75 Beneath the praefectus Aegypti, the overall commander of legions and auxilia stationed in Egypt was styled in Latin: praefectus stratopedarches, from the Greek: στρατοπεδάρχης, romanized: stratopedárchēs, lit. 'camp commander', or as Latin: praefectus exercitu qui est in Aegypto, lit. 'prefect of the army in Egypt'.[8]:75–76 Collectively, these forces were known as the exercitus Aegyptiacus, 'Army of Egypt'.[8]:76 The Roman garrison was concentrated at Nicopolis, a district of Alexandria, rather than at the strategic heart of the country around Memphis and Egyptian Babylon.[9]:37 Alexandria was the Mediterranean's second city in the early Roman empire, the cultural capital of the Greek East and rival to Rome under Antony and Cleopatra.[9]:37 Because only a few papyri are preserved from the area, little more is known about the legionaries' everyday life than is known from other provinces of the empire, and little evidence exists of the military practices of the prefect and his officers.[8]:75 Most papyri have been found in Middle Egypt's villages, and the texts are primarily concerned with local affairs, rarely giving space to high politics and military matters.[8]:70 Not much is known about the military encampments of the Roman imperial period, since many are underwater or have been built over and because Egyptian archaeology has traditionally taken little interest in Roman sites.[8]:70 Because they supply a record of soldiers' service history, six bronze Roman military diplomas dating between 83 and 206 are the main source of documentary evidence for the auxilia in Egypt; these inscribed certificates rewarded 25 or 26 years of military service in the auxilia with Roman citizenship and the right of conubium.[8]:70–71 That the army was more Greek-speaking than in other provinces is certain.[8]:75 The heart of the Army of Egypt was the Nicopolis garrison at Alexandria, with at least one legion permanently stationed there, along with a strong force of auxilia cavalry.[8]:71 These troops would both guard the residence of the praefectus Aegypti against uprisings among the Alexandrians and were poised to march quickly to any point at the prefect's command.[8]:71–72 At Alexandria too was the Classis Alexandrina, the provincial fleet of the Roman Navy in Egypt.[8]:71 In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, there were around 8,000 soldiers at Alexandria, a fraction of the megalopolis's huge population.[8]:72 Initially, the legionary garrison of Roman Egypt consisted of three legions: the Legio III Cyrenaica, the Legio XXII Deiotariana, and one other legion.[8]:70 The station and identity of this third legion is not known for sure, and it is not known precisely when it was withdrawn from Egypt, though it was certainly before 23 AD, during the reign of Tiberius (r. 14–37).[8]:70 In the reign of Tiberius's step-father and predecessor Augustus, the legions had been stationed at Nicopolis and at Egyptian Babylon, and perhaps at Thebes.[8]:70 After August 119, the III Cyrenaica was ordered out of Egypt; the XXII Deiotariana was transferred sometime afterwards, and before 127/8, the Legio II Traiana arrived, to remain as the main component of the Army of Egypt for two centuries.[8]:70 Encaustic painted mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 130, with a blue sagum, silver fibula, white tunic, and red balteus, with related grave goods (Antikensammlung Berlin) After some fluctuations in the size and positions of the auxilia garrison in the early decades of Roman Egypt, relating to the conquest and pacification of the country, the auxilia contingent was mostly stable during the Principate, increasing somewhat towards the end of the 2nd century, and with some individual formations remaining in Egypt for centuries at a time.[8]:71 Three or four alae of cavalry were stationed in Egypt, each ala numbering around 500 horsemen.[8]:71 There were between seven and ten cohortes of auxilia infantry, each cohors about 500 hundred strong, although some were cohortes equitatae – mixed units of 600 men, with infantry and cavalry in a roughly 4:1 ratio.[8]:71 Besides the auxilia stationed at Alexandria, at least three detachments permanently garrisoned the southern border, on the Nile's First Cataract around Philae and Syene (Aswan), protecting Egypt from enemies to the south and guarding against rebellion in the Thebaid.[8]:72 Besides the main garrison at Alexandrian Nicopolis and the southern border force, the disposition of the rest of the Army of Egypt is not clear, though many soldiers are known to have been stationed at various outposts (praesidia), including those defending roads and remote natural resources from attack.[8]:72 Roman detachments, centuriones, and beneficiarii maintained order in the Nile Valley, but about their duties little is known, as little evidence survives, though they were, in addition to the strategoi of the nomoi, the prime local representatives of the Roman state.[8]:73 Archaeological work led by Hélène Cuvigny has revealed many ostraca (inscribed ceramic fragments) which give unprecedently detailed information on the lives of soldiers stationed in the Eastern Desert along the Coptos–Myos Hormos road and at the imperial granite quarry at Mons Claudianus.[8]:72 Another Roman outpost, known from an inscription, existed on Farasan, the chief island of the Red Sea's Farasan Islands off the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula.[8]:72 Encaustic mummy portrait of a Roman officer c. 100 – c. 150, with a blue sagum, fibula, white tunic with purple angusticlavus, and red balteus (Antikensammlung Berlin) As in other provinces, many of the Roman soldiers in Egypt were recruited locally, not only among the non-citizen auxilia, but among the legionaries as well, who were required to have Roman citizenship.[8]:73 An increasing proportion of the Army of Egypt was of local origin in the reign of the Flavian dynasty, with an even higher proportion – as many as three quarters of legionaries – under the Severan dynasty.[8]:73 Of these, around one third were themselves the offspring (Latin: castrenses, lit. 'camp-men') of soldiers, raised in the canabae settlements surrounding the army's base at Nicopolis, while only about one eighth were Alexandrian citizens.[8]:73 Egyptians were given Roman-style Latin names on joining the army; unlike in other provinces, indigenous names are nearly unknown among the local soldiers of the Army of Egypt.[8]:74 One of the surviving military diplomas lists the soldier's birthplace as Coptos, while others demonstrate that soldiers and centurions from elsewhere retired to Egypt: auxilia veterans from Chios and Hippo Regius (or Hippos) are named.[8]:73–74 Evidence from the 2nd century suggests most auxilia came from Egypt, with others drawn from the provinces of Africa and Syria, and from Roman Asia Minor.[8]:73–74 Auxilia from the Balkans, who served throughout the Roman army, also served in Egypt: many Dacian names are known from ostraca in the Trajanic period, perhaps connected with the recruitment of Dacians during and after Trajan's Dacian Wars; they are predominantly cavalrymen's names, with some infantrymen's.[8]:74 Thracians, common in the army in other Roman provinces, were also present, and an auxiliary diploma from the Egyptian garrison has been found in Thracia.[8]:74 Two auxilia diplomas connect Army of Egypt veterans with Syria, including one naming Apamea.[8]:74 Large numbers of recruits mustered in Asia Minor may have supplemented the garrison after the Kitos War against a Jewish uprising in Egypt and Syria.[8]:74 Society[edit] The social structure in Aegyptus under the Romans was both unique and complicated. On the one hand, the Romans continued to use many of the same organizational tactics that were in place under the leaders of the Ptolemaic period. At the same time, the Romans saw the Greeks in Aegyptus as “Egyptians”, an idea that both the native Egyptians and Greeks would have rejected.[10] To further compound the whole situation, Jews, who themselves were very Hellenized overall, had their own communities, separate from both Greeks and native Egyptians.[10] 1st-century AD mummy excavated by William Flinders Petrie The Romans began a system of social hierarchy that revolved around ethnicity and place of residence. Other than Roman citizens, a Greek citizen of one of the Greek cities had the highest status, and a rural Egyptian would be in the lowest class.[11] In between those classes was the metropolite, who was almost certainly of Hellenic origin. Gaining citizenship and moving up in ranks was very difficult and there were not many available options for ascendancy.[12] One of the routes that many followed to ascend to another caste was through enlistment in the army. Although only Roman citizens could serve in the legions, many Greeks found their way in. The native Egyptians could join the auxiliary forces and attain citizenship upon discharge.[13] The different groups had different rates of taxation based on their social class. The Greeks were exempt from the poll tax, while Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals were taxed at a lower rate than the native Egyptians, who could not enter the army, and paid the full poll tax.[14] The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked to the governing administration. Elements of centralized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular was the appointment of strategoi to govern the ‘nomes’, the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. Boulai, or town councils, in Egypt were only formally constituted by Septimius Severus. It was only under Diocletian later in the 3rd century that these boulai and their officers acquired important administrative responsibilities for their nomes. The Augustan takeover introduced a system of compulsory public service, which was based on poros (property or income qualification), which was wholly based on social status and power. The Romans also introduced the poll tax which was similar to tax rates that the Ptolemies levied, but the Romans gave special low rates to citizens of mētropoleis.[15] The city of Oxyrhynchus had many papyri remains that contain much information on the subject of social structure in these cities. This city, along with Alexandria, shows the diverse set-up of various institutions that the Romans continued to use after their takeover of Egypt. Just as under the Ptolemies, Alexandria and its citizens had their own special designations. The capital city enjoyed a higher status and more privileges than the rest of Egypt. Just as it was under the Ptolemies, the primary way of becoming a citizen of Roman Alexandria was through showing when registering for a deme that both parents were Alexandrian citizens. Alexandrians were the only Egyptians that could obtain Roman citizenship.[16] Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC–50 AD, Brooklyn Museum If a common Egyptian wanted to become a Roman citizen he would first have to become an Alexandrian citizen. The Augustan period in Egypt saw the creation of urban communities with “Hellenic” landowning elites. These landowning elites were put in a position of privilege and power and had more self-administration than the Egyptian population. Within the citizenry, there were gymnasiums that Greek citizens could enter if they showed that both parents were members of the gymnasium based on a list that was compiled by the government in 4–5 AD.[17] The candidate for the gymnasium would then be let into the ephebus. There was also the council of elders known as the gerousia. This council of elders did not have a boulai to answer to. All of this Greek organization was a vital part of the metropolis and the Greek institutions provided an elite group of citizens. The Romans looked to these elites to provide municipal officers and well-educated administrators.[17] These elites also paid lower poll-taxes than the local native Egyptians, fellahin. It is well documented that Alexandrians in particular were able to enjoy lower tax-rates on land.[18] These privileges even extended to corporal punishments. Romans were protected from this type of punishment while native Egyptians were whipped. Alexandrians, on the other hand, had the privilege of merely being beaten with a rod.[19] Although Alexandria enjoyed the greatest status of the Greek cities in Egypt, it is clear that the other Greek cities, such as Antinoöpolis, enjoyed privileges very similar to the ones seen in Alexandria.[20] All of these changes amounted to the Greeks being treated as an ally in Egypt and the native Egyptians were treated as a conquered race.[citation needed] The Gnomon of the Idios Logos shows the connection between law and status. It lays out the revenues it deals with, mainly fines and confiscation of property, to which only a few groups were apt. The Gnomon also confirms that a freed slave takes his former master's social status. The Gnomon demonstrates the social controls that the Romans had in place through monetary means based on status and property. See also: Fayum mummy portraits Mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 1st-century mummy portrait from Hawara (Cleveland Museum of Art) 1st/2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) Mummy portrait (Antikensammlung Berlin) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait from Faiyum (Galerie Cybèle, Paris) 2nd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Antikensammlung Berlin) 3rd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Brooklyn Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Getty Villa) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Pushkin Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art) 2nd–4th-century mummy portrait from Hawara (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) 2nd/3rd-century mummy portrait from er-Rubayat (Walters Art Museum) 2nd-century mummy portrait (Harvard Art Museums) 2nd-century mummy portrait probably from er-Rubayat (Getty Villa) Economy[edit] Roman trade with India started from Aegyptus according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century). The economic resources that this imperial government existed to exploit had not changed since the Ptolemaic period, but the development of a much more complex and sophisticated taxation system was a hallmark of Roman rule. Taxes in both cash and kind were assessed on land, and a bewildering variety of small taxes in cash, as well as customs dues and the like, was collected by appointed officials. A massive amount of Aegyptus's grain was shipped downriver (north) both to feed the population of Alexandria and for export to the Roman capital. There were frequent complaints of oppression and extortion from the taxpayers. For land management and tenure, the Ptolemaic state had retained much of the categorization of land as under the earlier pharaohs, but the Roman Empire introduced a distinction between private and public lands – the earlier system had categorized little land as private property – and a complex arrangement was developed consisting of dozens of types of land-holding.[21]:23–24 Land's status was determined by the hydrological, juridical, and function of the property, as well as by the three main categories of ownership held over from the Ptolemaic system: the sacred property belonging to the temples (Koinē Greek: Ἱερά γη, romanized: Hierā́ gē, lit. 'holy land'); the royal land (Βασιλική γη, Basilikḗ gē, 'royal land') belonging to the state and forming most of its revenue; and the "gifted land" (Koinē Greek: γή εν δωρεά, romanized: gḗ en dōreá, lit. 'land in gift'; Δωρεά, Dōreá, 'gifts') leased out under the cleruchy system.[21]:23–24 The Roman government had actively encouraged the privatization of land and the increase of private enterprise in manufacture, commerce, and trade, and low tax rates favored private owners and entrepreneurs. The poorer people gained their livelihood as tenants of state-owned land or of property belonging to the emperor or to wealthy private landlords, and they were relatively much more heavily burdened by rentals, which tended to remain at a fairly high level. Overall, the degree of monetization and complexity in the economy, even at the village level, was intense. Goods were moved around and exchanged through the medium of coin on a large scale and, in the towns and the larger villages, a high level of industrial and commercial activity developed in close conjunction with the exploitation of the predominant agricultural base. The volume of trade, both internal and external, reached its peak in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Kushan ruler Huvishka with seated Roman-Egyptian god Serapis (ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo") wearing the modius.[22] By the end of the 3rd century, major problems were evident. A series of debasements of the imperial currency had undermined confidence in the coinage,[23] and even the government itself was contributing to this by demanding more and more irregular tax payments in kind, which it channelled directly to the main consumers, the army personnel. Local administration by the councils was careless, recalcitrant, and inefficient; the evident need for firm and purposeful reform had to be squarely faced in the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine I. There are numerous indications of Roman trade with India during the period, particularly between Roman Egypt and the Indian subcontinent. Kushan Empire ruler Huvishka (150–180 CE) incorporated in his coins the Hellenistic-Egyptian god Serapis (under the name ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo").[22][24] Since Serapis was the supreme deity of the pantheon of Alexandria in Egypt, this coin suggests that Huvishka had as strong orientation towards Roman Egypt, which may have been an important markets for the products coming from the Kushan Empire.[22] Architecture[edit] Roman emperor Trajan making offerings to Egyptian Gods, on the Roman Mammisi at the Dendera Temple complex, Egypt.[25] In the administrative provincial capitals of the nomoi, the mētropoleis mostly inherited from the Pharaonic and Ptolemaic period, Roman public buildings were erected by the governing strategos and the local gymnasiarch.[26]:189 In most cases, these have not survived and evidence of them is rare, but it is probable that most were built in the classical architecture of the Graeco-Roman world, employing the classical orders in stone buildings.[26]:189 Prominent remains include two Roman theatres at Pelusium, a temple of Serapis and a tetrastyle at Diospolis Magna at Thebes, and, at Philae, a triumphal arch and temples dedicated to the worship of the emperor Augustus and the goddess Roma, the personification of Rome.[26]:189 Besides a few individual stone blocks in some mētropoleis, substantial remains of Roman architecture are known in particular from three of the mētropoleis – Heracleopolis Magna, Oxyrhynchus, and Hermopolis Magna – as well as from Antinoöpolis, a city founded c. 130 by the emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138).[26]:189 All these were sacred cities dedicated to particular deities.[26]:189 The ruins of these cities were first methodically surveyed and sketched by intellectuals attached to Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, eventually published in the Description de l'Égypte series.[26]:189 Illustrations produced by Edme-François Jomard and Vivant Denon form much of the evidence of these remains, because since the 19th century many of the ruins have themselves disappeared.[26]:189 South of Thebes, the mētropoleis may have been largely without classical buildings, but near Antinoöpolis the classical influence may have been stronger.[26]:189 Most mētropoleis were probably built on the classical Hippodamian grid employed by the Hellenistic polis, as at Alexandria, with the typical Roman pattern of the Cardo (north–south) and Decumanus Maximus (east–west) thoroughfares meeting at their centres, as at Athribis and Antinoöpolis.[26]:189 Vivant Denon made sketches of ruins at Oxyrhynchus, and Edme-François Jomard wrote a description; together with some historical photographs and the few surviving remains, these are the best evidence for the classical architecture of the city, which was dedicated to the medjed, a sacred species of Mormyrus fish.[26]:189 Two groups of buildings survive at Heracleopolis Magna, sacred to Heracles/Hercules, which is otherwise known from Jomard's work, which also forms the mainstay of knowledge about the architecture of Antinoöpolis, founded by Hadrian in honour of his deified lover Antinous.[26]:189 The Napoleonic-era evidence is also important for documenting Hermopolis Magna, where more buildings survive and which was dedicated to the worship of Thoth, equated with Hermes/Mercury.[26]:189 The oldest known remains of church architecture in Egypt are at the Roman village of Kellis; following the house church of the early 4th century, a three-aisled, apsed basilica church was built in the Constantinian period, with pastaphoria on either side, while a third church was accompanied by a Christian cemetery.[27]:671 All these churches were built on an east-west axis, with the liturgical focus at the east, and the pastaphoria (side-rooms) were a common mark of churches in the country.[27]:671 Churches were built quickly after the victory of Constantine over Licinius, and in the 4th century even towns like ‘Ain el-Gedida in the Dakhla Oasis had their own churches.[27]:671 The earliest known monumental basilica of which remains survive is that at Antinoöpolis; a five-aisled, apsed basilica facing east and set in a cemetery is 60 metres (200 ft) long and 20 metres (66 ft) wide.[27]:671 North apse of the Red Monastery of Sohag In the late 4th century, monastic churches differed from the other churches by building rectangular sanctuaries – rather than semi-circular ones – at their east ends where the altar stood, and in place of the apse was an aedicula or niche embellished with an arch and columns in applied in plaster.[27]:671 In the 5th century, regional styles of monumental church basilica with pastaphoria emerged: on the coast of the Mediterranean and throughout the northern part of the country the churches were basilicas of three or five aisles, but in Middle Egypt and Upper Egypt the basilicas were often given a colonnade all the way around the structure, forming an continuous ambulatory by the addition of a transverse fourth aisle to the west of the other three.[27]:671–672 In eastern Egypt, the columns and colonnade were emphasized, and the sanctuary distinguished with a triumphal arch in front of it.[27]:671–672 A transept plan was adopted only in urban environments like Abu Mena and Marea in the western Nile Delta.[27]:673 In the middle 5th century, the Great Basilica, one of the largest churches in Egypt, was built at Hermopolis Magna at the central crossroads of the city.[27]:673 Unusually, the three-aisled transept basilica had semicircular extensions on the north and south walls.[27]:673 At the Coptic White Monastery at Sohag, the 5th-century church was built with a triconch apse, an unusual design also found at Sohag's Dayr Anbā Bishoi; in the Wadi El Natrun at Dayr as-Suyrān; in the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert at Dayr Abū Mattā, and at Dendera.[27]:674 The tomb-chapel of the White Monastery's founder, Shenoute, was also built with this triconch plan and was the first instance of a monastic founder's tomb built in a monastery.[27]:673 Some of the White Monastery's limestone ashlars were spolia; the stones were likely taken from the pharaonic buildings at Upper Egyptian Athribis nearby.[27]:674 The main church's interior is a three-aisled basilica with an ambon and seat, and the usual Egyptian western transvere aisle, but its exterior resembles an Egyptian temple, with cavetto cornices on the roof.[27]:674 Unusually for the Coptic churches, the White Monastery's church has two narthexes, perhaps to accommodate worshippers from outside the monastic community.[27]:674 The affiliated Red Monastery nearby preserves the most extensive painted decoration from Late Antiquity anywhere and is probably representative of the period's Egyptian churches' interior decoration.[27]:674 Besides the main monumental basilica at Antinoöpolis, there were two other cruciform churches built there in the later 5th century.[27]:671 Religion[edit] Imperial cult[edit] Main article: Roman imperial cult Possible personification of the province of Egypt from the Temple of Hadrian in Rome (National Roman Museum) The worship of Egypt's rulers was interrupted entirely by the fall of the Ptolemaic dynasty, who together with their predecessor Alexander the Great had been worshipped with a Egypto-Hellenistic ruler cult.[28]:98 After the Roman conquest of Egypt, Augustus instituted a new Roman imperial cult in Egypt.[28]:98 Formally, the "Roman people" (Latin: populus Romanus) were now collectively the ruler of Egypt; emperors were never crowned pharaoh in person in the traditional way, and there is no evidence that the emperors were systematically incorporated into the traditional pantheons worshipped by the traditional priesthoods.[29]:435 Instead, the image of Augustus was identified with Zeus Eleutherios (Greek: Ἐλευθέριος, lit. "liberator"), and modelled on the example of Alexander the Great, who was said to have "liberated" Egypt from the old pharaohs.[29]:435 Nevertheless, in 27 BC there was at Memphis, as was traditional, a high priest of Ptah appointed under Augustus's authority as the senior celebrant of the Egyptian ruler cult and referred to as a "priest of Caesar".[29]:435 Augustus had been honoured with a cult in Egypt before his death, and there is evidence that Nero was worshipped while still living, as was Hadrian in particular.[29]:437 While alive however, the emperor was usually honoured with offerings to the various gods "for his health" (Latin: pro salute); usually, only after the emperor's death was he deified and worshipped as a god.[29]:437 A letter of Claudius written to the Alexandrians in 41 AD rejects the offer of a cult of himself, permitting only divine honours such as statues and reserving cult worship for the deified Augustus.[29]:438 For juridical purposes, the imperial oath recalling Ptolemaic precedent had to be sworn in the name or "fortune" (tyche) of the emperor: "I swear by Caesar Imperator, son of God, Zeus Eleutherios, Augustus".[29]:437 The official cult was superintended by the archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt (ἀρχιερεὺς Ἀλεξανδρίας καὶ Αἰγύπτου πάσης, archiereùs Alexandrías kaì Aigyptou pásēs), who was procurator in charge of Egypt's temples and responsible for the worship of the imperial deities and of Serapis throughout the country.[28]:95; 98 As with the praefectus Aegypti, the archiereus of Alexandria and All Egypt was a Roman citizen and probably appointed from the equestrian class.[28]:95 The official cult in Egypt differed from that in other provinces; the goddess Roma, closely associated with the Roman Senate, was not introduced by Augustus, since as an imperial province Egypt lay beyond the reach of the Senate's powers (imperium).[28]:98 The archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was appointed by the emperor.[28]:95 The high priest's full title ("high priest of the gods Augusti and the Great Serapis and the one who is responsible for the temples of Egypt and the whole country") indicates that the cult of Serapis was closely connected with the worship of the emperors and that both were overseen by the same Roman official.[28]:94–95 Nilus, the river god of Egypt's Nile, with cornucopia, wheatsheaf, sphinx, and crocodile (Braccio Nuovo). Sculpture from Rome's Temple of Isis and Serapis. An archiereus existed in each of the nomoi; drawn from the local elite through the liturgy system, these high priests were responsible for the maintenance of the imperial temples and cults in their mētropoleis.[28]:98 These officials, in place since the mid-1st century AD at latest, was each known as the "high priest of the Lords Augusti and all the gods" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῶν κυρίων Σεβαστῶν καὶ θεῶν ἁπάντων, archiereùs tōn kuríōn Sebastōn kaì theōn apántōn) or the "high priest of the city" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῆς πόλεως, archiereùs tēs póleōs), and was responsible mainly for the organization of the imperial cult, since the traditional local cults already had their own priesthoods.[28]:92–93 Though imposed by the Roman state and overseen from the provincial capital, the imperial cult was locally organized, though direct imperial control is also attested for the cult at Alexandria.[28]:98[29]:438 Throughout Egypt, sacrificial altars dedicated to the worship of the deified emperor Augustus (Koinē Greek: Σεβαστός, romanized: Sebastós, lit. 'Venerable') were set up in dedicated temples (sebasteia or caesarea).[28]:86; 98 Each sebasteion or caesareum had administrative functions as well as organizing the local cult of the emperor.[28]:86 Nevertheless, there is scant evidence that the worship of the emperors was common in private settings, and the Alexandrians were frequently hostile to the emperors themselves.[28]:98 The form of the imperial cult established in the reign of Augustus, which may have been largely focused on the deified first emperor himself, continued until the reign of Constantine the Great.[29]:437 The widow of the emperor Trajan, the augusta Plotina, was deified after her death by Hadrian.[30]:14 At Dendera, in a temple dedicated to Aphrodite, the late empress was identified with the Egyptian goddess Hathor, the first instance of a member of the imperial family – besides the emperor himself – being integrated into the Egyptian pantheon.[30]:14 Unlike the royal cult of the Ptolemaic dynasty, whose festivals were celebrated according to the Egyptian calendar, the imperial cult days, such as the emperors' birthdays (Koinē Greek: ἡμέραι σεβασταί, romanized: hēmérai sebastaí, lit. 'venerable days'), fell according to the Roman calendar.[29]:438 Cult of Serapis and Isis[edit] Enthroned statue of the syncretic god Serapis with Cerberus, from Pozzuoli (National Archaeological Museum, Naples) Serapis was a syncretic god of abundance and the afterlife which united Hellenistic and Egyptian features and which had been instituted by Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305/304–282 BC) at the beginning of the Ptolemaic period, possibly related to the cult of Osiris-Apis.[31]:439 Serapis assumed the role of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon as god of the afterlife and regeneration, the husband of the fertility goddess Isis, and the father of the child Horus, known to the Hellenistic world as Harpocrates.[31]:439 Emperors were sometimes depicted as Serapis, with their portraits bearing Serapis's distinguishing features, who, unlike most native Egyptian gods but in common with Osiris, was never depicted in animal or part-animal form.[31]:439 Caracalla took the title "Philosarapis" to indicate his devotion to the cult.[31]:439 Serapis was distinguished by his Greek-style clothes, long hair, and beard, as well as by his flat-topped crown, known as a calathus.[31]:439 The Mysteries of Isis, a mystery cult developed outside Egypt and reimported to the country from Roman territories elsewhere, were increasingly celebrated, and Isis was the supreme female deity and creator-goddess in the pantheon, incorporating the Ptolemaic queen-worship tradition.[31]:439 As Isis lactans, 'suckling Isis', she was an image of motherhood, feeding her infant Harpocrates; as Isis myrionymos, 'the myriad-named', she was a goddess of magic and mysteries.[31]:439 In Roman Egypt, the cult was superintended by the archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt.[28]:94–95 Temples of Serapis (serapea) were found throughout Egypt, with the oldest serapeum at Memphis and the greatest the Serapeum of Alexandria.[31]:439 The holy family of Serapis, Isis, and Harpocrates was worshipped throughout the empire; by the 4th century, the cult had become, behind Christianity, the most popular religion in the Roman world.[31]:439 Temples[edit] The imperially-appointed archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was responsible for the administrative management of the temples, beyond those of the imperial cult, dedicated to Graeco-Roman deities and the ancient Egyptian gods.[28]:95 He controlled access to the priesthoods of the Egyptian cults: the ritual circumcision of candidates was subject to his approval and he mediated disputes involving temples, wielding some judicial powers.[28]:93 As sponsors of temple cults, emperors appeared in traditional pharaonic regalia on carved temple reliefs.[29]:435 Similarly, Egyptian gods were sometimes shown wearing Roman military garb, particularly Anubis and Horus.[31]:439 The history of Egyptian temples in Roman times can be studied particularly well in some settlements at the edges of the Faiyum: Archaeological evidence, alongside with lots of written sources on the daily life of the priests, are available from Bakchias, Narmouthis, Soknopaiou Nesos, Tebtunis, and Theadelphia. For instance, temples can be seen supporting each other by asking colleagues to assist when there was a shortage of staff, but also competing with each other for spheres of influence. When temples came into conflict with authorities, then mainly with lower administrative officials, who belonged to the local population themselves; the Roman procurators intervened in these conflicts, if at all, then in a moderating manner.[32] 4th-century relief of the god Horus as a Roman cavalryman killing the crocodile, Setekh (Louvre) The Julio-Claudian emperors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero all sponsored religious monuments and institutions at Coptos and Dendera.[30]:13 Tiberius is known to have patronized monuments at Armant, Aswan, Athribis, Debod, Diospolis Parva, Edfu, Karnak, Kom Ombo, Luxor, Philae and at the Temple of Shenhur.[30]:13 Claudius's patronage is recorded at Aswan, Athribis, Esna, Kom Ombo, and at Philae.[30]:13 Nero is recorded as having sponsored Egyptian elites at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert, and at Karanis and Akoris, as well as at Aswan and Kom Ombo.[30]:13 During the short reigns of Galba and of the contestants in the Year of the Four Emperors after the fall of Nero, images of both Otho and Galba were carved in reliefs at Medinet Habu, a Pharaonic temple dating from the Eighteenth Dynasty, but no monuments to Vitellius are known.[30]:13 The Flavian emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian are all known to have been responsible for works at Esna.[30]:14 Both Vespasian and his older son Titus sponsored work at the Dakhla Oasis, with Vespasian also the sponsor of work at Medinet Habu.[30]:14 Vespasian and his younger son Domitian were both credited with patronage of works at Kom Ombo and Silsila, and Domitian's sponsorship was also recorded at Akhmim, Armant, Dendera, and Philae.[30]:14 185 scenes in many temples show Domitian, concentrated in the oases and in Upper Egypt; his name was in some places removed as a result of his damnatio memoriae.[33]:413 2nd-century relief of Anubis as a Roman infantryman in the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa After Domitian's assassination, the emperor Nerva's patronage of Egyptian temples is recorded only at Esna.[30]:14 Nerva's adoptive heir Trajan continued to lend imperial sponsorship to Egyptian cults, with his patronage recorded at Dendera, Esna, Gebelein, Kalabsha, Kom Ombo, Medinet Habu, and Philae.[30]:14 During Hadrian's tour of Egypt in 130–131, the emperor founded the new Hellenistic polis of Antinoöpolis at the point where Antinous drowned in the Nile and instituted a cult of Antinous as Osiris, to whom a death by drowning was sacrosanct.[30]:15 Hadrian commissioned the Barberini obelisk to commemorate his late lover's funeral rites, including the Egyptian opening of the mouth ceremony; the obelisk was erected in Rome and the cult of Antinous was propagated throughout the provinces.[30]:15 Hadrian also sponsored building work at Philae, and both he and his successor Antoninus Pius sponsored work at Armant, Dendera, and Esna.[30]:16 The reign of Antoninus Pius – also patron of building works at Coptos, Medamud, Medinet Habu, and Tod – saw the last substantial building work on Egyptian temples.[30]:16 After those of Antoninus Pius found at Medinet Habu, Deir el-Shelwit, and Dendera, no further imperial cartouches are known from the regions of Thebes and the western oases.[33]:413 From the reign of Marcus Aurelius, who is recorded as having rededicated an offering to Hathor originally made by Ptolemy VIII Physcon, the rate of new temple building and decoration slackened.[33]:413 Commodus was recorded as Pharaonic sponsor of temples at Armant, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae, the last emperor to be widely honoured in this way in surviving monuments; a general lack of resources and the political turbulence after Commodus's assassination was probably responsible.[30]:18 The name of his successor Pertinax (r. 193) is recorded at the Temple of Tutu at Kellis.[34]:182 After inscriptions of Commodus, Greek inscriptions are no longer found in the temples of the Faiyum.[33]:413 It is possible that the reform of Septimius Severus at the turn of the 3rd century aggravated the decline of the Egyptian temples; the mētropoleis now given administrative control over the temples of their nomoi did not prioritize their upkeep.[33]:413 Copper-alloy statuettes of Egyptian gods Anubis (left) and Horus (centre) as Roman officers with contrapposto stances (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) With a carved relief at Esna, Septimius Severus was commemorated, together with his son and co-augustus Caracalla, his wife Julia Domna the augusta, and their younger son Geta, on the occasion of the imperial tour of Egypt in 199–200.[30]:18 Caracalla's own titles are recorded at Philae, Ombos, in Middle Egypt, and in the Delta.[33]:413 After he murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta, his image was removed from their father's monument relief at Esna as part of the damnatio memoriae imposed by Caracalla.[30]:19 Caracalla's successor was Macrinus, whose patronage is recorded only at Kom Ombo; evidence of his successor Elagabalus in Egypt has not survived, and neither is the patronage of Severus Alexander recorded.[30]:19 Monumental temple-building and decoration among the Egyptian cults ceased altogether in the early 3rd century.[33]:413 After Philip the Arab's cartouche was added to the temple wall at Esna, his successor Decius's cartouche was carved into it, the last known instance of this long-established practice of usurping pharaohs' erasure of their predecessors' dynastic legacy.[30]:21 Philip the Arab's reign saw the last Roman inscription found in the Temple of Kalabsha; at some time thereafter the site was abandoned by the Romans.[30]:22 At Tahta in Middle Egypt, the cartouche of Maximinus Daza was added to a since-ruined temple, along with other additions; he is the last Roman emperor known to have been recorded in official hieroglyphic script.[30]:25–26 The last Buchis bull of Hermonthis (Armant) was born in the reign of Licinius and died in the reign of Constantius II; the cartouche on its funerary stela, dedicated in 340, is the last of all.[33]:413[30]:28 Under the Theodosian dynasty, during the joint reigns of Theodosius the Great and his sons Arcadius and Honorius, an inscription at Philae's Temple of Harendotes commemorated the birthday of Osiris in the 110th anno Diocletiani (24 August 394), the latest hieroglyphic inscription to be dated securely.[30]:30[33]:413 Caligula allowed the worship of Egyptian gods in Rome, which had been formally forbidden since Augustus's reign.[30]:12 In Rome, and at Beneventum (Benevento), Domitian established new temples to the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis.[30]:14 A general "Egyptomania" followed Hadrian's tour of the country, and Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) included an Egyptian-themed area known as the Canopus.[30]:16 Hadrian may have been advised on religious matters by Pancrates, a poet and priest of Egypt.[30]:15 5th-century Christian relief (Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst) Christianity[edit] Main article: History of Christianity in Egypt The authors of the New Testament do not record any missions of the apostles to Alexandria or any epistles to the Egyptians, though Egyptian and Alexandrian Jews in Jerusalem are mentioned in the Book of Acts.[27]:665[35]:475–476 (Acts 2:10 and 6:9.) An Alexandrian Jew, Apollos, is recorded in the Book of Acts as speaking in the synagogue at Ephesus , and because of an interpolation to Acts 18:24 current by the 5th-century – e.g. in the Codex Bezae – which suggested Apollos had been converted to Christianity in Egypt (Biblical Greek: ἐν τῃ πατρίδι, romanized: en tēi patrídi, lit. 'in his country'), Christianity's arrival has been dated to the 1st century, but there is no sure evidence of this, as Apollos may have been converted elsewhere.[35]:475 The pseudepigraphical Secret Gospel of Mark, of dubious authenticity, is the first text to claim Mark the Apostle visited Egypt.[35]:475 The 3rd-century Sextus Julius Africanus's chronology was probably the source of the 4th-century bishop Eusebius of Caesarea's narrative of Mark's arrival in Egypt, which conflicts with that of the Secret Gospel of Mark and is the earliest history of Alexandrian Christianity, including the names of the ten bishops who supposedly succeeded Mark before the late 2nd-century episcopate of Julian of Alexandria.[35]:475 The drive to connect Alexandria with the lives of New Testament characters was part of a desire to establish continuity and apostolic succession with the churches supposed to have been founded by Saint Peter and the other apostles.[35]:475 Christianity probably arrived in Egypt among the Hellenized Alexandrian Jews, from Palestine's communities of Jewish Christians.[27]:665 A possible 2nd-century papyrus fragment of the Gospel of Peter, from the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (P. Oxy. LX 4009, Sackler Library) The earliest evidence of Christianity in Egypt is a letter written in the first half of the 3rd century and mentioning the gymnasiarch and the boulē (thereby indicating the author and recipient were of the upper class) uses the Christian nomina sacra and the Biblical Greek: ἐν κυρίῳ, romanized: en kyrίōi, lit. 'in the Lord', drawn from the Pauline epistles.[35]:480 Another papyrus from the same period records the names of candidates for liturgy service "supervision of the water-tower and fountains of the metropolis" of Arsinoë (Faiyum); among the names is one "Antonios Dioscoros son of Origen, Alexandrian", against whose name is noted in Koinē Greek: ἔστ(ι) ∆ιόσκορος χρηστιανός, romanized: ésti Dióskoros chrēstianós, lit. 'he is the Dioscoros (who is a) Christian'.[35]:480 With Alexandrian citizenship and a Roman nomen, Antonios (Latin: Antonius) was likely of higher social status than the other candidates on the list, and is the first named Egyptian Christian for which evidence exists.[35]:480 In the Chora beyond Alexandria, there is no evidence at all for Christianity in the 2nd century, excepting some ambiguous letters, besides some papyrus fragments of scriptures among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri and among the papyri found at Antinoöpolis and Hipponon (Qarara) in the Heracleopolite nome around Heracleopolis Magna.[35]:480 Many of these are in the form of codices rather than scrolls, the codex being preferred by Christian scribes.[35]:478 Among the 2nd-century New Testament papyri are Rylands Library Papyrus P52 and Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 3523 – fragments of the Gospel of John –, and Oxyrhynchus Papyrus LXIV 4404 a fragment of the Gospel of Matthew.[35]:478 It is not known whether these indicate a Christian presence outside the capital in the 2nd century, whether these papyri, dated subjectively by palaeography, are as old as has been proposed, or whether they were in Egypt when newly made or arrived in later times as already old books.[35]:478–479 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Bishops often named their successors (e.g. Peter, his brother, by Athanasius in 373) or the succession was effected by imposing the hands of a deceased bishop on the one chosen to follow him. By 200 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated. With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 5th century, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as the poet Palladas pointedly noted. It lingered underground for many decades: the final edict against paganism was issued in 435, but graffiti at Philae in Upper Egypt proves worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 6th century. Many Egyptian Jews also became Christians, but many others refused to do so, leaving them as the only sizable religious minority in a Christian country. No sooner had the Egyptian Church achieved freedom and supremacy than it became subject to a schism and prolonged conflict which at times descended into civil war. Alexandria became the centre of the first great split in the Christian world, between the Arians, named for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and their opponents, represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century. In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times. Coptic cross and chi-rho carved into older reliefs at the Temple of Isis at Philae Patristic authorship was dominated by Egyptian contributions: Athanasius, Didymus the Blind and Cyril, and the power of the Alexandrian see embodied in Athanasius, Theophilus, his nephew, Cyril and shortly by Dioscuros. Egypt had an ancient tradition of religious speculation, enabling a variety of controversial religious views to thrive there. Not only did Arianism flourish, but other doctrines, such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, either native or imported, found many followers. Another religious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church. Egyptian Christians took up monasticism with such enthusiasm that the Emperor Valens had to restrict the number of men who could become monks. Egypt exported monasticism to the rest of the Christian world. Another development of this period was the development of Coptic, a form of the Ancient Egyptian language written with the Greek alphabet supplemented by several signs to represent sounds present in Egyptian which were not present in Greek. It was invented to ensure the correct pronunciation of magical words and names in pagan texts, the so-called Greek Magical Papyri. Coptic was soon adopted by early Christians to spread the word of the gospel to native Egyptians and it became the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity and remains so to this day. Christianity eventually spread out west to the Berbers. The Coptic Church was established in Egypt. Since Christianity blended with local traditions, it never truly united the people against Arabian forces in the seventh and eight centuries. Later on in the seventh and eighth centuries, Christianity spread out to Nubia.[36] The fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century further isolated the Egyptian Romans from Rome's culture and hastened the growth of Christianity. The success of Christianity led to a virtual abandonment of pharaonic traditions: with the disappearance of the Egyptian priests and priestesses who officiated at the temples, no-one could read the hieroglyphs of Pharaonic Egypt, and its temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the desert. Roman-era Christian-themed wool-and-linen Egyptian textile (Louvre) Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, convinced the city's governor to expel the Jews from the city in 415 with the aid of the mob, in response to the Jews' alleged night-time massacre of many Christians.[citation needed] The murder of the philosopher Hypatia in March 415 marked a dramatic turn in classical Hellenic culture in Egypt but philosophy thrived in sixth century Alexandria.[citation needed] Another schism in the Church produced prolonged disturbances and may have alienated Egypt from the Empire. The countless papyrus finds mark the continuance of Greek culture and institutions at various levels. The new religious controversy was over the Christ's human and divine nature. The issue was whether he had two natures, human and divine, or a combined one (hypostatic union from his humanity and divinity). In an intensely religious age it was enough to divide an empire. The Miaphysite controversy arose after the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and continued until well after the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which ruled in favour of the position that Christ was "one person in two natures" as opposed to Monophysitism (a single nature). Monophysite belief was not held by the 'miaphysites' as they stated that Jesus was out of two natures in one nature called, the "Incarnate Logos of God". Many of the 'miaphysites' claimed that they were misunderstood, that there was really no difference between their position be the Chalcedonian position, and that the Council of Chalcedon ruled against them because of political motivations alone. The Church of Alexandria split from the Churches of Rome and Constantinople over this issue, creating what would become the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which remains a major force in Egyptian religious life today.[37] Egypt and Syria remained hotbeds of Miaphysite sentiment, and organised resistance to the Chalcedonian view was not suppressed until the 570s. History[edit] Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century)[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The province was established in 30 BC after Octavian (the future Roman emperor Augustus) defeated his rival Mark Antony, deposed Pharaoh Cleopatra, and annexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to the Roman Empire. Maps of Roman Egypt Northern Africa under Roman rule The Roman Empire during the reign of Hadrian (117–138). Two legions were deployed in the imperial province of Ægyptus (Egypt) in the year 125. Trilingual stela of G. Cornelius Gallus from Philae (Egyptian Museum) The first prefect of Aegyptus, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, brought Upper Egypt under Roman control by force of arms, and established a protectorate over the southern frontier district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea and even Arabia Felix. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius. The third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, whose queen Imanarenat had previously attacked Roman Egypt. Failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. The reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were mainly peaceful in Egypt, with intermittent civil strife between Greeks and Jews in Alexandria.[30]:12 According to the Latin historian Tacitus, Germanicus visited Egypt without the permission of Tiberius and caused a rift with his uncle, the emperor.[30]:12 Claudius refused Alexandrian demands for self-government under their own senate, and attempted to quell the unrest between Alexandrian Greek and Jews.[30]:12 Under Nero, perhaps influenced by Chaeremon of Alexandria – an Egyptian priest and the emperor's Stoic tutor – an expedition to Meroë was undertaken, though possible plans for an invasion of the southern kingdom was forestalled by the military demands of the First Jewish–Roman War, a revolt in Judaea.[30]:13 The first praefectus Aegypti of Alexandrian origin was Tiberius Julius Alexander, who was governor through the Year of the Four Emperors and who eventually proclaimed the general Vespasian, victor in the Jewish War, emperor at Alexandria in July 69 AD.[30]:13 This prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria.[30]:13 The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae, lit. 'key to the grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire.[30]:13 From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century. Much trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the Jews, particularly in Alexandria, which after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 became the world centre of Jewish religion and culture.[citation needed] Vespasian was the first emperor since Augustus to appear in Egypt.[30]:13 At Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis, Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.[30]:13–14 As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, thereby miraculously healing him.[30]:14 (This Egyptian tradition of healing is related to the healing the man blind from birth, one of the miracles of Jesus of Nazareth.)[30]:14 In 114, during the reign of Trajan (r. 98–117), unrest among the Jews of Alexandria broke out after the coming of a Messiah was announced at Cyrene.[30]:14 The uprising that year was defeated, but between 115 and 117 a revolt continued in the countryside in the absence of the armies away on Trajan's Parthian campaign.[30]:14 This Kitos War meant that the Greeks and the Egyptian peasants took up arms in the fight against the Jews, which culminated in their defeat and the effective destruction of the Alexandrian Jewish community, which did not recover until the 3rd century.[30]:14–15 The city of Oxyrhynchus, by contrast, celebrated their survival of the rebellion with annual festivals for at least eighty years.[30]:15 Hadrian and Antinous (Graeco-Roman Museum) Bronze portrait head of Hadrian Marble statue of Osiris-Antinous In the reign of Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138), an Egyptian revolt was instigated on the occasion of a new Apis bull's identification in 122; this rebellion was soon suppressed.[30]:15 Hadrian himself toured Egypt with his court for eight to ten months in 130–131, embarking on a Nile cruise, hunting lions in the desert, and making the dawn visit to the Colossi of Memnon.[30]:15 Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis where his lover Antinous drowned in the river; the polis joined the other three poleis as a city with Hellenic citizenship rights, and he commissioned the Via Hadriana, connecting Antinoöpolis with Berenice Troglodytica, on the Red Sea.[30]:15 In 139, at the start of the reign of Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161), the Sothic cycle came to its end, meaning that for the first time in 1,460 years, the heliacal rising of Sirius coincided with the Egyptian calendar's New Year.[30]:16 The emperor's coinage commemorated the good fortune this was expected to portend with images of the millennial phoenix.[30]:16 At some time during his reign, Antoninus Pius visited Alexandria and had new gates and a new hippodrome built, but in 153, a riot in Alexandria killed the praefectus Aegypti.[30]:16 The destructive Antonine Plague epidemic affected Egypt from 165 to 180; evidence of mass graves from that time has been discovered by archaeological excavation in the Valley of the Queens.[30]:17 A revolt of the native Egyptians from 171 was suppressed only in 175, after much fighting.[30]:17 This "Bucolic War", named for the native "herdsmen" (Greek: Βουκόλοι, translit. Boukóloi, lit. "cattlemen") was led by one Isidorus and had defeated the Roman garrison of Egypt.[30]:17 Control was re-established by Avidius Cassius, the governor of Roman Syria and son of an erstwhile praefectus Aegypti, who then declared himself emperor in 175, being acknowledged by his own armies and the Army of Egypt amid rumours that the emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) was dead.[30]:17 On the emperor's approach, Cassius was deposed and killed after three months' rule, and the clemency of Marcus Aurelius restored peace as he visited Alexandria in 176.[30]:17 Marcus Aurelius's successor Commodus (r. 176–192) overturned his adoptive father's pardon of Avidius Cassius's family by having them all murdered at the beginning of his reign.[30]:17 After Commodus's own murder, Pertinax was appointed emperor on 1 January 193, but this was only officially noticed in Egypt in early March, shortly before Pertinax's murder; news of this did not become known in parts of Egypt until late May.[30]:18 Pescennius Niger (r. 193–194), who had commanded a garrison at Aswan and the army in Syria, was recognized as the reigning emperor of Egypt by June 193, with Egypt ignoring the claims made in the brief reign of Didius Julianus at Rome.[30]:18 Granite statue of Caracalla wearing nemes and uraeus cobra headdress (Alexandria National Museum) Following Hadrian's route, Septimius Severus made a tour of Egypt in 199–200, visiting the Colossi of Memnon and ordering the statues repaired, which resulted in the natural "singing" phenomenon reported by visitors to the Colossi for centuries ceasing to be heard.[30]:18 A series of administrative reforms, probably intended to improve revenue collection, included a new boulē (a local council or senate) for Alexandria, and for the mētropolis of each nome, instituted in 200/201.[5][30]:18 Caracalla (r. 198–217) granted Roman citizenship to all Egyptians, in common with the other provincials, with the 212 Constitutio Antoniniana. As a consequence, many Egyptians adopted the emperor's nomen gentilicium, "Aurelius" (after his imperial predecessor Marcus Aurelius) as their name according to Roman naming conventions, though citizenship's entitlements were less valuable than in past centuries and carried a tax burden.[30]:19 Caracalla murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta not long after their father's death, claiming self-defence and imposing a damnatio memoriae; this excuse and other defects of the emperor's character were mocked by the Alexandrians as he approached Egypt in 215, angering Caracalla.[30]:19 The emperor massacred Alexandria's welcoming delegation and allowed his army to sack the city; afterwards, he barred Egyptians from entering the place (except where for religious or trade reasons) and increased its security.[30]:19 Macrinus (r. 217–218), having assassinated Caracalla, assumed power and dispatched a new praefectus Aegypti and, breaking precedent, a senator to govern Egypt. When the deaths of Macrinus and his co-augustus Diadumenian (r. 218) after the Battle of Antioch were announced in Alexandria, the Alexandrians rose up, killed the senator, and forced out the prefect.[30]:20 The victor in the civil war was Elagabalus (r. 218–222), himself succeeded by Severus Alexander (r. 218–222) after the former's murder, but even though Severus Alexander may have visited Alexandria, neither emperor is much recorded in Egyptian sources.[30]:20 After Decius died, Trebonianus Gallus (r. 251–253) was recognized as emperor; in 253 an embassy from Meroë to the Romans is attested from a graffito carved at Philae.[30]:22 Both Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus (r. 253) had coins issued in their names at Alexandria.[30]:22 During the reigns of Valerian (r. 253–260) and his son Gallienus (r. 253–268), the empire's instability was compounded by the Valerianic Persecution and the unprecedented total defeat and capture of Valerian by the Sasanian Empire's Shapur I (r. 240–270) at the 260 Battle of Edessa.[30]:22 After this humiliation, the army acclaimed the brothers Quietus and Macrianus (r. 260–261) augusti; they were the acknowledged emperors in Egypt.[30]:22–23 When they were overthrown, the Alexandrians acclaimed Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, the praefectus Aegypti as their new emperor.[30]:23 He enjoyed successes against the Blemmyes attacking the Thebaid, but by August 262 Alexandria was devastated and had lost two thirds of its inhabitants amid street fighting between the loyalists of Aemilianus and Gallienus; Aemilianus was defeated.[30]:23 There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century. Under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. The prefect of Aegyptus in 260, Mussius Aemilianus, first supported the Macriani, usurpers during the rule of Gallienus, and later, in 261, became a usurper himself, but was defeated by Gallienus. During the existence of the break-away Palmyrene Empire, Egypt came under the rule of Zenobia.[30]:23 Under her control, the Palmyrene state went to war with Rome, holding Egypt against Aurelian (r. 270–275); his forces, led by his eventual successor Probus (r. 276–282), captured Egypt by the end of 271.[30]:23 In 272 however, both Alexandria and Palmyra were again in revolt, at the instigation of Firmus, an Alexandrian with connections to the Blemmyes.[30]:23 Aurelian besieged Alexandria and Firmus killed himself.[30]:23 The reign of Aurelian's successor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (r. 275–276) left no known surviving mark on Egypt, and his brother Florianus (r. 276) was overthrown by Probus with the support of the Army of Egypt.[30]:23 The Blemmyes attacked Coptos and Ptolemais with incursions into Upper Egypt; Probus defeated them.[30]:23 "Pompey's Pillar", a monument erected by Diocletian (r. 284–305) in the Serapeum of Alexandria, represented in a mosaic from Sepphoris in Roman Palestine Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries)[edit] Coptos revolted in 293 and was destroyed by the augustus Diocletian's caesar (junior co-emperor) and future successor, Galerius (r. 293–311).[30]:24 Diocletian's reforms subdivided the empire into more numerous late Roman provinces; these were grouped into thirteen Roman dioceses, and these into four praetorian prefectures.[30]:23 The old province of Aegyptus was divided, with the Thebaid becoming its own province. Financial and tax reforms were implemented in Egypt in 297, and Egyptian currency was brought into line with the rest of the empire's monetary reforms.[30]:23–24 The role of the praefectus Aegypti was divided between a praeses – a civilian governor – and a military dux.[30]:24 In 297, Domitius Domitianus led a revolt and made himself emperor, assisted by Achilleus.[30]:24 Diocletian captured Alexandria from them after an eight-month siege and "Pompey's Pillar" was erected in his honour in the Serapeum of Alexandria.[30]:24 Diocletian then travelled through Egypt as far as Philae, where new gates were constructed for the occasion.[30]:24 Diocletian is also known to have visited Panopolis in 298.[30]:24 He ceded the Dodekaschoinos, upstream of the First Cataract in Lower Nubia, to the Noba people, who were subsidized by the Romans to defend the frontier, now at Syene (Aswan), from attack by the Blemmyes.[30]:24 Diocletian's second visit to Egypt, in 302, involved distributions of bread to the Alexandrians and actions taken against adherents of Manichaeism; the following year, Diocletian instituted the Diocletianic Persecution against Christianity.[30]:24 The persecution was remembered as particularly intense under Satrius Arrianus and Sossianus Hierocles, the praefecti between 304 and 307 and in 310 respectively.[30]:24 The Edict of Serdica published by Galerius, the senior emperor in 311, ended the Diocletianic Persecution.[30]:24 4th-century pendant with portrait of Alexander the Great as Zeus-Ammon with repoussé border (Walters Art Museum) In 313, having defeated their rivals, the co-augusti Licinius (r. 308–324) and Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) issued their Edict of Milan, giving Christianity official recognition among the Romans' other religions.[30]:26 The tax system was reformed, and new fifteen-year cycles (back-dated to 312) of indictions were instituted for revenue purposes.[30]:26 The former soldier Pachomius the Great was baptized into Christianity in 313.[30]:26 Constantine may have planned a visit to Egypt in 325, since preparations were made for an imperial reception at Oxyrhynchus, but these plans would have been forestalled by the convocation of the Christian First Council of Nicaea.[30]:27 The Nicene Creed united most of the Christian Church against the Arianism promoted by the Egyptian bishop Arius and in favour of the doctrines of another Egyptian bishop, Athanasius of Alexandria.[30]:27 In 330, the Christian monastic Macarius of Egypt established his monastery at Scetis (Wadi El Natrun) in the Nitrian Desert.[30]:27 On 24 February 391, the emperor Theodosius the Great (r. 379–395), in the names of himself and his co-augusti (his brother-in-law Valentinian II (r. 375–392) and his own son Arcadius (r. 383–408)) banned sacrifices and worship at temples throughout the empire in a decree addressed to Rome's praefectus urbi.[38][30]:29 On 16 June, writing to the praefectus augustalis and the comes Aegypti, Theodosius and his imperial colleagues reissued the ban on temple worship and sacrifices for Alexandria and Egypt specifically.[38][30]:29 Folio 6 verso from the Golenischev papyrus of the Alexandrian World Chronicle, showing Theophilus of Alexandria standing triumphantly on top of the Serapeum with its bust of Serapis Unrest was fomented against the pagan inhabitants by the bishop, Theophilus of Alexandria, who provoked riots by attempting to convert a temple into a church and staging the discovery of Christian relics.[30]:29 These were processed through the streets and the pagans were forced to take refuge in the Serapeum, with the philosopher Olympius at their head.[30]:29 The Christian mob loyal to Theophilus sacked the Serapeum, and ultimately it was rededicated as a church to John the Baptist.[30]:29 The Serapeum of Canopus (Abu Qir) was looted at the same time, becoming first a monastery and then a church dedicated to Cyrus and John.[30]:29 Ammonius Grammaticus – a priest of Thoth – and the Alexandrian poet Claudian both subsequently fled Egypt, for Constantinople and Rome respectively.[39][30]:30 Arcadius' son and successor Theodosius II's long reign (r. 402–450) saw the unrest generated by the bishop Cyril of Alexandria; he was opposed to the doctrines of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, in relation to the title Mother of God (Theotokos).[30]:30 The faction of Cyril, aided by Shenoute, prevailed, and Nestorius, having been denounced at the 431 Council of Ephesus, was banished in 435 to the Kharga Oasis in the Western Desert.[30]:30 The see of Alexandria's bishop reached the zenith of its influence in 449, when under Dioscorus I (r. 444–454/458) it successfully defended the doctrines of Eutyches at the Second Council of Ephesus against the positions of Dioscorus' rival bishops, Leo I of Rome and Flavian of Constantinople.[30]:30 The Blemmyes continued to attack Roman Egypt, though they were romanticized by pagans for their resistance to the Christians. Olympiodorus of Thebes wrote a positive account of them after a visit in c. 425.[30]:31 In 451, the emperor Marcian (r. 450–457) arrived at a peace treaty with the Blemmyes which allowed them the use of the temple at Philae annually and permitted them to use (and return) the temples' cult statues for oracular purposes.[30]:31 Marcian however, convened the 451 Council of Chalcedon, overturning the conclusions of the Second Council of Ephesus, condemning Dioscorus and sending him into exile.[30]:31 The resultant, and lasting, schism between the Coptic Church and the state church of the Roman Empire dates from this time.[30]:31 Proterius was appointed bishop in Dioscorus' stead.[30]:32 When the Alexandrians heard of the accession of Marcian's successor Leo I, they tore apart the hated Proterius and replaced him with their own nomination, Timothy II, whose election was not recognized by either Leo or his successor and son-in-law Zeno.[30]:32 When Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus seized Zeno's throne in 475, his monophysitism enabled a thaw in relations between Alexandria and the eastern imperial capital, but Zeno's recovery of Constantinople the following year resumed the hostility.[30]:32 Zeno's attempt to repair relations between Rome, Constantinople and Alexandria resulted in his own excommunication by the bishop of Rome, Felix III, and beginning the Acacian schism.[30]:32 The Carmagnola, an Egyptian porphyry head on Venice's St Mark's Basilica thought to represent Justinian I[40] The Sasanian Empire invaded the Nile Delta in the reign of Anastasius I (r. 491–518), though the Sasanian army retreated after they failed to capture Alexandria or make significant gains.[30]:32 In the early 6th century and in the reign of Justin I (r. 518–527), the Blemmyes again made attacks on Upper Egypt.[30]:32 Justin's successor Justinian I (r. 527–565) and his wife, the augusta Theodora, both sought to convert the Noba to Christianity; envoys of Justinian promoted dyophysitism but the Noba were persuaded to adopt the monophysitism of the Coptic Church by emissaries of the empress.[30]:32 Newly converted, they assisted the Roman army in its conquest of the pagan Blemmyes, and the general Narses was in 543 sent to confiscate the cult statues of Philae (which were sent to Constantinople), close the temple, and suppress its priesthood by imprisonment.[30]:32 In 577, during the retirement of Justinian's successor Justin II (r. 565–574) and the start of Tiberius II Constantine's reign (r. 574–582), the defences at Philae had to be rebuilt to repel attacks by the Blemmyes.[30]:33 This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Diocese of Egypt A map of the Near East in 565, showing Byzantine Egypt and its neighbors. The reign of Constantine the Great also saw the founding of Constantinople as a new capital for the Roman Empire, and in the course of the 4th century the Empire was divided in two, with Egypt finding itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. Latin, never well established in Egypt, would play a declining role with Greek continuing to be the dominant language of government and scholarship. During the 5th and 6th centuries the Eastern Roman Empire, known historiographically as the Byzantine Empire, gradually transformed itself into a thoroughly Christian state whose culture differed significantly from its pagan past. The Eastern Empire became increasingly "oriental" in style as its links with the old Græco-Roman world faded. The Greek system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new Greek-Byzantine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the empire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and violence. Egypt nevertheless continued to be an important economic center for the Empire supplying much of its agriculture and manufacturing needs as well as continuing to be an important center of scholarship. It would supply the needs of the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean as a whole. The reign of Justinian (527–565) saw the Empire recapture Rome and much of Italy from the barbarians, but these successes left the empire's eastern flank exposed. The Empire's "bread basket" now lacked protection. Augustan-era krater in Egyptian alabaster, found in a Roman necropolis at San Prisco in 1897 (National Archaeological Museum, Naples) Episcopal sees[edit] Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Primus (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees,[41] suffragans of the Patriarchate of Alexandria are enumerated in the following. The list here, however, does not cover other provinces such as Augustamnica, Arcadia and Thebais. Agnus Andropolis (Kherbeta) Butus (near Desuq? Com-Casir?) Cleopatris (Sersina) Coprithis (Cabrit, Cobrit) Hermopolis Parva Letopolis Phatanus (El-Batanu, El-Batnu) Mariotes (Lake Mariout) Menelaite (Idku) Metelis (Kom el-Ghoraf) Naucratis Nicius (Ibshadi) Onuphis (Menouf) Petra in Aegypto (Hagar-En-Nauatiyeh) Sais Taua (Thaouah? near Ebiar?) Terenuthis Thois (Tideh) Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Secundus (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees :[41] Busiris (Abu-Sir) Cabasa (Chahbas-Esch-Choada) Cynopolis in Aegypto (Banâm Benâ) *Diospolis Inferior (*Tell el-Balamun) Pachnemunis (Kom el-Khanziri) Phragonis (Tell-El-Faraïn, Côm-Faraïn) Schedia Sebennytus (Sebennytos) Xois Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD)[edit] The Byzantine Empire in 629 after Heraclius had reconquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt from the Sassanid Empire. Main articles: Roman–Persian Wars and Sasanian Egypt The Sasanian conquest of Egypt, beginning in AD 618 or 619, was one of the last Sassanid triumphs in the Roman-Persian Wars against Byzantium. From 619 to 628, they incorporated Egypt once again within their territories, the previous (much longer) time being under the Achaemenids. Khosrow II Parvêz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of Emperor Maurice (582–602) and had achieved a series of early successes, culminating in the conquests of Jerusalem (614) and Alexandria (619). A Byzantine counteroffensive launched by Emperor Heraclius in the spring of 622 shifted the advantage, and the war was brought to an end by the fall of Khosrow on 25 February 628.[42] The Egyptians had no love of the emperor in Constantinople and put up little resistance. Khosrow's son and successor, Kavadh II Šêrôe (Šêrôy), who reigned until September, concluded a peace treaty returning territories conquered by the Sassanids to the Eastern Roman Empire. The Sassanian conquest allowed Miaphysitism to resurface in the open in Egypt, and when imperial rule was restored by Emperor Heraclius in 629, the Miaphysites were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. Egypt was thus in a state of both religious and political alienation from the Empire when a new invader appeared. Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD)[edit] The Mediterranean world in 650, after the Arabs had conquered Egypt and Syria from the Byzantines. Main article: Muslim conquest of Egypt An army of 4,000 Arabs led by Amr Ibn Al-Aas was sent by the Caliph Umar, successor to Muhammad, to spread Islamic rule to the west. Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639,[43] and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. The Arabs sent for reinforcements, and in April 641 they besieged and captured Alexandria. The Byzantines assembled a fleet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and won back Alexandria in 645. The Muslims retook the city in 646, completing the Muslim conquest of Egypt. 40,000 civilians were evacuated to Constantinople with the imperial fleet. Thus ended 975 years of Greco-Roman rule over Egypt. Gallery[edit] Mummy Mask of a Man, early 1st century AD, 72.57, Brooklyn Museum Canopic jar from the 3rd or 4th century (National Archaeological Museum, Florence) Funerary masks uncovered in Faiyum, 1st century. 2nd-century statuette of Horus as Roman general (Louvre) 1st–4th-century statuette of Horus as a Roman soldier (Louvre) 2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite (Metropolitan Museum of Art) 2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite from Lower Egypt (Louvre) 1st–4th-century statuette of Isis lactans (Louvre) Isis lactans: the mother goddess suckles Harpocrates (Pio-Clementino Museum) 1st/2nd-century Parian marble statue of Anubis (Gregorian Egyptian Museum) 2nd/3rd-century mosaic of Anubis from Ariminum (Museo della Città, Rimini) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone grave stela (Luxor Museum) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone stela (Luxor Museum) 6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone relief (Luxor Museum) Hadrian coin celebrating Ægyptus Province, struck c. 135. In the obverse, Egypt is personified as a reclining woman holding the sistrum of Hathor. Her left elbow rests on a basket of grain, while an ibis stands on the column at her feet. Zenobia coin reporting her title as queen of Egypt (Augusta), and showing her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The obverse shows a standing figure of Ivno Regina (Juno) holding a patera in her right hand and a sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet and a brilliant star on the left. See also[edit] Greek and Roman Egypt Roman pharaoh References[edit] ^ a b Janzen, Mark (2017). "Ancient Egypt Population Estimates: Slaves and Citizens". TheTorah.com. Retrieved 18 August 2019. ^ Publishing, Britannica Educational (2010-04-01). Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 9781615302109. ^ Wickham, Chris (2009-01-29). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141908533. ^ Maddison, Angus (2007), Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, p. 55, table 1.14, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Rathbone, Dominic (2012), Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), "Egypt: Roman", The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 2020-12-30 ^ a b c d e f g h i Keenan, James (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Egypt", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-12-30 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Jördens, Andrea (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). Government, Taxation, and Law. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-04. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Haensch, Rudolf (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Roman Army in Egypt. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-04. ^ a b Alston, Richard (2002). "2. The Army and the Province". Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 13–39. ISBN 978-1-134-66476-4. ^ a b Turner, E. G. (1975). "Oxyrhynchus and Rome". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 79: 1–24 [p. 3]. doi:10.2307/311126. JSTOR 311126. ^ Alston, Richard (1997). "Philo's In Flaccum: Ethnicity and Social Space in Roman Alexandria". Greece and Rome. Second Series. 44 (2): 165–175 [p. 166]. doi:10.1093/gr/44.2.165. S2CID 163149248. ^ Lewis, Naphtali (1995). "Greco-Roman Egypt: Fact or Fiction?". On Government and Law in Roman Egypt. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 145. ^ Bell, Idris H. (1922). "Hellenic Culture in Egypt". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 8 (3/4): 139–155 [p. 148]. doi:10.2307/3853691. JSTOR 3853691. ^ Bell, p.148 ^ Lewis, p.141 ^ Sherwin-White, A. N. (1973). The Roman Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 391. ^ a b Turner, E. G. (1952). "Roman Oxyrhynchus". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 38: 78–93 [p. 84]. doi:10.1177/030751335203800110. JSTOR 3855498. S2CID 220269251. ^ Delia, Diana (1991). Alexandrian Citizenship During the Roman Principate. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 31. ^ Delia, pp.31–32 ^ Delia, p.32 ^ a b Blouin, Katherine (2012). "Between Water and Sand: Agriculture and Husbandry". In Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0003. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-02-20. ^ a b c Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Harmatta, János. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 326. ISBN 978-81-208-1408-0. ^ Christiansen, Erik (2004). Coinage in Roman Egypt: The Hoard Evidence. Aarhus University Press. ^ Serapis coin ^ "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian" Stadter, Philip A.; Stockt, L. Van der (2002). Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.). Leuven University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-90-5867-239-1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bailey, Donald M. (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). Classical Architecture. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001. ISBN 9780199571451. Retrieved 2021-01-17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Brooks Hedstrom, Darlene L. (2019), "Archaeology of Early Christianity in Egypt", in Caraher, William R.; Davis, Thomas W.; Pettegrew, David K. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Archaeology, Oxford University Press, pp. 664–684, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199369041.013.21, ISBN 978-0-19-936904-1, retrieved 2021-02-07 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Pfeiffer, Stefan (2012). Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Imperial Cult in Egypt. The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 84–101. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0007. Retrieved 2021-01-22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Pfeiffer, Stefan (2019), "A Successful Ruler and Imperial Cult", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 429–438, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch27, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn Ritner, Robert K. (1998). "Egypt under Roman rule: the legacy of ancient Egypt". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). Islamic Egypt 640–1517. The Cambridge History of Egypt. 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1017/chol9780521471374.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05337-2. Retrieved 2021-01-26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Naether, Franziska (2019), "New Deities and New Habits", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 439–447, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch28, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ Sippel, Benjamin (2020). Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: Das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 52–58, 208–227. ISBN 978-3-447-11485-1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Vandorpe, Katelijn; Clarysse, Willy (2019), "Cults, Creeds, and Clergy in a Multicultural Context", in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), A Companion to Greco‐Roman and Late Antique Egypt (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 405–427, doi:10.1002/9781118428429.ch26, ISBN 978-1-118-42847-4, retrieved 2021-01-31 ^ Kaper, Olaf E. (2010), "9. Galba's Cartouches at Ain Birbiyeh", in Lembke, Katja; Minas-Nerpel, Martina; Pfeiffer, Stefan (eds.), Tradition and Transformation. Egypt under Roman Rule. Proceedings of the International Conference, Hildesheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, 3–6 July 2008, BRILL, pp. 181–201, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004183353.i-508.38, ISBN 978-90-04-18335-3, retrieved 2021-02-11 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Choat, Malcolm (2012). "Christianity". In Riggs, Christina (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 475–490. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0029. ^ Kevin Shillington, History of Africa ^ "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2011-12-14. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire" ^ a b Gwynn, David M. (2015). Christianity in the Later Roman Empire: A Sourcebook. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-4411-0626-1. ^ Fowden, Garth (1993). The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-691-02498-1. ^ Yuri Marano (2012). "Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople (now in Venice). Early sixth century". Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford. ^ a b Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013 ^ Frye, pp. 167–70[full citation needed] ^ Walter, Kaegi (1992). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0521411721. Further reading[edit] Angold, Michael. 2001. Byzantium : the bridge from antiquity to the Middle Ages. 1st US Edition. New York : St. Martin's Press Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC–AD 642; From Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press Bowman, Alan K. and Dominic Rathbone. “Cities and Administration in Roman Egypt.” The Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992): 107–127. Database on-line. JSTOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27, 2008 Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press El-Abbadi, M.A.H. “The Gerousia in Roman Egypt.” The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50 (December 1964): 164–169. Database on-line. JSTOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27, 2008. Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Aylesbury: Shire Publications Ltd. Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. [1] Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft annotated English translation. [2] Hölbl, Günther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge Ltd. Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 395–421 Peacock, David. 2000. "The Roman Period (30 BC–AD 311)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 422–445 Riggs, Christina, ed. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957145-1. Rowlandson, Jane. 1996. Landowners and Tenants in Roman Egypt: The social relations of agriculture in the Oxyrhynchite nome. Oxford University Press Rowlandson, Jane. 1998. (ed) Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press. Sippel, Benjamin. 2020. Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: Das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz (Philippika 144). ISBN 978-3-447-11485-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Egypt. Detailed Map of Aegyptus v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Egypt topics History Chronology Prehistoric Ancient topics Achaemenid 27th Dynasty 31st Dynasty Ptolemaic Battle of Actium Lighthouse of Alexandria Roman Diocese of Egypt Library of Alexandria Christian Sassanid Muslim Muslim conquest Islamization Fustat Tulunid dynasty Ikhshidid dynasty Fatimid Caliphate Crusader invasions Ayyubid dynasty Mamluk Sultanate Mamluk Ottoman Egypt Eyalet Muhammad Ali dynasty Nahda Khedivate Ethiopian–Egyptian War ʻUrabi revolt Modern French occupation Revolt of Cairo British occupation 1919 revolution World War II Sultanate Kingdom 1948 Arab–Israeli War Republic Nasser era 1952 coup d'état Land reform Suez Crisis United Arab Republic Six-Day War Sadat era Yom Kippur War Egyptian–Libyan War Assassination of Anwar Sadat Mubarak era 2010s Crisis 2013 Rabaa massacre By topic Anarchism Capital Cigarette industry Constitution Copts Genetic Healthcare Jews Muslim Brotherhood 1928–1938 1939–1954 1954–present Parliament Population Postal Saladin Timekeeping devices By city Alexandria Cairo Port Said Geography Biota Borders Cities Climate Deserts Earthquakes Environmental issues Fossils Geology Halfaya Pass Islands Lakes Mountains Mount Sinai Nile Delta Northern coast Oases Qattara Depression Red Sea Riviera Rivers Nile Sinai Peninsula Suez Canal Towns and villages Wadis Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Governorates Postal codes Civil Code Conflicts Conscription Constitution Elections Foreign relations Missions Islamic extremism Judiciary Law enforcement Massacres Military Supreme Council Nationality law Parliament Passport Political parties President list Prime Minister list Proposed new capital Refugees of the Syrian civil war Terrorism Terrorism and tourism Twin towns and sister cities Economy Agriculture Banking National Bank Companies Economic regions Egyptian stock exchange Egyptian pound Energy Entrepreneurship policies Fishing Impact on the environment Lighthouses Military industry Mining Mines Nuclear program Power stations Aswan Dam Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces Tallest buildings Telecommunications Internet Tourism Cultural tourism Transport Airlines Airports Railway stations Water supply and sanitation Water resources management Society General Abortion Animal welfare Billionaires Cannabis Capital punishment Censuses Corruption Crime Human trafficking Mass sexual assault Rape Demographics Diaspora Education Academic grading Law schools Medical schools Schools Universities Families Abaza family Feminism Gender inequality Health Healthcare Hospitals Homelessness Human rights Freedom of religion LGBT rights International rankings Languages Egyptian Arabic Saʽidi Arabic Sign Language Liberalism Literature Prostitution Religion Baháʼí Blasphemy law Christianity Catholic dioceses Coptic Churches Hinduism Identification card controversy Irreligion Islam Ahmadiyya Mosques Niqāb Judaism Synagogues Scientology Smoking Units of measurement Vehicle registration plates Women Culture Art Botanical gardens Castles Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Beer Wine Films Flag list regions Football Football clubs Football stadiums Egyptians Mass media Magazines Newspapers Radio TV Museums Music National anthem Olympics Public holidays World Heritage Sites Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. 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en-wikipedia-org-6854	----	Neostoicism - Wikipedia Neostoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Not to be confused with Modern Stoicism. Neostoicism was a philosophical movement that arose in the late 16th century from the works of Justus Lipsius, that sought to combined the beliefs of Stoicism and Christianity. Lipsius was Flemish and a Renaissance humanist. The movement took on the nature of religious syncretism, although modern scholarship does not consider that it resulted in a successful synthesis.[1] The name "neostoicism" is attributed to two Roman Catholic authors, Léontine Zanta and Julien-Eymard d'Angers.[2] Contents 1 Background 2 Origins of neostoicism 3 Neo-stoic authors 4 Neo-stoic practical philosophy 5 Influence 5.1 Views of the Lipsius circle 5.2 Literature 5.2.1 In the Hapsburg Monarchy 5.2.2 In England 5.3 Dutch social culture 5.4 The arts 5.5 Military doctrine 6 Further developments 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Background[edit] John Calvin made reference to "new stoic" ideas earlier in the 16th century, but the denotation is not relevant to neostoicism.[1] Antonio de Guevara in 1528 published a flattering biography of Marcus Aurelius, then considered a paradigm of Stoic virtues.[3] Neostoicism is usually said to have been founded by Flemish humanist Justus Lipsius (1547–1606). It was in some aspects anticipated by Giphanius (Hubert van Giffen), who had in common with Lipsius the publisher Christophe Plantin. Plantin published the Lucretius edition (1565) by Giphanius, and his circle entertained related ideas with some influence of Lucretius.[4][5] Plantin is considered to have had Familist connections. More definitely, Nicolette Mout takes it to be likely that Lipsius was involved with a Hiëlist group. The relevance to neostoicism lies in the Nicodemism of this Familist fraction.[6] Lucretius was an author from the Epicurean school, and Epicureanism has traditionally been considered as antipodal to Stoicism. In fact, however, the Epicurean and Stoic schools had in common a material and deterministic view of natural philosophy. They differed on ethics. It was the discrimination made by Lipsius, that the materialism and determinism of the Stoics should be largely rejected, that opened up the possibility to present a neostoicism more compatible with Christian beliefs.[1][7] The later Fundamenta juris gentium et naturae of Christian Thomasius was a comparable project with an Epicurean basis.[8] Origins of neostoicism[edit] Justus Lipsius, the founder of neostoicism During his time in the Northern Netherlands (Leiden, 1578–1591), Lipsius published his two most significant works: De Constantia ("On Constancy", 1583, full title De constantia libri duo qui alloquium praecipue continent in publicis malis) and Politicorum sive Civilis doctrinae libri sex (1589), short name Politica. De constantia sets out the foundation for neostoic thought. It is a dialogue between the characters Lipsius and Langius (based on his friend, Charles de Langhe).[9] They explore aspects of contemporary political predicaments by reference to the classical Greek and pagan Stoicism, in particular, that found in the writings of Seneca the Younger. At this period Stoic teachings were known mainly through the Latin authors Cicero and Seneca, who had concentrated on Stoic ethics.[10] Both Lipsius and Michel de Montaigne found interesting in Seneca the treatment of the concepts of apatheia and ataraxia, largely to the exclusion of Cicero's handling of Stoic ethical concepts, and innovated with an emphasis on self-preservation and management of the passions.[11] Montaigne, however, became more of an opponent of Stoicism, a development towards scepticism that Charles Larmore regards as gradual and linked to his writing of the Essays.[12] Lipsius was introduced to Seneca by Muretus, a celebrated stylist of humanist Latin, who wrote that some of Stoic doctrine was foolishness. Lipsius, on the other hand, took an interest in reconciling Christian and Stoic morality, bringing in the writings of Epictetus. He did so during the early years of the Eighty Years' War, and in response to the troubled times in the Low Countries it caused.[13] His systematised version had standing for some two centuries. Both Lipsius and his reading of Seneca provoked criticisms of Stoicism in general, which later scholarship has countered by the recovery of original Stoic texts.[14] As Sellars puts it, "a Neostoic is a Christian who draws on Stoic ethics, but rejects those aspects of Stoic materialism and determinism that contradict Christian teaching."[7] Lipsius further developed neostoicism in his treatises Manuductionis ad stoicam philosophiam (Introduction to Stoic Philosophy) and Physiologia stoicorum (Stoic Physics), both published in 1604. Jonathan Israel considers these works to be appeals to Netherlanders to reject patriotism and confessional zealotry, instead working within a moral and political framework around peaceful actions and preservation of good order.[15] The setting has led to neostoicism, which became fashionable, being labelled a "crisis philosophy".[16] Neo-stoic authors[edit] The work of Guillaume du Vair, Traité de la Constance (1594), was another important influence in the neo-stoic movement. Where Lipsius had mainly based his work on the writings of Seneca, du Vair emphasized Epictetus.[1] Pierre Charron came to a neo-stoic position through the impact of the French Wars of Religion. He made a complete separation of morality and religion.[17] Neo-stoic practical philosophy[edit] The project of neostoicism has been described as an attempt by Lipsius to construct "a secular ethics based on Roman Stoic philosophy." He did not endorse religious toleration in an unqualified way: hence the importance of a morality not tied to religion.[18] Bement wrote: No rigidly consistent doctrine emerges from the neostoic revival, but two important strains develop, one confirming the contemporary predilection for the active life, the other finding expression in retreat and isolation from the world.[19] According to Hiller, Lipsius utilized both Seneca and Tacitus to create a coherent system for the management of public and private life in war-torn northern Europe.[20] In the introduction to his Politica, Lipsius defined its aim as addressing rulers, where De constantia was for those who should obey and endure.[21] Neostoicism allowed for authoritarian enforcement of order, and the use of force.[22] Papy writes in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Lipsius's lifelong project was to transform contemporary moral philosophy through a new reading of the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca, while also revitalizing contemporary political practice by drawing on the insights provided by the Roman historian Tacitus.[23] This statement leaves open the question of the relationship of Tacitus to neostoicism. A conventional answer given by Waszink is that Tacitus serves as a source of "examples and guidelines for the modern prince and subject."[24] Waszink also considers, however, that the argument of the Politica, and its practical philosophy, can be understood without the Stoic connections.[25] Neostoicism held that the basic rule of good life is that a person should not yield to the passions, but submit to God. A way to this teaching was an equation made in Physiologia Stoicorum between fate (fortuna) and divine providence.[26] The intended sense of "constancy" in Lipsius is "calm acceptance of the inevitable."[27] But in fact in De Constantia Lipsius follows Boethius (Consolations of Philosophy Book IV) and later Christian teachings to distinguish between divine providence and fate, the prima causa in nature.[28] Lipsius there argued for fate as a by-product of divine providence, and for free will.[29] The Stoic view was that acting on passions amounted to faulty reasoning. Consequently the control of the passions came down to reasoning more correctly, avoiding mistakes they could cause.[30] Calm can be achieved because material pleasures and sufferings are irrelevant. Influence[edit] Lipsius was a humanist leader of international reputation, and numerous identifiable followers. He corresponded with hundreds of other humanists.[31] Views of the Lipsius circle[edit] Scholarship recognises a "Lipsius circle". The terms "Lipsian" and "Lipsianism" are used, the latter in reference in particular to his influence in Central and Eastern Europe. Waszink notes that "Lipsian" at times is used as if it were a synonym for "neostoic" while covering all the thought of Lipsius.[25] Maurice De Wulf writing in his Histoire de la philosophie médiévale (1900) took the view that Lipsius was an erudite rather than a philosopher, founded no school, and had few disciples, mentioning only Caspar Schoppe.[32] In contrast Richard Tuck described (1993) the effort of Benito Arias Montano, a Familist collaborator of Plantin and long-term friend and correspondent of Lipsius, as influencing in Spain Pedro de Valencia and engaged in theoretical work to go beyond the "Stoicism and scepticism of the Lipsian circle".[33] Aside from neostoicism, Lipsius impressed others also with his Latin style, scholarly editions and political thinking. Charles Nauert casts doubt on whether there was a broad-based movement attached to neostoicism, commenting on "revived forms of ancient philosophy", including voguish neostoicism as the essence of Roman "moral earnestness", that none "gained a profound hold on the conscience of more than a few scattered individuals."[34] In the first chapter of his book Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau, Brooke questions whether as much of the political thought of Lipsius should be attributed definitely to neostoicism as had been asserted by Gerhard Oestreich.[35] Literature[edit] Neostoicism had a direct influence on later writers, particularly in Spain and England.[36] Among Spanish writers there were Francisco de Quevedo, and Juan de Vera y Figueroa, among English writers Francis Bacon and Joseph Hall. Later in France there were Montesquieu and Bossuet.[37] According to Saarinen, neo-stoic ideas are relevant to many Calvinist authors, of whom he mentions Theodor Zwinger.[38] In the Hapsburg Monarchy[edit] Francisco Sánchez de las Brozas promoted neostoicism in Spain, as an editor of an Epictetus edition published in 1600. Later Quevedo published his Doctrina Estoica (1635), continuing efforts to bridge the gap between Stoicism and Christian beliefs.[36] During the lifetime of Lipsius, the Hapsburg Monarchy, which included the Spanish Netherlands, had capitals at Madrid and Prague. Lipsius was widely read in Bohemia and Hungary. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor did not approve of the warlike Spanish policy in the Netherlands, thought of as within the Empire, of Philip II of Spain.[39] Zdeněk Vojtěch Popel z Lobkovic (1568–1628) read much in Lipsius.[40] Nicolaus Vernulaeus who became historiographer to Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor drew in his Institutiones politicae on neostoicism and its revised version by Adam Contzen, a Jesuit follower of Lipsius.[41] János Rimay was a Hungarian neo-stoic poet interested in a national revival in Hungary.[42] In England[edit] Translations into English of basic neostoic works by Lipsius and Du Vair appeared in the 1590s, and Thomas Lodge translated Seneca's moral works (1614).[36] The translation of the De constantia by Sir John Stradling, 1st Baronet was well received in aristocratic circles.[43] Joseph Hall's 1606 book Heaven upon Earth (1606) adopted "the fashionable vogue for neo-Stoicism". It was published the year after a visit to the Netherlands Hall made as chaplain to Sir Edmund Bacon.[44] Hall's biographer Huntley comments that his neostoicism "is more Christian than Senecan", and that he also uses Ramism.[45] Kevin Sharpe, in his study of the reading of Sir William Drake, 1st Baronet, noted that both reading and a stay in the Netherlands "appear to have led him to be influenced by the fashionable neostoicist humanist writings of Justus Lipsius and his disciples."[46] Sharpe mentions also that Sir Roger Townshend, 1st Baronet had a work by Lipsius in his library.[47] John Eliot in the Tower of London, and frustrated with politics, around 1630 acquired the De constantia.[48] Edward Herbert of Cherbury built on neostoicism an early system of deism.[36] Thomas Gataker published in 1652 an edition of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius with a large Biblical apparatus intended for Christian readers.[7] Dutch social culture[edit] The ground for neostoicism's emphasis on moderation and self-control had been prepared by Erasmus. It has been regarded as a joint effect of Calvinism and Renaissance humanism. Post-Lipsius and the requirements of public life in a time of crises ruled by fate, there were the basic ideas of living by virtue and values, disabused of worldly wisdom and superficials. Related themes were found in Jacob Cats, Dirck Coornhert and Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft.[49] The arts[edit] The Four Philosophers Artist Peter Paul Rubens Year 1611-1612 Medium oil on panel Dimensions 167 cm × 143 cm (66 in × 56 in) Location Pitti Palace, Florence, Italy Neo-stoic attitudes could be illustrated in history painting, by choice of exemplars, for instance taken from the Roman Republic.[50] It was also seen in portraiture of royalty and nobility: "the full-length or three-quarter-length lifesize format, the static pose, and the impassive facial expression associated with the characterological ideal of neo-Stoicism."[51] In the Dutch Republic of the 17th-century these were current techniques to show virtù.[50] The painter Peter Paul Rubens was a disciple and friend of Lipsius. In his painting The Four Philosophers, there is a self-portrait as Lipsius teaches two seated students, Joannes Woverius and his brother Philip. Philip was a pupil whom Lipsius "loved like a son", and who had presented Lipsius' book on Seneca to Pope Paul V. Lipsius chose Wolverius to be his executor.[52][53] In the background is a bust belonging to Rubens, at the time thought to be of Seneca: it is now believed to represent the Greek poet Hesiod. Rubens and Anthony van Dyck were certainly familiar with the neo-stoic principles, but the only North Netherlands painter of the time known to have taken them more seriously was Gerrit van Honthorst. Joseph Justus Scaliger influenced literary figures such as Samuel Coster.[50] Scaliger was the major rival of Lipsius, and his successor at the University of Leiden.[54] The original thinking became attenuated by the later 17th-century.[50] The "grand manner" employed in the 1640s paintings of Nicolas Poussin was influenced by the basic neo-stoic ideas of Lipsius.[55] Neostoicism had an impact on garden design: the dialogue in the De constantia by Lipsius was set in his own garden, and he moralised it.[3] Studies have connected Dutch 17th-century gardens and John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen with neo-stoic ideas;[56] Allan has written on the effect of Lipsius's view, that Stoic prudentia is to be achieved from a garden in which to contemplate, on Scottish gardens of the same period.[57] Military doctrine[edit] According to Israel, the 1590s were a decade of preoccupation in the Dutch Republic with order and discipline in its armed forces. William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg proposed in 1594 the volley fire technique with alternating infantry ranks. The humanist ideas around neostoicism reinforced the trend to greater discipline.[58] Peter Burke writes "The self-discipline recommended by Seneca and Lipsius was transformed into military discipline in the age of drill."[3] Lipsius published a study of the Roman army, De Militia Romana (1595–6), which was influential in a number of European countries. It appeared in the South Netherlands, dedicated to Prince Philip, heir to the Spanish throne. But Lipsius was familiar also with leaders of the Dutch Revolt, and both sides in the struggle at this time were tightening up their military.[58] Burke comments that "It is no accident that Lipsius should have been attracted to the study of both stoicism and the Roman army.[3] Further developments[edit] There are parallels between the political thought of Lipsius and that of Giovanni Botero, author of The Reason of State.[59] Lipsius himself did not contribute to an ongoing debate over "reason of state" and national interest, but it took natural steps from his concept of prudentia mixta (mixed prudence). It grew in the same climate of development based on scepticism, Tacitus and the thought of Machiavelli from which his political ideas and military doctrines arose.[60][61] The new attitude to military discipline seen with William the Silent, as an aspect of neostoicism, has been extrapolated by Charles Taylor. He argues that it applied in civil government also, as an aspect of absolutism, and is seen in the self-mastery of Descartes.[62] The beginnings of Enlightenment history of philosophy were bound up with reactions to the ideas of Baruch Spinoza, questions about the extent to which they were repackaged Stoicism, and serious criticism of the Christianising approach of Renaissance humanists to ancient Greek thought. Jakob Thomasius, Jean Le Clerc and Pierre Bayle found the neostoicism of Lipsius a serious distortion of the Greek Stoics, with imposed spirituality and neoplatonism. It was deemed a selective use of sources.[63][64] See also[edit] Christian asceticism Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy Christian philosophy Cynicism Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Sellars, John. "Neostoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Arbib, Dan (2015). "Malebranche, le stoïcisme et les trois erreurs de l'orgueil". Revue Philosophique de la France et de l'Étranger. 205 (4): 505. ISSN 0035-3833. ^ a b c d Burke, Peter (1998-11-02). The European Renaissance: Centers and Peripheries. Wiley. pp. 207–209. ISBN 978-0-631-19845-1. ^ Gregg, Ryan E. (2018-12-10). City Views in the Habsburg and Medici Courts: Depictions of Rhetoric and Rule in the Sixteenth Century. Brill. p. 214. ISBN 978-90-04-38616-7. ^ Evans, Robert John Weston (1973). Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual History, 1576-1612. Clarendon Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-0-19-822516-4. ^ Wiep van Bunge et al. (editors), The Dictionary of Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Dutch Philosophers (2003), Thoemmes Press (two volumes), article Lipsius, Justus, p. 630. ^ a b c Sellars, John (2006). Stoicism. University of California Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-520-24908-0. ^ Hunter, Ian (2011-10-27). The Secularisation of the Confessional State: The Political Thought of Christian Thomasius. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-521-20083-7. ^ Justus Lipsius, On Constancy available in English translation by John Stradling, edited by John Sellars (Bristol Phoenix Press, 2006). ^ Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010-10-25). The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. p. 908. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ Tuck, Richard (1993-03-18). Philosophy and Government 1572-1651. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-43885-8. ^ Garber, Daniel; Ayers, Michael (2003). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-century Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 1147. ISBN 978-0-521-53721-6. ^ Schmitt, C. B.; Kraye, Jill; Kessler, Eckhard; Skinner, Quentin (1990-09-20). The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3. ^ Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010-10-25). The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. p. 909. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1998). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806. Clarendon Press. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-19-820734-4. ^ Schenkeveld, Maria A. (1991-01-01). Dutch Literature in the Age of Rembrandt: Themes and Ideas. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-272-2216-9. ^ Schmitt, C. B.; Kraye, Jill; Kessler, Eckhard; Skinner, Quentin (1990-09-20). The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 374. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3. ^ Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1998). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806. Clarendon Press. p. 372. ISBN 978-0-19-820734-4. ^ Bement, Peter (1972). "The Stoicism of Chapman's Clermont D'Ambois". Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900. 12 (2): 346. doi:10.2307/449898. ISSN 0039-3657. ^ Heller, Wendy (2004-01-12). Emblems of Eloquence: Opera and Women's Voices in Seventeenth-Century Venice. University of California Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-520-91934-1. ^ (Un)masking the Realities of Power: Justus Lipsius and the Dynamics of Political Writing in Early Modern Europe. Brill. 2010-12-10. p. 76. ISBN 978-90-04-19183-9. ^ Farr, James R. (1995-01-05). Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern Burgundy (1550-1730). Oxford University Press. p. 2`. ISBN 978-0-19-535838-4. ^ Papy, Jan. "Justus Lipsius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Lipsius, Justus (2004). Justus Lipsius - Politica. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. p. 94. ISBN 978-90-232-4038-9. ^ a b Lipsius, Justus (2004). Justus Lipsius - Politica. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. p. 13. ISBN 978-90-232-4038-9. ^ Hankins, James (2007-10-25). The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-139-82748-5. ^ Bouwsma, William James (2002-01-01). The Waning of the Renaissance, 1550-1640. Yale University Press. pp. 154–156. ISBN 978-0-300-09717-7. ^ Blom, H. W.; Winkel, Laurens C. (2004). Grotius and the Stoa. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-90-232-4039-6. ^ Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2013-10-18). Encyclopedia of Ethics. Routledge. p. 1229. ISBN 978-1-135-35096-3. ^ Garber, Daniel; Ayers, Michael (1998). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-century Philosophy. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 918. ISBN 978-0-521-53720-9. ^ Goodman, A.; Mackay, Angus (2014-06-11). The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe During the Renaissance. Routledge. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-1-317-87023-4. ^ Wulf, M. de (Maurice) (1900). Histoire de la philosophie médiévale : précédée d'un aperçu sur la philosophie ancienne. Louvain, Institut supérieur de Philosophie. p. 409. ^ Tuck, Richard (1993-03-18). Philosophy and Government 1572-1651. Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-521-43885-8. ^ Nauert, Jr., Charles G. (2006-05-04). Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-521-83909-9. ^ Brooke, Christopher (2012-04-08). Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15208-0. ^ a b c d Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010-10-25). The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. p. 911. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Justus Lipsius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Saarinen, Risto (2011-06-30). Weakness of Will in Renaissance and Reformation Thought. OUP Oxford. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-19-960681-8. ^ Evans, Robert John Weston (1973). Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual History, 1576-1612. Clarendon Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-19-822516-4. ^ Evans, Robert John Weston (1973). Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual History, 1576-1612. Clarendon Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-0-19-822516-4. ^ Parente, James A. (2016). "Historical Tragedy and the End of Christian Humanism:: Nicolaus Vernulaeus (1583–1649)". Politics and Aesthetics in European Baroque and Classicist Tragedy. Brill: 170. doi:10.1163/j.ctt1w8h225.10. ^ Whose Love of Which Country?: Composite States, National Histories and Patriotic Discourses in Early Modern East Central Europe. Brill. 2010-03-08. p. 346. ISBN 978-90-04-18359-9. ^ Hannay, Margaret P. (2017-05-15). Ashgate Critical Essays on Women Writers in England, 1550-1700: Volume 2: Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke. Routledge. p. 291. ISBN 978-1-351-96499-9. ^ McCabe, Richard A. "Hall, Joseph". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11976. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Huntley, Frank Livingstone (1979). Bishop Joseph Hall, 1574-1656: A Biographical and Critical Study. Brewer. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8476-2376-1. ^ Sharpe, Kevin M. (2000). Reading Revolutions: The Politics of Reading in Early Modern England. Yale University Press. pp. 314–315. ISBN 978-0-300-18718-2. ^ Sharpe, Kevin M. (2000). Reading Revolutions: The Politics of Reading in Early Modern England. Yale University Press. p. 310. ISBN 978-0-300-18718-2. ^ Barbour, Reid (2003-01-01). John Selden: Measures of the Holy Commonwealth in Seventeenth-century England. University of Toronto Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8020-8776-8. ^ Smith, Pamela H. (1999). "Science and Taste: Painting, Passions, and the New Philosophy in Seventeenth-Century Leiden". Isis. 90 (3): 437 and note 27. ISSN 0021-1753. ^ a b c d Witt, David de (2007-11-02). Jan van Noordt: Painter of History and Portraits in Amsterdam. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-7735-7564-6. ^ Muller, Sheila D. (2013-07-04). Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-135-49581-7. ^ Stoics and Neostoics: Rubens and the Circle of Lipsius Archived 2010-05-05 at the Wayback Machine by Mark Morford, Bryn Mawr Classical Review. ^ Peter Paul Rubens The Four Philosophers, The Artchive. ^ Lloyd, Howell A. (2017-05-26). Jean Bodin, 'this Pre-eminent Man of France': An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-19-252064-7. ^ Zirpolo, Lilian H. (2010-09-17). Historical Dictionary of Baroque Art and Architecture. Scarecrow Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-4616-5919-8. ^ Hunt, John D.; Hunt, John Dixon (1990). The Dutch Garden in the Seventeenth Century. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-88402-187-2. ^ Allan, David (1997). "'A Commendation of the Private Countrey Life': Philosophy and the Garden in Seventeenth-Century Scotland". Garden History. 25 (1): 62. doi:10.2307/1587154. ISSN 0307-1243. ^ a b Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1998). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806. Clarendon Press. pp. 269–270. ISBN 978-0-19-820734-4. ^ Kagan, Richard L. (2009-11-01). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain. JHU Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-4214-0165-2. ^ (Un)masking the Realities of Power: Justus Lipsius and the Dynamics of Political Writing in Early Modern Europe. Brill. 2010-12-10. p. 76. ISBN 978-90-04-19183-9. ^ Scott, Jonathan (2005-01-20). Algernon Sidney and the English Republic 1623-1677. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-521-61195-4. ^ Spitzer, Michael (2020). A History of Emotion in Western Music: A Thousand Years from Chant to Pop. Oxford University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-19-006175-3. ^ Israel, Jonathan I.; Israel, Professor of Modern European History Jonathan I. (2006-10-12). Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752. OUP Oxford. p. 417. ISBN 978-0-19-927922-7. ^ Israel, Jonathan I.; Israel, Professor of Modern European History Jonathan I. (2006-10-12). Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752. OUP Oxford. p. 471. ISBN 978-0-19-927922-7. References[edit] Mark Morford, Stoics and Neostoics: Rubens and the Circle of Lipsius, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. Gerhard Oestreich, Neostoicism and the Early Modern State, English translation by David McLintock, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Jason Lewis Saunders, Justus Lipsius: The Philosophy of Renaissance Stoicism, New York: Liberal Art Press, 1955. Charles Taylor, A Secular Age, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007. External links[edit] Sellars, John. "Justus Lipsius". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. On Constancy at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary The first book of De constantia The second book of De constantia The Stoic Library v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neostoicism&oldid=1028489505" Categories: Stoicism Baroque Christian philosophy Renaissance philosophy Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic Religion in the Dutch Republic Neo-Stoics Hidden categories: Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter Webarchive template wayback links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Euskara Français Galego Italiano Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 08:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6858	----	LibriVox - Wikipedia LibriVox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Audiobook library LibriVox Established August 2005 Location Worldwide (USA based) Collection Size 15,000 (14 February 2021[update])[1] Access and use Members Worldwide volunteers Other information Budget US$5,000 per annum (As of 2010[update]) Director N/A (community-shared) Website librivox.org LibriVox is a group of worldwide volunteers who read and record public domain texts creating free public domain audiobooks for download from their website and other digital library hosting sites on the internet. It was founded in 2005 by Hugh McGuire to provide "Acoustical liberation of books in the public domain"[2] and the LibriVox objective is "To make all books in the public domain available, for free, in audio format on the internet".[3] On 6 August 2016, the completed projects numbered 10,000, and on 14 February 2021 there were 15,000 completed projects.[4][1] Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content. LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. Contents 1 History 2 Etymology of LibriVox 3 Organization and funding 4 Production process 5 Content 6 Reputation 7 Quality 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] Hugh McGuire, founder of LibriVox Can the net harness a bunch of volunteers to help bring books in the public domain to life through podcasting? — Hugh McGuire LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, and posed the question.[5][6] The first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad.[7] The main features of the way LibriVox works have changed little since its inception, although the technology that supports it has been improved by the efforts of its volunteers with web-development skills. Etymology of LibriVox[edit] LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber (book) in its genitive form libri and vox (voice), giving the meaning BookVoice (or voice of the book). The word was also coined because of other connotations: liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says: "We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as 'child of the voice', and 'free voice'. Finally, the other link we like is 'library' so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice."[8] There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox. It is accepted that any pronunciation is accurate.[9] Organization and funding[edit] LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, public domain project. It has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, who also maintain a searchable catalogue database of completed works. In early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5,000/year and improve front- and backend usability.[10] The target was reached in 13 days, and so the fundraising ended and LibriVox suggested that supporters consider making donations to its affiliates and partners, Project Gutenberg[11] and the Internet Archive.[12] Production process[edit] Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, or they can contribute to projects that have been started by others. Once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3 and Ogg Vorbis files are hosted separately by the Internet Archive. Recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. Content[edit] LibriVox works per month, 2005–2011 LibriVox only records material that is in the public domain in the United States, and all LibriVox books are released with a public domain dedication.[13] Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a limited number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report which is a work of the US Federal Government therefore in the Public Domain. The LibriVox catalogue is varied. It contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts (for example, English versions of the Koran and books from various translations of the Bible) and non-fiction of various kinds. In January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama, 25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry (calculated by numbers of recordings). By the end of 2020, the most viewed item (13M) was a collaborative reading of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.[14] Around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether (as of February 2010[update]). Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, but recordings have also been made in languages including Urdu and Tagalog. Reputation[edit] LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg. Intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as "perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia".[15] The project has also been featured in press around the world and has been recommended by the BBC's Click, MSNBC's The Today Show, Reason,[16] Wired,[17] the US PC Magazine and the UK Metro and Sunday Times[18] newspapers. Quality[edit] A frequent concern of listeners is the site's policy of allowing any recording to be published as long as it is understandable and faithful to the source text.[19] This means that some recordings are of lower audio fidelity; some feature background noises, non-native accents or other perceived imperfections in comparison to professionally recorded audiobooks.[20][21] While some listeners may object to those books with chapters read by multiple readers,[22] others find this to be a non-issue or even a feature,[23][24][25] though many books are narrated by a single reader. See also[edit] Virtual volunteering Voice acting References[edit] ^ a b "LibriVox Celebrates 15,000 Audiobooks!". LibriVox.org. February 14, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2021. ^ "LibriVox Author", LibriVox website. Retrieved 16 April 2015. ^ "Objective LibriVox", LibriVox website. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ "Another LibriVox Milestone: 10,000 projects!", librivox.org, 6 August 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016. ^ McGuire, Hugh (9 August 2005). "Welcome to LibriVox". LibriVox.org. Retrieved 20 August 2010. ^ McGuire, Hugh (February 12, 2007). "Clarity (blog entry)". HughMcGuire.net. Retrieved 2009-01-09. ^ "The Secret Agent", librivox.org. Retrieved 31 March 2014. ^ "What does LibriVox mean?", LibriVox forum, retrieved 29 September 2013. ^ "Pronunciation of "LibriVox"", LibriVox wiki. Retrieved 21 November 2011. ^ "LibriVox Needs Your Help", LibriVox blog, 24 February 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2011. ^ "Gutenberg Affiliates", Gutenberg.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Archive.org partners", Archive.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Public Domain". LibriVox. Retrieved 11 November 2018. ^ "The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection", The Internet Archive. Retrieved 31 December 2020. (The LibriVox Free Audiobook Collection, 14,875) ^ Linksvayer, Mike (June 2, 2008). "LibriVox: 1500 public domain audio books (blog entry)". Retrieved 2009-01-09. ^ "The Wealth of LibriVox", Reason.com, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "The Web Will Read You a Story", archive.org, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Public Domain Books, Ready for Your iPod", nytimes.com, Retrieved 19 April 2015. ^ "Quality of Delivery?", Librivox forums. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "The Return of the Native Audiobook (Librivox) Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine", Review. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "On the absence of ratings at LibriVox", Review 2 May 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox - free audio books", Review. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox (free audio books)", Review January 09, 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "Librivox", Review October 1, 2008. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ "My Favorite LibriVox Readers", Review 12 March 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2011. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to LibriVox. Wikidata has the property: LibriVox author ID (P1899) (see uses) Wikinews has related news: Interview with LibriVox founder Hugh McGuire Listen to this article (5 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 14 July 2007 (2007-07-14), and does not reflect subsequent edits. 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en-wikipedia-org-6859	----	Seleucid Empire - Wikipedia Seleucid Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hellenistic state in the Middle East from 312 BC to 63 BC Seleucid Empire Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν Basileía tōn Seleukidōn 312 BC–63 BC Tetradrachm of Seleucus I – the horned horse, the elephant and the anchor all served as symbols of the Seleucid monarchy.[1][2] The Seleucid Empire (light blue) in 281 BC on the eve of the murder of Seleucus I Nicator Capital Seleucia (305–240 BC) Antioch (240–63 BC) Lysimachia (secondary and de facto, 190s BC)[3] Common languages Greek (official)[4] Persian Aramaic[4] Religion Olympianism / Hellenism Babylonian religion[5] Zoroastrianism Buddhism Hellenistic Judaism Local beliefs Government Hellenistic monarchy Basileus   • 305–281 BC Seleucus I (first) • 65–63 BC Philip II (last) Historical era Hellenistic period • Wars of the Diadochi 312 BC • Battle of Ipsus 301 BC • Roman–Seleucid War 192–188 BC • Treaty of Apamea 188 BC • Maccabean Revolt 167–160 BC • Seleucia taken by Parthians 141 BC • Battle of Ecbatana 129 BC • Annexed by Rome 63 BC Area 303 BC[6] 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) 301 BC[6] 3,900,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi) 240 BC[6] 2,600,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi) 175 BC[6] 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi) 100 BC[6] 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi) Population • 301 BC[6] 30,000,000+ [7][8] Preceded by Succeeded by Macedonian Empire Maurya Empire Province of Syria Parthian Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Hasmonean kingdom Osroene The Seleucid Empire (/sɪˈljuːsɪd/;[9] Ancient Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, Basileía tōn Seleukidōn) was a Hellenistic state in Western Asia that existed from 312 BC to 63 BC. It was founded by Seleucus I Nicator following the division of the Macedonian Empire established by Alexander the Great.[10][11][12][13] After receiving Babylonia in 321 BC, Seleucus expanded his dominions to include much of Alexander's Near Eastern territories, establishing a dynasty that would rule for over two centuries. At its height, the empire spanned Anatolia, Persia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and what are now Kuwait, Afghanistan, and parts of Turkmenistan. The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture, privileging Greek customs and language while generally tolerating the wide variety of local traditions. An urban Greek elite formed the dominant political class, and was reinforced by steady immigration from Greece.[13][14][15][16] The empire's western territories were repeatedly contested with Ptolemaic Egypt, a rival Hellenistic state. To the east, conflict with Chandragupta of the Maurya Empire in 305 BC led to the cession of vast territory west of the Indus and a political alliance. In the early second century BC, Antiochus III the Great attempted to project Seleucid power and authority into Hellenistic Greece, but his attempts were thwarted by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies; the Seleucids were forced to pay costly war reparations and relinquish territorial claims west of the Taurus Mountains, marking the gradual decline of their empire. Mithridates I of Parthia conquered much of the remaining eastern lands of the Seleucid Empire in the mid-second century BC, while the independent Greco-Bactrian Kingdom continued to flourish in the northeast. The Seleucid kings were thereafter reduced to a rump state in Syria, until their conquest by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 83 BC and ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BC. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Partition of Alexander's empire 2.2 Rise of Seleucus 2.3 Babylonian War (311–309 BC) 2.4 Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BC) 2.5 Westward expansion 2.6 Breakup of Central Asian territories 2.7 Revival (223–191 BC) 2.7.1 Expansion into Greece and war with Rome 2.8 Roman power, Parthia and Judea 2.9 Civil war and further decay 2.10 Collapse (100–63 BC) 3 Culture 4 Military 5 Economy 5.1 Monetization 5.2 Agriculture 5.3 Role of the state—political economy 5.4 Academic discussion 6 Family tree of Seleucids 7 List of Seleucid rulers 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Works cited 10 Further reading 11 External links Name[edit] Contemporary sources, such as a loyalist decree honoring Antiochus I from Ilium, in Greek language define the Seleucid state both as an empire (arche) and as a kingdom (basileia). Similarly, Seleucid rulers were described as kings in Babylonia.[17] Starting from the 2nd century BC, ancient writers referred to the Seleucid ruler as the King of Syria, Lord of Asia, and other designations;[18] the evidence for the Seleucid rulers representing themselves as kings of Syria is provided by the inscription of Antigonus son of Menophilus, who described himself as the "admiral of Alexander, king of Syria". He refers to either Alexander Balas or Alexander II Zabinas as a ruler.[19] History[edit] Partition of Alexander's empire[edit] History of Greater Iran Pre-Islamic BCE / BC Prehistory Kura–Araxes culture c. 3400 – c. 2000 Proto-Elamite civilization 3200–2800 Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Jiroft culture Mannaeans Lullubi Gutians Cyrtian Corduene Bactria–Margiana Complex 2200–1700 Kingdom of Mannai 10th–7th century Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Median Empire 728–550 Scythian Kingdom 652–625 Achaemenid Empire 550–330 Ancient kingdom of Armenia 331 BCE – 428 CE Seleucid Empire 330–150 Caucasian Iberia c. 302 BCE – 580 CE Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 250–125 Parthian Empire 248 BCE–224 CE Caucasian Albania 2nd century BCE – 8th century CE Roman Empire 27 BCE – 330 CE CE / AD Kushan Empire 30–275 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Afrighid dynasty 305–995 Hephthalite Empire 425–557 Kabul Shahi kingdom 565–879 Dabuyid dynasty 642–760 Bagratid Armenia 880s – 1045 Alania 8th/9th century – 1238 / 9 Kingdom of Georgia 1008–1490 Islamic Rashidun Caliphate 637–651 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Shirvanshah 799–1607 Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Dulafid dynasty 840–897 Zaydis of Tabaristan 864–928 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Samanid Empire 819–999 Sajid dynasty 889/90–929 Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043 Buyid dynasty 934–1055 Sallarid dynasty 941–1062 Ghaznavid Empire 975–1187 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Sultanate of Rum 1077–1307 Salghurids 1148–1282 Ilkhanate 1256–1353 Kart dynasty 1231–1389 Ottoman Empire 1299–1923 Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393 Chupanid dynasty 1337–1357 Jalairid Sultanate 1339–1432 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans 1407–1468 Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378–1508 Safavid Empire 1501–1722 Mughal Empire 1526–1857 Hotak dynasty 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1750 Zand dynasty 1750–1794 Durrani Empire 1794–1826 Qajar dynasty 1794–1925 v t e Main article: Diadochi Alexander, who quickly conquered the Persian Empire under its last Achaemenid dynast, Darius III, died young in 323 BC, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenised culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent in the person of Perdiccas, and the territories were divided among Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon, all in that same year. Rise of Seleucus[edit] Alexander's generals (the Diadochi) jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire. Ptolemy, a former general and the satrap of Egypt, was the first to challenge the new system; this led to the demise of Perdiccas. Ptolemy's revolt led to a new subdivision of the empire with the Partition of Triparadisus in 320 BC. Seleucus, who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the Companion cavalry" (hetairoi) and appointed first or court chiliarch (which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas since 323 BC, though he helped to assassinate him later) received Babylonia and, from that point, continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BC, the year used as the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire. Babylonian War (311–309 BC)[edit] Main article: Babylonian War The rise of Seleucus in Babylon threatened the eastern extent of Antigonus I territory in Asia. Antigonus, along with his son Demetrius I of Macedon, unsuccessfully led a campaign to annex Babylon. The victory of Seleucus ensured his claim of Babylon and legitimacy. He ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire, as described by Appian: Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.[20] Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BC)[edit] Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war In the region of Punjab, Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrokottos) founded the Maurya Empire in 321 BC. Chandragupta conquered the Nanda Empire in Magadha, and relocated to the capital of Pataliputra. Chandragupta then redirected his attention back to the Indus and by 317 BC he conquered the remaining Greek satraps left by Alexander. Expecting a confrontation, Seleucus gathered his army and marched to the Indus. It is said that Chandragupta could have fielded a conscript army of 600,000 men and 9,000 war elephants.[21] Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received, formalized through a treaty, vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[22][23] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan. According to Appian: He [Seleucus] crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship.[20] "Chandra Gupta Maurya entertains his bride from Babylon": a conjectural interpretation of the "marriage agreement" between the Seleucids and Chandragupta Maurya, related by Appian[20] It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants,[24][25][26][27][28] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign, which have been partly preserved to us through Diodorus Siculus. Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[29] The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta Maurya) in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.[30] Other territories ceded before Seleucus' death were Gedrosia in the south-east of the Iranian plateau, and, to the north of this, Arachosia on the west bank of the Indus River. Westward expansion[edit] Coin of Seleucus I Nicator Following his and Lysimachus' victory over Antigonus Monophthalmus at the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Seleucus took control over eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. In the latter area, he founded a new capital at Antioch on the Orontes, a city he named after his father. An alternative capital was established at Seleucia on the Tigris, north of Babylon. Seleucus's empire reached its greatest extent following his defeat of his erstwhile ally, Lysimachus, at Corupedion in 281 BC, after which Seleucus expanded his control to encompass western Anatolia. He hoped further to take control of Lysimachus's lands in Europe – primarily Thrace and even Macedonia itself, but was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus on landing in Europe. His son and successor, Antiochus I Soter, was left with an enormous realm consisting of nearly all of the Asian portions of the Empire, but faced with Antigonus II Gonatas in Macedonia and Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Egypt, he proved unable to pick up where his father had left off in conquering the European portions of Alexander's empire. Breakup of Central Asian territories[edit] In Bactria, the satrap Diodotus asserted independence to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom c. 245 BC. Drachm of the Frataraka ruler Vahbarz (Oborzos), thought to have initiated the independence of Persis from the Seleucid Empire. The coin shows on the reverse an Achaemenid king slaying an armoured, possibly Greek or Macedonian, soldier.[31][32] This possibly refers to the events related by Polyainos (Strat. 7.40), in which Vahbarz (Oborzos) is said to have killed 3000 Seleucid settlers.[33][31][32] Antiochus I (reigned 281–261 BC) and his son and successor Antiochus II Theos (reigned 261–246 BC) were faced with challenges in the west, including repeated wars with Ptolemy II and a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor—distracting attention from holding the eastern portions of the Empire together. Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign, various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as Bactria and Sogdiana under Diodotus, Cappadocia under Ariarathes III, and Parthia under Andragoras. A few years later, the last was defeated and killed by the invading Parni of Arsaces – the region would then become the core of the Parthian Empire. Diodotus, governor for the Bactrian territory, asserted independence in around 245 BC, although the exact date is far from certain, to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. This kingdom was characterized by a rich Hellenistic culture and was to continue its domination of Bactria until around 125 BC when it was overrun by the invasion of northern nomads. One of the Greco-Bactrian kings, Demetrius I of Bactria, invaded India around 180 BC to form the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. The rulers of Persis, called Fratarakas, also seem to have established some level of independence from the Seleucids during the 3rd century BC, especially from the time of Vahbarz. They would later overtly take the title of Kings of Persis, before becoming vassals to the newly formed Parthian Empire.[31][32] The Seleucid satrap of Parthia, named Andragoras, first claimed independence, in a parallel to the secession of his Bactrian neighbour. Soon after, however, a Parthian tribal chief called Arsaces invaded the Parthian territory around 238 BC to form the Arsacid dynasty, from which the Parthian Empire originated. Antiochus II's son Seleucus II Callinicus came to the throne around 246 BC. Seleucus II was soon dramatically defeated in the Third Syrian War against Ptolemy III of Egypt and then had to fight a civil war against his own brother Antiochus Hierax. Taking advantage of this distraction, Bactria and Parthia seceded from the empire. In Asia Minor too, the Seleucid dynasty seemed to be losing control: the Gauls had fully established themselves in Galatia, semi-independent semi-Hellenized kingdoms had sprung up in Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and the city of Pergamum in the west was asserting its independence under the Attalid Dynasty.[citation needed] The Seleucid economy started to show the first signs of weakness, as Galatians gained independence and Pergamum took control of coastal cities in Anatolia. Consequently, they managed to partially block contact with the West.[34] Revival (223–191 BC)[edit] Silver coin of Antiochus III the Great. The Seleucid Empire in 200 BC (before expansion into Anatolia and Greece). A revival would begin when Seleucus II's younger son, Antiochus III the Great, took the throne in 223 BC. Although initially unsuccessful in the Fourth Syrian War against Egypt, which led to a defeat at the Battle of Raphia (217 BC), Antiochus would prove himself to be the greatest of the Seleucid rulers after Seleucus I himself. He spent the next ten years on his anabasis (journey) through the eastern parts of his domain and restoring rebellious vassals like Parthia and Greco-Bactria to at least nominal obedience. He gained many victories such as the Battle of Mount Labus and Battle of the Arius and besieged the Bactrian capital. He even emulated Seleucus with an expedition into India where he met with King Sophagasenus (Sanskrit: Subhagasena) receiving war elephants, perhaps in accordance of the existing treaty and alliance set after the Seleucid-Mauryan War. Actual translation of Polybius 11.34 (No other source except Polybius makes any reference to Sophagasenus): He [Antiochus] crossed the Caucasus Indicus (Paropamisus) (Hindu Kush) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him.[35] Having traversed Arachosia and crossed the river Enymanthus, he came through Drangene to Carmania; and as it was now winter, he put his men into winter quarters there.[36] When he returned to the west in 205 BC, Antiochus found that with the death of Ptolemy IV, the situation now looked propitious for another western campaign. Antiochus and Philip V of Macedon then made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions outside of Egypt, and in the Fifth Syrian War, the Seleucids ousted Ptolemy V from control of Coele-Syria. The Battle of Panium (200 BC) definitively transferred these holdings from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus appeared, at the least, to have restored the Seleucid Kingdom to glory. Expansion into Greece and war with Rome[edit] Further information: Roman–Seleucid War The reduced empire (titled: Syria, Kingdom of the Seleucids) and the expanded states of Pergamum and Rhodes, after the defeat of Antiochus III by Rome. Circa 188 BC. Following the defeat of his erstwhile ally Philip by Rome in 197 BC, Antiochus saw the opportunity for expansion into Greece itself. Encouraged by the exiled Carthaginian general Hannibal, and making an alliance with the disgruntled Aetolian League, Antiochus launched an invasion across the Hellespont. With his huge army he aimed to establish the Seleucid empire as the foremost power in the Hellenic world, but these plans put the empire on a collision course with the new rising power of the Mediterranean, the Roman Republic. At the battles of Thermopylae (191 BC) and Magnesia (190 BC), Antiochus's forces suffered resounding defeats, and he was compelled to make peace and sign the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC), the main clause of which saw the Seleucids agree to pay a large indemnity, to retreat from Anatolia and to never again attempt to expand Seleucid territory west of the Taurus Mountains. The Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes, Rome's allies in the war, gained the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Antiochus died in 187 BC on another expedition to the east, where he sought to extract money to pay the indemnity. Roman power, Parthia and Judea[edit] Further information: Seleucid–Parthian wars and Maccabean Revolt The Hellenistic Prince, a bronze statue originally thought to be a Seleucid, or Attalus II of Pergamon, now considered a portrait of a Roman general, made by a Greek artist working in Rome in the 2nd century BC. The reign of his son and successor Seleucus IV Philopator (187–175 BC) was largely spent in attempts to pay the large indemnity, and Seleucus was ultimately assassinated by his minister Heliodorus. Seleucus' younger brother, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, now seized the throne. He attempted to restore Seleucid power and prestige with a successful war against the old enemy, Ptolemaic Egypt, which met with initial success as the Seleucids defeated and drove the Egyptian army back to Alexandria itself. As the king planned on how to conclude the war, he was informed that Roman commissioners, led by the Proconsul Gaius Popillius Laenas, were near and requesting a meeting with the Seleucid king. Antiochus agreed, but when they met and Antiochus held out his hand in friendship, Popilius placed in his hand the tablets on which was written the decree of the senate and told him to read it. When the king said that he would call his friends into council and consider what he ought to do, Popilius drew a circle in the sand around the king's feet with the stick he was carrying and said, "Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate." For a few moments he hesitated, astounded at such a peremptory order, and at last replied, "I will do what the senate thinks right." He then chose to withdraw rather than set the empire to war with Rome again.[37] On his return journey, according to Josephus, he made an expedition to Judea, took Jerusalem by force, slew a great many who had favored Ptolemy, sent his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and put the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation, for 3 years and 6 months.[38] The latter part of his reign saw a further disintegration of the Empire despite his best efforts. Weakened economically, militarily and by loss of prestige, the Empire became vulnerable to rebels in the eastern areas of the empire, who began to further undermine the empire while the Parthians moved into the power vacuum to take over the old Persian lands. Antiochus' aggressive Hellenizing (or de-Judaizing) activities provoked a full scale armed rebellion in Judea—the Maccabean Revolt.[39] Efforts to deal with both the Parthians and the Jews as well as retain control of the provinces at the same time proved beyond the weakened empire's power. Antiochus died during a military expedition against the Parthians in 164 BC. Civil war and further decay[edit] Further information: Seleucid Dynastic Wars Coin of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid Syria in early 124 BC under Alexander II Zabinas, who ruled the country with the exception of the city of Ptolemais After the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid Empire became increasingly unstable. Frequent civil wars made central authority tenuous at best. Epiphanes' young son, Antiochus V Eupator, was first overthrown by Seleucus IV's son, Demetrius I Soter in 161 BC. Demetrius I attempted to restore Seleucid power in Judea particularly, but was overthrown in 150 BC by Alexander Balas – an impostor who (with Egyptian backing) claimed to be the son of Epiphanes. Alexander Balas reigned until 145 BC when he was overthrown by Demetrius I's son, Demetrius II Nicator. Demetrius II proved unable to control the whole of the kingdom, however. While he ruled Babylonia and eastern Syria from Damascus, the remnants of Balas' supporters – first supporting Balas' son Antiochus VI, then the usurping general Diodotus Tryphon – held out in Antioch. Meanwhile, the decay of the Empire's territorial possessions continued apace. By 143 BC, the Jews in the form of the Maccabees had fully established their independence. Parthian expansion continued as well. In 139 BC, Demetrius II was defeated in battle by the Parthians and was captured. By this time, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control. Demetrius Nicator's brother, Antiochus VII Sidetes, took the throne after his brother's capture. He faced the enormous task of restoring a rapidly crumbling empire, one facing threats on multiple fronts. Hard-won control of Coele-Syria was threatened by the Jewish Maccabee rebels. Once-vassal dynasties in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Pontus were threatening Syria and northern Mesopotamia; the nomadic Parthians, brilliantly led by Mithridates I of Parthia, had overrun upland Media (home of the famed Nisean horse herd); and Roman intervention was an ever-present threat. Sidetes managed to bring the Maccabees to heel and frighten the Anatolian dynasts into a temporary submission; then, in 133, he turned east with the full might of the Royal Army (supported by a body of Jews under the Hasmonean prince, John Hyrcanus) to drive back the Parthians. Sidetes' campaign initially met with spectacular success, recapturing Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Media. In the winter of 130/129 BC, his army was scattered in winter quarters throughout Media and Persis when the Parthian king, Phraates II, counter-attacked. Moving to intercept the Parthians with only the troops at his immediate disposal, he was ambushed and killed at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. Antiochus Sidetes is sometimes called the last great Seleucid king. After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes, all of the recovered eastern territories were recaptured by the Parthians. The Maccabees again rebelled, civil war soon tore the empire to pieces, and the Armenians began to encroach on Syria from the north. Collapse (100–63 BC)[edit] Seleucid Kingdom in 87 BC By 100 BC, the once-formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than Antioch and some Syrian cities. Despite the clear collapse of their power, and the decline of their kingdom around them, nobles continued to play kingmakers on a regular basis, with occasional intervention from Ptolemaic Egypt and other outside powers. The Seleucids existed solely because no other nation wished to absorb them – seeing as they constituted a useful buffer between their other neighbours. In the wars in Anatolia between Mithridates VI of Pontus and Sulla of Rome, the Seleucids were largely left alone by both major combatants. Mithridates' ambitious son-in-law, Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, however, saw opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he invaded Syria and soon established himself as ruler of Syria, putting the Seleucid Empire virtually at an end. Seleucid rule was not entirely over, however. Following the Roman general Lucullus' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under Antiochus XIII. Even so, civil wars could not be prevented, as another Seleucid, Philip II, contested rule with Antiochus. After the Roman conquest of Pontus, the Romans became increasingly alarmed at the constant source of instability in Syria under the Seleucids. Once Mithridates was defeated by Pompey in 63 BC, Pompey set about the task of remaking the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces. While client nations like Armenia and Judea were allowed to continue with some degree of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue; doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made Syria into a Roman province. Culture[edit] Further information: Seleucid coinage Bagadates I (Minted 290–280 BC) was the first native Seleucid satrap to be appointed.[40] The Seleucid empire's geographical span, from the Aegean Sea to what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan, created a melting pot of various peoples, such as Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, Persians, Medes, Assyrians and Jews. The immense size of the empire, followed by its encompassing nature, encouraged the Seleucid rulers to implement a policy of ethnic unity—a policy initiated by Alexander. The Hellenization of the Seleucid empire was achieved by the establishment of Greek cities throughout the empire. Historically significant towns and cities, such as Antioch, were created or renamed with more appropriate Greek names. The creation of new Greek cities and towns was aided by the fact that the Greek mainland was overpopulated and therefore made the vast Seleucid empire ripe for colonization. Colonization was used to further Greek interest while facilitating the assimilation of many native groups. Socially, this led to the adoption of Greek practices and customs by the educated native classes to further themselves in public life, and at the same time the ruling Macedonian class gradually adopted some of the local traditions. By 313 BC, Hellenic ideas had begun their almost 250-year expansion into the Near East, Middle East, and Central Asian cultures. It was the empire's governmental framework to rule by establishing hundreds of cities for trade and occupational purposes. Many of the existing cities began—or were compelled by force—to adopt Hellenized philosophic thought, religious sentiments, and politics although the Seleucid rulers did incorporate Babylonian religious tenets to gain support.[41] Synthesizing Hellenic and indigenous cultural, religious, and philosophical ideas met with varying degrees of success—resulting in times of simultaneous peace and rebellion in various parts of the empire. Such was the case with the Jewish population of the Seleucid empire; the Jews' refusal to willingly Hellenize their religious beliefs or customs posed a significant problem which eventually led to war. Contrary to the accepting nature of the Ptolemaic empire towards native religions and customs, the Seleucids gradually tried to force Hellenization upon the Jewish people in their territory by outlawing Judaism. This eventually led to the revolt of the Jews under Seleucid control, which would later lead to the Jews achieving independence from the Seleucid empire. Military[edit] Main article: Seleucid Army As with the other major Hellenistic armies, the Seleucid army fought primarily in the Greco-Macedonian style, with its main body being the phalanx. The phalanx was a large, dense formation of men armed with small shields and a long pike called the sarissa. This form of fighting had been developed by the Macedonian army in the reign of Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great. Alongside the phalanx, the Seleucid armies used a great deal of native and mercenary troops to supplement their Greek forces, which were limited due to the distance from the Seleucid rulers' Macedonian homeland. The size of the Seleucid army usually varied between 70,000 and 200,000 in manpower. The distance from Greece put a strain on the Seleucid military system, as it was primarily based around the recruitment of Greeks as the key segment of the army. In order to increase the population of Greeks in their kingdom, the Seleucid rulers created military settlements. There were two main periods in the establishment of settlements, firstly under Seleucus I Nicator and Antiochus I Soter and then under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The military settlers were given land, "varying in size according to rank and arm of service'.[42] They were settled in 'colonies of an urban character, which at some point could acquire the status of a polis".[43] Unlike the Ptolemaic military settlers, who were known as Kleruchoi, the Seleucid settlers were called Katoikoi. The settlers would maintain the land as their own and in return they would serve in the Seleucid army when called. The majority of settlements were concentrated in Lydia, northern Syria, the upper Euphrates and Media. The Greeks were dominant in Lydia, Phrygia and Syria.[44] For example, Antiochus III brought Greeks from Euboea, Crete and Aetolia and settled them in Antioch.[45] These settlers would be used to form the Seleucid phalanx and cavalry units, with picked men put into the kingdom's guards regiments. The rest of the Seleucid army would consist of a large number of native and mercenary troops, who would serve as light auxiliary troops. However, by the time of the Daphne Parade in 166 BC, the large number of ethnic contingents were missing from the army of Antiochus IV. This was most likely due to the army reform that was undertaken by Antiochus IV.[46] In his reign, Antiochus IV had built 15 new cities "and their association with the increased phalanx... at Daphne is too obvious to be ignored".[47] Economy[edit] As a Hegemonic empire, much of the state's wealth accumulation centered around maintaining its sizable military.[48][49][50][51] While the motive is simple enough, the Seleucid empire boasts of a sophisticated political economy that extracts wealth from local temples, cities (or poleis), and royal estates; much of which was inherited from their Achaemenid predecessors. Recent discussion indicates a market-oriented economy under the Seleucids.[51] However, evidencing limits our understanding of the Seleucid economy to the Hellenistic Near-East; that is, through their holdings in Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. Little is known about the economy of the Upper Satrapies. Monetization[edit] Seleucid Bronze Coin Depictinding Antiochus III with Laureate head of Apollo Circa. 200 BCE Currency plays an increasingly central role under the Seleucids; however, we should note that monetization was nothing new in their newly acquired lands.[51] Rather, the introduction and widespread implementation of currency is attributed to Darius I's tax reforms centuries prior;[51] hence, the Seleucids see a continuation rather than shift in this practice, i.e. the payment of taxation in silver or, if necessary, in kind.[48] In this regard, the Seleucids are notable for paying their sizeable armies exclusively in silver.[50] Nevertheless, there are two significant developments of currency during the Seleucid period: the adoption of the “Attic Standard” in certain regions,[51] and the popularization of bronze coinage.[50] The adoption of the Attic standard was not uniform across the realm. The Attic standard was already the common currency of the Mediterranean prior to Alexander's conquest; that is, it was the preferred currency for foreign transactions.[50] As a result, coastal regions under the Seleucids —Syria and Asia Minor—were quick to adopt the new standard.[50] In Mesopotamia however, the millennia-old shekel (weighing 8.33g Silver) prevailed over the Attic standard.[50] According to Historian R.J. van der Spek, this is due to their particular method in recording price, which favored bartering over monetary transactions.[51] The Mesopotamians used the value of one shekel as a fixed reference point, against which the amount of a good is given.[51][52] Prices themselves are accounted in terms of their weight in silver per ton, i.e. 60g Silver, Barley, June 242 BCE.[52] The minute difference in weight between a Shekel and Didrachm (weighing 8.6g Silver) could not be expressed in this barter system. And the use of a Greek tetradrachm would be "a far too heavy denomination…in daily trade."[51] Bronze coinage, dating from the late fifth and fourth century, and was popularized as a "fiduciary" currency facilitating "small-scale exchanges" in the Hellenistic period.[51][50] It was principally a legal tender which circulated only around its locales of production;[3]however, the great Seleucid mint at Antioch during Antiochus III's reign (which Numismatist Arthur Houghton dubs "The Syrian and Coele-Syrian Experiment") began minting bronze coins (weighing 1.25–1.5g) to serve a "regional purpose."[53] The reasons behind this remain unclear. However, Spek notes a chronic shortage of silver in the Seleucid empire.[51] In fact, Antiochus I's heavy withdrawal of silver from a satrap is noted by the Babylonian astronomical diary (AD No. –273 B ‘Rev. 33’): "purchases in Babylon and other cities were made in Greek bronze coins."[51] This was unprecedented because "in official documents [bronze coins] played no part";[51] it was a sign of "hardship" for the Seleucids.[51] Nevertheless, the low denomination of bronze coinage meant it was used in tandem with bartering; making it a popular and successful medium of exchange.[50] Agriculture[edit] Agriculture, like most pre-modern economies, constituted a vast majority of the Seleucid economy. Somewhere between 80 and 90% of the Seleucid population was employed,[48] in some form, within the prevailing agricultural structures inherited from their Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid predecessors.[50] These included temples, poleis, and royal estates. We should clarify that the term poleis, according to Spek, did not confer any special status to cities in the Seleucid sources; it was simply the term for "city"—Greek or otherwise.[48] Regardless, agricultural produce varied from region to region. But in general, Greek poleis produced: “grain, olives and their oil, wine…figs, cheese from sheep and goats, [and] meat."[50] Whereas Mesopotamian production from temple land consisted of: “barley, dates, mustard (or cascuta/dodder), cress (cardamom), sesame and wool”; which, as the core region of the Seleucid empire, was also the most productive.[51][48] Price of barley and dates per tonne Recent evidence indicates that Mesopotamian grain production, under the Seleucids, was subject to market forces of supply and demand.[51] Traditional "primitivist" narratives of the ancient economy argue that it was "marketless"; however, the Babylonian astronomical diaries show a high degree of market integration of barley and date prices—to name a few—in Seleucid Babylonia.[52] Prices exceeding 370g silver per ton in Seleucid Mesopotamia was considered a sign of famine. Therefore, during periods of war, heavy taxation, and crop failure, prices increase drastically. In an extreme example, Spek believes tribal Arab raiding into Babylonia caused barley prices to skyrocket to a whopping 1493g silver per ton from 5–8 May, 124 BCE.[52] The average Mesopotamian peasant, if working for a wage at a temple, would receive 1 shekel; it "was a reasonable monthly wage for which one could buy one kor of grain= 180 [liters]."[52] While this appears dire, we should be reminded that Mesopotamia under the Seleucids was largely stable and prices remained low.[51] With encouraged Greek colonization and land reclamation increasing the supply of grain production, however, the question of whether this artificially kept prices stable is uncertain.[51] The Seleucids also continued the tradition of actively maintaining the Mesopotamian waterways. As the greatest source of state income, the Seleucid kings actively managed the irrigation, reclamation, and population of Mesopotamia.[51] In fact, canals were often dug by royal decrees, to which "some were called the King’s Canal for that reason."[48] For example, the construction of the Pallacottas canal was able to control the water level of the Euphrates which, as Arrian notes in his Anabasis 7.21.5, required: “over two months of work by more than 10,000 Assyrians.”[48] Role of the state—political economy[edit] As a hegemonic empire, the state's primary focus was maintaining its sizable army via wealth extraction from three major sources:[50] tribute from autonomous poleis and temples, and proportional land-tax from royal land.[54][55] The definition of "royal land" remains contested. While all agree poleis do not constitute royal land, some remain uncertain over the status of temple land.[56][54] Yet, they commanded notable economic power and functioned almost independently from the state.[49] Nevertheless, the Seleucid manner of extraction, in contrast to earlier regimes, is considered more "aggressive" and "predatory".[55][49] Episodes of Seleucid dispoliation from Michael J. Taylor's Sacred Plunder In theory, the Seleucid state was an absolute monarchy that did not recognize private property in our modern sense.[56] Any land that was not delegated to the poleis or temples was considered private property of the sovereign;[56] thus, considered as Royal Land and liable to direct tax by the state. Here, a "proportional land-tax", that is, a tax based on the size of one's plot, is collected by the local governor (or Satrap) and sent to the capital.[54] However, there is no evidence for the amount that was taxed on any given region. Tribute was heavily levied on poleis and temples. Although tribute is paid annually, the amount demanded increases significantly during wartime. During a civil war in 149 BCE, Demetrius II demanded the province of Judaea to pay 300 talents of silver, which was seen as "severe."[54] But this was far from an isolated case. In fact, the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries in 308/7 BCE note hefty a 50% tax on harvest "from the lands of the temple of Shamash (in Sipprar or Larsa)."[56] Nevertheless, annual tribute was "a long-accepted and uncontroversial practice."[49] Also, royal land was regularly donated to the temples and poleis; albeit under the assumption that a greater share of revenue is given to the state in exchange.[56][55] The controversial practice of temple "despoliation", however, was a regular occurrence under the Seleucids—in contrast to earlier times.[49] Although the Seleucid kings were aware and appreciated the sacrosanctity of religious treasures, their concentration in these places "proved irresistible" in the face of "short-term fiscal constraints."[49] As an example, Antiochus III's despoliation of the Anahit Temple in Ecbatana, wherein he procured 4000 silver talents, was used to fund his Great Eastern campaign.[49] According to historian Michael J. Taylor:[49] It is difficult to believe that these monarchs who knew enough to bow before Nabu, bake bricks for Esagil, and enforce kosher regulations in Jerusalem, would be blithely aware of the political hazards of removing Temple treasures. It is more likely that they knew the risks but took them anyway. A rebellion in 169 BCE during Antiochus III's campaign in Egypt demonstrates that these “risks” occasionally backfire.[55] The increasingly bold interference is due, in large part, to the appointment of provincial high-priests by the monarch himself.[55][48] Often they were his court “favorites”,[48] whose prerogatives were purely administrative; essentially, they served to collect tribute for the state.[55] Unsurprisingly: “native elites profoundly feared that the arrival of a Seleucid official might quickly cascade into a wholesale removal of Temple treasures.”[49] Academic discussion[edit] Interpretations on the Seleucid economy since the late 19th century traditionally fell between the “modernist” and “primitivist” camps.[51][50] On one hand, the modernist view—largely associated with Michael Rostovtzeff and Eduard Meyer—argues that the Hellenistic economies operated along price-setting markets with capitalist enterprises exported over long distances in “completely monetarized markets.”[50] On the other hand, the primitivist view—associated with M.I. Finley, Karl Polanyi and Karl Bücher—interprets ancient economies as “autarchic” in nature with little to no interaction among each other.[4]However, recent discussion has since criticized these models for their grounding on "Greco-centric" sources.[48][57] Recent discussion has since rejected these traditional dichotomies.[51][50][57] According to Spek and Reger, the current view is that while the Seleucid economy—and Hellenistic economies more broadly—were partially market-oriented, and partially monetarized.[51] While the market was subject to forces of supply and demand, a majority of produce still consumed by their producers; hence, "invisible" to the observer.[51][50] Family tree of Seleucids[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Seleucus Laodice of Macedonia Antiochus from Orestia, Macedonia Ptolemy somatophylax 1.Apama daughter of Spitamenes satrap of Sogdiana Seleucus I Nikator emperor of Seleucid Empire 305–281 BC 2.Stratonice daughter of Demetrius I king of Macedonia Didymeia Stratonice of Syria daughter of Demetrius I king of Macedonia (1) Antiochus I Soter emperor of Seleucid Empire 281–261 BC (1) Achaeus the Elder landowner in Asia Minor (2) Phila ∞ Antigonus II Gonatas king of Macedonia Apama II ∞ Magas king of Cyrene Stratonice ∞ Demetrius II king of Macedon 2.Berenice daughter of Ptolemy II king of Egypt Antiochus II Theos emperor of Seleucid Empire 261–246 BC 1.Laodice I Laodice II ∞ Seleucus II Callinicus Alexander landowner in Asia Minor Andromachus landowner in Asia Minor Antiochis ∞ Attalus Attalid dynasty Laodice II daughter of Achaeus landowner in Asia Minor (1) Seleucus II Callinicus emperor of Seleucid Empire 246–225 BC (1) Antiochus Hierax ruler of Asia Minor (1) Stratonice ∞ Ariarathes III of Cappadocia (1) Laodice ∞ Mithridates II of Pontus Achaeus commander of Asia Minor Laodice daughter of Mithridates II of Pontus Antiochis ∞ Xerxes king of Sophene & Commagene Seleucus III Ceraunus emperor of Seleucid Empire 225–223 BC Antiochus III the Great emperor of Seleucid Empire 222–187 BC Laodice III daughter of Mithridates II of Pontus Cleopatra I Syra ∞ Ptolemy V of Egypt Antiochus co-emperor 210–193 BC Laodice IV ∞ 3.Antiochus IV Epiphanes Seleucus IV Philopator emperor of Seleucid Empire 187–175 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes emperor of Seleucid Empire 175–164 BC Antiochis ∞ Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia Nyssa ∞ Pharnaces I of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Laodice V ∞ Perseus king of Macedonia Demetrius I Soter emperor of Seleucid Empire 161–150 BC Antiochus V Eupator emperor of Seleucid Empire 164–161 BC Laodice VI ∞ Mithridates V of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Laodice ∞ Mithridates III of Pontus Alexander Balas emperor of Seleucid Empire 150/152–146 BC Cleopatra Thea daughter of Ptolemy VI of Egypt 2.Rhodogune of Parthia daughter of Mithridates I of Parthia Demetrius II Nicator emperor of Seleucid Empire 145–138 BC 1.Cleopatra Thea daughter of Ptolemy VI of Egypt queen of Syria 126–121 BC Antiochus VII Sidetes emperor of Seleucid Empire 138–129 BC Antiochus VI Dionysus emperor of Seleucid Empire 144–142/1 BC (1) Seleucus V Philometor co-king of Syria 126–125 BC 1.Tryphaena daughter of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt (1) Antiochus VIII Grypus co-king of Syria 125–122 BC king of Syria 122–96 BC 2.Cleopatra Selene daughter of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt Antiochus IX Cyzicenus king of Syria 116–96 BC Cleopatra IV of Egypt daughter of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt Alexander II Zabinas king of Syria 128–123 BC (1) Seleucus VI Epiphanes king of Syria 96–94 BC (1) Antiochus XI Epiphanes king of Syria 94–93 BC (1) Laodice VII Thea ∞ Mithridates I Callinicus king of Commagene (1) Philip I Philadelphus king of Syria 94–83/75 BC (1) Demetrius III Eucaerus king of Syria 96–87 BC (1) Antiochus XII Dionysus king of Syria 87–82 BC Antiochus X Eusebes king of Syria 95–92/88 BC Cleopatra Selene daughter of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt Philip II Philoromaeus king of Syria 65–64 BC Antiochus XIII Asiaticus king of Syria 69–64 BC Seleucus VII Philometor king of Syria 83–69 BC Berenice IV daughter of Ptolemy XII of Egypt List of Seleucid rulers[edit] Main article: List of Seleucid rulers See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Seleucid army Hellenistic period Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Hasmonean dynasty Indo-Greek Kingdom Parthian Empire Cilician pirates References[edit] ^ Cohen, Getzel M; The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa, p. 13. ^ Lynette G. Mitchell; Every Inch a King: Comparative Studies on Kings and Kingship in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, p. 123. ^ Grainger 2020, pp. 130, 143. ^ a b Richard N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, (Ballantyne Ltd, 1984), 164. ^ Julye Bidmead, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia, (Gorgias Press, 2004), 143. ^ a b c d e Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ Grant, Michael (1990). The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra. History of Civilisation. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 21-24. ISBN 0-297-82057-5. ^ Grant, Michael (1990). The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra. History of Civilisation. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 48. ISBN 0-297-82057-5. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "Seleucid, n. and adj." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1911. ^ Jones, Kenneth Raymond (2006). Provincial reactions to Roman imperialism: the aftermath of the Jewish revolt, A.D. 66–70, Parts 66–70. University of California, Berkeley. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-542-82473-9. ... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners. ^ Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) (1993). The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113–114. Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. p. 211. The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander. ^ Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-521-68974-8. The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids. ^ a b Glubb, John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population. ^ Steven C. Hause; William S. Maltby (2004). Western civilization: a history of European society. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-534-62164-3. The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. ^ Victor, Royce M. (2010). Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-567-24719-3. Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed. ^ Britannica, Seleucid kingdom, 2008, O.Ed. ^ Susan M. Sherwin-White; Ama1/2lie Kuhrt (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. University of California Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-520-08183-3. ^ Nigel Wilson (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. p. 652. ISBN 9781136788000. ^ Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. p. 112. ISBN 9780674728820. ^ a b c Appian, History of Rome, "The Syrian Wars" 55 ^ Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4 ^ Vincent A. Smith (1972). Aśoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1303-1. ^ Clark, Walter Eugene (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology". Classical Philology. 14 (4): 297–313. doi:10.1086/360246. S2CID 161613588. ^ Vijay Katchroo. Ancient India, p. 196 ^ William Hunter. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. p. 167 ^ C. D. Darlington. The evolution of man and society. p. 223 ^ Tarn, W. W. (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 60: 84–94. doi:10.2307/626263. JSTOR 626263. ^ Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1-59240-053-1. ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 Archived 28 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Strabo 15.2.1(9) ^ a b c Engels, David (201). "Iranian Identity and Seleucid Allegiance: Vahbarz, the Frataraka and Early Arsacid Coinage". In K. Erickson (ed.). The Seleukid Empire, 281–222 BC: War within the Family. Swansea. pp. 173–196. ^ a b c Erickson, Kyle (2018). The Seleukid Empire 281–222 BC: War Within the Family. ISD LLC. p. 175. ISBN 9781910589953. ^ Kosmin, Paul J. (2018). Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780674976931. ^ Castrén, Paavo (2011). Uusi antiikin historia (in Finnish). Otava. p. 244. ISBN 978-951-1-21594-3. ^ Kosmin 2014, pp. 35–36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKosmin2014 (help) ^ Polybius, Histories, Book 11, 1889, p 78, trans. Friedrich Otto Hultsch, Evelyn Shirley Shuckburgh ^ "Livy's History of Rome". mu.edu. ^ Flavius Josephus, The War of the Jews 1.1§2 ^ Chanukah, Shabbat 21b, Babylonian Talmud ^ "History of Iran: Seleucid Empire". iranchamber.com. ^ Julye Bidmead, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia, 143. ^ Head, 1982, p.20 ^ Chaniotis, 2006, p.86 ^ Head, 1982, p.23 ^ Chaniotis, 2006, p.85 ^ Bar-Kochva, 1989, p.191 ^ Griffith, 1935, p.153 ^ a b c d e f g h i j van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2000). "The Seleucid State and the Economy" In Production and Public Powers in Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society Supplementary. pp. 27–36. ISBN 978-0906014257. ^ a b c d e f g h i Taylor, Michael J. (2014). "Sacred Plunder and the Seleucid Near East". Greece & Rome. 62 (2): 222–241 – via JSTOR. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Reger, Gary (2003). "The Economy" in "A Companion to the Hellenistic World" by Andrew Erskine. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing Limited. pp. 331–353. ISBN 978-1-4051-3278-7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2004). "Palace, Temple and Market in Seleucid Babylonia". Topoi: 303–332 – via Academia. ^ a b c d e van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2014). "The Volatility of Prices of Barley and Dates in Babylon in the Third and Second Centuries BC." In Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History, by Heather D. Baker and Michael Jursa. Oxford and Philadelphia: Oxbow Books. pp. 234–259. doi:10.2307/j.ctvh1dn9m.15. ^ Houghton, Arthur (2003). "Some Observations on Coordinated Bronze Currency Systems in Seleucid Syria and Phoenicia". Israel Numismatic Journal. 15: 35–47 – via Academia. ^ a b c d Mittwoch, A. (1955). "Tribute and Land-tax in Seleucid Judaea". Biblica. 36. No.3: 352–361 – via JSTOR. ^ a b c d e f Gilles, Gorre; Honigman, Sylvie (January 2013). Egitto: Dai Faraoni Agli Arabi." Kings, Taxes and High Priests: Comparing the Ptolemaic and Seleukid Policies. Milan: Dipartimento di Studi letterari, filologicie linguistici dell'Università degli Studi di Milano. pp. 105–119. ISBN 978-8862276412. ^ a b c d e van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (1993). "New Evidence on Seleucid Land Policy". In De Agricultura: In Memoriam Pieter Willem de Neeve, by Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Pieter Willem de Neeve,. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. pp. 303–332. ISBN 978-90-50-63070-2 – via Research Gate. ^ a b Aphergis, Gerassmimos George (October 2008). "The Seleucid Economy". The Classical Review. 58 (2): 520–522 – via JSTOR. Works cited[edit] Grainger, John D. (2020) [1st pub. 2015]. The Seleucid Empire of Antiochus III. 223–187 BC (Paperback ed.). Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-52677-493-4. Further reading[edit] 1 Maccabees G. G. Aperghis, The Seleukid Royal Economy. The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire, Cambridge, 2004. Laurent Capdetrey, Le pouvoir séleucide. Territoire, administration, finances d'un royaume hellénistique (312-129 avant J.C.). (Collection "Histoire"). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2007. D. Engels, Benefactors, Kings, Rulers. Studies on the Seleukid Empire between East and West, Leuven, 2017 (Studia Hellenistica 57). A. Houghton, C. Lorber, Seleucid Coins. A Comprehensive Catalogue, Part I, Seleucus I through Antiochus III, With Metrological Tables by B. Kritt, I-II, New York – Lancaster – London, 2002. Paul J. Kosmin, The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014). R. Oetjen (ed.), New Perspectives in Seleucid History, Archaeology and Numismatics: Studies in Honor of Getzel M. Cohen, Berlin – Boston: De Gruyter, 2020. Michael J. Taylor, Antiochus the Great (Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2013). External links[edit] Library resources about Seleucid Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Livius, The Seleucid Empire by Jona Lendering Genealogy of the Seleucids Seleukid Bibliography maintained at the History Department of Utrecht University Seleucid Research Bibliography, compiled and maintained by the Seleucid Study Group v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Fertile Crescent Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Hammurabi Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell Religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Sumerian religion List of Deities Mesopotamian myths Divination Prayers Ziggurat (Temple) v t e The division of Alexander's empire v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Xianbei Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Tunni Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Geledi Habr Yunis Hobyo Isaaq Majeerteen Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e History of Anatolia v t e Iran topics History Prehistory Ancient 3400–550 BCE Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3200–2800 BC) Elamite dynasties (2800–550 BC) Lullubi culture (c.2300–700 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Kassites (c.1500–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (728–550 BC) (Scythian Kingdom) (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC – CE 224 Achaemenid Empire (550 – 330 BC) Kingdom of Armenia (331 BC – AD 428) Atropatene (320s BC – 3rd century AD) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC – AD 17) Seleucid Empire (330 – 63 BC) Frataraka Kings of Persis Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC – AD 62) Parthian Empire (248 BC –  AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 637 – 1055 Patriarchal Caliphate (637–651) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 975–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Kurt dynasty (1231–1389) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Chobanid dynasty (1337–1357) Jalairid Sultanate dynasty (1339–1432) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1375–1468) Ag Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–50) Zand Dynasty (1750–94) Qajar Empire (1796–1925) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) 1946 Iran crisis Iran Constituent Assembly, 1949 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Interim Government Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Arab separatism in Khuzestan Embassy siege (1980) Shatt al-Arab clashes Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Iranian pilgrim massacre (1987) Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) PJAK insurgency Balochistan conflict Green Movement Syrian civil war Military intervention against ISIL Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action United States withdrawal 2017–18 protests 2018–19 protests COVID-19 pandemic See also Ancient Iran Greater Iran Iranic peoples (languages) Kura–Araxes culture Jiroft culture Aryans Persian people Azerbaijanis Caucasian peoples Kings of Persia Heads of state Cities Military history History of democracy List of years in Iran Geography Borders Cities (list) Earthquakes Iranian Azerbaijan Iranian Balochistan Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus Iranian Kurdistan Iranian Plateau Lake Urmia 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holidays Scouting Sport (football) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Tehrangeles Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Greece Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seleucid_Empire&oldid=1026352453" Categories: Seleucid Empire Ancient Persia Former empires in Asia Former countries in Central Asia Former countries in South Asia Former countries in Western Asia Superpowers 4th-century BC establishments States and territories established in the 4th century BC 310s BC establishments 312 BC States and territories disestablished in the 1st century BC 63 BC disestablishments Classical Anatolia Empires and kingdoms of Iran Offshoots of the Macedonian Empire Former monarchies of Central Asia Former monarchies of Western Asia Former monarchies of South Asia Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi) Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1: long volume value Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Articles needing additional references from January 2021 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 19:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6883	----	Legio I Minervia - Wikipedia Legio I Minervia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman legion This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, under emperor Hadrian, showing the Legio I Minervia, stationed on the river Rhine at Bonna (Bonn, Germany), in Germania Inferior province, between AD 82 until the 4th century Denarius issued in 193 under Septimius Severus, to celebrate I Minervia, which had supported the commander of the Pannonian army in his fight for purple Legio I Minervia ("Minerva's First Legion", i.e., "devoted to the goddess Minerva") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD 82 by emperor Domitian (r. 81–96), for his campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Chatti. Its cognomen refers to the goddess Minerva, the legion's protector. There are still records of the I Minervia in the Rhine border region in the middle of the 4th century. The legion's emblem is an image of goddess Minerva. Legio I Minervia first, and main, camp was in the city of Bonna (modern Bonn), in the province of Germania Inferior. In 89, they suppressed a revolt of the governor of Germania Superior. Due to this, Domitian gave them the cognomen Pia Fidelis Domitiana (loyal and faithful to Domitian) to acknowledge their support. Contents 1 History 2 Attested members 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Between 101 and 106, the legion fought the Dacian Wars of emperor Trajan, commanded by Hadrian, the future emperor. The emblem with Minerva figure appears on the column of Trajan in Rome, along with symbols of other legions. After this war, I Minervia returned to its home city of Bonna. Together with XXX Ulpia Victrix, stationed close by in Castra Vetera II (modern Xanten), they worked in numerous military and building activities, even extracting stone from quarries. Although it belonged to the Germanic army and Bonn was its camp, vexillationes (subunits) of the legion were allocated in different parts of the Empire: 162–166 war against the Parthian Empire, commanded by emperor Lucius Verus 166–175 and 178–180 war against the Marcomanni, commanded by emperor Marcus Aurelius 173 campaign against the Chauci of Gallia Belgica, commanded by governor Didius Julianus 198–211 garrison of the city of Lugdunum, capital of Gallia During the civil wars of the late 2nd and 3rd century, I Minervia supported the following emperors (each of them gave them the indicated titles, dropped out after their fall): Septimius Severus Elagabalus (Antoniniana) Alexander Severus (Severiana Alexandriana) the Gallic Empire, that existed between 260 and 274 Around 353, Bonna was destroyed by the Franks. Although Legio I  Minervia disappears from recorded history, there is no account of its end, whether destroyed in battle or simply disbanded. Attested members[edit] Name Rank Time frame Province Source Quintus Sosius Senecio[1] legatus legionis c. 93 CIL VI, 1444 Publius Aelius Hadrianus legatus legionis c. 103-106 Germania Inferior Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 3 Marcus Pontius Laelianus[2] legatus legionis c. 138-c. 141 Germania Inferior CIL VI, 1497 Lucius Pullaienus Gargilius Antiquus[2] legatus legionis c. 155-c. 158 Germania Inferior CIL III, 7394 Marcus Claudius Fronto[2] legatus legionis 162-c. 165 Germania Inferior CIL VI, 1377 Gaius Scribonius Genialis[2] legatus legionis 166/169 or 177/180 Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 12036 Lucius Calpurnius Proculus[3] legatus legionis ?180/185 Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 8009 Claudius Stratonicus[3] legatus legionis ?184-?186 Germania Inferior IGRR IV.570 Claudius Apollinaris[3] legatus legionis ?187-?189 Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 7946 [...] Plotinus[3] legatus legionis between 190 and 192 Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 8598 Quintus Venidius Rufus Marius Maximus Lucius Calvinianus[3] legatus legionis c. 193 Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 7994 Titus Flavius Secundus Phillipianus[3] legatus legionis c. 194-195/196? Germania Inferior CIL XIII, 1673 Gaius Julius Septimius Castinus[4] legatus legionis c. 205 or c. 208 CIL XIII, 7945 = ILS 2549 Gaius Fabius Agrippinus[4] legatus legionis c. 211 CIL XIII, 8050 Aufidius Coresinius Marcellus[4] legatus legionis 222-224 CIL XIII, 8035 Marcus Marius Titius Rufinus[5] legatus legionis 231 CIL XIII, 8017, CIL IX, 1584 Marcus Petronius Honoratus tribunus angusticlavius Before 138 Germania Inferior CIL VI, 1625a, CIL VI, 1625b = ILS 1340 Gaius Bruttius Praesens tribunus laticlavius c. 90 Dacia AE 1950, 66 Lucius Aninius Sextius Florentinus[6] tribunus laticlavius c.110 Germania Inferior CIL III, 14148,10 Lucius Antonius Albus tribunus laticlavius c. 115 Germania Inferior AE 1972, 567 Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus tribunus laticlavius c. 140 Germania Inferior CIL VI, 1517 Quintus Antistius Adventus tribunus laticlavius c. 153 Germania Inferior AE 1893, 88 Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus tribunus laticlavius c. 190 Germania Inferior Quintus Petronius Melior tribunus laticlavius 3rd century CIL XI, 3367 See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal List of Roman legions Roman legion References[edit] ^ C. P. Jones, "Sura and Senecio", Journal of Roman Studies, 60 (1970), pp. 98-104 ^ a b c d Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag 1977), p. 297 ^ a b c d e f Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (1989), p. 336 ^ a b c Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare, p. 337 ^ Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare, p. 338 ^ Anthony R. Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 238 External links[edit] livius.org article on Legio I Minervia (in German) Legio I Minervia Pia Fidelis, German re-enactment group [1], German re-enactment group, reenacting not only the Legio I Minervia. v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legio_I_Minervia&oldid=990874257" Categories: Roman legions 82 establishments Chatti Military units and formations established in the 1st century 80s establishments in the Roman Empire 80s establishments Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 00:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6890	----	Vologases IV - Wikipedia Vologases IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Vologases IV of Parthia) Jump to navigation Jump to search King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191 King of Kings Vologases IV 𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔 King of Kings Vologases IV's portrait on the obverse of a tetradrachm, showing him wearing a beard and a tiara on his head King of the Parthian Empire Reign 147–191 Predecessor Vologases III Successor Osroes II (rival king) Vologases V (successor) Died 191 Issue Pacorus Vologases V Dynasty Arsacid dynasty Father Mithridates V Religion Zoroastrianism Vologases IV (Parthian: 𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔 Walagash) was King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191. He was the son of Mithridates V (r. 129–140). Vologases spent the early years of his reign re-asserting Parthian control over the Kingdom of Characene. From 161 to 166, he waged war against the Roman Empire; although initially successful, conquering Armenia and Syria, he was eventually pushed back, briefly losing control of the Parthian capitals of Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the Romans. The Romans suffered heavy losses from a plague erupting from Seleucia in 166, forcing them to withdraw. The war ended soon afterward, with Vologases losing most of northern Mesopotamia to the Romans. He died in 191 and was succeeded by his son Vologases V. Contents 1 Name 2 Reign 2.1 Conquest of Characene 2.2 War with the Romans 3 Coinage 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading Name[edit] Vologases is the Greek and Latin form of the Parthian Walagaš (𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔). The name is also attested in New Persian as Balāsh and Middle Persian as Wardākhsh (also spelled Walākhsh). The etymology of the name is unclear, although Ferdinand Justi proposes that Walagaš, the first form of the name, is a compound of words "strength" (varəda), and "handsome" (gaš or geš in Modern Persian).[1] Reign[edit] Conquest of Characene[edit] Vologases IV was a son of Mithridates V, who had contended against the ruling Parthian monarch Vologases III (r. 110–147) for the throne from 129 to 140.[2][3] Vologases IV staged a coup d'état and succeeded Vologases III in 147, marking the establishment of a new branch of the Arsacid dynasty on the Parthian throne.[4][5] In 150/51 AD, he defeated the Arsacid ruler of Characene (also known as Mesene), Meredates, and appointed Orabazes II, most likely a relative of his, as the new king of Characene.[5] Vologases IV's forces seized a statue of Heracles, the patron god of the Characenian royalty. The statue was taken to the temple of Apollo in Seleucia, where it was displayed as a demonstration of Vologases IV's victory.[4] A bilingual inscription (Greek and Parthian) was carved on the statue, which recounts Vologases IV's conquest of Characene:[6] "In the year of the Greeks 462 (151 AD) the King of Kings Arsaces Vologases, son of Mithridates king, led a military expedition into Mesene against Mithridates king, son of previous ruler Pacorus, and after king Mithridates had been expelled from Mesene, became the ruler of all of Mesene and of this bronze statue of the god Heracles, which he himself transported from Mesene, placed in this Sanctuary of the god Apollo who guards the Bronze Door."[6] War with the Romans[edit] Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 When Marcus Aurelius became the new Roman emperor in 161, Vologases IV unexpectedly declared war against the Romans, marking the only time in a Roman-Parthian conflict where the Parthians declared war.[1][7] Vologases IV invaded Armenia and replaced its Roman client king Sohaemus with his own son Pacorus.[7][8] At the same time, an unanticipated Parthian invasion of Syria led to the defeat of the Roman soldiers assigned there. Confident, Vologases IV declined an offer for peace by the Romans in 162.[7] Although the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 started auspiciously for the Parthians, after the Romans recovered from the first shock and setbacks, they counterattacked, restored Sohaemus to the Armenian throne in 163.[7][8] Around the same time, the Parthians captured Edessa and installed Wa'el as puppet king.[9][10] Ma'nu VIII, the legitimate king, was forced to flee to the Roman Empire.[11] The Parthian forces were pushed out of Syria, in 164, and also lost Dura-Europos, which led many Parthian vassal rulers to desert Vologases IV.[7] The Romans laid siege to Edessa in 165; during the siege, the citizens of the city massacred the Parthian garrison and opened its gates to the Romans.[10] The Romans entered the city and restored Ma'nu VIII as ruler of Edessa/Osroene; he also received the epithet Philorhomaios ("Friend of the Romans").[9][10][12] The Parthian capitals of Seleucia and Ctesiphon were captured by the Roman general Avidius Cassius in 165 or 166. Most likely around the same time, Roman legions invaded Media and Adiabene. However, the Romans suffered heavy losses from a plague erupting from Seleucia in 166, forcing them to withdraw. The war ended soon afterward, with Vologases IV losing most of northern Mesopotamia to the Romans.[7] After Sohaemus' death in 180, Vologases IV's son managed to gain the Armenian throne as Vologases II (r. 180–191).[8][13] The end of Vologases IV's reign was marred by the revolt of Osroes II in 190, who minted coins of himself at Ecbatana in Media.[14] However, Vologases IV' son, Vologases II, succeeded him, and appears to have quickly put down Osroes II, ascending the throne as Vologases V.[13][15] Coinage[edit] Coin of Wa'el, with the obverse portraying Vologases IV On the obverse of his tetradrachms, Vologases IV is portrayed with a domed tiara with a horn on the side. He is also wearing a neck flap covering both of his ears. On the obverse of his drachms, Vologases IV is wearing a tiara without the horn.[16] Vologases IV is the first Parthian monarch to only wear a tiara on his coins.[17] On some of the reverse of Vologases IV's bronze coins, an eagle is depicted, which is associated with the khvarenah, i.e. kingly glory.[18] On the obverse of the coins of the brief ruler of Edessa/Osroene, Wa'el, a portrait of Vologases IV is displayed.[16] References[edit] ^ a b Chaumont & Schippmann 1988, pp. 574–580. ^ Dąbrowa 2012, pp. 391–392. ^ Kia 2016, p. 203. ^ a b Gregoratti 2013, p. 281. ^ a b Gregoratti 2017, p. 133. ^ a b Gregoratti 2013, pp. 281–282. ^ a b c d e f Dąbrowa 2010, p. 37. ^ a b c Russell 1987, p. 161. ^ a b Drijvers 1980, p. 13. ^ a b c Segal 1982, pp. 210–213. ^ Sartre 2005, p. 146. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 66. ^ a b Toumanoff 1986, pp. 543–546. ^ Sellwood 1983, pp. 297, 321. ^ Sellwood 1983, p. 297. ^ a b Olbrycht 1997, p. 34. ^ Olbrycht 1997, p. 50. ^ Curtis 2012, p. 76. Sources[edit] Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–99. ISBN 0-521-20092-X. Chaumont, M. L.; Schippmann, K. (1988). "Balāš". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6. pp. 574–580. Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2012). "Parthian coins: Kingship and Divine Glory". The Parthian Empire and its Religions. pp. 67–83. ISBN 9783940598134. Dąbrowa, Edward (2010). "The Arsacids and their State". Altertum und Gegenwart. XI: 21–52. Dąbrowa, Edward (2012). "The Arsacid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 978-0-19-987575-7. Archived from the original on 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-01-13. Drijvers, H. J. W. (1980). Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Brill. ISBN 978-9004060500. Gregoratti, Leonardo (2013). "Epigraphy of Later Parthia". Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei: 276–284. Gregoratti, Leonardo (2017). "The Arsacid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610693912. (2 volumes) Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1997). "Parthian King's tiara - Numismatic evidence and some aspects of Arsacid political ideology". Notae Numismaticae. 2: 27–61. Russell, James R. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674968509. Sartre, Maurice (2005). Porter, Catherine; Rawlings, Elizabeth (eds.). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674016835. Segal, J.B. (1982). "ABGAR". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 2. pp. 210–213. Sellwood, David (1983). "Parthian Coins". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–298. ISBN 0-521-20092-X. Toumanoff, C. (1986). "Arsacids vii. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. pp. 543–546. Further reading[edit] Hansman, John (1991). "Characene and Charax". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 4. pp. 363–365. Vologases IV Arsacid dynasty Preceded by Vologases III King of the Parthian Empire 147–191 Succeeded by Osroes II (rival king) Vologases V (successor) Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Vatican v t e Rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD) Arsaces I (247–217 BC) Arsaces II (217–191 BC) Priapatius (191–176 BC) Phraates I (176–171 BC) Mithridates I (171–132 BC) Phraates II (132–127 BC) Artabanus I (127–124 BC) Mithridates II (124–91 BC) Gotarzes I (91–87/80 BC) Mithridates III§ (87–80 BC) Orodes I (80–75 BC) Sinatruces (75–69 BC) Phraates III (69–57 BC) Mithridates IV (57–54 BC) Orodes II (57–38 BC) Phraates IV (37–2 BC) Tiridates II§ (32 BC) Musa (2 BC–4 AD) Phraates V (2 BC–4 AD) Orodes III (4–6) Vonones I (6–12) Artabanus II (12–35) Tiridates III (35–36) Artabanus II (36–38/41) Vardanes I (40–46) Gotarzes II (40–51) Meherdates§ (49–51) Vonones II (51) Vologases I (51–78) Vardanes II§ (55–58) Pacorus II (78–110) Vologases II§ (78–80) Artabanus III§ (79–81) Osroes I§ (109–129) Vologases III (110–147) Parthamaspates§ (116–117) Sinatruces II§ (116) Mithridates V§ (129–140) Vologases IV (147–191) Osroes II§ (191) Vologases V (191–208) Vologases VI (208–228) Artabanus IV (213–224) § usurpers or rival claimants Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vologases_IV&oldid=1009362474" Categories: 191 deaths 2nd-century Parthian monarchs People of the Roman–Parthian Wars 2nd-century Iranian people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Parthian-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 February 2021, at 04:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6909	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: =={{anchor|Marriage and issue}}Marriage and children== {{multiple image |image1=Commodus-AnniusVerus tarsos 161-165 AE17 CNG.jpg |caption1=Coin of [[Commodus]] and [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]], 161–165. Inscription: [ΝΕΩ]ΚΟΡΟΙ CΕΒΑCΤΟΥ i.e. the city (of Tarsus in Cilicia) had a temple of Augustus. |alt1=Coin of Marcus's sons Commodus and Annius facing each other |image2=Busto de Vibia Sabina (M. Prado) 01.jpg |caption2=Bust of [[Vibia Aurelia Sabina]], [[Museo del Prado|Prado Museum]] |alt2=Bust of Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Marcus's daughter |total_width=500 }} Marcus and his [[Cousin marriage|cousin-wife]] [[Faustina the Younger|Faustina]] had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='Stephens, p. 31'>Stephens, p. 31.</ref> including two sets of twins.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='livius3'/> One son and four daughters outlived their father.<ref>Ackermann, Schroeder, Terry, Lo Upshur and Whitters, p. 39.</ref> Their children included: * Domitia Faustina (147–151)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'/><ref name='livius1'/><ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'>McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life'', p. 92.</ref> * Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'/><ref name='livius3'>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antoninus-and-aelius/ 'Antoninus and Aelius']. Livius.org.</ref><ref name='levick171'>Levick, p. 171.</ref> * Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'/><ref name='livius3'/><ref name='levick171'/> * [[Lucilla|Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla]] (150<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107'/><ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/>–182<ref>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/articles/person/lucilla/ 'Lucilla']. Livius.org.</ref>), married her father's co-ruler [[Lucius Verus]],<ref name='livius1'/> then [[Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus]], had issue from both marriages * [[Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina]] (born 151),<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'/> married [[Gnaeus Claudius Severus (consul 167)|Gnaeus Claudius Severus]], had a son * Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'/> * Unknown child (died before 158)<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/> * [[Fadilla|Annia Aurelia Fadilla]] (born 159<ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus]], had issue * [[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor]] (born 160<ref name='McLynn, A Life, p. 92'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus]], had a son * Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus<ref name='levick171'/> * [[Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus]] (Commodus) (161–192),<ref>Gagarin, p. 37.</ref> twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,<ref name='levick171'/><ref>Benario, Herbert W. [http://www.roman-emperors.org/marcaur.htm 'Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180)']. Roman Emperors.</ref> married [[Bruttia Crispina]], no issue * [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar]] (162<ref name='auto'/>–169<ref name='Stephens, p. 31'/><ref>Adams, p. 104.</ref>)<ref name='livius1'/> * Hadrianus<ref name='livius1'/> * [[Vibia Aurelia Sabina]] (170<ref name='levick171'/>– died before 217<ref>Levick, p. 160.</ref>),<ref name='livius1'/> married [[Lucius Antistius Burrus]], no issue {{Nerva-Antonine family tree}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6913	----	Magnus Maximus - Wikipedia Magnus Maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Maxen" redirects here. For other uses, see Maxen (disambiguation). Roman emperor from 383 to 388 Roman emperor Magnus Maximus Solidus of Magnus Maximus Roman emperor Reign 383 – 28 August 388, in the West Predecessor Gratian Successor Theodosius I Co-emperors Theodosius I (384–388) Valentinian II (384–388) Victor (384–388) Born c. 335 Hispania Gallaecia Died 28 August 388 (aged 53) Aquileia, Venetia et Histria Spouse Elen (traditional) Issue Detail Flavius Victor "Sevira" "Maxima" Religion Nicene Christianity Magnus Maximus (Latin: [ˈmaŋnus ˈmaksimus]; Welsh: Macsen Wledig [ˈmaksɛn ˈwlɛdɪɡ]; c. 335–28 August 388) was Roman emperor in the western portion of the Empire from 383 to 388. He usurped the throne from emperor Gratian in 383, through negotiation with emperor Theodosius I. He was made emperor in Britannia and Gaul the next year while Gratian's brother Valentinian II retained Italy, Pannonia, Hispania, and Africa. In 387, Maximus's ambitions led him to invade Italy, resulting in his defeat by Theodosius I at the Battle of Poetovio in 388. In the view of some historians, his death marked the end of direct imperial presence in Northern Gaul and Britain.[1] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Birth, army career 1.2 Rebellion and bid for the throne 1.3 Administration 1.4 Final conflicts and execution 1.5 Fate of family 2 Role in British and Breton history 3 Welsh legend 3.1 Geoffrey of Monmouth 3.2 The Dream of Macsen Wledig 3.3 Coel Hen 3.4 Other links with Caernarfon 4 Later literature 5 Primary sources 6 References 7 External links Life[edit] Birth, army career[edit] Maximus was born c. 335 in Gallaecia, on the estates of Count Theodosius (the Elder), to whom he claimed to be related.[2] Maximus was the son of the general Flavius Julius Eucherius and the brother of Marcellinus. Near contemporaries described his dignity as offended when lesser men were promoted to high positions.[citation needed] Maximus was a distinguished general; he was probably a junior officer in Britain in 368, during the quelling of the Great Conspiracy.[3] He served under Count Theodosius in Africa in 373.[4] Assigned to Britain in 380, he defeated an incursion of the Picts and Scots in 381.[2] Rebellion and bid for the throne[edit] The Western emperor Gratian had become unpopular because of perceived favouritism toward Alans—an Iranian speaking people (see also Sarmatians and Ossetians) who were early adopters of Christianity and migrated both east and west from their homeland—over Roman citizens.[2] In 383 Maximus was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He went to Gaul to pursue his imperial ambitions, taking a large portion of the British garrison with him.[2] Following his landing in Gaul, Maximus went out to meet Gratian, whom he defeated after five days skirmishing near Paris.[2] Gratian fled and was killed at Lyon on 25 August 383. Continuing his campaign into Italy, Maximus was stopped from overthrowing Valentinian II, who was only twelve, when Flavius Bauto came with a powerful force to forestall him. Negotiations followed in 384 including the intervention of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, leading to an accord with Valentinian II and Theodosius I in which Maximus was recognized as Augustus in the West.[5] Administration[edit] Maximus made his capital at Augusta Treverorum (Treves, Trier) in Gaul, and ruled Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa. He issued coinage and a number of edicts reorganising Gaul's system of provinces. Some scholars believe Maximus may have founded the office of the Comes Britanniarum as well.[citation needed] He became a popular emperor; Quintus Aurelius Symmachus delivered a panegyric on Maximus's virtues. He used foederati forces such as the Alamanni to great effect. He was also a stern persecutor of heretics. It was on his orders that Priscillian and six companions were executed for heresy, in this case of Priscillianism, although the actual civil charges laid by Maximus himself were for the practice of magic. These executions went ahead despite protests against the involvement of the secular power by prominent men such as St. Ambrose and St. Martin of Tours.[6] Maximus thereby not only established his credentials as an upholder of orthodoxy, but also strengthened his financial resources in the ensuing confiscations.[7] Maximus's edict of 387 or 388, which censured Christians at Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, was condemned by bishop Ambrose, who said people exclaimed, ‘the emperor has become a Jew’.[8] Final conflicts and execution[edit] In 387 Maximus managed to force emperor Valentinian II out of Milan, after which he fled to Theodosius I. Theodosius and Valentinian then invaded from the east, and campaigned against Maximus in July–August 388, their troops being led by Richomeres and other generals. Maximus was defeated in the Battle of Poetovio,[9] and retreated to Aquileia. Meanwhile, the Franks under Marcomer had taken the opportunity to invade northern Gaul, at the same time further weakening Maximus's position. Andragathius, magister equitum of Maximus and the killer of Emperor Gratian, was defeated near Siscia, while Maximus's brother, Marcellinus, fell in battle at Poetovio.[10] Maximus surrendered in Aquileia, and although he pleaded for mercy was executed. The Senate passed a decree of Damnatio memoriae against him. However, his mother and at least two daughters were spared.[11] Theodosius's trusted general Arbogast strangled Maximus's son, Flavius Victor, at Trier in the fall of the same year.[12] Fate of family[edit] What exactly happened to Maximus's family after his downfall is not recorded. He is known to have had a wife, who is recorded as having sought spiritual counsel from St. Martin of Tours during his time at Trier. Her ultimate fate, and even her name (but see the Welsh tradition below), have not been preserved in definitive historic records. The same is true of Maximus's mother and daughters, other than that they were spared by Theodosius I. One of Maximus's daughters may have been married to Ennodius,[13] proconsul Africae (395). Ennodius's grandson was Petronius Maximus, another ill-fated emperor, who ruled in Rome for only 77 days before he was stoned to death while fleeing from the Vandals on 24 May 455. Other descendants of Ennodius, and thus possibly of Maximus, included Anicius Olybrius, emperor in 472, but also several consuls and bishops such as St. Magnus Felix Ennodius (Bishop of Pavia c. 514-21). We also encounter an otherwise unrecorded daughter of Magnus Maximus, Sevira, on the Pillar of Eliseg, an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales which claims her marriage to Vortigern, king of the Britons.[14] Role in British and Breton history[edit] Maximus's bid for imperial power in 383 coincides with the last date for any evidence of a Roman military presence in Wales, the western Pennines, and the fortress of Deva. Coins dated later than 383 have been found in excavations along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that troops were not entirely stripped from it, as was once thought.[15] In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae written c. 540, Gildas says that Maximus "deprived" Britain not only of its Roman troops, but also of its "armed bands...governors and of the flower of her youth", never to return.[16] Having left with the troops and senior administrators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future, his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers. Welsh legend supports that this happened, with stories such as Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig (English: The Dream of Emperor Maximus), where he not only marries a wondrous British woman (thus making British descendants probable), but also gives her father sovereignty over Britain (thus formally transferring authority from Rome back to the Britons themselves). The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus (referred to as Macsen/Maxen Wledig, or Emperor Maximus) the role of founding father of the dynasties of several medieval Welsh kingdoms, including those of Powys and Gwent.[17][18] He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales.[19] After he became emperor of the West, Maximus returned to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the Damnonii, Votadini, and Novantae (all located in modern Scotland). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs—the later rulers of Galloway, home to the Novantae, claimed Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.[15] The ninth century Historia Brittonum gives another account of Maximus and assigns him an important role: The seventh emperor was Maximianus, He withdrew from Britain with all its military force, slew Gratianus the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, families, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Iovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is Cruc Occident. These are the Armoric Britons, and they remain there to the present day. In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance. Modern historians believe that this idea of mass British troop settlement in Brittany by Maximus may very well reflect some reality, as it accords with archaeological and other historical evidence and later Breton traditions. Armorica declared independence from the Roman Empire in 407 CE, but contributed archers for Flavius Aetius's defence against Attila the Hun, and its king Riothamus was subsequently mentioned in contemporary documents as an ally of Rome's against the Goths. Despite its continued usage of two distinct languages, Breton and Gallo, and extensive invasions and conquests by Franks and Vikings, Armorica retained considerable cultural cohesion into the 13th century. Maximus also established a military base in his native Gallaecia, i.e., Galicia (Spain), which persisted as a cultural entity despite occupation by the Suebi in 409, see Kingdom of Galicia. Aetius sent large numbers of Alans to both Armorica and Galicia following the defeat of Attila at the Battle of the Catalunian Plains. The Alans evidently assimilated quickly into the local Celtic cultures, contributing their own legends, e.g., to the Arthurian Cycle of romances. Welsh legend[edit] Legendary versions of Maximus's career in which he marries the Welsh princess Elen may have circulated in popular tradition in Welsh-speaking areas from an early date. Although the story of Helen and Maximus's meeting is almost certainly fictional, there is some evidence for the basic claims. He is certainly given a prominent place in the earliest version of the Welsh Triads which are believed to date from c. 1100 and which reflect older traditions in some cases. Welsh poetry also frequently refers to Macsen as a figure of comparison with later Welsh leaders. These legends come down to us in two separate versions.[19] Geoffrey of Monmouth[edit] Illustration from a 14th-century Welsh manuscript thought to intend to depict Magnus Maximus. Llanbeblig Hours (f. 3r.) Wikisource has original text related to this article: History of the Kings of Britain/Book 5 According to Geoffrey of Monmouth's fictional Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136), the basis for many English and Welsh legends, Maximianus, as he calls him, was a Roman senator, a nephew of Coel Hen through Coel's brother Ioelinus, and king of the Britons following the death of Octavius (Eudaf Hen). Geoffrey writes this came about because Octavius wanted to wed his daughter to just such a powerful half-Roman-half-Briton and to give the kingship of Britain, as a dowry, to that husband, so he sent a message to Rome offering his daughter to Maximian.[20] Caradocus, the Duke of Cornwall, had suggested and supported the marriage between Octavius's daughter and Maximian. Maximian accepted the offer and left Rome for Britain. Geoffrey claims further that Maximian gathered an army as he sacked Frankish towns along the way. He invaded Clausentum (modern Southampton) unintentionally and nearly fought the army of the Britons under Conan Meriadoc before agreeing to a truce. Following further negotiations, Maximian was given the kingship of Britain and Octavius retired. Five years into his kingship, Magnus Maximus assembled a vast fleet and invaded Gaul, leaving Britain in the control of Caradocus.[21] Upon reaching the kingdom of Armorica (historically, the region between the Loire and Seine rivers, later comprising Brittany, Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Touraine), he defeated the king and killed thousands of inhabitants. Before departing to Rome, he summoned Conanus, the rebellious nephew of Octavius, and asked him to rule as king of the land, which was renamed Brittany. Conan's men married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. Geoffrey of Monmouth presents this legend to explain the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw, as originating from lled-taw or "half-silent". Given that Conan was well established in genealogies as the founder of Brittany, this account is certainly connected to an older tradition than Geoffrey. Following the death of Caradocus, rule of Britain as regent passed to Dionotus, who – facing a foreign invasion – appealed to Maximus, who finally sent a man named Gracianus Municeps with two legions to stop the attack. He killed many thousands before the invaders fled to Ireland. Maximus died in Rome soon after and Dionotus became the official king of the Britons. Unfortunately, before he could begin his reign, Gracianus took hold of the crown and made himself king over Dionotus. While a broadly positive account of Maximian, the History concludes with the success of the barbarian invaders, and laments, "Alas for the absence of so many warlike soldiers through the madness of Maximianus!".[22] The Dream of Macsen Wledig[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Dream of Maxen Wledig Main article: The Dream of Macsen Wledig Although the Mabinogion tale The Dream of Macsen Wledig is written in later manuscripts than Geoffrey's version, the two accounts are so different that scholars agree the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition. Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Wales, daughter of a chieftain based at Segontium (Caernarfon), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is Helen or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride.[23] In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With the help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother Conanus (Welsh: Cynan Meriadoc, Breton: Conan Meriadeg), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany.[citation needed] His love Helen (Elen) was travelling along the Roman roads in a Snowdonian valley when she was given grievous news over her husband. Near a well she bent to her knees and cried "croes awr i mi yw hon" translated "a cross hour for me is this", and laid down and died. The village was named Croesor, a Snowdonian village nestled on the knees of the mountain Cnicht. This is why the village was called Croesor, and although it is close in a sense to Caernarfon, it is a fair way onto the valleys and mountains of Snowdonia. Croesor Primary School had the full fable drawn by the children in the 1970s in a pottery tile mural spanning the length of the small school; this was there from when it was made until the school was sold for private use.[citation needed] Coel Hen[edit] According to another legend, Maximus appointed Coel Hen, perhaps the legendary "Old King Cole", as governor of northern Britain, ruling from Eburacum (York). Following Maximus's departure for the continent, Coel became high king of northern Britain.[24] Other links with Caernarfon[edit] Magnus Maximus and Elen are traditionally given as the parents of Saint Peblig (or Publicus, named in the Calendar of the Church in Wales), to whom a church dedicated stands in Caernarfon. The church is built on an important early Christian site, itself built on a Roman Mithraeum or temple of Mithras, close to the Segontium Roman Fort. A Roman altar was found in one of the walls during 19th century restoration work. The present church dates mainly from the 14th century.[25] The medieval English king Edward I was influenced by the legendary dream of Macsen Wledig/Magnus Maximus. In the dream Maximus had seen a fort, "the fairest that man ever saw", within a city at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country and opposite an island. Edward interpreted this to mean Segontium was the city of Maximus's dream and drew on the imperial link when building Caernarfon Castle in 1283.[26] It was apparently believed that Maximus died in Wales. According to the Flores Historiarum, during the construction of the Castle and the nearby planned town, the body believed to be of Magnus Maximus was discovered entombed; King Edward ordered its reburial in a local church.[27] Later literature[edit] The prominent place of Macsen in history, Welsh legend and in the Matter of Britain means he is often a character or referred to in historical and Arthurian fiction. Such stories include Stephen R. Lawhead's Pendragon Cycle, Mary Stewart's The Hollow Hills, Jack Whyte's Camulod Chronicles, M J Trow's Britannia series, Nancy McKenzie's Queen of Camelot and Rudyard Kipling's Puck of Pook's Hill. The popular Welsh folk song Yma o Hyd, recorded by Dafydd Iwan in 1981, recalls Macsen Wledig and celebrates the continued survival of the Welsh people since his days. Primary sources[edit] He is mentioned in a number of ancient and medieval sources: Ammianus Marcellinus Rerum Gestarum Libri Qui Supersunt XXXI.4.9 Geoffrey of Monmouth Histories of the Kings of Britain V.5-6 Gildas De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae II.13-14 'Nennius' Historia Brittonum 27; 29 Orosius Historium adversum paganos VII.34 Pacatus Panegyricus Latini Pacati Deprani Dictus Theodosio Prosper (Tiro) of Aquitaine Chronicon 384; 388 Socrates Scholasticus Historia Ecclesiastica V.8; V.11 Sozomen Historia Ecclesiastica VII.13 Sulpicius Severus Dialogi II.6;III.11,13 Sulpicius Severus Historia Sacra II.49-51 Sulpicius Severus Vita Sancti Martini XX Trioedd Ynys Prydein (The Welsh Triads) Zosimus Historia Nova References[edit] ^ "The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500–c. 700" by Paul Fouracre, Rosamond McKitterick, p. 48 ^ a b c d e J B Bury ed., The Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge 1924) p. 238 ^ Wijnendaele, J. (2020). Ammianus, Magnus Maximus and the Gothic Uprising. Britannia, 51, 330-335. doi:10.1017/S0068113X20000045 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/abs/ammianus-magnus-maximus-and-the-gothic-uprising/B72141580D83AEFB704E27C6A0FBADCD ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire(Penguin 1986) p. 417 ^ D Divine, The North-West Frontier of Rome (London 1969) p. 229 ^ A Momigliano, Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography (Oxford 1977) p. 113 ^ K Cooper ed., Making Early Medieval Societies (2016) p. 34 and p. 44 ^ Ambrose, Patrologia Latina, 16–17 (1845), nos. 40 ^ Pan. Lat. II.34 ^ Pan. Lat. II.35-6 ^ Ambrose, Ep. 40.32 ^ Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 Feb 2010 (p.68) ^ Drinkwater, John (ed.); Elton, Hugh (ed.) (2002). Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?. Cambridge University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0-521-41485-7. Retrieved Jan 13, 2020.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Laycock, Stuart (2011). Warlords: The Struggle for Power in Post-Roman Britain. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-7560-8. Retrieved Jan 13, 2020. ^ a b Frere, Sheppard Sunderland (1987), "The End of Roman Britain", Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p. 354, ISBN 0-7102-1215-1 ^ Giles, John Allen, ed. (1841), "The Works of Gildas", The Works of Gildas and Nennius, London: James Bohn, p. 13, The History, ch. 14. ^ Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887), "Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20", Y Cymmrodor, VIII, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 83–92 ^ Phillimore, Egerton (1888), "The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859", in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), Y Cymmrodor, IX, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 141–183 ^ a b Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, Third Edition, 2006. 441-444 ^ G Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain (Penguin 1966) p. 136 ^ G Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain (Penguin 1966) p. 139 ^ G Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain (Penguin 1966) p. 147 ^ S Davies trans, Mabinogion (Oxford 2007) p. 108 ^ Kessler, Peter. "Magnus Maximus". The History Files. Retrieved Jan 13, 2020. ^ "Church of St Peblig, Caernarfon". www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk. British Listed Buildings. Retrieved 13 November 2015. ^ Allen Brown, Reginald (1984). The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide. B.T. Batsford. p. 88. ISBN 0-7134-4089-9. ^ Taylor, Arnold (1986). The Welsh Castles of Edward I. Hambledon Press, London. p. 78. ISBN 0-907628-71-0. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Magnus Maximus. De Imperatoribus Romanis – Roman Emperors, account Roman Empire account Genèse de la Bretagne armoricaine Magnus Maximus Born: 335 Died: 28 August 388 Regnal titles Preceded by Gratian and Valentinian II Roman emperor 383-388 With: Valentinian II, Theodosius I and Flavius Victor Succeeded by Valentinian II and Theodosius I Political offices Preceded by Valentinian II, Eutropius Consul of the Roman Empire 388 with Theodosius I and Maternus Cynegius Succeeded by Timasius, Promotus Legendary titles Preceded by Octavius King of Britain 383–388 with Dionotus (regent) Succeeded by Gracianus Municeps v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Celtic mythology series Welsh mythology Texts and tales Four Branches of the Mabinogi Pwyll Pendefig Dyfed Branwen ferch Llŷr Manawydan fab Llŷr Math fab Mathonwy Arthurian Culhwch and Olwen Preiddeu Annwfn Pa gur Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain Geraint and Enid Peredur son of Efrawg The Dream of Rhonabwy Geraint son of Erbin Other Taliesin Cad Goddeu Welsh Triads The Dream of Macsen Wledig Englynion y Beddau Giant tales Lludd and Llefelys Characters Afaon fab Taliesin Amaethon Arawn Arianrhod Arthur Afallach Beli Mawr Bleiddwn Blodeuwedd Bedwyr Bendigeidfran Branwen Cai Caradog ap Bran Caswallawn Ceridwen Cigfa Creiddylad Culhwch Cyhyraeth Cyledr Wyllt Cymidei Cymeinfoll Cynon Dôn Drudwas Dylan ail Don Dywel fab Erbin Edern ap Nudd Efnysien Elen Elffin ap Gwyddno Eliwlod Eufydd Euroswydd Geraint Gilfaethwy Glewlwyd Gafaelfawr Goewin Gofannon Goreu fab Custennin Gronw Pebr Gwawl Gwern Gwrhyr Gwyddno Garanhir Gwydion Gwyn ap Nudd Gwythyr Gwalchmei Hafgan Hefeydd Hueil mab Caw Hychddwn Hyddwn Iddog ap Mynio Idris Llefelys Lleu Llŷr Lludd Llwyd Mabon Madoc ap Uthyr Macsen Wledig Mallt-y-Nos Manawydan Math Matholwch Menw Modron Morfydd Morfran Nisien Olwen Penarddun Penpingion Peredur Pryderi Pwyll Rhiannon Saint Cyllin Saint Eigen Sanddef Seithenyn Taliesin Tegid Foel Teyrnon Ysbaddaden Animals and creatures Adar Llwch Gwin Adar Rhiannon Afanc Cavall (Cafall, Cabal) Ceffyl Dŵr Cewri Coblynau Coraniaid Cŵn Annwn Cyhyraeth Dreigiau Gwyllgi Gwyllion Llamhigyn y Dŵr Morgens Plentyn Newid Pwca Twrch Trwyth Tylwyth Teg Locations Annwn Cornwall (Celliwig) Caer Sidi Cantre'r Gwaelod Dyfed (Arberth, Gwales) Gwynedd (Aberffraw, Arfon, Ardudwy, Caer Dathyl) Ireland London (Ludgate) Miscellaneous Excalibur (Caledfwlch) Cauldron of rebirth Llech Ronw Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain v t e Geoffrey of Monmouth Works Prophetiae Merlini (c. 1135) Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Vita Merlini (c. 1150) Translations Roman de Brut Layamon's Brut Brut y Brenhinedd Characters Aeneas Saint Alban Albanactus Alhfrith of Deira Allectus Ambrosius Aurelianus Amphibalus Andragius Archgallo Archmail King Arthur Arvirargus Ascanius Augustine of Canterbury Aurelius Conanus Bedivere Beldgabred Beli Mawr Belinus Bladud Bledric ap Custennin Bledudo Brennius Brutus Greenshield Brutus of Troy Budic II of Brittany Cadfan ap Iago Cadoc Cador Cadwaladr Cadwallon ap Cadfan Camber (legendary king) Cap of Britain Capetus Silvius Capoir Caracalla Caradocus Carausius Cassivellaunus Catellus Catigern Cherin Claudius Cledaucus Clotenus Coel Hen Coilus Conan Meriadoc Constans II (usurper) Constantine the Great Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor) Constantine (Briton) Constantius Chlorus Cordelia of Britain Corineus Cunedagius Cunobeline Danius Saint David Digueillus Diocletian Dionotus Dunvallo Molmutius Ebraucus Edadus Edern ap Nudd Edwin of Northumbria Eldol Eldol, Consul of Gloucester Elidurus Eliud Enniaunus Estrildis Eudaf Hen Ferrex Fulgenius Gawain Gerennus Goffar the Pict Gogmagog (folklore) Goneril Gorboduc Gorbonianus Gorlois Gracianus Municeps Guiderius Guinevere Guithelin Gurgintius Gurguit Barbtruc Gurgustius Gwenddoleu ap Ceidio Gwenddydd Queen Gwendolen Helena (empress) Helenus Hengist and Horsa Hoel Humber the Hun Iago ap Beli Idvallo Igraine Ingenius of Britain Jago of Britain Julius and Aaron Julius Asclepiodotus Julius Caesar Sir Kay Keredic Kimarcus Kinarius Latinus Lavinia Leil Leir of Britain Locrinus King Lot Lucius of Britain Lucius Tiberius Lud son of Heli Maddan Maelgwn Gwynedd Magnus Maximus Mandubracius Queen Marcia Marganus Marganus II Marius of Britain Mempricius Merianus Merlin Millus Mordred Morgause Morvidus Myrddin Wyllt Nennius of Britain Octa of Kent Oenus Oswald of Northumbria Oswiu of Northumbria Owain mab Urien Penda of Mercia Peredur Peredurus Pir of the Britons Porrex I Porrex II Publius Septimius Geta Quintus Laberius Durus Redechius Redon of Britain Regan (King Lear) Rhydderch Hael Rience Rivallo Rud Hud Hudibras Runo Sawyl Penuchel Septimius Severus Silvius (mythology) Sisillius I Sisillius II Sisillius III Son of Gorbonianus Taliesin Tasciovanus Trahern Turnus Urianus Uther Pendragon Venissa Vespasian Vortigern Vortimer Vortiporius Wulfhere of Mercia Ywain Æthelberht of Kent Æthelfrith of Northumbria Œthelwald of Deira Topics Avalon Battle of Arfderydd Battle of Badon Battle of Camlann Battle of Guoloph Brut y Tywysogion Excalibur Lailoken List of legendary kings of Britain List of legendary rulers of Cornwall Logres Matter of Britain Molmutine Laws Nennius Pridwen Riothamus River Malvam Siege of Exeter (c. 630) Locations associated with Arthurian legend Treachery of the Long Knives Trinovantum Trojan genealogy of Nennius Walter of Oxford Wikiquote Wikisource texts Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnus_Maximus&oldid=1026086538" Categories: 330s births 388 deaths 4th-century Christians 4th-century executions 4th-century Roman usurpers 4th-century murdered monarchs Ancient Romans in Britain Arthurian characters British traditional history Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth Executed Roman emperors Executed Spanish people Historical figures as candidates of King Arthur Imperial Roman consuls Mabinogion People executed by the Roman Empire Usurpers Valentinianic dynasty Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors 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en-wikipedia-org-6943	----	Frank McLynn - Wikipedia Frank McLynn From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Frank McGlynn. Frank McLynn Born Francis James McLynn (1941-08-29) 29 August 1941 (age 79) United Kingdom Nationality British Occupation Author Francis James McLynn FRHistS FRGS (born 29 August 1941), known as Frank McLynn, is a British author, biographer, historian and journalist. He is noted for critically acclaimed biographies of Napoleon Bonaparte, Robert Louis Stevenson, Carl Jung, Richard Francis Burton and Henry Morton Stanley. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Bibliography 2.1 Books 2.2 As editor 2.3 Criticism and reviews 2.3.1 Captain Cook : master of the seas (2011) 3 Awards and accolades 4 See also 5 References Early life and education[edit] McLynn was educated at Wadham College, Oxford[1] and the University of London.[2] He was Alistair Horne Research Fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford (1987–88) and was visiting professor in the Department of Literature at the University of Strathclyde (1996–2001)[3] and professorial fellow at Goldsmiths College London (2000–2002)[4] before becoming a full-time writer. Bibliography[edit] This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Books[edit] France and the Jacobite Rising of 1745 (1981), Edinburgh University Press The Jacobite Army in England, 1745–46 (1983), John Donald Publishers Ltd The Jacobites (1985), Law Book Co of Australasia Invasion: From the Armada to Hitler (1987), Routledge Charles Edward Stuart: A Tragedy in Many Acts (1988) Routledge; Reissued (2020) by Sharpe Books ISBN 979-8646825446. Crime and Punishment in Eighteenth Century England (1989), Routledge Stanley: The Making of an African Explorer, 1841–1877 (1990), Scarborough House Publishers From the Sierras to the Pampas: Richard Burton’s Travels in the Americas, 1860–69 (1991), Trafalgar Square Stanley: Sorcerer's Apprentice (1992), Oxford University Press Snow upon the Desert: The Life of Sir Richard Burton (1993), John Murray Publishers Ltd Hearts of Darkness: The European Exploration of Africa (1993), Carroll & Graf Pub Famous Letters: Messages & Thoughts That Shaped Our World (1993), Reader's Digest Association Fitzroy MacLean (1993), John Murray Publishers Ltd Robert Louis Stevenson: A Biography (1994), Random House Famous Trials: Cases That Made History (1995), Readers Digest Napoleon: A Biography (1997), Arcade Publishing Carl Gustav Jung: A Biography (1997), Thomas Dunne Books 1066: The Year of the Three Battles (1998), Jonathan Cape, Reissued by Pimlico, ISBN 9780712666725 Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution (2000), Basic Books Wagons West: The Epic Story of America's Overland Trails (2002), Grove Press 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (2005), Atlantic Monthly Press, ISBN 9780871138811 Lionheart and Lackland: King Richard, King John and the Wars of Conquest (2006), Jonathan Cape Published in the US as Richard and John: Kings at War (2007), Da Capo Press Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor (2009), Bodley Head, ISBN 9780306819162 Heroes and Villains: Inside the Minds of the Greatest Warriors in History (2009), Pegasus The Burma Campaign: Disaster Into Triumph 1942–45 (2010), Bodley Head, Issued by Yale University Press in 2011, ISBN 9780300187441 Captain Cook: Master of the Seas (2011), Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300114218 The Road Not Taken: How Britain Narrowly Missed a Revolution, 1381–1926 (2012), Random House Genghis Khan: The Man Who Conquered the World (2015), Bodley Head, ISBN 9780224072908 As editor[edit] Of No Country: An Anthology of the Works of Sir Richard Burton (1990), London: Scribners Criticism and reviews[edit] Captain Cook : master of the seas (2011)[edit] Etherington, Norman (September 2011). "History warrior : the world's greatest sea explorer versus the academics". Australian Book Review. 334: 11–12. Awards and accolades[edit] Cheltenham Prize for Literature (1985; for The Jacobite Army in England)[5] Shortlisted, McVitie's Prize for Scottish Writer of the Year (1989, for Charles Edward Stuart)[6] See also[edit] Napoleon legacy and memory References[edit] ^ "Random House Books". Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2019. ^ McLynn, Frank (20 February 1988). The Jacobites. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 9780415002677 – via Google Books. ^ Frank McLynn, "Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution", Back cover bio, [1] ^ "Royal Literary Fund". Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2019. ^ "January Magazine". Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2019. ^ "Midlothian, Our Library". Archived from the original on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2019. 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en-wikipedia-org-6947	----	Diadochi - Wikipedia Diadochi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political rivals in the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death For other uses, see Diadochus. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Diadochi" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Diadochi fought over and carved up Alexander's empire into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over 300 more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus. The five kingdoms of the Diadochi were:   Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter   Kingdom of Cassander   Kingdom of Lysimachus   Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator   Epirus Other   Carthage   Roman Republic   Greek States Bust of Seleucus I Nicator ("Victor"; c. 358 – 281 BCE), the last of the original Diadochi. The Diadochi (/daɪˈædəkaɪ/;[1] plural of Latin Diadochus, from Greek: Διάδοχοι, Diádokhoi "successors") were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great, who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BCE. The Wars of the Diadochi mark the beginning of the Hellenistic period from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River Valley. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Ancient role 1.1.1 Basileus 1.1.2 Hegemon 2 Successors 2.1 Craterus 2.2 Antipater 2.3 Somatophylakes 2.4 Macedonian satraps 2.5 Royal family 2.6 Non-Macedonian satraps and generals 2.7 The Epigoni 3 Chronology 3.1 Struggle for unity (323–319 BCE) 3.1.1 Partition of Babylon 3.1.2 Revolt in Greece 3.1.3 First War of the Diadochi (322–320 BCE) 3.1.4 Partition of Triparadisus 3.1.5 Death of Antipater 3.2 Wars of the Diadochi (319–275 BCE) 3.2.1 The Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE) 4 The Epigoni 4.1 Kingdoms of the Diadochi (275–30 BCE) 4.2 Decline and fall 5 Historical uses as a title 5.1 Aulic 5.2 Modern concept 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Background[edit] Ancient role[edit] In ancient Greek, diadochos[2] is a noun (substantive or adjective) formed from the verb, diadechesthai, "succeed to,"[3] a compound of dia- and dechesthai, "receive."[4] The word-set descends straightforwardly from Indo-European *dek-, "receive", the substantive forms being from the o-grade, *dok-.[5] Some important English reflexes are dogma, "a received teaching," decent, "fit to be received," paradox, "against that which is received." The prefix dia- changes the meaning slightly to add a social expectation to the received. The diadochos expects to receive it, hence a successor in command or any other office, or a succeeding work gang on work being performed by relays of work gangs, or metaphorically light being the successor of sleep. Basileus[edit] It was exactly this expectation that contributed to strife in the Alexandrine and Hellenistic Ages, beginning with Alexander. Philip had made a state marriage to a woman who changed her name to Olympias to honor the coincidence of Philip's victory in the Olympic Games and Alexander's birth, an act that suggests love may have been a motive as well. Its chief office was the basileia, or monarchy, the chief officer being the basileus, now the signatory title of Philip. Their son and heir, Alexander, was raised with care, being educated by select prominent philosophers. Philip is said to have wept for joy when Alexander performed a feat of which no one else was capable, taming the wild horse, Bucephalus, at his first attempt in front of a skeptical audience including the king. Amidst the cheering onlookers Philip swore that Macedonia was not large enough for Alexander.[6] When Philip was on campaign Alexander would lament at the report of each victory that his father would leave him nothing of note to do. Philip fell in love with a young woman, Cleopatra. He married her apparently for love when he was too old for marriage, having divorced Olympias. By that time Philip had built Macedonia into the leading military state of the Balkans. He had acquired his expertise fighting for Thebes and Greek freedom under his patron, Epaminondas. When Alexander was a teen-ager, Philip was planning a military solution to the contention with the Persian Empire. In the opening campaign against Byzantium he made Alexander "regent" (kurios) in his absence. Alexander used every opportunity to further his father's victories, expecting that he would be a part of them. There was a source of disaffection, however. Plutarch reports that Alexander and his mother bitterly reproached him for his numerous affairs among the women of his court.[7] Alexander was at the wedding banquet when Attalus, Cleopatra's uncle, made a remark that seemed inappropriate to him. He asked the Macedonians to pray for an "heir to the kingship" (diadochon tes basileias). Rising to his feet Alexander shouted, using the royal "we," "Do we seem like bastards (nothoi) to you, evil-minded man?" and threw a cup at him. The inebriated Philip, rising to his feet, drawing his sword, presumably to defend his wife's uncle, promptly fell. Making a comment that the man who was preparing to cross from Europe to Asia could not cross from one couch to another, Alexander departed, to escort his mother to her native Epirus and to wait himself in Illyria. Not long after, prompted by Demaratus the Corinthian to mend the dissension in his house, Philip sent Demaratus to bring Alexander home. The expectation by virtue of which Alexander was diadochos was that as the son of Philip, he would inherit Philip's throne. After a time the king was assassinated. In 336 BCE, at the age of 20, Alexander "received the kingship" (parelabe ten basileian).[8] In the same year Darius succeeded to the throne of Persia as Šâhe Šâhân, "King of Kings," which the Greeks understood as "Great King." The role of the Macedonian basileus was changing fast. Alexander's army was already multinational. Alexander was acquiring dominion over state after state. His presence on the battlefield seemed to ensure immediate victory. Hegemon[edit] Main article: Wars of Alexander the Great When Alexander the Great died on June 10, 323 BCE, he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and parts of India in the east. It included parts of the present day Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, and most of the former Achaemenid Empire, except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia. Successors[edit] An army on campaign changes its leadership at any level frequently for replacement of casualties and distribution of talent to the current operations. The institution of the companion cavalry or "Hetaĩroi" (Ancient Greek: ἑταῖροι) gave the ancient Macedonian army a flexible capability in this regard. There were no fixed ranks of Hetairoi except as the term meant a special unit of cavalry. The Hetairoi were simply a fixed pool of de facto general officers, without any or with changing de jure rank, whom Alexander could assign where needed. They were typically from the nobility, many related to Alexander. A parallel flexible structure in the Achaemenid army facilitated combined units. Staff meetings to adjust command structure were nearly a daily event in Alexander's army. They created an ongoing expectation among the Hetairoi of receiving an important and powerful command, if only for a short term. At the moment of Alexander's death, all possibilities were suddenly suspended. The Hetairoi vanished with Alexander, to be replaced instantaneously by the Diadochi, men who knew where they had stood, but not where they would stand now. As there had been no definite ranks or positions of Hetairoi, there were no ranks of Diadochi. They expected appointments, but without Alexander they would have to make their own. For purposes of this presentation, the Diadochi are grouped by their rank and social standing at the time of Alexander's death. These were their initial positions as Diadochi. They are not necessarily significant or determinative of what happened next. Craterus[edit] Main article: Craterus Alexander the Great and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic from Pella, Greece, late 4th century BC Craterus was an infantry and naval commander under Alexander during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. After the revolt of his army at Opis on the Tigris in 324, Alexander ordered Craterus to command the veterans as they returned home to Macedonia. Antipater, commander of Alexander's forces in Greece and regent of the Macedonian throne in Alexander's absence, would lead a force of fresh troops back to Persia to join Alexander while Craterus would become regent in his place. When Craterus arrived at Cilicia in 323 BCE, news reached him of Alexander's death. Though his distance from Babylon prevented him from participating in the distribution of power, Craterus hastened to Macedonia to assume the protection of Alexander's family. The news of Alexander's death caused the Greeks to rebel in the Lamian War. Craterus and Antipater defeated the rebellion in 322 BCE. Despite his absence, the generals gathered at Babylon confirmed Craterus as Guardian of the Royal Family. However, with the royal family in Babylon, the Regent Perdiccas assumed this responsibility until the royal household could return to Macedonia. Antipater[edit] Main article: Antipater Antipater was an adviser to King Philip II, Alexander's father, a role he continued under Alexander. When Alexander left Macedon to conquer Persia in 334 BCE, Antipater was named Regent of Macedon and General of Greece in Alexander's absence. In 323 BCE, Craterus was ordered by Alexander to march his veterans back to Macedon and assume Antipater's position while Antipater was to march to Persia with fresh troops. Alexander's death that year, however, prevented the order from being carried out. When Alexander's generals gathered at the Partition of Babylon to divide the empire between themselves, Antipater was confirmed as General of Greece while the roles of Regent of the Empire and Guardian of the Royal Family were given to Perdiccas and Craterus, respectively. Together, the three men formed the top ruling group of the empire. Somatophylakes[edit] Main article: Somatophylakes Further information: Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus, Peucestas, Peithon, and Leonnatus The Somatophylakes were the seven bodyguards of Alexander. Macedonian satraps[edit] Main article: Satrap Further information: Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Neoptolemus (general), Seleucus I Nicator, and Polyperchon Satraps (Old Persian: xšaθrapāwn) were the governors of the provinces in the Hellenistic empires. Royal family[edit] Main articles: Philip III of Macedon, Alexander IV of Macedon, Olympias, Eurydice II of Macedon, and Cleopatra of Macedon Non-Macedonian satraps and generals[edit] Main articles: Eumenes, Pyrrhus of Epirus, and Philetaerus The Epigoni[edit] Main articles: Cassander, Demetrius I of Macedon, and Ptolemy Ceraunos Originally the Epigoni (/ɪˈpɪɡənaɪ/; from Ancient Greek: Ἐπίγονοι "offspring") were the sons of the Argive heroes who had fought in the first Theban war. In the 19th century the term was used to refer to the second generation of Diadochi rulers. Chronology[edit] Struggle for unity (323–319 BCE)[edit] Partition of Babylon[edit] Main article: Partition of Babylon The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian Empire after the Settlement in Babylon (323 BCE). Without a chosen successor, there was almost immediately a dispute among Alexander's generals as to who his successor should be. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's unborn child by Roxana. A compromise was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become King, and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become Regent of the entire Empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the Empire. Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia; Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace; Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia[citation needed]. Macedon and the rest of Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater, who had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most able lieutenant, while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexander's arrangements intact – Taxiles and Porus governed over their kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes governed Gandara; Sibyrtius governed Arachosia and Gedrosia; Stasanor governed Aria and Drangiana; Philip governed Bactria and Sogdia; Phrataphernes governed Parthia and Hyrcania; Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge over Carmania; Atropates governed northern Media; Archon got Babylonia; and Arcesilaus governed northern Mesopotamia. Revolt in Greece[edit] Main article: Lamian War Meanwhile, the news of Alexander's death had inspired a revolt in Greece, known as the Lamian War. Athens and other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a force sent by Leonnatus, who was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end until Craterus's arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of Crannon on September 5, 322 BCE. For a time, this brought an end to any resistance to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers in the eastern parts of the Empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued Cappadocia. First War of the Diadochi (322–320 BCE)[edit] Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BCE Soon, however, conflict broke out. Perdiccas' marriage to Alexander's sister Cleopatra led Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, and Ptolemy to join together in rebellion. The actual outbreak of war was initiated by Ptolemy's theft of Alexander's body and its transfer to Egypt. Although Eumenes defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, in a battle at which Craterus was killed, it was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon, Seleucus, and Antigenes during an invasion of Egypt. Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the Partition of Triparadisus. Antipater was made regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was added Lycaonia. Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas—Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes—were given the provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former Regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was charged with the task of rooting out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In effect, Antipater retained for himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as leader of the largest army east of the Hellespont, held a similar position in Asia. Partition of Triparadisus[edit] Main article: Partition of Triparadisus Death of Antipater[edit] Soon after the second partition, in 319 BCE, Antipater died. Antipater had been one of the few remaining individuals with enough prestige to hold the empire together. After his death, war soon broke out again and the fragmentation of the empire began in earnest. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent. A civil war soon broke out in Macedon and Greece between Polyperchon and Cassander, with the latter supported by Antigonus and Ptolemy. Polyperchon allied himself to Eumenes in Asia, but was driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and fled to Epirus with the infant king Alexander IV and his mother Roxana. In Epirus he joined forces with Olympias, Alexander's mother, and together they invaded Macedon again. They were met by an army commanded by King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice, which immediately defected, leaving the king and Eurydice to Olympias's not so tender mercies, and they were killed (317 BCE). Soon after, though, the tide turned, and Cassander was victorious, capturing and killing Olympias, and attaining control of Macedon, the boy king, and his mother. Wars of the Diadochi (319–275 BCE)[edit] Main article: Wars of the Diadochi Hellenistic kingdoms as they existed in 240 BC, eight decades after the death of Alexander the Great The Wars of the Diadochi were a series of conflicts, fought between 322 and 275 BCE, over the rule of Alexander's empire after his death. In 310 BCE Cassander secretly murdered Alexander IV and Roxana. The Battle of Ipsus (301 BCE)[edit] The Battle of Ipsus at the end of the Fourth War of the Diadochi finalized the breakup of the unified Empire of Alexander. Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon were pitted against the coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander, ruler of Macedon; Lysimachus, ruler of Thrace; and Seleucus I Nicator, ruler of Babylonia and Persia. Antigonus was killed, but his son Demetrius took a large part of Macedonia and continued his father's dynasty. After the death of Cassander and Lysimachus, following one another in fairly rapid succession, the Ptolemies and Seleucids controlled the vast majority of Alexander's former empire, with a much smaller segment controlled by the Antigonid dynasty until the 1st century. The Epigoni[edit] Kingdoms of the Diadochi (275–30 BCE)[edit] Main article: Hellenistic period Decline and fall[edit] Main article: Hellenistic period This division was to last for a century, before the Antigonid Kingdom finally fell to Rome, and the Seleucids were harried from Persia by the Parthians and forced by the Romans to relinquish control in Asia Minor. A rump Seleucid kingdom survived in Syria until finally conquered by Pompey in 64 BCE. The Ptolemies lasted longer in Alexandria, though as a client under Rome. Egypt was finally annexed to Rome in 30 BCE. Historical uses as a title[edit] Aulic[edit] In the formal "court" titulature of the Hellenistic empires ruled by dynasties we know as Diadochs, the title was not customary for the Monarch, but has actually been proven to be the lowest in a system of official rank titles, known as Aulic titulature, conferred – ex officio or nominatim – to actual courtiers and as an honorary rank (for protocol) to various military and civilian officials. Notably in the Ptolemaic Kingdom, it was reported as the lowest aulic rank, under Philos, during the reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes. Modern concept[edit] Diadochi (Διάδοχοι) is an ancient Greek word that currently modern scholars use to refer primarily to persons acting a role that existed only for a limited time period and within a limited geographic range. As there are no modern equivalents, it has been necessary to reconstruct the role from the ancient sources. There is no uniform agreement concerning exactly which historical persons fit the description, or the territorial range over which the role was in effect, or the calendar dates of the period. A certain basic meaning is included in all definitions, however. The New Latin terminology was introduced by the historians of universal Greek history of the 19th century. Their comprehensive histories of ancient Greece typically covering from prehistory to the Roman Empire ran into many volumes. For example, George Grote in the first edition of History of Greece, 1846–1856, hardly mentions the Diadochi, except to say that they were kings who came after Alexander and Hellenized Asia. In the edition of 1869 he defines them as "great officers of Alexander, who after his death carved kingdoms for themselves out of his conquests."[9] Grote cites no references for the use of Diadochi but his criticism of Johann Gustav Droysen gives him away. Droysen, "the modern inventor of Hellenistic history,"[10] not only defined "Hellenistic period" (hellenistische ... Zeit),[11] but in a further study of the "successors of Alexander" (nachfolger Alexanders) dated 1836, after Grote had begun work on his history, but ten years before publication of the first volume, divided it into two periods, "the age of the Diadochi," or "Diadochi Period" (die Zeit der Diodochen or Diadochenzeit), which ran from the death of Alexander to the end of the "Diadochi Wars" (Diadochenkämpfe, his term), about 278 BCE, and the "Epigoni Period" (Epigonenzeit), which ran to about 220 BCE.[12] He also called the Diadochi Period "the Diadochi War Period" (Zeit der Diadochenkämpfe). The Epigoni he defined as "Sons of the Diadochi" (Diadochensöhne). These were the second generation of Diadochi rulers.[13] In an 1843 work, "History of the Epigoni" (Geschichte der Epigonen) he details the kingdoms of the Epigoni, 280-239 BCE. The only precise date is the first, the date of Alexander's death, June, 323 BCE. It has never been in question. Grote uses Droysen's terminology but gives him no credit for it. Instead he attacks Droysen's concept of Alexander planting Hellenism in eastern colonies:[14] "Plutarch states that Alexander founded more than seventy new cities in Asia. So large a number of them is neither verifiable nor probable, unless we either reckon up simple military posts or borrow from the list of foundations really established by his successors." He avoids Droysen's term in favor of the traditional "successor". In a long note he attacks Droysen's thesis as "altogether slender and unsatisfactory." Grote may have been right, but he ignores entirely Droysen's main thesis, that the concepts of "successors" and "sons of successors" were innovated and perpetuated by historians writing contemporaneously or nearly so with the period. Not enough evidence survives to prove it conclusively, but enough survives to win acceptance for Droysen as the founding father of Hellenistic history. M. M. Austin localizes what he considers to be a problem with Grote's view. To Grote's assertion in the Preface to his work that the period "is of no interest in itself," but serves only to elucidate "the preceding centuries," Austin comments "Few nowadays would subscribe to this view."[10] If Grote was hoping to minimize Droysen by not giving him credit, he was mistaken, as Droysen's gradually became the majority model. By 1898 Adolf Holm incorporated a footnote describing and evaluating Droysen's arguments.[15] He describes the Diadochi and Epigoni as "powerful individuals."[16] The title of the volume on the topic, however, is The Graeco-Macedonian Age..., not Droysen's "Hellenistic". Droysen's "Hellenistic" and "Diadochi Periods" are canonical today. A series of six (as of 2014) international symposia held at different universities 1997–2010 on the topics of the imperial Macedonians and their Diadochi have to a large degree solidified and internationalized Droysen's concepts. Each one grew out of the previous. Each published an assortment of papers read at the symposium.[17] The 2010 symposium, entitled "The Time of the Diadochi (323-281 BCE)," held at the University of A Coruña, Spain, represents the current concepts and investigations. The term Diadochi as an adjective is being extended beyond its original use, such as "Diadochi Chronicle," which is nowhere identified as such, or Diadochi kingdoms, "the kingdoms that emerged," even past the Age of the Epigoni.[18] See also[edit] Pantodapoi References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "διάδοχος". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "διαδέχομαι". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "δέχομαι". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. ^ Frisk, Hjalmar (1960). "δέχομαι". Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (in German). I. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. ^ Plutarch, Alexander, Section VI. ^ Plutarch, Alexander, Section IX. ^ Plutarch, Alexander, Section XI. ^ Grote 1869, p. 15 ^ a b Austin 1994, p. vii ^ Droysen, Johann Gustav (1833). Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen (in German). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes. p. 517. ^ Droysen 1836, Einleitung ^ Droysen 1836, p. 670 ^ Grote 1869, pp. 205–206 ^ Holm 1898, p. 83 ^ Holm 1898, p. 67 ^ Carney, Elizabeth; Ogden, Daniel (2010). "Preface". Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ "Diadochi and Successor Kingdoms". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome. Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2010. |volume= has extra text (help) Sources[edit] Anson, Edward (2014). Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Austin, M. M. (1994). The Hellenistic world from Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Boiy, Tom (2000). "Dating Methods During the Early Hellenistic Period" (PDF). Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 52. doi:10.2307/1359689. JSTOR 1359689. S2CID 155790050. Droysen, Johann Gustav (1836). Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders (in German). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes. Grote, George (1869). A History of Greece: from the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great. XI (New ed.). London, England: John Murray. Holm, Adolf (1898) [1894]. The History of Greece from Its Commencement to the Close of the Independence of the Greek Nation. IV: The Graeco-Macedonian age, the period of the kings and the leagues, from the death of Alexander down to the incorporation of the last Macedonian monarchy in the Roman Empire. Translated by Clarke, Frederick. London; New York: Macmillan. Shipley, Graham (2000). The Greek World After Alexander. Routledge History of the Ancient World. New York, NY: Routledge. Walbank, F.W. (1984). "The Hellenistic World". The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume VII. part I. Cambridge, England. |volume= has extra text (help) External links[edit] Lendering, Jona. "Alexander's successors: the Diadochi". Livius.org. v t e The division of Alexander's empire v t e Alexander the Great's Generals Philip II's Generals Attalus Parmenion Antipater Eumenes The Somatophylakes (Alexander's bodyguards) Aristonous (to 323 BC) Arybbas (to 332 BC) Balacrus (to 333 BC) Demetrius (to 331 BC) Lysimachus (to 323 BC) Ptolemy (son of Seleucus) (to 333 BC) Peithon (to 323 BC) Hephaestion (to 324 BC) Menes (to 330 BC) Leonnatus (to 323 BC) Perdiccas (to 323 BC) Ptolemy (to 323 BC) Peucestas (to 323 BC) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas(3) (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Babylonia) Arcesilas (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor(2) (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor(2) (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persia) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Cavalry Generals Perdiccas Hephaestion Philotas(4) Ptolemy Cleitus the Black Antigonus Lysimachus Menander Leonnatus Laomedon of Mytilene Neoptolemus Erigyius Aretes Ariston of Paionia Infantry Generals Meleager Craterus Seleucus Polyperchon Antigenes Coenus Ptolemy (son of Seleucus) Other or unknown command Alcetas Amphimachus Amyntas Arcesilas Archon Asander Cleitus the White Nearchus Nicanor(1) Nicanor(2) Peithon Peucestas Philip Philo Philotas(3) Philoxenus Scythaeus Sibyrtius Stasanor Stasander Tlepolemus (1) Son of Parmenion, d. 330 BC; to be distinguished from (2) (2) Satrap at Partition of Babylon; possibly Nicanor of Stageira (3) Satrap at Partition of Babylon (4) Son of Parmenion, d. 330 BC; to be distinguished from (3) v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Ancient Greek wars Mycenaean Trojan War Archaic First Messenian War Lelantine War Second Messenian War First Sacred War Sicilian Wars Classical Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Third Messenian War First Peloponnesian War Second Sacred War Samian War Second Peloponnesian War Phyle Campaign Corinthian War Boeotian War Wars of the Theban hegemony Theban–Spartan War Social War (357–355 BC) Third Sacred War Foreign War Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Hellenistic Lamian War Wars of the Diadochi Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations Seleucid–Mauryan war Pyrrhic War Syrian Wars Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese Chremonidean War Seleucid–Parthian wars Cleomenean War Lyttian War Social War (220–217 BC) First Macedonian War Cretan War Second Macedonian War Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War War against Nabis Galatian War Third Macedonian War Maccabean Revolt Seleucid Dynastic Wars Fourth Macedonian War Achaean War Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Last war of the Roman Republic Military history v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Strategos Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People List of ancient Greeks Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing Coinage Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Folklore Homosexuality Law Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wedding customs Wine Arts and science Architecture Greek Revival architecture Astronomy Literature Mathematics Medicine Music Musical system Pottery Sculpture Technology Theatre Greco-Buddhist art Religion Funeral and burial practices Mythology mythological figures Temple Twelve Olympians Underworld Greco-Buddhism Greco-Buddhist monasticism Sacred places Eleusis Delphi Delos Dion Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Structures Athenian Treasury Lion Gate Long Walls Philippeion Theatre of Dionysus Tunnel of Eupalinos Temples Aphaea Artemis Athena Nike Erechtheion Hephaestus Hera, Olympia Parthenon Samothrace Zeus, Olympia Language Proto-Greek Mycenaean Homeric Dialects Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic Doric Epirote Ionic Locrian Macedonian Pamphylian Koine Writing Linear A Linear B Cypriot syllabary Greek alphabet Greek numerals Attic numerals Greek colonisation South Italy Alision Brentesion Caulonia Chone Croton Cumae Elea Heraclea Lucania Hipponion Hydrus Krimisa Laüs Locri Medma Metapontion Neápolis Pandosia (Lucania) Poseidonia Pixous Rhegion Scylletium Siris Sybaris Sybaris on the Traeis Taras Terina Thurii Sicily Akragas Akrai Akrillai Apollonia Calacte Casmenae Catana Gela Helorus Henna Heraclea Minoa Himera Hybla Gereatis Hybla Heraea Kamarina Leontinoi Megara Hyblaea Messana Naxos Segesta Selinous Syracuse Tauromenion Thermae Tyndaris Aeolian Islands Didyme Euonymos Ereikousa Hycesia Lipara/Meligounis Phoenicusa Strongyle Therassía Sardinia Olbia Cyrenaica Balagrae Barca Berenice Cyrene (Apollonia) Ptolemais Iberian Peninsula Akra Leuke Alonis Emporion Helike Hemeroscopion Kalathousa Kypsela Mainake Menestheus's Limin Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus Rhode Salauris Zacynthos Illyria Aspalathos Apollonia Epidamnos Epidauros Issa Melaina Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Akra Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries Spain France (data) United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diadochi&oldid=1025913816" Categories: Diadochi Offshoots of the Macedonian Empire 4th-century BC conflicts 3rd-century BC conflicts Wars involving ancient Greece Wars involving Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Alexander the Great Ancient Greek titles Macedonian Empire 4th century BC in Macedonia (ancient kingdom) 3rd century BC in Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from June 2020 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-6989	----	Carpathian Mountains - Wikipedia Carpathian Mountains From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Carpathian (disambiguation). Mountain range in Central and Eastern Europe Carpathians Świnica, Western Carpathians, Tatra Mountains Highest point Peak Gerlachovský štít Elevation 2,655 m (8,711 ft) Dimensions Length 1,700 km (1,100 mi) Naming Native name Karpaty  (Czech) Karpaten  (German) Kárpátok  (Hungarian) Karpaty  (Polish) Carpați  (Romanian) Карпати / Karpati  (Serbian) Karpaty  (Slovak) Карпати, Karpaty  (Ukrainian) Карпаты, Karpaty  (Rusyn) Geography The different sections of the Carpathians with the borders of constituent countries Countries Czech Republic, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Ukraine, Romania and Serbia Range coordinates 47°00′N 25°30′E / 47°N 25.5°E / 47; 25.5Coordinates: 47°00′N 25°30′E / 47°N 25.5°E / 47; 25.5 Borders on Alps The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians (/kɑːrˈpeɪθiənz/) are a range of mountains forming an arc throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Roughly 1,500 km (932 mi) long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and the Scandinavian Mountains at 1,700 km (1,056 mi). The range stretches from the far eastern Czech Republic (3%) in the northwest through Slovakia (17%), Poland (10%), Hungary (4%), Ukraine (10%), Romania (50%) to Serbia (5%) in the south.[1][2][3][4] The highest range within the Carpathians is known as the Tatra mountains in Slovakia and Poland, where the highest peaks exceed 2,600 m (8,530 ft). The second-highest range is the Southern Carpathians in Romania, where the highest peaks range between 2,500 m (8,202 ft) and 2,550 m (8,366 ft). The divisions of the Carpathians are usually in three major sections:[5] Western Carpathians: Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary Eastern Carpathians: southeastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, Ukraine, and Romania Southern Carpathians: Romania and eastern Serbia[1][2][4] The term Outer Carpathians is frequently used to describe the northern rim of the Western and Eastern Carpathians. The Carpathians provide habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania,[6][7][8] as well as over one third of all European plant species.[9] The mountains and their foothills also have many thermal and mineral waters, with Romania having one-third of the European total.[10][11] Romania is likewise home to the second-largest surface of virgin forests in Europe after Russia, totaling 250,000 hectares (65%), most of them in the Carpathians,[12] with the Southern Carpathians constituting Europe's largest unfragmented forest area.[13] Deforestation rates due to illegal logging in the Carpathians are high.[14] Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 2.1 Cities and towns 2.2 Highest peaks 2.3 Highest peaks by country 2.4 Mountain passes 3 Geology 4 Ecology 5 Divisions of the Carpathians 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Name[edit] Further information: Carpi (people) § Name etymology In modern times, the range is called Karpaty in Czech, Polish and Slovak and Карпати (Karpaty) in Ukrainian, Карпати / Karpati in Serbian, Carpați [karˈpat͡sʲ] (listen) in Romanian, Карпаты in Rusyn, Karpaten in German and Kárpátok in Hungarian.[15][16] Although the toponym was recorded already by Ptolemy in the second century of the Christian era, [17] the modern form of the name is a neologism in most languages.[15] For instance, Havasok ("Snowy Mountains") was its medieval Hungarian name; Russian chronicles referred to it as "Hungarian Mountains". [16][15] Later sources, such as Dimitrie Cantemir and the Italian chronicler Giovanandrea Gromo, referred to the range as "Transylvania's Mountains", while the 17th-century historian Constantin Cantacuzino translated the name of the mountains in an Italian-Romanian glossary to "Rumanian Mountains". [15] The name "Carpates" is highly associated with the old Dacian tribes called "Carpes" or "Carpi" who lived in a large area from the east, north-east of the Black Sea to Transylvanian plains on the present day Romania and Moldova. The name Carpates may ultimately be from the Proto Indo-European root *sker-/*ker-, from which comes the Albanian word karpë (rock), and the Slavic word skála (rock, cliff), perhaps via a Dacian cognate[which?] which meant mountain, rock, or rugged (cf. Germanic root *skerp-, Old Norse harfr "harrow", Gothic skarpo, Middle Low German scharf "potsherd", and Modern High German Scherbe "shard", Old English scearp and English sharp, Lithuanian kar~pas "cut, hack, notch", Latvian cìrpt "to shear, clip"). The archaic Polish word karpa meant "rugged irregularities, underwater obstacles/rocks, rugged roots, or trunks". The more common word skarpa means a sharp cliff or other vertical terrain. The name may instead come from Indo-European *kwerp "to turn", akin to Old English hweorfan "to turn, change" (English warp) and Greek καρπός karpós "wrist", perhaps referring to the way the mountain range bends or veers in an L-shape.[18] In late Roman documents, the Eastern Carpathian Mountains were referred to as Montes Sarmatici (meaning Sarmatian Mountains).[19] The Western Carpathians were called Carpates, a name that is first recorded in Ptolemy's Geographia (second century AD).[citation needed] In the Scandinavian Hervarar saga, which relates ancient Germanic legends about battles between Goths and Huns, the name Karpates appears in the predictable Germanic form as Harvaða fjöllum (see Grimm's law). "Inter Alpes Huniae et Oceanum est Polonia" ("Between the Hunic Alps and the ocean lies Poland") by Gervase of Tilbury, has described in his Otia Imperialia ("Recreation for an Emperor") in 1211.[20] Thirteenth- to fifteenth-century Hungarian documents named the mountains Thorchal, Tarczal, or less frequently Montes Nivium ("Snowy Mountains").[20] Geography[edit] Geographical map of the Carpathian Mountains The northwestern Carpathians begin in Slovakia and southern Poland. They surround Transcarpathia and Transylvania in a large semicircle, sweeping towards the southeast, and end on the Danube near Orşova in Romania. The total length of the Carpathians is over 1,500 km (932 mi) and the mountain chain's width varies between 12 and 500 km (7 and 311 mi). The highest altitudes of the Carpathians occur where they are widest. The system attains its greatest breadth in the Transylvanian plateau and in the southern Tatra Mountains group – the highest range, in which Gerlachovský štít in Slovakia is the highest peak at 2,655 m (8,711 ft) above sea level. The Carpathians cover an area of 190,000 km2 (73,359 sq mi), and after the Alps, form the next-most extensive mountain system in Europe. Although commonly referred to as a mountain chain, the Carpathians do not actually form an uninterrupted chain of mountains. Rather, they consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive groups, presenting as great a structural variety as the Alps. The Carpathians, which attain an altitude over 2,500 m (8,202 ft) in only a few places, lack the bold peaks, extensive snowfields, large glaciers, high waterfalls, and numerous large lakes that are common in the Alps. It was believed that no area of the Carpathian range was covered in snow all year round and there were no glaciers, but recent research by Polish scientists discovered one permafrost and glacial area in the Tatra Mountains.[21] The Carpathians at their highest altitude are only as high as the middle region of the Alps, with which they share a common appearance, climate, and flora. The Carpathians are separated from the Alps by the Danube. The two ranges meet at only one point: the Leitha Mountains at Bratislava. The river also separates them from the Balkan Mountains at Orşova in Romania. The valley of the March and Oder separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the middle wing of the great Central Mountain System of Europe. Unlike the other wings of the system, the Carpathians, which form the watershed between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are surrounded on all sides by plains, namely the Pannonian plain to the southwest, the Lower Danubian Plain to the south, with the southern part being in Bulgaria, and the northern - in (Romania), and the Galician plain to the northeast. Cities and towns[edit] Maramureș. Mountains in north of Romania Mukachevo, Western Ukraine View from Sanok in Poland Kežmarok in Slovakia Hutsul people, living in the Carpathian mountains, circa 1872 Szczawnica in Poland, Pieniny, 1939 Shepherds in Beskids The Feast of the Assumption of Mary in the Polish Carpathians Important cities and towns in or near the Carpathians are, in approximate descending order of population: Kraków (Poland) Bratislava (Slovakia) Cluj-Napoca (Romania) Chernivtsi (Ukraine) Braşov (Romania) Košice (Slovakia) Ivano-Frankivsk (Ukraine) Oradea (Romania) Bielsko-Biała (Poland) Miskolc (Hungary) Sibiu (Romania) Târgu Mureș (Romania) Baia Mare (Romania) Uzhhorod (Ukraine) Tarnów (Poland) Râmnicu Vâlcea (Romania) Prešov (Slovakia) Mukachevo (Ukraine) Drohobych (Ukraine) Piatra Neamț (Romania) Nowy Sącz (Poland) Suceava (Romania) Vršac (Serbia) Târgu Jiu (Romania) Drobeta-Turnu Severin (Romania) Reșița (Romania) Žilina (Slovakia) Bistrița (Romania) Banská Bystrica (Slovakia) Zvolen (Slovakia) Deva (Romania) Zlín (Czech Republic) Hunedoara (Romania) Martin (Slovakia) Zalău (Romania) Przemyśl (Poland) Krosno (Poland) Sanok (Poland) Alba Iulia (Romania) Sfântu Gheorghe (Romania) Turda (Romania) Mediaș (Romania) Poprad (Slovakia) Spišská Nová Ves (Slovakia) Petroșani (Romania) Miercurea Ciuc (Romania) Făgăraș (Romania) Odorheiu Secuiesc (Romania) Boryslav (Ukraine) Jasło (Poland) Cieszyn (Poland) Nowy Targ (Poland) Żywiec (Poland) Zakopane (Poland) Petrila (Romania) Cugir (Romania) Târgu Neamț (Romania) Câmpulung Moldovenesc (Romania) Gheorgheni (Romania) Rakhiv (Ukraine) Vatra Dornei (Romania) Rabka-Zdrój (Poland) Bor (Serbia) Highest peaks[edit] This is an (incomplete) list of the peaks of the Carpathians having summits over 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), with their heights, geologic divisions, and locations. Peak Geologic divisions Nation (Nations) County (Counties) Height (m) Gerlachovský štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,655 Gerlachovská veža High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,642 Lomnický štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,633 Ľadový štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,627 Pyšný štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,623 Zadný Gerlach High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,616 Lavínový štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,606 Malý Ľadový štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,602 Kotlový štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,601 Lavínová veža High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,600 Malý Pyšný štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,591 Veľká Litvorová veža High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,581 Strapatá veža High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,565 Kežmarský štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,556 Vysoká High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,547 Moldoveanu Făgăraş Mountains Romania Argeș 2,544 Negoiu Făgăraș Mountains Romania Sibiu 2,535 Viştea Mare Făgăraş Mountains Romania Brașov 2,527 Parângu Mare Parâng Mountains Romania Alba, Gorj, Hunedoara 2,519 Lespezi Făgăraș Mountains Romania Sibiu 2,517 Peleaga Retezat Mountains Romania Hunedoara 2,509 Păpușa Retezat Mountains Romania Hunedoara 2,508 Vânătoarea lui Buteanu Făgăraș Mountains Romania Argeș 2,507 Omu (mountain) Bucegi Mountains Romania Prahova, Brașov, Dâmbovița 2,505 Cornul Călțunului Făgăraș Mountains Romania Sibiu 2,505 Ocolit (Bucura) Bucegi Mountains Romania Prahova, Brașov, Dâmbovița 2,503 Rysy High Tatras Poland, Slovakia Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Prešov Region 2,503 Dara Făgăraș Mountains Romania Sibiu 2,500 Highest peaks by country[edit] This is a list of the highest national peaks of the Carpathians, their heights, geologic divisions, and locations. Excluding mountains located in two countries (on the border). Peak Geologic divisions Nation (Nations) County (Counties) Height (m) Gerlachovský štít High Tatras Slovakia Prešov Region 2,655 Moldoveanu Făgăraş Mountains Romania Argeș 2,544 Rysy Fatra-Tatra Area Poland Tatra County 2,503 Hoverla Eastern Beskids (Chornohora) Ukraine Nadvirna Raion, Rakhiv Raion 2,061 Rtanj Serbian Carpathians Serbia Zaječar District 1,565 Lysá hora Moravian-Silesian Beskids Czech Republic Moravian-Silesian Region 1,323 Kékes North Hungarian Mountains Hungary Heves County 1,014 Mountain passes[edit] In the Romanian part of the main chain of the Carpathians, mountain passes include Prislop Pass, Tihuța Pass, Bicaz Canyon, Ghimeș Pass, Buzău Pass, Predeal Pass (crossed by the railway from Braşov to Bucharest), Turnu Roșu Pass (1,115 ft., running through the narrow gorge of the Olt River and crossed by the railway from Sibiu to Bucharest), Vulcan Pass, and the Iron Gate (both crossed by the railway from Timișoara to Craiova). Geology[edit] Vrátna dolina, Slovakia The area now occupied by the Carpathians was once occupied by smaller ocean basins. The Carpathian mountains were formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Mesozoic[22] and Tertiary by moving the ALCAPA (Alpine-Carpathian-Pannonian), Tisza and Dacia plates over subducting oceanic crust.[23] The mountains take the form of a fold and thrust belt with generally north vergence in the western segment, northeast to east vergence in the eastern portion and southeast vergence in the southern portion. The external, generally northern, portion of the orogenic belt is a Tertiary accretionary wedge of a so-called Flysch belt (the Carpathian Flysch Belt) created by rocks scraped off the sea bottom and thrust over the North-European plate. The Carpathian accretionary wedge is made of several thin skinned nappes composed of Cretaceous to Paleogene turbidites. Thrusting of the Flysch nappes over the Carpathian foreland caused the formation of the Carpathian foreland basin.[24] The boundary between the Flysch belt and internal zones of the orogenic belt in the western segment of the mountain range is marked by the Pieniny Klippen Belt, a narrow complicated zone of polyphase compressional deformation, later involved in a supposed strike-slip zone.[25] Internal zones in western and eastern segments contain older Variscan igneous massifs reworked in Mesozoic thick and thin-skinned nappes. During the Middle Miocene this zone was affected by intensive calc-alkaline[26] arc volcanism that developed over the subduction zone of the flysch basins. At the same time, the internal zones of the orogenic belt were affected by large extensional structure[27] of the back-arc Pannonian Basin.[28] The last volcanic activity occurred at Ciomadul about 30,000 years ago.[26] Iron, gold and silver were found in great quantities in the Western Carpathians. After the Roman emperor Trajan's conquest of Dacia, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver.[29] Ecology[edit] Main article: Carpathian montane conifer forests The ecology of the Carpathians varies with altitude, ranging from lowland forests to alpine meadows. Foothill forests are primarily of broadleaf deciduous trees, including oak, hornbeam, and linden. European beech is characteristic of the montane forest zone. Higher-elevation subalpine forests are characterized by Norway spruce (Picea abies). Krummholtz and alpine meadows occur above the treeline.[30] Wildlife in the Carpathians includes brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), European wildcat (Felis silvestris), Tatra chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica), European bison (Bison bonasus), and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos).[30] Divisions of the Carpathians[edit] Main article: Divisions of the Carpathians Map of the main divisions of the Carpathians. 1. Outer Western Carpathians 2. Inner Western Carpathians 3. Outer Eastern Carpathians 4. Inner Eastern Carpathians 5. Southern Carpathians 6. Western Romanian Carpathians 7. Transylvanian Plateau 8. Serbian Carpathians The largest range is the Tatras in Slovakia and Poland. A major part of the western and northeastern Outer Eastern Carpathians in Poland, Ukraine, and Slovakia is traditionally called the Eastern Beskids. The geological border between the Western and Eastern Carpathians runs approximately along the line (south to north) between the towns of Michalovce, Bardejov, Nowy Sącz and Tarnów. In older systems the border runs more in the east, along the line (north to south) along the rivers San and Osława (Poland), the town of Snina (Slovakia) and river Tur'ia (Ukraine). Biologists shift the border even further to the east. The border between the eastern and southern Carpathians is formed by the Predeal Pass, south of Braşov and the Prahova Valley. In geopolitical terms, Carpathian Mountains are often grouped and labeled according to national or regional borders, but such division has turned out to be relative, since it was, and still is dependent on frequent historical, political and administrative changes of national or regional borders. According to modern geopolitical division, Carpathians can be grouped as: Serbian, Romanian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovakian, Czech, Austrian, and Hungarian. Within each nation, specific classifications of the Carpathians have been developing, often reflecting local traditions, and thus creating terminological diversity, that produces various challenges in the fields of comparative classification and international systematization. The section of the Carpathians within the borders of Romania is commonly known as the Romanian Carpathians. In local use, Romanians sometimes denote as "Eastern Carpathians" only the Romanian part of the Eastern Carpathians, which lies on their territory (i.e., from the Ukrainian border or from the Prislop Pass to the south), which they subdivide into three simplified geographical groups (northern, central, southern), instead of Outer and Inner Eastern Carpathians. These groups are: Maramureș-Bukovinian Carpathians (Romanian: Carpații Maramureșului și ai Bucovinei) Moldavian-Transylvanian Carpathians (Romanian: Carpații Moldo-Transilvani) Curvature Carpathians (Romanian: Carpații Curburii, Carpații de Curbură) The section of the Carpathians within the borders of Ukraine is commonly known as the Ukrainian Carpathians. Classification of eastern sections of the Carpathians is particularly complex, since it was influenced by several overlapping traditions. Terms like Wooded Carpathians, Poloniny Mountains or Eastern Beskids are often used in varying scopes by authors belonging to different traditions. See also[edit] Carpathians topics Mountain ranges of the Carpathians Geology of the Carpathians Tourism in Poland Tourism in Serbia Tourism in Romania Tourism in Slovakia Tourism in Ukraine Sudetes The Living Fire References[edit] ^ a b [1] Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine "The Carpathians" European Travel Commission, in The Official Travel Portal of Europe, Retrieved 15 November 2016 ^ a b [2] Archived 19 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Carpathian Project: Carpathian Mountains in Serbia, Institute for Spatial Planning, Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade (2008), Retrieved: 15 November 2016 ^ [3] Archived 1 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, pg. 54, Valuing the geological heritage of Serbia (UDC: 502.171:55(497.11), Aleksandra Maran (2010), Retrieved 15 November 2016 ^ a b Paun es Durlic (2011). Sacred Language of the Vlach Bread. Balkankult. ISBN 9788684159290. Archived from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 15 November 2016. ^ About the Carpathians - Carpathian Heritage Society Archived 6 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Peter Christoph Sürth. "Braunbären (Ursus arctos) in Europa". Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2011. ^ Peter Christoph Sürth. "Wolf (Canis lupus) in Europa". Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2011. ^ Peter Christoph Sürth. "Eurasischer Luchs (Lynx lynx) in Europa". Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2011. ^ "Carpathian montane conifer forests - Encyclopedia of Earth" (MediaWiki). www.eoearth.org. Retrieved 4 August 2010. ^ Bucureşti, staţiune balneară – o glumă bună? Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine in Capital, 19 January 2009. Retrieved: 26 April 2011 ^ Ruinele de la Baile Herculane si Borsec nu mai au nimic de oferit Archived 13 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine in Ziarul Financiar, 5 May 2010. Retrieved: 26 April 2011 ^ Salvaţi pădurile virgine! Archived 27 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine in Jurnalul Național, 26 October 2011. Retrieved: 31 October 2011 ^ Europe: New Move to Protect Virgin Forests in Global Issues, 30 May 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011. ^ Neslen, Arthur (31 May 2018). "Romania breaks up alleged €25m illegal logging ring". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 11 July 2019. ^ a b c d Moldovanu 2010, p. 18. ^ a b Blazovich 1994, p. 332. ^ Buza 2011, p. 24. ^ Room, Adrian. Placenames of the World. London: MacFarland and Co., Inc., 1997. ^ E.g. in work Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis, Asiana et Europiana, et de contentis in eis by Mathias de Miechow, first edition from 1517. Second book, chapter 1. ^ a b "Gervase of Tilbury" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. ^ Gądek, Gradiecz, Bogdan, Mariusz. "Glacial Ice and Permafrost Distribution in the Medena Kotlina (Slovak Tatras): Mapped with Application of GPR and GST Measurements" (PDF). Landform Evolution in Mountain Areas. Studia Geomorphologica Carpatho-Balcanica. Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ Plašienka, D., 2002, Origin and growth of the Western Carpathian orogenetic wedge during the mesozoic. Archived 7 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF) in Geologica Carpathica Special Issues 53 Proceedings of XVII. Congress of Carpathian-Balkan Geological Association Bratislava, 1–4 September 2002 ^ Mantovani, E., Viti, M., Babbucci, D., Tamburelli, C., Albarello, D., 2006, Geodynamic connection between the indentation of Arabia and the Neogene tectonics of the central–eastern Mediterranean region. GSA Special Papers, v. 409, p. 15-41 ^ Nehyba, S., Šikula, J., 2007, Depositional architecture, sequence stratigraphy and geodynamic development of the Carpathian Foredeep (Czech Republic). Geologica Carpathica, 58, 1, pp. 53-69 ^ Mišík, M., 1997, The Slovak Part of the Pieniny Klippen Belt After the Pioneering Works of D. Andrusov. Geologica Carpathica, 48, 4, pp. 209-220 ^ a b Pácskay, Z., Lexa, J., Szákacs, A., 2006, Geochronology of Neogene magmatism in the Carpathian arc and intra-Carpathian area. Geologica Carpathica, 57, 6, pp. 511 - 530 ^ Dolton, G.L., 2006, Pannonian Basin Province, Central Europe (Province 4808)—Petroleum geology, total petroleum systems, and petroleum resource assessment. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2204–B, 47 p. ^ Royden, L.H., Horváth, F., Rumpler, J., 1983, Evolution of the Pannonian basin system. 1. Tectionics. Tectonics, 2, pp. 61-90 ^ "Dacia-Province of the Roman Empire". United Nations of Roma Victor. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 14 November 2010. ^ a b "Carpathian montane conifer forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Sources[edit] Blazovich, László (1994). "Kárpátok [Carpathians]". In Kristó, Gyula; Engel, Pál; Makk, Ferenc (eds.). Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9-14. század) [Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th-14th centuries)] (in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 332. ISBN 963-05-6722-9. Buza, Mircea (2011). "On the origins and historical evolution of toponymy on the territory of Romania" (PDF). Revue Roumaine de Géographie / Romanian Journal of Geography. Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy. 55 (1): 23–36. ISSN 1220-5311. Retrieved 27 June 2015. Moldovanu, Dragoș (2010). "Toponimie de origine Romană în Transilvania și în sud-vestul Moldovei" (PDF). Anuar de Lingvistică şi Istorie Literară (in Romanian). Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy. XLIX–L: 17–95. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2015. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Carpathian Mountains. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Carpathian Mountains (category) Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Carpathian Mountains . Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 1 — Carpathian Mountains, by Volodymyr Kubijovyč (1984). Carpathianconvention.org: The Framework Convention for the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians Orographic map highlighting Carpathian mountains Alpinet.org: Romanian mountain guide Carpati.org: Romanian mountain guide Pgi.gov.pl: Oil and Gas Fields in the Carpathians Video: Beautiful mountains Carpathians, Ukraine v t e Divisions, Groups, and Ranges of the Carpathian Mountains Western Carpathians Inner Western Slovak Ore Mountains Fatra-Tatra Area Slovak Central Mountains Lučenec-Košice Depression Mátra-Slanec Area and North Hungarian Mountains Outer Western South-Moravian Carpathians Central Moravian Carpathians Slovak-Moravian Carpathians Western Beskidian Piedmont Western Beskids (Eastern section, Central section) Podhale-Magura Area Eastern Carpathians Inner Eastern Vihorlat-Gutin Area Bistrița Mountains Căliman-Harghita Mountains Giurgeu-Brașov Depression Outer Eastern Central Beskidian Piedmont Central Beskids Eastern Beskids (Polonynian Beskids) Moldavian-Muntenian Carpathians Southern Carpathians Bucegi Mountains Făgăraș Mountains group Parâng Mountains group Retezat-Godeanu Mountains group Western Romanian Carpathians Apuseni Mountains Poiana Ruscă Mountains Banat Mountains Serbian Carpathians Homolje Mountains Kučaj Mountains Devica Rtanj Deli Jovan Adjacent regions Transylvanian Plateau (Transylvanian Plain) Outer Subcarpathian depressions Grouping by country Hungarian Carpathians Polish Carpathians Romanian Carpathians Serbian Carpathians Slovak Carpathians Ukrainian Carpathians Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Czech Republic Israel Other Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_Mountains&oldid=1027385384" Categories: Carpathians Mountain ranges of Europe Mountain ranges of the Czech Republic Mountain ranges of Hungary Mountain ranges of Poland Mountain ranges of Romania Mountain ranges of 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en-wikipedia-org-7008	----	Plautius Quintillus - Wikipedia Plautius Quintillus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator and consul Plautius Quintillus (died by 175) was a Roman senator who lived in the 2nd century. The family of Plautius Quintillus was of consular rank and was politically active during the Nerva–Antonine dynasty in the 2nd century. Quintillus’ birth name could have been Lucius Titius Plautius Quintillus. His father was probably Lucius Titius Epidius Aquilinus, who served as consul in 125 under the Emperor Hadrian. According to a preserved incomplete inscription found in Rome, Aquilinus may have been the head of a priestly college and could have hosted a public entertainment event held in Rome. His brother may have been Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus, who served as consul in 162 under the co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161), Quintillus served as an ordinary consul. Quintillus married a noblewoman called Ceionia Fabia, the daughter of Lucius Aelius Verus Caesar, the first adopted heir of Hadrian; she was Lucius Verus' sister, and, thus, sister-in-law to the Empress Lucilla. Fabia bore Quintillus a son called Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, who later married Annia Aurelia Fadilla, one of the daughters of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Throughout the former Roman Empire, various honorific inscriptions dedicated to Quintillus and his family have been found, mentioning him, his wife, his son and his relation to Lucius Verus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192 (1974) Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11 second edition (2000) Anthony Richard Birley, Marcus Aurelius, (London: Routledge, 2000) Political offices Preceded by Quintus Pomponius Musa, and Lucius Cassius Juvenalis Consul of the Roman Empire 159 with Marcus Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus Succeeded by Marcus Pisibanius Lepidus, and Lucius Matuccius Fuscinus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plautius_Quintillus&oldid=1002812874" Categories: Imperial Roman consuls 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century deaths Plautii Titii Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Nerva–Antonine dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Latina Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7022	----	Romulus Augustulus - Wikipedia Romulus Augustulus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 475 to 476 This article is about the Roman emperor. For the comics character, see Tyrannus (comics). Roman emperor of the West Romulus Augustulus Tremissis of Romulus Augustus. Legend: d(ominus) n(oster) romul(us) augustus p(ius) f(elix) a(u)g(ustus). Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in Dalmatia, Gaul and the East) Reign 31 October 475 – 4 September 476 Predecessor Julius Nepos[1] Successor Office abolished; Julius Nepos ruled a rump state in Dalmatia Eastern emperors Zeno (475–476) Basiliscus (475–476) Born c. 460 Died Possibly after 507[2] Unknown location, possibly Castellum Lucullanum Father Orestes Romulus Augustus (c. 460 – after 476, possibly still alive as late as 507), known derisively and historiographically as Augustulus, was Roman emperor of the West from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. He is often described as the last Western Roman emperor, though some historians consider this to be Julius Nepos. Romulus's deposition by Odoacer traditionally marks the end of the Roman Empire in the West, the end of Ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Although he, as all other emperors, adopted the name Augustus upon his accession, he is better remembered by his derisive nickname Augustulus.[3] The Latin suffix -ulus is a diminutive, hence Augustulus effectively means "Little Augustus".[4] The name Romulus was also changed derisively to Momyllus meaning "little disgrace".[5][6] The historical record contains few details of Romulus's life. He was the son of Orestes, a Roman who had served as a secretary in the court of Attila the Hun before coming into the service of the Western Roman emperor Julius Nepos in AD 475. In the same year, Orestes was promoted to the rank of magister militum, but then led a military revolt that forced Nepos to flee into exile. With the capital of Ravenna under his control, Orestes appointed his son Romulus to the throne despite the lack of support from the eastern court in Constantinople. Romulus, however, was little more than a child and figurehead for his father's rule. After ten months in power, during which time his authority and legitimacy were disputed beyond Italy, Romulus was forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a Germanic foederatus officer who defeated and executed Orestes. After seizing control of Ravenna, Odoacer sent the former emperor to live in the Castellum Lucullanum in Campania, after which he disappears from the historical record. Contents 1 Life 2 Later life 2.1 Last Western emperor 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 Sources 6 External links Life[edit] The Western and the Eastern Roman Empire in 476. Romulus Augustus resigns the crown. Drawing from the Young Folks' History of Rome, 1880. Romulus's father Orestes was a Roman citizen, originally from Pannonia, who had served as a secretary and diplomat for Attila the Hun and later rose through the ranks of the Roman army.[7] The future emperor was named Romulus after his maternal grandfather, a nobleman from Poetovio in Noricum. Many historians have noted the coincidence that the last western emperor bore the names of both Romulus, the legendary founder and first king of Rome, and Augustus, the first emperor.[8] This is not as coincidental as it may seem; all emperors bore the name Augustus as it was part of the imperial title.[9] Orestes was appointed Magister militum by Julius Nepos in 475. Shortly after his appointment, Orestes launched a rebellion and captured Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire since 402, on 28 August 475. Nepos fled to Dalmatia, where his uncle had ruled a semi-autonomous state since the 460s.[10] Orestes, however, refused to become emperor, "from some secret motive", said historian Edward Gibbon.[11] Instead, he installed his son on the throne on 31 October 475.[12] The empire Augustus ruled was a shadow of its former self and had shrunk significantly over the previous 80 years. Imperial authority had retreated to the Italian borders and parts of southern Gaul: Italy and Gallia Narbonensis, respectively.[13] The Eastern Roman Empire treated its western counterpart as a client state. The Eastern Emperor Leo, who died in 474, had appointed the western emperors Anthemius and Julius Nepos, and Constantinople never recognized the new government. Neither Zeno nor Basiliscus, the two generals fighting for the eastern throne at the time of Romulus's accession, accepted him as ruler.[4] As a proxy for his father, Romulus made no decisions and left no monuments, although coins bearing his name were minted in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and Gaul.[4] Several months after Orestes took power, a coalition of Heruli, Scirian, and Turcilingi mercenaries demanded that he give them a third of the land in Italy.[11] When Orestes refused, the tribes revolted under the leadership of the Scirian chieftain Odoacer. Orestes was captured near Piacenza on 28 August 476 and swiftly executed.[citation needed] Odoacer advanced on Ravenna, capturing the city and the young emperor after the short and decisive Battle of Ravenna. Romulus was compelled to abdicate the throne on 4 September 476. This act has been cited as the end of the Western Roman Empire, although Romulus's deposition did not cause any significant disruption at the time. Rome had already lost its hegemony over the provinces, Germanic peoples dominated the Roman army, and Germanic generals like Odoacer had long been the real powers behind the throne.[14] Italy would suffer far greater devastation in the next century when Emperor Justinian I reconquered it in the Gothic War.[15] After the abdication of Romulus, the Roman Senate, on behalf of Odoacer, sent representatives to the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno, whom it asked to formally reunite the two halves of the Empire, with Odoacer as the "protector of the state": "The West, they declared, no longer required an Emperor of its own: one monarch sufficed for the world..."[16] Zeno was asked to make Odoacer a patrician, and administrator of Italy in Zeno's name. Zeno pointed out that the Senate should rightfully have first requested that Julius Nepos take the throne once more, but he nonetheless agreed to their requests as a fait accompli. Odoacer, already the de facto ruler of Italy, now ostensibly ruled de jure in Zeno's name.[17] Later life[edit] The ultimate fate of Romulus is a mystery. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth" (he was about 16), spared Romulus's life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania.[4][18] Jordanes and Marcellinus Comes say Odoacer exiled Romulus to Campania but do not mention any financial support from the Germanic king.[4][18] The sources do agree that Romulus took up residence in the Castel dell'Ovo (Lucullan Villa) in Naples, now a castle but originally built as a grand sea-side house by Lucullus in the 1st century BC,[18] then fortified by Valentinian III in the mid-5th century. From here, contemporary histories fall silent. In the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that the disciples of Saint Severinus of Noricum were invited by a "Neapolitan lady" to bring his body to the villa in 488; Gibbon conjectures from this that Augustulus "was probably no more."[19] The villa was converted into a monastery before 500 to hold the saint's remains.[18] Cassiodorus, then a secretary to Theodoric the Great, wrote a letter in 507 to a "Romulus" confirming a pension.[4] Thomas Hodgkin, a translator of Cassiodorus' works, wrote in 1886 that it was "surely possible" the Romulus in the letter was the same person as the last western emperor.[20] The letter would match the description of Odoacer's coup in the Anonymus Valesianus, and Romulus could have been alive in the early sixth century. But Cassiodorus does not supply any details about his correspondent or the size and nature of his pension, and Jordanes, whose history of the period abridges an earlier work by Cassiodorus, makes no mention of a pension. Last Western emperor[edit] Julius Nepos on a gold tremissis Some sources suggest that Julius Nepos claimed to hold the title of emperor legally when Odoacer took power. However, few of Nepos' contemporaries were willing to support his cause after he had fled to Dalmatia. Some historians regard Julius Nepos, who ruled in Dalmatia until he was murdered in 480, as the last lawful Western Roman Emperor.[21] Following Odoacer's coup, the Roman Senate sent a letter to Zeno that stated that "the majesty of a sole monarch is sufficient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the East and the West".[22] While Zeno told the Senate that Nepos was their lawful sovereign, he did not press the point and accepted the imperial insignia brought to him by the Senate.[17][22] Legacy[edit] As the last Western Roman emperor before the traditionally agreed-upon end of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus has been portrayed several times in film and literature; the play Romulus the Great (1950), by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, focuses on the reign of "Romulus Augustus" and the end of the Roman Empire in the West.[23] The 2007 film The Last Legion, and the novel on which it is based, includes a heavily fictionalized account of the reign and subsequent life of Romulus Augustus; escaping captivity with the aid of a small band of loyal Romans, he reaches Britain, where he eventually becomes Uther Pendragon.[24] Notes[edit] ^ Nepos maintained a claim to the position until he was murdered in 480. ^ Burns, Thomas, A History of the Ostrogoths, p. 74 ^ Older literature (appr. up to 1850) also refers to him as Momyllus or Momillus. According to Gibbon, Momyllus is a corruption of Romulus. Cf. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, 4.36. ^ a b c d e f De Imperatoribus Romanis ^ "805-806 (Nordisk familjebok/Uggleupplagan. 23. Retzius - Ryssland)". runeberg.org (in Swedish). 1916. Retrieved 12 April 2018. ^ Murphy, Cullen (September 2006). "The Road from Ravenna". The Atlantic. Washington, D.C.: Emerson Collective. Retrieved 25 October 2020. ^ Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, David Womersley, ed. London; Penguin Books, 1994. Vol. 3, p. 312. ^ Gibbon, p. 405. ^ White, L. Michael (2005). From Jesus to Christianity: How Four Generations of Visionaries & Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins. p. 44. ISBN 9780060816100. ^ Gibbon, pp. 391, 400. ^ a b Gibbon, p. 402. ^ "Romulus Augustulus | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 6 September 2020. ^ Hollister, C. Warren, Medieval Europe: A Short History. New York; McGraw-Hill, 1995, 32. ^ Norris, Shawn T. (3 November 2015). "Romulus Augustus – The Last Roman Emperor". Rome Across Europe. Retrieved 19 April 2016. ^ Middleton, Guy D. (2017). Understanding Collapse. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9781107151499. ^ Bryce 1961, p.25 ^ a b Bryce, James, The Holy Roman Empire ^ a b c d Gibbon, p. 406 ^ Gibbon, p. 407 ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, iii, 35. ^ Duckett, Eleanor Shipley (1988), "I", The Gateway to the Middle Ages, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-472-06051-1 ^ a b Gibbon, p. 404. ^ Brown, Donald (22 June 2018). "Make Rome Great Again. A Revival Of Duerrenmatt's "Romulus The Great" In New York". The Theatre Times. Retrieved 29 October 2018. ^ "The Last Legion (2007)". Medieval Hollywood. Fordham University. Retrieved 29 October 2018. Sources[edit] Bryce, James Bryce (1961). The Holy Roman Empire. Schocken Books. Gibbon, Edward (1994). Womersley, David (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. London: Penguin Books. |volume= has extra text (help) Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-98914-7. Hollister, C. Warren (1995). Medieval Europe: A Short History. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-124423-9. Murdoch, Adrian (2006). The Last Roman: Romulus Augustulus and the Decline of the West. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-4474-9. Norwich, John Julius (1997). Byzantium: A Short History. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-45088-2. Sandberg, Kaj (2008). "The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire. Notes On A Persistent Theme in Western Historiography". Arctos. 42: 199–213. Nathan, Ralph; Nathan, Geoffrey. "Romulus Augustulus (475–476 A.D.)—Two Views". De Imperatoribus Romanis. External links[edit] Media related to Romulus Augustus at Wikimedia Commons Project Gutenberg: Cassiodorus, Variae Regnal titles Preceded by Julius Nepos Western Roman emperor 475–476 with Julius Nepos in Dalmatia (475–476) Succeeded by Julius Nepos as ruler of Roman rump state in Dalmatia v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 WorldCat National libraries United States Poland Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romulus_Augustulus&oldid=1024874898" Categories: Romulus Augustulus 5th-century births 6th-century deaths 5th-century Christians 5th-century Roman emperors 5th-century Roman usurpers Ancient child rulers Dethroned monarchs Monarchs who abdicated Rulers deposed as children Hidden categories: CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2019 CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Commons link is on Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Romans from unknown gentes Year of birth uncertain Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 14:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7028	----	Roman emperor - Wikipedia Roman emperor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the ruler of the Roman Kingdom in the archaic period, see King of Rome. For the dual chief magistrates during the Roman Republic, see Roman consul. For the Roman emperors, see List of Roman emperors. Not to be confused with Holy Roman Emperor. Ruler of the Roman Empire in imperial period This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman emperor" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor of the Roman Empire Imperial Vexillum of the emperor First to command Augustus 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Details Style Imperator, Augustus, Caesar, Princeps, Dominus Noster, Autokrator or Basileus (depending on period) First monarch Augustus Last monarch Theodosius I (Unified or Classical), Julius Nepos (Western), Constantine XI (Eastern) Formation 16 January 27 BC Abolition 17 January 395 AD (Unified or Classical), 22 June 480 AD (Western), 29 May 1453 AD (Eastern) Appointer Roman Senate (officially) and/or Roman Military The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English, it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific. Early emperors also used the title Princeps Civitatis ('first citizen'). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably princeps senatus, consul, and pontifex maximus. The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or invested with imperial titles by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors and divide administration of the empire between them. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch.[1] For the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of the republic, fearing any association with the kings of Rome prior to the Republic. From Diocletian, whose tetrarchic reforms also divided the position into one emperor in the West and one in the East, until the end of the Empire, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style[2] and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic, but the contrast with "kings" was maintained: although the imperial succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy,[3] so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted. Elements of the republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire. The reign of Constantine the Great witnessed the removal of the Caput Mundi from Rome to Constantinople, formerly known as Byzantium, in 330 AD. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions of imperial territory by Germanic barbarian tribes. Romulus Augustulus is often considered to have been the last emperor of the West, until his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim recognized by the Eastern Empire to the title until his death in 480. Following Nepos' death, the Eastern emperor Zeno abolished the division of the position and proclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a reunited Roman Empire. Emperor Heraclius made diplomatic relations with the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, but lost many territories after successful Islamic conquests. The Eastern imperial lineage continued to rule from Constantinople ("New Rome"); they continued to style themselves "emperor of the Romans" (later βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων in Greek), but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors. Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire's Mehmed II in 1453. The Muslim rulers then claimed the title of Caesar of Rome. The "Byzantine" emperors from Heraclius in 629 and onwards adopted the title of basileus (βασιλεύς), which had originally meant king in Greek but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Other kings were then referred to as rēgas.[4] In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors were given divine status after death. With the eventual hegemony of Christianity, the emperor came to be seen as God's chosen ruler, as well as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth, although in practice an emperor's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge. Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest, most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman emperor. From 1453, one of the titles used by the Ottoman Sultans was "Caesar of Rome" (Turkish: Kayser-i Rum),[5] part of their titles until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922. A Byzantine group of claimant Roman emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, though they had used a modified title since 1282. Eastern emperors in Constantinople had been recognized and accepted as Roman emperors both in the East, which they ruled, and by the papacy and Germanic kingdoms of the West until the deposition of Constantine VI and accession of Irene of Athens as Empress regnant in 797. Objecting to a woman ruling the Roman Empire in her own right and issues with the eastern clergy, the Papacy would then create a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the Holy Roman Emperors, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized as Roman emperors by the court in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medieval problem of two emperors. Contents 1 Background and beginning 2 Classical period 2.1 Imperator 2.2 Princeps 2.3 Evolution in Late Antiquity 3 Titles and positions 3.1 Powers 4 Lineages and epochs 4.1 Principate 4.2 Crisis of the Third Century 4.3 Dominate 4.4 Decline of the Western Roman Empire 5 Post-classical assertions to the title 5.1 Survival of the Roman Empire in the East 5.2 Last Roman emperor 5.3 New Western lineage 6 See also 6.1 Lists 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Background and beginning[edit] Statue of Augustus, c. 30 BC–20 BC; this statue is located in the Louvre Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic, a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus and Cassius Dio.[6] However, the majority of Roman writers, including Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor.[7] At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, but that the period when several officials, bestowed with equal power by the senate, would fight one another had come to an end. Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. However, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senate's vote and approval.[citation needed] Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity (dictator perpetuo) in 45 BC and had been "pontifex maximus" for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent and just prior to his assassination, was the most powerful man in the Roman world. Cameo of Augustus in a quadriga drawn by tritons (Kunsthistorisches Museum) In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir. On Caesar's death, Octavian inherited his adoptive father's property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar's death, Octavian's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian's supremacy. In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government; the Senate not only requested he remain, but increased his powers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title of Augustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity). Augustus stayed in office until his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic. His "restoration" of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas and pious respect for tradition. Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus' death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government. Classical period[edit] Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Rome had no single constitutional office, title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title "Roman emperor". Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era. The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor.[8] Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps senatus (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of pontifex maximus (chief priest of the College of Pontiffs). Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome. These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige (dignitas) but the basis of an emperor's powers derived from his auctoritas: this assumed his greater powers of command (imperium maius) and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) as personal qualities, separate from his public office. As a result, he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment, was owed the obedience of private citizens (privati) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate's decision. He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including the tribunes of the people (ius intercedendi or ius intercessionis). His person was held to be sacred. Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office; different togas were worn by different ranks; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple. A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta (of solid purple, richly embroidered) for the duration of the triumphal rite. During the Late Republic, the most powerful had this right extended. Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions. Later emperors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae, purple togas; hence the phrase "to don the purple" for the assumption of imperial dignity. The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are imperator ("commander"), which emphasizes the emperor's military supremacy and is the source of the English word emperor; Caesar, which was originally a name but came to be used for the designated heir (as Nobilissimus Caesar, "Most Noble Caesar") and was retained upon accession. The ruling emperor's title was the descriptive Augustus ("majestic" or "venerable", which had tinges of the divine), which was adopted upon accession. In Greek, these three titles were rendered as autokratōr ("Αὐτοκράτωρ"), kaisar ("Καίσαρ"), and augoustos ("Αὔγουστος") or sebastos ("Σεβαστός") respectively. In Diocletian's Tetrarchy, the traditional seniorities were maintained: "Augustus" was reserved for the two senior emperors and "Caesar" for the two junior emperors – each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting, should anything befall his senior. As princeps senatus (lit., "first man of the senate"), the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome; some emperors (such as Tiberius) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate. In modern terms, these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state. The office of princeps senatus, however, was not a magistracy and did not entail imperium. At some points in the Empire's history, the emperor's power was nominal; powerful praetorian prefects, masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions, other members of the Imperial household including Imperial mothers and grandmothers were the true source of power. Imperator[edit] Main article: Imperator The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic, when a victorious commander could be hailed as imperator in the field by his troops. The Senate could then award or withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistracy.[9] In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that of Romulus, but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC.[9] It was a title held with great pride: Pompey was hailed imperator more than once, as was Sulla, but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently – according to Dio, this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate, passed to Caesar's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it.[10] In 38 BC, Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command, and this precedent established the rule that the princeps should assume both the salutation and title of imperator. It seems that from then on Octavian (later the first emperor Augustus) used imperator as a first name (praenomen): Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator. From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus, but only with Vespasian did imperator (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known. Princeps[edit] Main articles: Principate and Roman Emperor (Principate) The word princeps (plural principes), meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen(s) of the state. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers. It was the title most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only primacy, as opposed to another of his titles, imperator, which implies dominance. Princeps, because of its republican connotation, was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin (although the emperor's actual constitutional position was essentially "pontifex maximus with tribunician power and imperium superseding all others") as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored Republic; the Greek word basileus ("king") was modified to be synonymous with emperor (and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch. In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ("lord");[11] later emperors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix (Invictus) Augustus: NN representing the individual's personal name; Pius Felix meaning "Pious and Blest"; and Invictus meaning "undefeated". The use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations "Principate" and "Dominate". Evolution in Late Antiquity[edit] In 293, following the Crisis of the Third Century which had severely damaged Imperial administration, Emperor Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism which had characterized the Augustan order in favor of a more frank autocracy. As a result, historians distinguish the Augustan period as the principate and the period from Diocletian to the 7th-century reforms of Emperor Heraclius as the dominate (from the Latin for "lord".) Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the republic, however, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ("rule of four") in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of co-emperors, styled "Augustus", and junior emperors, styled "Caesar". When a co-emperor retired (as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian did in 305) or died, a junior "Caesar" would succeed him and the co-emperors would appoint new Caesars as needed. The four members of the Imperial college (as historians call the arrangement) shared military and administrative challenges by each being assigned specific geographic areas of the empire. From this innovation, often but not consistently repeated over the next 187 years, comes the notion of an east–west partition of the empire that became popular with historians long after the practice had stopped. The two halves of empire, while often run as de facto separate entities day-to-day, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble imperium by the Romans of the time. Roman coins (i.e. the tremissis) of the emperors Romulus Augustulus and Julius Nepos, the last emperors of the Western Roman Empire, although Nepos was a de jure ruler in Dalmatia after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus When emperor Theodosius I died, his sons Arcadius and Honorius, already proclaimed augusti, succeeded him. Eighty-five years later, following Germanic migrations which had reduced the empire's effective control across Brittania, Gaul and Hispania and a series of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Nepos out of Italy, the idea of dividing the position of emperor was formally abolished by Emperor Zeno (480). The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire[clarification needed] had a profound cultural impact on the empire and the position of emperor. The Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe, the Near East, India, and China. But many in Western Europe began to refer to the political entity as the "Greek Empire". The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in the now supreme Constantinople began to follow divergent paths, culminating in the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths. The position of emperor was increasingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship. Starting with Emperor Heraclius, Roman emperors styled themselves "King of Kings" (from the imperial Persian Shahanshah) from 627 and "Basileus" (from the title used by Alexander the Great) from 629. The later period of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as a matter of scholarly convention.[citation needed] Titles and positions[edit] Although these are the most common offices, titles, and positions, not all Roman emperors used them, nor were all of them used at the same time in history. The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity, and were usually held by persons other than the reigning emperor. Augustus: (also "Αὔγουστος" or "Σεβαστός"), "Majestic" or "Venerable"; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor Autokrator: (Αὐτοκράτωρ, Autokratōr), (lit. "Self-ruler"); Greek title equivalent to imperator or commander-in-chief Basileus: (Βασιλεύς), Greek for king, popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius Caesar: (also "Καίσαρ"), "Caesar"; initially the cognomen of Julius Caesar, it was transformed into a title; an honorific name later used to identify an emperor-designate Censor: a Republican office held jointly by two former consuls every five years for the purpose of conducting the lustrum that determined the role of citizens; the censor could audit all other magistrates and all state finances Consul: the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder; the consul was the head of state within Rome. The last emperor to be bestowed the title by the Senate was Constans II, who was also the last emperor to visit Rome. Dominus ("Lord" or "Master"): an honorific title mainly associated with the Dominate Dominus Noster ("Our Lord"): an honorific title; the praenomen of later emperors.[citation needed] Imperator ("Commander" or "Commander-in-Chief"): a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory Imperator Destinatus ("Destined to be Emperor"): heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla Invictus ("Unconquered"), an honorific title. Nobilissimus: (Nωβελίσσιμος, Nōbelissimos), ("Most Noble"), one of the highest imperial titles held by the emperor 1st-century sardonyx cameo of Caligula with the goddess Roma in a 17th-century setting (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland"): an honorific title Perpetuus ("Universal"): an honorific title of later emperors Pius Felix ("Pious and Blessed"): an honorific title Pontifex Maximus ("Supreme Pontiff" or "Chief Priest"): in the Republican era, the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the College of Pontiffs, the religious body that oversaw the ancestral public religion of the Romans; Julius Caesar had become Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul, and the precedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidating supreme authority through this religious office was in general followed by his successors until the empire came under Christian rule Princeps ("First Citizen" or "Leading Citizen"): an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals, associated mainly with the Principate Princeps Iuventutis: ("Prince of Youth"), an honorific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate Princeps Senatus: ("First Man of the Senate"), a Republican office with a five-year term Sebastos: (Σεβαστός), ("Venerable"); the Greek rendition of the imperial title Augustus Sebastokrator: (Σεβαστοκράτωρ, Sebastokratōr), ("Venerable Ruler); a senior court title from the compound words "sebastos" ("venerable", the Greek equivalent of the Latin Augustus) and "kratōr" ("ruler", the same element as is found in "autokratōr", "emperor") Tribunicia Potestas: ("Tribunician Power"); the powers of a tribune of the people, including sacrosanctity and inviolability of his person, and the veto over any decision by any other magistrate, assembly, or the Senate (the emperor could not be a "tribune" because a tribune was a plebeian by definition, therefore the emperor had all the powers of a tribune without actually being one) Powers[edit] When Augustus established the Princeps, he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices, which in itself was a demonstration of his auctoritas ("authority"). As holding princeps senatus, the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session, declared the Senate's agenda, imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow, and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate. Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs, granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies, consecrate temples, control the Roman calendar (adding or removing days as needed), appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens, lead the Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion. While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence, they did not include legal authority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power. The first was Tribunicia Potestas, or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office (which would have been impossible, since a tribune was by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia). This endowed the emperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person, and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, criminal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune, the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties. The emperor's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including the actual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of the tribune's power, the emperor would convoke the Council of the People, lay legislation before it, and served as the council's president. But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself. He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces. To solve this problem, Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium. The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome, and imperium maius outside of Rome. While inside the walls of Rome, the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority, each being able to veto each other's proposals and acts, with the emperor holding all of the consul's powers. But outside of Rome, the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself. Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors, making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome's legions. With Imperium Maius, the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate. Also, Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consuls while in the provinces. Normally, the powers vested in Augustus would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.[12] Lineages and epochs[edit] 1st-century Sardonyx cameo of an eagle, a symbol of Jupiter (Kunsthistorisches Museum) Principate[edit] Main article: Principate The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar's heir and posthumously adopted son, Augustus, and his own heirs, the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan. This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor Nero – a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son – was deposed in 68. Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69, commonly called the "Year of the Four Emperors". The last of these, Vespasian, established his own Flavian dynasty. Nerva, who replaced the last Flavian emperor, Vespasian's son Domitian, in 96, was elderly and childless, and chose therefore to adopt an heir, Trajan, from outside his family. When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor's example, adopting Hadrian as his own heir, and the practice then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century, producing the "Five Good Emperors" and the Empire's period of greatest stability. The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir. A brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus, who established the Severan dynasty which, except for an interruption in 217–218 when Macrinus was emperor, held the purple until 235. Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era. It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession. Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-class families, while Thrax was born a commoner. He never visited the city of Rome during his reign,[13] which marks the beginning of a series of "barracks emperors" who came from the army. Between 235 and 285 over a dozen emperors achieved the purple, but only Valerian and Carus managed to secure their own sons' succession to the throne; both dynasties died out within two generations. Dominate[edit] Main article: Dominate The accession on 20 November 284, of Diocletian, the lower-class, Greek-speaking Dalmatian commander of Carus' and Numerian's household cavalry (protectores domestici), marked major innovations in Rome's government and constitutional theory. Diocletian, a traditionalist and religious conservative, attempted to secure efficient, stable government and a peaceful succession with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. The empire was divided into East and West, each ruled by an Augustus assisted by a Caesar as emperor-in-waiting. These divisions were further subdivided into new or reformed provinces, administered by a complex, hierarchic bureaucracy of unprecedented size and scope. Diocletian's own court was based at Nicomedia. His co-Augustus, Maximian, was based at Mediolanum (modern Milan). Their courts were peripatetic, and Imperial progressions through the provinces made much use of the impressive, theatrical adventus, or "Imperial arrival" ceremony, which employed an elaborate choreography of etiquette to emphasise the emperor's elevation above other mortals. Hyperinflation of imperial honours and titles served to distinguish the Augusti from their Caesares, and Diocletian, as senior Augustus, from his colleague Maximian. The senior Augustus in particular was made a separate and unique being, accessible only through those closest to him. The overall unity of the Empire still required the highest investiture of power and status in one man.[14] The Tetrarchy ultimately degenerated into civil war, but the eventual victor, Constantine the Great, restored Diocletian's division of Empire into East and West. He kept the East for himself and founded his city of Constantinople as its new capital. Constantine's own dynasty was also soon swallowed up in civil war and court intrigue until it was replaced, briefly, by Julian the Apostate's general Jovian and then, more permanently, by Valentinian I and the dynasty he founded in 364. Though a soldier from a low middle-class background, Valentinian was made emperor by a conclave of senior generals and civil officials. Theodosius I acceded to the purple in the East in 379 and in the West in 394. He outlawed paganism and made Christianity the Empire's official religion. He was the last emperor to rule over a united Roman Empire; the distribution of the East to his son Arcadius and the West to his son Honorius after his death in 395 represented a permanent division. Decline of the Western Roman Empire[edit] Main article: Western Roman Empire In the Western Roman Empire, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of a succession of Germanic tribal kings, until finally the Heruli Odoacer simply overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, shipped the imperial regalia to the Emperor Zeno in Constantinople and became King of Italy. Though during his own lifetime Odoacer maintained the legal fiction that he was actually ruling Italy as the viceroy of Zeno, historians mark 476 as the traditional date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Italy (Sicily, the south part of the peninsula, Ravenna, Venice etc.), however, remained under actual imperial rule from Constantinople for centuries, with imperial control slipping or becoming nominal only as late as the 11th century. In the East, the Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Although known as the Byzantine Empire by contemporary historians, the Empire was simply known as the Roman Empire to its citizens and neighboring countries. Post-classical assertions to the title[edit] Main article: Succession of the Roman Empire Survival of the Roman Empire in the East[edit] Imaginary portrait of Constantine XI, the last Roman emperor of the Eastern Roman empire (until 1453). The line of Roman emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire continued unbroken at Constantinople until the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade. In the wake of this action, four lines of Emperors emerged, each claiming to be the legal successor: the Empire of Thessalonica, evolving from the Despotate of Epirus, which was reduced to impotence when its founder Theodore Komnenos Doukas was defeated, captured and blinded by the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen III;[15] the Latin Empire, which came to an end when the Empire of Nicaea recovered Constantinople in 1261; the Empire of Trebizond, whose importance declined over the 13th century, and whose claims were simply ignored;[16] and the Empire of Nicaea, whose claims based on kinship with the previous emperors, control of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and possession of Constantinople through military prowess, prevailed. The successors of the emperors of Nicaea continued until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 under Constantine XI Palaiologos. These emperors eventually normalized the imperial dignity into the modern conception of an emperor, incorporated it into the constitutions of the state, and adopted the aforementioned title Basileus kai autokratōr Rhomaiōn ("Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans"). They had also ceased to use Latin as the language of state after Emperor Heraclius (d. 641 AD). Historians have customarily treated the state of these later Eastern emperors under the name "Byzantine Empire". It is important to note, however, that the adjective Byzantine, although historically used by Eastern Roman authors in a metonymic sense, was never an official term. Last Roman emperor[edit] Main article: Constantine XI Palaiologos Further information: Deposition of Romulus Augustulus Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last reigning Roman emperor. A member of the Palaiologos dynasty, he ruled the remnant of the Eastern Roman Empire from 1449 until his death in 1453 defending its capital Constantinople. He was born in Mystra[17] as the eighth of ten children of Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš of Kumanovo. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the supervision of his parents. During the absence of his older brother in Italy, Constantine was regent in Constantinople from 1437 to 1440. Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed the Conqueror made an offer to Constantine XI.[18] In exchange for the surrender of Constantinople, the emperor's life would be spared and he would continue to rule in Mystra. Constantine refused this offer. Instead he led the defense of the city and took an active part in the fighting along the land walls. At the same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain the necessary unity between the Genovese, Venetian, and Byzantine troops. As the city fell on May 29, 1453, Constantine is said to have remarked: "The city is fallen but I am alive." Realizing that the end had come, he reportedly discarded his purple cloak and led his remaining soldiers into a final charge, in which he was killed. With his death, Roman imperial succession came to an end, almost 1500 years after Augustus. After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos, brother of Constantine XI, was elected emperor and tried to organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an end after the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth. He then moved in Italy and continued to be recognized as Eastern emperor by the Christian powers. His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on the Byzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the grandparents of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. New Western lineage[edit] Charles V was the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to receive a papal coronation (until abdication in 1556). The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in the West with the coronation of the king of the Franks, Charlemagne (Charles the Great), as Roman emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800. This coronation had its roots in the decline of influence of the Pope in the affairs of the Byzantine Empire at the same time the Byzantine Empire declined in influence over politics in the West. The Pope saw no advantage to be derived from working with the Byzantine Empire, but as George Ostrogorsky points out, "an alliance with the famous conqueror of the Lombards, on the other hand ... promised much".[19] The immediate response of the Eastern Roman emperor was not welcoming. "At that time it was axiomatic that there could be only one Empire as there could be only one church", writes Ostrogorsky. "The coronation of Charles the Great violated all traditional ideas and struck a hard blow at Byzantine interests, for hitherto Byzantium, the new Rome, had unquestionably been regarded as the sole Empire which had taken over the inheritance of the old Roman imperium. Conscious of its imperial rights, Byzantium could only consider the elevation of Charles the Great to be an act of usurpation."[20] Nikephoros I chose to ignore Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title, clearly recognizing the implications of this act. According to Ostrogorsky, "he even went so far as to refuse the Patriarch Nicephorus permission to dispatch the customary synodica to the Pope."[21] Meanwhile, Charlemagne's power steadily increased: he subdued Istria and several Dalmatian cities during the reign of Irene, and his son Pepin brought Venice under Western hegemony, despite a successful counter-attack by the Byzantine fleet. Unable to counter this encroachment on Byzantine territory, Nikephoros' successor Michael I Rangabe capitulated; in return for the restoration of the captured territories, Michael sent Byzantine delegates to Aachen in 812 who recognized Charlemagne as Basileus.[22] Michael did not recognize him as Basileus of the Romans, however, which was a title that he reserved for himself.[23] This line of Roman emperors was actually generally Germanic rather than Roman, but maintained their Roman-ness as a matter of principle. These emperors used a variety of titles (most frequently "Imperator Augustus") before finally settling on Imperator Romanus Electus ("Elected Roman Emperor"). Historians customarily assign them the title "Holy Roman Emperor", which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their "Holy Roman Empire" as a separate institution. To Latin Catholics of the time, the Pope was the temporal authority as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Rome he was recognized as having the power to anoint or crown a new Roman emperor. The last man to be crowned by the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was Charles V. All his successors bore only a title of "Elected Roman Emperor". This line of Emperors lasted until 1806 when Francis II dissolved the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the existence of later potentates styling themselves "emperor", such as the Napoleons, the Habsburg Emperors of Austria, and the Hohenzollern heads of the German Reich, this marked the end of the Western Empire. Although there is a living heir, Karl von Habsburg, to the Habsburg dynasty, as well as a Pope and pretenders to the positions of the electors, and although all the medieval coronation regalia are still preserved in Austria, the legal abolition of all aristocratic prerogatives of the former electors and the imposition of republican constitutions in Germany and Austria render quite remote any potential for a revival of the Holy Roman Empire. For rulers of Italy after Romulus "Augustulus" and Julius Nepos, see list of barbarian kings. For the Roman emperors who ruled in the East after The Fall in the West, see List of Byzantine emperors. For emperors of the Holy Roman Empire in the West, see Holy Roman Emperor. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Imperial cult of ancient Rome Interregnum Justitium Roman Emperors family tree Julio-Claudian family tree Severan dynasty family tree Roman usurper Lists[edit] List of Roman emperors List of Byzantine emperors List of Roman usurpers List of condemned Roman emperors List of Imperial Roman victory titles References[edit] ^ Galinsky 2005, pp. 13–14 ^ Williams 1997, p. 147 ^ Heather 2005, p. 28 ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 264 ^ İlber Ortaylı, "Büyük Constantin ve İstanbul", Milliyet, 28 May 2011. ^ Barnes 2009, pp. 278–279 ^ Barnes 2009, pp. 279–282 ^ Murray, John (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. University of Chicago. pp. 260–266. ^ a b The Oxford Classical Dictionary, entry 'Imperator', Third Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996. ^ Cassius Dio, 43.44.2. ^ Goldsworthy 2010, p. 443 ^ Ancient Rome at Encyclopedia Britannica ^ Hekster, Olivier (2008). Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284. Edinburgh University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780748629923. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Rees 2004, pp. 46–56, 60 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 387 ^ On the imperial claims of the Grand Komnenos and international response to them, see N. Oikonomides, "The Chancery of the Grand Komnenoi; Imperial Tradition and Political Reality", Archeion Pontou, 35 (1979), pp. 299–332 ^ "Constantine Palaeologus the last Hellene emperor Fall of Constantinople". www.agiasofia.com. ^ Mansel, Philip (1995). "Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924". Washington Post. St. Martin's Press. Retrieved 21 August 2018. – Chapter 1 of Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 164 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 164f ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 175 ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 176 ^ Eichmann, Eduard (1942). Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland: ein Beitrag zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechte, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik. Echter-Verlag. p. 33. Sources[edit] Alston, Richard (1998). Aspects of Roman history, AD 14–117. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13237-4. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Barnes, Timothy (2009). "The first Emperor: the view of late antiquity". In Griffin, Miriam (ed.). A Companion to Julius Caesar. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0845-7. Galinsky, Karl (2005). The Cambridge companion to the Age of Augustus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300164268. Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. ISBN 978-0-330-49136-5. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Rees, Roger (2004). Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748616602. Williams, Stephen (1997) [1985]. Diocletian and the Roman recovery. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91827-5. Retrieved 2011-08-03. Further reading[edit] Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, October 1, 1995. ISBN 0-500-05077-5 (hardcover). External links[edit] De Imperatoribus Romanis Rulers of Rome "Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't", by Kelley L. 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en-wikipedia-org-7034	----	Otho - Wikipedia Otho From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 69 AD For other uses, see Otho (disambiguation). Roman emperor Otho Roman emperor Reign 15 January 69 – 16 April 69 Predecessor Galba Successor Vitellius Born Marcus Salvius Otho 28 April 32 Ferentium, Italy, Roman Empire Died 16 April 69 (aged 36) Brescello, Roman Empire Spouse Poppaea Sabina (forced by Nero to divorce her) Regnal name Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus[1] Father Lucius Salvius Otho Mother Terentia Albia Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Otho Year of the Four Emperors Chronology Galba 68–69 Otho 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasian69–79 Succession Preceded by Julio-Claudian dynasty Followed by Flavian dynasty v t e Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus (/ˈoʊθoʊ/; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was Roman emperor for three months, from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. A member of a noble Etruscan family, Otho was initially a friend and courtier of the young emperor Nero until he was effectively banished to the governorship of the remote province of Lusitania in 58 following his wife Poppaea Sabina's affair with Nero. After a period of moderate rule in the province, he allied himself with Galba, the governor of neighbouring Hispania Tarraconensis, during the revolts of 68. He accompanied Galba on his march to Rome, but revolted and murdered Galba at the start of the next year. Inheriting the problem of the rebellion of Vitellius, commander of the army in Germania Inferior, Otho led a sizeable force which met Vitellius' army at the Battle of Bedriacum. After initial fighting resulted in 40,000 casualties, and a retreat of his forces, Otho committed suicide rather than fight on and Vitellius was proclaimed emperor. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Overthrow of Emperor Galba 2 Decline and fall 2.1 War with Vitellius 2.2 Death 3 Reasons for suicide 4 Physical appearance 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary material Early life[edit] Otho was born on 28 April AD 32. His grandfather had been a senator, and Claudius granted Otho's father patrician status.[2][3] Greenhalgh writes that "he was addicted to luxury and pleasure to a degree remarkable even in a Roman". An aged freedwoman brought him into the company of the emperor Nero. Otho married the emperor's mistress Poppaea Sabina; Nero forced Otho to divorce Poppaea so that he himself could marry her. He exiled Otho to the province Lusitania[3] in 58 or 59 by appointing him to be its governor.[2] Otho proved to be capable as governor of Lusitania. Yet, he never forgave Nero for marrying Poppaea. He allied himself with Galba, governor of neighboring Hispania Tarraconensis, in the latter's rebellion against Nero in 68.[3] Nero committed suicide later that year and Galba was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. Otho accompanied the new emperor to Rome in October 68. Before they entered the city, Galba's army fought against a legion that Nero had organized.[4] Overthrow of Emperor Galba[edit] On 1 January 69, the day Galba took the office of consul alongside Titus Vinius,[5] the fourth and twenty-second legions of Upper Germany refused to swear loyalty to the emperor. They toppled the statues of Galba and demanded that a new emperor be chosen. On the following day, the soldiers of Lower Germany also refused to swear their loyalty and proclaimed the governor of the province, Aulus Vitellius, as emperor. Galba tried to ensure his authority as emperor was recognized by adopting the nobleman Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his successor,[6] an action that gained resentment from Otho.[2] Galba was killed by the Praetorians on 15 January, followed shortly by Vinius and Piso. Their heads were placed on poles and Otho was proclaimed emperor.[6] Decline and fall[edit] He accepted, or appeared to accept, the cognomen of Nero conferred upon him by the shouts of the populace, whom his comparative youth and the effeminacy of his appearance reminded of their lost favourite. Nero's statues were again set up, his freedmen and household officers reinstalled (including the young castrated boy Sporus whom Nero had taken in marriage and Otho also would live intimately with[7][8]), and the intended completion of the Golden House announced. At the same time, the fears of the more sober and respectable citizens were relieved by Otho's liberal professions of his intention to govern equitably, and by his judicious clemency towards Aulus Marius Celsus, a consul-designate and devoted adherent of Galba. Otho soon realized that it was much easier to overthrow an emperor than rule as one: according to Suetonius[9] Otho once remarked that "playing the Long Pipes is hardly my trade" (i.e., undertaking something beyond one's ability to do so). War with Vitellius[edit] Otho by Robert Van Voerst after Titian. Any further development of Otho's policy was checked once Otho had read through Galba's private correspondence and realized the extent of the revolution in Germany, where several legions had declared for Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the lower Rhine River, and were already advancing upon Italy. After a vain attempt to conciliate Vitellius by the offer of a share in the Empire, Otho, with unexpected vigor, prepared for war. From the much more remote provinces, which had quietly accepted his accession, little help was to be expected, but the legions of Dalmatia, Pannonia and Moesia were eager in his cause, the Praetorian cohorts were a formidable force and an efficient fleet gave him the mastery of the Italian seas. The fleet was at once dispatched to secure Liguria, and on 14 March Otho, undismayed by omens and prophecies, started northwards at the head of his troops in the hopes of preventing the entry of Vitellius' troops into Italy. But for this he was too late, and all that could be done was to throw troops into Placentia and hold the line of the Po. Otho's advanced guard successfully defended Placentia against Aulus Caecina Alienus, and compelled that general to fall back on Cremona, but the arrival of Fabius Valens altered the aspect of affairs. Vitellius' commanders now resolved to bring on a decisive battle, the Battle of Bedriacum, and their designs were assisted by the divided and irresolute counsels which prevailed in Otho's camp. The more experienced officers urged the importance of avoiding a battle until at least the legions from Dalmatia had arrived. However, the rashness of the emperor's brother Titianus and of Proculus, prefect of the Praetorian Guards, added to Otho's feverish impatience, overruled all opposition, and an immediate advance was decided upon. Otho remained behind with a considerable reserve force at Brixellum on the southern bank of the Po. When this decision was taken, Otho's army already had crossed the Po and were encamped at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), a small village on the Via Postumia, and on the route by which the legions from Dalmatia would naturally arrive. Leaving a strong detachment to hold the camp at Bedriacum, the Othonian forces advanced along the Via Postumia in the direction of Cremona. At a short distance from that city they unexpectedly encountered the Vitellian troops. The Othonians, though taken at a disadvantage, fought desperately, but finally were forced to fall back in disorder upon their camp at Bedriacum. There on the next day the victorious Vitellians followed them, but only to come to terms at once with their disheartened enemy, and to be welcomed into the camp as friends. Death[edit] Otho was still in command of a formidable force: the Dalmatian legions had reached Aquileia and the spirit of his soldiers and their officers was unbroken. He was resolved to accept the verdict of the battle that his own impatience had hastened. In speech, he bade farewell to those about him, declaring: "It is far more just to perish one for all, than many for one",[10] and then retiring to rest soundly for some hours. Early in the morning he stabbed himself in the heart with a dagger, which he had concealed under his pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent. Otho's ashes were placed within a modest monument. He had reigned three months. His funeral was celebrated at once as he had wished. A plain tomb was erected in his honour at Brixellum, with the inscription Diis Manibus Marci Othonis. His 91-day reign would be the shortest until that of Pertinax, whose reign lasted 86 days in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors. Reasons for suicide[edit] It has been thought that Otho's suicide was committed in order to steer his country away from the path to civil war. Just as he had come to power, many Romans learned to respect Otho in his death. Few could believe that a renowned former companion of Nero had chosen such an honourable end. Tacitus wrote that some of the soldiers committed suicide beside his funeral pyre "because they loved their emperor and wished to share his glory".[11] Writing during the reign of the Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), the Roman poet Martial expressed his admiration for Otho's choice to spare the empire from civil war through sacrificing himself: Although the goddess of civil warfare was still in doubt, And soft Otho had perhaps still a chance of winning, He renounced fighting that would have cost much blood, And with sure hand pierced right through his breast. By all means let Cato in his life be greater than Caesar himself; In his death was he greater than Otho?[12] Statue of the Emperor Otho in the Louvre museum (Paris) Physical appearance[edit] Suetonius, in The Lives of the Caesars, comments on Otho's appearance and personal hygiene. He is said to have been of moderate height, splay-footed and bandy-legged, but almost feminine in his care of his person. He had the hair of his body plucked out, and because of the thinness of his locks wore a wig so carefully fashioned and fitted to his head, that no one suspected it. Moreover, they say that he used to shave every day and smear his face with moist bread, beginning the practice with the appearance of the first down, so as never to have a beard. Juvenal, in a passage in the Satire II ridiculing male homosexuality, specifically mentions Otho as being vain and effeminate, looking at himself in the mirror before going into battle, and "plaster[ing] his face with dough" in order to look good.[13] Notes[edit] References[edit] ^ Cooley, p. 490. ^ a b c Grant 2002, p. 188. ^ a b c Greenhalgh 1975, pp. 33–35. ^ Donahue 1999. ^ Wellesley 1989, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWellesley1989 (help) ^ a b Greenhalgh 1975, pp. 30, 37, 45, 47–54. ^ Smith 1849, pp. 897, 2012. ^ Champlin 2005, pp. 147–148. ^ "Suetonius • Life of Otho". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 29 September 2017. ^ "Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 63". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 29 September 2017. ^ Tacitus, Cornelius. "Otho's Suicide : The Histories [of Ancient Rome] by Tacitus". www.ourcivilisation.com. Retrieved 29 September 2017. ^ Martial, Epigrams VI.32, translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey ^ "Juvenal | Roman poet". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-12-02. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Otho, Marcus Salvius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–366. Champlin, Edward (2005). Nero. Harvard University Press. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-674-01822-8. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Donahue, John (7 August 1999). "Galba". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 27 March 2019. Grant, Michael (2002). The twelve Caesars. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 9781842126370. Greenhalgh, P. A. L. (1975). The Year of the Four Emperors. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 9780297768760. Smith, William (1849). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. 3. C. C. Little and J. Brown; [etc., etc. ]. pp. 897, 2012. LCCN 07038839. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Life of Otho by Plutarch Wikimedia Commons has media related to Otho. Primary sources[edit] Life of Otho (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original) Life of Otho (Plutarch; English translation) Cassius Dio, Book 63 Tacitus, Histories (esp. 1.12, 1.21–90) Secondary material[edit] Biography on De Imperatoribus Romanis Otho entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Otho by Plutarch Juvenal; Satire II [1] Political offices Preceded by Galba Roman emperor 69 Succeeded by Vitellius v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-703	----	Czech Republic - Wikipedia Czech Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Czechia" redirects here. For other uses, see Czechia (disambiguation) and Czech Republic (disambiguation). Country in Central Europe Coordinates: 49°45′N 15°30′E / 49.750°N 15.500°E / 49.750; 15.500 Czech Republic Česká republika  (Czech) Flag Coat of arms Motto: "Pravda vítězí" (Czech) "Truth prevails" Anthem:  Kde domov můj  (Czech) Where is my home a Location of the Czech Republic (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Capital and largest city Prague 50°05′N 14°28′E / 50.083°N 14.467°E / 50.083; 14.467 Official language Czech[1] Officially recognized languages[2][3] List Slovak German Polish Belarusian Greek Hungarian Romani Russian Rusyn Serbian Ukrainian Vietnamese Ethnic groups (2011[4]) 64.3% Czechs 5.0% Moravians 1.4% Slovaks 0.5% Ukrainians 3.5% Others 25.3% No answer Religion (2011)[4] 34.5% No religion 11.6% Christianity —10.4% Catholicism —1.2% Other Christian 2.5% Others 44.7% No answer Demonym(s) Czech Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic • President Miloš Zeman • Prime Minister Andrej Babiš Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house Chamber of Deputies Establishment history • Duchy of Bohemia c. 870 • Kingdom of Bohemia 1198 • Czechoslovakia 28 October 1918 • Czech Republic 1 January 1993 Area • Total 78,871 km2 (30,452 sq mi) (115th) • Water (%) 2.12 (as of 2020)[5] Population • 2021 estimate 10,701,777[6] (86th) • 2011 census 10,436,560[4] • Density 136/km2 (352.2/sq mi) (62th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $432.346 billion[7] (36th) • Per capita $40,585[7] (34th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $261.732 billion[7] (36th) • Per capita $24,569[7] (37th) Gini (2019)  24.0[8] low · 5th HDI (2019)  0.900[9] very high · 27th Currency Czech koruna (CZK) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Driving side right Calling code +420b ISO 3166 code CZ Internet TLD .czc The question is rhetorical, implying "those places where my homeland lies". Code 42 was shared with Slovakia until 1997. Also .eu, shared with other European Union member states. The Czech Republic,[a][11] (Czech: Česká republika) also known by its short-form name, Czechia,[b][12] (Czech: Česko) formerly known as Bohemia,[13] is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the east.[14] The Czech Republic has a hilly landscape that covers an area of 78,866 square kilometers (30,450 sq mi) with a mostly temperate continental climate and oceanic climate. It is a unitary parliamentary republic. The Duchy of Bohemia under Great Moravia in 1002 was formally recognized as an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire and became a kingdom in 1198.[15][16] Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy. The Protestant Bohemian Revolt led to the Thirty Years' War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule. With the dissolution of the Holy Empire in 1806, the Crown lands became part of the Austrian Empire. In the 19th century, the Czech lands became more industrialized, and in 1918 most of it became part of the First Czechoslovak Republic following the collapse of Austria-Hungary after World War I.[17] After the Munich Agreement in 1938, Nazi Germany systematically took control over the Czech lands. Czechoslovakia was restored in 1945 and became an Eastern Bloc communist state following a coup d'état in 1948. In November 1989, the Velvet Revolution ended communist rule in the country, and on 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia was dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic is a developed country with an advanced, high-income social market economy. It is a welfare state with a European social model, universal health care and tuition-free university education. It ranks 12th in the UN inequality-adjusted human development and 14th in the World Bank Human Capital Index ahead of countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom and France. It ranks as the 11th safest and most peaceful country and 31st in democratic governance. The Czech Republic is a member of NATO, the EU, OECD, OSCE, and the CoE. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 2.2 Environment 3 History 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 Bohemia 3.3 Czechoslovakia 3.4 Czech Republic 4 Governance 4.1 Law 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Military 4.4 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Industry 5.2 Energy 5.3 Transportation infrastructure 5.4 Communications and IT 5.5 Tourism 5.6 Science 6 Demographics 6.1 Religion 6.2 Welfare 7 Culture 7.1 Art 7.2 Architecture 7.3 Literature 7.4 Music 7.5 Theatre 7.6 Film 7.7 Media 7.8 Cuisine 7.9 Sport 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 General sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Name Main article: Name of the Czech Republic The traditional English name "Bohemia" derives from Latin "Boiohaemum", which means "home of the Boii" (Gallic tribe). The current English name comes from the Polish ethnonym associated with the area, which ultimately comes from the Czech word Čech.[18][19][20] The name comes from the Slavic tribe (Czech: Češi, Čechové) and, according to legend, their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia, to settle on Říp Mountain. The etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning "member of the people; kinsman", thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk (a person).[21] The country has been traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia (Čechy) in the west, Moravia (Morava) in the east, and Czech Silesia (Slezsko; the smaller, south-eastern part of historical Silesia, most of which is located within modern Poland) in the northeast. Known as the lands of the Bohemian Crown since the 14th century, a number of other names for the country have been used, including Czech/Bohemian lands, Bohemian Crown, Czechia[22] and the lands of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas. When the country regained its independence after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918, the new name of Czechoslovakia was coined to reflect the union of the Czech and Slovak nations within one country.[23] After Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1992, the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs recommended the English name Czechia in 1993[citation needed] but Czech Republic was selected for use as the official short name as well as the long one. The Czech government approved Czechia as the official short name in 2016.[24] The short name has been listed by the United Nations[25] and is used by other organisations such as the European Union,[26] CIA,[27] and Google Maps.[28] Geography Main article: Geography of the Czech Republic Topographic map The Czech Republic lies mostly between latitudes 48° and 51° N and longitudes 12° and 19° E. Bohemia, to the west, consists of a basin drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and the Vltava rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains, such as the Krkonoše range of the Sudetes. The highest point in the country, Sněžka at 1,603 m (5,259 ft), is located here. Moravia, the eastern part of the country, is also hilly. It is drained mainly by the Morava River, but it also contains the source of the Oder River (Czech: Odra). Water from the Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. The Czech Republic also leases the Moldauhafen, a 30,000-square-meter (7.4-acre) lot in the middle of the Hamburg Docks, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles, to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships. The territory reverts to Germany in 2028. Phytogeographically, the Czech Republic belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region, within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of the Czech Republic can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Western European broadleaf forests, Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Carpathian montane conifer forests.[29] There are four national parks in the Czech Republic. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park (Biosphere Reserve), and the others are Šumava National Park (Biosphere Reserve), Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland. The three historical lands of the Czech Republic (formerly some countries of the Bohemian Crown) correspond with the river basins of the Elbe and the Vltava basin for Bohemia, the Morava one for Moravia, and the Oder river basin for Czech Silesia (in terms of the Czech territory). Climate Köppen climate classification types of the Czech Republic using the 0°C isotherm   Humid continental climate   Subarctic climate Köppen climate classification types of the Czech Republic using the -3°C isotherm   Humid continental climate   Oceanic climate   Subarctic climate The Czech Republic has a temperate climate, situated in the transition zone between the oceanic and continental climate types, with warm summers and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. The temperature difference between summer and winter is due to the landlocked geographical position.[30] Temperatures vary depending on the elevation. In general, at higher altitudes, the temperatures decrease and precipitation increases. The wettest area in the Czech Republic is found around Bílý Potok in Jizera Mountains and the driest region is the Louny District to the northwest of Prague. Another factor is the distribution of the mountains. At the highest peak of Sněžka (1,603 m or 5,259 ft), the average temperature is −0.4 °C (31 °F), whereas in the lowlands of the South Moravian Region, the average temperature is as high as 10 °C (50 °F). The country's capital, Prague, has a similar average temperature, although this is influenced by urban factors. The coldest month is usually January, followed by February and December. During these months, there is snow in the mountains and sometimes in the cities and lowlands. During March, April, and May, the temperature usually increases, especially during April, when the temperature and weather tends to vary during the day. Spring is also characterized by higher water levels in the rivers, due to melting snow with occasional flooding. The warmest month of the year is July, followed by August and June. On average, summer temperatures are about 20–30 °C (36–54 °F) higher than during winter. Summer is also characterized by rain and storms. Autumn generally begins in September, which is still warm and dry. During October, temperatures usually fall below 15 °C (59 °F) or 10 °C (50 °F) and deciduous trees begin to shed their leaves. By the end of November, temperatures usually range around the freezing point. Northern Czech landscape during a summer morning Krkonoše mountains in winter The coldest temperature ever measured was in Litvínovice near České Budějovice in 1929, at −42.2 °C (−44.0 °F) and the hottest measured, was at 40.4 °C (104.7 °F) in Dobřichovice in 2012.[31] Most rain falls during the summer. Sporadic rainfall is throughout the year (in Prague, the average number of days per month experiencing at least 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) of rain varies from 12 in September and October to 16 in November) but concentrated rainfall (days with more than 10 mm (0.39 in) per day) are more frequent in the months of May to August (average around two such days per month).[32] Severe thunderstorms, producing damaging straight-line winds, hail, and occasional tornadoes occur, especially during the summer period.[33][34] Environment See also: Protected areas of the Czech Republic and Fauna of the Czech Republic The Czech Republic ranks as the 27th most environmentally conscious country in the world in Environmental Performance Index.[35] It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.71/10, ranking it 160th globally out of 172 countries.[36] The Czech Republic has four National Parks (Šumava National Park, Krkonoše National Park, České Švýcarsko National Park, Podyjí National Park) and 25 Protected Landscape Areas. History Main article: History of the Czech lands Prehistory Left: Venus of Dolní Věstonice dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE Right: The stone head of a Celt is among the archaeological collections of the National Museum.[37] Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlements in the area, dating back to the Paleolithic era. In the classical era, as a result of the 3rd century BC Celtic migrations, Bohemia became associated with the Boii.[38] The Boii founded an oppidum near the site of modern Prague.[39] Later in the 1st century, the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi settled there.[40] Slavs from the Black Sea–Carpathian region settled in the area (their migration was pushed by an invasion of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe into their area:[41] Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Magyars).[42] In the sixth century, the Huns had moved westwards into Bohemia, Moravia, and some of present-day Austria and Germany.[42] During the 7th century, the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled Avars,[43] became the ruler of the first documented Slavic state in Central Europe, Samo's Empire. The principality of Great Moravia, controlled by Moymir dynasty, arose in the 8th century.[44] It reached its zenith in the 9th (during the reign of Svatopluk I of Moravia), holding off the influence of the Franks. Great Moravia was Christianized, with a role being played by the Byzantine mission of Cyril and Methodius. They codified the Old Church Slavonic language, the first literary and liturgical language of the Slavs, and the Glagolitic alphabet.[45] Bohemia Main article: Bohemia The Crown of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire (1600). The Czech lands were part of the Empire in 1002–1806, and Prague was the imperial seat in 1346–1437 and 1583–1611. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century when it was unified by the Přemyslid dynasty. Bohemia was from 1002 until 1806 an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire.[46] In 1212, Přemysl Ottokar I extracted the Golden Bull of Sicily from the emperor, confirming Ottokar and his descendants' royal status; the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a Kingdom.[47] German immigrants settled in the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century.[48] The Mongols in the invasion of Europe carried their raids into Moravia but were defensively defeated at Olomouc.[49] After a series of dynastic wars, the House of Luxembourg gained the Bohemian throne.[50] Efforts for a reform of the church in Bohemia started already in the late 14th century. Jan Hus's followers seceded from some practices of the Roman Church and in the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) defeated five crusades organized against them by Sigismund. During the next two centuries, 90% of the population in Bohemia and Moravia were considered Hussites. The pacifist thinker Petr Chelčický inspired the movement of the Bohemian Brethren (by the middle of the 15th century) that completely separated from the Roman Catholic Church.[51] Battle between Hussites and crusaders during the Hussite Wars; Jena Codex, 15th century After 1526 Bohemia came increasingly under Habsburg control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then in 1627 the hereditary rulers of Bohemia. Between 1583 and 1611 Prague was the official seat of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II and his court. The Defenestration of Prague and subsequent revolt against the Habsburgs in 1618 marked the start of the Thirty Years' War. In 1620, the rebellion in Bohemia was crushed at the Battle of White Mountain and the ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs' hereditary lands in Austria were strengthened. The leaders of the Bohemian Revolt were executed in 1621. The nobility and the middle class Protestants had to either convert to Catholicism or leave the country.[52] In the "Dark Age" of 1620 to the late 18th century, the population of the Czech lands declined by a third through the expulsion of Czech Protestants as well as due to the war, disease and famine.[53] The Habsburgs prohibited all Christian confessions other than Catholicism.[54] The flowering of Baroque culture shows the ambiguity of this historical period. Ottoman Turks and Tatars invaded Moravia in 1663.[55] In 1679–1680 the Czech lands faced the Great Plague of Vienna and an uprising of serfs.[56] The 1618 Defenestration of Prague marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt against the Habsburgs and therefore the first phase of the Thirty Years' War. There were peasant uprisings influenced by famine.[57] Serfdom was abolished between 1781 and 1848. Several battles of the Napoleonic Wars took place on the current territory of the Czech Republic. The end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 led to degradation of the political status of Bohemia which lost its position of an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire as well as its own political representation in the Imperial Diet.[58] Bohemian lands became part of the Austrian Empire. During the 18th and 19th century the Czech National Revival began its rise, with the purpose to revive Czech language, culture and national identity. The Revolution of 1848 in Prague, striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was suppressed.[59] It seemed that some concessions would be made also to Bohemia, but in the end, the Emperor Franz Joseph I affected a compromise with Hungary only. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the never realized coronation of Franz Joseph as King of Bohemia led to a disappointment of some Czech politicians.[59] The Bohemian Crown lands became part of the so-called Cisleithania. The Czech Social Democratic and progressive politicians started the fight for universal suffrage. The first elections under universal male suffrage were held in 1907.[60] Czechoslovakia Main article: History of Czechoslovakia The First Czechoslovak Republic comprised 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary and nearly 80% of the industry.[61] In 1918, during the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy at the end of World War I, the independent republic of Czechoslovakia, which joined the winning Allied powers, was created, with Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk in the lead.[62] This new country incorporated the Bohemian Crown.[63] The First Czechoslovak Republic comprised only 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary, but nearly 80% of the industry, which enabled it to compete with Western industrial states.[61] In 1929 compared to 1913, the gross domestic product increased by 52% and industrial production by 41%. In 1938 Czechoslovakia held 10th place in the world industrial production.[64] Czechoslovakia was the only democracy in Central Europe during the interwar period.[65] Although the First Czechoslovak Republic was a unitary state, it provided certain rights to its minorities, the largest being Germans (23.6% in 1921), Hungarians (5.6%) and Ukrainians (3.5%).[66] Prague during the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia The Czech territory was occupied by Germany, which transformed it into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich, and the president and prime minister were subordinated to Nazi Germany's Reichsprotektor. One Nazi concentration camp was located within the Czech territory at Terezín, north of Prague. The Nazi Generalplan Ost called for the extermination, expulsion, Germanization or enslavement of most or all Czechs for the purpose of providing more living space for the German people.[67] There was Czechoslovak resistance to Nazi occupation as well as reprisals against the Czechoslovaks for their anti-Nazi resistance. The German occupation ended on 9 May 1945, with the arrival of the Soviet and American armies and the Prague uprising.[68] In the 1946 elections, the Communist Party gained 38%[69] of the votes and became the largest party in the Czechoslovak parliament, formed a coalition with other parties, and consolidated power. A coup d'état came in 1948 and a single-party government was formed. For the next 41 years, the Czechoslovak Communist state is characterized by certain Eastern Bloc's economic and political features.[70] The Prague Spring political liberalization was stopped by the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. Analysts believe that the invasion caused the communist movement to fracture, ultimately leading to the Revolutions of 1989. Czech Republic Main articles: Velvet Revolution and Dissolution of Czechoslovakia Václav Havel, playwright, former dissident, one of the most important figures in the history of the 20th century. Leader of the Velvet Revolution. The last president of Czechoslovakia and the first president of the Czech Republic. In November 1989, Czechoslovakia returned to a liberal democracy through the Velvet Revolution. However, Slovak national aspirations strengthened (Hyphen War) and on 1 January 1993, the country peacefully split into the independent countries of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Both countries went through economic reforms and privatisations, with the intention of creating a market economy. This process was largely successful; in 2006 the Czech Republic was recognized by the World Bank as a "developed country",[71] and in 2009 the Human Development Index ranked it as a nation of "Very High Human Development".[72] From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995, the OECD. The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area.[73] Until 2017, either the Czech Social Democratic Party or the Civic Democratic Party led the governments of the Czech Republic. In October 2017, populist movement ANO 2011, led by the country's second-richest man, Andrej Babiš, won the elections with three times more votes than its closest rival, the centre-right Civic Democrats.[74] In December 2017, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed Andrej Babiš as the new Prime Minister. [75] Governance Main articles: Government of the Czech Republic and Politics of the Czech Republic President Miloš Zeman Prime Minister Andrej Babiš The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy. The Parliament (Parlament České republiky) is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (Czech: Poslanecká sněmovna) (200 members) and the Senate (Czech: Senát) (81 members).[76] The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a four-year term by proportional representation, with a 5% election threshold. There are 14 voting districts, identical to the country's administrative regions. The Chamber of Deputies, the successor to the Czech National Council, has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia. The members of the Senate are elected in single-seat constituencies by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term, with one-third elected every even year in the autumn. This arrangement is modeled on the U.S. Senate, but each constituency is roughly the same size and the voting system used is a two-round runoff. The president is a formal head of state with limited and specific powers, who appoints the prime minister, as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. From 1993 until 2012, the President of the Czech Republic was selected by a joint session of the parliament for a five-year term, with no more than two consecutive terms (2x Václav Havel, 2x Václav Klaus). Since 2013 the presidential election is direct.[77] The Government's exercise of executive power derives from the Constitution. The members of the government are the Prime Minister, Deputy prime ministers and other ministers. The Government is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.[78] The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields powers such as the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy and choose government ministers.[79] Main office holders Office Name Party Since President Miloš Zeman SPOZ 8 March 2013 President of the Senate Miloš Vystrčil ODS 19 February 2020 Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies Radek Vondráček ANO 22 November 2017 Prime Minister Andrej Babiš ANO 6 December 2017 Law Main articles: Law of the Czech Republic, Judiciary of the Czech Republic, and Law enforcement in the Czech Republic See also: Gun law in the Czech Republic and Self-defence (Czech Republic) Seat of the Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic in Brno The Czech Republic is a unitary state,[80] with a civil law system based on the continental type, rooted in Germanic legal culture. The basis of the legal system is the Constitution of the Czech Republic adopted in 1993.[81] The Penal Code is effective from 2010. A new Civil code became effective in 2014. The court system includes district, county, and supreme courts and is divided into civil, criminal, and administrative branches. The Czech judiciary has a triumvirate of supreme courts. The Constitutional Court consists of 15 constitutional judges and oversees violations of the Constitution by either the legislature or by the government.[81] The Supreme Court is formed of 67 judges and is the court of highest appeal for most legal cases heard in the Czech Republic. The Supreme Administrative Court decides on issues of procedural and administrative propriety. It also has jurisdiction over certain political matters, such as the formation and closure of political parties, jurisdictional boundaries between government entities, and the eligibility of persons to stand for public office.[81] The Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court are both based in Brno, as is the Supreme Public Prosecutor's Office.[81] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of the Czech Republic See also: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic Visa-free entry countries for Czech citizens in green, EU in blue (see citizenship of the European Union) The Czech Republic has ranked as one of the safest or most peaceful countries for the past few decades.[82] It is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, NATO, OECD, Council of Europe and is an observer to the Organization of American States.[83] The embassies of most countries with diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic are located in Prague, while consulates are located across the country. The Czech passport is restricted by visas. According to the 2018 Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index, Czech citizens have visa-free access to 173 countries, which ranks them 7th along with Malta and New Zealand.[84] The World Tourism Organization ranks the Czech passport 24th.[85] The US Visa Waiver Program applies to Czech nationals. The Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs have primary roles in setting foreign policy, although the President also has influence and represents the country abroad. Membership in the European Union and NATO is central to the Czech Republic's foreign policy. The Office for Foreign Relations and Information (ÚZSI) serves as the foreign intelligence agency responsible for espionage and foreign policy briefings, as well as protection of Czech Republic's embassies abroad. The Czech Republic has ties with Slovakia, Poland and Hungary as a member of the Visegrad Group,[86] as well as with Germany,[87] Israel,[88] the United States[89] and the European Union and its members. Czech officials have supported dissenters in Belarus, Moldova, Myanmar and Cuba.[90] Military Army soldiers during an exercise Main article: Army of the Czech Republic The Czech armed forces consist of the Czech Land Forces, the Czech Air Force and of specialized support units. The armed forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The President of the Czech Republic is Commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In 2004 the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The country has been a member of NATO since 12 March 1999. Defence spending is approximately 1.19% of the GDP (2019).[91] The armed forces are charged with protecting the Czech Republic and its allies, promoting global security interests, and contributing to NATO. Currently, as a member of NATO, the Czech military are participating in the Resolute Support and KFOR operations and have soldiers in Afghanistan, Mali, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Egypt, Israel and Somalia. The Czech Air Force also served in the Baltic states and Iceland.[92] The main equipment of the Czech military includes JAS 39 Gripen multi-role fighters, Aero L-159 Alca combat aircraft, Mi-35 attack helicopters, armored vehicles (Pandur II, OT-64, OT-90, BVP-2) and tanks (T-72 and T-72M4CZ). Administrative divisions Main articles: Regions of the Czech Republic, Districts of the Czech Republic, and Obec Since 2000, the Czech Republic has been divided into thirteen regions (Czech: kraje, singular kraj) and the capital city of Prague. Every region has its own elected regional assembly and a regional governor. In Prague, the assembly and presidential powers are executed by the city council and the mayor. The older seventy-six districts (okresy, singular okres) including three "statutory cities" (without Prague, which had special status) lost most of their importance in 1999 in an administrative reform; they remain as territorial divisions and seats of various branches of state administration.[93] The smallest administrative units are obce (municipalities). As of 2021, the Czech Republic is divided into 6,254 municipalities. Cities and towns are also municipalities. The capital city of Prague is a region and municipality at the same time. Map of the Czech Republic with traditional regions and current administrative regions Map with districts Economy Main article: Economy of the Czech Republic The Czech Republic is part of the European Single Market and the Schengen Area, but uses its own currency, the Czech koruna. The Czech Republic has a developed,[94] high-income[95] export-oriented social market economy based in services, manufacturing and innovation, that maintains a welfare state and the European social model.[96] The Czech Republic participates in the European Single Market as a member of the European Union and is therefore a part of the economy of the European Union, but uses its own currency, the Czech koruna, instead of the euro. It has a per capita GDP rate that is 91% of the EU average[97] and is a member of the OECD. Monetary policy is conducted by the Czech National Bank, whose independence is guaranteed by the Constitution. The Czech Republic ranks 12th in the UN inequality-adjusted human development and 14th in World Bank Human Capital Index. It was described by The Guardian as "one of Europe's most flourishing economies".[98] As of 2018[update], the country's GDP per capita at purchasing power parity is $37,370[99] and $22,850 at nominal value.[100] According to Allianz A.G., in 2018 the country was an MWC (mean wealth country), ranking 26th in net financial assets.[101] The country experienced a 4.5% GDP growth in 2017.[102] The 2016 unemployment rate was the lowest in the EU at 2.4%,[103] and the 2016 poverty rate was the second lowest of OECD members.[104] Czech Republic ranks 24th in both the Index of Economic Freedom[105] and the Global Innovation Index as of 2016[update],[106] 29th in the Global Competitiveness Report,[107] 30th in the ease of doing business index and 25th in the Global Enabling Trade Report.[108] The Czech Republic has a diverse economy that ranks 7th in the 2016 Economic Complexity Index.[109] The industrial sector accounts for 37.5% of the economy, while services account for 60% and agriculture for 2.5%.[110] The largest trading partner for both export and import is Germany and the EU in general. Dividends worth CZK 270 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in 2017, which has become a political issue.[111] The country has been a member of the Schengen Area since 1 May 2004, having abolished border controls, completely opening its borders with all of its neighbors on 21 December 2007.[112] Industry In 2018 the largest companies by revenue in the Czech Republic were: one of the car automobile manufacturers in Central Europe Škoda Auto, utility company ČEZ Group, conglomerate Agrofert, energy trading company EPH, oil processing company Unipetrol, electronics manufacturer Foxconn CZ and steel producer Moravia Steel.[113] Other Czech transportation companies include: Škoda Transportation (tramways, trolleybuses, metro), Tatra (heavy trucks, the second oldest car maker in the world), Avia (medium trucks), Karosa and SOR Libchavy (buses), Aero Vodochody (military aircraft), Let Kunovice (civil aircraft), Zetor (tractors), Jawa Moto (motorcycles) and Čezeta (electric scooters). Škoda Transportation is the fourth largest tram producer in the world; nearly one third of all trams in the world come from Czech factories.[114] The Czech Republic is also the world's largest vinyl records manufacturer, with GZ Media producing about 6 million pieces annually in Loděnice.[115] Česká zbrojovka is among the ten largest firearms producers in the world and five who produce automatic weapons.[116] In the food industry succeeded companies Agrofert, Kofola and Hamé. Energy Main article: Energy in the Czech Republic Dukovany Nuclear Power Station Production of Czech electricity exceeds consumption by about 10 TWh per year, which are exported. Nuclear power presently provides about 30 percent of the total power needs, its share is projected to increase to 40 percent. In 2005, 65.4 percent of electricity was produced by steam and combustion power plants (mostly coal); 30 percent by nuclear plants; and 4.6 percent from renewable sources, including hydropower. The largest Czech power resource is Temelín Nuclear Power Station, with another nuclear power plant in Dukovany. The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade brown coal as a source of energy. Natural gas is procured from Russian Gazprom, roughly three-fourths of domestic consumption, and from Norwegian companies, which make up most of the remaining one-fourth. Russian gas is imported via Ukraine, Norwegian gas is transported through Germany. Gas consumption (approx. 100 TWh in 2003–2005) is almost double electricity consumption. South Moravia has small oil and gas deposits. Transportation infrastructure Main article: Transport in the Czech Republic The road network in the Czech Republic is 55,653 km (34,581.17 mi) long.[117] There are 1,232 km of motorways as of 2017.[118] The speed limit is 50 km/h within towns, 90 km/h outside of towns and 130 km/h on motorways.[119] The Czech Republic has the densest rail network in the world[120] with 9,505 km (5,906.13 mi) of tracks.[121] Of that number, 2,926 km (1,818.13 mi) is electrified, 7,617 km (4,732.98 mi) are single-line tracks and 1,866 km (1,159.48 mi) are double and multiple-line tracks.[122] České dráhy (the Czech Railways) is the main railway operator in the Czech Republic, with about 180 million passengers carried yearly. Maximum speed is limited to 160 km/h. In 2006 seven Italian tilting trainsets Pendolino ČD Class 680 entered service. Václav Havel Airport in Prague is the main international airport in the country. In 2017, it handled 15 million passengers. In total, the Czech Republic has 46 airports with paved runways, six of which provide international air services in Brno, Karlovy Vary, Mošnov (near Ostrava), Pardubice, Prague and Kunovice (near Uherské Hradiště). Russia, via pipelines through Ukraine and to a lesser extent, Norway, via pipelines through Germany, supply the Czech Republic with liquid and natural gas.[123] Communications and IT Main article: Internet in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic ranks in the top 10 countries worldwide with the fastest average internet speed.[124] By the beginning of 2008, there were over 800 mostly local WISPs,[125][126] with about 350,000 subscribers in 2007. Plans based on either GPRS, EDGE, UMTS or CDMA2000 are being offered by all three mobile phone operators (T-Mobile, O2, Vodafone) and internet provider U:fon. Government-owned Český Telecom slowed down broadband penetration. At the beginning of 2004, local-loop unbundling began and alternative operators started to offer ADSL and also SDSL. This and later privatisation of Český Telecom helped drive down prices. On 1 July 2006, Český Telecom was acquired by globalized company (Spain-owned) Telefónica group and adopted the new name Telefónica O2 Czech Republic. As of 2017[update], VDSL and ADSL2+ are offered in variants, with download speeds of up to 50 Mbit/s and upload speeds of up to 5 Mbit/s. Cable internet is gaining more popularity with its higher download speeds ranging from 50 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s. Two computer security companies, Avast and AVG, were founded in the Czech Republic. In 2016, Avast led by Pavel Baudiš bought rival AVG for US$1.3 billion, together at the time, these companies had a user base of about 400 million people and 40% of the consumer market outside of China.[127][128] Avast is the leading provider of antivirus software, with a 20.5% market share.[129] Tourism Main article: Tourism in the Czech Republic Medieval castle Karlštejn. Prague is the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome.[130] In 2001, the total earnings from tourism reached 118 billion CZK, making up 5.5% of GNP and 9% of overall export earnings. The industry employs more than 110,000 people – over 1% of the population.[131] Guidebooks and tourists reporting overcharging by taxi drivers and pickpocketing problems are mainly in Prague, though the situation has improved recently.[132][133] Since 2005, Prague's mayor, Pavel Bém, has worked to improve this reputation by cracking down on petty crime[133] and, aside from these problems, Prague is a "safe" city.[134] The Czech Republic's crime rate is described as "low".[135] One of the tourist attractions in the Czech Republic[136] is the Nether district Vítkovice in Ostrava. The Czech Republic boasts 14 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. All of them are in the cultural category. As of 2018[update], further 18 sites are on the tentative list.[137] Architectural heritage is an object of interest to visitors – it includes castles and châteaux from different historical epoques, namely Karlštejn Castle, Český Krumlov and the Lednice–Valtice area. There are 12 cathedrals and 15 churches elevated to the rank of basilica by the Pope, calm monasteries. Away from the towns, areas such as Český ráj, Šumava and the Krkonoše mountains attract visitors seeking outdoor pursuits. There is a number of beer festivals. The country is also known for its various museums. Puppetry and marionette exhibitions are with a number of puppet festivals throughout the country.[138] Aquapalace Praha in Čestlice near Prague, is the biggest water park in central Europe.[139] Science The Czech lands have a long and well-documented history of scientific innovation.[140][141] Today, the Czech Republic has a highly sophisticated, developed, high-performing, innovation-oriented scientific community supported by the government,[142] industry,[143] and leading Czech Universities.[144] Czech scientists are embedded members of the global scientific community.[145] They contribute annually to multiple international academic journals and collaborate with their colleagues across boundaries and fields.[146][147][148][149] Historically, the Czech lands, especially Prague, have been the seat of scientific discovery going back to early modern times. The names such as Tycho Brahe, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Johannes Kepler are only some of the names associated with Prague and the Czech lands. In 1784 the scientific community was first formally organized under the charter of the Royal Czech Society of Sciences. Currently, this organization is known as the Czech Academy of Sciences.[150] Similarly, the Czech lands have a well-established history of scientists,[151][152] including Nobel laureates biochemists Gerty and Carl Ferdinand Cori, chemist Jaroslav Heyrovský and physicist Peter Grünberg.[153] Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was born in Příbor,[154] Gregor Mendel, the founder of genetics, was born in Hynčice and has spent most of his life in Brno.[155] Most of the learned facsimile, however, have been recorded in Latin or in German and archived in libraries supported and managed by religious groups and other denominations as evidenced by historical locations of international renown and heritage such as the Strahov Monastery and the Clementinum in Prague. Increasingly, Czech scientists publish their work and that of their history in English.[156][157] Demographics Main article: Demographics of the Czech Republic The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2020 was estimated at 1.71 children born/woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1.[158] The Czech Republic's population subsequently has an average age of 42.5 years.[159] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 77.56 years (74.29 years male, 81.01 years female).[160] Immigration increased the population by almost 1% in 2007. About 77,000 people immigrate to the Czech Republic annually.[161] Vietnamese immigrants began settling in the country during the Communist period, when they were invited as guest workers by the Czechoslovak government.[162] In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese in the Czech Republic.[163] Most decide to stay in the country permanently.[164] According to results of the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic are Czechs (64.3%), followed by Moravians (5.0%), Slovaks (1.4%), Ukrainians (0.5%), Poles (0.4%), Viets (0.3%), Germans (0.2%) and Silesians (0.1%). As the 'nationality' was an optional item, a number of people left this field blank (25.3%).[4] According to some estimates, there are about 250,000 Romani people in the Czech Republic.[165][166] The Polish minority resides mainly in the Zaolzie region.[167] There were 496,413 (4.5% of population) foreigners residing in the country in 2016, according to the Czech Statistical Office, with the largest groups being Ukrainian (22%), Slovak (22%), Vietnamese (12%), Russian (7%) and German (4%). Most of the foreign population lives in Prague (37.3%) and Central Bohemia Region (13.2%).[168] The Jewish population of Bohemia and Moravia, 118,000 according to the 1930 census, was nearly annihilated by the Nazi Germans during the Holocaust.[169] There were approximately 4,000 Jews in the Czech Republic in 2005.[170] The former Czech prime minister, Jan Fischer, is of Jewish faith.[171] Religion Main articles: Religion in the Czech Republic and Religion in the European Union Religion in the Czech Republic (2011)[172] Undeclared 44.7% Irreligion 34.5% Catholicism 10.5% Believers, not members of other religions 6.8% Other Christian churches 1.1% Protestantism 1% Believers, members of other religions 0.7% Other religions / Unknown 0.7% The Czech Republic has 75%[173] to 79%[174] of people not declaring any religion or faith in polls and the percentage of convinced atheists being third highest (30%) behind China (47%) and Japan (31%).[175] The Czech people have been historically characterized as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion".[176] Christianization in the 9th and 10th centuries introduced Catholicism. After the Bohemian Reformation, most Czechs became followers of Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický and other regional Protestant Reformers. Taborites and Utraquists were Hussite groups. During the Hussite Wars, Utraquists sided with the Catholic Church. Following the joint Utraquist—Catholic victory, Utraquism was accepted as a distinct form of Christianity to be practiced in Bohemia by the Catholic Church while all remaining Hussite groups were prohibited. After the Reformation, some Bohemians went with the teachings of Martin Luther, especially Sudeten Germans. In the wake of the Reformation, Utraquist Hussites took a renewed increasingly anti-Catholic stance, while some of the defeated Hussite factions were revived. After the Habsburgs regained control of Bohemia, the whole population was forcibly converted to Catholicism—even the Utraquist Hussites. Going forward, Czechs have become more wary and pessimistic of religion as such. A history of resistance to the Catholic Church followed. It suffered a schism with the neo-Hussite Czechoslovak Hussite Church in 1920, lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era and continues to lose in the modern, ongoing secularization. Protestantism never recovered after the Counter-Reformation was introduced by the Austrian Habsburgs in 1620. According to the 2011 census, 34% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% was Catholic, 0.8% was Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite),[177] and 9% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan). 45% of the population did not answer the question about religion.[172] From 1991 to 2001 and further to 2011 the adherence to Catholicism decreased from 39% to 27% and then to 10%; Protestantism similarly declined from 3.7% to 2% and then to 0.8%.[178] The Muslim population is estimated to be 20,000 representing 0.2% of the population.[179] Welfare Main articles: Education in the Czech Republic and Healthcare in the Czech Republic Orbis Pictus, a children's textbook with illustrations[180] published in 1658. Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory for 9 years and citizens have access to a tuition-free university education, while the average number of years of education is 13.1.[181] Additionally, the Czech Republic has a "relatively equal" educational system in comparison with other countries in Europe.[181] Founded in 1348, Charles University was the first university in Central Europe. Other major universities in the country are Masaryk University, Czech Technical University, Palacký University, Academy of Performing Arts and University of Economics. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Czech education system as the 15th most successful in the world, higher than the OECD average.[182] The UN Education Index ranks the Czech Republic 10th as of 2013[update] (positioned behind Denmark and ahead of South Korea).[183] Healthcare in the Czech Republic is similar in quality to other developed nations. The Czech universal health care system is based on a compulsory insurance model, with fee-for-service care funded by mandatory employment-related insurance plans.[184] According to the 2016 Euro health consumer index, a comparison of healthcare in Europe, the Czech healthcare is 13th, ranked behind Sweden and two positions ahead of the United Kingdom.[185] Culture Main article: Culture of the Czech Republic Art Main article: Czech art Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter (1896) by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha Venus of Dolní Věstonice is the treasure of prehistoric art. Theodoric of Prague was a painter in the Gothic era who decorated the castle Karlstejn. In the Baroque era, there were Wenceslaus Hollar, Jan Kupecký, Karel Škréta, Anton Raphael Mengs or Petr Brandl, sculptors Matthias Braun and Ferdinand Brokoff. In the first half of the 19th century, Josef Mánes joined the romantic movement. In the second half of the 19th century had the main say the so-called "National Theatre generation": sculptor Josef Václav Myslbek and painters Mikoláš Aleš, Václav Brožík, Vojtěch Hynais or Julius Mařák. At the end of the century came a wave of Art Nouveau. Alfons Mucha became the main representative. He is known for Art Nouveau posters and his cycle of 20 large canvases named the Slav Epic, which depicts the history of Czechs and other Slavs. As of 2012[update], the Slav Epic can be seen in the Veletržní Palace of the National Gallery in Prague, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. Max Švabinský was another Art nouveau painter. The 20th century brought an avant-garde revolution. In the Czech lands mainly expressionist and cubist: Josef Čapek, Emil Filla, Bohumil Kubišta, Jan Zrzavý. Surrealism emerged particularly in the work of Toyen, Josef Šíma and Karel Teige. In the world, however, he pushed mainly František Kupka, a pioneer of abstract painting. As illustrators and cartoonists in the first half of the 20th century gained fame Josef Lada, Zdeněk Burian or Emil Orlík. Art photography has become a new field (František Drtikol, Josef Sudek, later Jan Saudek or Josef Koudelka). The Czech Republic is known for its individually made, mouth-blown, and decorated Bohemian glass. Architecture Main article: Czech architecture 18th century farmhouse of the Central Bohemian Region Historic center of Prague The earliest preserved stone buildings in Bohemia and Moravia date back to the time of the Christianization in the 9th and 10th centuries. Since the Middle Ages, the Czech lands have been using the same architectural styles as most of Western and Central Europe. The oldest still standing churches were built in the Romanesque style. During the 13th century, it was replaced by the Gothic style. In the 14th century, Emperor Charles IV invited architects from France and Germany, Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler, to his court in Prague. During the Middle Ages, some fortified castles were built by the king and aristocracy, as well as some monasteries. The Renaissance style penetrated the Bohemian Crown in the late 15th century when the older Gothic style started to be mixed with Renaissance elements. An example of pure Renaissance architecture in Bohemia is the Queen Anne's Summer Palace, which was situated in the garden of Prague Castle. Evidence of the general reception of the Renaissance in Bohemia, involving an influx of Italian architects, can be found in spacious chateaus with arcade courtyards and geometrically arranged gardens.[186] Emphasis was placed on comfort, and buildings that were built for entertainment purposes also appeared.[187] In the 17th century, the Baroque style spread throughout the Crown of Bohemia.[188] In the 18th century, Bohemia produced an architectural peculiarity – the Baroque Gothic style, a synthesis of the Gothic and Baroque styles.[186] During the 19th century stands the revival architectural styles. Some churches were restored to their presumed medieval appearance and there were constructed buildings in the Neo-Romanesque, Neo-Gothic and Neo-Renaissance styles. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the new art style appeared in the Czech lands – Art Nouveau. Czech artists developed a distinct cubist style in architecture and applied arts. It later evolved into national Czechoslovak style, rondocubism. Bohemia contributed an unusual style to the world's architectural heritage when Czech architects attempted to transpose the Cubism of painting and sculpture into architecture. Between World Wars I and II, Functionalism, with its sober, progressive forms, took over as the main architectural style.[186] After World War II and the Communist coup in 1948, art in Czechoslovakia became Soviet-influenced. The Czechoslovak avant-garde artistic movement is known as the Brussels style came up in the time of political liberalization of Czechoslovakia in the 1960s. Brutalism dominated in the 1970s and 1980s. The Czech Republic is not shying away from the more modern trends of international architecture.[186] Literature Main article: Czech literature The literature from the area of today's Czech Republic was mostly written in Czech, but also in Latin and German or even Old Church Slavonic. Franz Kafka, who—while bilingual in Czech and German[189][190]—wrote his works (The Trial, The Castle) in German. Franz Kafka In the second half of the 13th century, the royal court in Prague became one of the centers of German Minnesang and courtly literature. The Czech German-language literature can be seen in the first half of the 20th century. Bible translations played a role in the development of Czech literature. The oldest Czech translation of the Psalms originated in the late 13th century and the first complete Czech translation of the Bible was finished around 1360. The first complete printed Czech Bible was published in 1488. The first complete Czech Bible translation from the original languages was published between 1579 and 1593. The Codex Gigas from the 12th century is the largest extant medieval manuscript in the world.[191] Czech-language literature can be divided into several periods: the Middle Ages; the Hussite period; the Renaissance humanism; the Baroque period; the Enlightenment and Czech reawakening in the first half of the 19th century, modern literature in the second half of the 19th century; the avant-garde of the interwar period; the years under Communism; and the Czech Republic. The antiwar comedy novel The Good Soldier Švejk is the most translated Czech book in history. The international literary award the Franz Kafka Prize is awarded in the Czech Republic.[192] The Czech Republic has the densest network of libraries in Europe.[193] Czech literature and culture played a role on at least two occasions when Czechs lived under oppression and political activity was suppressed. On both of these occasions, in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960s, the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to strive for political freedom, establishing a confident, politically aware nation.[194] Music Main articles: Music of the Czech Lands and Moravian traditional music Bedřich Smetana on the painting of František Dvořák The musical tradition of the Czech lands arose from the first church hymns, whose first evidence is suggested at the break of the 10th and 11th centuries. Some pieces of Czech music include two chorales, which in their time performed the function of anthems: "Lord, Have Mercy on Us" and the hymn "Saint Wenceslas" or "Saint Wenceslas Chorale".[195] The authorship of the anthem "Lord, Have Mercy on Us" is ascribed by some historians to Saint Adalbert of Prague (sv.Vojtěch), bishop of Prague, living between 956 and 997.[196] The wealth of musical culture lies in the classical music tradition during all historical periods, especially in the Baroque, Classicism, Romantic, modern classical music and in the traditional folk music of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Since the early era of artificial music, Czech musicians and composers have been influenced the folk music of the region and dance. Czech music can be considered to have been "beneficial" in both the European and worldwide context, several times co-determined or even determined a newly arriving era in musical art,[197] above all of Classical era, as well as by original attitudes in Baroque, Romantic and modern classical music. Some Czech musical works are The Bartered Bride, New World Symphony, Sinfonietta and Jenůfa. A music festival in the country is Prague Spring International Music Festival of classical music, a permanent showcase for performing artists, symphony orchestras and chamber music ensembles of the world. Theatre The National Theatre (left) and the Estates Theatre (right) Main article: Theatre of the Czech Republic The roots of Czech theatre can be found in the Middle Ages, especially in the cultural life of gothic period. In the 19th century, the theatre played a role in the national awakening movement and later, in the 20th century, it became a part of modern European theatre art. The original Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950s. This project called Laterna magika, resulting in productions that combined theater, dance, and film in a poetic manner, considered the first multimedia art project in an international context. A drama is Karel Čapek's play R.U.R., which introduced the word "robot".[198] Film Main article: Cinema of the Czech Republic American poster of Karel Zeman's 1958 film A Deadly Invention The tradition of Czech cinematography started in the second half of the 1890s. Peaks of the production in the era of silent movies include the historical drama The Builder of the Temple and the social and erotic drama Erotikon directed by Gustav Machatý.[199] The early Czech sound film era was productive, above all in mainstream genres, with the comedies of Martin Frič or Karel Lamač. There were dramatic movies sought internationally. After the period of Nazi occupation and early communist official dramaturgy of socialist realism in movies at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s with a fewer exceptions such as Krakatit or Men without wings (awarded by Palme d'Or in 1946), an era of the Czech film began with animated films, performed in anglophone countries under the name "The Fabulous World of Jules Verne" from 1958, which combined acted drama with animation, and Jiří Trnka, the founder of the modern puppet film.[200] This began a tradition of animated films (Mole etc.). In the 1960s, the hallmark of Czechoslovak New Wave's films were improvised dialogues, black and absurd humor and the occupation of non-actors. Directors are trying to preserve natural atmosphere without refinement and artificial arrangement of scenes. A personality of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s with original manuscript and psychological impact is František Vláčil. Another international author is Jan Švankmajer, a filmmaker and artist whose work spans several media. He is a self-labeled surrealist known for animations and features.[201] The Barrandov Studios in Prague are the largest film studios with film locations in the country.[202] Filmmakers have come to Prague to shoot scenery no longer found in Berlin, Paris and Vienna. The city of Karlovy Vary was used as a location for the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale.[203] The Czech Lion is the highest Czech award for film achievement. Karlovy Vary International Film Festival is one of the film festivals that have been given competitive status by the FIAPF. Other film festivals held in the country include Febiofest, Jihlava International Documentary Film Festival, One World Film Festival, Zlín Film Festival and Fresh Film Festival. Media Journalists and media enjoy a degree of freedom. There are restrictions against writing in support of Nazism, racism or violating Czech law. The Czech press was ranked as the 23rd most free press in the World Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders in 2017.[204] Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty has its headquarters in Prague. The most watched main news program is TV Nova.[205] A news webpage in the Czech Republic is ct24.cz, which is owned by Czech Television – the only national public television service – and its 24-hour news channel ČT24.[206] Other public services include the Czech Radio and the Czech News Agency (ČTK). For privately owned television services, there is TV Nova, the most popular channel in the Czech Republic. The best-selling daily national newspapers are Blesk (average 1.15M daily readers), Mladá fronta DNES (average 752,000 daily readers), Právo (average 260,00 daily readers) and Deník (average 72,000 daily readers).[207] Cuisine Main article: Czech cuisine A mug of Pilsner Urquell, the first pilsner type of pale lager beer, brewed since 1842 Czech cuisine is marked by an emphasis on meat dishes with pork, beef, and chicken. Goose, duck, rabbit, and venison are served. Fish is less common, with the occasional exception of fresh trout and carp, which is served at Christmas. Czech beer with the first brewery is known to have existed in 993 and the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita in the world. The "pilsner style beer" (pils) originated in Plzeň, where the world's first-ever blond lager Pilsner Urquell is still being produced, making it the inspiration for more than two-thirds of the beer produced in the world today. Further south the town of České Budějovice, lent its name to its beer, known as Budweiser Budvar. Tourism around the Southern Moravian region has been producing wine since the Middle Ages; about 94% of vineyards in the Czech Republic are Moravian. Aside from slivovitz, Czech beer and wine, the Czechs also produce two liquors, Fernet Stock and Becherovka. Kofola is a non-alcoholic domestic cola soft drink which competes with Coca-Cola and Pepsi. There is also a variety of local sausages, wurst, pâtés, and smoked and cured meats. Czech desserts include a variety of whipped cream, chocolate, and fruit pastries and tarts, crêpes, creme desserts and cheese, poppy-seed-filled and other types of traditional cakes such as buchty, koláče and štrúdl.[citation needed] Sport Main article: Sport in the Czech Republic O2 Arena in Prague is the second-largest ice hockey arena in Europe The most watched events in the Czech Republic are Olympic Ice hockey tournaments and Ice Hockey Championships.[208][209] The two leading sports are football and ice hockey. Other most popular sports according to the size of the membership base of sports clubs include tennis, volleyball, floorball, golf, ball hockey, athletics, basketball and skiing.[210] The country has won 15 gold medals in summer and 9 gold medals in winter Olympic history. The Czech ice hockey team won the gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics and has won twelve gold medals at the World Championships, including three straight from 1999 to 2001. The Škoda Motorsport is engaged in competition racing since 1901 and has gained a number of titles with various vehicles around the world. MTX automobile company was formerly engaged in the manufacture of racing and formula cars since 1969. A common sport is hiking. The word for "tourist" in the Czech language, turista, also means "trekker" or "hiker". For hikers, thanks to the more than 120-year-old tradition, there is a Czech Hiking Markers System of trail blazing, that has been adopted by countries worldwide. There is a network of around 40,000 km of marked short- and long-distance trails crossing the whole country and all the Czech mountains.[211][212] See also Czech Republic portal Wikisource has original works on the topic: Czech lands List of Czech Republic-related topics Outline of the Czech Republic Notes ^ /ˈtʃɛk -/ (listen) CHEK-;[10] Czech: Česká republika [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpublɪka] (listen) ^ /ˈtʃɛkiə/ (listen); Czech: Česko [ˈtʃɛsko] (listen) References Citations ^ "Czech language". Czech Republic – Official website. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2011. ^ Citizens belonging to minorities, which traditionally and on a long-term basis live within the territory of the Czech Republic, enjoy the right to use their language in communication with authorities and in courts of law (for the list of recognized minorities see National Minorities Policy of the Government of the Czech Republic Archived 7 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Belarusian and Vietnamese since 4 July 2013, see Česko má nové oficiální národnostní menšiny. Vietnamce a Bělorusy Archived 8 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine). Article 25 of the Czech Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms ensures the right of the national and ethnic minorities to education and communication with the authorities in their own language. Act No. 500/2004 Coll. 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Multiplex Media – Debrecen University Press. pp. 358–365. ISBN 978-963-04-9196-9. Hawes, James (2008). Why You Should Read Kafka Before You Waste Your Life. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-37651-2. Sayer, Derek (1996). "The Language of Nationality and the Nationality of Language: Prague 1780–1920". Past and Present. Oxford. 153 (1): 164. doi:10.1093/past/153.1.164. OCLC 394557. Further reading Hochman, Jiří (1998). Historical dictionary of the Czech State. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810833387 External links Czech Republicat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Czechia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 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en-wikipedia-org-7071	----	Zeno of Citium - Wikipedia Zeno of Citium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek philosopher, founder of Stoicism Not to be confused with Zeno of Elea. This article is about the Greek philosopher. For other uses, see Zeno. Zeno of Citium Zeno of Citium. Bust in the Farnese collection, Naples. Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969. Born c. 334 BC Citium, Cyprus Died c. 262 BC (aged 71 – 72) Athens Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Logic, Physics, Ethics Notable ideas Founder of Stoicism, three branches of philosophy (physics, ethics, logic),[1] Logos, rationality of human nature, phantasiai, katalepsis, world citizenship[2] Influences Cynicism, Socrates, Crates of Thebes, Diodorus, Heraclitus, Hipparchia, Philo, Polemo, Stilpo Influenced Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and many others Zeno of Citium (/ˈziːnoʊ/; Greek: Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς, Zēnōn ho Kitieus; c. 334 – c. 262 BC) was a Hellenistic philosopher of Phoenician origin[3] from Citium (Κίτιον, Kition), Cyprus. Zeno was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. It proved very popular, and flourished as one of the major schools of philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era, and enjoyed revivals in the Renaissance as Neostoicism and in the current era as Modern Stoicism. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 2.1 Logic 2.2 Physics 2.3 Ethics 3 Works 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Zeno was born c. 334 BC,[a] in Citium in Cyprus. Most of the details known about his life come from the biography and anecdotes preserved by Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, a few of which are confirmed by the Suda (a 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia).[4] Diogenes reports that Zeno's interest in philosophy began when "he consulted the oracle to know what he should do to attain the best life, and that the god's response was that he should take on the complexion of the dead. Whereupon, perceiving what this meant, he studied ancient authors."[5] Zeno became a wealthy merchant. On a voyage from Phoenicia to Peiraeus he survived a shipwreck, after which he went to Athens and visited a bookseller. There he encountered Xenophon's Memorabilia. He was so pleased with the book's portrayal of Socrates that he asked the bookseller where men like Socrates were to be found. Just then, Crates of Thebes, the most famous Cynic living at that time in Greece happened to be walking by, and the bookseller pointed to him.[6] Zeno is described as a haggard, dark-skinned person,[7] living a spare, ascetic life[8] despite his wealth. This coincides with the influences of Cynic teaching, and was, at least in part, continued in his Stoic philosophy. From the day Zeno became Crates’ pupil, he showed a strong bent for philosophy, though with too much native modesty to assimilate Cynic shamelessness. Hence Crates, desirous of curing this defect in him, gave him a potful of lentil-soup to carry through the Ceramicus; and when he saw that Zeno was ashamed and tried to keep it out of sight, Crates broke the pot with a blow of his staff. As Zeno began to run off in embarrassment with the lentil-soup flowing down his legs, Crates chided, "Why run away, my little Phoenician? Nothing terrible has befallen you."[9] Apart from Crates, Zeno studied under the philosophers of the Megarian school, including Stilpo,[10] and the dialecticians Diodorus Cronus,[11] and Philo.[12] He is also said to have studied Platonist philosophy under the direction of Xenocrates,[13] and Polemo.[14] Zeno began teaching in the colonnade in the Agora of Athens known as the Stoa Poikile (Greek Στοὰ Ποικίλη) in 301 BC. His disciples were initially called "Zenonians," but eventually they came to be known as "Stoics," a name previously applied to poets who congregated in the Stoa Poikile. Among the admirers of Zeno was king Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia,[15] who, whenever he came to Athens, would visit Zeno. Zeno is said to have declined an invitation to visit Antigonus in Macedonia, although their supposed correspondence preserved by Laërtius[16] is undoubtedly the invention of a later writer.[17] Zeno instead sent his friend and disciple Persaeus,[16] who had lived with Zeno in his house.[18] Among Zeno's other pupils there were Aristo of Chios, Sphaerus, and Cleanthes who succeeded Zeno as the head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens.[19] Zeno is said to have declined Athenian citizenship when it was offered to him, fearing that he would appear unfaithful to his native land,[20] where he was highly esteemed, and where he contributed to the restoration of its baths, after which his name was inscribed upon a pillar there as "Zeno the philosopher".[21] We are also told that Zeno was of an earnest, gloomy disposition;[22] that he preferred the company of the few to the many;[23] that he was fond of burying himself in investigations;[24] and that he disliked verbose and elaborate speeches.[25] Diogenes Laërtius has preserved many clever and witty remarks by Zeno,[26] although these anecdotes are generally considered unreliable.[17] Zeno died around 262 BC.[a] Laërtius reports about his death: As he was leaving the school he tripped and fell, breaking his toe. Striking the ground with his fist, he quoted the line from the Niobe: I come, I come, why dost thou call for me? and died on the spot through holding his breath.[27] During his lifetime, Zeno received appreciation for his philosophical and pedagogical teachings. Among other things, Zeno was honored with the golden crown,[28] and a tomb was built in honor of his moral influence on the youth of his era.[29] The crater Zeno on the Moon is named in his honour. Philosophy[edit] Modern bust of Zeno in Athens Following the ideas of the Old Academy, Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: logic (a wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought); physics (not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well); and ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve eudaimonia through the right way of living according to Nature. Because Zeno's ideas were later expanded upon by Chrysippus and other Stoics it can be difficult to determine precisely what he thought. But his general views can be outlined as follows: Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Aristote & Zeno by François Pouqueville Logic[edit] In his treatment of logic, Zeno was influenced by Stilpo and the other Megarians. Zeno urged the need to lay down a basis for logic because the wise person must know how to avoid deception.[30] Cicero accused Zeno of being inferior to his philosophical predecessors in his treatment of logic,[31] and it seems true that a more exact treatment of the subject was laid down by his successors, including Chrysippus.[32] Zeno divided true conceptions into the comprehensible and the incomprehensible,[33] permitting for free-will the power of assent (sinkatathesis/συνκατάθεσις) in distinguishing between sense impressions.[34] Zeno said that there were four stages in the process leading to true knowledge, which he illustrated with the example of the flat, extended hand, and the gradual closing of the fist: Zeno stretched out his fingers, and showed the palm of his hand, – "Perception," – he said, – "is a thing like this."- Then, when he had closed his fingers a little, – "Assent is like this." – Afterwards, when he had completely closed his hand, and showed his fist, that, he said, was Comprehension. From which simile he also gave that state a new name, calling it katalepsis (κατάληψις). But when he brought his left hand against his right, and with it took a firm and tight hold of his fist: – "Knowledge" – he said, was of that character; and that was what none but a wise person possessed.[35] Physics[edit] The universe, in Zeno's view, is God:[36] a divine reasoning entity, where all the parts belong to the whole.[37] Into this pantheistic system he incorporated the physics of Heraclitus; the universe contains a divine artisan-fire, which foresees everything,[38] and extending throughout the universe, must produce everything: Zeno, then, defines nature by saying that it is artistically working fire, which advances by fixed methods to creation. For he maintains that it is the main function of art to create and produce, and that what the hand accomplishes in the productions of the arts we employ, is accomplished much more artistically by nature, that is, as I said, by artistically working fire, which is the master of the other arts.[38] This divine fire,[34] or aether,[39] is the basis for all activity in the universe,[40] operating on otherwise passive matter, which neither increases nor diminishes itself.[41] The primary substance in the universe comes from fire, passes through the stage of air, and then becomes water: the thicker portion becoming earth, and the thinner portion becoming air again, and then rarefying back into fire.[42] Individual souls are part of the same fire as the world-soul of the universe.[43] Following Heraclitus, Zeno adopted the view that the universe underwent regular cycles of formation and destruction.[44] The nature of the universe is such that it accomplishes what is right and prevents the opposite,[45] and is identified with unconditional Fate,[46] while allowing it the free-will attributed to it.[38] Ethics[edit] Zeno, portrayed as a medieval scholar in the Nuremberg Chronicle Like the Cynics, Zeno recognised a single, sole and simple good,[47] which is the only goal to strive for.[48] "Happiness is a good flow of life," said Zeno,[49] and this can only be achieved through the use of right reason coinciding with the universal reason (Logos), which governs everything. A bad feeling (pathos) "is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to reason, and against Nature."[50] This consistency of soul, out of which morally good actions spring, is virtue,[51] true good can only consist in virtue.[52] Zeno deviated from the Cynics in saying that things that are morally adiaphora (indifferent) could nevertheless have value. Things have a relative value in proportion to how they aid the natural instinct for self-preservation.[53] That which is to be preferred is a "fitting action" (kathêkon/καθῆκον), a designation Zeno first introduced. Self-preservation, and the things that contribute towards it, has only a conditional value; it does not aid happiness, which depends only on moral actions.[54] Just as virtue can only exist within the dominion of reason, so vice can only exist with the rejection of reason. Virtue is absolutely opposed to vice,[55] the two cannot exist in the same thing together, and cannot be increased or decreased;[56] no one moral action is more virtuous than another.[57] All actions are either good or bad, since impulses and desires rest upon free consent,[58] and hence even passive mental states or emotions that are not guided by reason are immoral,[59] and produce immoral actions.[60] Zeno distinguished four negative emotions: desire, fear, pleasure and sorrow (epithumia, phobos, hêdonê, lupê / ἐπιθυμία, φόβος, ἡδονή, λύπη),[61] and he was probably responsible for distinguishing the three corresponding positive emotions: will, caution, and joy (boulêsis, eulabeia, chara / βούλησις, εὐλάβεια, χαρά), with no corresponding rational equivalent for pain. All errors must be rooted out, not merely set aside,[62] and replaced with right reason. Works[edit] None of Zeno's original writings have survived except as fragmentary quotations preserved by later writers. The most famous of his works was Zeno's Republic, written in conscious imitation of, or opposition to, Plato's Republic. Although it has not survived, more is known about it than any of his other works. It outlined Zeno's vision of the ideal Stoic society. A manuscript that was attributed to Zeno, matching a known title of one of Zeno's works, Περὶ φύσεως (On Nature), was discovered in 1949 in an Old Armenian translation. In 1956 it was translated into Russian and published with an extensive commentary.[63] Subsequent philological investigation concluded that the author could not have been Zeno and was instead an anonymous Christian philosopher of the late sixth century or a little later, writing in the tradition of ancient philosophy, but doing so as a Christian. He is now known as Pseudo-Zeno. His work shows an integration of Christian and philosophical concepts, but in a very restrained way.[64] The titles of many of Zeno's writings are, however, known and are as follows:[65] Ethical writings: Πολιτεία – Republic Περὶ τοῦ κατὰ φύσιν βίου – On Life according to Nature Περὶ ὁρμῆς ἢ Περὶ ἀνθρώπου φύσεως – On Impulse, or on the Nature of Humans Περὶ παθῶν – On Passions Περὶ τοῦ καθήκοντος – On Duty Περὶ νόμου – On Law Περὶ τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς παιδείας – On Greek Education Physical writings: Περὶ ὄψεως – On Sight Περὶ τοῦ ὅλου – On the Universe Περὶ σημείων – On Signs Πυθαγορικά – Pythagorean Doctrines Logical writings: Καθολικά – General Things Περὶ λέξεων Προβλημάτων Ὁμηρικῶν εʹ – Homeric Problems Περὶ ποιητικῆς ἀκροάσεως – On Poetical Readings Other works: Τέχνη Λύσεις – Solutions Ἔλεγχοι βʹ Ἄπομνημονεύματα Κράτητος ἠθικά Περὶ οὐσίας – On Being Περὶ φύσεως – On Nature Περὶ λόγου – On the Logos Εἰς Ἡσιόδου θεογονίαν Διατριβαί – Discourses Χρεῖαι Notes[edit] ^ The dates for Zeno's life are controversial. According to Apollodorus, as quoted by Philodemus, Zeno died in Arrheneides' archonship (262/1 BC). According to Persaeus (Diogenes Laërtius vii. 28), Zeno lived for 72 years. His date of birth is thus 334/3 BC. A plausible chronology for his life is as follows: He was born 334/3 BC, and came to Athens in 312/11 BC at the age of 22 (Laërtius 1925, § 28). He studied philosophy for about 10 years (Laërtius 1925, § 2); opened his own school during Clearchus' archonship in 301/0 BC (Philodemus, On the Stoics, col. 4); and was the head of the school for 39 years and 3 months (Philodemus, On the Stoics, col. 4), and died 262/1 BC. For more information see Ferguson 1911, pp. 185–186; and Dorandi 2005, p. 38 ^ "Stoicism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 19 March 2018. ^ Bunnin & Yu (2004). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, BOOK VII, Sections 2, 15, 24, 30. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=7:chapter=1 ^ Suda https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-cgi-bin/search.cgi?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=zeta,79 Zeno ^ "Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, BOOK VII, Chapter 1. ZENO (333-261 B.C.)". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 19 March 2018. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 2–3. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 1. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 26–27. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 3. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 2, 24. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 16, 25. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 16. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 2; but note that Xenocrates died 314/13 BC ^ Laërtius 1925, § 2, 25. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 6–9, 13–15, 36; Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 13. 14–15; Simplicius, in Epictetus Enchiridion, 51; Aelian, Varia Historia, ix. 26 ^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 6–9. ^ a b Brunt, P. A. (2013). "The Political Attitudes of the Old Stoa". In Griffin, Miriam; Samuels, Alison (eds.). Studies in Stoicism. Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780199695850. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 13, comp. 36. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 37. ^ Plutarch, de Stoicor. repugn, p. 1034; comp. Laërtius 1925, § 12. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 6. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 16, comp. 26; Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistles, ix. 9 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 14. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 15. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 18, 22. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 18–25. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 28. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 6, 11. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 10–12. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 20. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 4. ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. vii. 253. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 6, 24. ^ a b Cicero, Academica, i. 11. ^ Cicero, Academica, 2.145 [47] ^ Laërtius 1925, § 148. ^ Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. ix. 104, 101; Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 8. ^ a b c Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 22. ^ Cicero, Academica, ii. 41. ^ Cicero, de Natura Deorum, ii. 9, iii. 14. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 150. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 142, comp. 136. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, i. 9, de Natura Deorum, iii. 14; Laërtius 1925, § 156. ^ Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. i. ^ Cicero, de Natura Deorum, i. 14. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 88, 148, etc., 156. ^ Cicero, Academica, i. 10. 35-36 : "Zeno igitur nullo modo is erat qui ut Theophrastus nervos virtutis inciderit, sed contra qui omnia quae ad beatam vitam pertinerent in una virtute poneret nec quicquam aliud numeraret hi bonis idque appellaret honestum quod esset simplex quoddam et solum et unum bonum." ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 6. 8; comp. Laërtius 1925, § 100, etc. ^ Stobaeus, 2.77. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 15. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 102, 127. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 85; Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 5, 15, iv. 10, v. 9, Academica, i. 16. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 13. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 13, Academica, i. 10, de Finibus, iii. 21, iv. 9, Parad. iii. 1; Laërtius 1925, § 127. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 14, etc. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iii. 14; Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. vii. 422. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 9, Academica, i. 10. ^ Laërtius 1925, § 110; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6. 14. ^ Cicero, de Finibus, iv. 38; Plutarch, de Virt. mor. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 6; Laërtius 1925, § 110. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iv. 18, etc. ^ Аревшатян, C. "Трактат Зенона Стоика "О Природе" и его древнеармянский перевод" (PDF). Вестник Матенадарана. 1956. — № 3.: 315–342. ^ M E Stone and M E Shirinian, Pseudo-Zeno: Anonymous Philosophical Treatise December 1, 1999, p 18 ^ Laërtius 1925, § 4. References[edit] Dorandi, Tiziano (2005). "Chapter 2: Chronology". In Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 9780521616706. Ferguson, William Scott (1911). Hellenistic Athens: An Historical Essay. London: Macmillan. pp. 185–186.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–160. Further reading[edit] Hunt, Harold. A Physical Interpretation of the Universe. The Doctrines of Zeno the Stoic. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1976. ISBN 0-522-84100-7 Long, Anthony A., Sedley, David N. The Hellenistic Philosophers, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-521-27556-3 Mason, Theodore; Scaltsas, Andrew S., eds. (2002). The philosophy of Zeno: Zeno of Citium and his legacy. Municipality of Larnaca. ISBN 978-9963603237. Pearson, Alfred C. Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes, (1891). Greek/Latin fragments with English commentary. Reale, Giovanni. A History of Ancient Philosophy. III. The systems of the Hellenistic Age, (translated by John R. Catan, 1985 Zeno, the Foundation of the Stoa, and the Different Phases of Stoicism) Schofield, Malcolm. The Stoic Idea of the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-226-74006-4 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Zeno of Citium Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zeno of Citium. Zeno of Citium by Robin Turner in Sensible Marks of Ideas Zeno of Cittium – founder of Stoicism by Paul Harrison. Selected Bibliography on the Early Stoic Logicians: Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus First Leader of the Stoic school 300–262 BC Succeeded by Cleanthes v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes 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en-wikipedia-org-7084	----	Carinus - Wikipedia Carinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 283 to 285 Roman emperor Carinus Roman emperor Reign 283 – July 285 Predecessor Carus Successor Diocletian (in competition with Carinus from 284) Co-emperors Carus (283) Numerian (283–284) Died July 285 River Margus, Moesia Issue Nigrinianus Names Marcus Aurelius Carinus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus[2] Father Carus Mother Magnia Urbica A Roman radiate produced in 283 depicting Emperor Carinus. From the collection of York Museums Trust. Legend: M. AVR. CARINVS NOB. CAES. Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285) was Roman emperor from 283 to 285. The elder son of emperor Carus, he was first appointed Caesar and in the beginning of 283 co-emperor of the western portion of the empire by his father. Official accounts of his character and career, which portray him as debauched and incapable, have been filtered through the propaganda of his successful opponent, Diocletian. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Death in 285 1.2 Character 2 Family tree 3 References 3.1 Primary sources 3.2 Secondary sources 3.3 In literature 4 External links Reign[edit] After the death of Emperor Probus in a spontaneous mutiny of the army in 282, his praetorian prefect, Carus, ascended to the throne. The latter, upon his departure for the Persian war, elevated his two sons to the title of Caesar. Carinus, the elder, was left to handle the affairs of the west in his absence, while the younger, Numerian, accompanied his father to the east.[3] Carinus at least initially acquitted himself ably of his commission, displaying some merit in the suppression of disturbances in Gaul and against the Quadi,[4][5] but the young emperor soon left the defence of the Upper Rhine to his legates and returned to Rome, where the surviving accounts, which demonize him, assert that he abandoned himself to all kinds of profligacy and excess. Reportedly, he managed to wed and divorce nine separate women during his short rule in Rome, and made the infamy of his private life notorious. He is supposed to have initiated persecution against many whom he considered to have treated him with insufficient respect before his elevation; to have alienated the senate by his open aversion and contempt; and to have prostituted the imperial dignity with the various low entertainments which he introduced into the court.[6] Carus, when he heard of his son's deportment in the capital, declared his intention of degrading him from his station, and substituting Constantius Chlorus, then already marked for ability and virtue, in his place. However, Carus died soon thereafter in the middle of the Persian war, and the two young Caesars jointly succeeded him. Carinus back in Rome in the aftermath of his accession organized the celebration of the annual games, the ludi Romani, on a scale of unexampled magnificence.[7][8][9] At the same time Numerian was forced by the soldiers to abandon their father's ambitious campaign in the east, due to their superstitions at Carus' death, which occurred allegedly by a bolt of lightning.[10] Numerian headed with his army for Rome, where a triumph was awaiting him, leaving the Persians astonished by the inexplicable retirement of a victorious army. However, Numerian's health was broken by the climate, and being unable to bear the heat of the sun, was borne on the march in a covered litter. Arrius Aper, the Praetorian prefect, assumed the conduct of affairs in his name, but his ambitious temper excited the suspicion of the troops. At Heraclea in Thrace they broke into the Imperial tent, and Numerian was found dead. Diocletian, commander of the body-guards, affirmed that Numerian had been assassinated by the praefect, and after executing the latter he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers.[11][8][12] Carinus left Rome at once and set out for the east to meet Diocletian. On his way through Pannonia he put down the usurper Sabinus Julianus and in July 285 he encountered the army of Diocletian at the Battle of the Margus River (the modern Morava River) in Moesia.[5][8] Death in 285[edit] Historians differ on what then ensued. At the Battle of the Margus, according to one account, the valour of his troops had gained the day, but Carinus was assassinated by a tribune whose wife he had seduced.[5][13] Another account represents the battle as resulting in a complete victory for Diocletian, and claims that Carinus' army deserted him. This account may be confirmed by the fact that Diocletian kept in service Carinus' Praetorian Guard commander, Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus.[5][8] Character[edit] Carinus has a reputation as one of the worst Roman emperors. This infamy may have been supported by Diocletian himself. For example, the (unreliable) Historia Augusta, as previously mentioned, has Carinus marrying nine wives, while neglecting to mention his only real wife, Magnia Urbica, by whom he had a son, Marcus Aurelius Nigrinianus. After his death, Carinus' memory was officially condemned in the Roman proceeding known as damnatio memoriae. His name, along with that of his wife, was erased from inscriptions.[14] Family tree[edit] Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman Emperor 275-276 previous Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276-282 Carus Roman Emperor 282-283 next Diocletian Roman Emperor 284-305 ∞ Prisca Carinus Roman Emperor 282-284 ∞ Magnia Urbica Numerian co-emperor 282-284 Galeria Valeria References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Anonymous, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Carus, Carinus and Numerian Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Secondary sources[edit] ^ Jones, A. H. M.; Martindale, J. R.; Morris, J. (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 501. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XXII., p. 293 ^ Gibbon, p. 296 ^ a b c d Leadbetter, William. Carinus (283–285 A.D.). ^ Gibbon, pp. 296, 297 ^ Spence, H. Donald M. (2003). Early Christianity and Paganism. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 391–392. ISBN 0-7661-3068-1. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911. ^ Gibbon, pp. 297-300 ^ Gibbon, p. 296 ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1996). Constantine. Routledge. p. 6. ISBN 0-415-31938-2. ^ Gibbon, pp. 301, 302 ^ Gibbon, p. 302 ^ Varner, Eric R. (2004). Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 212. ISBN 90-04-13577-4. Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Carinus, Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. In literature[edit] Mor Jokai's A Christian but a Roman is set in Carinus' Rome External links[edit] Media related to Carinus at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Magnia Urbica at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Carus Roman emperor 283–285 With: Carus (283) and Numerian (283–284) Succeeded by Diocletian Political offices Preceded by Probus , Victorinus Consul of the Roman Empire 283–285 with Carus, Numerian , Diocletian, Bassus, T. Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus Succeeded by Marcus Junius Maximus, Vettius Aquilinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-7088	----	Caucasian Albania - Wikipedia Caucasian Albania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient state in the Caucasus This article is about the political entity. For the geographic region, see Arran (Caucasus). For the province, see Caucasian Albania (Sasanian province). Caucasian Albania (exonym) Aghwank & Aluank (modern endonyms) 2nd century BC  – 8th century AD Standard of the Mihranid dynasty Caucasian Albania in the 5th and 6th centuries[1] Status Initial state/s unknown; later vassal kingdom and province of the Sasanian Empire and the Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates Capital Kabalak (Qabala); Partaw (Barda) Common languages Caucasian Albanian, Parthian,[2] Middle Persian[3][4] Religion Paganism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism Historical era Antiquity • Established 2nd century BC   • Disestablished  8th century AD Today part of  Azerbaijan  Russia  Georgia  Armenia Caucasian Albania is a modern exonym for a former state located in ancient times in the Caucasus: mostly in what is now Azerbaijan (where both of its capitals were located) and southern Dagestan. The modern endonyms for the area are Aghwank and Aluank, among the Udi people, who regard themselves as descended from the inhabitants of Caucasian Albania. However, its original endonym is unknown.[5][6] The name Albania is derived from the Ancient Greek name Ἀλβανία and Latin Albanía.[7] The prefix "Caucasian" is used purely to avoid confusion with modern Albania of the Balkans, which has no known geographical or historical connections to Caucasian Albania. Little is known of the region's prehistory, including the origins of Caucasian Albania as a geographical and/or ethnolinguistic concept. In the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, the area south of the Greater Caucasus and north of the Lesser Caucasus was divided between Caucasian Albania in the east, Caucasian Iberia in the center, Kolchis in the west, Armenia in the southwest and Atropatene to the southeast. In 252, Caucasian Albania acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire, appearing among its provinces in Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht. The kingdom would remain an integral part of the empire until its fall. By the end of the 3rd-century, the kings of Caucasian Albania were replaced with an Arsacid family, and would later be succeeded by another Iranian royal family in the 5th century AD, the Mihranids. Contents 1 Geonyms 2 Geography 3 Ethnogenesis 3.1 Alphabet and languages 3.1.1 Caucasian Albanian language 3.1.2 Iranian languages 3.2 Religion 4 History 4.1 Median and Achaemenid era 4.2 Hellenistic era 4.3 Roman Empire 4.4 Parthian period 4.5 Sassanid period 4.6 Impact of Armenian politics, culture and civilization 4.7 Christianization 4.8 Islamic era 5 In Azerbaijani historiography 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 External links Geonyms 1838 map: Colchis, Iberia and Albania. Aghuank (Old Armenian: Աղուանք Ałuankʿ, Modern Armenian: Աղվանք Aġvank’) is the Armenian name for Caucasian Albania. Armenian authors mention that the name derived from the word "ału" («աղու») meaning amiable in Armenian. The term Aghuank is polysemous and is also used in Armenian sources to denote the region between the Kur and Araxes rivers as part of Armenia.[8] In the latter case it is sometimes used in the form "Armenian Aghuank" or "Hay-Aghuank".[9][10][11] The Armenian historian of the region, Movses Kaghankatvatsi, who left the only more or less complete historical account about the region, explains the name Aghvank as a derivation from the word ału (Armenian for sweet, soft, tender), which, he said, was the nickname of Caucasian Albania's first governor Arran and referred to his lenient personality.[12] Movses Kaghankatvatsi and other ancient sources explain Arran or Arhan as the name of the legendary founder of Caucasian Albania (Aghvan) or even of the Iranian tribe known as Alans (Alani), who in some versions was a son of Noah's son Yafet.[13] James Darmesteter, translator of the Avesta, compared Arran with Airyana Vaego[14] which he also considered to have been in the Araxes-Ararat region,[15] although modern theories tend to place this in the east of Iran. Caucasian Albania until 387 The Parthian name for the region was Ardhan (Middle Persian: Arran).[6] The Arabic was ar-Rān.[6][16] In Georgian, it was known as რანი (Rani). In Ancient Greek, it was called Ἀλβανία Albanía.[7] What its inhabitants were called is unknown.[5] Geography In pre-Islamic times, Caucasian Albania/Arran was a wider concept than that of post-Islamic Arran. Ancient Arran covered all eastern Transcaucasia, which included most of the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic and part of the territory of Dagestan. However, in post-Islamic times the geographic notion of Arran reduced to the territory between the rivers of Kura and Araks.[6] Ancient Caucasian Albania lay on the south-eastern part of the Greater Caucasus mountains. It was bounded by Caucasian Iberia (present-day Georgia) to the west, by Sarmatia to the north, by the Caspian Sea to the east, and by the provinces of Artsakh and Utik in Armenia to the west along the river Kura.[17] These boundaries, though, were probably never static—at times the territory of Caucasian Albania included land to the west of the river Kura.[18] Albania or Arran in Islamic times was a triangle of land, lowland in the east and mountainous in the west, formed by the junction of the Kura and Aras rivers,[6][19][dubious – discuss] Mil plain and parts of the Mughan plain, and in the pre-Islamic times, corresponded roughly to the territory of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan.[6] The districts of Albania were:[20] Cambysene Getaru Elni/Xeni Begh Shake Xolmaz Kapalak Hambasi Gelavu Hejeri Kaladasht The kingdom's capital during antiquity was Qabala (Gabala; Kapalak).[21] Classical sources are unanimous in making the Kura River (Cyros) the frontier between Armenia and Albania after the conquest of the territories on the right bank of Kura by Armenians in the 2nd century BC.[20] The original territory of Albania was approximately 23,000 km².[22] After 387 AD the territory of Caucasian Albania, sometimes referred to by scholars as "Greater Albania,"[20][citation needed] grew to about 45,000 km².[22] In the 5th century the capital was transferred to Partav in Utik', reported to have been built in the mid-5th century by the King Vache II of Albania,[23] but according to M. L. Chaumont, it existed earlier as an Armenian city.[24] In a medieval chronicle "Ajayib-ad-Dunia", written in the 13th century by an unknown author, Arran is said to have been 30 farsakhs (200 km) in width, and 40 farsakhs (270 km) in length. All the right bank of the Kura River until it joined with the Aras was attributed to Arran (the left bank of the Kura was known as Shirvan). The boundaries of Arran have shifted throughout history, sometimes encompassing the entire territory of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan, and at other times only parts of the South Caucasus. In some instances, Arran was a part of Armenia.[25] Medieval Islamic geographers gave descriptions of Arran in general, and of its towns, which included Barda, Beylagan, and Ganja, along with others. Ethnogenesis History of Georgia Prehistoric Georgia Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Legend of Kartlos Trialeti culture Colchian culture Diauehi Ancient history Colchis Kingdom of Iberia Pharnavazid dynasty Georgia in the Roman era Campaign of Pompey Iberian–Armenian War Lazica & Sasanian Iberia Chosroid dynasty Christianization of Iberia Middle Ages Iberian & Lazic Wars Principality of Iberia Arab rule in Georgia & Emirate of Tbilisi Bagrationi dynasty Kingdom of the Iberians Kingdom of Abkhazia First Kingdom of Kakheti & Hereti Theme of Iberia Duchy of Kldekari Kingdom of Georgia Georgian Golden Age Armenia within the Kingdom of Georgia Byzantine & Seljuk Wars Mongol / Timur & Turkmen invasions Triarchy and collapse of the Kingdom of Georgia Early modern history Samtskhe-Saatabago Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Imereti Principalities of Guria / Svaneti / Mingrelia & Abkhazia Safavid Georgia Childir Eyalet Trebizond Eyalet Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti Modern history Georgia within the Russian Empire Lazistan Sanjak Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Democratic Republic of Georgia Red Army invasion of Georgia & Soviet Georgia Georgia since 1991 & Russo-Georgian War History by topic Etymology Monarchs States Tbilisi Military history Wars & Battles Chronology History of Georgia v t e Part of a series on the History of Armenia Prehistory Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Legend of Hayk Trialeti-Vanadzor culture Armani Hayasa-Azzi Arme-Shupria Armeno-Phrygians Mushki Nairi Confederation Urartu (Kingdom of Van) Antiquity Satrapy of Armenia Armenia Minor Kingdom of Armenia Armenian Empire Roman Armenia Christianization of Armenia Kingdom of Sophene Kingdom of Commagene Byzantine Armenia Sasanian Armenia Muslim conquest of Armenia Middle Ages Emirate of Armenia Principality of Hamamshen Kingdom of Armenia Kingdom of Vaspurakan Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget Kingdom of Syunik Kingdom of Artsakh Zakarid Armenia Principality of Khachen Mongol Armenia Kingdom of Cilicia Early modern age Iranian Armenia Five Melikdoms Ottoman Armenia Russian Armenia Armenian Oblast Armenian question Armenian genocide Western Armenia National Liberation Movement Modern age First Republic of Armenia Armenian S.S.R. Republic of Mountainous Armenia Contemporary Armenia Republic of Artsakh Timeline • Origins • Etymology v t e Part of a series on the History of Azerbaijan Antiquity Ancient history and Median Empire First Persian Empire and Alexander's conquests Caucasian Albania Parthian dynasty Sasanian dynasty Middle Ages Islamic period Georgian Shirvan Shirvanshahs Sajids Shaddadids Sallarids Seljuk dynasty Eldiguzids Ilkhanate Chobanids Qara Qoyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Early modern history Safavid dynasty Khanates Zand dynasty Afsharid Dynasty Qajar dynasty Russian Rule Modern history March Days Centrocaspian Dictatorship Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Mughan Soviet Republic Republic of Aras Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Azerbaijan SSR Black January Republic of Azerbaijan  Azerbaijan portal v t e Originally, at least some of the Caucasian Albanians probably spoke Lezgic languages close to those found in modern Daghestan;[26][27] overall, though, as many as 26 different languages may have been spoken in Caucasian Albania.[28] After the Caucasian Albanians were Christianized in the 4th century, parts of the population was assimilated by the Armenians (who dominated in the provinces of Artsakh and Utik that were earlier detached from the Kingdom of Armenia) and Georgians (in the north),[29] while the eastern parts of Caucasian Albania were Islamized and absorbed by Iranian[26] and subsequently Turkic peoples (modern Azerbaijanis).[5] Small remnants of this group continue to exist independently, and are known as the Udi people.[30] The pre-Islamic population of Caucasian Albania might have played a role in the ethnogenesis of a number of modern ethnicities, including the Azerbaijanis of Qabala, Zaqatala, Shaki, and Oguz. the Armenians of Vartashen and Shaki, the Georgians of Kakhetia and Hereti (Ingiloy), the Laks, the Lezgins and the Tsakhurs of Daghestan.[31] Alphabet and languages Caucasian Albanian language Main article: Caucasian Albanian language According to Armenian medieval historians Movses Khorenatsi, Movses Kaghankatvatsi and Koryun, the Caucasian Albanian (the Armenian name for the language is Aghvank, the native name of the language is unknown) alphabet was created by Mesrob Mashtots,[32][33][34] the Armenian monk, theologian and translator who is also credited with creating the Armenian.[35] This alphabet was used to write down the Udi language, which was probably the main language of the Caucasian Albanians. Koryun, a pupil of Mesrob Mashtots, in his book The Life of Mashtots, wrote about how his tutor created the alphabet: Then there came and visited them an elderly man, an Albanian named Benjamin. And he (Mashtots) inquired and examined the barbaric diction of the Albanian language, and then through his usual God-given keenness of mind invented an alphabet, which he, through the grace of Christ, successfully organized and put in order.[36] A column capital with an Albanian inscription from a 7th-century church in Mingachevir[37] (Azerbaijan State Museum of History). A Caucasian Albanian alphabet of fifty-two letters, bearing resemblance to Georgian, Ethiopian and Armenian characters,[Note 1] survived through a few inscriptions, and an Armenian manuscript dating from the 15th century.[38] This manuscript, Matenadaran No. 7117, first published by Ilia Abuladze in 1937 is a language manual, presenting different alphabets for comparison – Armenian alphabet, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Georgian, Coptic, and Caucasian Albanian among them. The alphabet was titled: "Ałuanicʿ girn ē" (Armenian: Աղուանից գիրն Է, meaning, "These are Albanian letters"). In 1996, Zaza Aleksidze of the Georgian Centre of Manuscripts discovered at Saint Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai, Egypt, a text written on parchment that had been reused in a Georgian palimpsest. In 2001 Aleksidze identified its script as Caucasian Albanian, and the text as an early lectionary dating to perhaps before the 6th century. Many of the letters discovered in it were not in the Albanian alphabet listed in the 15th-century Armenian manuscript.[39] Muslim geographers Al-Muqaddasi, Ibn-Hawqal and Estakhri recorded that a language which they called Arranian was still spoken in the capital Barda and the rest of Arran in the 10th century.[6] Iranian languages Further information: Parthian language and Persian language Iranian contact in the region goes back to the Median and Achaemenid times. During this Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania, the Parthian language spread in the region.[2] It is possible that the language and literature for administration and record-keeping of the imperial chancellery for external affairs naturally became Parthian, based on the Aramaic alphabet. According to Toumanoff: "the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by a predominance of "Iranianism", and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated".[2] With the establishment of the Sassanids, Middle Persian, a closely related language to Parthian,[40] became an official language of the Sassanid Empire.[4] At this time, Persian enjoyed even more success than the Caucasian Albanian language and the region was greatly affected by Iran.[3] According to Vladimir Minorsky: "The presence of Iranian settlers in Transcaucasia, and especially in the proximity of the passes, must have played an important role in absorbing and pushing back the aboriginal inhabitants. Such names as Sharvan, Layzan, Baylaqan, etc., suggest that the Iranian immigration proceeded chiefly from Gilan and other regions on the southern coast of the Caspian".[41] The presence of the Persian language and Iranian culture continued during the Islamic era.[42][43] Religion The original population of the Caucasus followed different pagan religions. Under Achaemenid, Parthian and especially Sassanid influence, Zoroastrianism also grew in the region. Christianity started to spread in the late 4th century in the Sassanid era. The Arab conquest and the Chalcedonian crisis led to severe disintegration of the Church of Caucasian Albania. Starting from the 8th century, much of the local population converted to Islam. By the 11th century there already were conciliar mosques in Partaw, Qabala and Shaki; the cities that were the creed of Caucasian Albanian Christianity.[44] These Islamised groups would later be known as Lezgins and Tsakhurs or mix with the Turkic and Iranian population to form present-day Azeris, whereas those that remained Christian were gradually absorbed by Armenians[45] or continued to exist on their own and be known as the Udi people. The Caucasian Albanian tribes of Hereti were converted to Eastern Orthodoxy by Dinar, Queen of Hereti in the 10th century. The religious affairs of this small principality were now officially administered by the Georgian Orthodox Church. In 1010, Hereti became absorbed into the neighbouring Georgian kingdom of Kakheti. Eventually, in the early 12th century, these lands became part of the Georgian Kingdom under David the Builder finalising the process of their Georgianisation.[46] History The history of Albania before the 6th century BC is unknown. Median and Achaemenid era According to one hypothesis, Caucasian Albania was incorporated in the Median empire,[24] as early as the 7th or 6th century BC. However, an increasing Persian influence on the region is usually believed to be connected with the defence of Persia's northern frontiers,[23][24] from invading nomads. As early as the Achaemenid empire, measures may have been taken to fortify the Caucasian passes. By the mid-6th century BC, Albania has been incorporated in the Achaemenid empire; it was later controlled by the Achaemenid satrapy of Media.[24][47] The building of fortifications and gates in and around Darband is traditionally ascribed to the Sassanid Empire.[23] Hellenistic era The ruins of the gates of the Albanian capital Qabala The Greek historian Arrian mentions (perhaps anachronistically) the Caucasian Albanians for the first time in the battle of Gaugamela, where the Albanians, Medes, Cadussi and Sacae were under the command of Atropates.[24] Albania first appears in history as a vassal state in the empire of Tigranes the Great of Armenia (95-56 BC).[48] The kingdom of Albania emerged in the eastern Caucasus in 2nd or 1st century BC and along with the Georgians and Armenians formed one of the three nations of the Southern Caucasus.[20][49] Albania came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.[23][50][51][52][53] Herodotus, Strabo, and other classical authors repeatedly mention the Caspians but do not seem to know much about them; they are grouped with other inhabitants of the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, like the Amardi, Anariacae, Cadusii, Albani (see below), and Vitii (Eratosthenes apud Strabo, 11.8.8), and their land (Caspiane) is said to be part of Albania (Theophanes Mytilenaeus apud Strabo, 11.4.5).[54] In the 2nd century BC parts of Albania were conquered by the Kingdom of Armenia, presumably from Medes[5] (although possibly it was earlier part of Orontid Armenia).[55] The original population of the territories on the right bank of Kura before the Armenian conquest consisted of various autochthonous people. Ancient chronicles provide the names of several peoples that populated these districts, including the regions of Artsakh and Utik. These were Utians, Mycians, Caspians, Gargarians, Sakasenians, Gelians, Sodians, Lupenians, Balas[ak]anians, Parsians and Parrasians.[5] According to Robert H. Hewsen, these tribes were "certainly not of Armenian origin", and "although certain Iranian peoples must have settled here during the long period of Persian and Median rule, most of the natives were not even Indo-Europeans".[5] He also states that the several peoples of the right bank of Kura "were highly Armenicized and that many were actually Armenians per se cannot be doubted". Many of those people were still being cited as distinct ethnic entities when the right bank of Kura was acquired by the Caucasian Albanians in 387 AD.[5] Roman Empire Main article: Roman influence in Caucasian Albania Roman inscription in Gobustan, Baku left by Legio XII Fulminata There was an enduring relation of Albania with Ancient Rome.[56] The Latin rock inscription close to Boyukdash mountain in Gobustan, Baku, which mentions Legio XII Fulminata, is the world's easternmost Roman evidence known.[57] In Albania, Romans reached the Caspian Sea for the first time.[57] The Roman coins circulated in Caucasian Albania till the end of the 3rd century AD.[58] Two denarii, which were unearthed in the 2nd-century BC layer, were minted by Clodius and Caesar.[58] The coins of Augustus are ubiquitous.[58] The Qabala treasures revealed the denarii of Otho, Vespasian, Trajan and Hadrian. In 69-68 BC Lucullus, having overcome Armenian ruler Tigranes II, approached the borders of Caucasian Albania and was succeeded by Pompey.[59] After the 66-65 BC wintering Pompey launched the Iberian campaign. It is reported by Strabo upon the account of Theophanes of Mytilene who participated in it.[60] As testified by Kamilla Trever, Pompey reached the Albanian border at modern Qazakh District of Azerbaijan. Igrar Aliyev showed that this region called Cambysene was inhabited mainly by stock-breeders at the time. When fording the Alazan river, he was attacked by forces of Oroezes, King of Albania, and eventually defeated them. According to Plutarch, Albanians "were led by a brother of the king, named Cosis, who as soon as the fighting was at close quarters, rushed upon Pompey himself and smote him with a javelin on the fold of his breastplate; but Pompey ran him through the body and killed him".[61] Plutarch also reported that "after the battle, Pompey set out to march to the Caspian Sea, but was turned back by a multitude of deadly reptiles when he was only three days march distant, and withdrew into Lesser Armenia".[62] The first kings of Albania were certainly the representatives of the local tribal nobility, to which attest their non-Armenian and non-Iranian names (Oroezes, Cosis and Zober in Greek sources).[63] The population of Caucasian Albania of the Roman period is believed to have belonged to either the Northeast Caucasian peoples[6] or the South Caucasian peoples.[64] According to Strabo, the Albanians were a group of 26 tribes which lived to the north of the Kura river and each of them had its own king and language.[5] Sometime before the 1st century BC they federated into one state and were ruled by one king.[65] Strabo wrote of the Caucasian Albanians in the 1st century BC: At the present time, indeed, one king rules all the tribes, but formerly the several tribes were ruled separately by kings of their own according to their several languages. They have twenty-six languages, because they have no easy means of intercourse with one another.[65] Caucasian Albania was a vassal of the Roman Empire around 300 AD Albania is also mentioned by Dionysius Periegetes (2nd or 3rd century AD) who describes Albanians as a nation of warriors, living by the Iberians and the Georgians.[66] In 1899 a silver plate featuring Roman toreutics was excavated near Azerbaijani village of Qalagah. The rock inscription near the south-eastern part of Boyukdash's foot (70 km from Baku) was discovered on June 2, 1948 by Azerbaijani archaeologist Ishag Jafarzadeh. The legend is IMPDOMITIANO CAESARE·AVG GERMANIC L·IVLIVS MAXIMVS> LEG XII·FVL. According to Domitian's titles in it, the related march took place between 84 and 96. The inscription was studied by Russian expert Yevgeni Pakhomov, who assumed that the associated campaign was launched to control the Derbent Gate and that the XII Fulminata has marched out either from Melitene, its permanent base, or Armenia, where it might have moved from before.[67] Pakhomov supposed that the legion proceeded to the spot continually along the Aras River. The later version, published in 1956, states that the legion was stationing in Cappadocia by that time whereas the centurion might have been in Albania with some diplomatic mission because for the talks with the Eastern rulers the Roman commanders were usually sending centurions.[68] In 1953 twelve denarii of Augustus were unearthed.[58] In 1958 one denarius, coined in c. 82 AD, was revealed in the Şamaxı trove.[58] During the reign of Roman emperor Hadrian (117-138) Albania was invaded by the Alans, an Iranian nomadic group.[69] This invasion promoted an alliance between Rome and the Albanians that was reinforced under Antoninus Pius in 140 AD. Sassanians occupied the area around 240 Ad but after a few years, the Roman Empire regained control of Caucasian Albania. Indeed, in 297 the treaty of Nisibis stipulated the reestablishment of the Roman protectorate over Caucasian Iberia and Albania. But fifty years later Rome lost the area that since then remained an integral part of the Sasanian Empire. Parthian period Main article: Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania Further information: Parthian Empire and Parthian language Under Parthian rule, Iranian political and cultural influence increased in the region.[2] Whatever the sporadic suzerainty of Rome, the country was now a part—together with Iberia (East Georgia) and (Caucasian) Albania, where other Arsacid branches reigned—of a pan-Arsacid family federation.[2] Culturally, the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by a predominance of "Iranianism", and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated.[2] An incursion in this era was made by the Alans who between 134 and 136 attacked Albania, Media, and Armenia, penetrating as far as Cappadocia. But Vologases persuaded them to withdraw, probably by paying them. Sassanid period Main article: Albania (satrapy) In 252-253, Caucasian Albania, along with Caucasian Iberia and Greater Armenia, was conquered and annexed by the Sassanid Empire. Albania became a vassal state of the Sassanid Empire,[70] but retained its monarchy; the Albanian king had no real power and most civil, religious, and military authority lay with the Sassanid marzban (military governor) of the territory.[Note 2] The Roman Empire again obtained control of Caucasian Albania as a vassal state for a few years around 300 AD, but then the Sassanids regained control and subsequently dominated the area for centuries until the Arab invasions. Albania was mentioned among the Sassanid provinces listed in the trilingual inscription of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rustam.[71][72] In the middle of the 4th century, King Urnayr of Albania arrived in Armenia and was baptized by Gregory the Illuminator, but Christianity spread in Albania only gradually, and the Albanian king remained loyal to the Sassanids. After the partition of Armenia between Byzantium and Persia (in 387 AD), Albania with Sassanid help was able to seize from Armenia all the right bank of the river Kura up to river Araxes, including Artsakh and Utik.[24] In the mid-5th century, the Sassanid King Yazdegerd II passed an edict requiring all the Christians in his empire to convert to Zoroastrianism, fearing that Christians might ally with Roman Empire, which had recently adopted Christianity as its official religion. This led to a rebellion of Albanians, along with Armenians and Georgians. At the Battle of Avarayr, the allied forces of Caucasian Albania, Georgia, and Armenia, devoted to Christianity, suffered defeat at the hands of the Sassanid army. Many of the Armenian nobility fled to the mountainous regions of Albania, particularly to Artsakh, which had become a center for resistance to Sassanid Persia. The religious center of the Albanian state also moved here. However, King Vache of Albania, a relative of Yazdegerd II, was forced to convert to Zoroastrianism, but soon thereafter converted back to Christianity. According to The History of the Country of Albania, Peroz ordered the Albanian king Vache II to have the city of Perozapat ("the city of Peroz" or "Prosperous Peroz") constructed. However, this is unlikely as the Kingdom of Caucasian Albania had been abolished by Peroz after suppressing a revolt by Vache II in the mid-460s.[73] The city was seemingly founded by Peroz himself after the removal of the ruling family in Caucasian Albania. Due to its more secure location, it was made the new residence of the Iranian marzbans.[74] Albania remained kingless until 485, when Vachagan III (r. 485–510) was installed on the throne by Peroz's brother and successor Balash (r. 484–488).[75] In 552, the seat of the Albanian Catholicos was also transferred to Partaw.[24][76] By the end of the 5th century, the ancient Arsacid royal house of Albania, a branch of the ruling dynasty of Parthia, became extinct, and in the 6th century, it was replaced by princes of the Persian or Parthian Mihranid family, who claimed descent from the Sassanids. They assumed the Persian title of Arranshah (i.e. the Shah of Arran, the Persian name of Albania).[6] The ruling dynasty was named after its Persian founder Mihran, who was a distant relative of the Sasanians.[77] The Mihranid dynasty survived under Muslim suzerainty until 821-22.[78] In the late 6th to early 7th centuries the territory of Albania became an arena of wars between Sassanid Persia, Byzantium, and the Khazar Khanate, the latter two very often acting as allies against Sassanid Persia. In 628, during the Third Perso-Turkic War, the Khazars invaded Albania, and their leader Ziebel declared himself Lord of Albania, levying a tax on merchants and the fishermen of the Kura and Araxes rivers "in accordance with the land survey of the kingdom of Persia". Most of Transcaucasia was under Khazar rule before the arrival of the Arabs.[23] However, some other sources state that the Khazars later left the region because of political instability.[79] According to Peter Golden, "steady pressure from Turkic nomads was typical of the Khazar era, although there are no unambiguous references to permanent settlements",[80] while Vladimir Minorsky stated that, in Islamic times, "the town of Qabala lying between Shirvan and Shakki was a place where Khazars were probably settled".[16] Impact of Armenian politics, culture and civilization Armenian politics, culture and civilization played a critical role in the entire history of Caucasian Albania (Aghvank, in Armenian).[81] This, due to the fact that after the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia by Persia and Byzantium in 387 AD, the Armenian provinces of Artsakh and Utik were disassociated from the Armenian kingdom and included by Persians into a single province (marzpanate) called Aghvank (Arran).[82] This new unit included: the original Caucasian Albania, found between the River Kura and the Great Caucasus; tribes living along the Caspian shore; as well as Artsakh and Utik, two territories now detached from Armenia.[83][84][85] Armenian monk Mesrop Mashtots invented the Gargarean ("Caucasian Albanian") alphabet in the 5th century, after creating the Armenian script (art by Francesco Maggiotto, 1750-1805).[33][86] The Armenian medieval atlas Ashkharatsuits (Աշխարացույց), compiled in the 7th century by Anania Shirakatsi (Անանիա Շիրակացի, but sometimes attributed to Movses Khorenatsi as well), categorizes Artsakh and Utik as provinces of Armenia despite their presumed detachment from the Armenian Kingdom and their political association with Caucasian Albania and Persia at the time of his writing.[87] Shirakatsi specifies that Artsakh and Utik are "now detached" from Armenia and included in "Aghvank," and he takes care to distinguish this new entity from the old "Aghvank strictly speaking" (Բուն Աղվանք) situated north of the river Kura. Because it was more homogeneous and more developed than the original tribes to the north of the Kura, the Armenian element took over Caucasian Albania's political life and was progressively able to impose its language and culture.[88][89] The Armenian population of Artsakh and Utik remained in place as did the entire political, social, cultural and military structure of the provinces.[52][90] In the 5th century, early medieval historian Khorenatsi (Խորենացի) testifies that the population of Artsakh and Utik spoke Armenian, with the River Kura, in his words, marking the "boundary of Armenian speech" (... զեզերս հայկական խօսիցս).[91][92][93] though this does not mean that its population consisted exclusively of ethnic Armenians.[85][94] Whatever little is known about Caucasian Albania after 387 AD comes from the Old Armenian text History of the Land of Aghvank (Պատմություն Աղվանից Աշխարհի) by the Armenian author Movses Kaghankatvatsi (also known as Movses Daskhurantsi),[95] which in essence is the history of Armenia's provinces of Artsakh and Utik.[88] Kaghankatvatsi, repeating Khorenatsi, mentions that the very name "Aghvank"/"Albania" is of Armenian origin, and relates it to the Armenian word "aghu" (աղու, meaning "kind," "benevolent".[96] Khorenatsi states that "aghu" was a nickname given to Prince Arran, whom the Armenian King Vologases I (Vagharsh I) appointed as governor of northeastern provinces bordering on Armenia. According to a legend reported by Khorenatsi, Arran was a descendant of Sisak, the ancestor of the Siunids of Armenia's province of Syunik, and thus a great-grandson of the ancestral eponym of the Armenians, the Forefather Hayk.[97] Kaghankatvatsi and another Armenian author, Kirakos Gandzaketsi, confirm Arran's belonging to Hayk's bloodline by calling Arranshahiks "a Haykazian dynasty".[98] Amaras Monastery in Karabagh, where in the 5th century Mesrob Mashtots set up the first school to use his Armenian alphabet.[99][100] In Kaghankatvatsi's History and in the historical text of the Armenian early medieval author Agathangelos, the Kingdom of Aghvank's feudal system, including its political terminology, was Armenian.[101] As in Armenia, nobles of Aghvank are referred to by the terms nakharars (նախարար), azats (ազատ), hazarapets (հազարապետ), marzpets (մարզպետ), shinakans (շինական), etc.[88][95] Princely families, which were later mentioned in Kaghankatvatsi's History were included in the Table of Ranks called "Gahnamak" (direct translation: "List of Thrones," Arm. Գահնամակ) of the Kingdom of Armenia, which defined Armenia's aristocratic hierarchy.[102] Princely families of Caucasian Albania were also included in the Table of Armies called "Zoranamak" (Arm. Զորանամակ) of the Kingdom of Armenia which determined military obligations of key aristocratic families before the Armenian King in times of war.[88] As in Armenia, the "Albanian" clergy used exclusively Armenian church terms for clerical hierarchy (katholikos/կաթողիկոս, vardapet/վարդապետ, sargavag/սարգավագ, etc.)[88][103] Identifiably Armenian are also most if not all toponyms found in the History. Not only are the names of most towns, villages, mountains, and rivers uniquely Armenian morphologically, exactly the same toponyms were and are still found in other parts of historical Armenia. They include the root kert ("town") for towns (Arm.: կերտ, such Dastakert, Hnarakert – compare with Tigranakert or modern Stapanakert in Nagorno Karabakh),[104] shen and kan (village) for villages (Arm. շեն, and կան, such as Karashen or Dyutakan), etc.[105] First names of most rulers, commoners and clergy in Kaghankatvatsi's History are uniquely Armenian. Many of these names survived for centuries and are still used only by modern Armenians.[106] These include: Vachagan (Վախագան), Vache (Վաչե), Bakur (Բակուր), Taguhi (Թագուհի), Vrtanes (Վրթաննես), Viro (Վիրո), Varaz-Trdat (Վարազ-Տրդաթ), Marut (Մարութ), etc. Some of these names can be translated from Armenian as common words: e.g. Taguhi means "queen" and Varaz means "wild boar".[106] In fact, Armenians to this day use the first name Aghvan (Աղվան) that directly refers to the Kingdom of Aghvank.[107] After the partition, the capital city of Caucasian Albania was moved from the territories on the eastern bank of the River Kura (referred to by Armenians "Aghvank Proper," Arm. Բուն Աղվանք) to Partav, located in the former Armenian province of Utik. This was followed by the transfer of the Seat of the Kingdom of Albania's religious leader (Katholicos) from territories north of Kura to Partav.[95] The Kingdom of Albania was converted to Christianity at the start of the 4th century by none other than the Armenian evangelizer St. Gregory the Enlightener (Arm. Սբ. Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ), who baptized Armenia into the first Christian state by 301 AD.[108] In about 330 AD, the grandson of St. Gregory, St. Grigoris, ecumenical head of the eastern provinces of Armenia, was designated bishop for the Kingdom of Aghvank. Mausoleum interning Grigoris’ remains, the Amaras Monastery stands as the oldest dated monument in Nagorno Karabakh. Amaras was started by St. Gregory and completed by St. Grigoris himself.[109] According to tradition, the Amaras Monastery housed the first Armenian school in historical Armenia,[110] which was opened early in the 5th century by the inventor of the Armenian alphabet St. Mesrob Mashtots. St. Mesrob Mashtots was intensely active in preaching Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Movses Kaghankatvatsi's History dedicates four separate chapters to St. Mashtots’ mission, referring to him as "enlightener" and "saint" (chapters 27, 28 and 29 of Book One, and chapter 3 of Book Two).[111] Overall, St. Mesrob made three trips to the Kingdom of Albania where he toured not only the Armenian lands of Artsakh and Utik but also territories to the north of the River Kura.[111] Kaghankatvatsi's History describes Armenian influence on the Church of Aghvank, whose jurisdiction extended from Artsakh and Utik to regions to the north of the River Kura, in the territories of the "original", "pre-Armenian" Caucasian Albania.[112] One of the consequences of this was that the Armenian language progressively supplanted Albanian as the language of church and state (and only if there was any single "Albanian" language in the first place which is doubtful because the population of Albania/Aghvank was described as consisting of as many 26 different tribes).[112] In the same 7th century, Armenian poet Davtak Kertogh writes his Elegy on the Death of Grand Prince Juansher, where each passage begins with a letter of Armenian script in alphabetical order.[104][113] Christianization Main article: Church of Caucasian Albania The polytheistic religion of Albania was centered on the worship of three divinities, designated by Interpretatio Romana as Sol, Zeus, and Luna. Christianity started to enter Caucasian Albania at an early date, according to Movses Kaghankatvatsi, as early as during the 1st century. The first Christian church in the region was built by St. Eliseus, a disciple of Thaddeus of Edessa, at a place called Gis. Shortly after Armenia adopted Christianity as its state religion (301 AD), the Caucasian Albanian king Urnayr went to the See of the Armenian Apostolic Church to receive baptism from St. Gregory the Illuminator, the first Patriarch of Armenia.[95][108] King Vachagan III helped to implant Christianity in Caucasian Albania, through a synod allowing the church legal rights in some domestic issues.[114] In 498 AD (in other sources, 488 AD)[citation needed] in the settlement named Aluen (Aghuen) (present-day Agdam District of Azerbaijan), an Albanian church council convened to adopt laws further strengthening the position of Christianity in Albania.[citation needed] Albanian churchmen took part in missionary efforts in the Caucasus and Pontic regions. In 682, the catholicos, Israel, led an unsuccessful delegation to convert Alp Iluetuer, the ruler of the North Caucasian Huns, to Christianity. The Albanian Church maintained a number of monasteries in the Holy Land.[115] In the 7th century, Varaz-Grigor, ruler of Albania, and "his nation" were christened by Emperor Heraclius at Gardman.[116] After the overthrow of Nerses in 705, the Caucasian Albanian elite decided to reestablish the tradition of having their Catholicoi ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia, as it was the case before 590.[117] This event is generally regarded as the abolition of the Church of Caucasian Albania, and the lowering of its denominational status to that of a Catholicate within the body of the Armenian Apostolic Church.[44] Islamic era Further information: Shirvan, Arran (Caucasus), and Arminiya v t e Muslim conquest of Persia Mesopotamia Chains River Walaja Ullais Hira Al-Anbar Ayn al-Tamr Muzayyah Saniyy Zumail Firaz 1st Babylon Namaraq Kaskar Bridge Buwaib al-Qādisiyyah Burs 2nd Babylon Ctesiphon Jalula Khuzestan Hormizd-Ardashir Susa Ram-Hormizd Shushtar Gundishapur Bayrudh Central Persia Nahavand Spahan Waj Rudh Ray Northern Persia Tabaristan Azerbaijan Caucasus Armenia Albania Iberia Pars Bishapur Darabgerd 1st Estakhr Gor 2nd Estakhr Kerman Sirjan Qeshm Sakastan Zaranj Khorasan Oxus River Nishapur Herat Badghis Sassanid Albania fell to the Islamic conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century and was incorporated into the Rashidun Caliphate. King Javanshir of Albania, the most prominent ruler of Mihranid dynasty, fought against the Arab invasion of caliph Uthman on the side of Sassanid Iran. Facing the threat of the Arab invasion on the south and the Khazar offensive on the north, Javanshir had to recognize the caliph's suzerainty. The Arabs then reunited the territory with Armenia under one governor.[24] By the 8th century, "Albania" had been reduced to a strictly geographical and titular ecclesiastical connotation,[118] and was referred to as such by medieval Armenian historians; on its place sprang a number principalities, such as that of the Armenian principality and kingdom of Khachen, along with various Caucasian, Iranian and Arabic principalities: the principality of Shaddadids, the principality of Shirvan, the principality of Derbent. Most of the region was ruled by the Persian Sajid Dynasty from 890 to 929. The region was at times part of the Abbasid province of Armenia based on numismatic and historical evidence. Early Muslim ruling dynasties of the time included Rawadids, Sajids, Salarids, Shaddadids, Shirvanshahs, and the Sheki and Tiflis emirates. The principal cities of Arran in early medieval times were Barda (Partav) and Ganja. Barda reached prominence in the 10th century, and was used to house a mint. Barda was sacked by the Rus and Norse several times in the 10th century as a result of the Caspian expeditions of the Rus. Barda never revived after these raids and was replaced as capital by Baylaqan, which in turn was sacked by the Mongols in 1221. After this Ganja rose to prominence and became the central city of the region. The capital of the Shaddadid dynasty, Ganja was considered the "mother city of Arran" during their reign. The territory of Arran became a part of the Seljuk empire, followed by the Ildegizid state. It was taken briefly by the Khwarizmid dynasty and then overran by Mongol Hulagu empire in the 13th century. Later, it became a part of Chobanid, Jalayirid, Timurid, and Safavid states. In Azerbaijani historiography The history of Caucasian Albania has been a major topic of Azerbaijani revisionist theories, which came under criticism in Western and Russian academic and analytical circles, and were often characterized as "bizarre" and "futile".[119][120][121][122][123][124][125][126][127] In his article "The Albanian Myth", Russian historian and anthropologist Victor Schnirelmann states that Azerbaijani academics have been "renaming prominent medieval Armenian political leaders, historians and writers, who lived in Nagorno Karabakh and Armenia into "Albanians". Schnirelmann argues that these efforts were first launched in the 1950s and were directed towards "ripping the population of early medieval Nagorno Karabakh off from their Armenian heritage" and "cleansing Azerbaijan of Armenian history".[128] In the 1970s, Azerbaijan made a transition from ignoring, discounting or concealing Armenian historical heritage in Soviet Azerbaijan to misattributing and mischaracterizing it as examples of Azerbaijani culture by arbitrarily declaring "Caucasian Albanians" as ancestors of modern Azerbaijanis.[129] In this regard, Thomas de Waal, a scholar at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, writes about the political context of Azerbaijan's historical revisionism: This rather bizarre argument has the strong political subtext that Nagorno Karabakh had in fact been Caucasian Albanian and that Armenians had no claim to it.[130] Schnirelmann states that a significant revisionist method used by Azerbaijani scholars was "re-publishing of ancient and medieval sources, where the term "Armenian state" was routinely and systematically removed and replaced with "Albanian state".[131] American author George Bournoutian gives examples of how that was done by Ziya Bunyadov, vice-chairman of Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences,[132] who earned the nickname of "Azerbaijan’s foremost Armenophobe".[131][133] According to de Waal: Buniatov’s scholarly credentials were dubious. It later transpired that the two articles he published in 1960 and 1965 on Caucasian Albania were direct plagiarism. Under his own name, he had simply published, unattributed, translations of two articles, originally written in English by Western scholars C.F.J. Dowsett and Robert Hewsen.[134] Hewsen, a historian from Rowan College and the acknowledged authority in this field, wrote in his volume Armenia: A Historical Atlas, published by Chicago University Press: Scholars should be on guard when using Soviet and post-Soviet Azeri editions of Azeri, Persian, and even Russian and Western European sources printed in Baku. These have been edited to remove references to Armenians and have been distributed in large numbers in recent years. When utilizing such sources, the researchers should seek out pre-Soviet editions wherever possible. — Robert Hewsen[135] According to de Waal, a disciple of Bunyadov, Farida Mammadova, has "taken the Albanian theory and used it to push Armenians out of the Caucasus altogether. She had relocated Caucasian Albania into what is now the Republic of Armenia. All those lands, churches, and monasteries in the Republic of Armenia—all had been Albanian. No sacred Armenian fact was left un-attacked". De Waal describes Mammadova as a sophisticated end of what "in Azerbaijan has become a very blunt instrument indeed".[136][137] Both Ziya Bunyadov and Farida Mammadova are known for their anti-Armenian public pronouncements and pamphlets.[137][138][139] Historical revisionism in Azerbaijan supported a number of policies on the ground, including cultural vandalism directed against Armenian monuments in Soviet and post-Soviet Azerbaijan.[120] Armenian memorial stone crosses known as "khachkars" on the territory of Azerbaijan were regularly misrepresented as "Caucasian Albanian" both before and after Azerbaijan's independence.[140] Furthermore, mischaracterization of Armenian khachkars as supposedly non-Armenian monuments of Caucasian Albania was associated with acts of cultural vandalism against Armenian historical monuments in Nakhichevan.[119] The Khachkar destruction in Nakhchivan refer to the systematic campaign by the government of Azerbaijan to completely demolish the Armenian cemetery in Julfa with thousands of Armenian khachkars near the town of Julfa (known as Jugha in Armenian), Nakhchivan. Claims by Armenians that Azerbaijan was undertaking a systematic campaign to destroy and remove the monuments first arose in late 1998 and those charges were renewed in 2002 and 2005.[141] Adam T. Smith, an anthropologist and associate professor of anthropology at the University of Chicago, called the removal of the khachkars "a shameful episode in humanity's relation to its past, a deplorable act on the part of the government of Azerbaijan which requires both explanation and repair". Smith and other scholars, as well as several United States Senators, signed a letter to the UNESCO and other organizations condemning Azerbaijan's government.[142] Azerbaijan instead contends that the monuments were not of Armenian, but of Caucasian Albanian, origin, which, per Thomas De Waal, did not protect "the graveyard from an act in the history wars".[143] Anti-Armenian cultural vandalism in Azerbaijan perpetrated with the use of revisionist theories on Caucasian Albania was also noted in northern Azerbaijan, where Norwegian archeologists were involved in the restoration of an Armenian-Georgian church in the village of Kish near the city of Shaki. Azerbaijanis erased Armenian inscriptions on the church's walls, which led to by an official complaint by Norwegian foreign ministry.[144] Furthermore, revisionist theories about Caucasian Albania have also been used by Azerbaijani statesmen in the ongoing Azerbaijani-Georgian dispute over the territorial status of David Gareja monastery complex, a Georgian spiritual and historical monument partially located on the territory of Azerbaijani Republic. David Gareja is a rock-hewn Georgian Orthodox monastery complex in the Kakheti region of Eastern Georgia, on the semi-desert slopes of Mount Gareja, some 60–70 km southeast of Georgia's capital Tbilisi. Giorgi Manjgaladze, Georgia's deputy foreign minister proposed that Georgia would be willing to exchange other territory for the remainder of David Gareja because of its historical and cultural significance to the Georgians.[145][146] Baku disapproves of this land swap,[147] and in April 2007, Azerbaijan's deputy foreign minister Khalaf Khalafov told a press conference in Baku that it was "out of the question" for Azerbaijan to "give up its claims to the borderlands" including David Gareja. Khalafov then stated that the monastery "was home to the Caucasian Albanians, who are believed to have been the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan".[148] Georgian art historian Dimitri Tumanishvili dismissed this claim and stated that the complex "is covered in the work of Georgian masters". "There are Georgian inscriptions everywhere dating back to the sixth century," he said "There are no traces of another culture there. After that, I don’t think you need any further proof".[149] See also Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania Arts of Caucasian Albania Artsakh Church of Caucasian Albania Shirvan Notes ^ See sample of script with letters that resemble other alphabets, specifically Georgian (19 letters), Ethiopian (14 letters) and Armenian (10 letters) in "The Albanian Script: The Process How Its Secrets Were Revealed," by Zaza Aleksidze and Betty Blair ^ Nevertheless, "despite being one of the chief vassals of Sasanian Shahanshah, the Albanian king had only a semblance of authority, and the Sassanid marzban (military governor) held most civil, religious, and military authority. Footnotes ^ Hewsen 2001, p. 41. ^ a b c d e f Toumanoff, Cyril. The Arsacids. Encyclopædia Iranica. excerpt:"Whatever the sporadic suzerainty of Rome, the country was now a part—together with Iberia (East Georgia) and (Caucasian) Albania, where other Arsacid branched reigned—of a pan-Arsacid family federation. Culturally, the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by a predominance of "Iranianism," and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated" ^ a b Shnirelman, V.A.(2001), 'The value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia', Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp 79: "Yet, even at the time of Caucasian Albania and later on, as well, the region was greatly affected by Iran and Persian enjoyed even more success than the Albanian language". ^ a b Benjamin W. Fortson, "Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction", John Wiley and Sons, 2009. pg 242: " Middle Persian was the official language of the Sassanian dynasty" ^ a b c d e f g h Robert H. Hewsen. "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians", in: Samuelian, Thomas J. (Ed.), Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity. Chicago: 1982, pp. 27-40. ^ a b c d e f g h i Bosworth, Clifford E. Arran. Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ a b James Stuart Olson. An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. ISBN 0-313-27497-5 ^ History of Armenia composed by abbot Chamchian, Mikayel. Պատմութիւն Հայոց (History of Armenia). Venice, 1786, p. 131. ^ A. Yanovskiy, About the Ancient Caucasian Albania (А. Яновский, О древней Кавказской Албании. Журнал МНЛ, 1864, ч. II, с. 180.) ^ S. V. Yushkov, On question of the boundaries of ancient Albania. Moskow, 1937, p. 137. (С. В. Юшков, К вопросу о границах древней Албании. «Исторические записки АН СССР», т. I, М., 1937, с. 137.) ^ Ghevond Alishan, Aghuank (Ղևոնդ Ալիշան, «Աղուանք»), Venice: "Bazmavep", 1970, N 11-12, p. 341. ^ The History of Aluank by Moses of Kalankatuyk. Book I, chapter IV ^ "Moses Kalankatuatsi. History of country of Aluank. Chapter IV". Vostlit.info. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "Darmesteter's translation and notes". Avesta.org. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Darmesteter, James (trans., ed.). "Vendidad". Zend Avesta I (SBE 4). Oxford University Press, 1880. p. 3, p. 5 n.2,3. ^ a b V. Minorsky. Caucasica IV. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 15, No. 3. (1953), p. 504 ^ Anon. Armenian "Geography" («Աշխարհացոյց»), Sec. IV, Asia, The lands of Greater Asia. ^ Balayan, Vahram (2005). Zovig Balian, Gayane Hairapetyan (ed.). Artsakh History. Yerevan, Armenia: Scientific Council of the Institute of History of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia. pp. 55–56. ISBN 99930-2-078-8. ^ C. J. F. Dowsett. "The Albanian Chronicle of Mxit'ar Goš", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 21, No. 1/3. (1958) p. 475: "In Albania, Xacen, part of the old province of Arcax, had preserved its independence, and we know that it was partly at the request of one of its rulers, Prince Vaxtang, that Mxit'ar composed his lawbook". ^ a b c d Hewsen 2001, pp. 40–41 ^ Strabo had no knowledge of any city in Albania, although in the 1st century AD Pliny mentions the initial capital of the kingdom - Qabala. The name of the city has been pronounced in many different ways including Gabala, Kabalaka, Shabala, and Tabala. ^ a b (in Armenian) Yeremyan, Suren T. «Հայաստանը ըստ «Աշխարհացույցի» (Armenia According to the "Ashkharhatsuyts"). Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1963, p. 34. ^ a b c d e Minorsky, Vladimir. A History of Sharvan and Darband in the 10th-11th Centuries. Cambridge, 1958. ^ a b c d e f g h Chaumont, M. L. "Albania". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. ^ Abi Ali Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Rustah, al-A'laq Al-Nafisah, Tab'ah 1,Bayrut : Dar al-Kutub al-ʻIlmiyah, 1998, pg 96-98. ^ a b История Востока. В 6 т. Т. 2. Восток в средние века. М., «Восточная литература», 2002. ISBN 5-02-017711-3 (History of the East. In 6 volumes. Volume 2. Moscow, publishing house of the Russian Academy of sciences «East literature»): The multi-ethnic population of Albania left-bank at this time is increasingly moving to the Persian language. Mainly this applies to cities of Aran and Shirwan, as begin from 9-10 centuries[clarification needed] named two main areas in the territory of Azerbaijan. With regard to the rural population, it would seem, mostly retained for a long time, their old languages, related to modern Daghestanian family, especially Lezgin. (Russian text: Пестрое в этническом плане население левобережной Албании в это время все больше переходит на персидский язык. Главным образом это относится к городам Арана и Ширвана, как стали в IX-Х вв. именоваться два главные области на территории Азербайджана. Что касается сельского населения, то оно, по-видимому, в основном сохраняло еще долгое время свои старые языки, родственные современным дагестанским, прежде всего лезгинскому. ^ "Caucasian Albanian Script. The Significance of Decipherment by Dr. Zaza Alexidze". Azer.com. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Minorsky, Vladimir (1953). : 504. Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Ronald G. Suny: What Happened in Soviet Armenia? Middle East Report, No. 153, Islam and the State. (Jul. - Aug., 1988), pp. 37-40. ^ Kuznetsov, Igor. "Udis" (in Russian). vehi.net. ^ Stuart, James (1994). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 27. ISBN 0-313-27497-5. ^ J. Gippert, W. Schulze. Some Remarks on the Caucasian Albanian Palimpsests / Iran and the Caucasus 11 (2007). "Rather, we have to assume that Old Udi corresponds to the language of the ancient Gargars (cf. Movsēs Kałankatuac‘i who tells us that Mesrob Maštoc‘ (362–440) created with the help [of the bishop Ananian and the translator Benjamin] an alphabet for the guttural, harsh, barbarous, and rough language of the Gargarac‘ik‘)". ^ a b К. В. Тревер. Очерки по истории и культуре Кавказской Албании. М—Л., 1959:"Как известно, в V в. Месроп Маштоц, создавая албанский алфавит, в основу его положил гаргарское наречие албанского языка («создал письмена гаргарского языка, богатого горловыми звуками»). Это последнее обстоятельство позволяет высказать предположение, что именно гаргары являлись наиболее культурным и ведущим албанским племенем". ^ Peter R. Ackroyd. The Cambridge history of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1963. Vol. 2. p. 368: "The third Caucasian people, the Albanians, also received an alphabet from Mesrob, to supply scripture for their Christian church. This church did not survive beyond the conquests of Islam, and all but few traces of the script have been lost, and there are no remains of the version known". ^ Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984 ^ Koriun, The life of Mashtots, Ch. 16. ^ Joseph L. Wieczynski, George N. Rhyne. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History. Academic International Press, 1976. ISBN 0-87569-064-5, ISBN 978-0-87569-064-3 ^ Thomson, Robert W. (1996). Rewriting Caucasian History: The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826373-2. ^ Alexidze, Zaza. "Discovery and Decipherment of Caucasian Albanian Writing" (PDF). Science.org.ge. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica: "Middle Persian [Sassanian Pahlava] and Parthian were doubtlessly similar enough to be mutually intelligible". 2003. p. 627. ^ Minorsky, Vladimir (1958). "A History of Sharvan and Darband in the 10th–11th Centuries", Cambridge, 1958. ^ Istakhari(1994), Ibrahim. " Masalek va Mamalek", tr. As’ad ibn Abdullah Tustari, Majmueyeh Enteshārat Adabi o Tarikho Moqufāt Doctor Afshar, Tehran. On Istakhri: Estakhri of the 10th century also states: "In Azerbeijan, Armenia and Arran they speak Persian and Arabic, except for the area around the city of Dabil: they speak Armenian around that city, and in the country of Barda people speak Arranian". Original Arabic: و لسان اذربيجان و ارمينيه و الران الفارسيه و العربيه غير ان اھل دبيل و حواليھا یتکلمون بالارمنيه، و نواحی بردعه لسانھم ارانيه (Estakhari, Abu Eshaq Ebrahim. Masalek va Mamalek. Bonyad Moqufat Dr. Afshar, Tehran, 1371 (1992-1993)) ^ История Востока. В 6 т. Т. 2. Восток в средние века. М., «Восточная литература», 2002. ISBN 5-02-017711-3 (History of the East. In 6 volumes. Volume 2. Moscow, publishing house of the Russian Academy of sciences «East literature»): The polyethnic population of Albania left-bank at this time is increasingly moving to the Persian language. Mainly this applies to cities of Aran and Shirvan, as begin from 9-10 centuries[clarification needed] named two main areas in the territory of Azerbaijan. With regard to the rural population, it would seem, mostly retained for a long time, their old languages, related to modern Daghestanian family, especially Lezgin. (Russian text: Пестрое в этническом плане население левобережной Албании в это время все больше переходит на персидский язык. Главным образом это относится к городам Арана и Ширвана, как стали в IX-Х вв. именоваться два главные области на территории Азербайджана. Что касается сельского населения, то оно, по-видимому, в основном сохраняло еще долгое время свои старые языки, родственные современным дагестанским, прежде всего лезгинскому. ^ a b Kuznetsov, Igor. "Udis" (in Russian). vehi.net. ^ Ronald G. Suny: What Happened in Soviet Armenia? Middle East Report, No. 153, Islam and the State. (Jul. – Aug., 1988), pp. 37–40. ^ (in Russian) Caucasian Albania. The Eastern Orthodox Encyclopædia. ^ Bruno Jacobs, "ACHAEMENID RULE IN Caucasus" in Encyclopædia Iranica. January 9, 2006. Excerpt: "Achaemenid rule in the Caucasus region was established, at the latest, in the course of the Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513-12 BCE. The Persian domination of the cis-Caucasian area (the northern side of the range) was brief, and archeological findings indicate that the Great Caucasus formed the northern border of the empire during most, if not all, of the Achaemenid period after Darius" ^ Hewsen 2001, p. 40. ^ Тревер К. В. Очерки по истории и культуре кавказской Албании IV в. до н. э. — VII в. н. э. М.-Л., 1959, p 144 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Article: Azerbaijan ^ Walker, Christopher J. Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity. London: Minority Rights Group Publications, 1991, p. 10. ^ a b Istorija Vostoka. V 6 t. T. 2, Vostok v srednije veka Moskva, «Vostochnaya Literatura», 2002. ISBN 5-02-017711-3 ^ Robert H. Hewsen. "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians", in: Samuelian, Thomas J. (Ed.), Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity, Chicago: 1982 ^ Schmitt Rüdiger.Caspians[permanent dead link]. Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Hewsen 2001, pp. 32,58. ^ Bais, Marco (2001). Rome and Caucasian Albania (google book in Italian). ISBN 9788887231953. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ a b Е.В. Федорова. Императорский Рим в лицах (in Russian). Ancientcoins.narod.ru. Archived from the original on 2008-04-10. Retrieved 2009-03-16. ^ a b c d e Ильяс Бабаев. Какие монеты употребляли на рынках Азербайджана (in Russian). Irs-az.com. Retrieved 2009-03-16.[dead link] ^ Страбон о Кавказской Албании (in Russian). Irs-az.com. Retrieved 2009-03-17.[dead link] ^ К. Алиев. К вопросу об источниках Страбона в описании древней Кавказской Албании. Ж. Доклады АН Азерб. ССР, XVI, 1960, № 4, с. 420-421 ^ "Plutarch, The Parallel Lives. Pompey, 35". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "Plutarch, The Parallel Lives: "Pompey", 36". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Тревер К. В. Очерки по истории и культуре кавказской Албании IV в. до н. э. — VII в. н. э. М.-Л., 1959, p 145 ^ Chorbajian, Levon; Donabédian, Patrick; Mutafian, Claude (1994). The Caucasian Knot. Zed Books. p. 54. ISBN 1-85649-288-5. The Caucasian Albania state was established during the second to first centuries BC and, according to Strabo, was made up of 26 tribes. It seems that their language was Ibero-Caucasian. ^ a b "Strabo. Geography, book 11, chapter 14". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "Tes palai kai tes nyn oikoumenes periegesis, sive, Dionysii geographia : emendata & locupletata, additione scil. geographiae hodiernae : Graeco carmine pariter donatae : cum 16 tabulis geographicis" (PDF). Londini : E Typographaeo Mariae Matthews, impensis W. Churchill. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Пахомов, Е.А. Римская надпись I в. н.э. и легион XII фульмината. "Изв. АН Азерб. ССР", 1949, №1 ^ Всемирная история. Энциклопедия, том 2, 1956, гл. XIII ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Albania (Caucasus)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 481. ^ Ehsan Yarshater. The Cambridge history of Iran, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-20092-X, 9780521200929, p. 141 ^ Gignoux. "Aneran". Encyclopaedia Iranica: "The high priest Kirder, thirty years later, gave in his inscriptions a more explicit list of the provinces of Aneran, including Armenia, Georgia, Albania, and Balasagan, together with Syria and Asia Minor". Archived November 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica: The list of provinces given in the inscription of Ka'be-ye Zardusht defines the extent of the empire under Shapur". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-09-03. ^ Gadjiev 2017, pp. 122–123. ^ Gadjiev 2017, p. 123. ^ Chaumont 1985, pp. 806–810. ^ "Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of Albania. Book 2, Chapter VI". Vostlit.info. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "Moses Kalankatuatsi. History of country of Aluank. Chapter XVII. About the tribe of Mihran, hailing from the family of Khosrow the Sasanian, who became the ruler of the country of Aluank". Vostlit.info. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ The Cambridge History of Iran. 1991. ISBN 0-521-20093-8 ^ "ḴOSROW II – Encyclopaedia Iranica". ^ An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples by Peter B. Golden. Otto Harrasowitz (1992), ISBN 3-447-03274-X (retrieved 8 June 2006), p. 385–386. ^ "Chapter "History" in article "Azerbaijan"". Encyclopædia Britannica online edition. ^ Hewsen, Robert H. Armenia: a Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, map Caucasian Albania. ^ Robert H. Hewsen, "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity, ed. Thomas J. Samuelian (Philadelphia: Scholars Press, 1982), p. 45 ^ Hewsen, Robert H. Armenia: a Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the Orontids' Kingdom of Armenia) ^ a b Моисей Хоренский. Армянская География VII в. Перевод Патканова К.П. СПб., 1877. стр. 40,17 ^ Peter R. Ackroyd. The Cambridge history of the Bible. — Cambridge University Press, 1963. — vol. 2. — p. 368:"The third Caucasian people, the Albanians, also received an alphabet from Mesrop, to supply scripture for their Christian church. This church did not survive beyond the conquests of Islam, and all but few traces of the script have been lost..." ^ Hewsen, Robert H. Armenia: a Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, map "Armenia according to Anania of Shirak’ ^ a b c d e Robert H. Hewsen, "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity, ed. Thomas J. Samuelian (Philadelphia: Scholars Press, 1982) ^ Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh," in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA, 1983 ^ Walker, Christopher J. Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity. Minority Rights Group Publications, 1991, p. 10 ^ Moses Khorenatsi. History of the Armenians, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press, 1978, Book II ^ Strabo, op. cit., book XI, chapters 14–15 (Bude, vol. VIII, p. 123) ^ Svante E. Cornell. Small Nations and Great Powers. 2001, p. 64 ^ V. A. Shnirelman. Memory wars. Myths, identity and politics in Transcaucasia. Academkniga, Moscow, 2003 ISBN 5-94628-118-6 ^ a b c d The History of the Caucasian Albanians by Movsēs Dasxuranc'i. Translated by Charles Dowsett. London: Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 3-4 "Introduction" ^ Moses Khorenatsi. History of the Armenians, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press, 1978, p. ^ Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, p. 43 ^ Kirakos Gandzaketsi. "Kirakos Gandzaketsi’s history of the Armenians," Sources of the Armenian Tradition. New York, 1986, p. 67 ^ Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", National Geographic Magazine, March 2004 ^ John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (May 1, 2008), p. 307 ^ Агатангелос, «История Армении» («История св. Григория и обращения Армении в христианство»), пер. с древнеарм. К. С. Тер-Давтяна и С. С. Аревшатяна, изд-во «Наири», Ер., 2004.(рус.). as in the text: «Они суть избранные ишханы (князья) , наместники , краеначальники , тысяцкие, десятитысяцкие страны армянской , дома Торгомова». Стр. 796 ^ Adonts, Nikoghaios. Armenia in the Period of Justinian: The Political Conditions based on the Naxarar System. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon, 1970, p. 34-41 ^ Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181-219 ^ a b Agop Jack Hacikyan, Gabriel Basmajian, Edward S. Franchuk. The Heritage of Armenian Literature. Wayne State University Press (December 2002), pp. 94–99 ^ Ulubabian, Bagrat. Studies in the History of the Eastern Province of Armenia. 5th-7th Centuries, Yerevan, 1981, pp. 55-58 ^ a b "Armenian Names". Armenian.name. Archived from the original on 2012-03-17. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Ս. Ավագյան. Հայկական անուններ. Երևան, Լույս հրտ, 1982, p. 15 ^ a b Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, p. 27 ^ Moses Khorenatsi. History of the Armenians, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press, 1978 ^ Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia," National Geographic Magazine, March 2004, p. 18, ^ a b Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3 ^ a b Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, Albanian episode ^ Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, Elegy on the Death of Prince Juansher ^ Gasanov, Magomed, On Christianity in Dagestan, Iran & the Caucasus, Vol.5, 2001:80. ^ "Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of Albania. Book 2, Chapter LII". Vostlit.info. Archived from the original on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ Gasanov, 80. ^ Movses Kaghankatvatsi, The History of the Country of Albania, III.VIII–XI ^ Chorbajian. Caucasian Knot, pp. 63-64. ^ a b Thomas De Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010, p. 108 ^ a b В. А. Шнирельман. "Войны памяти. Мифы, идентичность и политика в Закавказье", М., ИКЦ, "Академкнига", 2003. ^ Yo'av Karny, Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001, pp. 376, chapter "Ghosts of Caucasian Albania". Karny writes: "The quest for Azerbaijan's antiquity had actually begun well before Soviet collapse and reached its climax in the late 1980s. The fierce debates it generated had an eerily existential, rather than scholarly quality. They were conducted along the lines of "I am, therefore you are not," or better, "You were not, therefore I am". The debates locked horns with an intensity that outsiders find bizarre and futile". ^ Thomas De Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010. pp. 107–108, characterization as "bizarre" on page 107 ^ De Waal, Thomas (2004). Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. pp. 152–153, 143. ^ Svante Cornell. Small nations and great powers. Routledge (December 1, 2000), p. 50 ^ Philip L. Kohl, Clare P. Fawcett. Nationalism, politics, and the practice of archaeology. Cambridge University Press (February 23, 1996), p. 152, 153 ^ Ronald Grigor Suny, Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies, American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 1996 ^ Ben Fowkes. Ethnicity and ethnic conflict in the post-communist world. Palgrave Macmillan (May 3, 2002), p. 30 ^ "В.А. Шнирельман, "Войны памяти. Мифы, идентичность и политика в Закавказье", М., ИКЦ, "Академкнига", 2003".In the book Schnirelmann mentions some Armenian authors, such as B. Ulubabian and A. Mnatsakanian, who created theories about Caucasian Albania which he finds unpersuasive and possibly politically motivated ^ Yo'av Karny, Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001, pp. 371-400, chapter "Ghosts of Caucasian Albania" ^ Thomas De Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010, p. 107 ^ a b Esayi Hasan Jalaeants (Author), George A. Bournoutian (Translator). Brief History of the Aghuank Region: (Patmut'iwn Hamarot Aghuanits Erkri). Mazda Publishers (July 2009), Introduction, pp. 9-21 ^ George A. Bournoutian. Rewriting History: Recent Azeri Alterations of Primary Sources Dealing with Karabakh. Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies (1992,1993), Volume 6 ^ See discussion of Ziya Bunyadov in Thomas De Waal. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. 2004, pages 152-153, 143 ^ Thomas De Waal. 'Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. 2004, p. 152 ^ Robert Hewsen. Armenia: A Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 291 ^ Thomas De Waal. 'Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. 2004, p. 153 143 ^ a b Thomas de Waal, Black Garden, chapter "Urekavank", in Russian, 2005 ^ Фарида Мамедова: «Разрушив захоронение «Агадеде», армяне в очередной раз пытаются посягнуть на историю Азербайджана», Day.Az daily, January 06, 2006 (in Russian) Archived November 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Quotation: "And, it is known, that on whole planet exactly the Armenian people is distinguished by the absence of spiritual and other human values". ^ (in Russian) Buniyatov, Ziya. "Concerning the events in Karabakh and Sumgait". Elm. No. 19, May 13, 1989, p. 175. Excerpts of this text can be found in Levon Chorbajian; Patrick Donabedian; Claude Mutafian. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh. London: Zed Books, 1994, pp. 188-189. ISBN 1-85649-288-5. ^ Yo'av Karny, Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001, p. 376 ^ Pickman, Sarah (June 30, 2006). "Tragedy on the Araxes". Archaeology.org. Retrieved April 16, 2007. ^ Smith, Adam T.; et al. "A copy of the letter" (PDF). Archaeology.org. ^ Thomas De Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010. pp. 107-108 ^ Thomas De Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010. pp 107-108 ^ Diana Petriashvili and Rovshan Ismayilov (2006-11-03). "Georgia, Azerbaijan Debate Control of Ancient Monastery's Territory". Eurasia.net. ^ Michael Mainville (2007-05-03). "Ancient monastery starts modern-day feud in Caucasus". Middle East Times. ^ Idrak Abbasov and David Akhvlediani (2007-03-29). "Monastery Divides Georgia and Azerbaijan". Institute for War and Peace Reporting. ^ Edilashvili, Nino (2007-04-12). "Border Dispute Breaks Harmony between Azerbaijan and Georgia". The Georgian Times. Archived from the original on 2007-07-08. ^ Idrak Abbasov and David Akhvlediani (2007-03-29). "Monastery Divides Georgia and Azerbaijan". Institute for War and Peace Reporting. References Hewsen, Robert H. (2001). Armenia: A Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226332284. Marco Bais Albania caucasica: ethnos, storia, territorio attraverso le fonti greche, latine e armene. Mimesis Edizioni. Roma, 2001 ISBN 88-87231-95-8 (in Italian) Movses Kalankatuatsi. The History of Aluank. Translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Sh.V.Smbatian, Yerevan, 1984. (in Russian) Koriun, The Life of Mashtots, translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Bedros Norehad. Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of Albania. Translated by L. Davlianidze-Tatishvili, Tbilisi, 1985. (in Georgian) Movses Khorenatsi The History of Armenia. Translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Gagik Sargsyan, Yerevan, 1990. (in Russian) Ilia Abuladze. "About the discovery of the alphabet of the Caucasian Albanians". Bulletin of the Institute of Language, History and Material Culture (ENIMK), Vol. 4, Ch. I, Tbilisi, 1938. Chaumont, M. L. (1985). "Albania". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 8. pp. 806–810. Gadjiev, Murtazali (2017). Construction Activities of Kavād I in Caucasian Albania. Brill. pp. 121–131. Gadjiev, Murtazali (2020). "The Chronology of the Arsacid Albanians". Gorgias Press: 29–35. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Toumanoff, C. (1986). "Arsacids vii. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. pp. 543–546. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caucasian Albania. About the Caucasian Albania (section 10) Caucasian History v t e Historical regions of Caucasian Albania Caspiane Gardman Cambysene Utik Begh Eghni Shake Kholmaz Gelavu Kaladash Kapalak Hegeri Cholaa Lpina Hereti v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caucasian_Albania&oldid=1028048810" Categories: Caucasian Albania 705 disestablishments Former countries in Europe Geographic history of Azerbaijan History of Dagestan Roman client kingdoms Hidden categories: Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2013 CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 errors: missing title CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with Russian-language sources (ru) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru) Articles with dead external links from May 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from March 2008 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Middle Persian-language text Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009 Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles with Georgian-language sources (ka) Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Қазақша Latviešu Лезги Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 14:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7091	----	Imperator - Wikipedia Imperator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rank in ancient Rome "Imperator Augustus" and "Imperatrix" redirect here. For the first Roman emperor, see Augustus. For the racehorse, see Imperatrix (horse). For the monarchic title of a head of state, see Emperor. For other uses, see Imperator (disambiguation). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Latin word "imperator" derives from the stem of the verb imperare, meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to commander under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen. The English word emperor derives from imperator via Old French: Empereür. The Roman emperors themselves generally based their authority on multiple titles and positions, rather than preferring any single title. Nevertheless, imperator was used relatively consistently as an element of a Roman ruler's title throughout the principate and the dominate. Contents 1 Imperatores in the ancient Roman Kingdom 2 Imperatores in the Roman Republic 3 Imperator as an imperial title 4 Post-Roman use 5 Imperatrix 6 Derivatives 7 References 8 Bibliography Imperatores in the ancient Roman Kingdom[edit] When Rome was ruled by kings,[1] to be able to rule, the king had to be invested with the full regal authority and power. So, after the comitia curiata, held to elect the king, the king also had to be conferred the imperium.[2] Imperatores in the Roman Republic[edit] In Roman Republican literature and epigraphy, an imperator was a magistrate with imperium.[3] But also, mainly in the later Roman Republic and during the late Republican civil wars, imperator was the honorific title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium. Since a triumph was the goal of many politically ambitious Roman commanders, Roman Republican history is full of cases where legions were bribed to call their commander imperator. The title of imperator was given in 90 BC to Lucius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, in 60 BC to Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the previously mentioned Lucius Julius Caesar, in the 50s to Gaius Julius Caesar (in Gaul), in 45 BC again to Gaius Julius Caesar, in 44 BC to Marcus Iunius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (younger brother and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). In 15 AD Germanicus was also imperator during the empire (see below) of his adoptive father Tiberius.[4] Imperator as an imperial title[edit] After Augustus established the Roman Empire, the title imperator was generally restricted to the emperor, though in the early years of the empire it would occasionally be granted to a member of his family. As a permanent title, imperator was used as a praenomen by the Roman emperors and was taken on accession. After the reign of Tiberius, the act of being proclaimed imperator was transformed into the act of imperial accession. In fact, if a general was acclaimed by his troops as imperator, it would be tantamount to a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. At first the term continued to be used in the Republican sense as a victory title but attached to the de facto monarch and head of state, rather than the actual military commander. The title followed the emperor's name along with the number of times he was acclaimed as such, for example IMP V ("imperator five times"). In time it became the title of the de facto monarch, pronounced upon (and synonymous with) their assumption. As a title imperator was generally translated into Greek as autokrator ("one who rules himself," also sometimes used as a translation for Roman dictators.) This was necessarily imprecise as it lost the nuances of Latin political thought contrasting imperium with other forms of public authority. Nevertheless, this title (along with sebastos for augustus) was used in Greek-language texts for Roman emperors from the establishment of the empire. In the east, the title continued to be used into the Byzantine period, though to a lesser, and much more ceremonial, extent. In most Byzantine writings, the Greek translation "Autokrator" is preferred, but "Imperator" makes an appearance in Constantine IV's mid 7th century mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, and on various 9th century lead seals. Post-Roman use[edit] After the Roman empire collapsed in the West in the 5th century, Latin continued to be used as the language of learning and diplomacy for some centuries. The Roman emperors of this period (referred to by modern historians as the Byzantine emperors) were referred to as imperatores in Latin texts, while the word basileus (king) was used in Greek. After 800, the imperator was used (in conjunction with augustus) as a formal Latin title in succession by the Carolingian and German Holy Roman Emperors until 1806 and by the Austrian Emperors until 1918. In medieval Spain, the title imperator was used under a variety of circumstances from the ninth century onwards, but its usage peaked, as a formal and practical title, between 1086 and 1157. It was primarily used by the Kings of León and Castile, but it also found currency in the Kingdom of Navarre and was employed by the Counts of Castile and at least one Duke of Galicia. It signalled at various points the king's equality with the Byzantine Emperor and Holy Roman Emperor, his rule by conquest or military superiority, his rule over several people groups ethnic or religious, and his claim to suzerainty over the other kings of the peninsula, both Christian and Muslim. Beginning in 1077 Alfonso instituted the use of the style ego Adefonsus imperator totius Hispaniae ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Spain") and its use soon became regular.[5] This title was used throughout the period 1079–81, which represents the peak of his imperial pretensions before his capture of the city of Toledo, ancient capital of the Visigoths. In 1080 he introduced the form ego Adefonsus Hispaniarum imperator ("I, Alfonso, emperor of the Spains"), which he used again in 1090. His most elaborate imperial title was ego Adefonsus imperator totius Castelle et Toleto necnon et Nazare seu Alave ("I, Alfonso, emperor of all Castile and of Toledo also and of Nájera, or Álava").[6] After the Ottoman Empire conquered both the Balkan peninsula (Rumeli in Turkish meaning "lands of Rome") and Constantinople, the Turkish ruler acclaimed himself Caesar of Rome (sultan-ı iklim-i Rûm). In the 15th century Bayezid II established diplomatic relations with some Christian European states, and sent a document to the King of Poland in which he used the titles Sultan Dei gratia Asie, Grecie etc. İmperator Maximus ("with help of God, emperor of Asia and Greece"). Like his predecessor, Selim I titled himself imperator in diplomatic correspondence (per la Divina favente clementia Grande Imperator di Constantinopoli, di Asia, Europa, Persia, Soria et Egipto et Arabia et de li mari etc.) due to his military successes.[7] In 1721, as part of his drive to both westernize the Russian Empire and assert the monarchy's claim that it was the successor to the Byzantine emperors, Peter the Great imported the Latin word directly into Russian and styled himself imperator (Императоръ). The style remained the official one for all his successors down to the end of the Russian Empire in 1917, though the Russian rulers continued to be colloquially known as tsar (a word derived from "Caesar"), which they had begun to use c. 1480 to likewise assert their contention to be the heirs to the Byzantine state (see: Third Rome.) Reigning female Russian rulers were styled imperatritsa. Signature of King Edward VIII. The "R" and "I" after his name indicate Rex ("king") and Imperator ("emperor") respectively. German East African Roupie, 1890. Coins of European Colonial Empires were sometimes inscribed in Latin, such as this colonial coin featuring Wilhelm II of Germany. Napoleon famously adopted the title for himself and after the Napoleonic wars, the number of emperors in Europe proliferated, but Latin began to fall out of use for all but the most ceremonial situations. Still, in those rare cases in which a European monarch's Latin titles were used, imperator was used as a translation for emperor. Famously, after assuming the title Emperor of India, British monarchs would follow their signatures with the initials RI, standing for rex imperator ("king-emperor"). George VI of the United Kingdom was the last European ruler to claim an imperial title; when he abdicated as Emperor of India in 1948, the last active use of the title imperator in the West ceased. It was thereafter used only historically, or as a Latin translation for certain continuing titles of non-European cultures, such as Japan. The imperial title was also adopted by Jean-Bédel Bokassa, during his reign as the emperor of the short-lived Central African Empire (1976–79). Imperatrix[edit] The term imperatrix seems not to have been used in Ancient Rome to indicate the consort of an imperator or later of an Emperor. In the early years of the Roman Empire there was no standard title or honorific for the Emperor's wife, even the "Augusta" honorific was rather exceptionally granted, and not exclusively to wives of living emperors. It is not clear when the feminine form of the Latin term imperator originated or was used for the first time. It usually indicates a reigning monarch, and is thus used in the Latin version of titles of modern reigning Empresses. Likewise, when Fortuna is qualified "imperatrix mundi" in the Carmina Burana there's no implication of any type of consort — the term describes (the Goddess or personified) Fortune "ruling the world". In Christian context, Imperatrix became a laudatory address to the Virgin Mary, in diverse forms at least since the Middle Ages — for example, she is sometimes called "Imperatrix angelorum" ("ruler of the angels"). Derivatives[edit] Imperator is the root of most Romance languages's word for emperor. It is the root of the English word "emperor", which entered the language via the French empereur, while related adjectives like "imperial" were imported into English directly from Latin. References[edit] ^ Rex.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. ^ LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Auctor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) ^ Rivero (2006). ^ Tacitus, The Annals 1.58 ^ Reilly 1988, 137. ^ García Gallo 1945, 214. ^ Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz. "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan". cambridge.org. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help) Bibliography[edit] Combès, Robert (1966). Imperator : Recherches sur l’emploi et la signification du titre d’Imperator dans la Rome républicaine. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines de l’Université de Montpellier. Archived from the original on 2010-12-30. 489 p. Rivero, Pilar (2006). Imperator Populi Romani: una aproximación al poder republicano. Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico. 514 p. 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en-wikipedia-org-7100	----	Crates of Mallus - Wikipedia Crates of Mallus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Crates of Mallus (Greek: Κράτης ὁ Μαλλώτης, Krátēs ho Mallṓtēs; fl. 2nd century BC) was a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher, leader of the literary school and head of the library of Pergamum. He was described as the Crates from Mallus to distinguish him from other philosophers by the same name. His chief work was a critical and exegetical commentary on Homer. He is also famous for constructing the earliest known globe of the Earth. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 The Globe of Crates 4 Honours 5 Notes 6 References Life[edit] He was born in Mallus in Cilicia, and was brought up at Tarsus, and then moved to Pergamon, and there lived under the patronage of Eumenes II, and Attalus II. He was the founder of the Pergamon school of grammar, and seems to have been at one time the head of the library of Pergamon. Among his followers were Hermias (Κρατήτειος Ἑρμείας mentioned in sch. Hom. Il. 16.207a), Zenodotus of Mallus and Herodicus of Babylon. He visited Rome as ambassador of either Eumenes, in 168 BC, or Attalus in 159 BC. Having broken his leg after falling into an open sewer, he was compelled to stay in Rome for some time and delivered lectures which gave the first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans.[1] Works[edit] Crates made a strong distinction between criticism and grammar, the latter of which he regarded as subordinate to the former. A critic, according to Crates, should investigate everything which could throw light upon literature; the grammarian was only to apply the rules of language to clear up the meaning of particular passages, and to settle the text, prosody, accentuation, etc. From this part of his system, Crates derived the surname of Kritikos. Like Aristarchus of Samothrace, Crates gave the greatest attention to the works of Homer, from his labours upon which he was also surnamed Homerikos. He wrote a commentary on the Iliad and Odyssey in nine books. Some fragments of this commentary are preserved by the scholiasts and other ancient writers. His principles were opposed to those of Aristarchus, who was the leader of the Alexandrian school. Crates was the chief representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, and maintained that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical truths in the form of poetry. Besides his work on Homer, Crates wrote commentaries on the Theogony of Hesiod, on Euripides, on Aristophanes, and probably on other ancient authors; a work on the Attic dialect; and works on geography, natural history, and agriculture, of which only a few fragments exist.[2] The Globe of Crates[edit] The Globe of Crates of Mallus (c. 150 BC) as imagined by a 20th century artist[3] According to Strabo, Crates devised a globe representing the Earth, which is thus the earliest known globe representing the Earth: We have now traced on a spherical surface the area in which we say the inhabited world is situated; and the man who would most closely approximate the truth by constructed figures must necessarily take for the earth a globe like that of Crates, and lay off on it the quadrilateral, and within the quadrilateral put down the map of the inhabited world. But since the need of a large globe, so that the section in question (being a small fraction of the globe) may be large enough to receive distinctly the appropriate parts of the inhabited world and to present the proper appearance to observers, it is better for him to construct a globe of adequate size, if he can do so; and let it be no less than ten feet in diameter.[4] Following the theory of five climatic zones, Crates considered that the torrid zone is occupied by the Ocean and that, by analogy, one can imagine people living beyond the torrid zone: For Crates, following the mere form of mathematical demonstration, says that the torrid zone is "occupied" by Oceanus and that on both sides of this zone are the temperate zones, the one being on our side, while the other is on the other side of it. Now, just as these Ethiopians on our side of Oceanus, who face the south throughout the whole length of the inhabited land, are called the most remote of the one group of peoples, since they dwell on the shores of Oceanus, so too, Crates thinks, we must conceive that on the other side of Oceanus also there are certain Ethiopians, the most remote of the other group of peoples in the temperate zone, since they dwell on the shores of this same Oceanus; and that they are in two groups and are "sundered in twain" by Oceanus.[5] The classic drawing of the sphere displays the known world, or Oecumene (Europe, North Africa, and Asia), with three other continents, labeled the Perioeci, the Antipodes, and the Antioeci. Crates' Perioeci and Antipodes arguably do exist, corresponding roughly to North America and South America respectively, but the continent of the Antioeci, Terra Australis, does not, except in fragments (Australasia and southern Africa). And the earth does in fact have a ring of water around it, but at 60 degrees South latitude, not at the Equator. Honours[edit] Crates Bay in Antarctica is named after Crates of Mallus. Notes[edit] ^ Suetonius, De grammaticis, 2 ^ Maria Broggiato (ed.), Cratete di Mallo: I frammenti. Edizione, introduzione e note. La Spezia: Agorà Edizioni, 2001 ^ Ravenstein, E.G. (1911), "Map § History of Cartography" , in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 635 ^ Strabo, Geography, ii.5.10 ^ Strabo, Geography, i.2.24 References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Crates". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 381.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Crates (bio 3)". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crates_of_Mallus&oldid=1025401552" Categories: Librarians of Pergamon Ancient Greek cartographers Ancient Greek grammarians Hellenistic-era philosophers from Anatolia Stoic philosophers 2nd-century BC Greek people Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2021, at 10:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7121	----	Vibia Aurelia Sabina - Wikipedia Vibia Aurelia Sabina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search youngest daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Bust of Vibia Sabina. Vibia Aurelia Sabina was named in honor of Hadrian's wife, Vibia Sabina. Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170 AD – before 217 AD) was the youngest daughter and child born to Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Roman Empress Faustina the Younger. She was a sister to Roman Empress Lucilla and Roman Emperor Commodus. Her maternal grandparents were Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius and Roman Empress Faustina the Elder and her paternal grandparents were Domitia Lucilla and praetor Marcus Annius Verus. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Prominent Italian resident in Roman Africa 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources Life[edit] Aurelia Sabina could have been born in Sirmium, Pannonia. In the year of her birth, her parents were preparing war expeditions at Sirmium. Aurelia Sabina was named in honor of the late Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, who was the wife of the Roman Emperor Hadrian and her late father the distinguished suffect consul Lucius Vibius Sabinus. Vibia Sabina was a relative of Aurelia Sabina's parents, as a great aunt to Aurelia Sabina's parents, as half maternal sister to Rupilia Faustina. Rupilia Faustina was the paternal grandmother of Marcus Aurelius and the maternal grandmother of Faustina the Younger. Throughout her childhood, Aurelia Sabina had travelled extensively with her parents throughout the Roman Empire. Sometime before her father died in 180 AD, Aurelia Sabina was betrothed to the African Roman Senator Lucius Antistius Burrus who came from Thibilis, a town near Hippo Regius in the Africa Province, whom she later married. When her parents died, her older brother Commodus succeeded her father as Roman Emperor in 180 AD. After Aurelia Sabina married Antistius Burrus in Rome, they returned and settled in Thibilis. In 181 AD, her husband served as an ordinary consul there. In 188 AD, Antistius Burrus was involved in a conspiracy against Commodus. He was one of various Roman Senators in this conspiracy.[1] When this conspiracy was uncovered, Antistius Burrus was put to death. Prominent Italian resident in Roman Africa[edit] Aurelia Sabina was not involved in the conspiracy and survived her brother's persecutions, remaining to live in Roman Africa. After her first husband had died, Aurelia Sabina married Lucius Aurelius Agaclytus, a Romano-Greek Freedman who was of Equestrian rank. Aurelia Sabina spent her remaining years in Thibilis. It appears from her marriages that she had no children. Due to her status; the status of her family and her connections, Aurelia Sabina became a prominent Italian resident in North Africa. According to surviving inscriptions found in Thibilis, Aurelia Sabina became an important "patrona" in Thibilis and the citizens of Thibilis made Aurelia Sabina an honorary citizen. Even the nearby Romano-berber city of Calama ([2]) was promoted to Roman colonia, while sponsored by Vibia Aurelia Sabina, sister of the Emperor Commodus. She was the official Roman Patrona of Calama.[3] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Commodus Vibia Sabina Calama References[edit] ^ Septimius conspiracy ^ "Guelma-Calama" Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Vibia, Patrona of Calama Sources[edit] From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, by Albino Garzetti, 1974 The Roman Government of Britain, by Anthony R. Birley, Oxford University Press, 2005 Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vibia_Aurelia_Sabina&oldid=1023806316" Categories: 170 births 2nd-century Roman women Aurelii Fulvi Vibii Nerva–Antonine dynasty People of Africa (Roman province) Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Español Français Italiano Polski Português Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 18 May 2021, at 13:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-712	----	Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Marcus Annius Verus (III)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Father of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Annius Verus from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum" Marcus Annius Verus (died 124 AD) was a distinguished Roman politician who lived in the 2nd century, served as a praetor and was the father of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He was the son of Roman Senator Marcus Annius Verus and noblewoman Rupilia Faustina. His brother was the consul Marcus Annius Libo and his sister was Faustina the Elder, wife of Antoninus Pius. He married Domitia Lucilla, the heiress of a wealthy family which owned a tile factory. They had two children, Marcus Aurelius (born in 121, and who was also originally named Marcus Annius Verus), and Annia Cornificia Faustina (born in 123). Annius Verus died young while he held the office of praetor.[1] Both his children were still young. The likeliest year of his death is 124.[2] In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius, who was only about 3 years old when his father died, says of him: "From what I heard of my father and my memory of him, modesty and manliness."[3] Notes[edit] ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1 ^ "His younger brother Annius Libo was consul in 128 and can hardly have been praetor later than 126. Verus must have been praetor earlier than this and 124 is the likeliest year of his death." Anthony Richard Birley, 2000, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, page 31. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i. 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Verus_(father_of_Marcus_Aurelius)&oldid=1002811902" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 124 deaths Annii Nerva–Antonine dynasty Imperial Roman praetors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Date of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Dansk Ελληνικά Estremeñu Français Italiano Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7152	----	Academic skepticism - Wikipedia Academic skepticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Academic Skepticism) Jump to navigation Jump to search The philosophical skepticism embraced by the Platonic Academy during the Hellenistic period Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Academic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of ancient Platonism dating from around 266 BC, when Arcesilaus became scholarch of the Platonic Academy, until around 90 BC, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individual philosophers, such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch, continued to defend skepticism after this date. Unlike the existing school of skepticism, the Pyrrhonists, they maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics, particularly their dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge. The most important Academics were Arcesilaus, Carneades, and Philo of Larissa. The most extensive ancient source of information about Academic skepticism is Academica, written by the Academic skeptic philosopher Cicero. Contents 1 Overview 2 Arcesilaus 3 Carneades 4 Philo of Larissa 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Overview[edit] Greek philosophical skepticism, as a distinct philosophical movement, began with Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 BC - c. 270 BC), with antecedents in Xenophanes and Democritus. His followers, the Pyrrhonists, pointed out the problem of the criterion: that our theories and our sense impressions are unable to accurately distinguish truth from falsehood; therefore we must suspend judgment (epoche).[1] They were consistent enough to extend their doubt even to their own principle of doubt, making their skepticism universal, thus escaping reproach for basing it upon a fresh dogmatism. Mental imperturbability (ataraxia) was the result to be attained by cultivating such a frame of mind.[1] Around 266 BC, Pyrrho's student Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy. He adopted skepticism as a central tenet of Platonism, making Platonism nearly the same as Pyrrhonism.[2] After Arcesilaus, the Academics diverged from Pyrrhonism.[3] This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the new Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a middle Academy. Following the death of the Pyrrhonist Timon of Phlius, the Platonic Academy became the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE.[4] While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho,[5] it grew more and more dogmatic until Aenesidemus, in the first century BCE, broke with the Academic skeptics and adopted Pyrrhonism, denouncing the Academy as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."[6] The Academics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.[7] They based this position on Plato's Phaedo,[8] in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.[9] While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academics focused on criticizing the dogmas of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the Stoics.[1] They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the sage and the fool.[7] Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academics[7] whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological. The second-century Roman historian Aulus Gellius described the distinction between the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonists as follows: "...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true."[10][11] Arcesilaus[edit] Main article: Arcesilaus Up to Arcesilaus, the Platonic Academy accepted the principle of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a principle of certainty might be found.[12] Arcesilaus, however, broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. Socrates had said, "This alone I know: that I know nothing." But Arcesilaus went further and denied the possibility of even the Socratic minimum of certainty: "I cannot know even whether I know or not."[12] The doctrines of Arcesilaus, which must be gathered from the writings of others,[13] represent an attack on the Stoic phantasia kataleptike (criterion) and are based on the skepticism which was latent in the later writings of Plato.[14] Arcesilaus held that strength of intellectual conviction cannot be regarded as valid, inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of contradictory convictions. The uncertainty of sense data applies equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content with probability which is sufficient as a practical guide. "We know nothing, not even our ignorance"; therefore the wise man will be content with an agnostic attitude.[14] Carneades[edit] Main article: Carneades Carneades of Cyrene, the most important of the Academic skeptics The next stage in Academic skepticism was the moderate skepticism of Carneades, which he said owed its existence to his opposition to Chrysippus.[12] Carneades is the most important of the Academics.[15] To the Stoic theory of perception, the phantasia kataleptike, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he proposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and the objects perceived.[12] All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not with things as they are, but only with the impressions that things produce upon us. Experience, he said, clearly shows that there is no true impression. There is no notion that may not deceive us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and true impressions; therefore the Stoic phantasia kataleptike must be given up. There is no phantasia kataleptike ("criterion") of truth. Carneades also assailed Stoic theology and physics. In answer to the doctrine of final cause, of design in nature, he pointed to those things which cause destruction and danger to man, to the evil committed by men endowed with reason, to the miserable condition of humanity, and to the misfortunes that assail the good man. There is, he concluded, no evidence for the doctrine of a divine superintending providence. Even if there were orderly connexion of parts in the universe, this may have resulted quite naturally. No proof can be advanced to show that this world is anything but the product of natural forces.[15] Knowledge being impossible, a wise man should practice epoche (suspension of judgment).[15] He will not even be sure that he can be sure of nothing. He saved himself, however, from absolute skepticism by the doctrine of plausibility, which may serve as a practical guide in life.[12] Ideas or notions are never true, but only plausible; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, leading to action. According to Carneades, an impression may be plausible in itself; plausible and uncontradicted (not distracted by synchronous sensations, but shown to be in harmony with them) when compared with others; plausible, uncontradicted, and thoroughly investigated and confirmed. In the first degree there is a strong persuasion of the propriety of the impression made; the second and third degrees are produced by comparisons of the impression with others associated with it, and an analysis of itself.[15] Carneades left no written works; his opinions seem to have been systematized by his pupil Clitomachus, whose works, which included one "on suspension of judgment," were made use of by Cicero.[16] Philo of Larissa[edit] Main article: Philo of Larissa In Philo of Larissa we find a tendency not only to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to connect it with parallel systems of thought.[12] In general, his philosophy was a reaction against the skeptic or agnostic position of the middle and new Academy in favor of the dogmatism of Plato.[17] Philo of Larissa endeavored to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato, and further that the apparent antagonism between Platonism and Stoicism was because they were arguing from different points of view. From this syncretism emerged the eclectic middle Platonism of Antiochus of Ascalon, the last product of Academic development.[12] See also[edit] Probabilism Scientific skepticism References[edit] ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Scepticism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 306–309. ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232 ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225-231 ^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient Scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention ^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. So while Pyrrho's influence is significant, it does not shape the contours of Arcesilaus' scepticism nearly as much as the influence of Plato and Socrates. ^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Aenesidemus criticized his fellow Academics for being dogmatic...Aenesidemus committed his scepticism to writing probably some time in the early-to-mid first century BCE...leading Aenesidemus to dismiss them as "Stoics fighting against Stoics." ^ a b c  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Arcesilaus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ^ Phaedo, 64–67 ^ Veres, Máté (2009). "Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung". Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107.:111 ^ Gellius, Aulus (2008). Noctes Atticae. Josef Feix (3. Dr ed.). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-14-010714-3. OCLC 635311697. ^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. ^ a b c d e f g  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Academy, Greek". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–106. ^ Cicero, Acad. i. 12, iv. 24; De Orat. iii. 18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 233 ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Arcesilaus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 342. ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Carneades". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 363–364. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Clitomachus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 531. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Philo of Larissa". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 413. External links[edit] Groarke, Leo. "Ancient Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Harold Thorsrud. "Ancient Greek Skepticism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Links to related articles v t e Skepticism Types Philosophical Moral Scientific Religious Local Radical Skeptical philosophies Academic Skepticism Arcesilaus Lacydes Carneades Clitomachus Philo of Larissa Ajñana Buddhism Cartesian Charvaka Cyrenaicism Madhyamaka Pyrrhonism Pyrrho Timon Aenesidemus Agrippa Sextus Empiricus Xenophanes Skeptical arguments Acatalepsy Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Anatta Impermanence Münchhausen trilemma Non-essentialism Problem of the criterion Problem of induction Ship of Theseus Wax argument Skeptical hypotheses Evil genius Brain in a vat Dream argument Omphalos hypothesis Simulation hypothesis Responses Here is one hand Semantic externalism Process reliabilism Epistemic closure Contextualism Relativism Lists List of books about skepticism List of scientific skeptics List of skeptical conferences List of skeptical magazines List of skeptical organizations List of skeptical podcasts v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger Theodorus the Atheist Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade Euhemerus Eretrian Phaedo of Elis Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius Megarian Euclid of Megara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Platonic Plato Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Hellenistic Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Middle Platonic Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Plutarch of Athens Hierius Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Neopythagorean Nigidius Figulus Apollonius of Tyana Moderatus of Gades Nicomachus Alexicrates Anaxilaus Bolus of Mendes Cronius Damis Numenius of Apamea Secundus the Silent Quintus Sextius Sotion Theon of Smyrna Pyrrhonist Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Hecataeus of Abdera Heraclides of Tarentum Herodotus of Tarsus Menodotus of Nicomedia Nausiphanes Sextus Empiricus Theodas of Laodicea Timon of Phlius Stoic Greek Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aratus of Soli Athenodorus of Soli Aristo of Chios Apollophanes of Antioch Dionysius the Renegade Sphaerus Herillus of Carthage Cleanthes Eratosthenes Hermagoras of Amphipolis Chrysippus Dioscorides Aristocreon Zeno of Tarsus Eudromus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Zenodotus Apollodorus of Seleucia Basilides Antipater of Tarsus Apollodorus of Athens Archedemus of Tarsus Panaetius of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Polemon of Athens Marcus Vigellius Heraclides of Tarsus Dardanus Mnesarchus Publius Rutilius Rufus Stilo Dionysius of Cyrene Quintus Lucilius Balbus Hecato of Rhodes Diotimus the Stoic Posidonius Crinis Proclus of Mallus Diodotus the Stoic Geminus of Rhodes Athenodoros Cordylion Apollonius of Tyre Cato the Younger Antipater of Tyre Porcia Apollonides Jason of Nysa Athenodoros Cananites Quintus Sextius Arius Didymus Roman Attalus Papirius Fabianus Seneca Thrasea Paetus Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Chaeremon of Alexandria Paconius Agrippinus Publius Egnatius Celer Persius Helvidius Priscus Arulenus Rusticus Musonius Rufus Fannia Euphrates the Stoic Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Flavius Arrianus Basilides Apollonius of Chalcedon Claudius Maximus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academic_skepticism&oldid=1018879982" Categories: Academic skepticism Ancient Greek epistemology Epistemology Skepticism Philosophical movements Epistemological theories Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from April 2021 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from April 2021 Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Navigation menu 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en-wikipedia-org-7146	----	Hungary - Wikipedia Hungary From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the country. For other uses, see Hungary (disambiguation). Country in Central Europe Coordinates: 47°N 20°E / 47°N 20°E / 47; 20 Hungary Magyarország  (Hungarian) Flag Coat of arms Anthem: "Himnusz" (Hungarian)[1] (English: "Hymn") Location of Hungary (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Capital and largest city Budapest 47°26′N 19°15′E / 47.433°N 19.250°E / 47.433; 19.250 Official languages Hungarian[2] Ethnic groups (microcensus 2016) 98.3% Hungarians 3.2% Romani 1.8% Germans 1% not declared[note 1][3] Religion (census 2011)[4] 54.3% Christianity —39.0% Catholicism —11.8% Protestantism —3.5% Other Christian 18.2% No religion 0.3% Others 27.2% No answer Demonym(s) Hungarian Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic • President János Áder • Prime Minister Viktor Orbán • Speaker of the National Assembly László Kövér Legislature National Assembly Foundation • Principality of Hungary 895[5] • Christian Kingdom 25 December 1000[6] • Golden Bull of 1222 24 April 1222 • Battle of Mohács 29 August 1526 • Liberation of Buda 2 September 1686 • Revolution of 1848 15 March 1848 • Austro-Hungarian Empire 30 March 1867 • Treaty of Trianon 4 June 1920 • Third Republic 23 October 1989 • Joined the European Union 1 May 2004 Area • Total 93,030[7] km2 (35,920 sq mi) (108th) • Water (%) 3.7[8] Population • 2021 estimate 9,730,000[9] (91st) • Density 105/km2 (271.9/sq mi) (78th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $316.342 billion[10] (53rd) • Per capita $32,434[10] (41st) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $149.939 billion[10] (53th) • Per capita $15,373 [10] (45th) Gini (2019)  28.0[11] low · 16th HDI (2019)  0.854[12] very high · 40th Currency Forint (HUF) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Date format yyyy.mm.dd. Driving side right Calling code +36 ISO 3166 code HU Internet TLD .hu Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] (listen)) is a landlocked country in Central Europe.[2] Spanning 93,030 square kilometres (35,920 sq mi) of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to the west. Hungary has a population of 10 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and a significant Romani minority. Hungarian, the official language, is the world's most widely spoken Uralic language, and among the few non-Indo-European languages widely spoken in Europe.[13] Budapest is the country's capital and largest city; other major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs, and Győr. The territory of present-day Hungary has for centuries been a crossroads for various peoples, including Celts, Romans, Germanic tribes, Huns, West Slavs and the Avars. The foundations of the Hungarian state were established in the late ninth century AD with the conquest of the Carpathian Basin by Hungarian grand prince Árpád.[14][15] His great-grandson Stephen I ascended the throne in 1000, converting his realm to a Christian kingdom. By the 12th century, Hungary became a regional power, reaching its cultural and political height in the 15th century.[16] Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, it was partially occupied by the Ottoman Empire (1541–1699). Hungary came under Habsburg rule at the turn of the 18th century, later joining with the Austrian Empire to form Austria-Hungary, a major power into the early 20th century.[17] Austria-Hungary collapsed after World War I, and the subsequent Treaty of Trianon established Hungary's current borders, resulting in the loss of 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, and 32% of ethnic Hungarians.[18][19][20] Following the tumultuous interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties.[21][22] Postwar Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union, leading to the establishment of the Hungarian People's Republic. Following the failed 1956 revolution, Hungary became a comparatively freer, though still repressive, member of the Eastern Bloc. The removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria accelerated the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, and subsequently the Soviet Union.[23] On 23 October 1989, Hungary became a democratic parliamentary republic.[24] Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and has been part of the Schengen Area since 2007.[25] Hungary is a middle power in international affairs, owing mostly to its cultural and economic influence.[26] It has a high-income economy and ranks "very high" in the Human Development Index, with citizens enjoying universal health care and tuition-free secondary education.[27][28] Hungary has a long history of significant contributions to arts, music, literature, sports, science and technology.[29][30][31][32] It is the thirteenth-most popular tourist destination in Europe, drawing 15.8 million international tourists in 2017.[33] It is a member of numerous international organisations, including the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, IIB, the AIIB, the Council of Europe, and the Visegrád Group.[34] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Before 895 2.2 Medieval Hungary (895–1526) 2.2.1 Age of Árpádian kings 2.2.2 Age of elected kings 2.2.3 Decline of Hungary (1490–1526) 2.3 Ottoman wars (1526–1699) 2.4 From the 18th century to World War I (1699–1918) 2.5 Between the World Wars (1918–1941) 2.6 World War II (1941–1945) 2.7 Communism (1945–1989) 2.7.1 Kádár era (1956–1988) 2.8 Third Republic (1989–present) 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 4 Government and politics 4.1 Political parties 4.2 Law and judicial system 4.3 Administrative divisions 4.4 Foreign relations 4.5 Military 5 Economy 5.1 Science and technology 5.2 Transport 6 Demographics 6.1 Urbanization 6.2 Languages 6.3 Religion 6.4 Education 6.5 Health 7 Culture 7.1 Architecture 7.2 Music 7.3 Literature 7.4 Cuisine 7.5 Recreation 7.6 Folk art 7.7 Porcelain 7.8 Sport 7.8.1 Football 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Hungary The "H" in the name of Hungary (and Latin Hungaria) is most likely due to founded historical associations with the Huns, who had settled Hungary prior to the Avars. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Byzantine Greek Oungroi (Οὔγγροι). The Greek name was borrowed from Old Bulgarian ągrinŭ, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur ('ten [tribes of the] Ogurs'). Onogur was the collective name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars.[35][36] The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar ('Hungarian') and ország ('country'). The name "Magyar", which refers to the people of the country, more accurately reflects the name of the country in some other languages such as Turkish, Persian and other languages as Magyaristan or Land of Magyars or similar. The word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri.[37][38][39] The first element magy is likely from Proto-Ugric *mäńć- 'man, person', also found in the name of the Mansi people (mäńćī, mańśi, måńś). The second element eri, 'man, men, lineage', survives in Hungarian férj 'husband', and is cognate with Mari erge 'son', Finnish archaic yrkä 'young man'.[40] History Main article: History of Hungary Before 895 This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Hungarian prehistory and Hungarian mythology Attila, king of the Huns (434/444-453) Italian fresco depicting a Hungarian warrior shooting backwards The Roman Empire conquered the territory west of the Danube River between 35 and 9 BC. From 9 BC to the end of the 4th century AD, Pannonia, the western part of the Carpathian Basin, was part of the Roman Empire. After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure, the Migration Period continued to bring many invaders into Central Europe, beginning with the Hunnic Empire (c. 370–469). The most powerful ruler of the Hunnic Empire was Attila the Hun (434–453), who later became a central figure in Hungarian mythology. After the disintegration of the Hunnic Empire, the Gepids, an Eastern Germanic tribe, who had been vassalized by the Huns, established their own kingdom in the Carpathian Basin. Other groups which reached the Carpathian Basin in the Migration Period were the Goths, Vandals, Lombards, and Slavs. In the 560s, the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state that maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries. The Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Avars in a series of campaigns during the 790s. By the mid-9th century, the Balaton Principality, also known as Lower Pannonia, was established west of the Danube river as part of the Frankish March of Pannonia. The First Bulgarian Empire conquered the lands east of the Danube river and took over the rule of the local Slavic tribes and remnants of the Avars. Medieval Hungary (895–1526) Main articles: Principality of Hungary and Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages Hungarian Conquest (of the Carpathian Basin) - painting by Mihály Munkácsy Hungarian raids in the 10th century The freshly unified Hungarians[41] led by Árpád (by tradition a descendant of Attila), settled in the Carpathian Basin starting in 895.[42][43] According to the Finno-Ugrian theory, they originated from an ancient Uralic-speaking population that formerly inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains.[44] As a federation of united tribes, Hungary was established in 895, some 50 years after the division of the Carolingian Empire at the Treaty of Verdun in 843, before the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Initially, the rising Principality of Hungary ("Western Tourkia" in medieval Greek sources)[45] was a state created by a semi-nomadic people. It accomplished an enormous transformation into a Christian realm during the 10th century.[46] This state was well-functioning, and the nation's military power allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns and raids, from Constantinople to as far as today's Spain.[46] The Hungarians defeated no fewer than three major East Frankish imperial armies between 907 and 910.[47] A later defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled a provisory end to most campaigns on foreign territories, at least towards the West. Age of Árpádian kings Main article: Árpád dynasty King Saint Stephen, the first King of Hungary, converted the nation to Christianity. The year 972 marked the date when the ruling prince (Hungarian: fejedelem) Géza of the Árpád dynasty officially started to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe.[48] His first-born son, Saint Stephen I, became the first King of Hungary after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány, who also claimed the throne. Under Stephen, Hungary was recognised as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom.[49] Applying to Pope Sylvester II, Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including probably a part of the Holy Crown of Hungary, currently kept in the Hungarian Parliament) from the papacy. By 1006, Stephen consolidated his power, and started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a Western feudal state. The country switched to using the Latin language, and until as late as 1844, Latin remained the official language of Hungary. Around this time, Hungary began to become a powerful kingdom.[50] Ladislaus I extended Hungary's frontier in Transylvania and invaded Croatia in 1091.[51][52][53][54] The Croatian campaign culminated in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain in 1097 and a personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, ruled by Coloman i.e. Könyves Kálmán.[55] The Holy Crown (Szent Korona), one of the key symbols of Hungary Jesus Christ, the Pantocrator on the Holy Crown of Hungary. Hungary is traditionally a Christian country. The most powerful and wealthiest king of the Árpád dynasty was Béla III, who disposed of the equivalent of 23 tonnes of pure silver a year. This exceeded the income of the French king (estimated at 17 tonnes) and was double the receipts of the English Crown.[56] Andrew II issued the Diploma Andreanum which secured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and is considered the first Autonomy law in the world.[57] He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217, setting up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades. His Golden Bull of 1222 was the first constitution in Continental Europe. The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament (parlamentum publicum). In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) invasion. Up to half of Hungary's then population of 2,000,000 were victims of the invasion.[58] King Béla IV let Cumans and Jassic people into the country, who were fleeing the Mongols.[59] Over the centuries, they were fully assimilated into the Hungarian population.[60] As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols returned to Hungary in 1285, but the newly built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force was defeated[61] near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. As with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force. Age of elected kings Main article: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars A map of lands ruled by Louis the Great The Kingdom of Hungary reached one of its greatest extents during the Árpádian kings, yet royal power was weakened at the end of their rule in 1301. After a destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary – a bilineal descendant of the Árpád dynasty – successfully restored royal power, and defeated oligarch rivals, the so-called "little kings". The second Angevin Hungarian king, Louis the Great (1342–1382), led many successful military campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy (Kingdom of Naples), and was also King of Poland from 1370. After King Louis died without a male heir, the country was stabilized only when Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387–1437) succeeded to the throne, who in 1433 also became Holy Roman Emperor. Sigismund was also (in several ways) a bilineal descendant of the Árpád dynasty. Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For half a year in 1437, there was an antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania, the Budai Nagy Antal Revolt, which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords, thanks to his outstanding capabilities as a mercenary commander. He was elected governor then regent. He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks, one of his greatest victories being the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. The last strong king of medieval Hungary was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), son of John Hunyadi. His election was the first time that a member of the nobility mounted to the Hungarian royal throne without dynastic background. He was a successful military leader and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning.[62] His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library. Items from the Bibliotheca Corviniana were inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005.[63] The serfs and common people considered him a just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates.[64] Under his rule, in 1479, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. Abroad he defeated the Polish and German imperial armies of Frederick at Breslau (Wrocław). Matthias' mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary, was an unusually large army for its time, and it conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485), and parts of Bohemia. Decline of Hungary (1490–1526) King Matthias died without lawful sons, and the Hungarian magnates procured the accession of the Pole Vladislaus II (1490–1516), supposedly because of his weak influence on Hungarian aristocracy.[62] Hungary's international role declined, its political stability shaken, and social progress was deadlocked.[65] In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa, which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles, led by John Zápolya. The resulting degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman pre-eminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (today's Belgrade, Serbia), fell to the Turks. The early appearance of Protestantism further worsened internal relations in the country. Ottoman wars (1526–1699) Main articles: Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867), Ottoman Hungary, Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), and Ottoman–Habsburg wars Painting commemorating the Siege of Eger, a major victory against the Ottomans After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, where King Louis II died while fleeing. Amid political chaos, the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, John Zápolya and Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty. With the conquest of Buda by the Turks in 1541, Hungary was divided into three parts and remained so until the end of the 17th century. The north-western part, termed as Royal Hungary, was annexed by the Habsburgs who ruled as Kings of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom became independent as the Principality of Transylvania, under Ottoman (and later Habsburg) suzerainty. The remaining central area, including the capital Buda, was known as the Pashalik of Buda. The vast majority of the seventeen and nineteen thousand Ottoman soldiers in service in the Ottoman fortresses in the territory of Hungary were Orthodox and Muslim Balkan Slavs rather than ethnic Turkish people.[66] Orthodox Southern Slavs were also acting as akinjis and other light troops intended for pillaging in the territory of present-day Hungary.[67] In 1686, the Holy League's army, containing over 74,000 men from various nations, reconquered Buda from the Turks. After some more crushing defeats of the Ottomans in the next few years, the entire Kingdom of Hungary was removed from Ottoman rule by 1718. The last raid into Hungary by the Ottoman vassals Tatars from Crimea took place in 1717.[68] The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. The ethnic composition of Hungary was fundamentally changed as a consequence of the prolonged warfare with the Turks. A large part of the country became devastated, population growth was stunted, and many smaller settlements perished.[69] The Austrian-Habsburg government settled large groups of Serbs and other Slavs in the depopulated south, and settled Germans (called Danube Swabians) in various areas, but Hungarians were not allowed to settle or re-settle in the south of the Great Plain.[70] From the 18th century to World War I (1699–1918) Main articles: Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Austria-Hungary, Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, and Hungary in World War I Francis II Rákóczi, leader of the uprising against Habsburg rule in 1703–11 Count István Széchenyi offered one year's income to establish the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Lajos Kossuth, Regent-President during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen consisted of the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary (16) and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (17). Between 1703 and 1711, there was a large-scale uprising led by Francis II Rákóczi, who after the dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónod, took power provisionally as the Ruling Prince of Hungary for the wartime period, but refused the Hungarian Crown and the title "King". The uprisings lasted for years. The Hungarian Kuruc army, although taking over most of the country, lost the main battle at Trencsén (1708). Three years later, because of the growing desertion, defeatism and low morale, the Kuruc forces finally surrendered.[71] During the Napoleonic Wars and afterward, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades.[72] In the 1820s, the Emperor was forced to convene the Diet, which marked the beginning of a Reform Period (1825–1848, Hungarian: reformkor). Count István Széchenyi, one of the most prominent statesmen of the country, recognised the urgent need for modernisation and his message got through. The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged and focused on providing for the peasantry. Lajos Kossuth – a famous journalist at that time – emerged as a leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernisation even though the Habsburg monarchs obstructed all important liberal laws relating to civil and political rights and economic reforms. Many reformers (Lajos Kossuth, Mihály Táncsics) were imprisoned by the authorities. 5 July 1848: The opening ceremony of the first parliament, which was based on popular representation. The members of the first responsible government are on the balcony. On 15 March 1848, mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through a list of 12 demands. Under governor and president Lajos Kossuth and the first Prime Minister, Lajos Batthyány, the House of Habsburg was dethroned. The Habsburg Ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, and induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government, though the Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of the Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers.[73] In July 1849 the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws of ethnic and minority rights in the world.[74] Many members of the nationalities gained the coveted highest positions within the Hungarian Army, like General János Damjanich, an ethnic Serb who became a Hungarian national hero through his command of the 3rd Hungarian Army Corps or Józef Bem, who was Polish and also became a national hero in Hungary. The Hungarian forces (Honvédség) defeated Austrian armies. To counter the successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph I asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe", Tsar Nicholas I, whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. This made Artúr Görgey surrender in August 1849. The leader of the Austrian army, Julius Jacob von Haynau, became governor of Hungary for a few months and ordered the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad, leaders of the Hungarian army, and Prime Minister Batthyány in October 1849. Lajos Kossuth escaped into exile. Following the war of 1848 – 1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Coronation of Francis Joseph I and Elisabeth Amalie at Matthias Church, Buda, 8 June 1867. Because of external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable, and major military defeats of Austria forced the Habsburgs to negotiate the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, by which the dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was formed. This Empire had the second largest area in Europe (after the Russian Empire), and it was the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire). The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capital cities, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph I was crowned as King of Hungary. The era witnessed impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialised by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained dominant until 1890. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda were officially united with Pest,[75] thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. After the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, the Hungarian prime minister István Tisza and his cabinet tried to avoid the outbreak and escalating of a war in Europe, but their diplomatic efforts were unsuccessful. Austria-Hungary drafted 9 million (fighting forces: 7.8 million) soldiers in World War I (over 4 million from the Kingdom of Hungary) on the side of Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The troops raised in the Kingdom of Hungary spent little time defending the actual territory of Hungary, with the exceptions of the Brusilov Offensive in June 1916, and a few months later, when the Romanian army made an attack into Transylvania,[76][self-published source?] both of which were repelled. In comparison, of the total army, Hungary's loss ratio was more than any other nation of Austria-Hungary. The Central Powers conquered Serbia. Romania declared war. The Central Powers conquered Southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest. In 1916 Emperor Franz Joseph died, and the new monarch Charles IV sympathized with the pacifists. With great difficulty, the Central powers stopped and repelled the attacks of the Russian Empire. Hungarian-built dreadnought battleship SMS Szent István in World War I The Eastern front of the Allied (Entente) Powers completely collapsed. The Austro-Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries. On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian army made no progress against Italy after January 1918. Despite great Eastern successes, Germany suffered complete defeat on the more important Western front. By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organised by leftist and pacifist movements) and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. In the capital cities, the Austrian and Hungarian leftist liberal movements (the maverick parties) and their leaders supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918.[77] In October 1918, Hungary's union with Austria was dissolved. Between the World Wars (1918–1941) Main articles: Hungary between the World Wars and Hungarian interwar economy With the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost 72% of its territory, its sea ports and 3,425,000 ethnic Hungarians[78][79]  Majority Hungarian areas (according to the 1910 census) detached from Hungary Following the First World War, Hungary underwent a period of profound political upheaval, beginning with the Aster Revolution in 1918, which brought the social-democratic Mihály Károlyi to power as Prime Minister. The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers[80][81] when Mihály Károlyi was announced as prime minister of Hungary. Károlyi yielded to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's demand for pacifism by ordering the disarmament of the Hungarian army. This happened under the direction of Béla Linder, minister of war in the Károlyi government.[82][83] Due to the full disarmament of its army, Hungary was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost control over approx. 75% of its former pre-WW1 territories (325 411 km2) without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation. The Little Entente, sensing an opportunity, invaded the country from three sides—Romania invaded Transylvania, Czechoslovakia annexed Upper Hungary (today's Slovakia), and a joint Serb-French coalition annexed Vojvodina and other southern regions. In March 1919, communists led by Béla Kun ousted the Károlyi government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic (Tanácsköztársaság), followed by a thorough Red Terror campaign. Despite some successes on the Czechoslovak front, Kun's forces were ultimately unable to resist the Romanian invasion; by August 1919, Romanian troops occupied Budapest and ousted Kun. Miklós Horthy, Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1944) In November 1919, rightist forces led by former Austro-Hungarian admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest; exhausted by the war and its aftermath, the populace accepted Horthy's leadership. In January 1920, parliamentary elections were held and Horthy was proclaimed Regent of the reestablished Kingdom of Hungary, inaugurating the so-called "Horthy era" (Horthy-kor). The new government worked quickly to normalize foreign relations while turning a blind eye to a White Terror that swept through the countryside; extrajudicial killings of suspected communists and Jews lasted well into 1920. On 4 June of that year, the Treaty of Trianon established new borders for Hungary. The country lost 71% of its territory and 66% of its antebellum population, as well as many sources of raw materials and its sole port, Fiume.[84][85] Though the revision of the Treaty quickly rose to the top of the national political agenda, the Horthy government was not willing to resort to military intervention to do so. The initial years of the Horthy regime were preoccupied with putsch attempts by Charles IV, the Austro-Hungarian pretender; continued suppression of communists; and a migration crisis triggered by the Trianon territorial changes. Though free elections continued, Horthy's personality, and those of his personally selected prime ministers, dominated the political scene. The government's actions continued to drift right with the passage of antisemitic laws and, due to the continued isolation of the Little Entente, economic and then political gravitation towards Italy and Germany. The Great Depression further exacerbated the situation and the popularity of fascist politicians such as Gyula Gömbös and Ferenc Szálasi, promising economic and social recovery, rose. Horthy's nationalist agenda reached its apogee in 1938 and 1940, when the Nazis rewarded Hungary's staunchly pro-Germany foreign policy in the First and Second Vienna Awards, respectively, peacefully restoring ethnic-Hungarian-majority areas lost after Trianon. In 1939, Hungary regained further territory from Czechoslovakia through force. Hungary formally joined the Axis Powers on 20 November 1940, and in 1941, participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some of its former territories in the south. World War II (1941–1945) Main articles: Hungary during World War II, Holocaust in Hungary, and Soviet occupation of Hungary Kingdom of Hungary, 1941–44 Hungary formally entered World War II as an Axis Power on 26 June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union after unidentified planes bombed Kassa, Munkács, and Rahó. Hungarian troops fought on the Eastern Front for two years. Despite some early successes,[86] the Hungarian government began seeking a secret peace pact with the Allies after the Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at the River Don in January 1943. Learning of the planned defection, German troops occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944 to guarantee Horthy's compliance. In October, as the Soviet front approached and the Hungarian government made further efforts to disengage from the war, German troops ousted Horthy and installed a puppet government under Szálasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party.[86] Szálasi pledged all the country's capabilities in service of the German war machine. By October 1944, the Soviets had reached the river Tisza, and despite some losses, succeeded in encircling and besieging Budapest in December. Jewish women being arrested on Wesselényi Street in Budapest during the Holocaust, c. 20–22 October 1944 After German occupation, Hungary participated in the Holocaust.[87][88] During the German occupation in May–June 1944, the Arrow Cross and Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews, mainly to Auschwitz. Nearly all of them were murdered.[89][90] The Swedish Diplomat Raoul Wallenberg managed to save a considerable number of Hungarian Jews by giving them Swedish passports.[91] Rezső Kasztner, one of the leaders of the Hungarian Aid and Rescue Committee, bribed senior SS officers such as Adolf Eichmann to allow some Jews to escape.[92][93][94] The Horthy government's complicity in the Holocaust remains a point of controversy and contention. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge and the Buda Castle in ruins after World War II (1946) The war left Hungary devastated, destroying over 60% of the economy and causing significant loss of life. In addition to the over 600,000 Hungarian Jews killed,[95] as many as 280,000[96][97] other Hungarians were raped, murdered and executed or deported for slave labour by Czechoslovaks,[98][99][100][101][102][103] Soviet Red Army troops,[104][105][106] and Yugoslavs.[107] On 13 February 1945, Budapest surrendered; by April, German troops left the country under Soviet military occupation. 200,000 Hungarians were expelled from Czechoslovakia in exchange for 70,000 Slovaks living in Hungary. 202,000 ethnic Germans were expelled to Germany,[108] and through the 1947 Paris Peace Treaties, Hungary was again reduced to its immediate post-Trianon borders. Communism (1945–1989) Main articles: Hungarian Republic (1946–49), Hungarian People's Republic, and Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to front the Stalinization of the country, and Rákosi de facto ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956. His government's policies of militarization, industrialisation, collectivization, and war compensation led to a severe decline in living standards. In imitation of Stalin's KGB, the Rákosi government established a secret political police, the ÁVH, to enforce the new regime. In the ensuing purges, approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were imprisoned or executed from 1948 to 1956.[109] Many freethinkers, democrats, and Horthy-era dignitaries were secretly arrested and extrajudicially interned in domestic and foreign Gulags. Some 600,000 Hungarians were deported to Soviet labour camps, where at least 200,000 died.[110] A destroyed Soviet tank in Budapest during the 1956 Revolution; Time's Man of the Year for 1956 was the Hungarian Freedom Fighter[111] After Stalin's death in 1953, the Soviet Union pursued a programme of destalinization that was inimical to Rákosi, leading to his deposition. The following political cooling saw the ascent of Imre Nagy to the premiership and the growing interest of students and intellectuals in political life. Nagy promised market liberalization and political openness, while Rákosi opposed both vigorously. Rákosi eventually managed to discredit Nagy and replace him with the more hard-line Ernő Gerő. Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, as societal dissatisfaction with the regime swelled. Following the firing on peaceful demonstrations by Soviet soldiers and secret police, and rallies throughout the country on 23 October 1956, protesters took to the streets in Budapest, initiating the 1956 Revolution. In an effort to quell the chaos, Nagy returned as premier, promised free elections, and took Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact. The violence nonetheless continued as revolutionary militias sprung up against the Soviet Army and the ÁVH; the roughly 3,000-strong resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails and machine-pistols. Though the preponderance of the Soviets was immense, they suffered heavy losses, and by 30 October 1956, most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrison the countryside. For a time, the Soviet leadership was unsure how to respond to developments in Hungary but eventually decided to intervene to prevent a destabilization of the Soviet bloc. On 4 November, reinforcements of more than 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks entered the country from the Soviet Union.[112] Nearly 20,000 Hungarians were killed resisting the intervention, while an additional 21,600 were imprisoned afterward for political reasons. Some 13,000 were interned and 230 brought to trial and executed. Nagy was secretly tried, found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed by hanging in June 1958. Because borders were briefly opened, nearly a quarter of a million people fled the country by the time the revolution was suppressed.[113] Kádár era (1956–1988) See also: Goulash Communism János Kádár, General Secretary of MSZMP, the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (1956–1988) After a second, briefer period of Soviet military occupation, János Kádár, Nagy's former Minister of State, was chosen by the Soviet leadership to head the new government and chair the new ruling Socialist Workers' Party (MSzMP). Kádár quickly normalized the situation. In 1963, the government granted a general amnesty and released the majority of those imprisoned for their active participation in the uprising. Kádár proclaimed a new policy line, according to which the people were no longer compelled to profess loyalty to the party if they tacitly accepted the Socialist regime as a fact of life. In many speeches, he described this as, "Those who are not against us are with us." Kádár introduced new planning priorities in the economy, such as allowing farmers significant plots of private land within the collective farm system (háztáji gazdálkodás). The living standard rose as consumer goods and food production took precedence over military production, which was reduced to one-tenth of pre-revolutionary levels. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism (NEM) introduced free-market elements into the socialist command economy. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern bloc. During the latter part of the Cold War Hungary's GDP per capita was fourth only to East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union itself.[114] As a result of this relatively high standard of living, a more liberalized economy, a less censored press, and less restricted travel rights, Hungary was generally considered one of the more liberal countries in which to live in Central Europe during communism. In the 1980s, however, living standards steeply declined again due to a worldwide recession to which communism was unable to respond.[115] By the time Kádár died in 1989, the Soviet Union was in steep decline and a younger generation of reformists saw liberalization as the solution to economic and social issues. Third Republic (1989–present) See also: Revolutions of 1989 and 2006 protests in Hungary The Visegrád Group signing ceremony in February 1991 Hungary's transition from communism to democracy and capitalism (rendszerváltás, "regime change") was peaceful and prompted by economic stagnation, domestic political pressure, and changing relations with other Warsaw Pact countries. Although the MSzMP began Round Table Talks with various opposition groups in March 1989, the reburial of Imre Nagy as a revolutionary martyr that June is widely considered the symbolic end of communism in Hungary. Over 100,000 people attended the Budapest ceremony without any significant government interference, and many speakers openly called for Soviet troops to leave the country. Free elections were held in May 1990, and the Hungarian Democratic Forum, a major conservative opposition group, was elected to the head of a coalition government. József Antall became the first democratically elected Prime Minister since World War II. With the removal of state subsidies and rapid privatization in 1991, Hungary was affected by a severe economic recession. The Antall government's austerity measures proved unpopular, and the Communist Party's legal and political heir, the Socialist Party, won the subsequent 1994 elections. This abrupt shift in the political landscape was repeated in 1998 and 2002; each electoral cycle, the governing party was ousted and the erstwhile opposition elected. Like most other post-communist European states, however, Hungary broadly pursued an integrationist agenda, joining NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. As a NATO member, Hungary was involved in the Yugoslav Wars. In 2006, major protests erupted after it was revealed that Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány had claimed in a private speech that his party "lied" to win the recent elections. The popularity of left-wing parties plummeted in the ensuing political upheaval, and in 2010, Viktor Orbán's national-conservative Fidesz was elected to a parliamentary supermajority. The legislature consequently approved a new constitution, among other sweeping governmental and legal changes. Although these developments were met with and still engender controversy, Fidesz secured a second parliamentary supermajority in 2014 and a third in 2018.[116] In September 2018, the European parliament voted to act against Hungary, under the terms of Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union. Proponents of the vote claimed that the Hungarian government posed a "systematic threat" to democracy and the rule of law. The vote was carried with the support of 448 MEPs, narrowly clearing the two-thirds majority required. The vote marked the first the European parliament had triggered an article 7 procedure against an EU member state. Péter Szijjártó, the Hungarian foreign minister, described the vote as "petty revenge" which had been provoked by Hungary's tough anti-migration policies. Szijjártó alleged that the vote was fraudulent because abstentions were not counted which made it easier to reach the two-thirds majority required to pass the vote.[117] At the European elections in May 2019, Viktor Orbán's Fidesz Party secured another a sweeping victory, receiving more than 50% of the votes.[118] In October 2019, the opposition won mayoral election in capital Budapest, meaning prime minister Orbán and the Fidesz-KDNP governing coalition got first major electoral blow since 2006.[119][120] In March 2020, during the ongoing coronavirus pandemic, the Hungarian parliament passed a law granting the Government the power to rule by decree to the extent it is necessary to diminish the consequences of the pandemic, suspending by-elections and outlawing the "spreading of misinformation"[clarification needed]. The Government's special authorisation is in force until the pandemic is declared to have ended.[121][122][123][124][125][126][127][128] The law granting the Government the power to rule by decree was lifted on 16 June 2020, as the emergency situation concerning the pandemic had ended.[129] Geography Main article: Geography of Hungary See also: List of national parks of Hungary A flock of Racka sheep in the Fertő-Hanság National Park Hungary's geography has traditionally been defined by its two main waterways, the Danube and Tisza rivers. The common tripartite division of the country into three sections—Dunántúl ("beyond the Danube", Transdanubia), Tiszántúl ("beyond the Tisza"), and Duna-Tisza köze ("between the Danube and Tisza")—is a reflection of this. The Danube flows north–south right through the centre of contemporary Hungary, and the entire country lies within its drainage basin. Transdanubia, which stretches westward from the centre of the country towards Austria, is a primarily hilly region with a terrain varied by low mountains. These include the very eastern stretch of the Alps, Alpokalja, in the west of the country, the Transdanubian Mountains in the central region of Transdanubia, and the Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south. The highest point of the area is the Írott-kő in the Alps, at 882 metres (2,894 ft). The Little Hungarian Plain (Kisalföld) is found in northern Transdanubia. Lake Balaton and Lake Hévíz, the largest lake in Central Europe and the largest thermal lake in the world, respectively, are in Transdanubia as well. The Duna-Tisza köze and Tiszántúl are characterised mainly by the Great Hungarian Plain (Alföld), which stretches across most of the eastern and southeastern areas of the country. To the north of the Plain are the foothills of the Carpathians in a wide band near the Slovakian border. The Kékes at 1,014 m or 3,327 ft is the tallest mountain in Hungary and is found here. Phytogeographically, Hungary belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Hungary belongs to the terrestrial ecoregion of Pannonian mixed forests.[130] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.25/10, ranking it 156th globally out of 172 countries.[131] Hungary has 10 national parks, 145 minor nature reserves, and 35 landscape protection areas. Hungary is a landlocked country. Climate Hungary has a temperate seasonal climate,[132][133] with generally warm summers with low overall humidity levels but frequent rainshowers and cold snowy winters. Average annual temperature is 9.7 °C (49.5 °F). Temperature extremes are 41.9 °C (107.4 °F) on 20 July 2007 at Kiskunhalas in the summer and −35 °C (−31.0 °F) on 16 February 1940 Miskolc-Görömbölytapolca in the winter. Average high temperature in the summer is 23 to 28 °C (73 to 82 °F) and average low temperature in the winter is −3 to −7 °C (27 to 19 °F). The average yearly rainfall is approximately 600 mm (23.6 in). Hungary is ranked sixth in an environmental protection index by GW/CAN.[134] Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Hungary, Government of Hungary, and Taxation in Hungary János Áder, President since 2012 Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister since 2010 Hungary is a unitary, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The Hungarian political system operates under a framework reformed in 2012; this constitutional document is the Fundamental Law of Hungary. Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution (as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the state structure, and the rule of law) are valid in perpetuity. 199 Members of Parliament (országgyűlési képviselő) are elected to the highest organ of state authority, the unicameral Országgyűlés (National Assembly), every four years in a single-round first-past-the-post election with an election threshold of 5%. Sándor Palace is the official residence of the President of Hungary Hungarian Parliament Building on the bank of the Danube in Budapest The President of the Republic (köztársasági elnök) serves as the head of state and is elected by the National Assembly every five years. The president is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers: receiving foreign heads of state, formally nominating the Prime Minister at the recommendation of the National Assembly, and serving as Commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Importantly, the president is also invested with veto power and may send legislation to the 15-member Constitutional Court for review. The third most significant governmental position in Hungary is the Speaker of the National Assembly, who is elected by the National Assembly and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The Prime Minister (miniszterelnök) is elected by the National Assembly, serving as the head of government and exercising executive power. Traditionally, the Prime Minister is the leader of the largest party in parliament. The Prime Minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them, although cabinet nominees must appear before consultative open hearings before one or more parliamentary committees, survive a vote in the National Assembly, and be formally approved by the president. The cabinet reports to parliament. In 2009 Hungary, due to strong economic difficulties, had to request the help of the IMF for about €9 billion.[135] The debt-to-GDP ratio of Hungary had its peak in 2011 when it stood at 83% and decreased since then. According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Hungary amounts to 25.119 billion HUF or 74.1% of its GDP in 2016.[136] The government achieved a budget deficit 1.9% of the GDP in 2015.[137] Hungary's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings stands at Investment Grade BBB with a stable outlook in 2016. On Transparency International's 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index Hungary's public sector has deteriorated from a score of 51 in 2015 to 44 in 2019 making it the 2nd most corrupt EU member at pair with Romania and behind Bulgaria.[138] Following a decade of Fidesz-KDNP rule lead by Viktor Orbán, Freedom House's Nations in Transit 2020 report reclassified Hungary from a democracy to a transitional or hybrid regime. According to the report, "the right-wing alliance... has gradually undermined the rule of law in Hungary and established tight control over the country’s independent institutions... [it] has steadily rewritten the Hungarian constitution, and eliminated democratic safeguards statutorily embodied in the Constitutional Court, Prosecutors Office, Media Authority, and State Audit Office...". It also limited parliamentary oversight, independent media, non-governmental organizations and academics, while consolidating power around the central government.[139] Political parties Main articles: Political parties in Hungary and Elections in Hungary Current Structure of the National Assembly of Hungary Structure Seats 199 Political groups Government (133)   Fidesz (116)   KDNP (17) Supported by (1)   German minority (1) Opposition (65)   MSZP-Dialogue group   MSZP (15)   Dialogue (5)   Jobbik (17)   DK (9)   Greens (6)   Independents (13) Since the fall of communism, Hungary has a multi-party system. The last Hungarian parliamentary election took place on 8 April 2018.[140] This parliamentary election was the 7th since the 1990 first multi-party election. The result was a victory for Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority with Viktor Orbán remaining Prime Minister.[141] It was the second election according to the new Constitution of Hungary which went into force on 1 January 2012. The new electoral law also entered into force that day. The voters elected 199 MPs instead of previous 386 lawmakers.[142][143] The current political landscape in Hungary is dominated by the conservative Fidesz, who have a near supermajority, and two medium-sized parties, the left-wing Democratic Coalition (DK) and liberal Momentum. The democratic character of the Hungarian parliament was reestablished with the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of communist dictatorship in 1989. Today's parliament is still called Országgyűlés just like in royal times, but in order to differentiate between the historical royal diet is referred to as the "National Assembly" now. The Diet of Hungary was a legislative institution in the medieval kingdom of Hungary from the 1290s,[144][145] and in its successor states, Royal Hungary and the Habsburg kingdom of Hungary throughout the Early Modern period. The articles of the 1790 diet set out that the diet should meet at least once every 3 years, but, since the diet was called by the Habsburg monarchy, this promise was not kept on several occasions thereafter. As a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, it was reconstituted in 1867. The Latin term Natio Hungarica ("Hungarian nation") was used to designate the political elite which had participation in the diet, consisting of the nobility, the Catholic clergy, and a few enfranchised burghers,[146][147] regardless of language or ethnicity.[148] Law and judicial system Main articles: Law of Hungary and Law enforcement in Hungary The original and the future seat of The Curia, the highest court in Hungary The judicial system of Hungary is a civil law system divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between individuals and the public administration. Hungarian law is codified and based on German law and in a wider sense, civil law or Roman law. The court system for civil and criminal jurisdiction consists of local courts (járásbíróság), regional appellate courts (ítélőtábla), and the supreme court (Kúria). Hungary's highest courts are located in Budapest.[149] Law enforcement in Hungary is split among the police and the National Tax and Customs Administration. The Hungarian Police is the main and largest state law enforcement agency in Hungary. It carries nearly all general police duties such as criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing, border control. It is led by the National Police Commissioner under the control of the Minister of the Interior. The body is divided into county police departments which are also divided into regional and town police departments. The National Police also have subordinate agencies with nationwide jurisdiction, such as the "Nemzeti Nyomozó Iroda" (National Bureau of Investigation), a civilian police force specialised in investigating serious crimes, and the gendarmerie-like, militarised "Készenléti Rendőrség" (Stand-by Police) mainly dealing with riots and often reinforcing local police forces. Due to Hungary's accession to the Schengen Treaty, the Police and Border Guards were merged into a single national corps, with the Border Guards becoming Police Officers. This merger took place in January 2008. The Customs and Excise Authority remained subject to the Ministry of Finance under the National Tax and Customs Administration.[150] Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of Hungary Hungary is a unitary state nation divided into 19 counties (megye). In addition, the capital (főváros), Budapest, is an independent entity. The counties and the capital are the 20 NUTS third-level units of Hungary. The states are further subdivided into 174 districts (járás) as of 1 January 2013[update].[151] The districts are further divided into towns and villages, of which 23 are designated towns with county rights (megyei jogú város), sometimes known as "urban counties" in English. The local authorities of these towns have extended powers, but these towns belong to the territory of the respective district instead of being independent territorial units. County and district councils and municipalities have different roles and separate responsibilities relating to local government. The role of the counties are basically administrative and focus on strategic development, while preschools, public water utilities, garbage disposal, elderly care, and rescue services are administered by the municipalities. Since 1996, the counties and City of Budapest have been grouped into seven regions for statistical and development purposes. These seven regions constitute NUTS' second-level units of Hungary. They are Central Hungary, Central Transdanubia, Northern Great Plain, Northern Hungary, Southern Transdanubia, Southern Great Plain, and Western Transdanubia. County (megye) Administrative centre Population Region Bács-Kiskun Kecskemét 524,841 Southern Great Plain Baranya Pécs 391,455 Southern Transdanubia Békés Békéscsaba 361,802 Southern Great Plain Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén Miskolc 684,793 Northern Hungary Capital City of Budapest Budapest 1,744,665 Central Hungary Csongrád-Csanád Szeged 421,827 Southern Great Plain Fejér Székesfehérvár 426,120 Central Transdanubia Győr-Moson-Sopron Győr 449,967 Western Transdanubia Hajdú-Bihar Debrecen 565,674 Northern Great Plain Heves Eger 307,985 Northern Hungary Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Szolnok 386,752 Northern Great Plain Komárom-Esztergom Tatabánya 311,411 Central Transdanubia Nógrád Salgótarján 201,919 Northern Hungary Pest Budapest 1,237,561 Central Hungary Somogy Kaposvár 317,947 Southern Transdanubia Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg Nyíregyháza 552,000 Northern Great Plain Tolna Szekszárd 231,183 Southern Transdanubia Vas Szombathely 257,688 Western Transdanubia Veszprém Veszprém 353,068 Central Transdanubia Zala Zalaegerszeg 287,043 Western Transdanubia Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Hungary Meeting of Visegrád Group leaders, plus Germany and France in 2013 United Nations conference in the assembly hall of House of Magnates in the Hungarian Parliament The foreign policy of Hungary is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law.[citation needed] The Hungarian economy is fairly open[clarification needed] and relies strongly on international trade.[citation needed] Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955 and a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, the WTO, the World Bank, the AIIB and the IMF. Hungary took on the presidency of the Council of the European Union for half a year in 2011 and the next will be in 2024. In 2015, Hungary was the fifth largest OECD Non-DAC donor of development aid in the world, which represents 0.13% of its Gross National Income. Hungary's capital city, Budapest, is home to more than 100 embassies and representative bodies as an international political actor.[152] Hungary hosts the main and regional headquarters of many international organisations as well, including European Institute of Innovation and Technology, European Police College, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Centre for Democratic Transition, Institute of International Education, International Labour Organization, International Organization for Migration, International Red Cross, Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, Danube Commission and others.[153] Since 1989, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organisations. Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace programme in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia. Hungary since 1989 has also improved its often frosty neighbourly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Romania, Slovakia, and Serbia periodically cause bilateral tensions to flare up. Since 2017, the relations with Ukraine rapidly deteriorated over the issue of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine.[154] Hungary since 1989 has signed all of the OSCE documents, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Military Main article: Hungarian Defence Force The President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces. The Ministry of Defence jointly with Chief of staff administers the armed forces, including the Hungarian Ground Force and the Hungarian Air Force. Since 2007, the Hungarian Armed Forces has been under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains political and civil control over the army. A subordinate Joint Forces Command coordinates and commands the HDF. In 2016, the armed forces had 31,080 personnel on active duty, the operative reserve brought the total number of troops to fifty thousand. In 2016, it was planned that military spending the following year would be $1.21 billion, about 0.94% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%. In 2012, the government adopted a resolution in which it pledged to increase defence spending to 1.4% of GDP by 2022.[155] HDF 34th Special Forces Battalion JAS 39 Gripen multirole combat aircraft Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime. In a significant move for modernisation, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft for about 800 million EUR. Hungarian National Cyber Security Center was re-organised in 2016 in order to become more efficient through cyber security.[156] In 2016, the Hungarian military had about 700 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including 100 HDF troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan, 210 Hungarian soldiers in Kosovo under command of KFOR, and 160 troops in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hungary sent a 300-strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war.[citation needed] Economy Main article: Economy of Hungary Hungary is part of the European Union's internal market with 508 million consumers and part of Schengen Area Hungary's Export Treemap from Harvard Economic Complexity Observatory Hungary is an OECD high-income mixed economy with very high human development index and skilled labour force with the 16th lowest income inequality in the world.[157] Furthermore, it is the 9th most complex economy according to the Economic Complexity Index.[158] The Hungarian is the 57th-largest economy in the world (out of 188 countries measured by IMF) with $265.037 billion output,[159] and ranks 49th in the world in terms of GDP per capita measured by purchasing power parity. Hungary is an export-oriented market economy with a heavy emphasis on foreign trade, thus the country is the 36th largest export economy in the world. The country has more than $100 billion export in 2015 with high, $9.003 billion trade surplus, of which 79% went to the EU and 21% was extra-EU trade.[160] Hungary has a more than 80% privately owned economy with 39,1% overall taxation, which provides the basis for the country's welfare economy. On the expenditure side, household consumption is the main component of GDP and accounts for 50 percent of its total use, followed by gross fixed capital formation with 22 percent and government expenditure with 20 percent.[161] Hungary continues to be one of the leading nations for attracting foreign direct investment in Central and Eastern Europe, the inward FDI in the country was $119.8 billion in 2015, while Hungary invests more than $50 billion abroad.[162] As of 2015[update], the key trading partners of Hungary were Germany, Austria, Romania, Slovakia, France, Italy, Poland and Czech Republic.[163] Major industries include food processing, pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, information technology, chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, and tourism (in 2014 Hungary welcomed 12.1 million international tourists).[164] Hungary is the largest electronics producer in Central and Eastern Europe. Electronics manufacturing and research are among the main drivers of innovation and economic growth in the country. In the past 20 years Hungary has also grown into a major centre for mobile technology, information security, and related hardware research.[165] The employment rate in the economy was 68.3% in 2017,[166] the employment structure shows the characteristics of post-industrial economies, 63.2% of employed workforce work in service sector, the industry contributed by 29.7%, while agriculture with 7.1%. Unemployment rate was 4.1% in 2017 September,[167] down from 11% during the financial crisis of 2007–08. Hungary is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union members and by EU legislation. Budapest is a leading R&D and financial center in Central and Eastern Europe Large Hungarian companies are included in the BUX, the Hungarian stock market index listed on Budapest Stock Exchange. Well-known companies include the Fortune Global 500 firm MOL Group, the OTP Bank, Gedeon Richter Plc., Magyar Telekom, CIG Pannonia, FHB Bank, Zwack Unicum and more.[168] Besides this Hungary has a large portion of specialised small and medium enterprise, for example a significant number of automotive suppliers and technology start ups among others.[169] Budapest is the financial and business capital of Hungary. The capital is a significant economic hub, classified as an Alpha – world city in the study by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network and it is the second fastest-developing urban economy in Europe as GDP per capita in the city increased by 2.4 per cent and employment by 4.7 per cent compared to the previous year in 2014.[170][171] On the national level, Budapest is the primate city of Hungary regarding business and economy, accounting for 39% of the national income, the city has a gross metropolitan product more than $100 billion in 2015, making it one of the largest regional economies in the European Union.[172][173] Budapest is also among the Top 100 GDP performing cities in the world, measured by PricewaterhouseCoopers and in a global city competitiveness ranking by EIU, Budapest stands before Tel Aviv, Lisbon, Moscow and Johannesburg among others.[174][175] Furthermore, Hungary's corporate tax rate is only 9%, which is relatively low for EU states.[176] Hungary maintains its own currency, the Hungarian forint (HUF), although the economy fulfills the Maastricht criteria with the exception of public debt, but it is also significantly below the EU average with the level of 75.3% in 2015. The Hungarian National Bank—founded in 1924, after the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire—is currently focusing on price stability with an inflation target of 3%.[177] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in Hungary and Education in Hungary Albert Szent-Györgyi a Nobel Laureate in Medicine for discovery of Vitamin C. Nobel Prize has been awarded to 13 Hungarian laureates. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics is the oldest operational Institute of technology in the world, founded in 1782 Hungary's achievements in science and technology have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the country's economy. Hungary spent 1.4% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on civil research and development in 2015, which is the 25th highest ratio in the world.[178] Hungary ranks 32nd among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index, standing before Hong Kong, Iceland or Malta.[179] The Global Innovation Index places Hungary 33rd among the countries of the world in 2016.[180] In 2014, Hungary counted 2,651 full-time equivalent researchers per million inhabitants, steadily increasing from 2,131 in 2010 and compares with 3,984 in the US or 4,380 in Germany.[181] Hungary's high technology industry has benefited from both the country's skilled workforce and the strong presence of foreign high-tech firms and research centres. Hungary also has one of the highest rates of filed patents, the sixth highest ratio of high-tech and medium high-tech output in the total industrial output, the 12th highest research FDI inflow, placed 14th in research talent in business enterprise and has the 17th best overall innovation efficiency ratio in the world.[182] The key actor of research and development in Hungary is the National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NRDI Office), which is a national strategic and funding agency for scientific research, development and innovation, the primary source of advice on RDI policy for the Hungarian Government, and the primary RDI funding agency. Its role is to develop RDI policy and ensure that Hungary adequately invest in RDI by funding excellent research and supporting innovation to increase competitiveness and to prepare the RDI strategy of the Hungarian Government, to handle the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund, and represents the Hungarian Government and a Hungarian RDI community in international organisations.[183] Research and development centre of Gedeon Richter Plc. in Budapest, one of the largest biotechnology company in Central and Eastern Europe Scientific research in the country is supported partly by industry and partly by the state, through the network of Hungarian universities and by scientific state-institutions such as Hungarian Academy of Sciences.[184][185] Hungary has been the home of some of the most prominent researchers in various scientific disciplines, notably physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering. As of 2018, twelve Hungarian scientists have been recipients of a Nobel Prize.[186] Until 2012 three individuals: Csoma, János Bolyai and Tihanyi were included in the UNESCO Memory of the world register as well as the collective contributions: Tabula Hungariae and Bibliotheca Corviniana. Contemporary, internationally well-known Hungarian scientists include mathematician László Lovász, physicist Albert-László Barabási, physicist Ferenc Krausz, and biochemist Árpád Pusztai. Hungary is famous for its excellent mathematics education which has trained numerous outstanding scientists. Famous Hungarian mathematicians include father Farkas Bolyai and son János Bolyai, who was one of the founders of non-Euclidean geometry; Paul Erdős, famed for publishing in over forty languages and whose Erdős numbers are still tracked, and John von Neumann, a key contributor in the fields of quantum mechanics and game theory, a pioneer of digital computing, and the chief mathematician in the Manhattan Project. Notable Hungarian inventions include the lead dioxide match (János Irinyi), a type of carburetor (Donát Bánki, János Csonka), the electric (AC) train engine and generator (Kálmán Kandó), holography (Dennis Gabor), the Kalman filter (Rudolf E. Kálmán), and Rubik's Cube (Ernő Rubik). Transport Main article: Transport in Hungary Siemens Desiro on Hungarian State Railways network, which is one of the densest in the world Hungary has a highly developed road, railway, air, and water transport system. Budapest, the capital, serves as an important hub for the Hungarian railway system (MÁV). The capital is served by three large train stations called Keleti (Eastern), Nyugati (Western), and Déli (Southern) pályaudvars. Szolnok is the most important railway hub outside Budapest, while Tiszai Railway Station in Miskolc and the main stations of Szombathely, Győr, Szeged, and Székesfehérvár are also key to the network. Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, and Szeged have tram networks. The Budapest Metro is the second-oldest underground metro system in the world; its Line 1 dates from 1896. The system consists of four lines. A commuter rail system, HÉV, operates in the Budapest metropolitan area. Hungary has a total length of approximately 1,314 km (816.48 mi) motorways (Hungarian: autópálya). Motorway sections are being added to the existing network, which already connects many major economically important cities to the capital. The most important port is Budapest. Other important ones include Dunaújváros and Baja. There are five international airports in Hungary: Budapest Liszt Ferenc (informally called "Ferihegy" after its previous name), Debrecen, Sármellék (also called Hévíz-Balaton Airport), Győr-Pér, and Pécs-Pogány. The national carrier, MALÉV, operated flights to over 60, mostly European cities, but ceased operations in 2012. Low-budget airline WizzAir is based in Hungary, at Ferihegy. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Hungary, Hungarians, and Women in Hungary Population density in Hungary by district. Hungary's population was 9,937,628 according to the 2011 census, making it the fifth most populous country in Central and Eastern Europe and medium-sized member state of the European Union. Population density stands at 107 inhabitants per square kilometre, which is about two times higher than the world average. More than one quarter of the population lived in the Budapest metropolitan area, 6,903,858 people (69.5%) in cities and towns overall.[187] Like most other European countries, Hungary is experiencing sub-replacement fertility; its estimated total fertility rate of 1.43 children per woman is well below the replacement rate of 2.1,[188] albeit higher than its nadir of 1.28 in 1999,[189] and remains considerably below the high of 5.59 children born per woman in 1884.[190] As a result, its population has been gradually declining and rapidly ageing. In 2011, the conservative government began a programme to increase the birth rate with a focus on ethnic Magyars by reinstating 3 year maternity leave as well as boosting part-time jobs. The fertility rate has gradually increased from 1.27 children born/woman in 2011.[191] The natural decrease in the first 10 months of 2016 was only 25,828 which was 8,162 less than the corresponding period in 2015.[192] In 2015, 47.9% of births were to unmarried women.[193] Hungary has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years.[194] Life expectancy was 71.96 years for men and 79.62 years for women in 2015,[195] growing continuously since the fall of Communism.[196] Hungary recognises two sizeable minority groups, designated as "national minorities" because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries in Hungary: a German community of about 130,000 that lives throughout the country, and a Romani minority numerous around 300,000 that mainly resides in the northern part of the country. Some studies indicate a considerably larger number of Romani in Hungary (876,000 people – c. 9% of the population.).[197][198] According to the 2011 census, there were 8,314,029 (83.7%) ethnic Hungarians, 308,957 (3.1%) Romani, 131,951 (1.3%) Germans, 29,647 (0.3%) Slovaks, 26,345 (0.3%) Romanians, and 23,561 (0.2%) Croats in Hungary; 1,455,883 people (14.7% of the total population) did not declare their ethnicity. Thus, Hungarians made up more than 90% of people who declared their ethnicity.[4] In Hungary, people can declare more than one ethnicity, so the sum of ethnicities is higher than the total population.[199] Today approximately 5 million Hungarians live outside Hungary. Urbanization Main article: List of cities and towns of Hungary   v t e Largest cities or towns in Hungary Hungarian Central Statistical Office Rank Name Countie Pop. Rank Name Countie Pop. Budapest Debrecen 1 Budapest Budapest 1,752,286 11 Szolnok Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 71,285 Szeged Miskolc 2 Debrecen Hajdú-Bihar 201,432 12 Érd Pest 68,211 3 Szeged Csongrád-Csanád 160,766 13 Tatabánya Komárom-Esztergom 65,845 4 Miskolc Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 154,521 14 Sopron Győr-Moson-Sopron 62,671 5 Pécs Baranya 142,873 15 Kaposvár Somogy 61,441 6 Győr Győr-Moson-Sopron 132,038 16 Veszprém Veszprém 59,738 7 Nyíregyháza Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 116,799 17 Békéscsaba Békés 58,996 8 Kecskemét Bács-Kiskun 110,687 18 Zalaegerszeg Zala 57,403 9 Székesfehérvár Fejér 96,940 19 Eger Heves 52,898 10 Szombathely Vas 78,407 20 Nagykanizsa Zala 46,649 Towns and villages in Hungary Hungary has 3,152 localities as of 15 July 2013. 346 towns (Hungarian term: város, plural: városok; the terminology doesn't distinguish between cities and towns – the term town is used in official translations) and 2,806 villages (Hungarian: község, plural: községek). The number of towns can change, since villages can be elevated to town status by act of the President. The capital Budapest has a special status and is not included in any county while 23 of the towns are so-called urban counties (megyei jogú város – town with county rights). All county seats except Budapest are urban counties. Four of the cities (Budapest, Miskolc, Győr, and Pécs) have agglomerations, and the Hungarian Statistical Office distinguishes seventeen other areas in earlier stages of agglomeration development.[200] The largest city is the capital, Budapest, the smallest town is Pálháza with 1038 inhabitants (2010). The largest village is Solymár (population: 10,123 as of 2010) There are more than 100 villages with fewer than 100 inhabitants while the smallest villages have fewer than 20 inhabitants. Languages Main articles: Hungarian language and Languages of Hungary Present-day regions in Europe where Hungarian is the majority language Hungarian is the official and predominant spoken language in Hungary. Hungarian is the 13th most widely spoken first language in Europe with around 13 million native speakers and it is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union.[201] Outside Hungary it is also spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries and by Hungarian diaspora communities worldwide. According to the 2011 census, 9,896,333 people (99.6%) speak Hungarian in Hungary, of whom 9,827,875 people (99%) speak it as a first language, while 68,458 people (0.7%) speak it as a second language.[4] English (1,589,180 speakers, 16.0%), and German (1,111,997 speakers, 11.2%) are the most widely spoken foreign languages, while there are several recognised minority languages in Hungary (Armenian, Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Romanian, Romani, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Ukrainian).[187] Hungarian (Magyar) is a member of the Uralic language family, unrelated to any neighbouring language and distantly related to Finnish and Estonian. It is the largest of the Uralic languages in terms of the number of speakers and the only one spoken in Central Europe. There are sizeable populations of Hungarian speakers in Romania, Czechia, Slovakia, the former Yugoslavia, Ukraine, Israel, and the U.S. Smaller groups of Hungarian speakers live in Canada, Slovenia, and Austria, but also in Australia, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Venezuela, and Chile. Standard Hungarian is based on the variety spoken in the capital of Budapest, although the use of the standard dialect is enforced, Hungarian has a number of urban and rural dialects. Religion Main article: Religion in Hungary Hungary is a historically Christian country. Hungarian historiography identifies the foundation of the Hungarian state with Stephen I's baptism and coronation with the Holy Crown in A.D. 1000. Stephen promulgated Roman Catholicism as the state religion, and his successors were traditionally known as the Apostolic Kings. The Catholic Church in Hungary remained strong through the centuries, and the Archbishop of Esztergom was granted extraordinary temporal privileges as prince-primate (hercegprímás) of Hungary. King Saint Stephen offering the Hungarian crown to Virgin Mary - painting by Gyula Benczúr, in the St. Stephen's Basilica Although contemporary Hungary has no official religion and recognises freedom of religion as a fundamental right, the Hungarian constitution "recognizes Christianity's nation-building role" in its preamble[202] and in Article VII affirms that "the state may cooperate with the churches for community goals."[203] The 2011 census showed that the majority of Hungarians were Christians (54.2%), with Roman Catholics (Katolikusok) (37.1%) and Hungarian Reformed Calvinists (Reformátusok) (11.1%) making up the bulk of these alongside Lutherans (Evangélikusok) (2.2%), Greek Catholics (1.8%), and other Christians (1.3%). Jewish (0.1%), Buddhist (0.1%) and Muslim (0.06%) communities are in the minority. 27.2% of the population did not declare a religious affiliation while 16.7% declared themselves explicitly irreligious, another 1.5% atheist.[4] During the initial stages of the Protestant Reformation, most Hungarians adopted first Lutheranism and then Calvinism in the form of the Hungarian Reformed Church. In the second half of the 16th century, the Jesuits led a Counterreformation campaign and the population once again became predominantly Catholic. This campaign was only partially successful, however, and the (mainly Reformed) Hungarian nobility were able to secure freedom of worship for Christians. In practice this meant cuius regio, eius religio; thus, most individual localities in Hungary are still identifiable as historically Catholic, Lutheran, or Reformed. The country's eastern regions, especially around Debrecen (the "Calvinist Rome"), remain almost completely Reformed,[204] a trait they share with historically contiguous ethnically Hungarian regions across the Romanian border. Orthodox Christianity in Hungary is associated with the country's ethnic minorities: Armenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Romanians, Rusyns, Ukrainians, and Serbs. Historically, Hungary was home to a significant Jewish community with a pre-World War II population of more than 800,000, but it is estimated that just over 564,000 Hungarian Jews were killed between 1941 and 1945 during the Holocaust in Hungary.[205] Between 15 May and 9 July 1944 alone, over 434,000 Jews were deported on 147 trains,[206] most of them to Auschwitz, where about 80 percent were gassed on arrival. Some Jews were able to escape, but most were either deported to concentration camps, where they were killed or murdered in Hungary by Arrow Cross members. From over 800,000 Jews living within Hungary's borders in 1941–1944, about 255,500 are thought to have survived. There are about 120,000 Jews in Hungary today.[207][208] Education Main article: Education in Hungary Education in Hungary is predominantly public, run by the Ministry of Education. Preschool-kindergarten education is compulsory and provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is also compulsory until the age of sixteen.[28] Primary education usually lasts for eight years. Secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the Gymnasium enrolls the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the secondary vocational schools for intermediate students lasts four years and the technical school prepares pupils for vocational education and the world of work. The system is partly flexible and bridges exist, graduates from a vocational school can achieve a two years programme to have access to vocational higher education for instance.[209] The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13–14-year-old pupils in Hungary among the bests in the world for maths and science. Rector's Council Hall of Budapest Business School, the first public business school in the world, founded in 1857 Most of the Hungarian universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment. The general requirement for university is the Matura. The Hungarian public higher education system includes universities and other higher education institutes, that provide both education curricula and related degrees up to doctoral degree and also contribute to research activities. Health insurance for students is free until the end of their studies. English and German language are important in Hungarian higher education, there are a number of degree programmes that are taught in these languages, which attracts thousands of exchange students every year. Hungary's higher education and training has been ranked 44 out of 148 countries in the Global Competitiveness Report 2014.[210] Hungary has a long tradition of higher education reflecting the existence of established knowledge economy. The established universities in Hungary include some of the oldest in the world, the first was the University of Pécs founded in 1367 which is still functioning, although, in the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the troops of Peter Csák, but it was never rebuilt. Sigismund established Óbuda University in 1395. Another, Universitas Istropolitana, was established 1465 in Pozsony by Mattias Corvinus. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635 and moved to Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University today. The world's first institute of technology was founded in Selmecbánya, the Kingdom of Hungary in 1735, its legal successor is the University of Miskolc. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with university rank and structure, its legal predecessor the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II. Hungary ranks fourth (above neighbour Romania, and after China, the United States and Russia) in the all-time medal count at the International Mathematical Olympiad with 336 total medals, dating back to 1959. Health Main article: Healthcare in Hungary Szent István Kórház (Saint Stephen Hospital) at Üllői Avenue, Budapest. With Szent László Kórház (Saint Ladislaus Hospital) making the largest hospital complex in Hungary, built at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. Hungary maintains a universal health care system largely financed by government national health insurance. According to the OECD, 100% of the population is covered by universal health insurance,[27] which is absolutely free for children, students, pensioners, people with low income, handicapped people, and church employees.[211][212] Hungary spends 7.2% of GDP on healthcare, spending $2,045 per capita, of which $1,365 is provided by the government.[213] Hungary is one of the main destinations of medical tourism in Europe, particularly in dental tourism,[214][215] in which its share is 42% in Europe and 21% worldwide.[215][216] Plastic surgery is also a key sector, with 30% of the clients coming from abroad. Hungary is well known for its spa culture and is home to numerous medicinal spas,[217] which attract "spa tourism".[218] In common with developed countries, cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of mortality, accounting for 49.4% (62,979) of all deaths in 2013.[219] However, this number peaked in 1985 with 79,355 deaths, and has been declining continuously since the fall of Communism.[219] The second leading cause of death is cancer with 33,274 (26.2%), which has been stagnant since the 1990s.[219] Deaths from accidents dropped from 8,760 in 1990 to 3,654 in 2013; the number of suicides has declined precipitously from 4,911 in 1983 to 2,093 in 2013 (21.1 per 100,000 people), the lowest since 1956.[219] There are considerable health disparities between the western and eastern parts of Hungary; heart disease, hypertension, stroke, and suicide is prevalent in the mostly agricultural and low-income Great Plain region in the east, but infrequent in the high-income, middle class areas of Western Transdanubia and Central Hungary.[220] Smoking is a leading cause of death in the country, although it is in steep decline: The proportion of adult smokers declined to 19% in 2013 from 28% in 2012, owing to strict regulations such as a nationwide smoking ban in every indoor public place and the limiting of tobacco sales to state-controlled "National Tobacco Shops".[221] Hungary ranks as the 17th safest country in the world, with a homicide rate of 1.3 per 100,000 people.[222] Culture Main article: Culture of Hungary Architecture Main article: Architecture of Hungary Eszterháza Palace, the "Hungarian Versailles" in Fertőd, Győr-Moson-Sopron County Hungary is home to the largest synagogue in Europe (Great Synagogue), built in 1859 in Moorish Revival style with a capacity of 3,000 people, the largest medicinal bath in Europe (Széchenyi Medicinal Bath), completed in 1913 in Modern Renaissance Style and located in the Budapest city park, the biggest building in Hungary with its 268 metres (879 feet) length (the Parliament building), one of the largest basilicas in Europe (Esztergom Basilica), the second-largest territorial abbey in the world (Pannonhalma Archabbey), and the largest early Christian necropolis outside Italy (Pécs). Romanesque Ják Abbey, Vas County, built between 1220 and 1256. Notable architectural styles in Hungary include Historicism and Art Nouveau, or rather several variants of Art Nouveau. In contrast to Historicism, Hungarian Art Nouveau is based on national architectural characteristics. Taking the eastern origins of the Hungarians into account, Ödön Lechner (1845–1914), the most important figure in Hungarian Art Nouveau was initially inspired by Indian and Syrian architecture, and later by traditional Hungarian decorative designs. In this way, he created an original synthesis of architectural styles. By applying them to three-dimensional architectural elements, he produced a version of Art Nouveau that was specific to Hungary. Turning away from the style of Lechner, yet taking inspiration from his approach, the group of "Young People" (Fiatalok), which included Károly Kós and Dezsö Zrumeczky, were to use the characteristic structures and forms of traditional Hungarian architecture to achieve the same end. The Museum of Applied Arts, an Art Nouveau building designed by Ödön Lechner Besides the two principal styles, Budapest also displays local versions of trends originating from other European countries. The Sezession from Vienna, the German Jugendstil, Art Nouveau from Belgium and France, and the influence of English and Finnish architecture are all reflected in the buildings constructed at the turn of the 20th century. Béla Lajta initially adopted Lechner's style, subsequently drawing his inspiration from English and Finnish trends; after developing an interest in the Egyptian style, he finally arrived at modern architecture. Aladár Árkay took almost the same route. István Medgyaszay developed his own style, which differed from Lechner's, using stylised traditional motifs to create decorative designs in concrete. In the sphere of applied arts, those chiefly responsible for promoting the spread of Art Nouveau were the School and Museum of Decorative Arts, which opened in 1896. Foreigners have unexpectedly "discovered" that a significantly large portion of the citizens lives in old and architecturally valuable buildings. In the Budapest downtown area almost all the buildings are about one hundred years old, with thick walls, high ceilings, and motifs on the front wall.[43][223] Music Main article: Music of Hungary Hungarian State Opera House on Andrássy út (UNESCO World Heritage Site) Hungarian music consists mainly of traditional Hungarian folk music and music by prominent composers such as Liszt and Bartók, considered to be among the greatest Hungarian composers. Other renowned composers are Dohnányi, Franz Schmidt, Zoltán Kodály, Gabriel von Wayditch, Rudolf Wagner-Régeny, László Lajtha, Franz Lehár, Imre Kálmán, Sándor Veress and Rózsa. Hungarian traditional music tends to have a strong dactylic rhythm, as the language is invariably stressed on the first syllable of each word. Hungary has renowned composers of contemporary classical music, György Ligeti, György Kurtág, Péter Eötvös, Zoltán Kodály and Zoltán Jeney among them. One of the greatest Hungarian composers, Béla Bartók, was also among the most significant musicians of the 20th century. His music was invigorated by the themes, modes, and rhythmic patterns of the Hungarian and neighbouring folk music traditions he studied, which he synthesised with influences from his contemporaries into his own distinctive style.[224] Ferenc (Franz) Liszt, one of the greatest pianists of all time; well-known composer and conductor Hungary has made many contributions to the fields of folk, popular and classical music. Hungarian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity and continues to play a major part in Hungarian music. Hungarian folk music has been significant in former country parts that belong – since the 1920 Treaty of Trianon – to neighbouring countries such as Romania, Slovakia, Poland and especially in southern Slovakia and Transylvania; both regions have significant numbers of Hungarians. After the establishment of a music academy led by Ferenc Erkel and Franz Liszt Hungary produced an important number of art musicians: Pianists: Ernő von Dohnányi, Ervin Nyiregyházi, Andor Földes, Tamás Vásáry, György Sándor, Géza Anda, Annie Fischer, György Cziffra, Edward Kilényi, Bálint Vázsonyi, András Schiff, Zoltán Kocsis, Dezső Ránki, Jenő Jandó and others. Violists: Joseph Joachim, Leopold Auer, Jenő Hubay, Jelly d'Arányi, Joseph Szigeti, Sándor Végh, Emil Telmanyi, Ede Zathurecky, Zsigmondy, Franz von Vecsey, Zoltán Székely, Tibor Varga and newcomers Antal Szalai, Vilmos Szabadi, Kristóf Baráti (b. 79) and others. Opera singers: Astrid Varnay, József Simándy, Júlia Várady, Júlia Hamari, Kolos Kováts (Bluebeard in Bartók's Bluebeard) Conductors: Eugene Ormandy, George Szell, Antal Doráti, János Ferencsik, Fritz Reiner, sir Georg Solti, István Kertész, Ferenc Fricsay, Zoltán Rozsnyai, Sándor Végh, Árpád Joó, Ádám Fischer, Iván Fischer, Péter Eötvös, Zoltán Kocsis, Tamás Vásáry, Gilbert Varga and others String Quartets: Budapest Quartet, Hungarian Quartet, Végh Quartet, Takács Quartet, Kodály Quartet, Éder Quartet, Festetics Quartet, Béla Bartók, an influential composer from the early 20th century; one of the founders of ethnomusicology Broughton claims that Hungary's "infectious sound has been surprisingly influential on neighboring countries (thanks perhaps to the common Austro-Hungarian history) and it's not uncommon to hear Hungarian-sounding tunes in Romania, Slovakia and Poland".[225] It is also strong in the Szabolcs-Szatmár area and in the southwest part of Transdanubia, near the border with Croatia. The Busójárás carnival in Mohács is a major Hungarian folk music event, formerly featuring the long-established and well-regarded Bogyiszló orchestra.[226] Hungarian classical music has long been an "experiment, made from Hungarian antecedents and on Hungarian soil, to create a conscious musical culture [using the] musical world of the folk song".[227] Although the Hungarian upper class has long had cultural and political connections with the rest of Europe, leading to an influx of European musical ideas, the rural peasants maintained their own traditions such that by the end of the 19th-century Hungarian composers could draw on rural peasant music to (re)create a Hungarian classical style.[228] For example, Bartók collected folk songs from across Central and Eastern Europe, including Romania and Slovakia, while Kodály was more interested in creating a distinctively Hungarian musical style. During the era of communist rule in Hungary (1944–1989), a Song Committee scoured and censored popular music for traces of subversion and ideological impurity. Since then, however, the Hungarian music industry has begun to recover, producing successful performers in the fields of jazz such as trumpeter Rudolf Tomsits, pianist-composer Károly Binder and, in a modernised form of Hungarian folk, Ferenc Sebő and Márta Sebestyén. The three giants of Hungarian rock, Illés, Metró and Omega, remain very popular, especially Omega, which has followings in Germany and beyond as well as in Hungary. Older veteran underground bands such as Beatrice, from the 1980s, also remain popular. Literature Main article: Hungarian literature The alphabet of the Székely-Hungarian Rovás script; the country switched to using the Latin alphabet under king Saint Stephen (reign: 1000–1038) In the earliest times, Hungarian language was written in a runic-like script (although it was not used for literature purposes in the modern interpretation). The country switched to the Latin alphabet after being Christianized under the reign of Stephen I of Hungary (1000–1038). The oldest remained written record in Hungarian language is a fragment in the Establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany (1055) which contains several Hungarian terms, among them the words feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea, "up the military road to Fehérvár" The rest of the document was written in Latin. The oldest extant Hungarian poem, Old Hungarian Laments of Mary (1190s) The oldest remaining complete text in Hungarian language is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer (Halotti beszéd és könyörgés) (1192–1195), a translation of a Latin sermon. The oldest remaining poem in Hungarian is the Old Hungarian Laments of Mary (Ómagyar Mária-siralom), also a (not very strict) translation from Latin, from the 13th century. It is also the oldest surviving Uralic poem. Among the first chronicles about Hungarian history were Gesta Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Hungarians") by the unknown author usually called Anonymus, and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Huns and the Hungarians") by Simon Kézai. Both are in Latin. These chronicles mix history with legends, so historically they are not always authentic. Another chronicle is the Képes krónika (Illustrated Chronicle), which was written for Louis the Great. Renaissance literature flourished under the reign of King Matthias (1458–1490). Janus Pannonius, although he wrote in Latin, counts as one of the most important persons in Hungarian literature, being the only significant Hungarian Humanist poet of the period. The first printing house was also founded during Matthias' reign, by András Hess, in Buda. The first book printed in Hungary was the Chronica Hungarorum. The most important poets of the period was Bálint Balassi (1554–1594) and Miklós Zrínyi (1620–1664). Balassi's poetry shows medieval influences, his poems can be divided into three sections: love poems, war poems and religious poems. Zrínyi's most significant work, the epic Szigeti veszedelem ("Peril of Sziget", written in 1648/49) is written in a fashion similar to the Iliad, and recounts the heroic Battle of Szigetvár, where his great-grandfather died while defending the castle of Szigetvár. Among the religious literary works the most important is the Bible translation by Gáspár Károli (The second Hungarian Bible translation in the history), the Protestant pastor of Gönc, in 1590. The translation is called the Bible of Vizsoly, after the town where it was first published. (See Bible translations into Hungarian for more details.) Sándor Petőfi, a Hungarian poet and revolutionary. Sándor Márai, Hungarian writer and journalist The Hungarian enlightenment took place about fifty years after the French Enlightenment. The first enlightened writers were Maria Theresia's bodyguards (György Bessenyei, János Batsányi and others). The greatest poets of the time were Mihály Csokonai Vitéz and Dániel Berzsenyi. The greatest figure of the language reform was Ferenc Kazinczy. The Hungarian language became feasible for all type of scientific explanations from this time, and furthermore, many new words were coined for describing new inventions. Hungarian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Hungary (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Hungarian authors have become increasingly popular in Germany and Italy especially Sándor Márai, Péter Esterházy, Péter Nádas and Imre Kertész. The latter is a contemporary Jewish writer who survived the Holocaust and won the Nobel Prize for literature in 2002. The older classics of Hungarian literature and Hungarian poetry have remained almost totally unknown outside Hungary. János Arany, a famous 19th-century Hungarian poet, is still much loved in Hungary (especially his collection of Ballads), among several other "true classics" like Sándor Petőfi, the poet of the Revolution of 1848, Endre Ady, Mihály Babits, Dezső Kosztolányi, Attila József, Miklós Radnóti and János Pilinszky. Other well-known Hungarian authors are László Krasznahorkai, Ferenc Móra, Géza Gárdonyi, Zsigmond Móricz, Gyula Illyés, Albert Wass, Miklós Szentkuthy, Magda Szabó and Stephen Vizinczey. Cuisine Main article: Hungarian cuisine See also: Hungarian wine and Beer in Hungary Hortobágyi palacsinta in Sopron Dobos cake Traditional dishes such as the world-famous Goulash (gulyás stew or gulyás soup) feature prominently in Hungarian cuisine. Dishes are often flavoured with paprika (ground red peppers), a Hungarian innovation.[229] The paprika powder, obtained from a special type of pepper, is one of the most common spices used in typical Hungarian cuisine. Thick, heavy Hungarian sour cream called tejföl is often used to soften the dishes' flavour. The famous Hungarian hot river fish soup called Fisherman's soup or halászlé is usually a rich mixture of several kinds of poached fish.[230] Other dishes are chicken paprikash, foie gras made of goose liver, pörkölt stew, vadas, (game stew with vegetable gravy and dumplings), trout with almonds and salty and sweet dumplings, like túrós csusza, (dumplings with fresh quark cheese and thick sour cream). Desserts include the iconic Dobos Cake, strudels (rétes), filled with apple, cherry, poppy seed or cheese, Gundel pancake, plum dumplings (szilvás gombóc), somlói dumplings, dessert soups like chilled sour cherry soup and sweet chestnut puree, gesztenyepüré (cooked chestnuts mashed with sugar and rum and split into crumbs, topped with whipped cream). Perec and kifli are widely popular pastries.[231] The csárda is the most distinctive type of Hungarian inn, an old-style tavern offering traditional cuisine and beverages. Borozó usually denotes a cosy old-fashioned wine tavern, pince is a beer or wine cellar and a söröző is a pub offering draught beer and sometimes meals. The bisztró is an inexpensive restaurant often with self-service. The büfé is the cheapest place, although one may have to eat standing at a counter. Pastries, cakes and coffee are served at the confectionery called cukrászda, while an eszpresszó is a café. The famous Tokaji wine. It was called "Vinum Regum, Rex Vinorum" ("Wine of Kings, King of Wines") by Louis XIV of France Pálinka is a fruit brandy, distilled from fruit grown in the orchards situated on the Great Hungarian Plain. It is a spirit native to Hungary and comes in a variety of flavours including apricot (barack) and cherry (cseresznye). However, plum (szilva) is the most popular flavour. Beer goes well with many traditional Hungarian dishes. The five main Hungarian beer brands are: Borsodi, Soproni, Arany Ászok, Kõbányai, and Dreher.[232] In Hungary, people traditionally do not clink their glasses or mugs when drinking beer. There is an urban legend in Hungarian culture that Austrian generals clinked their beer glasses to celebrate the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad in 1849. Many people still follow the tradition, although younger people often disavow it, citing that the vow was only meant to last 150 years.[233] Wine: As Hugh Johnson says in The History of Wine, the territory of Hungary is ideal for wine-making and the country can be divided to six wine regions: North-Transdanubia, Lake Balaton, South-Pannónia, Duna-region or Alföld, Upper-Hungary and Tokaj-Hegyalja.[234] The Romans brought vines to Pannonia, and by the 5th century AD, there are records of extensive vineyards in what is now Hungary. The Hungarians brought their wine-making knowledge from the East. According to Ibn Rustah, the Hungarian tribes were familiar with wine-making long time before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin.[235] Hungarian wine regions offer a great variety of styles: the main products of the country are elegant and full-bodied dry whites with good acidity, although complex sweet whites (Tokaj), elegant (Eger) and full-bodied robust reds (Villány and Szekszárd). The main varieties are: Olaszrizling, Hárslevelű, Furmint, Pinot gris or Szürkebarát, Chardonnay (whites), Kékfrankos (or Blaufrankisch in German), Kadarka, Portugieser, Zweigelt, Cabernet sauvignon, Cabernet franc and Merlot. The most famous wines from Hungary are Tokaji Aszú and Egri Bikavér.[236][237] Tokaji, meaning "of Tokaj", or "from Tokaj" in Hungarian, is used to label wines from the wine region of Tokaj-Hegyalja. Tokaji wine has received accolades from numerous great writers and composers including Beethoven, Liszt, Schubert and Goethe; Joseph Haydn's favourite wine was a Tokaji.[238] Louis XV and Frederick the Great tried to outdo one another when they entertained guests with Tokaji. Napoleon III, the last Emperor of France, ordered 30–40 barrels of Tokaji at the French Royal Court every year. Gustav III, King of Sweden, loved Tokaji.[238] In Russia, customers included Peter the Great and Empress Elizabeth, while Catherine the Great actually established a Russian garrison in the town of Tokaj with the aim of assuring regular wine deliveries to St. Petersburg.[238] For over 150 years, a blend of forty Hungarian herbs has been used to create the liqueur Unicum. Unicum is a bitter, dark-coloured liqueur that can be drunk as an apéritif or after a meal, thus helping the digestion.[239] Recreation Lake Hévíz, the largest thermal lake in Europe Hungary is a land of thermal water. A passion for spa culture and Hungarian history have been connected from the very beginning. Hungarian spas feature Roman, Greek, Turkish, and northern country architectural elements.[240] Because of an advantageous geographical location, good quality thermal water can be found in great quantities on over 80% of Hungary's territory. Approximately 1,500 thermal springs can be found in Hungary (more than 100 just in the Capital area). There are approximately 450 public baths in Hungary.[241] The Romans heralded the first age of spas in Hungary. The remains of their bath complexes are still to be seen in Óbuda. Spa culture was revived during the Turkish Invasion and the thermal springs of Buda were used for the construction of a number of bathhouses, some of which such as (Király Baths, Rudas Baths) are still functioning. In the 19th century, the advancement in deep drilling and medical science provided the springboard for a further leap in bathing culture. Grand spas such as Gellért Baths, Lukács Baths, Margaret Island, and Széchenyi Medicinal Bath are a reflection of this resurgence in popularity. The Széchenyi Thermal Bath is the largest spa complex in Europe and it was the first thermal bath built in the Pest side of Budapest.[242] This building is a noted example of modern Renaissance style. Located on the Buda side of Budapest, the Gellért spa is the most famous and luxurious thermal complex of the capital city.[243] Folk art Hungarians dancing csárdás in traditional garments / folk costumes Ugrós (Jumping dances) are old-style dances dating back to the Middle Ages. Solo or couple dances accompanied by old-style music, shepherd and other solo man's dances from Transylvania, and marching dances along with remnants of medieval weapon dances belong in this group. Karikázó is a circle dance performed by women only accompanied by the singing of folk songs. Csárdás are new style dances developed in the 18–19th centuries. Csárdás is the Hungarian name for the national dances, with Hungarian embroidered costumes and energetic music. From the men's intricate boot slapping dances to the ancient women's circle dances, Csárdás demonstrates the infectious exuberance of the Hungarian folk dancing still celebrated in the villages. Verbunkos is a solo man's dance evolved from the recruiting performances of the Austro-Hungarian army. The Legényes is a men's solo dance done by the ethnic Hungarian people living in the Kalotaszeg region of Transylvania. Although usually danced by young men, it can be also danced by older men. The dance is generally performed freestyle by one dancer at a time in front of a band. Women participate in the dance by standing in lines to the side and singing or shouting verses while the men dance. Each man performs a number of points (dance phrases), typically four to eight without repetition. Each point consists of four parts, each lasting four counts. The first part is usually the same for everyone (there are only a few variations). It was in the beginning of the 18th-century that the present style of Hungarian folk art took shape, incorporating both Renaissance and Baroque elements, depending on the area, as well as Persian Sassanide influences. Flowers and leaves, sometimes a bird or a spiral ornament, are the principal decorative themes. The most frequent ornament is a flower with a centrepiece resembling the eye of a peacock's feather. Nearly all the manifestations of folk art practiced elsewhere in Europe also flourished among the Magyar peasantry at one time or another, their ceramics and textile being the most highly developed of all. The finest achievements in their textile arts are the embroideries which vary from region to region. Those of Kalotaszeg in Transylvania are charming products of Oriental design, sewn chiefly in a single colour – red, blue, or black. Soft in line, the embroideries are applied on altar cloths, pillowcases, and sheets. In Hungary proper, Sárköz in Transdanubia and the Matyóföld in the Great Hungarian Plain produce the finest embroideries. In the Sárköz region the women's caps show black and white designs as delicate as lace and give evidence of the people's wonderfully subtle artistic feeling. The embroidery motifs applied to women's wear have also been transposed to tablecloths and runners suitable for modern use as wall decorations. These vessels, made of black clay, reflect more than three hundred years of traditional Transdanubian folk patterns and shapes. No two are precisely alike, since all work is done by hand, including both the shaping and the decorating. The imprints are made by the thumb or a finger of the ceramist who makes the piece. Porcelain Main articles: Herend Porcelain and Zsolnay Founded in 1826, Herend Porcelain is one of the world's largest ceramic factories, specialising in luxury hand painted and gilded porcelain. In the mid-19th century, it was purveyor to the Habsburg Dynasty and aristocratic customers throughout Europe. Many of its classic patterns are still in production. After the fall of communism in Hungary, the factory was privatised and is now 75% owned by its management and workers, exporting to over 60 countries of the world.[244] Zsolnay Porcelain Manufacture is a Hungarian manufacturer of porcelain, pottery, ceramics, tiles and stoneware. The company introduced the eosin glazing process and pyrogranite ceramics. The Zsolnay factory was established by Miklós Zsolnay in Pécs, Hungary, to produce stoneware and ceramics in 1853. In 1863, his son, Vilmos Zsolnay (1828–1900) joined the company and became its manager and director after several years. He led the factory to worldwide recognition by demonstrating its innovative products at world fairs and international exhibitions, including the 1873 World Fair in Vienna, then at the 1878 World Fair in Paris, where Zsolnay received a Grand Prix. Sport See also: Hungary at the Olympics Hungary men's national water polo team is considered among the best in the world, holding the world record for Olympic golds and overall medals Hungarian athletes have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, only ten countries have won more Olympic medals than Hungary, with a total of 498 medals ranking eighth in an all-time Olympic Games medal count. Hungary has the third-highest number of Olympic medals per capita and second-highest number of gold medals per capita in the world.[245] Hungary has historically excelled in Olympic water sports. In water polo the Hungarian team is the leading medal winner by a significant margin and in swimming Hungarian men are fourth most successful overall, while the women are eighth-most successful overall. They have also seen success in canoeing and kayaking they are the third most successful overall. Groupama Arena, Ferencvárosi TC's UEFA category four stadium Hungary won its first gold medal in Winter Olympics in 2018 in mens short track speed skating with a team of four: Csaba Burján, Sándor Liu, Shaoang Liu, Viktor Knoch.[246] In 2015 the Assembly of the Hungarian Olympic Committee and the Assembly of Budapest decided to bid for the 2024 Summer Olympics but eventually awarded to Paris. Budapest has also lost several bids to host the games, in 1916, 1920, 1936, 1944, and 1960 to Berlin, Antwerp, London, and Rome, respectively.[247][248] Hungary hosted many global sport event in the past, among others the 1997 World Amateur Boxing Championships, 2000 World Fencing Championships, 2001 World Allround Speed Skating Championships, 2008 World Interuniversity Games, 2008 World Modern Pentathlon Championships, 2010 ITU World Championship Series, 2011 IIHF World Championship, 2013 World Fencing Championships, 2013 World Wrestling Championships, 2014 World Masters Athletics Championships, 2017 World Aquatics Championships and 2017 World Judo Championships, only in the last two decade. Besides these, Hungary was the home of many European-level tournaments, like 2006 European Aquatics Championships, 2010 European Aquatics Championships, 2013 European Judo Championships, 2013 European Karate Championships, 2017 European Rhythmic Gymnastics Championship and will be the host of 4 matches in the UEFA Euro 2020, which will be held in the 67,889-seat new multi-purpose Puskás Ferenc Stadium. The Hungarian Grand Prix in Formula One has been held at the Hungaroring just outside Budapest, which circuit has FIA Grade 1 license.[249] Since 1986, the race has been a round of the FIA Formula One World Championship. At the 2013 Hungarian Grand Prix, it was confirmed that Hungary will continue to host a Formula 1 race until 2021.[250] The track was completely resurfaced for the first time in early 2016, and it was announced the Grand Prix's deal was extended for a further five years, until 2026.[251] Chess is also a popular and successful sport in Hungary, the Hungarian players are the 10th most powerful overall on the ranking of World Chess Federation.[252] There are about 54 Grandmasters and 118 International Masters in Hungary, which is more than in France or United Kingdom. World top junior player is the Hungarian Richárd Rapport currently on the FIDE World Rankings, while Judit Polgár generally considered the strongest female chess player of all time. Some of the world's best sabre athletes have historically also hailed from Hungary,[253][254] and in 2009, the Hungary men's national ice hockey team qualified for their first IIHF World Championship, in 2015, they qualified for their second World Championship in the top division. Football See also: Football in Hungary Ferenc Puskás, the best goalscorer of the 20th century, FIFA Puskás Award named after him Hungary has won three Olympic football titles, finished runners-up in the 1938 and 1954 FIFA World Cups, and third in Euro 1964. Hungary revolutionised the sport in the 1950s, laying the tactical fundamentals of total football and dominating international football with the Aranycsapat ("Golden Team"), which included Ferenc Puskás, top goalscorer of the 20th century,[255][256][257] to whom FIFA dedicated[258] its newest award, the Puskás Award. The side of that era has the second all-time highest Football Elo Ranking in the world, with 2166, and one of the longest undefeated runs in football history, remaining unbeaten in 31 games spanning more than four years.[259] The post-golden age decades saw a gradually weakening Hungary, though recently there is renewal in all aspects. The Hungarian Children's Football Federation was founded in 2008, as youth development thrives. For the first time in Hungarian football's history, they hosted the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship in Budapest and Debrecen, the first time the MLSZ staged a UEFA finals tournament. Also, the national teams have produced some surprise successes such as beating Euro 2004 winner Greece 3–2[260] and 2006 FIFA World Cup winner Italy 3–1.[261] During UEFA Euro 2016 Hungary won Group F and were eventually defeated in the round of 16. See also Hungary portal Europe portal Outline of Hungary Index of Hungary-related articles Notes ^ In Hungary people can declare multiple ethnic identities, hence the sum exceeds 100%. References ^ "The Story Behind the Hungarian National Anthem". Jules S. Vállay. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ a b "The Fundamental Law of Hungary" (PDF). Hungarian State. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ Vukovich, Gabriella (2018). Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok [2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data] (PDF). Hungarian Central Statistical Office (in Hungarian). Budapest. ISBN 978-963-235-542-9. Retrieved 10 January 2019. ^ a b c d "Hungarian census 2011 / Országos adatok (National data) / 1.1.4.2. A népesség nyelvismeret és nemek szerint (population by spoken language), 1.1.6.1 A népesség anyanyelv, nemzetiség és nemek szerint (population by mother tongue and ethnicity), 2.1.7.1 A népesség vallás, felekezet, és fontosabb demográfiai ismérvek szerint (population by religion, denomination and main demographical indicators) (Hungarian)". Ksh.hu. Retrieved 30 September 2014. ^ Encyclopedia Americana: Heart to India. 1. Scholastic Library Pub. 2006. p. 581. ISBN 978-0-7172-0139-6. ^ University of British Columbia. Committee for Medieval Studies, Studies in medieval and renaissance history, Committee for Medieval Studies, University of British Columbia, 1980, p. 159 ^ "Hungary". CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 27 March 2014. ^ "CIA World Factbook weboldal". Retrieved 3 June 2009. ^ "STADAT – 1.1. Népesség, népmozgalom (1941–)". www.ksh.hu. Archived from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2019. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2020". IMF.org. 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Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences). 1982. p. 419. ^ Kristó Gyula – Barta János – Gergely Jenő: Magyarország története előidőktől 2000-ig (History of Hungary from the prehistory to 2000), Pannonica Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, ISBN 963-9252-56-5, p. 687, pp. 37, pp. 113 ("Magyarország a 12. század második felére jelentős európai tényezővé, középhatalommá vált"/"By the 12th century Hungary became an important European constituent, became a middle power", "A Nyugat részévé vált Magyarország ... /Hungary became part of the West"), pp. 616–644 ^ "Austria-Hungary, HISTORICAL EMPIRE, EUROPE". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017. ^ Richard C. Frucht (31 December 2004). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 360. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. ^ "Trianon, Treaty of". 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All together it has 175 gold medal until 2016". medalspercapita.com. ^ Hungarian literature – ”Popular poetry is the only real poetry was the opinion of Sándor Petőfi, one of the greatest Hungarian poets, whose best poems rank among the masterpieces of world literature”., Encyclopædia Britannica, 2012 edition ^ Szalipszki, pg.12 Refers to the country as "widely considered" to be a "home of music". ^ UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2018 Edition. 2018. doi:10.18111/9789284419876. ISBN 9789284419876. ^ "International organizations in Hungary". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2016. ^ Király, Péter (1997). A magyarok elnevezése a korai európai forrásokban (The Names of the Magyars in Early European Sources) /In: Honfoglalás és nyelvészet ("The Occupation of Our county" and Linguistics)/. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó. p. 266. ISBN 978-963-506-108-2. ^ Peter F. Sugar, ed. (22 November 1990). A History of Hungary. 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For example, Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály, two of Hungary's most famous composers, are known for using folk themes in their own music. ^ Szalipszki, p. 12 Refers to the country as "widely considered" to be a "home of music". ^ Broughton, pp. 159–167 ^ Szabolcsi, The Specific Conditions of Hungarian Musical Development "Every experiment, made from Hungarian antecedents and on Hungarian soil, to create a conscious musical culture (music written by composers, as different from folk music), had instinctively or consciously striven to develop widely and universally the musical world of the folk song. Folk poetry and folk music were deeply embedded in the collective Hungarian people's culture, and this unity did not cease to be effective even when it was given from and expression by individual creative artists, performers and poets." ^ "Szabolcsi". Mek.oszk.hu. Retrieved 20 September 2009. ^ "Sulinet: Magyar növény-e a paprika?". Sulinet.hu. Archived from the original on 20 June 2008. 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Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Ian Spencer Hornsey, The Chemistry and Biology of Winemaking, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2007, p. 49, ISBN 9780854042661 ^ This is the world-famous sweet, topaz-colored wine known throughout the English-speaking world as Tokay. "A rich, sweet, moderately strong wine of a topaz color, produced in the vicinity of Tokay, in Hungary; also, a similar wine produced elsewhere." Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language (Springfield, Mass.: G.&C. Merriam, 1913). See Tokay at page 2166. ^ "Egri Bikavér – Hungarikum Lett a Vörös Cuvée". Eger.hu. ^ a b c "True Heritage – Vinum Regum, Rex Vinorum – Wine of Kings, King of Wines". The Royal Tokaji Wine Company, 2013. ^ "Unicum". Zwack. ^ "Hungary (Magyarország) – spa resorts & hotels". Visitspas.eu. Retrieved 18 August 2012. ^ "New Hungary Rural Development Programme". Umvp.eu. Retrieved 23 January 2017. ^ "Széchenyi Bath". Budapest: Hungária Koncert Kft. Retrieved 13 July 2015. ^ "Hotel Gellért. Its stately building, at the foot of the Gellért hill, also houses the world-famous Gellért Baths, which include an outdoor pool with the original wave-generating device installed in 1927.". Budapest: Danubius Hotels Group. Retrieved 6 July 2017. ^ "Herend Porcelain Manufactory Ltd". Herend.com. Retrieved 20 September 2009. ^ "Medals Per Capita". Retrieved 19 November 2016. ^ "Chinese-Hungarian brothers win gold for Hungary at Winter Olympics". Hungarian Free Press. 22 February 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018. ^ "A MOB közgyűlése támogatja a budapesti olympic" (in Hungarian). Hungarian Olympic Committee (MOB). 10 June 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015. ^ Tenczer Gábor (23 June 2015). "A Olympics" (in Hungarian). Index. Retrieved 23 June 2015. ^ "List of FIA Licensed Circuits" (PDF). FIA. 6 February 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015. ^ "Hungarian Grand Prix deal extended until 2021". GP Today. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ "Aszfaltavató a Hungaroringen" (in Hungarian). Hungaroring. 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016. "A Magyar Nagydíj szerződését újabb öt évvel meghosszabbítottuk, ami azt jelenti, hogy a futamunknak 2026-ig helye van a Formula–1-es versenynaptárban." Translates as "We have extended the Hungarian Grand Prix's contract for a further 5 years, which means that our race has a place on the F1 calendar until 2026". ^ "Federations Ranking". FIDE. 19 November 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2016. ^ "FIE 2009–2010 men's rankings". Fie.ch. Retrieved 22 June 2011. ^ "FIE 2009–2010 women's rankings". Fie.ch. Retrieved 22 June 2011. ^ "FIFA President: FIFA to help the Galloping Major". FIFA. 12 October 2005. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006. ^ "Coronel Puskas, el zurdo de oro". AS (in Spanish). 17 November 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006. ^ Mackay, Duncan (13 October 2005). "Lineker tees up another nice little earner". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 November 2006. ^ "Blatter unveils FIFA Puskas Award". Fifa.com. 21 October 2009. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2011. ^ "World Football Elo Ratings: Hungary". 6 July 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017. ^ "Hungary 3–2 Greece: Euro champions stunned". ESPN. 24 May 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2011. ^ "Hungary 3–1 Italy: World Champions stunned". ESPN. 22 August 2007. Retrieved 22 June 2011. Further reading Wikisource has original works on the topic: Hungary Kontler, László: Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary, Atlantisz Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1999 (East-European Non-Fiction), ISBN 9789639165373 External links Hungaryat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Government Official site of the Hungarian Government Official site of the Hungarian Prime Minister Official site of the President of Hungary Official Hungarian Tourism website General information "Hungary" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Hungary from the OECD Hungary at the EU Wikimedia Atlas of Hungary Forecasts for Hungary from International Futures Hungary from the BBC News Hungary. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 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en-wikipedia-org-7172	----	John VII Palaiologos - Wikipedia John VII Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor in 1390 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John VII Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of John VII (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 14 April – 17 September 1390 Predecessor John V Palaiologos Successor John V Palaiologos Despot of Thessalonica (Emperor of All Thessaly) Reign 1403 – 22 September 1408 Successor Andronikos Palaiologos (as Despot of Thessalonica) Co-emperor Andronikos V Palaiologos (1403–1407) Born 1370 Died 22 September 1408 (aged 38) Thessalonica Spouse Irene Gattilusio Issue Andronikos V Palaiologos Dynasty Palaiologos Father Andronikos IV Palaiologos Mother Keratsa of Bulgaria John VII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Ἰωάννης Ζʹ Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Iōánnēs Palaiológos; 1370 – 22 September 1408) was Byzantine emperor for five months in 1390, from 14 April to 17 September. A handful of sources suggest that John VII sometimes used the name Andronikos (Ἀνδρόνικος), possibly to honour the memory of his father, Andronikos IV Palaiologos. Andronikos IV was the firstborn son of Emperor John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1391), and had thus been the heir to the throne. After a failed rebellion in 1373, Andronikos IV was imprisoned and partially blinded, the same punishment possibly being carried out on John VII, then only three years old. Andronikos IV escaped in 1376 and successfully took Constantinople, ruling as emperor until 1379. John VII served as co-emperor during this time, possibly being appointed in 1377. Though deposed in 1379 by his brother Manuel II Palaiologos and their father John V, Andronikos IV never renounced his claims. To prevent further conflict, it was agreed in 1381 that Andronikos IV was to succeed John V, making John VII second-in-line to the throne. Upon Andronikos IV's death in 1385, John VII inherited his claims. Despite the previous agreement, Manuel was seen by John V as the favoured successor. John VII rebelled against John V and successfully seized Constantinople in 1390. After just five months, Manuel succeeded in deposing his nephew with the help of the Ottomans and the Knights Hospitaller. Upon John V's death in 1391, Manuel succeeded him as emperor. Still possessing a powerful network of allies, John VII never surrendered his claim to be the legitimate emperor, and the tense relationship between him and his uncle brought the empire close to civil war several times. Though they were only honoured to a limited extent by Manuel, several agreements in regards to status and the line of succession were made between the two in order to avoid conflict, certifying that John VII remained co-emperor and was to succeed Manuel upon his death. In 1394, the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I besieged Constantinople. Manuel left the city in 1399 to travel around Western Europe in search for military aid, and entrusted John VII with serving as regent in Constantinople, overseeing its defense. Despite allegations of conspiring with the Ottomans, John VII held the city loyally for the entire duration of Manuel's three and a half years-long journey, refusing to surrender it to Bayezid. The threat to Constantinople ended with Bayezid's defeat against the Timurids at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. In the aftermath of this battle, John VII negotiated a favourable treaty with one of Bayezid's sons, Süleyman Çelebi, which ensured that the important city of Thessalonica, lost to the Ottomans in 1387 due to the actions of Manuel, was returned to imperial control. Despite John VII's loyal service, Manuel sent him away in disgrace once he returned in 1403, and the two were once more enemies. This feud proved to be brief, as they were reconciled a few months later and a new agreement was made, in which John VII was allowed to take possession of Thessalonica and was acknowledged with the full imperial title. From 1403 until his death in 1408, John VII thus ruled in Thessalonica as "Emperor of All Thessaly", with his own separate imperial court. The Thessalonians considered him an able ruler, and his work with local church affairs and improving the city's defensive structures garnered him a positive remembrance. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Background and early life 1.2 Usurpation of the throne and reign 1.3 Governor in Selymbria and pretensions 1.4 Reconciliation with Manuel II and tenure as regent 1.5 Further tensions within the imperial family 1.6 Emperor in Thessalonica 2 Legacy 3 Notes 4 References 4.1 Bibliography 4.2 Web sources Biography[edit] Background and early life[edit] See also: Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379 15th-century portraits of Andronikos IV, John VII and Manuel II (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) John VII Palaiologos was born in 1370[1] as the only son[n 1] of Andronikos IV Palaiologos and Keratsa of Bulgaria, a daughter of Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria.[4] Andronikos IV was the first-born son of Emperor John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1391) and thus the legitimate heir to the Byzantine throne.[5][6] The Palaiologos dynasty, in power since 1259/1261,[7][8] was often plagued by infighting, with the emperors and princes of the family often being unable to cooperate among themselves, to the detriment of the empire.[9] The main enemy of the Byzantines at this time was the Ottoman Empire, which throughout the 14th century conquered vast swaths of former imperial territory.[10] John V had even agreed to serve the Ottoman sultan Murad I (r. 1362–1389) as a tributary vassal.[11] At this time, despite geopolitical adversity, Byzantine and Ottoman aristocrats were in close contact with each other.[12] While John was serving on an Ottoman campaign in Anatolia, as per his vassalage agreement with Murad I,[11] Andronikos and one of Murad I's sons, Savcı Bey, co-ordinated simultaneous revolts against their fathers.[9] The two princes were defeated, captured and imprisoned within a few months, as their fathers joined forces to put down the revolts.[11] Andronikos and Savcı suffered harsh punishment.[9] Savcı was blinded and beheaded by Murad I, and though the sultan ordered John V to blind his son as well, the Byzantine emperor was reluctant, only partially following through.[11] Andronikos was only partially blinded,[9] apparently losing just one of his eyes.[13] Some sources suggest that Andronikos's infant son John, the later John VII, only three years old at the time, was also partially blinded in the same way.[9][14][15] Furthermore, Andronikos lost his right of succession to the throne, with his younger brother, Manuel II Palaiologos, being designated as heir by John V instead.[6][9][11] Imprisoned with his family in the Prison of Anemas in Constantinople,[15] Andronikos escaped in July 1376, together with his wife and son, to Galata, a colony of the Republic of Genoa on the other side of the Golden Horn, where he was enthusiastically received by the Genoese. The Genoese preferred Andronikos over John V, due to the latter having recently granted the island of Tenedos to their rival, the Republic of Venice, thus hurting their commercial interests.[16] Andronikos also retained the support of a large fraction of Byzantine society, despite his rebellious actions, and successfully took Constantinople on 12 August that same year,[6][17] with Genoese and Ottoman support.[9] John V and Manuel were imprisoned, and Andronikos ruled as emperor for three years before they escaped and deposed him.[6][9] During his father's reign (12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379), John VII was proclaimed co-emperor, probably in 1377.[17] Even after being deposed, Andronikos never renounced his claim to the throne, residing in Galata and openly declaring his intentions to retake the capital.[6][9] The standoff between Andronikos and the emperors in Constantinople lasted until 1381, when an agreement was reached that Andronikos and his son John were to be John V's successors as emperors.[9] Furthermore, Andronikos was once more recognised as junior co-emperor and was allowed to retain and use the title of basileus (emperor).[1] Andronikos also received lands around Selymbria as an appanage in 1382.[1][17] Andronikos predeceased John V, dying on 25 or 28 June 1385.[13] John VII inherited his father's lands around Selymbria and, as per the 1381 agreement, also inherited the right to use the title basileus, becoming a junior co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. He also inherited his father's claim to be John V's legitimate heir.[1] From his position as junior emperor, John VII received support from the Ottoman Empire, especially from the time of Bayezid I's accession (1389) onwards, and from the Genoese.[18] The Genoese support did not escape the attention of John V. At some point between 1387 and 1391, John V is recorded as having complained to the Genoese that the inhabitants of Galata were acclaiming and saluting John VII as if he were the senior emperor, while denying John V the appropriate honours.[19] Usurpation of the throne and reign[edit] The Gate of Charisius, through which John VII entered Constantinople on 14 April 1390 Political map of the eastern Mediterranean in 1389 Despite the agreement of 1381, which explicitly stated that John VII was the legitimate successor, and Manuel having shown some rebellious tendencies himself,[n 2] Manuel remained John V's favoured heir and represented John VII's main obstacle on the way to the throne.[20] When Manuel was away campaigning in Anatolia in 1390, John VII, twenty years old, seized the moment and proclaimed himself sole emperor,[20] laying siege to Constantinople.[21] According to the contemporary Russian chronicler Ignatius of Smolensk, 1390 had seen a strong current of opinion in John VII's favour.[20] John VII had secured the support of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I and the Genoese; shortly before the siege (probably in late 1389) he had even travelled to Genoa in person to rally support.[21][22] As he travelled back to the Byzantine Empire by land, it is possible that John VII passed through Bulgaria, where he might also have sought the assistance of Ivan Sratsimir and Ivan Shishman, Tsars of Bulgaria in Vidin and Tarnovo, respectively.[23] In addition to his external allies, a large percentage of the population within Constantinople also supported John VII, and might even have approved of subtle Ottoman intervention in the succession.[20] John entered the city on 14 April 1390,[24] his brief siege having ended through a group of commoners opening the Gate of Charisius, without struggle, and letting him in.[20][21] Though some coercion was used, before long everyone inside the city had recognised and acclaimed John VII as emperor, submitting to his rule.[21] There is some contemporary evidence that John VII used the name Andronikos at the time of his usurpation. Ignatius of Smolensk, eyewitness to the event, wrote that the soldiers in John VII's service shouted the acclamation "Polla ta eti Andronikou!", rather than the expected "Polla ta eti Ioannou!" and records of the registers of expenses in Galata in 1390 mention that the emperor in Constantinople at the time was Andronico Paleologo.[n 3] It is possible that John VII changed his name to Andronikos upon his father's death in 1385 to honour his memory,[25] or adopted it only in 1390, in order to avoid confusion and facilitate his usurpation of the throne. If his soldiers and the people of Constantinople were to depose an emperor named John and proclaim another of the same name, the entire affair could be conducted in bewilderment. By using the name Andronikos, any such issues would be avoided. During his actual reign as emperor, after successfully taking the throne, John VII does not appear to have used the second name, reigning under his birth name. In treaties he signed he is referred to as John, and contemporary Byzantine authors also consistently refer to him by his birth name, ignoring any second name for him.[6] The few activities recorded to have been conducted during John VII's brief reign suggest that he believed that he was going to rule for a long time.[20] In June, he signed a commercial treaty with Venice and throughout his time as emperor he issued prostagmata (imperial decisions/commands) and minted coins.[20] John VII is also recorded to have supported the restoration of Macarius to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.[26] Macarius had been Patriarch of Constantinople during the reign of John VII's father, in 1376–1379.[27] John VII's reign ended in the same year as it had begun, when Manuel returned from his campaign.[20] With the support of the Knights Hospitaller and the Ottomans, Manuel deposed John VII, who had ruled just five months, on 17 September and restored the rule of John V.[20][24][28] After helping Manuel retake the city for his father, sultan Bayezid I forced him to live at the Ottoman court, acting as a submissive vassal.[28] Governor in Selymbria and pretensions[edit] Coin of Francesco II Gattilusio, the father of John VII's wife Irene Gattilusio John VII never gave up his claim to be emperor, and continued to be a powerful political player in the Byzantine Empire for years following his deposition.[29] Sometime before 1397, possibly as early as 1390, John married Irene Gattilusio, daughter of Francesco II Gattilusio, the lord of the island of Lesbos.[24] After John V returned to the throne, Bayezid summoned both junior co-emperors, Manuel and John VII, to join the sultan's campaigns in Anatolia. They were both forced to take part in the Ottoman subjection of Philadelphia, the last Christian city in western Anatolia.[30] When John V died in 1391,[20] Manuel, at Bayezid's court at the time,[28] quickly made his way to Constantinople to pre-empt John VII claiming the throne.[20] John VII continued to govern Selymbria following John V's death and continued to aspire to become senior emperor following Manuel II's rise to the throne.[20] He ruled Selymbria as a vassal of Bayezid I, which meant that he was forced to aid the sultan in further campaigns in Anatolia.[31] According to historian John W. Barker, John VII attempted to sell his claim to the Byzantine throne to Charles VI of France. In 1397 in Selymbria, John VII supposedly entrusted the French nobles Henry of Bar and Jean of Nevers with negotiating with Charles VI, with John VII seeking a French castle and a generous pension in return for giving up the title. Barker's hypothesis is based on a real legal document signed on 15 July 1397, possibly at Saray rather than Selymbria, but the document itself contains no mentions of what rights John VII entrusted the French nobles with or what his exact intentions in negotiating with Charles VI were. The idea that John VII intended to sell his claims is based on premature interpretations of the document itself and notes by the nobles concerning a discussion with Francesco II Gattilusio on Lesbos, during which Gattilusio supposedly divulged what he believed John's intentions to be.[32] John VII's hopes of claiming the throne continued to be supported by Bayezid I, who saw him as a more promising candidate than the staunchly anti-Ottoman Manuel II. By supporting John VII, Bayezid hoped to turn the Byzantine Empire into a obedient vassal state, as it had nearly been under John V's rule.[20] Though Bayezid was a significant ally, his overt support for John was used by Manuel II in his efforts to delegitimise John's claims. In some of Manuel II's early texts, he went as far as to claim that John's ultimate plan was to surrender Constantinople to the Ottomans.[31] Despite Manuel's propaganda campaign, John still enjoyed considerable support, both within the empire and among its allies. In addition to Bayezid, John continued to be supported by the Republic of Genoa, with which he had commercial connections. In addition, John was also backed by a wide network of rich Byzantine aristocrats. His wide support and wealth gave him a constant pool of resources that he could use in the feud with his uncle.[31] In addition to his backing by certain aristocrats and his international allies, there was also a faction within Constantinople, mainly composed of commoners, who wished to restore John VII as senior emperor, as late as 1399. This faction opposed Manuel II's rule, believing that he did not care about the empire's survival, and that he ruled as a tyrant. As John VII had been constitutionally invested with the right to succeed to the throne in 1381, they saw him as the legitimate heir, not Manuel, who was viewed as a usurper more interested in his own power than anything else.[21] This perception of Manuel was used by John VII in his own propaganda.[33] Reconciliation with Manuel II and tenure as regent[edit] See also: Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402) Portrait of Sultan Bayezid I by Cristofano dell'Altissimo (1552–1562) Tensions between John VII and Manuel escalated as Bayezid began to threaten to conquer Constantinople.[31] In 1394, Bayezid laid siege to the city.[33] Encouraged by the French knight Boucicaut, who had been placed as the leader of Constantinople's defense and who had good relations with both John VII and Manuel, the two emperors reached an agreement meant to end their dynastic feud in 1399. According to the Byzantine monk Symeon of Thessalonica, John VII's attitude towards Manuel had only changed because Bayezid had attacked his lands around Selymbria in 1397.[31][34] The agreement was that Manuel adopted John VII, and that John VII in turn adopted Manuel's sons and daughters, uniting the two branches of the family. Manuel also formally acknowledged John VII as the first co-emperor, outranking Manuel's own son, John VIII Palaiologos, who then became the second co-emperor.[35] The agreement allowed Manuel to leave the city in a three-year long mission to travel around Europe in an attempt to secure military aid, while John was entrusted to remain in Constantinople as regent, governing the city in Manuel's absence.[31] Though in effect having become Emperor-regent,[36] John's responsibility was mainly the defense of Constantinople, not other matters normally handled by the emperor.[24][36] Due to a lack of sources, John VII's regency in Constantinople is not well documented, and the extent of his power and how he exercised it is not entirely clear. It does not appear that the 1399 agreement was honoured by Manuel, as he sent his family (now ostensibly John's family) to his brother Theodore Palaiologos in the Morea. The only textual records that survive of John's activities in Constantinople are treaties with the Venetians and Genose, and documentation of his decision to depose Patriarch Matthew I.[37] Matthew I had many enemies in Constantinople, for reasons not entirely clear, and the anti-Matthew faction managed to persuade John VII to depose him.[38] He would later be restored by Manuel once he returned to Constantinople.[39] In the Byzantine Empire, ultimate authority to appoint patriarchs rested with the emperor alone.[40] While besieging the city, Bayezid attempted to appeal to John VII's supporters by posing as a defender of John VII's legitimacy and offering peace on the condition that John was restored to the throne, terms that had been refused by Manuel before he left, a decision which prolonged the siege.[33] Once Manuel had left the city, Bayezid tried to negotiate directly with John VII. Perhaps overlooking that he had supported Manuel's deposition of John VII in 1390, his own attack on John VII's lands in Selymbria in 1397, and the reconciliation between the two emperors, Bayezid seemed to still believe that he could rely on John VII to do his bidding.[34] Shortly after Manuel's departure from Constantinople, he sent the following message to John VII from Adrianople:[34] If I have indeed put the Basileus Manuel out of the city, not for your sake have I done this, but for mine. And if, then, you wish to be our friend, withdraw from thence and I will give you a province, whatever one you may wish. But if you do not, with God and his great Prophet as my witness, I will spare no one, but all will I utterly destroy.[34] John VII refused to surrender the city and replied defiantly to Bayezid's messenger, recorded as having said the following:[34] Withdraw, report to your lord: we are in poverty and there is no great power whereunto we may flee, except to God who aids the powerless and Who overpowers the powerful. So if you wish anything, do it![41] 1422 map of Constantinople by cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti, the oldest surviving map of the city The situation grew more grim as time went on and Manuel's absence dragged on. Though Venice had promised to send military aid to lift the siege, the promised forces never arrived. Despite his forces being exhausted and the Timurids appearing in the eastern parts of his empire, Bayezid refused to abandon the siege. Throughout the six-year-long siege, the citizens of Constantinople suffered. Many of them chose to escape from the walls to personally surrender to the Ottoman forces.[42] Despite having refused to surrender the city, John VII maintained some connections to Bayezid.[37] Early in January 1401, John VII was away from Constantinople, attempting to sign an agreement with Bayezid. Whatever he did, it appears to have worked momentarily as the siege was lifted for a brief period in the summer.[43] In 1402, John VII is recorded as present on an Ottoman military expedition in the Peloponnese.[37] On 1 June 1402, as the siege was escalating, John VII sent a letter to Henry IV of England, writing of the urgent danger threatening Constantinople. About a month after this letter was sent, Bayezid finally left the city, having to deal with the Timurids. Bayezid's defeat and capture at the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402, and the subsequent period of Ottoman civil war it sparked, ended the siege of Constantinople and saved the city.[44] The Ottoman defeat at Ankara was used by John to negotiate a treaty with one of Bayezid I's sons, Süleyman Çelebi, in which the city of Thessalonica, as well as substantial territories in Thrace and Macedonia, were returned to the Byzantine Empire.[24] John baptised and christianised two of Bayezid's sons in 1403: İsa Çelebi and Yusuf Çelebi. İsa may have been adopted by John, and Yusuf is recorded to have continued to live in Constantinople, attested there as late as 1413.[45] Upon Manuel's return to Constantinople in June 1403, John returned power to him.[24] Though some contemporary comments seem to suggest that everyone expected John VII to refuse to surrender power, John VII appears to have been content with letting go of his responsibilities after governing the Byzantine capital for three and a half years.[46] Once Manuel returned, he reversed several of John VII's decisions, for instance disavowing a treaty John VII had arranged with the Ottomans, in which he had granted them religious and financial privileges.[47] Further tensions within the imperial family[edit] 15th-century portraits of John VII, Manuel II and John VIII (from a 15th-century codex in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris) After Manuel's return in 1403, relations between him and John VII were tense once more. Since he knew that John VII could no longer rely on the support of the Ottomans, Manuel attempted to completely exclude him from the imperial hierarchy, stripping him of the title basileus and depriving him of his promised lands in Selymbria and Thessalonica. The reasons for excluding John was attributed by Manuel to rumours that John had initiated negotiations in 1402 with Bayezid concerning the surrender of Constantinople.[37] The contemporary Castilian traveller Ruy González de Clavijo wrote that John and Bayezid had agreed that should Bayezid defeat the Timurids, John would surrender the city.[48] It is doubtful that such an agreement was ever made, especially since John proved himself to be loyal for the duration of his tenure as regent and concluded a highly favourable treaty with the Ottoman prince Süleyman Çelebi.[49] According to German historian Peter Wirth, it is possible that the reason for resentment again brewing up between John and Manuel after Manuel's return could be that Manuel felt that he had been ignored and left out of these important negotiations.[49] John was sent to the island of Lemnos, apparently in disgrace, but fled to his father-in-law Francesco on nearby Lesbos. Soon thereafter, in September 1403, John and Francesco launched a naval expedition against Thessalonica, though it appears to have had little to no result.[50] The expedition was not some attempt to seize the city from Manuel's control, but rather to liberate it from the Ottomans, as an Ottoman garrison was still present.[51] John VII and Francesco returned to Lesbos, where Boucicaut was also residing at the time. Together with Boucicaut, they then travelled to Constantinople at the head of an army, planning to take the city from Manuel by force.[37] Though they ultimately chose not to attack the city, John VII's drastic actions called for a new political agreement between the dynasts. The resulting 1403 agreement between John VII and Manuel was similar to the one they had made in 1399. As Manuel's adoptive son, John VII remained the first co-emperor and Manuel's actual son, John VIII, continued being the second co-emperor. John VII's rights to Thessalonica were also affirmed.[37] Clavijo, present in Constantinople at the time, writes that both Manuel and John VII were designated as full emperors and that John VII was to reign alone after Manuel's death, after which he was to be succeeded by Manuel's son John VIII, who in turn would be succeeded by John VII's newly born son, Andronikos V Palaiologos.[52] Contemporary reactions to the resolution appear to have been bitter. Clavijo wrote that he did not believe that the agreement would be respected by either emperor.[53] Emperor in Thessalonica[edit] Half-stavraton coin of John VII. The coin features a bust of the emperor (right) and Christ Pantocrator (left). The transfer of Thessalonica from Ottoman control to the Byzantines was overseen by Manuel's confidant, Demetrios Laskaris Leontares, who per the agreement between the two emperors handed it over to John VII.[54] According to preserved documents signed by John VII, he probably first arrived in Thessalonica in late 1403. Though John was accompanied on the initial journey by some of Manuel's staunchest supporters, such as Leontares and Demetrios Chrysoloras, who were ordered to keep an eye on his activities, John VII immediately assumed autonomy from Constantinople.[55] Despite their agreement and John VII's de facto autonomy, Manuel's texts state that John was "given" Thessalonica by Manuel, a phrasing which suggests that Manuel still considered himself to be John VII's superior.[54] Though no known surviving copies exist, a detailed oath was drawn up between Manuel and John, which decided upon a well-defined border between the empires of Constantinople and Thessalonica. Some territories located nearer to Thessalonica than to Constantinople, such as Mount Athos, were kept as sworn to Constantinople.[54] John was invested as Despot of Thessalonica and was allowed to keep the full imperial title.[56] While ruling Thessalonica, John VII is attested as having used the title Βασιλεύς ἀπάσης Θετταλίας,[57] variously translated as "Emperor of Thessaly",[24] "Emperor of All Thessaly",[58] "Emperor of all the Thessaly"[57] or "Emperor of all of Thessaly".[59] Though he had assumed this new title, John VII never stopped asserting his right to be the legitimate Byzantine emperor, continuing to use the titles autokrator and basileus, identical to the titulature of Manuel. In foreign correspondence, he was addressed in the same way as his uncle. Preserved treaties with the Italian republics refer to John VII as imperador di Griesi ("Emperor of the Greeks") and lo gran imperator Caloiani imperador di Griesi ("The great emperor Kalojoannes,[n 4] Emperor of the Greeks").[53] John's entry into Thessalonica was commemorated in a Byzantine ivory pyxis (a cylindrical box with a lid).[24] This pyxis, today held at Dumbarton Oaks, depicts both the imperial family of John VII (including his wife Irene and his son Andronikos V) and the imperial family of Manuel II (including his wife Helena Dragaš and his son, John VIII).[61] At Thessalonica, John VII created his own treasury and issued his own coins with his own portrait rather than that of Manuel. He created his own imperial court and chancery, where documents were signed with his name rather than the name of Manuel. Throughout John's reign in Thessalonica, which lasted until his death in 1408, the Byzantine Empire thus experienced a period of dual rule,[62] essentially divided into two.[63] John's activities as emperor in Thessalonica consisted mainly of organising the city's defense and regulating local church property.[62] He appears to have been content with his position; there are no further records of conflict between John VII and Manuel after the events of 1403.[64] John VII's arrival in Thessalonica meant more to the Thessalonians than simply the arrival of an emperor. Through his 1403 treaty, John VII had liberated the city from the Ottomans and once more made it into the second city of the Byzantine Empire.[54] Though Manuel had also been involved in some of the negotiations, the majority of the credit for ensuring Thessalonica's return to imperial control has to be given to John VII.[62] As such, his arrival in the city was not just the arrival of a new governor, but of the city's liberator.[62] Throughout his reign in Thessalonica, the Thessalonians continued to view John VII as an able ruler. According to Symeon of Thessalonica, John VII "fortified [the city] on all sides with triremes and outer walls" and "adorned [it] with good regulations and institutions".[62] Shortly after arriving in Thessalonica, John VII had raised his son, Andronikos V, to co-emperor. John VII viewed Andonikos V as not just his own legitimate successor, but the future legitimate successor to the Byzantine Empire. This can be gathered from the aforementioned pyxis depicting Andronikos V more prominently than Manuel's heir, John VIII, as well as monodies composed after Andronikos V's death.[64] One such monody states that Andronikos's parents had "regarded him gladly as their successor".[65] Andronikos V, who was named after his grandfather Andronikos IV,[65] was per the 1403 agreement the legitimate heir to the empire, set to be the heir to Manuel's son John VIII.[53][65] Any plans for Andronikos V's future fell through when he died in 1407 at the age of seven.[64][65] Some time after Andronikos V's death, John became a monk, assuming the monastic name Joseph.[24] John VII died in Thessalonica[47] a year after Andronikos V, on 22 September 1408,[66] at the relatively young age of 38. With the deaths of Andronikos V and John VII, the rival imperial lineage that had been established by Andronikos IV died out.[64][n 5] Legacy[edit] The medieval walls of Thessalonica were worked on extensively during John VII's reign in the city. John VII was positively remembered in Thessalonica. The city was often not wholly obedient to Constantinople, with its leaders often going their own way in terms of administration. To the citizens of Thessalonica, John's death was a significant blow to their autonomy.[53] John VII's reign in Thessalonica was the last time the city served as a counter-capital of sorts to Constantinople.[67] Manuel visited the city in 1409 and installed his young son, Andronikos, as governor. While he was met with many approving citizens, there were also many who opposed a ruler from Constantinople being imposed upon them. That the Thessalonians had enjoyed the rule of a leader with a rebellious past, who just like Manuel bore the title basileus, had probably only stimulated the city's separatist tendencies.[53] A praiseful passage in a eulogy of John, from the Synodikon of Thessalonica, reads:[62] For our emperor John Palaiologos fought almost on his knees fiercely and courageously in defense of the Romans at a time when foreign peoples were leaning towards us [...] and when an unspeakably most powerful billow which had been raised and was threatening to destroy everything, and released the emperor from slavery and secured our safety by all possible means.[62] Another eulogy, this one probably written by Symeon of Thessalonica, contains this passage:[68] He conducted himself in a truly orthodox manner through his entire life. He was an outstanding defender of the church and its sacred doctrines .... When waves of unheard-of violence rose up and threatened to engulf everything, he did not yield, but like a good pilot he again took control for the Romans. He recovered several cities from the hands of the barbarians, of which the first and greatest was our own Thessalonike, seeing the light of freedom after long servitude. He established his residence in our city and, neglecting nothing that was needed, he employed all means to assure our safety. He also gained many victories and triumphs over his own sufferings; the great variety of illnesses which he bore caused him to progress in virtue.[68] Other eulogies, as well as a similarly praiseful monody by the contemporary Byzantine author Theodore Potamios, almost give the impression that a cult of John VII was beginning to develop in Thessalonica.[68] Notes[edit] ^ It is generally accepted that John VII was Andronikos IV's only son.[2] Some sources suggest that Andronikos IV had younger sons as well. A passage from the Histories of Laonikos Chalkokondyles suggests that Andronikos IV had the sons Andronikos (probably John VII, who appears to have periodically assumed this name), Demetrios, Manuel and Theodore.[2] The 15th-century Ottoman historian Neşri, while discussing the war in 1413 between Ottoman princes Musa Çelebi and Mehmed Çelebi, wrote that among Mehmed's supporters were a "son of the blind prince". As the "blind prince" was probably Andronikos IV, and John VII had been dead for five years at this point, this might be a reference to another of Andronikos IV's sons. The Castilian traveller Ruy González de Clavijo, who visited Constantinople, records that he met Demetrios, son of Andronikos IV. Though it is clear from Clavijo's account that he actually met John VIII Palaiologos, the son of Manuel II Palaiologos, the repetition of the name Demetrios, also used by Chalkokondyles for one of Andronikos IV's sons, is a strange coincidence.[3] ^ Manuel, upset about being exluded from the succession in 1381, fled to Thessalonica, where he established his power over much of Thessaly and Epirus. Murad I saw Manuel as a dangerous enemy, having broken his father's oath of vassalage to the Ottomans. The Ottomans thus attacked Thessalonica, and though Manuel appeared to want to make a stand against the Ottoman army, the citizens of Thessalonica seemed willing to surrender the city and John V chose to not send any help to his son. In 1387, the Ottomans entered the city without opposition. Manuel is later recorded as a supplicant at the Ottoman court, but was eventually reconciled with his father.[9] ^ There is also some scant later evidence. A short chronicle by an anonymous author covering the years 1221–1460, though not as reliable as the other sources due to its greater distance in time, mentions that the regent left in Constantinople during Manuel II Palaiologos's journey to Western Europe 1399–1403 (John VII) was his brother (an obvious error) and was named Andronikos.[25] ^ Kalojoannes (Greek: Kαλοϊωάννης, romanized: Kaloïōannēs, lit. 'John the Good / John the Beautiful') was a nickname applied to several emperors named John. The nickname is simply a more ornate and flattering version of Ioannes.[60] ^ According to British historian Steven Runciman, John VII and Irene Gattilusio might also have had a daughter, who married Loukas Notaras.[65] References[edit] ^ a b c d Leonte 2012, p. 46. ^ a b Zachariadou 1977, p. 340. ^ Zachariadou 1977, p. 342. ^ PLP, 21438. Παλαιολόγος, Ἀνδρόνικος IV. [Κομνηνός]. ^ Zachariadou 1977, p. 339. ^ a b c d e f Zachariadou 1977, p. 341. ^ Haldon 2005, p. 176. ^ Grierson 1999, p. 3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gregory 2010, p. 371. ^ Nicol 1992, p. 2. ^ a b c d e Necipoğlu 2009, p. 119. ^ Gregory 2010, p. 370. ^ a b ODB, "Andronikos IV Palaiologos" (A. M. Talbot), pp. 95–96. ^ Necipoğlu 2009, p. 120. ^ a b Mladenov 2003, p. 189. ^ Necipoğlu 2009, pp. 120–121. ^ a b c Mladenov 2003, p. 190. ^ Leonte 2012, pp. 46–47. ^ Necipoğlu 2009, p. 131. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Leonte 2012, p. 47. ^ a b c d e Necipoğlu 2009, p. 132. ^ Mladenov 2003, p. 191. ^ Mladenov 2003, pp. 191–193. ^ a b c d e f g h i Oikonomides 1977, p. 331. ^ a b Zachariadou 1977, pp. 339–341. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 27. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 28. ^ a b c Encyclopaedia Britannica – Manuel II Palaeologus. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 55. ^ Gregory 2010, p. 372. ^ a b c d e f Leonte 2012, p. 48. ^ Wirth 1965, pp. 592–594. ^ a b c Necipoğlu 2009, p. 133. ^ a b c d e Kapsalis 1994, p. 64. ^ Leonte 2012, pp. 48–49. ^ a b Kapsalis 1994, p. 9. ^ a b c d e f Leonte 2012, p. 49. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 72. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 80. ^ Geanakoplos 1965, p. 388. ^ Kapsalis 1994, pp. 64–65. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 65. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 71. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 75. ^ Savvides 2001, pp. 459–460. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 87. ^ a b Encyclopaedia Britannica – John VII Palaeologus. ^ Wirth 1965, p. 598. ^ a b Wirth 1965, p. 599. ^ Oikonomides 1977, p. 334. ^ Wirth 1965, p. 597. ^ Oikonomides 1977, pp. 334–335. ^ a b c d e Leonte 2012, p. 52. ^ a b c d Oikonomides 1977, p. 335. ^ Leonte 2012, pp. 49–50. ^ Barker 2003, pp. 14, 24. ^ a b Kapsalis 1994, p. 101. ^ Necipoğlu 2009, p. 39. ^ Barker 2003, p. 14. ^ Mladjov 2015, p. 297. ^ Oikonomides 1977, pp. 329–330. ^ a b c d e f g Leonte 2012, p. 50. ^ Kapsalis 1994, p. 97. ^ a b c d Leonte 2012, p. 51. ^ a b c d e Oikonomides 1977, p. 332. ^ Savvides 2001, p. 460. ^ Barker 2003, p. 24. ^ a b c Dennis 2003, p. 260. Bibliography[edit] Barker, John W. (2003). "Late Byzantine Thessalonike: A Second City's Challenges and Responses". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 57: 5–33. doi:10.2307/1291874. JSTOR 1291874. Dennis, George T. (2003). "The Late Byzantine Metropolitans of Thessalonike". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 57: 255–264. doi:10.2307/1291884. JSTOR 1291884. Geanakoplos, Deno J. (1965). "Church and State in the Byzantine Empire: A Reconsideration of the Problem of Caesaropapism". Church History. 34 (4): 381–403. doi:10.2307/3163118. JSTOR 3163118. Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Singapore: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405184717. Grierson, Philip (1999). Catalogue of Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: Volume Five: Michael VIII to Constantine XI 1258–1453. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-261-7. Haldon, John (2005). The Palgrave Atlas of Byzantine History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230243644. Kapsalis, Athanasius G. (1994). Matthew I, Patriarch of Constantinople (1397 - 1410), his life, his patriarchal acts, his written works (PDF) (Thesis). Durham University. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Leonte, Florin (2012). Rhetoric in Purple: the Renewal of Imperial Ideology in the Texts of Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (PDF) (PhD thesis). Central European University. Mladenov, Momchil (2003). "The Emperor John VII Palaiologos and the Bulgarian Lands in 1390". Journal Epohi (in Bulgarian). 11 (1): 189–196. Mladjov, Ian S. R. (2015). "Monarchs' Names and Numbering in the Second Bulgarian State". Studia Ceranea. 5: 267–310. doi:10.18778/2084-140X.05.09. ISSN 2084-140X. Necipoğlu, Nevra (2009). Byzantium Between the Ottomans and the Latins: Politics and Society in the Late Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521877381. Nicol, Donald M. (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0511583698. Oikonomides, Nicolas (1977). "John VII Palaeologus and the Ivory Pyxis at Dumbarton Oaks". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 31: 329–337. doi:10.2307/1291411. JSTOR 1291411. Savvides, Alexios G. C. (2001). "On the Origins and Connotation of the Term "Tekfur" in Byzantine–Turkish Relations". Byzantion. 71 (2): 451–461. JSTOR 44172730. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Wirth, Peter (1965). "Zum Geschichtsbild Kaiser Johannes' VII. Palaiologos". Byzantion (in German). 35 (2): 592–600. JSTOR 44170158. Zachariadou, Elizabeth A. (1977). "John VII (Alias Andronicus) Palaeologus". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 31: 339–342. doi:10.2307/1291412. JSTOR 1291412. Web sources[edit] "Manuel II Palaeologus". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 17 November 2020. "John VII Palaeologus". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 17 November 2020. John VII Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 1370 Died: 22 September 1408 Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1390 Succeeded by John V Palaiologos VacantThessalonica under Ottoman control Title last held by Manuel II Palaiologos (1387) Despot of Thessalonica ("Emperor of All Thessaly") 1403–1408 with Andronikos V Palaiologos, 1403–1407 Succeeded by Andronikos Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_VII_Palaiologos&oldid=1027203597" Categories: Palaiologos dynasty Eastern Orthodox monarchs 1370 births 1408 deaths Byzantine regents 14th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars People of Bulgarian-Jewish descent Byzantine governors of Thessalonica Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg) CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7185	----	Moesia - Wikipedia Moesia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical region of the Balkans Not to be confused with Moesha. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Moesia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (June 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the German article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 6,472 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at [[:de:Moesia]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|de|Moesia}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Moesia Inferior (highlighted), c. 125 AD Moesia Superior (highlighted), c. 125 AD Moesia (/ˈmiːʃə, -siə, -ʒə/;[1][2] Latin: Moesia; Greek: Μοισία, romanized: Moisía)[3] was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River. It included most of the territory of modern-day Central Serbia, Kosovo and the northern parts of North Macedonia (Moesia Superior), the whole of Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobruja and small parts of Southern Ukraine (Moesia Inferior). Contents 1 Geography 2 History 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Geography[edit] In ancient geographical sources, Moesia was bounded to the south by the Haemus (Balkan Mountains) and Scardus (Šar) mountains, to the west by the Drinus (Drina) river, on the north by the Donaris (Danube) and on the east by the Euxine (Black Sea).[4] History[edit] The region was inhabited chiefly by Thracians, Dacians (Thraco-Dacian), Illyrian and Thraco-Illyrian peoples. The name of the region comes from Moesi, Thraco-Dacian peoples who lived there before the Roman conquest. Parts of Moesia belonged to the polity of Burebista, a Getae king who established his rule over a large part of the northern Balkans between 82 BC and 44 BC. He led plunder and conquest raids across Central and Southeastern Europe, subjugating most of the neighbouring tribes. After his assassination in an inside plot, the empire was divided into several smaller states. In 75 BC, C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia, took an army as far as the Danube and gained a victory over the inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Licinius Crassus, grandson of the triumvir and later also proconsul of Macedonia during the reign of Augustus c. 29 BC.[4] The region, however, was not organized as a province until the last years of Augustus' reign; in 6 AD, mention is made of its governor, Caecina Severus.[5] As a province, Moesia was under an imperial consular legate (who probably also had control of Achaea and Macedonia).[4] In 86 AD the Dacian king Duras ordered his troops to attack Roman Moesia. After this attack, the Roman emperor Domitian personally arrived in Moesia and reorganized it in 87 AD into two provinces, divided by the river Cebrus (Ciabrus):[4] to the west Moesia Superior or Upper Moesia (meaning upriver) and to the east Moesia Inferior or Lower Moesia or Ripa Thracia (from the Danube river's mouth and then upstream). Each was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator.[4] The chief towns of Upper Moesia in the Principate were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (sometimes called municipium Aelium; modern Kostolac), Remesiana (Bela Palanka), Bononia (Vidin), Ratiaria (Archar) and Skupi (modern Skopje); of Lower Moesia: Oescus (colonia Ulpia, Gigen), Novae (near Svishtov, the chief seat of Theodoric the Great), Nicopolis ad Istrum (Nikup; really near the river Yantra), Marcianopolis (Devnya), Tyras (Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi), Olvia, Odessus (Varna) and Tomis (Constanţa; to which the poet Ovid was banished). The last two were Greek towns which formed a pentapolis with Istros, Mesembria (Nessebar) and Apollonia (Sozopol).[4] From Moesia, Domitian began planning future campaigns into Dacia and by 87 he started a strong offensive against Dacia, ordering General Cornelius Fuscus to attack. Therefore, in the summer of 87, Fuscus led five or six legions across the Danube. The campaign against the Dacians ended without a decisive outcome, and Decebalus, the Dacian King, had brazenly flouted the terms of the peace (89 AD) which had been agreed on at the war's end. Emperor Trajan later arrived in Moesia, and he launched his first military campaign into the Dacian Kingdom[6] c. March–May 101, crossing to the northern bank of the Danube River and defeating the Dacian army near Tapae, a mountain pass in the Carpathians (see Second Battle of Tapae). Trajan's troops were mauled in the encounter, however, and he put off further campaigning for the year to heal troops, reinforce, and regroup.[7] During the following winter, King Decebalus launched a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, but this was repulsed. Trajan's army advanced further into Dacian territory and forced King Decebalus to submit to him a year later.[citation needed] Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title Dacicus. The victory was celebrated by the Tropaeum Traiani. However, Decebalus in 105 undertook an invasion against Roman territory by attempting to stir up some of the tribes north of the river against the empire.[8] Trajan took to the field again and after building with the design of Apollodorus of Damascus his massive bridge over the Danube, he conquered part of Dacia in 106 (see also Second Dacian War).[citation needed] Sometime around 272, at the Moesian city of Naissus or Nissa (modern Niš in Serbia), future emperor Constantine I was born. After the abandonment of Roman Dacia to the Goths by Aurelian (270–275) and the transfer of the Roman citizens from the former province to the south of the Danube, the central portion of Moesia took the name of Dacia Aureliana (later divided into Dacia Ripensis[4] and Dacia Mediterranea). During administrative reforms of Emperor Diocletian (284–305), both of the Moesian provinces were reorganized. Moesia Superior was divided in two, northern part forming the province of Moesia Prima including cities Viminacium and Singidunum, while the southern part was organised as the new province of Dardania with cities Scupi and Ulpiana. At the same time, Moesia Inferior was divided into Moesia Secunda and Scythia Minor. Moesia Secunda's main cities included Marcianopolis (Devnya), Odessus (Varna), Nicopolis (Nikopol), Abrittus (Razgrad), Durostorum (Silistra), Transmarisca (Tutrakan), Sexaginta Prista (Ruse) and Novae (Svishtov), all in Bulgaria today.[citation needed] The Moesian provinces and the northern Balkans in Late Antiquity As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube, and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection against the Scythians and Sarmatians.[4] The garrison of Moesia Secunda included Legio I Italica and Legio XI Claudia, as well as independent infantry units, cavalry units, and river flotillas. The Notitia Dignitatum lists its units and their bases as of the 390s CE. Units in Scythia Minor included Legio I Iovia and Legio II Herculia.[citation needed] After 238 AD, Moesia was frequently invaded or raided by the Dacian Carpi, and the East Germanic tribe of the Goths, who invaded Moesia in 250. Hard-pressed by the Huns, the Goths again crossed the Danube during the reign of Valens (376) and with his permission settled in Moesia.[4] After they settled, quarrels soon took place, and the Goths under Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople. These Goths are known as Moeso-Goths, for whom Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible.[4] The Slavs allied with the Avars invaded and destroyed much of Moesia in 583–587 in the Avar–Byzantine wars. Moesia was settled by Slavs during the 7th century. Bulgars, arriving from Old Great Bulgaria, conquered Lower Moesia by the end of the 7th century. During the 8th century the Byzantine Empire lost also Upper Moesian territory to the First Bulgarian Empire.[citation needed] See also[edit] Diocese of Moesia Dacia Aureliana List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia List of Roman governors of Moesia List of Roman governors of Lower Moesia List of Roman governors of Upper Moesia Inscriptions of Upper Moesia Moesogoths Margus (city) References[edit] ^ Lena Olausson; Catherine Sangster, eds. (2006). Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation. Oxford University Press. ^ Daniel Jones (2006). Peter Roach; James Hartman; Jane Setter (eds.). Cambridge Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ^ "C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Vitellius Maximilian Ihm, Ed". perseus.tufts.eud. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Freese, John Henry (1911). "Moesia" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 643–644. ^ Cassius Dio, lv.29 ^ "Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions: Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Because the Dacians represented an obstacle against Roman expansion in the east, in the year 101 the emperor Trajan decided to begin a new campaign against them. The first war began on 25 March 101 and the Roman troops, consisting of four principal legions (X Gemina, XI Claudia, II Traiana Fortis, and XXX Ulpia Victrix), defeated the Dacians. ^ "Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions: Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganization. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, including Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area southwest of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year 103 A.D., there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS. ^ "Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions: Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. However, during the years 103–105, Decebalus did not respect the peace conditions imposed by Trajan and the emperor then decided to destroy completely the Dacian kingdom and to conquer Sarmizegetuza. Further reading[edit] András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, Routledge Revivals Series, 2014. ISBN 9781317754251 Conor Whately, Exercitus Moesiae: The Roman Army in Moesia from Augustus to Severus Alexander. BAR international series, S2825. Oxford: 2016. ISBN 9781407314754 External links[edit] Inscriptions of Moesia Superior, University of Belgrade (in French) Cities in the Provinces Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior Timacum Maius v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) 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en-wikipedia-org-7218	----	Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior - Wikipedia Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, consul and legate Quintus Camurius Numisius Junior was a Roman senator active during the later second century AD. He was suffect consul for a nundinium in the first half of the year 161 as the colleague of Marcus Annius Libo.[1] His gentilicium Camurius points to a connection with the Trajanic equites C. Camurius C.f. Clemens.[2] While some authorities believe Numisius Junior was descended from the equites, Olli Salomies in his monograph on Imperial Roman naming practices believes it is more likely he was adopted by a brother of Clemens than Clemens himself.[3] A number of inscriptions with his name at Attidium in Umbria indicate that city was his home. One mentions a woman who might be his wife, Stertinia L.f. Cocceia Bassula Venecia Aeliana Junior, and a man who might be his son, Quintus Cornelius Flaccus [Stertinus?] Noricus Numisius [Junior?].[4] Anthony Birley believes his wife Stertinia was a descendant of Lucius Stertinius Noricus, consul in 113.[5] Career[edit] His cursus honorum can be reconstructed from one of the inscriptions at Attidium.[6] Numisius Junior began in his teens as one of the tresviri monetalis, the most prestigious of the four boards that comprise the vigintiviri; assignment to this board was usually allocated to patricians or favored individuals. This was followed by a commission as military tribune in Legio IX Hispana, stationed in Roman Britain; Birley dates this to the 140s.[5] Junior was afterwards appointed quaestor, which he discharged at Rome; about this time he was admitted to the sodales Titalis Flaviales. He then advanced through the traditional Republican magistracies of curule aedile and praetor. Géza Alföldy estimates the date of this last office as around the year 150.[7] After stepping down as praetor, Junior was commissioned as legatus legionis or commander of two legions consecutively. The name of the first is lost, but Alföldy dates his command from about 152 to about 155.[8] The second was Legio VI Victrix, and Alföldy dates his command of that legion from immediately after leaving the first legion to around 158.[9] It was an unusual situation for a man to command more than one legion; Birley offers a list of no more than 30 men who had done so, and he notes that "where evidence is available, special circumstances can be seen to have brought about the iterated command."[10] Birley attributes the cause in Junior's case to the critical military situation in Roman Britain during the mid-150s. "It is not unlikely," writes Birley, "that Numisius Junior had been commanding a legion on the Rhine, and was appointed to VI Victrix on the recommendation of Cn. Julius Verus, when the latter went from Germania Inferior to Britain.[11] After concluding his command of the VI Victrix, Numisius Junior acceded to the consulate. His life after the consulate is a blank. References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 80 ^ Attested at AE 1987, 354 ^ Salomies, Adoptive and polyonymous nomenclature in the Roman Empire, (Helsinski: Societas Scientiarum Fenica, 1992), p. 100 ^ CIL XI, 5672 ^ a b Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 255 ^ CIL XI, 5670 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen (Bonn: Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 336 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 302 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 299 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 18-20 ^ Birley, Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 255f Political offices Preceded by Marcus Aurelius Caesar III, and Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus II as Ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire AD 161 with Marcus Annius Libo Succeeded by Julius Geminus Capellianus, and Titus Flavius Boethus as Suffect consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Camurius_Numisius_Junior&oldid=1016283141" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2021, at 10:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7220	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520218215" Categories: Wikipedia resources for researchers Hidden categories: Pages with short description Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7230	----	Download as PDF - Wikipedia Download as PDF Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search Download as PDF Marcus_Aurelius.pdf Download Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:DownloadAsPdf" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7233	----	Lucius Marcius Celer Marcus Calpurnius Longus - Wikipedia Lucius Marcius Celer Marcus Calpurnius Longus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, consul and soldier Lucius Marcius Celer Marcus Calpurnius Longus was a Roman senator, who was active during the second century AD. He was suffect consul in the last nundinium of 144 with Decimus Velius Fidus as his colleague.[1][2] Longus is known entirely from inscriptions. There has been a disagreement over the evidence of Calpurnius Longus' life since Edmund Groag first set forth the facts of his existence in the last book he wrote, a prosopography of the proconsuls of Achaea.[3] The most recent investigation of his life was by Giuseppe Camodeca, who established a time line of his life up to his suffect consulship, which he dated to 148.[4] Unfortunately, Camodeca was unaware that Werner Eck had published a military diploma that securely dated Calpurnius Longus' tenure as suffect consul to 144.[1] Accordingly, all dates taken from Camodeca's article for Calpurnius Longus' life below are adjusted four years earlier. The earliest office attested for Calpurnius Longus was quattuorviri viarum curandarum, or one of the four overseers of street maintenance in Rome, one of the magistracies that comprised the vigintiviri; membership in one of these four boards was a preliminary and required first step toward a gaining entry into the Roman Senate. This is dated as between the years 117 and 120. He is next attested as military tribune of Legio I Italica, which was stationed at the time in Moesia; this is dated between the years 121 and 125. We can conclude Calpurnius Longus was appointed quaestor, for completion of this traditional Republican magistracy was the usual manner men were enrolled in the Roman Senate.[5] Although we can safely surmise he held the next two steps of the traditional Republican magistracies -- either plebeian tribune or aedile, then praetor -- where his next attested office, legatus proconsularis or assistant to the proconsul, of Bithynia and Pontus fit in: although during the second century the duties legatus proconsularis was often assumed after a Senator was praetor, there are examples of men assuming these duties before acceding to that rank. Nonetheless, it is estimated Calpurnius Longus was legatus proconsularis around 136. And that he was proconsul of Achaea, his last attested position before his consulate, around 140. We have no evidence about Calpurnius Longus after his consulship. References[edit] ^ a b Werner Eck, "L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus Prokonsul von Achaia und Suffektkonsul unter Hadrian", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 86 (1991), pp. 97-106 ^ AE 2000, 344, AE 2004, 1924. ^ James H. Oliver, Review of Die romischen Reichsbeamten von Achaia bis auf Diokletian by Edmund Groag; Die Reichsbeamten von Achaia in spatromischer Zeit by Edmund Groag; American Journal of Philology, 69 (1948), pp. 434-441 ^ Camodeca, "Una nuova coppia di consoli del 148 e il proconsul Achaiae M. Calpurnius Longus", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 112 (1996), pp. 235-240 ^ Richard Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton: University Press, 1984), p. 16 Political offices Preceded by ignotus, and Quintus Laberius Licinianus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 144 with Decimus Velius Fidus Succeeded by Imp. Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius IV, and Marcus Aurelius Caesar II as ordinary consuls Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Marcius_Celer_Marcus_Calpurnius_Longus&oldid=1014662989" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Marcii Calpurnii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2021, at 12:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7247	----	Wen Jiabao - Wikipedia Wen Jiabao From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Retired Chinese politician For the footballer, see Wen Jiabao (footballer). In this Chinese name, the family name is Wēn (温). Wen Jiabao 温家宝 Premier of the People's Republic of China In office 15 March 2003 – 15 March 2013 Vice Premier Cabinet I (2003–08) Huang Ju Wu Yi Zeng Peiyan Hui Liangyu Cabinet II (2008–13) Li Keqiang Hui Liangyu Zhang Dejiang Wang Qishan Leader Hu Jintao (Paramount leader) Preceded by Zhu Rongji Succeeded by Li Keqiang Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China In office 18 March 1998 – 14 March 2003Serving with Li Lanqing, Qian Qichen, Wu Bangguo Premier Zhu Rongji Preceded by Li Lanqing Succeeded by Hui Liangyu Director of the General Office of the Communist Party of China In office April 1986 – March 1993 General Secretary Hu Yaobang Zhao Ziyang Jiang Zemin Preceded by Wang Zhaoguo Succeeded by Zeng Qinghong Personal details Born (1942-09-15) 15 September 1942 (age 78) Tianjin, Republic of China Political party Communist Party of China (1965-Present) Spouse(s) Zhang Peili Children Wen Yunsong Wen Ruchun (Lily Chang) Alma mater Beijing Institute of Geology Wen Jiabao "Wen Jiabao" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters Simplified Chinese 温家宝 Traditional Chinese 溫家寶 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wēn Jiābǎo Wade–Giles Wen1 Chia1-pao3 IPA [wə́n tɕjá.pàu] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Wān Gāa-bóu Jyutping Wan1 Gaa1-bou2 IPA [wɐ́n káː.pǒu] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Un Ka-pó Wen Jiabao (born 15 September 1942) is a retired Chinese politician who served as the sixth Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China and serving as China's head of government for a decade between 2003 and 2013. In his capacity as Premier, Wen was regarded as the leading figure behind Beijing's economic policy. From 2002 to 2012, he held membership in the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, the country's de facto top power organ, where he was ranked third out of nine members and headed by Party general secretary Hu Jintao. He worked as the chief of the Party General Office between 1986 and 1993, and accompanied Party general secretary Zhao Ziyang to Tiananmen Square during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. In 1998, he was promoted to the post of Vice Premier under Premier Zhu Rongji, his mentor, and oversaw the broad portfolios of agriculture and finance. Wen was dubbed "the people's premier" by both domestic and foreign media.[1] Instead of concentrating on GDP growth in large cities and rich coastal areas, Wen advocated for advancing policies considered more favourable towards farmers and migrant workers. Wen's government reduced agricultural taxes and pursued ambitious infrastructure projects. Following the global financial crisis of 2008, Wen's government injected four trillion yuan into the economy as part of a stimulus program. Seen as the leading member of the reform wing of the Communist Party, Wen's family came under scrutiny by investigative journalists for having accumulated a massive fortune during his time in government, casting a cloud over his legacy shortly prior to his retirement.[2][3][4] He left office in 2013 and was succeeded by Li Keqiang. Contents 1 Early life and rise to power 1.1 Survival of Tiananmen purge 2 First-term Premiership 3 Second-term Premiership 3.1 Response to 2008 Sichuan earthquake 3.2 2009 NPC 3.3 Foreign policy 4 Political views 5 Public image and political influence 6 Personal life and family wealth 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Early life and rise to power[edit] A native of Beichen District, Tianjin, Wen Jiabao went to the Nankai High School from which his predecessor premier Zhou Enlai graduated. He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in April 1965[5] and entered the work force in September 1967. Wen has a background in engineering and holds a post-graduate degree from the Beijing Institute of Geology.[5] He studied geomechanics in Beijing and began his career in the geology bureau of Gansu province. From 1968–1978, he presided over the Geomechanics Survey Team under the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and head of its political section. Wen succeeded in office, rising as chief of the Gansu Provincial Geological Bureau and later as Vice-minister of Geology and Mineral Resources. Wen was "discovered" by then-general secretary Hu Yaobang, and joined the ranks of the Central Committee and Politburo. There was some public speculation after 1989 over whether Wen was closer to Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, but Wen implicitly confirmed that he was a protégé of Hu by the release of his 2010 article, "Recalling Hu Yaobang when I return to Xingyi".[6] After Wen was promoted to work in Beijing, he served as Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office, an organ that oversaw day-to-day operations of the party's leaders. He remained in the post for eight years. Wen has built a network of patronage during his career. Throughout this period Wen was said to be a strong administrator and technocrat, having earned a reputation for meticulousness, competence, and a focus on tangible results. Outgoing Premier Zhu Rongji showed his esteem for Wen by entrusting him from 1998 with the task of overseeing agricultural, financial and environmental policies in the office of Vice-Premier, considered crucial as China prepared to enter the World Trade Organization. Wen served as Secretary of the Central Financial Work Commission from 1998 to 2002. By the end of the 1990s Wen and Zhang Peili were the main investor and founder of Ping An Insurance, which was established with the help of Hong Kong tycoon Cheng Yu-tung's family through real estate firm New World Development.[7] Survival of Tiananmen purge[edit] Wen's most significant political recovery occurred after accompanying Zhao on his visit to students demonstrating in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Unlike Zhao, who was purged from the party days later for "grave insubordination" and lived under house arrest in Beijing until his death in January 2005, Wen survived the political aftermath of the demonstrations.[5] Wen Jiabao is the only Chief of the Party's General Affairs Office to have served under three General Secretaries: Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang, and Jiang Zemin.[8] First-term Premiership[edit] Wen entered the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, China's highest ruling council, in November 2002, ranked third out of nine members (After Hu Jintao and Wu Bangguo). During the transition of authority as Hu Jintao assumed the general secretary and presidency in November 2002 and March 2003 respectively, Wen's nomination as premier was confirmed by the National People's Congress with over 99% of the delegates' vote. After taking over as Premier, Wen oversaw the continuation of economic reforms and has been involved in shifting national goals from economic growth at all costs to growth which also emphasizes more egalitarian wealth, along with other social goals, such as public health and education. Wen's broad range of experience and expertise, especially cultivated while presiding over agricultural policies under Zhu Rongji has been important as the "fourth generation" sought to revitalize the rural economy in regions left out by the past two decades of reform. In addition, the Chinese government under Wen has begun to focus on the social costs of economic development, which include damage to the environment and to workers' health. This more comprehensive definition of development was encapsulated into the idea of a xiaokang society. Initially regarded as quiet and unassuming, Wen is said to be a good communicator and is known as a "man of the people." Wen has appeared to make great efforts to reach out those who seem left out by two decades of stunning economic growth in rural and especially western China. Unlike Jiang Zemin and his protégés on the Politburo Standing Committee, who form the so-called "Shanghai clique", both Wen and Hu hail from, and have cultivated their political bases, in the vast Chinese interior. Many have noted the contrasts between Wen and Hu, "men of the people", and Jiang Zemin, the flamboyant, multilingual, and urbane former mayor of Shanghai, the country's most cosmopolitan city. Like Hu Jintao, whose purported brilliance and photographic memory have facilitated his meteoric rise to power, Wen is regarded as well-equipped to preside over a vast bureaucracy in the world's most populated and perhaps rapidly changing nation. In March 2003, the usually self-effacing Wen was quoted as saying, "The former Swiss ambassador to China once said that my brain is like a computer", he said. "Indeed, many statistics are stored in my brain."[9] Mild-tempered and conciliatory,[5] especially compared to his predecessor, the tough, straight-talking Zhu Rongji, Wen's consensual management style has enabled him to generate a great deal of good will, but has also created some opponents who are in support of tougher policy decisions. Notably, Wen was widely known to have clashed with then-Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu over the central government's policies.[10] Wen was involved in two major episodes involving public health. In early 2003, he was involved in ending the official inaction over the SARS crisis. On 1 December 2004, he became the first major Chinese official to publicly address the problem of AIDS, which has devastated parts of Yunnan and Henan and threatens to be a major burden on Chinese development.[11] Since May 2004, Wen made various visits to communities devastated by AIDS, trips shown prominently on national media. By showing these actions, Wen displayed an effort to reverse years of what many activists have described as a policy of denial and inaction. Furthermore, Wen is concerned about the health and safety of previous drug addicts; since March 2004, Wen had visited several drug addict treatment facilities in southern China and addressed the issue to the patients in person, recognizing that AIDS is more likely to be spread by drug abuse and the reuse of hypodermic syringes than by sexual contact.[12] Wen was known to conduct visits to relatively poor areas of China's countryside randomly to avoid elaborate preparations to appease officials and hide the real situation, which is done often in China. At committee meetings of the State Council, Wen made it clear that the rural wealth disparity problem must be addressed. Along with general secretary Hu Jintao, the government focused on the "Three Rural Issues", namely, agriculture, the countryside, and farmers, and emphasized these core areas as requiring further work and development. The Hu-Wen administration abolished the thousand year old agricultural tax entirely in 2005, a bold move that significantly changed the rural economic model. But despite these initiatives, Wen has been criticized for allowing the urban-rural gap to actually increase during his tenure.[13] Like Zhu Rongji, Wen is generally seen as a popular communist official with the Chinese public. His attitude is seemingly sincere and warm, triggering comparisons with former premier Zhou Enlai. Wen spent Chinese New Year in 2005 with a group of coal miners in a Shanxi coal mine. To many, Wen has gained the image of being the "people's premier", a populist, and an ordinary Chinese citizen who knows and understands ordinary people's needs.[14] In an annual meeting of the Chinese Authors Association, Wen spoke for over two hours to the delegates without looking at script. To foreign media, Wen was also the highest figure in the Chinese government to give free press conferences, often facing politically sensitive and difficult questions regarding subjects such as Taiwan Independence, Tibetan independence and human rights. In December 2003, Wen visited the United States for the first time. During the trip, Wen was able to get President George W. Bush to issue what many saw as a mild rebuke to the then President of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Chen Shui-bian.[15] Wen has also been on visits to Canada and Australia, mostly on economic issues. Wen also visited Japan in April 2007 in what was termed the "de-thawing journey", where he characterized the relationship between the Asian powers as for "mutual benefit". He also met with Emperor Akihito and played baseball.[16] On 15 March 2005, after the anti-secession law was passed, by a majority of 2,896 to nil, with two abstentions by the National People's Congress, Wen said: "We don't wish for foreign intervention, but we are not afraid of it." as an allusion to the United States' stance on Taiwan. That earned him a long round of applause that was rare even by Chinese standards. On 5 March 2007, Wen announced plans to increase the military budget. By the end of 2007 the military budget rose 17.8 percent from the previous year's 45 billion dollars, creating tension with the United States.[17] There were rumours about Wen's retirement and reputed clashes with former Shanghai party chief Chen Liangyu before the party's 17th Party Congress. Some sources suggested that Wen would ask to retire due to fatigue. Ultimately, Wen stayed on the Premier job, and was responsible for the drafting of the important speech delivered by Party general secretary Hu Jintao outlining China's direction in the next five years. In January 2008, while during the midst of severe snowstorms, Premier Wen made his way south and visited train stations in Changsha and Guangzhou, addressing the public while calming their mood for long train delays.[18] Second-term Premiership[edit] Wen visiting Tsinghua University in May 2009. Wen Jiabao was appointed to a second five-year term as premier on 16 March 2008, leading efforts to cool soaring inflation and showcase the country to the world at the 2008 Summer Olympics. He received fewer votes in favour than he did in 2003, a sign that the premiership can create enemies, even in the mere formalities of China's electoral system. Wen faced grave economic challenges as the world became increasingly affected by the U.S. economic crisis. Social stability and regional activism in China's restive hinterland regions also dominated Wen's policy agenda.[19] On 18 March 2008, during the press conference after the 2008 National People's Congress, Wen toed the government line in blaming supporters of the Dalai Lama for violence in Tibet, and said Chinese security forces exercised restraint in confronting rioting and unrest in the streets of Lhasa.[20] Wen acted as the spokesman of the Chinese government during the 2008 unrest in Tibet and refused to negotiate with the Dalai Lama and his followers, unless they chose to "give up all separatist activities." On 12 November 2010, during the 2010 Asian Games opening ceremony in Guangzhou, Wen became the first non-head of state to open the Asian Games. In his final address as China's prime minister Wen warned of the nation's growing divisions between rich and poor, the hazards of unchecked environmental degradation and the risks posed by unbalanced economic growth.[21] Response to 2008 Sichuan earthquake[edit] See also: 2008 Sichuan earthquake § Rescue efforts Premier Wen Jiabao's popularity was boosted significantly when he went to the disaster area of the Sichuan a mere few hours after the disaster occurred.[5] He declared on national television that survivors are to be rescued as long as there is "a glimmer of hope". He was named the General Commander of the Earthquake Relief Efforts Committee immediately following the disaster. Following his visits to the area, images of the Premier were displayed on national media, numerous videos popped up on Chinese video sites making comparisons with former Premier Zhou Enlai, a largely popular figure who was also dubbed the "People's Premier". While party leaders are often shown on state television looking rather stiff and sitting motionlessly, Wen's on-site image and candid nature attracted a large popular following of Chinese citizens.[22] In addition, there was speculation on internet forums as well as foreign media about the availability of the scientific prediction of the 2008 earthquake, and Wen was quoted as the only high-ranking Chinese leader to try to announce the scientific prediction and made it public, but was somehow prevented by other members of the Politburo Standing Committee.[23] 2009 NPC[edit] Before the 2009 National People's Congress convened, on 28 February, Premier Wen Jiabao went online on video chat to answer queries hosted by China's official government website gov.cn and the official Xinhua News Agency. During the session Wen openly advocated for transparency of the government and remarked that he was somewhat nervous about the occasion. He received a wide range of questions from large numbers of online Chinese netizens and chose to answer selected questions about prominent economic issues, such as global financial breakdown.[24] At the Congress, Wen also passed on a message of reassurance that GDP growth would not dip below 8% in 2009. He did not introduce a new stimulus package, and played down speculation that part of the 1.18 trillion RMB central government spending was not going directly into the economy. He also expressed concern about the security of Beijing's holdings in U.S. treasury debt. In a more unusual gesture, Wen also expressed interest in visiting Taiwan, stating he would "crawl there if [he] could not walk".[25] Foreign policy[edit] Wen at the 2009 World Economic Forum in Davos. Wen Jiabao played a prominent role advancing China's foreign policy positions, and became increasingly visible on the world stage as China's economic power expanded. He went on an official working visit to North Korea on 4 October 2009, the first time a Chinese Premier has visited North Korea since Li Peng's visit in 1991.[26] He was greeted at the Pyongyang Airport by ailing North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il. Kim rarely greeted foreign dignitaries himself upon their arrival at the airport. Reuters believed this to be a show of solidarity from North Korea and that the country was serious in fostering a good relationship with China.[27] Wen also met with European Union leaders at a China-EU conference in late November 2009, where he refused calls for China to revalue its Yuan and re-examine its foreign exchange regime.[28] Wen remarked in Nanjing that "some countries are on the one hand pressuring China to appreciate its currency while on the other hand they are practising trade protectionism against China in many different forms."[29] In December, in what was seen as a mild rebuke of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper during the latter's working visit to China, Wen stated, "This is your first trip to China and this is the first meeting between the Chinese Premier and the Canadian Prime Minister in almost five years. Five years is too long a time for China Canada relations."[30] However, the interpretation that Wen rebuked Harper was later disputed in select newspaper editorials.[31] Wen also travelled to the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference, where he met with U.S. President Barack Obama twice to secure an 11th-hour non-binding agreement on emissions cuts.[32] Political views[edit] Domestic and foreign media variously described Wen as "populist" and in touch with the needs of ordinary people. On most social issues Wen seemed to be moderate, with his brand of policies based around societal harmony as prescribed by the Scientific Development Concept, the leading ideology of the administration. In the first term of his Premiership Wen's attitudes towards political reform seemed ambivalent. He remarked that "the socialist system will continue in China for the next 100 years",[33] although later, in a press conference at the 2007 National People's Congress, he stated that "democracy is one of the basic goals of the socialist system". Furthermore, in an interview in September 2008, Wen acknowledged that the democratic system in China needs to be improved, where the power "truly belongs to the people" through the construction of an independent judicial system and for the government to accept criticism from the people.[34] Wen, seen as a former ally of Premier Zhao Ziyang, was likely supportive of the latter's political rehabilitation; however, he rarely mentioned Zhao publicly during his premiership. When asked by CNN whether or not China will liberalize for free elections in the next 25 years, Wen stated that it would be "hard to predict." On the subject of Taiwan, he reputedly believed in gradual negotiations. On the subject of Tibet, he toed the party line in condemning the exiled Dalai Lama for inciting "separatist violence". Science, democracy, rule of law, freedom and human rights are not concepts unique to capitalism. Rather, they are common values pursued by mankind in the long historical process and they are the fruits of human civilization. It is only that at different historical stages and in different countries, they are achieved through different means and in different forms. — Wen Jiabao, Our Historical Tasks at the primary stage of socialism and Several Issues Concerning China's Foreign Policy[35], Feb. 2007 Xinhua published articles in early 2007 on the direction of national development. The authorship of the articles was attributed separately to Wen Jiabao, particularly 26 February piece "Our Historical Tasks at the Primary Stage of Socialism and Several Issues Concerning China's Foreign Policy". The article advanced Wen's "peace doctrine" in global affairs, as well as what appeared to be inclinations towards fostering social democracy and advocacy of universal values. This was suspected as a sign that Wen has some differing viewpoints to the official party line – that values are relativistic and that "Chinese values" are not necessarily the same as "Western values," and that universal values is thus an empty concept. The debate continues to rage in Chinese political circles today, with neo-leftist thinkers such as Chinese Academy of Social Sciences President Chen Kuiyuan criticizing Wen's advocacy of universal values, saying that it relegates Chinese values and thinking as an inferior alternative to supposedly more "correct" Western norms.[36] Wen is perceived by some observers as a liberal voice in China's ruling elite. Wen has openly talked about democracy and increased freedoms in his speeches and interviews with foreign correspondents, although much of it was deemed "sensitive" commentary and censored in state media. Wen remarked that "someone who speaks is not a criminal, someone who listens is duly warned" (Chinese: 言者无罪，闻者足戒, which alludes to the classical work Shi Jing) at an internal party conference in 2009, an event reported on Xinhua and other state networks. His remarks triggered debate from netizens, as it seemed to contravene the practices of the Communist Party, particularly in its suppression of dissent. Analysts noted that Wen's message was aimed at party members, and not necessarily the general public because Wen believes freedom of speech has deteriorated since Hu Jintao's accession to power and has negatively affected China's political landscape and international reputation.[37] His comments also ostensibly addressed the pervasive "fake-talking" present in Chinese political circles, in an attempt to curb systemic and institutional woes stemming from officials who are afraid to speak the truth.[37] Wen has progressively amped up his liberal rhetoric as his Premiership continued, remarking in August 2010 that "Without political reform, China may lose what it has already achieved through economic restructuring".[38] Wen's comments were largely censored in state media, but he gained support from a group of some 23 party elders in October, who denounced the authorities' censorship of Wen's remarks in an open letter to the National People's Congress.[39] In an interview with Fareed Zakaria on CNN's Global Public Square television program aired in 2008, Wen made the following statement: "I have summed up my political ideals into the following four sentences. To let everyone lead a happy life with dignity. To let everyone feel safe and secure. To let the society be one with equity and justice. And to let everyone have confidence in the future. In spite of the various discussions and views in the society, and in spite of some resistance, I will act in accordance with these ideals unswervingly, and advance within the realm of my capabilities political restructuring. I will like to tell you the following two sentences to reinforce my view on this point. I will not fall in spite of the strong wind and harsh rain, and I will not yield until the last day of my life."[34] At the 2012 National People's Congress, Wen mentioned the word "reform" 70 times. He remarked that China must "press ahead with both economic structural reforms and political structural reforms, in particular reforms on the leadership system of the Party and the country."[40] There is also indication from party insiders that Wen has been pushing the case for the political rehabilitation of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.[41] Public image and political influence[edit] Wen has been described as a populist by most observers[who?]. His quick responses and visits to the scenes of various disasters, including the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, has earned him a considerable reputation as an approachable leader in touch with the experiences of the masses.[22] Wen engages regularly with locals on his trips to various provinces domestically as well as foreign visits; he played baseball and badminton with Japanese and South Korean citizens during visits to those countries. "Whether taking a stroll or swimming, it puts me at ease both mentally and physically and helps me handle my heavy workload," Wen had remarked.[42] Wen at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland in 2009 Wen's public image has been criticized by Chinese dissident Yu Jie, who charged that Wen's rhetoric is insincere and empty. Dissidents such as Yu allege that Wen's parade of appearances on Chinese media is a carefully managed public relations campaign designed to distract people from real issues.[43] They say that through use of Wen's charisma, the government hopes to showcase cosmetic solutions to much larger, systemic issues in order to placate public opinion. They also point out that Wen's words are rarely translated into deeds. On the other hand, Li Datong, a pro-democracy advocate, in an interview with the Associated Press, stated that "among the top Chinese leaders, who else speaks about democracy? Who else speaks about universal values and freedom?... Wen is the only one." Li believes that Wen is genuinely calling for democratic reform but he is powerless to make major decisions on the matter due to internal opposition.[44] Wen's family members have also been subject to gossip and scrutiny outside of mainland China. Taiwanese media zoomed in on his wife's alleged personal fortunes from her jewelry business,[45] while the Financial Times reported on a private equity firm called New Horizon Capital co-founded by Wen's son Wen Yunsong.[46] When he was the head of the Chinese government, Wen Jiabao was considered to be one of the most powerful statesmen in the world. In 2006, he was named to the Time 100 list.[47] In 2009, Wen was named one of ten people and the only non-American in a list compiled by ABC of people who shaped the U.S. economy the most since 2000.[48] Wen also topped a list of "10 leaders to watch" in 2010 released 19 January by Eurasia Group, a global political risk research and consulting firm. Behind that U.S. President Barack Obama came second.[49][50] In August 2010, Wen was named "The Man of the People" by Newsweek.[51] In October 2010, Wen Jiabao was a person selected on the Time's cover that the title was "Wen's World".[52] In 2011, Wen was ranked 14th in Forbes Magazine's List of The World's Most Powerful People.[53] In 2021 Chinese authorities censored a tribute that Wen Jiabao had written for this mother in the small paper Macau Herald.[54] Personal life and family wealth[edit] Wen Jiabao is married to Zhang Peili, whom he met while working as a government geologist in Gansu. Zhang is a jewellery expert and has played a prominent role in the nation's diamond trade. She rarely appears with Wen in public. In October 2012, The New York Times reported that Wen's relatives have controlled financial assets worth at least US$2.7 billion during his time as Premier.[55] In response, a Chinese government spokesman stated that the report "blackens China's name and has ulterior motives", and the websites of The New York Times were censored in mainland China.[56] Lawyers representing Wen's family also denied the report's content.[57] Wen personally wrote a letter submitted to the Politburo Standing Committee asking for an investigation to the claim and willing to make his family assets public. Professor Zhu Lijia, of the Chinese Academy of Governance, suggest that this is Wen's last try to push the passing of the "Sunshine law", which would require government officials to release their financial information to the public.[58] Professor Jean-Pierre Cabestan of Hong Kong's Baptist University questioned the timing of the report and suggested "It looks very much [like] some people close to Bo Xilai are trying to throw mud at the reformists".[59] Wen is said to have an introverted personality.[citation needed] He has stated that his one regret so far in life was never having learned to drive a manual transmission car. Wen is known for his adept use of Chinese poetry to convey political and diplomatic messages, to respond to journalists, or simply to begin a speech.[60] See also[edit] Politics of the People's Republic of China History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present) Hu–Wen Administration References[edit] ^ "Wen Jiabao re-elected Chinese Premier". Rediff.com. 16 March 2008. ^ "Brother Wristwatch and Grandpa Wen: Chinese Kleptocracy". ^ "China, World Leader in Graft". ^ "Weibo reaction to Wen Jiabao's corruption". ^ a b c d e Yu, Maochun (11 June 2008). "The rise and rise of China's Mr Tears". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2010.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ Wu Zhong. "Hu, Wen, and Why". Asia Times Online. 21 April 2010. Retrieved 26 October 2011. ^ Next magazine. Issue 1098. 24 March 2011. pg 82. ^ "::温式微笑将给中国带来什么？温家宝的中国命题::". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 23 May 2008. ^ "Profile: Wen Jiabao". BBC News. 5 December 2003. Retrieved 6 April 2010. ^ "陈良宇倒台应有中共权力斗争背景". 美国之音. ^ Huang, Yanzhong (2006). "The politics of HIV/AIDS in China" (PDF). Asian Perspectives. 30 (1): 95–125. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. :96, 101, 105, 117 ^ Pisani, Elizabeth. The Wisdom of Whores: Bureaucrats, Brothels and the Business of AIDS. p. 76. ^ "Currency manipulation, bloggers and American politicians". chinanalyst.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2011. ^ "官员的施政个性". BBC. ^ "Chen stands up to Bush". Taipei: CNN. 10 October 2003. Retrieved 8 August 2010. Bush's warning [against holding a referendum that could antagonize China] – made after he met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao at the White House – was described by analysts as the toughest American language used against a Taiwanese leader in decades. ^ Deng, Yong (28 April 2008). China's struggle for status: the realignment of international relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-521-88666-6. ^ "Budget Increase". Archived from the original on 8 March 2007. ^ French, Howard W. (28 January 2008). "Severe snowstorms batter China". International Herald Tribune. Shanghai. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ Wen gets second term as China's premier. CNN, 16 March 2008 ^ Dalai Lama 'to resign' if violence worsens. CNN, 18 March 2008 ^ "Chinese Premier’s Parting Words Include Warning". The New York Times, 5 March 2013 ^ a b "China's 'Grandpa Wen' widely admired for work to rally victims in hard-hit earthquake areas". International Herald Tribune, 16 May 2008 ^ "开放杂志：中共政治局隐瞒四川地震预警". Sina BBS. Archived from the original on 18 September 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2009. ^ Cha, Ariana Eunjung (15 March 2009). "In Crisis, China Vows Openness". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "Chinese Premier says would 'crawl to Taiwan' even if he could not walk". Xinhua News Agency. 13 March 2009. Archived from the original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010. ^ "China's Wen arrives in Pyongyang, told N. Korea open to nuke talks". Beijing. Associated Press. 4 October 2009. ^ "Chinese premier meets NK leader". BBC News. 4 October 2009. ^ Wheeler, Carolynne (30 November 2009). "China refuses to budge on EU plea to boost yuan". The Globe and Mail. Canada. Retrieved 20 December 2009. ^ Bougon, Francois (30 November 2009). "China's Wen says yuan stability is vital". Nanjing. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 20 December 2009. ^ "Transcript of Harper's exchange with Premier Wen". The Globe and Mail. Canada. 3 December 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2009. ^ "Harper was not Rebuked". National Post. Canada. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 28 December 2009.[dead link] ^ "Obama and Wen take historic talks to brink". The Sydney Morning Herald. Copenhagen. Agence France-Presse. 20 December 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2009. ^ Spencer, Richard (28 February 2007). China promises socialism for 100 years. The Daily Telegraph ^ a b Interview with Wen Jiabao, CNN, 28 September 2008. ^ Wen, Jiabao. "Our Historical Tasks at the Primary Stage of Socialism and Several Issues Concerning China's Foreign Policy". Beijing Review. Xinhua News Agency. ^ "中国再起左右两派论战 (China's Left-Right Divide Resurfaces)". Duowei. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ a b "温家宝"言者无罪"引热议 (Discussions over Wen Jiabao's Comments)" (in Chinese). Radio Free Asia. 21 November 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009. ^ Bodeen, Christopher. "China's Wen inspiring debate with calls for reform". Yahoo!. Associated Press. ^ Wang, Zhicheng (14 October 2010). "Party members call for an end to press censorship, backing Wen Jiabao". Asianews.it. ^ Sainsbury, Michael (17 March 2012). "Wen Jiabao's remarkable road to reform". The Australian. Retrieved 20 March 2012. ^ Anderlini, Jamil (20 March 2012). "Wen lays groundwork for Tiananmen Healing to Begin". Financial Times. ^ Moore, Malcolm (31 May 2010). "Wen Jiabao goes for a jog to take his mind off negotiations". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ Foster, Peter (17 August 2010). "Book by Chinese dissident brands Wen Jiabao a fraud". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ Wong, Gillian (9 August 2010). "Book says Chinese premier is no reformist". Boston Globe. Associated Press. ^ China Times, 2 November 2007 ^ "金融时报：生而为钱的中国太子党们 - 纵览中国". chinainperspective.org. ^ "The 2006 TIME 100". Time. 2006. ^ "Page 3: Ten Most Powerful Economic Figures of the Decade". ABC News. ^ "Chinese Premier Named 'World Leader to Watch' for 2010". The Chosun Ilbo. ^ 梁京评论：温家宝演累了 Archived 14 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine 17 March 2009 ^ The Man of the People Wen Jiabao. Newsweek, 6 August 2010. ^ "Wen's World". Time. 176 (16). 18 October 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2017. ^ Donald Kirk. "Wen Jiabao". Forbes. ^ "China Censors Ex-Premier's Article Ahead of Communist Party Anniversary". www.usnews.com. US News and World Reports. Retrieved 28 April 2021. |first1= missing |last1= (help) ^ David Barboza, "Billions in Hidden Riches for Family of Chinese Leader", The New York Times, 25 October 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012. ^ Tania Branigan, "Wen Jiabao's £1.68bn family wealth: China furious at US exposé", The Guardian, 26 October 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012. ^ South China Morning Post (2012). Statement from lawyers of Premier Wen Jiabao's family obtained by the Sunday Morning Post. Retrieved 28 October 2012. ^ "Premier Wen Jiabao calls for party probe into claims of family's 'hidden fortune'". South China Morning Post. 5 November 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2012. ^ Moore, Malcolm (26 October 2012). "China censors reports of Wen Jiabao's vast family fortune". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ Lam, Chinese Politics in the Hu Jintao Era External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wen Jiabao. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wen Jiabao Appearances on C-SPAN "Wen Jiabao's family amasses wealth of more than $2.7 billion USD" New York Times, 25 October 2012 "Recalling Hu Yaobang When I Return to Xingyi" [Chinese: 再回兴义忆耀邦]: an essay written by Wen as a eulogy of Hu Yaobang. The article originally appeared in The People's Daily on 15 April 2010. Wen Jiabao at Facebook Wen Jiabao biography @ China Vitae, the web's largest online database of China VIPs The Age – Who is Wen Jiabao? How to pronounce Wen Jiabao Wen says China's reforms irreversible Government offices Preceded by Zhu Rongji Premier of the People's Republic of China 2003–2013 Succeeded by Li Keqiang Preceded by Zhu Rongji Director of the National Defence Mobilisation Commission 2003–2013 New office Director of the National Energy Commission 2010–2013 Party political offices Preceded by Wang Zhaoguo Chief of the General Office of the Communist Party of China 1986–1993 Succeeded by Zeng Qinghong Preceded by Zhu Rongji Director of the Central Institutional Organization Commission 2003–2013 Succeeded by Li Keqiang Order of precedence Preceded by Wu Bangguo as Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress Rank of the Communist Party of China 16th, 17th Politburo Standing Committee Succeeded by Jia Qinglin as Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference v t e Premiers of the State Council of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai Hua Guofeng Zhao Ziyang Li Peng Zhu Rongji Wen Jiabao Li Keqiang List of premiers of the People's Republic of China v t e Vice-premiers of the People's Republic of China (list) Provisional Cabinet Dong Biwu Chen Yun Guo Moruo Huang Yanpei Deng Xiaoping (added 1952) 1st Cabinet Chen Yun Lin Biao Peng Dehuai Deng Xiaoping Deng Zihui He Long Chen Yi Ulanhu Li Fuchun Li Xiannian Nie Rongzhen (added 1956) Bo Yibo (added 1956) 2nd Cabinet Chen Yun Lin Biao Peng Dehuai Deng Xiaoping Deng Zihui He Long Chen Yi Ulanhu Li Fuchun Li Xiannian Nie Rongzhen Bo Yibo Tan Zhenlin Lu Dingyi Luo Ruiqing Xi Zhongxun 3rd Cabinet Lin Biao (died 1971) Chen Yun (dismissed 1969) Deng Xiaoping (dismissed 1968, reinstated 1973) He Long (died 1969) Chen Yi (died 1972) Ke Qingshi (died 1965) Ulanhu (dismissed 1968) Li Fuchun (died 1975) Li Xiannian Tan Zhenlin Nie Rongzhen Bo Yibo (dismissed 1967) Lu Dingyi (dismissed 1966) Luo Ruiqing (dismissed 1966) Tao Zhu (died 1969) Xie Fuzhi (died 1972) 4th Cabinet Deng Xiaoping (dismissed 1976, reinstated 1977) Zhang Chunqiao (dismissed 1977) Li Xiannian Chen Xilian Ji Dengkui Hua Guofeng Chen Yonggui Wu Guixian ♀ (resigned 1977) Wang Zhen Yu Qiuli Gu Mu Sun Jian 5th Cabinet (1978) Deng Xiaoping Li Xiannian Xu Xiangqian Ji Dengkui Yu Qiuli Chen Xilian Geng Biao Chen Yonggui Fang Yi Wang Zhen Gu Mu Kang Shi'en Chen Muhua ♀ Wang Renzhong (added 1979) Chen Yun (added 1979) 5th Cabinet (1980) Yu Qiuli Geng Biao Fang Yi Gu Mu Kang Shi'en Chen Muhua ♀ Bo Yibo Yao Yilin Ji Pengfei Zhao Ziyang (promoted to premier) Wan Li Yang Jingren Zhang Aiping Huang Hua 5th Cabinet (1982) Wan Li Yao Yilin 6th Cabinet Wan Li Yao Yilin Li Peng Tian Jiyun Qiao Shi (added 1986) 7th Cabinet Yao Yilin Tian Jiyun Wu Xueqian Zou Jiahua (added 1991) Zhu Rongji (added 1991) 8th Cabinet Zhu Rongji Zou Jiahua Qian Qichen Li Lanqing Wu Bangguo (added 1995) Jiang Chunyun (added 1995) 9th Cabinet Li Lanqing Qian Qichen Wu Bangguo Wen Jiabao 10th Cabinet Huang Ju (died 2007) Wu Yi ♀ Zeng Peiyan Hui Liangyu 11th Cabinet Li Keqiang Hui Liangyu Zhang Dejiang Wang Qishan 12th Cabinet Zhang Gaoli Liu Yandong ♀ Wang Yang Ma Kai 13th Cabinet Han Zheng Sun Chunlan ♀ Hu Chunhua Liu He v t e 17th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party (2007–2012) Standing Committee Hu Jintao (General Secretary) Wu Bangguo Wen Jiabao Jia Qinglin Li Changchun Xi Jinping Li Keqiang He Guoqiang Zhou Yongkang Other members in surname stroke order Wang Gang Wang Lequan Wang Zhaoguo Wang Qishan Hui Liangyu Liu Qi Liu Yunshan Liu Yandong ♀ Li Yuanchao Wang Yang Zhang Gaoli Zhang Dejiang Yu Zhengsheng Xu Caihou Guo Boxiong Bo Xilai (expelled 2012) 7th→8th→9th→10th→11th→12th→13th→14th→15th→16th→17th→18th→19th v t e 16th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party (2002–2007) Standing Committee Hu Jintao (General Secretary) Wu Bangguo Wen Jiabao Jia Qinglin Zeng Qinghong Huang Ju (died 2007) Wu Guanzheng Li Changchun Luo Gan Other members in surname stroke order Wang Lequan Wang Zhaoguo Hui Liangyu Liu Qi Liu Yunshan Wu Yi Zhang Lichang Zhang Dejiang Chen Liangyu (expelled 2006) Zhou Yongkang Yu Zhengsheng He Guoqiang Guo Boxiong Cao Gangchuan Zeng Peiyan Alternate member Wang Gang 7th→8th→9th→10th→11th→12th→13th→14th→15th→16th→17th→18th→19th v t e 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party (1997–2002) Standing Committee Jiang Zemin (General Secretary) Li Peng Zhu Rongji Li Ruihuan Hu Jintao Wei Jianxing Li Lanqing Other members in surname stroke order Ding Guangen Tian Jiyun Li Changchun Li Tieying Wu Bangguo Wu Guanzheng Chi Haotian Zhang Wannian Luo Gan Jiang Chunyun Jia Qinglin Qian Qichen Huang Ju Wen Jiabao Xie Fei (died 1999) Alternate members Zeng Qinghong Wu Yi 7th→8th→9th→10th→11th→12th→13th→14th→15th→16th→17th→18th→19th v t e 14th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party (1992–1997) Standing Committee Jiang Zemin (General Secretary) Li Peng Qiao Shi Li Ruihuan Zhu Rongji Liu Huaqing Hu Jintao Other members in surname stroke order Ding Guangen Tian Jiyun Li Lanqing Li Tieying Yang Baibing Wu Bangguo Zou Jiahua Chen Xitong (expelled 1995) Jiang Chunyun Qian Qichen Wei Jianxing Xie Fei Tan Shaowen (died 1993) → Huang Ju (added 1994) Alternate members Wen Jiabao Wang Hanbin 7th→8th→9th→10th→11th→12th→13th→14th→15th→16th→17th→18th→19th v t e Secretaries of the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China 12th Central Committee Wan Li Xi Zhongxun Deng Liqun Yang Yong Yu Qiuli Gu Mu Chen Pixian Hu Qili Yao Yilin Hao Jianxiu Qiao Shia 13th Central Committee Hu Qili Qiao Shi Rui Xingwen Yan Mingfu Wen Jiabaoa 14th Central Committee Hu Jintao Ding Guangen Wei Jianxing Wen Jiabao Ren Jianxin 15th Central Committee Hu Jintao Wei Jianxing Ding Guangen Luo Gan Wen Jiabao Zeng Qinghong 16th Central Committee Zeng Qinghong Liu Yunshan Zhou Yongkang He Guoqiang Wang Gang Xu Caihou He Yong 17th Central Committee Xi Jinping Liu Yunshan Li Yuanchao He Yong Ling Jihua Wang Huning 18th Central Committee Liu Yunshan Liu Qibao Zhao Leji Li Zhanshu Du Qinglin Zhao Hongzhu Yang Jing 19th Central Committee Wang Huning Ding Xuexiang Yang Xiaodu Chen Xi Guo Shengkun Huang Kunming You Quan aAlternate Secretary Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway United States Taiwan Korea Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wen_Jiabao&oldid=1020687876" Categories: Vice Premiers of the People's Republic of China 1942 births Wen Jiabao family Tianjin Nankai High School alumni China University of Geosciences alumni Chinese geologists Chinese reformers Communist Party of China politicians from Tianjin Living people People's Republic of China politicians from Tianjin Premiers of the People's Republic of China Scientists from Tianjin Members of the 17th Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China Members of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China 20th-century Chinese politicians 21st-century Chinese 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en-wikipedia-org-7248	----	Roman triumph - Wikipedia Roman triumph From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman ceremony of military success Panel from a representation of a triumph of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius; a winged genius hovers above his head Scene from the Triumphs of Caesar by Andrea Mantegna (1482-94, now Royal Collection) The Roman triumph (triumphus) was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the success of a military commander who had led Roman forces to victory in the service of the state or, originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. On the day of his triumph, the general wore a crown of laurel and the all-purple, gold-embroidered triumphal toga picta ("painted" toga), regalia that identified him as near-divine or near-kingly, and was even known to paint his face red. He rode in a four-horse chariot through the streets of Rome in unarmed procession with his army, captives, and the spoils of his war. At Jupiter's temple on the Capitoline Hill, he offered sacrifice and the tokens of his victory to the god Jupiter. Republican morality required that, despite these extraordinary honours, the general conduct himself with dignified humility, as a mortal citizen who triumphed on behalf of Rome's Senate, people, and gods. Inevitably, the triumph offered extraordinary opportunities for self-publicity, besides its religious and military dimensions. Most Roman festivals were calendar fixtures, while the tradition and law which reserved a triumph to extraordinary victory ensured that its celebration, procession, attendant feasting, and public games promoted the general's status and achievement. By the Late Republican era, triumphs were drawn out and extravagant, motivated by increasing competition among the military-political adventurers who ran Rome's nascent empire, in some cases prolonged by several days of public games and entertainments. From the Principate onwards, the triumph reflected the Imperial order and the pre-eminence of the Imperial family. The triumph was consciously imitated by medieval and later states in the royal entry and other ceremonial events. Contents 1 Background and ceremonies 1.1 The vir triumphalis 1.2 The procession 1.3 The route 1.4 Banquets, games, and entertainments 1.5 Commemoration 2 Awarding a triumph 2.1 Ovation 3 Sources 4 Evolution 4.1 Origins and Regal era 4.2 The Republic 4.3 Imperial era 5 Influence 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Background and ceremonies[edit] The vir triumphalis[edit] In Republican Rome, truly exceptional military achievement merited the highest possible honours, which connected the vir triumphalis ("man of triumph", later known as a triumphator) to Rome's mythical and semi-mythical past. In effect, the general was close to being "king for a day", and possibly close to divinity. He wore the regalia traditionally associated both with the ancient Roman monarchy and with the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus: the purple and gold "toga picta", laurel crown, red boots and, again possibly, the red-painted face of Rome's supreme deity. He was drawn in procession through the city in a four-horse chariot, under the gaze of his peers and an applauding crowd, to the temple of Capitoline Jupiter. The spoils and captives of his victory led the way; his armies followed behind. Once at the Capitoline temple, he sacrificed two white oxen to Jupiter and laid tokens of his victory at Jupiter's feet, dedicating his victory to the Roman Senate, people, and gods.[1] Triumphs were tied to no particular day, season, or religious festival of the Roman calendar. Most seem to have been celebrated at the earliest practicable opportunity, probably on days that were deemed auspicious for the occasion. Tradition required that, for the duration of a triumph, every temple was open. The ceremony was thus, in some sense, shared by the whole community of Roman gods,[2] but overlaps were inevitable with specific festivals and anniversaries. Some may have been coincidental; others were designed. For example, March 1, the festival and dies natalis of the war god Mars, was the traditional anniversary of the first triumph by Publicola (504 BCE), of six other Republican triumphs, and of the very first Roman triumph by Romulus.[3] Pompey postponed his third and most magnificent triumph for several months to make it coincide with his own dies natalis (birthday).[4][5] Religious dimensions aside, the focus of the triumph was the general himself. The ceremony promoted him – however temporarily – above every mortal Roman. This was an opportunity granted to very few. From the time of Scipio Africanus, the triumphal general was linked (at least for historians during the Principate) to Alexander and the demi-god Hercules, who had laboured selflessly for the benefit of all mankind.[6][7][8] His sumptuous triumphal chariot was bedecked with charms against the possible envy (invidia) and malice of onlookers.[9][10] In some accounts, a companion or public slave would remind him from time to time of his own mortality (a memento mori).[11] The procession[edit] Rome's earliest "triumphs" were probably simple victory parades, celebrating the return of a victorious general and his army to the city, along with the fruits of his victory, and ending with some form of dedication to the gods. This is probably so for the earliest legendary and later semi-legendary triumphs of Rome's regal era, when the king functioned as Rome's highest magistrate and war-leader. As Rome's population, power, influence, and territory increased, so did the scale, length, variety, and extravagance of its triumphal processions. The procession (pompa) mustered in the open space of the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) probably well before first light. From there, all unforeseen delays and accidents aside, it would have managed a slow walking pace at best, punctuated by various planned stops en route to its final destination of the Capitoline temple, a distance of just under 4 km (2.48 mi). Triumphal processions were notoriously long and slow;[12] the longest could last for two or three days, and possibly more, and some may have been of greater length than the route itself.[13] Some ancient and modern sources suggest a fairly standard processional order. First came the captive leaders, allies, and soldiers (and sometimes their families) usually walking in chains; some were destined for execution or further display. Their captured weapons, armour, gold, silver, statuary, and curious or exotic treasures were carted behind them, along with paintings, tableaux, and models depicting significant places and episodes of the war. Next in line, all on foot, came Rome's senators and magistrates, followed by the general's lictors in their red war-robes, their fasces wreathed in laurel, then the general in his four-horse chariot. A companion, or a public slave, might share the chariot with him or, in some cases, his youngest children. His officers and elder sons rode horseback nearby. His unarmed soldiers followed in togas and laurel crowns, chanting "io triumphe!" and singing ribald songs at their general's expense. Somewhere in the procession, two flawless white oxen were led for the sacrifice to Jupiter, garland-decked and with gilded horns. All this was done to the accompaniment of music, clouds of incense, and the strewing of flowers.[14] Almost nothing is known of the procession's infrastructure and management. Its doubtless enormous cost was defrayed in part by the state but mostly by the general's loot, which most ancient sources dwell on in great detail and unlikely superlatives. Once disposed, this portable wealth injected huge sums into the Roman economy; the amount brought in by Octavian's triumph over Egypt triggered a fall in interest rates and a sharp rise in land prices.[15] No ancient source addresses the logistics of the procession: where the soldiers and captives, in a procession of several days, could have slept and eaten, or where these several thousands plus the spectators could have been stationed for the final ceremony at the Capitoline temple.[16] The route[edit] The following schematic is for the route taken by "some, or many" triumphs, and is based on standard modern reconstructions.[17] Any original or traditional route would have been diverted to some extent by the city's many redevelopments and re-building, or sometimes by choice. The starting place (the Campus Martius) lay outside the city's sacred boundary (pomerium), bordering the eastern bank of the Tiber. The procession entered the city through a Porta Triumphalis (Triumphal Gate),[18] and crossed the pomerium, where the general surrendered his command to the senate and magistrates. It continued through the site of the Circus Flaminius, skirting the southern base of the Capitoline Hill and the Velabrum, along a Via Triumphalis (Triumphal Way)[19] towards the Circus Maximus, perhaps dropping off any prisoners destined for execution at the Tullianum.[20] It entered the Via Sacra then the Forum. Finally, it ascended the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Once the sacrifice and dedications were completed, the procession and spectators dispersed to banquets, games, and other entertainments sponsored by the triumphing general. Banquets, games, and entertainments[edit] In most triumphs, the general funded any post-procession banquets from his share of the loot. There were feasts for the people and separate, much richer feasts for the elite; some went on for most of the night. Dionysus offers a contrast to the lavish triumphal banquets of his time by giving Romulus's triumph the most primitive possible "banquet" – ordinary Romans setting up food-tables as a "welcome home", and the returning troops taking swigs and bites as they marched by. He recreates the first Republican triumphal banquet along the same lines.[21] Varro claims that his aunt earned 20,000 sesterces by supplying 5,000 thrushes for Caecilius Metellus's triumph of 71 BCE.[22] Some triumphs included ludi as fulfillment of the general's vow to a god or goddess, made before battle or during its heat, in return for their help in securing victory.[23] In the Republic, they were paid for by the triumphing general. Marcus Fulvius Nobilior vowed ludi in return for victory over the Aetolian League and paid for ten days of games at his triumph. Commemoration[edit] Detail from the Arch of Titus showing his triumph held in 71 for his successful Sack of Jerusalem. Most Romans would never have seen a triumph, but its symbolism permeated Roman imagination and material culture. Triumphal generals minted and circulated high value coins to propagate their triumphal fame and generosity empire-wide. Pompey's issues for his three triumphs are typical. One is an aureus (a gold coin) that has a laurel-wreathed border enclosing a head which personifies Africa; beside it, Pompey's title "Magnus" ("The Great"), with wand and jug as symbols of his augury. The reverse identifies him as proconsul in a triumphal chariot attended by Victory. A triumphal denarius (a silver coin) shows his three trophies of captured arms, with his augur's wand and jug. Another shows a globe surrounded by triumphal wreaths, symbolising his "world conquest", and an ear of grain to show that his victory protected Rome's grain supply.[24] In Republican tradition, a general was expected to wear his triumphal regalia only for the day of his triumph; thereafter, they were presumably displayed in the atrium of his family home. As one of the nobility, he was entitled to a particular kind of funeral in which a string of actors walked behind his bier wearing the masks of his ancestors; another actor represented the general himself and his highest achievement in life by wearing his funeral mask, triumphal laurels, and toga picta.[25] Anything more was deeply suspect; Pompey was granted the privilege of wearing his triumphal wreath at the Circus, but he met with a hostile reception.[26] Julius Caesar's penchant for wearing his triumphal regalia "wherever and whenever" was taken as one among many signs of monarchical intentions which, for some, justified his murder. In the Imperial era, emperors wore such regalia to signify their elevated rank and office and to identify themselves with the Roman gods and Imperial order – a central feature of Imperial cult. The building and dedication of monumental public works offered local, permanent opportunities for triumphal commemoration. In 55 BCE, Pompey inaugurated Rome's first stone-built Theatre as a gift to the people of Rome, funded by his spoils. Its gallery and colonnades doubled as an exhibition space and likely contained statues, paintings, and other trophies carried at his various triumphs.[27] It contained a new temple to Pompey's patron goddess Venus Victrix ("Victorious Venus"); the year before, he had issued a coin which showed her crowned with triumphal laurels.[28] Julius Caesar claimed Venus as both patron and divine ancestress; he funded a new temple to her and dedicated it during his quadruple triumph of 46 BCE. He thus wove his patron goddess and putative ancestress into his triumphal anniversary. Augustus, Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor, built a vast triumphal monument on the Greek coast at Actium, overlooking the scene of his decisive sea-battle against Antony and Egypt; the bronze beaks of captured Egyptian warships projected from its seaward wall. Imperial iconography increasingly identified Emperors with the gods, starting with the Augustan reinvention of Rome as a virtual monarchy (the principate). Sculpted panels on the arch of Titus (built by Domitian) celebrate Titus' and Vespasian's joint triumph over the Jews after the siege of Jerusalem, with a triumphal procession of captives and treasures seized from the temple of Jerusalem – some of which funded the building of the Colosseum. Another panel shows the funeral and apotheosis of the deified Titus. Prior to this, the senate voted Titus a triple-arch at the Circus Maximus to celebrate or commemorate the same victory or triumph.[29] Awarding a triumph[edit] In Republican tradition, only the Senate could grant a triumph. A general who wanted a triumph would dispatch his request and report to the Senate. Officially, triumphs were granted for outstanding military merit; the state paid for the ceremony if this and certain other conditions were met – and these seem to have varied from time to time, and from case to case — or the Senate would pay for the official procession, at least. Most Roman historians rest the outcome on an open Senatorial debate and vote, its legality confirmed by one of the people's assemblies; the senate and people thus controlled the state's coffers and rewarded or curbed its generals. Some triumphs seem to have been granted outright, with minimal debate. Some were turned down but went ahead anyway, with the general's direct appeal to the people over the senate and a promise of public games at his own expense. Others were blocked or granted only after interminable wrangling. Senators and generals alike were politicians, and Roman politics was notorious for its rivalries, shifting alliances, back-room dealings, and overt public bribery.[30] The senate's discussions would likely have hinged on triumphal tradition, precedent, and propriety; less overtly but more anxiously, it would hinge on the extent of the general's political and military powers and popularity, and the possible consequences of supporting or hindering his further career. There is no firm evidence that the Senate applied a prescribed set of "triumphal laws" when making their decisions,[31][32] although Valerius Maximus does claim that a triumph could only be granted to a victorious general who had slain at least 5,000 of the enemy in a single battle.[33] During the Principate, triumphs became more politicized as manifestations of imperial authority and legitimacy. Ovation[edit] Main article: Ovation A general might be granted a "lesser triumph", known as an Ovation. He entered the city on foot, minus his troops, in his magistrate's toga and wearing a wreath of Venus's myrtle. In 211 BCE, the Senate turned down Marcus Marcellus's request for a triumph after his victory over the Carthaginians and their Sicilian-Greek allies, apparently because his army was still in Sicily and unable to join him. They offered him instead a thanksgiving (supplicatio) and ovation. The day before it, he celebrated an unofficial triumph on the Alban Mount. His ovation was of triumphal proportions. It included a large painting, showing his siege of Syracuse, the siege engines themselves, captured plate, gold, silver, and royal ornaments, and the statuary and opulent furniture for which Syracuse was famous. Eight elephants were led in the procession, symbols of his victory over the Carthaginians. His Spanish and Syracusan allies led the way wearing golden wreaths; they were granted Roman citizenship and lands in Sicily.[34] In 71 BCE, Crassus earned an ovation for quashing the Spartacus revolt, and increased his honours by wearing a crown of Jupiter's "triumphal" laurel.[35] Ovations are listed along with triumphs on the Fasti Triumphales. Sources[edit] Segment XX of the Fasti triumphales, a portion recording triumphs during the First Punic War The Fasti Triumphales (also called Acta Triumphalia) are stone tablets that were erected in the Forum Romanum around 12 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Augustus. They give the general's formal name, the names of his father and grandfather, the people(s) or command province whence the triumph was awarded, and the date of the triumphal procession. They record over 200 triumphs, starting with three mythical triumphs of Romulus in 753 BCE and ending with that of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (19 BCE).[36] Fragments of similar date and style from Rome and provincial Italy appear to be modeled on the Augustan Fasti, and have been used to fill some of its gaps.[37] Many ancient historical accounts also mention triumphs. Most Roman accounts of triumphs were written to provide their readers with a moral lesson, rather than to provide an accurate description of the triumphal process, procession, rites, and their meaning. This scarcity allows only the most tentative and generalised (and possibly misleading) reconstruction of triumphal ceremony, based on the combination of various incomplete accounts from different periods of Roman history. Evolution[edit] Origins and Regal era[edit] The Triumph of Bacchus, a Roman mosaic from Africa Proconsolaris, dated 3rd century AD, now in the Sousse Archaeological Museum, Tunisia The origins and development of this honour are obscure. Roman historians placed the first triumph in the mythical past; some thought that it dated from Rome's foundation; others thought it more ancient than that. Roman etymologists thought that the soldiers' chant of triumpe was a borrowing via Etruscan of the Greek thriambus (θρίαμβος), cried out by satyrs and other attendants in Dionysian and Bacchic processions.[38] Plutarch and some Roman sources traced the first Roman triumph and the "kingly" garb of the triumphator to Rome's first king Romulus, whose defeat of King Acron of the Caeninenses was thought coeval with Rome's foundation in 753 BCE.[39] Ovid projected a fabulous and poetic triumphal precedent in the return of the god Bacchus/Dionysus from his conquest of India, drawn in a golden chariot by tigers and surrounded by maenads, satyrs, and assorted drunkards.[40][41][42] Arrian attributed similar Dionysian and "Roman" elements to a victory procession of Alexander the Great.[43] Like much in Roman culture, elements of the triumph were based on Etruscan and Greek precursors; in particular, the purple, embroidered toga picta worn by the triumphal general was thought to be derived from the royal toga of Rome's Etruscan kings. For triumphs of the Roman regal era, the surviving Imperial Fasti Triumphales are incomplete. After three entries for the city's legendary founder Romulus, eleven lines of the list are missing. Next in sequence are Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and finally Tarquin "the proud", the last king. The Fasti were compiled some five centuries after the regal era, and probably represent an approved, official version of several different historical traditions. Likewise, the earliest surviving written histories of the regal era, written some centuries after it, attempt to reconcile various traditions, or else debate their merits. Dionysus, for example, gives Romulus three triumphs, the same number given in the Fasti. Livy gives him none, and credits him instead with the first spolia opima, in which the arms and armour were stripped off a defeated foe, then dedicated to Jupiter. Plutarch gives him one, complete with chariot. Tarquin has two triumphs in the Fasti but none in Dionysius.[44] No ancient source gives a triumph to Romulus' successor, the peaceful king Numa. The Republic[edit] Rome's aristocrats expelled their last king as a tyrant and legislated the monarchy out of existence. They shared among themselves the kingship's former powers and authority in the form of magistracies. In the Republic, the highest possible magistracy was an elected consulship, which could be held for no more than a year at a time. In times of crisis or emergency, the Senate might appoint a dictator to serve a longer term; but this could seem perilously close to the lifetime power of kings. The dictator Camillus was awarded four triumphs but was eventually exiled. Later Roman sources point to his triumph of 396 BCE as a cause for offense; the chariot was drawn by four white horses, a combination properly reserved for Jupiter and Apollo – at least in later lore and poetry.[45] The demeanour of a triumphal Republican general would have been closely scrutinised by his aristocratic peers, as well as the symbols which he employed in his triumph; they would be alert for any sign that he might aspire to be more than "king for a day". In the Middle to Late Republic, Rome's expansion through conquest offered her political-military adventurers extraordinary opportunities for self-publicity; the long-drawn series of wars between Rome and Carthage – the Punic Wars – produced twelve triumphs in ten years. Towards the end of the Republic, triumphs became still more frequent,[46] lavish, and competitive, with each display an attempt (usually successful) to outdo the last. To have a triumphal ancestor — even one long-dead — counted for a lot in Roman society and politics, and Cicero remarked that, in the race for power and influence, some individuals were not above vesting an inconveniently ordinary ancestor with triumphal grandeur and dignity, distorting an already fragmentary and unreliable historical tradition.[47][48][49] To Roman historians, the growth of triumphal ostentation undermined Rome's ancient "peasant virtues".[50] Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 BCE to after 7 BCE) claimed that the triumphs of his day had "departed in every respect from the ancient tradition of frugality".[51] Moralists complained that successful foreign wars might have increased Rome's power, security, and wealth, but they also created and fed a degenerate appetite for bombastic display and shallow novelty. Livy traces the start of the rot to the triumph of Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in 186, which introduced ordinary Romans to such Galatian fripperies as specialist chefs, flute girls, and other "seductive dinner-party amusements". Pliny adds "sideboards and one-legged tables" to the list,[52] but lays responsibility for Rome's slide into luxury on the "1400 pounds of chased silver ware and 1500 pounds of golden vessels" brought somewhat earlier by Scipio Asiaticus for his triumph of 189 BCE.[53] The three triumphs awarded to Pompey the Great were lavish and controversial. The first in 80 or 81 BCE was for his victory over King Hiarbas of Numidia in 79 BCE, granted by a cowed and divided Senate under the dictatorship of Pompey's patron Sulla. Pompey was only 24 and a mere equestrian.[54] Roman conservatives disapproved of such precocity[55] but others saw his youthful success as the mark of a prodigious military talent, divine favour, and personal brio; and he also had an enthusiastic, popular following. His triumph, however, did not go quite to plan. His chariot was drawn by a team of elephants in order to represent his African conquest – and perhaps to outdo even the legendary triumph of Bacchus. They proved too bulky to pass through the triumphal gate, so Pompey had to dismount while a horse team was yoked in their place.[56] This embarrassment would have delighted his critics, and probably some of his soldiers — whose demands for cash had been near-mutinous.[57] Even so, his firm stand on the matter of cash raised his standing among the conservatives, and Pompey seems to have learned a lesson in populist politics. For his second triumph (71 BCE, the last in a series of four held that year) his cash gifts to his army were said to break all records, though the amounts in Plutarch's account are implausibly high: 6,000 sesterces to each soldier (about six times their annual pay) and about 5 million to each officer.[58] Pompey was granted a third triumph in 61 BCE to celebrate his victory over Mithridates VI of Pontus. It was an opportunity to outdo all rivals — and even himself. Triumphs traditionally lasted for one day, but Pompey's went on for two in an unprecedented display of wealth and luxury.[59] Plutarch claimed that this triumph represented Pompey's domination over the entire world – on Rome's behalf – and an achievement to outshine even Alexander's.[60][61] Pliny's narrative of this triumph dwells with ominous hindsight upon a gigantic portrait-bust of the triumphant general, a thing of "eastern splendor" entirely covered with pearls, anticipating his later humiliation and decapitation.[62] Imperial era[edit] Flemish tapestry in the smoking room of the Palace of the Marqués de Dos Aguas Following Caesar's murder, Octavian assumed permanent title of imperator and became permanent head of the Senate from 27 BCE (see principate) under the title and name Augustus. Only the year before, he had blocked the senatorial award of a triumph to Marcus Licinius Crassus the Younger, despite the latter's acclamation in the field as Imperator and his fulfillment of all traditional, Republican qualifying criteria except full consulship. Technically, generals in the Imperial era were legates of the ruling Emperor (Imperator).[63] Augustus claimed the victory as his own but permitted Crassus a second, which is listed on the Fasti for 27 BCE.[64] Crassus was also denied the rare (and technically permissible, in his case) honour of dedicating the spolia opima of this campaign to Jupiter Feretrius.[65] The last triumph listed on the Fasti Triumphales is for 19 BCE. By then, the triumph had been absorbed into the Augustan Imperial cult system, in which only the emperor[66] would be accorded such a supreme honour, as he was the supreme Imperator. The Senate, in true Republican style, would have held session to debate and decide the merits of the candidate; but this was little more than good form. Augustan ideology insisted that Augustus had saved and restored the Republic, and it celebrated his triumph as a permanent condition, and his military, political, and religious leadership as responsible for an unprecedented era of stability, peace, and prosperity. From then on, emperors claimed – without seeming to claim – the triumph as an Imperial privilege. Those outside the Imperial family might be granted "triumphal ornaments" (Ornamenta triumphalia) or an ovation, such as Aulus Plautius under Claudius. The senate still debated and voted on such matters, though the outcome was probably already decided.[67] In the Imperial era, the number of triumphs fell sharply.[68] Imperial panegyrics of the later Imperial era combine triumphal elements with Imperial ceremonies such as the consular investiture of Emperors, and the adventus, the formal "triumphal" arrival of an emperor in the various capitals of the Empire in his progress through the provinces. Some emperors were perpetually on the move and seldom or never went to Rome.[69] Christian emperor Constantius II entered Rome for the first time in his life in 357, several years after defeating his rival Magnentius, standing in his triumphal chariot "as if he were a statue".[70] Theodosius I celebrated his victory over the usurper Magnus Maximus in Rome on June 13, 389.[71] Claudian's panegyric to Emperor Honorius records the last known official triumph in the city of Rome and the western Empire.[72][73] Emperor Honorius celebrated it conjointly with his sixth consulship on January 1, 404; his general Stilicho had defeated Visigothic King Alaric at the battles of Pollentia and Verona.[74] In Christian martyrology, Saint Telemachus was martyred by a mob while attempting to stop the customary gladiatorial games at this triumph, and gladiatorial games (munera gladiatoria) were banned in consequence.[75][76][77] In AD 438, however, the western emperor Valentinian III found cause to repeat the ban, which indicates that it was not always enforced.[78] In 534, well into the Byzantine era, Justinian I awarded general Belisarius a triumph that included some "radically new" Christian and Byzantine elements. Belisarius successfully campaigned against his adversary Vandal leader Gelimer to restore the former Roman province of Africa to the control of Byzantium in the 533-534 Vandalic War. The triumph was held in the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople. Historian Procopius, an eyewitness who had previously been in Belisarius's service, describes the procession's display of the loot seized from the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman Emperor Titus, including the Temple Menorah. The treasure had been stored in Rome's Temple of Peace after its display in Titus' own triumphal parade and its depiction on his triumphal arch; then it was seized by the Vandals during their sack of Rome in 455; then it was taken from them in Belisarius' campaign. The objects themselves might well have recalled the ancient triumphs of Vespasian and his son Titus; but Belisarius and Gelimer walked, as in an ovation. The procession did not end at Rome's Capitoline Temple with a sacrifice to Jupiter, but terminated at Hippodrome of Constantinople with a recitation of Christian prayer and the triumphant generals prostrate before the emperor.[79] Influence[edit] Main articles: Trionfo and Royal entry Miniature representation of the emperor Basil II's triumphal procession through the Forum of Constantinople, from the (Madrid Skylitzes) Charles V announcing the capture of Tunis to Pope Paul III, as imagined in an anonymous sixteenth century tapestry During the Renaissance, kings and magnates sought ennobling connections with the classical past. Ghibelline Castruccio Castracani defeated the forces of the Guelph Florence in the 1325 Battle of Altopascio. Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV made him Duke of Lucca, and the city gave him a Roman-style triumph. The procession was led by his Florentine captives, made to carry candles in honour of Lucca's patron saint. Castracani followed, standing in a decorative chariot. His booty included the Florentines' portable, wheeled altar, the carroccio.[80] Flavio Biondo's Roma Triumphans (1459) claimed the ancient Roman triumph, divested of its pagan rites, as a rightful inheritance of Holy Roman Emperors.[81] Italian poet Petrarch's Triumphs (I triomfi) represented the triumphal themes and biographies of ancient Roman texts as ideals for cultured, virtuous rule; it was influential and widely read.[82] Andrea Mantegna's series of large paintings on the Triumphs of Caesar (1484–92, now Hampton Court Palace) became immediately famous and was endlessly copied in print form. The Triumphal Procession commissioned by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1512–19) from a group of artists including Albrecht Dürer was a series of woodcuts of an imaginary triumph of his own that could be hung as a frieze 54 metres (177 ft) long. In the 1550s, the fragmentary Fasti Triumphales were unearthed and partially restored. Onofrio Panvinio's Fasti continued where the ancient Fasti left off.[83] The last triumph recorded by Panvinio was the Royal Entry of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V into Rome on April 5, 1536, after his conquest of Tunis in 1535.[84][85] Panvinio described it as a Roman triumph "over the infidel." The Emperor followed the traditional ancient route, "past the ruins of the triumphal arches of the soldier-emperors of Rome", where "actors dressed as ancient senators hailed the return of the new Caesar as miles christi," (a soldier of Christ).[86] The extravagant triumphal entry into Rouen of Henri II of France in 1550 was not "less pleasing and delectable than the third triumph of Pompey ... magnificent in riches and abounding in the spoils of foreign nations".[87] A triumphal arch made for the Royal entry into Paris of Louis XIII of France in 1628 carried a depiction of Pompey.[88] See also[edit] Imperial fora Joyous Entry Triumphal arch Triumphal honours Victory parade References[edit] ^ A summary of disparate viewpoints regarding the Triumph are in Versnel, 56–93: limited preview via Books.Google.com ^ Versnel, p. 386. ^ Beard, p. 77. ^ Beard, p. 7. ^ Denis Feeney, Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History, University of California Press (2008) p. 148. ^ Beard, 72-5. See also Diodorus, 4.5 at Thayer: Uchicago.edu ^ Beard et al, 85-7: see also Polybius, 10.2.20, who suggests that Scipio's assumption of divine connections (and the personal favour of divine guidance) was unprecedented and seemed suspiciously "Greek" to his more conservative peers. ^ See also Galinsky, 106, 126-49, for Heraklean/Herculean associations of Alexander, Scipio, and later triumphing Roman generals. ^ Versnel, p. 380. ^ Various Roman sources describe the different charms employed against envy during triumphs, not necessarily at the same event; they include an assemblage of miniature bells (tintinnabulum) and a whip on the chariot's dashboard. In Pliny, a sacred phallos loaned by the Vestal Virgins is slung between the chariot wheels; see Beard, pp. 83–85. ^ The very few accounts are from the Imperial era of a public slave (or other figure) who stands behind or near the triumphator to remind him that he "is but mortal" or prompts him to "look behind", and are open to a variety of interpretations. Nevertheless, they imply a tradition that the triumphing general was publicly reminded of his mortal nature, whatever his kingly appearance, temporary godlike status, or divine associations. See Beard, pp. 85-92. ^ Emperor Vespasian regretted his triumph because its vast length and slow movement bored him; see Suetonius, Vespasian, 12. ^ The "2,700 wagonloads of captured weapons alone, never mind the soldiers and captives and booty" on one day of Aemilius Paulus's triumphal "extravaganza" of 167 BCE is wild exaggeration. Some modern scholarship suggests a procession 7 km long as plausible. See Beard, p. 102. ^ Summary based on Versnel, pp. 95–96. ^ Beard, pp. 159–161, citing Suetonius, Augustus, 41.1. ^ Beard, pp. 93–95, 258. For their joint triumph of 71 CE, Titus and Vespasian treated their soldiers to a very early, and possibly traditional "triumphal breakfast". ^ See map, in Beard, p. 334, and discussion on pp. 92–105. ^ The location and nature of the Porta Triumphalis are among the most uncertain and disputed aspects of the triumphal route; some sources imply a gate exclusively dedicated to official processions, others a free-standing arch, or the Porta Carmentalis by another name, or any convenient gate in the vicinity. See discussion in Beard, pp. 97–101. ^ Sometimes thought to be the same route as the modern Via dei Fori Imperiali ^ This is where Jugurtha was starved to death and Vercingetorix was strangled. ^ Beard, pp. 258–259; cf Livy's "soldiers feasting as they went" at the triumph of Cincinnatus (458 BCE). ^ Beard, p. 49. ^ Beard, pp. 263–264. ^ Beard pp. 19–21, ^ Flower, Harriet I., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 33. ^ Taylor, Lily Ross, The Divinity of the Roman Emperor, American Philological Association, 1931 (reprinted by Arno Press, 1975), p. 57, citing Cicero, To Atticus, 1.18.6, and Velleius Paterculus, 2.40.4. Faced with this reaction, Pompey never tried it again. ^ Beard, pp. 23–25. ^ Beard, pp. 22–23. ^ Fergus Millar, "Last Year in Jerusalem: Monuments of the Jewish War in Rome", in Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome, J. C. Edmondson, Steve Mason, J. B. Rives (eds.), pp. 101–124. ^ Beard, 196−201. ^ See discussion in Beard, pp. 199–206, 209–210. Livy's "triumphal laws" hark back to earlier, traditional but probably reinvented triumphs of Republican Rome's expansion to Empire and its defeat of foreign kings; his notion was that triumphal generals must possess the highest level of imperium (Livy, 38.38.4, in the 206 BCE case of Scipio Africanus), but this is contradicted in Polybius 11.33.7 and Pompey's status at his first triumph. ^ The tradition was probably an indication of esteem and popularity that triumphal generals in the Republic had been spontaneously proclaimed as imperator by their troops in the field; it was not an absolute requirement (see Beard, p. 275). Taking divine auspices before battle might have been formally reserved to the highest magistrate on the field, while a victory proved that a commander must have pleased the gods – whatever the niceties of his authority. Conversely, a lost battle was a sure sign of religious dereliction; see Veit Rosenberger, "The Gallic Disaster", The Classical World, (The Johns Hopkins University Press), 96, 4, 2003, p. 371, note 39. ^ Valerius Maximus, 2. 8. 1. ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 26, 21; cf. Plutarch Marcellus 19–22. ^ Beard, p. 265. ^ Romulus' three triumphs are in Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antiquitates Romanae, 2.54.2 & 2.55.5). Dioysius may have seen the Fasti. Livy (1.10.5-7) allows Romulus the spolia opima, not a "triumph". Neither author mentions the two triumphs attributed by the Fasti to the last king of Rome, Tarquin. See Beard, 74 and endnotes 1 &2. ^ Beard, 61-2, 66-7. The standard modern edition of the Fasti Triumphales is that of Attilio Degrassi, in Inscriptiones Italiae, vol.XIII, fasc.1 (Rome, 1947) ^ Versnel considers it an invocation for divine help and manifestation, derived via an unknown pre-Greek language through Etruria and Greece. He cites the chant of "Triumpe", repeated five times, which terminates the Carmen Arvale, a now-obscure prayer for the help and protection of Mars and the Lares. Versnel, pp. 39–55 (conclusion and summary on p. 55). ^ Beard et al, vol. 1, 44-5, 59-60: see also Plutarch, Romulus (trans. Dryden) at The Internet Classics Archive MIT.edu ^ Bowersock, 1994, 157. ^ Ovid, The Erotic Poems, 1.2.19-52. Trans P. Green. ^ Pliny attributes the invention of the triumph to "Father Liber" (identified with Dionysus): see Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 7.57 (ed. Bostock) at Perseus: Tufts.edu ^ Bosworth, 67-79, notes that Arrian's attributions here are non-historic and their details almost certainly apocryphal: see Arrian, 6, 28, 1-2. ^ Beard, p. 74. ^ Beard, p. 235. ^ Beard, p. 42; four were clustered in one year (71 BCE), including Pompey's second triumph. ^ Cicero, Brutus, 62. ^ See also Livy, 8, 40. ^ Beard, 79, notes at least one ancient case of what seems blatant fabrication, in which two ancestral triumphs became three. ^ Beard, 67: citing Valerius Maximus, 4.4.5., and Apuleius, Apol.17 ^ Dionysus of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 2.34.3. ^ Livy, 39.6-7: cf Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 34.14. ^ Beard, p. 162. ^ Beard, 16; he was aged 25 or 26 in some accounts. ^ Dio Cassius, 42.18.3. ^ Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 8.4: Plutarch, Pompey, 14.4. ^ Beard, 16, 17. ^ Beard, 39-40, notes that the introduction of such vast sums into the Roman economy would have left substantial traces, but none are evidenced (citing Brunt (1971), 459-60; Scheidel (1996); Duncan-Jones (1990), 43, & (1994), 253). ^ Beard, 9, cites Appian's very doubtful "75,100,000" drachmae carried in the procession as 1.5 times his own estimate of Rome's total annual tax revenue (Appian, Mithradates, 116). ^ Beard, 15-16, citing Plutarch, Pompey, 45, 5. ^ Beard, 16. For further elaboration on Pompey's 3rd triumph, see also Plutarch, Sertorius, 18, 2, at Thayer Uchicago.edu: Cicero, Man. 61: Pliny, Nat. 7, 95. ^ Beard, 35: Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 37, 14-16. ^ Beard, pp. 297–298. ^ Syme, 272-5: Google Books Search ^ Southern, 104: Google Books Search ^ Very occasionally, a close relative who had glorified the Imperial gens might receive the honor. ^ Suetonius, Lives, Claudius, 24.3: given for the conquest of Britain. Claudius was "granted" a triumph by the Senate and gave "triumphal regalia" to his prospective son-in-law, who was still "only a boy." Thayer: Uchicago.edu Archived 2012-06-30 at archive.today ^ Beard, 61–71. ^ On triumphal entrances to Rome in the fourth century, see discussion in Schmidt-Hofner, pp. 33–60, and Wienand, pp. 169–197. ^ Beard pp. 322–323. ^ "Theodosius I - Livius". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 2015-04-29. ^ Claudian (404). Panegyricus de Sexto Consulatu Honorii Augusti. Retrieved 21 August 2013. ^ Beard, 326. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776–89). "Chapter XXX". The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. pp. 39–41. Retrieved 21 August 2013. After the retreat of the barbarians, Honorius was directed to accept the dutiful invitation of the senate, and to celebrate, in the Imperial city, the auspicious aera of the Gothic victory, and of his sixth consulship. ^ Wace, Henry (1911). "Entry for "Honorius, Flavius Augustus, emperor"". Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2013. The customary games took place with great magnificence, and on this occasion St. Telemachus sacrificed himself by attempting to separate the gladiators. ^ Theodoret (449–450). "Book V, chapter 26". Ecclesiastical History. Archived from the original on 20 September 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2013. When the admirable emperor was informed of this he numbered Telemachus in the array of victorious martyrs, and put an end to that impious spectacle. ^ Foxe, John (1563). "Chapter III, section on "The Last Roman 'Triumph.'"". Actes and Monuments (a.k.a. Foxe's Book of Martyrs). Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2013. [F]rom the day Telemachus fell dead ... no other fight of gladiators was ever held there. ^ Dell'Orto, Luisa Franchi (June 1983). Ancient Rome: Life and Art. Scala Books. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-935748-46-8. ^ Beard, 318–321. Procopius' account is the source for a "marvelous set piece" of Belisarius' triumph, in Robert Graves' historical novel Count Belisarius. ^ Zaho and Bernstein, 2004, p. 47. ^ Beard, p. 54. ^ Zaho and Bernstein, 2004, pp. 4, 31 ff. ^ De fasti et triumphi Romanorum a Romulo usque ad Carolum V, Giacomo Strada, Venice, 1557 (Latin text, accessed 22 August 2013) ^ Beard, p. 53; in preparation, Pope Paul III arranged the clearance of any buildings that obstructed the traditional Via Triumphalis. ^ Pinson, Yona (2001). "Imperial Ideology in the Triumphal Entry into Lille of Charles V and the Crown Prince (1549)" (PDF). Assaph: Studies in Art History. 6: 212. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-23. Already in his Imperial Triumphal Entry into Rome (1536) the Emperor appeared as a triumphant Roman Imperator: mounted on a white horse and wearing a purple cape, he embodied the figure of the ancient conqueror. At the head of a procession marching along the ancient Via Triumphalis, Charles had re-established himself as the legitimate successor to the Roman Empire. ^ Frieder, Braden (28 December 2016). Chivalry & the Perfect Prince: Tournaments, Art, and Armor at the Spanish Habsburg Court. Truman State University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-931112-69-7. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. ^ Beard, 31. See 32, Fig. 7 for a contemporary depiction of Henri's "Romanised" procession. ^ Beard, 343, footnote 65. Bibliography[edit] Aicher, Peter J. (2004). Rome alive : a source-guide to the ancient city. Wauconda, Ill.: Bolchazy-Carducci. ISBN 9780865164734. Retrieved 19 October 2015. Bastien J-L, Le triomphe romain et son utilisation politique à Rome aux trois derniers siècles de la République, CEFR 392, Rome, 2007 Bastien J-L, Le triomphe à Rome sous la République, un rite monarchique dans une cité aristocratique (IVe-Ier siècle av. notre ère) dans Guisard P. et Laizé C. (dir.), La guerre et la paix, coll. Cultures antiques, Ellipses, 2014, p. 509-526 Beard, Mary: The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, England, 2007. (hardcover). ISBN 978-0-674-02613-1 Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-31682-0 Bosworth, A. B., From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in Historical Interpretation, illustrated, reprint, Oxford University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-19-814863-1 Bowersock, Glen W., "Dionysus as an Epic Hero," Studies in the Dionysiaca of Nonnos, ed. N. Hopkinson, Cambridge Philosophical Society, suppl. Vol. 17, 1994, 156–66. Brennan, T. Corey: "Triumphus in Monte Albano", 315–337 in R. W. Wallace & E. M. Harris (eds.) Transitions to Empire. Essays in Greco-Roman History, 360-146 B.C., in honor of E. Badian (University of Oklahoma Press, 1996) ISBN 0-8061-2863-1 Galinsky, G. Karl, The Herakles theme: the adaptations of the hero in literature from Homer to the twentieth century (Oxford, 1972). ISBN 0-631-14020-4 Goell, H. A., De triumphi Romani origine, permissu, apparatu, via (Schleiz, 1854) Künzl, E., Der römische Triumph (Münich, 1988) Lemosse, M., "Les éléments techniques de l'ancien triomphe romain et le probleme de son origine", in H. Temporini (ed.) ANRW I.2 (Berlin, 1972). Includes a comprehensive bibliography. MacCormack, Sabine, Change and Continuity in Late Antiquity: the ceremony of "Adventus", Historia, 21, 4, 1972, pp 721–52. Pais, E., Fasti Triumphales Populi Romani (Rome, 1920) Richardson, J. S., "The Triumph, the Praetors and the Senate in the early Second Century B.C.", JRS 65 (1975), 50-63 Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian, "Trajan und die symbolische Kommunikation bei kaiserlichen Rombesuchen in der Spätantike", in R. Behrwald & C. Witschel (eds.) Rom in der Spätantike (Steiner, 2012) pp. 33–60. ISBN 978-3-515-09445-0 Southern, Pat, Augustus, illustrated, reprint, Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0-415-16631-4 Syme, Ronald, The Augustan Aristocracy (Oxford University Press, 1986; Clarendon reprint with corrections, 1989) ISBN 0-19-814731-7 Versnel, H S: Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Leiden, 1970) Wienand, Johannes, "O tandem felix civili, Roma, victoria! Civil War Triumphs From Honorius to Constantine and Back", in J. Wienand (ed.) Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the 4th Century AD (Oxford, 2015) pp. 169–197 ISBN 978-0-19-976899-8 Wienand, Johannes; Goldbeck, Fabian; Börm, Henning: Der römische Triumph in Prinzipat und Spätantike. Probleme – Paradigmen – Perspektiven, in F. Goldbeck, J. Wienand (eds.): Der römische Triumph in Prinzipat und Spätantike (Berlin/New York, 2017), pp. 1–26. Zaho, Margaret A, and Bernstein, Eckhard, Imago Triumphalis: The Function and Significance of Triumphal Imagery for Italian Renaissance Rulers, Peter Lang Publishing Inc, 2004, ISBN 978-0-8204-6235-6 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman triumphs. Roman Triumph on World History Encyclopedia Fasti Triumphales at attalus.org. Partial, annotated English translation. From A. Degrassi's "Fasti Capitolini", 1954. Attalus.org Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_triumph&oldid=1019545957" Categories: Military awards and decorations of ancient Rome Ancient Roman religion Victory parades Processions in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Webarchive template archiveis links CS1: abbreviated year range Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2021, at 23:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7249	----	Pliny the Younger - Wikipedia Pliny the Younger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman lawyer, author and magistrate (61 – c.113) Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus Statue of Pliny the Younger on the facade of Cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore in Como Born Gaius Caecilius Cilo 61 AD Como Died c. 113 AD (aged approximately 52) Bithynia Occupation Politician, judge, author Parents Lucius Caecilius Cilo (father) Plinia Marcella (mother) Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (/ˈplɪni/),[1] was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him. Pliny the Younger wrote hundreds of letters, of which 247 survive, and which are of great historical value. Some are addressed to reigning emperors or to notables such as the historian Tacitus. Pliny served as an imperial magistrate under Trajan (reigned 98–117),[2] and his letters to Trajan provide one of the few surviving records of the relationship between the imperial office and provincial governors.[3] Pliny rose through a series of civil and military offices, the cursus honorum. He was a friend of the historian Tacitus and might have employed the biographer Suetonius on his staff. Pliny also came into contact with other well-known men of the period, including the philosophers Artemidorus and Euphrates the Stoic, during his time in Syria.[4] Contents 1 Background 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Marriages 1.3 Death 2 Career 2.1 Career summary 3 Writings 3.1 Epistulae 3.1.1 Letters concerning the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 3.1.2 Epistle concerning the Christian religion 3.1.3 Letter concerning strategic voting 3.2 Manuscripts 4 Villas, farms and estates 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Childhood[edit] Como and Lake Como in 1834, painted by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot Pliny the Younger was born in Novum Comum (Como, Northern Italy) around 61 AD, the son of Lucius Caecilius Cilo, born there, and his wife Plinia Marcella, a sister of Pliny the Elder.[5] He was the grandson of Senator and landowner Gaius Caecilius, revered his uncle, Pliny the Elder (who at this time was extremely famous around the Roman Empire), and provided sketches of how his uncle worked on the Naturalis Historia.[6] Cilo died at an early age, when Pliny was still young. As a result, the boy probably lived with his mother. His guardian and preceptor in charge of his education was Lucius Verginius Rufus,[7] famed for quelling a revolt against Nero in 68 AD. After being first tutored at home, Pliny went to Rome for further education. There he was taught rhetoric by Quintilian, a great teacher and author, and Nicetes Sacerdos of Smyrna. It was at this time that Pliny became closer to his uncle Pliny the Elder. When Pliny the Younger was 17 or 18, his uncle Pliny the Elder died attempting to rescue victims of the Vesuvius eruption, and the terms of the Elder Pliny's will passed his estate to his nephew. In the same document, the younger Pliny was adopted by his uncle. As a result, Pliny the Younger changed his name from Gaius Caecilius Cilo to Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (his official title was Gaius Plinius Luci filius Caecilius Secundus).[8] The Younger Pliny Reproved, colourized copperplate print by Thomas Burke (1749–1815) There is some evidence that Pliny had a sibling. A memorial erected in Como (now CIL V, 5279) repeats the terms of a will by which the aedile Lucius Caecilius Cilo, son of Lucius, established a fund, the interest of which was to buy oil (used for soap) for the baths of the people of Como. The trustees are apparently named in the inscription: "L. Caecilius Valens and P. Caecilius Secundus, sons of Lucius, and the contubernalis Lutulla." The word contubernalis describing Lutulla is the military term meaning "tent-mate", which can only mean that she was living with Lucius, not as his wife. The first man mentioned, L. Caecilius Valens, is probably the older son. Pliny the Younger confirms[9] that he was a trustee for the largesse "of my ancestors". It seems unknown to Pliny the Elder, so Valens' mother was probably not his sister Plinia; perhaps Valens was Lutulla's son from an earlier relationship.[citation needed] Marriages[edit] Pliny the Younger married three times, firstly, when he was very young (about 18), to a stepdaughter of Veccius Proculus, who died at age 37; secondly, at an unknown date, to the daughter of Pompeia Celerina; and thirdly to Calpurnia, daughter of Calpurnius and granddaughter of Calpurnius Fabatus of Comum. Letters survive in which Pliny recorded this last marriage taking place, his attachment to Calpurnia, and his sadness when she miscarried their child.[10] Death[edit] Pliny is thought to have died suddenly during his convention in Bithynia-Pontus, around 113 AD, since no events referred to in his letters date later than that.[11] Career[edit] Pliny was by birth of equestrian rank, that is, a member of the aristocratic order of equites (knights), the lower (beneath the senatorial order) of the two Roman aristocratic orders that monopolised senior civil and military offices during the early Empire. His career began at the age of 18 and initially followed a normal equestrian route. But, unlike most equestrians, he achieved entry into the upper order by being elected Quaestor in his late twenties.[12] (See Career summary below.) Pliny was active in the Roman legal system, especially in the sphere of the Roman centumviral court, which dealt with inheritance cases. Later, he was a well-known prosecutor and defender at the trials of a series of provincial governors, including Baebius Massa, governor of Baetica; Marius Priscus, governor of Africa; Gaius Caecilius Classicus, governor of Baetica; and most ironically in light of his later appointment to this province, Gaius Julius Bassus and Varenus Rufus, both governors of Bithynia and Pontus.[13] Pliny's career is commonly considered as a summary of the main Roman public charges and is the best-documented example from this period, offering proof for many aspects of imperial culture. Effectively, Pliny crossed all the principal fields of the organization of the early Roman Empire. It is an achievement for a man to have not only survived the reigns of several disparate emperors, especially the much-detested Domitian, but also to have risen in rank throughout.[14] Career summary[edit] c. 81 One of the presiding judges in the centumviral court (decemvir litibus iudicandis) c. 81 Tribunus militum (staff officer) of Legio III Gallica in Syria, probably for six months 80s Officer of the noble order of knights (sevir equitum Romanorum) Later 80s Entered the Senate 88 or 89 Quaestor attached to the Emperor's staff (quaestor imperatoris) 91 Tribune of the People (tribunus plebis) 93 Praetor 94–96 Prefect of the military treasury (praefectus aerarii militaris) 98–100 Prefect of the treasury of Saturn (praefectus aerari Saturni) 100 Suffect consul with Cornutus Tertullus 103–104 Publicly elected Augur 104–106 Superintendent for the banks of the Tiber (curator alvei Tiberis) 104–107 Three times a member of Trajan's judicial council. 110 The imperial governor (legatus Augusti) of Bithynia et Pontus province Writings[edit] Pliny wrote his first work, a tragedy in Greek, at age 14.[15] Additionally, in the course of his life, he wrote numerous poems, most of which are lost. He was also known as a notable orator; though he professed himself a follower of Cicero, Pliny's prose was more magniloquent and less direct than Cicero's. Pliny's only oration that now survives is the Panegyricus Traiani. This was delivered in the Senate in 100 and is a description of Trajan's figure and actions in an adulatory and emphatic form, especially contrasting him with the Emperor Domitian. It is, however, a relevant document that reveals many details about the Emperor's actions in several fields of his administrative power such as taxes, justice, military discipline, and commerce. Recalling the speech in one of his letters, Pliny shrewdly defines his own motives thus: I hoped in the first place to encourage our Emperor in his virtues by a sincere tribute and, secondly, to show his successors what path to follow to win the same renown, not by offering instruction but by setting his example before them. To proffer advice on an Emperor's duties might be a noble enterprise, but it would be a heavy responsibility verging on insolence, whereas to praise an excellent ruler (optimum principem) and thereby shine a beacon on the path posterity should follow would be equally effective without appearing presumptuous.[16] Epistulae[edit] Main article: Epistulae (Pliny) Eruption of Vesuvius, 1826 painting by I.C. Dahl The largest surviving body of Pliny's work is his Epistulae (Letters), a series of personal missives directed to his friends and associates. These letters are a unique testimony of Roman administrative history and everyday life in the 1st century AD. Especially noteworthy among the letters are two in which he describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in October 79, during which his uncle Pliny the Elder died (Epistulae VI.16, VI.20), and one in which he asks the Emperor for instructions regarding official policy concerning Christians (Epistulae X.96). Letters concerning the eruption of Mount Vesuvius[edit] Pliny wrote the two letters describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius approximately 25 years after the event, and both were sent in response to the request of his friend, the historian Tacitus, who wanted to know more about Pliny the Elder's death. The two letters have great historical value due to their accurate description of the Vesuvius eruption; Pliny's attention to detail in the letters about Vesuvius is so keen that modern volcanologists describe those types of eruptions as "Plinian eruptions".[17] Epistle concerning the Christian religion[edit] Main article: Pliny the Younger on Christians As the Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus (now in modern Turkey) Pliny wrote a letter to Emperor Trajan around 112 AD and asked for counsel on dealing with Christians. In the letter (Epistulae X.96), Pliny detailed an account of how he conducted trials of suspected Christians who appeared before him as a result of anonymous accusations and asked for the Emperor's guidance on how they should be treated.[18] Pliny had never performed a legal investigation of Christians and thus consulted Trajan in order to be on solid ground regarding his actions. Pliny saved his letters and Trajan's replies[19] and these are the earliest surviving Roman documents to refer to early Christians.[20] Letter concerning strategic voting[edit] Voting theorists and historians of the social choice note Pliny’s first-of-its-kind analysis of strategic voting, when voters declare false preferences in order to thwart the election of competitors to favorites.[21][22][23] On June 24, 105, Pliny wrote a letter to Titius Aristo,[24] where he describes a Senate debate on the choice of sentence for a crime: execution, exile or leniency. Since the Senate procedure was designed for two alternatives only, the three options enabled to manipulate the outcome by choosing the order of pairwise votes. For detailed analysis of Pliny’s argument see.[25] Manuscripts[edit] The first – incomplete – edition of Pliny's Epistles was published in Italy in 1471. Sometime between 1495 and 1500 Giovanni Giocondo discovered a manuscript in Paris of Pliny's tenth book of letters, containing his correspondence with Trajan, and published it in Paris, dedicating the work to Louis XII. The first complete edition was produced by the press of Aldus Manutius in 1508.[26] (See Editio princeps for details.) Villas, farms and estates[edit] View of Bellagio in Lake Como. The institution on the hill is Villa Serbelloni, believed to have been constructed on the site of Pliny's villa "Tragedy." Being wealthy, Pliny owned many villas and wrote in detail about his villa near Ostia, at Laurentium.[27] Others were the one in Lake Como named "Tragedy" because of its location high on a hill,[clarification needed] and, on the shore of the lake, "Comedy," so called because it was sited low down.[28] Pliny's main estate in Italy was in the north of Umbria, by Tifernum Tiberinum, under the passes of Bocca Trabaria and Bocca Serriola, where wood was harvested for Roman ships and sent to Rome via the Tiber.[29] According to G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, as a response to "declining returns from his north Italian farms", Pliny begins to contemplate switching the administration of his estate to a sharecropping system called colonia partiaria. Under the sharecropping system Pliny's slaves would act as overseers. Ste. Croix speculated this may have been an intermediary period before serfdom fully replaces slavery in later centuries.[30] See also[edit] Herculaneum Misenum Pompeii Stabiae References[edit] ^ Melvyn Bragg (December 12, 2013). "Pliny the Younger". In Our Time (Podcast). BBC Radio 4. Retrieved January 26, 2020. ^ Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times. New York & London: Routledge. pp. 113–125. ^ John W. Roberts, ed. (2007). "Pliny the Younger". The Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192801463. Retrieved March 24, 2014. The tenth bk. of letters contains all of Pliny's correspondence with Trajan. [...] The provincial letters are the only such dossier surviving entire, and are a major source for understanding Roman provincial government. (subscription required) ^ Shelton, Jo-Ann (2013). The Women of Pliny's Letters. Women of the Ancient World Series. New York, NY: Rutledge. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-0-203-09812-7. ^ Salway, B. (1994). Journal of Roman Studies. 84. pp. 124–145. ^ Pliny Letters 3.5.8–12. See English translation (Plinius the Elder (2)) and Latin text (C. PLINII CAECILII SECVNDI EPISTVLARVM LIBER TERTIVS). ^ Pliny Letters 2.1.1. See English translation ([1]). ^ Radice, Betty (1975). The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Penguin Classics. p. 13. ^ "I.8, To Saturninus". Letters. I am compelled to the discourse of my own largesse, as well as those of my ancestors. ^ Pliny. Letters. p. 8.10. ^ Hurley, Donna.W (2011). Suetonius The Caesars. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. x. ISBN 978-1-60384-313-3. ^ Cf. Pliny: A Self-Portrait in Letters, The Folio Society, London (1978), Intro. pp.9–11 ^ Cf. Pliny: A Self-Portrait in Letters, Intro. pp.10–16 ^ Cf. op. cit., Intro. p.15-18 ^ "quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.": Epistulae VII. iv ^ Epistulae III. xviii, here translated by Betty Radice, The Letters of the Younger Pliny, Penguin Classics (1975), p. 104 ^ "VHP Photo Glossary: Plinian eruption". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 8, 2010. ^ The Early Christian Church Volume 1 by Philip Carrington (2011) ISBN 0521166411 Cambridge Univ Press p. 429 ^ Pagan Rome and the Early Christians by Stephen Benko (1986) ISBN 0253203856 pp. 5–7 ^ St. Croix, G.E.M (November 1963). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?". Past & Present. 26 (26): 6–38. doi:10.1093/past/26.1.6. JSTOR 649902. ^ McLean, Iain; Urken, Arnold Bernard; Hewitt, Fiona, eds. (1995). Classics of social choice. Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/MPUB.12736. ISBN 9780472104505. S2CID 142220732. ^ Nurmi, Hannu (1999). Voting paradoxes and how to deal with them. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03782-9. ISBN 978-3-642-08551-2. S2CID 2488394. ^ Gehrlein, William V.; Lepelley, Dominique (2011). Voting paradoxes and group coherence. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03107-6. ISBN 9783642031076. S2CID 124511799. ^ Letters by Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus. Book 8. Retrieved January 10, 2021. ^ Tangian, Andranik (2020). "Pliny's logical analysis of a Senate hearing". Analytical theory of democracy. Vol. 1. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp. 59–62. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6. ISBN 978-3-030-39690-9. ^ "Iohannem Iucundum architectum illum Veronensem, quem annos 1494–1506 in Gallia egisse novimus, codicem decem librorum Parisiis invenisse testis est Gulielmus Budaeus...Eodem ferme tempore Venetias ad Aldum Manutium editionem suam parantem, quae anno 1508 proditura erat, epistulas ex eodem vetustissimo codice descriptas misit ipse Iucundus." (R.A.B. Mynors, C. Plini Caecili Secundi Epistularum Libri Decem, Oxford University Press (1976), Praefatio xviii–xix ^ Letter 2.17 ^ de la Ruffinière Du Prey, Pierre (1994). The villas of Pliny from antiquity to posterity (illustrated ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-226-17300-9. ^ Letter 4.1 ^ Byres, T. J. (1983). Sharecropping and Sharecroppers. /pl: Frank Cass. p. 7. ISBN 1135780021. Retrieved August 4, 2019. Further reading[edit] Bell, Albert A. (1989). "A Note on Revision and Authenticity in Pliny's Letters". American Journal of Philology. 110 (3): 460–466. doi:10.2307/295220. JSTOR 295220. Bell, Albert A. (2002). All Roads Lead to Murder: A Case from the Notebooks of Pliny the Younger. High Country Publishers. ISBN 978-0-9713045-3-6. Dobson, E.S. (1982). "Pliny the Younger's Depiction of Women". Classical Bulletin. 58: 81–85. Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth, ed. (2003) [1949]. Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860641-9. Radice, Betty (1963). The Letters of the Younger Pliny. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044127-7. Radice, Betty (1968). "Pliny and the Panegyricus". Greece & Rome. 15 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1017/S0017383500017514. JSTOR 642428. Sands, John Edwin (1911). "Pliny the Younger". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 844–846. Sherwin-White, A.N. (1966). The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814435-0. Sherwin-White, A.N. (1969). "Pliny, the Man and his Letters". Greece & Rome. Cambridge University Press. 16 (1): 76–90. doi:10.1017/S0017383500016375. JSTOR 642902. Stadler, Thiago David (2013). O Império romano em cartas: glórias romanas em papel e tinta (Plínio, o Jovem e Trajano 98/113 d.C.). Curitiba: Juruá Editora. Stout, Selatie Edgar (1962). Plinius, Epistulae: A Critical Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Syme, Ronald (1968). "People in Pliny". Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 58 (1 & 2): 135–151. doi:10.2307/299703. JSTOR 299703. Wilken, Robert L. (1984). "Pliny: A Roman Gentleman" in The Christians as the Romans saw Them. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-724	----	Matthew Kantakouzenos - Wikipedia Matthew Kantakouzenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Co-Emperor of the Byzantine Empire Matthew Asen Kantakouzenos Co-Emperor of the Byzantine Empire Reign 1353–1357 Predecessor John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos Successor John V Palaiologos Born c. 1325 Died 15 June 1383 Spouse Irene Palaiologina Dynasty Palaiologos Dynasty Father John VI Kantakouzenos Mother Irene Asanina Matthew Asen Kantakouzenos or Cantacuzenus (Greek: Ματθαῖος Ἀσάνης Καντακουζηνός, Matthaios Asanēs Kantakouzēnos, Bulgarian: Матей Асен Кантакузин, "Matey Asen Kantakuzin" c. 1325 – 15 June 1383) was Byzantine Emperor from 1353 to 1357. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 References 4 Sources Life[edit] Matthew Asanes Kantakouzenos was the son of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos and Irene Asanina. In return for the support he gave to his father during his struggle with John V Palaiologos, he was given part of Thrace as an appanage in 1347, and was proclaimed joint emperor in 1353, when open civil war broke out again with John V. From his Thracian domain, centred on Gratzianous, he led several wars against the Serbs. An attack, which he prepared in 1350, was frustrated by the defection of his Turkish auxiliaries. However, with five thousand Turks he tried to re-establish his former appanage along the Serbian-Byzantine border by attacking this region but failed to take Serres and soon was defeated in battle in late 1356 or early 1357 by a Serb army under Vojvoda Vojihna, the holder of Drama, a major fortress in the vicinity. The Serbs captured Matthew with the intention of releasing him when he had raised the large ransom they demanded. However John V, who had rapidly moved in to occupy Matthew's lands, offered Vojihna an even larger sum to turn Matthew over to him. After imprisoning Matthew first on Tenedos, then on Lesbos under the watchful eye of Francesco I Gattilusio, John forced him to renounce the imperial title, John then released him to go to the Morea, where he joined his brother Manuel, who was ruling there (1361). After his brother's death in 1380, Matthew Asanes Kantakouzenos governed the Morea until the appointment of the new governor Theodore I Palaiologos, in 1381, and his arrival in 1382. Before full transition of power in the Morea, from the Kantakouzenos family to that of Palaiologos, Matthew resigned his power in the Morea to his son Demetrios I Kantakouzenos. Family[edit] By his wife Irene Palaiologina, whom he married in Thessalonika early in 1341, Matthew Asanes Kantakouzenos had five known children:[1] John Kantakouzenos, despotēs Demetrios Kantakouzenos, sebastokratōr Theodora Kantakouzene Helena Kantakouzene, who married Louis Fadrique, Count of Salona Maria Kantakouzene, who married John Laskaris Kalopheros (possibly) Theodore Kantakouzenos, ambassador to France and Venice[2] References[edit] ^ Donald M. Nicol, The Byzantine Family of Kantakouzenos (Cantacuzenus) ca. 1100-1460: a Genealogical and Prosopographical Study (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1968), pp. 121f, 156-164 ^ Donald M. Nicol, The Byzantine Family of Kantakouzenos: Some Addenda and Corrigenda, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 27 (1973), p. 312-3 Sources[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Nicol, Donald M. (1968). The Byzantine Family of Kantakouzenos (Cantacuzenus), ca. 1100–1460: A Genealogical and Prosopographical Study. Dumbarton Oaks studies 11. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. OCLC 390843. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6. Nicol, Donald M. (1996). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295-1383. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Matthew Kantakouzenos Palaiologos dynasty Born: c. 1325 Died: unknown Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos Byzantine Emperor 1353–1357 with John V Palaiologos (1341–1376) John VI Kantakouzenos (1347–1353) Succeeded by John V Palaiologos Preceded by Manuel Kantakouzenos Despot of the Morea 1380–1383 Succeeded by Demetrius I Kantakouzenos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Spain Netherlands Poland Vatican Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_Kantakouzenos&oldid=1026973292" Categories: 1325 births 14th-century deaths Kantakouzenos family Palaiologos dynasty Eastern Orthodox monarchs 14th-century Byzantine emperors 14th-century Despots of the Morea Byzantine junior emperors Asen dynasty Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Italiano Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 09:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7250	----	Legionary - Wikipedia Legionary From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Professional soldier of the Roman army A recreation of Roman legionaries wearing the lorica segmentata, 1st–3rd century The Roman legionary (in Latin legionarius, plural legionarii) was a professional heavy infantryman of the Roman army after the Marian reforms. These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during the late Republic and Principate eras, alongside auxiliary and cavalry detachments. At its height, Roman legionaries were viewed as the foremost fighting force in the Roman world, with commentators such as Vegetius praising their fighting effectiveness centuries after the classical Roman legionary disappeared.[1] Roman legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens under age 45. They were first predominantly made up of recruits from Roman Italy, but more were recruited from the provinces as time went on. As legionaries moved into newly conquered provinces, they helped Romanize the native population and helped integrate the disparate regions of the Roman Empire into one polity. They enlisted in a legion for 25 years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. Legionaries were expected to fight, but they also built much of the infrastructure of the Roman Empire and served as a policing force in the provinces. They built large public works projects, such as walls, bridges, and roads. The legionary's last five years of service were on lighter duties.[2] Once retired, a Roman legionary received a parcel of land or its equivalent in money and often became a prominent member of society.[3] Contents 1 History 1.1 Inception: Marius's reforms 1.2 During the Principate 1.3 Decline 2 Functions 3 Immunes 4 Recruitment 5 Equipment 6 Battle and combat 6.1 Maintaining morale 6.2 Prelude to battle 6.3 Fighting style 7 Pay and conditions 7.1 Training and discipline 7.2 Diet 7.3 Healthcare 8 Other legionaries 9 See also 10 References 10.1 General books 10.2 Other books 11 External links History[edit] Inception: Marius's reforms[edit] When Gaius Marius became consul in 108 BC, Rome was at war with the Numidian king Jugurtha. Seeing a need for more manpower, Marius eliminated the property requirements that used to qualify Romans into the army, allowing any Roman citizen to become a legionary.[4] After the war, Marius set out to professionalize and standardize the Roman legionary. He greatly enhanced the training of the soldiers and uniformly armed them, giving Rome an armed force that did not have to be raised with every new campaign.[5] He further gave his soldiers retirement benefits, such as land or monetary payment. However, because the legionaries looked to their generals for their rewards and benefits, they soon became loyal to generals rather than the Roman senate. This would eventually factor in to the end of the Roman republic.[6] During the Principate[edit] As Augustus consolidated power in 27BC and founded the Principate, he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that, a legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout the legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the sacramentum so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end the civil wars which defined the late Roman Republic and created an army that was broadly loyal to only the emperor.[3] Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower Britannia, Dacia, North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors.[7] Decline[edit] Clibinarii, a type of heavy cavalry in the late Roman Empire, grew in prominence along with other forms of cavalry as the Roman legionary declined. From the reign of Septimus Severus onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to the gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with donatives and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to the discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors.[8] Under Caracalla, Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in the Roman Empire became Roman citizens, effectively erasing the distinction between auxiliaries and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing the quality of the Roman legionary further.[9] During the 3rd Century Crisis, a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of the Roman Empire. As such, mounted cavalry became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the body armor of the classical legionary and used darts rather than the pila of their predecessors.[7] Functions[edit] Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided a variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional police force, governors would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities.[10] As the Roman empire lacked a large civil administration, the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and the army was an important component of tax collection.[11] Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls.[7] Hadrian's wall, a monumental example of Roman engineering, was built by the three legions stationed in the area.[12] Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within the army would be used for a variety of different civil services along with their normal military role.[11] Immunes[edit] Regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private. Included in the ranks, aside from the milites, were the immunes, specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer, artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and medic. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in the ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms.[13] Recruitment[edit] Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens, conscription of recruits continued through Republic era and into the Principate, especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of the Roman legions.[14] With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join the military, members from across the plebeian class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world.[15] The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as centurion required a knowledge of writing.[16] During the Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan, there were 4-5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy.[14] Equipment[edit] Main article: Roman military personal equipment When on the march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full armour, supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of lorica hamata, lorica squamata, or 1st–3rd century lorica segmentata, shield (scutum), helmet (galea), two javelins (one heavy pilum and one light verutum), a short sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio), a belt (balteus), a pair of heavy sandals (caligae), a pair of greaves, a pair of manicas, a marching pack (sarcina), about fourteen days' worth of food, a waterskin (bladder for posca), cooking equipment, two stakes (sudes murale) for the construction of palisades, and a shovel, and a wicker basket.[17] After the military reforms of Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each Legion would also be requisitioned a certain number of artillery pieces. Each cohort (roughly 480 men) would receive one Ballista; and each century (roughly 80 men) would receive one Carroballista.[18] In a standard Legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuries, a Legion would be equipped with ten Ballista and sixty Carroballista. Battle and combat[edit] Main article: Roman infantry tactics Maintaining morale[edit] The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his contubernium, the basic eight man unit of the Roman army.[19] The men of the same contubernium fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of camaraderie gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers, signiferi, were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a standard was a disgrace to the century the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle.[citation needed] Optiones, Roman officers at the rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an optio would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front, centurions would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat.[17] Finally, there were the rewards and punishments, which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted corona civica was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle.[20] However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and dereliction of duty were stoned to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when a whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be decimated, in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear.[7] Prelude to battle[edit] Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before the Battle of Pharsalus began.[21] Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These include giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle.[22] Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and auxiliaries probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced.[17] Fighting style[edit] The Roman scutum ranged all the way from flat and oval to curved and rectangular as shown in the image above. The metal boss in all Roman scuta gave them an offensive capability. The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the pilum (javelin), scutum (shield), and gladius (short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their pila first as they approach the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy shields and hit the soldiers behind them.[1] Even if the pila fail to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then makes the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the charge of Roman legionaries.[7] Though Roman scutum have various different designs, they all share a large metal boss in the center of the shield. This allows the legionary to not only use the scutum as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants.[23] Accompanying this is the gladius, a primarily stabbing weapon though it can also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in the ancient world.[7] Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for skirmishing forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers can further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps.[17] Pay and conditions[edit] A denarius, or silver coin used for Roman commerce. In the 3rd century crisis, it underwent rapid inflation and devaluation. During the Pax Romana, a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225 denarii per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Domitian. However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by donatives from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after a successful campaign.[7] Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent.[24] As the Roman empire solidified, permanent legionary fortresses were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained bathhouses, taverns, and even amphitheaters where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until the reign of Septimius Severus (though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death.[25] Training and discipline[edit] When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit (tiro) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed the recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp.[1] Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a milite and sent to his respective legion.[7] The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career; discipline was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with drill—forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions. Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs (fustuarium—a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to the stoning of individuals or unit executions involving decimation. However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service.[7] One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training.[26] However, a different fear was used to motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of Josephus "they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity".[27] Diet[edit] A Roman legionary had two meals per day: The prandium (breakfast) and the cena (dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations.[22] This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack, a long-lasting biscuit.[7] Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the cibaria, rations other than grain. This included a variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine, vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork, cheese, and olive oil. However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling.[22] Healthcare[edit] Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors (medici) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries.[28] These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing the chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of water-borne illnesses, which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places.[24] Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted missio causaria, or a medical discharge. This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties. Other legionaries[edit] Legionary is also a term used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of "legion", although bearing no resemblance to the heavy infantry of ancient Rome. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot components. More recently the title has been used by the French Foreign Legion, the Spanish Foreign Legion and the Polish Legions. Members of these modern legions are often called légionnaires, the French term for legionary.[citation needed] The term was also used by the Romanian far right paramilitary group known in English as the Iron Guard.[citation needed] See also[edit] Castra Foreign legions List of Roman army unit types List of Roman legions Military history of ancient Rome Punic Wars References[edit] ^ a b c Brevik, Mads. "The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)". www.digitalattic.org. Archived from the original on 2018-07-05. Retrieved 2018-07-04. ^ TED-Ed (2018-03-29), A day in the life of a Roman soldier – Robert Garland, archived from the original on 2018-07-01, retrieved 2018-06-24 ^ a b A companion to the Roman army. Erdkamp, Paul. Malden, MA: Blackwell. 2007. ISBN 9780470996577. OCLC 184983640.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ "Gaius Marius | Roman general". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-07-15. Retrieved 2018-07-15. ^ Gambino, Michael (August 2015). "The Military Reforms of Gaius Marius in their Social, Economic, and Political Context" (PDF). East Carolina University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-15. Retrieved 2019-04-29. ^ White, Andrew (Spring 2011). "The Role of Marius's Military Reforms in the Decline of the Roman Republic" (PDF). Western Oregon University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-06-19. Retrieved 2019-04-29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Rodgers, Nigel (2006). Roman Empire. Dodge, Hazel. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754816028. OCLC 62177842. ^ R., Dixon, Karen (2014) [1996]. The late Roman army. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781134724222. OCLC 881839972. ^ Rocco, Marco. "The reasons behind Constitutio Antoniniana and its effects on the Roman military". Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis. Archived from the original on 2018-04-07. Retrieved 2019-04-29. ^ "Police Work in Roman Times | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Archived from the original on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2018-07-25. ^ a b The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Sabin, Philip A. G., Wees, Hans van., Whitby, Michael. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 9780521857796. OCLC 190966775.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ "Hadrian's Wall | Roman wall, England, United Kingdom". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2018-07-25. ^ "Rome, The Roman Army". history-world.org. Archived from the original on 2018-06-03. Retrieved 2018-06-24. ^ a b A companion to the Roman Empire. Potter, D. S. (David Stone), 1957-. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2006. ISBN 0631226443. OCLC 60550606.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ C., Knapp, Robert (2011-11-29). Invisible Romans (First Harvard University press ed.). Cambridge. ISBN 9780674063280. OCLC 767736175. ^ "The Marian Reforms | The turning point in Roman history". u.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-07-09. Retrieved 2018-07-09. ^ a b c d Ross., Cowan (2003). Roman legionary : 58 BC - AD 69. McBride, Angus. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1841766003. OCLC 52661320. ^ Thomas, Chris (2004). "Claudius and the Roman Army Reforms". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 53 (4): 424–452. JSTOR 4436742. ^ ISO DESIGN (2016-10-26), Roman Army Structure | Vindolanda Museum, archived from the original on 2018-12-11, retrieved 2018-07-31 ^ "Augustus wearing the Corona Civica | Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases". museum.classics.cam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-07-31. ^ "Battle of Pharsalus | Summary". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-07-31. ^ a b c Roth, Jonathan P. (1999). The logistics of the Roman army at war (264 B.C.-A.D. 235). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004112715. OCLC 39778767. ^ "Roman legionary – Soldier Profile". Military History Monthly. 2010-11-10. Archived from the original on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-07-31. ^ a b Rodgers, Nigel (2013). Ancient Rome: A Complete History of the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire. Southwater. ISBN 978-1844778591. ^ "Septimius Severus | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-07-05. Retrieved 2018-07-04. ^ Stout, S. E. (1921). "Training Soldiers for the Roman Legion". The Classical Journal. 16 (7): 423–431. JSTOR 3288082. ^ Josephus, Flavius (2009). "The Wars of the Jews or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem". Project Gutenberg. Translated by Whiston, William. Retrieved April 3, 2020. ^ "Roman Fort". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2018-06-24. Retrieved 2018-06-24. General books[edit] Sumner, G. and Raffaele D'Amato. Arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier. Frontline Books, 2009. Watson, G.R. The Roman Soldier. Cornell University Press, 1993. Other books[edit] Matyszak, Philip. Legionary: the Roman soldier's (unofficial) manual. Thames & Hudson, 2009. Cowan, Ross, and Angus McBride. Roman Legionary: 58 BC – AD 69. Osprey Publishing, 2003. External links[edit] The Roman Recruit looks at the life, duties and equipment of a Roman legionary (c. 200AD) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legionary&oldid=1024219371" Categories: Mercenary units and formations of antiquity Military ranks of ancient Rome Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 May 2021, at 20:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7265	----	Constantine Laskaris - Wikipedia Constantine Laskaris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Byzantine emperor. For the scholar of Greek, see Constantine Lascaris. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine Laskaris Κωνσταντίνος Λάσκαρις Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Emperor of Nicaea Claimant Byzantine Emperor Reign 1204–1205 Predecessor Alexios V Doukas (Byzantine Emperor) Successor Theodore I Laskaris Born 1170 Constantinople Died 1205 House Laskaris Father Manuel Laskaris Mother Ioanna Karatzaina Constantine Laskaris (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Λάσκαρις) may have been Byzantine Emperor for a few months from 1204 to early 1205. He is sometimes called "Constantine XI", a numeral now usually reserved for Constantine Palaiologos. Contents 1 Early years 2 Elevation as Emperor 3 Career at Nicaea 4 Family 5 Historical uncertainty of coronation 6 References 7 Sources Early years[edit] Constantine Laskaris was born of a noble but not particularly renowned Byzantine family.[citation needed] Virtually nothing is known of him prior to the events of the Fourth Crusade. He found favour after his brother Theodore married into the imperial family, becoming the son-in-law of Emperor Alexios III Angelos.[citation needed] During the first siege of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1203 he was given command of the best body of troops available and led the Greek defenders on sorties against the entrenched Crusaders. None were successful in their goal of lifting the siege, and finally Constantine was ordered to attack the Burgundians who were on guard at the time.[1] The Greeks issued forth from the city, but were soon driven back to the gates, notwithstanding the stones that the defenders on the walls threw down onto the advancing Crusaders. Constantine himself was captured whilst mounted on his horse by William of Neuilly[1] and probably kept for ransom, which was the usual practice of the times. At some point he was released, as he was soon swept up in the events of the second siege of Constantinople in 1204. Elevation as Emperor[edit] After the Crusaders entered Constantinople on 12 April 1204 and began to sack the city, a large body of citizens as well as what remained of the Varangian Guard gathered together in the church of Hagia Sophia to elect a new emperor, as Alexios V had fled the city.[2] Two nominees presented themselves – Constantine Laskaris and Constantine Doukas (probably the son of John Angelos Doukas, and thus a first cousin to Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III).[3] Both presented their case to be nominated emperor, but the people could not decide between them, as both were young and had proven military skills. Eventually lots were cast and Laskaris was selected by what remained of the army as the next emperor. Laskaris refused to accept the imperial purple; escorted by the Patriarch of Constantinople, John X, to the Milion, he urged the assembled populace to resist the Latin invaders with all their strength. However, the crowd was unwilling to risk their lives in such a one-sided conflict, and so he turned to the Varangians and asked for their support. Though his pleas to honour fell on deaf ears, they agreed to fight for increased wages, and he marched out to make a final stand against the Latin Crusaders. However, the Varangians betrayed Constantine and fled at the sight of the mail-clad Latin troops.[citation needed] Seeing all was lost, he quickly fled the capital in the early hours of 13 April 1204.[2] Career at Nicaea[edit] Greek resistance to the Latin conquerors began almost immediately under the leadership of Theodore Laskaris, and he was soon joined by Constantine. They were hard pressed at first, and by early 1205 they had lost the important city of Adramyttion to the new Latin Emperor, Henry of Flanders. Theodore was keen to reverse this setback, and so he sent Constantine at the head of a large body of troops towards the city.[4] Henry of Flanders had advance warning of the attack via an Armenian source, and prepared his forces to meet the Greeks. The two armies fought the Battle of Adramyttion on Saturday, 19 March 1205[4] outside the city walls, and the result was a massive defeat for Constantine Laskaris and the Greeks, with most of the army either perishing or being captured.[5] Nothing more is heard of Constantine Laskaris after this battle, so it is presumed that he either perished in the defeat, or was captured.[citation needed] Family[edit] Constantine had six brothers: Manuel Laskaris (died after 1256), Michael Laskaris (died 1261/1271), Georgios Laskaris, Theodore, Alexios Laskaris, and Isaac Laskaris. The last two fought with the Latin Empire against Theodore Laskaris' successor, John III Doukas Vatatzes, and were imprisoned and blinded.[citation needed] According to "The Latins in the Levant. A History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566)" by William Miller, the seven brothers may also have had a sister, the wife of Marco I Sanudo and mother of Angelo Sanudo. He based this theory on his own interpretation of Italian chronicles. However, the Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (1983) by Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza rejected the theory based on the silence of Byzantine primary sources.[6] Historical uncertainty of coronation[edit] The primary source for the elevation of Constantine Laskaris is Niketas Choniates, an eyewitness who recounted the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders. However, given Constantine's apparent subordinate role under his brother Theodore in 1205, historians such as Sir Steven Runciman[7] and Donald Queller[8] have argued that it was in fact Theodore and not Constantine who was in Hagia Sophia that fateful day, and it was Theodore who was nominated and thus succeeded Alexios V.[9] This uncertainty, plus the fact that Constantine remained uncrowned, means that he is not always counted among the Byzantine emperors.[9] Therefore, the convention when it comes to Constantine Laskaris is that he is not usually assigned a numeral. If he is counted as Constantine XI, then Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Emperor, is counted as Constantine XII.[10] References[edit] ^ a b Geoffrey De Villehardouin, 'Memoirs Or Chronicle of the Fourth Crusade and the Conquest of Constantinople', Echo Library, 2007, pg 31 ^ a b Harry J. Magoulias, 'O city of Byzantium: annals of Niketas Choniatēs', Wayne State University Press, 1984, pg 314 ^ Donald E. Queller, Thomas F. Madden, Alfred J. Andrea, 'Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople', University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999, pg 189 ^ a b Geoffrey De Villehardouin, 'Memoirs Or Chronicle of the Fourth Crusade and the Conquest of Constantinople', Echo Library, 2007, pg 63 ^ Harry J. Magoulias, pg 331 ^ Cawley, Charles, Profile of "Laskaraina", Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy,[self-published source][better source needed] ^ Steven Runciman, 'A History of the Crusades, Vol. 3: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades', Cambridge, 1954, pg 122 ^ Donald E Queller, 'The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople 1201–1204', University Park, 1977, pg 147; 216–217 ^ a b Donald Nicol, 'The Last Centuries of Byzantium: 1261–1453', Cambridge University Press, 1993, pg 369 ^ Britannica Sources[edit] Magoulias, Harry J., ed. (1984). O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-1764-8. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). London: Rupert Hart-Davis Ltd. ISBN 0-246-10559-3. Constantine Laskaris Laskarid dynasty Born: 1170 Died: 1205 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexios V Doukas Emperor of Nicaea 1204 Succeeded by Theodore I Laskaris v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Laskaris&oldid=1003086694" Categories: Laskarid dynasty 13th-century Byzantine emperors Eastern Orthodox monarchs 1170 births 1205 deaths People of the Empire of Nicaea Hidden categories: All articles with self-published sources Articles with self-published sources from August 2012 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from August 2012 Wikipedia articles incorporating an MLCC with a warning Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2021, at 10:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-726	----	Cleanthes - Wikipedia Cleanthes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek philosopher This article is about the Stoic philosopher. For the ancient painter, see Cleanthes (artist). Cleanthes Cleanthes, engraving from 1605 Born c. 330 BC Assos Died c. 230 BC Athens Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Physics, ethics Influences Zeno of Citium Influenced Chrysippus, Sphaerus Cleanthes (/kliˈænθiːz/; Greek: Κλεάνθης Kleanthēs; c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), of Assos, was a Greek Stoic philosopher and successor to Zeno of Citium as the second head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens. Originally a boxer, he came to Athens where he took up philosophy, listening to Zeno's lectures. He supported himself by working as a water-carrier at night. After the death of Zeno, c. 262 BC, he became the head of the school, a post he held for the next 32 years. Cleanthes successfully preserved and developed Zeno's doctrines. He originated new ideas in Stoic physics, and developed Stoicism in accordance with the principles of materialism and pantheism. Among the fragments of Cleanthes' writings which have come down to us, the largest is a Hymn to Zeus. His pupil was Chrysippus who became one of the most important Stoic thinkers. Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 2.1 Physics 2.2 Ethics 3 Modern influence 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Cleanthes was born in Assos in the Troad, about 330 BC.[a] According to Diogenes Laërtius,[2] he was the son of Phanias, and early in life he was a boxer. With but four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he took up philosophy, listening first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic,[3] and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic. In order to support himself, he worked all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his nickname the Well-Water-Collector, Greek: Φρεάντλης). As he spent the whole day in studying philosophy with no visible means of support, he was summoned before the Areopagus to account for his way of living. The judges were so delighted by the evidence of work which he produced, that they voted him ten minae, though Zeno would not permit him to accept them. His power of patient endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the Ass" from his fellow students, a name which he was said to have rejoiced in, as it implied that his back was strong enough to bear whatever Zeno put upon it. Such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on the death of Zeno in 262 BC, he became the leader of the school. He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus II Gonatas, from whom he accepted 3000 minae. He died at the age of 99, c. 230 BC.[a] We are told that a dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his steps.[2] Simplicius, writing in the 6th century AD, mentions that a statue of Cleanthes was still visible at Assos, which had been erected by the Roman Senate.[4] Philosophy[edit] Cleanthes was an important figure in the development of Stoicism, and stamped his personality on the physical speculations of the school, and by his materialism gave a unity to the Stoic system.[5] He wrote some fifty works, of which only fragments have survived preserved by writers such as Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, Cicero, Seneca and Plutarch. Physics[edit] Cleanthes revolutionized Stoic physics by the theory of tension (tonos) which distinguished Stoic materialism from all conception of matter as dead and inert.[6] He developed Stoic pantheism, and applied his materialistic views to logic and ethics.[7] Thus he argued that the soul was a material substance, and that this was proved (a) by the circumstance that not only bodily qualities, but also mental capacity, are transmitted by ordinary generation from parent to child; and (b) by the sympathy of the soul with the body seen in the fact that, when the body is struck or cut, the soul is pained; and when the soul is torn by anxiety or depressed by care, the body is correspondingly affected.[8] Cleanthes also taught that souls live on after death, but that the intensity of its existence would vary according to the strength or weakness of the particular soul.[9] Cleanthes regarded the Sun as being divine;[10] because the Sun sustains all living things, it resembled the divine fire which (in Stoic physics) animated all living beings, hence it too must be part of the vivifying fire or aether of the universe. Some maintain that he accused Aristarchus of impiety for daring to put into motion "the hearth of the universe" (i.e. the Earth); this interpretation depends on an emendation of the received text,[11] since in the manuscripts it is Aristarchus that did the accusing.[12] The largest surviving fragment of Cleanthes is the portion of the Hymn to Zeus,[13] which has been preserved in Stobaeus, in which he declares praise and honour of Zeus to be the highest privilege of all rational beings.[14] Ethics[edit] Cleanthes maintained that pleasure is not only not a good, but is "contrary to nature" and "worthless."[15] It was his opinion that the passions (love, fear, grief) are weaknesses: they lack the strain or tension which he persistently emphasized, and on which the strength of the soul, no less than that of the body, depends, and which constitutes in human beings self-control, and moral strength, and also conditions every virtue.[15] He said in a striking passage: "People walk in wickedness all their lives or, at any rate, for the greater part of it. If they ever attain to virtue, it is late and at the very sunset of their days."[16] Zeno had said that the goal of life was "to live consistently," the implication being that no life but the passionless life of reason could ultimately be consistent with itself. Cleanthes is credited with having added the words "with nature," thus completing the well-known Stoic formula that the goal is "to live consistently with nature."[17] For Cleanthes, this meant, in the first place, living conformably to the course of the universe; for the universe is under the governance of reason, and everyone has it as their privilege to know or become acquainted with the world-course, to recognize it as rational and cheerfully to conform to it.[18] This, according to him, is true freedom of will not acting without motive, or apart from set purpose, or capriciously, but humbly acquiescing in the universal order, and, therefore, in everything that befalls one.[18] The direction to follow Universal Nature can be traced in his famous prayer: Lead me, Zeus, and you too, Destiny, To wherever your decrees have assigned me. I follow readily, but if I choose not, Wretched though I am, I must follow still. Fate guides the willing, but drags the unwilling.[19] Modern influence[edit] Most notably, a fictionalized version of Cleanthes appears as one of the three main interlocutors in David Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, where he defends the view that a posteriori knowledge of the existence and nature of God is possible for us.[20] Cleanthes also appears in José Enrique Rodó's essay Ariel, in which he is depicted as meditating on the teachings of Zeno as he carried water all through the night. See also[edit] Acts 17:28 Notes[edit] ^ a b According to Apollodorus as quoted by Philodemus, Cleanthes was born in Aristophanes' archonship (331/0 BC) and died in Jason's Archonship (230/29 BC). Pseudo-Lucian, Valerius Maximus, and Censorinus say that Cleanthes lived to the age of 99 (although Diogenes Laërtius says he died at the age of 80.[1]) Dorandi prefers an age of 101. For more information see Dorandi 1999, p. 38. ^ "until his death at the same age as Zeno according to some authorities" (Laërtius 1925, § 168–176). ^ a b Laërtius 1925, § 168–176 ^ Suda, Cleanthes ^ Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus. ^ Davidson 1907, p. 27 ^ Hicks 1910, p. 7 ^ Davidson 1907, p. 28 ^ Davidson 1907, p. 95 ^ Plutarch, Plac. Phil. iv. 7. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii. 15. ^ Plutarch, On the face of the orb of the Moon, 922F–923A ^ Russo & Medaglia 1996, pp. 113-121. ^ Ellery 1976; Rolleston 1890, pp. 1–2, 129 ^ Hicks 1910, pp. 96–97 ^ a b Davidson 1907, p. 148 ^ Hicks 1910, p. 89 ^ Stock 1908, p. 7 ^ a b Davidson 1907, p. 143 ^ Epictetus, Enchiridion, 53; Seneca, Epistles, cvii, 11. The fifth line is not found in Epictetus. ^ Hume, David (1779). Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. London: Penguin Books. References[edit] Dorandi, Tiziano (1999), "Chapter 2: Chronology", in Algra, Keimpe; et al. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 38, ISBN 9780521250283 Davidson, William Leslie (1907), The Stoic Creed, Clark Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus, translated by Ellery, M., 1976, archived from the original on 2007-12-24 Hicks, Robert Drew (1910), Stoic and Epicurean, C. Scribner   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925), "The Stoics: Cleanthes" , Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, 2:7, translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.), Loeb Classical Library, § 168–176 "'Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus", The Teaching of Epictetus: Being the 'Encheiridion of Epictetus', with Selections from the 'Dissertations' and 'Fragments', translated by Rolleston, Thomas William (2nd ed.), London: Walter Scott, Ltd., 1890, pp. 1-1, note 1 on p. 129 Russo, Lucio; Medaglia, Silvio M. (1996), "Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo", Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, New Series, Fabrizio Serra Editore, 53 (2): 113, doi:10.2307/20547344, JSTOR 20547344 Stock, St. George William Joseph (1908), Stoicism, Constable Further reading[edit] Hume, David, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, in which "Cleanthes" is a character Meijer P. A., (2008), Stoic theology. Proofs for the existence of the cosmic god and of the traditional gods. Including a commentary on Cleanthes' Hymn on Zeus. Delft, Eburon. Pearson, A., (1891), Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes. Greek/Latin fragments with English commentary. Thom, J., (2005), Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus: Text, Translation, and Commentary. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148660-9. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Cleanthes Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cleanthes. "Cleanthes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Works by or about Cleanthes at Internet Archive Works by Cleanthes at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) "Bibliography for Cleanthes" at "A Hellenistic Bibliography", compiled by Martine Cuypers, Trinity College Dublin. Preceded by Zeno of Citium Leader of the Stoic school 262–230 BC Succeeded by Chrysippus v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Czech Republic Greece Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleanthes&oldid=1018199016" Categories: 230s BC deaths 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC philosophers Ancient Greeks who committed suicide Stoic philosophers Ancient Greek boxers Hellenistic-era philosophers from Anatolia 330s BC births Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2021, at 19:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7281	----	Fergus Millar - Wikipedia Fergus Millar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Professor Sir Fergus Millar Born Fergus Graham Burtholme Millar (1935-07-05)5 July 1935 Edinburgh, United Kingdom Died 15 July 2019(2019-07-15) (aged 84) Other names F. G. B. Millar Education Trinity College, Oxford All Souls College, Oxford Occupation Professor of ancient history Sir Fergus Graham Burtholme Millar, FBA, FSA (/ˈmɪlər/; 5 July 1935 – 15 July 2019) was a British academic historian. He was Camden Professor of Ancient History at the University of Oxford between 1984 and 2002. He numbers among the most influential ancient historians of the 20th century.[1][2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Academic career 3 Honours 4 Publications 5 See also 6 Notes 7 External links Early life[edit] Millar was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (BA) and fulfilled his National service in the aftermath of World War II. At Oxford he studied Philosophy and Ancient History, and received his Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) degree there in 1962. In 1958, he was awarded a Prize Fellowship to All Souls College, Oxford which he held until 1964.[3] In 1959 he married Susanna Friedmann, with whom he had three children.[4] Academic career[edit] Millar began his academic career as a fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, from 1964 to 1976. He then moved to University College London where he was Professor of Ancient History between 1976 and 1984.[4] From 1984 until his retirement in 2002, he was Camden Professor of Ancient History at the University of Oxford.[5] While Camden Professor, he was a fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford.[3] Millar served as editor of the Journal of Roman Studies from 1975 to 1979, and as president of the Classical Association for 1992/1993. He held various offices in the British Academy, to which he was elected a fellow in 1976.[6] He was chairman of the Council for Academic Autonomy (see also Anthony D. Smith), a group of academic activists who sought to promote academic freedom and the separation of universities and research institutions from state control.[7] He was an authority in the field of ancient Roman and Greek history. His accolades included honorary doctorates from the University of Helsinki, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and elected memberships in foreign academies. His first book, A Study of Cassius Dio (1964), set the tone for his prolific scholarly production. He continued to produce important works, including The Roman Near East (31 BC – 337 AD) (1993), a path-breaking, non-Romano-centric treatment of this area. His further work included The Crowd in the Late Republic (1998) and The Roman Republic in Political Thought (2002). Honours[edit] Millar received the Kenyon Medal for Classics from the British Academy in 2005. He was knighted in the 2010 Queen's Birthday Honours.[8] In 1976, Millar was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences.[5] He was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (FSA) in 1978.[9] Publications[edit] Millar, Fergus (1964). A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Millar, Fergus (1967). The Roman Empire and Its Neighbours. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 9780440017691. Millar, Fergus (1971). "Paul of Samosata, Zenobia and Aurelian: The Church, Local Culture and Political Allegiance in Third-Century Syria". Journal of Roman Studies. 61: 1–17. Millar, Fergus (1977). The Emperor in the Roman World (31 BC – AD 337). London: Duckworth. ISBN 9780715609514. Millar, Fergus (1983). "The Phoenician Cities: A Case-study of Hellenisation". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society. 29: 55–71. Millar, Fergus; Segal, Erich, eds. (1984). Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198148586. Millar, Fergus (1987). "The Problem of Hellenistic Syria". Hellenism in the East: The Interaction of Greek and non Greek Civilizations from Syria to Central Asia after Alexander. Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 110–133. ISBN 9780715621257. Millar, Fergus (1987). "Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman Near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jews and Arabs". Journal of Jewish Studies. 38 (2): 143–164. doi:10.18647/1337/JJS-1987. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674778863. Millar, Fergus (1998). The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472088785. Millar, Fergus (1998). "Ethnic Identity in the Roman Near East, 325–450: Language, Religion, and Culture". Mediterranean Archaeology. 11: 159–176. JSTOR 24667868. Millar, Fergus (2002). The Roman Republic in Political Thought. Hanover: University Press of New England. ISBN 9781584651994. Millar, Fergus (2002). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution. 1. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807875087. Millar, Fergus (2004). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society and Culture in the Roman Empire. 2. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807855201. Millar, Fergus (2004). "Christian Emperors, Christian Church and the Jews of the Diaspora in the Greek East, CE 379–450". Journal of Jewish Studies. 55 (1): 1–24. doi:10.18647/2519/JJS-2004. Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520253919. Millar, Fergus (2006). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East. 3. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807876657. Millar, Fergus (2007). "Theodoret of Cyrrhus: A Syrian in Greek Dress?". From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. pp. 105–125. ISBN 9789042919716. Millar, Fergus (2008). "Community, Religion and Language in the Middle-Euphrates Zone in Late Antiquity". Scripta Classica Israelica. 27: 67–93. Millar, Fergus (2008). "Rome, Constantinople and the Near Eastern Church under Justinian: Two Synods of C.E. 536". Journal of Roman Studies. 98: 62–82. doi:10.3815/007543508786239102. JSTOR 20430666. Millar, Fergus (2008). "Narrative and Identity in Mosaics from the Late Roman Near East: Pagan, Jewish, and Christian". The Sculptural Environment of the Roman Near East: Reflections on Culture, Ideology, and Power. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. pp. 225–256. ISBN 9789042920040. Millar, Fergus (2009). "The Syriac Acts of the Second Council of Ephesus (449)". Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 45–69. ISBN 9781846316487. Millar, Fergus (2009). "Linguistic Co-existence in Constantinople: Greek and Latin (and Syriac) in the Acts of the Synod of 536 C.E." Journal of Roman Studies. 99: 92–103. doi:10.3815/007543509789745287. JSTOR 40599741. Millar, Fergus (2009). "Christian Monasticism in Roman Arabia at the Birth of Mahomet". Semitica et Classica. 2: 97–115. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.100512. Millar, Fergus (2010). "Rome's Arab Allies in Late Antiquity: Conceptions and Representations from within the Frontiers of the Empire". Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East. Düsseldorf: Wellem Verlag. pp. 199–226. ISBN 9783941820036. Millar, Fergus (2010). "Bishops and their Sees at the Sixth Session of the Council of Chalkedon: the Near Eastern Provinces". Onomatologos: Studies in Greek Personal Names Presented to Elaine Matthews. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 568–577. Millar, Fergus (2011). "A Rural Jewish Community in Late Roman Mesopotamia, and the Question of a Split Jewish Diaspora". Journal for the Study of Judaism. 42 (3): 351–374. doi:10.1163/157006311X586269. Millar, Fergus (2011). "Greek and Syriac in Edessa: From Ephrem to Rabbula (CE 363–435)". Semitica et Classica. 4: 99–114. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508. Millar, Fergus (2012). "Greek and Syriac in Fifth-Century Edessa: The Case of Bishop Hibas". Semitica et Classica. 5: 151–165. doi:10.1484/J.SEC.1.103053. Millar, Fergus (2013). Religion, Language and Community in the Roman Near East: Constantine to Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197265574. Millar, Fergus (2013). "The Evolution of the Syrian Orthodox Church in the Pre-Islamic Period: From Greek to Syriac?" (PDF). Journal of Early Christian Studies. 21 (1): 43–92. doi:10.1353/earl.2013.0002. S2CID 170436440. Millar, Fergus (2013). "A Syriac Codex from Near Palmyra and the Ghassanid Abokarib" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 16 (1): 15–35. Millar, Fergus (2014). "The Image of a Christian Monk in Northern Syria: Symeon Stylites the Younger". Being Christian in Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 278–295. ISBN 9780199656035. Millar, Fergus (2015). Empire, Church and Society in the Late Roman Near East: Greeks, Jews, Syrians and Saracens. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042932913. See also[edit] Cassius Dio Notes[edit] ^ "History professor made a knight". BBC News. 12 June 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ Beard, Mary (17 July 2019). "Remembering Fergus Millar — on how to disagree". The Times Literary Supplement. Retrieved 20 July 2019. ^ a b "Professor Sir Fergus Millar". All Souls College. University of Oxford. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ a b Bowman, Alan (30 July 2019). "Sir Fergus Millar obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 July 2019. ^ a b "Professor Sir Fergus Millar". The British Academy. Retrieved 17 July 2019. ^ British Academy Register Archived 6 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ FGB Millar Academic freedom (Letter to the Editor). The Times 5 June 1990> ^ "No. 59446". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 June 2010. p. 1. ^ "Millar, Sir Fergus Graham Burtholme". Who's Who 2019. Oxford University Press. 1 December 2018. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U27468. Retrieved 17 July 2019. External links[edit] Quotations related to Fergus Millar at Wikiquote Professor Fergus Millar staff page at the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford Journal of Jewish Studies announcement of "History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ." Academic offices Preceded by Peter Brunt Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford University 1984–2002 Succeeded by Alan Bowman Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Israel Netherlands Poland Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fergus_Millar&oldid=1009133127" Categories: 1935 births 2019 deaths British classical scholars Scholars of Roman history Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford Fellows of Brasenose College, Oxford Fellows of the British Academy Fellows of The Queen's College, Oxford Fellows of Trinity College, Oxford Academics of University College London Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Knights Bachelor Classical scholars of the University of London Camden Professors of Ancient History Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Français Bahasa Indonesia עברית 日本語 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 February 2021, at 22:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-728	----	Mara bar Serapion - Wikipedia Mara bar Serapion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mara Bar Serapion Mara bar Serapion (Classical Syriac: ܡܪܐ ܒܪ ܣܪܦܝܘܢ‎) was a Syriac Stoic philosopher in the Roman province of Syria. He is only known from a letter he wrote in Syriac to his son, who was named Serapion,[1][2] which allegedly refers to Jesus of Nazareth. The letter indicates that Mara's homeland was Samosata, i.e. modern-day Samsat, Turkey (on the west bank of the Euphrates), but his captivity appears to have been in Seleucia, in modern-day Iraq (on the west bank of the Tigris River).[3] Mara's captivity took place after the AD 72 annexation of Samosata by the Romans, but before the third century.[4] Most scholars date it to shortly after AD 73 during the first century.[5] Contents 1 The letter to his son 2 Mara's religion 3 Mara's philosophical stance 4 See also 5 References 6 External links The letter to his son[edit] See also: Mara bar Serapion on Jesus Mara's letter to his son begins with: "Mara, son of Serapion, to Serapion, my son: peace." The letter was composed sometime between 73 AD and the 3rd century.[5] There were three cases when captives were taken from Samosata, in 72 AD by the Romans, in 161/162 by Parthians and in 256 by Sasanians and various scholars have presented arguments for each date.[3] Robert Van Voorst (who himself thinks the letter was composed in the second century) states that most scholars date the letter to shortly after AD 73 during the first century.[5] The letter is preserved in a 6th- or 7th-century manuscript (BL Add. 14658) held by the British Library.[1] Nineteenth-century records state that the manuscript containing this text was one of several manuscripts obtained by Henry Tattam from the monastery of St. Mary Deipara in the Nitrian Desert of Egypt and acquired by the Library in 1843.[6] Mara's religion[edit] A number of scholars such as Sebastian Brock, Fergus Millar, Ute Possekel and Craig A. Evans, among others, state that Mara was a pagan.[2][7][8][9] Gerd Theissen states that Mara's reference to "our gods" indicates that he was neither a Jew, nor a Christian, the letter stating:[10][11] Thou hast heard, moreover, concerning our companions, that, when they were leaving Samosata, they were distressed about it, and, as if complaining of the time in which their lot was cast, said thus: “We are now far removed from our home, and we cannot return again to our city, or behold our people, or offer to our gods the greeting of praise.” Walter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough state that Mara could hardly have been a Christian".[12] Robert E. Van Voorst on the other hand states that the reference to "our gods" is a single reference, which was while quoting his fellow captives, and Mara may have been a monotheist.[5] Van Voorst adds two factors that indicate Mara was not a Christian, the first being his failure to mention the terms Jesus or Christ.[5] The second factor (also supported by Chilton and Evans) is that Mara's statement that Jesus lives on based on the wisdom of his teachings, in contrast to the Christian concept that Jesus continues to live through his resurrection, indicates that he was not a Christian.[5][13] Chilton and Evans also state that the use of the term "wise king" to refer to Jesus (rather than a religious designation) indicates that Mara's perception of the events had been formed by non-Christian sources.[13] They state that the term "king of the Jews" has never been seen in the Christian literature of antiquity as a title for Jesus.[13] Mara's philosophical stance[edit] The letter presents some of its arguments using on a comparative style and draws on Greek learning.[14] The last paragraph of Mara's letter states: One of his friends asked Mara, son of Serapion, when in bonds at his side: “Nay, by thy life, Mara, tell me what cause of laughter thou hast seen, that thou laughest.” “I am laughing,” said Mara, “at Time: inasmuch as, although he has not borrowed any evil from me, he is paying me back.” Ilaria Ramelli, who holds that Mara lived towards the end of the first century, states that his letter has strong stoic elements.[15] See also[edit] Stoicism References[edit] ^ a b The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 110 ^ a b Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999 ISBN 90-429-0759-2 pages 29-30 ^ a b The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature edited by Frances Young, Lewis Ayres, Andrew Louth ISBN 0521460832 page 168 ^ The Middle East under Rome by Maurice Sartre, Catherine Porter and Elizabeth Rawlings (Apr 22, 2005) ISBN 0674016831 page 293 ^ a b c d e f Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pages 53-56 ^ Wright, W. (1872). Catalogue of the Syriac Manuscripts in the British Museum Acquired since the Year 1838, Volume III. Longmans & Company (printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum). pp. xiii, 1159. "The manuscripts arrived at the British Museum on the first of March 1843, and this portion of the collection is now numbered Add. 14,425--14,739." BL Add. 14,658 is included among these manuscripts. ^ Sebastian Brock in The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 13 edited by Averil Cameron and Peter Garnsey (Jan 13, 1998) ISBN 0521302005 page 709 ^ The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 by Fergus Millar ISBN 0674778863 page 507 ^ Craig A. Evans "Pagan sources" in Jesus and Philosophy: New Essays edited by Paul K. Moser (Oct 13, 2008) ISBN 0521873363 Cambridge Univ Press pages 51-52 ^ Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide by Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz (May 1, 1998) ISBN 0800631226 page 78 ^ Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 page 38 ^ Readings from the First-Century World by Walter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough (Dec 15, 1998) ISBN 080102157X page ^ a b c Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research edited by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 90-04-11142-5 pages 455-457 ^ Roman Syria and the Near East by Kevin Butcher (Feb 18, 2004) ISBN 0892367156 page 286 ^ Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments, and Excerpts by Ilaria Ramelli (Sep 10, 2009) ISBN 1589834186 pages xx-xxii External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mara Bar-Serapion (Armenian Wikiquote) Text of the letter of Mara at Wikisource v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mara_bar_Serapion&oldid=1028276544" Categories: 1st-century writers Syriac writers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Classical Syriac-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 00:11 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7307	----	Diadumenian - Wikipedia Diadumenian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 218 Roman emperor Diadumenian An aureus bearing the image of Diadumenian. The inscription reads m opel ant diadvmenian caes. Roman emperor Augustus May–June 218 Predecessor Macrinus (co-emperor) Successor Elagabalus Caesar May 217 – May 218 Born 14 September 208 AD Died June 218 AD (age 9) Zeugma (Gaziantep, Turkey) Names Marcus Opellius Diadumenianus (birth) Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus (217)[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus[1] Father Macrinus Mother Nonia Celsa Diadumenian (/daɪˈædʊˌmiːniən/; Latin: Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus; 14/19 September 208 – June 218) was the son and co-ruler of Roman Emperor Macrinus. His mother was Nonia Celsa, whose name may be fictitious. Diadumenian became Caesar in May 217. Elagabalus revolted in May 218, and Diadumenian was elevated to co-emperor. After Macrinus was defeated in the Battle of Antioch, on 8 June 218, Diadumenian was sent to the court of Artabanus V to ensure his safety; however, he was captured and executed along the way, in late June. Contents 1 History 2 Numismatics 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography History[edit] Diadumenian was born on 14 September 208, named Marcus Opellius Diadumenianus, to Macrinus, the Praetorian Prefect and future emperor of Berber origin,[2] and his possibly fictitious wife Nonia Celsa.[3] Macrinus declared himself emperor on 11 April 217, three days after Emperor Caracalla was assassinated. Shortly after, Diadumenian was elevated to caesar at Zeugma, while his guard was escorting him from Antioch to Mesopotamia to join his father. He was also given the name Antoninus, in honor of the Antonine dynasty, at this time.[4] On 16 May 218 a revolt against him was launched in Emesa by Elagabalus, a relative of Caracalla through his mother, Julia Soaemias, who was Caracalla's cousin. In order to put down the revolt, Macrinus led his legions to the praetorian fort at Apamea. There Macrinus elevated Diadumenian to augustus, making him co-emperor. After Macrinus was defeated by Elagabalus on 8 June 218, at the Battle of Antioch, Macrinus fled north to the Bosporus. Before fleeing he entrusted Diadumenian to loyal servants, instructing them to take him into the Parthian Empire, to the court of Artabanus V, to ensure his safety. Diadumenian was captured en route in Zeugma, and executed in late June.[5][6] His head was brought to Elagabalus, and reportedly kept as a trophy.[7] Numismatics[edit] While caesar, a large number of coins were struck for Diadumenian, although less than the amount struck for his father. Coins in which he is depicted as augustus are extremely limited, and the only known coins from this time are denarii. This has led to the suggestion, first proposed by Ancient Numismatist Curtis Clay, that a large issue of coins was being made for Diadumenian, however they were quickly melted down when the news of Macrinus' defeat spread. Notably, some eastern provincial coins from the period exist which give Diadumenian the title sebastos, at the time the Greek equivalent of the Roman augustus.[5] In terms of gold coins, Diadumenian has one known style of aureus, bearing his image on the obverse, and displaying Spes standing on the reverse, and one known style of half-aureus, bearing his image on the obverse, and displaying himself holding a sceptre and standard.[8] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diadumenianus. Citations[edit] ^ a b Cooley, p. 496. ^ Potter 2004, p. 146. ^ Vagi 2000, pp. 289–290. ^ Vagi 2000, p. 289. ^ a b Vagi 2000, p. 290. ^ Bédoyère 2017, p. 236. ^ Bunson 1991, p. 130. ^ Friedberg, Friedberg & Friedberg 2017, p. 45. Bibliography[edit] Bédoyère, Guy de la (2017). Praetorian: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Imperial Bodyguard. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300226270. Bunson, Matthew (1991). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Facts On File. ISBN 9781438110271. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S.; Friedberg, Robert (2017). Gold Coins of the World - 9th edition: From Ancient Times to the Present. An Illustrated Standard Catlaog with Valuations. Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 9780871840097. Potter, David (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10057-1. Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. Regnal titles Preceded by Macrinus Roman Emperor 218 Served alongside: Macrinus Succeeded by Elagabalus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Netherlands Poland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diadumenian&oldid=1026439389" Categories: 208 births 218 deaths 3rd-century Berber people 3rd-century executions 3rd-century murdered monarchs 3rd-century Roman emperors Berber rulers Severan dynasty Opellii Executed Roman emperors Ancient child rulers Rulers who died as children People executed by the Roman Empire Executed children Sons of Roman emperors Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Frysk Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 08:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7314	----	Gordian II - Wikipedia Gordian II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 238 Roman emperor Gordian II Denarius featuring Gordian II. The inscription reads imp m ant gordianvs afr avg. Roman emperor Reign 22 March – 12 April 238 Predecessor Maximinus Thrax Successor Pupienus and Balbinus Co-emperor Gordian I Born c. 192 Died 12 April 238 (aged 45) Carthage, Africa Proconsularis Names Marcus Antonius Gordianus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus[2] Dynasty Gordian Father Gordian I Mother Unknown, possibly Fabia Orestilla[3] Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Gordian II (Latin: Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus;[4] c. 192 – 12 April 238) was Roman Emperor for 21 days with his father Gordian I in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Seeking to overthrow Emperor Maximinus Thrax, he died in battle outside Carthage. Since he died before his father, Gordian II had the shortest reign of any Roman Emperor in the whole of the Empire's history, at 21 days. Contents 1 Early life 2 Revolt against Maximinus Thrax 3 Family tree 4 See also 5 Sources 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Secondary sources 6 References 7 External links Early life[edit] Born c. 192, Gordian II was the only known son of Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus the Elder. His family were of Equestrian rank, who were modest and very wealthy.[citation needed] Gordian was said to be related to prominent senators.[5] His praenomen and nomen Marcus Antonius suggest that his paternal ancestors received Roman citizenship under the Triumvir Mark Antony, or one of his daughters, during the late Roman Republic.[5] Gordian’s cognomen ‘Gordianus’ suggests that his family origins were from Anatolia, especially Galatia and Cappadocia.[6] According to the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta, his mother was a Roman woman called Fabia Orestilla,[3] born circa 165, who the Augustan History claims was a descendant of Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius through her father Fulvus Antoninus.[3] Modern historians have dismissed this name and her information as false.[7] There is some evidence to suggest that Gordian's mother might have been the granddaughter of the Greek Sophist, consul and tutor Herodes Atticus.[8] His younger sister was Antonia Gordiana, who was the mother of Emperor Gordian III. Although the memory of the Gordians would have been cherished by the Senate and thus appear sympathetic in any Senatorial documentation of the period, the only account of Gordian's early career that has survived is contained within the Historia Augusta, and it cannot be taken as an accurate or reliable description of his life story prior to his elevation to the purple in 238.[9] According to this source, Gordian served as quaestor in Elagabalus' reign[10] and as praetor and consul suffect with Emperor Alexander Severus.[11][12] In 237 or 238, Gordian went to the province of Africa Proconsularis as a legatus under his father, who served as proconsular governor.[13] Gordian II on a coin, celebrating his military prowess. IMP. CAES. M. ANT. GORDIANVS AFR. AVG. / VIRTVS AVG. S C. Revolt against Maximinus Thrax[edit] Early in 235, Emperor Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Avita Mamaea were assassinated by mutinous troops at Moguntiacum (now Mainz) in Germania Inferior.[14] The leader of the rebellion, Maximinus Thrax, became Emperor, despite his low-born background and the disapproval of the Roman Senate.[15] Confronted by a local elite that had just killed Maximinus's procurator,[16] Gordian's father was forced to participate in a full-scale revolt against Maximinus in 238 and became Augustus on 22 March.[8] Due to Gordian I's advanced age, the younger Gordian was attached to the imperial throne and acclaimed Augustus too.[17] Like his father, he too was awarded the cognomen Africanus.[8] Father and son saw their claim to the throne ratified both by the Senate[18] and most of the other provinces, due to Maximinus' unpopularity.[19] Opposition would come from the neighbouring province of Numidia.[19] Capelianus, governor of Numidia, a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax, and who held a grudge against Gordian,[19] renewed his allegiance to the reigning emperor[16] and invaded Africa province with the only legion stationed in the region, III Augusta, and other veteran units.[20] Gordian II, at the head of a militia army of untrained soldiers, lost the Battle of Carthage and was killed.[8] According to the Historia Augusta, his body was never recovered.[21] Hearing the news, his father took his own life.[8] This first rebellion against Maximinus Thrax was unsuccessful, but by the end of 238 Gordian II's nephew would be recognised emperor by the whole Roman world as Gordian III.[22] According to Edward Gibbon, in the first volume of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–89), "Twenty-two acknowledged concubines, and a library of sixty-two thousand volumes, attested to the variety of [Gordian's] inclinations; and from the productions that he left behind him, it appears that the former as well as the latter were designed for use rather than ostentation."[23] Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 See also[edit] Villa Gordiani Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Herodian, Roman History, Book 7 Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2004) [1994]. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome: Updated Edition. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-5026-0. Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government in Britain, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4 Gibbon, Edward, Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Meckler, Michael L., Gordian II (238 A.D.), De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001) Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004 Southern, Pat (2015) [2001]. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-73807-1. Syme, Ronald, Emperors and Biography, Oxford University Press, 1971 References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b c Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 17:4 ^ In Classical Latin, Gordian's name would be inscribed as MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS. ^ a b Birley, pg. 340 ^ Peuch, Bernadette, "Orateurs et sophistes grecs dans les inscriptions d'époque impériale", (2002), pg. 128 ^ Syme, pp.100–101 ^ a b c d e Meckler, Gordian II ^ Syme, pp. 1–16 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 18:4 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 18:5 ^ Birley, pg. 341. An inscription confirming this fact has been found at Caesarea in Palestine. ^ Barnes, Timothy D. (September 1968). "Philostratus and Gordian". Latomus. 27: 587, 590. ^ Potter, pg. 167 ^ Southern, p. 83. ^ a b Southern, p. 86. ^ Adkins and Adkins, p. 27 ^ Herodian, 7:7:2 ^ a b c Potter, pg. 170 ^ Herodian, 7:9:3 ^ Historia Augusta, The Three Gordians, 16:1 ^ Southern, p. 87. ^ Quoted in "From the Editor. Ambition, Style and Sacrifices", History Today, June 2017, p. 3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gordianus II. Gordian II coinage Regnal titles Preceded by Maximinus Thrax Roman emperor 238 With: Gordian I Succeeded by Pupienus Balbinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordian_II&oldid=1026086717" Categories: 192 births 238 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Crisis of the Third Century Roman emperors killed in battle Deified Roman emperors Antonii Gordian dynasty Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7325	----	File:Young Marcus Aurelius Musei Capitolini MC279.jpg - Wikipedia File:Young Marcus Aurelius Musei Capitolini MC279.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 464 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 186 × 240 pixels | 371 × 480 pixels | 594 × 768 pixels | 792 × 1,024 pixels | 2,430 × 3,140 pixels. Original file ‎(2,430 × 3,140 pixels, file size: 1.37 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Artist Unknown artistUnknown artist Description English: Portrait of Emperor Marcus Aurelius as a boy. Roman artwork. Français : Portrait de Marc-Aurèle enfant. Œuvre romaine. Italiano: Ritratto di Marco Aurelio giovane. Opera romana. Date circa 140 AD Medium marblemedium QS:P186,Q40861 Dimensions Height: 74 cm (29.1 in)dimensions QS:P2048,74U174728 Collection Capitoline Museums    Native name Musei Capitolini Location Rome, Italy Coordinates 41° 53′ 35″ N, 12° 28′ 57″ E   Established 1471 Web page museicapitolini.org Authority control : Q333906 VIAF: 171285001 ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 0496 LCCN: n79126898 GND: 1214261-X SUDOC: 029890012 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q333906 Current location Palazzo Nuovo, first floor, gallery Accession number MC 279 Credit line Albani Collection Source/Photographer Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011) Permission (Reusing this file) Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. 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Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted, dedicated to the public domain by copyright holder copyright license released into the public domain by the copyright holder image captured with Nikon D200 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 15:38, 30 November 2019 2,430 × 3,140 (1.37 MB) Waterborough rotated rectified cropped 12:39, 3 July 2011 2,500 × 3,333 (5.63 MB) Jastrow larger resolution 17:19, 29 September 2006 1,875 × 2,510 (2.42 MB) Jastrow {{MCapitolini |Unknown |Portrait of Marcus Aurelius as a boy. Marble, Roman artwork. |n.c. |Albani Collection |MC 279 |Palazzo Nuovo, first floor, Hall of the Emperors |Jastrow (2006) }} File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Early life of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org ماركوس أوريليوس Usage on azb.wikipedia.org مارکوس آئورلیوس Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Шаблон:Начална страница 7 март Уикипедия:Избрани годишнини/Март Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on cs.wikiquote.org Marcus Aurelius Wikicitáty:Citát týdne/2011 Wikicitáty:Citát týdne/2011/21 Usage on el.wikipedia.org Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Usage on en.wikiquote.org Simplicity Usage on es.wikipedia.org Marco Aurelio Usage on ext.wikipedia.org Marcu Uréliu Usage on fi.wikibooks.org Wikijunior Muinaiset kulttuurit/Rooman valtakunta/Uskomukset Usage on fr.wikipedia.org 136 Usage on hr.wikipedia.org Marko Aurelije Usage on it.wikipedia.org Musei Capitolini Memorie di Adriano Usage on ja.wikipedia.org 4月26日 マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス Usage on lt.wikipedia.org Markas Aurelijus Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Marek Aureliusz Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Marco Aurélio Usage on uk.wikipedia.org 136 Римський скульптурний портрет ІІІ століття Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. 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en-wikipedia-org-7294	----	Vietnam - Wikipedia Vietnam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Vietnam (disambiguation). Country in Southeast Asia Coordinates: 16°N 108°E / 16°N 108°E / 16; 108 Socialist Republic of Vietnam Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam  (Vietnamese) Flag Emblem Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc "Independence – Liberty – Happiness" Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca (English: "Army March") Show globe Show map of ASEAN Location of Vietnam (green)in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend] Capital Hanoi 21°2′N 105°51′E / 21.033°N 105.850°E / 21.033; 105.850 Largest city Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) 10°48′N 106°39′E / 10.800°N 106.650°E / 10.800; 106.650 National language Vietnamese[n 1] Ethnic groups 85.32% Vietnamese[n 2] 53 minorities 1.92% Tày 1.89% Thái 1.51% Mường 1.45% H'Mông 1.37% Khmer 1.13% Nùng 0.93% Dao 4.48% Others[3] Religion 73.7% No religion / Folk 14.9% Buddhism 8.5% Christianity 1.5% Hoahaoism 1.2% Caodaism 0.2% Others[4] Demonym(s) Vietnamese Government Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic • General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng[n 3] • President Nguyễn Xuân Phúc • Vice-President Võ Thị Ánh Xuân • Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính • Chairman of National Assembly Vương Đình Huệ • Chief Justice Nguyễn Hòa Bình Legislature National Assembly Formation • Hồng Bàng dynasty (First Royal Dynasty) c. 7th century BC • Chinese domination of Vietnam 111 BC • Reclaimed independence from China 938 • Nguyễn dynasty (Last Royal Dynasty) 1 June 1802 • Became under French Protectorate 6 June 1884 • Independence declared from France 2 September 1945 • Geneva Accords (South-North division) 21 July 1954 • Fall of Saigon 30 April 1975 • Reunification 2 July 1976 • Current constitution 28 November 2013[n 4] Area • Total 331,699 km2 (128,070 sq mi) (66th) • Water (%) 6.38 Population • 2019 census 96,208,984[3] (16th) • Density 295.0/km2 (764.0/sq mi) (29th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $1,047.318 billion[6] (23rd) • Per capita $10,755[6] (106th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $340.602 billion[6] (35th) • Per capita $3,498[6] (115th) Gini (2020)  33.4[7] medium HDI (2019)  0.708[8] high · 117th Currency đồng (₫) (VND) Time zone UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time) Date format dd/mm/yyyy Mains electricity 220 V – 50 Hz Driving side right Calling code +84 ISO 3166 code VN Internet TLD .vn This article contains Vietnamese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of chữ nôm, chữ Hán and chữ quốc ngữ. Vietnam (Vietnamese: Việt Nam, [vîət nāːm] (listen)), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,[a] is a country in Southeast Asia. It is located at the eastern edge of the Indochinese Peninsula, and is divided into 58 provinces and five municipalities, covering 331,699 square kilometres, with a population of over 96 million inhabitants, making it the world's sixteenth-most populous country. Vietnam shares borders with China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west; whilst maintaining maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia through the South China Sea.[n 5] Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Archaeological excavations indicate that Vietnam was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic age. The ancient Vietnamese nation, which was centered on the Red River valley and nearby coastal areas, was annexed by the Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC, which subsequently made Vietnam a division of Imperial China for over a millennium. The first independent monarchy emerged in the 10th century AD. This paved the way for successive imperial dynasties as the nation expanded southward until the Indochina Peninsula was colonised by the French in the late 19th century. Modern Vietnam was born upon the Proclamation of Independence from France in 1945 following Japanese occupation. Following Vietnamese victory against the French in the First Indochina War, which ended in 1954, the nation was divided into two rival states: communist North and anti-communist South. Conflicts intensified in the Vietnam War, which saw extensive American intervention in support of South Vietnam, while the Soviets and the PRC supported the North, which ended with North Vietnamese victory in 1975. After North and South Vietnam were reunified as a communist state under a unitary socialist government in 1976, the country became economically and politically isolated until 1986, when the Communist Party initiated a series of economic and political reforms that facilitated Vietnamese integration into world politics and the global economy. As a result of the successful reforms, Vietnam has enjoyed high economic growth rate, consistently ranked amongst the fastest growing economies of the world. Vietnam is a regional power,[10] and is considered a middle power in global affairs.[11][12] Vietnam is a part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the ASEAN, the APEC, the CPTPP, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIF, the RCEP, and the World Trade Organization, and has also assumed a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice. Vietnam was listed as a developing country up until 2019 by the UN, until the US delisted Vietnam as a developing nation in 2020.[13] However, despite some successes, many challenges still persist. Overseas Vietnamese with anti-communist sentiments, especially those who were former supporters of the Republic of Vietnam (1955-1975), may still hold intense resentment since the era of the Fall of Saigon.[14][15] Additionally, corruption in Vietnam has been a heavy issue, such as rampant bribery. Perceptions of Vietnamese urban citizens rated Vietnam's corruption transparency poorly in surveys conducted in 2005 and 2010, where bribing officials, health workers, civil servants were still highly prevalent. The practice of red envelope payments, normally a practice of informal payment reserved for festivities, became common in the health sector when the country was attempting to transition to a market economy in 1986. Anti-corruption measures have been implemented and whilst there have been improvements, control of corruption was still rated poorly (2015-2017).[16][17] Plans made for anti-corruption drive continue for 2021–2025.[18] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Dynastic Vietnam 2.3 French Indochina 2.4 First Indochina War 2.5 Vietnam War 2.6 Reunification and reforms 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity 3.3 Environment 4 Government and politics 4.1 Foreign relations 4.2 Military 4.3 Human rights and sociopolitical issues 5 Administrative divisions 6 Economy 6.1 Agriculture 6.1.1 Seafood 6.2 Science and technology 6.3 Tourism 7 Infrastructure 7.1 Transport 7.2 Energy 7.3 Telecommunication 7.4 Water supply and sanitation 7.5 Health 7.6 Education 8 Demographics 8.1 Urbanisation 8.2 Religion 8.3 Languages 9 Culture 9.1 Literature 9.2 Music 9.3 Cuisine 9.4 Media 9.5 Holidays and festivals 9.6 Sports 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 13.1 Print 13.2 Legislation and government source 13.3 Academic publications 13.4 News and magazines 13.5 Websites 13.6 Free content 14 External links 14.1 Government 14.2 Media and censorship 14.3 Tourism Etymology Main article: Names of Vietnam The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm], chữ Hán: 越南) is a variation of Nam Việt ( 南越; literally "Southern Việt"), a name that can be traced back to the Triệu dynasty of the 2nd century BC.[19] The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[20] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[21] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[21] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[20][21] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ).[20][21][22] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[23] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as nguoi Viet (Viet people) or nguoi nam (southern people).[24] The form Việt Nam ( 越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.[25] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead.[n 6][27] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[n 6] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[28] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the imperial government in Huế adopted Việt Nam.[29] History Main article: History of Vietnam Prehistory A Đông Sơn bronze drum, c. 800 BC. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[30] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[31][32][33] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,[34] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[35][36] Lang Gao[37][38] and Lang Cuom.[39] By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture,[40][41] notable for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[42][43][44] At this point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.[43][45] Dynastic Vietnam Territorial expansion of Vietnam, 1009–1898 The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings first established in 2879 BC is considered the first Vietnamese state in the History of Vietnam (then known as Xích Quỷ and later Văn Lang).[46][47] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương.[48] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.[41] However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War.[27][49] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.[50][51] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,[52] were temporarily successful,[53] though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty between AD 544 and 602.[54][55][56] By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.[57] In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam after a millennium of Chinese domination.[58][59][60] Renamed Đại Việt (Great Viet), Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[61][62] Meanwhile, the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism flourished and became the state religion.[60][63] Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew the Hồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence was interrupted briefly by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty.[64] The Vietnamese dynasties reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[65][66] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded southward in a process known as Nam tiến ("Southward expansion"),[67] eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Kingdom.[68][69][70] From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's power.[71] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[72] During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[68][70][73] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers established a new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh, aided by the French.[74] Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.[73] French Indochina Main articles: Cochinchina campaign, Sino-French War, Tonkin campaign, and French Indochina French Indochina circa 1933. In the 1500s, the Portuguese became acquainted with the Vietnamese coast, where they reportedly erected a stele on the Chàm Islands to mark their presence.[75] By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.[75] After having successfully settled Macau and Nagasaki to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade with Hội An.[75] Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries under the Padroado system were active in both Vietnamese realms of Đàng Trong (Cochinchina or Quinan) and Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) in the 17th century.[76] The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving Dejima in Japan to establish trade for silk.[77] Meanwhile, in 1613, the first English attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving the Honourable East India Company. By 1672 the English managed to establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.[78] Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.[79][80] The first French missionaries arrived in Vietnam in 1658, under the Portuguese Padroado. From its foundation, the Paris Foreign Missions Society under Propaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.[81] Spanish Dominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and Franciscans were present in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began[when?] to feel threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.[82] Following the detention of several missionaries, the French Navy received approval from their government to intervene in Vietnam in 1843, with the aim of freeing imprisoned Catholic missionaries from a kingdom that was perceived as xenophobic.[83] Vietnam's sovereignty was gradually eroded by France in a series of military conquests between 1859 and 1885.[84] At the Siege of Tourane in 1858, the French was aided by the Spanish (Using Filipino and Spanish troops from the Philippines)[85] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.[86] After the 1862 Treaty and especially after the full conquest of Lower Cochinchina by France in 1867, the Văn Thân movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against Catholics across central and northern Vietnam.[87] Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[88] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[89][90] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[91] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam.[92] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony's capital.[93] The Grand Palais built for the 1902–1903 world's fair as Hanoi became French Indochina's capital. Guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement massacred around a third of Vietnam's Christian population during the colonial period as part of their rebellion against French rule.[94][95] They were defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.[96][97] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[98] The French developed a plantation economy to promote the export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.[99] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. Hanoi Opera House, taken in the early 20th century, from rue Paul Bert (now Trang Tien street). A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan Châu Trinh, Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling for independence.[100] This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny caused an irreparable split in the independence movement that resulted in many leading members of the organisation becoming communist converts.[101][102][103] The French maintained full control over their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while permitting the pro-Vichy French colonial administration to continue.[104][105] Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which resulted in up to two million deaths.[106][107] First Indochina War Main articles: First Indochina War, Empire of Vietnam, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, and Operation Passage to Freedom Situation of the First Indochina War at the end of 1954.   Areas under Việt Minh control   Areas under French control   Việt Minh guerrilla encampment / fighting In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a Communist Ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.[108][109] Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its puppet Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, anarchy, rioting, and murder were widespread, as Saigon's administrative services had collapsed.[110] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[109] In July 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel to allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China to receive the Japanese surrender in the north while Britain's Lord Louis Mountbatten received their surrender in the south. The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France.[111][112] But as the French were weakened by the German occupation, British-Indian forces and the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group were used to maintain order and to help France reestablish control through the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.[113] Hồ initially chose to take a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France, asking the French to withdraw their colonial administrators and for French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.[109] But the Provisional Government of the French Republic did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and dispatched the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to restore colonial rule. This resulted in the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.[108][109][114] The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French colonialists and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent Geneva Conference.[109][115] Partition of French Indochina after the 1954 Geneva Conference The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the Demilitarised Zone, roughly along the 17th parallel north, pending elections scheduled for July 1956.[n 7] A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military through Operation Passage to Freedom.[120][121] The partition of Vietnam by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.[122] But in 1955, the southern State of Vietnam's prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.[122] At that point the internationally recognised State of Vietnam effectively ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Vietnam in the south—supported by the United States, France, Laos, Republic of China and Thailand—and Hồ's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north, supported by the Soviet Union, Sweden,[123] Khmer Rouge, and the People's Republic of China.[122] Vietnam War Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in significant political repression.[124] During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated across all of Vietnam would indicate nearly 100,000 executions.[125] Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time,[125][126] but declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower, although likely greater than 13,500.[127] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres".[128][129] This program incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time.[130] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.[131] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.[132] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.[133][134][135] Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft spraying Agent Orange during the Operation Ranch Hand as part of the overall herbicidal warfare operation called Trail Dust with the aim to deprive the food and vegetation cover of the Việt Cộng, c. 1962–1971. In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's Catholic regime erupted into mass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.[136] This led to the collapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a 1963 coup in which he and Nhu were assassinated.[137] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[138] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[139] During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States began increasing its contribution of military advisers, using the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for such intervention.[140] US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.[141][142] The US also engaged in a sustained aerial bombing campaign. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[133][134][143] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through Laos.[144] The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive. The campaign failed militarily, but shocked the American establishment and turned US public opinion against the war.[145] During the offensive, communist troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.[146][147] A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—over half as the result of US and South Vietnamese military actions.[148] Facing an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the early 1970s. This also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam.[149] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.[150] In December 1974, North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.[151] South Vietnam was ruled by a provisional government for almost eight years while under North Vietnamese military occupation.[152] Reunification and reforms Further information: Re-education camp (Vietnam), Vietnamese boat people, and Đổi Mới On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Việt Nam.[153] The war left Vietnam devastated, with the total death toll between 966,000 and 3.8 million.[154][155][156] In its aftermath, under Lê Duẩn's administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,[157] but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.[158] The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivisation of farms and factories.[159] In 1978, in response to the Khmer Rouge government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,[160] the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after occupying Phnom Penh.[161] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.[162] This, however, worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of the Chinese government began to escalate.[163] At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[164][165] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[164] He and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation") that carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[166][167] Though the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[167][168] The Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.[169][170][171] Geography Main article: Geography of Vietnam Nature attractions in Vietnam, clockwise from top: Hạ Long Bay, Yến River and Bản-Giốc Waterfalls Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula between the latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and 110°E. It covers a total area of approximately 331,212 km2 (127,882 sq mi).[n 8] The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[172] At its narrowest point in the central Quảng Bình Province, the country is as little as 50 kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the north.[173] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,[174] and tropical forests cover around 42%.[175] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[176] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.[177][178] The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[179][180] The exclusive economic zone of Vietnam covers 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi) in the South China Sea.[181] Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range, a part of the Fansipan which is the highest summit on the Indochinese Peninsula. Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.[182] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.[183] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded in the past. Most have occurred near the northern Vietnamese border in the provinces of Điện Biên, Lào Cai and Sơn La, while some have been recorded offshore of the central part of the country.[184][185] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in Lào Cai Province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[186] From north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands; Phú Quốc is the largest.[187] The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. The Ba Bể Lake and Mekong River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.[188][189][190] Climate Main article: Climate of Vietnam Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam. Nha Trang, a popular beach destination has a tropical savanna climate. Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, Vietnam's climate tends to vary considerably for each region.[191] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.[192] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (69.8 and 95.0 °F) over the year.[193] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59.0 and 91.4 °F).[193] Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37.4 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (98.6 °F) in July and August.[194] During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.[195] Vietnam receives high rates of precipitation in the form of rainfall with an average amount from 1,500 mm (59 in) to 2,000 mm (79 in) during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.[196] The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms and typhoons.[196] Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.[197][198] Biodiversity Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam and List of endangered species in Vietnam Native species in Vietnam, clockwise from top-right: crested argus, a peafowl, red-shanked douc, Indochinese leopard, saola. As the country is located within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. This was noted in the country's National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.[199] It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic. Vietnam's fauna includes 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals are found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.[199] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites—the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park—together with nine biosphere reserves, including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.[200][201][202] The pink lotus, widely regarded by the Vietnamese as the national flower of the country, symbolises beauty, commitment, health, honour and knowledge.[203][204][n 9] Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[199] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[199] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards's pheasant.[206] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[207] In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[199] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks.[199] Environment Main article: Environmental issues in Vietnam Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activities In Vietnam, wildlife poaching has become a major concern. In 2000, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature – Vietnam was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.[208] In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders' arrests.[208] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africa due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.[209][210] The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemical herbicide Agent Orange, which continues to cause birth defects and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.[211][212][213] In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,[214] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.[212][215] Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,[216] the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site of Biên Hòa, which is four times larger than the previously treated site, at an estimated cost of $390 million.[217] Natural fog in northwest Vietnam (Tây Bắc). The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.[218] In 2018, the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.[219][220] One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam's damaged ecosystems is through the use of reforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replanting mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.[221] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.[222] Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic in the ground water in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern. [223][224] And most notoriously, unexploded ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.[225] As part of the continuous campaign to demine/remove UXOs, several international bomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,[226] Denmark,[227] South Korea[228] and the US[229] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.[230] In 2017 the Chinese government also removed 53,000 land mines and explosives left over from the war between the two countries, in an area of 18.4 km2 (7.1 sq mi) in the Chinese province of Yunnan bordering the China–Vietnam border.[231] Panoramic view of Hạ Long Bay Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.[232] Although Vietnam remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,[233][234] with The Economist characterising its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".[235] Under the constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of the country's politics and society.[232] The president is the elected head of state and the commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.[232] Nguyễn Phú Trọng General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nguyễn Xuân Phúc President Phạm Minh Chính Prime Minister Vương Đình Huệ Chairman of the National Assembly The general secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.[232] The prime minister is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.[232] The National Assembly of Vietnam building in Hanoi The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral state legislature composed of 498 members.[236] Headed by a chairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly.[232] The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, headed by a chief justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and many local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of state security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for numerous offences.[237] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Vietnam President Trần Đại Quang with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 19 November 2016. US Secretary of State Rex Tillerson accompanies US President Donald Trump to a commercial deal signing ceremony with Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017. Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.[238] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with the Western Bloc.[238] Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,[238] significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.[239] Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.[240] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.[241] Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness and diversification/multilateralisation with international relations.[242][243] The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.[167][242] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalist Western countries. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.[244] Relations with the United States began improving in August 1995 with both states upgrading their liaison offices to embassy status.[245] As diplomatic ties between the two governents grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;[246] Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.[247] Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000, with Vietnam reopening its embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in November 2005.[248][249] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.[250] Despite their historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea and in containment of Chinese expansionism.[251][252][253] Military Main article: Vietnam People's Armed Forces Examples of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces weaponry assets. Clockwise from top right: T-54B tank, Sukhoi Su-27UBK fighter aircraft, Vietnam Coast Guard Hamilton-class cutter, and Vietnam People's Army chemical corps with Type 56. The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA), the Vietnam People's Public Security and the Vietnam Civil Defence Force. The VPA is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force, the Vietnam Border Guard and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[254] In 2015, Vietnam's military expenditure totalled approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.[255] Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei,[256] India,[257] Japan,[258] Laos,[259] Russia,[260] Singapore[256] and the US.[261] In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[262][263] Human rights and sociopolitical issues See also: Human rights in Vietnam Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of association, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion; several of his associates were also arrested.[264][265] Amnesty International described him and his arrested associates as prisoners of conscience.[264] Vietnam has also suffered from human trafficking and related issues.[266][267][268] Administrative divisions Main article: Subdivisions of Vietnam Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: tỉnh, from the Chinese 省).[269] There are also five municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 * ** *** **** Provinces of Vietnam Island areas: *-Phú Quốc Island (Phú Quốc City, Kiên Giang Province [58]) **-Côn Đảo Islands (Côn Đảo District, Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu Province [51]) ***-Paracel Islands (Hoàng Sa District, Đà Nẵng Municipality [4]) ****-Spratly Islands (Trường Sa District, Khánh Hòa Province [43]) Northwest 6. Điện Biên 22. Hòa Bình 7. Lai Châu 8. Lào Cai 16. Sơn La 12. Yên Bái Northeast 20. Bắc Giang 14. Bắc Kạn 10. Cao Bằng 9. Hà Giang 11. Lạng Sơn 17. Phú Thọ 21. Quảng Ninh 15. Thái Nguyên 13. Tuyên Quang Red River Delta 1. Hà Nội (municipality) 3. Hải Phòng (municipality) 19. Bắc Ninh 26. Hà Nam 24. Hải Dương 23. Hưng Yên 27. Nam Định 28. Ninh Bình 25. Thái Bình 18. Vĩnh Phúc North Central Coast 31. Hà Tĩnh 30. Nghệ An 32. Quảng Bình 33. Quảng Trị 29. Thanh Hóa 34. Thừa Thiên–Huế Central Highlands 41. Đắk Lắk 42. Đắk Nông 38. Gia Lai 37. Kon Tum 44. Lâm Đồng South Central Coast 4. Đà Nẵng (municipality) 39. Bình Định 46. Bình Thuận 43. Khánh Hòa 45. Ninh Thuận 40. Phú Yên 35. Quảng Nam 36. Quảng Ngãi Southeast 2. Hồ Chí Minh City (municipality) 51. Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu 49. Bình Dương 47. Bình Phước 50. Đồng Nai 48. Tây Ninh Mekong Delta 5. Cần Thơ (municipality) 56. An Giang 62. Bạc Liêu 55. Bến Tre 63. Cà Mau 53. Đồng Tháp 59. Hậu Giang 58. Kiên Giang 52. Long An 61. Sóc Trăng 54. Tiền Giang 60. Trà Vinh 57. Vĩnh Long A Communist Party propaganda poster in Hanoi Provinces are subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh - City under province), townships (thị xã) and counties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns (thị trấn) or communes (xã). Centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into districts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided into wards (phường). Economy Main article: Economy of Vietnam Share of world GDP (PPP)[6] Year Share 1980 0.18% 1990 0.23% 2000 0.32% 2010 0.43% 2018 0.52% Tree map showing Vietnam's exports Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on agriculture—primarily wet rice cultivation.[270] Bauxite, an important material in the production of aluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.[271] Since reunification, the country's economy is shaped primarily by the CPV through Five Year Plans decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.[272] The collectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[273][274][275] With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the negative impacts of the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United States,[276][277] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.[278] Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, the Landmark 81 located in Bình Thạnh, Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.[279][280] This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.[281] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.[282][283] The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.[284] Despite the 1997 Asian financial crisis affecting Vietnam by causing an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per annum, its economy began to recover in 1999,[279] with growth at an annual rate of around 7% from 2000 to 2005 making it one of the world's fastest growing economies.[285][286] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong even in the face of the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010, although Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate hit 11.8% in December 2010 with the country's currency, the Vietnamese đồng being devalued three times.[287][288] Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and the Philippines.[289] This decline can be attributed to equitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality.[290] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[291][292] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.[290][293] Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Though Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is currently the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[294] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crude petroleum producer in the Asia and Pacific region.[295] The United States purchased the highest amount of Vietnam's exports,[296] while goods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.[297] According to a December 2005 forecast by Goldman Sachs, the Vietnamese economy will become the world's 21st-largest by 2025,[298] with an estimated nominal GDP of $436 billion and a nominal GDP per capita of $4,357.[299] Based on findings by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2012, the unemployment rate in Vietnam stood at 4.46%.[6] That same year, Vietnam's nominal GDP reached US$138 billion, with a nominal GDP per capita of $1,527.[6] The HSBC also predicted that Vietnam's total GDP would surpass those of Norway, Singapore and Portugal by 2050.[299][300] Another forecast by PricewaterhouseCoopers in 2008 stated Vietnam could be the fastest-growing of the world's emerging economies by 2025, with a potential growth rate of almost 10% per annum in real dollar terms.[301] Apart from the primary sector economy, tourism has contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors recorded in 2015.[302] Agriculture Terraced rice fields in Sa Pa As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-third global share;[303] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market;[304] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since the 1990s.[305] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter of coffee.[306] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops together with other states in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[307] Other primary exports include tea, rubber and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen. Seafood The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries and aquaculture was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam's fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.[308] Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam A Vietnamese-made TOPIO 3.0 humanoid ping-pong-playing robot displayed during the 2009 International Robot Exhibition (IREX) in Tokyo.[309][310] In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly 0.45% of its GDP.[311] Since the dynastic era, Vietnamese scholars have developed many academic fields especially in social sciences and humanities. Vietnam has a millennium-deep legacy of analytical histories, such as the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư of Ngô Sĩ Liên. Vietnamese monks, led by the abdicated Emperor Trần Nhân Tông, developed the Trúc Lâm Zen branch of philosophy in the 13th century.[312] Arithmetic and geometry have been widely taught in Vietnam since the 15th century, using the textbook Đại thành toán pháp by Lương Thế Vinh. Lương Thế Vinh introduced Vietnam to the notion of zero, while Mạc Hiển Tích used the term số ẩn (Eng: "unknown/secret/hidden number") to refer to negative numbers. Furthermore, Vietnamese scholars produced numerous encyclopaedias, such as Lê Quý Đôn's Vân đài loại ngữ. In modern times, Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,[313] while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.[314][315] Since the establishment of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure at the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.[316][317] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[309][310] One of Vietnam's main messaging apps, Zalo, was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese hacker who later worked with the country's largest information technology service company, the FPT Group.[318] Vietnamese science students working on an experiment in their university lab. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.[319] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.[320] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%), physics (13%) and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.[320] Almost 77% of all papers published between 2008 and 2014 had at least one international co-author. The autonomy which Vietnamese research centres have enjoyed since the mid-1990s has enabled many of them to operate as quasi-private organisations, providing services such as consulting and technology development.[320] Some have 'spun off' from the larger institutions to form their own semi-private enterprises, fostering the transfer of public sector science and technology personnel to these semi-private establishments. One comparatively new university, the Tôn Đức Thắng University which was built in 1997, has already set up 13 centres for technology transfer and services that together produce 15% of university revenue. Many of these research centres serve as valuable intermediaries bridging public research institutions, universities, and firms.[320] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Vietnam Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site is a major tourist destination. Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7 million, came from Asia; namely China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million), and Japan (798,119).[321] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[321] The most visited destinations in Vietnam is the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million and Hạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.[322] Vietnam is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.[323] Infrastructure Transport Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in Vietnam Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.[324] Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.[325] In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.[325] The length of the national road system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.[325] HCMC–LT–DG section of the North–South Expressway. Tan Son Nhat International Airport is the busiest airport in the country. Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.[326] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road accidents remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.[327] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership.[328][329] Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[330] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.[331] Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.[332] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.[333][334] The trains will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[334][335] Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both the Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City metros and expand road networks instead.[330][336][337] The port of Hai Phong is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam. Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the country's largest airport handling the majority of international passenger traffic.[338] According to a government-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2025, including Vinh International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport, and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.[339] Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.[340] Several private airlines also operate in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[341] Energy Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam Sơn La Dam in northern Vietnam, the largest hydroelectric dam in Southeast Asia.[342] Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlled Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.[343] Other energy sources are PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from build–operate–transfer (BOT) investors.[344] Most of Vietnam's power is generated by either hydropower or fossil fuel power such as coal, oil and gas, while diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy supplies the remainder.[344] The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a nuclear reactor as the path to establish another source for electricity from nuclear power. The plan was abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the project due to widespread public concern over radioactive contamination.[345] The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country's domestic market for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[346] Since 2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[347] According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have proven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately 4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic meters (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Malaysia.[348] Telecommunication Main article: Telecommunications in Vietnam Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now the VNPT Group) which is a state-owned company.[349] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.[349] VNPT's monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.[350] By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, Vinaphone and MobiFone. The remaining companies included: EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile and S-Fone.[351] With the shift towards a more market-orientated economy, Vietnam's telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attract foreign investment, which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.[352] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam In rural areas of Vietnam, piped water systems are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies. Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billion m³. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.[353] Most of the country's urban water supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.[354] There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated wastewater directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes the surface water.[354] In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing water filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as the high levels of arsenic in groundwater sources.[355] The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors including water treatment projects.[356][357][358] Regarding sanitation, 78% of Vietnam's population has access to "improved" sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.[359] In 2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply, and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.[360] The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year.[361] Health Main article: Health in Vietnam By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.[362] In 2016, Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[363][364][365] Despite these improvements, malnutrition is still common in rural provinces.[171] Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to the hamlet level.[366] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.[171] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.[291] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of Vietnamese Health Ministry.[367] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the US military during the war left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.[368][369] For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated.[370] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.[371] Tuberculosis (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country after respiratory-related illness.[372] With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.[373] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.[374] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.[375] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); 9,554 have died.[376] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.[377] More global aid is being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease in the country.[373] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause diseases like rabies and leptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese on social media, though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.[378] Education Main article: Education in Vietnam Indochina Medical College in Hanoi, the first modern university in Vietnam Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.[379] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.[380] Regardless, Vietnam's school enrolment is among the highest in the world.[381][382] The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the burden on students to repay them.[383][384]Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.[385] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (USA) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education especially for the poor to have access to basic education.[386] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in Vietnam Vietnam population pyramid in 2019 As of 2018[update], the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 95.5 million people.[387] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[388] According to the 2019 census, the country's population was 96,208,984.[3] Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population are living in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.[3] The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.[3] Most of their population is concentrated in the country's alluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.[389] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to 54 other ethnic minority groups, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thai and Nùng.[390] Many ethnic minorities such as the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.[391] Other uplanders in the north migrated from southern China between the 1300s and 1800s.[392] Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including over 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[393][394] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[389][392] Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely from South China, migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.[395] Since the reunification in 1976, an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.[396][397] Furthermore, with the deterioration of Sino-Vietnamese relations after the border invasion by Chinese government in 1979 many Vietnamese were wary of Chinese government's intentions. This indirectly caused more Hoa people in the north to leave the country.[395][398] Urbanisation See also: List of cities in Vietnam District 1, Ho Chi Minh City. The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 is 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).[3] Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.[399] The Vietnamese government, through its construction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020 although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.[3] Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.[400] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.[401] Urbanisation in west Hanoi A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.[402] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people's standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.[402] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.[402] Many Vietnamese use mopeds for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[402] With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water. An example is the 2016 Vietnam marine life disaster caused by the Formosa Ha Tinh Steel Company illegally discharging toxic industrial waste into the ocean. This killed many fish and destroyed marine habitats in Vietnamese waters, resulting in major losses to the country's economy.[403] The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations for waste handling by factories. Although the authorities also have schedules for collecting different types of waste, waste disposal is another problem caused by urbanisation. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort household waste, since waste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.[404]   v t e Largest cities and municipalities in Vietnam Vietnam General Statistics Office (2018) Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. Ho Chi Minh City Hanoi 1 Ho Chi Minh City Municipality 7,584,905 11 Đà Lạt Lâm Đồng 356,393 Haiphong Cần Thơ 2 Hanoi Municipality 7,520,700 12 Buôn Ma Thuột Đắk Lắk 340,000 3 Haiphong Municipality 2,013,800 13 Huế Thừa Thiên-Huế 333,715 4 Cần Thơ Municipality 1,569,301 14 Thái Nguyên Thái Nguyên 330,000 5 Biên Hòa Đồng Nai 1,104,495 15 Vũng Tàu Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu 327,000 6 Đà Nẵng Municipality 1,080,700 16 Qui Nhơn Bình Định 311,000 7 Thủ Đức within Ho Chi Minh City 1,013,795 17 Hạ Long Quảng Ninh 300,267 8 Nha Trang Khánh Hòa 792,397 18 Long Xuyên An Giang 280,300 9 Vinh Nghệ An 490,000 19 Việt Trì Phú Thọ 277,539 10 Hải Dương Hải Dương 403,893 20 Bắc Ninh Bắc Ninh 272,634 Religion Main article: Religion in Vietnam Religion in Vietnam (2019)[3]   Vietnamese folk religion or no religion (86.32%)   Buddhism (4.79%)   Catholicism (6.1%)   Protestantism (1.0%)   Hoahaoism (1.02%)   Caodaism (0.58%)   Islam (0.07%)   Others (0.12%) Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief and religion.[405] All religions are equal before the law and each place of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.[405][406] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese people did not believe in a god.[407] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.[408] The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million.[409] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019, Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population, Catholics 6.1%, Protestants 1.0%, Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, and Caodaism followers 0.58%.[3] Other religions includes Islam, Bahaʼís and Hinduism, representing less than 0.2% of the population. The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form of Vietnamese folk religion. Confucianism as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam. Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism, while Theravāda is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian—made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established by Jesuits missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th centuries from nearby Portuguese Macau.[76] French missionaries (from the Paris Foreign Missions Society) together with Spanish missionaries (from the Dominican Order of the neighbouring Spanish East Indies) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.[410][411][412] A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncretic Caodaism and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism.[413] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;[414] the largest Protestant denomination is the Evangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,[414] particularly the highland Montagnards[415] and Hmong people. Although it is one of the country's minority religions, Protestantism is the fastest-growing religion in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.[414][416] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani, Sunni and non-denominational sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnic Cham minority.[417] There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well as Hindus among the Cham's.[418][419] Languages The national language of the country is Vietnamese (tiếng Việt), a tonal Austroasiatic language (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population. In its early history, Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters (chữ Hán) before a different meaning set of Chinese characters known as chữ Nôm developed between the 7th–13th century.[420][421][422] The folk epic Truyện Kiều (The Tale of Kieu, originally known as Đoạn trường tân thanh) by Nguyễn Du was written in chữ Nôm.[423] Chữ Quốc ngữ, the Romanised Vietnamese alphabet, was developed in the 17th century by Jesuit missionaries such as Francisco de Pina and Alexandre de Rhodes by using the alphabets of the Romance languages, particularly the Portuguese alphabet, which later became widely used through Vietnamese institutions during the French colonial period.[420][424] Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including: Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the Malayo-Polynesian language families.[425] In recent years, a number of sign languages have developed in the major cities. Vietnamese calligraphy in chữ Quốc ngữ. The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among the older generation and those educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce. Vietnam remains a full member of the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.[426] Russian, and to a lesser extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.[427] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.[428][429] The popularity of Japanese, Korean, and Chinese characters have also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.[430][431][432] Culture Main article: Culture of Vietnam The Temple of Literature in Hanoi The Imperial City of Huế The Municipal Theatre (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[40][43] Some elements of the nation's culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[433][434] Vietnamese society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);[435] all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[436][437] The influence of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien and Hainanese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.[438] Despite this, there are Chinatowns in the south, such as in Chợ Lớn, where many Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.[439] In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.[440][441] In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.[434] Vietnamese traditional white school uniform for girls in the country, the áo dài with the addition of nón lá, a conical hat. The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded.[438] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[442] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's national father, Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.[436][443][444] The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national mother Âu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are the turtle, buffalo and horse.[445] Many Vietnamese also believe in the supernatural and spiritualism where illness can be brought on by a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners, amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.[446] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs.[434] For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.[447] The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include: the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[448][449] Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá and the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao.[449][450] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the former Imperial City of Huế, the World Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.[451][452] Literature Main articles: Vietnamese literature, Vietnamese poetry, and Vietnamese fairy tales Vietnamese dragon on Emperor Khải Định's c. 1917 scroll in British Library collection. Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of folk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form called ca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[453] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including: Nguyễn Trãi, Trần Hưng Đạo, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.[454] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.[455] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.[456] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.[439][457] Music Main article: Music of Vietnam Ca trù trio performance in northern Vietnam Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.[458] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.[459] Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese musical tradition along with those of Japan, Korea and Mongolia.[460] Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre, while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s, while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. Hò can be thought of as the southern style of Quan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), the đàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body), and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.[461] Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.[462] However, the modern Vietnamese music industry, known as V-pop, is making its mark in the entertainment field. Many Vietnamese artists have started to collaborate with foreign artists and producers, especially South Korean, to facilitate the entrance of K-pop into the Vietnamese market while also promoting V-pop overseas.[463] For example, in 2014, the South Korean seven-member boy band BTS (방탄소년단) collaborated with Vietnamese singer Thanh Bùi on the single called "Danger".[463][464] In 2018, South Korean artist and idol Park Ji-yeon (박지연) collaborated with Soobin Hoàng Sơn on two versions of the title track called "Between Us" (Vietnamese: Đẹp Nhất Là Em; Korean: 우리사이) to promote the two countries’ partnership in terms of the music industry.[465] V Live, which is a South Korean live video streaming service, also collaborated with RBW Entertainment Vietnam (a subsidiary of the Korean entertainment company) to produce Vietnamese-based shows. V Live also launched special monthly mini-concerts called "V Heartbeat Live" to connect V-pop and K-pop idols.[466] South Korean entertainment company SM Entertainment signed an agreement with IPP Group to move into the country's market and promote joint business.[467] The company held its 2018 Global Audition in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in search for new talents among the Vietnamese youth.[468] Cuisine Main article: Vietnamese cuisine Some of the notable Vietnamese cuisine, clockwise from top-right: phở noodle, chè thái fruit dessert, chả giò spring roll and bánh mì sandwich. Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (earth).[469] Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use: lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chilli, lime and basil leaves.[470] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[471] The use of meats such as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish, crustaceans (particularly crabs), and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam has a strong street food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.[472] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as gỏi cuốn (salad roll), bánh cuốn (rice noodle roll), bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.[473][474] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.[475] Black pepper is frequently used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold with ice cubes, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).[476] Media Main article: Media of Vietnam Vietnam Television (VTV), the main state television Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.[477] It is generally perceived that the country media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[478][479] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while Vietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated public internet access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[480] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[481] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[482] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.[483] Holidays and festivals Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of traditional festivals in Vietnam Special Tết decoration in the country seen during the holiday The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include: New Year's Day on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first lunar month; Hung Kings Commemorations on the 10th day of the third lunar month; Reunification Day on 30 April; International Workers' Day on 1 May; and National Day Celebration on 2 September.[484][485][486] During Tết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.[487][488] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food, such as bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of dried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.[489] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including the Lantern Festival (Tết Nguyên Tiêu), Mid-Autumn Festival (Tết Trung Thu) and various temple and nature festivals.[490] In the highlands, Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.[491] Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular and are often celebrated by expatriate Vietnamese in Western countries.[492] In Vietnam, wedding dress has been influenced by Western styles, with the wearing of white wedding dresses and black jackets; however, there are also many who still prefer to choose Vietnamese traditional wedding costumes for traditional ceremonies.[493] Sports Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games Mỹ Đình National Stadium in Hanoi. The Vovinam, kim ke and bình định martial arts are widespread in Vietnam,[494][495] while football is the country's most popular sport.[496] Its national team won the ASEAN Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reached the quarter-finals of 2019 AFC Asian Cup,[497][498][499] its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC U-23 Championship and reached fourth place in 2018 Asian Games, while the under-20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football history.[500][501] The national football women's team also traditionally dominates the Southeast Asian Games, along with its chief rival, Thailand. Other Western sports such as badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952, when it competed as the State of Vietnam. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979.[502] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games. In 2016, Vietnam won their first gold medal at the Olympics.[503] By the 2020s, Vietnam will host the inaugural Formula One Vietnam Grand Prix in the city of Hanoi.[504] Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Soc Trang.[505] See also Index of Vietnam-related articles Outline of Vietnam Notes ^ Vietnamese: Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam ^ The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam states that Vietnamese is the "national language", rather than the "official language"; Vietnamese is the only language used in official documents and legal proceedings de facto.[1] ^ Also called Kinh people.[2] ^ Nguyễn Phú Trọng is also Secretary of the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The first priority political position in one party communist state, Vietnam is General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, not President of Vietnam. ^ In effect since 1 January 2014.[5] ^ The South China Sea is referred to in Vietnam as the East Sea (Biển Đông).[9] ^ a b At first, Gia Long requested the name "Nam Việt", but the Jiaqing Emperor refused.[19][26] ^ Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh proposal[116] that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".[117] The United States, with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",[118] which provided for United Nations-supervised unification elections. The plan, however, was rejected by Soviet and other communist delegations.[119] ^ See List of countries and dependencies by area. ^ The national symbol of Vietnam is officially recognised in the country's legal documents, including in the Constitution, which establishes the national flag, national emblem and national anthem. Although Vietnam is a country with many flowers, there is no document recognising its national flower. Other Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and all of Vietnam's neighbours have national flowers. The Lotus has been chosen by India as its national flower, but this does not preclude Vietnam making the same choice. Many countries have chosen the same flower as their national flower; for example, the rose is the national flower of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.[205] References ^ "The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam". Vietnam News Agency. 15 January 2014. 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Accessed 19 February 2020. Further reading Print Goscha, Christopher (2016). Vietnam: A New History. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09436-3. Dror, Olga (2018). Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47012-4. Nguyen, Duy Lap (2020). The Unimagined Community: Imperialism and Culture in South Vietnam. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-5261-4396-9. Nguyen, Lien-Hang T. (2012). Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3551-7. Richardson, John (1876). A school manual of modern geography. Physical and political. Publisher not identified. Thái Nguyên, Văn; Mừng Nguyẽ̂n, Văn (1958). A Short History of Viet-Nam. Vietnamese-American Association. Chesneaux, Jean (1966). The Vietnamese Nations: Contribution to a History. Current Book Distributors. Heneghan, George Martin (1969). Nationalism, Communism and the National Liberation Front of Vietnam: Dilemma for American Foreign Policy. Department of Political Science, Stanford University. Gravel, Mike (1971). The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decision-making on Vietnam. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0526-2. Peasant and Labour. 1972. Yue Hashimoto, Oi-kan (1972). Phonology of Cantonese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0. Jukes, Geoffrey (1973). The Soviet Union in Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02393-2. Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese communism, its origins and development. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 978-0-8179-6431-3. Phan, Khoang (1976). Việt sử: xứ đàng trong, 1558–1777. Cuộc nam-tié̂n của dân-tộc Việt-Nam. Nhà Sách Khai Trí (in Vietnamese). University of Michigan. Vu, Tu Lap (1979). Vietnam: Geographical Data. Foreign Languages Publishing House. Lewy, Guenter (1980). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991352-7. Holmgren, Jennifer (1980). Chinese colonisation of northern Vietnam: administrative geography and political development in the Tongking Delta, first to sixth centuries A.D. Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies: distributed by Australian University Press. ISBN 978-0-909879-12-9. Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of Vietnam. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04428-9. Leonard, Jane Kate (1984). Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World. Harvard Univ Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-674-94855-6. Tran, Tu Binh (1985). David G. Marr (ed.). The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation. Southeast Asia Series. Translated by John Spragens, Jr. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-896-80119-6. Khánh Huỳnh, Kim (1986). Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9397-3. Miller, Robert Hopkins (1990). United States and Vietnam 1787–1941. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-0810-5. McLeod, Mark W. (1991). The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-93562-7. Joes, Anthony James (1992). Modern Guerrilla Insurgency. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-275-94263-2. Miettinen, Jukka O. (1992). Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-588595-8. Adhikari, Ramesh; Kirkpatrick, Colin H.; Weiss, John (1992). Industrial and Trade Policy Reform in Developing Countries. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3553-1. Akazawa, Takeru; Aoki, Kenichi; Kimura, Tasuku (1992). The evolution and dispersal of modern humans in Asia. Hokusen-sha. ISBN 978-4-938424-41-1. Cortada, James W. (1994). Spain in the Nineteenth-century World: Essays on Spanish Diplomacy, 1789–1898. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-27655-2. Keyes, Charles F. (1995). The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1696-4. Gettleman, Marvin E.; Franklin, Jane; Young, Marilyn B.; Franklin, H. Bruce (1995). Vietnam and America: A Documented History. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3362-5. Proceedings of the Regional Dialogue on Biodiversity and Natural Resources Management in Mainland Southeast Asian Economies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Yunnan, China, 21–24 February 1995. Natural Resources and Environment Program, Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation. 1995. Hampson, Fen Osler (1996). Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed Or Fail. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 978-1-878379-55-9. de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. Routledge. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0. Tonnesson, Stein; Antlov, Hans (1996). Asian Forms of the Nation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-0442-2. Murray, Geoffrey (1997). Vietnam Dawn of a New Market. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-17392-0. Jones, John R. (1998). Guide to Vietnam. Bradt Publications. ISBN 978-1-898323-67-9. Brigham, Robert Kendall (1998). Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLF's Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3317-7. Li, Tana (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. SEAP Publications. ISBN 978-0-87727-722-4. Vietnam: Selected Issues. International Monetary Fund. 1999. ISBN 978-1-4519-8721-8. Litvack, Jennie; Litvack, Jennie Ilene; Rondinelli, Dennis A. (1999). Market Reform in Vietnam: Building Institutions for Development. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-56720-288-5. Đức Trần, Hồng; Thư Hà, Anh (2000). A Brief Chronology of Vietnam's History. Thế Giới Publishers. Cook, Bernard A. (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-4057-7. Knoblock, John; Riegel, Jeffrey (2001). The Annals of Lü Buwei. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804733540. Selections from Regional Press. 20. Institute of Regional Studies. 2001. Green, Thomas A. (2001). Martial Arts of the World: A-Q. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2. Karlström, Anna; Källén, Anna (2002). Southeast Asian Archaeology. Östasiatiska Samlingarna (Stockholm, Sweden), European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists. International Conference. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm. ISBN 978-91-970616-0-5. Levinson, David; Christensen, Karen (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-31247-7. Pelley, Patricia M. (2002). Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2966-4. Woods, L. Shelton (2002). Vietnam: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-416-9. Largo, V. (2002). Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-368-6. Page, Melvin Eugene; Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3. Dodd, Jan; Lewis, Mark (2003). Vietnam. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-095-4. Hiẻ̂n Lê, Năng (2003). Three victories on the Bach Dang river. Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa-thông tin. Lieberman, Victor (2003). Strange Parallels: Integration of the Mainland Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830, Vol 1. Cambridge University Press. Protected Areas and Development Partnership (2003). Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region. ICEM. ISBN 978-0-9750332-4-1. Meggle, Georg (2004). Ethics of Humanitarian Interventions. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-032773-1. Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Smith, Anthony L. (2005). Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations. Victoria University Press. ISBN 978-0-86473-519-5. Alterman, Eric (2005). When Presidents Lie: A History of Official Deception and Its Consequences. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303604-3. Anderson, Wanni Wibulswasdi; Lee, Robert G. (2005). Displacements and Diasporas: Asians in the Americas. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3611-8. Kissi, Edward (2006). Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1263-2. Oxenham, Marc; Tayles, Nancy (2006). Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82580-1. Englar, Mary (2006). Vietnam: A Question and Answer Book. Capstone Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7368-6414-5. Tran, Nhung Tuyet; Reid, Anthony, eds. (2006). Viet Nam: Borderless Histories. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-21773-0. Hoàng, Anh Tuấn (2007). Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese Relations, 1637–1700. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15601-2. Jeffries, Ian (2007). Vietnam: A Guide to Economic and Political Developments. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-16454-7. Olsen, Mari (2007). Soviet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China 1949–64: Changing Alliances. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-17413-3. Neville, Peter (2007). Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-24476-8. Smith, T. (2007). Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-59166-0. Koskoff, Ellen (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-99404-0. Ramsay, Jacob (2008). Mandarins and Martyrs: The Church and the Nguyen Dynasty in Early Nineteenth-century Vietnam. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7954-8. Calò, Ambra (2009). Trails of Bronze Drums Across Early Southeast Asia: Exchange Routes and Connected Cultural Spheres. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-4073-0396-3. Sharma, Gitesh (2009). Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam. Rajkamal Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-905401-4-8. Isserman, Maurice; Bowman, John Stewart (2009). Vietnam War. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0015-9. Koblitz, Neal (2009). Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-74078-0. Cottrell, Robert C. (2009). Vietnam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-2147-5. Asian Development Bank (2010). Asian Development Outlook 2010 Update. Asian Development Bank. ISBN 978-92-9092-181-3. Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 2: Since 1450. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4390-8536-3. Elliott, Mai (2010). RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era. RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4915-5. Gustafsson, Mai Lan (2010). War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5745-6. Jones, Daniel (2011). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76575-6. Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. (2011). The Complete Costume Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4004-1. Pike, Francis (2011). Empires at War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-029-9. Vierra, Kimberly; Vierra, Brian (2011). Vietnam Business Guide: Getting Started in Tomorrow's Market Today. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-17881-2. Vo, Nghia M. (2011). Saigon: A History. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-8634-2. Khoo, Nicholas (2011). Collateral Damage: Sino-Soviet Rivalry and the Termination of the Sino-Vietnamese Alliance. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15078-1. Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History. University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8122-4336-9. Zwartjes, Otto (2011). Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550–1800. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-4608-0. Frankum Jr., Ronald B. (2011). Historical Dictionary of the War in Vietnam. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7956-0. Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0. Tonnesson, Stein (2011). Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26993-4. Kỳ Phương, Trần; Lockhart, Bruce M. (2011). The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-459-3. Thaker, Aruna; Barton, Arlene (2012). Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-35046-1. Keith, Charles (2012). Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95382-6. Olson, Gregory A. (2012). Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical Adaptation. MSU Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-941-3. Waite, James (2012). The End of the First Indochina War: A Global History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-27334-6. Vo, Nghia M. (2012). Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-9060-8. Muehlenbeck, Philip Emil; Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012). Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1852-1. Rabett, Ryan J. (2012). Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01829-7. Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-415-3. Gilbert, Adrian (2013). Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-95697-4. Chico, Beverly (2013). Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-063-8. Boobbyer, Claire; Spooner, Andrew (2013). Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos Footprint Handbook. Footprint Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-907263-64-4. Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens, Gerhard (2013). Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-33377-4. Willbanks, James H. (2013). Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62636-528-5. Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9. van Dijk, Ruud; Gray, William Glenn; Savranskaya, Svetlana; Suri, Jeremi; et al. (2013). Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-92311-2. Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2013). Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-319-02198-0. Lim, David (2014). Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-81859-5. Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-2303-5. Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-28248-3. de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014). Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-80333-1. Eggleston, Michael A. (2014). Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7864-7772-2. Dennell, Robin; Porr, Martin (2014). Southern Asia, Australia, and the Search for Human Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-72913-1. Hong Lien, Vu; Sharrock, Peter (2014). Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-388-8. Gibbons, William Conrad (2014). The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965–1966. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6153-8. Ooi, Keat Gin; Anh Tuan, Hoang (2015). Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1350–1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-55919-1. Oxenham, Marc; Buckley, Hallie (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-53401-3. Duy Hinh, Nguyen; Dinh Tho, Tran (2015). The South Vietnamese Society. Normanby Press. ISBN 978-1-78625-513-6. Yao, Alice (2016). The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936734-4. Howe, Brendan M. (2016). Post-Conflict Development in East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-07740-4. Thanh Hai, Do (2016). Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-39820-2. Phuong Linh, Huynh Thi (2016). State-Society Interaction in Vietnam. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-90719-6. Ozolinš, Janis Talivaldis (2016). Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-25724-2. Howard, Michael C. (2016). Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-2440-2. Kiernan, Ben (2017). Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516076-5. DK (2017). The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-30868-4. Travel, DK (2017). DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor Wat. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-30136-4. Moïse, Edwin E. (2017). Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7445-5. Hinchey, Jane (2017). Vietnam: Discover the Country, Culture and People. Redback Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925630-02-2. Kort, Michael (2017). The Vietnam War Re-Examined. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-04640-5. Trieu Dan, Nguyen (2017). A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7864-8779-0. Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017). Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1956-7. Tran, Anh Q. (2017). Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-067760-2. Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-10-5613-0. Zhu, Ying; Ren, Shuang; Collins, Ngan; Warner, Malcolm (2017). Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-56749-3. Dohrenwend, Bruce P.; Turse, Nick; Wall, Melanie M.; Yager, Thomas J. (2018). Surviving Vietnam: Psychological Consequences of the War for US Veterans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-090444-9. Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9. Dinh Tham, Nguyen (2018). Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-1882-3. Dayley, Robert (2018). Southeast Asia in the New International Era. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-97424-3. Chen, Steven (2018). The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of Design Management. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-78568-4. Wilcox, Wynn, ed. (2010). Vietnam and the West: New Approaches. Ithaca, NY: SEAP Publications, Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-87727-782-8. Legislation and government source Constitution of Vietnam (1992). 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en-wikipedia-org-7330	----	Military tribune - Wikipedia Military tribune From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e A military tribune (Latin tribunus militum, "tribune of the soldiers") was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping stone to the Senate.[1] The tribunus militum should not be confused with the elected political office of tribune of the people (tribunus plebis) nor with that of tribunus militum consulari potestate. Contents 1 Early Rome 2 Republican period 3 After the Marian reforms 4 Principate 5 See also 6 References Early Rome[edit] The word tribunus derives from tribus, "tribe".[2] In Rome's earliest history, each of the three tribes (Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities) sent one commander when an army was mustered,[3] since there was no standing army. The tribunes were commanders of the original legion of 3,000. By the time of the Greek historian Polybius (d. 118 BC), the tribunes numbered six, and they were appointed by the consuls.[4] However, the process by which tribunes were chosen and assigned is complex and varies at different times. Republican period[edit] In the Republican period, there were six appointed to each legion. Authority was given to two at a time, and command rotated among the six. Tribunes were men of Senatorial status appointed by the Senate. To attain the position of tribune, one only needed to be a member of the ruling class. By 311 BC the people acquired the right to elect sixteen tribunes of the soldiers, that is, four out of the six tribunes assigned to each of the four legions that formed the Roman Army. Previously these places had been for the most part in the gift of consuls or dictators.[5] Additionally, in the early Republic, another type of military tribune was sometimes chosen in place of the annually elected consuls to be the heads of the Roman State. These are known in Latin as tribuni militum consulari potestate, "Military Tribunes with Consular Authority". At the time only Patricians could be chosen as Consuls, but both Patricians and Plebeians could be elected as tribunes with consular authority. Instead of the usual two consuls, between four and six military tribunes were elected for the year. The reasons for this choice are obscure, though Livy often cast the decision according to the class struggles he saw as endemic during this period, with patricians generally favoring consuls and plebs the military tribunes. The office of "consular tribune" eventually fell out of use after 366 BC. After the Marian reforms[edit] After the Marian reforms of 107 BC (subsequently further formalised by the emperor Claudius) created a professionalized military system, legions were commanded by a legionary legate (legatus). Six tribunes were still posted to a legion, but their duties and responsibilities had changed, becoming more a political position than a military rank. The second-in-command to the legate was the tribunus laticlavius or 'broad-stripe' tribune (named after the width of the stripe used to demarcate him on his tunic and toga),[6] usually a young man of Senatorial rank. He was given this position to learn and watch the actions of the legate. They often found themselves leading their unit in the absence of a legate, and some legions were permanently commanded by a broad-stripe tribune, such as those stationed in Egypt, as an Augustan law required that no member of the Senatorial Order ever enter Egypt.[7] In contrast to the broad-stripe tribune, the other five 'thin stripe' tribunes were lower in rank, and were called the tribuni angusticlavii. These 'officer cadets'[6] were men of equestrian rank who had military experience, and yet had no authority: they were allowed to sit on a court martial but they held no power in battle. Most thin-stripe tribunes served the legionary legate, yet a lucky few (such as Agricola) were selected to serve on the staff of the provincial governor.[8] According to Tacitus, they did not always take their appointment as seriously as they might, contrasting Agricola's tribuneship to his peers by saying "[Agricola did not], like many young men who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or use his inexperience to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty".[8] Principate[edit] Further information: Tres militiae Under Augustus, the five equestrian tribunes were sometimes promoted from the rank of centurion, and might advance to a command in the auxiliary cavalry or Praetorian Guard. See also[edit] Tribune List of Roman tribunes Tribunus militum consulari potestate Subrius Flavus References[edit] ^ Dio, LXVII, 2. ^ Entry on tribunus, Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), p. 1972. ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.80. ^ Polybius, 6.12.6. ^ Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita Libri IX, 29, with translation and notes by B. O. Foster, Loeb Classical Library, ISBN 0-674-99210-5 ^ a b Dando-Collins 2010, p. 42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ Dando-Collins 2010, p. 40. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDando-Collins2010 (help) ^ a b Agricola, Tacitus, 5 v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs 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en-wikipedia-org-7331	----	Aulus Gellius - Wikipedia Aulus Gellius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Noctes Atticae) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman author and grammarian Aulus Gellius Frontispiece to a 1706 Latin edition of the Attic Nights [fr] by Jakob Gronovius Born c. 125 AD Died c. 180 AD Aulus Gellius (c. 125 – after 180 AD) was a Roman author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome. He is famous for his Attic Nights, a commonplace book, or compilation of notes on grammar, philosophy, history, antiquarianism, and other subjects, preserving fragments of the works of many authors who might otherwise be unknown today. Contents 1 Name 2 Life 3 Writings 4 Editions 4.1 Translations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Name[edit] Medieval manuscripts of the Noctes Atticae commonly gave the author's name in the form of "Agellius", which is used by Priscian; Lactantius, Servius and Saint Augustine had "A. Gellius" instead. Scholars from the Renaissance onwards hotly debated which one of the two transmitted names is correct (the other one being presumably a corruption) before settling on the latter of the two in modern times.[1] Life[edit] The only source for the life of Aulus Gellius is the details recorded in his writings.[2] Internal evidence points to Gellius having been born between AD 125 and 128.[3] He was of good family and connections, possibly of African origin,[4] but he was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He attended the Pythian Games in the year 147,[3] and resided for a considerable period in Athens.[2] Gellius studied rhetoric under Titus Castricius and Sulpicius Apollinaris; philosophy under Calvisius Taurus and Peregrinus Proteus; and enjoyed also the friendship and instruction of Favorinus, Herodes Atticus, and Fronto.[2] He returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office.[5] He was appointed by the praetor to act as an umpire in civil causes, and much of the time which he would gladly have devoted to literary pursuits was consequently occupied by judicial duties.[2] Writings[edit] His only known work, the Attic Nights (Latin: Noctes Atticae), takes its name from having been begun during the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards continued it in Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and many other subjects.[5] One story is the fable of Androcles, which is often included in compilations of Aesop's fables, but was not originally from that source. Internal evidence led Leofranc Holford-Strevens to date its publication in or after AD 177.[3] The work, deliberately devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All have survived except the eighth, of which only the index survives. The Attic Nights are valuable for the insight they afford into the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for its many excerpts from works of lost ancient authors.[5] The Attic Nights found many readers in Antiquity. Writers who used this compilation include Apuleius, Lactantius, Nonius Marcellus, Ammianus Marcellinus, the anonymous author of the Historia Augusta, Servius, and Augustine; but most notable is how Gellius' work was mined by Macrobius, "who, without mentioning his name, quotes Gellius verbatim throughout the Saturnalia, and is thus of the highest value for the text".[6] Editions[edit] The editio princeps was published at Rome in 1469 by Giovanni Andrea Bussi, bishop-designate of Aleria.[7] The earliest critical edition was by Ludovicus Carrio in 1585, published by Henricus Stephanus; however, the projected commentary fell victim to personal quarrels. Better known is the critical edition of Johann Friedrich Gronovius; although he devoted his entire life to work on Gellius, he died in 1671 before his work could be completed. His son Jakob published most of his comments on Gellius in 1687, and brought out a revised text with all of his father's comments and other materials at Leyden in 1706; this later work became known as the "Gronoviana". According to Leofranc Holford-Strevens, the "Gronoviana" remained the standard text of Gellius for over a hundred years, until the edition of Martin Hertz (Berlin, 1883–85; there is also a smaller edition by the same author, Berlin, 1886), revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography. A volume of selections, with notes and vocabulary, was published by Nall (London, 1888). There is an English translation by W. Beloe (London, 1795), and a French translation (1896).[5][8] A more recent English translation is by John Carew Rolfe (1927) for the Loeb Classical Library. More recently, Peter K. Marshall's edition (Oxford U. Press, 1968, 1990 (reissued with corrections) seems widespread both in print and digital (open access) formats.[9] Translations[edit] George Herbert Nall, ed. (1921). Stories from Aulus Gellius. Elementary classics. London: Macmillan. John Carew Rolfe (1927), The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Loeb Classical Library. 3 Volumes. ISBN 0674992156, ISBN 0674992202, ISBN 0674992342 See also[edit] Ex pede Herculem Gellia gens Notes[edit] ^ René Marache (1967). "Introduction". Aulu-Gelle, Les nuits attiques. Livres I–IV. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. p. VII. ^ a b c d Ramsay, William (1867), "A. Gellius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 2, Boston, p. 235, archived from the original on 2010-01-18, retrieved 2010-12-21 ^ a b c Leofranc Holford-Strevens, "Towards a Chronology of Aulus Gellius", Latomus, 36 (1977), pp. 93-109 ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2003), Aulus Gellius: an Antonine scholar and his achievement, pages 13–15 ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gellius, Aulus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 558. ^ P. K. Marshall, "Aulus Gellius" in Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 176 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, this section is based on Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1988), pp.241-244 ^ Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Gellius, Aulus" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. ^ Marshall, Peter K. (1990). A. Gellii Noctes Atticae. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814651-5. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Wm Ramsay (1870). "A.Gellius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. p. 235. Further reading[edit] Anderson, Graham. (1994). "Aulus Gellius: a Miscellanist and His World," in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II.34.2. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Beall, S. (1997). "Translation in Aulus Gellius." The Classical Quarterly, 47(1), 215–226. Ceaicovschi, K. (2009). "Cato the Elder in Aulus Gellius." Illinois Classical Studies, (33-34), 25–39. Lakmann, Marie-Luise. (1995). Der Platoniker Tauros in der Darstellung des Aulus Gellius. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: Brill. Garcea, Alessandro. (2003). "Paradoxes in Aulus Gellius." Argumentation 17:87–98. Gunderson, Eric. (2009). Nox Philologiae: Aulus Gellius and the Fantasy of the Roman Library. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (2003). Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Scholar and his Achievement. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1982). "Fact and fiction in Aulus Gellius." Liverpool Classical Monthly 7:65–68. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc, and Amiel Vardi, eds. (2004). The Worlds of Aulus Gellius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2013). "Why Read the Jurists ?: Aulus Gellius on Reading Across Disciplines." In New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edited by Paul J. du Plessis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2018). Aulus Gellius and Roman Reading Culture. Text, Presence, and Imperial Knowledge in the Noctes Atticae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, William A. (2012). "Aulus Gellius: The Life of the Litteratus" In Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities. Classical Culture and Society. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Ker, James (2004). "Nocturnal Writers in Imperial Rome: The Culture of Lucubratio." Classical Philology, 99(3), 209–242. Keulen, Wytse. (2009). "Gellius the Satirist: Roman Cultural Authority in Attic Nights." Mnemosyne Supplements 297. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. McGinn, Thomas A.J. (2010). "Communication and the Capability Problem in Roman Law: Aulus Gellius as Iudex and the Jurists on Child-Custody." RIDA 57, 265–298. Russell, Brigette. (2003). "Wine, Women, and the Polis: Gender and the Formation of the City-State in Archaic Rome." Greece & Rome, 50(1), 77-84 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Aulus Gellius Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Works by Aulus Gellius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aulus Gellius. 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Attic Nights (Latin text: complete; English translation: Preface thru Book 13) Attic Nights (Latin text: Books 1–11, 13, 20) Noctes atticae at Somni Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 3 Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aulus_Gellius&oldid=1022921148" Categories: 125 births 2nd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Ancient Roman antiquarians Gellii Grammarians of Latin Latin-language writers Middle Platonists Roman-era students in Athens Silver Age Latin writers Writers from Rome Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2021, at 08:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7339	----	Ceionia Fabia - Wikipedia Ceionia Fabia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman noblewoman Ceionia Fabia (flourished 2nd century) was a noble Roman woman and a member of the ruling Nerva–Antonine dynasty of the Roman Empire. Fabia was the first-born daughter to Lucius Aelius and Avidia. In 136, her father was adopted by Hadrian as heir to the throne.[1] Fabia had three siblings: a sister Ceionia Plautia and two brothers: the Roman Emperor Lucius Verus who co-ruled with Marcus Aurelius from 161-169 and Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus. Her cognomen Fabia reveals that her father was related to the gens Fabia. However, whom she was named after from the gens Fabia is unknown. Fabia was born and raised in Rome. Her maternal grandparents were the Roman Senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and the surmised but undocumented noblewoman Plautia. Although her adoptive paternal grandparents were the Roman Emperor Hadrian and Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, her biological paternal grandparents were the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus and noblewoman named Plautia. Sometime in 136 after Hadrian announced that her father was to be the Emperor’s official heir, on the wishes of Hadrian, the emperor betrothed Fabia to Hadrian’s great-nephew Marcus Aurelius. Although Fabia and Aurelius became engaged, the engagement did not survive Hadrian; immediately after the emperor's death, Antoninus Pius, Hadrian's second adopted son and the new emperor, approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal.[2] Fabia later married the nobleman Plautius Quintillus who came from a family of consular rank. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161), Quintillus served as an ordinary consul in 159. Fabia bore Quintillus a son called Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus who later married Annia Aurelia Fadilla, one of the daughters of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Throughout the Roman Empire, various honorific inscriptions have survived being dedicated to Fabia and her family. These inscriptions honor Fabia as the mother of Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus; the sister of Roman Emperor Lucius Verus and the sister-in-law of Empress Lucilla (the second daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger, who was one of the sisters of Fadilla). According to an inscription found at Ephesus, Fabia was present when Lucius Verus married Lucilla. It appears by 175 her husband had died. When Faustina the Younger had died in 175, Fabia was said to have attempted to interest Marcus Aurelius in a second marriage. However, Marcus Aurelius preferred to take a mistress, who was a daughter of one of Faustina’s procurators. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, by Albino Garzetti, 1974 Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Antonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi by Guido Migliorati, 2003 – Italian Historical Secondary Source The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11 By Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone Limited preview - Edition: 2 - Item notes: v. 11 – 2000 Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000 http://www.roman-emperors.org/lverus.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20130525075850/http://www.roman-empire.net/highpoint/marcaurelius.html Notes[edit] ^ Lucius Aelius was given the title of Caesar, but because he died before Hadrian, he never assumed the throne. ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53–54. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ceionia_Fabia&oldid=1006571647" Categories: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Ceionii Fabii 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Italiano Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2021, at 16:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-733	----	Antoninus Pius - Wikipedia Antoninus Pius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 138 to 161 Roman emperor Antoninus Pius Bust, Glyptothek, Munich Roman emperor Reign 11 July 138 – 7 March 161 Predecessor Hadrian Successor Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Born 19 September 86 Lanuvium, Italy Died 7 March 161 (aged 74) Lorium, Italy Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Annia Galeria Faustina Issue Detail Faustina the Younger 1 other daughter and 2 sons Marcus Aurelius (adoptive) Lucius Verus (adoptive) Names Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (birth) Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus (adoption)[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius[1] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Titus Aurelius Fulvus (natural) Hadrian (adoptive) Mother Arria Fadilla Vibia Sabina (adoptive) Denarius, struck 140 AD with portrait of Antoninus Pius (obverse) and his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (reverse). Inscription: ANTIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was one of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty.[2] Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held various offices during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. He married Hadrian's niece Faustina, and Hadrian adopted him as his son and successor shortly before his death. Antoninus acquired the cognomen Pius after his accession to the throne, either because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father,[3] or because he had saved senators sentenced to death by Hadrian in his later years.[4] His reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions during this time, and for his governing without ever leaving Italy. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall. Antoninus was an effective administrator, leaving his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanding free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, encouraging legal conformity, and facilitating the enfranchisement of freed slaves. He died of illness in 161 and was succeeded by his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as co-emperors. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Childhood and family 1.2 Marriage and children 2 Favour with Hadrian 3 Emperor 4 A non-military reign 5 Economy and administration 6 Legal reforms 7 Death 8 Diplomatic mission to China 9 Historiography 9.1 In later scholarship 10 Descendants 11 Nerva–Antonine family tree 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links Early life[edit] Childhood and family[edit] Antoninus was born near Lanuvium (modern-day Lanuvio in Italy) to Titus Aurelius Fulvus, consul in 89, and Arria Fadilla.[2][5] The Aurelii Fulvi were an Aurelian family settled in Nemausus (modern Nîmes).[6] Titus Aurelius Fulvius was the son of a senator of the same name, who, as legate of Legio III Gallica, had supported Vespasian in his bid to the Imperial office and been rewarded with a suffect consulship, plus an ordinary one under Domitian in 85. The Aurelii Fulvii were therefore a relatively new senatorial family from Gallia Narbonensis whose rise to prominence was supported by the Flavians.[7] The link between Antoninus' family and their home province explains the increasing importance of the post of Proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis during the late Second Century.[8] Antoninus’ father had no other children and died shortly after his 89 ordinary consulship. Antoninus was raised by his maternal grandfather Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus,[2] reputed by contemporaries to be a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger.[9] The Arrii Antonini were an older senatorial family from Italy, very influential during Nerva's reign. Arria Fadilla, Antoninus' mother, married afterwards Publius Julius Lupus, suffect consul in 98; from that marriage came two daughters, Arria Lupula and Julia Fadilla.[10] Marriage and children[edit] Some time between 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder.[11] They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage. Faustina was the daughter of consul Marcus Annius Verus (II)[2] and Rupilia Faustina (a half-sister to the Empress Vibia Sabina). Faustina was a beautiful woman, and despite (basically unproven) rumours about her character, it is clear that Antoninus cared for her deeply.[12] Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters.[13] They were: Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.[14][15] Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.[14][16] His name appears on a Greek Imperial coin. Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, consul 145. She appeared to have no children with her husband; and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy.[17] Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125 and 130–175), a future Roman Empress, married her maternal cousin Marcus Aurelius in 146.[6] When Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly distressed.[18] In honour of her memory, he asked the Senate to deify her as a goddess, and authorised the construction of a temple to be built in the Roman Forum in her name, with priestesses serving in her temple.[19] He had various coins with her portrait struck in her honor. These coins were scripted "DIVA FAUSTINA" and were elaborately decorated. He further founded a charity, calling it Puellae Faustinianae or Girls of Faustina, which assisted destitute girls [11] of good family.[20] Finally, Antoninus created a new alimenta (see Grain supply to the city of Rome). The emperor never remarried. Instead, he lived with Galeria Lysistrate,[21] one of Faustina's freed women. Concubinage was a form of female companionship sometimes chosen by powerful men in Ancient Rome, especially widowers like Vespasian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their union could not produce any legitimate offspring who could threaten any heirs, such as those of Antoninus. Also, as one could not have a wife and an official concubine (or two concubines) at the same time, Antoninus avoided being pressed into a marriage with a noblewoman from another family. (Later, Marcus Aurelius would also reject the advances of his former fiancée Ceionia Fabia, Lucius Verus's sister, on the grounds of protecting his children from a stepmother, and took a concubine instead.)[22][23][24] Favour with Hadrian[edit] Antoninus Pius, sculpture of c.250 AD, Albertinum, Dresden Having filled the offices of quaestor and praetor with more than usual success,[25] he obtained the consulship in 120[11] having as his colleague Lucius Catilius Severus.[26] He was next appointed by the Emperor Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia,[27] his district including Etruria, where he had estates.[28] He then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia, probably during 134–135.[27] He acquired much favor with Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February 138,[29] after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius,[30] on the condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Lucius Aelius, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.[11] He also adopted (briefly) the name Imperator Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus, in preparation for his rule.[31]There seems to have been some opposition to Antoninus' appointment on the part of other potential claimants, among them his former consular colleague Lucius Catilius Severus, then Prefect of the city. Nevertheless, Antoninus assumed power without opposition.[32] Emperor[edit] The Roman Empire during the reign of Antoninus Pius. On his accession, Antoninus' name and style became Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pontifex Maximus. One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the Senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused;[33] his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is the most likely reason given for his title of Pius (dutiful in affection; compare pietas).[34] Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death.[6] Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal.[35] Antoninus built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy.[11] Antoninus made few initial changes when he became emperor, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by Hadrian.[33] Epigraphical and prosopographical research has revealed that Antoninus' imperial ruling team centered around a group of closely knit senatorial families, most of them members of the priestly congregation for the cult of Hadrian, the sodales Hadrianales. According to the German historian H.G. Pflaum, prosopographical research of Antoninus' ruling team allows us to grasp the deeply conservative character of the ruling senatorial caste.[36] A non-military reign[edit] The temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum (now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda). The emperor and his Augusta were deified after their death by Marcus Aurelius. There are no records of any military related acts in his time in which he participated. One modern scholar has written "It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion".[37] His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate,[38] notwithstanding the fact that there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time. Such disturbances happened in Mauretania — where a senator was named as governor of Mauretania Tingitana in place of the usual equestrian procurator[39] and cavalry reinforcements from Pannonia were brought in,[40] towns such as Sala and Tipasa being fortified.[41] Similar disturbances took place in Judea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britannia, none of them being considered serious.[38] It was however in Britain that Antoninus decided to follow a new, more aggressive path, with the appointment of a new governor in 139, Quintus Lollius Urbicus,[33] a native of Numidia and previously governor of Germania Inferior[42] as well as a new man.[43] Under instructions from the emperor, Lollius undertook an invasion of southern Scotland, winning some significant victories, and constructing the Antonine Wall[44] from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. The wall, however, was soon gradually decommissioned during the mid-150s and eventually abandoned late during the reign (early 160s), for reasons that are still not quite clear.[45][46] Antonine's Wall is mentioned in just one literary source, Antoninus' biography in the Historia Augusta. Pausanias makes a brief and confused mention of a war in Britain. In one inscription honoring Antoninus, erected by Legio II Augusta, which participated in the building of the Wall, a relief showing four naked prisoners, one of them beheaded, seems to stand for some actual warfare.[47] Statue of Antonius Pius in military garb and muscle cuirass, from the Museo Chiaramonti (Vatican Museums). Although Antonine's Wall was, in principle, much shorter (37 miles in length as opposed to 73) and at first sight more defensible than Hadrian's Wall, the additional area that it enclosed within the Empire was barren, with land use for grazing already in decay.[48] This meant that supply lines to the wall were strained enough such as the costs for maintaining the additional territory outweighed the benefits of doing so.[49] Also, in the absence of urban development and the ensuing Romanization process, the rear of the wall could not be lastingly pacified.[50] It has been therefore speculated that the invasion of Lowland Scotland and the building of the wall had to do mostly with internal politics, that is, offering Antoninus an opportunity to gain some modicum of necessary military prestige at the start of his reign. Actually, the campaign in Britannia was followed by an Imperial salutation — that is, by Antoninus formally taking for the second (and last) time the title of Imperator — in 142.[51] The fact that around the same time coins were struck announcing a victory in Britain points to Antoninus' need to publicize his achievements.[52] The orator Fronto was later to say that, although Antoninus bestowed the direction of the British campaign to others, he should be regarded as the helmsman who directed the voyage, whose glory, therefore, belonged to him.[53] That this quest for some military achievement responded to an actual need is proved by the fact that, although generally peaceful, Antoninus' reign was not free from attempts at usurpation: Historia Augusta mentions two, made by the senators Cornelius Priscianus ("for disturbing the peace of Spain";[54] Priscianus had also been Lollius Urbicus' successor as governor of Britain) and Atilius Rufius Titianus (possibly a troublemaker already exiled under Hadrian.[55]) Both attempts are confirmed by the Fasti Ostienses as well as by the erasing of Priscianus' name from an inscription.[56] In both cases, Antoninus was not in formal charge of the ensuing repression: Priscianus committed suicide and Titianus was found guilty by the Senate, with Antoninus abstaining from sequestering their families' properties.[57] A coin of Antoninus Pius showing a subdued Parthia (PAR-TH-IA on the reverse) handing the crown to him, an empty claim that Parthia was still subject to Rome after the events surrounding Parthamaspates.[58] There were also some troubles in Dacia Inferior which required the granting of additional powers to the procurator governor and the dispatch of additional soldiers to the province.[45] On the Northern Black Sea coast, the Greek city of Olbia was held against the Scythians.[59] Also during his reign the governor of Upper Germany, probably Caius Popillius Carus Pedo, built new fortifications in the Agri Decumates, advancing the Limes Germanicus fifteen miles forward in his province and neighboring Raetia.[60] In the East, Roman suzerainty over Armenia was retained by the choice in AD 140 of Arsacid scion Sohaemus as client king.[61] Nevertheless, Antoninus was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during his reign,[62] but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations.[63] Antoninus was the last Roman Emperor recognised by the Indian Kingdoms, especially the Kushan Empire.[64] Raoul McLaughlin quotes Aurelius Victor as saying "The Indians, the Bactrians and the Hyrcanians all sent ambassadors to Antoninus. They had all heard about the spirit of justice held by this great emperor, justice that was heightened by his handsome and grave countenance, and his slim and vigorous figure." Due to the outbreak of the Antonine epidemic and wars against northern Germanic tribes, the reign of Marcus Aurelius was forced to alter the focus of foreign policies, and matters relating to the Far East were increasingly abandoned in favour of those directly concerning the Empire's survival.[64] Economy and administration[edit] An aureus of Antoninus Pius, 145 AD. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / TRibunicia POTestas COnSul IIII Antoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and as a builder. In spite of an extensive building directive — the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as bridges and roads — the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around 2.7 billion sesterces. Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time, but this treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the Antonine plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory.[65] The Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected Rhodes and the Province of Asia. He offered hefty financial grants for rebuilding and recovery of various Greek cities after two serious earthquakes: the first, circa 140, which affected mostly Rhodes and other islands; the second, in 152, which hit Cyzicus (where the huge and newly built Temple to Hadrian was destroyed[66]), Ephesus, and Smyrna. Antoninus' financial help earned him praise by Greek writers such as Aelius Aristides and Pausanias.[67] These cities received from Antoninus the usual honorific accolades, such as when he commanded that all governors of Asia should enter the province, when taking office, by way of Ephesus.[68] Ephesus was specially favoured by Antoninus, who confirmed and upheld its distinction of having two temples for the imperial cult (neocorate), therefore having first place in the list of imperial honor titles, surpassing both Smyrna and Pergamon.[69] In his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, especially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes — a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8).[70] Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens.[71] Antoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and of formal celebrations — both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare.[72] Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia.[73] In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Legal reforms[edit] Copy inscribed in marble of a letter from Antoninus Pius to the Ephesians, from the Bouleuterion at Ephesus, 140–144 AD, explaining how the emperor resolved a dispute between the Roman cities of Ephesus and Smyrna. British Museum, London. Antoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the res publica, no matter how extended and ill-defined his competencies were. He is credited with the splitting of the imperial treasury, the Fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts. Firstly, the fiscus itself — or patrimonium, meaning the properties of the "Crown", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office,[74] regardless of their previous membership in the imperial family.[75] Secondly, the res privata, the "private" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the Emperor and his family,[76] something like a Privy Purse. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina — who complained about his stinginess — that "we have gained an empire [and] lost even what we had before" possibly relates to Antoninus' actual concerns at the creation of the res privata.[77] While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune greatly by mean of various legacies, the consequence — we are told — of his caring scrupulously for his relatives.[78] Also, Antoninus left behind him a reputation for stinginess and was probably determined not to leave his personal property to be "swallowed up by the demands of the imperial throne".[79] The res privata lands could be sold and/or given away, while the patrimonium properties were regarded as public.[80] It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function — and most properties attached to it — was a public one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people.[81] That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history — that the personal power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder — proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions.[82] Of the public transactions of this period there is only the scantiest of information, but, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after the reign.[9] However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision and practice of the law throughout the empire.[83] One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning repression of banditry by local police officers ("irenarchs", Greek for "peace keepers") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor.[84] Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law; rather he was driven by concerns over humanity and equality, and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion.[83] In this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers: Lucius Fulvius Aburnius Valens, an author of legal treatises;[85] Lucius Ulpius Marcellus, a prolific writer; and three others.[83] Of these three, the most prominent was Lucius Volusius Maecianus, a former military officer turned by Antoninus into a civil procurator, and who, in view of his subsequent career (discovered on the basis of epigraphical and prosopographical research), was the Emperor's most important legal adviser.[86] Maecianus would eventually be chosen to occupy various prefectures (see below) as well as to conduct the legal studies of Marcus Aurelius. He was also the author of a large work on Fidei commissa (Testamentary Trusts). As a hallmark of the increased connection between jurists and the imperial government,[87] Antoninus' reign also saw the appearance of the Institutes of Gaius, an elementary legal manual for beginners (see Gaius (jurist)).[83] Antoninus passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves.[88] Mostly, he favoured the principle of favor libertatis, giving the putative freedman the benefit of the doubt when the claim to freedom was not clearcut.[89] Also, he punished the killing of a slave by his/her master without previous trial[90] and determined that slaves could be forcibly sold to another master by a proconsul in cases of consistent mistreatment.[91] Antoninus upheld the enforcement of contracts for selling of female slaves forbidding their further employment in prostitution.[92] In criminal law, Antoninus introduced the important principle that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial[88] — as in the case of the irenarchs (see above). It was to Antonius that the Christian apologist Justin Martyr addressed his defense of the Christian faith, reminding him of his father's (Emperor Hadrian's) rule that accusations against Christians required proof.[93] He also asserted the principle that the trial was to be held, and the punishment inflicted, in the place where the crime had been committed. He mitigated the use of torture in examining slaves by certain limitations. Thus he prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years, though this rule had exceptions.[88] However, it must be stressed that Antoninus extended, by means of a rescript, the use of torture as a means of obtaining evidence to pecuniary cases, when it had been applied up until then only in criminal cases.[94] Also, already at the time torture of free men of low status (humiliores) had become legal, as proved by the fact that Antoninus exempted town councillors expressly from it, and also free men of high rank (honestiores) in general.[95] One highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the nine-hundredth anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by the hosting of magnificent games in Rome.[96] It lasted a number of days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotami. While this increased Antoninus's popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5% — the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams.[45][97] Scholars name Antoninus Pius as the leading candidate for an individual identified as a friend of Rabbi Judah the Prince. According to the Talmud (Avodah Zarah 10a–b), Rabbi Judah was very wealthy and greatly revered in Rome. He had a close friendship with "Antoninus", possibly Antoninus Pius,[98] who would consult Rabbi Judah on various worldly and spiritual matters. Death[edit] Ruins of the triumphal arch of Antoninus Pius outside the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Eleusis, Greece, imitating Hadrian's Arch in Athens In 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar, i.e., heir apparent.[99] As Antoninus aged, Marcus took on more administrative duties. Marcus's administrative duties increased again after the death — in 156 or 157 — of one of Antoninus' most trusted advisers, Marcus Gavius Maximus. For twenty years, Gavius Maximus had been praetorian prefect, an office that was as much secretarial as military.[100] Gavius Maximus had been awarded with the consular insignia and the honors due a senator.[101] He had a reputation as a most strict disciplinarian (vir severissimus, according to Historia Augusta) and some fellow equestrian procurators held lasting grudges against him. A procurator named Gaius Censorius Niger died while Gavius Maximus was alive. In his will, Censorius Niger vilified Maximus, creating serious embarrassment for one of the heirs, the orator Fronto.[102] Gavius Maximus' death initiated a change in the ruling team. It has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Lucius Volusius Maecianus who assumed the role of grey eminence. Maecianus was briefly Praefect of Egypt, and subsequently Praefectus annonae in Rome. If it was Maecianus who rose to prominence, he may have risen precisely in order to prepare the incoming — and unprecedented — joint succession.[103] In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out.[104] The bust of Antoninus Pius at the Museo del Prado, Madrid Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,[105] about twelve miles (19 km) from Rome.[106] He ate Alpine Gruyere cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,[107] he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered: when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password, he responded, "aequanimitas" (equanimity).[108] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.[109] His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months).[110] His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great. Antoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate".[111] If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus' body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval (justitium), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification.[112] In contrast to their behavior during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now Divus Antoninus. A column was dedicated to Antoninus on the Campus Martius,[11] and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus.[108] It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.[113] Diplomatic mission to China[edit] See also: Sino-Roman relations Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166 AD by the Hou Hanshu.[114] The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China from "Andun" (Chinese: 安敦 āndūn; for Anton-inus), "king of Daqin" (Rome).[115] As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the envoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission, given that both Emperors were named "Antoninus".[116][117][118] The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier province of Jiaozhi at Rinan or Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in Southern Asia.[114][119] The text specifically states that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.[114][120] Furthermore, a piece of Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC.[121] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi.[122][123] This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e., Malay Peninsula).[122][123] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran.[124] Historiography[edit] Arch of Antoninus Pius in Sbeïtla, Tunisia. Statue of Antoninus Pius, Palazzo Altemps, Rome The only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the Augustan History, an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound — for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain.[125] Antoninus is unique among Roman emperors in that he has no other biographies. In later scholarship[edit] Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon[126] or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.[9] A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname κυμινοπριστης "cummin-splitter"). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavorable interpretation, he turned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities for demonstrating his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood.[9] Some historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury, however estimable the man, Antoninus was hardly a great statesman. The rest which the Empire enjoyed under his auspices had been rendered possible through Hadrian's activity, and was not due to his own exertions; on the other hand, he carried the policy of peace at any price too far, and so entailed calamities on the state after his death. He not only had no originality or power of initiative, but he had not even the insight or boldness to work further on the new lines marked out by Hadrian.[127] German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his Römische Geschichte [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities", given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' death. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears that, on his death bed, he was preparing a large-scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidence is not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances of his time, although conditions for long-lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius' eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antoninus appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) Emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius' good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses.[128] Krzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability are exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus' love for peace and his efforts "rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces", he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulianowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means.[129] Descendants[edit] Although only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to four generations of prominent Romans, including the Emperor Commodus. Hans-Georg Pflaum has identified five direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina who were consuls in the first half of the third century.[130] Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135), who married Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, suffect consul in 145;[131] no children known for certain. Faustina the Younger (16 February between 125 and 130–175), had several children; those who had children were:[132] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (7 March 150–182?), whose children included: Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (151–?), whose children included: Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus Empress Annia Faustina, Elagabalus' third wife Fadilla (159–after 211) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–213) Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ a b Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 492–493. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b c d Bowman, p. 150 ^ Birley, p. 54; Dio, 70:1:2 ^ Birley, p. 55, citing the Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian 24.4 ^ Harvey, Paul B. (2006). Religion in republican Italy. Cambridge University Press. p. 134. ^ a b c Bury, p. 523 ^ Whitfield, Hugo Thomas Dupuis (2012). The rise of Nemausus from Augustus to Antoninus Pius: a prosopographical study of Nemausian senators and equestrians (PDF) (MA). Ontario: Queen's University. pp. 49–57. Retrieved 24 January 2016. ^ Gayraud, Michel (1970). "Le proconsulat de Narbonnaise sous le Haut-Empire". Revue des Études Anciennes. 72 (3–4): 344–363. doi:10.3406/rea.1970.3874. Retrieved 24 January 2016. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911. ^ Birley, p. 242; Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 1:6 ^ a b c d e f Weigel, Antoninus Pius ^ Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. p. 240. ISBN 9781579583163. ^ Birley, p. 34; Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 1:7 ^ a b Magie, David, Historia Augusta (1921), Life of Antoninus Pius, Note 6 ^ CIL VI, 00988 ^ CIL VI, 00989 ^ Magie, David, Historia Augusta (1921), Life of Antoninus Pius, Note 7 ^ Bury, p. 528 ^ Birley, p. 77; Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 6:7 ^ Daucé, Fernand (1968). "Découverte à Rennes d'une pièce de Faustine jeune". Annales de Bretagne. 75 (1): 270–276. doi:10.3406/abpo.1968.2460. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2015. ^ Anise K. Strong: Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World ^ Strong, Anise K. (2016). Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781107148758. ^ Lind, Goran (2008). Common Law Marriage: A Legal Institution for Cohabitation. Oxford University Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780199710539. ^ Birley, Anthony R (2012). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN 9781134695690. ^ Traver, Andrew G., From polis to empire, the ancient world, c. 800 B.C. – A.D. 500, (2002) p. 33; Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 2:9 ^ E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius.Cambridge University Press, 1895, pg.12 ^ a b Bowman, p. 149 ^ Bryant, p. 15 ^ Bowman, p. 148 ^ Bury, p. 517 ^ Cooley, p. 492. ^ Grant, Michael, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, (1996), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-13814-0, ps. 10/11 ^ a b c Bowman, p. 151 ^ Birley, p. 55 ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53–54. ^ H.G. Pflaum, "Les prêtres du culte impérial sous le règne d'Antonin le Pieux". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 111ᵉ année, N. 2, 1967. pp. 194–209. Available at [1] Archived 2 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 27 January 2016 ^ J. J. Wilkes, The Journal of Roman Studies, Volume LXXV 1985, ISSN 0075-4358, p. 242. ^ a b Bury, p. 525 ^ René Rebuffat, '"Enceintes urbaines et insécurité en Maurétanie Tingitane" In: Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité, tome 86, n°1. 1974. pp. 501–522. Available at [2] Archived 4 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 26 December 2015 ^ Michel Christol, "L'armée des provinces pannoniennes et la pacification des révoltes maures sous Antonin le Pieux". In: Antiquités africaines, 17, 1981. pp. 133–141. ^ Michael Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. Abingdon: Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-13814-0, page 17; Rebuffat "Enceintes urbaines" ^ Salway, A History of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press: 2001, ISBN 0-19-280138-4, page 149 ^ Birley, Anthony (2005), The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford U.P., ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4, pg. 137 ^ Bowman, p. 152 ^ a b c Bowman, p. 155 ^ David Colin Arthur Shotter, Roman Britain, Abingdon: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-31943-9, page 49 ^ Jean-Louis Voisin, "Les Romains, chasseurs de têtes". In: Du châtiment dans la cité. Supplices corporels et peine de mort dans le monde antique. Table ronde de Rome (9-11 novembre 1982) Rome : École Française de Rome, 1984. pp. 241–293. Available at [3] Archived 2 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 14 January 2016 ^ W E Boyd (1984),"Environmental change and Iron Age land management in the area of the Antonine Wall, central Scotland: a summary".Glasgow Archaeological Journal, Volume 11 Issue 1, Page 75-81 ^ Peter Spring, Great Walls and Linear Barriers. Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015, ISBN 978-1-84884-377-6, page 75 ^ Edward Luttwak, The grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4, page 88 ^ David J. Breeze, Roman Frontiers in Britain. London: Bloomsbury, 2013, ISBN 978-1-8539-9698-6, page 53 ^ Salway, 149 ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, London: Routledge, 2012, ISBN 0-415-17125-3, page 61 ^ Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth, Esther Eidinow (2014): The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. ISBN 978-0-1910-1676-9, entry "Antoninus Pius" ^ Herbert W. Benario (1980), A Commentary on the Vita Hadriani in the Historia Augusta. Scholars Press, ISBN 978-0-891-30391-6, page 103 ^ Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192. London: Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-1-138-01920-1, page 447; Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, Paris: Seuil, 2005, ISBN 2-02-057798-4, page 28, footnote 61; Salway, 149 ^ Marta García Morcillo, Las ventas por subasta en el mundo romano: la esfera privada. Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2005, ISBN 84-475-3017-5, page 301 ^ Schlude, Jason M. Rome, Parthia, and the Politics of Peace: The Origins of War in the Ancient Middle East. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-351-13570-2. ^ Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, ed., North Pontic Archaeology: Recent Discoveries and Studies. Leiden: Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-12041-6, page 425 ^ Birley, p. 113 ^ Rouben Paul Adalian, Historical Dictionary of Armenia, Lanham: Scarecrow, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8108-6096-4, entry "Arshakuni/Arsacid", page 174 ^ Speidel, Michael P., Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors' Horse Guards, Harvard University Press, 1997, p. 50 ^ See Victor, 15:3 ^ a b McLaughlin, Raoul (2010). Books on Google Play. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. A&C Black. p. 131. ISBN 9781847252357. ^ Allen, Timothy F. H.; Hoekstra, Thomas W.; Tainter, Joseph A. (2012). Supply-Side Sustainability. Columbia University Press. pp. 105–106. ISBN 9780231504072. ^ Barbara Burrell. Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. Leiden: Brill, 2004, ISBN 90-04-12578-7, page 87 ^ E.E. Bryant, The Reign of Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press: 1895, pages 45/46 and 68. ^ Conrad Gempf, ed., The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994, ISBN 0-85364-564-7, page 305 ^ Emmanuelle Collas-Heddeland, "Le culte impérial dans la compétition des titres sous le Haut-Empire. Une lettre d'Antonin aux Éphésiens". In: Revue des Études Grecques, tome 108, Juillet-décembre 1995. pp. 410–429. Available at [4] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 January 2016; Edmund Thomas,(2007): Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Age. Oxford U. Press, ISBN 978-0-19-928863-2, page 133 ^ Philip A. Harland, ed., Greco-Roman Associations: Texts, translations and commentaries. II: North Coast of the Black Sea, Asia Minor . Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2014, ISBN 978-3-11-034014-3, page 381 ^ Paul Graindor, "Antonin le Pieux et Athènes". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, tome 6, fasc. 3–4, 1927. pp. 753–756. Available at [5] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 January 2016 ^ Gary Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History. London: Routledge, 2012, ISBN 978-0-415-52217-5, page 92 ^ Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Library of Alexandria, s.d.g. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, London: 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, entry "Patrimonium". ^ After the death of Nero, the personal properties of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had been appropriated by the Flavians, and therefore turned into public properties: Carrié & Roussele, 586 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, 586 ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11: The High Empire, AD 70–192. Cambridge U.P., 2009, ISBN 9780521263351, page 150 ^ Edward Champlin, Final Judgments: Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200 B.C. – A.D. 250. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, ISBN 0-520-07103-4, page 98 ^ Birley, p.71 ^ David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay. London: Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-84054-5, page 49 ^ Heinz Bellen, "Die 'Verstaatlichung' des Privatvermögens der römische Kaiser". Hildegard Temporini, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974, ISBN 3-11-004571-0, page 112 ^ Aloys Winterling, Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. Malden, MA: John Wiley & sons, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4051-7969-0, pages 73/75 ^ a b c d Bury, p. 526 ^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-7486-2050-0, page 91 ^ John Anthony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge U.P.: 1955, page 67 ^ A. Arthur Schiller, Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development. The Hague: Mouton, 1978, ISBN 90-279-7744-5, page 477 ^ George Mousourakis, Roman Law and the Origins of the Civil Law Tradition, Heidelberg: Springer, ISBN 978-3-319-12267-0, page 79 ^ a b c Bury, p. 527 ^ Keith Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge University Press: 1994, ISBN 9780521263351, page 162 ^ Aubert, Jean-Jacques. "L'esclave en droit romain ou l'impossible réification de l’homme". Esclavage et travail forcé, Cahiers de la Recherche sur les droits fondamentaux (CRDF). Vol. 10. 2012. ^ Anastasia Serghidou, ed. Fear of slaves, fear of enslavement in the ancient Mediterranean. Presses Univ. Franche-Comté, 2007 ISBN 978-2-84867-169-7, page 159 ^ Jean-Michel Carrié & Aline Rousselle, L'Empire Romain en Mutation, des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337. Paris: Seuil 1999, ISBN 2-02-025819-6, page 290 ^ First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ Digest, 48.18.9, as quoted by Edward Peters, Torture, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8122-1599-0, page 29 ^ Grant, 154/155. ^ Bowman, p. 154 ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" ^ A. Mischcon, Abodah Zara, p.10a Soncino, 1988. Mischcon cites various sources, "SJ Rappaport... is of opinion that our Antoninus is Antoninus Pius." Other opinions cited suggest "Antoninus" was Caracalla, Lucius Verus or Alexander Severus. ^ Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013, ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2, pages 74/75. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 112; Grant, The Antonines, 14 ^ Michael Petrus Josephus Van Den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. Leiden: Brill, 199, ISBN 9004109579, page 389 ^ Champlin, Final Judgments, 16 ^ Michel Christol, "Préfecture du prétoire et haute administration équestre à la fin du règne d’Antonin le Pieux et au début du règne de Marc Aurèle". In: Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz, 18, 2007. pp. 115–140. Available at [6] Archived 2 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 27 January 2016 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114 ^ Bowman, p. 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ a b Bury, p. 532 ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ Bowman, p. 156 ^ HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118, 278 n.6. ^ Robert Turcan, "Origines et sens de l'inhumation à l'époque impériale". In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 60, 1958, n°3–4. pp. 323–347. Available at [7] Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 14 January 2016 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ a b c For a full translation of that passage, see: Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 17 September 2016. ^ "... 其王常欲通使于汉，而安息欲以汉缯彩与之交市，故遮阂不得自达。至桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外献象牙、犀角、瑇瑁，始乃一通焉。其所表贡，并无珍异，疑传者过焉。" 《后汉书·西域传》 Translation: "... The king of this state always wanted to enter into diplomatic relations with the Han. But Anxi wanted to trade with them in Han silk and so put obstacles in their way, so that they could never have direct relations [with Han]. This continued until the ninth year of the Yanxi (延熹) reign period of Emperor Huan (桓) (A.D. 166), when Andun 安敦, king of Da Qin, sent an envoy from beyond the frontier of Rinan (日南) who offered elephant tusk, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell. It was only then that for the first time communication was established [between the two states]." “Xiyu Zhuan” of the Hou Hanshu (ch. 88) in YU, Taishan (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) (2013). "China and the Ancient Mediterranean World: A Survey of Ancient Chinese Sources". Sino-Platonic Papers. 242: 25–26.. Chinese original: "Chinese Text Project Dictionary". ctext.org. ^ Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". In Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. p. 600. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. (1999). "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (1): 71–79. doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27. ^ An, Jiayao (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China". In Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.). Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road. Turnhout: Brepols. p. 83. ISBN 2503521789. ^ a b Young, Gary K. (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-415-24219-3. ^ a b For further information on Oc Eo, see Osborne, Milton (2006) [first published 2000]. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future (revised ed.). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. pp. 24–25. ISBN 1-74114-893-6. ^ Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Pius 5:4 ^ Gibbon, Edward (2015). Delphi Complete Works of Edward Gibbon (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. p. 125. ISBN 9781910630761. ^ Bury, p. 524 ^ Grant, Michael (2016). The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. Routledge. pp. 14–23. ISBN 9781317972112. ^ Ulanowski, Krzysztof (2016). The Religious Aspects of War in the Ancient Near East, Greece, and Rome: Ancient Warfare Series, Volume 1. BRILL. pp. 360–361. ISBN 9789004324763. ^ Pflaum, "Les gendres de Marc-Aurèle" Archived 5 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Journal des savants (1961), pp. 28–41 ^ Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettuleni", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), p. 309 ^ Based on Table F, "The Children of Faustina II" in Birley, Marcus Aurelius (2000) References[edit] Primary sources Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 70, [8] Aurelius Victor, "Epitome de Caesaribus", English version of Epitome de Caesaribus Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius, English version of Historia Augusta Note that the Historia Augusta includes pseudohistorical elements. Secondary sources Weigel, Richard D. "Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161) De Imperatoribus Romanis". Bowman, Alan K. (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge University Press. Birley, Anthony (2000). Marcus Aurelius. Routledge. Bury, J. B. (1893). A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius. Harper. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Hüttl, W. (1936) [1933]. Antoninus Pius. I & II, Prag.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antoninus Pius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 148–149. This source lists: Bossart-Mueller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868) Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895) Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888) Watson, P. B. (1884). "ii". Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. London. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antoninus Pius. Antoninus Pius Nerva–Antonine dynasty Born: 19 September 86 Died: 7 March 161 Regnal titles Preceded by Hadrian Roman emperor 138–161 Succeeded by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Political offices Preceded by G. Herennius Capella L. Coelius Rufus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 120 with L. Catilius Severus Iulianus Claudius Reginus Succeeded by G. Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus T. Rutilius Propinquus as suffect consuls Preceded by P. Cassius Secundus M. Nonius Mucianus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire January–April 139 with G. Bruttius Praesens L. Fulvius Rusticus II Succeeded by L. Minicius Natalis Quadronius Verus L. Claudius Proculus as suffect consuls Preceded by M. Ceccius Justinus G. Julius Bassus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire January 140 with Marcus Aurelius Succeeded by Q. Antonius Isauricus L. Aurelius Flaccus as suffect consuls Preceded by L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus Decimus Velius Fidus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire January–February 145 with Marcus Aurelius II Succeeded by L. Plautius Lamia Silvanus L. 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en-wikipedia-org-7343	----	Barthold Georg Niebuhr - Wikipedia Barthold Georg Niebuhr From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Barthold Georg Niebuhr Barthold Georg Niebuhr (27 August 1776 – 2 January 1831) was a Danish–German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germany's leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography. By 1810 Niebuhr was inspiring German patriotism in students at the University of Berlin by his analysis of Roman economy and government. Niebuhr was a leader of the Romantic era and symbol of German national spirit that emerged after the defeat at Jena. But he was also deeply rooted in the classical spirit of the Age of Enlightenment in his intellectual presuppositions, his use of philologic analysis, and his emphasis on both general and particular phenomena in history.[1] Contents 1 Education 2 To Prussia 3 Academic and diplomatic career 4 Evaluation and opinion 5 Works 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Primary sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Education[edit] Niebuhr was born in Copenhagen, the son of Carsten Niebuhr, a prominent German geographer resident in that city. His father provided his early education.[2] By 1794 the precocious young Niebuhr had already become an accomplished classical scholar who read several languages. That year he entered the University of Kiel, where he studied law and philosophy.[3] There he formed an important friendship with Madame Hensler, the widowed daughter-in-law of one of the professors, six years older than himself. He also made the acquaintance of her sister, Amelie Behrens, whom he subsequently married.[4] In 1796 he left Kiel to become private secretary to the Danish finance minister, Count Schimmelmann, but in 1798 he gave up this appointment and travelled in Great Britain, spending a year at Edinburgh studying agriculture and physics.[5] Of his stay in Great Britain, he said "my early residence in England gave me one important key to Roman history. It is necessary to know civil life by personal observation in order to understand such states as those of antiquity. I never could have understood a number of things in the history of Rome without having observed England."[4] In 1799 he returned to Denmark, where he entered the state service; in 1800 he married Amalie Behrens (1773–1815) and settled at Copenhagen. In 1804 he became chief director of the national bank.[5] After the death of his first wife, Niebuhr married (1816) Margarete Henslen (1787–1831), with whom he had one son, Marcus, and three daughters, Amalie, Lucia and Cornelia.[citation needed] To Prussia[edit] In September 1806, he quit the Denmark post for a similar appointment in Prussia. He showed much business ability in his banking work, which he attributed to his life in England and Scotland.[2] He arrived in Prussia on the eve of the catastrophe of Jena. He accompanied the fugitive government to Königsberg, where he rendered considerable service in the commissariat, and was afterwards still more useful as commissioner of the national debt and by his opposition to ill-considered schemes of taxation. He was also for a short time Prussian minister in the Netherlands, where he endeavoured without success to fund a loan. The extreme sensitiveness of his temperament, however, disqualified him for politics; he proved impracticable in his relations with Hardenberg and other ministers, and in 1810 retired for a time from public life, accepting the more congenial appointment of royal historiographer and professor at the university of Berlin.[5] In 1809 he became a third class corresponding member, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.[6] Academic and diplomatic career[edit] He commenced his lectures with a course on the history of Rome, which formed the basis of his great work Römische Geschichte. The first edition in two volumes, based upon his lectures, was published in 1811–1812, but attracted little attention at the time owing to the absorbing interest of political events. In 1813 Niebuhr's own attention was diverted from history by the uprising of the German people against Napoleon; he entered the Landwehr and ineffectually sought admission into the regular army. He edited for a short time a patriotic journal, the Prussian Correspondent, joined the headquarters of the allied sovereigns, and witnessed the battle of Bautzen, and was subsequently employed in some minor negotiations. In 1815 he lost both his father and his wife.[5] He next accepted (1816) the post of ambassador at Rome. Before his departure for Rome, he married his wife's niece.[4] On his way to Rome, he discovered in the cathedral library of Verona the long-lost Institutes of Gaius, afterwards edited by Savigny, to whom he communicated the discovery under the impression that he had found a portion of Ulpian. During his residence in Rome Niebuhr discovered and published fragments of Cicero and Livy, aided Cardinal Mai in his edition of Cicero's De re publica, and shared in framing the plan of the great work Beschreibung Roms (“The Description of the City of Rome”) on the topography of ancient Rome by Christian Charles Josias Bunsen and Ernst Zacharias Platner (1773–1855), to which he contributed several chapters. He also, on a journey home from Italy, deciphered in a palimpsest at the Abbey of St. Gall the fragments of Flavius Merobaudes, a Roman poet of the 5th century.[5] As minister, he brought about the understanding between Prussia and the Pope signalized by the bull De salute animarum in 1821.[2] Niebuhr was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.[7] In 1823 he resigned the position in Rome and established himself at Bonn, where the remainder of his life was spent, with the exception of some visits to Berlin as councillor of state. He here rewrote and republished (1827–1828) the first two volumes of his Roman History, and composed a third volume, bringing the narrative down to the end of the First Punic War, which, with the help of a fragment written in 1831, was edited after his death (1832) by Johannes Classen. He also assisted in August Bekker's edition of the Byzantine historians (the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae), and delivered courses of lectures on ancient history, ethnography, geography, and on the French Revolution.[5] Medaille Barthold Georg Niebuhr 1842 In February 1830, his house was burned down, but the greater part of his books and manuscripts were saved. France's revolution of July in the same year was a terrible blow to him, and filled him with the most dismal anticipations of the future of Europe.[5] Niebuhr died, aged 54, in Bonn.[8] After his death, in 1842, a medal was commissioned to honour his work.[9] Evaluation and opinion[edit] Niebuhr's Roman History counts among epoch-making histories both as marking an era in the study of its special subject and for its momentous influence on the general conception of history. Leonhard Schmitz said: The main results arrived at by the inquiries of Niebuhr, such as his views of the ancient population of Rome, the origin of the plebs, the relation between the patricians and plebeians, the real nature of the ager publicus, and many other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all his successors.[citation needed] Other alleged discoveries, such as the construction of early Roman history out of still earlier ballads, have not been equally fortunate; but if every positive conclusion of Niebuhr's had been refuted, his claim to be considered the first who dealt with the ancient history of Rome in a scientific spirit would remain unimpaired, and the new principles introduced by him into historical research would lose nothing of their importance. He suggested, though he did not elaborate, the theory of the myth, so potent an instrument for good and ill in modern historical criticism. He brought in inference to supply the place of discredited tradition, and showed the possibility of writing history in the absence of original records. By his theory of the disputes between the patricians and plebeians arising from original differences of race he drew attention to the immense importance of ethnological distinctions, and contributed to the revival of these divergences as factors in modern history. More than all, perhaps, since his conception of ancient Roman story made laws and manners of more account than shadowy lawgivers, he undesignedly influenced history by popularizing that conception of it which lays stress on institutions, tendencies and social traits to the neglect of individuals.[5] According to Richard Garnett in the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: Niebuhr's personal character was in most respects exceedingly attractive. His heart was kind and his affections were strong; he was magnanimous and disinterested, simple and honest. He had a kindling sympathy with everything lofty and generous, and framed his own conduct upon the highest principles. His chief defect was an over-sensitiveness, leading to peevish and unreasonable behaviour in his private and official relations, to hasty and unbalanced judgments of persons and things that had given him annoyance, and to a despondency and discouragement which frustrated the great good he might have effected as a critic of public affairs from the point of view of a lofty morality. His imagination sometimes usurps the functions of his judgment, and his sagacity is traversed by a vein of paradox. In this, as in many other features of his intellectual character, he strikingly resembles Bentley, but his moral constitution is totally dissimilar.[4] Works[edit] The first edition of Niebuhr's Roman History was translated into English by F. A. Walter (1827), but was immediately superseded by the translation of the second edition by Julius Hare and Connop Thirlwall, completed by William Smith and Leonhard Schmitz (last edition, 1847–1851).[10] He wrote Griechische Heroengeschichte (“History of Greek Heroes,” 1842; 11th ed. 1896), for his son Marcus; Geschichte des Zeitalters der Revolution (“History of the Age of Revolutions”, 1845); Kleine historische und philologische Schriften (Minor Historical and Philological Writings, 1828–43). His Lectures on Ancient History is familiar in English translation.[3] Notes[edit] ^ Peter Hanns Reill, "Barthold Georg Niebuhr and the Enlightenment Tradition". German Studies Review (1980): 9–26. in JSTOR ^ a b c Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Niebuhr, Barthold Georg" . Encyclopedia Americana. ^ a b Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Niebuhr, Barthold Georg" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. ^ a b c d Garnett, Richard (1884). "Niebuhr, Barthold Georg" . In Baynes, T. S.; Smith, W.R. (eds.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ^ a b c d e f g h Chisholm 1911, p. 668. ^ "Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter N" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 8 September 2016. ^ Walther, Gerrit, "Niebuhr, Barthold Georg" in: Neue Deutsche Biographie 19 (1999), pp. 219–221 ^ http://hdl.handle.net/10900/100742 S. Krmnicek und M. Gaidys, Gelehrtenbilder. Altertumswissenschaftler auf Medaillen des 19. Jahrhunderts. Begleitband zur online-Ausstellung im Digitalen Münzkabinett des Instituts für Klassische Archäologie der Universität Tübingen, in: S. Krmnicek (Hrsg.), Von Krösus bis zu König Wilhelm. Neue Serie Bd. 3 (Tübingen 2020), 47–49. ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 669. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Niebuhr, Barthold Georg". Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 668–669. Bowersock, Glen W. "The vanishing paradigm of the fall of Rome." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49.8 (1996): 29–43. online Bridenthal, Renate. "Was There a Roman Homer? Niebuhr's Thesis and Its Critics." History and Theory 11.2 (1972): 193–213. online Bunsen, Christian Charles Josias. The life and letters of Barthold George Niebuhr (1852) online edition Gooch, G. P. History and historians in the nineteenth century (1913) pp 14–23 online Iggers, Georg G. "The Intellectual Foundations of Nineteenth-Century 'Scientific' History: The German Model." in The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945 (2011) 4:41+. Reill, Peter Hanns. "Barthold Georg Niebuhr and the Enlightenment Tradition," German Studies Review, (1980) 3#1, pp 9–26 in JSTOR Primary sources[edit] Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, et al. The Life and Letters of Barthold George Niebuhr. Harper & brothers, 1854. online Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, and Meyer Isler. Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History. Vol. 3. Chatto and Windus, 1875. Twiss, Travers, and Barthold Georg Niebuhr. An epitome of Niebuhr's History of Rome. vol 3 1837. online Further reading[edit] Renate Bridenthal, "Was There a Roman Homer? Niebuhr's Thesis and Its Critics", History and Theory, 11 (1972), pp. 193–213 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barthold Georg Niebuhr. Barthold Georg Niebuhr's Works Hathi Trust Works of Barthold Georg Niebuhr Internet Archive Edgar Allan Poe, Review of Lieber's Reminiscences of Niebuhr, from Southern Literary Messenger, January 1836. Lectures on the History of Rome from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire (2nd English edition, 1848) Volume One Volume Two Volume Three Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 Korea Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr&oldid=1026962891" Categories: 1776 births 1831 deaths People from Copenhagen German diplomats German historians German classical scholars Ambassadors of Prussia Prussian politicians University of Bonn faculty Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 19th-century diplomats German male non-fiction writers Historians of ancient Rome University of Kiel alumni Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 07:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7349	----	Toga - Wikipedia Toga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Toga virilis) Jump to navigation Jump to search Draped mantle of Roman citizens For other uses, see Toga (disambiguation). Statue of the Emperor Tiberius showing the draped toga of the 1st century AD. The toga (/ˈtoʊɡə/, Classical Latin: [ˈt̪ɔ.ɡa]), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet (3.7 and 6.1 m) in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favored dress of Romulus, Rome's founder; it was also thought to have originally been worn by both sexes, and by the citizen-military. As Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognized as formal wear for male Roman citizens.[1] Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule.[2] The type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties. From its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex, and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. It was and is considered ancient Rome's "national costume"; as such, it had great symbolic value; however even among Romans, it was hard to put on, uncomfortable and challenging to wear correctly, and never truly popular. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable, casual garments. It gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was worn only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. Contents 1 Varieties 2 As "national dress" 2.1 In civil life 2.2 Work and leisure 3 Patronage and salutationes 4 Oratory 5 In public morals 5.1 Women 6 Roman military 7 In religion 8 Materials 8.1 Features and styles 9 Decline 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 External links Varieties[edit] A toga praetexta Book illustration of an Etruscan wall painting from the François Tomb at Vulci. Some scholars believe this shows a toga picta, largely based on its colour and decorative detail; others suggest that the straight edges make it a Greek-style cloak, and not a toga.[3] The toga was an approximately semi-circular woollen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the left shoulder and around the body: the word "toga" probably derives from tegere, to cover. It was considered formal wear and was generally reserved for citizens. The Romans considered it unique to themselves, thus their poetic description by Virgil and Martial as the gens togata ('toga-wearing race').[4] There were many kinds of toga, each reserved by custom to a particular usage or social class. Toga virilis ("toga of manhood") also known as toga alba or toga Pura: A plain white toga, worn on formal occasions by adult male commoners, and by senators not having a curule magistracy. It represented adult male citizenship and its attendant rights, freedoms and responsibilities.[5] Toga praetexta: a white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border, worn over a tunic with two broad, vertical purple stripes. It was formal costume for: Curule magistrates in their official functions, and traditionally, the Kings of Rome.[6] Freeborn boys, and some freeborn girls, before they came of age. It marked their protection by law from sexual predation and immoral or immodest influence. A praetexta was thought effective against malignant magic, as were a boy's bulla, and a girl's lunula.[7][8] Some priesthoods, including the Pontifices, Tresviri Epulones, the augurs, and the Arval brothers.[9] Toga candida: "Bright toga"; a toga rubbed with chalk to a dazzling white, worn by candidates (from Latin candida, "pure white") for public office.[10] Thus Persius speaks of a cretata ambitio, "chalked ambition". Toga candida is the etymological source of the word candidate. Toga pulla: a "dark toga" was supposed to be worn by mourners at elite funerals. A toga praetexta was also acceptable as mourning wear, if turned inside out to conceal its stripe; so was a plain toga pura.[11] Wearing a toga pulla at the feast that ended mourning was irreligious, ignorant, or plain bad manners. Cicero makes a distinction between the toga pulla and an ordinary toga deliberately "dirtied" by its wearer as a legitimate mark of protest or supplication.[12] Toga picta ("painted toga"): Dyed solid purple, decorated with imagery in gold thread, and worn over a similarly-decorated tunica palmata; used by generals in their triumphs. During the Empire, it was worn by consuls and emperors. Over time, it became increasingly elaborate, and was combined with elements of the consular trabea.[13] Trabea, associated with citizens of equestrian rank; thus their description as trabeati in some contemporary Roman literature. It may have been a shorter form of toga, or a cloak, wrap or sash worn over a toga. It was white with some form of decoration. In the later Imperial era, trabea refers to elaborate forms of consular dress. Some later Roman and post-Roman sources describe it as solid purple or red, either identifying or confusing it with the dress worn by the ancient Roman kings (also used to clothe images of the gods) or reflecting changes in the trabea itself. More certainly, equites wore an angusticlavia, a tunic with narrow, vertical purple stripes, at least one of which would have been visible when worn with a toga or trabea, whatever its form.[14] Laena, a long, heavy cloak worn by Flamen priesthoods, fastened at the shoulder with a brooch. A lost work by Suetonius describes it as a toga made "duplex" (doubled by folding over upon itself).[15][16] As "national dress"[edit] The toga's most distinguishing feature was its semi-circular shape, which sets it apart from other cloaks of antiquity like the Greek himation or pallium. To Rothe, the rounded form suggests an origin in the very similar, semi-circular Etruscan tebenna.[17]. Goldman believes that the earliest forms of all these garments would have been simple, rectangular lengths of cloth that served as both body-wrap and blanket for peasants, shepherds and itinerant herdsmen.[18] Roman historians believed that Rome's legendary founder and first king, the erstwhile shepherd Romulus, had worn a toga as his clothing of choice; the purple-bordered toga praetexta was supposedly used by Etruscan magistrates, and introduced to Rome by her third king, Tullus Hostilius.[19] In civil life[edit] Roman society was strongly hierarchical, stratified and competitive. Landowning aristocrats occupied most seats in the senate and held the most senior magistracies. Magistrates were elected by their peers and "the people"; in Roman constitutional theory, they ruled by consent. In practice, they were a mutually competitive oligarchy, reserving the greatest power, wealth and prestige for their class. The commoners who made up the vast majority of the Roman electorate had limited influence on politics, unless barracking or voting en masse, or through representation by their tribunes. The Equites (sometimes loosely translated as "knights") occupied a broadly mobile, mid-position between the lower senatorial and upper commoner class. Despite often extreme disparities of wealth and rank between the citizen classes, the toga identified them as a singular and exclusive civic body. Conversely, and just as usefully, it underlined their differences. Funerary stele for a boy named Philetos, son of Philetos, from the Attic deme of Aixone in Roman Greece, 1st half of the 1st century AD. Togas were relatively uniform in pattern and style but varied significantly in the quality and quantity of their fabric, and the marks of higher rank or office. The highest-status toga, the solidly purple, gold-embroidered toga picta could be worn only at particular ceremonies by the highest-ranking magistrates. Tyrian purple was supposedly reserved for the toga picta, the border of the toga praetexta, and elements of the priestly dress worn by the inviolate Vestal Virgins. It was colour-fast, extremely expensive and the "most talked-about colour in Greco-Roman antiquity".[20] Romans categorised it as a blood-red hue, which sanctified its wearer. The purple-bordered praetexta worn by freeborn youths acknowledged their vulnerability and sanctity in law. Once a boy came of age (usually at puberty) he adopted the plain white toga virilis; this meant that he was free to set up his own household, marry, and vote.[21][22] Young girls who wore the praetexta on formal occasions put it aside at menarche or marriage, and adopted the stola.[23] Even the whiteness of the toga virilis was subject to class distinction. Senatorial versions were expensively laundered to an exceptional, snowy white; those of lower ranking citizens were a duller shade, more cheaply laundered.[24] Citizenship carried specific privileges, rights and responsibilities.[25] The formula togatorum ("list of toga-wearers") listed the various military obligations that Rome's Italian allies were required to supply to Rome in times of war. Togati, "those who wear the toga," is not precisely equivalent to "Roman citizens," and may mean more broadly "Romanized".[26] In Roman territories, the toga was explicitly forbidden to non-citizens; to foreigners, freedmen, and slaves; to Roman exiles;[27] and to men of "infamous" career or shameful reputation; an individual's status should be discernable at a glance.[28] A freedman or foreigner might pose as a togate citizen, or a common citizen as an equestrian; such pretenders were sometimes ferreted out in the census. Formal seating arrangements in public theatres and circuses reflected the dominance of Rome's togate elect. Senators sat at the very front, equites behind them, common citizens behind equites; and so on, through the non-togate mass of freedmen, foreigners, and slaves.[29] Imposters were sometimes detected and evicted from the equestrian seats.[30] Various anecdotes reflect the toga's symbolic value. In Livy's history of Rome, the patrician hero Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, retired from public life and clad (presumably) in tunic or loincloth, is ploughing his field when emissaries of the Senate arrive, and ask him to put on his toga. His wife fetches it and he puts it on. Then he is told that he has been appointed dictator. He promptly heads for Rome.[31] Donning the toga transforms Cincinnatus from rustic, sweaty ploughman – though a gentleman nevertheless, of impeccable stock and reputation – into Rome's leading politician, eager to serve his country; a top-quality Roman.[32] Rome's abundant public and private statuary reinforced the notion that all Rome's great men wore togas, and must always have done so.[33][34] Work and leisure[edit] A fresco from a building near Pompeii, a rare depiction of Roman men in togae praetextae with dark red borders. It dates from the early Imperial Era and probably shows an event during Compitalia, a popular street festival. Traditionalists idealised Rome's urban and rustic citizenry as descendants of a hardy, virtuous, toga-clad peasantry, but the toga's bulk and complex drapery made it entirely impractical for manual work or physically active leisure. The toga was heavy, "unwieldy, excessively hot, easily stained, and hard to launder".[35] It was best suited to stately processions, public debate and oratory, sitting in the theatre or circus, and displaying oneself before one's peers and inferiors while "ostentatiously doing nothing".[36] Every male Roman citizen was entitled to wear some kind of toga – Martial refers to a lesser citizen's "small toga" and a poor man's "little toga" (both togula),[37] but the poorest probably had to make do with a shabby, patched-up toga, if he bothered at all.[38] Conversely, the costly, full-length toga seems to have been a rather awkward mark of distinction when worn by "the wrong sort". The poet Horace writes "of a rich ex-slave 'parading from end to end of the Sacred Way in a toga three yards long' to show off his new status and wealth."[39] In the early 2nd century AD, the satirist Juvenal claimed that "in a great part of Italy, no-one wears the toga, except in death"; in Martial's rural idyll there is "never a lawsuit, the toga is scarce, the mind at ease".[40][41] Most citizens who owned a toga would have cherished it as a costly material object, and worn it when they must for special occasions. Family, friendships and alliances, and the gainful pursuit of wealth through business and trade would have been their major preoccupations, not the otium (cultured leisure) claimed as a right by the elite.[42][43] Rank, reputation and Romanitas were paramount, even in death, so almost invariably, a male citizen's memorial image showed him clad in his toga. He wore it at his funeral, and it probably served as his shroud.[44] Despite the overwhelming quantity of Roman togate portraits at every social level, and in every imaginable circumstance, at most times Rome's thoroughfares would have been crowded with citizens and non-citizens in a variety of colourful garments, with few togas in evidence. Only a higher-class Roman, a magistrate, would have had lictors to clear his way, and even then, wearing a toga was a challenge. The toga's apparent natural simplicity and "elegant, flowing lines" were the result of diligent practice and cultivation; to avoid an embarrassing disarrangement of its folds, its wearer had to walk with measured, stately gait,[35] yet with virile purpose and energy. If he moved too slowly, he might seem aimless, "sluggish of mind" - or, worst of all, "womanly".[45] Vout (1996) suggests that the toga's most challenging qualities as garment fitted the Romans' view of themselves and their civilization. Like the empire itself, the peace that the toga came to represent had been earned through the extraordinary and unremitting collective efforts of its citizens, who could therefore claim "the time and dignity to dress in such a way".[46] Patronage and salutationes[edit] The so-called "Togatus Barberini" depicting a Roman senator with portrait busts of ancestors, one of which is supported by a herma: marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): middle 1st century BC.[47] Patronage was a cornerstone of Roman politics, business and social relationships. A good patron offered advancement, security, honour, wealth, government contracts and other business opportunities to his client, who might be further down in the social or economic scale, or more rarely, his equal or superior.[48] A good client canvassed political support for his patron, or his patron's nominee; he advanced his patron's interests using his own business, family and personal connections. Freedmen with an aptitude for business could become extremely wealthy; but to negotiate citizenship for themselves, or more likely their sons, they had to find a patron prepared to commend them. Clients seeking patronage had to attend the patron's early-morning formal salutatio ("greeting session"), held in the semi-public, grand reception room (atrium) of his family house (domus).[49] Citizen-clients were expected to wear the toga appropriate to their status, and to wear it correctly and smartly or risk affront to their host.[50] Martial and his friend Juvenal suffered the system as clients for years, and found the whole business demeaning. A client had to be at his patron's beck and call, to perform whatever "togate works" were required; and the patron might even expect to be addressed as "domine" (lord, or master); a citizen-client of the equestrian class, superior to all lesser mortals by virtue of rank and costume, might thus approach the shameful condition of dependent servitude. For a client whose patron was another's client, the potential for shame was still worse. Even as a satirical analogy, the equation of togate client and slave would have shocked those who cherished the toga as a symbol of personal dignity and auctoritas – a meaning underlined during the Saturnalia festival, when the toga was "very consciously put aside", in a ritualised, strictly limited inversion of the master-slave relationship.[51] Patrons were few, and most had to compete with their peers to attract the best, most useful clients. Clients were many, and those of least interest to the patron had to scrabble for notice among the "togate horde" (turbae togatae). One in a dirty or patched toga would likely be subject to ridicule; or he might, if sufficiently dogged and persistent, secure a pittance of cash, or perhaps a dinner. When the patron left his house to conduct his business of the day at the law courts, forum or wherever else, escorted (if a magistrate) by his togate lictors, his clients must form his retinue. Each togate client represented a potential vote:[52] to impress his peers and inferiors, and stay ahead in the game, a patron should have as many high-quality clients as possible; or at least, he should seem to. Martial has one patron hire a herd (grex) of fake clients in togas, then pawn his ring to pay for his evening meal.[53][54] The emperor Marcus Aurelius, rather than wear the "dress to which his rank entitled him" at his own salutationes, chose to wear a plain white citizen's toga instead; an act of modesty for any patron, unlike Caligula, who wore a triumphal toga picta or any other garment he chose, according to whim; or Nero, who caused considerable offence when he received visiting senators while dressed in a tunic embroidered with flowers, topped off with a muslin neckerchief.[55] Oratory[edit] The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in rhetoric. He wears senatorial shoes, and a toga praetexta of "skimpy" (exigua) Republican type.[56] The statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet. In oratory, the toga came into its own. Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria (circa 95 AD) offers advice on how best to plead cases at Rome's law-courts, before the watching multitude's informed and critical eye. Effective pleading was a calculated artistic performance, but must seem utterly natural. First impressions counted; the lawyer must present himself as a Roman should: "virile and splendid" in his toga, with statuesque posture and "natural good looks". He should be well groomed – but not too well; no primping of the hair, jewellery or any other "feminine" perversions of a Roman man's proper appearance. Quintilian gives precise instructions on the correct use of the toga – its cut, style, and the arrangements of its folds. Its fabric could be old-style rough wool, or new and smoother if preferred – but definitely not silk. The orator's movements should be dignified, and to the point; he should move only as he must, to address a particular person, a particular section of the audience. He should employ to good effect that subtle "language of the hands" for which Roman oratory was famed; no extravagant gestures, no wiggling of the shoulders, no moving "like a dancer".[57][58] To a great extent, the toga itself determined the orator's style of delivery: "we should not cover the shoulder and the whole of the throat, otherwise our dress will be unduly narrowed and will lose the impressive effect produced by breadth at the chest. The left arm should only be raised so far as to form a right angle at the elbow, while the edge of the toga should fall in equal lengths on either side." If, on the other hand, the "toga falls down at the beginning of our speech, or when we have only proceeded but a little way, the failure to replace it is a sign of indifference, or sloth, or sheer ignorance of the way in which clothes should be worn". By the time he had presented his case, the orator was likely to be hot and sweaty; but even this could be employed to good effect.[59] In public morals[edit] Roman moralists "placed an ideological premium on the simple and the frugal".[60] Aulus Gellius claimed that the earliest Romans, famously tough, virile and dignified, had worn togas with no undergarment; not even a skimpy tunic.[61] Towards the end of the Republic, the arch-conservative Cato the Younger favoured the shorter, ancient Republican type of toga; it was dark and "scanty" (exigua), and Cato wore it without tunic or shoes; all this would have been recognised as an expression of his moral probity.[62] Die-hard Roman traditionalists deplored an ever-increasing Roman appetite for ostentation, "un-Roman" comfort and luxuries, and sartorial offences such as Celtic trousers, brightly coloured Syrian robes and cloaks. The manly toga itself could signify corruption, if worn too loosely, or worn over a long-sleeved, "effeminate" tunic, or woven too fine and thin, near transparent.[63] Appian's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume."[64] The Augustan Principate brought peace, and declared its intent as the restoration of true Republican order, morality and tradition. Augustus wearing the imperial toga with umbo and capite velato ("with covered head"), c. 12 BC (Via Labicana Augustus). Augustus was determined to bring back "the traditional style" (the toga). He ordered that any theatre-goer in dark (or coloured or dirty) clothing be sent to the back seats, traditionally reserved for those who had no toga; ordinary or common women, freedmen, low-class foreigners and slaves. He reserved the most honourable seats, front of house, for senators and equites; this was how it had always been, before the chaos of the civil wars; or rather, how it was supposed to have been. Infuriated by the sight of a darkly clad throng of men at a public meeting, he sarcastically quoted Virgil at them, "Romanos, rerum dominos, gentemque togatam " ("Romans, lords of the world and the toga-wearing people"), then ordered that in future, the aediles ban anyone not wearing the toga from the Forum and its environs – Rome's "civic heart".[65] Augustus' reign saw the introduction of the toga rasa, an ordinary toga whose rough fibres were teased from the woven nap, then shaved back to a smoother, more comfortable finish. By Pliny's day (circa 70 AD) this was probably standard among the elite.[66] Pliny also describes a glossy, smooth, lightweight but dense fabric woven from poppy-stem fibres and flax, in use from at least the time of the Punic Wars. Though probably appropriate for a "summer toga", it was criticised for its improper luxuriance.[67] Women[edit] Some Romans believed that in earlier times, both genders and all classes had worn the toga. Women could also be citizens but by the mid-to-late Republican era, respectable women were stolatae (stola-wearing), expected to embody and display an appropriate set of female virtues: Vout cites pudicitia and fides as examples. Women's adoption of the stola may have paralleled the increasing identification of the toga with citizen men, but this seems to have been a far from straightforward process. An equestrian statue, described by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga.[68] The unmarried daughters of respectable, reasonably well-off citizens sometimes wore the toga praetexta until puberty or marriage, when they adopted the stola, which they wore over a full-length, usually long-sleeved tunic. Higher-class female prostitutes (meretrices) and women divorced for adultery were denied the stola. Meretrices might have been expected or perhaps compelled, at least in public, to wear the "female toga" (toga muliebris).[69] This use of the toga appears unique; all others categorised as "infamous and disreputable" were explicitly forbidden to wear it. In this context, modern sources understand the toga – or perhaps merely the description of particular women as togata – as an instrument of inversion and realignment; a respectable (thus stola-clad) woman should be demure, sexually passive, modest and obedient, morally impeccable. The archetypical meretrix of Roman literature dresses gaudily and provocatively. Edwards (1997) describes her as "antithetical to the Roman male citizen".[2] An adulterous matron betrayed her family and reputation; and if found guilty, and divorced, the law forbade her remarriage to a Roman citizen. In the public gaze, she was aligned with the meretrix.[70][71] When worn by a woman in this later era, the toga would have been a "blatant display" of her "exclusion from the respectable Roman hierarchy".[2] Roman military[edit] Togate statue of an emperor in porphyry, now in the Curia Julia. Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the lower ranks of Rome's military forces were "farmer-soldiers", a militia of citizen smallholders conscripted for the duration of hostilities,[72] expected to provide their own arms and armour. Citizens of higher status served in senior military posts as a foundation for their progress to high civil office (see cursus honorum). The Romans believed that in Rome's earliest days, its military had gone to war in togas, hitching them up and back for action by using what became known as the "Gabine cinch".[73] As part of a peace settlement of 205 BC, two formerly rebellious Spanish tribes provided Roman troops with togas and heavy cloaks; in 206 BC, Scipio Africanus was sent 1,200 togas and 12,000 tunics for his operations in North Africa. In the Macedonian campaign of 169 BC, the army was sent 6,000 togas and 30,000 tunics.[74] From at least the mid-Republic on, the military reserved their togas for formal leisure and religious festivals; the tunic and sagum (heavy rectangular cloak held on the shoulder with a brooch) were used or preferred for active duty. Togate statue of Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161) in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Late republican practice and legal reform allowed the creation of standing armies, and opened a military career to any Roman citizen or freedman of good reputation.[75] A soldier who showed the requisite "disciplined ferocity" in battle and was held in esteem by his peers and superiors could be promoted to higher rank: a plebeian could rise to equestrian status.[76] Non-citizens and foreign-born auxiliaries given honourable discharge were usually granted citizenship, land or stipend, the right to wear the toga, and an obligation to the patron who had granted these honours; usually their senior officer. A dishonourable discharge meant infamia.[77] Colonies of retired veterans were scattered throughout the Empire. In literary stereotype, civilians are routinely bullied by burly soldiers, inclined to throw their weight around.[78] Though soldiers were citizens, Cicero typifies the former as "sagum wearing" and the latter as "togati". He employs the phrase cedant arma togae ("let arms yield to the toga"), meaning "may peace replace war", or "may military power yield to civilian power", in the context of his own uneasy alliance with Pompey. He intended it as metonym, linking his own "power to command" as consul (imperator togatus) with Pompey's as general (imperator armatus); but it was interpreted as a request to step down. Cicero, having lost Pompey's ever-wavering support, was driven to exile.[79] In reality, arms rarely yielded to civilian power. During the early Roman Imperial era, members of the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's personal guard as "First Citizen", and a military force under his personal command), concealed their weapons under white, civilian-style togas when on duty in the city, offering the reassuring illusion that they represented a traditional Republican, civilian authority, rather than the military arm of an Imperial autocracy.[75][80] In religion[edit] Statuette of a genius of a 1st-century AD official of the senatorial class, wearing a toga praetexta Citizens attending Rome's frequent religious festivals and associated games were expected to wear the toga.[74] The toga praetexta was the normal garb for most Roman priesthoods, which tended to be the preserve of high status citizens. When offering sacrifice, libation and prayer, and when performing augury, the officiant priest covered his head with a fold of his toga, drawn up from the back: the ritual was thus performed capite velato (with covered head). This was believed a distinctively Roman form,[81] in contrast to Etruscan, Greek and other foreign practices. The Etruscans seem to have sacrificed bareheaded (capite aperto).[82] In Rome, the so-called ritus graecus (Greek rite) was used for deities believed Greek in origin or character; the officiant, even if citizen, wore Greek-style robes with wreathed or bare head, not the toga.[83] It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced Paul's prohibition against Christians praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head."[84] An officiant capite velato who needed free use of both hands to perform ritual could employ the "Gabinian cincture" (cinctus Gabinus), which tied the toga back.[85] It was thought to derive from the priestly practice of ancient, warlike Gabii.[86] Etruscan priests also employed the Gabine cinch. In Rome, it was one of the elements in making a declaration of war.[87] Materials[edit] The traditional toga was made of wool, which was thought to possess powers to avert misfortune and the evil eye; the toga praetexta (used by magistrates, priests and freeborn youths) was always woollen.[8] Wool-working was thought a highly respectable occupation for Roman women. A traditional, high-status mater familias demonstrated her industry and frugality by placing wool-baskets, spindles and looms in the household's semi-public reception area, the atrium.[88] Augustus was particularly proud that his wife and daughter had set the best possible example to other Roman women by, allegedly, spinning and weaving his clothing.[89] Hand-woven cloth was slow and costly to produce, and compared to simpler forms of clothing, the toga used an extravagant amount of it. To minimise waste, the smaller, old-style forms of toga may have been woven as a single, seamless, selvedged piece; the later, larger versions may have been made from several pieces sewn together; size seems to have counted for a lot.[90] More cloth signified greater wealth and usually, though not invariably, higher rank. The purple-red border of the toga praetexta was woven onto the toga using a process known as "tablet weaving"; such applied borders are a feature of Etruscan dress.[91] Modern sources broadly agree that if made from a single piece of fabric, the toga of a high status Roman in the late Republic would have required a piece approximately 12 ft (3.5 m) in length; in the Imperial era, around 18 ft (5.5 m), a third more than its predecessor, and in the late Imperial era around 8 feet (2.5 m) wide and up to 18 or 20 feet (5.5 – 6 m) in length for the most complex, pleated forms.[92] Features and styles[edit] The toga was draped, rather than fastened, around the body, and was held in position by the weight and friction of its fabric. Supposedly, no pins or brooches were employed. The more voluminous and complex the style, the more assistance would have been required to achieve the desired effect. In classical statuary, draped togas consistently show certain features and folds, identified and named in contemporary literature. Portrait bust of the emperor Philip the Arab, circa 245 AD, wearing a "banded toga". The sinus (literally, a bay or inlet) appears in the Imperial era as a loose over-fold, slung from beneath the left arm, downwards across the chest, then upwards to the right shoulder. Early examples were slender, but later forms were much fuller; the loop hangs at knee-length, suspended there by draping over the crook of the right arm.[92] The umbo (literally "knob") was a pouch of the toga's fabric pulled out over the balteus (the diagonal section of the toga across the chest) in imperial-era forms of the toga. Its added weight and friction would have helped (though not very effectively) secure the toga's fabric onto the left shoulder. As the toga developed, the umbo grew in size.[93] The most complex togas appear on high-quality portrait busts and imperial reliefs of the mid-to-late Empire, probably reserved for emperors and the highest civil officials. The so-called "banded" or "stacked" toga (Latinised as toga contabulata) appeared in the late 2nd century AD and was distinguished by its broad, smooth, slab-like panels or swathes of pleated material, more or less correspondent with umbo, sinus and balteus, or applied over the same. On statuary, one swathe of fabric rises from low between the legs, and is laid over the left shoulder; another more or less follows the upper edge of the sinus; yet another follows the lower edge of a more-or-less vestigial balteus then descends to the upper shin. As in other forms, the sinus itself is hung over the crook of the right arm.[94] If its full-length representations are accurate, it would have severely constrained its wearer's movements. Dressing in a toga contabulata would have taken some time, and specialist assistance. When not in use, it required careful storage in some form of press or hanger to keep it in shape. Such inconvenient features of the later toga are confirmed by Tertullian, who preferred the pallium.[95] High-status (consular or senatorial) images from the late 4th century show a further ornate variation, known as the "Broad Eastern Toga"; it hung to the mid-calf, was heavily embroidered, and was worn over two pallium-style undergarments, one of which had full length sleeves. Its sinus was draped over the left arm.[96] Decline[edit] 4th-century gold glass image of a married couple with the husband wearing a toga. In the long term, the toga saw both a gradual transformation and decline, punctuated by attempts to retain it as an essential feature of true Romanitas. It was never a popular garment; in the late 1st century, Tacitus could disparage the urban plebs as a vulgus tunicatus ("tunic-wearing crowd").[43] Hadrian issued an edict compelling equites and senators to wear the toga in public; the edict did not mention commoners. The extension of citizenship, from around 6 million citizens under Augustus to between 40 and 60 million under the "universal citizenship" of Caracalla's Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD), probably further reduced whatever distinctive value the toga still held for commoners, and accelerated its abandonment among their class.[60] Meanwhile, the office-holding aristocracy adopted ever more elaborate, complex, costly and impractical forms of toga.[96] The toga nevertheless remained the formal costume of the Roman senatorial elite. A law issued by co-emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I in 382 AD (Codex Theodosianus 14.10.1) states that while senators in the city of Rome may wear the paenula in daily life, they must wear the toga when attending their official duties.[97] Failure to do so would result in the senator being stripped of rank and authority, and of the right to enter the Curia Julia.[98] Byzantine Greek art and portraiture show the highest functionaries of court, church and state in magnificently wrought, extravagantly exclusive court dress and priestly robes; some at least are thought to be versions of the Imperial toga.[99] In the early European kingdoms that replaced Roman government in the West, kings and aristocrats alike dressed like the late Roman generals they sought to emulate, rather than the toga-clad senators of ancient tradition.[100] See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Fashion portal Clothing in ancient Rome Tricivara Stola Toga party Tyrian purple References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Vout 1996, p. 215 (Vout cites Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses). ^ a b c Edwards 1997, pp. 81‒82. ^ This and other problems in identification are discussed in Beard, The Roman Triumph, 2007, pp. 306-308 and end-notes. ^ Virgil. Aeneid, I.282; Martial, XIV.124. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 26; Dolansky 2008, pp. 55–60. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 28 and note 32. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 26. Not all modern scholarship agrees that girls wore the toga praetexta; see McGinn 1998, p. 160, note 163). ^ a b Sebesta 2001, p. 47. ^ Livy, XXVII.8,8 and XXXIII.42 (as cited by The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities). ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 26–27 (including footnote 24); citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, XIX.24,6 and Polybius, Historiae, X.4,8. ^ Flower 1996, p. 102. ^ Heskel 2001, pp. 141‒142. ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 26, 29; Koortbojian 2008, pp. 80–83; Dewar 2008, pp. 225–227. ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 26–27; Dewar 2008, pp. 219–234. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 29; this lost work survives in fragmentary form through summary and citation by later Roman authors. ^ Goldman 2001, pp. 229–230. ^ Rothe, Ursula, The Toga and Roman Identity, Chapter 2, Kindle Edition, 2019 ^ Goldman, B., in Sebesta, Judith Lynn, and Bonfante, Larissa, (Editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 217 ^ Sebesta 2001, pp. 13, 222, 228, 47, note 5, citing Macrobius, 1.6.7‒13;15‒16. ^ Flower 1996, p. 118: "The best model for understanding Roman sumptuary legislation is that of aristocratic self-preservation within a highly competitive society which valued overt display of prestige above all else." Sumptuary laws were intended to limit competitive displays of personal wealth in the public sphere. ^ On coming of age, he also gave his protective bulla into the care of the family Lares. ^ Bradley 2011, pp. 189, 194‒195; Dolansky 2008, pp. 53‒54; Sebesta 2001, p. 47. ^ Olson 2008, pp. 141‒146: A minority of young girls seem to have used the praetexta, perhaps because their parents embraced the self-conscious revivalism typified in Augustan legislation and mores. ^ Aubert 2014, pp. 175‒176, discussing the Lex Metilia Fullonibus Dicta of 220/217? BC, known only through its passing reference in Pliny's account of useful earths, including those employed in laundry. The best and most whitening compounds, which were also kind to coloured fabrics (such as those used in the praetextate stripe), probably cost more than ordinary Roman citizens could afford; so the togas of these status groups were laundered separately. The reasons for this law remain unclear: one scholar speculates that it was designed to protect "praetextate senators from the shame attached to the publicity of vastly unequal garb". ^ Respectable women, the sons of freeborn men, and provincials during the early empire could hold lesser forms of citizenship; they were protected by law but could not vote, or stand for public office. Citizenship could be inherited, granted, up or down-graded, and removed for specific offences. ^ Bispham 2007, p. 61. ^ Exiles were deprived of citizenship and the protection of Roman law. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 25. ^ Women probably sat or stood at the very back – apart from the sacred Vestals, who had their own box at the front. ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 31‒33. ^ Vout 1996, p. 218ff. ^ Vout 1996, p. 214. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 38. ^ Koortbojian 2008, pp. 77‒79. Pliny the Elder (circa 70 AD) describes togate statuary as the older, traditional form of public honour, and cuirassed statuary of famous generals as a relatively later development. An individual might hold different offices in succession, or simultaneously, each represented by a different statuary type; cuirassed as a general, and togate as a holder of state office or priest of a state cult. ^ a b George 2008, p. 99. ^ Armstrong 2012, p. 65, citing Thorstein Veblen. ^ Stone 2001, pp. 43, note 59, citing Martial, 10.74.3, 11.24.11 and 4.66. ^ Vout 1996, pp. 204‒220; throughout the empire, there is evidence that old clothing was recycled, repaired and handed down the social scale, from one owner to the next, until it fell to rags. Centonarii ("patch workers") made a living by sewing clothing and other items from recycled fabric patches. The cost of a new, simple hooded cloak, using far less material than a toga, might represent three fifths of an individual's annual minimum subsistence cost: see Vout 1996, pp. 211‒212. ^ Croom, p. 53, citing Horace, Epodes, 4.8 ^ Vout 1996, p. 209. ^ Stone 2001, p. 17, citing Juvenal, Satires, 3.171‒172, Martial, 10.47.5. ^ Vout 1996, pp. 205‒208: Contra Goldman's description of Roman clothing, including the toga, as "simple and elegant, practical and comfortable" in Goldman 2001, p. 217. ^ a b George 2008, p. 96. ^ Toynbee 1996, pp. 43–44. ^ O'Sullivan 2011, pp. 19, 51‒58. ^ Vout 1996, pp. 205‒208. ^ The busts are presumed in some scholarship as marble representations of wax imagines: see Flower 1996 particularly the discussion of the Togatus Barberini ancestor busts on pp. 5‒7. ^ Cash-strapped or debtor citizens with a respectable lineage might have to seek patronage from rich freedmen, who ranked as inferiors and non-citizens. ^ George 2008, p. 101. ^ Vout 1996, p. 216. ^ George 2008, pp. 101, 103–106; slaves were considered as chattels, and owed their master absolute, unconditional submission. ^ A citizen's voting power was directly proportionate to his rank, status and wealth. ^ Edmondson 2008, p. 24; George 2008, pp. 100–102. ^ Armstrong 2012, p. 64: At salutationes and during any other "business times", equites were expected to wear a gold ring. Along with their toga, striped tunic and formal shoes (or calcei), this signified their status. ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 24, 36‒37, citing Dio Cassius, 71.35.4 and Suetonius, Lives. ^ Ceccarelli 2016, p. 33. ^ Bradley 2008, p. 249, citing Quintilian. ^ Dugan 2005, p. 156, note 35, citing Wyke (1994): "The Roman male citizen was defined through his body: the dignity and authority of a senator being constituted by his gait, his manner of wearing his toga, his oratorical delivery, his gestures." ^ Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria, 11.3.131‒149. ^ a b Edmondson 2008, p. 33. ^ Vout 1996, pp. 214‒215, citing Aulus Gellius, 6.123–4. ^ Stone 2001, p. 16: Some modern sources consider exigua as a republican type, others interpret it as poetic. ^ Roller 2012, pp. 303, "transparent" toga, following Juvenal's Satire, 2, 65‒78. Juvenal's invective associates transparency with prostitute's clothing. The aristocratic divorce-and-adultery lawyer Creticus wears a "transparent" toga, which far from decently covering him, shows him for "what he really is"; a cinaedus is a derogatory term for a passive homosexual. ^ Rothfus 2010, p. 1, citing Appian, B. Civ., 2.17.120. ^ Edmondson 2008, pp. 33, citing Suetonius, Augustus, 40.5, 44.2, and Cassius Dio, 49.16.1. ^ Sebesta 2001, p. 68. ^ Stone 2001, p. 39, noted 9, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 8.74.195. ^ Olson 2008, p. 151, note 18, citing Pliny's account of an equestrian statue to the legendary, early Republican heroine. ^ van den Berg 2012, p. 267. ^ Vout 1996, pp. 205‒208, 215, citing Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L; for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses. Some modern scholars doubt the "togate adulteress" as more than literary and social invective: cf Dixon 2014, pp. 298‒304. ^ Keith 2008, pp. 197‒198; Sebesta 2001, p. 53. ^ Phang 2008, p. 3. ^ Stone 2001, p. 13. ^ a b Olson 2008, p. 151, note 18. ^ a b Phang 2008, pp. 77‒78. ^ Phang 2008, pp. 12‒17, 49‒50. ^ Phang 2008, p. 112. ^ Phang 2008, p. 266. ^ Dugan 2005, pp. 61‒65, citing Cicero's Ad Pisonem (Against Piso). ^ Rankov & Hook 1994, p. 31. ^ Palmer 1996, p. 83. ^ Söderlind 2002, p. 370. ^ Schilling 1992, p. 78. ^ 1 Corinthians 11:4; Elliott 2006, p. 210; Winter 2001, pp. 121–123 citing as the standard source Gill 1990, pp. 245‒260; Fantham 2008, p. 159, citing Richard Oster. ^ Schneid & Lloyd 2003, p. 80 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchneidLloyd2003 (help). ^ Scullard 1980, p. 455: "[...] the Gabine robe (cinctus Gabinus) was worn by Roman officials as a sacred vestment on certain occasions." ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 7.612; see also Bonfante 2009, p. 185 and Glinister 2009, p. 197. ^ In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: see Hin 2014, p. 153 and Shaw 2014, pp. 195‒197. ^ Culham 2014, pp. 153–154, citing Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 73. ^ Sebesta 2001, pp. 43, note 59, citing Martial, 10.74.3, 11.24.11 and 4.66. ^ Meyers 2016, p. 311. ^ a b Stone 2001, pp. 13–30. ^ Métraux 2008, pp. 282‒286. ^ Modern reconstructions have employed applied panels of fabric, pins, and hidden stitches to achieve the effect; the underlying structure of the original remains unknown. ^ Stone 2001, pp. 24–25, 38. ^ a b Fejfer 2008, pp. 189‒194. ^ Rothe 2020. ^ Pharr 2001, p. 415. ^ La Follette 2001, p. 58 and footnote 90. ^ Wickham 2009, p. 106. Sources[edit] Armstrong, David (2012). "3 Juvenalis Eques: A Dissident Voice from the Lower Tier of the Roman Elite". In Braund, Susanna; Osgood, Josiah (eds.). A Companion to Persius and Juvenal. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 59‒78. ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0. Aubert, Jean-Jacques (2014) [2004]. "8: The Republican Economy and Roman Law: Regulation, Promotion, or Reflection?". In Flower, Harriet I. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 167‒186. ISBN 978-1-107-03224-8. Beard, Mary: The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, England, 2007. (hardcover). ISBN 978-0-674-02613-1 Bispham, Edward (2007). From Asculum to Actium: The Municipalization of Italy from the Social War to Augustus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923184-3. Bonfante, Larissa (2009). "Chapter Eleven Ritual Dress". In Gleba, Margarita; Becker, Hilary (eds.). Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of Jean MacIntosh Turfa. Leiden: Brill. pp. 183‒191. Bradley, Keith (2008). "12 Appearing for the Defence: Apuleius on Display". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 238‒256. Bradley, Mark (2011). Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ceccarelli, Letizia (2016). "3 The Romanization of Etruria". In Bell, Sinclair; Carpino, Alexandra A. (eds.). A Companion to the Etruscans. Oxford and Malden: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 28–40. Croom, Alexandra (2010). Roman Clothing and Fashion. The Hill, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84868-977-0. Culham, Phyllis (2014) [2004]. "6: Women in the Roman Republic". In Flower, Harriet I. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 127‒148. ISBN 978-1-107-03224-8. Dewar, Michael (2008). "11 Spinning the Trabea: Consular Robes and Propaganda in the Panegyrics of Claudian". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 217‒237. Dixon, Jessica (2014). "14. Dressing the Adulteress". In Harlow, Mary; Nosch, Marie-Louise (eds.). Greek and Roman Textiles and Dress: An Interdisciplinary Anthology. Havertown, PA: Oxbow Books. pp. 298‒304. Dolansky, Fanny (2008). "2 Togam virile sumere: Coming of Age in the Roman World". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 47–70. Dugan, John (2005). Making a New Man: Ciceronian Self-Fashioning in the Rhetorical Works. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926780-4. Edmondson, Jonathan (2008). "1 Public Dress and Social Control in Late Republican and Early Imperial Rome". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 21–46. Edwards, Catharine (1997). "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome". In Hallett, P. J.; Skinner, B. M. (eds.). Roman Sexualities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 66–95. Elliott, Neil (2006) [1994]. Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-2379-1. Fantham, Elaine (2008). "7 Covering the Head at Rome: Ritual and Gender". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 158‒171. Fejfer, Jane (2008). Roman Portraits in Context. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018664-2. Flower, Harriet I. (1996). Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press). George, Michele (2008). "4 The 'Dark Side' of the Toga". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 94‒112. Gill, David W. J. (1990). "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16" (PDF). Tyndale Bulletin. 41 (2): 245–260. Glinister, Fay (2009). "Chapter Twelve Veiled and Unveiled: Uncovering Roman Influence in Hellenistic Italy". In Gleba, Margarita; Becker, Hilary (eds.). Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of Jean MacIntosh Turfa. Leiden: Brill. pp. 193‒215. Goldman, Bernard (2001). "10 Graeco-Roman Dress in Syro-Mesopotamia". In Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa (eds.). The World of Roman Costume. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 163–181. Heskel, Julia (2001). "7 Cicero as Evidence for Attitudes to Dress in the Late Republic". In Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa (eds.). The World of Roman Costume. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 133–145. Hin, Saskia (2014) [2004]. "7: Population". In Flower, Harriet I. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 149‒166. ISBN 978-1-107-03224-8. Keith, Alison (2008). "9 Sartorial Elegance and Poetic Finesse in the Sulpician Corpus". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 192‒202. Koortbojian, Michael (2008). "3 The Double Identity of Roman Portrait Statues: Costumes and Their Symbolism at Rome". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 71‒93. La Follette, Laetitia (2001). "3 The Costume of the Roman Bride". In Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa (eds.). The World of Roman Costume. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 54–64. McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1998). Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. Métraux, Guy P. R. (2008). "Prudery and Chic in Late Antique Clothing". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 271–294. Meyers, Gretchen E. (2016). "21 Tanaquil: The Conception and Construction of an Etruscan Matron". In Bell, Sinclair; Carpino, Alexandra A. (eds.). A Companion to the Etruscans. Oxford and Malden: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 305–320. Olson, Kelly (2008). "6 The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl". In Edmondson, Johnathan; Keith, Alison (eds.). Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 139‒157. O'Sullivan, Timothy M. (2011). Walking in Roman Culture. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00096-4. Palmer, Robert E. A. (1996). "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464 L, or the Hazards of Interpretation". In Linderski, Jerzy (ed.). Imperium Sine Fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. pp. 75–102. Phang, Sar Elise (2008). Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88269-9. Pharr, Clyde (2001). The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions. Union, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-58477-146-3. Rankov, Boris; Hook, Richard (1994). The Praetorian Guard. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-855-32361-2. Roller, Matthew (2012). "13 Politics and Invective in Persius and Juvenal". In Braund, Susanna; Osgood, Josiah (eds.). A Companion to Persius and Juvenal. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 283‒311. ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0. Rothe, Ursula (2020). The Toga and Roman Identity. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4725-7154-0. Rothfus, Melissa A. (2010). "The Gens Togata: Changing Styles and Changing Identities" (PDF). American Journal of Philology. 131 (3): 425‒452. Sebesta, Judith Lynn (2001). "2 Symbolism in the Costume of the Roman Woman". In Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa (eds.). The World of Roman Costume. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 46–53. Schilling, Robert (1992) [1991]. "Roman Sacrifice". In Bonnefoy, Yves; Doniger, Wendy (eds.). Roman and European Mythologies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 77‒81. ISBN 0-226-06455-7. Scheid, John; Lloyd, Janet (translator) (2003). An Introduction to Roman Religion. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34377-1. Scullard, Howard Hayes (1980) [1935]. A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (Fourth Edition). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-30504-7. Shaw, Brent D. (2014) [2004]. "9: The Great Transformation: Slavery and the Free Republic". In Flower, Harriet I. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 187‒212. ISBN 978-1-107-03224-8. Söderlind, Martin (2002). Late Etruscan Votive Heads from Tessennano: Production, Distribution, Socio-Historical Context. Rome: "L'Erma" di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-8-882-65186-2. Stone, Shelley (2001). "1 The Toga: From National to Ceremonial Costume". In Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa (eds.). The World of Roman Costume. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 13–45. Toynbee, J. M. C. (1996) [1971]. Death and Burial in the Roman World. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-801-85507-8. van den Berg, Christopher S. (2012). "12 Imperial Satire and Rhetoric". In Braund, Susanna; Osgood, Josiah (eds.). A Companion to Persius and Juvenal. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 262‒282. ISBN 978-1-4051-9965-0. Vout, Caroline (1996). "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress". Greece & Rome. 43 (2): 204–220. doi:10.1093/gr/43.2.204. Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. London and New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0. Winter, Bruce W. (2001). After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change. Grand Rapids, WI: Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-802-84898-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toga. Doctor Toga Toga (Nova Roma) – How to make a toga William Smith's A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities on the toga v t e Historical clothing Clothing generally not worn today, except in historical settings Body-length Abolla Banyan Brunswick Chinese Court dress (Empire of Japan) Chiton Frock Frock coat Justacorps Paenula Peplos Stola Toga Tunic Xout lao Tops Basque Bedgown Bodice Doublet Peascod belly Poet shirt Sbai Suea pat Trousers Braccae Breeches Sompot Chong Kben Culottes Harem Knickerbockers Pedal pushers Skirts Hobble Poodle Sompot Sinh Train Dresses Bliaut Close-bodied gown Debutante Gown Kirtle Mantua Polonaise Sack-back gown Sailor Tea gown Swallow-tailed Outerwear Car coat Caraco Chlamys Cloak Kinsale cloak Dolman Doublet Duster Exomis Greatcoat Himation Houppelande Inverness cape Jerkin Kandys Norfolk jacket Overfrock Pañuelo Palla Pallium Pelisse Poncho Shadbelly Shawl Galway shawl Kullu Smock-frock Spencer Surcoat Surtout Ulster coat Visite Witzchoura Underwear Basque Bustle Chausses Chemise Codpiece Corselet Corset Waist cincher Dickey Garter Hoop skirt Crinoline Farthingale Pannier Hose Liberty bodice Loincloth Open drawers Pantalettes Petticoat Peignoir Pettipants Union suit Yếm Headwear Anthony Eden Apex Arakhchin Attifet Aviator Bergère Blessed hat Bonnet Capotain Caubeen Cavalier Coif Coonskin Cornette Chengziguan Dunce Fillet French hood Fontange Futou Gable hood Hennin Jewish Kausia Kokoshnik Llawt'u Matron's badge Miner's Mob Modius Monmouth Mooskappe Motoring hood Mounteere Nemes Nightcap Nón quai thao Ochipok Pahlavi Petasos Phrygian Pileus Printer's Pudding Qeleshe Qing Salakot Snood Smoking Tainia Taranga Welsh Wig Wimple Footwear Buskins Caligae Chopines Crakow Episcopal sandals Hessian Pampooties Sabatons Accessories Ascot tie Belt hook Cointoise Cravat Hairpin Hatpin Jabot Lavallière Muff Partlet Ruff Shoe buckle  Clothing portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toga&oldid=1028020013#Toga_virilis" Categories: Roman-era clothing Dresses Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from May 2021 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 10:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7354	----	Eusebius - Wikipedia Eusebius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Eusebius of Caesarea) Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek Christian scholar, c.260-c.340 For other uses, see Eusebius (disambiguation). Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius in a modern image. Born Eusebius 260–265 Caesarea Maritima Died 339–340 (aged 74–80) Occupation Bishop, historian, theologian Period Constantinian dynasty Notable works Ecclesiastical History, On the Life of Pamphilus, Chronicle, On the Martyrs {{{1}}} Eusebius of Caesarea (/juːˈsiːbiəs/; Greek: Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, Eusébios tés Kaisareías; AD 260/265 – 339/340), also known as Eusebius Pamphili (from the Greek: Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμϕίλου), was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist. He became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima about AD 314. Together with Pamphilus, he was a scholar of the biblical canon and is regarded as one of the most learned Christians of his time.[1] He wrote Demonstrations of the Gospel, Preparations for the Gospel and On Discrepancies between the Gospels, studies of the biblical text. As "Father of Church History"[note 1] (not to be confused with the title of Church Father), he produced the Ecclesiastical History, On the Life of Pamphilus, the Chronicle and On the Martyrs. He also produced a biographical work on Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who was augustus between AD 306 and AD 337. A portrait of St. Eusebius of Caesarea (left) and Ammonius of Alexandria (right), prefacing the letter Eusebius wrote to him in the Rabbula Gospels (6th cent. AD) Although Eusebius' works are regarded as giving insight into the history of the early church, he was not without prejudice, especially in regard to the Jews, for while "Eusebius indeed blames the Jews for the crucifixion of Jesus, he nevertheless also states that forgiveness can be granted even for this sin and that the Jews can receive salvation."[3] Some scholars question the accuracy of Eusebius' works. For example, at least one scholar, Lynn Cohick, dissents from the majority view that Eusebius is correct in identifying the Melito of Peri Pascha with the Quartodeciman bishop of Sardis. Cohick claims as support for her position that "Eusebius is a notoriously unreliable historian, and so anything he reports should be critically scrutinized."[4] Eusebius' Life of Constantine, which he wrote as a eulogy shortly after the emperor's death in AD 337, is "often maligned for perceived factual errors, deemed by some so hopelessly flawed that it cannot be the work of Eusebius at all."[5] Others attribute this perceived flaw in this particular work as an effort at creating an overly idealistic hagiography, calling him a "Constantinian flunky"[6] since, as a trusted adviser to Constantine, it would be politically expedient for him to present Constantine in the best light possible. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 3 Bishop of Caesarea 4 Death 5 Works 5.1 Onomasticon 5.2 Biblical text criticism 5.3 Chronicle 5.4 Church History 5.5 Life of Constantine 5.5.1 Conversion of Constantine according to Eusebius 5.6 Minor historical works 5.7 Apologetic and dogmatic works 5.8 Exegetical and miscellaneous works 6 Doctrine 6.1 Nicene Creed 7 Assessment 8 Bibliography 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Sources[edit] Little is known about the life of Eusebius. His successor at the See of Caesarea, Acacius, wrote a Life of Eusebius, a work that has since been lost. Eusebius' own surviving works probably only represent a small portion of his total output. Beyond notices in his extant writings, the major sources are the 5th-century ecclesiastical historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and the 4th-century Christian author Jerome. There are assorted notices of his activities in the writings of his contemporaries Athanasius, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Alexander of Alexandria. Eusebius' pupil, Eusebius of Emesa, provides some incidental information.[7] Early life[edit] Most scholars date the birth of Eusebius to some point between AD 260 and AD 265 .[1][8] He was most likely born in or around Caesarea Maritima.[1][9] Nothing is known about his parents.[10] He was baptized and instructed in the city, and lived in Syria Palaestina in 296, when Diocletian's army passed through the region (in the Life of Constantine, Eusebius recalls seeing Constantine traveling with the army).[11][12] Eusebius was made presbyter by Agapius of Caesarea.[11] Some, like theologian and ecclesiastical historian John Henry Newman, understand Eusebius' statement that he had heard Dorotheus of Tyre "expound the Scriptures wisely in the Church" to indicate that Eusebius was Dorotheus' pupil while the priest was resident in Antioch; others, like the scholar D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, deem the phrase too ambiguous to support the contention.[13] Through the activities of the theologian Origen (185/6–254) and the school of his follower Pamphilus (later 3rd century – 309), Caesarea became a center of Christian learning. Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information, or which churches were using which gospels, regarding the texts which became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History [HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen's list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were accepted by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.[14] On his deathbed, Origen had made a bequest of his private library to the Christian community in the city.[15] Together with the books of his patron Ambrosius, Origen's library (including the original manuscripts of his works[16][note 2]) formed the core of the collection that Pamphilus established.[18] Pamphilus also managed a school that was similar to (or perhaps a re-establishment of[19]) that of Origen.[20] Pamphilus was compared to Demetrius of Phalerum and Pisistratus, for he had gathered Bibles "from all parts of the world".[21] Like his model Origen, Pamphilus maintained close contact with his students. Eusebius, in his history of the persecutions, alludes to the fact that many of the Caesarean martyrs lived together, presumably under Pamphilus.[22] Soon after Pamphilus settled in Caesarea (ca. 280s), he began teaching Eusebius, who was then somewhere between twenty and twenty-five.[23] Because of his close relationship with his schoolmaster, Eusebius was sometimes called Eusebius Pamphili: "Eusebius, son of Pamphilus".[note 3] The name may also indicate that Eusebius was made Pamphilus' heir.[26] Pamphilus gave Eusebius a strong admiration for the thought of Origen.[27] Neither Pamphilus nor Eusebius knew Origen personally;[28] Pamphilus probably picked up Origenist ideas during his studies under Pierius (nicknamed "Origen Junior"[29]) in Alexandria.[30] Eusebius' Preparation for the Gospel bears witness to the literary tastes of Origen: Eusebius quotes no comedy, tragedy, or lyric poetry, but makes reference to all the works of Plato and to an extensive range of later philosophic works, largely from Middle Platonists from Philo to the late 2nd century.[31] Whatever its secular contents, the primary aim of Origen and Pamphilus' school was to promote sacred learning. The library's biblical and theological contents were more impressive: Origen's Hexapla and Tetrapla; a copy of the original Aramaic version of the Gospel of Matthew; and many of Origen's own writings.[23] Marginal comments in extant manuscripts note that Pamphilus and his friends and pupils, including Eusebius, corrected and revised much of the biblical text in their library.[23] Their efforts made the hexaplaric Septuagint text increasingly popular in Syria and Palestine.[32] Soon after joining Pamphilus' school, Eusebius started helping his master expand the library's collections and broaden access to its resources. At about this time Eusebius compiled a Collection of Ancient Martyrdoms, presumably for use as a general reference tool.[23] Eusebius of Caesarea and Carpianus depicted as Saints in a gospel book from monastery at Amba Geshan In the 290s, Eusebius began work on his most important work, the Ecclesiastical History, a narrative history of the Church and Christian community from the Apostolic Age to Eusebius' own time. At about the same time, he worked on his Chronicle, a universal calendar of events from the Creation to, again, Eusebius' own time. He completed the first editions of the Ecclesiastical History and Chronicle before 300.[33] Bishop of Caesarea[edit] Eusebius succeeded Agapius as Bishop of Caesarea soon after 313 and was called on by Arius who had been excommunicated by his bishop Alexander of Alexandria. An episcopal council in Caesarea pronounced Arius blameless.[34] Eusebius enjoyed the favor of the Emperor Constantine. Because of this he was called upon to present the creed of his own church to the 318 attendees of the Council of Nicaea in 325.[35] However, the anti-Arian creed from Palestine prevailed, becoming the basis for the Nicene Creed.[36] The theological views of Arius, that taught the subordination of the Son to the Father, continued to be controversial. Eustathius of Antioch strongly opposed the growing influence of Origen's theology, as the root of Arianism. Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith. Eusebius prevailed and Eustathius was deposed at a synod in Antioch.[citation needed] However, Athanasius of Alexandria became a more powerful opponent and in 334 he was summoned before a synod in Caesarea (which he refused to attend). In the following year, he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius of Caesarea presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to Constantinople to bring his cause before the Emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of 335. Eusebius remained in the Emperor's favour throughout this time and more than once was exonerated with the explicit approval of the Emperor Constantine.[citation needed] After the Emperor's death (c. 337), Eusebius wrote the Life of Constantine, an important historical work because of eyewitness accounts and the use of primary sources.[37] Death[edit] Much like his birth, the exact date of Eusebius' death is unknown. However, there is primary text evidence from a council held in Antioch that by the year 341, his successor Acacius had already filled the seat as Bishop. Socrates and Sozomen write about Eusebius' death, and place it just before Constantine's son Constantine II died, which was in early 340. They also say that it was after the second banishment of Athanasius, which began in mid 339. This means that his death occurred some time between the second half of 339 and early 340.[38][39] Works[edit] Armenian translation of Chronicon. 13th century manuscript Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence, much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been lost. The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first, he occupied himself with works on biblical criticism under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of Tyre of the School of Antioch. Afterward, the persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past, and this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which, to him, was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history. Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and dogmatic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems – apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works that extended over the whole of his life and that include both commentaries and an important treatise on the location of biblical place names and the distances between these cities. Onomasticon[edit] Main article: Onomasticon (Eusebius) Biblical text criticism[edit] Eusebius's canon tables were often included in Early Medieval Gospel books Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the textual criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together. These canon tables or "Eusebian canons" remained in use throughout the Middle Ages, and illuminated manuscript versions are important for the study of early medieval art, as they are the most elaborately decorated pages of many Gospel books. Eusebius detailed in Epistula ad Carpianum how to use his canons. Chronicle[edit] Main article: Chronicon (Eusebius) The Chronicle (Παντοδαπὴ Ἱστορία (Pantodape historia)) is divided into two parts. The first part, the Chronography (Χρονογραφία (Chronographia)), gives an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part, the Canons (Χρονικοὶ Κανόνες (Chronikoi kanones)), furnishes a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel timeline.[40] The work as a whole has been lost in the original Greek, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work, especially George Syncellus. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given the Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius' Chronicle, of which only a few fragments exist in Greek, has been preserved entirely in Armenian, though with lacunae. The Chronicle as preserved extends to the year 325.[41] Church History[edit] Main article: Church History (Eusebius) In his Church History or Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius wrote the first surviving history of the Christian Church as a chronologically-ordered account, based on earlier sources, complete from the period of the Apostles to his own epoch.[42] The time scheme correlated the history with the reigns of the Roman Emperors, and the scope was broad. Included were the bishops and other teachers of the Church, Christian relations with the Jews and those deemed heretical, and the Christian martyrs through 324.[43] Although its accuracy and biases have been questioned,[44] it remains an important source on the early church due to Eusebius's access to materials now lost.[45] Life of Constantine[edit] Eusebius' Life of Constantine (Vita Constantini) is a eulogy or panegyric, and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the Church History. As the historian Socrates Scholasticus said, at the opening of his history which was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, "Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor than on an accurate statement of facts." The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death. Some scholars have questioned the Eusebian authorship of this work. Conversion of Constantine according to Eusebius[edit] Main article: Constantine the Great and Christianity Writing decades after Constantine had died, Eusebius claimed that the emperor himself had recounted to him that some time between the death of his father – the augustus Constantius – and his final battle against his rival Maxentius as augustus in the West, Constantine experienced a vision in which he and his soldiers beheld a Christian symbol, "a cross-shaped trophy formed from light", above the sun at midday.[46][47] Attached to the symbol was the phrase "by this conquer" (ἐν τούτῳ νίκα, en toútōi níka), a phrase often rendered into Latin as "in hoc signo vinces".[46] In a dream that night "the Christ of God appeared to him with the sign which had appeared in the sky, and urged him to make himself a copy of the sign which had appeared in the sky, and to use this as a protection against the attacks of the enemy."[47] Eusebius relates that this happened "on a campaign he [Constantine] was conducting somewhere".[47][46] It is unclear from Eusebius's description whether the shields were marked with a Christian cross or with a chi-rho, a staurogram, or another similar symbol.[46] The Latin text De mortibus persecutorum contains an early account of the 28 October 312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge written by Lactantius probably in 313, the year following the battle. Lactantius does not mention a vision in the sky but describes a revelatory dream on the eve of battle.[48] Eusebius's work of that time, his Church History, also makes no mention of the vision.[46] The Arch of Constantine, constructed in AD 315, neither depicts a vision nor any Christian insignia in its depiction of the battle. In his posthumous biography of Constantine, Eusebius agrees with Lactantius that Constantine received instructions in a dream to apply a Christian symbol as a device to his soldiers' shields, but unlike Lactantius and subsequent Christian tradition, Eusebius does not date the events to October 312 and does not connect Constantine's vision and dream-vision with the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.[46] Minor historical works[edit] Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained: an epistle of the congregation of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp; the martyrdom of Pionius; the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike; the martyrdoms in the congregations of Vienne and Lyon; the martyrdom of Apollonius. Of the life of Pamphilus, only a fragment survives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which have yet to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated into it. Apologetic and dogmatic works[edit] To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong: The Apology for Origen, the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by Rufinus. A treatise against Hierocles (a Roman governor), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of Apollonius of Tyana in a work entitled A Truth-loving Discourse (Greek: Philalethes logos); in spite of manuscript attribution to Eusebius, however, it has been argued (by Thomas Hagg[49] and more recently, Aaron Johnson)[50] that this treatise "Against Hierocles" was written by someone other than Eusebius of Caesarea. Praeparatio evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The Praeparatio consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved Pyrrho's translation of the Buddhist Three marks of existence upon which Pyrrho based Pyrrhonism. Here alone is a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables. Here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods. And here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else. Demonstratio evangelica (Proof of the Gospel) is closely connected to the Praeparatio and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311; Another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled Prophetic Extracts (Eclogae propheticae). It discusses in four books the Messianic texts of Scripture. The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6–9) of the General elementary introduction to the Christian faith, now lost. The fragments given as the Commentary on Luke in the PG have been claimed to derive from the missing tenth book of the General Elementary Introduction (see D. S. Wallace-Hadrill); however, Aaron Johnson has argued that they cannot be associated with this work.[51] The treatise On Divine Manifestation or On the Theophania (Peri theophaneias), of unknown date. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine Logos, and its contents are in many cases identical with the Demonstratio evangelica. Only fragments are preserved in Greek, but a complete Syriac translation of the Theophania survives in an early 5th-century manuscript. Samuel Lee, the editor (1842) and translator (1843) of the Syriac Theophania, thought that the work must have been written "after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the 'Praeparatio,' or the 'Demonstratio Evangelica,' was written ...It appears probable ... therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased."[52] Hugo Gressmann, noting in 1904 that the Demonstratio seems to be mentioned at IV. 37 and V. 1, and that II. 14 seems to mention the extant practice of temple prostitution at Hieropolis in Phoenica, concluded that the Theophania was probably written shortly after 324. Others have suggested a date as late as 337.[53] A polemical treatise against Marcellus of Ancyra, the Against Marcellus, dating from about 337; A supplement to the last-named work, also against Marcellus, entitled Ecclesiastical Theology, in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius. A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost. Exegetical and miscellaneous works[edit] All of the exegetical works of Eusebius have suffered damage in transmission. The majority of them are known to us only from long portions quoted in Byzantine catena-commentaries. However these portions are very extensive. Extant are: An enormous Commentary on the Psalms; A commentary on Isaiah, discovered more or less complete in a manuscript in Florence early in the 20th century and published 50 years later; Small fragments of commentaries on Romans and 1 Corinthians. Eusebius also wrote a work Quaestiones ad Stephanum et Marinum, On the Differences of the Gospels (including solutions). This was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists. This work was recently (2011) translated into the English language by David J. Miller and Adam C. McCollum and was published under the name Eusebius of Caesarea: Gospel Problems and Solutions.[54] The original work was also translated into Syriac, and lengthy quotations exist in a catena in that language, and also in Arabic catenas.[55] Eusebius also wrote treatises on the biblical past; these three treatises have been lost. They were: A work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns; A description of old Judea with an account of the loss of the ten tribes; A plan of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon. The addresses and sermons of Eusebius are mostly lost, but some have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Most of Eusebius' letters are lost. His letters to Carpianus and Flacillus exist complete. Fragments of a letter to the empress Constantia also exists. Doctrine[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Eusebius is fairly unusual in his preterist, or fulfilled, eschatological view. Saying "the Holy Scriptures foretell that there will be unmistakable signs of the Coming of Christ. Now there were among the Hebrews three outstanding offices of dignity, which made the nation famous, firstly the kingship, secondly that of prophet, and lastly the high priesthood. The prophecies said that the abolition and complete destruction of all these three together would be the sign of the presence of the Christ. And that the proofs that the times had come, would lie in the ceasing of the Mosaic worship, the desolation of Jerusalem and its Temple, and the subjection of the whole Jewish race to its enemies. ...The holy oracles foretold that all these changes, which had not been made in the days of the prophets of old, would take place at the coming of the Christ, which I will presently shew to have been fulfilled as never before in accordance with the predictions" (Demonstratio Evangelica VIII). From a dogmatic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of Origen. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (monarchia) of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Eusebius expressly distinguishes the Son as distinct from Father as a ray is also distinct from its source the sun.[citation needed] Eusebius held that men were sinners by their own free choice and not by the necessity of their natures. Eusebius said: The Creator of all things has impressed a natural law upon the soul of every man, as an assistant and ally in his conduct, pointing out to him the right way by this law; but, by the free liberty with which he is endowed, making the choice of what is best worthy of praise and acceptance, he has acted rightly, not by force, but from his own free-will, when he had it in his power to act otherwise, As, again, making him who chooses what is worst, deserving of blame and punishment, because he has by his own motion neglected the natural law, and becoming the origin and fountain of wickedness, and misusing himself, not from any extraneous necessity, but from free will and judgment. The fault is in him who chooses, not in God. For God has not made nature or the substance of the soul bad; for he who is good can make nothing but what is good. Everything is good which is according to nature. Every rational soul has naturally a good free-will, formed for the choice of what is good. But when a man acts wrongly, nature is not to be blamed; for what is wrong, takes place not according to nature, but contrary to nature, it being the work of choice, and not of nature.[56] A letter Eusebius is supposed to have written to Constantine's daughter Constantina, refusing to fulfill her request for images of Christ, was quoted in the decrees (now lost) of the Iconoclast Council of Hieria in 754, and later quoted in part in the rebuttal of the Hieria decrees in the Second Council of Nicaea of 787, now the only source from which some of the text is known. The authenticity or authorship of the letter remains uncertain.[57] Nicene Creed[edit] In the June 2002 issue of the Church History journal, Pier Beatrice reports that Eusebius testified that the word homoousios (consubstantial) "was inserted in the Nicene Creed solely by the personal order of Constantine."[58] According to Eusebius of Caesarea, the word homoousios was inserted in the Nicene Creed solely by the personal order of Constantine. But this statement is highly problematic. It is very difficult to explain the seeming paradoxical fact that this word, along with the explanation given by Constantine, was accepted by the "Arian" Eusebius, whereas it has left no traces at all in the works of his opponents, the leaders of the anti-Arian party such as Alexander of Alexandria, Ossius of Cordova, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Eustathius of Antioch, who are usually considered Constantine's theological advisers and the strongest supporters of the council. Neither before nor during Constantine's time is there any evidence of a normal, well-established Christian use of the term homoousios in its strictly Trinitarian meaning. Having once excluded any relationship of the Nicene homoousios with the Christian tradition, it becomes legitimate to propose a new explanation, based on an analysis of two pagan documents which have so far never been taken into account. The main thesis of this paper is that homoousios came straight from Constantine's Hermetic background. As can be clearly seen in the Poimandres, and even more clearly in an inscription mentioned exclusively in the Theosophia, in the theological language of Egyptian paganism the word homoousios meant that the Nous-Father and the Logos-Son, who are two distinct beings, share the same perfection of the divine nature. — Pier Franco Beatrice, "The Word 'Homoousios' from Hellenism to Christianity", Church History, Volume 71, № 2, June 2002, p. 243 Assessment[edit] Edward Gibbon openly distrusted the writings of Eusebius concerning the number of martyrs, by noting a passage in the shorter text of the Martyrs of Palestine attached to the Ecclesiastical History (Book 8, Chapter 2) in which Eusebius introduces his description of the martyrs of the Great Persecution under Diocletian with: "Wherefore we have decided to relate nothing concerning them except the things in which we can vindicate the Divine judgment. ...We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity." In the longer text of the same work, chapter 12, Eusebius states: "I think it best to pass by all the other events which occurred in the meantime: such as ... the lust of power on the part of many, the disorderly and unlawful ordinations, and the schisms among the confessors themselves; also the novelties which were zealously devised against the remnants of the Church by the new and factious members, who added innovation after innovation and forced them in unsparingly among the calamities of the persecution, heaping misfortune upon misfortune. I judge it more suitable to shun and avoid the account of these things, as I said at the beginning." When his own honesty was challenged by his contemporaries,[59] Gibbon appealed to a chapter heading in Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica (Book XII, Chapter 31)[60] in which Eusebius discussed "that it will be necessary sometimes to use falsehood as a remedy for the benefit of those who require such a mode of treatment."[61] Although Gibbon refers to Eusebius as the "gravest" of the ecclesiastical historians,[62] he also suggests that Eusebius was more concerned with the passing political concerns of his time than with his duty as a reliable historian.[63] Jacob Burckhardt (19th century cultural historian) dismissed Eusebius as "the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity". Other critics of Eusebius' work cite the panegyrical tone of the Vita, plus the omission of internal Christian conflicts in the Canones, as reasons to interpret his writing with caution.[64] Alternate views have suggested that Gibbon's dismissal of Eusebius is inappropriate: With reference to Gibbon's comments, Joseph Barber Lightfoot (late 19th century theologian and former Bishop of Durham) pointed out[65] that Eusebius' statements indicate his honesty in stating what he was not going to discuss, and also his limitations as a historian in not including such material. He also discusses the question of accuracy. "The manner in which Eusebius deals with his very numerous quotations elsewhere, where we can test his honesty, is a sufficient vindication against this unjust charge." Lightfoot also notes that Eusebius cannot always be relied on: "A far more serious drawback to his value as a historian is the loose and uncritical spirit in which he sometimes deals with his materials. This shows itself in diverse ways. He is not always to be trusted in his discrimination of genuine and spurious documents." Averil Cameron (professor at King's College London and Oxford) and Stuart Hall (historian and theologian), in their recent translation of the Life of Constantine, point out that writers such as Burckhardt found it necessary to attack Eusebius in order to undermine the ideological legitimacy of the Habsburg empire, which based itself on the idea of Christian empire derived from Constantine, and that the most controversial letter in the Life has since been found among the papyri of Egypt.[66] In Church History (Vol. 59, 1990), Michael J. Hollerich (assistant professor at the Jesuit Santa Clara University, California) replies to Burckhardt's criticism of Eusebius, that "Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment." Hollerich concludes that "the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar". While many have shared Burckhardt's assessment, particularly with reference to the Life of Constantine, others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works which may principally reside in the copious quotations that they contain from other sources, often lost. Bibliography[edit] Eusebius of Caesarea. Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) first seven books ca. 300, eighth and ninth book ca. 313, tenth book ca. 315, epilogue ca. 325. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik and Documenta Catholica Omnia. Accessed 4 November 2009. McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed 28 September 2009. Williamson, G.A., trans. Church History. London: Penguin, 1989. Contra Hieroclem (Against Hierocles). Onomasticon (On the Place-Names in Holy Scripture). Klostermann, E., ed. Eusebius' Werke 3.1 (Die griechischen christlichen Schrifsteller der ersten (drei) Jahrhunderte 11.1. Leipzig and Berlin, 1904). Online at the Internet Archive. Accessed 29 January 2010. Wolf, Umhau, trans. The Onomasticon of Eusebius Pamphili: Compared with the version of Jerome and annotated. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1971. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 29 January 2010. Taylor, Joan E., ed. Palestine in the Fourth Century. The Onomasticon by Eusebius of Caesarea, translated by Greville Freeman-Grenville, and indexed by Rupert Chapman III (Jerusalem: Carta, 2003). De Martyribus Palestinae (On the Martyrs of Palestine). McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Martyrs of Palestine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed June 9, 2009. Cureton, William, trans. History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Online at Tertullian. Accessed September 28, 2009. Praeparatio Evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel). Demonstratio Evangelica (Demonstration of the Gospel). Theophania (Theophany). Laudes Constantini (In Praise of Constantine) 335. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik. Accessed 4 November 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 19 October 2009. Vita Constantini (The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine) ca. 336–39. Migne, J.P., ed. Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta (in Greek). Patrologia Graeca 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at Khazar Skeptik. Accessed 4 November 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 9 June 2009. Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Gregory Thaumaturgus. Oratio Panegyrica. Salmond, S.D.F., trans. From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 6. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 31 January 2010. Jerome. Chronicon (Chronicle) ca. 380. Fotheringham, John Knight, ed. The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the Chronicle of Eusebius. Oxford: Clarendon, 1905. Online at the Internet Archive. Accessed 8 October 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome, in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts. Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 14 August 2009. de Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) 392. Herding, W., ed. De Viris Illustribus (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner, 1879. Online at Internet Archive. Accessed 6 October 2009. Liber de viris inlustribus (in Latin). Texte und Untersuchungen 14. Leipzig, 1896. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men). From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 15 August 2009. Epistulae (Letters). Fremantle, W.H., G. Lewis and W.G. Martley, trans. Letters. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 6. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent and CCEL. Accessed 19 October 2009. Origen. De Principiis (On First Principles). See also[edit] Church Fathers Constantine I and Christianity Early Christianity Fifty Bibles of Constantine Travelogues of Palestine Notes[edit] ^ Eusebius is considered the first historian of Christianity.[2] ^ Pamphilus might not have obtained all of Origen's writings, however: the library's text of Origen's commentary on Isaiah broke off at 30:6, while the original commentary was said to have taken up thirty volumes.[17] ^ There are three interpretations of this term: (1) that Eusebius was the "spiritual son", or favored pupil, of Pamphilus;[24] (2) that Eusebius was literally adopted by Pamphilus;[23] and (3) that Eusebius was Pamphilus' biological son. The third explanation is the least popular among scholars. The scholion on the Preparation for the Gospels 1.3 in the Codex Paris. 451 is usually adduced in support of the thesis. Most reject the scholion as too late or misinformed, but E. H. Gifford, an editor and translator of the Preparation, believes it to have been written by Arethas, the tenth-century archbishop of Caesarea, who was in a position to know the truth of the matter.[25] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Gonzalez, Justo L. (2010-08-10). The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. Zondervan. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-0-06-185588-7. ^ "General Audience of 13 June 2007: Eusebius of Caesarea | BENEDICT XVI". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2021-06-01. ^ Pamphili, Eusebius (2013). Elowsky (ed.). Commentary on Isaiah. Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic. pp. xxxii. ISBN 9780830829132. ^ Lang, T.J. (2015). Mystery and the Making of a Christian Historical Consciousness. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. p. 195. ISBN 978-3-11-044267-0. ^ Ferguson, Thomas C. (2005). The Past is Prologue: The Revolution of Nicene Historiography. Leiden/Boston: Brill. pp. 10. ISBN 90-04-14457-9. ^ Ferguson (15 June 2005). The Past is Prologue: The Revolution of Nicene Historiography. p. 49. ISBN 9789047407836. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 11. ^ Barnes, Timothy David (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Harvard University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1. Between 260-265 birth of Eusebius ^ Louth, "Birth of church history", 266; Quasten, 3.309. ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Eusebius of Caesarea". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2020-05-29. ^ a b Wallace-Hadrill, 12, citing Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica 1.8; Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica 1.11. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 12, citing Vita Constantini 1.19. ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 7.32.4, qtd. and tr. D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, 12; Wallace-Hadrill cites J. H. Newman, The Arians of the Fourth Century (1890), 262, in 12 n. 4. ^ C.G. Bateman, Origen’s Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon, 2010. ^ Quasten, 3.309. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.32.3–4; Kofsky, 12. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 333 n. 114, citing Eusebius, HE 6.32.1; In Is. pp. 195.20–21 Ziegler. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.32.3–4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93; idem., "Eusebius of Caesarea", 2 col. 2. ^ Levine, 124–25. ^ Kofsky, 12, citing Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 7.32.25. On Origen's school, see: Gregory, Oratio Panegyrica; Kofsky, 12–13. ^ Levine, 125. ^ Levine, 122. ^ a b c d e Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 94. ^ Quasten, 3.310. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 12 n. 1. ^ Wallace-Hadrill, 11–12. ^ Quasten, 3.309–10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93, 95; Louth, "Birth of church history", 266. ^ Jerome, de Viris Illustribus 76, qtd. and tr. Louth, "Birth of church history", 266. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 93–94. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 277; Wallace-Hadrill, 12–13. ^ Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings from Nazareth to Nicea. Allen Lane the Penguin Press. p. 228. ^ Walker, Williston (1959). A History of the Christian Church. Scribner. p. 108. ^ Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, (2nd ed. Dallas, Texas: Word Publishing, 1995.), p.102. ^ Cameron, Averil; Hall, Stuart G., eds. (1999). Eusebius' Life of Constantine. Clarendon Ancient History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-158847-1. ^ Schaff, Philip and Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Ph.D. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, (1890). 27. ^ Colm Luibheid, The Essential Eusebius : The Story of the First Centuries of the Christian Church in the Words of Its Greatest Historian, Mentor-Omega Press, 1966, p 31. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 112. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 112–13, 340 n. 58. ^ Chesnut, Glenn F. (1986), "Introduction", The First Christian Histories: Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius ^ Maier, Paul L. (2007), Eusebius: The Church History – Translation and Commentary by Paul L. Maier, p. 9 and 16 ^ See, e.g., James the Brother of Jesus (book) by Robert Eisenman. ^ "Ecclesiastical History", Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent ^ a b c d e f Bardill, Jonathan; Bardill (2012). Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159–170. ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0. ^ a b c Eusebius of Caesarea, Vita Constantini, 1.29 ^ Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 44.5–6 ^ Thomas Hagg, "Hierocles the Lover of Truth and Eusebius the Sophist," SO 67 (1992): 138–50 ^ Aaron Johnson, "The Author of the Against Hierocles: A Response to Borzì and Jones," JTS 64 (2013): 574–594) ^ Aaron Johnson, "The Tenth Book of Eusebius' General Elementary Introduction: A Critique of the Wallace-Hadrill Thesis," Journal of Theological Studies, 62.1 (2011): 144–160 ^ Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea On the Theophania, or Divine Manifestation of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (Cambridge, 1843), pp. xxi–xxii. Lee's full passage is as follows: "As to the period at which it was written, I think it must have been, after the general peace restored to the Church by Constantine, and before either the "Praeparatio", or the "Demonstratio Evangelica", was written. My reason for the first of these suppositions is: Our author speaks repeatedly of the peace restored to the Church; of Churches and Schools restored, or then built for the first time : of the nourishing state of the Church of Caesarea; of the extended, and then successfully extending, state of Christianity : all of which could not have been said during the times of the last, and most severe persecution. My reasons for the second of these suppositions are, the considerations that whatever portions of this Work are found, either in the "Praeparatio", |22 the "Demonstratio Evangelica", or the " Oratio de laudibus Constantini", they there occur in no regular sequence of argument as they do in this Work: especially in the latter, into which they have been carried evidently for the purpose of lengthening out a speech. Besides, many of these places are amplified in these works, particularly in the two former as remarked in my notes; which seems to suggest, that such additions were made either to accommodate these to the new soil, into which they had been so transplanted, or, to supply some new matter, which had suggested itself to our author. And again, as both the "Praeparatio" and "Demonstratio Evangelica", are works which must have required very considerable time to complete them, and which would even then be unfit for general circulation; it appears probable to me, that this more popular, and more useful work, was first composed and published, and that the other two,--illustrating as they generally do, some particular points only,--argued in order in our Work,-- were reserved for the reading and occasional writing of our author during a considerable number of years, as well for the satisfaction of his own mind, as for the general reading of the learned. It appears probable to me therefore, that this was one of the first productions of Eusebius, if not the first after the persecutions ceased." ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Harvard, 1981), p. 367, n.176. Note that Lee (p. 285) thinks that the passage in V. 1 refers to an earlier section within the Theophania itself, rather than to the Demonstratio. ^ Caesaea, Eusebius of; Miller, David J. D.; McCollum, Adam C.; Downer, Carol; Zamagni, Claudio (2010-03-06). Eusebius of Caesarea: Gospel Problems and Solutions (Ancient Texts in Translation): Roger Pearse, David J Miller, Adam C McCollum: 9780956654014: Amazon.com: Books. ISBN 978-0956654014. ^ Georg Graf, Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur vol. 1 ^ The Christian Examiner, Volume One, published by James Miller, 1824 Edition, p. 66 ^ David M. Gwynn, "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy" [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251], p. 227-245. ^ Beatrice, Pier Franco (June 2002). "The Word "Homoousios" from Hellenism to Christianity". Church History. 71 (2): 243–272. doi:10.1017/S0009640700095688. JSTOR 4146467. S2CID 162605872. ^ See Gibbon's Vindication for examples of the accusations that he faced. ^ "Eusebius of Caesarea: Praeparatio Evangelica (translated by E.H. Gifford)". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2013-03-04. ^ "Data for discussing the meaning of pseudos and Eusebius in PE XII, 31". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2008-02-01. ^ "The gravest of the ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius himself, indirectly confesses, that he has related whatever might redound to the glory, and that he has suppressed all that could tend to the disgrace, of religion." (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol II, Chapter XVI) ^ "Such an acknowledgment will naturally excite a suspicion that a writer who has so openly violated one of the fundamental laws of history has not paid a very strict regard to the observance of the other; and the suspicion will derive additional credit from the character of Eusebius, which was less tinctured with credulity, and more practised in the arts of courts, than that of almost any of his contemporaries." (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol II, Chapter XVI) ^ Burgess, R. W., and Witold Witakowski. 1999. Studies in Eusebian and Post-Eusebian chronography 1. The "Chronici canones" of Eusebius of Caesarea: structure, content and chronology, AD 282–325 – 2. The "Continuatio Antiochiensis Eusebii": a chronicle of Antioch and the Roman Near East during the Reigns of Constantine and Constantius II, AD 325–350. Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany), Heft 135. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. Page 69. ^ "J.B. Lightfoot, Eusebius of Caesarea". tertullian.org. Retrieved 2008-02-01. ^ Averil Cameron, Stuart G. Hall, Eusebius' Life of Constantine. Introduction, translation and commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Pp. xvii + 395. ISBN 0-19-814924-7. Reviewed in BMCR Sources[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16530-4. Eusebius (1999). Life of Constantine. Averil Cameron and Stuart G. Hall, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814924-8. Drake, H. A. (2002). Constantine and the bishops the policy of intolerance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7104-7. Kofsky, Aryeh (2000). Eusebius of Caesarea against paganism. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11642-9. Lawlor, Hugh Jackson (1912). Eusebiana: essays on the Ecclesiastical history of Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Levine, Lee I. (1975). Caesarea under Roman rule. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04013-7. Louth, Andrew (2004). "Eusebius and the Birth of Church History". In Young, Frances; Ayres, Lewis; Louth, Andrew (eds.). The Cambridge history of early Christian literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 266–274. ISBN 978-0-521-46083-5. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1989). On pagans, Jews, and Christians. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6218-0. Newman, John Henry (1890). The Arians of the Fourth Century (7th ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107). Wallace-Hadrill, D. S. (1960). Eusebius of Caesarea. London: A. R. Mowbray. Further reading[edit] Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei, eds. (1992). Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-2361-8. Chesnut, Glenn F. (1986). The first Christian histories : Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius (2nd ed.). Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-164-1. Drake, H. A. (1976). In praise of Constantine : a historical study and new translation of Eusebius' Tricennial orations. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-09535-9. Eusebius (1984). The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. G.A. Williamson, trans. New York: Dorset Press. ISBN 978-0-88029-022-7. Grant, Robert M. (1980). Eusebius as Church Historian. Oxford: Clarendon Pr. ISBN 978-0-19-826441-5. Valois, Henri de (1833). "Annotations on the Life and Writings of Eusebius Pamphilus". The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. S. E. Parker, trans. Philadelphia: Davis. External links[edit] WMF project links Media related to Eusebius of Caesarea at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Eusebius at Wikiquote Works written by or about Eusebius of Caesarea at Wikisource Primary sources Church History (Eusebius); The Life of Constantine (Eusebius), online at ccel.org. History of the Martyrs in Palestine (Eusebius), English translation (1861) William Cureton. Website tertullian.org. Eusebius of Caesarea, The Gospel Canon Tables Eusebius, Six extracts from the Commentary on the Psalms. Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes complete Greek text of Eusebius' works Works by or about Eusebius at Internet Archive Works by Eusebius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Secondary sources "Eusebius" in New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia (1917) Eusebius of Caesarea at the Tertullian Project Extensive bibliography at EarlyChurch.org Chronological list of Eusebius's writings Titles of the Great Christian Church Preceded by Agapius of Caesarea Bishop of Caesarea c. 313–339 Succeeded by Acacius v t e History of Catholic theology Key figures General History of the Catholic Church Timeline History of the papacy Papal primacy Ecumenical councils Catholic Bible Vulgate Biblical canon History of Christian theology Early Church Paul Clement of Rome First Epistle of Clement Didache Ignatius of Antioch Polycarp Epistle of Barnabas The Shepherd of Hermas Aristides of Athens Justin Martyr Epistle to Diognetus Irenaeus Montanism Tertullian Origen Antipope Novatian Cyprian Constantine to Pope Gregory I Eusebius Athanasius of Alexandria Arianism Pelagianism Nestorianism Monophysitism Ephrem the Syrian Hilary of Poitiers Cyril of Jerusalem Basil of Caesarea Gregory of Nazianzus Gregory of Nyssa Ambrose John Chrysostom Jerome Augustine of Hippo John Cassian Orosius Cyril of Alexandria Peter Chrysologus Pope Leo I Boethius Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Pope Gregory I Early Middle Ages Isidore of Seville John Climacus Maximus the Confessor Monothelitism Ecthesis Bede John of Damascus Iconoclasm Transubstantiation dispute Predestination disputes Paulinus II of Aquileia Alcuin Benedict of Aniane Rabanus Maurus Paschasius Radbertus John Scotus Eriugena High Middle Ages Roscellinus Gregory of Narek Berengar of Tours Peter Damian Anselm of Canterbury Joachim of Fiore Peter Abelard Decretum Gratiani Bernard of Clairvaux Peter Lombard Anselm of Laon Hildegard of Bingen Hugh of Saint Victor Dominic de Guzmán Robert Grosseteste Francis of Assisi Anthony of Padua Beatrice of Nazareth Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Boetius of Dacia Henry of Ghent Thomas Aquinas Siger of Brabant Thomism Roger Bacon Mysticism and reforms Ramon Llull Duns Scotus Dante Alighieri William of Ockham Richard Rolle John of Ruusbroec Catherine of Siena Bridget of Sweden Meister Eckhart Johannes Tauler Walter Hilton The Cloud of Unknowing Heinrich Seuse Geert Groote Devotio Moderna Julian of Norwich Thomas à Kempis Nicholas of Cusa Marsilio Ficino Girolamo Savonarola Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Reformation Counter-Reformation Erasmus Thomas Cajetan Thomas More John Fisher Johann Eck Francisco de Vitoria Thomas of Villanova Ignatius of Loyola Francisco de Osuna John of Ávila Francis Xavier Teresa of Ávila Luis de León John of the Cross Peter Canisius Luis de Molina (Molinism) Robert Bellarmine Francisco Suárez Lawrence of Brindisi Francis de Sales Baroque period to French Revolution Tommaso Campanella Pierre de Bérulle Pierre Gassendi René Descartes Mary of Jesus of Ágreda António Vieira Jean-Jacques Olier Louis Thomassin Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet François Fénelon Cornelius Jansen (Jansenism) Blaise Pascal Nicolas Malebranche Giambattista Vico Alphonsus Liguori Louis de Montfort Maria Gaetana Agnesi Alfonso Muzzarelli Johann Michael Sailer Clement Mary Hofbauer Bruno Lanteri 19th century Joseph Görres Félicité de La Mennais Luigi Taparelli Antonio Rosmini Ignaz von Döllinger John Henry Newman Henri Lacordaire Jaime Balmes Gaetano Sanseverino Giovanni Maria Cornoldi Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler Giuseppe Pecci Joseph Hergenröther Tommaso Maria Zigliara Matthias Joseph Scheeben Émile Boutroux Modernism Neo-scholasticism Léon Bloy Désiré-Joseph Mercier Friedrich von Hügel Vladimir Solovyov Marie-Joseph Lagrange George Tyrrell Maurice Blondel Thérèse of Lisieux 20th century G. 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en-wikipedia-org-7357	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Writings== {{main|Meditations}} While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his ''[[Meditations]]'' in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. ''Meditations'' is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of [[Christina of Sweden]], [[Frederick the Great]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Matthew Arnold]], and [[Goethe]], and is admired by modern figures such as [[Wen Jiabao]] and [[Bill Clinton]].<ref>Hays, p. xlix.</ref> It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.<ref name='Collins1973'>Collins, p. 58.</ref> It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and [[Julian the Apostate]] was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention ''Meditations''.<ref>Stertz, p. 434, citing Themistius, ''Oratio'' 6.81; ''HA Cassius'' 3.5; Victor, ''De Caesaribus'' 16.9.</ref> It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from [[Arethas of Caesarea]] in the 10th century and in the Byzantine [[Suda]] (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by [[Wilhelm Xylander|Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann)]], from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.<ref>Hays, pp. xlviii–xlix.</ref> The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the [[Vatican library]] and dates to the 14th century.<ref>Hadot, p. 22.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7376	----	Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Statue of Marcus Aurelius (detail) in the Capitoline Museums in Rome. The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius is an ancient Roman equestrian statue on the Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy. It is made of bronze and stands 4.24 m (13.9 ft) tall. Although the emperor is mounted, it exhibits many similarities to standing statues of Augustus. The original is on display in the Capitoline Museums, with the one now standing in the open air of the Piazza del Campidoglio being a replica made in 1981 when the original was taken down for restoration. Contents 1 Description 2 History 3 Cultural references 4 Gallery 4.1 Original 4.2 Replica 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Description[edit] The replica of the statue in the Campidoglio The overall theme is one of power and divine grandeur—the emperor is over life-size and extends his hand in a gesture of adlocutio used by emperors when addressing their troops. Some historians assert that a conquered enemy was originally part of the sculpture (based on accounts from mediaeval times, including the Mirabilia Urbis Romae, that suggest a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once cowered underneath the horse's front right leg).[1] Such an image was meant to portray the Emperor as victorious and all-conquering. However, shown without weapons or armour, Marcus Aurelius seems to be a bringer of peace rather than a military hero, for this is how he saw himself and his reign. He is riding without the use of stirrups, which had not yet been introduced to the West. While the horse has been meticulously studied in order to be recreated for other artists' works, the saddle cloth was copied with the thought that it was part of the standard Roman uniform. The saddle cloth is actually Sarmatian in origin, suggesting that the horse is a Sarmatian horse and that the statue was created to honour the victory over the Sarmatians by Marcus Aurelius, after which he adopted "Sarmaticus" to his name.[2] History[edit] The inscription on the plinth of the statue, commissioned by Pope Paul III. The statue was erected ca. 175 AD. Its original location is debated: the Roman Forum and Piazza Colonna (where the Column of Marcus Aurelius stands) have been proposed.[1] However, it was noted that the site where it had originally stood had been converted into a vineyard during the early Middle Ages.[3] Although there were many equestrian imperial statues, they rarely survived because it was the common practice to melt down bronze statues for reuse as material for coins or new sculptures in the late empire. Indeed, it is one of only two surviving bronze statues of a pre-Christian Roman emperor; the Regisole, destroyed after the French Revolution, may have been another. The equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, owes its preservation on the Campidoglio, to the popular mis-identification of Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, with Constantine the Great, the Christian emperor; indeed, more than 20 other bronze equestrian statues of various emperors and generals had been melted down since the end of the Imperial Roman era.[4][5] It has been speculated that its misidentification stems from the prior existence of an equestrian statue of Constantine which had stood beside the Arch of Septimius Severus, and which had been most likely taken on the orders of the emperor Constans II during his visit to Rome in 663. With its removal, the people eventually mistakenly identified Marcus Aurelius’s statue for Constantine’s one.[6] In the medieval era it was one of the few Roman statues to remain on public view. In the 8th century it stood in the Campus Lateranensis, to the east of the Lateran Palace in Rome, sitting on a pedestal that was later provided by Sixtus IV.[7] Its placement next to the Lateran Palace was due the fact that this site used to contain the house of Marcus Aurelius’s grandfather Marcus Annius Verus, which was where the Emperor’s birth and early education took place.[8] From here it was relocated in 1538, by order of Pope Paul III to remove it from the main traffic of the square.[7] It was moved to the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill) during Michelangelo's redesign of the Hill. Though he disagreed with its central positioning, he designed a special pedestal for it.[1] The original is on display in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, while a replica has replaced it in the square. On the night of November 29, 1849, at the inception of the revolutionary Roman Republic, a mass procession set up the Red-White-Green tricolore (now Flag of Italy, then a new and highly "subversive" flag) in the hands of the mounted Marcus Aurelius.[9] Cultural references[edit] Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173- June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse.[10] The statue is depicted on the reverse of the Italian €0.50 coin, designed by Roberto Mauri. A replica of the statue has been located on the campus of Brown University in the United States since 1908.[11] The statue was formerly clad in gold. An old local myth says that the statue will turn gold again on the Judgement Day.[12][13] Allegedly[according to whom?] the equestrian statue of King George III of Great Britain which stood in New York City's Bowling Green until 1776 when it was thrown down and the lead turned into musket balls for George Washington's army was based upon the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. The Monument to Prince Józef Poniatowski in Warsaw by Bertel Thorvaldsen, from 1829, was based on this statue. Gallery[edit] Original[edit] Replica[edit] Oscar Wilde in Rome, April 1900. See also[edit] External video Equestrian Sculpture of Marcus Aurelius, Smarthistory[14] Regisole References[edit] ^ a b c Stewart, Peter, "The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius" in A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, edited by Martin van Ackeren, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, pp. 264-77. ^ Nickel, Helmut (1989-01-01). "The Emperor's New Saddle Cloth: The Ephippium of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 24: 17–24. doi:10.2307/1512863. JSTOR 1512863. ^ Gregorovius, Ferdinand, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, Vol. 2, (1894) pg. 161 ^ Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museum, Rome ^ Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Capitoline Museum ^ Gregorovius, pg. 161 ^ a b Fehl, Philipp (1974-01-01). "The Placement of the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Middle Ages". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 37: 362–367. doi:10.2307/750854. JSTOR 750854. ^ Gregorovius, pg. 161 ^ Leona Rostenberg, "Margaret Fuller's Roman Diary" The Journal of Modern History 12.2 (June 1940:209-220) p. 212 ^ Harold Mattingly & Edward A. Sydenham, The Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus, London, Spink & Son, 1930, p. 236. ^ The Brown Alumni Monthly. Brown University. 1909. pp. 26–. ^ This folk legend is recorded in p. 40 of the National Geographic Traveler's Rome (2006) ^ Palazzo Braschi (1963). Giuseppe Gioachino Belli e la Roma del suo tempo: mostra del centenario della morte del poeta (1863-1963) : Palazzo Braschi, dicembre 1963-febbraio 1964. De Luca. ^ "Equestrian Sculpture of Marcus Aurelius". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved March 9, 2013. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (Rome). Capitoline Museum Coordinates: 41°53′35″N 12°28′59″E / 41.893°N 12.483°E / 41.893; 12.483 Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equestrian_Statue_of_Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1018459908" Categories: Capitoline Museums collection Outdoor sculptures in Rome 2nd-century Roman sculptures Equestrian statues in Italy Cultural depictions of Marcus Aurelius Hellenistic and Roman bronzes Statues of monarchs Roman sculpture portraits of emperors Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from October 2018 All articles lacking in-text citations All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2021, at 05:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7393	----	Corset - Wikipedia Corset From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Garment, reinforced with stays, that supports the waistline, hips and bust. Not to be confused with Cosset. For the river in Quebec, see Corset River. The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with Western Europe and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A drawing of a luxury hourglass corset from 1878, featuring a busk fastening at the front and lacing at the back A corset is a garment worn to hold and train the torso into a desired shape, traditionally a smaller waist or larger bottom, for aesthetic or medical purposes (either for the duration of wearing it or with a more lasting effect), or support the breasts. Both men and women are known to wear corsets, though this item was for many years an integral part of women's wardrobes. Since the late 20th century, the fashion industry has borrowed the term "corset" to refer to tops which, to varying degrees, mimic the look of traditional corsets without acting as them. While these modern corsets and corset tops often feature lacing or boning, and generally imitate a historical style of corsets, they have very little, if any, effect on the shape of the wearer's body. Genuine corsets are usually made by a corsetmaker and are frequently fitted to the individual wearer. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Uses 2.1 Fashion 2.2 Fetish 2.3 Medical 3 Construction 4 Comfort 5 Waist reduction 6 History 7 Special types 7.1 Corset dress 7.2 Neck corset and collar 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology[edit] Advertisement of corsets for children, 1886 Advertisement of corsets for men, 1893 The word corset is a diminutive of the Old French word cors (meaning "body", and itself derived from the Latin corpus): the word therefore means "little body". The craft of corset construction is known as corsetry, as is the general wearing of them. (The word corsetry is sometimes also used as a collective plural form of corset). Someone who makes corsets is a corsetier or corsetière (French terms for a man and for a woman maker, respectively), or sometimes simply a corsetmaker. In 1828, the word corset came into general use in the English language. The word was used in The Ladies Magazine[1] to describe a "quilted waistcoat" that the French called un corset. It was used to differentiate the lighter corset from the heavier stays of the period. Uses[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Fashion[edit] The most common and well-known use of corsets is to slim the body and make it conform to a fashionable silhouette. For women, this most frequently emphasizes a curvy figure by reducing the waist and thereby exaggerating the bust and hips. However, in some periods, corsets have been worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, which involved minimizing the bust and hips. For men, corsets are more customarily used to slim the figure. However, there was a period from around 1820 to 1835 – and even until the late 1840s in some instances – when a wasp-waisted figure (a small, nipped-in look to the waist) was also desirable for men; wearing a corset sometimes achieved this. An "overbust corset" encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips. An "underbust corset" begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A "longline corset" – either overbust or underbust – extends past the iliac crest, or the hip bone. A longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out their hips. A "standard" length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso. Some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset that covers the waist area (from low on the ribs to just above the hips), is called a waist cincher. A corset may also include garters to hold up stockings; alternatively, a separate garter belt may be worn. Traditionally, a corset supports the visible dress and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the crinoline and bustle. At times, a corset cover is used to protect outer clothes from the corset and to smooth the lines of the corset. The original corset cover was worn under the corset to provide a layer between it and the body. Corsets were not worn next to the skin, possibly due to difficulties with laundering these items during the 19th century, as they had steel boning and metal eyelets that would rust. Additionally, even in bodies/stays/corsets without metal components, many wearers find the feeling of a tight garment right against them to be uncomfortable, with sweatiness being the most common complaint. Light linen or cotton shifts (also called chemises) were worn beneath corsets to absorb sweat and protect the corset and wearer from each other, and also to function as underwear and protect other garments from the wearer and their sweat. The corset cover was generally in the form of a light chemisette, made from cotton lawn or silk. Modern corset wearers may wear corset liners for many of the same reasons. Those who lace their corsets tightly use the liners to prevent burn on their skin from the laces. People with spinal problems, such as scoliosis, or with internal injuries, may be fitted with a back brace, which is similar to a corset.[medical citation needed] However, a back brace is not the same thing as a corset. This is usually made of plastic and/or metal. A brace is used to push the curves so that they don't progress, and sometimes they lower the curves. Braces are used mostly in children and adolescents, as they have a higher chance of the curves getting worse. Artist Andy Warhol was shot in 1968 and never fully recovered; he wore a corset for the rest of his life.[2] Fetish[edit] See also: Charles Guyette, Bondage corset, and Tightlacing Aside from fashion and medical uses, corsets are also used in sexual fetishism, most notably in BDSM activities. In BDSM, a submissive may be required to wear a corset, which would be laced very tightly and restrict the wearer to some degree. A dominant may also wear a corset, often black, but for entirely different reasons, such as aesthetics. A specially designed corset, in which the breasts and vulva are exposed, can be worn during vanilla sex or BDSM activities. Medical[edit] A corset brace is a lumbar support that is used in the prevention and treatment of low-back pain.[3] Construction[edit] X-ray of a woman in a corset Corsets are typically constructed of a flexible material (like cloth, particularly coutil, or leather) stiffened with boning (also called ribs or stays) inserted into channels in the cloth or leather. In the 18th and early 19th century, thin strips of baleen (also known as whalebone) were favoured for the boning.[4][5] Plastic is now the most commonly used material for lightweight, faux corsets and the majority of poor-quality corsets. Spring and/or spiral steel or synthetic whalebone is preferred for stronger and generally better quality corsets. Other materials used for boning have included ivory, wood, and cane. (By contrast, a girdle is usually made of elasticized fabric, without boning.) Corsets are held together by lacing, usually (though not always) at the back. Tightening or loosening the lacing produces corresponding changes in the firmness of the corset. Depending on the desired effect and time period, corsets can be laced from the top down, from the bottom up, or both up from the bottom and down from the top, using two laces that meet in the middle. In the Victorian heyday of corsets, a well-to-do woman's corset laces would be tightened by her maid, and a gentleman's by his valet. However, Victorian corsets also had a buttoned or hooked front opening called a busk. If the corset was worn loosely, it was possible to leave the lacing as adjusted and take the corset on and off using the front opening. (If the corset is worn snugly, this method will damage the busk if the lacing is not significantly loosened beforehand). Self-lacing may be very difficult where the aim is extreme waist reduction (see below). The type of corset and bodice lacing became a refined mark of class; women who could not afford servants often wore front-laced bodices. Comfort[edit] In the past, a woman's corset was usually worn over a chemise, a sleeveless low-necked gown made of washable material (usually cotton or linen). It absorbed perspiration and kept the corset and the gown clean. In modern times, a tee shirt, camisole or corset liner may be worn. Moderate lacing is not incompatible with vigorous activity. During the second half of the 19th century, when corset wearing was common among women, sport corsets were specifically designed for wear while bicycling, playing tennis, or horseback riding, as well as for maternity wear. Waist reduction[edit] Main article: Tightlacing Effect of Corset in human body. Image by Valencian Museum of Ethnology. Some women were so tightly laced that they could breathe only with the top part of their lungs. This caused the bottom part of their lungs to fill with mucus[citation needed]. Symptoms of this include a slight but persistent cough, as well as heavy breathing, causing a heaving appearance of the bosom. Until 1998, the Guinness Book of World Records listed Ethel Granger as having the smallest waist on record at 13 inches (33 cm).[6] After 1998, the category changed to "smallest waist on a living person". Cathie Jung took the title with a waist measuring 15 inches (38 cm). Other women, such as Polaire, also have achieved such reductions (16 inches (41 cm) in her case). However, these are extreme cases. Corsets were and are still usually designed for support, with freedom of body movement an important consideration in their design.[citation needed] History[edit] Eugène Atget, Boulevard de Strasbourg, Corsets, Paris, 1912 Main article: History of corsets For nearly 500 years, women's primary means of support was the corset, with laces and stays made of whalebone or metal. Researchers have found evidence of the use of corsets in the Minoan civilization of early Crete.[7]:5 The corset has undergone many changes. Originally, in the late 16th century, it was known as "a pair of bodys".[8] It was a simple bodice, stiffened with boning of reed or whalebone, that could be under or outer wear.[7][9] A busk made of wood, horn, whalebone, metal or ivory further reinforced the central front. During the 16th and 17th centuries, bodys could be front or back lacing. During the late seventeenth century the English term "pair of bodies" was replaced with the term "stays", which was generally used during the 18th century.[9] Stays essentially turned the upper torso into a cone or cylinder shape.[10] In the 17th century, tabs at the waist (called "fingers") were added. Stays evolved in the 18th century, during which whalebone was used more, and increased boning was used in the garment. The shape of the stays changed as well. While they were low and wide in the front, they could reach as high as the upper shoulder in the back. Stays could be strapless or use shoulder straps. The straps of the stays were generally attached in the back and tied at the front. The purpose of 18th century stays was to support the bust and confer the fashionable conical shape, while drawing the shoulders back. At that time, the eyelets were reinforced with stitches and were not placed across from one another, but staggered. That allowed the stays to be spiral laced. One end of the stay lace was inserted into the bottom eyelet and knotted, and the other end was wound through the eyelets of the stays and tightened on the top. Tight-lacing was not the purpose of stays at that time. It was not possible until metal eyelets were introduced, in the mid 1800s. Women of all levels of society wore stays, from ladies of the court to street vendors. During that time, there is evidence of a variant of stays, called "jumps", which were looser than stays and had attached sleeves, like a jacket.[7]:27 Woman's corset (stays) c. 1730–1740. Silk plain weave with supplementary weft-float patterning, stiffened with baleen; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.63.24.5.[11] A corset from a 1901 French magazine Polaire was famous for her tiny, corseted waist, which was sometimes reported to have a circumference no greater than 16 inches (41 cm) Actress Bianca Lyons shows the enhanced female curves achieved by corsets, c. 1902 A woman models a corset in 1898 Amanda Nielsen in a corset An award-winning ad for R & G Corset Company from the back cover of the October 1898 Ladies' Home Journal Group of five corsets: late 19th and early 20th century Peloponnesian Folklore Foundation. Corsets were originally quilted waistcoats, which French women wore as an alternative to stiff corsets.[7]:29 They were only quilted linen, laced in the front, and un-boned. That garment was meant to be worn on informal occasions, while stays were worn for court dress. In the 1790s, stays began to fall out of fashion. That coincided with the French Revolution and the adoption of neoclassical styles of dress. It was the men, so-called dandies, who began to wear corsets.[7]:36 The fashion persisted through the 1840s, though after 1850 men who wore corsets claimed they needed them for back pain.[7]:39 In the early 19th century, when gussets were added for room for the bust, stays became known as corsets. They also lengthened to the hip, and the lower tabs were replaced by gussets at the hip and had less boning. Shoulder straps disappeared in the 1840s for normal wear.[8] In the 1820s, fashion changed again, with the waistline lowered to almost the natural position. That was to allow for more ornamentation on the bodice, which in turn saw the return of the corset to modern fashion. Corsets began to be made with some padding, for a waist-slimming effect, and more boning. Some women made their own, while others bought their corsets. Corsets were one of the first mass-produced garments for women. They began to be more heavily boned in the 1840s. By 1850, steel boning became popular. With the advent of metal eyelets, tight lacing became possible. The position of the eyelets changed. They were situated opposite one another at the back. The front was fastened with a metal busk. Corsets were mostly white. The corsets of the 1850s–1860s were shorter, because of a change in the silhouette of women's fashion, with the advent of the hoop skirt or crinoline. After the 1860s, as the crinoline fell out of style, the corset became longer, to shape the abdomen, exposed by the new lines of the princess or cuirass style. In 1855, a woman named Frances Egbert had trouble with her corsets, due to the front steel pieces constantly breaking as a result of strain.[12] Consequently, her husband, Samuel Barnes, designed "reinforced steels" for Egbert's corsets. Barnes filed a patent for the invention 11 years later, and Egbert collected the royalties on this patent for 15 years following his death.[12] Following the case of Egbert v. Lippmann, the US Supreme court deemed Barnes' and Egbert's patent as "public". For dress reformists of the late 19th century, corsets were a dangerous moral evil, promoting promiscuous views of female bodies and superficial dalliance with fashion whims.[citation needed] Health risks, such as damaged or rearranged internal organs, infertility, and inability to perform "womanly" duties, such as caring for children or cleaning house, were said to be caused by tightlacing, and that has been acknowledged by experts.[13] However, tighlacing was very scandalous and was extremely uncommon. The large majority of women wore corsets everyday without extreme detrimental effects. Eventually, the reformers' critique of the corset joined a throng of voices clamoring against tightlacing. Doctors counseled patients against it and journalists wrote articles condemning the vanity and frivolity of women who would sacrifice their health for the sake of fashion. While tightlacing is dangerous, it was fairly uncommon, and was seen as quite shocking by the majority of women, in addition to men. Whereas for many, corseting was accepted as necessary for health, support, and an upright military-style posture, dress reformers viewed tightlacing, especially at the height of the era of Victorian morality, as a sign of moral indecency. American women active in the anti-slavery and temperance movements, with experience in public speaking and political agitation, wore sensible clothing that would not restrict their movement, although corsets were a part of their wardrobe.[14] While supporters of fashionable dress contented that corsets maintained an upright, "good figure", and were a necessary physical structure for a moral and well-ordered society, dress reformers maintained that women's fashions were not only physically detrimental, but "the results of male conspiracy to make women subservient by cultivating them in slave psychology".[15][16] They believed a change in fashions could change the position of women in society, allowing for greater social mobility, independence from men and marriage, and the ability to work for wages, as well as physical movement and comfort.[17] In 1873, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward wrote: Burn up the corsets! ... No, nor do you save the whalebones, you will never need whalebones again. Make a bonfire of the cruel steels that have lorded it over your thorax and abdomens for so many years and heave a sigh of relief, for your emancipation I assure you, from this moment has begun.[18] Despite those protests, little changed in fashion and undergarments up to 1900. During the Edwardian period, the straight-front corset (also known as the S-Curve corset) was introduced. That corset was straight in front, with a pronounced curve at the back that forced the upper body forward and the derrière out. The style was worn from 1900 to 1908,[7]:144 and was originally conceived as a health corset, which was a type of corset made of wool and reinforced with cording, and promoted the alleged health benefits of wearing wool next to skin. It was sold as an alternative to the boned corset.[19] However, the S-Curve corset became the framework for many ornate fashions in the late 1890s and 1900s. The corset reached its greatest length in the early 20th century. At first, the longline corset reached from the bust down to the upper thigh. There was also a style of longline corset that started under the bust, and necessitated the wearing of a brassiere, a style that was meant to complement the new silhouette. It was a boneless style, much closer to a modern girdle than the traditional corset. The longline style was abandoned during World War I. The corset fell from fashion in the 1920s in Europe and North America, replaced by girdles and elastic brassieres, but survived as an article of costume. Originally an item of lingerie, the corset has become a popular item of outerwear in the fetish, BDSM and goth subcultures. In the fetish and BDSM literature, there is often much emphasis on tightlacing, and many corset makers cater to the fetish market. Outside the fetish community, living history re-enactors and historic costume enthusiasts still wear stays and corsets according to their original purpose to give the proper shape to the figure when wearing historic fashions. In this case, the corset is underwear rather than outerwear. Skilled corset makers are available to make reproductions of historic corset shapes or to design new styles. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, there was a brief revival of the corset in the form of the waist cincher sometimes called a "waspie". This was used to give the hourglass figure as dictated by Christian Dior's "New Look". However, use of the waist cincher was restricted to haute couture, and most women continued to use girdles. Waspies were also met with push-back from women's organizations in the United States, as well as female members of the British Parliament, because corsetry had been forbidden under rationing during World War II.[19] The revival ended when the New Look gave way to a less dramatically-shaped silhouette. In 1968, at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can." They included corsets,[20] which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture",[21] and accoutrements which they perceived to enforce femininity. Since the late 1980s, the corset has experienced periodic revivals, all which have usually originated in haute couture and have occasionally trickled through to mainstream fashion. Fashion designer Vivienne Westwood's use of corsets contributed to the push-up bust trend that lasted from the late 1980s throughout the 1990s.[19] Those revivals focussed on the corset as an item of outerwear rather than underwear. The strongest of the revivals was seen in the Autumn 2001 fashion collections and coincided with the release of the film Moulin Rouge!, in which the costumes featured many corsets as characteristic of the era. Another fashion movement, which has renewed interest in the corset, is the steampunk culture that utilizes late-Victorian fashion shapes in new ways. Special types[edit] There are some special types of corsets and corset-like devices which incorporate boning. Corset dress[edit] See also: Bondage corset A corset dress (also known as hobble corset because it produces similar restrictive effects to a hobble skirt) is a long corset. It is like an ordinary corset, but it is long enough to cover the legs, partially or totally. It thus looks like a dress, hence the name. A person wearing a corset dress can have great difficulty in walking up and down the stairs (especially if wearing high-heeled footwear) and may be unable to sit down if the boning is too stiff. Other types of corset dresses are created for unique high fashion looks by a few modern corset makers. These modern styles are functional as well as fashionable and are designed to be worn with comfort for a dramatic look. BDSM Neck Collar and Corset Neck corset and collar[edit] Main article: Neck corset A neck corset is a type of posture collar incorporating stays and it is generally not considered to be a true corset. This type of corset and its purpose of improving posture does not have long term results. Since certain parts of the neck are being pulled towards the head, a band in the neck called the platysmal band will most likely disappear.[22] Like the neck corset, a collar serves some of the same purposes. According to G. J. Huston, collars are worn to allow minimal neck movement after road accidents. Furthermore, he concluded that wearing a collar in order to improve the structure of the neck was more cheap than physiotherapy.[23] Neck corsets and collars have become a fashion statement instead of assets to improve posture. See also[edit] Bustier Corset controversy Dudou, a Chinese undershirt sometimes known as a "corset" Fainting room Fetish clothing Gibson Girl Tightlacing Waist cincher References[edit] ^ "The Lady's Magazine | British magazine". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-10-14. ^ "Warhol: Biography". 2013-01-06. Archived from the original on 2013-01-06. Retrieved 2017-11-10. ^ Lumbar supports for the prevention and treatment of low-back pain ^ Doyle, R. (1997). Waisted Efforts, An Illustrated Guide to Corset Making. Sartorial Press Publications. ISBN 0-9683039-0-0. ^ Waugh, Norah (1990). Corsets and Crinolines. Routledge. ISBN 978-0878305261. ^ Vogue cover model shocks with 33cm waist MADONNA magazine from August 31st, 2011 ^ a b c d e f g Steele, Valerie (2001). The Corset: A Cultural History. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09953-3. ^ a b Waugh, Norah (December 1, 1990). Corsets and Crinolines. Routledge. ISBN 0-87830-526-2. ^ a b Bendall, Sarah (2019-01-01). "Bodies or Stays? Underwear or Outerwear? Seventeenth-century Foundation Garments explained". Sarah A Bendall. Retrieved 2020-07-18. ^ Gupta, Richa (February 13, 2013). Corset. p. 6. ^ Takeda, Sharon Sadako; Spilker, Kaye Durland (2010). Fashioning Fashion: European Dress in Detail, 1700–1915. Prestel USA. p. 76. ISBN 978-3-7913-5062-2. ^ a b Swanson, Kara (April 18, 2019). "The Corset. A History of Intellectual Property in 50 Objects, Claudy Op Den Camp and Dan Hunter eds., Cambridge University Press (2019)". Northeastern University School of Law Research Paper No. 307-2017 – via SSRN. ^ Isaac, Susan (February 17, 2017). "The dangers of tight lacing: the effects of the corset". Royal College of Surgeons of England. Retrieved February 24, 2021. ^ "Woman's dress, a question of the day". Early Canadiana Online. Retrieved 26 March 2012. ^ Dress and Morality by Aileen Ribeiro, (Homes and Meier Publishers Inc: New York. 1986) p. 134 ^ Riegel, Robert E. (1963). "Women's Clothes and Women's Right". American Quarterly. 15: 390. doi:10.2307/2711370. ^ Riegel, Robert E. (1963). "Women's Clothes and Women's Right". American Quarterly. 15: 391. ^ Phelps, Elizabeth (1873). What to Wear. Boston: Osgood. p. 79. ^ a b c Stevenson, NJ (2011). The Chronology of Fashion. London: The Ivy Press. ^ Dow, Bonnie J. (Spring 2003). "Feminism, Miss America, and Media Mythology". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 6 (1): 127–149. doi:10.1353/rap.2003.0028. ^ Duffett, Judith (October 1968). WLM vs. Miss America. Voice of the Women's Liberation Movement. p. 4. ^ Tonnard, Patrick; Verpaele, Alexis; Monstrey, Stan; Van Landuyt, Koen; Blondeel, Philippe; Hamdi, Moustapha; Matton, Guido (May 2002). "Minimal access cranial suspension lift: a modified S-lift". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 109 (6): 2074–2086. doi:10.1097/00006534-200205000-00046. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 11994618. ^ Huston, G.J. (1988). "Collars and Corsets". British Medical Journal. 296 (6617): 276. doi:10.1136/bmj.296.6617.276. JSTOR 29529544. PMC 2544783. Further reading[edit] Doyle, R. (1997). Waisted Efforts: An Illustrated Guide to Corset Making. Sartorial Press Publications. ISBN 0-9683039-0-0. Kunzle, David (2004). Fashion and Fetishism. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3808-0. Steele, Valerie (2001). The Corset: A Cultural History. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09953-3. Utley, Larry; Carey-Adamme, Autumn (2002). Fetish Fashion: Undressing the Corset. Green Candy Press. ISBN 1-931160-06-6. Waugh, Norah (1990). Corsets and Crinolines. Routledge. ISBN 0-87830-526-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corsets. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Category:Corset Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Corset Look up corset in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Corsets at Curlie The full text of CORSETS: An Analysis (1913) at Wikisource Corsets at Chicago History Museum Digital Collections The Secret History of the Corset and Crinoline—A seminar by the Victoria and Albert Museum Corsets in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa v t e Corsets and corsetmaking Types of corset Basque Corsage Corselet Girdle Waist cincher Corsetmaking Bone (corsetry) Busk Spoon busk History Corset controversy Metal corset Hourglass corset Roxey Ann Caplin Corset fetishism Body modification Bondage corset Neck corset Tightlacing Training corset Wasp waist Corset manufacturers Baystate Frederick's of Hollywood Kraus Spirella Strouse, Adler Vollers The Warner Brothers Corset Co. Worcester Categories Corsetry Fashion Foundation garments v t e Lingerie Upper torso Types of bras History Bandeau Bralette Nursing bra Sports bra Training bra Underwire bra Male bra Other garments Babydoll Bustier Camisole Dudou Negligee Torsolette Yếm Lower torso Bikini Boyshorts French knickers Girdle Girl boxers Panties Tanga Tap pants Thong (G-string) Full torso Bodice Corset Corselet Foundation garment Nightshirt Playsuit Slip Teddy Hosiery Garter Hold-ups Knee highs Pantyhose Stocking Tights Historical Basque Boudoir cap Bustle Chemise Crinoline Farthingale Hoop skirt Liberty bodice Pannier Pantalettes Petticoat Pettipants Waist cincher Accessories Falsies Lingerie tape Brands List of lingerie brands Retail Brastop Cosmo Lady Figleaves HerRoom Journelle True & Co. Related Corset controversy Bralessness Lingerie party UK Lingerie Awards v t e Historical clothing Clothing generally not worn today, except in historical settings Body-length Abolla Banyan Brunswick Chinese Court dress (Empire of Japan) Chiton Frock Frock coat Justacorps Paenula Peplos Stola Toga Tunic Xout lao Tops Basque Bedgown Bodice Doublet Peascod belly Poet shirt Sbai Suea pat Trousers Braccae Breeches Sompot Chong Kben Culottes Harem Knickerbockers Pedal pushers Skirts Hobble Poodle Sompot Sinh Train Dresses Bliaut Close-bodied gown Debutante Gown Kirtle Mantua Polonaise Sack-back gown Sailor Tea gown Swallow-tailed Outerwear Car coat Caraco Chlamys Cloak Kinsale cloak Dolman Doublet Duster Exomis Greatcoat Himation Houppelande Inverness cape Jerkin Kandys Norfolk jacket Overfrock Pañuelo Palla Pallium Pelisse Poncho Shadbelly Shawl Galway shawl Kullu Smock-frock Spencer Surcoat Surtout Ulster coat Visite Witzchoura Underwear Basque Bustle Chausses Chemise Codpiece Corselet Corset Waist cincher Dickey Garter Hoop skirt Crinoline Farthingale Pannier Hose Liberty bodice Loincloth Open drawers Pantalettes Petticoat Peignoir Pettipants Union suit Yếm Headwear Anthony Eden Apex Arakhchin Attifet Aviator Bergère Blessed hat Bonnet Capotain Caubeen Cavalier Coif Coonskin Cornette Chengziguan Dunce Fillet French hood Fontange Futou Gable hood Hennin Jewish Kausia Kokoshnik Llawt'u Matron's badge Miner's Mob Modius Monmouth Mooskappe Motoring hood Mounteere Nemes Nightcap Nón quai thao Ochipok Pahlavi Petasos Phrygian Pileus Printer's Pudding Qeleshe Qing Salakot Snood Smoking Tainia Taranga Welsh Wig Wimple Footwear Buskins Caligae Chopines Crakow Episcopal sandals Hessian Pampooties Sabatons Accessories Ascot tie Belt hook Cointoise Cravat Hairpin Hatpin Jabot Lavallière Muff Partlet Ruff Shoe buckle  Clothing portal Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corset&oldid=1026423359" Categories: Medieval European costume Corsetry 16th-century fashion 17th-century fashion 18th-century fashion 19th-century fashion 20th-century fashion Body modification Cosmetic surgery Fetish clothing History of clothing (Western fashion) Victorian fashion Gothic fashion Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with limited geographic scope from June 2017 Pages in non-existent country centric categories Articles needing additional references from November 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Curlie links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Interlingue Italiano עברית Jawa Қазақша Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 05:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7397	----	Richard Harris - Wikipedia Richard Harris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Irish actor, singer, film director and writer For other people named Richard Harris, see Richard Harris (disambiguation). Richard Harris Harris in 1985 Born Richard St John Harris (1930-10-01)1 October 1930 Limerick, Irish Free State (now Republic of Ireland) Died 25 October 2002(2002-10-25) (aged 72) Bloomsbury, London, England Resting place Ashes scattered in the Bahamas Occupation Actor, singer Years active 1956–2002 Spouse(s) Elizabeth Rees-Williams ​ ​ (m. 1957; div. 1969)​ Ann Turkel ​ ​ (m. 1974; div. 1982)​ Children Damian Harris Jared Harris Jamie Harris Relatives Annabelle Wallis (niece) Signature Richard John Harris (1 October 1930 – 25 October 2002) was an Irish actor and singer. He appeared on stage and in many films, notably as Frank Machin in This Sporting Life, for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, and as King Arthur in the 1967 film Camelot, as well as the 1981 revival of the stage musical. He played an aristocrat captured by Native Americans in A Man Called Horse (1970), a gunfighter in Clint Eastwood's Western film Unforgiven (1992), Emperor Marcus Aurelius in Gladiator (2000), The Count of Monte Cristo (2002) as Abbé Faria, and Albus Dumbledore in the first two Harry Potter films: Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (2001), and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002), the latter of which was his final film role. Harris had a number-one singing hit in Australia, Jamaica and Canada, and a top-ten hit in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and United States with his 1968 recording of Jimmy Webb's song "MacArthur Park." In 2020, he was listed at number 3 on The Irish Times list of Ireland's greatest film actors.[1] Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Early supporting roles 2.2 This Sporting Life 2.3 Camelot, A Man Called Horse 2.4 Singing career 2.5 1970s 2.6 Action star 2.7 Camelot again and Henry IV 2.8 The Field and Harry Potter 3 Personal life 4 Illness and death 5 Memorials 6 Legacy 7 Filmography 7.1 Film 7.2 Television 7.3 Theatre 8 Awards and nominations 9 Discography 9.1 Albums 9.2 Singles 9.3 Soundtracks and compilations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life[edit] Harris was born on 1 October 1930, in Limerick.[2][3] He was schooled by the Jesuits at Crescent College. A talented rugby player, he appeared on several Munster Junior and Senior Cup teams for Crescent, and played for Garryowen.[4] Harris's athletic career was cut short when he caught tuberculosis in his teens. He remained an ardent fan of the Munster Rugby and Young Munster teams until his death, attending many of their matches, and there are numerous stories of japes at rugby matches with actors and fellow rugby fans Peter O'Toole and Richard Burton. After recovering from tuberculosis, Harris moved to Great Britain, wanting to become a director. He could not find any suitable training courses, and enrolled in the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) to learn acting. He had failed an audition at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) and had been rejected by the Central School of Speech and Drama, because they felt he was too old at 24.[5] While still a student, he rented the tiny "off-West End" Irving Theatre, and there directed his own production of Clifford Odets's play Winter Journey (The Country Girl). After completing his studies at the Academy, he joined Joan Littlewood's Theatre Workshop. He began getting roles in West End theatre productions, starting with The Quare Fellow in 1956, a transfer from the Theatre Workshop. He spent nearly a decade in obscurity, learning his profession on stages throughout the UK.[6] Career[edit] Early supporting roles[edit] Harris made his film debut in 1959 in the film Alive and Kicking, and played the lead role in The Ginger Man in the West End in 1959. In his second film he had a small role as an IRA Volunteer in Shake Hands with the Devil (1959), supporting James Cagney. The film was shot in Ireland and directed by Michael Anderson who offered Harris a role in his next movie, The Wreck of the Mary Deare (1959), shot in Hollywood. Harris played another IRA Volunteer in A Terrible Beauty (1960), alongside Robert Mitchum. He had a memorable bit part in the film The Guns of Navarone (1961) as a Royal Australian Air Force pilot who reports that blowing up the "bloody guns" of the island of Navarone is impossible by an air raid. He had a larger part in The Long and the Short and the Tall (1961), playing a British soldier; Harris clashed with Laurence Harvey during filming. For his role in the film Mutiny on the Bounty (1962), despite being virtually unknown to film audiences, Harris reportedly insisted on third billing, behind Trevor Howard and Marlon Brando, an actor he greatly admired, but Harris fell out with Brando over the latter's behaviour during the film's production. This Sporting Life[edit] Harris's first starring role was in the film This Sporting Life (1963), as a bitter young coal miner, Frank Machin, who becomes an acclaimed rugby league football player. It was based on the novel by David Storey and directed by Lindsay Anderson. For his role, Harris won Best Actor in 1963 at the Cannes Film Festival and an Academy Award nomination. Harris followed this with a leading role in the Italian film, Michelangelo Antonioni's Il Deserto Rosso (Red Desert, 1964). This won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Harris received an offer to support Kirk Douglas in a British war film, The Heroes of Telemark (1965), directed by Anthony Mann, playing a Norwegian resistance leader. He then went to Hollywood to support Charlton Heston in Sam Peckinpah's Major Dundee (1965), as an Irish immigrant who became a Confederate cavalryman during the American Civil War. He played Cain in John Huston's film The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966). More successful at the box office was Hawaii (1966), in which Harris starred alongside Julie Andrews and Max von Sydow. As a change of pace, he was the romantic lead in a Doris Day spy spoof comedy, Caprice (1967), directed by Frank Tashlin. Camelot, A Man Called Horse[edit] Harris next performed the role of King Arthur in the film adaptation of the musical play Camelot (1967). Critic Roger Ebert described the casting of Harris and Vanessa Redgrave as "about the best King Arthur and Queen Guenevere I can imagine".[7] Harris revived the role in a Broadway revival at the Winter Garden Theatre from 15 November 1981, to 2 January 1982, and broadcast on HBO a year later. Starring Meg Bussert as Guenevere, Richard Muenz as Lancelot and Thor Fields as Tom of Warwick. Harris, who had starred in the film, and Muenz also took the show on tour nationwide.[8] In The Molly Maguires (1970), he played James McParland, the detective who infiltrates the title organisation, headed by Sean Connery. It was a box office flop. However A Man Called Horse (1970), with Harris in the title role, an 1825 English aristocrat who is captured by Native Americans, was a major success. He played the title role in the film Cromwell in 1970 opposite Alec Guinness as King Charles I of England. That year British exhibitors voted him the 9th-most popular star at the UK box office.[9] Singing career[edit] Harris recorded several albums of music, one of which, A Tramp Shining, included the seven-minute hit song "MacArthur Park" (Harris insisted on singing the lyric as "MacArthur's Park").[10] This song was written by Jimmy Webb, and it reached number 2 on the American Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also topped several music sales charts in Europe during the summer of 1968. "MacArthur Park" sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc.[11] A second album, also consisting entirely of music composed by Webb, The Yard Went on Forever, was released in 1969.[12] In the 1973 TV special "Burt Bacharach in Shangri-La", after singing Webb's "Didn't We", Harris tells Bacharach that since he was not a trained singer he approached songs as an actor concerned with words and emotions, acting the song with the sort of honesty the song is trying to convey. Then he proceeds to sing "If I Could Go Back", from the Lost Horizon soundtrack. 1970s[edit] In 1971 Harris starred in a BBC TV film adaptation The Snow Goose, from a screenplay by Paul Gallico. It won a Golden Globe for Best Movie made for TV and was nominated for both a BAFTA and an Emmy.[13] and was shown in the U.S. as part of the Hallmark Hall of Fame. He made his directorial debut with Bloomfield (1971) and starred in Man in the Wilderness (1971) a revisionist Western based on the Hugh Glass story. Action star[edit] Harris starred in a Western for Samuel Fuller, Riata, which stopped production several weeks into filming. The project was re-assembled with a new director and cast, except for Harris, who returned: The Deadly Trackers (1973). In 1973, Harris published a book of poetry, I, In the Membership of My Days, which was later reissued in part in an audio LP format, augmented by self-penned songs such as "I Don't Know." Harris starred in two thrillers: 99 and 44/100% Dead (1974), for John Frankenheimer, and Juggernaut (1974), for Richard Lester. In Echoes of a Summer (1976) he played the father of a young girl with a terminal illness. He had a cameo as Richard the Lionheart in Robin and Marian (1976), for Lester, then was in The Return of a Man Called Horse (1976). Harris led the all-star cast in the train disaster film The Cassandra Crossing (1976). He played Gulliver in the part-animated Gulliver's Travels (1977) and was reunited with Michael Anderson in Orca (1977), battling a killer whale. He appeared in another action film, Golden Rendezvous (1977), based on a novel by Alistair Maclean, shot in South Africa. Harris was sued by the film's producer for his drinking; Harris counter-sued for defamation and the matter was settled out of court.[14] Golden Rendezvous was a flop but The Wild Geese (1978), where Harris played one of several mercenaries, was a big success outside America.[15] Ravagers (1979) was more action, set in a post-apocalyptic world. Game for Vultures (1979) was set in Rhodesia and shot in South Africa. In Hollywood he appeared in a comedy, The Last Word (1979), then supported Bo Derek in Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981). He made a film in Canada, Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid (1981), a drama about impotence. He followed it with another Canadian film, Highpoint, a movie so bad it was not released for several years. Camelot again and Henry IV[edit] For a while in the 1980s, Harris went into semi-retirement on Paradise Island, in the Bahamas, where he kicked his drinking habit and embraced a healthier lifestyle. It had a beneficial effect. Harris's career was revived by his success on stage in Camelot, and powerful in the West End run of Pirandello's Henry IV.[16] He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1990, when he was surprised by Michael Aspel during the curtain call of the Pirandello's play Henry IV at the Wyndham’s Theatre in London.[17] His film work during this period included: Triumphs of a Man Called Horse (1983), Martin's Day (1985), Strike Commando 2 (1988), King of the Wind (1990) and Mack the Knife (1990) (a film version of The Threepenny Opera in which he played J.J. Peachum ) plus the TV film version of Maigret, opposite Barbara Shelley. This indicated declining popularity which Harris told his biographer, Michael Feeney Callan, he was "utterly reconciled to". The Field and Harry Potter[edit] In June 1989, director Jim Sheridan cast Harris in the lead role in The Field, written by the esteemed Irish playwright John B. Keane. The lead role of "Bull" McCabe was to be played by former Abbey Theatre actor Ray McAnally. When McAnally died suddenly on 15 June 1989, Harris was offered the McCabe role. The Field was released in 1990 and earned Harris his second Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. He lost to Jeremy Irons for Reversal of Fortune. In 1992, Harris had a supporting role in the film Patriot Games. He had good roles in Unforgiven (1992), Wrestling Ernest Hemingway (1993) and Silent Tongue (1994). He played the title role in Abraham (1994) and had the lead in Cry, the Beloved Country (1995). A lifelong supporter of Jesuit education principles,[18] Harris established a friendship with University of Scranton President Rev. J. A. Panuska[19][20] and raised funds for a scholarship for Irish students established in honour of his brother and manager, Dermot, who had died the previous year of a heart attack.[19][20] He chaired acting workshops and cast the university's production of Julius Caesar in November 1987. Over several years in the late 1980s, Harris worked with Irish author Michael Feeney Callan on his biography, which was published by Sidgwick & Jackson in 1990. Harris appeared in two films which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. First, as the gunfighter "English Bob" in the Western Unforgiven (1992); second, as the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in Ridley Scott's Gladiator (2000). He also played a lead role alongside James Earl Jones in the Darrell Roodt film adaptation of Cry, the Beloved Country (1995). In 1999, Harris starred in the film To Walk with Lions. After Gladiator, Harris played the supporting role of Albus Dumbledore in the first two of the Harry Potter films, and as Abbé Faria in Kevin Reynolds' film adaptation of The Count of Monte Cristo (2002). The film Kaena: The Prophecy (2003) was dedicated to him posthumously as he had voiced the character Opaz before his death. Concerning his role as Dumbledore, Harris had stated that he did not intend to take the part at first, since he knew that his health was in decline, but he relented and accepted it because his 11-year-old granddaughter threatened to never speak to him again if he did not take it.[21] In an interview with the Toronto Star in 2001, Harris expressed his concern that his association with the Harry Potter films would outshine the rest of his career. He explained, "Because, you see, I don't just want to be remembered for being in those bloody films, and I'm afraid that's what's going to happen to me."[22] Harris also made part of the Bible TV movie project filmed as a cinema production for the TV, a project produced by Lux Vide Italy with the collaboration of Radio Televisione Italiana RAI and Channel 5 of France,[23] and premiered in the United States in the channel TNT in the 1990s. He portrayed the main and title character in the production Abraham (1993) as well as Saint John of Patmos in the 2000 TV film production Apocalypse. Personal life[edit] In 1957, Harris married Elizabeth Rees-Williams, daughter of David Rees-Williams, 1st Baron Ogmore. They had three children: actor Jared Harris, actor Jamie Harris, and director Damian Harris. Harris and Rees-Williams divorced in 1969, after which Elizabeth married Rex Harrison. Harris's second marriage was to the American actress Ann Turkel. In 1982, they divorced.[citation needed] Harris was a member of the Roman Catholic Knights of Malta, and was also dubbed a knight by the Queen of Denmark in 1985.[citation needed] Harris paid £75,000 for William Burges' Tower House in Holland Park in 1968, after discovering that the American entertainer Liberace had arranged to buy the house but had not yet put down a deposit.[24][25] Harris employed the original decorators, Campbell Smith & Company Ltd., to carry out extensive restoration work on the interior.[25] Harris was a vocal supporter of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) from 1973 until 1984.[26] In January 1984 remarks he made on the previous month's Harrods bombing caused great controversy, after which he discontinued his support for the PIRA.[27][28][26] At the height of his stardom in the 1960s and early 1970s Harris was almost as well known for his hellraiser lifestyle and heavy drinking as he was for his acting career. He was a longtime alcoholic until he became a teetotaler in 1981. Nevertheless, he did resume drinking Guinness a decade later.[citation needed] He gave up drugs after almost dying from a cocaine overdose in 1978. On 25 June 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed Richard Harris among hundreds of artists whose master tapes were destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.[29] Illness and death[edit] Harris was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease in August 2002, reportedly after being hospitalised with pneumonia.[30] He died at University College Hospital in Bloomsbury, London, on 25 October 2002, aged 72.[31] He was survived by his three sons, Damian, Jared and Jamie, having spent his final three days in a coma.[32] Harris's body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered in the Bahamas, where he owned a home.[33] His last words were "It was the food!", uttered as he was being wheeled out of the Savoy Hotel.[34] Harris was a lifelong friend of actor Peter O'Toole, and his family reportedly hoped that O'Toole would replace Harris as Dumbledore in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. There were, however, concerns about insuring O'Toole for the six remaining films in the series.[35] Harris was ultimately succeeded as Dumbledore by Michael Gambon.[36] Memorials[edit] A statue in Kilkee, Ireland, of the young Richard Harris playing squash On 30 September 2006, Manuel Di Lucia, of Kilkee, County Clare, a longtime friend, organised the placement in Kilkee of a bronze life-size statue of Richard Harris. It shows Harris at the age of eighteen playing the sport of squash. The sculptor was Seamus Connolly and the work was unveiled by Russell Crowe.[37] Harris was an accomplished squash racquets player, winning the Tivoli Cup in Kilkee four years in a row from 1948 to 1951, a record unsurpassed to this day.[38] Another life-size statue of Richard Harris, as King Arthur from his film, Camelot, has been erected in Bedford Row, in the centre of his home town of Limerick. The sculptor of this statue was the Irish sculptor Jim Connolly, a graduate of the Limerick School of Art and Design. At the 2009 BAFTAs, Mickey Rourke dedicated his Best Actor award to Harris, calling him a "good friend and great actor". In 2013, Rob Gill and Zeb Moore founded the annual Richard Harris International Film Festival.[39] The Richard Harris Film Festival is one of Ireland's fastest-growing film festivals, growing from just ten films in 2013 to screening over 115 films in 2017. Each year, one of Harris's sons attends the annual festival (October Bank Holiday Weekend) in Limerick. Legacy[edit] In 1996 Harris was honoured with a commemorative Irish postage stamp for the "Centenary of Irish Cinema", a four-stamp set featuring twelve Irish actors in four Irish films. He was recognized for his role as Bull McCabe in 1990 film The Field. Filmography[edit] Film[edit] Year Title Role Notes 1959 Alive and Kicking Lover 1959 Shake Hands with the Devil Terence O'Brien 1959 The Wreck of the Mary Deare Higgens 1960 A Terrible Beauty Sean Reilly a.k.a. The Night Fighters 1961 The Guns of Navarone Squadron Leader Barnsby RAAF 1961 The Long and the Short and the Tall Corporal Edward "Johnno" Johnstone 1962 Mutiny on the Bounty Seaman John Mills 1963 This Sporting Life Frank Machin Cannes Film Award for Best Actor Nominated—Academy Award for Best Actor Nominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role Nominated—New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor 1964 Red Desert Corrado Zeller 1965 The Heroes of Telemark Knut Straud 1965 Major Dundee Capt. Benjamin Tyreen 1966 The Bible Cain a.k.a. La Bibbia in Italy 1966 Hawaii Rafer Hoxworth 1967 Caprice Christopher White 1967 Camelot King Arthur Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy 1970 The Molly Maguires Detective James McParlan 1970 A Man Called Horse John Morgan 1970 Cromwell Oliver Cromwell Moscow International Film Award for Best Actor[40] 1971 Bloomfield Eitan a.k.a. The Hero; entered into the 21st Berlin International Film Festival 1971 The Snow Goose Philip Rhayader TV Nominated—Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actor 1971 Man in the Wilderness Zachary Bass 1973 The Deadly Trackers Sheriff Sean Kilpatrick 1974 99 and 44/100% Dead Harry Crown a.k.a. Call Harry Crown 1974 Juggernaut Lt. Cmdr. Anthony Fallon a.k.a. Terror On the Britannic 1976 Echoes of a Summer Eugene Striden a.k.a. The Last Castle 1976 Robin and Marian Richard the Lionheart 1976 The Return of a Man Called Horse Lord John Morgan 1976 The Cassandra Crossing Dr. Jonathan Chamberlain a.k.a. Treffpunkt Todesbrücke in Germany 1977 Gulliver's Travels Gulliver 1977 Orca Captain Nolan a.k.a. Orca: Killer Whale 1977 Golden Rendezvous John Carter a.k.a. Nuclear Terror 1978 The Wild Geese Capt. Rafer Janders 1979 Ravagers Falk 1979 Game for Vultures David Swansey 1980 The Number Danny Travis a.k.a. The Last Word 1981 Tarzan, the Ape Man James Parker Nominated—Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor 1981 Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid Jason a.k.a. L' Ultime passion in Canada 1982 Triumphs of a Man Called Horse John Morgan a.k.a. El Triunfo de un hombre llamado Caballo in Spain 1982 Camelot King Arthur TV 1984 Martin's Day Martin Steckert 1984 Highpoint Lewis Kinney 1988 Maigret Jules Maigret TV 1988 Strike Commando 2 Vic Jenkins 1990 King of the Wind King George II 1990 Mack the Knife Mr. Peachum a.k.a. The Threepenny Opera 1990 The Field 'Bull' McCabe Nominated—Academy Award for Best Actor Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama Nominated—Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor 1992 Patriot Games Paddy O'Neil 1992 Unforgiven English Bob 1993 Wrestling Ernest Hemingway Frank 1994 Silent Tongue Prescott Roe a.k.a. Le Gardien des esprits in France 1994 Abraham Abraham TV; a.k.a. Die Bibel - Abraham (in Germany) & La Bible: Abraham (in France) 1995 Cry, the Beloved Country James Jarvis 1995 The Great Kandinsky Ernest Kandinsky TV 1996 Trojan Eddie John Power 1997 Savage Hearts Sir Roger Foxley 1997 Smilla's Sense of Snow Dr. Andreas Tork a.k.a. Fräulein Smillas Gespür für Schnee in Germany 1997 The Hunchback Dom Frollo TV; a.k.a. The Hunchback of Notre Dame 1997 This Is the Sea Old Man Jacobs 1998 Upright Affair 1998 The Barber of Siberia Douglas McCraken a.k.a. Сибирский цирюльник in Russia 1999 To Walk with Lions George Adamson a.k.a. Un homme parmi les lions in Canada 1999 Grizzly Falls Old Harry 2000 Apocalypse Revelation John of Patmos TV; a.k.a. San Giovanni - L'apocalisse 2000 Gladiator Marcus Aurelius 2001 The Pearl Dr. Karl 2001 My Kingdom Sandeman 2001 Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone Professor Albus Dumbledore 2002 Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Nominated—Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Ensemble Acting Posthumous release 2002 The Count of Monte Cristo Abbé Faria a.k.a. Alexandre Dumas' The Count of Monte Cristo 2003 Julius Caesar Lucius Sulla TV mini series; a.k.a. Giulio Cesare in Italian Posthumous release 2004 Kaena: The Prophecy Opaz Voice, English dub; Posthumous release Television[edit] Year Title Role Venue 1958 ITV Play of the Week Michael O'Riordan Episode: The Iron Harp 1958 ITV Television Playhouse Dan Galvin Episode: Rest in Violence 1958 The DuPont Show of the Month Performer Episode: The Hasty Heart 1960 Armchair Theatre Major Gaylord Episode: Come in Razor Red 1960 The Art Carney Special Performer Episode: Victory 1971 The Snow Goose Philip Rhayader Television movie 1982 Camelot King Arthur Television movie 1985 Maigret Jules Maigret Television movie 1993 Abraham Abraham Television movie 1995 The Great Kandinsky Ernest Kandinsky Television movie 1997 The Hunchback Dom Frollo Television movie 2000 The Apocalypse John Television movie 2004 Julius Caesar Lucius Cornelius Sulla 2 part miniseries Theatre[edit] Year Title Role Venue early 1970s Becket Unsure Haymarket Theatre, London 1981–1985 Camelot King Arthur Old Vic Theatre, London Winter Garden Theatre, Broadway National Tour 1990 Henry IV Henry IV Wyndham's Theatre, London Awards and nominations[edit] Year Award Category Nominated work Result Ref. 1963 Academy Awards Best Actor in a Leading Role This Sporting Life Nominated 1991 Best Actor in a Leading Role The Field Nominated 1968 Golden Globe Awards Best Motion Picture Actor – Musical/Comedy Camelot Won 1991 Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama The Field Nominated 1972 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Single Performance by an Actor The Snow Goose Nominated 1968 Grammy Awards Album of the Year A Tramp Shining Nominated 1968 Contemporary Pop Male Vocalist MacArthur Park Nominated 1973 Best Spoken Word Recording Jonathan Livingston Seagull Won 1975 Best Spoken Word Recording The Prophet Nominated 1964 British Academy Film Award Best British Actor This Sporting Life Nominated 2001 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture Gladiator Nominated 1963 Cannes Film Festival Best Actor Award This Sporting Life Won 1971 Berlin International Film Festival Golden Berlin Bear Bloomfield Nominated 2002 British Independent Film Awards Best Actor My Kingdom Nominated 2002 Outstanding Contribution by an Actor N/A Won 2000 European Film Awards Lifetime Achievement Award N/A Won 1990 Evening Standard Theatre Awards Best Actor Henry IV Won 2001 Empire Awards Lifetime Achievement Award N/A Won 2001 London Film Critics Circle Awards Dilys Powell Award N/A Won 1991 Laurence Olivier Awards Best Actor Henry IV Nominated 2003 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards Best Acting Ensemble Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Nominated 1971 Moscow Film Festival Best Actor Cromwell Won [40][41] Discography[edit] Albums[edit] Camelot (Motion Picture Soundtrack) (1967) A Tramp Shining (1968) The Yard Went On Forever (1968) The Richard Harris Love Album (1970) My Boy (1971) Slides (1972) His Greatest Performances (1973) The Prophet (1974) (music by Arif Mardin, based on The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran) I, in the Membership of My Days (1974) Gulliver Travels (1977) Camelot (Original 1982 London Cast recording) (1982) Mack The Knife (Original Soundtrack) (1989) Little Tramp (1992) Musical The Apocalypse (2004) the story of John the Apostle on Island named Patmos Singles[edit] "Here in My Heart" (Theme from This Sporting Life)" (1963) "How to Handle a Woman (from Camelot)" (1968) "MacArthur Park" (1968) "Didn't We?" (1968) "The Yard Went On Forever" (1968) "The Hive" (1969) "One of the Nicer Things" (1969) "Fill the World With Love" (1969) "Ballad of A Man Called Horse" (1970) "Morning of the Mourning for Another Kennedy" (1970) "Go to the Mirror" (1971) "My Boy" (1971) "Turning Back the Pages" (1972) "Half of Every Dream" (1972) "Trilogy (Love, Marriage, Children)" (1974) "The Last Castle (Theme from Echoes of a Summer)" (1976) "Lilliput (Theme from Gulliver's Travels)" (1977) Soundtracks and compilations[edit] Camelot (Original 1982 London Cast Recording) (1988) Mack the Knife (Motion Picture Soundtrack) (1989) Tommy (studio recording) (1990) Camelot (Motion Picture Soundtrack) (1993) A Tramp Shining (1993) The Prophet (1995) The Webb Sessions 1968–1969 (1996) MacArthur Park (1997) Slides/My Boy (2-CD Set) (2005) My Boy (2006) Man of Words Man of Music The Anthology 1968–1974 (2008) References[edit] ^ Clarke, Donald; Brady, Tara (13 June 2020). "The 50 greatest Irish film actors of all time – in order". The Irish Times. Retrieved 25 July 2020. ^ "He was one of the most outstanding film stars of his time". Irish Independent. 27 October 2002. Retrieved 10 December 2007. ^ Severo, Richard (26 October 2002). "Richard Harris, Versatile And Volatile Star, 72, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 December 2007. ^ "Limerick rugby full of heroes". Wesclark.com. 24 May 2002. Retrieved 8 November 2011. ^ [1][dead link] ^ "Entertainment | Obituary: Richard Harris". BBC News. 25 October 2002. Retrieved 10 November 2012. ^ "Camelot movie review". rogerebert.com. Retrieved 25 May 2020. ^ "Richard Harris, King Arthur of Camelot on Stage and Screen, Dead at 72". Playbill.com. 25 October 2002. Retrieved 25 May 2020. ^ "Paul Newman Britain's favourite star". The Times. London, England. 31 December 1970. p. 9 – via The Times Digital Archive. ^ Fresh Air interview with Jimmy Webb by Terry Gross on NPR, 2004 ^ Murrells, Joseph (1978). The Book of Golden Discs (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-214-20512-5. Retrieved 8 November 2011. ^ Album liner notes for "Richard Harris – the Webb Sessions 1968–1969" ^ The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present. Ballantine Books. 2003. p. 1422. ISBN 0-345-45542-8. ^ "Actor Harris linked to scandal in South Africa". Chicago Tribune. 22 November 1978. p. a6. ^ Mann, Roderick (14 March 1978). "Richard Harris: Ain't Misbehavin'". Los Angeles Times. p. e8. ^ "Richard Harris obituary". The Guardian. Associated Press. 28 October 2002. Retrieved 3 October 2020. ^ "Richard Harris". Bigredbook.info. Retrieved 12 May 2021. ^ Callan, Michael Feeney (2004). Richard Harris: Sex, Death and the Movies. London: Robson Books. p. 212. ISBN 978-1861057662. ^ a b "Harris Welcomed at U.S. University". Lewistown Journal. Associated Press. 18 November 1987. Retrieved 3 December 2011. ^ a b "Richard Harris Establishes Scholarship Fund in Scranton". Ocala Star-Banner. 9 May 1987. Retrieved 3 December 2011. ^ "The Late Show With David Letterman" interview, 2001 ^ Kristin (9 July 2003). "On Richard Harris The Leaky Cauldron". The-leaky-cauldron.org. Retrieved 8 November 2011. ^ "Bible Project for TV". ^ Cliff Goodwin (31 May 2011). Behaving Badly: Richard Harris. Ebury Publishing. pp. 175–. ISBN 978-0-7535-4651-2. Retrieved 21 June 2012. ^ a b Caroline Dakers (11 December 1999). The Holland Park Circle: Artists and Victorian Society. Yale University Press. pp. 276–. ISBN 978-0-300-08164-0. Retrieved 28 June 2012. ^ a b Michael Feeney Callan (2004). "Richard Harris: Sex, Death and the Movies". p. 267. ISBN 9781861057662. ^ "Richard Harris Says IRA Has A Just Cause". Star-Banner. 24 January 1984. Retrieved 17 September 2013. ^ "Richard Harris ducking IRA "bombs"". The Gettysburg Times. 25 November 1988. Retrieved 17 September 2013. ^ Rosen, Jody (25 June 2019). "Here Are Hundreds More Artists Whose Tapes Were Destroyed in the UMG Fire". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 June 2019. ^ "Entertainment | Harris's Potter role unaffected by illness". BBC News. 30 August 2002. Retrieved 10 November 2012. ^ "Richard Harris dies". The Sydney Morning Herald. 26 October 2002. Retrieved 4 August 2018. ^ "Lionhearted – Death, Richard Harris". People.com. 26 May 2014. Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2015. ^ "Entertainment | Obituary: Richard Harris". BBC News. 25 October 2002. Retrieved 19 August 2015. ^ "Remembering Richard Harris - Bull, bard and boozing silverscreen superstar". independent. ^ "12 Actors Who Almost Starred In The Harry Potter Series". Fame 10. Retrieved 11 December 2016. ^ "Michael Gambon receives Richard Harris Award and admits ... all I did was copy him as Dumbledore". Telegraph. 9 December 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2018. ^ "Crowe pays tribute to Harris at Irish ceremony". BreakingNews.ie. 2 October 2006. ^ "Tivoli Cup in Kilkee". kilkee.ie. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2012. ^ "Richard Harris International Film Festival – International Film Festival". ^ a b "7th Moscow International Film Festival (1971)". MIFF. Archived from the original on 3 April 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2012. ^ "Richard Harris Awards". Retrieved 10 January 2020. Further reading[edit] Michael Feeney Callan (1 December 2004). Richard Harris: Sex, Death & the Movies. Robson Books. ISBN 978-1-86105-766-2. External links[edit] Richard Harris at IMDb Richard Harris at the TCM Movie Database Richard Harris at the Internet Broadway Database Richard Harris at the BFI's Screenonline Richard Harris at Find a Grave Richard Harris discography at MusicBrainz Harris' Bar Limerick: A Bar in Limerick City Dedicated to Richard The Round Table, The Richard Harris Fansite Richard Harris file at Limerick City Library, Ireland Obituary by Paul Bond at the World Socialist Web Site Dumbledore Quotes site Richard Harris' appearance on This Is Your Life v t e Richard Harris Studio albums A Tramp Shining The Yard Went On Forever Singles "MacArthur Park" "The Yard Went on Forever" "Didn't We?" "My Boy" Related Filmography Elizabeth Rees-Williams (first wife) Damian Harris (son) Jared Harris (son) Jamie Harris (son) Ann Turkel (second wife) Annabelle Wallis (niece) Awards for Richard Harris v t e Cannes Film Festival Best Actor Award 1946–1975 Ray Milland (1946) Edward G. Robinson (1949) Michael Redgrave (1951) Marlon Brando (1952) Spencer Tracy / Sergei Lukyanov / Boris Andreyev / Aleksey Batalov / Sergei Kurilov / Vadim Medvedev / Boris Bityukov / Nikolai Gritsenko / Pavel Kadochnikov / Boris Kokovkin / Nikolay Sergeev (1955) John Kitzmiller (1957) Paul Newman (1958) Bradford Dillman / Dean Stockwell / Orson Welles (1959) Anthony Perkins (1961) Dean Stockwell / Jason Robards / Ralph Richardson / Murray Melvin (1962) Richard Harris (1963) Antal Páger / Saro Urzì (1964) Terence Stamp (1965) Per Oscarsson (1966) Oded Kotler (1967) Jean-Louis Trintignant (1969) Marcello Mastroianni (1970) Riccardo Cucciolla (1971) Jean Yanne (1972) Giancarlo Giannini (1973) Jack Nicholson (1974) Vittorio Gassman (1975) 1976–2000 José Luis Gómez (1976) Fernando Rey (1977) Jon Voight (1978) Jack Lemmon / Stefano Madia (1979) Michel Piccoli / Jack Thompson (1980) Ugo Tognazzi / Ian Holm (1981) Jack Lemmon (1982) Gian Maria Volonté (1983) Alfredo Landa / Francisco Rabal (1984) William Hurt (1985) Michel Blanc / Bob Hoskins (1986) Marcello Mastroianni (1987) Forest Whitaker (1988) James Spader (1989) Gérard Depardieu (1990) John Turturro / Samuel L. Jackson (1991) Tim Robbins (1992) David Thewlis (1993) Ge You (1994) Jonathan Pryce (1995) Pascal Duquenne / Daniel Auteuil (1996) Sean Penn (1997) Peter Mullan (1998) Emmanuel Schotte (1999) Tony Leung Chiu-wai (2000) 2001–present Benoît Magimel (2001) Olivier Gourmet (2002) Muzaffer Özdemir / Emin Toprak (2003) Yūya Yagira (2004) Tommy Lee Jones (2005) Jamel Debbouze / Samy Naceri / Roschdy Zem / Sami Bouajila / Bernard Blancan (2006) Konstantin Lavronenko (2007) Benicio del Toro (2008) Christoph Waltz (2009) Javier Bardem / Elio Germano (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Mads Mikkelsen (2012) Bruce Dern (2013) Timothy Spall (2014) Vincent Lindon (2015) Shahab Hosseini (2016) Joaquin Phoenix (2017) Marcello Fonte (2018) Antonio Banderas (2019) v t e European Film Academy Lifetime Achievement Award  Ingmar Bergman (1988)  Marcello Mastroianni (1988)  Federico Fellini (1989)  Andrzej Wajda (1990)  Alexandre Trauner (1991)  Billy Wilder (1992)  Michelangelo Antonioni (1993)  Robert Bresson (1994)  Marcel Carné (1995)  Alec Guinness (1996)  Jeanne Moreau (1997)  Ennio Morricone (1999)  Richard Harris (2000)  Monty Python (2001)  Tonino Guerra (2002)  Claude Chabrol (2003)  Carlos Saura (2004)  Sean Connery (2005)  Roman Polanski (2006)  Jean-Luc Godard (2007)  Judi Dench (2008)  Ken Loach (2009)  Bruno Ganz (2010)  Stephen Frears (2011)  Bernardo Bertolucci (2012)  Catherine Deneuve (2013)  Agnès Varda (2014)  Charlotte Rampling (2015)  Jean-Claude Carrière (2016) Alexander Sokurov (2017) Carmen Maura (2018) Werner Herzog (2019) Award of Merit (Special Achievement Award) Richard Attenborough (1988) Jeremy Irons (1998) Honorary Award Manoel de Oliveira (2007) Michel Piccoli (2011) Michael Caine (2015) Andrzej Wajda (2016) Costa-Gavras (2018) v t e Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actor Richard Burton (1955) Paul Scofield (1956) Laurence Olivier (1957) Michael Redgrave (1958) Eric Porter (1959) Alec Guinness (1960) Christopher Plummer (1961) Paul Scofield (1962) Michael Redgrave (1963) Nicol Williamson (1964) Ian Holm (1965) Albert Finney (1966) Laurence Olivier (1967) Alec McCowen (1968) Nicol Williamson (1969) John Gielgud (1970) Alan Bates (1971) Laurence Olivier (1972) Alec McCowen (1973) John Wood (1974) John Gielgud (1975) Albert Finney (1976) Donald Sinden (1977) Alan Howard (1978) Warren Mitchell (1979) Tom Courtenay (1980) Alan Howard (1981) Alec McCowen (1982) Derek Jacobi (1983) Ian McKellen (1984) Antony Sher (1985) Albert Finney (1986) Michael Gambon (1987) Eric Porter (1988) Ian McKellen (1989) Richard Harris (1990) John Wood (1991) Nigel Hawthorne (1992) Ian Holm (1993) Tom Courtenay (1994) Michael Gambon (1995) Paul Scofield (1996) Ian Holm (1997) Kevin Spacey (1998) Stephen Dillane (1999) Simon Russell Beale (2000) Alex Jennings (2001) Simon Russell Beale (2002) Michael Sheen (2003) Richard Griffiths (2004) Simon Russell Beale (2005) Rufus Sewell (2006) Patrick Stewart (2007) Chiwetel Ejiofor (2008) Mark Rylance (2009) Rory Kinnear (2010) Benedict Cumberbatch and Jonny Lee Miller (2011) Simon Russell Beale (2012) Adrian Lester and Rory Kinnear (2013) Tom Hiddleston (2014) James McAvoy (2015) Ralph Fiennes (2016) Andrew Garfield (2017) Ralph Fiennes (2018) Andrew Scott (2019) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Fred Astaire (1950) Danny Kaye (1951) Donald O'Connor (1952) David Niven (1953) James Mason (1954) Tom Ewell (1955) Mario Moreno (1956) Frank Sinatra (1957) Danny Kaye (1958) Jack Lemmon (1959) Jack Lemmon (1960) Glenn Ford (1961) Marcello Mastroianni (1962) Alberto Sordi (1963) Rex Harrison (1964) Lee Marvin (1965) Alan Arkin (1966) Richard Harris (1967) Ron Moody (1968) Peter O'Toole (1969) Albert Finney (1970) Chaim Topol (1971) Jack Lemmon (1972) George Segal (1973) Art Carney (1974) George Burns / Walter Matthau (1975) Kris Kristofferson (1976) Richard Dreyfuss (1977) Warren Beatty (1978) Peter Sellers (1979) Ray Sharkey (1980) Dudley Moore (1981) Dustin Hoffman (1982) Michael Caine (1983) Dudley Moore (1984) Jack Nicholson (1985) Paul Hogan (1986) Robin Williams (1987) Tom Hanks (1988) Morgan Freeman (1989) Gérard Depardieu (1990) Robin Williams (1991) Tim Robbins (1992) Robin Williams (1993) Hugh Grant (1994) John Travolta (1995) Tom Cruise (1996) Jack Nicholson (1997) Michael Caine (1998) Jim Carrey (1999) George Clooney (2000) Gene Hackman (2001) Richard Gere (2002) Bill Murray (2003) Jamie Foxx (2004) Joaquin Phoenix (2005) Sacha Baron Cohen (2006) Johnny Depp (2007) Colin Farrell (2008) Robert Downey Jr. (2009) Paul Giamatti (2010) Jean Dujardin (2011) Hugh Jackman (2012) Leonardo DiCaprio (2013) Michael Keaton (2014) Matt Damon (2015) Ryan Gosling (2016) James Franco (2017) Christian Bale (2018) Taron Egerton (2019) Sacha Baron Cohen (2020) v t e Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album 1959−1980 The Best of the Stan Freberg Shows – Stan Freberg (1959) Lincoln Portrait – Carl Sandburg (1960) FDR Speaks – Robert Bialek (producer) (1961) Humor in Music – Leonard Bernstein (1962) The Story-Teller: A Session with Charles Laughton – Charles Laughton (1963) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? – Edward Albee (playwright) (1964) BBC Tribute to John F. Kennedy – That Was the Week That Was (1965) John F. Kennedy: As We Remember Him – Goddard Lieberson (producer) (1966) Edward R. Murrow - A Reporter Remembers, Vol. I: The War Years – Edward R. Murrow (1967) Gallant Men – Everett Dirksen (1968) Lonesome Cities – Rod McKuen (1969) We Love You Call Collect – Art Linkletter & Diane Linkletter (1970) Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam – Martin Luther King Jr. (1971) Desiderata – Les Crane (1972) Lenny – Bruce Botnick (producer) & the Original Broadway Cast (1973) Jonathan Livingston Seagull – Richard Harris (1974) Good Evening – Peter Cook and Dudley Moore (1975) Give 'em Hell, Harry! – James Whitmore (1976) Great American Documents – Henry Fonda, Helen Hayes, James Earl Jones and Orson Welles (1977) The Belle of Amherst – Julie Harris (1978) Citizen Kane (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – Orson Welles (1979) Ages of Man: Readings from Shakespeare – John Gielgud (1980) 1981−2000 Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein – Pat Carroll (1981) Donovan's Brain – Orson Welles (1982) Raiders of the Lost Ark: The Movie on Record – Tom Voegeli (producer) and Various Artists (1983) Lincoln Portrait – William Warfield (1984) The Words of Gandhi – Ben Kingsley (1985) Ma Rainey's Black Bottom – Mike Berniker (producer) & the Original Broadway Cast (1986) Interviews from the Class of '55 Recording Sessions – Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chips Moman, Ricky Nelson, Roy Orbison, Carl Perkins and Sam Phillips (1987) Lake Wobegon Days – Garrison Keillor (1988) Speech by Rev. Jesse Jackson – Jesse Jackson (1989) It's Always Something – Gilda Radner (1990) Gracie: A Love Story – George Burns (1991) The Civil War – Ken Burns (1992) What You Can Do to Avoid AIDS – Earvin "Magic" Johnson and Robert O'Keefe (1993) On the Pulse of Morning – Maya Angelou (1994) Get in the Van – Henry Rollins (1995) Phenomenal Woman – Maya Angelou (1996) It Takes a Village – Hillary Clinton (1997) Charles Kuralt's Spring – Charles Kuralt (1998) Still Me – Christopher Reeve (1999) The Autobiography of Martin Luther King Jr. – LeVar Burton (2000) 2001−2020 The Measure of a Man: A Spiritual Autobiography – Sidney Poitier, Rick Harris & John Runnette (producers) (2001) Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones – Quincy Jones, Jeffrey S. Thomas, Steven Strassman (engineers) and Elisa Shokoff (producer) (2002) A Song Flung Up to Heaven – Maya Angelou and Charles B. Potter (producer) (2003) Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them – Al Franken and Paul Ruben (producer) (2004) My Life – Bill Clinton (2005) Dreams from My Father – Barack Obama (2006) Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis – Jimmy Carter / With Ossie and Ruby – Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee (2007) The Audacity of Hope – Barack Obama and Jacob Bronstein (producer) (2008) An Inconvenient Truth by Al Gore – Beau Bridges, Cynthia Nixon and Blair Underwood (2009) Always Looking Up – Michael J. Fox (2010) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Presents Earth (The Audiobook) – Jon Stewart (2011) If You Ask Me (And of Course You Won't) – Betty White (2012) Society's Child – Janis Ian (2013) America Again: Re-becoming the Greatness We Never Weren't – Stephen Colbert (2014) Diary of a Mad Diva – Joan Rivers (2015) A Full Life: Reflections at 90 – Jimmy Carter (2016) In Such Good Company: Eleven Years of Laughter, Mayhem, and Fun in the Sandbox – Carol Burnett (2017) The Princess Diarist – Carrie Fisher (2018) Faith: A Journey for All – Jimmy Carter (2019) Becoming – Michelle Obama (2020) 2021−present Blowout: Corrupted Democracy, Rogue State Russia, and the Richest, Most Destructive Industry on Earth – Rachel Maddow (2021) Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) United States Czech Republic Australia Israel Netherlands Poland Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Biographical dictionaries Ireland Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz artist Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Harris&oldid=1027933434" Categories: 1930 births 2002 deaths 20th-century Irish male actors 20th-century Irish singers 20th-century male singers 21st-century Irish male actors Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art Audiobook narrators Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners Deaths from cancer in England Deaths from lymphoma Dunhill Records artists European Film Awards winners (people) Garryowen Football Club players Grammy Award winners Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom Irish film directors Irish male film actors Irish male singers Irish male stage actors Irish rugby union players Knights of Malta Musicians from County Limerick People educated at Crescent College People from County Limerick People from Limerick (city) Racquets players University of Scranton faculty Rugby union players from County Limerick Male actor filmographies Director filmographies Irish filmographies British filmographies Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Biography with signature Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020 Turner Classic Movies person ID same as Wikidata Articles with IBDb links MusicBrainz artist same as Wikidata Articles with MusicBrainz artist links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with DIB identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 21:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7398	----	Constantine VI - Wikipedia Constantine VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797 Not to be confused with Ecumenical Patriarch Constantine VI of Constantinople. Emperor of the Romans Constantine VI Emperor of the Romans Constantine VI – gold solidus. The inscription reads constantinos basiΘ. Byzantine emperor Reign 8 September 780 – 19 August 797 Coronation 14 April 776[1] Predecessor Leo IV Successor Irene Regent Irene Born 14 January 771 Died before 805 Spouse Maria of Amnia Theodote Issue Detail Euphrosyne Dynasty Isaurian Father Leo IV Mother Irene Isaurian or Syrian dynasty Chronology Leo III 717–741 with Constantine V as co-emperor, 720–741 Constantine V 741–775 with Leo IV as co-emperor, 751–775 Artabasdos' usurpation 741–743 Leo IV 775–780 with Constantine VI as co-emperor, 776–780 Constantine VI 780–797 under Irene as regent, 780–790, and with her as co-regent, 792–797 Irene as empress regnant 797–802 Succession Preceded by Twenty Years' Anarchy Followed by Nikephorian dynasty Constantine VI (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, Kōnstantinos; 14 January 771 – before 805[2]) was Byzantine emperor from 780 to 797. The only child of Emperor Leo IV, Constantine was named co-emperor with him at the age of five in 776 and succeeded him as sole Emperor in 780, aged nine. His mother Irene exercised control over him as regent until 790, assisted by her chief minister Staurakios. The regency ended when Constantine reached maturity, but Irene sought to continue her participation in government. After a few years of sole rule Constantine named his mother Empress in 792, making her his official colleague. Constantine suffered military defeats and made controversial decisions, such as illicitly marrying his mistress, Theodote. Taking advantage of her son's unpopularity, Irene had Constantine deposed, blinded and imprisoned in 797 and seized power for herself, becoming the first Empress regnant of the Empire. Constantine likely died shortly thereafter. Constantine VI was the final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman emperor, being recognized as such by both the Empire which he ruled in the east, the papacy and the Western European powers over which the pope held suzerainty. The Byzantine's ability to protect the Papacy had waned following the Arab Conquests, leading to the Papacy to increasingly seek protection from the Franks. This culminated in 800 when Pope Leo III, who owed his power and position to the Franks, crowned Charlemagne as 'Emperor of the Romans'. Based on the assertion that a woman could not be Empress in her own right, this laid the foundations of a new polity, independent of the East, that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire.[3] Contents 1 Early life and the regency of Irene 2 Reign 3 Family 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources Early life and the regency of Irene[edit] Constantine VI was the only child of Emperor Leo IV and Irene. Constantine was crowned co-emperor by his father in 776, and succeeded as sole emperor in 780, at the age of nine. Due to his minority, Irene and her chief minister Staurakios exercised the regency for him.[2] In 787 Constantine had signed the decrees of the Second Council of Nicaea, but he appears to have had iconoclast sympathies.[2] By then Constantine had turned 16 years old, but his mother did not relinquish executive authority to him.[citation needed] In 788, Irene herself broke off the engagement of Constantine with Rotrude, a daughter of Charlemagne. Turning against Charlemagne, the Eastern Romans now supported Lombard pretender Adalgis, who had been forced into exile after the Frankish invasion of Italy. Adalgis was given command of a Roman expeditionary corps, landing in Calabria towards the end of 788 but was defeated by the united armies of the Lombard dukes Hildeprand of Spoleto and Grimoald III of Benevento as well as Frankish troops under Winiges.[4] After a conspiracy against Irene was suppressed in the spring of 790 she attempted to get official recognition as empress. This backfired and with military support Constantine finally came to actual power in 790, after the Armeniacs rebelled against Irene. Nevertheless, after campaigning unsuccessfully in the Balkans, Constantine restored his mother in 792 after just two years out of power and made her co-ruler.[5] Reign[edit] Once in control of the state, Constantine proved incapable of sound governance. His army was defeated by the Muslims,[where?] and Constantine himself suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Kardam of Bulgaria in the 792 Battle of Marcellae.[2] A movement developed in favor of his uncle, the Caesar Nikephoros. Constantine had his uncle's eyes put out and the tongues of his father's four other half-brothers cut off. His former Armenian supporters revolted after he had blinded their general Alexios Mosele. He crushed this revolt with extreme cruelty in 793.[2] He then divorced his wife Maria of Amnia, who had failed to provide him with a male heir, and married his mistress Theodote, an unpopular and canonically illegal act which sparked off the so-called "Moechian Controversy". Although the Patriarch Tarasios did not publicly speak against it, he did refuse to officiate the marriage. Popular disapproval was expressed by Theodote's uncle, Plato of Sakkoudion, who even broke communion with Tarasios for his passive stance. Plato's intransigence led to his own imprisonment, while his monastic supporters were persecuted and exiled to Thessalonica. The "Moechian Controversy" cost Constantine what popularity he had left, especially in the church establishment, which Irene took care to vocally support against her own son.[2][6][7] On 19 August 797[a] Constantine was captured, blinded, and imprisoned by the supporters of his mother, who had organized a conspiracy, leaving Irene to be crowned as first Empress regnant of Constantinople. It is unknown when exactly Constantine died; it was certainly before 805, but he very likely died of his wounds shortly after being blinded. He was buried in the Monastery of St. Euphrosyne, which Irene had founded.[2][6][10] In the early 820s, the rebel Thomas the Slav claimed to be Constantine VI in an effort to gain support against Michael II.[11] Family[edit] Obverse: Leo IV with his son and co-emperor Constantine (VI). Reverse: his grandfather Leo III and his father Constantine V. By his first wife Maria, Constantine VI had two daughters:[12] Irene (789 - 1 August 796), became a nun in 796 Euphrosyne (790 - 837), who married Emperor Michael II the Stammerer By his mistress and then second wife Theodote, Constantine VI had two sons, both of whom died young:[12] Leo (7 October 796 - 1 May 797) Constantine (posthumously 1 January 798 - 805) See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium gives 19 April, but this seems to be a mistake. Philip Grierson & Cyril Mango's "Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors", one of the primary sources for the ODB, indicates 19 August. In his chronicle, Theophanes the Confessor writes: "[They] reached the City on Saturday morning, 15 August." The 15th was Tuesday, so the correct date would be August 19.[8][9] References[edit] ^ PBW, "Konstantinos VI". ^ a b c d e f g Cutler & Hollingsworth (1991), pp. 501–502 ^ James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, 1864, pp. 62–64 ^ Ottorino Bertolini, "Adelchi, re dei Longobardi", Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani 1 (1960). ^ "Constantine VI (780–797)", Dumbarton Oaks ^ a b Treadgold (1997), p. 422 ^ Garland (1999), pp. 84–85 ^ Mango, Cyril A., ed. (1997). "A.M. 6289". The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198225683. ^ Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042); With an Additional Note". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 54–55. doi:10.2307/1291157. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291157. ^ Garland (1999), pp. 85–87, 260 (Note 67) ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 435 ^ a b Crawley, Charles (29 May 2014). "BYZANTIUM 395–1057". Medieval Lands (3rd ed.). Retrieved 17 April 2018 – via Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Sources[edit] Barbe, Dominique (1990). Irène de Byzance: La femme empereur. Paris. Cutler, Anthony; Hollingsworth, Paul A. (1991). "Constantine VI". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 501–502. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Constantine VI Isaurian dynasty Born: 14 January 771 Died: before 805 Regnal titles Preceded by Leo IV Byzantine Emperor 8 September 780 – 19 August 797 (With Irene) Succeeded by Irene v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Sweden Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VI&oldid=1027508686" Categories: 8th-century Byzantine emperors Isaurian dynasty Medieval child rulers Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars 771 births 797 deaths 800s deaths Saints from Anatolia 8th-century Christian saints 780s in the Byzantine Empire 790s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Christian royal saints Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2021 Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021 Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from April 2021 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2021, at 10:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7406	----	Chatti - Wikipedia Chatti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Germanic tribe This article is about the ancient Germanic tribe. For the village in Pakistan, see Chathi. The approximate positions of some Germanic peoples reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe[1][2] whose homeland was near the upper Weser (Visurgis).[3][4] They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in the valleys and mountains of the Eder and Fulda regions, a district approximately corresponding to Hesse-Kassel, though probably somewhat more extensive. They settled within the region in the first century B.C. According to Tacitus,[5] the Batavians and Cananefates of his time, tribes living within the Roman Empire, were descended from part of the Chatti, who left their homeland after an internal quarrel drove them out, to take up new lands at the mouth of the Rhine. Contents 1 Proto-history 2 Sources 3 Chasuarii and Chattuarii 4 Places named after the Chatti 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links Proto-history[edit] The extremely large timescale of Prehistoric Europe left stone tools and weapons dating from the Paleolithic to the Iron Age that were chronologically ordered and dated in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Tribes such as the Chatti, Cimbri, and Langobardi have not been well distinguished until relatively recently.[6] Sources[edit] While Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) was well informed about the regions and tribes on the eastern banks of the Rhine, he never mentioned the Chatti by name. He did make note of the Suebi though, and suggested that they had previously driven out the Celts to the south of the region corresponding to modern north Hesse in the prior centuries BC (cfr. the early medieval Hessengau).[7] Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History (written 77–79 AD) grouped the Chatti and Suebi together with the Hermunduri and the Cherusci, calling this group the Hermiones, which is a nation of Germanic tribes mentioned by Tacitus as living in inland Germany.[8] Some commentators believe that Caesar's Suebi were possibly the later Chatti, a branch of the Suebian movement of people who had become more clearly identifiable.[9] If not, then the Chatti may represent a successful resistance to the Suevi, as opposed to the Tencteri, Usipetes, and Ubii who all were forced from homelands in the same region by the Suebic incursions. The first ancient writer to mention the chats is Velleius Paterculus. He mentioned the Chattas in 6 AD in his book 2, 109 (5): “Sentius Saturninus received the order to march with his legions through the area of the Chatten to Boiohaemum, that's the name of the area in which Marbod lives and should he will cut a breach through the impenetrable Hercynian Forests. The second ancient writer to mention the Chatti is Strabo, some time after 16 AD, who includes the Chatti in a listing of conquered Germanic tribes who were more settled and agricultural, but also poorer, than the nomadic tribes in central and eastern Germania such as the Suebi. They were poor because they had fought the Romans, and had been defeated and plundered.[10] In his second book of Epigrams, Martial credited the emperor Domitian (51–96 AD) as having overcome the Chatti:   "Creta dedit magnum, maius dedit Africa nomen,     Scipio quod uictor quodque Metellus habet;   nobilius domito tribuit Germania Rheno,     et puer hoc dignus nomine, Caesar, eras.   frater Idumaeos meruit cum patre triumphos,     quae datur ex Chattis laurea, tota tua est.   "Crete gave a great name, Africa a greater one:     Scipio the victor has one, and Metellus has the other.   Germany granted a nobler name when the Rhine had been subdued,     and even as a boy, Caesar, you were worthy of this name.   Your brother earned Idumaean triumphs together with your father,     but the laurel given for the Chatti is totally yours." Martial: Epigrams. Book ll, No. 2 For the first century AD, Tacitus provides important information about the Chatti's part in the Germanic wars and certain elements of their culture. He says that: [The Chatti's] settlements begin at the Hercynian forest, where the country is not so open and marshy as in the other cantons into which Germany stretches. They are found where there are hills, and with them grow less frequent, for the Hercynian forest keeps close till it has seen the last of its native Chatti. Hardy frames, close-knit limbs, fierce countenances, and a peculiarly vigorous courage, mark the tribe. For Germans, they have much intelligence and sagacity; they promote their picked men to power, and obey those whom they promote; they keep their ranks, note their opportunities, check their impulses, portion out the day, intrench themselves by night, regard fortune as a doubtful, valour as an unfailing, resource; and what is most unusual, and only given to systematic discipline, they rely more on the general than on the army. Their whole strength is in their infantry, which, in addition to its arms, is laden with iron tools and provisions. Other tribes you see going to battle, the Chatti to a campaign. Seldom do they engage in mere raids and casual encounters. It is indeed the peculiarity of a cavalry force quickly to win and as quickly to yield a victory. Fleetness and timidity go together; deliberateness is more akin to steady courage.[11] Tacitus also notes that like other Germanic tribes, the Chatti took an interest in traditions concerning haircuts and beards. A practice, rare among the other German tribes, and simply characteristic of individual prowess, has become general among the Chatti, of letting the hair and beard grow as soon as they have attained manhood, and not till they have slain a foe laying aside that peculiar aspect which devotes and pledges them to valour. Over the spoiled and bleeding enemy they show their faces once more; then, and not till then, proclaiming that they have discharged the obligations of their birth, and proved themselves worthy of their country and of their parents. The coward and the unwarlike remain unshorn. The bravest of them also wear an iron ring (which otherwise is a mark of disgrace among the people) until they have released themselves by the slaughter of a foe. Most of the Chatti delight in these fashions. Even hoary-headed men are distinguished by them, and are thus conspicuous alike to enemies and to fellow-countrymen. To begin the battle always rests with them; they form the first line, an unusual spectacle. Nor even in peace do they assume a more civilised aspect. They have no home or land or occupation; they are supported by whomsoever they visit, as lavish of the property of others as they are regardless of their own, till at length the feebleness of age makes them unequal to so stern a valour.[12] Between the Rhine and the Chatti, Tacitus places the Tencteres and Usipetes, who apparently had been moved since the time of Caesar into the old homeland of the Ubii, who had in turn settled in Cologne.[13] (Caesar had described these three tribes as under pressure from Suebi to their east, and attempting to move across the Rhine.) To the south, Tacitus also says that the Chatti's land is beyond the questionable lands, the so-called tithe lands, or agri decumates, that adventurers from the Roman sides of the Rhine and Danube had been trying to settle.[14] It is possible that at first the Chatti moved into place on the Rhine, in the old territory of the Ubii. Cassius Dio describes Drusus establishing a fort in Chatti territory on the Rhine in 11 BC, and that in 10 BC they moved out of an area where the Romans had permitted them.[15] To the north of the Chatti, Tacitus places the large area of the Chauci.[16] To the east, the neighbours of the Chatti and Chauci were the Cherusci, who Tacitus describes as excessively peace-loving in his time.[17] (Caesar had described the Suevi, not the Chatti, as living between the Ubii on the Rhine and a forest called the Bacenis, which separated them from the Cherusci. This is why Caesar's Suevi are sometimes thought to be Chatti.) The Chatti successfully resisted incorporation into the Roman Empire, joining the Cheruscan war leader Arminius' coalition of tribes that annihilated Varus' legions in 9 AD in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Germanicus later, in 15,[18] raided their lands in revenge, but Rome eventually responded to the Chatti's belligerent defense of their independence by building the limes border fortifications along the southern boundary of their lands in central Hesse during the early years of the first century. A major raid by the Chatti into Germania Superior was defeated decisively by the legions in 50 AD.[19] In 58 AD the Chatti were defeated by the Hermunduri in a border dispute over a religiously significant river. Roman sources identify the fabled Mattium, beyond the Eder, as the capital of the Chatti. Destroyed by Germanicus, its location is not known today, but generally is assumed to be in the wider neighbourhood of Fritzlar north of the river Eder.[20] The Chatti were opponents of the emperor Domitian in 84 CE, and were allies of Lucius Antonius Saturninus in his revolt of 89 CE.[21] They appear again during the build up to the Marcomannic wars, first attacking southwards towards Germania superior and Raitia in what is now southern Germany, in 162, and then while the bigger battles were being fought they were repulsed together with the Hermunduri from the Rhine by Didius Julianus in 175. After the early third century AD, however, the Chatti virtually disappear from the sources and are only called upon as a topical element or when writing about events of the first century. Cassius Dio is most likely not only the first author to mention the Alamanni but also the last one to record a historical appearance of the Chatti. Writing about the Germanic war of Caracalla in 213 AD, he has the emperor fight "Κέννους, Kελτικòν ἔθνος" ("the Kenni, a Celtic people").[22] This is taken from an excerpt of Dio in the writings of Joannes Xiphilinus, however, whereas the Fragmenta Valesiana refer to the same people as "Chattoi".[23] The usage of "Kελτικός" for Germanic peoples was an archaic tradition among Greek writers. After Cassius Dio, the name "Chattus" appears among others in a panegyric by Sidonius Apollinaris in the late fifth century, now as a poetic synonym for "Germanus".[24] The last ancient source to mention the Chatti, if only in a quotation of Sulpicius Alexander describing events of the late fourth century, was Gregory of Tours.[25] Allegedly the Chatti were associated with the legendary "First King of the Franks". The story is told of the election of the first Frankish king.[26] The much later Liber Historiæ Francorum says that after the death of Sunno, his brother Marcomer, leader of the Ampsivarii and Chatti, proposed to the Franks that they should have one single king, contrary to their tradition. The Liber adds that Pharamond, named as Marcomer's son, was chosen as this first king (thus beginning the tradition of long-haired kings of the Franks), and then states that when he died, his son Chlodio [428 AD] was raised up as the next king. The work says no more of him. The Chatti eventually may in any case have become a branch of the much larger neighboring Franks and their region was incorporated in the kingdom of Clovis I, probably with the Ripuarians, at the beginning of the sixth century. The Chatti name is apparently preserved in the medieval and modern name of Hesse in Germany, which is a name that already appears early. In 723 for example, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Winfrid—subsequently called St. Boniface, Apostle of the Germans—proselytizing among the Hessians (Hessorum), felled their sacred tree, Thor's Oak, near Fritzlar, as part of his efforts to convert them and other Germanic tribes to Christianity. Chasuarii and Chattuarii[edit] Two tribes in northern Germany have names that are sometimes compared to the Chatti. The Chattuarii, whose name appears to mean that they are dwellers upon the Chatti lands, or else Chatti people, lived near the Rhine, probably between IJssel and Lippe. They came to be seen as Franks and apparently moved over the Rhine as a Frankish people, to settle into the corner of land between the Rhine and Maas rivers.[15] The name of the Chattuarii is in turn, sometimes compared to another people called the Chasuarii mentioned by several classical authors. The Chasuarii were a Germanic tribe mentioned by Tacitus in the Germania. According to him, they dwelt to the north of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, who dwelt in turn to the north of the Bructeri, between Ems and Weser, however the name of the Chasuarii most often is interpreted to mean "dwellers on the Hase [river]", a tributary to the Ems. The second century geographer Claudius Ptolemy mentions that the Kasouarioi lived to the east of the Abnoba mountains, in the vicinity of Hesse, but this account of northern Europe is thought to contain confusions derived from using different sources.[27] Places named after the Chatti[edit] Hesse: probably derived from "Chatti" through the High German consonant shifts.[28][29] Kassel: derived from the ancient Castellum Cattorum, a castle of the Chatti Katwijk: from Chatti and Dutch wijk, "village/settlement" Katzenelnbogen: historians speculated that the name derives from Cattimelibocus, a combination of two words: the Chatti and Melibokus, a generic Roman name for "mountains".[30][31] Mont des Cats In popular culture[edit] The Light Bearer (1994), a historical novel by Donna Gillespie. Mark of the Lion Series (1993), a series of historical fiction novels by Francine Rivers. See also[edit] Mattium Adgandestrius Mattiaci Batavi In geology, the Chattian Age of the Oligocene Epoch is named after the Chatti List of Germanic peoples Notes[edit] ^ Ford, Simon Samuel (2018). "Chatti". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191744457. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Chatti. Germanic *tribe who lived in modern Hesse (west central Germany). ^ Thompson, Edward Arthur; Drinkwater, John Frederick (2012). "Chatti". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191735257. Retrieved January 26, 2020. Chatti, a Germanic people, who lived in the neighbourhood of the upper Weser and the Diemel. ^ "Chatti | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Carl Waldman; Catherine Mason (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. pp. 170–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1. ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | The Histories by Tacitus". classics.mit.edu. ^ Malcolm Todd (4 February 2009). The Early Germans. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 243–. ISBN 978-1-4051-3756-0. Retrieved 17 November 2012. ^ James Cowles Prichard (1841). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Researches into the ethnography of Europe. Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper. pp. 352–. Retrieved 17 November 2012. ^ Plin. Nat. 4.28 ^ Peck (1898), Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities ^ Strabo, 7.1.3-4. ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 30". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 31". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 32". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 29". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ a b Lanting; van der Plicht (2010), "De 14C-chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- en Protohistorie VI: Romeinse tijd en Merovingische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische schema's", Palaeohistoria, 51/52: 52, ISBN 9789077922736 ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 35". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes, chapter 36". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Tacitus, The Annals 1.55 ^ Tacitus, The Annals 12.27 ^ Armin Becker: Mattium. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2. edition, volume 19, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin – New York 2001, p. 443–444. (restricted online copy, p. 443, at Google Books) (German) ^ Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10195-0. ^ Cassius Dio, 78.14.1f; Greek. ^ Fragmenta Valesiana 377. ^ Sidonius, Carmina 7.388ff. In this poem honouring Avitus, the "Chatt" is restricted by the swampy water of the river Elbe. Cf. Ludwig Rübekeil, Diachrone Studien zur Kontaktzone zwischen Kelten und Germanen, ÖAW, Vienna 2002, pp. 45f. ^ Gregorius Turonenesis, Historia Francorum, 2.9.55. ^ Liber Historiæ Francorum 4-5, MGH Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum II, ed. B. Krusch, Hanover, 1888, pp. 245-246 ^ Schütte, Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe, p. 119 ^ A Brief Introduction to the History of Hesse (Hessen) Archived July 17, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ^ The History Files: Hesse ^ "Meyers Konversationslexikon 1888, Vol. 9, Page 623". ^ "Meyers Konversationslexikon 1888, Vol. 11, Page 449". Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chatti" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] "Catti" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chatti&oldid=1011519529" Categories: Chatti Early Germanic peoples Irminones Chattian Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ænglisc العربية Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Italiano Latina Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски Nederlands Nedersaksies Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 March 2021, at 09:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7407	----	Michael VII Doukas - Wikipedia Michael VII Doukas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael VII Doukas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans A cloisonné engraving of Michael VII Doukas in full imperial regalia, as depicted in the Georgian Khakuli Triptych Byzantine emperor Reign 24 October 1071 – 31 March 1078 Predecessor Romanos IV Successor Nikephoros III Co-emperors Andronikos Doukas (1070s) Konstantios Doukas (1071–1078) Constantine Doukas (1074–1078) Born c. 1050 Died 1090 (aged ~40) Spouse Maria of Alania Issue Constantine Doukas Dynasty Doukas Father Constantine X Mother Eudokia Makrembolitissa Michael VII Doukas or Dukas/Ducas (Greek: Μιχαήλ Ζ΄ Δούκας), nicknamed Parapinakes (Greek: Παραπινάκης, lit. "minus a quarter", with reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. Contents 1 Life 2 Usurpers 3 Family 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 8 External links Life[edit] Michael VII was born c. 1050 in Constantinople, the eldest son of Constantine X Doukas and Eudokia Makrembolitissa.[1] He was associated with his father on the throne late in 1059, together with or shortly before his newly born brother Konstantios Doukas.[2] When Constantine X died in 1067, Michael VII was 17 years old and should have been able to rule by himself. He exhibited little interest in politics, however, and his mother Eudokia and uncle John Doukas governed the empire as effective regents.[3] On January 1, 1068, Eudokia married the general Romanos Diogenes, who now became senior co-emperor alongside Michael VII, Konstantios, and another brother, Andronikos.[4] When Romanos IV was defeated and captured by Alp Arslan of the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in August 1071,[5] Michael VII remained in the background, while the initiative was taken by his uncle John Doukas and his tutor Michael Psellos.[6] They conspired to keep Romanos from regaining power after his release from captivity, while Michael felt no obligation to honor the agreement that Romanos struck with the Sultan.[citation needed] After the dispatch of Eudokia to a monastery, Michael VII was crowned again on October 24, 1071 as senior emperor. Although still advised by Michael Psellos and John Doukas, Michael VII became increasingly reliant on his finance minister Nikephoritzes.[7] The emperor's chief interests, shaped by Psellos, were in academic pursuits, and he allowed Nikephoritzes to increase both taxation and luxury spending without properly financing the army. As an emperor he was incompetent, surrounded by sycophantic court officials, and blind to the empire collapsing around him.[citation needed] In dire straits, imperial officials resorted to property confiscations and even expropriated some of the wealth of the church. The underpaid army tended to mutiny, and the Byzantines lost Bari, their last possession in Italy, to the Normans of Robert Guiscard in 1071.[6] Simultaneously, they faced a serious revolt in the Balkans, where they faced an attempt for the restoration of the Serbian state.[7] Although this revolt was suppressed by the general Nikephoros Bryennios,[7] the Byzantine Empire was unable to recover its losses in Asia Minor. Miliaresion of Michael VII Doukas Depiction of Michael VII Doukas on the back of the Holy Crown of Hungary After Manzikert, the Byzantine government sent a new army to contain the Seljuk Turks under Isaac Komnenos, a brother of the future emperor Alexios I Komnenos, but this army was defeated and its commander captured in 1073.[8] The problem was made worse by the desertion of the Byzantines' western mercenaries, who became the object of the next military expedition in the area, led by the Caesar John Doukas.[8] This campaign also ended in failure, and its commander was likewise captured by the enemy. The victorious mercenaries now forced John Doukas to stand as pretender to the throne. The government of Michael VII was forced to recognize the conquests of the Seljuks in Asia Minor in 1074, and to seek their support.[citation needed] A new army under Alexios Komnenos, reinforced by Seljuk troops sent by Malik Shah I, finally defeated the mercenaries and captured John Doukas in 1074.[9] These misfortunes caused widespread dissatisfaction, exacerbated by the devaluation of the currency, which gave the emperor his nickname Parapinakēs.[10] In 1078 two generals, Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates, simultaneously revolted in the Balkans and Anatolia, respectively.[9] Botaneiates gained the support of the Seljuk Turks, and he reached Constantinople first. Michael VII resigned the throne with hardly a struggle on 31 March 1078 and retired into the Monastery of Stoudios.[11] He later became metropolitan of Ephesus[citation needed] and died in Constantinople in c. 1090.[12] Before his resignation from the throne, Michael VII may have sent an embassy to Song China, following a series of Byzantine embassies to the earlier Tang Empire of China.[13] From the Wenxian Tongkao, written by Chinese historian Ma Duanlin (1245–1322), and the History of Song it is known that the Byzantine emperor Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar (Mie li yi ling kai sa 滅力伊靈改撒) of Fu lin (i.e. Byzantium) sent an embassy to China's Song dynasty that arrived in November 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085).[14][13] The History of Song mentions how the Byzantine diplomat and official named "Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an" offered saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls as tributary gifts to the Song court.[13] Usurpers[edit] Various usurpers attempted to overthrow Michael VII or rule parts of the empire. These included: Nestor – A former slave of Constantine X, Nestor had been promoted to become the dux of Paradounavon,[15] a region bordering the Danube. Having had much of his property and wealth confiscated by the minister Nikephoritzes, he rebelled in around 1076,[15] placing himself at the head of the garrisons under his command, which were already in a state of mutiny due to an arrears in their pay. The troops were eager to plunder the Bulgarians, and Nestor obtained the assistance of one of the chiefs of the Pechenegs before marching onto Constantinople. The rebels demanded the dismissal of Nikephoritzes, but discovering that he didn't have the numbers to attack the capital, Nestor's troops separated into smaller parties and proceeded to plunder Thrace.[16] Defeated by Alexios Komnenos in 1078,[17] Nestor remained with the Pechenegs, and retreated with them back to Paradunavum.[16] Philaretos Brachamios Caesar John Doukas Nikephoros Bryennios Nikephoros Botaneiates Family[edit] Michael VII Doukas married Maria of Alania, daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia. By her he had at least one son, Constantine Doukas, co-emperor from c. 1075 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087/8. He died c. 1095. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ noahm. "Eudokia Makrembolitissa (1067 and 1071)". Dumbarton Oaks. Retrieved 2021-02-02. ^ Dumbarton Oaks 1973, p. 779 ^ Dumbarton Oaks 1973, p. 780 ^ Dumbarton Oaks 1973, p. 785 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 353 ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 355 ^ a b c Norwich 1993, p. 359 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 52 ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 360 ^ Speake, Graham (2021). Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. Routledge. p. 511. ISBN 9781135942069. His nickname, Parpinakes, derives from the diminution of corn measures by the fraction known as a pinakion. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 361 ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1366 ^ a b c Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-10. ^ Fuat Sezgin; Carl Ehrig-Eggert; Amawi Mazen; E. Neubauer (1996). نصوص ودراسات من مصادر صينية حول البلدان الاسلامية. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften (Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University). p. 25. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 607 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 50 ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 610 References[edit] Dumbarton Oaks (1973), Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: Leo III to Nicephorus Iii, 717–1081 see also Dumbarton Oaks, "Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078)", God's Regents on Earth: A Thousand Years of Byzantine Imperial Seals, retrieved 1 May 2016 Finlay, George (1854), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453, 2, William Blackwood & Sons Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael § Michael VII Ducas". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 359. Further reading[edit] Garland, Linda (1999), Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527–1204, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3 Polemis, Demetrios I. (1968), The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography, London Primary sources[edit] Michael Psellus, Chronographia. Michael Attaleiates, The Histories. Pseudo-John Skylitzes, Scylitzes Continuatus. Anna Komnene, The Alexiad. External links[edit] Coins of Michael VII Michael VII Doukas Doukid dynasty Born: c. 1050 Died: c. 1090 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine X Byzantine emperor 22 May 1067 –24 March 1078 with Konstantios Doukas (1060–1078) Romanos IV (1068–1071), Andronikos Doukas (1068–1078) and Constantine Doukas (1075–1078) as junior co-emperors Succeeded by Nikephoros III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Italy United States Greece Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_VII_Doukas&oldid=1027189464" Categories: 11th-century Byzantine emperors Doukid dynasty Bishops of Ephesus 11th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops 1050s births 1090s deaths Monarchs who abdicated Eastern Orthodox monarchs Studite monks 1070s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7410	----	Quaestor - Wikipedia Quaestor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historical Roman official. For other uses, see Quaestor (disambiguation). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e A quaestor (/ˈkwiːstər/ KWEE-stər, Latin: [ˈkʷae̯stɔr]; "investigator")[1] was a public official in Ancient Rome. The position served different functions depending on the period. In the Roman Kingdom, quaestores parricidii (quaestors with judicial powers) were appointed by the king to investigate and handle murders. In the Roman Republic, quaestors (Lat. quaestores) were elected officials who supervised the state treasury and conducted audits. It was the lowest ranking position in the cursus honorum (course of offices). However, this means that in the political environment of Rome, it was quite common for many aspiring politicians to take the position of quaestor as an early rung on the political ladder. In the Roman Empire, the position, which was initially replaced by the praefectus (prefect), reemerged during the late empire as quaestor intra Palatium, a position appointed by the emperor to lead the imperial council and respond to petitioners.[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Origins 2.2 Roman Republic 2.3 Late Antiquity 3 Powers and responsibilities 3.1 Roman Republic 3.2 Roman Empire 3.3 Byzantine Empire 4 Notable quaestors 4.1 Gaius Gracchus 4.2 Marcus Antonius 4.3 Gaius Julius Caesar 4.4 Marcus Tullius Cicero 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Etymology[edit] Quaestor derives from the Latin verb quaero, quaerere,[3] meaning "to inquire".[4] The job title has traditionally been understood as deriving from the original investigative function of the quaestores parricidii.[5][6] Ancient authors, perhaps influenced by etymology, reasoned that the investigative role of the quaestores parricidii had evolved to include financial matters, giving rise to the similarly-named later offices. However, this connection has been questioned by modern scholars.[7][8] History[edit] Origins[edit] The earliest quaestors were quaestores parricidii (quaestors with judicial power), an office dating back to the Kingdom of Rome. Quaestores parricidii were chosen to investigate capital crimes, and may have been appointed as needed rather than holding a permanent position. Ancient authors disagree on the exact manner of selection for this office as well as on its earliest institution, with some dating it to the mythical reign of Romulus.[9] Roman Republic[edit] In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who supervised the treasury and financial accounts of the state, its armies and its officers. The quaestors tasked with financial supervision were also called quaestores aerarii, because they oversaw the aerarium (public treasury) in the Temple of Saturn.[10] The earliest origins of the office is obscure, but by about 420 BC there were four quaestors elected each year by the Comitia Tributa (Assembly of the People). After 267 BC, the number was expanded to ten. The office of quaestor, usually a former broad-striped tribune, was adopted as the first official post of the cursus honorum (lit. course of offices), the standard sequence that made up a career in public service. Once elected as quaestor, a Roman man earned the right to sit in the Senate and began progressing through the cursus honorum. Quaestors were not provided any lictors (civil servant bodyguards) while in the city of Rome, but while in the provinces, they were allowed to have the fasces (a bound bundle of wooden rods symbolizing a magistrate's authority and jurisdiction).[11] Every Roman consul, the highest elected official in the cursus honorum, and every provincial governor was appointed a quaestor. Some quaestors were assigned to work in the city and others in the provinces where their responsibilities could include being recruited into the military. Some provincial quaestors were assigned as staff to military generals or served as second-in-command to governors in the Roman provinces. Still others were assigned to oversee military finances. Lucius Cornelius Sulla's reforms in 81 BC raised the number of quaestors to 20 and the minimum age for a quaestorship was 30 for patricians (members of ruling class families) and 32 for plebeians (commoners). Additionally, the reforms granted quaestors automatic membership in the Senate upon being elected, whereas previously, membership in the Senate was granted only after censors revised the Senate rolls, which occurred less frequently than the annual induction of quaestors. There were at that time (B.C. 75) twenty Quæstors elected annually, some of whom remained in Rome; but most of the number were stationed about the Empire, there being always one as assistant to each Proconsul. When a Consul took the field with an army, he always had a Quæstor with him. This had become the case so generally that the Quæstor became, as it were, something between a private secretary and a senior lieutenant to a governor. The arrangement came to have a certain sanctity attached to it, as though there was something in the connection warmer and closer than that of mere official life; so that a Quæstor has been called a Proconsul’s son for the time, and was supposed to feel that reverence and attachment that a son entertains for his father. — Anthony Trollope, The Life of Cicero This relationship between a consul and a quaestor was similar to that between a patron and a client. The quaestor was essentially a client to their superior. There was some level of mutual respect between the two individuals, but a defined sense of place and knowledge of each other's roles. This relationship often continued past the designated terms of either individual, and the quaestor could be called upon for assistance or other needs by the consul. Breaking this pact or doing harm by a former superior would make the quaestor seem dishonorable or even treasonous.[12] Late Antiquity[edit] See also: quaestor sacri palatii, quaesitor, and quaestura exercitus Constantine the Great created the office quaestor sacri palatii (quaestor of the sacred place) which functioned as the Roman Empire's senior legal official. Emperor Justinian I also created the offices quaesitor, a judicial and police official for Constantinople, and quaestor exercitus (quaestor of the army), a short-lived joint military-administrative post covering the border of the lower Danube. The quaestor sacri palatii survived long into the Byzantine Empire, although its duties were altered to match the quaesitor. The term is last attested in 14th century Byzantium as a purely honorific title. Powers and responsibilities[edit] Roman Republic[edit] In the early republic, there were two quaestors, and their duties were maintaining the public treasury, both taking in funds and deciding whom to pay them to. This continued until 421 BCE when the number of quaestors was doubled to 4. While two continued with the same duties of those that had come before, the other two had additional responsibilities, each being in service to the one of the consuls.[13] When consuls went to war, each was assigned a quaestor. The quaestor's main responsibilities involved the distribution of war spoils between the aerarium, or public treasury, and the army. The key responsibility of the quaestor was the administration of public funds to higher-ranking officials in order to pursue their goals, whether those involve military conquests which require funding for armies or public works projects.[12] The office of quaestor was a position bound to their superior, whether that be a consul, governor, or other magistrate, and the duties would often reflect their superiors. For example, Gaius Gracchus was quaestor under the consul Orestes in Sardinia, and many of his responsibilities involved leading military forces. While not in direct command of the army, the quaestor would be in charge of organizational and lesser duties that were a necessary part of the war machine.[14] Roman Empire[edit] See also: Quaestor sacri palatii During the reign of the Emperor Constantine I, the office of quaestor was reorganized into a judicial position known as the quaestor sacri palatii. The office functioned as the primary legal adviser to the emperor, and was charged with the creation of laws as well as answers petitions to the emperor.[15] From 440 onward, the office of the quaestor worked in conjunction with the praetorian prefect of the East to oversee the supreme tribunal, or supreme court, at Constantinople. There they heard appeals from the various subordinate courts and governors. Byzantine Empire[edit] Under the Emperor Justinian I, an additional office named quaestor was created to control police and judicial matters in Constantinople. In this new position, a quaestor was responsible for wills, as well as supervision of complaints by tenants regarding their landlords, and finally over the homeless.[15] Notable quaestors[edit] See also Category: Roman Quaestors. Gaius Gracchus[edit] See also: Gaius Gracchus Following the death of his brother Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus stayed out of the political spotlight for a period until he was forced to defend a good friend of his named Vettius in court. Hearing his vocal abilities, the Senate began to fear that Gaius would arouse the people in the same manner as his brother and appointed him quaestor to Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes in Sardinia to prevent him from becoming a tribune. Gaius used his position as quaestor to successfully defeat his enemies as well as gain a large amount of loyalty among his troops. Following an incident where Gaius won the support of a local village to provide for his troops, the Senate attempted to keep Gaius in Sardinia indefinitely by reappointing Orestes to stay in Sardinia. Gaius was not pleased by this and returned to Rome demanding an explanation, actions which eventually led to his election as a tribune of the people.[14] Marcus Antonius[edit] See also: Mark Antony Marcus Antonius, or Mark Antony, who is most well known for his civil war with Octavian, started off his political career in the position of quaestor after being a prefect in Syria and then one of Julius Caesar's legates in Gaul. Through a combination of Caesar's favor and his oratory skills defending the legacy of Publius Clodius, Antony was able to win the quaestorship in 51 BCE. This then led to Antony's election as augur and tribune of the people in 50 BC due to Caesar's efforts to reward his ally.[16] Gaius Julius Caesar[edit] While Julius Caesar served as Quaestor to the Proconsul/Propraetor of Hispania Ulterior he took major military action against the rebellious tribes of the region. His time as Quaestor was uneventful although when he became Governor there, he settled the disputes. Marcus Tullius Cicero[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero was the Quaestor to the Propraetor/Proconsul of Sicily. He fixed major agricultural problems in the region and improved on the purchase and selling of grain. The farmers after this loved Cicero and began to travel to Rome to vote for him in elections every year. See also[edit] Constitution of the Roman Republic Obultronius Sabinus List of Roman quaestors Roman magistrate References[edit] ^ "quaestor". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2016), "Quaestor: Ancient Roman Official", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., retrieved 1 August 2016 ^ Lewis, Charlton T. A Latin Dictionary: queastor. ^ Lewis, Charlton T. A Latin Dictionary: quaero. ^ Covino, Ralph (2011). Anne Mackay (ed.). "The Fifth century, the decemvirate, and the quaestorship" (PDF). ASCS 32 Selected Proceedings. Australasian Society for Classical Studies. Retrieved 2012-08-11. ^ Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray. Retrieved 2012-08-12. ^ Gaughan, Judy E. (2009). Murder Was Not a Crime: Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292721110. Retrieved 2012-08-11. ^ Latte, Kurt (1936). "The Origin of the Roman Quaestorship". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 67: 23–24. JSTOR 283224. ^ Titus Livius, "The History of Rome, Book 2", Benjamin Oliver Foster, Ph.D., Ed, retrieved 5 May 2017 ^ Livy (1881). J. R. Seeley (ed.). Livy, Book I, with Introduction, Historical Examination, and Notes. Clarendon Press. Retrieved 2012-08-12. ^ Smith, William (1875). "LacusCurtius • Fasces (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-28. ^ a b Thompson, L. A. (1962), "The Relationship between Provincial Quaestors and Their Commanders-in-Chief.", Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, JSTOR 4434751 ^ Polybbius, The Histories: Book VI, Loeb Classical Library, 1922, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ a b Plutarch, Life of Gaius Gracchus, Loeb Classical Library, 1921, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ a b Kazhdan, Alexander, Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991, retrieved 1 May 2017 ^ van der Blom, Henriette (2016), Oratory and Political Career in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016, retrieved 21 Apr 2017 Further reading[edit] Bourne, Frank (Princeton University). "A History of the Romans" Boston, MA. 1967, D.C. Heath and Company External links[edit] v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quaestor&oldid=1021349844" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Latin political words and phrases Roman quaestors Cursus honorum Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 May 2021, at 07:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7541	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting this IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption. If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7548	----	Lucius Catilius Severus - Wikipedia Lucius Catilius Severus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, consul and general Lucius Catilius Severus Julianus Claudius Reginus was a Roman senator and general active during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. He was appointed consul twice: the first time in 110 CE (as consul suffectus) with Gaius Erucianus Silo as his colleague; the second in the year 120 (as consul ordinarius) with the future emperor Antoninus Pius as his colleague.[1] Catilius was also the step-great-grandfather of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Catilius is called Lucius Catilius Severus Julianus in Bithynian inscriptions, Lucius Catilius Severus as a consul, and Catilius Severus in literary sources.[2] His family origins probably lie in Apamea, a town of Bithynia. In his monograph of naming practices in the first centuries of the Roman Empire, Olli Salomies notes that this polyonymous name implies an adoption, "no doubt the son of a Cn. Catilius, not the son of a Cn. Claudius adopted by a L. Catilius, in spite of the existence of senatorial Cn. Claudii Severi from Asia Minor."[2] Contents 1 Career 2 Family 3 See also 4 References Career[edit] The cursus honorum of Catilius Severus is preserved in an inscription recovered from Antium.[3] His earliest recorded office was the first of the traditional republican magistracies, quaestor, which enabled him to be enrolled as a member of the Senate; in his case, he was assigned as quaestor to the province of Asia. He advanced to the traditional Roman magistracy of plebeian tribune; the fact he was praetor is omitted from this inscription, but must be presumed because it was required for the following offices Catilius is recorded as holding. Normally a senator destined for the consulate would hold only two offices, command of a legion and governorship of a province or prefect of one of the aerarii or treasuries: Catilius held six of these. First in the list was prefectus frumenti dandi (or Prefect responsible for the distribution of Rome’s free grain dole), next was legatus or assistant to the proconsular governor of Asia, then curator of an unnamed road, legatus legionis or commander of Legio XXII Primigenia, and lastly prefect of each of the treasuries, aerarium militare in the years 105 to 107, then the aerarium Saturni in 108 to 110.[4] At this point Catilius entered his first consulate. Following his term as suffect consul, Catilius was admitted to the Septemviri epulonum, one of the four most prestigious collegia of ancient Roman priests. In 114 he was appointed governor of Cappadocia-Armenia.[5] During his tenure, Catilius participated in Trajan's campaign against the Parthian empire, and received a number of dona militaria or military decorations. In the Fall of 117, following the death of Trajan, his heir Hadrian appointed Catilius to replace him as governor of Syria so Hadrian could return to Rome. Catilius remained as governor of Syria until 119.[6] After his second consulate in 120,[7] Catilius held the proconsular governorship of Africa in 124/125,[8] then was prefect of Rome.[1] To hold just one of these offices was considered the apex of a successful senatorial career; holding two of them proves not only his success but his favor with Hadrian. Family[edit] Catilius is believed to have been the third husband of Dasumia Polla,[9] the widow of Gnaeus Domitius Tullus; Tullus had adopted his niece Domitia Lucilla the Elder, who would become the grandmother of the later Emperor Marcus Aurelius, whose upbringing he influenced.[10] Marcus Aurelius later recalled Catilius Severus' influence in his life as preventing him from attending "public places of teaching but to have enjoyed good teachers at home, and to have learned that it is a duty to spend liberally on such things."[11] Two Gnaei Catilii Severi, attested as members of the Arval Brethren in 183 and 213 to 218, were doubtlessly the descendants of Catilius, or at the least from his family.[2] See also[edit] Catilia (gens) References[edit] ^ a b Grant, Michael (1994). The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. Psychology Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780415107549. ^ a b c Olli Salomies, Adoptive and polyonymous nomenclature in the Roman Empire, (Helsinski: Societas Scientiarum Fenica, 1992), p. 138 ^ CIL X, 8291 ^ Mireille Corbier, L'aerarium saturni et l'aerarium militare. Administration et prosopographie sénatoriale, (Rome: École Française de Rome, 1974) (Publications de l'École française de Rome, 24), pp. 144-156 ^ Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 357-362 ^ Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 13 (1983), pp. 148-151 ^ Werner Eck and Andreas Pangerl, "Ein Consul Suffectus Q. Aburnius in drei fragmentarischen Diplomen", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 185 (2013), pp. 239–247 ^ Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten" (1983), p. 160 ^ Shelton, Jo-Ann (2013). The Women of Pliny's Letters. Routledge. p. 139. ISBN 9780415374286. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (2012). "Early Life: Family, Youth and Education". In van Ackeren, Marcel (ed.). A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. John Wiley & Sons. p. 140. ISBN 9781405192859. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, cited in Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 36 Political offices Preceded by Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, and Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 110 with Gaius Erucianus Silo Succeeded by Aulus Larcius Priscus, and Sextus Marcius Honoratus as suffect consuls Preceded by Gaius Herennius Capella, and Lucius Coelius Rufus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 120 with Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Succeeded by Gaius Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus, and Titus Rutilius Propinquus as suffect consuls Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Catilius_Severus&oldid=1017323570" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 140 deaths 2nd-century Roman governors of Syria Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Africa Roman governors of Cappadocia Urban prefects of Rome Roman governors of Galatia Roman governors of Syria Epulones of the Roman Empire Claudii Ancient Roman adoptees Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2021, at 03:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7493	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting this IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Antoninus Pius's last years=== [[File:Imperator Antoninus Pius.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of [[Antoninus Pius]], [[British Museum]]]] Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,<ref>Reed, p. 194.</ref> and was consul again with Marcus in 161.<ref name='livius1'>Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/di-dn/divi_fratres/marcus.html 'Marcus Aurelius']. Livius.org.</ref> Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.<ref>''HA Verus'' 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref>{{refn|Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared<ref>Suetonius, ''Nero'' 6.1; ''HA Verus'' 1.8; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 67; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), ''Antiquité Classique'' 3 (1934), pp. 173ff.</ref>) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68.</ref> scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 68–69.</ref>|group=note}} He did not marry until 164.<ref>''HA Verus'' 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref> In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without [[corset|stays]]. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the [[praetorian prefect]] (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 112.</ref> In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'/> Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at [[Lorium]], in [[Etruria]],<ref>Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7</ref> about 19 kilometres (12&nbsp;mi) from Rome.<ref name='Victor, 15:7'>Victor, 15:7</ref> He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,<ref>Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).<ref name='Bury 532'>Bury, p. 532.</ref> He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' 12.4–8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing [[Tiberius]] by a couple of months.<ref>Bowman, p. 156.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-7502	----	Warwick Ball - Wikipedia Warwick Ball From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Warwick Ball" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Warwick Ball is an Australia-born Near-Eastern archaeologist.[1] Ball has been involved in excavations, architectural studies and monumental restorations in Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Ethiopia and Afghanistan.[2] As a lecturer, he has been involved with travel tours in Jordan, Iran, Syria, Crimea, Israel, Uzbekistan and Yemen.[2] Ball was formerly director of excavations at The British School of Archaeology in Iraq.[2] He is the editor of the scholarly journal Afghanistan.[3] His publications include Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide (Melisende, 1997, revised 2006) and the volume The Monuments of Afghanistan, History, Archaeology and Architecture (I.B. Tauris, London 2008) which consists of exceptional photography of numerous rare archaeological sites no longer well accessible today for reasons of security. He resides in Scotland.[1][2] References[edit] ^ a b "Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide (2nd edition)". interlinkbooks.com. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ a b c d "Our Lecturers & Tour Leaders". specialtours.co.uk. Specialtours. Archived from the original on 14 August 2007. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ "Afghanistan: Editors and Editorial Board". Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh University Press. Retrieved 27 June 2017. External links[edit] A Review of his works at UPenn.edu Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Netherlands Other SUDOC (France) 1 This Australian biography article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warwick_Ball&oldid=1013869411" Categories: Iranologists Living people Australian people stubs Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from March 2021 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from July 2019 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth missing (living people) All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Српски / srpski Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 23 March 2021, at 22:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7505	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ====Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague==== {{main|Sino-Roman relations|Antonine Plague}} A possible contact with [[Han Dynasty|Han China]] occurred in 166 when a [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman traveller visited the Han court]], claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[wikt:安|安]] [[wikt:敦|敦]]), ruler of [[Daqin]], who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.<ref>Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79.</ref><ref>Yü, pp. 460–61.</ref><ref>De Crespigny, p. 600.</ref> In addition to [[Roman Republic|Republican]]-era [[Roman glass]]wares found at [[Guangzhou]] along the [[South China Sea]],<ref>An, 83.</ref> Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at [[Óc Eo]], [[Vietnam]], then part of the [[Kingdom of Funan]] near the Chinese province of [[Jiaozhi]] (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of [[Kattigara]], described by [[Ptolemy]] (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name='young 2001 pp. 29-30'>Young, pp. 29–30.</ref><ref group=note>For further information on [[Óc Eo]], see Osborne, Milton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uxF2kH04WKgC ''The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future'']. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. {{ISBN|978-1741148930}}.</ref> Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to [[Aurelian]] have been found in [[Xi'an]], China (site of the Han capital [[Chang'an]]), although the far greater amount of [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Roman coins in India]] suggests the Roman maritime trade for [[History of silk|purchasing Chinese silk]] was centred there, not in China or even the overland [[Silk Road]] running through Persia.<ref name='ball 2016 p154'>Ball, p. 154.</ref> The [[Antonine Plague]] started in [[Mesopotamia]] in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–1098.</ref> mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.<ref name=murphy>Murphy, Verity. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe']. BBC News, 7 November 2005.</ref> It is believed that the plague was [[smallpox]].<ref>Haas, pp. 1093–98.</ref> In the view of historian [[Rafe de Crespigny]], the plagues afflicting the [[Eastern Han]] empire of China during the reigns of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] (r. 146–168) and [[Emperor Ling of Han]] (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.<ref>De Crespigny, p. 514.</ref> Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'. According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the [[Indian Ocean]] as proven by the archaeological record spanning from [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] to [[Indo-Roman relations|India]], as well as significantly decreased [[Roman commerce|Roman commercial]] activity in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name='mclaughlin 2010 p59-60'>McLaughlin, pp. 59–60.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7513	----	Michael VI Bringas - Wikipedia Michael VI Bringas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1056 to 1057 "Michael VI" redirects here. For the Coptic Pope, see Pope Michael VI of Alexandria. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael VI Bringas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold tetarteron of Michael's reign Byzantine emperor Reign 31 August 1056 – 31 August 1057 Coronation 22 August 1056[1][2][3] Predecessor Theodora Successor Isaac I Komnenos Died 1059 Michael VI Bringas (Greek: Μιχαήλ Βρίγγας), called Stratiotikos or Stratioticus ("the Military One", "the Warlike", or "the Bellicose") or Gerontas ("the Old"), reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1056 to 1057. Contents 1 Career 2 Sources 2.1 Primary Sources 2.2 Secondary Sources 3 See also 4 References Career[edit] Apparently a relative of the powerful courtier Joseph Bringas (influential during the reign of Romanos II),[4] Michael Bringas was an elderly patrician and a member of the court bureaucracy[citation needed] who had served as military finance minister (and hence the epithet Stratiotikos).[1] Michael Bringas was chosen by the empress Theodora as her successor shortly before her death on August 31, 1056.[5] The appointment had been secured through the influence of Leo Paraspondylos, Theodora's most trusted adviser. Although Michael managed to survive a conspiracy organized by Theodosios, a nephew of the former emperor Constantine IX Monomachos,[4] he was faced with the disaffection of the military aristocracy. His most costly error was to ignore the perceived rights of the general Nikephoros Bryennios, whom he restored to his former rank after his falling out with the Empress Theodora, but refused to restore his wealth and estates.[6] After dismissing Bryennios's grievances in an audience, the emperor completely alienated the military, which remained a powerful element of society.[citation needed] Michael compounded his error by rebuffing Bryennios after he had already ordered the restored general to lead a division of 3,000 men to reinforce the army in Cappadocia.[6] From here Bryennios began plotting to overthrow Michael VI, and it was his capture that precipitated the military nobility to rally around the general Isaac Komnenos, who was proclaimed emperor in Paphlagonia on 8 June 1057.[1] Although Michael lost heart, the bureaucrats around him attempted to defend their position and assembled an army against the rebels.[citation needed] On 26 August 1057, the government's army was routed at the Battle of Petroe near Nicaea,[7] and Isaac Komnenos advanced on Constantinople. Michael VI attempted to negotiate with the rebels through the famous courtier Michael Psellos, offering to adopt Isaac as his son and to grant him the title of kaisar (Caesar),[8] but his proposals were publicly rejected. Privately Isaac showed himself more open to negotiation, and he was promised the status of co-emperor. However, during the course of these secret negotiations, a riot in favor of Isaac broke out in Constantinople. Patriarch Michael Keroularios convinced Michael VI to abdicate in Isaac's favor on 30[9] or 31 August 1057.[8] The emperor duly followed the patriarch's advice and became a monk. He retired to his private home and died there by 1059.[citation needed] Sources[edit] Primary Sources[edit] Michael Psellus, Chronographia. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110022858. Secondary Sources[edit] Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 George Finlay (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, William Blackwood & Sons.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b c Kazhdan, p. 1366 ^ Garland, Lynda (2002). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204. Routledge. p. 167. ISBN 9781134756391. ^ Smith, William (1872) [1849]. "Michael VI. Stratioticus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ^ a b Norwich, p. 327 ^ Norwich, p. 326 ^ a b Finlay, p. 533 ^ Finlay, p. 536 ^ a b Norwich, p. 332 ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium gives 30 August, based on the arguments of Jonathan Shepard (1977). «Isaac Comnenus' coronation day». Byzantinoslavica 38: 22-30. Regnal titles Preceded by Theodora Byzantine emperor 1056–1057 Succeeded by Isaac I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-7535	----	Augustus - Wikipedia Augustus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 27 BC to AD 14 This article is about the first Roman emperor. For other uses, see Augustus (title), Augustus (disambiguation), and Octavian (disambiguation). Princeps Civitatis Augustus Princeps Civitatis Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century Roman emperor Reign 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 Successor Tiberius Born Gaius Octavius 23 September 63 BC Rome, Italy, Roman Republic Died 19 August AD 14 (aged 75) Nola, Italy, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Claudia (42–40 BC; divorce) Scribonia (40–38 BC; divorce) Livia (37 BC–AD 14; his death) Issue Julia the Elder Gaius Caesar (adopted) Lucius Caesar (adopted) Agrippa Postumus (adopted) Tiberius (adopted) Regnal name Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Gaius Octavius Julius Caesar (adoptive) Mother Atia Balba Caesonia Bust of Augustus wearing the Civic Crown, at Glyptothek, Munich Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[nb 1] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate (the first phase of the Roman Empire) has consolidated a legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history.[1][2] The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the "Year of the Four Emperors" over the imperial succession. Originally named Gaius Octavius, he was born into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC and Octavius was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir, after which he took the name Gaius Julius Caesar, though later historians would take to calling him Octavian to avoid confusion with his great-uncle. He, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC and Antony was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies, yet maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as supreme military command, tribune and censor. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself Princeps Civitatis (First Citizen) juxtaposed with his adoption of the ancient title Augustus. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania. Augustus suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed Roman roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official cohortes urbanae (police) and vigiles (fire-fighters) for Rome and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by Livia's son – also his by adoption and former husband of his only biological daughter Julia the Elder – Tiberius, who consolidated the Principate into a de facto autocratic monarchy, the Roman Empire. Contents 1 Name 2 Early life 3 Rise to power 3.1 Heir to Caesar 3.2 Growing tensions 3.3 First conflict with Antony 3.4 Second Triumvirate 3.4.1 Proscriptions 3.4.2 Battle of Philippi and division of territory 3.4.3 Rebellion and marriage alliances 3.4.4 War with Pompeius 3.4.5 War with Antony and Cleopatra 4 Sole ruler of Rome 4.1 First settlement 4.2 Change to Augustus 4.3 Second settlement 4.4 Primary reasons for the Second Settlement 4.5 Additional powers 4.6 Conspiracy 4.7 Stability and staying power 5 War and expansion 6 Death and succession 7 Legacy 7.1 Revenue reforms 7.2 Month of August 7.3 Creation of "Italia" 7.4 Building projects 7.4.1 Residences 8 Physical appearance and official images 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Secondary source material Name As a consequence of Roman customs, society, and personal preference, Augustus (/ɔːˈɡʌstəs/ aw-GUST-əs) was known by many names throughout his life: Gaius Octavius (/ɒkˈteɪviəs/ ok-TAY-vee-əs, Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs ɔkˈtaːu̯iʊs]): He received his birth name, after his biological father, in 63 BC. "Gaius" was his praenomen, while "Octavius" was his nomen. He did not yet receive a cognomen at birth since his father appears to have lacked or eschewed one, which would normally be inherited. Gaius Octavius Thurinus (Latin: [tʰuːˈriːnʊs]): He was given the cognomen "Thurinus" in 60 BC, when he was a few years old.[3] Later, after he had taken the name of Caesar, his rival Mark Antony referred to him as "Thurinus" in order to belittle him. In response, he merely said he was surprised that "using his old name was thought to be an insult".[4][5] Gaius Julius Caesar: After he was adopted by Julius Caesar, he adopted Caesar's name in accordance with Roman naming conventions.[6] While he dropped all references to the gens Octavia, people colloquially added the epithet Octavianus (Latin: [ɔktaːu̯iˈaːnʊs]) to his legal name, either to differentiate him from his adoptive father or to highlight his more modest origins. Modern English language historians refer to him using the anglicized form "Octavian" (/ɒkˈteɪviən/ ok-TAY-vee-ən) in the period between 44 BC and 27 BC, rather than "Gaius Julius Caesar", as he was officially called, mainly to avoid possible confusion with Julius Caesar.[7] Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius: Two years after his adoption, he founded the Temple of Caesar additionally adding the title divi filius ("son of the divine") to his name in attempt to strengthen his political ties to Caesar's former soldiers, following the deification of Caesar.[8] Imperator Caesar divi filius: From 38 BC, Octavian opted to use Imperator, the title by which troops hailed their leader after military success. His name is roughly translated as "Commander Caesar, Son of the Divine". Imperator Caesar divi filius Augustus (Latin: [ɪmpɛˈraːtɔr ˈkae̯sar ˈdiːu̯iː ˈfiːliʊs au̯ˈɡʊstʊs]): Following his 31 BC defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, partly on his own insistence, on 16 January 27 BC the Roman Senate granted him the additional name "Augustus".[nb 2] Historians use this name to refer to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[10] Early life Main article: Early life of Augustus While his paternal family was from the Volscian town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the south-east of Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC.[11] He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth.[12][13] Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavian, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..."[14] Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.[15][16] A denarius from 44 BC, showing Julius Caesar on the obverse and the goddess Venus on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died.[17] His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus.[18] Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.[19][20] From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis four years later,[21] and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC.[22][23] The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar.[23] According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa, but gave way when his mother protested.[24] In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably.[21] Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.[25] When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary.[26] Rise to power Heir to Caesar The Death of Caesar, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security.[27] Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law,[nb 3] and so had adopted Octavius, his grand-nephew, making him his primary heir.[28] Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander.[29] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.[30][31] After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, Octavius learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.[23][27][32] Upon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.). However, though some of his contemporaries did,[33] there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name Octavianus, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious.[34][35][36] Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as Octavian during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir.[37] Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy.[38] After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,[39] Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against the Parthian Empire in the Middle East.[38] This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.[40] A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy Mark Antony.[39] Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy.[35][41] Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar.[27][42] On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania.[35] By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii.[43][44][45] Growing tensions A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.[35] Mark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.[46] Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him. During the summer, he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers and also made common with the Optimates, the former enemies of Caesar, who saw him as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him.[47] In September, the leading Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order.[48][49] First conflict with Antony Bust of Augustus in Musei Capitolini, Rome With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the province of Cisalpine Gaul.[50][51] Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans and, on 28 November, he won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain.[52][53][54] In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.[54] However, the province had earlier been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him at Mutina[55] and rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to enforce their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces.[53] Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."[56] At the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls.[53][54] In addition, Octavian was granted propraetor imperium (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC).[53][57] In April 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.[58][59] The senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus.[60] In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony.[61] In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa[62] and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy.[61] When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions.[61] He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul.[63][64] Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian.[65] Second Triumvirate Proscriptions Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the regulation of the Republic". Caption: M. ANT. IMP. AVG. III VIR RPC M. BARBAT. Q. P. / CAESAR IMP. PONT. III VIR PRC. The M. Barbatius Pollio was a moneyer[66] In a meeting near Bologna in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate.[67] This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then legalised by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus.[67][68] The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions, in which between 130 and 300 senators[nb 4] and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.[70] This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.[71] Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.[70] Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies.[72] Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.[73] This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies.[74] Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials, but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs.[72] Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus.[73] Battle of Philippi and division of territory Further information: Liberators' civil war A denarius minted c. 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: comet of eight rays with tail upward; DIVVS IVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS). On 1 January 42 BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, Divus Iulius. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius, "Son of the Divine".[75] Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece.[76] After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead.[77] After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and the province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.[78] Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land.[78] There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former.[79] There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.[80] Rebellion and marriage alliances There was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Claudia, the daughter of Fulvia (Mark Antony's wife) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. He returned Claudia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.[80] Fresco paintings inside the House of Augustus, his residence during his reign as emperor. Lucius and his army were spared, due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon.[81] Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius.[82] Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others.[81] This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.[82] Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC.[83] Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, a sister or daughter of Pompeius's father-in-law Lucius Scribonius Libo. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia, the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after their marriage.[82] While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered twin children with her.[nb 5] Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.[84][85] A Roman marble portrait bust of Mark Antony, made during the Flavian dynasty (69–96 AD), Vatican Museums In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian Peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC.[84] War with Pompeius Further information: Sicilian revolt Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy.[85] Pompeius's control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune".[86] A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC.[85][86] The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC.[87] One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, however, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.[68][88] A denarius of Sextus Pompeius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. Obverse: the place where he defeated Octavian, Pharus of Messina decorated with a statue of Neptune; before that galley adorned with aquila, sceptre & trident; MAG. PIVS IMP. ITER. Reverse, the monster Scylla, her torso of dogs and fish tails, wielding a rudder as a club. Caption: PRAEF[ECTUS] CLAS[SIS] ET ORAE MARIT[IMAE] EX S. C. In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthian Empire, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC.[88] In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, however, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.[89] Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC.[90] Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval Battle of Naulochus. Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money.[91] Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of Pontifex Maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy.[71][91] The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and navy.[92] Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or sacrosanctitas, in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.[93] War with Antony and Cleopatra Main article: Last war of the Roman Republic Further information: Early life of Cleopatra, Reign of Cleopatra, and Death of Cleopatra Anthony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The Battle of Actium, by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London. Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.[94] On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.[95] Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour".[96] In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.[97] Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.[96] Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.[98] The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the Senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius.[99] These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.[100] Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen.[101][102] In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.[103][104] This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid, similar in appearance to the now lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.[105][106] In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.[107] Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.[108] Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.[109] Aureus of Octavian, circa 30 BC, British Museum. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison.[110] Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of Arius Didymus that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion, Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra, killed, while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.[111][112] Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.[113] Egyptian carving of Augustus as Pharaoh Sole ruler of Rome Main article: Constitutional Reforms of Augustus Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate[114]—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.[115][116] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate.[117] Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.[118] First settlement Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire In 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.[117] Historian Werner Eck states: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.[119] To a large extent, the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury.[120] Octavian as a magistrate. The statue's marble head was made c. 30–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD (Louvre, Paris). According to H. H. Scullard, however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."[121] The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.[122][123] The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt.[122][124] Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.[124][125] While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.[125] Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have a monopoly on political and martial power.[126] The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two strategic regions with several legions.[126] However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.[115][121] The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed Republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.[115] Change to Augustus On 16 January 27 BC[131] the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps.[132] Augustus is from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase) and can be translated as "the illustrious one". It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome.[113] The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.[133] The title princeps senatus originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,[134] but in the case of Augustus, it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.[135] Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He transformed Caesar, a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, into a new family line that began with him.[132] The Arch of Augustus in Rimini (Ariminum), dedicated to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica above his door, the "civic crown" made from oak, and to have laurels drape his doorposts.[126] However, he renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar.[136] If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."[126][137] Second settlement Portraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features By 23 BC, some of the un-Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his de facto dominance over the Roman political system, and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.[138] Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn,[nb 6] alienating his three greatest supporters – Agrippa, Maecenas, and Livia.[139] He appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus[140]) as co-consul in 23 BC, after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena died unexpectedly.[141] In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form,[142] while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.[143][144] This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.[145] Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.[116] With regards to the Principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;[146] nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor, and that constitutional procedure notwithstanding, they should continue to obey Agrippa.[147] The Blacas Cameo showing Augustus wearing a gorgoneion on a three layered sardonyx cameo, AD 20–50 Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC,[144][148] both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.[140] This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position, while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.[149] Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular imperium not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.[150] Primary reasons for the Second Settlement The primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.[144][151] When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.[152] A second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus Affair".[153] In late 24 or early 23 BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king was a Roman ally.[154] He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena, who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state.[155] Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.[156] Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius—as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.[155] Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out.[146] Augustus as Jove, holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD) The situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial, even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.[157] Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.[158] Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.[159] The Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare, or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into imperium proconsulare maius, or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.[150] Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC.[148] Additional powers During the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune.[150] For some years, Augustus had been awarded tribunicia sacrosanctitas, the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebs. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar.[149] This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting.[148][160] Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.[161] With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum.[162] There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.[163] Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus's amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship.[164] Head of Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, Roman artwork of the late Augustan period, last decade of the 1st century BC Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular "imperium" when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.[165] In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province, Augustus's proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first King and first triumphant general. Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus's family to receive this award, in 19 BC.[166] Tiberius, Augustus's eldest stepson by Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7 BC.[167] Normally during republican times, the powers Augustus held even after the Second Settlement would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.[168] Conspiracy A colossal statue of Augustus from the Augusteum of Herculaneum, seated and wearing a laurel wreath. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class, who were Augustus's greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus's participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.[169] Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately.[148] It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.[170] There were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.[153] Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio.[171] Murena, the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair, was named among the conspirators. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict.[172] All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence.[173] Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.[174] In 19 BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of 'general consular imperium', which was probably 'imperium consulare maius', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold.[175] In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,[165] as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority.[175] This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion.[176][177] On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country".[178][179] Stability and staying power A final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life.[180] If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of Pharsalus, the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus's power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.[181] Augustus's accumulation of powers was now complete. In fact, he dated his 'reign' from the completion of the Second Settlement, 1 July 23 BC.[182] War and expansion Main article: Wars of Augustus Further information: Roman–Iranian relations The victorious advance of Hermann, depiction of the 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, by Peter Janssen, 1873 Augustus chose Imperator ("victorious commander") to be his first name, since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory, and consequently became known as Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors.[183] Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"[162] The impulse for expansionism was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the Aeneid, where Jupiter promises Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without end".[184] Augustus' accession initiated a period of 45 years when almost every year saw major campaigning, in some cases on a scale comparable to the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), when Roman manpower resources were stretched to the limit. As a result of these campaigns, the Roman Empire assumed the borders it would hold, with a few modifications, for its entire history. By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, successor to client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC). Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.[185] Bust of Tiberius, a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.[185] The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus's future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas.[186] Muziris in the Chera Kingdom of Southern India, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with depiction of a "Temple of Augustus" ("Templum Augusti"), an illustration of Indo-Roman relations in the period Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north.[187] Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monumental Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion.[188] The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus's forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse.[189] It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.[190] A Parthian returning an aquila, relief in the heroic cuirass of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue To protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.[191] Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.[190] Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.[190][191][192] Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus's defeat by military means.[193] However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.[194] Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[191] Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.[195] Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.[191] A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally.[196] Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.[197] Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that Battle of Idistaviso in AD 16 but was killed later in 21 due to treachery.[198] Death and succession Augustus in a late 16th-century copper engraving by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri. From the book Romanorum Imperatorum effigies (1583), preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy) The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed to Augustus's unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.[199] Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus's daughter Julia the Elder.[200] Other historians dispute this due to Augustus's will being read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[201] instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus's second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.[202] After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus's authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean.[202][203] This granting of power showed Augustus's favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.[203] The Mausoleum of Augustus Augustus's intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children.[204] He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers,[205] and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.[206] Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus's daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.[207] Drusus's marriage to Augustus's niece Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.[207] Tiberius shared in Augustus's tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes.[167][208] No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia,[167][208] as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus's apparent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.)[209][210] After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus.[211] This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.[207] In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus.[212] The deified Augustus hovers over Tiberius and other Julio-Claudians in the Great Cameo of France The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus's favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character".[213] On 19 August AD 14,[214] Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus's death by poisoning fresh figs.[215][216] This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.[217] Alternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus's health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir.[218] It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.[217] Augustus's famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit" ("Acta est fabula, plaudite")—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble" ("Marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset"). An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus's body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day.[218] Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. Augustus's body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon.[219] Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus's policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.[220] Shotter suggests that Augustus's deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius's "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion.[221] Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.[222] Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.[221] Legacy Further information: Cultural depictions of Augustus The Virgin Mary and Child, the prophetess Sibyl Tivoli bottom left and the Emperor Augustus in the bottom right, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry. The likeness of Augustus is that of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos[223] The Augustus cameo at the center of the Medieval Cross of Lothair Augustus's reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted, in one form or another, for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, Caesar became the word for Emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar (sometimes Csar or Czar). The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum.[224] Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.[225] The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen.[226] The Res Gestae is the only work to have survived from antiquity, though Augustus is also known to have composed poems entitled Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and a written rebuttal to Brutus's Eulogy of Cato.[227] Historians are able to analyze excerpts of letters penned by Augustus, preserved in other works, to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.[222][228] Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to "be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.[229] A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police.[230] With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.[231] This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 non-citizen soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.[232] With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum.[233] Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.[234] In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.[235] One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.[236] They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria.[237] Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the Kalabsha Temple in Nubia Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus gave 400 sesterces (equal to 1/10 of a Roman pound of gold) each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon.[238] He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities.[238] In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.[238] Coin of Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the style of Roman emperor Augustus. British Museum. AE dichalkon, Chach, c. first half of 1st. Century, Weight:3.26 gm., Diam:18 mm. Caption: obverse in Greek KOZOΛA KAΔAΦEΣ XOPANOY ZAOOY; reverse in Kharoshti. The longevity of Augustus's reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate.[239] Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus's own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus's ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title.[219] The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.[240] However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10/11), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus's death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another.[241] Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus: Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war—and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods. He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father's murderers. When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Anthony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man. However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The Empire's frontiers were on the ocean, or distant rivers. Armies, provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law. Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified. Force had been sparingly used—merely to preserve peace for the majority.[242] Fragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD, National Archaeological Museum of Athens Virgil reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1787 According to the second opposing opinion: filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power ... There had certainly been peace, but it was a blood-stained peace of disasters and assassinations.[243] In a 2006 biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus's reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that: Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive, and we are not obliged to choose one or the other. The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambitious for himself. This was only in part a personal trait, for upper-class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel. However, he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep-seated patriotism, based on a nostalgia of Rome's antique virtues. In his capacity as princeps, selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind. While fighting for dominance, he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life. He was devious, untrustworthy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had established his authority, he governed efficiently and justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, and promoted the rule of law. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He suffered from no delusions of grandeur.[244] Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty".[245] The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat.[241] The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."[245] The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658).[246] Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.[247] In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant".[247] Revenue reforms Coin of Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present-day Tamil Nadu in India, a testimony to Indo-Roman trade. British Museum. Caption: AVGVSTVS DIVI F[ILIVS]. (The vertical slice, not part of the original design, was likely an old test cut to make sure the coin was solid rather than a fourrée.) Augustus's public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus's predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.[248] 1st century coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.[249] An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. These tax farmers called publicans were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.[248] The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus's conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.[250] As it was effectively considered Augustus's private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.[251] Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[252] The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions.[250] During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.[253] Month of August The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is sex). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.[254] Creation of "Italia" Roman Italy was established by Augustus in 7 BC with the Latin name "Italia". This was the first time that the Italian peninsula was united administratively and politically under the same name. Due to this act, Augustus was called the Father of Italy by Italian historians such as G. Giannelli.[255] Building projects Main page: Category:Augustan building projects Further information: Vitruvius and De architectura Close up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength.[256] Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.[257] Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt.[258] The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus's triumphs in the Res Gestae. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.[259] He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor.[260] Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family.[261] To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design.[257] The Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, late 1st century BC After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.[229] In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult.[229] Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.[233] The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.[257] Residences The official residence of Augustus was the Domus Augusti on the Palatine which he made into a palace after buying it in 41/40 BC.[262] He had other residences such as the horti maecenati in Rome where Augustus preferred to stay whenever he became ill and which Maecenas left to him in his will in 8 BC. The great villa of Vedius Pollio at Posilipo near Naples was beqeathed (probably forced) to him in 15 BC.[263] Augustus built the Palazzo a Mare palace on Capri.[264] He also built the immense Villa Giulia on the island of Ventotene as a summer residence early in his reign. The family home of Augustus was probably the villa at Somma Vesuviana, Nola.[265] This was the location where he died and where his father also died.[266] Physical appearance and official images The Meroë Head of Augustus, bronze Roman portraiture bust from Meroë, Kingdom of Kush (Nubia, modern Sudan), 27–25 BC His biographer Suetonius, writing about a century after Augustus's death, described his appearance as: "... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life, though he cared nothing for personal adornment. He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair, that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time, and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved, while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclined to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature, although Julius Marathus, his freedman and keeper of his records, says that he was five feet and nine inches (just under 5 ft. 7 in., or 1.70 meters, in modern height measurements), but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure, and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him...",[267] adding that "his shoes [were] somewhat high-soled, to make him look taller than he really was".[268] Scientific analysis of traces of paint found in his official statues show that he most likely had light brown hair and eyes (his hair and eyes were depicted as the same color).[269] Augustus as a Pharaoh His official images were very tightly controlled and idealized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture. He first appeared on coins at the age of 19, and from about 29 BC "the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, economic and military life with Augustus's person."[270] The early images did indeed depict a young man, but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had "a distanced air of ageless majesty".[271] Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Augustea. See also Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Augustan poetry Bierzo Edict Caesar's Comet Gaius Maecenas Gaius Octavian (Rome character) Indo-Roman trade relations Julio-Claudian family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Temple of Augustus References Notes ^ The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC and the Julian calendar after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus finished restoring the Julian calendar in March AD 4 and the correspondence between the proleptic Julian calendar and the calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC. (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1) ^ The spelling AGVSTVS, which according to Allen (1965), 61, occurs in inscriptions, indicates the pronunciation [aˈɡʊstʊs].[9] ^ His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC.; his son Caesarion by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mentioned in his will.[26] ^ Appian estimates that 300 senators were proscribed, while his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.[69] ^ These were Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. ^ He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus – see Southern, p. 108 and Eck (2003), p. 55 Citations ^ "Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Full Name, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018. ^ Luke, Trevor (2015). "Cultivating the memory of Octavius Thurinus". Journal of Ancient History. 3 (2): 242–266. doi:10.1515/jah-2015-0012. S2CID 164329002. ^ "Suetonius • Life of Augustus". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 4 March 2018. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (28 August 2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21007-1. ^ "Augustus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did (Oxford University Press, 1998), 58. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 2.93–94 ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 54. ^ "40 maps that explain the Roman Empire". Vox. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ Day and month according to the Roman calendar, see Suetonius (2013), §5, footnote a ^ Suetonius, Augustus 7 ^ 5–6 on-line text. ^ Suetonius, "The Life of Augustus," 1 (J. C. Rolfe, Translator). ^ Suetonius, Augustus 1–4 ^ Rowell (1962), 14. ^ Chisholm (1981), 23. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 4–8; Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 3. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Suetonius, Augustus 8.1; Quintilian, 12.6.1. ^ Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Augustus," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, the University of Chicago online. Accessed 11 January 2019. ^ a b Suetonius, Augustus 8.1 ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 4. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 16. ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 6. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Velleius Paterculus 2.59.3. ^ a b Suetonius, Julius 83. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 9. ^ Rowell (1962), 15. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71. ^ Mihai Andrei (24 August 2018). "In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight". ZME Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ Weisberger, Mindy; September 2, Senior Writer |; ET, 2018 08:11am. "Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too". Live Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.9–11. ^ E.g., Cicero. Letters to Atticus. Perseus Digital Library. pp. 16:14. Retrieved 8 December 2015. ^ Mackay (2004), 160. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 10. ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 20–21 ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 21 ^ a b Eck (2003), 9–10. ^ a b Rowell (1962), 19. ^ Rowell (1962), 18. ^ Eder (2005), 18. ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.11–12. ^ Chisholm (1981), 24. ^ Chisholm (1981), 27. ^ Rowell (1962), 20. ^ Eck (2003), 11. ^ Syme (1939), 114–120. ^ Chisholm (1981), 26. ^ Rowell (1962), 30. ^ Eck (2003), 11–12. ^ Rowell (1962), 21. ^ Syme (1939), 123–126. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 12. ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 23. ^ Rowell (1962), 24. ^ Chisholm (1981), 29. ^ Syme (1939), 167. ^ Syme (1939), 173–174 ^ Scullard (1982), 157. ^ Rowell (1962), 26–27. ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 27. ^ Chisholm (1981), 32–33. ^ Eck (2003), 14. ^ Rowell (1962), 28. ^ Syme (1939), 176–186. ^ Sear, David R. "Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins". Archived from the original on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2007. ^ a b Eck (2003), 15. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 163. ^ Southern (1998), 52–53. ^ a b Eck (2003), 16. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 164. ^ a b Scott (1933), 19–20. ^ a b Scott (1933), 19. ^ Scott (1933), 20. ^ Syme (1939), 202. ^ Eck (2003), 17. ^ Eck (2003), 17–18. ^ a b Eck (2003), 18. ^ Eck (2003), 18–19. ^ a b Eck (2003), 19. ^ a b Rowell (1962), 32. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 20. ^ Scullard (1982), 162 ^ a b Eck (2003) 21. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 19. ^ a b Eck (2003), 22. ^ Eck (2003), 23. ^ a b Eck (2003), 24. ^ Eck (2003), 25. ^ Eck (2003), 25–26. ^ a b Eck (2003), 26. ^ Eck (2003), 26–27. ^ Eck (2003), 27–28. ^ Eck (2003), 29. ^ Eck (2003), 29–30. ^ a b Eck (2003), 30. ^ Eder (2005), 20. ^ Eck (2003), 31. ^ Eck (2003), 32–34. ^ Eck (2003), 34. ^ Eck (2003), 34–35 ^ Eder (2005), 21–22. ^ Eck (2003), 35. ^ Eder (2005), 22. ^ Roller (2010), 175. ^ Walker (2008), 35, 42–44. ^ Eck (2003), 37. ^ Eck (2003), 38. ^ Eck (2003), 38–39. ^ Eck (2003), 39. ^ Green (1990), 697. ^ Scullard (1982), 171. ^ a b Eck (2003), 49. ^ Gruen (2005), 34–35. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 24–25. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 38–39. ^ a b Eck (2003), 45. ^ Eck (2003), 44–45. ^ Eck (2003), 113. ^ Eck (2003), 80. ^ a b Scullard (1982), 211. ^ a b Eck (2003), 46. ^ Scullard (1982), 210. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 34. ^ a b Eck (2003), 47. ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 24. ^ InscrIt-13-02, 00017: XVII —Kalendas Februarias— c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]. ^ CIL 8375: "[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto". ^ Ovid 587-590: "Id. [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum". ^ Censorinus XXI.8 : "quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar". The number is right, but the phrasing is not. ^ 16 January: Fasti Praenestini;[127]Feriale Cumanum.[128] Ovid's Fasti misleadingly gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".[129] The 3rd century De die Natali gives 17 January, a mistake.[130] ^ a b Eck (2003), 50. ^ Eck (2003), 149 ^ Roberts, John (2007). "Princeps senatus". Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford Reference. p. 858. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-280146-3. ^ Eck (2003), 3, 149. ^ Eder (2005), 13. ^ Eck (2003), 3. ^ Wells, p. 51 ^ Holland, p. 294 ^ a b Davies, p. 259 ^ Ando, p. 140; Raaflaub, p. 426; Wells, p. 53 ^ Southern, p. 108; Holland, p. 295 ^ Eder (2005), 25. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 56. ^ Gruen (2005), 38. ^ a b Stern, Gaius, Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus's vision of a new world order in 13 BC, p. 23 ^ Holland, pp. 294–95; Southern, p. 108 ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 26. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 36. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 57. ^ Gruen (2005), 37. ^ Eck (2003), 56–57. ^ a b Southern, p. 109; Holland, p. 299 ^ Wells, p. 53 ^ a b Southern, p. 108 ^ Holland, p. 300 ^ Syme, p. 333 ^ Syme, p. 333; Holland, p. 300; Southern, p. 108 ^ Wells, p. 53; Raaflaub, p. 426 ^ Eck (2003), 57–58. ^ Eck (2003), 59. ^ a b Eder (2005), 30. ^ Bunson (1994), 80. ^ Bunson (1994), 427. ^ a b Eck (2003), 60. ^ Eck (2003), 61. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 117. ^ Ancient Rome at Encyclopedia Britannica ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 54.1, 6, 10. ^ Eck (2003), 78. ^ Swan, p. 241; Syme, p. 483 ^ Wells, p. 53; Holland, p. 301 ^ Davies, p. 260; Holland, p. 301 ^ Holland, p. 301 ^ a b Gruen (2005), 43. ^ Bowersock (1990), p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2. Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock (1990), p. 383). ^ Eder (2005), 28. ^ Mackay (2004), 186. ^ Eck (2003), 129. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 81. ^ Syme (1939), 337–338. ^ Everett (2006), 217. ^ Eck (2003), 93. ^ Eck (2003), 95. ^ a b Eck (2003), 94. ^ Eck (2003), 97. ^ Eck (2003), 98. ^ Eck (2003), 98–99. ^ Eck (2003), 99. ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 416. ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 96. ^ Brosius (2006), 96–97, 136–138. ^ Eck (2003), 95–96. ^ Brosius (2006), 97; see also Bivar (1983), 66–67. ^ Rowell (1962), 13. ^ Eck (2003), 101–102. ^ Bunson (1994), 417. ^ Bunson (1994), 31. ^ Gruen (2005), 50. ^ Eck (2003), 114–115. ^ Eck (2003), 115. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 44. ^ a b Eck (2003), 58. ^ Syme (1939), 416–417. ^ Scullard (1982), 217. ^ Syme (1939), 417. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 116. ^ a b Gruen (2005), 46. ^ Eck (2003), 117–118. ^ Gruen (2005), 46–47. ^ Eck (2003), 119. ^ Eck (2003), 119–120. ^ Gruen (2005), 49. ^ Suetonius 100.1.; Cassius Dio 56.30. ^ Tacitus Annals 1.5 ^ Cassius Dio 55.22.2; 56.30 ^ a b Everitt, Anthony (2006). Agustus: The Life of rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House. pp. 312–20. ISBN 978-0-8129-7058-6. ^ a b Eck (2003), 123. ^ a b Eck (2003), 124. ^ Shotter (1966), 210–212. ^ a b Shotter (1966), 211. ^ a b Shaw-Smith (1971), 213. ^ Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Philosophical Society. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-87169-114-9. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 101.4. ^ Eck (2003), 1–2 ^ Eck (2003), 2. ^ Bunson (1994), 47. ^ Bourne (1918), 53–66. ^ a b c Eck (2003), 79. ^ Bunson (1994), 345. ^ Eck (2003), 85–87. ^ Eck (2003), 86. ^ a b Eck (2003), 81. ^ Chisholm (1981), 122. ^ Bunson (1994), 6. ^ Bunson (1994), 341. ^ Bunson (1994), 341–342. ^ a b c Eder (2005), 23. ^ Tacitus, Annals I.3 ^ Kelsall (1976), 120. ^ a b Starr (1952), 5. ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 9 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 10 ^ Everitt (2006), 324–325. ^ a b Starr (1952), 6. ^ Kelsall (1976), 118. ^ a b Kelsall (1976), 119. ^ a b Eck (2003), 83–84. ^ Bunson (1994), 404. ^ a b Bunson (1994), 144. ^ Bunson (1994), 144–145. ^ Bunson (1994), 145. ^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 397. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35. ^ G. Giannelli, Trattato di storia romana. 1. L'Italia antica e la Repubblica romana, Roma, 1965 ^ Dio 56.30.3 ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 34. ^ Eck (2003), 122. ^ Bunson (1994), 32. ^ "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus". ^ Eck (2003), 118–121 ^ Suetonius. Life of Augustus 72. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV 23 ^ Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; Boda, Sharon La (1 January 1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Taylor & Francis. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2. Retrieved 5 July 2012. ^ Villa where Augustus probably died is unearthed. Associated Press (Documentary). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2021. ^ Tacitus Annals 1.5 ^ Suetonius, Augustus 79, translated by J. C. Rolfe. ^ Suetonius, Augustus 73 ^ Panzanelli, Roberta (26 June 2008). The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present (1st ed.). Getty Publishing. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-0-89236-917-1. ^ Walker and Burnett, pp. 1, 18, 25 (quoted) ^ Smith, 186 Works cited Allen, William Sidney (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37936-6. Ando, Clifford, Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire, University of California Press, 2000. Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol 3:1), 21–99. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, and Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9. Blackburn, Bonnie and Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1999). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. Reprinted with corrections 2003. Bourne, Ella (1918). "Augustus as a Letter-Writer". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 49: 53–66. doi:10.2307/282994. JSTOR 282994. Bowersock, G. W. (1990). "The Pontificate of Augustus". In Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (ed.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate. 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Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-00393-3). Holland, Richard, Augustus, Godfather of Europe, Sutton Publishing, 2005. Kelsall, Malcolm (1976). "Augustus and Pope". Huntington Library Quarterly. 39 (2): 117–131. doi:10.2307/3816937. JSTOR 3816937. Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4. Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Toher, Mark, Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate, University of California Press, 1993. Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5. Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-0956-5 Scullard, H. H. (1982) [1959]. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (5th ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02527-0. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (2013) [1913]. Thayer, Bill (ed.). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. J. C. Rolfe, trans. University of Chicago. Original publisher Loeb Classical Library. Suetonius, Gaius Tranquillus (1931). Lives of the Twelve Caesars. New York: Modern Library. Scott, Kenneth (1933). "The Political Propaganda of 44-30 B. C". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 11: 7–49. doi:10.2307/4238573. JSTOR 4238573. Shaw-Smith, R. (1971). "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius". Greece and Rome. 18 (2): 213–214. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018118. Shotter, D. C. A. (1966). "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus". Greece and Rome. 13 (2): 207–212. doi:10.1017/S0017383500015539. Starr, Chester G. (1952). "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire". The American Historical Review. 58 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/1844784. JSTOR 1844784. Jones, A. H. M. (1951). "The Imperium of Augustus". Journal of Roman Studies. 41 (1–2): 112–119. doi:10.2307/298104. JSTOR 298104. Henry, Lyell D. (1991). Zig-Zag-and-Swirl. doi:10.2307/j.ctt20h6tqz. ISBN 978-1-58729-108-1. Smith, R. R. R., "The Public Image of Licinius I: Portrait Sculpture and Imperial Ideology in the Early Fourth Century", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 87, (1997), pp. 170–202, JSTOR Southern, Pat. (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7. Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280320-7. Walker, Susan, and Burnett, Andrew, The Image of Augustus, 1981, British Museum Publications, ISBN 978-0-7141-1270-1 Walker, Susan. "Cleopatra in Pompeii?" in Papers of the British School at Rome, 76 (2008), pp. 35–46 and 345–348. Wells, Colin Michael, The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press, 2004. Further reading Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). Augustus. Eine Biographie. Berlin. Buchan, John (1937). Augustus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Everitt, Anthony. The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7195-5495-7. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-691-05890-0). Galinsky, Karl (2012). Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-521-74442-3. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014) Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17872-2. Grant, Michael (1985). The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC – AD 476. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Levick, Barbara. Augustus: Image and Substance. London: Longman, 2010. ISBN 978-0-582-89421-1. Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. Jones, A. H. M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–19. Jones, A. H. M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-7011-1626-2). Massie, Allan (1984). The Caesars. New York: Franklin Watts. Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 978-0-521-85582-2; paperback, ISBN 978-0-521-67177-4). Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Toher, Mark (eds.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-520-08447-6). Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-89522-007-3; paperback, ISBN 978-0-89522-008-0). Roebuck, C. (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Shotter, D. C. A. (1991). Augustus Caesar. Lancaster Pamphlets. London: Routledge. Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-415-16631-7); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-415-25855-5). Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-472-10101-6); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-472-08124-0). External links Augustusat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Library resources about Augustus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Primary sources Works by and about Augustus at Perseus Digital Library Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation Gallery of the Ancient Art: August Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation Suetonius's biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C. Secondary source material Augustan Legionaries – Augustus's legions and legionaries Augustus – short biography at the BBC Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana" – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy "De Imperatoribus Romanis" – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Augustus Why he is important – his place in world history Augustus Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14 Roman Emperors New title Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius Political offices Preceded by C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus A. Hirtius Consul of Rome 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius Succeeded by M. Aemilius Lepidus L. Munatius Plancus Preceded by Paullus Aemilius Lepidus M. Herennius Picens Consul of Rome 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus Succeeded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Preceded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius Consul of Rome 31–23 BC With: Mark Antony M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus M. Licinius Crassus Sex. Appuleius M. Agrippa T. Statilius Taurus M. Junius Silanus C. Norbanus Flaccus Cn. Calpurnius Piso Succeeded by M. Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus L. Arruntius Preceded by D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Vetus Consul of Rome 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla Succeeded by C. Calvisius Sabinus L. Passienus Rufus Preceded by L. Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus Consul of Rome 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus Succeeded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpurnius Piso Religious titles Preceded by M. Aemilius Lepidus Pontifex Maximus 12 BC – AD 14 Succeeded by Tiberius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Res divinae Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Etruscan religion Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudican revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome v t e Pontifices maximi 715 BC: Numa Marcius 509 BC: C. Papirius 449 BC: Q. Furius 431 BC: A. Cornelius Cossus 420 BC: S. Minucius 390 BC: M. Fabius Ambustus 332 BC: P. Cornelius Calussa 304 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus 254 BC: Ti. Coruncanius 243 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus 221 BC: L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus 213 BC: M. Cornelius Cethegus 212 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives 180 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 150 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum 141 BC: P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio 132 BC: P. Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus 130 BC: P. Mucius Scaevola 114 BC: L. Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus 103 BC: Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus 89 BC: Q. Mucius Scaevola 81 BC: Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius 63 BC: C. Julius Caesar 44 BC: M. Aemilius Lepidus 12 BC: Imp. Caesar Augustus 12 BC - AD 375: Held by the emperors. v t e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek–Punic Wars (Sicilian Wars) Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War (357–355 BC) Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War (220–217 BC) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Kingdom Roman-Sabine wars Roman-Etruscan Wars Roman-Latin wars (First Latin War) Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Xianbei Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Tunni Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Geledi Habr Yunis Hobyo Isaaq Majeerteen Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Tusculum portrait Chiaramonti Caesar Green Caesar Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain 2 France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 Israel Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augustus&oldid=1028510286" Categories: Augustus 63 BC births 14 deaths 1st-century BC Roman emperors 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century BC clergy 1st-century Roman emperors 1st-century clergy Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Roman military personnel Ancient Roman propraetors Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Children of Julius Caesar Deified Roman emperors Founding monarchs Imperial Roman 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en-wikipedia-org-7550	----	File:Statua Marco Aurelio Musei Capitolini.JPG - Wikipedia File:Statua Marco Aurelio Musei Capitolini.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 180 × 240 pixels | 360 × 480 pixels | 576 × 768 pixels | 768 × 1,024 pixels | 1,488 × 1,984 pixels. Original file ‎(1,488 × 1,984 pixels, file size: 579 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary English: Marco Aurelio's original statue Italiano: Statua Originale di Marco Aurelio che campeggiava nella piazza del campidoglio e che ora è stata spostata all'interno dei musei capitolini. For questions see my userpage in 'it.wiki -Rosco Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Statua_Marco_Aurelio_Musei_Capitolini.JPG Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. This applies to the European Union and those countries with a copyright term of 70 years after the work was made available to the public and the author never disclosed their identity. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 10:57, 21 March 2006 1,488 × 1,984 (579 KB) Rosco~commonswiki *{{EN}} Marco Aurelio's original statue *{{IT}} Statua Originale di Marco Aurelio che campeggiava nella piazza del campidoglio e che ora è stata spostata all'interno dei musei capitolini. For questions see my userpage in '''it.wiki File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Estàtua eqüestre de Marc Aureli Usage on es.wikipedia.org Estatua ecuestre de Marco Aurelio Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Marko Aurelioren zaldizko estatua Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle Statue équestre de Marc Aurèle Statuette équestre dite de Charlemagne Liste de statues équestres d'Italie Discussion:Liste de statues équestres d'Italie Utilisatrice:Tsaag Valren/Cheval Arts plastiques au IIe siècle Usage on gl.wikipedia.org Estatua ecuestre de Marco Aurelio Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Կապիտոլիում (բլուր) Usage on it.wikipedia.org Guerre marcomanniche Utente:Cristiano64/Prove/C Usage on it.wikivoyage.org Campitelli Usage on ka.wikipedia.org რომის იმპერია Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Lijst van antieke bouwwerken in Rome Ruiterstandbeeld van Marcus Aurelius Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius' rytterstatue Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Конная статуя Марка Аврелия Usage on sh.wikipedia.org Konjanička statua Marka Aurelija Usage on uk.wikipedia.org Кінний монумент Марку Аврелію Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Usage on www.wikidata.org Q907387 Wikidata:WikiProject Visual arts/Item structure/Sculptures/Before 14th Century Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. 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Image title OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA Camera manufacturer OLYMPUS OPTICAL CO.,LTD Camera model C720UZ Exposure time 1/125 sec (0.008) F-number f/3.4 ISO speed rating 200 Date and time of data generation 12:12, 19 March 2006 Lens focal length 19.59 mm Horizontal resolution 144 dpi Vertical resolution 144 dpi Software used 34-1030 File change date and time 12:12, 19 March 2006 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.1 Date and time of digitizing 12:12, 19 March 2006 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 3 APEX (f/2.83) Metering mode Pattern Flash Flash did not fire Color space sRGB Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statua_Marco_Aurelio_Musei_Capitolini.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7566	----	Equites - Wikipedia Equites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The lower of the two aristocratic classes of ancient Rome For the play by Aristophanes called equites in Latin, see The Knights. Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in Europe Emperor · Empress · King-Emperor · Queen-Empress · Kaiser · Tsar · Tsarina High king · High queen · Great king · Great queen King · Queen Archduke · Archduchess · Tsesarevich Grand prince · Grand princess Grand duke · Grand duchess Prince-elector · Prince · Princess · Crown prince · Crown princess · Foreign prince · Prince du sang · Infante · Infanta · Dauphin · Dauphine · Królewicz · Królewna · Jarl · Tsarevich · Tsarevna Duke · Duchess · Herzog · Knyaz · Princely count Sovereign prince · Sovereign princess · Fürst · Fürstin · Boyar Marquess · Marquis · Marchioness · Margrave · Marcher Lord  · Landgrave · Count palatine Count · Countess · Earl · Graf · Châtelain · Castellan · Burgrave Viscount · Viscountess · Vidame Baron · Baroness · Freiherr · Advocatus · Lord of Parliament · Thane · Lendmann · Primor Baronet · Baronetess · Scottish Feudal Baron · Scottish Feudal Baroness · Ritter · Imperial Knight Eques · Knight · Chevalier · Ridder · Lady · Dame · Sir · Sire · Madam · Edelfrei · Seigneur · Lord · Laird Lord of the manor · Gentleman · Gentry · Esquire · Edler · Jonkheer · Junker · Younger · Maid · Don · Nobile Ministerialis v t e The equites (/ˈɛkwɪtiːz/; Latin: eques nom. singular; literally "horse-" or "cavalrymen", though sometimes referred to as "knights" in English) constituted the second of the property-based classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the senatorial class. A member of the equestrian order was known as an eques. Contents 1 Description 2 Regal era (753–509 BC) 3 Early republic (509–338 BC) 4 Later republic (338–30 BC) 4.1 Transformation of state and army (338–290) 4.2 Political role 4.3 Military officer role 4.4 Cavalry role 4.5 Ethos 4.6 Business activities 4.7 Privileges 5 Augustan equestrian order (Principate era) 5.1 Differentiation of the senatorial order 5.2 Ordo equester under Augustus 5.3 Equestrian public careers 5.4 Relations with the emperor 5.5 Oligarchical rule in the early principate (to AD 197) 5.6 Equestrian hierarchy 6 Equestrians in the later empire (AD 197–395) 6.1 Rise of the military equestrians (3rd century) 6.2 Idle aristocracy (4th century) 7 Notes 8 See also 9 Citations 10 References 10.1 Ancient 10.2 Modern 11 Further reading 12 External links Description[edit] During the Roman kingdom and the first century of the Roman Republic, legionary cavalry was recruited exclusively from the ranks of the patricians, who were expected to provide six centuriae of cavalry (300 horses for each consular legion). Around 400 BC, 12 more centuriae of cavalry were established and these included non-patricians (plebeians). Around 300 BC the Samnite Wars obliged Rome to double the normal annual military levy from two to four legions, doubling the cavalry levy from 600 to 1,200 horses. Legionary cavalry started to recruit wealthier citizens from outside the 18 centuriae. These new recruits came from the first class of commoners in the Centuriate Assembly organisation, and were not granted the same privileges. By the time of the Second Punic War (218–202 BC), all the members of the first class of commoners were required to serve as cavalrymen. The presence of equites in the Roman cavalry diminished steadily in the period 200–88 BC as only equites could serve as the army's senior officers; as the number of legions proliferated fewer were available for ordinary cavalry service. After c. 88 BC, equites were no longer drafted into the legionary cavalry, although they remained technically liable to such service throughout the principate era (to AD 284). They continued to supply the senior officers of the army throughout the principate. With the exception of the purely hereditary patricians, the equites were originally defined by a property threshold. The rank was passed from father to son, although members of the order who at the regular quinquennial (every five years) census no longer met the property requirement were usually removed from the order's rolls by the Roman censors. In the late republic, the property threshold stood at 50,000 denarii and was doubled to 100,000 by the emperor Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – AD 14) – roughly the equivalent to the annual salaries of 450 contemporary legionaries. In the later republican period, Roman senators and their offspring became an unofficial elite within the equestrian order. Under Augustus, the senatorial elite was given formal status (as the ordo senatorius) with a higher wealth threshold (250,000 denarii, or the pay of 1,100 legionaries) and superior rank and privileges to ordinary equites. During the principate, equites filled the senior administrative and military posts of the imperial government. There was a clear division between jobs reserved for senators (the most senior) and those reserved for non-senatorial equites. But the career structure of both groups was broadly similar: a period of junior administrative posts in Rome or Roman Italy, followed by a period (normally a decade) of military service as a senior army officer, followed by senior administrative or military posts in the provinces. Senators and equites formed a tiny elite of under 10,000 members who monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of about 60 million inhabitants. During the 3rd century AD, power shifted from the Italian aristocracy to a class of equites who had earned their membership by distinguished military service, often rising from the ranks: career military officers from the provinces (especially the Balkan provinces) who displaced the Italian aristocrats in the top military posts, and under Diocletian (ruled 284–305) from the top civilian positions also. This effectively reduced the Italian aristocracy to an idle, but immensely wealthy, group of landowners. During the 4th century, the status of equites was debased to insignificance by excessive grants of the rank. At the same time the ranks of senators were swollen to over 4,000 by the establishment of the Byzantine Senate, a second senate in Constantinople and the tripling of the membership of both senates. The senatorial order of the 4th century was thus the equivalent of the equestrian order of the principate. Regal era (753–509 BC)[edit] According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by its first king, Romulus, in 753 BC. However, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome did not acquire the character of a unified city-state (as opposed to a number of separate hilltop settlements) until c. 625 BC.[1] Roman tradition relates that the Order of Knights was founded by Romulus, who supposedly established a cavalry regiment of 300 men called the Celeres ("Swift Squadron") to act as his personal escort, with each of the three Roman "tribes" (actually voting constituencies) supplying 100 horses. This cavalry regiment was supposedly doubled in size to 600 men by King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (traditional dates 616–578 BC).[2] That the cavalry was increased to 600 during the regal era is plausible, as in the early republic the cavalry fielded remained 600-strong (two legions with 300 horses each).[3] However, according to Livy, King Servius Tullius (traditional reign-dates 578–535 BC) established a further 12 centuriae of equites, a further tripling of the cavalry.[4] Yet this was probably anachronistic, as it would have resulted in a contingent of 1,800 horse, incongruously large, compared to the heavy infantry, which was probably only 6,000 strong in the late regal period. Instead, the additional 12 centuriae were probably created at a later stage, perhaps around 400 BC, but these new units were political not military, most likely designed to admit plebeians to the Order of Knights.[original research?][5] Apparently, equites were originally provided with a sum of money by the state to purchase a horse for military service and for its fodder. This was known as an equus publicus.[4] Theodor Mommsen argues that the royal cavalry was drawn exclusively from the ranks of the patricians (patricii), the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary.[6] Apart from the traditional association of the aristocracy with horsemanship, the evidence for this view is the fact that, during the republic, six centuriae (voting constituencies) of equites in the comitia centuriata (electoral assembly) retained the names of the original six royal cavalry centuriae.[4][Note 1] These are very likely the "centuriae of patrician nobles" in the comitia mentioned by the lexicologist Sextus Pompeius Festus. If this view is correct, it implies that the cavalry was exclusively patrician (and therefore hereditary) in the regal period. (However, Cornell considers the evidence tenuous).[7] Early republic (509–338 BC)[edit] It is widely accepted that the Roman monarchy was overthrown by a patrician coup, probably provoked by the Tarquin dynasty's populist policies in favour of the plebeian class.[Note 2] Alfoldi suggests that the coup was carried out by the celeres themselves.[10] According to the Fraccaro interpretation, when the Roman monarchy was replaced with two annually elected praetores (later called "consuls"), the royal army was divided equally between them for campaigning purposes, which, if true, explains why Polybius later said that a legion's cavalry contingent was 300 strong.[11] The 12 additional centuriae ascribed by Livy to Servius Tullius were, in reality, probably formed around 400 BC. In 403 BC, according to Livy, in a crisis during the siege of Veii, the army urgently needed to deploy more cavalry, and "those who possessed equestrian rating but had not yet been assigned public horses" volunteered to pay for their horses out of their own pockets. By way of compensation, pay was introduced for cavalry service, as it had already been for the infantry (in 406 BC).[12] The persons referred to in this passage were probably members of the 12 new centuriae who were entitled to public horses, but temporarily waived that privilege. Mommsen, however, argues that the passage refers to members of the first class of commoners being admitted to cavalry service in 403 BC for the first time as an emergency measure. If so, this group may be the original so-called equites equo privato, a rank that is attested throughout the history of the republic (in contrast to equites equo publico). However, due to a lack of evidence, the origins and definition of equo privato equites remain obscure. It is widely agreed that the 12 new centuriae were open to non-patricians.[13] Thus, from this date if not earlier, not all equites were patricians. The patricians, as a closed hereditary caste, steadily diminished in numbers over the centuries, as families died out. Around 450 BC, there are some 50 patrician gentes (clans) recorded, whereas just 14 remained at the time of Julius Caesar (dictator of Rome 48–44 BC), whose own Iulii clan was patrician.[14] In contrast, the ranks of equites, although also hereditary (in the male line), were open to new entrants who met the property requirement and who satisfied the Roman censors that they were suitable for membership.[15] As a consequence, patricians rapidly became only a small minority of the equestrian order. However, patricians retained political influence greatly out of proportion with their numbers. Until 172 BC, one of the two consuls elected each year had to be a patrician.[14] In addition, patricians may have retained their original six centuriae, which gave them a third of the total voting-power of the equites, even though they constituted only a tiny minority of the order by 200 BC. Patricians also enjoyed official precedence, such as the right to speak first in senatorial debates, which were initiated by the princeps senatus (Leader of the Senate), a position reserved for patricians. In addition, patricians monopolized certain priesthoods and continued to enjoy enormous prestige.[16] Later republic (338–30 BC)[edit] Transformation of state and army (338–290)[edit] The period following the end of the Latin War (340–338 BC) and of the Samnite Wars (343–290) saw the transformation of the Roman Republic from a powerful but beleaguered city-state into the hegemonic power of the Italian peninsula. This was accompanied by profound changes in its constitution and army. Internally, the critical development was the emergence of the senate as the all-powerful organ of state.[17] By 280 BC, the senate had assumed total control of state taxation, expenditure, declarations of war, treaties, raising of legions, establishing colonies and religious affairs. In other words, of virtually all political power. From an ad hoc group of advisors appointed by the consuls, the senate had become a permanent body of around 300 life peers who, as largely former Roman magistrates, boasted enormous experience and influence.[17] At the same time, the political unification of the Latin nation, under Roman rule after 338 BC, gave Rome a populous regional base from which to launch its wars of aggression against its neighbours.[18] The grueling contest for Italian hegemony that Rome fought against the Samnite League led to the transformation of the Roman army from the Greek-style hoplite phalanx that it was in the early period, to the Italian-style manipular army described by Polybius. It is believed that the Romans copied the manipular structure from their enemies the Samnites, learning through hard experience its greater flexibility and effectiveness in the mountainous terrain of central Italy.[19] It is also from this period that every Roman army that took the field was regularly accompanied by at least as many troops supplied by the socii (Rome's Italian military confederates, often referred to as "Latin allies").[20] Each legion would be matched by a confederate ala (literally: "wing"), a formation that contained roughly the same number of infantry as a legion, but three times the number of horses (900).[21] Legionary cavalry also probably underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius.[22] As a result of the demands of the Samnite hostilities, a normal consular army was doubled in size to two legions, making four legions raised annually overall. Roman cavalry in the field thus increased to approximately 1,200 horses.[19] This now represented only 25% of the army's total cavalry contingent, the rest being supplied by the Italian confederates. A legion's modest cavalry share of 7% of its 4,500 total strength was thus increased to 12% in a confederate army, comparable with (or higher than) any other forces in Italy except the Gauls and also similar to those in Greek armies such as Pyrrhus's.[23] Political role[edit] Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution based on the sovereignty of the people, the Roman Republic was in reality a classic oligarchy, in which political power was monopolised by the richest social echelon.[24] Probably by 300 BC, the centuriate organisation of the Roman citizen body for political purposes achieved the evolved form described by Polybius and Livy. The comitia centuriata was the most powerful people's assembly, as it promulgated Roman laws and annually elected the Roman magistrates, the executive officers of the state: consuls, praetors, aediles and quaestors.[25] In the assembly, the citizen body was divided into 193 centuriae, or voting constituencies. Of these, 18 were allocated to equites (including patricians) and a further 80 to the first class of commoners, securing an absolute majority of the votes (98 out of 193) for the wealthiest echelon of society, although it constituted only a small minority of the citizenry. (The lowest class, the proletarii, rated at under 400 drachmae, had just one vote, despite being the most numerous).[25] As a result, the wealthiest echelon could ensure that the elected magistrates were always their own members. In turn, this ensured that the senate was dominated by the wealthy classes, as its membership was composed almost entirely of current and former magistrates.[25] Analysis of Roman centuriate organisation[26] Class Property rating (drachmae: denarii after 211 BC) No. of votes in electoral assembly Military service Aristocrats Patricii (patricians) n.a. (hereditary) 6 Officers and legionary cavalry Equites (knights) hereditary/over 25,000?* 12 Officers and legionary cavalry Commoners First class 10,000 – 25,000? 80 Legionary cavalry Second class 7,500 – 10,000 20 Legionary infantry Third class 5,000 – 7,500 20 Legionary infantry Fourth class 2,500 – 5,000 20 Legionary infantry Fifth class 400 (or 1,100) – 2,500 30 Legionary infantry (velites) Proletarii (capite censi) Under 400 (or 1,100) 1 Fleets (oarsmen) Military officer role[edit] A Roman senior officer (centre) of the time of Polybius, as depicted on a bas-relief from the Altar of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC. Probably a tribunus militum (joint legionary commander), the officer wears a decorated bronze cuirass, pteruges, mantle, and Attic-style helmet with horsehair plume. The sash around his cuirass probably denoted knightly rank. In the republican army, tribuni were elected by the comitia centuriata (main people's assembly) from the members of the equestrian order. Musée du Louvre, Paris. A Roman coin issued during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) showing (obverse) the god of war Mars and (reverse) probably the earliest image of a Roman cavalryman of the republican era. Helmet with horsehair plume, long spear (hasta), small round shield (parma equestris), and flowing mantle. Roman cavalry was levied from the equites, and from volunteers of the second property class, until the early 1st century BC. Bronze quincunx from Larinum mint. In the "polybian" army of the mid-republic (338 – 88 BC), equites held the exclusive right to serve as senior officers of the army.[27] These were the six tribuni militum in each legion who were elected by the comitia at the start of each campaigning season and took turns to command the legion in pairs; the praefecti sociorum, commanders of the Italian confederate alae, who were appointed by the consuls; and the three decurions that led each squadron (turma) of legionary cavalry (a total of 30 decurions per legion).[28] Cavalry role[edit] Main article: Roman cavalry As their name implies, equites were liable to cavalry service in the legion of the mid-republic. They originally provided a legion's entire cavalry contingent, although from an early stage (probably from c. 400 and not later than c. 300 BC), when equestrian numbers had become insufficient, large numbers of young men from the first class of commoners were regularly volunteering for the service, which was considered more glamorous than the infantry.[29] The cavalry role of equites dwindled after the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), as the number of equestrians became insufficient to provide the senior officers of the army and general cavalrymen as well. Equites became exclusively an officer-class, with the first class of commoners providing the legionary cavalry. Ethos[edit] From the earliest times and throughout the Republican period, Roman equites subscribed, in their role as Roman cavalrymen, to an ethos of personal heroism and glory. This was motivated by the desire to justify their privileged status to the lower classes that provided the infantry ranks, to enhance the renown of their family name, and to augment their chances of subsequent political advancement in a martial society. For equites, a focus of the heroic ethos was the quest for spolia militaria, the stripped armour and weapons of a foe whom they had killed in single combat. There are many recorded instances. For example, Servilius Geminus Pulex, who went on to become Consul in 202 BC, was reputed to have gained spolia 23 times.[30] The higher the rank of the opponent killed in combat, the more prestigious the spolia, and none more so than spolia duci hostium detracta, spoils taken from an enemy leader himself.[Note 3] Many equites attempted to gain such an honour, but very few succeeded for the reason that enemy leaders were always surrounded by large numbers of elite bodyguards.[35] One successful attempt, but with a tragic twist, was that of the decurion Titus Manlius Torquatus in 340 BC during the Latin War. Despite strict orders from the consuls (one of whom was his own father) not to engage the enemy, Manlius could not resist accepting a personal challenge from the commander of the Tusculan cavalry, which his squadron encountered while on reconnaissance. There ensued a fiercely contested joust with the opposing squadrons as spectators. Manlius won, spearing his adversary after the latter was thrown by his horse. But when the triumphant young man presented the spoils to his father, the latter ordered his son's immediate execution for disobeying orders. "Orders of Manlius" (Manliana imperia) became a proverbial army term for orders that must on no account be disregarded.[36] Business activities[edit] In 218 BC, the lex Claudia restricted the commercial activity of senators and their sons, on the grounds that it was incompatible with their status. Senators were prohibited from owning ships of greater capacity than 300 amphorae (about seven tonnes) - this being judged sufficient to carry the produce of their own landed estates but too small to conduct large-scale sea transportation.[37] From this time onwards, senatorial families mostly invested their capital in land. All other equestrians remained free to invest their wealth, greatly increased by the growth of Rome's overseas empire after the Second Punic War, in large-scale commercial enterprises including mining and industry, as well as land.[38] Equestrians became especially prominent in tax farming and, by 100 BC, owned virtually all tax-farming companies (publicani).[39] During the late republican era, the collection of most taxes was contracted out to private individuals or companies by competitive tender, with the contract for each province awarded to the publicanus who bid the highest advance to the state treasury on the estimated tax-take of the province. The publicanus would then attempt to recoup his advance, with the right to retain any surplus collected as his profit. This system frequently resulted in extortion from the common people of the provinces, as unscrupulous publicani often sought to maximise their profit by demanding a much higher rates of tax than originally set by the government. The provincial governors whose duty it was to curb illegal demands were often bribed into acquiescence by the publicani.[40] The system also led to political conflict between ''equites publicani and the majority of their fellow-equites, especially senators, who as large landowners wanted to minimise the tax on land outside Italy (tributum solis), which was the main source of state revenue.[41] This system was terminated by the first Roman emperor, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD), who transferred responsibility for tax collection from the publicani to provincial local authorities (civitates peregrinae).[42] Although the latter also frequently employed private companies to collect their tax quotas, it was in their own interests to curb extortion. During the imperial era, tax collectors were generally paid an agreed percentage of the amount collected. equites publicani became prominent in banking activities such as money-lending and money-changing.[40] Privileges[edit] The official dress of equestrians was the tunica angusticlavia (narrow-striped tunic), worn underneath the toga, in such a manner that the stripe over the right shoulder was visible (as opposed to the broad stripe worn by senators.[43]) equites bore the title eques Romanus, were entitled to wear an anulus aureus (gold ring) on their left hand, and, from 67 BC, enjoyed privileged seats at games and public functions (just behind those reserved for senators).[44] Augustan equestrian order (Principate era)[edit] Bridle ornament inscribed Plinio Praefecto ("Property of the prefect Pliny"), found at Castra Vetera legionary base (Xanten, Germany), believed to have belonged to the classical author Pliny the Elder when he was a praefectus alae (commander of an auxiliary cavalry regiment) in Germania Inferior. Pliny was a hereditary Roman knight of the imperial era who became celebrated for his writings on geography and natural history. He also had a distinguished career as a public servant, in a series of posts reserved for equestrians. He served as a military officer in 44–54, as equestrian governor (procurator Augusti) of two minor provinces in the period 70–77 and then as a secretary of state in Rome to the emperor Vespasian. By 79, he was praefectus classis (admiral commanding) of the main imperial fleet at Misenum in the bay of Naples. In that year, the nearby volcano Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. From his base across the bay, Pliny led out his fleet in an attempt to rescue thousands of survivors trapped by lava-flows on the shore beneath Vesuvius. But after reaching port at Stabiae, Pliny's ships were prevented from putting to sea again for several hours by a strong in-shore gale. Whilst awaiting a change of wind-direction, Pliny died on a nearby beach from inhaling toxic gases.[45] (Source: British Museum, London) Differentiation of the senatorial order[edit] The senate as a body was formed of sitting senators, whose number was held at around 600 by the founder of the principate, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – AD 14) and his successors until 312. Senators' sons and further descendants technically retained equestrian rank unless and until they won a seat in the senate. But Talbert argues that Augustus established the existing senatorial elite as a separate and superior order (ordo senatorius) to the equites for the first time.[43] The evidence for this includes: Augustus, for the first time, set a minimum property requirement for admission to the senate, of 250,000 denarii, two and a half times the 100,000 denarii that he set for admission to the equestrian order.[44] Augustus, for the first time, allowed the sons of senators to wear the tunica laticlavia (tunic with broad purple stripes that was the official dress of senators) on reaching their majority even though they were not yet members of the senate.[46] Senators' sons followed a separate cursus honorum (career-path) to other equites before entering the senate: first an appointment as one of the vigintiviri ("Committee of Twenty", a body that included officials with a variety of minor administrative functions), or as an augur (priest), followed by at least a year in the military as tribunus militum laticlavius (deputy commander) of a legion. This post was normally held before the tribune had become a member of the senate. A marriage law of 18 BC (the lex Julia) seems to define not only senators but also their descendants unto the third generation (in the male line) as a distinct group.[47] There was thus established a group of men with senatorial rank (senatorii) wider than just sitting senators (senatores). A family's senatorial status depended not only on continuing to match the higher wealth qualification, but on their leading member holding a seat in the senate. Failing either condition, the family would revert to ordinary knightly status. Although sons of sitting senators frequently won seats in the senate, this was by no means guaranteed, as candidates often outnumbered the 20 seats available each year, leading to intense competition. Ordo equester under Augustus[edit] As regards the equestrian order, Augustus apparently abolished the rank of equo privato, according all its members equo publico status. In addition, Augustus organised the order in a quasi-military fashion, with members enrolled into six turmae (notional cavalry squadrons). The order's governing body were the seviri ("Committee of Six"), composed of the "commanders" of the turmae. In an attempt to foster the equites esprit de corps, Augustus revived a defunct republican ceremony, the recognitio equitum (inspection of the equites), in which equites paraded every five years with their horses before the consuls.[13] At some stage during the early principate, equites acquired the right to the title "egregius" ("distinguished gentleman"), while senators were styled "clarissimus", "most distinguished").[44] Beyond equites with equus publicus, Augustus' legislation permitted any Roman citizen who was assessed in an official census as meeting the property requirement of 100,000 denarii to use the title of eques and wear the narrow-striped tunic and gold ring. But such "property-qualified equites" were not apparently admitted to the ordo equester itself, but simply enjoyed equestrian status.[48][49] Only those granted an equus publicus by the emperor (or who inherited the status from their fathers) were enrolled in the order. Imperial equites were thus divided into two tiers: a few thousand mainly Italian equites equo publico, members of the order eligible to hold the public offices reserved for the equites; and a much larger group of wealthy Italians and provincials (estimated at 25,000 in the 2nd century) of equestrian status but outside the order.[48][49] Equestrians could in turn be elevated to senatorial rank (e.g. Pliny the Younger), but in practice this was much more difficult than elevation from commoner to equestrian rank. To join the upper order, not only was the candidate required to meet the minimum property requirement of 250,000 denarii, but also had to be elected a member of the senate. There were two routes for this, both controlled by the emperor: The normal route was election to the post of quaestor, the most junior magistracy (for which the minimum eligible age was 27 years), which carried automatic membership of the senate. Twenty quaestors were appointed each year, a number that evidently broadly matched the average annual vacancies (caused by death or expulsion for misdemeanors or insufficient wealth) so that the 600-member limit was preserved. Under Augustus, senators' sons had the right to stand for election, while equestrians could only do so with the emperor's permission. Later in the Julio-Claudian period, the rule became established that all candidates required imperial leave. Previously conducted by the people's assembly (comitia centuriata), the election was in the hands, from the time of Tiberius onwards, of the senate itself, whose sitting members inevitably favored the sons of their colleagues. Since the latter alone often outnumbered the number of available places, equestrian candidates stood little chance unless they enjoyed the special support of the emperor.[50] The exceptional route was direct appointment to a senate seat by the emperor (adlectio), technically using the powers of Roman censor (which also entitled him to expel members). Adlectio was, however, generally used sparingly in order not to breach the 600-member ceiling. It was chiefly resorted to in periods when senate numbers became severely depleted e.g. during the Civil War of 68–69, following which the emperor Vespasian made large-scale adlectiones.[51] Equestrian public careers[edit] In public service, equites equo publico had their own version of the senatorial cursus honorum, or conventional career-path, which typically combined military and administrative posts. After an initial period of a few years in local government in their home regions as administrators (local aediles or duumviri) or as priests (augures), equites were required to serve as military officers for about 10 years before they would be appointed to senior administrative or military posts.[52] Tombstone of the knight Titus Cornasidius Sabinus, detailing a typical equestrian career in the imperial period. Sabinus initially held posts in the local government of Lavinium, a town in Latium, then served as a military officer, first as praefectus (commander) of cohors I Montanorum (in Pannonia), then tribunus militum of legio II Augusta (in Britannia), and finally praefectus of ala veterana Gallorum (in Aegyptus). Then, after a stint as subpraefectus classis (deputy commander) of the imperial fleet at Ravenna, Sabinus was governor of the Alpes Poeninae and then of Dacia Apulensis provinces. His son, who erected the memorial, is described as of equo publico rank. Dated to the early Severan period (193–211). Equestrians exclusively provided the praefecti (commanders) of the imperial army's auxiliary regiments and five of the six tribuni militum (senior staff officers) in each legion. The standard equestrian officer progression was known as the "tres militiae" ("three services"): praefectus of a cohors (auxiliary infantry regiment), followed by tribunus militum in a legion, and finally praefectus of an ala (auxiliary cavalry regiment). From the time of Hadrian, a fourth militia was added for exceptionally gifted officers, commander of an ala milliaria (double-strength ala). Each post was held for three to four years.[53] Most of the top posts in the imperial administration were reserved for senators, who provided the governors of the larger provinces (except Egypt), the legati legionis (legion commanders) of all legions outside Egypt, and the praefectus urbi (prefect of the city of Rome), who controlled the Cohortes Urbanae (public order battalions), the only fully armed force in the city apart from the Praetorian Guard. Nevertheless, a wide range of senior administrative and military posts were created and reserved for equestrians by Augustus, though most ranked below the senatorial posts.[54] In the imperial administration, equestrian posts included that of the governorship (praefectus Augusti) of the province of Egypt, which was considered the most prestigious of all the posts open to equites, often the culmination of a long and distinguished career serving the state. In addition, equites were appointed to the governorship (procurator Augusti) of some smaller provinces and sub-provinces e.g. Judaea, whose governor was subordinate to the governor of Syria.[55] Equestrians were also the chief financial officers (also called procuratores Augusti) of the imperial provinces, and the deputy financial officers of senatorial provinces. At Rome, equestrians filled numerous senior administrative posts such as the emperor's secretaries of state (from the time of Claudius e.g. correspondence and treasury) and the praefecti annonae (director of grain supplies).[55] In the military, equestrians provided the praefecti praetorio (commanders of the Praetorian Guard) who also acted as the emperor's chiefs of military staff. There were normally two of these, but at times irregular appointments resulted in just a single incumbent or even three at the same time.[55] Equestrians also provided the praefecti classis (admirals commanding) of the two main imperial fleets at Misenum in the bay of Naples and at Ravenna on the Italian Adriatic coast. The command of Rome's fire brigade and minor constabulary, the vigiles, was likewise reserved for equites.[52] Not all equites followed the conventional career-path. Those equestrians who specialised in a legal or administrative career, providing judges (iudices) in Rome's law courts and state secretaries in the imperial government, were granted dispensation from military service by Emperor Hadrian (r. AD 117–138).[56] At the same time, many equites became career military officers, remaining in the army for much longer than 10 years. After completing their tres militiae, some would continue to command auxiliary regiments, moving across units and provinces.[57] Already wealthy to start with, equites equo publico accumulated even greater riches through holding their reserved senior posts in the administration, which carried enormous salaries (although they were generally smaller than senatorial salaries).[41] For example, the salaries of equestrian procuratores (fiscal and gubernatorial) ranged from 15,000 to a maximum of 75,000 denarii (for the governor of Egypt) per annum, whilst an equestrian praefectus of an auxiliary cohort was paid about 50 times as much as a common foot soldier (about 10,000 denarii). A praefectus could thus earn in one year the same as two of his auxiliary rankers combined earned during their entire 25-year service terms.[58][59] Relations with the emperor[edit] It was suggested by ancient writers, and accepted by many modern historians, that Roman emperors trusted equestrians more than men of senatorial rank, and used the former as a political counterweight to the senators. According to this view, senators were often regarded as potentially less loyal and honest by the emperor, as they could become powerful enough, through the command of provincial legions, to launch coups.[60] They also had greater opportunities for peculation as provincial governors. Hence the appointment of equestrians to the most sensitive military commands. In Egypt, which supplied much of Italy's grain needs, the governor and the commanders of both provincial legions were drawn from the equestrian order, since placing a senator in a position to starve Italy was considered too risky.[60] The commanders of the Praetorian Guard, the principal military force close to the emperor at Rome, were also usually drawn from the equestrian order.[44] Also cited in support of this view is the appointment of equestrian fiscal procuratores, reporting direct to the emperor, alongside senatorial provincial governors. These would supervise the collection of taxes and act as watchdogs to limit opportunities for corruption by the governors (as well as managing the imperial estates in the province). According to Talbert, however, the evidence suggests that equites were no more loyal or less corrupt than senators.[61] For example, c. 26 BC, the equestrian governor of Egypt, Cornelius Gallus, was recalled for politically suspect behaviour and sundry other misdemeanours. His conduct was deemed sufficiently serious by the senate to warrant the maximum penalty of exile and confiscation of assets.[62] Under Tiberius, both the senatorial governor and the equestrian fiscal procurator of Asia province were convicted of corruption.[63] There is evidence that emperors were as wary of powerful equites as they were of senators. Augustus enforced a tacit rule that senators and prominent equestrians must obtain his express permission to enter the province of Egypt, a policy that was continued by his successors.[60][64] Also, the command of the Praetorian Guard was normally split between two equites, to reduce the potential for a successful coup d'état. At the same time, command of the second military force in Rome, the cohortes urbanae, was entrusted to a senator. Oligarchical rule in the early principate (to AD 197)[edit] Because the senate was limited to 600 members, equites equo publico, numbering several thousands, greatly outnumbered men of senatorial rank.[48] Even so, senators and equites combined constituted a tiny elite in a citizen-body of about 6 million (in AD 47) and an empire with a total population of 60–70 million.[65][66] This immensely wealthy elite monopolised political, military and economic power in the empire. It controlled the major offices of state, command of all military units, ownership of a significant proportion of the empire's arable land (e.g. under Nero (r.54–68), half of all land in Africa proconsularis province was owned by just six senators) and of most major commercial enterprises.[67] Overall, senators and equites cooperated smoothly in the running of the empire. In contrast to the chaotic civil wars of the late republic, the rule of this tiny oligarchy achieved a remarkable degree of political stability. In the first 250 years of the principate (30 BC – AD 218), there was only a single episode of major internal strife: the civil war of 68–69. Equestrian hierarchy[edit] It seems that from the start the equestrians in the imperial service were organised on a hierarchical basis reflecting their pay-grades. According to Suetonius, writing in the early part of the second century AD, the equestrian procurators who "performed various administrative duties throughout the empire" were from the time of Emperor Claudius I organised into four pay-grades, the trecenarii the ducenarii, the centenarii, and the sexagenarii, receiving 300,000, 200,000, 100,000, and 60,000 sesterces per annum respectively.[68] Cassius Dio, writing a century later, attributed the beginnings of this process to the first emperor, Augustus, himself.[69] There is almost no literary or epigraphic evidence for the use of these ranks until towards the end of the 2nd century. However, it would seem that the increasing employment of equestrians by the emperors in civil and military roles had had social ramifications for it is then that there begin to appear the first references to a more far-reaching hierarchy with three distinct classes covering the whole of the order: the Viri Egregii (Select Men); the Viri Perfectissimi ("Best of Men"); and the Viri Eminentissimi ("Most Eminent of Men"). The mechanisms by which the equestrians were organised into these classes and the distinctions enforced is not known. However, it is generally assumed that the highest class, the Viri Eminentissimi, was confined to the Praetorian Prefects, while the Viri Perfectissimi were the heads of the main departments of state, and the great prefectures, including Egypt, the city watch (vigiles), the corn supply (annona) etc. and men commissioned to carry out specific tasks by the emperor himself such as the military duces. The defining characteristic of the perfectissimate seems to have been that its members were of or associated socially (i.e. as clientes - see Patronage in ancient Rome of Great Men) with the imperial court circle and were office-holders known to the emperor and appointed by his favour. It is also possible that system was intended to indicate the hierarchy of office-holders in situations where this might be disputed.[70] The Viri Egregii comprehended the rest of the Equestrian Order, in the service of the emperors. The Viri Egregii included officials of all four pay-grades. Ducenariate procurators governing provinces not reserved for senators were of this category[71] as were the praefecti legionum, after Gallienus opened all legionary commands to equestrians.[72] However, it seems that after 270 AD the procuratores ducenarii were elevated into the ranks of the Viri Perfectissimi.[73] Equestrians in the later empire (AD 197–395)[edit] The emperor Maximinus I (Thrax) (ruled 235–8), whose career epitomises the soldier-equestrians who took over command of the army during the 3rd century. A Thracian shepherd who had led a group of peasant vigilantes against rural robbers in his home region, he joined the army as a cavalryman in c. 197 under Septimius Severus and was probably granted an equus publicus by Caracalla towards the end of his rule (218). Under Alexander Severus he was given command of a legion and later served as provincial governor (praeses pro legato) in Mauretania Tingitana and in Germania before seizing supreme power in a coup d'état in 235. Rise of the military equestrians (3rd century)[edit] The 3rd century saw two major trends in the development of the Roman aristocracy: the progressive takeover of the top positions in the empire's administration and army by military equestrians and the concomitant exclusion of the Italian aristocracy, both senators and equites and the growth in hierarchy within the aristocratic orders. Augustus instituted a policy, followed by his successors, of elevating to the ordo equester the primus pilus (chief centurion) of each legion, at the end of his single year in the post.[74] This resulted in about 30 career-soldiers, often risen from the ranks, joining the order every year. These equites primipilares and their descendants formed a section of the order that was quite distinct from the Italian aristocrats who had become nearly indistinguishable from their senatorial counterparts.[44] They were almost entirely provincials, especially from the Danube provinces where about half the Roman army was deployed. These Danubians mostly came from Pannonia, Moesia, Thrace, Illyria and Dalmatia. They were generally far less wealthy than the landowning Italians (not benefiting from centuries of inherited wealth) and they rarely held non-military posts.[75] Their professionalism led emperors to rely on them ever more heavily, especially in difficult conflicts such as the Marcomannic Wars (166–180). But because they were only equestrians, they could not be appointed to the top military commands, those of legatus Augusti pro praetore (governor of an imperial province, where virtually all military units were deployed) and legatus legionis (commander of a legion). In the later 2nd century, emperors tried to circumvent the problem by elevating large numbers of primipilares to senatorial rank by adlectio.[76] But this met resistance in the senate, so that in the 3rd century, emperors simply appointed equestrians directly to the top commands, under the fiction that they were only temporary substitutes (praeses pro legato). Septimius Severus (r. AD 193–211) appointed primipilares to command the three new legions that he raised in 197 for his Parthian War, Legio I, II & III Parthica[76] Gallienus (r. AD 253–268) completed the process by appointing equites to command all the legions.[77] These appointees were mostly provincial soldier-equestrians, not Italian aristocrats.[78] Under the reforming emperor Diocletian (r. AD 284–305), himself an Illyrian equestrian officer, the military equestrian "takeover" was brought a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military posts. Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of dioceses (super-provinces). The exclusion of the old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was thus complete. The senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige.[79] The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the proliferation of hierarchical ranks within the aristocratic orders, in line with the greater stratification of society as a whole, which became divided into two broad classes, with discriminatory rights and privileges: the honestiores (more noble) and humiliores (more base). Among the honestiores, equestrians were divided into five grades, depending on the salary-levels of the offices they held.[80] These ranged from egregii or sexagenarii (salary of 60,000 sesterces = 15,000 denarii) to the eminentissimi (most exalted), limited to the two commanders of the Praetorian Guard and, with the establishment of Diocletian's tetrarchy, the four praefecti praetorio (not to be confused with the commanders of the Praetorian Guard in Rome) that assisted the tetrarchs, each ruling over a quarter of the empire.[80] Idle aristocracy (4th century)[edit] From the reign of Constantine I the Great (312–37) onwards, there was an explosive increase in the membership of both aristocratic orders. Under Diocletian, the number of sitting members of the senate remained at around 600, the level it had retained for the whole duration of the principate.[80] But Constantine established Byzantium as a twin capital of the empire, with its own senate, initially of 300 members. By 387, their number had swollen to 2,000, while the senate in Rome probably reached a comparable size, so that the upper order reached total numbers similar to the equo publico equites of the early principate.[81] By this time, even some commanders of military regiments were accorded senatorial status.[82] At the same time the order of equites was also expanded vastly by the proliferation of public posts in the late empire, most of which were now filled by equestrians. The Principate had been a remarkably slim-line administration, with about 250 senior officials running the vast empire, relying on local government and private contractors to deliver the necessary taxes and services. During the 3rd century the imperial 'bureaucracy,' all officials and ranks expanded. By the time of the Notitia Dignitatum, dated to 395 A.D. comparable senior positions had grown to approximately 6,000, a 24-fold increase.[83] The total number enrolled in the imperial civilian service, the militia inermata ('unarmed service') is estimated to have been 30-40,000: the service was professionalized with a staff made up almost entirely of free men on salary, and enrolled in a fictional legion, I Audiutrix.[84] In addition, large numbers of decuriones (local councillors) were granted equestrian rank, often obtaining it by bribery. Officials of ever lower rank were granted equestrian rank as reward for good service e.g. in 365, the actuarii (accountants) of military regiments. This inflation in the number of equites inevitably led to the debasement of the order's prestige. By AD 400, equites were no longer an echelon of nobility, but just a title associated with mid-level administrative posts.[56] Constantine established a third order of nobility, the comites (companions (of the emperor), singular form comes, the origin of the medieval noble rank of count). This overlapped with senators and equites, drawing members from both. Originally, the comites were a highly exclusive group, comprising the most senior administrative and military officers, such as the commanders of the comitatus, or mobile field armies. But comites rapidly followed the same path as equites, being devalued by excessive grants until the title became meaningless by 450.[82] In the late 4th and in the 5th century, therefore, the senatorial class at Rome and Byzantium became the closest equivalent to the equo publico equestrian class of the early principate. It contained many ancient and illustrious families, some of whom claimed descent from the aristocracy of the republic, but had, as described, lost almost all political and military power.[85] Nevertheless, senators retained great influence due to their enormous inherited wealth and their role as the guardians of Roman tradition and culture.[86] Centuries of capital accumulation, in the form of vast landed estates (latifundia) across many provinces resulted in enormous wealth for most senators. Many received annual rents in cash and in kind of over 5,000 lbs of gold, equivalent to 360,000 solidi (or 5 million Augustan-era denarii), at a time when a miles (common soldier) would earn no more than four solidi a year in cash. Even senators of middling wealth could expect an income 1,000–1,500 lbs of gold.[87] The 4th-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, a former high-ranking military staff officer who spent his retirement years in Rome, bitterly attacked the Italian aristocracy, denouncing their extravagant palaces, clothes, games and banquets and above all their lives of total idleness and frivolity.[88] In his words can be heard the contempt for the senatorial class of a career soldier who had spent his lifetime defending the empire, a view clearly shared by Diocletian and his Illyrian successors. But it was the latter who reduced the aristocracy to that state, by displacing them from their traditional role of governing the empire and leading the army.[89] Notes[edit] ^ 6 centuriae: The original three cavalry centuriae were named after the tribes from which they were drawn: Ramnes, Tities and Luceres. When an additional three centuriae were established by King Priscus, the latter took the tribal names with the suffix posteriores, with the original three being called priores ^ Roman kingship: The Roman monarchy, although an autocracy, was not hereditary and based on "divine right", but elective and subject to the ultimate sovereignty of the people. The king (rex) was elected by the people's assembly (the comitia curiata originally) although there is strong evidence that the process was, in practice, controlled by the patricians. Most kings were non-Romans brought in from abroad, doubtless as neutral figures who could be seen as above patrician factions. Although blood relations could and did succeed, they were still required to submit to election.[8] The position and powers of a Roman king were thus similar to those of Julius Caesar when he was appointed dictator-for-life in 44 BC. That was why Caesar's assassin, Marcus Junius Brutus, felt a moral obligation to emulate his claimed ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, "the Liberator", the man who, Roman tradition averred, in 509 BC, led the coup that overthrew the last king, Tarquin the Proud, and established the republic.[9] ^ Spolia opima: The highest form of spolia duci hostium detracta were known as the spolia opima (rich spoils), which were displayed in the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius in Rome. According to the most widely understood version of the tradition, to earn the spolia opima one had to be a Roman commander-in-chief who killed the enemy paramount leader in single combat. The spolia opima was won only three times: by Romulus for killing Acro, king of the Caeninenses (c. 750 BC); by Aulus Cornelius Cossus for killing Lars Tolumnius, king of the Veientes (in 437 or 425 BC); and by Marcus Claudius Marcellus for killing Viridomarus, king of the Celtic Gaesatae (in 222 BC).[31] However, the award to Cossus was a matter for some controversy, as, according to Livy, he was only a tribunus militum, and not commander-in-chief of the army at the time.[32] A minority tradition, originally preserved by Marcus Terentius Varro, antiquarian of the late republic, held that spolia opima could be won by any Roman soldier who killed the enemy leader in battle.[33] According to Varro, there were three classes of spolia opima: first class, spoils taken by the Roman commander-in-chief, which alone could be dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius; second class, spoils taken by a Roman officer; and third class, those taken by a common soldier.[34] See also[edit] Publican Hippeus Citations[edit] ^ Cornell (1995) 94, 102 ^ Livy I.36 ^ Polybius ^ a b c Livy I.43 ^ Cornell (1995) 193 ^ Cornell (1995) 245 ^ Cornell (1995) 250 ^ Cornell (1995) 141–42 ^ Plutarch Brutus 10–2 ^ Cornell (1995) 238, 446 note 32 ^ Cornell (1995) 182 ^ Livy V.7 ^ a b Online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica equites ^ a b Oxford Patricians ^ Livy XXXIX.19, 44 ^ Online Encyclopædia Britannica Patricians ^ a b Cornell (1995) 369 ^ Cornell (1995) 351 ^ a b Cornell (1995) 354 ^ Cornell (1995) 366 ^ Polybius VI.26 ^ Polybius VI.25 ^ Sidnell (2006) 152 ^ Cornell (1995) 372 ^ a b c Cornell (1995) 379-80 ^ Based on Polybius VI.19, 20; Livy I.43 and Cornell (1995) 380 ^ Smith (1890) equites ^ Polybius VI.19, 26 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 49 ^ Livy, XLV.39.16; Plutarch Aemilius Paullus 31.2 ^ Plutarch Romulus; Marcellus ^ Livy IV.20 ^ Festus Lexicon "Opima Spolia" ^ Smith (1890) Spolia ^ Sidnell (2006) 153–4 ^ Livy VIII.7–8 ^ Livy XXI.63 ^ Jones (1964) 6 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.6 ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica Online Publicani ^ a b Talbert (1996) 341 ^ Burton (1987) 426 ^ a b Talbert (1996) 326 ^ a b c d e Jones (1964) 8 ^ Pliny the Younger Letters VI.19 ^ Suetonius Augustus 38.2 ^ Online Roman Law Library Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus ^ a b c Jones (1964) 7, 8 ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica Online Ancient Rome ^ Talbert (1996) 333 ^ Eck in CAH XI (2000) 215–6 ^ a b Talbert (1996) 340 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 65 ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 60, 64, 65 ^ a b c Goldsworthy (2003) 64–5 ^ a b Jones (1964) ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 66 ^ Birley (1988) 46 ^ Jones (1964) 31 ^ a b c Tacitus Annales II.59 ^ Talbert (1996) 342 ^ Dio Cassius LIII.23 ^ Tacitus Annales IV.13 ^ Ritner (1998) 1–2. ^ Tacitus Annales XI.25 ^ Scheidel (2006) 9 ^ Thompson (1987) 556 ^ Suet:Claud(24) ^ Cassius Dio(53:14) ^ Potter, Prof. D.S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-385. London / New York: Routledge. p. 258. ^ Christol(xx) ^ Nagy(1965:305-7) ^ Pflaum(xx) ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 129 ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 164–5 ^ a b Goldsworthy (2000) 164 ^ Tomlin (1988) 108 ^ Holder (1982) 65 ^ Jones (1964) 50, 525, 526 ^ a b c Jones (1964) 525 ^ Jones (1964) 527 ^ a b Jones (1964) 528 ^ Heather (2005) 228 ^ Peter Heather, CAH XIII, pp. 189-190, 209; Christopher Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire, p. 69 ^ Jones (1964) 545–56 ^ Jones (1964) 561–62 ^ Jones (1964) 554 ^ Ammianus XXVIII.4 ^ Jones (1964) 50, 525 References[edit] Ancient[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae (c. 390 AD) Dio Cassius, Roman History (c. 250 AD) Livy, Ab urbe condita (c. 15 AD) Plutarch, Lives (c. 100 AD) Polybius, Histories (c. 150 BC) Suetonius, Caesares XII (c. 100 AD) Tacitus, Annales (c. 100 AD) Tacitus, Historiae (c. 100 AD) Modern[edit] Birley, Anthony (2002). Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda. Burton, G. (1987): "Government and the Provinces". In J. Wacher, ed., The Roman World Vol I Bury, J.B. (1898). The History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 BC-180 AD). Cambridge University Press. (Bury (1898)): Cornell, T.J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome Eck, Werner (2000): "Emperor, Senate & Magistrates". In Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol XI Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): Roman Warfare Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003): The Complete Roman Army Heather, Peter (2005): Fall of the Roman Empire Jones, A.H.M. (1964): Later Roman Empire Keppie, Lawrence (1996). "The Army and the Navy" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol X (The Augustan Empire 30BC - 69 AD). Ritner, R.K. (1998): "Egypt Under Roman Rule: the Legacy of Ancient Egypt". In Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol I. Ed. C.F. Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scheidel, Walter (2006): Population & Demography (Princeton-Stanford Working Papers in Classics) Sidnell, Philip (2006): Warhorse Smith W. (1890): Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Talbert, Richard (1996): "The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts". In Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., Vol X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlin, R.S.O. (1988). The Army of the Late Empire. In The Roman World (ed. J. Wacher). Further reading[edit] Berry, D. H. 2003. "Eqvester Ordo Tvvs Est: Did Cicero Win His Cases Because of His Support for the Eqvites?" The Classical Quarterly 53, no. 1: 222–34. doi:10.1093/cq/53.1.222. Breeze, David. 1969. "The organization of the legion: The first cohort and the equites legionis". Journal of Roman Studies, 59:50–55. --. 1974. "The organisation of the career structure of the immunes and principales of the Roman army". Bonner Jahrbücher, 174: 245–92. Coulston, Jonathan. 2000. "'Armed and belted men': The soldiery in imperial Rome". In Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city. Edited by Jonathan Coulston and Hazel Dodge, 76–118. Oxford: Oxbow. Duncan-Jones, Richard. 2016. Power and Privilege In Roman Society. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Speidel, Michael P. 1994. Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperor’s horseguards. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. External links[edit] "Roman Social Class and Public Display". 2009. Lendering, Jona (16 August 2012). "Eques (Knight)". 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en-wikipedia-org-7573	----	Praetorian prefect - Wikipedia Praetorian prefect From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search High office in the Roman Empire Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The praetorian prefect (Latin: praefectus praetorio, Greek: ἔπαρχος/ὕπαρχος τῶν πραιτωρίων) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides. Under Constantine I, the office was much reduced in power and transformed into a purely civilian administrative post, while under his successors, territorially-defined praetorian prefectures emerged as the highest-level administrative division of the Empire. The prefects again functioned as the chief ministers of the state, with many laws addressed to them by name. In this role, praetorian prefects continued to be appointed by the Eastern Roman Empire (and the Ostrogothic Kingdom) until the reign of Heraclius in the 7th century AD, when wide-ranging reforms reduced their power and converted them to mere overseers of provincial administration. The last traces of the prefecture disappeared in the Byzantine Empire by the 840s. The term praefectus praetorio was often abbreviated in inscriptions as "PR PR" or "PPO".[1][2] Contents 1 History 1.1 Commander of the Praetorian Guard 1.2 Transformation to administrator 1.3 Germanic era 2 List of known prefects of the Praetorian Guard 2.1 Julio-Claudian dynasty (2 BC – AD 68) 2.2 Year of the Four Emperors (AD 68 – 69) 2.3 Flavian dynasty (AD 69 – 96) 2.4 Five Good Emperors to Didius Julianus (AD 96 – 193) 2.5 Severan dynasty (AD 193 – 235) 2.6 Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235 – 285) 2.7 Tetrarchy to Constantine I (AD 285 – 324) 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References History[edit] Commander of the Praetorian Guard[edit] Under the empire the praetorians or imperial guards were commanded by one, two, or even three praefects (praefecti praetorio), who were chosen by the emperor from among the equites and held office at his pleasure. From the time of Alexander Severus the post was open to senators also, and if an equestrian was appointed he was at the same time raised to the senate. Down to the time of Constantine, who deprived the office of its military character, the prefecture of the guards was regularly held by tried soldiers, often by men who had fought their way up from the ranks. In course of time the command seems to have been enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy except the corps commanded by the city praefect (cohortes urbanae).[3] The special position of the praetorians made them a power in their own right in the Roman state, and their prefect, the praefectus praetorio, soon became one of the more powerful men in this society. The emperors tried to flatter and control the praetorians, but they staged many coups d'état and contributed to a rapid rate of turnover in the imperial succession. The praetorians thus came to destabilize the Roman state, contrary to their purpose. The praetorian prefect became a major administrative figure in the later empire, when the post combined in one individual the duties of an imperial chief of staff with direct command over the guard also. Diocletian greatly reduced the power of these prefects as part of his sweeping reform of the empire's administrative and military structures. Transformation to administrator[edit] Further information: Praetorian prefecture The insignia of the praetorian prefect of Illyricum, as depicted in the Notitia Dignitatum: the ivory inkwell and pen case (theca), the codicil of appointment to the office on a blue cloth-covered table, and the state carriage.[4] In addition to his military functions, the praetorian prefect came to acquire jurisdiction over criminal affairs, which he exercised not as the delegate but as the representative of the emperor. By the time of Diocletian he had become a kind of grand-vizier as the emperor's vice-regent and 'prime minister.' Constantine removed active military command in 312. The prefect remained as chief quarter-master general responsible for the logistical supply of the army. The prefect was the chief financial officer whose office drew up the global imperial budget. His office drew up the state liturgical obligations laid on the richer inhabitants of the Empire. He ceased to be head of administration which had to be shared with the master of the offices attached to the palace. Constantine in 331 confirmed that from the sentence of the praetorian praefect there should be no appeal. A similar jurisdiction in civil cases was acquired by him not later than the time of Septimius Severus. Hence a knowledge of law became a qualification for the post, which under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, but especially from the time of Severus, was held by the first jurists of the age, (e.g. Papinian, Ulpian, Paulus) and, under Justinianus, John the Cappadocian, while the military qualification fell more and more into the background.[3] The tetrarchy reform of Diocletian (c. 296) multiplied the office: there was a praetorian prefect as chief of staff (military and administrative)—rather than commander of the guard—for each of the two Augusti, but not for the two Caesars. Each praetorian prefect oversaw one of the four quarters created by Diocletian, which became regional praetorian prefectures for the young sons of Constantine ca 330 A.D. From 395 there two imperial courts, at Rome (later Ravenna) and Constantinople, but the four prefectures remained as the highest level of administrative division, in charge of several dioceses (groups of Roman provinces), each of which was headed by a Vicarius. Under Constantine I, the institution of the magister militum deprived the praetorian prefecture altogether of its military character but left it the highest civil office of the empire.[3] Germanic era[edit] The office was among the many maintained after the Western Roman Empire had succumbed to the Germanic invasion in Italy, notably at the royal court of the Ostrogothic king Theoderic the Great, who as a nominal subject of Constantinople retained the Roman-era administration intact. List of known prefects of the Praetorian Guard[edit] The following is a list of all known prefects of the Praetorian Guard, from the establishment of the post in 2 BC by Augustus until the abolishment of the Guard in 314.[5] The list is presumed to be incomplete due to the lack of sources documenting the exact number of persons who held the post, what their names were and what the length of their tenure was. Likewise, the Praetorians were sometimes commanded by a single prefect, as was the case with for example Sejanus or Burrus, but more often the emperor appointed two commanders, who shared joint leadership. Overlapping terms on the list indicate dual command. Julio-Claudian dynasty (2 BC – AD 68)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Publius Salvius Aper 2 BC – ?? Augustus Quintus Ostorius Scapula 2 BC – ?? Augustus Publius Varius Ligur[6] ?? Augustus Lucius Seius Strabo ?? – 15 Augustus, Tiberius Lucius Aelius Sejanus 14 – 31 Tiberius Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro 31 – 38 Tiberius, Caligula Marcus Arrecinus Clemens 38 – 41 Caligula Lucius Arruntius Stella[7] 38 – 41 Caligula Rufrius Pollio 41 – 44 Claudius Catonius Justus 41 – 43 Claudius Rufrius Crispinus 43 – 51 Claudius Lucius Lusius Geta 44 – 51 Claudius Sextus Afranius Burrus 51 – 62 Claudius, Nero Lucius Faenius Rufus 62 – 65 Nero Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus 62 – 68 Nero Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus 65 – 68 Nero Year of the Four Emperors (AD 68 – 69)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Cornelius Laco 68 – 69 Galba Plotius Firmus 69 Otho Licinius Proculus 69 Otho Publius Sabinus 69 Vitellius Alfenius Varus 69 Vitellius Junius Priscus 69 Vitellius Flavian dynasty (AD 69 – 96)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Arrius Varus 69 – 70 Vespasian Marcus Arrecinus Clemens[8] 70 – 71 Vespasian Tiberius Julius Alexander[9] (?) 69 – ?? Vespasian Titus Flavius Vespasianus[10] 71 – 79 Vespasian Lucius Julius Ursus[11] 81 – 83 Domitian Cornelius Fuscus 81 – 87 Domitian Lucius Laberius Maximus[11] 83 – 84 Domitian Casperius Aelianus 84 – 94 Domitian Titus Flavius Norbanus 94 – 96 Domitian Titus Petronius Secundus 94 – 97 Domitian Five Good Emperors to Didius Julianus (AD 96 – 193)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Casperius Aelianus 96 – 98 Nerva Sextus Attius Suburanus 98 – 101 Trajan Tiberius Claudius Livianus 101 – 117? Trajan Publius Acilius Attianus[12] 117 – 120 Trajan, Hadrian Servius Sulpicius Similis 121 – 123 Trajan, Hadrian Gaius Septicius Clarus 120 – 123 Hadrian Quintus Marcius Turbo 120 – 137 Hadrian Marcus Petronius Mamertinus 138 – 143 Hadrian, Antoninus Pius Marcus Gavius Maximus 138 – 158 Hadrian, Antoninus Pius Gaius Tattius Maximus 158 – 160 Antoninus Pius Sextus Cornelius Repentinus 160 – 166/7 Antoninus Pius Titus Furius Victorinus 159 – 168 Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Titus Flavius Constans c. 168 Marcus Aurelius Marcus Macrinius Vindex 168 – 172 Marcus Aurelius Marcus Bassaeus Rufus 168 – 177 Marcus Aurelius Publius Tarrutenius Paternus by 179 – 182 Marcus Aurelius, Commodus Sextus Tigidius Perennis 180 – 185 Commodus Pescennius Niger c. 185 Commodus Marcius Quartus 185 Commodus Titus Longaeus Rufus 185 – 187 Commodus Publius Atilius Aebutianus 185 – 187 Commodus Marcus Aurelius Cleander 187 – 189 Commodus Lucius Julius Vehilius Gratus Julianus 188 – 189 Commodus Regillus 189 Commodus Motilenus 190 Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus Quintus Aemilius Laetus 192 – 193 Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus Titus Flavius Genialis 193 Didius Julianus Tullius Crispinus 193 Didius Julianus Severan dynasty (AD 193 – 235)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Flavius Juvenalis 193 – 197? Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus Decimus Veturius Macrinus 193 – 197? Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus Gaius Fulvius Plautianus 197 – 205 Septimius Severus Quintus Aemilius Saturninus 200 Septimius Severus Marcus Aurelius Julianus c. 200/205 Septimius Severus, Caracalla Marcus Flavius Drusianus c. 204/204 Septimius Severus, Caracalla Aemilius Papinianus 205 – 211 Septimius Severus, Caracalla Quintus Maecius Laetus 205 – 215? Septimius Severus, Caracalla Valerius Patruinus 211? – 212 Caracalla Gnaeus Marcius Rustius Rufinus 212 – 217 Caracalla Marcus Oclatinius Adventus 215 – 217 Caracalla Marcus Opellius Macrinus[13] 214 – 217 Caracalla Ulpius Julianus 217 – 218 Macrinus Julianus Nestor 217 – 218 Macrinus Julius Basilianus 218 Elagabalus Publius Valerius Comazon 218 – 221 Elagabalus Flavius Antiochianus 221 – 222 Elagabalus Flavianus 222 – ?? Alexander Severus Geminius Chrestus 222 – ?? Alexander Severus Gnaeus Domitius Annius Ulpianus 222 – 223/228 Alexander Severus Lucius Domitius Honoratus 223 – ?? Alexander Severus Marcus Aedinius Julianus 223 – ?? Alexander Severus Marcus Attius Cornelianus c. 230 Alexander Severus Julius Paulus 228 – 235 Alexander Severus Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235 – 285)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Vitalianus 238 Maximinus Thrax Annullinus ?? – 238 Maximinus Thrax Pinarius Valens 238 Pupienus; Balbinus Domitius before 240 – ?? Gordian III Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus 241 – 244 Gordian III Gaius Julius Priscus 242 – 246 Gordian III; Philip the Arab Philip the Arab 243 – 244 Gordian III Maecius Gordianus 244 Gordian III Quintus Herennius Potens 249 – 251 Decius? Successianus 254 – 255/260 Valerian Silvanus ?? – c. 260 Gallienus Lucius Petronius Taurus Volusianus[14] c. 260 Gallienus Callistus Ballista 260 – 261 Macrianus, Quietus Marcus Aurelius Heraclianus 268 Gallienus Julius Placidianus c. 270 Aurelian Marcus Annius Florianus 275 – 276 Tacitus Marcus Aurelius Carus 276 – 282 Probus Lucius Flavius Aper 284 Numerian Marcus Aurelius Sabinus Julianus c. 283? – c. 284 Carinus Titus Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus 285 Carinus; Diocletian Tetrarchy to Constantine I (AD 285 – 324)[edit] Prefect Tenure Emperor served Afranius Hannibalianus 286/292 Diocletian Asclepiades 303 (at Antioch) Pomponius Januarianus 285/286 Maxentius Julius Asclepiodotus 290 – 296 Diocletian; Constantius Chlorus Constantius Chlorus ?? – ?? Diocletian Manlius Rusticianus 306 – 310 Maxentius Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus 309 – 310 Maxentius Ruricius Pompeianus ?? – 312 Maxentius Tatius Andronicus 310 Galerius Pompeius Probus 310 – 314 Licinius Petronius Annianus 315 – 317 Constantine I Julius Julianus 315 – 324 Licinius Junius Annius Bassus 318 – 331 Constantine I See also[edit] For praetorian prefects after the reformation of the office by emperor Constantine I, see: Praetorian prefecture of Italy Praetorian prefecture of Gaul Praetorian prefecture of the East Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum A further prefecture was established by emperor Justinian I in the 6th century: Praetorian prefecture of Africa Notes[edit] ^ Lesley and Roy Adkins. Handbook to life in Ancient Rome.Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-512332-8. page 241 ^ M. C. J. Miller. Abbreviations in Latin.Ares Publishers, inc., 1998. ISBN 0-89005-568-8. Pages xxcii and xcvi, sub vocibus. ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Praefect". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–242. ^ Kelly, Christopher (2004). Ruling the later Roman Empire. Harvard University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-674-01564-7. ^ Dates from 2 BC to AD 260 based on Guy de la Bédoyère, Praetorian (New Haven: Yale Press, 2917), pp. 280-282 ^ The existence of Varius Ligur is disputed, and is only inferred from a single passage by Cassius Dio, who identifies him as Valerius Ligur. Modern historians suggest that, if Valerius Ligur was a prefect at all, he may have been mistaken for a man named Varius Ligur, who seems to have been a more likely candidate for the office. See Bingham (1997), p. 42. ^ Wiseman, Timothy Peter (1991). Death of an Emperor: Flavius Josephus (Exeter Studies in History). Northwestern University Press. pp. 59, 62. ISBN 978-0-85989-356-5. ^ Son of Marcus Arrecinus Clemens, who was Praetorian prefect under emperor Claudius ^ Whether Tiberius Julius Alexander held the office of Praetorian prefect is disputed, and rests on a fragment from a recovered papyrus scroll. If he did held the post, he may have done so during the Jewish wars under Titus, or during the 70s as his colleague in Rome. See Lendering, Jona. "Tiberius Julius Alexander". Retrieved 2020-04-24. ^ Son of Vespasian, the later emperor Titus ^ a b Syme (1980), 66 ^ Syme (1980), 67 ^ The later emperor Macrinus. ^ The names and dates for the years 260-285 are based on A.H.M. Jones, et alia, Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume I (AD 260-395) (Cambridge: University Press, 1971), p. 1047 References[edit] Bingham, Sandra J. (1999) [1997]. The praetorian guard in the political and social life of Julio-Claudian Rome. Ottawa: National Library of Canada. ISBN 0-612-27106-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2007-05-23. Howe, Laurence Lee (1942). The Pretorian Prefect from Commodus to Diocletian (AD 180-305). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. Miller, M. C. J. (1998). Abbreviations in Latin. Chicago, Illinois: Ares Publishers, inc. Rossignol, Benoît (2007). "Les préfets du prétoire de Marc Aurèle". Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz. 18: 141–177. doi:10.3406/ccgg.2007.1648. Syme, Ronald (1980). "Guard Prefects of Trajan and Hadrian". Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 64–80. doi:10.2307/299556. JSTOR 299556. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Praetorian_prefect&oldid=1026962370" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Gubernatorial titles Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Lists of equites Military ranks of ancient Rome Positions of authority Members and leaders of the Praetorian Guard Praetorian Guard Praetorian prefects 1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Empire 4th-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire 1st-century BC establishments 4th-century disestablishments Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 07:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7575	----	Parthian Empire - Wikipedia Parthian Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Arsacid Empire) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Arsacid dynasty" redirects here. For other uses, see Arsacid dynasty (disambiguation). Ancient Iranian political and cultural empire from 247 BC to 224 AD Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of Mithridates II (r. 124–91 BC) Capital Ctesiphon,[1] Ecbatana, Hecatompylos, Susa, Mithradatkirt, Asaak, Rhages Common languages Greek (official),[2] Parthian (official),[3] Aramaic (lingua franca)[2][4] Religion Zoroastrianism[5] Babylonian religion[6] Government Feudal monarchy[7] Monarch   • 247–211 BC Arsaces I (first) • 208–224 AD Artabanus IV (last) Legislature Megisthanes Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 247 BC • Disestablished 224 AD Area 1 AD[8][9] 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi) Currency Drachma Preceded by Succeeded by Seleucid Empire Sasanian Empire Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC Scythian Kingdom 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Qara Qoyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Modern period Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Contemporary period Iranian Revolution 1979 Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e The Parthian Empire (/ˈpɑːrθiən/), also known as the Arsacid Empire (/ˈɑːrsəsɪd/),[10] was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD.[11] Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I,[12] who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia[13] in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras, in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China, became a center of trade and commerce. The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia, and eventually the late Roman Republic. Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients. The Parthians destroyed the army of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans. However, Mark Antony led a counterattack against Parthia, although his successes were generally achieved in his absence, under the leadership of his lieutenant Ventidius. Various Roman emperors or their appointed generals invaded Mesopotamia in the course of the ensuing Roman–Parthian Wars of the next few centuries. The Romans captured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon on multiple occasions during these conflicts, but were never able to hold on to them. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I, ruler of Istakhr in Persis, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the Sasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD, although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia, the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania; all eponymous branches of the Parthian Arsacids. Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. Aside from scattered cuneiform tablets, fragmentary ostraca, rock inscriptions, drachma coins, and the chance survival of some parchment documents, much of Parthian history is only known through external sources. These include mainly Greek and Roman histories, but also Chinese histories, prompted by the Han Chinese desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu.[14] Parthian artwork is viewed by historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins and establishment 1.2 Expansion and consolidation 1.3 Rome and Armenia 1.4 Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals 1.5 Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline 1.6 Native and external sources 2 Government and administration 2.1 Central authority and semi-autonomous kings 2.2 Nobility 2.3 Military 2.4 Currency 3 Society and culture 3.1 Hellenism and the Iranian revival 3.2 Religion 3.3 Art and architecture 3.4 Clothing and apparel 3.5 Language 3.6 Writing and literature 3.7 Women in the Parthian Empire 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] Origins and establishment[edit] The silver drachma of Arsaces I (r. c. 247–211 BC) with the Greek language inscription ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ "of Arsaces" Further information: Parni conquest of Parthia Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid Dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central-Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae.[15] The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia.[16] The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires.[17] After conquering the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian, Aramaic, Greek, Babylonian, Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer.[18] Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. A.D.H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras, the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased.[19] However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe.[20] Homa Katouzian[21] and Gene Ralph Garthwaite[22] claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis[20] and Maria Brosius[23] state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC. It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar[24] and Katouzian[21] affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia, who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC. Yet Curtis[25] and Brosius[26] state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history."[27] Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians.[28] A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404 – 358 BC).[29] Parthia, shaded yellow, alongside the Seleucid Empire (blue) and the Roman Republic (purple) around 200 BC For a time, Arsaces consolidated his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246–222 BC) of Egypt. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia.[23] The latter's successor, Diodotus II, formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BC).[30] After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BC), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media.[30] Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: basileus) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior.[31] The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC.[31] Priapatius (r. c. 191–176 BC) succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I (r. c. 176–171 BC) eventually ascended the throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference.[32] Expansion and consolidation[edit] Main article: Seleucid–Parthian wars Drachma of Mithridates I, showing him wearing a beard and a royal diadem on his head. Reverse side: Heracles/Verethragna, holding a club in his left hand and a cup in his right hand; Greek inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the Great King Arsaces the Philhellene" Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana. The locations of these are unknown.[33] Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC),[26] whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire.[21] Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when Mithridates' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I (r. c. 170–145 BC).[34] Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus.[35] This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony.[36] While Mithridates retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa.[36] By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the Indus River.[37] Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert (Nisa, Turkmenistan), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained.[38] Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty.[39] Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of Gotarzes I (r. c. 90–80 BC).[40] It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius.[41] The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BC.[42] However, by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius.[43] Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter's wife Cleopatra Thea. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II (r. c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins.[44] After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands.[45] By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage[46] and a daughter joined Phraates' harem.[47] Drachma of Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC). Reverse side: seated archer carrying a bow; inscription reading "of the King of Kings Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Philhellene." While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China;[48] the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders.[49] Mithridates was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia.[50] Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined sides with the Saka.[51] Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle.[52] The Roman historian Justin reports that his successor Artabanus I (r. c. 128–124 BC) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka.[53] Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.[54] Han-dynasty Chinese silk from Mawangdui, 2nd century BC, silk from China was perhaps the most lucrative luxury item the Parthians traded at the western end of the Silk Road.[55] Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty.[56] After Mithridates extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia.[57] His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. c. 95–55 BC).[58] The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC.[59] Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals.[60] After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality.[59] Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu.[61] The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in silk, the most highly priced luxury good imported by the Romans.[62] Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits.[63] Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88 AD).[64] Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India, spices, and fine leather.[65] Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China.[66] The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China.[67] Rome and Armenia[edit] Main articles: Roman–Persian relations and Roman–Parthian Wars Bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman from the sanctuary at Shami in Elymais (modern-day Khūzestān Province, Iran, along the Persian Gulf), now located at the National Museum of Iran. Dated 50 BC-150 AD, Parthian School. The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border.[68] Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome.[68] A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman proconsul of Cilicia, convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome.[69] Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader Laodice and her Seleucid ally Antiochus X Eusebes (r. 95–92? BC), killing the latter.[70] When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, Demetrius III Eucaerus, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern Aleppo), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated.[70] Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son Gotarzes I succeeded him.[71] He reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns.[72][73] It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in c. 57 BC, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced.[73] This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sinatruces (r. c. 78–69 BC).[74] Following the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War, Mithridates VI of Pontus (r. 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help.[75] When the Roman commander Lucullus marched against the Armenian capital Tigranocerta in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of Phraates III (r. c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the fall of Tigranocerta he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome.[76] Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at Artaxarta. When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander Pompey. He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a client king, Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage.[77] Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into Corduene (southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts, the Roman consul Lucius Afranius forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means.[78] Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia, after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to Roman Syria.[79] Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid Ptolemy XII Auletes (r. 80–58; 55–51 BC) against a rebellion in Egypt.[80] Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.[81] A Roman marble head of the triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, who was defeated at Carrhae by Surena Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of the triumvirs, who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates.[82] As his army marched to Carrhae (modern Harran, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia (r. 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince Pacorus I of Parthia (d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister.[83] Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus.[84] Surena's 1,000 cataphracts (armed with lances) and 9,000 horse archers were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven Roman legions and auxiliaries including mounted Gauls and light infantry.[85] Using a baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows.[85] The horse archers employed the "Parthian shot" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy composite bows on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry.[86] With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside.[87] At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a parley, which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp.[88] Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history.[89] Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome.[90] With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter.[89] Roman aurei bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in Western Asia.[91] Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who ambushed and killed Osaces.[92] The Arsacids sided with Pompey in the civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC.[93] Quintus Labienus, a general loyal to Cassius and Brutus, sided with Parthia against the Second Triumvirate in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I.[94] The triumvir Mark Antony was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival Octavian and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium.[95] After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant.[94] They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel), with the lone exception of Tyre.[96] In Judea, the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest Hyrcanus II, Phasael, and Herod were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally Antigonus II Mattathias (r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at Masada.[94] Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC.[97] Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass.[97] As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose Phraates IV (r. c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir.[98] Drachma of Phraates IV (r. c. 38–2 BC). Inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the King of Kings Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Benefactor Philhellene" Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers.[99] One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and convinced him to invade Parthia.[100] Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place. The following year, when Antony marched to Theodosiopolis, Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan), then ruled by Parthia's ally Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant battering ram meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces.[101] The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria.[102] Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock Roman triumph in Alexandria, Egypt,[103] and eventually executed by Cleopatra VII of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.[104][105] Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west.[105] After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC,[106] Parthian ally Artaxias II reassumed the throne of Armenia. Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals[edit] Further information: Pax Romana Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor.[107] Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads.[108] Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.[109] The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince.[110] Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta.[111] A close-up view of the breastplate on the statue of Augustus of Prima Porta, showing a Parthian man returning to Augustus the legionary standards lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen Musa of Parthia. To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as a great accomplishment in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti.[112] When Phraataces took the throne as Phraates V (r. c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to Josephus, married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory.[113] Phraates' successor Orodes III of Parthia lasted just two years on the throne, and was followed by Vonones I, who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, Artabanus II of Parthia (r. c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria.[114] During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq),[115] led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere.[116] Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him.[117] With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis.[118] A denarius struck in 19 BC during the reign of Augustus, with the goddess Feronia depicted on the obverse, and on the reverse a Parthian man kneeling in submission while offering the Roman military standards taken at the Battle of Carrhae[119] Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD) became involved in a plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia.[120] Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to Scythia. The Romans released a hostage prince, Tiridates III of Parthia, to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania.[121] After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I and his brother Gotarzes II.[122] After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince Meherdates to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of Edessa and Izates bar Monobaz of Adiabene; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne.[123] In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao, the Protector-General of the Western Regions, sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of Pacorus II at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome.[124] He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf, where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome.[125] Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han (r. 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts.[126] William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia.[124] However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy, perhaps only a group of Roman merchants, arrived at the Han capital Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) in 166 AD, during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) and Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD).[127] Although it could be coincidental, Antonine Roman golden medallions dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor Antoninus Pius have been discovered at Oc Eo, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the Mekong Delta), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of "Cattigara" along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) in Ptolemy's Geography.[128] Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline[edit] Main articles: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Trajan's Parthian campaign, Roman–Parthian War of 161–166, and Parthian war of Caracalla Further information: Roman Armenia Map of the troop movements during the first two years of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD over the Kingdom of Armenia, detailing the Roman offensive into Armenia and capture of the country by Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Parthian king making an offering to god Herakles-Verethragna. Masdjid-e Suleiman, Iran. 2nd–3rd century AD. Louvre Museum Sb 7302.[129] After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus (r. 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, Vologases I of Parthia (r. c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later Tiridates I of Armenia, on the throne.[130] Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia.[131] Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings.[132] However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania.[133] When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind.[134] In the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD, the commander Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing Tigranes VI of Armenia as a Roman client.[135] However, Corbulo's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia.[136] Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to Naples and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor Nero (r. 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal diadem on his head.[137] A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of Alans into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians.[138] Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms.[139] To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially Nabataeans), but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry.[140] The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (sagittarii) and even mail-armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces.[141] Yet the Romans had no discernible grand strategy in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions.[142] The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome's client states.[143] Rock relief of Parthian king at Behistun, most likely Vologases III (r. c. 110–147 AD)[144] Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when Osroes I of Parthia (r. c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king Sanatruk and replaced him with Axidares, son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome.[145] The Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 AD) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province.[146] His forces, led by Lusius Quietus, also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain.[147] The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia.[148] Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon[149] and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf.[150] In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa. When Sanatruces II of Parthia gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin Parthamaspates of Parthia betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia.[151] Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons.[152] Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing a failed siege of Hatra during his withdrawal.[153] His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality,"[154] but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia.[155] However, only the 4th-century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia.[156] A Parthian (right) wearing a Phrygian cap, depicted as a prisoner of war in chains held by a Roman (left); Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, 203 AD Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the Roman-Parthian border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources.[157] Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of Osroene. Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia (r. c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability.[158] However, the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) had co-ruler Lucius Verus (r. 161–169 AD) guard Syria while Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD.[159] The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a deadly disease (possibly smallpox) that soon ravaged the Roman world.[160] Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands.[161] When Roman emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of Vologases V of Parthia (r. c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title Parthicus Maximus, he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege.[162] Around 212 AD, soon after Vologases VI of Parthia (r. c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother Artabanus IV of Parthia (d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire.[163] Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Caracalla (r. 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but—because the marriage was not allowed—made war on Parthia and conquered Arbil east of the Tigris river.[163] Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers.[163] After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with Macrinus (r. 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million denarii with additional gifts.[164] The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome, was soon to be followed by the Sasanian Empire. Indeed, shortly afterward, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule.[165] He confronted Artabanus IV at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire.[165] There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD.[166] The Sassanians would not only assume Parthia's legacy as Rome's Persian nemesis, but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by briefly conquering the Levant, Anatolia, and Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Khosrau II (r. 590–628 AD).[167] However, they would lose these territories to Heraclius—the last Roman emperor before the Arab conquests. Nevertheless, for a period of more than 400 years, they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome's principal rival.[168][169] Native and external sources[edit] Parthian gold jewelry items found at a burial site in Nineveh (near modern Mosul, Iraq) in the British Museum Local and foreign written accounts, as well as non-textual artifacts, have been used to reconstruct Parthian history.[170] Although the Parthian court maintained records, the Parthians had no formal study of history; the earliest universal history of Iran, the Khwaday-Namag, was not compiled until the reign of the last Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD).[171] Indigenous sources on Parthian history remain scarce, with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history.[172] Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions.[173] The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the Imperial Aramaic chancellery script of the Achaemenids, and later developed into the Pahlavi writing system.[174] A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, 2nd century AD. Located in Tamoikin Art Fund The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal drachma coins issued by each ruler.[175] These represent a "transition from non-textual to textual remains," according to historian Geo Widengren.[176] Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include cuneiform astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia.[177] Indigenous textual sources also include stone inscriptions, parchment and papyri documents, and pottery ostraca.[176] For example, at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert/Nisa in Turkmenistan, large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine.[178] Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization.[179] Parthian golden necklace, 2nd century AD, Iran, Reza Abbasi Museum A Parthian ceramic oil lamp, Khūzestān Province, Iran, National Museum of Iran The Greek and Latin histories, which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history, are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies.[180] These external sources generally concern major military and political events, and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history.[181] The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook Apicius exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine.[182] Apollodorus of Artemita and Arrian wrote histories focusing on Parthia, which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories.[183] Isidore of Charax, who lived during the reign of Augustus, provides an account of Parthian territories, perhaps from a Parthian government survey.[184] To a lesser extent, people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of Justin, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Cassius Dio, Appian, Josephus, Pliny the Elder, and Herodian.[185] Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the Chinese historical records of events.[186] In contrast to Greek and Roman histories, the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia,[187] although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works (of undetermined origin) makes it difficult to establish a chronological order of events.[188] The Chinese called Parthia Ānxī (Chinese: 安 息, Old Chinese pronunciation: 'ansjək), perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city Antiochia in Margiana (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ).[189] However, this could also have been a transliteration of "Arsaces", after the dynasty's eponymous founder.[190] The works and historical authors include the Shiji (also known as the Records of the Grand Historian) by Sima Qian, the Han shu (Book of Han) by Ban Biao, Ban Gu, and Ban Zhao, and the Hou Han shu (Book of Later Han) by Fan Ye.[191] They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early Saka invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information.[186] For example, the Shiji (ch. 123) describes diplomatic exchanges, exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the Han court, types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia, production of wine using grapes, itinerant merchants, and the size and location of Parthian territory.[192] The Shiji also mentions that the Parthians kept records by "writing horizontally on strips of leather," that is, parchment.[193] Government and administration[edit] Central authority and semi-autonomous kings[edit] Main article: List of Parthian kings Coin of Kamnaskires III, king of Elymais (modern Khūzestān Province), and his wife Queen Anzaze, 1st century BC Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire, the Parthian government was notably decentralized.[194] An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies: the Parthian marzbān, xšatrap, and dizpat, similar to the Seleucid satrapy, eparchy, and hyparchy.[195] The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi-autonomous kingdoms, including the states of Caucasian Iberia, Armenia, Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Edessa, Hatra, Mesene, Elymais, and Persis.[196] The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints.[197] This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius.[198] However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors.[199] During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance.[200] Nobility[edit] Further information: Seven Great Houses of Iran and List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms A statue of a young Palmyran in fine Parthian trousers, from a funerary stele at Palmyra, early 3rd century AD The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. He maintained polygamous relations, and was usually succeeded by his first-born son.[201] Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters; Queen Musa married her own son, though this was an extreme and isolated case.[201] Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD, which addresses the governor (titled "archon") and citizens of the city of Susa. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate."[202] The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era.[203] There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.[204] By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings.[205] Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests.[206] Strabo, in his Geographica, preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian Poseidonius that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and magi, two groups from which "the kings were appointed."[207] Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the House of Suren and the House of Karen.[208] The historian Plutarch noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.[209] Military[edit] Further information: Parthian army The Parthian Empire had no standing army, yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises.[210] There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, serfs and mercenaries, but this royal retinue was small.[211] Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations.[211] Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the Shiji maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.[212] Parthian horse archer, now on display at the Palazzo Madama, Turin Parthian cataphract fighting a lion Relief of an infantryman, from Zahhak Castle, Iran The combination of horse archers and cataphracts formed an effective backbone for the Parthian military The main striking force of the Parthian army was its cataphracts, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in mailed armor.[213] The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers.[214] Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings.[215] The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as horse archers; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle.[213] They used composite bows and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the Parthian shot, was a highly effective tactic.[216] The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the Battle of Carrhae where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus. Light infantry units, composed of levied commoners and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.[217] The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower.[218] Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land.[218] Currency[edit] Further information: Parthian coinage Usually made of silver,[219] the Greek drachma coin, including the tetradrachm, was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire.[220] The Arsacids maintained royal mints at the cities of Hecatompylos, Seleucia, and Ecbatana.[41] They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well.[25] From the empire's inception until its collapse, drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3.5 g or more than 4.2 g.[221] The first Parthian tetradrachms, weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation, appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia.[222] Society and culture[edit] Hellenism and the Iranian revival[edit] Coin of Mithridates II of Parthia. The clothing is Parthian, while the style is Hellenistic (sitting on an omphalos). The Greek inscription reads "King Arsaces, the philhellene" Although Greek culture of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the Near East during the Hellenistic period, the Parthian era witnessed an Iranian cultural revival in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions.[223] Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also philhellenes ("friends of the Greeks").[224] The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II.[225] The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia.[226] Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the Parthian script and language appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek.[227] However, the use of Greek-alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire.[228] A ceramic Parthian water spout in the shape of a man's head, dated 1st or 2nd century AD Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire, however, and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed Greek theatre. When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of The Bacchae by the playwright Euripides (c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the stage-prop head of Pentheus.[229] On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. According to A. Shahbazi, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations, and he calls himself Kārny/Karny (Greek: Autocrator), a title already borne by Achaemenid supreme generals, such as Cyrus the Younger."[230] In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at Mount Behistun, where Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC) made royal inscriptions.[231] Moreover, the Arsacids claimed familial descent from Artaxerxes II of Persia (r. 404–358 BC) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories, i.e. as being "legitimate successors of glorious kings" of ancient Iran.[232] Artabanus II named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to Cyrus' heritage.[230] The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the "heroic background" of the Avesta, according to V.G. Lukonin.[233] The Parthians also adopted the use of the Babylonian calendar with names from the Achaemenid Iranian calendar, replacing the Macedonian calendar of the Seleucids.[234] Religion[edit] Parthian votive relief from Khūzestān Province, Iran, 2nd century AD The Parthian Empire, being culturally and politically heterogeneous, had a variety of religious systems and beliefs, the most widespread being those dedicated to Greek and Iranian cults.[235] Aside from a minority of Jews[236] and early Christians,[237] most Parthians were polytheistic.[238] Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one. For example, Zeus was often equated with Ahura Mazda, Hades with Angra Mainyu, Aphrodite and Hera with Anahita, Apollo with Mithra, and Hermes with Shamash.[239] Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities.[238] As with Seleucid rulers,[240] Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods; this cult of the ruler was perhaps the most widespread.[241] The extent of Arsacid patronage of Zoroastrianism is debated in modern scholarship.[242] The followers of Zoroaster would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable.[235] However, there is evidence that Vologases I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian magi priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the Avesta.[243] The Sasanian court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire.[244] Although Mani (216–276 AD), the founding prophet of Manichaeism, did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228/229 AD, Bivar asserts that his new faith contained "elements of Mandaean belief, Iranian cosmogony, and even echoes of Christianity ... [it] may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period, which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away."[245] There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of Buddhism from the Kushan Empire into Iran proper.[246] However, it is known from Chinese sources that An Shigao (fl. 2nd century AD), a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk, traveled to Luoyang in Han China as a Buddhist missionary and translated several Buddhist canons into Chinese.[247] Art and architecture[edit] Further information: Parthian art A barrel vaulted iwan at the entrance at the ancient site of Hatra, modern-day Iraq, built c. 50 AD The Parthian Temple of Charyios in Uruk. Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the Iranian plateau; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia.[248] The first genuine Parthian art, found at Mithridatkert/Nisa, combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions.[248] In the second phase, Parthian art found inspiration in Achaemenid art, as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun.[249] The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia.[249] Common motifs of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the investiture of Arsacid kings.[250] Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers.[248] Common art mediums were rock-reliefs, frescos, and even graffiti.[248] Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on stucco and plaster walls.[249] The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun.[251] In portraiture the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile.[252] Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period, Daniel Schlumberger explains the innovation of Parthian frontality:[253] 'Parthian frontality', as we are now accustomed to call it, deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality, though it is, no doubt, an offspring of the latter. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing, in relief and in painting, all figures full-face, even at the expense (as it seems to us moderns) of clearness and intelligibility. So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment de facto of the side-view and of all intermediate attitudes. This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.[253] A wall mural depicting a scene from the Book of Esther at the Dura-Europos synagogue, dated 245 AD, which Curtis[254] and Schlumberger[255] describe as a fine example of 'Parthian frontality' Parthian art, with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture, was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sasanian Empire.[256] However, even after the Roman occupation of Dura-Europos in 165 AD, the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to flourish there. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the Dura-Europos synagogue, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local Mithraeum.[257] Parthian architecture adopted elements of Achaemenid and Greek architecture, but remained distinct from the two. The style is first attested at Mithridatkert/Nisa.[258] The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces, but different in that it forms a circle and vault inside a square space.[258] However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory rhyton vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art.[259] A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the iwan, an audience hall supported by arches or barrel vaults and open on one side.[260] Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs.[249] Although the iwan was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale.[260] The earliest Parthian iwans are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD.[249] Monumental iwans are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style.[261] The largest Parthian iwans at that site have a span of 15 m (50 ft).[262] Clothing and apparel[edit] A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a Hellenistic-style helmet, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of Nisa, Turkmenistan, 2nd century BC The typical Parthian riding outfit is exemplified by the famous bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami, Elymais. Standing 1.9 m (6 ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped tunic fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair.[263] His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid-1st century BC.[226] Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra, in northwestern Iraq. Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt (qamis), combined with trousers and made with fine, ornamented materials.[264] The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court.[261] The trouser-suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings, as shown on the reverse images of coins.[265] The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in Palmyra, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art.[266] Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long-sleeved robes over a dress, with necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and headdresses bedecked in jewelry.[267] Their many-folded dresses were fastened by a brooch at one shoulder.[261] Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards.[261] As seen in Parthian coinage, the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time. The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps, known as the bashlyk (Greek: kyrbasia).[268] This may have derived from an Achaemenid-era satrapal headdress and the pointy hats depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and Persepolis.[269] The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap, yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem.[270] Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian tiara, embroidered with pearls and jewels, a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sasanian monarchs.[271] Language[edit] As culturally and religiously tolerant as the Parthians were, they adopted Greek as their official language, while Aramaic remained the lingua franca in the empire.[2] The native Parthian language, Middle Persian, and Akkadian were also used. Writing and literature[edit] Parthian long-necked lute, c. 3 BC – 3 AD It is known that during the Parthian period the court minstrel (gōsān) recited poetic oral literature accompanied by music. However, their stories, composed in verse form, were not written down until the subsequent Sassanian period.[272] In fact, there is no known Parthian-language literature that survives in original form; all of the surviving texts were written down in the following centuries.[273] It is believed that such stories as the romantic tale Vis and Rāmin and epic cycle of the Kayanian dynasty were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later.[274] Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written Greek literature.[275] Women in the Parthian Empire[edit] There are very few written and archeological sources about the position of women in the Parthian Empire, and the fragmentary information that does exist is only about royal women, whose position shows many similarities to their predecessors in the Achaemenid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire.[276] The Parthian kings were polygamous and had several wives with the title “queen” (referred to with the Babylonian spelling šarratu or the Greek basilisse), as well as concubines.[276] It is known that kings often married their sisters, but it is unknown if they were the kings' full sisters or half sisters.[276] According to Roman sources, Parthian kings had harems full of female slaves and hetairas secluded from contact with men, and royal women were not allowed to participate in the royal banquets.[277] Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance.[278] It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their husbands in battle with their own entourage.[276] This was the reason why female members of the royal family could sometimes be taken captive by enemies and had to be ransomed, such as the famous occasion when the daughter of King Osroes was held captive by emperor Trajan from the occupation of Ctesiphon in 116 until 129, but also the reason why kings sometimes killed the women of his company after a defeat to prevent them from being taken prisoners.[276] Royal women appear to have been less included in royal representation.[276] Artwork depicts royal women dressed similarly to those of the Achaemenid period: in long-sleeved, many-folded dresses tied by a belt, with a tiara or a veil hanging down their back.[276] While their names and titles did appear in official documents, Parthian women were rarely depicted in art. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen Musa of Parthia and queen Anzaze of Elymais.[276] Musa of Parthia is the only woman confirmed to have ruled as queen regnant of the Parthian Empire, while Rinnu, mother of underage king Phraates II, is the only other woman believed to have been a ruler as queen regent.[279][280] See also[edit] Assyria (Roman province) Baghdad Battery Battle of Nisibis (217) Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Romans in Persia History of Iran Inscription of Parthian imperial power List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties Notes[edit] ^ Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). A Brief History of Iraq. Infobase Publishing. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8160-5767-2. One characteristic of the Parthians that the kings themselves maintained was their nomadic urge. The kings built or occupied numerous cities as their capitals, the most important being Ctesiphon on the Tigris River, which they built from the ancient town of Opis. ^ a b c Green 1992, p. 45 ^ Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. "IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Doc – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2017. Parthian. This was the local language of the area east of the Caspian Sea and official language of the Parthian state (see ARSACIDS) and is known from inscriptions on stone and metal, including coins and seals, and from large archives of potsherd labels on wine jars from the Parthian capital of Nisa, as well as from the Manichean texts. ^ Chyet, Michael L. (1997). Afsaruddin, Asma; Krotkoff, Georg; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (eds.). Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff. Eisenbrauns. p. 284. ISBN 978-1-57506-020-0. In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and Sasanian Empires), Aramaic was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided scripts for writing Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian. ^ De Jong 2008, p. 24, "It is impossible to doubt that the Parthians were Zoroastrians. The evidence from the Nisa ostraca and the Parthian parchment from Avroman suffice to prove this, by the use of the Zoroastrian calendar, which was restricted in use, as it had been previously, to communication with Iranians only, yielding to the Seleucid calendar whenever the Parthians dealt with non-Zoroastrians. There are indications, however, that the practice of Zoroastrianism had reserved a large place for the cult of divine images, either those of ancestors in the Fravashi cult, or of deities, and for the existence of sanctuaries dedicated to named deities other than Ahura Mazda, and including deities that are of a non-Avestan background. The Parthian god Sasan is a case in point, but better evidence comes from Armenia, where alongside Aramazd and Anahit, Mher and Vahagn, the West Semitic god Barshamin, and Babylonian Nane were worshipped, as well as the Anatolian Tork and the goddess Astghik of disputed origins." ^ Brosius 2006, p. 125, "The Parthians and the peoples of the Parthian empire were polytheistic. Each ethnic group, each city, and each land or kingdom was able to adhere to its own gods, their respective cults and religious rituals. In Babylon the city-god Marduk continued to be the main deity alongside the goddesses Ishtar and Nanai, while Hatra's main god, the sun-god Shamash, was revered alongside a multiplicity of other gods." ^ Sheldon 2010, p. 231 ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ From Greek Ἀρσάκης Arsakēs, from Parthian 𐭀𐭓𐭔𐭊 Aršak. ^ Waters 1974, p. 424. ^ Brosius 2006, p. 84 ^ "roughly western Khurasan" Bickerman 1983, p. 6 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBickerman1983 (help). ^ Ball 2016, p. 155 ^ Katouzian 2009, p. 41; Curtis 2007, p. 7; Bivar 1983, pp. 24–27; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 24; Brosius 2006, p. 84 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 24–27; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 7–8; Brosius 2006, pp. 83–84 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 28–29 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 7 ^ a b c Katouzian 2009, p. 41 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 85 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 29–31 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 8 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 36 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 98–99 ^ Daryaee 2012, p. 179. ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 85–86 ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 29; Brosius 2006, p. 86; Kennedy 1996, p. 74 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 29–31; Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 31 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 33; Brosius 2006, p. 86 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 10–11; Bivar 1983, p. 33; Garthwaite 2005, p. 76 ^ a b Curtis 2007, pp. 10–11; Brosius 2006, pp. 86–87; Bivar 1983, p. 34; Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; Bivar 1983, p. 35 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 103, 110–113 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 73; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 103 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 34 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 89; Bivar 1983, p. 35; Shayegan 2007, pp. 83–103 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Curtis 2007, p. 11; Shayegan 2011, pp. 121–150 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 76–77; Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Curtis 2007, p. 11 ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 145–150 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 37–38; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; see also Brosius 2006, p. 90 and Katouzian 2009, pp. 41–42 ^ Torday 1997, pp. 80–81 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 76; Bivar 1983, pp. 36–37; Brosius 2006, pp. 89, 91 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 89 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 38; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39; Garthwaite 2005, p. 77; Curtis 2007, p. 11; Katouzian 2009, p. 42 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 38–39 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 40–41; Katouzian 2009, p. 42 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 40; Curtis 2007, pp. 11–12; Brosius 2006, p. 90 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 11–12 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 91–92; Bivar 1983, pp. 40–41 ^ a b Bivar 2007, p. 26 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 41 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 90–91; Watson 1983, pp. 540–542 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help); Garthwaite 2005, pp. 77–78 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 78; Brosius 2006, pp. 122–123 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 123–125 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 100–101 ^ Kurz 1983, p. 560 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Ebrey 1999, p. 70; for an archaeological survey of Roman glasswares in ancient Chinese burials, see An 2002, pp. 79–84 ^ Howard 2012, p. 133 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 92 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 73–78; Brosius 2006, p. 91; Sheldon 2010, pp. 12–16 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, pp. 77–78 ^ Assar 2006, p. 62; Shayegan 2011, p. 225; Rezakhani 2013, p. 770 ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 188–189. ^ a b Sellwood 1976, p. 2. ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 91–92 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 44–45 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 45–46; Brosius 2006, p. 94 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 46–47 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 47; Cassius Dio writes that Lucius Afranius reoccupied the region without confronting the Parthian army, whereas Plutarch asserts that Afranius drove him out by military means. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 48–49; see also Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 48–49; also, Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95 mentions this in passing. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 49 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 49–50; Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 55–56; Garthwaite 2005, p. 79; see also Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95 and Curtis 2007, pp. 12–13 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55 ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 52 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, pp. 94–95; Garthwaite 2005, pp. 78–79 ^ Katouzian 2009, pp. 42–43; Garthwaite 2005, p. 79; Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 52–55; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 78 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 55–56; Brosius 2006, p. 96 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 80 asserts that permanent occupation was the obvious goal of the Parthians, especially after the cities of Roman Syria and even the Roman garrisons submitted to the Parthians and joined their cause. ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 78–79; Bivar 1983, p. 56 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 56–57; Strugnell 2006, p. 243 ^ a b c Bivar 1983, p. 57; Strugnell 2006, p. 244; Kennedy 1996, p. 80 ^ Syme 1939, pp. 214–217 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 57 ^ a b Bivar 1983, pp. 57–58; Strugnell 2006, pp. 239, 245; Brosius 2006, p. 96; Kennedy 1996, p. 80 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 58; Brosius 2006, p. 96; Kennedy 1996, pp. 80–81; see also Strugnell 2006, pp. 239, 245–246 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 79 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 58–59; Kennedy 1996, p. 81 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 58–59 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 60–63; Garthwaite 2005, p. 80; Curtis 2007, p. 13; see also Kennedy 1996, p. 81 for analysis on Rome's shift of attention away from Syria to the Upper Euphrates, starting with Antony. ^ Roller 2010, p. 99 ^ Burstein 2004, p. 31 ^ a b Bivar 1983, pp. 64–65 ^ Roller 2010, pp. 145–151 ^ Roller 2010, pp. 138–151; Bringmann 2007, pp. 304–307 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 65–66 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 80; see also Strugnell 2006, pp. 251–252 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 66–67 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 96–97; 136–137; Bivar 1983, pp. 66–67; Curtis 2007, pp. 12–13 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 67; Brosius 2006, pp. 96–99 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 68; Brosius 2006, pp. 97–99; see also Garthwaite 2005, p. 80 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 68–69; Brosius 2006, pp. 97–99 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 69–71 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 71 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 71–72 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 72–73 ^ See Brosius 2006, pp. 137–138 for more information on Roman coins depicting Parthians returning the lost military standards to Rome. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 73 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 73–74 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 75–76 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 76–78 ^ a b Watson 1983, pp. 543–544 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help) ^ Watson 1983, pp. 543–544 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help); Yü 1986, pp. 460–461; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 239–240; see also Wang 2007, p. 101 ^ Wood 2002, pp. 46–47; Morton & Lewis 2005, p. 59 ^ Yü 1986, pp. 460–461; de Crespigny 2007, p. 600 ^ Young 2001, p. 29; Mawer 2013, p. 38; Ball 2016, p. 153 ^ "Louvre Museum Sb 7302". ^ Bivar 1983, p. 79 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 79–81; Kennedy 1996, p. 81 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 82; Bivar 1983, pp. 79–81 ^ Bausani 1971, p. 41 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 81 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 81–85 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 83–85 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 99–100; Bivar 1983, p. 85 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 86 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 67, 87–88 ^ Kennedy 1996, p. 87 ^ Kennedy 1996, pp. 87–88; see also Kurz 1983, pp. 561–562 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Sheldon 2010, pp. 231–232 ^ Sheldon 2010, pp. 9–10, 231–235 ^ Olbrycht 2016, p. 96. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 86–87 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 88; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Lightfoot 1990, p. 117 ^ Lightfoot 1990, pp. 117–118; see also Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 88–89 ^ Dr. Aaron Ralby (2013). "Emperor Trajan, 98–117: Greatest Extent of Rome". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1. ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 88–90; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81; Lightfoot 1990, p. 120; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Lightfoot 1990, p. 120; Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 91; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81 ^ Mommsen 2004, p. 69 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 90–91; see also Brosius 2006, p. 137 and Curtis 2007, p. 13 ^ Lightfoot 1990, pp. 120–124 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; see also Lightfoot 1990, p. 115; Garthwaite 2005, p. 81; and Bivar 1983, p. 91 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 92–93 ^ Bivar 1983, p. 93 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; Bivar 1983, pp. 93–94 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 13; Bivar 1983, pp. 93–94 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 100; Curtis 2007, p. 13; Bivar 1983, p. 94; Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ a b c Bivar 1983, pp. 94–95 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 100–101; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44, who mentions this in passing ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 101; Bivar 1983, pp. 95–96; Curtis 2007, p. 14; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 44 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 95–96 ^ Frye 1983, pp. 173–174 ^ Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0-8276-1155-2 ^ International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 ISBN 0-7546-5740-X ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1261–1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Yarshater 1983, p. 359 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYarshater1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1261 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 75–76 ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1151–1152 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67; Widengren 1983, p. 1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 79–80 ^ a b Widengren 1983, p. 1262 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1265 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 75–76; Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 118–119 ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help); Brosius 2006, pp. 118–119 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 67, 75; Bivar 1983, p. 22 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 75; Bivar 1983, pp. 80–81 ^ Kurz 1983, p. 564 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help); see also Brosius 2006, p. 138 for further analysis: "Curiously, at the same time as the Parthian was depicted as uncivilised, he was also 'orientalised' in traditional fashion, being described as luxury-loving, leading an effeminate lifestyle, and demonstrating excessive sexuality." ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1261, 1264 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1264 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Widengren 1983, pp. 1265–1266 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ a b Widengren 1983, pp. 1265, 1267 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, p. 80; Posch 1998, p. 363 ^ Posch 1998, p. 358 ^ Watson 1983, pp. 541–542 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatson1983 (help) ^ Wang 2007, p. 90 ^ Wang 2007, p. 88 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 89–90; Brosius 2006, pp. 90–91, 122 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 118; see also Wang 2007, p. 90 for a similar translation ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 67–68 ^ Widengren 1983, p. 1263 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWidengren1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 701 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 701 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Curtis 2007, pp. 19–21 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 113–114 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 115–116 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 114–115 ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 103–104 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 119 ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 699–700 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 700–704 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 99–100, 104 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 104–105, 117–118 ^ "Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-12-21. Retrieved 2017-09-11. ^ Lukonin 1983, pp. 704–705 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 704 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Brosius 2006, p. 104 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 116, 122; Sheldon 2010, pp. 231–232 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Wang 2007, pp. 99–100 ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 120; Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 120; Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 116–118; see also Garthwaite 2005, p. 78 and Kennedy 1996, p. 84 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 120; Garthwaite 2005, p. 78; Kurz 1983, p. 561 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKurz1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, p. 122 ^ a b Kennedy 1996, p. 83 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 9, 11–12, 16 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 7–25; Sellwood 1983, pp. 279–298 ^ Sellwood 1983, p. 280 ^ Sellwood 1983, p. 282 ^ Curtis 2007, pp. 14–15; see also Katouzian 2009, p. 45 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 85; Curtis 2007, pp. 14–15 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 11 ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 16 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 80–81; see also Curtis 2007, p. 21 and Schlumberger 1983, p. 1030 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1030 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Bivar 1983, p. 56 ^ a b Shahbazi 1987, p. 525 ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 85; Brosius 2006, pp. 128–129 ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 697 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help) ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 687 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLukonin1983 (help); Shahbazi 1987, p. 525 ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, pp. 867–868 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ a b Katouzian 2009, p. 45 ^ Neusner 1983, pp. 909–923 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNeusner1983 (help) ^ Asmussen 1983, pp. 924–928 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsmussen1983 (help) ^ a b Brosius 2006, p. 125 ^ Garthwaite 2005, pp. 68, 83–84; Colpe 1983, p. 823 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFColpe1983 (help); Brosius 2006, p. 125 ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, pp. 872–873 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ Colpe 1983, p. 844 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFColpe1983 (help) ^ Katouzian 2009, p. 45; Brosius 2006, pp. 102–103 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 85–86; Garthwaite 2005, pp. 80–81; Duchesne-Guillemin 1983, p. 867 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDuchesne-Guillemin1983 (help) ^ Garthwaite 2005, p. 67; Asmussen 1983, pp. 928, 933–934 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsmussen1983 (help) ^ Bivar 1983, p. 97 ^ Emmerick 1983, p. 957 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEmmerick1983 (help) ^ Demiéville 1986, p. 823; Zhang 2002, p. 75 ^ a b c d Brosius 2006, p. 127 ^ a b c d e Brosius 2006, p. 128 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 127; see also Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1041–1043 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 129, 132 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 127; Garthwaite 2005, p. 84; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1049–1050 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Schlumberger 1983, p. 1051 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Curtis 2007, p. 18 ^ Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1052–1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Curtis 2007, p. 18; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1052–1053 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Brosius 2006, pp. 111–112 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 111–112, 127–128; Schlumberger 1983, pp. 1037–1041 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b Garthwaite 2005, p. 84; Brosius 2006, p. 128; Schlumberger 1983, p. 1049 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ a b c d Brosius 2006, pp. 134–135 ^ Schlumberger 1983, p. 1049 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchlumberger1983 (help) ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 132–134 ^ Bivar 1983, pp. 91–92 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 15 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 17 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 108, 134–135 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 101 ^ Curtis 2007, p. 8; see also Sellwood 1983, pp. 279–280 for comparison with Achaemenid satrapal headdresses ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 101–102; Curtis 2007, p. 9 ^ Brosius 2006, pp. 101–102; Curtis 2007, p. 15 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 106 ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1151 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1158–1159 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help) ^ Boyce 1983, pp. 1154–1155 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1983 (help); see also Kennedy 1996, p. 74 ^ a b c d e f g h Maria Brosius, “WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia”, Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2021, available at WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia (accessed on 26 January 2021). Originally Published: January 1, 2000. Last Updated: March 15, 2010. Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, New York, 1996- https://iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i ^ Lerouge, Ch. 2007. L’image des Parthes dans le monde gréco-romain. Stuttgart. ^ Kaim, B. 2016. “Women, Dance and the Hunt: Splendour and Pleasures of Court Life in Arsacid and Early Sasanian Art.” In V. S. Curtis, E. J. Pendleton, M. Alram and T. Daryaee (eds.), The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, Oxford, 90–105 ^ N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938. ^ J. Oelsner, “Recht im hellenistischen Babylon,” in Legal Documents of the Hellenistic World, ed. M. J. Geller and H. Maehler, London, 1995, pp. 106–148. References[edit] An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. 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Wood, Frances (2002), The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8. Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "Iranian National History". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–480. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.. Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe (ed.), Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Young, Gary K. (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-24219-6. Zhang, Guanuda (2002), "The Role of the Sogdians as Translators of Buddhist Texts", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.), Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, ISBN 978-2-503-52178-7. Daryaee, Touraj (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 978-0-19-987575-7. Archived from the original on 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-02-10. Further reading[edit] Neusner, J. (1963), "Parthian Political Ideology", Iranica Antiqua, 3: 40–59 Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacid ii. The Arsacid dynasty", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 526–535 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to the Parthian Empire. Various articles from Iran Chamber Society (Parthian Empire, The Art of Parthians, Parthian Army) Parthia.com (a website featuring the history, geography, coins, arts and culture of ancient Parthia, including a bibliographic list of scholarly sources) Links to related articles v t e Parthian Empire Origins Parni Dahae Parni conquest of Parthia Dynasty Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Chosroid dynasty Indo-Parthian Kingdom Noble clans Seven Great Houses of Iran House of Ispahbudhan House of Karen House of Mihran House of Spandiyadh House of Suren House of Varaz House of Zik Culture Parthian language Parthian art Parthian dress Parthian coinage Wars Seleucid–Parthian Wars Battle of Ecbatana Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Antony's Atropatene campaign Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC Battle of Ctesiphon (165) Battle of Ctesiphon (198) Battle of Carrhae Battle of the Cilician Gates Battle of Mount Gindarus Battle of Amanus Pass Battle of Nisibis (217) Parthian war of Caracalla Armenian–Parthian War Bactrian–Parthian War Other related topics Parthia Parthian shot Roman–Iranian relations Lists Parthian monarchs Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Fertile Crescent Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Hammurabi Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture 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Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC – AD 62) Parthian Empire (248 BC –  AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 637 – 1055 Patriarchal Caliphate (637–651) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 975–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Kurt dynasty (1231–1389) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Chobanid dynasty (1337–1357) Jalairid Sultanate dynasty (1339–1432) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1375–1468) Ag Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–50) Zand Dynasty (1750–94) Qajar Empire (1796–1925) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) 1946 Iran 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Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Tehrangeles Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Xianbei Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty 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en-wikipedia-org-7579	----	Septimius Antiochus - Wikipedia Septimius Antiochus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Septimius Antiochus (died after 273) was a Roman usurper in Syria during the 3rd century. In 272 AD Emperor Aurelian had defeated the breakaway Kingdom of Palmyra; its king Vaballathus and his mother Zenobia were in Roman captivity. In 273 AD another rebellion against Roman rule broke out in Palmyra. The rebels first approached Aurelian's governor Marcellinus to become emperor, but he pretended to consider the offer as he sent a letter to Aurelian warning of the rebellion.[1] While the rebels were waiting they decided to elevate Septimius Antiochus, the reputed son of Zenobia, to the purple. Receiving Marcellinus's letter, the Emperor reacted quickly, and in the spring of 273 the city was brought back under Roman rule. Aurelian punished the city heavily, but allegedly spared Antiochus.[2]:152 Antiochus claimed to be descended from Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and the kings of Syria.[3] There is some doubt as to his relationship to Zenobia. He may be unrelated, claiming kinship for political purposes; he may be her father, also named Antiochus; he may be indeed her biological son, or possibly an adopted son;[2]:5 he may be a son of Zenobia by someone other than Vaballathus,[4] in which case he would have been quite young, perhaps as young as five.[5] Sources[edit] Zosimus, Historia Nova 1,60-61 References[edit] ^ Watson, Alaric, Aurelian and the Third Century, pg. 80 ^ a b Southern, Pat (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84725-034-6. Retrieved Aug 29, 2020. ^ Craven, Maxwell (2019). The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome. Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1-78155-738-9. Retrieved Aug 29, 2020. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Psychology Press. p. 81. ISBN 0-415-30187-4. Retrieved Aug 29, 2020. ^ Gold, Claudia (2015). Women Who Ruled: History's 50 Most Remarkable Women. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78429-235-5. Retrieved Aug 29, 2020. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Septimius_Antiochus&oldid=1023612439" Categories: 273 deaths 3rd-century Roman usurpers Rulers of Palmyra Septimii Palmyrene Empire 3rd-century Semitic people Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Deutsch Español Bahasa Indonesia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 17 May 2021, at 10:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7588	----	Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia Byzantine Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages "Byzantine" redirects here. For other uses, see Byzantine (disambiguation). Byzantine Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Rhōmaíōn Imperium Romanum 395–1453c Chi Rho (see Byzantine insignia) Solidus depicting Christ Pantocrator, a common motif on Byzantine coins. The empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire (its vassals in pink) The change of territory of the Byzantine Empire (476–1400) Capital and largest city Constantinopled (395–1204, 1261–1453) Common languages Late Latin, Koine Greek Medieval Greek (610–1453) Religion Eastern Christianity (tolerated after the Edicts of Serdica (311) and Milan (313); state religion after 380) Eastern Orthodoxy (following the East–West Schism) Notable emperors   • 306–337 Constantine I • 395–408 Arcadius • 402–450 Theodosius II • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 717–741 Leo III • 797–802 Irene • 867–886 Basil I • 976–1025 Basil II • 1042–1055 Constantine IX • 1081–1118 Alexius I • 1259–1282 Michael VIII • 1449–1453 Constantine XI Historical era Late Antiquity to Late Middle Ages • First division of the Roman Empire (diarchy) 1 April 286 • Founding of Constantinople 11 May 330 • Final East–West division after the death of Theodosius I 17 January 395 • Fall of Rome; deposition of Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer 4 September 476 • Assassination of Julius Nepos; nominal end of the Western Roman Empire 25 April 480 • Fourth Crusade; establishment of the Latin Empire by Catholic crusaders 12 April 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople by Michael VIII Palaiologos 25 July 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 • Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Population • 457 16,000,000e • 565 26,000,000 • 775 7,000,000 • 1025 12,000,000 • 1320 2,000,000 Currency Solidus, denarius and hyperpyron Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Ottoman Empire ^ Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων may be transliterated in Latin as Basileia Rhōmaiōn (literally meaning Monarchy of the Romans, but commonly rendered Empire of the Romans). ^ Roman Empire ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because it managed to retake Constantinople. ^ Constantinople became the capital of the (united) empire in 330. Theodosius I was the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western Roman Empire. He died in 395, dividing the empire in western and eastern halves. ^ See Population of the Byzantine Empire for more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 1978, as well as Angeliki E. Laiou, The Economic History of Byzantium, 2002. Part of a series on the History of the Byzantine Empire Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early period (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era (Constantinian dynasty – Valentinianic dynasty) Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle period (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late period (1204–1453) Fourth Crusade and Latin rule Latin Empire Principality of Achaea others Byzantine successor states Nicaea Epirus/Thessalonica Trebizond Theodoro Palaiologan era Despotate of the Morea Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople Timeline By topic Art Government Economy Army Navy  Byzantine Empire portal v t e The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople. It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. "Byzantine Empire" is a term created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire simply as the Roman Empire (Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía Rhōmaíōn) or Romania (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμανία), and to themselves as Romans (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι, romanized: Rhōmaîoi) – a term which Greeks continued to use for themselves into Ottoman times. Although the Roman state continued and its traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from its earlier incarnation because it was centred on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West diverged. Constantine I (r. 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Christianity became the state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. In the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and Greek was adopted for official use in place of Latin. The borders of the empire fluctuated through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the empire reached its greatest extent, after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast, including North Africa, Italy and Rome, which it held for two more centuries. The Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 exhausted the empire's resources, and during the Early Muslim conquests of the 7th century, it lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Rashidun Caliphate. During the Macedonian dynasty (10th–11th centuries), the empire expanded again and experienced the two-century long Macedonian Renaissance, which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia. The empire recovered during the Komnenian restoration, and by the 12th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. The empire was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in the Byzantine–Ottoman wars over the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 ended the Byzantine Empire. The Empire of Trebizond was conquered eight years later in the 1461 siege. The last of the successor states, the Principality of Theodoro, was conquered by the Ottomans in 1475. Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Christianization and partition of the Empire 2.3 Loss of the Western Roman Empire 2.4 Justinian dynasty 2.5 Shrinking borders 2.5.1 Early Heraclian dynasty 2.5.2 First Arab siege of Constantinople (674–678) and the theme system 2.5.3 Late Heraclian dynasty 2.5.4 Second Arab siege of Constantinople (717–718) and the Isaurian dynasty 2.5.5 Religious dispute over iconoclasm 2.6 Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025) 2.6.1 Wars against the Abbasids 2.6.2 Wars against the Bulgarian Empire 2.6.3 Relations with the Kievan Rus' 2.6.4 Campaigns in the Caucasus 2.6.5 Apex 2.6.6 Split between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (1054) 2.7 Crisis and fragmentation 2.8 Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades 2.8.1 Alexios I and the First Crusade 2.8.2 John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade 2.8.3 12th-century Renaissance 2.9 Decline and disintegration 2.9.1 Angelid dynasty 2.9.2 Fourth Crusade 2.9.3 Crusader sack of Constantinople (1204) 2.9.4 Empire in exile 2.9.5 Reconquest of Constantinople 2.10 Fall 2.10.1 Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople 2.11 Political aftermath 3 Government and bureaucracy 3.1 Diplomacy 3.2 Law 4 Science and medicine 5 Culture 5.1 Religion 5.2 Arts 5.2.1 Art and literature 5.2.2 Music 5.3 Cuisine 5.4 Flags and insignia 5.5 Language 5.6 Recreation 5.7 Women in the Byzantine Empire 6 Economy 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 10.2.1 Primary sources 10.2.2 Secondary sources 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography Nomenclature[edit] See also: Names of the Greeks The first use of the term "Byzantine" to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557, 104 years after the empire's collapse, when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of historical sources.[citation needed] The term comes from "Byzantium", the name of the city to which Constantine moved his capital, leaving Rome, and rebuilt under the new name of Constantinople. The older name of the city was rarely used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae), and in 1680 of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of "Byzantine" among French authors, such as Montesquieu.[1] However, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world.[2] The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the "Roman Empire" or the "Empire of the Romans" (Latin: Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum; Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn, Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn), Romania (Latin: Romania; Medieval Greek: Ῥωμανία, romanized: Rhōmania),[note 1] the Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romana; Medieval Greek: Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn), or in Greek "Rhōmais" (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμαΐς).[5] The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to Modern Greek as Romaiika "Romaic".[6] After 1204 when the Byzantine Empire was mostly confined to its purely Greek provinces the term 'Hellenes' was increasingly used instead.[7] While the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history[8] and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions,[9] it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element.[10] Western medieval sources also referred to the empire as the "Empire of the Greeks" (Latin: Imperium Graecorum) and to its emperor as Imperator Graecorum (Emperor of the Greeks);[11] these terms were used to distinguish it from the Holy Roman Empire that claimed the prestige of the classical Roman Empire in the West.[12] No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm.[13] The name millet-i Rûm, or "Roman nation," was used by the Ottomans until the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire, that is, the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms. History[edit] Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire Early history[edit] Constantine the Great was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and moved the seat of the empire to Byzantium, renamed Constantinople in his honour. The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and North Africa. These territories were home to many different cultural groups, both urban populations, and rural populations. Generally speaking, the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanized than the western, having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture.[14] The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century. This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries, leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds.[14] An early instance of the partition of the Empire into East and West occurred in 293 when Emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system (the tetrarchy), to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire. He associated himself with a co-emperor (Augustus), and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar, to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner. Each tetrarch was in charge of a part of the Empire. The tetrarchy collapsed, however, in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus.[15] Christianization and partition of the Empire[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties Restored section of the Walls of Constantinople After the death of Theodosius I in 395, the empire was again divided. The west disintegrated in the late 400s while the east ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453.   The Western Roman Empire   The Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire In 330, Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople, which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Constantine introduced important changes to the Empire's military, monetary, civil and religious institutions. In regards to his economic policies he has been accused by certain scholars of "reckless fiscality", but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development.[16] Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state but enjoyed imperial preference since he supported it with generous privileges. Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own but should instead summon general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose. His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church and showcased his claim to be its head.[17] The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361, who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed "Julian the Apostate" by the Church.[18] However, this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363.[19] Theodosius I (379–395) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion. Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned, as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship.[20] The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393.[21] In 395, Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons: Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West, once again dividing Imperial administration. In the 5th century, the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West – due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources, which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries. This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on codifying Roman law with the Codex Theodosianus and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople, which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204.[22] Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day.[citation needed] To fend off the Huns, Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila. His successor, Marcian, refused to continue to pay the tribute, but Attila had already diverted his attention to the Western Roman Empire. After Attila's death in 453, the Hun Empire collapsed, and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople.[23] Loss of the Western Roman Empire[edit] After the fall of Attila, the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace, while the Western Empire continued to deteriorate due to the expanding migration and invasions of the barbarians, most prominently the Germanic nations. The West's end is usually dated 476 when the East Germanic Roman foederati general Odoacer deposed the Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus, a year after the latter usurped the position from Julius Nepos.[24] In 480 with the death of Julius Nepos, Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole claimant to Emperor of the empire. Odoacer, now ruler of Italy, was nominally Zeno's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy, eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor.[25] Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths, who had settled in Moesia, convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ("commander in chief for Italy") to depose Odoacer. By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy, Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate (Odoacer) and moved another (Theodoric) further from the heart of the Empire. After Odoacer's defeat in 493, Theodoric ruled Italy de facto, although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as "king" (rex).[25] In 491, Anastasius I, an aged civil officer of Roman origin, became Emperor, but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance.[26] Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He introduced a new coinage system of the copper follis, the coin used in most everyday transactions.[27] He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax. The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 lb (150,000 kg) of gold when Anastasius died in 518.[28] Justinian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Emperor Justinian (left) and (presumed) general Belisarius (right) (Mosaic from Basilica of San Vitale, 6th century) Empress Theodora and attendants (Mosaic from Basilica of San Vitale, 6th century) Hagia Sophia built in 537, during the reign of Justinian. The minarets were added in the 15th–16th centuries by the Ottoman Empire.[29] The Byzantine Empire in c. 600 during the reign of Maurice. Half of the Italian peninsula and most of southern Hispania were lost, but the eastern borders expanded gaining land from the Persians. The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I, who though illiterate, rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518.[30] He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527, who may already have exerted effective control during Justin's reign.[31] One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language,[32] Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch, marked by the ambitious but only partly realised renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[33] His wife Theodora was particularly influential.[34] In 529, Justinian appointed a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists' extracts, known as the "Corpus Juris Civilis", or the Justinian Code. In 534, the Corpus was updated and, along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534, formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era.[35] The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states.[36] In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia, agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids. In the same year, he survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots), which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders.[37] The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals, who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage.[38] Their success came with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued.[39] In 535, a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success, but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance, and victory did not come until 540, when Belisarius captured Ravenna, after successful sieges of Naples and Rome.[40] In 535–536, Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily, Dalmatia, and Italy. Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian, he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced, despite Empress Theodora's support and protection.[41] The Ostrogoths captured Rome in 546. Belisarius, who had been sent back to Italy in 544, was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549.[42] The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy (late 551) with an army of 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes. Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor, Teia, was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni, the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end.[43] In 551, Athanagild, a noble from Visigothic Hispania, sought Justinian's help in a rebellion against the king, and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius, a successful military commander. The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius.[44] In the east, the Roman–Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50-year peace.[45] By the mid-550s, Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation, with the notable exception of the Balkans, which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids. Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans, during the reign of Heraclius.[46] Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat. The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube.[47] Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century, traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century.[48] Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy. Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism. Because of active paganism of its professors, Justinian closed down the Neoplatonic Academy in 529. Other schools continued in Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria, which were the centres of Justinian's empire.[49] Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy, while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom, Hagia Sophia, which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt. Completed in 537, the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history.[50] During the 6th and 7th centuries, the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics, which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire.[51] Great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch.[52] After Justinian died in 565, his successor, Justin II, refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians. Meanwhile, the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy; by the end of the century, only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands. Justin's successor, Tiberius II, choosing between his enemies, awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians. Although Tiberius' general, Maurice, led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier, subsidies failed to restrain the Avars. They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube.[53] Maurice, who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius, intervened in a Persian civil war, placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne, and married his daughter to him. Maurice's treaty with his new brother-in-law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans. By 602, a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube.[53] However, Maurice's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars, and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube, caused his popularity to plummet. A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas, who marched the troops back to Constantinople; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape.[54] Shrinking borders[edit] Early Heraclian dynasty[edit] Further information: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Battle between Heraclius and the Persians. Fresco by Piero della Francesca, c. 1452 By 650 (pictured) the empire had lost all its southern provinces, except the Exarchate of Africa, to the Rashidun Caliphate. At the same time the Slavs invaded and settled in the Balkans. After Maurice's murder by Phocas, Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia.[55] Phocas, an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was the target of a number of Senate-led plots. He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.[56] Following the accession of Heraclius, the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant, occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon.[57] The counter-attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war, and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard[58] (similarly, when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar–Sassanid–Slavic siege in 626, the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city).[59] In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626, amidst the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the combined Avar, Sassanid, and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July. After this, the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia. The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory, where Heraclius's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin.[60] Following this, Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again. The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627, and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony,[61] as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war. Eventually, the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid-ruled Egypt, the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c. 595. The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids, however, and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years.[62] The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, while Ctesiphon fell in 637.[63] First Arab siege of Constantinople (674–678) and the theme system[edit] Greek fire was first used by the Byzantine Navy during the Byzantine–Arab Wars (from the Madrid Skylitzes, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid). The Arabs, now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant, sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor, and in 674–678 laid siege to Constantinople itself. The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire, and a thirty-years' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate.[64] However, the Anatolian raids continued unabated, and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture, with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses.[65] Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size, from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000–70,000, and, like other urban centres, it was partly ruralised. The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618, after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs, and public wheat distribution ceased.[66] The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the system called theme, which entailed dividing Asia Minor into "provinces" occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration. This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance.[67] The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness, and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire.[68] Late Heraclian dynasty[edit] See also: Twenty Years' Anarchy Constantine IV and his retinue, mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Constantine IV defeated the First Arab siege of Constantinople. The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula, and, as in Asia Minor, many cities shrank to small fortified settlements.[69] In the 670s, the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars. In 680, Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated.[70] In 681, Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh, and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over several Slavic tribes that had previously, at least in name, recognised Byzantine rule.[70] In 687–688, the final Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians, and made significant gains, although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined.[71] Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of "outsiders" to administrative posts. He was driven from power in 695, and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians. In 705, he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel, retook the throne and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies. With his final overthrow in 711, supported once more by the urban aristocracy, the Heraclian dynasty came to an end.[72] Second Arab siege of Constantinople (717–718) and the Isaurian dynasty[edit] Further information: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, c. 717. Striped indicates areas raided by the Umayyads. Gold solidus of Leo III (left), and his son and heir, Constantine V (right) In 717 the Umayyad Caliphate launched the siege of Constantinople (717–718) which lasted for one year. However, the combination of Leo III the Isaurian's military genius, the Byzantines' use of Greek Fire, a cold winter in 717–718, and Byzantine diplomacy with the Khan Tervel of Bulgaria resulted in a Byzantine victory. After Leo III turned back the Muslim assault in 718, he addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor. In 740 a major Byzantine victory took place at the Battle of Akroinon where the Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad army once again. Leo III the Isaurian's son and successor, Constantine V, won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and also thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength.[73] In 746, profiting by the unstable conditions in the Umayyad Caliphate, which was falling apart under Marwan II, Constantine V invaded Syria and captured Germanikeia, and the Battle of Keramaia resulted in a major Byzantine naval victory over the Umayyad fleet. Coupled with military defeats on other fronts of the Caliphate and internal instability, Umayyad expansion came to an end. Religious dispute over iconoclasm[edit] Main article: Byzantine iconoclasm A Simple Cross: An example of Iconoclast art in the Hagia Irene Church in Istanbul. The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm, which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century. Icons (here meaning all forms of religious imagery) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730, leading to revolts by iconodules (supporters of icons) throughout the empire. After the efforts of empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but, according to Theophanes the Confessor, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites.[74] In the early 9th century, Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm, but in 843 Empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios.[75] Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West, which worsened during the so-called Photian schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate.[76] Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025)[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty The Byzantine Empire, c. 867 The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled for 150 years. This dynasty included some of the ablest emperors in Byzantium's history, and the period is one of revival. The Empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories.[77] The Macedonian dynasty was characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts. There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions, and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the "Golden Age" of Byzantium.[77] Although the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian, it had regained much strength, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically, economically, and culturally integrated. Wars against the Abbasids[edit] Main article: Arab–Byzantine wars The general Leo Phokas defeats the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo at Andrassos in 960, from the Madrid Skylitzes Taking advantage of the Empire's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s, the Arabs re-emerged and captured Crete. They also successfully attacked Sicily but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory at the Battle of Lalakaon against Umar al-Aqta, the emir of Melitene (Malatya). Under the leadership of emperor Krum, the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged, but in 815–816 Krum's son, Omurtag, signed a peace treaty with Leo V.[78] In the 830s Abbasid Caliphate started military excursions culminating with a victory in the Sack of Amorium. The Byzantines then counter-attacked and sacked Damietta in Egypt. Later the Abbasid Caliphate responded by sending their troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated by the Byzantines at the Battle of Lalakaon in 863. In the early years of Basil I's reign, Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia and the siege of Ragusa (866–868) were defeated and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control. This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of modern-day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Christianity.[79] By contrast, the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated; by 873 Bari was once again under Byzantine rule and most of Southern Italy remained in the Empire for the next 200 years.[79][80] On the more important eastern front, the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive. The Paulicians were defeated at the Battle of Bathys Ryax and their capital of Tephrike (Divrigi) taken, while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata.[79] 10th century military successes were coupled with a major cultural revival, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance. Miniature from the Paris Psalter, an example of Hellenistic-influenced art. Under Basil's son and successor, Leo VI the Wise, the gains in the east against the enfeebled Abbasid Caliphate continued. Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902, and, in 904 Thessaloniki, the Empire's second city was sacked by an Arab fleet. The naval weakness of the Empire was rectified. Despite this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911.[81] The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians, allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front.[82] Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934 and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories, culminating in the reconquest of Edessa. Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion, a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Jesus.[83] The soldier-emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969) and John I Tzimiskes (969–976) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north-west Iraq. Nikephoros took the great city of Aleppo in 962, and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963. The recapture of Crete in the siege of Chandax put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean, allowing mainland Greece to flourish again. Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965 and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the siege of Antioch and its recapture, which he incorporated as a province of the Empire.[84] His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus, Beirut, Acre, Sidon, Caesarea and Tiberias, putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem, although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched.[85] After much campaigning in the north, the last Arab threat to Byzantium, the rich province of Sicily, was targeted in 1025 by Basil II, who died before the expedition could be completed. By that time the Empire stretched from the straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube to Syria.[86] Wars against the Bulgarian Empire[edit] Further information: Byzantine–Bulgarian wars Emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) The extent of the Empire under Basil II The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued through the Macedonian period, spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state of Bulgaria.[77] Ending eighty years of peace between the two states, the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines, who used their fleet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear, enlisting the support of the Hungarians.[87] The Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896, however, and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians.[81] Leo the Wise died in 912, and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army.[88] Although the walls of the city were impregnable, the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city, where he was granted the crown of basileus (emperor) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters. When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople.[89] The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days' marching distance from Constantinople,[77] as well as having to fight on two fronts.[81] A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917, and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece. Adrianople was plundered again in 923, and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924. Simeon died suddenly in 927, however, and Bulgarian power collapsed with him. Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations, and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims.[90] In 968, Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev, but three years later, John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus' and re-incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire.[91] Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty, but the new Emperor Basil II (r. 976–1025) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal.[92] Basil's first expedition against Bulgaria, however, resulted in a defeat at the Gates of Trajan. For the next few years, the emperor was preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia, while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans. The war dragged on for nearly twenty years. The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army, and in annual campaigns, Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds.[92] At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated: their army was captured, and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home. When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army, he died of shock. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered, and the country became part of the Empire.[92] This victory restored the Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of the Emperor Heraclius.[86] Relations with the Kievan Rus'[edit] Rus' under the walls of Constantinople (860) Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the Skylitzis Chronicle Between 850 and 1100, the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus', which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea.[93] This relationship had long-lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs, and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev. The Rus' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860, pillaging the suburbs of the city. In 941, they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, but this time they were crushed, an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus', and, following the example of his predecessors, he used religion as a means for achieving political purposes.[94] Rus'–Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988, and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus'.[93] Byzantine priests, architects, and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further, while numerous Rus' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous Varangian Guard.[93] Even after the Christianisation of the Rus', however, relations were not always friendly. The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968–971 in Bulgaria, but several Rus' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded. Although most were repulsed, they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus', such as the one concluded at the end of the war of 1043, during which the Rus' indicated their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power.[94] Campaigns in the Caucasus[edit] Main article: Byzantine–Georgian wars Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions, Basil II led a series of victorious campaigns against the Kingdom of Georgia, resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the Empire. Basil's successors also annexed Bagratid Armenia in 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by the Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia played a significant role in the Byzantine defeat at Manzikert in 1071.[95] Apex[edit] Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout late antiquity and most of the Middle Ages until the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the Middle Ages. By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west.[86] Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the reconquest of Crete, Cyprus, and the important city of Antioch. These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests.[79] Leo VI achieved the complete codification of Byzantine law in Greek. This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today.[96] Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire, redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions (the Themata, or "Themes") and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges, as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople. Leo's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire, which henceforth had one centre of power, Constantinople.[97] However, the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched and gave the provincial nobility more power over the peasantry, who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom.[98] Under the Macedonian emperors, the city of Constantinople flourished, becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population of approximately 400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries.[99] During this period, the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes, domestic administration, and foreign policy. The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe, particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork.[100] Split between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (1054)[edit] Further information: East–West Schism Mural of Saints Cyril and Methodius, 19th century, Troyan Monastery, Bulgaria The Macedonian period also included events of momentous religious significance. The conversion of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Rus' to Orthodox Christianity drew the religious map of Europe which still resonates today. Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, contributed significantly to the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process devised the Glagolitic alphabet, ancestor to the Cyrillic script.[101] In 1054, relations between the Eastern and Western traditions of the Chalcedonian Christian Church reached a terminal crisis, known as the East–West Schism. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation, on 16 July, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar,[102] the so-called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation.[103] Crisis and fragmentation[edit] The Byzantine Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military. Nikephoros II, John Tzimiskes, and Basil II shifted the emphasis of the military divisions (τάγματα, tagmata) from a reactive, defence-oriented citizen army into an army of professional career soldiers, increasingly dependent on foreign mercenaries. Mercenaries were expensive, however, and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications.[104] Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death, but he neglected to plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the imperial administration increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Incompetent efforts to revive the Byzantine economy resulted in severe inflation and a debased gold currency. The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. A number of standing local units were demobilised, further augmenting the army's dependence on mercenaries, who could be retained and dismissed on an as-needed basis.[105] The seizure of Edessa (1031) by the Byzantines under George Maniakes and the counterattack by the Seljuk Turks At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by the Normans, who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East-West Schism of 1054, the Normans began to advance, slowly but steadily, into Byzantine Italy.[106] Reggio, the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard, followed by Otranto in 1068. Bari, the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia, was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071.[107] About 1053, Constantine IX disbanded what the historian John Skylitzes calls the "Iberian Army", which consisted of 50,000 men, and it was turned into a contemporary Drungary of the Watch. Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officials Michael Attaleiates and Kekaumenos, agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers Constantine did catastrophic harm to the Empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own, Romanos Diogenes, as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At the Battle of Manzikert, Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan, and was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.[105] In Constantinople, however, a coup put in power Michael Doukas, who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates. By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west, and they had founded their capital at Nicaea, just 90 kilometres (56 miles) from Constantinople.[108] Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty and Komnenian restoration Alexios I, founder of the Komnenos dynasty During the Komnenian, or Comnenian, period from about 1081 to about 1185, the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty (Alexios I, John II, Manuel I, Alexios II, and Andronikos I) presided over a sustained, though ultimately incomplete, restoration of the military, territorial, economic, and political position of the Byzantine Empire.[109] Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia, most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers, particularly the Normans.[109] The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of the Crusades in the Holy Land, which Alexios I had helped bring about, while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe, the Near East, and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel. Contact between Byzantium and the "Latin" West, including the Crusader states, increased significantly during the Komnenian period. Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire (there were an estimated 60,000 Latins in Constantinople alone, out of a population of three to four hundred thousand), and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology, art, literature and culture throughout the Latin West, while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the Empire.[110] In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,[111] and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.[112] There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.[113] Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.[114] Alexios I and the First Crusade[edit] Further information: Alexios I Komnenos See also: First Crusade The Chora Church, dating from the Komnenian period, has some of the finest Byzantine frescoes and mosaics. After Manzikert, a partial recovery (referred to as the Komnenian restoration) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty.[115] The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081. From the outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto, who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly. Robert Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated the Pechenegs, who were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091.[116] The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm before the First Crusade (1095–1099) Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the Empire's traditional defences.[117] However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks. At the Council of Piacenza in 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East, and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule.[118] Urban saw Alexios's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule.[118] On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont, and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming.[116] Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West, but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in Byzantine territory. It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans, among them Bohemund. Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople, however, the Emperor had some control over it. He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land. In return, he gave them guides and a military escort.[119] Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities, islands and much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under the Treaty of Devol in 1108, which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign.[120] John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade[edit] Main articles: John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos A mosaic from the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depicting Mary and Jesus, flanked by John II Komnenos (left) and his wife Irene of Hungary (right), 12th century Byzantine Empire in orange, c. 1180, at the end of the Komnenian period Alexios's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier.[121] Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.[122] For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia.[123] He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily.[124] In the later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while restoring many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines. He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia, while forcing Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty. In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.[125] In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident. John's chosen heir was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos, who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem.[126] In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium. By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.[127] Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire.[128] In the east, however, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon, against the Turks. Yet the losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks".[129] The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes, who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir, not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful.[130] 12th-century Renaissance[edit] Further information: Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century See also: Komnenian Byzantine army The Lamentation of Christ (1164), a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi, North Macedonia, considered a superb example of 12th-century Komnenian art John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies.[131] Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the Empire's European frontiers. From c. 1081 to c. 1180, the Komnenian army assured the Empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish.[132] This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople.[133] In artistic terms, there was a revival in mosaic, and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences.[134] During the 12th century, the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors. In Eustathius of Thessalonica, Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression.[135] In philosophy, there was a resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works.[113] Besides, the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period.[114] Decline and disintegration[edit] Main article: Decline of the Byzantine Empire Angelid dynasty[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Byzantium in the late Angeloi period Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his mother Maria of Antioch's Frankish background, made his regency unpopular.[136] Eventually, Andronikos I Komnenos, a grandson of Alexios I, launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d'état.[137] Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army, he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre of the Latins.[137] After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II and took his 12-year-old wife Agnes of France for himself.[137] Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians. According to George Ostrogorsky, Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; officials were paid an adequate salary to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.[138] The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror.[139] Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.[138] Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos, Béla III of Hungary (r. 1172–1196) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia (r. 1166–1196) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily's (r. 1166–1189) invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185.[140] Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos, surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.[141] The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brother Alexios III, saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the Empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond before 1204.[142] According to Alexander Vasiliev, "the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin, ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within."[143] Fourth Crusade[edit] Main article: Fourth Crusade The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix (1840) In 1198, Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters.[144] The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As a payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port of Zara in Dalmatia (vassal city of Venice, which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186).[145] Shortly afterwards, Alexios Angelos, son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos, made contacts with the crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt.[146] Crusader sack of Constantinople (1204)[edit] Further information: Siege of Constantinople (1203) and Siege of Constantinople (1204) The partition of the empire following the Fourth Crusade, c. 1204 The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked, starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from the capital and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V. The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204, and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up in Western Europe, a large number in Venice. According to Choniates, a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne.[147] When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire, and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions, though resistance continued through the Byzantine remnants of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus.[148] Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople, and the Doge took the title of "Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire".[149] Empire in exile[edit] Further information: Frankokratia After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea, and the Despotate of Epirus. A third, the Empire of Trebizond, was created after Alexios Komnenos, commanding the Georgian expedition in Chaldia[150] a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himself de facto emperor, and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia.[151] The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242–43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.[152] In time, one of the Beys, Osman I, created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople. However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north. Reconquest of Constantinople[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty The Byzantine Empire, c. 1263 The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the Laskarid dynasty, managed to effect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos but the war-ravaged Empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment.[153] Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis.[154] Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the Empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople.[154] The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the Empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II often backfired, with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople.[155] Fall[edit] Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople[edit] Main articles: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars and Fall of Constantinople The siege of Constantinople in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. A six-year-long civil war devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan (r. 1331–1346) to overrun most of the Empire's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire. In 1354, an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort, allowing the Ottomans (who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos) to establish themselves in Europe.[156] By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the Battle of Kosovo, much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans.[157] The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help, but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree, but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite.[158] Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople, but most Western rulers, distracted by their own affairs, did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories.[159] Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, Sultan Mehmed's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city.[160] Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign),[159] Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The final Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken.[161] Political aftermath[edit] The Eastern Mediterranean just before the Fall of Constantinople Flag of the late Empire under the Palaiologoi, sporting the tetragrammic cross symbol of the Palaiologos dynasty By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea (Peloponnese), which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor, Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos. The Despotate continued as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans. Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II's invasion of Morea in May 1460.[162] A few holdouts remained for a time. The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair. When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope's protection before the end of 1460. The Mani Peninsula, on the Morea's south end, resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice's rule. The last holdout was Salmeniko, in the Morea's northwest. Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there, stationed at Salmeniko Castle. While the town eventually surrendered, Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461, when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.[163] The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After a month-long siege, David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. The Empire of Trebizond's Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro (part of the Perateia), lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December 1475. A nephew of the last Emperor, Constantine XI, Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor. He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460, then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life. Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary, Andreas' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law. However, the Empire had vanished, and Western states generally followed the Roman-church-sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty. Seeking a life in the west, Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ("Emperor of Constantinople"), and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs. Constantine XI died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Has Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of the Balkans. The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II.[164] Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century following World War I. They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants (Orthodox Christians) as Rûm. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities (whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors[165]) harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles. At his death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand duke of Muscovy. He had married Andreas' sister, Sophia Palaiologina, whose grandson, Ivan IV, would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar, or czar, meaning caesar, is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution.[166] Government and bureaucracy[edit] Main article: Byzantine bureaucracy The themes, c. 750 The themes, c. 950 In the Byzantine state, the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler, and his power was regarded as having divine origin.[167] From Justinian I on, the emperor was considered nomos empsychos, the "living law", both lawgiver and administrator.[168] The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members. By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change).[169] The most important administrative reform, which probably started in the mid-7th century, was the creation of themes, where civil and military administration was exercised by one person, the strategos.[170] Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for adapting to the Empire's changing situations. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices.[171] In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status, but, starting in the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of the Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices.[172] Diplomacy[edit] Main article: Byzantine diplomacy The embassy of John the Grammarian in 829, between the emperor Theophilos and the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours. When these nations set about forging formal political institutions, they often modelled themselves on Constantinople. Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations.[173] This network revolved around treaty-making, and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings, and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes, values and institutions.[174] Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war, Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means. For example, a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus'.[175] Italian sketch of Emperor John VIII during his visit in Ferrara and Florence in 1438 Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence-gathering function on top of its pure political function. The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record-keeping for any issues related to the "barbarians", and thus had, perhaps, a basic intelligence function itself.[176] John B. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople, and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou.[177] While on the surface a protocol office – its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators – it probably had a security function as well.[178] Byzantines availed themselves of several diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to the capital often stayed on for years. A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople, not only as a potential hostage but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed. Another key practise was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays.[173] According to Dimitri Obolensky, the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of Byzantium's lasting contributions to the history of Europe.[179] Law[edit] Main article: Byzantine law In 438, the Codex Theodosianus, named after Theodosius II, codified Byzantine law. It went into force not just in the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire, but also in the Western Roman Empire. It not only summarised the laws but also gave direction on interpretation. Under the reign of Justinian I it was Tribonian, a notable jurist, who supervised the revision of the legal code known today as the Corpus Juris Civilis. Justinian's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence, with his Corpus Juris Civilis becoming the basis for revived Roman law in the Western world, while Leo III's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.[180] In the 10th century, Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek with the Basilika, which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law with an influence extending through to modern Balkan legal codes.[96] Science and medicine[edit] See also: Byzantine science, Byzantine medicine, Byzantine law, and List of Byzantine inventions Interior of the Hagia Sophia, the patriarchal basilica in Constantinople designed 537 by Isidore of Miletus, the first compiler of Archimedes' various works. The influence of Archimedes' principles of solid geometry is evident. The writings of Classical antiquity were cultivated and extended in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy, and metaphysics.[181] In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus, the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia, produced the first compilation of Archimedes' works c. 530, and it is through this manuscript tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c. 850 during the "Byzantine Renaissance" by Leo the Mathematician, that such works are known today (see Archimedes Palimpsest).[182] Pendentive architecture, a specific spherical form in the upper corners to support a dome, is a Byzantine invention. Although the first experimentation was made in the 200s, it was in the 6th century in the Byzantine Empire that its potential was fully achieved.[183] A mechanical sundial device consisting of complex gears made by the Byzantines has been excavated which indicates that the Antikythera mechanism, a sort of analogue device used in astronomy and invented around the late second century BC, continued to be (re)active in the Byzantine period.[184][185][186] J. R. Partington writes that Constantinople was full of inventors and craftsmen. The "philosopher" Leo of Thessalonika made for the Emperor Theophilos (829–42) a golden tree, the branches of which carried artificial birds which flapped their wings and sang a model lion which moved and roared, and a bejewelled clockwork lady who walked. These mechanical toys continued the tradition represented in the treatise of Heron of Alexandria (c. A.D. 125), which was well-known to the Byzantines.[187] Such mechanical devices reached a high level of sophistication and were made to impress visitors.[188] The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides, which shows a set of seven famous physicians Leo the Mathematician has also been credited with the system of beacons, a sort of optical telegraph, stretching across Anatolia from Cilicia to Constantinople, which gave warning of enemy raids, and which was used as diplomatic communication as well. The Byzantines knew and used the concept of hydraulics: in the 900s the diplomat Liutprand of Cremona, when visiting the Byzantine emperor, explained that he saw the emperor sitting on a hydraulic throne and that it was "made in such a cunning manner that at one moment it was down on the ground, while at another it rose higher and was seen to be up in the air".[189] John Philoponus, an Alexandrian philologist, Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian, author of a considerable number of philosophical treatises and theological works, was the first who questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, despite its flaws. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. In his Commentaries on Aristotle, Philoponus wrote: But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other.[190] Bas-relief plaque of Tribonian in the Chamber of the House of Representatives in the United States Capitol Many refugee Byzantine scholars fled to North Italy in the 1400s. Here John Argyropoulos (1415–1487), born in Constantinople and who ended his days in north Italy. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration for Galileo Galilei's refutation of Aristotelian physics during the Scientific Revolution many centuries later, as Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works.[191][192] The ship mill is a Byzantine invention, designed to mill grains using hydraulic power. The technology eventually spread to the rest of Europe and was in use until c. 1800.[193][194] The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely a place to die.[195] Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by caltrops, 10th–12th century, National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to diagnose disease. It was Byzantine physicians, such as Theophilus Protospatharius, who realised the diagnostic potential of uroscopy in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.[196] In medicine, the works of Byzantine doctors, such as the Vienna Dioscorides (6th century), and works of Paul of Aegina (7th century) and Nicholas Myrepsos (late 13th century), continued to be used as the authoritative texts by Europeans through the Renaissance. The latter one invented the Aurea Alexandrina which was a kind of opiate or antidote. The first known example of separating conjoined twins happened in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century when a pair of conjoined twins from Armenia came to Constantinople. Many years later one of them died, so the surgeons in Constantinople decided to remove the body of the dead one. The result was partly successful, as the surviving twin lived three days before dying, a result so impressive that it was mentioned a century and a half later by historians. The next case of separating conjoined twins did not occur until 1689 in Germany.[197][198] Greek fire, an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water, is also attributed to the Byzantines. It played a crucial role in the Empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the siege of Constantinople (717–718).[199] The discovery is attributed to Callinicus of Heliopolis from Syria who fled during the Arab conquest of Syria. However, it has also been argued that no single person invented Greek fire, but rather, that it was "invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school...".[187] The first example of a grenade also appeared in the Byzantine Empire, consisting of ceramic jars holding glass and nails, and filled with the explosive component of Greek Fire. It was used on battlefields.[200][201][202] The first examples of hand-held flamethrower also occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, where infantry units were equipped with hand pumps and swivel tubes used to project the flame.[203] The counterweight trebuchet was invented in the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Alexios I Komnenos (1081–1118) under the Komnenian restoration when the Byzantines used this new-developed siege weaponry to devastate citadels and fortifications. This siege artillery marked the apogee of siege weaponry before the use of the cannon. From the Byzantines, the armies of Europe and Asia eventually learned and adopted this siege weaponry.[204] In the final century of the Empire, astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.[205] The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 fuelled the era later commonly known as the "Italian Renaissance". During this period, refugee Byzantine scholars were principally responsible for carrying, in person and writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary studies, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.[206] They also brought with them classical learning and texts on botany, medicine and zoology, as well as the works of Dioscorides and John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics.[192] Culture[edit] Religion[edit] Main articles: State church of the Roman Empire and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople As a symbol and expression of the universal prestige of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, Justinian built the Church of the Holy Wisdom of God, Hagia Sophia, which was completed in the short period of four and a half years (532–537). Mosaic of Jesus in Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul Triumphal arch mosaics of Jesus Christ and the Apostles. In Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy, said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor. Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues, "The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals."[207] Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy (2004): The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in his image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments ... It saw itself as a universal empire. Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God's image, so man's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.[208] The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative, and financial routine of administering religious affairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian Church. Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ, responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals" of the religion, such as administration and finances. As Cyril Mango points out, the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto "One God, one empire, one religion".[209] The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system.[210] Additionally, due to the decline of Rome and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates, the Church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential centre of Christendom.[211] Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self, the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers. As George Ostrogorsky points out: The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the centre of the Orthodox world, with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in Caucasus, Russia and Lithuania. The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire.[212] Byzantine monasticism especially came to be an "ever-present feature" of the empire, with monasteries becoming "powerful landowners and a voice to be listened to in imperial politics".[213] The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils, and it was then the emperor's duty to impose it on his subjects. An imperial decree of 388, which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianeus, orders the population of the Empire "to assume the name of Catholic Christians", and regards all those who will not abide by the law as "mad and foolish persons"; as followers of "heretical dogmas".[214] Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself, which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity, the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium. Mango believes that, in the early stages of the Empire, the "mad and foolish persons", those labelled "heretics" by the state church, were the majority of the population.[215] Besides the pagans, who existed until the end of the 6th century, and the Jews, there were many followers – sometimes even emperors – of various Christian doctrines, such as Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Arianism, and Paulicianism, whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine, as determined by the Ecumenical Councils.[216] Another division among Christians occurred, when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire. This led to a significant religious crisis, which ended in the mid-9th century with the restoration of icons. During the same period, a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans, originating mainly from Slavic people. These were gradually Christianised, and by Byzantium's late stages, Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and, in general, most people in what remained of the Empire.[217] Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history, and, according to Roman law, they constituted a legally recognised religious group. In the early Byzantine period, they were generally tolerated, but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued. In any case, after the Arab conquests, the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards.[218] Arts[edit] Art and literature[edit] Main articles: Byzantine art and Byzantine literature See also: Byzantine dress Miniatures of the 6th-century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art. Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in fresco, illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and, especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories. Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.[219] Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.[220] Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania. In Byzantine literature, three different cultural elements are recognised: the Greek, the Christian, and the Oriental. Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: historians and annalists, encyclopaedists (Patriarch Photios, Michael Psellus, and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium) and essayists, and writers of secular poetry. The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas. The remaining two groups include the new literary species: ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular poetry.[221] Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only 330 consist of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science.[221] While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century, its religious literature (sermons, liturgical books and poetry, theology, devotional treatises, etc.) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative.[222] Music[edit] Main article: Byzantine music See also: List of Byzantine composers Late 4th century "Mosaic of the Musicians" with organ, aulos, and lyre from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin, Syria[223] The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music, composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music,[224] are, today, the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system.[225] It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known. Earliest known depiction of a bowed lyra, from a Byzantine ivory casket (900–1100) (Museo Nazionale, Florence) The 9th-century Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh (d. 911), in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the lyra (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe).[226] The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, came to be called the lira da braccio,[227] in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there.[228] The bowed "lyra" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the Politiki lyra (lit. 'lyra of the City', i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy, and the Lijerica in Dalmatia. The second instrument, the organ, originated in the Hellenistic world (see Hydraulis) and was used in the Hippodrome during races.[229][230] A pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks in 757. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.[230] The aulos was a double reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk. Other forms include the plagiaulos (πλαγίαυλος, from πλάγιος "sideways"), which resembled the flute,[231] and the askaulos (ἀσκός askos – wine-skin), a bagpipe.[232] Bagpipes, also known as Dankiyo (from ancient Greek: angion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον) "the container"), had been played even in Roman times and continued to be played throughout the empire's former realms through to the present. (See Balkan Gaida, Greek Tsampouna, Pontic Tulum, Cretan Askomandoura, Armenian Parkapzuk, and Romanian Cimpoi.) The modern descendant of the aulos is the Greek Zourna. Other instruments used in Byzantine Music were Kanonaki, Oud, Laouto, Santouri, Tambouras, Seistron (defi tambourine), Toubeleki and Daouli. Some claim that Lavta may have been invented by the Byzantines before the arrival of the Turks.[citation needed] Cuisine[edit] Main article: Byzantine cuisine Byzantine culture was initially the same as Late Greco-Roman, but over the following millennium of the empire's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture. The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco-Roman fish-sauce condiment garos, but it also contained foods still familiar today, such as the cured meat pastirma (known as "paston" in Byzantine Greek),[233][234][235] baklava (known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς),[236] tiropita (known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas),[237] and the famed medieval sweet wines (Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine). Retsina, wine flavoured with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today, producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors; "To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable," complained Liutprand of Cremona, who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I.[238] The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an "exceedingly bad fish liquor."[238] The Byzantines also used a soy sauce-like condiment, murri, a fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, provided umami flavouring to their dishes.[239][240] Flags and insignia[edit] Main article: Byzantine flags and insignia The double-headed eagle, a common Imperial symbol For most of its history, the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense. Various emblems (Greek: σημεία, sēmeia; sing. σημείον, sēmeion) were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum. The use of the cross and images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials, but these were personal rather than family emblems.[241] Double-headed eagle Tetragrammic cross Language[edit] Further information: Medieval Greek Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete psalter in the Coptic language (Coptic Museum, Egypt, Coptic Cairo) Right: The Joshua Roll, a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople (Vatican Library, Rome) Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek-speaking villages in 1910.[242]) Apart from the Imperial court, administration and military, the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek, having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin.[243] Following Rome's conquest of the east its 'Pax Romana', inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure, facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of the Greek language in the east. Indeed, early on in the life of the Roman Empire, Greek had become the common language of the Church, the language of scholarship and the arts, and to a large degree the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations.[244] Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language, known as Koine (eventually evolving into Demotic Greek), used alongside an older written form (Attic Greek) until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard.[245] The emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, making it the official language of the Roman administration also in the East, and the Greek expression ἡ κρατοῦσα διάλεκτος (hē kratousa dialektos) attests to the status of Latin as "the language of power."[246] In the early 5th century, Greek gained equal status with Latin as the official language in the East and emperors gradually began to legislate in Greek rather than Latin starting with the reign of Leo I the Thracian in the 460s.[32] The last Eastern emperor to stress the importance of Latin was Justinian I (r. 527–565), whose Corpus Juris Civilis was written almost entirely in Latin. He may also have been the last native Latin-speaking emperor.[32] The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until the adoption of Greek as the sole official language by Heraclius in the 7th century. Scholarly Latin rapidly fell into disuse among the educated classes although the language continued to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire's culture for some time.[247] Additionally, Latin remained a minority language in the Empire, mainly on the Italian peninsula, along the Dalmatian coast and in the Balkans (specially in mountainous areas away from the coast), eventually developing into various Romance languages like Dalmatian or Romanian.[248] Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire, and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times.[249] Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces.[250] Similarly Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces.[251] Later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic, Middle Persian, and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence.[252] There was a revival of Latin studies in the 10th century for the same reason and by the 11th century knowledge of Latin was no longer unusual at Constantinople.[253] There was widespread use of the Armenian and various Slavic languages, which became more pronounced in the border regions of the empire.[249] Aside from these languages, since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond, virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time, even Chinese.[254] As the Empire entered its final decline, the Empire's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion.[255] Recreation[edit] A game of τάβλι (tabula) played by Byzantine emperor Zeno in 480 and recorded by Agathias in c. 530 because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone.[256] Byzantines were avid players of tavli (Byzantine Greek: τάβλη), a game known in English as backgammon, which is still popular in former Byzantine realms, and still known by the name tavli in Greece.[256] Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship, particularly tzykanion, now known as polo. The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for playing the game) was built by Theodosius II (r. 408–450) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople. Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) excelled at it; Emperor Alexander (r. 912–913) died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) was injured while playing with Tatikios, and John I of Trebizond (r. 1235–1238) died from a fatal injury during a game.[257][258] Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria, most notably Sparta, Ephesus, and Athens, an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy.[259] The game was introduced to the West by crusaders, who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Women in the Byzantine Empire[edit] Main article: Women in the Byzantine Empire The position of women in the Byzantine Empire essentially represents the position of women in ancient Rome transformed by the introduction of Christianity, with certain rights and customs being lost and replaced, while others were allowed to remain. There were individual Byzantine women famed for their educational accomplishments. However, the general view of women's education was that it was sufficient for a girl to learn domestic duties and to study the lives of the Christian saints and memorize psalms,[260] and to learn to read so that she could study Bible scriptures – although literacy in women was sometimes discouraged because it was believed it could encourage vice.[261] The Roman right to actual divorce was gradually erased after the introduction of Christianity and replaced with legal separation and annulation. In the Byzantine Empire marriage was regarded as the ideal state for a woman, and only convent life was seen as a legitimate alternative. Within marriage, sexual activity was regarded only as a means of reproduction. Women had the right to appear before court, but her testimony was not regarded as equal to that of a man, and could be contradicted based on her sex if put against that of a man.[260] From the 6th century there was a growing ideal of gender segregation, which dictated that women should wear veils [262] and only be seen in public when attending church,[263] and while the ideal was never fully enforced, it influenced society. The laws of emperor Justinian I made it legal for a man to divorce his wife for attending public premises such as theatres or public baths without his permission,[264] and emperor Leo VI banned women from witnessing business contracts with the argument that it caused them to come in contact with men.[260] In Constantinople upper class women were increasingly expected to keep to a special women's section (gynaikonitis),[263] and by the 8th century it was described as unacceptable for unmarried daughters to meet unrelated men.[260] While Imperial women and their ladies appeared in public alongside men, women and men at the Imperial Court attended royal banquets separately until the rise of the Comnenus dynasty in the 12th century.[263] Eastern Roman and later Byzantine women retained the Roman woman's right to inherit, own and manage their property and signs contracts,[263] rights which were far superior to the rights of married women in Medieval Catholic Western Europe, as these rights included not only unmarried women and widows but married women as well.[264] Women's legal right to handle their own money made it possible for rich women to engage in business, however women who actively had to find a profession to support themselves normally worked as domestics or in domestic fields such as the food- or textile industry.[264] Women could work as medical physicians and attendants of women patients and visitors at hospitals and public baths with government support.[261] After the introduction of Christianity, women could no longer become priestesses, but it became common for women to found and manage nunneries, which functioned as schools for girls as well as asylums, poor houses, hospitals, prisons and retirement homes for women, and many Byzantine women practised social work as lay sisters and deaconesses.[263] Economy[edit] Further information: Byzantine economy and Byzantine silk Further information: Sino-Roman relations Golden Solidus of Justinian I (527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of Indo-Roman trade during the period The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries. Europe, in particular, could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa, in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road. Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West, the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient.[265] The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests represented a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline. Isaurian reforms and Constantine V's repopulation, public works and tax measures marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204, despite territorial contraction.[266] From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital.[267] The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean, events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire.[267] The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state did not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. Gradually, Constantinople also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.[268] One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the Empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West.[269] The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage, maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs.[270] The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations, in which it had a special interest. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to keep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investment in public works.[270] Legacy[edit] See also: Third Rome and Greek scholars in the Renaissance Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia, circa 1261 Byzantine culture Aristocracy and bureaucracy Army Art Architecture Calendar Cities Coinage Cuisine Dance Diplomacy Dress Economy Gardens Law Literature Medicine Music Navy People Science v t e Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism" have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even in 19th-century Greece, the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations.[271] This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of medieval Europe, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.[272] The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus regarded as transmitters of classical knowledge, as important contributors to modern European civilisation, and as precursors of both Renaissance humanism and Slavic-Orthodox culture.[273] As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.[273] Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title "Kaysar-i Rûm" (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.[274] See also[edit] Byzantine Army Byzantine philosophy Byzantine Rite Index of Byzantine Empire-related articles Family trees of the Byzantine imperial dynasties Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty List of Byzantine emperors List of Byzantine inventions List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars List of Byzantine wars Despotate of the Morea List of Roman dynasties Succession of the Roman Empire Legacy of the Roman Empire Notes[edit] ^ "Romania" was a popular name of the empire used mainly unofficially, which meant "land of the Romans".[3] After 1081, it occasionally appears in official Byzantine documents as well. In 1204, the leaders of the Fourth Crusade gave the name Romania to their newly founded Latin Empire.[4] The term does not refer to modern Romania. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Fox, What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?; Rosser 2011, p. 1 ^ Rosser 2011, p. 2. ^ Fossier & Sondheimer 1997, p. 104. ^ Wolff 1948, pp. 5–7, 33–34. ^ Cinnamus 1976, p. 240. ^ Browning 1992, "Introduction", p. xiii: "The Byzantines did not call themselves Byzantines, but Romaioi–Romans. They were well aware of their role as heirs of the Roman Empire, which for many centuries had united under a single government the whole Mediterranean world and much that was outside it." ^ Nicol, Donald M. (30 December 1967). "The Byzantine View of Western Europe". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 8 (4): 318. 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"Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 529–37. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Mango, Cyril A. (2007). Η Αυτοκρατορία της Νέας Ρώμης [Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome] (in Greek). Translated by Dimitris Tsoungarakis. Athens: Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece. Mango, Cyril A. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814098-6. Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2002). "Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 771–806. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. McDonnell, Myles Anthony (2006). Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82788-1. Meier, William N. (2003). "Die Inszenierung einer Katastrophe: Justinian und der Nika-Aufstand". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 142 (142): 273–300. JSTOR 20191600. Merryman, John Henry; Perez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2007). The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5569-6. Meyendorff, John (1982). The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-913836-90-3. Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24703-1. Miller, William (1907). "Monemvasia". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 27: 229–301. doi:10.2307/624442. JSTOR 624442. Moravcsik, Gyula (1970). Byzantium and the Magyars. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Neumann, Iver B. (2006). "Sublime Diplomacy: Byzantine, Early Modern, Contemporary" (PDF). Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 34 (3): 865–88. doi:10.1177/03058298060340030201. ISSN 1569-2981. S2CID 144773343. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2020. Neville, Leonora Alice (2004). Authority in Byzantine Provincial Society, 950–1100. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83865-8. Nicol, Donald M. (1988). "Byzantine political thought". In Burns, J. H. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350–c. 1450. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–79. ISBN 978-0-52-142388-5. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). London: Rupert Hart-Davis Ltd. ISBN 0-246-10559-3. Nicol, Donald M. (1996). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295–1383. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52201-4. Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-025960-5. Norwich, John Julius (1982). A History of Venice. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc. ISBN 978-0-394-52410-8. Nystazopoulou-Pelekidou, Maria (1970). Συμβολή εις την χρονολόγησιν των Αβαρικών και Σλαβικών επιδρομών επί Μαυρικίου (582–602) (μετ' επιμέτρου περί των Περσικών πολέμων) [Contribution to the chronology of Avar and Slav raids during the reign of Maurice (582–602), with an excursus about the Persian Wars]. Byzantina Symmeikta (in Greek). 2: 145–206. doi:10.12681/byzsym.649. ISSN 1105-1639. Archived from the original on 27 June 2012. Retrieved 10 March 2012. Obolensky, Dimitri (1974) [1971]. The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453. London: Cardinal. ISBN 978-0-351-17644-9. Obolensky, Dimitri (1994). Byzantium and the Slavs. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-008-2. Oikonomides, Nikos (1999). "L᾽"Unilinguisme" Officiel de Constantinople Byzantine". Byzantina Symmeikta. 13: 9–22. doi:10.12681/byzsym.857. ISSN 1105-1639. Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1198-6. Ostrogorsky, George (1959). "The Byzantine Empire in the World of the Seventh Century" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 1–21. doi:10.2307/1291127. JSTOR 1291126. S2CID 165376375. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2020. Paparrigopoulos, Constantine; Karolidis, Pavlos (1925). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [History of the Greek Nation] (in Greek). 4. Eleftheroudakis. Parry, Kenneth (1996). Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries. Leiden and New York: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10502-7. Patterson, Gordon M. (1995) [1990]. The Essentials of Medieval History: 500 to 1450 AD, the Middle Ages. Piscataway: Research and Education Association. ISBN 978-0-87891-705-1. Perrottet, Tony (2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4. Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward; Postan, Cynthia (1987). The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08709-4. Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22379-9. Read, Piers Paul (2000) [1999]. The Templars: The Dramatic History of the Knights Templar, The Most Powerful Military Order of the Crusades. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-26658-5. Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). "Fragmentation (1204–1453)". In Cyril Mango (ed.). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 248–83. ISBN 978-0-19-814098-6. Rice, David Talbot (1968). Byzantine Art (3rd ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Limited. Robins, Robert Henry (1993). The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-013574-9. Rosser, John H. (2011). "Introduction". Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Lanham, MA: Scarecrow. ISBN 978-0-8108-7567-8. Runciman, Steven (1990). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39832-9. Runciman, Steven (2004). The Byzantine Theocracy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54591-4. Salaman, Rena (1986). "The Case of the Missing Fish, or Dolmathon Prolegomena". In Jaine, Tom (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1984 & 1985: Cookery: Science, Lore & Books: Proceedings (Introduction by Alan Davidson). London: Prospect Books Limited. pp. 184–87. ISBN 978-0-907325-16-1. Sarantis, Alexander (2009). "War and Diplomacy in Pannonia and the Northwest Balkans during the Reign of Justinian: The Gepid Threat and Imperial Responses". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 63: 15–40. JSTOR 41219761. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. III. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9. Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). The Russian Empire, 1801–1917. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822152-4. Sotinel, Claire (2005). "Emperors and Popes in the Sixth Century: The Western View". In Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–90. ISBN 978-0-521-81746-2. Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Poikila Byzantina. 4: 175–210. Stephenson, Paul (2000). Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77017-0. Tarasov, Oleg; Milner-Gulland, R.R. (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia. London: Reaktion. ISBN 978-1-86189-118-1. Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-563-5. Teall, John L. (1967). "The Age of Constantine Change and Continuity in Administration and Economy". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 21: 11–36. doi:10.2307/1291256. JSTOR 1291256. Timberlake, Alan (2004). A Reference Grammar of Russian. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1. Treadgold, Warren (1995). Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2420-3. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Troianos, Spyros; Velissaropoulou-Karakosta, Julia (1997). Ιστορία δικαίου από την αρχαία στην νεώτερη Ελλάδα [History of law from ancient to modern Greece] (in Greek). Athens: Sakkoulas. ISBN 978-960-232-594-0. Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). History of the Byzantine Empire. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-80925-6. Versteegh, Cornelis H.M. (1977). Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04855-3. Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01597-5. Watson, Bruce (1993). Sieges: A Comparative Study. Westport: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-94034-8. Weitzmann, Kurt (1982). The Icon. London: Evans Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-45645-0. Wells, Herbert George (1922). A Short History of the World. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-06-492674-4. Whittow, Mark (1996). The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20496-6. Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0. Wolff, Robert Lee (1948). "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". Speculum. 23 (1): 1–34. doi:10.2307/2853672. JSTOR 2853672. S2CID 162802725. Wroth, Warwick (1908). Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum. British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals. ISBN 978-1-4021-8954-8. Further reading[edit] Ahrweiler, Hélène; Aymard, Maurice (2000). Les Européens. Paris: Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-6409-1. Angelov, Dimiter (2007). Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85703-1. Baboula, Evanthia, Byzantium, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1-61069-177-6. Evans, Helen C.; Wixom, William D (1997). The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843–1261. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6507-2. Cameron, Averil (2014). Byzantine Matters. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5009-9. Duval, Ben (2019), Midway Through the Plunge: John Cantacuzenus and the Fall of Byzantium, Byzantine Emporia, LLC Haldon, John (2001). The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7524-1795-0. Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium: A History. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-3240-4. Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740. Harvard University. ISBN 978-0-674-08877-1. Harris, Jonathan (9 February 2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2017. ISBN 978-1-4742-5465-6. online review Harris, Jonathan (2015). The Lost World of Byzantium. New Haven CT and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17857-9. Harris, Jonathan (2020). Introduction to Byzantium, 602–1453 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-55643-0. Hussey, J.M. (1966). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. IV: The Byzantine Empire. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Moles Ian N., "Nationalism and Byzantine Greece", Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies, Duke University, pp. 95–107, 1969 Runciman, Steven (1966). Byzantine Civilisation. London: Edward Arnold Limited. ISBN 978-1-56619-574-4. Runciman, Steven (1990) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06164-3. Stanković, Vlada, ed. (2016). The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-1326-5. Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2014). A Short History of the Byzantine Empire. London: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-194-7. Thomas, John P. (1987). Private Religious Foundations in the Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-164-3. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1972). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215253-4. External links[edit] Library resources about Byzantine Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Byzantine Empire on In Our Time at the BBC De Imperatoribus Romanis. Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors. 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of The Stony Brook School; audio lectures. NYTimes review. 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime). Byzantine & Christian Museum Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography[edit] Fox, Clinton R. "What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?" (Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors) Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks. Includes links to numerous electronic texts. Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet. Links to various online resources. Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204. Online sourcebook. De Re Militari. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars. Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history. Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life. Hosted by the University of Vienna; in English. Constantinople Home Page. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium. Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture. Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire) v t e Byzantine Empire topics History Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early (330–717) Constantinian–Valentinianic era Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Theodosian era Leonid era Justinian era Heraclian era "Byzantine Dark Ages" Twenty Years' Anarchy Middle (717–1204) Isaurian era Nikephorian era Amorian era Macedonian era Doukid era Komnenian era Angelid era Late (1204–1453) Sack of Constantinople Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Latin Empire Byzantine successor states (Nicaea / Epirus–Thessalonica / Morea / Trebizond) Palaiologan era Decline of the Byzantine Empire Fall of Constantinople By modern region or territory Albania Anatolia Armenia Bulgaria Corsica Crete Cyprus Dalmatia Egypt Greece Italy Sardinia Sicily Maghreb Malta Mesopotamia Serbia Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) Syria Thrace Governance Central Emperors Coronation Family tree Empresses Imperial bureaucracy Medieval Greek Senate Early Praetorian prefects Magister officiorum Comes sacrarum largitionum Comes rerum privatarum Quaestor sacri palatii Middle Logothetes tou dromou Sakellarios Logothetes tou genikou Logothetes tou stratiotikou Chartoularios tou sakelliou Chartoularios tou vestiariou Epi tou eidikou Protasekretis Epi ton deeseon Late Megas logothetes Mesazon Provincial Early Praetorian prefectures Dioceses Provinces Quaestura exercitus Exarchate of Ravenna Exarchate of Africa Middle Themata Kleisourai Bandon Catepanates Late Kephale Despotates Diplomacy Treaties Diplomats Roman–Iranian relations Military Army Battle tactics Battles Generals Mercenaries Military manuals Military units Revolts Wars Early Late Roman army East Roman army Foederati Bucellarii Scholae Palatinae Excubitors Middle Themata Kleisourai Tourma Droungos Bandon Tagmata Domestic of the Schools Hetaireia Akritai Varangian Guard Late Komnenian army Pronoia Vestiaritai Palaiologan army Allagion Paramonai Grand domestic Navy Karabisianoi Maritime themata Cibyrrhaeot Aegean Sea Samos Dromon Greek fire Droungarios of the Fleet Megas doux Admirals Naval battles Religion and law Religion Eastern Orthodoxy Byzantine Rite Hesychasm Patriarchate of Constantinople Saints Oriental Orthodoxy Alexandrian Rite Armenian Rite West Syriac Rite Miaphysitism Ecumenical councils Arianism Monophysitism Paulicianism Iconoclasm Great Schism Bogomilism Mount Athos Missionary activity Bulgaria Moravia Serbs Kievan Rus' Jews Law Codex Theodosianus Corpus Juris Civilis Code of Justinian Ecloga Basilika Hexabiblos Mutilation Culture and society Architecture Secular Sacred Cross-in-square Domes Constantinople Basilica Cistern Baths of Zeuxippus Blachernae Palace Chora Church City Walls Great Palace of Constantinople Hagia Irene Hagia Sophia Hippodrome Pammakaristos Church Prison of Anemas Thessalonica Arch of Galerius and Rotunda Byzantine Bath Hagia Sophia Hagios Demetrios Panagia Chalkeon Walls of Thessaloniki Ravenna San Vitale Sant'Apollinare in Classe Sant'Apollinare Nuovo Other locations Daphni Monastery Hosios Loukas Nea Moni of Chios Panagia Gorgoepikoos Saint Catherine's Monastery Mystras Art Icons Enamel Glass Mosaics Early Byzantine mosaics Painters Macedonian period art Komnenian renaissance Economy Agriculture Coinage Mints Trade silk Silk Road Varangians Dynatoi Literature Novel Acritic songs Digenes Akritas Alexander Romance Historians Everyday life Calendar Cities Cuisine Dance Dress Flags and insignia Gardens Music Lyra Octoechos People Byzantine Greeks Women Slavery Units of measurement Science Learning Encyclopedias Imperial Library Inventions Medicine Philosophy Rhetoric Scholars University University of Constantinople Impact Byzantine commonwealth Byzantine studies Museums Byzantinism Cyrillic script Neo-Byzantine architecture Greek scholars in the Renaissance Third Rome Megali Idea Byzantine Empire portal Links to related articles v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Xianbei Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Tunni Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Geledi Habr Yunis Hobyo Isaaq Majeerteen Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e History of Anatolia v t e List of historic states of Italy Etruscan civilization Lega dei popoli Etruscan dodecapolis Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Italy (4th/3rd century BC–476 AD) Sicilia (241 BC–476 AD) Corsica and Sardinia (238 BC–455 AD) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (285 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy (337 AD–584 AD) Medieval and Early Modern states Early Italian Kingdom (476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric of Bressanone Corsican Republic City of Fiume and its District Commune of Rome County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla County of Santa Fiora Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Tyrol Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Savoyard state Savoy County of Savoy Piedmont Duchy of Aosta County of Nice County of Tenda Papal States (754–1870) Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Holy See Duchy of Parma Duchy of Urbino Republics Republic of Cospaia Republic of Ancona Republic of Florence Republic of Genoa 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Napoleonic eras (1792–1815) Republics Cisalpinia Cispadania Italy Liguria Lucca Parthenopea Piedmont Rome Subalpinia Transpadania Monarchies Benevento Etruria Guastalla Italy Lucca and Piombino Massa and Carrara Naples Pontecorvo Tuscany Elba Corsica Post-Napoleonic states Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848) Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829) Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859) Duchy of Parma (1814–1859) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859) Italian United Provinces (1831) Provisional Government of Milan (1848) Republic of San Marco (1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Venezia Giulia Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure 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en-wikipedia-org-7608	----	Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Artist Eugène Delacroix Year 1844 Medium Oil on canvas Dimensions 348 cm × 260 cm (137 in × 100 in) Location Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius is an 1844 painting by the French artist Eugène Delacroix, now in the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. A preliminary sketch of the painting that was given to Delacroix's student Louis de Planet is also kept in the museum. Description and analysis[edit] This large painting depicts the last hours of the life of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as Delacroix admired the Stoics and particularly Marcus Aurelius. The character is represented in the center of the painting as an old, sick man who grabs the arm of a young man dressed in red, namely his son Commodus (Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus). Commodus seems not to pay attention to what his father wants him to say and has a haughty look. Around them, Marcus Aurelius' philosopher friends who are present around the bed are portrayed as sad men dressed in black.[1] Thus, the painting represents the end of the Roman Empire. Delacroix, who was fascinated by the red color after his travel to North Africa in 1832, draws the viewer's attention to Commodus by garbing him in bright red. It appears that the painting has no moral aspect, as the message that Delacroix wanted to convey in this work remains unknown.[2] Reception[edit] The first text which speaks of the painting is the catalog of the Salon of 1845 where it was exposed, which reads: "The figure of Marcus Aurelius, indeed sick and almost dying, seems to us in a too early decomposing state; the shades of green and yellow which hammer his face give him a quite cadaverous appearance", "some draperies may be too crumpled" and "some attitudes show a lack of nobility".[3] The work received mostly negative reviews, but the writer Charles Baudelaire appreciated it and said: "A beautiful, huge, sublime, misunderstood picture [...]. The color [...], far from losing its cruel originality in this new and more complete scene, is still bloody and terrible".[1] References[edit] ^ a b "Eugène Delacroix (Saint-Maurice, 1798 - Paris, 1863), Dernières paroles de l'empereur Marc Aurèle" (in French). Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. Retrieved 19 March 2010. ^ Cécilia de Varine. "L'exposition et ses publics: l'espace d'une rencontre" (pdf) (in French). Irevues. Retrieved 19 March 2010. ^ "Salon de 1845, feuilleton de la presse du 11 mars 1845 (translation in French by Valérie Pythoud)" (in French). Théophile Gauthier. Archived from the original on March 2, 2010. Retrieved 19 March 2010. v t e Eugène Delacroix Paintings The Entombment (1820) The Barque of Dante (1822) Head of a Woman (1823) Mademoiselle Rose (c. 1820–1824) Orphan Girl at the Cemetery (c. 1824) The Massacre at Chios (1824) Horse Frightened by a Thunderstorm (c. 1824) Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826) The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan (1826, 1835, 1856) The Execution of the Doge Marino Faliero (1826) Louis d'Orléans Showing Off His Mistress (1826) Portrait of Louis-Auguste Schwiter (1826-1830) Woman Stroking a Parrot (1827) The Death of Sardanapalus (1827, 1844) Cromwell at Windsor Castle (1828) The Murder of the Bishop of Liège (1829) Liberty Leading the People (1830) A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother (1830–1831) The Battle of Nancy (1831) Cromwell with the Coffin of Charles I (1831) The Picador (1832) Arab Rider Charging (1832) Women of Algiers (1834, 1847–1849) Christ on the Cross (1835) The Battle of Taillebourg, 21 July 1242 (1837) The Kaïd, A Moroccan Chief (1837) Warrior by a Tomb (1838) Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand (1838) Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople (1840) Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1840) The Sultan of Morocco (1845) The Abduction of Rebecca (1846) The Bride of Abydos (pre-1849, 1843–1849) Christ Asleep during the Tempest (c. 1853) Lion Devouring a Rabbit (c. 1855) The Two Foscari (1855) The Lion Hunt (1855) Ovid among the Scythians (1859, 1862) Arab Horses Fighting in a Stable (1860) Horses Leaving the Sea (1860) Jacob wrestling with the Angel (1854–1861) Tiger with a Tortoise (1862) Drawings Sunset (c. 1850) People Charles-François Delacroix (father) Charles-Henri Delacroix (brother) Henriette de Verninac (sister) Jean-François Oeben (grandfather) Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord Henri-François Riesener Jean-Henri Riesener Théodore Géricault Richard Parkes Bonington Paul Huet Ary Scheffer Pierre-Narcisse Guérin Museums Musée national Eugène Delacroix, Paris Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Last_Words_of_the_Emperor_Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=998731953" Categories: 1844 paintings Paintings by Eugène Delacroix Paintings of the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon Cultural depictions of Marcus Aurelius Paintings about death Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Română Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 19:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7621	----	File:12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG - Wikipedia File:12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 240 pixels | 640 × 480 pixels | 1,024 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 960 pixels | 2,592 × 1,944 pixels. Original file ‎(2,592 × 1,944 pixels, file size: 2.05 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Description12 dicembre 2008 piena del tevere 17.JPG Italiano: Il fiume tevere in piena 12 dicembre 2008 . English: The flood of Tiber, 12 december 2008 . Date 11 December 2008 Source Own work Author Stefano Bolognini This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 CC BY 3.0 Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 truetrue Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value object has role: photographer author name string: Stefano Bolognini Wikimedia username: Bolo77 URL: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Bolo77 copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported inception 11 December 2008 source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 15:40, 12 December 2008 2,592 × 1,944 (2.05 MB) Bolo77 {{Information |Description={{it|Il fiume tevere in piena 12 dicembre 2008}}. {{en|1=The flood of Tiber, 12 december 2008}}. |Source=Own work by uploader |Date=11 December 2008 |Author=Stefano Bolognini |Permission=Attribution 2.5 |other_ve File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ta.wiktionary.org நீச்சு Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer SONY Camera model DSC-T30 Exposure time 1/40 sec (0.025) F-number f/3.5 ISO speed rating 160 Date and time of data generation 14:57, 12 December 2008 Lens focal length 6.33 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi File change date and time 14:57, 12 December 2008 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.21 Date and time of digitizing 14:57, 12 December 2008 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 8 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 3.625 APEX (f/3.51) Metering mode Pattern Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire, auto mode Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Auto white balance Scene capture type Standard Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Normal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:12_dicembre_2008_piena_del_tevere_17.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7630	----	File:AELIUS CAESAR RIC II 987-671493.jpg - Wikipedia File:AELIUS CAESAR RIC II 987-671493.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata No higher resolution available. AELIUS_CAESAR_RIC_II_987-671493.jpg ‎(325 × 144 pixels, file size: 39 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionAELIUS CAESAR RIC II 987-671493.jpg English: HADRIAN, with AELIUS, Caesar. 117-138 AD. Æ Dupondius or As (11.06 gm). Struck 136-138 AD. Bare-headed and draped bust of Hadrian right Bare head of Aelius right. RIC II 987; BMCRE 1847; Cohen 2 var. (Hadrian is laureate). 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(Hadr File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on it.wikipedia.org Monetazione da Nerva ad Adriano Cronologia degli eventi principali riguardanti la vita di Marco Aurelio Usage on ro.wikipedia.org Utilizator:Babu/Marcus Aurelius Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer NIKON Camera model E990 Exposure time 10/121 sec (0.082644628099174) F-number f/9.9 ISO speed rating 100 Date and time of data generation 10:24, 3 June 2004 Lens focal length 19 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used E990v1.0 File change date and time 10:24, 3 June 2004 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.1 Date and time of digitizing 10:24, 3 June 2004 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 3 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 3.5 APEX (f/3.36) Metering mode Spot Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AELIUS_CAESAR_RIC_II_987-671493.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7647	----	Roman Republic - Wikipedia Roman Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Period of ancient Roman civilization (509–27 BC) For other uses, see Roman Republic (disambiguation). Roman Republic Official name (as on coins): Roma after c. 100 BC: Senatus Populusque Romanus  (Latin) (SPQR) (The Roman Senate and People) 509 BC–27 BC Denarius of 54 BC, showing the first Roman consul, Lucius Junius Brutus, surrounded by two lictors and preceded by an accensus[1] Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BC Capital Rome Common languages Latin (official) Etruscan, Greek, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Ligurian, Rhaetian, Nuragic, Sicel, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Punic, Berber, Coptic, Illyrian, Iberian, Lusitanian, Celtiberian, Gaulish, Gallaecian, Aquitanian (unofficial, but commonly spoken) Religion Roman polytheism Government Diarchic republic Consuls   • 509 BC (first) Lucius Junius Brutus Lucius Collatinus • 27 BC (last) Octavian Marcus Agrippa Legislature Assemblies Roman Senate Historical era Classical antiquity • Overthrow of the monarchy 509 BC • Dissolution of the Latin League 338 BC[2] • Julius Caesar named dictator 49 BC • Assassination of Julius Caesar 15 March 44 BC • Battle of Actium 2 September 31 BC • Octavian proclaimed Augustus 16 January 27 BC Area 326 BC[3] 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi) 50 BC[3] 1,950,000 km2 (750,000 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Kingdom Roman Empire Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Roman Republic (Latin: Rēs pūblica Rōmāna [ˈreːs ˈpuːblɪka roːˈmaːna]), officially the Senate and People of Rome (Latin: Senatus Populusque Romanus), was the era of classical Roman civilization that was led by the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire, Rome's control rapidly expanded during this period—from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. Roman society under the Republic was primarily a cultural mix of Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. Its political organization developed at around the same time as direct democracy in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen by a senate.[4] The top magistrates were the two consuls, who had an extensive range of executive, legislative, judicial, military, and religious powers. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy.[5][6][7] Roman institutions underwent considerable changes throughout the Republic to adapt to the difficulties it faced, such as the creation of promagistracies to rule its conquered provinces, or the composition of the senate. Unlike the Pax Romana of the Roman Empire, the Republic was in a state of quasi-perpetual war throughout its existence. Its first enemies were its Latin and Etruscan neighbours as well as the Gauls, who even sacked the city in 387 BC. The Republic nonetheless demonstrated extreme resilience and always managed to overcome its losses, however catastrophic. After the Gallic Sack, Rome conquered the whole Italian peninsula in a century, which turned the Republic into a major power in the Mediterranean. The Republic's greatest enemy was doubtlessly Carthage, against which it waged three wars. The Punic general Hannibal famously invaded Italy by crossing the Alps and inflicted on Rome two devastating defeats at Lake Trasimene and Cannae, but the Republic once again recovered and won the war thanks to Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. With Carthage defeated, Rome became the dominant power of the ancient Mediterranean world. It then embarked on a long series of difficult conquests, after having notably defeated Philip V and Perseus of Macedon, Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, the Lusitanian Viriathus, the Numidian Jugurtha, the Pontic king Mithridates VI, the Gaul Vercingetorix, and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. At home, the Republic similarly experienced a long streak of social and political crises, which ended in several violent civil wars. At first, the Conflict of the Orders opposed the patricians, the closed oligarchic elite, to the far more numerous plebs, who finally achieved political equality in several steps during the 4th century BC. Later, the vast conquests of the Republic disrupted its society, as the immense influx of slaves they brought enriched the aristocracy, but ruined the peasantry and urban workers. In order to solve this issue, several social reformers, known as the Populares, tried to pass agrarian laws, but the Gracchi brothers, Saturninus, or Clodius Pulcher were all murdered by their opponents, the Optimates, keepers of the traditional aristocratic order. Mass slavery also caused three Servile Wars; the last of them was led by Spartacus, a skilful gladiator who ravaged Italy and left Rome powerless until his defeat in 71 BC. In this context, the last decades of the Republic were marked by the rise of great generals, who exploited their military conquests and the factional situation in Rome to gain control of the political system. Marius (between 105 and 86 BC), then Sulla (between 82 and 78 BC) dominated in turn the Republic; both used extraordinary powers to purge their opponents. These multiple tensions led to a series of civil wars; the first between the two generals Julius Caesar and Pompey. Despite his victory and appointment as dictator for life, Caesar was slain in 44 BC. Caesar's heir Octavian and lieutenant Mark Antony defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, but then turned against each other. The final defeat of Mark Antony alongside his ally and lover Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian as Augustus in 27 BC – which effectively made him the first Roman emperor – thus ended the Republic. Contents 1 History 1.1 Foundation (509 BC) 1.2 Rome in Latium (509–387 BC) 1.2.1 Early campaigns 1.2.2 Plebeians and patricians 1.2.3 Celtic invasion of Italy (390–387 BC) 1.3 Roman expansion in Italy (387–272 BC) 1.3.1 Wars against Italian neighbours 1.3.2 Rise of the plebeian nobility 1.3.3 Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) 1.4 Punic Wars and expansion in the Mediterranean (264–146 BC) 1.4.1 First Punic War (264–241 BC) 1.4.2 Second Punic War (218–201 BC) 1.4.3 Roman supremacy in the Greek East (200–188 BC) 1.4.4 Conquest of Greece (172–146 BC) 1.4.5 Third Punic War (149–146 BC) 1.5 Social troubles and first civil war (146–60 BC) 1.5.1 The Gracchi (133–121 BC) 1.5.2 Rise of Marius 1.5.3 Sulla's Civil Wars 1.5.4 Pompey's dominance 1.6 Triumvirates and end of the Republic (60–27 BC) 1.6.1 First Triumvirate (60–50 BC) 1.6.2 Caesar's Civil War and dictatorship (49–44 BC) 1.6.3 Caesar's assassination 1.6.4 Second Triumvirate 2 Constitutional system 2.1 Senate 2.2 Legislative assemblies 2.3 Magistrates 3 Military 3.1 Hoplite armies (509–c. 315 BC) 3.2 Manipular legion (c. 315–107 BC) 3.3 Legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107–27 BC) 4 Social structure 5 Trade and economy 5.1 Farming 6 Religion 6.1 Priesthoods 6.2 Temples and festivals 6.3 In the military 7 Cities, towns and villas 7.1 City of Rome 8 Culture 8.1 Clothing 8.2 Food and dining 8.3 Education and language 8.4 Arts 8.5 Literature 8.6 Sports and entertainment 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Ancient sources 11.3 Cited Sources 12 External links History[edit] Foundation (509 BC)[edit] Main article: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy Rome had been ruled by monarchs since its foundation. These monarchs were elected, for life, by men who made up the Roman Senate. The last Roman monarch was named Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (colloquially known as "Tarquin the Proud") and in traditional histories Tarquin was expelled from Rome in 509 BC because his son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped a noblewoman named Lucretia (who had afterwards taken her own life). The father of Lucretia, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, together with Tarquin the Proud's nephew, Lucius Junius Brutus, mustered support from the Senate and Roman army and forced the former monarch into exile to Etruria.[8][9][10] After this incident, the Senate agreed to abolish kingship. In turn, most of the former functions of the king were transferred to two separate consuls. These consuls were elected to office for a term of one year, each was capable of acting as a "check" on his colleague (if necessary) through the power of veto that the former kings had held. Furthermore, if a consul were to abuse his powers in office, he could be prosecuted when his term expired. Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus became first consuls of the Roman Republic (despite Collatinus' role in the creation of the Republic, he belonged to the same family as the former king and thus was forced to abdicate his office and leave Rome. He thereafter was replaced as co-consul by Publius Valerius Publicola.)[11] Most modern scholarship describes these events as the quasi-mythological detailing of an aristocratic coup within Tarquin's own family, not a popular revolution. They fit a narrative of a personal vengeance against a tyrant leading to his overthrow, which was common among Greek cities and even theorised by Aristotle.[12][13][14] Rome in Latium (509–387 BC)[edit] Early campaigns[edit] According to Rome's traditional histories, Tarquin made several attempts to retake the throne, including the Tarquinian conspiracy, which involved Brutus' own sons, the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium; but none succeeded.[15] The "Capitoline Brutus", a bust possibly depicting Lucius Junius Brutus, who led the revolt against Rome's last king and was a founder of the Republic The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.[16] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities, both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers. Rome defeated the Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496, the Battle of Mount Algidus in 458, the Battle of Corbio in 446, the Battle of Aricia, however it suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of the Cremera in 477 wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii.[17][18] v t e Rome's early Italian campaigns Lake Regillus The Cremera Mount Algidus Corbio Fidenae Veii By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours, and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes.[19] Plebeians and patricians[edit] Main article: Conflict of the Orders Beginning with their revolt against Tarquin, and continuing through the early years of the Republic, Rome's patrician aristocrats were the dominant force in politics and society. They initially formed a closed group of about 50 large families, called gentes, who monopolised Rome's magistracies, state priesthoods and senior military posts. The most prominent of these families were the Cornelii,[i] followed by the Aemilii, Claudii, Fabii, and Valerii. The power, privilege and influence of leading families derived from their wealth, in particular from their landholdings, their position as patrons, and their numerous clients.[20] The vast majority of Roman citizens were commoners of various social degrees. They formed the backbone of Rome's economy, as smallholding farmers, managers, artisans, traders, and tenants. In times of war, they could be summoned for military service. Most had little direct political influence over the Senate's decisions or the laws it passed, including the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of the consular system. During the early Republic, the plebs (or plebeians) emerged as a self-organised, culturally distinct group of commoners, with their own internal hierarchy, laws, customs, and interests.[21] Plebeians had no access to high religious and civil office,[ii] and could be punished for offences against laws of which they had no knowledge.[22] For the poorest, one of the few effective political tools was their withdrawal of labour and services, in a "secessio plebis"; they would leave the city en masse, and allow their social superiors to fend for themselves. The first such secession occurred in 494, in protest at the abusive treatment of plebeian debtors by the wealthy during a famine.[23] The Senate was compelled to give them direct access to the written civil and religious laws, and to the electoral and political process. To represent their interests, the plebs elected tribunes, who were personally sacrosanct, immune to arbitrary arrest by any magistrate, and had veto power over the passage of legislation.[24] Celtic invasion of Italy (390–387 BC)[edit] v t e Roman–Gallic wars Allia River Anio River Pedum Arretium Lake Vadimo Faesulae Telamon Clastidium Silva Litana Cremona Placentia Mutina By 390, several Gallic tribes were invading Italy from the north. The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones,[25] invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome's sphere of influence. These towns, overwhelmed by the enemy's numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390–387 BC. The Gauls, led by the chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of approximately 15,000 troops, pursued the fleeing Romans back to Rome, and sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off. Roman expansion in Italy (387–272 BC)[edit] Wars against Italian neighbours[edit] Map showing Roman expansion in Italy v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War v t e Samnite Wars First Samnite War Mons Gaurus Saticula Suessula Second Samnite War Neapolis Imbrinium Caudine Forks Lautulae Lake Vadimo Bovianum Third Samnite War Camerinum Tifernum Sentinum Aquilonia From 343 to 341, Rome won two battles against their Samnite neighbours, but were unable to consolidate their gains, due to the outbreak of war with former Latin allies. In the Latin War (340–338), Rome defeated a coalition of Latins at the battles of Vesuvius and the Trifanum. The Latins submitted to Roman rule.[26] A Second Samnite War began in 327.[27] The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated, but from 314, Rome was dominant, and offered progressively unfavourable terms for peace. The war ended with Samnite defeat at the Battle of Bovianum (305). By the following year, Rome had annexed most Samnite territory and began to establish colonies there; but in 298 the Samnites rebelled, and defeated a Roman army, in a Third Samnite War. Following this success they built a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome.[28] At the Battle of Populonia in 282 Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region. Rise of the plebeian nobility[edit] In the 4th century, plebeians gradually obtained political equality with patricians. The starting point was in 400, when the first plebeian consular tribunes were elected; likewise, several subsequent consular colleges counted plebeians (in 399, 396, 388, 383, and 379). The reason behind this sudden gain is unknown,[29] but it was limited as patrician tribunes retained preeminence over their plebeian colleagues.[30] In 385, the former consul and saviour of the besieged Capitol Marcus Manlius Capitolinus is said to have sided with the plebeians, ruined by the Sack and largely indebted to patricians. The issue of debt relief for the plebs remained indeed pressing throughout the century. Livy tells that Capitolinus sold his estate to repay the debt of many of them, and even went over to the plebs, the first patrician to do so. Nevertheless, the growing unrest he had caused led to his trial for seeking kingly power; he was sentenced to death and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock.[31][32] Between 376 and 367, the tribunes of the plebs Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus continued the plebeian agitation and pushed for an ambitious legislation, known as the Leges Liciniae Sextiae. Two of their bills attacked patricians' economic supremacy, by creating legal protection against indebtedness and forbidding excessive use of public land, as the Ager publicus was monopolised by large landowners. The most important bill opened the consulship to plebeians.[33] Other tribunes controlled by the patricians vetoed the bills, but Stolo and Lateranus retaliated by vetoing the elections for five years while being continuously re-elected by the plebs, resulting in a stalemate.[34] In 367, they carried a bill creating the Decemviri sacris faciundis, a college of ten priests, of whom five had to be plebeians, thereby breaking patricians' monopoly on priesthoods. Finally, the resolution of the crisis came from the dictator Camillus, who made a compromise with the tribunes: he agreed to their bills, while they in return consented to the creation of the offices of praetor and curule aediles, both reserved to patricians. Lateranus also became the first plebeian consul in 366; Stolo followed in 361.[35][36][37] Soon after, plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship, since former consuls normally filled these senior magistracies. The four time consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian dictator in 356 and censor in 351. In 342, the tribune of the plebs Lucius Genucius passed his Leges Genuciae, which abolished interest on loans, in a renewed effort to tackle indebtedness, required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year, and prohibited a magistrate from holding the same magistracy for the next ten years or two magistracies in the same year.[38][33][39] In 339, the plebeian consul and dictator Quintus Publilius Philo passed three laws extending the powers of the plebeians. His first law followed the Lex Genucia by reserving one censorship to plebeians, the second made plebiscites binding on all citizens (including patricians), and the third stated that the Senate had to give its prior approval to plebiscites before becoming binding on all citizens (the Lex Valeria-Horatia of 449 had placed this approval after the vote).[40] Two years later, Publilius ran for the praetorship, probably in a bid to take the last senior magistracy closed to plebeians, which he won.[41] The Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, built in the mid 2nd century BC, most likely by Lucius Mummius Achaicus, who won the Achaean War During the early republic, senators were chosen by the consuls from among their supporters. Shortly before 312, the Lex Ovinia transferred this power to the censors, who could only remove senators for misconduct, thus appointing them for life. This law strongly increased the power of the Senate, which was by now protected from the influence of the consuls and became the central organ of government.[42][43] In 312, following this law, the patrician censor Appius Claudius Caecus appointed many more senators to fill the new limit of 300, including descendants of freedmen, which was deemed scandalous. He also incorporated these freedmen in the rural tribes.[iii][iv] His tribal reforms were nonetheless cancelled by the next censors, Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus, his political enemies.[44] Caecus also launched a vast construction program, building the first aqueduct (Aqua Appia), and the first Roman road (Via Appia).[45] In 300, the two tribunes of the plebs Gnaeus and Quintus Ogulnius passed the Lex Ogulnia, which created four plebeian pontiffs, therefore equalling the number of patrician pontiffs, and five plebeian augurs, outnumbering the four patricians in the college.[46] Eventually the Conflict of the Orders ended with the last secession of the plebs in about 287. The details are not known precisely as Livy's books on the period are lost. Debt is once again mentioned by ancient authors, but it seems that the plebs revolted over the distribution of the land conquered on the Samnites.[47] A dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed to negotiate with the plebeians, who had retreated to the Janiculum hill, perhaps to dodge the draft in the war against the Lucanians. Hortensius passed the Lex Hortensia which re-enacted the law of 339, making plebiscites binding on all citizens, but also removed the Senate's prior approval to plebiscites. Popular assemblies were by now sovereign; this put an end to the crisis, and to plebeian agitation for 150 years.[48] These events were a political victory of the wealthy plebeian elite who exploited the economic difficulties of the plebs for their own gain, hence why Stolo, Lateranus, and Genucius bound their bills attacking patricians' political supremacy with debt-relief measures. They had indeed little in common with the mass of plebeians; Stolo was notably fined for having exceeded the limit on land occupation he had fixed in his own law.[49] As a result of the end of the patrician monopoly on senior magistracies, many small patrician gentes faded into history during the 4th and 3rd centuries due to the lack of available positions; the Verginii, Horatii, Menenii, Cloelii all disappear, even the Julii entered a long eclipse. They were replaced by plebeian aristocrats, of whom the most emblematic were the Caecilii Metelli, who received 18 consulships until the end of the Republic; the Domitii, Fulvii, Licinii, Marcii, or Sempronii were as successful. About a dozen remaining patrician gentes and twenty plebeian ones thus formed a new elite, called the nobiles, or Nobilitas.[50] Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)[edit] Route of Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily Bust of Pyrrhus, found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, now in the Naples Archaeological Museum. Pyrrhus was a brave and chivalrous general who fascinated the Romans, hence his presence in a Roman house.[51] By the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome had established herself as the major power in Italy, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.[52] In 282, several Roman warships entered the harbour of Tarentum, thus breaking a treaty between the Republic and the Greek city, which forbade the Gulf to Roman navy. It triggered a violent reaction from the Tarentine democrats, who sank some of the ships; they were in fact worried that Rome could favour the oligarchs in the city, as it had done with the other Greek cities under its control. The Roman embassy sent to investigate the affair was insulted and war was promptly declared.[53] Facing a hopeless situation, the Tarentines (together with the Lucanians and Samnites) appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, the very ambitious king of Epirus. A cousin of Alexander the Great, he was eager to build an empire for himself in the western Mediterranean, and saw Tarentum's plea as a perfect opportunity towards this goal.[54][55] v t e Pyrrhic War Heraclea Asculum Venusia Rhegium Syracuse Eryx Cranita Lilybaeum Messina Beneventum Pyrrhus and his army of 25,500 men (and 20 war elephants) landed in Italy in 280; he was immediately named Strategos Autokrator by the Tarentines. Publius Valerius Laevinus, the consul sent to face him, rejected the king's negotiation offer, as he had more troops and hoped to cut the invasion short. The Romans were nevertheless defeated at Heraclea, as their cavalry were afraid of the elephants of Pyrrhus, who lost a large portion of his army. Pyrrhus then marched on Rome, but could not take any Roman city on his way; facing the prospect of being flanked by the two consular armies, he moved back to Tarentum. His adviser, the orator Cineas, made a peace offer before the Roman Senate, asking Rome to return the land it took from the Samnites and Lucanians, and liberate the Greek cities under its control. The offer was rejected after Appius Caecus (the old censor of 312) spoke against it in a celebrated speech, which was the earliest recorded by the time of Cicero.[56][57][58] In 279, Pyrrhus met the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio at the Battle of Asculum, which remained undecided for two days, as the Romans had prepared some special chariots to counter his elephants. Finally, Pyrrhus personally charged into the melee and won the battle, but at the cost of an important part of his troops; he allegedly said "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined."[59][60][61][v] He escaped the Italian deadlock by answering a call for help from Syracuse, which tyrant Thoenon was desperately fighting an invasion from Carthage. Pyrrhus could not let them take the whole island as it would have compromised his ambitions in the western Mediterranean and so declared war on them. At first, his Sicilian campaign was an easy triumph; he was welcomed as a liberator in every Greek city on his way, even receiving the title of king (basileus) of Sicily. The Carthaginians lifted the siege of Syracuse before his arrival, but he could not entirely oust them from the island as he failed to take their fortress of Lilybaeum.[62] His harsh rule, especially the murder of Thoenon, whom he did not trust, soon led to a widespread antipathy among the Sicilians; some cities even defected to Carthage. In 275, Pyrrhus left the island before he had to face a full-scale rebellion.[63] He returned to Italy, where his Samnite allies were on the verge of losing the war, despite their earlier victory at the Cranita hills. Pyrrhus again met the Romans at the Battle of Beneventum; this time the consul Manius Dentatus was victorious, and even captured eight elephants. Pyrrhus then withdrew from Italy, but left a garrison in Tarentum, and waged a new campaign in Greece against Antigonos Gonatas. His death in battle at Argos in 272 forced Tarentum to surrender to Rome. Since it was the last independent city of Italy, Rome now dominated the entire Italian peninsula, and won an international military reputation.[64] Punic Wars and expansion in the Mediterranean (264–146 BC)[edit] First Punic War (264–241 BC)[edit] Main article: Punic Wars v t e First Punic War Treaties Messana Agrigentum 1st Mytistratus Lipari Islands Mylae Thermae 2nd Mytistratus Sulci Tyndaris Cape Ecnomus Aspis Adys Bagradas (Tunis) Cape Hermaeum Panormus Lilybaeum Drepana Phintias Drepana (siege) 1st Mt Eryx 2nd Mt Eryx Aegates Islands Treaty of Lutatius Coin of Hiero II of Syracuse Rome and Carthage were initially on friendly terms; Polybius details three treaties between them, the first dating from the first year of the Republic, the second from 348. The last one was an alliance against Pyrrhus.[65][66][67] However, tensions rapidly built up after the departure of the Epirote king. Between 288 and 283, Messina in Sicily was taken by the Mamertines, a band of mercenaries formerly employed by Agathocles. They plundered the surroundings until Hiero II, the new tyrant of Syracuse, defeated them (in either 269 or 265). Carthage could not let him take Messina, as he would have controlled its Strait, and garrisoned the city. In effect under a Carthaginian protectorate, the remaining Mamertines appealed to Rome to regain their independence. Senators were divided on whether to help them or not, as it would have meant war with Carthage, since Sicily was in its sphere of influence (the treaties furthermore forbade the island to Rome), and also Syracuse. A supporter of the war, the consul Appius Claudius Caudex (Caecus' brother) turned to the Tribal Assembly to get a favourable vote, by notably promising booty to voters.[68] Caudex first secured control of the city with ease. However, Syracuse and Carthage, at war for centuries, made an alliance to counter the invasion and blockaded Messina, but Caudex defeated Hiero and Carthage separately.[69][70] His successor Manius Valerius Corvinus Messalla landed with a strong 40,000 men army that conquered eastern Sicily, which prompted Hiero to shift his allegiance and forge a long lasting alliance with Rome. In 262, the Romans moved to the southern coast and besieged Akragas. In order to raise the siege, Carthage sent reinforcements, including 60 elephants – the first time they used them, but still lost the battle.[71] Nevertheless, as Pyrrhus before, Rome could not take all of Sicily because Carthage's naval superiority prevented them from effectively besieging coastal cities, which could receive supplies from the sea. Using a captured Carthaginian ship as blueprint, Rome therefore launched a massive construction program and built 100 quinqueremes in only two months, perhaps through an assembly line organisation. They also invented a new device, the corvus, a grappling engine which enabled a crew to board on an enemy ship.[72] The consul for 260 Scipio Asina lost the first naval skirmish of the war against Hannibal Gisco at Lipara, but his colleague Gaius Dullius won a great victory at Mylae. He destroyed or captured 44 ships, and was the first Roman to receive a naval triumph, which also included captive Carthaginians for the first time.[73] Although Carthage was victorious on land at Thermae in Sicily, the corvus made Rome invincible on the waters. The consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio (Asina's brother) captured Corsica in 259; his successors won the naval battles of Sulci in 258, Tyndaris in 257, and Cape Ecnomus in 256.[74] Diagram of a corvus In order to hasten the end of the war, the consuls for 256 decided to carry the operations to Africa, on Carthage's homeland. The consul Marcus Atilius Regulus landed on the Cap Bon peninsula with about 18,000 soldiers. He captured the city of Aspis, then repulsed Carthage's counter-attack at Adys, and took Tunis. The Carthaginians supposedly sued him for peace, but his conditions were so harsh that they continued the war instead. They hired Spartan mercenaries, led by Xanthippus, to command their troops.[75] In 255, the Spartan general marched on Regulus, still encamped at Tunis, who accepted the battle to avoid sharing the glory with his successor. However, the flat land near Tunis favoured the Punic elephants, which crushed the Roman infantry on the Bagradas plain; only 2,000 soldiers escaped, and Regulus was captured. The consuls for 255 nonetheless won a new sounding naval victory at Cape Hermaeum, where they captured 114 warships. This success was spoilt by a storm that annihilated the victorious navy: 184 ships of 264 sank, 25,000 soldiers and 75,000 rowers drowned. The corvus considerably hindered ships' navigation, and made them vulnerable during tempest. It was abandoned after another similar catastrophe took place in 253 (150 ships sank with their crew). These disasters prevented any significant campaign between 254 and 252.[76] Denarius of C. Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, 125 BC. The reverse depicts the triumph of his great-grandfather Lucius, with the elephants he had captured at Panormos. The elephant had thence become the emblem of the powerful Caecilii Metelli.[77] Hostilities in Sicily resumed in 252, with the taking of Thermae by Rome. Carthage countered the following year, by besieging Lucius Caecilius Metellus, who held Panormos (now Palermo). The consul had dug trenches to counter the elephants, which once hurt by missiles turned back on their own army, resulting in a great victory for Metellus, who exhibited some captured beasts in the Circus. Rome then besieged the last Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily, Lilybaeum and Drepana, but these cities were impregnable by land. Publius Claudius Pulcher, the consul of 249, recklessly tried to take the latter from the sea, but he suffered a terrible defeat; his colleague Lucius Junius Pullus likewise lost his fleet off Lilybaeum. Without the corvus, Roman warships had lost their advantage. By now, both sides were drained and could not undertake large scale operations; the number of Roman citizens who were being called up for war had been reduced by 17% in two decades, a result of the massive bloodshed. The only military activity during this period was the landing in Sicily of Hamilcar Barca in 247, who harassed the Romans with a mercenary army from a citadel he built on Mt. Eryx.[78] Finally, unable to take the Punic fortresses in Sicily, Rome tried to win the decision at sea and built a new navy, thanks to a forced borrowing on the rich. In 242, the 200 quinqueremes of the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus blockaded Drepana. The rescue fleet from Carthage arrived the next year, but was largely undermanned and soundly defeated by Catulus. Exhausted and unable to bring supplies to Sicily, Carthage sued for peace. Catulus and Hamilcar negotiated a treaty, which was somewhat lenient to Carthage, but the Roman people rejected it and imposed harsher terms: Carthage had to pay 1000 talents immediately and 2200 over ten years, and evacuate Sicily. The fine was so high that Carthage could not pay Hamilcar's mercenaries, who had been shipped back to Africa. They revolted during the Mercenary War, which Carthage had enormous difficulties to suppress. Meanwhile, Rome took advantage of a similar revolt in Sardinia to seize the island from Carthage, in violation of the peace treaty. This stab-in-the-back led to permanent bitterness in Carthage, and revanchism.[79] Second Punic War (218–201 BC)[edit] v t e Second Punic War Prelude Saguntum Rhone Crossing of the Alps Italy Ticinus Trebia Mutina Placentia Victumulae Lake Trasimene Umbrian Lake Crossing of the Apennines Ager Falernus Geronium Cannae Silva Litana 1st Nola Nuceria Alfaterna 1st Casilinum Hamae 1st Petelia Cumae 2nd Nola 1st Beneventum 3rd Nola 2nd Casilinum Lucania Arpi 1st Tarentum 2nd Beneventum Campi Veteres 1st Capua Silarus 1st Herdonia 2nd Capua Rome Sapriportis 2nd Herdonia Numistro Canusium Manduria Caulonia 2nd Tarentum Locri 2nd Petelia Venusia Grumentum Metaurus Crotona Insubria Iberia Cissa Ebro River Ibera Illiturgis Munda Orongi Upper Baetis 1st New Carthage Baria Baecula Carmona Ilipa Sucro 1st Carteia 2nd Carteia 2nd New Carthage Sicily and Sardinia Lilybaeum Malta Decimomannu Leontini Syracuse Himera Agrigentum North Africa Clupea 1st Utica 2nd Utica Great Plains (Bagradas) Cirta Zama After its victory, the Republic shifted its attention to its northern border as the Insubres and Boii were threatening Italy.[80] Meanwhile, Carthage compensated the loss of Sicily and Sardinia with the conquest of Southern Hispania (up to Salamanca), and its rich silver mines.[81] This enterprise was the work of the Barcid family, headed by Hamilcar, the former commander in Sicily. Hamilcar nonetheless died against the Oretani in 228; his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair – the founder of Carthago Nova – and his three sons Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago, succeeded him.[82] This rapid expansion worried Rome, which concluded a treaty with Hasdrubal in 226, stating that Carthage could not cross the Ebro river.[83][84] However, the city of Saguntum, located in the south of the Ebro, appealed to Rome in 220 to act as arbitrator during a stasis. Hannibal dismissed Roman rights on the city, and took it in 219.[85] At Rome, the Cornelii and the Aemilii considered the capture of Saguntum a casus belli,[86] and won the debate against Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who wanted to negotiate. An embassy carrying an ultimatum was sent to Carthage, asking its senate to condemn Hannibal's deeds. The Carthaginian refusal started the Second Punic War.[87] Principal offensives of the war: Rome (red), Hannibal (green), Hasdrubal (purple) Initially, the plan of the Republic was to carry war outside Italy, by sending the consuls Publius Cornelius Scipio to Hispania, and Sempronius Longus to Africa, while their naval superiority prevented Carthage from attacking from the sea.[88] This plan was thwarted by Hannibal's bold move to Italy. In May 218, he indeed crossed the Ebro with a large army of about 100,000 soldiers and 37 elephants.[89] He passed in Gaul, crossed the Rhone, then the Alps, possibly through the Col de Clapier (2,491 meters high).[90] This famous exploit cost him almost half of his troops,[91] but he could now rely on the Boii and Insubres, still at war with Rome.[92] Publius Scipio, who had failed to block Hannibal on the Rhone, sent his elder brother Gnaeus with the main part of his army in Hispania according to the initial plan, and went back to Italy with the rest to resist Hannibal in Italy, but he was defeated and wounded near Pavia. Hannibal then marched south and won three outstanding victories. The first one was on the banks of the Trebia in December 218, where he defeated the other consul Sempronius Longus thanks to his brother Mago, who had concealed some elite troops behind the legions and attacked them from the rear once fighting Hannibal. More than half of the Roman army was lost. Hannibal then ravaged the country around Arretium to lure the new consul Gaius Flaminius into a trap, at the Lake Trasimene. He had hidden his troops in the hills surrounding the lake and attacked Flaminius when he was cornered on the shore. This clever ambush resulted in the death of the consul and the complete destruction of his army of 30,000 men. In 216, the new consuls Aemilius Paullus and Terentius Varro mustered the biggest army possible, with eight legions (more than 80,000 soldiers) – twice as many as the Punic army – and confronted Hannibal, who was encamped at Cannae, in Apulia. Despite his numerical disadvantage, Hannibal used his heavier cavalry to rout the Roman wings and envelop their infantry, whom he annihilated. In terms of casualties, the Battle of Cannae was the worst defeat in the history of Rome: only 14,500 soldiers escaped; Paullus was killed as well as 80 senators.[93] Soon after, the Boii ambushed the army of the consul-elect for 215, Postumius Albinus, who died with all his army of 25,000 men in the Forest of Litana. A quarter shekel of Carthage, perhaps minted in Spain. The obverse may depict Hannibal under the traits of young Melqart. The reverse features one of his famous war elephants.[94] These disasters triggered a wave of defection among Roman allies, with the rebellions of the Samnites, Oscans, Lucanians, and Greek cities of Southern Italy.[95] In Macedonia, Philip V also made an alliance with Hannibal in order to take Illyria and the area around Epidamnus, occupied by Rome. His attack on Apollonia started the First Macedonian War. In 215, Hiero II of Syracuse died of old age, and his young grandson Hieronymus broke the long alliance with Rome to side with Carthage. At this desperate point, the aggressive strategy against Hannibal advocated by the Scipiones was abandoned in favour of delaying tactics that avoided direct confrontation with him. Its main proponents were the consuls Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, nicknamed Cunctator ("the delayer"), Claudius Marcellus, and Fulvius Flaccus. The "Fabian Strategy" favoured a slow reconquest of the lost territories, since Hannibal could not be everywhere to defend them.[96] Although he remained invincible on the battlefield, defeating all the Roman armies on his way, he could not prevent Claudius Marcellus from taking Syracuse in 212 after a long siege, nor the fall of his bases of Capua and Tarentum in 211 and 209. However, in 208 the consuls Claudius Marcellus and Quinctius Crispinus were ambushed and killed near Venusia. In Hispania, the situation was overall much better for Rome. This theatre was mostly commanded by the brothers Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, who won the battles of Cissa in 218, soon after Hannibal's departure, and Dertosa against his brother Hasdrubal in 215, which enabled them to conquer the eastern coast of Hispania. In 211 however, Hasdrubal and Mago Barca successfully returned the Celtiberian tribes that supported the Scipiones, and attacked them simultaneously at the Battle of the Upper Baetis, in which the Scipiones brothers died.[97] Publius' son, the future Scipio Africanus, was then elected with a special proconsulship to lead the Hispanic campaign. He soon showed outstanding skills as a commander, by winning a series of battles with ingenious tactics. In 209, he took Carthago Nova, the main Punic base in Hispania, then defeated Hasdrubal at the Battle of Baecula (208).[98] After his defeat, Hasdrubal was ordered by Carthage to move to Italy. Since he could not use ships, he followed the same route as his brother through the Alps, but this time the surprise effect was gone. The consuls Livius Salinator and Claudius Nero were awaiting him and won the Battle of the Metaurus, where Hasdrubal died.[99] It was the turning point of the war. The attrition campaign had indeed worked well: Hannibal's troops were now depleted; he only had one elephant left (Surus) and retreated to Bruttium, on the defensive. In Greece, Rome contained Philip V without devoting too many forces, by setting an alliance with the Aetolian League, Sparta, and Pergamon, which also prevented Philip from aiding Hannibal. The war resulted in a stalemate, with the Treaty of Phoenice signed in 205. v t e First Macedonian War Apollonia 1st Lamia 2nd Lamia Mantinea In Hispania, Scipio continued his triumphal campaign at the battles of Carmona in 207, and Ilipa (now Seville) in 206, which ended the Punic threat on the peninsula.[100] Elected consul in 205, he convinced the Senate to cancel the Fabian Strategy, and instead to invade Africa by using the support of the Numidian king Massinissa, who had defected to Rome. Scipio landed in Africa in 204. He took Utica, then won the Battle of the Great Plains, which prompted Carthage to recall Hannibal from Italy and open peace negotiations with Rome. The talks nevertheless failed because Scipio wanted to impose harsher terms on Carthage, in order to avoid it from rising again as a threat to Rome. Hannibal was therefore sent to face Scipio at Zama. Scipio could now use the heavy Numidian cavalry of Massinissa – which had hitherto been so successful against Rome – to rout the Punic wings, then flank the infantry, as Hannibal had done at Cannae. Defeated for the first time, Hannibal convinced the Carthaginian Senate to pay the war indemnity, which was even harsher than that of 241: 10,000 talents in 50 instalments. Carthage furthermore had to give up all its elephants, all its fleet but ten triremes, all its possessions outside its core territory in Africa (what is now Tunisia), and could not declare war without the authorisation of Rome. In effect, Carthage was condemned to be a minor power, while Rome recovered from a desperate situation to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Roman supremacy in the Greek East (200–188 BC)[edit] Macedonian Wars Macedonia, Greece and Asia at the outbreak of the Second Macedonian War, 200 BC v t e Macedonian Wars First Second Third Fourth v t e Second Macedonian War Aous Cynoscephalae v t e Roman–Seleucid War Thermopylae Corycus Eurymedon Myonessus Magnesia v t e Third Macedonian War Callinicus Pydna v t e Fourth Macedonian War Thalna's defeat Pydna (148 BC) Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia, located in the north of the Greek peninsula, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome.[101][102] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet.[101] The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of preoccupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal. The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. In 202, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt.[103] Fearing this increasingly unstable situation, several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance.[104] The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. Our primary source about these events, the surviving works of Polybius, do not state Rome's reason for getting involved. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies. Doubting Rome's strength (a reasonable doubt, given Rome's performance in the First Macedonian War) Philip ignored the request, and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies, beginning the Second Macedonian War.[105] Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome, Philip's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman-Greek army. In 197, the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests.[106] The Romans declared the "Peace of the Greeks", believing that Philip's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable. They pulled out of Greece entirely, maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies.[107] With Egypt and Macedonia weakened, the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world.[108] Now not only Rome's allies against Philip, but even Philip himself, sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids.[109] The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor, and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece, but of Rome itself.[110] The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great's former empire.[110] Roman bronze bust of Scipio Africanus, dated mid 1st century BC, and found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum[111] Fearing the worst, the Romans began a major mobilization, all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul.[110] They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy.[110] This fear was shared by Rome's Greek allies, who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War, but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war.[110] A major Roman-Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman–Seleucid War. After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses, the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae (as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier).[109] Like the Spartans, the Seleucids lost the battle, and were forced to evacuate Greece.[109] The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont, which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia.[109] The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory.[109][112] The Seleucids sued for peace, and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests. Although they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the decline of their empire, as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east (the Parthians) and the west (the Greeks). Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. In fact, it did the opposite.[113] Conquest of Greece (172–146 BC)[edit] Scene of the Battle of Corinth (146 BC): last day before the Roman legions looted and burned the Greek city of Corinth. The last day on Corinth, Tony Robert-Fleury, 1870 In 179 Philip died.[114] His talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece.[115] With her Greek allies facing a major new threat, Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had some success against the Romans. However, Rome responded by sending a stronger army. This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168[114][116] and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the war.[117] Convinced now that the Greeks (and therefore the rest of the region) would not have peace if left alone, Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world, and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics. Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. The Fourth Macedonian War, 150 to 148 BC, was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re-establish the old kingdom. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna. The Achaean League chose this moment to fight Rome but was swiftly defeated. In 146 (the same year as the destruction of Carthage), Corinth was besieged and destroyed in the Battle of Corinth (146 BC), which led to the league's surrender.[118] After nearly a century of constant crisis management in Greece, which always led back to internal instability and war when she withdrew, Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces, Achaea and Macedonia. Third Punic War (149–146 BC)[edit] v t e Third Punic War Lake Tunis 1st Nepheris Port of Carthage 2nd Nepheris Carthage Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War,[119] but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed/attacked Carthaginian merchants. Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies, and defence against robbing/pirates was considered as "war action": Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage.[120] Carthage was almost defenceless, and submitted when besieged.[121] However, the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the (desert) inland far off any coastal or harbour region, and the Carthaginians refused. The city was besieged, stormed, and completely destroyed. Ultimately, all of Carthage's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome. Note that "Carthage" was not an 'empire', but a league of Punic colonies (port cities in the western Mediterranean) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ("Attic") leagues, under leadership of Carthage. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule. Social troubles and first civil war (146–60 BC)[edit] Rome's rapid expansion destabilized its social organization and triggered unrest in the heart of the Republic, which ultimately led to political violence, unrest in the provinces, and ultimately a breakdown in the traditional social relations of Rome that created the Augustan Empire. The period is marked by the rise of strongmen (Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar), who turned military success into political power. The Gracchi (133–121 BC)[edit] v t e Roman Servile Wars First Second Third Main article: Gracchi In 135, the first slave uprising, known as the First Servile War, broke out in Sicily. After initial successes, the slaves led by Eunus and Cleon were annihilated by the consul Publius Rupilius in 132 BC. In this context, Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority.[122] His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates[123] when he stood for reelection to the tribunate. Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces.[124] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support.[125] He stood for election to a third term in 121, but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3,000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome.[123] In 121, the province of Gallia Narbonensis was established after the victory of Quintus Fabius Maximus over a coalition of Arverni and Allobroges in southern Gaul in 123. The city of Narbo was founded there in 118 by Lucius Licinius Crassus. Rise of Marius[edit] v t e Jugurthine War Cirta Suthul Muthul Zama Thala Muluccha 2nd Cirta Bust of Gaius Marius, instigator of the Marian reforms The Jugurthine War of 111–104 was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,[126] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia,[127] a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,[128] Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery. Denarius of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, 56 BC. It shows Diana on the obverse, while the reverse depicts Sulla being offered an olive branch by his ally Bocchus I. Jugurtha is shown captive on the right.[129] In 118, King Micipsa of Numidia (current-day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was succeeded by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display.[130] The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius. v t e Cimbrian War Noreia Burdigala Arausio Tridentum Aquae Sextiae Vercellae The Cimbrian War (113–101) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons[131] migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories,[132] and clashed with Rome and her allies.[133] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat. Sulla's Civil Wars[edit] v t e Ancient unification of Italy Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Volscian wars Roman conquest of the Hernici Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Social War v t e First Mithridatic War Amnias Protopachium Mount Scorobas Rhodes Athens and Piraeus Chaeronea Tenedos Orchomenus v t e Sulla's second civil war Mount Tifata Asio River Sacriporto Sena Gálica Saturnia Glanis River Espolecio 1 Clusium 1 Espolecio 2 Faventia Fidentia Clusium 2 Colline Gate Praeneste Neápolis Utica Norba Caesarina Nola Volterras In 91 the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians. The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88. In the Battle of the Colline Gate[134] at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire. Several years later, in 88, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was not defeated and won. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the "populares" party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate.[135] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city. During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten-year interval between offices.[136] They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally tyrannical. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate.[137] Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78. v t e Second Mithridatic War Magnesia on the Maeander Amasra Halys v t e Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Campaign (53 BC) Caesar's planned invasion (44 BC) Pompeian–Parthian invasion (40–38 BC) Antony's Parthian War (40–33 BC) War over Armenia (58–63) Trajan's Parthian campaign (115–117) War of 161–166 Campaign of Septimius Severus (198) Caracalla's Parthian War (216–217) Pompey's dominance[edit] See also: Second Catilinarian conspiracy The third and final slave uprising was the most serious,[138] involving ultimately between 120,000[139] and 150,000[140] slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus. v t e Third Mithridatic War Chalcedon Cyzicus Rhyndacus Lemnos Heraclea Cabira Tigranocerta Artaxata Zela Lycus Pelorus Abas Jerusalem Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus,[141] a large kingdom in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[141] and Rome for its part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring.[141][142] In 88, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom.[143] The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull. The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes the Great.[144] Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time Battle of the Lycus.[145] v t e Rome against the Cilician pirates Korakesion The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates,[145] largely from Cilicia.[146] The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates.[144][145] It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia (Spain), Africa, and Italy. In 77, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Hispania. By 71, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus-led gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution.[147] They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.[148] A Roman marble bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Musei Capitolini, Rome Around 66, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began.[149] After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation.[150] The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,[151] and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorisation (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces. The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited. The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image.[151] Triumvirates and end of the Republic (60–27 BC)[edit] First Triumvirate (60–50 BC)[edit] Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Main article: First Triumvirate A Roman marble head of Pompey (now in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek) In 62, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Marcus Licinius Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.[152][153] Caesar's consular colleague in 59, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage.[152] Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self-imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.[154] Map of the Gallic Wars v t e Gallic Wars Magetobriga (63 BC) Arar (58 BC) Bibracte (58 BC) Vosges (58 BC) Axona (57 BC) Sabis (57 BC) Atuatuci (57 BC) Octodurus (57–56 BC) Britain (55-54 BC) Ambiorix's revolt (54–53 BC) Avaricum (52 BC) Gergovia (52 BC) Lutetia (52 BC) Alesia (52 BC) Uxellodunum (51 BC) During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle.[155] After his term as consul in 59, he was appointed to a five-year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (part of current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (part of the modern Balkans).[155][156] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 and 49. Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 and 57. In 55 and 54 he made two expeditions into Britain, the first Roman to do so. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia,[157] completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50, all of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 promising to take Caesar's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Beginning in the summer of 54, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome.[158] This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. In 53, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes,[159] he marched his army deep into the desert;[160] but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar[161] and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar. In 51, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial. Caesar's Civil War and dictatorship (49–44 BC)[edit] v t e Caesar's Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Curicta Massilia (land) Ilerda Massilia (naval) Tauroento Utica Bagradas Salona Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nicopolis Alexandria Tauris Nile Zela Ruspina Thapsus Hippo Regius Carteia Munda Corduba Lauro Apamea Baetis The Tusculum portrait, a Roman sculpture of Julius Caesar, Archaeological Museum of Turin, Italy The Curia Julia, the Roman Senate house established by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by Octavian in 29 BC, replacing the Curia Cornelia as the meeting place of the Senate Main article: Caesar's Civil War On 1 January 49, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic.[162] Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. On 7 January of 49, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On 10 January, Caesar with his veteran army crossed the river Rubicon, the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army, in violation of Roman laws, and by the spring of 49 swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania (modern Spain)[163] but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece.[164] Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48,[165] despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops.[166] Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered. Pompey's death did not end the civil war, as Caesar's many enemies fought on. In 46 Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Hispania. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda. With Pompey defeated and order restored, Caesar wanted to achieve undisputed control over the government. The powers which he gave himself were later assumed by his imperial successors.[167] His assumption of these powers decreased the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.[167] In 48, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46, Caesar was given censorial powers,[168] which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900.[169] This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to them for election, as well as all bills for enactment. Thus, the group became powerless and were unable to oppose him.[clarification needed][170] Caesar's assassination[edit] Main article: Assassination of Julius Caesar Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law that allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and later all consuls and tribunes. This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator.[169] Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers. His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger, a group of senators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate on 15 March 44.[171] Most of the conspirators were senators, who had a variety of economic, political, or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar's death in fear of retaliation. Second Triumvirate[edit] Main articles: Second Triumvirate and Last war of the Roman Republic This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as Cupid. Its owner Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered its concealment behind a wall in reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC.[172][173] The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic.[174] After the assassination, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavianus (Octavian), along with Marcus Lepidus. Known as the Second Triumvirate,[175] they held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the Senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus did likewise soon afterwards. However, civil war flared again when the alliance failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony.[171] At the naval Battle of Actium in 31 off the coast of Greece, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole "imperium" within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command. In 27 Octavian was granted the use of the names "Augustus", indicating his primary status above all other Romans, "Princeps", which he used to refer to himself as in public, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor.[176] Constitutional system[edit] Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic The constitutional history of the Roman Republic began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC, and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a constantly-evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated.[177] Throughout the history of the Republic, changes in the constitution were driven by conflicts of interest between the aristocracy and ordinary citizens. Senate[edit] Main article: Senate of the Roman Republic The senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators.[178] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators. The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, they were usually followed by the magistrates.[179] The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. This was due to the senate's explicit power over the state's budget and in military affairs.[180] The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined, and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law-making. Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. During times of military emergency, such as the civil wars of the 1st century, this practice became less prevalent, as the Roman Dictator, Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members. Towards the end of the Republic, the senate could enact a senatus consultum ultimum in times of emergency, instead of appointing a dictator.[citation needed] Legislative assemblies[edit] The Roman Forum, the commercial, cultural, religious, and political center of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government Main article: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal, to marry, to vote, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called "optimo jure." The optimo jure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[181] which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.[182] Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (i.e., soldiers). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul. The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had the imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census.[183] It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases. The assembly of the tribes (i.e., the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[184] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[185] Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[186] The Plebeian Council[187] was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal. Magistrates[edit] Main article: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Each was assigned a provincia by the Senate. This was the scope of that particular office holder's authority. It could apply to a geographic area or to a particular responsibility or task.[188] The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians).[189] The imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Strictly speaking, it was the authority to command a military force. In reality, however, it carried broad authority in the other public spheres such as diplomacy, and the justice system. In extreme cases, those with the imperium power were able to sentence Roman Citizens to death. All magistrates also had the power of coercitio (coercion). This was used by magistrates to maintain public order by imposing punishment for crimes.[190] Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents. One check on a magistrate's power was called Collega (collegiality). Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. While in Rome, all citizens were protected from coercion, by provocatio, which was an early form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.[191] The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates. Each served for one year.[192] They retained several elements of the former kingly regalia, such as the toga praetexta, and the fasces, which represented the power to inflict physical punishment. Consular powers included the kings' former "power to command" (imperium) and appointment of new senators. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army.[193] His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil law[194] and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.[195] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to otherwise interfere with him.[196] In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months.[197] Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored. Military[edit] Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Main article: Structural history of the Roman military Rome's military secured Rome's territory and borders, and helped to impose tribute on conquered peoples. Rome's armies had a formidable reputation; but Rome also "produced [its] share of incompetents"[198] and catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of Rome's greatest enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,[199] to win early battles but lose the war. Hoplite armies (509–c. 315 BC)[edit] Main article: Phalanx During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north,[200] who themselves are believed to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city's penultimate king, Servius Tullius (ruled 578–534).[201] The front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it.[202][203] The phalanx was effective in large, open spaces, but not on the hilly terrain of the central Italian peninsula. In the 4th century, the Romans replaced it with the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390; more likely, it was copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south,[204] following the Second Samnite War (326–304).[205] Manipular legion (c. 315–107 BC)[edit] Detail from the Ahenobarbus relief showing (centre-right) two Roman foot-soldiers c. 122 BC. Note the Montefortino-style helmets with horsehair plume, chain mail cuirasses with shoulder reinforcement, oval shields with calfskin covers, gladius and pilum. During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience.[206] Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. They were typically deployed into three discrete lines based on the three heavy infantry types: The first line maniple were the hastati, leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a bronze breastplate and a bronze helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm (12 in) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears. The second line were the principes. They were armed and armoured in the same manner as the hastati, but wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid brass breastplate. The triarii formed the third line. They were the last remnant of the hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured like the principes, with the exception that they carried a lighter spear.[207] The three infantry classes[208] may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line. The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.[208] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins. Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. Rome's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300. The "Togatus Barberini", depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.[209] The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.[210] In 217, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,[211] partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it did not have to do in the past. The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome's allies for the provision of allied troops.[212] Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.[213] Legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107–27 BC)[edit] Main article: Roman army of the late Republic In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.[214] In 107, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.[215] The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.[216] Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land. Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[217] within the state. The legions of the late Republic were almost entirely heavy infantry. The main legionary sub-unit was a cohort of approximately 480 infantrymen, further divided into six centuries of 80 men each.[218] Each century comprised 10 "tent groups" of 8 men. Cavalry were used as scouts and dispatch riders, rather than as battlefield forces.[219] Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.[220] The army's most obvious deficiency lay in its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry.[221] Particularly in the East, Rome's slow-moving infantry legions were often confronted by fast-moving cavalry-troops, and found themselves at a tactical disadvantage. A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste,[222] c. 120 BC;[223] now in the Museo Pio-Clementino in the Vatican Museums Temple of Janus as seen in the present church of San Nicola in Carcere, in the Forum Holitorium of Rome, Italy, dedicated by Gaius Duilius after his naval victory at the Battle of Mylae in 260 BC[224] Following Rome's subjugation of the Mediterranean, its navy declined in size although it would undergo short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Julius Caesar assembled a fleet to cross the English Channel and invade Britannia. Pompey raised a fleet to deal with the Cilician pirates who threatened Rome's Mediterranean trading routes. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.[209] Social structure[edit] Main article: Social class in ancient Rome Citizen families were headed by the family's oldest male, the pater familias, who was lawfully entitled to exercise complete authority (patria potestas) over family property and all family members. Brutus, co-founder of the Republic, is supposed to have exercised the extreme form of this right when he executed his own sons for treachery.[225] Citizenship offered legal protection and rights, but citizens who offended Rome's traditional moral code could be declared infamous, and lose certain legal and social privileges.[226] Citizenship was also taxable, and undischarged debt was potentially a capital offence. A form of limited, theoretically voluntary slavery (debt bondage, or nexum) allowed wealthy creditors to negotiate payment of debt through bonded service. Poor, landless citizens of the lowest class (proletarii) might contract their sons to a creditor, patron or third party employer to obtain an income, or to pay off family debts. Nexum was only abolished when slave labour became more readily available, most notably during the Punic wars.[227][228][229] An inscribed funerary relief of Aurelius Hermia and his wife Aurelia Philematum, former slaves who married after their manumission, 80 BC, from a tomb along the Via Nomentana in Rome Slaves were simultaneously family members and family property. They could be bought, sold, acquired through warfare, or born and raised within their master's household,. They could also buy their freedom with money saved or the offer of future services as a freedman or woman, and their sons could be eligible for citizenship; this degree of social mobility was unusual in the ancient world. Freed slaves and the master who freed them retained certain legal and moral mutual obligations. This was the bottom rung of one of Rome's fundamental social and economic institutions, the client-patron relationship. At the top rung were the senatorial families of the landowning nobility, both patrician and plebeian, bound by shifting allegiances and mutual competition. A plebiscite of 218 forbade senators and their sons to engage in substantial trade or money-lending.[230][231] A wealthy equestrian class emerged, not subject to the same trading constraints as senators.[232] Citizen men and citizen women were expected to marry, produce as many children as possible, and improve – or at worst, conserve – their family's wealth, fortune, and public profile. Marriage offered opportunities for political alliance and social advancement. Patricians usually married in a form known as confarreatio, which transferred the bride from her father's absolute control or "hand" (manus) to that of her husband.[233] Patrician status could only be inherited through birth; an early law, introduced by the reactionary Decemviri but rescinded in 445, sought to prevent marriages between patricians and plebeians; any resulting offspring may not have been legally recognised.[234] Among ordinary plebeians, different marriage forms offered married women considerable more freedom than their patrician counterparts, until manus marriage was replaced by free marriage, in which the wife remained under the legal authority of her absent father, not her husband.[235] Infant mortality was high. Towards the end of the Republic, the birthrate began to fall among the elite. Some wealthy, childless citizens resorted to adoption to provide male heirs for their estates, and to forge political alliances. Adoption was subject to the senate's approval; the notoriously unconventional patrician politician Publius Clodius Pulcher had himself and his family adopted into a plebeian clan, so that he could hold a plebeian tribunate. Trade and economy[edit] Farming[edit] Main articles: Roman agriculture and Ancient Rome and wine The Republic was created during a time of warfare, economic recession, food shortages, and plebeian debt. In wartime, plebeian farmers were liable to conscription. In peacetime, most depended on whatever cereal crops they could produce on small farming plots, allotted to them by the state, or by patrons. Soil fertility varied from place to place, and natural water sources were unevenly distributed throughout the landscape. In good years, a pleb small-holder might trade a small surplus, to meet his family's needs, or to buy the armatures required for his military service. In other years, crop failure through soil exhaustion, adverse weather, disease or military incursions could lead to poverty, unsupported borrowing, and debt. Nobles invested much of their wealth in ever-larger, more efficient farming units, exploiting a range of soil conditions through mixed farming techniques. As farming was labour-intensive, and military conscription reduced the pool of available manpower, over time the wealthy became ever more reliant upon the increasingly plentiful slave-labour provided by successful military campaigns.[236][237][238] Large, well managed agricultural estates helped provide for clients and dependents, support an urban family home, and fund the owner's public and military career, in the form of cash for bribes and security for loans. Later Roman moralists idealised farming as an intrinsically noble occupation: Cincinnatus left off his ploughing reluctantly, to serve as dictator, and returned once his state duties were done.[239][240][241] In law, land taken by conquest was ager publicus (public land). In practise, much of it was exploited by the nobility, using slaves rather than free labour. Rome's expansionist wars and colonisations were at least partly driven by the land-hunger of displaced peasants, who must otherwise join the swelling, dependent population of urban plebs.[242] At the end of the second Punic War, Rome added the fertile ager Campanus, suitable for intense cultivation of vines, olives and cereals. Like the grain-fields of Sicily – seized after the same conflict – it was likely farmed extra-legally by leading landowners, using slave-gangs. A portion of Sicily's grain harvest was sent to Rome as tribute, for redistribution by the aediles.[243][244] The urban plebs increasingly relied on firstly subsidised, then free grain.[245] Ruins of the Aqua Anio Vetus, a Roman aqueduct built in 272 BC With the introduction of aqueducts (from 312), suburban market-farms could be supplied with run-off or waste aqueduct water. Perishable commodities such as flowers (for perfumes, and festival garlands), fresh grapes, vegetables and orchard fruits, and small livestock such as pigs and chickens, could be farmed close to municipal and urban markets.[237] In the early 2nd century Cato the Elder tried to block the illicit tapping of rural aqueducts by the elite, who thus exploited the increased productivity of cheaply bought, formerly "dry" farmland; a law was duly passed, but fines for abuses, and taxes on profits, proved more realistic solutions than an outright ban. Food surpluses, no matter how obtained, kept prices low.[246][247] Faced with increasing competition from provincial and allied grain suppliers, many Roman farmers turned to more profitable crops, especially grapes for wine production. By the late Republican era, Roman wine had been transformed from an indifferent local product for local consumption, to a major domestic and export commodity, with some renowned, costly and collectable vintages.[248][249] Roman writers have little to say about large-scale stock-breeding, but make passing references to its profitability. Drummond speculates that this focus on agriculture rather than livestock might reflect elite preoccupations with historical grain famines, or long-standing competition between agriculturalists and pastoralists. While agriculture was a seasonal practise, pasturage was a year-round requirement. Some of Republican Rome's early agricultural legislation sought to balance the competing public grazing rights of small farmers, the farming elite, and transhumant pastoralists, who maintained an ancient right to herd, graze and water their animals between low-lying winter pastures and upland summer pastures. From the early second century, transhumance was practised on a vast scale, as an investment opportunity.[250][251] Though meat and hides were valuable by products of stock-raising, cattle were primarily reared to pull carts and ploughs, and sheep were bred for their wool, the mainstay of the Roman clothing industry. Horses, mules and donkeys were bred as civil and military transport. Pigs bred prolifically, and could be raised at little cost by any small farmer with rights to pannage. Their central dietary role is reflected by their use as sacrificial victims in domestic cults, funerals, and cults to agricultural deities.[250] Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in ancient Rome Further information: List of ancient Roman deities and List of Roman agricultural deities The Temple of Portunus, god of grain storage, keys, livestock and ports.[252] Rome, built between 120 and 80 BC The tomb of the Flavii, a necropolis outside the Nucerian gate (Porta Nocera) of Pompeii, Italy, constructed 50–30 BC Republican Rome's religious practises harked back to Rome's quasi-mythical history.[253][254] Romulus, a son of Mars, founded Rome after Jupiter granted him favourable bird-signs regarding the site.[255] Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, had established Rome's basic religious and political institutions after direct instructions from the gods, given through augury, dreams and oracle. Each king thereafter was credited with some form of divinely approved innovation, adaptation or reform.[256] An Imperial-era source claims that the Republic's first consul, Brutus, effectively abolished human sacrifice to the goddess Mania, instituted by the last king, Tarquinius.[257] Romans acknowledged the existence of innumerable deities who controlled the natural world and human affairs. Every individual, occupation and location had a protective tutelary deity, or sometimes several. Each was associated with a particular, highly prescriptive form of prayer and sacrifice. Piety (pietas) was the correct, dutiful and timely performance of such actions. The well-being of each Roman household was thought to depend on daily cult to its Lares and Penates (guardian deities, or spirits), ancestors, and the divine generative essence embodied within its pater familias. A family which neglected its religious responsibilities could not expect to prosper.[258] The well-being of the Roman state depended on its state deities, whose opinions and will could be discerned by priests and magistrates, trained in augury, haruspicy, oracles and the interpretation of omens. Impieties in state religion could produce expressions of divine wrath such as social unrest, wars, famines and epidemics, vitiate the political process, render elections null and void, and lead to the abandonment of planned treaties, wars and any government business. Accidental errors could be remedied by repeating the rite correctly, or by an additional sacrifice; outright sacrilege threatened the bonds between the human and divine, and carried the death penalty. As divine retribution was invoked in the lawful swearing of oaths and vows, oath-breakers forfeited their right to divine protection, and might be killed with impunity.[259] Roman religious authorities were unconcerned with personal beliefs or privately funded cults, unless they offended natural or divine laws, or undermined the mos maiorum (roughly, "the way of the ancestors"); the relationship between gods and mortals should be sober, contractual, and of mutual benefit. Undignified grovelling, excessive enthusiasm (superstitio) and secretive practises were "weak minded" and morally suspect.[260] Magical practises were officially banned, as attempts to subvert the will of the gods for personal gain, but were probably common among all classes. Private cult organisations that seemed to threaten Rome's political and priestly hierarchy were investigated by the Senate, with advice from the priestly colleges. The Republic's most notable religious suppression was that of the Bacchanalia, a widespread, unofficial, enthusiastic cult to the Greek wine-god Bacchus. The cult organisation was ferociously suppressed, and its deity was absorbed within the official cult to Rome's own wine-god, Liber.[261] The official recognition, adoption and supervision of foreign deities and practices, whether Etruscan, Sabine, Latin or colonial Greek, had been an important unitary feature in Rome's territorial expansion and dominance since the days of the kings. For example, king Servius Tullius had established an Aventine temple to Diana as a Roman focus for the Latin League.[253][254] The gods were thought to communicate their wrath (ira deorum) through prodigies (unnatural or aberrant phenomena). During the crisis of the Second Punic War an unprecedented number of reported prodigies were expiated, in more than twenty days of public ritual and sacrifices. In the same period, Rome recruited the "Trojan" Magna Mater (Great Mother of the Gods) to the Roman cause, "Hellenised" the native Roman cult to Ceres; and took control of the Bacchanalia festival in Rome and its allied territories. Following Rome's disastrous defeat at Cannae, the State's most prominent written oracle recommended the living burial of human victims in the Forum Boarium to placate the gods.[262][263] Livy describes this "bloodless" human sacrifice as an abhorrent but pious necessity; Rome's eventual victory confirmed the gods' approval.[264] Starting in the mid-Republican era, some leading Romans publicly displayed special, sometimes even intimate relationships with particular deities. For instance, Scipio Africanus claimed Jupiter as a personal mentor. Some gentes claimed a divine descent, often thanks to a false etymology of their name; the Caecilii Metelli pretended to descend from Vulcan through his son Caeculus, the Mamilii from Circe through her granddaughter Mamilia, the Julii Caesares and the Aemilii from Venus through her grandsons Iulus and Aemylos. In the 1st century, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar made competing claims for Venus' favour.[265][266][267] Priesthoods[edit] With the abolition of monarchy, some of its sacral duties were shared by the consuls, while others passed to a Republican rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites"), a patrician "king", elected for life, with great prestige but no executive or kingly powers.[268] Rome had no specifically priestly class or caste. As every family's pater familias was responsible for his family's cult activities, he was effectively the senior priest of his own household. Likewise, most priests of public cult were expected to marry, produce children, and support their families.[269] In the early Republic the patricians, as "fathers" to the Roman people, claimed the right of seniority to lead and control the state's relationship with the divine. Patrician families, in particular the Cornelii, Postumii and Valerii, monopolised the leading state priesthoods: the flamines of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, as well as the pontifices. The patrician Flamen Dialis employed the "greater auspices" (auspicia maiora) to consult with Jupiter on significant matters of State. Twelve "lesser flaminates" (Flamines minores), were open to plebeians, or reserved to them. They included a Flamen Cerealis in service of Ceres, goddess of grain and growth, and protector of plebeian laws and tribunes.[270] The plebs had their own forms of augury, which they credited to Marsyas, a satyr or silen in the entourage of Liber, plebeian god of grapes, wine, freedom and male fertility.[271] The priesthoods of local urban and rustic Compitalia street-festivals, dedicated to the Lares of local communities, were open to freedmen and slaves, to whom "even the heavy-handed Cato recommended liberality during the festival"; so that the slaves, "being softened by this instance of humanity, which has something great and solemn about it, may make themselves more agreeable to their masters and be less sensible of the severity of their condition".[272] Denarius of Lucius Caesius, 112–111 BC. On the obverse is Apollo, as written on the monogram behind his head, who also wears the attributes of Vejovis, an obscure deity. The obverse depicts a group of statues representing the Lares Praestites, which was described by Ovid.[273][274] The Lex Ogulnia (300) gave patricians and plebeians more-or-less equal representation in the augural and pontifical colleges;[50] other important priesthoods, such as the Quindecimviri ("The Fifteen"), and the epulones[275] were opened to any member of the senatorial class.[276] To restrain the accumulation and potential abuse of priestly powers, each gens was permitted one priesthood at any given time, and the religious activities of senators were monitored by the censors.[276] Magistrates who held an augurate could claim divine authority for their position and policies.[277][278] In the late Republic, augury came under the control of the pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the civil and military cursus honorum. Eventually, the office of pontifex maximus became a de facto consular prerogative.[279] Some cults may have been exclusively female; for example, the rites of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea). Towards the end of the second Punic War, Rome rewarded priestesses of Demeter from Graeca Magna with Roman citizenship for training respectable, leading matrons assacerdotes of "Greek rites" to Ceres.[280] Every matron of a family (the wife of its pater familias) had a religious duty to maintain the household fire, which was considered an extension of Vesta's sacred fire, tended in perpetuity by the chaste Vestal Virgins. The Vestals also made the sacrificial mola salsa employed in many State rituals, and represent an essential link between domestic and state religion. Rome's survival was thought to depend on their sacred status and ritual purity. Vestals found guilty of inchastity were "willingly" buried alive, to expiate their offence and avoid the imposition of blood-guilt on those who inflicted the punishment.[281][282] Temples and festivals[edit] Further information: Roman temple, Roman festival, Roman calendar, and Fasti Inside the "Temple of Mercury" at Baiae, a swimming pool for a Roman bath, built during the late Roman Republic,[283] and containing one of the largest domes in the world before the building of the Pantheon Rome's major public temples were contained within the city's sacred, augural boundary (pomerium), which had supposedly been marked out by Romulus, with Jupiter's approval. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("Jupiter, Best and Greatest") stood on the Capitoline Hill. Among the settled areas outside the pomerium was the nearby Aventine Hill. It was traditionally associated with Romulus' unfortunate twin, Remus, and in later history with the Latins, and the Roman plebs. The Aventine seems to have functioned as a place for the introduction of "foreign" deities.[284] In 392, Camillus established a temple there to Juno Regina, Etruscan Veii's protective goddess. Later introductions include Summanus, c. 278, Vortumnus c. 264, and at some time before the end of the 3rd century, Minerva.[285] While Ceres' Aventine temple was most likely built at patrician expense, to mollify the plebs, the patricians brought the Magna Mater ("Great mother of the Gods") to Rome as their own "Trojan" ancestral goddess, and installed her on the Palatine, along with her distinctively "un-Roman" Galli priesthood.[286] Romulus was said to have pitched his augural tent atop the Palatine. Beneath its southern slopes ran the sacred way, next to the former palace of the kings (Regia), the House of the Vestals and Temple of Vesta. Close by were the Lupercal shrine and the cave where Romulus and Remus were said to have been suckled by the she-wolf. On the flat area between the Aventine and Palatine was the Circus Maximus, which hosted chariot races and religious games. Its several shrines and temples included those to Rome's indigenous sun god, Sol, the moon-goddess Luna, the grain-storage god, Consus, and the obscure goddess Murcia. A temple to Hercules stood in the Forum Boarium, near the Circus starting gate. Every district (Vicus) of the city had a crossroads shrine to its own protective Lares. Whereas Republican (and thereafter, Imperial) Romans marked the passage of years with the names of their ruling consuls, their calendars marked the anniversaries of religious foundations to particular deities, the days when official business was permitted (fas), and those when it was not (nefas). The Romans observed an eight-day week; markets were held on the ninth day. Each month was presided over by a particular, usually major deity. The oldest calendars were lunar, structured around the most significant periods in the agricultural cycle, and the religious duties required to yield a good harvest. In the military[edit] Denarius of Caesar, minted just before his murder, in 44 BC. It was the first Roman coin bearing the portrait of a living person. The lituus and culullus depicted behind his head refer to his augurate and pontificate. The reverse with Venus alludes to his claimed descent from the goddess.[287] Before any campaign or battle, Roman commanders took auspices, or haruspices, to seek the gods' opinion regarding the likely outcome. Military success was achieved through a combination of personal and collective virtus (roughly, "manly virtue") and divine will. Triumphal generals dressed as Jupiter Capitolinus, and laid their victor's laurels at his feet. Religious negligence, or lack of virtus, provoked divine wrath and led to military disaster.[288][289] Military oaths dedicated the oath-takers life to Rome's gods and people; defeated soldiers were expected to take their own lives, rather than survive as captives. Examples of devotio, as performed by the Decii Mures, in which soldiers offered and gave their lives to the Di inferi (gods of the underworld) in exchange for Roman victory were celebrated as the highest good. Some of Republican Rome's leading deities were acquired through military actions. In the earliest years of the Republic, Camillus promised Veii's goddess Juno a temple in Rome as incentive for her desertion (evocatio). He conquered the city in her name, brought her cult statue to Rome "with miraculous ease" and dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine Hill.[290] The first known temple to Venus was built to fulfil a vow made by Q. Fabius Gurges during battle against the Samnites.[291][292] Following Rome's disastrous defeat by Carthage in the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217), Rome laid siege to Eryx, a Sicillian ally of Carthage. The city's patron deity, whom the Romans recognised as a warlike version of Venus, was "persuaded" to change her allegiance and was rewarded with a magnificent temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome's twelve Dii consentes. Venus Victrix was thought to grant her favourites a relatively easy victory, worthy of an ovation and myrtle crown.[293][294] Cities, towns and villas[edit] City of Rome[edit] The ruins of the Servian Wall, built during the 4th century BC, one of the earliest ancient Roman defensive walls Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its seven hills. The most important governing, administrative and religious institutions were concentrated at its heart, on and around the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. The city rapidly outgrew its original sacred boundary (pomerium), and its first city walls. Further growth was constrained by an inadequate fresh-water supply. Rome's first aqueduct (312) built during the Punic wars crisis, provided a plentiful, clean supply. The building of further aqueducts led to the city's expansion and the establishment of public baths (thermae) as a central feature of Roman culture.[295][296] The city also had several theatres,[297] gymnasiums, and many taverns and brothels. Living space was at a premium. Some ordinary citizens and freedmen of middling income might live in modest houses but most of the population lived in apartment blocks (insulae, literally "islands"), where the better-off might rent an entire ground floor, and the poorest a single, possibly windowless room at the top, with few or no amenities. Nobles and rich patrons lived in spacious, well-appointed town houses; they were expected to keep "open house" for their peers and clients. A semi-public atrium typically functioned as a meeting-space, and a vehicle for display of wealth, artistic taste, and religious piety. Noble atria were also display areas for ancestor-masks (imagines).[298] Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. Aqueducts brought water to urban centres.[299] Landlords generally resided in cities and left their estates in the care of farm managers. Culture[edit] Clothing[edit] Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman statue of a Republican senator, wearing toga praetexta and senatorial shoes; compared to the voluminous, costly, impractical togas of the Imperial era, the Republican-era type is frugal and "skimpy" (exigua).[300] The basic Roman garment was the Greek-style tunic, worn knee-length and short-sleeved (or sleeveless) for men and boys, and ankle-length and long-sleeved for women and girls. The toga was distinctively Roman. It was thought to have begun during the early Roman kingdom, as a plain woolen "shepherd's wrap", worn by both sexes, all classes, and all occupations, including the military.[301] By the middle to late Republic, citizen women had abandoned it for the less bulky, Greek-style stola, and the military used it only for off-duty ceremonies.[302] The toga became a mark of male citizenship, a statement of social degree.[303] Convention also dictated the type, colour and style of calcei (ankle-boots) appropriate to each level of male citizenship; red for senators, brown with crescent-shaped buckles for equites, and plain tanned for plebs. The whitest, most voluminous togas were worn by the senatorial class. High ranking magistrates, priests and citizen's children were entitled to a purple-bordered toga praetexta. Triumphal generals wore an all-purple, gold-embroidered toga picta, associated with the image of Jupiter and Rome's former kings – but only for a single day; Republican mores simultaneously fostered competitive display and attempted its containment, to preserve at least a notional equality between peers, and reduce the potential threats of class envy.[304] Togas, however, were impractical for physical activities other than sitting in the theatre, public oratory, and attending the salutiones ("greeting sessions") of rich patrons. Most Roman citizens, particularly the lower class of plebs, seem to have opted for more comfortable and practical garments, such as tunics and cloaks. Luxurious and highly coloured clothing had always been available to those who could afford it, particularly women of the leisured classes. There is material evidence for cloth-of-gold (lamé) as early as the 7th century.[305] By the 3rd century, significant quantities of raw silk was being imported from China.[306] The Lex Oppia (215), which restricted personal expenditure on such luxuries as purple clothing, was repealed in 195, after a mass public protest by wealthy Roman matrons.[307] Tyrian purple, as a quasi-sacred colour, was officially reserved for the border of the toga praetexta and for the solid purple toga picta;[308][309] but towards the end of the Republic, the notorious Verres was wearing a purple pallium at all-night parties, not long before his trial, disgrace and exile for corruption.[310] For most Romans, even the simplest, cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. Worn clothing was passed down the social scale until it fell to rags, and these in turn were used for patchwork.[311] Wool and linen were the mainstays of Roman clothing, idealised by Roman moralists as simple and frugal.[312] Landowners were advised that female slaves not otherwise occupied should be producing homespun woolen cloth, good enough for clothing the better class of slave or supervisor. Cato the Elder recommended that slaves be given a new cloak and tunic every two years; coarse rustic homespun would likely be "too good" for the lowest class of slave, but not good enough for their masters.[313] For most women, the carding, combing, spinning and weaving of wool were part of daily housekeeping, either for family use or for sale. In traditionalist, wealthy households, the family's wool-baskets, spindles and looms were positioned in the semi-public reception area (atrium), where the mater familias and her familia could thus demonstrate their industry and frugality; a largely symbolic and moral activity for those of their class, rather than practical necessity.[314] As the Republic wore on, its trade, territories and wealth increased. Roman conservatives deplored the apparent erosion of traditional, class-based dress distinctions, and an increasing Roman appetite for luxurious fabrics and exotic "foreign" styles among all classes, including their own. Towards the end of the Republic, the ultra-traditionalist Cato the Younger publicly protested the self-indulgent greed and ambition of his peers, and the loss of Republican "manly virtues", by wearing a "skimpy" dark woolen toga, without tunic or footwear.[312][315] Food and dining[edit] Main article: Ancient Roman cuisine Banquet scene, fresco, Herculaneum, Italy, c. 50 BC Modern study of the dietary habits during the Republic are hampered by various factors. Few writings have survived, and because different components of their diet are more or less likely to be preserved, the archaeological record cannot be relied on.[316] Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura includes several recipes and his suggested "Rations for the hands". The list of ingredients includes cheese, honey, poppy seeds, coriander, fennel, cumin, egg, olives, bay leaves, laurel twig, and anise. He gives instructions for kneading bread, making porridge, Placenta cake, brine, various wines, preserving lentils, planting asparagus, curing ham, and fattening geese and squab.[317] The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[318] Meat, fish and produce were a part of the Roman diet at all levels of society.[319] Romans valued fresh fruit, and had a diverse variety available to them.[320] Wine was considered the basic drink,[321] consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive. Cato once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce.[322] Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans. Accusations of alcoholism were used to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Marcus Antonius,[323] and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.[324] Education and language[edit] Main articles: Roman school and Latin Rome's original native language was early Latin, the language of the Italic Latins. Most surviving Latin literature is written in Classical Latin, a highly stylised and polished literary language which developed from early and vernacular spoken Latin, from the 1st century. Most Latin speakers used Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation.[citation needed] Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.[325] Strenuous, disciplined physical training helped prepare boys of citizen class for their eventual citizenship and a military career. Girls generally received instruction[326] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Effective oratory and good Latin were highly valued among the elite, and were essential to a career in law or politics.[327] Arts[edit] Main articles: Roman Republican art, Latin literature, and Music of ancient Rome In the 3rd century, Greek art taken as the spoils of war became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.[328] Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence.[citation needed] Literature[edit] Main articles: Classical Latin § Republican, and Latin Literature § The Age of Cicero Early Roman literature was influenced heavily by Greek authors. From the mid-Republic, Roman authors followed Greek models, to produce free-verse and verse-form plays and other in Latin; for example, Livius Andronicus wrote tragedies and comedies. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the comedies of Plautus, written during the mid-Republic. Works of well-known, popular playwrights were sometimes commissioned for performance at religious festivals; many of these were satyr plays, based on Greek models and Greek myths. The poet Naevius may be said to have written the first Roman epic poem, although Ennius was the first Roman poet to write an epic in an adapted Latin hexameter. However, only fragments of Ennius' epic, the Annales, have survived, yet both Naevius and Ennius influenced later Latin epic, especially Virgil's Aeneid. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, explicated the tenets of Epicurean philosophy. The politician, poet and philosopher Cicero's literary output was remarkably prolific and so influential on contemporary and later literature that the period from 83 BC to 43 BC has been called the "Age of Cicero". His oratory set new standards for centuries, and continue to influence modern speakers, while his philosophical works, which were, for the most part, Cicero's Latin adaptations of Greek Platonic and Epicurean works influenced many later philosophers.[329][330] Other prominent writers of this period include the grammarian and historian of religion Varro, the politician, general and military commentator Julius Caesar, the historian Sallust and the love poet Catullus. Sports and entertainment[edit] The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators. The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing.[citation needed] Equestrian sports, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities.[citation needed] In the countryside, pastimes included fishing and hunting.[citation needed] Board games played in Rome included dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[331] Other activities included chariot races, and musical and theatrical performances.[citation needed] See also[edit] Democratic empire History of the Roman Empire – Occurrences and people in the Roman Empire Roman commerce Roman conceptions of citizenship – aspect of history Roman economy – Economy of ancient Rome Notes[edit] ^ Throughout the Republic, the Cornelii held 75 consulships and 27 consular tribuneships, almost 10% of all the consulships of the period. ^ Several historians, notably Tim Cornell, have challenged this view, saying that in the early Republic the Fasti Consulares bear names that are distinctively plebeian. Therefore, they claim that the plebeians were only excluded from higher offices by the Decemvirate in 451 BC. More recently, Corey Brennan has dismissed this theory, arguing that the consular plebeians would not have let the Decemvirs take their power away that easily (cf. The Praetorship, pp. 24, 25). He explains the "plebeian" names in the Fasti by some patrician gentes who later died out, or lost their status. Consequently, this article follows the traditional narrative that the plebeians were excluded from the start. ^ The urban poor were registered in the four urban tribes, whilst the 31 other tribes were composed of landowners, who therefore had the majority in the Tribal Assembly. Humm thinks that Caecus actually did not appointed "freedmen" in the Senate, but chose new Roman citizens from the recently conquered cities in Italy. ^ Appius Caecus is a complex character whose reforms are difficult to interpret. For example, Mommsen considered he was a revolutionary, but was puzzled by his opposition to the Lex Ogulnia, which contradicts his previous "democratic" policies. Taylor on the contrary thought he defended patricians' interests, as freedmen remained in the clientele of their patrons. More recently, Humm described his activity as the continuation of the reforms undertaken since Stolo and Lateranus. ^ There are significant differences between the accounts of Cassius Dio, Dionysius, and Plutarch, but the latter's is traditionally followed in the academic literature. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Crawford (1974), pp. 455, 456. ^ "Latin League". Encyclopaedia Britannica. ^ a b Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth–Decline Curves, 600 BC to 600 AD". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 115–138 [125]. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII part 2, pp. 110, 111. ^ Society, National Geographic (6 July 2018). "Roman Republic". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ "Roman Republic | History, Government, Map, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ "Roman Government". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 5 November 2020. ^ Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218: Cornell offers a summary of "Livy's prose narrative" and derived literary works relating to the expulsion of the kings. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, p. iv. 64–85. ^ Livy, i. 57–60 ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 226–228. ^ Aristotle, Politics, 5.1311a. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218, 377–378. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, VII, part 2, p. 178. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–217. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 33 ^ Florus, Epitome, i. 11–12. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, pp. 37–41. ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. II ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 289–291. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 256–259: Plebs ("the mass") was originally a disparaging term, but was adopted as a badge of pride by those whom it was meant to insult. It might not have referred to wealthier commoners. ^ Orlin, A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 59–60. ^ The traditional date for the first secession is given by Livy as 494; many other dates have been suggested, and several such events probably took place: see Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–218, 256–261, 266. ^ For a discussion of the duties and legal status of plebeian tribunes and aediles, see Andrew Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 92–101. ^ Florus, Epitome, i. 13. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, pp. 48–49. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 52. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 53. ^ It has nevertheless been speculated that Lucius Atilius Luscus in 444, and Quintus Antonius Meranda in 422 were also plebeian. cf. Brennan, The Praetorship, p. 50. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 338. ^ Livy, vi. 11, 13–30. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 331, 332. ^ a b Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 337. Cornell explains that Livy confused the contents of the Lex Licinia Sextia of 366 the Lex Genucia of 342. ^ Livy mentions at least two patricians favourable to the tribunes: Marcus Fabius Ambustus, Stolo's father-in-law, and the dictator for 368 Publius Manlius Capitolinus, who appointed the first plebeian magister equitum, Gaius Licinius Calvus. ^ Livy, vi. 36–42. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 108–114. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 59–61. ^ Livy, vii. 42. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 65–67, where he shows that the ten-year rule was only temporary at this time. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 342, 343. ^ Brennan, The Praetorship, pp. 68, 69. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 393, 394. Cornell gives an earlier date, before 318. ^ Humm, Appius Claudius Caecus, pp. 185–226. ^ Taylor, Voting Districts, pp. 132–138. ^ Bruce MacBain, "Appius Claudius Caecus and the Via Appia", in The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 30, No. 2 (1980), pp. 356–372. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, p. 343. ^ Graham Maddox, "The Economic Causes of the Lex Hortensia", in Latomus, T. 42, Fasc. 2 (Apr.–Jun. 1983), pp. 277–286. ^ R. Develin, "'Provocatio" and Plebiscites'. Early Roman Legislation and the Historical Tradition", in Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 31, Fasc. 1 (1978), pp. 45–60. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7-2, pp. 340, 341. ^ a b Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 342 ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 484. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 78. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, p. xix. 5, 6. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 14. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 456, 457. ^ Cicero, Cato Maior de Senectute, 6. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 18, 19. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 466–471. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, p. xx. 3. ^ Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 21 § 9. ^ Cassius Dio, x. 5. ^ Franke, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 473–480. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, p. xx. 8.. ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 80 ^ Polybius, iii. 22–26. ^ Livy, vii. 27. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 517–537. ^ Which assembly was consulted has led to many discussions in the academic literature. Goldsworthy favours the Centuriate Assembly, cf. The Punic Wars, p. 69. ^ Polybius, i. 11, 12. ^ H. H. Scullard thinks that Caudex was not successful, since he did not receive a triumph and was succeeded in command by Messalla, his political enemy. Cf. Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 545. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 547. ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 113 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 84. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 548–554. ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 88. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 554–557. ^ Crawford (1974), pp. 292, 293. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 559–564. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 565–569. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, p. 217. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, p. 215. ^ Carthage was an oligarchy at the time, dominated by the Barcids. The Roman historian Fabius Pictor thought that the Barcids conquered Spain without approval from the Carthaginian government; a view rejected by Polybius. cf. Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 212–213. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 28–31. ^ Hoyos, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 216–219. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 33–36. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 37. These gentes had interests in Massalia and other Greek cities of the western Mediterranean. Massalia was concerned by the Carthaginian growing influence in Spain. ^ Scullard, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 39. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 46. ^ Fronda, Companion to the Punic Wars, pp. 251, 252. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 47. ^ Livy, xxi. 38, quoting Cincius Alimentus who reported a personal discussion with Hannibal, in which he said he lost 38,000 men by crossing the Alps. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 48. ^ Polybius (iii. 117) gives 70,000 dead. Livy (xxii. 49) gives 47,700 dead and 19,300 prisoners. ^ Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain, Volume IX, British Museum, Part 2: Spain, London, 2002, n° 102. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 52, 53. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, pp. 49, 50. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 57. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 59. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 55. ^ Briscoe, Cambridge Ancient History, p. 60. ^ a b Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 47 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 115 ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 42. ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 43 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 49 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 117 ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 48 ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 51 ^ a b c d e Grant, The History of Rome, p. 119 ^ a b c d e Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 52 ^ Naples National Archaeological Museum (Inv. No. 5634). ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 326 ^ Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, p. 55 ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 120 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 75 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 92 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 53 ^ History of Rome – The republic, Isaac Asimov. ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XV, para. 24 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 338 ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 339 ^ Abbott, 96 ^ a b Bishop, Paul. "Rome: Transition from Republic to Empire" (PDF). Hillsborough Community College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ Abbott, 97 ^ Stobart, J.C. (1978). "III". In Maguinness, W.S; Scullard, H.H. The Grandeur That was Rome (4th ed.). Book Club Associates. pp. 75–82. ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29 ^ Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XII ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 64 ^ Crawford (1974), pp. 449–451. ^ Abbott, 100 ^ Appian, History of Rome, §6 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 75 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 6 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 161 ^ Abbott, 103 ^ Abbott, 106 ^ Abbott, 104 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 77 ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1, 117 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 43 ^ a b c Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 5 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 76 ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 158 ^ a b Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 363 ^ a b c Plutarch, Lives, Pompey ^ Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 6 ^ Abbott, 108 ^ Abbott, 109 ^ Abbott, 109–110 ^ Abbott, 110 ^ a b Abbott, 111 ^ a b Abbott, 112 ^ Cantor, Antiquity, p. 168 ^ Abbott, 113 ^ a b Plutarch, Lives, Caesar ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 58 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 62 See also: Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 212 ^ Abbott, 114 ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 133 ^ Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, p. 266 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 214 ^ Abbott, 115 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 217 ^ Julius Caesar, The Civil War, 81–92 See also: Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 218 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 227 See also: Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 403 ^ Holland, Rubicon, p. 312 ^ a b Abbott, 134 ^ Abbott, 135 ^ a b Abbott, 137 ^ Abbott, 138 ^ a b Cantor, Antiquity, p. 170 ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0195365535. ^ Walker, Susan (2008). "Cleopatra in Pompeii?". Papers of the British School at Rome. 76: 35–46 and 345–348 (pp. 35, 42–44). ^ Abbott, 133 ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. p. 237. ISBN 9780297846666. ^ Luttwak, Edward (1976). The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century CE to the Third. p. 7. ISBN 9780801818639. ^ Byrd, 161 ^ Byrd, 96 ^ Byrd, 44 ^ Bleiken, Jochen (1995). Die Verfassung der römischen Republik (6th ed.). Schöningh: UTB. ^ Lintott, 42 ^ Abbott, 251 ^ Abbott, 257 ^ Lintott, 51 ^ Taylor, 77 ^ Taylor, 7 ^ Abbott, 196 ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 101. ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 95. ^ Lintott, Constitution of the Roman Republic, p. 97. ^ Lintott, 113 ^ Byrd, 20 ^ Byrd, 179 ^ Byrd, 32 ^ Byrd, 26 ^ Byrd, 23 ^ Byrd, 24 ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 15 ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 312 ^ Nicholas V Sekunda, Early Roman Armies, p. 17. ^ Nicholas V Sekunda, Early Roman Armies, p. 18. ^ Livy, i. 43. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, p. iv. 16–18. ^ Early Roman Armies, pp. 37–38. ^ "Rome, The Samnite Wars". History-world.org. Archived from the original on 14 October 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2010. ^ Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., p. 87 ^ PolybiusB6 ^ a b Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 18 ^ a b Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 156 ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 2 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 9 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 11 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 143 ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 10 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 1 ^ Santosuosso, p. 29 ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 25 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 14 ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 116 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 15 ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 43 ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201–217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35–84. ^ Tacitus. Annales. II.49. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 215–216. ^ Thomas A.J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 65ff. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 126. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 238, 379–380, citing Livy, 9. 46. 13–14 for the poorest citizens as forensis facto... humillimi (the "lowest of the low"). ^ Alföldy, Geza, The Social History of Rome, p. 17. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 288–291. ^ Flower, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 173–175; Flower is describing the restrictions placed on Senatorial business activity by the plebiscitum Claudianum of 218 BC, and related legislation: it may have been intended to reduce opportunity for bribery and corruption, or to help Senators focus exclusively on their tasks in government. ^ D'Arms, J. B., "Senators' Involvement in Commerce in the Late Republic: Some Ciceronian Evidence", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 36, The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies in Archaeology and History (1980), pp. 77–89, University of Michigan Press for the American Academy in Rome. ^ David Johnston, Roman Law in Context (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 33–34. ^ The plebeian involved in such a marriage would likely have been wealthy: see Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, p. 255. ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law (Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 20, 53, 54. Plebeian marriage forms include coemptio (marriage "by purchase" – a form of dowry), and usus (marriage recognised through the couple's "habitual cohabitation") ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 265–268, 283. ^ a b Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors, pp. 5–10. ^ Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 118–122, 135, 136. ^ Livy, iii. 26–29. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 412–413: Cato the Elder dwelt upon the probably mythical poverty of leading Romans such as Manius Dentatus, and the incorruptible Gaius Fabricius Luscinus. ^ Rosenstein, Nathan, "Aristocrats and Agriculture in the Middle and Late Republic", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 98 (2008), pp. 1–3. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 265–268. ^ Gabba, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 8, pp. 197–198. ^ Lintott, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, p. 55: A later consular investigation into similar land-encroachments is dated to 175. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, pp. 328–329. ^ Bannon, Gardens and Neighbors, pp. 5–10; citing Hodge, Roman Aqueducts, p. 219 for Cato's diatribe against the misuse of aqueduct water by L. Furius Purpureus, consul in 196. ^ Nicolet, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, p. 619. ^ Rosenstein, Nathan, "Aristocrats and Agriculture in the Middle Republic", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 98 (2008), pp. 2–16. ^ Nicolet, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, pp. 612–615: up to this time, the Roman elite had favoured Greek imported wine over any of Rome's homegrown versions. ^ a b Drummond, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, pp. 118–122. ^ Gabba, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 8, pp. 237–239. ^ Fowler, W. Warde (1899). Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press. pp. 202–204. ^ a b Rüpke, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 4. ^ a b Beard, North, Price, Religions of Rome, Vol. I, pp. 30–35. ^ Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 115 ^ King Numa Pompilius was also said to have consorted with the nymph Egeria. The myths surrounding king Servius Tullius include his divine fathering by a Lar of the royal household, or by Vulcan, god of fire; and his love-affair with the goddess Fortuna. ^ Macrobius describes the woolen figurines (maniae) hung at crossroad shrines during the popular Compitalia festival as substitutions for ancient human sacrifice once held at the same festival and suppressed by Rome's first consul, L. Junius Brutus. Whatever the truth regarding this sacrifice and its abolition, the Junii celebrated their ancestor cult during Larentalia rather than the usual Parentalia even in the 1st century BC; see Taylor, Lilly Ross, "The Mother of the Lares", in American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 29, 3, (July–Sept. 1925), pp. 302 ff. ^ Orr, D. G., Roman domestic religion: the evidence of the household shrines, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II, 16, 2, Berlin, 1978, 1557–1591. ^ Halm, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 241, 242. ^ Rüpke, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 5. ^ Erich S. Gruen, Erich S., "The Bacchanalia affair", in Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy, University of California Press, 1996, pp. 34 ff. ^ Rosenberger, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 295–298; the discovery of a hermaphroditic four-year-old child was expiated by the state haruspex, who set the child to drown in the sea. Its survival for four years after its birth would have been regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty. ^ Livy, xxvii. 37, cited by Halm, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 244; see also Rosenberger, p. 297. ^ For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 138, 139. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, pp. 295–298. ^ Festus, "Caeculus", "Aemilia" and others. ^ T. P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome", Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Oct. 1974), pp. 153–164. ^ Orlin, Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 67–69. ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 223. ^ The Vestal Virgins were the major exception. The Galli, mendicant eunuch priets of the Magna Mater, were forbidden Roman citizenship. ^ Cornell, The beginnings of Rome, p. 264. ^ Barbette Stanley Spaeth, "The Goddess Ceres and the Death of Tiberius Gracchus", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 39, No. 2 (1990), pp. 185–186. ^ Lott, John. B., The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-82827-9, pp. 31, 35, citing Cato, On agriculture, 5.3., and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 4.14.2–4 (excerpt), Trans. Cary, Loeb, Cambridge, 1939. ^ Ovid, Fasti, v, 129–145 ^ Crawford (1974), p. 312. ^ Established in 196 to take over the running of a growing number of ludi and festivals from the pontifices ^ a b Lipka, M., Roman Gods: a conceptual approach, Versnel, H., S., Frankfurter, D., Hahn, J., (Editors), Religions in the Graeco-Roman world, Brill, 2009, pp. 171–172 ^ Rosenberger, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 299. ^ Auctoritas (authority) is etymologically linked to augur: See Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 341 ^ Brent, A. The imperial cult and the development of church order: Concepts and images of authority in paganism and early Christianity before the Age of Cyprian, Brill, 1999, pp. 19–20, 21–25: citing Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.4. ^ Spaeth, Barbette Stanley, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 4, 6–13. ISBN 0-292-77693-4 ^ Cunham, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, p. 155. ^ Beard, Mary, "The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins," The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, (1980), pp. 12–27; and Parker, Holt N. "Why Were the Vestals Virgins? Or the Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State", American Journal of Philology, Vol. 125, No. 4. (2004), pp. 563–601. ^ "Baiae, historic site, Italy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 6 June 2021. ^ Cornell, Beginnings of Rome, p. 264. ^ Orlin, Eric M., Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 47 (2002), pp. 4–5. For Camillus and Juno, see Stephen Benko, The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology, Brill, 2004, p. 27. ^ Roller, Lynn Emrich (1999). In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, pp. 282–285. ISBN 0-520-21024-7 ^ Crawford (1974), pp. 487–495. ^ Orlin, Companion to Roman Religion, p. 58. ^ Beard, North, Price, Religions of Rome, Vol. I, pp. 44, 59, 60, 143. ^ Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, part 2, p. 299, citing Livy xxi. 8–9 and xxii. 3–6. Livy describes this as evocatio (a "calling forth") initiated by Roman soldiers who snatched the goddess's sacrificial portion during her Veiian rites; the Veiian priest had announced that whoever possessed the sacred entrails would win the coming battle. ^ Eden, P. T., "Venus and the Cabbage" Hermes, 91, (1963) p. 456. ^ Schilling, R. La Religion romaine de Venus, BEFAR, Paris, 1954, p. 87, suggests that Venus began as an abstraction of personal qualities, later assuming Aphrodite's attributes. ^ See Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press, 2007, pp. 62–63. ^ Brouwer, Henrik H. J., Bona Dea, The Sources and a Description of the Cult, Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain, 110, Brill, 1989: citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 23, 152–158, and Book 15, 125. ^ Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. p. 145. ^ For the earliest likely development of Roman public bathing, see Fagan, Garrett T., Bathing in Public in the Roman World, University of Michigan Press, 1999, pp. 42–44. ^ Jones, Mark Wilson Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ^ "The architecture of the ancient Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual:" Lott, John. B., The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 1, citing Frank E. Brown, Roman Architecture, (New York, 1961, p. 9. Some Roman ritual includes activities which might be called, in modern terms, religious; some is what might be understood in modern terms as secular – the proper and habitual way of doing things. For Romans, both activities were matters of lawful custom (mos maiorum) rather than religious as opposed to secular. ^ Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (February 2000), pp. 29–59 (39) ^ Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors) A Companion to the Etruscans (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33 ^ According to Roman tradition, soldiers had once worn togas to war, hitching them up with what was known as a "Gabine cinch". See Stone, The World of Roman Costume, p. 13. ^ An equestrian statue, described during the Imperial era by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early, legendary Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga: see Olson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, p. 151 (note 18). ^ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct. 1996), p. 215: Vout cites Servius, In Aenidem, 1.281 and Nonius, 14.867L for the former wearing of togas by women other than prostitutes and adulteresses. ^ Flower, Harriet F., Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 118: "The best model for understanding Roman sumptuary legislation is that of aristocratic self-preservation within a highly competitive society which valued overt display of prestige above all else." ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, pp. 62–68. ^ Gabucci, Ada (2005). Dictionaries of Civilization: Rome. University of California Press. p. 168. ^ Astin, Rawson, Morel, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9, pp. 181–185, 439, 453, 495. ^ Bradley, Mark, Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 189, 194–195 ^ Edmondson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, pp. 28–30; Keith, p. 200. ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, pp. 54–56. ^ Vout, Caroline, "The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress", Greece & Rome, 43, No. 2 (Oct. 1996), pp. 211, 212. ^ a b Edmondson, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, p. 33. ^ Sebesta, The World of Roman Costume, p. 70, citing Columella, 12, praef. 9–10, 12.3.6. ^ In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: see Flower, Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 153, 195–197. ^ Appian's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume." See Rothfus, MA, "The Gens Togata: Changing Styles and Changing Identities", American Journal of Philology, 2010, p. 1, citing Appian, 2.17.120 ^ Witcher, R.E. (2016) Agricultural production in Roman Italy (see page 8) from A companion to Roman Italy. (Wiley-Blackwell). Blackwell companions to the ancient world. pp. 459–482. ^ Cato, De Agri Cultura ch. 74–90, 104–125, 156–157, 158–162. ^ "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, Odes 1.31.15, c. 30 BC ^ Kron, Geoffrey (2012), Scheidel, W. (ed.), Food Production (see p. 8, fn 72) from The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 156–174 ^ Kron, Food Production (see p. 16) ^ Phillips pp. 46–56 ^ Phillips pp. 35–45 ^ Phillipa pp. 57–63 ^ "Af first, he would drink once after supper and then leave the table; but as time went on he would allow himself to drink very generously, so that he often tarried at his wine till early morning." Plutarch, Cato the Younger, 6. ^ Nanette R. Pacal, "The Legacy of Roman Education (in the Forum)", in The Classical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4. (April–May 1984) ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 ^ Joseph Farrell, Latin Language and Latin Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Richard A. Bauman, Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1992, 1994), pp. 51–52. ^ Toynbee, J.M.C. (December 1971). "Roman Art". The Classical Review. 21 (3): 439–442. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00221331. JSTOR 708631. ^ Zauzmer, Julie. "Donald Trump, the Cicero of 2016". The Washington Post (WP Company LLC) [US]. Retrieved 4 July 2019. ^ Griffin, Miriam (1986). "Cicero and Rome". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 454–459. ISBN 0-19-285236-1. ^ Austin, Roland G. "Roman Board Games. I", Greece & Rome 4:10, October 1934. pp. 24–34. Ancient sources[edit] Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War). Aristotle, Politiká (Politics). Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War). Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus, De Divinatione, De Oratore, In Verrem, Philippicae. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Polybius, Historiae (The Histories). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae. Cited Sources[edit] General history of the Roman Republic (ordered chronologically) Barthold Georg Niebuhr, The History of Rome, Julius Charles Hare and Connop Thirlwall, trans., John Smith, Cambridge, 1828. Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, Leipzig, 1854–1856. Frank Frost Abbott, A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions, Elibron Classics, 1901. ISBN 0-543-92749-0 Cyril E. Robinson, A History of the Roman Republic, London, Methuen, 1932. F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VII, part 2, The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1989. J. A. Crook, F. W. Walbank, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1989. A. E. Astin, Andrew Lintott, Elisabeth Rawson (editors), The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IX, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1992. Tim Cornell, The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000 – 264 BC), Oxford, Routledge, 1995. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7 Nathan S. Rosenstein & Robert Morstein-Marx (editors), A companion to the Roman Republic, Oxford, Blackwell, 2006. Klaus Bringmann, A History of the Roman Republic, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2007. Specific subjects Alföldy, Geza, The Social History of Rome, Routledge Revivals, 2014, (English translation of German original, 1975). Badian, E. 1968. Roman imperialism in the late Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. Bannon, Cynthia, Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy, University of Michigan Press, 2009. Beard, Mary, John North, & Simon Price, Religions of Rome, Volume I, illustrated, reprint, Cambridge University Press, 1998 Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.), The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285236-1 Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986). Brunt, Peter A. 1988. The fall of the Roman Republic and related essays. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23. Crawford, Michael (1974). Roman Republican Coinage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Develin, Robert. 1985. The practice of politics at Rome, 366–167 BC. Brussels: Latomus. Edmondson, J. C., and Keith, A., (Editors), Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2008. Eck, Werner (2003). The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22957-5. Flower, Harriet I., ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. Flower, Harriet I. (2009). Roman Republics. Princeton. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). The Complete Roman Army. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5. Gruen, Erich S. 1992. Culture and national identity in Republican Rome. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Gruen, Erich S. (1995). The last generation of the Roman Republic (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Harris, William V. 1979. War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Holland, Tom (2005). Rubicon: the last years of the Roman Republic. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-50313-6. Hoyos, Dexter, ed. (2011). A Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Humm, Michel (2005). Appius Claudius Caecus, La République accomplie. Rome: Publications de l'École française de Rome. Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. MacDonald, W. L. (1982). The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press, New Haven. Matyszak, Philip (2004). The Enemies of Rome. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25124-9. Owen, Francis (1993). The Germanic people; their Origin Expansion & Culture. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. Palmer, L. R. (1954). The Latin Language. Univ. Oklahoma. ISBN 978-0-8061-2136-9. Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. 2004. Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders. 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Rawson, Elizabeth. 1985. Intellectual life in the late Roman Republic. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Rich, John. 1993. "Fear, greed, and glory: The causes of Roman war-making in the middle Republic." In War and society in the Roman world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 38–68. London: Routledge. Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4051-2943-5 Salmon, Edward Togo. 1969. Roman colonization under the Republic. London: Thames and Hudson. Sebesta, Judith Lynn, & Larissa Bonfante (editors), The World of Roman Costume: Wisconsin Studies in Classics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08125-7. Walbank, F. W., Polybius, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972. Walsh, P. G., Livy: His historical aims and methods. Cambridge University Press, 1963. Vishnia, Rachel Feig, State, society, and popular leaders in mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 BC, London, Routledge, 1996. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Republic. 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en-wikipedia-org-7660	----	Trajan's Column - Wikipedia Trajan's Column From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Column of Trajan) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy Trajan's Column Location Trajan's Forum Built in AD 107~113 Built by/for Emperor Trajan Type of structure Roman triumphal column Related Forum of Trajan Trajan's Column Trajan's Column (Italian: Colonna Traiana, Latin: Columna Traiani) is a Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy, that commemorates Roman emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. It was probably constructed under the supervision of the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Roman Senate. It is located in Trajan's Forum, north of the Roman Forum. Completed in AD 113, the freestanding column is most famous for its spiral bas relief, which artistically represents the wars between the Romans and Dacians (101–102 and 105–106). Its design has inspired numerous victory columns, both ancient and modern. The structure is about 30 metres (98 feet) in height, 35 metres (115 feet) including its large pedestal. The shaft is made from a series of 20 colossal Carrara marble[a] drums, each weighing about 32 tons,[2] with a diameter of 3.7 metres (12.1 feet). The 190-metre (620-foot) frieze winds around the shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral staircase of 185 steps provides access to a viewing platform at the top. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, and had to be lifted to a height of c. 34 metres (112 feet).[3] Ancient coins indicate preliminary plans to top the column with a statue of a bird, probably an eagle,[4] but after construction, a statue of Trajan was put in place; this statue disappeared in the Middle Ages. On December 4, 1587, the top was crowned by Pope Sixtus V with a bronze figure of St. Peter, which remains to this day.[5] The column was originally flanked by two libraries, which may have contained Trajan's scroll-written despatches from his Roman-Dacian Wars. Filippo Coarelli suggests that such scrolls are the basis of both the column's design and its spiraling, sculpted narrative. The column shows 2,662 figures and 155 scenes; Trajan himself appears on the column 58 times.[6] Contents 1 Frieze 1.1 Design 1.2 Historical content portrayed 1.2.1 Narrative 1.2.2 Figures and sets 1.2.3 Women 2 Setting 3 Purpose 4 Inscription 5 Spiral stair 6 Construction 7 Reproduction 8 Dimensions 9 Images 10 Influence 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Frieze[edit] Design[edit] The continuous helical frieze winds 25 times from base to capital, and was in its time an architectural innovation.[7] The design was adopted by later emperors such as Marcus Aurelius. The narrative band expands from about 1 metre (3.3 feet) at the base of the column to 1.2 metres (3.9 feet) at the top.[8] The scenes unfold continuously. Often a variety of different perspectives are used in the same scene, so that more can be revealed (e.g., a different angle is used to show men working behind a wall). Historical content portrayed[edit] Narrative[edit] The relief portrays Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians; the lower half illustrating the first (101–102), and the top half illustrating the second (105–106). These campaigns were contemporary to the time of the Column's building. Throughout, the frieze repeats standardized scenes of imperial address (adlocutio), sacrifice (lustratio), and the army setting out on campaign (profectio).[9] Scenes of battle are very much a minority on the column; instead it emphasizes images of orderly soldiers carrying out ceremony and construction. The war against Dacia was one of conquest and expansion. Therefore, with the aim of the Dacian Campaigns being the incorporation and integration of Dacia into the Roman Empire as a Roman province, depictions of violent action towards foreign women and children are nonexistent.[7] Wartime violence in general seems to have been downplayed.[7] Some scholars suggest the lack of battle scenes and large number of building scenes is a propaganda constructed specifically for the urban population of Rome (the primary audience), addressing their fear and distrust of the army by depicting its warfare as one with little collateral damage.[7] Key specific events portrayed are the first crossing of the Danube by the Roman legion, Trajan's voyage up the Danube, the surrender of the Dacians at the close of the first war, the great sacrifice by the Danube bridge during the second war, the assault on the Dacian capital, and the death of the Dacian king Decebalus.[10] The two sections are separated by a personification of Victory writing on a shield flanked on either side by Trophies. Figures and sets[edit] Roman carroballista, a cart-mounted field artillery weapon (relief detail) Great care is taken to distinguish the men and women from both sides of the campaign as well as the ranks within these distinct groups. The scenes are crowded with sailors, soldiers, statesmen and priests, showing about 2,500 figures in all. It also exists as a valuable source of information on Roman and barbarian arms and methods of warfare (such as forts, ships, weapons, etc.) and costume. The relief shows details such as a ballista or catapult. The precise details create a strong effect of verisimilitude; the designer presents the images as objective historical truth.[7] The emperor Trajan is depicted realistically in the Veristic style, making 59 appearances as the central hero among his troops.[11] The portrayal of the Roman army as relatively gentle may have been designed to support Trajan's image as a man of "justice, clemency, moderation, and restraint".[11] Women[edit] Women for the most part occupy and define the margins of the scenes. However, mortal females in Roman state art are so rare, it is remarkable that they are included at all in a war monument. In the male discourse of warfare, women are a visual trope that develops further the idea of subjugation by feminizing the foreign conquered.[7] However, on the Column is "one of the most unusual, disturbing, and violent depictions of women in Roman art, the torture scene."[7] In this unusual scene, four Dacian women are depicted torturing two naked men. Setting[edit] See also: Trajan's Forum Two examples of Dupondius struck 114–116 AD, showing Trajan's column with the original statue on top and his portrait Today, the Column of Trajan is the most prominent architectural feature of Trajan's Forum, left nearly intact but now isolated from its original setting. The Column was placed toward the northernmost point of the forum, acting as the focal point of the entire forum complex. It was surrounded on three sides by two flanking libraries and the Basilica Ulpia. The two libraries to the northeast and southwest of the Column were for the study of scrolls written in both Latin and Greek.[12] These libraries were built in tandem with the Column.[13] They apparently included upper level viewing platforms for two sides of the column. By having an elevated vantage point, the figures of the scenes, carved in shallow relief and detailed with paint and metal fittings, could be seen more closely (nevertheless it remained impossible for the ancient viewer to follow sequentially the continuous spiral of the reliefs). The problem with visibility of the upper areas is further apparent when we compare Trajan's Column to the Column of Marcus Aurelius. The figures in the later Column of Marcus Aurelius are more deeply cut and even simplified over the height of the shaft because there were no surrounding buildings to serve as viewing platforms. The different carving style seems to have been adopted to enhance visibility. The two libraries flanking the Column helped to further the emperor's program of propaganda. In addition to serving as viewing platforms for the Column, they housed valuable works of literature for the people of Rome. Surely one important text kept here was Trajan's own account of the Dacian Wars, now lost. The reliefs on the Column documenting the Dacian campaigns would have provided a vivid complement to Trajan's account of the wars. The people of Rome were reminded of his victories every time they enjoyed the open space and amenities of the forum.[14] The combination of the Column and the magnificent buildings that surrounded it created an awe-inspiring spectacle. Purpose[edit] Battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies It is unclear whether the Column was meant to serve a commemorative function or as a propaganda piece. Traditional scholarship held that the Column was a glorifying monument, upholding Trajan as Rome's great emperor. However, recent reconstructions of Trajan's Forum have determined that any wide view of the Column would have been mostly obstructed by two libraries in the Forum which tightly bookended it. Also, because it would have been difficult to follow the spiral frieze from end to end (walking in circles with head inclined), the Column's narrative power would have been fairly limited. On the other hand, as French archaeologist Paul Veyne notes, the relief could be read "vertically" from below, with the figure of the emperor recognizable across the bands of images—just as, on the Colonne Vendôme, Napoleon's figure can be picked up, scene after scene. Additionally, the two libraries surrounding it provided platforms from which to observe the Column if the viewer stood on the top floors, making the complete view of frieze much more visible. Trajan's Column around 1896 While there is certainly evidence that the Column was not put in an ideal spot for visibility, it is impossible to reject the Column as some form of a glorification structure. There is the significant point that the Column was extremely challenging to construct, and so it is unlikely that it would have been placed in the Forum with the intentions of being hidden or out of plain sight.[14] There is also the important idea of the Column as a symbol for Trajan. Trajan's ashes were buried in a chamber at the base of the Column. At the top of the Column was a statue of Trajan. The ground level of the Forum, which is a center of life for Romans, is where the earthly remains of Trajan are buried. The Column from the base goes up, taking a viewer through Trajan's triumph in the Dacian wars, and (as originally constructed) finishes with a statue of Trajan above the forum. Considering the practice of deification of emperors which was expected during this time period, especially of glorious Trajan, the symbolism may be interpreted as Trajan's earthly remains staying in the Forum with the Roman people while his conquests ascend him up into the heavens.[14] The Column acting as a funerary monument has also been considered. After Trajan's death in 117, the Roman Senate voted to have Trajan's ashes buried in the Column's square base, which is decorated with captured Dacian arms and armor. His ashes and those of his wife, Plotina, were set inside the base in golden urns (which later disappeared from the monument). One reading of this is that Trajan may have intended the Column to be his final resting place from the project's inception, and that the similarities in design to other funerary structures made it a natural choice for the Roman Senate.[15] In particular, the circumambulation demanded of onlookers of the Column's frieze is evocative of Roman funerary practice, drawing attention toward the center – and consequently, the finial of Trajan. Perhaps the simplest interpretation is provided by the inscription written above the entrance (translated below): that the mere existence of Column was an engineering marvel due to the immense excavation efforts necessary for its construction.[16] Inscription[edit] The inscription plate above the entrance to the interior (upper image) The inscription at the base of the column in finest lettering reads: SENATVS·POPVLVS·QVE·ROMANVS IMP·CAESARI·DIVI·NERVAE·F·NERVAE TRAIANO·AVG·GERM·DACICO·PONTIF MAXIMO·TRIB·POT·XVII·IMP·VI·COS·VI·P·P AD·DECLARANDVM·QVANTAE·ALTITVDINIS MONS·ET·LOCVS·TANT<IS·OPER>IBVS·SIT·EGESTVS Translated, the inscription reads: The Senate and people of Rome [give or dedicate this] to the emperor Caesar, son of the divine Nerva, Nerva Traianus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus, pontifex maximus, in his 17th year in the office of tribune, having been acclaimed 6 times as imperator, 6 times consul, pater patriae, to demonstrate of what great height the hill [was] and place [that] was removed for such great works. It was believed that the column was supposed to stand where the saddle between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills used to be, having been excavated by Trajan, but excavation has revealed that this is not the case. The saddle was where Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Market stood. Hence, the inscription refers to the Trajan's entire building project in the area of the Imperial fora. This is perhaps the most famous example of Roman square capitals, a script often used for stone monuments and, less often, for manuscript writing. As it was meant to be read from below, the bottom letters are slightly smaller than the top letters, to give proper perspective. Some, but not all, word divisions are marked with a dot, and many of the words, especially the titles, are abbreviated. In the inscription, numerals are marked with a titulus, a bar across the top of the letters. A small piece at the bottom of the inscription has been lost. The typeface Trajan, designed in 1989 by Carol Twombly, uses letter forms based on this inscription, working from the research of Edward Catich. There have been many other typefaces based on the inscription from such designers as Frederic Goudy and Warren Chappell.[1] Spiral stair[edit] See also: List of ancient spiral stairs Section view of the pedestal and the interior stairway (click on image) The interior of Trajan's Column is hollow: entered by a small doorway at one side of the base, a spiral stair of 185 steps gives access to the platform above, having offered the visitor in antiquity a view over the surrounding Trajan's forum; 43 window slits illuminate the ascent.[17] The column stands 38.4 m (126.0 ft) high from the ground to the top of the statue base:[18] Located immediately next to the large Basilica Ulpia, it had to be constructed sufficiently tall in order to function as a vantage point and to maintain its own visual impact on the forum.[19] The column proper, that is the shaft without the pedestal, the statue and its base, is 29.76 metres (97.64 feet) high, a number which almost corresponds to 100 Roman feet; beginning slightly above the bottom of the base, the helical staircase inside measures a mere 8 cm (3 in) less.[20] The column is composed of 29 blocks of Luni marble, weighing in total more than 1100 t.[18] The spiral stair itself was carved out of 19 blocks, with a full turn every 14 steps; this arrangement required a more complex geometry than the more usual alternatives of 12 or 16.[21] The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase is practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks still fit accurately.[22] Despite numerous earthquakes in the past, the column today leans at an angle of less than half a degree.[22] Trajan's Column, especially its helical stairway design, exerted a considerable influence on subsequent Roman architecture. While spiral stairs were before still a rare sight in Roman buildings, this space-saving form henceforth spread gradually throughout the empire.[23] Apart from the practical advantages it offered, the design also became closely associated with imperial power, being later adopted by Trajan's successors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. In Napoleon's time, a similar column decorated with a spiral of relief sculpture was erected in the Place Vendôme in Paris to commemorate his victory at Austerlitz. Construction[edit] See also: List of Roman monoliths Erection of the Vatican obelisk in 1586 by means of a lifting tower. A similar arrangement was presumably used for the construction of Trajan's Column, but with less available space and thus manpower. It is assumed that the column drums were lifted by cranes into their place.[3][24] Ancient sources, as well as a substantial body of archaeological evidence, show that Roman engineers were capable of raising large weights clear off the ground. The typical drum of Trajan's Column weighs c. 32 t,[2] while the capital, the heaviest block above the base and pedestal, is even at 53.3 t, which had to be lifted 34 m high.[3] To save weight, the treads had probably been carved out before either at the quarry or in situ.[22][25] Even so, for such loads, the typical Roman treadwheel crane, which could only reach a maximum height of 15 to 18 metres (49–59 feet) in any event, was clearly inadequate.[3] Instead, a tower-like wooden construction was erected around the building site, in the midst of which the marble blocks were raised by a system of pulleys, ropes and capstans; these were powered by a large workforce of men and possibly also draught animals, spread out on the ground.[26] According to modern calculations, eight capstans were needed to hoist the 55 t base block, while the length of rope required for the highest drums measured some 210 metres (690 feet) assuming two-block pulleys.[27] Such a lifting tower was later also used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana to relocate obelisks in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture.[28] In case of Trajan's Column, the difficulties were exacerbated even further by the simultaneous work on the neighbouring Basilica Ulpia, which limited the available space so that the capstan crews had proper access only from one side.[29][30] Reproduction[edit] The plaster casts laid out at eye level in the Museum of Roman Civilization Plaster casts of the relief were taken in the 19th and 20th centuries. After a century of acid pollution, they are now more legible in some details than the original, and the way they are displayed offers students a closer look at the reliefs than at the original site. Examples can be studied at: Museum of Roman Civilization in Rome, where each "frame" of the narrative has been cut into a separate section and the sections are then displayed horizontally in order National Museum of Romanian History, Bucharest, Romania, which displays the frieze horizontally in segments Cast Courts at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Displayed in column form and, including the base, the column is chopped into two halves. Archaeological Collection of the University of Zürich, University of Zürich Additionally, individual casts of the frieze are on display in various museums, for example, in the Museum for Ancient Navigation in Mainz. A complete survey in monochrome was published by the German archaeologist Conrad Cichorius between 1896 and 1900 (see Commons),[31][32] still forming the base of modern scholarship.[33] Based on Cichorius's work, and on the photographic archive of the German Archaeological Institute, a research-oriented Web-based viewer for Trajan's Column was created at the German-language image database.[34] Dimensions[edit] Height of base: 1.7 metres (5.58 feet)[35] + Height of shaft: 26.92 metres (88.32 feet) Typical height of drums: 1.521 metres (4.990 feet) Diameter of shaft: 3.695 metres (12.123 feet) + Height of capital: 1.16 metres (3.81 feet) = Height of column proper: 29.78 metres (97.70 feet) Height of helical part of stair: 29.68 metres (97.38 feet) (~100 Roman feet) Height of column, excluding plinth: 28.91 metres (94.85 feet) + Height of pedestal, including plinth: 6.16 metres (20.21 feet) = Height of top of column above ground: 35.07 metres (115.06 feet) Images[edit] Detailed view of north side (high resolution) Detailed view of east side (high resolution) Detailed view of southeast side (high resolution) Detailed view of south-southwest side (high resolution) Detailed view of west-southwest side (high resolution) Detailed view of west side (high resolution) Influence[edit] Front side of the Karlskirche in Vienna, flanked by two columns styled after the Roman archetype Rome Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius Constantinople Column of Arcadius Column of Theodosius Medieval Bernward Column Modern Astoria Column in Astoria, Oregon Colonne Vendôme in Paris Congress Column in Brussels Karlskirche in Vienna Marian and Holy Trinity columns, religious monuments built in honour of the Virgin Mary Washington Monument (Baltimore) Monument to the Great Fire of London See also[edit] Sequential art Solomonic column Tropaeum Traiani Notes[edit] ^ In ancient times, Carrara marble bore the name of Luna marble after the port of Luna, Etruria on the harbor of Luni from which it was shipped after being quarried in the mountains of Carrara.[1] References[edit] ^ Diana E. E. Kleiner. The Ascent of Augustus and Access to Italian Marble (Multimedia presentation). Yale University. ^ a b Jones 1993, p. 32 ^ a b c d Lancaster 1999, pp. 426–428 ^ Platner 1929 ^ Paoletti & Radke 2005, p. 541 ^ Curry, Andrew. "Trajan's Amazing Column". National Geographic. Retrieved 11 April 2018. ^ a b c d e f g Dillon, Sheila. Representation of War in Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 244–270. ^ Marilyn Stokstad; Michael W. Cothren (2011). Art History (4th ed.). Boston: Prentice Hall. ^ Holscher, Tonio (2001). Missing or empty |title= (help)[full citation needed][page needed] ^ "Trajan's Column". visual-arts-cork.com. Retrieved 11 April 2018. ^ a b "Introduction to the Spiral Frieze of Trajan's Column in Rome". Trajan's Column in Rome. Retrieved 11 April 2018. ^ Hungerford Pollen, John. A Description of the Trajan Column. George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode. Queen Victoria, London. 1874. ^ Lancaster 1999. ^ a b c Packer, James E. (1998). "Trajan's Glorious Forum". Archaeology. 51 (3): 32–41. ^ Davies 1997, pp. 47–48 ^ Rossi 1971, p. 13 ^ Bennett 1997, p. 158 ^ a b Lancaster 1999, p. 419 ^ Jones 1993, p. 27 ^ Jones 1993, p. 28 ^ Jones 1993, pp. 31–32, Fig. 9 ^ a b c Jones 1993, p. 31 ^ Beckmann 2002, pp. 353–356 ^ Jones 1993, pp. 34–36 ^ Lancaster 1999, p. 424 ^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 428–437 ^ Lancaster 1999, p. 435 ^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 436–437 ^ Lancaster 1999, pp. 430–431, Fig. 9–10 ^ Jones 1993, p. 35 ^ Cichorius 1896 ^ Cichorius 1900 ^ Lepper & Frere 1988 ^ Förtsch 2007 ^ All data from: Jones 2000, p. 220 Sources[edit] Beckmann, Martin (2002), "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, 56 (3/4): 348–357, doi:10.2307/1192605, JSTOR 1192605 Bennett, Julian (1997), Trajan. Optimus Princeps, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2 Cichorius, Conrad (1896), Die Reliefs der Traianssäule. Erster Tafelband: "Die Reliefs des Ersten Dakischen Krieges", Tafeln 1–57, Berlin: Verlag von Georg Reimer Cichorius, Conrad (1900), Die Reliefs der Traianssäule. Zweiter Tafelband: "Die Reliefs des Zweiten Dakischen Krieges", Tafeln 58–113, Berlin: Verlag von Georg Reimer Davies, Penelope J. E. (1997), "The Politics of Perpetuation: Trajan's Column and the Art of Commemoration", American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America, 101 (1): 47–48, doi:10.2307/506249, JSTOR 506249 Förtsch, Reinhard (2007), Die Trajanssäule, archived from the original on 2010-04-16, retrieved 2009-09-30 Jones, Mark Wilson (1993), "One Hundred Feet and a Spiral Stair: The Problem of Designing Trajan's Column", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6: 23–38, doi:10.1017/S1047759400011454 Jones, Mark Wilson (2000), Principles of Roman Architecture, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08138-3 Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America, 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969 Lepper, Frank; Frere, Sheppard (1988), Trajan's Column. A New Edition of the Cichorius Plates. Introduction, Commentary and Notes, Gloucester: Alan Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-86299-467-5 Paoletti, John T.; Radke, Gary M. (2005), Art in Renaissance Italy (3rd ed.), Laurence King Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85669-439-1 Platner, Samuel Ball (1929), A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, LacusCurtius, retrieved 2009-03-06 Rossi, Lino (1971), Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-801-40594-7 Further reading[edit] Claridge, Amanda (1993), "Hadrian's Column of Trajan", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 6: 5–22, doi:10.1017/S1047759400011442 Hamberg, Per Gustaf (1945), Studies in Roman Imperial Art: with special reference to the State Reliefs of the Second Century, Almqvist & Wiksell, Uppsala External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trajan's Column. Complete set of images of the column, with Italian text Description of the column Extensive database of images and explanations Extensive image archive with browser and German text Photographs of some of the reliefs Smarthistory video, Column of Trajan, accessed December 28, 2012 Image database, index, and bibliography with English text Description and Condition of Trajan’s Column Coordinates: 41°53′45″N 12°29′03″E / 41.89583°N 12.48417°E / 41.89583; 12.48417 v t e Ancient columns of Rome Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius Column of Phocas Trajan's Column List of Roman victory columns v t e Imperial forums of Rome Forum of Caesar Temple of Venus Genetrix Basilica Argentaria Forum of Augustus Temple of Mars Ultor Forum of Peace Forma Urbis Romae Forum of Nerva Trajan's Forum Basilica Ulpia Trajan's Column Temple of Trajan Trajan's Market Related articles Via dei Fori Imperiali v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. 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en-wikipedia-org-7668	----	Leontios - Wikipedia Leontios From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 695 to 698 For other people named Leontius, see Leontius (disambiguation). Emperor of the Romans Leontios Emperor of the Romans Leontius in imperial regalia, as depicted on a solidus coin. The inscription reads dn leon pe av. Byzantine emperor Reign 695–698 Predecessor Justinian II Successor Tiberius III Born Isauria Died probably February 706 Constantinople Dynasty Heraclian Dynasty Twenty Years' Anarchy Chronology Leontios 695–698 Tiberius III 698–705 Justinian II 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Philippikos Bardanes 711–713 Anastasios II 713–715 Theodosios III 715–717 Succession Preceded by Heraclian dynasty Followed by Isaurian dynasty v t e Leontios or Leontius (Greek: Λεόντιος; c. 660 – August 705/February 706), sometimes enumerated as Leontius II,[n 1] was Byzantine emperor from 695 to 698. Little is known of his early life, other than that he was born in Isauria in Asia Minor. He was given the title of patrikios, and made strategos of the Anatolic Theme under Emperor Constantine IV. He led forces against the Umayyads during the early years of Justinian II's reign, securing victory and forcing the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, to sue for peace. In 692, Justinian declared war upon the Umayyads again, and sent Leontios to campaign against them. However, he was defeated decisively at the Battle of Sebastopolis, and imprisoned by Justinian for his failure. He was released in 695, and given the title of strategos of the Theme of Hellas in Southern Greece. After being released, he led a rebellion against Justinian, and seized power, becoming emperor in the same year. He ruled until 697, when he was overthrown by Apsimar, a droungarios who had taken part in a failed expedition that had been launched by Leontios to recover Carthage. After seizing Constantinople, Apsimar took the name Tiberius (III),[n 2] and had Leontios' nose and tongue cut off. He was sent to the Monastery of Dalmatou, where he remained until some time between August 705 and February 706. By this time Justinian had retaken the throne. Both Leontios and Tiberius were executed. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Origin and early life 1.2 Reign and downfall 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Bibliography 4.3 Web sources 5 External links Biography[edit] Origin and early life[edit] Little of Leontios' early life is known, other than that he was from Isauria, and possibly of Armenian descent.[4][5][6] He was appointed as strategos of the Anatolic Theme, at the time the most senior military command of the Byzantine Empire,[4][5][6][7] and patrikios by Emperor Constantine IV, possibly c. 682 AD.[4][5][6] Starting in 680, the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate erupted into a civil war, known as the Second Fitna. Umayyad authority was challenged even in their metropolitan province of Syria, while most of the Caliphate recognized Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr instead. Under Marwan I and his son Abd al-Malik, however, the Umayyads gained the upper hand, although the Zubayrids were not finally defeated until 692.[8][9][10][11][12] The civil war in the Umayyad Caliphate provided an opportunity for the Byzantine Empire to attack its weakened rival, and, in 686, Emperor Justinian II sent Leontios to invade Umayyad territory in Armenia and Iberia, where he campaigned successfully, before leading troops in Adharbayjan and Caucasian Albania; during these campaigns he gathered loot.[4][5] Leontios' successful campaigns compelled the Umayyad Caliph, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, to sue for peace in 688, agreeing to tender part of the taxes from Umayyad territory in Armenia, Iberia, and Cyprus, and to renew a treaty signed originally under Constantine IV, providing for a weekly tribute of 1,000 pieces of gold, one horse, and one slave.[5][13][14] Justinian invaded the Caliphate again in 692, feeling that the Umayyads were in a weak position, but was repulsed at the Battle of Sebastopolis, where a large number of Slavs defected to the Umayyads, ensuring the Byzantine defeat. After this, the Umayyads renewed their invasion of North Africa, aimed at taking the city of Carthage in the Exarchate of Africa, and also invaded Anatolia. Around this time, Justinian imprisoned Leontios. Some Byzantine sources, such as Nikephoros and Theophanes, suggest that Justinian did so because he believed that Leontios was seeking to take the throne,[6] but it is possible that the crushing defeat at Sebastopolis played a part in his imprisonment; as strategos of the Anatolic Theme, he likely served in the battle, and may have even been the main Byzantine commander in it.[5][13][14][6] After further setbacks in the war, Justinian released Leontios in 695 because he feared losing control of Carthage, and appointed him strategos of the Theme of Hellas in Southern Greece.[5][13][15][16] During his captivity, Leontios was cared for by two monks, Gregorios and Paulos, who prophesied his rise to the throne, and encouraged him to rise against Justinian after his release.[6] Leontios, once free, quickly raised a rebellion against Justinian.[5][13] Leontios had wide support from the aristocracy, who opposed Justinian's land policies, which restricted the aristocracy's ability to acquire land from peasant freeholders,[17] and the peasantry, who opposed Justinian's tax policies,[5][17] as well as the Blue faction (one of the Hippodrome factions), and the Patriarch of Constantinople Callinicus.[5] Leontios and his supporters seized Justinian and brought him to the Hippodrome, where Justinian's nose was cut off, a common practice in Byzantine culture, done in order to remove threats to the throne, as mutilated people were traditionally barred from becoming emperor; however, Leontios did not kill Justinian, out of reverence for Constantine IV.[5][17][18][6] After Justinian's nose was cut off, Leontios exiled him to Cherson, a Byzantine exclave in the Crimea.[5][15][17] Reign and downfall[edit] Upon his coronation, Leontios took the name Leo, and adopted a moderate political stance. He restricted the activity of the Byzantine army, allowing small raids against the border of the Byzantine empire to proceed without reprisal, and instead focused upon consolidation.[5][19] Very little is known of his domestic policy, except that he had the port of Neorion in Constantinople cleared, which allegedly led to a four-month outbreak of plague.[6] The Umayyads, emboldened by Leontios' perceived weakness, invaded the Exarchate of Africa in 696, capturing Carthage in 697. Leontios sent the patrikios John to retake the city. John was able to seize Carthage after a surprise attack on its harbor. However, Umayyad reinforcements soon retook the city, forcing John to retreat to Crete and regroup. A group of officers, fearing the Emperor's punishment for their failure, revolted and proclaimed Apsimar, a droungarios (mid-level commander) of the Cibyrrhaeots, emperor.[5][19] Apsimar took the regnal name Tiberius, gathered a fleet and allied himself with the Green faction, before sailing for Constantinople, which was enduring the bubonic plague.[5][19][20] After several months of siege, the city surrendered to Tiberius, in 698. The Chronicon Altinate gives the date February 15.[6] Tiberius captured Leontios, and had his nose slit before imprisoning him in the Monastery of Dalmatou.[5][19] Leontios stayed in the monastery under guard until Justinian retook the throne with the assistance of the Bulgar king Tervel in 705. Justinian then had both Leontios and Tiberius dragged to the Hippodrome and publicly humiliated, before being taken away and beheaded.[5][21] The exact date of the executions is unknown: it may have occurred any time between August 705 to February 706,[22] with the latter date favoured by most modern scholars.[21][23] The Chronicon Altinate states the body of Leontios was thrown into the sea alongside Tiberius, but was later recovered and buried in a church on the island of Prote.[6] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Some authors count the 5th-century usurper of the same name as Leontius I.[1][2] Though the 5th-century Leontius was crowned by Verina, the empress of a preceding emperor, and minted coins of his own, he never successfully took the capital and is thus not normally counted or enumerated.[1] ^ While many byzantine emperors did adopt regnal names, non of them used regnal numbers, which are a purely historiographical intervention.[3] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Grierson 1993, p. 610. ^ British Museum. ^ Foss 2005. ^ a b c d Brubaker & Haldon 2011, p. 586. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Moore 1999. ^ a b c d e f g h i j PmbZ, Leontius (#4547/corr.). ^ Kazhdan 1991, pp. 89–90. ^ Donner 2010, pp. 181–182. ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 168–169. ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 182. ^ Kennedy 2016, p. 80. ^ Gibb 1960, p. 77. ^ a b c d Bacharach 2010, p. 15. ^ a b Rosser 2001, p. 2. ^ a b Saxby & Angelov 2016, p. 27. ^ Asimov 1970, p. 120. ^ a b c d Ostrogorsky 1956, pp. 116–122. ^ Saxby & Angelov 2016, p. 45. ^ a b c d Garland 2017, p. 2. ^ Brubaker & Haldon 2011, p. 730. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 2084. ^ PmbZ, Tiberios II. (III.) Apsimar (#8483/corr.). ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 341. Bibliography[edit] Asimov, Issac (1970). Constantinople: The Forgotten Empire. Houghton Mifflin. Bacharach, Jere L. (2010). Signs of Sovereignty: The Shahāda, Quranic verses, and the Coinage of Abd Al-Malik. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-18511-1. Brubaker, Leslie; Haldon, John (2011). Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, C. 680-850: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43093-7. Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05097-6. Foss, Clive (2005). "Emperors named Constantine". Revue Numismatique (in French). 6 (161): 93–102. doi:10.3406/numi.2005.2594. Garland, Lynda (2017). Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800-1200. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-95371-9. Gibb, H. A. R. (1960). "ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 76–77. OCLC 495469456. Grierson, Philip (1993). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, 2: Phocas to Theodosius III, 602-717 (2nd ed.). Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-024-X.CS1 maint: date and year (link) Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Kennedy, Hugh (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Third ed.). Oxford and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-78761-2. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. Moore, R. Scott (26 May 1999). "Leontius (695-98 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2019. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-813-51198-6. Rosser, John H. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-810-86621-8. Saxby, Michael; Angelov, Dimiter (2016). Power and Subversion in Byzantium: Papers from the 43rd Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Birmingham, March 2010. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-07693-3. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Wellhausen, Julius (1927). The Arab Kingdom and its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. OCLC 752790641. Web sources[edit] "Leontius II". The British Museum. Retrieved 12 April 2021. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leontius. Leontios Born: Unknown Died: February 706 Regnal titles Preceded by Justinian II Byzantine Emperor 695–698 Succeeded by Tiberius III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Netherlands Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leontios&oldid=1028066510" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors 660s births 706 deaths Executed Byzantine people 8th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire Byzantine prisoners and detainees Twenty Years' Anarchy 8th-century Byzantine people 690s in the Byzantine Empire 700s in the Byzantine Empire Byzantine governors of Hellas Governors of the Anatolic Theme Patricii Executed monarchs People executed by decapitation Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 maint: date and year CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 16:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7683	----	Year of the Five Emperors - Wikipedia Year of the Five Emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Five men claimed the title of Roman emperor in 193 AD Not to be confused with Year of the Four Emperors or Year of the Six Emperors. Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193) Chronology Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger 193 Clodius Albinus 193 Septimius Severus 193–211 Succession Preceded by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Followed by Severan dynasty The Year of the Five Emperors was 193 AD, in which five men claimed the title of Roman emperor: Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius Severus. This year started a period of civil war when multiple rulers vied for the chance to become caesar. The political unrest began with the murder of Emperor Commodus on New Year's Eve 192 AD. Once Commodus was assassinated, Pertinax was named emperor, but immediately aroused opposition in the Praetorian Guard when he attempted to initiate reforms. They then plotted his assassination, and Pertinax was killed while trying to reason with the mutineers.[1] He had only been emperor for three months. Didius Julianus, who purchased the title from the Praetorian Guard, succeeded Pertinax, but was ousted by Septimius Severus and executed on June 1. Severus was declared Caesar by the Senate, but Pescennius Niger was hostile when he declared himself emperor.[2] This started the civil war between Niger and Severus; both gathered troops and fought throughout the territory of the empire. Due to this war, Severus allowed Clodius Albinus, whom he suspected of being a threat, to be co-Caesar so that Severus did not have to preoccupy himself with imperial governance. This move allowed him to concentrate on waging the war against Niger.[1] Most historians count Severus and Albinus as two emperors, though they ruled simultaneously. The Severan dynasty was created out of the chaos of 193 AD.[2] Contents 1 History 1.1 Fall of Commodus 1.2 Pertinax 1.3 Didius Julianus 1.4 Pescennius Niger 1.5 Clodius Albinus 1.6 Septimius Severus 2 See also 3 References History[edit] Fall of Commodus[edit] Main article: Commodus Commodus' sanity began to unravel when a close advocate, Cleander, was assassinated, which put Commodus in fear for his life.[disputed – discuss] This triggered a series of summary executions of members of the aristocracy. He began removing himself from his identity as ruler ideologically by resuming his birth name instead of keeping the names that his father gave him when he succeeded to imperial rule. His behavior decayed further as he became more paranoid. He carried out a particularly large massacre in Rome during New Year's Eve 192 AD, so that he could become the sole consul. Three nobles, Eclectus, Marcia, and Laetus, fearing that they would be targeted, had Commodus strangled before he could do so. The assassins then named Pertinax the new Caesar.[1] The identity of the person who planned the murder of Commodus is still a debated topic. Some sources name Pertinax as the mastermind of the assassination because he obtained imperial rule once Commodus was killed. However, the accusations against Pertinax appear to have come from his enemies, an effort to damage his reputation; in reality, these accusers appear not to have known who masterminded the assassination.[1] Pertinax[edit] Main article: Pertinax Bust in the National Museum of the Union, possibly of Pertinax Pertinax gained his political clout by moving his way up the military ranks. He was proconsul of Africa, making him the first of several emperors who began their political roles in Africa.[3] Since most of the nobles had been murdered in the New Year's Eve massacre, Pertinax was one of the few high-ranking officials left to become the new emperor. Pertinax faced early difficulties due to the empire's crumbling financial situation, and the accusations that he was complicit in the assassination of Commodus. He may also have been accused of the murder of Cleander, Commodus' advocate, whose murder had triggered Commodus' paranoia. Pertinax was a great contrast to Commodus. He was disciplined, but lost the favor of the Praetorian Guard when he refused to pay their donativum and began revoking privileges given to them by Commodus. When confronted by the Praetorian Guard he was unable to negotiate a peace, and was subsequently killed by the Guard. Following the death of Pertinax, the Praetorian Guard proceeded to auction off the Purple to the highest bidder. Didius Julianus[edit] Main article: Didius Julianus Didius Julianus gained power as proconsul of Africa, succeeding Pertinax in that position. Julianus was not just given the position of emperor after Pertinax's death. He had competition in Pertinax's father-in-law, Sulpicianus. The only way that Julianus gained the throne was by outbidding Sulpicianus for the amount he would pay the troops, thus gaining the favour of the Praetorian Guard. Julianus was originally accused of being Pertinax's murderer. Two public figures used the public's fear to take advantage of this crisis: Pescennius Niger, the governor of Syria, and Septimius Severus. Twelve days after Pertinax's murder, Severus declared himself emperor in place of Julianus. The mobs, who regarded Julianus unfavorably, called on Pescennius Niger for assistance. However, Severus, in Pannonia, was closest to Rome, and reached the capital first with his troops. Julianus was executed on June 1 on the orders of Severus, just two months after Pertinax was killed.[1] Pescennius Niger[edit] Main article: Pescennius Niger Niger began 193 as the governor of Syria. Once the mobs started calling for his help, he became a rival to Severus, since Severus believed that he should have total power and loyalty from the people of the empire. Niger ended up proclaiming himself emperor, which further angered Severus.[1] Niger had allies in the eastern part of the empire, so when Severus threatened him with troops, he gathered an army from his allies and fought Severus throughout the empire for two years. He eventually lost the civil war to Severus near the city of Issus.[2] Clodius Albinus[edit] Main article: Clodius Albinus Coin of Clodius Albinus. This coin celebrates Saeculum Frugiferum, the embodiment of a "fruitful era", probably Ba'al Hammon, a Phoenician divinity worshipped in North Africa, whence Clodius came. Albinus came into contention for the imperial office in 193, when he was asked to become emperor after the death of Commodus, but rejected the proposition. However, he did eventually gain the title of Caesar because Severus needed assistance in controlling the empire while he was fighting Niger, so that he could completely focus on the civil war. Severus and Albinus were considered enemies at the time, but a treaty was signed between the two, which gave Albinus more power and the title of Caesar. Some sources say that this treaty was only honorary and only benefited Severus, who only won because of Albinus' support, while not actually giving away any of his power as emperor.[4] Albinus controlled Britain, and this treaty would have given him power over Gaul and Spain. Most sources do not mention a formal treaty, but they do say that a more informal agreement existed between the two men, so that Severus could concentrate on Niger. Albinus continued in this role as "Caesar" for three more years before a civil war broke out between Severus and him, resulting in Severus becoming the sole emperor.[2] Septimius Severus[edit] Main article: Septimius Severus Septimius Severus at Glyptothek, Munich Severus was, practically speaking, the emperor after Pertinax was assassinated. Some sources tie Severus and Pertinax together and call them allies, which would explain how Severus became so powerful during this chaotic year. Twelve days after the March 28 assassination, Severus made himself ruler with the Senate's backing.[1] He had Didius Julianus executed and made enemies of the other powerful nobles that had a possibility of becoming emperor, i.e. Niger and Albinus. He had originally wanted to take the throne after Commodus' murder, but the haste with which the assassins named Pertinax emperor prevented that from happening. For the first few years of his reign, he spent his time preoccupied with the civil war he was waging against Niger in the eastern half of the Roman Empire, so he shared the emperorship with Clodius Albinus. He even signed an agreement with Albinus to gain his support despite being his enemy, granting him the title, but none of the real power, of Caesar.[4] However, once he defeated Niger, he set his sights on Albinus and waged a successful civil war against him.[5] After defeating both of his enemies, Severus also purged their followers to impress upon the people that he was the sole Caesar. The ascension of Severus to sole rule of the empire marks the beginning of the Severan dynasty. See also[edit] Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD) Year of the Six Emperors (238 AD) References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Rahman, Abdur (2001). The African Emperor? The Life, Career, and Rise to Power of Septimius Severus, MA thesis. University of Wales Lampeter. ^ a b c d Birley, Arthur R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. New York: Routledge. pp. 89–128. ISBN 0415165911. ^ Birley, Arthur R. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. New York: Routledge, 1999. 89–128. ^ a b Van Sickle, C.E. (April 1928). "Legal Status of Clodius Albinus, 193–196". Classical Philology. University of Chicago Press. 23 (2): 123–127. doi:10.1086/361015. ^ Burckhardt, Jacob. The Age of Constantine the Great. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1949. 19–21. v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Year_of_the_Five_Emperors&oldid=1014595713" Categories: Civil wars of the Roman Empire 2nd-century Roman emperors 190s in the Roman Empire 192 193 Severan dynasty Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Africa Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from September 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2021, at 00:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-768	----	Marcus Cornelius Fronto - Wikipedia Marcus Cornelius Fronto From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman rhetorician and advocate Marcus Cornelius Fronto (c. 100 – late 160s), best known as Fronto, was a Roman grammarian, rhetorician, and advocate. Of Berber origin, he was born at Cirta in Numidia. He was suffect consul for the nundinium of July-August 142 with Gaius Laberius Priscus as his colleague.[1] Emperor Antoninus Pius appointed him tutor to his adopted sons and future emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Contents 1 Life 2 Surviving works 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Life[edit] Fronto was born a Roman citizen in the year 100[2] in the Numidian capital, Cirta. He described himself as a Libyan of the nomadic Libyans.[3][4] He was taught as a child by the Greek paedagogus Aridelus.[5][6] Later, he continued his education at Rome,[7] with the philosopher Athenodotus and the orator Dionysius.[8][9] He soon gained such renown as an advocate and orator as to be reckoned inferior only to Cicero. He amassed a large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and purchased the famous gardens of Maecenas.[10] In 142 he was consul for two months (August and September),[11] but declined the proconsulship of Asia on the grounds of ill-health. His latter years were embittered by the loss of all his children except one daughter. His talents as an orator and rhetorician were greatly admired by his contemporaries, a number of whom were later regarded as forming a school called after him Frontoniani; his object in his teaching was to inculcate the exact use of the Latin language in place of the artificialities of such 1st-century authors as Seneca the Younger, and encourage the use of "unlooked-for and unexpected words", to be found by diligent reading of pre-Ciceronian authors. He found fault with Cicero for inattention to that refinement, though admiring his letters without reserve. He may well have died in the late 160s, as a result of the Antonine Plague that followed the Parthian War, though conclusive proof is lacking. C.R. Haines asserts he died in 166 or 167.[12] Surviving works[edit] Until 1815, the only extant works ascribed (erroneously) to Fronto were two grammatical treatises, De nominum verborumque differentiis and Exempla elocutionum (the latter being really by Arusianus Messius). In that year, Angelo Mai discovered in the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript, on which had been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his imperial pupils and their replies; four years later Mai found several more sheets from this manuscript in the Vatican. These palimpsests had originally belonged to the famous convent of St Columbanus at Bobbio, and had been written over by the monks with the acts of the First Council of Chalcedon. The letters from the Ambrosian palimpsest, together with the other fragments, were published at Rome in 1815. The Vatican texts were added in 1823, as well as the end of his Gratiarum actio pro Carthaginiensibus from another Vatican manuscript. It was not until 1956 that Bernhard Bischoff identified a third manuscript (consisting of a single leaf) that contained fragments of Fronto's correspondence with Verus which overlapped the Milan palimpsest; however, the actual manuscript had been first published in 1750 by Dom Tassin, who conjectured that it might have been the work of Fronto.[13] These fragments disappointed Romantic scholars as not matching the writer's great reputation, partly because Fronto's teachings, with their emphasis on studying ancient writers in search of striking words, were not in accordance with current fashion (Italy, where not only Mai but Leopardi enthused over them, was an exception), partly because they gave no support to the assumption that Fronto had been a wise counsellor to Marcus Aurelius (indeed, they contain no trace of political advice), partly because his frequent complaints about ill-health, especially those collected in book 5 of Ad M. Caesarem, aroused more annoyance than compassion; these adverse judgements were reversed once Fronto was read for what he was rather than what he was not, as already in the sympathetic treatment by Dorothy Brock, Studies in Fronto and his Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911). The bulk of the letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of Fronto's pupils appears in a very favourable light, especially in the affection they both seem to have retained for their old master[14] There are also letters to friends, chiefly letters of recommendation, but including one (Ad amicos 1. 19) in which an out-of-sorts Fronto (ego epistulas invitissime scribo, "I hate writing letters") complains of Aulus Gellius' attempts to procure copies of his writings for publication. (Fronto appears in five chapters of the Noctes Atticae, though expressing tastes that sometime seem closer to Gellius' own than to those evinced in the letters.) The collection also contains treatises on eloquence, some historical fragments, and literary trifles on such subjects as the praise of smoke and dust, of negligence, and a dissertation on Arion. In addition, a fragment of a speech is preserved by Minucius Felix (Octavius 9. 6-7) in which Fronto accuses the Christians of incestuous orgies. Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, says nothing of Fronto's rhetorical teaching; nor, although writing in Greek, does he so much as mention his teacher of Greek rhetoric and longtime friend Herodes Atticus. He does, however, credit Fronto with teaching him about the vices of tyranny and the lack of affection in the Roman upper class (1.11); since the former were commonplaces, there may be a concealed reference to life under Hadrian, whom Fronto retrospectively claims to have feared rather than loved,[15] but the latter is borne out by the master's remark that there is no Latin equivalent for the Greek philóstorgos, meaning "affectionate".[16] The letters between Aurelius and Fronto, which reveal the intimate nature of their relationship, are the only love letters (homoerotic or not) to survive from antiquity.[17] The editio princeps was by Mai, as described above; the standard edition is the Teubner text by M. van den Hout (Leipzig, 1988). The Loeb Classical Library printed an edition of Fronto's correspondence with a facing English translation by C. R. Haines in two volumes (1919–1920); its text, though dated, is still of interest. Van den Hout also published a full-scale commentary in English (Leiden, 1999). References[edit] ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013), p. 73 ^ "or a year or two earlier", C.R. Haines, p.lii. See also p. xxiii: "The probable date of his birth is 100 A.D., and in any case before 113 A.D." ^ Ad M. Caesarem 2. 3. 5; cf. A. R. Birley, The African Emperor (London: Batsford, 1999), 43. ^ Edward Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 7–8. ^ Ballif, Michelle; Moran, Michael G. (2005). Classical Rhetorics and Rhetoricians: Critical Studies and Sources. Greenwood. p. 83. ISBN 978-0313321788. ^ Hout, Michel P J (1999). A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto. Brill. p. 1. ISBN 978-9004109575. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 20 ^ Fronto, M. Cornelius (2014). Fronto: Selected Letters. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 163. ISBN 978-1780934426. ^ Greek Letters-Marcus Cornelius Fronto ^ Aulus Gellius, 19.10 ^ W. Eck and M. M. Roxan in Festschrift für Hans Lieb 1995, p. 79-99 ^ "There can be little doubt that he predeceased Verus and died in 166 or 167". C.R. Haines, p. xl. ^ This account of Fronto's rediscovery is based on L.D. Reynolds (editor), Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 173f. ^ Amy Richlin, Marcus Aurelius in Love (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). ^ Ad M. Caesarem 2.4.1; a certain distancing from Hadrian may be observed in the actions of Antoninus Pius and the words of Marcus Aurelius. ^ Ad Verum 1.6.7, Ad amicos 1.3.3 (margin). ^ Amy Richlin (trans.), Marcus Aurelius in Love, University of Chicago Press, 2007 Further reading[edit] Champlin, E. 1980. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. Claassen, J. M. 2009. "Cornelius Fronto: A “Libyan Nomad” at Rome." Acta Classica 52:47–71. Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Kemezis, A. M. 2010. "Lucian, Fronto, and the Absence of Contemporary Historiography Under the Antonines." American Journal of Philology 131:285–325. Keulen, W. 2014. "Fronto and Apuleius: Two African Careers in the Roman Empire." In Apuleius and Africa. Edited by B. Todd Lee, E. Finkelpearl, and L. Graverini, 129–153. London: Routledge. Mullen, A. 2015. “In Both Our Languages:" Greek-Latin Code-switching in Roman Literature." Language and Literature 24:213–232. Richlin, A. 2011. "Parallel Lives: Domitia Lucilla and Cratia, Fronto and Marcus." Eugesta 1:163–203. Ronnick, M. V. 1997. "Substructural Elements of Architectonic Rhetoric and Philosophical Thought in Fronto’s Epistles." In Roman Eloquence: Rhetoric in Society and Literature. Edited by W. J. Dominik, 229–245. London and New York: Routledge. Wei, R. 2013. "Fronto and the Rhetoric of Friendship." Cahiers des études anciennes 50: 67-93. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Marcus Cornelius Fronto Library resources about Marcus Cornelius Fronto Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Marcus Cornelius Fronto Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Edited and translated by C. R. Haines (1919). Volume 1, Volume 2, at the Internet Archive. Alternate links to the same: Loeb edition vol. 1 and Loeb edition vol. 2 M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae (Latin text)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fronto, Marcus Cornelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250. Political offices Preceded by Lucius Granius Castus, and Tiberius Junius Julianus as suffect consuls Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 142 with Gaius Laberius Priscus Succeeded by Lucius Tusidius Campester, and Quintus Cornelius Senecio Annianus as suffect consuls Authority control General Integrated Authority File 2 ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto&oldid=1019167212" Categories: 100s births 160s deaths 2nd-century Berber people 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Ancient Roman rhetoricians Berber writers Cornelii Latin letter writers Romans from Africa Silver Age Latin writers Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2021, at 21:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7692	----	Maximinus Thrax - Wikipedia Maximinus Thrax From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 235 to 238 Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax Bust, Capitoline Museums, Rome Roman emperor Reign 20 March 235[1] – early May 238 Predecessor Severus Alexander Successors Gordian I and II Born c. 173 Thracia Died May 238 (aged 65) Aquileia, Italy Spouse Caecilia Paulina Issue Gaius Julius Verus Maximus Names Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus[2] Father Unknown, possibly Micca[3] Mother Unknown, possibly Ababa[3] Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus "Thrax" ("the Thracian"; c. 173 – May 238) was Roman emperor from 235 to 238. His father was an accountant in the governor's office and sprang from ancestors who were Carpi (a Dacian tribe), a people whom Diocletian would eventually drive from their ancient abode (in Dacia) and transfer to Pannonia (Roman Antiquities, book XXVIII, Ammianus Marcellinus). Maximinus was the commander of the Legio IV Italica when Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. The Pannonian army then elected Maximinus emperor.[4] In 238 (which came to be known as the Year of the Six Emperors), a senatorial revolt broke out, leading to the successive proclamation of Gordian I, Gordian II, Pupienus, Balbinus and Gordian III as emperors in opposition to Maximinus. Maximinus advanced on Rome to put down the revolt, but was halted at Aquileia, where he was assassinated by disaffected elements of the Legio II Parthica. Maximinus is described by several ancient sources, though none are contemporary except Herodian's Roman History. He was a so-called barracks emperor of the 3rd century;[5] his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. Maximinus was the first emperor who hailed neither from the senatorial class nor from the equestrian class. Contents 1 Rise to power 2 Rule 2.1 Consolidation of power 2.2 Defense of frontiers 2.3 Infrastructure work 2.4 Gordian I and Gordian II 2.5 Pupienus, Balbinus, and Gordian III 2.6 Defeat and death 3 Politics 4 Appearance 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links Rise to power[edit] Most likely Maximinus was of Thraco-Roman origin (believed so by Herodian in his writings).[6] According to the notoriously unreliable Augustan History (Historia Augusta), he was born in Thrace or Moesia to a Gothic father and an Alanic mother,[7] an Iranian people of the Scythian-Sarmatian branch; however, the supposed parentage is a highly unlikely anachronism, as the Goths are known to have moved to Thrace from a different place of origin much later in history and their residence in the Danubian area is not otherwise attested until after Maximinus had lived his full life and died. British historian Ronald Syme, writing that "the word 'Gothia' should have sufficed for condemnation" of the passage in the Augustan History, felt that the burden of evidence from Herodian, Syncellus and elsewhere pointed to Maximinus having been born in Moesia.[8] The references to his "Gothic" ancestry might refer to a Thracian Getae origin (the two populations were often confused by later writers, most notably by Jordanes in his Getica), as suggested by the paragraphs describing how "he was singularly beloved by the Getae, moreover, as if he were one of themselves" and how he spoke "almost pure Thracian".[9] On the contrary, Bernard Bachrach suggests that the Historia Augusta use of a term not used in Maximinus time – "Gothia" – is hardly sufficient cause to dismiss its account. After all, the names it gives for Maximinius' parents are legitimate Alan and Gothic appellations. Hence, Bachrach argues, the most straightforward explanation is that the author of the Historia Augusta relied on a legitimate third century source, but substituted its terminology for that concurrent in his own day.[10] Accordingly, Maximinus' ancestry very much remains an open question. His background was, in any case, that of a provincial of low birth, and he was seen by the Senate as a barbarian, not even a true Roman, despite Caracalla’s edict granting citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire.[11] According to the Augustan History, he was a shepherd and bandit leader before joining the Imperial Roman army, causing historian Brent Shaw to comment that a man who would have been "in other circumstances a Godfather, [...] became emperor of Rome."[12] In many ways, Maximinus was similar to the later Thraco-Roman emperors of the 3rd–5th century (Licinius, Galerius, Aureolus, Leo the Thracian, etc.), elevating themselves, via a military career, from the condition of a common soldier in one of the Roman legions to the foremost positions of political power. He joined the army during the reign of Septimius Severus,[13] but did not rise to a powerful position until promoted by Alexander Severus.[citation needed] Maximinus was in command of Legio IV Italica, composed of recruits from Pannonia,[14] who were angered by Alexander's payments to the Alemanni and his avoidance of war.[15] The troops, who included the Legio XXII Primigenia, elected the stern Maximinus, killing young Alexander and his mother at Moguntiacum (modern Mainz).[16] The Praetorian Guard acclaimed him emperor, and their choice was grudgingly confirmed by the Senate,[11] who were displeased to have a peasant as emperor. His son Maximus became caesar.[11] Rule[edit] O: laureate draped and cuirassed bust of Maximinus MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM R: Maximinus holding sceptre; standard on either side P M TR P II COS P P Silver denarius struck in Rome from February to December 236 AD; ref.: RIC 4 Consolidation of power[edit] Maximinus hated the nobility and was ruthless towards those he suspected of plotting against him.[citation needed] He began by eliminating the close advisors of Alexander.[17] His suspicions may have been justified; two plots against Maximinus were foiled.[18] The first was during a campaign across the Rhine, when a group of officers, supported by influential senators, plotted to destroy a bridge across the river, in order to strand Maximinus in hostile territory.[19] They planned to elect senator Magnus emperor afterwards, but the conspiracy was discovered and the conspirators executed.[citation needed] The second plot involved Mesopotamian archers who were loyal to Alexander.[20] They planned to elevate Quartinus, but their leader Macedo changed sides and murdered Quartinus instead, although this was not enough to save his own life.[citation needed] Defense of frontiers[edit] The accession of Maximinus is commonly seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis"), the commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by three simultaneous crises: external invasion, internal civil war, and economic collapse.[citation needed] Maximinus' first campaign was against the Alemanni, whom he defeated despite heavy Roman casualties in a swamp in the Agri Decumates.[21] After the victory, Maximinus took the title Germanicus Maximus,[11] raised his son Maximus to the rank of caesar and princeps iuventutis, and deified his late wife Paulina.[17] Maximinus may have launched a second campaign deep into Germania, defeating a Germanic tribe beyond the Weser in the Battle at the Harzhorn.[22][23] Securing the German frontier, at least for a while, Maximinus then set up a winter encampment at Sirmium in Pannonia,[11] and from that supply base fought the Dacians and the Sarmatians during the winter of 235–236.[17] Infrastructure work[edit] In 2019 Israeli researchers translated a milestone found in the Moshav Ramot village in Golan Heights. They were able to identify the name of Maximinus on the milestone. The roads themselves were much older suggesting that a massive renovation project was undertaken during his rule on those roads.[24] Gordian I and Gordian II[edit] Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Early in 238, in the province of Africa, a treasury official's extortions through false judgments in corrupt courts against some local landowners ignited a full-scale revolt in the province.[citation needed] The landowners armed their clients and their agricultural workers and entered Thysdrus (modern El Djem), where they murdered the offending official and his bodyguards[25] and proclaimed the aged governor of the province, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus (Gordian I), and his son, Gordian II, as co-emperors.[26] The Senate in Rome switched allegiance, gave both Gordian and Gordian II the title of Augustus, and set about rousing the provinces in support of the pair.[27] Maximinus, wintering at Sirmium, immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way.[17] Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned. The province of Africa was bordered on the west by the province of Numidia, whose governor, Capelianus, nursed a long-standing grudge against the Gordians and controlled the only legionary unit (III Augusta) in the area.[28] He marched on Carthage and easily overwhelmed the local militias defending the city.[citation needed] Gordian II was killed in the fighting and, on hearing this, Gordian I hanged himself with his belt.[29] Pupienus, Balbinus, and Gordian III[edit] Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium, today in Sremska Mitrovica When the African revolt collapsed, the Senate found itself in great jeopardy.[30] Having shown clear support for the Gordians, they could expect no clemency from Maximinus when he reached Rome. In this predicament, they remained determined to defy Maximinus and elected two of their number, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors.[17] When the Roman mob heard that the Senate had selected two men from the patrician class, men whom the ordinary people held in no great regard, they protested, showering the imperial cortège with sticks and stones.[31] A faction in Rome preferred Gordian's grandson (Gordian III), and there was severe street fighting. The co-emperors had no option but to compromise, and, sending for the grandson of the elder Gordian they appointed him Caesar.[citation needed] Defeat and death[edit] Maximinus marched on Rome,[32] but Aquileia closed its gates against him. His troops became disaffected during the unexpected siege of the city, at which time they suffered from starvation.[33] In May 238, soldiers of the II Parthica in his camp assassinated him, his son, and his chief ministers.[30] Their heads were cut off, placed on poles, and carried to Rome by cavalrymen.[17] Pupienus and Balbinus then became undisputed co-emperors. However, they mistrusted each other, and ultimately both were murdered by the Praetorian Guard, making Gordian III sole surviving Emperor. Unable to reach Rome, Thrax never visited the capital city during his reign.[34] Politics[edit] Maximinus doubled the pay of soldiers;[13] this act, along with virtually continuous warfare, required higher taxes. Tax collectors began to resort to violent methods and illegal confiscations, further alienating the governing class from everyone else.[17] According to early church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, the Imperial household of Maximinus' predecessor, Alexander, had contained many Christians. Eusebius states that, hating his predecessor's household, Maximinus ordered that the leaders of the churches should be put to death.[35][36] According to Eusebius, this persecution of 235 sent Hippolytus of Rome and Pope Pontian into exile, but other evidence suggests that the persecutions of 235 were local to the provinces where they occurred rather than happening under the direction of the Emperor.[37] It is more likely that the Schism caused such strife between both factions that peace and order in the urbs were disrupted, causing Maximinus to intervene by exiling the two quarrelers.[38] According to Historia Augusta, which modern scholars however treat with extreme caution: "The Romans could bear his barbarities no longer – the way in which he called up informers and incited accusers, invented false offences, killed innocent men, condemned all whoever came to trial, reduced the richest men to utter poverty and never sought money anywhere save in some other's ruin, put many generals and many men of consular rank to death for no offence, carried others about in waggons without food and drink, and kept others in confinement, in short neglected nothing which he thought might prove effectual for cruelty – and, unable to suffer these things longer, they rose against him in revolt."[39] Appearance[edit] Ancient sources, ranging from the unreliable Historia Augusta to accounts of Herodian, speak of Maximinus as a man of significantly greater size than his contemporaries.[40][41] He is, moreover, depicted in ancient imagery as a man with a prominent brow, nose, and jaw (symptoms of acromegaly).[42] His thumb was said to be so large that he wore his wife's bracelet as a ring for it. According to Historia Augusta, "he was of such size, so Cordus reports, that men said he was eight-foot, one finger (c. 2.4 metres) in height".[43] It is very likely however that this is one of the many exaggerations in the Historia Augusta, and is immediately suspect due to its citation of "Cordus", one of several fictitious authorities the work cites.[44] Although not going into the supposedly detailed portions of Historia Augusta, the historian Herodian, a contemporary of Maximinus, mentions him as a man of greater size, noting that: "He was in any case a man of such frightening appearance and colossal size that there is no obvious comparison to be drawn with any of the best-trained Greek athletes or warrior elite of the barbarians."[45] Some historians interpret the stories on Maximinus' unusual height (as well as other information on his appearance, like excessive sweating and superhuman strength) as popular stereotyped attributes which do no more than intentionally turn him into a stylized embodiment of the barbarian bandit[46] or emphasize the admiration and aversion that the image of the soldier evoked in the civilian population.[47] Family tree[edit] Julius Bassianus priest of El-Gabal Julia Domna ∞ Septimius Severus Roman Emperor 193-211 Julia Maesa Caracalla Roman Emperor 211-217 Julia Soaemias Julia Avita Mamaea Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 ∞ Caecilia Paulina Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Macrinus Roman Emperor 217-218 Elagabalus Roman Emperor 218-222 Severus Alexander Roman Emperor 222-235 Gaius Julius Verus Maximus Gordian II co-emperor Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 See also[edit] Aspasius of Rome (his secretary as emperor) References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Wasson, Donald L. "Maximinus Thrax". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 March 2017. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 1:6 ^ Pat Southern (16 December 2003). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-134-55381-5. ^ Kerrigan, Michael (2016). The Untold History of the Roman Emperors. Cavendish Square. p. 248. ISBN 9781502619112. Retrieved 19 March 2019. ^ Herodian, 7:1:1-2 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 1:5 ^ Syme, pp. 182, 185–6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 2:5 ^ Bachrach, Bernard S. A History of the Alans in the West: From Their First Appearance in the Sources of Classical Antiquity through the Early Middle Ages. 14: n.28. ^ a b c d e Southern, pg. 64 ^ Shaw (1984), p. 36. ^ a b Potter, pg. 168 ^ Herodian, 8:6:1 ^ Southern, pg. 63 ^ Potter, pg. 167 ^ a b c d e f g Meckler, Maximinus Thrax ^ Potter, pg. 169 ^ Herodian, 7:1:5-6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 11:1 ^ Herodian, 7:2:7 ^ Historia Augusta, The Two Maximini. 12:1–4 ^ Herodian, 7:2:3 ^ Amanda Borschel-Dan. "Cryptic Golan milestone found to be monument to low-born Roman emperor's reign". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 24 April 2019. ^ Herodian, 7:4:6 ^ Southern, pg. 66 ^ Zonaras, 12:16 ^ Potter, pg. 170 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 19:2 ^ a b Southern, pg. 67 ^ Herodian, 7:10:5 ^ Zosimus, 1:12 ^ Herodian, 8:5:4 ^ Hekster, Olivier (2008). Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284. Edinburgh University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780748629923. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Eusebius. "Church History". Book 6, Chapter 28. New Advent. Retrieved 25 April 2014. ^ Papandrea, James L. (23 January 2012). Reading the Early Church Fathers: From the Didache to Nicaea. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0809147519. ^ Graeme Clark, "Third-Century Christianity", in the Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., volume 12: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337, ed. Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 623. ^ https://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienH/Hippolyt_von_Rom.html; Comment by Prof. Helmut Bouzek: "Web 3.0 – Leserkommentare". ^ "Historia Augusta • The Two Maximini". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 22 April 2014. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 2:2 ^ Herodian, 7:1:2 ^ Klawans, Harold L. The Medicine of History from Paracelsus to Freud, Raven Press, 1982, New York, 3–15 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus, 6:8 ^ Syme, pp. 1–16 ^ Herodian, 7:1:12 ^ Thomas Grünewald, transl. by John Drinkwater. Bandits in the Roman Empire:, Myth and Reality, Routledge, 2004, p. 84. ISBN 0-415-32744-X ^ Jean-Michel Carrié in Andrea Giardina (ed.), transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane. The Romans, University of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 116–117. ISBN 0-226-29050-6 Sources[edit] Primary sources Herodian, Roman History, Book 7 Historia Augusta, Life of Maximinus Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources Shaw, Brent D. (November 1984). "Bandits in the Roman Empire". Past & Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 105 (105): 3–52. doi:10.1093/past/105.1.3. JSTOR 650544. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Syme, Ronald, Emperors and Biography, Oxford University Press, 1971 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004 Meckler, Michael L., Maximinus Thrax (235–238 A.D.), De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997) Further reading[edit] A. Bellezza: Massimino il Trace, Geneva 1964. Henning Börm: Die Herrschaft des Kaisers Maximinus Thrax und das Sechskaiserjahr 238. Der Beginn der Reichskrise?, in: Gymnasium 115, 2008. Jan Burian: Maximinus Thrax. Sein Bild bei Herodian und in der Historia Augusta, in: Philologus 132, 1988. Lukas de Blois: The onset of crisis in the first half of the third century A.D., in: K.-P. Johne et al. (eds.), Deleto paene imperio Romano, Stuttgart 2006. Karlheinz Dietz: Senatus contra principem. Untersuchungen zur senatorischen Opposition gegen Kaiser Maximinus Thrax, Munich 1980. Frank Kolb: Der Aufstand der Provinz Africa Proconsularis im Jahr 238 n. Chr.: die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Hintergründe, in: Historia 26, 1977. Adolf Lippold: Kommentar zur Vita Maximini Dua der Historia Augusta, Bonn 1991. X. Loriot: Les premières années de la grande crise du IIIe siècle: De l'avènement de Maximin le Thrace (235) à la mort de Gordien III (244), in: ANRW II/2, 1975. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maximinus Thrax. Maximinus coinage "Caius Julius Verus Maximinus Thrax" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. "Maximin" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879. Regnal titles Preceded by Severus Alexander Roman emperor 235–238 With: Gordian I, Gordian II, Pupienus and Balbinus (all 238) Succeeded by Pupienus and Balbinus Political offices Preceded by Gnaeus Claudius Severus Titus Claudius Quintianus Roman consul 236 with Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus Succeeded by Lucius Marius Perpetuus Lucius Mummius Felix Cornelianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-7697	----	Aristotle - Wikipedia Aristotle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). Classical Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic School Aristotle Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle Born 384 BC[A] Stagira, Chalcidian League Died 322 BC (aged 61–62) Euboea, Macedonian Empire Education Platonic Academy Spouse(s) Pythias Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Peripatetic school Aristotelianism Classical republicanism Notable students Alexander the Great, Theophrastus Main interests Biology Zoology Psychology[1][2] Physics Metaphysics Logic Ethics Rhetoric Aesthetics Music Poetry Economics Politics Government Meteorology Geology Notable ideas Aristotelian philosophy Syllogism Theory of the soul Virtue ethics Influences Plato Socrates Heraclitus Parmenides Empedocles Phaleas Hippodamus Hippias Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially Aristotelianism e. g. Averroes, Aquinas. Also pre-Enlightenment science (see List of writers influenced by Aristotle) Aristotle (/ærɪˈstɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC).[4] Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.[5] He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.[6] Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Aristotle has been called "the father of logic",[7] "the father of biology",[8][9] "the father of political science",[10][11] the "father of zoology",[12] "the father of natural law",[13] "the father of scientific method",[14][15] "the father of rhetoric",[16][17] and "the father of meteorology".[18][19] Contents 1 Life 2 Speculative philosophy 2.1 Logic 2.1.1 Organon 2.2 Metaphysics 2.2.1 Substance 2.2.1.1 Immanent realism 2.2.1.2 Potentiality and actuality 2.3 Epistemology 3 Natural philosophy 3.1 Physics 3.1.1 Five elements 3.1.2 Motion 3.1.3 Four causes 3.1.4 Optics 3.1.5 Chance and spontaneity 3.2 Astronomy 3.3 Geology/Natural Sciences 3.4 Biology 3.4.1 Empirical research 3.4.2 Scientific style 3.4.3 Classification of living things 3.5 Psychology 3.5.1 Soul 3.5.2 Memory 3.5.3 Dreams 4 Practical philosophy 4.1 Just war theory 4.2 Ethics 4.3 Politics 4.4 Economics 4.5 Rhetoric and poetics 4.6 Views on women 5 Influence 5.1 On his successor, Theophrastus 5.2 On later Greek philosophers 5.3 On Hellenistic science 5.4 On Byzantine scholars 5.5 On the medieval Islamic world 5.6 On medieval Europe 5.7 On Early Modern scientists 5.8 On 19th-century thinkers 5.9 Modern rejection and rehabilitation 6 Surviving works 6.1 Corpus Aristotelicum 6.2 Loss and preservation 7 Legacy 7.1 Depictions 7.2 Eponyms 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Life School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.[B] Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,[20] was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[21][22] His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father.[23] Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[24] Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[25] At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.[26] He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].[27] Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.[28] Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.[29][5] Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[30] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[30] By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the Suda – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[31] This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[5] He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."[4] Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death.[32] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[33] prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[34][35][36] – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[37] Speculative philosophy Logic Main article: Term logic Further information: Non-Aristotelian logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[38] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.[39] Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.[40] Organon Main article: Organon One of Aristotle's types of syllogism[C] In words In terms[D] In equations[E]     All men are mortal.     All Greeks are men. ∴ All Greeks are mortal. M a P S a M S a P What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument),[41] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[43] The books are: Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics On Sophistical Refutations Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.[44][45] The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics)[46][47] and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.[48] Metaphysics Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle) The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[49] Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.[50] Substance Further information: Hylomorphism Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[51][49] Immanent realism Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism). Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.[49] Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.[49][52] Potentiality and actuality Further information: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle) With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; locomotion, which is change in space; and alteration, which is change in quality. Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – the potential made actual – by learning. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.[49] For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.[53] In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.[49][54] Epistemology Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.[48] Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.[48] Natural philosophy Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.[55] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.[55] Physics The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed. Main article: Aristotelian physics Five elements Main article: Classical element In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.[56] Aristotle's elements[56] Element Hot/Cold Wet/Dry Motion Modern state of matter Earth Cold Dry Down Solid Water Cold Wet Down Liquid Air Hot Wet Up Gas Fire Hot Dry Up Plasma Aether (divine substance) — Circular (in heavens) — Motion Further information: History of classical mechanics Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,[57][F] since Aristotle does not address friction.[58] With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.[59][G] This would imply the equation[59] F = m v {\displaystyle F=mv} , incorrect in modern physics.[59] Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,[H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.[60][58][I] Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.[58] This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.[60] In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,[J] ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:[60][58] v = c W ρ {\displaystyle v=c{\frac {W}{\rho }}} Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.[60][58] Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"[58] that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,[61] but other authors reject this.[58] Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.[60] Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[55] A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not[60]), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.[59][K] Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.[60] Four causes Main article: Four causes Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).[62] Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.[63][64] Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.[63] The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.[63] The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.[63] In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.[65] The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.[63] In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.[65] Optics Further information: History of optics Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.[66] Chance and spontaneity Further information: Accident (philosophy) According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.[67][68] Astronomy Further information: History of astronomy In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[69] Geology/Natural Sciences Further information: History of geology Aristotle noted that the ground level of the Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption. Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.[70][71] The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'[72] Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (“I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again” [73] Biology Main article: Aristotle's biology Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left). Empirical research Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,[74] and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.[75][76] His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations,[77] statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.[78] His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.[79] Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.[80] He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants,[81] and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.[82] He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet.[83] Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution.[84] Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.[85] To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.[86] Scientific style Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant. Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.[87] He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.[88] In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.[89][90] Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.[91][92] This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.[91] From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.[93] Classification of living things Further information: Scala naturae Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.[94] Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals,[95][96] arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals.[97] see also:[98] He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution.[99] He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.[100] Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest) Group Examples (given by Aristotle) Blood Legs Souls (Rational, Sensitive, Vegetative) Qualities (Hot–Cold, Wet–Dry) Man Man with blood 2 legs R, S, V Hot, Wet Live-bearing tetrapods Cat, hare with blood 4 legs S, V Hot, Wet Cetaceans Dolphin, whale with blood none S, V Hot, Wet Birds Bee-eater, nightjar with blood 2 legs S, V Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs Egg-laying tetrapods Chameleon, crocodile with blood 4 legs S, V Cold, Wet except scales, eggs Snakes Water snake, Ottoman viper with blood none S, V Cold, Wet except scales, eggs Egg-laying fishes Sea bass, parrotfish with blood none S, V Cold, Wet, including eggs (Among the egg-laying fishes): placental selachians Shark, skate with blood none S, V Cold, Wet, but placenta like tetrapods Crustaceans Shrimp, crab without many legs S, V Cold, Wet except shell Cephalopods Squid, octopus without tentacles S, V Cold, Wet Hard-shelled animals Cockle, trumpet snail without none S, V Cold, Dry (mineral shell) Larva-bearing insects Ant, cicada without 6 legs S, V Cold, Dry Spontaneously-generating Sponges, worms without none S, V Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth Plants Fig without none V Cold, Dry Minerals Iron without none none Cold, Dry Psychology Soul Further information: On the Soul Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul. Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).[101] For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[29] In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[102] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[103] Memory According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.[104] In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.[105][106] Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.[107] Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.[108] Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.[109] Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.[110] Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.[111] Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity). Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.[112][113] Dreams Further information: Dream § Classical history Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[114] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses[115] or of digestion,[114] so it is vital to the body.[115] While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,[115] albeit differently,[114] unless they are weary.[115] Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.[115] Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.[114] When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.[115] However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.[114] So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.[116] During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.[114] This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.[114] In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.[29] One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.[117] Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.[116] Practical philosophy Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.[55] Virtues and their accompanying vices[4] Too little Virtuous mean Too much Humbleness High-mindedness Vainglory Lack of purpose Right ambition Over-ambition Spiritlessness Good temper Irascibility Rudeness Civility Obsequiousness Cowardice Courage Rashness Insensibility Self-control Intemperance Sarcasm Sincerity Boastfulness Boorishness Wit Buffoonery Shamelessness Modesty Shyness Callousness Just resentment Spitefulness Pettiness Generosity Vulgarity Meanness Liberality Wastefulness Just war theory Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks' ".[118] Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defence. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).[118] Ethics Main article: Aristotelian ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.[119] Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency[4]) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.[120] Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.[121] Politics Main article: Politics (Aristotle) In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[122] He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.[123] Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[124] Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."[L] In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:[125] For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.[125] As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. — Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18 To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.[126] Economics Main article: Politics (Aristotle) Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.[127] In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements.[127] Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money.[127] Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.[128] Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.[128] Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".[128] He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".[128] Rhetoric and poetics Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle) The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).[129] Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning).[130] He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).[131] Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).[132] Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[133][134] He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention[133] and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself.[133] Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals[133][135] and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".[133] Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."[133] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[136] While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[137] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[138] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[139] Views on women Main article: Aristotle's views on women Further information: Aristotle's biology § Inheritance Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny[140] and sexism.[141] However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.[M] Influence Further information: List of writers influenced by Aristotle More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.[143][144][145][146] He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".[147] Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[148] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.[149][150][151] Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."[151] Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".[152] On his successor, Theophrastus Main articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus) Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.[153] Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.[154][155] On later Greek philosophers Further information: Peripatetic school The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[156] On Hellenistic science Further information: Ancient Greek medicine After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[157] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[158] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[159] On Byzantine scholars See also: Commentaries on Aristotle and Byzantine Aristotelianism Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[160] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[161] Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.[162] After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[163] On the medieval Islamic world Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy and Transmission of the Greek Classics Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220 Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[164] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,[165] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[166] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[164] The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[167] On medieval Europe Woodcut of Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515[168] Further information: Aristotelianism and Syllogism § Medieval With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[169] and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",[170] the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance.[171] These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.[172] The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie,[173] A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.[174][168] The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy: Dante L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 Translation Hell vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest. On Early Modern scientists William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking. In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.[175] Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.[176] On 19th-century thinkers The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[177] Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.[178] The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.[179] Modern rejection and rehabilitation "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".[151] Illustration by Charles Laplante [fr], 1866 During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.[5] The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.[180] In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century"[181] tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".[181][182] By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."[151] Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[183] Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.[151] Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,[184] while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.[185][186] Surviving works Part of a series on the Corpus Aristotelicum Logic (Organon) Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics Sophistical Refutations Natural philosophy (physics) Physics On the Heavens On Generation and Corruption Meteorology On the Universe* On the Soul Sense and Sensibilia On Memory On Sleep On Dreams On Divination in Sleep On Length and Shortness of Life On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration On Breath* History of Animals Parts of Animals Movement of Animals Progression of Animals Generation of Animals On Colors* On Things Heard* Physiognomonics* On Plants* On Marvellous Things Heard* Mechanics† Problems† On Indivisible Lines* The Situations and Names of Winds* On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias* Metaphysics Metaphysics Ethics Politics Nicomachean Ethics Magna Moralia† Eudemian Ethics On Virtues and Vices* Politics Economics† Constitution of the Athenians Rhetoric Poetics Rhetoric Rhetoric to Alexander* Poetics Fragments Fragments† Aristotle Aristotelianism [*]: Generally agreed to be spurious [†]: Authenticity disputed Corpus Aristotelicum Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.[187] Loss and preservation Further information: Recovery of Aristotle Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.[N] His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school.[189][O][190] Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.[191][189] Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.[P] A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found.[193] The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[194][195] Legacy Depictions Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder,[196] Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera,[197] Rembrandt,[198] and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance.[199] Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."[200][201] Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476 Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530 Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Aristotle and Campaspe,[Q] Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637 Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653 Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813 Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811 Sculptures Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439 Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899 Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915 Eponyms The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica.[202] Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.[203] See also Aristotelian Society Conimbricenses Perfectionism References Notes ^ That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957,p. 253 ^ See Shields 2012, pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle. ^ This type of syllogism, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) mnemonic Barbara.[41] ^ M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).[41] ^ The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'[42] ^ Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is not to change motion.[57] ^ Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.[59] ^ For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.[60] ^ Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens (De Caelo) which state Aristotle's laws of motion.[58] ^ Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.[58] ^ Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."[60] ^ For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115. ^ "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."[142] ^ "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."[188] ^ Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W.D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own. ^ "veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").[192] ^ Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above. Citations ^ Kantor 1963, p. 116. ^ On the Soul. ^ Collins English Dictionary. ^ a b c d Humphreys 2009. ^ a b c d Russell 1972. ^ Barnes 1995, p. 9. ^ Wentzel Van Huyssteen, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: A-I, p 27 ^ S. C. 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Phelan, Joseph (September 2002). "The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens". ArtCyclopedia. Retrieved 23 March 2018. "Phyllis and Aristotle". 1 February 2019 – via Musee du Louvre. Pickover, Clifford A. (2009). The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-9. "Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Loeb Classical Library. 1919. Retrieved 31 January 2019. "Predicate Logic" (PDF). University of Texas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2018. Rhodes, Frank Harold Trevor (1974). Evolution. Golden Press. ISBN 978-0-307-64360-5. Robbins, Lionel (2000). Medema, Steven G.; Samuels, Warren J. (eds.). A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures. Princeton University Press. Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (1996). "Structuring Rhetoric". In Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20227-6. Rovelli, Carlo (2015). "Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look". Journal of the American Philosophical Association. 1 (1): 23–40. arXiv:1312.4057. doi:10.1017/apa.2014.11. S2CID 44193681. Russell, Bertrand (1972). A history of western philosophy. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-31400-2. Sedley, David (2007). Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25364-3. Shields, Christopher (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-518748-9. Shields, Christopher (2016). "Aristotle's Psychology". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Shute, Clarence (1941). The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being. Columbia University Press. OCLC 936606202. Sikka, Sonya (1997). Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3345-4. Smith, Robin (2017). "Aristotle's Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Smith, William George (2007) [1869]. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J. Walton. Retrieved 30 January 2019 – via Internet Archive. Sorabji, R. (2006). Aristotle on Memory (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 54. And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs... Sorabji, Richard (1990). Aristotle Transformed. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2254-4. Staley, Kevin (1989). "Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam". Journal of the History of Ideas. 50 (3): 355–370. doi:10.2307/2709566. JSTOR 2709566. Susskind, Leonard (3 October 2011). "Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3". The Theoretical Minimum. Retrieved 11 May 2018. Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". Greek Biology and Medicine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2017. "The School of Athens by Raphael". Visual Arts Cork. Retrieved 22 March 2018. Stewart, Jessica (2019). "The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens'". My Modern Met. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas Tangian, Andranik (2020). Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6. ISBN 978-3-030-39690-9. Thompson, D'Arcy (1910). Ross, W. D.; Smith, J. A. (eds.). Historia animalium. The works of Aristotle translated into English. Clarendon Press. OCLC 39273217. Warren, Howard C. (1921). A History of the Association of Psychology. ISBN 9780598919755. OCLC 21010604. Webb, Wilse (1990). Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-594-5. "When libraries were on a roll". The Telegraph. 19 May 2001. Retrieved 29 June 2017. Wildberg (2016). "John Philoponus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Zalta, Edward N., ed. (2018). "Aristotle's Influence". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.). Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press. Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press. Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. Macmillan. Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2688-9. Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links. Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 978-1412048439. Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland. Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. 1. Blaisdell. Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–96. doi:10.2307/2025076. JSTOR 2025076. Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. Twayne Publishers. De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1930972834. Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. 3. Cape. Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima Archived 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. 6. Cambridge University Press. Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972216. Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972056. Irwin, Terence H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198242905. Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), ISBN 978-8842497370. Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library. Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press. Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press. Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972735. McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50: 125–50. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282. ISBN 9780511498282. Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Prometheus Books. Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett. Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas. Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge. Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press. Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally. Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Cornell University Press. Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press. Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. pp. 41–56. External links Aristotleat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀριστοτέλης Library resources about Aristotle Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Aristotle Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Aristotle at PhilPapers 2553 Aristotle at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle (general article) Biology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Motion and its Place in Nature Poetics Politics At the Internet Classics Archive From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle (general article) Aristotle in the Renaissance Biology Causality Commentators on Aristotle Ethics Logic Mathematics Metaphysics Natural philosophy Non-contradiction Political theory Psychology Rhetoric Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Collections of works Works by Aristotle in eBook form at Standard Ebooks At Massachusetts Institute of Technology Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Aristotle at Internet Archive Works by Aristotle at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Aristotle at Open Library (in English and Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts University At the University of Adelaide (in Greek and French) P. 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en-wikipedia-org-7698	----	Nikephoros III Botaneiates - Wikipedia Nikephoros III Botaneiates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1078 to 1081 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Nikephoros III Botaneiates Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates (middle), between St. John Chrysostom (left) and an archangel (right) Byzantine emperor Reign 7 January 1078 – 1 April 1081 Coronation 24 March 1078 Predecessor Michael VII Doukas Successor Alexios I Komnenos Born 1002 (1002) Died After 1081 Monastery of Peribleptus Wife Vevdene Maria of Alania Nikephoros III Botaneiates, Latinized as Nicephorus III Botaniates (Greek: Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης, 1002 – 1081), was Byzantine emperor from 7 January 1078 to 1 April 1081. He was born in 1002, and became a general during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos, serving in the Pecheneg revolt of 1048–1053. His actions in guiding his forces away from the Pechenegs following the Battle of Zygos Pass, in which they suffered eleven days of harassment before finally reaching the Byzantine city of Adrianople, attracted the attention of fellow officers, and he received the title of magistros as a reward. Nikephoros served in the revolt of Isaac I Komnenos against the Byzantine Emperor Michael VI Bringas, leading forces at the decisive Battle of Petroe. Under Emperor Constantine X Doukas he was made doux of Thessalonica, where he remained until c. 1065, when he was reassigned as doux of Antioch. While doux of Antioch, he repelled numerous incursions from the Emirate of Aleppo. When Constantine X died in 1067, his wife, Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, considered taking Nikephoros as husband and emperor, but instead chose Romanos IV Diogenes. The need for an immediate successor was made pressing by the constant Seljuk raids into Byzantine Anatolia, and Eudokia, Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople, and the Byzantine Senate agreed that their top priority was the defense of the empire and that they needed an emperor to lead troops to repel the Turks. Nikephoros was the favorite candidate of the senate, but was in the field leading troops in Antioch and was still married. Romanos, once chosen to be emperor, exiled Nikephoros to his holdings in the Anatolic Theme, where he remained until he was brought out of retirement by Emperor Michael VII and made kouropalates and governor of the Anatolic Theme. Nikephoros came into conflict with Michael in 1078 when he pleaded with the emperor to address the worsening situation in Byzantine Anatolia, insulting Michael with his frankness. In order to protect himself, Nikephoros gathered an army of native troops and Turkish mercenaries and declared himself emperor on 7 January 1078.[1] Nikephoros gathered a strong support base due to his military acumen and family renown and was crowned at Nicaea on 24 March,[2] after which he entered Constantinople and seize the throne. As emperor, Nikephoros faced numerous revolts, including those of Nikephoros Bryennios, Nikephoros Basilakes, and Constantine Doukas, as well as an attempted assassination by the Varangian Guard. Nikephoros embraced the trappings of emperor, performing many acts to increase his legitimacy and support, such as spending large amounts on donatives for the army and his supporters, forgiving all debt in arrears, and instituting minor legal reforms. Diplomatically, Nikephoros secured the submission of Theodore Gabras and Philaretos Brachamios, governors of Trebizond and Antioch, respectively, who had become de facto independent of the Byzantine Empire due to the constant incursions of the Seljuks into Byzantine Anatolia. In 1081, the Norman Duke Robert Guiscard of Apulia prepared to invade the Byzantine Empire under the pretext of defending the succession of Constantine Doukas, who had been engaged to Robert's daughter Helena. Alexios I Komnenos was entrusted with an army and sent to defeat the Norman threat, but instead conspired with his relative John Doukas to seize the throne. Alexios raised a rebellion against Nikephoros and was able to quickly encircle Constantinople and besiege it, due to the lack of a defensive army. Nikephoros was unable to secure the support of either the Seljuk Turks or Nikephoros Melissenos, his traditional rivals, and therefore was forced to prepare for abdication. Nikephoros decided that his only choice was to abdicate in favor of Melissenos, who was nearby in Damalis in Anatolia, and sent messengers to him across the Bosphorus; however, these messengers were intercepted by George Palaiologos, a general of Alexios, who persuaded them to support Alexios. Alexios and his forces broke through the walls of Constantinople on 1 April 1081 and sacked the city.[3] Nikephoros fled and sought sanctuary inside of the Hagia Sophia. Nikephoros was taken from there to the Monastery of Peribleptus, where he abdicated and became a monk. Contents 1 Historiography and sources 2 Biography 2.1 Early life and family 2.2 Early career 2.3 Later career 2.4 Reign 2.4.1 Reforms and domestic policy 2.4.2 Diplomacy 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography Historiography and sources[edit] The most comprehensive account of Nikephoros III's life and reign is The History, written in the 1070s by the Byzantine historian Michael Attaleiates and dedicated to Nikephoros himself. Attaleiates is the primary contemporary source for Nikephoros's reign and counters the narrative of Byzantine historian Michael Psellos's Chronographia, the only other contemporary source for Nikephoros's reign. Attaleiates highlights Nikephoros's achievements, often containing records of his actions which no other source mentions, such as his eleven-day rearguard command after the Battle of Zygos Pass, which Attaleiates dedicates several pages to. Attaleiates's high opinion of Nikephoros was likely shaped by Nikephoros raising him to the rank of vestes, and by his benefiting from Nikephoros's patronage. Much of Attaleiates's work is shaped by his personal opinion of the contemporary events, such as his bias against Nikephoros's predecessor, Emperor Michael VII Doukas, being personally motivated.[4] The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 is mentioned only in a single paragraph by Psellos, who chiefly comments that Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes should have better studied strategy; however, Attaleiates devotes an entire chapter to the details of the decisive battle, including the events before and after the battle, while also giving his own commentary and anecdotes of the actions and mistakes which were made. Attaleiates is invaluable in providing an understanding of what the populace of the Byzantine Empire, outside of the nobles of Constantinople, thought of the Turkish invasion of Anatolia. These opinions explain why Attaleiates is so condemning of Michael VII and so praising of Nikephoros: in the view of the average Byzantine, Michael was primarily at fault for the loss of Byzantine Anatolia, Attaleiates's homeland, whereas Nikephoros, a fellow Anatolian, actively worked to prevent the further collapse of the Byzantine Empire.[4] Psellos's Chronographia is largely useless in understanding the life of Nikephoros; while he provides a contemporary source from the view of the Byzantine nobles, he is far from objective in his review of events, although his retelling of Michael's letter to Nikephoros is useful as it shares both Michael's and Psellos's opinion of the events. While Attaleiates generally provides a favorable account of Nikephoros, he does mention some of his failings, such as his defeat by the Oghuz Turks in 1063, whereas Psellos intentionally fails to mention several failings of Michael VII in his panegyrical chapter on him, including his loss of Anatolia to the Seljuk Turks and the debasement of currency which took place under him. The other main source for Nikephoros's reign is Anna Komnene's Alexiad, although she was born after the events, and the first sections of her account are usually derived from the writings of her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger. She is also biased as a result of being the daughter of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, who seized the throne from Nikephoros, causing the account to be from the view of Alexios's rise. While her narrative primarily focuses on the actions of Alexios, it does provide information on Nikephoros's last years in power and his subsequent exile to a monastery.[4] Nikephoros is briefly mentioned by John Skylitzes in his Synopsis of Histories, which covers the events of 811–1057, but is referenced far more in Skylitzes's Continuatus. Although Skylitzes is a contemporary source, his Continuatus was written under Alexios, who he is known to have been favorable to;[4][5] however, he generally follows the more objective account of Attaleiates, who was one of his main sources. Nikephoros Bryennius the Younger's Material for a History chiefly relies on the testimonies of his contemporaries, including his father, Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder, and Alexios himself; however, it also relies on the works of Attaleiates, Psellos, and Skylitzes. Nikephoros Bryennios's bias in favor of Alexios and against Nikephoros III is inevitable as a result of being married to Alexios's daughter, and the fact that his father was blinded by Nikephoros. These authors mostly cover the career of Nikephoros from his role in the Battle of the Zygos Pass in 1053 to his death.[4] William of Apulia, a Norman historian who wrote in the 1090s, mentions Nikephoros during his account of Robert Guiscard's invasion of the Byzantine Empire in 1081; as a foreigner he was removed from the court politics of the Byzantine Empire, and thus provides a fair and objective view of Nikephoros. Nikephoros is also mentioned in the accounts of both Matthew of Edessa and Michael the Syrian, who wrote their chronicles several centuries after the events and are therefore quite objective in their treatment of Nikephoros, lacking political intrigue related to him. Michael is quite brief in his account of Nikephoros, but gives a balanced view – while he portrays Michael VII as incompetent and corrupt, he does praise Nikephoros as Attaleiates does. Michael's usefulness is limited by his brevity on the subject, although it is likely, based on the contents of his chronicle, that Attaleiates himself served as a source. Matthew's chronicle is longer, but clearly derived from the work of Psellos, as Matthew openly praises Michael VII while ridiculing Nikephoros, who he portrays as a hedonistic womanizer; ironically the exact accusation which Michael the Syrian makes against Michael VII.[4] Biography[edit] Early life and family[edit] Nikephoros was born in 1002 AD to Michael Botaneiates and his wife, members of the Botaneiates family, a prominent military family from the Anatolic Theme.[4][6] According to Attaleiates, Nikephoros's grandfather Nikephoros and father Michael both served as commanders under Basil II (r. 976–1025) during his campaigns against the Georgians and his conquest of Bulgaria; Attaleiates is the only source which gives this information. Attaleiates also states that the Botaniati family was related to Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas and the Phocas family. This was almost certainly used by Nikephoros to add legitimacy to his later rule; however, it may be true, as the Psellos calls Nikephoros III "Phocas" in his reproduction of Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas' letter to Nikephoros. At an unknown date, Nikephoros married a woman named Vevdene, but he later married Maria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII. He seems to have had at least one child with Vevdene, as Anna Komnene mentions his grandson in the Alexiad. Little else is known of Nikephoros's life before 1053, other than that he served as a commander under Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos during the Pecheneg revolt of 1048–1053.[4] Early career[edit] Nikephoros first attracts the attention of his Byzantine contemporaries and historians for his actions after the Battle of Zygos Pass in 1053. Attaleiates records that Nikephoros was able to wield effective command over his retreating mounted troops, preventing them from being overrun by Pecheneg forces during the Pecheneg revolt. Nikephoros ordered his cavalry to hold a tight formation, limiting the damage the horse-archers of the Pechenegs could inflict, and deployed scouts to prevent his troops from being ambushed. During his maneuvering, the Pechenegs attempted to assault his troops and break their formation several times, but each time they were rebuffed. Nikephoros led his troops for eleven days in spite of constant harassment. According to Attaleiates, the Pechenegs attempted to convince the Byzantines to surrender and killed their horses with their bows when this failed. Nikephoros had them continue on foot and refused to evacuate himself alone when he was offered a horse, proclaiming he would prefer death to the dishonor of cowardice, which reinforced the morale of his troops. After eleven days of constant attacks, they reached the Byzantine city of Adrianople, where the Pechenegs finally gave up their pursuit.[4][7] For his actions, Emperor Constantine IX awarded Nikephoros the high court rank of magistros. While it is possible that his actions were exaggerated by Attaleiates, it fits comfortably with his reputation as a strong commander.[4][8][9] Nikephoros is next mentioned for his role in the revolt of Isaac I Komnenos against the Byzantine Emperor Michael VI Bringas (r. 1056–1057) in 1057. This revolt originated as a result of Michael's favoritism toward the civil officials of Constantinople, and his scorn toward the military elites. After the Dynatoi were humiliated by Michael by his refusal to grant them any gifts, Isaac attempted to reconcile with Michael, only to be personally insulted by him, sparking a civil war, which is mentioned by Skylitzes, Psellos, and Attaleiates; Psellos himself led the embassy from Michael to Isaac. Isaac then gathered the support of other military elites before marching for Constantinople. At Constantinople, the Battle of Petroe took place on 20 August 1057, resulting in the decisive victory of Isaac, and reportedly one of the bloodiest battles the Byzantines engaged in during a civil war. Isaac's victory placed the military aristocracy firmly back in control and marked the first time a general had held the throne since the death of Emperor Basil II in 1025. Nikephoros led a wing of Isaac's forces during the battle, suggesting he had been a part of Isaac's inner circle; Skylitzes mentions that during this battle Nikephoros fought a duel against one of Michael's mercenaries, Randolf the Frank.[4][9] In 1059, Isaac placed Nikephoros in command of the Danube frontier, where he remained until 1064. During his time at this command, he saved the life of the future Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes during Isaac's campaign against the Hungarians.[4][10][11] Nikephoros's narrative picks up once more during the reign of Emperor Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067); in 1061 he was made doux of Thessalonica by Constantine, and ordered to settle complaints in the theme. The first complaint was a dispute between the Iveron Monastery of Mount Athos and the Byzantine government, centered on the government confiscation of some of the monastery's property and Paroikoi (Byzantine serfs), which the monastery viewed as unlawful. Nikephoros sent Michael the spatharokandidatos to inquire into the case, before ruling that, based upon a chrysobull issued by Basil II which had declared that the monastery's property and Paroikoi were exempt from taxes, they could not be confiscated by the government.[4][12] Nikephoros settled another dispute in February 1062, this time between the Monastery of Lavra and Theodoros of Aichmalotou, a local landowner, over monastic property; Nikephoros ruled in favor of the monastery.[4][13][14] Nikephoros settled a dispute between the Iveron Monastery and the Bishop of Ezoba regarding the boundaries between the lands of the monastery and the lands of the bishop, basing his ruling on the knowledge of the local populace.[4][15] The last Thessalonian dispute which Nikephoros ruled in was between the Iveron Monastery and the metochion of Melissourgeion; the metochion appears to have ignored a ruling previously made by Empress Theodora Porphyrogenita, which Nikephoros reasserted.[4][16] In the fall of 1064, the Oghuz Turks invaded the Byzantine Balkans and defeated both Nikephoros and Basil Apokapes, archon of Paristrion, in battle, and took them captive, which Attaleiates suggests was greatly humiliating for Nikephoros;[4][17] however, the two men were able to escape captivity after the Oghuz Turk forces were devastated by both Bulgarian raids and disease.[4] The surviving Oghuz Turks were quickly recruited into the Byzantine army.[18] Later career[edit] Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates and Maria of Alania Nikephoros was reassigned as doux of Antioch in c.1065 by Constantine X[4][19] in response to the incompetence and mismanagement of the province by its previous doux, Nikephoritzes, who would later serve as logothetes under Michael VII.[4][20] Although his troops were inexperienced and under-equipped, Nikephoros was able to repel numerous raids against Antioch from the Emirate of Aleppo, largely due to his own military prowess, his well-trained retinue, and his use of local levies. Nikephoros was relieved of his command in c.1067, likely due to the political efforts of the civil officials, who wished to eliminate the military aristocracy, which Nikephoros was a member of. The political machinations of the civil officials, and their willingness to undermine the military elites, had built up under previous emperors such as Romanos III (r. 1028–1034) and Michael VI; during this period the civil officials had increasingly become more powerful, until the reforms of Isaac I curbed their power so strongly as to leave a lasting impression. Constantine X had become emperor when Isaac abdicated in 1059 and was considerably weaker than Isaac had been, allowing the civil officials to manipulate him to prevent him from gaining the level of control that Isaac had. This was largely accomplished by undermining the Byzantine military elites, even while the Turks had begun to invade Byzantine Armenia.[4] Upon the death of Constantine X in 1067, his wife, Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, considered taking Nikephoros as husband and emperor, but instead chose Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071).[4][21] The need for an emperor was made pressing by the constant raids of the Turks into the Byzantine territories of Antioch, Cilicia, and Armenia;[4][22] Eudokia, Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople, and the Byzantine Senate agreed that their top priority was the defense of the empire and that they needed an emperor to lead troops to repel the Turks. Nikephoros was the favorite candidate of the senate, but was in the field leading troops in Antioch, and was still married to Vevdene. Romanos was already in Constantinople and had no wife, making him a much more suitable candidate; Matthew of Edessa also suggests that Eudokia already desired Romanos over Nikephoros.[4][23] Upon taking power, Romanos exiled Nikephoros to his holdings in the Anatolic Theme[4][24][25] and excluded him from the Manzikert campaign due to questionable loyalty, likely because he had been Eudokia's other candidate for the throne, and thus posed a threat to Romanos's rule.[4][26] After Romanos was captured by the Seljuks at the disastrous Battle of Manzikert, Nikephoros did not involve himself in the coup d'état of Michael VII against the still-captive Romanos, and would not again lead troops until the uprising of the mercenary leader Roussel de Bailleul.[4][27][28] Seal of Nikephoros Botaneiates as kouropalates and doux of the Anatolic Theme Emperor Michael VII (r. 1071–1078) brought Nikephoros, who was now in his early seventies, out of retirement and declared him kouropalates and 'governor of the Anatolic Theme.[4][29] The title of kouropalates was reserved for esteemed members of the imperial court who were not related to the ruling dynasty, and officially designated him as a high-ranking general; the title of kouropalates was below the rank of nobilissimus and two ranks below the title of Caesar. None of the sources specifically mention why Nikephoros was recalled to lead forces, but it is likely due to a few reasons: Nikephoros was a renowned commander who had served under the Doukas emperors, he did not have any loyalty to Romanos IV, and the main theater of war was in the eastern portion of the Byzantine Empire, the terrain of which Nikephoros knew well; he likely gained the military governorship of the Anatolic Theme because it was his homeland. Michael VII then sent Nikephoros and the Caesar John Doukas to defeat the rebellion of Roussel de Bailleul.[4][30] Nikephoros warned John not to cross the Zompos Bridge and engage the forces of Roussel, however, John disregarded him and lead his troops to defeat at the Battle of the Zompos Bridge in 1074. Nikephoros, who commanded the rearguard, held his troops back from fighting in the battle; modern historians have debated exactly why he chose to withhold his troops, and whether they could have turned the tide of the battle,[4][31] although most historians focus on John Doukas, rather than Nikephoros, limiting the depth of analysis.[4][32][33] After the defeat of the forces under John, Nikephoros gathered the survivors and led them with his troops back to his estates in the Anatolic Theme.[4][27][32] Nikephoros, seeing how dire the situation of the Byzantine Empire was, sent a letter to Emperor Michael in 1078 pleading with him to address the rapidly worsening situation in Byzantine Anatolia. Michael was insulted by the directness of one of his subordinates, and turned against Nikephoros, forcing him to rebel against Michael to protect himself from imprisonment. Nikephoros declared himself emperor on 7 January 1078, mobilizing an army of native troops and Turkish mercenaries.[34] Michael sent Nikephoros a letter in which he reminded Nikephoros that he owed much to the emperor who had brought him out of exile.[4][35] The military acumen and family renown of Nikephoros helped him to solidify his support base, and the tyranny of Michael ensured that even some of the elites of Constantinople sided with Nikephoros; something Attaleiates notes as being very rare, as, generally, people defect from the usurper's side to the emperor's side. The defection of some of the capital elites was even more astonishing because the march from the Anatolic Theme to Constantinople was not safe due to Turkish raids, which had reached deep into Anatolia by 1078,[4][36] meaning that Nikephoros's rebellion might be destroyed before it even reached Constantinople. Michael's wife, Maria of Alania, seeing that Michael would soon be overthrown, defected to the side of Nikephoros;[4][37] in October 1078 Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder also raised a revolt against Michael.[4] Nikephoros entered Constantinople and seized the throne.[4][38] Upon taking power, Nikephoros married Maria of Alania, exiled Michael to a monastery, a common Byzantine practice for removing threats to the throne since the 7th century, and castrated Michael's sons. The castration of the sons was viewed poorly by the Byzantine nobility, possibly due to the brutality of the act, although Michael the Syrian does not provide an in-depth explanation of exactly why the Byzantine elite opposed it.[4][39][40] Reign[edit] Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros III flanked by personifications of Truth and Justice, and by his senior court dignitaries from illuminated manuscript dated between 1074 and 1081 During the reign of Nikephoros, he had to contend with four revolts and plots before the revolt of Alexios I Komnenos which ultimately ended his reign. The first revolt was that of Nikephoros Bryennios, who had contended for the throne of Michael VII at the same time as Nikephoros III; Nikephoros, now too old to command armies, sent Alexios Komnenos to defeat him. Once Bryennios was defeated, Nikephoros III had him blinded, but granted him and his partisans amnesty.[4][41] The second revolt came from a supporter of Bryennios, Nikephoros Basilakes the protoproedros, rebelled in Dyrrhachium (modern-day Durrës) in 1078, however, he was quickly defeated by Alexios, and similarly blinded.[4][42] In 1079 the Varangian Guard attempted to murder Nikephoros during an evening inspection,[4][43] but they were unsuccessful as Nikephoros was able to command his retinue and defend himself until his imperial guards could arrive to defeat the Varangians. Nikephoros had the ringleaders of the plot sent to remote forts and granted amnesty to the rest. Around this time, Michael of Nicomedia, the hypertimos (head of the imperial administration), who may be the same person as Michael Psellos, died in Nicomedia; it is not known if his death was related to the assassination plot of the Varangians.[4][44] Around the same time, Constantine Doukas plotted against Nikephoros, despite the emperor's favor towards him. Meanwhile, Nikephoros was planning to deal with Byzantine Anatolia, now practically overrun by the Seljuk Turks.[4][45][46] Nikephoros hired mercenaries to strengthen his forces, as he viewed his native forces as being too little in number; however, the mercenaries were rowdy and disloyal. At one point Nikephoros had to personally address the mercenaries to attempt to make them cooperate.[4][47] Constantine Doukas's rebellion put an end to Nikephoros's eastern campaign, but Nikephoros was popular enough that none outside of the immediate army under Constantine joined him, allowing Nikephoros to quickly assemble an army of levies and his imperial guard to challenge Constantine.[4][48] Nikephoros quickly sent emissaries to Constantine to inquire why he had rebelled and was able to persuade the soldiers under Constantine to surrender their general through an offer of amnesty; after Constantine was handed over to Nikephoros by his own troops, he was sent into exile at a monastery.[4][49] In 1078 the Paulician sect attempted to use the chaos of the rebellions of Bryennios and Basilakes and their growing popularity in the Balkans to rise up against Nikephoros; Leca the Paulician agitated against Nikephoros and attempted to convince the Pechenegs, with whom Basilakes had earlier attempted to ally, to invade Byzantine land. At the same time, Dobromir the Paulician stirred up a revolt in Mesembria, in co-operation with Leca, and began to pillage the surrounding areas.[4][50] Leca and Dobromir soon abandoned their rebellion after they were informed that Nikephoros was quickly assembling an army to defeat them.[4][51] Knowing their few loyalists would not be able to confront the Byzantine army, they begged Nikephoros for forgiveness, fearing that they would share the same punishment as Bryennios and Basilakes; Nikephoros showed mercy and granted them amnesty, along with both gifts and titles.[4][52] Nikephoros had originally considered Constantine Doukas as a candidate for his heir, as he had no children of his own, but he abandoned this after Constantine revolted against him. He then set his sights upon a distant relative, Synadenos Botaneiates, of whom almost nothing is known other than that he later married of a niece of Alexios.[4][53] Norman Duke Robert Guiscard of Apulia prepared to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081 under the pretext of defending the succession of Constantine Doukas, who had been engaged to Robert's daughter Helena;[4][54][55][56] at the same time, the Seljuks captured the town of Cyzicus.[4][57] Alexios was entrusted with a substantial army to defeat the Norman threat, but conspired with his relative John Doukas to instead take the throne for himself.[4][58] Alexios raised a rebellion against Nikephoros and was able to quickly surround Constantinople and put it to siege due to the lack of a defensive army. Nikeophoros was unable to secure the support of either the Seljuk Turks or Nikephoros Melissenos, his traditional rivals, and thus was forced to prepare to abdicate. Nikephoros decided that his only choice was to abdicate in favor of Melissenos, who was nearby in Damalis in Anatolia, and sent messengers to him across the Bosphorus; however, these messengers were intercepted by George Palaiologos, a general of Alexios, who persuaded them to support Alexios. Alexios and his forces broke through the walls of Constantinople on 1 April 1081 and sacked the city;[4][59] Patriarch Cosmas convinced Nikephoros to abdicate to Alexios rather than prolong the civil war. Nikephoros then fled to the Hagia Sophia and sought sanctuary inside of it.[4][60] Michael, the logothete of Alexios, then escorted Nikephoros to the Monastery of Peribleptus, where he abdicated and became a monk. Reforms and domestic policy[edit] A gold coin bearing Nikephoros III's image (right) and Christ Pantocrator (left) Nikephoros performed many acts to secure the support of the Byzantine populace, as he lacked the legitimacy of imperial succession as a usurper. He spent large amounts of money on donatives for his army and supporters, which severely sapped the imperial treasury,[4][61] and distributed many titles to them; he also donated generously to charities.[4][62] He returned the gold and silver ornaments which Michael VII had confiscated from the churches to fund his civil war against him.[4][63] Whether or not these acts managed to gain the support of the people cannot be ascertained, as Nikephoros's reign was filled with revolts and political uncertainty; however, it can be assumed that he was determined to prevent the betrayal which many previous emperors had suffered, and as such freely handed out gifts and titles. Many of the reforms which Nikephoros enacted were more likely intended to solidify his tenuous hold on the throne, rather than for the security of the empire.[4] Nikephoros issued a chrysobull that forgave all debt which was in arrears in order to gain support and to attempt to remedy the debt crisis which had occurred under the Doukas dynasty; he also forbade creditors from demanding debt repayment before the terms of the contract stated, likely to improve the financial stability of the empire by preventing sudden impoverishment, and forbade creditors from seizing the property of their debtors in payment of debt after their debts were canceled. Attaleiates says that these laws "put an end to the fear of debt", which he said had been a source of much suffering for the Byzantine citizens under the Doukas dynasty.[4][64] Nikephoros may have revoked the edicts of Michael VII to secure more legitimacy and to reward the citizens of Constantinople who had supported him; one such measure involved the restoration of rights to owners of small jetties around Constantinople, allowing them to again use these ports, called skalai.[4][65] Attaleiates states that Nikephoros "diligently attended the festivals of the capital and frequently bestowed gifts to his subjects",[4][66] suggesting that Nikephoros did not hesitate to embrace the trappings of an emperor to ensure that he was viewed as the legitimate emperor rather than a mere usurper. Nikephoros worked to not only gain the favor of the masses, but also the previous dynasty, which Romanos IV had failed to do, leading to his downfall. He brought Eudokia Makrembolitissa out of her monastic exile and allowed her to live among her family,[4][61][67] and attempted to make Constantine Doukas his heir, likely in an attempt to appease the civil officials who he had just deposed. Additionally, succession was a strong concern, as Nikephoros was a widower, old, and childless in 1078, his actions in marrying Maria, the wife of Michael VII, and attempting to take Constantine as his heir, show Nikephoros's determination to both secure his succession and restore stability to the empire.[4] Attaleiates praised Nikephoros for his reforms to the legal code and his diligence in the performance of his imperial duties. Nikephoros presided over court cases and in his free time read books to improve his ability to judge cases.[4][68] Nikephoros settled several pressing legal issues in 1079, first enacting a law regarding spousal insanity, the second increasing the time between sentencing and execution to thirty days to allow new evidence to be presented or the judge to review whether the crime merited capital punishment.[4][69] Nikephoros also issued a law which extended the same legal rights and protections enjoyed by private servants to imperial servants.[4][70] While the reforms of Nikephoros are quite minor, they provide insight into Nikephoros's desire to relieve some of the issues plaguing the Byzantine Empire and correct the rampant corruption of the Byzantine courts; that his reforms were quite minor is unsurprising in light of the fact that Nikephoros was nearly eighty and had to suppress several revolts and defend against the Turks in Anatolia.[4][71] Diplomacy[edit] The situation of Byzantine Anatolia worsened after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, as the Seljuk Turks began to take the Byzantine lands for themselves, rather than simply raid them. Theodore Gabras and Philaretos Brachamios, the governors of Trebizond and Antioch, respectively, had become separated from the rest of the Byzantine Empire as the Turks invaded other regions of Anatolia which were almost undefended, and thus became de facto independent of the Byzantine Empire. Nikephoros negotiated with Philaretos for the submission of his fief in 1078 and granted him the title of doux, leaving him the legitimate ruler of the newly returned Byzantine province. This reincorporation benefited the Byzantine Empire as Philaretos had been attacking some nearby Byzantine towns in order to incorporate them into his domain, dividing the Byzantines' focus upon the Seljuk Turks in the area;[4][72] it also strengthened the position of the Byzantine Empire, as they gained Philaretos's 8,000-strong army of Normans, captained by Raimbaud.[4][73] This successful negotiation may also have reflected the prestige of the Botaneiates family, as Michael Doukas had failed to negotiate a similar agreement with Philaretos[4][74] because of Philaretos's dislike of the corrupt Nikephoritzes the Logothete. While a diplomatic victory, it did not effectively change the situation of either party, as Philaretos remained effectively independent, and Nikephoros had little to gain from reasserting control over the land. The only real success to come from it is that he may have gained legitimacy due to achieving something which his predecessor was never able to; that Attaleiates deigns to mention it as one of Nikephoros's successes lends credence to it largely benefiting only Nikephoros's legitimacy.[4] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, pp. 467-469. "This was on the day after the candlelit procession of Epiphany." ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, Chapter 13, p. 491. "On the eve of the day of the Announciation". ^ Anna Komnene (1148). The Alexiad 2.10. "The day was Good Friday". ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt Maynard 2018. ^ Wortley 2010, p. 350. ^ Gregory 2010, pp. 257 & 423. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 7.13-7.16. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 11.6. ^ a b Bekker 1839, 23.10. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1479. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 16.8. ^ Kravari et al. 2001, 2.91.22-24. ^ Prosopography of the Byzantine World. ^ Lemerle et al. 1970, 228.1-229.35. ^ Kravari et al. 2001, 2.97-104. ^ Kravari et al. 2001, 2.107-110. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 14.6. ^ Curta 2006, p. 298. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 16.6. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 22.2. ^ Bedrosian 2017, 2.66. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 16.12. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 16.13. ^ Bekker 1839, 143.17-18. ^ Norwich 1993, pp. 360–361. ^ Sewter 1953, Michael VII 7.18. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 360. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 23.1. ^ Meineke 1836, 55.3. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 23.4. ^ Meineke 1836, 169.15-18. ^ a b Finlay 1844, p. 52. ^ Angold 1997, p. 117. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 27.4. ^ Sewter 1953, Michael VII 7.18-20. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 30.3-4. ^ Bedrosian 2017, 2.75. ^ Norwich 1993, p. 361. ^ Bedrosian 2013, p. 166. ^ Garland 2006, p. 2. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 34.1-8. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 35.4-9. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 35.1. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 35.2. ^ Norwich 1993, pp. 357–360. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 603–611. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.4. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.5. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.6. ^ Bekker 1839, 184.19-20. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.11. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 35.11-12. ^ Sewter 1969, 2.2. ^ Norwich 1996, p. 15. ^ Sewter 1969, 1.12. ^ Loud 2000, 4.5. ^ Sewter 1969, 2.3. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 60. ^ Sewter 1969, 2.9-11. ^ Sewter 1969, 2.12. ^ a b Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 33.2. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 33.4. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 33.6. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 33.11. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 33.7-8. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.18. ^ Bekker 1839, 184.22-25. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 1.2-3 & 36.10. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.12-13. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 36.14-15. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 22.4. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 610. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 50. ^ Attaleiates, Kaldellis (tr.) & Krallis (tr.) 2012, 35.10. Bibliography[edit] Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204. Edinburgh: Longman. ISBN 978-0582294684. Attaleiates, Michael (2012). The History. Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library. Translated by Kaldellis, Anthony; Krallis, Dimitris. Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674057999 – via Scribd. Bedrosian, Robert (2013). Chronicle of Michael the Great, Patriarch of the Syrians. Long Branch, N.J.: Sources of the Armenian Tradition. Bedrosian, Robert (2017). The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa. Long Branch, N.J.: Sources of the Armenian Tradition. Bekker, Immanuel (1839). Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. 9. Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0. Finlay, George (1844). History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453. 2. William Blackwood & Sons. OCLC 25020128. Garland, Lynda (2006). Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800-1200. Ashgate. ISBN 9780754657378. Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). A History of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405184717. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). "Nikephoros III Botaneiates". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Kravari, V.; Lefort, J.; Oikonomides, N.; Papachryssanthou, D. (2001). Actes d'Iviron [Acts of Iveron] (in French). Desclée de Brouwer. ISBN 978-2283604144. Lemerle, Paul; Guillou, André; Svoronos, Nicolas; Papachryssanthou, Denise (1970). Actes de Lavra [Acts of Lavra]. 5. Paris: P. Lethielleux. ASIN B00SKB6O06. Loud, G. A. (2000). The Deeds of Robert Guiscard. Leeds: University of Leeds. Maynard, Daniel R. F. (20 June 2018). "Nikephoros III Botaniates (A.D. 1078–1081)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 3 August 2019. Meineke, August (1836). Ioannes Cinnamus, Nicephorus Bryennius. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. 13. Bonn. Norwich, John Julius (1993). Byzantium: The Apogee. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-011448-3. Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-011449-1. "Property dispute between Lavra & Theodoros tou Aichmalotou was settled by Nikephoros Botaneiates". Prosopography of the Byzantine World. 2006. Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 3 August 2019. Sewter, E. R. A. (1953). The Chronographia of Michael Psellus. Routledge. ISBN 978-0140441697. Sewter, E. R. A. (1969). The Alexiad of Anna Comnena. Baltimore: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140442151. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Wortley, John, ed. (2010). John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76705-7. Nikephoros III Botaneiates non-dynastical Born: c. 1002 Died: c. 1081 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael VII Byzantine emperor 7 January 1078 – 1 April 1081 Succeeded by Alexios I Military offices Preceded by Nikephoritzes Doux of Antioch 1067–1068 Succeeded by Peter Libellisios v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates&oldid=1027957564" Categories: 11th-century Byzantine emperors Doukid dynasty Byzantine governors of Antioch Eastern Orthodox monks 1081 deaths Monarchs who abdicated Eastern Orthodox monarchs 1070s in the Byzantine Empire 1080s in the Byzantine Empire Burials at the Church of St. Mary Peribleptos (Constantinople) Governors of the Anatolic Theme 1002 births Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 00:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-76	----	Sirmium - Wikipedia Sirmium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman and Byzantine city Sirmium Ruins of Imperial Palace at Sirmium Shown within Serbia Location Modern-day Serbia (Sremska Mitrovica) Region Pannonia Coordinates 44°59′N 19°37′E / 44.983°N 19.617°E / 44.983; 19.617Coordinates: 44°59′N 19°37′E / 44.983°N 19.617°E / 44.983; 19.617 Type Settlement History Founded Before 4th century BC Abandoned 582 Cultures Illyrian, Celt, Roman, Byzantine Site notes Condition In ruins Public access Yes Cultural Heritage of Serbia Type Archaeological Site of Exceptional Importance Designated 1948 Reference no. АН 106 Sirmium was a city in the Roman province of Pannonia, located on the Sava river, on the site of modern Sremska Mitrovica in northern Serbia. First mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by Illyrians and Celts,[1] it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior. In 294 AD, Sirmium was proclaimed one of four capitals of the Roman Empire. It was also the capital of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and of Pannonia Secunda. The site is protected as an Archaeological Site of Exceptional Importance. The modern region of Syrmia (Srem or Srijem) was named after the city. Sirmium purportedly had 100,000[2] inhabitants and was one of the largest cities of its time. Colin McEvedy, whose estimates for ancient cities are much lower than the general consensus, however, put the population at only 7,000, based on the size of the archaeological site.[3] The amount of grain imported between 1 AD and 400 AD was enough to feed 700,000 to 1 million people.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Roman emperors 3 Christian bishopric 4 Archeological findings 5 Famous residents 5.1 List of emperors 5.2 List of prefects 5.3 List of bishops 5.4 List of saints 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links History[edit] Golden Roman helmet found near Sirmium; it has been exhibited in the Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad. Map of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, 318–79, with its capital in Sirmium. A scale model of Sirmium in the Visitors Center in Sremska Mitrovica. Remains of Sirmium stand on the site of the modern-day Sremska Mitrovica, 55 km (34 mi) west of Belgrade (Roman Singidunum) and 145 km (90 mi) away from Kostolac (Roman Viminacium). Archaeologists have found traces of organized human life on the site of Sirmium dating from 5,000 BC.[5] The city was first mentioned in the 4th century BC and was originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts[6] (by the Pannonian-Illyrian Amantini[7] and the Celtic Scordisci[8]). The Triballi king Syrmus was later considered the eponymous founder of Sirmium, but the roots are different, and the two words only became conflated later.[9] The name Sirmium by itself means "flow, flowing water, wetland", referring to its close river position on the nearby Sava. With the Celtic tribe of Scordisci as allies, the Roman proconsul Marcus Vinicius took Sirmium in around 14 BC.[10][11] In the 1st century AD, Sirmium gained the status of a Roman colony, and became an important military and strategic center of the Pannonia province. The Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II prepared war expeditions in Sirmium. In 103, Pannonia was split into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior; Sirmium became the capital city of the latter. In 296, Diocletian reorganized Pannonia into four provinces: Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda, with Sirmium becoming the capital of Pannonia Secunda. He joined them with Noricum and Dalmatia to establish the Diocese of Pannonia, with Sirmium as its capital also. In 293, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium emerged as one of the four capital cities (along with Trier, Mediolanum, and Nicomedia), and was the capital of emperor Galerius. With the establishment of Praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium, remaining so until 379, when the westernmost Diocese of Illyricum, Pannonia (including Sirmium), was detached and joined to the prefecture of Italia assuming the name of Diocese of Illyricum. The eastern part of Illyricum remained a separate prefecture under the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire with its new capital in Thessalonica. The city also had an imperial palace, a horse-racing arena, a mint, an arena theatre, and a theatre, as well as many workshops, public baths, temples, public palaces and luxury villas. Ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus called it "the glorious mother of cities". The mint in Sirmium was connected with the mint in Salona and silver mines in the Dinaric Alps through the Via Argentaria. At the end of the 4th century Sirmium came under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the East Roman Empire. In 441 the Huns conquered Sirmium; for more than a century it was held by various other tribes, such as the Ostrogoths and Gepids. In 504, Ostrogothic Count Pitzas under Theoderic the Great took Sirmium. For a short time, Sirmium was the centre of the Kingdom of the Gepids and king Cunimund (r. c. 560 – 567) minted gold coins there. After 567, Sirmium was returned to the East Roman Empire. The Pannonian Avars conquered and destroyed the city in 582. Roman emperors[edit] Three golden helmets found near Sirmium, "guarded" by 80 Roman legionnaires, Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad Ten Roman emperors were born in this city or in its surroundings: Herennius Etruscus (251), Hostilian (251), Decius (249–51), Claudius II (268-270), Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270–75), Probus (276–82), Maximian (285–310), Constantius II (337–61), and Gratian (367–83). The last emperor of the united Roman Empire, Theodosius I (378–95), became emperor in Sirmium. The usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus also declared themselves emperors in this city (in 260) and many other Roman emperors spent some time in Sirmium, including Marcus Aurelius, who might have written parts of his famous work Meditations in the city. Sirmium was, most likely, the site of the death of Marcus Aurelius, of smallpox, in March of 180 CE.[12] Christian bishopric[edit] The city had a Christian community by the third century. By the end of the century, it had a bishop, who was probably the metropolitan of all the Pannonian bishops. The first known bishop was Irenaeus, who was martyred during the Diocletianic Persecution in 304. For the next century, the sequence of bishops is known, but in the fifth and sixth centuries the see falls into obscurity. An unnamed bishop is mentioned in 448. The last known bishop is mentioned in a papal letter of 594, after which the city itself is rarely mentioned and the see probably went into abeyance.[13] From the time of the first synod of Tyre in 335, Sirmium became a stronghold of the Arian movement and site of much controversy. Between 347 and 358 there were four synods held in Sirmium. A fifth took plate in 375 or 378. All dealt with the Arian controversy.[13] Archeological findings[edit] Julian solidus, ca. 361, from Sirmium mint At Glac near Sirmium a palace is being excavated,[14] indicated by the luxurious construction materials coming from all over the Mediterranean, such as red and green porphyry from Egypt and the Peloponnese, and marble from Tunisia, Greece and Italy. Some say it is that of Emperor Maximian and according to Aurelius Victor built on the place where his parents worked as labourers on the estate.[15] During the construction of the hospital in 1971, more than eighty altars were found in a monumental sanctuary to Jupiter, which is the second largest in Europe.[citation needed] Sirmium had two bridges with which bridged the river Sava, Ad Basanti and Artemida's bridges according to historical sources.[citation needed] After 313 Sirmium became an important Christian centre. So far revealed are eight early Christian churches dedicated to St. Irenaeus, St. Demetrius and Sv. Sinenot.[citation needed] During work on the new Sremska Mitrovica trade centre in 1972, a worker accidentally broke into an old Roman pot, about 2m deep, over the site of an old Sirmium settlement. 33 gold Roman coins enclosed in a leather pouch were found inside a Roman house wall, probably the hidden savings of a wealthy Roman family stashed centuries ago. Of this extraordinary rare find of Sirmium minted coins were 4 Constantius II era coins, considered the most valuable examples from the late Roman Empire of the fourth century AD. Ironically, the worker's name was Zlatenko (meaning Golden, or Golden Man in Serbian, Aurelius in Latin). Sirmium also had a Roman Hippodrome.[16][17][18] A colossal building about 150m wide and 450m long lies directly under the Sremska Mitrovica town center and just beside the old Sirmium Emperor's Palace (one of just a few Sirmium publicly accessible archeological sites). The presence of the arena has clearly affected the layout of the present town (Sremska Mitrovica is today about 2–4m above ground line of former Sirmium settlement). Recently announced cultural and archeological projects for preserving and popularising Sirmium sites haven't included any activity dealing with the arena, probably due to the extent of the large arena — the entire present town center might have to be excavated. Famous residents[edit] Traianus Decius, first romanized Illyrian that became Roman Emperor (249–51), born in village Budalia near Sirmium List of emperors[edit] Marcus Aurelius (161–180), used Sirmium as a residence in between Pannonian military campaigns (170–180) Maximinus (235–238), ruled from residence in Sirmium Herennius Etruscus (251), born in Sirmium Hostilian (251), born in Sirmium Ingenuus (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium Regalianus (260), proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium Claudius II (268–270), born in Sirmium and spent most of his life there Quintillus (270), born in Sirmium Aurelian (270–275), born in Sirmium and also proclaimed emperor there Probus (276–282), born in Sirmium Maximianus Herculius (285–310), born near Sirmium Galerius (305–311), ruled as caesar from Sirmium (293–296) Crispus, proclaimed caesar in Sirmium in 317 Constantine II, proclaimed caesar in Sirmium in 317 Vetranio, proclaimed himself emperor in Sirmium in 350 Constantius II (337–361), born in Sirmium Gratian (367–383), born in Sirmium Theodosius I the Great (378–395), became emperor in Sirmium List of prefects[edit] Valerius Licinius, prefect of the Diocese of Pannonia with residence in Sirmium (308–314) Apricanus, prefect of Pannonia Secunda with residence in Sirmium (355) Mesala, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province (373) Petronius Probus, prefect in Sirmium (374) Aurelius Victor, prefect of the Pannonia Secunda province (369), and author of a History of Rome until the reign of Julian Leontius, prefect in Sirmium (426) List of bishops[edit] Irenaeus (died 304) Domnus (deposed c. 335), attended the First Council of Nicaea Eutherius (fl. 347) Photinus (c. 345–351), Arian bishop Germinius (351–c. 376) Anemius (c. 376–c. 392) Cornelius (c. 392 – after 404) Laurentius (in 401–17) Sebastianus (fl. 594) List of saints[edit] Anastasia of Sirmium Fausta of Sirmium References[edit] ^ "Mesto Sremska Mitrovica, upoznaj Srbiju". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ "SREMSKA MITROVICA IN ROMAN TIMES". Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ McEvedy, Cities of the Classical World, (London: Allen Lane, 2011), p. 346. ^ Ancient Rome, the Archaeology of the Eternal City, Edited by Jon Coulston and Hazel dodge, 2008, pp. 154-165, ISBN 978-0-954816-55-1 ^ "SREMSKA MITROVICA IN ROMAN TIMES". Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ "Mesto Sremska Mitrovica, upoznaj Srbiju". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ "SRCE.hr". Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ "VML.de". Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ Papazoglu 1978, p. 74. ^ Ronald Syme, Anthony Birley, The provincial at Rome: and, Rome and the Balkans 80BC-AD14, p. 204 Google Books ^ Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge ancient history, 10, p. 551 ^ McLynn, Frank, Marcus Aurelius, Da Capo Press (2009), p. 417 ^ a b Jacques Zeiller, Les origines chrétiennes dans les provinces danubiennes de l'Empire romain (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1918), pp. 143–48, 598. ^ https://glac-project.sydney.edu.au/archaeological-site-glac/ ^ Aurelius Victor, Historia Romana, De Caesaribus ^ Sirmium. Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ Roman Circuses. Retrieved 1 October 2014. ^ Bradt Travel Guide Serbia. Retrieved 1 October 2014. Sources[edit] Curta, Florin (2001). "Limes and Cross: the Religious Dimension of the Sixth-century Danube Frontier of the Early Byzantine Empire". Старинар. 51: 45–70. Curta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daim, Falko (2019). "The Longobards in Pannonia". Prima e dopo Alboino: sulle tracce dei Longobardi. Napoli: Guida. pp. 221–241. Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus. Merchantville, New Jersey: Evolution Publishing. Gračanin, Hrvoje (2006). "The Huns and South Pannonia". Byzantinoslavica. 64: 29–76. Janković, Đorđe (2004). "The Slavs in the 6th Century North Illyricum". Гласник Српског археолошког друштва. 20: 39–61. Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Sirmium". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. 3. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1906. Kuzmanović, Zorica; Mihajlović, Vladimir D. (2015). "Roman Emperors and Identity Constructions in Modern Serbia". Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power. 22 (4): 416–432. Милошевић, Петар (2001). Археологија и историја Сирмијума. Нови Сад: Матица српска. Mirković, Miroslava B. (2017). Sirmium: Its History from the First Century AD to 582 AD. Novi Sad: Center for Historical Research. Mócsy, András (2014) [1974]. Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge. Papazoglu, Fanula (1978). The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Popović, Radomir V. (1996). Le Christianisme sur le sol de l'Illyricum oriental jusqu'à l'arrivée des Slaves. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies. Várady, László (1969). Das Letzte Jahrhundert Pannoniens (376–476). Amsterdam: Verlag Adolf M. Hakkert. Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan warfare. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wozniak, Frank E. (1981). "East Rome, Ravenna and Western Illyricum: 454-536 A.D." Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 30 (3): 351–382. Zeiller, Jacques (1918). Les origines chrétiennes dans les provinces danubiennes de l'Empire romain. Paris: E. De Boccard. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sirmium. IMPERIAL PALACE Sirmium Imperial Palace on YouTube Ancient Sirmium on YouTube The Land of the Golden helmets (In Serbian) Documentary film Roman Sirmium and Panonia (In Serbian) Documentary film Southern Pannonia during the age of the Great Migrations v t e Illyrians Tribes Albani Amantes Amantini Ardiaei Docleatai Labeatae Atintanians Autariatae Balaites Baridustae Bassanitae Breuci Bylliones Daesitiates Daorsi Dardani Galabri Thuantai Dassareti Delmatae Tariotes Enchelei Eneti Grabaei Histri Iapydes Iapygians Dauni Messapi Peuceti Mazaei Narensi Osseriates Parthini Penestae Pirustae Sardiatae Taulantii Abri People Agron Anastasius I Artas Astius Audata Aurelian Ballaios Bardylis Bardyllis II Bato Breucian Bato Dardani Bato Daesitiate Bircenna Caeria Caravantius Celer Cleitus Dardani Constantius Chlorus Constantine the Great Constantius II Cynane Demetrius of Pharos Epulon Etuta Galaurus Gentius Glaucias Grabus Gratianus Funarius Irenaeus Jerome Jovian Justin I Justinian I Longarus Marcellinus Comes Monunius I Monunius II Mytilos Peter the Patrician Pinnes Plator Pleuratus I Pleuratus II Pleuratus III Pleurias Scerdilaidas Sirras Teuta Triteuta Valens Valentinian I Valentinian II Political entities Kingdoms Ardiaean-Labeatan Autariatan Dardanian Dassaretan Enchelean Histrian Taulantian Geography Acruvium (Kotor) Ad Acroceraunia Ad Quintum Albanopolis Amantia Andetrium Antipatreia Apollonia Arduba Arnissa Aspalathos (Split) Bargulum Bassania Berat Bouthoe Brundisium Byllis Chinna Chrysondyon Creonion Damastion Daorson Dardana Fortress Delminium Desilo Dimale Doclea Doracium Dyrrhachium/Epidamnus (Durrës) Epicaria Scampa (Elbasan) Eugenium Gertus Hedum Kastelum Iader or Idassa (Zadar) Hija e Korbit Kinna Nikaia (Klos) Kratul Lissus (Lezhë) Lofkënd Lychnidus Matohasanaj Meteon Mursa (Osijek) Nareste Nikadin Oneum Oria Palaeste Parthus Pelion Persqopi Petra Pola (Pula) Poslishte Pituntium Pogradec Promona Rabije Ragusa Rhizon Romajë Runik Salona Salvia Selcë e Poshtme Sesarethus Setovia Scodra (Shkodër) Tilurium Tragurion (Trogir) Tsangon Ugento Ulkinium Ulpiana Uscana Zgërdhesh (? Albanopolis) Culture Glasinac-Mati culture Clothing Coinage Daunian stele Fibulae Gradistë belt-plate Monte Saraceno woman Pileus Pottery Daunian pottery Desilo pottery Messapian pottery Devollite pottery Soleto Map Spectacle brooch Tombs Boka-Përçeva Selca e Poshtme Trebeništa masks Vače belt-plate Vače situla Religion and mythology Religion Andinus Deipaturos Zojz En Medaurus Perëndi Prende Tomor Nymphaion Swastika Warfare and weaponry Illyrian Wars Invasions of Epidamnus Dardanian invasion of Epirus Dardanian-Bastarnae War Roman–Dalmatae Wars Alexander's Balkan campaign Siege of Pelium Battles Erigon Valley Lyncestis Paxos Pharos Phoenice Batonian War Caesar's Civil War Desilo shipyard Helmet Liburna Sibyna Sica Sieges Issa Medion Oricum Language Illyrian Proposed vocabulary Messapic Roman period Dioceses Dacia Illyricum Macedonia Emperors Prefectures Illyricum Provinces Dardania Delmatia Epirus Nova Illyricum Macedonia Moesia Superior Pannonia Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Pannonia Prima Pannonia Secunda Pannonia Savia Sirmium Other Origin of the Albanians Albanian mythology History of the Balkans Prehistory of Southeastern Europe Lists People Tribes Tribes in Illyria Settlements Timeline Category v t e Major towns of Roman Serbia Sirmium (capital of Illyricum) - now Sremska Mitrovica Viminacium (capital of Moesia Superior) - now Kostolac Naissus (capital of Dardania) - now Niš Singidunum - now Belgrade Zanes - now Kladovo Hammeum - now Prokuplje Aeadaba - now Bela Palanka See also: List of Roman place names in Serbia v t e Immovable Cultural Heritage of Exceptional Importance Archaeological Sites Vinča Mediana Justiniana Prima Mramorje Velika humka Rudna Glava Gamzigrad Trajan's Bridge Lepenski Vir Karataš Kraku Lu Jordan Starčevo Bassianae Sirmium Židovar Gomolava Čibska šuma Kalvarija Ulpiana Viminacium Cultural Monuments St. Achillius Dositej's Lyceum Princess Ljubica's Residence Belgrade Fortress Captain Miša's Mansion Belgrade Cathedral Museum of 4 July Secret Partisan Print Shop Residence of Prince Miloš Topčider Church Topčider Parish House Topčider Obelisk Pokajnica Golubac Fortress Takovo complex Manasija Tabula Traiana Kragujevac District Courthouse House of Svetozar Marković Sobrašice of Lužnice Žiča Studenica Maglič Lazarica with Kruševac Fortress St. Nicholas Monastery Holy Mother of God, Kuršumlija Lazarevac Memorial Church Mačkov Kamen complex Despot Stefan Memorial Hajduk Veljko's Powder Magazine Early Byzantine Tomb Skull Tower Niš concentration camp Đurđevi Stupovi Petrova Church Sopoćani Stari Ras Hristić family House Banja Monastery Mileševa Partisan Hospital, Prijepolje St. Peter and Paul's in Gornja Dobrinja Gradac Monastery Kalenić Smederevo Fortress Museum of 1941 Uprising Partisan printing house "Borba" Headquarters of the Main People's Liberation Comity of Serbia Plant nursery, Užice Partisan Hospital, Krčagovo Kadinjača Stari Han Oplenac Ljubostinja Ravanica House of Dimitrije Tucović Atenica Wine cellar Prnjavor Memorial Chapel Wooden Church, Dub St. Peter and Paul's in Sirogojno Monument to the Unknown Hero Prohor Pčinjski Bođani Monastery Bač Franciscan Church Dunđerski Palace Neštin House Bački Petrovac House Beočin Monastery Rakovac Monastery Šlajz Bishop's palace, Vršac Mesić Monastery Vojinović Bridge Medieval palace of Vučitrn Monastery of St Barbara Danilović House Hadum mosque Orthodox Church in Čurug St. Nicholas', Stari Slankamen Velika Remeta Vrdnik-Ravanica Grgeteg Monastery Jazak Monastery Mala Remeta Candlemas Church, Krušedol Selo Krušedol Monastery Novo Hopovo Staro Hopovo Gorioč Our Lady of Hvosno St. John's, Crkolez St. Nicholas', Đurakovac St. Nicholas', Kikinda Suvača Orthodox Church in Mokrin Churches in White Drin valley Dobra Voda Dolac Church Drsnik Church Mlečane Church Čabić Church Kijevo Church Pograđe Lower Church Pograđe Upper Church Romanian Church in Uzdin Holy Thetokos', Vaganeš Ubožac (Rđavac) Presentation of Mary, Lipljan Arača Almaška Church Church of The Assumption, Novi Sad Novo Brdo St. Nicholas', Velika Hoča St. John's, Velika Hoča Vojlovica Transfiguration Church, Pančevo Transfiguration Church, Budisavci Bajrakli Mosque St. Jeremiah's, Goraždevac Warehouses of Karlovčić Ogar House St. Luke's, Kupinovo St. Nicholas', Sibač Kaljaja St. Peter of Koriša Holy Salvation, Prizren St. Nicholas', Prizren Churches of Sredačka Župa Holy Virgin, Sredska St. George's, Sredska St. Nicholas', Mušnikovo St. Paraskevi, Mušnikovo Bogoševce Church Gornje Selo Church Drajčići Church Sinan Pasha Mosque Hammam of Prizren Imperial Mosque St. John's, Sombor Devič Divša Kuveždin Petkovica Monastery Warehouses of Golubinci Šišatovac Old St. Stephen's, Sremska Mitrovica Patriarchate of Karlovci Saint Nicholas', Sremski Karlovci Subotica Synagogue Subotica City Hall Virgin Hodegetria, Mušutište St. George's, Rečane Catholic Church of Čoka Orthodox Church of Vilovo Zvečan Fortress Sokolica Monuments of Nerodimlje Nerodimlje Medieval Town Petrič Fortress St. Uroš Holy Archangels, Gornje Nerodimlje Churches of Sirinićka Župa St George's, Gornja Bitinja St. Theodor Tyron's, Donja Bitinja St. Nicholas', Gotovuša St. Nicholas', Štrpce Privina Glava Orthodox Church of Molovin Holy Archangels Gračanica Visoki Dečani Our Lady of Ljeviš Patriarchate of Peć Banjska Monastery Terzijski Bridge Miloš Obrenović's House Historic Landmarks Bela Crkva Bubanj Šumarice Stolice Marićevića jaruga Radovanjski Lug Cer Memorial Ossuary Vuk Karadžić's birth house Kraljevo Memorial Park Čegar Ljubić Boško Buha Memorial Complex Chapel of Peace Site of the Battle of Slankamen Vezirac Hill Memorial Idvor Memorial Complex Site of the Battle of Senta Syrmian Front Memorial Complex Takovski grm Spatial Cultural-Historical Units Knez Mihailova Street Tešnjar Novi Pazar Fortress with the Old Bazaar and Altun-Alem Mosque Gornja Dobrinja Complex Negotin Wine Cellars Rajac Wine Cellar Rogljevo Wine Cellar Štubik Wine Cellar "Staro selo" Etno Complex Topčider Stari Ras area Gazimestan Sremski Karlovci Bač Fortress Dositej's Lyceum area Fruška Gora Military Technical Institute Complex Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sirmium&oldid=1015421529" Categories: Sirmium Illyrian Serbia Populated places in Pannonia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-7704	----	Christopher Lekapenos - Wikipedia Christopher Lekapenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 921 to 931 Emperor of the Romans Christopher Lekapenos Emperor of the Romans Gold solidus of Romanos I (left) with Christopher Byzantine emperor Reign 20 May 921 – August 931 Co-emperors Constantine VII (920–944) Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944) Stephen Lekapenos (924–944) Constantine Lekapenos (924–944) Died August 931 Spouse Sophia Issue Irene Lekapene Dynasty Lekapenos Father Romanos I Lekapenos Mother Theodora Christopher Lekapenos or Lecapenus (Greek: Χριστόφορος Λακαπηνός, romanized: Christóphoros Lakapenōs) was the eldest son of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944) and co-emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire from 921 until his death in 931. Christopher was given the position of megas hetaireiarches (commander of the palace guard) in spring 919, after Romanos assumed the position of basileopator. Romanos, in order to give his family precedence over the more Macedonian line, raised Christopher to co-emperor on 21 May 921. In 928 Christopher's father-in-law, Niketas, unsuccessfully attempted to incite Christopher to usurp his father, resulting in Niketas being banished. Christopher died in August 931, succeeded by his father and two brothers, Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos, and Constantine VII. In December 944 his brothers overthrew and exiled his father, but they themselves were exiled after attempting to oust Constantine VII. Contents 1 Life 2 Family 3 References 4 Sources Life[edit] Christopher was the oldest son of Romanos Lekapenos, and the second-oldest child after his sister Helena. Younger siblings were Agatha, who married Romanos Argyros, Stephen and Constantine (co-emperors from 924 until 945), Theophylact (Patriarch of Constantinople in 933–956), and two unnamed younger sisters.[1][2] Nothing is known of Christopher's early life. He was certainly an adult by 919–920, and had a daughter of marriageable age in 927,[3] hence he was probably born around 890–895. Already before his father's rise to power, he had been married to Sophia, the daughter of the wealthy patrikios Niketas, a Slav from the Peloponnese.[4] When Romanos succeeded in having his daughter Helena Lekapene married to the young emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos in spring 919 and assumed the role of guardian of the emperor with the title basileopator, Christopher succeeded him in his post as megas hetaireiarches, commander of the palace guard.[5][6] Romanos soon crowned himself emperor (December 920), and eventually advanced himself before the young Constantine in precedence. To further cement his position, and planning to advance his own family over the legitimate Macedonian line, Romanos crowned Christopher also as co-emperor on 20 May 921.[3][6][7] Furthermore, when Christopher's mother, the Augusta Theodora, died in February 922, his wife Sophia was raised to the dignity of Augusta alongside Helena Lekapene.[8] In 927, as part of a peace agreement, Christopher's daughter Maria, renamed Irene ("peace") for the occasion, was married to the Bulgarian emperor Peter I (r. 927–969).[9] Romanos used the occasion to advance Christopher before Constantine Porphyrogennetos, making him first among the rather large group of co-emperors (in 924, Christopher's younger brothers Stephen and Constantine had also been crowned as co-emperors).[3][6][10] In 928, his father-in-law, the patrikios Niketas, unsuccessfully tried to incite Christopher to depose his father, and was banished. The motive behind this was perhaps Christopher's poor health, and fears by his wife and her father that, should he die prematurely, they would lose their status.[6][11] In the event, Christopher died in August 931, much mourned by his father, who shed tears "like the Egyptians" and thereafter increasingly became devoted to religious pursuits. Soon after Christopher's death, Sophia too retired from the court and entered a monastery, where she died.[12][13] After his death, he was succeeded by his father and his two brothers, Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos, and Constantine VII. In December 944 Stephen and Constantine deposed their father, forcing him to live in a monastery on Prince's Islands, but when they attempted to likewise depose Constantine VII, the people of Constantinople revolted and overthrew them, resulting in them being likewise exiled. Romanos died in June 948, Stephen on Easter 963, and Constantine sometime between 946 and 948, while trying to escape.[14] Family[edit] Through his marriage to Sophia, Christopher had three children:[1][12] Maria-Eirene (died ca. 965), the Empress-consort of Peter I of Bulgaria.[9][15] Romanos, still a child at the time of Christopher's death. According to Zonaras he was favoured by his grandfather, who thought about promoting him to his father's place as senior co-emperor, but for his death soon after.[12] Michael, an infant at the time of Christopher's death, he was made a cleric at the time of the family's fall from power in 945. He eventually reached the high dignities of magistros and rhaiktor, but nothing further is known of his later life.[16] References[edit] ^ a b Kazhdan (1991), p. 1204 ^ Cawley, Cawley, Charles, ROMANOS LEKAPENOS, Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy ^ a b c Grierson & Bellinger (1973), p. 528 ^ Runciman (1929), p. 64 ^ Runciman (1929), p. 60 ^ a b c d Kazhdan (1991), p. 442 ^ Runciman (1929), pp. 65–66 ^ Runciman (1929), p. 67 ^ a b Charles William Previté-Orton (1975) Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century. Volume 1 of The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, ISBN 0-521-09976-5 p. 256 ^ Runciman (1929), pp. 67, 97 ^ Runciman (1929), pp. 71–72 ^ a b c Runciman (1929), p. 78 ^ Grierson & Bellinger (1973), p. 526 ^ Jonathan Shepard (ed.). Cambridge History Byzantine Empire. p. 39. Archived from the original on March 22, 2012. Retrieved August 2, 2011. ^ Runciman (1929), pp. 78, 237 ^ Runciman (1929), pp. 78, 234 Sources[edit] Grierson, Philip; Bellinger, Alfred Raymond, eds. (1973), Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, vol. 3: Leo III to Nicephorus III, 717–1081, Dumbarton Oaks, ISBN 978-0-88402-045-5 Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929], The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35722-7 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Lekapenos&oldid=1027091138" Categories: Macedonian dynasty 931 deaths Armenian Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine emperors Lekapenos family Byzantine junior emperors Burials at Myrelaion Monastery (Constantinople) Constantine VII Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating an MLCC template Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7712	----	Han dynasty - Wikipedia Han dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Eastern Han) This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 10 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd-century BC to 3rd-century AD Chinese dynasty "Eastern Han" and "House of Liu" redirect here. For the Five Dynasties-era kingdom, see Northern Han. For other uses, see House of Liu (disambiguation). Coordinates: 34°09′21″N 108°56′47″E / 34.15583°N 108.94639°E / 34.15583; 108.94639 Han 漢 202 BC–9 AD 25 AD – 220 AD A map of the Western Han dynasty in 2 AD[1]   principalities and centrally-administered commanderies   protectorate of the Western Regions (Tarim Basin) Capital Chang'an (206 BC–9 AD, 190–195 AD) Luoyang (23–190 AD, 196 AD) Xuchang (196–220 AD) Common languages Old Chinese Religion Taoism Chinese folk religion Government Monarchy Emperor   • 202–195 BC (first) Emperor Gaozu • 141–87 BC Emperor Wu • 25–57 AD Emperor Guangwu • 189–220 AD (last) Emperor Xian Chancellor   • 206–193 BC Xiao He • 193–190 BC Cao Can • 189–192 AD Dong Zhuo • 208–220 AD Cao Cao • 220 AD Cao Pi Historical era Imperial • Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as King of Han 206 BC • Battle of Gaixia; Han rule of China began 202 BC • Xin dynasty 9 AD–23 AD • Abdication to Cao Wei 220 AD Area 50 BC est. (Western Han peak)[2] 6,000,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi) 100 AD est. (Eastern Han peak)[2] 6,500,000 km2 (2,500,000 sq mi) Population • 2 AD[3] 57,671,400 Currency Ban Liang coins and Wu Zhu coins Preceded by Succeeded by Qin dynasty Eighteen Kingdoms Cao Wei Shu Han Eastern Wu Han dynasty "Han" in ancient seal script (top left), Han-era clerical script (top right), modern Traditional (bottom left), and Simplified (bottom right) Chinese characters Traditional Chinese 漢 Simplified Chinese 汉 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hàn Bopomofo ㄏㄢˋ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hann Wade–Giles Han4 Tongyong Pinyin Hàn Yale Romanization Hàn IPA [xân] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Hon Jyutping Hon3 IPA [hɔ̄ːn] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Hàn Tâi-lô Hàn Middle Chinese Middle Chinese xàn Old Chinese Baxter (1992) *xans Baxter–Sagart (2014) *n̥ˤar-s History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC  Western Zhou  Eastern Zhou    Spring and Autumn    Warring States IMPERIAL Qin 221–207 BC Han 202 BC – 220 AD   Western Han   Xin   Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280   Wei, Shu and Wu Jin 266–420   Western Jin   Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Northern and Southern dynasties 420–589 Sui 581–618 Tang 618–907   (Wu Zhou 690–705) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907–979 Liao 916–1125 Song 960–1279   Northern Song Western Xia   Southern Song Jin Western Liao Yuan 1271–1368 Ming 1368–1644 Qing 1636–1912 MODERN Republic of China on the mainland 1912–1949 People's Republic of China 1949–present Republic of China in Taiwan 1949–present Related articles Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history Women in ancient and imperial China view talk edit The Han dynasty (Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàncháo) was the second imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 220 AD), established by the rebel leader Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. Preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han contention (206–202 BC), it was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang, and was separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD)—before being succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, and influenced the identity of the Chinese civilization ever since.[4] Modern China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han people", the Sinitic language is known as "Han language", and the written Chinese is referred to as "Han characters".[5] The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer employing an inverted pendulum that could be used to discern the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation,[6] defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior and vassal partner for several decades, but continued their military raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty and control into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, king of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Western Han 2.2 Wang Mang's reign and civil war 2.3 Eastern Han 2.4 End of the Han dynasty 3 Culture and society 3.1 Social class 3.2 Marriage, gender, and kinship 3.3 Education, literature, and philosophy 3.4 Law and order 3.5 Food 3.6 Clothing 3.7 Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics 4 Government and politics 4.1 Central government 4.2 Local government 4.3 Kingdoms and marquessates 4.4 Military 5 Economy 5.1 Currency 5.2 Taxation and property 5.3 Private manufacture and government monopolies 6 Science and technology 6.1 Writing materials 6.2 Metallurgy and agriculture 6.3 Structural and geotechnical engineering 6.4 Mechanical and hydraulic engineering 6.5 Mathematics 6.6 Astronomy 6.7 Cartography, ships, and vehicles 6.8 Medicine 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology[edit] According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi). Following Liu Bang's victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief.[7] History[edit] Main article: History of the Han dynasty Further information: Timeline of the Han dynasty Western Han[edit] See also: Han–Xiongnu War and Southward expansion Further information: Loulan Kingdom, Shule Kingdom, Kingdom of Khotan, Saka, and Tocharians Left image: Western-Han painted ceramic jar garnished with raised reliefs of dragons, phoenixes, and taotie Right image: Reverse side of a Western-Han bronze mirror with painted designs of a flower motif China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion.[8] Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang.[9] Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC).[10] Chang'an (known today as Xi'an) was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han.[11] Thirteen direct-controlled commanderies including the capital region (Yellow) and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms of the early periods, 195 BC At the beginning of the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn), also known as the Former Han (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) dynasty, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms.[12] To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196 BC, the Han court had replaced all but one of these kings (the exception being in Changsha) with royal Liu family members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne was questioned.[12] After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories into new centrally controlled commanderies.[13] Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court.[14][15] Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes.[14][15] The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.[16] To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu (r. 209–174 BC) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand.[17][18][19] Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group.[20] In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi province, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC.[20][21] After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.[22][23][24] Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods.[25][26][27] In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids.[28][29] However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han.[30][31] When this plot failed in 133 BC,[32] Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert.[33][34] After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. His rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC), was killed by Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou (甘延壽/甘延寿) at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.[35][36] Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei.[37][38][39] The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.[40] On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labor.[41] The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.[42] The ruins of a Han-dynasty watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province, the eastern edge of the Silk Road. Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.[43][44][45][46][47] These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing Han items like silk to Rome and Roman goods such as glasswares to China.[48][49] From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs.[50][51][52][53] The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and colonial establishments of Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery in 108 BC.[54][55] In China's first known nationwide census taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.[3] To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin currency. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty.[56][57][58][59][60][61] The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.[62][63][64] Wang Mang's reign and civil war[edit] Main articles: Wang Mang and Xin dynasty These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城; pinyin: Hécāng chéng), located ~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC–9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD).[65] Left image: A Western-Han painted ceramic mounted cavalryman from the tomb of a military general at Xianyang, Shaanxi Right image: A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse statuette with a lead saddle Wang Zhengjun (71 BC–13 AD) was first empress, then empress dowager, and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan (r. 49–33 BC), Cheng (r. 33–7 BC), and Ai (r. 7–1 BC), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent.[66][67] Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC–23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC – 6 AD).[68] When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.[68] Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age.[68] Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD).[69][70][71] Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing land to equally distribute between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage.[72][73][74][75] Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt buildup in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD.[76][77][78] The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive.[76][77][78] Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang.[79][80] The Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25 AD), a descendant of Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi.[81][82] Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), after distinguishing himself at the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.[83][84] Under Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 AD his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason.[84][85] From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.[86][87] The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn) or Former Han (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) (206 BC–9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).[88] Eastern Han[edit] Situation of warlords and peasant forces at the beginning of Eastern Han dynasty The Eastern Han (traditional Chinese: 東漢; simplified Chinese: 东汉; pinyin: Dōnghàn), also known as the Later Han (traditional Chinese: 後漢; simplified Chinese: 后汉; pinyin: Hòuhàn), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han.[89] During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30.[90] The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43.[91][92] Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.[93][94] During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu.[95] Dou Gu (d. 88 AD) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.[96] After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.[96][97] At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains.[96][98] After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.[99] The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. AD 180), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.[100] Ban Chao (d. AD 102) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire, occupying the area of modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana.[101][102] When a request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90 – c. 100 AD) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies.[101][102] In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.[103] Eastern Han inscriptions on a lead ingot, using barbarous Greek alphabet in the style of the Kushans, excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd century AD[104] Preserved arrow, Western Han Foreign travelers to Eastern-Han China include Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, India.[105][106] In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han Empire received gifts from the Parthian Empire, from a king in modern Burma, from a ruler in Japan, and initiated an unsuccessful mission to Daqin (Rome) in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary.[107][108] A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) is recorded in the Weilüe and Hou Hanshu to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD) in AD 166,[109][110] yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants.[111][112] In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China,[113][114] Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam.[114][115] This was near the commandery of Rinan (also Jiaozhi) where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu (in northern India) in the years 159 and 161.[116][110] Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "Cattigara" described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 AD) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), where a Greek sailor had visited.[117][118][119][120] Emperor Zhang's (r. 75–88 AD) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.[121] Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.[122][123] In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong (d. 107 AD), Emperor He (r. 88–105 AD) had Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 AD) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him.[124][125] After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD.[126][127] When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 AD) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide.[128][129] After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng (d. 132 AD) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144 AD). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.[130][131] The regent Liang Ji (d. 159 AD), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 AD), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (later empress) (d. 165 AD) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.[132][133] Students from the Imperial University organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.[134] Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis.[135][136] Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 AD) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.[137] However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.[137] Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168 AD) attempted a coup d'état against the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 AD), Cao Jie (d. 181 AD), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (d. 172 AD) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.[138] Under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices.[139][140] Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.[141] End of the Han dynasty[edit] Main article: End of the Han dynasty The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions.[139] The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Daoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD), respectively. Provinces and commanderies in 219 AD, the penultimate year of the Han dynasty Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD.[142] Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year, however the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.[143] Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militia forces and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.[144] General-in-Chief He Jin (d. 189 AD), half-brother to Empress He (d. 189 AD), plotted with Yuan Shao (d. 202 AD) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution.[145] After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao (何苗) rescind the order.[146][147] The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on September 22, 189 AD. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu (d. 199 AD) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed.[148][149] Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao (r. 189–  AD) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han (r. 189–220 AD). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.[150] General Dong Zhuo (d. 192 AD) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee.[151] After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.[152] Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu (d. 198 AD) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun (d. 192 AD).[153] Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD.[154][155] Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.[156][157] His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (d. 221 AD), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.[156][157] After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating the west.[158][159] Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between three states: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han.[160][161] Culture and society[edit] Main article: Society and culture of the Han dynasty A late Eastern Han (25–220 CE) Chinese tomb mural showing lively scenes of a banquet (yanyin 宴飲), dance and music (wuyue 舞樂), acrobatics (baixi 百戲), and wrestling (xiangbu 相撲), from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓; Dáhǔtíng hànmù), on the southern bank of the Siuhe River in Zhengzhou, Henan province (just west of Xi County) Social class[edit] See also: Chinese nobility, Marquis Baocheng, and Four occupations A mural from an Eastern Han tomb at Zhucun (朱村), Luoyang, Henan province; the two figures in the foreground are playing liubo, with the playing mat between them, and the liubo game board to the side of the mat. In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives.[162] Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan.[15][163] The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves belonged to one of twenty ranks (ershi gongcheng 二十公乘). Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess, came with a state pension and a territorial fiefdom. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule.[164][165] Officials who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses.[166] By the Eastern Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a larger, nationwide gentry class with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship.[167][168] When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.[136][169] The farmer, or specifically the small landowner-cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage laborers, and slaves.[170][171][172][173] The Han dynasty made adjustments to slavery in China and saw an increase in agricultural slaves. Artisans, technicians, tradespeople and craftsmen had a legal and socioeconomic status between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common merchants.[174] State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status.[175][176] These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials.[176][177] Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased.[178] Medical physicians, pig breeders, and butchers had a fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status.[179][180] Brick Relief with Acrobatic Performance, Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) Marriage, gender, and kinship[edit] See also: Women in Han China Detail of a mural showing two women wearing Hanfu silk robes, from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭汉墓; Dáhǔtíng hànmù) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), located in Zhengzhou, Henan Left: a Chinese ceramic statue of a seated woman holding a bronze mirror, Eastern Han period (25–220 CE), Sichuan Provincial Museum, Chengdu Right: a pottery dog found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog collar, indicating their domestication as pets,[181] while it is known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks had kennels for keeping hunting dogs.[182] Late Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) or Xin Dynasty (9–25 CE) wall murals showing men and women dressed in hanfu, with the Queen Mother of the West dressed in shenyi, from a tomb in Dongping County, Shandong province, China The Han-era family was patrilineal and typically had four to five nuclear family members living in one household. Multiple generations of extended family members did not occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties.[183][184] According to Confucian family norms, various family members were treated with different levels of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of a father versus a paternal uncle.[185] Marriages were highly ritualized, particularly for the wealthy, and included many important steps. The giving of betrothal gifts, known as bridewealth and dowry, were especially important. A lack of either was considered dishonorable and the woman would have been seen not as a wife, but as a concubine.[186] Arranged marriages were normal, with the father's input on his offspring's spouse being considered more important than the mother's.[187][188] Monogamous marriages were also normal, although nobles and high officials were wealthy enough to afford and support concubines as additional lovers.[189][190] Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry.[191][192] However, a woman who had been widowed continued to belong to her husband's family after his death. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. Her children would not be allowed to go with her.[186] Left image: A Han pottery female servant in silk robes Right image: A Han pottery female dancer in silk robes Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture; each son received an equal share of the family property.[193] Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually sent his adult married sons away with their portions of the family fortune.[194] Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their marriage dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons.[195] A different distribution of the remainder could be specified in a will, but it is unclear how common this was.[196] Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers.[197] Women were exempt from the annual corvée labor duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.[198] The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, sale at market or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could afford their own silk clothes.[199][200] Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.[201] Education, literature, and philosophy[edit] A Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) fresco depicting Confucius (and Laozi), from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and shaping government policy.[202][203] However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites (bóshì 博士) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics in 136 BCE and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University that he established in 124 BCE.[204][205][206][207] Unlike the original ideology espoused by Confucius, or Kongzi (551–479 BCE), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of ritual, filial piety, and harmonious relationships with five phases and yin-yang cosmologies.[208][209] Much to the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe.[210] The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century CE.[211][212] A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and private schools opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments.[213] Han period inscribed bamboo-slips of Sun Bin's Art of War, unearthed in Yinque Mountain, Linyi, Shandong. A fragment of the Xiping Stone Classics; these stone-carved Five Classics installed during Emperor Ling's reign along the roadside of the Imperial University (right outside Luoyang) were made at the instigation of Cai Yong (132–192 CE), who feared the Classics housed in the imperial library were being interpolated by University Academicians.[214][215][216] Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BCE – 18 CE), Huan Tan (43 BCE – 28 CE), Wang Chong (27–100 CE), and Wang Fu (78–163 CE) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order.[217] The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE) and his son Sima Qian (145–86 BCE) established the standard model for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (3–54 CE), his son Ban Gu (32–92 CE), and his daughter Ban Zhao (45–116 CE).[218][219] There were dictionaries such as the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58 – c. 147 CE) and the Fangyan by Yang Xiong.[220][221] Biographies on important figures were written by various gentrymen.[222] Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.[219][223][224][225][226] Law and order[edit] A silk banner from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province. It was draped over the coffin of Lady Dai (d. 168 BCE), wife of the Marquess Li Cang (利蒼) (d. 186 BCE), chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha.[227] Han scholars such as Jia Yi (201–169 BCE) portrayed the previous Qin dynasty as a brutal regime. However, archeological evidence from Zhangjiashan and Shuihudi reveal that many of the statutes in the Han law code compiled by Chancellor Xiao He (d. 193 BCE) were derived from Qin law.[228][229][230] Various cases for rape, physical abuse and murder were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men.[231][232] While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary fines, periods of forced hard labor for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading.[233] Early Han punishments of torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the bastinado.[234] Acting as a judge in lawsuits was one of many duties of the county magistrate and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high-profile or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor.[235] In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a chief of police. Order in the cities was maintained by government officers in the marketplaces and constables in the neighborhoods.[236][237] Food[edit] Two Han-dynasty red-and-black lacquerwares, one a bowl, the other a tray; usually only wealthy officials, nobles, and merchants could afford domestic luxury items like lacquerwares, which were common commodities produced by skilled artisans and craftsmen.[238][239] The most common staple crops consumed during Han were wheat, barley, foxtail millet, proso millet, rice, and beans.[240] Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, red bayberries, jujubes, calabash, bamboo shoots, mustard plant, and taro.[241] Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, Mandarin ducks, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels, and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese bamboo partridge were consumed.[242] Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt, and soy sauce.[243] Beer and wine were regularly consumed.[244][245] Clothing[edit] Further information: Hanfu Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE Carved reliefs on stone tomb doors showing men dressed in Hanfu, with one holding a shield, the other a broom, Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), from Lanjia Yard, Pi County, Sichuan province, Sichuan Provincial Museum of Chengdu. The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and slippers with inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. Peasants commonly wore clothes made of hemp, wool, and ferret skins.[246][247][248] Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics[edit] A part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han Dynasty, unearthed from Mawangdui tomb 3rd, Changsha, Hunan Province. Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at temples and shrines. They believed that these items could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm.[249] It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the spirit-soul (hun 魂) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (xian), and the body-soul (po 魄) which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony.[245][250] An Eastern-Han bronze statuette of a mythical chimera (qilin), 1st century CE In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and the spirits (shen 神) of mountains and rivers.[251] It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases.[252][253][254][255] If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.[255][256][257] It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai.[258][259] Han-era Daoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques and use of medical elixirs.[260] By the 2nd century CE, Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. 6th century BCE) was a holy prophet who would offer salvation and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices and chant sections of the Daodejing.[261] Buddhism first entered Imperial China through the Silk Road during the Eastern Han, and was first mentioned in 65 CE.[262][263] Liu Ying (d. 71 CE), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 CE), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily associated with Huang-Lao Daoism.[263] China's first known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was constructed outside the wall of the capital, Luoyang, during Emperor Ming's reign.[264] Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century CE, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sutra.[265][266] Government and politics[edit] Main article: Government of the Han dynasty See also: List of emperors of the Han dynasty Central government[edit] A scene of historic paragons of filial piety conversing with one another, Chinese painted artwork on a lacquered basketwork box, excavated from an Eastern-Han tomb of what was the Chinese Lelang Commandery in Korean Peninsula. In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a 600-bushel salary-rank or higher.[267][268] Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi 廷議)—where ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions.[269][270] If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.[271] Below the emperor were his cabinet members known as the Three Councillors of State (San gong 三公). These were the Chancellor or Minister over the Masses (Chengxiang 丞相 or Da situ 大司徒), the Imperial Counselor or Excellency of Works (Yushi dafu 御史大夫 or Da sikong 大司空), and Grand Commandant or Grand Marshal (Taiwei 太尉 or Da sima 大司馬).[272][273] The Chancellor, whose title was changed to 'Minister over the Masses' in 8 BC, was chiefly responsible for drafting the government budget. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600 bushels.[274][275] The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became oversight of public works projects.[276][277] The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councillors of State.[278][279] A rubbing of a Han pictorial stone showing an ancestral worship hall (citang 祠堂) Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers (Jiu qing 九卿), who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies (Taichang 太常) was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars.[280][281][282] The Minister of the Household (Guang lu xun 光祿勳) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot.[280][283] Animalistic guardian spirits of day and night wearing Chinese robes, Han dynasty paintings on ceramic tile; Michael Loewe writes that the hybrid of man and beast in art and religious beliefs predated the Han and remained popular during the first half of Western Han and the Eastern Han.[284] The Minister of the Guards (Weiwei 衛尉) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces.[285][286] The Minister Coachman (Taipu 太僕) was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces.[285][287] The Minister of Justice (Tingwei 廷尉) was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law.[288][289] The Minister Herald (Da honglu 大鴻臚) was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors.[290][291] The Minister of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng 宗正) oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles.[292][293] The Minister of Finance (Da sinong 大司農) was the treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement.[294][295] The Minister Steward (Shaofu 少府) served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.[294][296] Local government[edit] The Han empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided, in descending order of size, into political units of provinces, commanderies, and counties.[297] A county was divided into several districts (xiang 鄉), the latter composed of a group of hamlets (li 里), each containing about a hundred families.[298][299] The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.[300][301] On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed or prosecuted by the imperial court.[302] A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.[297] A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an Administrator.[297] He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.[303][304][305] The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both could be referred to as Magistrates.[306][307] A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools and supervised public works.[307] Kingdoms and marquessates[edit] Main article: Kings of the Han dynasty Kingdoms—roughly the size of commanderies—were ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semi-autonomous fiefdoms. Before 157 BC some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government.[308][309][310] Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs.[308][309] However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose salaries were higher than 400 bushels.[309] The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.[309] With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.[15] Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.[306][311] The Gansu Flying Horse, depicted in full gallop, bronze sculpture, h 34.5 cm. Wuwei, Gansu, China, AD 25–220 Up until the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the Emperors of the Han had great difficulty bringing the vassal kings under control, as kings often switched their allegiance to the Xiongnu Chanyu whenever threatened by Imperial attempts to centralize power. Within the seven years of Han Gaozu's reign, three vassal kings and one marquess either defected to or allied with the Xiongnu. Even imperial princes in control of fiefdoms would sometimes invite the Xiongnu to invade in response to threats by the Emperor to remove their power. The Han emperors moved to secure a treaty with the Chanyu to demarcate authority between them, recognizing each other as the "two masters" (兩主), the sole representatives of their respective peoples, cemented with a marriage alliance (heqin), before eliminating the rebellious vassal kings in 154 BC. This prompted some vassal kings of the Xiongnu to switch their allegiance to the Han emperor from 147 BC. Han court officials were initially hostile to the idea of disrupting the status quo and expanding into the Xiongnu steppe territory. The surrendered Xiongnu were integrated into a parallel military and political structure under the Han Emperor, and opened the avenue for the Han dynasty to challenge the Xiongnu cavalry on the steppe. This also introduced the Han to the interstate networks in the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang), allowing for the expansion of the Han dynasty from a limited regional state to a universalist and cosmopolitan empire through further marriage alliances with another steppe power, the Wusun.[312] Military[edit] Main article: Army of the Han dynasty A mural showing chariots and cavalry, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭漢墓, Pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China A Chinese crossbow mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States Period or the early Han dynasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 87–74 BC) reign.[313] Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry or navy.[314][315] The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital.[314][315] A Han dynasty era pottery soldier, with a now-faded coating of paint, is missing a weapon. During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.[316] The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍).[317] Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.[318][319] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops.[320] The latter were known as buqu 部曲, a special social class in Chinese history.[321] During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun 將軍) led a division, which was divided into regiments led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima 司馬). Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains. Platoons were the smallest units of soldiers.[318][322] Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of the Han dynasty Currency[edit] A wuzhu (五銖) coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter Gold Coins of the Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the government mint in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC), who abolished private minting.[323] In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread inflation that was not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.[323] In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.[324] Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu (五銖) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).[325] The wuzhu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.[326][327][328] Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This Central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.[328][329] Taxation and property[edit] Aside from the landowner's land tax paid in a portion of their crop yield, the poll tax and property taxes were paid in coin cash.[330] The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.[331] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.[332] The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.[333] Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.[334][335] The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.[336][337][338] The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.[59][339] In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,[340][341] and later to a one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.[341] The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.[314][342] Private manufacture and government monopolies[edit] A Han-dynasty iron Ji (halberd) and iron dagger In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.[343][344] To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies.[345][346][347] By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.[345][348] Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately.[349][350] By 110 BC Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants.[59] Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.[351] Science and technology[edit] Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty A gilded bronze oil lamp in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of Dou Wan, wife of Liu Sheng, King of Zhongshan; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body.[71][352] The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[353][354] Writing materials[edit] In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo slips or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, hemp paper,[355][356] and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.[357][358][359] The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC.[360][355] The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (AD 50–121) in 105.[361][362] The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in AD 110, in Inner Mongolia.[363] Metallurgy and agriculture[edit] An array of bronze bells, Western Han dynasty Ornemental belt buckle, decorated with Chinese mythical creatures. Chiseled and hammered gold, late Han period. Left image: A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels (Shanghai Museum) Right image: A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC).[364][365] The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization.[366] Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.[367][368] The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares.[369][370] A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by hand.[371][372][373] The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.[374][375] To protect crops from wind and drought, the grain intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons.[376] Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.[376] Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.[377][378] In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.[379] Structural and geotechnical engineering[edit] Further information: Han dynasty tomb architecture Left image: A pottery model of a palace from a Han-dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to execution.[380] Right image: A painted ceramic architectural model—found in an Eastern-Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province—depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, verandas, tiled rooftops, dougong support brackets, and a covered bridge extending from the third floor of the main tower to the smaller watchtower.[381] Left image: A ceramic architectural model of a grain storage tower with five layers of tiled rooftops and columns supporting the roofs of balconies on the first two floors, dated from the mid Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) to early Eastern Han (25–220 AD) era. Right image: A Han-dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) era pottery model of a granary tower with windows and balcony placed several stories above the first-floor courtyard; Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors.[382] A pair of stone-carved que (闕) located at the temple of Mount Song in Dengfeng. (Eastern Han dynasty) A pair of Han period stone-carved que (闕) located at Babaoshan, Beijing. A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an. (Eastern Han dynasty) [383] An Eastern-Han vaulted tomb chamber at Luoyang made of small bricks Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses.[384] Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.[384][385] The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907).[386] Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.[387] Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu.[388][389][390] [391] The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic water pipes.[392] Monumental stone pillar-gates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites.[393][383] These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and balustrades.[394][383] The courtyard house is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.[384] Ceramic architectural models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archeological sites.[395] Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs.[396] Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.[397] The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.[397] From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and floating pontoon bridges existed in Han China.[398] However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature,[399] and only a single Han relief sculpture in Sichuan depicts an arch bridge.[400] Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100 meters (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores.[401][402] Borehole drilling and derricks were used to lift brine to iron pans where it was distilled into salt. The distillation furnaces were heated by natural gas funneled to the surface through bamboo pipelines.[401][403][404] These boreholes perhaps reached a depth of 600 m (2000 ft).[405] Mechanical and hydraulic engineering[edit] Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavors to be far beneath them.[406] Professional artisan-engineers (jiang 匠) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.[407][408] Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.[409] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15 BC the philosopher and writer Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.[410] The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman Ding Huan are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital.[411] Around AD 180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings.[412] Ding also used gimbals as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known zoetrope lamp.[413] A Han-dynasty pottery model of two men operating a winnowing machine with a crank handle and a tilt hammer used to pound grain. Modern archeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff.[414] The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled.[415] This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.[416] Modern archeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.[417] The waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan about AD 20, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip hammers, and were used in pounding, threshing and polishing grain.[418] However, there is no sufficient evidence for the watermill in China until about the 5th century.[419] The Nanyang Commandery Administrator and mechanical engineer Du Shi (d. 38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that worked the bellows for the smelting of iron.[420][421] Waterwheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century Balanced Discourse.[422] The armillary sphere, a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the celestial sphere, was invented in Han China by the 1st century BC.[423] Using a water clock, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer Zhang Heng (AD 78–139) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.[424][425][426][427] To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the pressure head of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.[424][428] A modern replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" (houfeng didong yi 候風地動儀), which the British biochemist, sinologist, and historian Joseph Needham described as "the ancestor of all seismographs".[429] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away.[424][430][426] It employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.[431] The account of this device in the Book of the Later Han describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (in modern Gansu Province), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device.[432] Mathematics[edit] Further information: Chinese mathematics § Han mathematics Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the Book on Numbers and Computation, the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles, square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods,[433][434] finding more accurate approximations for pi,[435][436] providing mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem,[437][438] use of the decimal fraction,[439] Gaussian elimination to solve linear equations,[440][441][442] and continued fractions to find the roots of equations.[443] One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of negative numbers. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.[434] Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician Diophantus around AD 275, and in the 7th-century Bakhshali manuscript of Gandhara, South Asia,[444] but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century.[434] The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In musical tuning, Jing Fang (78–37 BC) realized that 53 perfect fifths was approximate to 31 octaves while creating a musical scale of 60 tones, calculating the difference at 177147⁄176776 (the same value of 53 equal temperament discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator [1620–1687], i.e. 353/284).[445][446] Astronomy[edit] Further information: Chinese astronomy Mathematics were essential in drafting the astronomical calendar, a lunisolar calendar that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.[447][448] During the spring and autumn periods of the 5th century BC, the Chinese established the Sifen calendar (古四分历), which measured the tropical year at 365.25 days. This was replaced in 104 BC with the Taichu calendar (太初曆) that measured the tropical year at 365+385⁄1539 (~ 365.25016) days and the lunar month at 29+43⁄81 days.[449] However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.[450] Han Chinese astronomers made star catalogues and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the 12 BC appearance of the comet now known as Halley's Comet.[451][452][453][454] Han dynasty astronomers adopted a geocentric model of the universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the earth in the center.[455][456][457] They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.[458] Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle of the evaporation of water into clouds.[459] Cartography, ships, and vehicles[edit] An early Western Han dynasty silk map found in tomb 3 of Mawangdui, depicting the Kingdom of Changsha and Kingdom of Nanyue in southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top). Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han.[460][461] Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb.[460][462] The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century.[463] This date could be revised if the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.[464] Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps.[424][460][465][466] An Eastern Han dynasty pottery boat model with a steering rudder at the stern and anchor at the bow. Han dynasty Chinese sailed in a variety of ships different from those of previous eras, such as the tower ship. The junk design was developed and realized during the Han era. Junk ships featured a square-ended bow and stern, a flat-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western vessels.[467][468] Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.[469][470][471][472][473][474] Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC.[475][476] Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer breast strap.[477] Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534), the fully developed horse collar was invented.[477] Medicine[edit] Further information: Traditional Chinese medicine § Han dynasty The physical exercise chart; a painting on silk depicting the practice of Qigong Taiji; unearthed in 1973 in Hunan Province, China, from the 2nd-century BC Western Han burial site of Mawangdui, Tomb Number 3. Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that qi or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.[478][479][480] For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.[478] Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed moxibustion, acupuncture, and calisthenics as methods of maintaining one's health.[481][482][483][484] When surgery was performed by the Chinese physician Hua Tuo (d. AD 208), he used anesthesia to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds.[481] Whereas the physician Zhang Zhongjing (c. AD 150 – c. 219) is known to have written the Shanghan lun ("Dissertation on Typhoid Fever"), it is thought that both he and Hua Tuo collaborated in compiling the Shennong Ben Cao Jing medical text.[485] See also[edit] Battle of Jushi Campaign against Dong Zhuo Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires Early Imperial China Han Emperors family tree Shuanggudui Ten Attendants References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Barnes (2007), p. 63. ^ a b Taagepera (1979), p. 128. ^ a b Nishijima (1986), pp. 595–596. ^ Zhou (2003), p. 34. ^ Schaefer (2008), p. 279. ^ Bailey (1985), pp. 25–26. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 116. ^ Ebrey (1999), pp. 60–61. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 116–122. ^ Davis (2001), pp. 44–46. ^ Loewe (1986), p. 122. ^ a b Loewe (1986), pp. 122–125. ^ Loewe (1986), pp. 139–144. ^ a b Bielenstein (1980), p. 106. ^ a b c d Ch'ü (1972), p. 76. ^ Bielenstein (1980), p. 105. ^ Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 175–189, 196–198. ^ Torday (1997), pp. 80–81. ^ Yü (1986), pp. 387–388. ^ a b Torday (1997), pp. 75–77. 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(2011) [2001], Gender in History: Global Perspectives (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-8995-8 Xue, Shiqi (2003), "Chinese lexicography past and present", in Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.), Lexicography: Critical Concepts, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 158–173, ISBN 978-0-415-25365-9. Young, Gary K. (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-24219-6. Yü, Ying-shih (1967), Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations, Berkeley: University of California Press. ——— (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Yule, Henry (1915), Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, 1, London: Hakluyt Society. Zhang, Guangda (2002), "The role of the Sogdians as translators of Buddhist texts", in Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, ISBN 978-2-503-52178-7. Zhou, Jinghao (2003), Remaking China's Public Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-275-97882-2. Further reading[edit] Yap, Joseph P. (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. ISBN 978-1-7928-2915-4. External links[edit] Listen to this article (1 hour and 36 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 27 April 2016 (2016-04-27), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Han Dynasty. The Wikibook Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World has a page on the topic of: the Han Dynasty Library resources about Han dynasty Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Han dynasty by Minnesota State University Han dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts Early Imperial China: A Working Collection of Resources Archived 25 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine "Han Culture," Hanyangling Museum Website The Han Synthesis, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Christopher Cullen, Carol Michaelson & Roel Sterckx (In Our Time, Oct. 14, 2004) Preceded by Qin dynasty Dynasties in Chinese history 206 BC – AD 220 Succeeded by Three Kingdoms v t e Han dynasty topics History Chu–Han Contention (Feast at Swan Goose Gate) Lü Clan Disturbance Rebellion of the Seven States Han–Xiongnu War Han conquest of Gojoseon Southward expansion (Han–Minyue War Han conquest of Nanyue Han conquest of Dian First Chinese domination of Vietnam Trung sisters' rebellion 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en-wikipedia-org-7720	----	Category:180 deaths - Wikipedia Help Category:180 deaths From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikisource has several original texts related to: 180 deaths Wikimedia Commons has media related to 180 deaths. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Category:180 deaths Biography portal People who died in the year 180. See also: 180 births. 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 130s 140s 150s 160s 170s 180s 190s 200s 210s 220s 230s Pages in category "180 deaths" The following 6 pages are in this category, out of 6 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). H Hegesippus (chronicler) L Leucius of Brindisi M Marcus Aurelius P Philip of Gortyna Pinytus S Scillitan Martyrs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:180_deaths&oldid=945343440" Categories: 180 endings 180s deaths Deaths by year Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar मराठी Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2020, at 10:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7727	----	Template:Roman emperors - Wikipedia Template:Roman emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-7728	----	Chaeremon of Alexandria - Wikipedia Chaeremon of Alexandria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Chaeremon of Alexandria" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Chaeremon of Alexandria (/kəˈriːmən, -mɒn/; Greek: Χαιρήμων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς, gen.: Ancient Greek: Χαιρήμονος; fl. 1st century AD) was a Stoic philosopher, historian, and grammarian.[1] He was superintendent of the portion of the Alexandrian library that was kept in the Temple of Serapis, and as custodian and expounder of the sacred books he belonged to the higher ranks of the priesthood. In 49 he was summoned to Rome, with Alexander of Aegae, to become tutor to the youthful Nero. Chaeremon was the author of a history of Egypt; of works on comets, Egyptian astrology, and hieroglyphics; and of a grammatical treatise on Expletive Conjunctions (Ancient Greek: συνδεσμοὶ παραπληρωματικοί).[1] Chaeremon was the chief of the party which explained the Egyptian religious system as a mere allegory of the worship of nature. His books were certainly not intended to represent the ideas of his Egyptian contemporaries; their chief object was to describe the sanctity and symbolical secrets of ancient Egypt. Chaeremon's works are now lost, but because later authors (such as Josephus[2]) quoted from his works, fragments have been preserved. He can hardly be identical with the Chaeremon who accompanied (c. 26 BC) Aelius Gallus, prefect of Egypt, on a journey into the interior of the country.[3] Notes[edit] ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chaeremon (philosopher)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 788. ^ Josephus, Against Apion, Book I, Chapters 32-33. ^ Strabo, xvii. p. 806 Further reading[edit] Pieter Willem van der Horst, (1984), Chaeremon, Egyptian Priest and Stoic Philosopher, The fragments collected and translated. BRILL. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain United States Australia Netherlands Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Trove (Australia) 1 This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a Greek philosopher is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chaeremon_of_Alexandria&oldid=1016634635" Categories: 1st-century philosophers 1st-century Egyptian people Roman-era librarians of Alexandria Roman-era Stoic philosophers Ancient Egypt people stubs European philosopher stubs Greek academic biography stubs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles needing additional references from December 2008 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Polski Русский Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2021, at 07:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-774	----	Category:Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is not shown on its member pages unless the appropriate user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. For more information, see Catholic Encyclopedia. see also {{Cite CE1913}} Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in category "Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 5,800 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). 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Diedrich Wackerbarth Aarhus Aaron of Aleth Abandonment (mysticism) Pedro Abarca Abarim Aba I Abbaye-aux-Bois Abbé Jean Baptiste Abbeloos Abbey library of Saint Gall Abbey of Saint Gall Abbey of Saint Wandrille Abbey of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif Abbo of Fleury Abbot Abbreviator Abdias of Babylon Abdication Abdon and Sennen Abecedarian Abecedarium Louis Abelly Robert Abercromby (Jesuit) Moritz von Aberle Abgar V Abgar Legend Abingdon Abbey Abipón Abiram Abjuration Ablution in Christianity Abonoteichos Charles François d'Abra de Raconis Abraham Ortelius Abrahamites Nicholas Abram Abrantes Abraxas Absolute (philosophy) Absolution Abstemius Abthain Abu Qir Abundius Abyss (religion) Acacians Acacius of Constantinople Acacius of Beroea Acacius of Caesarea Académie Française Academy of Saumur Acathius of Melitene Accentus Accessus Angelo Acciaioli (bishop) Angelo II Acciaioli Acclamation (papal elections) Accursius Franciscus Accursius Acephali Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Acerenza Achaicus of Corinth Achard of Saint Victor Luc d'Achery Achille Gagliardi Achilles Gasser Achimelech Roman Catholic Diocese of Achonry Johann Heinrich Achterfeldt Wilhelm Achtermann Acmonia Acoemetae Acolouthia Joaquín Acosta José de Acosta (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1913_Catholic_Encyclopedia_with_Wikisource_reference&oldid=951809718" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 5,001–10,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia Wikipedia categories that track Wikisource references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی 한국어 Ilokano ଓଡ଼ିଆ Português Română Simple English 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2020, at 00:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7766	----	Theophylact (son of Michael I) - Wikipedia Theophylact (son of Michael I) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine co-emperor from 811 to 813 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theophylact Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theophylact on the reverse of a solidus coin, clad in the loros and holding a globus cruciger Byzantine emperor Co-reign 25 December 811 – 11 July 813 Predecessor Michael I Rangabe Successor Leo V the Armenian Senior emperor Michael I Rangabe Born c. 793 Died 15 January 849 Dynasty Nikephorian dynasty Father Michael I Rangabe Mother Prokopia Nikephorian dynasty Chronology Nikephoros I 802–811  with Staurakios as co-emperor 803–811  Staurakios 811 Michael I 811–813  with Theophylact as co-emperor 811–813  Succession Preceded by Isaurian dynasty Followed by Leo V and the Amorian dynasty v t e Theophylact or Theophylaktos (Greek: Θεοφύλακτος; c. 793 – 15 January 849) was the eldest son of the Byzantine emperor Michael I Rhangabe (r. 811–813) and grandson, on his mother's side, of Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). He was junior co-emperor alongside his father for the duration of the latter's reign, and was tonsured, castrated, and exiled to Plate Island after his overthrow, under the monastic name Eustratius. Biography[edit] Theophylact was born to Michael Rhangabe and Prokopia c. 793. He was the couple's oldest child, but the list of his siblings given in the hagiography of Patriarch Ignatius I of Constantinople, who was Theophylact's youngest brother, is unclear on whether he was the eldest child or was born after his oldest sister Gorgo.[1] He was named after his paternal grandfather, the droungarios of the Dodekanesos Theophylact Rhangabe, who had participated in a failed conspiracy to wrest the throne from Empress-regent Irene of Athens in 780.[2] Nevertheless his maternal grandfather, the emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811), rose to become General Logothete (finance minister) under Empress Irene before eventually deposing her in October 802.[3] Following the death of Nikephoros in the Battle of Pliska on 26 July 811 and the crippling of his only son and heir Staurakios in the same battle, on 2 October the Byzantine Senate and the tagmata guard units acclaimed Nikephoros's son-in-law Michael Rhangabe as emperor and forced Staurakios to abdicate.[1][4] Michael immediately set about to consolidate his rule, distributing lavish gifts, crowning his wife as Augusta on 12 October, and finally, crowning Theophylact – then aged eighteen – as co-emperor in the Hagia Sophia on Christmas Day, 25 December 811.[1][5] At about the same time, Michael sent an embassy under Bishop Michael of Synnada to the Frankish court, which among other issues raised the prospect of an imperial marriage between Theophylact and one of Charlemagne's daughters. Despite a warm reception at Aachen and the ratification of a peace treaty between the two realms, Charlemagne, perhaps wary after the repeated failures of successive efforts to that effect over the previous decades, hesitated to agree to such a match.[1][6] Nothing further is known of Theophylact until 11 July 813, when Michael, faced with a military revolt under Leo the Armenian, abdicated the throne. Michael and his family sought refuge in the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos, where they were tonsured as monks and nuns. Michael and his sons were castrated to make them incapable of claiming the throne in the future, and exiled to Plate, one of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara (though the later historians John Skylitzes and Zonaras mention the island of Prote instead). Leo accorded them an annual stipend.[1][7] According to Theophanes Continuatus, Theophylact, who adopted the monastic name Eustratius (Εὐστράτιος), died five years after his father, on 15 January 849, and was buried alongside him in a church on Plate Island.[1] Theophanes Continuatus also reports that his body (or perhaps that of his father) was later transferred by his brother, Patriarch Ignatios, to the monastery known as "tou Satyrou".[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g PmbZ, pp. 684–685. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 60–61, 405 (note #163). ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 128–129. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 173–177. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 177–179. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 179, 182. ^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 188–189. Sources[edit] Treadgold, Warren (1988). The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1462-4. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2001). "Theophylaktos (#8336)". Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit: 1. Abteilung (641–867), Band 4: Platon (# 6266) – Theophylaktos (# 8345) (in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 684–685. ISBN 978-3-11-016674-3. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theophylact_(son_of_Michael_I)&oldid=1027089081" Categories: 790s births 849 deaths 9th-century Byzantine emperors 9th-century Byzantine monks Byzantine eunuchs Byzantine junior emperors Byzantine prisoners and detainees Castrated people Nikephorian dynasty Prisoners and detainees of the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Italiano Polski Português Română Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7769	----	Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology - Wikipedia Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Encyclopedia and biographical dictionary ed. by William Smith (1849) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Cover of 1867 edition Author William Smith Publication date 1849 Pages 3,700 The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1849, originally published 1844 under a slightly different title) is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 pages. It is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.[1] Contents 1 Authors and scope 2 Use and availability today 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Authors and scope[edit] Excerpt from Philolaus Pythagoras book, (Charles Peter Mason, 1870) The work lists thirty-five authors in addition to the editor, who was also the author of the unsigned articles. The other authors were classical scholars, primarily from Oxford, Cambridge, Rugby School, and the University of Bonn, but some were from other institutions. Many of the mythological entries were the work of the German expatriate Leonhard Schmitz, who helped to popularise German classical scholarship in Britain.[2] With respect to biographies, Smith intended to be comprehensive. In the preface, he writes: The biographical articles in this work include the names of all persons of any importance which occur in the Greek and Roman writers, from the earliest times down to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 476 of our era, and to the extinction of the Eastern Empire by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in the year 1453. Much of the value of the Dictionary consists not only in the depth and detail of the individual articles, but in the copious and specific citations to individual Greek and Roman writers, as well as modern scholarship from the Renaissance to the mid-nineteenth century. The articles frequently note variant traditions, disagreements among the authorities, and the interpretations of modern scholars. However, due to the variable numbering systems used in different editions of classical works, and the difficulty of recognizing typographical errors in citations, the original sources should still be checked. Many of the Dictionary's articles have been referred to in more recent works, and Robert Graves has been accused of "lifting his impressive-looking source references straight, and unchecked" from it when writing The Greek Myths.[2] Samuel Sharpe thought Edward Bunbury had plagiarised his work, as he wrote of in his diary entry on 3 September 1850: I certainly felt mortified on reading the articles on the Ptolemies in Dr. Smith's "Dictionary of Classical Biography." They were all written by E. H. Bunbury with the help of my "History of Egypt," and with-out any acknowledgment, though he even borrowed the volume from my brother Dan for the purpose.[3] Use and availability today[edit] The work is now in the public domain, and is available in several places on the Internet. While still largely accurate (only rarely have ancient texts been emended so severely as to warrant a biographical change), much is missing, especially more recent discoveries (such as Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians, or the decipherment of Linear B) and epigraphic material. Perhaps more seriously, the context in which ancient evidence is viewed has often changed in the intervening century and a half. See also[edit] Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography References[edit] ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Smith, Sir William" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 270. ^ a b Nick Lowe (20 December 2005). "Killing the Graves myth". Times Online. London. Retrieved 2016-02-26. ^ Clayden, PW. Samuel Sharpe. p. 82. Retrieved 10 May 2016. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. I: Abaeus–Dysponteus online at University of Michigan Library. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. II: Earinus–Nyx online at University of Michigan Library. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. III: Oarses–Zygia online at University of Michigan Library. Also the Internet Archive has a derivative work: Smith, William (1853). A new classical dictionary of biography, mythology, and geography, partly based on the "Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology.". London: Murray. Anthon, Charles; Smith, William (1860). A new classical dictionary of Greek and Roman biography, mythology and geography: partly based upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology by William Smith (1860). New York: Harper and Brothers. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology&oldid=998218403" Categories: 1849 books Biographical dictionaries by topic References on Greek mythology Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Reference works in the public domain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages বাংলা Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 10:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7776	----	File:0 Relief - Monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle - La soumission des germains (1).JPG - Wikipedia File:0 Relief - Monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle - La soumission des germains (1).JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 449 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 180 × 240 pixels | 360 × 480 pixels | 450 × 600 pixels | 576 × 768 pixels | 768 × 1,024 pixels | 1,536 × 2,048 pixels | 2,699 × 3,599 pixels. Original file ‎(2,699 × 3,599 pixels, file size: 5.92 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Artist Français : inconnu Description Français : Relief du monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle représentant la soumission des germains. English: Relief from honorary monument to Marcus Aurelius representing the submission of the Germans. Italiano: Rilievo da monumento onorario di Marco Aurelio che rappresenta la sottomissione dei Germani. Date circa 176-180 AD Medium marblemedium QS:P186,Q40861 Dimensions H. 350 cm (116.142 in.) Collection Capitoline Museums    Native name Musei Capitolini Location Rome, Italy Coordinates 41° 53′ 35″ N, 12° 28′ 57″ E   Established 1471 Web page museicapitolini.org Authority control : Q333906 VIAF: 171285001 ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 0496 LCCN: n79126898 GND: 1214261-X SUDOC: 029890012 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q333906 Current location Palazzo dei Conservatori Accession number MC0809 Object history Français : Provenance : Arc de Marc Aurèle, Rome. Notes Acquis par le musée en 1515 en provenance de l'église SS Luca e Martina Source/Photographer User:Jean-Pol GRANDMONT (2011) Permission (Reusing this file) This illustration was made by Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Please credit this : Jean-Pol GRANDMONT An email to Jean-Pol GRANDMONT would be appreciated. Other versions Licensing Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. 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Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic source of file original creation by uploader image captured with Canon Digital IXUS 95 IS File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 11:11, 17 May 2013 2,699 × 3,599 (5.92 MB) Jean-Pol GRANDMONT {{Information |Description ={{fr|1=Relief du monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle représentant la sousmission des germains. - Marbre, œuvre romaine - Grand escalier du Palazzo dei Conservatori à Rome.}} |Source ={{own photo}} |Author ... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcomannic Wars Marcus Aurelius Reign of Marcus Aurelius Roman sculpture Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Rimsko kiparstvo Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer Canon Camera model Canon DIGITAL IXUS 95 IS Exposure time 1/20 sec (0.05) F-number f/3.5 ISO speed rating 400 Date and time of data generation 14:55, 2 October 2011 Lens focal length 9.681 mm Author © Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Image title Relief du monument honoraire de Marc Aurèle représentant la soumission des germains 176-180 ap. 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en-wikipedia-org-7798	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above 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en-wikipedia-org-7804	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Name=== Marcus was born in [[Rome]] on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius Verus,<ref>Magill, p. 693.</ref> but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age,<ref name='Historia MA I.9–10'>''Historia'' MA I.9–10</ref><ref>Van Ackeren, p. 139.</ref><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 33.</ref> or at the time of his marriage.<ref>Dio 69.21.1; ''HA Marcus'' i. 10; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 24.</ref> He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,<ref>Dio lxix.21.1; ''HA Marcus'' i. 9; McLynn, ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor'', p. 24.</ref> at birth or some point in his youth,<ref name='Historia MA I.9–10'/><ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33'/> or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death;<ref>Van Ackeren, p. 78.</ref> [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], in his chronology of the Roman emperors ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'', calls him ''Marcus Aurelius Verus''.<ref>Dean, p. 32.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-7822	----	Constantine the Great - Wikipedia Constantine the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 306 to 337 For other uses, see Constantine (disambiguation). Constantine the Great Colossal head of Constantine (4th century), Capitoline Museums, Rome and Athens Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I Successor Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers or rivals Galerius (306–311) Valerius Severus (306–307) Maxentius (306–312) Maximian (306–308) Licinius (308–324) Maximinus Daia (311–313) Born 27 February c. 272[1] Naissus, Moesia, Roman Empire[2] Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Nicomedia, Bithynia, Roman Empire Burial Originally The Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople, but Constantius II, his son, had it moved Spouse Minervina (may have been his concubine) Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Greek Κωνσταντίνος Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Roman polytheism (Until 312) Christianity (From 312) Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia, section: Maria as patron saint of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople modern day Istanbul, Turkey Venerated in Eastern Catholicism[notes 1][6] Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople (modern day Istanbul, Turkey) Feast 21 May Part of a series on Christianity Jesus Christ Nativity Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Church Creed New Covenant Theology God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition Apostles Peter Paul Mary Early Christianity Church Fathers Constantine Councils Augustine East–West Schism Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther Denominations Groups Western Roman Catholic Protestant Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Moravian Pentecostal Quaker Reformed Eastern Eastern Catholic Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Church of the East (Nestorian) Restorationist Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Iglesia ni Cristo Related topics Art Criticism Ecumenism Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Worship  Christianity portal v t e Constantine I (Latin: Flavius Valerius Constantinus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, translit. Kōnstantînos; 27 February c. 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from 306 to 337. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterranea (now Niš, Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer born in Dardania, who became one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy. His mother, Helena, was Greek and of low birth. Constantine served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius, campaigning in the eastern provinces against barbarians and the Persians, before being recalled west in 305 to fight under his father in Britain. After his father's death in 306, Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (York). He emerged victorious in the civil wars against emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. As emperor, Constantine enacted administrative, financial, social and military reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation he introduced the solidus, a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units (comitatenses), and garrison troops (limitanei) capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths and the Sarmatians—even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.[notes 2] Although he lived much of his life as a pagan, and later as a catechumen, he began to favor Christianity beginning in 312, finally becoming a Christian and being baptised by either Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, or Pope Sylvester I, which is maintained by the Catholic Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the statement of Christian belief known as the Nicene Creed.[8] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem and became the holiest place in Christendom. The papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the fabricated Donation of Constantine. He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" and he did favour the Christian Church. While some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity,[notes 3] he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire.[11] He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople (now Istanbul) after himself (the laudatory epithet of "New Rome" emerged in his time, and was never an official title). It subsequently became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years, the later Eastern Roman Empire being referred to as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians. His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the de facto principle of dynastic succession, by leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity.[12] Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign, due to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Trends in modern and recent scholarship have attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship. Contents 1 Sources 2 Early life 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Early rule 3.1 Maxentius' rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 4 Civil wars 4.1 War against Maxentius 4.1.1 Constantine adopts the Greek letters Chi Rho for Christ's initials 4.2 In Rome 4.3 Wars against Licinius 5 Later rule 5.1 Foundation of Constantinople 5.2 Religious policy 5.3 Administrative reforms 5.4 Monetary reforms 5.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 5.6 Later campaigns 5.7 Illness and death 6 Legacy 6.1 Canonization 6.2 Historiography 6.3 Donation of Constantine 6.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 9.2.1 Ancient sources 9.2.2 Modern sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Sources[edit] A statue of Constantine in the Castle of Berat. Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and he has always been a controversial figure.[13] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed,[14] but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period[15] and are often one-sided;[16] no contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived.[17] The nearest replacement is Eusebius's Vita Constantini—a mixture of eulogy and hagiography[18] written between AD 335 and circa AD 339[19]—that extols Constantine's moral and religious virtues.[20] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine,[21] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability.[22] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini,[23] a work of uncertain date,[24] which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters.[25] Lactantius' De mortibus persecutorum, a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life.[26] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign.[27] Written during the reign of Theodosius II (AD 408–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity.[28] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius, and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm.[29] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (De Caesaribus), Eutropius (Breviarium), Festus (Breviarium), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies.[30] The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine.[31] Contemporary architecture, such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba,[32] epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources.[33] Early life[edit] Remains of the luxurious residence palace of Mediana, erected by Constantine I near his birth town of Naissus Flavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally named, was born in the city of Naissus (today Niš, Serbia), part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 February,[34] probably c. AD 272.[35] His father was Flavius Constantius, an Illyrian,[36][37] and a native of Dardania province of Moesia (later Dacia Ripensis).[38] Constantine probably spent little time with his father[39] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of the Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man,[40] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285.[38] Constantine's mother was Helena, a Greek woman of low social standing from Helenopolis of Bithynia.[41] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine.[42] His main language was Latin, and during his public speeches he needed Greek translators.[43] Head from a statue of Diocletian Bust of Maximian In July AD 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant.[44] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric,[45] and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire.[46] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289.[47] Diocletian divided the Empire again in AD 293, appointing two caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to their respective augustus (senior emperor) but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian.[48] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus.[49] In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege,[50] and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive.[51] Constantine's parents and siblings, the dates in square brackets indicate the possession of minor titles In the East[edit] Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.[52] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city.[53] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in AD 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria (AD 297), as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia (AD 298–299).[54] By late AD 305, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi.[55] Porphyry bust of Galerius Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of AD 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's "Great Persecution", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history.[56] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians.[57] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution.[58] On 23 February AD 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned.[59] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution.[60] In his later writings, he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God",[61] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time.[62] Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life.[63] On 1 May AD 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of AD 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same.[64] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors.[65] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti, while Severus and Maximinus Daia, Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.[66] Bronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot where he was proclaimed Augustus in 306 Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet.[67] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted.[68] In the West[edit] Marble bust of Constantine the Great from Stonegate, York Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene.[69] In the late spring or early summer of AD 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake.[70] By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught.[71] Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of AD 305.[72] From Bononia, they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.[73] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success.[74] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule;[75] Hispania, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it.[76] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an augustus.[77] The portrait was wreathed in bay.[78] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him".[79] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire.[80] His advisers calmed him, and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war.[81] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead).[82] Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes.[83] Constantine accepted the decision,[82] knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy.[84] Early rule[edit] The portrait of Constantine on a Roman coin; the inscription around the portrait is "Constantinus Aug[ustus]" Constantine's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier.[85] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways.[86] He then left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire.[87] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307 AD.[88] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured Kings Ascaric and Merogais; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier's amphitheatre in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed.[89] Public baths (thermae) built in Trier by Constantine, more than 100 metres (328 ft) wide by 200 metres (656 ft) long and capable of serving several thousand at a time, built to rival those of Rome[90] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles).[91] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian himself. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution[92] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius.[93] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost during them.[94] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his.[95] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign".[96] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a new tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing".[97] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe."[98] Maxentius' rebellion[edit] Dresden bust of Maxentius Following Galerius' recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness.[99] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority,[100] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306 AD. Galerius refused to recognize him but failed to unseat him. Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned.[101] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307 AD. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307 AD. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition.[102] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 AD, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil;[103] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308 AD, he raided the territory of the Bructeri, and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). In 310 AD, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West.[104] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 AD, but soon fell out with his son. In early 308 AD, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court.[105] On 11 November 308 AD, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius, one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus Daia was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti",[106] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310 AD, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti.[107] Maximian's rebellion[edit] A gold multiple of "Unconquered Constantine" with Sol Invictus, struck in 313 AD. The use of Sol's image stressed Constantine's status as his father's successor, appealed to the educated citizens of Gaul, and was considered less offensive than the traditional pagan pantheon to the Christians.[108] In 310 AD, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine.[109] At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon).[110] Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310 AD, Maximian hanged himself.[109] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death.[111] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death.[112] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311 AD, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted.[113] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image.[114] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian, and needed a new source of legitimacy.[115] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310 AD, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule.[116] Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine.[117] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world",[118] as the poet Virgil had once foretold.[119] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 AD on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo.[120] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul.[121] Civil wars[edit] See also: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy War against Maxentius[edit] v t e Battles of Constantine I Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Turin Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns By the middle of 310 AD, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics.[122] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311 AD, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration.[123] He died soon after the edict's proclamation,[124] destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy.[125] Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus.[126] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war.[127] He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius.[128] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage;[129] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa.[130] By 312 AD, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported,[131] even among Christian Italians.[132] In the summer of 311 AD, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".[133] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius,[134] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 AD, and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support. Maxentius accepted.[135] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day".[136] Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail-of-fresco-in-Vatican-Stanze) c. 1650 by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano, at the University of Edinburgh Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius;[137] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens.[138] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance,[139] ignored all these cautions.[140] Early in the spring of 312 AD,[141] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000.[142] The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town, and advanced with them into northern Italy.[141] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry.[143] In the ensuing battle Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious.[144] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead.[145] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312 AD, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia).[146] Brescia's army was easily dispersed,[147] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona, where a large Maxentian force was camped.[148] Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect,[149] was in a strong defensive position, since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force, but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege.[150] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed.[151] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia,[152] Mutina (Modena),[153] and Ravenna.[154] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine.[155] The Milvian Bridge (Ponte Milvio) over the Tiber, north of Rome, where Constantine and Maxentius fought in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege.[156] He still controlled Rome's praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods,[157] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge.[158] Constantine progressed slowly[159] along the Via Flaminia,[160] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil.[159] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible.[161] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine.[162] On 28 October 312 AD, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.[163] Constantine adopts the Greek letters Chi Rho for Christ's initials[edit] Main article: Battle of the Milvian Bridge Further information: Ponte Milvio The Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organized them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river.[164] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields.[165] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms."[166] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces" ("In this sign thou shalt conquer").[167] In Eusebius's account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum.[168] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place,[169] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius.[170] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos).[171][172] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 AD which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho,[173] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 AD repeat the image.[174] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s.[175] It wasn't completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III, Euergetes I (247-222 BCE). Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned.[164] The battle was brief,[176] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge.[177] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats (Ponte Milvio), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers.[178] In Rome[edit] Head of a bronze colossus of Constantine, now in the Capitoline Museums[179] Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 AD,[180][181] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation.[182] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see.[183] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance.[184] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[185] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia,[186] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters.[187] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents,[188] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest Augustus".[189] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents.[190] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealized image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda.[191] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated.[192] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius.[193] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant.[194] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia.[195] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralized when he disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard.[196] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana,[197] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312 AD—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city.[198] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale,[192] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine.[199] Wars against Licinius[edit] Coin of Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan,[200] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire.[201] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas.[202] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar;[203] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed.[204] In either 314 or 316 AD, the two Augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made caesars.[205] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod.[203] In the year 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began to oppress Christians anew,[206] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders.[207] Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general,[208] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen.[209] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian, his magister officiorum, as nominal Augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324.[210] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326.[211] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.[212] Later rule[edit] Foundation of Constantinople[edit] Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy[213] - not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention.[214] Constantine had recognized the shift of the center of gravity of the Empire from the remote and depopulated West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital[215] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.[216] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire.[217] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia), as he was reported saying that "Serdica is my Rome".[218] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered.[219] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium, which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism, during the preceding century, by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who had already acknowledged its strategic importance.[220] The city was thus founded in 324,[221] dedicated on 11 May 330[221] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event. The new city was protected by the relics of the True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city.[222] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls.[223] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the "New Rome of Constantinople".[212][224] Religious policy[edit] Further information: Constantine the Great and Christianity, Constantine I and paganism, and Constantine the Great and Judaism Constantine burning Arian books, from a 9th-century manuscript Pope Sylvester I and Emperor Constantine Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalize Christianity, along with all other religions/cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression.[225][page needed] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously, and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them.[226] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life.[227] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title.[228][229] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone.[230] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptized on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor.[231] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution.[232] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old Saint Peter's Basilica. In constructing the Old Saint Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronized Christianity alone. He built a triumphal arch in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312) which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria, and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo, Diana, and Hercules. Absent from the Arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the Arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt.[233] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens.[234] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices.[235] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum,[236] as well on the coin itself.[237] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy.[238] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma.[239] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile.[240] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed. He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover, which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian Calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire.[241] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavorable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors.[242] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity.[242] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves.[243][244] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy.[242][245] Administrative reforms[edit] Hexagonal gold pendant with double solidus of Constantine the Great in the centre, 321 AD British Museum Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favor members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs;[246] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank).[247] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank.[248] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this,[249] as the Senate was allowed itself to elect praetors and quaestors, in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio). An inscription in honor of city prefect (336–337) Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time".[250] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could now dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats.[251] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianized imperial rule;[252] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed.[253] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century[254] but remained outside the senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children.[255] Monetary reforms[edit] A nummus of Constantine The third century saw runaway inflation associated with the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses, and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver and billon coins. The failure resided in the fact that the silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content, and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this bullion minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis.[256] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces.[257] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency.[258] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople.[259] Executions of Crispus and Fausta[edit] Coin of Crispus Bust of Fausta, Louvre, Paris Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326.[260] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath.[261] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and the memory of both was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all.[262] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable.[263] At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumors to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus–Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities;[264] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection.[265] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected.[264] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "Caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's Caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to Empire, and entirely subordinated to their Augustus, as long as he was alive.[266] Therefore, an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was, perhaps, Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary".[267] Later campaigns[edit] The northern and eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire in the time of Constantine, with the territories acquired in the course of the thirty years of military campaigns between 306 and 337 Gold medallion struck at Nicomedia in 336–337 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of his rule Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328 construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania)[268] in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died[dubious – discuss] before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.[269] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra.[270] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336.[271] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia. In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well.[272] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia himself. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337.[273] Illness and death[edit] The Baptism of Constantine, as imagined by students of Raphael The Constantinian dynasty down to Gratian (r. 367–383) Constantine's daughter Helena and his nephew and son-in-law Julian[citation needed] Constantine's sons and successors: Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself.[274] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill.[275] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit). There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became a catechumen, and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia.[276] He summoned the bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized. He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness. The bishops, Eusebius records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom".[277] He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer.[278] In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy.[279] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible.[280] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.[281] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian the Apostate (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war".[282] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini, an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia;[283] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians;[284] and the Breviarium of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia.[285] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign.[286] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles,[287] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.[288] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, but was destroyed at some point afterwards.[289] Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of Caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian.[290] Legacy[edit] Constantine gained his honorific of "the Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, but he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. He reunited the Empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire.[291] He served for almost 31 years (combining his years as co-ruler and sole ruler), the second longest-serving emperor behind Augustus. In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Trajan, which was originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus. This new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas.[292][293] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.[294] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against heathens. The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[295] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honor of him. A large Cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled.[296] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013.[297] Canonization[edit] The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine), having a feast day on 21 May,[298] and calls him isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles.[299] Historiography[edit] Constantius appoints Constantine as his successor by Peter Paul Rubens, 1622 Constantine the Great by Philip Jackson, York, 1998 Constantine was presented as a paragon of virtue during his lifetime. Pagans showered him with praise, such as Praxagoras of Athens, and Libanius. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed.[300] Following Julian, Eunapius began—and Zosimus continued—a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the Empire through his indulgence to the Christians.[301] Constantine was presented as an ideal ruler during the Middle Ages, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured.[301] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argued that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians.[302] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticized Zosimus, favoring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince.[303] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–89) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus.[304] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch".[305] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power.[306] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius' Vita, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work.[307] Otto Seeck's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–23) and André Piganiol's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency.[308] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism.[309] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones (Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen (Constantine, 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine.[310] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire.[311] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack.[312] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion.[313] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood.[314] Paul Veyne's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity".[315] Donation of Constantine[edit] Main article: Donation of Constantine Latin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, as it undermined the authority of the Papacy, and a legend emerged by the early fourth century that Pope Sylvester I (314–335) had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was soon baptized and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica.[316][317] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the eighth century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II (752–757), in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors.[318] In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III[319] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri.[320] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery.[321] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia[edit] During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd. While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as Emperor in Britain, there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine (Welsh: Custennin). In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester.[322] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalized Historia Regum Britanniae, an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion.[323] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submitted to Roman law so long as he retained his kingship. However, he died only a month later, and Constantius took the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They had their son Constantine, who succeeded his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman Emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain.[47] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena.[323] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Constantinian shift Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Notes[edit] ^ Constantine is not revered as a saint but as “the great” in the Latin Catholic Church[3][4] Eastern Catholic Churches such as the Ukrainian Catholic Church may revere him as a saint.[5] ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab (r. 244–249). See Philip the Arab and Christianity.[7] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death.[9][10] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Birth dates vary, but most modern historians use "c. 272". Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59. ^ "Constantine I | Biography, Accomplishments, Death, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Constantine the Great". www.newadvent.org. ^ "St. Constantine". faith.nd.edu. ^ thehttp://www.stconstantine.org/OurParish/OurPatronSaint/index.php ^ "Saint Constantine Ukrainian Catholic Church - Patron Saint". www.stconstantine.org. ^ I. Shahîd, Rome and the Arabs (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984), 65–93; H. A. Pohlsander, "Philip the Arab and Christianity", Historia 29:4 (1980): 463–73. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York. pp. 54–57. ISBN 0394537785. OCLC 18164817. ^ "Constantine the Great". About.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017. ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 38. ISBN 9781474254670. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium, 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge, 30. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 272. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), p. 14; Cameron, p. 90–91; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), p. 23–25; Cameron, 90–91; Southern, 169. ^ Cameron, 90; Southern, 169. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 14; Corcoran, Empire of the Tetrarchs, 1; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius265–68. ^ Drake, "What Eusebius Knew," 21. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; Odahl, 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 5; Storch, 145–55. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 265–71; Cameron, 90–92; Cameron and Hall, 4–6; Elliott, "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini"", 162–71. ^ Lieu and Montserrat, 39; Odahl, 3. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26; Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3. ^ Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 12–14; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Mackay, 207; Odahl, 9–10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 28–30; Odahl, 4–6. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26–29; Odahl, 5–6. ^ Odahl, 6, 10. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 27–28; Lieu and Montserrat, 2–6; Odahl, 6–7; Warmington, 166–67. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Odahl, 8; Wienand, Kaiser als Sieger, 26–43. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 20–21; Johnson, "Architecture of Empire" (CC), 288–91; Odahl, 11–12. ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 17–21; Odahl, 11–14; Wienand, Kaiser als Sieger, 43–86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3, 39–42; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Odahl, 15; Pohlsander, "Constantine I"; Southern, 169, 341. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 39–42; Elliott, "Constantine's Conversion," 425–6; Elliott, "Eusebian Frauds," 163; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Jones, 13–14; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59; Odahl, 15–16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14; Rodgers, 238–239; Wright, 495, 507. ^ Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian empire. London: Routledge. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5. ^ Gabucci, Ada (2002). Ancient Rome : art, architecture and history. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-89236-656-9. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 16–17. ^ fMacMullen, Constantine, 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13, 290. ^ Drijvers, J.W. Helena Augusta: The Mother of Constantine the Great and the Legend of Her finding the True Cross (Leiden, 1991) 9, 15–17. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59, 83; Odahl, 16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. 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(2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire. [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1. OCLC 1059411020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28–29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; Odahl, 79–80; Rees, 160. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 79–80. ^ Odahl, 79–80. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine, 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier." 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Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 304; Jones, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine, 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine, 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine, 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101–2. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 102, 317–18. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–4. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. 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Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm," Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–78. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus, Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981, p. 44. ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 111. 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Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" (Nova Roma or Nea Rhome). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" (Deutera Rhome) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana. The Age of Constantine and Julian. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978 ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ "Gratian" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. 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Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell, 189 & 191 ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3, pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3, pp. 64–126 ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 258–59. 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NOVOSTI. ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš". 17 January 2013. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 92–93. ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 272–23. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius, Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes (Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall, 1.256; David P. 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ISBN 0-415-91827-8 Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta". Greece and Rome. 45: 70–86. doi:10.1093/gr/45.1.70. Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies. 48 (2): 531–535. doi:10.1093/jts/48.2.531. Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 41: 493–507. doi:10.2307/1291584. JSTOR 1291584. Further reading[edit] Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church. London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great. London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430. London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0. Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9. Percival J. On the Question of Constantine's Conversion to Christianity Archived 14 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Clio History Journal, 2008 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church. San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4. Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos. Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constantine I. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Constantine the Great Library resources about Constantine the Great Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church". Archived from the original (BTM) on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2016. Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). "Constantine (emperors)". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). "Constantine the Great". In Catholic Encyclopedia. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272  Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 with Galerius Licinius Maximinus Daza Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul IV 315 with Licinius Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus Vettius Rufinus Preceded by Licinius Crispus Roman consul V–VI 319–320 with Licinius II Constantine II Succeeded by Crispus Constantine II Preceded by Sex. 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en-wikipedia-org-7828	----	Alexios II Komnenos - Wikipedia Alexios II Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1180 to 1183 For the emperor of Trebizond, see Alexios II of Trebizond. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios II Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of Alexios II (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 24 September 1180 – September 1183 Predecessor Manuel I Komnenos Successor Andronikos I Komnenos Born (1169-09-14)14 September 1169 Constantinople Died September 1183(1183-09-00) (aged 13–14) Constantinople Spouse Anna of France ​ (m. 1180)​ Dynasty Komnenos Father Manuel I Komnenos Mother Maria of Antioch Alexios II Komnenos (Medieval Greek: Αλέξιος Β′ Κομνηνός; 14 September 1169[1][2][3]:64[a] – September 1183), Latinized Alexius II Comnenus, was Byzantine emperor from 1180 to 1183. He ascended to the throne as a minor. For the duration of his short reign, the imperial power was de facto held by regents. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 Regency of Maria and Alexios 1.3 Regency of Andronikos and death 2 Portrayal in fiction 3 Notes 4 References 5 Further reading Biography[edit] Early years[edit] Born in the purple at Constantinople, Alexios was the long-awaited son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (who gave him a name that began with the letter alpha as a fulfillment of the AIMA prophecy) and Maria of Antioch. In 1171 he was crowned co-emperor, and in 1175 he accompanied his father at Dorylaion in Asia Minor in order to have the city rebuilt. On 2 March 1180, at the age of eleven, he was married to Agnes of France aged 10, daughter of King Louis VII of France. She was thereafter known as Anna,[3]:64 and after Alexios' murder three years later, Anna would be remarried to the person responsible, Andronikos, then aged 65. Regency of Maria and Alexios[edit] When Manuel I died in September 1180, Alexios II succeeded him as emperor. At this time, however, he was an uneducated boy with only amusement in mind. The imperial regency was then undertaken by the dowager empress and the prōtosebastos Alexios Komnenos (a namesake cousin of Alexios II), who was popularly believed to be her lover.[4][3]:64 The regents depleted the imperial treasury by granting privileges to Italian merchants and to the Byzantine aristocracy. When Béla III of Hungary and Kilij Arslan II of Rum began raiding within the Byzantine western and eastern borders respectively, the regents were forced to ask for help to the pope and to Saladin. Furthermore, a party supporting Alexios II's right to reign, led by his half-sister Maria Komnene and her husband the caesar John, stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.[4][3]:64 The regents managed to defeat the party on April 1182,[3]:64 but Andronikos Komnenos, a first cousin of Manuel I, took advantage of the disorder to aim at the crown. He entered Constantinople, received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the government. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, especially the Venetian merchants, which he made no attempt to stop.[4][3]:64 The Empire in 1180, when Alexios II became Emperor Regency of Andronikos and death[edit] On 16 May 1182 Andronikos, posing as Alexios' protector, officially restored him on the throne.[3]:64 As for 1180, the young emperor was uninterested in ruling matters, and Andronikos effectively acted as the power behind the throne, not allowing Alexios any voice in public affairs. One after another, Andronikos suppressed most of Alexios' defenders and supporters: his half-sister Maria Komnene, the caesar John, his loyal generals Andronikos Doukas Angelos, Andronikos Kontostephanos and John Komnenos Vatatzes.[4][3]:64 In 1183, Alexios was compelled to condemn his own mother to death. In September 1183, Andronikos was formally proclaimed emperor before the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè. Probably by the end of the same month,[3]:64 Andronikos ordered Alexios’ assassination; the young emperor was secretly strangled with a bow-string and his body buried in the Bósporos.[4][3]:64[6]:641 In the years following Alexios' mysterious disappearance, many young men resembling him tried to claim the throne. In the end, none of those pseudo-Alexioi managed to become emperor.[6]:641–2 Portrayal in fiction[edit] Alexios is a character in the historical novel Agnes of France (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis. The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II, and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. Notes[edit] ^ Alternative dates of birth are 10 September 1169,[4] or a more vague 1168, based on William of Tyre's statement that Alexios was 13 in 1180[5] References[edit] ^ Wirth, Peter (1956), "Wann wurde Kaiser Alexios II. geboren? [When was Emperor Alexios II born?]", Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 49: 65–67, doi:10.1515/byzs.1956.49.1.65, S2CID 193204437 ^ Magoulias, Harry J., translator (1984), O city of Byzantium: annals of Niketas Choniates, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, ISBN 0-8143-1764-2, p. 383 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ a b c d e f  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Bury, John Bagnell (1911). "Alexius II.". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 577. ^ van Dieten, J. L., editor (1975), Nicetae Choniatae historia, Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 169 ^ a b Magdalino, Paul (2008). "The Byzantine empire, 1118–1204". In Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, volume IV, c. 1024–c. 1198, Part II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-41411-1. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexios II Komnenos. Byzantine Empire portal Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Magdalino, Paul (2002) [1993]. The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. Plate, William (1867), "Alexios II Komnenos", in William Smith (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, p. 130 Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Byzantine Research Centre., Vols. A1, A2 & B Alexios II Komnenos Komnenian dynasty Born: 14 September 1169 Died: September 1183 Regnal titles Preceded by Manuel I Komnenos Byzantine emperor 1180–1183 Succeeded by Andronikos I Komnenos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. 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en-wikipedia-org-784	----	Vespasian - Wikipedia Vespasian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 69 to 79 For other uses, see Vespasian (disambiguation). Roman emperor Vespasian Roman emperor Reign 1 July 69[1] – 23/24 June 79 Predecessor Vitellius Successor Titus Born Titus Flavius Vespasianus 17 November 9 AD[2] Falacrinum, Italy Died 23/24 June 79 (aged 69)[5] Aquae Cutiliae Burial Rome Spouse Domitilla the Elder (died before 69) Caenis (mistress and de facto wife c. 65–74) Issue Detail Titus Domitilla the Younger Domitian Regnal name Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus[6] Dynasty Flavian Father Titus Flavius Sabinus Mother Vespasia Polla Vespasian (/vɛˈspeɪʒ(i)ən, -ziən/; Latin: Vespasianus [wɛs.pasiˈa:nʊs]; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The fourth and last in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for 27 years. Vespasian was the first emperor from an equestrian family and only rose into the senatorial rank as the first member of his family later in his lifetime. Vespasian's renown came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66.[7] While Vespasian besieged Jerusalem during the Jewish rebellion, emperor Nero committed suicide and plunged Rome into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Roman Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander, the emperor on 1 July 69.[8] In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, and Primus, a general in Pannonia, leaving his son Titus to command the besieging forces at Jerusalem. Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate.[9] Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of Rome after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Roman Colosseum. Through his general Agricola, Vespasian increased imperial expansion in Britain. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty. Contents 1 Family 2 Military and political career 2.1 Early career 2.2 Invasion of Britannia (43) 2.3 Later political career (51–66) 2.4 First Jewish–Roman War (66–69) 3 Year of the Four Emperors (69) 4 Emperor (69–79) 4.1 Aftermath of the civil war 4.2 Arrival in Rome and gathering support 4.3 Propaganda campaign 4.4 Construction and conspiracies 4.5 Roman expansion in Britain (78–79) 4.6 Death (79) 5 Legacy 6 Portraits 7 Ancestry 8 Family tree 9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 11.1 Primary sources 11.2 Secondary sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Family[edit] Vespasian (born Titus Flavius Vespasianus, pronounced [ˈt̪ɪt̪ʊs ˈfɫaːwijʊs wɛs.pasiˈjaːnʊs]) was born in a village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae.[10] His family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. His paternal grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, became the first to distinguish himself, rising to the rank of centurion and fighting at Pharsalus for Pompey in 48 BC. Subsequently, he became a debt collector.[11] Petro's son, Titus Flavius Sabinus, worked as a customs official in the province of Asia and became a moneylender on a small scale among the Helvetii. He gained a reputation as a scrupulous and honest "tax-farmer". Sabinus married up in status, to Vespasia Polla, whose father had risen to the rank of prefect of the camp and whose brother became a Senator.[11] Sabinus and Vespasia had three children, the eldest of whom, a girl, died in infancy. The elder boy, Titus Flavius Sabinus, entered public life and pursued the cursus honorum. He served in the army as a military tribune in Thrace in 36. The following year he was elected quaestor and served in Creta et Cyrenaica. He rose through the ranks of Roman public office, being elected aedile on his second attempt in 39 and praetor on his first attempt in 40, taking the opportunity to ingratiate himself with the Emperor Caligula.[11] The younger boy, Vespasian, seemed far less likely to be successful, initially not wishing to pursue high public office. He followed in his brother's footsteps when driven to it by his mother's taunting.[11] During this period he married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of Flavius Liberalis from Ferentium and formerly the mistress of Statilius Capella, a Roman equestrian from Sabratha in Africa.[12] They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born c. 45). His wife Domitilla and his daughter Domitilla both died before Vespasian became Emperor in 69. After the death of his wife, Vespasian's long-standing mistress, Antonia Caenis, became his wife in all but formal status, a relationship that continued until she died in 75.[11] Military and political career[edit] This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Vespasian" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Vespasian leading his forces against the Jewish revolt, a miniature in a 1470 illuminated manuscript version of the history of Josephus Early career[edit] In preparation for a praetorship, Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minor magistracies, one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate, the minor magistracies, most probably in one of the posts in charge of street cleaning.[13] His early performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls of muck down his toga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility.[11] During the period of the ascendancy of Sejanus, there is no record of Vespasian's significant activity in political events. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian was entitled to stand for election as quaestor; a senatorial office. But his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete, rather than as assistant to important men in Rome.[13] Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying the Imperium, but non-patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as an aedile or tribune. Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-woman Antonia Caenis, confidential secretary to Antonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of the circle of courtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success.[13] Invasion of Britannia (43)[edit] Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of Legio II Augusta, stationed in Germania, thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus. In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command of Aulus Plautius. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through the modern counties of Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset. Vespasian marched from Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) to subdue the hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes,[14] captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts, including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on his return to Rome. Later political career (51–66)[edit] Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to put down the Jewish revolt, 66 AD (depiction of 1503) His success as the legate of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius' wife, Agrippina who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign.[11] He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province. According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4), he was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips. Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (muleteer).[15] Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor's recitals on the lyre, and found himself in the political wilderness. First Jewish–Roman War (66–69)[edit] Main article: First Jewish–Roman War Vespasian sestertius, struck in 71 to celebrate the victory in the first Jewish-Roman war. Obverse: IMP. CAES. VESPASIAN AVG. P. M., TR. P., P. P., COS. III. The legend on the reverse says: IVDEA CAPTA, "Judaea conquered" – S. C. In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea. The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus, the governor of Syria, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and ten auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived from Alexandria with another. During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish resistance leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat, who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in his Antiquities of the Jews, as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notorious Herod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize. While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis, accompanied by Vespasian, destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran), fettered them, and threw them into the Dead Sea to test the sea's legendary buoyancy. Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats. Josephus (as well as Tacitus), reporting on the conclusion of the Jewish war, reported a prophecy that around the time when Jerusalem and the Second Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation, viz. the Messiah, would become governor "of the habitable earth". Josephus interpreted the prophecy to denote Vespasian and his appointment as emperor in Judea.[16][17] Year of the Four Emperors (69)[edit] This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Vespasian" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Year of the Four Emperors Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Four Emperors Chronology Galba 68–69 Otho 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasian69–79 Succession Preceded by Julio-Claudian dynasty Followed by Flavian dynasty v t e After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year of civil wars. Galba was murdered by supporters of Otho, who was defeated by Vitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of omens and oracles that reinforced this belief.[18] Map of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus.[dubious – discuss] Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals. Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of the most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefect Tiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July.[19] Nevertheless, Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had Rome's best troops on his side – the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland. But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia, Pannonia, and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him the de facto master of half of the Roman world. While Vespasian himself was in Egypt securing its grain supply, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus. They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him in Mevania) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and Vespasian's brother Sabinus was killed by a mob. At Alexandria, on receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death, the new emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently-needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. While in Egypt, he visited the Temple of Serapis where he reportedly experienced a vision. Later, he was confronted by two labourers, who were convinced that he possessed a divine power that could work miracles. The praefectus Aegypti was Tiberius Julius Alexander, who had been governor since Nero's reign.[20]:13 He proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD.[20]:13 The prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to Philo of Alexandria.[20]:13 The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae, lit. 'key to the grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire.[20]:13 Vespasian was the first emperor (and pharaoh) since Augustus to appear in Egypt.[21]:13 At the hippodrome of Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh; recalling the welcome of Alexander the Great at the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon of the Siwa Oasis, Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon), in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.[21]:13–14 As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, thereby miraculously healing him.[21]:14 (This Egyptian tradition of healing is related to the healing the man blind from birth, one of the miracles of Jesus of Nazareth.)[21]:14 Emperor (69–79)[edit] Aftermath of the civil war[edit] Roman imperial dynasties Flavian dynasty Chronology Vespasian 69–79 AD Titus 79–81 AD Domitian 81–96 AD Family Gens Flavia Flavian tree Category:Flavian dynasty Succession Preceded by Year of the Four Emperors Followed by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate while he was in Egypt on 21 December 69; the Egyptians had declared him emperor in the summer. In the short-term, administration of the empire was given to Mucianus who was aided by Vespasian's son, Domitian. Mucianus started off Vespasian's rule with tax reform that was to restore the empire's finances. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible.[22] Vespasian and Mucianus renewed old taxes and instituted new ones, increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not stink") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Before Vespasian, this tax was imposed by Emperor Nero under the name of "vectigal urinae" in the 1st century AD. However the tax was removed after a while, it was re-enacted by Vespasian around 70 AD in order to fill the treasury.[23][24] Vespasian's policy was not well received by his son. Writing about Vespasian in their history books, Dio Cassius and Suetonius mentioned "When [Vespasian's] son Titus blamed him for even laying a tax upon urine, he applied to his nose a piece of the money he received in the first instalment, and asked him if it stunk. And he replying no, 'And yet,' said he, 'it is derived from urine". Since then, this phrase "Money does not stink" has been used to whitewash dubious or illegal origin of money.[25][26][23][24][27][28][29] In early 70 Vespasian was still in Egypt, the source of Rome's grain supply, and had not yet left for Rome. According to Tacitus, his trip was delayed due to bad weather.[30] Modern historians theorize that Vespasian had been and was continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[31] Stories of a divine Vespasian healing people circulated in Egypt.[32] During this period, protests erupted in Alexandria over his new tax policies and grain shipments were held up. Vespasian eventually restored order and grain shipments to Rome resumed.[22] In addition to the uprising in Egypt, unrest and civil war continued in the rest of the empire in 70. Judea had been rebelling since 66. Vespasian's son, Titus, finally subdued the rebellion with the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70. According to Eusebius, Vespasian then ordered all descendants of the royal line of David to be hunted down, causing the Jews to be persecuted from province to province. Several modern historians have suggested that Vespasian, already having been told by Josephus that he was prophesied to become emperor whilst in Judaea, was probably reacting to other widely known Messianic prophecies circulating at the time, to suppress any rival claimants arising from that dynasty.[33] Titus attended the consecration of a new Apis bull at Memphis in 70, and Vespasian's reign saw imperial patronage given to Egyptian temples: at the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert as well as Esna, Kom Ombo, Medinet Habu, Silsila in the Nile Valley.[21]:14 By contrast, the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was sacked in 73.[21]:14 In January 70, an uprising occurred in Gaul and Germany, known as the second Batavian Rebellion. This rebellion was headed by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus. Sabinus, claiming he was descended from Julius Caesar, declared himself Emperor of Gaul. The rebellion defeated and absorbed two Roman legions before it was suppressed by Vespasian's brother-in-law, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, by the end of 70. Arrival in Rome and gathering support[edit] In mid-70, Vespasian first went to Rome, dating his tribunician years from 1 July 69.[9] Vespasian immediately embarked on a series of efforts to stay in power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to many in the military and much of the public.[34] Soldiers loyal to Vitellius were dismissed or punished.[35] Vespasian also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies.[36] Regional autonomy of Greek provinces was repealed.[37] Additionally, Vespasian made significant attempts to control public perception of his rule. Propaganda campaign[edit] Roman aureus depicting Vespasian as Emperor. The reverse shows the goddess Fortuna. Caption: IMP. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / FORTVNA AVG. We know from Suetonius that the "unexpected and still quite new emperor was lacking auctoritas [English: backing, support] and a certain maiestas [English: majesty]".[38] Many modern historians note the increased amount of propaganda that appeared during Vespasian's reign.[39] Stories of a supernatural emperor who was destined to rule circulated in the empire.[15] Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace.[40] The word vindex was removed from coins so as not to remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors.[41] A temple of peace was constructed in the forum as well.[36] Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, ensuring biases against him were removed.[42] Vespasian also gave financial rewards to writers.[43] The ancient historians who lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius and Josephus speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors who came before him.[44] Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and saviour. Meanwhile, Pliny the Elder dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus.[45] Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.[46] Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.[47] Numerous other philosophers and writers have had their works seized, destroyed and denounced for being deemed too critical of Vespasian's reign, some even posthumously.[47] Construction and conspiracies[edit] Relief depicting an animal sacrifice, from an altar of the Temple of Vespasian in Pompeii Between 71 and 79, much of Vespasian's reign is a mystery. Historians report that Vespasian ordered the construction of several buildings in Rome. Additionally, he survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war. He added the temple of Peace and the temple to the Deified Claudius.[36] In 75, he erected a colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero, and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. He also began construction of the Colosseum, using funds from the spoils of the Jewish Temple after the Siege of Jerusalem.[48] Suetonius claims that Vespasian was met with "constant conspiracies" against him.[49] Only one conspiracy is known specifically, though. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to kill Vespasian. Why these men turned against Vespasian is not known. Roman expansion in Britain (78–79)[edit] Agricola was sent to Britain in 78, where he both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion in that province, pushing his way into what is now Scotland. Death (79)[edit] In his ninth consulship Vespasian had a slight illness in Campania and, returning at once to Rome, he left for Aquae Cutiliae and the country around Reate, where he spent every summer; however, his illness worsened and he developed severe diarrhea. Feeling death coming on, he reportedly called out "Vae, puto deus fio." ("Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god").[50] Then, according to Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars: In his ninth consulship he had a slight illness in Campania, and returning at once to the city, he left for Cutiliae and the country about Reate, where he spent the summer every year. There, in addition to an increase in his illness, having contracted a bowel complaint by too free use of the cold waters, he nevertheless continued to perform his duties as emperor, even receiving embassies as he lay in bed. Taken on a sudden with such an attack of diarrhoea that he all but swooned, he said: "An emperor ought to die standing," and while he was struggling to get on his feet, he died in the arms of those who tried to help him, on the ninth day before the Kalends of July [June 23], at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven days. — Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Life of Vespasian" §24[51] He was succeeded by his sons Titus and then Domitian. Legacy[edit] Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, was begun by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Vespasian was known for his wit and his amiable manner alongside his commanding personality and military prowess. He could be liberal to impoverished Senators and equestrians and to cities and towns desolated by natural calamity. He was especially generous to men of letters and rhetors, several of whom he pensioned with salaries of as much as 1,000 gold pieces a year. Quintilian is said to have been the first public teacher who enjoyed this imperial favor. Pliny the Elder's work, the Natural History, was written during Vespasian's reign, and dedicated to Vespasian's son Titus.[52] Vespasian distrusted philosophers in general. It was the talk of philosophers, who liked to glorify the Republic, that provoked Vespasian into reviving the obsolete penal laws against this profession as a precautionary measure. Only one, Helvidius Priscus, was put to death after he had repeatedly affronted the Emperor by studied insults which Vespasian had initially tried to ignore.[53] The philosopher Demetrius was banished to an island and when Vespasian heard Demetrius was still criticizing him, he sent the exiled philosopher the message: "You are doing everything to force me to kill you, but I do not slay a barking dog."[54] According to Suetonius, Vespasian "bore the frank language of his friends, the quips of pleaders, and the impudence of the philosophers with the greatest patience". He was also noted for his benefactions to the people. Much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: the Temple of Peace (also known as the Forum of Vespasian), new public baths[55] and the great show piece, the Colosseum.[56] Vespasian debased the denarius during his reign, reducing the silver purity from 93.5% to 90% – the silver weight dropping from 2.97 grams to 2.87 grams.[57] In modern Romance languages, urinals are named after him (for example, vespasiano in Italian, and vespasienne in French),[58] probably in reference to a tax he placed on urine collection (useful due to its ammoniac content; see Pay toilet). Portraits[edit] Portrait bust of Vespasian wearing the civic crown, Palazzo Massimo, Rome Portrait bust of Vespasian from Ostia, 69–79 AD, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome Bust of Vespasian, Pushkin Museum, Moscow Bust of Vespasian, c. 80 AD, Farnese Collection, Naples National Archaeological Museum Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Vespasian 4. Titus Flavius Petro 2. Titus Flavius Sabinus 5. Tertulla 1. Titus Flavius Vespasianus 6. Vespasius Pollio 3. Vespasia Polla Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar See also[edit] Stele of Vespasian List of Jewish messiah claimants Pecunia non olet References[edit] ^ Scott, Kenneth (1932). "On Suetonius' Life of Vespasian 12". Classical Philology. 27 (1): 83. ISSN 0009-837X. His tribunician power was reckoned from July 1, 69, the day when he was proclaimed emperor by the army ^ Levick, p. 4 ^ Suetonius, Titus 11: "[He died] two years two months and twenty days after succeeding Vespasian". ^ Cassius Dio LXVI.18: "For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days". ^ Suetonius gives 23 June. However, he also states that he died "at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months and seven day", which actually gives a death date of 24 June. Cassius Dio (66.17) states that he "reigned ten years lacking six days", i.e. he died on 25/24 June. Both authors date Titus' ascension on 24 June.[3][4] Assuming Vespasian died on 24 June, then Suetonius' VIIII. Kal. Iul. is a corruption of VIII. Kal. Iul., but there is no evidence to support this. ^ Cooley, p. 490. ^ Levick, pp. 16–38. ^ Levick, p. 43. ^ a b Roberts (2007). ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 2 ^ a b c d e f g Morgan (2006), 170–3 ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 3 ^ a b c Levick (1999) ^ A History of Britain, Richard Dargie (2007), p. 20 ^ a b Suetonius, Vesp. 4–5 ^ Josephus, War of the Jews 6.5.4 ^ Tacitus, Histories 5.13 ^ Cassius Dio Roman History LXV.1 ^ Caldwell, Thomas (2015). The Career of Licinius Mucianus (MA), 118–149. ^ a b c d Ritner, Robert K. (1998). "Egypt under Roman rule: the legacy of ancient Egypt". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). Islamic Egypt 640–1517. The Cambridge History of Egypt. 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1017/chol9780521471374.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05337-2. Retrieved 26 January 2021. ^ a b c d e f Ritner, Robert K. (1998). "Egypt under Roman rule: the legacy of ancient Egypt". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). Islamic Egypt 640–1517. The Cambridge History of Egypt. 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1017/chol9780521471374.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05337-2. Retrieved 26 January 2021. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXV.2 ^ a b "Feeling Overtaxed? The Romans Would Tax Your Urine". National Geographic News. 14 April 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ a b Hill, Bryan. "Money Does Not Stink: The Urine Tax of Ancient Rome". Ancient Origins. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, by C. Suetonius Tranquillus;". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ "Dion Cassius: Histoire Romaine : livre LXVIII (bilingue)". remacle.org. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ "At Least You Don't Pay Urine Tax… (1st C AD) – Ancient History Blog". Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ "ItalianNotebook – Vespasian's Legacy". www.italiannotebook.com. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ HeritageDaily (4 May 2016). "The Romans created a tax on urine". HeritageDaily – Archaeology News. Retrieved 4 March 2019. ^ Tacitus, Histories IV ^ Sullivan, Phillip, "A Note on Flavian Accession", The Classical Journal, 1953, p. 67-70 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.8–9 ^ e.g., Paul Barnett, Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity p. 31; 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, "JEWS". ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.10 ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 8 ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 9 ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 8; Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.41 ^ Suet., Vesp. 7.2. ^ M. P. Charleswroth, "Flaviana", Journal of Roman Studies 27 (1938) 54–62 ^ Jones, William "Some Thoughts on the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian", The Classical Journal, p. 251 ^ Aqueduct and roads dedication speak of previous emperors' neglect, CIL vi, 1257(ILS 218) and 931 ^ Josephus, Against Apion 9 ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 18 ^ "Otho, Vitellius, and the Propaganda of Vespasian", The Classical Journal (1965), p. 267-269 ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1; Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus 72; Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, preface. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.12 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.13 ^ ALFÖLDY, GÉZA (1995). "Eine Bauinschrift Aus Dem Colosseum". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 109: 195–226. ^ Suetonius, Vesp. 25 ^ Suetonius, Life of Vespasian, 23:4 ^ "C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Divus Vespasianus, chapter 24". LacusCurtius. Retrieved 29 April 2020. ^ Plin., HN pref. ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Vespasian 15 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book XVI, 13 ^ Fagan, Garrett G. (31 May 2002). Bathing in public in the Roman world. University of Michigan Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0472088652. ^ Gunderson 2003: 640 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ ICI.Radio-Canada.ca, Zone Politique -. "Plus de 3 M$ pour une douzaine de " vespasiennes " modernes". Radio-Canada.ca. Retrieved 29 September 2017.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vespasian". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Tacitus, Histories, English translation Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian, Latin text with English translation Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 64, 65 and 66, Latin text with English translation Flavius Josephus, The War of the Jews, Books 2, 3 and 4, English translation Secondary sources[edit] Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Lissner, I. (1958). "Power and Folly: The Story of the Caesars". Jonathan Cape Ltd., London. Morgan, Gwyn (2006). 69 A. D. The Year of the Four Emperors. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 170–173. ISBN 9780195124682. Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16618-8. Roberts, J., ed. (2007). Vespasian (Titus Flāvius Vespāsiānus). Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191727061. Caldwell, T. (2015). The Career of Licinius Mucianus (MA). The University of Melbourne. hdl:11343/91093. Further reading[edit] De Imperatoribus Romanis, biography Entry on Vespasian in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Private collection of coins minted by Vespasian The Cipherment of the Franks Casket; A. Simmons; Vespasian is depicted on the back side of the Franks Casket External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vespasian. Vespasian Flavian dynasty Born: 17 November CE 9  Died: 23 June CE 79 Political offices Preceded by Vitellius Roman Emperor 69–79 Succeeded by Titus Preceded by Gaius Quintius Atticus Gnaeus Caecilius Simplex Consul of the Roman Empire 70–72 with Titus (70) Nerva (71) Titus (72) Succeeded by Domitian Lucius Valerius Catullus Messallinus Preceded by Domitian Lucius Valerius Catullus Messallinus Consul of the Roman Empire 74–77 with Titus Succeeded by Decimus Iunius Novius Priscus Rufus Lucius Ceionius Commodus Verus Preceded by Decimus Iunius Novius Priscus Rufus Lucius Ceionius Commodus Consul of the Roman Empire 79 with Titus Succeeded by Titus Domitian v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-7878	----	Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus - Wikipedia Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman official, soldier and praetorian prefect (190-243) This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Vir Eminentissimus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus Born 190 Greek-speaking Orient? Died 243 Provincia Mesopotamiae Nationality Roman Occupation Imperial Official and soldier Years active AD 210(?)-243 Employer Roman Emperors Caracalla and Elagabalus, Alexander Severus, Maximinus Thrax and Gordian III Organization Imperial Administration Known for Fiscal expertise and generalship Title Praefectus Praetorio (under Gordian III) Term 240-3 AD Predecessor Domitius Successor M. Julius Philippus (later Emperor 'Philip the Arab' Children Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Relatives The Emperor Gordian III (son-in-law)[1] Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus[a] (AD 190-243) was an officer of the Roman Imperial government in the first half of Third Century. Most likely of Oriental-Greek origins, he was a Roman citizen, probably of equestrian rank. He began his career in the Imperial Service as the commander of a cohort of auxiliary infantry and rose to become Praetorian Prefect, the highest office in the Imperial hierarchy, with both civilian and military functions. His brilliant career reflected his mastery of contemporary cultural norms and his reputation for administrative competence, but also his ability to access patronage at the highest level. His official life was spent mainly in fiscal postings and he typified the powerful procuratorial functionaries[b] who came to dominate the Imperial government in the second quarter of the Third Century. Nevertheless, as Praetorian Prefect, he also seems to have proved himself more than competent in his military role. Although he was on several occasions appointed to positions that contemporary Administrative Law reserved for officials of senatorial rank, he remained an equestrian until the end: it is possible that he deliberately avoided adlection to the Roman Senate preferring to exercise real power in offices from which senators were excluded. Unlike his successor in the Praetorian Prefecture, Philip the Arab, he did not take advantage of the youth and inexperience of his Imperial master (and son-in-law), Gordian III, to seize the Empire for himself. He either died of illness or was murdered, in the course of a successful campaign against the Sasanians under king Shapur I in Mesopotamia. Upon his death, the war against the Persians that he had directed so masterfully fell almost immediately into disarray to the long-term detriment of the Empire. Contents 1 Origins and social status 2 Career 2.1 Early days 2.2 Death of Alexander Severus 2.3 Fall of Maximinus Thrax 2.4 Return to Rome 2.5 Reputation as Praetorian Prefect 2.6 Achievements in office 2.7 The Persian menace 3 The death of Timesitheus 4 Summation 5 Family tree 6 Nerva–Antonine family tree 7 Notes 8 References 9 WORKS CITED Origins and social status[edit] "Timesitheus" is a cognomen which suggests that the bearer was ethnically a Greek. However, Timesitheus's praenomen and nomen (i.e. "Gaius" and "Furius Sabinius" respectively) indicate long-established Roman citizenship and a family that was well-integrated into the élite classes of the Empire although it is otherwise unknown. Such enthusiasm to be associated with the Imperial power was not unknown in the case of ambitious Greek families.[c] His origins could have been anywhere in the eastern provinces where Greek, rather than Latin, was the dominant culture. Somewhere in Asia (i.e. the region that roughly coincides with modern Turkey) is a possibility. However, as will be seen, his early career supports the notion that he may have had some connection to the Severan Dynasty, in particular the "Syrian Princesses".[d] This could indicate that his origins were in the Oriens - i.e. the modern Levant /Arabia.[7] Despite the obscurity of his family background, his reputation and his achievements suggest that he benefitted from an excellent classical education.[e] His parents were almost certainly wealthy and, most likely, of equestrian status. Career[edit] Early days[edit] An inscription from a statue set up to honour Timesitheus in Lugdunum in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis (Lyons, France) charts his cursus prior to his appointment as Praetorian Prefect listing the following offices:[8] Praefectus Cohortis I Gallicae (commander of Cohors I Gallic (auxiliary) infantry) in the province of Hispania Tarraconensis (Mediterranean Spain). Timesitheus held this office either late in the reign of the Emperor Septimius Severus or, under his son, Caracalla. The appointment was a typical first step for an equestrian seeking a career in the Imperial Service under the so-called Tres militiae system. Under that system Timesitheus might have been expected to go on to two additional junior military prefectures, firstly of a legionary cohort and then of an ala (Roman cavalry unit). Only then would most aspiring equestrian functionaries have been considered eligible for appointment as a procurator (financial administrator), the usual first step to high office in the Equestrian Service. However, Timesitheus seems to have missed out these two stages in the equestrian cursus and is next recorded as the Procurator Rationis Privatae (superintendent of the private properties of the Imperial Family) in the provinces of Belgica (north-east Gaul),Germania Inferior (the northern section of the Roman-controlled Rhineland) and Germania Superior (the southern section of the Roman Rhineland).[f] He probably held this office under Caracalla.[g] This position carried the equestrian rank of sexagenarius, indicating that he had thus became a member of that class of equestrian functionaries who were paid a nominal salary of 60,000ss/annum;[h] his next recorded appointment was as Procurator provinciae Arabiae (financial administrator of the province of Arabia Petraea). With this posting Timesitheus became a centenarius (nominal salary 100,000ss/annum). In addition to his procuratorship he also served on two occasions (218 and 222 AD)[10]) as vice praeses of the province - i.e., he acted as its governor (in place of a senatorial legatus). In this capacity he would have commanded Legio III Cyrenaica.[i] Timesitheus was en poste as acting-governor in 222 AD and may have played a part in the overthrow of the equestrian usurper Marcus Opellius Macrinus in favour of Elagabalus.[11] This service to the Severan dynasty might explain his continued rise under the regime of the "Syrian Princesses" who would certainly have been responsible for his appointment as; Procurator in urbe Magister XX heredatium (collector of the one-twentieth - 5% - tax on inheritances in Rome), a post conferring ducenarius rank (salary 200.000ss/annum), and, at the same time, Logista Thymelae (Superintendent of the Imperial Theatre Properties).[12] The office of Magister XX heredatium was an important financial post requiring expert administration. However, as holder of that office and that of logista Timesitheus also became a member of the court-circle. That may well have been the main object of the Syrian Princesses in securing him these appointments - to move a man who had proved his loyalty to them into a position where he would be able to exert influence on their behalf in areas well beyond the limits of the job-descriptions pertaining to his specific offices. As far as Timesitheus's career was concerned, his access to Imperial patronage as a palatinus, or courtier, would have effectively set him above less-favoured ducenarii officials in the competition for procuratorial postings; there followed two important appointments which were associated with the two major wars fought by Alexander Severus, first against the renascent Persian Empire (232 AD)[j] and then against the league of German Peoples who were to become known to the Romans as the Alemanni (234-5 AD)[k] in which Timesitheus's assorted military and procuratorial competencies would, perhaps, have been particularly useful to the regime. The first of these appointments was as Procurator provinciae Syriae Palaestinae ibi Exactor Reliquorum Annonae Sacrae Expeditionis (Procurator of Syria Palaestina with particular responsibility for collecting the balance of the taxes-in-kind (annonae) levied in support of the "Sacred War;[l] and then Procurator patrimoni provinciarum Belgica et duarum Germaniarum ibi vice praesidis provinciae Germaniae Inferioris (Administrator of the Imperial Patrimonial Domains, viz., the estates that belonged to the Imperial Office as opposed to the private estates of the Severan Dynasty) in Belgica and the two Germanies (Germania Inferior and Germania Superior). While holding that office he was also made vice praesidis (Acting Governor) of Germania Inferior - the lower Roman Rhineland - in which capacity he commanded the two legions stationed in that province during Alexander Severus's German war. (To make it possible for Timesitheus to be put in command of these legions while retaining his equestrian status was probably the main object of Julia Mammaea in securing him the procuratorial appointment: it provides yet further evidence of the trust she had in him. Whether or not he actually saw action in that abortive conflict with the Alemanni is unknown.) That Timesitheus remained an equestrian when he might well have been adlected to the senate and, thus, been eligible to be appointed as the praetorian legatus of Lower Germany instead of just a vicar - i.e., one who acted on behalf of (vice) such an officer - was probably his choice. It is likely that he had already set his sights on the Praetorian Prefecture which was the most powerful position available to a subject under the Roman polity in the Third Century AD. That object of his ambitions would have been denied him under the prevailing Roman Administrative Law had he become a senator.[13] Death of Alexander Severus[edit] The mutiny of the army in Germany that resulted in the murder Alexander Severus and his dominating mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, and their replacement by Maximinus Thrax might have been expected to set back the career of a man who had been so closely associated with the Severan Dynasty and with Mamaea herself. However, not only did Timesitheus survive, but his career continued to prosper. Under the new regime he became Procurator provinciae Bithyniae Ponti Paphlagoniae tam patrimoni quam rationis privatae ibi vice procuratoris XXXX, item vice proco(n)sulis - i.e. fiscal administrator of the Asiatic Black Sea provinces of Bithynia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia with particular responsibility for managing the Imperial domains, both patrimonial and private. In addition, he was made acting procurator responsible for the collection of the custom duties levied at one-fortieth ad valorem. As in his previous posting in Germania he was also appointed acting proconsul - i.e., governor of these provinces - thus replacing a senatorial appointee (this time of consular status) for whom that office would normally have been reserved. Whatever reservations Maximinus Thrax may have entertained regarding Timesitheus's loyalties, his need for money to finance his German wars obviously did not allow him the luxury of foregoing the financial and administrative expertise the man could bring to his government of the Empire. (At the time - viz., before the assaults on this region mounted by barbarians from the lands to the north of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov that were to characterise the middle years of the Third Century[m] - the provinces given over to Timesitheus's care were among the richest in the Roman world). However, it may be indicative of the emperor's reservations that, whereas in Germany Timesitheus had commanded two legions, he now had none, Asia consisting of provinciae inermes - i.e., provinces where there were no Imperial troops permanently in garrison.[14][n][o] Fall of Maximinus Thrax[edit] The mutiny of his army at Aquileia that brought an end to the regime of Maximinus Thrax also ended Timesitheus's term as the governor of Asia. However, he was soon employed again, this time as procurator provinciarum Lugdunensis et Aquitainicae - i.e. procurator of the two largest Gallic provinces: it would seem that he retained powerful friends in Rome despite his willingness to enter into accommodation with the military tyrant that the Senate had successfully faced down and that his administrative talents were too useful to be gainsaid. Admittedly, on this occasion he was not made an acting-governor; indeed, while procurator of Lugdunensis and Aquitainica he was, nominally at least, demoted to the rank of ducenarius. It could be that influential senators — who mistrusted equestrians who got above their social station and particularly resented brilliant high-fliers such as Timesitheus — may have intended this downgrade of his official ranking as a snub. As already intimated, however, Timesitheus is unlikely to have been either disturbed or impressed.[p] Return to Rome[edit] Timesitheus seems to have used his position in the government of the Gauls to cultivate the leaders of Gallic society.[17] The Lyons Inscription (already mentioned) refers to him as optimus patronus (i.e. Best of Patrons) which implies that when his term of office came to an end he returned to Rome as an ambassador representing the interests the Gallic provinces. This would have facilitated his renewed access to the Imperial Court. As already indicated, Timesitheus was much admired for his culture and learning - for which much could be forgiven in Roman Society - and his rhetorical prowess no doubt did much to restore his reputation and influence with senior courtiers and senators who were dominant in Imperial politics in the early years of the reign of Gordian III.[17] So complete was his return to favour that, not long after his return to the City, he succeeded in marrying his daughter, Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, to Gordian, and was afterwards appointed his Praetorian Prefect, probably the consummation of his life's ambition. It has been suggested that the appointment of her father as his first minister and senior general was the Emperor's wedding-present to his young bride: there is no reason to suppose that Timesitheus had to serve terms in any of the other great Equestrian Offices of the Imperial Service (i.e. the Watch, the Corn Supply and the Government of Egypt) often regarded as necessary precursors to the Praetorian Prefecture before this appointment was bestowed upon him.[18] Reputation as Praetorian Prefect[edit] Timesitheus served as Praetorian Prefect for some three years from 241 until his death in 243. The only narrative source on his term of office is the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (SHA) and, as already noted, the author of the Vita Tres Gordiani could hardly have been more fulsome in singing his praises, both as the father-in-law of the young emperor and as the protector of the Empire. This generous assessment is supported by two citations of supposed correspondence between Timesitheus and Gordian (probably invented) and a number of topoi familiarly used in Latin historiography to define a worthy servant of the state - i.e. a crackdown on sale of offices by members of the palatini,[q] care for the defence of the frontiers and exemplary behaviour in his capacity as commander of the Praetorian Guard. The favourable view of Timesitheus's term of office entertained by the SHA is not challenged by modern scholars - although the inadequacy of the data is acknowledged.[19] Achievements in office[edit] Much of the first two years of Timesitheus's prefecture seems to have been spent producing a stable environment in which government of any sort could be carried on. His main means to this end seems to have been strengthening the authority of the Praetorian Prefecture—his own office—and to move equestrians with a fiscal background, such as himself, into positions of power.[r] The main effect of his manoeuvering seems to have been to ensure that the kind of men who had carried on the government under Alexander Severus were restored to effective office.[20] The principal challenges to his conduct of affairs seem to have been posed by senators such as Sabinianus, the governor of Africa Proconsularis, whose revolt had to be put down by the equestrian governor of Mauretania, and Tullus Menophilus, the hero of the Siege of Aquileia. The latter was executed in 241 for reasons not properly understood and to have suffered the further penalty of damnatio memoriae - i.e., formal obliteration of his name from the historical record. Details of Timesitheus' policies and achievements as the (probable) de facto ruler of the Empire during the reign of his son-in-law are sparse. There is evidence of substantial road repairs undertaken in many parts of the Roman World which would have been of economic and strategic significance. Monuments were restored in major cities which might have lifted civilian morale as well as providing employment for sculptors, stonemasons etc. It also seems that there was a thoroughgoing adjustment of the African frontier.[21] It is not possible to tell how far such measures reflected policy guidelines issued by Timesitheus' office to provincial authorities, still less what detailed planning was carried out there. The most that can be said with any confidence is that he does not seem to have stood in the way of functionaries, such as the procurator of Mauretania, who conceived and drove forward such works. The Persian menace[edit] His main concern as the Emperor's principal minister and adviser was in dealing with the threat to the oriental provinces posed by the renascent power of Persia under one of its most effective "Kings of Kings", Shapur I. Shapur's ambitions when he succeeded his father Ardashir in 240 were no doubt inflated by his initial successes, but there also seems no doubt that he was determined to: (i) secure strategic control of the minor states of eastern Mesopotamia that controlled access to Roman Syria across the eastern desert frontier west of the River Euphrates; and (ii) replace Rome as the hegemonic power in the Kingdom of Armenia. During the reign of Maximinus, Rome had suffered the loss of considerable territories in Mesopotamia to Ardashir which the Roman Emperor had been unable to prevent or avenge because of his internal distractions: on his accession, Shapur renewed the onslaught, capturing more of the Mesopotamian fortresses and penetrating Syria itself, where Antioch, the capital of the Roman east, may have come under threat. More seriously, perhaps, the confidence of Rome's governing elite that the Empire was capable of seeing off the Persian threat to the Oriens was seriously undermined.[22] In the first two years of his prefecture, Timesitheus was not able to give his attention to the threat to Rome's territories in the east posed by Shapur, but in 242 he began to organise a response appropriate to the magnitude of the crisis. Under his supervision, a powerful army was put together consisting of vexillationes from the garrisons of the Rhine and Danube provinces. This expeditionary force seems to have been very well-equipped and financed. Neither did Timesitheus neglect the issue of morale. For the last time in recorded history, war was declared with traditional Roman formalities from the temple of Janus. More significantly, before he left Rome with the Emperor, Timesitheus addressed the concerns of the Greek east by holding games in honour of Pallas Athena in her capacity as Athena Promachos - Aθηνᾶ Πρόμαχος (Athena Who-Fights-In-The-Frontline) - the patron goddess of Athens credited with saving Greece from Persia at the time of the Battle of Marathon. The object of this latter exercise was probably to reaffirm the role of Rome under the Emperor Gordian as the heir of Athens in securing the Greek world from Persian domination.[23] The removal of so many seasoned troops from their Rhine and Danube stations encouraged an assault across the lower Danube by the Carpi and other northern barbarians. However, Timesitheus, en route to the east through the Balkans, inflicted a serious defeat on the invaders in Thracia. He seems then to have followed the usual practice of Roman commanders after victories over barbarian peoples of obliging the defeated to provide contingents of troops. Such measures were intended not only to reinforce his army, but also to remove those restless young men who might have been disposed to make more trouble in its absence.[s] On arriving in the theatre of operations he seems to have mounted a highly successful campaign against the Persians in Mesopotamia, inflicting a crushing defeat on them at the Battle of Resaena (Ras-al Ayn, Syria). This enabled the Romans to recover all their main positions in Mesopotamia, including Carrhae, Nisbis and Singara and restore their colony at Edessa in Adiabene.[t] The SHA suggests that it was Timesitheus' intention to follow up this success by advancing on the Persian western capital at Ctesiphon.[24] His death meant that Shapur never had to face a powerful, well-equipped Roman army, led by a first-class general and not distracted by other enemies (as in the case of Valerian in 260) until he encountered Odenathus of Palmyra. The death of Timesitheus[edit] Before the projected campaign to capture Ctesiphon could get underway, Timesitheus died in obscure circumstances. The SHA asserts that Timesitheus was suffering from an attack of diarrhea and that Marcus Julius Philippus (Philip the Arab) succeeded in having his medication doctored, thus fatally inflaming the symptoms of his illness.[25] This account is not found in the Greek sources and is not now generally accepted in academe. His death most likely was caused by dysentery. However, Philip the Arab and his brother, Gaius Julius Priscus, Timesitheus's co-Praetorian Prefect, were the chief beneficiaries of Timesitheus's death. Following the removal of Timesitheus's presiding genius, the organisation of the campaign - presumably now under Priscus, who succeeded him - fell into disarray. The Augustan History's assertion that Philip (who was promoted to the Praetorian Prefecture in tandem with his brother), deliberately contrived to starve the army of supplies in order to undermine the authority of Gordian may or may not be true, but the decision of the brothers to pursue the attack down the River Euphrates at the turn of 243/4, at the height of the Assyrian rainy season, seems to demonstrate a lack of strategic insight that invited disaster. Whatever its cause, the death of Timesitheus put in motion a series of events that deprived the Roman Empire of what was probably its best chance of quashing the pretensions of the Persian monarchy before it became fully established. Summation[edit] Timesitheus's historical significance is that in the period when the provisions of Roman administrative law that formally reserved the government of key Imperial provinces for members of the Senatorial order were being increasingly set aside and specialists of equestrian rank brought to the fore, he was one of the foremost examples of the new type of functionary. In his day such officials tended to be particularly expert in fiscal administration, reflecting the Imperial government's urgent need for additional revenues to support the cost of the army reforms introduced by Septimius Severus and Caracalla. However, within a very short time, as the Crisis of the Third Century gathered momentum, the equestrian officers being appointed vice senatorial magistrates in regions at particular risk tended to be professional soldiers than those who had made their way in the procuratorial branches of the Imperial Service. It would appear that Timesitheus combined fiscal expertise of a high order with considerable military competence which probably assisted his advancement. However, it was almost certainly his fiscal capabilities - together with the powerful court-connections that were essential to success at the highest level of the Imperial Service - that supplied the chief underpinning of his career. He had the reputation in antiquity of being highly cultured, fluent in both Latin and Greek, an exemplar of the virtue of παιδεία (paideia) (in Latin, humanitas), the essential quality of a fully developed human being. (The SHA notes as mark of virtus that he corresponded with his son-in-law in Greek.)[26] This, combined with administrative and military competencies of a high order, rendered Timesitheus the perfect Imperial functionary in the eyes of his contemporaries. These attributes enabled him to survive the violent removal of three emperors and continue to flourish as an indispensable, if not always wholly trusted, servant of the state. His career bears witness to his rare appreciation of where real power lay in the Roman polity and also of the opportunities that prevailing circumstances were opening up for men of equestrian origins such as himself to share in that power. However, it also suggests that he realized the likely limitations that the social compact still imposed on men originating from outside the charmed circle of the Senatorial order. It would seem that, having made this analysis, he pursued the exercise of real power with a single-minded diligence as an equestrian. Within the constraints of the Imperial System of government, he seems to have been a highly effective statesman and administrator. It is possible that his premature death (however that came about) deprived Rome of the services of a statesman and a general who might have saved the Empire from the humiliations that were to be inflicted on it by Shapur I. Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Zosimus refers to Timesitheus as Timesikles or Timesokles.[2] He may merely have made an error in transcribing his source(s). The Scriptores Historiae Augustae (SHA) calls him Misitheus.[3] This could also be an uncomplicated error, but, might possibly be an instance of the malicious humour in which the author of those unreliable, but indispensable Imperial biographies so often indulged. However, the SHA account of Timesitheus is beyond fulsome in its praise for his wisdom and learning, his care for his young son-in-law, the Emperor Gordian III, and his administration of the Empire.[4] ^ See Equites and Procurator (Roman). ^ Such tendencies seem to have been particularly pronounced among the Greeks of Asia and the Oriens.[5] The Greeks of Achaea (particularly Athens) may have been more concerned to emphasise their pre-Roman heritage and cultural distinction[6] ^ The term "Syrian Princesses" refers to three powerful women originating in Emesa (i.e. Homs, Syria). They included Julia Maesa, the Elder sister of Julia Domna, wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus, and her daughters Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea, who were themselves mothers of the Emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus respectively. ^ Zosimus calls him "... a man high in estimation for his learning ...." (Zos. Hist I, 17.2.). The SHA is also very laudatory - see below. ^ The lands directly owned by the Severan Dynasty in north east Gaul and the Germanies - as throughout the Empire - are likely to have been substantially increased by Septimius Severus's victory in the civil wars of the 190s and the subsequent confiscations of the property of his defeated enemies and their supporters. This would have increased the demand for expert estate managers such as Timesitheus to administer these acquisitions and maximize the revenues derived from them.[9] ^ It is possible that Timesitheus's appointment to these offices related to Caracalla's war against the peoples of southern Germany (213 AD), for which much money would have been required, but there is no evidence to support this proposition. ^ Concerning the salary-defined equestrian ranks of sexagenarius, centenarius, etc. see Equites. ^ Under prevailing Administrative Law established during the reign of the Emperor Augustus the government of provinces with legionary garrisons was reserved for men of senatorial status. (In the case of provincial Arabiae the senator would have been of praetorian rank - i.e., yet to hold a consulate). However, an Emperor could over-ride this requirement and appoint an equestrian as a temporary expedient if he saw fit. Such appointments became increasingly common in the Third Century AD. Whether Timesitheus would have commanded the legion on active service in person or through a military deputy is not known. ^ The Persian Empire had been recently revived under the leadership of the Ardashir, the first "King of Kings" of the Sassanid dynasty. ^ The name 'Alamanni' may not yet have been applied by the Romans to the league of German peoples recently formed to the north of their South German territories, the Agri Decumates. However, as a serious threat to the Imperial hegemony in that region this group had been known to the Imperial government at least since the era of Caracalla - see above. ^ The war against Persia was termed "Sacred" because the conflict was conducted, in name at least, by the Emperor himself, Alexander Severus. In fact, the men in charge would have been officers who answered to Alexander's mother, Julia Mammaea. ^ See inter alia Crisis of the Third Century. ^ The inermes status of Timesitheus's provinces does not necessarily mean that there were no troops stationed there: there were undoubtedly detachments from other provinces with legionary garrisons sent to carry out escort/police duties, collect supplies etc.[15] ^ Maximinus could have intended that any sense of slight Timesitheus might have felt at being deprived of a legionary command would be assuaged by the fact that as vice proco(n)sulis of Asia he would be sexa-fascalis - i.e., they would merit a ceremonial escort of six lictors - whereas as vice praeses of Germania Inferior he had enjoyed praetorian status only and was thus merely quinque-fascalis - only five lictors. However, even had the emperor cared in the slightest for Timesitheus's presumed feelings - which seems unlikely given what is known of his character - as already suggested, Timesitheus probably set little store by the dignified appurtenances of power as opposed to his ability efficiently to exercise its actuality.[16] ^ It is possible that, even in the short term, the main effect of the demise of Maximinus Thrax's administration and the subsequent overthrow of the Senate's preferred candidates for the Empire, Pupienus and Balbinus, was to return to effective power those who had exercised it under Julia Mamaea.[10] As suggested above, Timesitheus seems not to have lacked for influential friends at court or in the City. ^ In Timesitheus'case the prime offenders identified by SHA were members of the household of the Empress-Mother, Antonia Gordiana. The usual caveats relating to this source apply ^ Two such men were Marcus Julius Philippus (later known as Philip the Arab), and his brother Gaius Julius Priscus, who Timesitheus seems to have made his co-Praetorian Prefect. Like Timesitheus, these men had impressive backgrounds in fiscal administration, but his promotion of them was to have dire consequences for his regime and for the Empire; see below. ^ In Res Gestae Divi Saporis, the inscription on his victory-monument at Naqsh-e Rustam, the Persian King was later to claim that the Roman Army he defeated at the Battle of Misiche in 244 included German and Gothic auxiliaries. ^ It is considered good practice in academe to accept the SHA as a reliable source of information only when its assertions can be verified from other evidence. On this occasion its account of the success of Timesitheus's operations in Mesopotamia seems to be justified in the light of coins issued honouring Gordian and Tranquillina by the Mesopotamian cities of Edessa, Carrhae and Nisbis - see SHA Vita Gord, 26 fn 100. References[edit] ^ Christol, M (2006). L'Empire Romaine du III Siècle - 295-325 apres J.C. Paris: Editions Errance. p. 98. ^ Zos., Hist., I, 17, 2). ^ SHA, Vit. Gord. passim). ^ SHA Vit. Gord 23, 5-6; 25, 6-7; 27, 2, 4, 7 and 10; and 28, 1-6). ^ Madsen(2009:passim.) ^ Millar(1969):28-29. ^ Pflaum:1960-1:pp 813. ^ CIL XIII, 1807 = ILS 1330, Lugdunum. ^ Cascio (2005; p. 151) ^ a b Potter (2004; pp. 229-30) ^ Pflaum (1960; p. 813) ^ Pflaum (1960-1; p. 814) ^ Pflaum (1960-1:p. 815) ^ Pflaum(1960-61:8p 818) ^ Le Bohec(2007:120-3) ^ Pflaum ibid. ^ a b Pflaum(1960-1:p 819) ^ Pflaum(1960-1:p 820) ^ See, for instance, Enslinn(1965:p 86)). Potter is not so uncriticallly impressed, but nevertheless presents Timesitheus as the type of Novus Homo with a strong fiscal background coming to the fore as the Severan Empire stumbled towards its inevitable failure (Potter(2004:pp 229-31)). ^ Potter(2004:xxx). ^ Enslinn(1965:86). ^ SHA. Vita Gord. 26.3. ^ Christol (2006) 98 ^ SHA Vita Gord 26, 3-6 ^ 'SHA 28 1, 5. ^ SHA (vita tres gordiani: 25.5) WORKS CITED[edit] Scriptores Historiae Augustae. Vita Tres Gordiani. Roman Texts. University of Chicago. Zosimus (1814). New History, Book I. London: Green and Chaplin. Zonaras. Epitome of History, XII, 18. pp. 129–30 D. Bohec, Y. Le (2014). Géopolitique de l'Empire romaine. Paris: Edns. Ellipses. Cascio, E. L. (2005). Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn. Vol. XII, Cap 6b, VII; The new organisation of the imperial estates and finances;. Cambridge: CUP. pp. 137–155. Christol, Michel (2006). L'Empire Romaine du III Siècle - 295-325 apr. J.C. Paris: Editions Errance. p. 98. Ensslin, W. (1965). Cambridge Ancient History Vol XII: Cap II The Senate and the Army. Cambridge: CUP. pp. 57–94. Madsen, J.M. (2009). Eager to be Roman. London: Duckworth. Mazzarino, S. (1971). "La tradizione sulle guerre tra Shabuhr I e l'Impero romano". Acta Acad. Sci. Hung. 19. pp. 59–82. Millar, Fergus (1969). "P. Herennius Dexippus: The Greek World and the Third-century Invasions". Journal of Roman Studies. 59 (1/2): 12–29. doi:10.2307/299843. JSTOR 299843. Pflaum, H.-G. (1960). Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire Romain, C 317. Paris. p. 811. Potter, D. S. (2004). The Roman empire at Bay - AD 180-395. London & New York: Routledge. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Furius_Sabinius_Aquila_Timesitheus&oldid=1026093044" Categories: 190 births 243 deaths 3rd-century Roman governors of Arabia Petraea Ancient Roman equites Crisis of the Third Century 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans Praetorian prefects People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Furii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with style issues from April 2020 All articles with style issues Articles with hCards Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7904	----	Pater familias - Wikipedia Pater familias From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Patria potestas) Jump to navigation Jump to search Oldest living male in an Ancient Roman household For the 2003 Italian film, see Pater Familias (film). For the modern term, see Head of the household. The pater familias, also written as paterfamilias (plural patres familias),[1] was the head of a Roman family. The pater familias was the oldest living male in a household, and exercised autocratic authority over his extended family. The term is Latin for "father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate". The form is archaic in Latin, preserving the old genitive ending in -ās (see Latin declension), whereas in classical Latin the normal first declension genitive singular ending was -ae. The pater familias always had to be a Roman citizen. Roman law and tradition (mos majorum) established the power of the pater familias within the community of his own extended familia. In Roman family law, the term "Patria potestas" (Latin: “power of a father”) refers to this concept.[2] He held legal privilege over the property of the familia, and varying levels of authority over his dependents: these included his wife and children, certain other relatives through blood or adoption, clients, freedmen and enslaved persons. The same mos majorum moderated his authority and determined his responsibilities to his own familia and to the broader community. He had a duty to father and raise healthy children as future citizens of Rome, to maintain the moral propriety and well-being of his household, to honour his clan and ancestral gods and to dutifully participate—and if possible, serve—in Rome's political, religious and social life. In effect, the pater familias was expected to be a good citizen. In theory at least, he held powers of life and death over every member of his extended familia through ancient right. In practice, the extreme form of this right was seldom exercised. It was eventually limited by law.[3] In the Roman tradition, the term has appeared mostly in legal texts, and to a lesser extent, in literary texts. In both types of discourses, the term has been most commonly used to refer to the “estate owner,” a title considered conceptually separate from his familial relations.[4] Contents 1 Roman familia 2 As priest of familia, gens and genius 3 Wife 4 Children 5 Slavery 5.1 Roman context 5.2 Historical applications 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Roman familia[edit] The Roman household was conceived of as an economic and juridical unit or estate: familia originally meant the group of the famuli (the servi or serfs and the slaves of a rural estate) living under the same roof. That meaning later expanded to indicate the familia as the basic Roman social unit, which might include the domus (house or home) but was legally distinct from it: a familia might own one or several homes. All members and properties of a familia were subject to the authority of a pater familias: his legal, social and religious position defined familia as a microcosm of the Roman state.[5] In Roman law, the potestas of the pater familias was official but distinct from that of magistrates. Only a Roman citizen held the status of pater familias, and there could be only one holder of that office within a household. He was responsible for its well-being, reputation and legal and moral propriety. The entire familia was expected to adhere to the core principles and laws of the Twelve Tables, which the pater familias had a duty to exemplify, enjoin and, if necessary, enforce, so within the familia Republican law and tradition (mos majorum) allowed him powers of life and death (vitae necisque potestas). He was also obliged to observe the constraints imposed by Roman custom and law on all potestas. His decisions should be obtained through counsel, consultation and consent within the familia, which were decisions by committee (consilium). The family consilia probably involved the most senior members of his own household, especially his wife, and, if necessary, his peers and seniors within his extended clan (gens).[6] Augustus's legislation on the morality of marriage co-opted the traditional potestas of the pater familias. Augustus was not only Rome's princeps but also its father (pater patriae). As such, he was responsible for the entire Roman familia. Rome's survival required that citizens produce children. That could not be left to individual conscience. The falling birth rate was considered a marker of degeneracy and self-indulgence, particularly among the elite, who were supposed to set an example. Lex Julia maritandis ordinibus compelled marriage upon men and women within specified age ranges and remarriage on the divorced and bereaved within certain time limits. The Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis severely penalised adulterous wives and any husbands who tolerated such behaviour. The Lex Papia Poppaea extended and modified the laws in relation to intermarriage between social classes and inheritance. Compliance was rewarded and exceptional public duty brought exemption, but dictatorial compulsion was deeply unpopular and quite impractical. The laws were later softened in theory and practise, but the imperial quaestio perpetua remained. Its public magistrates now legally over-rode the traditional rights of the family concilium and pater familias. The principate shows a clear trend towards the erosion of individual patria potestas and the increasing intrusion of the state into the juridical and executive independence of the familia under its pater.[7] As priest of familia, gens and genius[edit] Bronze genius depicted as pater familias (1st century AD) Main article: Gens Main article: Genius (mythology) The domestic responsibilities of the pater familias included his priestly duties (sacra familiae) to his "household gods" (the lares and penates) and the ancestral gods of his own gens.[8] The latter were represented by the di parentes as ancestral shades of the departed, and by the genius cult. Genius has been interpreted as the essential, heritable spirit (or divine essence, or soul) and generative power that suffused the gens and each of its members. As the singular, lawful head of a family derived from a gens, the pater familias embodied and expressed its genius through his pious fulfillment of ancestral obligations. The pater familias was therefore owed a reciprocal duty of genius cult by his entire familia. He in his turn conferred genius and the duty of sacra familiae to his children—whether by blood or by adoption.[9] Roman religious law defined the religious rites of familia as sacra privata (funded by the familia rather than the state) and "unofficial" (not a rite of state office or magistracy, though the state pontifices and censor might intervene if the observation of sacra privata was lax or improper). The responsibility for funding and executing sacra privata therefore fell to the head of the household and no other. As well as observance of common rites and festivals (including those marked by domestic rites), each family had its own unique internal religious calendar—marking the formal acceptance of infant children, coming of age, marriages, deaths and burials. In rural estates, the entire familia would gather to offer sacrifice(s) to the gods for the protection and fertility of fields and livestock. All such festivals and offerings were presided over by the pater familias.[10] Wife[edit] Further information: Women in ancient Rome and Marriage in ancient Rome The legal potestas of the pater familias over his wife depended on the form of marriage between them. In the Early Republic, a wife was "handed over" to the legal control of her husband in the form of marriage cum manu (Latin cum manu means "with hand"). If the man divorced his wife, he had to give the dowry back to his wife and her family.[11] By the Late Republic, manus marriage had become rare, and a woman legally remained part of her birth family.[12] Women emancipated from the potestas of a pater familias were independent by law (sui iuris) but had a male guardian appointed to them. A woman sui iuris had the right to take legal action on her own behalf but not to administer legal matters for others.[13] Children[edit] The laws of the Twelve Tables required the pater familias to ensure that "obviously deformed" infants were put to death. The survival of congenitally disabled adults, conspicuously evidenced among the elite by the partially-lame Emperor Claudius, demonstrates that personal choice was exercised in the matter. The pater familias had the power to sell his children into slavery; Roman law provided, however, that if a child had been sold as a slave three times, he was no longer subject to patria potestas. The pater familias had the power to approve or reject marriages of his sons and daughters; however, an edict of Emperor Augustus provided that the pater familias could not withhold that permission lightly. The filii familias (children of the family) could include the biological and adopted children of the pater familias and his siblings. Because of their extended rights (their longa manus, literally "long hand"), the patres familias also had a series of extra duties: duties towards the filii and the slaves, but some of the duties were recognized not by the original ius civile but only by the ius gentium, specially directed to foreigners, or by the ius honorarium, the law of the Magistratus, especially the Praetor, which would emerge only in a latter period of Roman law. Adult filii remained under the authority of their pater and could not themselves acquire the rights of a pater familias while he lived. Legally, any property acquired by individual family members (sons, daughters or slaves) was acquired for the family estate: the pater familias held sole rights to its disposal and sole responsibility for the consequences, including personal forfeiture of rights and property through debt. Those who lived in their own households at the time of the death of the pater succeeded to the status of pater familias over their respective households (pater familias sui iuris) even if they were only in their teens. Children "emancipated" by a pater familias were effectively disinherited. If a paterfamilias died intestate, his children were entitled to an equal share of his estate. If a will was left, children could contest the estate. Over time, the absolute authority of the pater familias weakened, and rights that theoretically existed were no longer enforced or insisted upon. The power over life and death was abolished, the right of punishment was moderated and the sale of children was restricted to cases of extreme necessity. Under Emperor Hadrian, a father who killed his son was stripped of both his citizenship and all its attendant rights, had his property confiscated and was permanently exiled.[14] Slavery[edit] Roman context[edit] The original classical Roman definition of familia referred to “a body of enslaved people,” and did not refer to wives and children.[15][16][17] The classical legal concept of pater familias as “head of household” derived from this early conception of familia and, thus, from the legal relationship between slaveowners and their enslaved laborers rather than that between fathers and children.[18] Since the early classical period, Roman writers and jurists have interpreted ancient writers’ invocation of pater familias as the basis of the concept of “head of household”—over the alternative Latin word for slaveowner, dominus—as a purposeful choice, intended to mitigate the harsh connotations that the act of slaveholding conferred onto heads of households and expanding the applicability of the term to non-enslaved members of the household.[19][20] As a semantic term, pater familias thus connoted heads of household who were thought to combine the affective tenderness of a father with the stern coercion of a slaveowner in ordering their households.[19][21] As Roman jurists began to articulate the legal conception of pater familias from the early classical period onwards, the minimum qualification for assuming the status of pater familias came to be understood as one’s capacity to own property. However, in Roman law, this was considered a distinct dimension of the pater familias’ authority from their capacity to hold dominion over enslaved persons.[22] While both enslaved people and the estate itself were considered part of the familia unit over which pater familias held authority, they were recognized as distinct from family members (wives, children, and grandchildren). Despite these distinctions, what all members of the household shared was their subjecthood to the authority, or potestas, of the pater familias. By the second century, A.D., the distinction between family members and enslaved persons residing in the same household had lessened, even as the patria potestas also weakened over time.[16] Patres familias wielded complete and separate authority over members of their households, including their enslaved laborers. In cases of adjudicating legal transgressions committed by enslaved persons, patres familias exhibited equivalent jurisdiction as that of local civil magistrates, including the ability to absolve the enslaved of any wrongdoing, trying them by jury, or sentencing them to capital punishments.[23][24] While some Roman patres familias permitted enslaved individuals in their households to establish quasi-marital unions (known as contubernia) as a means of forming communal bonds among the enslaved, these unions were only recognized within the household and carried no legal bearing outside of the household. The children that resulted from these unions were themselves enslaved and considered the legal property of their mother’s owner.[25] Roman legal sources often recognized enslaved people as part of the instrumenta (roughly translated as “equipment”) of the household to highlight the service they provided the pater familias. This definition included both enslaved people working in field settings and those living in the domestic household and working in direct service of the pater familias.[26] Roman women sui iuris (“of their own power,” and not under the authority of any pater familias) possessed the legal right to own enslaved people as instrumenta, though jurists decided on a case-by-case basis whether to extend the status of pater familias to them in their capacity as slaveowners. In general, however, the status of pater familias could not be fully extended to women sui iuris because Roman law recognized the authority that pater familias wielded over members of the immediate family as strictly gendered, i.e., male. Nonetheless, historians and legal scholars have often overlooked this exception to the rule that allowed some women sui iuris (usually wealthy and of the upper socioeconomic stratum of society) to attain legal recognition as pater familias through their ownership of enslaved persons.[26] Historical applications[edit] Outside of the Roman context, various slavery regimes in world history have adopted the concept of pater familias to structure the legal, cultural, and social relationships between slaveowners and enslaved people. The law code of fifteenth-century Valencian society, for example, adopted the classical Roman conception of familia to recognize servant laborers and enslaved persons as members of the domestic household, roughly equal in status to family members given their subjecthood to the authority of the pater familias.[27] As a consequence of this, patres familias maintained honor and status within their communities by fulfilling both the material and spiritual needs of all members of the household, including enslaved persons. This included providing for the food, clothing, shelter, education, and baptism of enslaved persons. When they reneged on these obligations, the law code considered them to forfeit their right to ownership of their enslaved, leading in some cases to disputes between paternal heads of household over the status of enslaved persons whom they each claimed to have “raised.”[28] In the context of plantation slavery in the antebellum U.S. South, slaveowning planters developed a rhetorical defense of slavery as a benevolent, paternalistic institution based on the ancient Roman model of the pater familias.[29] Some planters employed the concept as a legal protectionary measure, instructing renters to whom they “hired out” their enslaved laborers to “treat” them “as good pater familias,” in an effort to stymie abusive practices.[30] Others used the concept to rationalize planter rule, claiming themselves sovereigns of their households who provided for all constituent members, and demanding their loyalty and labor in return.[31] Drawing on the Roman precedent in this way, these planters claimed that their enslaved laborers were their “dependents,” who ultimately benefitted from the paternalistic ordering of the household. Southern newspapers and print media repeatedly promoted this idea in order to square the intrinsic brutality that defined the institution of slavery with the democratic ideals the nation was supposedly founded on, often developing this paternalistic ideology to irrational heights and ignoring the contradictions that it masked.[32][33][34] This paternalistic ideology persisted after the legal abolition of slavery, as white employers and political leaders in the South attempted to maintain a hierarchical socioeconomic class status over formerly enslaved persons, as well as women and poor laborers, whom they viewed as “dependents,” thereby expanding the Roman household model of pater familias to the level of broader society.[35][36] The patriarchal mode of slavery that Southern U.S. and Caribbean slaveowners attempted to establish often clashed with the familial structures enslaved people themselves constructed. Some of these family structures had roots in West African societies. The Akan society of the Gold Coast, for example, was largely matrilineal and composed of individual “clans or lineages,” descended from a single mother.[37] Mandé society, while more often organized along patrilineal lines, exhibited some matrilineal lines and generally reserved powerful positions of political and household authority for women.[38] In Igbo society, women were “most celebrated” for their roles as mothers and wives, but also participated in independent market activity and in communal defense.[39] As a sizable proportion of enslaved people transported to the New World in the trans-Atlantic trade originated from Akan, Mandé, and Igbo societies, some historians have noted a connection between the matrilineal elements of these West African cultures and the centrality of women and mothers in enslaved peoples’ family units.[40][41] These alternative modes of structuring household and family life among enslaved people threatened some planters’ intentions to serve as the solely acknowledged pater familias of their households.[42][43] See also[edit] Kyrios References[edit] ^ Familias is an archaic genitive form that survived into classical Latin in this fixed expression. ^ Patria potestas, Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., March 30, 2016, https://www.britannica.com/topic/patria-potestas. Access Date: April 11, 2018 ^ Severy, 9–10. ^ Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology, 94, no. 2 (Apr., 1999): 182. ^ Frier et al., 18–20, for familia case-law definitions (Ulpian) and relations during and before the Imperial period. Limited preview available via Google Books [1] ^ Parkin & Pomeroy, 72–80. Limited preview available via Google Books [2] (accessed 24 September 2009) ^ Galinsky, 130–2. Augustus couched the changes and similar ones as a restoration of traditional values. In one debate, he reiterated a "misogynistic" address of 131 BCE by the censor Metellus Macedonicus on marriage as necessary to Rome's survival. Limited preview via Google Books: [3] ^ Such as the Julli (Julians) of Julius Caesar. See Beard et al., vol 1, 67–8. ^ Severy, 9–10. ^ Beard et al., vol. 1, 49: citing Cato the Elder, On Agriculture, in Beard et al., vol. 2, 141, source 6.3a.) ^ Bingham, Jane: The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World, p. 45. Usborne Publishing, 2002. ^ Frier et al., pp. 88–90. ^ Pauline Schmitt Pantel, (ed.) A History of Women in the West, Volume I, From Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints, p. 133. ^ Frier et al., 199. ^ Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology, 94, no. 2 (Apr., 1999): 191. ^ a b David Herlihy, Medieval Households (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 2-3. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by William Smith (London: Walton and Maberly, 1859), 1041. ^ Richard P. Saller, "'Familia, Domus,' and the Roman Conception of the Family," Phoenix 38, no. 4 (Winter, 1984): 343. ^ a b Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology, 94, no. 2 (Apr., 1999): 191-2. ^ Henrik Mouritsen, The Freedman in the Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 41-42. ^ Lindsay Allason-Jones, "The Family in Roman Britain," in A Companion to Roman Britain, edited by Malcolm Todd (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), 282. ^ Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology, 94, no. 2 (Apr., 1999): 184. ^ James Stephen, The Slavery of the British West India Colonies [...], Vol. I, Being a Delineation of the State in Point of Law (London: Joseph Butterworth and Son, 1824), 340-341. ^ Steve Estes, Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South After the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 16. ^ Jonathan Edmonson, "Slavery and the Roman Family," in The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Vol. I: The Ancient Mediterranean World, edited by Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 347. ^ a b Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology, 94, no. 2 (Apr., 1999): 187. ^ Furs de Valencia §798. See also Debra Blumenthal, "Sclaves Molt Fortes, Senyors Invalts: Sex, Lies and Paternity Suits in Fifteenth-Century Spain," in Women, Texts and Authority in the Early Modern Spanish World, edited by Marta V. Vicente and Luis R. Cortega (London: Routledge, 2017), 17-36. ^ Debra Blumenthal, "Enemies or Extended Family? Slaves in the Household," in Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009), 122-153, esp. 122-130, 135-139, 149-153. ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah, "What's Wrong with Slavery?" in Buying Freedom: The Ethics and Economics of Slave Redemption, edited by Kwame Anthony Appiah and Martin Bunzl (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 254. ^ Cécile Vidal, Caribbean New Orleans: Empire, Race, and the Making of a Slave Society (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2019), 324. ^ Tristan Stubbs, "A 'continual exercise of our Patience and Economy': The Structure of Oversight, Patriarchism, and Dependence in Pre-Revolutionary Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia" in Masters of Violence The Plantation Overseers of Eighteenth-Century Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2018), 10-11. ^ Brian Gabrial, The Press and Slavery in America, 1791-1859: The Melancholy Effect of Popular Excitement (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2016), esp. 53-56. ^ Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us From Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), esp. 143-298, 505-534. ^ James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982). ^ Steve Estes, "Pater Familias" in Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South After the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 15-34, esp. 16. ^ Paternalism in a Southern City: Race, Religion, and Gender in Augusta, Georgia, edited by Edward J. Cashin and Glenn T. Eskew (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001). ^ Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 110. ^ Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 93. ^ Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 126-7. ^ Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 151. ^ Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985), 106-108. ^ Libra R. Hilde, Slavery, Fatherhood, and Paternal Duty in African American Communities over the Long Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2020), 253. ^ John Hearne, "Landscape With Faces," Caribbean Quarterly 47, no. 1 (March 2001): 61-62. Sources[edit] Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-31682-0 Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 2, a sourcebook, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-45646-0 Frier, Bruce W., McGinn, Thomas A.J., and Lidov, Joel, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, Oxford University Press (American Philological Association), 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-516186-1 Huebner, S. R, Ratzan, D. M. eds. Growing up Fatherless in Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2009. Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, Roman Social History, a Sourcebook, Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-0-415-42675-6 Severy, Beth, Augustus and the family at the birth of the Roman Empire, Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-30959-X External links[edit] Ancient Rome portal George Long, "Patria Potestas", in William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London, John Murray, 1875, pp. 873‑875. "Roman Law", in Catholic Encyclopedia New York, Robert Appleton, 1913. Olga Tellegen-Couper, "A Short History of Roman Law". v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pater_familias&oldid=1021893447" Categories: Ancient Roman titles Family law in ancient Rome Fathers' rights Latin words and phrases Paternity Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Français Galego 한국어 Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Occitan Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 7 May 2021, at 07:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7909	----	Help:IPA/English - Wikipedia Help:IPA/English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia < Help:IPA Jump to navigation Jump to search This page is about the pronunciation of words in English. For sounds not found in English, see Help:IPA. For a basic introduction to the IPA, see Help:IPA/Introduction. For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. This is the pronunciation key for IPA transcriptions of English on Wikipedia.It provides a set of symbols to represent the pronunciation of English in Wikipedia articles, and example words that illustrate the sounds that correspond to them. Integrity must be maintained between the key and the transcriptions that link here; do not change any symbol or value without establishing consensus on the talk page first. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. 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Contents 1 Key 2 Dialect variation 3 Other transcriptions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Key If there is an IPA symbol you are looking for that you do not see here, see Help:IPA, which is a more complete list. For a table listing all spellings of the sounds on this page, see English orthography § Sound-to-spelling correspondences. For help converting spelling to pronunciation, see English orthography § Spelling-to-sound correspondences. The words given as examples for two different symbols may sound the same to you. For example, you may pronounce cot and caught the same, do and dew, or marry and merry. This often happens because of dialect variation (see our articles English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects). If this is the case, you will pronounce those symbols the same for other words as well.[1] Whether this is true for all words, or just when the sounds occur in the same context, depends on the merger.[2] The footnotes explain some of these cases. Consonants IPA Examples b buy, cab d dye, cad, ladder[3] dj dew[4] dʒ giant, badge ð thy, breathe, father f fan, leaf ɡ guy, bag h high, ahead hw whine[5] j[6] yes, hallelujah k sky, crack l lie, sly, gal[7] lj lute[4] m my, smile, cam n nigh, snide, can nj new[4] ŋ sang, sink, singer p pie, spy, cap r[8] rye, try, very s sigh, mass sj consume[4] ʃ shy, cash, emotion t tie, sty, cat, latter[3] tj tune[4] tʃ China, catch θ thigh, path θj enthuse[4] v vine, leave w wine, swine z zoo, has zj Zeus[4] ʒ pleasure, beige[9]   Marginal segments IPA Examples x ugh, loch, Chanukah[10] ʔ uh-oh /ˈʔʌʔoʊ/ ɒ̃ bon vivant[11] æ̃ fin de siècle[11] ɜː Möbius (UK only)[12] Vowels Strong vowels ...followed by R[13] IPA Examples IPA Examples ɑː PALM, bra ɑːr START ɒ LOT, blockade, song[14] ɒr moral[15] æ TRAP, tattoo, sang[16] ær marry[17] aɪ PRICE, pie[18] aɪər hire[19] aʊ MOUTH, how[18] aʊər flour[19] ɛ DRESS, prestige, length[20] ɛr merry[17] eɪ FACE ɛər SQUARE, Mary[17][21] ɪ KIT, historic, sing[22] ɪr mirror iː FLEECE, pedigree, idea[23] ɪər NEAR, serious[21] oʊ GOAT[24][22] ɔːr FORCE, hoarse[25] ɔː THOUGHT[26] NORTH, horse[25] ɔɪ CHOICE ɔɪər coir[19] ʊ FOOT ʊr courier uː GOOSE, cruel[23] ʊər tour, CURE (/ˈkjʊər/)[27][21] ʌ STRUT, untidy, trustee, sung[28][29] ɜːr NURSE, blurry, urbane, foreword[30] ʌr hurry[31] Weak vowels IPA Examples IPA Examples ə COMMA, abbot, bazaar ər LETTER, forward, history[32] ɪ rabbit, bizarre, Latin, heating[22][33] oʊ motto, retroactive, follower[22][34] i HAPPY, mediocre[35] iə California[36] u fruition[34][35] uə influence[37] Syllabic consonants[32] IPA Examples IPA Examples əl bottle (either [əl] or [l̩]) ən button (either [ən] or [n̩]) əm rhythm (either [əm] or [m̩])   Stress[38] Syllabification IPA Examples IPA Examples ˈ intonation /ˌɪntəˈneɪʃən/ . /ˈhaɪər/ hire, /ˈhaɪ.ər/ higher[39] /ˈtæks.peɪər/ taxpayer ˌ Notes Words in SMALL CAPITALS are the standard lexical sets.[40] The length mark ⟨ː⟩ does not mean that the vowels transcribed with it are always longer than those without it. When unstressed, followed by a voiceless consonant, or in a polysyllabic word, a vowel in the former group is frequently shorter than the latter in other environments (see Clipping (phonetics) § English). Dialect variation Further information: English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects This key represents diaphonemes, abstractions of speech sounds that accommodate General American, Received Pronunciation (RP) and to a large extent also Australian, Canadian, Irish (including Ulster), New Zealand, Scottish, South African and Welsh pronunciations. Therefore, not all of the distinctions shown here are relevant to a particular dialect: ⟨i⟩ does not represent a phoneme but a variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed positions. Speakers of dialects with happy tensing (Australian English, General American, modern RP) should read it as an unstressed /iː/, whereas speakers of other dialects (e.g. some Northern England English) should treat it the same as /ɪ/. In Scotland, this vowel can be considered the same as the short allophone of /eɪ/, as in take. Before /ə/ within the same word, another possible pronunciation is /j/ as in yet. Many speakers of American and Canadian English pronounce cot /ˈkɒt/ and caught /ˈkɔːt/ the same.[j] You may simply ignore the difference between the symbols /ɒ/ and /ɔː/, just as you ignore the distinction between the written vowels o and au when pronouncing them. Speakers of rhotic dialects (Irish English, North American English, Scottish English) do not distinguish between the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/, cure /ˈkjʊər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ on the one hand and freerunning /ˈfriːrʌnɪŋ/, Q-rating /ˈkjuːreɪtɪŋ/ and dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/ on the other. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɪər, ʊər, ɛər/ as /iːr, uːr, eɪr/. In Northern Ireland, Scotland and many North American dialects the distinction between /ʊr/ as in courier and the aforementioned /ʊər/ and /uːr/ does not exist. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/. In Northern Ireland and Scotland this merger occurs in all environments, which means that foot /ˈfʊt/ and goose /ˈɡuːs/ also have the same vowel.[k][l] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊ/ and /uː/ in all contexts. In North America, the /ʊr/ of courier and the /ʊər/ of cure may instead merge with /ɔːr/ as in north or /ɜːr/ as in nurse. No such merger is possible in the case of the sequence which we transcribe as /uːr/ as there is an implied morpheme boundary after the length mark. In North American dialects that do not distinguish between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/ there is also no distinction between the /ɪr/ of mirror and the aforementioned /ɪər/ and /iːr/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɪr/, /ɪər/ and /iːr/. In many North American dialects there is also no distinction between the vowels in merry /ˈmɛri/, Mary /ˈmɛəri/ and marry /ˈmæri/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɛr/, /ɛər/ and /ær/. Some speakers keep marry and/or merry separate from the rest, but in the General American accent all three vowels are the same and may not be distinct from /eɪr/ as in dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/. In rhotic North American English there is no distinction between the vowels in nurse /ˈnɜːrs/ and letter /ˈlɛtər/. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɜːr/ as /ər/. The /ʌr/ of hurry often joins this neutralization; if you have it in your speech, read /ɜːr/, /ər/ and /ʌr/ as /ər/. Some speakers from Northern England do not distinguish the vowel of square /ˈskwɛər/ and nurse /ˈnɜːrs/.[m] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɛər/ and /ɜːr/. In New Zealand English, the vowels of kit /ˈkɪt/ and focus /ˈfoʊkəs/ have the same schwa-like quality.[n][o] If you are from New Zealand, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪ/ and /ə/. In contemporary New Zealand English and some other dialects, the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ are not distinguished.[p] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪər/ and /ɛər/. In Northern England English, the vowels of foot /ˈfʊt/ and strut /ˈstrʌt/ are not distinguished.[q] If you are from Northern England, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʊ/ and /ʌ/. In Welsh English and some other dialects, the vowels of unorthodoxy /ʌnˈɔːrθədɒksi/ and an orthodoxy /ən ˈɔːrθədɒksi/ are not distinguished.[r] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʌ/ and /ə/. Depending on the dialect, vowels can be subject to various mergers before /l/, so that e.g. fill /ˈfɪl/ and feel /ˈfiːl/ or pull /ˈpʊl/ and pool /ˈpuːl/ may not be distinguished. L-vocalization may trigger even more mergers, so that e.g. cord /ˈkɔːrd/ and called /ˈkɔːld/ may be homophonous as /ˈkɔːd/ in non-rhotic dialects of South East England. See English-language vowel changes before historic /l/ for more information. In many dialects, /r/ occurs only before a vowel; if you speak such a dialect, simply ignore /r/ in the pronunciation guides where you would not pronounce it, as in cart /kɑːrt/. In other dialects, /j/ (yes) cannot occur after /t, d, n/, etc., within the same syllable; if you speak such a dialect, then ignore the /j/ in transcriptions such as new /njuː/. For example, New York is transcribed /njuː ˈjɔːrk/. For most people from England and for some New Yorkers, the /r/ in /jɔːrk/ is not pronounced; for most people from the United States, including some New Yorkers, the /j/ in /njuː/ is not pronounced and may be ignored. (See yod-dropping.) On the other hand, there are some distinctions which you might make but which this key does not encode, as they are seldom reflected in the dictionaries used as sources for Wikipedia articles: The vowels of kit and bit, distinguished in South Africa.[s] Both of them are transcribed as /ɪ/ in stressed syllables and as /ɪ/ or /ə/ in unstressed syllables. The difference between the vowels of fir, fur and fern, maintained in some Scottish and Irish English but lost elsewhere.[t] All of them are transcribed as /ɜːr/. The vowels of north and force, distinguished in Scottish English, Irish English and by a minority of American speakers.[t] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔːr/. The vowels of pause and paws, distinguished in Cockney and by some Estuary English speakers.[u] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔː/ when the spelling does not contain ⟨r⟩ and /ɔːr/ or /ʊər/ (depending on the word) when it does. The vowels of manning and Manning, distinguished in some parts of the United States (see /æ/ raising). Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The difference between the vowels of pain and pane found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as /eɪ/. The difference between the vowels of holy and wholly found in Cockney and many Estuary English speakers.[v] Both of them are transcribed as /oʊ/. Any allophonic distinctions, such as: The vowels of bad and lad, distinguished in many parts of Australia. Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The vowels of spider and spied her, distinguished in many parts of Scotland,[w] plus many parts of North America. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of rider and writer, distinguished in most parts of Canada and many parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of powder and pouter distinguished in most parts of Canada and some parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aʊ/. Allophonic vowel length (including the Scottish vowel length rule), as in knife /ˈnaɪf/ vs. knives /ˈnaɪvz/. Phonemic vowel length, which exists in some dialects and involves pairs such as /ɛ/ vs. /ɛər/ and /ə/ vs. /ɜːr/ is also not marked explicitly. /i/ and /u/ do not represent phonemes; see above. Flapping in words such as better, which we write /ˈbɛtər/, rather than /ˈbɛdər/. Glottalization in words such as jetlag and, in some accents, daughter, which we write /ˈdʒɛtlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːtər/, rather than /ˈdʒɛʔlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːʔər/. In this system, /ʔ/ is used only for paralanguage or in loanwords where it occurs phonemically in the original language. L-vocalization in words such as bottle and Alps, which we write /ˈbɒtəl/ and /ˈælps/, rather than /ˈbɒtʊ/ and /ˈæwps/. The difference between allophones of /ə/ in balance ([ə]) vs. the ones in about and Russia (and, in non-rhotic dialects, better), both of which may be closer to /ʌ/ in dialects with the foot-strut split (that is, [ɐ]) vs. the one in button (the syllabicity of the following consonant). All are transcribed as /ə/ in our system. The difference between the phonetic realization of English sounds (mostly vowels) in various dialects. Let's pick some grapes for Betty should be transcribed /lɛts ˈpɪk səm ˈɡreɪps fər ˈbɛti/ regardless of the variety of English and everyone should interpret that transcription according to their own dialect. Thus, a person from South East England will read it as something like [lɛʔs ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɹɛɪps fə ˈbɛtˢɪi], a Scot as [ɫɛts ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɾeps fɚ ˈbɛte], whereas someone from New Zealand will interpret that transcription as [ɫɪts ˈpʰək səm ˈɡɹæɪps fə ˈbɪɾi]. Because we are transcribing diaphonemes rather than phones (actual sounds), it is irrelevant that, for example, the vowel in let's as pronounced by someone from New Zealand overlaps with how people with England and Scotland typically pronounce the first vowel in pick, or that the Scottish realization of /r/ after /ɡ/ overlaps with the New Zealand realization of /t/ between vowels. In other words, the symbol ⟨ɛ⟩ does not stand specifically for the open-mid front unrounded vowel in our system but any vowel that can be identified as the vowel in let's, depending on the accent. This is also why we use the simple symbol ⟨r⟩ for the second sound in grapes. Other words may have different vowels depending on the speaker. The pronunciation of the /æ/ vowel in most dialects of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Northern England and Wales has always been closer to [a]. Received Pronunciation has moved away from the traditional near-open front realization [æ] towards almost fully open front realization [a], and both the Oxford English Dictionary and the 2014 edition of Gimson's Pronunciation of English transcribe the vowel in lad, bad, cat, trap with /a/.[x] For more extensive information on dialect variations, you may wish to see the IPA chart for English dialects. Note that place names are not generally exempted from being transcribed in this abstracted system, so rules such as the above must be applied in order to recover the local pronunciation. Examples include place names in much of England ending ‑ford, which although locally pronounced [‑fəd] are transcribed /‑fərd/. This is best practice for editors. However, readers should be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if /‑fəd/ is encountered for such a place name, it should not be interpreted as a claim that the /r/ would be absent even in a rhotic dialect. Other transcriptions If you feel it is necessary to add a pronunciation respelling using another convention, then please use the conventions of Wikipedia's pronunciation respelling key. To compare the following IPA symbols with non-IPA American dictionary conventions that may be more familiar, see Pronunciation respelling for English, which lists the pronunciation guides of fourteen English dictionaries published in the United States. To compare the following IPA symbols with other IPA conventions that may be more familiar, see Help:IPA/Conventions for English, which lists the conventions of eight English dictionaries published in Britain, Australia, and the United States. See also If your browser does not display IPA symbols, you probably need to install a font that includes the IPA (for good, free IPA fonts, see the download links in the articles for Gentium and the more complete Charis SIL; for a monospaced font, see the complete Everson Mono) To add IPA pronunciations to Wikipedia articles, see the {{IPA}} template For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. Help:IPA/Conventions for English Help:Pronunciation respelling key Pronunciation respelling for English Notes ^ This rule is generally employed in the pronunciation guide of our articles, even for local terms such as place names. However, be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if a pronunciation of an English town ending in ‑ford reads /‑fəd/, it doesn't mean that the /r/ would be absent in a rhotic dialect. ^ For example, if you have the marry–merry merger, you probably only merge /æ/ and /ɛ/ before /r/. You would still distinguish man and men. ^ a b In varieties with flapping, /t/ and sometimes also /d/ between a vowel and a weak or word-initial vowel may be pronounced with a voiced tap [ɾ], making latter sound similar or identical to ladder. Some dictionaries transcribe /t/ subject to this process as ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t̬⟩, but they are not distinguished in this transcription system. In those varieties, the sequence /nt/ in the same environment may also be realized as a nasalized tap [ɾ̃], making winter sound similar or identical to winner. This is also not distinguished in this system. ^ a b c d e f g In dialects with yod dropping, /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ is not pronounced after coronal consonants (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /θ/, and /l/) in the same syllable, so that dew /djuː/ is pronounced the same as do /duː/. In dialects with yod coalescence, /tj/ and /dj/ mostly merge with /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, so that the first syllable in Tuesday is pronounced the same as choose. In some dialects /sj/ and /zj/ are also affected and frequently merge with /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. Where /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ following a coronal is still pronounced in yod-dropping accents, place a syllable break before it: menu /ˈmɛn.juː/. ^ The phoneme /hw/ is not distinguished from /w/ in the many dialects with the wine–whine merger, such as RP and most varieties of General American. For more information on this sound, see voiceless labialized velar approximant. ^ The IPA value of the letter ⟨j⟩ may be counterintuitive to English speakers, but the spelling is found even in some common English words like hallelujah and fjord. ^ /l/ in the syllable coda, as in the words all, cold, or bottle, is pronounced as [o], [u], [w] or a similar sound in many dialects through L-vocalization. ^ In most varieties of English, /r/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ]. Although the IPA symbol ⟨r⟩ represents the alveolar trill, ⟨r⟩ is widely used instead of ⟨ɹ⟩ in broad transcriptions of English. ^ A number of English words, such as genre and garage, may be pronounced with either /ʒ/ or /dʒ/. ^ In most dialects, /x/ can also be replaced by /k/ in most words, including loch. It is also replaced with /h/ in some words, particularly of Yiddish origin, such as Chanukah. ^ a b /ɒ̃, æ̃/ are only found in French loanwords and often replaced by another vowel and a nasal consonant: bon vivant /ˌbɒn viːˈvɒnt/, ensemble /ɒnˈsɒmbəl/, etc.[a] ^ /ɜː/ is only found in loanwords and represents a situation where such an r-less vowel is used only in British or Southern Hemisphere accents, and therefore a transcription that includes it must always be prefaced with a label indicating the variety of English. It is to be used only when a reliable source shows that General American has a different vowel in the same position. If r-ful NURSE is used even in GA, even if spelled without ⟨r⟩, as in Goethe and hors d'oeuvre, use /ɜːr/. /ɜː/ is also not the same as ⟨œ⟩ seen in some American dictionaries. ⟨œ⟩ in those dictionaries is merely a notational convention and does not correspond to any vowel in any accent of English, so a transcription containing ⟨œ⟩ cannot be converted to one that uses this key. ^ In non-rhotic accents like RP, /r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel. ^ In dialects with the father–bother merger such as General American, /ɒ/ is not distinguished from /ɑː/. ^ In most of the United States, /ɒr/ is merged with /ɔːr/, except for a handful of words such as borrow, tomorrow and sorry, which instead have /ɑːr/. In some parts of the Southern and Northeastern US, it is always merged with /ɑːr/. In Canada, it is always merged with /ɔːr/. ^ In North America, /æ/ is often pronounced like a diphthong [eə~ɛə] before nasal consonants and, in some particular regional dialects, other environments. See /æ/ raising. ^ a b c Many North American accents have the Mary–marry–merry merger and therefore don't distinguish between the corresponding sounds /ɛər/, /ær/, and /ɛr/. Some speakers merge only two of the sounds (most typically /ɛər/ with one of the short vowels), and less than a fifth of speakers of American English make a full three-way distinction like in RP and similar accents.[b] ^ a b In much of North America, /aɪ/ or /aʊ/ may have a slightly different quality when it precedes a voiceless consonant, as in price or mouth, from that in ride/pie or loud/how, a phenomenon known as Canadian raising. Since this occurs in a predictable fashion, it is not distinguished in this transcription system. ^ a b c Some speakers pronounce higher, flower and coyer ("more coy") with two syllables, and hire, flour and coir with one. Most pronounce them the same. For the former group of words, make use of syllable breaks, as in /ˈhaɪ.ər/, /ˈflaʊ.ər/, /ˈkɔɪ.ər/, to differentiate from the latter. Also, the distinction between /aɪər, aʊər, ɔɪər/ and /aɪr, aʊr, ɔɪr/ is not always clear; choose the former if the second element may be omitted (as in [ˈdaəri] diary). ^ /ɛ/ is transcribed with ⟨e⟩ in many dictionaries. However, /eɪ/ is also sometimes transcribed with ⟨e⟩, especially in North American literature, so ⟨ɛ⟩ is chosen here. ^ a b c /ɛə/, /ɪə/, or /ʊə/ may be separated from /r/ only when a stress follows it. The IPAc-en template supports /ɛəˈr/, /ɪəˈr/, /ʊəˈr/, /ɛəˌr/, /ɪəˌr/, and /ʊəˌr/ as distinct diaphonemes for such occasions. ^ a b c d /ɪ/ and /oʊ/ may be strong or weak depending on context.[c] Whether an instance of unstressed /ɪ/ is strong or weak may not be clear in some circumstances.[d] ^ a b Words like idea, real, theatre, and cruel may be pronounced with /ɪə/ or /ʊə/ in non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation, and some dictionaries transcribe them with /ɪə, ʊə/,[e] but since they are not pronounced with /r/ in rhotic accents, they should be transcribed with /iːə, uːə/, not with /ɪə, ʊə/, in this transcription system. ^ /oʊ/ is often transcribed with ⟨əʊ⟩, particularly in British literature, based on its modern realization in Received Pronunciation. It is also transcribed with ⟨o⟩, particularly in North American literature. ^ a b Some conservative dialects make a distinction between the vowels in horse and hoarse, but the number of speakers who make this distinction any longer is very small and many dictionaries do not differentiate between them (horse–hoarse merger). ^ /ɔː/ is not distinguished from /ɒ/ in dialects with the cot–caught merger such as Scottish English, Canadian English and many varieties of General American. In North America, the two vowels most often fall together with /ɑː/. ^ /ʊər/ is not distinguished from /ɔːr/ in dialects with the cure–force merger, including many younger speakers. In England, the merger may not be fully consistent and may only apply to more common words. In conservative RP and Northern England English /ʊər/ is much more commonly preserved than in modern RP and Southern England English. In Australia and New Zealand, /ʊər/ does not exist as a separate phoneme and is replaced either by the sequence /uːər/ (/uːr/ before vowels within the same word, save for some compounds) or the monophthong /ɔːr/. ^ Some, particularly North American, dictionaries notate /ʌ/ with the same symbol as /ə/, which is found only in unstressed syllables, and distinguish it from /ə/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Also note that although ⟨ʌ⟩, the IPA symbol for the open-mid back vowel, is used, the typical modern pronunciation is rather close to the near-open central vowel [ɐ] in most dialects, including Received Pronunciation and General American. ^ /ʌ/ is not used in the dialects of the northern half of England, some bordering parts of Wales, and some broad eastern Ireland accents. These words would take the /ʊ/ vowel: there is no foot–strut split. ^ In Received Pronunciation, /ɜːr/ is pronounced as a lengthened schwa, [əː]. In General American, it is phonetically identical to /ər/. Some dictionaries therefore use ⟨əː, ər⟩ instead of the conventional notations ⟨ɜː, ɜr⟩. When ⟨ər⟩ is used for /ɜːr/, it is distinguished from /ər/ by marking the syllable as stressed. ^ /ʌr/ is not distinguished from /ɜːr/ in dialects with the hurry–furry merger such as General American. ^ a b In a number of contexts, /ə/ in /ər/, /əl/, /ən/, or /əm/ is often omitted, resulting in a syllable with no vowel. Some dictionaries show /ə/ in those contexts in parentheses, superscript, or italics to indicate this possibility, or simply omit /ə/. When followed by a weak vowel, the syllable may be lost altogether, with the consonant moving to the next syllable, so that doubling /ˈdʌb.əl.ɪŋ/ may alternatively be pronounced as [ˈdʌb.lɪŋ], and Edinburgh /ˈɛd.ɪn.bər.ə/ as [ˈɛd.ɪn.brə].[i] When not followed by a vowel, /ər/ merges with /ə/ in non-rhotic accents. ^ In accents with the weak vowel merger such as most Australian and American accents, /ɪ/ in unstressed positions is not distinguished from /ə/, making rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon homophonous. Pairs like roses and Rosa's are kept distinct in American accents because of the difference in morphological structure,[f] but may be homophonous in Australian.[g] In these accents, unstressed /ɪl, ɪn, ɪm/ merge with /əl, ən, əm/, so that the second vowel in Latin may be lost and cabinet may be disyllabic (see the previous note). ^ a b /oʊ/ and /u/ in unstressed, prevocalic positions are transcribed as /əw/ by Merriam-Webster, but no other dictionary uniformly follows this practice.[h] Hence a difference between /əw/ in Merriam-Webster and /oʊ/ or /u/ in another source is most likely one in notation, not in pronunciation, so /əw/ in such cases may be better replaced with /oʊ/ or /u/ accordingly, to minimize confusion: /ˌsɪtʃəˈweɪʃən/ → /ˌsɪtʃuˈeɪʃən/, /ˈfɒləwər/ → /ˈfɒloʊər/. ^ a b ⟨i⟩ represents variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed prevocalic or morpheme-final positions. It is realized with a quality closer to /iː/ in accents with happy tensing, such as Australian English, General American, and modern RP, and to /ɪ/ in others. ⟨u⟩ likewise represents variation between /uː/ and /ʊ/ in unstressed prevocalic positions. ^ The sequence ⟨iə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [i.ə] or [ɪ.ə], or as one, [jə] or [ɪə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the NEAR vowel (/ɪər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨iə⟩, not ⟨i.ə⟩, ⟨ɪə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The sequence ⟨uə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [u.ə] or [ʊ.ə], or as one, [wə] or [ʊə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the CURE vowel (/ʊər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨uə⟩, not ⟨u.ə⟩, ⟨ʊə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The IPA stress mark ⟨ˈ⟩ comes before the syllable that has the stress, in contrast to stress marking in pronunciation keys of some dictionaries published in the United States. ^ Syllable divisions are not usually marked, but the IPA dot ⟨.⟩ may be used when it is wished to make explicit where a division between syllables is (or may be) made. ^ Not all of the sets defined in Wells Standard Lexical Sets for English are used here. In particular, we excluded words in the lexical sets BATH and CLOTH, which may be given two transcriptions, the former either with /ɑː/ or /æ/, the latter with /ɒ/ or /ɔː/. References ^ Jones (2011). ^ Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003). "How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry?". Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 91–2. ^ Wells, John (25 March 2011). "strong and weak". John Wells's phonetic blog. ^ a b c Wells (1982), p. 240. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 94–5. ^ Wells (1982), p. 601. ^ Windsor Lewis, Jack (10 April 2009). "The Elephant in the Room". PhonetiBlog. ^ Wells (2008), pp. 173, 799. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 473–6, 493, 499. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 58. ^ Corrigan (2010), pp. 33–5. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 361, 372. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 605–7. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98–9. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 351–3, 363–4. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 380–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 612–3. ^ a b Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 56. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 310–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 312–3. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 57. ^ Cruttenden (2014), pp. 119–20. Bibliography Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007). "New Zealand English". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830. S2CID 145584883. Corrigan, Karen P. (2010). Irish English, volume 1 – Northern Ireland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3429-3. Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4441-8309-2. Flemming, Edward; Johnson, Stephanie (2007). "Rosa's roses: reduced vowels in American English" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002817. S2CID 145535175. Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004). "Scottish English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Volume 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 47–67. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.47. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. |volume= has extra text (help) Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Volume 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Volume 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Volume 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52129719-2 , 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. 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en-wikipedia-org-7910	----	Tivoli, Lazio - Wikipedia Tivoli, Lazio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tivoli, Italy) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Tivoli. Comune in Lazio, Italy Comune in Lazio, Italy Tivoli Comune Comune di Tivoli Main attractions of Tivoli, Top left: View of big fountain in Villa d'Este; Top right: Rocca Pia Castle; Center: City panorama; Bottom left: Temple of Tiburtine Sibyl; Bottom middle: The Maritime Theater in Hadrian's Villa; Bottom right: Cathedral Location of Tivoli Tivoli Location of Tivoli in Lazio Show map of Italy Tivoli Tivoli (Lazio) Show map of Lazio Coordinates: 41°57′35″N 12°47′53″E / 41.95972°N 12.79806°E / 41.95972; 12.79806Coordinates: 41°57′35″N 12°47′53″E / 41.95972°N 12.79806°E / 41.95972; 12.79806 Country Italy Region Lazio Metropolitan city Rome (RM) Roman establishment 338 BC Government  • Mayor Giuseppe Proietti Area[1]  • Total 68 km2 (26 sq mi) Elevation 235 m (771 ft) Population (30 September 2015)[2]  • Total 56,685  • Density 830/km2 (2,200/sq mi) Demonym(s) Tiburtini Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 00019 Dialing code 0774 Patron saint San Lorenzo Saint day 10 August Website Official website Tivoli (/ˈtɪvəli/, Italian: [ˈtiːvoli]; Latin: Tibur) is a town and comune in Lazio, central Italy, about 30 kilometres (19 miles) east-north-east of Rome, at the falls of the Aniene river where it issues from the Sabine hills. The city offers a wide view over the Roman Campagna. Contents 1 History 1.1 Roman age 1.1.1 Roman gentes with origins in Tibur 1.2 Middle Ages 1.3 Renaissance 1.4 Modern times 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 2.2 Main sights 3 Economy and infrastructure 4 Influences 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links History[edit] Gaius Julius Solinus cites Cato the Elder's lost Origines for the story that the city was founded by Catillus the Arcadian, a son of Amphiaraus, who came there having escaped the slaughter at Thebes, Greece. Catillus and his three sons Tiburtus, Coras, and Catillus[i] drove out the Siculi from the Aniene plateau and founded a city they named Tibur in honor of Tiburtus.[3] According to another account, Tibur was a colony of Alba Longa. Historical traces of settlement in the area date back to the thirteenth century BC. Tibur may share a common root with the river Tiber and the Latin praenomen Tiberius.[4] From Etruscan times Tibur, a Sabine city, was the seat of the Tiburtine Sibyl. There are two small temples above the falls, the rotunda traditionally associated with Vesta and the rectangular one with the Sibyl of Tibur, whom Varro calls Albunea, the water nymph who was worshipped on the banks of the Anio as a tenth Sibyl added to the nine mentioned by the Greek writers. In the nearby woods, Faunus had a sacred grove. During the Roman age Tibur maintained a certain importance, being on the way (the Via Tiburtina, extended as the Via Valeria) that Romans had to follow to cross the mountain regions of the Apennines towards the Abruzzo, the region where lived some of its fiercest enemies such as Volsci, Sabines, and Samnites. Roman age[edit] Landscape showing the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, by Adam Elsheimer, c. 1600 At first an independent ally of Rome, Tibur allied itself with the Gauls in 361 BC. Vestiges remain of its defensive walls of this period, in opus quadratum. In 338 BC, however, Tibur was defeated and absorbed by the Romans. The city acquired Roman citizenship in 90 BC and became a resort area famed for its beauty and its good water, and was enriched by many Roman villas. The most famous one, of which the ruins remain, is the Villa Adriana (Hadrian's Villa). Maecenas and Augustus also had villas at Tibur, and the poet Horace had a modest villa: he and Catullus and Statius all mention Tibur in their poems. In 273, Zenobia, the captive queen of Palmyra, was assigned a residence here by the Emperor Aurelian. The second-century temple of Hercules Victor is being excavated. The present Piazza del Duomo occupies the Roman forum. Waterfalls of Tivoli, Christian Wilhelm Ernst Dietrich, 1745–1750 The name of the city came to be used in diminutive form as Tiburi instead of Tibur and so transformed through Tibori to Tiboli and finally to Tivoli.[citation needed] But its inhabitants are still called Tiburtini and not Tivolesi. In 547, in the course of the Gothic War, the city was fortified by the Byzantine general Belisarius, but was later destroyed by Totila's army. After the end of the war it became a Byzantine duchy, later absorbed into the Patrimony of St. Peter. After Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, Tivoli was under the authority of a count, representing the emperor. Roman gentes with origins in Tibur[edit] Coponia (gens) Cossinia (gens) Rabiria gens Rubellia gens Middle Ages[edit] From the tenth century onwards, Tivoli, as an independent commune governed by its elected consuls, was the fiercest rival of Rome in the struggle for the control over the impoverished central Lazio. Emperor Otto III conquered it in 1001, and Tivoli fell under the papal control. Tivoli however managed to keep a level of independence until the 15th century: symbols of the city's strength were the Palace of Arengo, the Torre del Comune and the church of St. Michael, all built in this period, as well as the new line of walls (authorized in 1155), needed to house the increasing population. Reminders of the internal turbulence of communal life are the tower houses that may be seen in Vicolo dei Ferri, Via di Postera, Via del Seminario and Via del Colle. In the 13th century Rome imposed a tribute on the city, and gave itself the right to appoint a count to govern it in conjunction with the local consuls. In the fourteenth century, Tivoli sided with the Guelphs and strongly supported Urban VI against Antipope Clement VII. King Ladislaus of Naples was twice repulsed from the city, as was the famous condottiero Braccio da Montone. In the city there was also a Jewish community.[5][6] The castle of Rocca Pia, built in 1461 by Pope Pius II. Small area in the old town. Renaissance[edit] During the Renaissance, popes and cardinals did not limit their embellishment program to Rome; they also erected buildings in Tivoli. In 1461 Pope Pius II built the massive Rocca Pia to control the always restive population, and as a symbol of the permanence of papal temporal power here. From the sixteenth century the city saw further construction of villas. The most famous of these is the Villa d'Este, a World Heritage Site, whose construction was started in 1550 by Pirro Ligorio for Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este and which was richly decorated with an ambitious program of frescoes by famous painters of late Roman Mannerism, such Girolamo Muziano, Livio Agresti (a member of the "Forlì painting school") or Federico Zuccari. In 1527 Tivoli was sacked by bands of the supporters of the emperor and the Colonna, important archives being destroyed during the attack. In 1547 it was again occupied, by the Duke of Alba in a war against Paul IV, and in 1744 by the Austrians. In 1835 Pope Gregory XVI added the Villa Gregoriana, a villa complex pivoting around the Aniene's falls. The "Great Waterfall" was created through a tunnel in the Monte Catillo, to give an outlet to the waters of the Aniene sufficient to preserve the city from inundations like the devastating flood of 1826. Modern times[edit] In 1944, Tivoli suffered heavy damage under an Allied bombing, which destroyed the Jesuit Church of Jesus.[7] Geography[edit] Climate[edit] Tivoli has a Mediterranean climate with warm and dry summers and cool and wet winters. Climate data for Tivoli Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 12.3 (54.1) 13.8 (56.8) 16.0 (60.8) 19.1 (66.4) 23.6 (74.5) 27.8 (82.0) 31.6 (88.9) 31.3 (88.3) 27.6 (81.7) 22.5 (72.5) 16.9 (62.4) 13.3 (55.9) 21.3 (70.4) Average low °C (°F) 1.9 (35.4) 2.9 (37.2) 4.5 (40.1) 7.0 (44.6) 10.4 (50.7) 14.0 (57.2) 16.4 (61.5) 16.6 (61.9) 14.1 (57.4) 10.2 (50.4) 6.2 (43.2) 3.2 (37.8) 8.9 (48.1) Average precipitation mm (inches) 74 (2.9) 74 (2.9) 61 (2.4) 66 (2.6) 56 (2.2) 43 (1.7) 28 (1.1) 46 (1.8) 71 (2.8) 89 (3.5) 100 (4.1) 86 (3.4) 800 (31.4) Source: [8] Main sights[edit] Little Waterfalls under the Ponte Gregoriano. Upper part of the Temple of the Tosse. View of Tivoli by Hendrik Frans van Lint, 1731 Villa Adriana, part of the UNESCO World Heritage site list from 1999 Villa d'Este, part of the UNESCO World Heritage site list since 2001 Villa Gregoriana Rocca Pia, a fortress built by Pope Pius II in 1461 to counter the urban strife between the Colonna and Orsini families Temple of Vesta Temple of "Tiburtine Sibyl" (true dedication unknown). It was built in the second century BC on an artificial platform in the acropolis. Characterized by Ionic columns (only two of which remain today), it measures 15.90 by 9.15 metres (52.2 by 30.0 ft). The interior was decorated by frescoes and stuccoes, now lost. A church, dedicated to St. George, is known to have existed in the temple from as early as 978. Sanctuary of Hercules Victor (second century BC). Now in ruins, it was one of the largest structures in central Italy at the time, and was located outside the ancient city, across the road leading to Samnium. Measuring 188 by 140 metres (617 by 459 ft), it included a theater, a large porticoed square and the temple. It was reached through a series of terraces, in a similar fashion to the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia in Palestrina. The sanctuary also housed one of the more frequented council of musicians in Roman Italy. Tivoli Cathedral (Duomo, rebuilt from 1635 to 1641) Roman Temple of the Tosse, located near the Temple of Hercules and the Villa d'Este and dating perhaps to the early fourth century. It is a circular structure with a hole in the 12-metre (39 ft) diameter dome. In the tenth century it was turned into a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Economy and infrastructure[edit] Tivoli's quarries produce travertine, a particular white calcium-carbonate rock used in building most Roman monuments. The water power of the falls supplies some of the electricity that lights Rome. The slopes of the neighbouring hills are covered with olives, vineyards and gardens; the most important local industry is the manufacture of paper. Influences[edit] Tivoli's reputation as a stylish resort and the fame of the gardens of the Villa d'Este have inspired the naming of other sites after Tivoli: for example, the Jardin de Tivoli, Paris (France) and the Tivoli Gardens amusement park in Copenhagen (Denmark). The Wörlitz Synagogue in the Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm (Germany) is a replica of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.[9] Notes[edit] ^ In the Aeneid, Virgil makes Coras and the younger Catillus twin brothers and the leaders of a Tiburtine military force in support of Turnus. References[edit] ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, vol. II, pp. 1200–1205 ("Tibur"). ^ Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", p. 154. ^ Lazio Itinerari ebraici. ^ Sebastiani, Viaggio a Tivoli, p. 108. ^ Seventieth anniversary of the bombing of Tivoli. In Italian. ^ "Tivoli historic weather averages in Italy". Intellicast. Retrieved 26 March 2009. ^ Wischnitzer, Architecture of the European Synagogue, pp. 158, 159. Bibliography[edit] Filippo Alessandro Sebastiani, Viaggio a Tivoli antichissima città latino-sabina fatto nel 1825, Foligno (1828). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1854). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103–184 (1897). Rachel Wischnitzer, Architecture of the European Synagogue, Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia (1964). Lazio Itinerari ebraici. I luoghi, la storia, l'arte, Marsilio, ed. (1997), ISBN 883176795X. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tivoli.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Tivoli". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Tivoli – Discover the city Tivoli and surroundings – Discover the lands Patrimonio UNESCO: Tivoli (in Italian) A Tivoli Companion – history and gardens Tivoli., a poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon published in The Bijou annual for 1829 to accompany an engraving of 'The Cascade of Tivoli', a painting by Henning. v t e Municipalities of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Affile Agosta Albano Laziale Allumiere Anguillara Sabazia Anticoli Corrado Anzio Arcinazzo Romano Ardea Ariccia Arsoli Artena Bellegra Bracciano Camerata Nuova Campagnano di Roma Canale Monterano Canterano Capena Capranica Prenestina Carpineto Romano Casape Castel Gandolfo Castel Madama Castel San Pietro Romano Castelnuovo di Porto Cave Cerreto Laziale Cervara di Roma Cerveteri Ciampino Ciciliano Cineto Romano Civitavecchia Civitella San Paolo Colleferro Colonna Fiano Romano Filacciano Fiumicino Fonte Nuova Formello Frascati Gallicano nel Lazio Gavignano Genazzano Genzano di Roma Gerano Gorga Grottaferrata Guidonia Montecelio Jenne Labico Ladispoli Lanuvio Lariano Licenza Magliano Romano Mandela Manziana Marano Equo Marcellina Marino Mazzano Romano Mentana Monte Compatri Monte Porzio Catone Monteflavio Montelanico Montelibretti Monterotondo Montorio Romano Moricone Morlupo Nazzano Nemi Nerola Nettuno Olevano Romano Palestrina Palombara Sabina Percile Pisoniano Poli Pomezia Ponzano Romano Riano Rignano Flaminio Riofreddo Rocca Canterano Rocca Priora Rocca Santo Stefano Rocca di Cave Rocca di Papa Roccagiovine Roiate Rome Roviano Sacrofano Sambuci San Cesareo San Gregorio da Sassola San Polo dei Cavalieri San Vito Romano Sant'Angelo Romano Sant'Oreste Santa Marinella Saracinesco Segni Subiaco Tivoli Tolfa Torrita Tiberina Trevignano Romano Vallepietra Vallinfreda Valmontone Velletri Vicovaro Vivaro Romano Zagarolo Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Other MusicBrainz area National Archives (US) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tivoli,_Lazio&oldid=1024309810" Categories: Municipalities of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Tivoli, Lazio Roman sites in Lazio Baroque architecture in Lazio Renaissance sites in the Lazio Cities and towns in Lazio World Heritage Sites in Italy Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from November 2019 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Italian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with image map1 but not image map Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014 Commons link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Lombard Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2021, at 10:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7936	----	Annia gens - Wikipedia Annia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Families from Ancient Rome who shared the Annius nomen Denarius of Gaius Annius, minted c. 81 BC, on his way to fight Sertorius. The obverse depicts Anna Perenna.[1] The gens Annia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Livy mentions a Lucius Annius, praetor of the Roman colony of Setia, in 340 BC, and other Annii are mentioned at Rome during this period. Members of this gens held various positions of authority from the time of the Second Punic War, and Titus Annius Luscus attained the consulship in 153 BC. In the second century AD, the Annii gained the Empire itself; Marcus Aurelius was descended from this family.[2] Contents 1 Origin 2 Praenomina 3 Branches and cognomina 4 Members 4.1 Annii Lusci 4.2 Annii Bellieni 4.3 Annii Veri 4.4 Others 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography Origin[edit] The Annii claimed a descent from the goddess Anna Perenna, the sister of Dido, portrayed on the coins of Gaius Annius Luscus.[3] The nomen Annius was classified by Chase as one of Picentine origin, while the first of the Annii appearing in history (in 340 BC) was praetor of Setia, originally a Volscian town, captured by the Romans in 382 BC. Both the Picentes and the Volsci spoke Umbrian languages, so it may be that Annius was a member of an old Volscian family, rather than one of the Latin colonists, on whose behalf he spoke.[4][5] It seems the gens acquired the citizenship soon after, since a Roman senator named Annius is recorded a generation later. Praenomina[edit] The main families of the Annii at Rome used the praenomina Titus, Marcus, Lucius, and Gaius. Other names occur infrequently, although in imperial times several of the Annii used Appius, an otherwise uncommon praenomen chiefly associated with the Claudii. Branches and cognomina[edit] A number of Annii during the Republic bore no cognomen. The main family of the Annii was surnamed Luscus, "bleary-eyed" or, "one-eyed". One member of this family bore the additional surname Rufus, probably in reference to his red hair.[6][7] A variety of surnames were borne by individual Annii, including Asellus, a diminutive of asinus, a donkey; Bassus, stout; Cimber, one of the Cimbri; Faustus, fortunate; Gallus, a Gaul or cockerel; and Pollio, a polisher.[8][9] Bellienus or Billienus, sometimes described as a cognomen of the Annii, was in fact a separate gens, although Cicero refers to a Gaius Annius Bellienus; it is not certain which of the Bellieni mentioned below actually belong to the Annia gens.[10] Members[edit] This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation. Annii Lusci[edit] Marcus Annius (Luscus), triumvir for the founding of colonies in Cisalpine Gaul in 218 BC, obliged by a sudden rising of the Boii to take refuge in Mutina.[11] Titus Annius M. f. Luscus, sent as an envoy to Perseus in 172 BC, and triumvir for augmenting the colony at Aquileia in 169.[12] Titus Annius T. f. M. n. Luscus, consul in 153 BC, an orator who opposed Tiberius Gracchus in 133.[13] Titus Annius T. f. T. n. Luscus, surnamed Rufus, consul in 128 BC.[14] Gaius Annius T. f. T. n. Luscus, commander of the garrison at Leptis Magna under Metellus Numidicus during the Jugurthine War in 108 BC, and later sent by Sulla against Sertorius in 81, whom he compelled to retire to Carthago Nova.[15][16] Annia T. f. T. n., the wife of Gaius Papius Celsus and mother of Titus Annius Papianus Milo.[17] Titus Annius Papianus Milo, the son of Celsus and Annia, was adopted by his grandfather, Titus Annius Luscus, whose name he assumed. He was tribune of the plebs in 57 BC, and became a staunch opponent of Publius Clodius Pulcher, for whose murder he was unsuccessfully defended by Cicero in 52.[17] Annii Bellieni[edit] Lucius Annius C. f. Bellienus, praetor in 105 BC, served under Gaius Marius in the war against Jugurtha and Bocchus.[18][19] Gaius Annius Bellienus, legate of Marcus Fonteius in Gallia Narbonensis, circa 74 BC.[20] Lucius Annius Bellienus, uncle of Catiline, ordered by Sulla to kill Quintus Lucretius Afella, and condemned in 64 BC.[21] Lucius Annius Bellienus, whose house was burnt down after the murder of Caesar in 44 BC.[22] Annii Veri[edit] Marcus Annius Verus, a senator of Spanish descent, was the great-grandfather of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius M. f. Verus, the grandfather of Marcus Aurelius, obtained the consulship in an uncertain year under Domitian, and twice under Hadrian, in AD 121 and 126. Annia M. f. M. n. Galeria Faustina, better known as Faustina Major or Faustina the Elder, was the wife of Antoninus Pius, and Roman empress from AD 138 to 140; Marcus Aurelius was her nephew. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Libo, the uncle of Marcus Aurelius, was consul in AD 128 and 161. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Verus, the father of Marcus Aurelius, attained the praetorship, but died circa AD 124, leaving his children to be raised by their paternal grandfather. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Libo, son of Marcus Annius Libo, the consul of AD 128 and 161, was governor of Syria in AD 162. Annia M. f. M. n. Fundania Faustina, daughter of Marcus Annius Libo, the consul of AD 128 and 161, married Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio. She was later murdered on the orders of her cousin, the emperor Commodus. Marcus Annius M. f. M. n. Verus, afterwards Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 161 to 180. Annia M. f. M. n. Cornificia Faustina, the sister of Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, the twelfth son of Marcus Aurelius. Annia Faustina, the granddaughter of Annia Cornificia Faustina. Annia Aurelia Faustina, the daughter of Annia Faustina, married the emperor Elagabalus. Others[edit] Lucius Annius, praetor of Setia in 340 BC, demanded equality for the Latins. Lucius Annius, a senator in 307 BC, who was expelled from the senate by the censors.[23][24] Annius, a freedman, and reportedly the father of Gnaeus Flavius, curule aedile in 304 BC.[25][26] Gaius Annius C. f., a quaestor or praetor during the third century BC.[27][28] Annius, a Campanian ambassador to Rome in 216 BC, demanded that one of the consuls should henceforth be a Campanian.[29][30] Gaius Annius C. f., a senator in 135 BC.[31] Lucius Annius L. f., a senator in 135 BC.[31] Gaius Annius C. f., a senator in 129 BC, should probably be distinguished from the Gaius Annius of 135, who was a member of the tribus Camilia, while the senator of 129 was from Arniensis.[32] Marcus Annius P. f., quaestor in Macedonia circa 119 BC, won a victory over the Celts who had killed the propraetor Sextus Pompeius.[33][34] Lucius Annius, tribune of the plebs in 110 BC, possibly the son of Lucius Annius, senator in 135, wished to continue in office the next year, but was resisted by his colleagues.[35] Publius Annius, a military tribune in 87 BC, murdered Marcus Antonius, the orator, and brought his head to Marius.[36][37] Annia, the wife of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who died in 84 BC, and afterwards of Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus, whom Sulla compelled to divorce her, because of her former marriage to Cinna.[38] Publius Annius Asellus, a senator who died in 75 BC, leaving his only daughter as his heiress. His property was seized by the praetor Verres. He was quaestor in Sicily soon before.[39][40][41] Quintus Annius Chilo, a senator, and one of Catiline's conspirators in 63 BC.[42] Lucius Annius, a quaestor in Sicily before 50 BC.[40] Sextus Annius, a quaestor in Sicily before 50 BC.[40] Quintus Annius, an officer of Sextus Pompey in Sicily between 43 and 36 BC.[43] Gaius Annius Cimber, a supporter of Marcus Antonius in 43 BC. Annius, triumvir monetalis in 9 BC.[44] Gaius Annius C. f. Pollio, a senator known from the columbarium of his freedmen. Possibly the same as the triumvir monetalis of 9 BC; believed to be the father of Gaius Annius Pollio, consul in 21 or 22.[45] Gaius Annius C. f. C. n. Pollio, consul suffectus in either AD 21 or 22. Accused of majestas during the reign of Tiberius.[46][47] Lucius Annius Vinicianus, one of the men involved in the assassination of Caligula.[48] Gaius Annius Pollio, consul suffectus circa AD 66. An intimate friend of Nero, banished after being accused of participating in the conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso.[49] Lucius Annius L. f. Vinicianus, son of the Vinicianus who conspired against Caligula, was involved in a plot against Nero. He took his own life rather than defend himself. Annius Faustus, a man of equestrian rank, and one of the informers (delatores) in the reign of Nero, was condemned by the Senate in AD 69, on the accusation of Vibius Crispus.[50] Marcus Annius Afrinus, consul suffectus in AD 66. Appius Annius Gallus, consul suffectus in AD 67 and Roman general under the emperors Otho and Vespasian. Annius Bassus, commander of a legion under Marcus Antonius Primus in AD 70.[51] Appius Annius (Ap. f.) Trebonius Gallus, perhaps the son of Appius Annius Gallus, the consul of AD 67; consul in 108.[52] Appius Annius Ap. f. (Ap. n.) Trebonius Gallus, consul in AD 139.[53][54] father of: Appius Annius Ap. f. Ap. n. Atilius Bradua, consul in AD 160.[53][54][55] Appia Annia Ap. f. Ap. n. Regilla Atilia Caucidia Tertulla, better known as Aspasia Annia Regilla, daughter of the consul of AD 139, married Herodes Atticus.[52][53] Lucius Annius Arrianus, consul in AD 243. Annia Cupressenia Herennia Etruscilla, wife of the emperor Decius, and Roman empress from AD 248 to 251. She served as regent during the brief reign of her son Hostilian, who died in an epidemic before the end of 251. See also[edit] List of Roman gentes References[edit] ^ Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 381-386. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 180 ("Annia Gens"), 439–443 ("Aurelius", "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus"). ^ Babelon, Monnaies de la République romaine, vol. I, p. 139. ^ Chase, p. 128. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd Ed., p. 1131 ("Volsci"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 842, 843 ("Luscus", "Annius Luscus"). ^ Chase, pp. 109, 110. ^ Chase, p. 110–112, 114. ^ New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. Cimber. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 481 ("Bellienus"). ^ Livy, xxi. 25. ^ Livy, xlii. 25, xliii. 17. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Tiberius Gracchus", 14. ^ Fasti Capitolini, AE 1927, 101; 1940, 59, 60. ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 77. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Sertorius", 7. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 1085, 1086 ("Titus Annius Papianus Milo"). ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 104. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 551, 552 (note 3). ^ Cicero, Pro Fonteio 4. ^ Quintus Asconius Pedianus, in Toga Candida p. 92, ed. Orelli. ^ Cicero, Philippicae ii. 36. ^ Valerius Maximus, ii. 9 § 2. Some manuscripts give him the name of L. Antonius, but Syme restored his name. ^ Syme, "Missing Senators", p. 55. ^ Aulus Gellius, vii. 9. ^ Livy, ix. 46. ^ CIL 12.20 ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 462, 474. ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 4. § 1. ^ Livy, xxiii. 6, 22. ^ a b SIG, 688. ^ Sherk, "Senatus Consultum De Agro Pergameno", p. 367. ^ SIG, 700. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 526. ^ Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 37. ^ Valerius Maximus, ix. 2. § 2. ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, i. 72. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 41. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Verrem i. 41 ff. ^ a b c Broughton, vol. II, p. 478. ^ Syme, "Missing Senators", p. 55. Syme explains that the praenomen Gaius found in the manuscript of Cicero is a mistake, as the other mentions of his name in the rest of the book mention him as Publius. ^ Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilinae, 17, 50. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 479. ^ Sutherland, Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. I, p. 74. ^ CIL VI, 7395 = ILS 7852 ^ Tacitus, Annales vi. 9 ^ CIL VI, 14221 ^ Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae xviii. 20. ^ Tacitus, Annales xv. 56, 71, xvi. 30. ^ Tacitus, Historiae ii. 10. ^ Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Historiae iii. 50. ^ a b Birley, The Roman government of Britain p. 112 ^ a b c Pomeroy, The murder of Regilla. ^ a b Birley, The Roman government of Britain p. 114. ^ de:Appius Annius Atilius Bradua Bibliography[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Verrem, Philippicae, Pro Fonteio. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Jugurthinum (The Jugurthine War), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History. Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Toga Candida (Commentary on Cicero's Oration In Toga Candida). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). Wilhelm Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (Collection of Greek Inscriptions, abbreviated SIG), Leipzig (1883). Ernest Babelon, Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la République romaine, Rollin et Feuardent, Paris (1885). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103–184 (1897). Harold Mattingly, Edward Allen Sydenham, C. H. V. Sutherland et alii, The Roman Imperial Coinage, London (1923–1984). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952–1986). Ronald Syme, "Missing Senators", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 4, H. 1 (1955), pp. 52–71. Robert K. Sherk, "The Text of the Senatus Consultum De Agro Pergameno", in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, vol. 7, pp. 361–369 (1966). Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). Anthony R. Birley, The Roman Government of Britain, Oxford University Press (2005). Sarah B. Pomeroy, The Murder of Regilla: a Case of Domestic Violence in Antiquity, Harvard University Press (2007). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annia_gens&oldid=1014947837" Categories: Annii Roman gentes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Español Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 22:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-7955	----	Malaise - Wikipedia Malaise From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Feeling of general discomfort For the Swedish entomologist and inventor of the Malaise trap, see René Malaise. Medical condition Malaise Other names Discomfort, uneasiness Pronunciation /məˈleɪz/ mə-LAYZ Specialty Family medicine, Internal medicine, Pediatrics, Geriatrics, Psychiatry, Clinical psychology Symptoms Feeling of uneasiness or discomfort Diagnostic method Based on symptoms Differential diagnosis Pain, anxiety, depression Look up malaise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. As a medical term, malaise is a feeling of general discomfort, uneasiness, or pain, and often the first sign of an infection or other disease.[1] The word has existed in French since at least the 12th century. The term is often used figuratively in other contexts, in addition to its meaning as a general state of angst or melancholy. Contents 1 Cause 2 Figurative use 3 See also 4 Notes and references 5 External links Cause[edit] Malaise is a non-specific symptom and can be present in the slightest ailment, such as an emotion (causing fainting, a vasovagal response) or hunger (light hypoglycemia[2]), to the most serious conditions (cancer, stroke, heart attack, internal bleeding, etc.). Malaise expresses a patient's uneasiness that "something is not right" that may need a medical examination to determine the significance. Malaise is thought to be caused by the activation of an immune response, and the associated pro-inflammatory cytokines.[3] Figurative use[edit] "Economic malaise" refers to an economy that is stagnant or in recession (compare depression). The term is particularly associated with the 1973–75 United States recession.[4] A speech made by US President Jimmy Carter in 1979 is commonly referred to as the "malaise speech", although the word itself was not actually in the speech.[5] See also[edit] Fatigue (medical) Prodrome Post-exertional malaise Malaise Créole Malaise era Ennui Notes and references[edit] ^ "Malaise: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-09-16. ^ Sommerfield, Andrew J.; Deary, Ian J.; McAulay, Vincent; Frier, Brian M. (1 February 2003). "Short-Term, Delayed, and Working Memory Are Impaired During Hypoglycemia in Individuals With Type 1 Diabetes". Diabetes Care. 26 (2): 390–396. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.2.390. PMID 12547868. Archived from the original on 13 September 2016 – via care.diabetesjournals.org. ^ Dantzer, Robert (1 December 2016). "Cytokine, Sickness Behavior, and Depression". Immunology and allergy clinics of North America. 29 (2): 247–264. doi:10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002. ISSN 0889-8561. PMC 2740752. PMID 19389580. ^ One example can be found in The Next 200 Years: A Scenario for America and the World, by Herman Kahn et al., published in 1976, p. 2. ^ ""Crisis of Confidence" Speech (July 15, 1979)". Miller Center, University of Virginia. Archived from the original (text and video) on July 21, 2009. External links[edit] Classification D ICD-10: R53 ICD-9-CM: 780.7 External resources MedlinePlus: 003089 eMedicine: search/Malaise Look up malaise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: 003089 v t e Signs and symptoms that are general or constitutional Temperature heat Fever of unknown origin drug-induced postoperative Hyperthermia Hyperhidrosis Night sweats cold Chills Hypothermia Aches and pains Headache Chronic pain Cancer pain Myalgia Tenderness Malaise and fatigue Lassitude Lethargy Atrophy of muscle Debility (or asthenia) Miscellaneous Cachexia Anorexia Polyphagia and polydipsia Flu-like symptoms v t e Common cold Viruses Adenovirus Coronavirus Enterovirus Rhinovirus Symptoms Cough Fatigue Fever Headache Loss of appetite Malaise Muscle aches Nasal congestion Rhinorrhea Sneezing Sore throat Weakness Complications Acute bronchitis Bronchiolitis Croup Otitis media Pharyngitis Pneumonia Sinusitis Strep throat Drugs Antiviral drugs Pleconaril (experimental) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaise&oldid=1021288231" Categories: Symptoms and signs Emotions French medical phrases Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Simple English ไทย Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2021, at 22:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7958	----	Junius Rusticus - Wikipedia Junius Rusticus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Quintus Junius Rusticus) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman teacher, politician and Stoic philosopher Junius Rusticus presides over the trial of Justin Martyr Quintus Junius Rusticus (c. 100 – c. 170 AD), was a Roman teacher and politician. He was probably a grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, a prominent member of the Stoic Opposition. He was a Stoic philosopher and was one of the teachers of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, whom Aurelius treated with the utmost respect and honour. Rusticus held the political positions of Suffect consul in 133 and Consul ordinarius in 162. He served as urban prefect of Rome between 162 and 168. In this role he is notable for presiding over the trial of the Christian theologian Justin Martyr, which ended with Justin's conviction and execution. According to Themistius, a 4th-century Roman philosopher and orator, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius "pulled Arrian and Rusticus away from their books, refusing to let them be mere pen-and-ink philosophers" and escorted them from the study of Stoic philosophy "to the general’s tent as well as to the speaker’s platform."[1] Themistius lumps Arrian and Rusticus together in recounting their military achievements: In their role as Roman generals, these men passed through the Caspian Gates, drove the Alani out of Armenia, and established boundaries for the Iberians and the Albani. For all these accomplishments, they reaped the fruits of the eponymous consulship, governed the great city [of Rome], and presided over the ancient senate.[1] Contents 1 Influence on Marcus Aurelius 2 Trial of Justin 3 See also 4 References Influence on Marcus Aurelius[edit] The Historia Augusta states that Rusticus was the most important teacher of Marcus Aurelius: [Marcus] received most instruction from Junius Rusticus, whom he ever revered and whose disciple he became, a man esteemed in both private and public life, and exceedingly well acquainted with the Stoic system, with whom Marcus shared all his counsels both public and private, whom he greeted with a kiss prior to the prefects of the guard, whom he even appointed consul for a second term, and whom after his death he asked the senate to honour with statues.[2] In his Meditations, Marcus thanks Rusticus for the Stoic training he received from him: From Rusticus I received the impression that my character required improvement and discipline; and from him I learned not to be led astray to sophistic emulation, nor to writing on speculative matters, nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to showing myself off as a man who practices much discipline, or does benevolent acts in order to make a display.[3] Marcus also explains how it was from Rusticus that he first came to read the works of Epictetus: and I am indebted to him for being acquainted with the discourses of Epictetus, which he communicated to me out of his own collection.[3] Trial of Justin[edit] He was the urban prefect of Rome between 162 and 168, and it was during this time that he conducted the trial of Justin Martyr which led to Justin's execution.[4] Three transcripts of the trial survive, of which the shortest is probably the most accurate.[5] Justin was denounced to the authorities after disputing with the Cynic philosopher Crescens, according to Tatian and Eusebius.[6][7] Justin was tried together with six companions. The trial record indicates that Rusticus asked him several questions about Christian beliefs and practices, after which he affirmed the law that failure to sacrifice to the gods in submission to the Imperial decrees was a capital offence. When Justin and his companions refused to do so, Rusticus condemned him and he was beheaded, probably in 165. The martyrdom of Justin preserves the record of the trial.[8] See also[edit] Junia (gens) References[edit] ^ a b Themistius, 34th Oration, In Reply to Those who Found Fault with him for Accepting Public Office ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 3. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i. 15. ^ Birley, A., Marcus Aurelius, page 152ff. Routledge. (2000). ^ Grant, Robert McQueen, Second-Century Christianity: A Collection of Fragments, page 51ff. Westminster John Knox Press. (2003). ^ Tatian, Address to the Greeks 19. ^ Eusebius, Church History iv. 16. ^ J. Quasten, Patrology vol. 1, p.196–7. Political offices Preceded by Marcus Antonius Hiberus, and Publius Mummius Sisenna as ordinary consul Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 133 with Quintus Flavius Tertullus Succeeded by Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, and Publius Sufenas Verus as suffect consul Preceded by Julius Geminus Capellianus, and Titus Flavius Boethus as suffect consul Consul of the Roman Empire 162 with Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus Succeeded by Tiberius Claudius Paullinus, and Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus as suffect consul v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Junius_Rusticus&oldid=1026248884" Categories: Junii 100 births 170 deaths Imperial Roman consuls 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century philosophers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Philosophers of Roman Italy Urban prefects of Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Estremeñu Français Italiano Latina Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2021, at 06:12 (UTC). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Guidelines for use of ISBNs on Wikipedia. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Sources== ===Ancient=== {{Refbegin}} * Aristides, Aelius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Trapp, Michael B. ''Orations. 1: Orationes 1–2''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2017. {{ISBN|978-0674996465}}. * Victor, Aurelius. ''De Caesaribus'' (in Latin). :Bird, H.W. ''De Caesaribus''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0853232186}}. * Dio, Cassius. ''Roman History'' (in Greek). :Cary, Earnest, trans. ''Roman History''. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. {{OCLC|500523615}}. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html LacusCurtius]. * ''Digest'' (in Latin). :Scott, S.P., trans. ''The Digest or Pandects'' in ''The Civil Law''. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. {{OCLC|23759480}}. Online at the [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm Constitution Society]. * [[Epiphanius of Salamis]]. ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'' (in Latin). :Dean, James Elmer, ed. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FnMlnQEACAAJ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures – The Syriac Version]''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. {{OCLC|123314338}}. * Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends'' (in Latin). :Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends''. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. {{OCLC|476921438}}. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00auregoog 1], [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00frongoog 2]. * Gellius, Aulus. ''Noctes Atticae'' (''Attic Nights''). :Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. {{OCLC|59229750}} (Vol. 1), {{OCLC|1072405870}} (Vol. 2), {{OCLC|1021363430}} (Vol. 3). Vols. 1 and 2 online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/home.html LacusCurtius]. * Herodian. ''Ab Excessu Divi Marci'' (''History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius'', in Latin). :Echols, Edward C., trans. ''Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire: From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. {{OCLC|463202486}}. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_00_intro.htm Tertullian] and [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodian-s-roman-history/ Livius]. * Lucian. :Fowler, F.G.; Fowler, H.W., trans. ''The works of Lucian of Samosata''. Oxford: Clarendon P., 1949. {{OCLC|503242210}}. :''Alexander'' (in Latin). Translation online at [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm Tertullian]. :Translations (from Latin) of [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl210.htm ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' (''The Way to Write History'')], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl303.htm ''Imagines'' (''A Portrait–Study'')], and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl304.htm ''Pro Imaginibus'' (''Defence of the 'Portrait–Study{{'}}'')] online at Sacred Texts, based on the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585 Gutenberg] e-text. * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ''Meditations''. :Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. ''Meditations''. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. {{OCLC|897495952}}. * ''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'' (Authors of the Historia Augusta). ''Historia Augusta'' (''Augustan History''). :Magie, David, trans. ''Historia Augusta''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html LacusCurtius]. :Magie, David; Birley, Anthony R. ''Lives of the later Caesars''. London: The Folio Society, 2005. {{ISBN|0141935995}}. * Themistius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Penella, Robert J. ''The private orations of Themistius''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0520218215}}. {{Refend}} ===Modern=== {{Refbegin}} * Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=FXllDwAAQBAJ ''Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History'']. New York: Facts on File, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0816063864}}. * Adams, Geoff W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dpommWWxA9gC ''Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond'']. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0739176382}}. * An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=FHJwAAAAMAAJ ''Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road''], 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|978-2503521787}}. * Astarita, Maria L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uCUBbMOCJ74C ''Avidio Cassio''] (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. {{OCLC|461867183}}. * [[Warwick Ball|Ball, Warwick]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=07pTDAAAQBAJ ''Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire''], 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0415720786}}. * [[Timothy Barnes|Barnes, Timothy D.]] 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. {{doi|10.2307/299345}}. {{JSTOR|299345}}. * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. {{doi|10.2307/299693}}. {{JSTOR|299693}}. * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', ''Phoenix'' 26:2 (1972): 140–82. {{doi|10.2307/1087714}}. {{JSTOR|1087714}}. * [[Anthony Birley|Birley, Anthony R.]] ''Marcus Aurelius: a biography''. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. {{ISBN|978-1134695690}}. * Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In ''The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192'', edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0521263351}}. * Bowman, John L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vlhPAwAAQBAJ ''A Reference Guide to Stoicism'']. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1496900173}}. * [[J. B. Bury|Bury, John Bagnell]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc-AAAAYAAJ ''The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)'']. New York: Harper, 1893. {{OCLC|1067064647}}. * [[Edward Champlin|Champlin, Edward]]. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 64 (1974): 136–59. {{doi|10.2307/299265}}. {{JSTOR|299265}}. * Champlin, Edward. [https://archive.org/details/frontoantoninero00cham ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. {{ISBN|978-0674331778}}. * Collins, Desmond. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ls4AAAAIAAJ ''Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. {{OCLC|879899744}}. * [[Rafe de Crespigny|De Crespigny, Rafe]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ ''A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)'']. Boston: Brill, 2007. {{ISBN|978-9047411840}}. * [[Richard Duncan-Jones|Duncan-Jones, Richard]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7cpkQQ-n0V8C ''Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy'']. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0521892896}}. * [http://capitolini.info/scu03247/?lang=en 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius']. Musei Capitolini. * Gagarin, Michael. ''The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0195170726}}. * Giacosa, Giorgio. ''Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins''. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. {{ISBN|0839001932}}. * [[James Frank Gilliam|Gilliam, J. F.]] 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 82.3 (1961): 225–51. {{doi|10.2307/292367}}. {{JSTOR|292367}}. * Gnecchi, Francesco. ''I medaglioni Romani'', 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. {{OCLC|6529816}}. * [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Grant, Michael]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ql0fDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 ''The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition'']. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1317972105}}. * Grant, Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mXc1uk30FIYC ''The Climax Of Rome'']. London: Orion, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1780222769}}. * Haas, Charles. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17195627 The Antonine plague] (in French). ''Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine''. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. {{OCLC|958470753}}. * [[Pierre Hadot|Hadot, Pierre]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3dLVyyDE-vQC ''The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0674461710}}. * Hays, Gregory. ''Meditations''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1842126752}}. * Irvine, William B. ''A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy''. Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1522632733}}. * Kemezis, Adam M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YkilBAAAQBAJ ''Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian'']. Cambridge University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1107062726}}. * Kleiner, Fred S. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IJrN8rDirxkC ''Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective'']. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0495573555}}. * Le Bohec, Yann. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFWSAgAAQBAJ ''The Imperial Roman Army'']. Routledge, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1135955137}}. * [[Barbara Levick|Levick, Barbara M.]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=oVapAgAAQBAJ ''Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age'']. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0199702176}}. * Magill, Frank N. [https://books.google.com/?id=wyKaVFZqbdUC ''Dictionary of World Biography'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1579580407}}. * [[Harold Mattingly|Mattingly, Harold]]; Sydenham, Edward A. ''The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus''. London: Spink & Son, 1930. {{OCLC|768929523}}. * [[Ronald Mellor|Mellor, Ronald]], review of Edward Champlin's ''Fronto and Antonine Rome'', ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'' 103:4 (1982). * Merrony, Mark. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkgrDwAAQBAJ ''The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD'']. London: Routledge, 2017. {{ISBN|978-1351702782}}. * McLaughlin, Raoul. ''Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China''. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1847252357}}. * [[Frank McLynn|McLynn, Frank]]. ''Marcus Aurelius: A Life''. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0306819162}}. * McLynn, Frank. ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor''. London: Bodley Head, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0224072922}}. * [[Fergus Millar|Millar, Fergus]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C ''The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337'']. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0674778863}}. * Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1999. 119 (1). {{doi|10.2307/605541}}. {{JSTOR|605541}}. * Reed, J. Eugene. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PTnuAAAAMAAJ ''The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)'']. Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. * Robertson, D. [https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ ''How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ |date=4 August 2019 }}. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. * Rohrbacher, David. [https://books.google.com.au/books?id=gDwGCwAAQBAJ ''The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta'']. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0299306045}}. * Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj5Vx3gIPhwC ''Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano'' &#91;''Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire''&#93;]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. {{ISBN|978-8497637695}}. * [[William O. Stephens|Stephens, William O.]] [http://www.bloomsbury.com/us/marcus-aurelius-a-guide-for-the-perplexed-9781441125613/ ''Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed'']. London: Continuum, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1441125613}}. * Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. ''The Classical World'' 70:7 (1977): 433–39. {{doi|10.2307/4348712}}. {{JSTOR|4348712}}. * [[Ronald Syme|Syme, Ronald]]. 'The Ummidii'. ''Historia'' 17:1 (1968): 72–105. {{JSTOR|4435015}}. * Van Ackeren, Marcel. [https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Companion_to_Marcus_Aurelius.html?id=nsdkQA735p4C ''A Companion to Marcus Aurelius'']. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-405-19285-9}}. {{OCLC|784124210}}. * Young, Gary K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ ''Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305'']. London: Routledge, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-134-54793-7}}. * Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220''], 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}. {{Refend}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7973	----	Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta - Wikipedia Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta is a collection by Hans von Arnim of fragments and testimonia of the earlier Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. It includes the fragments and testimonia of Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus and their immediate followers. At first the work consisted of three volumes, to which Maximilian Adler in 1924 added a fourth, containing general indices. Teubner reprinted the whole work in 1964.[1] Division of the work[edit] Volume 1 – Fragments of Zeno and his followers Volume 2 – Logical and physical fragments of Chrysippus Volume 3 – Ethical fragments of Chrysippus and some fragments of his pupils Volume 4 – Indices of words, proper names and sources External links[edit] Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, Volume I (at Stoic Therapy) References[edit] ^ Hülser, Karlheinz (2012). "Pragmatics and the Idea of the Illocutionary in Stoic Language Theory". In Edmondson, Ricca; Hülser, Karlheinz (eds.). Politics of Practical Reasoning. New York: Lexington. p. 63. ISBN 9780739172261. Retrieved 7 February 2017. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoicorum_Veterum_Fragmenta&oldid=1000735840" Categories: Philosophy books Stoicism Fragment collections Hellenistic philosophy studies Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Italiano Latina Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 13:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7974	----	Michael I Rangabe - Wikipedia Michael I Rangabe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 811 to 813 This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael I Rangabe Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael I Rangabe, from the Madrid Skylitzes Byzantine emperor Reign 2 October 811 – 11 July 813 Coronation 2 October 811 Hagia Sophia Predecessor Staurakios Successor Leo V Co-emperor Theophylact (811–813) Born c. 770 Died 11 January 844 (Aged 73) Prote Island Burial Church on Prote Island, transferred to Monastery of Satyros Spouse Prokopia Issue Theophylaktos Staurakios Niketas Georgo Theophano Names Michael Rangabe Dynasty Nikephorian Father Theophylact Rhangabe Michael I Rangabe (Greek: Μιχαὴλ Ῥαγγαβέ; c. 770 – 11 January 844) was Byzantine emperor from 811 to 813. Michael was the son of the patrician Theophylact Rhangabe, the admiral of the Aegean fleet.[1] He married Prokopia, the daughter of the future Emperor Nikephoros I,[2] and received the high court dignity of kouropalatēs after his father-in-law's accession in 802. Contents 1 Background 2 Family 3 References 4 Sources 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 External links Background[edit] Coronation by the Patriarch, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes. Nikephorian dynasty Chronology Nikephoros I 802–811  with Staurakios as co-emperor 803–811  Staurakios 811 Michael I 811–813  with Theophylact as co-emperor 811–813  Succession Preceded by Isaurian dynasty Followed by Leo V and the Amorian dynasty v t e Michael survived Nikephoros' disastrous campaign against Krum of Bulgaria, and was considered a more appropriate candidate for the throne than his severely injured brother-in-law Staurakios.[2] When Michael's wife Prokopia failed to persuade her brother to name Michael as his successor, a group of senior officials (the magistros Theoktistos, the Domestic of the Schools Stephen, and Patriarch Nikephoros) forced Staurakios to abdicate in his favor on 2 October 811. Michael I attempted to carry out a policy of reconciliation, abandoning the exacting taxation instituted by Nikephoros I. While reducing imperial income, Michael generously distributed money to the army, the bureaucracy, and the Church.[3] Elected with the support of the Orthodox party in the Church, Michael diligently persecuted the iconoclasts and forced the Patriarch Nikephoros to back down in his dispute with Theodore of Stoudios, the influential abbot of the monastery of Stoudios. Michael's piety won him a very positive estimation in the work of the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor. In 812 Michael I reopened negotiations with the Franks, and recognized Charlemagne as imperator and basileus (Emperor), but not Emperor of the Romans.[4][5][6] In exchange for that recognition, Venice was returned to the Empire. However, under the influence of Theodore, Michael rejected the peace terms offered by Krum and provoked the capture of Mesembria (Nesebar) by the Bulgarians. After an initial success in spring 813, Michael's army prepared for a major engagement at Versinikia near Adrianople in June.[2] The imperial army was defeated, while Leo the Armenian fled from the battle.[2] With conspiracy in the air, Michael preempted events by abdicating on 11 July 813 in favor of the general Leo the Armenian and becoming a monk (under the name Athanasios).[7][2] His sons were castrated and relegated into monasteries,[7] one of them, Niketas (renamed Ignatios), eventually becoming Patriarch of Constantinople.[8] Michael died 11 January 844.[9] Family[edit] By his wife Prokopia, Michael I had at least five children: Gorgo (f) Theophylact, co-emperor from 812 to 813. Niketas, later Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople (c. 798 – 877)[8] Staurakios (m) Theophano (f) References[edit] ^ Venning 2006, p. 218. ^ a b c d e Bradbury 2004, p. 64. ^ Ostrogorsky 1986, p. 197. ^ eum imperatorem et basileum appellantes, cf. Royal Frankish Annals, a. 812. ^ Eichmann, Eduard (1942). Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland: ein Beitrag zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechte, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik. Echter-Verlag. p. 33. ^ Canning 1996, p. 70. ^ a b Luttwak 2009, p. 182. ^ a b Bury 1912, p. 14. ^ Anthony 2017, p. 8. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAnthony2017 (help) Sources[edit] Genesios on the Reigns of the Emperors: Translation and Commentary. Translated by Anthony, Kaldellis. BRILL. 2017. Bradbury, Jim (2004). The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. Routledge. Bury, John Bagnell (1912). A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I, (802–867). Macmillan and Co. Canning, Joseph (1996). A History of Medieval Political Thought: 300–1450. Routledge. Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. Ostrogorsky, George (1986). History of the Byzantine State. Rutgers University Press. Venning, T., ed. (2006). A Chronology of the Byzantine Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. Further reading[edit] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Treadgold, W. A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press; 1 edition (1 November 1997) Gregory, T., A History of Byzantium (Blackwell History of the Ancient World), Wiley-Blackwell (11 March 2005) See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Michael I Rhangabes. Michael I Rangabe Nikephorian dynasty Born: c. 770 Died: 11 January 844 Regnal titles Preceded by Staurakios Byzantine emperor 2 October 811 – 22 June 813 with Theophylact (811–813) Succeeded by Leo V v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_I_Rangabe&oldid=1027088975" Categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors Nikephorian dynasty Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars Eastern Orthodox monks 844 deaths 810s in the Byzantine Empire Kouropalatai Rangabe family Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7991	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===War with Parthia (161–166)=== {{main|Roman–Parthian War of 161–166}} {{see also|Roman–Persian Wars}} [[Image:VologasesIV.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of [[Vologases IV of Parthia]]. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–63.]] On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' xii.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 114, 121.</ref> One of those kings, [[Vologases IV of Parthia]], made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.<ref>Event: ''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'' 119 (1997): p. 281.</ref> Vologases entered the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – [[Bakur|Pacorus]], an [[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid]] like himself.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was [[Marcus Sedatius Severianus]], a Gaul with much experience in military matters.<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 121.</ref> Convinced by the prophet [[Alexander of Abonutichus]] that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,<ref>Lucian, ''Alexander'' 27; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, ''Pagans and Christians'' (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–50.</ref> Severianus led a legion (perhaps the [[Legio IX Hispana|IX Hispana]]<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 278 n.19.</ref>) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at [[Elegeia]], a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.<ref>Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 21, 24, 25; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 121–22.</ref> There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in [[Raetia]] and Upper Germany, where the [[Chatti]] of the [[Taunus]] mountains had recently crossed over the ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]''.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 122.</ref> Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.<ref>''HA Antoninus Pius'' vii.11; ''Marcus'' vii.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 103–04, 122.</ref>{{refn|[[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] adduces the 5th-century writer [[Sidonius Apollinaris]]'s comment that Marcus commanded 'countless legions' ''vivente Pio'' (while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the ''Historia Augusta'' (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.<ref>''Pan. Ath.'' 203–04, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's ''Marcus Aurelius'', ''The Classical Review'' 17:3 (1967): p. 349.</ref>)|group=note}} More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding [[Legio X Gemina|X Gemina]] at [[Vindobona]] ([[Vienna]]), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 8.7050]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 51]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Three full legions were also sent east: [[Legio I Minervia|I Minervia]] from Bonn in Upper Germany,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01097&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1097]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 98]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Legio II Adiutrix|II Adiutrix]] from Aquincum,<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01091&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1091]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> and [[Legio V Macedonica|V Macedonica]] from Troesmis.<ref>''Incriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 2311]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.<ref>''HA Marcus'' xii. 13; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> [[Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161)|M. Annius Libo]], Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,<ref>''L'Année Épigraphique'' 1972.657 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.<ref>''HA Verus'' 9.2; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref> [[File:Marcus Aurelius, aureus, AD 166, RIC III 160.jpg|thumb|300px|Aureus of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166). On the reverse, [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, CO[N]S. III.<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman imperial coinage'', vol. III, p. 226.</ref>|alt=Coin of Marcus Aurelius. Victoria appears on the reverse, commemorating Marcus's Parthian victory.]] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at [[Alsium]], a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 126.</ref> He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the ''[[palaestra]]'', fishing, and comedy),<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 126–27.</ref> Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: '<nowiki/>'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'<ref>''De Feriis Alsiensibus'' 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=500 |image1=Antioch in Syria engraving by William Miller after H Warren.jpg |caption1=The dissolute Syrian army spent more time in [[Antioch]]'s open-air taverns than with their units.<ref>''Ad Verum Imperator'' 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129.</ref> (Engraving by [[William Miller (engraver)|William Miller]] after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain [[Thomas Byam Martin|Byam Martin]], R.N., 1866) |alt1=Depiction of Antioch, Syria |image2=ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg |caption2=The Euphrates River near [[Raqqa]], Syria |alt2=Euphrates River }} Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled ''De bello Parthico'' (''On the Parthian War''). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23).</ref> but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.<ref>''De bello Parthico'' i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 127.</ref> Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.<ref>Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 123.</ref> Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.<ref>''HA Verus'' v. 8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123, 125.</ref>{{refn|Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 125.</ref>|group=note}} Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.<ref>''HA Marcus'' viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 123–26. On Lucius's voyage, see: ''HA Verus'' vi. 7–9; ''HA Marcus'' viii. 10–11; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 125–26.</ref> Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at [[Laodicea in Syria|Laodicea]] and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,<ref>''HA Verus'' iv.4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',<ref>''HA Verus'' iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref> and enjoyed the company of actors.<ref>''HA Verus'' viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, ''Principae Historia'' 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129.</ref>{{refn|The whole section of the ''vita'' dealing with Lucius's debaucheries (''HA Verus'' iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.<ref>Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus.', p. 69.</ref>|group=note}} Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.<ref>''HA Verus'' ix. 2; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' 3.199 {{Cite web |url=http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |title=Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle |archive-date=29 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130–31.</ref> [[File:Statue of Lucilla detail.jpg|thumb|Marble statue of [[Lucilla]], 150–200 AD, [[Bardo National Museum (Tunis)|Bardo National Museum]], [[Tunisia]]|alt=Statue of Marcus's daughter Lucilla]] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to [[Ephesus]] to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the ''Vita Abercii'' 44ff.</ref> Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.10; Lucian, ''Imagines'' 3; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131. Cf. Lucian, ''Imagines'', ''Pro Imaginibus'', ''passim''.</ref> Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,<ref>''HA Verus'' vii. 7; ''Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> who was made ''[[comes]] Augusti'', 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131, citing ''Année Épigraphique'' 1958.15.</ref> Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.<ref>''HA Verus'' 7.7; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He only accompanied the group as far as [[Brundisium]], where they boarded a ship for the east.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 4; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 5–6; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131.</ref> The Armenian capital [[Artashat (ancient city)|Artaxata]] was captured in 163.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> At the end of the year, Lucius took the title ''Armeniacus'', despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.<ref>''HA Marcus'' ix. 1; ''HA Verus'' vii. 1–2; ''Ad Verrum Imperator'' 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> When Lucius was hailed as ''imperator'' again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the ''Imperator II'' with him.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff.</ref> Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.<ref>Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 113.</ref> A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, [[Sohaemus of Armenia|Gaius Julius Sohaemus]]. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend {{Smallcaps|Rex armeniis Datus}}: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff.</ref> In 163, the Parthians intervened in [[Osroene]], a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], and installed their own king on its throne.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169; Millar, ''Near East'', p. 112.</ref> In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the [[Euphrates]] at a more southerly point.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.<ref>Fronto, ''Ad Verum Imperator'' ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162.</ref> Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 1098]; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 130.</ref> In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani''<sup>2</sup> M 169.</ref> The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the [[Tigris]].<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163.</ref> A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.<ref>Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, ''Roman Papers'', 5.689ff.</ref> By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: [[Seleucia]] on the right bank of the Tigris and [[Ctesiphon]] on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the [[Seleucid Empire]], one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Diadochi|successor kingdoms]]), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.<ref>''HA Verus'' 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, ''Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date.</ref> Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164.</ref> Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as ''imperatores'' again, earning the title 'imp. III'.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff.</ref> Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into [[Media (region)|Media]]. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, ''Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts'' (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff.</ref> and the emperors were again hailed as ''imperatores'', becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.<ref>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, ''Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus'' (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff.</ref> On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, [[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius]] and [[Commodus]], as [[Caesar (title)|his heirs]].<ref name='auto'>Adams, p. 94.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-8007	----	Ephesus - Wikipedia Ephesus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city in Turkey This article is about the ancient city in Anatolia. For the town in the southern United States, see Ephesus, Georgia. For homonyms of the Turkish word Efes, see Efes. Ephesus Ἔφεσος (Éphesos) Efes The Library of Celsus in Ephesos Shown within Turkey Show map of Turkey Ephesus (Europe) Show map of Europe Location Selçuk, İzmir Province, Turkey Region Ionia Coordinates 37°56′28″N 27°20′31″E / 37.94111°N 27.34194°E / 37.94111; 27.34194Coordinates: 37°56′28″N 27°20′31″E / 37.94111°N 27.34194°E / 37.94111; 27.34194 Type Ancient Greek Settlement Area Wall circuit: 415 ha (1,030 acres) Occupied: 224 ha (550 acres) History Builder Attic and Ionian Greek colonists Founded 10th century BC Abandoned 15th century AD Periods Greek Dark Ages to Late Middle Ages Site notes Excavation dates 1863–1869, 1895 Archaeologists John Turtle Wood, Otto Benndorf Website Ephesos Archaeological Site UNESCO World Heritage Site Criteria Cultural: iii, iv, vi Reference 1018 Inscription 2015 (39th session) Area 662.62 ha Buffer zone 1,246.3 ha Ephesus (/ˈɛfɪsəs, ˈɛfəsəs/;[1][2] Greek: Ἔφεσος, romanized: Éphesos; Turkish: Efes; may ultimately derive from Hittite: 𒀀𒉺𒊭, romanized: Apaša) was an ancient Greek city[3][4] on the coast of Ionia, three kilometres southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of the former Arzawan capital[5][6] by Attic and Ionian Greek colonists. During the Classical Greek era it was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The city came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BC. The city was famed for the nearby Temple of Artemis (completed around 550 BC), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[7] Among many other monumental buildings are the Library of Celsus, and a theatre capable of holding 25,000 spectators.[8] Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia that are cited in the Book of Revelation.[9] The Gospel of John may have been written here.[10] The city was the site of several 5th-century Christian Councils (see Council of Ephesus). The city was destroyed by the Goths in 263, and although rebuilt, the city's importance as a commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the Küçükmenderes River. It was partially destroyed by an earthquake in AD 614. The ruins of Ephesus are a favourite international and local tourist attraction, partly owing to their easy access from Adnan Menderes Airport or from the cruise ship port of Kuşadası, some 30 km to the South. It was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015. Contents 1 History 1.1 Neolithic age 1.2 Bronze Age 1.3 Period of Greek migrations 1.4 Archaic period 1.5 Classical period 1.6 Hellenistic period 1.7 Roman period (129 BC–395 AD) 1.7.1 The Roman population 1.8 Byzantine era (395–1308) 1.9 Pre-Ottoman era (1304–1390) 1.10 Ottoman era 2 Ephesus and Christianity 3 Main sites 4 Seven Sleepers 5 Archaeology 6 Notable persons 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links History[edit] Neolithic age[edit] The area surrounding Ephesus was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC), as was revealed by excavations at the nearby höyük (artificial mounds known as tells) of Arvalya and Cukurici.[11][12] Bronze Age[edit] Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at Ayasuluk Hill. According to Hittite sources, the capital of the Kingdom of Arzawa (another independent state in Western and Southern Anatolia/Asia Minor[13]) was Apasa (or Abasa). Some scholars suggest that this is the later Greek Ephesus.[5][14][15][16] In 1954, a burial ground from the Mycenaean era (1500–1400 BC) with ceramic pots was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John.[17] This was the period of the Mycenaean expansion, when the Achaioi (as they were called by Homer) settled in Asia Minor during the 14th and 13th centuries BC. The names Apasa and Ephesus appear to be cognate,[18] and recently found inscriptions seem to pinpoint the places in the Hittite record.[19][20] Period of Greek migrations[edit] Site of the Temple of Artemis in the town of Selçuk, near Ephesus. Ephesus was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on a hill (now known as the Ayasuluk Hill), three kilometers (1.9 miles) from the centre of ancient Ephesus (as attested by excavations at the Seljuk castle during the 1990s). The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos, who had to leave his country after the death of his father, King Kodros. According to the legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality ("A fish and a boar will show you the way"). Androklos drove away most of the native Carian and Lelegian inhabitants of the city and united his people with the remainder. He was a successful warrior, and as a king he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League. During his reign the city began to prosper. He died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene, another city of the Ionian League.[21] Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, dating from the 2nd century. Later, Greek historians such as Pausanias, Strabo and Herodotos and the poet Kallinos reassigned the city's mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons. The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as Artemis of Ephesus. The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified with Artemis, was venerated in the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the largest building of the ancient world according to Pausanias (4.31.8). Pausanias mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus,[22] before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains. Ancient sources seem to indicate that an older name of the place was Alope (Ancient Greek: Ἀλόπη, romanized: Alópē).[23] Archaic period[edit] Street scene at the archeological excavations at Ephesus. About 650 BC, Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. After the Cimmerians had been driven away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. Following a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council. The city prospered again under a new rule, producing a number of important historical figures such as the elegiac poet Callinus[24] and the iambic poet Hipponax, the philosopher Heraclitus, the great painter Parrhasius and later the grammarian Zenodotos and physicians Soranus and Rufus. Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620–600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch. About 560 BC, Ephesus was conquered by the Lydians under king Croesus, who, though a harsh ruler, treated the inhabitants with respect and even became the main contributor to the reconstruction of the temple of Artemis.[25] His signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple (now on display in the British Museum). Croesus made the populations of the different settlements around Ephesus regroup (synoikismos) in the vicinity of the Temple of Artemis, enlarging the city. Later in the same century, the Lydians under Croesus invaded Persia. The Ionians refused a peace offer from Cyrus the Great, siding with the Lydians instead. After the Persians defeated Croesus, the Ionians offered to make peace, but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire.[26] They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC. The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire. Those cities were then ruled by satraps. Ephesus has intrigued archaeologists because for the Archaic Period there is no definite location for the settlement. There are numerous sites to suggest the movement of a settlement between the Bronze Age and the Roman period, but the silting up of the natural harbours as well as the movement of the Kayster River meant that the location never remained the same. Classical period[edit] Statue of Artemis of Ephesus Ephesus continued to prosper, but when taxes were raised under Cambyses II and Darius, the Ephesians participated in the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule in the Battle of Ephesus (498 BC), an event which instigated the Greco-Persian wars. In 479 BC, the Ionians, together with Athens, were able to oust the Persians from the shores of Asia Minor. In 478 BC, the Ionian cities with Athens entered into the Delian League against the Persians. Ephesus did not contribute ships but gave financial support. During the Peloponnesian War, Ephesus was first allied to Athens[citation needed] but in a later phase, called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War, sided with Sparta, which also had received the support of the Persians. As a result, rule over the cities of Ionia was ceded again to Persia. These wars did not greatly affect daily life in Ephesus. The Ephesians were surprisingly modern in their social relations:[citation needed] they allowed strangers to integrate and education was valued. In later times, Pliny the Elder mentioned having seen at Ephesus a representation of the goddess Diana by Timarete, the daughter of a painter.[27] In 356 BC the temple of Artemis was burnt down, according to legend, by a lunatic called Herostratus. The inhabitants of Ephesus at once set about restoring the temple and even planned a larger and grander one than the original. Hellenistic period[edit] Historical map of Ephesus, from Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888 When Alexander the Great defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. The pro-Persian tyrant Syrpax and his family were stoned to death, and Alexander was greeted warmly when he entered Ephesus in triumph. When Alexander saw that the temple of Artemis was not yet finished, he proposed to finance it and have his name inscribed on the front. But the inhabitants of Ephesus demurred, claiming that it was not fitting for one god to build a temple to another. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Ephesus in 290 BC came under the rule of one of Alexander's generals, Lysimachus. As the river Cayster (Grk. name Κάϋστρος) silted up the old harbour, the resulting marshes caused malaria and many deaths among the inhabitants. Lysimachus forced the people to move from the ancient settlement around the temple of Artemis to the present site two kilometres (1.2 miles) away, when as a last resort the king flooded the old city by blocking the sewers.[28] The new settlement was officially called Arsinoea (Ancient Greek: Ἀρσινόεια[29] or Ἀρσινοΐα[30]) or Arsinoe (Ἀρσινόη),[31][32] after the king's second wife, Arsinoe II of Egypt. After Lysimachus had destroyed the nearby cities of Lebedos and Colophon in 292 BC, he relocated their inhabitants to the new city. Ephesus revolted after the treacherous death of Agathocles, giving the Hellenistic king of Syria and Mesopotamia Seleucus I Nicator an opportunity for removing and killing Lysimachus, his last rival, at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. After the death of Lysimachus the town again was named Ephesus. Thus Ephesus became part of the Seleucid Empire. After the murder of king Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife, pharaoh Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and the Egyptian fleet swept the coast of Asia Minor. Ephesus came under Egyptian rule between 263 and 197 BC. The Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor and recaptured Ephesus in 196 BC but he then came into conflict with Rome. After a series of battles, he was defeated by Scipio Asiaticus at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. As a result of the subsequent Treaty of Apamea, Ephesus came under the rule of Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon, (ruled 197–159 BC). When his grandson Attalus III died in 133 BC without male children of his own, he left his kingdom to the Roman Republic, on condition that the city of Pergamon be kept free and autonomous. Roman period (129 BC–395 AD)[edit] The Temple of Hadrian Ephesus, as part of the kingdom of Pergamon, became a subject of the Roman Republic in 129 BC after the revolt of Eumenes III was suppressed. The Theatre of Ephesus with harbour street. Due to ancient and subsequent deforestation, overgrazing (mostly by goat herds), erosion and soil degradation the Turkey coastline is now 3–4 km (2–2 mi) away from the ancient Greek site with sediments filling the plain and the Mediterranean Sea. In the background: muddy remains of the former harbour, bare hill ridges without rich soils and woods, a maquis shrubland remaining. Stone carving of the goddess Nike The city felt Roman influence at once; taxes rose considerably, and the treasures of the city were systematically plundered. Hence in 88 BC Ephesus welcomed Archelaus, a general of Mithridates, king of Pontus, when he conquered Asia (the Roman name for western Asia Minor). From Ephesus, Mithridates ordered every Roman citizen in the province to be killed which led to the Asiatic Vespers, the slaughter of 80,000 Roman citizens in Asia, or any person who spoke with a Latin accent. Many had lived in Ephesus, and statues and monument of Roman citizens in Ephesus were also destroyed. But when they saw how badly the people of Chios had been treated by Zenobius, a general of Mithridates, they refused entry to his army. Zenobius was invited into the city to visit Philopoemen, the father of Monime, the favourite wife of Mithridates, and the overseer of Ephesus. As the people expected nothing good of him, they threw him into prison and murdered him. Mithridates took revenge and inflicted terrible punishments. However, the Greek cities were given freedom and several substantial rights. Ephesus became, for a short time, self-governing. When Mithridates was defeated in the First Mithridatic War by the Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Ephesus came back under Roman rule in 86 BC. Sulla imposed a huge indemnity, along with five years of back taxes, which left Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come.[33] King Ptolemy XII Auletes of Egypt retired to Ephesus in 57 BC, passing his time in the sanctuary of the temple of Artemis when the Roman Senate failed to restore him to his throne.[34] Mark Antony was welcomed by Ephesus for periods when he was proconsul[35] and in 33 BC with Cleopatra when he gathered his fleet of 800 ships before the battle of Actium with Octavius.[36] When Augustus became emperor in 27 BC, the most important change was when he made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia (which covered western Asia Minor) instead of Pergamum. Ephesus then entered an era of prosperity, becoming both the seat of the governor and a major centre of commerce. According to Strabo, it was second in importance and size only to Rome.[37] The city and temple were destroyed by the Goths in 263 AD. This marked the decline of the city's splendour. However emperor Constantine the Great rebuilt much of the city and erected new public baths. The Roman population[edit] The 'terrace houses' at Ephesus, showing how the wealthy lived during the Roman period. Eventually the harbour became silted up, and the city lost its natural resources. Until recently the population of Ephesus in Roman times was estimated to number up to 225,000 people by Broughton.[38][39] More recent scholarship regards these estimates as unrealistic. Such a large estimate would require population densities seen in only a few ancient cities, or extensive settlement outside the city walls. This would have been impossible at Ephesus because of the mountain ranges, coastline and quarries which surrounded the city.[40] The wall of Lysimachus has been estimated to enclose an area of 415 hectares (1,030 acres). Not all of this area was inhabited due to public buildings and spaces in the centre and the steep slope of the Bülbül Dağı mountain, which was enclosed by the wall. Ludwig Burchner estimated this area with the walls at 1000.5 acres. Jerome Murphy-O'Connor uses an estimate of 345 hectares for the inhabited land or 835 acres (Murphey cites Ludwig Burchner). He cites Josiah Russell using 832 acres and Old Jerusalem in 1918 as the yardstick estimated the population at 51,068 at 14.85 persons per thousand square meters. Using 51 persons per thousand square meters he arrives at a population between 138,000 and 172,500.[41] J. W. Hanson estimated the inhabited space to be smaller at 224 hectares (550 acres). He argues that population densities of 150 or 250 people per hectare (100 per acre) are more realistic which gives a range of 33,600 to 56,000 inhabitants. Even with these much lower population estimates, Ephesus was one of the largest cities of Roman Asia Minor, ranking it as the largest city after Sardis and Alexandria Troas.[42] By contrast Rome within the walls encompassed 1500 hectares = 3,600 acres with a population estimated to between 750,000 and one million (over 1000 built-up acres were left outside the Aurelian Wall whose construction was begun in 274 and finished in 279) or 208 to 277 inhabitants per acres including open and public spaces. Byzantine era (395–1308)[edit] Ephesus remained the most important city of the Byzantine Empire in Asia after Constantinople in the 5th and 6th centuries.[43] Emperor Flavius Arcadius raised the level of the street between the theatre and the harbour. The basilica of St. John was built during the reign of emperor Justinian I in the 6th century. The city was partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614 AD. The importance of the city as a commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the river (today, Küçük Menderes) despite repeated dredging during the city's history.[44] (Today, the harbour is 5 kilometres inland). The loss of its harbour caused Ephesus to lose its access to the Aegean Sea, which was important for trade. People started leaving the lowland of the city for the surrounding hills. The ruins of the temples were used as building blocks for new homes. Marble sculptures were ground to powder to make lime for plaster. Sackings by the Arabs first in the year 654–655 by caliph Muawiyah I, and later in 700 and 716 hastened the decline further. When the Seljuk Turks conquered Ephesus in 1090,[45] it was a small village. The Byzantines resumed control in 1097 and changed the name of the town to Hagios Theologos. They kept control of the region until 1308. Crusaders passing through were surprised that there was only a small village, called Ayasalouk, where they had expected a bustling city with a large seaport. Even the temple of Artemis was completely forgotten by the local population. The Crusaders of the Second Crusade fought the Seljuks just outside the town in December 1147. Pre-Ottoman era (1304–1390)[edit] The İsa Bey Mosque constructed in 1374–75, is one of the oldest and most impressive remains from the Anatolian beyliks. The town surrendered, on 24 October 1304, to Sasa Bey, a Turkish warlord of the Menteşoğulları principality. Nevertheless, contrary to the terms of the surrender the Turks pillaged the church of Saint John and deported most of the local population to Thyrea, Greece when a revolt seemed probable. During these events many of the remaining inhabitants were massacred.[46] Shortly afterwards, Ephesus was ceded to the Aydinid principality that stationed a powerful navy in the harbour of Ayasuluğ (the present-day Selçuk, next to Ephesus). Ayasoluk became an important harbour, from which piratical raids to the surrounding Christian regions were organised, both official by the state and private.[47] The town knew again a short period of prosperity during the 14th century under these new Seljuk rulers. They added important architectural works such as the İsa Bey Mosque, caravansaries and Turkish bathhouses (hamam). Ottoman era[edit] Ephesians were incorporated as vassals into the Ottoman Empire for the first time in 1390. The Central Asian warlord Tamerlane defeated the Ottomans in Anatolia in 1402, and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I died in captivity. The region was restored to the Anatolian beyliks. After a period of unrest, the region was again incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1425. Ephesus was completely abandoned by the 15th century. Nearby Ayasuluğ was renamed Selçuk in 1914. Ephesus and Christianity[edit] Main article: Metropolis of Ephesus See also: Early centers of Christianity in Anatolia The Preaching of Saint Paul at Ephesus, Eustache Le Sueur, 1649 Ephesus was an important centre for Early Christianity from the AD 50s. From AD 52–54, the apostle Paul lived in Ephesus, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands.[48] Initially, according to the Acts of the Apostles, Paul attended the Jewish synagogue in Ephesus, but after three months he became frustrated with the stubbornness or hardness of heart of some of the Jews, and moved his base to the school of Tyrannus.[49] The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary reminds readers that the unbelief of "some" (Greek: τινες) implies that "others, probably a large number, believed"[50] and therefore there must have been a community of Jewish Christians in Ephesus. Paul introduced about twelve men to the 'baptism with the Holy Spirit' who had previously only experienced the baptism of John the Baptist.[51] Later a silversmith named Demetrios stirred up a mob against Paul, saying that he was endangering the livelihood of those making silver Artemis shrines.[52] Demetrios in connexion with the temple of Artemis mentions some object (perhaps an image or a stone) "fallen from Zeus". Between 53 and 57 AD Paul wrote the letter 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (possibly from the 'Paul tower' near the harbour, where he was imprisoned for a short time). Later, Paul wrote the Epistle to the Ephesians while he was in prison in Rome (around 62 AD). Roman Asia was associated with John,[53] one of the chief apostles, and the Gospel of John might have been written in Ephesus, c 90–100.[54] Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in the Book of Revelation, indicating that the church at Ephesus was strong. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Saint Timothy was the first bishop of Ephesus.[55] Polycrates of Ephesus (Greek: Πολυκράτης) was a bishop at the Church of Ephesus in the 2nd century. He is best known for his letter addressed to the Pope Victor I, Bishop of Rome, defending the Quartodeciman position in the Easter controversy. In the early 2nd century AD, the church at Ephesus was still important enough to be addressed by a letter written by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians which begins with "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fullness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" (Letter to the Ephesians). The church at Ephesus had given their support for Ignatius, who was taken to Rome for execution. House of the Virgin Mary A legend, which was first mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in the 4th century AD, purported that the Virgin Mary may have spent the last years of her life in Ephesus. The Ephesians derived the argument from John's presence in the city, and Jesus’ instructions to John to take care of his mother, Mary, after his death. Epiphanius, however, was keen to point out that, while the Bible says John was leaving for Asia, it does not say specifically that Mary went with him. He later stated that she was buried in Jerusalem.[56] Since the 19th century, The House of the Virgin Mary, about 7 km (4 mi) from Selçuk, has been considered to have been the last home of Mary, mother of Jesus in the Roman Catholic tradition, based on the visions of Augustinian sister the Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774-1824). It is a popular place of Catholic pilgrimage which has been visited by three recent popes. The Church of Mary near the harbour of Ephesus was the setting for the Third Ecumenical Council in 431, which resulted in the condemnation of Nestorius. A Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449, but its controversial acts were never approved by the Catholics. It came to be called the Robber Council of Ephesus or Robber Synod of Latrocinium by its opponents. Main sites[edit] The Gate of Augustus in Ephesus was built to honor the Emperor Augustus and his family. Ephesus is one of the largest Roman archaeological sites in the eastern Mediterranean. The visible ruins still give some idea of the city's original splendour, and the names associated with the ruins are evocative of its former life. The theatre dominates the view down Harbour Street, which leads to the silted-up harbour. Main article: Temple of Artemis The Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, once stood 418' by 239' with over 100 marble pillars each 56' high. The temple earned the city the title "Servant of the Goddess".[57] Pliny tells us that the magnificent structure took 120 years to build but is now represented only by one inconspicuous column, revealed during an archaeological excavation by the British Museum in the 1870s. Some fragments of the frieze (which are insufficient to suggest the form of the original) and other small finds were removed – some to London and some to the İstanbul Archaeology Museums. Main article: Library of Celsus Library of Celsus, side view The Library of Celsus, the façade of which has been carefully reconstructed from original pieces, was originally built c. 125 AD in memory of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, an Ancient Greek[58][59][60] who served as governor of Roman Asia (105–107) in the Roman Empire. Celsus paid for the construction of the library with his own personal wealth[61] and is buried in a sarcophagus beneath it.[62] The library was mostly built by his son Gaius Julius Aquila[63] and once held nearly 12,000 scrolls. Designed with an exaggerated entrance — so as to enhance its perceived size, speculate many historians — the building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light. The interior of the library measured roughly 180 square metres (2,000 square feet) and may have contained as many as 12,000 scrolls.[64] By the year 400 C.E. the library was no longer in use after being damaged in 262 C.E. The facade was reconstructed during 1970 to 1978 using fragments found on site or copies of fragments that were previously removed to museums.[65] At an estimated 25,000 seating capacity, the theatre is believed to be the largest in the ancient world.[8] This open-air theatre was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage; the first archaeological evidence of a gladiator graveyard was found in May 2007.[66] There were two agoras, one for commercial and one for state business.[67][68] Aqueduct near Ephesus – Mayer Luigi – 1810 Ephesus also had several major bath complexes, built at various times while the city was under Roman rule. The city had one of the most advanced aqueduct systems in the ancient world, with at least six aqueducts of various sizes supplying different areas of the city.[69][70] They fed a number of water mills, one of which has been identified as a sawmill for marble. The Odeon was a small roofed theatre[71] constructed by Publius Vedius Antoninus and his wife around 150 AD. It was a small salon for plays and concerts, seating about 1,500 people. There were 22 stairs in the theatre. The upper part of the theatre was decorated with red granite pillars in the Corinthian style. The entrances were at both sides of the stage and reached by a few steps.[72] Tomb of John the Apostle at the Basilica of St. John. The Temple of Hadrian dates from the 2nd century but underwent repairs in the 4th century and has been reerected from the surviving architectural fragments. The reliefs in the upper sections are casts, the originals now being exhibited in the Ephesus Archaeological Museum. A number of figures are depicted in the reliefs, including the emperor Theodosius I with his wife and eldest son.[73] The temple was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 20 million lira banknote of 2001–2005[74] and of the 20 new lira banknote of 2005–2009.[75] The Temple of the Sebastoi (sometimes called the Temple of Domitian), dedicated to the Flavian dynasty, was one of the largest temples in the city. It was erected on a pseudodipteral plan with 8 × 13 columns. The temple and its statue are some of the few remains connected with Domitian.[73] The Tomb/Fountain of Pollio was erected in 97 AD in honour of C. Sextilius Pollio, who constructed the Marnas aqueduct, by Offilius Proculus. It has a concave façade.[72][73] A part of the site, Basilica of St. John, was built in the 6th century AD, under emperor Justinian I, over the supposed site of the apostle's tomb. It is now surrounded by Selçuk. Seven Sleepers[edit] Image of Ephesus on the reverse of the 20 new lira banknote (2005–2008) Ephesus is believed to be the city of the Seven Sleepers. The story of the Seven Sleepers, who are considered saints by Catholics and Orthodox Christians and whose story is also mentioned in the Qur'an,[76] tells that they were persecuted because of their monotheistic belief in God and that they slept in a cave near Ephesus for three centuries. Archaeology[edit] The history of archaeological research in Ephesus stretches back to 1863, when British architect John Turtle Wood, sponsored by the British Museum, began to search for the Artemision. In 1869 he discovered the pavement of the temple, but since further expected discoveries were not made the excavations stopped in 1874. In 1895 German archaeologist Otto Benndorf, financed by a 10,000 guilder donation made by Austrian Karl Mautner Ritter von Markhof, resumed excavations. In 1898 Benndorf founded the Austrian Archaeological Institute, which plays a leading role in Ephesus today.[77] Finds from the site are exhibited notably in the Ephesos Museum in Vienna, the Ephesus Archaeological Museum in Selçuk and in the British Museum. In October 2016, Turkey halted the works of the archeologists, which had been ongoing for more than 100 years, due to tensions between Austria and Turkey. In May 2018, Turkey allowed Austrian archeologists to resume their excavations.[78] Notable persons[edit] Heraclitus (c. 535 – c. 475 BC), Presocratic philosopher [79] Hipponax (6th Century BC), poet Zeuxis (5th century BC), painter Parrhasius (5th century BC), painter Herostratus (d 356 BC), criminal Zenodotus (fl. 280 BC), grammarian and literary critic, first librarian of the Library of Alexandria Agasias (2nd century BC), Greek sculptors Menander (early 2nd century BC), historian Artemidorus Ephesius (c. 100 BC), geographer Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus (ca. 45 – before ca. 120), founder of the Celsus library Publius Hordeonius Lollianus (1st century AD), sophist Rufus (1st century AD), physician Polycrates of Ephesus (130 – 196), bishop Soranus of Ephesus (1st–2nd century AD), physician Artemidorus (2nd century AD), diviner and author Xenophon (2nd–3rd Century AD), novelist Maximus (4th Century AD), Neoplatonic philosopher Manuel Philes (c. 1275 – 1345), Byzantine poet See also[edit] Christianity portal Ancient settlements in Turkey Christianity in the 1st century Christianity in the 2nd century Christianity in the 3rd century Early centers of Christianity Early Christian art and architecture Early Christianity Nea Efesos References[edit] ^ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ephesus ^ Olausson, Lena; Sangster, Catherine (2006). Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-19-280710-6. ^ Michael Gagarin (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6. Historical Overview A Greek city-state on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, at the mouth of Cayster River (Küçük Menderes), Ephesus ... ^ Carlos Ramirez-Faria (1 January 2007). Concise Encyclopeida Of World History. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0775-5. ^ a b Hawkins, J. David (2009). "The Arzawa letters in recent perspective". British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan (14): 73–83. ^ Sharon R. Steadman; Gregory McMahon; John Gregory McMahon (15 September 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 BCE). Oxford University Press. p. 366 and 608. ISBN 978-0-19-537614-2. In the case of such settlements as Miletus and Ephesus, as implied, the Greeks chose the sites of former Anatolian cities of prominence ^ "accessed September 14, 2007". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ a b Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert (1995). "Ephesus". International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2. ^ 2:1–7 ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible, Palo Alto, Mayfield, 1985. ^ [VIII. Muze Kurtrma Kazilari Semineri ] Adil Evren – Cengiz Icten, pp 111–133 1997 ^ [Arkeoloji ve Sanat Dergisi] – Çukuriçi Höyük sayi 92 ] Adil Evren 1998 ^ Akurgal, Ekrem (2001). The Hattian and Hittite Civilizations. Publications of the Republic of Turkey; Ministry of Culture. p. 111. ISBN 975-17-2756-1. ^ Müller-Luckner, herausgegeben von Kurt Raaflaub unter Mitarbeit von Elisabeth (1993). Anfänge politischen Denkens in der Antike : die nahöstlichen Kulturen und die Griechen ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). München: Oldenbourg. p. 117. ISBN 978-3-486-55993-4. ^ Waelkens, ed. by M. (2000). Sagalassos. Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press. p. 476. ISBN 978-90-5867-079-3.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ J. David Hawkins (1998). ‘Tarkasnawa King of Mira: Tarkendemos, Boğazköy Sealings, and Karabel.’ Anatolian Studies 48:1–31. ^ Coskun Özgünel (1996). "Mykenische Keramik in Anatolien". Asia Minor Studien. 23. ^ Jaan Puhvel (1984). 'Hittite Etymological Dictionary Vol. 1(A)' Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter 1984–. ^ J.David Hawkins (2009). 'The Arzawa letters in recent perspective' British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 14 73–83. ^ Garstang, J. and O. R. Gurney (1959). 'The geography of the Hittite Empire' Occasional Publications of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara 5London. ^ Pausanias (1965). Description of Greece. New York: Loeb Classical Library. pp. 7.2.8–9. ^ "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology". Ancientlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2009-06-21. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ Johannes Toepffer: Alope 5.(in German) In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Volume I,2, Stuttgart 1894, col. 1595 f. ^ translation by M.L. West (1999). Greek Lyric Poetry. Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-19-283678-1. ^ Cremin, Aedeen (2007). The World Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-55407-311-5. ^ Herodotus i. 141 ^ Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia xxxv.40.147. ^ Strabo (1923–1932). Geography (volume 1–7). Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. pp. 14.1.21. ^ Edwyn Robert Bevan, The House of Seleucus, Vol. 1 (E. Arnold, 1902), p. 119. ^ Wilhelm Pape, Wörterbuch der griechischen Eigennamen, Vol. 3 (Braunschweig, 1870), p. 145. ^ Lund University. Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire. ^ Richard Talbert, ed. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton University Press. p. 61, and directory notes accompanying. ^ Appian of Alexandria (c.95 AD-c.165 AD). "History of Rome: The Mithridatic Wars §§46–50". Retrieved 2007-10-02. ^ DioCass_39.16.3; ^ Plutarch: Ant_23'1-24'12 ^ Plutarch: Ant_56.1–10 ^ Strabo, Geography (volume 1–7) 14.1.24. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press ^ Price, Simon (2011). "Estimating Ancient Greek Populations". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ Hanson, J. W. (2011). "The Urban System of Roman Asia Minor". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ Hanson, J. W. (2011). "The Urban System of Roman Asia Minor". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ Jerome Murphy O'Conner, St. Paul's Ephesus, 2008, p. 130 ISBN 978-0-8146-5259-6 ^ Hanson, J. W. (2011). "The Urban System of Roman Asia Minor". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). Settlement, Urbanization, and Population. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. 2. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 252–257. ISBN 9780199602353. ^ VanVoorst, Jenny Fretland (2013). The Byzantine Empire. North Mankato, MN: Compass Point Books. p. 32. ISBN 978-0756545864. ^ Kjeilen, Tore (2007-02-20). "accessed September 24, 2007". Lexicorient.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ Foss, Clive (1979) Ephesus after antiquity: a late antique, Byzantine, and Turkish city, Cambridge University Press, p. 121. Gökovalı, Şadan; Altan Erguvan (1982) Ephesus, Ticaret Matbaacılık, p.7. ^ Foss, Clive (1979). Ephesus After Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ^ Foss, Clive (1979). Ephesus After Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p. viii. ^ "Paul, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005 ^ Acts 19:9 ^ Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19 accessed 5 october 2015 ^ Acts 19:1–7 ^ Acts 19:23–41 ^ Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972 ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" p. 266-268. ^ Eusebius (1965), "3.4", Historia Ecclesiastica [The History of the Church], Williamson, G.A. transl., Harmonsworth: Penguin, p. 109. ^ Vasiliki Limberis, 'The Council of Ephesos: The Demise of the See of Ephesos and the Rise of the Cult of the Theotokos' in Helmut Koester, Ephesos: Metropolis of Asia (2004), 327. ^ The Revelation Explained: An Exposition, Text by Text, of the Apocalypse of St. John by F.G. Smith, 1918, public domain. ^ Richard Wallace; Wynne Williams (1998). The three worlds of Paul of Tarsus. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 9780415135917. ISBN 0-415-13591-5" "Apart from the public buildings for which such benefactors paid – the library at Ephesos, for example, recently reconstructed, built by Tiberius Iulius Aquila Polmaeanus in 110–20 in honour of his father Tiberius Iulius Celsus Polemaeanus, one of the earliest men of purely Greek origin to become a Roman consul ^ Nicols, John (1978). Vespasian and the partes Flavianae, Issues 28–31. Steiner. p. 109. ISBN 9783515023931. ISBN 3-515-02393-3" "Ti. Julius Celsus Polemaeanus (PIR2 J 260) was a romanized Greek of Ephesus or Sardes who became the first eastern consul. ^ Forte, Bettie (1972). Rome and the Romans as the Greeks saw them. American Academy in Rome. p. 260. OCLC 560733. The Julio-Claudian emperors admitted relatively few Greeks to citizenship, but these showed satisfaction with their new position and privileges. Tiberius is known to have enfranchised only Tib. Julius Polemaeanus, ancestor of a prominent governor later in the century) ^ Too, Yun Lee (2010). The idea of the library in the ancient world. Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 9780199577804. ISBN 0-19-957780-3" "... and son of Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, proconsul of Asia, who founds the Celsian library from his own wealth ... ^ Hanfmann, George Maxim Anossov (1975). From Croesus to Constantine: the cities of western Asia Minor and their arts in Greek and Roman times. University of Michigan Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780472084203. ISBN 0-472-08420-8" "... statues (lost except for their bases) were probably of Celsus, consul in A.D. 92, and his son Aquila, consul in A.D. 110. A cuirass statue stood in the central niche of the upper storey. Its identification oscillates between Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, who is buried in a sarcophagus under the library, and Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus, who completed the building for his father ^ Swain, Simon (1998). Hellenism and empire: language, classicism, and power in the Greek world, AD 50–250. Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 9780198152316. ISBN 0-19-815231-0" "Sardis had already seen two Greek senators ... Ti. Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, cos. Suff. N 92 (Halfmann 1979: no 160), who endowed the remarkable Library of Celsus at Ephesus, and his son Ti. Julius Aquila Polemaeanus, cos. suff. in 110, who built most of it. ^ "Library of Celsus". World History Encyclopedia. 22 July 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2020. ^ "Library of Celsus in Ephesus". Turkish Archeo News. 12 July 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2020. ^ Kupper, Monika (2007-05-02). "Gladiators' graveyard discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ Ephesus.us. "accessed September 21, 2007". Ephesus.us. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ Ephesus.us. "State Agora, Ephesus Turkey". Ephesus.us. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ "Water Supply – ÖAI EN". www.oeai.at. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ "Ephesus Municipal Water System". homepage.univie.ac.at. Retrieved 8 May 2017. ^ "accessed September 24, 2007". Community.iexplore.com. Archived from the original on October 17, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-20. ^ a b Keskin, Naci. Ephesus. ISBN 975-7559-48-2 ^ a b c Ephesus. Distributed by Rehber Basım Yayın Dağıtım Reklamcılık ve Tic. A.Ş. and Revak publishers. ISBN 975-8212-11-7, ^ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Archived 2009-06-03 at WebCite. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group – Twenty Million Turkish Lira – I. Series Archived 2008-11-22 at the Wayback Machine. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. ^ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Archived 2009-06-03 at WebCite. Banknote Museum: 8. Emission Group – Twenty New Turkish Lira – I. Series Archived 2009-02-24 at the Wayback Machine. Announcement on the Withdrawal of E8 New Turkish Lira Banknotes from Circulation Archived April 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, 8 May 2007. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. ^ O'Mahony, Anthony (2004). "Louis Massignon, The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus". In Bartholomew, Craig G (ed.). Explorations in a Christian Theology of Pilgrimage. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. pp. 135–6. ISBN 0-7546-0856-5. ^ "Ephesos – An Ancient Metropolis: Exploration and History". Austrian Archaeological Institute. October 2008. Archived from the original on 2002-04-29. Retrieved 2009-11-01. ^ Austrian minister thanks Turkey for resuming excavations in Ephesus ^ theephesus.com. "accessed September 30, 2013". theephesus.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30. Sources[edit] Foss, Clive. 1979. "Ephesus After Antiquity." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Athas, Daphne. 1991. Entering Ephesus. Sag Harbor, NY: Second Chance Press. Oster, Richard. 1987. A Bibliography of Ancient Ephesus. Philadelphia: American Theological Library Association. Scherrer, Peter, Fritz Krinzinger, and Selahattin Erdemgil. 2000. Ephesus: The New Guide. Rev. ed. 2000. Turkey: Ege Yayinlari (Zero Prod. Ltd.). Leloux, Kevin. 2018. "The Campaign Of Croesus Against Ephesus: Historical & Archaeological Considerations", in Polemos 21–2, p. 47–63. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ephesos. Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Ephesus. 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en-wikipedia-org-8023	----	Pontifex maximus - Wikipedia Pontifex maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pontifex Maximus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Chief high priest in ancient Rome Augustus as pontifex maximus (Via Labicana Augustus) The pontifex maximus (Latin for "greatest priest"[1][2][3]) was the chief high priest of the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. Although in fact the most powerful office in the Roman priesthood, the pontifex maximus was officially ranked fifth in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (ordo sacerdotum), behind the rex sacrorum and the flamines maiores (Flamen Dialis, Flamen Martialis, Flamen Quirinalis).[4] A distinctly religious office under the early Roman Republic, it gradually became politicized until, beginning with Augustus, it was subsumed into the position of emperor in the Roman imperial period. Subsequent emperors were styled pontifex maximus well into Late Antiquity, including Gratian (r. 367–383), but during Gratian's reign the phrase was replaced in imperial titulature with the Latin phrase: pontifex inclytus, an example followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor Theodosius the Great and which was used by emperors thereafter including the co-augusti Valentinian III (r. 425–455) and Marcian (r. 450–457) and the augustus Anastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518). The first to adopt the inclytus alternative to maximus may have been the rebel augustus Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388). The word pontifex and its derivative "pontiff" became terms used for Christian bishops,[5] including the Bishop of Rome,[6][7] and the title of pontifex maximus was applied to the Catholic Church for the pope as its chief bishop and appears on buildings, monuments and coins of popes of Renaissance and modern times. The official list of titles of the pope given in the Annuario Pontificio includes "supreme pontiff" (Latin: summus pontifex) as the fourth title, the first being "bishop of Rome".[8] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Origins in the Regal period 3 Roman Republic 3.1 Election and number 3.2 Extraordinary appointment of dictators 3.2.1 Duties 4 Roman Empire 4.1 Late Antiquity 4.1.1 Pontifex inclytus 5 Middle Ages 6 Catholic Church use of the title 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Etymology[edit] Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e The etymology of "pontifex" is uncertain, but the word has been used since Roman times. The word appears to consist of the Latin word for "bridge" and the suffix for "maker". However, there is a possibility that this definition is a folk etymology for an Etruscan term,[9] since Roman religion was heavily influenced by Etruscan religion, and very little is known about the Etruscan language, which is not Indo-European. According to the common interpretation, the term pontifex means "bridge-builder" (pons + facere); "maximus" means "greatest". This was perhaps originally meant in a literal sense: the position of bridge-builder was indeed an important one in Rome, where the major bridges were over the Tiber, the sacred river (and a deity): only prestigious authorities with sacral functions could be allowed to "disturb" it with mechanical additions. However, it was always understood in its symbolic sense as well: the pontifices were the ones who smoothed the "bridge" between gods and men.[10] The interpretation of the word pontifex as "bridge-builder" was that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Marcus Terentius Varro. Plutarch pointed out that the term existed before there were any bridges in Rome and derived the word from Old Latin pontis [sic] meaning a powerful or absolute master, while others derived it from potis facere in the sense of "able to sacrifice".[11] The last derivation is mentioned also by Varro, who rejected it,[12] but it was the view of pontifex maximus Quintus Scaevola.[13] Others have held that the word was originally pompifex (leader of public processions).[13] The word pons originally meant "way" and pontifex would thus mean "maker of roads and bridges".[13] Another opinion is that the word is a corruption of a similar-sounding but etymologically unrelated Etruscan word.[14] Yet another hypothesis[15] considers the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five, from Osco-Umbrian ponte, five.[16] This explanation takes into account the fact that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressions pontis and pomperias found in the Iguvine Tablets may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thence be a member of a sacrificial college known as pomperia (Latin quinio).[17] The Roman title pontifex maximus was rendered in Greek inscriptions and literature of the time as Koinē Greek: ἀρχιερεύς, romanized: archiereús, lit. 'Archpriest'[18] or by a more literal translation and order of words as Koinē Greek: ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος, romanized: archireús mégistos, lit. 'greatest archpriest'.[19] The term ἀρχιερεύς is used in the Greek Septuagint text of the Old Testament and in the New Testament to refer to the High Priest of Israel, including in 2 Maccabees (2 Maccabees 4:7). The word pontifex, Latin for "pontiff", was used in ancient Rome to designate a member of the College of Pontiffs. In the Latin Vulgate translation of the New Testament, it is sometimes used to designate the Jewish high priest, as in the Gospel of John and Epistle to the Hebrews (John 11:49; Hebrews 5:1). From perhaps as early as the 3rd century, it has been used to denote a Christian bishop. In the Vulgate, the term summus pontifex was originally applied to the High Priest of Israel, as in the Book of Judith (Judith 15:19), whose place, each in his own diocese, the Christian bishops were regarded as holding, based on an interpretation of the First Epistle of Clement (I Clement 40).[20] Origins in the Regal period[edit] The Collegium Pontificum (College of Pontiffs) was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome. The foundation of this sacred college and the office of pontifex maximus is attributed to the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius.[21] Much of what is known about the Regal period in Roman history is semi-legendary or mythical. The Collegium presumably acted as advisers to the rex (king) in religious matters. The collegium was headed by the pontifex maximus, and all the pontifices held their office for life. But the pontifical records of early Rome were most likely destroyed when the city was sacked by the Gauls in 387 BC, and the earliest accounts of Archaic Rome come from the literature of the Republic, most of it from the 1st century BC and later. According to the Augustan-era historian Livy, Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, devised Rome's system of religious rites, including the manner and timing of sacrifices, the supervision of religious funds, authority over all public and private religious institutions, instruction of the populace in the celestial and funerary rites including appeasing the dead, and expiation of prodigies. Numa is said to have founded Roman religion after dedicating an altar on the Aventine Hill to Jupiter Elicius and consulting the gods by means of augury.[21] Numa wrote down and sealed these religious instructions, and gave them to the first pontifex maximus, Numa Marcius. Roman Republic[edit] See also: List of Pontifices Maximi and College of Pontiffs In the Roman Republic, the pontifex maximus was the highest office in the state religion of ancient Rome and directed the College of Pontiffs. According to Livy, after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Romans created the priesthood of the rex sacrorum, or "king of sacred rites," to carry out certain religious duties and rituals previously performed by the king. The rex sacrorum was explicitly deprived of military and political power, but the pontifices were permitted to hold both magistracies and military commands.[22] The official residence of the pontifex maximus was the Domus Publica ("State House") which stood between the House of the Vestal Virgins and the Via Sacra, close to the Regia, in the Roman Forum. His religious duties were carried out from the Regia. Unless the pontifex maximus was also a magistrate, he was not allowed to wear the toga praetexta, i.e. toga with the purple border. In artistic representations, he can be recognized by his holding an iron knife (secespita)[9] or the patera,[23] and the distinctive robes or toga with part of the mantle covering the head (capite velato), in keeping with Roman practice. The Pontifex was not simply a priest. He had both political and religious authority. It is not clear which of the two came first or had the most importance. In practice, particularly during the late Republic, the office of pontifex maximus was generally held by a member of a politically prominent family. It was a coveted position mainly for the great prestige it conferred on the holder; Julius Caesar became pontifex in 73 BC and pontifex maximus in 63 BC. The major Republican source on the pontiffs would have been the theological writings of Varro, which survive only in fragments preserved by later authors such as Aulus Gellius and Nonius Marcellus. Other sources are Cicero, Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Valerius Maximus, Plutarch's Life of Numa Pompilius, Festus's summaries of Verrius Flaccus, and in later writers, including several of the Church Fathers. Some of these sources present an extensive list of everyday prohibitions for the pontifex maximus; it seems difficult to reconcile these lists with evidence that many pontifices maximi were prominent members of society who lived normal, non-restricted lives. Election and number[edit] The number of Pontifices, elected by co-optatio (i.e. the remaining members nominate their new colleague) for life, was originally five, including the pontifex maximus.[24][9] The pontifices, moreover, could only come from the old nobility, the patricians. However, in 300–299 BC the lex Ogulnia opened the office of pontifex maximus to public election and permitted the plebs (plebeians) to be co-opted as priests, so that part of the exclusivity of the title was lost. But it was only in 254 BC that Tiberius Coruncanius became the first plebeian pontifex maximus.[25] The lex Ogulnia also increased the number of pontiffs to nine (the pontifex maximus included). In 104 BC the lex Domitia prescribed that the election of all pontiffs would henceforward be voted by the comitia tributa (an assembly of the people divided into voting districts); by the same law only 17 tribes, chosen by lot from the 35 tribes of the city, could vote. The law's promulgator, L[ucius] Domitius Ahenobarbus, was shortly afterwards elected pontifex maximus after the death of the incumbent Metellus Dalmaticus: Something of a personal revenge because, the previous year, he had expected to be co-opted as a pontiff to replace his late father, but the pontifical college had appointed another candidate in his place. The office's next holder, Q[uintus] Mucius Scaevola, was also elected under the same law, though without controversy or opposition since he was a former consul and long-serving pontiff. This law was abolished in 81 BC by Sulla in his dictatorship, in the lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis, which restored to the great priestly colleges their full right of co-optatio.[26][27][28] Also under Sulla, the number of pontifices was increased to fifteen, the pontifex maximus included, and Sulla nominated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius as the next holder of the office – the only truly unelected pontifex maximus in history, since even the other pontiffs did not get a vote in the matter. In 63 BC, the law of Sulla was abolished by the tribune Titus Labienus, and a modified form of the lex Domitia was reinstated providing for election by comitia tributa once again: Gaius Julius Caesar followed Ahenobarbus's precedent by being elected by public vote, although Caesar at least had previously been a pontiff. Marcus Antonius later restored the right of co-optatio to the college,[29] in time for the election of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Also under Julius Caesar, the number of pontifices were increased to sixteen, the pontifex maximus included. (Possibly because Caesar's own long absences from Rome necessitated the appointment of a deputy pontiff for those occasions when fifteen needed to be present.) The number of pontifices varied during the Empire but is believed to have been regular at fifteen.[24] Extraordinary appointment of dictators[edit] The office came into its own with the abolition of the monarchy, when most sacral powers previously vested in the King were transferred either to the pontifex maximus or to the Rex Sacrorum, though traditionally a (non-political) dictator[30] was formally mandated by the Senate for one day, to perform a specific rite. According to Livy in his "History of Rome", an ancient instruction written in archaic letters commands: "Let him who is the Praetor Maximus fasten a nail on the Ides of September." This notice was fastened up on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, next to the chapel of Minerva. This nail is said to have marked the number of the year. It was in accordance with this direction that the consul Horatius dedicated the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in the year following the expulsion of the kings; from the Consuls the ceremony of fastening the nails passed to the Dictators, because they possessed greater authority. As the custom had been subsequently dropped, it was felt to be of sufficient importance to require the appointment of a Dictator. L[ucius] Manlius was accordingly nominated but his appointment was due to political rather than religious reasons. He was eager to command in the war with the Hernici. He caused a very angry feeling among the men liable to serve by the inconsiderate way in which he conducted the enrolment. At last, in consequence of the unanimous resistance offered by the tribunes of the plebs, he gave way, either voluntarily or through compulsion, and laid down his Dictatorship. Since then, this rite has been performed by the Rex Sacrorum.[31] Duties[edit] The main duty of the Pontifices was to maintain the pax deorum or "peace of the gods."[32][33][34] The immense authority of the sacred college of pontiffs was centered on the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important. His real power lay in the administration of ius divinum or divine law;[35] the information collected by the pontifices related to the Roman religious tradition was bound in a corpus which summarized dogma and other concepts. The chief departments of jus divinum may be described as follows: Denarius depicting Julius Caesar as pontifex maximus The regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as a result of pestilence, lightning, etc. The consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods. The regulation of the calendar; both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state. The administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the manes or dead ancestors. The superintendence of all marriages by conferratio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages. The administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. The regulation of the public morals, and fining and punishing offending parties. The pontifices had many relevant and prestigious functions such as being in charge of caring for the state archives, the keeping the official minutes of elected magistrates[36] and list of magistrates, and they kept the records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year, the so-called "public diaries", the Annales maximi.[37] The pontifex maximus was also subject to several taboos. Among them was the prohibition to leave Italy. Plutarch described Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (141–132 BC) as the first to leave Italy, after being forced by the Senate to do so, and thus break the sacred taboo. Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus (132–130 BC) was the first to leave Italy voluntarily. Afterwards it became common and no longer against the law for the pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Among the most notable of those who did was Julius Caesar (63–44 BC). The Pontifices were in charge of the Roman calendar and determined when intercalary months needed to be added to synchronize the calendar to the seasons. Since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power. A Pontifex with other political responsibilities, especially away from Rome, might also have been simply distracted from his calendrical duties as chief priest. This caused the calendar to become out of step with the seasons; for example, Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon in January 49 BC actually took place in mid-autumn. Under his authority as pontifex maximus, Julius Caesar introduced the calendar reform that created the Julian calendar, with a fault of less than a day per century, and which remained the standard till the Gregorian reform in the 16th century. Pontifex maximus and augustus Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) performing sacrifice in a relief from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Capitoline Museums) Roman Empire[edit] After Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, his ally Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was selected as pontifex maximus. Though Lepidus eventually fell out of political favor and was sent into exile as Augustus consolidated power, he retained the priestly office until his death in 13 BC, at which point Augustus was selected to succeed him and given the right to appoint other pontifices. Thus, from the time of Augustus, the election of pontifices ended and membership in the sacred college was deemed a sign of imperial favour.[9] With this attribution, the new office of Emperor was given a religious dignity and the responsibility for the entire Roman state cult. Most authors contend that the power of naming the Pontifices was not really used as an instrumentum regni, an enforcing power. From this point on, pontifex maximus was one of the many titles of the Emperor, slowly losing its specific and historical powers and becoming simply a referent for the sacral aspect of imperial duties and powers. During the Imperial period, a promagister (vice-master) performed the duties of the pontifex maximus in lieu of the emperors whenever they were absent.[10] In post-Severan times (after 235 AD), the small number of pagan senators interested in becoming pontiffs led to a change in the pattern of office holding. In Republican and Imperial times no more than one family member of a gens was member of the College of Pontiffs, nor did one person hold more than one priesthood in this collegium. However, these rules were obviously loosened in the later part of the 3rd century A.D. In periods of joint rule, at first only one of the emperors bore this title, as it occurred for the first time during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, when only Marcus Aurelius was pontifex maximus, but later two pontifices maximi could serve together, as Pupienus and Balbinus did in 238 AD—a situation unthinkable in Republican times. Late Antiquity[edit] When Tertullian, a Montanist, furiously applied the term to some bishop with whom he was at odds (either Pope Callixtus I or Agrippinus of Carthage),[38][39] c 220, over a relaxation of the Church's penitential discipline allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, it was in bitter irony: In opposition to this [modesty], could I not have acted the dissembler? I hear that there has even been an edict sent forth, and a peremptory one too. The "Pontifex Maximus," that is the "bishop of bishops," issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged [the requirements of] repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, "Good deed!"... Far, far from Christ's betrothed be such a proclamation! — Tertullian, On Modesty ch. 1 In the Crisis of the Third Century, emperors continued to assume the title pontifex maximus. The early Christian emperors, including Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) and the rest of the Constantinian dynasty, continued to use it; it was only relinquished by Gratian, possibly in 376 at the time of his visit to Rome,[10] or more probably in 383 when a delegation of pagan senators implored him to restore the Altar of Victory in Roman Senate's Curia Julia.[40] Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian.[41][24][9] The Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380 was enacted in Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) and published in Constantinople (Istanbul) for the whole empire. By it, Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire. The Latin text refers to the bishop of Rome, Damasus, as a pontifex, and the bishop of Alexandria, Peter, as an episcopus:[42] ... the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria ... We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians ...[43] Various forms of summus pontifex ('highest pontiff' or bishop) were for centuries used not only of the Bishop of Rome but of other bishops also.[20] Hilary of Arles (d. 449) is styled summus pontifex by Eucherius of Lyon (P. L., vol. L, col. 773) Pontifex inclytus[edit] During Gratian's reign or immediately afterwards the phrase pontifex maximus – which had unwelcome associations with traditional Roman religion during the Christianization of the Roman Empire – was replaced in imperial titulature with the phrase: pontifex inclytus.[44] The first to adopt the inclytus alternative to maximus may have been the rebel augustus and devout Christian close to bishop Martin of Tours, Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), who killed Gratian in August 383.[44] This practice was followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor Theodosius the Great and was used by emperors thereafter, including the co-augusti Valentinian III (r. 425–455) and Marcian (r. 450–457) and the augustus Anastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518), for whom examples of official usage survive.[44] Another inscription dedicated to Justin II (r. 565–574) and naming him pontifex has long been recognized as a forgery, though there is no evidence to suggest the title could not have been used by Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) or even by Constantine IV (r. 654–685).[44] Middle Ages[edit] Lanfranc is termed primas et pontifex summus by his biographer, Milo Crispin (P. L., vol. CL, 10). but from the 11th century it appears to be applied only to the Pope.[20] Engraving by Christoph Weigel the Elder of Pope Clement XI, giving him the title pontifex maximus Catholic Church use of the title[edit] Papal coin of Pius VI from 1795, marked on the reverse: ·pivs· ·sextus· pontifex maximus mdccxcv Pius the Sixth Pontifex Maximus 1795 Inscription of Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–1878) on the Colosseum describing him as pivs ix pont· max· and commemorating the 19th-century restoration Gate to the Vatican inscribed Benedictus XVI Pont[ifex] Max[imus] Anno Domini MMV Pont[ificatus] I ("Benedict XVI, Supreme Pontiff, in the year of Our Lord 2005, in the first year of his pontificate") See also: Pontiff § Catholicism In the 15th century, when the Renaissance stirred up new interest in ancient Rome, pontifex maximus became a regular title of honour for Popes.[45] After the Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire and the death of the final Roman emperor Constantine XI in 1453, pontifex maximus became part of the papacy's official titulature of the Bishop of Rome.[46] The name given to the book containing the liturgical rites to be performed by any bishop, the Roman Pontifical, and to the form of liturgy known as Pontifical High Mass witness to the continued use of pontifex to refer to bishops in general. While the title pontifex maximus has for some centuries been used in inscriptions referring to the Popes, it has never been included in the official list of papal titles published in the Annuario Pontificio. The official list of titles of the Pope given in the Annuario Pontificio includes "Supreme Pontiff of the whole Church" (in Latin, Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis) as the fourth title, the first being "Bishop of Rome". The title pontifex maximus appears in inscriptions on buildings and on coins and medallions. In December 2012 Pope Benedict XVI adopted @pontifex as his Twitter handle,[47] prompting users to pose questions with the #askpontifex hashtag.[48][49] This has been maintained by his successor Pope Francis, who now uses it as his Twitter handle.[50] See also[edit] College of Pontiffs – High priests of ancient Rome Pontiff References[edit] ^ Peck, Harry Thurston (1896). "s. v. Pontifex". Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 1299. ^ Lewis, Chartlon T.; Short, Charles (1879). "s. v. pontifex". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press – via Perseus Project. ^ "s. v. pontifex". American Heritage Dictionary (Fifth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2019. ^ Forsythe, Gary (January 1, 2006). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-520-24991-2. Retrieved September 2, 2016. ^ Pascal, Paul (February 1966). "Medieval Uses of Antiquity". The Classical Journal. The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. 61 (5): 193–197. JSTOR 3294702. In the matter of hierarchical nomenclature, one of the most striking instances is the adoption of the term pontifex for a bishop ^ Edictum Gratiani, Valentiani et Theodosii de fide catholica. The Roman Law Library. February 27, 380. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014. Retrieved January 6, 2018. ^ "Pontiff: 1a. The pope. b. A bishop. 2. A pontifex.". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2000. Retrieved June 27, 2019. ^ Annuario Pontificio. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-88-209-8722-0. ^ a b c d e Lendering, Jona. "Pontifex Maximus". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved August 21, 2011 – via Livius.org. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c Van Haeperen, Françoise (2003). "Des pontifes païens aux pontifes chrétiens". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire. 81 (1): 137–159. doi:10.3406/rbph.2003.4718. Retrieved 3 March 2020. ^ Nathaniel Hooke, The Roman History (1830), vol. I, p. 81 ^ Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon, eds. (1998). Religions of Rome. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-52145646-3. ^ a b c Lanciani, Rodolfo (2005). New Tales of Ancient Rome (reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-41790821-9. ^ "Pontifex", Online Etymology Dictionary ^ First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores'", Rivista Indo-Greco-Italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità 15 1931 p. 56. ^ Cf. Greek πέντε ^ For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 1970 p. 219 ff. ^ Polybius 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458 ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 2.2696 and 3.346; Plutarch Numa 9.4 ^ a b c Joyce, George Hayward (1911). "Pope § Titles" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20 ^ Roman Public Religion Archived March 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Roman Civilization, bates.edu retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ Panel Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius and Roman Imperial Iconography State University of New York, College at Oneonta retrieved Sep 14, 2006 ^ a b c Smith, William (1875). "Pontifex Maximus". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 939–942. Retrieved August 15, 2006 – via LacusCurtius. ^ Titus Livius. Ex Libro XVIII Periochae, from livius.org retrieved August 16, 2006 ^ Liv. Epit. 89 ^ Pseudo-Ascon. in Divinat. p 102, ed. Orelli ^ Dion Cass. xxxvii. 37 ^ Dion Cass. xliv. 53 ^ see also: basileus, interrex ^ Livy (Titus Livius). "History of Rome". Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Roman State Religion, c. 200 BC – 250 AD. Paul Halsall © August 1998 (public domain), Fordham University; halsall@murray.fordham.edu. Retrieved August 23, 2006. ^ The Roman Persecution of Christians By Neil Manzullo February 8, 2000 Persuasive Writing, retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ Pax Deorum everything2.com retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ "Roman Mythology" Archived May 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2006 ^ jus divinum, Merriam–Webster Online Dictionary retrieved August 24, 2006 ^ Ovid, Fasti ^ Fowler, William Warde (1911). "Pontifex" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ^ Francis Aloysius Sullivan, From Apostles to Bishops (Paulist Press 2001 ISBN 978-0-8091-0534-2), p. 165 ^ David E. Wilhite, Tertullian the African (De Gruyter, Walter 2007 ISBN 978-3-11-019453-1), p. 174 ^ A. Cameron, A. (1969). Gratian's repudiation of the pontifical robe. The Journal of Roman Studies, 58: 96–102. The confusion in dates arises from Zosimus, who writes that it was repudiated at Gratian's accession, impossible from epigraphic and literary references ^ Tikkanen, Amy (February 3, 2008). "Gratian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved June 27, 2019 – via Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ Unlike episcopus (from Greek ἐπίσκοπος), the word used for the bishop from the Greek-speaking East, pontifex is a word of purely Latin derivation. ^ Theodosian Code XVI.1.2; and Sozomen, "Ecclesiastical History", VII, iv. Emperor Theodosius I. "IMPERATORIS THEODOSIANI CODEX Liber Decimus Sextus" (web). ancientrome.ru. Retrieved December 4, 2006. ^ a b c d Cameron, Alan (2007). "The Imperial Pontifex". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 103: 341–384. ISSN 0073-0688. JSTOR 30032227. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pontifex Maximus ^ Nicholson, Oliver; Gwynn, David (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), "Pontifex Maximus", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved November 1, 2020 ^ Winfield, Nicole (December 3, 2012). "Pope joins tweeting masses with Pontifex handle". AP. Retrieved December 3, 2012. ^ Ask the pope @pontifex: With Twitter account, Benedict XVI just a tweet away, Michelle Boorstein, Washington Post December 4, 2012 ^ Pope Benedict to launch new Twitter account, Vatican Radio, December 3, 2012. ^ The official Twitter page of Pope Francis Bibliography[edit] Cameron, Alan (2016). "Pontifex Maximus: from Augustus to Gratian – and Beyond" (PDF). Collegium: 139–159. Dijkstra, Roald; Espelo, Dorine Van (2017). "Anchoring Pontifical Authority: A Reconsideration of the Papal Employment of the Title Pontifex Maximus". Journal of Religious History. 41 (3): 312–325. doi:10.1111/1467-9809.12400. External links[edit] article Pontifex in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Annotated pontifex maximus list List of roman consuls (Fasti consulares) 300 BC – 60 AD at http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/chronology.htm – in the list of consuls the column on the right (pontifex maximus) lists those that are known in this period. Joyce, George Hayward (1911). "Pope § V. Primacy of Honour: Titles and Insignia" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. 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en-wikipedia-org-8036	----	Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor) - Wikipedia Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Andronikos Doukas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold histamenon of Romanos IV: Michael VII flanked by his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios. Byzantine emperor Reign 1068–1070s Co-emperors Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071) Nikephoros Diogenes (1070–1071) Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078) Konstantios Doukas (1071–1078) Constantine Doukas (1074–1078) Born ca. 1057 Died after 1081 Dynasty Doukas Father Constantine X Mother Eudokia Makrembolitissa Andronikos Doukas (Greek: Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας), Latinized as Andronicus Ducas, was the third son of Byzantine emperor Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067) and younger brother of Byzantine emperor Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071–1078). Unlike his other brothers, he was not named junior co-emperor by his father, and was raised to the dignity only by Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071). He is otherwise relatively insignificant, and was not involved in the affairs of state to any degree. Biography[edit] Andronikos Doukas was born circa 1057, the third son of Constantine X Doukas and Eudokia Makrembolitissa.[1] He studied under Michael Psellos, and several works survive that were compiled by the prominent scholars of the day to aid him in his studies: one treatise on geometry by Psellos and two philosophical essays by John Italos. Psellos also compiled a laudatory monody on Andronikos after the latter's death.[2] Unlike his other two surviving brothers (the elder, the future Michael VII Doukas, and the younger Konstantios Doukas, who was a porphyrogennetos), he was not raised by his father to the position of co-emperor. Thus, and unlike them, he did not participate in the short regency of Eudokia that followed his father's death in 1067.[3] It was only Romanos IV, who married Eudokia and thus succeeded Constantine X, who raised him to co-emperor, perhaps at Eudokia's request. This was also done for political reasons: the multitude of co-emperors, which soon included the two sons of Eudokia by Romanos, weakened the position of Constantine X's children in favour of Romanos himself. Furthermore, during his absence from Constantinople on campaign in the East soon after his accession, Romanos took Andronikos with him as a virtual hostage.[4] During the reign of his elder brother Michael VII, Andronikos continued as co-emperor, and was even possibly raised above Konstantios in precedence. Curiously, despite his apparent lack of ability and purely decorative function as co-emperor, Andronikos is included in some later lists of Byzantine emperors, coming between Romanos and Michael VII.[5] It is unknown when he died. D. Polemis surmised that it was after 1081,[6] but Thomas Conley argues that he died in early 1077, since he is not mentioned during Nikephoros Botaneiates's attack on Constantinople in the same year.[7] According to Psellos's monody, Andronikos was married to an unnamed woman, who died soon after his own death. He had no descendants.[8] References[edit] ^ Polemis 1968, p. 46; ODB, "Doukas" (A. Kazhdan, A. Cutler), pp. 655–656. ^ Polemis 1968, pp. 47–48; Conley 1998, p. 52. ^ Polemis 1968, p. 47; Garland 1999, p. 171. ^ Polemis 1968, p. 47; Garland 1999, pp. 173–174, 176; Conley 1998, p. 52. ^ Polemis 1968, p. 47. ^ Polemis 1968, p. 46. ^ Conley 1998, p. 52. ^ Polemis 1968, p. 48. Bibliography[edit] Conley, Thomas (1998). "The Alleged 'Synopsis' of Aristotle's Rhetoric by John Italos and. Its Place in the Byzantine Reception of Aristotle.". In Dahan, Gilbert; Rosier-Catach, Irène (eds.). La rhétorique d'Aristote: traditions et commentaires de l'Antiquité au XVIIe siècle. Paris: Vrin. pp. 49–64. ISBN 2-7116-1307-0. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Polemis, Demetrios I. (1968). The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Prosopography. London: The Athlone Press. OCLC 299868377. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Social Networks and Archival Context Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andronikos_Doukas_(co-emperor)&oldid=1027189577" Categories: 1050s births 11th-century Byzantine emperors Doukid dynasty Byzantine junior emperors Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Македонски مصرى Polski Português Русский Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8037	----	Augur - Wikipedia Augur From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Priest in the classical Roman world, whose main role was the practice of augury Not to be confused with auger (disambiguation) or agar (disambiguation). This article is about the Roman religious practice. For parallel practices in other cultures, see Ornithomancy. For other uses, see Augur (disambiguation). An augur holding a lituus, the curved wand often used as a symbol of augury on Roman coins Part of a series on Anthropology of religion Some results of recent anthropological exploration in Peru Basic concepts Afterlife Animism Augur Augury Communitas Comparative religion Divination Greek divination Methods of divination Divine language Evolutionary origin of religions Fetishism Great Spirit Haruspex Henotheism Initiation Liminality Magic (supernatural) Apotropaic magic Mana Monotheism Necromancy Nympholepsy Oracle Ornithomancy Polytheism Pythia Rite of passage Ritual Revitalization movement Sacred dance Sacred language Sacred–profane dichotomy Shamanism Soul dualism Superstition Theories about religions Totem Transtheism Veneration of the dead Case studies Magic Coral Gardens and Their Magic Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants Neo-Paganism Ritual Angakkuq Babaylan Bobohizan Bomoh Bora Dukun Miko Jhākri Pawang Slametan Wu Revitalization movements Cargo cult Ghost Dance Handsome Lake Related articles The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life Purity and Danger Myth and ritual Archaeology of religion and ritual Poles in mythology Major theorists Augustin Calmet Akbar S. Ahmed Talal Asad Joseph Campbell Mary Douglas Émile Durkheim Arnold van Gennep E. E. Evans-Pritchard James Frazer Clifford Geertz Robin Horton Claude Lévi-Strauss Robert Marett Roy Rappaport Saba Mahmood Marshall Sahlins Melford Spiro Stanley Tambiah Victor Turner Edward Burnett Tylor Daniel Martin Varisco Anthony F. C. Wallace Journals Anthropological Perspectives on Religion Folklore The Hibbert Journal The Journal of Religion Oceania Religions Ethnic and folk religions Afro-American religion Alaska Native religion Anito Atua Böö mörgöl Chinese folk religion Hanitu Hausa Kejawèn Native American religion Noaidi Shindo Shamanism in Siberia Shinto Tengrism Traditional African religions Buddhism Mahayana Nichiren Pure Land Shingon Theravada Tiantai Tibetan Vajrayana Zen Christianity Adventism Anglicanism Armenian Apostolic Church Baptists Calvinism Catholic Church Coptic Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy Ethiopian Orthodoxy Greek Orthodoxy Lutheranism Methodism Nestorianism Oriental Orthodoxy Pentecostalism Protestantism Quakers Russian Orthodoxy Hinduism Hindu denominations Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Vaishnavism Ayyavazhi Islam Ahmadiyya Ibadi Mahdavia Non-denominational Quranists Shia Sufism Sunni Yazdânism Judaism Conservative Hasidic Karaite Orthodox Reform Jainism Digambara Śvētāmbara Sikhism Social and cultural anthropology v t e An augur was a priest and official in the classical Roman world. His main role was the practice of augury: Interpreting the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds – whether they were flying in groups or alone, what noises they made as they flew, direction of flight, and what kind of birds they were. This was known as "taking the auspices". The augural ceremony and function of the augur was central to any major undertaking in Roman society – public or private – including matters of war, commerce, and religion. Augurs sought the divine will regarding any proposed course of action which might affect Rome's pax, fortuna, and salus (peace, good fortune, and well-being).[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History and public role 2.1 Kingdom of Rome 2.2 Roman Republic 2.3 Roman Empire 3 Augurs, auguria, and auspices 3.1 Ancient tradition 3.2 Categories 3.3 Ritual 3.4 Precedence 3.5 Evasion 4 Attus Navius 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Sources 8 External links Etymology[edit] Although ancient authors believed that the term "augur" contained the words avis and gero – Latin for "directing the birds"[2][citation needed] – historical-linguistic evidence points instead to the root aug-: "to increase, to prosper". History and public role[edit] Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e Political, military and civil actions were sanctioned by augury and by haruspices. Historically, augury was performed by priests of the college of augurs on behalf of senior magistrates. The practice itself likely comes from the neighboring region of Etruria, where augers were highly respected as officials. Magistrates were empowered to conduct augury as required for the performance of their official duties. Magistracies included senior military and civil ranks, which were therefore religious offices in their own right, and magistrates were directly responsible for the pax, fortuna, and salus of Rome and everything that was Roman. The presiding magistrate at an augural rite held the "right of augury" (ius augurii).[3] The right of nuntiatio – announcing the appearance of auspicia oblativa (unexpected sign) – was reserved for the officiating augur, which would require the interruption of the proceedings then underway.[4] Kingdom of Rome[edit] The Roman historian Livy stressed the importance of the augurs: "Who does not know that this city was founded only after taking the auspices, that everything in war and in peace, at home and abroad, was done only after taking the auspices?"[5] In the Regal period, which ended 509 BCE, tradition holds that there were three augurs at a time; they numbered nine by the third century BCE; Sulla increased their number to fifteen. By the Principate, their numbers swelled even further to an estimated 25 members.[6] Roman Republic[edit] During the Republic, priesthoods were prized as greatly as the consulship, the censorship, and the triumph. Membership gave the lifelong right to participate prominently in processions at ludi and in public banquets; augurs proudly displayed the symbol of the office, the lituus.[6] Roman augurs were part of a college (Latin collegium) of priests who shared the duties and responsibilities of the position. At the foundation of the Republic in 510 BCE, the patricians held sole claim to this office; by 300 BCE, the office was open to plebeian occupation as well. Senior members of the collegium put forth nominations for any vacancies, and members voted on whom to co-opt. According to Cicero, the auctoritas of ius augurum included the right to adjourn and overturn the process of law: Consular election could be – and was – rendered invalid by inaugural error. For Cicero, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Republic. Cicero himself was co-opted into the college only late in his career.[7] In the later Republic, augury was supervised by the college of pontifices, a priestly-magistral office whose powers were increasingly woven into the cursus honorum. The office of pontifex maximus eventually became a de facto consular prerogative.[8] Roman Empire[edit] The effectiveness of augury could only be judged retrospectively; the divinely ordained condition of peace (pax deorum) was an outcome of successful augury. Those whose actions had led to divine wrath (ira deorum) could not have possessed a true right of augury (ius augurum).[9] Of all the protagonists in the Civil War, only Octavian could have possessed it, because he alone had restored the pax deorum to the Roman people. Lucan, writing during the Principate, described the recent Civil War as "unnatural" – a mirror to supernatural disturbances in the greater cosmos. His imagery is apt to the traditional principles of augury and its broader interpretation by Stoic apologists of the Imperial cult.[10] In the Stoic cosmology the pax deorum is the expression of natural order in human affairs.[11] When his colleague Lepidus died, Augustus assumed his office as pontifex maximus, took priestly control over the State oracles (including the Sibylline books), and used his powers as censor to suppress the circulation of "unapproved" oracles.[12] Despite their lack of political influence under the Empire, the augurate, as with its fellow quattuor amplissima collegia, continued to confer prestige on its members. Augurs, auguria, and auspices[edit] In ancient Rome the auguria (augural rites) were considered to be in equilibrium with the sacra ("sacred things" or "rites") and were not the only way by which the gods made their will known. The augures publici (public augurs) concerned themselves only with matters related to the state. The role of the augur was that of consulting and interpreting the will of gods about some course of action such as accession of kings to the throne, of magistrates and major sacerdotes to their functions (inauguration) and all public enterprises. It sufficed to say that the augur or magistrate had heard a clap of thunder to suspend the convocation of the comitia.[13] Since auguria publica and inaugurations of magistrates are strictly connected to political life this brought about the deterioration and abuses that condemned augury to progressive and irreversible debasement, stripping it of all religious value. Ancient tradition[edit] According to Varro,[14] before his time augures had distinguished five kinds of territory: ager Romanus, ager Gabinus, ager peregrinus, ager hosticus, ager incertus. These distinctions clearly point to the times of the prehistory of Latium and testify the archaic quality of the art of augury.[4] The jus augurale (augural law) was rigorously secret, therefore very little about the technical aspects of ceremonies and rituals has been recorded. We have only the names of some auguria: The augurium salutis took place once a year, before the magistrates and the people, in which the gods were asked whether it was auspicious to ask to for the welfare of the Romans, The augurium canarium required the sacrifice of red dogs and took place after wheat grains had formed and before they were shelled.[15][16][4] The vernisera auguria – we know only the name that implies a ritual related to the harvest.[17] The terms augurium and auspicium are used indifferently by ancient authors.[18] Modern scholars have debated the issue at length but have failed to find a distinctive definition that may hold for all the known cases. By such considerations Dumezil[19] thinks that the two terms refer in fact to two aspects of the same religious act: auspicium would design the technical process of the operation, i.e. aves spicere, looking at the birds; augurium would be the resulting interpretation i.e. the determination, acknowledgement of the presence of the *auges, the action favoured by the god(s), the intention and the final product of the whole operation. In Varro's words "Agere augurium, aves specit",[20] "to conduct the augurium, he observed the birds". Categories[edit] The auspicia were divided into two categories: requested by man (impetrativa) and offered spontaneously by the gods (oblativa). Both impetrativa and oblativa auspices could be further divided into five subclasses: ex caelo (thunder, lightning) ex avibus (birds) ex tripudiis (attitude to food, and feeding manner of Mars' sacred chickens) ex quadrupedibus (dog, horse, wolf, and fox) ex diris (ominous events). Only some species of birds (aves augurales) could yield valid signs[21] whose meaning would vary according to the species. Among them were ravens, woodpeckers, owls, ossifragae, and eagles. Signs from birds were divided into alites, from the flight, and oscines, from the voice: The alites included region of the sky, height and type of flight, behaviour of the bird and place where it would come to rest. The oscines included the pitch and direction of the sound.[22] Ritual[edit] Magistrates endowed by the law with the right of spectio (observation of auspices) would establish the requested auspicium (observation platform) before taking the auspicia impetrativa ("requested" or "sought" auspices; see above). The templum, or sacred space within which the operation would take place had to be established and delimited (it should be square and have only one entrance)[23][24] and purified (effari, liberare).[25] The enunciation of the requested auspicia that began the observation portion of the ceremony was called legum dictio.[26] Observation conditions were rigorous and required absolute silence for validity of the operation. Technically the sky was divided into four sections or regions: dextera, sinistra, antica, and postica (right, left, anterior and posterior).[27] The prototype of the ritual of inauguration of people is described in Livy's[28] description of the inauguration of king Numa Pompilius: The augur asks Jupiter:[29] "Si fas est" (i.e. if it is divine justice to do this) "... send me a certain signum (sign)" then the augur listed the auspicia he wanted to see. When they appeared Numa was declared king. Precedence[edit] Since the observation was complex, conflict among signs was common.[30] A hierarchy among signs was devised: e.g. a sign from the eagle would prevail on that from the woodpecker and the ossifragae (parra).[31] During the last centuries of the republic the auspices ex caelo and ex tripudiis supplanted other types, as the other forms could be easily used in a fraudulent way, i.e. bent to suit the desire of the asking person.[32] Cicero condemned the fraudulent use and denounced the decline in the level of knowledge of the doctrine by the augurs of his time,[33] but in fact the abuse developed from the evasion negative signs, described in the next subsection.[citation needed] Evasion[edit] The interpretation of signs was vast and complex, and magistrates devised protective tricks to avoid being paralysed by negative signs.[34] Against the negative auspicia oblativa the admitted procedures included: actively avoiding seeing them repudiare – refuse them through an interpretative sleight of hand non observare – by assuming one had not paid attention to them declaring something that in fact had not appeared tempestas – choosing the time of the observation at one's will renuntiatio – making a distinction between observation and formulation vitia – resorting to acknowledging the presence of mistakes repeating the whole procedure. Attus Navius[edit] Contrary to other divinatory practices present in Rome (e.g. haruspicina, consultation of the libri Sibyllini) augury appears to be autochthonous: originally Latin or Italic. The art has its roots in the prehistory of the Italic people and is attested in the Iguvine Tables (avif aseria) and among other Latin tribes. The very story or legend of the foundation of Rome is based on augury, i.e. the ascertaining of the will of gods through observation of the sky and of birds. Romulus and Remus indeed acted as augurs and Romulus was considered a great augur throughout the course of his life. The character that best represented and portrayed the art however was Attus Navius. His story is related by Cicero: He was born into a very poor family. One day he lost one of his pigs. He then promised the gods that if he found it, he would offer them the biggest grapes growing in his vineyard. After recovering his pig he stood right at the middle of his grape yard facing South. He divided the sky into four sections and observed birds: when they appeared he walked in that direction and found an extraordinary large grape that he offered to the gods. His story was immediately famous and he became the augur of the king (see above the episode with king Tarquinius narrated by Livy). Henceforth he was considered the patron of the augurs.[35] See also[edit] Auspex Auspicious The dispute between Romulus and Remus over the founding of Rome (and their attempt to resolve it by augury) De Divinatione Haruspex Inauguration Omen Ornithomancy Notes[edit] ^ Brent (1999), p. 20. ^ Hall, Whitmore (1861). The principal roots and derivatives of the Latin language, with a display of their incorporation into English. ^ Brent (1999), pp. 17, 20: Brent describes augury as the "spiritual equivalent of consulting the polls". ^ a b c P. Catalano (1965). Linee del sistema sovrannazionale romano. Turin, IT: Giappichelli. pp. 40 note 20, p. 60 note 86, 273–280, 346–351. ^ Livy, VI. 41: auspiciis hanc urbem conditam esse, auspiciis bello ac pace domi militiaeque omnia geri, quis est qui ignoret? ^ a b Martha W. Hoffman Lewis (1955). The Official Priests of Rome under the Julio-Claudians. Rome: American Academy. pp. 9–12. ^ Cicero replaced Publius Crassus after the latter's death at Carrhae. ^ Brent (1999), pp. 19–25: citing Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.4. ^ Rosenstein (1990), pp. 57–58: the post hoc search for vitium in Republican ritual seems motivated by a need to limit aristocratic responsibility for military disaster, and offer some protection against accusations of incompetence by rivals. ^ Brent (1999), p. 48, citing Lucan, Pharsalia, 1.522–605: "as if the stars themselves had strayed from their courses". ^ Brent (1999), pp. 17–18. ^ Brent (1999), p. 59: citing Suetonius, Augustus 31.1–2. cf. official reactions to "foreign cult" during the Punic crises, above. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.72–73 ^ Varro, Lingua Latina, 5.53 ^ Pliny Nat. Hist. 18.14 ^ Festus, p. 386 L2 ^ Paulus ex Festus s.v. p. 467 L2: "auguria messalia". ^ e.g. in Cicero, De Legibus, De Divinatione. ^ G. Dumezil (1974). La religion Romaine archaique. Paris. ^ Varro, Lingua Latina, 5.83 ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.76 ^ Festus, p. 348 L2; Varro, Lingua Latina, 6.76 ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii, 3.89 ^ U. Norden (1939). "Die Spruchformel des Augur auf dem Burg". Aus Altroemischer Priestenbuchen. pp. 3–106. ^ Varro, Lingua Latina, 7.8–10 ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii, 3.89 ^ Varro, Lingua Latina, 7.7 ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1.18, 5.10 ^ signa belong to Jupiter ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii, 4.462 ^ Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii, 2.374 ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.72–73 ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.25; Leg. Agr., 2.32 and 2.34 ^ See Ovid, Fasti 3.339–344, for an instance in the conversation between king Numa and Jupiter. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.17 Sources[edit] Beard, M.; North, J.; Price, S. (1998). Religions of Rome: A History. Cambridge University Press. Brent, A. (1999). The imperial cult and the development of church order: Concepts and images of authority in paganism and early Christianity before the Age of Cyprian. Brill. ISBN 90-04-11420-3. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 ed.). Oxford, UK.: Oxford University Press. s.v. augures. Rosenstein, Nathan S. (1990). Imperatores Victi: Military defeat and aristocratic competition in the middle and late Republic. Ark.CDlib.org. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.[permanent dead link] External links[edit] article Augurium in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Augurs" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 903–904. Wissowa, Augures in Paulys Realencyclopaedie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaften vol. II (trans. into English) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Augur&oldid=1024790864" Categories: Roman augurs Divination Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 03:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8041	----	Cassius Dio - Wikipedia Cassius Dio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greco-Roman statesman and historian (c. 155 – c. 235) This article is about the historian. For the later consul who was a descendant, see Cassius Dio (consul 291). Lucius Cassius Dio Native name Δίων Κάσσιος Born c. 155 AD Nicaea, Bithynia Died c. 235 AD (aged approximately 80) Bithynia Occupation Historian, senator, proconsul, consul Nationality Roman Subject History Notable works History of Rome Relatives Cassius Apronianus (father), Cassius Dio (consul 291) (grandchild or great-grandchild) Lucius Cassius Dio (/ˈkæʃəs ˈdaɪoʊ/; c. 155 – c. 235 AD)[note 1] or Dio Cassius (Ancient Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος Dion Kassios)[note 3] was a Roman statesman and historian of Greek and Roman origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subsequent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (27 BC), up until 229 AD. Written in Ancient Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of history. Many of his 80 books have survived intact, or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history. Contents 1 Biography 2 Roman History 3 Literary style 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Lucius Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator and member of the gens Cassia, who was born and raised at Nicaea in Bithynia. Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom; however, this relationship has been disputed. Lucius is often identified as Dio's praenomen, but a Macedonian inscription, published in 1970, reveals the abbreviation, "Cl.", presumably Claudius.[note 4] Although Dio was a Roman citizen, he wrote in Greek. Dio always maintained a love for his hometown of Nicaea, calling it "his home", as opposed to his description of his villa in Italy ("my residence in Italy").[citation needed] For the greater part of his life, Dio was a member of the public service. He was a senator[5] under Commodus and governor of Smyrna following the death of Septimius Severus; he became a suffect consul in approximately the year 205. Dio was also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. Following his second consulship, while in his later years, Dio returned to his native country, where he eventually died. Dio was either the grandfather or great-grandfather of Cassius Dio, consul in 291.[6] Roman History[edit] Dio published a Roman History (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία, Historia Romana), in 80 books, after twenty-two years of research and labour. The books cover a period of approximately 1,400 years, beginning with the tales from Roman mythology of the arrival of the legendary Aeneas in Italy (c. 1200 BC) and the founding of Rome by his descendant Romulus (753 BC); as well as the historic events of the republican and imperial eras through 229 AD. The work is one of only three written Roman sources that document the British revolt of AD 60–61 led by Boudica and the subsequent defeat of Boudica. Until the first century BC, Dio provides only a summary of events; after that period, his accounts become more detailed. From the time of Commodus (ruled AD 180–192), Dio is very circumspect in his conveyance of the events that he witnessed.[citation needed] The version of Dio's work that survives today is quite composite since his history does not survive in its entirety: The first 21 books have been partially reconstructed based on fragments from other works as well as the epitome of Zonaras who used Dio's Roman History as a main source. Scholarship on this part of Dio's work is scarce but the importance of the Early Republic and Regal period to Dio's overall work has recently been underlined.[7] Books 22 through 35 are sparsely covered by fragments. The books that follow, Books 36 through 54, are nearly all complete; they cover the period from 65 BC to 12 BC, or from the eastern campaign of Pompey and the death of Mithridates to the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Book 55 contains a considerable gap, while Books 56 through 60 (which cover the period from AD 9 through 54) are complete and contain events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the death of Claudius. Of the 20 subsequent books in the series, there remain only fragments and the meager abridgement of John Xiphilinus, a monk from the 11th century. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences with Book 35 and continues to the end of Book 80: it is a very indifferent performance[citation needed] and was made by order of the emperor Michael VII Doukas. The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus). Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim.[8][9] Recently, however, this Roman historian has received a thorough reevaluation and his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations have been highlighted.[10][11][7] The fragments of the first 36 books, as they have been collected, consist of four kinds: Fragmenta Valesiana: fragments that were dispersed throughout various writers, scholiasts, grammarians, and lexicographers, and were collected by Henri Valois. Fragmenta Peiresciana: large extracts, found in the section entitled "Of Virtues and Vices", contained in the collection, or portative library, compiled by order of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. The manuscript of this belonged to Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc. The fragments of the first 34 books, preserved in the second section of the same work by Constantine, entitled “Of Embassies.” These are known under the name of Fragmenta Ursiniana, as the manuscript in which they are contained was found in Sicily by Fulvio Orsini. Excerpta Vaticana by Angelo Mai: Contains fragments of books 1 to 35 and 61 to 80. Additionally, fragments of an unknown continuator of Dio (Anonymus post Dionem), generally identified with the 6th-century historian Peter the Patrician, are included; these date from the time of Constantine. Other fragments from Dio that are primarily associated with the first 34 books were found by Mai in two Vatican MSS.; these contain a collection that was compiled by Maximus Planudes. The annals of Joannes Zonaras also contain numerous extracts from Dio. Literary style[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Dio attempted to emulate Thucydides in his writing style. Dio's style, where there appears to be no corruption of the text, is generally clear though full of Latinisms. Dio's writing was underpinned by a set of personal circumstances whereby he was able to observe significant events of the Empire in the first person, or had direct contact with the key figures who were involved. See also[edit] Tacitus Severan dynasty Herodian Roman historiography Notes[edit] ^ According to some scholars, such as Millar (Millar, F., A study of Cassius Dio, Oxford 1966, p. 13), he was born later, in 163/164 AD[1] ^ Alain Gowing, who has edited Cassius Dio, argues that the evidence for Cocceianus is insufficient, and the ascription is a Byzantine confusion with Dio Chrysostom, whom Pliny shows to be named Cocceianus; he provides the previously unattested praenomen of Claudius. ^ Also known as Dion Kassios Kokkeianos (Ancient Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος Κοκκηϊανός),[2] Cassius Lucius Dio or Cassius Claudius Dio;[3] alleged to have the cognomen Cocceianus[4][note 2] ^ Gowing, who adopts it; Claudius, however, is usually a nomen. References[edit] ^ Millar, Fergus (1964). Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford University Press. p. 250. ISBN 0-19-814336-2. ^ Prof. Cary's Introduction at LacusCurtius ^ Gowing, Alain (January 1990), "Dio's Name", Classical Philology, 85 (1): 49–54, doi:10.1086/367176, JSTOR 269480, S2CID 161453524 ^ Dio's name: L'Année épigraphique 1971, 430 = Κλ΄ Κάσσιος Δίων. Roman Military Diplomas, Roxan, 133 = L. Cassius Dio. ^ Carter, John (1987). The Reign of Augustus. London: Penguin Books. pp. 1. ISBN 9780140444483. ^ Martindale, J. R.; Jones, A. H. M, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I AD 260-395, Cambridge University Press (1971), pg. 253 ^ a b Burden-Strevens, C. and Lindholmer, M. O. (2018). Burden-Strevens, Christopher; Lindholmer, Mads (eds.). Cassius Dio's Forgotten History of Early Rome. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004384552. ISBN 9789004384552.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Millar, Fergus (1964). A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Lintott, A. (1997). "Cassius Dio and the History of the Late Roman Republic". Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. 34 (3): 2497–2523. ^ Lange, Carsten Hjort Herausgeber Madsen, Jesper Majbom Herausgeber (2016). Cassius Dio Greek intellectual and Roman politician. Brill. ISBN 9789004335318. OCLC 964448138.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Valérie Fromentin, Estelle Bertrand, Michèle Coltelloni-Trannoy, Michel Molin, Gianpaolo Urso (eds.) (2016). Cassius Dion: nouvelles lectures. Bordeaux: Ausonius.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Further reading[edit] Aalders, G. J. D. 1986. "Cassius Dio and the Greek World." Mnemosyne 39: 282–304. Baltussen, Han. 2002. "Matricide Revisited: Dramatic and Rhetorical Allusion in Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio." Antichthon 36: 30–40. Burden-Strevens, C. and Lindholmer, M. O. 2018 (eds.). Cassius Dio's Forgotten History of Early Rome: The Roman History. Leiden: Brill. Eisman, M. M. 1977. "Dio and Josephus: Parallel Analyses." Latomus 36: 657–673. Fromentin, V., Bertrand, E. Coltelloni-Trannoy, M., Molin, M and Urso, G. (eds.) 2016. Cassius Dion: nouvelles lectures. Bordeaux: Ausonius. Gleason, Maud. 2011. "Identity Theft: Doubles and Masquerades in Cassius Dio's Contemporary History." Classical Antiquity 30.1: 33–86. Gowing, Alain M. 1990. "Dio’s Name." Classical Philology 85: 49–54. Kordos, Jozef. 2010. "Thucydidean Elements in Cassius Dio." Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 50.2-3:249-256. Lange, C. H. and Madsen, J. M. 2016 (eds.). Cassius Dio: Greek Intellectual and Roman Politician. Leiden: Brill. Mallan, C. T. 2013. "Cassius Dio on Julia Domna: A Study of the Political and Ethical Functions of Biographical Representation in Dio's Roman History." Mnemosyne 66.4-5: 734–760. McDougall, Iain. 1991. "Dio and His Sources for Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul." Latomus 50: 616–638. Millar, F. G. B. 1964. A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Murison, C. L. 1999. Rebellion and Reconstruction: Galba to Domitian: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History. Books 64–67 (A.D. 68–96). Atlanta: Scholars Press. Reinhold, Meyer. 1988. From Republic to Principate. An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History Books 49-52 (36-29 B.C.). Atlanta: Scholars Press. Swan, P.M. 2004. The Augustan Succession. An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History Books 55-56 (9 B.C.-A.D.14). Oxford: Oxford University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Cassius Dio Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Cassius Dio Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Cassius Dio at Wikimedia Commons "Dio Cassius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 278–279. Works written by or about Cassius Dio at Wikisource Works by Cassius Dio at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Cassius Dio at Internet Archive Cassius Dio, Roman History (English translation on LacusCurtius) Works by Cassius Dio at Perseus Digital Library Greek text and French Translation Dio Cassius: the Manuscripts of "The Roman History" Editio princeps: Dionis Romanarum historiarum libri XXIII, à XXXVI ad LVIII vsque (The Roman History), Greek text edited by Robert Estienne, Paris, 1548. Held by the Corning Museum of Glass. Editio princeps of Xiphilinus's Epitome (Robert Estienne, Paris, 1551) at Google Books Political offices Preceded by Uncertain Consul suffectus of the Roman Empire around 205 with uncertain Succeeded by Uncertain Preceded by Quintus Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus, Marcus Pomponius Maecius Probus Consul of the Roman Empire 229 with Alexander Severus Succeeded by Lucius Virius Agricola, Sextus Catius Clementinus Priscillianus Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassius_Dio&oldid=1024793811" Categories: Imperial Roman consuls Roman-era Greek historians Historians from Roman Anatolia 150s births 230s deaths 3rd-century historians 2nd-century Greek people 3rd-century Greek people 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans Cassii People from Nicaea Imperial Roman proconsuls Roman governors of Africa Roman governors of Pannonia Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Articles needing additional references from May 2021 All articles needing additional references Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 03:37 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Births and deaths=== On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the [[tribune|tribunician]] power and the ''[[imperium]]'' – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 103.</ref> The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.<ref>''Ad Marcum Caesarem'' 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 105.</ref> Domitia would die in 151.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 247 F.1.</ref> [[File:RomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Mausoleum of Hadrian]], where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried|alt=Mausoleum of Hadrian]] In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend ''temporum felicitas'', 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Mausoleum of Hadrian]], where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–07'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 206–207.</ref> Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.<ref>''Meditations'' ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 207.</ref> He quoted from the ''[[Iliad]]'' what he called the 'briefest and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear':<ref name="Meditations x pp. 78, 224">''Meditations'' x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224.</ref> <blockquote><poem> leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are the children of men.</poem> –&nbsp;''Iliad'' vi.146<ref name="Meditations x pp. 78, 224"/></blockquote> Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, [[Lucilla|Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla]]. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 107'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 107.</ref> Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, [[Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina]], might not have been born until 153.<ref>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', pp. 107–08.</ref> Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates ''fecunditati Augustae'', 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 108.</ref> By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.<ref>''Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes'' 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.<ref name='Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114'>Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', p. 114.</ref> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8072	----	Vibia Sabina - Wikipedia Vibia Sabina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman Empress to Roman Emperor Hadrian Augusta Vibia Sabina Augusta Statue of Vibia Sabina (Villa Adriana, Tivoli) Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 117 – 136/137 Born 13 August 83 Rome, Roman Empire Died 136/137 Spouse Hadrian Names Vibia Sabina Regnal name Vibia Sabina Augusta Father Lucius Vibius Sabinus Mother Salonia Matidia Bust of Vibia Sabina (Capitoline Museums, Rome) Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Vibia Sabina (83–136/137) was a Roman Empress, wife and second cousin once removed to the Roman Emperor Hadrian. She was the daughter of Matidia (niece of Roman Emperor Trajan) and suffect consul Lucius Vibius Sabinus. Contents 1 Early life 2 Empress 3 Death 4 See also 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Early life[edit] After her father's death in 84, Sabina, along with her half-sister Matidia Minor, went to live with their maternal grandmother, Marciana. They were raised in the household of Trajan and his wife Plotina. Sabina married Hadrian in 100, at the empress Plotina's request. Hadrian succeeded her great uncle in 117. Sabina's mother Matidia (Hadrian's second cousin) was also fond of Hadrian and allowed him to marry her daughter. Empress[edit] Sabina accumulated more public honors in Rome and the provinces than any imperial woman had enjoyed since the first empress, Augustus’ wife Livia. Indeed, Sabina is the first woman whose image features on a regular and continuous series of coins minted at Rome. She was the most traveled and visible empress to date.[1] In 128, she was awarded the title of Augusta. Coin of "Sabina Augusta", found in the Buddhist stupa of Ahin Posh, modern Afghanistan. Sabina is described in the poetry of Julia Balbilla, her companion, in a series of epigrams on the occasion of Hadrian's visit to Egypt in November of 130. In the poems, Balbilla refers to Sabina as "beautiful" and "lovely." The Historia Augusta reports that the historian Suetonius, who was Hadrian's secretary, was dismissed by Hadrian from his position in 119, for "conducting [himself] toward his wife, Sabina, in a more informal fashion than the etiquette of the court demanded."[2][3] Meanwhile, her husband was thought to be more sexually interested in his favourite Antinous and other male lovers, and he and Sabina had no children. Death[edit] Vibia Sabina died before her husband, some time in 136 or early 137.[4] There is a strong ancient tradition that Hadrian treated his wife little better than a slave, and may have driven her to suicide.[1] Hadrian's stone elegy for his wife "depicts the apotheosis, or divine ascent of Sabina in accordance with her posthumous deification on the order of Hadrian."[5] However other sources say he had great respect for her. See also[edit] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-died before 217), great-greatniece to Vibia Sabina Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ a b Brennan, Corey (2018). Sabina Augusta. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190250997. ^ Historia Augusta 11.3 ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Opper, Thorsten. Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, Harvard University Press, 2008, p. 205. ISBN 0-674-03095-8 ^ Annelise Freisenbruch, Caesars’ Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire (London and New York: Free Press, 2010), 170. Further reading[edit] (in French) L’Harmattan, La vie de Sabine, femme d’Hadrien, in Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, 2012, pp. 169–188. Brennan, Corey T., Sabina Augusta: An Imperial Journey, Oxford, 2018, ISBN 978-0190250997 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vibia Sabina. Coins of Sabina at Dirty Old Coins Royal titles Preceded by Pompeia Plotina Empress of Rome 117–136 Succeeded by Annia Galeria Faustina Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vibia_Sabina&oldid=1026805793" Categories: 83 births 130s deaths Roman empresses Vibii 1st-century Roman women 2nd-century Roman women Deified Roman people Hadrian Augustae Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano Latina Македонски Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 10:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8074	----	Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan) - Wikipedia Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman senator, general and governor This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Marcus Ulpius Traianus" father of Trajan – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Marcus Ulpius Traianus Bust of Marcus Ulpius Traianus at the National Museum of Serbia, Belgrade Born c. 29 AD Italica Died before 98 AD (aged around 69) Unknown Spouse Marcia Issue Trajan and Ulpia Marciana Father Unknown Mother Unknown Reverse of Roman aureus struck under Trajan, c. AD 115, commemorating the elder Marcus Ulpius Traianus after his deification. Marcus Ulpius Traianus (c. AD 29 – before 98) was a Roman senator who lived in the first century. He was father to the Roman Emperor Trajan. Contents 1 Family 2 Career 3 Legacy 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Works cited 7.3 General sources Family[edit] Traianus belonged to a family of the gens Ulpia, which originally came from the Umbrian city of Tuder, but he was born and raised in the Roman colony of Italica, north of modern Santiponce and northwest of Seville, in the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica.[1] The town was founded in 206 BC by Scipio Africanus, as a settlement for wounded and invalid veterans of the wars against Carthage.[1] The Ulpii, like the Aelii and the Traii, were among the leading Roman families of the city.[1] From the latter family came the ancestors of Traianus, who intermarried with the Ulpii, giving rise to the cognomen Traianus.[1] Since the father of Traianus joined the ranks of the patricians in Rome, it is very likely that his grandfather was already a member of the Roman Senate.[1] The ancestry of Traianus' mother is unknown. His sister Ulpia was the mother of Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, and grandmother of the emperor Hadrian. Traianus married a Roman noblewoman named Marcia.[2] She was the elder sister of Marcia Furnilla, the second wife of Titus, which enabled her to further her husband's career.[2] They had two children: a daughter, Ulpia Marciana, and a son, Marcus, the future emperor Trajan.[2] They were also the maternal grandparents of Salonina Matidia. Career[edit] The chronology of Traianus' career is uncertain. He may have taken his seat in the senate by the reign of Claudius.[2] In the time of Nero, he may have commanded a legion under the general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo; during the First Jewish-Roman War, from AD 67 to 68, he came into favour with the future emperor Vespasian, then governor of Judaea, under whom he commanded the Tenth Legion. After his accession to the Empire, Vespasian recognized Traianus' military successes by awarding him the governorship of Cappadocia, and naming him consul suffectus for the months of September and October in AD 72.[a] After his consulship, Tranjan served as governor of Syria from 73 to 74, then proconsul of Asia from 79 to 80. He was also governor of Hispania Baetica, but the time of this appointment is unknown.[5] During his time in Syria, Traianus prevented a Parthian invasion. Legacy[edit] Traianus lived out his final years in honor and distinction. Indirect evidence suggests that he may have died before his son became emperor in AD 98.[6] Around 100, his son founded a colony in North Africa, named Colonia Marciana Ulpia Trajana Thamugadi after his father; today the town is known as Timgad, in Algeria. In 113, the elder Traianus was deified by his son, and his titulature is Divus Traianus Pater.[citation needed] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Ulpia gens Notes[edit] ^ Gallivan dated Trajan's consulship to AD 70, based on his arrangement of the fragments of tablet 'E' of the Fasti Ostienses;[3] however, subsequent recovery of fragments allowed Vidman to date his tenure to the months of September and October of 72.[4] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Strobel 2010, p. 40. ^ a b c d Strobel 2010, p. 41. ^ Gallivan 1981, p. 187. ^ Vidman, Ladislav (1982). Fasti Ostienses (in Latin). Prague: Academia. pp. 73–75. OCLC 220156633. ^ Eck, Werner (1982). "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139". Chiron. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 12.1982 (12): 281–362. Retrieved 26 March 2020. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 20. Works cited[edit] Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2. Retrieved 26 March 2020. Gallivan, Paul (1981). "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96*". The Classical Quarterly. 31 (1): 186–220. doi:10.1017/S0009838800021194. ISSN 1471-6844. Retrieved 26 March 2020. Strobel, Karl (2010). Kaiser Traian: eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte (in German). Friedrich Pustet. ISBN 978-3-7917-2172-9. Retrieved 26 March 2020. General sources[edit] "Roman Emperors - DIR Trajan". Roman Emperors. Retrieved 26 March 2020. "Roman Emperors DIR Roman legions". Roman Emperors. Retrieved 26 March 2020. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Ulpius_Traianus_(father_of_Trajan)&oldid=1007738940" Categories: 20s births 1st-century deaths 1st-century Roman governors of Syria Ancient Roman politicians Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Ulpii Senators of the Roman Empire Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Asia Roman governors of Syria 1st-century Romans Romans from Hispania Deified Roman people Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from March 2020 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020 CS1 German-language sources (de) Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2021, at 17:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8076	----	Anthony Birley - Wikipedia Anthony Birley From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British ancient historian, archaeologist and academic (1937-2020) Anthony Richard Birley FSA Born (1937-10-08)8 October 1937 Chesterholm, Northumberland, England Died 19 December 2020(2020-12-19) (aged 83) Academic background Alma mater Magdalen College, Oxford Academic work Discipline Archaeology and classics Sub-discipline Roman archaeology Institutions University of Oxford University of Birmingham University of Leeds Victoria University of Manchester Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Vindolanda Trust Anthony Richard Birley FSA (8 October 1937 – 19 December 2020)[1] was a British ancient historian, archaeologist and academic. He was the son of Margaret Isabel (Goodlet) and historian and archaeologist Eric Birley. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Career 2 Selected publications 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Early life and education[edit] He was the son of the archaeologist Eric Birley, who bought the house next to Vindolanda where Anthony and his brother Robin began to excavate the site. They both took part in many of the excavations there. He was educated at Clifton College, an independent school in Bristol from 1950 to 1955. He studied classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, graduating with a first-class Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1960.[1] He remained at the University of Oxford, and completed his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in 1966: his doctoral thesis was titled "The Roman high command from the death of Hadrian to the death of Caracalla, with particular attention to the Danubian wars of M. Aurelius and Commodus".[2] Career[edit] Birley remained at the University of Oxford with a Craven Fellowship from 1960 to 1962, and was then a research fellow at the University of Birmingham.[1] He moved to the University of Leeds as a lecturer, and was later promoted to Reader.[3] He was the Professor of Ancient History at the Victoria University of Manchester (1974–1990) and additionally at University of Düsseldorf (1990–2002).[4] He was an Honorary Professor in the Department of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Durham.[3] He was elected as Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (FSA) in 1969,[5] and was a corresponding Member of the German Archaeological Institute (1981) and a member of Nordrhein-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften from 1994 to 2002.[3] Birley was a founder Trustee of the Vindolanda Trust since 1970 and remained in this role until 2016, having also served as the Chair of Trustees from 1996 to 2016.[1] Selected publications[edit] Hadrian's Wall: an illustrated guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) (1963). Imperial Rome with drawings by the artist. Alan Sorrell London: Lutterworth Press (1970) Life in Roman Britain (1972) Lives of the Later Caesars (1976) The Fasti of Roman Britain, Clarendon Press (1981) Septimius Severus: The African Emperor (1972, revised edition 1988) Roman Papers, vol. 6, by Ronald Syme, edited by A. R. Birley (Clarendon Press 1991) The People of Roman Britain (1992) Marcus Aurelius: a Biography, London: Routledge, (1993) Anatolica - Studies in Strabo, by Ronald Syme, edited by A. R. Birley (Oxford: OUP 1995) Vindolanda Research Reports (new series) 6 vols. (1996) Hadrian: the Restless Emperor, London: Routledge, (1997) Eques Romanus - Reiter und Ritter (in German) by Michel Stemmler, edited by A. R. Birley (Peter Lang GmbH, 1997) Onomasticon to the Younger Pliny, Clarendon Press (2000) Garrison Life at Vindolanda: a Band of Brothers, Stroud: Tempus, (2002) The Roman Government of Britain (2005) Agricola and Germany (2009) References[edit] ^ a b c d "Anthony Birley 1937-2020". Vindolanda Trust. 21 December 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2020. ^ Birley, Anthony (1966). "The Roman high command from the death of Hadrian to the death of Caracalla, with particular attention to the Danubian wars of M. Aurelius and Commodus". E-Thesis Online Service. The British Library Board. Retrieved 21 March 2021. ^ a b c "Prof. Anthony R. Birley FSA". University of Durham. Retrieved 21 December 2020. ^ "Anthony R. Birley". Institute of Advanced Studies. Retrieved 21 December 2020. ^ "Prof Anthony Birley". Society of Antiquaries of London. Retrieved 21 January 2021. External links[edit] Entry on Birley family genealogy v t e The Birley family tree This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Richard Birley (1743–1812) Hugh Hornby Birley (1778–1845) Joseph Birley (1782–1847) Joseph Hornby Birley (1827 - 1881) Thomas Hornby Birley (1815–1885) Hugh Birley (1817–1883) Herbert Birley (1821–1890) Arthur Birley (1834–1912) Hugh Francis Birley (1855–1916) Francis Birley (1850–1910) Caroline Birley (1851–1907) Joseph Harold Birley (1870–1940) Leonard Birley (1875–????) Oswald Birley (1880–1952) Rhoda Pike (1899-1980) Eric Birley (1909–1995) Robert Birley (1903–1981) Maxime de la Falaise (1922–2009) Mark Birley (1930–2007) Annabel Goldsmith (b. 1934) Patricia Birley (b. 1948) Robin Edgar Birley (1935–2018) Anthony Birley (1937–2020) Loulou de la Falaise (1948-2011) Lucy Ferry (1959–2018) Robin Birley (b. 1958) India Jane Birley (b. 1961) Patrick Birley (b. 1965) Andrew Birley (b. 1974) Notes: Family tree of the Birley family Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Birley&oldid=1026679047" Categories: 1937 births 2020 deaths British people of English descent People educated at Clifton College Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester British archaeologists University of Düsseldorf faculty Birley family Scholars of Hadrian's Wall Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London British classical scholars Deaths from lung cancer Deaths from cancer in the United Kingdom Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2019 Articles with hCards Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano Nederlands Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 17:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8093	----	Glossary of Stoicism terms - Wikipedia Glossary of Stoicism terms From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Glossary of Stoic terms) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia glossary This is a glossary of terms which are commonly found in Stoic philosophy. Contents:  A D E H K L N O P S T A[edit] adiaphora ἀδιάφορα: indifferent things, neither good nor bad. agathos ἀγαθός: good, proper object of desire. anthrôpos ἄνθρωπος: human being, used by Epictetus to express an ethical ideal. apatheia ἀπάθεια: serenity, peace of mind, such as that achieved by the Stoic sage. aphormê ἀφορμή: aversion, impulse not to act (as a result of ekklisis). Opposite of hormê. apoproêgmena ἀποπροηγμένα: dispreferred things. Morally indifferent but naturally undesirable things, such as illness. Opposite of proêgmena. aretê ἀρετή: Virtue. Goodness and human excellence. askêsis ἄσκησις: disciplined training designed to achieve virtue. ataraxia ἀταραξία: tranquillity, untroubled by external things. autarkeia αὐτάρκεια: self-sufficiency, mental independence of all things. D[edit] daimôn δαίμων: divine spirit within humans. diairesis διαίρεσις: analysis, division into parts. Used when distinguishing what is subject to our power of choice from what is not. dikaiosyne δικαιοσύνε: justice, "consonant with the law and instrumental to a sense of duty" (Diogenes Laertius 7.98). One of the four virtues (justice, courage, temperance, wisdom/prudence). dogma δόγμα: principle established by reason and experience. doxa δόξα: belief, opinion. E[edit] ekklisis ἔκκλισις: aversion, inclination away from a thing. Opposite of orexis. ekpyrôsis ἐκπύρωσις: cyclical conflagration of the Universe. eph' hêmin ἐφ' ἡμῖν: up to us, what is in our power, e.g. the correct use of impressions. epistêmê ἐπιστήμη: certain and true knowledge, over and above that of katalêpsis. eudaimonia εὐδαιμονία: happiness, well-being. eupatheia εὐπάθεια: good feeling (as contrasted with pathos), occurring in the Stoic sage who performs correct (virtuous) judgements and actions. H[edit] hêgemonikon ἡγεμονικόν: ruling faculty of the mind. heimarmenê εἱμαρμένη: fate, destiny. hormê ὁρμή: positive impulse or appetite towards an object (as a result of orexis). Opposite of aphormê. hylê ὕλη: matter, material. K[edit] kalos κάλος: beautiful. Sometimes used in a moral sense: honourable, virtuous. katalêpsis κατάληψις: clear comprehension and conviction. kathêkon καθῆκον: duty, appropriate action on the path to Virtue. kosmos κόσμος: order, world, universe. L[edit] logikos λογικός: rational. logos λόγος: reason, explanation, word, argument. Also, the ordering principle in the kosmos. logos spermatikos λόγος σπερματικός: the generative principle of the Universe which creates and takes back all things. N[edit] nomos νόμος: law, custom. O[edit] oiêsis οἴησις: opinion, usually arrogant or self-conceited. oikeiôsis οἰκείωσις: self-ownership and extension. The process of self-awareness in all animals, which in humans leads to a sense of community. orexis ὄρεξις: desire, inclination towards a thing, Opposite of ekklisis. ousia οὐσία: substance, being. P[edit] paideia παιδεία: training, education. palingenesia παλιγγενεσία: periodic renewal of the world associated with ekpyrôsis. pathos πάθος: passion or emotion, often excessive and based on false judgements. phantasiai φαντασία: impression, appearance, the way in which something is perceived. physis φύσις: nature. pneuma πνεῦμα: air, breath, spirit, often as a principle in Stoic physics. proêgmena προηγμένα: preferred things. Morally indifferent but naturally desirable things, such as health. Opposite of apoproêgmena. proficiens Latin for prokoptôn pro(h)airesis προαίρεσις: free will, reasoned choice, giving or withholding assent to impressions. prokopê προκοπή: progress, on the path towards wisdom. prokoptôn προκόπτων: Stoic disciple. A person making progress. Even though one has not obtained the wisdom of a sage; when appropriate actions are increasingly chosen, fewer and fewer mistakes will be made, and one will be Prokoptôn, making progress. prolêpsis πρόληψις: preconception possessed by all rational beings. prosochē προσοχή: attitude and practice of attention, mindfulness. State of continuous, vigilant, and unrelenting attentiveness to oneself (prohairesis) psychê ψυχή: mind, soul, life, living principle. S[edit] sophos σοφός: wise person, virtuous sage, and the ethical ideal. synkatathesis (sunkatathesis) συγκατάθεσις: assent, approval to impressions, enabling action to take place. sympatheia συμπάθεια: sympathy, affinity of parts to the organic whole, mutual interdependence. T[edit] technê τέχνη: craft, art. The practical application of knowledge, especially epistêmê. telos τέλος: goal or objective of life. theôrêma θεώρημα: general principle or perception. theos θεός: god; associated with the order in the Universe. tonos τόνος: tension, a principle in Stoic physics causing attraction and repulsion, and also the cause of virtue and vice in the soul. References[edit] Devettere, R., Glossary, in Introduction to Virtue Ethics: Insights of the Ancient Greeks, pages 139–154. Georgetown University Press. (2002). Haines, C., Glossary of Greek terms, in Marcus Aurelius, pages 411–416. Loeb Classical Library. (1916). Inwood, B., Gerson L., Glossary, in Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings, pages 399–409. Hackett Publishing. (1997). Long, A. A., Glossary, in A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life, pages 275–276. Oxford University Press. (2002) Schofield, M., Index and Glossary of Greek terms, in The Stoic Idea of the City, pages 171–172. Cambridge University Press. (1991). v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms&oldid=998525077" Categories: Philosophy-related glossaries Stoicism Greek words and phrases Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 19:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8104	----	Theodosius I - Wikipedia Theodosius I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 379 to 395 For other uses, see Theodosius I (disambiguation). Roman emperor Theodosius I Solidus depicting Theodosius, marked: d n theodosius p f aug ("Our Lord Theodosius, pious, fortunate, august") Roman emperor Augustus 19 January 379 – 17 January 395 Predecessor Valens Successor Arcadius (East) Honorius (West) Co-rulers Gratian (379–383) Valentinian II (379–392) Magnus Maximus (383–388) Victor (384–388) Eugenius (392–394) Born 11 January 347 Cauca (Coca, Spain) Died 17 January 395 (aged 48) Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople (Istanbul) Spouse Aelia Flaccilla (376–386) Galla (387–394) Issue more... Arcadius Honorius Galla Placidia Names Flavius Theodosius Dynasty Theodosian Father Count Theodosius Mother Thermantia Religion Nicene Christianity Theodosius I (Greek: Θεοδόσιος Theodósios; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also called Theodosius the Great, was Roman emperor from 379 to 395. During his reign, he faced and overcame a war against the Goths and two civil wars, and was key in establishing the creed of Nicaea as the universal orthodoxy for Christianity. Theodosius was also the last to unite the whole Roman Empire under his rule before its administration was permanently split between two separate western and eastern courts.[1] A native of Hispania, Theodosius was the son of a top-ranking general, count Theodosius, on whose staff the count served in several military campaigns. In the 370s the younger Theodosius received an independent military command in the Balkans, where he repelled several incursions by the Sarmatians. Between 375 and 377, he went into retirement and his father was executed under obscure circumstances, but the emperor Gratian recalled Theodosius with full honors shortly afterwards and gave him further promotions. In 379, after the eastern Roman emperor Valens perished at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths, Gratian appointed Theodosius to succeed him and take charge of the military emergency. The new emperor's resources and depleted armies were not sufficient to drive the invaders out, and, in 382, the Goths were allowed to settle south of the Danube as autonomous allies of the Empire. In 386, Theodosius signed a treaty with the Sasanian Empire, which partitioned the long-disputed Kingdom of Armenia and secured a durable peace between the two powers.[2] Theodosius was a strong adherent of the Christian doctrine of consubstantiality and an opponent of Arianism. He convened a council of bishops at Constantinople in 381 which confirmed the former as the orthodoxy and the latter as a heresy. Although Theodosius interfered little in the functioning of traditional pagan cults and appointed non-Christians to high offices, he failed to prevent or punish the damaging of several Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, such as the Serapeum of Alexandria, by Christian zealots. During his earlier reign, Theodosius ruled the eastern provinces, while the west was overseen by the emperors Gratian and Valentinian II, whose sister he married. Theodosius sponsored several measures to improve his capital and main residence, Constantinople, most notably his expansion of the Forum Tauri, which became the biggest public square known in antiquity.[3] Theodosius marched west twice, in 388 and 394, after both Gratian and Valentinian had been killed, to defeat the two pretenders that rose to replace them, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius. Theodosius's final victory in September 394 made him master of the Empire; he died a few months later and was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius in the eastern half of the empire and Honorius in the west. Theodosius was said to have been a diligent administrator, austere in his habits, merciful, and a devout Christian.[4][5] For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. Modern scholars tend to see this as an interpretation of history by Christian writers more than an accurate representation of actual history. He is fairly credited with presiding over a revival in classical art that some historians have termed a "Theodosian renaissance".[6] Although his pacification of the Goths secured peace for the Empire during his lifetime, their status as an autonomous entity within Roman borders caused problems for succeeding emperors. Theodosius has also received criticism for defending his own dynastic interests at the cost of two civil wars.[7] His two sons proved weak and incapable rulers, and they presided over a period of foreign invasions and court intrigues which heavily weakened the Empire. The descendants of Theodosius ruled the Roman world for the next six decades, and the east–west division endured until the fall of the Western Empire in the late 5th century. Contents 1 Background and career 2 Accession 3 Reign 3.1 Early reign: 379–383 3.1.1 Temporary settlement of the Gothic Wars 3.2 383–384 3.3 Middle reign: 384–387 3.4 Civil war: 387–388 3.5 Massacre and its aftermath: 388–391 3.5.1 Sources 3.5.2 Theodosius' role 3.5.3 Aftermath 3.6 Second civil war: 392–394 4 Death 5 Art patronage 6 Religious policy 6.1 Arianism and orthodoxy 6.2 Policy towards paganism 6.2.1 Temple destruction 6.2.2 Theodosian decrees 6.2.3 End of paganism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Background and career[edit] Flavius Theodosius[i] was born at Cauca in northwestern Hispania (modern Coca, Segovia, Spain)[ii] on 11 January of probably 347.[11] His family owned land in the area and probably had roots there, but little evidence suggests they belonged to the local landed aristocracy.[12] The future emperor's father was count Theodosius, a senior general under the Roman emperor Valentinian I, and his mother was called Thermantia. As a soldier's son, Theodosius was legally obliged to follow a military career as well.[13] Theodosius accompanied his father on his 368–369 campaign to suppress the "Great Conspiracy" and the rebel Valentinus in Roman Britain.[14][10] Father and son also campaigned together against the Alamanni in 370 and the Sarmatians in 372–373.[15] Around 373 or 374, the younger Theodosius was appointed commander of the troops (dux) in the province of Moesia Prima.[16] Theodosius is reported to have defended his province with marked ability and success,[17] beating back an incursion of Sarmatians in the autumn of 374.[15] Around 375, the younger Theodosius was suddenly forced, under obscure circumstances, into retirement back to his estates in Hispania. His father also fell from power, and was executed. Although some sources imply that the son's retirement was the natural consequence of his father's execution, forced upon him by his father's enemies at the imperial court, the chronology of events is unclear, and scholars dispute whether Theodosius the elder was eliminated before or after the emperor Valentinian I's death in November 375.[18][19] Some accounts attribute both the father's execution and the son's retirement to the machinations of Valentinian I's praetorian prefect, Maximinus. Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests Theodosius the younger was removed from his Danube command so he would not interfere in the elevation of the 4-year-old Valentinian II to the purple by a cabal of top officers.[20] Woods thinks the younger Theodosius was in fact cashiered by Valentinian I because he was blamed for the defeat of a stray Moesian legion by a band of Sarmatians in nearby Pannonia Valeria in 374, and that the Emperor executed the elder Theodosius for intervening in his son's favor.[13] During his political seclusion, Theodosius married a fellow native of Hispania, Aelia Flaccilla, probably in 376.[19] Their first child, Arcadius, was born around 377.[10] Pulcheria, their daughter, was born in 377 or 378.[10] Theodosius had returned to the Danube frontier by 378, when he was appointed magister equitum.[10] Accession[edit] After the death of his uncle Valens (r. 364–378), Gratian, now the senior emperor, sought a candidate to nominate as Valens's successor. On 19 January 379, Theodosius I was made joint emperor (augustus) over the eastern provinces at Sirmium.[10][21] His wife, Aelia Flaccilla, was accordingly raised to augusta.[10] The new augustus's territory spanned the Roman praetorian prefecture of the East, including the Roman diocese of Thrace, and the additional dioceses of Dacia and of Macedonia. Theodosius the Elder, who had died in 375, was then deified as: Divus Theodosius Pater, lit. 'the Divine Father Theodosius'.[10] The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395, under Theodosius I. Reign[edit] Solidus of Valentinian II showing Valentinian II and Theodosius I on the reverse, each holding a mappa Early reign: 379–383[edit] In October 379 the Council of Antioch was convened.[10] On 27 February 380 Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica, making Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire.[10] In 380, Theodosius was made Roman consul for the first time and Gratian for the fifth; in September the augusti Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that of Macedonia to Valentinian II.[21][10] In autumn Theodosius fell ill, and was baptized.[10] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius arrived at Constantinople and staged an adventus, a ritual entry to the capital, on 24 November 380.[10] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Athanaric, king of the Gothic Thervingi came to Constantinople, arrived on the 11th of January, and died there; he was buried in Constantinople on 25 January.[10] Zosimus records that, in mid-May, Theodosius won a victory over the Carpi and the Scirii in summer 381.[10] On 21 February 382, the body of Theodosius's father–in–law Valentinian the Great was finally laid to rest in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[10] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, a treaty of foedus was reached with the Goths, and they were settled between the Danube and the Balkan Mountains.[10] Head found near statue base dedicated to Theodosius,[22] in the ancient city of Aphrodisias (Aydın, Turkey) Theodosius I was based in Constantinople, and according to Peter Heather, wanted, "for his own dynastic reasons (for his two sons each eventually to inherit half of the empire), refused to appoint a recognized counterpart in the west. As a result he was faced with rumbling discontent there, as well as dangerous usurpers, who found plentiful support among the bureaucrats and military officers who felt they were not getting a fair share of the imperial cake."[23] Temporary settlement of the Gothic Wars[edit] The Goths and their allies (Vandals, Taifals, Bastarnae and the native Carpians) entrenched in the provinces of Dacia and eastern Pannonia Inferior consumed Theodosius's attention. The Gothic crisis was so dire that his co-Emperor Gratian relinquished control of the Illyrian provinces and retired to Trier in Gaul to let Theodosius operate without hindrance. It did not help that Theodosius himself was dangerously ill during many months after his elevation, being confined to his bed in Thessalonica during much of 379.[24] Gratian suppressed the incursions into the dioceses of Illyria (Pannonia and Dalmatia) by the Goths Alathaeus and Saphrax in 380.[25] He succeeded in convincing both to agree to a treaty and be settled in Pannonia.[26] Theodosius was able finally to enter Constantinople in November 380, after two seasons in the field, having ultimately prevailed by offering highly favorable terms to the Gothic chiefs.[25] His task was rendered much easier when Athanaric, an aged and cautious leader, accepted Theodosius's invitation to a conference in the capital, Constantinople, and the splendor of the imperial city reportedly awed him and his fellow-chiefs into accepting Theodosius' offers.[27] Athanaric himself died soon after, but his followers were impressed by the honorable funeral arranged for him by Theodosius, and agreed to defending the border of the empire.[27] The final treaties with the remaining Gothic forces, signed 3 October 382, permitted large contingents of barbarians, primarily Thervingian Goths, to settle in Thrace south of the Danube frontier.[28] The Goths now settled within the Empire would largely fight for the Romans as a national contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces.[28] Roman provinces along the Ister (Danube), showing the Roman dioceses of Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia and Italia Annonaria on the empire's northern frontier 383–384[edit] Solidus of Theodosius, showing both he and his co-emperor Valentinian II (r. 375–392) enthroned on the reverse, each crowned by Victory and together holding an orb victoria augg ("the Victory of the Augusti") According to the Chronicon Paschale, Theodosius celebrated his quinquennalia on 19 January 383 at Constantinople; on this occasion he raised his eldest son Arcadius to co-emperor (augustus).[10] Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.[21] Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta, whose father was a consularis of Roman Syria.[29] Early 383 saw the acclamation of Magnus Maximus as emperor in Britain and the appointment of Themistius as praefectus urbi in Constantinople.[10] On the 25 August 383, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Gratian was killed at Lugdunum (Lyon) by Andragathius, the magister equitum of the rebel emperor during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus .[21] Constantia's body arrived in Constantinople on 12 September that year and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 1 December.[21] Gratian was deified as Latin: Divus Gratianus, lit. 'the Divine Gratian'.[21] Theodosius, unable to do much about Maximus due to ongoing military inadequacy, opened negotiations with the Persian emperor Shapur III (r. 383–388) of the Sasanian Empire.[30] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius received in Constantinople an embassy from them in 384.[10] In an attempt to curb Maximus's ambitions, Theodosius appointed Flavius Neoterius as praetorian prefect of Italy.[31] In the summer of 384, Theodosius met his co-emperor Valentinian II in northern Italy.[32][10] Theodosius brokered a peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus which endured for several years.[33] Middle reign: 384–387[edit] Theodosius's second son Honorius was born on 9 December 384 and titled nobilissimus puer (or nobilissimus iuvenis).[10] The death of Aelia Flaccilla, Theodosius's first wife and the mother of Arcadius, Honorius, and Pulcheria, occurred by 386.[10] She died at Scotumis in Thrace and was buried at Constantinople, her funeral oration delivered by Gregory of Nyssa.[10][34] A statue of her was dedicated in the Byzantine Senate.[34] In 384 or 385, Theodosius's niece Serena was married to the magister militum, Stilicho.[10] In the beginning of 386, Theodosius's daughter Pulcheria also died.[10] That summer more Goths were defeated, and many were settled in Phrygia.[10] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, a Roman triumph over the Gothic Greuthungi was then celebrated at Constantinople.[10] The same year, work began on the great triumphal column in the Forum of Theodosius in Constantinople, the Column of Theodosius.[10] On 19 January 387, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Arcadius celebrated his quinquennalia in Constantinople.[10] By the end of the month, there was an uprising or riot in Antioch (Antakya).[10] With a peace agreement with Persia in the Roman–Persian Wars came a division of Armenia.[10] By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in Milan and northern Italy had settled down to a period of prosperity.[35] Peter Brown says gold was being made in Milan by those who owned land as well as by those who came with the court for government service.[35] Great landowners took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in. According to Brown, modern scholars link the decline of the Roman empire to the avarice of the rich of this era. He quotes Paulinus of Milan as describing these men as creating a court where "everything was up for sale".[36] In the late 380s, Ambrose, the bishop of Milan took the lead in opposing this, presenting the need for the rich to care for the poor as "a necessary consequence of the unity of all Christians".[37] This led to a major development in the political culture of the day called the “advocacy revolution of the later Roman empire".[38] This revolution had been fostered by the imperial government, and it encouraged appeals and denunciations of bad government from below. However, Brown adds that, "in the crucial area of taxation and the treatment of fiscal debtors, the late Roman state [of the 380s and 390s] remained impervious to Christianity".[39] Civil war: 387–388[edit] The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 387, and Valentinian escaped the west with Justina, reaching Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in summer or autumn 387 and appealing to Theodosius for aid; Valentinian II's sister Galla was then married to the eastern emperor at Thessalonica in late autumn.[32][10] Theodosius may still have been in Thessalonica when he celebrated his decennalia on 19 January 388.[10] Theodosius was consul for the second time in 388.[10] Galla and Theodosius's first child, a son named Gratian, was born in 388 or 389.[10] In summer 388, Theodosius recovered Italy from Magnus Maximus for Valentinian, and in June, the meeting of Christians deemed heretics was banned by Valentinian.[32][10] The armies of Theodosius and Maximus fought at the Battle of Poetovio in 388, which saw Maximus defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed.[40] Now the de facto ruler of the Western empire as well, Theodosius celebrated his victory in Rome on June 13, 389 and stayed in Milan until 391, installing his own loyalists in senior positions including the new magister militum of the West, the Frankish general Arbogast.[40] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Arbogast killed Flavius Victor (r. 384–388), Magnus Maximus's young son and co-emperor, in Gaul in August/September that year. Damnatio memoriae was pronounced against them, and inscriptions naming them were erased.[10] Massacre and its aftermath: 388–391[edit] Main article: Massacre of Thessalonica Massacre in the Hippodrome of Thessaloniki in 390, 16th-century wood engraving The Massacre of Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in Greece was a massacre of local civilians by Roman troops. The best estimate of the date is April of 390.[41]:fn.1, 215 The massacre was most likely a response to an urban riot that led to the murder of a Roman official. What most scholars, such as philosopher Stanislav Doleźal, see as the most reliable of the sources is the Historia ecclesiastica written by Sozomen about 442; in it Sozomen supplies the identify of the murdered Roman official as Butheric, the commanding general of the field army in Illyricum (magister militum per Illyricum).[42]:91 According to Sozomen, a popular charioteer tried to rape a cup-bearer, (or possibly Butheric himself), and in response, Butheric arrested and jailed the charioteer.[42]:93,94[43] The populace demanded the chariot racer's release, and when Butheric refused, a general revolt rose up costing Butheric his life.[41]:216,217 Doležal says the name "Butheric" indicates he might have been a Goth, and that the general's ethnicity "could have been" a factor in the riot, but none of the early sources actually say so.[42]:92;96 Sources[edit] There are no contemporaneous accounts. It wasn't until the fifth-century that church historians Sozomen, Theodoret the bishop of Cyrrhus, Socrates of Constantinople and Rufinus wrote the earliest accounts. These are moral accounts emphasizing imperial piety and ecclesial action rather than historical and political details.[41]:215,218[44]:223 Further difficulty is created by these events moving into legend in art and literature almost immediately.[45]:251 Doležal explains that yet another problem is created by aspects of these accounts contradicting one another to the point of being mutually exclusive.[41]:216 Nonetheless, most classicists accept at least the basic account of the massacre, although they continue to dispute when it happened, who was responsible for it, what motivated it, and what impact it had on subsequent events.[46] Theodosius' role[edit] Anthonis Van Dyke's 1619 painting of St. Ambrose blocking the cathedral door, refusing Theodosius' admittance. Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral. Theodosius was not in Thessalonica when the massacre occurred. The court was in Milan.[41]:223 Several scholars, such as historian G. W. Bowersock and authors Stephen Williams and Gerard Friell, think that Theodosius ordered the massacre in an excess of "volcanic anger".[47] McLynn also puts all the blame on the Emperor[42]:103 as does the less dependable fifth century historian, Theodoret.[48] Other scholars, such as historians Mark Hebblewhite and N. Q. King, do not agree.[49][50] Peter Brown, points to the empire's established process of decision making, which required the emperor "to listen to his ministers" before acting.[51]:111 There is some indication Theodosius did listen to his counselors but received bad or misleading advice.[42]:95–98 J. F. Matthews argues that the Emperor first tried to punish the city by selective executions. Peter Brown concurs: "As it was, what was probably planned as a selective killing ... got out of hand".[52]:202–206[51]:110 Doleźal says Sozomen is very specific in saying that in response to the riot, the soldiers made random arrests in the hippodrome to perform a few public executions as a demonstration of imperial disfavor, but the citizenry objected. Doleźal suggests, "The soldiers, realizing that they were surrounded by angry citizens, perhaps panicked ... and ...forcibly cleared the hippodrome at the cost of several thousands of lives of local inhabitants".[42]:103;104 McLynn says Theodosius was “unable to impose discipline upon the faraway troops" and covered that failure by taking responsibility for the massacre on himself, declaring he had given the order then countermanded it too late to stop it.[42]:102–104 Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and one of Theodosius' many counselors, was away from court. After being informed of events concerning Thessalonica, he wrote Theodosius a letter offering what McLynn calls a different way for the emperor to "save face" and restore his public image.[53]:262 Ambrose urges a semi-public demonstration of penitence, telling the emperor he will not give Theodosius communion until this is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion".[53]:262–263 Washburn says the image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral in Milan blocking Theodosius from entering is a product of the imagination of Theodoret who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record".[54][41]:215 Peter Brown also says there was no dramatic encounter at the church door.[51]:111 McLynn states that "the encounter at the church door has long been known as a pious fiction".[55][56] Wolfe Liebeschuetz says Ambrose advocated a course of action which avoided the kind of public humiliation Theodoret describes, and that is the course Theodosius chose.[53]:262 Aftermath[edit] According to the early twentieth century historian Henry Smith Williams, history's assessment of Theodosius' character has been stained by the massacre of Thessalonica for centuries. Williams describes Theodosius as a virtuous-minded, courageous man, who was vigorous in pursuit of any important goal, but through contrasting the "inhuman massacre of the people of Thessalonica" with "the generous pardon of the citizens of Antioch" after civil war, Williams also concludes Theodosius was "hasty and choleric".[57] It is only modern scholarship that has begun disputing Theodosius' responsibility for those events. From the time Edward Gibbon wrote his Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ambrose' action after the fact has been cited as an example of the church's dominance over the state in Antiquity.[58] Alan Cameron says "the assumption is so widespread it would be superfluous to cite authorities. But there is not a shred of evidence for Ambrose exerting any such influence over Theodosius".[59] Brown says Ambrose was just one among many advisors, and Cameron says there is no evidence Theodosius favored him above anyone else.[60] By the time of the Thessalonican affair, Ambrose, an aristocrat and former governor, had been a bishop for 16 years, and during his episcopate, had seen the death of three emperors before Theodosius. These produced significant political storms, yet Ambrose held his place using what McLynn calls his "considerable qualities [and] considerable luck" to survive.[61] Theodosius was in his 40s, had been emperor for 11 years, had temporarily settled the Gothic wars, and won a civil war. As a Latin speaking Nicene western leader of the Greek largely Arian East, Boniface Ramsey says he had already left an indelible mark on history.[62]:12 McLynn asserts that the relationship between Theodosius and Ambrose transformed into myth within a generation of their deaths. He also observes that the documents revealing the relationship between these two formidable men do not show the personal friendship the legends portray. Instead, those documents read more as negotiations between the institutions the men represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church.[63] Second civil war: 392–394[edit] In 391, Theodosius left his trusted general Arbogast, who had served in the Balkans after Adrianople, to be magister militum for the Western emperor Valentinian II, while Theodosius attempted to rule the entire empire from Constantinople.[64][65] On 15 May 392, Valentinian II died at Vienna in Gaul (Vienne), either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast.[32] Valentinian had quarrelled publicly with Arbogast, and was found hanged in his room.[66]:129 Arbogast announced that this had been a suicide.[66]:129 Stephen Williams asserts that Valentinian's death left Arbogast in "an untenable position".[66] He had to carry on governing without the ability to issue edicts and rescripts from a legitimate acclaimed emperor. Arbogast was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background.[67] Instead, on 22 August 392, Arbogast had Valentinian's master of correspondence, Eugenius, proclaimed emperor in the West at Lugdunum.[10][66]:129 At least two embassies went to Theodosius to explain events, one of them Christian in make-up, but they received ambivalent replies, and were sent home without achieving their goals.[66]:129 Theodosius raised his second son Honorius to emperor on 23 January 393, implying the illegality of Eugenius' rule.[10][67] Williams and Friell say that by the spring of 393, the split was complete, and "in April Arbogast and Eugenius at last moved into Italy without resistance".[66]:129 Flavianus, the praetorian prefect of Italy whom Theodosius had appointed, defected to their side. Through early 394, both sides prepared for war.[66]:130 Theodosius gathered a large army, including the Goths whom he had settled in the eastern empire as foederati, and Caucasian and Saracen auxiliaries, and marched against Eugenius.[68] The battle began on 5 September 394, with Theodosius' full frontal assault on Eugenius's forces.[69] Thousands of Goths died, and in Theodosius's camp, the loss of the day decreased morale.[70] It is said by Theodoret that Theodosius was visited by two "heavenly riders all in white" who gave him courage.[69] The next day, the extremely bloody battle began again and Theodosius's forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the Bora, which can produce hurricane-strength winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of Eugenius and disrupted the line.[69] Eugenius's camp was stormed; Eugenius was captured and soon after executed.[71] According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus (the Vipava) on 6 September 394.[10] On 8 September, Arbogast killed himself.[10] According to Socrates, on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum and a victory celebration was held there.[10] Zosimus records that, at the end of April 394, Theodosius's wife Galla had died while he was away at war.[10] A number of Christian sources report that Eugenius cultivated the support of the pagan senators by promising to restore the altar of Victory and provide public funds for the maintenance of cults, if they would support him, and if he won the coming war against Theodosius.[66]:130 Cameron notes that the ultimate source for this is Ambrose's biographer Paulinus the Deacon, whom he argues fabricated the entire narrative and deserves no credence.[72][73] Historian Michele Renee Salzman explains that "two newly relevant texts — John Chrysoston's Homily 6, adversus Catharos (PG 63: 491-92) and the Consultationes Zacchei et Apollonii, re-dated to the 390s, reinforces the view that religion was not the key ideological element in the events at the time".[74] According to Maijastina Kahlos, Finnish historian and Docent of Latin language and Roman literature at the University of Helsinki, the notion of pagan aristocrats united in a "heroic and cultured resistance" who rose up against the ruthless advance of Christianity in a final battle near Frigidus in 394, is a romantic myth.[75] Death[edit] Theodosius suffered from a disease involving severe edema, in Milan.[76] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius died in Mediolanum on 17 January 395.[10] His funeral was held there on 25 February.[10] Ambrose delivered a panegyric titled De obitu Theodosii in the presence Stilicho and Honorius in which Ambrose praised the suppression of paganism by Theodosius.[76] His body transferred to Constantinople, where according to the Chronicon Paschale he was buried on 8 November 395 in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[10] He was deified as: Divus Theodosius, lit. 'the Divine Theodosius'.[10] He was interred in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his work De Ceremoniis.[77] Art patronage[edit] Missorium of Theodosius, found in 1847 in Almendralejo, Spain Hippodrome Constantinople 2007 003 The Obelisk of Theodosius, details of the base of the Obelisk of Thutmose III, Hippodrome, Istanbul (8370192180) According to art historian David Wright, art of the era around the year 400 reflects optimism amongst the traditional polytheists.[78] :355 This is likely connected to what Ine Jacobs calls a renaissance of classical styles of art in the Theodosian period (AD 379- 45) often referred to in modern scholarship as the Theodosian renaissance.[79] The Forum Tauri in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated as the Forum of Theodosius, including a column and a triumphal arch in his honour.[80]:535 The missorium of Theodosius, the city of Aprodisias' statue of the emperor, the base of the obelisk of Theodosius, the columns of Theodosius and Arcadius, and the dyptich of Probus were all commissioned by the court and reflect a similar renaissance of classicism.[80]:535 According to Armin Wirsching, two obelisks were shipped by the Romans from Karnak to Alexandria in 13/12 BC.[81] In 357, Constantuis II had one (that became known as the Lateran obelisk) shipped to Rome. Wirsching says the Romans had previously watched and learned from the Egyptians how to transport such large heavy objects, so they constructed "a special sea‐going version of the Nile vessels ... – a double‐ship with three hulls".[81] In 390, Theodosius oversaw the removal of the other to Constantinople.[82] The obelisk with its sculpted base in the former Hippodrome of Constantinople is well known as a rare datable work of Late Antique art. A sixth-century source puts the raising of the obelisk in the year 390, and Greek and Latin epigrams on the plinth (the lower part of the base) credit Theodosius I and the urban prefect Proclus with this feat.[83] Linda Safran says that relocating the obelisk was motivated by Theodosius' victory over "the tyrants" (most likely Maximus Magnus and his son Victor).[83]:410 It is now known as the obelisk of Theodosius and still stands in the Hippodrome of Constantinople,[82] the long Roman circus that was, at one time, the centre of Constantinople's public life. Re-erecting the monolith was a challenge for the technology that had been honed in the construction of siege engines.[84] The obelisk's white marble base is entirely covered with bas-reliefs documenting Theodosius' imperial household and the engineering feat of removing the obelisk to Constantinople. Theodosius and the imperial family are separated from the nobles among the spectators in the imperial box, with a cover over them as a mark of their status.[83] From the perspective of style, it has served as "the key monument in identifying a so-called Theodosian court style, which is usually described as a "renaissance" of earlier Roman classicism".[83]:411 Theodosius offers a laurel wreath to the victor, on the marble base of the Obelisk of Thutmosis III at the Hippodrome of Constantinople. Religious policy[edit] Arianism and orthodoxy[edit] John Kaye says the Arian controversy, concerning the nature of the divine trinity, and its accompanying struggles for political influence, started in Alexandria before the reign of Constantine the Great between bishop Arius of Alexandria, and bishop Alexander of Constantinople. Constantine had tried to settle the issues at the Council of Nicaea, but as Arnold Hugh Martin Jones states: "The rules laid down at Nicaea were not universally accepted".[85] Arius had asserted that God the Father had created the Son. This would make the Son a lesser being, because, even though the Son would have been created before anything else, he would not be eternal himself; he'd had a beginning. Father and Son were, therefore, similar but not of the same essence. This christology, which was contrary to traditional orthodoxy, quickly spread through Egypt and Libya and the other Roman provinces.[86]:33 Bishops engaged in "wordy warfare," and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other.[86]:5 At the center of the controversy was Athanasius who became the "champion of orthodoxy" after Alexander died.[87]:28,29,31 To Athanasius, Arius' interpretation of Jesus' nature (Homoiousian) could not explain how Jesus could accomplish the redemption of humankind which is the foundational principle of Christianity. "According to Athanasius, God had to become human so that humans could become divine ... That led him to conclude that the divine nature in Jesus was identical to that of the Father, and that Father and Son have the same substance" (homoousios).[88] Athanasius' teaching was a major influence in the West, especially on Theodosius I.[89]:20 On 27 February 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II, Theodosius issued the decree "Cunctos populos", the Edict of Thessalonica, recorded in the Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2. This declared Nicene Trinitarian Christianity to be the only legitimate imperial religion and the only one entitled to call itself Catholic; non-Christian religions or those who did not support the Trinity, he described as "foolish madmen".[90] According to Robinson Thornton, Theodosius began taking steps to repress Arianism immediately after his baptism in 380.[91]:39 On 26 November 380, two days after he had arrived in Constantinople, Theodosius expelled the Homoian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and appointed Meletius patriarch of Antioch, and Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers from Cappadocia (today in Turkey), patriarch of Constantinople. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Ascholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness.[92] In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicene orthodoxy.[93] The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, as equal to the Father and 'proceeding' from Him.[94] The council also "condemned the Apollonarian and Macedonian heresies, clarified jurisdictions of the bishops according to the civil boundaries of dioceses, and ruled that Constantinople was second in precedence to Rome."[94] Policy towards paganism[edit] Main article: Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I See also: Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Theodosius seems to have adopted a cautious policy toward traditional non-Christian cults, reiterating his Christian predecessors' bans on animal sacrifice, divination, and apostasy, while allowing other pagan practices to be performed publicly and temples to remain open.[95][96][97] He also voiced his support for the preservation of temple buildings, but nonetheless failed to prevent the damaging of many holy sites, images and objects of piety by Christian zealots, some including even his own officials.[97][98][99] Theodosius also turned pagan holidays into workdays, but the festivals associated with them continued.[100] A number of laws against paganism were issued towards the end of his reign, in 391 and 392, but historians have tended to downplay their practical effects and even the emperor's direct role in them.[101][102][97] Modern scholars think there is little if any evidence Theodosius pursued an active and sustained policy against the traditional cults.[103][104][105] There is evidence that Theodosius took care to prevent the empire's still substantial pagan population from feeling ill-disposed toward his rule. Following the death in 388 of his praetorian prefect, Cynegius, who had vandalized a number of pagan shrines in the eastern provinces, Theodosius replaced him with a moderate pagan who subsequently moved to protect the temples.[106][103][107] During his first official tour of Italy (389–391), the emperor won over the influential pagan lobby in the Roman Senate by appointing its foremost members to important administrative posts.[108] Theodosius also nominated the last pair of pagan consuls in Roman history (Tatianus and Symmachus) in 391.[109] Temple destruction[edit] According to Bayliss, the most destructive conflict between pagans and Christians of the late antique era took place in the diocese of Oriens, under Theodosius' prefect Maternus Cynegius. Garth Fowden says Cynegius did not limit himself to Theodosius' official policy.[110]:63 Instead, Cynegius apparently commissioned temple destruction, even employing the military under his command for this purpose, assisted by monks who proceeded to fall on temples all over Syria, the Euphrates frontier, and Phoenicia.[51]:107[111]:67 Christopher Haas says Cynegius oversaw temple closings, the prohibition of sacrifices, and the destruction of temples in Osrhoene, Carrhae, and Beroea, while Marcellus of Apamea took advantage of the situation to destroy the temple of Zeus in his town.[112]:160–162 Brown says Libanius wrote "this black robed tribe" were acting outside the law, but Theodosius passively legitimized their violence by listening to them instead of correcting them.[51]:107 However, in 388 at Callinicum, (modern Raqqa in Syria), the bishop and monks from the area, burned a Jewish synagogue to the ground, and Theodosius responded, "The monks commit many atrocities" and ordered them to pay to rebuild it.[51]:108 Peter Brown says that in 392, inspired by the mood created by Cynegius, Theophilus of Alexandria staged a procession ridiculing statues of pagan gods. Political complications turned it into a riot, and the unique Serapeum was destroyed.[51]:114 Helen Saradi-Mendelovici [el] says the reign of Theodosius opens the period when the persecution of pagans and their temples was undoubtedly at its peak.[113]:47 Gilbert Grindle (1892) references Zosimus as saying Theodosius ordered Cynegius (Zosimus 4.37) to permanently close down the temples and forbade the worship of the deities throughout Egypt.[114] Gibbon also says Theodosius either authorized or participated in the destruction of temples, holy sites, images and objects of reverence throughout the empire.[115][116] It is Fowder's view that Zosimus's statement is an exaggeration – "Libanius gives no hint of this, and even implies the contrary".[110]:63;fn4 Fowder adds that there is no evidence of any desire on the part of the emperor to institute a systematic destruction of temples anywhere in the Theodosian Code.[110]:63 The archaeological evidence for the violent destruction of temples around the Mediterranean is limited to a handful of sites. Archaeologist Luke Lavan says that, if one accepts all claims, even the most dubious ones, concerning destruction of pagan shrines and temples in Gaul, that only 2.4% of all the known temples were destroyed there by violence.[117]:xxv In Africa, the city of Cyrene has good evidence of the burning of several temples; Asia Minor has produced one weak possibility; in Greece the only strong candidate may relate to a barbarian raid instead of Christians. Egypt has produced no archaeologically-confirmed temple destructions from this period except the Serapeum. In Italy there is one; Britain has the most with 2 out of 40 temples.[117]:xxv Trombley and MacMullen say part of what creates this discrepancy are details in the historical sources that are so often ambiguous or unclear.[118][119] For example, Bayliss observes that the Roman historian "Malalas claimed that Theodosius 'razed all the shrines of the Hellenes to the ground' after already stating that Constantine had done the same; he then stated that 'he (Constantine) made many other temples into churches'. He claimed that Theodosius I 'made the temple of Damascus a Christian church,' whereas the archaeological research of the site shows the church was positioned away from the temple, in the corner of the temenos. In another example, according to Procopius, Justinian’s general Narses tore down the temples of Philae. Archaeology has shown quite clearly that what occurred was a very minimalist structural conversion".[120]:246–282[111]:110 Theodosian decrees[edit] According to The Cambridge Ancient History, the Theodosian Law Code is a set of laws, originally dated from Constantine to Theodosius I, that were gathered together, organized by theme, and reissued throughout the empire between 389 and 391.[121] Jill Harries and Ian S. Wood explain that, in their original forms, these laws were created by different emperors and governors to resolve the issues of a particular place at a particular time. They were not intended as general laws.[122]:5–16 Local politics and culture had produced divergent attitudes, and as a result, these laws present a series of conflicting opinions: for example, some laws called for the complete destruction of the temples and others for their preservation.[113]:47 French historian of Antiquity, Philippe Fleury [fr], observes that Ammianus Marcellinus says this legal complexity produced corruption, forgery of rescripts, falsified appeals, and costly judicial delays.[123] The Theodosian Law Code has long been one of the principal historical sources for the study of Late Antiquity.[124] Gibbon described the Theodosian decrees, in his Memoires, as a work of history rather than jurisprudence.[125] :25 Brown says the language of these laws is uniformly vehement, and penalties are harsh and frequently horrifying, leading some historians, such as Ramsay MacMullen, to see them as a 'declaration of war' on traditional religious practices.[126]:100[127]:638 It is a common belief the laws marked a turning point in the decline of paganism.[120] :12 Yet, many contemporary scholars such as Lepelly, Brown and Cameron, question the use of the Code, a legal document, not an actual historical work, for understanding history.[124][128] Lavan says in The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism': Straightforward readings of the laws can lead to a grossly distorted image of the period: as thirty years of archaeology has revealed. Within religious history most textual scholars now accept this, although historical accounts often tend to give imperial laws greatest prominence... modern scholars are now all too aware of the limitations of those laws as historical evidence.[117]:xxi,138 End of paganism[edit] R. Malcolm Errington writes that reconstructing the religious policies of Theodosius I is more complex than earlier historians realized.[129] The picture of Theodosius as "the most pious emperor", who presided over the end of paganism through the aggressive application of law and coercion – a view which Errington says "has dominated the European historical tradition almost to this day" – was first written by Theodoret who, in Errington's view, had a habit of ignoring facts and cherry picking a "few concrete legislative items".[130] In the centuries following his death, Theodosius gained a reputation as the champion of orthodoxy and the vanquisher of paganism, but modern historians do not believe this to be the case.[131][132][103] Cameron explains that, since Theodosius's predecessors Constantine, Constantius, and Valens had all been semi-Arians, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity.[133] Numerous literary sources, both Christian and even pagan, attributed to Theodosius – probably mistakenly, possibly intentionally – initiatives such as the withdrawal of state funding to pagan cults (this measure belongs to Gratian) and the demolition of temples (for which there is no primary evidence in the law codes or archaeology).[134][iii] An increase in the variety and abundance of sources has brought about the reinterpretation of religion of this era.[75] According to Salzman: "Although the debate on the death of paganism continues, scholars ...by and large, concur that the once dominant notion of overt pagan-Christian religious conflict cannot fully explain the texts and artifacts or the social, religious, and political realities of Late Antique Rome".[139]:2 Scholars agree that Theodosius gathered copious legislation on religious subjects, and that he continued the practices of his predecessors, prohibiting sacrifices with the intent of divining the future in December of 380, issuing a decree against heretics on 10 January 381, and an edict against Manichaeism in May of that same year.[10] [140]:xxiv Theodosius convened the First Council of Constantinople, the second ecumenical council after Constantine's First Council of Nicaea in 325; and the Constantinopolitan council which ended on 9 July.[10] What is important about this, according to Errington, is how much this 'copious legislation' was applied and used, which would show how dependable it is as a reflection of actual history.[129] Brown asserts that Christians still comprised a minority of the overall population, and local authorities were still mostly pagan and lax in imposing anti-pagan laws; even Christian bishops frequently obstructed their application.[141] Harries and Wood say, "The contents of the Code provide details from the canvas but are an unreliable guide, in isolation, to the character of the picture as a whole".[122]:5–16:95 Previously undervalued similarities in language, society, religion, and the arts, as well as current archaeological research, indicate paganism slowly declined, and that it was not forcefully overthrown by Theodosius I in the fourth century.[142]:xv Maijastina Kahlos writes that the fourth century Roman empire contained a wide variety of religions, cults, sects, beliefs and practices – not just Christians and pagans – and they all generally co-existed without incident.[143] Coexistence did occasionally lead to violence, but such outbreaks were relatively infrequent and localized.[143] Jan N. Bremmer says that "religious violence in Late Antiquity is mostly restricted to violent rhetoric: 'in Antiquity, not all religious violence was that religious, and not all religious violence was that violent'".[144]:9 The Christian church believed that victory over "false gods" had begun with Jesus and was completed through the conversion of Constantine; it was a victory that took place in heaven, rather than on earth, since Christians were only about 15–18% of the empire's population in the early 300s.[145]:7[146] Michele R. Salzman indicates that, as a result of this "triumphalism," paganism was seen as vanquished, and heresy was therefore a higher priority than paganism for Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries.[147]:861 Lavan says Christian writers gave the narrative of victory high visibility, but that it does not necessarily correlate to actual conversion rates. There are many signs that a healthy paganism continued into the fifth century, and in some places, into the sixth and beyond.[148]:108–110[149][117]:8 [150]:165–167[151]:41:156 According to Brown, Christians objected to anything that called the triumphal narrative into question, and that included the mistreatment of non-Christians. Archaeology indicates that in most regions away from the imperial court, the end of paganism was both gradual and untraumatic.[151]:156,221[139]:5,41 The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity says that "Torture and murder were not the inevitable result of the rise of Christianity."[142]:861 Instead, there was fluidity in the boundaries between the communities and "coexistence with a competitive spirit."[139]:7 Brown says that "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and, apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence."[152] While conceding that Theodosius's reign may have been a watershed in the decline of the old religions, Cameron downplays the role of the emperor's 'copious legislation' as limited in effect, and writes that Theodosius did 'certainly not' ban paganism.[153] In his 2020 biography of Theodosius, Mark Hebblewhite concludes that Theodosius never saw or advertised himself as a destroyer of the old cults; rather, the emperor's efforts to promote Christianity were cautious,[154] 'targeted, tactical, and nuanced', and intended to prevent political instability and religious discord.[103] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Battle of Frigidus De Fide Catolica Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius List of Byzantine emperors Roman emperors family tree Saint Fana Serena, niece of Theodosius and wife of Flavius Stilicho Zosimus, pagan historian from the time of Anastasius I Notes[edit] ^ The gens name Flavius was little more than a status marker for men of non-senatorial background who rose to eminence as a result of imperial service.[8] ^ According to the traditional texts of the chronicle of Hydatius and Zosimus, he was born at "Cauca in Gallaecia".[9] These texts are probably corrupted with interpolations, as Cauca was in fact not part of the province of Gallaecia, while according to Marcellinus Comes, he was born at Italica in Hispania Baetica.[9] These claims were probably fictitious and intended to connect Theodosius with the lineage of his distant predecessor Trajan (r. 98–117), who had come from Italica.[10] ^ Theodosius has long been associated with the ending of the Vestal virgins, but twenty-first century scholarship asserts they continued until 415 and suffered no more under Theodosius than they had since Gratian restricted their finances.[135]:260 Theodosius also probably did not discontinue the ancient Olympic Games, whose last recorded celebration was in 393. Archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.[136][137] Sofie Remijsen [nl] indicates there are several reasons to conclude the Olympic games continued after Theodosius I, and came to an end under Theodosius II, by accident, instead. There are two extant scholia on Lucian that connect the end of the games with a fire that burned down the temple of the Olympian Zeus during Theodosius II's reign.[138]:49 Citations[edit] ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower (unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-300-15560-0. ^ Simon Hornblower, Who's Who in the Classical World (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 386–387 ^ Lippold, "Theodosius I", Britannica ^ Epitome de Caesaribus 48. 8–19 ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chapter 27 ^ Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, pp. 1482, 1484 ^ Woods, "Theodosius I", Family and Succession. ^ Bagnall et al., pp. 36–40. ^ a b Alicia M. 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UK: British Archaeological Reports. ISBN 978-1-84171-634-3. ^ Haas, Christopher (2002). Alexandria in Late Antiquity Topography and Social Conflict. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7033-0. ^ a b Saradi-Mendelovici, Helen. “Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 44, 1990, pp. 47–61. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1291617. Accessed 25 June 2020. ^ Grindle, Gilbert (1892) The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire, pp.29–30 ^ Gibbon, Edward The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch28 ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1912). "Theophilus (2)" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ a b c d Lavan, Luke (2011). Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael (eds.). The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism". Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-19237-9. ^ R. MacMullen, Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Trombley, F. R. 1995a. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370-529. New York. I. 166-8, II. 335-6 ^ a b Trombley, Frank R. Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C.370-529. Netherlands, Brill Academic Publishers, 2001. ^ Curran, John (1998). "From Jovian to Theodosius". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337-425. XIII (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–110. ISBN 978-0521302005. ^ a b Harries, J. and Wood, I. (eds) 1993. The Theodosian Code: studies in the Imperial law of late antiquity. London. ^ Philippe Fleury. Les textes techniques de l’Antiquité. Sources, études et perspectives. Euphrosyne. Revista de filologia clássica, 1990, pp.359-394. ffhal-01609488f ^ a b Lepelley, C. 1992. "The survival and fall of the classical city in Late Roman Africa". In J. Rich (ed.) The City in Late Antiquity. London and New York, pp. 50-76. ^ Roland Quinault, Rosamond McKitterick. Edward Gibbon and Empire. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-521-52505-3 ^ MacMullen, Ramsay (1981). Paganism in the Roman Empire (unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02984-0. ^ Brown, Peter. "Christianization and religious conflict". The Cambridge Ancient History 13 (1998): 337–425. ^ Harries, Jill. The Theodosian Code: studies in the imperial law of late antiquity. Duckworth, 1993. ^ a b Errington 1997, p. 398. ^ Errington 1997, p. 409. ^ Errington 2006, pp. 248–249. ^ Cameron, p. 74. ^ Cameron, p. 74 (and note 177). ^ Cameron, pp. 46–47, 72. ^ TESTA, RITA LIZZI (2007). "CHRISTIAN EMPEROR, VESTAL VIRGINS AND PRIESTLY COLLEGES: RECONSIDERING THE END OF ROMAN PAGANISM". Antiquité tardive. 15: 251–262. ^ Tony Perrottet (8 June 2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4. Retrieved 1 April 2013. ^ Hamlet, Ingomar. "Theodosius I. And The Olympic Games". Nikephoros 17 (2004): pp. 53-75. ^ Remijsen, Sofie (2015). The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b c Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Rome: Conflict, Competition, and Coexistence in the Fourth Century. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2016. ^ Tilley, Maureen A., ed. (1996). Donatist Martyr Stories The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-931-4. ^ Brown 2012, p. 639. ^ a b The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 2015. ^ a b Kahlos, p. 3. ^ Bremmer, Jan N. (2020). "2". In Raschle, Christian R.; Dijkstra, Jitse H. F. (eds.). Religious Violence in the Ancient World From Classical Athens to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-84921-0. ^ Stark, Rodney (1996). The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History (First ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02749-4. ^ Brown 2012, p. xxxii. ^ Salzman, Michele Renee. "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code.'" Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, vol. 42, no. 3, 1993, pp. 362–378. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4436297. Accessed 2 June 2020. ^ Boin, Douglas. A Social and Cultural History of Late Antiquity. United Kingdom, Wiley, 2018. ^ Cameron, pp. 4, 112. ^ Irmscher, Johannes (1988). "Non-christians and sectarians under Justinian: the fate of the inculpated". Collection de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité. PARCOURIR LES COLLECTIONS. 367: 165–167. ^ a b Mulryan, Michael. "'Paganism' In Late Antiquity: Regional Studies And Material Culture". Brill: 41–86. ^ Brown 2012, p. 643. ^ Cameron, pp. 60, 65, 68–73. ^ Errington 2006, p. 251. References[edit] Bagnall, Roger S.; Alan Cameron; Seth R. Schwartz & Klaas A. Worp (1987). Consuls of the Later Roman Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-55540-099-X. Brown, Peter (2012). Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350–550 AD. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15290-5. Cameron, Alan (2010). The Last Pagans of Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974727-6. Errington, R. Malcolm (1996). "The Accession of Theodosius I". Klio. 78 (2): 438–453. doi:10.1524/klio.1996.78.2.438. Errington, R. Malcolm (1997). "Christian Accounts of the Religious Legislation of Theodosius I". Klio. 79 (2): 398–443. doi:10.1524/klio.1997.79.2.398. Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-3038-0. Glenn, Hinson, E. (1995). The church triumphant : a history of Christianity up to 1300. Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-436-0. OCLC 32509437. Graf, Fritz (2014). "Laying Down the Law in Ferragosto: The Roman Visit of Theodosius in Summer 389". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 22 (2): 219–242. doi:10.1353/earl.2014.0022. Hebblewhite, Mark (2020). Theodosius and the Limits of Empire. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315103334. ISBN 978-1-138-10298-9. Kahlos, Maijastina (2019). Religious Dissent in Late Antiquity, 350–450. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006725-0. Lippold, Adolf, "Theodosius 10", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, supplement 13, columns 837–961 (Stuttgart, 1973). Majeska, George P. (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library. McLynn, Neil B. (1994). Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08461-6. Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay AD 80-395. ISBN 0-415-10058-5. Smith, R.R.R. & Christopher Ratté (1998). "Archaeological Research at Aphrodisias in Caria, 1996". American Journal of Archaeology. 102 (2): 225–250. doi:10.2307/506467. JSTOR 506467. Vasiliev, A.A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1995). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06173-0. Woods, David. "Theodosius I (379–395 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Further reading[edit] Brown, Peter, The Rise of Western Christendom, 2003, p. 73–74 King, N.Q. The Emperor Theodosius and the Establishment of Christianity. London, 1961. Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). "Theodosius (emperors)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.   Stokes, George Thomas (1911). "Theodosius I., the Great" . In Wace, Henry; Piercy, William C. (eds.). Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. External links[edit] Josef Rist (1996). "Theodosios I., römischer Kaiser (379–395)". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). 11. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 989–994. ISBN 3-88309-064-6. This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Theodosius I relating to Christianity. Regnal titles Preceded by Valens Roman emperor 379–395 With: Gratian, Valentinian II Succeeded by Arcadius and Honorius Political offices Preceded by Ausonius Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius Roman consul 380 with Gratian Augustus V Succeeded by Syagrius Eucherius Preceded by Valentinian Augustus III Eutropius Roman consul II 388 with Maternus Cynegius Succeeded by Timasius Promotus Preceded by Arcadius Augustus II Rufinus Roman consul III 393 with Abundantius Succeeded by Arcadius Augustus III Honorius Augustus II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8129	----	Ravenna - Wikipedia Ravenna From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Italy. For other uses, see Ravenna (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ravenna" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) City in northern Italy Comune in Emilia-Romagna, Italy Ravenna Ravèna  (Romagnol) Comune Collage of Ravenna Flag Coat of arms Location of Ravenna Ravenna Location of Ravenna in Emilia-Romagna Show map of Italy Ravenna Ravenna (Emilia-Romagna) Show map of Emilia-Romagna Coordinates: 44°25′N 12°12′E / 44.417°N 12.200°E / 44.417; 12.200Coordinates: 44°25′N 12°12′E / 44.417°N 12.200°E / 44.417; 12.200 Country Italy Region Emilia-Romagna Province Ravenna (RA) Frazioni (subdivisions) Casalborsetti, Lido di Savio, Lido di Classe, Lido di Dante, Lido Adriano, Marina di Ravenna, Punta Marina Terme, Porto Corsini, Porto Fuori, Marina Romea, Ammonite, Camerlona, Mandriole, Savarna, Grattacoppa, Conventello, Torri, Mezzano, Sant'Antonio, San Romualdo, Sant'Alberto, Borgo Montone, Fornace Zarattini, Piangipane, San Marco, San Michele, Santerno, Villanova di Ravenna, Borgo Sisa, Bastia, Borgo Faina, Carraie, Campiano, Casemurate, Caserma, Castiglione di Ravenna, Classe, Coccolia, Ducenta, Durazzano, Filetto, Fosso Ghiaia, Gambellara, Ghibullo, Longana, Madonna dell'Albero, Massa Castello, Mensa Matellica, Osteria, Pilastro, Roncalceci, Ragone, Santo Stefano, San Bartolo, San Zaccaria, Savio, S. Pietro in Trento, San Pietro in Vincoli, San Pietro in Campiano Government  • Mayor Michele De Pascale (PD) Area[1]  • Total 652.89 km2 (252.08 sq mi) Elevation 4 m (13 ft) Population (1 January 2014)[3]  • Total 158,784  • Density 240/km2 (630/sq mi) Demonym(s) Ravennate, Ravennese[4] Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 48100 Dialing code 0544 Patron saint Saint Apollinaris Saint day July 23 Website Official website Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna UNESCO World Heritage Site Mosaic of the Emperor Justinian I from the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna. Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv Reference 788 Inscription 1996 (20th session) Area 1.32 ha Ravenna (/rəˈvɛnə/ rə-VEN-ə, Italian: [raˈvenna], also locally [raˈvɛnna] (listen); Romagnol: Ravèna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 402 until the empire collapsed in 476. It then served as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom until it was re-conquered in 540 by the Byzantine Empire. Afterwards, the city formed the centre of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until the invasion of the Lombards in 751. Although it is an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, with eight buildings comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna".[5] Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient era 1.2 Ostrogothic Kingdom 1.3 Exarchate of Ravenna 1.4 Middle Ages and Renaissance 1.5 Modern age 2 Government 3 Architecture 4 Music 5 Ravenna in literature 6 Ravenna in film 7 Transport 8 Amusement parks 9 Twin towns – sister cities 10 Sports 11 Notable people 12 References 13 Sources and further reading 14 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Ravenna The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear. Some have speculated that "Ravenna" is related to "Rasenna" (or "Rasna"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.[citation needed][6] Ancient era[edit] The origins of Ravenna are uncertain.[7] The first settlement is variously attributed to (and then has seen the copresence of) the Thessalians, the Etruscans and the Umbrians. Afterwards its territory was settled also by the Senones, especially the southern countryside of the city (that wasn't part of the lagoon), the Ager Decimanus. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, but later accepted it into the Roman Republic as a federated town in 89 BC. In 49 BC, it was where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later Octavian, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of Classis.[8] This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. During the Germanic campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna. The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the Peutinger Map Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor Trajan built a 70 km (43.50 mi) long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.[9] In AD 402, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna. At that time it was home to 50,000 people.[10] The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the Eastern Roman Empire. However, in 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to sack Rome in 410 and to take Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius I, hostage. After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III, due to the support of her nephew Theodosius II. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistery, the misnamed Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (she was not actually buried there), and San Giovanni Evangelista. Ostrogothic Kingdom[edit] See also: Ostrogothic Ravenna The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and the last person to hold the title of emperor in the West was deposed in 476 by the general Odoacer. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of Rimini deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own Mausoleum just outside the walls. The Mausoleum of Theodoric Both Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Capella Arcivescovile. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense. Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson Athalaric under the authority of his daughter Amalasunta, but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the orthodox Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian I opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the Arian variety of Christianity. In 535 his general Belisarius invaded Italy and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy. From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco. Exarchate of Ravenna[edit] Transfiguration of Jesus. Allegorical image with Crux gemmata and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, apse of Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe Main article: Exarchate of Ravenna Following the conquests of Belisarius for Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine governor of Italy, the Exarch, and was known as the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was at this time that the Ravenna Cosmography was written. Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Ravenna was temporarily granted autocephaly from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period. Middle Ages and Renaissance[edit] The Lombards, under King Liutprand, occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines.[11] However, in 751 the Lombard king, Aistulf, succeeded in conquering Ravenna, thus ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy. King Pepin of the Franks attacked the Lombards under orders of Pope Stephen II. Ravenna then gradually came under the direct authority of the Popes, although this was contested by the archbishops at various times. Pope Adrian I authorized Charlemagne to take away anything from Ravenna that he liked, and an unknown quantity of Roman columns, mosaics, statues, and other portable items were taken north to enrich his capital of Aachen. In 1198 Ravenna led a league of Romagna cities against the Emperor, and the Pope was able to subdue it. After the war of 1218 the Traversari family was able to impose its rule in the city, which lasted until 1240. After a short period under an Imperial vicar, Ravenna was returned to the Papal States in 1248 and again to the Traversari until, in 1275, the Da Polenta established their long-lasting seigniory. One of the most illustrious residents of Ravenna at this time was the exiled poet Dante. The last of the Da Polenta, Ostasio III, was ousted by the Republic of Venice in February 1441, and the city was annexed to the Venetian territories in the Treaty of Cremona. Ravenna was ruled by Venice until 1509, when the area was invaded in the course of the Italian Wars. In 1512, during the Holy League wars, Ravenna was sacked by the French following the Battle of Ravenna. Ravenna was also known during the Renaissance as the birthplace of the Monster of Ravenna. After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of canals diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city. An 18th-century quattrino from Ravenna depicting Saint Apollinaris Modern age[edit] Apart from another short occupation by Venice (1527–1529), Ravenna was part of the Papal States until 1796, when it was annexed to the French puppet state of the Cisalpine Republic, (Italian Republic from 1802, and Kingdom of Italy from 1805). It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding Romagna area became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861. During World War II, troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards - 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British 27th Lancers entered and liberated Ravenna on 5 December 1944. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944-45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians.[12] The town suffered very little damage. Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Ravenna Architecture[edit] Basilica of San Vitale - triumphal arch mosaics. Garden of Eden mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia. 5th century CE. Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic. 6th-century mosaic in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna portrays Jesus long-haired and bearded, dressed in Byzantine style. The Arian Baptistry. Dante's tomb exterior and interior, built in 1780 The so-called "Mausoleum of Galla Placidia" in Ravenna. Mosaic of the Palace of Theodoric in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. Eight early Christian monuments of Ravenna are inscribed on the World Heritage List. These are Orthodox Baptistry also called Baptistry of Neon (c. 430) Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 430) Arian Baptistry (c. 500) Archiepiscopal Chapel (c. 500) Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (c. 500) Mausoleum of Theodoric (520) Basilica of San Vitale (548) Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (549) Other attractions include: The church of San Giovanni Evangelista is from the 5th century, erected by Galla Placidia after she survived a storm at sea. It was restored after the World War II bombings. The belltower contains four bells, the two majors dating back to 1208. The 6th-century church of the Spirito Santo, which has been quite drastically altered since the 6th century. It was originally the Arian cathedral. The façade has a 16th-century portico with five arcades. The Basilica of San Francesco, rebuilt in the 10th–11th centuries over a precedent edifice dedicated to the Apostles and later to St. Peter. Behind the humble brick façade, it has a nave and two aisles. Fragments of mosaics from the first church are visible on the floor, which is usually covered by water after heavy rains (together with the crypt). Here the funeral ceremony of Dante Alighieri was held in 1321. The poet is buried in a tomb annexed to the church, the local authorities having resisted for centuries all demands by Florence for return of the remains of its most famous exile. The Baroque church of Santa Maria Maggiore (525–532, rebuilt in 1671). It houses a picture by Luca Longhi. The church of San Giovanni Battista (1683), also in Baroque style, with a Middle Ages campanile. The basilica of Santa Maria in Porto (16th century), with a rich façade from the 18th century. It has a nave and two aisles, with a high cupola. It houses the image of famous Greek Madonna, which was allegedly brought to Ravenna from Constantinople. The nearby Communal Gallery has various works from Romagnoli painters. The Rocca Brancaleone ("Brancaleone Castle"), built by the Venetians in 1457. Once part of the city walls, it is now a public park. It is divided into two parts: the true Castle and the Citadel, the latter having an extent of 14,000 m2 (150,694.75 sq ft). The "so-called Palace of Theodoric", in fact the entrance to the former church of San Salvatore. It includes mosaics from the true palace of the Ostrogoth king. The church of Sant'Eufemia (18th century), gives access to the so-called Stone Carpets Domus (6th–7th century): this houses splendid mosaics from a Byzantine palace. The National Museum. The Archiepiscopal Museum Music[edit] The city annually hosts the Ravenna Festival, one of Italy's prominent classical music gatherings. Opera performances are held at the Teatro Alighieri while concerts take place at the Palazzo Mauro de André as well as in the ancient Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Chicago Symphony Orchestra music director Riccardo Muti, a longtime resident of the city, regularly participates in the festival, which invites orchestras and other performers from around the world. Ravenna in literature[edit] Pre-1800 The city is mentioned in Canto V in Dante's Inferno. Also in the 16th century, Nostradamus provides four prophecies: "The Magnavacca (canal) at Ravenna in great trouble, Canals by fifteen shut up at Fornase", in reference to fifteen French saboteurs.[13] As the place of a battle extending to Perugia and a sacred escape in its aftermath, leaving rotting horses left to eat In relation to the snatching of a lady "near Ravenna" and then the legate of Lisbon seizing 70 souls at sea Ravenna is one of three-similarly named contenders for the birth of the third and final Antichrist who enslaves Slovenia (see Ravne na Koroškem)[14] Ravenna is the setting for The Witch, a play by Thomas Middleton (1580–1627) Post-1800 Lord Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821, led by the love for a local aristocratic and married young woman, Teresa Guiccioli. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote: Ravenna Diary, My Dictionary and Recollections.[15] Ravenna is the location where Lionel, the protagonist of Mary Shelley's post-apocalyptic novel The Last Man, comes ashore after losing his companions to a howling storm in the Aegean Sea. Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) wrote a poem Ravenna in 1878.[16] Symbolist, lyrical poet Alexander Blok (1880–1921) wrote a poem entitled Ravenna (May–June 1909) inspired by his Italian journey (spring 1909). During his travels, German poet and philosopher Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) came across Ravenna and was inspired to write two poems of the city. They are entitled Ravenna (1) and Ravenna (2). T. S. Eliot's (1888–1965) poem "Lune de Miel" (written in French) describes a honeymooning couple from Indiana sleeping not far from the ancient Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (just outside Ravenna), famous for the carved capitals of its columns, which depict acanthus leaves buffeted by the wind, unlike the leaves in repose on similar columns elsewhere. J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) may have based his city of Minas Tirith at least in part on Ravenna.[17] Ravenna in film[edit] Michelangelo Antonioni filmed his 1964 movie Red Desert (Deserto Rosso) within the industrialised areas of the Pialassa valley within the city limits. Transport[edit] Ravenna has an important commercial and tourist port. Ravenna railway station has direct Trenitalia service to Bologna, Ferrara, Lecce, Milan, Parma, Rimini, and Verona. Ravenna Airport is located in Ravenna. The nearest commercial airports are those of Forlì, Rimini and Bologna. Freeways crossing Ravenna include: A14-bis from the hub of Bologna; on the north–south axis of EU routes E45 (from Rome) and E55 (SS-309 "Romea" from Venice); and on the regional Ferrara-Rimini axis of SS-16 (partially called "Adriatica"). Amusement parks[edit] Mirabilandia Safari Ravenna Twin towns – sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Ravenna is twinned with:[18] Chichester, England, United Kingdom Speyer, Germany, since 1989 Chartres, France, since 1957 Sports[edit] The historical Italian football of the city is Ravenna F.C. Currently it plays in the third league of Italian football, commonly known as "Serie C". A.P.D. Ribelle 1927 is the Italian football of Castiglione di Ravenna, a fraction of Ravenna and was founded in 1927. Currently it plays in Italy's Serie D after promotion from Eccellenza Emilia-Romagna Girone B in the 2013–14 season. The president is Marcello Missiroli and the manager is Enrico Zaccaroni. Its home ground is Stadio Massimo Sbrighi of the fraction with 1,000 seats. The team's colors are white and blue. The beaches of Ravenna hosted the 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, in September 2011. Notable people[edit] Valentinian III (419-455), Roman Emperor Matteo Plazzi, Italian sailor Laura Pausini (b. 1974), Italian pop singer-songwriter, record producer and television personality Raul Gardini (1933-1993), Italian businessman Franco Manzecchi (1931-1979), Jazz drummer Andrea Montanari (b. 1965), Italian sprinter Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), Baroque violinist and composer Luigi Legnani (1790-1877), guitarist and luthier Tullio Bassi (b. 1937), Italian violin maker Peter Damian (c. 988 - 1072 or 1073), Catholic Saint and Cardinal Francesco Ingoli (1578-1649), Theatine scientist, lawyer, and disputer of Galileo Francesca da Rimini (1255 - c. 1285), historical person Guido I da Polenta (d. 1310), lord of Ravenna Francesco Baracca (1888-1918), Italy's top fighter ace of World War I Federico Caricasulo (b. 1996), Motorcycle road racer Marco Melandri (b. 1982), Motorcycle road racer Davide Tardozzi (b. 1959), Superbike racer and Team Manager Ivano Marescotti (b. 1946), actor Amadeus (presenter) (b. 1962), presenter Romolo Gessi (1831-1881), explorer Romuald (с. 951 - c. 1025/27), abbot, founder of the Camaldolese order Marco Dente (1493-1527), engraver Paolo Roversi (b. 1947), fashion photographer Angelo Mariani (conductor) (1821-1873), conductor Giuseppe Vitali (1875-1932), Mathematician Evangelista Torricelli (1606-1647), physicist and mathematician Federico Marchetti (businessman) (b. 1969), founder of YOOX References[edit] Notes ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ GeoDemo - Istat.it ^ Generally speaking, adjectival "Ravenna" and "Ravennate" are more common for most adjectival uses—the Ravenna Cosmography, Ravenna grass, the Ravennate fleet—while "Ravennese" is more common in reference to people. The neologism "Ravennan" is also encountered. The Italian form is ravennate; in Latin, Ravennatus, Ravennatis, and Ravennatensis are all encountered. ^ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/788 ^ Tourism in Ravenna – Official site – History. Turismo.ravenna.it (2010-06-20). Retrieved on 2011-06-20. ^ Deborah M. Deliyannis, Ravenna in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), for this and much of the information that follows ^ From the Latin for "fleet". ^ Dio 72.11.4-5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius ^ https://www.academia.edu/1166147/_The_Fall_and_Decline_of_the_Roman_Urban_Mind_ ^ Noble, Thomas F. X. (1984). The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1239-8. ^ https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945 ^ Jones, Tom (2012). Nostradamus. Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing. ISBN 9781434918239. ^ Reading, Mario (2009). The Complete Prophesies of Nostradamus. London: Watkins Publishing. ISBN 9781906787394. ^ "Sito Ufficiale – Ufficio Turismo del Comune di Ravenna – I grandi scrittori". Turismo.ra.it. Retrieved 2009-05-06. ^ Ravenna ^ https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?CMP=fb_gu ^ "Città gemellate". comune.ra.it (in Italian). Ravenna. Retrieved 2021-03-28. Sources and further reading[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Ravenna Cameron, Averil. "Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe." History Today (Sept 2020( 70#9 pp 94–97. covers 301 to 900. Online. Janet Nelson, Judith Herrin, Ravenna: its role in earlier medieval change and exchange, London, Institute of Historical Research, 2016, ISBN 9781909646148 External links[edit] Ravenna - Catholic encyclopedia Tourism and culture Official website (in Italian and English) Ravenna, A Study (1913) by Edward Hutton, from Project Gutenberg Ravenna's early history and its monuments - Catholic Encyclopedia Deborah M. 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Important philosophers only. --> | list1 = {{Navbox |child |groupstyle=font-weight:normal; | group1 = Early | list1 = * '''[[Zeno of Citium]]''' * [[Persaeus]] * [[Aristo of Chios|Aristo]] * [[Sphaerus]] * [[Herillus]] * '''[[Cleanthes]]''' * '''[[Chrysippus]]''' * [[Zeno of Tarsus]] * [[Crates of Mallus]] * [[Diogenes of Babylon]] * [[Dioscorides (Stoic)|Dioscorides]] * [[Zenodotus (Stoic)|Zenodotus]] * [[Dionysius of Cyrene]] * [[Apollodorus of Seleucia|Apollodorus]] * [[Antipater of Tarsus]] | group2 = Middle | list2 = * '''[[Panaetius]]''' * [[Dardanus of Athens|Dardanus]] * [[Mnesarchus of Athens|Mnesarchus]] * [[Hecato of Rhodes|Hecato]] * '''[[Posidonius]]''' * [[Diodotus the Stoic|Diodotus]] * [[Diotimus the Stoic|Diotimus]] * [[Geminus]] * [[Antipater of Tyre]] * [[Athenodorus Cananites]] | group3 = Late | list3 = * '''[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]''' * [[Lucius Annaeus Cornutus|Cornutus]] * '''[[Gaius Musonius Rufus|Musonius Rufus]]''' * [[Euphrates the Stoic|Euphrates]] * [[Cleomedes]] * '''[[Epictetus]]''' * [[Hierocles (Stoic)|Hierocles]] * [[Junius Rusticus]] * '''[[Marcus Aurelius]]''' * [[Chaeremon of Alexandria|Chaeremon]] * [[Mara bar Serapion]] }} | group2 = Philosophy | list2 = * [[Stoicism]] ** [[Stoic categories|categories]] ** [[Stoic logic|logic]] ** [[Stoic passions|passions]] ** [[Stoic physics|physics]] * [[Neostoicism]] * [[Modern Stoicism]] | group3 = [[Glossary of Stoic terms|Concepts]] | list3 = * [[Adiaphora]] * [[Apatheia]] * [[Ataraxia]] * [[Ekpyrosis]] * [[Eudaimonia]] * [[Katalepsis]] * [[Kathekon]] * [[Logos]] * [[Oikeiôsis]] * [[Pneuma (Stoic)|Pneuma]] * [[Prohairesis]] * [[Sage (philosophy)|Sophos]] | group4 = Works | list4 = {{Navbox |child |groupstyle=font-weight:normal; | group1 = Epictetus | list1 = * [[Discourses of Epictetus|''Discourses'']] * [[Enchiridion of Epictetus|''Enchiridion'']] | group2 = Marcus<br/> Aurelius | list2 = * [[Meditations|''Meditations'']] | group3 = Seneca | list3 = * [[Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium|''Letters to Lucilius'']] * Essays: **[[De Ira|''Anger'']] **[[De Beneficiis|''Benefits'']] **[[De Clementia|''Clemency'']] **[[De Constantia Sapientis|''Constancy'']] **[[De Vita Beata|''Happiness'']] **[[De Otio|''Leisure'']] **[[De Providentia|''Providence'']] **[[De Brevitate Vitae (Seneca)|''Shortness of Life'']] **[[De Tranquillitate Animi|''Tranquillity'']] * [[Seneca's Consolations|Consolations]] | group4 = Other | list4 = * [[Gaius Musonius Rufus#Writings|''Lectures'' (Musonius Rufus)]] * [[On Passions|''On Passions'' (Chrysippus)]] * [[Republic (Zeno)|''Republic'' (Zeno)]] }} | group5 = Related articles | list5 = * ''[[Paradoxa Stoicorum]]'' * ''[[Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta]]'' * [[Stoic Opposition]] * [[Moral intellectualism]] }}<noinclude> {{Documentation | content = {{Collapsible option |statename=optional}} [[Category:Philosophy and thinking navigational boxes]] [[Category:Stoicism|τ]] }}<!--(end Documentation)--> </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Big (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Collapsible option (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Documentation (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Para (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Template link expanded (view source) (protected) Template:Template other (view source) (protected) Template:Tlx (view source) (protected) Module:Arguments (view source) (protected) Module:Color contrast (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Color contrast/colors (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation/config (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Navbar (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Template link general (view source) (protected) Return to Template:Stoicism. 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en-wikipedia-org-8171	----	Palaestra - Wikipedia Palaestra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the mythological characters, see Palaestra (mythology). For the sports arena in Philadelphia, see Palestra. For the Japanese mixed martial arts and grappling team, see Paraestra. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Palaestra" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Palaestra at Olympia, Greece A palaestra (/pəˈliːstrə/ or /-ˈlaɪ-/;[1] also (chiefly British) palestra; Greek: παλαίστρα)[2] was any site of an ancient Greek wrestling school. Events requiring little space, such as boxing and wrestling, took place there. Palaestrae functioned both independently and as a part of public gymnasia; a palaestra could exist without a gymnasium, but no gymnasium existed without a palaestra. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Architecture 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Etymology[edit] Look up palaestra in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Compare Ancient Greek palaiein - "to wrestle" and palē - "wrestling" Palaestrophylax or palaistrophylax (Greek: παλαιστροφύλαξ), meaning “palaestra guard”, was the guardian or the director of a Palaestra.[3] Architecture[edit] The architecture of the palaestra, although allowing for some variation, followed a distinct, standard plan. The palaestra essentially consisted of a rectangular court surrounded by colonnades with adjoining rooms. These rooms might house a variety of functions: bathing, ball playing, undressing and storage of clothes, seating for socializing, observation, or instruction, and storage of oil, dust or athletic equipment. Vitruvius, through his text De architectura, is an important ancient source about this building type and provides many details about what he calls "palaestra, Greek-style". Although the specifics of his descriptions do not always correspond to the architectural evidence, probably because he was writing around 27 BC, his account provides insight into the general design and uses of this type of space. As Vitruvius describes, the palaestra was square or rectangular in shape with colonnades along all four sides creating porticoes. The portico on the northern side of the palaestra was of double depth to protect against the weather. Big halls (exedrae, εξέδρες) were built along the single depth sides of the palaestra with seats for those enjoying intellectual pursuits, and the double depth side was divided into an area for youth activities (ephebeum, εφηβαίο), a punching bag area (coryceum, κωρυκείον), a room for applying powders (conisterium, κονιστἠριον), a room for cold bathing (λουτρόν), and an oil storeroom (elaeothesium, ελαιοθέσιον). Good examples of this building type come from two major Greek sites: Olympia and Delphi. During the Roman Imperial period the palaestra was often combined with, or joined to, a bath. When the Arabs and the Turkish adopted the tradition of the Roman baths, they did not continue the tradition of the attached palaestra. See also[edit] Palaestra at Olympia Palaestra at Delphi References[edit] ^ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/palaestra ^ παλαίστρα. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Nuttall, P. Austin (1840). A Classical and Archaeological Dictionary of the Manners, Customs, Laws, Institutions, Arts, Etc. of the Celebrated Nations of Antiquity, and of the Middle Ages: To which is Prefixed A Synoptical and Chronological View of Ancient History. Whittaker and Company. p. 358. External links[edit] "Palaestra". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Perseus Digital Library, Olympia Perseus Digital Library, Delphi Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palaestra&oldid=1026634987" Categories: Architecture of Greece Sports venues Sport in ancient Greece Pankration Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Greek-language text Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar 日本語 Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 11:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8179	----	Dynasty - Wikipedia Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sequence of rulers considered members of the same family This article is about the general concept of a line of rulers. For other uses, see Dynasty (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Royal family, Royal household, or Political family. "Royal house" redirects here. For royal residences, see Palace. For a list, see List of dynasties. Charles I of England and his son, the future James II of England, from the House of Stuart. The Qing dynasty was the final imperial dynasty of China, established in 1636 and ended in 1912, with a brief restoration in 1917. A dynasty (UK: /ˈdɪnəsti/, US: /ˈdaɪnəsti/) is a sequence of rulers from the same family,[1] usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. Alternative terms for "dynasty" may include "house", "family" and "clan", among others. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, otherwise known as the Yamato dynasty, whose reign is traditionally dated to 660 BC. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a "noble house",[2] which may be styled as "imperial", "royal", "princely", "ducal", "comital", "baronial" etc., depending upon the chief or present title borne by its members. Historians periodize the histories of many states and civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt (3100–30 BC) and Ancient and Imperial China (2070 BC–AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, and also to describe events, trends and artifacts of that period (e.g., "a Ming-dynasty vase"). The word "dynasty" itself is often dropped from such adjectival references (e.g., "a Ming vase"). Until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty: that is, to expand the wealth and power of his family members.[3] Prior to the 20th century, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's ruling house. This has changed in some places in Europe, where succession law and convention have maintained dynasties de jure through a female. For instance, the House of Windsor will be maintained through the children of Queen Elizabeth II, as it did with the monarchy of the Netherlands, whose dynasty remained the House of Orange-Nassau through three successive queens regnant. The earliest such example among major European monarchies was in the Russian Empire in the 18th century, where the name of the House of Romanov was maintained through Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna. This also happened in the case of Queen Maria II of Portugal, who married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, but whose descendants remained members of the House of Braganza, per Portuguese law. In Limpopo Province of South Africa, Balobedu determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mother's dynasty when coming into her inheritance. Less frequently, a monarchy has alternated or been rotated, in a multi-dynastic (or polydynastic) system—that is, the most senior living members of parallel dynasties, at any point in time, constitute the line of succession. Not all feudal states or monarchies were or are ruled by dynasties; modern examples are the Vatican City State, the Principality of Andorra, and the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta. Throughout history, there were monarchs that did not belong to any dynasty; non-dynastic rulers include King Arioald of the Lombards and Emperor Phocas of the Byzantine Empire. Dynasties ruling subnational monarchies do not possess sovereign rights; two modern examples are the monarchies of Malaysia and the royal families of the United Arab Emirates. The word "dynasty" is sometimes used informally for people who are not rulers but are, for example, members of a family with influence and power in other areas, such as a series of successive owners of a major company. It is also extended to unrelated people, such as major poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Dynast 2.1 Gallery 3 Extant dynasties ruling sovereign monarchies 4 Political dynasties in republics and constitutional monarchies 5 Influential and wealthy families 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Etymology[edit] The word "dynasty" derives from Latin dynastia, which comes from Greek dynastéia (δυναστεία), where it referred to "power", "dominion", and "rule" itself.[4] It was the abstract noun of dynástēs (δυνάστης),[5] the agent noun of dynamis (δύναμις), "power" or "ability",[6] from dýnamai (δύναμαι), "to be able".[7] Dynast[edit] A ruler from a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a "dynast", but this term is also used to describe any member of a reigning family who retains a right to succeed to a throne. For example, King Edward VIII ceased to be a dynast of the House of Windsor following his abdication. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a "dynast" is a family member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchy's rules still in force. For example, after the 1914 assassinations of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his morganatic wife, their son Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg, was bypassed for the Austro-Hungarian throne because he was not a Habsburg dynast. Even since the abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Duke Maximilian and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term "dynast" is sometimes used only to refer to agnatic descendants of a realm's monarchs, and sometimes to include those who hold succession rights through cognatic royal descent. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people. For example, David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon, a nephew of Queen Elizabeth II, is in the line of succession to the British crown; making him a British dynast. On the other hand, since he is not a patrilineal member of the British royal family, he is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Comparatively, the German aristocrat Prince Ernst August of Hanover, a male-line descendant of King George III of the United Kingdom, possesses no legal British name, titles or styles (although he is entitled to reclaim the former royal dukedom of Cumberland). He was born in the line of succession to the British throne and was bound by Britain's Royal Marriages Act 1772 until it was repealed when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 took effect on 26 March 2015.[8] Thus, he requested and obtained formal permission from Queen Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco in 1999. Yet, a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time, stipulating that dynasts who marry Roman Catholics are considered "dead" for the purpose of succession to the British throne.[9] That exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Roman Catholic.[8] A "dynastic marriage" is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, so that the descendants are eligible to inherit the throne or other royal privileges. The marriage of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands to Queen Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, making their eldest child Princess Catharina-Amalia the heir apparent to the Crown of the Netherlands. However, the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau in 2003 lacked governmental support and parliamentary approval. Thus, Prince Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession to the Dutch throne, and consequently lost his title as a "Prince of the Netherlands", and left his children without dynastic rights. Gallery[edit] Zhao Kuangyin, the Emperor Taizu of Song, was the founder of the Song dynasty in China. Hongwu Emperor, the Emperor Taizu of Ming, was the founder of the Ming dynasty in China. Sukapha, of the Ahom dynasty, was the first King of the Ahom Dynasty in Assam, India. Babur, of the Timurid dynasty, was the first emperor of the Mughal Empire in India. Suleiman the Magnificent, from the House of Osman, was the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until 1566. Muhammad Ali Pasha, founder of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, ruled Egypt and Sudan from 1805 to 1848. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, The second emperor of the Pahlavi Dynasty, and the last Shah of Iran before the Iranian Revolution. Peter I, from the House of Romanov, was the first Russian monarch to rule as emperor. Constantine XI Palaiologos, of the Palaiologos dynasty, was the final monarch of the Byzantine Empire. Pedro II, from the Most Serene House of Braganza, ruled Brazil from 1831 to 1889. Kalākaua, founder of the House of Kalākaua, was the penultimate sovereign ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Asahito, the Emperor Higashiyama, from the Imperial House of Japan, was the 113th Japanese emperor. Emperor Meiji, from the Imperial House of Japan, was the 122nd Japanese emperor. Christian I, from the House of Oldenburg, served as king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Aisin Gioro Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor, of the Qing dynasty, was the longest reigning emperor of China. Mohammad Shah Qajar was a king of Persia from the Qajar dynasty. Yi Dan, King Taejo of Joseon, ruled Korea from 1392 to 1398 as the first king of Joseon. Nikola I, of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty, ruled Montenegro from 1860 to 1918. Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Lân, the Emperor Thành Thái, of the Nguyễn dynasty, was emperor of Vietnam from 1889 to 1907. Ahmad al-Mansur, of the Saadi dynasty, was sultan of Morocco from 1578 to 1603. Louis XIV, from the House of Bourbon, reigned as king of France from 1643 to 1715. Napoleon I, from the House of Bonaparte, ruled over France and Italy. Thibaw Min was the last monarch of the Konbaung dynasty in Myanmar. Henry VIII, from the House of Tudor, reigned as king of England and Ireland from 1509 to 1547. Edward VI, from the House of Tudor, reigned as king of England and Ireland from 1547 to 1553. Elizabeth I, from the House of Tudor, reigned as queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. Ranavalona I, of the Hova dynasty, was queen regnant of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861. Shō Tai, of the Second Shō dynasty, was the final sovereign ruler of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Zaman Shah Durrani Sadozai, of the Durrani dynasty, ruled Afghanistan from 1793 to 1800. Wanyan Aguda, the Emperor Taizu of Jin, was the progenitor of the Jin dynasty in China. Trần Thuyên, the Emperor Trần Anh Tông, of the Trần dynasty, ruled Vietnam from 1293 to 1314. Otto I, from the House of Wittelsbach, was king of Greece from 1832 to 1862. Tamar was queen regnant of the Bagrationi dynasty in Georgia. Khayishan, the Külüg Khan and Emperor Wuzong of Yuan, was the seventh khagan of the Mongol Empire and the third emperor of the Yuan dynasty in China. Milan I, of the Obrenović dynasty, ruled Serbia from 1868 to 1889. Agustín I was the first and only Mexican emperor from the House of Iturbide. Sigismund III, from the House of Vasa, was monarch of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Finland. Leopold I, from the House of Habsburg, was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. Wang Jeon, King Gongmin of Goryeo, ruled Korea from 1351 to 1374 as king of Goryeo. Frederick the Great, from the House of Hohenzollern, was the King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. Wilhelm I, from the House of Hohenzollern, was the first German emperor. Victor Emmanuel II, from the House of Savoy, was the first king of Italy. Gediminas, King of Lithuania, started the Gediminids dynasty in 1315. Extant dynasties ruling sovereign monarchies[edit] For non-sovereign dynasties currently ruling subnational monarchies, see Non-sovereign monarchy and List of current constituent monarchs. There are 44 sovereign states with a monarch as head of state, of which 42 are ruled by dynasties.[a] There are currently 26 sovereign dynasties. Dynasty Realm Reigning monarch Dynastic founder[b] Dynastic place of origin[c] House of Windsor[d][e]  Antigua and Barbuda Queen Elizabeth II King-Emperor George V[f] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany)  Commonwealth of Australia[g]  Commonwealth of The Bahamas  Barbados[h]  Belize  Canada  Grenada  Jamaica New Zealand[i]  Independent State of Papua New Guinea  Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis  Saint Lucia  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  Solomon Islands  Tuvalu  United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[j] House of Khalifa  Kingdom of Bahrain King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Sheikh Khalifa bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Belgium[k]  Kingdom of Belgium King Philippe King Albert I[l] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany) House of Wangchuck  Kingdom of Bhutan Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck Bhutan House of Bolkiah  Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Sultan Muhammad Shah Tarim[m] (in modern Yemen) House of Norodom[n]  Kingdom of Cambodia King Norodom Sihamoni King Norodom Prohmbarirak Cambodia House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg[o]  Kingdom of Denmark[p] Queen Margrethe II Duke Friedrich Wilhelm Glücksburg (in modern Germany)  Kingdom of Norway King Harald V House of Dlamini  Kingdom of Eswatini King Mswati III Chief Dlamini I East Africa Imperial House of Japan[q]  Japan Emperor Naruhito Emperor Jimmu[r] Nara (in modern Japan) House of Hashim[s]  Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan King Abdullah II King Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi Hejaz (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Sabah  State of Kuwait Emir Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Moshesh  Kingdom of Lesotho King Letsie III Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I Lesotho House of Liechtenstein  Principality of Liechtenstein Prince Hans-Adam II Prince Karl I Lower Austria (in modern Austria) House of Luxembourg-Nassau[t]  Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Grand Duke Henri Grand Duke Adolphe Nassau (in modern Germany) Bendahara dynasty[u]  Malaysia[v] Yang di-Pertuan Agong Abdullah Bendahara Tun Habib Abdul Majid Johor (in modern Malaysia) House of Grimaldi  Principality of Monaco Prince Albert II François Grimaldi Genoa (in modern Italy) Alaouite dynasty  Kingdom of Morocco King Mohammed VI Sultan Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn 'Ali Tafilalt (in modern Morocco) House of Orange-Nassau[w]  Kingdom of the Netherlands[x] King Willem-Alexander Prince William I Nassau (in modern Germany) House of Said  Sultanate of Oman Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Sultan Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi Yemen House of Thani  State of Qatar Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Saud  Kingdom of Saudi Arabia King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Emir Saud I Diriyah (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Borbón-Anjou[y]  Kingdom of Spain King Felipe VI King Philip V Bourbon-l'Archambault (in modern France) House of Bernadotte  Kingdom of Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf King Charles XIV John Pau (in modern France) Chakri dynasty  Kingdom of Thailand King Vajiralongkorn King Rama I Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (in modern Thailand) House of Tupou  Kingdom of Tonga King Tupou VI King George Tupou I Tonga House of Nahyan[z]  United Arab Emirates[aa] President Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Sheikh Dhiyab bin Isa Al Nahyan Liwa Oasis (in modern United Arab Emirates) Political dynasties in republics and constitutional monarchies[edit] Main article: List of political families Though in elected governments, rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals in the elected positions of republics, and constitutional monarchies. Eminence, influence, tradition, genetics, and nepotism may contribute to the phenomenon. Family dictatorships are a different concept in which political power passes within a family because of the overwhelming authority of the leader, rather than informal power accrued to the family. Some political dynasties in republics: Street family of Australia Family of Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh Family of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman of Bangladesh Family of Aung San of Myanmar (Burma) House of Medici of Florence Nehru–Gandhi family of India Jinnah family of Pakistan and India Bhutto family of Pakistan Sharif family of Pakistan Chiang family of the Republic of China Family of Sukarno of Indonesia Koirala family of Nepal Somoza family of Nicaragua Lee family of Singapore Family of Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Family of John Churchill of the United Kingdom Trudeau family of Canada Adams family of the United States Bush family of the United States Clinton family of the United States Cuomo family of the United States Harrison family of Virginia of the United States Kennedy family of the United States Kheshgi family of Afghanistan, India and Pakistan Lee family of the United States Long family of the United States Roosevelt family of the United States Taft family of the United States Udall family of the United States Influential and wealthy families[edit] Main article: List of wealthiest families The Agnelli family (Italy) The Ambani family (India) The Anheuser family (United States) The Arison family (United States) The Asper family (Canada) The Astor family (United States and United Kingdom) The Bamford family (United Kingdom) The Bacardi family (Cuba and United States) The Bancroft family (United States) The Baring family (United Kingdom) The Bazalgette family (United Kingdom) The Berenberg-Gossler-Seyler family (Germany) The Bertarelli family (Italy and Switzerland) The Bhutto family (Pakistan) The Botín family (Spain) The Bonnier family (Sweden) The Bronfman family (Canada) The Bulgari family (Italy) The Burke family (Ireland and United Kingdom) The Bush family (United States) The Busch family (United States) The Cabot family (United States) The Cadbury family (United Kingdom) The Carnegie family (United States) The Cholmondeley family (United Kingdom) The Churchill family (United Kingdom) The Cojuangco family (Philippines) The Conran family (United Kingdom) The Curzon family (United Kingdom) The Darwin–Wedgwood family (United Kingdom) The Desmarais family (Canada) The Disney family (United States) The Du Pont family (United States) The Egerton family (United Kingdom) The Faber-Castell family (Germany) The Fabergé family (Russia and United Kingdom) The Fleming family (United Kingdom) The Florio family (Italy) The Forbes family (United States) The Forbes family (publishers) (United States) The Ford family (United States) The Forte family (United Kingdom) The Freud family (Austria and United Kingdom) The Fugger family (Germany) The Getty family (United States) The Goldsmith family (Sweden and United Kingdom) The Gooderham family (Canada) The Gough-Calthorpe family (United Kingdom) The Grosvenor family (United Kingdom) The Guggenheim family (United States) The Guinness family (Ireland) The Gyllenhaal family (Sweden and United States) The Hearst family (United States) The Heinz Family (United States) The Harmsworth family (United Kingdom) The Hilton family (United States) The Howard family (United Kingdom) The Irving family (Canada) The Jinnah family (India and Pakistan) The Kennedy family (United States) The Keswick family (East Asia and United Kingdom) The Kheshgi family (South Asia) The Kim family (North Korea) The Koç family (Turkey) The Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach family (Germany) The Lascelles family (United Kingdom) The Latsis family (Greece) The Lee family (United States) The Lehman family (United States) The Li family (China) The Livingston family (United States) The Louis-Dreyfus family (France and United States) The Mason family (United States) The McCormick family (United States) The Medici family (Italy) The Mellon family (United States) The Mendelssohn family (Europe) The Merck family (Germany and United States) The Mirvish family (Canada) The Mittal family (United Kingdom and India) The Molson family (Canada) The Molyneux family (United Kingdom) The Montefiore family (Morocco, Italy and United Kingdom) The Morgan family (United States) The Murdoch family (Australia and United States) The Newhouse family (United States) The Oppenheim family (Germany) The Oppenheimer family (South Africa) The Packer Family (Australia) The Pattison family (Canada) The Peugeot family (France) The Porsche family (Austria) The Premji family (India) The Pritzker family (United States) The Rausing family (Sweden and United Kingdom) The Redpath family (Canada) The Roosevelt family (United States) The Rothschild family (France and United Kingdom) The Rockefeller family (United States) The Rupert family (South Africa) The Sackler family (United States) The Sainsbury family (United Kingdom) The Sassoon family (Iraq, India, China and United Kingdom) The Sawiris family (Egypt) The Schröder family (United Kingdom) The Shinawatra family (Thailand) The Spencer family (United Kingdom) The Stroganov family (Russia and Eastern Europe) The Sulzberger family (United States) The Swire family (East Asia and United Kingdom) The Taft family (United States) The Taittinger family (France) The Tata family (India) The Thomson family (Canada) The Thynn family (United Kingdom) The Thyssen family (Germany) The Tjin-A-Djie family (Suriname) The Tolstoy family (Russia and United Kingdom) The Toyoda family (Japan) The Trump family (United States) The Vanderbilt family (United States) The Villiers family (United Kingdom) The Wallenberg family (Sweden) The Walton family (United States) The Warburg family (Germany) The Welser family (Germany) The Weston family (Canada) The Whitney family (United States) The Wittgenstein family (Austria) The Zardari family (Pakistan) The Zobel de Ayala family (Philippines) See also[edit] Main article: Lists of dynasties Cadet branch Commonwealth realm Conquest dynasty Dynastic cycle Dynastic order Dynastic union Elective monarchy Family dictatorship Family seat Heads of former ruling families Hereditary monarchy Iranian Intermezzo List of current constituent monarchs List of current monarchies List of current monarchies by continent List of current monarchs of sovereign states List of current pretenders List of empires List of family trees List of kingdoms and royal dynasties List of largest empires List of monarchies List of noble houses Non-sovereign monarchy Realm Royal family Royal household Royal intermarriage Self-proclaimed monarchy Notes[edit] ^ Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include:  Principality of Andorra Holy See (ruling the   Vatican City State)  Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta ^ The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while William I was the dynastic founder of the House of Orange-Nassau which currently rules over the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. ^ Not to be confused with dynastic seat. ^ The House of Windsor is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in AD 1917. ^ A sovereign state with Elizabeth II as its monarch and head of state is known as a Commonwealth realm. ^ George V was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha prior to AD 1917. ^ Including: Australian Antarctic Territory Coral Sea Islands Territory Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands  Territory of Christmas Island  Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands  Territory of Norfolk Island ^ The Barbadian monarchy is planned to be abolished by November 2021.[10][11] In consequence, the House of Windsor will cease to be the ruling dynasty of Barbados. ^ The Realm of New Zealand consists of:  Cook Islands  New Zealand  Niue Ross Dependency  Tokelau ^ Including:  Anguilla  Bailiwick of Guernsey (Crown dependency)  Bailiwick of Jersey (Crown dependency)  Bermuda  British Antarctic Territory  British Indian Ocean Territory  Cayman Islands  Falkland Islands  Gibraltar  Isle of Man (Crown dependency)  Montserrat  Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia  Turks and Caicos Islands  Virgin Islands The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor British overseas territories. ^ The House of Belgium is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in AD 1920. ^ Albert I was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha prior to AD 1920. ^ Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable. ^ The House of Norodom is a branch of the Varman dynasty. ^ The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is a branch of the House of Oldenburg. ^ Including:  Faroe Islands  Greenland ^ The Imperial House of Japan, or the Yamato dynasty, is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BC. ^ Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. Emperor Ōjin, traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while Emperor Kinmei, the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned. ^ The House of Hashim is descended from Banu Qatada, which was a branch of the House of Ali. ^ The House of Luxembourg-Nassau is descended from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, which is a branch of the House of Nassau and the House of Bourbon-Parma. ^ The Bendahara dynasty is the ruling dynasty of Pahang Darul Makmur and Terengganu. The Sultan of Pahang is the reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. ^ The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine constituent monarchies of Malaysia, each ruled by a dynasty. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers. ^ The House of Orange-Nassau is a branch of the House of Nassau. Additionally, Willem-Alexander is also linked to the House of Lippe through Beatrix of the Netherlands. ^ The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of:  Aruba  Curaçao  Netherlands  Sint Maarten ^ The House of Borbón-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon. ^ The House of Nahyan is the ruling dynasty of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent President of the United Arab Emirates. ^ The President of the United Arab Emirates is elected by the Federal Supreme Council. The office has been held by the Emir of Abu Dhabi since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in AD 1971. References[edit] Look up dynasty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "house, n.¹ and int, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011. ^ Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". Europe Since Napoleon. New York: Knopf. pp. 79–80. The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power...The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige...Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Maria Theresa of Austria, were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government ^ Liddell, Henry George & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δυναστεία". Hosted by Tufts University's Perseus Project. ^ Liddell & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δυνάστης". ^ Liddell & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δύναμις". ^ Liddell & al. "δύναμαι". ^ a b Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website, 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date). ^ "Monaco royal taken seriously ill". BBC News. London. 8 April 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2013. ^ "Barbados to remove Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and declare republic". The Independent. 16 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020. ^ "Barbados ready to dismiss Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state". The Washington Post. 17 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020. Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynasty&oldid=1025023868" Categories: Monarchy Dynasties History-related lists Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2012 Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 May 2021, at 09:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8182	----	Legio II Adiutrix - Wikipedia Legio II Adiutrix From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman legion II Adiutrix supported Septimius Severus, commander of the Pannonian army, in his fight for the purple. This denarius was struck to celebrate the legion. Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, under emperor Hadrian, showing the Legio II Adiutrix, stationed on the river Danube at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), in Pannonia Inferior province, from AD 106 to at least 269 Legio II Adiutrix ("Rescuer Second Legion"), was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD 70 by the emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79), originally composed of Roman navy marines of the classis Ravennatis. There are still records of II Adiutrix in the Rhine border in the beginning of the 4th century. The legion's symbols were a Capricorn and Pegasus. Contents 1 History 2 Attested members 3 Epigraphic inscriptions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 External links History[edit] The first assignment of II Adiutrix was in Germania Inferior, where the Batavian rebellion was at its peak. After the defeat of the rebels, II Adiutrix followed general Quintus Petillius Cerialis to Britain to deal with another rebellion led by Venutius. During the next years, the legion was to stay in the British Islands to subdue the rebel tribes of Scotland and Wales, with base camp probably at Chester. In 87, the legion was recalled to the continent to participate in the Dacian wars of emperor Domitian. Between 94 and 95, still in Dacia, later emperor Hadrian served as military tribune in the II Adiutrix. In the summer of 106 the legion took part to the siege of the Dacian Capital Sarmisegetusa. After Trajan's Dacian Wars of 101–106, the legion was located in Aquincum (modern Budapest), which would be its base camp for the years to come. Despite this, the legion or vexillations or subunits took part in: Lucius Verus's campaign against the Parthian Empire (162–166) Marcus Aurelius' campaign against the Marcomanni and the Quadi (171–173) Marcus Aurelius' campaign against the Quadi (179–180). The Legion was commanded by Marcus Valerius Maximianus in Laugaricio. Caracalla's campaign against the Alemanni (213) Gordian's campaign against the Sassanid Empire (238) In 193, II Adiutrix supported emperor Septimius Severus during his struggle for the purple. Attested members[edit] Name Rank Time frame Province Source Lucius Artorius Castus centurio between 150 and 250 Aquincum CIL III, 1919 Quintus Antistius Adventus[1] legatus legionis 162–c. 165 Parthian War AE 1893, 88 = ILS 8977; AE 1914, 281; CIL VIII, 18893 = ILS 1091 Marcus Valerius Maximianus[1] legatus legionis 179 Laugaricio AE 1956, 124 Quintus Ranius Terentius Honoratianus Festus[2] legatus legionis between 200 and 250 AE 1965, 240 Aurelius Polion miles ? Pannonia Papyrus from Tebtunis [3] Marcus Vettius C.f. Latronus tribunus angusticlavius before 99 AE 1951, 52 Titus Furius Victorinus tribunus angusticlavius before 140 Aquincum CIL VI, 41143 Publius Cominimus Clemens tribunus angusticlavius c. 162-165 Parthian War AE 1890, 151 Publius Aelius Hadrianus tribunus laticlavius c. 95 Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 3 Epigraphic inscriptions[edit] - Gaio Valerio Crispo veterano ex legione II Adiutrice Pia Fideli. Chester (Deva), U.K. RIB 478. - Lucius Terentius Claudia tribu Fuscus Apro miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis. Chester, U.K. RIB 477. - Lucius Valerius Luci filius Claudia tribu Seneca Savaria / miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis. Chester, U.K. RIB 480. - Gaius Calventius Gai filius Claudia tribu Celer Apro miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / Vibi Clementis (...). Chester, U.K. RIB 475. - Gaius Iuventius Gai filius Claudia tribu Capito Apro / miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / Iuli Clementis annorum XL stipendiorum XVII. Chester, U.K. RIB 476. - Quintus Valerius Quinti filius Claudia tribu Fronto Celea / miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis annorum L stipendiorum XXṾ (...). Chester, U.K. RIB 479. - Voltimesis P̣udens Gai filius Sergia tribu Augusta eques legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis annorum XXXII stipendiorum XIII hic situs est. Chester, U.K. RIB 482. - Gaius Murrius Gai filius Arniensis Foro Iuli Modestus miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / Iuli Secundi annorum) XXV stipendiorum / hic situs est. Bath, U.K. (Aquae Sulis). RIB 157 = CIL VII 48. - Titus Valerius Titi filius Claudia tribu Pudens Savaria miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / Dossenni Proculi annorum XXX aera VI heres de suo posuit hic situs est. Lincoln (Lindum), U.K. RIB 258 = CIL VII 185. - legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / Ponti Proculi Lucius Licinius Luci filius Galeria tribu Saliga Lugdunonnorum XX stipendiorum II. Lincoln (Lindum), U.K. RIB 253 = CIL VII 186. - Quintus Cumelius / Quinti filius / Fabia Celer Bracarensis / veteranus legionis II Adiutricis hic situs annorum LXXV (...). Astorga (Asturica), Spain. CIL II 2639. - Fortunae Balneari sacrum / Valerius Bucco miles legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis / decuria Aemili (...). Segovia, Spain. CIL II 2763. - VICTORIAE AVGVSTORV(m) EXERCITUS QVI LAV GARICIONE SEDIT MIL(ites) L(egionis) II DCCCLV (Marcus Valerius) MAXIMIANUS LEG(atus) LEG (ionis) II AD(iutricis) CVR(avit) F(aciendum). Laugaricio (today Trenčín), Slovakia. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal List of Roman legions Roman legion Notes[edit] ^ a b Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag 1977), p. 298 ^ Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1989), p. 338 ^ Jarus, Owen. "Ancient Egyptian Soldier's Letter Home Deciphered". Retrieved March 7, 2014. External links[edit] roman-britain.co.uk livius.org account of Legio II Adiutrix Familia Gladiatoria - Hungary, Hungarian reenactment group v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legio_II_Adiutrix&oldid=1022806772" Categories: Roman legions Marine forces history Military units and formations established in the 1st century 70s establishments in the Roman Empire 70s establishments Roman marines 70 establishments Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 May 2021, at 16:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8187	----	Temple of Antoninus and Faustina - Wikipedia Temple of Antoninus and Faustina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman temple in Rome Coordinates: 41°53′31.70″N 12°29′12.08″E / 41.8921389°N 12.4866889°E / 41.8921389; 12.4866889 Temple of Antoninus and Faustina 3D reconstruction of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Location Regio IV Templum Pacis Built in 141 AD Built by/for Unknown builder Type of structure Republican tribunal Related List of ancient monuments in Rome Temple of Antoninus and Faustina The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina is an ancient Roman temple in Rome, which was later converted into a Roman Catholic church, the Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Miranda or simply "San Lorenzo in Miranda". It is located in the Forum Romanum, on the Via Sacra, opposite the Regia. Contents 1 Temple 2 Church 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading 7 External links Temple[edit] The temple was constructed by the Emperor Antoninus Pius, beginning in 141 AD. It was initially dedicated to his deceased and deified wife, Faustina the Elder. Because of this, Faustina was the first Roman empress with a permanent presence in the Forum Romanum.[1] When Antoninus Pius was deified after his death in 161 AD, the temple was re-dedicated to both Antoninus and Faustina by his successor, Marcus Aurelius. The building stands on a high platform of large grey peperino tufa blocks. The later of two dedicatory inscriptions says, "Divo Antonino et Divae Faustinae Ex S.C." meaning, “For the divine Antoninus and for the divine Faustina, by decree of the Senate.” Copper alloy coin featuring the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. 141-161 CE. The British Museum. The eight monolithic Corinthian columns of its pronaos are 17 metres (56 ft) in height. The rich bas-reliefs of the frieze under the cornice, featuring griffins, acanthus scrolls, and candelabra, were often copied from the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries. Based on numismatic evidence, the temple was originally fenced off from the Via Sacra and a large, seated statue of Faustina would have been inside of the cella. Fragments of this statue and one of Antoninus Pius, which was added later, were discovered in front of the Temple.[2] Church[edit] The temple was converted into a Roman Catholic church, the Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Miranda, perhaps as early as the seventh century, but it is only attested from the eleventh century work Mirabilia Urbis Romae.[3] "Miranda" may derive from the name of a benefactress.[4] At that time, it was thought that this was the location of the sentencing of St. Lawrence, Deacon and Martyr to death by the Prefect of Rome, hence its dedication. Christianization accounts for the survival of the cella and portico of the temple through the centuries, though it did not preserve the edifice from all damage. Originally, the podium was faced with white marble slabs, with matching marble mouldings at the top and bottom. Most of the marble facing was scavenged, except for the moulding.[2] The deep grooves in the temple's columns are supposed to date to a medieval attempt to dismantle the pillared portico, either for spolia or to destroy the pagan temple. The grooves also may have been used to attach a makeshift roof over the portico.[2] Also in the Middle Ages, a staircase was built on the side facing the Forum, but it is now impossible to enter from that side because there is a gap of circa 6 metres (20 ft) between the foot of the steps and the bronze door. Before the archeological excavations, the ground level was at this door. Excavations in front of the temple were undertaken in 1546, again in 1810, and at intervals from 1876.[5] In 1429 or 1430, Pope Martin V gave the church to the Collegio degli Speziali (Guild of Apothecaries), at the time officially denominated the "Universitas Aromatorium".[6] The College still uses its adjoining guildhall, which contains a small museum that holds a receipt for medicine that Raphael signed. Side chapels were erected after this date. The church lacks the usual eastern apse: one was never added so as to retain the temple's structural integrity. In 1536, the church was partially demolished and the side chapels removed in order to restore the ancient temple for the visit to Rome of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.[7] The church, now constrained within the cella of the temple, was remodelled in 1602 by Orazio Torriani, creating a single nave and three new side chapels. The main altar has a reredos canvas by Pietro da Cortona of the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence (1646), while the first chapel on the left hosts the Madonna and Child with Saints (1626) by Domenichino. See also[edit] List of Ancient Roman temples References[edit] ^ C. Rowan, ‘Communicating a consecratio: the deification coinage of Faustina I’, in: N. Holmes (ed.), Proceedings of the XIV International Numismatic Congress Glasgow, vol. 1, Glasgow (2012), 991. ^ a b c Claridge, Amanda. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. p. 112. ^ Christian Hülsen, Le Chiese di Roma nel Medio Evo (Florence: Olschki, 1927). ^ A fanciful derivation from the Latin mirare ("to admire"), imagined as referring to the excellent panorama of the Forum from the church's steps, diachronically attributes to the medieval public an eighteenth-century appreciation for the picturesque. ^ Platner and Ashby 1929. ^ Filippo Titi, Descrizione delle Pitture, Sculture e Architetture esposte in Roma, 1763. ^ Roma e dintorni, Touring Club Italiano Sources[edit] Claridge, Amanda. 2010. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. 2nd ed., revised and expanded. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Platner, Samuel Ball. 1929. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. (Online text) Touring Club Italiano. 1965. Roma e Dintorni. Milano. Further reading[edit] Boatwright, Mary T. 2010. "Antonine Rome: Security in the Homeland." Yale Classical Studies 35: 169–197. Davies, Penelope J.E. 2000. Death and the Emperor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fulford, Eric 1994. "A Temple Through Time." Archaeology 47.5: 54–59. Levick, Barbara M. 2014. Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Women in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stamper, John W. 2005. The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Library resources about Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (Rome). Temple of Anoninus and Faustina at digitales Forum Romanum by Humboldt University of Berlin v t e Roman Forum Temples Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Divus Augustus Temple of Concord Temple of Castor and Pollux (Lacus Juturnae) Temple of Caesar Temple of Janus Temple of Jupiter Stator (8th century BC) Temple of Romulus Temple of Saturn (Altar of Saturn) Shrine of Venus Cloacina Temple of Venus and Roma Temple of Vespasian and Titus Temple of Vesta (House of the Vestals) Portico Dii Consentes Basilicas Basilica Aemilia (Basilica Fulvia) Basilica Julia (Basilica Sempronia) Basilica of Maxentius (Colossus of Constantine) Basilica Opimia Basilica Porcia Arches Arch of Augustus Arch of Tiberius Arch of Titus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Constantine Columns Columna Maenia Column of Phocas Five-Columns Monument Streets Milliarium Aureum Clivus Capitolinus Via Sacra Vicus Jugarius Vicus Tuscus Other List of monuments of the Roman Forum Cloaca Maxima Comitium (Ficus Ruminalis Graecostasis Lapis Niger Mamertine Prison Rostra) Curia (Curia Cornelia Curia Hostilia Curia Julia) Lacus Curtius Puteal Scribonianum Regia Gemonian stairs Tabularium Umbilicus urbis Romae Velian Hill Vulcanal v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. Vitale Other churches List of churches in Rome Castles and palaces Sant'Angelo Castle House of the Knights of Rhodes Domus Internationalis Paulus VI Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Borghese Palazzo della Cancelleria Palazzo Chigi Palazzo Colonna Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo Farnese Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini Palazzo Giustinani Lateran Palace Palazzo Madama Palazzo Malta Palazzo di Giustizia Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Palazzo Mattei Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Pamphilj Palazzo Poli Palazzo Riario Palazzo Ruspoli Palazzo Spada Palazzo Valentini Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli Palazzo del Viminale Palazzo Wedekind Palazzo Zuccari Villa Farnesina Villa Giulia Villa Madama Fountains Api Acqua Felice Acqua Paola Babuino Barcaccia Il Facchino Marforio Moro Nasone Navicella Neptune Nettuno del Pantheon Pianto di Piazza d'Aracoeli di Piazza Colonna di Piazza Farnese della Piazza dei Quiriti di Piazza Nicosia in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere di Ponte Sisto Quattro Fiumi Quattro Fontane Tartarughe Trevi Fountain Tritons Tritone Other landmarks Altare della Patria (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy) Campo Verano Capocci Tower Column of the Immaculate Conception Conti Tower Hospital of the Holy Spirit Milizie Tower Sisto Bridge Spanish Steps Squares, streets and public spaces Appian Way Campo de' Fiori Clivus Capitolinus Piazza Colonna Piazza d'Aracoeli Piazza del Popolo Piazza della Minerva Piazza della Repubblica Piazza Farnese Piazza Navona Piazza di Spagna Piazza Venezia Via dei Coronari Via del Corso Via della Conciliazione Via dei Fori Imperiali Via Sacra Via Veneto Parks, gardens and zoos Bioparco Villa Ada Villa Borghese gardens Villa Doria Pamphili Villa Medici Villa Torlonia Parco degli Acquedotti Museums and art galleries Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Capitoline Museums Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Galleria Borghese Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Galleria Spada Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House MAXXI Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Ara Pacis Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museum of the Liberation of Rome Museo delle Mura Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization National Museum of Oriental Art National Roman Museum Palazzo Colonna Palazzo delle Esposizioni Pigorini National Museum Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Art Apollo Belvedere Augustus of Prima Porta Colossus of Constantine La Bocca della Verità Laocoön and His Sons Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Portonaccio sarcophagus Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel ceiling Velletri Sarcophagus Landscape Seven Hills Aventine Caelian Capitoline Esquiline Palatine Quirinal Viminal Tiber Island Monte Testaccio Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Appian Way Regional Park Capo di Bove Castello Orsini-Odescalchi Frascati Hadrian's Villa Ostia Antica Villa Aldobrandini Villa d'Este Villa Farnese Events and traditions Festa della Repubblica Rome Quadriennale Rome Film Festival Related Vatican City St. Peter's basilica St. Peter's Square Sistine Chapel ceiling Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain United States Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina&oldid=1013378269" Categories: 141 2nd-century religious buildings and structures Temples of the Roman Forum Roman temples of the Imperial cult Roman Catholic churches in Rome 11th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy Conversion of non-Christian religious buildings and structures into churches Antoninus Pius Rome R. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-8201	----	Category:Articles with short description - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with short description From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. See also: Wikipedia:WikiProject Short descriptions This category is for articles with short descriptions defined on Wikipedia by {{short description}} (either within the page itself or via another template). Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Subcategories This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total. A ► Articles with long short description‎ (8,035 P) ► Articles with short description added by PearBOT 5‎ (3,313 P) S ► Short description is different from Wikidata‎ (2,413,209 P) ► Short description matches Wikidata‎ (1,266,143 P) ► Short description with empty Wikidata description‎ (72,828 P) T ► Television episode articles with short description‎ (6 C) Pages in category "Articles with short description" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 3,385,159 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)_ (album) - (−2,3,7) pretzel knot -30- -eaux -gry puzzle -ista (suffix) -lock -logy -ly -ol -ose -yne ! ! (Cláudia Pascoal album) ! (The Dismemberment Plan album) ! (The Song Formerly Known As) ! (Trippie Redd album) !!! !!! (album) ¡ ¡Ay, Jalisco, no te rajes! (film) ? ? (Bersuit album) ? (bistro) ? (film) ? (Lost) ? (Neal Morse album) ? (Nena album) ? (XXXTentacion album) ? (Enuff Z'nuff album) The '?' Motorist ? 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en-wikipedia-org-8202	----	Galen - Wikipedia Galen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). Galen Eighteenth-century portrait by Georg Paul Busch Born September 129 Pergamon, Asia, Roman Empire Died c. 210 Rome, Roman Empire Nationality Greek Occupation Physician Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. 200/c. 216), often Anglicized as Galen and sometimes known as Galen of Pergamon (/ˈɡeɪlən/),[1] was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.[2][3][4] Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,[5] physiology, pathology,[6] pharmacology,[7] and neurology, as well as philosophy[8] and logic. The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen travelled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors. Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism (also known as the theory of the four humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm), as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. Galen's views dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were based mainly on the dissection of monkeys. However, while dissecting them he discovered that their facial expressions were too much like those of humans; thus, he switched to other animals, especially pigs. The reason for using animals to discover the human body was due to the fact that dissections and vivisections on humans were strictly prohibited at the time. Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body. Galen’s most famous experiment that he recreated in public was the squealing pig. The squealing pig experiment was when Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would cut the nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound. His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius[9][10] where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.[11] Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system remained unchallenged until ca. 1242, when Ibn al-Nafis published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li’ Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in which he reported his discovery of pulmonary circulation.[12] Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise titled That the Best Physician Is Also a Philosopher.[13][14][15] Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects,[16] and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.[17][18][19] Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed and some credited to him are believed to be spurious. Although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died. Contents 1 Early life: 129–161 2 Later years: 162–217 2.1 The Antonine Plague 2.2 Eudemus 2.3 Death 3 Contributions to medicine 4 Contributions to philosophy 4.1 Opposition to the Stoics 4.2 Localization of function 5 Mind–body problem 6 Psychotherapy 7 Published works 8 Legacy 8.1 Late antiquity 8.2 Influence on medicine in the Islamic world 8.3 Reintroduction to the Latin West 8.4 Renaissance 8.5 Contemporary scholarship 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Sources 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 13 External links Early life: 129–161[edit] Galen's name Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from the adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.[20] Galen’s hometown of Pergamum happened to be the site of a large shrine to the healing god, Asclepius, which Galen’s father claimed to have had a dream about, leading Galen to start studying medicine.[21] Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. He was born in September 129.[4] His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy patrician, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its library, second only to that in Alexandria,[6][22] and attracted both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However, Galen states that in around 145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius (Aesculapius) appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine. Again, no expense was spared, and following his earlier liberal education, at 16 he began studies at the prestigious local sanctuary or Asclepieum dedicated to Asclepius, god of medicine, as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four years. There he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood. Romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, and Cuspius Rufinus the Consul.[4] Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching[23] and travelled and studied widely including such destinations as Smyrna (now Izmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia. Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.[4][24][25][26] Later years: 162–217[edit] Modern statue of Galen in his home town, Pergamon Galen went to Rome in 162 and made his mark as a practicing physician. His impatience brought him into conflict with other doctors and he felt menaced by them. His demonstrations there antagonized the less skilled and more conservative physicians in the city. When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.[27] Rome had engaged in foreign wars in 161; Marcus Aurelius and his colleague Lucius Verus were in the north fighting the Marcomanni.[28] During the autumn of 169 when Roman troops were returning to Aquileia, a great plague broke out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as the court physician. The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving a report that Asclepius was against the project.[29] He was left behind to act as physician to the imperial heir Commodus. It was here in court that Galen wrote extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague. Galen was the physician to Commodus for much of the emperor’s life and treated his common illnesses. According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus’ reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome. This was most likely the same plague that struck Rome during Marcus Aurelius’ reign.[29] Galen became physician to Septimius Severus during his reign in Rome. Galen compliments Severus and Caracalla on keeping a supply of drugs for their friends and mentions three cases in which they had been of use in 198.[27] The Antonine Plague[edit] Main article: Antonine Plague The 'Galen' group of physicians in an image from the Vienna Dioscurides; he is depicted top center. The Antonine Plague was named after Marcus Aurelius’ family name of Antoninus. It was also known as the Plague of Galen and held an important place in medicinal history because of its association with Galen. He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first struck in 166, and was also present in the winter of 168–69 during an outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia. He had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long lasting, and described its symptoms and his treatment of it. Unfortunately, his references to the plague are scattered and brief. Galen was not trying to present a description of the disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested in the treatment and physical effects of the disease. For example, in his writings about a young man afflicted with the plague, he concentrated on the treatment of internal and external ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged with incredible fury; it carried off innumerable victims. The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague that visited it in the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths. Otto Seeck believes that over half the population of the empire perished. J. F. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century.[29] Although Galen's description is incomplete, it is sufficient to enable a firm identification of the disease as smallpox. Galen notes that the exanthema covered the victim's entire body and was usually black. The exanthem became rough and scabby where there was no ulceration. He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was pustular. His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one Thucydides described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools. If the stool was very black, the patient died. He says that the amount of black stools varied. It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions. He observes that in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema appeared. Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath, catarrh, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.[29] Eudemus[edit] When the Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill with quartan fever, Galen felt obliged to treat him "since he was my teacher and I happened to live nearby."[30] Galen wrote: "I return to the case of Eudemus. He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as it was now mid-winter."[31] Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use of the prognosis in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with the then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and mysticism. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, one must observe and reason. This was the basis of his criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos."[32] However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more to the same effect; he added that if they were not able to harm me by unscrupulous conduct they would proceed to attempts at poisoning. Among other things he told me that, some ten years before, a young man had come to the city and had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put to death by poison, together with two servants who accompanied him."[33] Garcia-Ballester says the following of Galen’s use of prognosis: "In modern medicine, we are used to distinguishing between the diagnostic judgment (the scientific knowledge of what a patient has) and the prognostic judgment (the conjecture about what will happen to him.) For Galen, to understand a clinical case technically, ‘to diagnose’, was, among other things, to know with greater or lesser certainty the outcome for the patient, ‘to prognosticate’. Prognosis, then, is one of the essential problems and most important objectives of Galenic diagnosis. Galen was concerned with distinguishing prognosis from divination or prophecy, both to improve diagnosis technically and to enhance the physician's reputation."[34] Death[edit] The 11th-century Suda lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199. However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources[35] that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 217. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in the tenth century. Nutton[36] believes that "On Theriac to Piso" is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the Suda has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot[37] more or less concurs and favours a date of 216. Contributions to medicine[edit] Further information: Humorism Galen contributed a substantial amount to the Hippocratic understanding of pathology. Under Hippocrates' bodily humors theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology of human temperaments. In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humour corresponded with a particular human temperament (blood—sanguine, black bile—melancholic, yellow bile—choleric, and phlegm—phlegmatic). Thus, individuals with sanguine temperaments are extroverted and social; choleric people have energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterised by dependability, kindness, and affection.[38] Many theorist just like Galen believed that sickness came from an imbalance in the body and that the best way to treat an imbalance was by bleeding, enemas, and vomiting. However, the practice of blood letting is no longer used today. Galen dissecting a monkey, as imagined by Veloso Salgado in 1906 Galen's principal interest was in human anatomy, but Roman law had prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since about 150 BC.[39] Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and dead animals, mostly focusing on primates.[6] This work was useful because Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the trachea and was the first to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice.[40][41] In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.[42][43] Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century in Europe. In the middle of the 16th century, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged the anatomical knowledge of Galen by conducting dissections on human cadavers. These investigations allowed Vesalius to refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy. Galen’s research on physiology was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.[44] Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its functions. Many of his findings were accurate and has helped to shape medical science today. Because of Galen this is where we get most of our medical knowledge from. Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the circulatory system. He was the first to recognise that there are distinct differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood. Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory system, and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.[8] Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the rete mirabile in the carotid sinus.[38] Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of Ibn al-Nafis published ca. 1242) shown to be incorrect.[45] Not only did Galen contribute tremendously to the understanding of  the respiratory system, blood and the circulatory system, but he was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, spinal cord, and vertebral column. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the Central Nervous System. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.[46] Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.[47] He worked with pigs and studied their neuroanatomy by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. Although his work demonstrated inevitable anatomical inaccuracies, his research was integral to the future advances in knowledge about the spinal column, vertebrae, and spinal cord. Galen primarily worked on lower animals, such as pigs, Barbary apes, sheep, and goats. These animals were used for dissections and anatomical studies. Due to the taboo at the time of dissection and work with human cadavers, Galen had to draw parallels between the animals he worked on and the human body. This led to some inaccuracies, most notably Galen’s anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog’s. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes. Reproduction was a controversial topic in Galen’s lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible. In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the difference between motor and sensory nerves, discussed the concept of muscle tone, and explained the difference between agonists and antagonists. For 400 years before Galen’s research, it was believed that the arteries carry oxygen rather than blood. Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. He did this through tying off the recurrent laryngeal nerve. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that blood was made in the liver and sent out around the body. Galen was a skilled surgeon, operating on human patients. Many of his procedures and techniques would not be used again for centuries, such as the procedures he performed on brains and eyes.[8] To correct cataracts in patients, Galen performed an operation similar to a modern one. Using a needle-shaped instrument, Galen attempted to remove the cataract-affected lens of the eye.[48] His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of living animals.[49] Although many 20th century historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens to be in the exact center of the eye, Galen actually understood that the crystalline lens is located in the anterior aspect of the human eye.[50] At first reluctantly but then with increasing vigour, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including venesection and bloodletting, then unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticised by the Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but pneuma that flowed in the veins. Galen, however, staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject[51] and in his demonstrations and public disputations. Contributions to philosophy[edit] See also: Philosophy of medicine Although the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought. He regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best practiced by utilizing theory, observation, and experimentation in conjunction. Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists (also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with the Methodists being a smaller group. The Empiricists emphasized the importance of physical practice and experimentation, or "active learning" in the medical discipline. In direct opposition to the Empiricists were the Rationalists, who valued the study of established teachings in order to create new theories in the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat of a middle ground, as they were not as experimental as the Empiricists, nor as theoretical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the natural course of ailments than making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect. Opposition to the Stoics[edit] Galen was well known for his advancements in medicine and the circulatory system, but he was also concerned with philosophy. He developed his own tripartite soul model following the examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as a Platonist.[52] Galen developed a theory of personality based on his understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believed that there was a physiological basis for mental disorders.[53] Galen connected many of his theories to the pneuma and he opposed the Stoics' definition of and use of the pneuma.[52] The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to give a credible answer for the localization of functions of the psyche, or the mind. Through his use of medicine, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, the brain.[52] The Stoics only recognized the soul as having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart. Galen, following Plato's idea, came up with two more parts to the soul.[52] Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic.[54] Localization of function[edit] One of Galen's major works, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to demonstrate the unity of the two subjects and their views. Using their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite soul consisting of similar aspects.[52] He used the same terms as Plato, referring to the three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Each corresponded to a localized area of the body. The rational soul was in the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the appetitive soul was in the liver. Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign specific parts of the soul to locations in the body because of his extensive background in medicine.[55] This idea is now referred to as localization of function.[56] Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the time period, which set the precedent for future localization theories. Galen believed each part of this tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributed to the health of the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the organ or organs in question".[56] The rational soul controlled higher level cognitive functioning in an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain.[56] He also listed "imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, voluntary motion and sensation" as being found within the rational soul.[56] The functions of "growing or being alive" resided in the spirited soul.[56] The spirited soul also contained our passions, such as anger. These passions were considered to be even stronger than regular emotions, and, as a consequence, more dangerous.[56] The third part of the soul, or the appetitive spirit, controlled the living forces in our body, most importantly blood.[56] The appetitive spirit also regulated the pleasures of the body and was moved by feelings of enjoyment. This third part of the soul is the animalistic, or more natural, side of the soul; it deals with the natural urges of the body and survival instincts. Galen proposed that when the soul is moved by too much enjoyment, it reaches states of "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inability to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence of too much pleasure.[56] In order to unite his theories about the soul and how it operated within the body, he adapted the theory of the pneuma,[55] which he used to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and how those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system.[55] Galen placed the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma within the brain. He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, to study the transition from vital to psychic pneuma.[55] Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on the other.[55] In his treatise On the usefulness of the parts of the body, Galen argued the perfect conformation of each part of the body and its strict pertinence with its function founded the needy role of an intelligent creator. His creationism was anticipated by the anatomical examples of Socrates and Empedocles.[57] Mind–body problem[edit] Further information: Mind–body problem Galen believed there to be no distinction between the mental and the physical.[56] This was a controversial argument of the time, and Galen fell with the Greeks in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties.[55] He believed that this could be scientifically proven.[56] This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.[52] Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions, rather than individual parts. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification discredited their claims of the separateness of mind and body, which is why he spoke so strongly against them.[56] Psychotherapy[edit] Another one of Galen's major works, On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion, discussed how to approach and treat psychological problems.[53] This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called psychotherapy. His book contained directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading individual, or therapist, had to be a male, preferably of an older, wiser, age, as well as free from the control of the passions.[53] These passions, according to Galen, caused the psychological problems that people experienced. Published works[edit] Main article: Galenic corpus De curandi ratione Galenou apanta (1538) Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from Augustine of Hippo.[58] So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the extant literature from ancient Greece.[24][58] It has been reported that Galen employed twenty scribes to write down his words.[citation needed] Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises,[59] amounting to some 10 million words.[citation needed] Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words,[60] this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In 191, a fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.[61] Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the ancient Greek medical tradition continued to be studied and followed in the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. In the Abbasid period (after 750) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation,[62] while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate from the Latin or Arabic back into Greek where the original is lost.[58][63][64] For some of the ancient sources, such as Herophilus, Galen's account of their work is all that survives. Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write On his Own Books. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued until the Renaissance. Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years. Sources are often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those. No single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy remains as to the authenticity of a number of works attributed to Galen. As a consequence, research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.[22][58] Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4) and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.[65] The most complete compendium of Galen's writings, surpassing even modern projects like the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, is the one compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between 1821 and 1833.[58] This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from the original Greek into Latin (the text is presented in both languages). Over 20,000 pages in length, it is divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages.[citation needed] Many of Galen's works are included in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972. Another useful modern source is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine (BIUM). Legacy[edit] Late antiquity[edit] In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary,[66] the Emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th-century poet George of Pisida went so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen.[67] Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-17th century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe. Hippocrates and Galen form important landmarks of 600 years of Greek medicine. A. J. Brock describes them as representing the foundation and apex respectively.[6] A few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated, in his commentary on Hippocrates, that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped. Thus Galen summarised and synthesised the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, this was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.[68] Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated till long after his death.[6] Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn. The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress.[68] After the collapse of the Western Empire the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West. In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a Synopsis in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making Galenism more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".[6][68] In late antiquity, medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical, with many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's De Sectis.[69] So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through a Galenic lens, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.[68] Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Eastern Christians came in contact with it while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and Western Mesopotamia, regions that were conquered from Byzantium in the 7th century by Arab Muslims. After 750, Muslims had these Syrian Christians make the first translations of Galen into Arabic. From then on, Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.[6] Influence on medicine in the Islamic world[edit] Further information: Medicine in the medieval Islamic world Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major translator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c. 830–870) 129 works of "Jalinos"[70] into Arabic. Arabic sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD 865–925), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings.[64] One of Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad, which is extant in the Library of Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works. A part of the Alexandrian compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body. More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single and compound formulations of both herbal and animal origin. The book provides an insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the Greek and Roman eras. In addition, this book provides a direct source for the study of more than 150 single and compound drugs used during the Greco-Roman period. As the title of Doubts on Galen by al-Rāzi implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis,[71] the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further inquiry. A strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.[72] The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern Unani medicine, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.[73] Reintroduction to the Latin West[edit] Mondino dei Liuzzi, Anathomia, 1541 From the 11th century onwards, Latin translations of Islamic medical texts began to appear in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and were soon incorporated into the curriculum at the universities of Naples and Montpellier. From that time, Galenism took on a new, unquestioned authority, Galen even being referred to as the "Medical Pope of the Middle Ages".[6] Constantine the African was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. In addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Greek, such as Burgundio of Pisa's translation of De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century.[citation needed] However, Galen's influence was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system. An example of this is Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air. Some cited these changes as proof that human anatomy had changed since the time of Galen.[74] The most important translator of Galen's works into Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working on Galen. Niccolò worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of king Robert of Naples. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from a medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.[75] Renaissance[edit] Galen's Opera omnia, dissection of a pig. Venice, 1565 The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.[76] The Renaissance, and the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This New Learning and the Humanist movement, particularly the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek.[6] The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in Basle.[6] Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the Great Lavra of Mt Athos. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the Tree of Jesse, with Galen between the Sibyl and Aristotle.[68] Galen. De pulsibus. (Manuscript; Venice, c. 1550). This Greek manuscript of Galen’s treatise on the pulse is interleaved with a Latin translation. Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as Vesalius in the 16th century.[6] In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as Jacobus Sylvius. Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed. Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model.[77] The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (Nat Fac III xv). However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remaining hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. Michael Servetus, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay in France, was Vesalius' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach,[78] who taught both. In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the Opera Omnia by Galen were very important, beginning from the Aldine Press' editio princeps in Venice in 1525.[79] It was followed in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551. The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as Vesalius, Caius or Janus Cornarius. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría[80][81] presented research that became an accepted communication in the International Society for the History of Medicine,[82] which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in Lyon.[83][84] Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente and William Harvey.[6] Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on bloodletting as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.[85] Contemporary scholarship[edit] Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following renewed interest in his work, dating from the German encyclopedia Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.[58] Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.[86] In 2018, the University of Basel discovered that a mysterious Greek papyrus with mirror writing on both sides, which was at the collection of Basilius Amerbach, a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Basel in the 16th century, is an unknown medical document of Galen or an unknown commentary on his work. The medical text describes the phenomenon of ‘hysterical apnea’.[87] See also[edit] Abascantus Galenic formulation Timeline of medicine and medical technology History of medicine Notes[edit] ^ "Galen" entry in Collins English Dictionary. ^ Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire. David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). University of Michigan Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-472-08568-9 ^ "Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works". Peter Brain, Galen (1986). Cambridge University Press. p.1. ISBN 0-521-32085-2 ^ a b c d Nutton Vivian (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career". Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 158–171. doi:10.1017/S0009838800036600. PMID 11624046. ^ "Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes". Med Hist. 21 (2): 212. 1977. doi:10.1017/s0025727300037935. PMC 1081972. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Arthur John Brock (translator), Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916 ^ Debru, Armelle (7 March 1997). Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16-18 March 1995. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004104037 – via Google Books. ^ a b c Rocca, Dr Julius (16 January 2003). Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century AD. Studies in Ancient Medicine. 26. Brill. pp. 1–313. ISBN 978-9004125124. PMID 12848196. ^ Andreas Vesalius (1543). De humani corporis Fabrica, Libri VII (in Latin). Basel, Switzerland: Johannes Oporinus. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ O'Malley, C., Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564, Berkeley: University of California Press ^ Siraisi, Nancy G., (1991) Girolamo Cardano and the Art of Medical Narrative, Journal of the History of Ideas. pp. 587–88. ^ West, John (1985). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1992). Odysseas Hatzopoulos (ed.). "That the best physician is also a philosopher" with a Modern Greek Translation. Athens, Greece: Odysseas Hatzopoulos & Company: Kaktos Editions. ^ Theodore J. Drizis (Fall 2008). "Medical ethics in a writing of Galen". Acta Med Hist Adriat. 6 (2): 333–336. PMID 20102254. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ Brian, P., 1977, "Galen on the ideal of the physician", South Africa Medical Journal, 52: 936–938 pdf ^ Frede, M. and R. Walzer, 1985, Three Treatises on the Nature of Science, Indianapolis: Hacket. ^ De Lacy P (1972). "Galen's Platonism". American Journal of Philosophy. 1972 (1): 27–39. doi:10.2307/292898. JSTOR 292898. ^ Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy". Journal of the History of Biology. 30 (1): 35–54. doi:10.1023/a:1004266427468. PMID 11618979. S2CID 35323972. ^ Cosans C (1998). "The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 29: 63–80. doi:10.1016/s0039-3681(96)00005-2. ^ γαληνός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ "Galen | Biography, Achievements, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-12-18. ^ a b Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 90-04-06163-0 ISBN 978-90-04-06163-7 ^ "Hippocrates Collected Works I". daedalus.umkc.edu. ^ a b Ustun C. Galen and his anatomic eponym: Vein of Galen. Clinical Anatomy Volume 17 Issue 6 454–457, 2004; ^ Galen; Grant, Mark (7 March 2018). Galen on Food and Diet. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415232333 – via Google Books. ^ Gleason, M. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995 ^ a b D.E. Eichholz, 1951, Galen and His Environment, Greece & Rome 20 no. 59, Cambridge University Press, p. 60–71 ^ Elizabeth C. Evans, 1956, Galen the Physician as Physiognomist, American Philological Association ^ a b c d R.J. Littman and M.L. Littman, 1973 Galen and the Antonine Plague, The American Journal of Philology 94 no. 3, p. 243–255 ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1641 ^ Arthur John Brock, 1929, Greek Medicine, London: J.M. Dent and Songs, Ltd., page 207. ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1663 ^ Arthur John Brock, 1929, Greek Medicine, London: J.M. Dent and Songs, Ltd., page 212. ^ Luis Garcia-Ballester, 2002, Galen and Galenism, Burlington: Ashgate-Variorum, page 1640 ^ Amari, M. Biblioteca Arabo-sicula, 2nd vol., Loscher, Turin, Rome, p. 503-504. ^ Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004 226–7 ^ Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, LXXVII-LXXX ^ a b Mark Grant, 2000, Galen on Food and Diet, Routledge] ^ 'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), page 5 ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1956). translated by Charles Joseph Singer (ed.). Galen on anatomical procedures: De anatomicis administrationibus. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press/Wellcome Historical Medical Museum. pp. 195–207. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (October 1956). "Galen on Anatomical Procedures". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 49 (10): 833. doi:10.1177/003591575604901017. PMC 1889206. ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1528). "De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII, cap. IV". In Nicolao Regio Calabro (Nicolaus Rheginus) (ed.). De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII (in Latin). Paris: ex officina Simonis Colinaei. p. 339. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ A. Barrington Baker (October 1971). "Artificial respiration, the history of an idea". Medical History. 15 (4): 336–351. doi:10.1017/s0025727300016896. PMC 1034194. PMID 4944603. ^ "BBC - History - Historic Figures: Galen (c.130 - c.210)". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2020-12-18. ^ Furley, D, and J. 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JSTOR 639325. ^ Coxe, John Redman, The Writings of Hippocrates and Galen. Epitomised from the Original Latin translations. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1846 ^ Nutton V. Galen in the eyes of his contemporaries. BHM 58(3) fall 1984 315–24 ^ George of Pisida. Hexameron 1.1588f ^ a b c d e "Nutton V. From Galen to Alexander, aspects of medicine and medical practice in late antiquity. Dunbarton Oaks Papers. 38, 1984" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16. ^ Temkin O. Studies on late Alexandrian medicine. Bull Hist Med 3: 405–30, 1935 ^ Dear P. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (2001), 37–39 Archived 2008-10-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ Reflections Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting". Heart Views. 5 (2): 74–85 [80]. ^ Al-Dabbagh S. A. (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation". The Lancet. 311 (8074): 1148. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(78)90318-5. PMID 77431. S2CID 43154531. ^ Unani Tibb. Science Museum, London. http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/unanitibb.aspx accessed 29 Nov 2015. ^ Jones, Raymond F. (1963). "The Anatomist". Stories of Great Physicians. Whitman. pp. 46–47. ^ Weiss, Roberto (1947). The Dawn of Humanism in Italy. London: H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd. p. 19. ^ Stefania Fortuna, "The Latin Editions of Galen’s Opera omnia (1490–1625) and Their Prefaces", Early Science and Medicine 17 (2012): 391–412. ^ Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy". Journal of the History of Biology. 30 (1): 35–54. doi:10.1023/A:1004266427468. PMID 11618979. S2CID 35323972. ^ 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations. Note 481 (.."primum Andrea Vesalem..Post hunc, Michael Villanovanus familiariter milhi in consectionibus adhibitus est, vir in omni genere litterarum ornatissimus in Galenic doctrina, vix illi secundus.." Audrey, Jean ^ J. P. Byrne, Encyclopedia of the Black Death, ABC-CLIO, 2012, p. 231 ^ 2002 “ Michael Servetus in the 'Opera Omnia' of Galenus of 1548–1551 printed by Jean Frellon”, González Echeverría, Francisco Javier. Book of communications, XII National Congress on History of Medicine., Albacete, 7–9 of febrabry, pp 42–43 ^ 2004 "The edition of Lyon of the ‘Opera omnia’ by Galenus of the printer Jean Frellon (1548–1551) commented by Michael Servetus", Francisco Javier González Echeverría and Ancín Chandía, Teresa. In: Medicine in the presence of the new millennium: a historical perspective. Coordinators: José Martínez Pérez, Isabel Porras Gallo, Pedro Samblás Tilve, Mercedes Del Cura González, Minutes from the XII Congress in History of Medicine, 7–9 February 2002, Albacete. Ed. Of the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Cuenca, pp. 645–657. ^ 2011 September 9th, Francisco González Echeverría VI International Meeting for the History of Medicine,(S-11: Biographies in History of Medicine (I)), Barcelona. New Discoveries on the biography of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) & New discoverys on the work of Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) ^ 2011 "The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus", (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Francisco Javier, printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations.pag 194–204 ^ Michael Servetus Research Archived 2017-02-21 at the Wayback Machine Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen, by Michael de Villanueva ^ Brian, P., 1986, Galen on Bloodletting, Cambridge University Press ^ "Selected works of Galen / translated by Robert Montraville Green for Sidney Licht [ca.1953] 1951–1979". National Library of Medicine. ^ "Mystery of the Basel papyrus solved". University of Basel. Sources[edit] The works of Galen are listed in Galenic corpus. Algra K (ed.) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-25028-5, ISBN 978-0-521-25028-3 Boudon-Millot V (ed. and trans.) Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 2007, ISBN 978-2-251-00536-2 Boylen M. Galen. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Brodersen K. Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0962-9 Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 BRILL 1997 ISBN 90-04-10403-8, ISBN 978-90-04-10403-7 Dunn PM. Galen (AD 129–200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep;88(5):F441-3. Everson S. (ed.) Language. Cambridge University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-521-35795-0, ISBN 978-0-521-35795-1 French RK. Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-00761-5, ISBN 978-0-521-00761-0 Gleason MW. Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen’s Anatomy Demonstrations. Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics January 2007 Gleason MW. Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome. Princeton 1995 Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008 ISBN 978-0-521-81954-1 Hankinson R.J. Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought. Oxford University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-19-924656-4, ISBN 978-0-19-924656-4 Houston, George W. (2003). "Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. University of Michigan Press. 48: 45–51. doi:10.2307/4238804. JSTOR 4238804. Johannes Ilberg. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen (2007), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-901362-7-3 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-1-8 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Anasir by Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-2-5 Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.). Kitab al Mizaj of Galen (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; ISBN 978-81-906070-3-2 Kotrc RF, Walters KR. "A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic". Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304 Mattern SP. Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp. 1–18 Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. BRILL 1980 ISBN 90-04-06163-0, ISBN 978-90-04-06163-7 Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam. al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol. VIII, No.2 Nutton V. "Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages", in Lawrence C.(ed.) The Western Medical Tradition: 800–1800 A.D. 1995 Nutton V. Ancient Medicine. Routledge, 2004 ISBN 0-415-08611-6, ISBN 978-0-415-08611-0 Osler W. The Evolution of Modern Medicine 1913. Plain Label Books 1987. Chapter II: Greek Medicine Peterson DW. "Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus". Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977 Siegel RE. Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine, Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources. Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Siegel RE. Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System 1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars) Smith WG. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J Walton 1849 Stakelum JW, Galen and the Logic of Proposition, Rome, Angelicum, 1940 Taylor HO. Greek Biology And Medicine. Marshall Jones 1922. Chapter 5: The Final System – Galen Temkin O. Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973 The Cambridge Ancient History: Second Edition. XI The High Empire A.D. 70–192 Cambridge University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-521-26335-2, ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: TLG van der Eijk P. Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease. Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-521-81800-1, ISBN 978-0-521-81800-1 Watson PB. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Harper & brothers, 1884 Further reading[edit] Boudon-Millot, V. Introduction Générale, Sur L’ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L’excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007. Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. Galen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance. Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum. Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960. Renaissance Concepts of Method. New York: Columbia University Press. Gill, Christopher, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, eds. 2012. Galen and the World of Knowledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Kudlien, Fridolf, and Richard J Durling. 1991. Galen's Method of Healing: Proceedings of the 1982 Galen Symposium. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Lloyd, G. E. R. 1991. Methods and Problems in Greek Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mattern, Susan P. 2013. The Prince of Medicine: Galen In the Roman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. Nutton, Vivian. 2004. Ancient Medicine. London and New York: Routledge. Rocca, Julius. 2003. Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century A.D. Studies in Ancient Medicine 26. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. “Galen on Poetic Testimony” In Writing Science: Medical and Mathematical Authorship in Ancient Greece. Edited by M. Asper, 177-189. Berlin: De Gruyter. Rosen, Ralph M. 2013. “Galen, Plato, and the Physiology of Eros." In Eros Edited by E. Sanders, C. Carey and N. Lowe, 111-27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sarton, George. 1954. Galen of Pergamon. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press. Schlange-Schöningen, H. Die römische Gesellschaft bei Galen. Biographie und Sozialgeschichte (= Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte, Bd. 65) Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003 Walzer, Richard. 1949. Galen On Jews and Christians. London: Oxford University Press. Primary sources[edit] Brock, Arthur John (1929). Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen. London: Dent. Galen (1991). On the Therapeutic Method. R.J. Hankinson, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Galen Wikiquote has quotations related to: Galen Library resources about Galen Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Galen Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Galen at Project Gutenberg Works by Galen at the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum with links to digitized editions, manuscripts and modern translations. Works by or about Galen at Internet Archive Works by or about Claudius Galenus at Internet Archive Singer, P. N. "Galen". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Galen entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Classicsindex: Galen Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library Corpus Medicorum Graecorum editions online Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen" Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk. Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles (in French) Galien's works digitized by the BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris), see its digital library Medic@. Galeni opera varia – Mscr.Dresd.Db.93 Digital Version of the Manuscript at the Saxon State and University Library, Dresden (SLUB) Hypertexts – Medicina Antiqua, University College London (Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams) Michael Servetus Research Website with a study on the Opera Omnia of Galen by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the pulmonary circulation in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546. Claudii Galeni opera omnia in Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii, 1821–1833 in 20 volumines. Discussion of Galens on BBC Radio 4's programme "In Our Time". 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Watson and Francis Crick "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids" Linus Pauling "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" Fred Sanger Max Perutz John Kendrew Sydney Brenner Joshua Lederberg Walter Gilbert Kary Mullis Emmanuelle Charpentier Jennifer Doudna Ecology Rachel Carson Frederic Clements Charles Elton Henry Gleason Arthur Tansley Eugenius Warming Ethology Niko Tinbergen Karl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz Frans de Waal Jane Goodall Ivan Pavlov Related History of science Philosophy of biology Teleology Ethnobotany Eugenics History of the creation-evolution controversy Human Genome Project Humboldtian science Natural history Natural philosophy Natural theology Relationship between religion and science Timeline of biology and organic chemistry Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway 2 Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Encyclopedia of Islam Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galen&oldid=1024778194" Categories: 129 births 3rd-century deaths Ancient Greek anatomists 2nd-century Greek physicians Ancient Greek science writers Greek neuroscientists 2nd-century Roman physicians Court physicians Herbalists History of anatomy History of neuroscience People from Pergamon Aelii 3rd-century Greek physicians Ancient ophthalmologists Middle Platonists Hidden categories: CS1 Latin-language sources (la) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2019 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TDVİA identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 27 elements Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2021, at 01:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-820	----	Dominate - Wikipedia Dominate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "despotic" phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire For the album by Adagio, see Dominate (album). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Dominate is the name sometimes given to the "despotic" later phase of imperial government, following the earlier period known as the "Principate", in the ancient Roman Empire. This phase is more often called the Tetrarchy[1] at least until 313 when the empire was reunited.[2] It may begin with the commencement of the reign of Diocletian in AD 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284, and to end in the west with the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565)[3] or of Heraclius (AD 641).[4] In form, the Dominate is considered to have been more authoritarian, less collegial and more bureaucratic than the Principate from which it emerged. Contents 1 Origin of the term 2 Transition from the Principate 3 Characteristics 3.1 Multiple emperors 3.2 Devaluation of the Consulate 3.3 Transformation of the traditional Senatorial order 3.4 Military reforms 3.5 Religious reforms 3.6 Downgrading of Rome as capital of the empire 3.7 Stylistic changes 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Origin of the term[edit] The modern term dominate is derived from the Latin dominus, which translates into English as lord or master. Dominus, traditionally used by Roman slaves to address their masters, was sporadically used in addressing emperors throughout the Principate, usually in the form of excessive flattery (or political invective) when referring to the emperor.[5] Augustus actively discouraged the practice, and Tiberius in particular is said to have reviled it as sycophancy.[6] Domitian encouraged its use,[7] but none of the emperors used the term in any semi-official capacity until the reign of Aurelian in AD 274, where coins were issued bearing the inscription deus et dominus natus.[8] However, it was only under Diocletian that the term dominus was adopted as part of the emperor's official titulature, forming part of Diocletian's radical reforms.[9] Transition from the Principate[edit] The Dominate system of government emerged as a response to the 50 years of chaos that is referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century. The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Roman state under the Principate, and saw a gradual movement from the collegiate model of government that existed prior to AD 235 to a more formally autocratic version that begins after AD 285.[10] In broad terms, it saw the gradual exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military commands and the parallel elevation of the equestrian orders, the reorganisation of the armed forces and the creation of mobile field armies, changes in imperial dress and ceremonial displays, a religious policy aiming at religious unity, large scale monetary reforms, and the creation of an empire-wide civil bureaucracy.[11] Although Diocletian is commonly thought of as creator of the Dominate, its origins lie in the innovations of earlier emperors, principally those undertaken by Aurelian (AD 270–275)[12] some stretching back to the reign of Gallienus (AD 253–268).[13] and even Trajan during the reign of whom "knights were given an escalating importance in the administration of Rome and the empire."[14] Not all the changes that produced the 'Dominate' were completed by the time of Diocletian's abdication in AD 305; many changes were either introduced or modified by Constantine I. Consequently, just as the Principate emerged over the period 31 BC through to 14 AD, it is only by AD 337 that the reforms that resulted in the Dominate were largely complete.[15] In the opinion of the historian John Bagnall Bury, the system of government, "constructed with the most careful attention to details, was a solution of the formidable problem of holding together a huge heterogeneous empire, threatened with dissolution and bankruptcy, an empire which was far from being geographically compact and had four long, as well as several smaller, frontiers to defend. To govern a large state by two independent but perfectly similar machines, controlled not from one centre but from two foci, without sacrificing its unity was an interesting and entirely new experiment. These bureaucratic machines worked moderately well, and their success might have been extraordinary if the monarchs who directed them had always been men of superior ability. Blots of course and defects there were, especially in the fields of economy and finance. The political creation of the Illyrian Emperors was not unworthy of the genius of Rome."[16] Characteristics[edit] Multiple emperors[edit] Under the Principate, the position of emperor saw the concentration of various civil and military offices within a single magistracy.[17] Augustus and his successors usually took great care to disguise the autocratic nature of the office by hiding behind the institutions of the Roman Republic and the fiction that the emperor was simply the princeps or first citizen, whose authority was granted by the Senate. This role was almost always filled by a single individual, and the date that the Potestas tribunicia was conferred onto that person was the point when imperial authority could be exercised.[18] Over the course of the Principate, it became common for the emperor (or Augustus) to nominate an heir (referred to as the Caesar), but the caesar did not have access to the powers of the emperor, nor was he delegated any official authority.[19] It was during the Crisis of the Third Century that the traditional imperial approach of a single imperial magistrate based at Rome became unable to cope with multiple and simultaneous invasions and usurpations that required the emperor to be everywhere at once. Further, it was their absence which caused usurpations to occur in response to a local or provincial crisis that traditionally would have been dealt with by the emperor.[20] Under the Dominate, the burden of the imperial position was increasingly shared between colleagues, referred to as the Consortium imperii. It was Diocletian who introduced this form of government, under a system called the Tetrarchy, which originally consisted of two co-emperors (augusti) and two respectively subordinate junior emperors (caesars), each of whom shared in the imperial power. This original power sharing model lasted from AD 289 through to AD 324, being undone during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy. With Constantine I’s death in AD 337, the empire was again shared between multiple augusti, lasting until AD 350. The model became a permanent feature of the empire in AD 364 with the accession of Valentinian I, who shared the imperial office with his brother Valens. Barring the 3-year period of solitary rule by Theodosius I from AD 392–395, this approach would last until the overthrow of the last western emperor in AD 476. While each augustus was autonomous within each portion of the empire they managed, all laws that were introduced by any emperor were valid across the entirety of the empire. Devaluation of the Consulate[edit] During the Roman Republic, the office of Consul was the highest elected magistracy in the Roman state, with two consuls elected annually. With the arrival of the Principate, although all real power was invested in the emperor, the consuls were still in theory the head of state, and the calendar year was identified by the two ordinary consuls who began in office at the start of the year.[21] Throughout the Principate, the imperial consulate was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.[22] Consequently, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[23] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.[24] Under the Dominate, the loss of many pre-consular functions and the encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.[25] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger.[26] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.[27] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by time of the Dominate, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded.[28] Transformation of the traditional Senatorial order[edit] Roman Emperor Constantine, who adjusted much of the civil and military reforms initiated by Diocletian One of the key changes in the management of the empire during the Dominate was the large scale removal of old-style senatorial participation in administrative and military functions. The process began with the reforms of Gallienus, who removed senators from military commands, placing them in the hands of the Equites.[29] Under Diocletian, the military equestrian transformation was taken a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military, posts (such as the Legatus legionis). Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by the tripling of the number of provinces and the establishment of dioceses (or super-provinces). The exclusion of the old Italian aristocracy, both senatorial and equestrian, from the political and military power that they had monopolised for many centuries was largely complete. The Senate became politically insignificant, although it retained great prestige.[30] Constantine I, however, re-introduced a limited form of senatorial career, basing the magistracies on previous offices but with changed functions.[31] Beginning with the quaestorship, a role which had acted as a form of apprenticeship for an ambitious senator during the Principate, it was downgraded during the Dominate and assigned to the sons of senators, with the legal qualifying age lowered to sixteen. This was followed by a suffect consulship and/or a praetorship. The office of Praetor had also lost much of its influence, as it had been stripped of its legal functions, so that during the Dominate its purpose was primarily to organise the Ludi Romani.[32] The most prestigious post that a senator could hold under the Dominate was that of Praefectus urbi; during this period the office gained in effective power, as the imperial court was removed from the city of Rome, meaning that the prefects were no longer under the emperor's direct supervision. The most significant change was the return of provincial government to the senatorial order, with the larger or more important provinces handed over to those senators who had held an ordinary consulship. However, unlike the time of the Principate, the role of governor was much reduced, being a purely civil magistrate with no military functions, and with provinces greatly reduced in size, and the number increasing from the roughly fifty pre-existing provinces to approximately one hundred.[33] The decline in the functions carried out by the old aristocratic senatorial families acting collegially with the emperor in the running of the empire was offset by the rise of an expanded imperial bureaucracy who served the emperor in a subordinate role. Interposed between the governors and the emperors was the Vicarius and, above him, the Praetorian Prefect, both of which were civilian (non-military) roles. Gone was the division between provinces under the jurisdiction of the Senate and those under the authority of the emperor. Now all provinces, dioceses and Praetorian prefectures were under the authority of the emperor.[34] The Praetorian Prefects had wide-ranging administrative, financial, judicial and legislative powers. The provincial governors were appointed at his recommendation, and with him rested their dismissal, subject to the Emperor's approval. The only civilian officials not under the direct oversight of the Praetorian Prefects were the proconsular governors of Africa and Asia, along with the Urban Prefects.[35] The increasing administrative machinery surrounding the emperor resulted in an explosion of bureaucratic offices. These state officials were paid originally both in food and with money, but over the course of the Dominate, the annona (or food ration) was converted into money. Their salaries therefore consumed a considerable chunk of the imperial budget. Although precise numbers are not available, it has been speculated that the state bureaucracy in the Praetorian prefecture of the East and the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, including the diocesan and provincial governor's staffs, would have consisted of somewhere around 10,000 individuals.[36] This figure did not include the staff of the military commanders, or the financial and other central ministries, and contrasts with the estimated 300 state bureaucrats that were employed across all the provinces during the period of the Julio-Claudian emperors.[37] Among the most important offices under the Dominate were the: Quaestor sacri palatii (the officer responsible for drafting the laws, and the Imperial rescripts responding to petitions) Magister officiorum (officer responsible for managing the secretarial departments in the palace, the conduct of court ceremonies, and controlling the special department which dealt with ceremonial arrangements and Imperial audiences) Magistri scriniorum (the emperor's secretaries, belonging to the memoriae, epistularum, and libellorum bureaus) Praepositus sacri cubiculi (the emperor's chamberlain, who exercised a general authority over all officers associated with the imperial court). All important offices automatically carried with them admission into the Senate, thereby further eroding the standing of the traditional aristocratic Senatorial families of the Principate under the Dominate. This resulted in a senatorial body of around 2,000 members during the reign of Constantine,[38] and these numbers only increased when there were two senatorial bodies in existence, one at Rome and one at Constantinople. All the higher officials in the imperial bureaucracy belonged to one of the three classes or ranks introduced by Constantine I – the illustres, spectabiles and clarissimi, all of whom were automatically members of the senatorial order. The heads of the great central civil ministries, the magistri militum and other high level military commanders as well as the Praepositus sacri cubiculi were all graded as illustres, the highest of the new senatorial ranks. The second class (spectabiles) was assigned to a large group of civil servants, including the Proconsuls, vicarii, the military governors in the provinces and the magistri scriniorum.[39] The entry level class, clarissimus, was the minimum qualification for membership of the Senate. It was automatically awarded as part of the governorship of a province, and to a myriad of other lesser officers. It was held by a large number of junior imperial public servants, as well as being awarded to them after their retirement. The generosity of the emperors in bestowing the clarissimus witnessed the gradual erosion in its value. As a consequence, the emperors began to raise many clarissimi graded officials to the rank of spectabiles, which in turn cheapened the highest rank of illustres. This inflationary pressure resulted in the creation of a new senatorial rank before the middle of the 6th century, that of gloriosi. Higher in grading than the illustres, all of the highest state officials were regraded to this rank.[40] Military reforms[edit] The original command structure of the Late Roman army, with a separate magister equitum and a magister peditum in place of the later overall magister militum in the command structure of the army of the Western Roman Empire. Further information: Late Roman army Under the Principate, provinces that contained legions were under the proconsular authority of the emperor, who managed those provinces through designated legates (Legatus Augusti pro praetore), while the units stationed at Rome were under the authority of the Praetorian Prefect. During the Crisis of the Third Century, greater authority over imperial military matters was ceded to the Praetorian Prefects,[41] while the imperial legates took advantage of weakened centralised authority to use the troops under their command to rebel against the emperor and claim the imperial title for themselves. It was Diocletian who initially divided the military administrative apparatus and the civil administration in order to mitigate the risk that future imperial governors or Praetorian Prefects might attempt to seize the throne through force, and then he reorganized both of them.[42] During the Tetrarchy, the Praetorian Prefects were the Emperor's top administrators, ranking just below the Emperor himself in dignity. While initially serving as the Emperor's second in command in all matters of imperial administration (military, civil, judicial, taxation, etc.), during the course of the Dominate the Prefects gradually had portions of their authority stripped from them and given to other offices: the Masters of the Soldiers for military affairs and the Imperial Chancellor for central civilian administration.[43] These reforms were the result of both the lack of officials suitable for the prefect's wide-ranging tasks, and of the desire to reduce the potential challenge to the Emperor's authority posed by a powerful Prefect.[44] The next reforms were undertaken by Constantine I, who reorganised the supreme military command. Two significant parts of the reform are apparent: the separation of military commanders from civil administration and the division of the army into two classes: the Field Armies ("comitatenses") and the Frontier Troops ("limitanei").[45] The Field Armies served as the Empire's strategic reserve to respond to crisis where it may arise whereas the Frontier Troops were permanently stationed along the Empire's borders ("limes"). Recruited from the ranks of the Field Armies were the Palace Troops units ("Palatini"), who accompanied the Emperor as he travelled around the Empire, functioning as the successor to the Principate's Praetorian Guard.[46] Around the same time, Constantine established the new military roles of the Master of the Soldiers ("Magister Militum"), who were the supreme military commanders of the empire. Beginning with the head of the foot troops, the magister peditum ("Master of the Foot"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the magister equitum ("Master of the Horse"), these were established in each of the four Praetorian Prefectures. Over time, the numbers and types of Masters would vary across the empire. The establishment of solely military officials provided for a more professional military leadership. The Masters were all ranked as illustres. Within the East, by the late 4th century, there were Masters of the Soldiers, per Illyricum, per Thracias , and per Orientem. Each of these three Masters exercised independent command over one of the three Field Armies of the Eastern Empire. There were also two Masters of the Soldiers in the Presence (in praesenti) who accompanied the Eastern Emperor and who each commanded half of the Palace Troops. Each of the five Masters were of equal rank.[47] Within the West, there were originally four Masters of the Soldiers; foot and horse per Gallias and per Italiam. Over time, it became more common for the offices (foot and horse) to be combined under a single person, then styled magister equitum et peditum or magister utriusquae militiae ("master of both forces"). By the time of Stilicho, the Master of Both Services was the supreme military commander of the West, ranking only below the Emperor and above all other military commanders, and commander of half the Palace Troops. The Master of the Horse held command over half the Palace Troops and the Field Army of Gaul, but still under the command of the Master of Both Services.[48] To support the Masters of the Soldiers, the Empire established several Military Counts ("Comes rei militaris"). There were six such Military Counts throughout the Empire. The Military Counts were all ranked as spectabiles. Within the East, there was only one Military Count: the Military Count of Egypt ("Comes rei militaris Aegypti"). Unlike the Military Counts of the West, this Count commanded the Frontier Troops stationed in Egypt and reported directly to the Eastern Emperor. Within the West, there were six such Military Counts, one for each of the five Field Armies in Illyria, Africa, Tingitania, Hispania, and Britannia. The sixth military count, the Count of the Saxon Shore ("comes littoris Saxonici per Britanniam"), commanded Frontier Troops along both sides of the English Channel and reported to the Count of Britannia. The five regular Military Counts reported to the Master of Both Services. The various Frontier Troops were under the command of Dukes ("duces limitis" or "border commanders"). These commanders were the closest in function to the Imperial Legates of the Principate.[49] Most Dukes were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province. In the East, the Dukes reported to the Master of the Soldiers of their district whereas in the West they reported to their respective Military Count. Religious reforms[edit] The Dominate saw enormous changes in the official religion of the empire from its pantheistic Principate origins. Its principal feature was the elevation of a supreme deity that all peoples in the empire were to worship. According to John Bagnall Bury, "while in all ancient monarchies religion and sacerdotalism were a political as well as a social power, the position of the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was a new thing in the world, presenting problems of a kind with which no ruler had hitherto been confronted and to which no past experience offered a key. The history of the Empire would have been profoundly different if the Church had remained as independent of the State as it had been before Constantine. But heresies and schisms and religious intolerance on one side, and the despotic instinct to control all social forces on the other, brought about a close union between State and Church which altered the character and spirit of the State, and constituted perhaps the most striking difference between the early and the later Empire."[50] The origins of the change began in the reign of Aurelian, who promoted the worship of Sol Invictus as the supreme deity of the empire.[12] Although the worship of Sol Invictus did not remove the veneration towards the traditional Roman gods, it was seen as a mark of imperial favouritism, and the emperors linked his cult to the well being of the state and on-going military victories of the empire.[51] Next, it was during Diocletian's reign that emperor worship was fully adopted by the emperors, as a method of expressing loyalty to the state.[52] Previously, deceased emperors had been worshiped as divus across the empire. Living emperors had been worshiped as gods in the eastern half of the empire since the time of Augustus, but this was not officially encouraged during the Principate, and it was not introduced into Italy. It was Diocletian who altered this to have the worship of the living emperors as an official part of the religious framework of the entire empire.[53] To facilitate this, Diocletian was linked to the god Jupiter, while his colleague Maximian was associated with Hercules.[54] It was under Constantine I that the religious transformation began to take its late Dominate shape, initially with Constantine officially favouring the worship of a single deity in the shape of Sol Invictus.[55] During the course of his reign, the identification of Sol Invictus as the principal god began to merge with the Christian god.[56] To avoid offending Christians, Constantine abandoned the emperor's formal claim to divinity and ceased to demand sacrifices to the emperor that formed part of the imperial cult.[57] In an attempt to appeal to both Christians and pagans, Constantine adopted two new religious symbols into the imperial iconography, in the form of the Chi Rho and the Labarum.[58] By the time of Constantine's death in AD 337, this process was largely complete, with Constantine officially converting to Christianity on his deathbed. At the Imperial court, Christians began indiscernibly to rise in favour, to the detriment of pagans. This did not begin to immediately hamper the advancement of pagan courtiers after the defeat of Maxentius in 312, as the full effects were not visible until paganism was prohibited at the end of the 4th century.[59] Ultimately, however, as a result of the imperial patronage of Constantine and especially his sons, Christianity rapidly emerged as the official religion of the empire, although many vestiges of the imperial cult took some time to pass (such as the Emperors still assuming the role of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the pagan cults, until AD 381).[60] By the time of Theodosius I, the organisation of the Imperial Church had aligned to the civil administration of the empire. Every city had a Bishop, every province had a Metropolitan, and every civil diocese had an Exarch.[61] At the level of the Praetorian Prefectures sat the five Patriarchates. The Bishop of Rome's authority extended over the whole western or Latin half of the Empire, and included the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. The Patriarchate of Constantinople had oversight over the civil dioceses of Thrace, Pontus, and Asia. The Patriarchate of Alexandria corresponded to the Diocese of Egypt. The Patriarchate of Antioch had jurisdiction over the majority of the Praetorian prefecture of the East, while the smaller Patriarchate of Jerusalem dominated the three Palestinian provinces.[62] The emperors had, over time, conceded many privileges to the clergy and the churches. Firstly, all clergy, like the holders of the pagan religious offices, were exempted from taxation. There were no restrictions placed on churches receiving bequests through wills, and they were given the same rights as the pagan temples had in granting asylum to any who requested it. Bishops were permitted to act as judges in civil cases when both parties had agreed, and no appeal was permitted once the Bishop had made their ruling. The state made increasing use of the ecclesiastical authorities in local administration due to the decline in the civic life of the urban communities, which coincided with the increasing local influence of the bishops. Finally, bishops were given the same role as the defensor civitatis, who was responsible for protecting the poor against exploitation by government officials and defending them from other powerful individuals, during the course of which the bishop could bring cases of illegality directly to the emperor.[63] Downgrading of Rome as capital of the empire[edit] One of the most visible signs of the changes brought about by the Dominate was the downgrading of Rome from its status as the official residence of the emperor. This precedent had already been established by Gallienus in 260, who moved the imperial court to Mediolanum in response to a suspected future attack by the usurper Postumus as well as defending Italy from the ravages of the Alamanni.[64] Rome was increasingly seen to be too distant a residence for the emperor when troubles could erupt along any of the borders of the empire. In the west, Mediolanum was seen to be a much better strategic city for the emperor to be based at, as it gave good access through the Alps northwards to both the Danubian provinces in the east as well as the Rhine provinces and Gaul to the west. Further, it was well positioned to guard against incursions through the alpine passes.[65] This decision was confirmed when Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, and his colleague Maximian informally established Mediolanum as the senior western emperor's official residence.[66] Diocletian, conscious that the Persian threat to the eastern provinces required a continuous imperial presence, placed his eastern capital in the city of Nicomedia. Meanwhile, the Caesars also had imperial residences – Constantius Chlorus was based at Augusta Treverorum, while Galerius sited his residence at Sirmium.[67] After the collapse of the Tetrachy, Constantine I at first placed his imperial capital at Ulpia Serdica before erecting a new imperial capital on the site of the old Greek city of Byzantium. Naming it Constantinople, it finally replaced Nicomedia as the site of the emperor's residence in the east in 330.[68] Constantinople would remain the capital of the eastern provinces throughout the period of the Dominate. In the west, Mediolanum continued to be the imperial residence until the repeated invasions by Alaric I forced the western emperor Honorius to relocate to the strongly fortified city of Ravenna in 402.[69] Ravenna remained the western imperial capital until the loss of Italy in 476. Although Rome was reincorporated into the empire by Justinian I in 540, it was Ravenna which was selected as the official residence of the Exarch, the governor who represented the emperor in Italy. Ravenna would retain this position until 751, when the Byzantine Empire finally lost the central Italian provinces to the Lombards. Stylistic changes[edit] Diocletian and his augusti colleagues and successors openly displayed the naked face of Imperial power. They ceased using the more modest title of princeps; they adopted the veneration of the potentates of ancient Egypt and Persia; and, they started wearing jeweled robes and shoes in contrast to the simple toga praetexta used by Emperors of the Principate. Emperors inhabited luxurious palaces (the ruins of Diocletian's enormous palace in Dalmatia survive to this day; see Diocletian's Palace) and were surrounded by a court of individuals who, only due to the favor and proximity of the Emperor, attained the highest honorific titles and bureaucratic functions. In fact, many offices associated with the palatine life and that suggested intimate relationship with royalty eventually developed connotations of power, such as the offices of Chamberlain and Constable. The titles of Senator and Consul, after the loss of every residue of political power they had had in the Principate, became mere honorifics in the later Empire. Historian David Potter describes the transformation of government under Diocletian when describing the shifts in imagery the Emperor used to display his power (in this case the building of a huge new palace at Sirmium): The style of Government so memorably described by Marcus, whereby the emperor sought to show himself as a model of correct aristocratic deportment, had given way to a style in which the emperor was seen to be distinct from all other mortals. His house could no longer be a grander version of houses that other people might live in: it, like him, had to be different. The adoption of Dominus as a formal title reflected the divine status (divus) that has come to be a prerogative of the Imperial position. Originally an exceptional honour awarded by the Senate to an Emperor posthumously, the elevation had devolved to an expected convention for still-living Caesars. To dissuade the rebellions and usurpations of the Crisis of the Third Century, the Emperors sought the kind of divine legitimacy invoked by Eastern monarchies. Emperors imported rituals such as kneeling before the Emperor, and kissing of the hem of the Imperial robe (proskynesis). Even some Christian emperors, such as Constantine, were venerated after death. In the Eastern Roman Empire after 476 AD, the symbiotic relation between the Imperial Crown in Constantinople and the Orthodox Church led to the distinctive character of the medieval Roman state. Anastasius I was the last emperor known to be consecrated as divus on his death (518 AD). The title appears to have been abandoned thereafter on grounds of its spiritual impropriety (see Imperial cult of ancient Rome for more on the divinity of Roman leaders). The last ruler to use the titles Dominus Noster was Justinian I (died 565), giving place to the title of Basileus ("King"). In the Eastern half of the Empire, and especially from the time of Justinian I, the system of the Dominate evolved into autocratic absolutism.[70] In contrast to the situation in the Principate, however, emperors in the Dominate could not be deified as it was, excepting the two initial decades and the reign of Julian, the Christian period of the Roman Empire. Another clear symptom of the upgrading of the imperial status was the notion of the emperor as an incarnation of the majesty of Rome; thus lèse majesté became high treason.[citation needed] See also[edit] Constitution of the Late Roman Empire References[edit] ^ Menne, I., Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 (2011) p. 21 ^ Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). "Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1007/BF02898434 JSTOR 30224306 ^ Lee, A. 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History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 34 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 257 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 153–157 ^ Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 371 ^ Kelly, Christopher. Bureaucracy and Government. In Lenski, Noel. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (2006), p. 187; Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 101 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 271–273 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 35 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 36 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 36 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 36–37 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 63 ^ Halsberghe, G. H., The Cult of Sol Invictus (1972) pp. 152; 162 ^ Lieu, S. N. C., Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey (1985) p. 93 ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor; Bird, H. W. Liber de Caesaribus (1994) pp. 161–162; Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 46 ^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) pp. 54–55 ^ Williams, S. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery (1996) p. 203 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 280 ^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 206 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 64 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 64–65 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 65 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 88 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 88–89 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 144; 180 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 180 ^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 180–181 ^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 163 ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2009). "Conclusion: A Simple Answer". How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp. 405–415. ISBN 0-300-13719-2. OCLC 262432329. Retrieved 28 July 2011. Further reading[edit] Carson, Robert. 1981. Principal Coins of the Romans, III: The Dominate, A.D. 294–498. London: Brit. Museum Publ. Elton, Hugh. 2018. The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, A Political and Military History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hebblewhite, Mark 2017. The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. London; New York: Routledge. Kelly, Christopher 2004. Ruling the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kulikowski, Michael. 2016. The Triumph of Empire: The Roman World from Hadrian to Constantine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Melounová, Markéta. 2012. "Trials with Religious and Political Charges from the Principate to the Dominate." Sborník Prací Filosofické Fakulty Brnenské University = Studia minora Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Brunensis. Rada archeologicko-klasicka = Series archaeologica et classica. 17.2: 117–130. Minamikawa, Takashi ed. 2015. New Approaches to the later Roman Empire. Kyoto: Kyoto University. Roymans, Nico, Stijn Heeren, and Wim de Clerq eds. 2016. Social Dynamics in the Northwest Frontiers of the Late Roman Empire: Beyond Transformation or Decline. Amsterdam archaeological studies, 26. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Vitiello, Massimiliano. 2015. "Blaming the Late Republic: Senatorial Ideology and Republican Institutions in Late Antiquity." Classical Receptions Journal 7.1: 31–45. 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en-wikipedia-org-8233	----	Aurelia gens - Wikipedia Aurelia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman family See also: Aurelius (disambiguation) and Aurelia (disambiguation) Denarius of Lucius Aurelius Cotta, 105 BC. The obverse is identical with the coins of Lipara, captured by Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC. The reverse depicts the triumph awarded for this victory.[1] The gens Aurelia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome, which flourished from the third century BC to the latest period of the Empire. The first of the Aurelian gens to obtain the consulship was Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC. From then to the end of the Republic, the Aurelii supplied many distinguished statesmen, before entering a period of relative obscurity under the early emperors. In the latter part of the first century, a family of the Aurelii rose to prominence, obtaining patrician status, and eventually the throne itself. A series of emperors belonged to this family, through birth or adoption, including Marcus Aurelius and the members of the Severan dynasty.[2] In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana of Caracalla (whose full name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) granted Roman citizenship to all free residents of the Empire, resulting in vast numbers of new citizens who assumed the nomen Aurelius, in honour of their patron, including several emperors: seven of the eleven emperors between Gallienus and Diocletian (Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus, Probus, Carus, Carinus, Numerian and Maximian) bore the name "Marcus Aurelius". So ubiquitous was the name in the latter centuries of the Empire that it suffered abbreviation, as Aur., and it becomes difficult to distinguish members of the Aurelian gens from other persons bearing the name.[3] Contents 1 Origin 2 Praenomina 3 Branches and cognomina 4 Members 4.1 Aurelii Cottae 4.2 Aurelii Scauri 4.3 Aurelii Orestides 4.4 Aurelii Fulvi 4.5 Aurelii Galli 4.6 Aurelii Symmachi 4.7 Others 5 Stemma of the Aurelii Cottae 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Ancient sources 9.2 Modern sources Origin[edit] The nomen Aurelius is usually connected with the Latin adjective aureus, meaning "golden", in which case it was probably derived from the color of a person's hair. However, Festus reports that the original form of the nomen was Auselius, and that the medial 's' was replaced by 'r' at a relatively early period; the same process occurred with the archaic nomina Fusia, Numisia, Papisia, Valesia, and Vetusia, which became Furia, Numeria, Papiria, Valeria, and Veturia in classical Latin. According to Festus, Auselius was derived from a Sabine word for the sun.[4][5] Praenomina[edit] All of the praenomina used by the chief families of the Aurelii were common throughout Roman history. The Aurelii of the Republic primarily used Gaius, Lucius, Marcus, and Publius, to which the Aurelii Orestides added Gnaeus. The Aurelii Fulvi of imperial times used Titus, Marcus, and Lucius, while the Aurelii Symmachi used Quintus and Lucius. Branches and cognomina[edit] Denarius of Marcus Aurelius Cotta, 139 BC.[6] There were three main stirpes of the Aurelii in republican times, distinguished by the cognomina Cotta (also spelled Cota), Orestes, and Scaurus. Cotta and Scaurus appear on coins, together with a fourth surname, Rufus, which does not occur among the ancient writers. A few personal cognomina are also found, including Pecuniola, apparently referring to the poverty of one of the Aurelii during the First Punic War.[2] Cotta, the surname of the oldest and most illustrious branch of the Aurelii under the Republic, probably refers to a cowlick, or unruly shock of hair; but its derivation is uncertain, and an alternative explanation might be that it derives from a dialectical form of cocta, literally "cooked", or in this case "sunburnt".[7] Marcus Aurelius Cotta, moneyer in 139 BC, minted an unusual denarius, featuring Hercules in a biga driven by centaurs, presumably alluding to some mythological event connected with the gens, but the exact symbolism is unknown. The Aurelii Cottae were prominent from the First Punic War down to the time of Tiberius, after which they faded into obscurity. The last of this family appearing in history include Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus, a friend of Tiberius, who squandered his family fortune through reckless prodigality, and his son, who received a stipend from Nero in order to maintain his household in a manner befitting his illustrious forebears.[8] The Cottae were related to Julius Caesar and Augustus through Aurelia Cotta, who was Caesar's mother. The Aurelii Scauri were a relatively small family, which flourished during the last two centuries of the Republic. Their surname, Scaurus, belongs to a common class of cognomina derived from an individual's physical features, and referred to someone with swollen ankles.[9][10][7] Orestes, the surname of a family that flourished for about a century toward the end of the Republic, was a Greek name, and belonged to a class of surnames of foreign origin, which appear during the middle and late Republic.[11] In Greek mythology, Orestes was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and avenged his father's murder by slaying his own mother, and after escaping the judgment of the Erinyes, became king of Mycenae. The circumstances by which the name became attached to a branch of the Aurelii are unclear, but perhaps allude to some heroic deed, or military service in Greece.[12] The Aurelii Fulvi, who rose to prominence in imperial times, originally came from Nemausus in Gallia Narbonensis.[13] Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the first of the family to attain the consulship, was made a patrician about AD 73 or 74.[14] In the second century, the Aurelii Fulvi obtained the Empire itself, when the consul's grandson, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, was adopted as the successor to Hadrian, becoming the emperor Antoninus Pius. Most of the emperors who followed were born or adopted into the gens, through the end of the Severan dynasty.[13] The surname Fulvus was a common surname, referring to someone with yellowish, yellow-brown, tawny, or strawberry blond hair.[15] The Aurelii Galli were a family that achieved notability during the second century, attaining the consulship on at least three occasions. Their surname, Gallus, had two common derivations, referring either to a cockerel, or to a Gaul. In the latter case, it might indicate that the first of this family was of Gallic descent, that he was born in Gaul, that he had performed some noteworthy deed in Gaul, or that in some manner he resembled a Gaul.[16] The Aurelii Symmachi were one of the last great families of the western empire, holding the highest offices of the Roman state during the fourth and fifth centuries. The Symmachi were regarded as members of the old Roman aristocracy, and acquired a reputation for their wisdom and learning.[17] Members[edit] This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation. Aurelii Cottae[edit] Gaius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, consul in 252 and 248 BC, during the First Punic War, he fought against the Carthaginians in Sicily, taking the towns of Himera and Lipara, and receiving a triumph for his victories in the former year. He was censor in 241, and magister equitum to the dictator Gaius Duilius in 231.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24] Gaius Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, legate of the consul Claudius Marcellus in 216 BC.[25][26][27][i] Marcus Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, plebeian aedile in 216 BC. In 212, during the Second Punic War, he served under the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher at Puteoli. He was appointed decemvir sacrorum in 203, and the following year was an ambassador to Philip V of Macedon. He died in 201.[28][29][27] Gaius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, praetor urbanus in 202 BC, and consul in 200, carried on the war against the Gauls in Italy. When the enemy was defeated by the praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo, Cotta distracted himself by raiding and plundering the countryside.[30][31][32][33] Marcus Aurelius M. f. C. n. Cotta, served as the legate of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus during the war against Antiochus III in 189 BC. He brought Antiochus' ambassadors and other representatives of the east to Rome, where he gave his report to the senate.[34][35][27] Lucius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, military tribune in 181 BC, was one of the commanders of the third legion in the war against the Ligures, together with Sextus Julius Caesar.[36][37] Lucius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, as tribune of the plebs in 154 BC, attempted to use his sacrosanctity as tribune to evade his creditors. Consul in 144 BC, he was denied the command against Viriathus through the influence of Scipio Aemilianus, who subsequently accused him of various crimes. Cotta was acquitted, chiefly out of spite against Scipio.[38][39][40][41] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 119 BC, attempted to prosecute Gaius Marius, then tribune of the plebs, for a law he had proposed to reduce the influence of the optimates in the comitia. Marius threatened to imprison Cotta, and the senate abandoned the consul's scheme.[42][43][44] Marcus Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 139 BC. He married Rutilia, the sister of Publius Rutilius Rufus, consul in 105, and their three sons Marcus, Gaius, and Lucius became consuls in 74, 75, and 65 respectively.[45][6] Aurelia L. f. L. n., the wife of Gaius Julius Caesar, proconsul of Asia early in the first century BC, and mother of the dictator Caesar. Lucius Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 105 BC and tribune of the plebs circa 103; he tried to obstruct the prosecution of Quintus Servilius Caepio by the tribune Gaius Norbanus, but failed. He was praetor in an uncertain year; Broughton places his praetorship circa 95. Cicero describes him as a mediocre orator, who deliberately presented himself as a rustic.[46][47][1] Marcus Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 74 BC, received the province of Bithynia during the war with Mithradates. He was defeated, and lost his entire fleet, for which he blamed his quaestor, Publius Oppius, whom Cicero defended. Cotta himself was later condemned for extortion in his province, on the accusation of Gaius Papirius Carbo.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Gaius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, a distinguished orator, praised by Cicero. During the Social War, he had supported the cause of the allies, and was subsequently exiled until 82 BC. Consul in 75, he attempted to reverse one of Sulla's most onerous laws, arousing the ire of the optimates. He was granted a triumph for his successes as proconsul of Gaul, but died from an old wound on the day before the ceremony.[58][59][60][61] Lucius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, as praetor in 70 BC, carried the lex Aurelia iudiciaria, expanding the classes of persons who could serve on juries. He became consul in 65, after accusing the consuls elect of ambitus, and became a target of the First Catilinarian conspiracy. He was censor in 64, but the tribunes of the plebs compelled him to resign. He was an ally of both Cicero and Caesar.[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, son of the consul of 74 BC, upon assuming the toga virilis, avenged his father by charging Carbo, his father's accuser, of extortion in his province, the same crime for which the elder Cotta had been condemned. Probably the same Cotta who as propraetor of Sardinia in 49, fled to Africa before the arrival of Caesar's legate, Quintus Valerius Orca.[70][71][72] Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, probably a son of the propraetor Marcus, adopted a son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, who became Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus. Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta Maximus Messalinus, son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, was adopted into the gens Aurelia. He was consul in AD 20, and an intimate friend of the emperor Tiberius. He gained a reputation for hostility and cruelty, causing a number of leading senators to accuse him of majestas. The emperor, however, defended him in a missive to the senate, whereupon Messalinus was acquitted. He was also the patron of Ovid.[73][74][75][76] Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, a nobleman who received an annual stipend from the Emperor Nero in AD 58, because he had dissipated his family estate in profligacy. He was doubtless the son of Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus.[77] Aurelii Scauri[edit] Gaius Aurelius Scaurus, praetor in 186 BC, was assigned the province of Sardinia.[78][79] Marcus Aurelius M. f. Scaurus, triumvir monetalis in 118 BC, perhaps the same as the consul of 108.[80] Marcus Aurelius Scaurus,[ii] consul suffectus in 108 BC. As a legate in Gaul in 105, he was defeated and captured by the Cimbri at the Battle of Arausio. Scaurus was slain by the Cimbric chief, Boiorix, when he warned his captors that they could not hope to defeat Rome.[81][82][83][84] Marcus Aurelius (M. f.) Scaurus, a quaestor mentioned in Cicero's oration against Verres.[85] Aurelii Orestides[edit] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 157 BC.[23][86][87] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 126 BC, was sent against the Sardinians, over whom he triumphed in 122. Gaius Gracchus and Marcus Aurelius Scaurus served under his command. Orestes and his brother, Gaius, were orators mentioned in passing by Cicero.[88][89][90][91][23][92] Gaius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, and his brother, Lucius, were orators briefly mentioned by Cicero.[90] Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 103 BC, with Gaius Marius as his colleague. Orestes died during his year of office.[23][93][94] Gnaeus Aurelius Orestes, praetor urbanus in 77 BC, issued a decision that was appealed to the consul Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus. Lepidus sustained the appeal, negating Orestes' decision. Broughton identifies him with the consul of 71.[95][96] Gnaeus Aurelius Cn. f. Orestes, adopted by Gnaeus Aufidius, the historian, assuming the name of Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes. After he failed to win election as tribune of the plebs, he succeeded in obtaining the consulship for 71 BC. Cicero, however, suggests that his election was due largely to the lavish gifts that he distributed among the people.[97][98][99] Aurelia Orestilla, the second wife of Catiline, who reputedly slew his grown son in order to overcome her objection to their marriage. According to Cicero's correspondent, Marcus Caelius Rufus, Aurelia's daughter was betrothed to Quintus Cornificius.[100][101][102] Aurelii Fulvi[edit] Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the grandfather of the emperor Antoninus Pius, was legate of the third legion during the reign of Nero, and subsequently a supporter of Vespasian, under whom he served as consul suffectus circa AD 71, and governor of Hispania Citerior from 75 to 78. He was consul for the second time in 85, together with the emperor Domitian. At one time, he was praefectus urbi.[103][104][105][14] Titus Aurelius T. f. Fulvus, the father of Antoninus Pius, was consul in AD 89, for the first four months of the year.[106][107] Titus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus, afterwards Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius, emperor from AD 138 to 161. He had been consul in AD 120, then distinguished himself as Proconsul of Asia, and was adopted by Hadrian shortly before the emperor's death.[108][109] Marcus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus Antoninus, a son of Antoninus Pius, who must have died before AD 138, as Antoninus had no living sons when he was adopted by Hadrian.[110][109] Marcus Galerius Aurelius T. f. T. n. Antoninus, another son of Antoninus Pius, must also have died before AD 138.[110][109] Aurelia T. f. T. n. Fadilla, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and wife of Lucius Aelius Lamia Silvanus, died shortly after her father was appointed governor of Asia.[109] Anna Galeria T. f. T. n. Faustina, another daughter of Antoninus Pius, married her cousin, Marcus Aurelius, and was empress from AD 161 to her death, about 175. She was noted for her extravagance and intrigues, which the emperor appears to have indulged, or at least tolerated.[111][112][113][114] Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, born Marcus Annius Verus, a nephew of Antoninus Pius, by whom he was adopted on the orders of Hadrian in AD 138, and whom he succeeded as emperor from 161 to 180.[115][116][117] Lucius Aurelius Verus, born Lucius Ceionius Commodus, was adopted by Antoninus Pius upon the latter's adoption by Hadrian in AD 138. He was appointed emperor together with Marcus Aurelius in 161, reigning until his death in 169.[118][119][120][121] Annia Aurelia M. f. Galeria Lucilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married the emperor Lucius Verus. When he died young, a rumour began that Lucilla had poisoned him. Her second husband was the general Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, whom she despised as her inferior. She joined a plot against her brother, the emperor Commodus, but after being detected was banished to Capreae, where she was put to death about AD 183.[122][123][124][125] Annia Galeria M. f. Aurelia Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and wife of Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 167. Their son, Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus, was consul in 200.[126] Titus Aelius Aurelius M. f., son of Marcus Aurelius, probably died young.[117] Titus Aurelius M. f. Fulvus Antoninus Geminus, son of Marcus Aurelius and twin brother of Commodus, died at the age of four, circa AD 165.[117] Domitia M. f. Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, apparently died young.[127] Lucius Aurelius M. f. Commodus Antoninus, son of Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 177 to 192. After a promising beginning, he gave himself over to luxury, self-indulgence, and tyranny. He was assassinated at the end of 192.[128][129][122][130] Annia Aurelia M. f. Fadilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus.[131][132] Vibia Aurelia M. f. Sabina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Lucius Antistius Burrus.[117] Aurelii Galli[edit] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus in an uncertain year between AD 128 and 133.[133] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus Ex. Kal. Jul. in AD 146.[75] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 174.[134] Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 198. Lucius Aurelius Gallus, governor of Moesia Inferior from AD 201 to about 204.[135] Aurelii Symmachi[edit] See also: Symmachi Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus, consul in 330. Lucius Aurelius Avianius Symmachus signo Phosphorius, praefectus urbi in AD 364, and consul-designate for 377. He was a superb diplomat, and among the most esteemed members of the senate.[136][137] Quintus Aurelius L. f. Symmachus signo Eusebius, one of the most respected scholars and rhetoricians of the late fourth century, and a passionate defender of Rome's pagan traditions. He was praefectus urbi in AD 384 and consul in 391.[138][139][140] Quintus Fabius Q. f. L. n. Memmius Symmachus, held a number of high offices, including the quaestorship and praetorship, before becoming proconsul of Africa in AD 415. He was praefectus urbi in AD 418.[141] Quintus Aurelius (Q. f. Q. n.) Symmachus, consul in AD 446 with Flavius Aetius. Quintus Aurelius Q. f. (Q. n.) Memmius Symmachus, consul in AD 485, and praefectus urbi, was the father-in-law of Boethius. Others[edit] Publius Aurelius Pecuniola, a kinsman of the consul Gaius Aurelius Cotta, under whom he served during the siege of Lipara in 252 BC. As a result of his negligence, his camp was set on fire, and nearly captured. As a punishment, Pecuniola was scourged, and demoted to the rank of legionary.[142] Lucius Aurelius, quaestor urbanus in 196 BC.[143][144] Aurelius Opilius, a freedman who became a philosopher, rhetorician, and grammarian, and a friend of Publius Rutilius Rufus, whom he accompanied into exile at Smyrna, around 92 BC.[145] Aurelius Cornelius Celsus, a physician, perhaps named Aulus, rather than Aurelius. He probably lived in the time of Augustus, or at the latest in the mid-first century. He employed a scientific approach to medicine, and his treatise, De Medicina, in eight books, still survives.[146][147][148] Lucius Aurelius Priscus, consul suffectus in AD 67.[149][150] Quintus Aurelius Pactumeius Fronto, consul suffectus in AD 80. He entered office on the Kalends of March, and held the consulate for two months.[151][152] Titus Aurelius Quietus, consul suffectus in AD 82. He served from the Kalends of September, perhaps until the end of the year.[153] Aurelia Messalina, the wife of Ceionius Postumius and mother of Clodius Albinus.[154] Aurelius, a physician, one of whose prescriptions is quoted by Galen.[155] Marcus Aurelius Verianus, governor of Roman Egypt in 188.[156] Marcus Aurelius Cleander, a freedman of Commodus, whom the emperor entrusted with the maintenance of his household, and then the imperial bureaucracy. He enriched himself by selling magistracies, but following a grain shortage in AD 190, the praefectus annonae incited a riot against him. The emperor made no effort to defend his favourite, who was put to death to placate the mob.[157][158][159] Quintus Aurelius Polus Terentianus, governor of Dacia in 193. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus, consul in AD 209. Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus, equestrian governor of Mauretania Tingitana from AD 215 to 217.[160] Aurelius Philippus, the tutor of Severus Alexander, who afterward wrote a life of the emperor.[161] Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vabalathus Athenodorus, king of the Palmyrene Empire. Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, an esteemed poet during the reign of the emperor Carus, and the author of Cynegetica, a treatise on hunting with dogs, most of which has been lost. Several fragments of his other works have survived.[162] Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, a jurist, who probably flourished during the fourth century.[163] Sextus Aurelius Victor, a Latin historian of the fourth century, and the author of several important historical and biographical works. He was governor of Pannonia Secunda under the emperor Julian, and prefect of Rome in AD 389 under Theodosius I.[164][165] Aurelius Clemens Prudentius, a jurist, poet, and Christian philosopher of the late fourth and early fifth century.[166] Aurelius Onesimus, a legionary in the Legio I Illyricorum.[167] Stemma of the Aurelii Cottae[edit] Stemma made from Münzer and Badian.[168][27] Legend Red Emperor Orange Dictator Yellow Censor Green Consul C. Aurelius L. Aurelius C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 252, 248 cens. 241; mag. eq. 231 C. Aurelius Cotta leg. 216 M. Aurelius Cotta aed. pl. 216 C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 200 M. Aurelius Cotta leg. 189 L. Aurelius Cotta trib. mil. 181 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 144 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 119 M. Aurelius Cotta tri. mon. 139 Rutilia L. Aurelius Cotta pr. c. 90 Aurelia C. Iulius Caesar pr. c.92 C. Aurelius Cotta cos. 75 M. Aurelius Cotta cos. 74 L. Aurelius Cotta cos. 65, cens. 64 Julius Caesar cos. 59, 48, 46–44 dict. 49–44 M. Aurelius Cotta propr. 49 Augustus Emperor 27 BC–AD 14 M. Aurelius Cotta M. Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus cos. AD 20 Aurelius Cotta See also[edit] List of Roman gentes Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, emperor from 270 AD to 275 AD. Aurelius, one of the Martyrs of Córdoba - see Aurelius and Natalia Ambrosius Aurelianus, possible historical basis for King Arthur Saint Aurelius, a fifth-century Christian saint Contarini Footnotes[edit] ^ His cognomen is guessed by Badian, thanks to the filiation of Gaius Aurelius Cotta, the consul of 200, which shows that both his father and grandfather were named Gaius. ^ Sometimes misidentified as Marcus Aemilius Scaurus; Scaurus was also a cognomen of the Aemilia gens. References[edit] ^ a b Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. 321, 322. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 436 ("Aurelia Gens"). ^ Salway, "What's in a Name?", pp. 133–136. ^ Paulus, Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo, p. 23. ^ Chase, p. 124. ^ a b Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, p. 263. ^ a b Chase, pp. 109, 110. ^ Tacitus, Annales, vi. 7; xiii. 34. ^ Horace, Satirae, i. 3. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 735 ("Scaurus"), 738 ("Aurelius Scaurus"). ^ Chase, pp. 114, 115. ^ Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies", p. 157. ^ a b Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 210–212 ("Antoninus Pius"), vol. II, p. 189 ("Fulvus"). ^ a b Jones, The Emperor Domitian, p. 52. ^ New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. fulvus. ^ Chase, pp. 113, 114. ^ Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum, v. 147. ^ Zonaras, viii. 14, 16. ^ Orosius, iv. 9. ^ Cicero, Academica Priora, ii. 26. ^ Frontinus, Strategemata, iv. 1. §§ 22, 31. ^ Valerius Maximus, ii. 7. § 4. ^ a b c d Fasti Capitolini, AE 1927, 101; 1940, 59, 60. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 212, 215, 219, 226. ^ Livy, xxiii. 16. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 251. ^ a b c d Badian, Studies, p. 64. ^ Livy, xxiii. 30, xxv. 22, xxix. 38, xxx. 26, 42, xxxi. 3, 5, 50. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 249, 270, 272 (note 7), 313, 315 (note 7), 318, 321, 322 (note 3). ^ Livy, xxx. 26, 27, xxxi. 5, 6, 10, 11, 21, 22, 47, 49. ^ Zonaras, ix. 15. ^ Orosius, iv. 20. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 316, 320, 323. ^ Livy, xxxvii. 52. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 363. ^ Livy, xl. 27. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 385. ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 4. § 2, 5. § 4; viii. 1. § 11. ^ Cicero, Pro Murena, 28, Pro Fonteio, 13, Brutus, 21, Divinatio in Caecilium, 21. ^ Tacitus, Annales, iii. 66. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 450, 470. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Marius", 4. ^ Cicero, De Legibus, iii. 17. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 525. ^ Cicero, Brutus, 115. ^ Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 47, iii. 11, 12, Brutus, 36, 74. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 11, 12 (note 1). ^ Livy, Epitome, 93. ^ Eutropius, vi. 6. ^ Sallust, Historiae, fragmenta, iv. ^ Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis in Cornelio, p. 67. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Lucullus", 5, 6, 8. ^ Cicero, In Verrem, v. 13, Pro Murena, 15, Pro Oppio, fragmenta p. 444 (ed. Orelli). ^ Cassius Dio, xxxvi. 23. ^ Appian, Bella Mithridatica, 71. ^ Valerius Maximus, v. 4. § 4. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 88, 92 (note 1), 111. ^ Cicero, De Oratore, i. 7, ii. 23, iii. 3, 8, Brutus, 49, 55, 86, 88, 90, Orator ad Brutum, 30, 38, Epistulae ad Atticum, xii. 20, In Verrem, i. 50, iii. 7, De Lege Agraria, ii. 22, In Pisonem, 26. ^ Sallust, Historiae, fragmenta ii., p. 206 (ed. Gerlach) ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, i. 37. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 86, 88 (note 1), 96, 103, 111, 113. ^ Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis in Cornelio, pp. 64, 67, 78 ff. ^ Cicero, In Pisonem, 16, In Verrem, ii. 71, In Clodio, 7, De Lege Agraria, ii. 17, In Catilinam, iii, 8, Philippicae, ii. 6, De Domo Sua, 26, 32, Pro Sestio, 34, Epistulae ad Atticum, xii. 21, De Legibus, iii. 19, Epistulae ad Familiares, xii. 2. ^ Suetonius, "The Life of Caesar", 79. ^ Livy, Epitome, 97. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 32. ^ Cornelius Nepos, "The Life of Atticus", 4. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Cicero", 27. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 127, 157. ^ Caesar, De Bello Civili, I, 30. ^ Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, x, 16. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 868 ("Aurelius Cotta", No. 10). ^ Pliny, x. 27. ^ Tacitus, Annales, ii. 32, iv. 20, v. 3, vi. 5 ff. ^ a b Fasti Ostienses, CIL XIV, 244, 245, 4531–4546, 5354, 5355. ^ Cassius Dio, lvii. ^ Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 34. ^ Livy, xxxix. 6, 8. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 371. ^ Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum, i. 863, ii. 785, a. ^ Livy, Epitome, 67. ^ Velleius Paterculus, ii. 12. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 37. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 540, 548, 550 (note 2). ^ Cicero, In Verrem, i. 33. ^ Pliny the Elder, xxxiii. 3. s. 17. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 446, 447. ^ Livy, Epitome, 60. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Gaius Gracchus", 1, 2. ^ a b Cicero, Brutus, 28. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus, 72. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 504, 508, 511, 512, 514, 518. ^ Plutarch, "The Life of Marius", 14. ^ Broughton, vol. I, pp. 553, 562, 565 (note 1). ^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 7. § 6. ^ Broughton, vol. II, p. 88. ^ Cicero, De Officiis, ii. 17, Pro Domo Sua, 13, Pro Plancio, 21. ^ Eutropius, vi. 8. ^ Broughton, vol. II, pp. 121, 125 (note 2). ^ Sallust, Bellum Catilinae, 15, 35. ^ Appian, Bellum Civile, ii. 2. ^ Marcus Caelius Rufus, Apud Ciceronis ad Familiares, viii. 7. ^ Tacitus, Historiae, i. 79. ^ Alföldy, Fasti Hispanienses, 19 ff. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", pp. 190, 199, 200. ^ Fasti Potentini, AE 1949, 23; 2003, 588; 2005, 457. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 191. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Antoninus Pius". ^ a b c d Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 210–212 ("Antoninus Pius"). ^ a b Cassius Dio, lxix. 21. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. 10, 22, 29, 31. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 6, 19, 26. ^ Eutropius, viii. 5. ^ Eckhel, vii. 76. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius". ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. ^ a b c d Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 439–443 ("Marcus Aurelius Antoninus"). ^ Cassius Dio, lxix. 17, 20, 21, lxxi. 1 ff. ^ Aelius Spartianus, "The Life of Hadrian", 23, "The Life of Aelius Verus". ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Verus", "The Life of Antoninus Pius", 4, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 4, 5, 7 ff. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 817 ("Commodus", No. 4). ^ a b Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Marcus Aurelius", 7, 26, "The Life of Lucius Verus", 2. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus", 4, 5. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxi. 1, lxii. 4. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 824, 825 ("Annia Lucilla"). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 102. ^ Eckhel, vii. 76. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxii, Excerpta Vaticana p. 121 (ed. Sturz). ^ Herodian, i. 10–55. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus". ^ Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae, cclii. 8. ^ Muratori, Veterum Inscriptionum, 242, 3; 590, 4. ^ CIL XVI, 173. ^ CIL XI, 7556. ^ Dicționar de istorie veche a României, pp. 399–401. ^ CIL VI, 1698 ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, xxi. 12. § 24, xxvii. 3. § 3. ^ CIL VI, 1699 ^ Codex Theodosianus, 8. tit. 5. s. 25; 12. tit. 1. s. 73. ^ Symmachus, Epistulae, ix. 83. ^ Codex Theodosius, 11. tit. 30. s. 65. ^ Frontinus, Strategemata, iv. 1. § 22. ^ Livy, xxxiii. 42. ^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 336. ^ Suetonius, De Illustribus Grammaticis, 6. ^ Columella, De Re Rustica, i. 1. 14. ^ Quintilian, xii. 11. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 660, 661 ("Aulus Cornelius Celsus"). ^ AE 1914, 219. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Nero", p. 292. ^ Fasti Septempeda, AE 1998, 419; 2007, 106. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 189. ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", p. 210. ^ Julius Capitolinus, "The Life of Clodius Albinus", 4. ^ Galen, De Compositione Medicamentorum Secundum Locos Conscriptorum, v. 5, xii. 892. ^ Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto", p. 302 ^ Herodian, i. 12, 13. ^ Cassius Dio, lxiii. 9, 12, 13. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Commodus", 6, 7, 11. ^ Spaul, "Governors of Tingitana", p. 249. ^ Aelius Lampridius, "The Life of Alexander Severus", 3. ^ Wernsdorf, Poëtae Latini Minores, i. 3, 123, 128, 275 ^ Digesta, 1. tit. 11. s. un. § 1; 22. tit. 5. s. 1, 25; 48. tit. 18. s. 10; 50. tit. 4. s. 18. ^ Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 20. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 1256 ("Sextus Aurelius Victor"). ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 557–559 ("Aurelius Clemens Prudentius"). ^ Intagliata, Emanuele (2018). Palmyra after Zenobia. Oxbow. ^ Münzer, Aristocratic Parties, p. 295. Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Marcus Tullius Cicero, Academica Priora, Brutus, De Domo Sua, De Lege Agraria contra Rullum, De Legibus, De Officiis, De Oratore, Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Catilinam, In Pisonem, In Verrem, Orator ad Marcum Brutum, Philippicae, Pro Fonteio, Pro Murena, Pro Plancio, Pro Sestio. Marcus Caelius Rufus, Apud Ciceronis ad Familiares. Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline), Historiae (The Histories). Cornelius Nepos, De Viris Illustribus (On the Lives of Famous Men). Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satirae (Satires). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History. Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Cornelio (Commentary on Cicero's Oration In Cornelio). Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, De Re Rustica. Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Historia Naturalis (Natural History). Sextus Julius Frontinus, Strategemata (Stratagems). Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae, De Origine et Situ Germanorum (The Origin and Situation of the Germans, or "Germania"). Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars), De Illustribus Grammaticis (On the Illustrious Grammarians). Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War). Aelius Galenus (Galen), De Compositione Medicamentorum Secundum Locos Conscriptorum (On the Composition of Medications According to the Place Prescribed). Cassius Dio, Roman History. Herodianus, History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus. Aelius Lampridius, Aelius Spartianus, Flavius Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pollio, and Vulcatius Gallicanus, Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Abridgement of the History of Rome). Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus (On the Caesars), De Viris Illustribus (On Famous Men). Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae. Codex Theodosianus. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Epistulae. Paulus Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos (History Against the Pagans). Digesta, or Pandectae (The Digest). Paulus, Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo de Significatu Verborum (Epitome of Festus' De Significatu Verborum). Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (Epitome of History). Modern sources[edit] Jan Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603). Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum (New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions), Milan (1739–42). Johann Christian Wernsdorf, Poëtae Latini Minores (Minor Latin Poets), Altenburg, Helmstedt (1780–1799). Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum (The Study of Ancient Coins, 1792–1798). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). René Cagnat et alii, L'Année épigraphique (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated AE), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897). Friedrich Münzer, Roman Aristocratic Parties and Families, translated by Thérèse Ridley, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 (originally published in 1920). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952). Ernst Badian, Studies in Greek and Roman History, Blackwell (1964). Anthony R. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, B. T. Batsford, London (1966). Geza Alföldy, Fasti Hispanienses, F. Steiner, Wiesbaden (1969). Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001). T. P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome", Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Oct., 1974), pp. 153–164. Guido Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p" (List of the Prefects of Egypt from 30 BC to AD 299), in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 17 (1975). Dicționar de istorie veche a României (Dictionary of Ancient Romanian History), Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică (1976). Paul A. Gallivan, "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 290–311 (1974), "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 31, pp. 186–220 (1981). Brian W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian, Routledge, London (1992). Benet Salway, "What’s in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700", in Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 84, pp. 124–145 (1994). J.E.H. Spaul, "Governors of Tingitana", in Antiquités Africaines, vol. 30 (1994). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aurelia_gens&oldid=1028097470" Categories: Aurelii Roman gentes Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 20:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8234	----	Ronald J. Mellor - Wikipedia Ronald J. Mellor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ronald Mellor) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ronald J. Mellor (born September 30, 1940) is a distinguished professor of history at the University of California, Los Angeles.[1] His area of research has been ancient religion and Roman historiography, where he has published a number of books.[2][3] Mellor attended Regis High School in New York City.[4] He received his Ph.D. in Classics from Princeton University in 1968. His previous teaching posts include Stanford University. He has been a Visiting Fellow/Scholar at University College, London, the Humanities Research Centre of the Australian National University, the American Academy in Rome, and the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton University.[2] Bibliography[edit] Ronald Mellor, "θΕΑ ΡΩΜΗ: The Worship of the Goddess Roma in the Greek World" ISBN 3525251386 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1975 Ronald Mellor, "From Augustus to Nero: The First Dynasty of Imperial Rome" ISBN 0870132636 Michigan State Univ. Press 1989 Ronald Mellor, "Tacitus" ISBN 0-415-90665-2 Routledge 1992 Ronald Mellor, "Tacitus: The Classical Tradition" ISBN 0815309333 Garland Books/Routledge 1995 Ronald Mellor, "The Roman Historians" ISBN 0415117747 Routledge 1999 Ronald Mellor, "Text and Tradition: Studies in Greek History and Historiography in Honor of Mortimer Chambers" (with L. Tritle) 1999 Regina Books Ronald Mellor, "The Ancient Roman World" (with Marni McGee) ISBN 0195153804 Oxford University Press 2004 Ronald Mellor, "The World in Ancient Times: Primary Sources and Reference Volumes" (with Amanda Podany) ISBN 0195222202 Oxford University Press 2005 Ronald Mellor, "Augustus and the Creation of the Roman Empire" ISBN 0312404697 St Martin's Press 2005 Ronald Mellor, "Tacitus' Annals" ISBN 0195151933 Oxford University Press 2010 Ronald Mellor, "The Historians of Ancient World" Routledge 1997 (1st ed.); 2004 (expanded 2nd ed.); 2012 (expanded 3rd ed.) ISBN 9780415527163 References[edit] ^ "Chair". ucla.edu. Retrieved August 11, 2017. ^ a b "Ronald Mellor". ucla.edu. Retrieved August 11, 2017. ^ "Mellor, Ronald". worldcat.org. Retrieved August 11, 2017. ^ Mellor, Ronald; Podany, Amanda H., eds. (2005). The World in Ancient Times: Primary Sources and Reference Volume. Oxford University Press. p. 192. ISBN 9780195222203. External links[edit] Official biography Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Poland Other SUDOC (France) 1 This biography of an American historian is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_J._Mellor&oldid=999652071" Categories: 1940 births Living people Princeton University alumni Stanford University faculty University of California, Los Angeles faculty 21st-century American historians Historians of antiquity Regis High School (New York City) alumni Historians from New York (state) American historian stubs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bahasa Indonesia مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 07:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-8258	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Johannesburg Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Pretoria Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this 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en-wikipedia-org-8261	----	Socrates - Wikipedia Socrates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Classical Greek Athenian philosopher (c. 470 – 399 BC) This article or section is in the process of an expansion or major restructuring. You are welcome to assist in its construction by editing it as well. If this article or section has not been edited in several days, please remove this template. If you are the editor who added this template and you are actively editing, please be sure to replace this template with {{in use}} during the active editing session. Click on the link for template parameters to use. This article was last edited by Bhagya sri113 (talk | contribs) 11 seconds ago. (Update timer) This article is about the classical Greek philosopher. For other uses of Socrates, see Socrates (disambiguation). For the Attic orator, see Isocrates. Socrates A marble head of Socrates in the Louvre Born c. 470 BC[1] Deme Alopece, Athens Died 399 BC (aged approximately 71) Athens Cause of death Execution by forced suicide by poisoning Spouse(s) Xanthippe Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Classical Greek philosophy Notable students Plato Xenophon Antisthenes Aristippus Alcibiades Critias Main interests Epistemology, ethics, teleology Notable ideas Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning "The unexamined life is not worth living" Influences Prodicus, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Diotima, Damon Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially his followers, e.g., Plato, Xenophon, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo of Elis Part of a series on Socrates "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony · Socratic method Socratic paradox · Socratic questioning Socratic problem · Socratici viri Disciples Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus · Aeschines Related topics Academic Skepticism · Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics · Platonism · Aristotelianism · Stoicism · Virtue ethics · The Clouds Category v t e Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/;[2] Ancient Greek: Σωκράτης Sōkrátēs [sɔːkrátɛːs]; c. 470 – 399 BC[3][4]) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher[5][6] of the Western ethical tradition of thought.[7][8][9] An enigmatic figure, he authored no texts, and is known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers composing after his lifetime, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. Other sources include the contemporaneous Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos. Aristophanes, a playwright, is the main contemporary author to have written plays mentioning Socrates during Socrates' lifetime, although a fragment of Ion of Chios' Travel Journal provides important information about Socrates' youth.[10][11] Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity, from which Socrates has become renowned for his contributions to the fields of ethics and epistemology. It is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. However, questions remain regarding the distinction between the real-life Socrates and Plato's portrayal of Socrates in his dialogues.[12] Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and in the modern era. Depictions of Socrates in art, literature and popular culture have made him one of the most widely known figures in the Western philosophical tradition.[13] Contents 1 Sources and the Socratic problem 2 Reconstruction of Socrates 2.1 Socrates as a figure 2.2 Socrates as a philosopher 3 Biography 4 Trial of Socrates 5 Philosophy 5.1 Socratic method 5.2 Socrates and the priority of definition 5.3 Socratic ignorance 5.4 Socratic irony 5.5 Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism 5.6 Religion 5.7 Beliefs 5.8 Paradoxes 5.9 Virtue and Knowledge 5.10 Politics 5.11 Covertness 6 Satirical playwrights 7 Prose sources 7.1 The Socratic dialogues 8 Legacy 8.1 Immediate influence 8.2 Later historical influence 8.3 Criticism 8.4 In film 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Sources and the Socratic problem Statue of Socrates in front of the modern-day Academy of Athens Socrates didn't write down any of his teachings and what we know of him comes from the accounts of others; mainly his pupils, the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, the comedian Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary), and lastly Aristotle, who was born after Socrates’s death. The often contradictory stories of the ancient sources make it incredibly difficult to reliably reconstruct Socrates’s thoughts in the proper context; this dilemma is called the Socratic problem.[14] Xenophon was a well educated, honest man but he lacked the intelligence of a trained philosopher and couldn't conceptualize or articulate Socrates’s arguments.[15] Xenophon admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotic stance during wartimes, and courage.[16] Xenophon discusses Socrates in four of his works: the Memorabilia, the Oeconomicus, the Symposium, and the Apology of Socrates—he also mentions a story with Socrates in his Anabasis.[17] Oeconomicus hosts a discussion on practical agricultural issues.[18] Apologia offers the speeches of Socrates during his trial but is unsophisticated compared to Plato's work of the same title.[19] Symposium is a dialogue of Socrates with other prominent Athenieans after dinner—quite different than Plato's Symposium—differing even in the names of those attending, let alone Socrates’s presented ideas.[20] In Memorabilia, he defends, as he proclaimed, Socrates from the accusations against him of corrupting the youth and being against State religion. Essentially, it is a collection of various stories and constituted an apology of Socrates.[21] In a seminal work of 1818, philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon’s accounts, and his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem.[22] Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon on his naïve representation of Socrates—the latter was a soldier and was unable to articulate Socratic ideas. Further, Xenophon is biased in favor of his friend, believing Socrates was unfairly treated by Athens, and sought to prove his points of view rather than reconstruct an impartial account—with the result being the portrayal of an uninspiring philosopher.[23] By early 20th century, Xenophon’s account was largely rejected.[24] Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward.[25] Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades.[26] How trustworthy Plato is on representing Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he wouldn't alter Socratic thought (known as Tailor-Burket thesis) isn't shared by many contemporary scholars.[27] A driver of this doubt is the inconsistency of the character of Socrates he presents.[28] One common explanation of the inconsistency is that Plato initially tried to accurately represent the historical Socrates, but later inserted his views on Socrates’s sayings—under this understanding, there is a distinction among the early writing of Plato as Socratic Socrates, whereas late writing represent Platonic Socrates—a definitive line between the two being blurred.[29] The works of Xenophon and Plato on Socrates are in the form of dialogue and provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought and compose the major part of Logoi Socraticoi, a term coined by Aristotle to describe its contemporary newly formed literature genre on Socrates.[30] As Aristotle first noted, authors imitate Socrates, but the extent to which they represent the real Socrates or are works of fiction is a matter of debate.[31] Xenophon’s and Plato’s accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person—in Xenophon’s portrait, he is more dull, and less humorous and ironic.[16] Plato's Socrates is far from conservative Xenophon's Socrates.[32] Generally, Logoi Socraticoi can not help us reconstruct historical Socrates even in cases where their narratives overlap due to possible intertextuality.[33] Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter’s Academy for twenty years.[34] Aristotle treats Socrates without the bias of Xenophon and Plato, who had an emotional bias in favor of Socrates—he scrutinizes Socrates’s doctrines as a philosopher.[35] Aristotle was familiar with the various written and unwritten stories of Socrates.[36] Athenian comedians, including Aristophanes, commented on Socrates. His most important comedy with respect to Socrates, Clouds, where Socrates is a central character of the play, is the only one to survive today.[37] Aristophanes limns a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophistism.[38] Current literature does not deem Aristophanes’s work as helpful to reconstruct the historical Socrates, except with respect to some characteristics of his personality.[39] Other ancient authors on Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, and Phaedo; all of whom wrote after Socrates's death.[40] Reconstruction of Socrates Two factors emerge from all sources pertaining to the character of Socrates: that he was “ugly” (at least as an older man), and had a brilliant intellect.[41][42] He wore tattered clothes and went barefoot (the latter characteristic made its way into the play The Clouds by Aristophanes).[43][44] He lived entirely within ancient Athens (at least from his late 30s, and other than when serving on military campaigns in Potidaea, Delium, etc.); he made no writings;[45] and he was executed by being made to drink hemlock.[46] Socrates as a figure The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an extent to which it seems possible to rely on the Platonic Socrates, as demonstrated in the dialogues, as a representation of the actual Socrates as he lived in history.[47] At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works, Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said. Also, Xenophon, being a historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate over which Socrates it is whom Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization. As British philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, "Plato, the idealist, offers an idol [Socrates], a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of 'the Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[48] It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work. According to one source, the name Σωκρᾰ́της (Sōkrátēs), has the meaning "whole, unwounded, safe" (the part of the name corresponding to σῶς, sôs) and "power" (the part of the name corresponding to κράτος, krátos).[49][50] Socrates as a philosopher The problem with discerning Socrates' philosophical views stems from the perception of contradictions in statements made by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato; in later dialogues Plato used the character, Socrates, to give voice to views that were his own. These contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu and as recorded by other individuals.[51] Aristotle, in his Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patent that the doctrine virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, Aristotle states Socrates was occupied with the search for moral virtues, being the "first to search for universal definitions for them".[52] The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopher is shown in the following: In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation, that of discussing philosophy. However, in The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays Socrates as running a Sophist school with Chaerephon. Also, in Plato's Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher. Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1791) Two fragments are extant of the writings by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius pertaining to Socrates.[53] Both appear to be from Timon's Silloi in which Timon ridiculed and lampooned dogmatic philosophers.[54][55] Biography Battle of Potidaea (432 BCE): Athenians against Corinthians (detail). Scene of Socrates (center) saving Alcibiades. 18th century engraving. According to Plato, Socrates participated in the Battle of Potidaea, the retreat of Battle of Delium and the battle of Amphipolis (422 BCE)[56] Socrates was born in 469 or 470 BCE in Alopece, a deme of Athens, with both of his parents, Sophroniscus and Phaenarete being wealthy Athenians, thus he was an Athenian citizen.[57] Sophroniscus was a stoneworker while Phaenarete was a midwife.[58] He was raised living close to his father's relatives and inherited, as it was the custom in Ancient Athens, part of his father estate, that secured a life without financial scourges.[59] His education was according to laws and custums of Athens, he learned the basic skills to read and write, as all Athenians and also, as most wealthy Athenians received extra lessons in various other fields such as gymnastic, poetry and music.[60] He married once or twice. One of his marriages was with Xanthippe when Socrates was in his 50s, the other one was with the daughter of Aristides, an Athenian statesman.[61] He had 3 sons with Xanthippe.[62] Socrates fulfilled his military service during the Peloponnesian War and distinguished in three campaigns.[56] During 406 Socrates participated as a member of the Boule to the trial of six commanders since his tribe (the Antiochis) comprised the prytany. The generals were accused that they had abandoned the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy. The generals were seen by some to have failed to uphold the most basic of duties, and the people demanded their capital punishment by having them under trial all together- not separately as the law of Athens dictated. While other members of the prytany bow to public pressure, Socrates stand alone not accepting an illegal suggestion.[63] Another incident that illustrates Socrates attachment to the law, is the arrest of Leon. As Plato describes in his Apology Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos, and told by representatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oligarchy began ruling in 404 BC) to go to Salamis to arrest Leon the Salaminian, who was to be brought back to be subsequently executed. However, Socrates was the only one of the five men who chose not to go to Salamis as he was expected to, because he did not want to be involved in what he considered a crime and despite the risk of subsequent retribution from the tyrants.[64] As a character Socrates was a fascinating man, attracting the interest of Athenian crowd and especially youth like a magnet.[65] He was notoriously ugly—having flat turned-up nose, bulky eyes and a belly—his friends used to joke with his appearance.[66] On top of being ugly, Socrates didn't pay any attention to his personal appearance. He walked barefoot, had only one, torn coat and didn't bathed frequently, friends called him "the unwashed". He restrained from excesses such as food and sex despite his high sex drive, also he did consumed much wine but never was he drunk.[67] Socrates was physically attracted by both sexes- common and accepted in ancient Greece- but resisted his passion towards young men as he was interested in educating their souls.[68] Socrates was known for his self control and never sought to gain sexual favors from his disciplines, as it happened with other older men while teaching adolescents.[69] Politically, he was sitting on the fence in terms of the rivalry between the democrats and the oligarchs in the ancient Athens- he criticizes sharply both while they were on power.[70] Trial of Socrates Main article: Trial of Socrates In 399 BCE, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and for impiety.[71] Socrates defended himself but was subsequently found guilty by a jury of 500 male Athenian citizens (280 vs 220 votes).[72] According to the then custom, he proposed a penalty (in his case Socrates offered some money) but jurors declined his offer and commanded the death penalty.[72] The official charges were corrupting youth, worshipping false gods and not worshipping the state religion.[73] In 404 BCE, Athenians were crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, Spartans sieged Athens. They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants.[74] Because of their tyrannical measures, some Athenians organized to overthrow the Tyrants – and indeed they managed in doing so briefly – but as the Spartan request for aid from the Thirty arrived, a compromise was sought. But as Spartans left again, democrats seized the opportunity to kill the oligarchs and reclaim the government of Athens.[74] Under this politically tense climate in 399, Socrates was charged.[74] The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty because of Asebeia.[74] Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon, of which Anutus was a powerful democratic politician who was despised by Socrates, and his pupils, Critias and Alkiviadis.[74] After a month or two, in late Spring or early Summer, the trial started and lasted a day.[74] The charges stood true; indeed Socrates criticized the anthropomorphism of traditional Greek religion, describing it in several cases as a daimonion, an inner voice. [74] The Socratic apology (meaning the defense of Socrates) started with Socrates answering the various rumors against him that gave rise to the indictment.[75] Firstly, Socrates defended against the rumor that he was an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes' The Clouds, or a sophist – a category of professional philosophy teachers notorious for their relativism.[76] Against these corruption allegations, Socrates answered that he did not corrupt anyone intentionally, since corrupting someone would mean that one would be corrupted back, and that corruption is not desirable.[77] On the second charge, Socrates asked for clarification. Meletus, one of the accusers, clarified that the accusation was that Socrates was a complete atheist. Socrates was quick to note the contradiction with the next accusation: worshipping false gods.[78] After that, Socrates claimed that he was God's gift, and since his activities ultimately benefited Athens, by condemning him to death, Athens would lose.[79] After that, he claimed that even though no human can reach wisdom, philosophizing is the best thing someone can do, implying money and prestige are not as precious as commonly thought.[80] After jurors convicted him and sentenced him to death, he warned Athenians that criticism by his many disciplines was inescapable, unless they became good men.[72] The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787). Socrates was visited by friends in his last night at prison, his discussion with them gave rise to Plato's Crito and Phaedo.[81] Socrates had the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty. He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, however he didn't bring it up. Instead, according to Plato, he asked for free meals daily, or alternatively, to pay a small fine, while Xenophon says he made no proposals.[82] Jurors decided upon the death penalty, to be carried out the next day.[82] Socrates spent his last day in the prison, with his friends visiting him and offering him an escape; however, he declined.[81] The question of what motivated Athenians to choose to convict Socrates remains a point of controversy among scholars.[83] The two notable theories are, first, that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds and, second, on to political ones.[83] The case for being a political persecution is usually objected to by the existence of the amnesty that was granted in 403 BCE to prevent escalation to civil war; but, as the text from Socrates' trial and other texts reveals, the accusers could have fueled their rhetoric using events prior to 403.[84] Also, later, ancient authors claimed in various unrelated events that the prosecution was political. For example, Aeschines of Sphettus (ca. 425–350 BCE) writes: I wonder how one ought to deal with the fact that Alcibiades and Critias were the associates of Socrates, against whom the many and the upper classes made such strong accusations. It is hard to imagine a more pernicious person than Critias, who stood out among the Thirty, the most wicked of the Greeks. People say that these men ought not be used as evidence that Socrates corrupted the youth, nor should their sins be used in any way whatsoever with respect to Socrates, who does not deny carrying on conversations with the young."[85] It was true that Socrates did not stand for democracy during the reign of Thirty, and that most of his pupils were anti-democrats.[86] The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that the accounts of the trial by both Plato and Xenophon mostly focused on the charges of impiety. And, while it was true that Socrates didn't believe in Athenian gods, he did not dispute this while he was defending himself. On the other hand, there were many skeptics and atheist philosophers during that time that evaded prosecution, notably demonstrated in the political satire of The Clouds by Aristophanes that was staged years before the trial.[87] Yet another interpretation, more contemporary and more convincing, synthesises religious and political arguments, since during those times, religion and state were not separated.[88] Philosophy Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Socratic method Main article: Socratic method A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method or method of "elenchus (elenchus or elenchos, in Latin and Greek respectively, means refutation).[89] It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I and other.[90] Socrates would initiate a discussion about a topic with a known expert on the topic, then by dialogue will prove them wrong by detecting inconsistencies in his reasoning.[91] Firstly, Socrates asks his interlocutor for a definition of the subject, then Socrates will ask more questions where the answers of the interlocutor will be in odds with his first definition, with the conclusion the opinion of the expert is wrong.[92] Interlocutor may came up with a different definition which again be placed under the scrutiny of Socrates questions repeatedly, with each round approaching truth even more or realizing the ignorance on the matter.[93] Since the definition of interlocuter represent most commonly, the mainstream opinion on a matter, the discussion places doubt in the shared opinion. Also, another key component of Socratic method, is that he also tests his own opinions, exposing their weakness as with others, thus Socrates is not teaching or even preaching ex cathedra a fixed philosophical doctrine, but rather he humbly acknowledging the man's ignorance while participating himself in searching the truth with his pupils and interlocutors. [94] Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of socratic method or even if there is one indeed.[95] In 1982, preeminent scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos identified a problem on Socratic method- he claimed that even when you disparaging the premises of an argument, you can now conclude that the conclusion is fault.[96] There have been two main lines of replying to Vlastos arguments, depending on whether is accepted if Socrates is seeking to prove wrong a claim. .[97] According to the first line, known as the constructivist, Socrates indeed seeks to refute a claim by his method, and it actually helps us reaching positive statements.[98] The non-constructivism approach holds that Socrates merely wants to establish the inconsistency among the premises and conclusion of the initial argument.[99] Socrates and the priority of definition Socrates used to start its discussion with his interlocutor with the search for definitions.[100] Socrates, in most cases, expects for an someone, who claims expertly on a subject, to have knowledge of the definition of his subject, ie Virtue, or Goodness, before further discussing it.[101] Giving definition a priority to any kind of knowledge, is profound in various of his dialogues, as in Hippias Major or Euthyphro.[102] Some scholars thought have argued that Socrates does not endorse this usualness as a principle, either because they can locate examples of not doing so (ie in Laches, when searching examples of courage in order to define it).[103] In this line, Gregory Vlastos, and other scholars, have argued that the endorsement of the priority principle, actually is a platonic endorsement. [104] Philosophy professor Peter Geach who accepts that Socrates endorses the priority of definitions, finds it though fallacious and he comments: "We know heaps of things without being able to define the terms in which we express our knowledge".[105] Vlastos also, discussing the "Socratic fallacy", detects an inconsistency of Socrates since on one hand he portrays himself as a strong opinioned moral philosopher, on the other hand he is not sure whether his doctrines are true or not.[106] The debate on the issue is still unsettled.[107] Socratic ignorance Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethics (such as areté, goodness, courage) since he does not possess the knowledge of essential nature of such concepts.[108] For example, Socrates says during his trial, when his life was at stake: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he really possesses this art ( technē ), and teaches for so moderate a fee. Certainly I would pride and preen myself if I knew ( epistamai ) these things, but I do not know ( epistamai ) them, gentlemen".[109] In another case, when he was informed that the prestigious Oracle of Delphi declare that there is no-one wiser than Socrates, he concluded "So I withdrew and thought to myself: ‘I am wiser ( sophoteron ) than this man; it is likely that neither of us knows ( eidenai ) anything worthwhile, but he thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas when I do not know, neither do I think I know; so I am likely to be wiser than he to this small extent, that I do not think I know what I do not know".[110] But, in some Plato's dialogue, Socrates appears to credit himself with some knowledge and also he seems strongly opinioned which is weird of a man to hold a strong belief when he posses he has no knowledge at all.[111] For example, at his apology, he says "It is perhaps on this point and in this respect, gentlemen, that I differ from the majority of men, and if I were to claim that I am wiser than anyone in anything, it would be in this, that, as I have no adequate knowledge ( ouk eidōs hikanōs ) of things in the underworld, so I do not think I have. I do know ( oida ), however, that it is wicked and shameful to do wrong ( adikein ), to disobey one’s superior, be he god or man. I shall never fear or avoid things of which I do not know, whether they may not be good rather than things that I know ( oida ) to be bad."[112] This antiphasis has puzzled scholars.[113] There are varying explanations of the inconsistency, mostly by interpreting knowledge with a different meaning but there is a consensus that Socrates holds that realizing one's lack of knowledge is the first step towards wisdom.[114] While Socrates claims he acquired cognitive achievement in some domains of knowledge, in most important domains in ethics he denies any wisdom.[115] Socratic irony There is a widespread assumption that Socrates is an ironist, this is mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle.[116] Irony of Socrates is so subtle and slightly humorous, that often leaves reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun.[117] Plato's Euthyphro is filled with Socratic irony. The story begins when Socrates, is meeting with Euthyphro, a man that has accused his own father for murder- then turning your father to authorities was pretty unpopular. Socrates bites Euthyphro several times, without his interlocutor understanding the irony of Socrates. When Socrates first hears the details of the story, he comments, "It is not, I think, any random person who could do this [prosecute one’s father] correctly, but surely one who is already far progressed in wisdom". When Euthyphro is boasting about his understanding of divinity, Socrates responds "most important that I become your student".[118] Socrates is seen as an ironist ironic commonly when using praises to flatter or when addressing his interlocutors.[119] Socratic irony was detected by Aristotle, but linked to a different meaning. Aristotle used the term eirōneia (a greek world, later latinized and ending up us the english word irony) to describe Socrates self-deprecation. Eironeia, then, contrary to modern meaning, meant to conceal a narrative that was not stated, while today's irony, the message is clear, even though untold literally.[116] Explanation of why Socrates uses irony divides scholars. The mainstream opinion is that has been around since Cicero, perceives irony is adding a playful note to Socrates that grasp the attention of the audience.[120] Another line is that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessable only to those who can separate what parts of his thought are ironic and what is not.[121] Gregory Vlastos identified a more complex pattern of irony in Socrates, where his words have double meaning, in which one meaning is being ironical, the other is not- an opinion that didn't convinced many other scholars though.[122] Not everyone were amused by Socratic irony. Epicourians, the only post-Socrates philosophical school in ancient times that didn't identified themselves as antecessors of Socrates, based their criticism to Socrates to his ironic spirit, while they preferred a more direct approach of teaching. Centuries later, Nietzsche commented on the same issue: "dialectics lets you act like a tyrant; you humiliate the people you defeat"[123] Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism For Socrates, the pursuit of eudaimonia is the cause of all human action, directedly or indirectly- eudaimonia is a Greek word standing for happiness or well-being.[124] For Socrates, virtue and knowledge are closely linked to eudaimonia- how close Socrates consider this relation, is still debatable. Some argue that Socrates though virtue, knowledge and eudaimonia are identical, another opinion holds that for Socrates virtue serves as a mean to eudaimonism (identical and sufficiency thesis respectively).[125] Another point of debate is whether, according to Socrates, people desire actual good- or rather what they perceive as good.[125] Socrates total rejection of acting against your impulses or beliefs (named akrasia ) has puzzled scholars. Most scholars believe that Socrates leaves no space for irrational desires, even though some claim that Socrates acknowledge the existence of irrational motivations but do not have a primary role when someone is judging what action would he take.[126] No-one errs willingly is the hallmark of socratic intellectualism.[127] Socrates intellectualist, giving prominent role to virtue and knowledge. He is also a motivational intellectualist, since he believes that humans actions are guided by their cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of impulses.[128] Socratic priority to intellect as the mean to live a good life, diminishing or placing aside irrational beliefs or passions, is the hallmark of Socratic moral philosophy.[129] Text that support Socrates intellectual motivism, as Socrates thesis is named, are mainly the Gorgias 467c–468e (where Socrates discuss the actions of a tyrant actions that do not benefit him) and Meno 77d-78b (where Socrates explains to Meno his view that no-one wants bad things, unless he doesn't have knowledge of what is good and bad. [130] Socrates total rejection of akrasia (acting because of your irrational passions contrary to your knowledge or beliefs) has puzzled scholars. Most scholars believe that Socrates leaves no space for irrational desires, even though some claim that Socrates acknowledge the existence of irrational motivations but do not have a primary role when someone is judging what action would he take.[126] Religion Socrates religious nonconformity challenged views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries.[131] It was an era when religion was quite different from today- no organized religion and sacred text with the religion intermingling with daily life of citizen who performed their religious duties mainly with sacrifices το gods.[132] Whether Socrates have been piety, a man of religion or a provocateur atheist has been a point of debate since ancient times, his trial included impiety accusations, and the controversy haven't yet ceased.[133] Socrates discusses divinity and soul mostly in Alciviades, Eythyphro and Plato's Apology.[134] In Alciviades he links human soul to divinity. He is discussing and concludes "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself."[135] Socrates discussions on religion, are under the scope of his rationalism.[136] Socrates, at Eythyphro, discussing piety where reaches a revolutionary conclussion far from the age's ussual practice. Socrates deems sacrifices to Gods useless, especially that are reward-driven. Instead he calls for philosophising and pursuit of knowledge as a mean to worship gods, [137] The rejection of traditional forms of piety placed moral burden to ordinary Athenians- who also were his jurors at his trial.[138] Also, Socrates reasoning was providing an wise and just Gods, a perception far from traditional religion that.[138] Belief in Gods is affirmed by Socrates in Plato's Apology, where Socrates says to the jurors that he recognize gods more than his accusers.[139] For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granded, in no of his dialogues did he examined whether gods did exist or not. [140] On Apology, a case for Socrates being agnostic can be made based on Socrates talk of the unknown after death.[141], and in Phaedo (the dialogue with his students in his last day) Socrates hinds on his hopes of the immortality of the soul. [142] In Xenophon's Memorabilia, Socrates constructs an argument resonating with the argument of intelligent design. He claims that since there are lot of features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (ie eyelids), a Maker should have created universe.[140] He then rationally deduce that the Maker should be omniscient and omnipotent and also, created the universe on the advance of humankind, since we naturally have many skills other animals do not.[140] Worthnoting is also that Socrates did speak sometimes of a single deity, other times of gods; meaning he either believed that a supreme deity was in command of other gods, or the various gods were manifestations of the single deity.[143] Beliefs The unexamined life is not worth living Socrates The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presentation of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be the ideas of Socrates himself, but which have been subsequently deformed or changed by Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that Socrates did have his own theories and beliefs distinct from Plato.[144] There is a degree of controversy inherent in the identifying of what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon has not proven easy, so it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might actually be more the specific concerns of these two thinkers instead. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others.[145] If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls". Socrates' assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons. Also, according to A. A. Long, "There should be no doubt that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing, Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine", and, citing Xenophon's Memorabilia, 1.4, 4.3,: According to Xenophon, he was a teleologist who held that god arranges everything for the best.[146] Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother: he says that Diotima (cf. Plato's Symposium), a witch and priestess from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of rhetoric.[147] John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, did not accept the view that Socrates' view was identical with that of Archelaus, in large part due to the reason of such anomalies and contradictions that have surfaced and "post-dated his death."[clarification needed][148] Paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[149] No one desires evil. No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly. Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge. Virtue is sufficient for happiness. The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' utterance, "what I do not know I do not think I know",[150] often paraphrased as "I know that I know nothing." Virtue and Knowledge Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a relevant well known comment is his axiom "I know that I know nothing" which often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato's Apology; the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in early Plato writings on Socrates.[151] But it contradicts other statements of Socrates, when he claims he has knowledge. For example, in Plato's Apology Socrates says: "...but that to do injustice and disobey my superior, god or man, this I know to be evil and base...".(Ap. 29B6-7)[152] Or at his debate with Callicles: "...I know well that if you will agree with me on those things which my soul believes, those things will be the very truth..."[152]But does it reflect a truthful opinion of Socrates or is he pretending he lacks knowledge, is a matter of debate. A usual interpretation is that he is not telling the truth. According to Norman Gulley, Socrates is trying to entice his interlocutors to a discussion. On the opposite side, Irwin Terrence claims that Socrates words should be taken literally. [153] Vlastos after exploring text, he argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims. Vlastos claims that for Socrates, knowledge can take two separate meanings, Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for Certain, and E stands for Elenchus-ie the socratic method). Knowledge-C is the something unquestionable whereas Knowlegde-E is the result of his elenchus, his way of examining things.[154] So, Socrates speaks the truth when he says he knows-C something, and he is also true when he knows-E that is evil for someone to disobey his superiors, as he claimed in Plato's Apology [155] Not everyone was impressed by Vlastos semanic dualism, J.H. Lesher argued that Socrates claimed in various dialogues that one word is linked to one meaning (ie in Hippias major, Meno, Laches).[156] Lesher way out of the problem is by suggesting that Socrates claim that he had no knowledge referred to the nature of virtues, but also Socrates thought that in some cases, someone could have knowledge on some ethical propositions.[157] Socrates theory of virtue stands that all virtues are essentially one since they are a form of knowledge.[158] In Protagoras Socrates makes the case for the unity of virtues using the example of courage: if someone has knowledge of the danger, he can undertake risky tasks- for example a well trained diver can swim in a deep sea cave.[159] Aristotle comments: "...Socrates the elder thought that the end of life was knowledge of virtue, and he used to seek for the definition of justice, courage, and each of the parts of virtue, and this was a reasonable approach, since he thought that all virtues were sciences, and that as soon as one knew [for example] justice, he would be just..."[160] Politics It is argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand",[161] making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of ideal any government that did not conform to his presentation of a perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had once been a student and friend of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato's Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato's "Middle" dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates' views. Furthermore, according to Plato's Apology of Socrates (an "early" dialogue), Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into others' matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates' acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was also objectionable; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did, however, fulfill his duty to serve as prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then, he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure.[162] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death. Socrates' apparent respect for democracy is one of the themes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial by Andrew David Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvine puts it, "During a time of war and great social and intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends, and his city—even during times of war—is by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth."[163] Covertness In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[164] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of "the beautiful itself" (211C); only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates' answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[165] Plato himself "received instruction from the writers of tragedy" before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a "dramatist of reason". What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a significant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates' coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The covertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail to satisfy some readers. Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods.[citation needed] Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates' characterization of the phenomenon as daimōnic may suggest that its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts. Socrates practiced and advocated divination.[166] Xenophon was thought skilled at foretelling from sacrifices, and attributed many of his knowledges to Socrates within his writing "The Cavalry Commander".[166] Satirical playwrights He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theatre was a harder task to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than those of his students. In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Other comic poets who lampooned Socrates include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias. In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticized for "the moral dangers inherent in contemporary thought and literature". Prose sources Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato were students of Socrates, and they may idealize him; however, they wrote the only extended descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us in their complete form. Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Plato's works center on Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his mentor. The Socratic dialogues Main article: Socratic dialogue Statue of Socrates in the Irish National Botanic Gardens The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Plato's Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Although his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually grouped with the Dialogues. The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech Socrates delivered in his own defence at the trial. In the Athenian jury system, an "apology" is composed of three parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then some final words. "Apology" is an anglicized transliteration, not a translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning "defense"; in this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemporary use of the term. Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth of a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic Method, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the dialogues present Socrates applying this method to some extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of refining the answer to Socrates' question, "What is the pious, and what the impious?" (see Euthyphro dilemma). In Plato's Dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic "Forms"). There, it saw things the way they truly are, rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom.[167] Especially for Plato's writings referring to Socrates, it is not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates (or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which of these may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato—this is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works—including Phaedo and Republic—are considered to be possibly products of Plato's elaborations.[168] Legacy Immediate influence Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics and also on developing many new philosophical schools of thought. Some of Athens' controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. Critias' cousin, Plato, would go on to found the Academy in 385 BC, which gained so much renown that "Academy" became the standard word for educational institutions in later European languages such as English, French, and Italian.[169] While "Socrates dealt with moral matters and took no notice at all of nature in general",[170] in his Dialogues, Plato would emphasize mathematics with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras—the former who would dominate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Plato's protégé, another important figure of the Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and also to found his own school in 335 BC—the Lyceum—whose name also now means an educational institution.[171] Aristotle himself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientist with extensive work in the fields of biology and physics. Socratic thought which challenged conventions, especially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorced from Plato's more detached and philosophical pursuits. This idea was inherited by one of Socrates' older students, Antisthenes, who became the originator of another philosophy in the years after Socrates' death: Cynicism. The idea of asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philosophy in 281 BC—Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would discover Socrates' works and then learn from Crates, a Cynic philosopher.[172] Socrates' student, Aristippus, rejected the asceticism of the Cynics and instead embraced ethical hedonism, founding Cyrenaicism. Another of Socrates' students, Euclides of Megara, founded the Megarian school of philosophy. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single good, which was apparently combined with the Eleatic doctrine of Unity. Some of Euclides' successors developed logic to such an extent that they became a separate school, known as the Dialectical school. Their work on modal logic, logical conditionals, and propositional logic played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity. Later historical influence Depiction of Socrates by 13th century Seljuk illustrator While some of the later contributions of Socrates to Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the Roman Era have been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism.[173] Al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hellenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience,[174] referring to him by the name 'Suqrat'. Socrates influence grew in Western Europe during the fourteenth century as Plato's dialogues were made available in Latin by Marsilio Ficino and Xenophon's Socratic writings were translated by Basilios Bessarion.[175] Voltaire even went so far as to write a satirical play about the trial of Socrates. There were a number of paintings about his life including Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th century. To this day, different versions of the Socratic method are still used in classroom and law school discourse to expose underlying issues in both subject and the speaker. He has been recognized with accolades ranging from frequent mentions in pop culture (such as the movie Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure and a Greek rock band called Socrates Drank the Conium) to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contribution to education. Over the past century, numerous plays about Socrates have also focused on Socrates' life and influence. One of the most recent has been Socrates on Trial, a play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, all adapted for modern performance. Criticism Evaluation of and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken by both historians and philosophers from the time of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. Although he was not directly prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, and "showed considerable personal courage in refusing to submit to [them]", he was seen by some as a figure who mentored oligarchs who became abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian democracy. The Sophistic movement that he railed at in life survived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought that Socrates influenced.[176] Socrates' death is considered iconic, and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadows most contemporary and posthumous criticism. However, Xenophon mentions Socrates' "arrogance" and that he was "an expert in the art of pimping" or "self-presentation".[177] Lactantius wrote: "Socrates therefore had something of human wisdom ... But many of his actions are not only undeserving of praise, but also most deserving of censure, in which things he most resembled those of his own class. Out of these I will select one which may be judged of by all. Socrates used this well-known proverb: 'That which is above us is nothing to us.' ... The same man swore by a dog and a goose ... Oh buffoon (as Zeno the Epicurean says), senseless, abandoned, desperate man! If he wished to scoff at religion—madman, if he did this seriously, so as to esteem a most base animal as God! For who can dare to find fault with the superstitions of the Egyptians, when Socrates confirmed them at Athens by his authority? But was it not a mark of consummate vanity, that before his death he asked his friends to sacrifice for him a cock which he had vowed to Aesculapius? He evidently feared lest he should be put upon his trial before Rhadamanthus, the judge, by Aesculapius on account of the vow. I should consider him most mad if he had died under the influence of disease. But since he did this in his sound mind, he who thinks that he was wise is himself of unsound mind."[178] Direct criticism of Socrates the man almost disappears after his death,[citation needed] but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of his students, even into the Middle Ages.[citation needed] Some modern scholarship[citation needed] holds that, with so much of his own thought obscured and possibly altered by Plato, it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amid all the contradictory evidence. That both Cynicism and Stoicism, which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this.[citation needed] The ambiguity and lack of reliability serve as the modern basis of criticism—that it is nearly impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists about Socrates' attitude towards homosexuality[179] and as to whether or not he believed in the Olympian gods, was monotheistic, or held some other religious viewpoint.[180] However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates is the progenitor of subsequent Western philosophy, to the point that philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.[citation needed] In film Socrates is played by Peter Ustinov in the 1966 film Barefoot in Athens.[181] Socrates is played by Victor Buono in the 1971 film The Trial of Socrates.[182] Socrates is played by Tony Steedman in the 1989 cult classic Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure.[183] See also Philosophy portal De genio Socratis List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Myrto Socratic fallacy Socratic Letters Notes ^ Kraut, Richard (16 August 2017). "Socrates". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017. ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ Easterling, P. E. (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-521-42351-9. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017. ^ Smith, Nicholas D.; Woodruff, Paul (2000). Reason and Religion in Socratic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-19-535092-0. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017. 469 or 468 (corresponding to the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad), according to Apollodorus...But the year of Socrates's birth is probably only an inference from...Plato [who] has Socrates casually describe himself as having lived seventy years. ^ James Rachels, The Legacy of Socrates: Essays in Moral Philosophy Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Columbia University Press, 2007 ISBN 0-231-13844-X Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Gregory Vlastos (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cornell University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2. ^ Moral Philosophy – The Discovery of Ethics : Socrates Archived 18 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Jacques Maritain Center Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Peter Singer (1985) – Encyclopædia Britannica Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Chicago, 1985, pp. 627–648 Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Anne Rooney – The Story of Philosophy: From Ancient Greeks to Great Thinkers of Modern Times Archived 1 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine (search page) Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Arcturus Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1-78212-995-2 Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Charles H. Kahn (1998) – Ethics Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – p. 42 Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press. 1998 ISBN 0-521-38832-5 Accessed 22 December 2017 ^ Stern, T (2013) – Philosophy and Theatre: An Introduction Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – ix Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Routledge 2013 ISBN 1-134-57591-2 Accessed 22 December 2017 ^ Kofman, Sarah (1998). Socrates: Fictions of a Philosopher. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8014-3551-5. ^ Garner., Dwight (14 March 2014). "Who's More Famous Than Jesus?". NY Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 5-7; Dorion 2011, pp. 1-2; May 2000, p. 9; Waterfield 2013, p. 1. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 13-15. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, p. 15. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 15-16 & 28. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 15-16. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 18. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 20-23. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 25-26. ^ Dorion 2011, p. 1-3. ^ Dorion 2011, pp. 2-3. ^ Dorion 2011, p. 5. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 29-31; Dorion 2011, p. 6. ^ Guthrie 1972. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 29-33; Waterfield 2013, p. 3-4. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Dorion 2011, p. 6. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Waterfield 2013, p. 3-4. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Dorion 2011, p. 7; Kahn 1998, p. xvii; Waterfield 2013, p. 1. ^ Dorion 2011, pp. 7-9. ^ May 2000, pp. 19-20. ^ Waterfield 2013, pp. 10-11. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 35-36. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 38. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 38-39. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 39-41. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 39-51. ^ Waterfield 2013, p. 5. ^ Vlastos 1991, p. 52; Kahn 1998, pp. 1-2. ^ Morrison, D.R. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (p. xiv). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. ^ Nails, D. Socrates:Socrates' strangeness. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015. ^ Soccio, Douglas J. (2009). Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-60382-5. ^ Gilead, Amilhud (1994). The Platonic Odyssey: A Philosophical-literary Inquiry Into the Phaedo. Rodopi. ISBN 978-9-051-83746-9. ^ El Murr, Dimitri (27 July 2016). "Socrates". Oxford Bibliographies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0211. ISBN 978-0-19-538966-1. ^ Peter J. Ahrensdorf – The Death of Socrates and the Life of Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Phaedo p. 17 Archived 15 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine SUNY Press, 1995 ISBN 0-7914-2634-3 Accessed 23 November 2017 ^ CH Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form (p. 75), Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-521-64830-0. ^ Cohen, M., Philosophical Tales: Being an Alternative History Revealing the Characters, the Plots, and the Hidden Scenes That Make Up the True Story of Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, p. 5, ISBN 1-4051-4037-2. ^ Socrates Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Behind the Name Accessed 28 November 2017 ^ Google translation – Greek for Socrates Archived 5 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 28 November 2017 ^ D Nails Archived 27 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy (p. 9), Springer, 1995, ISBN 0-7923-3543-0. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S., Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed (p. 2 and footnote 10 on pp. 157–58), A&C Black, 2009. ^ Bett, R. (11 May 2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 299–30. ISBN 978-1-4051-9260-6. (A translation of one fragment reads: "But from them the sculptor, blatherer on the lawful, turned away. Spellbinder of the Greeks, who made them precise in language. Sneerer trained by rhetoroticians, sub-Attic ironist.") ^ Lieber, F. Encyclopedia Americana (pp. 266–67), published 1832 (original from Oxford University). ^ CS. Celenza (2001), Angelo Poliziano's Lamia: Text, Translation, and Introductory Studies (note 34), Brill, 2010, ISBN 90-04-18590-9. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, p. 2. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 159-160; Ahbel-Rappe 2011, p. 1; Guthrie 1972, p. 58; Dorion 2011, p. 12. ^ Nails 2020, A Chronology of the historical Socrates in the context of Athenian history and the dramatic dates of Plato’s dialogues; Guthrie 1972, pp. 1-2. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 160-161. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 161-162. ^ Ober 2011, p. 161; Vasiliou 2013, p. 33. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 65. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 59. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 65; Ober 2011, pp. 167-171. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 78. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 66-67. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 69. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 73-75; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ O'Connor 2011, pp. 211; Obdrzalek 2013, p. 210-211; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 89-94; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ May 2000, p. 30. ^ a b c May 2000, pp. 47-48. ^ May 2000, p. 41. ^ a b c d e f g Nails 2020, A Chronology of the historical Socrates. ^ May 2000, p. 31. ^ May 2000, p. 33-39. ^ May 2000, pp. 41-42. ^ May 2000, p. 42. ^ May 2000, p. 43. ^ May 2000, pp. 45-46. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, pp. 65-66. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, pp. 64-65. ^ a b Ralkowski 2013, p. 302. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 303-304. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 306-307. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 307-308. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 319-322. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 323. ^ Benson 2011, p. 179; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35. ^ Wolfsdorf 2013, p. 34:Other are Charmides, Crito, Euthydemus, Euthyphro, Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras. Benson (2011) also adds parts of Meno p.179 ^ Benson 2011, p. 182-184; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35. ^ Benson 2011, p. 184. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 125-127. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 128-129. ^ Benson 2011, p. 179,185-193. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35; Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185; Wolfsdorf 2013, p. 44; Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185. ^ Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter: Benson (2011) names in a note scholars that are of constructivist and non-constructivism approach: "Among those “constructivists” willing to do so are Brickhouse and Smith 1994 , ch. 6.1; Burnet 1924 , pp. 136–137; McPherran 1985 ; Rabinowitz 1958 ; Reeve 1989 , ch. 1.10; Taylor 1982 ; and Vlastos 1991 , ch. 6. Those who do not think a Socratic account of piety is implied by the text (“anticonstructivists”) include Allen 1970 , pp. 6–9, 67; and Grote 1865 , pp. 437–57. Beckman 1979 , ch. 2.1; Calef 1995 ; and Versényi 1982" p=118 ^ Benson 2013, p. 136. ^ Benson 2013, p. 137-139. ^ Benson 2013, p. 139-141. ^ Benson 2013, pp. 143-145; Bett 2011, p. 228. ^ Benson 2013, pp. 143-145, 147; Bett 2011, p. 229. ^ Benson 2013, p. 145. ^ Vlastos 1994, p. 67. ^ Benson 2013, p. 155. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 222; Bett 2011, p. 215; McPartland 2013, p. 94-95. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 98. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 99. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 108-109. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 109. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 117. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 118-119. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 135. ^ a b Lane 2011, p. 239. ^ Vasiliou 2013, p. 20. ^ Vasiliou 2013, p. 24; Lane 2011, p. 239. ^ Lane 2011, p. 249-251. ^ Lane 2011, pp. 241-242. ^ Lane 2011, p. 243. ^ Vasiliou 2013, pp. 28-29. ^ Lane 2011, p. 244. ^ Penner 2011, pp. 259-261; Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185; Vlastos 1991, p. 203. ^ a b Reshotko 2013, p. 159. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith 2013, pp. 190-191. ^ Segvic 2006, p. 190. ^ Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185. ^ Segvic 2006, p. 171. ^ Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185-186. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 257. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 259-260. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 257-258. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 151-153. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 153. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 260-262. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 265. ^ a b McPherran 2013, p. 266. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 272-273. ^ a b c McPherran 2013, pp. 270-271. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 157-158. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 159-172. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 272. ^ Cohn, Dorrit (2001). "Does Socrates Speak for Plato? Reflections on an Open Question". New Literary History. 32 (3): 485–500. doi:10.1353/nlh.2001.0030. ISSN 1080-661X. S2CID 170977228. ^ Plato, Republic 336c and 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. ^ Long, AA., in Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4051-9260-6. ^ Plato, Menexenus 235e ^ Anton, John P. (1983). ""The Socratic Problem: Some Second Thoughts" by Eric A. Havelock". Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy Volume Two. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 147–73. ISBN 978-0-87395-623-9. ^ p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1, Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964), pp. 147–64. ^ Apology of Socrates 21d Archived 17 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Vlastos 1985, p. 1. ^ a b Vlastos 1985, pp. 6-7. ^ Vlastos 1985, p. 1-2; Lesher 1987, p. 275. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 276. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 276; Vasiliou 2013, p. 28. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 278; McPartland 2013, p. 123. ^ McPartland 2013, pp. 123-124. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131; Ahbel-Rappe 2011, pp. 183-184. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131; Ahbel-Rappe & Kamtekar 2009, p. 72 sfnm error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFAhbel-RappeKamtekar2009 (help). ^ Attributed to "Solomon" in 100 Most Influential People of All Times for Smartphones and Mobile Devices. Mobile Reference. 2007. ^ Kagen (1978). ^ Irvine, Andrew D. "Introduction," Socrates on Trial, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 19. ^ McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn State Press. p. 268. ^ Olympiodorus the Younger, Life of Plato, in The Works of Plato: A New and Literal Version Chiefly from the Text of Stallbaum, p. 234, Bohm, 1854. ^ a b J. Mikalson (June 2010). Greek Popular Religion in Greek Philosophy. OUP Oxford. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-19-161467-5. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2015. ^ Khan, C.H. (1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ^ Morrison, D.R. (2011). "1". The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306–09. ^ Carruccio, E. (2006). Mathematics And Logic in History And in Contemporary Thought. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. ^ Magee, B (2000). The Great Philosophers: An Introduction to Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ^ Long, A.A. (1996). Stoic Studies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 9780521482639. ^ Hughes, Bettany (2011). The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ^ von Dehsen, C. (2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. xix–xx. ^ Wilson, E.R. (2007). The Death of Socrates: Hero, Villain, Chatterbox, Saint. Profile Books. pp. 61–62. ^ Danzig, G. (2010). Apologizing for Socrates: How Plato and Xenophon Created Our Socrates. Lexington Books. pp. 66–67. ^ Institutiones Divinae, b. 3, c. 20. ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates Archived 28 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 70. ^ A.A. Long "How Does Socrates' Divine Sign Communicate with Him?", Chapter 5 in: A Companion to Socrates Archived 28 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, p. 63. ^ "Barefoot in Athens". 11 November 1966. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ "The Trial of Socrates". 1971. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure". De Laurentiis Entertainment Group (DEG). 17 February 1989. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019. References Brun, Jean (1978). Socrate (sixth ed.). Presses universitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2. (in French) Ong, Walter (2002). Orality and Literacy. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28129-4. Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. First. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1987. Pausanias, Description of Greece. W.H.S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. 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ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (e-pub) Kamtekar, Rachana (2004). Plato's Euthyphro, Apology, and Crito: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-3325-7. Kierkegaard, Søren (1968). The Concept of Irony: with Constant Reference to Socrates. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20111-9. Levinson, Paul (2007). The Plot to Save Socrates. New York: Tor Books. ISBN 978-0-7653-1197-9. Luce, J.V. (1992). An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, Thames & Hudson, NY. Maritain, J. (1930, 1991). Introduction to Philosophy, Christian Classics, Inc., Westminster, MD. Robinson, R (1953). Plato's Earlier Dialectic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824777-7. Ch. 2: "Elenchus", Ch. 3: "Elenchus: Direct and Indirect" Taylor, C.C.W., Hare, R.M. & Barnes, J. (1998). Greek Philosophers – Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, NY. Taylor, C.C.W. (2001). Socrates: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sources Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (2009). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. Ahbel-Rappe, Sara (2011). Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-3325-1. Ambury, James M. (2020). "Socrates". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 June 2021. Benson, Hung H. (2011). "Socratic Method". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–200. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Benson, Hung H. (3 January 2013). "The priority of definition". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 136–155. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Bett, Richard (2011). "Socratic Ignorance". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–236. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Brickhouse, Thomas C.; Smith, Nicholas D. (3 January 2013). "Socratic Moral Psychology". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 185–209. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Dorion, Louis André (2011). "The Rise and Fall of the Socratic Problem". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Guthrie, W. K. C. (1972). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 3, The Fifth Century Enlightenment, Part 2, Socrates. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09667-6. Kahn, Charles H. (4 June 1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64830-1. May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-57604-2. McPherran, Mark L. (3 January 2013). "Socratic theology and piety". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 257–277. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Lane, Josiah (2011). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Lesher, J. H. (James H.) (1987). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". Journal of the History of Philosophy. Project Muse. 25 (2): 275–288. doi:10.1353/hph.1987.0033. ISSN 1538-4586. S2CID 171007876. McPartland, Melissa (3 January 2013). "Reconsidering Socratic Irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 237–259. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Nails, Debra (2020). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "Socrates". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ober, Josiah (2011). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. O'Connor, David K. (2011). "Xenophon and the Enviable Life of Socrates". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–74. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Obdrzalek, Suzanne (3 January 2013). "Socrates on Love". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 210–232. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Penner, Terry (2011). "Socratic Ethics and the Socratic Psychology of Action: A Philosophical Framework". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 260–292. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Ralkowski, Mark (3 January 2013). "The politics of impiety why was Socrates prosecuted by the Athenian democracy ?". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 301–327. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Reshotko, Naomi (3 January 2013). "Socratic eudaimonism". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 136–155. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Segvic, Heda (2006). "No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. Vasiliou, Iakovos (3 January 2013). "Socratic irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 20–33. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Vlastos, Gregory (1985). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". The Philosophical Quarterly. Oxford University Press (OUP). 35 (138): 1–31. doi:10.2307/2219545. ISSN 0031-8094. JSTOR 2219545. Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2. Vlastos, Gregory (1994). Socratic Studies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5. Waterfield, Robin (3 January 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Wolfsdorf, David (3 January 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 34–67. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. External links Socratesat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Library resources about Socrates Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Socrates Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Socrates at Curlie Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Socrates on In Our Time at the BBC Greek Philosophy: Socrates Original Fresque of Socrates in Archaeological Museum of Ephesus Socrates Narrates Plato's The Republic Project Gutenberg e-texts on Socrates, amongst others: The Dialogues of Plato (see also Wikipedia articles on Dialogues by Plato) The writings of Xenophon, such as the Memorablia and Hellenica. The satirical plays by Aristophanes Aristotle's writings Voltaire's Socrates A free audiobook of the Socratic dialogue Euthyphro at LibriVox Socrates and the daimonion. 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en-wikipedia-org-8269	----	Template talk:Nerva–Antonine family tree - Wikipedia Template talk:Nerva–Antonine family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 Comments 1.1 Adopting Hadrian 1.2 References 1.3 Who to include 1.4 Adding the Legend Template 1.5 A biological impossibility Comments[edit] Adopting Hadrian[edit] A post I left on Stolengood's talk page Hi there! You mentioned in your last edit to Template:Nerva–Antonine family tree that P. Acilius Attianus "DID practically adopt Hadrian with Plotina". Adoption was a big deal in the Roman world: you didn't just take somebody in, they became absolutely legally your child, they took your name, they joined your tribe and social order, they forfeited their old place in the line of inheritance, etc. After Trajan's (alleged) deathbed adoption of Hadrian, the latter became Imp. Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus (‘Emperor Caesar, son of the divine Trajan, Trajan Hadrian Augustus’): the names Acilius and Attianus appear nowhere in his titulature, and Hadrian didn't openly acknowledge Attianus as a parent. So we can't say that Attianus adopted Hadrian, at least not in any sense the Romans would accept as such... Q·L·1968 ☿ 19:11, 16 March 2015 (UTC) I then reverted the notation indicating that Attianus had adopted Hadrian. Stolengood reverted that change with the comment "Let this stand." I do hope we can resolve this disagreement reasonably and with a minimum of mutual frustration. Stolengood and I might be the only living people who've noticed the tiny dotted line on this template, but it does matter in potentially misrepresenting Hadrian's origins and the circumstances of his accession. The point is that Plotina arranged for Trajan to (appear to) adopt Hadrian, not for her alleged lover to do so (which would have been legally and constitutionally pointless, at least from the point of view of elevating Hadrian to the principate). I'm afraid it's incumbent upon Stolengood to demonstrate that Attianus actually adopted Hadrian, or the dotted line will have to go. Q·L·1968 ☿ 15:27, 18 March 2015 (UTC) Having heard no explanation, I removed the dotted line again. Stolengood restored it with the comment, "Let it stand. Let's discuss this while it stands." Fair enough, I suppose. However, it can't stand forever without justification. I look forward to hearing Stolengood's explanation. Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:36, 23 March 2015 (UTC) You'll have to give me a little time; I remember reading this somewhere -- Attianus and Plotina practically did adopt Hadrian together. It has been a while since I've read it, though, so I'm currently looking through the sources on articles to see where I found it. Much obliged to you for your patience. :-) Stolengood (talk) 02:19, 24 March 2015 (UTC) No worries. It's ancient history, after all; we need be in no hurry. If it helps, the Historia Augusta describes Attianus in several places as Hadrian's tutor (guardian). Could we have another type of squiggly line for guardianship? We might be nearly maxed out with what {{chart}} could do—though we could always play around with different colours... Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:27, 25 March 2015 (UTC) References[edit] From my talk page: I see you've added an {{unreferenced}} template to the Nerva–Antonine family tree. I'm trying to picture how a template like that could have references. Would the <ref> markup work from within the chart? What about pages that don't have a {{Reflist}} or equivalent? Or should there just be two or three references at the end, à la "This chart was compiled from information from the Oxford Exhaustive Dictionary of Obscure Classical Biography and The Cambridge History of the Northern Hemisphere, volumes 17 and 18"? Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:35, 2 April 2015 (UTC) Q·L·1968 this is often a problem with ancestry trees (they are usually constructed using the {{ahnentafel top}} etc templates). They are usually unique for each article and they are usually placed before the Notes and References section, but not always. So several times I have modified such templates to use their own self-contained notes system. As it happens I have kept an example in my notes see User:PBS/Notes#Ancestry ahnentafel and notes. It is self contained and uses the <ref group=lower-roman/> markup. But as that is a bit of a handful one can use {{notelist-lr}} and {{Efn-lr}}. As this is in a template I would suggest making it self contained using the above method. Whether you use general references or inline citations is up to you but of course in the long term the template will have to meet the criteria in the section to which WP:BURDEN links. My experience with ancestor trees is that it takes surprisingly few reliable sources to fill in such a template because a reliable source will list subject, spouses, children and parents at a minimum, so one source will fill often fill out 4 grandparents, two adults and their children. I suspect it would be similar with this type of family tree, and probably a one good history would cover a lot of the tree. using {{Efn-lr}} with a "name=" parameter makes it not much more difficult to place the source in-line than it would be add general references. I would he happy to assist you with filling out a few examples in the tree if that would be of assistance. If you provide me with a full citation including the page number for one of the entries I will add the initial citation. If it is not clear you can then ask me questions. -- PBS (talk) 19:23, 2 April 2015 (UTC) BTW I am aware of the coincidence of using lower-roman in my example, I am tempted to say that perhaps upper-roman would be more appropriate -- PBS (talk) 19:39, 2 April 2015 (UTC) I have just come across an article where this template appears below the sources: Paulina -- PBS (talk) 21:31, 2 April 2015 (UTC) @user:Stolengood you wrote in the history: "References are given in the linked articles. How in gods' name could a reference possibly be given IN the chart? Also, collapsing box is completely unneeded." Having references in the linked articles is not good enough as any one article will not cover most of the relationships in this tree. Please see WP:CHALLENGE "any material challenged or likely to be challenged to a reliable, published source using an inline citation." I am challenging the content of this tree. "In some cases, editors may object if you remove material without giving them time to provide references; consider adding a citation needed tag as an interim step" See specifically footnote 3. I have added {{unreferenced section}} which is appropriate in this case. If you wish to see how references can be given in the chart see for example Charles II of England#Ancestry. The tree should not be visible in the articles. If someone wishes to look at the tree then then can open it. -- PBS (talk) 01:57, 9 April 2015 (UTC) That's only an ancestry chart; the template here shows most of the branches on a family tree. There's no way to cite that properly in the template itself without having it become unwieldy. Also, as it is a template, not a chart, it should not be a collapsing box; it fits into articles better without collapsing it, and provides a good endpoint for every article (for each person on the tree) that includes it. Stolengood (talk) 02:01, 9 April 2015 (UTC) That "only an ancestry chart" is beside the point, it was give as an example to answer your question of "How in gods' name could a reference possibly be given IN the char". "There's no way to cite that properly in the template itself without having it become unwieldy". Are seriously suggesting that content on Wikipedia should not carry citations because "it become unwieldy"? -- PBS (talk) 02:26, 9 April 2015 (UTC) Hi PBS, thanks for your helpful answer above. So here's one reference, such as it is: Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, v. 2, page 319, can tell us that Hadrian was the son of Aelius Hadrianus Afer, that his guardians were Ulpius Trajanus and Caelius Attianus, that he married Julia Sabina, and that Sabina was a granddaughter of Trajan's sister Marciana. On the next page we read that Trajan's adoption of Hadrian was probably faked by Plotina and Attianus; page 322 tells of his adoption of L. Aelius Verus (who was supposed to have been his lover), alluding en passant to his love affair with Antinoüs, and subsequently of his adoption of Arrius Antoninus, who in turn adopted "the son of Aelius Verus" (not otherwise named here) and M. Antonius Verus (afterwards Marcus Aurelius); the same page mentions his (controversial) divinization by the Senate. One source, some 16 data points. So far, so good. But what about sources that don't cover so much? What about information that's supported in one source but not another? Stolengood has a point, a whole tree like this conveys many kinds of information all at once; it won't necessarily be clear what source is being cited for what particular element of the tree. Don't get me wrong, I'm willing to take up the challenge; I'm just trying to figure out what citations can reasonably go where (and how). Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:41, 10 April 2015 (UTC) I will dig out a better example of a tree with multiple sources. I will start work with the information you have provided, so that you can see how I would do it, it does not have to be done that way but it will be one way it can be done. I can't do it right now, but I will do so in the next 24 hours. -- PBS (talk) 22:37, 10 April 2015 (UTC) Take your time with it; we can discuss this at leisure. It is ancient history, after all, as Q-L has said. :-) Stolengood (talk) 01:41, 11 April 2015 (UTC) An example of a fully cited ancestry tree is Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland#Ancestry. Although this was a good article, last year the ancestry tree had no citation. Now it is fully cited. I find the names used by William Smith and those in the tree confusing. But you will see from the few that I have labelled how it can be done. If you give me the Janet and John version between Smith and the tree I'll fill in the rest. I have labelled the year "1870a", because it is possible that you will use more than one volume by Smith with that year. If not we can remove the "a" from the date. As to the issue of "Trajan's adoption of Hadrian was probably faked" that is something that you will have to decide whether to note it in this tree, or leave it to the article(s). -- PBS (talk) 11:33, 11 April 2015 (UTC) Thanks again for your helpful response, PBS. So it strikes me that we have the choice of two paradigms: the one you've illustrated here, which makes explicit how each person is related to a given person X (in effect citing the end points of each connecting node), and the other in the Henry Percy tree, where every person gets a citation. I was thinking this over, and it occurred to me that we might try citing not the end points, but the starting point. In other words, we should aim for a citation that covers all of person X's connections outwards (probably any entry in Smith's Dictionary, the Oxford Classical Dictionary or Pauly-Wissowa should be good for that); if it doesn't, we get another citation, and explain in the footnote what each note is for. In the end, there should be one footnote (or more) for every person who appears; but any such footnotes can also be shared (e.g. the note for Aelius Caesar's parents and grandparents would be the same for Aelius Caesar himself). What would people think of such an approach? (I can show you what I mean in the template if you think it would be clearer.) Q·L·1968 ☿ 17:00, 13 April 2015 (UTC) Paradigm 2 is now illustrated in the template. I'm in two minds. We'll have about a hundred "notes" and relatively few "references" if we do it this way. Might cancel out some of the simplicity of what PBS was originally proposing. However, it still makes more sense to me to put the cites at the centre points rather than the end points. Q·L·1968 ☿ 16:04, 14 April 2015 (UTC) An ancestry tree is read from left to right, so providing that each node contains reliable source(s) to the parents, then the whole tree can be easily shown to be valid. This type of tree is more complicated because unlike an ancestry tree most entries have three or more nodes, mother, father, and one or more spouses. So one or more citations in the tree node needs to cover parents and spouses. Providing that is done then one can navigate from any point in the tree with confidence that the relationships are covered (a note explain this would help clarify the relationship between footnotes and nodes). Having parents validate children is much more complicated to document because they can have many children and it can take many sources. So I would suggest that "ii Smith (1870), 'Julius Servianus'" needs to be placed on the node "Julia Serviana Paulina" as that covers all her relationships apart from her children. There will have to be another citation in the node "C. Fuscus Salinator II" to cover his parents. If this is done then the the node "C. Fuscus Salinator I" will not have to have one, although adding "ii Smith (1870), 'Julius Servianus'" although surplus would do no harm. -- PBS (talk) 21:53, 15 April 2015 (UTC) How does what I've been doing lately by way of footnoting look? Notes validate parentage except where otherwise stated. I've been using previously published trees for maximum footnotability (as it were!). Q·L·1968 ☿ 19:12, 13 October 2015 (UTC) @Q·L· think your edits are a net improvement. Well done and thank you. -- PBS (talk) 12:59, 6 December 2015 (UTC) Great, thank you. I'll keep filling in gaps, then eventually we'll get to a stage where we'll say, "Huh, does this really belong here?" I guess I'll flag those things on the talk page here and let them marinate for awhile before cutting them. Q·L·1968 ☿ 05:51, 12 December 2015 (UTC) Who to include[edit] Why are Gordian III's wife and father-in-law listed? If Gordian himself had a connection with the Antonines, great, but surely his in-laws belong on a Gordian family tree, not a Nerva–Antonine one... Q·L·1968 ☿ 19:12, 13 October 2015 (UTC) The current version of the stemma is even less defensible. Its inclusion of Gordian III is based on a dodgy passage in the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta. While the existence of Ceionia Plautia & Q. Servilius Pudens -- as well as their marriage -- is certain, I have yet to find any evidence that they had children. Except for a dubious citation of Settpani. I'd remove this branch from the stemma until further evidence for this relationship can be provided. -- llywrch (talk) 21:20, 29 October 2017 (UTC) Adding the Legend Template[edit] I added Legend Templates at the bottom of the chart. the changes appear when I view this page, but not on the main article Hadrian. Can anybody help? Bigtk (talk) 12:40, 20 April 2017 (UTC) Is it a caching problem? Have you tried refreshing the Hadrian page and/or clearing your browser's cache? The legend looks good when I see it either on the template page or Hadrian, but maybe there's something I'm overlooking... Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:23, 20 April 2017 (UTC) I actually tried refreshing a couple times yesterday, but it didn't work then. However it is working now, so i guess shutting down and reopening the computer solved the caching problem or whatever caused it, thanks! :) Bigtk (talk) 08:01, 21 April 2017 (UTC) A biological impossibility[edit] I admit I missed this at least a few times before now, but if you look at the box of Marcus Aurelius' grandfather, Libo Rupilius Frugi, you will see that it asserts by a marriage to one Lucius Mindius (a male name) he had a daughter, Matidia Minor. I know of no other instance where two men are claimed to have given birth to a child. (FWIW, Annelise Freisenbruch, Caesar's Wives (New York: Free Press, 2010), pp. 160, 165 states Matidia Minor's mother was Salonia Matidia, herself the daughter of Trajan's widowed sister Marciana. Freisenbruch does not provide a name for Salonia Matidia's father.) -- llywrch (talk) 15:43, 17 August 2017 (UTC) There is no error, just a misinterpretation. The diagram does not claim that Libo Rupilius Frugi and Lucius Mindius are the parents of Matidia Minor, even though it may look like it at first glance. The two were just successive (second and third) husbands to Salonia Matidia, here called Matidia. Matidia had three children (Sabina, Matidia Minor and Rupilia Faustina) with three different men, and the diagram indicates who the father was. By means of the biological impossibility of any other interpretation, the motherhood of Salonia Matidia is implied for all three of them. Renerpho (talk) 21:49, 20 March 2019 (UTC) llywarch is perfectly right. This is a wrong, misleading, representation.--188.25.26.135 (talk) 18:01, 12 April 2019 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Nerva–Antonine_family_tree&oldid=892175538" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 12 April 2019, at 18:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-8275	----	Seneca the Younger - Wikipedia Seneca the Younger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman and dramatist (c.4 BC-AD 65) Lucius Annaeus Seneca Ancient bust of Seneca, part of the Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca Born c. 4 BC Corduba, Hispania Baetica Died AD 65 (aged 68–69) Rome Nationality Roman Other names Seneca the Younger, Seneca Notable work Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Ethics Notable ideas Problem of evil Influences Plato, Epicurus, Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Publilius Syrus, Attalus, Sotion Influenced Marcus Aurelius, Michel de Montaigne, Dante Alighieri, Augustine of Hippo, Albertino Mussato, Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, Tertullian, Martin of Braga, Medieval philosophy Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (/ˈsɛnɪkə/; c. 4 BC – AD 65),[1] usually known as Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in Cordoba in Hispania, and raised in Rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew was the poet Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica under emperor Claudius,[2] but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to Nero. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, in which he was likely to have been innocent.[3] His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings. As a writer Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays, which are all tragedies. His prose works include a dozen essays and one hundred twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism. As a tragedian, he is best known for plays such as his Medea, Thyestes, and Phaedra. Seneca's influence on later generations is immense—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model [for] dramatic art."[4] Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life, family and adulthood 1.2 Politics and exile 1.3 Imperial advisor 1.4 Retirement 1.5 Death 2 Philosophy 3 Drama 4 Works 4.1 Seneca's tragedies 4.2 Essays and letters 4.2.1 Essays 4.2.2 Other essays 4.2.3 Letters 4.2.4 Other 4.2.5 Spurious 4.3 "Pseudo-Seneca" 5 Legacy 5.1 As a proto-Christian saint 5.2 An improving reputation 5.3 Notable fictional portrayals 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Early life, family and adulthood[edit] Seneca was born in Corduba in the Roman province of Baetica in Hispania.[5] His father was Lucius Annaeus Seneca the elder, a Spanish-born Roman knight who had gained fame as a writer and teacher of rhetoric in Rome.[6] Seneca's mother, Helvia, was from a prominent Baetician family.[7] Seneca was the second of three brothers; the others were Lucius Annaeus Novatus (later known as Junius Gallio), and Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan.[8] Miriam Griffin says in her biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is so slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history as well as for biography, is so great that few writers on Seneca have resisted the temptation to eke out knowledge with imagination."[9] Griffin also infers from the ancient sources that Seneca was born in either 8, 4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was resident in Rome by AD 5.[9] Modern statue of Seneca in Córdoba Seneca tells us that he was taken to Rome in the "arms" of his aunt (his mother's stepsister) at a young age, probably when he was about five years old.[10] His father resided for much of his life in the city.[11] Seneca was taught the usual subjects of literature, grammar, and rhetoric, as part of the standard education of high-born Romans.[12] While still young he received philosophical training from Attalus the Stoic, and from Sotion and Papirius Fabianus, both of whom belonged to the short-lived School of the Sextii, which combined Stoicism with Pythagoreanism.[8] Sotion persuaded Seneca when he was a young man (in his early twenties) to become a vegetarian, which he practised for around a year before his father urged him to desist because the practice was associated with "some foreign rites".[13] Seneca often had breathing difficulties throughout his life, probably asthma,[14] and at some point in his mid-twenties (c. 20 AD) he appears to have been struck down with tuberculosis.[15] He was sent to Egypt to live with his aunt (the same aunt who had brought him to Rome), whose husband Gaius Galerius had become Prefect of Egypt.[7] She nursed him through a period of ill-health that lasted up to ten years.[16] In 31 AD he returned to Rome with his aunt, his uncle dying en route in a shipwreck.[16] His aunt's influence helped Seneca be elected quaestor (probably after 37 AD[12]), which also earned him the right to sit in the Roman Senate.[16] Politics and exile[edit] Seneca's early career as a senator seems to have been successful and he was praised for his oratory.[17] Cassius Dio relates a story that Caligula was so offended by Seneca's oratorical success in the Senate that he ordered him to commit suicide.[17] Seneca only survived because he was seriously ill and Caligula was told that he would soon die anyway.[17] In his writings Seneca has nothing good to say about Caligula and frequently depicts him as a monster.[18] Seneca explains his own survival as down to his patience and his devotion to his friends: "I wanted to avoid the impression that all I could do for loyalty was die."[19] In 41 AD, Claudius became emperor, and Seneca was accused by the new empress Messalina of adultery with Julia Livilla, sister to Caligula and Agrippina.[20] The affair has been doubted by some historians, since Messalina had clear political motives for getting rid of Julia Livilla and her supporters.[11][21] The Senate pronounced a death sentence on Seneca, which Claudius commuted to exile, and Seneca spent the next eight years on the island of Corsica.[22] Two of Seneca's earliest surviving works date from the period of his exile—both consolations.[20] In his Consolation to Helvia, his mother, Seneca comforts her as a bereaved mother for losing her son to exile.[22] Seneca incidentally mentions the death of his only son, a few weeks before his exile.[22] Later in life Seneca was married to a woman younger than himself, Pompeia Paulina.[8] It has been thought that the infant son may have been from an earlier marriage,[22] but the evidence is "tenuous".[8] Seneca's other work of this period, his Consolation to Polybius, one of Claudius' freedmen, focused on consoling Polybius on the death of his brother. It is noted for its flattery of Claudius, and Seneca expresses his hope that the emperor will recall him from exile.[22] In 49 AD Agrippina married her uncle Claudius, and through her influence Seneca was recalled to Rome.[20] Agrippina gained the praetorship for Seneca and appointed him tutor to her son, the future emperor Nero.[23] Imperial advisor[edit] Nero and Seneca, by Eduardo Barrón (1904). Museo del Prado From AD 54 to 62, Seneca acted as Nero's advisor, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus. One by-product of his new position was that Seneca was appointed suffect consul in 56.[24] Seneca's influence was said to have been especially strong in the first year.[25] Seneca composed Nero's accession speeches in which he promised to restore proper legal procedure and authority to the Senate.[23] He also composed the eulogy for Claudius that Nero delivered at the funeral.[23] Seneca's satirical skit Apocolocyntosis, which lampoons the deification of Claudius and praises Nero dates from the earliest period of Nero's reign.[23] In 55 AD, Seneca wrote On Clemency following Nero's murder of Britannicus, perhaps to assure the citizenry that the murder was the end, not the beginning of bloodshed.[26] On Clemency is a work which, although it flatters Nero, was intended to show the correct (Stoic) path of virtue for a ruler.[23] Tacitus and Dio suggest that Nero's early rule, during which he listened to Seneca and Burrus, was quite competent. However, the ancient sources suggest that, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they had reluctantly agreed to Agrippina's murder, and afterward Tacitus reports that Seneca had to write a letter justifying the murder to the Senate.[26] In 58 AD the senator Publius Suillius Rufus made a series of public attacks on Seneca.[27] These attacks, reported by Tacitus and Cassius Dio,[28] included charges that, in a mere four years of service to Nero, Seneca had acquired a vast personal fortune of three hundred million sestertii by charging high interest on loans throughout Italy and the provinces.[29] Suillius' attacks included claims of sexual corruption, with a suggestion that Seneca had slept with Agrippina.[30] Tacitus, though, reports that Suillius was highly prejudiced: he had been a favourite of Claudius,[27] and had been an embezzler and informant.[29] In response, Seneca brought a series of prosecutions for corruption against Suillius: half of his estate was confiscated and he was sent into exile.[31] However, the attacks reflect a criticism of Seneca that was made at the time and continued through later ages.[27] Seneca was undoubtedly extremely rich: he had properties at Baiae and Nomentum, an Alban villa, and Egyptian estates.[27] Cassius Dio even reports that the Boudica uprising in Britannia was caused by Seneca forcing large loans on the indigenous British aristocracy in the aftermath of Claudius's conquest of Britain, and then calling them in suddenly and aggressively.[27] Seneca was sensitive to such accusations: his De Vita Beata ("On the Happy Life") dates from around this time and includes a defence of wealth along Stoic lines, arguing that properly gaining and spending wealth is appropriate behaviour for a philosopher.[29] Retirement[edit] After Burrus' death in 62, Seneca's influence declined rapidly; as Tacitus puts it (Ann. 14.52.1), mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam ("the death of Burrus broke Seneca's power").[32] Tacitus reports that Seneca tried to retire twice, in 62 and 64 AD, but Nero refused him on both occasions.[29] Nevertheless, Seneca was increasingly absent from the court.[29] He adopted a quiet lifestyle on his country estates, concentrating on his studies and seldom visiting Rome. It was during these final few years that he composed two of his greatest works: Naturales quaestiones—an encyclopedia of the natural world; and his Letters to Lucilius—which document his philosophical thoughts.[33] Death[edit] Manuel Domínguez Sánchez, The suicide of Seneca (1871), Museo del Prado Lodovico Lana, Death of Seneca, National Gallery of Art In AD 65, Seneca was caught up in the aftermath of the Pisonian conspiracy, a plot to kill Nero. Although it is unlikely that Seneca was part of the conspiracy, Nero ordered him to kill himself.[29] Seneca followed tradition by severing several veins in order to bleed to death, and his wife Pompeia Paulina attempted to share his fate. Cassius Dio, who wished to emphasize the relentlessness of Nero, focused on how Seneca had attended to his last-minute letters, and how his death was hastened by soldiers.[34] A generation after the Julio-Claudian emperors, Tacitus wrote an account of the suicide, which, in view of his Republican sympathies, is perhaps somewhat romanticized.[35] According to this account, Nero ordered Seneca's wife saved. Her wounds were bound up and she made no further attempt to kill herself. As for Seneca himself, his age and diet were blamed for slow loss of blood and extended pain rather than a quick death. He also took poison, which was, however, not fatal. After dictating his last words to a scribe, and with a circle of friends attending him in his home, he immersed himself in a warm bath, which he expected would speed blood flow and ease his pain. Tacitus wrote, "He was then carried into a bath, with the steam of which he was suffocated, and he was burnt without any of the usual funeral rites. So he had directed in a codicil of his will, even when in the height of his wealth and power he was thinking of life's close."[35] This may give the impression of a favourable portrait of Seneca, but Tacitus' treatment of him is at best ambivalent. Alongside Seneca's apparent fortitude in the face of death, for example, one can also view his actions as rather histrionic and performative; and when Tacitus tells us that he left his family an imago suae vitae (Annales 15.62), "an image of his life", he is possibly being ambiguous: in Roman culture, the imago was a kind of mask that commemorated the great ancestors of noble families, but at the same time, it may also suggest duplicity, superficiality, and pretence.[36] Philosophy[edit] First page of the Naturales Quaestiones, made for the Catalan-Aragonese court As "a major philosophical figure of the Roman Imperial Period",[37] Seneca’s lasting contribution to philosophy has been to the school of Stoicism.  His writing is highly accessible[38][39] and was the subject of attention from the Renaissance onwards by writers such as Michel de Montaigne.[40] He has been described as “a towering and controversial figure of antiquity”[41] and “the world’s most interesting Stoic”.[42] Seneca wrote a number of books on Stoicism, mostly on ethics, with one work (Naturales Quaestiones) on the physical world.[43] Seneca built on the writings of many of the earlier Stoics: he often mentions Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus;[44] and frequently cites Posidonius, with whom Seneca shared an interest in natural phenomena.[45] He frequently quotes Epicurus, especially in his Letters.[46] His interest in Epicurus is mainly limited to using him as a source of ethical maxims.[47] Likewise Seneca shows some interest in Platonist metaphysics, but never with any clear commitment.[48] His moral essays are based on Stoic doctrines.[39] Stoicism was a popular philosophy in this period, and many upper-class Romans found in it a guiding ethical framework for political involvement.[43] It was once popular to regard Seneca as being very eclectic in his Stoicism,[49] but modern scholarship views him as a fairly orthodox Stoic, albeit a free-minded one.[50] His works discuss both ethical theory and practical advice, and Seneca stresses that both parts are distinct but interdependent.[51] His Letters to Lucilius showcase Seneca's search for ethical perfection[51] and “represent a sort of philosophical testament for posterity”.[41] Seneca regards philosophy as a balm for the wounds of life.[52] The destructive passions, especially anger and grief, must be uprooted,[53] or moderated according to reason.[54] He discusses the relative merits of the contemplative life and the active life,[52] and he considers it important to confront one's own mortality and be able to face death.[53][54] One must be willing to practice poverty and use wealth properly,[55] and he writes about favours, clemency, the importance of friendship, and the need to benefit others.[55][52][56] The universe is governed for the best by a rational providence,[55] and this must be reconciled with acceptance of adversity.[53] Drama[edit] See also: Senecan tragedy and Theatre of ancient Rome Woodcut illustration of the suicide of Seneca and the attempted suicide of his wife Pompeia Paulina Ten plays are attributed to Seneca, of which most likely eight were written by him.[57] The plays stand in stark contrast to his philosophical works. With their intense emotions, and grim overall tone, the plays seem to represent the antithesis of Seneca's Stoic beliefs.[58] Up to the 16th century it was normal to distinguish between Seneca the moral philosopher and Seneca the dramatist as two separate people.[59] Scholars have tried to spot certain Stoic themes: it is the uncontrolled passions that generate madness, ruination, and self-destruction.[60] This has a cosmic as well as an ethical aspect, and fate is a powerful, albeit rather oppressive, force.[60] Many scholars have thought, following the ideas of the 19th-century German scholar Friedrich Leo, that Seneca's tragedies were written for recitation only.[61] Other scholars think that they were written for performance and that it is possible that actual performance took place in Seneca's lifetime.[62] Ultimately, this issue cannot be resolved on the basis of our existing knowledge.[57] The tragedies of Seneca have been successfully staged in modern times. The dating of the tragedies is highly problematic in the absence of any ancient references.[63] A parody of a lament from Hercules Furens appears in the Apocolocyntosis, which implies a date before 54 AD for that play.[63] A relative chronology has been proposed on metrical grounds.[64] The plays are not all based on the Greek pattern; they have a five-act form and differ in many respects from extant Attic drama, and while the influence of Euripides on some of these works is considerable, so is the influence of Virgil and Ovid.[63] Seneca's plays were widely read in medieval and Renaissance European universities and strongly influenced tragic drama in that time, such as Elizabethan England (William Shakespeare and other playwrights), France (Corneille and Racine), and the Netherlands (Joost van den Vondel).[65] English translations of Seneca's tragedies appeared in print in the mid-16th century, with all ten published collectively in 1581.[66] He is regarded as the source and inspiration for what is known as "Revenge Tragedy", starting with Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy and continuing well into the Jacobean era.[67] Thyestes is considered Seneca's masterpiece,[68] and has been described by scholar Dana Gioia as "one of the most influential plays ever written".[69] Medea is also highly regarded,[70][71] and was praised along with Phaedra by T. S. Eliot.[69] Works[edit] Works attributed to Seneca include a dozen philosophical essays, one hundred and twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues, nine tragedies, and a satire, the attribution of which is disputed.[72] His authorship of Hercules on Oeta has also been questioned. Seneca's tragedies[edit] Fabulae crepidatae (tragedies with Greek subjects): Hercules or Hercules furens (The Madness of Hercules) Troades (The Trojan Women) Phoenissae (The Phoenician Women) Medea Phaedra Oedipus Agamemnon Thyestes Hercules Oetaeus (Hercules on Oeta): generally considered not written by Seneca. First rejected by Heinsius. Fabula praetexta (tragedy in Roman setting): Octavia: almost certainly not written by Seneca (at least in its final form) since it contains accurate prophecies of both his and Nero’s deaths.[73] This play closely resembles Seneca's plays in style, but was probably written some time after Seneca's death (perhaps under Vespasian) by someone influenced by Seneca and aware of the events of his lifetime.[74] Though attributed textually to Seneca, the attribution was early questioned by Petrarch,[75] and rejected by Lipsius. Essays and letters[edit] Essays[edit] Traditionally given in the following order: (64) De Providentia (On providence) – addressed to Lucilius (55) De Constantia Sapientis (On the Firmness of the Wise Person) – addressed to Serenus (41) De Ira (On anger) – A study on the consequences and the control of anger – addressed to his brother Novatus (book 2 of the De Ira) (book 3 of the De Ira) (40) Ad Marciam, De consolatione (To Marcia, On Consolation) – Consoles her on the death of her son (58) De Vita Beata (On the Happy Life) – addressed to Gallio (62) De Otio (On Leisure) – addressed to Serenus (63) De Tranquillitate Animi (On the tranquillity of mind) – addressed to Serenus (49) De Brevitate Vitæ (On the shortness of life) – Essay expounding that any length of life is sufficient if lived wisely – addressed to Paulinus (44) De Consolatione ad Polybium (To Polybius, On consolation) – Consoling him on the death of his brother. (42) Ad Helviam matrem, De consolatione (To mother Helvia, On consolation) – Letter to his mother consoling her on his absence during exile. Other essays[edit] (56) De Clementia (On Clemency) – written to Nero on the need for clemency as a virtue in an emperor.[76] (63) De Beneficiis (On Benefits) [seven books] (–) De Superstitione (On Superstition) – lost, but quoted from in Saint Augustine's City of God 6.10-6.11. Letters[edit] (64) Epistulae morales ad Lucilium – collection of 124 letters, sometimes divided into 20 books, dealing with moral issues written to Lucilius Junior. This work has possibly come down to us incomplete; the miscellanist Aulus Gellius refers, in his Noctes Atticae (12.2), to a 'book 22'. Other[edit] (54) Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii (The Gourdification of the Divine Claudius), a satirical work. (63) Naturales quaestiones [seven books] an insight into ancient theories of cosmology, meteorology, and similar subjects. Spurious[edit] (58–62/370?) Cujus etiam ad Paulum apostolum leguntur epistolae: These letters, allegedly between Seneca and St Paul, were revered by early authorities, but modern scholarship rejects their authenticity.[77][78] "Pseudo-Seneca"[edit] Various antique and medieval texts purport to be by Seneca, e.g., De remediis fortuitorum. Their unknown authors are collectively called "Pseudo-Seneca."[79] At least some of these seem to preserve and adapt genuine Senecan content, for example, Saint Martin of Braga's (d. c. 580) Formula vitae honestae, or De differentiis quatuor virtutumvitae honestae ("Rules for an Honest Life", or "On the Four Cardinal Virtues"). Early manuscripts preserve Martin's preface, where he makes it clear that this was his adaptation, but in later copies this was omitted, and the work was later thought fully Seneca's work.[80] Legacy[edit] As a proto-Christian saint[edit] Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle in a medieval manuscript illustration (c. 1325–35) Seneca's writings were well known in the later Roman period, and Quintilian, writing thirty years after Seneca's death, remarked on the popularity of his works amongst the youth.[81] While he found much to admire, Quintillian criticised Seneca for what he regarded as a degenerate literary style—a criticism echoed by Aulus Gellius in the middle of the 2nd century.[81] The early Christian Church was very favourably disposed towards Seneca and his writings, and the church leader Tertullian possessively referred to him as "our Seneca".[82] By the 4th century an apocryphal correspondence with Paul the Apostle had been created linking Seneca into the Christian tradition.[83] The letters are mentioned by Jerome who also included Seneca among a list of Christian writers, and Seneca is similarly mentioned by Augustine.[83] In the 6th century Martin of Braga synthesised Seneca's thought into a couple of treatises that became popular in their own right.[84] Otherwise, Seneca was mainly known through a large number of quotes and extracts in the florilegia, which were popular throughout the medieval period.[84] When his writings were read in the later Middle Ages, it was mostly his Letters to Lucilius—the longer essays and plays being relatively unknown.[85] Medieval writers and works continued to link him to Christianity because of his alleged association with Paul.[86] The Golden Legend, a 13th-century hagiographical account of famous saints that was widely read, included an account of Seneca's death scene, and erroneously presented Nero as a witness to Seneca's suicide.[86] Dante placed Seneca (alongside Cicero) among the "great spirits" in the First Circle of Hell, or Limbo.[87] Boccaccio, who in 1370 came across the works of Tacitus whilst browsing the library at Montecassino, wrote an account of Seneca's suicide hinting that it was a kind of disguised baptism, or a de facto baptism in spirit.[88] Some, such as Albertino Mussato and Giovanni Colonna, went even further and concluded that Seneca must have been a Christian convert.[89] An improving reputation[edit] The "Pseudo-Seneca", a Roman bust found at Herculaneum, one of a series of similar sculptures known since the Renaissance, once identified as Seneca. Now commonly identified as Hesiod Seneca remains one of the few popular Roman philosophers from the period. He appears not only in Dante, but also in Chaucer and to a large degree in Petrarch, who adopted his style in his own essays and who quotes him more than any other authority except Virgil. In the Renaissance, printed editions and translations of his works became common, including an edition by Erasmus and a commentary by John Calvin.[90] John of Salisbury, Erasmus and others celebrated his works. French essayist Montaigne, who gave a spirited defense of Seneca and Plutarch in his Essays, was himself considered by Pasquier a "French Seneca".[91] Similarly, Thomas Fuller praised Joseph Hall as "our English Seneca". Many who considered his ideas not particularly original, still argued that he was important in making the Greek philosophers presentable and intelligible.[92] His suicide has also been a popular subject in art, from Jacques-Louis David's 1773 painting The Death of Seneca to the 1951 film Quo Vadis. Even with the admiration of an earlier group of intellectual stalwarts, Seneca has never been without his detractors. In his own time, he was accused of hypocrisy or, at least, a less than "Stoic" lifestyle. While banished to Corsica, he wrote a plea for restoration rather incompatible with his advocacy of a simple life and the acceptance of fate. In his Apocolocyntosis he ridiculed the behaviours and policies of Claudius, and flattered Nero—such as proclaiming that Nero would live longer and be wiser than the legendary Nestor. The claims of Publius Suillius Rufus that Seneca acquired some "three hundred million sesterces" through Nero's favour, are highly partisan, but they reflect the reality that Seneca was both powerful and wealthy.[93] Robin Campbell, a translator of Seneca's letters, writes that the "stock criticism of Seneca right down the centuries [has been]...the apparent contrast between his philosophical teachings and his practice."[93] In 1562 Gerolamo Cardano wrote an apology praising Nero in his Encomium Neronis, printed in Basel.[94] This was likely intended as a mock encomium, inverting the portrayal of Nero and Seneca that appears in Tacitus.[95] In this work Cardano portrayed Seneca as a crook of the worst kind, an empty rhetorician who was only thinking to grab money and power, after having poisoned the mind of the young emperor. Cardano stated that Seneca well deserved death. "Seneca", ancient hero of the modern Córdoba; this architectural roundel in Seville is based on the "Pseudo-Seneca" (illustration above) Among the historians who have sought to reappraise Seneca is the scholar Anna Lydia Motto who in 1966 argued that the negative image has been based almost entirely on Suillius' account, while many others who might have lauded him have been lost.[96] "We are therefore left with no contemporary record of Seneca's life, save for the desperate opinion of Publius Suillius. Think of the barren image we should have of Socrates, had the works of Plato and Xenophon not come down to us and were we wholly dependent upon Aristophanes' description of this Athenian philosopher. To be sure, we should have a highly distorted, misconstrued view. Such is the view left to us of Seneca, if we were to rely upon Suillius alone."[97] More recent work is changing the dominant perception of Seneca as a mere conduit for pre-existing ideas showing originality in Seneca's contribution to the history of ideas. Examination of Seneca's life and thought in relation to contemporary education and to the psychology of emotions is revealing the relevance of his thought. For example, Martha Nussbaum in her discussion of desire and emotion includes Seneca among the Stoics who offered important insights and perspectives on emotions and their role in our lives.[98] Specifically devoting a chapter to his treatment of anger and its management, she shows Seneca's appreciation of the damaging role of uncontrolled anger, and its pathological connections. Nussbaum later extended her examination to Seneca's contribution to political philosophy[99] showing considerable subtlety and richness in his thoughts about politics, education, and notions of global citizenship—and finding a basis for reform-minded education in Seneca's ideas she used to propose a mode of modern education that avoids both narrow traditionalism and total rejection of tradition. Elsewhere Seneca has been noted as the first great Western thinker on the complex nature and role of gratitude in human relationships.[100] Notable fictional portrayals[edit] Baroque marble imaginary portrait bust of Seneca, by an anonymous sculptor of the 17th century. Museo del Prado Seneca is a character in Monteverdi's 1642 opera L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppea), which is based on the pseudo-Senecan play, Octavia.[101] In Nathaniel Lee's 1675 play Nero, Emperor of Rome, Seneca attempts to dissuade Nero from his egomaniacal plans, but is dragged off to prison, dying off-stage.[102] He appears in Robert Bridges' verse drama Nero, the second part of which (published 1894) culminates in Seneca's death.[103] Seneca appears in a fairly minor role in Henryk Sienkiewicz's 1896 novel Quo Vadis and was played by Nicholas Hannen in the 1951 film.[104] In Robert Graves' 1934 book Claudius the God, the sequel novel to I, Claudius, Seneca is portrayed as an unbearable sycophant.[105] He is shown as a flatterer who converts to Stoicism solely to appease Claudius' own ideology. The "Pumpkinification" (Apocolocyntosis) to Graves thus becomes an unbearable work of flattery to the loathsome Nero mocking a man that Seneca grovelled to for years. The historical novel Chariot of the Soul by Linda Proud features Seneca as tutor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome.[106] See also[edit] Audio theater Otium Seneca (crater) 2608 Seneca Notes[edit] ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Seneca. ^ Fitch, John (2008). Seneca. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-19-928208-1. ^ Bunson, Matthew (1991). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 382. ^ Watling, E. F. (1966). "Introduction". Four Tragedies and Octavia. Penguin Books. p. 9. ^ Habinek 2013, p. 6 ^ Dando-Collins, Stephen (2008). Blood of the Caesars: How the Murder of Germanicus Led to the Fall of Rome. John Wiley & Sons. p. 47. ISBN 978-0470137413. ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 7 ^ a b c d Reynolds, Griffin & Fantham 2012, p. 92 ^ a b Miriam T. Griffin. Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics, Oxford 1976. 34. ^ Wilson 2014, p. 48 citing De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem 19.2 ^ a b Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. vii ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 8 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 56 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 32 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 57 ^ a b c Wilson 2014, p. 62 ^ a b c Braund 2015, p. 24 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 67 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 67 citing Naturales Quaestiones, 4.17 ^ a b c Habinek 2013, p. 9 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 79 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 23 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 22 ^ The Senatus Consultum Trebellianum was dated to 25 August in his consulate, which he shared with Trebellius Maximus. Digest 36.1.1 ^ Cassius Dio claims Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands," but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55 (Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.3–7) ^ a b Habinek 2013, p. 10 ^ a b c d e Braund 2015, p. 21 ^ Tacitus, Annals xiii.42; Cassius Dio, Roman History lxi.33.9. ^ a b c d e f Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. ix ^ Wilson 2014, p. 130 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 131 ^ Braund 2015, p. viii ^ Habinek 2013, p. 14 ^ Habinek 2013, p. 16 citing Cassius Dio ii.25 ^ a b Church, Alfred John; Brodribb, William Jackson (2007). "xv". Tacitus: The Annals of Imperial Rome. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 341. citing Tacitus Annals, xv. 60–64 ^ Cf. especially Beard, M., "How Stoical was Seneca?", in the New York Review of Books, Oct. 9th, 2014. ^ Vogt, Katja (2016), "Seneca", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2019-08-19 ^ Gill 1999, pp. 49–50 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 37 ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (1968). Stoic Philosophy of Seneca. ISBN 0393004597. ^ a b "Massimo Pigliucci on Seneca's Stoic philosophy of happiness – Massimo Pigliucci | Aeon Classics". Aeon. Retrieved 2019-08-19. ^ "Who Is Seneca? Inside The Mind of The World's Most Interesting Stoic". Daily Stoic. 2016-07-10. Retrieved 2019-08-19. ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 34 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 103 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 105 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 106 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 107 ^ Sellars 2013, p. 108 ^ "His philosophy, so far as he adopted a system, was the stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism of stoicism than pure stoicism"   Long, George (1870). "Seneca, L. Annaeus". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. p. 782. ^ Sellars 2013, p. 109 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 43 ^ a b c Colish 1985, p. 14 ^ a b c Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xv ^ a b Colish 1985, p. 49 ^ a b c Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xvi ^ Colish 1985, p. 41 ^ a b Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xxiii ^ Asmis, Bartsch & Nussbaum 2012, p. xx ^ Laarmann 2013, p. 53 ^ a b Gill 1999, p. 58 ^ The chief modern proponent of this view is Otto Zwierlein, Die Rezitationsdramen Senecas, 1966. ^ George W.M. Harrison (ed.), Seneca in performance, London: Duckworth, 2000. ^ a b c Reynolds, Griffin & Fantham 2012, p. 94 ^ John G. Fitch, "Sense-pauses and Relative Dating in Seneca, Sophocles and Shakespeare," American Journal of Philology 102 (1981) 289-307. ^ A.J. Boyle, Tragic Seneca: An Essay in the Theatrical Tradition. London: Routledge, 1997. ^ Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. His Tenne Tragedies. Thomas Newton, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966, p. xlv. ASIN B000N3NP6K ^ G. Braden, Renaissance Tragedy and the Senecan Tradition, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985. ^ Magill, Frank Northen (1989). Masterpieces of World Literature. Harper & Row Limited. p. vii. ISBN 0060161442. ^ a b Seneca: The Tragedies. JHU Press. 1994. p. xli. ISBN 0801849322. ^ Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (2013). Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist. Brill. p. 594. ISBN 978-9004217089. "Medea is often considered the masterpiece of Seneca's earlier plays, [...]" ^ Sluiter, Ineke; Rosen, Ralph M. (2012). Aesthetic Value in Classical Antiquity. Brill. p. 399. ISBN 978-9004231672. ^ Brockett, O. (2003), History of the Theatre: Ninth Ed. Allyn and Bacon. p. 50 ^ R Ferri ed., Octavia (2003) p. 5-9 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (London 1967) p. 375 ^ R Ferri ed., Octavia (2003) p. 6 ^ "Seneca: On Clemency". Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2011-07-26. ^ "Apocryphal epistles". Earlychristianwritings.com. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2011-07-26. ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot (1892) St Paul and Seneca Dissertations on the Apostolic Age ^ "PSEUDO-SENECA". www.bml.firenze.sbn.it. ^ István Pieter Bejczy, The Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages: A Study in Moral Thought from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century, BRILL, 2011, pp. 55-5 7. ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 54 citing Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, x.1.126f; Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, xii. 2. ^ Moses Hadas. The Stoic Philosophy of Seneca, 1958. 1. ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 54 ^ a b Laarmann 2013, p. 55 ^ Wilson 2014, p. 218 ^ a b Wilson 2014, p. 219 ^ Ker 2009, p. 197 citing Dante, Inf., 4.141 ^ Ker 2009, pp. 221–22 ^ Laarmann 2013, p. 59 ^ Richard Mott Gummere, Seneca the philosopher, and his modern message, p. 97. ^ Gummere, Seneca the philosopher, and his modern message, p. 106. ^ Moses Hadas. The Stoic Philosophy of Seneca, 1958. 3. ^ a b Campbell 1969, p. 11 ^ Available in English as Girolamo Cardano, Nero: an Exemplary Life Inkstone, 2012 ^ Siraisi, Nancy G. (2007). History, Medicine, and the Traditions of Renaissance Learning. University of Michigan Press. pp. 157–58. ^ Lydia Motto, Anna Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic The Classic Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1966) pp. 254–58 ^ Lydia Motto, Anna Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic The Classic Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (1966) p. 257 ^ Nussbaum, M. (1996). The Therapy of Desire. Princeton University Press ^ Nussbaum, M. (1999). Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education. Harvard University Press ^ Harpham, E. (2004). Gratitude in the History of Ideas, 19–37 in M. A. Emmons and M. E. McCulloch, editors, The Psychology of Gratitude, Oxford University Press. ^ Gioia, Dana (1992). "Introduction". In Slavitt, David R. (ed.). Seneca: The Tragedies. JHU Press. p. xviii. ^ Ker 2009, p. 220 ^ Bridges, Robert (1894). Nero, Part II. From the death of Burrus to the death of Seneca, comprising the conspiracy of Piso. George Bell and Sons. ^ Cyrino, Monica Silveira (2008). Rome, season one: History makes television. Blackwell. p. 195. ^ Citti 2015, p. 316 ^ Proud, Linda (2018). Chariot of the Soul. Oxford: Godstow Press. ISBN 978-1907651137. OCLC 1054834598. References[edit] Asmis, Elizabeth; Bartsch, Shadi; Nussbaum, Martha C. (2012), "Seneca and his World", in Kaster, Robert A.; Nussbaum, Martha C. (eds.), Seneca: Anger, Mercy, Revenge, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226748429 Braund, Susanna (2015), "Seneca Multiplex", in Bartsch, Shadi; Schiesaro, Alessandro (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107035058 Campbell, Robin (1969), "Introduction", Letters from a Stoic, Penguin, ISBN 0140442103 Citti, Francesco (2015), "Seneca and the Moderns", in Bartsch, Shadi; Schiesaro, Alessandro (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Seneca, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107035058 Colish, Marcia L. (1985), The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, 1, Brill, ISBN 9004072675 Gill, Christopher (1999), "The School in the Roman Imperial Period", in Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521779855 Habinek, Thomas (2013), "Imago Suae Vitae: Seneca's Life and Career", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Ker, James (2009), The Deaths of Seneca, Oxford University Press Laarmann, Mathias (2013), "Seneca the Philosopher", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Reynolds, L. D.; Griffin, M. T.; Fantham, E. (2012), "Annaeus Seneca (2), Lucius", in Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A.; Eidinow, E. (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199545568 Sellars, John (2013), "Context: Seneca's Philosophical Predecessors and Contemporaries", in Heil, Andreas; Damschen, Gregor (eds.), Brill's Companion to Seneca: Philosopher and Dramatist, Brill, ISBN 978-9004154612 Wilson, Emily R. (2014), The Greatest Empire: A Life of Seneca, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199926640 Further reading[edit] Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Anger, Mercy, Revenge. trans. Robert A. Kast and Martha C. Nussbaum. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-74841-2 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Hardship and Happiness. trans. Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, and Gareth D. Williams. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-226-74832-0 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Natural Questions. trans. Harry M. Hine. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-74838-2 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. On Benefits. trans. Miriam Griffin and Brad Inwood. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-226-74840-5 Seneca: The Tragedies. Various translators, ed. David R. Slavitt. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 vols, 1992-94. ISBN 9780801843099, ISBN 9780801849329 Seneca: Tragedies. Ed. & transl. John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 2 vols, 2nd edn. 2018. ISBN 9780674997172, ISBN 9780674997189 Cunnally, John, “Nero, Seneca, and the Medallist of the Roman Emperors”, Art Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 2 (June 1986), pp. 314–317 Di Paola, O. (2015), "Connections between Seneca and Platonism in Epistulae ad Lucilium 58", Athens: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series, No: PHI2015-1445. Fitch, John G. (ed), Seneca. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 9780199282081. A collection of essays by leading scholars. Gloyn, Liz (31 October 2019). Tracking classical monsters in popular culture. London, UK. ISBN 978-1-78453-934-4. OCLC 1081388471. Griffin, Miriam T., Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics. Oxford University Press, 1976. ISBN 9780198147749. Still the standard biography. Inwood, Brad, Reading Seneca. Stoic Philosophy at Rome, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Lucas, F. L., Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 1922; paperback 2009, ISBN 978-1-108-00358-2); on Seneca the man, his plays, and the influence of his tragedies on later drama. Mitchell, David. Legacy: The Apocryphal Correspondence between Seneca and Paul Xlibris Corporation 2010[self-published source] Motto, Anna Lydia, ”Seneca on Death and Immortality“, The Classical Journal, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Jan., 1955), pp. 187–189 Motto, Anna Lydia, "Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic", The Classical Journal, Vol. 61, No. 6 (March 1966), pp. 254–258 Sevenster, J.N., Paul and Seneca, Novum Testamentum, Supplements, Vol. 4, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1961; a comparison of Seneca and the apostle Paul, who were contemporaries. Shelton, Jo-Ann, Seneca's Hercules Furens: Theme, Structure and Style, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. ISBN 3-525-25145-9. A revision of the author's doctoral thesis at the University of California, Berkeley, 1974. Wilson, Emily, Seneca: Six Tragedies. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford University Press, 2010. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Seneca Wikiquote has quotations related to: Seneca the Younger Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Library resources about Seneca the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Seneca the Younger Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks Works by Seneca the Younger at Perseus Digital Library Vogt, Katja. "Seneca". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Wagoner, Robert. "Seneca". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Original texts of Seneca's works at 'The Latin Library' Works by Seneca the Younger at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Seneca the Younger at Internet Archive Works by Seneca the Younger at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Collection of works of Seneca the Younger at Wikisource Seneca's essays and letters in English (at Stoics.com) List of commentaries of Seneca's Letters Incunabula (1478) of Seneca's works in the McCune Collection Seneca's Tragedies and the Elizabethan Drama SORGLL: Seneca, Thyestes 766–804, read by Katharina Volk, Columbia University. Society for the Oral reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL) Digitized works by Lucius Annaeus Seneca at Biblioteca Digital Hispánica, Biblioteca Nacional de España Guide to Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Spurious works. Manuscript, ca. 1450 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center Digitized Edition of Seneca's Opera Omnia from 1503 (Venice) at E-rara.ch Political offices Preceded by Numerius Cestius, and Lucius Antistius Vetus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 55 with Publius Cornelius Dolabella Marcus Trebellius Maximus Publius Palfurius Succeeded by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, and Titus Curtilius Mancia as Suffect consuls v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and 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en-wikipedia-org-8283	----	Legio X Gemina - Wikipedia Legio X Gemina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman legion For other uses, see Legio X Equestris and Legio X Fretensis. Legio X Gemina Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, under emperor Hadrian, showing the LEGIO X GEMINA, stationed on the river Danube at Vindobona (Vienna, Austria), in Pannonia Superior province, from AD 103 until the 5th century Active Before 58 BC to sometime in the 5th century Country Roman Republic and Roman Empire Type Roman legion (Marian) Role Infantry assault (some cavalry support) Size Varied over unit lifetime. Approx. 3,500 fighting men + support at the time of creation. Expanded and given the cognomen Gemina in 31 BC. Garrison/HQ Hispania Tarraconensis (31 BC – c. 71) Nijmegen (71–103) Vienna (103–5th century) Nickname(s) Equestris, "Of the knights" under Caesar Gemina, "The twin" (since 31 BC) Pia Fidelis, "faithful and loyal" (since 89) Domitiana, Antoniniana, Gordiana, Deciana, Floriana, Cariniana (short-lived) Pia VI Fidelis VI (after 260) Mascot(s) Bull Engagements Gallic Wars (58-51 BC) Battle against the Nervians (57 BC) Battle of Gergovia (52 BC) Battle of Ilerda (49 BC) Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC) Battle of Munda (45 BC) Battle of Philippi (42 BC) Battle of Actium (31 BC) Batavian rebellion (70) Second Battle of Tapae (101) Bar Kokhba's revolt (132-135) Marcomannic Wars in Moravia(168–180) Naissus (268) Vexillationes of the 10th participated in many other campaigns. Commanders Notable commanders Julius Caesar, Mark Antony Nero, Sestertius with countermark "X" of Legio X Gemina. Obv: Laureate bust right. Rev: Nero riding horse right, holding spear, DECVRSIO in exergue; S C across fields. Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Legio X Gemina ("The Twins' Tenth Legion"), was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull. Early on in its history, the legion was called X Equestris (mounted), because Caesar once used the legionaries as cavalry. Contents 1 In Republican Service 1.1 Gallic Wars 1.2 Augustus 2 In Imperial Service 2.1 Under the Flavian dynasty 2.2 2nd century 2.3 3rd century 2.4 4th century 3 Attested members 4 Epigraphic evidence 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links In Republican Service[edit] Gallic Wars[edit] See also Legio X Equestris In the Gallic Wars, X Equestris played an important role on Caesar's military success and for this reason is sometimes said to be his favorite. In Caesar's campaigns they were present in the battle of the Sabis, the invasions of Britain, and the battle of Gergovia. They remained faithful to Caesar in the civil war against Pompey, being present in the battles of Pharsalus (49 BC) and Munda (45 BC). In 45 BC Caesar disbanded the legion, giving the veterans farmlands near Narbonne in Gaul and in Hispania. Augustus[edit] The legion was reconstituted in 42 BC and fought for Augustus (then Octavian), Lepidus and Mark Antony in the Battle of Philippi against the murderers of Caesar. After this, they followed Mark Antony in his campaign against Parthia and were defeated with him at Actium. Augustus then took control of the legion and settled the veterans in Patras. The legion rebelled and lost its cognomen Equestris as punishment. Replacements were added from other legions, and the Tenth was rebaptized Gemina. In Imperial Service[edit] From about 30 BC the newly formed X Gemina was relocated to Petavonium in Hispania Tarraconensis, where Augustus was preparing a campaign against the Cantabrians. Their veterans were among the first inhabitants of modern Zaragoza and Emerita Augusta, modern Mérida. The legion was sent to Carnuntum in Pannonia in about 63 AD (or a bit earlier) after legio XV Apollinaris left and went to the east.[1] During the brief reign of Galba (68-69), it was transferred back to Hispania. Under the Flavian dynasty[edit] Position of Roman legions in 80. X Gemina was in Nijmegen (mark 4), with XXII Primigenia. However, its stay in Hispania was to be very brief. In 70, after the Batavian rebellion was suppressed by the new emperor Vespasian, X Gemina was sent to Batavia in Germania Inferior to police the lands and prevent new revolts. From 71 to 103, the legion was stationed at the base built by II Adiutrix at Oppidum Batavorum, the present day Dutch city of Nijmegen. As part of the army of Germania Inferior, X Gemina fought against the rebellion of the governor of Germania Superior, L. Antonius Saturninus, against Emperor Domitian. For this reason, the Tenth — as well as the other legions of the army, I Minervia, VI Victrix, and XXII Primigenia — received the title Pia Fidelis Domitiana, "faithful and loyal to Domitian", with the reference to the Emperor dropped at his death and subsequent damnatio memoriae. 2nd century[edit] During Trajan's first campaign in Dacia (101–102), the legion participated at the Second Battle of Tapae, fighting against the army of the Dacians led by King Decebalus. In 103, it was moved to Aquincum and later to Vindobona (modern Vienna), in Pannonia Superior, which would be the legion's camp until the 5th century. Vexillationes of the X Gemina fought against the rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba in 132-135, in Iudaea, others participated in the Parthian campaign of Lucius Verus in 162. Another major campaign was the one fought against the Quadi, Marcomanni and the Lombards, in Moravia, (Dyje-Svratka Vale) under the command of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (168-180). A garrison of Legio X GPF was found in the Czech Republic in Roman fortress in Moravia (Mušov) X Gemina supported its governor, Septimius Severus, in his bid for purple, and many men of the legion went to Rome to become part of the Praetorian Guard of the new Emperor. 3rd century[edit] During the 3rd century, the legion fought for several emperors, who awarded the legion with titles showing the fidelity of the legion and the favour gained by the Emperor himself. The titles Antoniniana (awarded by Caracalla or Elagabalus), Gordiana (by Gordian III), Deciana (by Decius), Floriana (by Florianus), and Cariniana (by Carinus) were short-lived, however, and dropped after the death of the Emperor. For its support of Emperor Gallienus against Postumus, the Gemina was awarded the title Pia VI Fidelis VI, "six times faithful, six times loyal". 4th century[edit] At the time in which Notitia Dignitatum was written (late 4th century), the first detachment of Decima Gemina was under the command of the Magister Militum per Orientem, and was a comitatensis unit.[2] The other detachment was still in Vindobona, under the command of the Dux Pannoniae primae et Norici ripensis. Attested members[edit] Name Rank Time frame Province Source Marcus Titius Lustricus Bruttianus[3] legatus legionis between 98 and 108 Pannonia Superior Quintus Lollius Urbicus legatus legionis c. 130 Pannonia Superior CIL VIII, 6706 Titus Caesernius Quinctianus legatus legionis between 133 and 136 Pannonia Superior CIL V, 865 Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus[4] legatus legionis ?157-?160 Pannonia Superior CIL VIII, 7050 Titus Aelius Aurelius Epianus[5] legatus legionis end 2nd century Pannonia Superior CIL XIV, 2164 Gaius Luxilius Sabinus legatus legionis between 231 and 270 CIL XI, 6338 Gaius Pontius C.f. Paeligno military tribune before 22 CIL V, 4348 = ILS 942 Publius Besius Betuinianus military tribune between 102 and 105 Pannonia Superior CIL VIII, 9990 = ILS 1352 Titus Prifernius P.f. Paetus Memmius Apollinaris military tribune before 106 Pannonia Superior CIL IX, 4753 = ILS 1350 Sextus Attius Senecio military tribune between 117 and 138 Judea CIL VI, 3505 [...]us L.f. Annianus[6] military tribune c. 232 Pannonia Superior CIL XIII, 6763 Gaius Junius Tiberianus military tribune c. 249 Pannonia Superior Epigraphic evidence[edit] - Lucius Lavius Luci filius Aemilia tri(bu) Tuscus Felicitis Iulia miles legionis X Geminae Victricis- Porto (Portus), Portugal. AE 1953, 268. - sacrum Caius Valerius Carus miles legionis X Geminae votum solvit libens merito. Lugo (Lucus Augusti), Spain. Hisp. Epi. 19118. - Caius Iulius Sergia Hispali (f) Victor miles legionis X Gemina (centuria Fabi Celtiberi annorum XLII aerum / XVIII hic (...). Pontevedra, Spain. CIL II 2545. - Iovi Augusto Ultori sacrum Lucius Valerius Paternus miles legionis X Geminae optio centuria Censoris exs (...). Pontevedra, Spain. AE 1908, 147. - Gaius Iulius Primus miles veteranus legionis X Geminae / hic situs estsit tibi terra levis. Jaen, Andalucía, Spain. CIL II2/5, 5. - Dis Manibus Gaio Urbanio Firmino militi legionis X / Iulius Ingenuus miles legionis. Jaen, Andalucía, Spain. CIL II 1691 - Capito Sunnae filius decurio equitum alae geminae legionis X Rustica Galli filia. Sevilla (Hispalis), Spain.CIL II2/5, 1136. - Publius Talius Quinti filius Papiria (tribu) legionis X hic situs est sit tibi terra (...). Beja (Pax Iulia), Portugal. Hisp. Epi. 23031. - Marcus Aurelius Marci filius Galeria (tribu) Abbicus miles legionis X decimae. Beja (Pax Iulia), Portugal. AE 1980, 562. - Lucius Octavius Luci filius Pupinia (tribu) Baeterensis Magius annorum XXXVII / aerorum XIX tubicen / miles legionis X Geminae(...). Astorga (Asturica), Spain. AE 1928, 163. - Caius Pelgus Luci filius Scaptia (tribu) Clemens veteranus legionis) X Geminae vixit annos LVI hic situs est/ Caius Pelgus (...). Astorga (Asturica), Spain. CIL II 5076 = CIL II 5662 = AE 1904, 160. - Caius Coelius Cai filius Papiria (tribu) Valens Narniense miles legionis X Geminae centuria Castellani annorum XXXV aerorum XIII (...). Astorga (Asturica), Spain. IRPLe 79. - Marcus Persius Marci filius Pollia (tribu) Blaesus domo Hasta miles legionis X Geminae centuria (...). Astorga (Asturica), Spain. AE 1904, 160. - Lucius Herennius Luci filius) Galeria (tribu) Callicus domo Ugia miles legionis X Geminae / centuria Licini Clementis annorum / (...). Zamora, Spain. CIL II 5076 = CIL II 5662 = AE 1904, 180. - Publius Cosconius Publi filius / Galeria Arsensis / miles legionis X Geminae centuria Etrili annorum XXXI aerorum XI / hic situs (...). Zamora, Spain. AE 1928, 179. - Marcus Cornelius Marci filius Aniensi Foro Iulii miles legionis X Geminae centuriae Terebrae annorum XXII aerorum (...). Zamora, Spain. Hisp. Epi. 15846. - Rufus miles legionis X Geminae fecit. Zamora, Spain. AE 1997, 867. - Marcus Volumnius Cai filius Aniensi / Cremona miles legionis X hic situs est. Zamora, Spain. CIL II 2631. - Dis Manibus Tito Cassio Flavino centurioni legionis X Geminae Chrysampelus patrono optimo pecunia sua fecit. Tarragona (Tarraco), Spain. CIL II 4152. - Severus Marci filius (...) miles legionis X Geminae centuriae (...). Burgos, Spain. Hisp. epi. 16472. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Legio X Gemina. List of Roman legions Roman legion Notes[edit] ^ https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-x-gemina/? ^ Notitia dignitatum, in partibus Orientis, ix. ^ §185 Marcus Titius Lustricus Bruttianus, Database of Military Inscriptions and Papyri of Early Roman Palestine, text, translation, and bibliography (last accessed 18 January 2019) ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 300 ^ Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1989), p. 342 ^ Anthony Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 10 References[edit] Lendering, Jona, "Legio X Gemina" from Livius, livius.org External links[edit] Legio Decima Gemina - re-enactment group Legio X Gemina Pia Fidelis – re-enactment group Legio X - Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi" v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legio_X_Gemina&oldid=1020791501" Categories: Roman legions 50s BC establishments 58 BC Roman legions involved in Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain Comitatenses Military units and formations established in the 1st century BC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Boarisch Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 01:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8288	----	Golden Chersonese - Wikipedia Golden Chersonese From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Details from Nicolaus Germanus's 1467 copy of a map from Ptolemy's Geography, showing the Golden Chersonese, i.e. the Malay Peninsula of Malaysia in the modern world. The horizontal line represents the Equator, which is misplaced too far north due to its being calculated from the Tropic of Cancer using the Ptolemaic degree, which is only five-sixths of a true degree. The Golden Chersonese or Golden Khersonese (Ancient Greek: Χρυσῆ Χερσόνησος, Chrysḗ Chersónēsos; Latin: Chersonesus Aurea),[1] meaning the Golden Peninsula, was the name used for the Malay Peninsula by Greek and Roman geographers in classical antiquity, most famously in Claudius Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography. Contents 1 Name 2 Cartographic references 3 Geographical locations 3.1 Rivers 3.2 Settlements 3.3 Other features 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Bibliography Name[edit] The earliest references to a fabulous land of gold that could be interpreted as places in South East Asia may be found in Indian literature. In Ramayana, there are mentions of Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold) and Suvarnadvipa (the Golden Island or Peninsula, where dvipa might refer to either a peninsula or an island)[2][3] Greek knowledge of lands further to their east improved after the conquests of Alexander the Great, but specific references to places in South East Asia did not appear until after the rise of the Roman Empire. Greek and Roman geographers Eratosthenes, Dionysius Periegetes, and Pomponius Mela had written about a Golden Isle (Khrysē, Chryse Insula),[4][5] which some in modern times argued to mean Sumatra while excluding the Malay Peninsula.[6][7] Pliny in Natural History, however, referred to Chryse as both a promontory and an island.[8] Ptolemy's Geography, based on the work by Marinus of Tyre, contains the best-known and perhaps the earliest reference to the Golden Chersonese.[9] However, Geography includes information added by later geographers, and the first specific mention of the Golden Chersonese may be in the work of Marcian of Heraclea.[10] Chersonese means peninsula in Greek, and although a few early scholars had attempted to link the Golden Chersonese with Lower Burma, the term is now generally accepted to mean the Malay Peninsula. The Malay Peninsula is thought to have been a producer of gold in ancient times, and gold mines in Patani and Pahang were still mentioned in the 17th century by the Malay-Portuguese writer Godinho de Erédia.[1] Although gold is now not a major product of modern-day Malaysia, it is still being mined, for example in Raub in Pahang.[11] Cartographic references[edit] The world map from Urb. Gr. 82, done according to Ptolemy's 1st projection c. 1300. The Indian Ocean is depicted as a closed basin. The Golden Chersonese is the peninsula to the far east, just prior to the Great Gulf. Aurea Cersonese, the Golden Peninsula, near Java in the Indian Ocean, on the map of Andreas Walsperger, c.1448 Martin of Bohemia's Erdapfel The Golden Chersonese appears in the map of Ptolemy, which gives some geographical locations on the peninsula. The earliest surviving maps of Ptolemy however came from the end of the 13th century. Note that Ptolemy, like many early geographers, believed the Indian Ocean to be a closed sea, and maps based on Ptolemy's work show Golden Chersonese to be located within a closed basin. To the east of the Golden Peninsula is the Great Gulf, which is enclosed further east by the border of terra incognita (unknown lands). Arab geographers were aware that the idea of the Indian Ocean as a closed basin was mistaken by the 8th century, for example in the work of al-Khwārizmī, Book of the Description of the Earth. They showed that the Indian Ocean might be linked to the World Oceans, with the eastern limit of the inhabited world beyond the Malay Peninsula being the Island of the Jewel in the Sea of Darkness. The Ptolemaic eastern shore became the Dragon's Tail peninsula. The Golden Chersonese is shown on the mappa mundi of Andreas Walsperger made in Constance around 1448. It bears the inscription, hic rex caspar habitavit (here lived King Caspar). Caspar was one of the Three Magi who worshipped the newborn Christ at Bethlehem. Martin of Bohemia, on his 1492 geographical globe, located the islands of Chryse and Argyre ("Gold" and "Silver") in the vicinity of Zipangu (Japan), which was said to be "rich in gold" by Marco Polo. An expedition was sent to find the purported islands in this location under the command of Pedro de Unamuno in 1587.[12][13] Geographical locations[edit] The names of various geographical features and settlements of the Golden Chersonese are given in Ptolemy's Geography, including towns and rivers. Different identities however have suggested by different scholars for these names.[14] Although coordinates are given for many of these places, they are not considered reliable for places so far away from the Mediterranean as they may not be based on astronomical observation, and therefore cannot be reliably used for identification.[1] Ptolemy's work was also copied and translated over many hundreds of years, with the oldest surviving version copied over a thousand years after it was written, and errors may have been introduced.[15][16] Rivers[edit] The Ptolemy map shows three rivers which are joined together to form as their source a single river which does not actually exist. It has however been suggested that this might be an indication of the existence of an ancient transpeninsular route that linked Perak and Pahang, a short cut between the east and west coasts of the Malay Peninsula.[17] Khrysoanas river, meaning "River of Gold", proposed to be various rivers on the west coast, from the Trang River (in southern Thailand) or Lungu River, to the Perak River or the Bernam River, or further south the Muar River.[18][15] Palandas river, proposed to be Johor River by a number of scholars. Attabas river, which most authors agreed to be the Pahang River.[19] Settlements[edit] Takola – a trading emporion, located at Trang in southern Thailand according to most authors. Takua Pa is another suggestion. Takola was known to the Indians in ancient times; a place named Takkola is mentioned in the 2nd or 3rd century Indian texts Maha Niddesa and Milinda Panha, and it is also considered to be the same as the Talaittakkōlam mentioned in the 1030 Tanjore inscription as one of the places conquered by Rajendra Chola in his invasion of Srivijaya. These Indian sources indicate the existence of Takola from the 3rd to 11th century.[20] Konkonagara – a place near the Khrysoanas, with many scholars placing it in Perak (e.g. at Kuala Kangsar, in the Kinta District, or along the Bernam river), but some placed it further north on the Muda River in Kedah, or in Krabi opposite Phuket in Thailand. It is thought to be an Indian name, but it has also been proposed to be a hybrid of Malay and Sanskrit – kolong-kolong (or kekolong) and negara, meaning "the country of mines".[21] Some writers have suggested link with Gangga Negara.[22] Sabara or Sabana – the second emporion, variously proposed to be in Selangor or near Klang, or just south of Malacca, or south Johor, as well as Singapore.[23] Tharra – at least 10 different sets of coordinates have been given in different texts for this site, it is therefore difficult to pinpoint and there is no agreement in its identification.[24][25] Palanda – suggested to be Kota Tinggi by a few authors. Kalonka – various sites ranging from Chumphon Province in southern Thailand to the Pahang River basin have been proposed. Kole polis – thought to be located on the north east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and suggested to be in Kelantan, or somewhere between Kemaman River and Kuantan.[26] Perimula - placed on the north east coast of the Malay Peninsula, suggestions include Ligor, the deltas of Kelantan or Trengganu River, and Redang Island.[27] Other features[edit] Cape Maleou-kolon – the name appears to refer to a "Malay Point", perhaps the south east corner of the Malay Peninsula.[15][28] The Perimulikos gulf – possibly the Gulf of Siam, although alternative proposals ranging from the Bay of Patani to the lake of Tale Sap in Songkhla have been suggested.[27] See also[edit] Cathay Daqin Kattigara Suvarnabhumi Sino-Roman relations Serica "Great Golden Peninsula", another gold-related name used for Southeast Asia by Chinese emigrants in later times Greece–Indonesia relations Greece–Malaysia relations References[edit] ^ a b c Wheatley 1961, pp. 138–159. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 177–184. ^ Anna T. N. Bennett. "Gold in early Southeast Asia". Archeosciences: Anna T. N. Bennett. ^ May also be translated in forms such as the Isle of Chryse, Chryse Island, &c. ^ Gerini 1909, pp. 78–79. ^ H. Kern, "Java en het Goudeiland Volgens de Oudste Berichten", Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, Volume 16, 1869, pp.638-648.[1] ^ Udai Prakash Arora, “Greek Geographers on the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia”, in Chattopadhyaya, D. P. and Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture (eds.), History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1999, Vol.1, Pt.3, C.G. Pande (ed.), India's Interaction with Southeast Asia, Chapter 6, pp.184-185. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 128–129. ^ Gerini 1909, p. 78. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 131–136. ^ Choong En Han (March 16, 2014). "At least 5 gold mines in Malaysia are under foreign listed companies". Media Checker. ^ The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, tr. and annotated by W.F. Sinclair, London, Hakluyt Society, Series 2, Vol.9, 1902, p.10. ^ E.W. Dahlgren, “Were the Hawaiian Islands visited by the Spaniards before their Discovery by Captain Cook in 1778?”, Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar, Band 57. No.1, 1916-1917, pp.1-222, pp.47-48, 66. ^ Linehan 1951, pp. 86–98. ^ a b c John Norman Miksic, Goh Geok Yian (14 October 2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. ISBN 9781317279037.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Mintz, Daniel. "Manuscript Tradition in Ptolemy's Geography". University of St Andrews. ^ Ooi Keat Gin (7 June 2010). The A to Z of Malaysia. Scarecrow Press. p. 107. ISBN 9781461671992. ^ Linehan 1951, pp. 86, 88–91. ^ Linehan 1951, p. 88. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 268–272. ^ Linehan 1951, pp. 91–92. ^ Nazaruddin Zainun; Nasha Rodziadi Khaw, eds. (2016). Hubungan Politik dan Sosiobudaya China-Dunia Melayu Hingga Kurun ke-15 Masihi. ISBN 9789674610234. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 151–152. ^ Linehan 1951, pp. 92–93. ^ Wheatley 1961, p. 156. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 152–153. ^ a b Wheatley 1961, pp. 154–155. ^ Wheatley 1961, pp. 153–154. Bibliography[edit] Gerini, G. E. (1909). Researches on Ptolemy's geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago). Asiatic Society Monographs. No. 1. Royal Asiatic Society. pp. 77–111. Linehan, W. (1951). "The Identifications of Some of Ptolemy's Place Names in the Golden Khersonese" (PDF). Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. xxiv (III): 86–98. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2017. Wheatley, Paul (1961). The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. OCLC 504030596. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_Chersonese&oldid=1000589939" Categories: Geography of Southeast Asia Malay Peninsula Ptolemy Historical regions Hidden categories: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text CS1: long volume value Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 19:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8311	----	Herillus - Wikipedia Herillus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Herillus (/ˈhɛrələs/; also Erillus /ˈɛrələs/; Greek: Ἥριλλος Herillos; fl. 3rd century BC) of Chalcedon (or Carthage),[1] was a Stoic philosopher and a pupil of Zeno of Citium.[2] Contents 1 Philosophy 2 Writings 3 Notes 4 References Philosophy[edit] Herillus differed significantly from Zeno's teachings and held that knowledge (ἑπιστήμη) was the goal (τέλος) of life: Herillus said that the chief good was knowledge; that is to say, always conducting one's self in such a way as to refer everything to the principle of living according to knowledge, and not being misled by ignorance.[3] He said that there was also a second subordinate goal (ὑποτελής, hypoteles). This subordinate goal was related to the Stoic term oikeiôsis (οἰκείωσις): the primary impulse of living creatures.[4] He stated that even people who were not wise aimed at the subordinate goal, but only wise people aimed at the principal goal.[3] Herillus was accused by Cicero of suggesting that there were two separate goals in life: For we shall have to adopt two different plans of conduct in life: for he makes out that there are two chief goods unconnected with each other; but if they were real goods, they ought to be united; but at present they are separated, so that they never can be united.[5] Herillus also regarded the practicalities of everyday life, although necessary, as having no ethical value, because it did not contribute to the supreme good, and for this reason Cicero frequently associates him with the rather different philosophy of Aristo of Chios.[6] Writings[edit] Herillus is said to have written the following works:[7] Περὶ ἀσϰήσεως - On Training Περὶ παθῶν - On the Passions Περὶ ὐπολήψεως - On Judgment Νομοθέτης - The Lawmaker Μαιευτιϰός - Maieutics Άντιφέρων - The Adversary Διδάσϰαλος - The Teacher Διασϰευάζων - The Preparer Εὐθύνων - The Corrector Ἑρμῆς - Hermes Μήδεια - Medea Θέσεων ἠθιϰῶν - Ethical theses Some dialogues Notes[edit] ^ In Diogenes Laërtius vii. 37 the manuscripts refer to him as Καρχηδόνιος, i.e. Carthaginian, but at vii. 165 as Χαλκηδόνιος, i.e. Chalcedonian. Marcovich, the most recent editor of Diogenes Laërtius (1999), opts for Chalcedonian in both places. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 37 ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 165 ^ Long, A., Sedley, D., (1987), The Hellenistic Philosophers. page 355. Cambridge University Press ^ Cicero, De Finibus (On Ends), 4. 40. ^ e.g. Cicero, De Officiis (On Duties), De Finibus (On Ends), etc. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 166 References[edit]  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Herillus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herillus&oldid=1016910522" Categories: 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC philosophers Stoic philosophers Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Français Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2021, at 18:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8371	----	William Miller (engraver) - Wikipedia William Miller (engraver) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Scottish engraver and watercolorist (1796–1882) This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) William Miller Photograph of William Miller in circa 1862 Born (1796-05-28)28 May 1796 Edinburgh, Scotland Died 20 January 1882(1882-01-20) (aged 85) Sheffield, England Cause of death (burial location: Quaker Burial Ground, The Pleasance, Edinburgh, Scotland) Spouse(s) 1. Ellen Miller d.1841; 2. Jane Miller William Miller (28 May 1796 – 20 January 1882) was a Scottish Quaker line engraver and watercolourist from Edinburgh. Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Bibliography of works illustrated by William Miller 4 References 5 Notes 6 External links Life[edit] Miller became an apprentice to William Archibald in 1814. His first published engraving was in that year, of an apple tree for William Archibald. This engraving appeared in Vol I of the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society. He spent four years with William Archibald, then setting up on his own account. At the end of 1819 he moved to Hackney to join the workshop of George Cooke. The premium paid for his 18-month stay with Cooke was £240. Other apprentices with Cooke included William Shotter Boys. In the 1830s his address is listed as 4 Hope Park, in the Meadows area of Edinburgh.[1] Works[edit] Whilst an apprentice with Cooke, Miller drew a series of plants from the neighbouring nursery of Loddiges. These were engraved by Cooke and published in volumes v - vii of Loddiges Botanical Cabinet, London, J. and A. Arch, 1820 - 1822. Cattleya labiata 2, from Jefferson's Legacy, the collection of Library of Congress (Loddiges & Sons', The Botanical Cabinet. London, 1817-1833) Miller was one of the principal engravers of J. M. W. Turner.[2] James Giles, one of William Miller's pupils, wrote some reminiscences of his time as an apprentice at Hope Park. Writing from Redhill on 17 September 1883 (published privately in Memorials of Hope Park): "Wm Miller's admiration of Turner was unbounded, and his pupils soon caught the infection. The drawings, which at first sight looked so mysterious and unintelligible, the more they were pondered, unfolded their wondrous meaning and beauty; and from my own experience I can testify, that sitting for weeks before the same drawing, I did not tire over them, as was the case with inferior pictures. The plates executed from 1833 to 1836 consisted of the illustrations to Scott's Works, Turner's 'Annual Tour', Gainsborough's 'Watering Place', a large Venice, by Turner and, of course, some plates of less note. The plates for Rogers's poems were engraved before my time, but not published till afterwards; these are probably the most exquisite gems that ever were, or ever will be produced. I beg however to differ from Ruskin in my estimate of them. I like Loch Lomond, and the old Ancestral Hall better than the vignette, with the fountain, at the beginning of the volume...........The Gainsborough was entirely the work of your father's own hand; it was done from a smaller copy of the original in the National Gallery. The pencil drawing was sent as usual to be transferred by the printer through the rolling press on to the etching ground, but when it came back the drawing was found to have shifted during the process, and the transferred outlines were thick and blurred. I should have been appalled, but your father made light of it, and etched away as if it had been all right. "I need hardly say that it is as the interpreter of Turner your father's fame very much rests, and that Turner himself preferred 'the Scotch Quaker' to all other engravers. The skill with which he translated the high aerial effects was beyond all rivalry.......... "In making the outline drawings for transference to the plate, we were instructed to preserve every minute touch, indeed, keeping the touch was a point much insisted on. I remember an amusing instance of this. I was etching the Pass of Killicrankie, a vignette for Scott's Works; cottages were in flames, and the dead lying in the foreground; in the distance was a row of dark spots - the subject suggested they might be a regiment of soldiers, at the same time they looked very much like fir-trees. I asked your father's opinion, he reply was 'Oh, just keep the touch, and they can be taken for either.' He was not, however, so particular in the case of architecture; and when Edinburgh, from St. Anthony's Chapel, was in hand, he sent me to the spot to make sketches of the principal buildings in the distance. The High School in Turner's drawing was little more than a white patch. Your father did the foreground, and I believe, the sheep, but St. Anthony's Chapel, and the various distant buildings were etched by me - the latter from the sketches I had taken. For closeness of line and minute detail, it is the most laborious plate I was ever engaged on, and will, I believe, bear looking at through a magnifier. Of course, the beautiful effects depend entirely on the finish of your father. I had only to do with the mechanical part - the body - the soul is his. In the case of Turner's figures, perhaps keeping the touch was carried too far. Nantfrangon, Carnarvonshire. Engraving by Miller c.1850 "Your father usually etched the foreground of the plates his pupils worked upon; and was fond of etching water, both rough and smooth, which was remarkable for its liquid effect. "Turner's touched proofs were always an object of interest in the workroom. I recollect on the margin of one of them he had written. 'Mr Miller will please return all my touched proofs.' Whether this was done I cannot say; but they are generally considered the property of the engraver. They must be of considerable value." Large single prints by Miller after Turner include The Grand Canal for Hodgson and Graves, 1837; Modern Italy for F G Moon, issued as the Presentation Plate for the National Art Union in 1843; and The Rhine, Osterprey and Feltzen for D T White in 1852. His last engraved work was a series of vignettes after Myles Birket Foster to illustrate two volumes of the poems of Thomas Hood, published by Moxon in 1871 and 1872. Works in Loddiges Botanical Cabinet 431 Erica ventricosa 445 Pinguicula grandiflora 466 Lissanthe daphnoides 489 Polygonum frutescens (Atraphaxis frutescens) 508 Erica ampullacea 534 Ledum latifolium 535 Acacia verticillata 545 Theobroma cacao 555 Eugenia malaccensis 611 Rafnia triflora 614 Erica moschata Bibliography of works illustrated by William Miller[edit] Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society Volume First. Edinburgh: Printed by Neill & Co. for Archibald Constable and Company; and for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, London, 1814.[3] Encyclopædia Britannica 5th Edition, at the Encyclopaedia Press, For Archibald Constable and Company, and Thomson Bonar, Edinburgh: Gale, Curtis, and Fenner, London; and Thomas Wilson and Sons, York, 1817.[4] The Botanical Cabinet Consisting of Coloured Delineations of Plants from all countries. Plates by George Cooke. Conrad Loddiges. London: John & Arthur Arch, 1818.[5] Engravings of the Skeleton of the Human Body. John Gordon MD. Blackwood, Edinburgh 1818.[6] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Vol IX, Edinburgh: Printed (by Patrick Neill) for William & Charles Tait, Prince's Street, and Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown, London, 1823.[7] Scottish Cryptogamic Flora or Coloured Figures and Descriptions of Cryptogamic Plants, belonging chiefly to the Order Fungi; and Intended to serve as a Continuation of English Botany. Robert Kaye Greville. Edinburgh: Printed (by P. Neill) for MacLachlan & Stewart, Edinburgh; and Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, London, 1823-1828 (Plesch 301; Margadant, Greville 5; Nissen 757).[8] An Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse by Robert Stevenson, Edinburgh Printed for Archibald Constable and Co, Edinburgh; Hurst, Robinson and Co and Josiah Taylor, London, 1824.[9] An Essay on Gothic Architecture by T. Rickman, Architect. Third edn. Thomas Rickman. Liverpool: Geo. Smith. 1825.[10] Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England from drawings made principally by J.M.W. Turner, R.A. and engraved by W.B. Cooke, George Cooke and other eminent engravers, John and Arthur Arch, London 1826.[11] Provincial Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of Scotland, Walter Scott, J M W Turner and others, John and Arthur Arch, London 1826.[12] Edinburgh from Arthur's Seat after H W Williams, Published by John Shepherd, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh, 1826. The print was republished in 1846 by Shepherd and Elliott modified to include the National Monument and Scott Monument, with the omission of the parasol held by the woman in the foreground.[13] Select Views In Greece With Classical Illustrations. Williams, Hugh William. London: Longman Rees Orme Brown and Green; and Adam Black. 1829 Ancient Sarcophagi. Plataea; Ancient Temple at Corinth; Caritena, Ancient Brenthe; Corinth. Apocorinthus of Corinth; Delphi, Castalian Fountain, on Mount Parnassus; Eleusis, & Part of the Island of Salamis; Mount Oleno, Peloponnesus; Mountains of Locri Ozolae, looking towards Naupactus; Nemea; Part of Misitra, the Ancient Sparta; Parthenon of Athens; Patras (Ancient Patrae) Achaia; Plain of Orchomenos from Livadia; Plain of Plataea, from Mount Cithaeron; Promontary of Sunium from the Sea; Rocks of the Strophades; Temple of Minerva, Acropolis of Athens; Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius, Aegina; View Looking across the Isthmus of Corinth The Winter's Wreath for MDCCCXXIX. A Collection of Original Contributions in Prose and Verse. London: Published by George B. Whitaker; and George Smith, Liverpool. 1829 View on the Thames near Windsor The Morbid Anatomy of the Gullet, Stomach and Intestines. Alexander Monro, tertius. Second Edition. Edinburgh: John Carfrae and Son; and Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, London. 1830 Tapeworms Plate IV Select Views Of The Royal Palaces Of Scotland, From Drawings by William Brown, Glasgow; With Illustrative Descriptions Of Their Local Situation, Present Appearance, And Antiquities. John Jamieson. Cadell & Co & Simpkin Marshall, Edinburgh & London 1830 Carrick Castle; Dunfermline Palace; Dunoon Castle; Dunstuffnage Castle; Falkland Palace; Kildrummie Castle in Mar; Court of Linlithgow Palace; Linlithgow Palace; Lochmaben Castle; Rothsay Castle Bute; Roxburgh Castle; Scone Palace; Traquair Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Vol III, 1831 Recumbent effigies of Menzies of Pitfodels, Lady Menzies, and Thomas Gordon of Rivan, 1831; Ancient Monuments in the Church of Kinkell, 1831; Curious Bronze Relic found near the Estuary of the River Findhorn, engraving after Sir Thos Dick Lauder, 1831 The Pilot. James Fenimore Cooper. London, T Allmann and Son, 42 Holborn Hill, 1832 The Pilot A Topographical and Historical Account of Linlithgowshire by the late John Penney. Edinburgh Stevenson, Prince's St, 1832 Linlithgow Palace The Landscape Annual for 1830. The Tourist in Switzerland and Italy. Roscoe, Thomas. Illustrated from Drawings by S Prout. London: Robert Jennings and William Chaplin. 62, Cheapside 1830 Lake of Como The Landscape Annual for 1831. The Tourist in Italy. Roscoe, Thomas. London: Robert Jennings and William Chaplin. 1831 Borghese Palace, Rome The Landscape Annual for 1832. The Tourist in Italy. Roscoe, Thomas. Illustrated from Drawings by J.S. Harding. London: Robert Jennings and William Chaplin. 62, Cheapside 1832 Isola Bella, Lago Maggiore The Keepsake for MDCCCXXXI, Reynolds, Frederic Mansel. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1831 The Seashore, Cornwall The Keepsake for MDCCCXXXII, Reynolds, Frederic Mansel. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1832 Marly The Keepsake for MDCCCXXXIV, Reynolds, Frederic Mansel. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1834 Palace of La Belle Gabrielle on the Seine The Winter's Wreath for MDCCCXXXI. A Collection of Original Contributions in Prose and Verse. London: Published by George B. Whitaker; and George Smith, Liverpool. 1831 'The Bandit's Home' after J V Barber : The Bandit's Home 'Delos' after William Linton: Delos Remarks on the Comparative Merits of Cast Metal and Malleable Iron Railways; and an account of the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway &c &c. Printed By Charles Henry Cook, (successor to the late Edw. Walker Pilgrim-Street Newcastle, 1832 Plan and Section of the Intended Branch Railways from the Stockton and Darlington Main Railway to the River Tess in the Counties of Durham and York, 1827, Thomas Storey Engineer, Richard Otley Surveyor, W Miller Sc. Edinr; Side and end views of a locomotive engine similar to the Planet employed on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway manufactured by Messrs. Rob. Stephenson & Co., Newcastle upon Tyne Westmoreland, Cumberland, Durham & Northumberland. Illustrated from original drawings by Thomas Allom etc. With historical & topographical descriptions by Thomas Rose. Fisher Son and Co., London 1832 Llanercost Priory, Cumberland; Newcastle upon Tyne, from New Chatham, Gateshead; North and South Shields, Taken from the Rocks near Teignmouth; Ullswater from Pooly Bridge The Literary Souvenir for 1832. Alaric A Watts. London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1832 Tower of London The Literary Souvenir for 1833. Alaric A Watts. London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1833 Fairies on the Seashore Lyrics of the Heart and Other Poems. Alaric A. Watts. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans. 1851 Sunset (after Claude); Mount Aetna (after Claude); Richmond Hill; The Halt in the Desert The Winter's Wreath for MDCCCXXXII. A Collection of Original Contributions in Prose and Verse. London: Published by George B. Whitaker; and George Smith, Liverpool. 1832. The Wreck Heath's Picturesque Annual for 1832, Travelling Sketches in the North of Italy, the Tyrol, and on the Rhine. With Twenty Six Beautifully Finished Engravings from Drawings by Clarkson Stanfield. Charles Heath. London: Published for the Proprietor by Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green. 1832 Klumm; Trent Heath's Picturesque Annual for 1833; Travelling Sketches on the Rhine, and in Belgium and Holland. With Twenty Six Beautifully Finished Engravings from Drawings by Clarkson Stanfield. Charles Heath. London: Published for the Proprietor by Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman. 1833 Homeward Bound, Distant View of Brill Heath's Picturesque Annual for 1834; Travelling Sketches on the Sea Coasts of France. With Beautifully Finished Engravings from Drawings by Clarkson Stanfield. Charles Heath. London: Published for the Proprietor by Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green. 1834 Dieppe; Mont St Michel, Within the Walls Views In The East comprising India, Canton. and The Shores of The Red Sea with Historical and Descriptive Illustrations. Elliot, Captain Robert R.N.. H. Fisher, Son & Co., Newgate Street, London 1833 Tomb of Humaioon Delhi; Delhi, engraving after W Purser, 1833; Thubare; Seven-storied Palace at Bejapore; The British Residency at Hyderabad Illustrations: Landscape, Historical, and Antiquarian, to The Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. London, Charles Tilt, 1834 (first published as Rokeby, the frontispiece to The Aurora Borealis, the Friends' Annual, Newcastle upon Tyne 1833) Glen of the Greta Poems, Samuel Rogers. London, Printed for T. Cadell, Strand; and E. Moxon 1834" A Garden Old Manor House; Venice, The Rialto - Moonlight; Loch Lomond Turner's Annual Tour - The Loire, Ritchie, Leitch and Turner, J M W, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London 1833 Nantes; Between Clairemont and Mauves; Chateau de Nantes Turner's Annual Tour - The Seine, Ritchie, Leitch and Turner, J M W, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London 1834 Rouen; Rouen St Catherine's Hill Turner's Annual Tour - The Seine, Ritchie, Leitch and Turner, J M W, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London 1835 Pont Neuf; Melun The Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. Each Volume to have a Frontispiece and Vignette Title-page from designs taken from real scenes by J.W. Turner, R.A. Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, Edinburgh; Whittaker, Treacher, and Arnot, London; John Cumming, Dublin 1833 - 1834 Dryburgh Abbey; Melrose; Edinburgh from Blackford Hill; Loch Katrine; Loch Achray; Skiddaw; Berwick-upon-Tweed The Miscellaneous Prose Works of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. Embellished with Portraits, Frontispieces, Vignette Titles and Maps. The Designs of the Landscapes from Real Scenes by J.M.W. Turner, R.A.. Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, Edinburgh; Whitaker, Arnot, and Company, London; John Cumming, Dublin 1834 - 1836 Dumbarton Castle; Brussels; Hougemont; New Abbey, near Dumfries; Norham Castle, Moonrise; Jerusalem; Brienne; Venice, the Campanile; Placenza; Verona; Vincennes; St Cloud; Mayence; The Simplon; Paris from Pere-la-Chaise; Malmaison; Fontainebleau; Chiefswood Cottage; The Rhymer's Glen; Edinburgh from St Anthony's Chapel; Craigmillar Castle; Dunstaffnage; Linlithgow; Glencoe; Killiecrankie; Inverness; Fort Augustus; Craig Crook Castle, near Edinburgh Stanfield's Coast Scenery. a Series of Views in the British Channel, from Original Drawings Taken Expressly for the Work. Clarkson Stanfield. Smith, Elder and Co., London, 1836 Botallack Mine, Cornwall; Hastings; Havre de Grace The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell. Edward Moxon, London 1837 The Dead Eagle - Oran Picturesque Views in England and Wales. From Drawings by J.M.W. Turner, engraved under the superintendence of Mr. Charles Heath with descriptive and historic illustrations written by Hannibal Evans Lloyd. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1838 Straits of Dover; Great Yarmouth, Norfolk; Stamford, Lincolnshire; Windsor Castle, Berkshire; Chatham, Kent; Carew Castle, Pembroke; Durham Cathedral Loch an Eilan, engraving by William Miller after Horatio McCulloch, Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1839 Loch an Eilan The Land of Burns, A Series of Landscapes and Portraits, Illustrative of the Life and Writings of the Scottish Poet (1840).[14] Beauties of Modern Poetry (1840).[15] Engravings from the Pictures of the National Gallery (1840).[16] The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham; compiled from original records, preserved in public repositories and private collections: and illustrated by engravings of architectural and monumental antiquities, portraits of eminent persons, etc. etc. etc. (4 Vols). Surtees, Robert, London: printed by and for Nichols, Son, and Bentley .. and G. Andrews, Durham Volume 1 1816, volume 2 1820, volume 3 1823, volume 4 1840 Limekilns at Southwick on the Wear after Edward Swinburne 1826; Shields Harbour after Edward Swinburne 1827; Lower Tees near Dinsdale open etching after Edward Swinburne 1832; Lower Tees near Dinsdale after Edward Swinburne 1832; High Force on the Tees after Edward Swinburne 1832 Waverley Novels (Abbotsford Edition). Walter Scott. Edinburgh and London: Robert Cadell, Houlston & Stoneman 1842 - 1847 Highland Hills, from the Teith below Callender; Holyrood House and Chapel, from Calton Hill; View of James' Court Edinburgh; Queensferry, from the South-east; Bass Rock, East Lothian; Loch Ard; Edinburgh, from St Anthony's Chapel; View from Fast Castle; Tantallon Castle; Durrenstein on the Danube; York Minster, Moonlight View; Loch Leven and Castle; Barnbougle Castle and Firth of Forth, from Lauriestone Castle; Warwick Castle; View on the Coast of Zetland, near the Ness, Moonlight; Castle Rushen, Castletown, Isle of Man; Peel Castle, Isle of Man; Cologne; Tours; Liege; Abbotsford, from the North Bank of the Tweed; Peebles and River Tweed, from Neidpath Castle; St Mary's Loch;5 Dumfries; The Mouth of the Annan, and Solway Firth, Skiddaw in the Distance; Pass of Llanberis, Caernarvonshire; Pass of Nantfrangon, Caernarvonshire; The Dead Sea; Worcester; Kilchurn Castle; Selkirk; Constantinople; Ruins of Laodicea Art and Song. A Series of Original Highly Finished Steel Engravings from Masterpieces of Art of the Nineteenth Century. Bell, Robert (Ed), Bell and Daldy, London 1867 Tynemouth Priory; Flamborough Head; Evening The Book of Gems from the Poets and Artists of Great Britain. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century. Wordsworth to Tennyson. Hall, Samuel Carter. Bell and Daldy, London 1866 The Minstrel; Sunrise; St Michael's Mount The Imperial Family Bible According to the Authorized Version (John Martin Illustrator) Glasgow, Edinburgh, and London: Blackie & Son. 1844 The Giving of the Law; The Deluge Black's Picturesque Tourist of Scotland with an Accurate Travelling Map, Engraved Charts, and Views of the Scenery; Plans of Edinburgh and Glasgow; and a Copious Itinerary. Adam & Charles Black, Edinburgh; various editions from 1846 Entrance to Loch Skavaig, Skye Kilchurn Castle, Loch Awe engraving by William Miller after J M W Turner, Rawlinson 664 first published state; engraved exclusively for the Members of the Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1847 Kilchurn Castle, Loch Awe Finden's Royal Gallery of British Art, Published by the Proprietors, at 18 and 19, Southampton Place, Euston Square; sold by F. G. Moon, 20, Threadneedle Street, and Ackermann & Co., Strand, London, 1838–1849 Sunset at Sea after a Storm after Francis Danby; Battle of Trafalgar after Clarkson Stanfield The Castles, Palaces and Prisons of Mary of Scotland. Charles Mackie. London. C Cox, 12, King William St, Strand, Oliver & Boyd Edinburgh, David Robertson, Bookseller to the Queen Glasgow, James Chalmers Dundee, & J Robertson Dublin. 1849 Lochleven Castle; Edinburgh Castle; Dunbar Castle; Linlithgow Castle; Crookston Castle Memoirs of the Life of Sir A Agnew of Lochnaw. London and Edinburgh: 1850 Lochnaw, proof engraving after R K Greville, 1850 The Rhine - Osterprey and Feltzen engraving by William Miller after J M W Turner, Rawlinson 669 first published state 1852 The Rhine - Osterprey and Feltzen Italian Goatherds, detail from engraving by William Miller after J S Lauder, Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1843 Italian Goatherds "The Cotter's Saturday Night", Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1853 "The toil-worn cottar frae his labour goes"; "Th' expectant wee things, toddlin, stacher thro'" Tam O'Shanter, Illustrated with six large engravings by John Faed RSA. Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1855 View of Ayr Six Engravings for the Members of the Royal Association for Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1863 The Port of London Eight Engravings in Illustration of Waverley. For the Members of the Royal Association for Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, Royal Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, 1865 Tulleveolan The Art-Union: Monthly Journal of The Fine Arts, and the Arts, Decorative, and Ornamental. Volume 9. Palmer and Clayton, London, 1847 Dryburgh Abbey: the Grave of Scott; Pool of Thames; Prince of Orange Landing at Torbay; The Watering Place; Dover - the Landing of Prince Albert; Vietri; The Shipwreck; The Battle of Trafalgar; Spithead; Line Fishing off Hastings; Modern Italy; Wreck off Hastings Edward Pease Edward Pease (1767-1858), portrait engraving by William Miller, approximately 1859 Rab and His Friends. Dr John Brown F.R.S.E.. Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh. 1862 Rab's Grave The Imperial Bible Dictionary - Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal - Illustrated by numerous engravings - Including the natural history, antiquities, manners, customs, and religious rites and ceremonies mentioned in the scriptures, and an account of the several books of the old and new Testaments. Patrick Fairbairn. London: Blackie and Son, Paternoster Row 1866 Bethlehem; Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives; Antioch in Syria from the South West; The Town and Isthmus of Corinth Unpublished engravings by William Miller after Birket Foster Peterborough; Stratford Yorkshire Past and Present: a history and a description of the three ridings of the great county of York, from the earliest ages to the year 1870; with an account of its manufactures, commerce, and civil and mechanical engineering. Including an account of the woollen trade of Yorkshire by Edward Baines. Baines, Thomas. London: William Mackenzie, 22 Paternoster Row. 1871 Bolton Abbey Hood's Poems, illustrated by Birket Foster, E. Moxon, Son & Co., London 1872 Hymn to the Sun 'Giver of glowing light'; Sonnet on Receiving a Gift 'Look how the golden ocean shines above'; The Mary 'The sea is bright with morning', p4, Hood's Poems, Moxon 1872|Bianca's Dream 'For Julio underneath the lattice play'd'; Bianca's Dream 'The next sweet even'; Ode to Rae Wilson 'Dear bells! How sweet the sounds of village bells'; Ode to Rae Wilson 'Liege's lovely environs'; Ghent; Ode to the Moon 'Mother of light!'; To ***, with a Flask of Rhinewater 'The old catholic city was still'; The Two Peacocks of Bedfont 'There, gentle stranger, thou mays't only see'; Ode to Melancholy 'No sorrow ever chokes their throats'; The Compass, with Variations 'Twas in the Bay of Naples'; Stanzas to Tom Woodgate, 'To climb the billows's hoary brow'; The Key - A Moorish Romance 'Th' Alhambra's pile'; To -. Composed at Rotterdam 'Before me lie dark waters'; To -. Composed at Rotterdam 'I'm at Rotterdam'; The Knight and the Dragon 'On the Drachenfels' crest'; The Knight and the Dragon '- He gazed on the Rhine'; I Remember 'I remember, I remember, The fir trees dark and high'; Poem, from the Polish 'To think upon the Bridge of Kew'; Address 'Yes! where the foaming billows rave the while'; Hood's Poems, again illustrated by Birket Foster, E. Moxon, Son & Co., London 1872 The Dream of Eugene Aram 'Pleasantly shone the setting sun'; Autumn 'The autumn is old'; The Flower 'Lawk-a-daisy'; The Elm Tree Twas in a shady avenue'; The Elm Tree 'In all its giant bulk and length'; The Haunted House 'An old deserted mansion'; The Haunted House 'And in the weedy moat the heron'; Hastings; Hastings Beach; Hastings 'Boiling Sea'; The Romance of Cologne Tis midnight and the moonbeam'; The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies 'Thanks to the sweet Bard's auspicious pen'; The Mermaid of Margate 'He was saved from the hungry deep by a boat of Deal'; Hero and Leander 'Sestos and Abydos'; Hero and Leander 'Sestos and Abydos; A Legend of Navarre 'The old chateau' References[edit] A Catalogue of Engravings by William Miller HRSA 1818 - 1871 By WFM (William F. Miller, his eldest son). Published privately in 1886. Memorials of Hope Park comprising some particulars in the life of our dear father William Miller, together with a list of his engravings. By WFM (William F Miller, his eldest son). Published privately in 1886. "Miller, William (1796–1882), engraver". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/18745. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Notes[edit] ^ "Edinburgh Post Office annual directory, 1832-1833". National Library of Scotland. p. 132. Retrieved 25 February 2018. ^ His engravings after Turner included Portsmouth, Clovelly Bay and Comb Martin for An Antiquarian Tour Round the South Coast, J and A Arch, 1826; Bass Rock for Scott's Provincial Antiquities of Scotland, 1826; seven plates [[Commons:Image:Straits of Dover engraving by seo dubai Miller after Turner.jpg|Straits of Dover]], Great Yarmouth, Stamford, Windsor Castle, Chatham, Carew Castle and Durham Cathedral for Picturesque Views in England and Wales, London, Longman and Co, 1838. ^ Apple tree. ^ Botany Plate 124; Shipbuilding Plate 490; Shipbuilding Plate 491; War Plate 552; War Plate 558 ^ Erica ovata (Loddiges 417); Erica coventryana (Loddiges 423); Stapelia vetula (Loddiges 428); Phaca astragalina (Loddiges 429); Erica ventricosa (Loddiges 431); Crassula versicolor (Loddiges 433); Pinguicula grandiflora (Loddiges 445); Erica ramentacea (Loddiges 446); Olea europaea longifolia (Loddiges 456); Lissanthe daphnoides (Loddiges 466); Genista ovata (Loddiges 482); Polygonum frutescens (Loddiges 489); Phaca australis (Loddiges 490); Limodorum maculatum (Loddiges 496); Cytisus capitatus (Loddiges 497); Erica ampullacea (Loddiges 508); Erica scabriuscula (Loddiges 517); Erica andromedaeflora (Loddiges 521); Listera cordata (Loddiges 532); Ledum latifolium (Loddiges 534); Acacia verticillata (Loddiges 535); Erica daphnaeflora (Loddiges 543); Theobroma cacao (Loddiges 545); Eugenia malaccensis (Loddiges 555); Erica rubens (Loddiges 557); Erica spumosa (Loddiges 566); Silene acaulis (Loddiges 568); Dillwynia glaberrima (Loddiges 582); Erigeron alpinum (Loddiges 590); Polygala chamaebuxus (Loddiges 593); Erica pilosa (Loddiges 606); Rafnia triflora (Loddiges 611); Erica moschata (Loddiges 614); Vaccineum vitis-idaea (Loddiges 616); Erica grandinosa (Loddiges 627); Erica rubella (Loddiges 658); Erica purpurea (Loddiges 703); Phlox carnea(Loddiges 711); Erica primuloides (Loddiges 715); Calothamnus quadrifida (Loddiges 737); ^ Human Skull plate Va; Human Skull plate Vb; Human Skull plate VI; Human Skull plate VII; Human Skull plate VIII; Human Skull plate X ^ View down Glengluoy from the hills at its upper extremity from point a in the map, Plate I, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; View of the mouths of Glenroy and Glenspean taken from above Inch from point b in the map, Plate II, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; The Gap as seen from Glenroy taken from point e in the map, Plate III, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; View up Glenroy taken from the Gap from point d in the map, Plate IV, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; View of the head of Glenroy from point f in the map, Plaate V, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; View of the Entrance to Loch Treig from point g in the map, Plate VI, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; Diagrams, Plate VII, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; Diagrams to Illustrate the theory of the four different states of the Lakes, Plate VIII, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; A Map showing the different lines of Horizontal Shelves in the Glens of Lochaber, Plate IX, after a drawing by Thomas Dick Lauder; Ounartorsoak on the Southern Coast of Disko Island, Plate XVI; Mannik in the Waygat Eastwards from Disko Island, Plate XVII; Granite Obelisk of a Single Stone at Seringapatam,erected to the memory of Josiah Webbe Esqre, Plate XIX, after a drawing by Capt T Frazer of the Madras Engineers ^ Fly agaric, plate 54; Fungi, plate 171 German Scenery from Drawings made in 1820. Captain Robert Batty FRS. Rodwell and Martin, London 1823 Castle of Nurnberg, engraving after Captain Robert Batty, 1823 ^ Progress of the Bell Rock works (Plate ix); Apparatus connected with the Bell Rock works (Plate xi); General View of the Bell Rock works (Plate xviii) ^ Frontispiece ^ Clovelly Bay; Comb Martin; Portsmouth ^ Inverwick Castle engraving by William Miller after Rev J Thomson 1826; Bass Rock, engraving after Turner, 1826, Rawlinson 200; Fast Castle engraving by William Miller after Rev J Thomson 1826; Dirlton Castle engraving by William Miller after Rev J Thomson 1824; ^ Edinburgh from Arthur's Seat, engraving by William Miller (Miller paid £140-0-0 in xi-1826 for engraving), after H W Williams ('Grecian' Williams), Published by John Shepherd, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh, 1826; Edinburgh from Arthur's Seat, engraved copper plate by William Miller (Miller paid £140-0-0 in xi-1826 for engraving), after H W Williams ('Grecian' Williams), Published by John Shepherd, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh, 1826. The print was republished in 1846 by Shepherd and Elliott modified to include the National Monument and Scott Monument, with the omission of the parasol held by the woman in the foreground. ^ Illus. with numerous engraved plates and portraits, the landscapes from paintings made expressly for the work by D.O. Hill. Wilson, Professor and Chambers, Robert, Glasgow: Blackie & Son, 1840 Ayr from Brown Carrick Hill; Ayr Market Cross; Banks of Doon; Bruar Water Upper Fall; Cassilis Castle; Culzean Castle with the Fairy Coves; Dunure Castle Carrick Shore; Loch Turit ^ Edited by J.J. London: Thomas Nelson, Paternoster Row; and Edinburgh. 1840 Athens; Lake of Geneva; ^ Published By Authority. Burnet, John, [& others], Illustrated by John Burnet, George Cooke, George T. Doo, William Finden, Edward Goodall, John & Henry Le Keux, John Pye, John H. Robinson, et al. London: Published for the Associated Engravers By John Pye, 42 Cirencestor Place, Fitzroy Square. 1840 The Watering Place External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to William Miller (engraver). Delos., an engraving of a drawing of Delos by William Linton for The Winter's Wreath annual, 1831 with an accompanying poem The Song of Delos by Felicia Hemans. 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en-wikipedia-org-8377	----	Gladiator (2000 film) - Wikipedia Gladiator (2000 film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Gladiator (disambiguation). 2000 film directed by Ridley Scott Gladiator Theatrical release poster Directed by Ridley Scott Produced by Douglas Wick David Franzoni Branko Lustig Screenplay by David Franzoni John Logan William Nicholson Story by David Franzoni Starring Russell Crowe Joaquin Phoenix Connie Nielsen Oliver Reed Derek Jacobi Djimon Hounsou Richard Harris Tommy Flanagan Music by Hans Zimmer Lisa Gerrard Cinematography John Mathieson Edited by Pietro Scalia Production companies Scott Free Productions Red Wagon Entertainment[1] Distributed by DreamWorks Pictures (North America) Universal Pictures (through United International Pictures) (International) Release date May 1, 2000 (2000-05-01) (Los Angeles) May 5, 2000 (2000-05-05) (United States) May 12, 2000 (2000-05-12) (United Kingdom) Running time 155 minutes[2] Countries United States[3] United Kingdom[4] Language English Budget $103 million[5] Box office $460.5 million[5] Gladiator is a 2000 epic historical drama film directed by Ridley Scott and written by David Franzoni, John Logan, and William Nicholson. The film was co-produced and released by DreamWorks Pictures and Universal Pictures. It stars Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen, Ralf Möller, Oliver Reed (in his final role), Djimon Hounsou, Derek Jacobi, John Shrapnel, Richard Harris, and Tommy Flanagan. Crowe portrays Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius, who is betrayed when Commodus, the ambitious son of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, murders his father and seizes the throne. Reduced to slavery, Maximus becomes a gladiator and rises through the ranks of the arena to avenge the murders of his family and his emperor. Inspired by Daniel P. Mannix's 1958 book Those About to Die (formerly titled The Way of the Gladiator), the film's script, initially written by Franzoni, was acquired by DreamWorks and Ridley Scott signed on to direct the film. Principal photography began in January 1999, before the script was completed, and wrapped up in May of that year, with the scenes of Ancient Rome shot over a period of nineteen weeks in Fort Ricasoli, Malta. The film's computer-generated imagery effects were created by British post-production company The Mill, who also created a digital body double for the remaining scenes involving Reed's character Proximo due to Reed dying of a heart attack during production. Gladiator premiered in Los Angeles on May 1, 2000, and was released theatrically in the United States on May 5 and in the United Kingdom on May 11. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for the acting (particularly Crowe's and Phoenix's performances), Scott's direction, visuals, screenplay, action sequences, musical score and the production values. It was a box office success, grossing $187.7 million in the United States and grossed $457 million worldwide, making it the second highest-grossing film of 2000. The film won multiple awards, including five at the 73rd Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Actor for Crowe, Best Costume Design, Best Sound and Best Visual Effects. It also received four BAFTA Awards at the 54th British Academy Film Awards for Best Film, Best Cinematography, Best Production Design and Best Editing. Since its release, Gladiator has also been credited with reinventing the swords and sandals genre and rekindling interest in entertainment centered around ancient Greek and ancient Roman culture such as the television series Rome. Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development and pre-production 3.2 Filming 3.3 Post-production 4 Historical authenticity 4.1 Fictionalization 4.2 Anachronisms 5 Influences 6 Music 7 Reception 7.1 Box office 7.2 Critical response 7.3 Accolades 8 Impact 9 Home media 10 Future 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Plot[edit] In AD 180, Hispano-Roman General Maximus Decimus Meridius intends to return to his home after he leads the Roman army to victory against the Germanic tribes near Vindobona on the Limes Germanicus. Emperor Marcus Aurelius tells Maximus that his own son, Commodus, is unfit to rule and that he wishes Maximus to succeed him, as regent, to help save Rome from corruption and restore the Roman Republic. Upon hearing this, Commodus murders his father. Commodus proclaims himself the new emperor and asks Maximus for his loyalty, but Maximus refuses. Maximus is arrested by the Praetorian Guard and is told that he and his family will die. He kills his captors and rides for his home near Trujillo, where he finds his home destroyed and his family murdered. Maximus buries his wife and son, then collapses from his injuries. He is found by slavers who take him to the city of Zucchabar in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, where he is sold to a gladiator trainer named Proximo. Although reluctant, Maximus fights in local tournaments and befriends two other gladiators: Juba, a Numidian; and Hagen, a German. His military skills help him win matches and gain recognition from other gladiators and the crowd. Proximo reveals that he was once a gladiator who was freed by Marcus Aurelius, and advises Maximus that he must "win the crowd" to win his freedom. When Commodus organizes 150 days of games, Proximo takes his gladiators to fight in Rome's Colosseum. Disguised by a masked helmet, Maximus debuts in gladiatorial combat in the Colosseum as a Carthaginian in a re-enactment of the Battle of Zama. Unexpectedly, Maximus leads his side to victory, and Commodus enters the Colosseum to offer his congratulations. He orders the disguised Maximus, as leader of the gladiators, to show himself and give his name; Maximus reveals himself and declares vengeance. Commodus is compelled by the crowd to let the gladiators live, and his guards are held back from striking them down. Maximus's next fight is against a legendary undefeated gladiator named Tigris of Gaul. Commodus has arranged for several tigers to be set upon Maximus during the duel; Maximus, however, prevails. Commodus orders Maximus to kill Tigris, but Maximus spares his opponent's life; he is called "Maximus the Merciful" by the crowd. Angered at this outcome, Commodus taunts Maximus about his family's deaths, but Maximus turns and walks away. Maximus discovers from Cicero, his ex-orderly, that his former legions remain loyal. Lucilla, Commodus's sister; Gracchus, an influential senator; and Maximus meet secretly. Maximus will escape Rome, join his soldiers, topple Commodus by force, and hand power back to the Roman Senate. Commodus learns of the plot when Lucilla's son, Lucius, innocently hints at the conspiracy. Commodus threatens Lucilla and Lucius, and has the Praetorian Guard arrest Gracchus and attack the gladiators' barracks. Proximo and his men, including Hagen, sacrifice themselves to enable Maximus to escape. Maximus is captured at the rendezvous with Cicero, where the latter is killed. In an effort to win back the people's approval, Commodus challenges Maximus to a duel in the Colosseum. He stabs Maximus before the match to gain an advantage. Despite his injuries, Maximus disarms Commodus, whom the Praetorian Guard refuse to aid. Commodus then produces a hidden knife, which Maximus drives into Commodus's throat, killing him. Maximus succumbs to his wounds. Before he dies, he asks for political reforms, for his gladiator allies to be freed, and for Senator Gracchus to be reinstated. Maximus's friends and allies honor him as "a soldier of Rome", at Lucilla's behest, and carry his body out of the arena, leaving the dead Commodus behind. Juba visits the Colosseum at night and buries the figurines of Maximus's wife and son at the spot where he died. Juba promises to see Maximus again, "but not yet". Cast[edit] Russell Crowe as Maximus Decimus Meridius: A Hispano-Roman legatus forced into becoming a slave who seeks revenge against Commodus. He has earned the favor of Marcus Aurelius, and the love and admiration of Lucilla prior to the events of the film. His home is near Trujillo in today's Province of Cáceres, Spain. After the murder of his family he vows vengeance. Mel Gibson was first offered the role,[6] but declined as he felt he was too old to play the character. Antonio Banderas and Hugh Jackman were also considered.[7] Joaquin Phoenix as Commodus: The amoral, power-hungry, embittered son of Marcus Aurelius. He murders his father when he learns that Maximus will hold the emperor's powers in trust until a new republic can be formed. Connie Nielsen as Lucilla: Maximus's former lover and the older child of Marcus Aurelius. Lucilla has been recently widowed. She resists her brother's incestuous advances, while protecting her son, Lucius, from her brother's corruption and wrath. Oliver Reed as Antonius Proximo: An old, gruff gladiator trainer who buys Maximus in North Africa. A former gladiator himself, he was freed by Marcus Aurelius and becomes a mentor to Maximus. This was Reed's final film appearance, as he died during the filming. In the original film script, Proximo was supposed to live. Derek Jacobi as Senator Gracchus: A member of the Roman Senate who opposes Commodus's rule and an ally of Lucilla and Maximus. Djimon Hounsou as Juba: A Numidian tribesman who was taken from his home and family by slave traders. He becomes Maximus's closest ally and friend, and inspires Maximus to bring down Commodus for the greater good before he joins his family in the afterlife. Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius: The old and wise emperor of Rome who appoints Maximus, whom he loves as a son, to be his successor, with the ultimate aim of returning Rome to a republican form of government. He is murdered by his son Commodus before his wish can be fulfilled. Ralf Möller as Hagen: A Germanic warrior and Proximo's chief gladiator who later befriends Maximus and Juba during their battles in Rome. He is killed by the Praetorian Guard during Maximus's attempted escape from Rome. Tommy Flanagan as Cicero: Maximus's loyal servant who provides liaison between the enslaved Maximus, his former legion based at Ostia, and Lucilla. He is used as bait for the escaping Maximus and eventually killed by the Praetorian Guard. David Schofield as Senator Falco: A Patrician, a senator opposed to Gracchus. He helps Commodus to consolidate his power. John Shrapnel as Senator Gaius: A Roman senator allied with Gracchus, Lucilla, and Maximus against Commodus. Tomas Arana as General Quintus: A Roman legatus, commander of the Praetorian Guard, who betrays Maximus by allying with Commodus. In the extended version, Quintus sees the mad side of Commodus when he is forced to execute two innocent men. Quintus later redeems himself by refusing to allow Commodus a second sword during the latter's duel with Maximus, and promises to honor Maximus's last wishes. Spencer Treat Clark as Lucius Verus: The young son of Lucilla. He is named after his father Lucius Verus, who was co-emperor until AD 169. He is also the grandson of Marcus Aurelius. He idolizes Maximus for his victories in the arena. David Hemmings as Cassius: The master of ceremonies for the gladiatorial games in the Colosseum. Sven-Ole Thorsen as Tigris of Gaul: An undefeated gladiator who is called out of retirement by Commodus to kill Maximus but is defeated by Maximus. Commodus orders Maximus to kill Tigris, but Maximus spares him, much to Commodus' fury. Omid Djalili as a slave trader. Giannina Facio as Maximus's wife. Giorgio Cantarini as Maximus's son, who is the same age as Lucilla's son Lucius. Adam Levy as Condemned Officer.[8] Production[edit] Development and pre-production[edit] Gladiator was based on an original pitch by David Franzoni, who wrote the first draft.[9] Franzoni was given a three-picture deal with DreamWorks as writer and co-producer on the strength of his previous work, Steven Spielberg's Amistad, which helped establish the reputation of DreamWorks. Not a classical scholar, Franzoni was inspired by Daniel P. Mannix's 1958 novel Those About to Die, and he chose to base his story on Commodus after reading the Augustan History. In Franzoni's first draft, dated April 4, 1998, he named his protagonist Narcissus, a wrestler who, according to the ancient sources Herodian and Cassius Dio, strangled Emperor Commodus to death.[10] Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, the 19th-century painting that inspired Ridley Scott to tackle the project. Ridley Scott was approached by producers Walter F. Parkes and Douglas Wick. They showed him a copy of Jean-Léon Gérôme's 1872 painting entitled Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down).[11] Scott was enticed by filming the world of Ancient Rome. However, Scott felt Franzoni's dialogue was too "on the nose" (lacking subtlety) and hired John Logan to rewrite the script to his liking. Logan rewrote much of the first act and made the decision to kill off Maximus's family to increase the character's motivation.[12] Russell Crowe describes being eager for the role as pitched by Parkes, in his interview for Inside the Actors Studio: "They said, 'It's a 100-million-dollar film. You're being directed by Ridley Scott. You play a Roman General.' I've always been a big fan of Ridley's."[13] With two weeks to go before filming, the actors complained of problems with the script. William Nicholson was brought to Shepperton Studios to make Maximus a more sensitive character. Nicholson reworked Maximus' friendship with Juba and developed the afterlife thread in the film, saying, "he did not want to see a film about a man who wanted to kill somebody."[12] The screenplay faced many rewrites and revisions, with several actors providing changes.[14] Crowe allegedly questioned every aspect of the evolving script and strode off the set when he did not get answers. According to a DreamWorks executive, Crowe "tried to rewrite the entire script on the spot. You know the big line in the trailer, 'In this life or the next, I will have my vengeance'? At first he absolutely refused to say it."[15] Crowe described the script situation: "I read the script and it was substantially underdone. Even the character didn't exist on the pages. And that set about a long process, that's probably the first time that I've been in a situation where the script wasn't a complete done deal. We actually started shooting with about 32 pages and went through them in the first couple of weeks."[13] Of the writing and filming process, Crowe added, "Possibly, a lot of the stuff that I have to deal with now in terms of my 'volatility' has to do with that experience. Here was a situation where we got to Morocco with a crew of 200 and a cast of a 100 or whatever, and I didn't have anything to learn. I actually didn't know what the scenes were gonna be. We had, I think, one American writer working on it, one English writer working on it, and of course a group of producers who were also adding their ideas, and then Ridley himself; and then, on the occasion where Ridley would say, 'Look, this is the structure for it – what are you gonna say in that?' So then I'd be doing my own stuff, as well. And this is how things like, 'Strength and honor,' came up. This is how things like, 'At my signal, unleash hell,' came up. The name Maximus Decimus Meridius, it just flowed well."[13] Maximus' habit of rubbing soil before each fight references the attachment and affection to his former life as a farmer.[16] In a conversation with Marcus Aurelius, Maximus says the fecund soil of his farm is "black like my wife's hair".[16] Crowe wrote the speech himself, drawing on his feelings of homesickness for his own farm.[16] In preparation for filming, Scott spent several months developing storyboards to develop the framework of the plot.[17] Over six weeks, production members scouted various locations within the extent of the Roman Empire before its collapse, including Italy, France, North Africa, and England.[18] All of the film's props, sets, and costumes were manufactured by crew members due to high costs and unavailability of the items.[19] Filming[edit] The film was shot in three main locations between January and May 1999. The opening battle scenes in the forests of Germania were shot in three weeks in the Bourne Woods, near Farnham, Surrey, in England.[20] When Scott learned that the Forestry Commission planned to remove a section of the forest, he persuaded them to allow the battle scene to be shot there and burn it down.[21] Scott and cinematographer John Mathieson used multiple cameras filming at various frame rates and a 45-degree shutter, creating stop motion effects in the action sequences, similar to techniques used for the battle sequences of Saving Private Ryan (1998).[22] Subsequently, the scenes of slavery, desert travel, and gladiatorial training school were shot in Ouarzazate, Morocco, just south of the Atlas Mountains over a further three weeks.[23] To construct the arena where Maximus has his first fights, the crew used basic materials and local building techniques to manufacture the 30,000-seat mud brick arena.[24] Finally, the scenes of Ancient Rome were shot over a period of nineteen weeks in Fort Ricasoli, Malta.[25][26] In Malta, a replica of about one-third of Rome's Colosseum was built, to a height of 52 feet (15.8 meters), mostly from plaster and plywood (the other two-thirds and remaining height were added digitally).[27] The replica took several months to build and cost an estimated $1 million.[28] The reverse side of the complex supplied a rich assortment of Ancient Roman street furniture, colonnades, gates, statuary, and marketplaces for other filming requirements. The complex was serviced by tented "costume villages" that had changing rooms, storage, armorers, and other facilities.[25] The rest of the Colosseum was created in computer-generated imagery using set-design blueprints and textures referenced from live action, and rendered in three layers to provide lighting flexibility for compositing in Flame and Inferno software.[29] Post-production[edit] Several scenes included extensive use of computer-generated imagery shots for views of Rome. British post-production company The Mill was responsible for much of the computer-generated imagery effects that were added after filming. The company was responsible for such tricks as compositing real tigers filmed on bluescreen into the fight sequences, and adding smoke trails and extending the flight paths of the opening scene's salvo of flaming arrows to get around regulations on how far they could be shot during filming. They also used 2,000 live actors to create a computer-generated crowd of 35,000 virtual actors that had to look believable and react to fight scenes.[30] The Mill accomplished this by shooting live actors at different angles giving various performances, and then mapping them onto cards, with motion-capture tools used to track their movements for three-dimensional compositing.[29] The Mill created over 90 visual effects shots, comprising approximately nine minutes of the film's running time.[31] An unexpected post-production job was caused by the death of Oliver Reed of a heart attack during the filming in Malta before all his scenes had been shot. The Mill created a digital body double for the remaining scenes involving his character Proximo[29] by photographing a live-action body double in the shadows and by mapping a three-dimensional computer-generated imagery mask of Reed's face to the remaining scenes during production at an estimated cost of $3.2 million for two minutes of additional footage.[32][33] Visual effects supervisor John Nelson reflected on the decision to include the additional footage: "What we did was small compared to our other tasks on the film. What Oliver did was much greater. He gave an inspiring, moving performance. All we did was help him finish it."[32] The film is dedicated to Reed's memory.[34] Historical authenticity[edit] The film is loosely based on real events that occurred within the Roman Empire in the latter half of the 2nd century AD. As Ridley Scott wanted to portray Roman culture more accurately than in any previous film, he hired several historians as advisors. Nevertheless, some deviations from historical fact were made to increase interest, maintain narrative continuity, and for practical or safety reasons. Scott also stated that due to the influence of previous films affecting the public perception of what ancient Rome was like, some historical facts were "too unbelievable" to include. For instance, in an early version of the script, gladiators would have been carrying out product endorsements in the arena; while this would have been historically accurate, it was not filmed for fear that audiences would think it anachronistic.[35] At least one historical advisor resigned due to these changes. Another asked not to be mentioned in the credits (though it was stated in the director's commentary that he constantly asked, "where is the proof that certain things were exactly like they say?"). Historian Allen Ward of the University of Connecticut believed that historical accuracy would not have made Gladiator less interesting or exciting, stating, "creative artists need to be granted some poetic license, but that should not be a permit for the wholesale disregard of facts in historical fiction".[36][37] Fictionalization[edit] Marcus Aurelius was not murdered by his son Commodus; he died at Vindobona (modern Vienna) in 180 AD from the Antonine Plague. The epidemic, believed to be either smallpox or measles, swept the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus.[38] There is no indication Marcus Aurelius wished to return the Empire to a republican form of government, as depicted in the film. Moreover, he shared the rule of the Empire with Commodus for three years before his own death. Commodus then ruled alone from that point until his death at the end of 192 AD.[39] The film depicts Marcus as defeating the barbarians in the Marcomannic Wars. In reality, the war was still ongoing when Aurelius died; Commodus secured peace by a treaty with the two Germanic tribes allied against Rome, the Marcomanni and the Quadi, immediately after his father's death.[40] The character of Maximus is fictional, although in some respects he resembles the following historical figures: Narcissus (Commodus's real-life murderer and the character's name in the first draft of the screenplay); [41] Spartacus (who led a significant slave revolt in 73–71 BC); Cincinnatus (519–430 BC) (a farmer who was made dictator, saved Rome from invasion, then resigned his six-month appointment after 15 days);[42][43] and Marcus Nonius Macrinus (a trusted general, Consul in 154 AD, and friend of Marcus Aurelius).[44][45][46] Although Commodus engaged in show combat in the Colosseum, he was not killed in the arena; he was strangled in his bath by the wrestler Narcissus. Commodus reigned for over twelve years, unlike the shorter period portrayed in the film.[47][48] In the film, Lucilla is portrayed as a lone widow of Lucius Verus with one son, also named Lucius Verus. While Lucilla was the widow of Verus and also had a son by that name, their son died young, long before the reign of Commodus, and Lucilla remarried Claudius Pompeianus soon after Verus' death.[49] She had been married to him for 11 years by the time her brother became Emperor. The film omits Lucilla's other two children with Verus, Lucilla Plautia and Aurelia Lucilla.[49] The character of Maximus had a similar career (and personality traits as documented by Herodian) to Claudius Pompeianus (a Syrian) who married Marcus Aurelius' daughter Lucilla following the death of Lucius Verus. It is believed Aurelius may have wanted Pompeianus to succeed him as Caesar, in preference to Commodus, but was turned down. Pompeianus had no part in any of the many plots against Commodus. He was not depicted in the film.[36] Lucilla was implicated in a plot to assassinate her brother in 182 AD, along with her stepson by Pompeianus and several others. She was first exiled to the island of Capri by her brother, then executed on his orders later in the year.[50] In the film the character Antonius Proximo claims "the wise" Marcus Aurelius banned gladiatorial games in Rome forcing him to move to Mauretania. The real Aurelius did ban games, but only in Antioch as punishment for the city's support of the usurper Avidius Cassius. No games were ever banned in Rome. However, when the Emperor started conscripting gladiators into the legions, the resulting shortage in fighters allowed lanistae such as Proximo to make "windfall" profits through increased charges for their services.[51] In real life, the death of Commodus did not result in peace for Rome, nor a return to the Roman Republic. Rather, it ushered in a chaotic and bloody power struggle that culminated in the Year of the Five Emperors of AD 193. According to Herodian, the people of Rome were overjoyed at the news of Commodus dying, although they feared that the praetorians would not accept the new emperor Pertinax.[52] Anachronisms[edit] Costumes in the film are rarely historically correct. Some of the soldiers wear fantasy helmets. The bands wrapped around their lower arms were rarely worn. Their appearance is the product of a filmic stereotype whereby historical films depict peoples of antiquity wearing such bands. Although the film is set within the 2nd century AD, the Imperial Gallic armor and the helmets worn by the legionaries are from AD 75, a century earlier. This was superseded by new designs in AD 100. The legions' standard bearers (aquiliferi), centurions, mounted forces, and auxiliaries would have worn scale armour, lorica squamata.[53][54] The Germanic tribes are dressed in clothes from the Stone Age period.[55] Roman field artillery used in open battle was far more compact and transportable than shown by the film. But it was indeed capable of creating "killing zones" with a low chance of survival, as proven by tightly spaced impacts on a real battlefield. The Roman cavalry are shown using stirrups. This is anachronistic in that the horse-mounted forces of the Roman army used a two-horned saddle, without stirrups. Stirrups were only employed in filming for safety reasons because of the additional training and skill required to ride with a Roman saddle.[51][56] Catapults and ballistae would not have been used in a forest. They were reserved primarily for sieges and were rarely used in open battles. Fire arrows and canisters fired from catapults were not used at any point in ancient history.[51] The Praetorian Guards seen in the film are all wearing purple uniforms. No historical evidence supports this. On campaign, they usually wore standard legionary equipment with some unique decorative elements.[57] In the bird's eye view of Rome when the city is introduced for the first time there are several buildings that did not exist at the time of Gladiator. For example, the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine is quite prominent, though it was not completed until AD 312. Early in the story, Commodus regards a statue in his father's tent; the statue has no pupils, a trait commonly seen in fiction about the Roman Empire. In fact, most statues are thought to have had painted eyes and pupils at the time when they were created; it was only through the passage of time that the paint would have worn off, leaving the statues with their blank stares. Influences[edit] The film's plot was influenced by two 1960s Hollywood films of the sword-and-sandal genre, The Fall of the Roman Empire and Spartacus,[58] and shares several plot points with The Fall of the Roman Empire, which tells the story of Livius, who, like Maximus in Gladiator, is Marcus Aurelius's intended successor. Livius is in love with Lucilla and seeks to marry her while Maximus, who is happily married, was formerly in love with her. Both films portray the death of Marcus Aurelius as an assassination. In Fall of the Roman Empire a group of conspirators independent of Commodus, hoping to profit from Commodus's accession, arrange for Marcus Aurelius to be poisoned; in Gladiator Commodus himself murders his father by smothering him. In the course of Fall of the Roman Empire Commodus unsuccessfully seeks to win Livius over to his vision of empire in contrast to that of his father, but continues to employ him notwithstanding; in Gladiator, when Commodus fails to secure Maximus's allegiance, he executes Maximus's wife and son and tries unsuccessfully to execute him. Livius in Fall of the Roman Empire and Maximus in Gladiator kill Commodus in single combat, Livius to save Lucilla and Maximus to avenge the murder of his wife and son, and both do it for the greater good of Rome. Scott cited Spartacus and Ben-Hur as influences on the film: "These movies were part of my cinema-going youth. But at the dawn of the new millennium, I thought this might be the ideal time to revisit what may have been the most important period of the last two thousand years – if not all recorded history – the apex and beginning of the decline of the greatest military and political power the world has ever known."[59] Spartacus provides the film's gladiatorial motif, as well as the character of Senator Gracchus, a fictitious senator (bearing the name of a pair of revolutionary tribunes from the 2nd century BC) who in both films is an elder statesman of ancient Rome attempting to preserve the ancient rights of the Roman Senate in the face of an ambitious autocrat – Marcus Licinius Crassus in Spartacus and Commodus in Gladiator. Both actors who played Gracchus (in Spartacus and Gladiator) played Claudius in previous films: Charles Laughton of Spartacus played Claudius in the unfinished 1937 film I, Claudius and Derek Jacobi of Gladiator played Claudius in the 1976 BBC adaptation. Both films also share a specific set piece wherein a gladiator (Maximus here, Woody Strode's Draba in Spartacus) throws his weapon into a spectator box at the end of a match, as well as at least one line of dialogue: "Rome is the mob", said here by Gracchus and by Julius Caesar (John Gavin) in Spartacus. The film's depiction of Commodus's entry into Rome borrows imagery from Leni Riefenstahl's Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will (1935), although Scott has pointed out that the iconography of Nazi rallies was itself inspired by the Roman Empire. Gladiator reflects back on the film by duplicating similar events that occurred in Adolf Hitler's procession. The Nazi film opens with an aerial view of Hitler arriving in a plane, while Scott shows an aerial view of Rome, quickly followed by a shot of the large crowd of people watching Commodus pass them in a procession with his chariot.[60] The first thing to appear in Triumph of the Will is a Nazi eagle, which is alluded to when a statue of an eagle sits atop one of the arches (and then is shortly followed by several more decorative eagles throughout the rest of the scene), leading up to the procession of Commodus. At one point in the Nazi film, a little girl gives flowers to Hitler, while Commodus is met by several girls who all give him bundles of flowers.[61] Music[edit] Main article: Gladiator (2000 soundtrack) Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard – "Now We Are Free" listen to a clip from the score of Gladiator. Problems playing this file? See media help. The Oscar-nominated score was composed by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard, and conducted by Gavin Greenaway. Zimmer was originally planning to use Israeli vocalist Ofra Haza for the score, after his work with her in The Prince of Egypt. However, Haza died in late February 2000, before she was able to record, and so Gerrard was chosen instead. Lisa Gerrard's vocals are similar to her own work on The Insider score.[62] The music for many of the battle scenes has been noted as similar to Gustav Holst's "Mars: The Bringer of War", and in June 2006, the Holst Foundation sued Hans Zimmer for allegedly copying the late Holst's work.[63][64] Another close musical resemblance occurs in the scene of Commodus's triumphal entry into Rome, accompanied by music clearly evocative of two sections – the Prelude to Das Rheingold and Siegfried's Funeral March from Götterdämmerung – from Richard Wagner's Ring of the Nibelung. On February 27, 2001, nearly a year after the first soundtrack's release, Decca produced Gladiator: More Music From the Motion Picture. Then, on September 5, 2005, Decca produced Gladiator: Special Anniversary Edition, a two-CD pack containing both the above-mentioned releases. Some of the music from the film was featured in the NFL playoffs in January 2003 before commercial breaks and before and after half-time.[65] In 2003, Luciano Pavarotti released a recording of himself singing a song from the film and said he regretted turning down an offer to perform on the soundtrack.[66] Reception[edit] Box office[edit] Gladiator grossed $187.7 million in the United States and Canada and $269.9 million in other territories for a total of $457.6 million, against a production budget of $103 million.[67] In North America, the film earned $34.8 million in its opening weekend at 2,938 theaters, topping the box office.[68] It remained number one in its second weekend grossing $24.6 million, and dropped to third place in its third weekend with $19.7 million behind newcomers Dinosaur, Mission: Impossible 2 and Shanghai Noon.[69][70] Critical response[edit] Crowe and Phoenix’s performances garnered praise, and the two were nominated for Academy Awards, with Crowe winning. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 77% based on 200 reviews, with an average rating of 7.30/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Ridley Scott and an excellent cast successfully convey the intensity of Roman gladiatorial combat as well as the political intrigue brewing beneath."[71] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[72] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[73] The Battle of Germania was cited by CNN as one of their "favorite on-screen battle scenes",[74] while Entertainment Weekly named Maximus as their sixth favorite action hero, because of "Crowe's steely, soulful performance",[75] and named it as their third favorite revenge film.[76] In December 2000, Gladiator was named the best film of the year by viewers of Film 2000, taking 40% of the votes.[77] In 2002, a Channel 4 (UK TV) poll named it as the sixth greatest film of all time.[78] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Are you not entertained?".[79] Michael Wilmington of The Chicago Tribune gave praise to Scott's direction, comparing the visual style of the film to that of Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner.[80] Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, criticizing the look of the film as "muddy, fuzzy, and indistinct." He also derided the writing, saying it "employs depression as a substitute for personality, and believes that if characters are bitter and morose enough, we won't notice how dull they are."[81] Camille Paglia called the film "boring, badly shot and suffused with sentimental p.c. rubbish."[82] Accolades[edit] Main article: List of accolades received by Gladiator Gladiator was nominated in 36 individual ceremonies, including the 73rd Academy Awards, the BAFTA Awards, and the Golden Globe Awards. Of 119 award nominations, the film won 48 prizes.[83] The film won five Academy Awards and was nominated for an additional seven, including Best Original Screenplay, Best Supporting Actor for Joaquin Phoenix and Best Director for Ridley Scott. It was the first movie to win Best Picture without winning either a directing or screenwriting award since All the King's Men at the 22nd Academy Awards in 1950. In 2003, Chicago became another Best Picture winner which didn't win an Academy Award in either of these two major categories. Due to Academy rules, only Hans Zimmer was officially nominated for Best Original Score, and not Lisa Gerrard at the time.[84] However, the pair did win the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score as co-composers.[85] Impact[edit] The film's mainstream success is responsible for an increased interest in Roman and classical history in the United States. According to The New York Times, this has been dubbed the "Gladiator Effect". It's called the 'Gladiator' effect by writers and publishers. The snob in us likes to believe that it is always books that spin off movies. Yet in this case, it's the movies – most recently Gladiator two years ago – that have created the interest in the ancients. And not for more Roman screen colossals, but for writing that is serious or fun or both.[86] The Cicero biography Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician and Gregory Hays's translation of Marcus Aurelius's Meditations received large spikes in sales after the release of the film.[86] The film also began a revival of the historical epic genre with films such as The Last Samurai, Troy, The Alamo, King Arthur, Alexander, 300 and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire, Kingdom of Heaven, and Robin Hood (the last two were also directed by Scott).[87] The gladiator arena set piece from the 2002 film Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, which entered production shortly after the release of Gladiator, has been compared to the arena setting in the Scott film.[88][89][90] The character of Maximus was placed 12th in the Total Film list of 50 best movie heroes and villains[91] and 35th in the Empire's 100 Greatest Movie Characters.[92] Maximus is also featured on 55c "Australian Legends" postage stamp series.[93] Russell Crowe attended a ceremony to mark the creation of the stamps.[93] Home media[edit] The film was first released on DVD on November 21, 2000, and has since been released in several different extended and special edition versions. Special features for the Blu-ray Disc and DVDs include deleted scenes, trailers, documentaries, commentaries, storyboards, image galleries, Easter eggs, and cast auditions. The film was released on Blu-ray in September 2009, in a 2-disc edition containing both the theatrical and extended cuts of the film, as part of Paramount's "Sapphire Series" (Paramount acquired the rights to the film when it bought the DreamWorks library in 2006).[94] Initial reviews of the Blu-ray Disc release criticized poor image quality, leading many to call for it to be remastered, as Sony did with The Fifth Element in 2007.[95] A remastered version was later released in 2010. The DVD editions that have been released since the original two-disc version, include a film-only single-disc edition as well as a three-disc "extended edition" DVD which was released in August 2005. The extended edition DVD features approximately fifteen minutes of additional scenes, most of which appear in the previous release as deleted scenes. The original cut, which Scott still calls his director's cut, is also selectable via seamless branching (which is not included on the UK edition). The DVD is also notable for having a new commentary track featuring director Scott and star Crowe. The film is on the first disc, the second one has a three-hour documentary into the making of the film by DVD producer Charles de Lauzirika, and the third disc contains supplements. Discs one and two of the three-disc extended edition were also repackaged and sold as a two-disc "special edition" in the EU in 2005. The film was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray by Paramount Home Media Distribution on May 15, 2018.[96] Future[edit] In June 2001, developments for a Gladiator follow-up began in the form of potential for either a prequel or a sequel, with David Franzoni in early-negotiations to once again serve as screenwriter.[97] The following year, a sequel was announced to be moving forward with John Logan serving as screenwriter. The plot, set fifteen years later, included the Praetorian Guards rule Rome and an older-aged Lucius searching for the truth about his biological father. Franzoni signed on as producer, alongside Douglas Wick, and Walter Parkes.[98] In December 2002, the film's plot was announced to include prequel events regarding the parentage of Lucius, as well as sequel events depicting the resurrection of Maximus. Producers and Russell Crowe collaboratively researched extensively, ancient Roman beliefs regarding the afterlife.[99] By September 2003, Scott announced that the script was completed, while confirming that the story would primarily center around the secret son of Maximus, being Lucius.[100] In May 2006, Scott stated that while development on the project continues, the exact story to the film has yet to be figured out. The filmmaker stated that all creative minds that were involved with Gladiator, are working on how to continue from where the story left off. Scott stated that Crowe had favored a fantasy element with bringing Maximus back to life, while saying that he believed a grounded historical-fiction approach was the better option. While he believes the film will not be made, he confirmed the plan to reveal that Lucius is the son of Maximus and Lucilla while comparing the necessity of a more complex script with the corruption of Rome in the potential sequel.[101] During this time, Nick Cave was commissioned to write a new draft of the script. It was later revealed to be written under the working title of "Christ Killer". Cave described the plot as a "deities vs. deity vs. humanity" story. The premise involved Maximus in purgatory, who is resurrected as an immortal eternal warrior for the Roman gods. In the draft, Maximus is sent to Earth and tasked with stopping the momentum of Christianity by killing Jesus Christ and His disciples, as their movement was gradually siphoning off the power and vitality of the ancient Pagan gods. During his tasked mission, Maximus is tricked into murdering his own son. Cursed to live forever, Cave's script included Maximus fighting amongst the Crusades, WWII, and the Vietnam War; with the ending revealing that in the modern-day time period, the character now works at The Pentagon. The script was ultimately rejected and scrapped.[102][103][104][105] In March 2017, Scott revealed that the difficulties of reintroducing Maximus, when the character is deceased, had been resolved. The filmmaker expressed enthusiasm for the future of the project, while discussions with Russell Crowe to reprise his role were ongoing.[106] In November 2018, it was announced that Paramount Pictures is officially green-lighting the development of a sequel. Scott was in early-negotiations to once again serve as director, with a script written by Peter Craig. Scott will additionally serve as producer alongside Doug Wick, Lucy Fisher, Walter Parkes, and Laurie MacDonald. The project will be a joint-venture production between Paramount, Scott Free Productions, and Parkes/MacDonald Productions with Universal as a co-financing partner.[107] By June 2019, producers stated: "...we wouldn't touch unless we felt in a way to do it was legitimate." In their interview, they also revealed that the current script takes place 25–30 years after the first film.[108] The plot will center around Lucius.[109] In April 2021, Chris Hemsworth approached Crowe with a proposal to become involved with the project, with intention to co-produce the film. While working together on Thor: Love and Thunder, the two actors shared additional ideas for the film.[110] See also[edit] Film portal List of films set in ancient Rome List of historical period drama films References[edit] ^ "Gladiator – Cast, Crew, Director and Awards". The New York Times. Baseline. All Movie Guide. 2015. Archived from the original on October 7, 2015. Retrieved July 30, 2010. ^ "Gladiator". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on May 17, 2014. Retrieved June 2, 2013. ^ "Gladiator (2000)". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on June 4, 2017. Retrieved June 25, 2017. ^ "Gladiator (2000)". British Film Institute. October 8, 2017. Archived from the original on February 20, 2018. Retrieved February 15, 2018. ^ a b "Gladiator (2000)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on August 8, 2018. Retrieved August 7, 2018. ^ Elvis Mitchell (May 5, 2000), "The New York Times: Best Pictures", New York Times, archived from the original on April 4, 2015, retrieved July 25, 2015 ^ Britt Hayes (June 13, 2013), "See the Cast of 'Gladiator' Then and Now", Screencrush.com, archived from the original on May 26, 2015, retrieved July 25, 2015 ^ Carra, Mallory (April 5, 2015). "Who Plays Peter On 'A.D. The Bible Continues'? Adam Levy Is A Regular In The U.K. Theater Scene". Bustle. Archived from the original on December 31, 2018. 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ISBN 0-275-96976-2 Stephens, William (2001), "The Rebirth of Stoicism?", Creighton Magazine, archived from the original on December 31, 2009, retrieved January 4, 2010 Stephens, William (2012). "Appendix: Marcus, Maximus, and Stoicism in Gladiator (2000)", in Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-0810-4 Ward, Allen (2001), "The Movie 'Gladiator' in Historical Perspective", Classics Technology Center, AbleMedia, retrieved January 26, 2007 Winkler, Martin (2004). Gladiator Film and History. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1042-2 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gladiator (2000 film) Gladiator at IMDb Gladiator at the American Film Institute Catalog Gladiator at AllMovie Gladiator at Box Office Mojo Gladiator at Metacritic Gladiator at Rotten Tomatoes v t e Films directed by Ridley Scott Feature films The Duellists (1977) Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Legend (1985) Someone to Watch Over Me (1987) Black Rain (1989) Thelma & Louise (1991) 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992) White Squall (1996) G.I. Jane (1997) Gladiator (2000) Hannibal (2001) Black Hawk Down (2001) Matchstick Men (2003) Kingdom of Heaven (2005) A Good Year (2006) American Gangster (2007) Body of Lies (2008) Robin Hood (2010) Prometheus (2012) The Counselor (2013) Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014) The Martian (2015) Alien: Covenant (2017) All the Money in the World (2017) The Last Duel (2021) House of Gucci (2021) Other work Boy and Bicycle (short film, 1965) 1984 (advertisement, 1984) All the Invisible Children (segment "Jonathan", 2005) Unrealised projects v t e Works by John Logan Films written Tornado! (1996) Bats (1999) RKO 281 (1999) Any Given Sunday (1999) Gladiator (2000) The Time Machine (2002) Star Trek: Nemesis (2002) Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas (2003) The Last Samurai (2003) The Aviator (2004) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) Rango (2011) Coriolanus (2011) Hugo (2011) Skyfall (2012) Spectre (2015) Genius (2016) Alien: Covenant (2017) Television series Penny Dreadful (2014–2016) Penny Dreadful: City of Angels (2020) Theater Red (2009) Peter and Alice (2013) I'll Eat You Last: A Chat with Sue Mengers (2013) The Last Ship (2014) Moulin Rouge! (2018) Superhero (2019) v t e Works by William Nicholson Novels Wind on Fire The Wind Singer Slaves of the Mastery Firesong Noble Warriors Seeker Jango Noman The Secret Intensity of Everyday Life Plays Shadowlands The Retreat from Moscow Films directed Firelight Hope Gap Films written Martin Luther, Heretic Shadowlands Nell First Knight Grey Owl Gladiator Elizabeth: The Golden Age Les Misérables Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom Unbroken Everest Breathe Awards for Gladiator v t e Academy Award for Best Picture 1927–1950 Wings (1927–1928) The Broadway Melody (1928–1929) All Quiet on the Western Front (1929–1930) Cimarron (1930–1931) Grand Hotel (1931–1932) Cavalcade (1932–1933) It Happened One Night (1934) Mutiny on the Bounty (1935) The Great Ziegfeld (1936) The Life of Emile Zola (1937) You Can't Take It with You (1938) Gone with the Wind (1939) Rebecca (1940) How Green Was My Valley (1941) Mrs. Miniver (1942) Casablanca (1943) Going My Way (1944) The Lost Weekend (1945) The Best Years of Our Lives (1946) Gentleman's Agreement (1947) Hamlet (1948) All the King's Men (1949) All About Eve (1950) 1951–1975 An American in Paris (1951) The Greatest Show on Earth (1952) From Here to Eternity (1953) On the Waterfront (1954) Marty (1955) Around the World in 80 Days (1956) The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) Gigi (1958) Ben-Hur (1959) The Apartment (1960) West Side Story (1961) Lawrence of Arabia (1962) Tom Jones (1963) My Fair Lady (1964) The Sound of Music (1965) A Man for All Seasons (1966) In the Heat of the Night (1967) Oliver! (1968) Midnight Cowboy (1969) Patton (1970) The French Connection (1971) The Godfather (1972) The Sting (1973) The Godfather Part II (1974) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) 1976–2000 Rocky (1976) Annie Hall (1977) The Deer Hunter (1978) Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) Ordinary People (1980) Chariots of Fire (1981) Gandhi (1982) Terms of Endearment (1983) Amadeus (1984) Out of Africa (1985) Platoon (1986) The Last Emperor (1987) Rain Man (1988) Driving Miss Daisy (1989) Dances with Wolves (1990) The Silence of the Lambs (1991) Unforgiven (1992) Schindler's List (1993) Forrest Gump (1994) Braveheart (1995) The English Patient (1996) Titanic (1997) Shakespeare in Love (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) 2001–present A Beautiful Mind (2001) Chicago (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) Million Dollar Baby (2004) Crash (2005) The Departed (2006) No Country for Old Men (2007) Slumdog Millionaire (2008) The Hurt Locker (2009) The King's Speech (2010) The Artist (2011) Argo (2012) 12 Years a Slave (2013) Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014) Spotlight (2015) Moonlight (2016) The Shape of Water (2017) Green Book (2018) Parasite (2019) Nomadland (2020–2021) v t e BAFTA Award for Best Film Best Film from Any Source 1947–1967 The Best Years of Our Lives (1947) Hamlet (1948) Bicycle Thieves (1949) All About Eve (1950) La Ronde (1951) The Sound Barrier (1952) Forbidden Games (1953) The Wages of Fear (1954) Richard III (1955) Gervaise (1956) The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) Room at the Top (1958) Ben-Hur (1959) The Apartment (1960) Ballad of a Soldier (1961) The Hustler (1961) Lawrence of Arabia (1962) Tom Jones (1963) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964) My Fair Lady (1965) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) A Man for All Seasons (1967) Best Film 1968–present The Graduate (1968) Midnight Cowboy (1969) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1970) Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971) Cabaret (1972) Day for Night (1973) Lacombe, Lucien (1974) Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1975) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1976) Annie Hall (1977) Julia (1978) Manhattan (1979) The Elephant Man (1980) Chariots of Fire (1981) Gandhi (1982) Educating Rita (1983) The Killing Fields (1984) The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985) A Room with a View (1986) Jean de Florette (1987) The Last Emperor (1988) Dead Poets Society (1989) Goodfellas (1990) The Commitments (1991) Howards End (1992) Schindler's List (1993) Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994) Sense and Sensibility (1995) The English Patient (1996) The Full Monty (1997) Shakespeare in Love (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) The Pianist (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) The Aviator (2004) Brokeback Mountain (2005) The Queen (2006) Atonement (2007) Slumdog Millionaire (2008) The Hurt Locker (2009) The King's Speech (2010) The Artist (2011) Argo (2012) 12 Years a Slave (2013) Boyhood (2014) The Revenant (2015) La La Land (2016) Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017) Roma (2018) 1917 (2019) Nomadland (2020) v t e Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Picture Sense and Sensibility (1995) Fargo (1996) L.A. Confidential (1997) Saving Private Ryan (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) A Beautiful Mind (2001) Chicago (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) Sideways (2004) Brokeback Mountain (2005) The Departed (2006) No Country for Old Men (2007) Slumdog Millionaire (2008) The Hurt Locker (2009) The Social Network (2010) The Artist (2011) Argo (2012) 12 Years a Slave (2013) Boyhood (2014) Spotlight (2015) La La Land (2016) The Shape of Water (2017) Roma (2018) Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019) Nomadland (2020) v t e Empire Award for Best Film Braveheart (1996) Se7en (1997) Men in Black (1998) Titanic (1999) The Matrix (2000) Gladiator (2001) The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004) The Bourne Supremacy (2005) King Kong (2006) Casino Royale (2007) The Bourne Ultimatum (2008) The Dark Knight (2009) Avatar (2010) Inception (2011) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2012) Skyfall (2013) Gravity (2014) Interstellar (2015) The Revenant (2016) Rogue One (2017) Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2018) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama The Song of Bernadette (1943) Going My Way (1944) The Lost Weekend (1945) The Best Years of Our Lives (1946) Gentleman's Agreement (1947) Johnny Belinda / The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) All the King's Men (1949) Sunset Boulevard (1950) A Place in the Sun (1951) The Greatest Show on Earth (1952) The Robe (1953) On the Waterfront (1954) East of Eden (1955) Around the World in 80 Days (1956) The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) The Defiant Ones (1958) Ben-Hur (1959) Spartacus (1960) The Guns of Navarone (1961) Lawrence of Arabia (1962) The Cardinal (1963) Becket (1964) Doctor Zhivago (1965) A Man for All Seasons (1966) In the Heat of the Night (1967) The Lion in Winter (1968) Anne of the Thousand Days (1969) Love Story (1970) The French Connection (1971) The Godfather (1972) The Exorcist (1973) Chinatown (1974) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) Rocky (1976) The Turning Point (1977) Midnight Express (1978) Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) Ordinary People (1980) On Golden Pond (1981) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) Terms of Endearment (1983) Amadeus (1984) Out of Africa (1985) Platoon (1986) The Last Emperor (1987) Rain Man (1988) Born on the Fourth of July (1989) Dances with Wolves (1990) Bugsy (1991) Scent of a Woman (1992) Schindler's List (1993) Forrest Gump (1994) Sense and Sensibility (1995) The English Patient (1996) Titanic (1997) Saving Private Ryan (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) A Beautiful Mind (2001) The Hours (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) The Aviator (2004) Brokeback Mountain (2005) Babel (2006) Atonement (2007) Slumdog Millionaire (2008) Avatar (2009) The Social Network (2010) The Descendants (2011) Argo (2012) 12 Years a Slave (2013) Boyhood (2014) The Revenant (2015) Moonlight (2016) Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017) Bohemian Rhapsody (2018) 1917 (2019) Nomadland (2020) v t e MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Movie Best Movie (1992–2011, 2018–present) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1992) A Few Good Men (1993) Menace II Society (1994) Pulp Fiction (1995) Seven (1996) Scream (1997) Titanic (1998) There's Something About Mary (1999) The Matrix (2000) Gladiator (2001) The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004) Napoleon Dynamite (2005) Wedding Crashers (2006) Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2007) Transformers (2008) Twilight (2009) The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2010) The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011) Black Panther (2018) Avengers: Endgame (2019) No Award (2020) To All the Boys: Always and Forever (2021) Movie of the Year (2012–2017) The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2012) The Avengers (2013) The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2014) The Fault in Our Stars (2015) Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2016) Beauty and the Beast (2017) v t e Nikkan Sports Film Award for Best Foreign Film The Last Emperor (1988) Rain Man (1989) Ghost (1990) Dances with Wolves (1991) Basic Instinct (1992) Unforgiven (1993) Schindler's List (1994) Speed (1995) Dead Man Walking (1996) The English Patient (1997) L.A. Confidential (1998) Elizabeth (1999) Gladiator (2000) Billy Elliot (2001) The Son's Room (2002) The Pianist (2003) The Last Samurai (2004) Million Dollar Baby (2005) Brokeback Mountain (2006) Letters from Iwo Jima (2007) No Country for Old Men (2008) Mother (2009) The Hurt Locker (2010) The King's Speech (2011) The Intouchables (2012) Les Misérables (2013) Frozen (2014) Whiplash (2015) Spotlight (2016) Dunkirk (2017) Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2018) Green Book (2019) House of Hummingbird (2020) v t e Producers Guild of America Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture Driving Miss Daisy (1989) Dances with Wolves (1990) The Silence of the Lambs (1991) The Crying Game (1992) Schindler's List (1993) Forrest Gump (1994) Apollo 13 (1995) The English Patient (1996) Titanic (1997) Saving Private Ryan (1998) American Beauty (1999) Gladiator (2000) Moulin Rouge! 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en-wikipedia-org-8381	----	Prohairesis - Wikipedia Prohairesis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prohairesis (Ancient Greek: προαίρεσις; variously translated as "moral character", "will", "volition", "choice", "intention", or "moral choice"[1]) is a fundamental concept in the Stoic philosophy of Epictetus. It represents the choice involved in giving or withholding assent to impressions (phantasiai). The use of this Greek word was first introduced into philosophy by Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics.[2] To Epictetus, it is the faculty that distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. The concept of prohairesis plays a cardinal role in the Discourses and in the Manual: the terms "prohairesis", "prohairetic", and "aprohairetic" appear some 168 times.[3][4] Explanation by Epictetus[edit] According to Epictetus, nothing is properly considered either good, or bad, aside from those things that are within our own power to control, and the only thing fully in our power to control is our own volition (prohairesis) which exercises the faculty of choice that we use to judge our impressions. For example, if a person says something critical to us, that is not bad; or, if something complimentary is said, that is not good, because such things are externals and not in our power to control. By exerting the power of choice, it is possible to maintain equanimity in the face of either criticism and praise, which is a moral good. On the other hand, when people become troubled by criticism, or elated by praise, that is a moral evil because they have misjudged impressions by thinking that things not in their power (such as criticism or praise) have value, and by doing that they place a measure of control of their own life in the hands of others.[5] The importance of prohairesis for Epictetus is that it exerts a power that allows people to choose how they will react to impressions rationally: Remember that what is insulting is not the person who abuses or hits you, but the judgment that these things are insulting. So when someone irritates you, realize that it is your own opinion that has irritated you. Try, therefore, in the first place, not to be carried away by the impression; for if you once gain time and respite, you will find it easier to control yourself.[6] By exerting their prohairesis (will, volition, or choice), people can choose rationally how to react to impressions. Prohairesis is the faculty that distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. Epictetus defines it as: a rational faculty able to use the impressions and to which all other human faculties are subordinated (e.g., Discourses II.23.6-15; II.23.20-29) a faculty capable of using impressions and understanding their use (e.g., Discourses II.8.4-8) a self-theoretical faculty able to evaluate all other human faculties (e.g., Discourses I.1.1-13; I.17.1-3; I.20.1-6) a faculty impossible to be enslaved (e.g., Discourses II.10.1; I.17.21) and impossible to subordinate (e.g., Discourses II.10.1; I.17.21; IV.1.161) See also[edit] Thelema, alternate Greek term for "will" or "volition" having precedent in philosophical belief References[edit] ^ Keith Seddon, Epictetus' Handbook, p. 228 ^ Chamberlain C.: "The meaning of Prohairesis in Aristotele's Ethics" in Transactions of the American Philological Association 114 (1984) 147-157 ^ Cassanmagnago C.: "Il problema della prohairesis in Epitteto" in Rivista di Filosofia Neoscolastica LXIX, 232-246 (1977) ^ Dobbin R.: "Prohairesis in Epictetus" in Ancient Philosophy XI, 111-135 (1991) ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, p. 114-5 ^ The Handbook of Epictetus 20. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prohairesis&oldid=1025556487" Categories: Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano Polski Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2021, at 06:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8406	----	Category:Use British English from September 2018 - Wikipedia Help Category:Use British English from September 2018 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Update this page Use British English (refresh) Subtotals August 2010 459 September 2010 411 October 2010 291 November 2010 323 December 2010 128 January 2011 56 March 2011 101 April 2011 167 May 2011 623 June 2011 397 July 2011 431 August 2011 2,111 September 2011 262 October 2011 497 November 2011 553 December 2011 466 January 2012 639 February 2012 958 March 2012 1,567 April 2012 959 May 2012 1,814 June 2012 1,159 July 2012 1,642 August 2012 3,692 September 2012 1,268 October 2012 1,009 November 2012 1,081 December 2012 1,054 January 2013 1,852 February 2013 1,786 March 2013 1,082 April 2013 752 May 2013 2,548 June 2013 2,145 July 2013 1,077 August 2013 1,322 September 2013 2,152 October 2013 1,786 November 2013 2,259 December 2013 1,443 January 2014 2,865 February 2014 2,215 March 2014 1,624 April 2014 1,266 May 2014 1,795 June 2014 1,269 July 2014 1,977 August 2014 2,428 September 2014 877 October 2014 1,046 November 2014 1,436 December 2014 1,408 January 2015 1,862 February 2015 2,399 March 2015 3,979 April 2015 1,071 May 2015 3,301 June 2015 2,855 July 2015 3,602 August 2015 4,451 September 2015 1,354 October 2015 765 November 2015 768 December 2015 1,067 January 2016 1,099 February 2016 3,319 March 2016 5,508 April 2016 5,208 May 2016 4,969 June 2016 5,875 July 2016 1,662 August 2016 3,075 September 2016 2,307 October 2016 3,499 November 2016 2,437 December 2016 6,302 January 2017 5,742 February 2017 3,526 March 2017 5,423 April 2017 3,232 May 2017 2,925 June 2017 1,911 July 2017 2,253 August 2017 3,122 September 2017 2,967 October 2017 2,687 November 2017 2,403 December 2017 2,785 January 2018 4,381 February 2018 4,047 March 2018 4,189 April 2018 1,928 May 2018 503 June 2018 458 July 2018 514 August 2018 483 September 2018 422 October 2018 524 November 2018 545 December 2018 551 January 2019 775 February 2019 524 March 2019 552 April 2019 546 May 2019 850 June 2019 1,311 July 2019 793 August 2019 1,489 September 2019 2,366 October 2019 1,055 November 2019 1,854 December 2019 1,626 January 2020 1,911 February 2020 1,320 March 2020 2,021 April 2020 808 May 2020 969 June 2020 809 July 2020 1,178 August 2020 738 September 2020 640 October 2020 750 November 2020 707 December 2020 702 January 2021 919 February 2021 800 March 2021 926 April 2021 699 May 2021 764 June 2021 222 Undated articles 0 All articles 225,407 This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. 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It is a member of Category:Use British English. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in category "Use British English from September 2018" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 422 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). 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en-wikipedia-org-8431	----	Sino-Roman relations - Wikipedia Sino-Roman relations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bilateral international relationship Sino-Roman relations The Roman Empire and the Han Empire around AD 1 Eastern Hemisphere in AD 50, the middle of the first century The trade relations between Rome and the East, including China, according to the 1st-century AD navigation guide Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Sino-Roman relations comprised the mostly indirect contact, flow of trade goods, information, and occasional travellers between the Roman Empire and Han Empire of China, as well as between the later Eastern Roman Empire and various Chinese dynasties. These empires inched progressively closer in the course of the Roman expansion into the ancient Near East and simultaneous Han Chinese military incursions into Central Asia. Mutual awareness remained low, and firm knowledge about each other was limited. Only a few attempts at direct contact are known from records. Intermediate empires such as the Parthians and Kushans, seeking to maintain lucrative control over the silk trade, inhibited direct contact between these two Eurasian powers. In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao tried to send his envoy Gan Ying to Rome, but Gan was dissuaded by Parthians from venturing beyond the Persian Gulf. Several alleged Roman emissaries to China were recorded by ancient Chinese historians. The first one on record, supposedly from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or his adopted son Marcus Aurelius, arrived in 166 AD. Others are recorded as arriving in 226 and 284 AD, with a long absence until the first recorded Byzantine embassy in 643 AD. The indirect exchange of goods on land along the Silk Road and sea routes included Chinese silk, Roman glassware and high-quality cloth. Roman coins minted from the 1st century AD onwards have been found in China, as well as a coin of Maximian and medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius in Jiaozhi in modern Vietnam, the same region at which Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed. Roman glassware and silverware have been discovered at Chinese archaeological sites dated to the Han period. Roman coins and glass beads have also been found in Japan. In classical sources, the problem of identifying references to ancient China is exacerbated by the interpretation of the Latin term Seres, whose meaning fluctuated and could refer to several Asian peoples in a wide arc from India over Central Asia to China. In Chinese records, the Roman Empire came to be known as Daqin or Great Qin. Daqin was directly associated with the later Fulin (拂菻) in Chinese sources, which has been identified by scholars such as Friedrich Hirth as the Byzantine Empire. Chinese sources describe several embassies of Fulin arriving in China during the Tang dynasty and also mention the siege of Constantinople by the forces of Muawiyah I in 674–678 AD. Geographers in the Roman Empire such as Ptolemy provided a rough sketch of the eastern Indian Ocean, including the Malay Peninsula and beyond this the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea. Ptolemy's "Cattigara" was most likely Óc Eo, Vietnam, where Antonine-era Roman items have been found. Ancient Chinese geographers demonstrated a general knowledge of West Asia and Rome's eastern provinces. The 7th-century AD Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote of the contemporary reunification of northern and southern China, which he treated as separate nations recently at war. This mirrors both the conquest of Chen by Emperor Wen of Sui (reigned 581–604 AD) as well as the names Cathay and Mangi used by later medieval Europeans in China during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Han-Chinese Southern Song dynasty. Contents 1 Geographical accounts and cartography 1.1 Roman geography 1.2 Chinese geography 2 Embassies and travel 2.1 Prelude 2.2 Embassy to Augustus 2.3 Envoy Gan Ying 2.4 Possible Roman Greeks in Burma and China 2.5 First Roman embassy 2.6 Other Roman embassies 2.7 Fulin: Eastern Roman embassies 3 Trade relations 3.1 Roman exports to China 3.2 Chinese silk in the Roman Empire 3.3 Roman and Byzantine currency discovered in China 4 Human remains 5 Hypothetical military contact 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Geographical accounts and cartography[edit] Roman geography[edit] Further information: List of Graeco-Roman geographers, History of cartography, Serica, and Indo-Roman trade relations A Renaissance reconstruction of Ptolemy's 1st projection, indicating the Land of Silk (Serica) in northeast Asia at the end of the overland Silk Road and the land of the Qin (Sinae) in the southeast at the end of the maritime routes; 1450–1475 AD, attributed to Francesco del Chierico and translated from Greek to Latin by Emmanuel Chrysoloras and Jacobus Angelus.[1] A Renaissance reconstruction of Ptolemy's 11th Asian regional map with the Gulf of the Ganges to the left, the Golden Peninsula (Malaysia) in the centre, and the Great Gulf (Gulf of Thailand) to the right; the land of the Sinae is positioned on its northern and eastern shores. Map of Eurasia in 1 AD, with the Roman Empire (red), Parthian Empire (brown), Chinese Han Empire (yellow), and Indian kingdoms, smaller states (light yellow) Beginning in the 1st century BC with Virgil, Horace, and Strabo, Roman histories offer only vague accounts of China and the silk-producing Seres people of the Far East, who were perhaps the ancient Chinese.[2][3] The 1st-century AD geographer Pomponius Mela asserted that the lands of the Seres formed the centre of the coast of an eastern ocean, flanked to the south by India and to the north by the Scythians of the Eurasian Steppe.[2] The 2nd-century AD Roman historian Florus seems to have confused the Seres with peoples of India, or at least noted that their skin complexions proved that they both lived "beneath another sky" than the Romans.[2] Roman authors generally seem to have been confused about where the Seres were located, in either Central Asia or East Asia.[4] The historian Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330 – c. 400 AD) wrote that the land of the Seres was enclosed by "lofty walls" around a river called Bautis, possibly a description of the Yellow River.[2] The existence of China was known to Roman cartographers, but their understanding of it was less certain. Ptolemy's 2nd-century AD Geography separates the Land of Silk (Serica) at the end of the overland Silk Road from the land of the Qin (Sinae) reached by sea.[5] The Sinae are placed on the northern shore of the Great Gulf (Magnus Sinus) east of the Golden Peninsula (Aurea Chersonesus, Malay Peninsula). Their chief port, Cattigara, seems to have been in the lower Mekong Delta.[6] The Great Gulf served as a combined Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea, as Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy's belief that the Indian Ocean was an inland sea caused them to bend the Cambodian coast south beyond the equator before turning west to join southern Libya (Africa).[7][8] Much of this is given as unknown lands, but the north-eastern area is placed under the Sinae.[9] Classical geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder were slow to incorporate new information into their works and, from their positions as esteemed scholars, were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their topographical accounts.[10] Ptolemy's work represents a break from this, since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the Bay of Bengal so accurately without the input of traders.[10] In the 1st-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, its anonymous Greek-speaking author, a merchant of Roman Egypt, provides such vivid accounts of eastern trade cities that it is clear he visited many of them.[11] These include sites in Arabia, Pakistan, and India, including travel times from rivers and towns, where to drop anchor, the locations of royal courts, lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets, and favourable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places to catch the monsoon winds.[11] The Periplus also mentions a great inland city, Thinae (or Sinae), in a country called This that perhaps stretched as far as the Caspian.[12][13] The text notes that silk produced there travelled to neighbouring India via the Ganges and to Bactria by a land route.[12] Marinus and Ptolemy had relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander, probably a merchant, for how to reach Cattigara (most likely Óc Eo, Vietnam).[6][14] Alexander (Greek: Alexandros) mentions that the main terminus for Roman traders was a Burmese city called Tamala on the north-west Malay Peninsula, where Indian merchants travelled overland across the Kra Isthmus to reach the Perimulic Gulf (the Gulf of Thailand).[15] Alexandros claimed that it took twenty days to sail from Thailand to a port called "Zabia" (or Zaba) in southern Vietnam.[15][16] According to him, one could continue along the coast (of southern Vietnam) from Zabia until reaching the trade port of Cattigara after an unspecified number of days (with "some" being interpreted as "many" by Marinus).[15][16] Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century AD Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Greek monk from Alexandria and former merchant with experience in the Indian Ocean trade, was the first Roman to write clearly about China in his Christian Topography (c. 550 AD).[17] He called it the country of Tzinista (comparable to Sanskrit Chinasthana and Syriac Sinistan from the 781 AD Nestorian Stele of Xi'an, China), located in easternmost Asia.[18][19] He explained the maritime route towards it (first sailing east and then north up the southern coast of the Asian continent) and the fact that cloves came that way to Sri Lanka for sale.[18] By the time of the Eastern Roman ruler Justinian I (r. 527–565 AD), the Byzantines purchased Chinese silk from Sogdian intermediaries.[20] They also smuggled silkworms out of China with the help of Nestorian monks, who claimed that the land of Serindia was located north of India and produced the finest silk.[20] By smuggling silkworms and producing silk of their own, the Byzantines could bypass the Chinese silk trade dominated by their chief rivals, the Sasanian Empire.[21] From Turkic peoples of Central Asia during the Northern Wei (386–535 AD) period the Eastern Romans acquired yet another name for China: Taugast (Old Turkic: Tabghach).[20] Theophylact Simocatta, a historian during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641 AD), wrote that Taugast (or Taugas) was a great eastern empire colonised by Turkic people, with a capital city 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) northeast of India that he called Khubdan (from the Turkic word Khumdan used for the Sui and Tang capital Chang'an), where idolatry was practised but the people were wise and lived by just laws.[22] He depicted the Chinese empire as being divided by a great river (the Yangzi) that served as the boundary between two rival nations at war; during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Maurice (582–602 AD) the northerners wearing "black coats" conquered the "red coats" of the south (black being a distinctive colour worn by the people of Shaanxi, location of the Sui capital Sui Chang'an, according to the 16th-century Persian traveller Hajji Mahomed, or Chaggi Memet).[23] This account may correspond to the conquest of the Chen dynasty and reunification of China by Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604 AD).[23] Simocatta names their ruler as Taisson, which he claimed meant Son of God, either correlating to the Chinese Tianzi (Son of Heaven) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649 AD).[24] Later medieval Europeans in China wrote of it as two separate countries, with Cathay in the north and Mangi in the south, during the period when the Yuan dynasty led by Mongol ruler Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294 AD) conquered the Southern Song Dynasty.[25][26][27] Chinese geography[edit] Further information: Early Chinese cartography, Chinese geography, Daqin, Pei Xiu, and Daoyi Zhilüe An early Western Han silk map found in tomb 3 of Mawangdui Han tombs site, depicting the kingdom of Changsha and Kingdom of Nanyue (Vietnam) in southern China (with the south oriented at the top), 2nd century BC Daqinguo (大秦國) appears at the Western edge of this Ming dynasty Chinese world map, the Sihai Huayi Zongtu, published in 1532 AD. Detailed geographical information about the Roman Empire, at least its easternmost territories, is provided in traditional Chinese historiography. The Shiji by Sima Qian (c. 145–86 BC) gives descriptions of countries in Central Asia and West Asia. These accounts became significantly more nuanced in the Book of Han, co-authored by Ban Gu and his sister Ban Zhao, younger siblings of the general Ban Chao, who led military exploits into Central Asia before returning to China in 102 AD.[28] The westernmost territories of Asia as described in the Book of the Later Han compiled by Fan Ye (398–445 AD) formed the basis for almost all later accounts of Daqin.[28][note 1] These accounts seem to be restricted to descriptions of the Levant, particularly Syria.[28] Historical linguist Edwin G. Pulleyblank explains that Chinese historians considered Daqin to be a kind of "counter-China" located at the opposite end of their known world.[29][30] According to Pulleyblank, "the Chinese conception of Dà Qín was confused from the outset with ancient mythological notions about the far west".[31][30] The Chinese histories explicitly related Daqin and Lijian (also "Li-kan", or Syria) as belonging to the same country; according to Yule, D. D. Leslie, and K. H. G. Gardiner, the earliest descriptions of Lijian in the Shiji distinguished it as the Hellenistic-era Seleucid Empire.[32][33][34] Pulleyblank provides some linguistic analysis to dispute their proposal, arguing that Tiaozhi (條支) in the Shiji was most likely the Seleucid Empire and that Lijian, although still poorly understood, could be identified with either Hyrcania in Iran or even Alexandria in Egypt.[35] The Weilüe by Yu Huan (c. 239–265 AD), preserved in annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms (published in 429 AD by Pei Songzhi), also provides details about the easternmost portion of the Roman world, including mention of the Mediterranean Sea.[28] For Roman Egypt, the book explains the location of Alexandria, travelling distances along the Nile and the tripartite division of the Nile Delta, Heptanomis, and Thebaid.[28][36] In his Zhu Fan Zhi, the Song-era Quanzhou customs inspector Zhao Rugua (1170–1228 AD) described the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria.[37] Both the Book of the Later Han and the Weilüe mention the "flying" pontoon bridge (飛橋) over the Euphrates at Zeugma, Commagene in Roman Anatolia.[28][38] The Weilüe also listed what it considered the most important dependent vassal states of the Roman Empire, providing travel directions and estimates for the distances between them (in Chinese miles, li).[28][36] Friedrich Hirth (1885) identified the locations and dependent states of Rome named in the Weilüe; some of his identifications have been disputed.[note 2] Hirth identified Si-fu (汜復) as Emesa;[28] John E. Hill (2004) uses linguistic and situational evidence to argue it was Petra in the Nabataean Kingdom, which was annexed by Rome in 106 AD during the reign of Trajan.[38] The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang record that the Arabs (Da shi 大食) sent their commander Mo-yi (摩拽, pinyin: Móyè, i.e. Muawiyah I, governor of Syria and later Umayyad caliph, r. 661–680 AD) to besiege the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and forced the Byzantines to pay them tribute.[28] The same books also described Constantinople in some detail as having strong granite walls and a water clock mounted with a golden statue of man.[28][39][40] Henry Yule noted that the name of the Byzantine negotiator "Yenyo" (the patrician John Pitzigaudes) was mentioned in Chinese sources, an envoy who was unnamed in Edward Gibbon's account of the man sent to Damascus to hold a parley with the Umayyads, followed a few years later by the increase of tributary demands on the Byzantines.[41] The New Book of Tang and Wenxian Tongkao described the land of Nubia (either the Kingdom of Kush or Aksum) as a desert south-west of the Byzantine Empire that was infested with malaria, where the natives had black skin and consumed Persian dates.[28] In discussing the three main religions of Nubia (the Sudan), the Wenxian Tongkao mentions the Daqin religion there and the day of rest occurring every seven days for those following the faith of the Da shi (the Muslim Arabs).[28] It also repeats the claim in the New Book of Tang about the Eastern Roman surgical practice of trepanning to remove parasites from the brain.[28] The descriptions of Nubia and Horn of Africa in the Wenxian Tongkao were ultimately derived from the Jingxingji of Du Huan (fl. 8th century AD),[42] a Chinese travel writer whose text, preserved in the Tongdian of Du You, is perhaps the first Chinese source to describe Ethiopia (Laobosa), in addition to offering descriptions of Eritrea (Molin).[43] Embassies and travel[edit] Further information: Foreign relations of imperial China, History of the Roman Empire, Silk Road, and Zhang Qian The Sampul tapestry, a woollen wall hanging from Lop County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang, China, showing a possibly Greek soldier from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–125 BC), with blue eyes, wielding a spear, and wearing what appears to be a diadem headband; depicted above him is a centaur, from Greek mythology, a common motif in Hellenistic art;[44] Xinjiang Region Museum. Prelude[edit] Further information: War of the Heavenly Horses Some contact may have occurred between Hellenistic Greeks and the Qin dynasty in the late 3rd century BC, following the Central Asian campaigns of Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, and the establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms relatively close to China, such as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Excavations at the burial site of China's first Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BC) suggest ancient Greeks may have paid tribute and submitted to the supreme universal rule of the Han Chinese Qin dynasty emperor by giving him gifts with Greek stylistic and technological influences in some of the artworks found buried there, including a few examples of the famous terracotta army.[45][46] Cultural exchanges at such an early date are generally regarded as conjectural in academia, but excavations of a 4th-century BC tomb in Gansu province belonging to the state of Qin have yielded Western items such as glass beads and a blue-glazed (possibly faience) beaker of Mediterranean origin.[47] Trade and diplomatic relations between China's Han Empire and remnants of Hellenistic Greek civilization under the rule of the nomadic Da Yuezhi began with the Central Asian journeys of the Han envoy Zhang Qian (d. 113 BC). He brought back reports to the court of Emperor Wu of Han about the "Dayuan" in the Fergana Valley, with Alexandria Eschate as its capital, and the "Daxia" of Bactria, in what is now Afghanistan and Tajikistan.[48] The only well-known Roman traveller to have visited the easternmost fringes of Central Asia was Maes Titianus,[note 3] a contemporary of Trajan in either the late 1st or early 2nd century AD[note 4] who visited a "Stone Tower" that has been identified by historians as either Tashkurgan in the Chinese Pamirs[note 5] or a similar monument in the Alai Valley just west of Kashgar, Xinjiang, China.[49][50][51] Embassy to Augustus[edit] The historian Florus described the visit of numerous envoys, including the "Seres" (possibly the Chinese) to the court of the first Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD): Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours.[52][53] In the entire corpus of Roman literature and historiography, Yule was unable to uncover any other mention of such a direct diplomatic encounter between the Romans and the Seres.[note 6] He speculated that these people were more likely to have been private merchants than diplomats, since Chinese records insist that Gan Ying was the first Chinese to reach as far west as Tiaozhi (條支; Mesopotamia) in 97 AD.[note 6] Yule notes that the 1st-century AD Periplus mentioned that people of Thinae (Sinae) were rarely seen, because of the difficulties of reaching that country.[12][13] It states that their country, located under Ursa Minor and on the farthest unknown reaches of the Caspian Sea, was the origin of raw silk and fine silk cloth that was traded overland from Bactria to Barygaza, as well as down the Ganges.[12] Envoy Gan Ying[edit] The Chinese impression of the Daqin people, from the Ming-dynasty encyclopedia Sancai Tuhui, 1609 Further information: Protectorate of the Western Regions, Chinese exploration, Dayuan, Daxia, Kangju, and History of the Han dynasty The Eastern Han general Ban Chao (32–102 AD), in a series of military successes which brought the Western Regions (the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang) back under Chinese control and suzerainty, defeated the Da Yuezhi in 90 AD and the Northern Xiongnu in 91 AD, forcing the submission of city-states such as Kucha and Turfan, Khotan and Kashgar (Indo-European Tocharian and Saka settlements, respectively),[54] and finally Karasahr in 94 AD.[55][56] An embassy from the Parthian Empire had earlier arrived at the Han court in 89 AD and, while Ban was stationed with his army in Khotan, another Parthian embassy came in 101 AD, this time bringing exotic gifts such as ostriches.[57] In 97 AD, Ban Chao sent an envoy named Gan Ying to explore the far west. Gan made his way from the Tarim Basin to Parthia and reached the Persian Gulf.[58] Gan left a detailed account of western countries; he apparently reached as far as Mesopotamia, then under the control of the Parthian Empire. He intended to sail to the Roman Empire, but was discouraged when told that the trip was dangerous and could take two years.[59][60] Deterred, he returned to China bringing much new information on the countries to the west of Chinese-controlled territories,[61] as far as the Mediterranean Basin.[58] Gan Ying is thought to have left an account of the Roman Empire (Daqin in Chinese) which relied on secondary sources—likely sailors in the ports which he visited. The Book of the Later Han locates it in Haixi ("west of the sea", or Roman Egypt;[28][62] the sea is the one known to the Greeks and Romans as the Erythraean Sea, which included the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and Red Sea):[63] Its territory extends for several thousands of li [a li during the Han dynasty equalled 415.8 metres].[64] They have established postal relays at intervals, which are all plastered and whitewashed. There are pines and cypresses, as well as trees and plants of all kinds. It has more than four hundred walled towns. There are several tens of smaller dependent kingdoms. The walls of the towns are made of stone.[65] The Book of the Later Han gives a positive, if inaccurate, view of Roman governance: Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they appoint men of merit. When a severe calamity visits the country, or untimely rain-storms, the king is deposed and replaced by another. The one relieved from his duties submits to his degradation without a murmur. The inhabitants of that country are tall and well-proportioned, somewhat like the Han [Chinese], whence they are called [Daqin].[66] Yule noted that although the description of the Roman Constitution and products was garbled, the Book of the Later Han offered an accurate depiction of the coral fisheries in the Mediterranean.[67] Coral was a highly valued luxury item in Han China, imported among other items from India (mostly overland and perhaps also by sea), the latter region being where the Romans sold coral and obtained pearls.[68] The original list of Roman products given in the Book of the Later Han, such as sea silk, glass, amber, cinnabar, and asbestos cloth, is expanded in the Weilüe.[36][69] The Weilüe also claimed that in 134 AD the ruler of the Shule Kingdom (Kashgar), who had been a hostage at the court of the Kushan Empire, offered blue (or green) gems originating from Haixi as gifts to the Eastern Han court.[36] Fan Ye, the editor of the Book of the Later Han, wrote that former generations of Chinese had never reached these far western regions, but that the report of Gan Ying revealed to the Chinese their lands, customs and products.[70] The Book of the Later Han also asserts that the Parthians (Chinese: 安息; Anxi) wished "to control the trade in multi-coloured Chinese silks" and therefore intentionally blocked the Romans from reaching China.[62] Possible Roman Greeks in Burma and China[edit] Western Han ceramic vessels showing acrobats balancing by hand on their rims; the Shiji and Book of Han state that Mithridates II of the Parthian Empire sent gifts including Syrian jugglers to the court of Emperor Wu of Han;[28] the Book of the Later Han states that a king of Burma sent acrobats originally from Daqin to the court of Emperor An of Han in 120 AD.[note 7] It is possible that a group of Greek acrobatic performers, who claimed to be from a place "west of the seas" (Roman Egypt, which the Book of the Later Han related to the Daqin empire), were presented by a king of Burma to Emperor An of Han in 120 AD.[note 7][71][72] It is known that in both the Parthian Empire and Kushan Empire of Asia, ethnic Greeks continued to be employed after the Hellenistic period as musicians and athletes.[73][74] The Book of the Later Han states that Emperor An transferred these entertainers from his countryside residence to the capital Luoyang, where they gave a performance at his court and were rewarded with gold, silver, and other gifts.[75] With regard to the origin of these entertainers, Raoul McLaughlin speculates that the Romans were selling slaves to the Burmese and that this is how the entertainers originally reached Burma before they were sent by the Burmese ruler to Emperor An in China.[76][note 8] Meanwhile, Syrian jugglers were renowned in Western Classical literature,[77] and Chinese sources from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD seem to mention them as well.[78] First Roman embassy[edit] A mural showing women dressed in traditional Hanfu silk robes, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓, pinyin: Dahuting Han mu) of the late Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD), located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded as having arrived in 166 AD by the Book of the Later Han. The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China from "Andun" (Chinese: 安敦; Emperor Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), "king of Daqin" (Rome):[79][80] "... 其王常欲通使于汉，而安息欲以汉缯彩与之交市，故遮阂不得自达。至桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外献象牙、犀角、瑇瑁，始乃一通焉。其所表贡，并无珍异，疑传者过焉。" "... The king of this state always wanted to enter into diplomatic relations with the Han. But Parthia ("Anxi") wanted to trade with them in Han silk and so put obstacles in their way, so that they could never have direct relations [with Han]. This continued until the ninth year of the Yanxi (延熹) reign period of Emperor Huan (桓) (A.D. 166), when Andun (安敦), king of Da Qin, sent an envoy from beyond the frontier of Rinan (日南) who offered elephant tusk, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell. It was only then that for the first time communication was established [between the two states]." — 《后汉书·西域传》 “Xiyu Zhuan” of the Hou Hanshu (ch. 88)[81] As Antoninus Pius died in 161 AD, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and the envoy arrived in 166 AD, confusion remains about who sent the mission, as both emperors were named "Antoninus".[31][82] The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier of Rinan or Tonkin (present-day Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in Southern Asia.[82][83] The text states that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.[82] Yule speculated that the Roman visitors must have lost their original wares due to robbery or shipwreck and used the gifts instead, prompting Chinese sources to suspect them of withholding their more precious valuables, which Yule notes was the same criticism directed at papal missionary John of Montecorvino when he arrived in China in the late 13th century AD.[84] Historians Rafe de Crespigny, Peter Fibiger Bang, and Warwick Ball believe that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants rather than official diplomats sent by Marcus Aurelius.[78][79][85] Crespigny stresses that the presence of this Roman embassy as well as others from Tianzhu (in northern India) and Buyeo (in Manchuria) provided much-needed prestige for Emperor Huan, as he was facing serious political troubles and fallout for the forced suicide of politician Liang Ji, who had dominated the Han government well after the death of his sister Empress Liang Na.[86] Yule emphasised that the Roman embassy was said to come by way of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam, the same route that Chinese sources claimed the embassies from Tianzhu (northern India) had used in 159 and 161 AD.[87] Other Roman embassies[edit] Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb of Guangxi (bordering modern-day Vietnam in southern China) An illustration of the Eastern Roman embassy to Emperor Taizong of Tang in 643 AD The Weilüe and Book of Liang record the arrival in 226 AD of a merchant named Qin Lun (秦論) from the Roman Empire (Daqin) at Jiaozhou (Chinese-controlled northern Vietnam).[6][36][78] Wu Miao, the Prefect of Jiaozhi, sent him to the court of Sun Quan (the ruler of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms) in Nanjing,[6][78] where Sun requested that he provide him with a report on his native country and its people.[28][36] An expedition was mounted to return the merchant along with ten female and ten male "blackish coloured dwarfs" he had requested as a curiosity, as well as a Chinese officer, Liu Xian of Huiji (in Zhejiang), who died en route.[28][36][88] According to the Weilüe and Book of Liang Roman merchants were active in Cambodia and Vietnam, a claim supported by modern archaeological finds of ancient Mediterranean goods in the Southeast Asian countries of Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[6][28][36] Yule mentions that in the early 3rd century AD a ruler of Daqin sent an envoy with gifts to the northern Chinese court of Cao Wei (220–266 AD) that included glassware of various colours.[89] Several years later a Daqin craftsman is mentioned as showing the Chinese how to make "flints into crystal by means of fire", a curiosity to the Chinese.[89] Another embassy from Daqin is recorded as bringing tributary gifts to the Chinese Jin Empire (266–420 AD).[78][90] This occurred in 284 AD during the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin (r. 266–290 AD), and was recorded in the Book of Jin, as well as the later Wenxian Tongkao.[28][78] This embassy was presumably sent by the Emperor Carus (r. 282–283 AD), whose brief reign was preoccupied by war with Sasanian Persia.[91] Fulin: Eastern Roman embassies[edit] Further information: Cathay and Europeans in Medieval China Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649 AD) receives Gar Tongtsen Yülsung, ambassador of the Tibetan Empire, at his court. Later copy of a 641 painting by the Tang court artist Yan Liben (600–673 AD). Chinese histories for the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) record contacts with merchants from "Fulin" (拂菻), the new name used to designate the Byzantine Empire.[28][92][93] The first reported diplomatic contact took place in 643 AD during the reigns of Constans II (641–668 AD) and Emperor Taizong of Tang (626–649 AD).[28] The Old Book of Tang, followed by the New Book of Tang, provides the name "Po-to-li" (波多力, pinyin: Bōduōlì) for Constans II, which Hirth conjectured to be a transliteration of Kōnstantinos Pogonatos, or "Constantine the Bearded", giving him the title of a king (王 wáng).[28] Yule[94] and S. A. M. Adshead offer a different transliteration stemming from "patriarch" or "patrician", possibly a reference to one of the acting regents for the 13-year-old Byzantine monarch.[95] The Tang histories record that Constans II sent an embassy in the 17th year of the Zhenguan (貞觀) regnal period (643 AD), bearing gifts of red glass and green gemstones.[28] Yule points out that Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD), last ruler of the Sasanian Empire, sent diplomats to China to secure aid from Emperor Taizong (considered the suzerain over Ferghana in Central Asia) during the loss of the Persian heartland to the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate, which may also have prompted the Byzantines to send envoys to China amid their recent loss of Syria to the Muslims.[96] Tang Chinese sources also recorded how Sasanian prince Peroz III (636–679 AD) fled to Tang China following the conquest of Persia by the growing Islamic caliphate.[95][97] Yule asserts that the additional Fulin embassies during the Tang period arrived in 711 and 719 AD, with another in 742 AD that may have been Nestorian monks.[98] Adshead lists four official diplomatic contacts with Fulin in the Old Book of Tang as occurring in 643, 667, 701, and 719 AD.[99] He speculates that the absence of these missions in Western literary sources can be explained by how the Byzantines typically viewed political relations with powers of the East, as well as the possibility that they were launched on behalf of frontier officials instead of the central government.[100] Yule and Adshead concur that a Fulin diplomatic mission occurred during the reign of Justinian II (r. 685–695 AD; 705–711 AD). Yule claims it occurred in the year of the emperor's death, 711 AD,[101] whereas Adshead contends that it took place in 701 AD during the usurpation of Leontios and the emperor's exile in Crimea, perhaps the reason for its omission in Byzantine records and the source for confusion in Chinese histories about precisely who sent this embassy.[102] Justinian II regained the throne with the aid of Bulgars and a marriage alliance with the Khazars. Adshead therefore believes a mission sent to Tang China would be consistent with Justinian II's behaviour, especially if he had knowledge of the permission Empress Wu Zetian granted to Narsieh, son of Peroz III, to march against the Arabs in Central Asia at the end of the 7th century.[102] The 719 AD a Fulin embassy ostensibly came from Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741 AD) to the court of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756 AD), during a time when the Byzantine emperor was again reaching out to Eastern powers with a renewed Khazar marriage alliance.[103] It also came as Leo III had just defeated the Arabs in 717 CE.[104] The Chinese annals record that "In the first month of the seventh year of the period Kaiyuan [719 CE] their lord [拂菻王, "the King of Fulin"] sent the Ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [吐火羅, Tokhara] (...) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent Ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute."[105] During its long voyage, this embassy probably visited the Turk Shahis king of Afghanistan, since the son of the king took the title "Fromo Kesaro" when he acceded to the throne in 739 CE.[104][106] "Fromo Kesaro" is a phonetic transcription of "Roman Caesar", probably chosen in honor of "Caesar", the title of Leo III, who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs.[104][106][107] In Chinese sources "Fromo Kesaro" was aptly transcribed "Fulin Jisuo" (拂菻罽娑), "Fulin" (拂菻) being the standard Tang Dynasty name for "Byzantine Empire".[108][109][106] The year of this embassy coincided with Xuanzong's refusal to provide aid to the Sogdians of Bukhara and Samarkand against the Arab invasion force.[103] An embassy from the Umayyad Caliphate was received by the Tang court in 732 AD. However, the Arab victory at the 751 AD Battle of Talas and the An Lushan Rebellion crippled Tang Chinese interventionist efforts in Central Asia.[110] The last diplomatic contacts with Fulin are recorded as having taken place in the 11th century AD. From the Wenxian Tongkao, written by historian Ma Duanlin (1245–1322), and from the History of Song, it is known that the Byzantine emperor Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar (滅力沙靈改撒, Mie li sha ling kai sa) of Fulin sent an embassy to China's Song dynasty that arrived in 1081 AD, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085 AD).[28][111] The History of Song described the tributary gifts given by the Byzantine embassy as well as the products made in Byzantium. It also described punishments used in Byzantine law, such as the capital punishment of being stuffed into a "feather bag" and thrown into the sea,[28] probably the Romano-Byzantine practice of poena cullei (from Latin 'penalty of the sack').[112] The final recorded embassy arrived in 1091 AD, during the reign of Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118 AD); this event is only mentioned in passing.[113] The History of Yuan offers a biography of a Byzantine man named Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph), who originally served the court of Güyük Khan but later became a head astronomer and physician for the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD), at Khanbaliq (modern Beijing).[114] He was eventually granted the title Prince of Fulin (拂菻王, Fúlǐn wáng) and his children were listed with their Chinese names, which seem to match with transliterations of the Christian names Elias, Luke, and Antony.[114] Kublai Khan is also known to have sent Nestorian monks, including Rabban Bar Sauma, to the court of Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328 AD), whose half-sisters were married to the great-grandsons of Genghis Khan, making this Byzantine ruler an in-law with the Mongol ruler in Beijing.[115] Left: Woven silk textile from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, Western Han period, 2nd century BC Right: A Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) blue-glass bowl; the Chinese had been making glass beads based on imports from West Asia since the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), and the first Chinese glassware appeared during the Western Han era.[116] Within the Mongol Empire, which eventually included all of China, there were enough Westerners travelling there that in 1340 AD Francesco Balducci Pegolotti compiled a guide book for fellow merchants on how to exchange silver for paper money to purchase silk in Khanbaliq (Beijing).[117] By this stage the Eastern Roman Empire, temporarily dismantled by the Latin Empire, had shrunk to the size of a rump state in parts of Greece and Anatolia.[118][119] Ma Duanlin, author of the Wenxian Tongkao, noted the shifting political boundaries, albeit based on generally inaccurate and distorted political geography.[28] He wrote that historians of the Tang Dynasty considered "Daqin" and "Fulin" to be the same country, but he had his reservations about this due to discrepancies in geographical accounts and other concerns (Wade–Giles spelling): During the sixth year of Yuan-yu [1091] they sent two embassies, and their king was presented, by Imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth, pairs of silver vases, and clothing with gold bound in a girdle. According to the historians of the T'ang dynasty, the country of Fulin was held to be identical with the ancient Ta-ts'in. It should be remarked, however, that, although Ta-ts'in has from the Later Han dynasty when Zhongguo was first communicated with, till down to the Chin and T'ang dynasties has offered tribute without interruption, yet the historians of the "four reigns" of the Sung dynasty, in their notices of Fulin, hold that this country has not sent tribute to court up to the time of Yuan-feng [1078–1086] when they sent their first embassy offering local produce. If we, now, hold together the two accounts of Fulin as transmitted by the two different historians, we find that, in the account of the T'ang dynasty, this country is said "to border on the great sea in the west"; whereas the Sung account says that "in the west you have still thirty days' journey to the sea;" and the remaining boundaries do also not tally in the two accounts; nor do the products and the customs of the people. I suspect that we have before us merely an accidental similarity of the name, and that the country is indeed not identical with Ta-ts'in. I have, for this reason, appended the Fulin account of the T'ang dynasty to my chapter on Ta-ts'in, and represented this Fulin of the Sung dynasty as a separate country altogether.[120] The History of Ming expounds how the Hongwu Emperor, founder of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), sent a merchant of Fulin named "Nieh-ku-lun" (捏古倫) back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty.[28][121][122] It is speculated that the merchant was a former archbishop of Khanbaliq called Nicolaus de Bentra (who succeeded John of Montecorvino for that position).[28][123] The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fulin ceased after this point and an envoy of the great western sea (the Mediterranean Sea) did not appear in China again until the 16th century AD, with the 1582 AD arrival of the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci in Portuguese Macau.[28][note 9] Trade relations[edit] Roman exports to China[edit] Further information: Roman glass and Indo-Roman trade relations Roman glass from the 2nd century AD Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Archaeological Museum A painting entitled Separated by a Green Curtain, a Chinese and Roman Artist Compete with Each Other, original by Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209), from a Persian Timurid-era copy dated 1481 Direct trade links between the Mediterranean lands and India had been established in the late 2nd century BC by the Hellenistic Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.[124] Greek navigators learned to use the regular pattern of the monsoon winds for their trade voyages in the Indian Ocean. The lively sea trade in Roman times is confirmed by the excavation of large deposits of Roman coins along much of the coast of India. Many trading ports with links to Roman communities have been identified in India and Sri Lanka along the route used by the Roman mission.[125] Archaeological evidence stretching from the Red Sea ports of Roman Egypt to India suggests that Roman commercial activity in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia declined heavily with the Antonine Plague of 166 AD, the same year as the first Roman embassy to Han China, where similar plague outbreaks had occurred from 151 AD.[126][127] High-quality glass from Roman manufacturers in Alexandria and Syria was exported to many parts of Asia, including Han China.[128] The first Roman glassware discovered in China is a blue soda-lime glass bowl dating to the early 1st century BC and excavated from a Western Han tomb in the southern port city of Guangzhou, which may have come there via the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.[129] Other Roman glass items include a mosaic-glass bowl found in a prince's tomb near Nanjing dated to 67 AD and a glass bottle with opaque white streaks found in an Eastern Han tomb of Luoyang.[130] Roman and Persian glassware has been found in a 5th-century AD tomb of Gyeongju, Korea, capital of ancient Silla, east of China.[131] Roman glass beads have been discovered as far as Japan, within the 5th-century AD Kofun-era Utsukushi burial mound near Kyoto.[132] From Chinese sources it is known that other Roman luxury items were esteemed by the Chinese. These include gold-embroidered rugs and gold-coloured cloth, amber, asbestos cloth, and sea silk, which was a cloth made from the silk-like hairs of a Mediterranean shellfish, the Pinna nobilis.[28][133][134][135] As well as silver and bronze items found throughout China dated to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC and perhaps originating from the Seleucid Empire, there is also a Roman gilded silver plate dated to the 2nd–3rd centuries AD and found in Jingyuan County, Gansu, with a raised relief image in the centre depicting the Greco-Roman god Dionysus resting on a feline creature.[136] A maritime route opened up with the Chinese-controlled port of Rinan in Jiaozhi (centred in modern Vietnam) and the Khmer kingdom of Funan by the 2nd century AD, if not earlier.[137][138] Jiaozhi was proposed by Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 to have been the port known to the Greco-Roman geographer Ptolemy as Cattigara, situated near modern Hanoi.[139] Ptolemy wrote that Cattigara lay beyond the Golden Chersonese (the Malay Peninsula) and was visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander, most likely a merchant.[6] Richthofen's identification of Cattigara as Hanoi was widely accepted until archaeological discoveries at Óc Eo (near Ho Chi Minh City) in the Mekong Delta during the mid-20th century suggested this may have been its location.[note 10] At this place, which was once located along the coastline, Roman coins were among the vestiges of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s.[137] These include Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and his successor Marcus Aurelius.[6][140] Furthermore, Roman goods and native jewellery imitating Antonine Roman coins have been found there, and Granville Allen Mawer states that Ptolemy's Cattigara seems to correspond with the latitude of modern Óc Eo.[14][note 11] In addition, Ancient Roman glass beads and bracelets were also found at the site.[140] The trade connection from Cattigara extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the north-eastern coast of the Red Sea.[141] The archaeologist Warwick Ball does not consider discoveries such as the Roman and Roman-inspired goods at Óc Eo, a coin of Roman emperor Maximian found in Tonkin, and a Roman bronze lamp at P'ong Tuk in the Mekong Delta, to be conclusive proof that Romans visited these areas and suggests that the items could have been introduced by Indian merchants.[142] While observing that the Romans had a recognised trading port in Southeast Asia, Dougald O'Reilly writes that there is little evidence to suggest Cattigara was Óc Eo. He argues that the Roman items found there only indicate that the Indian Ocean trade network extended to the ancient Kingdom of Funan.[140] Chinese silk in the Roman Empire[edit] Chinese trade with the Roman Empire, confirmed by the Roman desire for silk, started in the 1st century BC. The Romans knew of wild silk harvested on Cos (coa vestis), but they did not at first make the connection with the silk that was produced in the Pamir Sarikol kingdom.[143] There were few direct trade contacts between Romans and Han Chinese, as the rival Parthians and Kushans were each protecting their lucrative role as trade intermediaries.[144][145] During the 1st century BC silk was still a rare commodity in the Roman world; by the 1st century AD this valuable trade item became much more widely available.[146] In his Natural History (77–79 AD), Pliny the Elder lamented the financial drain of coin from the Roman economy to purchase this expensive luxury. He remarked that Rome's "womankind" and the purchase of luxury goods from India, Arabia, and the Seres of the Far East cost the empire roughly 100 million sesterces per year,[147] and claimed that journeys were made to the Seres to acquire silk cloth along with pearl diving in the Red Sea.[148][135] Despite the claims by Pliny the Elder about the trade imbalance and quantity of Rome's coinage used to purchase silk, Warwick Ball asserts that the Roman purchase of other foreign commodities, particularly spices from India, had a much greater impact on the Roman economy.[149] In 14 AD the Senate issued an edict prohibiting the wearing of silk by men, but it continued to flow unabated into the Roman world.[146] Beyond the economic concerns that the import of silk caused a huge outflow of wealth, silk clothes were also considered to be decadent and immoral by Seneca the Elder: I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes ... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body. — Seneca the Elder c. 3 BC – 65 AD, Excerpta Controversiae 2.7[150] Roman glass, dated 52–125 AD and found at Begram, Afghanistan, a royal city of the Kushan Empire where, according to Warwick Ball, it was likely on its way to China via the Silk Road along with other glass items.[151] A late Eastern Han (25–220 AD) Chinese tomb mural showing a banquet with men and women wearing traditional Hanfu silk robes, from the Dahuting Tomb (Chinese: 打虎亭汉墓) on the southern bank of the Suihe River in Zhengzhou, China Trade items such as spice and silk had to be paid for with Roman gold coinage. There was some demand in China for Roman glass; the Han Chinese also produced glass in certain locations.[151][146] Chinese-produced glassware date back to the Western Han era (202 BC – 9 AD).[152] In dealing with foreign states such as the Parthian Empire, the Han Chinese were perhaps more concerned with diplomatically outmaneuvering their chief enemies, the nomadic Xiongnu, than with establishing trade, since mercantile pursuits and the merchant class were frowned upon by the gentry who dominated the Han government.[153] Roman and Byzantine currency discovered in China[edit] Further information: Byzantine silk, Byzantine-Mongol alliance, Economy of the Han dynasty, Economic history of China before 1912, and Numismatics Bronze coin of Constantius II (337–361 AD), found in Karghalik, modern China Valerie Hansen wrote in 2012 that no Roman coins from the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) or the Principate (27 BC – 284 AD) era of the Roman Empire have been found in China.[154] Nevertheless, Warwick Ball (2016) cites two studies from 1978 summarizing the discovery at Xi'an, China (the site of the Han capital Chang'an) of a hoard of sixteen Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius (14–37 AD) to Aurelian (270–275 AD).[149] The Roman coins found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhou, date to the mid-2nd century AD.[6][140] A coin of Maximian (r. 286–305 AD) was also discovered in Tonkin.[142] As a note, Roman coins of the 3rd and 4th centuries AD have been discovered in Japan; they were unearthed from Katsuren Castle (in Uruma, Okinawa), which was built from the 12th to 15th centuries AD.[155] Shortly after the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire from China by Nestorian Christian monks, the 6th-century AD Byzantine historian Menander Protector wrote of how the Sogdians attempted to establish a direct trade of Chinese silk with the Byzantine Empire. After forming an alliance with the Sasanian Persian ruler Khosrow I to defeat the Hephthalite Empire, Istämi, the Göktürk ruler of the First Turkic Khaganate, was approached by Sogdian merchants requesting permission to seek an audience with the Sasanian king of kings for the privilege of travelling through Persian territories to trade with the Byzantines.[156] Istämi refused the first request, but when he sanctioned the second one and had the Sogdian embassy sent to the Sasanian king, the latter had the members of the embassy killed by poison.[156] Maniakh, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi to send an embassy directly to Byzantium's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 AD and offered not only silk as a gift to Byzantine ruler Justin II, but also an alliance against Sasanian Persia. Justin II agreed and sent an embassy under Zemarchus to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct silk trade desired by the Sogdians.[156][157][158] The small number of Roman and Byzantine coins found during excavations of Central Asian and Chinese archaeological sites from this era suggests that direct trade with the Sogdians remained limited. This was despite the fact that ancient Romans imported Han Chinese silk,[159] and discoveries in contemporary tombs indicate that the Han-dynasty Chinese imported Roman glassware.[160] Byzantine silk textile fragments, from left to right: a horse archer and a lion, 8th century AD; Byzantine or Spanish woven silk, 9th–10th century AD; griffins from an embroidered silk robe, 11th century AD The earliest gold solidus coins from the Eastern Roman Empire found in China date to the reign of Byzantine emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450 AD) and altogether only forty-eight of them have been found (compared to 1300 silver coins) in Xinjiang and the rest of China.[154] The use of silver coins in Turfan persisted long after the Tang campaign against Karakhoja and Chinese conquest of 640 AD, with a gradual adoption of Chinese bronze coinage during the 7th century AD.[154] Hansen maintains that these Eastern Roman coins were almost always found with Sasanian Persian silver coins and Eastern Roman gold coins were used more as ceremonial objects like talismans, confirming the pre-eminence of Greater Iran in Chinese Silk Road commerce of Central Asia compared to Eastern Rome.[161] Walter Scheidel remarks that the Chinese viewed Byzantine coins as pieces of exotic jewellery, preferring to use bronze coinage in the Tang and Song dynasties, as well as paper money during the Song and Ming periods, even while silver bullion was plentiful.[162] Ball writes that the scarcity of Roman and Byzantine coins in China, and the greater amounts found in India, suggest that most Chinese silk purchased by the Romans was from maritime India, largely bypassing the overland Silk Road trade through Iran.[149] Chinese coins from the Sui and Tang dynasties (6th–10th centuries AD) have been discovered in India; significantly larger amounts are dated to the Song period (11th–13th centuries AD), particularly in the territories of the contemporary Chola dynasty.[163] Even with the Byzantine production of silk starting in the 6th century AD, Chinese varieties were still considered to be of higher quality.[21] This theory is supported by the discovery of a Byzantine solidus minted during the reign of Justin II found in a Sui-dynasty tomb of Shanxi province in 1953, among other Byzantine coins found at various sites.[21] Chinese histories offer descriptions of Roman and Byzantine coins. The Weilüe, Book of the Later Han, Book of Jin, as well as the later Wenxian Tongkao noted how ten ancient Roman silver coins were worth one Roman gold coin.[28][36][67][164] The Roman golden aureus was worth about twenty-five silver denarii.[165] During the later Byzantine Empire, twelve silver miliaresion was equal to one gold nomisma.[166] The History of Song notes that the Byzantines made coins of either silver or gold, without holes in the middle, with an inscription of the king's name.[28] It also asserts that the Byzantines forbade the production of counterfeit coins.[28] Human remains[edit] In 2010, mitochondrial DNA was used to identify that a partial skeleton found in a Roman grave from the 1st or 2nd century AD in Vagnari, Italy, had East Asian ancestry on his mother's side.[167] A 2016 analysis of archaeological finds from Southwark in London, the site of the ancient Roman city Londinium in Roman Britain, suggests that two or three skeletons from a sample of twenty-two dating to the 2nd to the 4th centuries AD are of Asian ancestry, and possibly of Chinese descent. The assertion is based on forensics and the analysis of skeletal facial features. The discovery has been presented by Dr Rebecca Redfern, curator of human osteology at the Museum of London.[168][169] No DNA analysis has yet been done, the skull and tooth samples available offer only fragmentary pieces of evidence, and the samples that were used were compared with the morphology of modern populations, not ancient ones.[170] Hypothetical military contact[edit] Further information: Sampul tapestry and Chronology of European exploration of Asia The Roman prisoners of the Battle of Carrhae were brought to Margiana by king Orodes. Their further fate is unknown. The historian Homer H. Dubs speculated in 1941 that Roman prisoners of war who were transferred to the eastern border of the Parthian empire might later have clashed with Han troops there.[171] After a Roman army under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus decisively lost the battle of Carrhae in 54 BC, an estimated 10,000 Roman prisoners were dispatched by the Parthians to Margiana to man the frontier. Some time later the nomadic Xiongnu chief Zhizhi established a state further east in the Talas valley, near modern-day Taraz. Dubs points to a Chinese account by Ban Gu of about "a hundred men" under the command of Zhizhi who fought in a so-called "fish-scale formation" to defend Zhizhi's wooden-palisade fortress against Han forces, in the Battle of Zhizhi in 36 BC. He claimed that this might have been the Roman testudo formation and that these men, who were captured by the Chinese, founded the village of Liqian (Li-chien, possibly from "legio") in Yongchang County.[172][173] There have been attempts to promote the Sino-Roman connection for tourism, but Dubs' synthesis of Roman and Chinese sources has not found acceptance among historians, on the grounds that it is highly speculative and reaches too many conclusions without sufficient hard evidence.[174] DNA testing in 2005 confirmed the Indo-European ancestry of a few inhabitants of modern Liqian; this could be explained by transethnic marriages with Indo-European people known to have lived in Gansu in ancient times,[175][176] such as the Yuezhi and Wusun. A much more comprehensive DNA analysis of more than two hundred male residents of the village in 2007 showed close genetic relation to the Han Chinese populace and great deviation from the Western Eurasian gene pool.[177] The researchers conclude that the people of Liqian are probably of Han Chinese origin.[177] The area lacks archaeological evidence of a Roman presence.[175][176] See also[edit] Politics portal China portal History portal Ancient Rome portal China–Greece relations Malay Chronicles: Bloodlines and Dragon Blade, films based on Sino-Roman relations Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations Notes[edit] ^ For the assertion that the first Chinese mention of Daqin belongs to the Book of the Later Han, see: Wilkinson (2000), p. 730. ^ Hirth (2000) [1885], "From the Wei-lio (written before 429 C.E.), for 220–264 C.E.", (using Wade-Giles) identified these dependent vassal states as Alexandria-Euphrates or Charax Spasinu ("Ala-san"), Nikephorium ("Lu-fen"), Palmyra ("Ch'ieh-lan"), Damascus ("Hsien-tu"), Emesa ("Si-fu"), and Hira ("Ho-lat"). Going south of Palmyra and Emesa led one to the "Stony Land", which Hirth identified as Arabia Petraea, due to the text speaking how it bordered a sea (the Red Sea) where corals and real pearls were extracted. The text also explained the positions of border territories that were controlled by Parthia, such as Seleucia ("Si-lo"). Hill (September 2004), "Section 14 – Roman Dependencies", identified the dependent vassal states as Azania (Chinese: 澤散; pinyin: Zesan; Wade–Giles: Tse-san), Al Wajh (Chinese: 驢分; pinyin: Lüfen; Wade–Giles: Lü-fen), Wadi Sirhan (Chinese: 且蘭; pinyin: Qielan; Wade–Giles: Ch'ieh-lan), Leukos Limên, ancient site controlling the entrance to the Gulf of Aqaba near modern Aynūnah (Chinese: 賢督; pinyin: Xiandu; Wade–Giles: Hsien-tu), Petra (Chinese: 汜復; pinyin: Sifu; Wade–Giles: Szu-fu), al-Karak (Chinese: 于羅; pinyin: Yuluo; Wade–Giles: Yü-lo), and Sura (Chinese: 斯羅; pinyin: Siluo; Wade–Giles: Szu-lo). ^ His "Macedonian" origin betokens no more than his cultural affinity, and the name Maës is Semitic in origin, Cary (1956), p. 130. ^ The mainstream opinion, noted by Cary (1956), p. 130, note #7, based on the date of Marinus of Tyre, established by his use of many Trajanic foundation names but none identifiable with Hadrian. ^ Centuries later Tashkurgan ("Stone Tower") was the capital of the Pamir kingdom of Sarikol. ^ a b Yule (1915), p. 18; for a discussion of Tiaozhi (条支) and even its etymology possibly stemming from the Tajiks and Iranian peoples under ancient Chinese rule, see footnote #2 on p. 42. ^ a b Fan Ye, ed. (1965) [445]. "86: 南蠻西南夷列傳 (Nanman, Xinanyi liezhuan: Traditions of the Southern Savages and South-Western Tribes)". 後漢書 [Book of the Later Han]. Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing. p. 2851. "永寧元年，撣國王雍由調復遣使者詣闕朝賀，獻樂及幻人，能變化吐火，自支解，易牛馬頭。又善跳丸， 數乃至千。自言我海西人。海西即大秦也，撣國西南通大秦。明年元會，安帝作樂於庭，封雍由調爲漢大都尉，賜印綬､金銀､綵繒各有差也。" A translation of this passage into English, in addition to an explanation of how Greek athletic performers figured prominently in the neighbouring Parthian and Kushan Empires of Asia, is offered by Christopoulos (August 2012), pp. 40–41: The first year of Yongning (120 AD), the southwestern barbarian king of the kingdom of Chan (Burma), Yongyou, proposed illusionists (jugglers) who could metamorphose themselves and spit out fire; they could dismember themselves and change an ox head into a horse head. They were very skilful in acrobatics and they could do a thousand other things. They said that they were from the "west of the seas" (Haixi–Egypt). The west of the seas is the Daqin (Rome). The Daqin is situated to the south-west of the Chan country. During the following year, Andi organized festivities in his country residence and the acrobats were transferred to the Han capital where they gave a performance to the court, and created a great sensation. They received the honours of the Emperor, with gold and silver, and every one of them received a different gift. ^ Raoul McLaughlin notes that the Romans knew Burma as India Trans Gangem (India Beyond the Ganges) and that Ptolemy listed the cities of Burma. See McLaughlin (2010), p. 58. ^ For information on Matteo Ricci and reestablishment of Western contact with China by the Portuguese Empire during the Age of Discovery, see: Fontana (2011), pp. 18–35, 116–118. ^ For a summary of scholarly debate about the possible locations of Cattigara by the end of the 20th century, with proposals ranging from Guangzhou, Hanoi, and the Mekong River Delta of the Kingdom of Funan, see: Suárez (1999), p. 92. ^ Mawer also mentions Kauthara (in Khánh Hòa Province, Vietnam) and Kutaradja (Banda Aceh, Indonesia) as other plausible sites for that port. Mawer (2013), p. 38. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ British Library. "Detailed record for Harley 7182". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 21 February 2017. ^ a b c d Ostrovsky (2007), p. 44. ^ Lewis (2007), p. 143. ^ Schoff (1915), p. 237. ^ Yule (1915), pp. 1–2, 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Young (2001), p. 29. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2010), pp. 58–59. ^ Suárez (1999), p. 92. ^ Wilford (2000), p. 38; Encyclopaedia Britannica (1903), p. 1540. ^ a b Parker (2008), p. 118. ^ a b Schoff (2004) [1912], Introduction. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ a b c d Schoff (2004) [1912], Paragraph #64. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ a b Yule (1915), footnote #2 on p. 43. ^ a b Mawer (2013), p. 38. ^ a b c McLaughlin (2014), p. 205. ^ a b Suárez (1999), p. 90. ^ Yule (1915), p. 25. ^ a b Yule (1915), p. 28. ^ Lieu (2009), p. 227. ^ a b c Luttwak (2009), p. 168. ^ a b c Luttwak (2009), pp. 168–169. ^ Yule (1915), pp. 29–31; footnote #3 on p. 31. ^ a b Yule (1915), p. 30; footnote #2 on p. 30. ^ Yule (1915), p 29; footnote #4 on p. 29. ^ Haw (2006), pp. 170–171. ^ Wittfogel & Feng (1946), p. 2. ^ Yule (1915), p. 1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Friedrich Hirth (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham University. Retrieved 10 September 2016. ^ Pulleyblank (1999), p. 71. ^ a b See also Lewis (2007), p. 143. ^ a b Pulleyblank (1999), p. 78. ^ Yule (1915), p. 41; footnote #4. ^ For a review of The Roman Empire as Known to Han China: The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources by D. D. Leslie; K. H. J. Gardiner, see Pulleyblank (1999), pp 71–79; for the specific claim about "Li-Kan" or Lijian see Pulleyblank (1999), p 73. ^ Fan, Ye (September 2003). Hill, John E. (ed.). "The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu: The Xiyu juan, "Chapter on the Western Regions", from Hou Hanshu 88, Second Edition (Extensively revised with additional notes and appendices): Section 11 – The Kingdom of Daqin 大秦 (the Roman Empire)". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 26 September 2016. ^ Pulleyblank (1999), pp 73–77; Lijian's identification as Hyrcania was put forward by Marie-Félicité Brosset (1828) and accepted by Markwart, De Groot, and Herrmann (1941). Paul Pelliot advanced the theory that Lijian was a transliteration of Alexandria in Roman Egypt. ^ a b c d e f g h i Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 AD". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 17 September 2016. ^ Needham (1971), p. 662. ^ a b Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 CE: Section 11 – Da Qin (Roman territory/Rome)". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 17 September 2016. ^ Yule (1915), pp. 46–48. ^ Ball (2016), pp. 152–153; see also endnote #114. ^ Yule (1915), pp. 48–49; for a brief summary of Gibbon's account, see also footnote #1 on p. 49. ^ Bai (2003), pp 242–247. ^ Abraham, Curtis. (11 March 2015). "China’s long history in Africa Archived 2017-08-02 at the Wayback Machine ". New African. Accessed 2 August 2017. ^ Christopoulos (August 2012), pp. 15–16. ^ "BBC Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say". BBC News. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016. ^ Montgomery, Stephanie; Cammack, Marcus (12 October 2016). "The Mausoleum of China's First Emperor Partners with the BBC and National Geographic Channel to Reveal Groundbreaking Evidence That China Was in Contact with the West During the Reign of the First Emperor". Press release. Business Wire. 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Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3. Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 CE". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Retrieved 17 September 2016. Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations", in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Retrieved 21 September 2016. Zhou R., An L., Wang X., Shao W., Lin G., Yu W., Yi L., Xu S., Xu J., Xie X. "Testing the hypothesis of an ancient Roman soldier origin of the Liqian people in northwest China: a Y-chromosome perspective", in Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 52, No. 7 (2007), pp. 584–91. Zürcher, Erik (2002). "Tidings from the South, Chinese Court Buddhism and Overseas Relations in the Fifth Century AD". Erik Zürcher in: A Life Journey to the East. Sinological Studies in Memory of Giuliano Bertuccioli (1923–2001). Edited by Antonio Forte and Federico Masini. Italian School of East Asian Studies. Kyoto. Essays: Volume 2, pp. 21–43. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Sino-Roman relations Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Leslie, D. D., Gardiner, K. H. J.: "The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources", Studi Orientali, Vol. 15. Rome: Department of Oriental Studies, University of Rome, 1996. Schoff, Wilfred H.: "Navigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 37 (1917), pp. 240–249 Bueno, André (May 2016). ""Roman Views of the Chinese in Antiquity" in Sino-Platonic Papers" (PDF). Sino-platonic.org. Retrieved 10 September 2016. External links[edit] Accounts of "Daqin" (Roman Empire) in the Chinese history of the Later Han Dynasty Duncan B. Campbell: Romans in China? New Book of Tang passage containing information on Daqin and Fulin (Chinese language source) Silk-road.com: The First Contact Between Rome and China v t e Han dynasty topics History Chu–Han Contention (Feast at Swan Goose Gate) Lü Clan Disturbance Rebellion of the Seven States Han–Xiongnu War Han conquest of Gojoseon Southward expansion (Han–Minyue War Han conquest of Nanyue Han conquest of Dian First Chinese domination of Vietnam Trung sisters' rebellion Second Chinese domination of Vietnam) Xin dynasty Red Eyebrows and Lulin Chengjia Goguryeo–Han War Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions Way of the Five Pecks of Rice Yellow Turban Rebellion End of the Han dynasty Battle of Red Cliffs Society and culture Ban Gu Sima Qian Records of the Grand Historian Book of Han Book of the Later Han Records of the Three Kingdoms Flying Horse of Gansu Huainanzi Eight Immortals of Huainan Mawangdui Silk Texts Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals Yiwu Zhi Old Texts Han poetry Fu Government and military Ban Chao Lu Bode Ma Yuan Emperor list Family tree Three Lords and Nine Ministers Nine Ministers Three Ducal Ministers Kings Four Commanderies Protectorate of the Western Regions (Chief Official) list of government titles Economy Ancient Chinese coinage Silk Road Sino-Roman relations Science and technology Cai Lun Ding Huan Du Shi Hua Tuo Wang Chong Zhang Heng Zhang Zhongjing Texts Balanced Discourse Book of Origins Book on Numbers and Computation Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Huangdi Neijing Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders Zhoubi Suanjing v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sino-Roman_relations&oldid=1023412615" Categories: Foreign relations of ancient Rome Foreign relations of Imperial China History of foreign trade in China Ancient international relations Hidden categories: Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Use British English from April 2017 Articles containing Chinese-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands پنجابی Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 May 2021, at 07:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-844	----	Konstantios Doukas - Wikipedia Konstantios Doukas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Konstantios Doukas Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold histamenon of Romanos IV: Michael VII flanked by his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios. Byzantine emperor Reign 1060–1078 (junior emperor) Predecessor Michael VII Successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates Co-emperors Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071) Nikephoros Diogenes (1070–1071) Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078) Constantine Doukas (1074–1078) Andronikos Doukas (1068–1070s) Reign 1078 (senior emperor) Predecessor Michael VII Successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates Born 1060 Died 18 October 1081 Dyrrhachium Dynasty Doukas Father Constantine X Mother Eudokia Makrembolitissa Konstantios Doukas (Greek: Κωνστάντιος Δούκας, 1060 – 18 October 1081), Latinized as Constantius Ducas, was a junior Byzantine emperor from 1060–1078, and a senior Byzantine emperor for a short time in 1078. Konstantios was the son of Emperor Constantine X Doukas and Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa. Upon his birth, he was elevated to junior emperor, along with his brother Michael VII. He remained as junior emperor during the reigns of Constantine, Romanos IV Diogenes, and Michael VII, before he became senior emperor on 31 March 1078, due to the abdication of Michael VII. He was soon handed over to Nikephoros III, a usurper, due to his inability to rule. He was sent to live in a monastery, where he stayed until recalled by Alexios I Komnenos, who made him a general. He was killed on 18 October 1081, in the Battle of Dyrrhachium. Contents 1 Life 2 In media 3 References 3.1 Bibliography Life[edit] Konstantios Doukas was born in 1060, the son of Emperor Constantine X and Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa. He was born during Constantine's reign; because of this, he was porphyrogennetos.[1] His father Constantine became emperor on November 24, 1059, after Isaac I Komnenos selected him as his heir, shortly before Isaac abdicated.[2] In 1060, Constantine elevated both Michael VII and Konstantios to junior emperors under him, but did not elevate his middle son Andronikos Doukas to junior emperor, for unknown reasons.[1] Konstantios retained his title of junior emperor during the reigns of Constantine (1060–1067), Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071), and Michael VII (1071–1078). Konstantios was engaged to Anna Vsevolodovna of Kiev in 1074.[3] Michael VII abdicated on 31 March 1078, due to severe unpopularity and the two active revolts against him by Nikephoros III and Nikephoros Bryennios, retiring to the Monastery of Stoudios.[4] Michael VII chose Konstantios to succeed him, as Andronikos had died a few years before this.[5] Konstantios only had to contend with Nikephoros III, as Nikephoros Bryennios had been defeated by Nikephoros III at the Battle of Kalavrye, and subsequently blinded by him.[5] Konstantios rapidly lost support, as it became clear he had no skill as a ruler. In the same year, his own supporters handed him over to Nikephoros III, who sent him to be tonsured and live in a monastery on one of the Princes Islands in the Propontis, as a monk.[6] By becoming a monk he became unable to marry, and thus his engagement to Anna Vsevolodovna of Kiev was cancelled.[3] He was recalled by Alexios I Komnenos, who succeeded Nikephoros, and who was related to Konstantios by way of his marriage to Irene Doukaina, in 1081. He was made a general, and sent to campaign against the Normans. After Alexios seized the throne, he elevated Constantine Doukas to co-emperor.[7] Konstantios fought in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, where Byzantine forces besieging Dyrrachium were engaged by Norman forces. Although the Byzantines were initially successful, with the Norman right wing being routed by the Byzantine left wing, the Norman center routed the central forces of the Byzantines. During this engagement, the Varangian Guard, which whom Konstantinos was fighting, was separated from the core body of the Byzantine army and massacred. Konstantinos himself perished in the combat.[8] In media[edit] Konstantios Doukas is thought to be engraved on the Holy Crown of Hungary, which was given to King Géza I of Hungary by Konstantios' brother Michael VII, depicted alongside King Geza I and Michael VII;[9] although the figure may actually be Constantine Doukas.[10] References[edit] ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, p. 232. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 15. ^ a b Vernadsky 1976, p. 351. ^ Norwich 1993, pp. 360–361. ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 361. ^ Finlay 1844, p. 58. ^ Buckley 2014, p. 30. ^ Savvides 2007, pp. 52–53. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 262. ^ Pevny 2000, p. 100. Bibliography[edit] Buckley, Penelope (2014). The Alexiad of Anna Komnene: Artistic Strategy In The Making Of A Myth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107037229. Finlay, George (1844), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453, 2, William Blackwood & Sons, OCLC 25020128 Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190253233. Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Pevny, Olenka Z. (2000). Perceptions of Byzantium and Its Neighbors: 843-1261 : the Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870999710. Savvides, Alexios G.C. (2007). Byzantino-Normannica: The Norman Capture of Italy (to A. D. 1081) and the First Two Invasions in Byzantium (A.D. 1081-1085 and 1107-1108). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042919112. Vernadsky, George (1976) [1948]. Kievan Russia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300016475. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konstantios_Doukas&oldid=1027189680" Categories: 1060 births 1081 deaths 11th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine generals Doukid dynasty Porphyrogennetoi Byzantine junior emperors Monarchs killed in action Byzantines killed in battle Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Македонски مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-846	----	Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) - Wikipedia Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Marcus Annius Verus (praetor)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Father of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Annius Verus from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum" Marcus Annius Verus (died 124 AD) was a distinguished Roman politician who lived in the 2nd century, served as a praetor and was the father of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He was the son of Roman Senator Marcus Annius Verus and noblewoman Rupilia Faustina. His brother was the consul Marcus Annius Libo and his sister was Faustina the Elder, wife of Antoninus Pius. He married Domitia Lucilla, the heiress of a wealthy family which owned a tile factory. They had two children, Marcus Aurelius (born in 121, and who was also originally named Marcus Annius Verus), and Annia Cornificia Faustina (born in 123). Annius Verus died young while he held the office of praetor.[1] Both his children were still young. The likeliest year of his death is 124.[2] In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius, who was only about 3 years old when his father died, says of him: "From what I heard of my father and my memory of him, modesty and manliness."[3] Notes[edit] ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1 ^ "His younger brother Annius Libo was consul in 128 and can hardly have been praetor later than 126. Verus must have been praetor earlier than this and 124 is the likeliest year of his death." Anthony Richard Birley, 2000, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, page 31. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i. 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Annius_Verus_(father_of_Marcus_Aurelius)&oldid=1002811902" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 124 deaths Annii Nerva–Antonine dynasty Imperial Roman praetors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Date of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Dansk Ελληνικά Estremeñu Français Italiano Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 04:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8470	----	Gaius Avidius Nigrinus - Wikipedia Gaius Avidius Nigrinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search late 1st/early 2nd century Roman senator and consul Gaius Avidius Nigrinus (died 118) was a Roman senator who lived between the 1st and 2nd centuries. Nigrinus served as suffect consul for the nundinium of April to June 110 with Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus as his colleague. Contents 1 Ancestry 2 Career 3 Family 4 Nerva–Antonine family tree 5 References 6 Sources Ancestry[edit] Nigrinus’ ancestors were Romans of the highest political rank: he was the son of an elder Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, and his uncle was the consul Titus Avidius Quietus. Nigrinus’ family was wealthy, distinguished and well-connected politically in Faventia (modern Faenza, Italy), where he was born and raised. Nigrinus and his family may have been related to Gaius Petronius Pontius Nigrinus, who was consul in the year 37. His family had strong links to Greece. The father of Nigrinus had served as Proconsul of Achaea during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96), as had his paternal uncle. His family was friendly with Pliny the Younger and Plutarch, the latter of whom dedicated ‘On Brotherly Love’ to the elder Nigrinus and Quietus. Career[edit] The earliest known office Nigrinus held was as plebeian tribune in 105; Ronald Syme raises the possibility that he is the Nigrinus Pliny the Younger praises for his speech indicting Varenus Rufus for corruption during his administration of Bithynia and Pontus.[1] Nigrinus later became proconsular governor of Achaea, although it is unclear during what years this was;[2] this was probably part of Trajan’s attempt to recognize and stabilize the administration of the financially troubled province. Nigrinus was a trusted lieutenant of the Emperor Trajan. During the year of his consulship, Trajan sent Nigrinus to Delphi, Greece as a member of an advisory council to assist the future historian Arrian in settling boundary disputes. This event is recorded in Delphi, where there are honorific inscriptions dedicated to Nigrinus in Greek and Latin. Following his consulate, Nigrinus was appointed governor of Dacia; he held this office from 113 until his death.[3] In 117, Trajan died and he was succeeded by his paternal second cousin Hadrian. In the summer of 118, Nigrinus was executed at Faventia on orders of the Senate. According to the Historia Augusta Nigrinus was one of four senators who plotted to kill Hadrian while he was sacrificing, while adding that Hadrian had intended to make Nigrinus his heir apparent; the other three senators were Aulus Cornelius Palma, Lucius Publilius Celsus, and Lusius Quietus.[4] It is possible that Hadrian could have viewed Nigrinus as a potential threat, given his previous high standing and close relationship with Trajan.[5] Anthony Birley mentions the suggestion that Hadrian may have later felt remorse for this act, thus explaining why Hadrian adopted Nigrinus' son-in-law, Ceionius Commodus (who later, following his adoption of Marcus Aurelius, took the name Lucius Aelius). However, Birley also suggests Hadrian adopted Commodus out of "sheer perversity -- Hadrian's desire to infuriate other aspirants."[6] Family[edit] Nigrinus is known to have had two wives. The name of his first wife is not known, but their daughter Avidia married Ceionius Commodus; together they had a son, the future Lucius Verus, co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius. His second wife Plautia, had previously been married to Lucius Ceionius Commodus (ordinary consul 106), and after Nigrinus' death married Sextus Vettulenus Civica. Plautia and Nigrinus had a daughter, Avidia Plautia, who had two children, Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus (ordinary consul 162) and Plautius Quintillus (ordinary consul 159).[7] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Syme, Tactius (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958) p. 669. Pliny, Epistulae, V.20.6; Pliny mentions Nigrinus twice more: V.13.6f, and VII.6 ^ Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 13 (1983), p. 186 and n. 479 ^ Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 355-361 ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 7.1; translated by Antony Birley, The Lives of the Later Caesars (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 64 ^ As suggested by John D. Grainger, Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96-99 (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 127f ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, (London: Routledge, 1987), p. 42. Syme had previously raised the possibility of Hadrian's remorse motivating him here in Tactius, p. 600. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 238, 246 Sources[edit] Matthew Bunson, A dictionary of the Roman Empire 1995 C. Konrad, Plutarch's Sertorius: A Historical Commentary Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994 Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 11, 2nd Edition 2000 Anthony Richard Birley, The Roman Government of Britain Oxford, 2005 Anthony R. Birley, "Hadrian and Greek Senators", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 116 (1997), pp. 209–245 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aelius*.html#2.8 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Lucius_Verus*.html Political offices Preceded by Marcus Peducaeus Priscinus, and Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus as Ordinary consul Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 110 with Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus Succeeded by Lucius Catilius Severus Julianus Claudius Reginus, and Gaius Erucianus Silo as Suffect consul Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Avidius_Nigrinus&oldid=1006576281" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Roman governors of Achaea Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Dacia Avidii 118 deaths 1st-century births Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Español Français Italiano Latina مصرى Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2021, at 16:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8487	----	Principate - Wikipedia Principate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First period of the Roman Empire (27 BC - 284 AD) Not to be confused with Principality. Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e The Principate is the name sometimes given to the first period of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in 284 AD, after which it evolved into the so-called Dominate.[1] The Principate is characterised by the reign of a single emperor (princeps) and an effort on the part of the early emperors, at least, to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance, in some aspects, of the Roman Republic.[2][3][4] Contents 1 Etymology and anticipations 2 Duration 3 History 3.1 Redefinition under Vespasian 3.2 Dominate 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Etymology and anticipations[edit] 'Principate' is etymologically derived from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, and therefore represents the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state or head of government. This reflects the principate emperors' assertion that they were merely "first among equals" among the citizens of Rome. Under the Republic, the princeps senatus, traditionally the oldest or most honoured member of the Senate, had the right to be heard first on any debate.[5] Scipio Aemilianus and his circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen (princeps), who would beneficently guide his compeers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up by Cicero.[6] Duration[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In a more limited and precise chronological sense, the term Principate is applied either to the entire Empire (in the sense of the post-Republican Roman state), or specifically to the earlier of the two phases of "Imperial" government in the ancient Roman Empire before Rome's military collapse in the West (fall of Rome) in 476 left the Byzantine Empire as sole heir. This early, 'Principate' phase began when Augustus claimed auctoritas for himself as princeps; and continued (depending on the source) up to the rule of Commodus, of Maximinus Thrax or of Diocletian. Afterwards, Imperial rule in the Empire is designated as the dominate, which is subjectively more like an (absolute) monarchy while the earlier Principate is still more 'Republican'. History[edit] The title, in full, of princeps senatus / princeps civitatis ("first amongst the senators" / "first amongst the citizens") was first adopted by Octavian Caesar Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), the first Roman "emperor" who chose, like the assassinated Julius Caesar, not to reintroduce a legal monarchy. Augustus's purpose was probably to establish the political stability desperately needed after the exhausting civil wars by a de facto dictatorial regime within the constitutional framework of the Roman Republic - what Gibbon called "an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth"[7] - as a more acceptable alternative to, for example, the early Roman Kingdom. Although dynastic pretences crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous;[8] and Octavian was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power.[9] He began with the powers of a Roman consul, combined with those of a Tribune of the plebs; later added the role of the censor; and finally became Pontifex Maximus as well.[10] Tiberius too acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasise his place as first citizen: "a good and healthful princeps, whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be the servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body".[11] Thereafter however the role of princeps became more institutionalised: as Dio Cassius put it, Caligula was "voted in a single day all the prerogatives which Augustus over so long a span of time had been voted gradually and piecemeal".[12] Nevertheless, under this "Principate stricto sensu", the political reality of autocratic rule by the Emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchic self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the motto Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") or SPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position (de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas. Imperial propaganda developed a paternalistic ideology, presenting the princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership,[13] obliging the princeps to play this designated role within Roman society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the princeps seems to have varied according to the times, and the observers:[14] Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser, but Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles. Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with his personal fortune (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses) providing occasional public games, gladiators, horse races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for the public and charitable institutions were also means that served as popularity boosters while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor. Principate under Augustus[15] Redefinition under Vespasian[edit] With the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68, the principate became more formalised under the Emperor Vespasian from AD 69 onwards.[16] The position of princeps became a distinct entity within the broader – formally still republican – Roman constitution. While many of the same cultural and political expectations remained, the civilian aspect of the Augustan ideal of the princeps gradually gave way to the military role of the imperator.[17] Rule was no longer a position (even notionally) extended on the basis of merit, or auctoritas, but on a firmer basis, allowing Vespasian and future emperors to designate their own heir without those heirs having to earn the position through years of success and public favor. Under the Antonine dynasty, it was the norm for the Emperor to appoint a successful and politically promising individual as his successor. In modern historical analysis, this is treated by many authors as an "ideal" situation: the individual who was most capable was promoted to the position of princeps. Of the Antonine dynasty, Edward Gibbon famously wrote that this was the happiest and most productive period in human history, and credited the system of succession as the key factor. Dominate[edit] The autocratic elements in the Principate tended to increase over time, with the style of dominus ("Lord", "Master", suggesting the citizens became servi, servants or slaves) gradually becoming current for the emperor.[18] There was however no clear constitutional turning point, with Septimius Severus and the Severan dynasty beginning to use the terminology of the Dominate in reference to the emperor, and the various emperors and their usurpers throughout the 3rd century appealing to the people as both military dominus and political princeps. It was after the Crisis of the Third Century almost resulted in the Roman Empire's political collapse that Diocletian firmly consolidated the trend to autocracy.[19] He replaced the one-headed principate with the tetrarchy (c. AD 300, two Augusti ranking above two Caesares),[20] in which the vestigial pretence of the old Republican forms was largely abandoned. The title of princeps disappeared – like the territorial unity of the Empire – in favor of dominus; and new forms of pomp and awe were deliberately used in an attempt to insulate the emperor and the civil authority from the unbridled and mutinous soldiery of the mid-century.[21] The political role of the Senate went into final eclipse,[22] no more being heard of the division by the Augustan Principate of the provinces between imperial (militarised) provinces and senatorial provinces.[23] Lawyers developed a theory of the total delegation of authority into the hands of the emperor,[24] and the dominate developed more and more, especially in the Eastern Roman Empire, where the subjects, and even diplomatic allies, could be termed servus or the corresponding Greek term doulos ("servant/slave") so as to express the exalted position of the Emperor as second only to God, and on earth to none.[citation needed] See also[edit] Constitution of the Late Roman Empire References[edit] ^ K Lowenstein, The Governance of Rome (1973) p. 370 ^ "Principate - government". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-11. ^ A history of Rome, M. Cary & H.H. Scullard, ISBN 0333278305 ^ SPQR; Mary Beard, ISBN 9781846683800 ^ O Seyffeert, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 516 ^ H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (Methuen 1967) p. 99 and p. 235 ^ D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) p. 73 ^ J Burrow, A History of Histories (Penguin 2007) p. 124-5 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 538 ^ D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) p. 70-1 ^ Quoted in J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 540 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 549 ^ C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxi ^ C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxiii-v ^ Digital Reproduction of diagram found in The Anchor Atlas of World History, Vol. 1 (From the Stone Age to the Eve of the French Revolution) Paperback – December 17, 1974 by Werner Hilgemann, Hermann Kinder, Ernest A. Menze (Translator), Harald Bukor (Cartographer), Ruth Bukor (Cartographer) ^ J Boardman ed, The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 561 ^ J Boardman ed, The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 561 and p. 573 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 27 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 ^ J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 808 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 29 ^ H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 28 Sources[edit] Alston, Richard. 1998. Aspects of Roman History. AD 14–117. London: Routledge. Aparicio Pérez, Antonio. 2009. “Taxation in Times of the Principate.” Gerión 27:1: 207-217. Bleicken, Jochen. 1978. Prinzipat und Dominat. Gedanken zur Periodisierung der römischen Kaiserzeit. Wiesbaden: Fr. Stein. Flaig, Egon. 2011. “The Transition from Republic to Principate: Loss of Legitimacy, Revolution, and Acceptance.” In The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, Edited by Jóhann Páll Arnason and Kurt A. Raaflaub. Ancient World, 67-84. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Gallia, Andrew B. 2012. Remembering the Roman Republic: Culture, Politics and History under the Principate. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Gibson, A. G. G., ed. 2013. The Julio-Claudian Succession: Reality and Perception of the Augustan model. Mnemosyne. Supplements; 349. Leiden: Brill. Harlow, Mary and Laurence, Ray. 2017. “Augustus Senex: Old Age and the Remaking of the Principate.” Greece and Rome 64.2: 115-131. Kousser, Rachel Meredith. 2005. “From Conquest to Civilization: The Rhetoric of Imperialism in the Early Principate.” In A Tall Order: Writing the Social History of the Ancient World: Essays in Honor of William V. Harris, Edited by Jean-Jacques Aubert and Zsuzsanna Várhelyi. Beiträge zur Altertumskunde; 216, 185-202. München: Saur. Melounová, Markéta. 2012. “Trials with Religious and Political Charges from the Principate to the Dominate.” Series archaeologica et classica 17.2: 117-130. Raaflaub, Kurt A, Mark Toher, and G. W Bowersock. 1990. Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. Williams, Kathryn Frances. 2009. “Tacitus' Germanicus and the Principate.” Latomus 68.1: 117-130. External links[edit] Library resources about Principate Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8508	----	Titus - Wikipedia Titus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 79 to 81 This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, see Titus (disambiguation). Roman emperor Titus Bust, Capitoline Museum, Rome Roman emperor Reign 24 June 79 – 13 September 81 Predecessor Vespasian Successor Domitian Born 30 December 39 Rome, Italy Died 13 September 81(81-09-13) (aged 41) Rome, Italy Burial Rome Spouse Arrecina Tertulla (c.62 AD; her death) Marcia Furnilla (c.63–65 AD; divorced) Issue Julia Flavia Names Titus Flavius Vespasianus (birth) Titus Caesar Vespasianus (69–79)[1] Regnal name Imperator Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus Dynasty Flavian Father Vespasian Mother Domitilla Roman imperial dynasties Flavian dynasty Aureus of Titus Chronology Vespasian 69–79 AD Titus 79–81 AD Domitian 81–96 AD Family Gens Flavia Flavian tree Category:Flavian dynasty Succession Preceded by Year of the Four Emperors Followed by Nerva–Antonine dynasty Titus Caesar Vespasianus (/ˈtaɪtəs/ TY-təs; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death. Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judea during the First Jewish–Roman War. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor Nero in 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the Year of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was declared Emperor on 1 July 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In 70, he besieged and captured Jerusalem, and destroyed the city and the Second Temple. For this achievement Titus was awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this day. During his father's rule, Titus gained notoriety in Rome serving as prefect of the Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian in 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. As emperor, Titus is best known for completing the Colosseum and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a fire in Rome in 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on 13 September 81. He was deified by the Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger brother Domitian. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Family background 2 Adult life 2.1 Judaean campaigns 2.1.1 Year of the Four Emperors 2.1.2 Siege of Jerusalem 2.2 Heir to Vespasian 3 Emperor 3.1 Succession 3.2 Challenges 3.3 Public works 3.4 Death 4 Ancestry 5 Family tree 6 Legacy 6.1 Historiography 6.2 In later arts 6.2.1 Literature 6.2.2 Paintings and visual arts 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary material 10 External links Early life[edit] Titus was born in Rome, probably on 30 December 39 AD, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian, and Domitilla the Elder.[2] He had one younger sister, Domitilla the Younger (born 45), and one younger brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus (born 51), commonly referred to as Domitian. Family background[edit] Marble bust of Titus from Utica (Tunisia), dated 79–81 AD, British Museum Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial Italian nobility during the early 1st century.[3] One such family was the gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in only four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Titus's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's Civil War. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[4] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely-wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather.[5] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia. By marrying Vespasia Polla, he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.[5] The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[6] What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down by Suetonius, who recorded that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus,[7] the son of Emperor Claudius, who would be murdered by Nero in 55. The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus on the night he was murdered and sipped of the poison that was handed to him.[7] Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts and was a skilled poet and orator both in Greek and Latin.[8] Adult life[edit] From around 57 to 59 he was a military tribune in Germania. He also served in Britannia and perhaps arrived about 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica. About 63, he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla, daughter of Marcus Arrecinus Clemens, a former Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. She died about 65.[9] Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who perished after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65.[10] Some modern historians theorise that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[11][12] Titus never remarried and appears to have had multiple daughters,[13] at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[14] The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[15] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.[14] Judaean campaigns[edit] Further information: First Jewish-Roman War The province of Judaea during the 1st century. In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon and forced to retreat from Jerusalem.[16] The pro-Roman King Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee, where they later gave themselves up to the Romans.[17] Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the Fifth Legion and Tenth Legion.[17] He was later joined at Ptolemais by Titus with the Fifteenth Legion.[18] With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.[18] The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in his work The War of the Jews. Josephus served as a commander in the city of Yodfat when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.[19] Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he had provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.[20] By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman Army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae and Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.[14][21] Year of the Four Emperors[edit] A map of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. The last and most significant fortified city held by the Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.[22] Almost simultaneously, the Roman Senate had declared Galba, the governor of Hispania, as emperor. Vespasian decided to await further orders and sent Titus to greet the new princeps.[23] Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania, and that Vitellius and his armies in Germania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[24] Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide.[25] When the news reached the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[26] Vespasian accepted and, after negotiations by Titus, joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria.[27] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, and Vespasian travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.[28][29] By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending the Year of the Four Emperors.[30] Siege of Jerusalem[edit] Main article: Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70) Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, Francesco Hayez, oil on canvas (1867) depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman Army. Meanwhile, the Jews had become embroiled in a civil war of their own by splitting the resistance in Jerusalem among several factions. The Sicarii, led by Menahem ben Judah, could hold on for long; the Zealots, led by Eleazar ben Simon, eventually fell under the command of the Galilean leader John of Gush Halav; and the other northern rebel commander, Simon Bar Giora, managed to gain leadership over the Idumeans.[31] Titus besieged Jerusalem. The Roman Army was joined by the Twelfth Legion, which had been previously defeated under Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria, Vespasian sent Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Egypt, to act as Titus' second in command.[32] Titus surrounded the city with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate Passover and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman Army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.[33] After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.[34] To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be crucified around the city wall.[35] By that time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.[36] The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Second Temple.[37] As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.[38] The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honour of the victory.[39] Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish.[40] Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea.[41] However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar-Giora and John of Gischala.[40] Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean Sea. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people.[42] The Jewish diaspora during the Temple’s destruction, according to Josephus, was in Parthia (Persia), Babylonia (Iraq), and Arabia, and some were beyond the Euphrates and in Adiabene (Kurdistan).[43] Heir to Vespasian[edit] Titus's triumph after the First Jewish-Roman War was celebrated with the Arch of Titus in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple, including the Menorah and the trumpets of Jericho. Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus and then travelled to Zeugma on the Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown by Vologases I of Parthia. While he was visiting Antioch, he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.[44] Statue of Titus modelled after the Doryphoros of Polykleitos, 79–81 AD, Vatican Museums On his way to Alexandria, he stopped in Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull Apis. According to Suetonius, that caused consternation since the ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem, which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome in the hope, according to Suetonius, of allaying any suspicions about his conduct.[45] Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.[46] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch.[47] Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, and the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[48] The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorialises the victory of Titus. With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title of Caesar from the Senate.[49] In addition to sharing tribunician power with his father, Titus held seven consulships during Vespasian's reign[50] and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.[50] More crucially, he was appointed Praetorian prefect (commander of the Praetorian Guard), ensuring its loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.[50] In that capacity, Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot.[50] When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.[50][51] During the Jewish Wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, the sister of Agrippa II.[24] The Herodians had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.[52] In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.[citation needed] When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away,[53] but his reputation suffered further regardless. Emperor[edit] Succession[edit] A Roman denarius depicting Titus, c. 79. The reverse commemorates his triumph in the Judaean Wars, representing a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms. Caption: IMP. T. CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG. / TRibunus POTestas VIII, COnSul VII Vespasian died of an infection on 23[54] or 24[55] June 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.[56] As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titulary Autokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut (“Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth”).[57] Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.[58] Against those expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues, instead of vices.[58] One of his first acts as emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,[59] which had long plagued the principate. The law of treason, or law of majestas, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly "impaired the people and majesty of Rome" by any revolutionary action.[60] Under Augustus, however, that custom had been revived and applied to cover slander and libel as well.[60] This led to numerous trials and executions under Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (delators), which terrorised Rome's political system for decades.[59] Titus put an end to that practice against himself or anyone else and declared: It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.[61] Consequently, no senators were put to death during his reign;[61] he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".[62] Informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to be tried under different laws for the same offense.[59] Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.[58] As emperor, he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day".[59] Challenges[edit] The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 completely destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are now on display in some of the ruins. Although Titus's brief reign was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, he faced a number of major disasters. A few months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted.[63] The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava,[64] killing thousands.[65] Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort and personally donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[59] Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[66] During the second visit, in spring of 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of the city for three days and three nights.[59][66] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64 and crucially spared the many districts of insulae, Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of the Theatre of Pompey, and the Saepta Julia among others.[66] Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.[66] According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire.[59] The nature of the disease, however, and the death toll are unknown. Meanwhile, war had resumed in Britannia, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further into Caledonia and managed to establish several forts there.[67] As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of imperator for the fifteenth time, between September 9 and December 31, 79 AD.[68] His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.[69] Although Nero was primarily known as a universally-hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had survived his overthrow were fuelled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.[70] According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the lyre.[61] Terentius established a following in Asia Minor but was soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates and took refuge with the Parthians.[61][69] In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.[62][71] Public works[edit] The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, was completed after 10 years construction during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, now better known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 under Vespasian and was finally completed in 80 under Titus.[72] In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish Wars.[73] The inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[74] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[74] Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bath house, the Baths of Titus.[74] Construction of the building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.[58] Practice of the imperial cult was revived by Titus, but apparently, it met with some difficulty since Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.[75] To honour and glorify the Flavian dynasty further, foundations were laid for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[76][77] Death[edit] Marble statue of Titus found near the Lateran Baptistry, Chiaramonti Museum of the Vatican Museums At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths in what was his final recorded act as Emperor.[71] He set out for the Sabine territories but fell ill at the first posting station[78] where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farmhouse as his father.[79] Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were "I have made but one mistake".[71][78] Titus had ruled the Roman Empire for just over two years: from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81.[71] He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify his brother.[80] Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus wrote that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (Aplysia depilans) and that his death had been foretold to him by Apollonius of Tyana.[81] Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain that he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.[71][80] Consequently, Dio believed the mistake to refer to not having Titus's brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.[71] The Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King Nimrod.[82][83][84] Jewish tradition says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple Mount and died as a result of a gnat going up his nose, causing a large growth inside of his brain that killed him.[85][86] Ancestry[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancestors of Titus 8. Titus Flavius Petro 4. Titus Flavius Sabinus I 9. Tertulla 2. Emperor Vespasian 10. Vespasius Pollio 5. Vespasia Polla 1. Titus 6. Flavius Liberalis 3. Flavia Domitilla Major Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar Legacy[edit] Historiography[edit] The Arch of Titus, on the Via Sacra, just to the south-east of the Forum Romanum in Rome. Marble statue of Titus, late 1st century AD, now in the Louvre, Paris Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All surviving accounts from the period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view toward Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand eyewitness account of the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The neutrality of Josephus's writings has come into question, however, as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace.[87] It was in Rome and under Flavian patronage that Josephus wrote all of his known works. The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt by portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganised and even blaming the Jews for causing the war.[88] His credibility as a historian later came under fire.[89] Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation.[90] The Histories, his account of the period, was published during the reign of Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost. Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly-favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars,[91] emphasising his military achievements and his generosity as emperor and in short describing him as follows: Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.[91] Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over 100 years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source but is more reserved by noting: His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.[56] Pliny the Elder, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius,[92] dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus.[93] In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, Jewish memory has "Titus the Wicked" remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[94] In later arts[edit] The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). The composition suggests a love affair between Titus and Domitian's wife, Domitia Longina (see below). The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple. Literature[edit] The early mediaeval Christian text Vindicta Salvatoris anachronistically portrays Titus as Roman client-king of Libya, north of Judah.[95] Bérénice, a play by Jean Racine (1670), which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice. Tite et Bérénice, a play by Pierre Corneille, which was in competition with Racine the same year and concerns the same subject matter. La clemenza di Tito, an opera by Mozart, which centres around a plot to kill Emperor Titus instigated by Vitellia, the daughter of Vitellius, to gain what she believes to be her rightful place as Queen. The Josephus Trilogy, novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the Flavian dynasty. Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932 Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935 Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942 The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian. Titus figures prominently in "The Pearl-Maiden", a novel by H. Rider Haggard, first published in 1901. Paintings and visual arts[edit] The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munich. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus. The Destruction and Sack of the Temple of Jerusalem by Nicolas Poussin (1626). Oil on canvas, 145.8 x 194 cm. Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus. The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army. The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70 by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus. The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Louvre, Paris. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian. The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.[96] Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.[71][78] Rear Panel of the Franks Casket. Northumbrian, early 8th century. Whale's bone carving with Anglo-Saxon runic inscription, 22.9 x 19 cm. British Museum, London. Titus leads Roman army into Jerusalem and captures Temple. Inhabitants flee into exile, judgement is passed on offenders, and captives are led away. References[edit] ^ Hammond, p. 27. ^ Suetonius claims Titus was born in the year Caligula was assassinated, 41. However, this contradicts his statement that Titus died in his 42nd year, as well as Cassius Dio, who notes that Titus was 39 at the time of his accession. See Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 1, 11; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.18; and Brian Jones; Robert Milns (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-85399-613-9. ^ Jones (1992), p. 3 ^ Jones (1992), p. 1 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 2 ^ Jones, (1992), p. 8 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 2 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 3 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 4, with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96 ^ Tacitus, Annals XVI.30–33 ^ Gavin Townend, "Some Flavian Connections", The Journal of Roman Studies (1961), p 57. See Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 4 ^ Jones (1992), p. 11 ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana VII.7 ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 4 ^ Jones and Milns, pp. 96, 167. ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews II.19.9 ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.1.2 ^ a b Josephus, The War of the Jews III.4.2 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.7.34 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.8.8 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.10 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews IV.9.2 ^ Tacitus, Histories II.1 ^ a b Tacitus, Histories II.2 ^ Tacitus, Histories II.41–49 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews IV.10.4 ^ Tacitus, Histories II.5 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews IV.11.1 ^ Tacitus, Histories II.82 ^ Tacitus, Histories IV.3 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews V.1.4 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews V.1.6 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews V.2.2 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews V.6–V.9 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews V.11.1 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.2–VI.3 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.4.1 ^ Sulpicius Severus, Chronicles II.30.6–7. For Tacitus as the source, see T.D. Barnes (July 1977). "The Fragments of Tacitus' Histories". Classical Philology. 72 (3): 224–231, pp. 226–228. doi:10.1086/366355. S2CID 161875316. ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.6.1 ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3 ^ Schwartz, Seth (1984). "Political, social and economic life in the land of Israel". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Katz, Steven T. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780521772488. ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.29 ^ Josephus. BJ. 1.1.5. ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.3.1, VII.5.2 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 5 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.6 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.6 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.1 ^ a b c d e Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 6 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.16 ^ Tacitus, Histories II.81 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.15 ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Life of Vespasian" §24 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.17 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.18 ^ "Titus". The Royal Titulary of Ancient Egypt. Retrieved 13 March 2018. ^ a b c d Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 7 ^ a b c d e f g Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8 ^ a b Tacitus, Annals I.72 ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 9 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.23 ^ The exact number of casualties is unknown, but estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ( "Engineering of Pompeii: Ruins Reveal Roman Technology for Construction, Transportation, and Water Distribution". Archived from the original on 8 July 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.) and 25,000 ([1]), with at least 1000 bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins. ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.24 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 22 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.20 ^ a b Tacitus, Histories I.2 ^ Sanford, Eva Matthews (1937). "Nero and the East". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 48: 75–103. doi:10.2307/310691. JSTOR 310691. ^ a b c d e f g Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.26 ^ Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-06-430158-9. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (First ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998. pp. 276–282. ISBN 978-0-19-288003-1. ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.25 ^ Coins bearing the inscription Divus Vespasianus were not issued until 80 or 81 by Titus. ^ Jones, Brian W. The Emperor Titus. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984. 143. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 5 ^ a b c Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 10 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 11 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 2 ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.32 ^ "Tractate Gittin 56b". www.sefaria.org.il. ^ Rosner, Fred. Medicine in the Bible and Talmud. p.76. Pub. 1995, KTAV Publishing House, ISBN 0-88125-506-8. Extract viewable at ([2]) ^ Wikisource:Page:Legends of Old Testament Characters.djvu/178 ^ Quinn, Thomas (Director) (June 26, 1995). Urban Legends: Season 3 Episode 1 [Television series]. United States. FilmRise. ^ "Titus's Death". Chabad.org. Retrieved 8 November 2018. ^ Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus 76 ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews II.17 ^ Josephus, Flavius, The Jewish War, tr. G.A. Williamson, introduction by E. Mary Smallwood. New York, Penguin, 1981, p. 24 ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 1 ^ The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD, Translation of Pliny's letters. Original. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories Preface ^ Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) ^ Ehrman and Pleše (2011), p. 523. ^ Prettejohn, Elizabeth (March 2002). "Lawrence Alma-Tadema and the Modern City of Ancient Rome". The Art Bulletin. 84 (1): 115–129. doi:10.2307/3177255. JSTOR 3177255. Sources[edit] Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646. Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10195-0. Brian Jones; Robert Milns (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-85399-613-9. Ehrman, Bart D.; Pleše, Zlatko (2011). The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973210-4. apocryphal gospels texts and translations. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus, Latin text with English translation Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 65 and 66, English translation Josephus, The War of the Jews, English translation Tacitus, Histories, Books 2, 4 and 5, English translation Secondary material[edit] Coinage of Titus at Wildwinds.com A private collection of coins minted by Titus Biography of Titus at roman-emperors.org Wayback Machine (Austin Simmons, The Cipherment of the Franks Casket) Titus is twice depicted on the back side of the Franks Casket. External links[edit] Media related to Titus (category) at Wikimedia Commons "Titus, Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 1032. Titus Flavian dynasty Born: 30 December AD 39 Died: 13 September AD 81 Political offices Preceded by Vespasian Roman emperor 79–81 Succeeded by Domitian Preceded by Gnaeus Caecilius Simplex Gaius Quinctius Atticus Roman consul 70 with Vespasian Succeeded by Gaius Licinius Mucianus II Quintus Petillius Cerialis as suffect consuls Preceded by Gnaeus Pompeius Collega Quintus Julius Cordus as suffect consuls Roman consul 72 with Vespasian Succeeded by Gaius Licinius Mucianus III Titus Flavius Sabinus II as suffect consuls Preceded by Sextus Julius Frontinus, and ignotus as suffect consuls Roman consul 74–77 with Vespasian, followed by Domitian Succeeded by Gaius Catellius Celer Marcus Arruntius Aquila as suffect consuls Preceded by Quintus Articuleius Paetus, and ignotus as suffect consuls Roman consul 79–80 Succeeded by A. Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento II L. Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus as suffect consuls v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titus&oldid=1026438257" Categories: Titus 39 births 81 deaths 1st-century Roman emperors 1st-century Roman poets Ancient LGBT people Ancient Roman military personnel Ancient Romans in Britain Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire Deified Roman emperors Flavian dynasty Flavii Imperial Roman consuls People of the First Jewish–Roman War Praetorian prefects Roman quaestors Vespasian Sons of Roman emperors Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles needing additional references from December 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 June 2021, at 08:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8509	----	Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina - Wikipedia Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman noblewoman Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (c. 151[1]-after 165) was the eldest child of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife, Faustina the Younger. Her younger sister was Lucilla and her younger brother was Commodus. Her maternal grandparents were Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder, while her paternal grandparents were Domitia Lucilla and praetor Marcus Annius Verus. She was born and raised in Rome. The parents of Faustina betrothed her to Gnaeus Claudius Severus, whom she later married after 159. Gnaeus Claudius Severus was a Roman Senator of Pontian Greek descent that came from Pompeiopolis, a city in the Roman province of Galatia. After Faustina married Claudius Severus, they settled in Pompeiopolis. Faustina bore Claudius Severus a son, Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus, who served as consul in 200. References[edit] ^ Birley, Anthony. Marcus Aurelius, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 108. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Sources[edit] https://www.livius.org/fa-fn/faustina/faustina_ii.html Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annia_Galeria_Aurelia_Faustina&oldid=1015860597" Categories: 147 births 2nd-century deaths 2nd-century Roman women Nerva–Antonine dynasty Annii Aurelii Fulvi Galerii Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 00:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8536	----	Tisza - Wikipedia Tisza From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search river in Central and Eastern Europe For other uses, see Tisa (disambiguation) and Tisza (disambiguation). Tisza The Tisza in Szeged, Hungary Map of the Tisza Native name Tisza  (Hungarian) Tisa  (Romanian) Тиса  (Rusyn) Тиса  (Ukrainian) Tisa  (Slovak) Тиса / Tisa  (Serbian) Location Countries Ukraine Romania Hungary Slovakia Serbia Towns Sighetu Marmației Khust Szolnok Szeged Bečej Physical characteristics Source    • location Eastern Carpathians, Ukraine  • elevation 2,020 m (6,630 ft) Mouth Danube  • location Downstream of Novi Sad, Serbia  • coordinates 45°8′17″N 20°16′39″E / 45.13806°N 20.27750°E / 45.13806; 20.27750Coordinates: 45°8′17″N 20°16′39″E / 45.13806°N 20.27750°E / 45.13806; 20.27750[1] Length 966 km (600 mi) Basin size 156,087 km2 (60,266 sq mi) Discharge    • location mouth  • average 820 m3/s (29,000 cu ft/s) Basin features Progression Danube→ Black Sea Tributaries    • left Someș, Körös, Mureș, Bega  • right Bodrog, Sajó, Zagyva Hydrography of the Pannonian basin before the river and lake regulations in the 19th century. The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa, is one of the main rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. Once, it was called "the most Hungarian river" because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national borders. The Tisza begins near Rakhiv in Ukraine, at the confluence of the White Tisa and Black Tisa (the former springs in the Chornohora mountains; the latter in the Gorgany range). From there, the Tisza flows west, roughly following Ukraine's borders with Romania and Hungary, then shortly as border between Slovakia and Hungary, later into Hungary, and finally into Serbia. It enters Hungary at Tiszabecs. It traverses Hungary from north to south. A few kilometers south of the Hungarian city of Szeged, it enters Serbia. Finally, it joins the Danube near the village of Stari Slankamen in Vojvodina, Serbia. The Tisza drains an area of about 156,087 km2 (60,266 sq mi)[2] and has a length of 966 km (600 mi)[3] Its mean annual discharge is 792 m3/s (28,000 cu ft/s). It contributes about 13% of the Danube's total runoff.[2] Attila the Hun is said to have been buried under a diverted section of the river Tisza. Contents 1 Names 2 Regulation 3 Lake Tisza 4 Navigation 5 Wildlife 6 Pollution 7 Geography 7.1 Tributaries 7.2 Cities and towns 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Names[edit] The river was known as the Tisia in antiquity; other ancient names for it included Tissus (in Latin) and Pathissus (Πάθισσος in Ancient Greek), (Pliny, Naturalis historia, 4.25). It may be referred to as the Theiss in older English references, after the German name for the river, Theiß. It is known as the Tibisco in Italian, and in older French references (as for instance in relation to the naval battles on the Danube between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries) it is often referred to as the Tibisque. Modern names for the Tisza in the languages of the countries it flows through include: Romanian: Tisa, pronounced [ˈtisa]; Ukrainian: Тиса, romanized: Tysa, pronounced [ˈtɪsɐ]; Slovak: Tisa, pronounced [ˈtisa]; Hungarian: Tisza, pronounced [ˈtisɒ]; Serbian: Тиса / Tisa, pronounced [tîsa]. Regulation[edit] The length of the Tisza in Hungary used to be 1,419 km (882 mi). It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area. After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the "regulation of the Tisza" (Hungarian: a Tisza szabályozása) which started on August 27 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was reduced to 966 km (600 mi) in total, with 589 km (366 mi) of dead channels and 136 km (85 mi) of new riverbed.[4] Lake Tisza[edit] In the 1970s, the building of the Tisza Dam at Kisköre started with the purpose of helping to control floods as well as storing water for drought seasons. However, the resulting Lake Tisza became one of the most popular tourist destinations in Hungary since it had similar features to Lake Balaton at drastically cheaper prices and was not crowded. Navigation[edit] The Tisza is navigable over much of its course. The river opened up for international navigation only recently; before, Hungary distinguished "national rivers" and "international rivers", indicating whether non-Hungarian vessels were allowed or not. After Hungary joined the European Union, this distinction was lifted and vessels were allowed on the Tisza.[5] Conditions of navigation differ with the circumstances: when the river is in flood, it is often unnavigable, just as it is at times of extreme drought.[6] Wildlife[edit] The Tisza has a rich and varied wildlife. Over 200 species of birds reside in the bird reserve of Tiszafüred. The flood plains along the river boast large amounts of diverse plant and animal life. In particular, the yearly "flowering" of the Tisza is considered a local natural wonder. The flowering attracts vast numbers of mayflies which is a well known spectacle.[7][8] In September 2020, colonies of magnificent bryozoans were discovered in the river.[9] Pollution[edit] Main article: 2000 Baia Mare cyanide spill In early 2000, there was a sequence of serious pollution incidents originating from accidental industrial discharges in Romania. The first, in January 2000, occurred when there was a release of sludge containing cyanide from a Romanian mine and killed 2,000 tonnes (2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) of fish. The second, from a mine pond at Baia Borsa, northern Romania, resulted in the release of 20,000 cubic metres (710,000 cu ft) of sludge containing zinc, lead and copper occurred in early March 2000. A week later, the third spill occurred at the same mining site at Baia Borsa, staining the river black, possibly including heavy metals.[10] This series of incidents were described at the time as the most serious environmental disaster to hit central Europe since the Chernobyl disaster. Use of river water for any purpose was temporarily banned and the Hungarian government pressed the Romanians and the European Union to close all installations that could lead to further pollution.[10] Examination of river sediments indicates that pollution incidents from mines have occurred for over a century.[11] Geography[edit] Tributaries[edit] The rivers of Tisza and Bodrog at Tokaj, from above The Tisza joins the Danube. The following rivers are tributaries to the river Tisza: Vișeu (entering at Valea Vișeului) Kosivska (entering at Luh) Shopurka (entering at Velykyi Bychkiv) Iza (entering at Sighetu Marmației) Sarasău Bic Săpânța Șaroș Teresva (entering near Teresva) Baia Valea lui Francisc Tereblia (entering at Bushtyno) Rika (entering near Khust) Batar Borzhava Tur Someș (entering near Vásárosnamény) Someșul Mare (in Dej) Șieu (in Beclean) Bistrița (near Bistrița) Someșul Mic (in Dej) Someșul Cald (in Gilău) Someșul Rece (in Gilău) Crasna (entering in Vásárosnamény) Bodrog (entering in Tokaj) Ondava (near Cejkov) Latorica (near Cejkov) Laborec (near Oborín) Uzh (near Pavlovce nad Uhom) Cirocha (in Humenné) Stara Vicha Kerepets Sajó (entering near Tiszaújváros) Hornád (near Kesznyéten) Eger (entering in Poroszló) Zagyva (entering in Szolnok) Körös (entering near Csongrád) Sebes-Körös (near Gyoma) Berettyó (Barcău) (in Szeghalom) Crișul Alb (near Gyula) Crișul Negru (near Gyula) Mureș (entering near Szeged) Arieș (near Gura Arieșului) Târnava (near Teiuș) Târnava Mare (in Blaj) Târnava Mică (in Blaj) Aranca (entering near Padej) Čik (entering near Bačko Petrovo Selo) Jegrička (entering near Žabalj) Bega (entering near Titel) Cities and towns[edit] The Tisza (Tisa) flows through the following countries and cities (ordered from the source to mouth):  Ukraine Rakhiv Tiachiv Khust Vynohradiv  Slovakia Malé Trakany Veľké Trakany Biel  Romania Sighetu Marmației  Hungary Vásárosnamény Záhony Tokaj Tiszalök Tiszaújváros Tiszafüred Szolnok Tiszakécske Csongrád Szentes Szeged  Serbia Kanjiža Novi Kneževac Senta Ada Mol Bačko Petrovo Selo Bečej Novi Bečej Titel See also[edit] Tice (wetlands) Ečka fish pond References[edit] ^ Tisza at GEOnet Names Server ^ a b Tockner, Klement; Uehlinger, Urs; Robinson, Christopher T., eds. (2009). Rivers of Europe (First ed.). London: Academic Press. Sec. 3.9.5. ISBN 978-0-12-369449-2. ^ "Analysis of the Tisza River Basin 2007- Initial step toward the Tisza River Basin Management Plan – 2009" (PDF). www.icpdr.or. March 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2021. ^ "Danube + Tisza River". danube.panda.org. Retrieved 5 November 2019. ^ "Declaration On Co-Operation Concerning The Tisza/Tisa River Basin And Initiative On The Sustainable Spatial Development Of The Tisza/Tisa River | International Environmental Agreements (IEA) Database Project". iea.uoregon.edu. Retrieved 2019-02-03. ^ NoorderSoft Waterway Database; accessed 13 March 2016. ^ Konyvek, Szalay (2009). Our Beloved Hungaricums. Pannon-Literatura Kft. p. 94. ISBN 978-963-251-145 0. ^ Klaushik. "Blooming of the Tisza". amusingplanet.com. Retrieved 25 November 2019. ^ Đorđe Đukić (8 September 2020). "Otkriveni organizmi stari 500 miliona godina" [Organisms originating rom 500 million years ago discovered]. Politika (in Serbian). p. 12. ^ a b "Third pollution spill hits Hungary". BBC. 15 March 2000. Retrieved 11 October 2010. ^ H. L. Nguyen, M. Braun, I. Szaloki, W. Baeyens, R. Van Grieken and M. Leermakers (30 October 2008). "Tracing the Metal Pollution History of the Tisza River". Springer. doi:10.1007/s11270-008-9898-2. S2CID 94627373. Retrieved 11 October 2010. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tisza. Backabanat.com, About Tisza Historia.hu, the Living Tisza (in Hungarian) River Basin Report: Tisza River Ywat.org Awarded "EDEN - European Destinations of Excellence" non traditional tourist destination 2010 v t e The Danube Countries Germany Austria Slovakia Hungary Croatia Serbia Bulgaria Romania Moldova Ukraine Cities Ulm Ingolstadt Regensburg Passau Linz Vienna Bratislava Győr Budapest Vukovar Novi Sad Belgrade Vidin Ruse Brăila Galați Izmail Tulcea Tributaries Iller Lech Regen Isar Inn Morava Váh Hron Ipeľ/Ipoly Drava Tisza/Tisa Sava Timiș/Tamiš Great Morava Timok Jiu Iskar Olt Osam Yantra Vedea Argeș Ialomița Siret Prut Canals Rhine–Main–Danube Canal Danube–Black Sea Canal See also Breg Brigach Source Danube Delta List of islands in the Danube List of crossings of the Danube Internationalization Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Czech Republic Romania portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tisza&oldid=1027754811" Categories: Rivers of Romania Rivers of Maramureș County Tisza basin Rivers of Hungary Rivers of Zakarpattia Oblast Rivers of Slovakia Rivers of Serbia International rivers of Europe Geography of Vojvodina Bačka Banat Tributaries of the Danube Geography of Bács-Kiskun County Hungary–Slovakia border Hungary–Ukraine border Hungary–Serbia border Ramsar sites in Slovakia Braided rivers in Ukraine Border rivers Hidden categories: CS1 Serbian-language sources (sr) CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Hungarian-language text Articles containing Romanian-language text Articles containing Rusyn-language text Articles containing Ukrainian-language text Articles containing Slovak-language text Articles containing Serbian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing German-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Articles with Hungarian-language sources (hu) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 20:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8544	----	Anthemius - Wikipedia Anthemius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 467 to 472 For other people named Anthemius, see Anthemius (disambiguation). Roman emperor of the West Anthemius Solidus of Emperor Anthemius Roman emperor of the West Reign 12 April 467 – 11 July 472[1] Predecessor Libius Severus Successor Olybrius Co-emperor Leo I (Eastern Empire) Born c. 420 Constantinople Died 11 July 472 Rome Spouse Marcia Euphemia Issue Alypia Anthemiolus Marcianus Procopius Anthemius Romulus Names Procopius Anthemius Father Procopius Mother Daughter of Anthemius Religion Christianity Procopius Anthemius (/ænˈθɛmiəs/; c. 420 – 11 July 472) was western Roman emperor from 467 to 472. Perhaps the last capable Western Roman Emperor, Anthemius attempted to solve the two primary military challenges facing the remains of the Western Roman Empire: the resurgent Visigoths, under Euric, whose domain straddled the Pyrenees; and the unvanquished Vandals, under Geiseric, in undisputed control of North Africa. Anthemius was killed by Ricimer, his own general of Gothic descent, who contested power with him. Contents 1 Early life 2 Rise to the throne 3 Rule 3.1 Foreign affairs 3.1.1 Relationship with the Eastern Empire 3.1.2 Campaigns against the Vandals 3.1.3 Campaigns against the Visigoths 3.2 Internal affairs and relationship with the Roman Senate 3.2.1 Coinage 4 Death 5 Notes 6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources Early life[edit] Procopius Anthemius belonged to a noble family, the Procopii, which gave several high officers, both civil and military, to the Eastern Roman Empire. His mother Lucina,[citation needed] born c. 400,[citation needed] descended from Flavius Philippus, Praetorian prefect of the East in 346, and was the daughter of the influential Flavius Anthemius, Praetorian prefect of the East (404–415) and Consul in 405.[2] His father was Procopius, magister militum per Orientem from 422 to 424, who was descended from the Procopius who had been a cousin of Emperor Julian II and a usurper against the Emperor Valens (365–366). Born in Constantinople around 420, he went to Alexandria to study in the school of the Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus; among his fellow students there were Marcellinus (magister militum and governor of Illyricum), Flavius Illustrius Pusaeus (Praetorian prefect of the East and Consul in 467), Messius Phoebus Severus (Consul in 470 and praefectus urbi), and Pamprepius (pagan poet).[3] In 453 he married Marcia Euphemia, daughter of the Eastern Emperor Marcian (450–457); after the marriage he was elevated to the rank of comes rei militaris and sent to the Danubian frontier with the task of rebuilding the border defences, neglected after Attila's death in 453. In 454 he was recalled to Constantinople, where he received the title of patricius in 454 or 455 and became one of the two magistri militum or magister utriusque militiae of the East. In 455 he received the honour of holding the consulate with the Western Emperor Valentinian III as colleague. This succession of honourable events – the wedding with Marcian's daughter; a promotion to an important military rank, but with administrative rather than military tasks; the prestigious rank of patricius and the highest military position; the consulate held with an Emperor as colleague – suggests that Marcian had selected Anthemius as a possible candidate for the Eastern or Western throne. This hypothesis is further strengthened by the fact that Anthemius' prestige misled the 6th-century historian John Malalas to state that Marcian had actually designated Anthemius as Western Emperor after Avitus.[4] Avitus was deposed in October 456; it is probable that Marcian considered Anthemius as successor, but the Eastern Emperor died in January 457 before choosing his colleague. Therefore, both empires had no emperor, and the power was in the hands of the Western generals, Ricimer and Majorian, and of the Eastern Magister militum, the Alan Aspar. As Aspar could not sit on the throne because of his barbaric origin, he opposed Anthemius whose prestige would have made him independent and chose a low-ranking military officer, Leo; in the West, as his barbaric origin barred Ricimer from the throne, it was Majorian who received the purple.[5] Anthemius stayed in service under the new Emperor; as magister militum, his task was to defend the Empire from the barbaric populations pressing on its border. Around 460, he defeated the Ostrogoths of Valamir in Illyricum. During the winter of 466/467 he defeated a group of Huns, led by Hormidac, who had crossed the frozen Danube and were pillaging Dacia. The raiders had conquered Serdica, and Anthemius besieged the city until the starved Huns decided to accept open battle; despite the treachery of his cavalry commander (a Hun), Anthemius led his infantry to victory, and when Hormidac offered surrender Anthemius asked for the deserter to be given to him.[6] Rise to the throne[edit] The newly elected Eastern Roman emperor, Leo I, had a major foreign affairs problem: the Vandals of King Geiseric and their raids on the Italian coasts. After the death of Libius Severus in 465, the West had no emperor. Gaiseric had his own candidate, Olybrius, who was related to Gaiseric because both Olybrius and a son of Gaiseric's had married the two daughters of Emperor Valentinian III. With Olybrius on the throne, Gaiseric would become the real power behind the throne of the Western Empire. Leo, on the other hand, wanted to keep Gaiseric as far as possible from the imperial court at Ravenna, and took time to choose a successor to Severus. To put Leo under pressure, Gaiseric extended his attacks on Sicily and Italy to the territories of the Eastern Empire, sacking and enslaving people living in Illyricum, the Peloponnese and other parts of Greece, so Leo was obliged to take action. On 25 March 467,[citation needed] Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer,[citation needed] designated Anthemius Western Emperor as Caesar[citation needed] and sent him to Italy with an army led by the Magister militum per Illyricum Marcellinus. On 12 April, Anthemius was proclaimed Emperor at the third or twelfth mile from Rome.[7] Anthemius' election was celebrated in Constantinople with a panegyric by Dioscorus.[8] By choosing Anthemius, Leo obtained three results: he sent a possible candidate to the eastern throne far away; he repulsed Gaiseric's attempt to put a puppet of his own on the Western throne; and he put a capable and proven general with a trained army in Italy, ready to fight the Vandals. Rule[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Foreign affairs[edit] Relationship with the Eastern Empire[edit] The reign of Anthemius was characterised by a good diplomatic relationship with the Eastern Empire; for example, Anthemius is the last Western Emperor to be recorded in an Eastern law.[9] Both courts collaborated in the choice of the yearly consuls, as each court chose a consul and accepted the other's choice. Anthemius had the honour of holding the consulate sine collega (without a colleague) in 468, the first year he started as Emperor, following a similar honour given to Leo in 466. The following year the two consuls were Anthemius' son, Marcianus, and Leo's son-in-law, Zeno (later successor of Leo on the Eastern throne). In 470 the consuls were Messius Phoebus Severus, Anthemius' old friend and fellow student at Proclus' school, and the Magister militum per Orientem Flavius Iordanes. In 471, the year in which Leo held his fourth consulate with the Praetorian prefect of Italy Caelius Aconius Probianus as colleague, the two emperors strengthened their bonds with a marriage between Anthemius' son, Marcianus, and Leo's daughter, Leontia; Marcian was honoured with his second consulate the following year, this time chosen by the Eastern court. Anthemius' matrimonial policy also included the marriage of his only daughter, Alypia, and the powerful Magister militum Ricimer. The poet Sidonius Apollinaris arrived in Rome on the occasion of the wedding at the end of 467 and described the celebrations in which all social classes were involved; he also hints that Alypia might have not liked her husband, a barbarian.[10] Campaigns against the Vandals[edit] The Vandals were the major problem of the Western Empire. In late 467, Anthemius organised a campaign of the western Roman army, probably under the command of Marcellinus, but the result was a failure: the bad weather obliged the Roman fleet to return to its base before completing the operation. In 468, Leo, Anthemius and Marcellinus organised a major operation against the Vandal kingdom in Africa. The commander-in-chief of the operation was Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus (who would become Eastern emperor seven years later). A fleet consisting of upwards of one thousand vessels was collected to transport the combined Eastern-Western-Illyric army, and while most of the expenses were paid for by the Eastern Empire, Anthemius and the Western treasury contributed to the costs. The fleet was defeated in the Battle of Cape Bon, however, with Marcellinus killed at Roman hands in its wake. Leo decided to sign a separate peace with Gaiseric. Anthemius lost his allies and, with the imperial treasury almost emptied by the failed operation, renounced taking Africa back. Instead he concentrated on the second problem of his Empire, keeping under his control the Western provinces targeted by Visigothic expansion. Campaigns against the Visigoths[edit] After the disastrous campaign in Africa, Anthemius turned to the reconquest of Gaul, occupied by Visigoths under the ambitious King Euric who had exploited the weak Roman control caused by political instability. Euric's sphere of influence had also separated some imperial provinces from the rest of the Empire. Even though Arelate and Marseilles in Southern Gaul were still governed by the Western court, Avernia was isolated from the rest of the Empire and governed by Ecdicius, son of Emperor Avitus, while the territory later included in the so-called Domain of Soissons was located further north. In 470, Anthemius recruited Britons living in either Britain or Armorica to fight Euric.[11] The Britons, under King Riothamus, were initially successful and occupied Bourges with twelve thousand men. However, when they entered the core of Visigoth territory, trying to conquer Déols, they were outnumbered and defeated by a Visigoth army, and Riothamus was forced to flee to the Burgundians, who were Roman allies.[12] Anthemius took the matter into his own hands and decided to attack the Visigoths directly. He collected an army under the nominal leadership of his own son, Anthemiolus, but actually commanded by the generals Torisarius, Everdingus, and Hermianus. Anthemiolus moved from Arelate and crossed the Rhone river, but he was intercepted by Euric, who defeated and killed the Roman generals and pillaged the area.[13] Internal affairs and relationship with the Roman Senate[edit] While Africa was lost and the control over Western provinces was shaky, Anthemius' power over Italy was threatened by internal opposition; he was of Greek origin, had been chosen by the Eastern Emperor from among members of the Eastern court, and was suspected of being a pagan.[14] In order to obtain the support of the senatorial aristocracy, Anthemius conferred the rank of patricius on members of the Italian and Gallic governing class. He introduced the practice, common in the East, of appointing even civilians to the patrician rank, and honoured so many members of the aristocracy with this title that it suffered a sort of inflation. Among the new patricii there were Italian senators, e.g. Romanus and Messius Phoebus Severus, but against common practice he also appointed Gallic senators and even aristocrats without noteworthy careers, such as Magnus Felix and the Gallic poet Sidonius Apollinaris. Sidonius had come to Rome to bring a petition from his people; his contact in the court, the consul Caecina Decius Basilius, suggested that he should compose a panegyric to be performed at the beginning of Anthemius' consulate, on 1 January 468. The Emperor honoured the poet, conferring on him the patrician rank, the high rank of Caput senatus, and even the office of Praefectus urbi of Rome, usually reserved to members of the Italian aristocracy.[15] Sidonius was so influential that he convinced the Emperor to commute the death penalty of Arvandus, the Praetorian prefect of Gaul who had allied himself with the Visigoths. Coinage[edit] The good relationship between the two Roman Emperors was good news in the recent affairs between the two halves of the Roman Empire, and was used in imperial propaganda. Anthemius had his mints (at Mediolanum, Ravenna and Rome) issue solidi depicting the two Emperors joining hands in a show of unity. Anthemius had restored his court in Rome, and thus this mint became more and more important, overshadowing the other two mints. Some coins are in the name of his wife Marcia Euphemia; among these there is a solidus depicting two Empresses on the thrones, probably a reference to Alypia's marriage. Death[edit] The Old St. Peter's Basilica, built by Emperor Constantine I, was the refuge of Anthemius from Ricimer's supporters in 472 The most important figure at the Western court was Ricimer, the powerful magister militum, who had already decided the fate of several emperors.[16] The new Emperor, however, had been chosen by the Eastern court, and, despite the bond of the marriage between Ricimer and Anthemius' daughter, Alypia, they were not on good terms. The tipping point of their relationship was the trial of Romanus, an Italian senator and patricius supported by Ricimer; Anthemius accused Romanus of treachery and condemned him to death in 470.[17] Ricimer had gathered 6,000 men for the war against the Vandals, and after the death of Romanus he moved with his men to the north, leaving Anthemius in Rome. Supporters of the two parties fought several brawls, but Ricimer and the emperor signed a one-year truce after the mediation of Epiphanius, the Bishop of Pavia.[18] At the beginning of 472, the struggle between them renewed, and Anthemius was obliged to feign an illness and took refuge in St. Peter's Basilica. The Eastern Roman Emperor, Leo, sent Olybrius to mediate between Ricimer and Anthemius but, according to John Malalas, had sent a secret letter to Anthemius, urging him to kill Olybrius. Ricimer intercepted the letter, showed it to Olybrius, and had him proclaimed Emperor.[19] The struggle became an open war. Anthemius, with the aristocracy and the people of the city, faced the Gothic magister militum and the barbarian units of the army, which included Odoacer's men. Ricimer blockaded Anthemius in Rome; five months of fighting followed. Ricimer entered the city and succeeded in separating the port on the Tiber from the Palatine, starving the supporters of the Emperor.[20] Both sides appealed to the army in Gaul, but the Magister militum per Gallias, the Burgundian Gundobad, supported his uncle Ricimer. Anthemius elevated Bilimer to the rank of Rector Galliarum and had him enter Italy with the loyal army. Bilimer arrived in Rome but died trying to prevent Ricimer entering the centre of the city from the other side of the Tiber, through the Pons Aelius in front of the Mausoleum of Hadrian.[21] Losing any hope of external help and pressed by the scarcity of food, Anthemius tried to rally, but his men were defeated and killed in great numbers.[20] The emperor fled for the second time to St. Peter's (or, according to other sources, to Santa Maria in Trastevere), where he was captured and beheaded by Gundobad[20][22] or by Ricimer[23] on 11 July 472.[24] Notes[edit] ^ Alison E. Cooley, The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy (Cambridge: University Press, 2012), p. 507 ^ Morris, Jones & Martindale (1992), p. 697. ^ O'Meara, Dominic, Platonopolis: Platonic Political Philosophy in Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-19-925758-2, p. 21. ^ John Malalas, Chronicon, 368–369, cited in Mathisen. ^ Mathisen (1998). ^ Thompson, Edward Arthur, The Huns, Blackwell Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0-631-21443-7, p. 170. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores, no. 597, s.a. 467: "his cons. levatus est imp. do.n. Anthemius Romae prid. idus Aprilis.", cited in Mathisen. ^ Dioscorus was the teacher of Leo's daughters, Ariadne and Leontia, and later became Praetorian prefect of the East. ^ Justinian code, I.11.8, issued on 1 July 472, cited in Mathisen. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae, i.5.10–11. ^ Chronica gallica anno 511, n. 649, s.a. 470; Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae III.9 ^ Jordanes, 237–238; Gregory of Tours, ii.18. ^ Chronica gallica anno 511, n. 649 s.a. 471, cited in Mathisen. ^ Anthemius had many pagans as collaborators: Marcellinus was a pagan, as was Anthemius' friend, the philosopher, Consul of 470 and Praefectus urbi, Messius Phoebus Severus. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae, i.9.1–7. ^ Ricimer had deposed Avitus and Majorian and supported the election of Libius Severus. ^ Cassiodorus, Chronicon, 1289; Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana, xv.2; John of Antioch, fragments 209.1–2, 207, translated by C.D. Gordon, The Age of Attila (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1966), pp. 122f ^ Magnus Felix Ennodius, Vita Epiphanii, 51–53, 60–68; Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana, xv.203. ^ John Malalas, Chronographica, 373–374. ^ a b c John of Antioch, fragment 209.1–2; translated by C.D. Gordon, The Age of Attila, pp. 122f. ^ Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana, xv.4. ^ John Malalas, Chronographica, 37. ^ Cassiodorus, Chronicle, 1293; Marcellinus Comes, Chronicon, s.a.472; Procopius of Caesarea, Bellum Vandalicum, vii.1–3. Chronica gallica anno 511 (n. 650, s.a. 472) records both versions. ^ Fasti vindobonenses priores, n. 606, s.a. 472. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Sources for Anthemius's life are richer than for most fifth century Western Emperors, partly because of his origin in Constantinople, where the tradition of court histories was kept alive, and partly because of the details that can be extracted from a panegyric delivered on 1 January 468 by the Gallo-Roman poet Sidonius Apollinaris. Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum Jordanes, Getica Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae and Carmen Secondary sources[edit] Mathisen, Ralph W. (1998). "Anthemius (12 April 467 – 11 July 472 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 2015-08-31. Morris, John; Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, John Robert (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Regnal titles Preceded by Libius Severus Western Roman emperor 467–472 Succeeded by Olybrius Political offices Preceded by Aetius Studius Roman consul 455 with Valentinian Augustus VIII Succeeded by Varanes Iohannes Preceded by Pusaeus Iohannes Roman consul 468 Succeeded by Marcianus Zeno v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8553	----	Category:Political philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Political philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Political philosophers. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 12 subcategories, out of 12 total.   ► Political philosophers by nationality‎ (35 C) A ► Giorgio Agamben‎ (1 C, 1 P) B ► Isaiah Berlin‎ (2 C, 1 P) G ► Green thinkers‎ (83 P) L ► Philosophers of law‎ (1 C, 211 P) ► Left-libertarians‎ (4 C, 32 P) ► Libertarian theorists‎ (1 C, 73 P) M ► Marxist theorists‎ (3 C, 277 P) P ► Philosophers of war‎ (36 P) R ► Jean-Jacques Rousseau‎ (3 C, 16 P) S ► Leo Strauss‎ (3 C, 1 P) V ► Giambattista Vico‎ (1 C, 4 P) Pages in category "Political philosophers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 411 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)  List of political philosophers List of political theorists * Index of sociopolitical thinkers A Bijan Abdolkarimi Arash Abizadeh Abu Bakr al-Turtushi Hans Achterhuis Theodor W. Adorno Michel Aflaq Giorgio Agamben Masoud Ahmadzadeh Hans Albert Tariq Ali Sabina Alkire Amy Allen (philosopher) Johannes Althusius Anne Aly Elizabeth S. Anderson Francis Anderson (philosopher) John Anderson (philosopher) Daniele Archibugi Hannah Arendt Aristotle Richard Arneson Raymond Aron Zaki al-Arsuzi Robert Audi Lene Auestad Michael W. Austin Armen Avanessian Averroes A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Alejandro Bárcenas Banu Bargu Christian Barry Alex Battler Jean Baudrillard Per Bauhn Vladimir Bazarov Simone de Beauvoir Lawrence C. Becker Alon Ben-Meir Seyla Benhabib Erica Benner Jane Bennett (political theorist) Jeremy Bentham Sergio Benvenuto Sandrine Bergès Maine de Biran Peg Birmingham Walter Block Chris Bobonich William James Booth Leonard Borgzinner Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Eileen Hunt Botting David Braybrooke Bob Brecher Samantha Brennan David O. Brink Thom Brooks Martin Buber Giuseppe Maria Buondelmonti J. Peter Burgess Edmund Burke John Burnheim Judith Butler C Albert Caraco Sebastian Castellio Cornelius Castoriadis Lorella Cedroni Émile Chartier John Charvet Marilena de Souza Chaui Noam Chomsky Ivan Chtcheglov Marek Cichocki J. Caleb Clanton Justin Clemens Angelo Codevilla Raphael Cohen-Almagor Martin Cohen (philosopher) Samuel Taylor Coleridge Marquis de Condorcet Benjamin Constant Crates of Thebes Simon Critchley D Fred Dallmayr William Davies (political writer) Guy Debord Augusto Del Noce Gilles Deleuze Chantal Delsol Jacques Derrida Monique Deveaux Philip K. Dick Bulent Diken Dimitris Dimitrakos Rosalyn Diprose Costas Douzinas Raya Dunayevskaya Will Durant E Terry Eagleton María Elósegui Stephen L. Esquith David Estlund Rod L. Evans Ioannis D. Evrigenis F Cécile Fabre Fan Zhen Al-Farabi Joanne Faulkner Brian Fay Adam Ferguson Alessandro Ferrara Gaston Fessard Ludwig Feuerbach Johann Gottlieb Fichte Gordon Finlayson Harold Fisch Rainer Forst Ricardo Forster James Foster (economist) Takis Fotopoulos Charles Fourier Benjamin Franklin Samuel Freeman (philosopher) Fabian Freyenhagen David D. Friedman Francis Fukuyama G Muammar Gaddafi Jean-Paul Gagnon Dora Elvira García González Moira Gatens Gerardus Johannes Geers Allan Gibbard Margaret Gilbert Étienne Gilson Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson Roger S. Gottlieb John Gray (philosopher) A. C. Grayling Karen Green (philosopher) Leslie Green (philosopher) Lisa Guenther Esperanza Guisán Amy Gutmann Þorsteinn Gylfason H Guy Haarscher Jürgen Habermas Simon Hailwood Jean Elizabeth Hampton Han Fei Hassan Hanafi Craig Hanks R. M. Hare Elizabeth Harman (philosopher) Sam Harris Thom Hartmann Yoram Hazony Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Martin Heidegger Heraclitus Johann Gottfried Herder Alexander Herzen Christopher Hitchens Thomas Hobbes Baron d'Holbach Ted Honderich Bell hooks Max Horkheimer Srećko Horvat Laurence Houlgate Hu Hanmin Wilhelm von Humboldt I Nicolae Iorga Isaak Iselin Rada Iveković J Rahel Jaeggi Georg Jellinek Fiona Jenkins Jiang Qing (Confucian) K Philip J. Kain Jehangir Karamat Kojin Karatani Walter Kaufmann (philosopher) Russell Keat Richard Kennington Giorgi Khuroshvili Iain King Elizabeth Kiss Eva Kittay Naomi Klein Dudley Knowles Hans Köchler Alexandre Kojève Nikolas Kompridis Mario Kopić Włodzimierz Julian Korab-Karpowicz (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Political_philosophers&oldid=975653543" Categories: Political philosophy Philosophers by field Political writers Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Македонски Malti Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Suomi Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2020, at 18:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8556	----	Lucius Aelius Caesar - Wikipedia Lucius Aelius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Lucius Aelius) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century Roman nobleman and adoptive son of Hadrian (101-138) This article is about the adoptive son of Hadrian. For the Praetorian prefect called Lucius Aelius Sejanus, see Sejanus. This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Lucius Aelius Caesar" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2012) Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius Caesar of the Roman Empire Lucius Aelius, musée du Louvre Born 13 January 101 Died 1 January 138 (aged 36) Spouse Avidia Issue Lucius Verus Ceionia Fabia Ceionia Plautia Names Lucius Ceionius Commodus (from birth until adoption by Hadrian) Regnal name Lucius Aelius Caesar (as Imperial heir) Father Lucius Ceionius Commodus Hadrian (adoptive) Mother Plautia Roman imperial dynasties Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Lucius Aelius Caesar (13 January 101 – 1 January 138) was the father of Emperor Lucius Verus. In 136, he was adopted by Hadrian and named heir to the throne. He died before Hadrian and thus never became emperor. After Lucius' death, he was replaced by Antoninus Pius, who succeeded Hadrian the same year. Contents 1 Life and family 2 Heir to Hadrian 3 Death 4 Sources 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life and family[edit] Denarius of Aelius Denarius of Aelius' son, future Roman emperor Lucius Verus Aelius was born with the name Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and became Lucius Aelius Caesar upon his adoption as Hadrian's heir. He is often sometimes referred to as Lucius Aelius Verus, though this name is not attested outside the Augustan History, where it probably was originally the result of a manuscript error. The young Lucius Ceionius Commodus was of the gens Ceionia. His father, also named Lucius Ceionius Commodus (the author of the Augustan History adds the cognomen Verus), was consul in 106, and his paternal grandfather, also of the same name, was consul in 78. His paternal ancestors were from Etruria, and were of consular rank. His mother was a surmised but otherwise undocumented Roman woman named Plautia.[1] The Augustan History states that his maternal grandfather and his maternal ancestors were of consular rank. Before 130, the younger Lucius Commodus married Avidia, a well-connected Roman noblewoman who was the daughter of the senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus. Avidia bore Lucius two sons and two daughters, who were: Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger – He would become Lucius Verus Caesar, and would co-rule as Roman Emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 161 until his own death in 169. Verus would marry Lucilla, the second daughter of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus – he is known from an inscription found in Rome. Ceionia Fabia – at the time of Marcus Aurelius's adoption, she was betrothed, as part of the adoption conditions, to him. Shortly after Antoninus Pius' ascension, Pius came to Aurelius and asked him to end his engagement to Fabia, instead marrying Antoninus Pius’ daughter Faustina the Younger; Faustina had originally been planned by Hadrian to wed Lucius Verus. Ceionia Plautia Heir to Hadrian[edit] Bust of Hadrian, Musei Capitolini For a long time, the emperor Hadrian had considered his brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus as his unofficial successor. As Hadrian's reign drew to a close, however, he changed his mind. Although the emperor certainly thought Servianus capable of ruling as an emperor after Hadrian's own death, Servianus, by now in his nineties, was clearly too old for the position. Hadrian's attentions turned to Servianus' grandson, Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Hadrian promoted the young Salinator, his great-nephew, gave him special status in his court, and groomed him as his heir. However, in late 136, Hadrian almost died from a haemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he decided to change his mind, and selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus as his new successor, adopting him as his son.[2] The selection was done invitis omnibus, "against the wishes of everyone";[3] in particular, Servianus and the young Salinator became very angry at Hadrian and wished to challenge him over the adoption. Even today, the rationale for Hadrian's sudden switch is still unclear.[4] It is possible Salinator went so far as to attempt a coup against Hadrian in which Servianus was implicated. In order to avoid any potential conflict in the succession, Hadrian ordered the deaths of Salinator and Servianus.[5] Although Lucius had no military experience, he had served as a senator, and had powerful political connections; however, he was in poor health. As part of his adoption, Lucius Ceionius Commodus took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. Death[edit] After a year's stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the senate on the first day of 138. The night before the speech, however, he grew ill, and died of a haemorrhage late the next day.[6][notes 1] On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus (19 September 86 – 7 March 161) as his new successor.[8] After a few days' consideration, Antoninus accepted. He was adopted on 25 February. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus adopted both Lucius Aelius's son (properly called Lucius Ceionius Commodus the Younger) and Hadrian's great-nephew by marriage, Marcus Aurelius (26 April 121 – 17 March 180). Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus; Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus.[notes 2] At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[9] Marcus Aurelius later co-ruled with Lucius Verus as joint Roman Emperors, until Lucius Verus died in 169, after which Aurelius was sole ruler until his own death in 180. Sources[edit] The major sources for the life of Aelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claim to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century, but are in fact written by a single author (referred to here as "the biographer") from the later 4th century (c. 395).[10] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are a tissue of lies and fiction, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.[10] For Aelius, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus and Lucius Verus are largely reliable, but that of Avidius Cassius, and even Lucius Aelius' own, is full of fiction.[11] Some other literary sources provide specific detail: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianus on Marcus' legal work.[12] Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.[13] Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Notes[edit] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended the eventual post-Antoninus succession, anyway.[7] ^ The younger Lucius Commodus did not take the cognomen Verus until his joint accession with Marcus after the death of Pius. All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. References[edit] ^ Ronald Syme, "Antonine Relatives: Ceionii and Vettulani", Athenaeum, 35 (1957), pp. 306–315 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, pp. 291–292. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1–7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Antoninus Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65–74. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucius Aelius. Political offices Preceded by Publius Rutilius Fabianus, and Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus Aemilius Tuscillus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 136 with Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus Succeeded by Lucius Aelius Caesar II, and Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius as ordinary consuls Preceded by Lucius Ceionius Commodus, and Sextus Vettulenus Civica Pompeianus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 137 with Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius Succeeded by Kanus Junius Niger, and Gaius Pomponius Camerinus as ordinary consuls Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Aelius_Caesar&oldid=1020829164" Categories: 101 births 138 deaths Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2nd-century Romans Adult adoptees Aelii Ceionii Senators of the Roman Empire Caesars (heirs apparent) Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Ancient Roman adoptees Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Use dmy dates from February 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2012 All articles needing additional references Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Eesti Español Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 08:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8557	----	Ethics - Wikipedia Ethics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Branch of philosophy concerning right and wrong conduct For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). Part of a series on Philosophy Plato Kant Nietzsche Buddha Confucius Averroes Branches Aesthetics Axiology Cosmology Epistemology Ethics Law Logic Metaphilosophy Metaphysics Linguistic of Mind of Science Political of Religion Social Periods Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary Traditions Analytic Neopositivism Ordinary language Aristotelian Buddhist Abhidharma Madhyamaka Pramāṇavāda Yogacara Cārvāka Christian Augustinian Humanist Scotist Thomist Occamist Confucian Neo-Confucianism New Confucianism Continental Existentialism Phenomenology Hegelian Hindu Mīmāṃsā Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Vedanta Islamic Ash'arism Early Islamic Averroist Avicennist Illuminationist Ismāʿīlism Sufi Jain Jewish Judeo-Islamic Kantian Legalism Platonist Neoplatonist Pragmatism Skepticism Taoist philosophy Traditions by region African Eastern Chinese Indian Middle-Eastern Egyptian Iranian Western Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Women in philosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers  Philosophy portal v t e Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch[1] of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".[2] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.[3] Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:[2] Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined; Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action; Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action.[2] Contents 1 Defining ethics 2 Meta-ethics 2.1 Moral skepticism 3 Normative ethics 3.1 Virtue ethics 3.1.1 Stoicism 3.1.2 Contemporary virtue ethics 3.2 Intuitive ethics 3.3 Hedonism 3.3.1 Cyrenaic hedonism 3.3.2 Epicureanism 3.4 State consequentialism 3.5 Consequentialism 3.5.1 Utilitarianism 3.6 Deontology 3.6.1 Kantianism 3.6.2 Divine command theory 3.6.3 Discourse ethics 3.7 Pragmatic ethics 3.8 Ethics of care 3.9 Role ethics 3.10 Anarchist ethics 3.11 Postmodern ethics 4 Applied ethics 4.1 Specific questions 4.2 Particular fields of application 4.2.1 Bioethics 4.2.2 Business ethics 4.2.3 Machine ethics 4.2.4 Military ethics 4.2.5 Political ethics 4.2.6 Public sector ethics 4.2.7 Publication ethics 4.2.8 Relational ethics 4.2.9 Ethics of nanotechnologies 4.2.10 Ethics of quantification 4.2.11 Animal ethics 4.2.12 Ethics of technology 5 Moral psychology 5.1 Evolutionary ethics 6 Descriptive ethics 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Defining ethics[edit] The English word ethics is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), meaning "relating to one's character", which itself comes from the root word êthos (ἦθος) meaning "character, moral nature".[4] This word was transferred into Latin as ethica and then into French as éthique, from which it was transferred into English. Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty'".[5] Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures".[6] The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual."[7] Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the law, and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.[8] The word ethics in English refers to several things.[9] It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the English moral philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive."[10] Williams describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question, "how one should live".[11] Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity."[12] Ethics can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or habits.[13] For example: "Joe has strange ethics." Meta-ethics[edit] Main article: Meta-ethics Meta-ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong.[14] An ethical question pertaining to a particular practical situation—such as, "Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake?"—cannot be a meta-ethical question (rather, this is an applied ethical question). A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have a secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?" is a meta-ethical question. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge. Meta-ethics is also important in G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica from 1903. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his open-question argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism; these, respectively, take descriptive and non-descriptive approaches to moral goodness or value. Non-cognitivism is the view that when we judge something as morally right or wrong, this is neither true nor false. We may, for example, be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things.[15] Cognitivism can then be seen as the claim that when we talk about right and wrong, we are talking about matters of fact. The ontology of ethics is about value-bearing things or properties, that is, the kind of things or stuff referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology since ethical propositions do not refer. This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists, on the other hand, must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions.[16] Moral skepticism[edit] Main article: Moral skepticism Moral skepticism (or moral scepticism) is a class of metaethical theories in which all members entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Moral skepticism is particularly against moral realism which holds the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths. Some proponents of moral skepticism include Pyrrho, Aenesidemus, Sextus Empiricus, David Hume, Max Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, and J.L. Mackie. Moral skepticism is divided into three sub-classes: Moral error theory (or moral nihilism). Epistemological moral skepticism. Non-cognitivism.[17] All of these three theories share the same conclusions, which are as follows: (a) we are never justified in believing that moral claims (claims of the form "state of affairs x is good," "action y is morally obligatory," etc.) are true and, even more so (b) we never know that any moral claim is true. However, each method arrives at (a) and (b) by different routes. Moral error theory holds that we do not know that any moral claim is true because (i) all moral claims are false, (ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false, and (iii) since we are not justified in believing any claim we have reason to deny, we are not justified in believing any moral claims. Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which include Pyrrhonian moral skepticism and dogmatic moral skepticism. All members of epistemological moral skepticism share two things: first, they acknowledge that we are unjustified in believing any moral claim, and second, they are agnostic on whether (i) is true (i.e. on whether all moral claims are false). Pyrrhonian moral skepticism holds that the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim is that it is irrational for us to believe either that any moral claim is true or that any moral claim is false. Thus, in addition to being agnostic on whether (i) is true, Pyrrhonian moral skepticism denies (ii). Dogmatic moral skepticism, on the other hand, affirms (ii) and cites (ii)'s truth as the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim. Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false (they are not truth-apt). Instead, moral claims are imperatives (e.g. "Don't steal babies!"), expressions of emotion (e.g. "stealing babies: Boo!"), or expressions of "pro-attitudes" ("I do not believe that babies should be stolen.") Normative ethics[edit] Main article: Normative ethics Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because normative ethics examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.[14] Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.[18] Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions. At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and were no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but were interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism. Virtue ethics[edit] Main article: Virtue ethics Socrates Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and it is used to describe the ethics of early Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle, and ancient Indian philosophers such as Valluvar. Socrates (469–399 BC) was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, knowledge bearing on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge was secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the results of ignorance. If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his or her actions, he or she would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he correlated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.[19]:32–33 Aristotle (384–323 BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed "virtuous". In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with virtue this person will do good and be content. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by doing wrong, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Therefore, it is imperative for people to act in accordance with virtue, which is only attainable by the practice of the virtues in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealth, were only made worthwhile and of benefit when employed in the practice of the virtues. The practice of the virtues is the surest path to happiness. Aristotle asserted that the soul of man had three natures[citation needed]: body (physical/metabolism), animal (emotional/appetite), and rational (mental/conceptual). Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care; emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges; and mental nature through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness, and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, in the right way, at the right time, for the right reason. Valluvar (before 5th century CE) keeps virtue, or aṟam (dharma) as he calls it, as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature.[20] While religious scriptures generally consider aṟam as divine in nature, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.[21] Contrary to what other contemporary works say, Valluvar holds that aṟam is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it. Valluvar considered justice as a facet of aṟam. While ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."[21] Stoicism[edit] Main article: Stoicism Epictetus The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or apatheia, was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is, in essence, offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to the existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God (who initially gave what the person is as a person). Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud.[19]:38–41 Contemporary virtue ethics[edit] Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th century in large part due to a revival of Aristotelianism, and as a response to G.E.M. Anscombe's "Modern Moral Philosophy". Anscombe argues that consequentialist and deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards", or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction.[22] Alasdair MacIntyre, who wrote the book After Virtue, was a key contributor and proponent of modern virtue ethics, although some claim that MacIntyre supports a relativistic account of virtue based on cultural norms, not objective standards.[22] Martha Nussbaum, a contemporary virtue ethicist, objects to MacIntyre's relativism, among that of others, and responds to relativist objections to form an objective account in her work "Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach".[23] However, Nussbaum's accusation of relativism appears to be a misreading. In Whose Justice, Whose Rationality?, MacIntyre's ambition of taking a rational path beyond relativism was quite clear when he stated "rival claims made by different traditions […] are to be evaluated […] without relativism" (p. 354) because indeed "rational debate between and rational choice among rival traditions is possible” (p. 352). Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century[24] blended the Eastern virtue ethics and the Western virtue ethics, with some modifications to suit the 21st Century, and formed a part of contemporary virtue ethics.[24] Mortimer J. Adler described Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics as a "unique book in the Western tradition of moral philosophy, the only ethics that is sound, practical, and undogmatic."[25] One major trend in contemporary virtue ethics is the Modern Stoicism movement. Intuitive ethics[edit] Main article: Ethical intuitionism Ethical intuitionism (also called moral intuitionism) is a family of views in moral epistemology (and, on some definitions, metaphysics). At minimum, ethical intuitionism is the thesis that our intuitive awareness of value, or intuitive knowledge of evaluative facts, forms the foundation of our ethical knowledge. The view is at its core a foundationalism about moral knowledge: it is the view that some moral truths can be known non-inferentially (i.e., known without one needing to infer them from other truths one believes). Such an epistemological view implies that there are moral beliefs with propositional contents; so it implies cognitivism. As such, ethical intuitionism is to be contrasted with coherentist approaches to moral epistemology, such as those that depend on reflective equilibrium.[26] Throughout the philosophical literature, the term "ethical intuitionism" is frequently used with significant variation in its sense. This article's focus on foundationalism reflects the core commitments of contemporary self-identified ethical intuitionists.[26][27] Sufficiently broadly defined, ethical intuitionism can be taken to encompass cognitivist forms of moral sense theory.[28] It is usually furthermore taken as essential to ethical intuitionism that there be self-evident or a priori moral knowledge; this counts against considering moral sense theory to be a species of intuitionism. (see the Rational intuition versus moral sense section of this article for further discussion). Ethical intuitionism was first clearly shown in use by the philosopher Francis Hutcheson. Later ethical intuitionists of influence and note include Henry Sidgwick, G.E. Moore, Harold Arthur Prichard, C.S. Lewis and, most influentially, Robert Audi. Objections to ethical intuitionism include whether or not there are objective moral values- an assumption which the ethical system is based upon- the question of why many disagree over ethics if they are absolute, and whether Occam's razor cancels such a theory out entirely. Hedonism[edit] Main article: Hedonism Hedonism posits that the principal ethic is maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating self-gratification regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.[19]:37 Cyrenaic hedonism[edit] Founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, Cyrenaics supported immediate gratification or pleasure. "Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die." Even fleeting desires should be indulged, for fear the opportunity should be forever lost. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit of immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.[19]:37 Epicureanism[edit] Main article: Epicureanism Epicurean ethics is a hedonist form of virtue ethics. Epicurus "...presented a sustained argument that pleasure, correctly understood, will coincide with virtue."[29] He rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. Epicureans observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future. To Epicurus, the summum bonum, or greatest good, was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often makes a person lose a taste for it. Eating too much food at once leads to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. Fear was considered the source of most unhappiness. Conquering the fear of death would naturally lead to a happier life. Epicurus reasoned if there were an afterlife and immortality, the fear of death was irrational. If there was no life after death, then the person would not be alive to suffer, fear, or worry; he would be non-existent in death. It is irrational to fret over circumstances that do not exist, such as one's state of death in the absence of an afterlife.[19]:37–38 State consequentialism[edit] Main article: State consequentialism State consequentialism, also known as Mohist consequentialism,[30] is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the basic goods of a state.[30] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BC, as "a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare".[31] Unlike utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth, and increase in population".[32] During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability.[33] Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in The Cambridge History of Ancient China, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically."[32] The Mohists believed that morality is based on "promoting the benefit of all under heaven and eliminating harm to all under heaven". In contrast to Bentham's views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not hedonistic or individualistic. The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweighs the importance of individual pleasure and pain.[34] Consequentialism[edit] Main article: Consequentialism See also: Ethical egoism Consequentialism refers to moral theories that hold the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action (or create a structure for judgment, see rule consequentialism). Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. This view is often expressed as the aphorism "The ends justify the means". The term "consequentialism" was coined by G.E.M. Anscombe in her essay "Modern Moral Philosophy" in 1958, to describe what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories, such as those propounded by Mill and Sidgwick.[35] Since then, the term has become common in English-language ethical theory. The defining feature of consequentialist moral theories is the weight given to the consequences in evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions.[36] In consequentialist theories, the consequences of an action or rule generally outweigh other considerations. Apart from this basic outline, there is little else that can be unequivocally said about consequentialism as such. However, there are some questions that many consequentialist theories address: What sort of consequences count as good consequences? Who is the primary beneficiary of moral action? How are the consequences judged and who judges them? One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the many types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in an increase and positive effect, and the best action is one that results in that effect for the greatest number. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in material equality or political liberty instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Whether a particular consequentialist theory focuses on a single good or many, conflicts and tensions between different good states of affairs are to be expected and must be adjudicated. Utilitarianism[edit] Main article: Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes a positive effect, such as "happiness", "welfare", or the ability to live according to personal preferences.[37] Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are influential proponents of this school of thought. In A Fragment on Government Bentham says 'it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong' and describes this as a fundamental axiom. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation he talks of 'the principle of utility' but later prefers "the greatest happiness principle".[38][39] Utilitarianism is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that the morally correct action is the one that produces the best outcome for all people affected by the action. John Stuart Mill, in his exposition of utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures.[40] Other noteworthy proponents of utilitarianism are neuroscientist Sam Harris, author of The Moral Landscape, and moral philosopher Peter Singer, author of, amongst other works, Practical Ethics. The major division within utilitarianism is between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. In act utilitarianism, the principle of utility applies directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is the one that brings about the best results (or the least amount of bad results). In rule utilitarianism, the principle of utility determines the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of a world in which people break promises at will and a world in which promises are binding. Right and wrong are the following or breaking of rules that are sanctioned by their utilitarian value.[41] A proposed "middle ground" between these two types is Two-level utilitarianism, where rules are applied in ordinary circumstances, but with an allowance to choose actions outside of such rules when unusual situations call for it. Deontology[edit] Main article: Deontological ethics Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek δέον, deon, "obligation, duty"; and -λογία, -logia) is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining acts, or the rules and duties that the person doing the act strove to fulfill.[42] This is in contrast to consequentialism, in which rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself. Under deontology, an act may be considered right even if it produces a bad consequence,[43] if it follows the rule or moral law. According to the deontological view, people have a duty to act in ways that are deemed inherently good ("truth-telling" for example), or follow an objectively obligatory rule (as in rule utilitarianism). Kantianism[edit] Immanuel Kant Main article: Kantian ethics Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.[44][45] First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty (Pflicht).[46] Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives of the person who carries out the action. Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way one must act purely from duty begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself and good without qualification.[47] Something is "good in itself" when it is intrinsically good, and "good without qualification", when the addition of that thing never makes a situation ethically worse. Kant then argues that those things that are usually thought to be good, such as intelligence, perseverance and pleasure, fail to be either intrinsically good or good without qualification. Pleasure, for example, appears not to be good without qualification, because when people take pleasure in watching someone suffer, this seems to make the situation ethically worse. He concludes that there is only one thing that is truly good: Nothing in the world—indeed nothing even beyond the world—can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification except a good will.[47] Kant then argues that the consequences of an act of willing cannot be used to determine that the person has a good will; good consequences could arise by accident from an action that was motivated by a desire to cause harm to an innocent person, and bad consequences could arise from an action that was well-motivated. Instead, he claims, a person has goodwill when he 'acts out of respect for the moral law'.[47] People 'act out of respect for the moral law' when they act in some way because they have a duty to do so. So, the only thing that is truly good in itself is goodwill, and goodwill is only good when the willer chooses to do something because it is that person's duty, i.e. out of "respect" for the law. He defines respect as "the concept of a worth which thwarts my self-love".[48] Kant's three significant formulations of the categorical imperative are: Act only according to that maxim by which you can also will that it would become a universal law. Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. Every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in a universal kingdom of ends. Kant argued that the only absolutely good thing is a good will, and so the single determining factor of whether an action is morally right is the will, or motive of the person doing it. If they are acting on a bad maxim, e.g. "I will lie", then their action is wrong, even if some good consequences come of it. In his essay, On a Supposed Right to Lie Because of Philanthropic Concerns, arguing against the position of Benjamin Constant, Des réactions politiques, Kant states that "Hence a lie defined merely as an intentionally untruthful declaration to another man does not require the additional condition that it must do harm to another, as jurists require in their definition (mendacium est falsiloquium in praeiudicium alterius). For a lie always harms another; if not some human being, then it nevertheless does harm to humanity in general, inasmuch as it vitiates the very source of right [Rechtsquelle] ... All practical principles of right must contain rigorous truth ... This is because such exceptions would destroy the universality on account of which alone they bear the name of principles."[49] Divine command theory[edit] Main article: Divine command theory Although not all deontologists are religious, some belief in the 'divine command theory', which is actually a cluster of related theories which essentially state that an action is right if God has decreed that it is right.[50] According to Ralph Cudworth, an English philosopher, William of Ockham, René Descartes, and eighteenth-century Calvinists all accepted various versions of this moral theory, as they all held that moral obligations arise from God's commands.[51] The Divine Command Theory is a form of deontology because, according to it, the rightness of any action depends upon that action being performed because it is a duty, not because of any good consequences arising from that action. If God commands people not to work on Sabbath, then people act rightly if they do not work on Sabbath because God has commanded that they do not do so. If they do not work on Sabbath because they are lazy, then their action is not truly speaking "right", even though the actual physical action performed is the same. If God commands not to covet a neighbour's goods, this theory holds that it would be immoral to do so, even if coveting provides the beneficial outcome of a drive to succeed or do well. One thing that clearly distinguishes Kantian deontologism from divine command deontology is that Kantianism maintains that man, as a rational being, makes the moral law universal, whereas divine command maintains that God makes the moral law universal. Discourse ethics[edit] Photograph of Jurgen Habermas, whose theory of discourse ethics was influenced by Kantian ethics Main article: Discourse ethics German philosopher Jürgen Habermas has proposed a theory of discourse ethics that he claims is a descendant of Kantian ethics.[52] He proposes that action should be based on communication between those involved, in which their interests and intentions are discussed so they can be understood by all. Rejecting any form of coercion or manipulation, Habermas believes that agreement between the parties is crucial for a moral decision to be reached.[53] Like Kantian ethics, discourse ethics is a cognitive ethical theory, in that it supposes that truth and falsity can be attributed to ethical propositions. It also formulates a rule by which ethical actions can be determined and proposes that ethical actions should be universalisable, in a similar way to Kant's ethics.[54] Habermas argues that his ethical theory is an improvement on Kant's ethics.[54] He rejects the dualistic framework of Kant's ethics. Kant distinguished between the phenomena world, which can be sensed and experienced by humans, and the noumena, or spiritual world, which is inaccessible to humans. This dichotomy was necessary for Kant because it could explain the autonomy of a human agent: although a human is bound in the phenomenal world, their actions are free in the intelligible world. For Habermas, morality arises from discourse, which is made necessary by their rationality and needs, rather than their freedom.[55] Pragmatic ethics[edit] Main article: Pragmatic ethics Associated with the pragmatists, Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and especially John Dewey, pragmatic ethics holds that moral correctness evolves similarly to scientific knowledge: socially over the course of many lifetimes. Thus, we should prioritize social reform over attempts to account for consequences, individual virtue or duty (although these may be worthwhile attempts, if social reform is provided for).[56] Ethics of care[edit] Main article: Ethics of care Care ethics contrasts with more well-known ethical models, such as consequentialist theories (e.g. utilitarianism) and deontological theories (e.g., Kantian ethics) in that it seeks to incorporate traditionally feminized virtues and values that—proponents of care ethics contend—are absent in such traditional models of ethics. These values include the importance of empathetic relationships and compassion. Care-focused feminism is a branch of feminist thought, informed primarily by ethics of care as developed by Carol Gilligan[57] and Nel Noddings.[58] This body of theory is critical of how caring is socially assigned to women, and consequently devalued. They write, "Care-focused feminists regard women's capacity for care as a human strength," that should be taught to and expected of men as well as women. Noddings proposes that ethical caring has the potential to be a more concrete evaluative model of moral dilemma than an ethic of justice.[59] Noddings’ care-focused feminism requires practical application of relational ethics, predicated on an ethic of care.[60] Role ethics[edit] Main article: Role ethics Role ethics is an ethical theory based on family roles.[61] Unlike virtue ethics, role ethics is not individualistic. Morality is derived from a person's relationship with their community.[62] Confucian ethics is an example of role ethics[61] though this is not straightforwardly uncontested.[63] Confucian roles center around the concept of filial piety or xiao, a respect for family members.[64] According to Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, "Confucian normativity is defined by living one's family roles to maximum effect." Morality is determined through a person's fulfillment of a role, such as that of a parent or a child. Confucian roles are not rational, and originate through the xin, or human emotions.[62] Anarchist ethics[edit] Main article: Anarchism Anarchist ethics is an ethical theory based on the studies of anarchist thinkers. The biggest contributor to the anarchist ethics is the Russian zoologist, geographer, economist, and political activist Peter Kropotkin. Starting from the premise that the goal of ethical philosophy should be to help humans adapt and thrive in evolutionary terms, Kropotkin's ethical framework uses biology and anthropology as a basis – in order to scientifically establish what will best enable a given social order to thrive biologically and socially – and advocates certain behavioural practices to enhance humanity's capacity for freedom and well-being, namely practices which emphasise solidarity, equality, and justice. Kropotkin argues that ethics itself is evolutionary, and is inherited as a sort of a social instinct through cultural history, and by so, he rejects any religious and transcendental explanation of morality. The origin of ethical feeling in both animals and humans can be found, he claims, in the natural fact of "sociality" (mutualistic symbiosis), which humans can then combine with the instinct for justice (i.e. equality) and then with the practice of reason to construct a non-supernatural and anarchistic system of ethics.[65] Kropotkin suggests that the principle of equality at the core of anarchism is the same as the Golden rule: This principle of treating others as one wishes to be treated oneself, what is it but the very same principle as equality, the fundamental principle of anarchism? And how can any one manage to believe himself an anarchist unless he practices it? We do not wish to be ruled. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves wish to rule nobody? We do not wish to be deceived, we wish always to be told nothing but the truth. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves do not wish to deceive anybody, that we promise to always tell the truth, nothing but the truth, the whole truth? We do not wish to have the fruits of our labor stolen from us. And by that very fact, do we not declare that we respect the fruits of others' labor? By what right indeed can we demand that we should be treated in one fashion, reserving it to ourselves to treat others in a fashion entirely different? Our sense of equality revolts at such an idea.[66] Postmodern ethics[edit] Main article: Postmodernism This article or section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The 20th century saw a remarkable expansion and evolution of critical theory, following on earlier Marxist Theory efforts to locate individuals within larger structural frameworks of ideology and action. Antihumanists such as Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault and structuralists such as Roland Barthes challenged the possibilities of individual agency and the coherence of the notion of the 'individual' itself. This was on the basis that personal identity was, in the most part, a social construction. As critical theory developed in the later 20th century, post-structuralism sought to problematize human relationships to knowledge and 'objective' reality. Jacques Derrida argued that access to meaning and the 'real' was always deferred, and sought to demonstrate via recourse to the linguistic realm that "there is no outside-text/non-text" ("il n'y a pas de hors-texte" is often mistranslated as "there is nothing outside the text"); at the same time, Jean Baudrillard theorised that signs and symbols or simulacra mask reality (and eventually the absence of reality itself), particularly in the consumer world. Post-structuralism and postmodernism argue that ethics must study the complex and relational conditions of actions. A simple alignment of ideas of right and particular acts is not possible. There will always be an ethical remainder that cannot be taken into account or often even recognized. Such theorists find narrative (or, following Nietzsche and Foucault, genealogy) to be a helpful tool for understanding ethics because narrative is always about particular lived experiences in all their complexity rather than the assignment of an idea or norm to separate and individual actions. Zygmunt Bauman says postmodernity is best described as modernity without illusion, the illusion being the belief that humanity can be repaired by some ethic principle. Postmodernity can be seen in this light as accepting the messy nature of humanity as unchangeable. In this postmodern world, the means to act collectively and globally to solve large-scale problems have been all but discredited, dismantled or lost. Problems can be handled only locally and each on its own. All problem-handling means building a mini-order at the expense of order elsewhere, and at the cost of rising global disorder as well as depleting the shrinking supplies of resources which make ordering possible. He considers Emmanuel Levinas's ethics as postmodern. Unlike the modern ethical philosophy which leaves the Other on the outside of the self as an ambivalent presence, Levinas's philosophy readmits her as a neighbor and as a crucial character in the process through which the moral self comes into its own.[67] David Couzens Hoy states that Emmanuel Levinas's writings on the face of the Other and Derrida's meditations on the relevance of death to ethics are signs of the "ethical turn" in Continental philosophy that occurred in the 1980s and 1990s. Hoy describes post-critique ethics as the "obligations that present themselves as necessarily to be fulfilled but are neither forced on one or are enforceable" (2004, p. 103). Hoy's post-critique model uses the term ethical resistance. Examples of this would be an individual's resistance to consumerism in a retreat to a simpler but perhaps harder lifestyle, or an individual's resistance to a terminal illness. Hoy describes Levinas's account as "not the attempt to use power against itself, or to mobilize sectors of the population to exert their political power; the ethical resistance is instead the resistance of the powerless"(2004, p. 8). Hoy concludes that The ethical resistance of the powerless others to our capacity to exert power over them is therefore what imposes unenforceable obligations on us. The obligations are unenforceable precisely because of the other's lack of power. That actions are at once obligatory and at the same time unenforceable is what put them in the category of the ethical. Obligations that were enforced would, by the virtue of the force behind them, not be freely undertaken and would not be in the realm of the ethical. (2004, p. 184) Applied ethics[edit] Main article: Applied ethics Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. The discipline has many specialized fields, such as engineering ethics, bioethics, geoethics, public service ethics and business ethics. Specific questions[edit] Applied ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy, as well as by individuals facing difficult decisions. The sort of questions addressed by applied ethics include: "Is getting an abortion immoral?"; "Is euthanasia immoral?"; "Is affirmative action right or wrong?"; "What are human rights, and how do we determine them?"; "Do animals have rights as well?"; and "Do individuals have the right of self-determination?"[14] A more specific question could be: "If someone else can make better out of his/her life than I can, is it then moral to sacrifice myself for them if needed?" Without these questions, there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance law, politics, and the practice of arbitration—in fact, no common assumptions of all participants—so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing. But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example, making ethical judgments regarding questions such as, "Is lying always wrong?" and, "If not, when is it permissible?" is prior to any etiquette. People, in general, are more comfortable with dichotomies (two opposites). However, in ethics, the issues are most often multifaceted and the best-proposed actions address many different areas concurrently. In ethical decisions, the answer is almost never a "yes or no" or a "right or wrong" statement. Many buttons are pushed so that the overall condition is improved and not to the benefit of any particular faction. And it has not only been shown that people consider the character of the moral agent (i.e. a principle implied in virtue ethics), the deed of the action (i.e. a principle implied in deontology), and the consequences of the action (i.e. a principle implied in utilitarianism) when formulating moral judgments, but moreover that the effect of each of these three components depends on the value of each component.[68] Particular fields of application[edit] Bioethics[edit] Main article: Bioethics See also: Islamic bioethics and Jewish medical ethics Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy. It also includes the study of the more commonplace questions of values ("the ethics of the ordinary") that arise in primary care and other branches of medicine. Bioethics also needs to address emerging biotechnologies that affect basic biology and future humans. These developments include cloning, gene therapy, human genetic engineering, astroethics and life in space,[69] and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, RNA and proteins, e.g. "three parent baby, where baby is born from genetically modified embryos, would have DNA from a mother, a father and from a female donor.[70] Correspondingly, new bioethics also need to address life at its core. For example, biotic ethics value organic gene/protein life itself and seek to propagate it.[71] With such life-centered principles, ethics may secure a cosmological future for life.[72] Business ethics[edit] Main article: Business ethics Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment, including fields like medical ethics. Business ethics represents the practices that any individual or group exhibits within an organization that can negatively or positively affect the businesses core values. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. Business ethics has both normative and descriptive dimensions. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflect the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Adam Smith said, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices."[73] Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control.[74] The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.[75][76] Business ethics also relates to unethical activities of interorganizational relationships, such as strategic alliances, buyer-supplier relationships, or joint ventures.[77] Such unethical practices include, for instance, opportunistic behaviors, contract violations, and deceitful practices.[78] Some corporations have tried to burnish their ethical image by creating whistle-blower protections, such as anonymity. In the case of Citi, they call this the Ethics Hotline.[79] Though it is unclear whether firms such as Citi take offences reported to these hotlines seriously or not. Machine ethics[edit] Main article: Machine ethics In Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong, Wendell Wallach and Colin Allen conclude that issues in machine ethics will likely drive advancement in understanding of human ethics by forcing us to address gaps in modern normative theory and by providing a platform for experimental investigation.[80] The effort to actually program a machine or artificial agent to behave as though instilled with a sense of ethics requires new specificity in our normative theories, especially regarding aspects customarily considered common-sense. For example, machines, unlike humans, can support a wide selection of learning algorithms, and controversy has arisen over the relative ethical merits of these options. This may reopen classic debates of normative ethics framed in new (highly technical) terms. Military ethics[edit] See also: Geneva Conventions and Nuremberg Principles Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and the ethos of the soldier and are often understood as applied professional ethics.[81] Just war theory is generally seen to set the background terms of military ethics. However individual countries and traditions have different fields of attention.[82] Military ethics involves multiple subareas, including the following among others: what, if any, should be the laws of war. justification for the initiation of military force. decisions about who may be targeted in warfare. decisions on choice of weaponry, and what collateral effects such weaponry may have. standards for handling military prisoners. methods of dealing with violations of the laws of war. Political ethics[edit] Main article: Political ethics Political ethics (also known as political morality or public ethics) is the practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents.[83] Public sector ethics[edit] Main article: Public sector ethics Public sector ethics is a set of principles that guide public officials in their service to their constituents, including their decision-making on behalf of their constituents. Fundamental to the concept of public sector ethics is the notion that decisions and actions are based on what best serves the public's interests, as opposed to the official's personal interests (including financial interests) or self-serving political interests.[84] Publication ethics[edit] Publication ethics is the set of principles that guide the writing and publishing process for all professional publications. To follow these principles, authors must verify that the publication does not contain plagiarism or publication bias.[85] As a way to avoid misconduct in research these principles can also apply to experiments that are referenced or analyzed in publications by ensuring the data is recorded honestly and accurately.[86] Plagiarism is the failure to give credit to another author's work or ideas, when it is used in the publication.[87] It is the obligation of the editor of the journal to ensure the article does not contain any plagiarism before it is published.[88] If a publication that has already been published is proven to contain plagiarism, the editor of the journal can retract the article.[89] Publication bias occurs when the publication is one-sided or "prejudiced against results".[90] In best practice, an author should try to include information from all parties involved, or affected by the topic. If an author is prejudiced against certain results, than it can "lead to erroneous conclusions being drawn".[91] Misconduct in research can occur when an experimenter falsifies results.[92] Falsely recorded information occurs when the researcher "fakes" information or data, which was not used when conducting the actual experiment.[92] By faking the data, the researcher can alter the results from the experiment to better fit the hypothesis they originally predicted. When conducting medical research, it is important to honor the healthcare rights of a patient by protecting their anonymity in the publication.[85] Respect for autonomy is the principle that decision-making should allow individuals to be autonomous; they should be able to make decisions that apply to their own lives. This means that individuals should have control of their lives. Justice is the principle that decision-makers must focus on actions that are fair to those affected. Ethical decisions need to be consistent with the ethical theory. There are cases where the management has made decisions that seem to be unfair to the employees, shareholders, and other stakeholders (Solomon, 1992, pp49). Such decisions are unethical. Relational ethics[edit] Relational ethics are related to an ethics of care.[57]:62–63 They are used in qualitative research, especially ethnography and autoethnography. Researchers who employ relational ethics value and respect the connection between themselves and the people they study, and "...between researchers and the communities in which they live and work." (Ellis, 2007, p. 4).[93] Relational ethics also help researchers understand difficult issues such as conducting research on intimate others that have died and developing friendships with their participants.[94][95] Relational ethics in close personal relationships form a central concept of contextual therapy. Ethics of nanotechnologies[edit] Main article: Ethics of nanotechnologies Ethics of nanotechnology is the study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in nanotechnology. Ethics of quantification[edit] Main article: Ethics of quantification Ethics of quantification is the study of the ethical issues associated to different forms of visible or invisible forms of quantification. Animal ethics[edit] Main article: Animal ethics Animal ethics is a term used in academia to describe human-animal relationships and how animals ought to be treated. The subject matter includes animal rights, animal welfare, animal law, speciesism, animal cognition, wildlife conservation, the moral status of nonhuman animals, the concept of nonhuman personhood, human exceptionalism, the history of animal use, and theories of justice. Ethics of technology[edit] Main article: Ethics of technology Ethics of technology is a sub-field of ethics addressing the ethical questions specific to the Technology Age. Some prominent works of philosopher Hans Jonas are devoted to ethics of technology. The subject has also been explored, following the work of Mario Bunge, under the term technoethics. Moral psychology[edit] Main article: Moral psychology Moral psychology is a field of study that began as an issue in philosophy and that is now properly considered part of the discipline of psychology. Some use the term "moral psychology" relatively narrowly to refer to the study of moral development.[96] However, others tend to use the term more broadly to include any topics at the intersection of ethics and psychology (and philosophy of mind).[97] Such topics are ones that involve the mind and are relevant to moral issues. Some of the main topics of the field are moral responsibility, moral development, moral character (especially as related to virtue ethics), altruism, psychological egoism, moral luck, and moral disagreement.[98] Evolutionary ethics[edit] Main article: Evolutionary ethics See also: Evolution of morality Evolutionary ethics concerns approaches to ethics (morality) based on the role of evolution in shaping human psychology and behavior. Such approaches may be based in scientific fields such as evolutionary psychology or sociobiology, with a focus on understanding and explaining observed ethical preferences and choices.[99] Descriptive ethics[edit] Main article: Descriptive ethics Descriptive ethics is on the less philosophical end of the spectrum since it seeks to gather particular information about how people live and draw general conclusions based on observed patterns. Abstract and theoretical questions that are more clearly philosophical—such as, "Is ethical knowledge possible?"—are not central to descriptive ethics. Descriptive ethics offers a value-free approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science rather than a humanity. Its examination of ethics doesn't start with a preconceived theory but rather investigates observations of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. Some philosophers rely on descriptive ethics and choices made and unchallenged by a society or culture to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This can lead to situational ethics and situated ethics. These philosophers often view aesthetics, etiquette, and arbitration as more fundamental, percolating "bottom up" to imply the existence of, rather than explicitly prescribe, theories of value or of conduct. The study of descriptive ethics may include examinations of the following: Ethical codes applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics—and a personal moral core developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices. Informal theories of etiquette that tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e., where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One notable advocate of this view is Judith Martin ("Miss Manners"). According to this view, ethics is more a summary of common sense social decisions. Practices in arbitration and law, e.g., the claim that ethics itself is a matter of balancing "right versus right", i.e., putting priorities on two things that are both right, but that must be traded off carefully in each situation. Observed choices made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who vote, buy, and decide what is worth valuing. This is a major concern of sociology, political science, and economics.[100] See also[edit] Morality Integrity Applied ethics Axiological ethics Contemporary ethics Corporate social responsibility Declaration of Geneva Declaration of Helsinki Deductive reasoning Dharma Effective altruism Environmental ethics Ethical movement Ethics in religion Ethics paper Humanism Index of ethics articles—alphabetical list of ethics-related articles Neuroethics Outline of ethics—list of ethics-related articles, arranged by sub-topic Practical philosophy Science of morality Secular ethics Sexual ethics Theory of justification Trail ethics Notes[edit] ^ Verst, Ludger; Kampmann, Susanne; Eilers, Franz-Josef (July 27, 2015). Die Literaturrundschau. Communicatio Socialis. OCLC 914511982. ^ a b c Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Ethics" ^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary: Entry on Axiology. ^ An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. 1889. ^ Kidder, Rushworth (2003). How Good People Make Tough Choices: Resolving the Dilemmas of Ethical Living. New York: Harper Collins. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-688-17590-0. ^ Paul, Richard; Elder, Linda (2006). The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning. United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. p. NP. ISBN 978-0-944583-17-3. ^ John Deigh in Robert Audi (ed), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 1995. ^ Paul, Richard; Elder, Linda (2006). The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning. United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. p. np. ISBN 978-0-944583-17-3. ^ "Definition of ethic by Merriam Webster". Merriam Webster. Retrieved October 4, 2015. ^ Williams, Bernard. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. p. 2. ^ Williams, Bernard. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. p. 1. ^ "Are We Professionals? A Critical Look at the Social Role of Bioethicists". Daedalus. 1999. pp. 253–274. ^ David Tanguay (January 24, 2014). "Buddha and Socrates share Common ground". Soul of Wit. Archived from the original on July 22, 2014. Retrieved July 22, 2014. ^ a b c "What is ethics?". BBC. Archived from the original on October 28, 2013. Retrieved July 22, 2014. ^ "Non-Cognitivism in Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". ^ Miller, C (2009). "The Conditions of Moral Realism". The Journal of Philosophical Research. 34: 123–155. doi:10.5840/jpr_2009_5. ^ Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2019), "Moral Skepticism", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved July 28, 2020 ^ Cavalier, Robert. "Meta-ethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics". Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014. ^ a b c d e William S. Sahakian; Mabel Lewis Sahakian (1966). Ideas of the Great Philosophers. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-1-56619-271-2. ^ Velusamy, N.; Faraday, Moses Michael, eds. (February 2017). Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India?. Unique Media Integrators. p. 55. ISBN 978-93-85471-70-4. ^ a b N. Sanjeevi (1973). First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers (2nd ed.). Chennai: University of Madras. p. xxiii–xxvii. ^ a b Professor Michiel S.S. De De Vries; Professor Pan Suk Kim (2011). Value and Virtue in Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-230-35709-9. ^ Nussbaum, Martha (1987). Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach. ^ a b John Newton, Ph.D., Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century (2000). ISBN 0-9673705-7-4. ^ Adler 1985, p. 194. ^ a b Shafer-Landau & Cuneo (2012), p. 385 ^ Stratton-Lake (2014) http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intuitionism-ethics/ ^ Stratton-Lake (2013), p. 337 ^ Ancient Ethical Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b Ivanhoe, P. J.; Van Norden, Bryan William (2005). Readings in classical Chinese philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-87220-780-6. he advocated a form of state consequentialism, which sought to maximize three basic goods: the wealth, order, and population of the state ^ Fraser, Chris, "Mohism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta. ^ a b Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge University Press. p. 761. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. ^ Van Norden, Bryan W. (2011). Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-60384-468-0. ^ Jay L. Garfield; William Edelglass (2011). The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-532899-8. The goods that serve as criteria of morality are collective or public, in contrast, for instance, to individual happiness or well-being ^ Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958). "Modern Moral Philosophy". Philosophy. 33 (124): 1–19. doi:10.1017/S0031819100037943. ^ Mackie, J. L. (1990) [1977]. Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-013558-9. ^ Baqgini, Julian; Fosl, Peter S. (2007). The Ethics Toolkit: A Compendium of Ethical Concepts and Methods. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-1-4051-3230-5. ^ Bentham, Jeremy (2001). The Works of Jeremy Bentham: Published under the Superintendence of His Executor, John Bowring. Volume 1. Adamant Media Corporation. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4021-6393-7. ^ Mill, John Stuart, Utilitarianism (Project Gutenberg online edition) ^ Mill, John Stuart (1998). Utilitarianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875163-2. ^ "Utilitarian Theories". Department of Philosophy, Carnegie Mellon University. 1996. Retrieved July 28, 2017. ^ Stanford.edu ^ Olson, Robert G. 1967. 'Deontological Ethics'. In Paul Edwards (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Collier Macmillan: 343. ^ Orend, Brian. 2000. War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective. West Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press: 19. ^ Kelly, Eugene. 2006. The Basics of Western Philosophy. Greenwood Press: 160. ^ Kant, Immanuel (1889). The Metaphysical Elements of Ethics. Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott. Longmans, Green & Co. Archived from the original on October 14, 2016. Preface and Introduction to Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre, 1797. Abbott's deontology translates Kant's Pflichtenlehre. ^ a b c Kant, Immanuel. 1785. 'First Section: Transition from the Common Rational Knowledge of Morals to the Philosophical', Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. ^ Kant, Immanuel (1785). Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (ed.). Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals (10 ed.). Project Gutenberg. p. 23. ^ "Über ein vermeintes Recht aus Menschenliebe zu lügen", Berlinische Blätter 1 (1797), 301-314; edited in: Werke in zwölf Bänden, vol. 8, Frankfurt am Main (1977), zeno.org/nid/20009192123. ^ Wierenga, Edward. 1983. "A Defensible Divine Command Theory". Noûs, Vol. 17, No. 3: 387–407. ^ Cudworth, Ralph. 1731. A Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality. Reprinted in 1996. Sarah Hutton (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ Payrow Shabani 2003, p. 53 ^ Collin 2007, p. 78 ^ a b Payrow Shabani 2003, p. 54 ^ Payrow Shabani 2003, pp. 55–56 ^ Lafollette, Hugh, ed. (2000). The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory. Blackwell Philosophy Guides (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20119-9. ^ a b Carol Gilligan (2009). In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03761-8. ^ Tong, Rosemarie; Williams, Nancy (May 4, 2009). "Feminist Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab. Retrieved January 6, 2017. ^ Noddings, Nel: Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, pp. 3–4. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984. ^ Noddings, Nel: Women and Evil, p. 222. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1989. ^ a b Roger T. Ames (2011). Confucian Role Ethics: A Vocabulary. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3576-7. ^ a b Chris Fraser; Dan Robins; Timothy O'Leary (2011). Ethics in Early China: An Anthology. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 17–35. ISBN 978-988-8028-93-1. ^ Sim, May, 2015, "Why Confucius' Ethics is a Virtue Ethics", in Besser-Jones and Slote (2015), pp. 63–76 ^ Wonsuk Chang; Leah Kalmanson (2010). Confucianism in Context: Classic Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond. SUNY Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4384-3191-8. ^ "Ethics: Origin and Development" by Pëtr Kropotkin ^ "Anarchist morality", chapter VI, Pëtr Kropotkin ^ Bauman, Zygmunt (1993). Postmodern Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 84, 245. ^ Dubljević, Veljko; Sattler, Sebastian; Racine, Eric (2018). "Deciphering moral intuition: How agents, deeds, and consequences influence moral judgment". PLOS One. 13 (10): e0206750. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1304631D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204631. PMC 6166963. PMID 30273370. ^ "Astroethics". Archived from the original on October 23, 2013. Retrieved December 21, 2005. ^ Freemont, P. F.; Kitney, R. I. (2012). Synthetic Biology. New Jersey: World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-84816-862-6. ^ Mautner, Michael N. (2009). "Life-centered ethics, and the human future in space" (PDF). Bioethics. 23 (8): 433–440. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00688.x. PMID 19077128. S2CID 25203457. ^ Mautner, Michael N. (2000). Seeding the Universe with Life: Securing Our Cosmological Future (PDF). Washington, DC. ISBN 978-0-476-00330-9. ^ Smith, A (1776/1952). An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, p. 55. ^ Berle, A.A., & Means, G.C. (1932). The Modern Corporation and Private Property. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. In this book, Berle and Means observe, "Corporations have ceased to be merely legal devices through which the private business transactions of individuals may be carried on. Though still much used for this purpose, the corporate form has acquired a much larger significance. The corporation has, in fact, become both a method of property tenure and a means of organizing economic life. Grown to tremendous proportions, there may be said to have evolved a 'corporate system'—as there once was a feudal system—which has attracted to itself a combination of attributes and powers, and has attained a degree of prominence entitling it to be dealt with as a major social institution. ... We are examining this institution probably before it has attained its zenith. Spectacular as its rise has been, every indication seems to be that the system will move forward to proportions which stagger imagination today ... They [management] have placed the community in a position to demand that the modern corporation serve not only the owners ... but all society." p. 1. ^ Jones, C.; Parker, M.; et al. (2005). For Business Ethics: A Critical Text. London: Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-31135-9. ^ Ferrell, O. C. (2015). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. ISBN 978-1-305-50084-6. ^ Oliveira, Nuno; Lumineau, Fabrice (2019). "The Dark Side of Interorganizational Relationships: An Integrative Review and Research Agenda". Journal of Management. 45 (1): 231–261. doi:10.1177/0149206318804027. ISSN 0149-2063. ^ Carter, Craig R. (2000). "Precursors of Unethical Behavior in Global Supplier Management". Journal of Supply Chain Management. 36 (4): 45–56. doi:10.1111/j.1745-493X.2000.tb00069.x. ISSN 1745-493X. ^ "Citi | Investor Relations | Ethics Hotline". www.citigroup.com. Retrieved June 15, 2020. ^ Wallach, Wendell; Allen, Colin (2008). Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537404-9. ^ Cook, Martin L.; Syse, Henrik (2010). "What Should We Mean by 'Military Ethics'?". Journal of Military Ethics. 9 (2). p. 122. ^ Goffi, Emmanuel (2011). Les Armée Françaises Face à la Morale [The French Army Facing Morale] (in French). France: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-296-54249-5. ^ Thompson, Dennis F. "Political Ethics". International Encyclopedia of Ethics, ed. Hugh LaFollette (Blackwell Publishing, 2012). ^ See, for example, work of Institute for Local Government, at www.ca-ilg.org/trust. ^ a b Morton, Neil (October 2009). "Publication ethics" (PDF). Pediatric Anesthesia. 19 (10): 1011–1013. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9592.2009.03086.x. PMID 19619189. S2CID 45641680. ^ Wager, E.; Fiack, S.; Graf, C.; Robinson, A.; Rowlands, I. (March 31, 2009). "Science journal editors' views on publication ethics: results of an international survey". Journal of Medical Ethics. 35 (6): 348–353. doi:10.1136/jme.2008.028324. PMID 19482976. ^ Scollon, Ron (June 1999). "Plagiarism". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 9 (1–2): 188–190. doi:10.1525/jlin.1999.9.1-2.188. JSTOR 43102462. S2CID 214832669. ^ Wager, Elizabeth; Williams, Peter (September 2011). "Why and how do journals retract articles? An analysis of Medline retractions 1988—2008". Journal of Medical Ethics. 37 (9): 567–570. doi:10.1136/jme.2010.040964. JSTOR 23034717. PMID 21486985. ^ Sanjeev, Handa (2008). "Plagiarism and publication ethics: Dos and don'ts". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 74 (4): 301–303. doi:10.4103/0378-6323.42882. PMID 18797047. ^ Sigelman, Lee (2000). "Publication Bias Reconsidered". Political Analysis. 8 (2): 201–210. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029813. JSTOR 25791607. ^ Peters, Jamie L.; Sutton, Alex J.; Jones, David R.; Abrams, Keith R.; Rushton, Lesley; Moreno, Santiago G. (July 2010). "Assessing publication bias in meta-analysis in the presence of between-study heterogeneity". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society). 173 (3): 575–591. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985x.2009.00629.x. ^ a b Smith, Richard (July 26, 1997). "Misconduct in Research: Editors Respond: The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) Is Formed". British Medical Journal. 315 (7102): 201–202. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7102.201. JSTOR 25175246. PMC 2127155. PMID 9253258. ^ Ellis, C (2007). "Telling secrets, revealing lives: Relational ethics in research with intimate others". Qualitative Inquiry. 13: 3–29. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.574.7450. doi:10.1177/1077800406294947. S2CID 143995976. ^ Ellis, C. (1986). Fisher folk. Two communities on Chesapeake Bay. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. ^ Ellis, C. (1995).Final negotiations: A story of love, loss, and chronic illness. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ^ See, for example, Lapsley (2006) and "moral psychology" (2007). ^ See, for example, Doris & Stich (2008) and Wallace (2007). Wallace writes: "Moral psychology is the study of morality in its psychological dimensions" (p. 86). ^ See Doris & Stich (2008), §1. ^ Doris Schroeder. "Evolutionary Ethics". Archived from the original on October 7, 2013. Retrieved January 5, 2010. ^ Hary Gunarto, Ethical Issues in Cyberspace and IT Society, Symposium on Whither The Age of Uncertainty, APU Univ., paper, Jan. 2003 References[edit] Hoy, D. (2005). Critical Resistance from Poststructuralism to Postcritique. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Lyon, D. (1999). Postmodernity (2nd ed.). Open University Press, Buckingham. Singer, P. (2000). Writings on an Ethical Life. Harper Collins Publishers, London. Further reading[edit] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Ethics Encyclopedia of Ethics. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, peer-reviewed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, Western philosophy. Azurmendi, J. 1998: "The violence and the search for new values" in Euskal Herria krisian, (Elkar, 1999), pp. 11–116. ISBN 84-8331-572-6 Blackburn, S. (2001). Being good: A short introduction to ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. De Finance, Joseph, An Ethical Inquiry, Rome, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1991. De La Torre, Miguel A., "Doing Christian Ethics from the Margins", Orbis Books, 2004. Derrida, J. 1995, The Gift of Death, translated by David Wills, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Fagothey, Austin, Right and Reason, Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000. Levinas, E. 1969, Totality and infinity, an essay on exteriority, translated by Alphonso Lingis, Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh. Perle, Stephen (March 11, 2004). "Morality and Ethics: An Introduction". Retrieved February 13, 2007., Butchvarov, Panayot. Skepticism in Ethics (1989). Jadranka Skorin-Kapov, The Intertwining of Aesthetics and Ethics: Exceeding of Expectations, Ecstasy, Sublimity. Lexington Books, 2016. ISBN 978-1-4985-2456-8 Solomon, R.C., Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984. Vendemiati, Aldo, In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics, Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004. John Paul II, Encyclical Letter Veritatis Splendor, August 6, 1993. D'Urance, Michel, Jalons pour une éthique rebelle, Aléthéia, Paris, 2005. John Newton, Ph.D. Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. ISBN 0-9673705-7-4. Guy Cools & Pascal Gielen, The Ethics of Art. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2014. Lafollette, Hugh [ed.]: Ethics in Practice: An Anthology. Wiley Blackwell, 4th edition, Oxford 2014. ISBN 978-0-470-67183-2 An entire issue of Pacific Island Studies devoted to studying "Constructing Moral Communities" in Pacific islands, 2002, vol. 25: Link[permanent dead link] Paul R. Ehrlich (May 2016), Conference on population, environment, ethics: where we stand now (video, 93 min), University of Lausanne Adler, Mortimer (1985). Ten Philosophical Mistakes: Basic Errors In Modern Thought - How they came about, their consequences, and how to avoid them. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-500330-5. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-8564	----	Encomium - Wikipedia Encomium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Latin word meaning "the praise of a person or thing" For the Led Zeppelin tribute album released in 1995, see Encomium (album). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Encomium" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Encomium is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek enkomion (ἐγκώμιον), meaning "the praise of a person or thing."[1] Another Latin equivalent is laudatio, a speech in praise of someone or something. Encomium also refers to several distinct aspects of rhetoric: A general category of oratory A method within rhetorical pedagogy A figure of speech praising a person or thing, but occurring on a smaller scale than an entire speech The eighth exercise in the progymnasmata series A literary genre that included five elements: prologue, birth and upbringing, acts of the person's life, comparisons used to praise the subject, and an epilogue[citation needed] The basilikos logos (imperial encomium), a formal genre in the Byzantine empire Examples[edit] Gorgias' famous Encomium of Helen offers several justifications for excusing Helen of Troy's adultery In Erasmus' In Praise of Folly, Folly composes an encomium to herself De Pippini regis Victoria Avarica is a medieval encomium of the victory of Pepin of Italy over the Avars Encomium Emmae Reginae is a medieval encomium of Queen Emma of Normandy Laudes Mediolanensis civitatis or Versum de Mediolano civitate is a medieval encomium of Milan Versus de Verona is a medieval encomium of Verona Polychronion is chanted in the liturgy of Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite Paul the Apostle uses a kind of encomium in his praise of love, in 1 Corinthians 13; the prologue is verses 1–3, acts are v. 4–7, comparison is v. 8–12, and epilogue is 13:13–14:1.[2] References[edit] ^ ἐγκώμιον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ David E. Garland, Baker Exegetical Commentary, 1 Corinthians, 606, based on the work of Sigountos. External links[edit] The dictionary definition of encomium at Wiktionary Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encomium&oldid=965228922" Categories: Public speaking Rhetorical techniques Evaluation Latin words and phrases Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from March 2011 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 June 2020, at 04:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8577	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Ancient=== {{Refbegin}} * Aristides, Aelius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Trapp, Michael B. ''Orations. 1: Orationes 1–2''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2017. {{ISBN|978-0674996465}}. * Victor, Aurelius. ''De Caesaribus'' (in Latin). :Bird, H.W. ''De Caesaribus''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0853232186}}. * Dio, Cassius. ''Roman History'' (in Greek). :Cary, Earnest, trans. ''Roman History''. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. {{OCLC|500523615}}. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html LacusCurtius]. * ''Digest'' (in Latin). :Scott, S.P., trans. ''The Digest or Pandects'' in ''The Civil Law''. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. {{OCLC|23759480}}. Online at the [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm Constitution Society]. * [[Epiphanius of Salamis]]. ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'' (in Latin). :Dean, James Elmer, ed. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FnMlnQEACAAJ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures – The Syriac Version]''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. {{OCLC|123314338}}. * Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends'' (in Latin). :Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends''. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. {{OCLC|476921438}}. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00auregoog 1], [https://archive.org/details/correspondencem00frongoog 2]. * Gellius, Aulus. ''Noctes Atticae'' (''Attic Nights''). :Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. {{OCLC|59229750}} (Vol. 1), {{OCLC|1072405870}} (Vol. 2), {{OCLC|1021363430}} (Vol. 3). Vols. 1 and 2 online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/home.html LacusCurtius]. * Herodian. ''Ab Excessu Divi Marci'' (''History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius'', in Latin). :Echols, Edward C., trans. ''Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire: From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. {{OCLC|463202486}}. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_00_intro.htm Tertullian] and [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodian-s-roman-history/ Livius]. * Lucian. :Fowler, F.G.; Fowler, H.W., trans. ''The works of Lucian of Samosata''. Oxford: Clarendon P., 1949. {{OCLC|503242210}}. :''Alexander'' (in Latin). Translation online at [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm Tertullian]. :Translations (from Latin) of [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl210.htm ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' (''The Way to Write History'')], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl303.htm ''Imagines'' (''A Portrait–Study'')], and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl3/wl304.htm ''Pro Imaginibus'' (''Defence of the 'Portrait–Study{{'}}'')] online at Sacred Texts, based on the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585 Gutenberg] e-text. * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ''Meditations''. :Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. ''Meditations''. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. {{OCLC|897495952}}. * ''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'' (Authors of the Historia Augusta). ''Historia Augusta'' (''Augustan History''). :Magie, David, trans. ''Historia Augusta''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html LacusCurtius]. :Magie, David; Birley, Anthony R. ''Lives of the later Caesars''. London: The Folio Society, 2005. {{ISBN|0141935995}}. * Themistius. ''Orationes'' (in Latin). :Penella, Robert J. ''The private orations of Themistius''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0520218215}}. {{Refend}} Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-857	----	Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire - Wikipedia Help Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Augurs of the Roman Empire. Pages in category "Augurs of the Roman Empire" The following 36 pages are in this category, out of 36 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Manius Aemilius Lepidus (consul 11) Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus C Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso Lucius Calpurnius Piso (consul 1 BC) Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther D Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus Domitian F Titus Flavius Postumius Titianus Frontinus J Gnaeus Julius Verus Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 25 BC) M Marcus Macrinius Avitus Catonius Vindex Gaius Marcius Censorinus (consul 8 BC) Lucius Marcius Memor Marcus Aurelius Marcus Metilius Aquillius Regulus Lucius Minicius Natalis Quadronius Verus Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus N Lucius Nonius Asprenas (consul 29) Lucius Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas O Gaius Octavius Appius Suetrius Sabinus P Aulus Platorius Nepos Pliny the Younger Titus Flavius Postumius Varus Vettius Agorius Praetextatus Titus Prifernius Paetus Rosianus Geminus Q Gaius Quinctius Certus Poblicius Marcellus S Lucius Sempronius Atratinus (consul 34 BC) T Publius Tullius Varro V Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus Lucius Venuleius Apronianus Octavius Priscus Quintus Veranius Lucius Volusius Saturninus (Augur) Lucius Volusius Saturninus (consul 3) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Augurs_of_the_Roman_Empire&oldid=823325744" Categories: Roman augurs Priests of the Roman Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 31 January 2018, at 16:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8600	----	Domitian - Wikipedia Domitian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 81 to 96 For other people named Domitian, see Domitian (disambiguation). Roman emperor Domitian Bust in the Louvre, Paris Roman emperor Reign 14 September 81 – 18 September 96 Predecessor Titus Successor Nerva Born 24 October 51 Rome, Italy, Roman Empire Died 18 September 96(96-09-18) (aged 44) Rome, Italy Burial Rome Spouse Domitia Longina (70–96) Issue Flavius Caesar[1] Flavia[2][a] Names Titus Flavius Domitianus (birth) Caesar Domitianus (69–81)[4] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus Dynasty Flavian Father Vespasian Mother Domitilla Domitian (/dəˈmɪʃən, -iən/; Latin: Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96. He was the son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, and the last member of the Flavian dynasty. During his reign, the authoritarian nature of his rule put him at sharp odds with the Senate, whose powers he drastically curtailed. Domitian had a minor and largely ceremonial role during the reigns of his father and brother. After the death of his brother, Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard. His 15-year reign was the longest since that of Tiberius.[5] As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the empire, and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome. Significant wars were fought in Britain, where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia (Scotland), and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus. Domitian's government exhibited strong authoritarian characteristics. Religious, military, and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality, and by nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and army, but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate. Domitian's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials. He was succeeded the same day by his advisor Nerva. After his death, Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Senate, while senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius propagated the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern revisionists instead have characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural, economic, and political programs provided the foundation of the peaceful second century. Contents 1 Family and background 1.1 Youth and character 2 Rise of the Flavian dynasty 2.1 Year of the Four Emperors 2.2 Aftermath of the war 2.3 Marriage 2.4 Ceremonial heir (71–81) 3 Emperor (81–96) 3.1 Rule 3.1.1 Palaces, villas, and other major buildings 3.2 Economy 3.3 Military campaigns 3.3.1 Campaign against the Chatti 3.3.2 Conquest of Britain (77–84) 3.3.3 Dacian wars (85–88) 3.4 Religious policy 3.5 Opposition 3.5.1 Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89) 3.5.2 Relationship with the Senate 4 Death and succession 4.1 Assassination 4.2 Succession and aftermath 5 Family tree 6 Legacy 6.1 Ancient sources 6.2 Modern revisionism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 10.1 Primary sources 11 External links Family and background[edit] The Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of Titus Flavius Petro and Tertulla. Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Major.[6] He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus.[7] Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century.[8] One such family, the Flavians, or gens Flavia, rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[6] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather.[9] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank.[9] A denarius of Domitian. Caption: CAES. DOMIT. AVG. GERM. P. M., TR. P. XIIII. A sestertius of Domitian. Caption: IMP. CAES. DOMIT. AVG. GERM. CO[N]S. IV, CENS. PERP. P. / IOVI VICTORI. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, and culminated in a consulship in 51, the year of Domitian's birth. As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[10] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,[11] even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).[12] Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.[13] By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa Province in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66.[14] That same year Jews from the Province of Judaea revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the First Jewish-Roman War. Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time—in charge of a legion.[15] Youth and character[edit] A bust of Vespasian (Pushkin Museum). Of the three Flavian emperors, Domitian would rule the longest, despite the fact that his youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his older brother. Titus had gained military renown during the First Jewish–Roman War. After their father Vespasian became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus held a great many offices, while Domitian received honours, but no responsibilities. By the time he was 16 years old, Domitian's mother and sister had long since died,[16] while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. During the Jewish–Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.[17][18] He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature. In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions,[19][20] and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation.[21] Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration.[17] Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court. Whether he received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow.[22][23] A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality: He was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour. His eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim. He was handsome and graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped. In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness, a protruding belly, and spindling legs, though the latter had become thin from a long illness.[24] Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.[25] According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care.[26] With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.[27] Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.[27] Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour,[28][29] and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.[17] Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power.[30] Rise of the Flavian dynasty[edit] Year of the Four Emperors[edit] The Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. Green areas indicate provinces loyal to Vitellius. On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power.[31] News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[31] Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[32] Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.[15] Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.[33] When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[34] Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.[34] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.[35] A bust of Emperor Vitellius (Louvre). In Rome, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression.[30] Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69, the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian (under Marcus Antonius Primus) met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.[36] In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.[37] On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.[38] During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus.[38] By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.[38] The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.[39] Aftermath of the war[edit] The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (detail), by Rembrandt (1661). During the Batavian rebellion, Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers. Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year.[38] In the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. He received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power.[40] The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions.[41] Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function.[40] Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them with more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens.[40] Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul. Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions, led by Gaius Julius Civilis, had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law Quintus Petillius Cerialis.[22] Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome.[42] When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.[22] Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed.[22] With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature.[43] Marriage[edit] A bust of Domitia Longina, with Flavian hairstyle, (Louvre). Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful. In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia,[44] but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.[44] Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia. Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. She was also a granddaughter of Junia Lepida, a descendant of Emperor Augustus. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Instead, connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated.[45] In 80, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born. It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood in 83.[46] Shortly following his accession as Emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia, while their son was deified, appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period.[47] Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83. For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly exiled Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia.[48] Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir.[46] By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace,[49] where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident.[50] Little is known of Domitia's activities as Empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited. From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre, while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her.[51] It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy.[52] Ceremonial heir (71–81)[edit] The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885), depicting the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71. Vespasian proceeds at the head of the family, dressed as pontifex maximus, followed by Domitian with Domitia Longina, and finally Titus, also dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated.[46] Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.[53] Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish.[54][55] The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved.[56] For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war.[57] The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives.[58] Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[57] A triumphal arch, the Arch of Titus, was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war.[59] Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command of the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire.[60] As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of augur, pontifex, frater arvalis, magister frater arvalium, and sacerdos collegiorum omnium,[61] but no office with imperium. He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship. The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January.[60] While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance.[61] Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.[62] Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy.[63] Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 24 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign.[64] Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. In October/November 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted,[65] burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings.[66] Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories.[64] Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,[67] or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead,[58][68] even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother.[68] It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.[64] Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor. The following day, 14 September, the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of Pontifex Maximus, and the titles of Augustus ("venerable"), and Pater Patriae ("father of the country").[69] Emperor (81–96)[edit] Rule[edit] Roman imperial dynasties Flavian dynasty Chronology Vespasian 69–79 AD Titus 79–81 AD Domitian 81–96 AD Family Gens Flavia Flavian tree Category:Flavian dynasty Succession Preceded by Year of the Four Emperors Followed by Nerva–Antonine dynasty As Emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.[70] By moving the centre of government (more or less formally) to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. In his view, the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head. In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority.[71] To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus.[72] Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.[73] According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials.[74][75] Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favored family members, a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus.[76] Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.[77] The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.[78] Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was.[70] Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.[79] Palaces, villas, and other major buildings[edit] "Gate of Domitian and Trajan" at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor, and Domitian as Pharaoh on the same gate, in Dendera, Egypt.[80][81] For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including the Villa of Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20 km outside Rome in the Alban Hills. In Rome itself, he built the Palace of Domitian on the Palatine Hill. Six other villas are linked with Domitian at Tusculum, Antium, Caieta, Circei, Anxur[82] and Baiae.[83] Only the one at Circei has been identified today, where its remains can be visited by the Lago di Paola. The Stadium of Domitian was dedicated in 86 AD as a gift to the people of Rome as part of an Imperial building program, following the damage or destruction of most of the buildings on the Field of Mars by fire in 79 AD. It was Rome's first permanent venue for competitive athletics, and today occupied by the Piazza Navona. In Egypt too, Domitian was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them. He appears, together with Trajan, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna.[84][85] Economy[edit] Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. This coin commemorates the deification of Domitian's son. Caption: IMP. CAES. DOMITIANVS AVG. P. M. / DIVUS CAESAR MP. DOMITIANI F. A silver tetradrachm of Domitian from the Antioch Mint in Syria. c 91-92 AD. Obverse: Laureate bust of Emperor Domitian facing right, Classical Medusa at the nick of Domitians neck. Legend reads: AYTO. KAIΣAP ΔOMITIANOΣ ΣEB. ΓEPM. (imp. caesar Domitianus Avg. Germ.) Reverse: Eagle standing on a thunderbolt, palm before, wings open, head facing right, holding wreath in its beak. Legend reads: ETOYΣ NEOY ΙEPOY ENΔEKATOY (new sacred year eleventh) Size: 27mm, 14.8g Reference: Prieur p. 22, no. 147S Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign.[86] Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically. He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90% to 98% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04 grams respectively.[87][88] Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[88] Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[88] Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billion sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army.[86] The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome. At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80.[89] Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to those of Augustus.[89] Among the most important new structures were an odeon, a stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius.[90] The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus and the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.[59] In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[91] The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[92] Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Lastly, he added two new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing White, Red, Green and Blue factions.[93] Military campaigns[edit] A rock inscription at Gobustan, Baku, near Boyukdash mountain, Azerbaijan, mentioning Domitian and Legio XII Fulminata. Cf. Caucasian Albania. IMP. DOMITIANO CAESARE AVG. GERMANICO ... LEG. XII FVL. The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.[94] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.[95] Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians.[96] The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland. Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti.[96] Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence,[97] the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day Azerbaijan. As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD. Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.[94] Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola.[98][99] Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third.[95][100] While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.[101] Campaign against the Chatti[edit] Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti.[102] For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.[96] Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus.[103] Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",[104] and a "mock triumph".[98] The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.[95] Conquest of Britain (77–84)[edit] Gnaeus Julius Agricola (Bath) Main article: Roman conquest of Britain One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84.[95] Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern Scotland). In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.[105] He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries.[106] He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.[107] Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil.[106] In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.[108] Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.[106] In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.[106] Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.[98] The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.[109] Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres (75 mi) further south.[110] The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury.[95] Dacian wars (85–88)[edit] Further information: Domitian's Dacian War The Roman province of Dacia (purple area) after the conquest of Trajan in 106, with the Black Sea to the far right. The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.[111] Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.[112] The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost.[111] The loss of the battle standard, or aquila, was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.[113] An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89.[78] In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.[78] Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.[114] For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses.[115] Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia. Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars.[116][117] Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.[115] Religious policy[edit] The genius of Domitian with the aegis and a cornucopia, marble statue, Capitoline Museums, Rome Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter,[71] perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos.[118] The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was Minerva. Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in her name.[119] Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure, both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus ("Lord and God").[120][121] However, not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign,[122][123] but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor.[74] To foster the worship of the imperial family, he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal,[124] and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.[59] To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual censor, the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct.[125] Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile. From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing.[73] As eunuchs were popularly used as servants, Domitian punished people who castrated others[126] and wanted to ban the eunuchs themselves.[127] Subsequent emperors made similar prohibitions, but Domitian may have been the first to do so.[128] Despite his moralizing, Domitian had his own favorite eunuch boy, Earinus.[129][130] Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected.[73] He ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death.[73] Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion.[131] Consequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public. Philosophers did not fare much better. Epictetus, who had set himself up in Rome as a professor of philosophy, remarked that philosophers were able to "look tyrants steadily in the face",[132] and it was Domitian's decree of 94, expelling all philosophers from Rome, that caused Epictetus to shift his base to the recently founded Roman city of Nicopolis, in Epirus, Greece, where he lived simply, worked safely and died of old age.[133] Coin of Domitian, found in the Buddhist stupa of Ahin Posh, dedicated under the Kushan Empire in 150-160, in modern Afghanistan. In 87, Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offense essentially constituted incest. Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive.[134] Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus. Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent.[119] 4th century writings by Eusebius maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign.[135][136] The Book of Revelation and First Epistle of Clement are thought by some to have been written during this period, the latter making mention of "sudden and repeated misfortunes", which are assumed to refer to persecutions under Domitian.[137] Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors give specific details of trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion.[138] Opposition[edit] Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89)[edit] Domitian, Capitoline Museums, Rome On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people.[101] The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus.[139] At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.[140] By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.[140] Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.[141] Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a second consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood, which he still held in 102. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague.[142] Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero.[143] Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors.[143] His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime.[144] The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order. Relationship with the Senate[edit] Domitian in military garb, wearing the muscle cuirass with decorative reliefs, from Vaison-la-Romaine, France Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[145] Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch.[146] Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian was not so subtle. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy.[146] He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.[147] The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion.[148] Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.[146] Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul.[149] Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated.[147] Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.[150][151] At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,[152] including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens.[153] Flavius Clemens was a cousin of Domitian, and the emperor had even designated Clemens' two young sons as his successors, calling them as "Vespasian" and "Domitian".[154] Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion: He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been murdered.[155] Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (41–54), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history.[156] Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt.[156] Death and succession[edit] Assassination[edit] According to Suetonius, Domitian worshipped Minerva as his protector goddess with superstitious veneration. In a dream, she is said to have abandoned the emperor prior to the assassination. Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 in a conspiracy by court officials.[157] A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius. He alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius played the main role in the plot, and historian John Grainger cites Parthenius' likely fear over Domitian's recent execution of Nero's former secretary Epaphroditus as a possible motive.[158][159] The act itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus.[160] According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death. The Germanic soothsayer Larginus Proclus predicted the date of Domitian's death and was consequently sentenced to death by him.[161][162] Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva had appeared to the emperor in a dream. She announced that she had been disarmed by Jupiter and could no longer give Domitian her protection.[119][163] According to an auspice he had received, the Emperor believed that his death would be at midday. As a result, he was always restless around that time. On the day of the assassination, Domitian was distressed and repeatedly asked a servant to tell him what time it was. The servant, who was himself one of the plotters, lied to the emperor, telling him that it was already late in the afternoon.[164] Apparently put at ease, the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees. Stephanus, who had been feigning an injury to his arm for several days and wearing a bandage to allow him to carry a concealed dagger, suddenly appeared: ...he pretended that he had discovered a plot, and was for that reason granted an audience: whereupon, as the amazed Domitian perused a document he had handed him, Stephanus stabbed him in the groin. The wounded Emperor put up a fight, but succumbed to seven further stabs, his assailants being a subaltern named Clodianus, Parthenius's freedman Maximus, Satur, a head-chamberlain and one of the imperial gladiators.[165] During the attack, Stephanus and Domitian had struggled on the floor, during which time Stephanus was stabbed by the emperor and died shortly afterward. Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis. Later, she took the emperor's ashes to the Flavian Temple and mingled them with those of his niece, Julia. He was 44 years old. As had been foretold, his death came at midday.[166] Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy,[167] citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had also been removed beforehand.[168][164] Dio included Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely.[51] The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is unclear. One of the guard's commanders, Titus Petronius Secundus, was almost certainly aware of the plot. The other, Titus Flavius Norbanus, the former governor of Raetia, was a member of Domitian's family.[169][160] Succession and aftermath[edit] Upon the death of Domitian, Nerva was proclaimed Emperor by the Senate. The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that on the same day as Domitian's assassination, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.[170] Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.[171][172] According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot.[173][174] He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive.[173] On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history,[175] but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.[170] The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.[176] The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.[177] Domitian and, over a century later, Publius Septimius Geta were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.[178] Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy.[177] According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his deification immediately after the assassination, and in several provinces rioting.[179] As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.[180] Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.[181] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.[181] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision nearly abdicated.[182] Family tree[edit] v t e Flavian family tree Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla (male) praetor Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Marcia Furnilla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Divus Caesar Legacy[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Domitian as Emperor (Vatican Museums), possibly recut from a statue of Nero. The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations.[148] Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion by the Senate. The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign. Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the gods.[183] The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138). His De Vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror.[184] The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine.[27] According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors. Other passages, alluding to Domitian's love of epigrammatic expression, suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and architects, founded artistic Olympics, and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down.[27] De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian's marriage life. According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris. When Domitian found out, he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his mistress, who later died during a failed abortion.[52][185] Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court.[186] Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries. Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor.[187] In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power.[187][188] Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian's military endeavours. Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career.[189] Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panegyricus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires, depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians, such as in the Acts of John. Modern revisionism[edit] Bust of Domitian wearing the civic crown, from the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny. It would be nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's 1894 Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien however, before any new, book-length studies were published.[190] The first of these was Jones' 1992 The Emperor Domitian. He concludes that Domitian was a ruthless but efficient autocrat.[190] For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with his policies. His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed.[190] His foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest. Persecution of religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent.[191] In 1930, Ronald Syme argued for a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had been largely viewed as a disaster.[192] His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance.[72] Using religious, military and cultural propaganda, he fostered a cult of personality. He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements. Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior-emperor, but many of these were either unearned or premature.[94] By nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals.[125] He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary.[193] Despite his vilification by contemporary historians, Domitian's administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from his. Much more than a "gloomy coda to the...1st century", the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as a somber but intelligent despotism.[190][194] See also[edit] Cultural depictions of Domitian Notes[edit] ^ Both children died young and were deified.[3] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Garzetti, Albino (2014). From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14–192. Routledge Revivals. Routledge. pp. 266, 833. ISBN 978-1317698449. ^ Deroux, Carl (2010). Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History. 323. Latomus. p. 283. ^ Vagi, David L. (2012). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480: History. Taylor & Francis. p. 212. ISBN 978-1579583163. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 491. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ cf. Roman Emperor (Principate) although several came within a year or two of 15-year reigns, the closest reigns to 15 years being Claudius' and Nero's, and it was soon to be surpassed by Trajan's ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 1 ^ Townend (1961), p. 62 ^ Jones (1992), p. 3 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 2 ^ Jones (1992), p. 8 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 1 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4 ^ Jones (1992), p. 7 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 9–11 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 11 ^ Waters (1964), pp. 52–53 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 13 ^ Murison (2003), p. 149 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 9 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 12.3 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 20 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 16 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 19 ^ Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum, "Life of Domitian", 18 ^ Morgan (1997), p. 214 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 18 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 198 ^ Morgan (1997), p. 209 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 21 ^ a b Waters (1964), p. 54 ^ a b Sullivan (1953), p. 69 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 44 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 45 ^ a b Sullivan (1953), p. 68 ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 126 ^ Tacitus, Histories III.34 ^ Wellesley (2000), pp. 166, 189 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 14 ^ Wellesley (1956), p. 213 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 15 ^ Tacitus, Histories IV.40 ^ Tacitus, Histories IV.68 ^ Jones (1992), p. 17 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 33 ^ Jones (1992), p. 34 ^ a b c Jones (1993), p. 36 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 161–162 ^ Jones (1992), p. 39 ^ Varner (1995), p. 200 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 34–35 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 37 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 35 ^ Prettejohn, Elizabeth (March 2002). "Lawrence Alma-Tadema and the Modern City of Ancient Rome". The Art Bulletin. 84 (1): 115–129. doi:10.2307/3177255. JSTOR 3177255. ^ Jonathan J. Price (2011). "The Jewish Population of Jerusalem". In Mladen Popovic (ed.). The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Brill. pp. 410–411. ISBN 978-90-04-21668-6. ^ James J. Bloom (2014). The Jewish Revolts Against Rome, A.D. 66–135: A Military Analysis. McFarland. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-7864-6020-5. ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3 ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5 ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Domitian 2 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 93 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 18 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 19 ^ Crook, John A. (1951). "Titus and Berenice". The American Journal of Philology. 72 (2): 162–175. doi:10.2307/292544. JSTOR 292544. ^ Jones (1992), p. 163 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 20 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22 ^ Jones (1992), p. 80 ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.32 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.26 ^ Jones (1992), p. 21 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 22 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 99 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 72 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 107 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 109 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 8 ^ Jones (1992), p. 164 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 178–179 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 150 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 26–28 ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. pp. 252–254. ISBN 978-1-134-66525-9. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2. ^ Martial VI ^ Martial IV 30 ^ "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian" Stadter, Philip A.; Stockt, L. Van der (2002). Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.). Leuven University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-90-5867-239-1. ^ Domitian relief in Esna ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 73 ^ "Roman Currency of the Principate". 1 November 2008. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 75 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 79 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 84–88 ^ Jones (1992), p. 74 ^ Jones (1992), p. 103 ^ Jones (1992), p. 105 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 127 ^ a b c d e Jones (1992), p. 131 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 130 ^ Millar, Fergus (2002). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan revolution. UNC Press Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8078-4990-3. ^ a b c Tacitus, Agricola 39 ^ Tacitus, Histories I.2 ^ Syme (1930), p. 64 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 144 ^ Jones (1992), p. 128 ^ Jones (1992), p. 129 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 6 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 24 ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 132 ^ Reed, Nicholas (1971). "The Fifth Year of Agricola's Campaigns". Britannia. 2: 143–148. doi:10.2307/525804. JSTOR 525804. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 29 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 42 ^ Jones (1992), p. 133 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 138 ^ Jones (1992), p. 139 ^ Jones (1992), p. 142 ^ Jones (1992), p. 195 ^ a b Salmon, Edward Togo (1936). "Trajan's Conquest of Dacia". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 67: 83–105. doi:10.2307/283229. JSTOR 283229. ^ Knight, D. J. (1991). "The Movements of the Auxilia from Augustus to Hadrian". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 85: 189–208. ^ Matei-Popescu, Florian (2006–2007). "The Auxiliary Units from Moesia Superior in Domitian's Time and the Problem of CIL XVI 41". Ephemeris Napocensis. 16–17: 31–48. ^ Jones (1992), p. 88 ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 100 ^ Suetonius, Domitian, 13:2 ^ Dio, Roman History, 67:4:7 ^ Jones (1992), p. 108 ^ contra Deissmann, Adolf (1995). Light From the Ancient East. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. pp. 357, n. 1. ISBN 978-1-56563-155-7. ^ Jones (1992), p. 87 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 106 ^ Ranke-Heinemann, Uta (1990). Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven: Women, Sexuality, and the Catholic Church. Translated by Heinegg, Peter. New York: Doubleday. p. 46. ^ Murray, Stephen O. (2000). Homosexualities. University of Chicago Press. p. 299. ^ Guilland, Rodolphe (1943). "Les Eunuques dans l'Empire Byzantin: Étude de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines". Études Byzantines. 1: 197–238. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1943.907. ^ Charles, Michael B.; Anagnostou-Laoutides, Eva (2010). "The Sexual Hypocrisy of Domitian: Suet., Dom. 8, 3". L'Antiquité Classique. 79 (1): 173–187. doi:10.3406/antiq.2010.3772. ^ Galbi, Douglas (12 April 2020). "Earinus, Emperor Domitian, and laws against castration". purple motes. Retrieved 12 July 2020. ^ Grainger (2003), p. 54 ^ Epictetus, translated by T.W.Rolleston, London: Walter Scott Ltd, undated, p. xviii ^ Epictetus, translated by T.W.Rolleston, London: Walter Scott Ltd, undated, p. xviii ^ Jones (1992), p. 101 ^ Eusebius of Caessarea (425). Church History. ^ Smallwood, E.M. (1956). "'Domitian's attitude towards the Jews and Judaism". Classical Philology. 51: 1–13. doi:10.1086/363978. S2CID 161356789. ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1997). An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday. pp. 805–809. ISBN 978-0-385-24767-2. ^ Jones (1992), p. 119 ^ Jones (1992), p. 145 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 146 ^ Jones (1992), p. 149 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 148–149 ^ a b Grainger (2003), p. 30 ^ Murison (2003), p. 150 ^ Waters, K. H. (1963). "The Second Dynasty of Rome". Phoenix. 17 (3): 198–218 [201]. doi:10.2307/1086720. JSTOR 1086720. ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 161 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 169 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 160 ^ Jones (1992), pp. 163–168 ^ Tacitus, Agricola 45 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 10 ^ For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188 ^ M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187 ^ Suetonius Life of Domitian, 15 ^ Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum, "Life of Domitian", 21 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 192 ^ Jones (1992), p. 193 ^ Grainger (2003), p. 16 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 14;16 ^ a b Grainger (2003), p. 19 ^ Suetonius, "Life of Domitian" 16 ^ Cassius Dio, "Roman History" 67.16 ^ Suetonius, "Life of Domitian" 15 ^ a b Grainger (2003), pp. 1–3 ^ Suetonius (1979). "Domitian: 17". The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Graves. ^ Jones (1992), p. 38 ^ Grainger (2003), p. 5 ^ Suetonius, "Life of Domitian" 17 ^ Werner Eck – Andreas Pangerl, Titus Flavius Norbanus, praefectus praetorio Domitians, als Statthalter Rätiens in einem neuen Militärdiplom, ZPE 163, 2007, 239-251 ^ a b Murison (2003), p. 153 ^ Murison (2003), p. 151 ^ Grainger (2003), pp. 4–27 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 194 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.15 ^ Syme, Ronald (1983). "Domitian: The Last Years". Chiron. 13: 121–146. ^ Jones (1992), p. 196 ^ a b Grainger (2003), p. 49 ^ Last, Hugh (1948). "On the Flavian Reliefs from the Palazzo della Cancelleria". The Journal of Roman Studies. 38 (1–2): 9–14. doi:10.2307/298163. JSTOR 298163. ^ Grainger (2003), pp. 32–33 ^ Grainger (2003), p. 40 ^ a b Grainger (2003), pp. 94–95 ^ Syme, Ronald (1980). "Guard Prefects of Trajan and Hadrian". The Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 64–80. doi:10.2307/299556. JSTOR 299556. ^ Jones (1992), p. 32 ^ Waters (1964), p. 51 ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 22 ^ Levick (2002), p. 211 ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 58 ^ Dorey, T. A. (1960). "Agricola and Domitian". Greece & Rome. 7 (1): 66–71. doi:10.1017/s0017383500014029. JSTOR 640729. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1 ^ a b c d Gowing, Alain M. (1992). "Review: The Emperor Domitian". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. ^ Jones (1992), pp. 114–119 ^ His article begins with "The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion. But much remains to be done." Imperial Finances p. 55 ^ Jones (1992), p. 180 ^ Syme (1930), p. 67 Bibliography[edit] Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28917-7. Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10195-0. Levick, Barbara (2002). "Corbulo's Daughter". Greece & Rome. 49 (2): 199–211. doi:10.1093/gr/49.2.199. JSTOR 826906. Morgan, Llewelyn (1997). "Achilleae Comae: Hair and Heroism According to Domitian". The Classical Quarterly. New Series. 47 (1): 209–214. doi:10.1093/cq/47.1.209. JSTOR 639608. Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 133 (1): 147–157. doi:10.1353/apa.2003.0008. S2CID 162211747. Suetonius (1979). The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Graves, Robert. Ontario, Canada: Penguin Books Canada LTD. ISBN 978-0140054163. Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A Note on the Flavian Accession". The Classical Journal. 49 (2): 67–70. JSTOR 3293160. Syme, Ronald (1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan". The Journal of Roman Studies. 20: 55–70. doi:10.2307/297385. JSTOR 297385. Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian Connections". The Journal of Roman Studies. 51 (1 & 2): 54–62. doi:10.2307/298836. JSTOR 298836. Waters, K. H. (1964). "The Character of Domitian". Phoenix. 18 (1): 49–77. doi:10.2307/1086912. JSTOR 1086912. Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3". The Classical Quarterly. 6 (3/4): 207–214. doi:10.1017/S0009838800020188. JSTOR 636914. Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) [1975]. The Year of the Four Emperors. Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-415-23620-1. Further reading[edit] Gsell, Stéphane (1894). Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien. Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome (in French). Paris: E. Thorin. Retrieved 10 February 2007. Jones, Brian W. (1984). The Emperor Titus. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-24443-9. Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16618-8. (in French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 5, La vie de Domitia Longina, femme de Domitien, pp. 121–146. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0. Southern, Pat (1997). Domitian: Tragic Tyrant. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16525-9. Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 67, English translation Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Agricola, English translation Tacitus, Histories, English translation External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domitian. Donahue, John (10 October 1997). "Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81–96)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 10 February 2007. A private collection of coins minted by Domitian Domitian Flavian dynasty Born: 24 October AD 51 Died: 18 September AD 96 Political offices Preceded by Titus Roman emperor 81–96 Succeeded by Nerva Preceded by Vespasian V Titus III Roman consul 73 with L. Valerius Catullus Messallinus Succeeded by Vespasian VI Titus IV Preceded by Vespasian IX Titus VII Roman consul 80 with Titus VIII Succeeded by L. Flavius Silva M. Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Preceded by L. Flavius Silva M. Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Roman consul 82–88 Succeeded by T. Aurelius Fulvus M. Asinius Atratinus Preceded by T. Aurelius Fulvus M. Asinius Atratinus Roman consul 90 with Marcus Cocceius Nerva II Succeeded by M.' Acilius Glabrio Trajan Preceded by M.' Acilius Glabrio Trajan Roman consul 92 with Q. Volusius Saturninus Succeeded by Sex. Pompeius Collega Q. Peducaeus Priscinus Preceded by L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas T. Sextius Magius Lateranus Roman consul 95 with T. Flavius Clemens Succeeded by C. Manlius Valens C. Antistius Vetus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8607	----	Wikipedia:Link rot - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Link rot From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search How to prevent or repair broken links This page is about (primarily) link rot in external links. For broken section links within Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Database reports/Broken section anchors. For internal links which point to deleted or non-existent articles, see WP:REDLINKS. For other uses, see Wikipedia:Citing sources § Preventing and repairing dead links. "WP:LR" redirects here. For Lua requests, see Wikipedia:Lua requests. To request URL changes, see WP:Link rot/URL change requests. This help page is a how-to guide. It details processes or procedures of some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms and practices. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, and may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcuts WP:LR WP:404 WP:ROT WP:BADLINK WP:LINKROT This page in a nutshell: Steps may be taken to reduce or repair dead external links. Like most large websites, Wikipedia suffers from the phenomenon known as link rot, where external links become dead, as the linked web pages or complete websites disappear, change their content, or move without HTML redirection. This presents a significant threat to Wikipedia's reliability policy and its source citation guideline. In general, do not delete cited information solely because the URL to the source does not work any longer. Tools, procedures, and processes are available as outlined in this document. Contents 1 Preventing link rot 1.1 Automatic archiving 1.2 Manual archiving 1.3 Alternative methods 2 Repairing a dead link 2.1 Searching 2.2 Internet archives 3 Mitigating a dead link 4 Keeping dead links 5 Link rot on non-Wikimedia sites 6 See also 6.1 Essays 6.2 Tools and how-to guides 6.3 Bots 7 External links 7.1 Notes Preventing link rot Shortcut WP:PLRT Automatic archiving Links added by editors to the English Wikipedia mainspace are automatically saved to Wayback Machine within about 24 hours (nb. in practice not every link is getting saved for various reasons). This is done with a program called "NoMore404" which Internet Archive runs and maintains; other language wiki sites are included. It monitors EventStreams API, extracts new external URLs and adds a snapshot to the Wayback. This system became active sometime after 2015, though previous efforts were also made. Also, sometime after 2012, archive.today (aka archive.is) attempted to archive all external links then existing on Wikipedia at that time. This was incomplete but a significant number of links were added to archive.today during this period making it a major archival source filling in gaps of coverage. Archive.today is still making some automated archives as of 2020, though the extent of coverage and frequency is unknown. As of 2015, there is a Wikipedia bot and tool called WP:IABOT that automates fixing link rot. It runs continuously checking all articles on Wikipedia if a link is dead, adding archives to Wayback Machine (if not yet there), and replacing dead links in the wikitext with an archived version. This bot runs automatically but it can also be directed by end users through its web interface. It is available when viewing any page's history, located near the top of the page on the line of "External Tools", with the "Fix dead links" option. As of 2015, the periodic bot WP:WAYBACKMEDIC checks for link rot in the archive links themselves. Archive databases are dynamic and changing, archives go missing, move, new ones added etc.. this bot maintains existing archive links on English Wikipedia. It also does archiving on request at WP:URLREQ, it is a flexible tool that can do many custom jobs. Manual archiving Suggestions for ways to manually improve archiving: Avoid bare URLs. Use citation templates such as {{cite web}} for citations, and {{webarchive}} for external links sections. Use a web archiving service such as Internet Archive or Archive.today. A complete list is available at WP:List of web archives on Wikipedia. Within citation templates, put the archive URL in |archive-url= and add an |archive-date=. If the link is still valid, include |url-status=live, otherwise set |url-status=dead. If the link is still live but not yet archived, visit the web site of the archive service of your choice and request that the page be archived. Run WP:IABOT on pages via its user interface. Alternative methods Most citation templates have a |quote= parameter that can be used to store text quotes of the source material. This can be used to store a limited amount of text from the source within the citation template. This is especially useful for sources that cannot be archived with web archiving services. It can also provide insurance against failure of the chosen web archiving service. Storing the entire text of the source is not appropriate under fair use policies, so choose only the most important portions of the text that most support the assertions in the Wikipedia article. Where applicable, public domain materials can be copied to Wikisource. Repairing a dead link Shortcut WP:DEADLINK "WP:DEADLINK" redirects here. For the guideline on what to do when a link is dead (including potential removal of the cited material), see WP:DEADREF. There are several ways to try to repair a dead link, detailed below: Searching If the dead link includes enough information (article title, names, etc.) it is often possible to use it to find the Web page at a different location, either on the same site or elsewhere. Often web pages simply moved within the same site. A site index or site-specific search feature is a useful place to locate the moved page. If these tools are not available, many Internet search engines allow a search on a specified site. Failing this, searching the Internet for the page can find alternatives. If you find a suitable new URL, then you can edit the parameters within the citation. If the citation uses one of the common templates (e.g. {{cite web}}, {{cite news}}, {{Citation}}), then you can edit as follows: Change the |url= to point to the new URL; Change or add |access-date= to refer to the current date. Internet archives Check for archived versions at one of the many web archive services. The "Big 3" archive services are web.archive.org, webcitation.org and archive.is. These account for over 90% of all archives on Wikipedia, with web.archive.org being over 80% of all archive links. Other archive services are listed at WP:WEBARCHIVES. The Mementos interface allows one to search multiple archiving services with a single search. The Memento database is cached, meaning results are returned quickly, but the cache also becomes out of date. Therefore, it should not be relied on as the final word – very often it may report no archives are available, when they actually are. You may still need to do the work of checking individual archive sites, but Mementos can be a quick first check. Bookmarklets to check common archive sites for archives of the current page (all open in a new tab or window) Archive site Bookmarklet Archive.org javascript:void(window.open('https://web.archive.org/web/*/'+location.href)) UKGWA javascript:void(window.open('http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/*/'+location.href)) If multiple archive dates are available, use the one that is most likely to be the contents of the page seen by the editor who entered the reference on the |access-date=. If that parameter is not specified, a search of the article's revision history can be performed to determine when the link was added to the article. View the archive to verify that it contains valid page information. Usually dates closer to the time the link was placed in the Wikipedia page, or earlier, are more likely to show valid information. If you find a suitable archive URL, then you can add it to the citation. If the citation uses one of the common templates (e.g. {{cite web}}, {{cite news}}, {{Citation}}), then you can edit as follows: Leave the |url= unchanged, pointing to the source URL. Add |archive-url=, pointing to the archive URL. Add |archive-date=, specifying the date when the archived copy was saved. YYYY-MM-DD format is usually easiest but any format can be used. Add or change |url-status=. Use |url-status=dead if the old URL does not work. Use |url-status=unfit or |url-status=usurped if the old URL has been usurped for the purposes of spam, advertising, or is otherwise unsuitable. Use |url-status=live if |url= still works and still gives the correct information, but you want to preemptively add an |archive-url=. Leave the |access-date= unchanged, referring to the date when a previous editor last accessed the |url=. Some editors believe |access-date= should be removed once a working |archive-url= is established since the |url= is no longer available, maintaining an |access-date= is redundant clutter. Mitigating a dead link Shortcut WP:MDLI At times, all attempts to repair the link will be unsuccessful. In that event, consider finding an alternate source so that the loss of the original does not harm the verifiability of the article. Alternate sources about broad topics are usually easily located. A simple search engine query might locate an appropriate alternative, but be extremely careful to avoid citing mirrors and forks of Wikipedia itself, which would violate Wikipedia:Verifiability. Sometimes, finding an appropriate source is not possible, or would require more extensive research techniques, such as a visit to a library or the use of a subscription-based database. If that is the case, consider consulting with Wikipedia editors at Wikipedia:WikiProject Resource Exchange, the Wikipedia:Village pump, or Wikipedia:Help desk. Also, consider contacting experts or other interested editors at a relevant WikiProject. Sometimes a link is dead because the website moved the URL (e.g. http://example.com moved to http://example.co.uk). If you discover an URL change like this, please submit a request at WP:BOTREQ for a url move. A bot will make the change. Keeping dead links Shortcut WP:KDL A dead, unarchived source URL may still be useful. Such a link indicates that information was (probably) verifiable in the past, and the link might provide another user with greater resources or expertise with enough information to find the reference. It could also return from the dead. With a dead link, it is possible to determine if it has been cited elsewhere, or to contact the person originally responsible for the source. For example, one could contact the Yale Computer Science department if http://www.cs.yale.edu/~EliYale/Defense-in-Depth-PhD-thesis.pdf[dead link] were dead. Place {{dead link|date=June 2021}} after the dead citation, immediately before the </ref> tag if applicable, leaving the original link intact. Placing {{dead link}} auto-categorizes the article into Articles with dead external links project category, and into specific monthly date range category based on |date= parameter. Do not delete a citation just because it has been tagged with {{dead link}} for a long time. Link rot on non-Wikimedia sites Shortcut WP:EXTERNALROT Non-Wikimedia sites are also susceptible to link rot. Following a page move or page deletion, links to Wikipedia pages from other websites may break. In most page moves, a redirect will remain at the old page—this won't cause a problem. But if a page is completely deleted or usurped (i.e. replaced with other content) then link rot will have been caused on any external websites that link to it. Replacement of page content with a disambiguation page may still cause link rot, but is less harmful because a disambiguation page is essentially a type of soft redirect that will lead the reader to the required content. If a page is usurped with content for another subject that shares its name, a hatnote may be placed at the top that directs readers to the original content on its new page—this again is a type of soft redirect, but less obvious. In these cases, readers arriving from an external rotten link should be able to find what they're looking for, but the situation is best avoided as they would have to get there via an additional page, potentially giving a poor impression of both Wikipedia and the linking website. Because the Wikipedia software does not store Referer information, it will be impossible to tell how many external web pages will be affected by a move or deletion, but the risk of link rot will probably be greatest on older and higher profile pages. In truth, there is not a lot that can be done; maintenance of non-Wikimedia websites is not within the scope of being a Wikimedian, nor in most cases within our capability (although if they can be fixed, it would be helpful to do so). However, it may be good practice to think about the potential impact on other sites when deleting or moving Wikipedia pages, especially if no redirect or hatnote will remain. If a move or deletion is expected to cause significant damage, then this might be a factor to consider in WP:RM, WP:AFD and WP:RFD discussions, although other factors may carry more weight. See also Essays Wikipedia:Build content to endure Wikipedia:Offline sources Tools and how-to guides Wikipedia:Link rot/URL change requests – request help to change many URLs, or mark them dead Help:Using the Wayback Machine – how-to guide Wikipedia:Using WebCite – how-to guide (note: as of June 2019 WebCite no longer accepts new archive requests) Wikipedia:Using Archive.is – how-to guide Special:LinkSearch – to find all the pages that contain a particular URL Wikipedia:Citing sources/Further considerations#Pre-emptive archiving – brief guide on how to use various archiving services Wikipedia:Citing sources#Preventing and repairing dead links Wikipedia:External links#Longevity of links – prescribes removal of dead URLs from the "External links" section Category:Articles with bare URLs for citations – the backlog of articles containing bare URLs at risk of link rot, sub-categorised by month Category:Articles with dead external links – the backlog of articles containing dead links, sub-categorised by month Bots InternetArchiveBot (IABot) – automatically fixes dead links whenever possible, and tags them when it isn't WaybackMedic-automatically fixes dead links that are difficult to determine, other general fixes User:Legobot – can mass tag links with {{dead link}}. Requests can be made at User talk:Legoktm. External links official Wayback add-on for Firefox and Chrome[note 1] Resurrect Pages, a third-party add-on tool provides links to seven cache/archive websites upon coming across a dead link. (Firefox) Webcache, add-on for Opera. (discontinued; newer similar add-ons available) weblinkchecker.py—script from the Python Wikipedia Bot collection which finds broken external links. Notes ^ "Save Pages in the Wayback Machine". Internet Archive Help Center. 2018-08-24. v t e Wikipedia essays Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are the same height Avoid vague introductions Be a reliable source Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Here to build an encyclopedia Most ideas are bad Need Neutrality of sources Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Construction 100K featured articles Acronym overkill Advanced source searching Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced article editing Advanced table formatting Advanced template coding Advanced text formatting Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Bare URLs Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Deprecated sources Dictionaries as sources Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't revert due solely to "no consensus" Don't teach the controversy Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Inaccuracies in Wikipedia namespace Inaccuracy Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a WikiProject Nothing is in stone Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Principle of some astonishment Printability Pruning article revisions Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Specialized-style fallacy Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There is a deadline There is no deadline The deadline is now Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not a reliable source Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing Avoid thread mode Gender-neutral language Proseline Use feminine pronouns Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Deletion Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete the junk Does deletion help? Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Follow the leader How to save an article proposed for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork No Encyclopedic Use Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks High-functioning autism and Asperger's editors How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives Philosophy A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right Of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia is not about winning Writing for the opponent Reader Dos Argue better Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" No Nazis Read before commenting Settle the process first Don'ts ALPHABETTISPAGHETTI Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't drink the consensus Kool-Aid Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression Please don't bite the newcomers POV railroad There are no oracles You can't squeeze blood from a turnip WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Bombardment Businesses with a single location But it's true! Citation overkill Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Fart Google searches and numbers High Schools Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Masking the lack of notability Make stubs News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No big loss No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability/Historical/Arguments Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notability points Notability sub-pages Notabilitymandering Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One hundred words One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Pokémon test Read the source Run-of-the-mill Significant coverage not required Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Humorous essays Anti-Wikipedian Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense BOLD, revert, revert, revert Boston Tea Party Barnstaritis Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Emerson Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle Is that even an essay? Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man Oops Defense Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies R-e-s-p-e-c-t Reducing consensus to an algorithm Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis Why not create an account? You don't have to be mad to work here, but About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Link_rot&oldid=1018009043" Categories: Wikipedia how-to Wikipedia essays about building the encyclopedia Hidden categories: Project pages with short description Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Wikipedia maintenance Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Project page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Bosanski Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska తెలుగు Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 April 2021, at 20:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8609	----	Indo-Roman trade relations - Wikipedia Indo-Roman trade relations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire Roman trade in the subcontinent according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei 1st century CE Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai, Tamil Nadu, India. One coin of Caligula (37–41 CE), and two coins of Nero (54–68). British Museum. Kushan ring with portraits of Septimus Severus and Julia Domna. Indo-Roman trade relations (see also the spice trade and incense road) was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. Trade through the overland caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middle East, though at a relative trickle compared to later times, preceded the southern trade route via the Red Sea which started around the beginning of the Common Era (CE) following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE.[1] The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent, that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives, and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route.[2] Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day Southern India and Sri Lanka, securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states of the Pandyan, Chola and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with the Indian subcontinent by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty[3] a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.[4] As recorded by Strabo, Emperor Augustus of Rome received at Antioch an ambassador from a South Indian king called Pandyan of Dramira. The country of the Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandyan Mediterranea in the Periplus and Modura Regia Pandyan by Ptolemy.[5] They also outlasted Byzantium's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea[6] (c. 639–645 CE) under the pressure of the Muslim conquests. Sometime after the sundering of communications between the Christian Kingdom of Axum and the Eastern Roman Empire in the 7th century, the Kingdom of Axum fell into a slow decline, fading into obscurity in western sources. It survived, despite pressure from Islamic forces, until the 11th century, when it was reconfigured in a dynastic squabble. Communications were reinstated after the Muslim forces retreated. Contents 1 Background 2 Early Common Era 3 Establishment 4 Trade of exotic animals 5 Ports 5.1 Roman ports 5.1.1 Arsinoe 5.1.2 Myos Hormos and Berenice 5.2 Major regional ports 5.2.1 Barigaza 5.2.2 Muziris 5.2.3 Arikamedu 6 Cultural exchanges 7 Decline and aftermath 7.1 Roman decline 7.2 Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns 7.3 Arab expansion 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Background[edit] Main article: Indo-Roman relations The Seleucid and the Ptolemaic dynasties controlled trade networks to India before the establishment of Roman Egypt.   Kingdom of Ptolemy   Kingdom of Seleucus The Seleucid dynasty controlled a developed network of trade with the Indian Subcontinent which had previously existed under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek-Ptolemaic dynasty, controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to Southern Arabia and the Indian Subcontinent,[7] had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but, according to the historian Strabo, the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo-Roman trade.[2] The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a time when sea trade between Egypt and the subcontinent did not involve direct sailings.[2] The cargo under these situations was shipped to Aden:[2] Aden – Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to Egypt nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as Alexandria receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt. — Gary Keith Young, Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports.[1] With the establishment of Roman Egypt, the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports.[1] Classical geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and, from their positions as esteemed scholars, were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their topographical accounts.[8] Ptolemy's Geography represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the Bay of Bengal so accurately had it not been for the input of traders.[8] It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach "Cattigara" (most likely Oc Eo, Vietnam, where Antonine-period Roman artefacts have been discovered) in the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea) located east of the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).[9][10] In the 1st-century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, its anonymous Greek-speaking author, a merchant of Roman Egypt, provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India, including travel times from rivers and towns, where to drop anchor, the locations of royal courts, lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets, and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the monsoon winds, that it is clear he visited many of these locations.[11] Early Common Era[edit] Silver denarius of Tiberius (14–37 CE) found in India. Indian copy of the same, 1st century CE. Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus. Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, 1st–2nd century CE Prior to Roman expansion, the various peoples of the subcontinent had established strong maritime trade with other countries. The dramatic increase in the importance of Indian ports, however, did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans' attainment concerning the region’s seasonal monsoons. The first two centuries of the Common Era indicate a marked increase in trade between western India and the Roman east by sea. The expansion of trade was made possible by the stability brought to the region by the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus (r. 27 BCE–14 CE) which allowed for new explorations and the creation of a sound silver and gold coinage. . The west coast of present-day India is mentioned frequently in literature, such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The area was noted for its strong tidal currents, turbulent waves and rocky sea-beds were dangerous for shipping experience. The anchors of ships would be caught by the waves and quickly detach to capsize the vessel or cause a shipwreck. Stone anchors have been observed near Bet Dwarka, an island situated in the Gulf of Kachchh, from ship lost at sea. Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983. The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes. Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck’s hull survived, offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently-sized amphoras, two lead anchors, forty-two stone anchors of different types, a supply of potsherds, and a circular lead ingot. The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick, coarse fabric with a rough surface, which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire. Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras, since olive oil was in less demand in the subcontinent. A coin of Trajan, found together with coins of the Kushan ruler Kanishka, at the Ahin Posh Buddhist Monastery, Afghanistan. Since the discoveries at Bet Dwarka are significant for the maritime history of the region, archeologists have researched the resources in India.[citation needed] Despite the unfavorable conditions the island is situated in, the following items have made Bet Dwarka as well as the rest of western India an important place for trade. From Latin literature, Rome imported Indian tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and serpents to use for circus shows – a method employed as entertainment to prevent riots in Rome. It has been noted in the Periplus that Roman women also wore Indian Ocean pearls and used a supply of herbs, spices, pepper, lycium, costus [Saussurea costus], sesame oil and sugar for food. Indigo was used as a color while cotton cloth was used as articles of clothing. Furthermore, the subcontinent exported ebony for fashioned furniture in Rome. The Roman Empire also imported Indian lime, peach, and various other fruits for medicine. Western India, as a result, was the recipient of large amounts of Roman gold during this time. Since one must sail against the narrow gulfs of western India, special large boats were used and ship development was demanded. At the entrance of the gulf, large ships called trappaga and cotymba helped guide foreign vessels safely to the harbor. These ships were capable of relatively long coastal cruises, and several seals have depicted this type of ship. In each seal, parallel bands were suggested to represent the beams of the ship. In the center of the vessel is a single mast with a tripod base. Apart from the recent explorations, close trade relations, as well as the development of ship building, were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins. On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships. Thus, these depictions of Indian ships, originating from both coins and literature (Pliny and Pluriplus), indicate Indian development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo-Roman commerce. In addition, the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th centuries. These Roman coins also suggest that the Indian peninsula possessed a stable seaborne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD. Land routes, during the time of Augustus, were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome. The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo-Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common Era. The 3rd century, however, was the demise of the Indo-Roman trade. The sea-route between Rome and India was shut down, and as a result, the trading reverted to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration. Establishment[edit] Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard. British Museum. Indian copy of an aureus of Faustina Major, 2nd century CE. British Museum. The replacement of Greek kingdoms by the Roman empire as the administrator of the eastern Mediterranean basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes.[12] Strabo's mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known from his time.[13] The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing according to Strabo (II.5.12.):[14] At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Kingdom of Aksum (Ethiopia), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to the subcontinent, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. — Strabo By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.[14] So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushan Empire (Kushans) for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:[15] India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead? — Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[16] Gold coin of Claudius (50–51 CE) excavated in South India. Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south. Trade of exotic animals[edit] Sri Lankan imitations of 4th-century Roman coins, 4th–8th century CE. There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the Mediterranean. This can be seen in the mosaics and frescoes of the remains of Roman villas in Italy. For example, the Villa del Casale has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in India, Indonesia and Africa. The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa. In the Ambulacro della Grande Caccia, the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species. There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a tiger with a shimmering ball of glass or mirror in order to take her cubs. Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown. In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as rhinoceros, an Indian elephant (recognized from the ears) with his Indian conductor, and the Indian peafowl, and other exotic birds. There are also numerous animals from Africa. Tigers, leopards and Asian and African lions were used in the arenas and circuses. The European lion was already extinct at that time. Probably the last lived in the Balkan Peninsula and were hunted to stock arenas. The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas. Also in the Villa Romana del Tellaro there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes, probably a careless hunter. The animals were transported in cages by ship.[17] Ports[edit] Roman ports[edit] The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were Arsinoe, Berenice and Myos Hormos. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice. Arsinoe[edit] Sites of Egyptian Red Sea ports, including Alexandria and Berenice. The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of Alexandria to secure trade with the subcontinent.[3] The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day Suez.[3] The goods from the East African trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos.[18] The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea.[19] This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible.[19] Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos.[19] The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the Gulf of Suez.[20] Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as shoals, reefs and treacherous currents.[20] Myos Hormos and Berenice[edit] Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by the Pharaonic traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control.[1] The site of Berenice, since its discovery by Belzoni (1818), has been equated with the ruins near Ras Banas in Southern Egypt.[1] However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in Ptolemy's Geography favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in classical literature and satellite images indicating a probable identification with Quseir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from Koptos on the Nile.[1] The Quseir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el-Zerqa, halfway along the route, which have revealed ostraca leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos.[1] Major regional ports[edit] Roman piece of pottery from Arezzo, Latium, found at Virampatnam, Arikamedu (1st century CE). Musee Guimet. Characteristic Indian etched carnelian bead, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at Saft el Henna, Ptolemaic Egypt. Petrie Museum. The regional ports of Barbaricum (modern Karachi), Sounagoura (central Bangladesh), Barygaza (Bharuch in Gujarat), Muziris (present day Kodungallur), Korkai, Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu) on the southern tip of present-day India were the main centers of this trade, along with Kodumanal, an inland city. The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, topaz, coral, storax, frankincense, vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "costus, bdellium, lycium, nard, turquoise, lapis lazuli, Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and indigo".[21] In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.[21] Barigaza[edit] Trade with Barigaza, under the control of the Indo-Scythian Western Satrap Nahapana ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing:[21] There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. — Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (paragraph 49). Muziris[edit] Muziris, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with a "Templum Augusti" Muziris is a lost port city on the south-western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire.[22] Its location is generally identified with modern-day Cranganore (central Kerala).[23][24] Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found at the town of Pattanam (near Cranganore) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.[22] According to the Periplus, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris:[21] Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia" — The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53–54) Arikamedu[edit] The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu, a centre of early Chola trade (now part of Ariyankuppam), about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the modern Pondicherry.[25] Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".[25] Cultural exchanges[edit] Further information: Buddhism and the Roman world A 1st century CE Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus, British Museum. Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, Sri Lanka, 4th–8th century CE The Rome-subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had a lasting effect on both the civilizations and others involved in the trade. The Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.[4] Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe.[26] The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.[26] Clement of Alexandria mentions the Buddha in his writings and other Indian religions find mentions in other texts of the period.[26] Indian art also found its way into Italy: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi was found in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE). Han China was perhaps also involved in the Roman trade, with Roman embassies recorded for the years 166, 226, and 284 that allegedly landed in Rinan (Jianzhi) in northern Vietnam, according to Chinese histories.[9][27][28][29] Roman coins and goods such as glasswares and silverwares have been found in China,[30][31] as well as Roman coins, bracelets, glass beads, a bronze lamp, and Antonine-period medallions in Vietnam, especially at Oc Eo (belonging to the Funan Kingdom).[9][27][32] The 1st-century Periplus notes how a country called This, with a great city called Thinae (comparable to Sinae in Ptolemy's Geography), produced silk and exported it to Bactria before it traveled overland to Barygaza in India and down the Ganges River.[33] While Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy provided vague accounts of the Gulf of Thailand and Southeast Asia,[34] the Alexandrian Greek monk and former merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes, in his Christian Topography (c. 550), spoke clearly about China, how to sail there, and how it was involved in the clove trade stretching to Ceylon.[35][36] Comparing the small amount of Roman coins found in China as opposed to India, Warwick Ball asserts that most of the Chinese silk purchased by the Romans was done so in India, with the land route through ancient Persia playing a secondary role.[37] Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade.[4] Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India, and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south.[4] The Tamilakkam kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty.[38] Mentions of the traders are recorded in the Tamil Sangam literature of India.[38] One such mention reads: "The beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with gold and returned with pepper, and Muziris resounded with the noise." (from poem no. 149 of 'Akananuru' of Sangam Literature)"[38] Decline and aftermath[edit] Roman decline[edit] Coin of Byzantine Theodosius II, found in the excavation of a monastery in Ajanta Caves, India. Trade declined from the mid-3rd century during a crisis in the Roman Empire, but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century, when Khosrow II, Shah of the Sasanian Empire, occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt until being defeated by the Eastern Roman emperor Heraclius[39] at the end of 627, after which the lost territories were returned to the Eastern Romans. Cosmas Indicopleustes ('Cosmas who sailed to India') was a Greek-Egyptian trader, and later monk, who wrote about his trade trips to India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century. Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns[edit] In India, the Alchon Huns' invasions (496–534 CE) are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia.[40] The Gupta Empire had been benefiting greatly from Indo-Roman trade. They had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl or pepper from centers such as Nashik, Prathisthana, Pataliputra and Varanasi. The Huna invasions probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with it.[41] Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.[42] Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[43] Arab expansion[edit] Egypt under the rule of the Rashidun and Ummayad Caliphates, drawn on the modern state borders. The Arabs, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.[44] This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt.[44] The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country, [6] brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent.[3] Tamil speaking south India turned to Southeast Asia for international trade where Indian culture influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of Hinduism and then Buddhism.[45] However, knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of Constantine VII, seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia, appearing in a work on ceremonies called De Ceremoniis.[46] The Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century (1453), marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.[47] The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe, leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa, spurring the European Age of Discovery, and the eventual rise of European Mercantilism and Colonialism. See also[edit] Buddhism and the Roman world Chronology of European exploration of Asia Indian maritime history Sino-Roman relations Indo-Roman relations Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Shaw 2003: 426 ^ a b c d Young 2001: 19 ^ a b c d Lindsay 2006: 101 ^ a b c d Curtin 1984: 100 ^ The cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia By Edward Balfour ^ a b Holl 2003: 9 ^ Potter 2004: 20 ^ a b Parker 2008: 118. ^ a b c Young 2001: 29. ^ Mawer 2013: 38. ^ William H. Schoff (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). ""The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea". Depts.washington.edu. University of Washington. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ Lach 1994: 13 ^ Young 2001: 20 ^ a b "The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917". ^ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84. ^ Original Latin: "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" ^ "Il Blog sulla Villa Romana del Casale Piazza Armerina". villadelcasale.it. Retrieved 12 February 2017. ^ O'Leary 2001: 72 ^ a b c Fayle 2006: 52 ^ a b Freeman 2003: 72 ^ a b c d Halsall, Paul. "Ancient History Sourcebook: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century". Fordham University. ^ a b "Search for India's ancient city". BBC. 11 June 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2010. ^ George Menachery (1987) Kodungallur City of St. Thomas; (2000) Azhikode alias Kodungallur Cradle of Christianity in India ^ "Signs of ancient port in Kerala". telegraphindia.com. Calcutta (Kolkata): The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 February 2017. ^ a b Huntingford 1980: 119. ^ a b c Lach 1994: 18 ^ a b Ball 2016: 152–53 ^ Hill 2009: 27 ^ Yule 1915: 53–54 ^ An 2002: 83 ^ Harper 2002: 99–100, 106–07 ^ O'Reilly 2007: 97 ^ Schoff 2004 [1912]: paragraph #64. Retrieved 24 September 2016. ^ Suárez (1999): 90–92 ^ Yule 1915: 25–28 ^ Lieu 2009: 227 ^ Ball 2016: 153–54. ^ a b c Kulke 2004: 108 ^ Farrokh 2007: 252 ^ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly pp. 48 sq ^ Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh p. 81 ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 221 ^ A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India p. 174 ^ a b Meri 2006: 224 ^ Kulke 2004: 106 ^ Luttwak 2009: 167–68 ^ The Encyclopedia Americana 1989: 176 References[edit] An, Jiayao (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road. Brepols Publishers. pp. 79–94. ISBN 2-503-52178-9. Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6. Curtin, Philip DeArmond; el al. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26931-8. The Encyclopedia Americana (1989). Grolier. ISBN 0-7172-0120-1. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-108-7. Fayle, Charles Ernest (2006). A Short History of the World's Shipping Industry. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28619-0. Freeman, Donald B. (2003). The Straits of Malacca: Gateway Or Gauntlet?. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 0-7735-2515-7. Harper, P.O. (2002). "Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road. Brepols Publishers. pp. 95–113. ISBN 2-503-52178-9. Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. Holl, Augustin F. C. (2003). Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0407-1. Huntingford, G.W.B. (1980). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Hakluyt Society. Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32919-1. Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46731-7. Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2009). "Epigraphica Nestoriana Serica". Exegisti monumenta Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 227–46. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4. Lindsay, W S (2006). History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-94253-8. Luttwak, Edward (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03519-4. Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Cattigara". In Nichols, Robert and Martin Woods (ed.). Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia. National Library of Australia. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9780642278098. Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96690-6. O'Leary, De Lacy (2001). Arabia Before Muhammad. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23188-4. O'Reilly, Dougald J.W. (2007). Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. AltaMira Press, Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7591-0279-1. Parker, Grant (2008). The Making of Roman India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85834-2. Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10058-5. Schoff, Williamm H. (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). ""The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea". Depts.washington.edu. University of Washington. Retrieved 19 September 2016. Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280458-8. Suresh, S. (2004). SYMBOLS OF TRADE Roman and Pseudo-Roman Objects found in India (PDF). Manohar. Young, Gary Keith (2001). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC–AD 305. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24219-3. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.). Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. 1. Hakluyt Society. Further reading[edit] Lionel Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-691-04060-5. Chakrabarti D.K. (1990). The External Trade of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” Azania Vol. XXXIV. McLaughlin, Raoul. (2010). Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum, London and New York. ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7. Miller, J. Innes. 1969. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24430-6. Van der Veen, Marijke (2011). Consumption, Trade and Innovation. Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag. ISBN 978-3-937248-23-3 Raith, M. – Hoffbauer, R. – Euler, H. – Yule, P. – Damgaard, K. (2013). “The view from Ẓafār –An archaeometric study of the Aqaba late Roman period pottery complex and distribution in the 1st millennium CE”. Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie 6, 320–50. ISBN 978-3-11-019704-4. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indo-Roman trade and relations. English translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Voyage around the Erythraean Sea) BBC News: Search for India's ancient city Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia v t e Part of a series on trade routes Amber Road Austronesian maritime trade network Dvaravati–Kamboja route Grand Trunk Road Hærvejen Hanseatic League Hiri trade cycle Incense trade route King's Highway Kula ring Lapita culture Maritime republics Maritime Silk Road Old Salt Route Penarikan Route Polynesian navigation Rome-India routes Royal Road Salt road Sepik Coast exchange Siberian Route Silk Road Spanish Road Spice Route Brouwer Route Tea Horse Road Trans-Saharan trade Trepanging Triangular trade Via Maris Volga trade route Varangians to the Greeks Way of the Patriarchs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&oldid=1020699650" Categories: Foreign relations of ancient India Ancient international relations Foreign relations of ancient Rome Bilateral trading relationships Maritime history of India Economic history of India Foreign trade of India Indian Ocean trade Historic trails and roads in India Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from September 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina தமிழ் ไทย Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 April 2021, at 15:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8620	----	Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Wikipedia Johann Wolfgang von Goethe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Goethe) Jump to navigation Jump to search 18th-century German writer and polymath Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Goethe (disambiguation) and Gote (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Goethe in 1828, by Joseph Karl Stieler Born Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-08-28)28 August 1749 Free Imperial City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire Died 22 March 1832(1832-03-22) (aged 82) Weimar, Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, German Confederation Occupation Poet, novelist, playwright, natural philosopher, diplomat, civil servant Alma mater Leipzig University University of Strasbourg Literary movement Sturm und Drang Weimar Classicism Romanticism in science Notable works Faust The Sorrows of Young Werther Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship Elective Affinities "Prometheus" Zur Farbenlehre Italienische Reise West–östlicher Divan Spouse Christiane Vulpius ​ ​ (m. 1806; died 1816)​ Children 5 (4 died young) Relatives Cornelia Schlosser (sister) Christian August Vulpius (brother-in-law) Signature Johann Wolfgang von Goethe[a] (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, critic, and amateur artist.[3] His works include plays, poetry, literary, and aesthetic criticism, and treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour. He is considered to be the greatest German literary figure of the modern era.[3] Goethe took up residence in Weimar in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). He was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Karl August, in 1782. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe became a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace.[4][b] Goethe's first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. In 1791 he was made managing director of the theatre at Weimar, and in 1794 he began a friendship with the dramatist, historian, and philosopher Friedrich Schiller, whose plays he premiered until Schiller's death in 1805. During this period Goethe published his second novel, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship; the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808, the first part of his most celebrated drama, Faust. His conversations and various shared undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt,[5] Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have come to be collectively termed Weimar Classicism. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer named Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship one of the four greatest novels ever written,[6][c] while the American philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson selected Goethe as one of six "representative men" in his work of the same name (along with Plato, Emanuel Swedenborg, Montaigne, Napoleon, and Shakespeare). Goethe's comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, notably Johann Peter Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe (1836). Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Legal career 1.3 Early years in Weimar 1.4 Italy 1.5 Weimar 1.6 Later life 1.7 Death 2 Literary work 2.1 Overview 2.2 Details of selected works 3 Scientific work 4 Eroticism 5 Religion and politics 6 Influence 7 Works 8 Books related to Goethe 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Footnotes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Sources 11 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Goethe's father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house (today the Goethe House) in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar Goethe was not involved in the city's official affairs.[7] Johann Caspar married Goethe's mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor, at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17.[8] All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister Cornelia Friederica Christiana (born in 1750), died at early ages. Goethe's birthplace in Frankfurt (Großer Hirschgraben) His father and private tutors gave the young Goethe lessons in common subjects of their time, especially languages (Latin, Greek, French, Italian, English and Hebrew). Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing. Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not.[7] Although Goethe's great passion was drawing, he quickly became interested in literature; Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803) and Homer were among his early favorites.[9] He had a devotion to theater as well, and was greatly fascinated by puppet shows that were annually arranged[by whom?] in his home; this became a recurrent theme in his literary work Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. He also took great pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period: I had from childhood the singular habit of always learning by heart the beginnings of books, and the divisions of a work, first of the five books of Moses, and then of the Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses. ... If an ever busy imagination, of which that tale may bear witness, led me hither and thither, if the medley of fable and history, mythology and religion, threatened to bewilder me, I readily fled to those oriental regions, plunged into the first books of Moses, and there, amid the scattered shepherd tribes, found myself at once in the greatest solitude and the greatest society.[10] Goethe also became acquainted with Frankfurt actors.[11] In early literary attempts he showed an infatuation with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust, and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit.[12] He adored Caritas Meixner (1750–1773), a wealthy Worms trader's daughter and friend of his sister, who would later marry the merchant G. F. Schuler.[13] Legal career[edit] Anna Katharina (Käthchen) Schönkopf Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the poetry lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf and wrote cheerful verses about her in the Rococo genre. In 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Christoph Martin Wieland. Already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Faust's 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the only real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768. Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, the relationship with his father worsened. During convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister. In April 1770, Goethe left Frankfurt in order to finish his studies at the University of Strasbourg. In Alsace, Goethe blossomed. No other landscape has he described as affectionately as the warm, wide Rhine area. In Strasbourg, Goethe met Johann Gottfried Herder. The two became close friends, and crucially to Goethe's intellectual development, Herder kindled his interest in Shakespeare, Ossian and in the notion of Volkspoesie (folk poetry). On 14 October 1772 Goethe held a gathering in his parental home in honour of the first German "Shakespeare Day". His first acquaintance with Shakespeare's works is described as his personal awakening in literature.[14] On a trip to the village Sessenheim, Goethe fell in love with Friederike Brion, in October 1770,[15][16] but terminated the relationship in August 1771.[17] Several of his poems, like "Willkommen und Abschied", "Sesenheimer Lieder" and "Heidenröslein", originate from this time. At the end of August 1771, Goethe acquired the academic degree of the Lizenziat (Licentia docendi) in Frankfurt and established a small legal practice. Although in his academic work he had expressed the ambition to make jurisprudence progressively more humane, his inexperience led him to proceed too vigorously in his first cases, and he was reprimanded and lost further ones. This prematurely terminated his career as a lawyer after only a few months. At this time, Goethe was acquainted with the court of Darmstadt, where his inventiveness was praised. From this milieu came Johann Georg Schlosser (who later became Goethe's brother-in-law) and Johann Heinrich Merck. Goethe also pursued literary plans again; this time, his father did not have anything against it, and even helped. Goethe obtained a copy of the biography of a noble highwayman from the German Peasants' War. In a couple of weeks the biography was reworked into a colourful drama. Entitled Götz von Berlichingen, the work went directly to the heart of Goethe's contemporaries. Goethe could not subsist on being one of the editors of a literary periodical (published by Schlosser and Merck). In May 1772 he once more began the practice of law at Wetzlar. In 1774 he wrote the book which would bring him worldwide fame, The Sorrows of Young Werther. The outer shape of the work's plot is widely taken over from what Goethe experienced during his Wetzlar time with Charlotte Buff (1753–1828)[18] and her fiancé, Johann Christian Kestner (1741–1800),[18] as well as from the suicide of the author's friend Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem (1747–1772); in it, Goethe made a desperate passion of what was in reality a hearty and relaxed friendship.[19] Despite the immense success of Werther, it did not bring Goethe much financial gain because copyright laws at the time were essentially nonexistent. (In later years Goethe would bypass this problem by periodically authorizing "new, revised" editions of his Complete Works.)[20] Early years in Weimar[edit] Goethe in c. 1775 In 1775, Goethe was invited, on the strength of his fame as the author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, to the court of Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, who would become Grand Duke in 1815. (The Duke at the time was 18 years of age, to Goethe's 26.) Goethe thus went to live in Weimar, where he remained for the rest of his life and where, over the course of many years, he held a succession of offices, including superintendent of the ducal library, [21] as the Duke's friend and chief adviser.[22][23] In 1776, Goethe formed a close relationship to Charlotte von Stein, an older, married woman. The intimate bond with von Stein lasted for ten years, after which Goethe abruptly left for Italy without giving his companion any notice. She was emotionally distraught at the time, but they were eventually reconciled.[24] Goethe, aside from official duties, was also a friend and confidant to the Duke, and participated in the activities of the court. For Goethe, his first ten years at Weimar could well be described as a garnering of a degree and range of experience which perhaps could be achieved in no other way. In 1779, Goethe took on the War Commission of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, in addition to the Mines and Highways commissions. In 1782, when the chancellor of the Duchy's Exchequer left his office, Goethe agreed to act in his place for two and a half years; this post virtually made him prime minister and the principal representative of the Duchy.[3] Goethe was ennobled in 1782 (this being indicated by the "von" in his name). As head of the Saxe-Weimar War Commission, Goethe participated in the recruitment of mercenaries into the Prussian and British military during the American Revolution. The author W. Daniel Wilson [de] claims that Goethe engaged in negotiating the forced sale of vagabonds, criminals, and political dissidents as part of these activities.[25] Italy[edit] Goethe, age 38, painted by Angelica Kauffman 1787 Goethe's journey to the Italian peninsula and Sicily from 1786 to 1788 was of great significance in his aesthetic and philosophical development. His father had made a similar journey, and his example was a major motivating factor for Goethe to make the trip. More importantly, however, the work of Johann Joachim Winckelmann had provoked a general renewed interest in the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus Goethe's journey had something of the nature of a pilgrimage to it. During the course of his trip Goethe met and befriended the artists Angelica Kauffman and Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, as well as encountering such notable characters as Lady Hamilton and Alessandro Cagliostro (see Affair of the Diamond Necklace). He also journeyed to Sicily during this time, and wrote that "To have seen Italy without having seen Sicily is to not have seen Italy at all, for Sicily is the clue to everything."[citation needed] While in Southern Italy and Sicily, Goethe encountered, for the first time genuine Greek (as opposed to Roman) architecture, and was quite startled by its relative simplicity. Winckelmann had not recognized the distinctness of the two styles. Goethe's diaries of this period form the basis of the non-fiction Italian Journey. Italian Journey only covers the first year of Goethe's visit. The remaining year is largely undocumented, aside from the fact that he spent much of it in Venice. This "gap in the record" has been the source of much speculation over the years. In the decades which immediately followed its publication in 1816, Italian Journey inspired countless German youths to follow Goethe's example. This is pictured, somewhat satirically, in George Eliot's Middlemarch. Weimar[edit] A Goethe watercolour depicting a liberty pole at the border to the short-lived Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated In late 1792, Goethe took part in the Battle of Valmy against revolutionary France, assisting Duke Karl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach during the failed invasion of France. Again during the Siege of Mainz, he assisted Carl August as a military observer. His written account of these events can be found within his Complete Works. In 1794, Friedrich Schiller wrote to Goethe offering friendship; they had previously had only a mutually wary relationship ever since first becoming acquainted in 1788. This collaborative friendship lasted until Schiller's death in 1805. Goethe, by Luise Seidler (Weimar 1811) In 1806, Goethe was living in Weimar with his mistress Christiane Vulpius, the sister of Christian A. Vulpius, and their son August von Goethe. On 13 October, Napoleon's army invaded the town. The French "spoon guards", the least disciplined soldiers, occupied Goethe's house: The 'spoon guards' had broken in, they had drunk wine, made a great uproar and called for the master of the house. Goethe's secretary Riemer reports: 'Although already undressed and wearing only his wide nightgown... he descended the stairs towards them and inquired what they wanted from him.... His dignified figure, commanding respect, and his spiritual mien seemed to impress even them.' But it was not to last long. Late at night they burst into his bedroom with drawn bayonets. Goethe was petrified, Christiane raised a lot of noise and even tangled with them, other people who had taken refuge in Goethe's house rushed in, and so the marauders eventually withdrew again. It was Christiane who commanded and organized the defense of the house on the Frauenplan. The barricading of the kitchen and the cellar against the wild pillaging soldiery was her work. Goethe noted in his diary: "Fires, rapine, a frightful night... Preservation of the house through steadfastness and luck." The luck was Goethe's, the steadfastness was displayed by Christiane.[26] Days afterward, on 19 October 1806, Goethe legitimized their 18-year relationship by marrying Christiane in a quiet marriage service at the Jakobskirche in Weimar [de]. They had already had several children together by this time, including their son, Julius August Walter von Goethe (1789–1830), whose wife, Ottilie von Pogwisch (1796–1872), cared for the elder Goethe until his death in 1832. August and Ottilie had three children: Walther, Freiherr von Goethe (1818–1885), Wolfgang, Freiherr von Goethe [de] (1820–1883) and Alma von Goethe [de] (1827–1844). Christiane von Goethe died in 1816. Johann reflected, "There is nothing more charming to see than a mother with her child in her arms, and there is nothing more venerable than a mother among a number of her children."[27] Ulrike von Levetzow Later life[edit] After 1793, Goethe devoted his endeavours primarily to literature. By 1820, Goethe was on amiable terms with Kaspar Maria von Sternberg. In 1823, having recovered from a near fatal heart illness, the 74-year-old Goethe fell in love with the teenaged Ulrike von Levetzow whom he wanted to marry, but because of the opposition of her mother he never proposed. Their last meeting in Carlsbad on 5 September 1823 inspired him to the famous Marienbad Elegy which he considered one of his finest works.[28] During that time he also developed a deep emotional bond with the Polish pianist Maria Agata Szymanowska.[29] In 1821 Goethe's friend Carl Friedrich Zelter introduced him to the 12-year-old Felix Mendelssohn. Goethe, now in his seventies, was greatly impressed by the child, leading to perhaps the earliest confirmed comparison with Mozart in the following conversation between Goethe and Zelter: "Musical prodigies ... are probably no longer so rare; but what this little man can do in extemporizing and playing at sight borders the miraculous, and I could not have believed it possible at so early an age." "And yet you heard Mozart in his seventh year at Frankfurt?" said Zelter. "Yes", answered Goethe, "... but what your pupil already accomplishes, bears the same relation to the Mozart of that time that the cultivated talk of a grown-up person bears to the prattle of a child."[30] Mendelssohn was invited to meet Goethe on several later occasions,[31] and set a number of Goethe's poems to music. His other compositions inspired by Goethe include the overture Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (Op. 27, 1828), and the cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht (The First Walpurgis Night, Op. 60, 1832).[32] Death[edit] Coffins of Goethe and Schiller, Weimar vault In 1832, Goethe died in Weimar of apparent heart failure. His last words, according to his doctor Carl Vogel, were, Mehr Licht! (More light!), but this is disputed as Vogel was not in the room at the moment Goethe died.[33] He is buried in the Ducal Vault at Weimar's Historical Cemetery. Eckermann closes his famous work, Conversations with Goethe, with this passage: The morning after Goethe's death, a deep desire seized me to look once again upon his earthly garment. His faithful servant, Frederick, opened for me the chamber in which he was laid out. Stretched upon his back, he reposed as if asleep; profound peace and security reigned in the features of his sublimely noble countenance. The mighty brow seemed yet to harbour thoughts. I wished for a lock of his hair; but reverence prevented me from cutting it off. The body lay naked, only wrapped in a white sheet; large pieces of ice had been placed near it, to keep it fresh as long as possible. Frederick drew aside the sheet, and I was astonished at the divine magnificence of the limbs. The breast was powerful, broad, and arched; the arms and thighs were elegant, and of the most perfect shape; nowhere, on the whole body, was there a trace of either fat or of leanness and decay. A perfect man lay in great beauty before me; and the rapture the sight caused me made me forget for a moment that the immortal spirit had left such an abode. I laid my hand on his heart – there was a deep silence – and I turned away to give free vent to my suppressed tears. The first production of Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin took place in Weimar in 1850. The conductor was Franz Liszt, who chose the date 28 August in honour of Goethe, who was born on 28 August 1749.[34] Literary work[edit] First edition of The Sorrows of Young Werther 1876 'Faust' by Goethe, decorated by Rudolf Seitz, large German edition 51x38cm Overview[edit] The most important of Goethe's works produced before he went to Weimar were Götz von Berlichingen (1773), a tragedy that was the first work to bring him recognition, and the novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (German: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers) (1774), which gained him enormous fame as a writer in the Sturm und Drang period which marked the early phase of Romanticism. Indeed, Werther is often considered to be the "spark" which ignited the movement, and can arguably be called the world's first "best-seller." During the years at Weimar before he met Schiller he began Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, wrote the dramas Iphigenie auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris), Egmont, Torquato Tasso, and the fable Reineke Fuchs.[citation needed] To the period of his friendship with Schiller belong the conception of Wilhelm Meister's Journeyman Years (the continuation of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship), the idyll of Hermann and Dorothea, the Roman Elegies and the verse drama The Natural Daughter. In the last period, between Schiller's death, in 1805, and his own, appeared Faust Part One, Elective Affinities, the West-Eastern Diwan (a collection of poems in the Persian style, influenced by the work of Hafez), his autobiographical Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (From My Life: Poetry and Truth) which covers his early life and ends with his departure for Weimar, his Italian Journey, and a series of treatises on art. His writings were immediately influential in literary and artistic circles.[35][citation needed] Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntalam, which was one of the first works of Sanskrit literature that became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German.[36] Goethe–Schiller Monument, Weimar (1857) Details of selected works[edit] The short epistolary novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, or The Sorrows of Young Werther, published in 1774, recounts an unhappy romantic infatuation that ends in suicide. Goethe admitted that he "shot his hero to save himself": a reference to Goethe's own near-suicidal obsession with a young woman during this period, an obsession he quelled through the writing process. The novel remains in print in dozens of languages and its influence is undeniable; its central hero, an obsessive figure driven to despair and destruction by his unrequited love for the young Lotte, has become a pervasive literary archetype. The fact that Werther ends with the protagonist's suicide and funeral—a funeral which "no clergyman attended"—made the book deeply controversial upon its (anonymous) publication, for on the face of it, it appeared to condone and glorify suicide. Suicide is considered sinful by Christian doctrine: suicides were denied Christian burial with the bodies often mistreated and dishonoured in various ways; in corollary, the deceased's property and possessions were often confiscated by the Church.[37] However, Goethe explained his use of Werther in his autobiography. He said he "turned reality into poetry but his friends thought poetry should be turned into reality and the poem imitated". He was against this reading of poetry.[38] Epistolary novels were common during this time, letter-writing being a primary mode of communication. What set Goethe's book apart from other such novels was its expression of unbridled longing for a joy beyond possibility, its sense of defiant rebellion against authority, and of principal importance, its total subjectivity: qualities that trailblazed the Romantic movement. The next work, his epic closet drama Faust, was completed in stages. The first part was published in 1808 and created a sensation. Goethe finished Faust Part Two in the year of his death, and the work was published posthumously. Goethe's original draft of a Faust play, which probably dates from 1773–74, and is now known as the Urfaust, was also published after his death.[39] The first operatic version of Goethe's Faust, by Louis Spohr, appeared in 1814. The work subsequently inspired operas and oratorios by Schumann, Berlioz, Gounod, Boito, Busoni and Schnittke, as well as symphonic works by Liszt, Wagner and Mahler. Faust became the ur-myth of many figures in the 19th century. Later, a facet of its plot, i.e., of selling one's soul to the devil for power over the physical world, took on increasing literary importance and became a view of the victory of technology and of industrialism, along with its dubious human expenses. In 1919, the world premiere complete production of Faust was staged at the Goetheanum. Goethe in the Roman Campagna (1786) by Tischbein Goethe's poetic work served as a model for an entire movement in German poetry termed Innerlichkeit ("introversion") and represented by, for example, Heine. Goethe's words inspired a number of compositions by, among others, Mozart, Beethoven (who idolised Goethe),[40] Schubert, Berlioz and Wolf. Perhaps the single most influential piece is "Mignon's Song" which opens with one of the most famous lines in German poetry, an allusion to Italy: "Kennst du das Land, wo die Zitronen blühn?" ("Do you know the land where the lemon trees bloom?"). He is also widely quoted. Epigrams such as "Against criticism a man can neither protest nor defend himself; he must act in spite of it, and then it will gradually yield to him", "Divide and rule, a sound motto; unite and lead, a better one", and "Enjoy when you can, and endure when you must", are still in usage or are often paraphrased. Lines from Faust, such as "Das also war des Pudels Kern", "Das ist der Weisheit letzter Schluss", or "Grau ist alle Theorie" have entered everyday German usage. Some well-known quotations are often incorrectly attributed to Goethe. These include Hippocrates' "Art is long, life is short", which is echoed in Goethe's Faust and Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. Scientific work[edit] See also: Goethean science As to what I have done as a poet,... I take no pride in it... But that in my century I am the only person who knows the truth in the difficult science of colours—of that, I say, I am not a little proud, and here I have a consciousness of a superiority to many. — Johann Eckermann, Conversations with Goethe Although his literary work has attracted the greatest amount of interest, Goethe was also keenly involved in studies of natural science.[41] He wrote several works on morphology and colour theory. In the 1790s, he undertook Galvanic experiments and studied anatomical issues together with Alexander von Humboldt.[5] He also had the largest private collection of minerals in all of Europe. By the time of his death, in order to gain a comprehensive view in geology, he had collected 17,800 rock samples. His focus on morphology and what was later called homology influenced 19th century naturalists, although his ideas of transformation were about the continuous metamorphosis of living things and did not relate to contemporary ideas of "transformisme" or transmutation of species. Homology, or as Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire called it "analogie", was used by Charles Darwin as strong evidence of common descent and of laws of variation.[42] Goethe's studies (notably with an elephant's skull lent to him by Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring) led him to independently discover the human intermaxillary bone, also known as "Goethe's bone", in 1784, which Broussonet (1779) and Vicq d'Azyr (1780) had (using different methods) identified several years earlier.[43] While not the only one in his time to question the prevailing view that this bone did not exist in humans, Goethe, who believed ancient anatomists had known about this bone, was the first to prove its existence in all mammals. The elephant's skull that led Goethe to this discovery, and was subsequently named the Goethe Elephant, still exists and is displayed in the Ottoneum in Kassel, Germany. During his Italian journey, Goethe formulated a theory of plant metamorphosis in which the archetypal form of the plant is to be found in the leaf – he writes, "from top to bottom a plant is all leaf, united so inseparably with the future bud that one cannot be imagined without the other".[44] In 1790, he published his Metamorphosis of Plants.[45][46] As one of the many precursors in the history of evolutionary thought, Goethe wrote in Story of My Botanical Studies (1831): The ever-changing display of plant forms, which I have followed for so many years, awakens increasingly within me the notion: The plant forms which surround us were not all created at some given point in time and then locked into the given form, they have been given... a felicitous mobility and plasticity that allows them to grow and adapt themselves to many different conditions in many different places.[47] Goethe's botanical theories were partly based on his gardening in Weimar.[48] Goethe also popularized the Goethe barometer using a principle established by Torricelli. According to Hegel, "Goethe has occupied himself a good deal with meteorology; barometer readings interested him particularly... What he says is important: the main thing is that he gives a comparative table of barometric readings during the whole month of December 1822, at Weimar, Jena, London, Boston, Vienna, Töpel... He claims to deduce from it that the barometric level varies in the same proportion not only in each zone but that it has the same variation, too, at different altitudes above sea-level".[49] Light spectrum, from Theory of Colours. Goethe observed that with a prism, colour arises at light-dark edges, and the spectrum occurs where these coloured edges overlap. In 1810, Goethe published his Theory of Colours, which he considered his most important work. In it, he contentiously characterized colour as arising from the dynamic interplay of light and darkness through the mediation of a turbid medium.[50] In 1816, Schopenhauer went on to develop his own theory in On Vision and Colours based on the observations supplied in Goethe's book. After being translated into English by Charles Eastlake in 1840, his theory became widely adopted by the art world, most notably J. M. W. Turner.[51] Goethe's work also inspired the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, to write his Remarks on Colour. Goethe was vehemently opposed to Newton's analytic treatment of colour, engaging instead in compiling a comprehensive rational description of a wide variety of colour phenomena. Although the accuracy of Goethe's observations does not admit a great deal of criticism, his aesthetic approach did not lend itself to the demands of analytic and mathematical analysis used ubiquitously in modern Science. Goethe was, however, the first to systematically study the physiological effects of colour, and his observations on the effect of opposed colours led him to a symmetric arrangement of his colour wheel, "for the colours diametrically opposed to each other ... are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye."[52] In this, he anticipated Ewald Hering's opponent colour theory (1872).[53] Goethe outlines his method in the essay The experiment as mediator between subject and object (1772).[54] In the Kurschner edition of Goethe's works, the science editor, Rudolf Steiner, presents Goethe's approach to science as phenomenological. Steiner elaborated on that in the books The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception[55] and Goethe's World View,[56] in which he characterizes intuition as the instrument by which one grasps Goethe's biological archetype—The Typus. Novalis, himself a geologist and mining engineer, expressed the opinion that Goethe was the first physicist of his time and "epoch-making in the history of physics", writing that Goethe's studies of light, of the metamorphosis of plants and of insects were indications and proofs "that the perfect educational lecture belongs in the artist's sphere of work"; and that Goethe would be surpassed "but only in the way in which the ancients can be surpassed, in inner content and force, in variety and depth—as an artist actually not, or only very little, for his rightness and intensity are perhaps already more exemplary than it would seem".[57] Eroticism[edit] Many of Goethe's works, especially Faust, the Roman Elegies, and the Venetian Epigrams, depict erotic passions and acts. For instance, in Faust, the first use of Faust's power after signing a contract with the devil is to seduce a teenage girl. Some of the Venetian Epigrams were held back from publication due to their sexual content. Goethe clearly saw human sexuality as a topic worthy of poetic and artistic depiction, an idea that was uncommon in a time when the private nature of sexuality was rigorously normative.[58] In a conversation on April 7, 1830 Goethe stated that pederasty is an "aberration" that easily leads to "animal, roughly material" behavior. He continued, "Pederasty is as old as humanity itself, and one can therefore say, that it resides in nature, even if it proceeds against nature....What culture has won from nature will not be surrendered or given up at any price."[59] On another occasion he wrote: "I like boys a lot, but the girls are even nicer. If I tire of her as a girl, she'll play the boy for me as well".[60] Goethe on a 1999 German stamp Religion and politics[edit] Goethe was a freethinker who believed that one could be inwardly Christian without following any of the Christian churches, many of whose central teachings he firmly opposed, sharply distinguishing between Christ and the tenets of Christian theology, and criticizing its history as a "hodgepodge of fallacy and violence".[61][62] His own descriptions of his relationship to the Christian faith and even to the Church varied widely and have been interpreted even more widely, so that while Goethe's secretary Eckermann portrayed him as enthusiastic about Christianity, Jesus, Martin Luther, and the Protestant Reformation, even calling Christianity the "ultimate religion,"[63] on one occasion Goethe described himself as "not anti-Christian, nor un-Christian, but most decidedly non-Christian,"[64] and in his Venetian Epigram 66, Goethe listed the symbol of the cross among the four things that he most disliked.[65] According to Nietzsche, Goethe had "a kind of almost joyous and trusting fatalism" that has "faith that only in the totality everything redeems itself and appears good and justified."[66] Born into a Lutheran family, Goethe's early faith was shaken by news of such events as the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years' War. Goethe's preoccupation with and reverence for Spinoza are well known and documented in the history of Western thought.[67][68][69] He was one of the central figures in a great flowering of a highly influential Neo-Spinozism[70][71][72] which occurred in German philosophy and literature of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.[73][74]—that was the first remarkable Spinoza revival in history.[75] Like Lessing and Herder, in many respects, Goethe was a devoted Spinozist.[76][77] He was also a pantheist, like some other prominent Spinozists such as Flaubert and Albert Einstein. His later spiritual perspective incorporated elements of pantheism (heavily influenced by Spinoza's thought),[67][69][78] humanism, and various elements of Western esotericism, as seen most vividly in part 2 of Faust. Like Heinrich Heine, Nietzsche mentions in his writings frequently Goethe and Spinoza as a pair.[79] A year before his death, in a letter to Sulpiz Boisserée, Goethe wrote that he had the feeling that all his life he had been aspiring to qualify as one of the Hypsistarians, an ancient sect of the Black Sea region who, in his understanding, sought to reverence, as being close to the Godhead, what came to their knowledge of the best and most perfect.[80] Goethe's unorthodox religious beliefs led him to be called "the great heathen" and provoked distrust among the authorities of his time, who opposed the creation of a Goethe monument on account of his offensive religious creed.[81] August Wilhelm Schlegel considered Goethe "a heathen who converted to Islam."[81] Politically, Goethe described himself as a "moderate liberal."[82][83][84] He was critical of the radicalism of Bentham and expressed sympathy for the prudent liberalism of François Guizot.[85] At the time of the French Revolution, he thought the enthusiasm of the students and professors to be a perversion of their energy and remained skeptical of the ability of the masses to govern.[86] Goethe sympathized with the American Revolution and later wrote a poem in which he declared "America, you're better off than our continent, the old."[87][88] He did not join in the anti-Napoleonic mood of 1812, and he distrusted the strident nationalism which started to be expressed.[89] The medievalism of the Heidelberg Romantics was also repellent to Goethe's eighteenth-century ideal of a supra-national culture.[90] Goethe was a Freemason, joining the lodge Amalia in Weimar in 1780, and frequently alluded to Masonic themes of universal brotherhood in his work,[91] he was also attracted to the Bavarian Illuminati a secret society founded on 1 May 1776.[92][91] Although often requested to write poems arousing nationalist passions, Goethe would always decline. In old age, he explained why this was so to Eckermann: How could I write songs of hatred when I felt no hate? And, between ourselves, I never hated the French, although I thanked God when we were rid of them. How could I, to whom the only significant things are civilization [Kultur] and barbarism, hate a nation which is among the most cultivated in the world, and to which I owe a great part of my own culture? In any case this business of hatred between nations is a curious thing. You will always find it more powerful and barbarous on the lowest levels of civilization. But there exists a level at which it wholly disappears, and where one stands, so to speak, above the nations, and feels the weal or woe of a neighboring people as though it were one's own.[93] Influence[edit] Statue dedicated to Goethe in Chicago's Lincoln Park (1913) Goethe had a great effect on the nineteenth century. In many respects, he was the originator of many ideas which later became widespread. He produced volumes of poetry, essays, criticism, a theory of colours and early work on evolution and linguistics. He was fascinated by mineralogy, and the mineral goethite (iron oxide) is named after him.[94] His non-fiction writings, most of which are philosophic and aphoristic in nature, spurred the development of many thinkers, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Schopenhauer, Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ernst Cassirer, and Carl Jung.[citation needed] Along with Schiller, he was one of the leading figures of Weimar Classicism. Schopenhauer cited Goethe's novel Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship as one of the four greatest novels ever written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse and Don Quixote.[6] Nietzsche wrote, "Four pairs it was that did not deny themselves to my sacrifice: Epicurus and Montaigne, Goethe and Spinoza, Plato and Rousseau, Pascal and Schopenhauer. With these I must come to terms when I have long wandered alone; they may call me right and wrong; to them will I listen when in the process they call each other right and wrong."[95] Goethe embodied many of the contending strands in art over the next century: his work could be lushly emotional, and rigorously formal, brief and epigrammatic, and epic. He would argue that Classicism was the means of controlling art, and that Romanticism was a sickness, even as he penned poetry rich in memorable images, and rewrote the formal rules of German poetry. His poetry was set to music by almost every major Austrian and German composer from Mozart to Mahler, and his influence would spread to French drama and opera as well. Beethoven declared that a "Faust" Symphony would be the greatest thing for art. Liszt and Mahler both created symphonies in whole or in large part inspired by this seminal work, which would give the 19th century one of its most paradigmatic figures: Doctor Faustus. Second Goetheanum Mendelssohn plays to Goethe, 1830: painting by Moritz Oppenheim, 1864 The Faust tragedy/drama, often called Das Drama der Deutschen (the drama of the Germans), written in two parts published decades apart, would stand as his most characteristic and famous artistic creation. Followers of the twentieth-century esotericist Rudolf Steiner built a theatre named the Goetheanum after him—where festival performances of Faust are still performed. Goethe was also a cultural force. During his first meeting with Napoleon in 1808, the latter famously remarked: "Vous êtes un homme (You are a man)!"[96] The two discussed politics, the writings of Voltaire, and Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther, which Napoleon had read seven times and ranked among his favorites.[97][98] Goethe came away from the meeting deeply impressed with Napoleon's enlightened intellect and his efforts to build an alternative to the corrupt old regime.[97][99] Goethe always spoke of Napoleon with the greatest respect, confessing that "nothing higher and more pleasing could have happened to me in all my life" than to have met Napoleon in person.[100] Germaine de Staël, in De l'Allemagne (1813), presented German Classicism and Romanticism as a potential source of spiritual authority for Europe, and identified Goethe as a living classic.[101] She praised Goethe as possessing "the chief characteristics of the German genius" and uniting "all that distinguishes the German mind."[101] Staël's portrayal helped elevate Goethe over his more famous German contemporaries and transformed him into a European cultural hero.[101] Goethe met with her and her partner Benjamin Constant, with whom he shared a mutual admiration.[102] In Victorian England, Goethe exerted a profound influence on George Eliot, whose partner George Henry Lewes wrote a Life of Goethe.[103] Eliot presented Goethe as "eminently the man who helps us to rise to a lofty point of observation" and praised his "large tolerance", which "quietly follows the stream of fact and of life" without passing moral judgments.[103] Matthew Arnold found in Goethe the "Physician of the Iron Age" and "the clearest, the largest, the most helpful thinker of modern times" with a "large, liberal view of life."[104] Goethe memorial in front of the Alte Handelsbörse, Leipzig It was to a considerable degree due to Goethe's reputation that the city of Weimar was chosen in 1919 as the venue for the national assembly, convened to draft a new constitution for what would become known as Germany's Weimar Republic. Goethe became a key reference for Thomas Mann in his speeches and essays defending the republic.[105] He emphasized Goethe's "cultural and self-developing individualism", humanism, and cosmopolitanism.[105] The Federal Republic of Germany's cultural institution, the Goethe-Institut, is named after him, and promotes the study of German abroad and fosters knowledge about Germany by providing information on its culture, society and politics. The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2001 in recognition of its historical significance.[106] Goethe's influence was dramatic because he understood that there was a transition in European sensibilities, an increasing focus on sense, the indescribable, and the emotional. This is not to say that he was emotionalistic or excessive; on the contrary, he lauded personal restraint and felt that excess was a disease: "There is nothing worse than imagination without taste". Goethe praised Francis Bacon for his advocacy of science based on experiment and his forceful revolution in thought as one of the greatest strides forward in modern science.[107] However, he was critical of Bacon's inductive method and approach based on pure classification.[108] He said in Scientific Studies: We conceive of the individual animal as a small world, existing for its own sake, by its own means. Every creature is its own reason to be. All its parts have a direct effect on one another, a relationship to one another, thereby constantly renewing the circle of life; thus we are justified in considering every animal physiologically perfect. Viewed from within, no part of the animal is a useless or arbitrary product of the formative impulse (as so often thought). Externally, some parts may seem useless because the inner coherence of the animal nature has given them this form without regard to outer circumstance. Thus...[not] the question, What are they for? but rather, Where do they come from?[109] Schiller, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Goethe in Jena, c. 1797 Goethe's scientific and aesthetic ideas have much in common with Denis Diderot, whose work he translated and studied.[110][111] Both Diderot and Goethe exhibited a repugnance towards the mathematical interpretation of nature; both perceived the universe as dynamic and in constant flux; both saw "art and science as compatible disciplines linked by common imaginative processes"; and both grasped "the unconscious impulses underlying mental creation in all forms."[110][111] Goethe's Naturanschauer is in many ways a sequel to Diderot's interprète de la nature.[111] His views make him, along with Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, and Ludwig van Beethoven, a figure in two worlds: on the one hand, devoted to the sense of taste, order, and finely crafted detail, which is the hallmark of the artistic sense of the Age of Reason and the neo-classical period of architecture; on the other, seeking a personal, intuitive, and personalized form of expression and society, firmly supporting the idea of self-regulating and organic systems. George Henry Lewes celebrated Goethe's revolutionary understanding of the organism.[110] Thinkers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson would take up many similar ideas in the 1800s. Goethe's ideas on evolution would frame the question that Darwin and Wallace would approach within the scientific paradigm. The Serbian inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla was heavily influenced by Goethe's Faust, his favorite poem, and had actually memorized the entire text. It was while reciting a certain verse that he was struck with the epiphany that would lead to the idea of the rotating magnetic field and ultimately, alternating current.[112] Works[edit] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe bibliography Books related to Goethe[edit] The Life of Goethe by George Henry Lewes Goethe: The History of a Man by Emil Ludwig Goethe by Georg Brandes. Authorized translation from the Danish (2nd ed. 1916) by Allen W. Porterfield, New York, Crown publishers, 1936. "Crown edition, 1936." Title Wolfgang Goethe Goethe: his life and times by Richard Friedenthal Lotte in Weimar: The Beloved Returns by Thomas Mann Conversations with Goethe by Johann Peter Eckermann Goethe's World: as seen in letters and memoirs ed. by Berthold Biermann Goethe: Four Studies by Albert Schweitzer Goethe Poet and Thinker by E.M. Wilkinson and L.A. Willoughby Goethe and his Publishers by Siegfried Unseld [de] Goethe by T.J. Reed Goethe. A Psychoanalytic Study, by Kurt R. Eissler The Life of Goethe. A Critical Biography by John Williams Goethe: The Poet and the Age (2 Vols.), by Nicholas Boyle Goethe's Concept of the Daemonic: After the Ancients, by Angus Nicholls Goethe and Rousseau: Resonances of their Mind, by Carl Hammer, Jr. Doctor Faustus of the popular legend, Marlowe, the Puppet-Play, Goethe, and Lenau, treated historically and critically. – A parallel between Goethe and Schiller. – An historic outline of German Literature , by Louis Pagel Goethe and Schiller, Essays on German Literature, by Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen Goethe-Wörterbuch (Goethe Dictionary, abbreviated GWb). Herausgegeben von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen und der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer Verlag; ISBN 978-3-17-019121-1 West-Eastern Divan: Complete, annotated new translation, including Goethe's 'Notes and Essays' & the unpublished poems, translated by Eric Ormsby, 2019. Gingko, ISBN 9781909942240 See also[edit] Poetry portal Philosophy portal Biography portal Young Goethe in Love (2010) Dora Stock – her encounters with the 16-year-old Goethe. Goethe Basin Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe-Gymnasium W. H. Murray – author of misattributed quotation "Until one is committed ..." Nature (Tobler essay), essay often mis-attributed to Goethe Awards named after him Goethe Awards Goethe Prize Hanseatic Goethe Prize References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ /ˈɡɜːtə/, also US: /ˈɡɜːrtə, ˈɡeɪtə, -ti/ GURT-ə, GAYT-ə, -⁠ee;[1][2] German: [ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfɡaŋ fɔn ˈɡøːtə] (listen);[2] ^ In 1998, both of these sites, together with nine others, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Classical Weimar.[4] ^ The others Schopenhauer named were Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse, and Don Quixote.[6] Citations[edit] ^ "Goethe". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. ^ a b Wells, John (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. ^ a b c Nicholas Boyle, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Classical Weimar UNESCO Justification". Justification for UNESCO Heritage Cites. UNESCO. Retrieved 7 June 2012. ^ a b Daum, Andreas W. (March 2019). "Social Relations, Shared Practices, and Emotions: Alexander von Humboldt's Excursion into Literary Classicism and the Challenges to Science around 1800". The Journal of Modern History. University of Chicago. 91 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1086/701757. S2CID 151051482. ^ a b c Schopenhauer, Arthur (January 2004). The Art of Literature. The Essays of Arthur Schopenahuer. Retrieved 22 March 2015. ^ a b Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. 1. J.G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 36 ^ Catharina was the daughter of Johann Wolfgang Textor, sheriff (Schultheiß) of Frankfurt, and of Anna Margaretha Lindheimer. ^ Oehler, R 1932, "Buch und Bibliotheken unter der Perspektive Goethe – Goethe's attitude toward books and libraries", The Library Quarterly, 2, pp. 232–249 ^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. The Autobiography of Goethe: Truth and Poetry, From My Own Life, Volume 1 (1897), translated by John Oxenford, pp. 114, 129 ^ Valerian Tornius [de]: Goethe – Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p. 26 ^ Emil Ludwig: Goethe – Geschichte eines Menschen. Vol. 1. Ernst-Rowohlt-Verlag, Berlin 1926, pp. 17–18 ^ Karl Goedeke: Goethes Leben. Cotta / Kröner, Stuttgart around 1883, pp. 16–17. ^ "Originally speech of Goethe to the Shakespeare's Day by University Duisburg". Uni-duisburg-essen.de. Retrieved 17 July 2014. ^ Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. 1. J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 81 ^ Karl Robert Mandelkow, Bodo Morawe: Goethes Briefe. 2. edition. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner, Hamburg 1968, p. 571 ^ Valerian Tornius: Goethe – Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p. 60 ^ a b Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. p. 589 ^ Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. pp. 590–92 ^ See Goethe and his Publishers ^ Gosnell, Charles F., and Géza Schütz. 1932. "Goethe the Librarian." Library Quarterly 2 (January): 367–374. ^ Hume Brown, Peter (1920). Life of Goethe. pp. 224–25. ^ "Goethe und Carl August – Freundschaft und Politik" by Gerhard Müller, in Th. Seemann (ed.): Anna Amalia, Carl August und das Ereignis Weimar. Jahrbuch der Klassik Stiftung Weimar 2007. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, pp. 132–164 (in German) ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stein, Charlotte von" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Wilson, W. Daniel (1999). Das Goethe-Tabu [The Goethe Taboo: Protest and Human Rights in Classical Weimar] (in German). Munich: Deutsche Taschenbuch Verlag (dtv). pp. 49–57, also the entire book. ISBN 978-3-423-30710-9.; "The Goethe Case by W. Daniel Wilson" – The New York Review of Books. ^ Safranski, Rüdiger (1990). Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-79275-3. ^ Chamberlain, Alexander (1896). The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought: (The Child in Primitive Culture), p. 385. MacMillan. ^ "Goethe's third summer". ^ Briscoe, J. R. (Ed.). (2004). New historical anthology of music by women (Vol. 1). Indiana University Press. pp. 126–27. ^ Todd 2003, p. 89. ^ Mercer-Taylor 2000, pp. 41–42, 93. ^ Todd 2003, pp. 188–90, 269–70. ^ Carl Vogel: "Die letzte Krankheit Goethe's". In: Journal der practischen Heilkunde (1833). ^ Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., 1954[page needed] ^ See, generally Schiller, F. (1877). Correspondence between Schiller and Goethe, from 1794 to 1805 (Vol. 1). G. Bell. ^ Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. Sanskrit Drama in Performance. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 9. ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3. ^ "The Stigma of Suicide – A history". Pips Project. Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. See also: "Ophelia's Burial". ^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1848). "The Auto-Biography of Goethe. Truth and Poetry: From My Own Life". Translated by John Oxenford. London: Henry G. Bohn. p. [page needed] – via Internet Archive. ^ Goethe's Plays, by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, translated into English with introductions by Charles E. Passage, Publisher Benn Limited, 1980, ISBN 978-0-510-00087-5, 978-0-510-00087-5 ^ Wigmore, Richard (2 July 2012). "A meeting of genius: Beethoven and Goethe, July 1812". Gramophone. Haymarket. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe". The Nature Institute. Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ Darwin, C.R. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (1st ed.). John Murray. ^ K. Barteczko and M. Jacob (1999). "A re-evaluation of the premaxillary bone in humans". Anatomy and Embryology. 207 (6): 417–37. doi:10.1007/s00429-003-0366-x. PMID 14760532. S2CID 13069026. ^ Goethe, J.W. Italian Journey. Robert R Heitner. Suhrkamp ed., vol. 6. ^ Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu Erklären. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2 January 2018. ^ Magnus, Rudolf; Schmid, Gunther (2004). Metamorphosis of Plants. ISBN 978-1-4179-4984-7. Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ Frank Teichmann (tr. Jon McAlice) "The Emergence of the Idea of Evolution in the Time of Goethe" first published in Interdisciplinary Aspects of Evolution, Urachhaus (1989) ^ Balzer, Georg (1966). Goethe als Gartenfreund. München: F. Bruckmann KG. ^ Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature: Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1830), part 2 translated by A.V. Miller, illustrated, reissue, reprint Oxford University Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-927267-9, 978-0-19-927267-9, Google Books ^ Aristotle wrote that colour is a mixture of light and dark, since white light is always seen as somewhat darkened when it is seen as a colour. (Aristotle, On Sense and its Objects, III, 439b, 20 ff.: "White and black may be juxtaposed in such a way that by the minuteness of the division of its parts each is invisible while their product is visible, and thus colour may be produced.") ^ Bockemuhl, M. (1991). Turner. Taschen, Koln. ISBN 978-3-8228-6325-1. ^ Goethe, Johann (1810). Theory of Colours, paragraph No. 50. ^ "Goethe's Color Theory". Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ "The Experiment as Mediator between Subject and Object". Archived from the original on 10 November 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2014. ^ "The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception". 1979. Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ "Goethe's World View". Retrieved 28 August 2008. ^ 'Goethe's Message of Beauty in Our Twentieth Century World', (Friedrich) Frederick Hiebel, RSCP California. ISBN 978-0-916786-37-3 ^ Outing Goethe and His Age; edited by Alice A. Kuzniar.[page needed] ^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang (1976). Gedenkausgabe der Werke, Briefe und Gespräche. Zürich : Artemis Verl. p. 686. Retrieved 27 April 2016. ^ Bullough, V.L. (1990). History in adult human sexual behavior with children and adolescents in Western societies (Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions ed.). Springer-Verlag New York Inc. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4613-9684-0. Retrieved 27 April 2016. ^ The phrase Goethe uses is "Mischmasch von Irrtum und Gewalt", in his "Zahme Xenien" IX, Goethes Gedichte in Zeitlicher Folge, Insel Verlag 1982 ISBN 978-3-458-14013-9, p. 1121 ^ Arnold Bergsträsser, "Goethe's View of Christ", Modern Philology, Vol. 46, No. 3 (Feb. 1949), pp. 172–202; M. Tetz, "Mischmasch von Irrtum und Gewalt. Zu Goethes Vers auf die Kirchengeschichte", Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 88 (1991) pp. 339–63 ^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von; Eckermann, Johann Peter; Soret, Frédéric Jacob (1850). Conversations of Goethe with Eckermann and Soret, Vol. II, pp. 423–24. Retrieved 17 July 2014. ^ Boyle 1992, 353[incomplete short citation] ^ Thompson, James (1895). Venetian Epigrams. Retrieved 17 July 2014. Venetian Epigrams, 66, ["Wenige sind mir jedoch wie Gift und Schlange zuwider; Viere: Rauch des Tabacks, Wanzen und Knoblauch und †."]. The cross symbol he drew has been variously understood as meaning Christianity, Christ, or death. ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, § 95 ^ a b Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Letters from Italy, 1786–1788. Translated from the German by W. H. Auden and Elizabeth Mayer (New York: Penguin Books, 1995). Goethe: "For many years I did not dare look into a Latin author or at anything which evoked an image of Italy. If this happened by chance, I suffered agonies. Herder often used to say mockingly that I had learned all my Latin from Spinoza, for that was the only Latin book he had ever seen me reading. He did not realize how carefully I had to guard myself against the classics, and that it was sheer anxiety which drove me to take refuge in the abstractions of Spinoza." ^ Kiefer, Klaus H.: Die famose Hexen-Epoche: Sichtbares und Unsichtbares in der Aufklärung. (München: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2004), p. 91. Sulpiz Boisserée (1815): "He [Goethe] tells me about his philosophical development. Philosophical thinking; without any actual philosophical system. At first Spinoza exerted a great and lasting influence on him." [Original in German: "Er [Goethe] erzählt mir von seiner philosophischen Entwicklung. Philosophisches Denken; ohne eigentliches philosophisches System. Spinoza hat zuerst großen und immer bleibenden Einfluß auf ihn geübt."] ^ a b Johann Peter Eckermann (1831): "Goethe found such a point of view early in Spinoza, and he gladly recognizes how much the views of this great thinker have been in keeping with the needs of his youth. He found himself in him, and so he could fix himself to him in the most beautiful way." [Original in German: "Einen solchen Standpunkt fand Goethe früh in Spinoza, und er erkennet mit Freuden, wie sehr die Ansichten dieses großen Denkers den Bedürfnissen seiner Jugend gemäß gewesen. Er fand in ihm sich selber, und so konnte er sich auch an ihm auf das schönste befestigen."] (Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens, 1831) ^ Danzel, Theodor Wilhelm: Über Goethes Spinozismus. Ein Beitrag zur tieferen Würdigung des Dichters und Forschers. (Hamburg: Johann August Meißner, 1843) ^ Schneege, Gerhard: Zu Goethes Spinozismus. (Breslau: Druck von O. Gutsmann, 1910) ^ Lindner, Herbert: Das Problem des Spinozismus im Schaffen Goethes und Herders. (Weimar: Arion, 1960) ^ Warnecke, Friedrich: Goethe, Spinoza und Jacobi. (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1908) ^ Timm, Hermann: Gott und die Freiheit: Studien zur Religionsphilosophie der Goethezeit [de], Band 1: Die Spinozarenaissance. (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1974) ^ Gálik, Marián (1975), "Two Modern Chinese Philosophers on Spinoza (Some Remarks on Sino-German Spinoza's 'Festschrift')". Oriens Extremus 22(1): 29–43: "The Germans, however, were the first to manifest serious interest in him. Their first great philosopher Leibniz went to seek his advice and his counsel; they were the only ones to invite him to lecture at their university. Even though Leibniz concealed him from the world, the Germans revealed him to the world. The generation of their greatest philosophers and poets from the second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries grew up under his influence. Goethe read him together with Charlotte von Stein, and even read him together with her in Latin. To Hegel, Spinoza was 'der Mittelpunkt der modernen Philosophie'." ^ Bollacher, Martin: Der junge Goethe und Spinoza. Studien zur Geschichte des Spinozismus in der Epoche des Sturm und Drang. (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1968) ^ Bell, David: Spinoza in Germany from 1670 to the Age of Goethe. (London: University of London, Institute of Germanic Studies, 1984) ^ Jungmann, Albert: Goethes Naturphilosophie zwischen Spinoza und Nietzsche. Studien zur Entwicklung von Goethes Naturphilosophie bis zur Aufnahme von Kants «Kritik der Urteilskraft». (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1989) ^ Yovel, Yirmiyahu, 'Nietzsche and Spinoza: Enemy-Brothers,'. In: Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2: The Adventures of Immanence. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989). Yirmiyahu Yovel: "Speaking of his 'ancestors', Nietzsche at various times gives several lists, but he always mentions Spinoza and Goethe—and always as a pair. This is no accident, for Nietzsche sees Goethe as incorporating Spinoza and as anticipating his own 'Dionysian' ideal." ^ Letter to Boisserée dated 22 March 1831 quoted in Peter Boerner, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1832/1982: A Biographical Essay. Bonn: Inter Nationes, 1981 p. 82 ^ a b Krimmer, Elisabeth; Simpson, Patricia Anne (2013). Religion, Reason, and Culture in the Age of Goethe. Boydell & Brewer. p. 99. ^ Eckermann, Johann Peter (1901). Conversations with Goethe. M.W. Dunne. p. 320. 'Dumont,' returned Goethe, 'is a moderate liberal, just as all rational people are and ought to be, and as I myself am.' ^ Selth, Jefferson P. (1997). Firm Heart and Capacious Mind: The Life and Friends of Etienne Dumont. University Press of America. pp. 132–33. ^ Mommsen, Katharina (2014). Goethe and the Poets of Arabia. Boydell & Brewer. p. 70. ^ Peter Eckermann, Johann (1901). Conversations with Goethe. M.W. Dunne. pp. 317–319. ^ McCabe, Joseph. 'Goethe: The Man and His Character'. p. 343 ^ Unseld 1996, pp. 36–37. ^ Gemünden, Gerd (1998). Framed Visions: Popular Culture, Americanization, and the Contemporary German and Austrian Imagination. University of Michigan Press. pp. 18–19. ^ Unseld 1996, p. 212. ^ Richards, David B. (1979). Goethe's Search for the Muse: Translation and Creativity. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 83. ^ a b Beachy, Robert (2000). "Recasting Cosmopolitanism: German Freemasonry and Regional Identity in the Early Nineteenth Century". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 33 (2): 266–74. doi:10.1353/ecs.2000.0002. JSTOR 30053687. S2CID 162003813. ^ Schüttler, Hermann (1991). Die Mitglieder des Illuminatenordens, 1776–1787/93. Munich: Ars Una. pp. 48–49, 62–63, 71, 82. ISBN 978-3-89391-018-2. ^ Will Durant (1967). The Story of Civilization Volume 10: Rousseau and Revolution. Simon&Schuster. p. 607. ^ Webmineral.com. Retrieved 21 August 2009, ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich: The Portable Nietzsche. (New York: The Viking Press, 1954) ^ Friedenthal, Richard (2010). Goethe: His Life & Times. Transaction Publishers. p. 389. ^ a b Broers, Michael (2014). Europe Under Napoleon. I.B. Tauris. p. 4. ^ Swales, Martin (1987). Goethe: The Sorrows of Young Werther. CUP Archive. p. 100. ^ Merseburger, Peter (2013). Mythos Weimar: Zwischen Geist und Macht. Pantheon. pp. 132–33. ^ Ferber, Michael (2008). A Companion to European Romanticism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 450. ^ a b c Gillespie, Gerald Ernest Paul; Engel, Manfred (2008). Romantic Prose Fiction. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 44. ^ Wood, Dennis (2002). Benjamin Constant: A Biography. Routledge. p. 185. ^ a b Röder-Bolton, Gerlinde (1998). George Eliot and Goethe: An Elective Affinity. Rodopi. pp. 3–8. ^ Connell, W.F. (2002). The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. Routledge. p. 34. ^ a b Mundt, Hannelore (2004). Understanding Thomas Mann. Univ of South Carolina Press. pp. 110–11. ^ "The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. Retrieved 29 September 2017. ^ Richter, Simon J. (2007). Goethe Yearbook 14. Harvard University Press. pp. 113–14. ^ Amrine, F.R.; Zucker, Francis J. (2012). Goethe and the Sciences: A Reappraisal. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 232. ^ Scientific Studies, Suhrkamp ed., vol. 12, p. 121; trans. Douglas Miller ^ a b c Roach, Joseph R. (1993). The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. University of Michigan Press. pp. 165–66. ^ a b c Fellows, Otis Edward (1981). Diderot Studies. Librairie Droz. pp. 392–94. ^ Seifer, Marc J. (1998) "Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla: Biography of a Genius", Citadel Press, pp. 22, 308 Sources[edit] Mercer-Taylor, Peter (2000). The Life of Mendelssohn. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63972-9. Todd, R. Larry (2003). Mendelssohn – A Life in Music. Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511043-2. Unseld, Siegfried (1996). Goethe and His Publishers. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226841908. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Wikisource has original works written by or about: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Goethe on In Our Time at the BBC "Goethe and the Science of the Enlightenment" In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nicholas Boyle and Simon Schaffer (February 10, 2000). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Find a Grave Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Project Gutenberg Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Internet Archive Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) "Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe". Zeno.org (in German). 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Lotte in Weimar: The Beloved Returns "Sorrows of Werther" v t e Elective Affinities by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Film Elective Affinities (1974) Tarot (1986) The Elective Affinities (1996) Sometime in August (2009) Art Elective Affinities (1933 painting) Related Arcadia The Nemesis of Faith Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Chile Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Korea Romania Croatia Netherlands Poland Russia 2 Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Scientific illustrators RKD Artists (Netherlands) Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases International Plant Names Index CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Léonore (France) 1 MusicBrainz artist RISM (France) 1 RERO (Switzerland) 1 2 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Encyclopedia of Islam Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-8622	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with FAST identifiers.The FAST identifier appears as Faceted Application of Subject Terminology in the Other section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P2163. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-8657	----	Tiberius (son of Constans II) - Wikipedia Tiberius (son of Constans II) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the co-emperor of the 7th century. For the first century Emperor, see Tiberius. Byzantine co-Emperor Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Constantine IV Tiberius Co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire with Constantine IV Constantine IV with his co-emperor brothers Heraclius and Tiberius to his left, mosaic in basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. Byzantine co-emperor Reign 659–681 (22 years) Coronation 659 Predecessor Constans II Successor Constantine IV Co-emperors Constans II, (659–668) Constantine IV, (659–681) Heraclius, (659–681) Born Constantinople Names Flavius Tiberius Augustus Dynasty Heraclian Father Constans II Mother Fausta Religion Christianity Heraclian dynasty Chronology Heraclius 610–641 with Constantine III as co-emperor 613–641 Constantine III 641 with Heraklonas as co-emperor Heraklonas 641 with Tiberius and Constans II as co-emperors (September/October 641 – September/October 641) Constans II 641–668 with Constantine IV (654–668), Heraclius and Tiberius (659–668) as co-emperors Constantine IV 668–685 with Heraclius and Tiberius (668–681), and Justinian II (681–685) as co-emperors Justinian II 685–695, 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Succession Preceded by Justinian dynasty and Phocas Followed by Twenty Years' Anarchy v t e Tiberius (Greek: Τιβέριος, Tiberios) was Byzantine co-emperor from 659 to 681. He was the son of Constans II and Fausta, who was elevated in 659, before his father departed for Italy. After the death of Constans, Tiberius' brother Constantine IV, ascended the throne as senior emperor. Constantine attempted to have both Tiberius and Heraclius removed as co-emperors, which sparked a popular revolt, in 681. Constantine ended the revolt by promising to accede to the demands of the rebels, sending them home, but bringing their leaders into Constantinople. Once there, Constantine had them executed, then imprisoned Tiberius and Heraclius and had them mutilated, after which point they disappear from history. Life[edit] Tiberius was the youngest son of Constans II. His mother was Fausta, daughter of the Patrician Valentinus.[1] Although his eldest brother Constantine IV had been raised to the rank of co-emperor in 654,[2] in 659, shortly before his father's departure for Italy, Tiberius was also elevated by Constans to the rank of co-emperor, alongside his older brother Heraclius. In 663, Constans tried to have his sons join him in Sicily, but this provoked a popular uprising in Constantinople,[3] led by Theodore of Koloneia and Andrew,[4] and the brothers remained in the imperial capital.[3] With Constans II's death in 668, Constantine IV became the senior emperor.[5] After ruling alongside Tiberius and Heraclius for thirteen years, Constantine attempted to demote his brothers from the imperial position, but this provoked a military revolt in the Anatolic Theme (in modern Turkey).[6] The army marched to Chrysopolis, and sent a delegation across the straits of the Hellespont to Constantinople, demanding that the two brothers should remain co-emperors alongside Constantine IV.[6] They based their demand on the belief that, since Heaven was ruled by the Trinity, in the same way the empire should be governed by three Emperors.[5] Confronted by this situation, Constantine kept a close eye on his brothers, and sent across a trusted officer, Theodore, the captain of Koloneia. Constantine gave Theodore the delicate task of praising the soldiers for their devotion and agreeing with their reasoning, with the objective of persuading them to return to their barracks in Anatolia.[7] He also invited the leaders of the rebellion to come over to Constantinople and consult with the Senate in order that they may begin the process of confirming the army's wishes.[7] Happy with this apparently positive outcome, the army departed back to Anatolia, while the instigators of the movement entered the city.[7] With the military threat now gone, Constantine moved against the leaders of the revolt, captured them and had them hanged at Sycae.[8] Because he was the focus of a plot to curtail Constantine's power, both he and his brother were now suspect in the senior emperor's eyes; also, the emperor was keen to raise up his own son, the future Justinian II.[9] Sometime between 16 September and 21 December 681, Constantine ordered the mutilation of his brothers by slitting their noses, and ordered that their images no longer appear on any coinage, and that their names be removed from all official documentation;[10] likely to ensure that his son, Justinian II would, succeed him.[9] After this point, neither are mentioned again by history.[11] Citations[edit] ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 496. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 500. ^ a b Winkelmann & Lilie 2001, pp. 47–48. ^ Lilie 2013. ^ a b Moore. ^ a b Bury 1889, p. 308. ^ a b c Bury 1889, p. 309. ^ Stratos 1980, p. 139. ^ a b Hoyland 2012, pp. 173–174. ^ Oaks 1968, p. 513. ^ Haldon 2016, pp. 43–45. Bibliography[edit] Bury, J.B. (1889), A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. II, MacMillan & Co., OCLC 168739195 Haldon, John (2016). The Empire That Would Not Die. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674088771. Hoyland, Robert G. (2012). Theophilus of Edessa's Chronicle and the circulation of historical knowledge in late antiquity and early Islam. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1846316975. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (2013). Winkelmanns, Friedhelm; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (eds.). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Walter de Gruyter. OCLC 913120464. Moore, R. Scott (1997). "Constantine IV (668–685 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2010. Stratos, Andreas Nikolaos (1980). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: 634–641. A.M. Hakkert. OCLC 490722634. Oaks, Dumbarton (1968). Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Dumbarton Oaks. OCLC 847177622. Winkelmann, Friedhelm; Lilie, Ralph-Johannes, eds. (2001), Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit: I. Abteilung (641–867) – 5. Band: Theophylaktos (#8346) – az-Zubair (#8675), Anonymi (#10001–12149) (in German), Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-016675-0 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)&oldid=1019125900" Categories: 7th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine junior emperors Heraclian Dynasty Porphyrogennetoi 660s in the Byzantine Empire 670s in the Byzantine Empire 680s in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Ελληνικά 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî Polski Português Română Русский Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2021, at 17:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8662	----	Epicureanism - Wikipedia Epicureanism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search system of philosophy "Epicurean" redirects here. For other uses, see Epicurean (disambiguation). Roman Epicurus bust Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Few writings by Epicurus have survived. However, there are independent attestations of his ideas from his later disciples. Some scholars consider the epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for On the Nature of Things) by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Epicurus also had a wealthy 2nd c. AD disciple, Diogenes of Oenoanda, who had a portico wall inscribed with tenets of the philosophy erected in Oenoanda, Lycia (present day Turkey). Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers generally withdrew from politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions which can directly conflict with the Epicurean pursuit for peace of mind and virtues.[1] Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from "hedonism" as colloquially understood. Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established, such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the late 3rd century CE Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism) that were now in the ascendant. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era. Contents 1 History 2 Philosophy 3 Ethics 4 Politics 5 Religion 6 Epicurean physics 7 Epistemology 8 Tetrapharmakos 9 Notable Epicureans 10 Modern usage and misconceptions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History[edit] In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus, Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens, Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", later the name of Epicurus' school.[2] Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.[3][4] The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire.[5] Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia. Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents.[2] With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century CE, there was little trace of its existence.[6] The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.[7] The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס‎).[citation needed] In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.[citation needed] Philosophy[edit] Part of a series on Hedonism Thinkers Ajita Kesakambali Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Julien Offray de La Mettrie Aristippus Epicurus Fred Feldman Theodorus the Atheist Michel Onfray Aristippus the Younger Hermarchus Lucretius Pierre Gassendi Metrodorus of Lampsacus David Pearce Zeno of Sidon Yang Zhu Torbjörn Tännsjö Esperanza Guisán Peter Singer Schools of hedonism Cārvāka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christian hedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Psychological hedonism Ethical hedonism Axiological hedonism Key concepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Related articles Paradox of hedonism Hedonic treadmill v t e Epicureanism argued that pleasure was the chief good in life.[8] Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.[8] Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures.[8] Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed.[9] Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.[10][11] Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.[12] Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary desire that should be generally avoided.[13] I learn that your bodily inclination leans most keenly towards sexual intercourse. If you neither violate the laws nor disturb well established morals nor sadden someone close to you, nor strain your body, nor spend what is needed for necessities, use your own choice as you wish. It is sure difficult to imagine, however, that none of these would be a part of sex because sex never benefitted anyone. — Epicurus, Vatican Sayings, LI[14] The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial.[15] Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished.[16] Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.[16] Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship — quoted by Cicero[17] While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a "bitter gift". When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. — Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus"[18] Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.[19] Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[20] From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.[21] Ethics[edit] Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the purpose of life.[22] As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible.[23] Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.[24] Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind.[24] Pleasures of the body: These pleasures involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present.[24] One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.[25] Pleasures of the mind: These pleasures involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind.[24] These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences.[25] Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.[25] The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure.[26] Kinetic pleasure: Kinetic pleasure describes the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change.[27] Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense.[26][28] According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.[26] Katastematic pleasure: Katastematic pleasure describes the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain.[28] Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear.[26][27] Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia.[26] From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental.[29] The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia.[29] In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful.[30] Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.[31] Epicurus distinguishes three kinds of desires: the natural and necessary, the natural but not necessary, and those that are neither natural nor necessary.[30] Natural and necessary: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them.[30] They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life.[30] Clothing would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.[30] Natural but not necessary: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival.[31] Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire.[31] The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary.[31] It is for this reason that they should be avoided.[31] Not natural nor necessary: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled.[32] Desires of wealth or fame would fall under this category, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.[32] If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby the highest form of happiness.[32] Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other.[15] The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness.[33] Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.[33] He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.[34] ("Justly" here means to prevent a "person from harming or being harmed by another".)[34] Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato's Republic.[33] The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.[33] Politics[edit] Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions.[35] To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another.[36] That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal.[36] Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics.[36] However Epicureans are not apolitical, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans.[35] Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.[35] The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans.[35] While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics.[35] Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family.[35] Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.[35] However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics.[35] The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.[35] Religion[edit] Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way[37] – thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution.[38] One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods.[39] The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position).[37][40][41] The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality.[37][41] However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it.[42] Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia, or the space between worlds.[43] Contrarily, the idealist position holds that Epicurus did not actually conceive of the gods as existing in reality. Rather, Epicurus is said to have viewed the gods as just idealized forms of the best human life,[40][44] and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards.[40] The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position.[40][41] While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.[40][41] Epicureanism also offered arguments against the existence of the gods in the manner proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius: God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to God. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful – which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them? — Lactantius, De Ira Deorum[45] This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist.[46] According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean.[47] The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.[48] Parallels may be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which similarly emphasize a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.[49][50][51] Some modern Epicureans have argued that Epicureanism is a type of religious identity, arguing that it fulfils Ninian Smart's "seven dimensions of religion", and that the Epicurean practices of feasting on the twentieth and declaring an oath to follow Epicurus, insistence on doctrinal adherence, and the sacredness of Epicurean friendship, make Epicureanism more similar to some non-theistic religions than to other philosophies.[52][full citation needed] Epicurean physics[edit] Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.[53] Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.[54][55] Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.[56][57] Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.[54] Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.[58] Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite amount of worlds, or cosmoi.[54] Some of these worlds could be vastly different than our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (metakosmia).[54] Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts, and Epicureans offered multiple arguments to support this position.[59] Epicureans argue that because void is necessary for matter to move, anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance.[56] They also argued that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.[59][56] Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways.[60] Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other.[60] When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.[60] When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest world.[60][61] This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path.[61] This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.[60][61] Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will.[62] If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect.[62] This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus' atomic theory.[62] Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.[63] All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles.[63] While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red.[63] The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.[63] Epistemology[edit] Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology.[64] The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true,[65][66] and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions.[66] When we form judgments about things (hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.[66][67][68][69] For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.[69] Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê).[70] A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of the mind" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias) was said to have been added by later Epicureans.[70][71] These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.[64] Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans.[66] Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that image of the oar, that is the atoms travelling from the oar to the observer's eyes, have been shifted and thus really do arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar.[72] The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way.[72] In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" (enargeia) of the perceivable thing by closer examination.[73] This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived.[73] Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.[74] An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time.[75] When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts.[76] It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive.[69] Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning.[76] Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information.[76] Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.[76] Our feelings or emotions (pathê) are how we perceive pleasure and pain.[71] They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things.[71] According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.[71] The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive.[77] We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses.[70] The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.[70][77] Tetrapharmakos[edit] Main article: Tetrapharmakos Part of Herculaneum Papyrus 1005 (P.Herc.1005), col. 5. Contains Epicurean tetrapharmakos from Philodemus' Adversus Sophistas. Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is Philodemus of Gadara's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of Epicurus' Principal Doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: Don't fear god, Don't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure. — Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14 Notable Epicureans[edit] De rerum natura manuscript, copied by an Augustinian friar for Pope Sixtus IV, c. 1483, after the discovery of an early manuscript in 1417 by the humanist and papal secretary Poggio Bracciolini One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, who wrote the poem De rerum natura about the tenets of the philosophy. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In the second century CE, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans. Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato.[78] His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, was also an adept of the school. In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean: If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.[79] Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Évremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham. In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean,[80] Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism.[81] In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label. Modern usage and misconceptions[edit] In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; Epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink. Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.[18] Epicurus preferred "the good", and "even wisdom and culture", to the "pleasure of the stomach".[82] While twentieth-century commentary has generally sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency of the lower-case epicureanism of meals with Epicurean materialism overall has more recently been explained.[83] While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. Called "The Garden" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month). Criticism[edit] Francis Bacon wrote an apothegm related to Epicureanism: There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made capons, but capons could never be made cocks.[84] This echoed what the Academic Skeptic philosopher Arcesilaus had said when asked "why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?" to which he responded: "Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man."[85] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Charvaka, a hedonic Indian school Cyrenaics, a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE Dehellenization Epicurea Epikoros Hedonic treadmill List of English translations of De rerum natura Philosophy of happiness Separation of church and state Zeno of Sidon References[edit] ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685. ^ a b David Konstan. "Epicurus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism ^ Dombrowski, Daniel (1984). The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-87023-431-6. ^ MacGillivray, Erlend D (2012). "The Popularity of Epicureanism in Late-Republic Roman Society". The Ancient World. XLIII: 151–172. ^ Michael Frede (1999). "Epilogue". The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. pp. 795–96. ^ Trans. Robert Pinsky, The Inferno of Dante, p. 320 n. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 107–115. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–127. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University. pp. 84–85. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 145. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–171. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96. ^ Epicurus, Vatican Saying 51 ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–140. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 142–145. ^ On Goals, 1.65 ^ a b Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, pp. 239–40 ^ Epicurus (c 341–270 BCE) British Humanist Association ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 84. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 117–121. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 118–119. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 119–120. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 91–92. ^ a b Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 120. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 124–125. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 126–127. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–126. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–142. ^ a b "Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks". 1925. ^ a b c d e f g h i Warren, James, ed. (2009). The Cambridge companion to epicureanism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521873475. OCLC 297147109. ^ a b c Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–156. ^ James Warren (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, p. 124 ^ James Warren (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, p. 105 ^ a b c d e Sedley, David (2011). "Epicurus' theological innatism". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30. ^ a b c d Konstan, David (2011). "Epicurus on the gods". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–54. ^ Mansfeld, Jaap (1993). "Aspects of Epicurean Theology". Mnemosyne. 46 (2): 176–178. doi:10.1163/156852593X00484. ^ Buchheit, Vinzenz (2007). "Epicurus' Triumph of the Mind". In Gale, Monica R. (ed.). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–111. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 158–159. ^ Lactantius, De Ira Deorum, 13.19 (Epicurus, Frag. 374, Usener). David Hume paraphrased this passage in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion: "EPICURUS's old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?" ^ Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), The Problem of Evil, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell ^ Glei, Reinhold F. (1988). "Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21". Vigiliae Christianae. 42: 47–58. doi:10.2307/1584470. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 175: "those who firmly maintain that god exists will be forced into impiety; for if they say that he [God] takes care of everything, they will be saying that god is the cause of evils, while if they say that he takes care of some things only or even nothing, they will be forced to say that he is either malevolent or weak" ^ Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. SUNY Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780791436837. ^ Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2017). Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 9781351954310. ^ Dee L. Clayman (2014), Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt, Oxford University Press, p.33 ^ "Epicureanism as a Religious Identity". ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 11–13. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 21. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 18–20. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1998). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 34–35. ^ Diogenes, Laertius (1925). Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II: Books 6-10. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp. 573–575. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 35–37. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 25–28. ^ a b c Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicurus, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 64–66. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 54–55. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 85. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Pres. pp. 97–98. ^ Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments. Canada: Trafford Publishing. pp. 193–197. ^ Konstan, David (2011). Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 103–104. ^ a b c d Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 19. ^ a b c d Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–13. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–16. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 18–19. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 101–103. ^ a b Tsouna, Voula (2016). "Epicurean Preconceptions". Phronesis. 61 (2): 215. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341304. ^ Cf. Sallust, The War With Catiline, Caesar's speech: 51.29 & Cato's reply: 52.13). ^ "Full text of "The writings of Thomas Jefferson;"". archive.org. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ Anon., Gérald Ghislain – Creator of The Scent of Departure. IdeaMensch, 14 July 2011. ^ Michel Onfray, La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste, Grasset, 2006 ^ Cyril Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, p.131 ^ Michael Symons, "Epicurus, the foodies’ philosopher", pp. 13-30, in Fritz Allhoff and Dave Monroe, eds, Food & Philosophy: Eat, think, and be merry, Malden (MA, USA): Blackwell Publishing, 2007 ^ Francis Bacon, Apothegms 280, The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book IV, Chapter 6, section 45 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6 Further reading[edit] Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003. Holmes, Brooke & Shearin, W. H. Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition, New York: Routledge, 1989. Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, Epicurus in the Enlightenment, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009. Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ( ISBN 0-521-27556-3) Long, Roderick (2008). "Epicureanism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 153. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n95. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993. Martin Ferguson Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003. Warren, James (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 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en-wikipedia-org-8667	----	Gratian - Wikipedia Gratian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 367 to 383 For other uses, see Gratian (disambiguation). Roman emperor Gratian Solidus of Gratian, c. 381. Legend: d(ominus) n(oster) Gratianus p(ius) f(elix) aug(ustus). ("Our Lord Gratianus, the Devout, the Fortunate, the Majestic.") Roman emperor Augustus 24 August 367 – 25 August 383 Predecessor Valentinian I Successor Magnus Maximus Co-rulers Valentinian I (367–375) Valens (East, 367–378) Valentinian II Theodosius I (East, 379–383) Born 18 April 359 Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died 25 August 383 (aged 24) Lugdunum (Lyon) Burial Imperial mausoleum at Mediolanum (now Sant'Aquilino, Basilica of San Lorenzo, Milan) Spouse Flavia Maxima Constantia Laeta Names Flavius Gratianus Dynasty Valentinianic Father Valentinian I Mother Marina Severa Religion Nicene Christianity Gratian (/ˈɡreɪʃən/; Latin: Flavius Gratianus; 18 April 359 – 25 August 383) was emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire from 367 to 383. The eldest son of Valentinian I, Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers and was raised to the rank of augustus in 367. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian took over government of the west while his half-brother Valentinian II was also acclaimed emperor in Pannonia. Gratian governed the western provinces of the empire, while his uncle Valens was already the emperor over the east. Gratian subsequently led a campaign across the Rhine, attacked the Lentienses, and forced the tribe to surrender. That same year, the eastern emperor Valens was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople, which led to Gratian elevating Theodosius to replace him in 379. Gratian favoured Nicene Christianity over traditional Roman religion, issuing the Edict of Thessalonica, refusing the office of pontifex maximus, and removing the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate's Curia Julia. The city of Cularo on the Isère river in Roman Gaul was renamed Latin: Gratianopolis after him, which later evolved to Grenoble. In 383, faced with rebellion by the usurper Magnus Maximus, Gratian marched his army towards Lutetia (Paris). His army deserted him, he fled to Lyons, and was later murdered. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 2.1 Junior augustus 2.2 Senior augustus 3 Death and burial 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Early life[edit] According to the Chronicle of Jerome and the Chronicon Paschale, Valentinian's eldest son Gratian was born on 18 April 359 at Sirmium, now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia, the capital of Pannonia Secunda, to Valentinian's first wife Marina Severa.[1][2][3][4] Gratian was his parents' only son together.[3][4] At the time of his birth Gratian's father was living in exile.[5] Gratian was named after his grandfather Gratianus, who was a tribune and later comes of Britannia for Constantine the Great (r. 306–337).[6] Following the death of the emperor Jovian (r. 363–364), on 26 February 364, Valentinian was proclaimed augustus (emperor).[7] Within a month, motivated by senior officers, he proclaimed his brother Valens, Gratian's uncle, augustus of the Eastern empire.[7] Gratian was appointed consul in 366 and was entitled nobilissimus puer by his father.[a][1][8] Gratian was seven when entitled nobilissimus puer, which indicated he was to be proclaimed augustus.[8] Gratian's tutor was the rhetor Ausonius, who mentioned the relationship in his epigrams and a poem.[1] Reign[edit] In summer 367, Valentinian became ill at Civitas Ambianensium (Amiens), raising questions about his succession. On recovery, he presented his then eight-year-old son to his troops on 24 August, as his co-augustus (r. 367–383), passing over the customary initial step of caesar.[2][1][9][10] Solidus of Valentinian I showing Valentinian and Gratian on the reverse, marked: victores augusti ("the Victors Augusti"). A palm bough is between them and Victory crowns each with a wreath Junior augustus[edit] On 24 August 367 Gratian received from his father Valentinian the title of augustus.[8] Valentinian, concerned with Gratian's age and inexperience, stated his son would assist commanders with upcoming campaigns.[11] The magister peditum Merobaudes, together with the comes rei militaris Sebastianus, was sent by Valentinian to campaign against the Quadi.[12] Around 370, Gratian's mother Marina Severa died and was interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[9] Valentinian married again, wedding Justina.[9] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[13] In autumn 371, Gratian's half brother, called Valentinian, was born to Justina, possibly at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[14][15] Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to Constantius II's 13 year-old posthumous daughter Flavia Maxima Constantia at Trier.[1][2][16][17][18] This marriage consolidated the dynastic link to Constantinian dynasty, as had his Valentinian I's second marriage to Justina, with her family connections.[19] When a party of Alamanni visited Valentinian's headquarters to receive the customary gifts towards the end of 364, Ursatius, the magister officiorum made them an offering they considered inferior to that of his predecessor. Angered by Ursatius' attitude, they vowed revenge and crossed over the Rhine into Roman Germania and Gaul in January 365, overwhelming the Roman defences.[20][21] Although at first unsuccessful, eventually Jovinus, the magister equitum in Gaul inflicted heavy losses on the enemy at Scarpona (Dieulouard) and at Catalauni (Châlons-sur-Marne), forcing them to retire.[21] An opportunity to further weaken the Alamanni occurred in the summer of 368, when king Vithicabius was murdered in a coup, and Valentinian and his son Gratian crossed the river Moenus (the Main) laying waste to Alamannic territories.[2][22] Gratian was awarded the victory titles of Germanicus Maximus and Alamannicus Maximus, and Francicus Maximus and Gothicus Maximus in 369.[2] Valentinian fortified the frontier from Raetia in the east to the Belgic channel, but the construction was attacked by Alamanni at Mount Pirus (the Spitzberg, Rottenburg am Neckar). In 369 (or 370) Valentinian then sought to enlist the help of the Burgundians, who were involved in a dispute with the Alamanni, but a communication failure led to them returning to their lands without joining forces with the Romans.[20] It was then that the magister equitum, Theodosius the Elder and his son Theodosius (the Theodosi) attacked the Alamanni through Raetia, taking many prisoners and resettling them in the Po Valley in Italy.[23][20][9] Valentinian made one attempt to capture Macrianus in 372, but eventually made peace with him in 374.[20] The necessity to make peace was the increasing threat from other peoples, the Quadi and the Sarmatians. Valentinian's decision to establish garrisons across the Danube had angered them, and the situation escalated after the Quadi king, Gabinus, was killed during negotiations with the Romans in 374. Consequently, in the autumn, the Quadi crossed the Danube plundering Pannonia and the provinces to the south.[9] The situation deteriorated further once the Sarmatians made common cause inflicting heavy losses on the Pannonica and Moesiaca legions.[9] However on encountering Theodosius' forces on the borders of Moesia in the eastern Balkans, which had previously defeated one of their armies in 373,[23] they sued for peace. Valentinian mounted a further offensive against the Quadi in August 375, this time using a pincer movement, one force attacking from the northwest, while Valentinian himself headed to Aquincum (Budapest), crossed the Danube and attacked from the southeast. This campaign resulted in heavy losses to the enemy, following which he returned to Aquincum and from there to Brigetio (Szőny, Hungary) where he died suddenly in November.[24] When his father died on 17 November 375, Gratian inherited the administration of the western empire.[25] Days later, Gratian's half-brother Valentinian was acclaimed augustus by troops in Pannonia.[26] Despite Valentinian being given nominal authority over the praetorian prefectures of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, Gratian ruled the western Roman empire himself.[27] Following his death, Valentinian's body was prepared for burial and started its journey to Constantinople, where it arrived the following year,[19] on 28 December 376, but was not yet buried.[9] He was deified, as was the custom, becoming known in Latin: Divus Valentinianus Senior, lit. 'the Divine Valentinian the Elder'.[9][25] Detail of drawing of obverse of medal of Valens showing the three reigning emperors: Valens (C), Gratian (R), and Valentinian II (L) and marked: pietas d·d·d·n·n·n· augustorum[b] Location of the battle of Argentovaria in 378. With the death of Valentinian I, in the east Valens became the senior augustus[9] and the 16 year old Gratian was the only augustus in the western empire. To complicate matters further for Gratian, certain among Valentinian's generals then promoted his four-year-old second son Valentinian II (Gratian's half brother), the army on the Danube acclaiming him augustus in a palatine coup[25] at Aquincum (Budapest) on 22 November 375, despite Gratian's existing prerogatives.[1][15] The young Valentinian II was essentially the subject of the influence of his courtiers and mother, the Arian Christian Justina.[15] Gratian's tutor, Ausonius, became his quaestor, and together with the magister militum, Merobaudes, the power behind the throne.[25] Negotiations eventually left Gratian as the senior western emperor.[25] Valens and Valentinian II were consuls for the year 376, Valens's fifth consulship.[13] Neither Gratian or Valentinian travelled much, which was thought to be due to not wanting the populace to realise how young they were. Gratian is said to have visited Rome in 376, possibly to celebrate his decennalia on 24 August,[2] but whether the visit actually took place is disputed.[25] Under the tutorage of Ausonius, Gratian issued an edict of tolerance at Sirmium in 378.[28] The edict restored bishops exiled by Valens and ensured religious freedoms to all religions.[28] Gratian's uncle Valens, returning from a campaign against the Sasanian Empire, had sent a request to Gratian for reinforcements against the Goths.[29] According to Ammianus Marcellinus, Valens also requested that Sebastianus be sent to him for the war, though according to Zosimus Sebastianus went to Constantinople of his own accord as a result of intrigues by eunuchs at the western court.[12] Once Gratian had put down the invasions in the west in early 378, he notified Valens that he was returning to Thrace to assist him in his struggle against the Goths. Late in July, Valens was informed that the Goths were advancing on Adrianople (Edirne) and Nice, and started to move his forces into the area. However, Gratian's arrival was delayed by an encounter with Alans at Castra Martis, in Dacia in the western Balkans. Advised of the wisdom of awaiting the western army, Valens decided to ignore this advice because he was sure of victory and unwilling to share the glory.[30][1] The forces Gratian sent never reached Valens due to its commander feigning illness.[31] Weeks later, Gratian had arrived in Castra Martis with a few thousand men, by which time Valens was at Adrianople (Latin: Hadrianopolis; Turkish: Edirne).[32] Aware that Gratian's forces were not going to arrive, Valens attacked the Gothic army and as a result thousands[c] of Romans died in the Battle of Adrianople along with Sebastianus and the emperor himself.[31][33][12] After his death, Valens was deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Valens, lit. 'the Divine Valens'.[13] Marble portrait head of Gratian (Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier) Solidus of Theodosius I showing Theodosius and Gratian on the reverse, marked: victoria augg ("the Victory of the Augusti") Senior augustus[edit] Following the battle of Adrianople, the Goths raided from Thrace in 378 to Illyricum the following year.[35][36] Convinced that one emperor alone was incapable of repelling the inundation of foes on several different fronts, Gratian, now senior augustus following Valens's death,[37] appointed Theodosius I augustus on 19 January 379 to govern the east.[38][39] Theodosius the Elder, who had died in 375, was then deified as: Divus Theodosius Pater, lit. 'the Divine Father Theodosius'.[23] On 3 August that year, Gratian issued an edict against heresy.[2] In 380, Gratian was made consul for the fifth time and Theodosius for the first. In September the augusti Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that of Macedonia to Valentinian II.[2][23] The same year, Gratian won a victory, possibly over the Alamanni, that was announced officially at Constantinople.[2] In the autumn of 378 Gratian issued an edict of religious toleration.[2] By 380, the Greuthungi tribe of Goths moved into Pannonia, only to be defeated by Gratian.[35] Consequently, the Vandals and Alemanni were threatening to cross the Rhine, now that Gratian had departed from the region.[40] With the collapse of the Danube frontier[d] under the incursions of the Huns and Goths, Gratian moved his seat from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) to Mediolanum (Milan) in 381,[41] and was increasingly aligned with the city's bishop, Ambrose (374–397), and the Roman Senate, shifting the balance of power within the factions of the western empire.[1][19][42] Under the influence of Ambrose, bishop of Mediolanum (Milan), took active steps against pagan worship.[43] On 27 February 380, Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica.[44] This edict made Nicene Christianity the only legal form of Christianity and outlawed all other forms of religion.[44] This brought to an end a period of widespread religious tolerance that had existed since the death of Julian.[45] Gratian was then forthright in his promotion of Nicene Christianity. He ordered the removal of the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate's Curia Julia in the winter of 382/383.[2][1] State endowments for pagan cults were cancelled.[1] According to the late 5th/early 6th-century Greek historian Zosimus, Gratian refused the robe of office of the pontifex maximus, though this story is not creditable, because no such garment was associated with the priesthood.[1] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Gratian's father's remains were eventually interred in the Mausoleum of Constantine, to which the Church of the Holy Apostles was attached, on 21 February 382, beside those of his first wife and the mother of Gratian, Marina Severa.[9] In 382, Gratian issued edicts that removed the statue of the winged goddess Victory from the Senate floor,[46] removed the privileges of Vestal Virgins,[47] and confiscated money designated for sacrifices and ceremonies.[48] Gratian declared that all of the pagan temples and shrines were to be confiscated by the government and that their revenues were to be joined to the property of the treasury.[49] This resulted in protests from the Roman Senate led by Symmachus, which in turn was counter-protested by Christian senators led by Pope Damasus.[50] Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.[2] Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta, whose father was a consularis of Roman Syria.[1] Gratian wife Constantia died in early 383.[17][18] He subsequently married Laeta.[51] Both marriages remained childless.[52] In the summer of 383 Gratian was again at war with the Alamanni in Raetia.[2] Gratian alienated the army by his favouritism towards his Alan deserters whom he made his body-guard and to whom he gave military commands. This favouritism of former enemies and the paganism of the Alans angered his Christian army. By 383 the Roman general Magnus Maximus had raised the standard of revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army.[53] when a rebellion broke out in Britain under Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), the commander of the Roman troops there. Magnus Maximus, who had served under the comes Theodosius and had won a victory over the Picts in 382, was proclaimed augustus and crossed the channel, encamping near Paris. There, his forces encountered Gratian, but much of the latter's army defected to this usurper, forcing Gratian to flee.[54][2][55][53][56] Reverse of a solidus of Gratian marked: victoria augustorum ("the Victory of the augusti") Death and burial[edit] He was pursued by Andragathius, Maximus' magister equitum and killed at Lugdunum (Lyon) on 25 August 383, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana.[54][2][55][53][56] Maximus then established his court at the former imperial residence in Trier.[57] On the death of Gratian in 383, the 12 year old Valentinian II (r. 375–392) became the sole legitimate augustus in the west. The body of Constantia, Gratian's first wife, who had died earlier that year, arrived in Constantinople on 12 September 383 and was buried in the complex of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) on 1 December, the resting place of a number of members of the imperial family, starting with Constantine in 337, under the direction of Theodosius, who had embarked on making the site a dynastic symbol. This was the last occasion that a member of the western imperial family was buried in the east, as a new mausoleum being built at St Peter's Basilica in Rome.[19][2] According to Augustine of Hippo's The City of God and Theodoret's Historia Ecclesiastica, Gratian and Constantia had had a son, who died in infancy before 383 but had been born before 379.[2] It would not be until 387, possibly even after the death of Magnus Maximus, that Gratian's remains were interred at Mediolanum in the imperial mausoleum.[58] Gratian was deified as Latin: Divus Gratianus, lit. 'the Divine Gratian'.[2][59] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Roman emperors Notes[edit] ^ noblest boy ^ "the Piety of Our Lords Augusti". This medal was set in a later pendant and found in the Szilágysomlyo Treasure, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum) ^ Heather estimates 10,000 Roman dead,[33] Williams & Friell state 20,000 Roman dead.[34] ^ See also Roman military frontiers and fortifications References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bond & Nicholson 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBondNicholson2018 (help) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Kienast 2017c. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKienast2017c (help) ^ a b Lenski 2002, p. 50. ^ a b Vanderspoel 1995, p. 183. ^ Tomlin 1973, p. 14. ^ Tomlin 1973, p. 1. ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 21. ^ a b c Lenski 2002, p. 90. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kienast 2017d. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKienast2017d (help) ^ Curran 1998, pp. 83–84. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCurran1998 (help) ^ Hebblewhite 2019, p. 18-19. ^ a b c Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John, eds. (1971). "Sebastianus 2". The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume I, AD 260–395. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 812–813. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. ^ a b c Kienast 2017e. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKienast2017e (help) ^ Kienast 2017f. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKienast2017f (help) ^ a b c Bond 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBond2018 (help) ^ Lenski 2002, p. 103. ^ a b Sivan 2011, p. 182. ^ a b McEvoy 2013, p. 105. ^ a b c d McEvoy 2016. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcEvoy2016 (help) ^ a b c d Bond & Darley 2018b. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBondDarley2018b (help) ^ a b Curran 1998, p. 83. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCurran1998 (help) ^ Curran 1998, p. 84. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCurran1998 (help) ^ a b c d Kienast 2017b. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKienast2017b (help) ^ Curran 1998, pp. 84–85. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCurran1998 (help) ^ a b c d e f Kulikowski 2019, p. 80. ^ Lenski 2002, p. 357. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 62. ^ a b McEvoy 2013, p. 119-121. ^ Lenski 2002, p. 356. ^ Bond & Darley 2018a. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBondDarley2018a (help) ^ a b Lenski 2002, p. 339. ^ Lenski 2002, p. 366. ^ a b Heather 2006, p. 181. ^ Williams & Friell 1995, p. 18-19. ^ a b Heather 2006, p. 183. ^ Williams & Friell 1995, p. 27-28. ^ Grainger 2020, p. 244. ^ Heather 2006, p. 187. ^ Williams & Friell 1995, p. 26. ^ Williams & Friell 1995, p. 29. ^ McEvoy 2013, p. 85. ^ Curran 1998, p. 104. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCurran1998 (help) ^ Radde-Gallwitz 2018, p. 14. ^ a b Medina 2018, p. 92. ^ Dill 1958, p. 26. ^ Jolly 1997, p. 45. ^ Testa 2015, p. 407. ^ Hinson 1995, p. 218. ^ Crosby 2015, p. 151. ^ Clark 2011, p. 75. ^ Bond & Nicholson 2018, p. 678. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBondNicholson2018 (help) ^ Oost 1968, p. 38. ^ a b c Halsall 2007, p. 186. ^ a b McEvoy 2013, p. 83–84. ^ a b Harries 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHarries2018 (help) ^ a b White 2011, p. 154. ^ McEvoy 2016, p. 36. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcEvoy2016 (help) ^ Johnson 2009, p. 210-211. ^ McEvoy 2013, pp. 83–92. Sources[edit] Bond, Sarah E.; Nicholson, Oliver (2018). "Gratian". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8. Clark, Gillian (2011). Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199546206. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Crosby, Daniel J. (2015). ""Arrows Fletched from Our Own Wings": The Early Church Fathers and the "Delphi of the Mind"". In Johnston, W. Marshall; Crosby, Daniel J. (eds.). A Dangerous Mind: The Ideas and Influence of Delbert L. Wiens. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1498203975. Dill, Samuel (1958). Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire (2nd ed.). Meridian. ISBN 978-1346615486. Grainger, John D (2020). The Roman Imperial Succession. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1526766045. Halsall, Guy (2007). Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521435437. Heather, Peter (2006). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195159547. Hebblewhite, Mark (2019). The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235-395. Routledge. ISBN 978-0367880682. Hebblewhite, Mark (2020). Theodosius and the Limits of Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138102989. Hinson, E. Glenn (1995). The Church Triumphant: A History of Christianity Up to 1300. Mercer. ISBN 0-86554-436-0. Johnson, Mark Joseph (2009). The Roman Imperial Mausoleum in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51371-5. OCLC 309835740. Jolly, Karen Louise (1997). Tradition & Diversity: Christianity in a World Context to 1500. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-1563244674. Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674660137. Lee, A. D (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2790-5. Lenski, Noel Emmanuel (2002). Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4. McEvoy, Meaghan (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199664818. Medina, Néstor (2018). Christianity, Empire and the Spirit: (Re)Configuring Faith and the Cultural. Brill. ISBN 978-9004357365. Oost, Stewart Irvin (1968). Galla Placidia Augusta. A Biographical Essay. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226630502. Radde-Gallwitz, Andrew (2018). Gregory of Nyssa's Doctrinal Works: A Literary Study. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199668977. Sivan, Hagith (2011). Galla Placidia: The Last Roman Empress. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537912-9. Testa, Rita Lizzi (2015). "The Famous 'Altar of Victory Controversy' in Rome: The Impact of Christianity at the End of the Fourth Century". In Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199768998. Tomlin, R. (1973). The Emperor Valentinian I. Oxford University Press. Vanderspoel, John (1995). Themistius and the Imperial Court: Oratory, Civic Duty, and Paideia from Constantius to Theodosius. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472104857. White, Cynthia (2011). The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0472104857. Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1995). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300061734. External links[edit] Media related to Gratian at Wikimedia Commons Flavius Gratianus (AD 359 – AD 383) This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Gratian relating to Christianity. Gratian Valentinianic dynasty Born: 18 April 359 Died: 25 August 383 Regnal titles Preceded by Valentinian I Roman emperor 375–383 with Valens (375–378) Valentinian II (375–383) Theodosius I (379–383) Succeeded by Magnus Maximus Political offices Preceded by Valentinian Augustus Valens Augustus Roman consul 366 with Dagalaifus Succeeded by Lupicinus Iovinus Preceded by Valentinian Augustus III Valens Augustus III Roman consul 371 with Sex. Claudius Petronius Probus Succeeded by Domitius Modestus Arinthaeus Preceded by Valentinian Augustus IV Valens Augustus IV Roman consul 374 with Equitius Succeeded by Valens Augustus V Valentinian junior Augustus in 376 Preceded by Valens Augustus V Valentinian junior Augustus Roman consul 377 with Merobaudes Succeeded by Valens Augustus VI Valentinian junior Augustus II Preceded by Decimius Magnus Ausonius Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius Roman consul 380 with Theodosius Augustus Succeeded by Syagrius Eucherius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8693	----	Manuel II Palaiologos - Wikipedia Manuel II Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425 Not to be confused with Manuel Palaiologos, his grandson by the same name. Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Manuel II Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Byzantine emperor Reign 16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425 Predecessor John V Palaiologos Successor John VIII Palaiologos Born 27 June 1350 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire (present day Constantinople, Turkey) Died 21 July 1425(1425-07-21) (aged 75) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Helena Dragaš Issue Daughter Constantine Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Theodore II Palaiologos Andronikos Palaiologos Daughter Michael Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Demetrios Palaiologos Thomas Palaiologos Isabella Palaiologina (illegitimate) Names Manuel II Palaiologos Μανουήλ Β΄ Παλαιολόγος House Palaiologos Father John V Palaiologos Mother Helena Kantakouzene Manuel II Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Μανουὴλ Βʹ ὁ Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Manouēl ho Palaiológos; 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425) was Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. Shortly before his death he was tonsured a monk and received the name Matthew. His wife Helena Dragaš saw to it that their sons, John VIII Palaiologos and Constantine XI Palaiologos, become emperors. Manuel II retook Thessaloniki and the coastline of Thrace. Manuel was also commemorated[by whom?] on July 21.[1] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Siege of Constantinople and letters to European courts 1.2 Emperor's trip to Europe 1.3 Renewed Ottoman sieges 2 Death 3 Legacy 4 Family 5 Ancestry 6 Pope Benedict XVI controversy 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Life[edit] Byzantine double-headed eagle with the Palaiologos family cypher. Manuel II Palaiologos was the second son of Emperor John V Palaiologos and his wife Helena Kantakouzene.[2] Granted the title of despotēs by his father, the future Manuel II traveled west to seek support for the Byzantine Empire in 1365 and in 1370, serving as governor in Thessalonica from 1369. The failed attempt at usurpation by his older brother Andronikos IV Palaiologos in 1373 led to Manuel's being proclaimed heir and co-emperor of his father. In 1376–1379 and again in 1390, they were supplanted by Andronikos IV and then his son John VII, but Manuel personally defeated his nephew with help from the Republic of Venice in 1390. Although John V had been restored, Manuel was forced to go as an honorary hostage to the court of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at Prousa (Bursa). During his stay, Manuel was forced to participate in the Ottoman campaign that reduced Philadelpheia, the last Byzantine enclave in Anatolia. Siege of Constantinople and letters to European courts[edit] Having heard of his father's death in February 1391, Manuel II Palaiologos fled the Ottoman court and secured the capital against any potential claim by his nephew John VII.[3] Although relations with John VII improved, Sultan Bayezid I blockaded Constantinople from 1394 to 1402. In the meantime, an anti-Ottoman crusade led by the Hungarian King Sigismund of Luxemburg failed at the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September 1396. Manuel II had sent 10 ships to help in that Crusade. In October 1397, Theodore Kantakouzenos, Manuel's uncle, alongside John of Natala arrived at the court of Charles VI of France, bearing the Emperor's letters (dated 1 July 1397) requesting the French king's military aid. In addition, Charles also provided funds for the two nobles to treat with King Richard II of England in April 1398, with the aim of soliciting further aid.[4] Though the latter was preoccupied by domestic troubles at this point to provide any support.[a] However, the two nobles returned home with the Marshal of France Jean II Le Maingre who was sent from Aigues-Mortes with six ships carrying 1,200 men to assist Manuel II. The Marshal encouraged the latter to go personally to seek assistance against the Ottoman Empire from the courts of western Europe. After some five years of siege, Manuel II entrusted the city to his nephew, aided by a French garrison of 300 men led by Seigneur Jean de Châteaumorand and embarked (along with a suite of 40 people) on a long trip abroad along with the Marshal.[5] Emperor's trip to Europe[edit] On 10 December 1399, Manuel II sailed to the Morea, where he left his wife and children with his brother Theodore I Palaiologos to be protected from his nephew's intentions. He later landed in Venice in April 1400, then he went to Padua, Vicenza and Pavia, until he reached Milan, where he met Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and his close friend Manuel Chrysoloras. Afterwards, he met Charles VI of France at Charenton on 3 June 1400.[6] During his stay in France, Manuel II continued to contact European monarchs.[7] According to Michel Pintoin who chronicled the visit to Paris: Then, the king raised his hat, and the emperor raised his imperial cap – he had no hat – and both greeted one another in the most honourable way. When he had welcomed [the emperor], the king accompanied him into Paris, riding side by side. They were followed by the Princes of the Blood who, once the banquet in the royal palace finished, escorted [the emperor] to the lodgings which had been prepared for him in the Louvre castle]. — [8] Manuel II Palaiologos (left) with Henry IV of England in London, December 1400.[9] In December 1400, he embarked to England to meet Henry IV of England who received him at Blackheath on the 21st of that month,[7] making him the only Byzantine emperor ever to visit England, where he stayed at Eltham Palace until mid-February 1401, and a joust took place in his honour.[10] In addition, he received £2,000, in which he acknowledged receipt of the funds in a Latin document and sealed it with his own golden bull.[11][b] Thomas Walsingham wrote about Manuel II's visit to England: At the same time the Emperor of Constantinople visited England to ask for help against the Turks. The king with an imposing retinue, met him at Blackheath on the feast of St Thomas [21 December], gave so great a hero an appropriate welcome and escorted him to London. He entertained him there royally for many days, paying the expenses of the emperor's stay, and by grand presents showing respect for a person of such eminence. — [12] Moreover, Adam of Usk reported: On the feast of St Thomas the apostle [21 December], the emperor of the Greeks visited the king of England in London to seek help against the Saracens, and was honourably received by him, staying with him for two whole months at enormous expense to the king, and being showered with gifts at his departure. This emperor and his men always went about dressed uniformly in long robes cut like tabards which were all of one colour, namely white, and disapproved greatly of the fashions and varieties of dress worn by the English, declaring that they signified inconstancy and fickleness of heart. No razor ever touched the heads or beards of his priests. These Greeks were extremely devout in their religious services, having them chanted variously by knights or by clerics, for they were sung in their native tongue. I thought to myself how sad it was that this great Christian leader from the remote east had been driven by the power of the infidels to visit distant islands in the west in order to seek help against them. — [13] However, Manuel II sent a letter to his friend Manuel Chrysoloras, describing his visit to England: Now what is the reason for the present letter? A large number of letters have come to us from all over bearing excellent and wonderful promises, but most important is the ruler with whom we are now staying, the king of Britain the Great, of a second civilized world, you might say, who abounds in so many good qualities and is adorned with all sorts of virtues. His reputation earns him the admiration of people who have not met him, while for those who have once seen him, he proves brilliantly that Fame is not really a goddess, since she is unable to show the man to be as great as does actual experience. This ruler, then, is most illustrious because of his position, most illustrious too, because of his intelligence; his might amazes everyone, and his understanding wins him friends; he extends his hand to all and in every way he places himself at the service of those who need help. And now, in accord with his nature, he has made himself a virtual haven for us in the midst of a twofold tempest, that of the season and that of fortune, and we have found refuge in the man himself and his character. His conversation is quite charming; he pleases us in every way; he honours us to the greatest extent and loves us no less. Although he has gone to extremes in all he has done for us, he seems almost to blush in the belief—in this he is alone—that he might have fallen considerably short of what he should have done. This is how magnanimous the man is. — [14] Manuel II later returned to France with high hopes of substantial help and funds for Constantinople. In the meantime, he sent delegations with relics including pieces of the tunic of Christ and a piece of the Holy Sponge to Pope Boniface IX and Antipope Benedict XIII, Queen Margaret I of Denmark, king Martin of Aragon and king Charles III of Navarre to seek further assistance.[15][16] He eventually left France on 23 November 1402,[17] and finally returned to Constantinople in June 1403. Renewed Ottoman sieges[edit] The Ottomans were themselves crushingly defeated by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. As the sons of Bayezid I struggled with each other over the succession in the Ottoman Interregnum, John VII was able to secure the return of the European coast of the Sea of Marmara and of Thessalonica to the Byzantine Empire in the Treaty of Gallipoli. When Manuel II returned home in 1403, his nephew duly surrendered control of Constantinople and received as a reward the governorship of newly recovered Thessalonica. The treaty also regained from the Ottomans Mesembria (1403–1453), Varna (1403–1415), and the Marmara coast from Scutari to Nicomedia (between 1403–1421). Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410, following the Treaty of Gallipoli Half stavraton coin by Manuel. On the reverse, Manuel's bust. However, Manuel II kept contact with Venice, Genoa, Paris and Aragon, by sending envoy Manuel Chrysoloras in 1407–8, pursuing to form a coalition against the Ottomans.[18] On 25 July 1414, with a fleet consisting of four galleys and two other vessels carrying contingents of infantry and cavalry, departed Constantinople for Thessalonica. The purpose of this force soon became clear when he made an unannounced stop at Thasos, a normally unimportant island which was then under threat from a son of the lord of Lesbos, Francesco Gattilusio. It took Manuel three months to reassert imperial authority on the island. Only then did he continue on to Thessalonica, where he was warmly met by his son Andronicus, who then governed the city. In the spring of 1415, he and his soldiers left for the Peloponnese, arriving at the little port of Kenchreai on Good Friday, 29 March. Manuel II Palaiologos used his time there to bolster the defences of the Despotate of Morea, where the Byzantine Empire was actually expanding at the expense of the remnants of the Latin Empire. Here Manuel supervised the building of the Hexamilion (six-mile wall) across the Isthmus of Corinth, intended to defend the Peloponnese from the Ottomans. Manuel II stood on friendly terms with the victor in the Ottoman civil war, Mehmed I (1402–1421), but his attempts to meddle in the next contested succession led to a new assault on Constantinople by Murad II (1421–1451) in 1422. During the last years of his life, Manuel II relinquished most official duties to his son and heir John VIII Palaiologos, and went back to Europe searching for assistance against the Ottomans, this time to the King Sigismund of Hungary, staying for two months in his court of Buda. Sigismund (after suffering a defeat against the Turks in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396) never rejected the possibility of fighting against the Ottoman Empire. However, with the Hussite wars in Bohemia, it was impossible to count on the Czech or German armies, and the Hungarian ones were needed to protect the Kingdom and control the religious conflicts.[19] Unhappily Manuel returned home with empty hands from the Hungarian Kingdom, and in 1424 he and his son were forced to sign an unfavourable peace treaty with the Ottoman Turks, whereby the Byzantine Empire had to pay tribute to the sultan. Death[edit] Manuel II who had been paralyzed by a stroke since October 1, 1422, and lived his last months as a monk called "Matthew", died on 21 July 1425, aged 75.[20] Legacy[edit] Manuel II was the author of numerous works of varied character, including letters, poems, a Saint's Life, treatises on theology and rhetoric, and an epitaph for his brother Theodore I Palaiologos and a mirror of prince for his son and heir John. This mirror of prince has special value, because it is the last sample of this literary genre bequeathed to us by Byzantines. Family[edit] A miniature from the Louvre MS. Ivoires 100 manuscript, depicting Manuel II, Helena and three of their sons - the co-emperor John VIII and the Despots Theodore and Andronikos. By his wife Helena Dragas, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragas, Manuel II Palaiologos had several children, including: A daughter. Mentioned as the eldest daughter but not named. Possibly confused with Isabella Palaiologina, an illegitimate daughter of Manuel II known to have married Ilario Doria. Constantine Palaiologos. Born ca. 1393/8, died before 1405 in Monemvasia.[21] John VIII Palaiologos (18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448). Byzantine emperor, 1425–1448. Andronikos Palaiologos, Lord of Thessalonica (d. 1429). A second daughter. Also not named in the text. Theodore II Palaiologos, Lord of Morea (d. 1448). Michael Palaiologos. Born 1406/7, died 1409/10 of the plague.[22] Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos (8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453). Despotēs in the Morea and subsequently the last Byzantine emperor, 1448–1453. Demetrios Palaiologos (c. 1407–1470). Despotēs in the Morea. Thomas Palaiologos (c. 1409 – 12 May 1465). Despotēs in the Morea. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Manuel II Palaiologos 16. Andronikos II Palaiologos 8. Michael IX Palaiologos 17. Anna of Hungary 4. Andronikos III Palaiologos 18. Levon II of Armenia 9. Rita of Armenia 19. Keran of Armenia 2. John V Palaiologos 20. Thomas II, Count of Piedmont 10. Amadeus V, Count of Savoy 21. Beatrice di Fieschi 5. Anna of Savoy 22. John I, Duke of Brabant 11. Maria of Brabant 23. Margaret of Flanders, Duchess of Brabant 1. Manuel II Palaiologos 12. Michael Kantakouzenos 6. John VI Kantakouzenos 13. Theodora Palaiologina Angelina Kantakouzene 3. Helena Kantakouzene 28. Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria 14. Andronikos Asen 29. Irene Palaiologina 7. Irene Asanina Pope Benedict XVI controversy[edit] Main article: Regensburg lecture In a lecture delivered on 12 September 2006, Pope Benedict XVI quoted from a dialogue believed to have occurred in 1391 between Manuel II and a Persian scholar and recorded in a book by Manuel II (Dialogue 7 of Twenty-six Dialogues with a Persian) in which the Emperor stated: "Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached." Gallery[edit] Manuel II as depicted in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry Manuel II (lower right), Caspar and Balthazar Manuel II as Melchior kissing the feet of the baby Jesus See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ In addition, Ilario Doria, Manuel's son-in-law, was also sent with a delegation to Italy, England, and probably France, early in 1399.[4] ^ King Richard II had collected the same sum to be sent to Constantinople, yet it had never passed through the bank in Genoa, despite a later investigation by Henry IV.[11] References[edit] ^ Great Synaxaristes: (in Greek) Ὁ Ὅσιος Μανουὴλ Αὐτοκράτωρ Κωνσταντινουπόλεως. 21 Ιουλίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. ^ Barker 1969, p. xix. ^ Barker 1969, p. xxiv. ^ a b Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 397. ^ Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 398. ^ Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 398–399. ^ a b Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 402. ^ Sobiesiak, Tomaszek & Tyszka 2018, pp. 74–75. ^ "St Alban's chronicle". p. 245. ^ Brian Cathcart An emperor in Eltham New Statesman 25 September 2006. The Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin II, visited the court of Henry III on two occasions, in 1238 and 1247, in search of assistance against the Byzantine successor state of Nicaea. Cf. Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H.R. Luard, London: 1872–1883, 7 vols. (Rolls series, 57): vol. 3, 480–481; vol. 4, 625–626. ^ a b Nicol 1974, p. 198. ^ Walsingham 2005, p. 319. ^ Adam of Usk 1997, pp. 119–121. ^ Dennis 1977, p. 102. ^ Voordeckers 2006, p. 271. ^ Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 403. ^ Hinterberger & Schabel 2011, p. 411. ^ Çelik 2021, p. 260. ^ Szalay, J. y Baróti, L. (1896). A Magyar Nemzet Története. Budapest, Hungría: Udvari Könyvkereskedés Kiadó. ^ Nicol 1993, p. 336. ^ Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Kaplaneres, Sokrates; Leontiadis, Ioannis (1989). "21490. Παλαιολόγος Κωνσταντῖνος". Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). 9. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. ^ Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Kaplaneres, Sokrates; Leontiadis, Ioannis (1989). "21520. <Παλαιολόγος> Μιχαήλ". Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). 9. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Sources[edit] Adam of Usk (1997). Chris Given-Wilson (ed.). The Chronicle of Adam Usk, 1377-1421. Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198204831. Barker, John W. (1969). Manuel II Palaeologus (1391-1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship. Rutgers University Press. Çelik, Siren (2021). Manuel II Palaiologos (1350–1425). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108836593. Dennis, George T. (1977). The letters of Manuel II Palaeologus. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 9780884020684. Hinterberger, Martin; Schabel, Chris (2011). Greeks, Latins, and Intellectual History 1204-1500 (PDF). Peeters. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916. Nicol, Donald M. (1974). "Byzantium and England". Institute for Balkan Studies. Sobiesiak, Joanna Aleksandra; Tomaszek, Michał; Tyszka, Przemysław (2018). Andrzej Pleszczyński (ed.). Imagined Communities: Constructing Collective Identities in Medieval Europe. Brill. ISBN 9789004352476. Walsingham, Thomas (2005). James G. Clark; David Preest (eds.). The Chronica Maiora of Thomas Walsingham, 1376-1422. Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843831440. Voordeckers, Edmond (2006). Byzantion. University Foundation. Further reading[edit] Manuel II Palaeologus Funeral Oration on His Brother Theodore. J. Chrysostomides (editor & translator). Association for Byzantine Research: Thessalonike, 1985. Manuel II Palaeologus, The Letters of Manuel II Palaeologus George T. Dennis (translator), Dumbarton Oaks, 1977. ISBN 0-88402-068-1. Çelik, Siren (2021). Manuel II Palaiologos (1350-1425): A Byzantine Emperor in a Time of Tumult. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108836593 Karl Förstel (ed.): Manuel II. Palaiologos: Dialoge mit einem Muslim (Corpus Islamo-Christianum. Series Graeca 4). 3 vol. Echter Verlag, Würzburg 1995; ISBN 3-89375-078-9, ISBN 3-89375-104-1, ISBN 3-89375-133-5 (Greek Text with German translation and commentary). Jonathan Harris, The End of Byzantium. Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-11786-8 Florin Leonte, Rhetoric in Purple: The Renewal of Imperial Ideology in the Texts of Manuel II Palaiologos. PhD dissertation, Central European University, Budapest, 2012 Leonte, Florin (2012), Rhetoric in purple : the renewal of imperial ideology in the texts of emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, CEU ETD collection Mureşan, Dan Ioan (2010). "Une histoire de trois empereurs. Aspects des relations de Sigismond de Luxembourg avec Manuel II et Jean VIII Paléologue". In Ekaterini Mitsiou; et al. (eds.). Sigismund of Luxemburg and the Orthodox World (Veröffentlichungen zur Byzanzforschung, 24). Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 41–101. ISBN 978-3-7001-6685-6 Necipoglu, Nevra (2009). Byzantium between the Ottomans and the Latins: Politics and Society in the Late Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-51807-2. Nicol, Donald M. (1996). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295-1383. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. George Sphrantzes. The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle by George Sphrantzes, 1401–1477. Marios Philippides (editor & translator). University of Massachusetts Press, 1980. ISBN 0-87023-290-8. Erich Trapp: Manuel II. Palaiologos: Dialoge mit einem „Perser“. Verlag Böhlau, Wien 1966, ISBN 3-7001-0965-2. (German) Athanasios D. Angelou, Manuel Palaiologos, Dialogue with the Empress - Mother on Marriage. Introduction, Text and Translation, Vienna, Academie der Wissenschaft, Vienna 1991. Shukurov, Rustam. The Byzantine Turks (1204-1461). Leiden: Brill. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manuel II Palaiologos. Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors entry Manuel Palaeologos Resources, including excerpts from his writings to his son John, on "the virtue of a king" Historical contemporary references to Manuel II (in Greek) by the Byzantine Greek historian George Sphrantzes Portraits of Manuel II Dialogue 7 with a learned Persian – chapters 1–18 only. Manuel II Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 27 July 1350 Died: 21 July 1425 Regnal titles Preceded by John V Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1391–1425 Succeeded by John VIII Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Czech Republic Australia Greece Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Vatican 2 Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_II_Palaiologos&oldid=1027203836" Categories: 1350 births 1425 deaths 14th-century Byzantine emperors 15th-century Byzantine emperors Porphyrogennetoi Byzantine governors of Thessalonica Byzantine prisoners and detainees Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars Byzantine saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church Eastern Orthodox monarchs Palaiologos dynasty Eastern Orthodox theologians 14th-century Byzantine writers 15th-century Byzantine writers Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with Greek-language sources (el) CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from December 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8700	----	Relief - Wikipedia Relief From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sculptural technique For other uses, see Relief (disambiguation). Side view of Lorenzo Ghiberti's cast gilt-bronze Gates of Paradise at the Florence Baptistery in Florence, Italy, combining high-relief main figures with backgrounds mostly in low relief Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane.[1] What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a flat surface of stone (relief sculpture) or wood (relief carving) is a lowering of the field, leaving the unsculpted parts seemingly raised. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, especially in stone. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field, for which the Italian and French terms are still sometimes used in English. The full range includes high relief (alto-rilievo, haut-relief),[2] where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, mid-relief (mezzo-rilievo), low relief (basso-rilievo, or French: bas-relief (French pronunciation: ​[baʁlijɛf]), and shallow-relief or rilievo schiacciato,[3] where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements. There is also sunk relief, which was mainly restricted to Ancient Egypt (see below). However, the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only terms used to discuss most work. The definition of these terms is somewhat variable, and many works combine areas in more than one of them, sometimes sliding between them in a single figure; accordingly some writers prefer to avoid all distinctions.[4] The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief, intaglio, or cavo-rilievo,[5] where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in monumental sculpture. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in "bas-relief" and "counter-relief". Works in the technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is "a relief". A face of the high-relief Frieze of Parnassus round the base of the Albert Memorial in London. Most of the heads and many feet are completely undercut, but the torsos are "engaged" with the surface behind Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in the round". Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject. A common mixture of high and low relief, in the Roman Ara Pacis, placed to be seen from below. Low relief ornament at bottom Rock reliefs are those carved into solid rock in the open air (if inside caves, whether natural or man-made, they are more likely to be called "rock-cut"). This type is found in many cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a single standing stone; many of these carry reliefs. Contents 1 Types 1.1 Low relief or bas-relief 1.2 Mid-relief 1.3 High relief 1.4 Sunk relief 1.5 Counter-relief 1.6 Small objects 2 Gallery 3 Notable reliefs 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Types[edit] The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are very often combined in a single work. In particular, most later "high reliefs" contain sections in low relief, usually in the background. From the Parthenon Frieze onwards, many single figures in large monumental sculpture have heads in high relief, but their lower legs are in low relief. The slightly projecting figures created in this way work well in reliefs that are seen from below, and reflect that the heads of figures are usually of more interest to both artist and viewer than the legs or feet. As unfinished examples from various periods show, raised reliefs, whether high or low, were normally "blocked out" by marking the outline of the figure and reducing the background areas to the new background level, work no doubt performed by apprentices (see gallery). Low relief or bas-relief[edit] Low-relief on Roman sestertius, 238 AD A low relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. In the lowest reliefs the relative depth of the elements shown is completely distorted, and if seen from the side the image makes no sense, but from the front the small variations in depth register as a three-dimensional image. Other versions distort depth much less. The term comes from the Italian basso rilievo via the French bas-relief (French pronunciation: ​[baʁəljɛf]), both meaning "low relief". The former is now a very old-fashioned term in English, and the latter is becoming so. It is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required. In the art of Ancient Egypt, Assyrian palace reliefs, and other ancient Near Eastern and Asian cultures, a consistent very low relief was commonly used for the whole composition. These images would usually be painted after carving, which helped define the forms; today the paint has worn off in the great majority of surviving examples, but minute, invisible remains of paint can usually be discovered through chemical means. A low-relief dating to circa 2000 BC, from the kingdom of Simurrum, modern Iraq The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, now in Berlin, has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour. Plaster, which made the technique far easier, was widely used in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the Alhambra), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius. Low relief was relatively rare in Western medieval art, but may be found, for example in wooden figures or scenes on the insides of the folding wings of multi-panel altarpieces. The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls. Since the Renaissance plaster has been very widely used for indoor ornamental work such as cornices and ceilings, but in the 16th century it was used for large figures (many also using high relief) at the Chateau of Fontainebleau, which were imitated more crudely elsewhere, for example in the Elizabethan Hardwick Hall. Shallow-relief, in Italian rilievo stiacciato or rilievo schicciato ("squashed relief"), is a very shallow relief, which merges into engraving in places, and can be hard to read in photographs. It is often used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, but its use over a whole (usually rather small) piece was perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello.[6] In later Western art, until a 20th-century revival, low relief was used mostly for smaller works or combined with higher relief to convey a sense of distance, or to give depth to the composition, especially for scenes with many figures and a landscape or architectural background, in the same way that lighter colours are used for the same purpose in painting. Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief, those in the background in low-relief. Low relief may use any medium or technique of sculpture, stone carving and metal casting being most common. Large architectural compositions all in low relief saw a revival in the 20th century, being popular on buildings in Art Deco and related styles, which borrowed from the ancient low reliefs now available in museums.[7] Some sculptors, including Eric Gill, have adopted the "squashed" depth of low relief in works that are actually free-standing. "Blocked-out" unfinished low relief of Ahkenaten and Nefertiti; unfinished Greek and Persian high-reliefs show the same method of beginning a work. Persian low or bas-relief in Persepolis – a symbol of Zoroastrian Nowruz – at the spring equinox the power of the bull (personifying Earth) and lion (personifying the Sun) are equal. Assyrian low relief, Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, North Palace, Nineveh Atropos cutting the thread of life. Ancient Greek low relief Donatello, Madonna and Child in rilievo stiacciato or shallow relief French 20th-century low relief Mid-relief[edit] Low relief, Banteay Srei, Cambodia; Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, the Abode of Siva Mid-relief, "half-relief" or mezzo-rilievo is somewhat imprecisely defined, and the term is not often used in English, the works usually being described as low relief instead. The typical traditional definition is that only up to half of the subject projects, and no elements are undercut or fully disengaged from the background field. The depth of the elements shown is normally somewhat distorted. Mid-relief is probably the most common type of relief found in the Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia. The low to mid-reliefs of 2nd-century BCE to 6th-century CE Ajanta Caves and 5th to 10th-century Ellora Caves in India are rock reliefs. Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures, such as the 1,460 panels of the 9th-century Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, narrating the Jataka tales or lives of the Buddha. Other examples are low reliefs narrating the Ramayana Hindu epic in Prambanan temple, also in Java, in Cambodia, the temples of Angkor, with scenes including the Samudra manthan or "Churning the Ocean of Milk" at the 12th-century Angkor Wat, and reliefs of apsaras. At Bayon temple in Angkor Thom there are scenes of daily life in the Khmer Empire. High relief[edit] High relief metope from the Classical Greek Parthenon Marbles. Some front limbs are actually detached from the background completely, while the centaur's left rear leg is in low relief. High relief (or altorilievo, from Italian) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background. Indeed, the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field. The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth, unlike low relief where the elements seen are "squashed" flatter. High relief thus uses essentially the same style and techniques as free-standing sculpture, and in the case of a single figure gives largely the same view as a person standing directly in front of a free-standing statue would have. All cultures and periods in which large sculptures were created used this technique in monumental sculpture and architecture. Most of the many grand figure reliefs in Ancient Greek sculpture used a very "high" version of high relief, with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth. The metopes of the Parthenon have largely lost their fully rounded elements, except for heads, showing the advantages of relief in terms of durability. High relief has remained the dominant form for reliefs with figures in Western sculpture, also being common in Indian temple sculpture. Smaller Greek sculptures such as private tombs, and smaller decorative areas such as friezes on large buildings, more often used low relief. High-relief deities at Khajuraho, India Hellenistic and Roman sarcophagus reliefs were cut with a drill rather than chisels, enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures, like the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260 CE). These are also seen in the enormous strips of reliefs that wound around Roman triumphal columns. The sarcophagi in particular exerted a huge influence on later Western sculpture. The European Middle Ages tended to use high relief for all purposes in stone, though like Ancient Roman sculpture, their reliefs were typically not as high as in Ancient Greece.[8] Very high relief re-emerged in the Renaissance, and was especially used in wall-mounted funerary art and later on Neoclassical pediments and public monuments. In the Buddhist and Hindu art of India and Southeast Asia, high relief can also be found, although it is not as common as low to mid-reliefs. Famous examples of Indian high reliefs can be found at the Khajuraho temples, with voluptuous, twisting figures that often illustrate the erotic Kamasutra positions. In the 9th-century Prambanan temple, Central Java, high reliefs of Lokapala devatas, the guardians of deities of the directions, are found. The largest high relief sculpture in the world is the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in the U.S. state of Georgia, which was cut 42 feet deep into the mountain,[9] and measures 90 feet in height, 190 feet in width,[10] and lies 400 feet above the ground.[11] Sunk relief[edit] A sunk-relief depiction of Pharaoh Akhenaten with his wife Nefertiti and daughters. The main background has not been removed, merely that in the immediate vicinity of the sculpted form. Note how strong shadows are needed to define the image. Sunk or sunken relief is largely restricted to the art of Ancient Egypt where it is very common, becoming after the Amarna period of Ahkenaten the dominant type used, as opposed to low relief. It had been used earlier, but mainly for large reliefs on external walls, and for hieroglyphs and cartouches. The image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface. In a simpler form the images are usually mostly linear in nature, like hieroglyphs, but in most cases the figure itself is in low relief, but set within a sunken area shaped round the image, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. In some cases the figures and other elements are in a very low relief that does not rise to the original surface, but others are modeled more fully, with some areas rising to the original surface. This method minimizes the work removing the background, while allowing normal relief modelling. The technique is most successful with strong sunlight to emphasise the outlines and forms by shadow, as no attempt was made to soften the edge of the sunk area, leaving a face at a right-angle to the surface all around it. Some reliefs, especially funerary monuments with heads or busts from ancient Rome and later Western art, leave a "frame" at the original level around the edge of the relief, or place a head in a hemispherical recess in the block (see Roman example in gallery). Though essentially very similar to Egyptian sunk relief, but with a background space at the lower level around the figure, the term would not normally be used of such works. It is also used for carving letters (typically om mani padme hum) in the mani stones of Tibetan Buddhism. Counter-relief[edit] Sunk relief technique is not to be confused with "counter-relief" or intaglio as seen on engraved gem seals—where an image is fully modeled in a "negative" manner. The image goes into the surface, so that when impressed on wax it gives an impression in normal relief. However many engraved gems were carved in cameo or normal relief. A few very late Hellenistic monumental carvings in Egypt use full "negative" modelling as though on a gem seal, perhaps as sculptors trained in the Greek tradition attempted to use traditional Egyptian conventions.[12] Small objects[edit] French Gothic diptych, 25 cm (9.8 in) high, with crowded scenes from the Life of Christ, c. 1350–1365 Small-scale reliefs have been carved in various materials, notably ivory, wood, and wax. Reliefs are often found in decorative arts such as ceramics and metalwork; these are less often described as "reliefs" than as "in relief". Small bronze reliefs are often in the form of "plaques" or plaquettes, which may be set in furniture or framed, or just kept as they are, a popular form for European collectors, especially in the Renaissance. Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image. Casting has also been widely used in bronze and other metals. Casting and repoussé are often used in concert in to speed up production and add greater detail to the final relief. In stone, as well as engraved gems, larger hardstone carvings in semi-precious stones have been highly prestigious since ancient times in many Eurasian cultures. Reliefs in wax were produced at least from the Renaissance. Carved ivory reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example consular diptychs represent a large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from Late Antiquity. In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres. As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the New Testament, secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced. These were often round mirror-cases, combs, handles, and other small items, but included a few larger caskets like the Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264) in Baltimore, Maryland, in the United States. Originally they were very often painted in bright colours. Reliefs can be impressed by stamps onto clay, or the clay pressed into a mould bearing the design, as was usual with the mass-produced terra sigillata of Ancient Roman pottery. Decorative reliefs in plaster or stucco may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in Islamic architecture. Gallery[edit] Low relief from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic archaeological site of Göbekli Tepe, believed to represent a bull, a fox, and a crane, c. 9,000 BC The Warka Vase of Sumer, a very early survival works of narrative relief, c. 3200–3000 BC. Alabaster. National Museum of Iraq.[13] Sunk relief as low relief within a sunk outline, from the Luxor Temple in Egypt, carved in very hard granite low relief within a sunk outline, linear sunk relief in the hieroglyphs, and high relief (right), from Luxor Low to mid-relief, 9th century, Borobudur. The temple has 1,460 panels of reliefs narrating Buddhist scriptures. A Persian mid-relief (mezzo-rilievo) from the Qajar era, at Tangeh Savashi in Iran, which might also be described as two stages of low relief This is a rock relief carved into a cliff. Roman funerary relief with frame at original level, but not sunk relief The Roman Warren Cup, silver repoussé work Yaxchilan Lintel 24, a Mayan carving depicting a blood sacrifice Rock relief at Naqsh-e Rustam; the Persian Sassanian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) with Roman emperors submitting to him The 12th century Romanesque portal of Christ in Majesty at Moissac Abbey moves between low and high relief in a single figure. Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory Side view of mid-relief: Madonna and Child, marble of c. 1500/1510 by an unknown north Italian sculptor The elaborate stucco (plaster) reliefs decorating the Chateau de Fontainebleau were hugely influential. Low-relief decorative frieze above Baroque marble high-relief by Francesco Grassia, 1670, Rome Robert Gould Shaw Memorial, 1897, Boston, combining free-standing elements with high and low relief A relatively modern high relief (depicting shipbuilding) in Bishopsgate, London. Note that some elements jut out of the frame of the image. Elizabeth Wyn Wood's Bas-relief at Ryerson University in Toronto Colossal Hindu rock reliefs at Unakoti, Tripura, India Notable reliefs[edit] Notable examples of monumental reliefs include: Ancient Egypt: Most Egyptian temples, e.g. the Temple of Karnak Assyria: A famous collection is in the British Museum, Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III Ancient Persia: Persepolis, and rock-face reliefs at Naqsh-e Rustam and Naqsh-e Rajab Ancient Greece: The Parthenon Marbles, Bassae Frieze, Great Altar of Pergamon, Ludovisi Throne Mesopotamia: Ishtar Gate of Babylon Ancient Rome: Ara Pacis, Trajan's Column, Column of Marcus Aurelius, triumphal arches, Portonaccio sarcophagus Medieval Europe: Many cathedrals and other churches, such as Chartres Cathedral and Bourges Cathedral India: Sanchi, base of the Lion Capital of Asoka, the rock-cut Elephanta Caves and Ellora Caves, Khajuraho temples, Mahabalipuram with the Descent of the Ganges, and many South Indian temples, Unakoti group of sculptures (bas-relief) at Kailashahar, Unakoti District, Tripura, India South-East Asia: Borobodur in Java, Angkor Wat in Cambodia, Glyphs, Mayan stelae and other reliefs of the Maya and Aztec civilizations United States: Stone Mountain, Robert Gould Shaw Memorial, Boston, Mount Rushmore National Memorial UK: Base panels of Nelson's Column, Frieze of Parnassus Smaller-scale reliefs: Ivory: Nimrud ivories from much of the Near East, Late Antique Consular diptychs, the Byzantine Harbaville Triptych and Veroli Casket, the Anglo-Saxon Franks Casket, Cloisters Cross. Silver: Warren Cup, Gundestrup cauldron, Mildenhall Treasure, Berthouville Treasure, Missorium of Theodosius I, Lomellini Ewer and Basin. Gold: Berlin Gold Hat, Bimaran casket, Panagyurishte Treasure Glass: Portland Vase, Lycurgus Cup See also[edit] Rock relief Multidimensional art Pargetting – English exterior plaster reliefs Relief printing – a different concept Repoussé and chasing – a metalworking technique Notes[edit] ^ "Relief". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2012-05-31. Retrieved 2012-05-31. ^ In modern English, just "high relief"; alto-rilievo was used in the 18th century and a little beyond, while haut-relief has surprisingly found a niche, restricted to archaeological writing, in recent decades after it was used in under-translated French texts about prehistoric cave art, and copied even by English writers. Its use is to be deprecated. ^ Murray, Peter & Linda, Penguin Dictionary of Art & Artists, London, 1989. p. 348, Relief; bas-relief remained common in English until the mid 20th century. ^ For example Avery in Grove Art Online, whose long article on "Relief sculpture" barely mentions or defines them, except for sunk relief. ^ Murray, 1989, op.cit. ^ Avery, vi ^ Avery, vii ^ Avery, ii and iii ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine (August 22, 2017). "What Will Happen to Stone Mountain, America's Largest Confederate Memorial?". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Retrieved May 26, 2021. ^ "50 things you might not know about Stone Mountain Park". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. July 10, 2018. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2021. ^ McKay, Rich (July 3, 2020). "The world's largest Confederate Monument faces renewed calls for removal". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 3, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2021. ^ Barasch, Moshe, Visual Syncretism: A Case Study, pp. 39–43 in Budick, Stanford & Iser, Wolfgang, eds., The Translatability of cultures: figurations of the space between, Stanford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8047-2561-6 ( ISBN 978-0-8047-2561-3). ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2006). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective – Volume 1 (12th ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-495-00479-0. References[edit] Avery, Charles, in "Relief sculpture". Grove Art Online. Retrieved April 7, 2011. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Alto-Relievo . Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Basso-Relievo . Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, "American Relief Sculpture", Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reliefs. v t e Visual arts Architecture Art Ceramics Computer art Craft Drawing Design Filmmaking Light art Painting Photography Printmaking Public art Sculpture Site-specific art Street art List of artistic media Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries Spain United States Czech Republic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relief&oldid=1025341420" Categories: Sculpture techniques Sculpture terms Types of sculpture Reliefs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Seeltersk Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2021, at 02:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8717	----	Oikeiôsis - Wikipedia Oikeiôsis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Stoic ethics, oikeiôsis (Ancient Greek: οἰκείωσις, Latin: conciliatio) is a technical term variously translated as "appropriation," "orientation," "familiarization," "affinity," "affiliation,"[1] and "endearment."[2] Oikeiôsis signifies the perception of something as one’s own, as belonging to oneself. The theory of oikeiôsis can be traced back to the work of the first Stoic philosopher, Zeno of Citium.[3] The Stoic philosopher Hierocles saw it as the basis for all animal impulses as well as human ethical action. According to Porphyry, "those who followed Zeno stated that oikeiôsis is the beginning of justice".[2] Etymology[edit] Oikeiôsis is rooted in the word oikos (οἶκος).[2] Oikos is the word for household, house, or family, and can be seen in modern English words like economics and ecology (Greek oiko- to Classical Latin oeco- to Medieval Latin eco-). Similarly, the term Oikeiotes denotes the sense of belonging, the opposite of alienation.[4] The term invokes the sense of being "at home", of belonging to and by extension becoming "familiarized" with something. Hierocles' theory[edit] In his Elements of Ethics (Ἠθικὴ στοιχείωσις), the philosopher Hierocles began his account of oikeiôsis by looking at the beginning of the life of animals. In the initial stage of perception, an animal is only aware of their bodies and sensations as "belonging to itself", this awareness is the proton oikeion, the "first thing that is one's own and familiar".[5] This self-awareness is continuous as well as dependent on the perception of external objects. This is why according to Hierocles, children are afraid of the dark, because their weak sense of self fears death in the absence of external entities.[6] Hierocles argued that the impulse of self-preservation arises out of oikeiôsis: "an animal, when it has received the first perception of itself, immediately becomes its own and familiar to itself and to its constitution".[6] In perceiving itself and becoming familiar to itself, an animal finds value in itself and its own well-being.[7] Hierocles divided the many forms of Oikeiôsis as internal and external. Internal forms of oikeiôsis included appropriation of the self as well as of one's constitution, external forms included familiarization with other people and an orientation towards external goods.[7] Oikeiôsis is the basis for Hierocles' theory of "appropriate acts" (καθήκοντα) because it is in "accordance with nature" since animals use appropriation to project themselves externally and thus care for others (such as their offspring). Stoics see these acts as a duty because, according to Cicero, "all duties derive from principles of nature".[8] In Hierocles' other ethical work, On Appropriate acts (of which only fragments survive), he outlined a theory of duty based on concentric circles. Beginning with the self and then our immediate family, Hierocles outlined how humans can extend their oikeiôsis towards other human beings in widening circles, such as our ethnos and eventually the entire human race. The distance from the center acts as a standard by which we may measure the strength of our ties and therefore our duties towards other people.[9] Hierocles argued that there was an ethical need for a "contraction of circles", to reduce the distance between the circles as much as possible and therefore increase our familiarization with all of mankind (while still retaining the strongest affinity within our immediate circle). Notes[edit] ^ Stoic Ethics, 2009, William O. Stephens, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b c Richter, Daniel S, Cosmopolis: Imagining Community in Late Classical Athens and the Early Roman Empire, Oxford U. press, 2011, pg 75 ^ Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg xxxv ^ Richard Sorabji, Animal Minds and Human Morals: The Origins of the Western Debate, pg 123 ^ Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg xxxiii ^ a b Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg xl ^ a b Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg xli ^ Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg xlviii ^ Ramelli, Ilaria, Hierocles the Stoic: Elements of Ethics, Fragments and Excerpts, 2009, pg lvi v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger Theodorus the Atheist Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade Euhemerus Eretrian Phaedo of Elis Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius Megarian Euclid of Megara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Platonic Plato Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Hellenistic Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Middle Platonic Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius Plutarch of Athens Hierius Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Neopythagorean Nigidius Figulus Apollonius of Tyana Moderatus of Gades Nicomachus Alexicrates Anaxilaus Bolus of Mendes Cronius Damis Numenius of Apamea Secundus the Silent Quintus Sextius Sotion Theon of Smyrna Pyrrhonist Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Hecataeus of Abdera Heraclides of Tarentum Herodotus of Tarsus Menodotus of Nicomedia Nausiphanes Sextus Empiricus Theodas of Laodicea Timon of Phlius Stoic Greek Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aratus of Soli Athenodorus of Soli Aristo of Chios Apollophanes of Antioch Dionysius the Renegade Sphaerus Herillus of Carthage Cleanthes Eratosthenes Hermagoras of Amphipolis Chrysippus Dioscorides Aristocreon Zeno of Tarsus Eudromus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Zenodotus Apollodorus of Seleucia Basilides Antipater of Tarsus Apollodorus of Athens Archedemus of Tarsus Panaetius of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Polemon of Athens Marcus Vigellius Heraclides of Tarsus Dardanus Mnesarchus Publius Rutilius Rufus Stilo Dionysius of Cyrene Quintus Lucilius Balbus Hecato of Rhodes Diotimus the Stoic Posidonius Crinis Proclus of Mallus Diodotus the Stoic Geminus of Rhodes Athenodoros Cordylion Apollonius of Tyre Cato the Younger Antipater of Tyre Porcia Apollonides Jason of Nysa Athenodoros Cananites Quintus Sextius Arius Didymus Roman Attalus Papirius Fabianus Seneca Thrasea Paetus Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Chaeremon of Alexandria Paconius Agrippinus Publius Egnatius Celer Persius Helvidius Priscus Arulenus Rusticus Musonius Rufus Fannia Euphrates the Stoic Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Flavius Arrianus Basilides Apollonius of Chalcedon Claudius Maximus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oikeiôsis&oldid=897523199" Categories: Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Stoicism Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français 한국어 Italiano Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 17 May 2019, at 16:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8743	----	Junius Licinius Balbus - Wikipedia Junius Licinius Balbus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd century Roman senator and consul This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Junius Licinius Balbus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Junius Licinius Balbus (ca. 180 - after 238) was a Roman Senator who served as a Suffect Consul. He is known for being the husband of Antonia Gordiana, daughter of Gordian I and sister of Gordian II, and being the father of the Roman emperor Gordian III. Or so the Historia Augusta claims; modern historians dismiss this identification of the husband of Antonia Gordian and father of the child emperor. According to the Historia Augusta, Balbus was the son of Junius Licinius Balbus, a man of consular rank and his wife, Servilia the daughter of the Roman nobles Ceionia Plautia, sister of Lucius Verus, and Quintus Servilius Pudens. Although Antonia Gordiana married an unnamed Roman Senator, modern historians suspect this connection to the Antonine dynasty to be a genealogical fabrication by the anonymous author of the Historia Augusta. Contents 1 Family tree 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 References 4 Sources Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] Sources[edit] Christian Settipani, Continuité gentilice et continuité sénatoriale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale, 2000 This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Junius_Licinius_Balbus&oldid=1017248825" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans Junii Licinii Nerva–Antonine dynasty 180s births 3rd-century deaths Gordian dynasty Ancient Roman people stubs Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2015 All articles needing additional references Year of birth uncertain Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Português Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 18:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8752	----	Help:Authority control - Wikipedia Help:Authority control From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia help page about authority control For editor information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut H:AC Readers' FAQ About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Assessing article quality Authority control Books Categories Censorship Copyright Disambiguation Images and multimedia ISBN Microformats Mobile access Offline access Navigation Other languages Page names Portals Searching Student help Researching with Wikipedia Citing Wikipedia Readers' glossary Readers' index Reader's guide to Wikipedia v t e Authority control is a way of associating a unique identifier to articles on Wikipedia. This is useful to disambiguate different items with similar or identical headings, as well as establish a single standard title for an item that is commonly known by two or more titles. When used, authority control data links can be found near the bottom of Wikipedia pages, linking to bibliographical records on worldwide library catalogs. Authority control is often used on biographical articles because it is quite common for more than one person to share the same name. 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en-wikipedia-org-8761	----	Michael VIII Palaiologos - Wikipedia Michael VIII Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1261 to 1282 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael VIII Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Miniature from the manuscript of Pachymeres' Historia Byzantine emperor Reign 15 August 1261 – 11 December 1282[note 1] Predecessor Baldwin II (Latin Empire) Successor Andronikos II Palaiologos Emperor of Nicaea Reign 1 January 1259 – 15 August 1261[note 2] Predecessor John IV Laskaris Born 1223 Empire of Nicaea Died (1282-12-11)11 December 1282 (aged 59) Pachomion, near Lysimachia, Byzantine Empire[1] Spouse Theodora Palaiologina Issue Manuel Palaiologos Irene Palaiologina Andronikos II Palaiologos Anna Palaiologina Constantine Palaiologos Theodora Palaiologina Eudokia Palaiologina Theodore Palaiologos Euphrosyne Palaiologina Maria Palaiologina Dynasty Palaiologos Father Andronikos Doukas Komnenos Palaiologos Mother Theodora Angelina Palaiologina Religion Orthodox/Catholic Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Μιχαήλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Mikhaēl Doukas Angelos Komnēnos Palaiologos; 1223 – 11 December 1282) reigned as the co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea from 1259 to 1261, and as Byzantine Emperor from 1261 until his death. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. He recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire in 1261 and transformed the Empire of Nicaea into a restored Byzantine Empire.[2] His reign saw considerable recovery of Byzantine power, including the enlargement of the Byzantine army and navy. It would also include the reconstruction of the city of Constantinople, and the increase of its population.[3] He reestablished the University of Constantinople, which led to what is regarded as the Palaiologan Renaissance between the 13th and 15th centuries.[3] It was also at this time that the focus of the Byzantine military shifted to the Balkans, against the Bulgarians, leaving the Anatolian frontier neglected.[3] His successors could not compensate for this inadequacy, and both the Arsenite schism and two civil wars (cf. Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328, Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347) undermined further efforts toward territorial consolidation and recovery, draining the empire's strength, economy, and resources. Regular conflict between Byzantine successor states such as the Empire of Thessalonica, Trebizond, Epirus and Serbia resulted in permanent fragmentation of former Byzantine territory and opportunity for increasingly successful conquests of expansive territories by post-Seljuk Anatolian beyliks, most notably that of Osman, later called the Ottoman Empire. Contents 1 Road to the throne 2 Constantinople 3 Diplomacy and conquest 4 Michael and Charles of Anjou 5 Council of Lyons and after 6 Sicilian Vespers 7 Legacy 8 Family 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Road to the throne[edit] Michael VIII Palaiologos was the son of the megas domestikos Andronikos Palaiologos by Theodora Angelina Palaiologina, the granddaughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos and Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina. According to Deno John Geanakoplos, Michael's ancestry could be traced back to all three imperial houses that ruled the empire in the centuries before the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade.[4] His mother does not appear to have played a significant role in his early life; at least for a time he was brought up by his elder sister Martha, the wife of megas domestikos Nikephoros Tarchaneiotes, although she was only ten years older than him.[5] Michael rose to distinction at an early age, serving as the governor of the Thracian towns of Melnik and Serres under the command of his father Andronikos. However, in the autumn of 1253 Michael was accused before the Emperor John III Vatatzes of plotting against the throne. The only way Michael was allowed to prove his innocence was through trial by ordeal, holding a red-hot iron. When the Emperor ordered him to take hold of the red-hot metal, the young Michael answered (to use Geanakoplos' words) "with the astuteness that was to characterize his later career as Emperor": if the Metropolitan Phokas of Philadelphia, who evidently supported this proposal, could take the iron from the altar with his own hands and place it in Michael's, he would gladly receive it in faith that the truth would be revealed.[6] Although Michael avoided punishment, and afterwards was married to the Emperor's grandniece and appointed megas konostaulos of the Latin mercenaries in the employment of the emperors of Nicaea, he was still mistrusted. Following the death of John Vatatzes, Michael crossed the Sangarios River with a few close friends and took service with the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. From late 1256 to 1258 he served as commander of the Christian mercenaries fighting for Sultan Kaykaus II; in that later year the Emperor Theodore II Doukas Laskaris recalled Michael, and after both exchanged oaths of loyalty and guarantees of safety, Michael returned to the service of the Emperor.[7] A few days after the death of Emperor Theodore Laskaris in 1258, Michael Palaiologos instigated a coup against the influential bureaucrat George Mouzalon, seizing from him the guardianship of the eight-year-old Emperor John IV Doukas Laskaris. Michael was invested with the titles of megas doux and, on 13 November 1258, of despotēs. On 1 January 1259 Michael VIII Palaiologos was proclaimed co-emperor (basileus), most likely without John IV, in Nymphaion.[8] Constantinople[edit] Michael Palaiologos In 1259 Michael VIII defeated the alliance of William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and Michael II Komnenos Doukas of Epirus at the Battle of Pelagonia. According to Geanakoplos, "[i]n the period immediately preceding the Nicene reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 no event was of greater importance than Michael Palaeologus' victory at Pelagonia."[9] This not only neutralized, for the immediate time, the possibility of an attack from enemies on his Western borders, but also improved Michael's legitimacy by showing him as a competent leader.[10] Despite this brilliant victory, only one event could remove the stigma of usurper completely from the eyes of his subjects — recovery of Constantinople itself. In 1260 Michael personally led an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city. Rumors of reinforcements for the beleaguered city forced Michael to sign a one-year truce with the Latin Emperor Baldwin II that August.[11] Realizing that he needed a navy to effectively besiege Constantinople, Michael concluded the Treaty of Nymphaeum with Genoa in March of the following year. Genoese help proved to be unneeded when Michael VIII's general Alexios Strategopoulos captured Constantinople from Baldwin II through treachery on 25 July 1261.[2] News of the captured city first reached Michael's sister Eulogia Palaiologina, who awoke her brother at dawn. He was not convinced until a messenger arrived from Strategopoulos bearing the crown and sword Baldwin had abandoned in his flight from his palace.[12] Michael VIII entered the city on 15 August and had himself crowned emperor. Once in control of Constantinople, Michael abolished all Latin customs and reinstated most Byzantine ceremonies and institutions as they had existed before the Fourth Crusade. He repopulated the capital, building its population from 35,000 when he took power to 70,000 by the end of his reign, and restored damaged churches, monasteries, and public buildings. He was acutely aware of the danger posed by the possibility that the Latin West, particularly his neighbors in Italy, would unite against him and attempt the restoration of Latin rule in Constantinople.[3] John IV, who had been left behind at Nicaea and had never been regarded, according to Akropolites, as emperor - his name virtually stricken from reference after the death of his father Theodore II, was blinded and relegated to a monastery in December of 1261, rendering him permanently ineligible for the throne - his formal coronation postponed; Michael VIII was crowned co-emperor (basileus) alone 1 January, 1259 - having been crowned as despot 13 November, 1258. Michael VIII quickly married off John's sisters to two Italians and a Bulgarian noble, so their descendants could not threaten his own children's claim to the imperial succession. Although Michael tried to keep the blinding of John a secret, the news eventually leaked out and Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos excommunicated Michael VIII. This ban was not lifted until six years later (1268) on the appointment of patriarch Joseph I.[13] Diplomacy and conquest[edit] In the words of Geanaklopos, "With the fall of Constantinople, the papacy suffered not only a loss of political prestige but severe damage to its spiritual authority as well. For the Greeks had now effectively reasserted their right to a church divorced from Rome. Thus it became the task of each of the six successive popes of Michael's reign to accomplish the return of the schismatics to the Roman fold."[14] Michael was aware of the immense influence the Curia had in the West, so he immediately dispatched an embassy to Pope Urban IV consisting of two envoys; upon reaching Italy, the men were seized and one was flayed alive, while the other succeeded in escaping back to friendlier territories.[15] Imperial eagle in Mystras. In 1263 the Latins ceded Mystras as ransom for William II of Villehardouin, and Michael VIII Palaeologus made the city the seat of the new Despotate of Morea, ruled by his relatives. Michael also approached Manfred of Sicily to achieve some kind of accord. In the summer of 1262, Michael offered to divorce his wife Theodora and marry Manfred's sister Anna. This offer failed spectacularly: not only did Anna reject his proposal, Theodora turned to Patriarch Arsenios for help. The Patriarch confronted the emperor and pressured him to abandon his plans. Michael yielded and sent Anna back to her brother with gifts. This gesture helped to secure the release of his general Alexios Strategopoulos.[16] It was around this time that Michael was presented with a dangerous distraction: ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwūs, who had been deposed as Sultan of the Seljuk Turks by a coalition led by the Pervane Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman, arrived seeking help from his old friend. But as Claude Cahen notes, he "was to be cruelly disappointed." Michael favored the Mongols of Iran, who supported ʿIzz ad-Dīn's enemy the Pervane, against those of Russia. Further, he could not risk a war on his Asian frontier while Western Europe, infinitely more dangerous, was opposed to him. Cahen believes that either ʿIzz ad-Dīn became an embarrassment, or perhaps the former Sultan "indulged in too open of criticism"; in either case, ʿIzz ad-Dīn was imprisoned. Mongol troops from Russia eventually freed him, and carried him off to the Crimea where he lived out his life.[17] A series of military setbacks followed. In 1263 Michael sent 15,000 men, including 5,000 Seljuk mercenaries, to Morea with the goal of conquering the Principality of Achaea, but this expedition failed in a surprise rout at Prinitza. Later that year a mixed fleet of 48 imperial and Genoese ships was defeated by a smaller Venetian force at the Battle of Settepozzi. The following year, the imperial forces in Morea were again defeated at Makryplagi after the Seljuk mercenaries, who had not been paid, changed sides.[18] The nadir of Michael's disasters came in the Spring of 1265, when an army of Tatars and Bulgars under Nogai Khan ravaging Thrace ambushed Michael Palaeologos when he was returning to Constantinople accompanied by only a few troops. Deserted by even his own officers, who fled to save their own lives, Michael was able to escape by crossing the Ganos Mountains and reaching the Marmora coast, where he happened upon two Latin ships. He quickly boarded the vessels, and two days later safely arrived at Constantinople. "Thus did Michael survive one of the narrowest escapes of his career," notes Geanakoplos.[19] The military advantages Michael enjoyed after capturing Constantinople had evaporated, but he would demonstrate his diplomatic skills to successfully recover from these drawbacks. After Settepozzi, Michael VIII dismissed the 60 Genoese galleys that he had hired earlier and began a rapprochement with Venice. Michael secretly negotiated a treaty with the Venetians to grant terms similar to those in the case of Nymphaeum, but Doge Raniero Zeno failed to ratify the agreement.[20] He also signed a treaty in 1263 with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars and Berke, the Mongol Khan of Kipchak Khanate.[21] Michael and Charles of Anjou[edit] The restored Byzantine Empire in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266 brought forth a new challenger to Michael, one with whom he would struggle for the rest of his life: Charles of Anjou. Michael, as Geanaklopos emphasizes, "from 1266 until shortly before his death in 1282 ... was constrained to devote almost complete attention to the defeat of Charles, the fulfillment of whose ambition would have brought about the destruction of the Byzantine Empire and reimposition of Latin rule in Constantinople."[22] Charles strengthened his hold on the kingdom of Sicily by defeating Conradin at the Battle of Tagliacozzo on 23 August 1268. And looking for help to restore the Latin Empire, on May 1267, Charles concluded the Treaty of Viterbo with the exiled Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II Villehardouin under the guidance of Pope Clement IV.[23] In many ways Michael and Charles were alike. Geanakoplos quotes Nicephorus Gregoras's comparison of the two men at length: Charles, motivated not by small but great ambitions, implanted in his mind like a seed the resolution of taking Constantinople. He dreamed that if he could become the master of it, he would restore the entire monarchy, so to speak, of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He was very able not only in planning what he wished to do but in easily translating his thoughts into action. Clearly he surpassed all his predecessors in the strength of his nature and intelligence... Nevertheless, neither his actions against the Greeks nor those of Michael Palaeologus against the Latins could be brought to a successful conclusion. For the strength of both was for a long time so evenly matched that it was well said (this was the opinion of discerning people) that if at that time such an Emperor had not been directing Greek affairs, the Empire would easily have succumbed to Charles, the King of Italy [sic]; and, conversely, if such a King had not then been at the helm of Italian affairs, the hegemony of Italy would with little difficulty have passed to Michael Palaeologus.[24] Michael was also faced with a challenge on his Asian frontier. Although the peace treaty with the Seljuk Turks continued to be honored by both parties, nomadic Turkmen had begun to infiltrate the Byzantine territories, and because of Michael's preoccupation with his Western foes, there was no organized response to this threat. Speros Vryonis also points out that due to his treatment of John IV Laskaris, "there resulted an outright alienation from Constantinople of large segments of Greek society in Bithynia and elsewhere."[25] In 1269 Michael sent his brother the despotes John Palaiologos into the southern part of Byzantine Anatolia to clear the Maeander and Cayster valleys of Turkmen; their response was to fall back before the Byzantine army, and when John was eventually recalled to face foes in Europe, the Turkmen pushed back and resumed their conquests and settlement. Thus by 1269, the cities of Trachia Studia and Strobilos on the Carian coast were firmly Turkish possessions.[26] Michael's response to the Treaty of Viterbo was to attempt to weaken papal support for it; if the Pope was convinced Charles of Anjou's invasion was a just and holy war, then the forces Michael could call on could not prevent its success. Michael returned to negotiating a union of the churches with Pope Clement IV, which he had agreed to, but the latter's death in November 1268 put an end to this approach. According to Geanakoplos, only a lack of resources prevented Charles from immediately launching an attack against Michael.[27] Looking for some restraint on Charles, Michael made a shrewd appeal to King Louis IX of France, the leading ruler of the West and the elder brother of Charles. Louis was more interested in a crusade against Muslims controlling the Holy Land than attacking a schismatic Christian. So he had Charles join his Tunisian crusade in 1270. When Louis died in Tunisia, Charles took command, negotiated a truce, and sailed to Sicily, planning to attack Byzantium. At this point a miracle saved Michael: a violent storm destroyed Charles' fleet. "To the Greeks of Byzantium," writes Geanakoplos, "it must have seemed as if the Virgin, their protector, had saved them from disaster."[28] After a three year interregnum, during which Charles of Anjou attempted to sway the election, a new pope was elected, Gregory X. When Michael restarted talks of union, Gregory proved to be less accommodating and negotiated from a position of strength. Michael attempted to reason with Patriarch Joseph and the synod of the importance of agreeing to this union, and that the principle of oikonomia (which Geanakoplos suggests is best translated here as "considerations of self-interest") required them to accede to papal demands. But despite a propaganda campaign over the winter of 1274–1275, Michael was forced to depose Patriarch Joseph and replace him with his own supporter John Bekkos in order to obtain a grudging consent to the union.[29] Council of Lyons and after[edit] Coin of Michael VIII Paleologus, depicting the Virgin Mary rising over the walls of Constantinople, in commemoration of the capture of the city over the Latins. Byzantine envoys presented themselves at the Second Council of Lyons 24 June 1274, where they presented a letter from the Emperor, sealed with the imperial golden bull, and two others from his son Andronikos and the Byzantine clergy. On the fourth session of the Council the formal act of union was performed. The letters were read, and for the first time in two centuries representatives of the major Eastern and Western branches of Christianity were again in communion.[30] Michael VIII achieved an important advantage by this union, for now he gained legitimacy both for possessing Constantinople and for his claims to the lands occupied by Western invaders. Further, his antagonist Charles could not rely on the power of the pope calling for a crusade against his realm.[31] Lastly, Pope Gregory was very favorable to Michael's proposal for a crusade against the Turks to restore the ancient Christian cities of Anatolia; however with Gregory's death (January 1276), these plans remained nothing more than talk.[32] More disappointments followed as news of the Council filtered through the former Byzantine territories. While the union was opposed at all levels of society, it was especially opposed by the greater populace, led by the monks and the adherents of the deposed Patriarch Arsenios, known as the Arsenites. One of the chief anti-unionist leaders was Michael's own sister Eulogia, who fled to the court of her daughter Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene, Tsarina of the Bulgars, from where she intrigued unsuccessfully against Michael. More serious was the opposition of the sons of Michael of Epirus, Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas and his half-brother John the Bastard: they posed as the defenders of Orthodoxy and gave support to the anti-unionists fleeing Constantinople. Michael at first responded with comparative leniency, hoping to win the anti-unionists through persuasion, but eventually the virulence of the protests led him to resort to force. Many anti-unionists were blinded or exiled. Two prominent monks, Meletios and Ignatios, were punished: the first had his tongue cut out, the second was blinded. Even imperial officials were harshly treated, and the death penalty was decreed even for simply reading or possessing pamphlets directed against the Emperor.[33] "From the intensity of these disorders, tantamount almost to civil wars," concludes Geanakoplos, "it might appear that too great a price had been paid for the sake of union."[34] The religious situation only worsened for Michael. The Arsenite party found widespread support amongst the discontented in the Anatolian provinces, and Michael responded there with similar viciousness: according to Vryonis, "These elements were either removed from the armies or else, alienated, they deserted to the Turks".[35] Another attempt to clear the encroaching Turkmen from the Meaender valley in 1278 found limited success, but Antioch on the Maeander was irretrievably lost as were Tralles and Nyssa four years later.[36] On 1 May 1277, John the Bastard convoked a synod at Neopatras that anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope as heretics.[37] In response, a synod was convoked at the Hagia Sophia on 16 July where both Nikephoros and John were anathematized in return. John called a final synod at Neopatras in December 1277, where an anti-unionist council of eight bishops, a few abbots, and one hundred monks, again anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope.[38] Michael's achievements on the battlefield were more positive, although still mixed. He tried to take advantage of a civil war in Bulgaria in the late 1270s, but the Byzantine armies suffered several major defeats at the hands of the peasant Emperor Ivaylo. The Emperor managed to temporarily impose his son-in-law Ivan Asen III on the Bulgarian throne, but after the Byzantine defeat at Devina he had to flee. However, Michael VIII later managed to conquer the Bulgarian portion of Thrace, while the internal situation of the Bulgarian Empire remained unstable. In 1275, Michael VIII sent an army against Thessaly and fleet of 73 ships to harass the Latin states in Greece. The army was crushingly defeated at the Battle of Neopatras, but the fleet won a similarly comprehensive victory at the Battle of Demetrias.[39] Last was his victory over Charles of Anjou in western Greece. Charles' general Hugh of Sully with 8,000 men (including 2,000 cavalry) captured Butrinto in 1280 and besieged Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes arrived in March 1281: Hugh of Sully was ambushed and captured, and his army put to flight. Geanaklopos considers that most scholars do not appreciate fully the importance of this victory: "this victory marked the complete failure of the attempt to launch a land expedition against the capital. Thus ... Charles had to shift his strategy to a sea attack against Constantinople".[40] Sicilian Vespers[edit] Gold hyperpyron of Michael VIII, shown (bottom left) kneeling before Christ (right), under the injunction of Archangel Michael (top left). On 22 February 1281 a new Pope was selected, Pope Martin IV, a Frenchman Geanaklopos describes as "blindly subservient" to Charles of Anjou.[41] Once again, Charles had no clear brake on his ambitions to conquer Constantinople, and he moved swiftly to prepare for this new offensive. One early move was taken by Pope Martin, who on 18 October 1281 excommunicated Michael without any warning or provocation, thus disrupting the union of Lyons.[42] Charles had prepared a military force far larger than Michael could muster. According to Marino Sanudo, Charles had 100 ships in Sicily, and 300 more in Naples, Provence, and his Greek territories, which were to carry no fewer than 8,000 cavalrymen. Geanakoplos cites surviving documents that attest to the supplies Charles had accumulated. One Angevin rescript, dated 28 October 1281, lists a collection of tools to be gathered for the expedition, which includes "two thousand iron mattocks, three thousand iron stakes, sledges for smashing rocks, ropes, iron shovels, axes, and kettles for boiling pitch." Another orders the delivery of "four thousand iron stakes that are under construction in Venice." A third consists of instructions to a Pisan merchant for 2,500 shields of various sizes, all to be emblazoned with his royal emblem of lilies. Allied with Charles were a long list of powers. Besides having ties of kinship with the Kings of France and Hungary, the rulers of the Serbs and Bulgars were his allies, as well as the rulers of Epirus and dissidents of the Byzantine Empire, and the leading naval power of Europe, Venice.[43] Obviously Michael sought allies against Charles of Anjou, but they were few. Donald Nicol lists the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, who would "loan him ships", and the Tatars of the Golden Horde in South Russia who "could keep an eye on the Bulgarians".[44] His ambassadors visited the court of Roman-German King Rudolph of Habsburg, but he was aloof. King Peter III of Aragon proved more welcoming, for he had his own reasons to hate Charles. According to Geanakoplos, Peter's wife Constance was the daughter of Manfred, and for this reason Peter considered Charles a usurper and Sicily the rightful property of Constance. Peter welcomed refugees from Sicily, most notably John of Procida, whom he made secretary of the royal chancery.[45] Yet Aragon was at the other end of the Mediterranean, far from Michael.[3] Before Charles of Anjou could start for Constantinople, however, the Sicilian Vespers rebellion struck, on 30 March 1282. Charles sent four ships to handle the revolt, but when the rebels took control of Messina, he ordered the men and materiel assembled for use against Michael to besiege that city; meanwhile seventy Angevin ships at the arsenal of Messina were destroyed. Eventually Charles lifted the siege, and Peter of Aragon landed in Sicily to reclaim the island for his wife.[46] Beginning with Pope Martin's bull dated 18 November 1282, wherein he again excommunicated Michael—as well as Peter of Aragon, John of Procida, and Michael's emissary Benedetto Zaccaria—as the author of the conspiracy that led to the Sicilian Vespers, Michael has been seen as the instigator.[47] Geanakoplos, while admitting that Michael was in contact with the leaders of the revolt beforehand, asserts "that Michael Palaeologus, on his part, had nothing to do with the incident at the church of Santo Spirito is beyond question."[46] Furthermore, Michael VIII was instrumental in instigating revolts in Crete against the Venetians, the most famous of which was led by the Hortatzoi brothers Georgios and Theodore of Mesi in Rethymnon, with a duration of six years, causing most significant harm to the Venetian occupants and economic interests of Venice. Michael VIII had aimed to eventually bring Venice, an ally of Charles of Anjou, to the table of negotiations, as he did, at his court in Constantinople.[48] Legacy[edit] In reconstituting the Byzantine Empire Michael VIII restored the old administration without endeavouring to correct its failures. In recovering Constantinople and investing in the defence of his European provinces, Michael VIII began to denude the Anatolian frontier of its troops and was forced to lower their pay or cancel their tax exemptions. This policy led to the gradual collapse of the frontier, which was infiltrated by Turkish bands even before the death of Michael VIII in Pachomios village, Thrace in December 1282. The Palaiologan dynasty he established ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost two centuries, longer than any other in Roman history. Also, during his reign there was a temporary naval revival in which the Byzantine navy consisted of 80 ships.[49] Family[edit] In 1253, Michael VIII Palaiologos married Theodora Palaiologina, a grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes, Emperor of Nicaea. Orphaned in childhood, she was raised by her great-uncle John III, who was said to have "loved her like a daughter", and who arranged for her marriage to Michael. Their children were:[50][51] Manuel Palaiologos (c. 1255–before 1259) Irene Palaiologina (c. 1256–before 1328), who married emperor Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria Andronikos II Palaiologos (1259–1332), Byzantine emperor Anna Palaiologina (c. 1260–1299/1300), who married Demetrios/Michael Komnenos Doukas, third son of Michael II of Epirus Constantine Palaiologos (1261–1306), who married Eirene Raoulaina his second cousin Theodora Palaiologina, who married King David VI of Georgia Eudokia Palaiologina, who married Emperor John II of Trebizond Theodore Palaiologos (c. 1263 – after 1310) By a mistress, a Diplovatatzina, Michael VIII also had two illegitimate daughters: Euphrosyne Palaiologina, who married Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde Maria Palaiologina, who married Abaqa Khan of Ilkhanid Persia See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Co-emperor with Andronikos II Palaiologos (1272 – 1282) ^ Co-Emperor with John IV Doukas Laskaris References[edit] ^ Finlay, George, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, Vol. 2, p. 463. ^ a b Bartusis, Mark C. (1 January 1997). The Late Byzantine Army. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812216202. ^ a b c d e Geanakoplos, Deno John. "Michael VIII Palaeologus". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2018. ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West (Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 17. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 18f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 23f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 26–30. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 39–46. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 47. ^ A detailed account and analysis of the Battle of Pelagonia can be found in Deno John Geanakoplos, "Greco-Latin Relations on the Eve of the Byzantine Restoration: The Battle of Pelagonia-1259", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 7 (1953), pp. 99–141. Geanakoplos' chapter in his Michael Palaeologus offers little new on his earlier paper. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 78. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 119. ^ Donald Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), pp. 44f ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 140 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 140f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 144f ^ Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey: a general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history, trans. J. Jones-Williams, 1968 (New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 2004), p. 279. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 151–60. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 181f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 182–85 ^ Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520, p. 304. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 189f. ^ Geanaklopos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 195–200. ^ Gregoras, 123, ll. 8–15; 144, ll. 16ff. Translated in Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 190. ^ Vryonis, The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century, (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), p. 136. ^ Vryonis, Decline of medieval Hellenism, pp. 136f, 250f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 216. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 228. ^ Nicol, Last Centuries, p. 56. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 258–264. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 278. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 286–290. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 264–275. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 276. ^ Vryonis, Decline of medieval Hellenism, p. 136. ^ Vryonis, Decline of medieval Hellenism, p. 137. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 275. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 309. ^ D'Amato, Raffaelle (20 September 2016). Byzantine Naval Forces 1261–1461. Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1472807281. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 334. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 340 ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, p. 341. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 361f. ^ Donald M. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: A study in diplomatic and cultural relations (Cambridge: University Press, 1988), p. 209. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 345f. ^ a b Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 365f. ^ Geanakoplos, Michael Palaeologus, pp. 347f. ^ Agelarakis, P. A. (2012), "Cretans in Byzantine foreign policy and military affairs following the Fourth Crusade", Cretika Chronika, 32, 41–78. ^ D'Amato, Raffaelle (20 September 2016). Byzantine Naval Forces 1261–1461. Osprey Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-1472807281. ^ PLP, 21380. Παλαιολογίνα, Θεοδώρα ∆ούκαινα Κομνηνή. ^ Talbot 1992, p. 295ff.. Sources[edit] Geanakoplos, Deno John (1959). Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. OCLC 1011763434.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Michael (emperors)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 359–360. Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6. Talbot, Alice-Mary (1992). "Empress Theodora Palaiologina, Wife of Michael VIII". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Washington, D.C. 46: 295–303. doi:10.2307/1291662. JSTOR 1291662. Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-7001-3003-1. Further reading[edit] Charanis, Peter. "The Jews in the Byzantine Empire under the First Palaeologi." Speculum, 22 (1947), 75–77. Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades (Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014). ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Heath, Ian, Byzantine Armies, AD 1118–1461 (Osprey Publishing, 1995). ISBN 1-85532-347-8 Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991) Vannier, J-F. Les premiers Paléologues (Etudes prosopographiques), 1989 External links[edit] Media related to Michael VIII Palaiologos at Wikimedia Commons Coinage featuring Michael VIII Palaiologos Michael VIII Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: Unknown 1224 Died: 11 December 1282 Regnal titles Preceded by John IV Laskaris Emperor of Nicaea 1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282 with John IV Laskaris (1258–1261) Byzantine Empire restored Preceded by Baldwin II as Latin Emperor Byzantine emperor 1261–1282 with Andronikos II Palaiologos (1272–11th December 1282) Succeeded by Andronikos II Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Italy United States Czech Republic Greece Netherlands Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_VIII_Palaiologos&oldid=1027202064" Categories: Michael VIII Palaiologos 1223 births 1282 deaths Palaiologos dynasty Byzantine regents People excommunicated by the Greek Orthodox Church People excommunicated by the Catholic Church Roman Catholic monarchs Emperors of Nicaea Eastern Orthodox monarchs 13th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars Despots (court title) Megaloi doukes People of the War of the Sicilian Vespers People of the War of Saint Sabas Converts to Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use dmy dates from August 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 17:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8778	----	Istanbul Archaeology Museums - Wikipedia Istanbul Archaeology Museums From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Archaeological Museum of Istanbul) Jump to navigation Jump to search Archaeology museum in Istanbul, Turkey Istanbul Archaeology Museums İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri Established 13 June 1891 Location Osman Hamdi Bey Yokuşu Sokak, Gülhane, Istanbul, Turkey Coordinates 41°00′39″N 28°58′54″E / 41.010872°N 28.981659°E / 41.010872; 28.981659 Type Archaeology museum Collection size 1+ million objects Visitors 382.148 (2011) [1] Director Zeynep Kızıltan Website https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/arkeoloji The Istanbul Archaeology Museums (Turkish: İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri) are a group of three archaeological museums located in the Eminönü quarter of Istanbul, Turkey, near Gülhane Park and Topkapı Palace. The Istanbul Archaeology Museums consists of three museums: Archaeological Museum (in the main building) Museum of the Ancient Orient Museum of Islamic Art (in the Tiled Kiosk). It houses over one million objects that represent almost all of the eras and civilizations in world history. Contents 1 Background 2 History 3 Hours of operation, admittance fee 4 Gallery 5 Collection 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Background[edit] The Ottoman sultan Abdülaziz (r. 1861–1876) was impressed by the archaeological museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867),[2] London (12–23 July 1867)[2] and Vienna (28–30 July 1867)[2] which he visited in the summer of 1867,[2] and ordered a similar archaeological museum to be established in Istanbul. History[edit] Bust and memorial plaque to Osman Hamdi Bey in the foyer of the main building The site of the museums belonged to the Topkapı Palace outer gardens. The museum was founded by decree as the Imperial Museum (Ottoman Turkish: Müze-i Hümayun‎ or Turkish: İmparatorluk Müzesi) in 1891. The first curator and founder of the museum was Osman Hamdi Bey. Since an imperial decree protecting cultural goods in the Ottoman Empire was enforced, many governors from the provinces would send in found artefacts to the capital city. In that way the museum was able to amass a great collection. Upon its 100th anniversary in 1991, the museum received the European Council Museum Award, particularly for the renovations made to the lower floor halls in the main building and the new displays in the other buildings. The construction of the main building was started by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1881, attaining its present neo-Greek form in 1908. The architect was Alexander Vallaury (who also designed the Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul). The facade of the building was inspired by the Alexander Sarcophagus and Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, both housed inside the Museum. It is one of the prominent structures built in the neoclassical style in Istanbul. The Museum of the Ancient Orient was commissioned by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1883 as a fine arts school. Then it was reorganised as a museum, which opened in 1935. It was closed to visitors in 1963, and reopened in 1974 after restoration works on the interior. The Tiled Kiosk was commissioned by Sultan Mehmed II in 1472. It is one of the oldest structures in Istanbul featuring Ottoman civil architecture, and was a part of the Topkapı Palace outer gardens. It was used as the Imperial Museum between 1875 and 1891 before the collection moved to the newly constructed main building. It was opened to public in 1953 as a museum of Turkish and Islamic art, and was later incorporated into the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Hours of operation, admittance fee[edit] The museum is open to the public from 09:00 to 17:30 during the summer period, with ticket sales halting an hour before closing time; tickets are 50 TL. Closed on Mondays.[3] Gallery[edit] The Alexander Sarcophagus, found at the Necropolis of Sidon The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon in Parian marble from the Sidon necropolis Pediment and shafts of a temple Ancient Greek exhibition of the museum Icon with relief Virgin Mary at prayer Statue of Emperor Valentinian II Statue of Alexander the Great Puzur Ishtar, governor of Mari glazed brick panel from way to Ishtar Gate Porphyry sarcophagi of Byzantine emperors Tabnit sarcophagus in Diorite from the Sidon necropolis Collection[edit] The ornate Alexander Sarcophagus, once believed to be prepared for Alexander the Great, is among the most famous pieces of ancient art in the museum.[4] The museum has a large collection of Turkish, Hellenistic and Roman artifacts, many gathered from the vast former territories of the Ottoman Empire. The most prominent artifacts exhibited in the museum include: Four sarcophagi from the Ayaa necropolis in Sidon: The Alexander Sarcophagus, found in the necropolis of Sidon Sarcophagus of the Crying Women (Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women), also found in Sidon (in fact, the sarcophagus of Strato I, king of Sidon) The Tabnit sarcophagus and the Satrap sarcophagus. The Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon Glazed tile images from the Ishtar Gate of Babylon Statues from ancient antiquity until the end of the Roman Era, from Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Miletus Statue of an Ephebos Parts of statues from the Temple of Zeus found at Bergama A marble lion from the Mausoleum of Mausolus, one of the few pieces remaining in Turkey Snake's head from the Serpentine Column erected in the Hippodrome of Constantinople Mother-Goddess Cybele and votive stelai Busts of Alexander the Great and Zeus Fragments from the temple of Athena at Assos The Troy exhibit 800,000 Ottoman coins, seals, decorations and medals One tablet with the oldest known law-collection, the laws of king Ur-Nammu Two of the three tablets of the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty (1258 BCE), signed between Ramesses II of Egypt and Hattusili III of the Hittite Empire. It is the oldest known peace treaty in the world, and a giant poster of these tablets containing the treaty is on the wall of the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. The Saba'a Stele of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III Tablet archive containing some 75,000 documents with cuneiform inscriptions, including one containing the oldest known love poem, the Istanbul #2461 tablet. Artifacts from the early civilizations of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt Siloam inscription, which made headlines in July 2007 when Israel asked for its return[5][6] Gezer calendar Balawat gates (one gate) Samaria ostraca See also[edit] Istanbul Mosaic Museum Museum of Anatolian Civilizations Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum References[edit] ^ "Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Museum Statistics". kultur.gov.tr. January 1, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2012. ^ a b c d "Sultan Abdülaziz - Avrupa Seyahati/Tarih/milliyet blog". blog.milliyet.com.tr. Retrieved 2018-02-28. ^ "İstanbul Archaeological Museums - Visiting Hours And Admission". muze.gov.tr. Retrieved February 11, 2021. ^ "Istanbul Archaeology Museum". The New York Times. March 18, 2009. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2012. ^ "Jerusalem seeks return of ancient tablet". USA Today. July 13, 2007. Retrieved June 24, 2010. ^ "J'lem mayor turns Turkey on tablet". Jerusalem Post. July 13, 2007. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Istanbul Archaeological Museums. Istanbul Archaeological Museums Istanbul Archaeology Museum page at the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism website Museum of Architecture – Istanbul Archaeology Museum v t e Istanbul Archaeology Museums Buildings Istanbul Archaeology Museum Museum of the Ancient Orient Museum of Islamic Art Departments and objects Near East and Middle East Alexander Sarcophagus Balawat Gates Gezer calendar Istanbul 2461 Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon Saba'a Stele Lugal-dalu statue Puzur-Ishtar statue Samaria Ostraca Tabnit sarcophagus Temple Warning inscription Tura-Dagan statue Siloam inscription Egypt Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty Category v t e Fatih, Istanbul Neighbourhoods Aksaray Akşemsettin Alemdar Ali Kuşçu Atikali Ayvansaray Balabanağa Balat Beyazıt Binbirdirek Cankurtaran Cerrahpaşa Cibali Demirtaş Derviş Ali Eminsinan Hacıkadın Hasekisultan Hırkaişerif Hobyar Hoca Gıyasettin Hocapaşa İskenderpaşa Kalenderhane Karagümrük Katip Kasım Kemalpaşa Küçükayasofya Kocamustafapaşa Mercan Mesihpaşa Mevlanakapı Mimar Hayrettin Mimar Kemalettin Mollafenari Mollagürani Mollahüsrev Muhsinehatun Nişanca Rüstempaşa Saraçishak Sarıdemir Seyyid Ömer Silivrikapı Sultanahmet Sururi Süleymaniye Sümbülefendi Şehremini Şehsuvarbey Tahtakale Tayahatun Topkapı Yavuzsinan Yavuz Sultan Selim Yedikule Zeyrek Quarters Ahırkapı Altımermer Ayakapı Bahçekapı Belgradkapı Büyüklanga Cağaloğlu Çapa Çarşıkapı Çatladıkapı Çarşamba Çemberlitaş Çukurbostan Draman Edirnekapı Eğrikapı Eminönü Fener Fındıkzade Gedikpaşa Haseki Horhor İmrahor Kadırga Kıztaşı Küçükmustafapaşa Küçükpazar Kumkapı Küçüklanga Laleli Mahmutpaşa Narlıkapı Nuruosmaniye Pazartekke Samatya Saraçhane Sarayburnu Sirkeci Sofular Sulukule Şehzadebaşı Taşkasap Unkapanı Vefa Vezneciler Yenikapı Yusufpaşa Landmarks Beyazıt Square Beyazıt Tower Bulgarian St. Stephen Church Chora Church Edirnekapı Martyr's Cemetery Firuz Agha Mosque Hagia Sophia İstanbul Archaeology Museums Laleli Mosque Mihrimah Sultan Mosque Rüstem Pasha Medrese Sultan Ahmed Mosque Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar Literature Museum Library Topkapı Palace Hagia Irene Transport Sirkeci railway station Education Cağaloğlu Anadolu Lisesi Istanbul High School Istanbul University Kadir Has University  Turkey portal Category v t e Museums in Istanbul Archaeology and history museums Istanbul Archaeology Museums Museum of the Ancient Orient Great Palace Mosaic Museum Castles Anadoluhisarı Rumelihisarı Yedikule Fortress Culture and art museums Doğançay Museum Istanbul Contemporary Art Museum İstanbul Modern İstanbul State Art and Sculpture Museum Pera Museum Rezan Has Museum SantralIstanbul Sakıp Sabancı Museum Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum Sadberk Hanım Museum Elgiz Museum Museum of Turkish Calligraphy Art Museum of World Costumes Historic house museums Adam Mickiewicz Museum, Istanbul Aşiyan Museum Atatürk Museum Florya Atatürk Marine Mansion İsmet İnönü House Museum Literary museums Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar Literature Museum Library Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar Museum Orhan Kemal Literature Museum Piyer Loti Museum Sait Faik Abasıyanık Museum Military museums Aviation Museum Military Museum Naval Museum Palaces and pavilions Aynalıkavak Pavilion Beylerbeyi Palace Dolmabahçe Palace Ihlamur Pavilion Küçüksu Pavilion Maslak Pavilion Tiled Kiosk Topkapı Palace Yıldız Palace Religious museums Chora Church Hagia Sophia Jewish Museum of Turkey Pammakaristos Church Science and technology museums Camera Museum Museum of the History of Science and Technology in Islam Kandilli Earthquake Museum Kandilli Earthquake Museum] Rahmi M. Koç Museum SantralIstanbul Energy Museum Postal Museum Railway Museum Istanbul Zoology Museum ITU Science Center Natural History Museum of İhsan Ketin Miscellaneous The Museum of Innocence Bakırköy Psychiatric Hospital Museum Fenerbahçe Museum Galatasaray Museum İstanbul Toy Museum Istanbul UFO Museum İşbank Museum MSA Gastronomy Museum Museum of Illumination and Heating Appliances Museum of the Princes' Islands TGC Press Media Museum Women's Museum İstanbul v t e Archaeological museums in Turkey Aegean Region Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum Aydın Archaeological Museum Bodrum Castle Bolvadin Museum Bostanlı Open-air Archaeological Museum Ephesus Archaeological Museum Hierapolis Izmir Archeology Museum Archaeological Museum of Manisa Uşak Museum of Archaeology Black Sea Region Amasya Museum Bolu Museum Çorum Archaeological Museum Kastamonu Archaeological Museum Konuralp Museum Samsun Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography Sinop Archaeological Museum Tokat Museum Trabzon Museum Central Anatolia Region Çatalhöyük Eskişehir Archaeological Museum Konya Archaeological Museum Gordion Museum Museum of Anatolian Civilizations Eastern Anatolia Region Kars Museum Marmara Region Bursa Archaeological Museum Çanakkale Archaeological Museum Great Palace Mosaic Museum Istanbul Archaeology Museums Kırklareli Museum Sadberk Hanım Museum Tekirdağ Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography Mediterranean Region Adana Archaeology Museum Alanya Archaeological Museum Antalya Museum Arslan Eyce Private Amphora Museum Burdur Archaeological Museum Hatay Archaeology Museum Karatepe-Aslantaş Open-Air Museum Mersin Museum Misis Mosaic Museum Silifke Museum Tarsus Museum Southeastern Anatolia Region Adıyaman Archaeological Museum Diyarbakır Archaeological Museum Gaziantep Museum of Archaeology Şanlıurfa Museum Zeugma Mosaic Museum v t e Islamic museums Africa Egypt (Museum of Islamic Art, Museum of Islamic Ceramics) Libya (Islamic Museum of Tripoli, Red Castle Museum) Morocco (Dar Batha 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en-wikipedia-org-8783	----	Romanos IV Diogenes - Wikipedia Romanos IV Diogenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1068 to 1071 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Romanos IV Diogenes Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans A silver miliaresion of Romanos IV Diogenes Byzantine emperor Reign 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 Predecessor Constantine X Doukas Successor Michael VII Doukas Born c. 1030 Died 1072 (aged 42) Spouse Unnamed daughter of Alusian of Bulgaria Eudokia Makrembolitissa Issue Constantine Diogenes Nikephoros Diogenes Leo Diogenes Father Constantine Diogenes Romanos IV Diogenes (Greek: Ρωμανός Δ΄ Διογένης), also known as Romanus IV, was a member of the Byzantine military aristocracy who, after his marriage to the widowed empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, was crowned Byzantine Emperor and reigned from 1068 to 1071. During his reign he was determined to halt the decline of the Byzantine military and to stop Turkish incursions into the Byzantine Empire, but in 1071 he was captured and his army routed at the Battle of Manzikert. While still captive he was overthrown in a palace coup, and when released he was quickly defeated and detained by members of the Doukas family. In 1072, he was blinded and sent to a monastery, where he died of his wounds. Contents 1 Accession to the throne 2 Campaigns against the Turks 2.1 Campaign of 1068 2.2 Campaign of 1069 3 Affairs at Constantinople 4 Battle of Manzikert and capture by Alp Arslan 5 Betrayal 6 Family 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Accession to the throne[edit] Romanos Diogenes was the son of Constantine Diogenes and a member of a prominent and powerful Byzantine Greek family from Cappadocia,[1] connected by birth to most of the great aristocratic nobles in Asia Minor.[2] His mother was a daughter of Basil Argyros, brother of the emperor Romanos III.[3] Courageous and generous, but also impetuous, Romanos rose with distinction in the army due to his military talents, and he served on the Danubian frontier.[4] At that time some parts from the theme of Bulgaria were organized as a new province with the centre at Serdica, and he became a duke of that province in 1067.[5] However, he was eventually convicted of attempting to usurp the throne of the sons of Constantine X Doukas in 1067.[1] While waiting to receive his sentence from the regent Eudokia Makrembolitissa, he was summoned into her presence and advised that she had pardoned him and that she had furthermore chosen him to be her husband and the guardian of her sons as emperor.[6] She took this course of action primarily due to her concern that unless she managed to find a powerful husband, she could easily lose the regency to any unscrupulous noble, and also because she was infatuated with the popular Romanos.[1] Her decision was met with little protest as the Seljuk Turks had overrun much of Cappadocia and had even taken the important city of Caesarea, meaning that the army needed to be placed under the command of an able and energetic general.[2] After a written oath promising never to remarry, extracted from Eudokia by Constantine X, had been set aside by the Patriarch of Constantinople, John Xiphilinos, and the approval of the senate obtained, on 1 January 1068 Romanos married the empress and was crowned Emperor of the Romans.[1] Campaigns against the Turks[edit] Gold histamenon of Romanos IV: Michael VII Doukas flanked by his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios on the obverse, Romanos IV and Eudokia Makrembolitissa crowned by Christ on the reverse Romanos IV was now the senior emperor and guardian of his stepsons and junior co-emperors, Michael VII, Konstantios, and Andronikos Doukas.[7] However, his elevation had antagonised not only the Doukas family,[citation needed] in particular the Caesar, John Doukas who led the opposition of the palace officials to Romanos' authority, but also the Varangian Guard, who openly expressed their discontent at the marriage of Eudokia.[8] Romanos therefore decided that he could only exercise his authority by placing himself at the head of the army in the field, thereby focusing the whole government's attention on the war against the Turks.[8] By 1067, the Turks had been making incursions at will into Mesopotamia, Melitene, Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, culminating with the sack of Caesarea and the plundering of the Church of St Basil.[9] That winter they camped on the frontiers of the empire and waited for the next year's campaigning season. Romanos was confident of Byzantine superiority on the field of battle, looking on the Turks as little more than hordes of robbers who would melt away at the first encounter.[10] He did not take into account the degraded state of the Byzantine forces,[10] which had suffered years of neglect from his predecessors, in particular Constantine X Doukas. His forces, mostly composed of Sclavonian, Armenian, Bulgarian, and Frankish mercenaries, were ill-disciplined, disorganised, and uncoordinated, and he was not prepared to spend time in upgrading the arms, armour, or tactics of the once-feared Byzantine army.[11] It was soon evident that while Romanos possessed military talent, his impetuosity was a serious flaw.[citation needed] Campaign of 1068[edit] The first military operations of Romanos did achieve a measure of success, reinforcing his opinions about the outcome of the war. Antioch was exposed to the Saracens of Aleppo who, with help from Turkish troops, began an attempt to reconquer the Byzantine province of Syria.[12] Romanos began marching to the southeastern frontier of the empire to deal with this threat, but as he was advancing towards Lykandos, he received word that a Seljuk army had made an incursion into Pontus and had plundered Neocaesarea.[13] Immediately he selected a small mobile force and quickly raced through Sebaste and the mountains of Tephrike to encounter the Turks on the road, forcing them to abandon their plunder and release their prisoners, though a large number of the Turkish troops managed to escape.[13] Returning south, Romanos rejoined the main army, and they continued their advance through the passes of Mount Taurus to the north of Germanicia and proceeded to invade the Emirate of Aleppo.[13] Romanos captured Hierapolis, which he fortified to provide protection against further incursions into the south-eastern provinces of the empire.[11] He then engaged in further fighting against the Saracens of Aleppo, but neither side managed a decisive victory.[13] With the campaigning season reaching its end, Romanos returned north via Alexandretta and the Cilician Gates to Podandos. Here he was advised of another Seljuk raid into Asia Minor in which they sacked Amorium but returned to their base so fast that Romanos was in no position to give chase. He eventually reached Constantinople by January 1069.[13] Campaign of 1069[edit] Copper follis of Romanos IV. The obverse shows Christ Pantokrator, while the reverse depicts a cross quartered with the letters ϹΒΡΔ for the motto Σταυρὲ σου βοήθει Ρωμανόν δεσπότην ("Thy Cross aid the Lord Romanos").[14] Plans for the following year's campaigning were initially thrown into chaos by a rebellion by one of Romanos' Norman mercenaries, Robert Crispin, who led a contingent of Frankish troops in the pay of the empire. Possibly due to Romanos not paying them on time,[15] they began plundering the countryside near where they were stationed at Edessa, and attacking the imperial tax collectors. Although Crispin was captured and exiled to Abydos, the Franks continued to ravage the Armeniac Theme for some time.[15] In the meantime, the land around Caesarea was again overrun by the Turks, forcing Romanos to spend precious time and energy in expelling the Turks from Cappadocia.[15] Desperate to begin his campaign proper, he ordered the execution of all prisoners, even a Seljuk chieftain who offered to pay an immense ransom for his life.[15] Having brought a measure of peace to the province, Romanos marched towards the Euphrates via Melitene, and crossed the river at Romanopolis, hoping to take Akhlat on Lake Van and thus protect the Armenian frontier.[15] Romanos placed himself at the head of a substantial body of troops and began his march towards Akhlat, leaving the bulk of the army under the command of Philaretos Brachamios with orders to defend the Mesopotamian frontier.[15] Philaretos was soon defeated by the Turks, whose sack of Iconium[4] forced Romanos to abandon his plans and return to Sebaste. He sent orders to the Dux of Antioch to secure the passes at Mopsuestia, while he attempted to run down the Turks at Heracleia.[15] The Turks were soon hemmed in in the mountains of Cilicia, but they managed to escape to Aleppo after abandoning their plunder. Romanos once again returned to Constantinople without the great victory he was hoping for.[15] Affairs at Constantinople[edit] Romanos was detained at Constantinople[11] in 1070, while he dealt with many outstanding administrative issues, including the imminent fall of Bari into Norman hands. They had been besieging it since 1068, but it had taken Romanos two years to respond.[16] He ordered a relief fleet to set sail, containing sufficient provisions and troops to enable them to hold out for much longer. The fleet was intercepted, however, and defeated by a Norman squadron under the command of Roger, the younger brother of Robert Guiscard,[16] forcing the final remaining outpost of Byzantine authority in Italy to surrender on 15 April 1071.[17] Meanwhile, Romanos was undertaking a number of unpopular reforms at home.[11] He reduced a great deal of unnecessary public expenditure on court ceremonials and beautifying the capital.[18] He reduced the public salaries paid to much of the court nobility, as well as reducing the profits of tradesmen. His preoccupation with the military had also made him unpopular with the provincial governors and the military hierarchy, as he was determined to ensure they could not abuse their positions, especially through corrupt practices.[18] He incurred the displeasure of the mercenaries by enforcing much needed discipline. Romanos was also deeply unpopular with the common people, as he neglected to entertain them with games at the hippodrome, nor did he alleviate the burdens of the peasants in the provinces.[18] All this animosity would help his enemies when the time came to move against him. Nevertheless, he did not forget his principal target, the Turks. Being unable to go on campaign himself,[11] he entrusted the imperial army to one of his generals, Manuel Komnenos, nephew of the former emperor Isaac I, and elder brother to the future emperor Alexios.[19] He managed to engage the Turks in battle, but was defeated and taken prisoner by a Turkish general named Khroudj. Manuel convinced Khroudj to go to Constantinople and see Romanos in person to conclude an alliance, which was soon completed.[19] This act motivated the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan to attack the Byzantine Empire, besieging and capturing the important Byzantine fortresses of Manzikert and Archesh.[20] Romanos, in return, offered to officially exchange Manzikert and Archesh for Hieropolis in Syria, which Romanos had taken three years previously.[20] Battle of Manzikert and capture by Alp Arslan[edit] Main article: Battle of Manzikert Alp Arslan humiliating Emperor Romanos IV. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum Illustrium.[21] Early in the spring of 1071, whilst conducting negotiations with Alp Arslan over Manzikert,[20] Romanos marched at the head of a large army with the intent of recovering the fortress.[22] It was soon evident that the army had a serious discipline problem, with soldiers regularly pillaging the area around their nightly camps. When Romanos attempted to enforce some stricter discipline, a whole regiment of German mercenaries mutinied, which the emperor only managed to control with the greatest difficulty.[23] Believing that Alp Arslan was nowhere near Manzikert, he decided to divide his army. One part of the army he dispatched to attack Akhlat, at that time in possession of the Turks.[24] Romanos himself advanced with the main body of the army on Manzikert, which he soon recaptured.[24] At this point his advance guard met the Seljuk army, which was rapidly approaching Manzikert. Romanos ordered the forces attacking Akhlat to rejoin the army, but their portion of the army unexpectedly came across another large Turkish army, forcing them to retreat back into Mesopotamia.[24] Already under strength, Romanos' army was further weakened when his Uzes mercenaries deserted to the Turks.[25] Arslan had no desire to take on the Byzantine army, so he proposed a peace treaty with favourable terms for Romanos.[25] The emperor, eager for a decisive military victory, rejected the offer, and both armies lined up for a battle, which took place on 26 August 1071.[26] The battle lasted all day without either side gaining any decisive advantage, until the emperor ordered a part of his centre to return to camp. The order was misunderstood by the right wing,[27] however, and Andronikos Doukas, who commanded the reserves, and was the son of Caesar John Doukas, took advantage of the confusion to betray Romanos. Claiming that Romanos was dead, he marched away from the battle with some 30,000 men, instead of covering the emperor's retreat.[28] The Turks now began to press in on the Byzantine army. When Romanos discovered what had happened, he tried to recover the situation by making a defiant stand. He fought on valiantly after his horse was killed under him, but he received a wound in the hand, which prevented him from wielding a sword, and he was soon taken prisoner.[29] According to a number of Byzantine historians, including John Skylitzes, Arslan at first had difficulty believing the dusty and tattered warrior brought before him was the Roman Emperor.[30] He then stepped down from his seat and placed his foot on Romanos' neck.[31] After this sign of ritual humiliation, however, Arslan raised Romanos from the ground and ordered him to be treated like a king. From then on he treated him with extreme kindness, never saying a cruel word to him during the Emperor's eight-day stay in his camp.[31] He then released the Emperor in exchange for a treaty and the promise of a hefty ransom. At first Alp Arslan suggested a ransom of 10,000,000 nomismata to Romanos IV, but he later reduced it to 1,500,000 nomismata, with a further 360,000 nomismata annually.[18] Betrayal[edit] In the meantime, the opposition faction scheming against Romanos IV decided to exploit the situation. The Caesar John Doukas and Michael Psellos forced Eudokia to retire to a monastery, and they prevailed upon Michael VII to declare Romanos IV deposed.[17] They then refused to honor the agreement made between Arslan and the former emperor.[32] Romanos soon returned, and he and the Doukas family gathered troops. A battle was fought at Dokeia between Constantine and Andronikos Doukas and Romanos, in which the army of Romanos was defeated,[citation needed] forcing him to retreat to the fortress of Tyropoion, and from there to Adana in Cilicia. Pursued by Andronikos, he was eventually forced to surrender by the garrison at Adana upon receiving assurances of his personal safety.[33] Before leaving the fortress, he collected all the money he could lay his hands on and sent it to the Sultan as proof of his good faith, along with a message: "As emperor, I promised you a ransom of a million and a half. Dethroned, and about to become dependent upon others, I send you all I possess as proof of my gratitude".[34] Andronikos stipulated that his life would be spared if he resigned the purple and retired into a monastery. Romanos agreed, and this agreement was ratified at Constantinople.[34] However, John Doukas reneged on the agreement and sent men to have Romanos cruelly blinded on 29 June 1072 in Kotyaion. According to Attaleiates, the emperor was led away, pleading for mercy, to be blinded by an "inexperienced Jew" who required three attempts to blind the emperor while he "bellowed like a bull". Per Attaleiates, "when he arose, his eyes were drenched with blood, a pathetic and pitiable sight that made everyone who saw it cry uncontrollably." He was then sent into exile to Prote in the Sea of Marmara. Without medical assistance, his wound became infected, and he soon endured a painfully lingering death.[citation needed] The final insult was given a few days before his death, when Romanos received a letter from Michael Psellos, congratulating him on the loss of his eyes.[35] He finally died, praying for the forgiveness of his sins, and his widow Eudokia was permitted to honor his remains with a magnificent funeral.[34] "His enemies", wrote John Julius Norwich, "martyred a courageous and upright man." Family[edit] By his first wife, an unnamed daughter of Alusian of Bulgaria, Romanos IV Diogenes had at least one son: Constantine Diogenes, who was married to Theodora, sister of Alexios I Komnenos.[36] This marriage was arranged by Anna Dalassena after the death of Romanos IV,[37] but it was short-lived, as Constantine perished under the walls of Antioch in 1073 while serving with his brother-in-law Isaac Komnenos.[38] By his second wife, the Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, he had: Leo Diogenes – born in 1069, and according to Anna Comnena was made co-emperor during his father's reign.[39] In the reign of Alexius I, he was taken into the imperial palace and given various high commands. He died in Alexius's campaigns against the Pechenegs in 1087.[citation needed] Nikephoros Diogenes – born in 1070, made Co-emperor upon his birth. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a b c d Norwich 1993, p. 344 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 30 ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, p. 78. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 1807 ^ Alexandru Madgearu, Ruled indeed Basil Apokapes the Paradunavon Theme?, "Acta Musei Varnensis", 3 (The Bulgarian Lands in the Middle Ages, 7th–18th Centuries. International Conference. A tribute to Prof. Alexander Kuzev's 70th anniversary, Varna, 12–14 September 2002), Varna, 2005, p. 273-282. ^ Finlay 1854, p. 29 ^ Dumbarton Oaks 1973, p. 785. ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 31 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 343 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 32 ^ a b c d e Norwich 1993, p. 345 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 33 ^ a b c d e Finlay 1854, p. 34 ^ Soloviev 1935, pp. 156–158 ^ a b c d e f g h Finlay 1854, p. 35 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 45 ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 355 ^ a b c d Finlay 1854, p. 42 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 36 ^ a b c Norwich 1993, p. 347 ^ Çoban 2020, p. 51 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 346 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 38 ^ a b c Norwich 1993, p. 348 ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 349 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 351 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 41 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 352 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 353 ^ Norwich 1993b, p. 353 ^ a b Norwich 1993, p. 354 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 358 ^ Norwich 1993, p. 356 ^ a b c Finlay 1854, p. 44 ^ Norwich 1993b, pg 357 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 74 ^ Garland 2007. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 627 ^ Comnena, Book 9, Chapter 6. References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Comnena, Anna, The Alexiad Secondary sources[edit] Cheynet, J.C.; Vannier, J.F. (2003), "Les Argyroi", Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta (in French), 40, pp. 57–90 Çoban, R. V. (2020). The Manzikert Battle and Sultan Alp Arslan with European Perspective in the 15st Century in the Miniatures of Giovanni Boccaccio's "De Casibus Virorum Illustrium"s 226 and 232. French Manuscripts in Bibliothèque Nationale de France. S. Karakaya ve V. Baydar (Ed.), in 2nd International Muş Symposium Articles Book (pp. 48-64). Muş: Muş Alparslan University. Source Dumbarton Oaks (1973), Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: Leo III to Nicephorus III, 717–1081, p. 785 Finlay, George (1854), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057 to 1453, 2, William Blackwood & Sons Garland, Lynda (25 May 2007), Anna Dalassena, Mother of Alexius I Comnenus (1081–1118), DIR Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-011448-3 Norwich, John Julius (1993b) [1992], Byzantium: The Apogee, Byzantium, II Soloviev, A.V. (1935), "Les emblèmes héraldiques de Byzance et les Slaves", Seminarium Kondakovianum (in French), 7: 119–164 Further reading[edit] Psellos, Michael, Chronographia Attaleiates, Michael, The History External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Romanos IV Diogenes. Romanus IV Diogenes History of Michael Attaliates Romanos IV Diogenes Doukid dynasty Born: unknown Died: 1072 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine X Byzantine emperor 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 Succeeded by Michael VII v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanos_IV_Diogenes&oldid=1028037357" Categories: 11th-century Byzantine emperors Doukid dynasty Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars Byzantine prisoners of war Monarchs captured as prisoners of war 1072 deaths Eastern Orthodox monarchs Diogenes family Byzantine people of Armenian descent 1060s in the Byzantine Empire 1070s in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2020 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 13:21 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8798	----	Katalepsis - Wikipedia Katalepsis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stoic concept of the criterion of truth Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Katalepsis (Greek: κατάληψις, "grasping") in Stoic philosophy, meant comprehension.[1] To the Stoic philosophers, katalepsis was an important premise regarding one's state of mind as it relates to grasping fundamental philosophical concepts, and it represents the Stoic solution to the problem of the criterion. Stoicism[edit] According to the Stoics, the mind is constantly being bombarded with impressions (phantasiai). (An impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma.)[2] Some of these impressions are true and some false. Impressions are true when they are truly affirmed, false if they are wrongly affirmed, such as when one believes an oar dipped in the water to be broken because it appears so.[3] When Orestes, in his madness, mistook Electra for a Fury, he had an impression both true and false: true inasmuch as he saw something, viz., Electra; false, inasmuch as Electra was not a Fury.[3] Believing that the mind instinctively discriminated between real and false impressions, the Stoics said that one ought not to give credit to everything which is perceived, but only to those perceptions which contain some special mark of those things which appeared.[4] Such a perception then was called a kataleptic phantasia (Greek: φαντασία καταληπτική), or comprehensible perception.[4] The kataleptic phantasia is that which is impressed by an object which exists, and which is a copy of that object and can be produced by no other object.[3] Cicero relates that Zeno would illustrate katalepsis as follows: he would display his hand in front of one with the fingers stretched out and say "A visual appearance is like this"; next he closed his fingers a little and said, "An act of assent is like this"; then he pressed his fingers closely together and made a fist, and said that that was comprehension (and from this illustration he gave to that process the actual name of katalepsis, which it had not had before); but then he used to apply his left hand to his right fist and squeeze it tightly and forcibly, and then say that such was knowledge, which was within the power of nobody save the wise man[5] Katalepsis was the main bone of contention between the Stoics and the two schools of philosophical skepticism during the Hellenistic period: the Pyrrhonists and the Academic Skeptics of Plato's Academy.[4] These Skeptics, who chose the Stoics as their natural philosophical opposites, eschewed much of what the Stoics believed regarding the human mind and one's methods of understanding greater meanings.[6] To the Skeptics, all perceptions were acataleptic, i.e. bore no conformity to the objects perceived, or, if they did bear any conformity, it could never be known.[7] Notes[edit] ^ Charles Porterfield Krauth, William Fleming, Henry Calderwood, (1878), A vocabulary of the philosophical sciences, page 589 ^ Diogenes Laërtius (2000). Lives of eminent philosophers. Transl. R D Hicks. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VII.49 ^ a b c George Henry Lewes, (1880), The history of philosophy: from Thales to Comte, page 360 ^ a b c Thomas Woodhouse Levin, (1871), Six lectures introductory to the philosophical writings of Cicero, page 71 ^ Cicero (1967). De natura deorum academica. Transl. H Rackham. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. II.145 ^ See Ancient Greek Skepticism at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy for information about katalepsis and the Skeptics' attack on it. ^ George Henry Lewes, (1863), The biographical history of philosophy, Volume 1, page 297 v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Ancient Greek philosophical concepts Adiaphora (nonmoral) Anamnesis (recollection) Apatheia (equanimity) Apeiron (the unlimited) Aponia (pleasure) Aporia (impasse) Arche (first principle) Arete (excellence) Ataraxia (tranquility) Becoming Being Cosmos (order) Demiurge (creator) Diairesis (division) Diegesis (narrate) Differentia / Genus Doxa (common opinion) Dunamis / Energeia (potentiality / actuality) Episteme (knowledge) Epoché (suspension) Ethos (character) Eudaimonia (flourishing) Henosis (oneness) Hexis (active condition) Hyle (matter) Hylomorphism (matter and form) Hylozoism (matter and life) Hypokeimenon (substratum) Hypostasis (underpinning) Idea (Idea) Katalepsis (comprehension) Kathēkon (proper function) Logos (reasoned discourse) Metempsychosis (reincarnation) Mimesis (imitation) Monad (unit) Nous (intellect) Oikeiôsis (affinity) Ousia (substance) Pathos (emotional) Phronesis (practical wisdom) Physis (natural law) Sophia (wisdom) Telos (purpose) Tetractys (fourth triangular number) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katalepsis&oldid=974046651" Categories: Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek epistemology Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ελληνικά 한국어 Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 20 August 2020, at 19:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8813	----	View source for Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia View source for Marcus Aurelius ← Marcus Aurelius Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting this IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Death and succession (180)=== [[File:Delacroix-Marc Aurèle-MBA-Lyon.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|left|''[[Last Words of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius]]'' (1844) by [[Eugène Delacroix]]|alt=Painting that depicts Marcus on his deathbed and his son Commodus, surrounded by the emperor's philosopher friends]] Marcus died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters near the city of Sirmium in Pannonia (modern [[Sremska Mitrovica]]). He was immediately deified and [[Cremation|his ashes]] were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's [[mausoleum]] (modern [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]) until the [[Visigoth]] [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the city]] in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|column]] and a [[temple of Marcus Aurelius|temple]] built in Rome.<ref name='Kleiner2016'>Kleiner, p. 230.</ref> Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the [[Pax Romana]].<ref name='Merrony2017'>Merrony, p. 85.</ref> Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.<ref name='Birley186–91'>Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–91.</ref> Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;<ref>Kemezis, p. 45.</ref> however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when [[Vespasian]] was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen.<ref name='Birley186–91'/> At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an [[encomium]] to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc">Tr. Cary, ''ad loc''.</ref> <blockquote>[Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. :–Dio lxxi. 36.3–4<ref name="Tr. Cary, ad loc"/></blockquote> Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."<ref>Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34</ref> [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]], in ''The Climax of Rome'', writes of Commodus:<ref name='Grant2011'/> <blockquote>The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.<ref name='Grant2011'>Grant, ''The Climax Of Rome'', p. 15.</ref></blockquote> Return to Marcus Aurelius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-881	----	Trove - Wikipedia Trove From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Trove (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Australian online library database aggregator This article is about the Australian online service. For other uses of the word "trove", see Trove (disambiguation). Trove Logo (prior to August 2020) Homepage (December 2014) Type of site Australian library database aggregator Available in English Owner National Library of Australia URL www.trove.nla.gov.au Commercial no Registration Optional Launched 2009; 12 years ago (2009) Current status Online Trove is an Australian online library database aggregator and service which includes full text documents, digital images, bibliographic and holdings data of items which are not available digitally, and a free faceted-search engine as a discovery tool. The database includes archives, images, newspapers, official documents, archived websites, manuscripts and other types of data. Hosted by the National Library of Australia in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia, it is one of the most well-respected and accessed GLAM services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users. Based on antecedents dating back to 1996, the first version of Trove was released for public use in late 2009. It includes content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other organisations with a focus on Australia. It allows searching of catalogue entries of books in Australian libraries (some fully available online), academic and other journals, full-text searching of digitised archived newspapers, government gazettes and archived websites. It provides access to digitised images, maps, aggregated information about people and organisations, archived diaries and letters, and all born-digital content which has been deposited via National edeposit (NED). Searchable content also includes music, sound and videos, and transcripts of radio programs. With the exception of the digitised newspapers, none of the contents is hosted by Trove itself, which indexes the content of its partners' collection metadata, formats and manages it, and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result. In the wake of government funding cuts since 2015, the National Library and other organisations have been struggling to keep up with ensuring that content on Trove is kept flowing through and up to date. Contents 1 History 1.1 Implementation 1.2 2010s 2 Content and services 2.1 Description 2.2 Content and delivery 2.2.1 Books 2.2.2 Newspapers 2.2.3 Websites 2.2.4 Other zones 3 Reception and usage 3.1 Awards 4 Budget cuts 5 Continuing development 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Trove's origins can be seen in the development of earlier services such as the Australian Bibliographic Network (ABN),[1] a shared cataloguing service launched in 1981. The "Single Business Discovery Project" was launched in August 2008.[2] The intention was to create a single point of entry for the public to the various online discovery services developed by the library between 1997 and 2008, including:[2][3][4] PANDORA archive (1996); the Register of Australian Archives and Manuscripts (RAAM, launched 1997); PictureAustralia (2000);[5][6] Libraries Australia (the service that developed out of the ABN in 2006); Australia Dancing, a joint venture with Ausdance (2003); Music Australia (2005); ARROW Discovery Service (first Australian Research Repositories Online, then Australian Research Online, launched 2005); People Australia (late 2006); and Australian Newspapers Beta service (July 2008). The service developed by the project was called Single Business Discovery Service, and also briefly known by the staff as Girt. The name Trove was suggested by a staff member, with the associations of a treasure trove and the French verb trouver (to find or discover).[4] The key features of the service were designed to create a faceted search system specifically for Australian content. Tight integration with the provider databases has allowed "Find and Get" functions (e.g. viewing digitally, borrowing, buying, copying). Important extra features include the provision of a "check copyright" tool and persistent identifiers (which enables stable URLs).[7] The first version of Trove was released to the public in late 2009.[7] Implementation[edit] The National Library of Australia combined eight different online discovery tools that had been developed over a period of twelve years into a new single discovery interface that was released as a prototype in May 2009 for public comment before launching in November 2009 as Trove.[8] It is continually updated to expand its reach.[9][10] With the notable exception of the newspaper "zone", none of the material that appears in Trove search results is hosted by Trove itself. Instead, it indexes the content of its content partners' collection metadata and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result.[11] The service is built using a variety of open source software.[12][13] Trove provides a free, public Application Programming Interface (API).[14] This allows developers to search across the records for books, images, maps, video, archives, music, sound, journal articles, newspaper articles and lists and to retrieve the associated metadata using XML and JSON encoding.[15][16] The full text of digitised newspaper articles is also available.[17] Several citation styles are automatically produced by the software, giving a stable URL to the edition, page or article-level for any newspaper. Wikipedia was closely integrated from the beginning of the project, making Trove the first GLAM website in the world to integrate the Wikipedia API into its product.[18] 2010s[edit] Trove has continued to evolve and take on new services and collections. In 2016, in collaboration with the State Library of New South Wales, Trove launched the Government Gazettes zone, and continues to collect the official gazettes of all level of government (Commonwealth and State and Territory) where possible.[19] In March 2019 PANDORA became part of larger the Australian Web Archive, which comprises the PANDORA archive, the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) and the National Library's ".au" domain collections, using a single interface in Trove which is publicly available.[20][21][22][23] Content and services[edit] Description[edit] Trove has grown beyond its original aims, and has become "a community, a set of services, an aggregation of metadata, and a growing repository of full text digital resources" and "a platform on which new knowledge is being built". It is now a collaboration between the National Library, Australia's State and Territory libraries and hundreds of other cultural and research institutions around Australia.[24] It is an Australian online library database aggregator; a free faceted-search engine hosted by the National Library of Australia,[25] in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia (NSLA).[7] Content and delivery[edit] Trove "brings together content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other research and collecting organisations big and small" in order to help users find and use resources relating to Australia and therefore the content is Australian-focused.[24] Much of the material may be difficult to retrieve with other search tools, for example in cases where it is part of the deep web, including records held in collection databases,[7] or in projects such as the PANDORA web archive, Australian Research Online, Australian National Bibliographic Database and others mentioned above.[3] Since 2019, Trove has included access to all electronic documents deposited by Australian publishers under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act 1968, as amended in 2017 to included such publications.[26] These resources are identifiable by a display in the top right-hand corner in both the ebook and pdf viewers, saying "National edeposit collection". Many of these are readable and some are downloadable, depending on the access conditions.[27] The site's content is split into "zones" designating different forms of content which can be searched all together, or separately.[28] Books[edit] The book zone allows searching of the collective catalogues of institutions findable in Libraries Australia using the Australian National Bibliographic Database (ANBD). It provides access to books, audio books, e-books, theses, conference proceedings and pamphlets listed in ANBD, which is a union catalogue of items held in Australian libraries and a national bibliographic database of resources including Australian online publications.[29] Bibliographic records from the ANBD are also uploaded into the WorldCat global union catalogue.[30] The results can be filtered by format if searching for braille, audio books, theses or conference proceedings and also by decade and language of publication.[31] A filter for Australian content is also provided.[8][32] Newspapers[edit] Front page of The Leader (Orange, New South Wales) 31 July 1915, the 10 millionth newspaper page to be made available through Trove.[33] Front cover of The Dawn Issue 1, 15 May 1888. The first feminist magazine in Australia. Trove allows text-searching of digitised historic newspapers, with the Newspapers zone replacing the previous "Australian Newspapers" website.[citation needed] It provides text-searchable access to over 700 historic Australian newspapers from each State and Territory.[34] By 2014, over 13.5 million digitised newspaper pages had been made available through Trove as part of the Australian Newspaper Plan (ANPlan),[35] a "collaborative program to collect and preserve every newspaper published in Australia, guaranteeing public access" to these important historical records.[36] The extent of digitised newspaper archives is wide reaching and includes now defunct publications, such as the Australian Home Companion and Band of Hope Journal and The Barrier Miner in New South Wales and The Argus in Victoria.[note 1][37] It includes the earliest published Australian newspaper, the Sydney Gazette (which dates to 1803), and some community language newspapers.[35] Also included is The Australian Women's Weekly.[38][note 2] The Canberra Times is the only major newspaper available beyond 1957. It allowed publication of its in-copyright archive up to 1995 as part of the "centenary of Canberra" in 2013,[40] and the digitisation costs were raised with a crowdfunding campaign.[41] Also crowdfunded, the Australian feminist magazine The Dawn was included on International Women's Day 2012.[42][43] As of 10 May 2020[update], 23,498,368 newspaper pages and 2,026,782 government gazette pages were available to view. Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project On 25 July 2008 the "Australian Newspapers Beta" service was released to the public as a standalone website and a year later became a fully integrated part of the newly launched Trove. The service contains millions of articles from 1803 onwards, with more content being added regularly.[44] The website was the public face of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project, a coordination of major libraries in Australia to convert historic newspapers to text-searchable digital files. The Australian Newspapers website allowed users to search the database of digitised newspapers from 1803 to 1954 which are now in the public domain. The newspapers (frequently microfiche or other photographic facsimiles) were scanned and the text from the articles has been captured by optical character recognition (OCR) to facilitate easy searching, but it contains many OCR errors, often due to poor quality facsimiles.[45][46] Public text correctors Since August 2008 the system has incorporated crowdsourced text-correction as a major feature, allowing the public to change the searchable text. Many users have contributed tens of thousands of corrected lines, and some have contributed millions.[47] This collaborative participation allows users to give back to the service and over time improves the database's searchability.[48][49] The text-correcting community and other Trove users have been referred to as "Trovites".[50] Websites[edit] The Australian Web Archive, created in March 2019,[51] includes websites archived from 1996 until the present. This is the primary search portal of the PANDORA web-archiving service, and also includes the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) as well as websites from the ".au" domain, which are collected annually through large crawl harvests.[52] Other zones[edit] (In order of presentation along the top tab.) Pictures, photos, objects: Including digitised photographs, drawings, posters, postcards etc. Considerable numbers of images on Flickr with the appropriate licensing are donated as well.[53] Replacing the previous "Pictures Australia" website. Journals, articles and datasets searching of academic and other periodicals, and various datasets. Government Gazettes: allows searching of official publications written for the purpose of notifying the public of government business. Music, sound and videos: allows searching of digitised historic sheet music and audio recordings. Replacing the previous "Music Australia" website. Also includes searchable transcripts from many Radio National programs.[54] Maps Diaries, letters, archives People and organisations: allows searching of biographical information and other resources about associated people and organisations, from resources including the Australian Dictionary of Biography. Lists Users are able to create an account and log in to Trove. Once this is done, a type of "zone" called Lists allows logged-in users to make their own public compilations of items found in Trove searches. There is also a facility to join the Trove community and make contributions to the resources such as tags, comments and corrections. Reception and usage[edit] In a keynote address to the 14th National Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) Conference in Melbourne in 2014, Roly Keating, Chief Executive of the British Library described Trove as "exemplary" – a "both-end choice" of deep rich interconnected archive.[55] Digital humanities researcher and Trove manager Tim Sherratt noted that in relation to the Trove API "delivery of cultural heritage resources in a machine-readable form, whether through a custom API or as Linked Open Data, provides more than just improved access or possibilities for aggregation. It opens those resources to transformation. It empowers us to move beyond ‘discovery’ as a mode of interaction to analyse, extract, visualise and play".[56] The site has been described as "a model for collaborative digitization projects and serves to inform cultural heritage institutions building both large and small digital collections".[57] The reach of the newspaper archives makes the service attractive to genealogists[58][59][60] and knitters.[9] It is one of the most well-respected[61] and accessed GLAM (galleries, archives, archives and museums) services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users.[62][9] Dr Liz Stainforth of the University of Leeds calls it "that rare beast: a digital heritage platform with popular appeal"; "of the most successful of its kind among aggregators such as Europeana, the Digital Public Library of America and...DigitalNZ". What distinguishes it from the other three is that it also delivers content, and engages with the general public, which has created a form of virtual community amongst its text correctors. Users can log in and thus create their own lists, and also correct the text of newspapers scanned using Optical character recognition (OCR), with an honour board for the top correctors. International researchers also use Trove: a 2018 showed the site among the top 15 for external citations in the English-language version of Wikipedia. The width and breadth of its audience adds to its uniqueness.[63] Awards[edit] Trove received the 2011 Excellence in eGovernment Award and the 2011 Service Delivery Category Award.[64][65] Budget cuts[edit] In the wake of the Australian Government's 2015 Mid-Year Economic and Fiscal Outlook Statement, Trove funding was cut with the result that the National Library of Australia would cease "aggregating content in Trove from museums and universities unless ... fully funded to do so".[66] In addition, it was argued that the cuts would further "result in many smaller institutions across Australia being unable to afford to add their digital collections to this national knowledge infrastructure".[67] Those smaller institutions would include local historical societies, clubs, schools, and commercial and public organisations, as well as private collections. In March 2016 ten major Australian galleries, libraries, archives and museums (commonly referred to as the GLAM sector) signed a statement of support for Trove, in which they warned that the budgetary cuts would "hamper the development of our world leading portal and will be a major obstacle to exposing the collections of smaller and regional institutions" and that "without additional funding, Trove will not fulfil its promise as the discovery site for all Australian cultural content".[68] Similar statements were issued by the Australian Academy of the Humanities[69] and the National Trust (NSW).[70] Tim Sherratt, a former manager of Trove, warned in early 2016 that fewer collections would be added and that less digitised content would be available – "not quite a content freeze, but certainly a slowdown".[71] Following extensive campaigning, including a public campaign on Twitter, Trove received a commitment of A$16.4 million in December 2016, spread over four years.[63][72] By early 2020, with the surge in demand for all types of digital services, the National Library was having to cope with increasingly dwindling staff resources to develop services on Trove and National edeposit, and undertook a restructure of its staffing and operations.[73] Continuing development[edit] In July–August 2020 a redesigned user interface was unrolled, with a more open display of search results and a new logo reminiscent of a keyhole. See also[edit] Australia portal Journalism portal Internet portal Digital Public Library of America Europeana List of newspapers in Australia List of newspapers in New South Wales National Digital Library Program (NDLP), US digital library created by scanning the resources of the Library of Congress National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) - US digitisation project Warwick Cathro Notes[edit] ^ Published in Melbourne between 1846 and 1947 ^ Digitised between 1933 and 1982 – where the National Library acknowledges the use of newspapers and microfilm owned by the State Library of New South Wales and Australian Consolidated Press for the digitisation of the title.[39] References[edit] ^ National Library of Australia; Australian Bibliographic Network (1981), Draft proposal for the development of an Australian Bibliographic Network, National Library of Australia, ISBN 978-0-642-99217-8 ^ a b Cathro, Warwick. "Single Business Discovery Project". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ a b Ayres, Marie-Louise (2013). "Singing for their supper: Trove, Australian newspapers, and the crowd" (PDF). IFLA World Library and Information Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Bryce, Catriona (5 November 2014). "Trove - A Brief History: Trove is now 5 years old. Here's how we came to be". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Goldrick, Chrissie (1 October 2006), "PictureAustralia.", Australian Geographic, Athena Information Solutions Pvt. Ltd (84): 19, ISSN 0816-1658, retrieved 10 May 2020 ^ "Asia and the Commons: NLA PictureAustralia Click & Flick" (PDF). Retrieved 10 May 2020. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d Holley, Rose (29 July 2010). "Trove: Innovation in Access to Information in Australia". Ariadne. Archived from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Weight, Mary-Louise (2010). "Trove – One Search, a Wealth of Information". Incite. 31 (1/2): 10–11. ^ a b c Thorpe, Clarissa (8 November 2014). "National Library of Australia's Trove website celebrates five years of uncovering the past". ABC News. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 5 September 2015. ^ Ayres, Marie-Louise (4 September 2012). "Digging deep in Trove: Success, challenge and uncertainty". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Warwick Cathro; Susan Collier (8 June 2010), Developing Trove: the policy and technical challenges, National Library of Australia, retrieved 17 December 2014 ^ Clarke, Trevor (28 April 2010). "Australian National Library uses open source for treasure Trove". ComputerWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove: mapping Australia's culture where Google fears to tread". APC. 29 April 2010. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove API lets developers delve deeper". National State Libraries Australasia. 19 April 2012. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ perkinsy (11 March 2014). "An Introduction to the Trove API". Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". Trove Help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Holley, Rose (6 August 2009). "Perspectives on National Library of Australia Developments Part 1 Rose Holley – Presentation slides from GLAM-Wiki conference, Canberra". Slideshare. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ "About digitised newspapers and gazettes". Trove help centre. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Preserving and Accessing Networked DOcumentary Resources of Australia". Pandora Archive. May 1999. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Australian web archive". Trove. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Archived websites". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ Koerbin, Paul (11 February 2015). "The Australian Government Web Archive". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ a b "About Trove". Trove. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ Baich, Tina (May 2013). "The global research landscape: resources for locating international publications". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (5): 243–248. doi:10.5860/crln.74.5.8945. Archived from the original on 24 June 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "What is legal deposit?". National Library of Australia. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Legal Deposit and Trove". Trove: Help centre. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Using Trove – Finding things". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Rajapatirana, Bemal; Missingham, Roxanne (February 2005). "The Australian National Bibliographic Database and the Functional Requirements for the Bibliographic Database (FRBR)". The Australian Library Journal. 54 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1080/00049670.2005.10721711. S2CID 61124103. ^ "OCLC Agreement". Libraries Australia. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Rathi, Dinesh; Shiri, Ali; Lucky, Shannon (2013). "Evolving and Emerging Trends in Digital Libraries User Interfaces". In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of CAIS/Actes du Congrès Annuel de l'ACSI. doi:10.29173/cais660. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Refining your results". Trove help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Wyatt, Liam (21 June 2013). "10 Million newspaper pages in Trove". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ "About Digitised Newspapers and more". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2017. ^ a b "Australian Newspaper Digitisation Program". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Australian Newspaper Plan Archived 7 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Newspaper Titles". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Rohan, Pearce (22 November 2010). "National Library puts iconic Aussie magazine on Web". PCWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Acknowledgements – Trove: The Australian Women's Weekly (1933–1982) Archived 25 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Boland-Rudder, Hamish (26 December 2013). "Yesterday's Canberra news gets an update for digital age at National Library". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Warden, Ian (18 June 2013). "Four more decades of print now in digital". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "The Dawn rises again". National Library of Australia. 8 March 2012. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014. ^ Ross, Monique (8 March 2012). "New dawn for historic suffragette journal". ABC News. Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 17 February 2012. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Foreshew, Jennifer (20 September 2011). "Devil in the detail for landmark National Library of Australia project". The Australian. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Riley, Carole (6 August 2008). "Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project". Heritage Genealogy. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Drake, Jess (15 May 2014). "Trove's Volunteers". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Walters, Conrad (7 February 2011). "Volunteers with an eagle-eye on the news". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Ridge, Mia (2014). Crowdsourcing our cultural heritage. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4724-1022-1. ^ Tester, Alona. "Trove Celebrates with TROVEmber". Genealogy and History News. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Bruns, Axel (14 March 2019). "The Australian Web Archive is a momentous achievement – but things will get harder from here". The Conversation. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Archived websites (1996 – now)". Trove. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Picture query page". Archived from the original on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim (17 April 2014). "Harvesting Radio National". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ "Keynote speakers at 2014 National ALIA conference". Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim. "'A map and some pins': open data and unlimited horizons". Invisible Australians: living under the White Australia Policy. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Thiel, SG; Roberts, JR; Drost, CA. (June 2013). "Trove". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (6): 323–324. ISSN 0099-0086.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Kidman, Angus (5 July 2010). "Trove Lets You Locate Books In Any Australian Library". Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ "Trove: Discover Genealogy Treasure in the National Library of Australia". Gould Genealogy and History. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Hicks, Shauna; Unlock the Past (Project) (2012), Trove: discover genealogy treasure in the National Library of Australia, Unlock the Past, ISBN 978-0-9808746-0-0 ^ "An Innovation Study: Challenges and Opportunities for Australia's Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums". Australian museums must innovate or risk becoming 'digital dinosaurs'. CSIRO. 16 September 2014. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2014. ^ Sweeney, Shahida (26 September 2014). "National Library of Australia invests in digital future". CIO Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Stainforth, Liz (26 October 2018). "Treasuring Trove: Why Australia's digital heritage platform is so special". Pursuit. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Gedda, Rodney (2 June 2011). "CeBIT 2011: Trove search engine wins eGovernment award: Content from more than 1000 libraries". TechWorld. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017. ^ "Trove takes top honours in Government awards". National Library of Australia. 6 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Henry Belot, "Budget cuts will have a 'grave impact' on the National Library, staff told", The Sydney Morning Herald, 22 February 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ "Peak bodies advocate for Trove". Australian Library and Information Association. 7 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ GLAM PEAK BODIES STATEMENT OF SUPPORT FOR TROVE, Australian Library and Information Association, alia.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Critical research infrastructure at risk, Australian Academy of the Humanities, humanities.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ De-funding of Trove, nationaltrust.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Sherratt, Tim (24 February 2016). "#FundTrove". Discontents. Retrieved 9 May 2020. ^ Villiers, Annelie de (23 February 2016). "#FundTROVE". Identity & Archives. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Rollins, Adrian (28 February 2020). "Job cuts a 'live possibility' in National Library of Australia restructure". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 9 May 2020. Further reading[edit] Boston, Tony. "Exposing the deep web to increase access to library collections". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 16 December 2014. In Treloar, Andrew; Ellis, Allan; Southern Cross University (2005). AusWeb05 : the eleventh Australasian World Wide Web Conference : AusWeb05 : making a difference with the web : proceedings of AusWeb05. Southern Cross University. ISBN 978-0-9751644-3-3. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. External links[edit] Official website Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trove&oldid=1026753320" Categories: 2009 establishments in Australia Aggregation-based digital libraries Australian digital libraries Bibliographic databases and indexes National Library of Australia Online databases Online archives of Australia Internet properties established in 2009 Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use Australian English from December 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Use dmy dates from December 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from May 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Ilokano עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 02:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8834	----	Aulus Gellius - Wikipedia Aulus Gellius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman author and grammarian Aulus Gellius Frontispiece to a 1706 Latin edition of the Attic Nights [fr] by Jakob Gronovius Born c. 125 AD Died c. 180 AD Aulus Gellius (c. 125 – after 180 AD) was a Roman author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome. He is famous for his Attic Nights, a commonplace book, or compilation of notes on grammar, philosophy, history, antiquarianism, and other subjects, preserving fragments of the works of many authors who might otherwise be unknown today. Contents 1 Name 2 Life 3 Writings 4 Editions 4.1 Translations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Name[edit] Medieval manuscripts of the Noctes Atticae commonly gave the author's name in the form of "Agellius", which is used by Priscian; Lactantius, Servius and Saint Augustine had "A. Gellius" instead. Scholars from the Renaissance onwards hotly debated which one of the two transmitted names is correct (the other one being presumably a corruption) before settling on the latter of the two in modern times.[1] Life[edit] The only source for the life of Aulus Gellius is the details recorded in his writings.[2] Internal evidence points to Gellius having been born between AD 125 and 128.[3] He was of good family and connections, possibly of African origin,[4] but he was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He attended the Pythian Games in the year 147,[3] and resided for a considerable period in Athens.[2] Gellius studied rhetoric under Titus Castricius and Sulpicius Apollinaris; philosophy under Calvisius Taurus and Peregrinus Proteus; and enjoyed also the friendship and instruction of Favorinus, Herodes Atticus, and Fronto.[2] He returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office.[5] He was appointed by the praetor to act as an umpire in civil causes, and much of the time which he would gladly have devoted to literary pursuits was consequently occupied by judicial duties.[2] Writings[edit] His only known work, the Attic Nights (Latin: Noctes Atticae), takes its name from having been begun during the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards continued it in Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and many other subjects.[5] One story is the fable of Androcles, which is often included in compilations of Aesop's fables, but was not originally from that source. Internal evidence led Leofranc Holford-Strevens to date its publication in or after AD 177.[3] The work, deliberately devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All have survived except the eighth, of which only the index survives. The Attic Nights are valuable for the insight they afford into the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for its many excerpts from works of lost ancient authors.[5] The Attic Nights found many readers in Antiquity. Writers who used this compilation include Apuleius, Lactantius, Nonius Marcellus, Ammianus Marcellinus, the anonymous author of the Historia Augusta, Servius, and Augustine; but most notable is how Gellius' work was mined by Macrobius, "who, without mentioning his name, quotes Gellius verbatim throughout the Saturnalia, and is thus of the highest value for the text".[6] Editions[edit] The editio princeps was published at Rome in 1469 by Giovanni Andrea Bussi, bishop-designate of Aleria.[7] The earliest critical edition was by Ludovicus Carrio in 1585, published by Henricus Stephanus; however, the projected commentary fell victim to personal quarrels. Better known is the critical edition of Johann Friedrich Gronovius; although he devoted his entire life to work on Gellius, he died in 1671 before his work could be completed. His son Jakob published most of his comments on Gellius in 1687, and brought out a revised text with all of his father's comments and other materials at Leyden in 1706; this later work became known as the "Gronoviana". According to Leofranc Holford-Strevens, the "Gronoviana" remained the standard text of Gellius for over a hundred years, until the edition of Martin Hertz (Berlin, 1883–85; there is also a smaller edition by the same author, Berlin, 1886), revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography. A volume of selections, with notes and vocabulary, was published by Nall (London, 1888). There is an English translation by W. Beloe (London, 1795), and a French translation (1896).[5][8] A more recent English translation is by John Carew Rolfe (1927) for the Loeb Classical Library. More recently, Peter K. Marshall's edition (Oxford U. Press, 1968, 1990 (reissued with corrections) seems widespread both in print and digital (open access) formats.[9] Translations[edit] George Herbert Nall, ed. (1921). Stories from Aulus Gellius. Elementary classics. London: Macmillan. John Carew Rolfe (1927), The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Loeb Classical Library. 3 Volumes. ISBN 0674992156, ISBN 0674992202, ISBN 0674992342 See also[edit] Ex pede Herculem Gellia gens Notes[edit] ^ René Marache (1967). "Introduction". Aulu-Gelle, Les nuits attiques. Livres I–IV. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. p. VII. ^ a b c d Ramsay, William (1867), "A. Gellius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 2, Boston, p. 235, archived from the original on 2010-01-18, retrieved 2010-12-21 ^ a b c Leofranc Holford-Strevens, "Towards a Chronology of Aulus Gellius", Latomus, 36 (1977), pp. 93-109 ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2003), Aulus Gellius: an Antonine scholar and his achievement, pages 13–15 ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gellius, Aulus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 558. ^ P. K. Marshall, "Aulus Gellius" in Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 176 ^ Unless otherwise indicated, this section is based on Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1988), pp.241-244 ^ Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Gellius, Aulus" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. ^ Marshall, Peter K. (1990). A. Gellii Noctes Atticae. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814651-5. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Wm Ramsay (1870). "A.Gellius". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. p. 235. Further reading[edit] Anderson, Graham. (1994). "Aulus Gellius: a Miscellanist and His World," in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II.34.2. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Beall, S. (1997). "Translation in Aulus Gellius." The Classical Quarterly, 47(1), 215–226. Ceaicovschi, K. (2009). "Cato the Elder in Aulus Gellius." Illinois Classical Studies, (33-34), 25–39. Lakmann, Marie-Luise. (1995). Der Platoniker Tauros in der Darstellung des Aulus Gellius. Leiden, The Netherlands, and New York: Brill. Garcea, Alessandro. (2003). "Paradoxes in Aulus Gellius." Argumentation 17:87–98. Gunderson, Eric. (2009). Nox Philologiae: Aulus Gellius and the Fantasy of the Roman Library. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (2003). Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Scholar and his Achievement. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1982). "Fact and fiction in Aulus Gellius." Liverpool Classical Monthly 7:65–68. Holford-Strevens, Leofranc, and Amiel Vardi, eds. (2004). The Worlds of Aulus Gellius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2013). "Why Read the Jurists ?: Aulus Gellius on Reading Across Disciplines." In New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edited by Paul J. du Plessis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Howley, Joseph A. (2018). Aulus Gellius and Roman Reading Culture. Text, Presence, and Imperial Knowledge in the Noctes Atticae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, William A. (2012). "Aulus Gellius: The Life of the Litteratus" In Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities. Classical Culture and Society. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Ker, James (2004). "Nocturnal Writers in Imperial Rome: The Culture of Lucubratio." Classical Philology, 99(3), 209–242. Keulen, Wytse. (2009). "Gellius the Satirist: Roman Cultural Authority in Attic Nights." Mnemosyne Supplements 297. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. McGinn, Thomas A.J. (2010). "Communication and the Capability Problem in Roman Law: Aulus Gellius as Iudex and the Jurists on Child-Custody." RIDA 57, 265–298. Russell, Brigette. (2003). "Wine, Women, and the Polis: Gender and the Formation of the City-State in Archaic Rome." Greece & Rome, 50(1), 77-84 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Aulus Gellius Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Works by Aulus Gellius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aulus Gellius. Library resources about Aulus Gellius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Aulus Gellius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Aulus Gellius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Aulus Gellius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Aulus Gellius at Internet Archive The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, 1795 translation, Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III. Attic Nights (Latin text: complete; English translation: Preface thru Book 13) Attic Nights (Latin text: Books 1–11, 13, 20) Noctes atticae at Somni Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 4 5 6 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece 2 3 Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aulus_Gellius&oldid=1022921148" Categories: 125 births 2nd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century writers Ancient Roman antiquarians Gellii Grammarians of Latin Latin-language writers Middle Platonists Roman-era students in Athens Silver Age Latin writers Writers from Rome Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2021, at 08:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8837	----	Castra Praetoria - Wikipedia Castra Praetoria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Barracks of the Praetorian Guard in Rome The Castra Praetoria and ancient Rome Remains of the Praetorian Gate Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e Castra Praetoria were the ancient barracks (castra) of the Praetorian Guard of Imperial Rome. Contents 1 History 2 See also 3 References 4 External links History[edit] According to the Roman historian Tacitus, the barracks were built in 23 CE by Lucius Aelius Sejanus, the praetorian prefect serving under the emperor Tiberius, in an effort to consolidate the several divisions of the guards.[1] The barracks were erected just outside the city of Rome and surrounded by solid masonry walls, measuring a total of 440 by 380 metres (1,440 ft × 1,250 ft). Three of the four sides of the walls were later incorporated in the Aurelian Walls, and parts of them are clearly visible today. The adjacent city district Castro Pretorio is named after the barracks. The Castra Praetoria was the location of several important events in the history of Rome. It was to this camp that Claudius was brought after the murder of his nephew Caligula to become the first emperor to be proclaimed by the Praetorians. Here too was where the Praetorian Guard auctioned off the imperial title after their murder of the emperor Pertinax. On March 28 193 CE Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus was within the barracks trying to calm the troops when he began to offer a donative if they would support his candidacy for the throne. Meanwhile, Didius Julianus also arrived at the camp, and since his entrance was barred, shouted out offers to the guard. After hours of bidding, Sulpicianus promised 20,000 sesterces to every soldier; Julianus, fearing that Sulpicianus would gain the throne, then offered 25,000. The guards closed with the offer of Julianus, threw open the gates of the camp, and proclaimed him emperor.[2] This was also the site of the slaying of the Emperor Elagabalus, and his mother Julia Soaemias by the Praetorians in 222 CE. Then in 238, the barracks were attacked by the citizens of Rome who were in revolt against the emperor Maximinus Thrax. The Castra Praetoria was destroyed by Constantine I, who also disbanded the Praetorian Guard upon his conquest of Italy while Maxentius ruled as the Western Roman Emperor in Italy.[3] Their last stand was at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, and after Constantine's victory he officially disbanded the Praetorian Guard, sending them out to different corners of the empire. See also[edit] List of ancient monuments in Rome References[edit] ^ Tacitus. Annals. 4.1-2. ^ Cassius Dio, LXXIV, 11.1-5 ^ Bunson, Matthew (1994). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 342. ISBN 0-8160-3182-7. 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en-wikipedia-org-8841	----	Tiberius Gemellus - Wikipedia Tiberius Gemellus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Julio-Claudian dynasty member and grandson of Emperor Tiberius (19 AD - 37/38 AD) For his grandfather, also named Tiberius Julius Caesar, see Tiberius. Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus (Latin: Tiberius Caesar Drusi filius Tiberii Augusti nepos divi Augusti pronepos,[1] 10 October AD 19–37/38) was the son of Drusus and Livilla, the grandson of the Emperor Tiberius, and the cousin of the Emperor Caligula. Gemellus is a nickname meaning "the twin". His twin brother, Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus II Gemellus, died as a young child in 23. His father and older cousins died, and are suspected by contemporary sources as having been systematically eliminated by the powerful praetorian prefect Sejanus. Their removal allowed Gemellus and Caligula to be named joint-heirs by Tiberius in 35, a decision that ultimately resulted in Caligula assuming power and having Gemellus killed (or forced to kill himself) in late 37 or early 38. Contents 1 Background 2 Life 2.1 Downfall of his relatives 2.2 Succession 2.3 Death 3 In popular culture 4 Ancestry 5 References 6 Bibliography 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources Background[edit] Gemellus was born the son of Drusus Julius Caesar and Livilla on 10 October AD 19, the same day his uncle Germanicus died in Syria. His paternal grandparents were emperor Tiberius and his wife, Vipsania Agrippina, with his maternal grandparents being general Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor.[2][3] He was the twin brother of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus II Gemellus and the younger brother of his sister Julia.[4] The birth of Gemellus and his twin were celebrated by Tiberius, who claimed that never before in the history of Rome had twins been born to a man as high in rank as Drusus, and the event was commemorated on the reverse of coins.[5] His twin died while still a child in 23.[4] As a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Gemellus was a close relative of all five Julio-Claudian emperors. On his father's side, he was the grandson of emperor Tiberius, and his adoptive great-grandfather was the founder of the Roman Empire, Augustus. On his mother's side, he was the nephew of Claudius, the cousin of Caligula, and the first cousin once removed of Nero,.[3] Life[edit] Downfall of his relatives[edit] Bust of a Roman youth, probably Gemellus, from AD 30.[6] In the spring of 22, his father Drusus received tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) from the Senate, a clear sign that Drusus was Tiberius' heir.[7] However, the following year marked a turning point for his father when his dispute with the powerful praetorian prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus reached a critical point. In the account of Tacitus, Sejanus began plotting against Drusus to secure his position.[8] On 14 September 23 his father died from what passed as natural causes. According to Cassius Dio and Tacitus, his father was poisoned by his wife Livilla at the behest of Sejanus. The exact cause of the feud is unknown.[9][10][11] His father's death not only devastated Tiberius but also challenged the future of the principate. Tiberius still trusted Sejanus and had no suspicion. Since Gemellus was too young, Tiberius adopted his grandchildren by Germanicus, Nero and Drusus, and recommended them to the Senate.[12] Nero was given the office of quaestor five years in advance and was married to Gemellus' sister Livia to combine the families of both possible successors.[13] However, neither would live to succeed Tiberius.[14][15] By 26, the emperor had withdrawn from politics altogether and moved to Capri, leaving the management of the empire to Sejanus who then began eliminating other members of the imperial family. In 28/29, Nero was charged by the Senate with homosexuality for which he was exiled to the island of Ponza. Germanicus' son Drusus was imprisoned within the dungeon under the Imperial palace on the Palatine Hill, where he starved to death not long after. Nero died in exile in 33. Suetonius says Tiberius promoted the rise of Sejanus to secure the succession of Gemellus, his natural grandson, at the expense of Germanicus' sons Nero and Drusus.[12][16][17] Sejanus remained powerful until his sudden downfall and summary execution in October 31, the exact reasons for which remain unclear.[18] On 26 October 31, just eight days after his death, his wife Apicata committed suicide. According to Cassius Dio, she left a message for the emperor: his son had been murdered by his wife Livilla and her lover, Sejanus. The story should be read with caution. Levick says that Sejanus must have murdered Drusus in self-defense because only Tiberius stood between the Praetorian Prefect and the end of his career at the hands of Drusus. Furthermore, he says it is even less likely that Livilla would have been complicit in the destruction of her family, the key to her children's future. Levick dismisses the accusation of Apicata as the revenge of a woman whose husband left her for another.[19] Succession[edit] The deaths of his cousins elevated Gemellus and his older cousin Gaius Caesar (Caligula). As there was no formal mechanism for succession of the imperial office, the only legal way in which Tiberius could promote an heir who was too young to assume the political powers of emperor was to bequeath to him his own estate upon which much of the Roman state had come to depend. According to Suetonius, Tiberius had suspicions of Gaius but he detested Gemellus as he believed him to be the result of an adulterous affair by his mother. Gemellus' young age was another factor in the advancement of Caligula, who was made quaestor in 33. The two were summoned by Tiberius to Capri in 35 where they were made joint-heirs to his estates.[20][21][22][23] Tacitus records that while they were in Capri, Tiberius looked at Caligula in tears, with Gemellus in his arms, and told him:[17] You will kill him, and another will kill you. — Tacitus, Annals VI.46 Tiberius died on 16 March 37, and Caligula became Emperor. He accomplished this with the aid of Praetorian prefect Macro and the consuls of 37 who agreed to nullify Tiberius' will, thereby allowing him to inherit all of the estates which otherwise would have been divided with Gemellus.[24] Gemellus was formally granted his toga virilis (toga of manhood), was adopted by Caligula, co-opted into the Arval Brethren, and given the title of princeps iuventutis (leader of the youth).[25] His tirocinium, the public ceremony where young men donned the toga and became eligible for military service, was held in July 37, and a congiarium of 75 denarii was distributed to each citizen by Caligula.[26] Comments by Tacitus and Suetonius that he was still a child this year, despite the fact that he was 18, may refer to his mental development. This would explain why he had not yet received the toga of manhood.[27] It is possible that his adoption meant an official recognition and acceptance as Caligula's heir. Philo saw this as a ploy to put Gemellus under Caligula's patria potestas (power of a father), and perhaps to convince the Senate to go along with nullifying Tiberius' will.[25] Adopting Gemellus gave Caligula time to deal with the succession issue.[28] Death[edit] Following an illness suffered by Caligula, Gemellus was put to death in late 37 or early 38. Cassius Dio places his death and that of Caligula's father-in-law Marcus Junius Silanus in the events of late 37. Their replacements in the Arval Brethren were not found until 24 May 38. He goes on to explain that Gemellus waited for a chance to benefit from Caligula's illness.[29] According to Philo, Caligula's pretended reason was a conspiracy.[30] Suetonius says that Gemellus took medicine for a chronic cough and that the smell was detected, leading to accusations of taking an antidote for poison. He was ordered by Caligula to commit suicide for which soldiers gave him a sword and had to help him because he is said not to have known how to kill himself with it.[31][32] Dio notes that Gemellus was charged with praying for and anticipating Caligula's death.[29] The historian Anthony Barrett observes that Gemellus would have represented Caligula during his illness at nonpolitical events with his uncle Claudius representing the emperor at games. He suggests that Caligula viewed anything that Gemellus did in his name with paranoia although Gemellus's only named supporter (to the extent that he should co-rule with Caligula) was Aulus Avilius Flaccus, the prefect of Egypt.[27][32] No mention of his death was made by Caligula to the Senate, and Gemellus's tomb makes no mention of his adoptive relation to the emperor, simply reading:[32] Ti(berius) Caesar / Drusi Caesaris f(ilius) / hic situs est "Here lies Tiberius Caesar, son of Drusus Caesar." —CIL VI, 00892 —Barrett 2002, p. 75 In popular culture[edit] Gemellus is played by Douglas Melbourne in the episode "Zeus, by Jove!" of the 1976 BBC TV series I, Claudius.[33] Gemellus is played by Leon Wadham in Season 3 of the Netflix TV series Roman Empire. Gemellus is played by Bruno Brive in the 1979 Penthouse film Caligula. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Tiberius Gemellus 16. (=24.) Tiberius Claudius Nero 8. (=12.) Tiberius Claudius Nero 17. (=25.) Claudia 4. Tiberius 18. (=26.) Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus 9. (=13.) Livia Drusilla 19. (=27.) Alfidia 2. Drusus Julius Caesar 20. Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa 10. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 5. Vipsania Agrippina 22. Titus Pomponius Atticus 11. Caecilia Attica 23. Caecilia Pilia 1. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus 24. (=16.) Tiberius Claudius Nero 12. (=8.) Tiberius Claudius Nero 25. (=17.) Claudia 6. Nero Claudius Drusus 26. (=18.) Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus 13. (=9.) Livia Drusilla 27. (=19.) Alfidia 3. Livilla 28. Marcus Antonius Creticus 14. Mark Antony 29. Julia 7. Antonia Minor 30. Gaius Octavius 15. Octavia Minor 31. Atia Balba Caesonia References[edit] ^ CIL V, 7598 ^ Tacitus, Annals, II.84 ^ a b Shotter 2014, p. 205 ^ a b Burns 2007, p. 29 ^ Levick 1999, pp. 123–4 ^ "Tête d'adolescent (Tiberius Gemellus ?)" (in French). 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2021. ^ Rowe 2002, pp. 41, 46 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.3 ^ Tacitus, Annals IV.8 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LVIII.11 ^ Levick 1999, pp. 126–127 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 54.1-2 ^ Adams 2007, p. 105 ^ Shotter 2014, p. 49 ^ Scullard 1982, p. 276 ^ Adams 2007, pp. 108 ^ a b Barrett 2002, p. 38 ^ Bingham 1999, p. 66 ^ Levick 1966, p. 127 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 76 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 62 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LVIII.23 ^ Barrett 2002, pp. 38–39 ^ Barrett 2002, p. 51 ^ a b Barrett 2002, p. 67 ^ Rowe 2002, p. 87 ^ a b Barrett 2002, p. 39 ^ Barrett 2002, p. 68 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.8 ^ Philo, Against Flaccus 3.11 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 23 ^ a b c Barrett 2002, p. 75 ^ Gianakos 1981, p. 108 Tiberius Gemellus Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 10 Oct 19 Died: 38 Roman Emperors Preceded by Caligula Caesar of the Roman Empire 37 – 38 Succeeded by Claudius Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Books 58–59, English translation Philo, Against Flaccus, English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula, Latin text with English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Annals, II–VI, English translation Secondary sources[edit] Adams, Geoff W. (2007), The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, BrownWalker Press, ISBN 9781599424231 Barrett, Anthony A. (2002), Caligula: The Corruption of Power, Routledge, ISBN 9781134609888 Bingham, Sandra J. (1999) [1997], The praetorian guard in the political and social life of Julio-Claudian Rome (PDF), Ottawa: National Library of Canada, ISBN 0612271064, retrieved 2007-05-23[dead link] Gianakos, Larry James (1981), Television drama series programming: a comprehensive chronicle, 1975-1980, Volume 3, Scarecrow Press Burns, Jasper (2007), Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars, Routledge, ISBN 0415408970 Levick, Barbara (1966), Drusus Caesar and the Adoptions of A.D. 4, Latomus, Société d'Études Latines de Bruxelles, pp. 227–244 Levick, Barbara (1999), Tiberius the Politician, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-21753-9 Rowe, Greg (2002), Princes and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decress, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0472112309 Scullard, H.H. (1982), From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68 (fifth ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-02527-3 Shotter, David (2014), Rome and Her Empire, Routledge, ISBN 9781317881421 Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Poland Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_Gemellus&oldid=1022335910" Categories: Julio-Claudian dynasty Julii Caesares 1st-century Romans 19 births 30s deaths Executed ancient Roman people People executed by the Roman Empire Ancient Roman adoptees Children of Caligula Ancient Romans who committed suicide Suicides by sharp instrument in Italy Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2016 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 May 2021, at 23:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8843	----	Isaac I Komnenos - Wikipedia Isaac I Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1057 to 1059 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Isaac I Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Gold tetarteron of Isaac I Komnenos, showing the Emperor wielding a globus cruciger and holding a sheathed sword Byzantine emperor Reign 8 June 1057 – 22 November 1059 Coronation 1 September 1057 Predecessor Michael VI Bringas Successor Constantine X Doukas Born c. 1007 Died 1060 (aged 53) Monastery of Stoudios, Constantinople Spouse Catherine of Bulgaria Issue Manuel Komnenos Maria Komnene Dynasty Komnenos Father Manuel Erotikos Komnenos Isaac I Komnenos or Comnenus (Greek: Ἰσαάκιος Κομνη­νός, Isaakios Komnēnos; c. 1007 – 1060) was Byzantine emperor from 1057 to 1059, the first reigning member of the Komnenian dynasty. The son of the general Manuel Erotikos Komnenos, he was orphaned at an early age, and was raised under the care of Emperor Basil II. He made his name as a successful military commander, serving as commander-in-chief of the eastern armies between c. 1042 and 1054. In 1057 he became the head of a conspiracy of the dissatisfied eastern generals against the newly crowned Michael VI Bringas. Proclaimed emperor by his followers on 8 June 1057, he rallied sufficient military forces to defeat the loyalist army at the Battle of Hades. While Isaac was willing to accept a compromise solution by being appointed Michael's heir, a powerful faction in Constantinople, led by the ambitious Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Keroularios, pressured Michael to abdicate. After Michael abdicated on 30 August 1057, Isaac was crowned emperor in the Hagia Sophia on 1 September. As emperor, he rewarded his supporters, but also embarked on a series of fiscal measures designed to shore up revenue and eliminate the excesses allowed to flourish under his predecessors. His aim was to fill the treasury and restore the Byzantine army's effectiveness to preserve the empire. The reduction of salaries, harsh tax measures and confiscation of Church properties aroused much opposition, particularly from Keroularios, who had come to think of himself as a king-maker. In November 1058, Keroularios was arrested and exiled, and died before a synod to depose him could be convened. The eastern frontier held firm during his reign, Hungarian raids were resolved by a treaty in 1059, while the restive Pechenegs were subdued by Isaac in person in summer 1059. Shortly after, Isaac fell ill, and on the advice and pressure of Michael Psellos, he abdicated his throne in favour of Constantine X Doukas, retiring to the Stoudion monastery where he died later in 1060. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Origin and early career 1.2 Revolt of the eastern generals 1.2.1 Michael VI and the military leadership 1.2.2 Proclamation of Isaac as emperor and the Battle of Hades 1.2.3 Negotiations and downfall of Michael VI 1.3 Reign 1.3.1 Fiscal reforms 1.3.2 Downfall of Keroularios 1.3.3 Military situation 1.3.4 Illness, abdication, and death 2 Family 3 Notes 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading Biography[edit] Origin and early career[edit] The Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 11th century. Isaac was the son of Manuel Erotikos Komnenos, who reportedly served as strategos autokrator of the East under Emperor Basil II and defended Nicaea against the rebel Bardas Skleros in 978.[1][2] His mother's name was Maria, about whom nothing else is known.[3] Manuel's native language was Greek and modern scholarship considers the family to have been of Greek origin.[4] It is said that the family name was derived from the city of Komne, near Philippopolis in Thrace.[1] Isaac was born c. 1007.[5] As Maria had died early, on his deathbed in 1020, Isaac's father commended his two surviving sons Isaac and John to the care of Emperor Basil II. According to Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, the two children were raised with the utmost solicitude and the best tutors at the Stoudion monastery, with care taken to teach them military exercises and hunting.[6] As soon as they came of age, Isaac and his brother joined the imperial bodyguard, the Hetaireia.[7] At a young age, perhaps as early as 1025, Isaac married Catherine of Bulgaria (born c. 1010), a daughter of Ivan Vladislav (r. 1015–1018), the last Tsar of the First Bulgarian Empire.[5][8] From c. 1042 he held the post of stratopedarches of the East—likely denoting that he was domestikos ton scholon, commander-in-chief, of the eastern field army, but this title is not explicitly attested[9]—and the ranks of magistros and vestes.[5] He was dismissed by Empress Theodora in 1054,[5] and replaced by her eunuch confidant, the proedros Theodore.[10] Revolt of the eastern generals[edit] Michael VI and the military leadership[edit] When Michael VI Bringas came to the throne in 1056, Isaac was chosen to lead a deputation of eastern generals to the new emperor. Michael VI engaged in mass promotions of individuals—in the eyes of the contemporary courtier Michael Psellos, to an excessive degree—and the military sought to partake in the emperor's bounty.[11][12] This was not a trivial matter: the debasement of the Byzantine currency under Constantine IX Monomachos (r. 1042–1054) had affected military pay—not coincidentally presided over by none other than Michael Bringas, who was then military logothete—and while civil officials were compensated by being raised to higher dignities (which commanded higher salaries, rogai), the army was not.[13] This exacerbated the already simmering dislike of the military aristocracy for the "regime of eunuchs and civilian politicians" that had dominated the empire during the last decades of the Macedonian dynasty.[14] Gold tetarteron of Michael VI. At Easter 1057, the traditional time when the emperor paid title holders their stipends, the delegation presented itself before the emperor. Along with Isaac, the delegation included the magistros Katakalon Kekaumenos, who had just been dismissed as doux of Antioch; the vestarches Michael Bourtzes, whose namesake grandfather had captured Antioch for Byzantium a century earlier; Constantine Doukas, married to a niece of the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios; his brother John Doukas, a friend of Psellos; and others not explicitly named.[15][16] As the historian Anthony Kaldellis comments, this was a formidable assemblage, as the families represented in it, all of them descended from military men promoted by the warrior-emperor Basil II, would define "the future of the empire for the next thirty years, indeed for the next century and more".[14] Psellos himself was an eyewitness at the reception of the generals' delegation, and claims that the emperor began abusing them at once; he then made Isaac, as the leader of the deputation, and his second, Kekaumenos, stand forth, and proceeded to denounce him, claiming that he was responsible for "all but losing Antioch" and "corrupting his army", being a coward and incompetent, and of having misappropriated army funds for his own use. John Skylitzes, who wrote later in the century, reports that the emperor treated the generals courteously, but agrees that he refused outright to consider the honours they claimed for themselves, notably the promotion of Isaac and Kekaumenos to the rank of proedros.[15][12] The effect of the emperor's attitude on the army leadership was profound, and turned them against Michael. A second delegation to the chief minister, the protosynkellos Leo Paraspondylos, was received in similar manner, and according to Psellos Isaac could barely restrain his colleagues from attacking the emperor then and there, in his own throne room. At length, a plot was formed against the emperor, and despite Isaac's own reluctance, according to Psellos, he was nominated as its leader.[17][18] The conspirators contacted the veteran general Nikephoros Bryennios, who had unsuccessfully tried to usurp the throne from Theodora[19] but had recently been recalled by Michael VI as commander of the Macedonian army, and he apparently agreed to support them. Soon after, however, Bryennios left with his troops for Asia Minor, to campaign against the Turks. Once in the Anatolic Theme he quarreled with the army treasurer, threw him in prison, and appropriated the funds to pay his soldiers as he saw fit. This was seen by another local commander as a sign of rebellion; Bryennios was arrested and blinded.[18][20] Proclamation of Isaac as emperor and the Battle of Hades[edit] Fearing that their plot was about to be discovered, the eastern generals hastened to act: the conspirators resident in the Anatolic Theme, Romanos Skleros, Michael Bourtzes, Nikephoros Botaneiates and the sons of Basil Argyros, hastened to find Isaac Komnenos at his estates near Kastamon in Paphlagonia, and on 8 June 1057, at a place called Gounaria, proclaimed him emperor.[21] It is unclear whether any of the rebels held command of troops; rather, according to Kaldellis, "they had to canvass for support among the officers and soldiers and forge orders of imperial appointment for themselves".[22] Thus Skylitzes reports that Kekaumenos had to forge imperial letters to mobilize the regiments of the Armeniac Theme. With this force he went to join Komnenos.[23] Leaving his family for safety with his brother at the fortress of Pemolissa on the banks of the Halys River, Komnenos advanced west towards Constantinople.[24] At the same time, the western regiments, and some of the eastern ones too, remained loyal to Michael VI. The emperor placed them under the command of Theodora's eunuch favourite, the proedros Theodore, and Aaron, Isaac's brother-in-law; unlike previously, he now showered his commanders with honours to secure their allegiance. The loyalist army assembled at Nicomedia, controlling the direct route to the capital. Therefore Komnenos turned south and seized Nicaea as his base of operations.[22][25] The two armies met at the Battle of Hades, near Nicaea. In a hard-fought battle with many casualties, the loyalist left defeated the right wing of the rebel army. On the other flank, Kekaumenos broke through the loyalists to capture their camp and decide the battle, while Isaac held the centre.[26][27][28] Negotiations and downfall of Michael VI[edit] Michael VI then attempted to negotiate with the rebels, sending Psellos, Leo Alopos, and the former mesazon of Constantine IX, Constantine Leichoudes, to Isaac's camp. Michael offered to adopt Isaac as his son and to grant him the title of Caesar, making him effectively his successor, but this was rejected in a public audience. Psellos claims that Isaac was inclined to accept, but the pressure of the assembled troops, who vocally refused it, forced him to agree with his supporters. At a private meeting afterwards Isaac insisted that he had accepted the title of emperor only under the pressure of his followers, and secretly accepted the offer provided that Michael would also share "some, at any rate, of his imperial power", so that he could make appointments and reward his followers, especially in the military.[22][29] The envoys returned to Constantinople, and rapidly secured Michael's consent to the proposal; the Emperor explicitly agreed to pardon Isaac's followers, and to accord Isaac additional honours above those of Caesar, setting him up almost as a co-emperor (symbasileus). As a sign of good faith, furthermore, Paraspondylos was dismissed from office. When the envoys returned to Isaac with this news, he publicly accepted the proposal and prepared to enter the capital.[30] Back in Constantinople, however, a crowd of officials assembled in the Hagia Sophia and began protesting that by making a deal, the Emperor was forcing them to renounce their oaths to oppose the rebels. Going a step further, they began themselves acclaiming Isaac as emperor. After a short while, on 30 August, Michael Keroularios and the clergy joined their cause, raising suspicions that this "spontaneous" assembly had been planned by the ambitious and wily Patriarch all along. Pressured by Keroularios and wanting to avoid bloodshed in the city, Michael agreed to abdicate. He was quickly tonsured and retired to a monastery.[31][32][33] On the next day, 31 August, Isaac and his entourage crossed the Bosporus into Constantinople and entered the palace; on 1 September, he was crowned emperor by the Patriarch in the Hagia Sophia.[34] Reign[edit] The first act of the new emperor was to reward his partisans: his fellow conspirators were named to high offices—his own brother John was named domestikos ton scholon of the West and received the high title of kouropalates, which was also awarded to Kekaumenos and Bryennios.[35][36] The troops that had followed him received a donative and were quickly sent back east, to avoid any trouble with the populace of Constantinople.[37][38] Patriarch Michael Keroularios was also rewarded for his support, by receiving sole authority for all personnel and financial matters of the Church, which were previously under the purview of the emperor, while the Patriarch's nephews received high court titles.[37][39] Fiscal reforms[edit] Gold histamenon struck by Isaac. His martial posture, bearing a naked sword, is unique among Byzantine coinage.[a] Isaac's rise to power was a turning point in Byzantine history, marking the definitive end of the long-lived Macedonian dynasty. Although powerful generals had previously suborned power, they had ruled alongside the Macedonian emperors; Isaac was the first military strongman to usurp power outright since the 9th century.[41] This was reflected in the coinage struck in his name, which uniquely showed him holding a drawn sword; while it may have simply indicated his intention to restore "capable military rule" (Kaldellis), it came to be understood as a claim to rule by right of conquest, and even as expressing an impious belief "that his accomplishments came not from God but from his own prowess".[34][41] Certainly it highlighted Isaac's determination to make reforms and restore the effectiveness of the army.[38] The task he faced was truly herculean, as the politically weak emperors of the previous thirty years had fostered corruption and inefficiency, handing out titles and their attendant state salaries (rogai) in exchange for support.[38][37] The devaluation of the coinage under Constantine IX had been a first reaction to the brewing crisis, but Isaac was the first emperor in this period who certainly faced a budget deficit.[37] To fund his cherished army, Isaac was therefore obliged to begin strict economies: he reduced or abolished the rogai of those who had been awarded titles, enforced a stricter and more efficient collection of taxes, reclaimed misappropriated imperial estates, and cancelled grants of such lands and tax exemptions made under Constantine IX and Michael VI, particularly those that had been granted to monasteries and churches, using a law of Nikephoros II Phokas.[38][42] Even though salaries of officials, especially members of the Senate, were cut,[8] Isaac's efforts were enthusiastically received even among some senior members of the civil bureaucracy, judging by the comments of Psellos and Michael Attaleiates.[42] [Isaac Komnenos] was eager to lose no time in cutting out the dead wood which had long been accumulating in the Roman Empire. We can liken it to a monstrous body, a body with a multitude of heads, an ugly bull-neck, hands so many that they were beyond counting, and just as many feet; its entrails were festering and diseased, in some parts swollen, in others wasting away, here afflicted with dropsy, there diminishing with consumption. Now Isaac tried to remedy this by wholesale surgery. — Michael Psellos, Chronographia, VII.51[43] Downfall of Keroularios[edit] Patriarch Michael Keroularios on his throne, from the Madrid Skylitzes The only point of criticism raised by Psellos is his haste and severity, judging that by a more gradual and judicious, step by step approach, he would have reaped greater success with far less opposition.[8][44] Thus his appropriation of Church lands provoked the reaction of Michael Keroularios, with whom Isaac's relations had been steadily deteriorating. The Patriarch's role in Isaac's accession and his extensive new powers over the Church quickly went to his head. He is said to have admonished and berated the emperor, even going as far as threatening to destroy him "like an oven he had made".[45][46] He is also alleged to have worn imperial purple boots, a privilege restricted to the emperor, and which may indicate, according to Kaldellis, that Keroularios was influenced by Papal theories and conceived of the secular and clerical powers as co-equal, a traditional Byzantine approach known as a symphonia.[45] Finally, on 8 November 1058, while Keroularios was visiting a church outside the city walls, and hence was away from his supporters in the urban mob, Isaac sent the Varangian Guard to arrest him and take him to Prokonnesos, where he was placed under house arrest. Isaac applied considerable pressure on Keroularios to resign, but the latter steadfastly refused. In the end, the emperor decided to convene a synod against the Patriarch. This too was to take place away from the capital, somewhere in Thrace, with Psellos, who had himself been earlier persecuted by Keroularios, as the chief accuser. In the event, Keroularios died on 21 January 1059, before the synod could take place. Isaac appointed the bureaucrat Constantine Leichoudes as the new patriarch.[45][46] Military situation[edit] The rebellion and civil war that brought Isaac to the throne had concentrated Byzantium's military might away from its borders. The contemporary Armenian historian Aristakes Lastivertsi reports that the Georgian lord Ivane took advantage of this opportunity to capture two Byzantine frontier forts as well as an imperial tax collector, and lay siege to Theodosiopolis. The Byzantine doux at Ani drove him off, but Ivane then called upon some Turks for assistance. About a month after Isaac's coronation, these raiders reached Melitene, whose inhabitants were allowed to depart before the city was plundered by the Turks. Local Byzantine troops managed to blockade the mountain passes, forcing the raiders to winter in the region of Chorzane. In spring 1058, the Turks were ambushed and defeated while they attacked the fort of Mormrans, leaving most of their captives behind. At about the same time or shortly after, another Turkish raid into Taron was heavily defeated by the Byzantine defenders. Melitene was repaired and refortified, and made the seat of a doux.[47] Constantine IX had famously abolished the military obligations of the Armenian thematic troops in exchange for cash payments, a step widely regarded, both by contemporaries and modern historians, as having catastrophic consequences for Byzantium's eastern defences, especially against the mounting Turkish threat. The Turks had taken Vaspurakan during the regency following Constantine's death, exposing the Anatolian interior to their raids.[48] While Isaac does not appear to have acted to restore the thematic armies,[38] according to Kaldellis, the reaction of the local forces to these events does not appear to indicate a degradation of Byzantium's defensive abilities in the East, but rather the continued and successful application of old-established counter-raiding principles as codified in Nikephoros Phokas' De velitatione bellica a century earlier.[47] Isaac led only one military expedition, in late summer of 1059, into the Balkan provinces that had been suffering raids by the Hungarians and the Pechenegs. The details of the campaign are obscure, but the two had possibly entered into an alliance. At Serdica, the emperor made a treaty with the Hungarians—who appear to have kept the fortress town of Sirmium—before moving against the Pechenegs in the area of Moesia. Most of the Pechenegs submitted again to imperial authority. The only major combat was against the fortified stronghold of a certain Selte, a recalcitrant Pecheneg leader.[38][49] On its return march the army was caught in a sudden storm on 24 September. Many men and supplies were lost, while Isaac barely escaped death when a tree struck by lightning fell next to him.[38][49] This was followed by the false rumour that a tax assessor in the eastern provinces was plotting rebellion, and Isaac hastened back to the capital.[50] Despite these events, Psellos claims that at this point Isaac's character changed markedly, and that he became "more haughty to such an extent that he held everyone else in contempt", including his own brother.[51] Illness, abdication, and death[edit] Isaac was a passionate hunter with both the horse and the falcon, spending much time at a hunting lodge outside Constantinople.[52] On a hunt he fell ill. As the fever lasted for several days, Isaac, fearing he would die soon, named Constantine Doukas as his successor on 22 November 1059,[b] and agreed to resign and retire to a monastery. Psellos claims that he was the main author of this nomination, even against the initial opposition of Empress Catherine.[50][53][54] According to Psellos, Isaac began to recover soon after Doukas' nomination, and started reconsidering his decision. Psellos again took the decisive step of having Doukas publicly acclaimed as emperor on 23 December, with Psellos putting the purple sandals on his feet. Isaac then resigned himself to his fate, and was tonsured as a monk, retiring to the Stoudion monastery.[50][55] Psellos' prominent role in these events may simply be exaggeration and self-promotion, especially as he was writing this part of his history during the reign of Constantine Doukas and his son Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071–1078). No contemporary or later source, not even during the Komnenian dynasty (1081–1180), described or implied a coup by Doukas and his supporters, and the legality of the transition was never questioned.[50] Empress Catherine remained at the palace, and was even allowed to be mentioned first in the imperial acclamations, with Doukas coming second. This joint reign lasted for a brief while, before she too retired to the Myrelaion monastery under the monastic name of Xene.[56] Isaac lived the remainder of his life as a simple monk in Stoudion, readily performing menial tasks until he died in late 1060.[57] Family[edit] Isaac was married to Catherine of Bulgaria, a daughter of Ivan Vladislav, the last ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire.[8] Isaac raised her to the position of Augusta.[58] The couple had at least two children:[59] Manuel Komnenos (c. 1030 – c. 1042/57), probably the "son of Komnenos" recorded as having been engaged to the daughter of the protospatharios Helios. He died sometime between 1042 and 1057.[60] Maria Komnene (born c. 1034), her beauty is remarked upon by Psellos but she remained unmarried and retired with her mother to the Myrelaion.[61] Notes[edit] ^ Constantine IX Monomachos was the first emperor to introduce the sword as an element, being depicted holding a spear and a sheathed sword in his silver miliaresia. Isaac's depiction with a drawn sword on the prestigious gold coinage was novel and, following the outcry it raised, abandoned by subsequent rulers. The iconography of Isaac's coinage may have drawn inspiration from similar portrayals of caliphs in gold dinars.[40] ^ In earlier studies the date of Isaac's abdication was commonly accepted as 25 December 1059. In 1966, Paul Gautier revised the date to 22 November, with the proclamation and coronation of Constantine Doukas taking place on 23 November. Varzos 1984, p. 43 (note 12) References[edit] ^ a b ODB, "Komnenos" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1143–1144. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 38–39. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 39, 41. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 26. ^ a b c d Varzos 1984, p. 41. ^ Gautier 1975, pp. 74, 76. ^ Gautier 1975, p. 76. ^ a b c d ODB, "Isaac I Komnenos" (C. M. Brand, A. Cutler), pp. 1011–1012. ^ Guilland 1967b, p. 500. ^ Guilland 1967a, pp. 452–453. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 209–210. ^ a b Wortley 2010, pp. 450–451. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 597. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, p. 217. ^ a b Sewter 1953, p. 210. ^ Kaldellis 2017, pp. 216–217. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 210–211. ^ a b Wortley 2010, pp. 454–455. ^ Kaldellis 2017, p. 215. ^ Kaldellis 2017, pp. 217–218. ^ Wortley 2010, pp. 455–456. ^ a b c Kaldellis 2017, p. 218. ^ Wortley 2010, pp. 456–458. ^ Wortley 2010, p. 458. ^ Wortley 2010, pp. 458–459. ^ Kaldellis & Krallis 2012, pp. 99, 101. ^ Wortley 2010, pp. 459–461. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 214–215. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 215–224. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 224–226. ^ Kaldellis 2017, pp. 218–219. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 226–227. ^ Kaldellis & Krallis 2012, pp. 101, 103, 105, 107. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, p. 219. ^ Cheynet 1996, p. 70. ^ Kaldellis 2017, pp. 219–220. ^ a b c d Kaldellis 2017, p. 220. ^ a b c d e f g Treadgold 1997, p. 599. ^ Kaldellis & Krallis 2012, p. 109. ^ Grotowski 2007, pp. 110–111. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 598. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, pp. 220–221. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 233–234. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 238–239. ^ a b c Kaldellis 2017, p. 221. ^ a b ODB, "Michael I Keroularios" (A. Kazhdan), p. 1361. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, p. 222. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 595–596. ^ a b Kaldellis 2017, pp. 222–223. ^ a b c d Kaldellis 2017, p. 223. ^ Sewter 1953, p. 244. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 244–245. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 245–252. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 42–43, 44–45. ^ Sewter 1953, pp. 256–257. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 46–47. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 43. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 44. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 47. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 58. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 58–59. Sources[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Cheynet, Jean-Claude (1996). Pouvoir et Contestations à Byzance (963–1210) (in French). Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne. ISBN 978-2-85944-168-5. Gautier, Paul, ed. (1975). Nicéphore Bryennios: Histoire. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae (in French). Brussels: Byzantion. OCLC 814361996. Grotowski, Piotr L. (2007). "Military Equipment as a Symbolic Form in Byzantium (Some preliminary observations)". Byzantinoslavica. 65: 91–116. ISSN 0007-7712. Guilland, Rodolphe (1967). "Le Domestique des Scholes". Recherches sur les institutions byzantines [Studies on the Byzantine Institutions]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 426–468. OCLC 878894516. Guilland, Rodolphe (1967). "Le Stratopédarque et le Grand statopédarque". Recherches sur les institutions byzantines [Studies on the Byzantine Institutions]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 498–521. OCLC 878894516. Kaldellis, Anthony; Krallis, Dimitris, eds. (2012). Michael Attaleiates: The History. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05799-9. Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190253226. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Sewter, Edgar Robert Ashton, ed. (1953). The Chronographia of Michael Psellus. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. OCLC 427306. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784634. Wortley, John, ed. (2010). John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76705-7. Further reading[edit] Stanescu, Eugen (1966). "Les réformes d' Isaac Comnène". Revue des Études Sud-Est Européennes (in French). 4: 35–69. ISSN 0035-2063. Isaac I Komnenos Komnenian dynasty Born: c. 1007 Died: 1060 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael VI Byzantine emperor 1057–1059 Succeeded by Constantine X Doukas v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. 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en-wikipedia-org-8871	----	The Fall of the Roman Empire (film) - Wikipedia The Fall of the Roman Empire (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1964 film by Anthony Mann The Fall of the Roman Empire Original theatrical release poster by Renato Fratini Directed by Anthony Mann Produced by Samuel Bronston Written by Ben Barzman Basilio Franchina Philip Yordan Starring Sophia Loren Stephen Boyd Alec Guinness James Mason Christopher Plummer John Ireland Mel Ferrer Omar Sharif Anthony Quayle Music by Dimitri Tiomkin Cinematography Robert Krasker Edited by Robert Lawrence Production company Samuel Bronston Productions Distributed by Paramount Pictures Release date March 24, 1964 (1964-03-24) (UK) March 26, 1964 (1964-03-26) (US) Running time 188 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $16 million[1] Box office $4.8 million[2] The Fall of the Roman Empire is a 1964 American epic film directed by Anthony Mann and produced by Samuel Bronston, with a screenplay by Ben Barzman, Basilio Franchina and Philip Yordan. The film stars Sophia Loren, Stephen Boyd, Alec Guinness, James Mason, Christopher Plummer, Mel Ferrer, and Omar Sharif. When filming for El Cid (1961) had finished, Anthony Mann saw a copy of Edward Gibbon's 1776–1789 six-volume series The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire inside the Hatchards bookshop. He pitched a film adaptation of the book to Samuel Bronston, who then agreed to produce the project. Philip Yordan was enlisted to write the script while Charlton Heston was initially set to star. However, Heston backed out of the film and agreed to star in 55 Days at Peking (1963). Prominent actors were cast to portray multiple roles in the film. The final screenplay was written by Ben Barzman and Basilio Franchina with a prologue written by historian Will Durant. Filming began in January 1963 and wrapped in July. Additionally, the film featured the largest outdoor film set in the history of film at that time, a 92,000 m2 (990,000 sq ft) replica of the Roman Forum. The film's name refers not to the final fall of the Roman empire, which did in fact survive for centuries after the period depicted in the film, but rather to the onset of corruption and decadence which led to Rome's demise. It deals extensively with the problem of imperial succession, and examines both the relationship between father and son on the background of imperial politics as well as the nature and limits of loyalty and friendship. On March 24, 1964, the film premiered at the London Astoria. Critics criticized the script as void of emotion and humanity and the directing as misguided, but showed some praise for the large spectacles.[3][4][5][6][7] The film was a financial failure at the box-office. Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Writing 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming 3.5 Production design 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Novelization 5.2 Home media 6 Reception 6.1 Critical reaction 6.2 Box office 6.3 Accolades 7 Aftermath 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Plot[edit] In the winter of 180 AD, the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius fights to keep Germanic tribes from invading his northern territories on the Danube frontier. His deputies are the Greek ex-slave Timonides and the stern and honest general Gaius Livius. Livius has close connections with the imperial family, being in love with Aurelius' daughter Lucilla and a friend of her brother Commodus. He is amazed to hear from the ailing Aurelius that he wants to make Livius his heir. The emperor has egalitarian ideals, dreaming of a day when Rome grants equal rights to men of all nations. He knows that he will not live to achieve this end, and trusts Livius to do so more than his brutal son. The discovery that his father has effectively disinherited him hurts Commodus immensely and damages the almost brotherly relationship he had enjoyed with Livius. Before Aurelius can announce his plan, he is poisoned by Commodus' cronies, who hope to secure their own political future by putting their friend on the throne. Feeling that a plebeian such as himself would never be accepted as emperor without Aurelius' explicit backing, Livius lets his old friend take the position instead. Commodus, who was not part of the murder plot, dedicates himself to undoing all of Aurelius' policies; this involves favoritism towards Rome and the Roman provinces in Italy, which are to be enriched by ferocious taxation of the provinces that used to be their equals. Meanwhile, Livius' army scores an important victory on the frontier, capturing the German chieftain Ballomar and his aides. Timonides wins the Germans' trust by successfully undergoing an ordeal, having his hand thrust held to a burning torch without crying out. With his help, Livius decides to put Aurelius' policy into effect despite disapproval from Commodus. Lucilla helps convince Livius to defy the emperor, since she loved her father as much as Commodus hated him. A speech by Timonides helps persuade the Roman Senate to let the German captives become peaceful farmers on Italian land, thereby encouraging their fellow barbarians to cooperate with Rome instead of fighting it. Thwarted, Commodus sends Livius back to the northern frontier and Lucilla to Armenia, with whose king, Sohaemus, she shares a loveless political marriage. Lucilla joins a revolt in Rome’s eastern provinces, where a famine has been exacerbated by the new taxes. Commodus sends his northern army against the rebels, knowing that Livius will put aside personal feelings and fight to preserve the unity of the Empire. As the opposing Roman armies meet for battle, Sohaemus arrives and attacks Livius with both the Armenian army and troops borrowed from Rome's archenemy, the Persians. The rebels patriotically decide to fight Persia instead of Rome, joining with Livius and helping him to vanquish Sohaemus. As a reward Commodus declares Livius his co-emperor, but only on condition that the northern army inflicts harsh punishments on the rebellious provinces. Rejecting this piece of brutality, Livius and Lucilla take their army to Rome, intending to make Commodus abdicate. The emperor responds by bribing away the soldiers' loyalty and massacring Timonides and the population of the German colony. The fawning Senate declares Commodus a god and Livius and Lucilla are sentenced to be burned alive as human sacrifices to the new deity as the Roman citizens drunkenly celebrate. This victory for Commodus is accompanied by the private discovery that he is not of royal blood, but instead the product of an affair between his mother and the gladiator Verulus, whom he kills. Now Commodus challenges Livius to a duel for the throne and the two fight with javelins in the Roman Forum, where Livius eventually runs Commodus through. The Senate hastily offers to make Livius emperor, but he prefers to slip away with Lucilla, leaving Commodus' old advisers to bid for who will take the emperor's place. A voice-over epilogue states that though the Roman Empire did not fall immediately, internal corruption led to its eventual collapse. Cast[edit] Sophia Loren as Lucilla Stephen Boyd as Livius Alec Guinness as Marcus Aurelius James Mason as Timonides Christopher Plummer as Commodus Mel Ferrer as Cleander Omar Sharif as Sohaemus, King of Armenia Anthony Quayle as Verulus John Ireland as Ballomar Eric Porter as Julianus Finlay Currie as Senator Andrew Keir as Polybius Douglas Wilmer as Pescennius Niger George Murcell as Victorinus Norman Wooland as Virgilianus Production[edit] Development[edit] The idea for The Fall of the Roman Empire originated with Anthony Mann who had just finished directing El Cid (1961). In London, while waiting for a taxi cab, he spotted an Oxford concise edition of Edward Gibbon's six-volume series The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire near the front window at the Hatchards bookshop. Mann then considered a film adaptation of the book as his next project after having read the book on a flight trip to Madrid, in which he later presented the idea to Samuel Bronston to which the producer agreed.[8][9] In July 1961, Bronston told The New York Times that The Fall of the Roman Empire would be his next project, but he had also ruled out filming on location in Rome stating that upon "checking I found the Eternal City was not the 'city' of the time of the fall of the empire, so we'll build our 'Rome' in Madrid." Additionally, Philip Yordan had been tasked to write the script while Charlton Heston was being offered the role of Marcus Aurelius.[10] In September 1961, Bronston formally announced he was planning a trilogy of historical spectacles in Spain, which included The Fall of the Roman Empire with Mann and Heston returning to direct and star in. Filming was initially set in February 1962,[11] with the production design for the Roman Forum being placed under construction under Veniero Colasanti and John Moore's supervision.[12] However, Heston had disliked Yordan's script for the film.[13] At the premiere of El Cid in Madrid, in the following December, Heston told Bronston associate Michael Waszynski that he was uninterested in starring in The Fall of the Roman Empire. On the next day, on a jet flight back to Los Angeles, Yordan, who was seated next to Heston, and director Nicholas Ray pitched the idea for 55 Days at Peking (1963) to him. Subsequently, 55 Days at Peking went in production while Roman Empire was placed on hold.[14] The elaborate sets for Roman Empire were later demolished and replaced with the Forbidden City sets for 55 Days at Peking.[12] Writing[edit] In April 1963, Mann explained to the Los Angeles Times that while the film was not a direct adaptation of Gibbon's volume series, the focus on a fifteen year period from Marcus Aurelius' reign to Commodus' death was backed by historians as "the turning point in the history of the empire and by concentrating our story on it we can keep the same group of characters within the range of our drama."[15] Having selected a focal point for the film, screenwriter Basilio Franchina was hired for his broad knowledge of the period while Ben Barzman would handle the actual writing of the script. Together, they subsequently wrote a 350-page film treatment.[8][16] After this, Mann consulted with the screenwriters on further developing the characters, in which they wrote six drafts in total. The sixth draft would be developed throughout the shooting of the film. Mann later explained, "The writing took us more than one year. We did not have artists in mind when we were writing; but we wanted characters with memorable scenes to attract artists of the calibre of Guinness to want to play them."[8] As the script was being written, the Roman Forum was being constructed at Bronston's studio backlot although their script had made no mention of it. Under Yordan's supervision, the action was re-written for scenes they had not written for the Forum to occur there, which brought much dismay from Barzman.[17] In January 1963, it was reported that historian Will Durant had written a prologue for the film.[18] Casting[edit] It was envisioned that Heston would be cast as Livius, but he turned it down. The part had also been offered to Kirk Douglas, who turned it down as well following an offer of $1.5 million. In 1971, he later said he regretted this "because with $1.5 million there are lots of things you can do that you want to."[19] In May 1962, it was announced that Stephen Boyd, who played opposite to Heston in Ben-Hur (1959), would play the lead opposite Gina Lollobrigida as Lucilla.[20] In September 1962, it was announced that Sophia Loren had been cast as Lucilla, in which she was paid $1 million.[21] In August 1962, it was reported that Alec Guinness had been cast Marcus Aurelius, while Richard Harris, Albert Finney, John Gielgud, Terence Stamp were being considered for other roles.[22] Later that same month, it was reported that Harris had been cast as Commodus.[23] However, in January 1963, he was replaced by Christopher Plummer who had pulled out of The V.I.P.s (1963) to do so.[18] Harris would later play the role of Marcus Aurelius in the similarly themed 2000 film Gladiator. By the time filming was set to begin, Anthony Quayle, Omar Sharif, John Ireland, and Mel Ferrer had been cast in supporting roles.[24] Filming[edit] Principal photography began on January 14, 1963. Marcus Aurelius's winter camp on the Danube was shot on location in the snow along the Sierra de Guadarrama in northern Madrid. The "Battle of the Four Armies" involved 8,000 soldiers including 1,200 cavalry and was shot on an undulating plain at Manzanares el Real which allowed large numbers of soldiers to be visible over a long distance.[25] Meanwhile, Yakima Canutt had been hired as the second unit director at the insistence of Mann.[26] As he had done in El Cid (1961), Canutt performed his own stunts while his son Tap served as the stunt double for Stephen Boyd. Jack Williams served as the body double for Christopher Plummer. Among the first scenes shot was the chariot race sequence between Livius and Commodus. 1,500 horses were gathered from Spain and Portugal for which they were trained to fall safety during the battle sequences.[27] Interior scenes were shot in Madrid at the Samuel Bronston Studios (formerly known as the Chamartín Studios) and at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome where Commodus's baths and gymnasiums were constructed.[28] Filming had been arranged to shoot at Cinecittà in order to make it eligible for government subsidies.[29] In July 1963, filming was finished after 143 days. Second unit directors Canutt and Andrew Marton spent an additional 63 days shooting the action sequences.[30] Production design[edit] A statue of Juno as seen in the movie, displayed at the Cinecittà studios in Rome, Italy Veniero Colasanti and John Moore served as the art directors overseeing the production design with the guidance of Will Durant. Actual construction began on October 1, 1962 using 1,100 men who labored for seven months. About 400 art students and craftsmen throughout Spain worked on the statuary, tiles, frescoes, and details of the set. The film's reconstruction of the Roman Forum was constructed in Las Matas near Madrid, approximately sixteen miles from Bronston's studio. The entire set was measured at 400 x 230 meters (1312 x 754 feet), which holds the record for the largest outdoor film set. Uniquely for the film, the set was not extended through the use of matte paintings.[12] The Temple of Jupiter was constructed on a 95-foot high hill along the plains of Las Matas by which craftsmen built the 165-foot temple on it. The bronze equestrian figures at the top of the temple were 260 feet above the pavement of the forum set. For the statuary, 350 statues had to be constructed. There were 76 life-size statues, more than a thousand sculpted bases for the remaining figures and victory columns, and a series of the aforementioned equestrian statues that were 25 feet high. Ultimately, more than 3,000 sketches were drawn to illustrate the 27 structures that would comprise the sets.[31] The various ancient Rome settings covered 55 acres (220,000 m2).[32] After much of the set was pulled down, remaining sections of the set were reused in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966).[33] Music[edit] Dimitri Tiomkin's score, which is one of the notable features of the film, is more than 150 minutes in length. It is scored for a large orchestra, including an important part for cathedral organ. Several cues are extended compositions in their own right. These include Pax Romana in which Marcus Aurelius summons the governors of all the Roman provinces. Although Christopher Palmer stated in his book on film music, The Composer in Hollywood, that it was a march, the cue is actually in the style of a bolero. Other notable cues include those for The Roman Forum, composed to accompany Commodus's triumphal return to Rome as the newly installed Emperor; a percussive scherzo for a barbarian attack by Ballomar's army; the Tarantella danced by the Roman mob on the evening presaging the gladiatorial combat between Livius and Commodus (which seems to be modelled on the Tarantella movement from the Piano Concerto of Tiomkin's teacher Ferruccio Busoni). The music was recorded at the Royal Albert Hall. The music editor was George Korngold, son of Erich Wolfgang Korngold. A soundtrack album was released by Columbia Records to coincide with the release of the film.[citation needed] The Fall of the Roman Empire: Limited Edition[34] No. Title Length 1. "Fanfares and Flourishes" 0:53 2. "Overture" 2:45 3. "The Fall of Love" 2:37 4. "Lucilla's Sorrow" 1:49 5. "Ballomar's Barbarian Attack" 1:42 6. "Morning" 1:08 7. "Profundo" 2:38 8. "Notturno" 2:03 9. "Pax Romana (Bolero)" 5:20 10. "The Prophecy" 1:10 11. "Persian Battle" 2:06 12. "Dawn of Love" 2:23 13. "The Roman Forum" 4:51 14. "By Jove ("Triumph and End of Part 1")" 0:41 15. "Intermezzo: Livius and Lucilla ("The Fall of Love Intermission")" 2:21 16. "Addio" 1:58 17. "Tarantella" 2:20 18. "Resurrection" 2:56 19. "The Fall of Rome" 2:14 20. "Dawn on the Northern Frontier ("Aurelius Awaits Dawn")" 2:18 21. "Arrival of Livius" 1:03 22. "Old Acquaintances "Lucilla and Livius"" 4:33 23. "Decoy Patrol ("The Signal to March")" 1:00 24. "Battle in the Forest/Reinforcements ("Barbarian Ambush 1 & 2")" 3:51 25. "Conflict in the Caverns ("Ballomar's Barbarian Attack Part 2")" 1:47 26. "Passing the Torch" 2:30 27. "The Army Enters Rome/ The New God/The Challenge ("Commodus Deified")" 4:04 Release[edit] Prior to the film's release, columnist Hedda Hopper predicted in the Los Angeles Times that "this beautiful, honest, superbly done film will make millions."[1] The film had its world premiere screening at the London Astoria on March 24, 1964 and ran there for 70 weeks. Two days later, the film premiered at the DeMille Theater in New York City.[35] In April 1964, the film was screened out of competition at the 1964 Cannes Film Festival. Sophia Loren was a guest, appearing at the premiere on a chariot.[36] The film had been shot in Ultra Panavision 70 with a 2.76:1 aspect ratio,[37] although it was never screened in that format. Instead, it was screened with a 2.20:1 aspect ratio for 70mm roadshow presentations, and subsequently in 35mm at 2.35:1 during the film's general release. The film's original running time had totaled 184 minutes including an overture, intermission, and exit music. However, for the film's general release, the film was reduced by half an hour.[38] Novelization[edit] In conjunction with the film's release, a paperback novelization also titled The Fall of the Roman Empire was published by Fawcett Publications. The novelization was written by Harry Whittington and was based on the film's screenplay.[39][40] The cover of the novel is a screenshot from the film. The text of the novel provides a more detailed exposition of the film's plot line. Other covers that were not screenshots of the film were used for this novel of the film.[citation needed] Home media[edit] The film was first released on LaserDisc in a letterboxed format during the 1990s. The most complete version of the film was released on Super 8mm in the early 1990s, extracted from a 16mm print.[38] On April 29, 2008, the film was released on a three-disc limited collector's edition DVD as part of the Miriam Collection by the Weinstein Company. This edition included bonus materials including an audio commentary by Bill Bronston (son of producer Samuel Bronston) and biographer Mel Martin; a reproduction of the original 1964 souvenir program; a behind-the-scenes look at the fall of the real Roman Empire; a "making of" documentary; five Encyclopædia Britannica featurettes on the Roman Empire; and a set of six color production stills.[41] The Blu-ray disc was released in the United Kingdom on May 16, 2011. Reception[edit] Critical reaction[edit] Bosley Crowther of The New York Times sharply criticized the film writing "So massive and incoherent is it, so loaded with Technicolored spectacles, tableaus and military melees that have no real meaning or emotional pull, that you're likely to have the feeling after sitting through its more than three hours (not counting time out for intermission), that the Roman Empire has fallen on you. The reason it misses is obvious — misses as entertainment, that is, not as a mass of noisy footage that leaves the senses flattened and numbed. There isn't a character in it for whom you're made to care two hoots —or, indeed, made to feel is important, or, for that matter, made to understand. The fellows who wrote the screenplay — Ben Barzman, Basilio Franchina and Philip Yordan—have failed completely to shape a drama that has human interest or even sense."[3] Time criticized the production design as well noting "Bronston's Rome is patiently too fabulous to have been built in a day, but it doesn't look lived-in either. Director Anthony Mann makes it a picture-book setting aswarm with extras behaving like extras and movie stars all dressed up to face posterity in spanking new tunics, togas, and armor."[4] Hollis Alpert of Saturday Review wrote "Never before have script writers (there were three involved) written a screenplay like this one, in which the two main parts are complete voids. One must assume Mr. Bronston offered Mr. Boyd and Miss Loren huge sums to journey to Spain for the movie, they took time only to read the contract and not the script. Several others also appear to great disadvantage in the film, among them James Mason, Omar Sharif, Mel Ferrer, and Anthony Quayle."[5] Philip K. Scheuer, reviewing for the Los Angeles Times, felt the film was "more like a recapitulation of all the great movie spectacles, historical and pseudo, than a monumental entity in itself." He further wrote "Yet the only emotion it engenders is excitement — intermittent excitement, and its art lies in its parts (the camera work, the color, a few of the performances, even the music) but not in their sum. Its triumph is the triumphs of its technicians, of matter over mind."[6] In contrast, Variety praised the film summarizing that "Large in theme and concept, colorful in treatment, The Fall of the Roman Empire is Sam Bronston's greatest coup de cinema."[7] Among later reviews, Mike Cummings from AllMovie gave the film a positive review, praising the film for its performances and musical score.[42] Leonard Maltin awarded the film 31⁄2 out of 4 stars, writing "Intelligent scripting, good direction, and fine acting place this far above the usual empty-headed spectacle".[43] Steven H. Scheuer disliked the film at first and asked his Movies on TV readers to "excuse the divine Sophia Loren for looking so uncomfortable," but later reconsidered his opinion and rated it 3 out of 4 stars.[44] On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 100% based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.36/10.[45] Box office[edit] The film grossed $4.8 million at the box office in the United States and Canada,[2] from which it returned $1.9 million in North American distributor rentals.[46] Accolades[edit] Awards Award Date of ceremony Category Recipients and nominees Result Academy Awards[47] April 5, 1965 Best Music, Score – Substantially Original Dimitri Tiomkin Nominated Golden Globe Awards[48] February 8, 1965 Best Music, Original Score Dimitri Tiomkin Won Aftermath[edit] Following the release of The Fall of the Roman Empire, Bronston was slated to release Circus World in the following June. In March 1964, it was reported that Pierre S. du Pont III took over the company, in which he had signed guarantee bonds for the films to reach completion so it would enable Bronston to raise finance.[49] However, two months later, in June 1964, Bronston Production filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reporting over $5.6 million in debts to du Pont.[50][51] In May 1971, Bronston attempted a comeback with a planned epic about Isabella of Spain. Glenda Jackson had signed to portray the title role while John Philip Law was to play Ferdinand II,[52] but the film was never made.[53] In the following June, a court ordered Bronston to pay Du Pont $3 million.[54][55] During the bankruptcy proceedings, Bronston was asked, under oath, by a lawyer for one of the creditors if he had had an account in Zurich at any time while running the company. He answered that the company had had an account there for six months. While that answer was true, later research found that Bronston personally had had an account in Zurich at another time, and the lawyers referred the case to federal prosecutors who secured a perjury conviction against Bronston. He appealed, on the grounds that while he had not told the whole truth, he had not been lying about the company's Zurich account. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, but in 1973 the United States Supreme Court agreed with Bronston, holding unanimously that "literally truthful but technically misleading" answers to questions under oath did not constitute perjury and instead examiners should ask further questions clarifying the matter.[56] See also[edit] Gladiator – a 2000 film that also tells a fictionalized version of Commodus' reign Roman Empire: Reign of Blood – a 2016 docudrama series about the rise and fall of Commodus Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire List of American films of 1964 List of films set in ancient Rome List of Roman Emperors The Five Good Emperors, of which Marcus Aurelius was the last References[edit] Citations ^ a b Hopper, Hedda (March 20, 1964). "'Roman Empire' Has $16 Million Look: Pageantry and Performances in Bronston Film Praised". Los Angeles Times Part V, p. 14 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b "The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964)". The Numbers. ^ a b Crowther, Bosley (March 27, 1964). "Screen: Romans Versus Barbarians". The New York Times. Retrieved March 15, 2020. ^ a b "Cinema: Foul Play in the Forum". Time. Vol. 83 no. 15. April 10, 1964. p. 103. Retrieved March 15, 2020. ^ a b Alpert, Hollis (April 4, 1964). "Movies: Politics and Puppy Love". Saturday Review. p. 36 – via Unz Review. ^ a b Scheuer, Philip K. (March 29, 1964). "The Whole of 'Empire' Not Equal to Some of Its Parts". Los Angeles Times. Calendar, p. 3. – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b "Film Reviews: The Fall of the Roman Empire". Variety. March 25, 1964. Retrieved March 15, 2020. ^ a b c Mann, Anthony (March 1964). "Empire Demolition". Films and Filming. Vol. 10 no. 6. pp. 7–8. ^ "Book Display Leads to Epic". The Valley Times. February 14, 1964. p. 18. Retrieved May 21, 2020 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Weiler, A. H. (July 9, 1961). "View from a Local Vantage Point". The New York Times. p. 7. Retrieved May 21, 2020. ^ Archer, Eugene (September 12, 1961). "Bronston Plans 3 Film Spectacles: Boxer Rebellion, Rome's Fall, French Revolt on Agenda". The New York Times. p. 36. ^ a b c Martin 2007, p. 134. ^ Heston 1979, p. 164. ^ Heston 1995, pp. 272–3. ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (April 30, 1963)."Bronston 'Empire' Really Not Gibbon's: Mann Tells of Roman Epic; Mirisches Bag Directors". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 9 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Martin 2007, p. 137. ^ Barzman 2003, pp. 349–50. ^ a b Scheuer, Philip K. (January 3, 1963). "Showmen Poll Led Again by Doris Day". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 7 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Haber, Joyce (February 14, 1971). "Kirk Douglas: Hollywood's Maverick-Agent-Star". Los Angeles Times. p. 11 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Hopper, Hedda. (May 14, 1962). ""Boyd Will Co-star in 'Roman Empire' Cast Opposite Lollobrigida; Hope Plans Film in Africa". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 12 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Hopper, Hedda. (September 27, 1962). "Looking at Hollywood: Sophia Gets Million, Gina's Leading Man". The Chicago Tribune. Part 5, p. 3 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (August 15, 1962). "Hollywood Morals Have 'Bright Look'". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 17 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Archer, Eugene (August 29, 1962). "'No Strings' Sold to Film Company: Seven Arts to Do Rodgers' Musical for '64 Release". The New York Times. p. 20. ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (January 11, 1963). "Wallis Won't Wait Long for MacLaine." Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 11 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Hoffman, Paul (July 28, 1963). "Bronston's Bonanza In a Spanish Setting". The New York Times. p. 75. ^ Canutt & Drake 1979, p. 202. ^ Martin 2007, pp. 136–7. ^ Martin 2007, p. 135. ^ Barzman 2003, p. 351. ^ Holston, Kim R. (2013). Movie Roadshows: A History and Filmography of Reserved-Seat Limited Showings, 1911–1973. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-7864-6062-5 – via Google Books. ^ Martin 2007, pp. 134–5. ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (June 16, 1963). "Movie Expatriates Think Big; Film Expatriates Think Big". Los Angeles Times. pp. 1, 31 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (September 29, 1965). "Some Funny Things Happen on the Set of 'Funny Thing'". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 12 – via Newspapers.com. ^ "The Fall of the Roman Empire: Limited Edition". La-La Land Records. Archived from the original on October 12, 2012. Retrieved October 19, 2012. ^ "'Fall of Roman Empire' Opens". The San Bernardino Sun-Telegram. March 29, 1964. p. D-2. Retrieved May 21, 2020. ^ Quinn Curtis, Thomas (April 30, 1964). "Spectacle Opens Cannes Festival". The New York Times. p. 32. ^ Benjamin B. (January 25, 2016). "Large Format: Ultra Panavision 70". American Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved May 21, 2020. ^ a b Winkler 2009, p. xiii. ^ "Book Honors Bronston's 'Roman Empire' Picture". The San Bernardino Sun-Telegram. March 15, 1964. p. D-2. Retrieved May 21, 2020. ^ "The Fall of the Roman Empire by Harry Whittington". Fantastic Fiction. ^ Arnold, Thomas K. (February 28, 2008). "Miriam puts a premium on DVD". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 21, 2020. ^ "The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) – Anthony Mann". AllMovie.com. Allmovie. Retrieved July 20, 2015. ^ Leonard Maltin (2013). Leonard Maltin's 2014 Movie Guide. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 441. ISBN 978-1-101-60955-2 – via Google Books. ^ Scheuer, Steven H. (1989). Movies on TV and Video Cassette 1989–1990. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-27707-4 – via Google Books. ^ "The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved July 20, 2015. ^ "Big Rental Pictures of 1964". Variety. January 6, 1965. p. 39. ^ "The 37th Academy Awards (1965) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Retrieved May 22, 2020. ^ "Winners & Nominees 1965". Golden Globes. Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Retrieved May 22, 2020. ^ "Film Unit Acquired by Pierre Du Pont". The New York Times. March 6, 1964. p. 40. ^ "Bronston Film Productions Files Bankruptcy Petition". The New York Times. June 6, 1964. ^ "Film Maker Bankrupt". The Washington Post. June 7, 1964. p. A3. ^ Haber, Joyce (May 17, 1971)."Rita's Fast Burn Over 'Slow Study'". Los Angeles Times. Part IV, p. 12 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Johnson, Patricia (June 3, 1971). "Studio Sales Ends Project for Bronston". Los Angeles Times. Part II, p. 6 – via Newspapers.com. ^ "Bronston Ordered by Court To Pay du Pont for Movies". The New York Times. June 18, 1971. p. 30. Retrieved March 15, 2020. ^ "Movie Producer Told to Pay $3 Million to Former Backer". The Wall Street Journal. June 18, 1971. p. 2. ^ Bronston v. United States, 409 U.S. 352 (1973). Bibliography Barzman, Norma (2003). The Red and the Blacklist: The Intimate Memoir of a Hollywood Expatriate. New York: Nation Books. ISBN 978-1-560-25617-5. Canutt, Yakima; Drake, Oliver (1979). Stunt Man: The Autobiography of Yakima Canutt. Walker and Company. ISBN 978-0-802-70613-3. Heston, Charlton (1979). The Actor's Life: Journals, 1956–1976. Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-83016-8. Heston, Charlton (1995). In the Arena. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80394-1. Martin, Mel (2007). The Magnificent Showman: The Epic Films of Samuel Bronston. BearManor Media. ISBN 978-1-593-93129-2. Winkler, Martin M. (2009). The Fall of the Roman Empire: Film and History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-405-18223-2. External links[edit] The Fall of the Roman Empire at IMDb The Fall of the Roman Empire at Rotten Tomatoes The Fall of the Roman Empire at the TCM Movie Database v t e The films of Samuel Bronston The Adventures of Martin Eden (1942) City Without Men (1943) Jack London (1943) A Walk in the Sun (1945) John Paul Jones (1959) King of Kings (1961) El Cid (1961) 55 Days at Peking (1963) The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) Circus World (1964) Savage Pampas (1966) Dr. Coppelius (1966) Brigham (1977) Fort Saganne (1984) v t e Films directed by Anthony Mann Dr. Broadway (1942) Moonlight in Havana (1942) Nobody's Darling (1943) My Best Gal (1944) Strangers in the Night (1944) The Great Flamarion (1945) Two O'Clock Courage (1945) Sing Your Way Home (1945) The Bamboo Blonde (1946) Strange Impersonation (1946) Desperate (1947) Railroaded! (1947) T-Men (1947) Raw Deal (1948) Reign of Terror (1949) Border Incident (1949) Side Street (1950) Winchester '73 (1950) The Furies (1950) Devil's Doorway (1950) The Tall Target (1951) Bend of the River (1952) The Naked Spur (1953) Thunder Bay (1953) The Glenn Miller Story (1954) The Far Country (1954) Strategic Air Command (1955) The Man from Laramie (1955) The Last Frontier (1955) Serenade (1956) Men in War (1957) The Tin Star (1957) God's Little Acre (1958) Man of the West (1958) Cimarron (1960) El Cid (1961) The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) The Heroes of Telemark (1965) A Dandy in Aspic (1968) v t e Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score 1940s Life with Father – Max Steiner (1947) The Red Shoes – Brian Easdale (1948) The Inspector General – Johnny Green (1949) 1950s Sunset Boulevard – Franz Waxman (1950) September Affair – Victor Young (1951) High Noon – Dimitri Tiomkin (1952) On the Beach – Ernest Gold (1959) 1960s The Alamo – Dimitri Tiomkin (1960) The Guns of Navarone – Dimitri Tiomkin (1961) To Kill a Mockingbird – Elmer Bernstein (1962) (1963) The Fall of the Roman Empire – Dimitri Tiomkin (1964) Doctor Zhivago – Maurice Jarre (1965) Hawaii – Elmer Bernstein (1966) Camelot – Frederick Loewe (1967) The Shoes of the Fisherman – Alex North (1968) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid – Burt Bacharach (1969) 1970s Love Story – Francis Lai (1970) Shaft – Isaac Hayes (1971) The Godfather – Nino Rota (1972) Jonathan Livingston Seagull – Neil Diamond (1973) The Little Prince – Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe (1974) Jaws – John Williams (1975) A Star is Born – Kenneth Ascher and Paul Williams (1976) Star Wars – John Williams (1977) Midnight Express – Giorgio Moroder (1978) Apocalypse Now – Carmine Coppola and Francis Ford Coppola (1979) 1980s The Stunt Man – Dominic Frontiere (1980) No Award (1981) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial – John Williams (1982) Flashdance – Giorgio Moroder (1983) A Passage to India – Maurice Jarre (1984) Out of Africa – John Barry (1985) The Mission – Ennio Morricone (1986) The Last Emperor – David Byrne, Ryuichi Sakamoto and Cong Su (1987) Gorillas in the Mist – Maurice Jarre (1988) The Little Mermaid – Alan Menken (1989) 1990s The Sheltering Sky – Richard Horowitz and Ryuichi Sakamoto (1990) Beauty and the Beast – Alan Menken (1991) Aladdin – Alan Menken (1992) Heaven & Earth – Kitarō (1993) The Lion King – Hans Zimmer (1994) A Walk in the Clouds – Maurice Jarre (1995) The English Patient – Gabriel Yared (1996) Titanic – James Horner (1997) The Truman Show – Burkhard Dallwitz and Philip Glass (1998) The Legend of 1900 – Ennio Morricone (1999) 2000s Gladiator – Lisa Gerrard, Hans Zimmer (2000) Moulin Rouge! – Craig Armstrong (2001) Frida – Elliot Goldenthal (2002) The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King – Howard Shore (2003) The Aviator – Howard Shore (2004) Memoirs of a Geisha – John Williams (2005) The Painted Veil – Alexandre Desplat (2006) Atonement – Dario Marianelli (2007) Slumdog Millionaire – A. R. Rahman (2008) Up – Michael Giacchino (2009) 2010s The Social Network – Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross (2010) The Artist – Ludovic Bource (2011) Life of Pi – Mychael Danna (2012) All Is Lost – Alex Ebert (2013) The Theory of Everything – Jóhann Jóhannsson (2014) The Hateful Eight – Ennio Morricone (2015) La La Land – Justin Hurwitz (2016) The Shape of Water – Alexandre Desplat (2017) First Man – Justin Hurwitz (2018) Joker – Hildur Guðnadóttir (2019) 2020s Soul – Trent Reznor, Atticus Ross and Jon Batiste Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire_(film)&oldid=1028232161" Categories: 1964 films English-language films American films 1960s historical drama films 1960s war drama films American epic films American historical drama films American war drama films Historical epic films Biographical films about Roman emperors Fall of the Western Roman Empire Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin Films directed by Anthony Mann Films set in ancient Rome Films set in classical antiquity Films set in the Roman Empire Films set in the 2nd century Films shot in Madrid Films shot in Spain Nerva–Antonine dynasty Emesene dynasty Samuel Bronston Productions films Paramount Pictures films Cultural depictions of Commodus Cultural depictions of Marcus Aurelius Cultural depictions of Lucilla Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from January 2020 Template film date with 2 release dates All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 17:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8873	----	Geta (emperor) - Wikipedia Geta (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 209 to 211 For other people with the same name, see Publius Septimius Geta (disambiguation). Roman emperor Geta Bust in the Louvre Roman emperor Reign 209 – 26 December 211 Predecessor Septimius Severus Successor Caracalla Co-emperors Septimius Severus (until February 211) Caracalla Born 7 March 189 Rome Died 26 December 211 (aged 22) Names Publius Septimius Geta Dynasty Severan Father Septimius Severus Mother Julia Domna Publius Septimius Geta (/ˈɡɛtə/; 7 March 189 – 26 December 211)[1] was Roman emperor with his father Septimius Severus and older brother Caracalla from 209, when he was named augustus like his brother, who had held the title since 198. Severus died in 211, and although he intended for his sons to rule together, they proved incapable of sharing power, culminating with the murder of Geta in December of that year.[2] Contents 1 Early life 2 Joint Emperor 3 Portrait 4 Gallery 5 Severan dynasty family tree 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Early life[edit] Roman imperial dynasties The Severan Tondo Severan dynasty Chronology Septimius Severus 193–211 Caracalla 198–217 Geta 209–211 Interlude: Macrinus 217–218 —with Diadumenian 218 Elagabalus 218–222 Severus Alexander 222–235 Dynasty Severan dynasty family tree All biographies Succession Preceded by Year of the Five Emperors Followed by Crisis of the Third Century Geta was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. Geta was born in Rome, at a time when his father was only a provincial governor at the service of Emperor Commodus. In 198, Geta was raised to caesar. Septimius Severus gave Geta the title of augustus in 209. During the campaign against the Britons in the early 3rd century AD, imperial propaganda promoted the image of a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Caracalla acted as the emperor's second in command, and administrative and bureaucratic duties were Geta's responsibility. In reality, however, the rivalry and antipathy between the brothers did not abate. With the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, Geta and his brother Caracalla both became emperors.[3] Joint Emperor[edit] When Septimius Severus died in Eboracum in early 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to Rome. Their mother, Julia Domna, who had served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband, was able to maintain her political influence over two co-emperors. It is said that on the journey from Britain to Rome the two brothers kept well away from each other, not once lodging in the same house or sharing a common meal.[4] Their joint rule was a failure. The Imperial Palace in Rome was divided into two separate sections, and neither allowed the servants of the other into his own. They only met in the presence of their mother, and with a strong military guard, being in constant fear of assassination.[5] The current stability of their joint government was only through the mediation and leadership of their mother, Julia Domna, accompanied by other senior courtiers and generals in the military. The historian Herodian asserted that the brothers decided to split the empire in two halves, but with the strong opposition of their mother, the idea was rejected, when, by the end of 211, the situation had become unbearable.[6] Caracalla tried unsuccessfully to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia (17 December). Finally, on the 26th of December, Caracalla had his mother arrange a peace meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, thus depriving Geta of his bodyguards, and then had him murdered in her arms by centurions.[7] Deleted mention of Geta in an inscription after his damnatio memoriae (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari) Caracalla ordered the damnation of his memory, which was thoroughly carried out, as is clear from the archaeological record.[8][9] Reportedly, Caracalla was thereafter tormented by guilt over his deed, but sought to expiate it by adding to this crime the proscription of all his brother's former followers.[10] Cassius Dio stated that around 20,000 men and women were killed or proscribed on this charge during this time.[11] Portrait[edit] Very few marble portraits attributable to Geta survive to date, presumably due to the very thorough damnatio memoriae which resulted in the erasing of his images. However Roman coins with his image are plentiful, and can reflect how his father Septimius Severus and mother Julia Domna and later Geta himself wanted him to be seen by the Roman people (and especially the Roman military). Images of Geta and his older brother Caracalla cannot be well distinguished until the death of the father. Both sons were supposed to be presented as equally suitable heirs to the throne, showing thus more "depth" to the dynasty. On his coins, Caracalla, who became augustus in 198, was shown with a wreath of laurels, while Geta remained bareheaded until he himself became augustus in 209.[12] Between 209 and their father's death in February 211, both brothers were shown as equally mature young men with a short full beard, ready to take over the empire. Between the death of Septimus Severus and the assassination of Geta, Caracalla's portraits did not change, while Geta was depicted with a long beard with hanging hairs, much like his father, a strong indication of Geta's efforts to be seen as the "true" successor of his father.[12] The Severan Tondo panel painting depicts Septimius Severus and his family with an obliterated face assumed to be Geta. Gallery[edit] Head of young Geta at Glyptothek, Munich Caracalla and Geta's mother, Julia Domna, served as their mediator during their joint reign and helped them in the administration of the empire. Geta Dying in his Mother's Arms by Jacques-Augustin-Catherine Pajou, Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, Germany A denarius of Geta. Severan dynasty family tree[edit] v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. See also[edit] Septimia gens Severan dynasty family tree References[edit] ^ Birley 1999, p. 324. ^ Varner, Eric R. Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture (2004) Brill Academic Publishers. p. 168 ^ https://www.roman-emperors.org/geta.htm ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VI., p. 114 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Herodian, History of the Empire from the death of Marcus, IV., p. 144 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. p. 115 ^ Dunstan, William, E. (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 405–406. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History [1] ^ a b (in German) Andreas Pangerl: Porträttypen des Caracalla und des Geta auf Römischen Reichsprägungen - Definition eines neuen Caesartyps des Caracalla und eines neuen Augustustyps des Geta; Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt des RGZM Mainz 43, 2013, 1, 99–116 Bibliography[edit] Dio Cassius lxxvii; Herodian iv. I. Birley, Anthony R. (1999) [1971]. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Publius Septimius Geta. Life of Geta (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) Geta (emperor) Severan dynasty Born: 7 March 189  Died: 19 December 211 Regnal titles Preceded by Septimius Severus Roman Emperor 209–211 With: Septimius Severus and Caracalla Succeeded by Caracalla Political offices Preceded by Lucius Fabius Cilo, Marcus Annius Flavius Libo Consul of the Roman Empire 205 with Caracalla Succeeded by Marcus Nummius Umbrius Primus Senecio Albinus, Lucius Fulvius Gavius Numisius Petronius Aemilianus Preceded by Lucius Annius Maximus, Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Consul of the Roman Empire 208 with Caracalla Succeeded by Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus, Quintus Hedius Lollianus Plautius Avitus Legendary titles VacantInterregnum Title last held by Lucius King of Britain Succeeded by Bassianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Netherlands Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geta_(emperor)&oldid=1027663623" Categories: 189 births 211 deaths 2nd-century Punic people 3rd-century Punic people 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs British traditional history Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth Deified Roman emperors Emesene dynasty Imperial Roman consuls Murdered Roman emperors People from Homs Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Septimii Severan dynasty Sons of Roman emperors Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 07:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8879	----	Seleucia - Wikipedia Seleucia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital of the Seleucid Empire For other settlements known by this name, see Seleucia (disambiguation). Seleucia ܣܠܝܩ Σελεύκεια (in Ancient Greek) Shown within Iraq Alternative name Seleukeia, Salīq, Seleucia-on-Tigris, Seleucia on the Tigris Location Baghdad Governorate, Iraq Region Mesopotamia Coordinates 33°5′40″N 44°31′20″E / 33.09444°N 44.52222°E / 33.09444; 44.52222Coordinates: 33°5′40″N 44°31′20″E / 33.09444°N 44.52222°E / 33.09444; 44.52222 Type Settlement Area 5.5 km2 (2.1 sq mi) History Builder Seleucus I Nicator Founded Approximately 305 BC Abandoned 165 AD Periods Hellenistic to Roman Imperial Cultures Greek, Parthian, Sasanian Site notes Excavation dates 1927–1932, 1936–1937, 1964–1968, 1985–1989 Archaeologists Leroy Waterman, Clark Hopkins, Antonio Invernizzi, Giorgio Gullini Seleucia (/sɪˈljuːʃə/; Greek: Σελεύκεια), also known as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris, was a major Mesopotamian city of the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires. It stood on the west bank of the Tigris River opposite Ctesiphon, within the present-day Baghdad Governorate in Iraq. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Seleucid Empire 2.2 Sasanian rule 3 Archaeology 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Name[edit] Seleucia (Greek: Σελεύκεια, Seleúkeia) is named for Seleucus I Nicator, who enlarged an earlier settlement and made it the capital of his empire around 305 BC. It was the largest and most important of the many cities to bear its name but is sometimes distinguished as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris (Latin: Seleucia ad Tigridem) from the name of its river. Texts from the Church of the East's synods referred to the city as Salīq (Syriac: ܣܠܝܩ‎)[1] or some times Māḥôzē (Syriac: ܡܚܘܙ̈ܐ‎) when referring to the metropolis of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. The Sassanids named the eastern city as Veh-Ardashir (Persian: ویه‌اردشیر‎), Arabs called it Bahurasīr. History[edit] Seleucid Empire[edit] Seleucia, as such, was founded in about 305 BC,[citation needed] when an earlier city was enlarged and dedicated as the first capital of the Seleucid Empire by Seleucus I Nicator. Seleucus was one of the Diadochi successors of Alexander the Great who, after Alexander's death, divided his empire among themselves. Although Seleucus soon moved his main capital to Antioch, in northern Syria, Seleucia became an important center of trade, Hellenistic culture, and regional government under the Seleucids. The city was populated by Greeks, Syrians and Jews.[2] Small statuette of a naked woman, from Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq, 3rd-2nd century BCE. Iraq Museum, Baghdad To make his capital into a metropolis, Seleucus forced almost all inhabitants of Babylon, except the local temple priests/supporting workers, to leave and resettle in Seleucia. " A tablet dated 275 BC states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to Seleucia, where a palace and a temple (Esagila) were built."[3] Standing at the confluence of the Tigris River with a major canal from the Euphrates, Seleucia was placed to receive traffic from both great waterways. During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, it was one of the great Hellenistic cities, comparable to Alexandria in Egypt, and greater than Syrian Antioch. Excavations indicate that the walls of the city enclosed an area of at least 550 hectares (1,400 acres), equivalent to a square roughly 1.5 miles (2.5 kilometers) on a side. Based on this size, the population has been estimated to number over 100,000 initially and probably more later. Its surrounding region might have supported half a million people.[4] Polybius (5,52ff) uses the Macedonian peliganes for the council of Seleucia, which implies a Macedonian colony, consistent with its rise to prominence under Seleucus I; Pausanias (1,16) records that Seleucus also settled Babylonians there. Archaeological finds support the presence of a large population not of Greek culture. In 141 BC, the Parthians under Mithridates I conquered the city, and Seleucia became the western capital of the Parthian Empire. Tacitus described its walls, and mentioned that it was, even under Parthian rule, a fully Hellenistic city. Ancient texts claim that the city had 600,000 inhabitants, and was ruled by a senate of 300 people. It was clearly one of the largest cities in the Western world; only Rome, Alexandria and possibly Antioch were more populous. In 55 BC, a battle fought near Seleucia was crucial in establishing dynastic succession of the Arsacid kings. In this battle between the reigning Mithridates III (supported by a Roman army of Aulus Gabinius, governor of Syria) and the previously deposed Orodes II, the reigning monarch was defeated, allowing Orodes to re-establish himself as king. In 41 BC, Seleucia was the scene of a massacre of around 5,000 Babylonian Jewish refugees (Josephus, Ant. xviii. 9, § 9).[1] In 117 AD, Seleucia was burned down by the Roman emperor Trajan during his conquest of Mesopotamia, but the following year it was ceded back to the Parthians by Trajan's successor, Hadrian, then rebuilt in the Parthian style. It was completely destroyed by the Roman general Avidius Cassius in 165.[5] Detail, inscribed, Greek and Parthian script, lower part of a bronze statuette of Hercules, from Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq. Iraq Museum Sasanian rule[edit] Over sixty years later a new city, Veh-Ardashir, was built across the river by Persian emperor Ardashir I. This new city was long believed to be located at Seleucia but was shown by Italian excavations to be a fresh construction separate from Seleucia and Ctesiphon. There were active Christian churches in Mesopotamia from the 1st century onwards and in the 3rd or 4th century Seleucia became an important centre. Seleucia in the 4th century on the Peutinger Map. Following the edict of toleration by the Persian Sassanian King Yazdegerd I, which for the time being brought an end to the persecution of Christians, which had lasted for 70 years, the remaining Christians set about reorganizing and strengthening the church. The Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (The Synod of Mar Isaac) met in 410 AD under the presidency of Mar Isaac, the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. The most important decision of the Synod which had a very far reaching effect on the life of the church, was to declare the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon as the primate of the Church of the East; and in recognition of this pre-eminence he was given the title ‘Catholicos’. The Synod confirmed Mar Isaac as Catholicos and Archbishop of all the Orient. The Synod also declared its adherence to the decision of the Council of Nicaea and subscribed to the Nicene Creed. The Canons of the Synod leave no doubt as to the authority of the great Metropolitan, the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Without his approval, no election of bishop would be valid. Towards the end of the reign of Yazdegerd I, the Christians were again persecuted in AD 420. Dadyeshu was elected Catholicos in AD 421 and himself suffered during the persecution and was imprisoned. When he was released he resigned and left Seleucia, but the church refused to accept the resignation and there followed the Synod of Dadyeshu which met in AD 424 in Markabata of the Arabs under the presidency of Mar Dadyeshu. It proved to be one of the most significant of all Persian synods. The first synod of Isaac in AD 410 had decided that the Catholicos of Seleucia Ctesiphon be supreme among the bishops of the East. The Synod of Dadyeshu decided that the Catholicos should be the sole head of the Church of the East and that no ecclesiastical authority should be acknowledged above him. For the first time, this synod referred to the Catholicos as Patriarch and that their Catholicos was answerable to God alone. This had some effect in reassuring the Sasanian monarchy that the Persian Christians were not influenced by the Roman enemy. The city eventually faded into obscurity and was swallowed by the desert sands, probably abandoned after the Tigris shifted its course. Archeological map of Seleucia and Ctesiphon sites Archaeology[edit] The site of Seleucia was rediscovered in the 1920s by archaeologists looking for Opis.[6] Beginning in 1927, University of Michigan professors Leroy Waterman (1927–1932) and Clark Hopkins (1936–1937) oversaw excavations for the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology on behalf of the American School of Oriental Research of Baghdad with funds supplied by the Toledo Museum of Art and the Cleveland Museum of Art. [7] [8] [9] From 1964 to 1968 and then between 1985 and 1989, an Italian mission from the University of Turin directed by Antonio Invernizzi and Giorgio Gullini excavated at the site. They found a Seleucid archive building with about 30,000 seal impressions, all in a fully Greek style. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] In an outer wall of the Parthian period, a reused brick dated by stamp to 821 BC, during the Neo-Assyrian period.[citation needed] It appears to have incorporated both Greek and Mesopotamian architecture for the public buildings. Finds have indicated an extensive non-Greek population.[citation needed] See also[edit] Cities of the ancient Near East References[edit] ^ Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Seleucia-Ctesiphon — ܣܠܝܩ ܘܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified May 25, 2016, http://syriaca.org/place/2615. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Seleucia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 603. ^ See entry for Babylon ^ Aperghis, G. G. (2004). The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 9781139456135. ^ The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon ^ University of Michigan.edu ^ L. Watermann, Preliminary Report upon the Excavations at Tel Umar Iraq, University of Michigan Press, 1931 ^ L. Watermann, Second Preliminary Report upon the Excavations at Tel Umar Iraq, University of Michigan Press, 1933 ^ Howard C. Hollis, Material from Seleucia, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 129-131, 1933 ^ G. Gullini, First Report of the Results of the First Excavation Campaign at Seleucia and Ctesiphon: 1st oct. – 17th dec. 1964, Sumer, vol. 20, pp. 63-65, 1964 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, First Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1964, Mesopotamia, vol. I, pp. 1-88, 1966 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Second Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1965, Mesopotamia, vol. 2, 1967 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Third Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1966, Mesopotamia, vol. 3-4, 1968–69 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Fifth Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Season 1969, Mesopotamia, vol. 5-6, 1960–71 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Sixth Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Seasons 1972/74, Mesopotamia, vol. 5-6, 1973–74 ^ G. Gullini and A. Invernizzi, Seventh Preliminary Report of Excavations at Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Seasons 1975/76, Mesopotamia, vol. 7, 1977 ^ A. Invernizzi, The Excavations at the Archives Building, Mesopotamia, vol. VII, pp. 13-16, 1972 ^ A. Invernizzi, The Excavations at the Archives Building, Mesopotamia, vol. VIII, pp. 9-14, 1973–74 Sources[edit] Baynes, T. S.; Smith, W.R., eds. (1886), "Seleucia" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 21 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 632 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Seleucia" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 24 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 603 Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, ( ISBN 0-691-03169-X), p. 91. Oxford Classical Dictionary s. v. L.T. Doty, A Cuneiform Tablet from Tell Umar, Mesopotamia, vol. XIII-XIV, pp. 13–14 and 91-98, 1978–79 G. Pettinato, Cuneiform Inscriptions Discovered at Seleucia on the Tigris», Mesopotamia, vol. V-VI, pp. 49–66, 1970–71 A. Invernizzi, Ten Years Research in the al-Mada'in Area. Seleucia and Ctesiphon, Sumer, vol. 32, pp. 167–175, 1976 External links[edit] University of Turin excavation web site   Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Seleucia". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. v t e Hellenistic/Macedonian colonies Africa Alexandria Ptolemais Hermiou Asia Alexandretta Antioch Apamea Alexandria Arachosia Alexandria Eschate Alexandria on the Caucasus Alexandria on the Indus Alexandria on the Oxus Alexandria Prophthasia Attalia Edessa Laodicea Paralos Laodicea in Phoenicia Nicaea Philadelphia Seleucia Seleucia Pieria Serraepolis Europe Antigonia (Paeonia) Alexandropolis Maedica Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries France (data) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seleucia&oldid=1024441678" Categories: Babil Governorate Archaeological sites in Iraq Hellenistic sites Seleucid colonies Twin cities Parthian cities Sasanian cities Former populated places in Iraq Populated places along the Silk Road Populated places established in the 4th century BC 300s BC establishments Quarters and suburbs of Ctesiphon Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with Ancient Greek-language sources (grc) Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text Articles containing Persian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Cebuano Dansk Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2021, at 04:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8902	----	Germanic peoples - Wikipedia Germanic peoples From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Group of northern European peoples in Roman times Not to be confused with Germans, Teutons, Theodiscus, or Germanic-speaking Europe. Roman bronze statuette representing a Germanic man with his hair in a Suebian knot The historical Germanic peoples (from Latin: Germani)[note 1] are a category of ancient northern European tribes, first mentioned by Graeco-Roman authors.[note 2] They are also associated with Germanic languages, which originated and dispersed among them, and are one of several criteria used to attempt to define the historical Germanic peoples.[note 3] Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) described them as peoples who were moving south and west in his time, threatening Gaul and Italy. Later Roman authors defined Germania roughly between the Rhine in the west and the Vistula in the east. They distinguished them from other broad categories of peoples better known to Rome, especially the Celtic Gauls to their west, and "Scythian" Sarmatians to their east and southeast.[2] Greek writers, in contrast, consistently categorized the Germanic peoples from east of the Rhine as Gauls.[3] And with the possible exception of some groups near the Rhine, there is no evidence that "Germanic" was an endonym.[4] Latin and Greek writers report centuries of historical interactions with Germanic peoples on the Rhine and Danube River border regions, but from about 400, several long-established Germanic peoples on the Middle Danube were replaced by newcomers migrating from the further north or east of Europe, and after this the term "Germanic" was mainly restricted to groups in the Rhine region, especially the Franks, and sometimes also the Alamanni. Broader modern definitions of the Germanic peoples include peoples who were not known as Germani or Germanic peoples in their own time, but who are treated as one group of cultures, mostly because of their use of Germanic languages.[note 4] Thus, in modern writing, "Germanic peoples" is a term which commonly includes peoples who were not referred to as Germanic by their contemporaries, and spoke distinct languages, only categorized as Germanic in modern times. Examples include the Goths of the Late Roman Empire, and the Norse-speaking Vikings from Scandinavia. Apart from language and geography, proposed connections between the diverse Germanic peoples described in different periods by classical and medieval sources, archaeology, and linguistics are the subject of ongoing debate among scholars. For example there is doubt about whether the earliest Germani spoke Germanic languages, and whether the Germanic-speaking peoples of the Late Roman Empire were unified by any single shared culture, collective consciousness, or even language.[5] For example, the tradition of describing late Roman Germanic language speakers as a single collective enemy of Rome has been criticized by modern scholars, because it implies a single coordinated group. Walter Goffart has gone so far as to suggest that historians should avoid the term when discussing that period.[6] Similarly, there is debate concerning the extent to which any definitively Germanic traditions apart from language survived after the Roman era, when new political entities formed in Europe following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. Some of these new entities are seen as precursors of European nation states that have survived into the modern era, such as England and France. The proposed connections back to medieval and classical barbarian nations have been important to many of the Romanticist nationalist movements, which developed across Europe in the modern era.[7] The most notable of these movements has been "Germanicism", which saw Germans especially as direct heirs of a single Europe-conquering "Germanic race" and culture. It became a popular narrative in the late 19th-early 20th century and, associated with the idea of a "Nordic race", helped inspire Nazism.[8] In contrast, more complex proposals about continuity today, such as those proposed by Reinhard Wenskus, tend to focus on the possibility of more limited "kernels" of cultural traditions, which could be carried by relatively small groups with, or without, large-scale migrations.[9] Contents 1 Definitions of Germanic peoples 1.1 General 1.2 Roman ethnographic writing, from Caesar to Tacitus 1.3 Origin of the "Germanic" terminology 1.4 Germanic terminology before Caesar 1.5 Later Roman "Germanic peoples" 1.6 Medieval loss of the Germanic people concept 2 Later debates 2.1 Influence of Jordanes 2.2 Modern debates 3 Prehistoric evidence 3.1 Archaeological evidence 3.2 Claims of Caesar 3.3 Languages 3.3.1 Proto-Germanic 3.3.1.1 Reconstruction 3.3.1.2 Attestation 3.3.1.3 Disintegration 3.3.2 Classification 4 Classical subdivisions 5 History 5.1 Earliest attestations 5.1.1 Possible earliest contacts with the classical world (4th–3rd centuries BCE) 5.1.2 Cimbrian War (2nd century BCE) 5.2 Germano-Roman contacts 5.2.1 Julius Caesar (1st century BCE) 5.2.2 Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BCE – 68 CE) and the Year of Four Emperors (69 CE) 5.2.3 Flavian and Antonine dynasties (70–192 CE) 5.2.4 New names on the frontiers (170–370) 5.3 Migration Period (ca. 375–568) 5.3.1 Gothic entry into the empire 5.3.2 Imperial turmoil 5.3.3 Invasions of 401–411 5.3.4 From Western Roman Empire to medieval kingdoms (420–568) 5.4 Early Middle Ages 6 Roman descriptions of early Germanic people and culture 7 Genetics 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 11.1 Primary 12 External links Definitions of Germanic peoples[edit] General[edit] Julius Caesar published the first basic description, possibly based on discussions with Gaulish allies during his campaign in Gaul, of what makes any people or peoples "Germanic", rather than for example Gaulish.[10] The implied definition involved several criteria, allowing the possibility of debatable cases.[11] Definitions of Germanic peoples continue to involve discussion of similar criteria: Geography. Graeco-Roman geographers understood their homeland to be between the Rhine and Vistula, which they called "Germania". Language. Tacitus indicated that "Suevian languages" were one way of determining if a people were Germanic. Modern scholars have defined a family of Germanic languages, which includes the languages of medieval Suevian peoples such as the Lombardians and Alemanni. Culture, in the sense of clothing, economy, cults, laws and lifestyle of the different Germanic peoples, was also used by Tacitus and Caesar to help distinguish the Germani from other northern peoples. In modern times, archaeologists study the surviving physical evidence left by the peoples of Germania, and they have defined various regional cultures. Of these, there is consensus that at least the Jastorf culture, between the Elbe and Oder rivers, was Germanic-speaking already in the time of Caesar. In parallel, other scholars have looked for textual fragmentary evidence concerning the laws, legends and cults of these peoples, and scholars such as Dennis Howard Green have sought clues in the Germanic languages themselves.[12] In modern times, attempts to define characteristics which unite all or some of these peoples more objectively, using linguistic or archaeological criteria, have thus led to the possibility of the term "Germanic" being used to apply to more peoples, in other periods and regions. However, these definitions are still based upon the old definitions, and overlap with them.[note 5] Such modern definitions have focused attention upon uncertainties and disagreements about the ethnic origins and backgrounds of both early Roman-era Germanic peoples, and late-Roman Germanic peoples.[note 6] Roman ethnographic writing, from Caesar to Tacitus[edit] According to all available evidence, the theoretical concept of the Germanic peoples as a large grouping distinct from the Gauls—whose homeland was east of the Rhine, and included areas very far from it—originated with Julius Caesar's published account of his "Gallic Wars", and specifically those parts concerning his battles near the Rhine. Importantly for all future conceptions of what Germanic means, Caesar was apparently the first to categorize distant peoples such as the Cimbri and the large group of Suevian peoples as "Germanic".[13] The Suevians and their languages, which had perhaps never been called Germanic before then, had started expanding their influence in his time, as Caesar experienced personally.[14] Caesar's categorization of the Germani was in the context of explaining his battle against Ariovistus, who had been a Roman ally. He led a large and armed population, made up of several peoples from east of the Rhine, including significant Suevian contingents.[15] Rome had suffered a history of Gaulish invasions from the distant north, including those by the Cimbri, whom they had previously categorized as Gauls. Caesar, while describing his subsequent use of Roman soldiers deep in Gaulish territory, categorized the Cimbri, together with the peoples allied under Ariovistus, not as Gaulish, but as "Germanic", apparently using an ethnic term that was more local to the Rhine region where he fought Ariovistus. Modern scholars are undecided about whether the Cimbri were Germanic speakers like the Suevians, and even where exactly they lived in northern Europe, though it is likely to have been in or near Jutland.[16] Caesar thus proposed that these more distant peoples were the cause of invasions into Italy. His solution was controlling Gaul, and defending the Rhine as a boundary against these Germani.[17] Several Roman writers—Strabo (about 63 BCE – 24 CE), Pliny the Elder (about 23–79 CE), and especially Tacitus (about 56–120 CE)—followed Caesar's tradition in the next few generations, by partly defining the Germanic peoples of their time geographically, according to their presumed homeland. This "Germania magna", or Greater Germania, was seen as a large wild country roughly east of the Rhine, and north of the Danube, but not everyone from within the area bounded by those rivers was ever described by Roman authors as Germanic, and not all Germani lived there.[18] The opening of Tacitus's Germania gave a rough definition only: Germania is separated from the Gauls, the Rhaetians, and Pannonii, by the rivers Rhine and Danube. Mountain ranges, or the fear which each feels for the other, divide it from the Sarmatians and Dacians.[19] It is the northern part of Greater Germania, including the North European Plain, Southern Scandinavia, and the Baltic coast that was presumed to be the original Germanic homeland by early Roman authors such as Caesar and Tacitus. (Modern scholars also see the central part of this area, between the Elbe and the Oder, as the region from which Germanic languages dispersed.[20]) In the east, Germania magna's boundaries were unclear according to Tacitus, although geographers such as Ptolemy and Pomponius Mela took it to be the Vistula.[21] For Tacitus the boundaries of Germania stretched further, to somewhere east of the Baltic Sea in the north, and its people blended with the "Scythian" (or Sarmatian) steppe peoples in the area of today's Ukraine in the south. In the north, greater Germania stretched all the way to the relatively unknown Arctic Ocean. In contrast, in the south of Greater Germania nearer the Danube, the Germanic peoples were seen by these Roman writers as immigrants or conquerors, living among other peoples whom they had come to dominate. More specifically, Tacitus noted various Suevian Germanic-speaking peoples from the Elbe river in the north, such as the Marcomanni and Quadi, pushing into the Hercynian forest regions towards the Danube, where the Gaulish Volcae, Helvetii and Boii had lived.[22][23] Roman writers who added to Caesar's theoretical description, especially Tacitus, also at least partly defined the Germani by non-geographic criteria such as their economy, religion, clothing, and language. Caesar had, for example, previously noted that the Germani had no druids, and were less interested in farming than Gauls, and also that Gaulish (lingua gallica) was a language the Germanic King Ariovistus had to learn.[24][25] Tacitus mentioned Germanic languages at least three times, each mention concerning eastern peoples whose ethnicity was uncertain, and such remarks are seen by some modern authors as evidence of a unifying Germanic language.[26] His comments are not detailed, but they indicate that there were Suevian languages (plural) within the category of Germanic languages, and that customs varied between different Germanic peoples. For example:[27] The Marsigni and Buri, near today's southern Silesia, were Suevian in speech and culture and therefore among the Germani in a region where he says non-Germanic people also lived.[28] The peoples (gentes) of the Aesti, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, had the same customs and attire as the Germanic Suevians although "their language more resembles that of Britain".[29] (They are seen today as speakers of Baltic languages, a language group in the same Indo-European language family as Germanic and Celtic.) As mentioned above, the Peucini, called by some Bastarnæ, are like Germani in their speech, cultivation, and settlements.[30] (Livy, however, says that their language was like that of the Scordisci, a Celtic group.) Tacitus says nothing about the languages of the Germani living near the Rhine. Origin of the "Germanic" terminology[edit] The etymology of the Latin word "Germani", from which Latin Germania, and English "Germanic" are derived, is unknown, although several different proposals have been made. Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute.[note 7] Whatever it meant, the name probably applied originally only to a smaller group of people, the so-called "Germani cisrhenani", whose Latin scholarly name simply indicates that these were Germani living on the western side of the Rhine (see below).[32] Tacitus reported that these Germanic peoples in Gaul, ancestors of the Tungri of his time, were the first people to be called Germani.[33] According to Tacitus, their name had transferred to peoples such as those within the alliance of Ariovistus, as a name having connotations that frightened potential enemies. While Caesar and Tacitus saw this Rhineland people as Germanic in the broader sense also, they do not fit easily with the much broader definitions of "Germanic" used by them or modern scholars. These original Germani are therefore a significant complication for all attempts to define the Germanic peoples according to which side of the Rhine they lived on, or according to their probable language. The two main types of "Germani" in the time of Julius Caesar. (Approximate positions only.) Later Roman imperial provinces shown with red shading. On the Rhine are Germania Inferior (north) and Germania Superior (south). Caesar described how the country of these Germani cisrhenani stretched well west of the Lower Rhine, into what is now Belgium, and how it had done so long before the Romans came into close contact. Neither Caesar nor Tacitus saw this as clashing with their broader definitions, because they believed these Germani had moved from east of the Rhine, where the other Germani lived. But this event was not recent: Caesar reported that they were already on the west side during the Cimbrian War (113–101 BCE), generations earlier.[34] The early Germani on both sides of the Lower Rhine were however distinguished from the Suevian Germani by Caesar, Tacitus, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo. Strabo even said that the Germani near the Rhine not only differed little from the Celts, but also that the Latin-speakers called them "Germani" because they were the "genuine" Gauls (which is a possible meaning of Germani in Latin).[35] Modern historical linguists and archaeologists have also come to doubt that these western Germani spoke a Germanic language as defined today, or shared the same material culture, at least at the time of their first contact with Caesar and the Romans.[note 8] Caesar himself refers to them also as Gauls.[36] The older concept of the Germani being local to the Rhine, and especially the west bank of the lower Rhine, remained common among Graeco-Roman writers for a longer time than the more theoretical and general concept of Caesar.[37] Cassius Dio writing in Greek in the 3rd century, consistently called the right-bank Germani of Caesar, the Celts (Κελτοί) and their country Keltikḗ (Κελτική).[note 9] Cassius contrasted them with the "Gauls" (Γαλάται) on the left bank of the Rhine, and described Caesar doing the same in a speech.[38] He reported that the peoples on either side of the Rhine had long ago taken to using these contrasting names, treating it as a boundary, but "very anciently both peoples dwelling on either side of the river were called Celts".[39] For Cassius Dio, the only Germani and the only Germania were west of the Rhine within the empire: "some of the Celts (Keltoí), whom we call Germans (Germanoí)", had "occupied all the Belgic territory [Belgikḗ] along the Rhine and caused it to be called Germany [Germanía]".[40] At least two well-read 6th century Byzantine writers, Agathias and Procopius, understood the Franks on the Rhine to effectively be the old Germani under a new name, since, as Agathias wrote, they inhabit the banks of the Rhine and the surrounding territory.[41] Germanic terminology before Caesar[edit] All surviving written evidence implying any clear "Germanic" concept, broad or narrow, from before Julius Caesar is doubtful and unclear. There are two or three cases to consider.[42] One is the use of the word Germani in a report describing lost writings of Posidonius (about 135 – 51 BCE), made by the much later writer Athenaios (around 190 CE); however, this word may have been added by the later writer, and if not, probably referred to the Germani cisrhenani. It says only that the Germani eat roasted meat in separate joints, and drink milk and unmixed wine.[43] A commemoration in Rome of a triumph in 222 BCE by Marcus Claudius Marcellus, over Galleis Insubribus et Germ[an(eis)]. This victory in the Alpine region at the Battle of Clastidium over the Insubres is known from other sources to have involved a large force of Gaesatae. It is believed by many scholars that the inscription should originally have referred to these Gaesatae.[44] A third author sometimes thought to have written about the Germani is Pytheas of Marseille, who wrote about northern Europe, but his works have not survived. Later reports of his writings show that he wrote about the areas and peoples later called Germanic but do not necessarily show that he called them Germanic.[45] (For example, Pliny the Elder says he described the Baltic Sea and mentioned a large country of "Guiones", often interpreted as the Gutones, described by Tacitus. Their land included an estuary that is one day's sail from an island where amber was collected, which in turn neighbours the Teutones, but an alternative interpretation is that these were (In)guiones (see below) on the North Sea coast.[46][47]) After Caesar, Roman authors such as Tacitus followed his example in using the Germanic terminology to refer retroactively to peoples known to the Romans or Greeks before Caesar. As noted above, the Cimbri had previously been described as Celtic or Cimmerian, and Greek writers continued to do so, while Caesar described them as Germanic. Tacitus and Strabo both proposed with some uncertainty that the Bastarnae, a large people known to the Graeco-Roman world before Caesar, from the region of what is now Ukrainian Galicia and Moldava, might also have had mixed Germanic ancestry, and according to Tacitus, even a Germanic language. Pliny the Elder categorized them as a separate major division of the Germani like Istvaeones, Ingvaeones, and Irminones, but also separate from an eastern group which contained the Vandals and the Gutones, both in what is now Poland.[48] (As already mentioned however, Livy said they spoke a language like that of the Scordisci.[49]) Later Roman "Germanic peoples"[edit] The theoretical descriptions of Germanic peoples by Tacitus, which have been very influential in modern times, may never have been commonly read or used in the Roman era.[50] It is clear in any case that in later Roman times the Rhine frontier (or Limes Germanicus), the area where Caesar had first come in contact with Suevians and Germani cisrhenani, was the normal "Germanic" area mentioned in writing. Walter Goffart has written that "the one incontrovertible Germanic thing" in the Roman era was "the two Roman provinces of 'Germania,' on the middle and lower course of the Rhine river" and: "Whatever 'Germania' had meant to Tacitus, it had narrowed by the time of St Jerome to an archaic or poetic term for the land normally called Francia".[51] Edward James similarly wrote: It seems clear that in the fourth century 'German' was no longer a term which included all western barbarians. [...] Ammianus Marcellinus, in the later fourth century, uses Germania only when he is referring to the Roman provinces of Upper Germany and Lower Germany; east of Germania are Alamannia and Francia.[52] As an exceptional case, the poet Sidonius Apollinaris, living in what is now southern France, described the Burgundians of his time as speaking a "Germanic" tongue and being "Germani". Wolfram has proposed that this word was chosen not because of a comparison of languages, but because the Burgundians had come from the Rhine region, and even argued that the use of this word by Sidonius might be seen as evidence against Burgundians being speakers of East Germanic, given that the East Germanic-speaking Goths, also present in southern France at this time, were never described this way.[note 10] Far from the Rhine, the Gothic peoples in what is today Ukraine, and the Anglo-Saxons in the British Isles, were called Germanic in only one surviving classical text, by Zosimus (5th century), but this was an instance in which he mistakenly believed he was writing about Rhineland peoples.[53] Otherwise, Goths and similar peoples such as the Gepids, were consistently described as Scythian. Medieval loss of the Germanic people concept[edit] In the Greek-speaking eastern Roman empire which continued to exist during the Middle Ages, the concept of "Germanic" was also lost or distorted. As explained by Walter Pohl, the late Roman equation of the Franks with the Germani led there to such non-classical contrasts as the French (West Franks) being Germani and the Germans (East Franks) being Alamanni, or the Normans in Sicily being Franks, but the French being "Franks and also Germani". In the Strategikon of Maurice, written about 600, a contrast is made between three types of barbarian: Scythians, Slavs, and "blonde-haired" peoples such as the Franks and Langobards (Lombards) – apparently having no convenient name to cover them together.[54] Medieval writers in western Europe used Caesar's old geographical concept of Germania, which, like the new Frankish and clerical jurisdictions of their time, used the Rhine as a frontier marker, although they did not commonly refer to any contemporary Germani. For example, Louis the German (Ludovicus Germanicus) was named this way because he ruled east of the Rhine, and in contrast the kingdom west of the Rhine was still called Gallia (Gaul) in scholarly Latin.[55] Writers using Latin in West Germanic-speaking areas did recognize that those languages were related (Dutch, English, Lombardic, and German). To describe this fact they referred to "Teutonic" words and languages, seeing the nominative as a Latin translation of Theodiscus, which was a concept that West Germanic speakers used to refer to themselves. It is the source of the modern words "Dutch", German "Deutsch", and Italian "Tedesco". Romance language speakers and others such as the Welsh were contrasted using words based on another old word, Walhaz, the source of "Welsh", Wallach, Welsch, Walloon, etc., itself derived from the name of the Volcae, a Celtic group.[56] Only a small number of writers were influenced by Tacitus, whose work was known at Fulda Abbey, and few used terminology such as lingua Germanica instead of theudiscus sermo.[57] On the other hand, there were several more origin myths written after Jordanes (see above) which similarly connected some of the post Roman peoples to a common origin in Scandinavia. As pointed out by Walter Pohl, Paul the Deacon even implied that the Goths, like the Lombards, descended from "Germanic peoples", though it is unclear if they continued to be "Germanic" after leaving the north.[58] Frechulf of Lisieux observed that some of his contemporaries believed that the Goths might belong to the "nationes Theotistae", like the Franks, and that both the Franks and the Goths might have come from Scandinavia.[59] It is in this period, the 9th century Carolingian era, that scholars also first recorded speculation about relationships between Gothic and West Germanic languages. Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel believed the Goths spoke a teodisca lingua like the Franks, and Walafrid Strabo, calling it a theotiscus sermo, was even aware of their Bible translation. However, though the similarities were noticed, Gothic would not have been intelligible to a West Germanic speaker.[60] The first detailed origins legend of the Anglo-Saxons was by Bede (died 735), and in his case he named the Angles and Saxons of Britain as peoples who once lived in Germania, like, he says, the Frisians, Rugians, Danes, Huns, Old Saxons (Antiqui Saxones) and the Bructeri. He even says that British people still call them, corruptly, "Garmani". As with Jordanes and the Gutones, there is other evidence, linguistic and archaeological, which is consistent with his scholarly account, although this does not prove that Bede's non-scholarly contemporaries had accurate knowledge of historical details.[61] In western Europe then, there was limited scholarly awareness of the Tacitean "Germanic peoples", and even their potential connection to the Goths, but much more common was adherence to Caesar's concept of the geographical meaning of Germania east of the Rhine, and a perception of similarities between some Germanic languages – though they were not given this name until much later. Later debates[edit] Influence of Jordanes[edit] The ethnic military kingdoms which formed in the western Roman empire (see below) each developed their own legends about their ethnic origins, the so-called Origo gentis stories. These often included an ancient connection to Romans or Trojans, as in the origin stories of the Franks, Burgundians and English, and they also typically mentioned the wild east of "Scythia". However, Jordanes (6th century), who wrote the most detailed surviving Gothic origins story, did effectively propose a connection to northern regions which much earlier authors had described as the remotest parts of Germania. He established a tradition of connecting the earliest origins of Goths and other peoples to Scandinavia, which was for him a distant and almost unknown island. He thus connected the Goths (Gothi) not only with ancient Amazons, Trojans, Huns, and the similarly-named Getae, but also to the Baltic sea. Some modern writers, such as Wolfram and Heather, still see this as confirmed by the mention of similar sounding "Gutones" near the south Baltic coast in earlier authors such as Tacitus and Ptolemy.[62] Others have noted that Jordanes himself believed the Goths would have left the region centuries before those writers, making the identification doubtful. Indeed, he or his sources must have derived many of the names of ancient peoples and places from reading old Latin and Greek authors.[45] Very influentially, Jordanes called Scandinavia a "womb of nations" (vagina nationum), asserting that many peoples came from there in prehistoric times. This idea influenced later origin legends including the Lombard origin story, written by Paul the Deacon (8th century) who opens his work with an explanation of the theory. During the Carolingian renaissance he and other scholars even sometimes used the Germanic terminology.[58] (See below.) The Scandinavian origin theme was still influential in medieval times and has even been influential in early modern speculations about Germanic peoples, for example in proposals about the origins of not only Goths and Gepids, but also of Rugians and Burgundians. The citing of Jordanes and similar writers to attempt to prove that the Goths were "Germanic" in more than language continues to arouse debate among scholars, because while his work is unreliable, the Baltic connection on its own is consistent with linguistic and archaeological evidence.[63] However, Walter Goffart in particular has criticized the methodology of many modern scholars for using Jordanes and other origins stories as independent sources of real tribal memories, but only when it matches their beliefs arrived at in other ways.[64] Modern debates[edit] Further information: Pan-Germanism, Viking revival, and Gothicism An event of the Young German Order at the "Hermannsdenkmal" monument to Arminius, in 1925. During the 19th century the idea spread that Arminius should be seen as a German. His name was reinterpreted as "Hermann". An 1884 painting of Arminius and Thusnelda by German illustrator Johannes Gehrts. The artwork depicts Arminius saying farewell to his beloved wife before he goes off into battle. During the Renaissance there was a rediscovery and renewed interest in secular writings of classical antiquity. By the late 15th century, Tacitus had become a focus of interest all around Europe, and, among other effects, this revolutionized ideas in Germany concerning the history of Germany itself. Tacitus continues to be an important influence in Germanic studies of antiquity, and is often read together with the Getica of Jordanes, who wrote much later.[65] Tacitus's ethnography won the attention it had formerly been denied because there now was a Germany, the "German nation" that had come into existence since the Carolingians, which Tacitus could now equip with a heaven-sent ancient dignity and pedigree.[50] In this context, in the 19th century, the famous folklorist and linguist Jacob Grimm helped popularize the concept of Germanic languages as well as of Indo-european languages. Apart from the well-known Grimm's Fairy Tales, collected with his brother Wilhelm, he published, for example, Deutsche Mythologie attempting to reconstruct Germanic mythology, and a German dictionary, Deutsches Wörterbuch, with detailed etymological proposals attempting to reconstruct the oldest Germanic language. He also popularized a new idea of these Germanic speakers, especially those in Germany, as clinging valiantly to their supposed Germanic civilization over the centuries.[note 11] The subsequent popular modern assertion of strong cultural continuity between Roman-era Germani and medieval or modern Germanic speakers, especially Germans, assumed a strong connection between a family trees of language categories, and both cultural and racial heritages. The name of the newly defined language family, Germanic, was long unpopular in other countries such as England, where the medieval "Teutonic" was seen as less potentially misleading.[66] Similarly, in Denmark "Gothic" was sometimes used as a term for the language group uniting the Germani and the Goths, and a modified Gothonic was proposed by Gudmund Schütte and used locally.[67] This romanticist, nationalist approach has been rejected by scholars in its simplest forms since approximately World War II. For example, the once common habit of referring to Roman-era Germanic peoples as "Germans" is discouraged by modern historians, and modern Germans are no longer seen as the main successors of the Germani.[68] Not only are ideas associated with Nazism now criticized, but also other romanticized ideas about the Germanic peoples. For example, Guy Halsall has mentioned the popularity of the "view of the peoples of Germania as, essentially, proto-democratic communes of freemen".[69] Peter Heather has pointed out as well that the Marxist theory "that some of Europe's barbarians were ultimately responsible for moving Europe onwards to the feudal model of production has also lost much of its force".[70] Further, some historians now question whether there was any unifying Germanic culture even in Roman times, and secondly whether there was any significant continuity at all apart from language, connecting the Roman era Germanic peoples with the mixed new ethnic groups who formed in late antiquity. Sceptics of such connections include Walter Goffart, and others associated with him and the University of Toronto.[71] Goffart lists four "contentions" about how the Germanic terminology biases the conclusions of historians, and is therefore misleading:[72] 1. Barbarian invasions should not be seen as a single collective movement. Different barbarian groups moved for their own reasons under their own leaders. 2. The pressures on the late Empire did not have a united source, and often came from within. 3. The classical Germanic peoples lacked any unity or center, and so they should not be seen as a civilization in the way Rome is. 4. We should not, according to Goffart, accept Jordanes as preserving an authentic oral tradition about a migration from Scandinavia. On the other hand, the possibility of a small but significant "core of tradition" (Traditionskern) surviving with the ruling classes of Roman Germanic peoples, in the societies of new medieval Germanic-speaking peoples such as the Franks, Alamanni, Anglo-Saxons, and Goths, continues to be defended by other historians. This Traditionskern concept is associated for example with the Vienna School of History, initiated by Reinhard Wenskus, and later represented by scholars such as Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl. Peter Heather for example, continues to use the Germanic terminology but writes that concerning proposals of Germanic continuity, "all subsequent discussion has accepted and started from Wenskus's basic observations" and "the Germani in the first millennium were thus not closed groups with continuous histories".[73] Heather however believes that such caution now often goes too far in denying any large scale movements of people in specific cases, as exemplified by Patrick Amory's explanation of the Ostrogoths and their Kingdom of Italy.[74] Another proponent of relatively significant continuity, Wolf Liebeschuetz, has argued that the shared use of Germanic languages by, for example, Anglo-Saxons and Goths, implies that they must have had more links to Germania than only language. While little concrete evidence has survived, Liebeschuetz proposes that the existence of Weregild laws, stipulating compensation payments to avoid blood feuds, must have been of Germanic origin because such laws were not Roman.[75] Liebeschuetz also argues that recent sceptical scholars "deprive the ancient Germans and their constituent tribes of any continuous identity" and this is "important" because it makes European history a product of Roman history, not "a joint creation of Roman and Germans".[76] Prehistoric evidence[edit] Map of the pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, c. 500 BC. The area of the preceding Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia is shown in red; magenta areas towards the south represent the Jastorf culture of the North German Plain. Further information: Pre-Roman Iron Age The Dejbjerg wagon, National Museum of Denmark Archaeological evidence[edit] Archaeological cultures of Northern Europe in the late Pre-Roman Iron Age:   Jastorf culture (Germanic/Suebian)   Nordic (Germanic?)   Harpstedt-Nienburger (Germanic?)   La Tène (Celtic)   Przeworsk culture   Oksywie culture Archaeologists divide the area of Roman-era Germania into several Iron Age "material cultures".[77] At the time of Caesar, all had been under the strong influence of the La Tène culture, an old culture in the south and west of Germania, which is strongly associated by scholars with Celtic peoples, including those in Gaul itself. These La Tène peoples, who included the Germani cisrhenani, are generally considered unlikely to have spoken Germanic languages as defined today, though some may have spoken unknown related languages or Celtic dialects. To the north of these zones however, in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, the archaeological cultures started to become more distinct from La Tène culture during the Iron Age.[78] Concerning Germanic speakers within these northern regions, the relatively well-defined Jastorf culture matches the areas described by Tacitus, Pliny the elder and Strabo as Suevian homelands near the lower River Elbe, and stretching east on the Baltic coast to the Oder river. The Suevian peoples are seen by scholars[who?] as early West Germanic speakers. There is no consensus about whether neighbouring cultures in Scandinavia, Poland, and northwestern Germany were also part of a Germanic (or proto-Germanic)-speaking community at first, but this group of cultures were related to each other, and in contact. To the west of the Elbe for example, on what is now the German North Sea coast, was the so-called Harpstedt-Nienburger Group between the Jastorf culture and the La Tène influenced cultures of the Lower Rhine. To the east in what is now northern Poland was the Oksywie culture, later becoming the Wielbark culture with the arrival of Jastorf influences, probably representing the entry of East Germanic speakers. Related also to these and the Jastorf culture was the Przeworsk culture in southern Poland. It began as strongly La Tène-influenced local culture, and apparently was at least partly Germanic-speaking. The Jastorf culture came into direct contact with La Tène cultures on the upper Elbe and Oder rivers, believed to correspond to people that may have been Celtic-speaking peoples such as the Boii and Volcae described in this area by Roman sources. In the south of their range, the Jastorf and Przeworsk material cultures spread together, in several directions. Claims of Caesar[edit] Unlike archaeologists today, Caesar, the originator of the idea of the Germanic peoples, believed that in prehistory, before his time, the Rhine had divided Germani from the Gauls. However, he observed that there must already have been significant movements in both directions, over the Rhine. Not only did he believe that the Germani had a long-standing tendency to make raids and group movements from the northeast, involving peoples such as the Cimbri long before him, and the Suebians in his own time, it was also his understanding that there had been a time when the movement went in the opposite direction: And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the Germans [Germani] in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and, on account of the great number of their people and the insufficiency of their land, sent colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly, the Volcae Tectosages, seized on those parts of Germany which are the most fruitful [and lie] around the Hercynian forest, (which, I perceive, was known by report to Eratosthenes and some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia), and settled there.[79] Modern archaeologists[who?], having found no sign of such movements, see the Gaulish La Tène culture as native to what is now southern Germany, and the La Tène-influenced cultures on both sides of the Lower Rhine in this period as quite distinct from the Elbe Germanic peoples[citation needed], well into Roman times. On the other hand, the account of Caesar is broadly compatible with the archaeological record of the La Tène culture first expanding to the north, influencing all cultures there, and then suddenly having a weaker influence in that area. Subsequently, the Jastorf culture expanded in all directions from the region between the lower Elbe and Oder rivers. Languages[edit] Main articles: Germanic languages, Proto-Germanic language, and List of Germanic languages Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e Proto-Germanic[edit] Reconstruction[edit] All Germanic languages derive from the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), which is generally estimated to have been spoken between 4500 and 2500 BCE.[80] They share distinctive characteristics which set them apart from other Indo-European sub-families of languages, such as Grimm's and Verner's law, the conservation of the PIE ablaut system in the Germanic verb system (notably in strong verbs), or the merger of the vowels a and o qualities (ə, a, o > a; ā, ō > ō).[81] During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language has almost certainly been influenced by linguistic substrates still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.[82][note 12] The leading theory, suggested by archaeological and genetic evidence,[85] postulates a diffusion of Indo-European languages from the Pontic–Caspian steppe towards Northern Europe during the third millennium BCE, via linguistic contacts and migrations from the Corded Ware culture towards modern-day Denmark, resulting in cultural mixing with the indigenous Funnelbeaker culture.[86][note 13] Between around 500 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era, archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest that the Urheimat ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the Jastorf culture.[87][note 14] One piece of evidence is the presence of early Germanic loanwords in the Finnic and Sámi languages (e.g. Finnic kuningas, from Proto-Germanic *kuningaz 'king'; rengas, from *hringaz ‘ring’; etc.),[88] with the older loan layers possibly dating back to an earlier period of intense contacts between pre-Germanic and Finno-Permic (i.e., Finno-Samic) speakers.[89] An archaeological continuity can also be demonstrated between the Jastof culture and populations described as Germanic by Roman sources.[90] Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed dialect-free via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it was never a uniform proto-language.[91] The late Jastorf culture occupied so much territory that it is unlikely that Germanic populations spoke a single dialect, and traces of early linguistic varieties have been highlighted by scholars.[92] Sister dialects of Proto-Germanic itself certainly existed, as evidenced by some recorded (para-)Germanic proper names not following Grimm's law, and the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language was only one among several dialects spoken at that time by peoples identified as "Germanic" in Roman sources or archaeological data.[90] Attestation[edit] Definite and comprehensive evidence of the use of Germanic lexical units occurred only after Caesar's conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BCE, after which contacts with Proto-Germanic speakers began to intensify. The Alcis, a pair of brother gods worshipped by the Nahanarvali, are given by Tacitus as a Latinized form of *alhiz (a kind of 'stag'), and the word sapo ('hair dye') is certainly borrowed from Proto-Germanic *saipwōn (English soap), as evidenced by the parallel Finnish loanword saipio.[93] The name of the framea, described by Tacitus as a short spear carried by Germanic warriors, most likely derives from the compound *fram-ij-an- ('forward-going one'), as suggested by comparable semantical structures found in early runes (e.g., raun-ij-az 'tester', on a lancehead) and linguistic cognates attested in the later Old Norse, Old Saxon and Old High German languages: fremja, fremmian and fremmen all meant 'to carry out'.[94] The inscription on the Negau helmet B, carved in the Etruscan alphabet during the 3rd–2nd c. BCE, is generally regarded as Proto-Germanic.[95] The origin of the Germanic runes remains controversial, although it has been stated that they bear a more formal resemblance to North Italic alphabets (especially the Camunic alphabet; 1st mill. BCE) than to Latin letters.[96] They are not attested before the beginning of the Common Era in southern Scandinavia, and the connection between the two alphabets is therefore uncertain.[96] In the absence of earlier evidence, it must be assumed that Proto-Germanic speakers living in Germania were members of preliterate societies.[97] The only pre-Roman inscription that could be interpreted as Proto-Germanic, written in the Etruscan alphabet, has not been found in Germania but rather in the Venetic region. The inscription harikastiteiva\\\ip, engraved on the Negau helmet in the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, possibly by a Germanic-speaking warrior involved in combat in northern Italy, has been interpreted by some scholars as Harigasti Teiwǣ (*harja-gastiz 'army-guest' + *teiwaz '(war-)god'), which could be an invocation to a war-god or a mark of ownership engraved by its possessor.[95] The inscription Fariarix (*farjōn- 'ferry' + *rīk- 'ruler') carved on tetradrachms found in Bratislava (mid-1st c. BCE) may indicate the Germanic name of a Celtic ruler.[98] The earliest attested runic inscriptions (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu spearhead), initially concentrated in modern Denmark and written with the Elder Futhark system, are dated to the second half of the 2nd century CE.[99] Their language, named Primitive Norse, Proto-Norse, or similar terms, and still very close to Proto-Germanic, has been interpreted as a northern variant of the Northwest Germanic dialects and the ancestor of the Old Norse language of the Viking Age (8th–11th c. CE).[100] Based upon its dialect-free character and shared features with West Germanic languages, some scholars have contended that it served as a kind of koiné language.[101] The merging of unstressed Proto-Germanic vowels, attested in runic inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuries CE, also suggests that Primitive Norse could not have been a direct predecessor of West Germanic dialects.[102] Disintegration[edit] By the time Germanic speakers entered written history, their linguistic territory had stretched farther south, since a Germanic dialect continuum covered a region roughly located between the Rhine, the Vistula, the Danube, and southern Scandinavia during the first two centuries of the Common Era. Neighbouring language varieties diverged only slightly between each other in this continuum, but remote dialects were not necessarily mutually intelligible due to accumulated differences over the distance.[103] East Germanic speakers dwelt on the Baltic sea coasts and islands, while speakers of the Northwestern dialects occupied territories in present-day Denmark and bordering parts of Germany at the earliest date that they can be identified.[104] In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, migrations of East Germanic gentes from the Baltic Sea coast southeastwards into the hinterland led to their separation from the dialect continuum.[105] By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the "residual" Northwest dialect continuum,[102] which definitely ended after the 5th- and 6th-century migrations of Angles, Jutes and part of Saxon groups towards modern-day England.[106] Classification[edit] Although they have certainly influenced academic views on ancient Germanic languages up until the 20th century, the traditional groupings given by contemporary authors such as Pliny and Tacitus are no longer regarded as fully reliable by modern linguists, who rather base their reasoning on the attested sound changes and shared mutations which occurred in geographically distant groups of dialects.[107] The Germanic languages are traditionally divided between East, North and West Germanic branches.[108] The modern prevailing view is that North and West Germanic were also encompassed in a larger subgroup called Northwest Germanic.[109] Proto-Germanic: estimated to have been spoken approximatively between the mid-1st millennium BCE (Jastorf culture) and the mid-1st millennium CE (Migration Period).[87][110] Northwest Germanic: mainly characterized by the i-umlaut, and the shift of the long vowel *ē towards a long *ā in accented syllables;[111] it remained a dialect continuum from the migration of East Germanic speakers in the 2nd–3rd century CE until the 5th–6th centuries CE;[112] North Germanic or Primitive Norse: initially characterized by the monophthongization of the sound ai to ā (attested from ca. 400 BCE);[113] a uniform northern dialect or koiné attested in runic inscriptions from the 2nd century CE onward,[114] it remained practically unchanged until a transitional period that started in the late 5th century;[115] and Old Norse, a language attested by runic inscriptions written in the Younger Fuþark from the beginning of the Viking Age (8th–9th centuries CE);[116] West Germanic: including Old Saxon (attested from the 5th c. CE), Old English (late 5th c.), Old Frisian (6th c.), Frankish (6th c.), Old High German (6th c.), and possibly Langobardic (6th c.), which is only scarcely attested;[117] they are mainly characterized by the loss of the final consonant -z (attested from the late 3rd century),[118] and by the j-consonant gemination (attested from ca. 400 BCE);[101] early inscriptions from the West Germanic areas are found in dedications to matronea in the Rhineland dated to ca. 160−260 CE; West Germanic remained a "residual" dialect continuum until the Anglo-Saxon migrations in the 5th–6th centuries CE;[106] East Germanic, of which only Gothic is attested by both runic inscriptions (from the 3rd c. CE) and textual evidence (principally Wulfila's Bible; ca. 350−380). It became extinct after the fall of the Visigothic Kingdom in the early 8th century.[105] The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.[119] The latest attested East Germanic language, Crimean Gothic, has been partially recorded in the 16th century.[120] Further internal classifications are still debated among scholars, as it is unclear whether the internal features shared by several branches are due to early common innovations or to the later diffusion of local dialectal innovations.[121][note 15] For instance, although Old English and Old Frisian shared distinctive characteristics such as the Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law, attested by the 6th century in inscriptions on both sides of the North Sea, and the use of the fuþorc system with additional runes to convey innovative and shared sound changes, it is unclear whether those common features are really inherited or have rather emerged by connections over the North Sea.[122] Classical subdivisions[edit] Further information: Ingævones, Herminones, and Istævones By the 1st century CE, the writings of Pliny the Elder, and Tacitus reported a division of Germanic peoples into large groupings. Tacitus, in his Germania, specifically stated that one such division mentioned "in old songs" (carminibus antiquis) derived three such groups from three brothers, sons of Mannus, who was son of an earth-born god, Tuisto. These terms are also sometimes used in older modern linguistic terminology, attempting to describe the divisions of later Germanic languages: Ingvaeones, nearest to the Ocean. Herminones in the interior. Istvaeones, the remainder.[33] On the other hand, Tacitus wrote in the same passage that some believe that there are other groups which are just as old as these three, including "the Marsi, Gambrivii, Suevi, Vandilii". Of these, he discussed only the Suevi in detail, specifying that they were a very large grouping, with many peoples, with their own names. The largest, he said, was the Semnones near the Elbe, who "claim that they are the oldest and the noblest of the Suebi."[33] Pliny the Elder, somewhat similarly, named five races of Germani in his Historia Naturalis, with the same basic three groups as Tacitus, plus two more eastern blocks of Germans, the Vandals, and further east the Bastarnae. He clarifies that the Istvaeones are near the Rhine, although he gives only one problematic example, the Cimbri. He also clarifies that the Suevi, though numerous, are actually in one of the three Mannus groups. His list:[123] The Vandili, include the Burgundiones, the Varini, the Carini, and the Gutones. The Varini are listed by Tacitus as being Suevic, and the Gutones are described by him as Germanic, leaving open the question of whether they are Suevian. The Ingævones include the Cimbri, the Teutoni, and the Chauci. The Istævones, who "join up to the Rhine", and including the Cimbri [sic, repeated, probably by error]. The Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, and the Cherusci. The Peucini, who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci. These accounts and others from the period emphasize that the Suevi formed an especially large and powerful group. Tacitus speaks also of a geographical "Suevia" with two halves, one on either side of the Sudetes.[28] The larger group that the Suevi were part of according to Pliny, the Hermiones, is mentioned in one other source: Pomponius Mela, in his slightly earlier Description of the World, places "the farthest people of Germania, the Hermiones" somewhere to the east of the Cimbri and the Teutones, apparently on the Baltic. He did not mention Suevians.[124] Strabo, who focused mainly on Germani between the Elbe and Rhine, and does not mention the sons of Mannus, also set apart the names of Germani who are not Suevian, in two other groups, similarly implying three main divisions: "smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri, Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani".[125] From the perspective of modern linguistic reconstructions, the classical ethnographers were not helpful in distinguishing two large groups that spoke types of Germanic very different from the Suevians and their neighbours, whose languages are the source of modern West Germanic. The Germanic peoples of the far north, in Scandinavia, were treated as Suevians by Tacitus, though their Germanic dialects would evolve into Proto Norse, and later Old Norse, as spoken by the Vikings, and then the North Germanic language family of today. The "Gothic peoples" who later formed large nations in the area that is today Ukraine were not known to Tacitus, Pliny or Strabo, but their East Germanic languages are presumed to derive from languages spoken by Pliny's Vandal group (corresponding in part to the group made up of Gothones, Lemovii and Rugii described by Tacitus, who lived near the Baltic sea), and possibly also of Bastarnae. The "Gothic peoples" in the territory of present-day Ukraine and Romania were seen by Graeco-Roman writers as culturally "Scythian", and not Germanic, and indeed some of them such as the Alans were clearly not Germanic-speaking either. Whether the Gothic-speaking peoples among them had any consciousness of their connections to other Germanic-speaking peoples is a subject of dispute between scholars. History[edit] Earliest attestations[edit] Possible earliest contacts with the classical world (4th–3rd centuries BCE)[edit] Further information: Pytheas, Bastarnae, and Scirii Before Julius Caesar, Romans and Greeks had very little contact with northern Europe itself. Pytheas who travelled to Northern Europe some time in the late 4th century BCE was one of the few sources of information for later historians.[note 16] The Romans and Greeks however had contact with northerners who came south. The Bastarnae or Peucini are mentioned in historical sources going back as far as the 3rd century BCE through the 4th century CE.[126] These Bastarnae were described by Greek and Roman authors as living in the territory east of the Carpathian Mountains north of the Danube's delta at the Black Sea. They were variously described as Celtic or Scythian, but much later Tacitus, in disagreement with Livy, said they were similar to the Germani in language. According to some authors then, they were the first Germani to reach the Greco-Roman world and the Black Sea area.[127] In 201–202 BCE, the Macedonians, under the leadership of King Philip V, conscripted the Bastarnae as soldiers to fight against the Roman Republic in the Second Macedonian War.[128] They remained a presence in that area until late in the Roman Empire. The Peucini were a part of this people who lived on Peuce Island, at the mouth of the Danube on the Black Sea.[128] King Perseus enlisted the service of the Bastarnae in 171–168 BCE to fight the Third Macedonian War. By 29 BCE, they were subdued by the Romans and those that remained presumably merged into various groups of Goths into the second century CE.[128] Another eastern people known from about 200 BCE and sometimes believed to be Germanic-speaking, are the Scirii, because they appear in a record in Olbia on the Black Sea which records that the city had been troubled by Scythians, Sciri and Galatians.[129] There is a theory that their name, perhaps meaning pure, was intended to contrast with the Bastarnae, perhaps meaning mixed, or "bastards".[130] Much later, Pliny the Elder placed them to the north near the Vistula together with an otherwise unknown people called the Hirrii.[131] The Hirrii are sometimes equated with the Harii mentioned by Tacitus in this region, whom he considered to be Germanic Lugians. These names have also been compared to that of the Heruli, who are another people from the area of modern Ukraine, believed to have been Germanic.[28] In later centuries the Scirii, like the Heruli, and many of the Goths, were among the peoples who allied with Attila and settled in the Middle Danube, Pannonian region. Cimbrian War (2nd century BCE)[edit] Main article: Cimbrian War Migrations of the Cimbri and the Teutons (late 2nd century BCE) and their war with Rome (113–101 BCE) Late in the 2nd century BCE, Roman and Greek sources recount the migrations of the far northern "Gauls", the Cimbri, Teutones and Ambrones. Caesar later classified them as Germanic. They first appeared in eastern Europe where some researchers propose they may have been in contact with the Bastarnae and Scordisci.[132] In 113 BCE, they defeated the Boii at the Battle of Noreia in Noricum. Their movements through parts of Gaul, Italy and Hispania resulted in the Cimbrian War between these groups and the Roman Republic, led primarily by its Consul, Gaius Marius. In Gaul, a combined force of Cimbri and Teutoni and others defeated the Romans in the Battle of Burdigala (107 BCE) at Bordeaux, in the Battle of Arausio (105) at Orange in France, and in the Battle of Tridentum (102) at Trento in Italy.[133] Their further incursions into Roman Italy were repelled by the Romans at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence) in 102 BCE, and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BCE (in Vercelli in Piedmont).[134] One classical source, Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, mentions the northern Gauls somewhat later, associating them with eastern Europe, saying that both the Bastarae and the Cimbri were allies of Mithridates VI.[135] Germano-Roman contacts[edit] Julius Caesar (1st century BCE)[edit] Further information: Gallic Wars Caesar campaigned in what is now France from 58-50 BCE, in the period of the late Roman Republic. As mentioned above, Caesar wrote about this campaign in a way which introduced the term "Germanic" to refer to peoples such as the Cimbri and Suevi. 63 BCE Ariovistus, described by Caesar as Germanic, led mixed forces over the Rhine into Gaul as an ally of the Sequani and Averni in their battle against the Aedui, who they defeated at the Battle of Magetobriga. He stayed there on the west of the Rhine. He was also accepted as an ally by the Roman senate. 58 BCE. Caesar, as governor of Gaul, took the side of the Aedui against Ariovistus and his allies. He reported that Ariovistus had already settled 120,000 of his people, was demanding land for 24,000 Harudes who subsequently defeated the Aedui, and had 100 clans of Suevi coming into Gaul. Caesar defeated Ariovistus at the Battle of Vosges (58 BC). Caesar listed people who fought for Ariovistus as the Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii, and "Suevi".[136] 55-53 BCE. Controversially, Caesar moved his attention to Northern Gaul. In 55 BCE he made a show of strength on the Lower Rhine, crossing it with a quickly made bridge, and then massacring a large migrating group of Tencteri and Usipetes who crossed the Rhine from the east. In the winter of 54/53 the Eburones, the largest group of Germani cisrhenani, revolted against the Romans and then dispersed into forests and swamps. Caesar listed some Germani cisrhenani peoples: the Eburones, Condrusi, Caeraesi, Paemani and Segni. He believed they were related to peoples on the east bank such as the Sigambri and Ubii. He further believed the Suevi were pressing such groups over the Rhine from further east. Still in the 1st century BCE the term Germani was used by Strabo (see above) and Cicero in ways clearly influenced by Caesar.[137] Of the peoples encountered by Caesar, the Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes and Ubii were all found later, on the east of the Rhine, along the new frontier of the Roman empire. Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BCE – 68 CE) and the Year of Four Emperors (69 CE)[edit] Further information: Roman Iron Age, Early Imperial campaigns in Germania, and Year of the Four Emperors Roman sculpture of a young man sometimes identified as Arminius During the reign of Augustus from 27 BCE until 14 CE, the Roman empire became established in Gaul, with the Rhine as a border. This empire made costly campaigns to pacify and control the large region between the Rhine and Elbe. In the reign of his successor Tiberius it became state policy to leave the border at the Rhine, and expand the empire no further in that direction. The Julio-Claudian dynasty, the extended family of Augustus, paid close personal attention to management of this Germanic frontier, establishing a tradition followed by many future emperors. Major campaigns were led from the Rhine personally by Nero Claudius Drusus, step-son of Augustus, then by his brother the future emperor Tiberius; next by the son of Drusus, Germanicus (father of the future emperor Caligula and grandfather of Nero). In 38 BCE, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, consul of Transalpine Gaul, became the second Roman to lead forces over the Rhine.[138] In 31 BCE Gaius Carrinas repulsed an attack by Suevi from east of the Rhine.[139] In 25 BCE Marcus Vinicius took vengeance on some Germani in Germania, who had killed Roman traders.[140] In 17/16 BCE at the Battle of Bibracte the Sugambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri crossed the Rhine and defeated the 5th legion under Marcus Lollius, capturing the legion's eagle. From 13 BCE until 17 CE there were major Roman campaigns across the Rhine nearly every year, often led by members of the family of Augustus. First came the pacification of the Usipetes, Sicambri, and Frisians near the Rhine, then attacks increased further from the Rhine, on the Chauci, Cherusci, Chatti and Suevi (including the Marcomanni). These campaigns eventually reached and even crossed the Elbe, and in 5 CE Tiberius was able to show strength by having a Roman fleet enter the Elbe and meet the legions in the heart of Germania. However, within this period two Germanic kings formed large anti-Roman alliances. Both of them had spent some of their youth in Rome: After 9 BCE, Maroboduus of the Marcomanni had led his people away from the Roman activities into the Bohemian area, which was defended by forests and mountains, and formed alliances with other peoples. Tacitus referred to him as king of the Suevians.[141] In 6 CE Rome planned an attack but forces were needed for the Illyrian revolt in the Balkans, until 9 CE, at which time another problem arose in the north... In 9 CE, Arminius of the Cherusci, initially an ally of Rome, drew the a large unsuspecting Roman force into a trap in northern Germany, and defeated Publius Quinctilius Varus at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Tiberius and Germanicus spent the next few years recovering their dominance of northern Germany. They made Maroboduus an ally, and he did not assist Arminius. 17-18 CE, war broke out between Arminius and Maroboduus, with indecisive results. 19 CE, Maroboduus was deposed by a rival claimant, perhaps supported by the Romans, and fled to Italy. He died in 37 CE. Germanicus also died, in Antioch. 21 CE. Arminius died, murdered by opponents within his own group. Strabo, writing in this period in Greek, mentioned that apart from the area near the Rhine itself, the areas to the east were now inhabited by the Suevi, "who are also named Germans, but are superior both in power and number to the others, whom they drove out, and who have now taken refuge on this side the Rhine". Various peoples had fallen "prey to the flames of war".[142] The Julio-Claudian dynasty also recruited northern Germanic warriors, particularly men of the Batavi, as personal bodyguards to the Roman emperor, forming the so-called Numerus Batavorum. After the end of the dynasty, in 69 AD, the Batavian bodyguard were dissolved by Galba in 68[143] because of its loyalty to the old dynasty. The decision caused deep offense to the Batavi, and contributed to the outbreak of the Revolt of the Batavi in the following year which united Germani and Gauls, all connected to Rome but living both within the empire and outside it, over the Rhine.[144] Their indirect successors were the Equites singulares Augusti which were, likewise, mainly recruited from the Germani. They were apparently so similar to the Julio-Claudians' earlier German Bodyguard that they were given the same nickname, the "Batavi".[145] Gaius Julius Civilis, a Roman military officer of Batavian origin, orchestrated the Revolt. The revolt lasted nearly a year and was ultimately unsuccessful.[146] Flavian and Antonine dynasties (70–192 CE)[edit] Further information: Marcomannic Wars The Emperor Domitian of the Flavian dynasty faced attacks from the Chatti in Germania superior, with its capital at Mainz, a large group which had not been in the alliance of Arminius or Maroboduus. The Romans claimed victory by 84 CE, and Domitian also improved the frontier defenses of Roman Germania, consolidating control of the Agri Decumates, and converting Germania Inferior and Germania Superior into normal Roman provinces. In 89 CE the Chatti were allies of Lucius Antonius Saturninus in his failed revolt.[147] Domitian, and his eventual successor Trajan, also faced increasing concerns about an alliance on the Danube of the Suevian Marcomanni and Quadi, with the neighbouring Sarmatian Iazyges; it was in this area that dramatic events unfolded over the next few generations. Trajan himself expanded the empire in this region, taking over Dacia. Distribution of Germanic, Venedi (Slavic), and Sarmatian (Iranian) groups on the frontier of the Roman Empire, 125 AD The Marcomannic Wars during the time of Marcus Aurelius ended in approximately 180 CE.[148] Dio Cassius called it the war against the Germani, noting that Germani was the term used for people who dwell up in those parts (in the north).[149] A large number of peoples from north of the Danube were involved, not all Germanic-speaking, and there is much speculation about what events or plans led to this situation. Many scholars believe causative pressure was being created by aggressive movements of peoples further north, for example with the apparent expansion of the Wielbark culture of the Vistula, probably representing Gothic peoples who may have pressured Vandal peoples towards the Danube.[150] In 162 the Chatti once again attacked the Roman provinces of Raetia (with its capital at Augsburg) and Germania Superior to their south. During the main war in 973 they were repulsed from the Rhine frontier to their west, along with their neighbours the Suevian Hermunduri. In 167, during the Antonine plague the Marcomanni, Quadi, and the Sarmatian Iazyges attacked and pushed their way to Italy where they besieged Aquileia, triggering the main series of wars. A smaller group of Lombards also breached the border together with a group called the Obii, and they were defeated. Other peoples, perhaps not all of them Germanic, were involved in various actions—these included the Costoboci, the Hasdingi and Lacringi Vandals, the Varisci (or Naristi) and the Cotini (not Germanic according to Tacitus), and possibly also the Buri. After these Marcomannic wars, the Middle Danube began to change, and in the next century the peoples living there tended to be referred to as Gothic, rather than Germanic. New names on the frontiers (170–370)[edit] Further information: Crisis of the Third Century By the early 3rd century AD, large new groupings of Germanic people appeared near the Roman frontier, though they were not strongly unified. The first of these conglomerations mentioned in the historical sources were the Alamanni (a term meaning "all men") who appear in Roman texts sometime in the 3rd century CE.[151] These are believed to have been a mixture of mainly Suevian peoples, who coalesced in the Agri Decumates. Emperor Severus Alexander was killed by his own soldiers in 235 CE for paying for peace with the Alamanni, following which the anti-aristocratic general Maximinus Thrax was elected to be emperor by the Pannonian army.[152] According to the notoriously unreliable Augustan History (Historia Augusta), he was born in Thrace or Moesia to a Gothic father and an Alanic mother,[153] Secondly, soon after the appearance of the Alamanni on the Upper Rhine, the Franks began to be mentioned as occupying the land at the bend of the lower Rhine. In this case, the collective name was new, but the original peoples who composed the group were largely local, and their old names were still mentioned occasionally. The Franks were still sometimes called Germani as well. Gothic invasions of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Thirdly, the Goths and other "Gothic peoples" from the area of today's Poland and Ukraine, many of whom were Germanic-speaking peoples, began to appear in records of this period. In 238, Goths crossed the Danube and invaded Histria. The Romans made an agreement with them, giving them payment and receiving prisoners in exchange.[154] The Dacian Carpi, who had been paid off by the Romans before then, complained to the Romans that they were more powerful than the Goths.[155][156] After his victory in 244, Persian ruler Shapur I recorded his defeat of the Germanic and Gothic soldiers who were fighting for emperor Gordian III. Possibly this recruitment resulted from the agreements made after Histria.[154] After attacks by the Carpi into imperial territory in 246 and 248, Philip the Arab defeated them and then cut off payments to the Goths.[156] In 250 CE a Gothic king Cniva led Goths with Bastarnae, Carpi, Vandals, and Taifali into the empire, laying siege to Philippopolis. He followed his victory there with another on the marshy terrain at Abrittus, a battle which cost the life of Roman emperor Decius.[154] In 253/254, further attacks occurred reaching Thessalonica and possibly Thrace.[157] In approximately 255-257 there were several raids from the Black sea coast by "Scythian" peoples, apparently first led by the Boranes, who were probably a Sarmatian people.[158] These were followed by bigger raids led by the Herules in 267/268, and a mixed group of Goths and Herules in 269/270. In 260 CE, as the Roman Imperial Crisis of the Third Century reached its climax, Postumus, a Germanic soldier in Roman service, established the Gallic Empire, which claimed suzerainty over Germania, Gaul, Hispania and Britannia. Postumus was eventually assassinated by his own followers, after which the Gallic Empire quickly disintegrated.[159] The traditional types of border battles with Germani, Sarmatians and Goths continued on the Rhine and Danube frontiers after this. In the 270s the emperor Probus fought several Germanic peoples who breached territory on both the Rhine and the Danube, and tried to maintain Roman control over the Agri Decumates. He fought not only the Franks and Alamanni, but also Vandal and Burgundian groups now apparently near the Danube. In the 280s, Carus fought Quadi and Sarmatians. In 291, the 11th panegyric praising emperor Maximian was given in Trier; this marked the first time the Gepids, Tervingi and Taifali were mentioned. The passage described a battle outside the empire where the Gepids were fighting on the side of the Vandals, who had been attacked by Taifali and a "part" of the Goths. The other part of the Goths had defeated the Burgundians who were supported by Tervingi and Alemanni.[160] In the 350s Julian campaigned against the Alamanni and Franks on the Rhine. One result was that Julian accepted that the Salian Franks could live within the empire, north of Tongeren. By 369, the Romans appear to have ceded their large province of Dacia to the Tervingi, Taifals and Victohali.[157] Migration Period (ca. 375–568)[edit] Main article: Migration Period Since its very beginning, the Roman empire had proactively kept the northern peoples and the potential danger they represented under control, just as Caesar had proposed. However, the ability to handle the barbarians in the old way broke down in the late 4th century and the western part of the empire itself broke down. In addition to the Franks on the Rhine frontier, and Suevian peoples such as the Alamanni, a sudden movement of eastern Germanic-speaking "Gothic peoples" now played an increasing role both inside and outside imperial territory. Gothic entry into the empire[edit] Main article: Gothic War (376–382) The Gothic wars of the late 4th century saw a rapid series of major events: the entry of a large number of Goths in 376; the defeat of a major Roman army and killing of emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianopolis in 378; and a subsequent major settlement treaty for the Goths which seems to have allowed them significant concessions compared to traditional treaties with barbarian peoples. While the eastern empire eventually recovered, the subsequent long-reigning western emperor Honorius (reigned 393-423) was unable to impose imperial authority over much of the empire for most of his reign.[161] In contrast to the eastern empire, in the west the "attempts of its ruling class to use the Roman-barbarian kings to preserve the res publica failed".[162] The Gothic wars were affected indirectly by the arrival of the nomadic Huns from Central Asia in the Ukrainian region. Some Gothic peoples, such as the Gepids and the Greuthungi (sometimes seen as predecessors of the later Ostrogoths), joined the newly forming Hunnish faction, and played a prominent role in the Hunnic Empire, where Gothic became a lingua franca.[163] Based on the description of Socrates Scholasticus, Guy Halsall has argued that the Hunnish hegemony developed after a major campaign by Valens against the Goths, which had caused great damage, but failed to achieve a decisive victory.[164] Peter Heather has argued that Socrates should be rejected on this point, as inconsistent with the testimony of Ammianus.[165] The Gothic Thervingi, under the leadership of Athanaric, had in any case borne the impact of the campaign of Valens, and were also losers against the Huns, but clients of Rome. A new faction under leadership of Fritigern, a Christian, were given asylum inside the Roman Empire in 376 CE. They crossed the Danube and became foederati.[166] With the emperor occupied in the Middle East, the Tervingi were treated badly and becoming desperate; significant numbers of mounted Greuthungi, Alans and others were able to cross the river and support a Tervingian uprising leading to the massive Roman defeat at Adrianople.[167] Around 382, the Romans and the Goths now within the empire came to agreements about the terms under which the Goths should live. There is debate over the exact nature of such agreements, and for example whether they allowed the continuous semi-independent existence of pre-existing peoples; however the Goths do appear to have been allowed more privileges than in traditional settlements with such outside groups.[168] One result of the comprehensive settlement was that the imperial army now had a larger number of Goths, including Gothic generals.[169] Imperial turmoil[edit] By 383 a new emperor, Theodosius I, was seen as victorious over the Goths and having brought the situation back under control. Goths were a prominent but resented part of the eastern military. The Greutungi and Alans had been settled in Pannonia by the western co-emperor Gratian (assassinated in 383) who was himself a Pannonian. Theodosius died 395, and was succeeded by his sons: Arcadius in the east, and Honorius, who was still a minor, in the west. The Western empire had however become destabilized since 383, with several young emperors including Gratian having previously been murdered. Court factions and military leaders in the east and west attempted to control the situation. Alaric was a Roman military commander of Gothic background, who first appears in the record in the time of Theodosius. After the death of Theodosius, he became one of the various Roman competitors for influence and power in the difficult situation. The forces he led were described as mixed barbarian forces, and clearly included many other people of Gothic background, a phenomenon which had become common in the Balkans. In an important turning point for Roman history, during the factional turmoil, his army came to act increasingly as an independent political entity within the Roman empire, and at some point he came to be referred to as their king, probably around 401 CE, when he lost his official Roman title.[170] This is the origin of the Visigoths, whom the empire later allowed to settle in what is now southwestern France. While military units had often had their own ethnic history and symbolism, this is the first time that such a group established a new kingdom. There is disagreement about whether Alaric or his family had a royal background, but there is no doubt that this kingdom was a new entity, very different from any previous Gothic kingdoms. Invasions of 401–411[edit] Main articles: Crossing of the Rhine and Radagaisus In the aftermath of the large-scale Gothic entries into the empire, the Germanic Rhine peoples, the Franks and Alemanni, became more secure in their positions in 395, when Stilicho made agreements with them; these treaties allowed him to withdraw the imperial forces from the Rhine frontier in order to use them in his conflicts with Alaric and the Eastern empire.[171] On the Danube, change was far more dramatic. In the words of Walter Goffart: Between 401 and 411, four distinct groups of barbarians – different from Alaric's Goths – invaded Roman territory, all apparently on one-way journeys, in large-scale efforts to transpose themselves onto imperial soil and not just plunder and return home.[172] The reasons that these invasions apparently all dispersed from the same area, the Middle Danube, are uncertain. It is most often argued that the Huns must have already started moving west, and consequently pressuring the Middle Danube. Peter Heather for example writes that around 400, "a highly explosive situation was building up in the Middle Danube, as Goths, Vandals, Alans and other refugees from the Huns moved west of the Carpathians" into the area of modern Hungary on the Roman frontier.[173] Walter Goffart, in contrast, has pointed out that there is no clear evidence of new eastern groups arriving in the area immediately before the great movements, and so it remains possible that the Huns moved West after these large groups had left the Middle Danube. Goffart's suggestion is that the example of the Goths, such as those led by Alaric, had set an example leading to a "common perception, however indistinct, that warriors could improve their condition by forcing their existence on the attention of the Empire, demanding to be dealt with, and exacting a part in the imperial enterprise."[174] Whatever the chain of events, the Middle Danube later became the centre of Attila's loose empire containing many East Germanic people from the east, who remained there after the death of Attila. The makeup of peoples in that area, previously the home of the Germanic Marcomanni, Quadi and non-Germanic Iazyges, changed completely in ways which had a significant impact on the Roman empire and its European neighbours. Thereafter, though the new peoples ruling this area still included Germanic-speakers, as discussed above, they were not described by Romans as Germani, but rather "Gothic peoples". In 401, Claudian mentions a Roman victory over a large force including Vandals, in the province of Raëtia. It is possible that this group was involved in the later crossing of the Rhine.[175] In 405–406, Radagaisus, who was probably Gothic, entered the empire on the Middle Danube with a very large force of unclearly defined, but apparently Gothic, composition, and invaded Italy.[176] He was captured and killed in 406 near Florence and 12000 of his men recruited into Roman forces. A more successful invasion, apparently also originating from the Middle Danube, reached the Rhine a few months later. As described by Halsall: "On 31 December 405 a huge body from the interior of Germania crossed the Rhine: Siling and Hasding Vandals, Sueves and Alans. [...] The Franks in the area fought back furiously and even killed the Vandal king. Significantly no source mentions any defense by Roman troops."[177] The composition of this group of barbarians, who were not all Germanic-speaking, indicates that they had traveled from the area north of the Middle Danube. (The Suevians involved may well have included remnants of the once powerful Marcomanni and Quadi.) The non-Germanic Alans were the largest group, and one part of them under King Goar settled with Roman acquiescence in Gaul, while the rest of these peoples entered Roman Iberia in 409 and established kingdoms there, with some travelling further to establish the Vandal kingdom of North Africa. In 411 a Burgundian group established themselves in northern Germania Superior on the Rhine, between Frankish and Alamanni groups, holding the cities of Worms, Speyer, and Strassburg. They and a group of Alans helped establish yet another short-lived claimant to the throne, Jovinus, who was eventually defeated by the Visigoths cooperating with Honorius. Motivated by the ensuing chaos in Gaul, in 406 the Roman army in Britain elected Constantine "III" as emperor and they took control there. In 408, the eastern emperor Arcadius died, leaving a child as successor, and the west Roman military leader Stilicho was killed. Alaric, wanting a formal Roman command but unable to negotiate one, invaded Rome itself, twice, in 401 and 408. Constantius III, who became Magister militum by 411, restored order step-by-step, eventually allowing the Visigoths to settle within the empire in southwest Gaul. He also committed to retaking control of Iberia, from the Rhine-crossing groups. When Constantius died in 421, having been co-emperor himself for one year, Honorius was the only emperor in the West. However, Honorius died in 423 without an heir. After this, the Western Roman empire steadily lost control of its provinces. From Western Roman Empire to medieval kingdoms (420–568)[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Germanic peoples" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Decline of the Western Roman Empire and Barbarian kingdoms Germanic kingdoms and peoples after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE Coin of Odoacer, Ravenna, 477, with Odoacer in profile, depicted with a "barbarian" moustache. Germanic kingdoms in 526 CE 2nd century to 6th century simplified migrations The Western Roman Empire declined gradually in the 5th and 6th centuries, and the eastern emperors had only limited control over events in Italy and the western empire. Germanic speakers, who by now dominated the Roman military in Europe, and lived both inside and outside the empire, played many roles in this complex dynamic. Notably, as the old territory of the western empire came to be ruled on a regional basis, the barbarian military forces, ruled now by kings, took over administration with differing levels of success. With some exceptions, such as the Alans and Bretons, most of these new political entities identified themselves with a Germanic-speaking heritage. In the 420s, Flavius Aëtius was a general who successfully used Hunnish forces on several occasions, fighting Roman factions and various barbarians including Goths and Franks.[178][179] In 429 he was elevated to the rank of magister militum in the western empire, which eventually allowed him to gain control of much of its policy by 433.[180] One of his first conflicts was with Boniface, a rebellious governor of the province of Africa in modern Tunisia and Libya. Both sides sought an alliance with the Vandals based in southern Spain who had acquired a fleet there. In this context, the Vandal and Alan kingdom of North Africa and the western Mediterranean would come into being.[181][182] In 433 Aëtius was in exile and spent time in the Hunnish domain. In 434, the Vandals were granted the control of some parts of northwest Africa, but Aëtius defeated Boniface using Hunnish forces. In 436 Aëtius defeated the Burgundians on the Rhine with the help of Hunnish forces.[183] In 439 the Vandals and their allies captured Carthage. The Romans made a new agreement recognizing the Visigothic kingdom. In 440, the Hunnish "empire" as it could now be called, under Attila and his brother Bleda began a series of attacks over the Danube into the eastern empire, and the Danubian part of the western empire. They received enormous payments from the eastern empire and then focused their attentions to the west, where they were already familiar with the situation, and in friendly contact with the African Vandals. In 442 Aëtius seems to have granted the Alans who had remained in Gaul a kingdom, apparently including Orléans, possibly to counter local independent Roman groups (so called Bagaudae, who also competed for power in Iberia). In 443 Aëtius settled the Burgundians from the Rhine deeper in the empire, in Savoy in Gaul. In 451, the large mixed force of Attila crossed the Rhine but was defeated by Aetius with forces from the settled barbarians in Gaul: Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians and Alans. In 452 Attila attacked Italy, but had to retreat to the Middle Danube because of an outbreak of disease. In 453, Aëtius and Attila both died. In 454, the Hunnish alliance divided and the Huns fought the Battle of Nedao against their former Germanic vassals. The names of the peoples who had made up the empire appear in records again. Several of them were allowed to become federates of the eastern empire in the Balkans, and others created kingdoms in the Middle Danube. In the subsequent decades, the Franks and Alamanni tended to remain in small kingdoms but these began to extend deeper into the empire. In northern Gaul, a Roman military "King of Franks" also seems to have existed, Childeric I, whose successor Clovis I established dominance of the smaller kingdoms of the Franks and Alamanni, whom they defeated at the Battle of Zülpich in 496. Compared to Gaul, what happened in Roman Britain, which was similarly both isolated from Italy and heavily Romanized, is less clearly recorded. However the end result was similar, with a Germanic-speaking military class, the Anglo-Saxons, taking over administration of what remained of Roman society, and conflict between an unknown number of regional powers. While major parts of Gaul and Britain redefined themselves ethnically on the basis of their new rulers, as Francia and England, in England the main population also became Germanic-speaking. The exact reasons for the difference are uncertain, but significant levels of migration played a role.[184][185] In 476 Odoacer, a Roman soldier who came from the peoples of the Middle Danube in the aftermath of the Battle of Nedao, became King of Italy, removing the last of the western emperors from power. He was murdered and replaced in 493 by Theoderic the Great, described as King of the Ostrogoths, one of the most powerful Middle Danube peoples of the old Hun alliance. Theoderic had been raised up and supported by the eastern emperors, and his administration continued a sophisticated Roman administration, in cooperation with the traditional Roman senatorial class. Similarly, culturally Roman lifestyles continued in North Africa under the Vandals, in Savoy under the Burgundians, and within the Visigothic realm. The Ostrogothic kingdom ended in 542 when the eastern emperor Justinian made a last great effort to reconquer the Western Mediterranean. The conflicts destroyed the Italian senatorial class,[186] and the eastern empire was also unable to hold Italy for long. In 568 the Lombard king Alboin, a Suevian people who had entered the Middle Danubian region from the north conquering and partly absorbing the frontier peoples there, entered Italy and created the Italian Kingdom of the Lombards there. These Lombards now included Suevi, Heruli, Gepids, Bavarians, Bulgars, Avars, Saxons, Goths, and Thuringians. As Peter Heather has written these "peoples" were no longer peoples in any traditional sense.[187] Older accounts which describe a long period of massive movements of peoples and military invasions are oversimplified, and describe only specific incidents. According to Herwig Wolfram, the Germanic peoples did not and could not "conquer the more advanced Roman world" nor were they able to "restore it as a political and economic entity"; instead, he asserts that the empire's "universalism" was replaced by "tribal particularism" which gave way to "regional patriotism".[188] The Germanic peoples who overran the Western Roman Empire probably numbered less than 100,000 people per group, including approximately 15,000-20,000 warriors. They constituted a tiny minority of the population in the lands over which they seized control.[note 17] Apart from the common history many of them had in the Roman military, and on Roman frontiers, a new and longer-term unifying factor for the new kingdoms was that by 500, the start of the Middle Ages, most of the old Western empire had converted to the same Rome-centred Catholic form of Christianity. A key turning point was the conversion of Clovis I in 508. Before this point, many of the Germanic kingdoms, such as those of the Goths and Burgundians, now adhered to Arian Christianity, a form of Christianity which they perhaps took up in the time of the Arian emperor Valens, but which was now considered a heresy. Early Middle Ages[edit] Main article: Early Middle Ages Further information: Christianisation of the Germanic peoples This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Germanic peoples" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Frankish expansion from the early kingdom of Clovis I (481) to the divisions of Charlemagne's Empire (843/870) Map showing area of Norse settlements during the Viking Age, including Norman conquests In the centuries after 568, the Visigothic kingdom, by now centred in Spain, was ended by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century. Much of continental Catholic Europe became part of a greater Francia under the Merovingian and then the Carolingian dynasty, which began with Pepin the Short, the son of Charles Martel. Charles, though not a king, reconsolidated the Frankish kingdom's dominance over Saxons, Frisians, Bavarians and Burgundians, and defeated the Umayyads at the 732 Battle of Tours. Pepin's son Charlemagne conquered the Lombards in 774, and in an important turning point in European history, was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800 CE. This consolidated a shift in the power structure from the south to the north, and was also a strong symbolic link to Rome and the Roman Christianity. The core of the new empire included what is now France, Germany and the Benelux countries. The empire laid the foundations for the medieval and early modern ancien regime, finally destroyed only by the French Revolution. The Frankish-Catholic way of doing politics and war and religion also had a strong effect upon all neighbouring regions, including what became England, Spain, Italy, Austria, and Bohemia. The effect of old Germanic culture on this new Latin-using empire is a topic of dispute, because there was much continuity with the old Roman legal systems, and the increasingly important Christian religion. An example which is argued to show an influence of earlier Germanic culture is law. The new kingdoms created new law codes in Latin, with occasional Germanic words.[189] These were Roman-influenced, and under strong church influence all law was increasingly standardized to accord with Christian philosophy, and old Roman law.[190] Germanic languages in western Europe no longer exist apart from the remaining West Germanic languages of England, the Frankish homelands near the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta, and the large area between the Rhine and Elbe. With the splitting off of this latter area within the Frankish empire, the first ever political entity corresponding loosely to modern "Germany" came into existence.[191] In Eastern Europe the once relatively developed periphery of the Roman world collapsed culturally and economically, and this can be seen in the Germanic-associated archaeological evidence: in the area of today's southern Poland and Ukraine the collapse occurred not long after 400, and by 700 Germanic material culture was entirely west of the Elbe in the area where the Romans had been active since Caesar's time, and the Franks were now active. East of the Elbe was to become mainly Slavic-speaking.[192] Outside of the Roman-influenced zone, Germanic-speaking Scandinavia was in the Vendel period and eventually entered the Viking Age, with expansion to Britain, Ireland and Iceland in the west and as far as Russia and Greece in the east.[193] Swedish Vikings, known locally as the Rus', ventured deep into Russia, where they founded the political entities of Kievan Rus'. They defeated the Khazar Khaganate and became the dominant power in Eastern Europe. The dominant language of these communities came to be East Slavic.[194] By 900 CE the Vikings also secured a foothold on Frankish soil along the Lower Seine River valley in what became known as Normandy. On the other hand, the Scandinavian countries were, starting with Denmark, under the influence of Germany to their south, and also the lands where they had colonies. Bit by bit they became Christian, and organized themselves into Frankish- and Catholic-influenced kingdoms. Roman descriptions of early Germanic people and culture[edit] Further information: Germanic culture and Early Germanic culture Kingdom of Germany (Regnum Teutonicum) within the Holy Roman Empire, circa 1000 AD Caesar and Tacitus gave colorful descriptions of the Germanic peoples, but scholars note that these need to be viewed cautiously. For one thing, many of the tropes used, such as those concerning the red or blond hair, the blue eyes, and the undisciplined emotions of the Germanic peoples, were old ones that had long been used for any of the northern peoples such as Gauls. Secondly, the Germanic descriptions of both authors are recognized as having been intended to be both critical of Roman moral softness, and pushing for specific foreign policies. Tacitus famously described the Germanic people as ethnically "unmixed", which had an influence on pre-1945 German racist nationalism. It was not necessarily meant to be purely positive: For my own part, I agree with those who think that the tribes of Germany are free from all taint of inter-marriages with foreign nations, and that they appear as a distinct, unmixed race, like none but themselves. Hence, too, the same physical peculiarities throughout so vast a population. All have fierce blue eyes, red hair, huge frames, fit only for a sudden exertion. They are less able to bear laborious work. Heat and thirst they cannot in the least endure; to cold and hunger their climate and their soil inure them.[195] Modern scholars point out that one way of interpreting such remarks is that they are consistent with other comments by Tacitus indicating that the Germanic people lived very remotely, in unattractive countries, for example in the next part of the text: Their country, though somewhat various in appearance, yet generally either bristles with forests or reeks with swamps; it is more rainy on the side of Gaul, bleaker on that of Noricum and Pannonia. It is productive of grain, but unfavourable to fruit-bearing trees; it is rich in flocks and herds, but these are for the most part undersized, and even the cattle have not their usual beauty or noble head.[196] Archaeological research has revealed that the early Germanic peoples were primarily agricultural, although husbandry and fishing were important sources of livelihood depending on the nature of their environment.[197] They carried out extensive trade with their neighbours, notably exporting amber, slaves, mercenaries and animal hides, and importing weapons, metals, glassware and coins in return.[198] They eventually came to excel at craftsmanship, particularly metalworking.[199] In many cases, ancient Germanic smiths and other craftsmen produced products of higher quality than those of the Romans.[note 18] Before Tacitus, Julius Caesar described the Germani and their customs in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, though in certain cases it is still a matter of debate if he refers to Northern Celtic peoples or clearly identified Germanic peoples. Caesar notes that the Gauls had earlier dominated and sent colonies into the lands of the Germans, but that the Gauls had since degenerated under the influence of Roman civilization, and now considered themselves inferior in military prowess.[note 19] [The Germani] have neither Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other deities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest time, receive the greatest commendation among their people; they think that by this the growth is promoted, by this the physical powers are increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe promiscuously in the rivers and [only] use skins or small cloaks of deer's hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked.[202] They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any one a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but the magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the groups and families, who have united together, as much land as, and in the place in which, they think proper, and the year after compel them to remove elsewhere.[203] Genetics[edit] In the 21st century, genetic studies have begun to look more systematically at questions of ancestry, using both modern and ancient DNA. However, the connection between modern Germanic languages, ethnicity and genetic heritage is thought by many scholars to be unlikely to ever be simple or uncontroversial. Guy Halsall for example writes: "The danger, barely addressed (at best dismissed as a purely 'ideological' objection), is of reducing ethnicity to biology and thus to something close to the nineteenth-century idea of race, at the basis of the 'nation state'."[204] In a 2013 book which reviewed studies up until then it was remarked that: "If and when scientists find ancient Y-DNA from men whom we can guess spoke Proto-Germanic, it is most likely to be a mixture of haplogroup I1, R1a1a, R1b-P312 and R1b-U106". This was based purely upon those being the Y-DNA groups judged to be most commonly shared by speakers of Germanic languages today. However, as remarked in that book: "All of these are far older than Germanic languages and some are common among speakers of other languages too."[205] See also[edit] List of Germanic peoples Notes[edit] ^ Sometimes, especially in older literature, Germanic peoples are referred to as Germans or ancient/early Germans (e.g., in the book title "The Early Germans" by Malcolm Todd, contrasting with his use of Germani in the text). This usage is generally rejected by modern scholars to avoid confusion with the modern German people and language.[1]. This confusion does not arise in languages other than English, since most have a distnct noun to refer to the ancient Germanic peoples, e.g. German: Germanen, French: Germains, Russian: Германцы, Japanese: ゲルマン人. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 5; Müller 1998, pp. 14–15; Goffart 1989, pp. 112–113. Compare also to the influential old definition in German by the Grimm brothers for "der Germane": "germane, m., lat. Germanus, eine bezeichnung der Deutschen und der ihnen stammverwandten völker bei Kelten und Römern, die sich bei letzteren mit sicherheit nicht über den sklavenkrieg (73—71 v. Chr.) hinauf verfolgen läszt" - "Germane, male, Latin Germanus, an appellation of the Germans and the peoples related to them by ancestry which was used by Celts and Romans, and cannot be traced further in the use of the latter than the Servile War (73—71 BC)." (Grimm & Grimm 1854). ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 3: "There was a time where it was possible to say: 'The name Germanic peoples refers to those ethnic tribes who spoke a Germanic language'." Pohl 2004a, p. 47: "Für die Zusammenarbeit der Disziplinen ist festzuhalten, dass die von der Philologie rekonstruierten Sprachen, wie eben das Germanische, Abstraktionen sind ...". Burns 2003, p. 20: "... there was always a problem with early Germanic because only 4th-century Gothic is extant as a written Germanic language prior to the ninth century ..." ^ This approach is sometimes questioned. Burns 2003, p. 20: "Concurrent with the creation of these linguistic theories, historians and politicians integrated them into their justifications and explanations of the rise of the nation-state, which is now again in question." Halsall 2014, p. 520, using the Gothic peoples as an example: "Linguistically, we can justify a grouping on the basis that all these peoples spoke a related form of Indo-European language, whether East, West or North Germanic. Such a modern definition, however, does not equate with the classical idea of the Germani." Goffart 2006, p. 222: "No discernible benefit comes from our being reminded again and again in modern writings that many of these barbarians at each other's throats probably spoke dialects of the same language. The G-word can be dispensed with." ^ Pohl 2004a, pp. 9–10: "Die Sprachwissenschaft kann weiterhin nach bestimmten Kriterien, etwa de 1. Lautverscheibung, die Entstehung der germanischen Sprache(n) definieren und grob zeitlich und räumlch einordnen. Selbst wo sich dabei beachtliche Überschneidungen mit dem Verbreitungsgebiet einer archäologischen Kultur ergeben können (wie der eisenzeitlichen, vorrömischen Jastorf-Kultur mit Zentrum an der Unterelbe), kann diese Bevölkerung archäologisch nicht ohne weiteres als 'Germanen' definiert werden." ^ Pohl 2006, p. 103: "what modern philology has accustomed us to see as one family of languages or even a single language was, with all its variants, not an instrument by which all its native speakers could easily comprehend each other." ^ See for example Todd 1992, pp. 8–9 and Müller 1998, p. 80. The latter gives a detailed summary of some of the many proposals. Wolfram 1988, p. 5, for example, thinks "Germani" must be Gaulish. Historian Wolfgang Pfeifer more or less concurs with Wolfram and surmises that the name Germani is likely of Celtic etymology, related in this case to the Old Irish word gair (neighbors) or could be tied to the Celtic word for their war cries gairm, which simplifies into "the neighbors" or "the screamers".[31] But there is no consensus. ^ Roymans 2014, p. 29: "The archaeology of the Late Iron Age argues for a north-south articulation of the northwest European continent, in which the Rhine does not function as a cultural boundary. On the contrary, groups in the southern Netherlands and northern Belgium as well as in Hessen and southern Westphalia were strongly influenced by the La Tène culture, as is shown by the presence of central places, sanctuaries, specialist glass and metalworking, and the adoption of coinage." ^ Dio Cassius, Roman History, 38-40 (English, Greek). The 19th century Loeb Classical Library English translation of Cassius Dio by Earnest Cary converted Keltoí to "Germans". ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 259 cites his letter 5, to his friend Syagrius. In contrast, the use of this word by Sidonius is apparently seen differently for example by Liebeschuetz (2015), p. 157, citing Sidonius Apollinaris, Carm. 12.4. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 48 says: "A whole library of nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholarship can be evoked to show that a "Germanic antiquity" existed in parallel to its Greco-Roman counterpart." ^ The reconstruction of such loanwords remains a difficult task, since no descendant language of substrate dialects is attested, and plausible etymological explanations have been found for many Germanic lexemes previously regarded as of non-Indo-European origin. The English term sword, long regarded as "without etymology", was found to be cognate with the Ancient Greek áor, the sword hung to the shoulder with valuable rings, both descending from the PIE root *swerd-, denoting the 'suspended sword'. Similarly, the word hand could descend from a PGer. form *handu- 'pike' (< *handuga- 'having a pike'), possibly related to Greek kenteîn 'to stab, poke' and kéntron 'stinging agent, pricker'.[83] However, there is still a set of words of Proto-Germanic origin, attested in Old High German since the 8th c., which have found so far no competing Indo-European etymologies, however unlikely: e.g., Adel 'aristocratic lineage'; Asch 'barge'; Beute 'board'; Loch 'lock'; Säule 'pillar'; etc.[84] ^ Iversen & Kroonen 2017, p. 521: "In the more than 250 years (ca. 2850–2600 B.C.E.) when late Funnel Beaker farmers coexisted with the new Single Grave culture communities within a relatively small area of present-day Denmark, processes of cultural and linguistic exchange were almost inevitable—if not widespread." ^ Ringe 2006, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the 7th century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archaeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." Polomé (1992), p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland (Mallory 1989: 87), a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." ^ Rübekeil 2017, pp. 996–997: West Germanic: "There seems to be a principal distinction between the northern and the southern part of this group; the demarcation between both parts, however, is a matter of controversy. The northern part, North Sea Gmc or Ingvaeonic, is the larger one, but it is a moot point whether Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian really belong to it, and if yes, to what extent they participate in all its characteristic developments. (...) As a whole, there are arguments for a close relationship between Anglo-Frisian on the one hand and Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian on the other; there are, however, counter-arguments as well. The question as to whether the common features are old and inherited or have emerged by connections over the North Sea is still controversial." ^ Ancient authors we know by name who saw Pytheas' text were Dicaearchus, Timaeus, Eratosthenes, Crates of Mallus, Hipparchus, Polybius, Artemidorus and Posidonius, as Lionel Pearson remarked in reviewing Hans Joachim Mette, Pytheas von Massalia (Berlin: Gruyter) 1952, in Classical Philology 49.3 (July 1954), pp. 212–214. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 7: "[T]hese tribes were surprisingly small: fifteen to twenty thousand warriors—which means a total of about one hundred thousand people in a tribe—was the maximum number a large people could raise... These people are likewise presented as conquerors of the Roman Empire, even though they constituted a vanishing minority within it." ^ "Some smiths were able to rework iron into high-quality steel and make sword blades with a core of softer steel for flexibility and harder steel on the exterior to keep a sharp edge, far finer weapons than those used in the Roman army at the time."[200] "Furthermore, the skills of Germanic smiths and other craftsmen were as good as, or better than those found inside the Roman empire."[201] ^ Caesar 2019, pp. 156, 6.24: "Proximity to our provinces and familiarity with seaborne imports bring the Gauls many things to use and keep, so they gradually grew accustomed to defeat, losing many battles and not even claiming to be the Germans' equals in courage now." Caesar 2019, pp. 29, 1.39: "[O]ur men inquired and heard Gauls and merchants describing the Germans' huge bodies, their incredible strength, and their experience in arms. They had often encountered them and could not stand the sight of them or endure their gaze. Great fear suddenly seized our whole army...". References[edit] ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 10–13, Green 1998, p. 8, or Halsall 2014 ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 5–6; Müller 1998, p. 14. ^ Pohl 2004a, p. 51. ^ Todd 1992, pp. 8–9; Müller 1998, p. 14. ^ Müller 1998, pp. 14–15; Liebeschuetz 2015, p. 97; Pohl 2004a, pp. 47,50–51. ^ Goffart 2006, Preface: "Strange as it may seem to hear it said, there were no Germanic peoples in late antiquity. The illusion that there were can be outgrown." ^ Heather 2009, p. 13. ^ Wolfram 1988, pp. 10–13; Halsall 2014. ^ Heather 2009, pp. 13–14,19–20; Halsall 2007, pp. 14–15; Goffart 2006, pp. 50–51. ^ Pohl 2004a, p. 52-53. ^ Pohl 2006, p. 100; Müller 1998, pp. 8–10. ^ Green 2007. ^ Müller 1998, p.6 col.2. ^ Pohl 2004a, p. 13. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 1.51. Also Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, and Sedusii were listed. See below. ^ Pohl 2006, p. 11; Kaul & Martens 1995; Goffart 2006, p. 282. ^ Müller 1998, pp. 9-10. ^ Liebeschuetz 2002, p. 59-60. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 1. ^ See below. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 45-46; Ptolemy, Geography, 3.5 and 2.10; Pomponius Mela, Description of the World, 31. ^ Caesar, Gallic War 6.24; Tacitus, Germania 28. ^ Heather 2009, pp. 6 & 53. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 6. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 1.47, 6.21. ^ Liebeschuetz 2015, p.95 n.4; p.97 for example, argues that Tacitus described the Germani as united by language. ^ Pohl 2006, p. 121. ^ a b c Tacitus, Germania, 43. For the position of the Buri, there is also reference in Ptolemy's Geography of Germany. ^ Tacitus, Germania, 45: "Aestiorum gentes [...], quibus ritus habitusque Sueborum", lingua Britannicae propior". ^ Tacitus, Germania, 46. ^ Pfeifer 2000, p. 434. ^ Müller 1998, pp. 4–5; Petrikovits 1999. ^ a b c Tacitus Germania, 2). ^ Caesar, 2.4. ^ Strabo, Geography, 7.1.2. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 6.34, for example, refers to the main group of these Germani, the Eburones as Gauls. ^ Johnston 2019. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 39.49, 38.40. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.49 (English, Greek). ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 53.12.6 (English, Greek). ^ Procopius, Gothic War, 5.11.29; Agathias, Histories, 1.2. ^ See for example Müller (1998), p. 2-4 where Neumann goes through many proposals. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, Book 4. ^ Polverini 1994, p. 2. ^ a b Christensen 2002. ^ Pliny the elder, Natural History, 4.27(/"13") and 37.11(/"7"). ^ Timpe 1989, p. 330. ^ Strabo, Geography, 7.3.17; Tacitus, Germania, 46; Pliny, Natural History,4.28. ^ Livy, History of Rome, 40.57. ^ a b Goffart 2006, p. 49. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 187; Goffart 1989, pp. 112–113. ^ James 2009, p. 29. ^ Pohl 2004b, p. 172. ^ Pohl 2004b, pp. 171-172. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 11. ^ Ringe, Don (13 January 2009). "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence". Language Log. ^ Goffart 2006, pp. 278 & 282; Goffart 1989, p. 153. ^ a b Pohl 2004b, p. 174. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 46. ^ Green 2007, pp. 409-413. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 198; Bede, History, 5.9. ^ Heather 2009, p. 115. ^ Concerning the archaeological evidence, for the Gothic peoples see Heather (2009), p. 120. ^ Goffart 2006, pp. 46–47; Goffart 1989, p. 29. ^ Goffart 2006, 43, pp.48ff. ^ Chadwick 1945, p. 143. ^ Nielsen 2004. ^ Wolfram 1997, Introduction. ^ Halsall 2014, p. 516. ^ Heather 2010, p. 614. ^ Halsall 2014, p. 18. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 7. ^ Heather 2009, p. 19. ^ Heather 2007. ^ Liebeschuetz 2015, pp. 94-96. ^ Liebeschuetz 2015, p. 90. ^ See map at Müller (1998), p. 145. ^ Martens 2014. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 6.24 ^ Ringe 2006, p. 84; Anthony 2007, pp. 57–58; Iversen & Kroonen 2017, p. 519. ^ Stiles 2017, p. 889; Rübekeil 2017, p. 989. ^ Schrijver 2014, p. 197; Seebold 2017, p. 978; Iversen & Kroonen 2017, p. 518. ^ Seebold 2017, pp. 978–979. ^ Seebold 2017, pp. 979–980. ^ Anthony 2007, p. 360; Seebold 2017, p. 978; Heyd 2017, pp. 348–349; Kristiansen et al. 2017, p. 340; Reich 2018, pp. 110–111. ^ Anthony 2007, pp. 360, 367–368; Seebold 2017, p. 978; Kristiansen et al. 2017, p. 340; Iversen & Kroonen 2017, pp. 512–513. ^ a b Mallory 1989, p. 87; Polomé 1992, p. 51; Ringe 2006, p. 85 ^ Fortson 2004, p. 338; Kroonen 2013, p. 247; Nedoma 2017, p. 876. ^ Schrijver 2014, p. 197; Nedoma 2017, p. 876. ^ a b Ringe 2006, p. 85. ^ Ringe 2006, p. 85; Nedoma 2017, p. 875; Seebold 2017, p. 975; Rübekeil 2017, p. 989. ^ Ringe 2006, p. 85; Rübekeil 2017, p. 989. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 422; Rübekeil 2017, p. 990. ^ Rübekeil 2017, p. 990. ^ a b Todd 1992, p. 13; Green 1998, p. 108; Ringe 2006, p. 152; Sanders 2010, p. 27; Nedoma 2017, p. 875. ^ a b Nedoma 2017, p. 876. ^ Green 1998, p. 13; Nedoma 2017, p. 876. ^ Nedoma 2017, p. 875. ^ Nedoma 2017, p. 876; Rübekeil 2017, p. 991. ^ Schrijver 2014, p. 183; Rübekeil 2017, p. 992. ^ a b Rübekeil 2017, p. 992. ^ a b Nedoma 2017, pp. 876–877. ^ Fortson 2004, pp. 338–339; Nedoma 2017, p. 876. ^ Ringe 2006, p. 85; Nedoma 2017, p. 879. ^ a b Nedoma 2017, p. 879. ^ a b Nedoma 2017, p. 881. ^ Rübekeil 2017, p. 986. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 339; Rübekeil 2017, p. 993. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 339; Seebold 2017, p. 976. ^ Nedoma 2017, pp. 879, 881. ^ Stiles 2017, pp. 903–905. ^ Nedoma 2017, pp. 879, 881; Rübekeil 2017, p. 995. ^ Schrijver 2014, p. 185; Rübekeil 2017, p. 992. ^ Rübekeil 2017, p. 991. ^ Nedoma 2017, p. 877. ^ Nedoma 2017, p. 878. ^ Rübekeil 2017, pp. 987, 991, 997; Nedoma 2017, pp. 881–883 ^ Nedoma 2017, pp. 877, 881. ^ Rübekeil 2017, pp. 987, 997–998. ^ Nedoma 2017, p. 880. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 339. ^ Rübekeil 2017, pp. 987, 991, 997. ^ Plin. Nat. 4.28 ^ Pomponius Mela, Description of the World, trans. F.E. Romer, 3.31–3.32 ^ Strabo, Geography, 7.1.3 ^ Todd 1992, p. 23. ^ Maciałowicz, Rudnicki & Strobin 2016. ^ a b c Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 61. ^ Müller 2011. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 3-4. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 4.27(/39). ^ Kaul & Martens 1995. ^ Ozment 2005, p. 58fn. ^ Woolf 2012, pp. 105–107. ^ Kaul & Martens 1995, p. 153. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 1.51 ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 14.9.3. ^ Cassius Dio, 48.49. ^ Cassius Dio, 51.21. ^ Cassius Dio, 53.26. ^ Tacitus, Annales, 2.26. ^ Strabo, Geography, 4.3.4. ^ Suetonius, Galba 12. ^ Tacitus, The History, 2.5.[re-check] ^ Fuhrmann 2012, pp. 128-129. ^ Goldsworthy 2016, pp. 201, 210, 212. ^ Boatwright, Gargola & Talbert 2004, p. 360; Jones 1992, p. 128. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 304. ^ Dio Cassius, Book 72. Greek: [1] "Γερμανοὺς γὰρ τοὺς ἐν τοῖς ἄνω χωρίοις οἰκοῦντας ὀνομάζομεν" and [2] "πολέμῳ τοῦ Μάρκου τῷ πρὸς τοὺς Γερμανούς". ^ Heather 2009, p. 101. ^ Geary 1999, p. 109. ^ Southern 2001, p. 63. ^ Historia Augusta, "Life of Maximinus", 1.5. ^ a b c Todd (1992), p. 140 ^ Heather 2009, pp. 127-228. ^ a b Wolfram 1988, p. 44. ^ a b Heather 2009, p. 112. ^ Wolfram 1988, p. 48. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 46–49. ^ Pohl 1998, p. 131; Wolfram 1988, pp. 57–59; Nixon & Rodgers 1994, pp. 100–101; Christensen 2002, pp. 207–209. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 234-237. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 103. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 142. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 173. ^ Heather 2009, p. 160. ^ Heather 2009, p. 594. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 176–178; Wolfram 1997, pp. 79–87. ^ Contrast Halsall (2007), pp. 180-185 and Heather (2009), pp. 189-196. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 183–185; Heather 2009, p. 194; Wolfram 1997, p. 110. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 206,217. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 199. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 94. ^ Heather 2009, pp. 182-183,197. ^ Goffart 2006, p. 95. ^ Goffart 2006, pp. 88-89. ^ Heather 2009, p. 182. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 211. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 236–238. ^ Heather 2009, p. 214. ^ Heather 2006, pp. 261–262,461. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 240–242. ^ Heather 2006, pp. 262–272. ^ Halsall 2007, p. 244. ^ Halsall 2013, pp. 357–368. ^ Heather 2009, pp. 266–332. ^ Geary 2002, p. 113. ^ Heather 2009, p. 240, citing Paul the Deacon. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 308. ^ Liebeschuetz 2015, p. 97. ^ Geary 2002, pp. 123-128,137-138. ^ Goffart 2006, pp. 41–42. ^ Heather 2009, pp. 371-372. ^ Derry 2012, pp. 16–35; Clements 2005, pp. 214–229; Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 310. ^ Vasiliev 1936, pp. 117-135. ^ Tacitus 2009, p. 39 Germania, 4. ^ Tacitus 2009, p. 39 Germania, 5. ^ Owen 1960, pp. 166-174. ^ Owen 1960, pp. 174-178. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, p. 23. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006, pp. 324. ^ MacDowall 2000, p. 16. ^ Caesar, Gallic War, 6.21. ^ Caesar 2019, pp. 153–154, Caesar, Gallic War, 6.22. ^ Halsall 2014, p. 518. ^ Manco 2013, p. 208. 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Antiquity. 91 (356): 334–347. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.17. ISSN 0003-598X. Kroonen, Guus (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. Brill. ISBN 9789004183407. Liebeschuetz, Wolf (2002), "Gens into regnum: the Vandals", in Goetz; Jarnut; Pohl (eds.), Regna and Gentes, pp. 55–83, ISBN 9004125248 Liebeschuetz, Wolf (2015). East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28952-9. Lippi-Green, Rosina (1992), Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics, ISBN 9027235937 MacDowall, Simon (2000). Germanic Warrior 236-568 AD. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 1841761524. Maciałowicz, Andrzej; Rudnicki, Marcin; Strobin, Anna (2016), "With gold and sword. Contacts of Celts and early Germanics in central Europe. The historical background: 3rd - 1st c. BC", in Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz (ed.), The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the early Middle Ages", vol. 4: "500 BC - 500 AD", pp. 133–161 Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05052-1. Manco, Jean (2013). Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05178-8. Martens, Jes (2014), "Jastorf and Jutland (On the northern extent of the so-called Jastorf Culture)", Das Jastorf-Konzept und die vorrömische Eisenzeit im nördlichen Mitteleuropa Moulton, William G.; Buccini, Anthony F. "The Emergence of Germanic Languages". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 27 March 2020. Müller, Christel (2011), "Autopsy of a Crisis: Wealth, Protogenes and the City of Olbia in c. 200 BC", in Archibald; Davies; Gabrielsen (eds.), The Economies of Hellenistic Societies. Third to First Centuries BC, Oxford University Press, pp. 324–344 Müller, Rosemarie, ed. (1998), Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, ISBN 9783110808315 Nedoma, Robert (2017). "The documentation of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 2. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Nielsen, Hans Frede (2004), "On the Terms for Germanic Employed by Scandinavian Scholars in the 19th and 20th Centuries", in Beck; Geuenich; Steuer; Hakelberg (eds.), Zur Geschichte der Gleichung "germanisch–deutsch", Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 34, ISBN 9783110910964 Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara Saylor, eds. (1994). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini. Translated by Mynors, R. A. B. ISBN 9780520083264. Owen, Francis (1960). The Germanic People. New York: Bookman Associates. Ozment, Steven (2005). A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-093483-5. Petrikovits (1999), "Germani Cisrhenani", in Beck (ed.), Germanenprobleme in heutiger Sicht, De Gruyter, ISBN 9783110164381 Pfeifer, Wolfgang (2000). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN 978-3-05000-626-0. Pohl, Walter (1998). "The Barbarian Successor States". In Leslie Webster; Michelle Brown (eds.). The Transformation of the Roman World, AD 400–900. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-0585-7. Pohl, Walter (2002). Die Völkerwanderung: Eroberung und Integration (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. ISBN 3-17-015566-0. Pohl, Walter (2004a), Die Germanen, Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte, 57, ISBN 9783486701623 Pohl, Walter (2004b), "Der Germanenbegriff vom 3. bis 8. Jahrhundert – Identifikationen und Abgrenzungen", in Beck; Geuenich; Steuer; Hakelberg (eds.), Zur Geschichte der Gleichung "germanisch–deutsch", Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 34, ISBN 9783110910964 Pohl, Walter (2006), "Telling the Difference; Signs of ethnic identity", in Noble (ed.), From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, ISBN 9781134337651 Polomé, Edgar C. (1992). Lippi-Green, Rosina (ed.). Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3593-0. Polomé, Edgar Charles; Fee, Christopher R.; Leeming, David Adams (2006). "Germanic mythology". In Leeming, David Adams (ed.). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199916481. Retrieved 3 January 2020. Polverini, Leandro (1994). "Germani in Italia prima dei Cimbri". Germani in Italia. Randsborg, Klavs (2015). Roman Reflections: Iron Age to Viking Age in Northern Europe. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-7954-6. Reich, David (2018). Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-255438-3. Ringe, Donald (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. A Linguistic History of English. 1 (2017 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-153633-5. Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2018). "The Barbarians". A Short History of the Middle Ages (5 ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 21–24. ISBN 9781442636224. Roymans, Nico (2014). Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power : The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire. Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.5117/9789053567050. ISBN 9789053567050. Rübekeil, Ludwig (2017). "The dialectology of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 2. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Sanders, Ruth H. (2010). German: Biography of a Language. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538845-9. Schmidt, Karl Horst (1991). "The Celts and the Ethnogenesis of the Germanic People". Historische Sprachforschung. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 104 (1): 129–152. JSTOR 40849016. Schrijver, Peter (2014). Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25449-1. Schütte, Gudmund (2013). Our Forefathers. Translated by Young, Jean. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107674783. Seebold, Elmar (2017). "The lexicon of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 2. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Southern, Pat (2001), The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, ISBN 9781134553815 Stiles, Patrick V. (2017). "The phonology of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 2. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Timpe, Dieter (1989), "Entdeckungsgeschichte", in Beck, Heinrich (ed.), Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 7, pp. 307–391, ISBN 9783110114454 Todd, Malcolm (1992). The Early Germans (2009 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-3756-0. Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1936). The Goths in the Crimea. Medieval Academy of America. Verhart, Leo (2006). Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn (in Dutch). Utrecht: Matrijs. ISBN 978-90-5345-303-2. Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4964-6. Wofagiewicz, Ryszard (1997), "The Pre-Roman Iron Age in Pomerania", Chronological Problems of the Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe, Arkæologiske skrifter, 7 Wolfram, Herwig (1988). History of the Goths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05259-5. Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08511-6. Woolf, Greg (2012). Rome: An Empire's Story. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-932518-4. Primary[edit] Caesar, Julius (2019). The War for Gaul: A New Translation. Translated by James O’Donnell. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69117-492-1. Tacitus, Cornelius (2009). Agricola and Germany. Translated by Anthony R. Birley. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19953-926-0. External links[edit] This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: entries do not comply with WP:ELCITE. Please help improve this section if you can. (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Germanic peoples and Ancient Germanic history and culture. Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Germanic peoples. Classical and medieval sources Agathias, Histories: https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp92bUzuMoQC Bede, Ecclesiastical history of England : https://archive.org/details/venerablebedesec00bede/ Latin: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede5.shtml Caesar, De Bello Gallico: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0448.phi001 Cicero, Against Piso: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi027 Dio Cassius, Roman History: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/ Gregory of Tours Historia Augusta: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html Jordanes, Getica: https://archive.org/details/gothichistoryofj00jorduoft/page/n4/mode/2up Titus Livy, History of Rome: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0914.phi00140 Paul the Deacon, History of the Langobards: https://archive.org/details/historyoflangoba00pauluoft Latin: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/pauldeacon.html Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0978.phi001 Pomponius Mela, Description of the World: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015042048507 Procopius, Gothic War: https://books.google.com/books?id=nt0KDAAAQBAJ Ptolemy, Geography, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy Strabo, Geography: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001 Suetonius, 12 Caesars: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/ Tacitus, Germania: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002 Tacitus, The History: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 Zosimus v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category v t e Barbarian kingdoms established around the Migration Period Germanic kingdoms Alamannian Kingdom Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy Bavarian Duchy Burgundian Kingdom Frankish Kingdom Frisian Kingdom Gepid Kingdom Herulian Kingdom Lombard Kingdom Suebian Kingdom (Danube) Suebian Kingdom (Gallaecia) Ostrogothic Kingdom Rugian Kingdom Saxonian Duchy Scirian Kingdom Thuringii Kingdom Vandal Kingdom Visigothic Kingdom Hunnic kingdoms Hunnic Empire Avar kingdoms Avar Khaganate Turkic kingdoms Bulgar Khanate Iranian kingdoms Alani Kingdom of Orleans Alani Kingdom of Valencia Celtic kingdoms Bro Gwened Cornouaille Domnonée Dumnonia Hen Ogledd Gaelic Ireland Petty kingdoms of Wales Pictland Sub-Roman Britain Slavic kingdoms Antes Tribal Union Carantian Principality Samo's Empire Sclaveni Berber kingdoms Mauro-Roman Kingdom Kingdom of Altava Kingdom of Ouarsenis Kingdom of the Aures Arab kingdoms Ghassanids Tanukhids Salihids See also Foederati Cantabri Vascones Odoacer's Kingdom(?) Vistula Veneti(?) 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en-wikipedia-org-8905	----	Hostilian - Wikipedia Hostilian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 251 Roman emperor Hostilian Marble figure from the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Roman emperor Reign July – November 251 Predecessor Decius and Herennius Etruscus Successor Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus Co-emperor Trebonianus Gallus Died November 251 Names Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus Father Decius Mother Herennia Etruscilla Hostilian (Latin: Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus; died November 251) was Roman emperor from July to November 251. Hostilian was born to Decius and Herennia Etruscilla at an unknown date and elevated to Caesar in May 251 by Decius, the same month as his older brother, Herennius Etruscus, was raised to co-emperor. After Decius and Herennius Etruscus were killed at the Battle of Abritus, an ambush by the Goths, Trebonianus Gallus was proclaimed emperor by the legions. Almost immediately, he elevated Hostilian to co-emperor and his own son, Volusianus, to Caesar. Hostilian died in November 251, either due to plague or being murdered by Trebonianus Gallus. Contents 1 History 2 Numismatics 3 References 3.1 Primary sources 3.2 Citations 3.3 Bibliography History[edit] Hostilian was born at an unknown date, to Decius, a Roman general who later became Emperor, and his wife Herennia Etruscilla. Decius became emperor after being sent to lead troops in the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia, where he was declared emperor by his troops in September 249, in opposition to Philip the Arab. He led his troops against Philip, their forces meeting in September 249, near Verona, Italy. Philip was killed in battle, after which the Roman Senate declared Decius emperor and honored him with the name Traianus, a reference to Emperor Trajan.[1][2][3] Hostilian was elevated to caesar in May 251, by his father Decius.[1][4] The elevation came after the promotion of his older brother, Herennius Etruscus, to augustus in the same month, making Herennius Etruscus co-emperor, with Hostilian as the heir of either or both of them.[1][4][5] After Decius and Herennius Etruscus were killed by the Goths at the Battle of Abritus, an ambush in July 251, Trebonianus Gallus was declared emperor. To placate the public, Trebonianus Gallus elevated Hostilian to augustus almost immediately, making him co-emperor.[6][1][7] Hostilian was co-emperor until his death in November 251; the reason for his death is disputed.[1][7] Aurelius Victor and the author of the Epitome de Caesaribus say that Hostilian died of a plague. Zosimus claims that he was killed by Trebonianus Gallus.[8] After his death, Trebonianus Gallus made Volusianus, his son, co-emperor.[1] Numismatics[edit] The aurei of Hostilian fall into four types bearing the bust of Hostilian on the obverse, with the reverse showing: Mars walking to the right; priestly implements; Mercury standing; and Roma seated holding Victoria.[9] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hostilian. Primary sources[edit] De Caesaribus (30.2) by Aurelius Victor.[10] Epitome de Caesaribus (30.2) by Anonymus.[10] Historia Nova (1.25.1) by Zosimus.[8] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e f Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 28. ^ Chrystal 2015, p. 193. ^ Varner 2004, p. 207. ^ a b Salisbury & Mattingly 1924, p. 15. ^ Bunson 2014, p. 265. ^ Bunson 2014, pp. 255–256. ^ a b Salisbury & Mattingly 1924, p. 16. ^ a b Manders 2012, p. 18. ^ Friedberg, Friedberg & Friedberg 2017, p. 48. ^ a b Haas 1983, p. 134. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195123326. Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Facts On File. ISBN 9781438110271. Chrystal, Paul (2015). Roman Women: The Women who influenced the History of Rome. Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1781552872. Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S.; Friedberg, Robert (2017). Gold Coins of the World - 9th edition: From Ancient Times to the Present. An Illustrated Standard Catlaog with Valuations. Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 9780871840097. Haas, Christopher J. (1983). "Imperial Religious Policy and Valerian's Persecution of the Church, A.D. 257-260". Church History. 52 (2). JSTOR 3166947. Manders, Erika (2012). Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193 - 284. Brill. ISBN 9789004189706. Salisbury, F. S.; Mattingly, H. (1924). "The Reign of Trajan Decius". The Journal of Roman Studies. 14. doi:10.2307/296323. JSTOR 296323. Varner, Eric R. (2004). Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture. Brill. ISBN 978-9004135772. Regnal titles Preceded by Decius and Herennius Etruscus Roman Emperor 251 Served alongside: Trebonianus Gallus Succeeded by Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8909	----	Plato - Wikipedia Plato From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th-century B.C. Classical Athenian philosopher, founder of Platonism For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Plato Roman copy of a portrait bust by Silanion for the Academia in Athens (c. 370 BC) Born 428/427 or 424/423 BC Athens, Greece Died 348/347 BC (age c. 80) Athens, Greece Notable work Apology Crito Euthyphro Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Republic Symposium Timaeus Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Platonism Notable students Aristotle Eudoxus of Cnidus Heraclides Ponticus Philip of Opus Speusippus Xenocrates Main interests Metaphysics Ethics Politics Epistemology Aesthetics Soul Love Mathematics Language Education Cosmology Eschatology Notable ideas Platonic philosophy Innatism Theory of forms Idealism Influences Socrates Pythagoras Parmenides Heraclitus the Sophists Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Diotima[1] Cratylus Theaetetus Theodorus Archytas Homer Hesiod Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy (and religion), especially Platonism, including Aristotelianism, Old Academy, Academic skepticism, Middle Platonism, Neoplatonism, Church Fathers and Christian Platonism, Chaldean Oracles, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Islamic Platonism, Byzantine philosophy, Florentine Academy and Renaissance Platonism, Cambridge Platonism, Modern Platonism Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe;[2] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn, pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered as one of the most important and influential individuals in human history,[3] and the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle.[a] Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[5] The so-called neoplatonism of philosophers such as Plotinus and Porphyry greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[6] Plato was an innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms known by pure reason, in which Plato presents a solution to the problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids. His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[b] Unlike the work of nearly all of his contemporaries, Plato's entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[8] Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, Plato's works have never been without readers since the time they were written.[9] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 Birth and family 1.1.2 Name 1.1.3 Education 1.2 Later life and death 2 Influences 2.1 Pythagoras 2.1.1 Plato and mathematics 2.2 Heraclitus and Parmenides 2.3 Socrates 3 Philosophy 3.1 Metaphysics 3.1.1 The Forms 3.1.2 The soul 3.2 Epistemology 3.2.1 Recollection 3.2.2 Justified true belief 3.3 Ethics 3.3.1 Justice 3.4 Politics 3.5 Art and poetry 3.6 Unwritten doctrines 4 Themes of Plato's dialogues 4.1 Trial of Socrates 4.1.1 The trial in other dialogues 4.2 Allegories 4.2.1 The Cave 4.2.2 Ring of Gyges 4.2.3 Chariot 4.3 Dialectic 4.4 Family 4.5 Narration 5 History of Plato's dialogues 5.1 Chronology 5.1.1 Writings of doubted authenticity 5.1.2 Spurious writings 5.2 Textual sources and history 5.2.1 Modern editions 6 Criticism 7 Legacy 7.1 In the arts 7.2 In philosophy 8 See also 8.1 Philosophy 8.2 Ancient scholarship 8.3 Medieval scholarship 8.4 Modern scholarship 8.5 Other 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links Biography Early life Main article: Early life of Plato Birth and family Diogenes Laertius is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life and education. Plato belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, Plato's father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[10] According to the ancient Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the mythological deity Poseidon.[11][12] Through his mother, Plato was related to Solon. Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of Draco (except for the death penalty for homicide).[12] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).[13] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[14] The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c] between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.[d] The traditional date of Plato's birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or 427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails argues, the text does not state that Plato left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and Hermogenes.[24] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[25] According to Neanthes, Plato was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC).[26] Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of Plato's birth.[22][23] The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[19] Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th Olympiad.[18][27] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[28] Speusippus was Plato's nephew. Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of the Academy).[13] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston,[29] and presumably brothers of Plato, though some have argued they were uncles.[e] In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[31] Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[32] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[33] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[34] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[35] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[36] In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras.[37] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also the happier days of his own family."[38] Name The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this name remains mysterious. Platon is a nickname from the adjective platýs (πλατύς) 'broad'. Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone),[39] the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[40] The sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead.[41][42] While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."[43] Plato was a wrestler His true name was supposedly Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς), meaning 'best reputation'.[f] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.[44] But there is only one inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[45] However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources.[40] Education Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[46] His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[47] Plato invokes Damon many times in the Republic. Plato was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[48] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines.[49] Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied."[50][need quotation to verify] Later life and death Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom Plato may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and Cyrene.[51] Plato's own statement was that he visited Italy and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the sensuality of life there. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[52] This land was named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations[53][54] The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[55] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[56][57] Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[58] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery.[g] Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher, subsequently bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[60] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato. According to Seneca, Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[61] The Suda indicates that he lived to 82 years,[18] while Neanthes claims an age of 84.[19] A variety of sources have given accounts of his death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[62] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[63] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[64] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[64] Plato owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a younger relative, as Plato had an elder brother or uncle by this name. Influences Pythagoras Bust of Pythagoras in Rome. Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant. Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[65] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean."[66] It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.[67] George Karamanolis notes that Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally.[68] According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".[69][70] Plato and mathematics Plato may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, Plato was considered an accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece, who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and Plato. Plato helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic.[h] Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum In the dialogue Timaeus Plato associated each of the four classical elements (earth, air, water, and fire) with a regular solid (cube, octahedron, icosahedron, and tetrahedron respectively) due to their shape, the so-called Platonic solids. The fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron, was supposed to be the element which made up the heavens. Heraclitus and Parmenides The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly influenced Plato and continues today.[67] Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Brugghen Bust of Parmenides from Velia The surviving fragments written by Heraclitus suggest the view that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. His image of the river, with ever-changing waters, is well known. According to some ancient traditions such as that of Diogenes Laërtius, Plato received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who held the more radical view that continuous change warrants scepticism because we cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.[72] Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Being and the view that change is an illusion.[67] John Palmer notes "Parmenides' distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology."[73] These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory of Forms.[72] Plato's most self-critical dialogue is the Parmenides, which features Parmenides and his student Zeno, who, following Parmenides' denial of change, argued forcefully through his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion. Plato's Sophist dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments against Parmenides. In the dialogue, Plato distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not. Socrates See also: Socratic problem Bust of Socrates at the Louvre. Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new";[74] if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.[75] Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.[76] Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of Plato though, Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[clarification needed][77] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the Meno Plato refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is possible that Plato and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[78] Philosophy Metaphysics In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. The Forms The "windmill proof" of the Pythagorean theorem found in Euclid's Elements. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the Forms. According to this theory of Forms, there are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason (λογική), which ground what is apparent. It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th-century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For Plato, though grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. Plato's Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of "the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For Plato, this is because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate". As Plato's solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, Plato's philosophy is unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, Plato's best-known argument in support of the Forms was the "one over many" argument.[79] What is justice? Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many, the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation. The soul Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[80][81] Epistemology Socrates also discusses several aspects of epistemology. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge (episteme) and opinion (doxa). Plato's epistemology involves Socrates arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are grasped by pure reason. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".[82] In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. In Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so-called "Socratic irony." Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position, thus ending in aporia. Recollection In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the state before one is born, and not of observation or study.[83] Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[84] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[85] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[86] Justified true belief A Venn diagram illustrating the classical theory of knowledge. Many have interpreted Plato as stating — even having been the first to write — that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[87] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of their true belief.[88] And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so.[89][90] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge, which Gettier addresses, is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[91] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular.[92][93] Ethics Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue is innate and cannot be learned. Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name: "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a) Justice As above, in the Republic, Plato asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune – a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and social obligation?” Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato further argues that such understanding of Forms produces and ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three classes (philosopher kings, guardians, and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul (reason, spirit, and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.[94] Politics Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment of Plato's Republic The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views. Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.[95] Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race."[96] Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth"[97] and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[98] Socrates suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[99] Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy, the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.[100] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[101] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[102] Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as a popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[103][99][104] Art and poetry Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,[105] and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Unwritten doctrines Main article: Plato's unwritten doctrines Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato or Poseidon. For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines[106][107][108] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (Ancient Greek: ἄγραφα δόγματα, romanized: agrapha dogmata)."[109] The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."[110] The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."[111] In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."[112] Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".[113] It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[114] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[45] Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly, the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".[115] "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".[115] The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[i] or Ficino[j] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[116] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[117] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[k] Themes of Plato's dialogues Trial of Socrates The Death of Socrates (1787), by Jacques-Louis David The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.[118] Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.[119] In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill".[120] The trial in other dialogues See also: List of speakers in Plato's dialogues If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.[121][122] In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people.[123] In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.[124] In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.[125] Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.[126] In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Allegories Main article: Allegorical interpretations of Plato Mythos and logos are terms that evolved throughout classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.[127] It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead, he made abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use. Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[l] First, there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally, there were those non-verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths, they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.[128] It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally, he also invented altogether new myths.[129] Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave. The Cave Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam, according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina, Vienna Main article: Allegory of the Cave The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible (noeton) and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[130] Ring of Gyges A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is proposed in the Republic by the character of Glaucon, and considered by the rest of the characters for its ethical consequences, whether an individual possessing it would be most happy abstaining or doing injustice. Chariot He also compares the soul (psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul composed of a charioteer and two horses. The charioteer is a symbol of the intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon), and the two horses represent the moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), respectively, to illustrate the conflict between them. Dialectic Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[131] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[131] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who compares Plato's dialectic to that of Hegel.[132] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[133] Family Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,[134][135] and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone. Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, in the fourth book of the Republic the character of Socrates says this was only because of nomos or custom and not because of nature, and thus women needed paidia, rearing or education to be equal to men. In the "merely probable tale" of the eponymous character in the Timaeus, unjust men who live corrupted lives would be reincarnated as women or various animal kinds. Narration Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end. Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873) Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[m] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,[137] Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.[138] Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[139] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down. History of Plato's dialogues Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin translation and notes of Jean de Serres Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus pagination. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. The list includes works of doubtful authenticity (written in italic), and includes the Letters. 1st tetralogy Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo 2nd tetralogy Cratylus, Theatetus, Sophist, Statesman 3nd tetralogy Parmenides, Philebus, Symposium, Phaedrus 4th tetralogy Alcibiades I, Alcibiades II, Hipparchus, Lovers 5th tetralogy Theages, Charmides, Laches, Lysis 6th tetralogy Euthydemus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno 7th tetralogy Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Ion, Menexenus 8th tetralogy Clitophon, Republic, Timaeus, Critias 9th tetralogy Minos, Laws, Epinomis, Letters Chronology No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[140][141] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),[142] given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[143] Chronology was not a consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[144] Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[145] Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[146] The following represents one relatively common division.[147] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are sceptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[148] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[7] Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, Hippias Minor, Hippias Major, Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theatetus Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.[146] A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational ... In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul ... Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[149] Lewis Campbell was the first[150] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove the great probability that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics[151] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[145] Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[152] Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[153] although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[152] While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[146] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there is not total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.[154] Writings of doubted authenticity Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[155] For below: (*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.[156] Alcibiades I (*), Alcibiades II (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Letters (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), Lovers (‡), Theages (‡) Spurious writings The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus. Textual sources and history First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. See also: List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[157] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[158] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions, however, the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[159] In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[160] The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[161] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[162] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[163] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[164][165][166]A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century.[167] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[168] To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[169] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[170][171] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. The 1578 edition[172] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[173] Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900–1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[174][175] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[176][177] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[178][179] The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[180][181] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[182] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[183] Criticism The most famous criticism of the Theory of Forms is the Third Man Argument by Aristotle in the Metaphysics. Plato had actually already considered this objection with the idea of "large" rather than "man" in the dialogue Parmenides, using the elderly Elean philosophers Parmenides and Zeno characters anachronistically to criticize the character of the younger Socrates who proposed the idea. The dialogue ends in aporia. Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. Legacy In the arts Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens. Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg Chronicle depicts Plato and others as anachronistic schoolmen. In philosophy Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453.[184] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[185] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[186] During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.[187] The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[188] "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929). The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter-day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.[citation needed] W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy.[189][relevant?] More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the truths of mathematics as the best support in favour of this view. Most mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered rather than invented.[citation needed] Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as unable to cause anything, but it is unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.[citation needed] See also Library resources about Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Philosophy portal Philosophy Socratic Problem Platonic Academy Plato's unwritten doctrines List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Commentaries on Plato Neoplatonism Academic Skepticism Ancient scholarship Philip of Opus, Plato's amanuensis Speusippus, Plato's nephew and the second scholarch of the academy Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Arcesilaus Carneades Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, although he had no connection to the previous Academy of Plato Proclus Ammonius Saccas Medieval scholarship Yahya Ibn al-Batriq, Syrian scholar and associate of Al-Kindi who translated Timaeus into Arabic Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Arab scholar who either amended or surpassed the Timaeus of al-Batriq and translated Plato's Republic and Laws into Arabic Ishaq ibn Hunayn, translated Plato's Sophist with the commentary of Olympiodorus the Younger Yahya ibn Adi, translated Laws into Arabic Al-Farabi, author of a commentary on Plato's political philosophy Averroes, author of a commentary on the Republic Modern scholarship Marsilio Ficino, Italian scholar and first translator of Plato's complete works into Latin Stephanus pagination, the standard reference numbering in Platonic scholarship, based on the 1578 complete Latin translation by Jean de Serres, and published by Henri Estienne Johann Gottfried Stallbaum, major Plato scholar and commentator in Latin Eduard Zeller, scholar and classicist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato scholar and classicist John Alexander Stewart, major Plato scholar and classicist Victor Cousin, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Saisset, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Chambry, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Pentti Saarikoski, translator into Finnish Friedrich Schleiermacher, philologist and the first to translate Plato's complete works into German Otto Apelt, scholar and translator Plato's complete works into German Benjamin Jowett, scholar and the first translated Plato's complete works into English Lewis Campbell, scholar and author of commentaries Martin Heidegger, philosopher and author of a commentary on Plato's Sophist James Adam, major Plato scholar and author of the authoritative critical edition of the Republic John Burnet, major Plato scholar and translator Francis Macdonald Cornford, translator of Republic and author of commentaries Reginald Hackforth, classical scholar and translator of Phaedrus William Keith Chambers Guthrie, classical scholar and historian E. R. Dodds, classical scholar and author of commentaries on Plato Thomas Taylor, classical scholar and translator Édouard des Places, classical philologist, and translator of Plato's Laws in French Allan Bloom, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic in English Myles Burnyeat, major Plato scholar Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar Guy Cromwell Field, Plato scholar Paul Friedländer, Plato scholar Terence Irwin, major Plato scholar Richard Kraut, major Plato scholar Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato Eric Havelock, Plato scholar Debra Nails, Plato scholar Alexander Nehamas, major Plato scholar Thomas Pangle, major Plato scholar and translator of Laws in English Eugène Napoleon Tigerstedt, major Plato scholar Paul Shorey, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic John Madison Cooper, major Plato scholar and translator of several works of Plato, and editor of the Hackett edition of the complete works of Plato in English Leo Strauss, major Plato scholar and author of commentaries of Platonic political philosophy Jacob Klein, Plato scholar and author of commentaries on Meno Seth Benardete, major Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, major Plato scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer, major Plato scholar Paul Woodruff, major Plato scholar Gisela Striker, Plato scholar Heinrich Gomperz, Plato scholar David Sedley, Plato scholar Gábor Betegh, Plato scholar Karl Albert, Plato scholar Herwig Görgemanns, Plato scholar John M. Dillon, Plato scholar Catherine Zuckert, Plato scholar and political philosopher Julia Annas, Plato scholar and moral philosopher John McDowell, translated Theaetetus in English Robin Waterfield, Plato scholar and translator in English Léon Robin, scholar of Ancient Greek philosophy, translator of the complete works of Plato in French Alain Badiou, French philosopher, loosely translated Republic in French Chen Chung-hwan, scholar and commentator, translated Parmenides in Chinese Liu Xiaofeng, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Chinese Michitaro Tanaka and Norio Fujisawa, translators of the complete works of Plato in Japanese Joseph Gerhard Liebes, major scholar and commentator, the first to translate Plato's complete works in Hebrew Margalit Finkelberg, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Hebrew Virgilio S. Almario, translated Republic to Filipino Mahatma Gandhi, translated Apology in Gujarati Zakir Husain, Indian politician and academic, translated Republic in Urdu[190] Pierre Hadot, scholar and author of commentaries of Plato in French Luc Brisson, translator and author of commentaries on several works of Plato, and editor of the complete French translations; widely considered to be the most important contemporary scholar of Plato[191] Other Oxyrhynchus Papyri, including the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228, containing the oldest fragment of the Laches, and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24, that of the Book X of the Republic Plato, a lunar impact crater on the Moon aged 3.8 billion years, named after the Greek philosopher Plato's Dream, a story written in the 18th century by the French philosopher and satirist Voltaire Notes ^ "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived — a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method — can be called his invention."[4] ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"[7] ^ Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades, the son of Thales." Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which the Spartans expelled them after Plato's birth there.[15] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[16] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[17] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[16] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as well.[18] ^ Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[19] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[20] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[21] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC.[22][23] ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."[30] ^ From aristos and kleos ^ A scroll by Philodemus analysed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than was previously believed.[59] ^ He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[71] ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147. ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997. ^ Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to the modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato. ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet".[136] References ^ Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie (Fall 1989). "Plato's Symposium and the Lacanian Theory of Transference: Or, What Is Love?". The South Atlantic Quarterly. Duke University Press. 88: 740. ^ Jones 2006. ^ Garner., Dwight (14 March 2014). "Who's More Famous Than Jesus?". NY Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. ^ Kraut 2013 ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, p. 17. ^ Whitehead 1978, p. 39. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith. ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction." ^ Cooper 1997, p. vii. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III • Nails 2002, p. 53 • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46 ^ The Great Books of the Western World: Plato, Biographical Note. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I ^ a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I • "Plato". Suda. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III ^ a b Nails 2002, p. 54. ^ Thucydides, 5.18 • Thucydides, 8.92 ^ a b c "Plato". Suda. ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, II ^ Nails 2006, p. 1. ^ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46. ^ a b Plato at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952. ^ Nails 2002, p. 247. ^ Nails 2002, p. 246. ^ Nietzsche 1967, p. 32. ^ Browne 1672. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 ^ Plato, Republic 368a • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ "Plato, Republic, Book 2, page 368". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Nails 2002, p. 53 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv ^ Plato, Charmides 158a • Nails 2002, pp. 228–229 ^ Plato, Charmides 158a • Plutarch, Pericles, IV ^ Plato, Gorgias 481d and Gorgias 513b • Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Plato, Parmenides 126c ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 11. ^ Kahn 1996, p. 186. ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 12 (footnote). ^ a b Sedley, David, Plato's Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 21–22 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV ^ Notopoulos 1939, p. 135 ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI 58:29–30; translation by Robert Mott Gummere ^ Laërtius 1925, § 4. ^ a b see Tarán 1981, p. 226. ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV • Smith 1870, p. 393 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, V ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. ^ McEvoy 1984. ^ Cairns 1961, p. xiii. ^ Plutarch, Cimon 13 ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Academus", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 5 ^ Robinson 1827, p. 16. ^ Dillon 2003, pp. 1–3. ^ Press 2000, p. 1. ^ Riginos 1976, p. 73. ^ Kennedy, Merrit (4 October 2019). "Ancient Greek Scroll's Hidden Contents Revealed Through Infrared Imaging". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 5 October 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2019. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Book iii, 20 Archived 28 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum. ^ Riginos 1976, p. 194. ^ Schall 1996. ^ a b Riginos 1976, p. 195. ^ Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a) ^ Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39. ^ a b c McFarlane, Thomas J. "Plato's Parmenides". Integralscience. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2017. ^ George Karamanolis (2013). "Numenius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017. ^ R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–119. ^ Russell, Bertrand (1991). History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 120–124. ISBN 978-0-415-07854-2. ^ Boyer 1991, p. 86 ^ a b Large, William. "Heraclitus". Arasite. Archived from the original on 6 March 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2017. ^ John Palmer (2019). Parmenides. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017. ^ Second Letter 341c ^ Strauss 1964, pp. 50–51. ^ Metaphysics 987b1–11 ^ McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn State Press. p. 268. ^ "The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019. ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book 1. The original term is "ἓν ἐπὶ πολλῶν." ^ Plato, Timaeus 44d & Timaeus 70 ^ Dorter 2006, p. 360. ^ Theaetetus 156a ^ Baird & Kaufmann 2008. ^ Taylor 2011, pp. 176–187. ^ Lee 2011, p. 432. ^ Taylor 2011, p. 189. ^ Fine 2003, p. 5. ^ Theaetetus 201c–d ^ Meno 97d–98a ^ McDowell 1973, p. 230. ^ Fine 1979, p. 366. ^ Theaetetus 210a–b ^ McDowell 1973, p. 256. ^ Republic, Book IV. ^ Blössner 2007, pp. 345–349. ^ Republic 473c–d ^ Republic 475c ^ Plato, Republic 488 ^ a b Blössner 2007, p. 350. ^ Republic 550b ^ Republic 554a ^ Republic 561a–b ^ Republic 571a ^ Dorter 2006, pp. 253–267. ^ Phaedrus (265a–c) ^ Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998. ^ Reale 1990. Cf. p. 14 and onwards. ^ Krämer 1990. Cf. pp. 38–47. ^ Physics 209b ^ Phaedrus 276c ^ Seventh Letter 344c ^ Seventh Letter 341c ^ Seventh Letter 344d ^ Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p. 5. ^ a b Metaphysics 987b ^ Gomperz 1931. ^ Gaiser 1998. ^ Apology 33d–34a ^ Apology38b ^ Phaedo 59b ^ Theaetetus 210d ^ Euthyphro 2a–b ^ Meno 94e–95a ^ Gorgias 521e–522a ^ Republic 7.517e ^ Apology 19b, c ^ Chappel, Timothy. "Mythos and Logos in Plato". Open University. Retrieved 20 August 2017. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Edelstein, Ludwig (October 1949). "The Function of the Myth in Plato's Philosophy". Journal of the History of Ideas. X (4): 463–481. doi:10.2307/2707185. JSTOR 2707185. ^ Partenie, Catalin. "Plato's Myths". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 27 May 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. ^ "Plato's The Allegory of the Cave: Meaning and Interpretation". Bachelor and Master. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017. ^ a b Blackburn 1996, p. 104. ^ Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press ^ Popper 1962, p. 133. ^ Lysis 213a ^ Republic 3.403b ^ Burnet 1911, p. 5 ^ Theaetetus 142c–143b ^ Theaetetus 143c ^ Burnet 1928a, § 177. ^ CDC Reeve (Delta Kappa Epsilon Distinguished Professor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill), A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues (p. vi) Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Hackett Publishing, 2012 ISBN 1-60384-917-3. ^ Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education at Simon Fraser University, Canada and Fellow of The Royal Society of Canada), Plato: Appendix 2: Notes on the authenticity and Groupings of Plato's works Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1-4725-0485-2. ^ Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings (page x) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine (edited by CL Griswold Jr Archived 15 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine), Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 0-271-04481-0. ^ JM Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1997); DS Hutchinson, Complete Works (p. xii) Archived 1 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Hackett Publishing, 1997. ^ H Tarrant (Professor of Classics at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales), Plato's First Interpreters Archived 24 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Cornell University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3792-X. ^ a b Cooper 1997, p. xiv. ^ a b c Dodds 2004. ^ See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn 1996; Fine 1999b. ^ Kraut 2013; Schofield 2002; and Rowe 2006. ^ Bloom 1982, p. 5. ^ Burnet 1928b, p. 9. ^ Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27 Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Brandwood 1990, p. 251. ^ Brandwood 1990, p. 77. ^ Meinwald 1991. ^ B Jowett, Menexenus: Appendix I (1st paragraph) Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. ^ The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. v–vi. ^ Brumbaugh & Wells 1989. ^ Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34: "... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources). ^ Slings 1987, p. 31. ^ Cooper 1997, pp. viii–xii. ^ "Manuscripts – Philosophy Faculty Library". 2 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. ^ Dodds 1959, pp. 35–36. ^ Dodds 1959, p. 37. ^ RD McKirahan, Philosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with Texts and Commentary (2nd ed.), Hackett Publishing, 2011, p. 1 Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 1-60384-612-3. ^ RS Brumbaugh, Plato for the Modern Age (p. 199) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, University Press of America, 1991 ISBN 0-8191-8356-3. ^ J Duffy Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources: "The lonely mission of Michael Psellos" Archived 22 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine edited by K Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0-19-926971-8. ^ Dodds 1959, p. 39. ^ Irwin 2011, p. 71. ^ Slings 2003, p. xxiii. ^ J Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance Vol. 1 (p. 300) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Brill, 1990 ISBN 90-04-09161-0. ^ Allen 1975, p. 12. ^ Platonis opera quae extant omnia edidit Henricus Stephanus, Genevae, 1578. ^ Suzanne 2009. ^ Cooper 1997, pp. xii & xxvii. ^ Oxford Classical Texts – Classical Studies & Ancient History Series Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press ^ Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics – Series. Cambridge University Press ^ Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries. Cambridge University Press ^ Irwin 1979, pp. vi & 11. ^ Dodds 1959. ^ Fine 1999a, p. 482. ^ Complete Works – Philosophy Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Clarendon Plato Series – Philosophy Series Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press ^ Cornell University Press : Agora Editions Archived 13 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ C.U. M.Smith – Brain, Mind and Consciousness in the History of Neuroscience (page 1) Archived 23 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Springer Science & Business, 1 January 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink : Bücher ISBN 94-017-8774-3 [Retrieved 27 June 2015] ^ Lackner 2001, p. 21. ^ See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 33–45. ^ Harris, Jonathan (2002). "Byzantines in Renaissance Italy". ORB: The Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. College of Staten Island, City University of New York. Archived from the original on 30 September 2003. Retrieved 9 February 2015. ^ Einstein 1949, pp. 683–684. ^ Prior, William J. (1 January 1998). "Plato and the "Socratic Fallacy"". Phronesis. 43 (2): 97–113. doi:10.1163/15685289860511041. JSTOR 4182581. Retrieved 14 December 2020. ^ https://ia802507.us.archive.org/17/items/RayasatAflatoon/Rayasat%20Aflatoon%20%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86.pdf ^ “Le plus grand spécialiste de Platon”. Works cited Primary sources (Greek and Roman) Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in Latin Library. Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program. Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program. Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Plato" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:3. 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A History of Ancient Philosophy. 2. State University of New York Press. Reale, Giovanni (1997). Toward a New Interpretation of Plato. Washington, DC: CUA Press. Riginos, Alice (1976). Platonica : the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04565-1. Robinson, John (1827). Archæologica Græca (Second ed.). London: A. J. Valpy. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2017. Rodriguez-Grandjean, Pablo (1998). Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy. Boston. Rowe, Christopher (2006). "Interpreting Plato". In Benson, Hugh H. (ed.). A Companion to Plato. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 13–24. Schall, James V. (Summer 1996). "On the Death of Plato". The American Scholar. 65. Schofield, Malcolm (23 August 2002). Craig, Edward (ed.). "Plato". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Sedley, David (2003). Plato's Cratylus. Cambridge University Press. Slings, S.R. (1987). "Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia". Mnemosyne. Fourth. 40 (1/2): 27–34. doi:10.1163/156852587x00030. Slings, S.R. (2003). Platonis Rempublicam. Oxford University Press. Smith, William (1870). "Plato". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Strauss, Leo (1964). The City and the Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Suzanne, Bernard (8 March 2009). "The Stephanus edition". Plato and his dialogues. Retrieved 3 April 2014. Szlezak, Thomas A. (1999). Reading Plato. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18984-2. Tarán, Leonardo (1981). Speusippus of Athens. Brill Publishers. Tarán, Leonardo (2001). "Plato's Alleged Epitaph". Collected Papers 1962–1999. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12304-5. Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001) [1937]. Plato: The Man and His Work. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41605-2. Taylor, C.C.W. (2011). "Plato's Epistemology". In Fine, G. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–190. Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press. Whitehead, Alfred North (1978). Process and Reality. New York: The Free Press. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005) [1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 978-960-382-664-4. Further reading Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9. Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4 Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9 Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (PDF). Nashville: Belmont University. Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6. Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5. Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2. Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0. Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., US Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1 Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1 Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-340-80385-1. Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1. Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6. LeMoine, Rebecca (2020). Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190936983. Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3. Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7 Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3. Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2 Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9 Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0. Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5. Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2. Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4 Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2 Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version. Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4 Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2 Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5 External links Platoat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Platon Works available online: Works by Plato at Perseus Project – Greek & English hyperlinked text Works by Plato at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plato at Internet Archive Works by Plato at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Other resources: Plato at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Plato at PhilPapers "Plato and Platonism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Kyklos Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Apology Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Laws Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII Eryxias Halcyon Hipparchus Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Plato's Dream Poitier Meets Plato Oxyrhynchus Papyri 23 228 229 List of speakers in Plato's dialogues List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Articles related to Plato v t e Platonists Academics Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptics Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonists Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Alexander Peloplaton Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonists Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Gaius Marius Victorinus Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus David the Invincible Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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Dick Joseph Ratzinger Bernard Bolzano v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom 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Related articles Outline of epistemology Faith and rationality Formal epistemology Meta-epistemology Philosophy of perception Philosophy of science Social epistemology Category Task Force Stubs Discussion v t e Social and political philosophy Ancient philosophers Aristotle Augustine Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Philo Plato Plutarch Polybius Shang Socrates Sun Tzu Tertullian Thucydides Valluvar Xenophon Xunzi Medieval philosophers Accursius Alpharabius Augustinus Triumphus Avempace Averroes Baldus Bartholomew Bartolus Bruni Dante Engelbert Gelasius al-Ghazali Giles Godfrey Gratian Gregory Hostiensis Ibn Khaldun Ibn Tufail John of Paris John of Salisbury Latini Maimonides Marsilius Nizam al-Mulk Photios Remigio Thomas Aquinas Wang William of Ockham Early modern philosophers Ammirato Beza Boétie Bodin Bossuet Botero Buchanan Calvin Cumberland Duplessis-Mornay Erasmus Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Harrington Hayashi Hobbes Hotman Huang James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Malebranche Mariana Milton Montaigne More Müntzer Naudé Pufendorf Rohan Sansovino Sidney Spinoza Suárez 18th–19th-century philosophers Bakunin Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Bosanquet Burke Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Hamann Hegel Herbert Herder Hume Jefferson Justi Kant political philosophy Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Möser Nietzsche Novalis Paine Renan Rousseau Royce Sade Schiller Smith Spencer Spedalieri Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th–21st-century philosophers Adorno Ambedkar Arendt Aurobindo Aron Azurmendi Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Butler Camus Chomsky De Beauvoir Debord Dewey Dmowski Du Bois Durkheim Dworkin Foucault Gandhi Gauthier Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Habermas Hayek Heidegger Irigaray Kautsky Kirk Koneczny Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Manent Mansfield Mao Marcuse Maritain Michels Mises Mou Mouffe Negri Niebuhr Nozick Nursî Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Pettit Plamenatz Polanyi Popper Qutb Radhakrishnan Rand Rawls Rothbard Russell Santayana Sartre Scanlon Schmitt Scruton Searle Shariati Simmel Simonović Skinner Sombart Sorel Spann Spooner Spirito Strauss Sun Taylor Tucker Walzer Weber Žižek Social theories Anarchism Authoritarianism Collectivism Communism Communitarianism Conflict theories Confucianism Consensus theory Conservatism Contractualism Cosmopolitanism Culturalism Fascism Feminist political theory Gandhism Hindu nationalism (Hindutva) Individualism Islam Islamism Legalism Liberalism Libertarianism Mohism National liberalism Republicanism Social constructionism Social constructivism Social Darwinism Social determinism Socialism Utilitarianism Related articles Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Political ethics Social epistemology Index Category v t e Seven virtues in Christian ethics Four cardinal virtues Prudence (Prudentia) Justice (Iustitia) Fortitude (Fortitudo) Temperance (Temperantia) Sources: Plato Republic, Book IV Cicero Ambrose Augustine of Hippo Thomas Aquinas Three theological virtues Faith (Fides) Hope (Spes) Love (Caritas) Sources: Paul the Apostle 1 Corinthians 13 Seven deadly sins Lust (Luxuria) Gluttony (Gula) Greed (Avaritia) Sloth (Acedia) Wrath (Ira) Envy (Invidia) Pride (Superbia) Source: Prudentius, Psychomachia People: Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld Related concepts Ten Commandments Great Commandment Eschatology Sin Original sin Old Covenant Hamartiology Christian philosophy v t e Ethics Normative ethics Consequentialism Utilitarianism Deontology Kantian ethics Ethics of care Existentialist ethics Particularism Pragmatic ethics Role ethics Virtue ethics Eudaimonia Applied ethics Animal ethics Bioethics Business ethics Discourse ethics Engineering ethics Environmental ethics Legal ethics Machine ethics Media ethics Medical ethics Nursing ethics Professional ethics Sexual ethics Ethics of artificial intelligence Ethics of eating meat Ethics of technology Ethics of terraforming Ethics of uncertain sentience Meta-ethics Cognitivism Moral realism Ethical naturalism Ethical non-naturalism Ethical subjectivism Ideal observer theory Divine command theory Error theory Non-cognitivism Emotivism Expressivism Quasi-realism Universal prescriptivism Moral universalism Value monism – Value pluralism Moral relativism Moral nihilism Moral rationalism Ethical intuitionism Moral skepticism Concepts Autonomy Axiology Conscience Consent Equality Free will Good and evil Good Evil Happiness Ideal Immorality Justice Liberty Morality Norm Freedom Suffering or Pain Stewardship Sympathy Trust Value Virtue Wrong full index... 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en-wikipedia-org-8915	----	Slovakia - Wikipedia Slovakia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 8 June 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search Country in Central Europe "Slovak Republic" redirects here. For the First Slovak Republic, see Slovak Republic (1939–1945). Coordinates: 48°40′N 19°30′E / 48.667°N 19.500°E / 48.667; 19.500 Slovak Republic Slovenská republika  (Slovak) Flag Coat of arms Anthem: "Nad Tatrou sa blýska" (English: "Lightning Over the Tatras") National seal Show globe Show map of Europe Location of Slovakia (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend] Capital and largest city Bratislava 48°09′N 17°07′E / 48.150°N 17.117°E / 48.150; 17.117 Official languages Slovak Ethnic groups (2011[1]) 80.7% Slovaks 8.5% Hungarians 3.6% Others 7.2% Unspecified Religion (2011)[2] 75.9% Christianity 13.4% No religion 0.5% Others 10.6% Unanswered Demonym(s) Slovak Government Unitary parliamentary republic • President Zuzana Čaputová • Prime Minister Eduard Heger • National Council Speaker Boris Kollár Legislature National Council Establishment history • Independence from Austria-Hungary (First Czechoslovak Republic) 30 October 1918 • Second Czechoslovak Republic 30 September 1938 • Autonomous Land of Slovakia (within Second Czechoslovak Republic) 23 November 1938 • First Slovak Republic 14 March 1939 • Third Czechoslovak Republic 24 October 1945 • Fourth Czechoslovak Republic 1948 • Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 11 July 1960 • Slovak Socialist Republic (within Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, change of unitary Czechoslovak state into a federation) 1 January 1969 • Slovak Republic (change of name within established Czech and Slovak Federative Republic) 1 March 1990 • Independence from Czechoslovakia 1 January 1993a • Joined the European Union 1 May 2004 Area • Total 49,035 km2 (18,933 sq mi) (127th) • Water (%) 0.72 (as of 2015)[3] Population • 2020 estimate 5,464,060[4] (119th) • 2011 census 5,397,036 • Density 111/km2 (287.5/sq mi) (88th) GDP (PPP) 2021 estimate • Total $190.277 billion[5] (70th) • Per capita $34,815[5] (41th) GDP (nominal) 2021 estimate • Total $117.664 billion[5] (59st) • Per capita $21,529[5] (40th) Gini (2018)  20.9[6] low · 8th HDI (2019)  0.860[7] very high · 39th Currency Euro (€) (EUR) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Date format dd/mm/yyyy Driving side right Calling code +421b ISO 3166 code SK Internet TLD .sk and .eu Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia; see Velvet Divorce. Shared code 42 with the Czech Republic until 1997. Slovakia (/sloʊˈvækiə, -ˈvɑːk-/ (listen);[8][9] Slovak: Slovensko [ˈslɔʋɛnskɔ] (listen)), officially the Slovak Republic (Slovak: Slovenská republika, listen (help·info)),[10] is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi), with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000.[11] In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.[12] After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD.[13] Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.[14] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Bronze Age 2.2 Iron Age 2.2.1 Hallstatt Period 2.2.2 La Tène Period 2.2.3 Roman Period 2.3 Great invasions from the 4th to 7th centuries 2.4 Slavic states 2.5 Great Moravia (830–before 907) 2.6 Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1918) 2.7 Czechoslovakia (1918–1939) 2.8 World War II (1939–1945) 2.9 Soviet influence and Communist party rule (1948–1989) 2.10 Slovak Republic (1993–present) 3 Geography 3.1 Tatra mountains 3.2 National parks 3.3 Caves 3.4 Rivers 3.5 Climate 3.6 Biodiversity 4 Government and politics 4.1 Foreign relations 4.2 Military 4.3 Human rights 4.4 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Industry 5.2 Energy 5.3 Transportation 5.4 Tourism 5.5 Science 6 Demographics 6.1 Languages 6.2 Religion 6.3 Education 7 Culture 7.1 Folk tradition 7.2 Art 7.3 Literature 7.4 Cuisine 7.5 Sport 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Etymology[edit] Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" (Slovensko in Slovak stemming from the older form Sloven/Slovienin). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word Slovák (in medieval sources from 1291 onward).[15] This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name (Slovenka), reference to the lands inhabited (Slovensko) and the name of the language (slovenčina) all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form (Slovakia in English, Slowakei in German, Slovaquie in French, etc.). In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029)[15] have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century),[16] with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century.[17] The present Slovak form Slovensko is first attested in the year 1675.[18] History[edit] Main article: History of Slovakia A Venus from Moravany nad Váhom, which dates back to 22,800 BC The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.[citation needed] Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites.[19] The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. Bronze Age[edit] During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population. Left: a Celtic Biatec coin Right: five Slovak crowns After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues. Iron Age[edit] Hallstatt Period[edit] The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries. A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population. La Tène Period[edit] From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful oppida on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini. Roman Period[edit] A Roman inscription at the castle hill of Trenčín (178–179 AD) From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill. Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE. Great invasions from the 4th to 7th centuries[edit] In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin. In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant.[20] After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline[21] but its reign lasted to 804. Slavic states[edit] The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I. Great Moravia (830–before 907)[edit] Main article: Great Moravia A statue of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius in Žilina. In 863, they introduced Christianity to what is now Slovakia. Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them.[22] When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne.[23] The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular. Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., Dowina, sometimes identified with Devín Castle)[24][25] are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.[26][27] Scire vos volumus, a letter written in 879 by Pope John VIII to Svatopluk I During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage.[25] The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors.[28] Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.[29] In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra. Certain and disputed borders of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (according to modern historians) After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively.[25] However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories. In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains,[30] invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896.[31] Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.[32] It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902). Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary. Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1918)[edit] Main article: Kingdom of Hungary Stephen I, King of Hungary Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.[33] From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state.[34][35][36] The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century, and the Jews in the 14th century. A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts.[37] In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death.[38] Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.[39] One of the commanders of a Slovak volunteers' army captain Ján Francisci-Rimavský during the fight for independence from the Kingdom of Hungary Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the old Hungarian capital of Buda falling in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before.[39] Partly thanks to old Hussite families, and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism.[39] For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans.[39] They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, also against Turks, the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in the Slovak language that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius. The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas.[40] In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia.[39] Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory comprising modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.[41] During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.[42] Czechoslovakia (1918–1939)[edit] Main article: Czechoslovakia A monument to Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Milan Štefánik—both key figures in early Czechoslovakia Czechoslovak declaration of independence by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk in the United States, 1918. On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper. During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.[43] In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize.[44] Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938. World War II (1939–1945)[edit] Main articles: Slovak Republic (1939–1945) and Slovakia during World War II Adolf Hitler greeting Jozef Tiso, 1941 After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared.[citation needed] Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition.[45] Secession had created the first Slovak state in history.[46] The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects. Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War. Troops of Slovak anti-Nazi resistance movement in 1944 As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps.[47][48] Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky.[49] Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.[50] Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered.[51][52] The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).[53] After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time.[54] The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945. Soviet influence and Communist party rule (1948–1989)[edit] The Velvet Revolution ended 41 years of authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989. After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians[55] and 32,000 Germans[56] were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference.[57] Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained.[58] The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to Siberia[59] As a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.[60] In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed[61] and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.[62] In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree. Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.[63] Slovak Republic (1993–present)[edit] Slovakia became a member of the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992. The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce.[64][65] Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency.[66] In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.[67] Geography[edit] Main article: Geography of Slovakia See also: Geomorphological division of Slovakia Panorama of the High Tatras Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast.[68] Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.[69] Tatra mountains[edit] Main article: Tatra Mountains A topographical map of Slovakia The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than 2,500 metres (8,202 feet) AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of 750 square kilometres (290 sq mi), of which the greater part 600 square kilometres (232 sq mi) lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts. To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at 2,655 metres (8,711 ft) and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at 2,248 metres (7,375 ft) and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area. Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at 2,043 metres (6,703 ft). The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia. National parks[edit] Main article: List of national parks of Slovakia Slovak Paradise National Park There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.[70] Name Established Area (km2) Tatra National Park 1949 738 Low Tatras National Park 1978 728 Veľká Fatra National Park 2002 404 Slovak Karst National Park 2002 346 Poloniny National Park 1997 298 Malá Fatra National Park 1988 226 Muránska planina National Park 1998 203 Slovak Paradise National Park 1988 197 Pieniny National Park 1967 38 Caves[edit] Main article: List of caves in Slovakia Domica Cave Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public.[71] Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave. Rivers[edit] Main article: List of rivers of Slovakia Belá River Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than 620 kilometres [390 mi]). For example, the Dunajec (17 kilometres [11 mi]) to the north, the Danube (172 kilometres [107 mi]) to the south or the Morava (119 kilometres [74 mi]) to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is 49,774 kilometres (30,928 mi). The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (403 kilometres [250 mi]), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (197 kilometres [122 mi]), the Orava, the Hron (298 kilometres [185 mi]), the Hornád (193 kilometres [120 mi]), the Slaná (110 kilometres [68 mi]), the Ipeľ (232 kilometres [144 mi], forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava. The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.[72] Climate[edit] Köppen climate classification types of Slovakia The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between −41 to 40.3 °C (−41.8 to 104.5 °F) although temperatures below −30 °C (−22 °F) are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south. The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach 30 °C (86 °F) in summer, occasionally to 39 °C (102 °F) in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to 20 °C (68 °F). The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of −5 °C (23 °F) to 10 °C (50 °F). During night it may be freezing, but usually not below −10 °C (14 °F). Summer in Spišské Podhradie Winter in Banská Štiavnica; the town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter. Hardiness zones of Slovakia Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of 9 °C (48 °F) in the first weeks and about 14 °C (57 °F) in May and 17 °C (63 °F) in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable. Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about 37 to 40 °C (99 to 104 °F), especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around 25 °C (77 °F) (less in the mountains). Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around 14 °C (57 °F), in November to 3 °C (37 °F). Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer). Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around −5 to −10 °C (23 to 14 °F). In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to −20 °C (−4 °F) and colder.[73] Biodiversity[edit] See also: Endemic Plant Species in Slovakia Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica in the Tatra Mountains Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994.[74] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.[75] The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.[76] Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests.[77] As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia.[78] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries.[79] In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.[76] Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia.[80][81] Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species.[82] Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.[83] Government and politics[edit] Main articles: Politics of Slovakia and Law of Slovakia See also: Prime Minister of Slovakia and President of Slovakia Grassalkovich Palace in Bratislava is the seat of the President of Slovakia The National Council building in Bratislava Episcopal Summer Palace, the seat of the government of Slovakia Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019. The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger),[84] who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister. Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic (Národná rada Slovenskej republiky). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation. Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia (Ústavný súd), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament. The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations. Main office holders Office Name Party Since President Zuzana Čaputová Independent 15 June 2019 Prime Minister Eduard Heger OĽaNO 30 March 2021[85] Speaker of the National Council of the Slovak Republic Boris Kollár Sme Rodina 21 March 2020 Foreign relations[edit] Main article: Foreign relations of Slovakia See also: List of diplomatic missions of Slovakia Former Slovak Prime Minister Peter Pellegrini with former U.S. President Donald Trump in the White House, 2019 The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (Slovak: Ministerstvo zahraničných vecí a európskych záležitostí) is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok.[86][87] The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations. Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009. Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland). In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.[88] Embassy of Japan in Bratislava Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes.[89] There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava. Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918. Military[edit] Main article: Slovak Armed Forces Slovak 5th Special Forces Regiment operating in eastern Afghanistan The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel.[90] Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004.[91] The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished. Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment. Human rights[edit] The US State Department in 2017 reported: The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.[92] Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.[93] According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."[94] Administrative divisions[edit] Main articles: Regions of Slovakia, Districts of Slovakia, and List of municipalities and towns in Slovakia Bratislava, capital and largest city of Slovakia Slovakia is divided into 8 kraje (singular—kraj, usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. samosprávny kraj, pl. samosprávne kraje) or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. vyšší územný celok, pl. vyššie územné celky, abbr. VÚC). The kraje are subdivided into many okresy (sg. okres, usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts. The okresy are further divided into obce (sg. obec, usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities. In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.[95][96] Prešov Košice Žilina Banská Bystrica Trenčín Nitra Trnava Bratislava Name in English Name in Slovak Administrative seat Population (2019) Bratislava Region Bratislavský kraj Bratislava 669 592 Trnava Region Trnavský kraj Trnava 564 917 Nitra Region Nitriansky kraj Nitra 674 306 Trenčín Region Trenčiansky kraj Trenčín 584 569 Žilina Region Žilinský kraj Žilina 691 509 Banská Bystrica Region Banskobystrický kraj Banská Bystrica 645 276 Prešov Region Prešovský kraj Prešov 826 244 Košice Region Košický kraj Košice 801 460 Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of Slovakia National Bank of Slovakia in Bratislava The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income[97] economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018.[98] The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment.[99] GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia.[100] Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes. The OECD in 2017 reported: The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.[101] In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen. Slovakia is part of the Schengen Area, the EU single market, and since 2009, the Eurozone (dark blue) The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.[102] The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.[103] Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.[104] Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro,[105] which was also the exchange rate for the euro.[106] High-rise buildings in Bratislava's business districts The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008. Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report. Industry[edit] See also: Automotive industry in Slovakia ESET headquarters in Bratislava Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita,[107] with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone.[108] 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectly by the automotive industry.[109] There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.[110] From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees. A graphical depiction of Slovakia's product exports in 21 colour-coded categories ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000[111] employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland.[112] In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here.[113] Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities.[114] Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia. Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic.[115][116] Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.[117] Energy[edit] Slovakia electricity production by source Nuclear Power Plant Mochovce In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export). Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.[118] The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production.[citation needed] Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.[citation needed] Transportation[edit] Main article: Transport in Slovakia A train in the northern town of Vysoké Tatry D1 motorway There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction. The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020.[119] The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.[120] Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located 9 kilometres (5.6 miles) northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018.[121] Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations. Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines. The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh. Tourism[edit] Main article: Tourism in Slovakia See also: List of castles in Slovakia and List of World Heritage Sites in Slovakia Bojnice Castle Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras.[122] Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).[123] Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory. The centre of Bardejov – a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years. Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century. Cable cars at Jasná in the Tatra Mountains. Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches. Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP. Castles and châteaux There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie. Caves Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave. Spa resorts There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia. Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV (Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby—Centre of Folk Art Production). Dielo shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities. Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower. Science[edit] The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation[124] in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding. Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Slovakia Further information: List of Slovaks   v t e Largest cities or towns in Slovakia Štatistický úrad Slovenskej republiky – 31 December 2011 Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop. Bratislava Košice 1 Bratislava Bratislava 432,801 11 Prievidza Trenčín 48,866 Prešov Žilina 2 Košice Košice 240,688 12 Zvolen Banská Bystrica 43,311 3 Prešov Prešov 91,638 13 Považská Bystrica Trenčín 41,153 4 Žilina Žilina 81,515 14 Michalovce Košice 39,940 5 Banská Bystrica Banská Bystrica 79,775 15 Nové Zámky Nitra 39,585 6 Nitra Nitra 78,875 16 Spišská Nová Ves Košice 37,948 7 Trnava Trnava 66,219 17 Humenné Prešov 34,913 8 Martin Žilina 57,300 18 Levice Nitra 34,649 9 Trenčín Trenčín 55,832 19 Komárno Nitra 34,478 10 Poprad Prešov 52,791 20 Bardejov Prešov 33,625 Population density in Slovakia. The two biggest cities are clearly visible, Bratislava in the far west and Košice in the east. The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km2.[125] According to the 2011 census,[126] the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%),[127] Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).[128] In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.[129] The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.[130] Languages[edit] Main article: Slovak language See also: History of the Slovak language The Slovak alphabet has 46 characters, of which 3 are digraphs and 18 contain diacritics. The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.[131] Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union.[132] According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).[133] The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.[citation needed] Religion[edit] Main article: Religion in Slovakia Basilica of St. James in Levoča St. Elisabeth Cathedral in Košice is Slovakia's largest church The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief.[134] In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services.[135] The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).[136] There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith.[137] In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill.[137] In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population.[138] Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.[139] Education[edit] Main article: Education in Slovakia Comenius University headquarters in Bratislava The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).[140] Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, from Slovak language and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school. After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school. After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools. Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities. Culture[edit] Main article: Culture of Slovakia Folk tradition[edit] See also: Music of Slovakia and Architecture of Slovakia Wooden folk architecture can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec, a UNESCO World Heritage Site Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, "Nad Tatrou sa blýska", which is based on a melody from "Kopala studienku" folk song. The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the "Východná" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation,[141] which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK (Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition. An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.[142] The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá. Slovaks wearing folk costumes from Eastern Slovakia The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film Jánošík directed by Martin Frič in 1935.[143] Art[edit] Main altar in the Basilica of St. James, crafted by Master Paul of Levoča, 1517. It is the tallest wooden altar in the world. Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace (Esterházyho palác) and the Water Barracks (Vodné kasárne), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.[144][145] The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle. Literature[edit] Further information: Slovak literature See also: List of Slovak authors Ľudovít Štúr, the author of the Slovak language standard Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, Zakon sudnyj ljudem. Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians.[146] The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period. Two leading persons codified the Slovak language. The first was Anton Bernolák whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak language took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843. Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček. Cuisine[edit] Main article: Slovak cuisine See also: Slovak wine and Beer in Slovakia Halušky with bryndza cheese, kapustnica soup and Zlatý Bažant dark beer—examples of Slovak cuisine Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular.[147] Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular. The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants. A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal. Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing.[148] Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular. Sport[edit] Main article: Sport in Slovakia Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular. Ice Hockey The Slovak national ice hockey team celebrating a victory against Sweden at the 2010 Winter Olympics One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993[149] and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.[150] Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice. Football Football stadium Tehelné pole in Bratislava. Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia. Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings. In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage. See also[edit] Slovakia portal Outline of Slovakia References[edit] ^ "Tab. 10 Obyvateľstvo SR podľa národnosti – sčítanie 2011, 2001, 1991" (PDF). Portal.statistics.sk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2016. ^ "Table 14 Population by religion" (PDF). Statistical Office of the SR. 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2012. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 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Johnson, Slovakia 1918–1938: Education and the Making of a Nation. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1985. Lil Junas, My Slovakia: An American's View. Martin, Slovakia: Vydavatelśtvo Matice slovenskej, 2001. Stanislav Kirschbaum, A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995. Eugen Lazistan, Fedor Mikovič, Ivan Kučma, and Anna Jurečková, Slovakia: A Photographic Odyssey. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2001. Elena Mannová, A Concise History of Slovakia. Bratislava: Historický ústav SAV, 2000. Anton Spiesz and Dusan Caplovic, Illustrated Slovak History: A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe. Wauconda, IL : Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2001. 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en-wikipedia-org-8916	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NLA identifiers.The NLA identifier appears as Australia in the National libraries section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P409. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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en-wikipedia-org-8918	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,317,224 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai Enthiran (Robot) is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language science fiction film written and directed by S. Shankar. Produced by Kalanithi Maran, it stars Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan (both pictured). The story revolves around a scientist's struggle to control his creation, an android that can comprehend and exhibit human emotions. The project backfires when the robot falls in love with the scientist's girlfriend, and is manipulated by a rival scientist into becoming homicidal. Enthiran received praise for Rajinikanth's performance and for its cinematography, art direction, and visual effects. It emerged as the top-earning Indian film of 2010 and is among the highest-grossing South Indian films of all time. It won two Indian National Film Awards, three Filmfare Awards, seven Vijay Awards and two Screen Awards. It has spawned parodies and homages. Enthiran was followed up by a standalone sequel, 2.0, released in 2018. (Full article...) Recently featured: Barren Island, Brooklyn Durrell's vontsira Sutton United 2–1 Coventry City (1989) Archive By email More featured articles Did you know ... Gallagh Man ... that the Irish bog body Gallagh Man (pictured) preserves the remains of an Iron Age man who was around 25 years old, dark haired, and was either strangled during a ritual killing or executed as a criminal? ... that Greg Cooper based the character of suffragist Kate Sheppard in punk-rock musical That Bloody Woman on Bette Midler in concert in Cleveland? ... that although Margaret Thatcher announced to the House of Commons on 14 June 1982 that Argentine troops were flying "white flags over Port Stanley", they were probably just laundry on a washing line? ... that baseball player Eric Filia worked as a butler at the Playboy Mansion while he was suspended by the University of California, Los Angeles? ... that the Rockefeller Apartments, with its glass-enclosed cylindrical "bows", allowed 15 percent more air and natural light than other apartments of the time? ... that one in a thousand women have three X chromosomes, but only 10 percent of them know it? ... that Donato Palumbo's leadership of Euratom's fusion-power organization led to him being known as the "founding father of the European fusion program"? ... that in the Chinese erotic novella Chipozi zhuan, a woman has sex with her cousin, her brothers-in-law, her father-in-law, and two Buddhist monks? Archive Start a new article Nominate an article In the news Naftali Bennett A new government is formed in Israel, with Naftali Bennett (pictured) becoming prime minister, ending Benjamin Netanyahu's 12-year tenure. The spacecraft Juno performs a flyby of Jupiter's moon Ganymede. Using a compromised encrypted device network, a multinational sting operation results in hundreds of arrests and the seizure of several tons of illegal drugs. Two trains collide in Sindh, Pakistan, killing at least 63 people. Ongoing: COVID-19 pandemic Recent deaths: Larisa Shoygu Gottfried Böhm Milton Moses Ginsberg Mudcat Grant Ashok Panagariya Geoffrey Edelsten Nominate an article On this day June 14 Bear Flag of the California Republic 1381 – During the Peasants' Revolt in England, rebels stormed the Tower of London, killing the Lord Chancellor and the Lord High Treasurer. 1846 – Settlers in Sonoma began a rebellion against Mexico, proclaiming the California Republic and eventually raising a homemade flag with a bear and star (pictured). 1940 – Second World War: Four days after the French government fled Paris, German forces occupied the French capital, a major accomplishment in the Fall Rot operation. 1971 – Emerson, Lake & Palmer released the progressive rock album Tarkus. 2014 – War in Donbas: An Ilyushin Il-76 transport aircraft of the Ukrainian Air Force was shot down by forces of the self-proclaimed Luhansk People's Republic, killing all 49 people on board. Harriet Beecher Stowe (b. 1811) Alois Alzheimer (b. 1864) Mary Cassatt (d. 1926) More anniversaries: June 13 June 14 June 15 Archive By email List of days of the year From today's featured list English singer, songwriter, and actor Harry Styles is the recipient of numerous awards and nominations. Formerly a member of the boy band One Direction, Styles has won three BMI London Awards for co-writing songs for the band. Following the group's indefinite hiatus, Styles debuted as a solo artist with the single "Sign of the Times" (2017). It won the Brit Award for British Video of the Year and the iHeartRadio Music Award for Best Music Video. The same year, he released his eponymous debut studio album, which earned him the ARIA Award for Best International Artist. In 2019, Styles's second studio album, Fine Line, was preceded by the release of two singles, "Lights Up" and "Adore You". The former won Best Song at the 2020 Global Awards, while the latter garnered three nominations at the 2020 MTV Video Music Awards. Fine Line won the American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Album and the Juno Award for International Album of the Year, and received a nomination for British Album of the Year at the 2020 Brit Awards. (Full list...) Recently featured: Endemic birds of Borneo Latvian submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film Raymond Chandler bibliography Archive More featured lists Today's featured picture The half eagle is a United States coin that was produced for circulation from 1795 to 1929 and in commemorative and bullion coins since the 1980s. Composed almost entirely of gold, it has a face value of five dollars. It was the first gold coin to be minted by the United States, its production being authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792. The design and composition of the half eagle changed many times over the years, but this version was designed by John Reich and produced from 1813 to 1834. The obverse design depicts a round-capped portrait of Liberty facing to the left, and the reverse depicts a modified eagle. This 1822 coin is one of only three known for the year. Other designs: 1795 1795–1798 1797 1807–1812 1813–1834 1813–1834 (alt) 1834–1838 1839–1866 1866 1908–1929 National Numismatic Collection, National Museum of American History; photographed by Jaclyn Nash Recently featured: Lichfield Cathedral Common blackbird Thích Quảng Đức Archive More featured pictures Other areas of Wikipedia Community portal – Bulletin board, projects, resources and activities covering a wide range of Wikipedia areas. Help desk – Ask questions about using Wikipedia. Local embassy – For Wikipedia-related communication in languages other than English. 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Many other Wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. 1,000,000+ articles العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 250,000+ articles Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Esperanto Euskara فارسی‎ עברית 한국어 Magyar Norsk Bokmål Română Srpski Srpskohrvatski Suomi Türkçe 50,000+ articles Asturianu Bosanski Eesti Ελληνικά Simple English Galego Hrvatski Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Македонски Norsk nynorsk Slovenčina Slovenščina ไทย Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page&oldid=1004593520" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Main Page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikibooks Wikidata Wikimania Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Languages العربية বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 This page was last edited on 3 February 2021, at 11:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-891	----	Byzantine Senate - Wikipedia Byzantine Senate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Political institution of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire from the 4th-14th centuries Personification of the Senate. From the consular diptych of Theodore Philoxenus, 525 AD The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate (Greek: Σύγκλητος, Synklētos, or Γερουσία, Gerousia) was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries, but the Senate's powers varied greatly during its history and gradually diminished until its eventual disappearance circa 14th century. The Senate of the Eastern Roman Empire originally consisted of Roman senators who happened to live in the East, or those who wanted to move to Constantinople, and a few other bureaucrats who were appointed to the Senate. Constantine offered free land and grain to any Roman senators who were willing to move to the East. When Constantine founded the Eastern Senate in Byzantium, it initially resembled the councils of important cities like Antioch rather than the Roman Senate. His son Constantius II raised it from the position of a municipal to that of an imperial body but the Senate in Constantinople had essentially the same limited powers as the Senate in Rome. Constantius II increased the number of senators to 2,000 by including his friends, courtiers, and various provincial officials. Contents 1 Admission and composition 2 Powers and functions 3 Confrontations with the emperor 4 Decline 5 Senate houses 6 References 7 Further reading Admission and composition[edit] The traditional principles that senatorial rank was hereditary and that the normal way of becoming a member of the Senate itself was by holding a magistracy still remained in full force.[1] By the time of the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395, praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role.[1] Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates. The praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties. There are known to have been eight praetors in the Eastern Roman Empire who shared the financial burden between them. The late Eastern Roman Senate was very different from the Republican Senate as the offices of aedile and tribune had long fallen into abeyance and by the end of the 4th century the quaestorship was on the point of disappearing, save as a provincial magistrate.[1] The emperor or the Senate itself could also issue a decree to grant a man not born into the senatorial order a seat in the Senate. Exemption from the expensive position of praetor would also often be conferred on such persons that had become senators in this way. Consul Anastasius, from his consular diptych, 517 AD. He holds a consular scepter topped by an eagle and the mappa, a piece of cloth that was thrown to signify the start of the Hippodrome races that marked the beginning of a consulship The Senate was mostly composed of statesmen and officials, ranging from the most important statesmen in the Empire such as the Master of Offices and the Master of Soldiers to provincial governors and retired civil servants. The senatorial families in Constantinople tended to be less affluent and less distinguished than those in the West (where the size of the Senate had also been increased to 2,000 in the 4th century). Some aristocrats attempted to become senators in order to escape the difficult conditions that were imposed on them by late Roman emperors such as Diocletian (r. 284-305 AD). The curiales (Roman middle class) were often forced to become decurions where they were charged with participating in local government at their own expense as well as having to collect taxes and pay any deficits from their own pockets. As it was recognised that many who sought seats in the Senate were doing so primarily to escape the harsh duties of the decurion Theodosius I decreed that they must complete their public service even if they became senators. The Senate was led by the Prefect of the City (Constantinople), who conducted all of its communications with the emperor. It was composed of three orders, the illustres, spectabiles and clarissimi. The members of the illustres were those who held the highest offices in Eastern Rome, such as the master of soldiers and praetorian prefects. The spectabiles formed the middle class of the Senate and consisted of important statesmen such as proconsuls, vicars and military governors of the provinces. The clarissimi was the lower class of the senate and was attached to the governors of the provinces and to other lesser posts. Members of the lower two orders were permitted to live anywhere within the Empire and were generally inactive senators. The majority of active members in the Senate were the illustres, whose important offices were usually based in Constantinople and so were able to attend the Senate frequently. By the end of the 5th century the two lower classes were completely excluded from sitting in the Senate. During the reign of Justinian I the numbers of clarissimi were significantly increased which caused many officials to be promoted to the rank of spectabiles and this in turn caused there to be an increase of the numbers of illustres, which had previously been the elite class of the Senate. As a result, a new order, the gloriosi, was created to accommodate the highest ranking senators. It is important to note that being a Senator was generally a secondary career for most of the Senate's members, who usually possessed important positions within the administrative machinery of the Empire. Powers and functions[edit] Solidus celebrating emperorship of Leo II. The emperor is coined as "Saviour of the Republic" — which the Empire continued to be in theory. Whilst the powers of the Senate were limited, it could pass resolutions (senatus consulta) which the Emperor might adopt and issue in the form of edicts. It could thus suggest Imperial legislation, and it acted from time to time as a consultative body. Some Imperial laws took the form of 'Orations to the Senate', and were read aloud before the body. The Western Roman emperor, Valentinian III, in 446, formulated a legislative procedure which granted to the Senate the right of co-operation, where any new law was to be discussed at a meeting between the Senate and the Council before being confirmed by the emperor. This procedure was included in Justinian's code although it is unclear whether it was fully adopted in the East. In addition the emperor would use the Senate as a judicial court, and trials for high treason were sometimes referred to it. Ordinary crimes would also often be judged by a court consisting of the prefect of the city and five senators chosen by lot. The Senate also maintained constitutional significance in that officially emperors were to be chosen by the military and the Senate, although succession was almost always hereditary. Confrontations with the emperor[edit] Gold solidus of the two Heraclii in consular robes, struck during their revolt against Phocas in 608 There were incidents when the Senate confronted the emperor and attempted to assert authority on the basis of their constitutional importance regarding the succession of an Emperor. In 457 they offered to enthrone the master of soldiers, the Alan Aspar, but the tribune and senator Leo I, who was Aspar's subordinate, became emperor instead. In 532, some of the senators gave their support to the Nika rioters against Justinian I, who did not like or trust the wealthy Senate. After 541, the Senate lost many of its members due to a plague pandemic and during the ensuing economic turmoil, Justinian confiscated the wealth of many of the remaining senators. In 608 during the rule of Phocas, Heraclius the Elder and his son Heraclius were declared consuls with the backing of Senate members in Carthage. Heraclius later was elected emperor. Previous emperor Phocas was deposed by the Senate and arrested in a church by two senators.[2] When Emperor Heraclius died in 641, he left the Empire to be ruled by two of his sons: Constantine III from his first marriage with Eudokia and Heraklonas from his second marriage with Martina. Empress Martina demanded imperial power for herself (although most likely with intended favor for her son), and declared this in a grand ceremony held in the Hippodrome of Constantinople which was attended by the Senate, other high officials and people of Constantinople. Opinion of the Senate and the people being strongly against her, wanting Heraclius' sons to rule, Martina was forced to return to the Great Palace of Constantinople in defeat. However, Constantine died only four months later, leaving his half-brother Heraklonas as sole ruler, and rumours of Martina having assassinated him started to spread. Soon afterwards, a revolt led by general of the army named Valentinus began, and Heraklonas was forced to accept his young nephew Constans II, son of Constantine, as co-ruler. As a part of the negotiations, David brother of Heraklonas was also crowned as co-emperor. This, however, did not ease the discontent among the Senate and the people, and soon the Senate deposed Heraklonas. His nose was slit, Martina's tongue cut out and they were exiled to Rhodes. Constans II became sole emperor, under the regency of the Senate. Decline[edit] Depiction from the Madrid Skylitzes showing Empress Theodora conferring with the Senate. The Senate's power was gradually reduced over the course of history, although it still existed into the 13th century. From the seventh century on, it could be said that it was less of an institution than a class of dignitaries,[3] as many of its remaining powers as a body were removed under legal reforms by the emperors Basil I and Leo VI. The Senate itself retained considerable prestige, especially in the 11th century when the "court party" came to power following the death of Basil II. With the final triumph of the military faction on the accession of Alexios I Komnenos the Senate began to fade into irrelevance and the title of senator could be bought from the emperor. In 1197 the Senate was assembled—along with the clergy and guildsmen of the capital—to approve a special tax, the Alamanikon. The senators refused to be assessed for the tax, as it was contrary to custom, and the emperor was forced to tax the provinces and exempt the capital.[4] The Senate's last known act was to elect Nikolaos Kanabos as emperor in opposition to Isaac II and Alexius IV during the Fourth Crusade.[5] Under the Palaeologus dynasty the title of senator survived for a time, but in the crises of the mid 14th century the ancient office finally vanished for good. Senate houses[edit] There were two Senate houses in Constantinople; one, built by Constantine and restored by Justinian, was on the east side of the Augustaion, close to the Imperial Palace, at Magnaura, whilst the other was on the north side of the Forum of Constantine. The Senate lost its houses in the 6th century and from then on assembled in the Great Palace of Constantinople. References[edit] ^ a b c Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume 1, Chapter 1. ^ Judith Herrin. The Formation of Christendom. Princeton University Press, 1987. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Emperor and Priest: The Imperial Office in Byzantium. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-03697-9, page 324 ^ Brand, Charles M. (1968). Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180–1204. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 121. ^ Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. 2004. pp. 222-226. Further reading[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Bury, J. B. 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en-wikipedia-org-8935	----	Gaius Caesar - Wikipedia Gaius Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Grandson and heir of Roman emperor Augustus For other people with the same name, see Gaius Julius Caesar (disambiguation). Gaius Caesar Gaius Caesar Born Gaius Vipsanius Agrippa 20 BC Rome, Roman Empire Died 21 February AD 4 (aged 23) Lycia, Roman Empire Burial Mausoleum of Augustus Spouse Livilla Father Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Augustus (adoptive) Mother Julia the Elder Gaius Caesar (/ˈsiːzər/; 20 BC – 21 February AD 4) was consul in AD 1 and the grandson of Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire. Although he was born to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, Augustus' only daughter, Gaius and his younger brother, Lucius Caesar, were raised by their grandfather as his adopted sons and joint-heirs to the empire. He would experience an accelerated political career befitting a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, with the Roman Senate allowing him to advance his career without first holding a quaestorship or praetorship, offices that ordinary senators were required to hold as part of the cursus honorum.[1] In 1 BC, Gaius was given command of the eastern provinces, after which he concluded a peace treaty with King Phraates V of Parthia on an island in the Euphrates. Shortly afterward, he was appointed to the office of consul for the following year, 1 AD. The year after Gaius' consulship, Lucius died at Massilia in the month of August. Approximately eighteen months later, Gaius died of an illness in Lycia. He was married to his second cousin Livilla but they did not have children. In 4 AD, following the deaths of Gaius and Lucius, Augustus adopted his stepson, Tiberius, as well as his sole-surviving grandson, Agrippa Postumus. Contents 1 Background 2 Early life and family 3 Career 3.1 Herodian succession 3.2 Command in Asia 3.2.1 Departure 3.2.2 Consulship 3.2.3 Expedition in Arabia 3.2.4 Supremacy in Armenia 4 Post mortem 5 In popular culture 6 Ancestry 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 Bibliography 10.1 Ancient sources 10.2 Modern sources 11 External links Background[edit] Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was an early supporter of Augustus (then "Octavius") during the Final War of the Roman Republic that ensued as a result of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. His father was a key general in Augustus' armies, commanding troops in pivotal battles against Mark Antony and Sextus Pompeius. From early on, Agrippa was trusted to handle affairs in the eastern provinces and was even given the signet ring of Augustus, who was seemingly on his deathbed in 23 BC, a sign that he would become princeps were Augustus to die. However, as soon as he recovered, Augustus began to show he favored his nephew, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, then just 19. However, Marcellus died of an illness that had spread throughout the city of Rome that year.[2][3][4] With Marcellus gone, Augustus arranged for the marriage of Agrippa to his daughter Julia the Elder, who was previously the wife of Marcellus. Agrippa was given tribunicia potestas ("the tribunician power") in 18 BC, a power that Augustus received in 23 BC, and later on was exercised only by the emperor and shared with some heirs (Agrippa, Tiberius). The tribunician power allowed him to control the Senate. Agrippa acted as tribune in the Senate to pass important legislation and, though he lacked some of the emperor's power and authority, he was approaching the position of co-regent.[4][5][6] Early life and family[edit] Gaius and Lucius Caesar standing with shields and spears between them; simpulum and lituus above. Gaius was born in Rome in 20 BC to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. He was a part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and was related to all the Julio-Claudian emperors. On his mother's side, he was the oldest grandson of emperor Augustus. He was the stepson of Tiberius by his mother Julia's marriage to him, and Brother in law of Claudius by his sister Agrippina the Elder's marriage to Germanicus. He also was the uncle of Caligula, who was the son of his sister Agrippina. The last emperor of the dynasty was Nero, who was Gaius' great-nephew and the grandson of Germanicus.[7] An annual sacrifice on his birthday was granted in a decree.[8] In 17 BC, his brother Lucius was born. Augustus immediately adopted both Gaius and Lucius from their father by a symbolic sale, and named both Gaius and Lucius his (personal) heirs.[9] It is unknown what their father thought of the adoption.[10] Their adoptive father initiated them into administrative life when they were still young, and sent them to the provinces as consuls-elect. Augustus taught Gaius and Lucius how to read, swim, and the other elements of education, taking special pains to train them to imitate his own handwriting, mostly by himself.[11] Shortly after their adoption in the summer, Augustus held the fifth-ever Ludi Saeculares ("Secular Games"). The adoption of the boys coupled with the games served to introduce a new era of peace – the Pax Augusta.[12] That year his family left for the province of Syria, because Agrippa was given command of the eastern provinces with proconsular imperium maius.[13] Four years later, in 13 BC, Gaius took part in the Trojan games with the other patrician youths at the dedication of the Theatre of Marcellus.[14] Also in 13 BC, Agrippa and Augustus returned to Rome. Augustus sent Agrippa to Pannonia at the end of 13 to suppress a rebellion. Agrippa arrived there that winter (in 12 BC), but the Pannonians gave up their plans. Agrippa returned to Campania in Italy, where he fell ill and died soon after.[15] The death of Gaius' father made succession a pressing issue. The aurei and denarii issued in 13–12 BC made clear the Emperor's dynastic plans for Gaius and Lucius. Their father was no longer available to assume the reins of power if the Emperor were to die, and Augustus had to make it clear who his intended heirs were in case anything should happen.[16] To learn about military affairs, he accompanied Tiberius in his campaign against the Sicambri in 8 BC.[14] The year before, Tiberius' brother Drusus the Elder died on his way back from a campaign across the Rhine. Tiberius was given command of Germania, and waged two campaigns across the Rhine in 8 BC and 7 BC. He marched his army between the Elbe and the Rhine, and met little resistance, except from the Sicambri. Tiberius came close to exterminating the Sicambri, and had those who survived transported to the Roman side of the Rhine, where they could be watched more closely.[17] Career[edit] Gaius Caesar Gaius was elected consul designatus by the Comitia Centuriata in 6 BC with the intention that he should assume the consulship in his twentieth year. The next year, Augustus made him a pontifex, and granted him the right to attend senate meetings, behold spectacles, and to be present at banquets with senators.[18][19] Roman support for the young prince soon spread through Italy;[20] statues and inscriptions were set up in every district to commemorate the fact that he had been nominated as a consul at an unprecedented age of fourteen.[21][22] The following year (5 BC), when he attained military age, he assumed the toga virilis, and was introduced by Augustus to the senate, who declared him as princeps iuventutis ("leader of the youth") and sevir turmae (commander of a cavalry division). Having been designated consul, he was allowed to give his opinion to the senate. Lucius, three years his junior, was granted the same honors after the appropriate interval had elapsed.[18][19] Herodian succession[edit] Statue of a Julio-Claudian prince. The head probably depicts Gaius Caesar, made 5 BC-14 AD. Altes Museum, Berlin Following the death of King Herod of Judaea in 4 BC,[23] his sons Antipas and Archelaus both came to Rome with their own copy of Herod's will to plead their case as to why they each deserved to inherit their father's kingdom. Augustus, as usual, declined the sole responsibility of decision. He convened a council of senators, among whom he included Gaius. The council decided to ratify the will brought by Archelaus, which included a large bequest to Augustus and his wife Livia.[24][25] The cities of Judaea rose in revolt after the procurator, Sabinus, garrisoned Syria Palaestina to guard the tens of millions of sesterces promised to the Emperor.[26] The governor of Syria, Varus, was forced to bring in the legions from Syria to restore order.[25] At the same time, King Phraates IV of Parthia had seized Armenia with the help of Armenian nationalists, and expelled Tigranes IV, the king installed by Rome.[27] Historian Ferrero speculates that Phraates may have been hoping to use Armenia as a bargaining chip to secure the release of his sons who were held captive by the Romans. Roman supremacy in Asia depended on its possession of Armenia as a protectorate. Before Rome could deal with the Parthians in Armenia, it would first need to make its Syrian legions available, which were still tied down in Palestine.[28] In order to free up the legions there, the Kingdom of Judaea was divided among the sons of Herod the Great. One half remained under Archelaus, while the other half was subdivided between his brothers, Antipas and Philip. This served to restore stability to the region, whilst keeping Judaea from becoming powerful. Having settled matters in Judaea, the Emperor decided to deploy an army to Armenia to re-establish its status as a Roman protectorate and to show the eastern world that Rome held dominion over all land as far as the Euphrates.[28] Command in Asia[edit] Departure[edit] Remains of the Forum of Augustus with the Temple of Mars Ultor. Due to his advanced age, Augustus was unable to travel to the east himself. There were few the Emperor trusted to settle matters in the east, but he was confident Gaius could. Gaius made a good choice, because his presence represented that of the imperial family – all orders, promises, or threats coming from him were as valid as if they came from the Emperor himself. Nonetheless, he was only eighteen, and therefore too young for the conduct of important business.[29] Before leaving for the east, he and his brother Lucius were given the authority to consecrate buildings, and they did, with their management of the games held to celebrate the dedication of the Temple of Mars Ultor (1 August 2 BC). His youngest brother, Postumus, participated in the Trojan game with the rest of the equestrian youth. 260 lions were slaughtered in the Circus Maximus, there was gladiatorial combat, a naval battle between the "Persians" and the "Athenians", and 36 crocodiles were slaughtered in the Circus Flaminius.[note 1][30] Friends of Augustus had hoped that he would abandon his plan of sending Gaius to the east but, faced with the troubles in the east, he persisted with the plan and dispatched Gaius to Syria at the beginning of 1 BC. The Emperor entrusted Gaius with proconsular authority and had his second cousin, Livilla, marry him. Livilla was the daughter of Drusus the Elder and Antonia Minor.[30][31] Due to his youth and inexperience, the Emperor had others go with him as advisors. Among his entourage to the east were: Marcus Lollius as adiutor ("helper"),[32] Publius Sulpicius Quirinus as rector ("guide"),[33] the future historian Velleius Paterculus,[34] Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (grandfather of Nero),[35] Juba II of Numidia,[36] and future praetorian prefect Sejanus.[37][38] On his way to Syria, Gaius met with Tiberius, who had abandoned politics and retired to Rhodes.[34] According to Suetonius, Gaius gave Tiberius a cold reception on the isle of Samos. Tiberius was alienated at the meeting, by the behavior of both Lollius and Gaius' centurions. Suetonius further wrote that Tiberius wrote to the Emperor that Lollius be replaced.[32] Lollius' rivalry with Tiberius continued even after Gaius and his entourage reached Syria. Lollius strove to turn Gaius against Tiberius; Gaius, in any case, had no affection for the man who had contributed, directly or indirectly, to the ruin of his mother.[note 2] On one occasion, Lollius offered to decapitate Tiberius if Gaius gave the word.[39] Suetonius wrote that it was Lollius' growing influence that compelled Tiberius to plead with Augustus for his return to Rome.[40] Consulship[edit] Latin inscription from the cenotaph to Gaius and Lucius Caesar in Pisa (CIL XI, 1421) The next year, on 1 January, he entered the consulship in absentia with his brother-in-law, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, in accordance with the decision of 6 BC which named him consul designate.[19] Gaius, who was twenty, had reached Asia, and was probably at Antioch at the time his consulship commenced, where he was organizing an army for the invasion of Armenia and opening negotiations with Phraates in the hopes of securing an agreement. The Emperor did not desire an open war, and the king of Parthia seemed open to peace. Negotiations were probably hastened by the presence of Gaius' army in Syria, which threatened Parthia. From every corner the young consul was visited by envoys offering requests and paying homage. This year, monuments were raised to him and to his brother as the son of Ares or as Ares himself.[41] His inexperience meant he was forced to rely on his companions, namely the unruly Lollius, who had taken advantage of the powers he held, and was reportedly holding towns, individuals, and even sovereign princes for ransom. After Gaius opened negotiations with Phraates, Lollius offered the Parthian king certain concessions in return for money.[42] Preparations for the war continued into the spring and summer of 1 AD, at which point there had been a successful breakthrough in negotiations. As Phraates was not willing to go to war, he agreed to evacuate Armenia and abandon his brothers who were still in Roman captivity.[30][43] In the second half of the year,[44] Gaius had advanced with his army to the Parthian frontier to an unknown spot and brought Phraates to a final agreement on the proposals, in which he renounced all claims to Armenia and all power over his half-brothers.[45] It was about this time that Augustus passed through Judea and commended Gaius for not offering prayers at Jerusalem, as it would have been provocative to the Jews living there.[46] Expedition in Arabia[edit] Sometime in the course of his time in the east, Gaius led an expedition into Arabia. Exactly where and for what purpose remains uncertain, though Pliny mentioned it in connection with Aelius Gallus' exploits in South Arabia.[47] The term "Arabia" is never defined, and the term was used loosely by Roman sources. Various reasons, such as an attempt by Rome to control the incense trade, have been suggested but never proven.[48] Juba II, former king of Mauretania, accompanied Gaius to the east. In order to prepare Gaius for his encounter with the Arabs, Juba wrote him a treatise. According to Pliny, the young prince made it as far as the Gulf of Aqaba. It is certain that this expedition happened before his time in Armenia, and, referencing Gaius' cenotaph in Pisa, it is almost certain to have taken place during his consulship.[36] Author and historian John Grainger places Gaius at the Gulf of Aqaba, or in Nabataea. It is known that the Nabataean Kingdom later became the province of Arabia, and so, it might be that Gaius conducted his "Arabian expedition" to either support or to discipline the King of Nabataea, Aretas IV.[49] This is probably evidenced by the continuation of coinage in the king's name after Gaius' consulship.[36] Cassius Dio, in a fragmentary notice,[50] mentions trouble in Egypt which was suppressed by a tribune of the Praetorian Guard. It is very likely this man was part of Gaius' entourage, but other than that nothing is known of him.[49] Supremacy in Armenia[edit] Map of Armenia and the Roman client states in eastern Asia Minor. In the year following his consulship, in spring, he had held a meeting with Phraates on the bank of the Euphrates, in which a banquet was held to celebrate a peace treaty. It was here that Phraates, offended by Lollius, disclosed the guardian's secret negotiations to Gaius. It was for the crime of extorting presents from kings (regnum muneribus) that Lollius lost the friendship of Gaius and drank poison. Pliny says he amassed a fortune from his crimes and that, as a result, his granddaughter could afford to wear jewelry worth 40,000,000 sesterces, a considerable amount of money.[42][51] The death of Lollius was fortunate to Tiberius, after which Gaius consented to his return to Rome and consequent return to Roman politics.[52] At the same time, the throne of Armenia had become vacant and, with permission from the Emperor, Gaius placed Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene on the throne. The Romans weren't the only ones interested in Armenia: the Parthians stirred up a revolt among nationalists in the nation. A large force of rebels had occupied the fortress in the city of Artagira. Gaius was drawn into the conflict, and invaded Armenia in late August of 2 AD. He encountered no serious opposition as there were only a few revolts he had to suppress as a result of the nationalist party.[53] On September 9, Abbadon, the leader of the rebellion, invited Gaius into the fortress to speak with him. It proved to be a trick, and Gaius was wounded in the confrontation. He had to be carried away by his outraged lieutenants. His forces promptly laid siege to the city and captured the fortress after intense fighting.[54][55] At first the wound did not seem serious and he was able to complete the pacification of Armenia, a relatively easy task.[30][56][53] By the next year (3 AD), he was entirely prostrated by the effects of his wound, had resigned his command, and withdrawn to Syria from where he informed Augustus that he had no further desire to take part in public life.[30][53] The eastern campaign had proven severe: his health was weak and his mental balance unstable. At the age of twenty-three, the young man whom the Emperor considered his heir and sole hope of prosperity had abandoned his prospects of reputation and power in a wild fit of despair and fear. Augustus did his best to cheer him up and convince him to return to Italy. It was in vain: Gaius died in a little Lycian town on 21 February 4 AD.[57] Post mortem[edit] The Maison Carrée (French: "square house") was dedicated in Nemausus to Gaius and Lucius. Limyra Cenotaph of Gaius Caesar While Gaius was in Armenia, his brother Lucius had been sent by Augustus to complete his military training in Spain. While there, he fell ill and died on 20 August 2 AD in Massalia, Gaul.[58] In the span of 18 months, the planned future of Rome was shaken.[59] The deaths of both Gaius and Lucius, the Emperor's two most favored heirs, led Augustus to adopt his stepson Tiberius and his sole remaining grandson Postumus as his new heirs on 26 June 4 AD.[19] Many honors were heaped upon Gaius by citizens and city officials of the Empire, including Colonia Obsequens Iulia Pisana (Pisa), where it was decreed that proper rites must be observed by matrons to lament his passing. Temples, public baths, and shops shut their doors as women wept inconsolably. To commemorate his brief life, a cenotaph was erected on the Limyrus River at Limyra in Lycia.[60] Posthumously, the Senate voted honors for the young Caesars, and arranged for the golden spears and shields the boys had received on achieving the age of military service to be hung in the Senate House.[60] The caskets containing their ashes were stored in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside those of their father Agrippa and other members of the imperial family.[60] Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio suggested foul play may have been involved in the death of Gaius and Lucius and that Gaius's step grandmother Livia may have had a hand in their deaths. Livia's presumed motive may have been to orchestrate the accession of her own son Tiberius as heir to Augustus.[50][61] In popular culture[edit] Gaius was played by Earl Rhodes in the 1976 TV series I, Claudius.[62] Ancestry[edit] Ancestry of Gaius Caesar[63] 4. Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa 2. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 1. Gaius Caesar 24. Gaius Octavius 12. Gaius Octavius 6. Augustus 26. Marcus Atius 13. Atia Balba Caesonia 27. Julia Minor 3. Julia the Elder 14. Lucius Scribonius Libo 7. Scribonia 15. Sentia See also[edit] Agrippa Postumus Julio-Claudian family tree Footnotes[edit] ^ Cassius Dio reports that, after the games, Gaius was given command of the legions on the Ister (Danube), and that he did not take part in actions as he was there to learn (Dio, LV.10). ^ In 2 BC, Julia the Elder was forced into exile after she had received a letter in Tiberius' name. She was deemed guilty of committing adultery on multiple accounts by her father Augustus (Dio, LV.10; Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. "Augustus", 65). References[edit] ^ Rowe 2002, p. 45 ^ Bunson 2002, p. 10 ^ Southern 2013, p. 203 ^ a b Dunstan 2010, p. 274 ^ Rowe 2002, pp. 52–54 ^ Scullard 2013, p. 216 ^ Wood 1999, p. 321 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV.8.5 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV.18.1 ^ Davies & Swain 2010, p. 284 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, 64 ^ Powell 2015, pp. 159–160 ^ Powell 2015, p. 161 ^ a b Smith 1873, p. 555 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV.28.1–2 ^ Wood 1999, p. 65 ^ Wells 2003, p. 157 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, LV.9 ^ a b c d Pettinger 2012, p. 235 ^ CIL XI, 3040 ^ CIL VI, 897; CIL VI, 3748 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 247 ^ The death of Herod was on January 1 BC according to some scholars. See Andrew Steinmann, From Abraham to Paul: A Biblical Chronology. (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Pub. House, 2011), Print. pp. 219-256. W.E. Filmer, "The Chronology of the Reign of Herod the Great". The Journal of Theological Studies, 1966. 17(2): p. 283-298. Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998, 2015. pp. 238-279. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XVII.9.5 ^ a b Ferrero 1909, p. 257 ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XVII.10.2–10 ^ Velleius Paterculus, II.100 ^ a b Ferrero 1909, p. 259 ^ Ferrero 1909, pp. 259–261 ^ a b c d e Cassius Dio, Roman History, LV.10 ^ Hazel 2002, p. 48 ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Tiberius", 12 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, III.48 ^ a b Velleius Paterculus, II.101 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Nero", 5 ^ a b c Bowersock 1983, p. 56 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, IV.1 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 272 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "Tiberius", 13 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 275 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 276 ^ a b Ferrero 1909, pp. 276–277 ^ Ferrero 1909, pp. 277–278 ^ CIL XI, 1421 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 284 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, 93 ^ Pliny, Natural History, VI.32 ^ Young 2001, pp. 91–93 ^ a b Grainger 2013, p. 117 ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, LV.10a ^ Pliny, Natural History, IX.58 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 285 ^ a b c Velleius Paterculus, II.102 ^ Bunson 2002, p. 47 ^ Sartre 2005, p. 68 ^ Ferrero 1909, p. 286 ^ Ferrero 1909, pp. 287–288 ^ Mommsen 1996, p. 107 ^ Suetonius, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, 65 ^ a b c Powell 2015, p. 192 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I.3 ^ "Earl Rhodes". IMDb. 2017. Retrieved August 5, 2017. ^ Bartsch 2017, p. ix Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 55, English translation Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews Book 17, English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, Latin text with English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, Latin text with English translation Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius, Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Annals, I–IV, English translation Velleius Paterculus, Roman History Book II, Latin text with English translation Modern sources[edit] Bartsch, Shadi (2017), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Nero, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-05220-8 Bowersock, Glen Warren (1983), Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-77755-7 Bunson, Matthew (2002), Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-4562-3 Davies, Mark Everson; Swain, Hilary (2010), Aspects of Roman History 82BC-AD14: A Source-based Approach, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-15160-7 Dunstan, William E. (2010), Ancient Rome, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1 Ferrero, Guglielmo (1909), The republic of Augustus, G. P. Putnam's Sons This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Grainger, John D. (2013), Egypt and Judaea, Pen & Sword Military, ISBN 978-1-84884-823-8 Hazel, John (2002), Who's Who in the Roman World, UK: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-29162-3 Mommsen, Theodore (1996), A History of Rome Under the Emperors, UK: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10113-1 Pettinger, Andrew (2012), The Republic in Danger: Drusus Libo and the Succession of Tiberius, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-960174-5 Powell, Lindsay (2015), Marcus Agrippa:Right-hand Man of Caesar Augustus, Pen & Sword Military, ISBN 978-1-84884-617-3 Rowe, Greg (2002), Princes and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decress, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-11230-9 Sartre, Maurice (2005), The Middle East Under Rome, translated by Porter, Catherine; Rawlings, Elizabeth, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-01683-1 Scullard, H. H. (2013), From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-78386-9 Southern, Patricia (2013), Augustus, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-58956-2 Swan, Michael Peter (2004), The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516774-0 Wells, Peter S. (2003), The Battle That Stopped Rome, Norton, ISBN 978-0-393-32643-7 Wood, Susan E. (1999), Imperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 B.C. – A.D. 68, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9789004119505 Young, Gary K. (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305, Routledge, ISBN 0-203-47093-1  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1873). "C. Caesar and L. Caesar". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. pp. 555–556.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gaius Caesar. Regnal titles Preceded by Tiberius Caesar of the Roman Empire 1 BC – 4 AD Succeeded by Tiberius Political offices Preceded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus Lucius Calpurnius Piso Consul of the Roman Empire 1 AD With: Lucius Aemilius Paullus Marcus Herennius Picens Succeeded by Publius Vinicius Publius Alfenus Varus Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Poland Sweden Vatican Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Caesar&oldid=1021862842" Categories: 20 BC births AD 4 deaths 1st-century BC Roman governors of Syria 1st-century Roman governors of Syria Imperial Roman consuls 1st-century BC Romans 1st-century Romans Julii Caesares Vipsanii Burials at the Mausoleum of Augustus Ancient Roman adoptees Children of Augustus Children of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Heirs apparent who never acceded Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 May 2021, at 02:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8944	----	Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 - Wikipedia Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Parthian war of Lucius Verus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Conflict between the Roman and Parthian Empires Roman–Parthian war of 161–166 Part of the Roman–Parthian Wars Date 161–166 AD Location Armenia, Mesopotamia and Media Result Roman victory Arsacids re-established on Armenian throne as Roman clients Ctesiphon and Seleucia sacked Territorial changes Minor Roman gains in upper Mesopotamia Belligerents  Roman Empire Parthian Empire Commanders and leaders Lucius Verus Avidius Cassius Marcus Claudius Fronto Marcus Statius Priscus Publius Martius Verus Vologases IV of Parthia Chosrhoes v t e Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Campaign (53 BC) Caesar's planned invasion (44 BC) Pompeian–Parthian invasion (40–38 BC) Antony's Parthian War (40–33 BC) War over Armenia (58–63) Trajan's Parthian campaign (115–117) War of 161–166 Campaign of Septimius Severus (198) Caracalla's Parthian War (216–217) v t e Roman–Persian Wars Roman–Parthian Wars Carrhae Caesar's planned invasion Pompeian–Parthian invasion Cilician Gates Amanus Pass Mt Gindarus Mark Antony's campaigns Armenian War of 58–63 Trajan's Parthian campaign Lucius Verus' campaigns 2nd Ctesiphon Parthian war of Caracalla Nisibis Roman–Sasanian wars Nisibis (235) Hatra Resaena Misiche Nisibis (252) Barbalissos Antioch Dura-Europos Edessa Caesarea (260) 3rd Ctesiphon Carrhae (296) Satala Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 1st Singara Amida 2nd Singara Julian's Persian War Pirisabora Maiozamalcha Ctesiphon Maranga Samarra Bagrevand Byzantine–Sasanian wars War of 421–422 War of 440 Anastasian War Iberian War Lazic War War of 572–591 War of 602–628 The Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 (also called the Parthian War of Lucius Verus[1]) was fought between the Roman and Parthian Empires over Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia. It concluded in 166 after the Romans made successful campaigns into lower Mesopotamia and Media and sacked Ctesiphon, a Parthian capital. Contents 1 Origins to Lucius' dispatch, 161–162 2 Lucius' dispatch and journey east, 162–163? 3 Dissipation and logistics at Antioch, 162?–165 4 Counterattack and victory, 163–166 5 Conclusion of the war, mid-160s–167 6 Notes 7 Citations 8 References 8.1 Ancient sources 8.2 Modern sources Origins to Lucius' dispatch, 161–162[edit] On his deathbed in the spring of 161, Emperor Antoninus Pius had spoken of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.[2] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.[3] Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.[4] At the time of the invasion, the governor of Syria was Lucius Attidius Cornelianus. Attidius had been retained as governor even though his term had ended in 161, presumably to avoid giving the Parthians the chance to wrong-foot his replacement. The governor of Cappadocia, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters. But living in the east had a deleterious effect on his character.[5] The confidence man Alexander of Abonutichus, a prophet who carried a snake named Glycon around with him, had enraptured Severianus, as he had many others.[6] Father-in-law to the respected senator Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, then-proconsul of Asia, Abonutichus was friends with many members of the east Roman elite.[7] Alexander convinced Severianus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself.[8] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[9]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, past the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.[10] Coin of Vologases IV, king of Parthia, from 162 Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.[11] Marcus Aurelius, who had become emperor on Pius' death on 7 March 161, was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius' twenty-three-year reign at the emperor's side—and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.[12][notes 1] Marcus made the necessary appointments: Marcus Statius Priscus, the governor of Britain, was sent to replace Severianus as governor of Cappadocia,[14] and was in turn replaced by Sextus Calpurnius Agricola.[15] More bad news arrived: Attidius Cornelianus' army had been defeated in battle against the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.[16] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with vexillations from the Danubian legions.[17] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[18] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[19] and V Macedonica from Troesmis.[20] The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.[21] Attidius Cornelianus himself was replaced by M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties[22]—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.[23] Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to his former tutor Marcus Cornelius Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.[24] Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?"[25] He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),[26] going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of leisure.[27] Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back.[28] Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!" He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!"[29] Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, including Cicero's pro lege Manilia, in which the orator had argued in favor of Pompey taking supreme command in the Mithridatic War. It was an apt reference (Pompey's war had taken him to Armenia), and may have had some impact on the decision to send Lucius to the eastern front.[30] "You will find in it many chapters aptly suited to your present counsels, concerning the choice of army commanders, the interests of allies, the protection of provinces, the discipline of the soldiers, the qualifications required for commanders in the field and elsewhere [...][notes 2]"[32] To settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, Fronto wrote Marcus a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, at Allia, at Caudium, at Cannae, at Numantia, Cirta, and Carrhae;[33] under Trajan, Hadrian, and Pius;[34] but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".[35] Lucius' dispatch and journey east, 162–163?[edit] Over the winter of 161–62, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity.[36] Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor.[37][notes 3] Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".[39] Titus Furius Victorinus, one of the two praetorian prefects, was sent with Lucius, as were a pair of senators, Marcus Pontius Laelianus Larcius Sabinus and Marcus Iallius Bassus, and a detachment of the Praetorian Guard.[38] Victorinus had previously served as procurator of Galatia, giving him some experience with eastern affairs.[40][notes 4] Moreover, he was far more qualified than his praetorian partner, Sextus Cornelius Repentinus, who was said to owe his office to the influence of Pius' mistress Galeria Lysistrate.[41] Repentius had the rank of a senator, but no real access to senatorial circles—his was merely a decorative title.[42] Since a prefect had to accompany the Guard, Victorinus was the clear choice.[41] Laelianus had been governor of both Pannonias and governor of Syria in 153; hence he had first-hand knowledge of the eastern army and military strategy on the frontiers. He was made comes Augustorum ("companion of the emperors") for his service.[43] Laelianus was, in the words of Fronto, "a serious man and an old-fashioned disciplinarian".[44] Bassus had been governor of Lower Moesia, and was also made comes.[45] Lucius selected his favorite freedmen, including Geminus, Agaclytus, Coedes, Eclectus,[46] and Nicomedes, who gave up his duties as praefectus vehiculorum to run the commissariat of the expeditionary force.[47] The fleet of Misenum was charged with transporting the emperor and general communications and transport.[48] Lucius left in the summer of 162 to take a ship from Brundisium; Marcus followed him as far as Capua. Lucius feasted himself in the country houses along his route, and hunted at Apulia. He fell ill at Canosa, probably afflicted with a mild stroke, and took to bed.[49] Marcus made prayers to the gods for his safety in front of the senate, and hurried south to see him.[50] Fronto was upset at the news, but was reassured when Lucius sent him a letter describing his treatment and recovery. In his reply, Fronto urged his pupil to moderate his desires, and recommended a few days of quiet bedrest. Lucius was better after three days' fasting and a bloodletting. It was probably only a mild stroke.[51] Verus continued eastward via Corinth and Athens, accompanied by musicians and singers as if in a royal progress.[52] At Athens he stayed with Herodes Atticus, and joined the Eleusinian Mysteries.[53] During sacrifice, a falling star was observed in the sky, shooting west to east.[54] He stopped in Ephesus, where he is attested at the estate of the local aristocrat Publius Vedius Antoninus,[55] and made an unexpected stopover at Erythrae, where an elegiac poem in the voice of the local sibyl alludes to his visit.[56] The journey continued by ship through the Aegean and the southern coasts of Asia Minor, lingering in the famed pleasure resorts of Pamphylia and Cilicia, before arriving in Antioch.[57] It is not known how long Verus' journey east took; he might not have arrived in Antioch until after 162.[58] Statius Priscus, meanwhile, must have already arrived in Cappadocia; he would earn fame in 163 for successful generalship.[59] Dissipation and logistics at Antioch, 162?–165[edit] Antioch from the southwest (engraving by William Miller after a drawing by H. Warren from a sketch by Captain Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea[60] and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.[61] He took up a mistress named Panthea,[notes 5] from Smyrna.[63] The biographer calls her a "low-born girl-friend",[64] but she is probably closer to Lucian's "woman of perfect beauty", more beautiful than any of Phidias and Praxiteles' statues.[65] Polite, caring, humble, she sang to the lyre perfectly and spoke clear Ionic Greek, spiced with Attic wit.[66] Panthea read Lucian's first draft, and criticized him for flattery. He had compared her to a goddess, which frightened her—she did not want to become the next Cassiopeia.[67] She had power, too. She made Lucius shave his beard for her. The Syrians mocked him for this, as they did for much else.[68] Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle.[69] He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through".[70] He enjoyed the company of actors.[71] He made a special request for dispatches from Rome, to keep him updated on how his chariot teams were doing.[72] He brought a golden statue of the Greens' horse Volucer around with him, as a token of his team spirit.[73] Fronto defended his pupil against some of these claims: the Roman people needed Lucius' bread and circuses to keep them in check.[74][notes 6] This, at least, is how the biographer has it. The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (HA Verus 4.4–6.6) is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Some few passages seem genuine;[notes 7] others take and elaborate something from the original.[notes 8] The rest is by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[79] Lucius faced quite a task. Fronto described the scene in terms recalling Corbulo's arrival one hundred years before.[80] The Syrian army had turned soft during the east's long peace. They spent more time at the city's open-air bars than in their quarters. Under Lucius, training was stepped up. Pontius Laelianus ordered that their saddles be stripped of their padding. Gambling and drinking were sternly policed.[81] Fronto wrote that Lucius was on foot at the head of his army as often as on horseback. He personally inspected soldiers in the field and at camp, including the sick bay.[82] Lucius sent Fronto few messages at the beginning of the war. He sent Fronto a letter apologizing for his silence. He would not detail plans that could change within a day, he wrote. Moreover, there was little thus far to show for his work: "not even yet has anything been accomplished such as to make me wish to invite you to share in the joy".[83] Lucius did not want Fronto to suffer the anxieties that had kept him up day and night.[84] One reason for Lucius' reticence may have been the collapse of Parthian negotiations after the Roman conquest of Armenia. Lucius' presentation of terms was seen as cowardice.[85] The Parthians were not in the mood for peace.[86] Lucius needed to make extensive imports into Antioch, so he opened a sailing route up the Orontes. Because the river breaks across a cliff before reaching the city, Lucius ordered that a new canal be dug. After the project was completed, the Orontes' old riverbed dried up, exposing massive bones—the bones of a giant. Pausanias says they were from a beast "more than eleven cubits" tall; Philostratus says that it was "thirty cubits" tall. The oracle at Claros declared that they were the bones of the river's spirit.[87] In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla.[88] Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.[89] Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him.[90] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Marcus Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father.[91] Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen.[92] Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.[93] Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.[94] Lucilla would bear three of Lucius' children in the coming years. Lucilla became Lucilla Augusta.[95] Counterattack and victory, 163–166[edit] The Legions I Minervia, commanded by M. Claudius Fronto and V Macedonica, commanded by P. Martius Verus, served under Marcus Statius Priscus in Armenia, achieving success during the campaign season of 163,[96] culminating with the capture of the Armenian capital Artaxata.[97] At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.[98] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the title Imperator II with him.[99] The army of Syria was reinforced by II Adiutrix and Danubian legions under X Gemina's legate Geminius Marcianus.[100] The Euphrates river near Raqqa, Syria Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ("New City" in Greek), replaced Artaxata.[101] On Birley's reckoning, it was thirty miles closer to the Roman border.[90] Detachments from Cappadocian legions are attested at Echmiadzin, beneath the southern face of Mount Ararat, 400 km east of Satala. It would have meant a march of twenty days or more, through mountainous terrain, from the Roman border; a "remarkable example of imperialism", in the words of Fergus Millar.[102] A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.[103] Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Verus sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.[104] In 163, while Statius Priscus was occupied in Armenia, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia, just east of Syria, with its capital at Edessa. They deposed the country's leader, Mannus, and replaced him with their own nominee, who would remain in office until 165.[105] (The Edessene coinage record actually begins at this point, with issues showing Vologases IV on the obverse and "Wael the king" (Syriac: W'L MLK') on the reverse.[106]) In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.[86] On the evidence of Lucian, the Parthians still held the southern, Roman bank of the Euphrates (in Syria) as late as 163 (he refers to a battle at Sura, which is on the southern side of the river).[107] Before the end of the year, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.[108][notes 9] Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.[111] There was little movement in 164; most of the year was spent on preparations for a renewed assault on Parthian territory.[90] In 165, Roman forces, perhaps led by Martius Verus and the V Macedonica, moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, Mannus re-installed.[112] His coinage resumed, too: 'Ma'nu the king' (Syriac: M'NW MLK') or Antonine dynasts on the obverse, and 'King Mannos, friend of the Romans' (Greek: Basileus Mannos Philorōmaios) on the reverse.[106] The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris; their general Chosrhoes swam down the river and made his hideout in a cave.[113] A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura-Europos.[114] By the end of 165, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version (promulgated, according to the Historia Augusta, by Asinius Quadratus) had it that the Seleuceni broke faith first.[115] Whatever the case, the sacking marks a particularly destructive chapter in Seleucia's long decline.[116][notes 10] During the sacking, Roman troops stole the statue of Apollo Comaeus from its temple and brought it back to Rome, where it was installed at the temple of the Palatine Apollo.[118] This blasphemy may have been on Marcus' mind when he called a lectisternium, a great meal offered to the gods, at the beginning of the Marcomannic Wars (ca. 167) to ward off the evils then being visited on the state.[119] Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague, contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.[120][121] Iunius Maximus, a young tribunus laticlavius serving in III Gallica under Cassius, took the news of the victory to Rome. Maximus received a generous cash bounty (dona) for bringing the good news, and immediate promotion to the quaestorship.[122] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title Imp. III.[123] Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title Medicus,[124] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming Imp. IV in imperial titulature. Marcus too took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.[125] Conclusion of the war, mid-160s–167[edit] Lucius Verus' apotheosis from Ephesus (today in Ephesos Museum in Wien). Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals. The forces that advanced on Osroene were led by M. Claudius Fronto, an Asian provincial of Greek descent who had led I Minervia in Armenia under Priscus. He was probably the first senator in his family.[126] Fronto was consul for 165, probably in honor of the capture of Edessa. Claudius Fronto returned to Italy for his consulship; the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Julius Verus, also returned.[127] Publius Martius Verus had led V Macedonica to the front, and also served under Priscus. Martius Verus was a westerner, whose patria was perhaps Tolosa in Gallia Narbonensis.[128] The most prominent general, however, was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was young senator, the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, a noted orator who was augustal prefect of Egypt from 137 to 142 AD under Hadrian, and wife Julia Cassia Alexandra. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings and the Julio-Claudians through his mother Julia Cassia Alexandra, who descended (via Junia Lepida) from Julia, daughter and only child of Augustus.[129] Cassius and Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.[130] On the return from the campaign, Lucius was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Marcus Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion. A statue base survives in Sardis to commemorate Lucius' victory (the emperor had presumably visited the city on his return to Rome).[131] The wealthy sophist T. Flavius Damianus also hosted the emperor and his army during their return trip.[132] Nisibis on the upper Euphrates remained in Roman hands for several decades after the end of the war. By the mid-3rd century, when it was frequently contested by and exchanged between Persia and Rome, it had taken on the appearances of a typical Roman garrison town.[133] Notes[edit] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the 5th-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded "countless legions" vivente Pio (while Pius was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on 2nd-century history.[13]) ^ The text breaks off here.[31] ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[38] ^ Victorinus had also served in Britain, on the Danube, in Spain, as prefect of the Italian fleets, as prefect of Egypt, and in many posts in Rome itself.[40] ^ Or "Pantheia".[62] ^ Fronto called it "the corn-dole and public spectacles" (annona et spectaculis), preferring his own pompous rephrase to Juvenal's plain panem et circenses.[75] (The notion was a commonplace,[76] and Fronto was, in any case, unfamiliar with Juvenal; the author was out of style through the classicizing mania of the Second Sophistic, and would not become popular until the later 4th century.[77]) ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8, "He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'."; 4.10, "He never needed much sleep, however; and his digestion was excellent."; perhaps 5.7, "After the banquet, moreover, they diced until dawn.".[78] ^ In the judgment of T.D. Barnes: 4.8 ("He was very fond also of charioteers, favouring the 'Greens'.") and 10.9 ("Among other articles of extravagance he had a crystal goblet, named Volucer after that horse of which he had been very fond, that surpassed the capacity of any human draught.") are the seed for 6.2–6, "And finally, even at Rome, when he was present and seated with Marcus, he suffered many insults from the 'Blues,' because he had outrageously, as they maintained, taken sides against them. For he had a golden statue made of the 'Green' horse Volucer, and this he always carried around with him; indeed, he was wont to put raisins and nuts instead of barley in this horse's manger and to order him brought to him, in the House of Tiberius, covered with a blanket dyed with purple, and he built him a tomb, when he died, on the Vatican Hill. It was because of this horse that gold pieces and prizes first began to be demanded for horses, and in such honour was this horse held, that frequently a whole peck of gold pieces was demanded for him by the faction of the 'Greens'."; 10.8, "He was somewhat halting in speech, a reckless gambler, ever of an extravagant mode of life, and in many respects, save only that he was not cruel or given to acting, a second Nero.", for the comparison with other "bad emperors" at 4.6 ("...he so rivalled Caligula, Nero, and Vitellius in their vices..."), and, significantly, the excuse to use Suetonius.[78] ^ The letter noting the victories (Ad Verum Imperator 2.1) dates to 164 (Fronto makes a reference to Marcus' delay in taking the Armeniacus; since he took the title in 164, the letter can be no earlier than that date.[109]), but the battles themselves date to 163.[110] ^ Birley states that the siege marked the end of the city's history;[117] Matthews denies that the end of Seleucia can be tied to any one event, and points to other factors in the city's decline, like the rise of Ctesiphon, the shifting course of the Tigris, and a decline in royal patronage.[116] Citations[edit] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. ^ E.g. Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160. ^ HA Pius 12.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, "The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): 281. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 241–50. ^ Lucian, Alexander 30; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121–22. ^ HA Marcus 8.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 122. ^ HA Pius 7.11; Marcus 7.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103–4, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203–4, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 349. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing A.R. Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain (1981), 123ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), 65ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–51 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–98 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Marcus 12.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31). ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21). ^ De bello Parthico 2 (= Haines 2.21–23); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Dio 71.1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Verus 5.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, 125. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Marcus 8.9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 139. ^ a b HA Pius 8.9; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160–61. ^ Giuseppe Camodeca, "La carriera del prefetto del pretorio Sex.Cornelius Repentinus in una nuova iscrizione puteolana" (in Italian), Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 43 (1981): 47. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1094, 1100; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.84ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 1.4. ^ HA Verus 8.6, 9.3–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 163. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125, citing C.G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy, (1941), 188ff. ^ HA Verus 6.7–9; HA Marcus 8.10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–6. Stroke: Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; Haines 2.85 n. 1. ^ HA Marcus 8.11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.6 (= Haines 2.85–87); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125–26. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing SIG3 1.869, 872; HA Hadrian 13.1. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126, citing Cassiodorus senator s.a. 162. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161, citing I Eph 728, 3072; H. Halfmann, Itinera Principum. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich (Stuttgart, 1986), 210–11. ^ Christian Habicht, "Pausanias and the Evidence of Inscriptions", Classical Antiquity 3:1 (1984), 42–43, citing IErythrai 225. ^ HA Verus 6.9; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161. ^ Dio 71.3.1; HA Verus 7.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ Historia Augusta Life of Lucius Verus 7 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Barry Baldwin, review of C.P. Jones' Culture and Society in Lucian, American Historical Review 92:5 (1987), 1185. ^ Smyrna: Lucian, Imagines 2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Imagines 11, 14–15; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Lucian, Pro Imaginibus 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 7.10, cf. 7.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.6, tr. Magie; cf. 5.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 8.7, 8.10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 6.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.216–17); Juvenal, 10.78; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius: An Antonine Scholar and His Achievement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2 n. 8. ^ Alan Cameron, "Literary Allusions in the Historia Augusta", Hermes 92:3 (1964), 367–68. ^ a b Barnes, 69. Translations from the HA Verus: Magie, ad loc. ^ Barnes, 69. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.148–49); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Principae Historia 13 (= Haines 2.209–11); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129–30. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.2 (= Haines 2.117–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; citing Panegyrici Latini 14(10).6. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Pausanias 8.29.3–4; Philostratus, Heroicus 138.6–9 K., 9.5–7 L.; Christopher Jones, "The Emperor and the Giant", Classical Philology 95:4 (2000): 476–81. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Barnes, 72; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163; cf. also Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians", Journal of Roman Studies 58:1–2 (1968), 39; "Some Persons in the Historia Augusta", Phoenix 26:2 (1972), 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ a b c Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 161–62, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874 (Claudius Fronto); Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; HA Verus 7.1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8977 (II Adiutrix); Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine–51 Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Marcianus); Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Dio 71.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 394; 9117; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 280 n. 42; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, 279 n. 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ a b Millar, Near East, 112. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 29; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Champlin, "Chronology", 147. ^ Astarita, 41; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098 Archived 2 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), 124ff., on the date. ^ a b John F. Matthews, The Roman Empire of Ammianus (London: Duckworth, 1989), 142–43. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163–64. ^ Ammianus 23.6.23–24; McLynn, 334–35. ^ HA Marcus 13.1–6; McLynn, 334–35. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164. ^ Kernan, Sean. "The Virus That Crushed the Roman Army". Publishous. 31 July 2010 ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy and Halfmann, "Iunius Mauricus und die Victoria Parthica", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 35 (1979): 195–212 = Alföldy, Römische Heeresgeschichte. Beiträge 1962–1985 (Amsterdam, 1987), 203 ff (with addenda, 220–1); Fronto, Ad amicos 1.6. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), 99 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 C 874. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 179 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 348. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alföldy, Konsulat, 24, 221. ^ Sherman E. Johnson, "Preliminary Epigraphic Report on the Inscriptions Found at Sardis in 1958", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 158 (1960): 6–11. ^ Elizabeth Grier, "Certain Rich Men of the Second Century after Christ", Classical Weekly 23:15 (1930): 114, citing Forschungen in Ephesos, Veröffentlicht vom Oesterreichischen Archäeologischen Institut (Vienna, Hölder, 1906–23) 3.161 n. 80. ^ C.S. Lightfoot, "Facts and Fiction: The Third Siege of Nisibis (A.D. 350)", Historia 37:1 (1988): 106–7. References[edit] Roman–Parthian War of 161–166at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Ancient sources[edit] Ammianus Marcellinus. Res Gestae. Yonge, Charles Duke, trans. Roman History. London: Bohn, 1862. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August 2009. Rolfe, J.C., trans. History. 3 vols. Loeb ed. 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Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. The Way to Write History, in volume 2, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Imagines (Essays in Portraiture [Images]). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. A Portrait Study, in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Pro Imaginibus (Essays in Portraiture Defended). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. Defence of the 'Portrait-Study', in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. Pausanias. Description of Greece. Jones, W.H.S., and H.A. Omerod, trans. Pausanias' Description of Greece. 4 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1918. Online at Theoi and Perseus at Tufts. Accessed 27 August 2009. Philostratus. Heroicus (On Heroes). Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. On Heroes. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online at Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies. Accessed 18 September 2015. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Vita Abercii. Modern sources[edit] Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. (2000). "Hadrian to the Antonines". In Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Rathbone, Dominic (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–94. ISBN 9780521263351. Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 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en-wikipedia-org-8945	----	Justin Martyr - Wikipedia Justin Martyr From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Catholic apologist and martyr For the Latin historian, see Justin (historian). Saint Justin Martyr Martyr Born 100[1] Flavia Neapolis, Judea Died 165 (aged 65) Rome, Roman Empire Venerated in Catholic Church Anglican Communion Eastern Orthodox Church Lutheranism Oriental Orthodoxy Canonized Pre-Congregation for the Causes of Saints Feast 1 June (Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion) 14 April (Roman Calendar, 1882–1969) Patronage philosophers [2] Philosophy career Other names Justin the Philosopher Notable work 1st Apology Era Ancient philosophy School Middle Platonism Main interests Apologetics Notable ideas Logos Virtuous pagan Second Coming Last Adam Second Eve[3] Influences Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Empedocles Influenced Virtually all of subsequent Christian philosophy and Catholic theology. Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Félicité de La Mennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Justin Martyr (Greek: Ἰουστῖνος ὁ μάρτυς; c. 100 – c. 165) was an early Christian apologist and philosopher. Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue did survive. The First Apology, his most well-known text, passionately defends the morality of the Christian life, and provides various ethical and philosophical arguments to convince the Roman emperor, Antoninus, to abandon the persecution of the Church. Further, he also indicates, as St. Augustine would later, regarding the "true religion" that predated Christianity,[4] that the "seeds of Christianity" (manifestations of the Logos acting in history) actually predated Christ's incarnation. This notion allows him to claim many historical Greek philosophers (including Socrates and Plato), in whose works he was well studied, as unknowing Christians. Justin was martyred, alongside some of his students, and is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church,[5] the Anglican Church,[6] the Eastern Orthodox Church,[7] and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. Contents 1 Life 2 Writings 2.1 Medieval spurious works 2.2 Parisinus graecus 450 2.3 Dialogue with Trypho 2.4 On the Resurrection 3 Role within the Church 4 Christology 5 Memoirs of the apostles 6 Composition 6.1 Scriptural sources 6.1.1 Gospels 6.1.2 Apocalypse 6.1.3 Letters 6.2 Testimony sources 6.2.1 "Kerygma source" 6.2.2 Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus 6.3 Catechetical sources 6.4 Other sources 7 Prophetic exegesis 7.1 Belief in prophecy 7.2 Fulfillment 7.3 Second Advent and Daniel 7 7.4 Antichrist 7.5 Time, times, and a half 7.6 Eucharist 8 Editions 9 Literary references 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Life[edit] A bearded Justin Martyr presenting an open book to a Roman emperor. Engraving by Jacques Callot. Justin Martyr was born around AD 100[8] at Flavia Neapolis (today Nablus) in Samaria. He self-identified as a Samaritan.[9] His family may have been pagan, since he was uncircumcised, and defined himself as a Gentile.[10] His grandfather, Bacchius, had a Greek name, while his father, Priscus, bore a Latin name,[11] which has led to speculations that his ancestors may have settled in Neapolis soon after its establishment or that they were descended from a Roman "diplomatic" community that had been sent there. [12] In the opening of the Dialogue,[13] Justin describes his early education, stating that his initial studies left him unsatisfied due to their failure to provide a belief system that would afford theological and metaphysical inspiration to their young pupil. He says he tried first the school of a Stoic philosopher, who was unable to explain God's being to him. He then attended a Peripatetic philosopher but was put off because the philosopher was too eager for his fee. Then he went to hear a Pythagorean philosopher who demanded that he first learn music, astronomy, and geometry, which he did not wish to do. Subsequently, he adopted Platonism after encountering a Platonist thinker who had recently settled in his city. And the perception of immaterial things quite overpowered me, and the contemplation of ideas furnished my mind with wings, so that in a little while I supposed that I had become wise; and such was my stupidity, I expected forthwith to look upon God, for this is the end of Plato's philosophy.[13] Some time afterwards, he chanced upon an old man, possibly a Syrian Christian,[14] in the vicinity of the seashore, who engaged him in a dialogue about God and spoke of the testimony of the prophets as being more reliable than the reasoning of philosophers. There existed, long before this time, certain men more ancient than all those who are esteemed philosophers, both righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit, and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place. They are called prophets. These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man, not influenced by a desire for glory, but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit. Their writings are still extant, and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things, and of those matters which the philosopher ought to know, provided he has believed them. For they did not use demonstration in their treatises, seeing that they were witnesses to the truth above all demonstration, and worthy of belief; and those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them, although, indeed, they were entitled to credit on account of the miracles which they performed, since they both glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimed His Son, the Christ [sent] by Him: which, indeed, the false prophets, who are filled with the lying unclean spirit, neither have done nor do, but venture to work certain wonderful deeds for the purpose of astonishing men, and glorify the spirits and demons of error. But pray that, above all things, the gates of light may be opened to you; for these things cannot be perceived or understood by all, but only by the man to whom God and His Christ have imparted wisdom.[13] Moved by the aged man's argument, Justin renounced both his former religious faith and his philosophical background, choosing instead to re-dedicate his life to the service of the Divine. His newfound convictions were only bolstered by the ascetic lives of the early Christians and the heroic example of the martyrs, whose piety convinced him of the moral and spiritual superiority of Christian doctrine. As a result, he thenceforth decided that the only option for him was to travel throughout the land, spreading the knowledge of Christianity as the "true philosophy." His conversion is commonly assumed to have taken place at Ephesus[15][16] though it may have occurred anywhere on the road from Syria Palestina to Rome.[17] Mosaic of the beheading of Justin Martyr He then adopted the dress of a philosopher himself and traveled about teaching. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161), he arrived in Rome and started his own school. Tatian was one of his pupils.[18] In the reign of Marcus Aurelius, after disputing with the cynic philosopher Crescens, he was denounced by the latter to the authorities, according to Tatian (Address to the Greeks 19) and Eusebius (HE IV 16.7–8). Justin was tried, together with six companions, by the urban prefect Junius Rusticus, and was beheaded. Though the precise year of his death is uncertain, it can reasonably be dated by the prefectoral term of Rusticus (who governed from 162 and 168). The martyrdom of Justin preserves the court record of the trial.[15] The Prefect Rusticus says: Approach and sacrifice, all of you, to the gods. Justin says: No one in his right mind gives up piety for impiety. The Prefect Rusticus says: If you do not obey, you will be tortured without mercy. Justin replies: That is our desire, to be tortured for Our Lord, Jesus Christ, and so to be saved, for that will give us salvation and firm confidence at the more terrible universal tribunal of Our Lord and Saviour. And all the martyrs said: Do as you wish; for we are Christians, and we do not sacrifice to idols. The Prefect Rusticus read the sentence: Those who do not wish to sacrifice to the gods and to obey the emperor will be scourged and beheaded according to the laws. The holy martyrs glorifying God betook themselves to the customary place, where they were beheaded and consummated their martyrdom confessing their Saviour.[5] The church of St. John the Baptist in Sacrofano, a few miles north of Rome, claims to have his relics.[19] The Church of the Jesuits in Valletta, Malta, founded by papal decree in 1592 also boasts relics of this second century Saint.[20] A case is also made that the relics of St. Justin are buried in Annapolis, Maryland. During a period of unrest in Italy, a noble family in possession of his remains sent them in 1873 to a priest in Baltimore for safekeeping. They were displayed in St. Mary's Church for a period of time before they were again locked away for safekeeping. The remains were rediscovered and given a proper burial at St. Mary's, with Vatican approval, in 1989.[21] Relics of St. Justin and other early Church martyrs can be found in the lateral altar dedicated to St. Anne and St. Joachim at the Jesuit's Church in Valletta, Malta. In 1882 Pope Leo XIII had a Mass and an Office composed for his feast day, which he set at 14 April,[5] one day after the date of his death as indicated in the Martyrology of Florus; but since this date quite often falls within the main Paschal celebrations, the feast was moved in 1968 to 1 June, the date on which he has been celebrated in the Byzantine Rite since at least the 9th century.[22] Justin is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 1 June.[23] Writings[edit] Iustini Philosophi et martyris Opera (1636) The earliest mention of Justin is found in the Oratio ad Graecos by Tatian who, after calling him "the most admirable Justin", quotes a saying of his and says that the Cynic Crescens laid snares for him. Irenaeus[24] speaks of Justin's martyrdom and of Tatian as his disciple. Irenaeus quotes Justin twice[25] and shows his influence in other places. Tertullian, in his Adversus Valentinianos, calls Justin a philosopher and a martyr and the earliest antagonist of heretics. Hippolytus and Methodius of Olympus also mention or quote him. Eusebius of Caesarea deals with him at some length,[26] and names the following works: The First Apology addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate;[27] A Second Apology of Justin Martyr addressed to the Roman Senate; The Discourse to the Greeks, a discussion with Greek philosophers on the character of their gods; An Hortatory Address to the Greeks (known now not to have been written by Justin[28]); A treatise On the Sovereignty of God, in which he makes use of pagan authorities as well as Christian; A work entitled The Psalmist; A treatise in scholastic form On the Soul; and The Dialogue with Trypho. Eusebius implies that other works were in circulation; from St Irenaeus he knows of the apology "Against Marcion," and from Justin's "Apology"[29] of a "Refutation of all Heresies ".[30] Epiphanius[31] and St Jerome[32] mention Justin. Rufinus borrows from his Latin original of Hadrian's letter. Medieval spurious works[edit] After Rufinus, Justin was known mainly from St Irenaeus and Eusebius or from spurious works. A considerable number of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas, Photius, and other writers, but this attribution is now generally admitted to be spurious. The Expositio rectae fidei has been assigned by Draseke to Apollinaris of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as the 6th century. The Cohortatio ad Graecos has been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, as well as others. The Epistola ad Zenam et Serenum, an exhortation to Christian living, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and is assigned by Pierre Batiffol to the Novatian Bishop Sisinnius (c. 400). The extant work under the title "On the Sovereignty of God" does not correspond with Eusebius' description of it, though Harnack regards it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of the 2nd century. The author of the smaller treatise To the Greeks cannot be Justin, because he is dependent on Tatian; Harnack places it between 180 and 240. Parisinus graecus 450[edit] After this medieval period in which no authentic works of Justin Martyr were in widespread circulation, a single codex containing the complete works of Justin Martyr was discovered and purchased by Guillaume Pellicier, around 1540 in Venice. Pellicier sent it to the Bibliothèque nationale de France where it remains today under the catalog number Parisinus graecus 450. This codex was completed on 11 September 1364 somewhere in the Byzantine Empire. The name of the scribe is unknown, although Manuel Kantakouzenos has been suggested as patron. Internal textual evidence shows that multiple older manuscripts were used to create this one, which strongly suggests that it must have originated in a major population center like Mistra, since libraries holding Justin Martyr were already rare by 1364. Other partial medieval manuscripts have been shown to be copies of this one. The editio princeps was published by Robert Estienne in 1551.[33] Dialogue with Trypho[edit] The Dialogue is a later work than the First Apology; the date of composition of the latter, judging from the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius and his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, must fall between 147 and 161. In the Dialogue with Trypho, after an introductory section, Justin undertakes to show that Christianity is the new law for all men. Justin's dialogue with Trypho is unique in that he provides information on tensions between Jewish and Gentile believers in Jesus of the second century (Dial. 47:2–3)[34] and in acknowledging the existence of a range, and a variety, of attitudes toward the beliefs and traditions of the Jewish believers in Jesus.[35] On the Resurrection[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The treatise On the Resurrection exists in extensive fragments that are preserved in the Sacra parallela. The fragments begin with the assertion that the truth, and God the author of truth, need no witness, but that as a concession to the weakness of men it is necessary to give arguments to convince those who gainsay it. It is then shown, after a denial of unfounded deductions, that the resurrection of the body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God, and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking for it. Another fragment takes up the positive proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ and of those whom he recalled to life. In yet another fragment the resurrection is shown to be that of what has gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concerning it is the new doctrine, in contrast to that of the old philosophers. The doctrine follows from the command to keep the body in moral purity. The authenticity of the treatise is not so generally accepted as are Justin's other works. Even so, earlier than the Sacra parallela, it is referred to by Procopius of Gaza (c. 465–528). Methodius appeals to Justin in support of his interpretation of 1 Corinthians 15:50 in a way that makes it natural to assume the existence of a treatise on the subject, to say nothing of other traces of a connection in thought both here in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii. 5) and in Tertullian, where it is too close to be anything but a conscious following of the Greek. The Against Marcion is lost, as is the Refutation of all Heresies to which Justin himself refers in Apology, i. 26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it. Role within the Church[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Flacius discovered "blemishes" in Justin's theology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan philosophers; and in modern times Semler and S.G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene, while Semisch and Otto defend him from this charge. In opposition to the school of Ferdinand Christian Baur, who considered him a Jewish Christian, Albrecht Ritschl has argued that it was precisely because he was a Gentile Christian that he did not fully understand the Old Testament foundation of Paul's teaching, and explained in this way the modified character of his Paulinism and his legal mode of thought. Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show that his conceptions of God, of free will and righteousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of the 2nd century, dominated by the Platonic and Stoic philosophy. But he admits that Justin is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh, crucified, and risen, through which belief he succeeds in getting away from the dualism of both pagan and Gnostic philosophy. Justin was confident that his teaching was that of the Church at large. He knows of a division among the orthodox only on the question of the millennium and on the attitude toward the milder Jewish Christianity, which he personally is willing to tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile converts; his millenarianism seems to have no connection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a millennium, and generally in the Christian eschatology. Opposition to Judaism was common among church leaders in his day, however Justin Martyr was hostile towards Jewry and regarded Jews as an accursed people. His anti-Judaic polemics have been cited as an origin of Christian antisemitism.[36] However his views elaborated in the Dialogue with Trypho were comparatively tame to those of John Chrysostom and others. Christology[edit] Justin, like others, thought that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the "seminal word," and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word—in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him.[37][38] Thus he does not hesitate to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians (Apol., i. 46, ii. 10). His aim was to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him. The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ.[37] While the gentile peoples, seduced by devils, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah. However, the law, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through Christ, the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed.[39] In his character, as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law, lies the essential nature of his redeeming work.[37] The idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the union with God which had been destroyed by sin, is not foreign to him. It is noteworthy that in the "Dialogue" he no longer speaks of a "seed of the Word" in every man, and in his non-apologetic works the emphasis is laid upon the redeeming acts of the life of Christ rather than upon the demonstration of the reasonableness and moral value of Christianity, though the fragmentary character of the latter works makes it difficult to determine exactly to what extent this is true and how far the teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from him.[37] The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia notes that scholars have differed on whether Justin's writings on the nature of God were meant to express his firm opinion on points of doctrine, or to speculate on these matters. Specific points Justin addressed include that the Logos is "numerically distinct from the Father" though "born of the very substance of the Father," and that "through the Word, God has made everything." Justin used the metaphor of fire to describe the Logos as spreading like a flame, rather than "dividing" the substance of the Father. He also defended the Holy Spirit as a member of the Trinity, as well as the birth of Jesus to Mary when she was a virgin. The Encyclopedia states that Justin places the genesis of the Logos as a voluntary act of the Father at the beginning of creation, noting that this is an "unfortunate" conflict with later Christian teachings.[40] Memoirs of the apostles[edit] Justin Martyr, in his First Apology (c. 155) and Dialogue with Trypho (c. 160),[41] sometimes refers to written sources consisting of narratives of the life of Jesus and quotations of the sayings of Jesus as "memoirs of the apostles" (Greek: ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων; transliteration: apomnêmoneúmata tôn apostólôn) and less frequently as gospels (Greek: εὐαγγέλιον; transliteration: euangélion) which, Justin says, were read every Sunday in the church at Rome (1 Apol. 67.3 – "and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are being read as long as it is allowable").[42] The designation "memoirs of the apostles" occurs twice in Justin's First Apology (66.3, 67.3–4) and thirteen times in the Dialogue, mostly in his interpretation of Psalm 22, whereas the term "gospel" is used only three times, once in 1 Apol. 66.3 and twice in the Dialogue. The single passage where Justin uses both terms (1 Apol. 66.3) makes it clear that "memoirs of the apostles" and "gospels" are equivalent, and the use of the plural indicates Justin's awareness of more than one written gospel. ("The apostles in the memoirs which have come from them, which are also called gospels, have transmitted that the Lord had commanded...").[43] Justin may have preferred the designation "memoirs of the apostles" as a contrast to the "gospel" of his contemporary Marcion to emphasize the connections between the historical testimony of the gospels and the Old Testament prophecies which Marcion rejected.[44] The origin of Justin's use of the name "memoirs of the apostles" as a synonym for the gospels is uncertain. Scholar David E. Aune has argued that the gospels were modeled after classical Greco-Roman biographies, and Justin's use of the term apomnemoneumata to mean all the Synoptic Gospels should be understood as referring to a written biography such as the Memorabilia of Xenophon because they preserve the authentic teachings of Jesus.[45] However, scholar Helmut Koester has pointed out the Latin title "Memorabilia" was not applied to Xenophon's work until the Middle Ages, and it is more likely apomnemoneumata was used to describe the oral transmission of the sayings of Jesus in early Christianity. Papias uses a similar term meaning "remembered" (apomnemoneusen) when describing how Mark accurately recorded the "recollections of Peter", and Justin also uses it in reference to Peter in Dial. 106.3, followed by a quotation found only in the Gospel of Mark (Mk 3:16–17). Therefore, according to Koester, it is likely that Justin applied the name "memoirs of the apostles" analogously to indicate the trustworthy recollections of the apostles found in the written record of the gospels.[46] Justin expounded on the gospel texts as an accurate recording of the fulfillment of prophecy, which he combined with quotations of the prophets of Israel from the LXX to demonstrate a proof from prophecy of the Christian kerygma.[47] The importance which Justin attaches to the words of the prophets, which he regularly quotes with the formula "it is written", shows his estimate of the Old Testament Scriptures. However, the scriptural authority he attributes to the "memoirs of the apostles" is less certain. Koester articulates a majority view among scholars that Justin considered the "memoirs of the apostles" to be accurate historical records but not inspired writings,[48] whereas scholar Charles E. Hill, though acknowledging the position of mainstream scholarship, contends that Justin regarded the fulfillment quotations of the gospels to be equal in authority.[49] Composition[edit] Scriptural sources[edit] Gospels[edit] Justin uses material from the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) in the composition of the First Apology and the Dialogue, either directly, as in the case of Matthew,[50] or indirectly through the use of a gospel harmony, which may have been composed by Justin or his school.[51] However, his use, or even knowledge, of the Gospel of John is uncertain. One possible reference to John is a saying that is quoted in the context of a description of Christian baptism (1 Apol. 61.4 – "Unless you are reborn, you cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven."). However, Koester contends that Justin obtained this saying from a baptismal liturgy rather than a written gospel.[52] Justin's possible knowledge of John's gospel may be suggested by verbal similarities to John 3:4 directly after the discussion about the new birth ("Now, that it is impossible for those who have once been born to enter their mother's womb is manifest to all"). Justin also uses language very similar to that of John 1:20 and 1:28. Furthermore, by employing the term "memoirs of the apostles" and distinguishing them from the writings of their "followers", Justin must have been of the belief that at least two gospels were written by actual apostles. Apocalypse[edit] Justin does not quote from the Book of Revelation directly, yet he clearly refers to it, naming John as its author (Dial. 81.4 "Moreover also among us a man named John, one of the apostles of Christ, prophesied in a revelation made to him that those who have believed on our Christ will spend a thousand years in Jerusalem; and that hereafter the general and, in short, the eternal resurrection and judgment of all will likewise take place"). Scholar Brooke Foss Westcott notes that this reference to the author of the single prophetic book of the New Testament illustrates the distinction Justin made between the role of prophecy and fulfillment quotations from the gospels, as Justin does not mention any of the individual canonical gospels by name.[53] Letters[edit] Reflecting his opposition to Marcion, Justin's attitude toward the Pauline epistles generally corresponds to that of the later Church. In Justin's works, distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy. It seems likely that he also knew Hebrews and 1 John.[citation needed] The apologetic character of Justin's habit of thought appears again in the Acts of his martyrdom, the genuineness of which is attested by internal evidence.[54] Testimony sources[edit] According to scholar Oskar Skarsaune, Justin relies on two main sources for his proofs from prophecy that probably circulated as collections of scriptural testimonies within his Christian school. He refers to Justin's primary source for demonstrating scriptural proofs in the First Apology and parallel passages in the Dialogue as a "kerygma source". A second source, which was used only in the Dialogue, may be identical to a lost dialogue attributed to Aristo of Pella on the divine nature of the Messiah, the Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus (c. 140). Justin brings in biblical quotes verbatim from these sources, and he often appears to be paraphrasing his sources very closely, even in his interpretive remarks.[55] Justin occasionally uses the Gospel of Matthew directly as a source for Old Testament prophecies to supplement his testimony sources.[50][56] However, the fulfillment quotations from these sources most often appear to be harmonizations of the gospels of Matthew and Luke.[57] Koester suggests that Justin had composed an early harmony along the lines of his pupil Tatian's Diatesseron.[51] However, the existence of a harmony independent of a collection of sayings for exposition purposes has been disputed by scholar Arthur Bellinzoni.[58][59] The question of whether the harmonized gospel materials found in Justin's writings came from a preexisting gospel harmony or were assembled as part of an integral process of creating scriptural prooftexts is an ongoing subject of scholarly investigation.[60] "Kerygma source"[edit] The following excerpt from 1 Apol. 33:1,4–5 (partial parallel in Dial. 84) on the annunciation and virgin birth of Jesus shows how Justin used harmonized gospel verses from Matthew and Luke to provide a scriptural proof of the messiahship of Jesus based on fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14.[61] And hear again how Isaiah in express words foretold that He should be born of a virgin; for he spoke thus: 'Behold, the virgin will conceive in the womb and bear a son, and they will say in his name, God with us' (Mt 1:23). — 1 Apol. 33:1[62][63] ...the power of God, coming down upon the virgin, overshadowed her and made her while yet a virgin to conceive (cf. Lk 1:35), and the angel of God proclaimed to her and said, 'Behold, you will conceive in the womb from the Holy Spirit and bear a son (Mt 1:20/Lk 1:31) and he will be called Son of the Most High (Lk 1:32). And you shall call his name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins (Mt 1:21),' as those who have made memoirs of all things about our savior Jesus Christ taught... — 1 Apol. 33:4–5[64] According to Skarsaune, the harmonized gospel narratives of Matthew and Luke were part of a tradition already circulating within Justin's school that expounded on the life and work of Jesus as the Messiah and the apostolic mission. Justin then rearranged and expanded these testimonia to create his First Apology.[65][66] The "kerygma source" of prooftexts (contained within 1 Apol. 31–53) is believed to have had a Two Parousias Christology, characterized by the belief that Jesus first came in humility, in fulfillment of prophecy, and will return in glory as the Messiah to the Gentiles.[67] There are close literary parallels between the Christology of Justin's source and the Apocalypse of Peter.[68] Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus[edit] The following excerpts from the Dialogue with Trypho of the baptism (Dial. 88:3,8) and temptation (Dial. 103:5–6) of Jesus, which are believed to have originated from the Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus, illustrate the use of gospel narratives and sayings of Jesus in a testimony source and how Justin has adopted these "memoirs of the apostles" for his own purposes. And then, when Jesus had come to the river Jordan where John was baptizing, and when Jesus came down into the water, a fire was even kindled in the Jordan, and when He was rising up from the water, the Holy Spirit fluttered down upon Him in the form of a dove, as the apostles have written about this very Christ of ours. — Dial. 88:3 And when Jesus came to the Jordan, and being supposed to be the son of Joseph the carpenter..., the Holy Spirit, and for man's sake, as I said before, fluttered down upon Him, and a voice came at the time out of the heavens – which was spoken also by David, when he said, impersonating Christ, what the Father was going to say to Him – 'You are My Son, this day I have begotten you'." — Dial. 88:8[69] ...the Devil himself,...[was] called serpent by Moses, the Devil by Job and Zachariah, and was addressed as Satanas by Jesus. This indicated that he had a compound name made up of the actions which he performed; for the word "Sata" in the Hebrew and Syrian tongue means "apostate", while "nas" is the word which means in translation "serpent", thus, from both parts is formed the one word "Sata-nas". It is narrated in the memoirs of the apostles that as soon as Jesus came up out of the river Jordan and a voice said to him: 'You are My Son, this day I have begotten you', this Devil came and tempted him, even so far as to exclaim: 'Worship me'; but Christ replied: 'Get behind me, Satanas, the Lord your God shall you worship, and Him only shall you serve'. For, since the Devil had deceived Adam, he fancied that he could in some way harm him also. — Dial. 103:5–6[70] The quotations refer to the fulfillment of a prophecy of Psalm 2:7 found in the Western text-type of Luke 3:22.[71] Justin's mention of the fire on the Jordan without comment suggests that he was relying on an intermediate source for these gospel quotations,[72] and his literal interpretation of a pseudo-etymology of the Hebrew word Satan indicates a dependence on a testimony source with a knowledge of Hebrew, which was probably the Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus.[73] The Dialogue attributed to Aristo of Pella is believed to have furnished Justin with scriptural prooftexts on the divinity of the Messiah by combining a Wisdom Christology – Christ as the incarnation of preexistent Wisdom – with a Second Adam Christology – the first Adam was conquered by Satan, but this Fall of Man is reversed by Christ as the Second Adam who conquers Satan. This is implied in the pseudo-etymology in Dial. 103:5–6 linking the name of Satan to the "apostate-serpent". The Christology of the source is close to that of the Ascension of Isaiah.[74] Catechetical sources[edit] Justin quotes many sayings of Jesus in 1 Apol. 15–17 and smaller sayings clusters in Dial. 17:3–4; 35:3; 51:2–3; and 76:4–7. The sayings are most often harmonizations of Matthew and Luke that appear to be grouped together topically and organized into sayings collections, including material that probably originated from an early Christian catechism.[75][76] The following example of an ethical teaching On Swearing Oaths in 1 Apol. 16:5 shows a combination of sayings material found in Matthew and the Epistle of James: Do not swear at all (Mt 5:34). Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No (Jas 5:12). Everything beyond these is from evil (Mt 5:37). The saying "Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No" from James 5:12 is interpolated into a sayings complex from Matthew 5:34,37. The text appears in a large number of Patristic quotations and twice in the Clementine Homilies (Hom. 3:55, 19:2). Thus, it is likely that Justin was quoting this harmonized text from a catechism.[77][78] The harmonization of Matthew and Luke is evident in the following quotations of Mt 7:22–23 and Lk 13:26–27, which are used by Justin twice, in 1 Apol. 16:11 and Dial. 76:5: Many will say to me, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and do powerful deeds?' And then I shall say to them, 'go away from me, workers of lawlessness'. Many will say to me on that day, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and prophecy and drive out demons?' And I shall say to them, 'go away from me'. In both cases, Justin is using the same harmonized text of Matthew and Luke, although neither of the quotations includes the entire text of those gospel passages. The last phrase, "workers of lawlessness", has an exact parallel with 2 Clement 4:5. This harmonized text also appears in a large number of quotations by the Church Fathers.[79][80] 1 Apol. 16:11 is part of a larger unit of sayings material in 1 Apol 16:9–13 which combines a warning against being unprepared with a warning against false prophets. The entire unit is a carefully composed harmony of parallel texts from Matthew and Luke.[81][82] This unit is part of a larger collection of sayings found in 1 Apol. 15–17 that appear to have originated from a catechism used by Justin's school in Rome, which may have had a wide circulation. Justin excerpted and rearranged the catechetical sayings material to create Apol. 15–17 and parallel passages in the Dialogue.[83][84] Other sources[edit] Justin includes a tract on Greek mythology in 1 Apol. 54 and Dial. 69 which asserts that myths about various pagan deities are imitations of the prophecies about Christ in the Old Testament. There is also a small tract in 1 Apol. 59–60 on borrowings of the philosophers from Moses, particularly Plato. These two tracts may be from the same source, which may have been an early Christian Apology.[85] Prophetic exegesis[edit] Justin's writings constitute a storehouse of early interpretation of the prophetic Scriptures. Belief in prophecy[edit] The truth of the prophets, he declares, compels assent. He considered the Old Testament an inspired guide and counselor. He was converted by a Christian philosopher whom he paraphrased as saying: "There existed, long before this time, certain men more ancient than all those who are esteemed philosophers, both righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit, and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place. They are called prophets. These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man. not influenced by a desire for glory, but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit. Their writings are still extant, and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things. . . And those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them."[86] Then Justin told his own experience: "Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul; and a love of the prophets, and of those men who are friends of Christ, possessed me; and whilst revolving his words in my mind, I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable."[87] Fulfillment[edit] Justin listed the following events as fulfillments of Bible prophecy: The prophecies concerning the Messiah, and the particulars of His life.[88] The destruction of Jerusalem.[89] The Gentiles accepting Christianity.[90] Isaiah predicted that Jesus would be born of a virgin.[91] Micah mentions Bethlehem as the place of His birth.[92] Zechariah forecasts His entry into Jerusalem on the foal of an ass (a donkey).[93] Second Advent and Daniel 7[edit] Justin connected the Second Advent with the climax of the prophecy of Daniel 7. "But if so great a power is shown to have followed and to be still following the dispensation of His suffering, how great shall that be which shall follow His glorious advent! For He shall come on the clouds as the Son of man, so Daniel foretold, and His angels shall come with Him. [Then follows Dan. 7:9–28.]"[94] Antichrist[edit] The second advent Justin placed close upon the heels of the appearance of the "man of apostasy", i.e., the Antichrist.[95] Time, times, and a half[edit] Daniel's "time, times, and a half", Justin believed, was nearing its consummation, when the Antichrist would speak his blasphemies against the Most High.[96] Eucharist[edit] Justin's statements are some of the earliest Christian expressions on the Eucharist. "And this food is called among us Εὐχαριστία [the Eucharist] ... For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."[97] Editions[edit] Greek texts: P.Oxy.5129 (Egyptian Exploration Society, 4th century) Thirlby, S., London, 1722. Maran, P., Paris, 1742 (the Benedictine edition, reprinted in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Vol. VI. Paris, 1857). Otto, J. C., Jena, 1842 (3d ed., 1876–1881). Krüger, G., Leipzig, 1896 (3d ed., Tübingen, 1915). In Die ältesten Apologeten, ed. G.J. Goodspeed, (Göttingen, 1914; reprint 1984).[98] Iustini Martyris Dialogus cum Tryphone, ed Miroslav Marcovich (Patristische Texte und Studien 47, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1997). Minns, Denis, and Paul Parvis. Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies. Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts. Oxford: OUP, 2009. (In addition to translating into English has a critical Greek text). Philippe Bobichon (ed.), Justin Martyr, Dialogue avec Tryphon, édition critique, introduction, texte grec, traduction, commentaires, appendices, indices, (Coll. Paradosis nos. 47, vol. I-II.) Editions Universitaires de Fribourg Suisse, (1125 pp.), 2003 online English translations: Halton, TP and M Slusser, eds, Dialogue with Trypho, trans TB Falls, Selections from the Fathers of the Church, 3, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press) Minns, Denis, & Paul Parvis. Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies. Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts. Oxford: OUP, 2009. Georgian translation: "Sulieri Venakhi", II, Saint Justin Martyr's dialogue with Trypho the Jew, translated from Old Greek into Georgian, submitted with preface and comments by a monk Ekvtime Krupitski, Tbilisi Theological Academy, Tsalka, Sameba village, Cross Monastery, "Sulieri venakhi" Publishers, Tbilisi, 2019, ISBN 978-9941-8-1570-6 Literary references[edit] The Rector of Justin (1964), perhaps Louis Auchincloss's best-regarded novel, is the tale of a renowned headmaster of a New England prep school—similar to Groton—and how he came to found his institution. He chooses the name Justin Martyr for his Episcopal school. ("The school was named for the early martyr and scholar who tried to reconcile the thinking of the Greek philosophers with the doctrines of Christ. Not for Prescott [the headmaster] were the humble fishermen who had their faith and faith alone."[99]) See also[edit] Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross Epistle to Diognetus List of early Christian saints Saint Justin Martyr, patron saint archive Notes[edit] ^ Thomas Whitlaw, Commentary on John (1885), p. xl ^ St. Justin Martyr, patron of philosophers, honored on June 1 ^ McNally, Terrence J. (2009). What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-4415-1051-8. ^ "The very thing which is now called the Christian religion existed among the ancients also, nor was it wanting from the inception of the human race until the coming of Christ in the flesh, at which point the true religion which was already in existence began to be called Christian." – St. Augustine, Retractiones ^ a b c  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Lebreton, Jules (1910). "St. Justin Martyr". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2 November 2013. ^ "For All the Saints" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2012. ^ "Justin the Philosopher & Martyr and his Companions". Retrieved 2 April 2011. ^ Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 9780521196215. ^ * Samuel, Samuel (October 1892). "The Jews in the Works of the Church Fathers". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 5 (1): 122–157, 123 n.1. JSTOR 1449915. ^ Craig D. Allert, Revelation, Truth, Canon, and Interpretation: Studies in Justin Martyr's Dialogue With Trypho Brill, 2002). ISBN 978-9-004-31329-3 p.28. ^ Allert, ibid. p.28 ^ Reinhold Plummer,Early Christian authors on Samaritans and Samaritanism, Mohr Siebeck, 2002 p.14. ^ a b c Justin Martyr. "2–8". Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho. ^ Oskar Skarsaune, The proof from prophecy: a study in Justin Martyr's proof-text tradition:text-type, provenance, theological profile, Brill, 1987 p.246. ^ a b J. Quasten, Patrology, Volume 1: The Beginnings of Patristic Literature (Allen, TX: Christian Classics, 1983), p.197. ^ Plummer, 2002 p.15. ^ Skarsaune, The proof from prophecy,pp.245–6 and notes 1 and 2. ^ Marian Hillar, From Logos to Trinity: The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian, page 139 (Cambridge University Press, 2012). ISBN 978-1-107-01330-8 ^ Sacrofano – Church of Saint John the Baptist, "...the bones of St. Justin are preserved in a great urn under the coloured marble high altar, built in 1515." [1] Archived 13 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Wikipedia article on Church of the Jesuits. ^ https://www.apnews.com/88ec7a380363c0411c2a84b706f090fe ^ Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 1969), p. 94 ^ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 27 March 2021. ^ Haer. I., xxviii. 1. ^ IV., vi. 2, V., xxvi. 2. ^ Church History, iv. 18. ^ David Rokéah, Justin Martyr and the Jews, page 2 (Leiden, Brill, 2002). ISBN 90-04-12310-5 ^ Hardwick, Michael, "Contra Apionem and Antiquatates Judaicae: Points of Contact" in Feldman, Louis H. and Levison, John R. (eds.), Josephus' Contra Apionem (Brill Publishers, 1996), p. 379. ^ i. 26 ^ Church History, IV., xi. 10. ^ Haer., xlvi. 1. ^ De vir. ill., ix. ^ Justin, Martyr, Saint (2009). Justin, philosopher and martyr : Apologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–13. ISBN 0199542503. ^ Bibliowicz, Abel M. (2019). Jewish-Christian Relations - The First Centuries (Mascarat, 2019). WA: Mascarat. p. 201-2. ISBN 978-1513616483. ^ Skarsaune, Oskar (2007). Evidence for Jewish Believers in Greek and Latin Patristic Literature in Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries. Peabody, Mass.: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 510-4. ISBN 978-0-664-25018-8. ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Early_Church.html ^ a b c d New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge 3rd ed. 1914. Pg 284[Exact Quote] ^ Philippe Bobichon, Filiation divine du Christ et filiation divine des chrétiens dans les écrits de Justin Martyr in P. de Navascués Benlloch, M. Crespo Losada and A. Sáez Gutiérrez (dir.), Filiación. Cultura pagana, religión de Israel, orígenes del cristianismo, vol. III, Madrid, 2011, pp. 337-378 online ^ Philippe Bobichon, "Préceptes éternels et Loi mosaïque dans le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr", Revue Biblique 3/2 (2004), pp. 238-254 online ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Lebreton, Jules (1910). "St. Justin Martyr". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2 November 2013. The Word is numerically distinct from the Father (Dial., cxxviii, cxxix; cf. lvi, lxii). He was born of the very substance of the Father, not that this substance was divided, but He proceeds from it as one fire does from another at which it is lit (cxxviii, lxi); this form of production (procession) is compared also with that of human speech (lxi). The Word (Logos) is therefore the Son: much more, He alone may properly be called Son (II Apol., vi, 3); He is the monogenes, the unigenitus (Dial., cv). Elsewhere, however, Justin, like St. Paul, calls Him the eldest Son, prototokos (I Apol., xxxiii; xlvi; lxiii; Dial., lxxxiv, lxxxv, cxxv). The Word is God (I Apol., lxiii; Dial., xxxiv, xxxvi, xxxvii, lvi, lxiii, lxxvi, lxxxvi, lxxxvii, cxiii, cxv, cxxv, cxxvi, cxviii). His Divinity, however, seems subordinate, as does the worship which is rendered to Him (I Apol., vi; cf. lxi, 13; Teder, "Justins des Märtyrers Lehre von Jesus Christus", Freiburg im Br., 1906, 103–19). The Father engendered Him by a free and voluntary act (Dial., lxi, c, cxxvii, cxxviii; cf. Teder, op. cit., 104), at the beginning of all His works (Dial., lxi, lxii, II Apol., vi, 3); in this last text certain authors thought they distinguished in the Word two states of being, one intimate, the other outspoken, but this distinction, though found in some other apologists, is in Justin very doubtful. Through the Word God has made everything (II Apol., vi; Dial., cxiv). The Word is diffused through all humanity (I Apol., vi; II, viii; xiii); it was He who appeared to the patriarchs (I Apol., lxii; lxiii; Dial., lvi, lix, lx etc.). Two influences are plainly discernible in the aforesaid body of doctrine. It is, of course, to Christian revelation that Justin owes his concept of the distinct personality of the Word, His Divinity and Incarnation; but philosophic speculation is responsible for his unfortunate concepts of the temporal and voluntary generation of the Word, and for the subordinationism of Justin's theology. It must be recognized, moreover, that the latter ideas stand out more boldly in the "Apology" than in the "Dialogue." ^ Rokeah (2002) Justin Martyr and the Jews p. 2 – His First Apology dates from about 155 CE, for it mentions (chap. 29) the procurator of Egypt, Felix, who served in this capacity between 151 and 154. Grant (Greek Apologists pp. 53–54) links the First Apology to the martyrdom of Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, which occurred in 155 or 156; he finds allusions in the Apology to the description of Polycarp's death at the stake found in a letter sent by the Christian community of Smyrna to other Christian communities immediately after the event. ... The First Apology is mentioned in the Dialogue (end of chap. 120), and it is therefore likely that the latter was composed around 160 CE." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 38 – "It is clear that these "memoirs" are indeed gospel writings and that they are used liturgically as instructions for the sacrament and as texts for homilies." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development pp. 38,40–41; p. 38 – Dial. 100.4; 101.3; 102.5; 103.6,8; 104.1; 105.1,5,6; 106.1,3,4; 107.1 "In each instance the materials quoted derive from written gospels, usually from Matthew and Luke, in one instance from Mark, and each time the term serves to quote, or to refer to, gospel materials which demonstrate that the prophecy of the Psalm has been fulfilled in the story of Jesus. The "memoirs of the apostles" are used as reliable historical records." p40 – "Justin uses the term gospel only three times 1 Apol. 66.3, Dial. 10.2; 100.1." p. 41 – "It is evident that "gospel" refers to the same literature that Justin otherwise calls "memoirs of the apostles". The use of the plural in 1 Apol. 66.3 indicates that Justin knew of more than one written gospel." ^ Koester 1990 Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development pp. 36–37,43; pp. 36–37 – "...there is no evidence that anyone before Marcion had used the term "gospel" as a designation for a written document. ...those writings of Justin which are preserved, his two Apologies and his Dialogue with Trypho, clearly show the effects of Marcion's challenge." p. 43 – "In direct antithesis to Marcion's use of the written gospel, Justin binds these gospels to the prophetic revelation in the Old Testament scriptures." ^ Aune (1987) The New Testament in its Literary Environment p. 67 – "Justin Martyr (writing ca. 155) described the Gospels as 'reminiscences [apomnemoneumata] of the apostles' (1 Apology 66.3; 67.3) and 'reminiscences of Peter' (Dialogue with Trypho 106.3). Thus Justin, like Matthew, Luke, and Papias, prefers to designate the Gospels by a recognized literary form. Though apomnemoneumata are not carefully defined in rhetorical handbooks, they are essentially expanded chreiai, i.e., sayings and/or actions of or about specific individuals, set in a narrative framework and transmitted by memory (hence "reliable"). ... His use of the term "reminiscences", therefore, suggests a connection to Xenophon's Memorabilia (in Greek apomnemoneumata), a "biography" of Socrates." ^ Koester 1990 Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development pp. 33–34,38–40; pp. 33–34 – "What Papias says about Mark reflects the use of categories which are drawn from the oral tradition. ... The written gospels' authority is assured by the same technical terms which had been established for the oral tradition. ... The term "remember" (mnemoneuein/apomnemoneuein) was decisive for the trustworthiness of the oral tradition." pp. 39–40 – "The composite form of the verb "to remember" (apomnemoneuein) had been used by Papias of Hierapolis as a technical term for the transmission of oral materials about Jesus. If Justin's term "memoirs of the apostles" is derived from this usage, it designates the written gospels as the true recollections of the apostles, trustworthy and accurate, and more reliable than any oral tradition which they are destined to replace." ^ Koester 1990 Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development p. 377 – "The Christian proclamation about Jesus as Son of God, however, is true (in contrast to pagan myths), because the Christians possess trustworthy historical documents – "remembrances of the apostles" – from which it can be shown that everything in Christ's appearance and work happened in complete agreement with prophecy. What is demonstrated to be true is the Christian kerygma, not the story of the gospels. The reports contained in the gospels are used to show that the facts about Christ which the kerygma proclaims happened in complete agreement with the prophecy that announced them." ^ Koester 1990 Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development p. 41 – "These gospels for Justin possess the authority of written records. Although they are read in the service of the church, they are not "Holy Scripture" like the law and the prophets." ^ Hill (2004) pp. 345–46; p. 345 – "It is commonly held that in Rome of Justin's day even the Memoirs themselves possessed only a quite limited authority."; p. 346 – He sees in Justin "a parity of authority between these two groups of writings". ^ a b Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 130,163; p. 130 – "Justin sometimes had direct access to Matthew and quotes OT texts directly from him. ... (The direct borrowings are most frequent in the Dialogue; in the Apology, Mic 5:1 in 1 Apol. 34:1 may be the only instance.)" p. 163 note: Diagram of the internal structure of the putative "kerygma source", showing the insertion of scriptural quotation of Mic 5:1 from Mt. 2:6 ^ a b Koester, (2000) Introduction to the New Testament: History and literature of Early Christianity. 2nd ed., 1982 1st ed., p. 344 – "On the basis of the gospel quotations of the First Apology and the Dialogue with Trypho, one can conclude with great certainty that Justin also had composed a harmony of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (he did not know the Gospel of John), which is lost but was used by his student Tatian for the composition of his famous and influential four-gospel harmony known as the Diatessaron." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels pp. 360–361; p. 360 – "He knew and quoted especially the Gospels of Matthew and Luke; he must have known the Gospel of Mark as well, though there is only one explicit reference to this Gospel (Dial. 106.3); he apparently had no knowledge of the Gospel of John." footnote #2: "The only possible reference to the Gospel of John is the quotation of a saying in 1 Apol. 61.4.." ^ Westcott (1875) A general survey of the canon of the New Testament, p. 120 – "To quote prophecy habitually without mentioning the Prophet's name would be to deprive it of half its value; and if it seem strange that Justin does not quote the Evangelists like Prophets, it is no less worthy of notice that he does quote by name the single prophetic book of the New Testament. ... This reference to the Apocalypse appears to illustrate the difference which Justin makes between his quotations from the Prophecies and the Gospels." ^ Bonwetsch (1914) New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, p. 284; Also see, Martyrdom of Justin Martyr at Wikisource ^ Skarsaune (2007) Jewish Believers in Jesus pp. 380–81 ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels pp. 382–383 – "In the discussion of the prophecy for the place of Jesus' birth (1 Apology 34), Justin only quotes the prophecy of Micah 5:1 and then remarks that Jesus was born in this 'village in the land of Judah which is 35 stades from Jerusalem' (1 Apol. 34:2). No actual narrative material from a gospel is quoted. ... However, the quotation of the text of Micah 5:1 is not given in the text of the LXX; rather, Justin follows the form of the text quoted in Matt. 2:6. ... The form of the quotation that appears in Matt 2:6 departs considerably from both the LXX and the Hebrew text. It is, in fact, a combination of Micah 5:1 and 2 Sam 5:2; only the latter speaks of the prince's function as the Shepard of Israel. The conflated quotation was wholly the work of Matthew. There can be no question that Justin is quoting this Matthean text." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 365 – "The vast majority of the sayings quoted in Justin's writings are harmonizations of the texts of Matthew and Luke. These harmonizations are not casual or accidental, but systematic and consistent, (this certainly excludes...careless quotation from memory as an explanation for Justin's harmonizations) and they involve the composition of longer sections of parallel sayings from both gospels." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr p. 141 – "It must, however, be emphasized that there is absolutely no evidence that Justin ever composed a complete harmony of the synoptic gospels; his harmonies were of limited scope and were apparently composed for didactic purposes. Whether the thought of a full gospel harmony ever occurred to Justin can only be conjectured, but he apparently never undertook to compose such a work." ^ Koester (1990) The Ancient Christian Gospels p. 370 footnote 2: "Bellinzoni (Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr p. 100) collapses stage (1) [a systematic harmonization of the texts of Matthew and Luke] and (2) [the composition of a cluster of sayings that warn against false prophets] of this process. He assumes that the harmonizations were made specifically for the composition of a catechism. This assumption, however, cannot explain why also the narrative materials quoted by Justin were drawn from a harmonized gospel text." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 378 – "The question is whether Justin composed these harmonizations and inserted additional phrases just for the purpose of his demonstration of scriptural proof or whether he drew on a written gospel text that was already harmonized and expanded. It seems to me that we are not witnessing the work of an apologist who randomly selects pieces of various gospels and invents additional phrases for the purpose of a tight argument of literal fulfillment of scripture; nor can one solve the complex problems of Justin's quotations of gospel narrative materials by the hypothesis of a ready-made, established text of a harmonized gospel as his source. Rather, his writings permit insights into a school of scriptural exegesis in which careful comparison of written gospels with the prophecies of scripture endeavored to produce an even more comprehensive new gospel text." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy p. 145 – "1 Apol. 33 contains an elaborate explanation of Is 7:14. ... One notices that the fulfillment report is stylized so as to match the prophecy perfectly. That Justin did not entirely formulate it ad hoc is demonstrated by the close parallel in the Proteuangelium Iakobi (PJ 11:3), where much of the same combination of Matthean and Lukan elements occurs. Probably all three elements (Prophecy – Exposition – Fulfillment report) were present in Justin's source. And – as pointed out by Koester [Koester (1956) p. 67] – it seems the same source is employed once more in Dial. 84." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 379 – "1 Apol. 33 gives as proof concerning Jesus' birth the prophecy of Isa 7:14. The text of this scriptural passage is presented in a form that is influenced by its quotation in Matt 1:23." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 32–34; p. 32 – "It is obvious that Justin's quotation of IS 7:14 in 1 Apol. 33:1 has Mt 1:23 as its direct or indirect source. There are indications in the context which indicate that we should reckon with an intermediary source between Mt and Justin. This intermediary source may account for the deviations from Matthew's text." p. 33 – Diagram of Mt 1:23, Is 7:14 LXX, and 1 Apol. 33:1 p. 34 – "To conclude: Although Is 7:14 has its peculiar problems in Justin, ... we have found confirmation for our thesis concerning Justin and his 'testimony sources': Justin claims the text from Mt 1:23 – probably transmitted through an intermediary source – as the true LXX." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels pp. 380–81 – "The text of 1 Apol. 33:5 is a harmony of two angelic announcements, the one from Matthew in which the angel calls Joseph in a dream, the other from Luke's narrative of the annunciation. While the passage begins with a sentence from Luke, 'from the Holy Spirit' is interpolated from Matt 1:20. The naming of Jesus and the reason for this name is given according to Matt 1:21. ... But in order to argue for the fulfillment of Isa 7:14 in 1 Apol. 33:3–6, the report of the command to name the child 'Jesus' did not need to refer to the Matthean form. ... It is evident, therefore, that Justin is quoting from a harmonized gospel text... Justin's gospel text must have continued with the remainder of the Lukan pericope of the annunciation. In the introduction to the harmonization of Luke 1:31–32 and Matt 1:20–21, Justin had already alluded to the Lukan continuation of the story: 1 Apol. 33:4 ... recalls Luke 1:35 ("The Holy Spirit will come upon you and the power of the Most High will overshadow you.") ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 143,425; p. 143 – "Taking as a working hypothesis that Justin in 1 Apol. 32/35 and Dial. 52–54 is using a source containing OT prophecies, expositions and fulfillment reports, it is easy to recognize the different procedure in the Apology and the Dialogue. In the Apology, Justin reproduces the source rather faithfully, only rearranging the material... In the Dialogue Justin is much more independent in his handling of his (kerygma) source. He has turned to the primary sources behind the testimony source, that is, he has turned to the LXX and Matthew." p. 425 – "The prooftexts themselves were presented in a free, targumizing version of the standard LXX text, closely adapted to Christian exegesis and polemic concerns. ... Justin may have become heir to Schriftbeweistraktate which were part of a school tradition. These tracts probably also comprised brief fulfillment reports. We encounter this tradition of texts and exposition in its purest form in 1 Apol. 31–53. Here Justin is still almost entirely dependent on the received texts and the adjacent exegesis. ... Justin's main modification is a rearrangement within the series, motivated by Justin's fear that his readers might not recognize some of his prooftexts as real prophecies." ^ Skarsaune (2007) Jewish Believers in Jesus pp. 381–85; p. 381 – "The reason I have called this hypothetical source the "kerygma source" is twofold. First, it share some striking parallels with the lost writing The Kerygma of Peter (ca. 125) of which a few fragments are quoted in Clement of Alexandria. Second, it seems to have had a creed-like enumeration of Jesus' messianic career, a christological "kerygma", as its basic structure." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 154–56; p. 156 – "In the Apology, the idea is the following: Since the prophecies covering the first coming of Christ can be shown to have been fulfilled in great detail, we may safely conclude that those prophecies which predict His glorious second coming will also be fulfilled." ^ Skarsaune (2007) Jewish Believers in Jesus pp. 388–9 – "The Christology is clearly messianic in function: the 'Son of God' concept is demonstrated functionally as the Messiah being enthroned at God's right hand, ruling, and coming to judge the living and the dead, thus acting in a divine role. On the whole, this Christology is very close to that of Matthew, but also to the Christology of Justin's source in 1 Apol. 31–53." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 197–198,391–392; p. 197 – "Justin's narrative is a harmonization of the Synoptic accounts. There are other non-synoptic details in the context, however, which may indicate a non-synoptic source besides the Synoptic Gospels." pp. 391–392 – "I have argued above that the narrative of Jesus' baptism in Dial. 88:3 derives from the "recapitulation" source. ... Men believed that Jesus was the son of Joseph, but the heavenly voice proclaimed him as God's son. Perhaps the mention of the fire is related to this idea: It may have been conceived of as a purifying or testing fire. ... Jesus at his baptism was tested as God's son by the fire, but not made God's son at his baptism. This, I gather, is also the idea embodied in Justin's narrative: Jesus was not made or established as God's son in his baptism, but he was proved to be God's son – proved by testing, or by conquering the fire." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 222–23,238,383–84,393; p. 384 – "In the temptation story, Christ as the Son of God, the second Adam, is tested. The temptation follows immediately after the heavenly voice has proclaimed 'Thou art my son...'. This is especially clear in Dial. 103:5f. ... The special relevance of this passage is that it proves how deeply the recapitulation idea is integrated into Justin's inherited material. The etymology given for Satanas has a special function: It proves that the 'Satanas' encountered by Jesus in his temptation was the same as the 'serpent' encountered by Adam – Satanas means 'apostate serpent', i.e. the serpent of Gen. 3. In other words: Jesus met the same adversary as the first Adam." p. 393 – "It is interesting to notice that only two Semitic etymologies provided by Justin both refer to the temptation story: 'Satanas' and 'Israel' (Dial. 103:5 and Dial. 125:4) – and as we have seen already, they presuppose a harmonistic version of the temptation story which is not created ad hoc by Justin. The gist of the whole material is succinctly summarized in Dial. 103:6: As the devil led Adam astray, he thought he could seduce the second Adam also." ^ Koester (1990) Ancients Christians Gospels pp. 394–395 – "In Dial. 88, Justin twice reports the coming of the holy spirit upon Jesus at his baptism. He gives this report in order to demonstrate the fulfillment of the prophecies of Isa 11:1–3 and Joel 2:28–29 about the coming of the spirit which he had quoted in Dial. 87:2 and 6. ... Finally, the heavenly voice is given by Justin in a citation of Ps. 2:7, while Mark and Matthew present a wording of the heavenly voice which is a conflation of Isa 42:1 and 44:2. Only the Western text of Luke 3:22 presents the heavenly voice in the form that must be presupposed for Justin's source. Justin cannot have been the author of this form of the heavenly voice; he had no special interest in proving the fulfillment of this scriptural text, although he is quite aware of its appearance in scripture as a word of David, i.e., a psalm that David wrote. That Justin's source already contained this form of the heavenly voice is confirmed in Dial. 103:6, where he refers to it once more in passing; introducing a remark about Jesus' temptation, he again quotes the exact text of Luke 3:22 D = Ps. 2:7." ^ Koester (1990) Ancients Christians Gospels p. 395 – "In order to prove the fulfillment of the prophecies of Isa 11:1–3 and Joel 2:28–29, Justin only had to report the coming of the spirit upon Jesus. But not only does he add the report about the heavenly voice, he also mentions 'that a fire was lit in the Jordan'. Nothing in the context of Justin's discussion requires a mention of this phenomenon. It must have been part of the text Justin was quoting." ^ Rokeah (2002) Justin Martyr and the Jews pp. 20–21 – "The accepted view is that Justin did not know Hebrew. There is clear-cut and overwhelming evidence for Justin's absolute reliance upon the Septuagint. The explanation for any apparent acquaintance or knowledge of Hebrew in Justin's writings should be sought elsewhere: in his sources. ... Dial. 103:5 contains the only two Hebrew–Aramaic etymologies in the entire work: of satan, and of yisrael. The source of these is apparently the work of Aristo of Pella, The Altercation of Jason and Papiscus." ^ Skarsaune (2007) Jewish Believers in Jesus pp. 399–400; "In Justin's source, the Messiah is presented as God's preexistent Wisdom who has descended to earth, and ascended again to his heavenly glory. ... Here I add another aspect of great significance in Justin's source, namely that Jesus is portrayed as the second and anti-typical Adam. He reverses the fall of Adam by conquering where Adam was conquered. He "recapitulates" in his own story the story of Adam, but with the opposite point of departure, the opposite direction and the opposite result. ... The very point of the (pseudo-)etymology given for Satanas in this passage is to identify the Tempter addressed by Jesus in Matt 4:11 (conflated with Matt 16:23) with the serpent that tempted the first man. In this way the parallelism between the first and second Adam is made plain. Since Justin knew no Hebrew and probably no Aramaic, there is every reason to think he got this midrashic etymology from a source..." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 361 – "The most striking feature is that these sayings exhibit many harmonizations of the text of Matthew and Luke. However, the simple assumption of a harmonized gospel cannot explain all the peculiarities of the quotations." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr pp. 99–100 – "It has already been argued above that the entire section Apol. 15–17 may have been based on a single source different from the sources underlying the rest of Justin's sayings of Jesus, and I have tried to indicate that this section has many features in common with primitive Christian catechisms." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr pp. 64–67; p. 66 – "the form of the saying in James is a more simple paranetic form than the text of Matthew, where each example is elaborated and where the command is not what one should do but what one should say. It, therefore, appears that the form of the saying in Jas. 5:12 is older than Matthew's version. ... This evidence would seem to indicate that Apol. 16:5 was here based on the text of Mt. 5:34,37 that had either been harmonized in part with Jas. 5:12 or with the parenetic tradition that underlies Jas. 5:12. The evidence of several of the fathers indicates a widespread knowledge of a text similar to Apol. 16:5." (Clem. of Alex. Strom. V 14,99; Clem. of Alex. Strom. VII 11,67; Cyril of Alex. De Ador. et Verit. VI; Eusebius Dem. Ev. III 3,13; Eusebius Comm. in Ps. 14 4; Epiphanius Adv. Her. XIX 6,21; Gregory of Nyssa In Cant. of Cant. Homily XIII) ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 363 – "Thus...it is not likely that Justin is quoting from the text of Matthew but from a catechism, whose text was influenced by the formulation preserved in Jas 5:12 but not necessarily dependent upon the Epistle of James." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels pp. 356,365–67; p. 367 – "The method of harmonization includes two different procedures: (1) whenever the texts of Matthew and Luke are closely parallel, either the Matthean or the Lukan phrase or a conflation of both is chosen; (2) whenever the texts of Matthew and Luke differ considerably, as in Matt 7:22 and Luke 13:26, major portions of the two texts are combined; thus, one finds Luke's 'we were eating and drinking' as well as Matthew's 'we prophesied etc.'." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr pp. 22–25; pp. 24–25 – "These consistent features of harmonization found in Apol. 16:11 and Dial. 76:5 leave little doubt that Justin used as a source for these passages a written harmony of Mt. 7:22f and Lk. 13:26f, and this harmonization of Matthew and Luke is further evident in several of the early fathers quoted in the texts below. ... A comparison of this harmonization of Matthew and Luke in the patristic quotations leaves little doubt that Justin used a harmony of Mt. 7:22f and Lk. 13:26f and that this harmony was known to other fathers in substantially the same form as that used by Justin (Origen Contra Celsum II 49; Origen Ev. Jo. XXXII 8,11; Pamphilius Apol. pro Orig. V). Further, the witness of 2 Clement here proves the existence of this harmonization of Matthew and Luke previous to Justin." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr pp. 98–99; p. 99 – "Therefore we can conclude with certainty that these five verses are based on a source that was a carefully composed harmony of material from Matthew and Luke and that was based on the order of Matthew 7." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels pp. 367–370; p. 369 – "This section of Justin's quotation of Jesus' sayings rests on deliberate and careful composition of the parallel texts of Matthew and Luke, but is also disrupted by interpolations from different contexts." p. 370 – "Thus Justin himself did not compose this cluster of sayings for this particular context. He use an already existing collection." ^ Bellinzoni (1967) Sayings of Jesus in Justin Martyr p. 100 – "It is, therefore, quite probable from the foregoing discussion that there is underlying Apol. 15–17 a primitive Christian catechism in use in Justin's school in Rome, a catechism that was known in similar form to Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and the author of the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies, a catechism based primarily on the text of the Sermon on the Mount but that harmonized related material from Mark, Luke, and from other parts of Matthew, and a catechism whose tradition was of great influence in later manuscript witnesses of the synoptic gospels." ^ Koester (1990) Ancient Christian Gospels p. 375 – "The catechetical character of these clusters of sayings is evident in their usage by Justin ... It is difficult to determine in each instance the degree to which Justin has supplemented and rearranged these collections. But it appears that the catechetical collections already existed and that Justin himself did not compose them." ^ Skarsaune (1987) The Proof From Prophecy pp. 52–53,148–150,431; p. 150 – "This tract must have had a somewhat other orientation than the source employed by Justin in 1 Apol. 32–35. It was not concerned with a prophecy–fulfillment scheme, but with correspondence between OT texts and Greek mythology." p. 53 – "It is unlikely that it (the text in 1 Apol. 60:9 introduced as a prophecy of Moses) ever occurred in a Bible text...it is more likely that Justin took it from the source which also provided him with the (harmonistic) 'citations' from Plato in A 60. ... In this case we have reason to suspect a tractate of some kind, which included Plato quotations as well." p. 431 – "It remains to be remarked that Justin also has made other additions from sources containing OT material, but these are strictly speaking not parts of the scriptural proof. In 1 Apol. 54f and Dial. 69f Justin has added material from a source which was occupied with demonic imitations of OT Messianic prophecies, and in 1 Apol. 59f he has a little tract on philosophic borrowings from Moses. One should not exclude the possibility that these two blocks of material derive from the same source, which might well be an earlier Christian Apology." ^ Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 7 ^ Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 8 ^ First Apology, Chapter 31 ^ First Apology, chapter 47 ^ First Apology, Chapter 49 ^ First Apology, Chapter 33 ^ First Apology, Chapter 34 ^ First Apology, Chapter 35 ^ Dialogue with Trypho, chapter 31 ^ Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 110 ^ Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 32 ^ First Apology, Chapter 66 ^ Early Christian Fathers | Christian Classics Ethereal Library ^ Auchincloss, Louis (1964), The Rector of Justin; Houghton Mifflin Company, p. 163. References[edit] Aune, David E. (1987). The New Testament in its Literary Environment. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-21912-3. Bellinzoni, Arthur J. (1967). The Sayings of Jesus in the Writings of Justin Martyr. Brill. ASIN B0007ISJW6. Philippe Bobichon, « Comment Justin a-t-il acquis sa connaissance exceptionnelle des exégèses juives (contenus et méthodes) ? », Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie, 139, 2007, pp. 101-126 1 Philippe Bobichon, « Persécutions, calomnies, ‘birkat ha-Minim’, et émissaires juifs de propagande antichrétienne dans le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr », Revue des Études Juives 162 /3-4 (juillet-décembre 2003), pp. 403-419.article online Philippe Bobichon, « Composite Citations and Textual Composition in Justin Martyr » in S. A. Adams and S. M. Ehorn (dir.), Composite Citations in Antiquity: Volume 1: Jewish, Graeco-Roman, and Early Christian Uses, Bloomsbury, 2015, pp. 158-181.text Philippe Bobichon, "Justin Martyr : étude stylistique du Dialogue avec Tryphon suivie d’une comparaison avec l’Apologie et le De resurrectione", Recherches augustiniennes et patristiques 34 (2005), pp. 1-61 online Hill, Charles E. (2004). The Johannine Corpus in the Early Church. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926458-2. Koester, Helmut (1956). "Septuaginta und Synoptischer Erzählungsstoff im Schriftbeweis Justins des Märtyrers". Theol. Habilitationsschrift. Heidelberg. Koester, Helmut (1990). Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development. SCM/Trinity Press. ISBN 978-0-334-02459-0. ancient christian gospels their history and development. Koester, Helmut (2000). Introduction to the New Testament: History and literature of Early Christianity (2 ed.). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. ISBN 3-11-014693-2. Rokeah, David (2002). Justin Martyr and the Jews. Brill. ISBN 90-04-12310-5. Skarsaune, Oskar (1987). The Proof From Prophecy: A Study in Justin Martyr's Proof Text Tradition. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07468-6. Skarsaune, Oskar (2007). Jewish Believers in Jesus. Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56563-763-4. Westcott, Brooke Foss (1875). A general survey of the canon of the New Testament (4 ed.). MacMillan & Co. ASIN B00086L640. Bonwetsch, N. (1914). New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (3 ed.). Samuel Macauley Jackson ed., Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, MI. pp. 282–285. (a text that has entered the public domain and is available online at New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Justin Martyr Philippe Bobichon's Greek edition with a French translation and notes. 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en-wikipedia-org-894	----	Praetorian Guard - Wikipedia Praetorian Guard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imperial Roman unit who guarded the emperors "Praetorians" redirects here. For video game, see Praetorians (video game). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Part of a series on the Military of ancient Rome 753 BCE – 476 CE Structural history Army Unit types and ranks Decorations and punishments Legions Auxilia Generals Navy Fleets Admirals Campaign history Wars and battles Technological history Military engineering Castra Siege engines Triumphal arches Roads Political history   Strategy and tactics Infantry tactics Frontiers and fortifications Limes Limes Britannicus Antonine Wall Hadrian's Wall Saxon Shore Limes Germanicus Alb Limes Lauter Valley Limes Lower Germanic Limes Main Limes Neckar-Odenwald Limes Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes Wetterau Limes Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes Norican Limes Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Pannonian Limes Limes Alutanus Limes Moesiae Trajan's Wall Anastasian Wall Limes Sarmatiae Limes Arabicus Limes Tripolitanus Limes Mauretaniae  Ancient Rome portal •  War portal v t e The Praetorian Guard (Latin: cohortes praetoriae) was an elite unit of the Imperial Roman army whose members served as personal bodyguards and intelligence for Roman emperors. During the era of the Roman Republic, the Praetorians served as a small escort force for high-ranking officials such as senators or provincial governors like procurators, and also serving as bodyguards for high-ranking officers within the Roman legions. With the republic's transition into the Roman Empire, however, the first emperor, Augustus, reformed the Guard as his personal security detail. Although they continued to serve in this capacity for roughly three centuries, the Guard became notable for its intrigue and interference in Roman politics, to the point of overthrowing emperors and proclaiming their successors. In 312, the Guard was disbanded by Constantine the Great, as he oversaw the destruction of their barracks at the Castra Praetoria.[1] Contents 1 Under the Roman Republic 2 Under the empire 2.1 History 2.1.1 Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.1.2 Year of the Four Emperors 2.1.3 Flavian dynasty 2.1.4 Antonine dynasty 2.1.5 Severan dynasty 2.1.6 3rd century 2.1.7 Dissolution 2.2 Participation in wars 2.3 Political role 2.4 Organization 2.4.1 Leadership 2.4.2 Size and composition 2.4.3 Praetorian Cavalry 2.4.4 Speculatores Augusti 2.5 Service in the Praetorian Guard 2.6 Equipment and traditions 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References and further reading 6 External links Under the Roman Republic[edit] Praetorians originated as guards of Roman generals during the Roman Republic. They first appear in the historical record as bodyguards of the Scipio family around 275 BC. Generals with imperium (the right to command an army) were magistrates or promagistrates, accompanied at all times by their lictors, who would act as close protection. Consuls and proconsuls had twelve lictors, whilst praetors and propraetors had six; enough to guard a general's tent in camp, but too few to be effective as a bodyguard in battle. There was no permanent bodyguard formation, so some military officers began to surround themselves with temporary units of hand-picked soldiers to ensure their security during battle. For example, during the Siege of Numantia of 134-133 BCE, Scipio Aemilianus formed a troop of 500 men to protect himself against sorties, which often targeted commanders. This practice became more widespread in the army of the late Republic, as generals remained on campaign for longer periods. In camp, the bodyguard would sleep close to the commander, whose tent was known as the praetorium. Accordingly, the picked guard became known as cohors praetoria. In battle, these cohorts would act as a final reserve. At the end of the year 40 BC, the triumvirs Octavian and Mark Antony both operated praetorian units of hand-picked veterans. Octavian garrisoned his praetorians within the sacred boundary of Rome, the first time troops had been permanently stationed in the city. Antony commanded three cohorts in the Orient and in 32 BC, he issued coins in honor of his praetorians. According to Paulus Orosius,[citation needed] Octavian commanded five cohorts at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Following his victory at Actium, Octavian merged his forces with those of his adversary in a symbolic reunification. When Octavian became Augustus, the first Roman emperor (27 BCE), he retained the praetorians as his personal bodyguard force. Under the empire[edit] The Praetorians Relief with an aquila grasping a thunderbolt through its claws, in reference, to the Roman interpretatio graeca form of Jupiter. The legionaries known as the Praetorian Guard were first hand-picked veterans of the Roman army who served as bodyguards to the emperor. First established by Augustus, members of the Guard accompanied him on active campaign and served as secret police[citation needed] protecting the civic administrations and rule of law imposed by the senate and the emperor. The Praetorian Guard was ultimately dissolved by Emperor Constantine I in the 4th century. They were distinct from the Imperial German Bodyguard which provided close personal protection for the early Western Roman emperors. They benefited from several advantages due to their close proximity with the emperor: the Praetorians were the only ones admitted while bearing arms in the center of sacred Rome – the Pomerium. Their mandatory service was shorter in duration, for instance: 12 years with the Praetorians instead of 16 years in the legions starting year 13 BC, then carried to, respectively, 16 to 20 years in year 5 BC according to Tacitus. Their pay was higher than that of a legionary. Under Nero, the pay of a Praetorian was three and a half times that of a legionary, augmented by prime additions of donativum, granted by each new emperor. This additional pay was the equivalent of several years of pay, and was often repeated at important events of the empire, or events that touched the imperial family: birthdays, births and marriages. Major monetary distributions or food subsidies renewed and compensated the fidelity of the Praetorians following each failed particular attempted plot (such as that of Messalina against Claudius in AD 48 or Piso against Nero in AD 65). The Praetorians received substantially higher pay[2] than other Roman soldiers in any of the legions, on a system known as sesquiplex stipendum, or by pay-and-a-half. So if the legionaries received 250 denarii, the guards received 375 per annum (year). Domitian and Septimius Severus increased the stipendum (payment) to 1,500 denarii per year, distributed in January, May and September. Feared and dreaded by the population and by the Roman Senate, the Praetorians received no sympathy from the Roman people. A famous poem by Juvenal recalls the nail left in his foot by the sandal of a Praetorian rushing by him. "Praetorian" has a pejorative sense in French, recalling the often troubling role of the Praetorian of antiquity. History[edit] In ancient Rome, praetors were either civic or military leaders. The praetorianus were initially elite guards for military praetors, under the Republic.[3] As the Republic ended, the first emperor, Augustus, set up an elite guard of praetorianus to protect himself. The early Praetorian Guard differed greatly from that in later times, which came to be a vital force in the power politics of Rome. While Augustus understood the need to have a protector in the maelstrom of Rome, he was careful to uphold the Republican veneer of his regime. Thus, he allowed only nine cohorts to be formed, each originally consisting of 500 men. He then increased them to 1,000 men each, but allowed three units to be kept on duty at any given time in the capital. A small number of detached cavalry units (turmae) of 30 men each were also organized. While they patrolled inconspicuously in the palace and major buildings, the others were stationed in the towns surrounding Rome. This system was not radically changed with the appointment by Augustus in 2 BC of two Praetorian prefects, Quintus Ostorius Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper, although organization and command were enhanced. Tacitus reports that the number of cohorts was increased to twelve from nine in AD 47. In AD 69 it was briefly increased to sixteen cohorts by Vitellius, but Vespasian quickly reduced it again to nine.[4] Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] In Rome, their principal duty was to mount the Guard at the house of Augustus on the Palatine, where the centuries and the turmae of the cohort in service mounted the guard outside the emperor's palace (the interior guard of the palace was mounted by the Imperial German Bodyguard, often also referred to as Batavi, and the Statores[5] Augusti, a sort of military police which were found in the general staff headquarters of the Roman Army). Every afternoon, the tribunus cohortis would receive the password from the emperor personally. The command of this cohort was assumed directly by the emperor and not by the Praetorian prefect. After the construction of the Praetorian camp in 23 BC, there was another similar serving tribune placed in the Praetorian camp accordingly. Their functions included, among many, the escort of the emperor and the members of the imperial family, and if necessary to act as a sort of anti-riot police. Certain Empresses exclusively commanded their own Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, in the year 23 BC, there were nine Praetorian cohorts (4500 men, the equivalent of a legion) to maintain peace in Italy; three were stationed in Rome, and the others, nearby. An inscription recently discovered suggests that, towards the end of the reign of Augustus, the number of cohorts increased to 12 during a brief period.[6] This inscription referred to one man who was the tribune of two successive cohorts: the eleventh cohort, apparently at the end of the reign of Augustus, and the fourth at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius. According to Tacitus, there were only nine cohorts in 23 AD. The three urban cohorts, which were numbered consecutively after the Praetorian cohorts, were removed near the end of the reign of Augustus; it seemed probable that the last three Praetorian cohorts were simply renamed as Urban Cohorts. The first intervention of the Praetorians on a battlefield since the wars of the end of the Republic took place during the mutinies of Pannonia and the mutinies of Germania. On the death of Augustus in AD 14, his successor Tiberius was confronted by mutinies in the two armies of the Rhine and Pannonia, who were protesting about their conditions of service, in comparison with the Praetorians. The forces of Pannonia were dealt with by Drusus Julius Caesar, son of Tiberius (not to be confused with Nero Claudius Drusus, brother of Tiberius), accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian Cavalry, and Imperial German Bodyguards. The mutiny in Germania was repressed by the nephew and designated heir of Tiberius, Germanicus, who later led legions and detachments of the Guard in a two-year campaign in Germania, and succeeded in recovering two of the three legionary eagles which had been lost at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. It was under Tiberius that Lucius Aelius Seianus (Sejanus) rose in power and was among the first prefects to exploit his position to pursue his own ambitions. He concentrated under his command all the Praetorian cohorts in the new camp. Sejanus held the title of prefect jointly with his father, under Augustus, but became sole prefect in AD 15. He used that position to render himself essential to the new emperor Tiberius, who was unable to persuade the Senate to share the responsibility of governing the Empire. Sejanus, however, alienated Drusus, son of Tiberius, and when the heir to the throne, Germanicus, died in AD 19, he was worried that Drusus would become the new emperor. Accordingly, he poisoned Drusus with the help of the latter's wife, and then immediately launched a ruthless elimination program against all competitors, persuading Tiberius to make him his heir apparent. He almost succeeded, but his plot was discovered and revealed in AD 31 and he was subsequently killed. Emperor Tiberius used for this purpose the Cohortes urbanae which were not under the control of Sejanus. In AD 37 Caligula became emperor with the support of Naevius Sutorius Macro, Sejanus' successor as prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Under Caligula, whose reign lasted until AD 41, the overall strength of the Guard increased from 9 to 12 Praetorian cohorts. Proclaiming Claudius Emperor, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, oil on canvas, 1867. According to one version of the story of Claudius' accession, members of the Praetorian Guard found him hiding behind a curtain in the aftermath of the assassination of Caligula in AD 41, and proclaimed him emperor. In year 41, it was disgust and hostility of a praetorian tribune, named Cassius Chaerea – whom Caligula teased without mercy due to his squeaky voice – which led to the assassination of the emperor by officers of the guard. While the Imperial German Bodyguard sacked all in a search to apprehend the murderers, the Senate proclaimed the restoration of a Republic. The Praetorians, who were pillaging the Palace, discovered Claudius, uncle of Caligula, hidden behind a curtain. Needing an emperor to justify their own existence, they brought him forth to the Praetorian camp and proclaimed him emperor. He is the first emperor proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard and compensated the guard with a prime bonus worth five years their salary. The Praetorians accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in 43 AD. When Claudius was poisoned, the Guard transferred their allegiance to Nero through the influence of his Praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, who exercised a beneficial influence on the new emperor during the first five years of his reign. Officers of the Guard, including one of the two successors of Burrus as the Praetorian prefect, participated in Piso's conspiracy in year 65. The other Praetorian prefect, Tigellinus, headed the suppression of the conspiracy, and the Guard was compensated with a bonus of 500 denarii for each man. Year of the Four Emperors[edit] Main article: Year of the Four Emperors In AD 69, the new colleague of Tigellinus, Nymphidius Sabinus, managed to have the Praetorian Guard abandon Nero in favor of the contender Galba. Nymphidius Sabinus had promised 7500 denarii per man, but Galba refused to pay that amount because he stated "It is my habit to recruit soldiers and not buy them". This permitted his rival Otho to bribe 23 Speculatores of the Praetorian Guard to proclaim him emperor. Despite the opposition of the cohorts in service in the palace, Galba and his designated successor, the young Piso, were lynched on January 15. After supporting Otho against a third contender Vitellius, the Praetorians were restrained following defeat and their centurions executed. They were replaced by 16 cohorts recruited from the legionnaires and auxiliaries loyal to Vitellius, almost 16,000 men. These ex-Praetorians then aided Vespasian, the fourth Emperor, leading the attack against the Praetorian camp. Flavian dynasty[edit] Under the Flavians, the Praetorians formed 9 new cohorts, of which Titus, son of the emperor Vespasian, became the prefect. Vespasian returned the effective strength of each unit to five hundred men. He also cancelled the guard service of the Praetorians at the entry to the emperor's palace, but retained guards within the palace itself. Under Vespasian's second son, Domitian, the number of cohorts was increased to 10, and the Praetorian Guard participated in fighting in Germania and on the Danube against the Dacians. It was in the course of these actions that the prefect Cornelius Fuscus was defeated and killed in 86. Antonine dynasty[edit] Following assassination of Domitian in 96 the Praetorians demanded the execution of their prefect, Titus Petronius Secundus, who had been implicated in the murder. The Guard supported Trajan, commander of the Army of the Rhine, as new emperor. At the death of Nerva, at the beginning of 98, Trajan executed the remaining Praetorian prefect and his partisans. Trajan returned to Rome from the Rhine, probably accompanied by the new unit of equites singulares Augusti. The Praetorian Guard had participated in the two Dacian Wars of Trajan (Dacian Wars 101–102 and 105–106). The Praetorian Guard served in the last campaign of Trajan against the Parthians of 113–117. During the 2nd century, the Praetorian Guard accompanied Lucius Verus in the Oriental War Campaign of 161–166 AD, as well as accompanying Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in his northern campaigns between 169–175 and 178–180. Two prefects were killed during these expeditions. With the accession of Commodus, in 180, the Praetorian Guard returned to Rome. Tigidius Perennis (AD 182–185) and freedman Marcus Aurelius Cleander (AD 186–190) exercised considerable influence on the emperor. Perennis was killed by a delegation of 1500 persons of Great Britain which came forth to complain about his interference in the affairs of the province (a delegation of Lanciarii of the 3 legions of Great Britain). Cleander abused his influence to nominate and dismiss prefects. In 188, Cleander obtained the joint command of the Guard with the two prefects. Cleander ordered a massacre of civilians carried by the equites singulares Augusti which led to an arranged battle with the Urban Cohorts. Severan dynasty[edit] Commodus fell victim to a conspiracy directed by his Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus in 192. The new emperor Pertinax, who took part in the conspiracy, paid the Praetorians a premium of 3,000 denarii; however he was assassinated three months later, on March 28 193, by a group of Guards. The Praetorians then put the empire up to auction and Didius Julianus bought the title of emperor. However the armies of the Danube chose instead the governor of Pannonia Superior, Septimius Severus, who besieged Rome and tricked the Praetorians when they came out unarmed. The Praetorian Guard was dissolved and replaced by men transferred from his own army. The new Guard of Septimius Severus made their mark against his rival Clodius Albinus at the Battle of Lyon in 197, and accompanied the emperor to the Orient from 197 to 202, then to Britannia from 208 until his death at York in 211. Caracalla, son of Septimius Severus, lost favour with his troops by assassinating his own brother and co-emperor, Geta, immediately after his succession. He also created problems by trying to recreate a Macedonian phalanx witnessed previously in the Roman Army. Finally, in 217, while on campaign in the Orient, he was assassinated at the instigation of his prefect Macrinus. After the elimination of the latter, the Praetorians opposed the new emperor Elagabalus, priest of the oriental cult of Elagabal, and replaced him by his 13-year-old cousin Severus Alexander in 222. In this period the position of Praetorian prefect in Italy came increasingly to resemble a general administrative post, and there was a tendency to appoint jurists such as Papinian, who occupied the post from 203 until his elimination and execution at the ascent of Caracalla. Under Severus Alexander the Praetorian prefecture was held by the lawyer Ulpian until his assassination by the Praetorian Guard in the presence of the emperor himself. 3rd century[edit] In the spring of 238, under Maximinus Thrax, the bulk of the Praetorian Guard was employed on active service. Defended by only a small residual garrison, the Praetorian camp was attacked by a civilian crowd acting in support of senators and Gordian emperors in revolt against Maximinus Thrax. The failure of Maximinus Thrax to win the civil war against the contenders Gordian I and Gordian II led to his death at the hands of his own troops, including the Praetorians. The senatorial candidates for the throne, Pupienus and Balbinus, recalled the Praetorian Guard to Rome, only to find themselves under attack by the Praetorians. Both were killed on July 29 238 and Gordian III triumphed. After 238, literary and epigraphic sources dry up, and information on the Praetorian Guard becomes rare. In 249, the Praetorians assassinated Philippus II, son of the emperor Philip the Arab. In 272, in the reign of the emperor Aurelian, they took part in an expedition against Palmyra. In 284, Diocletian reduced the status of the Praetorians; they were no longer to be part of palace life, as Diocletian lived in Nicomedia, some 60 miles (100 km) from Byzantium in Asia Minor. Two new corps, the Ioviani and Herculiani (named after the gods Jove, or Jupiter, and Hercules, associated with the senior and junior emperor), replaced the Praetorians as the personal protectors of the emperors, a practice that remained intact with the Tetrarchy. In 297 they were in Africa with Maximian. By the time Diocletian retired on May 1, 305, their Castra Praetoria seems to have housed only a minor garrison of Rome. Dissolution[edit] During the early 4th century, Caesar Flavius Valerius Severus attempted to disband the Praetorian Guard on the orders of Galerius. In response, the Praetorians turned to Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximian, and proclaimed him their emperor on 28 October 306. By 312, however, Constantine the Great marched on Rome with an army in order to eliminate Maxentius and gain control of the Western Roman Empire, resulting in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Ultimately, Constantine's army achieved a decisive victory against the Praetorians, whose emperor was killed during the fighting. With the death of Maxentius, Constantine definitively disbanded the remnants of the Praetorian Guard. The remaining soldiers were sent out to various corners of the empire, and the Castra Praetoria was dismantled in a grand gesture inaugurating a new age in Roman history and ending that of the Praetorians. Participation in wars[edit] While campaigning, the Praetorians were the equal of any formation in the Roman army. On the death of Augustus in 14 AD, his successor, Tiberius, was faced with mutinies among both the Rhine and Pannonian legions. According to Tacitus, the Pannonian forces were dealt with by Tiberius' son Drusus, accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian cavalry and some of the German bodyguard. The German mutiny was put down by Tiberius' nephew and adopted son Germanicus, his intended heir, who then led the legions and detachments of the Guard in an invasion of Germany over the next two years. The Guard saw much action in the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, fighting well for Otho at the first battle of Bedriacum. Under Domitian and Trajan, the guard took part in wars from Dacia to Mesopotamia, while with Marcus Aurelius, years were spent on the Danubian frontier during the Marcomannic Wars. Throughout the 3rd century, the Praetorians assisted the emperors in various campaigns. Political role[edit] Praetorian Cohorts intervened on numerous occasions in the struggle for the imperial succession. Lacking troops of its own, the Senate had no choice each time but to accept the choice of the Praetorians as well as that of the various legions. The new emperor was always proclaimed by the Praetorians before being ratified by the Senate and the legions stationed in the various provinces. After the death of Sejanus, who was sacrificed for the donative (imperial gift) promised by Tiberius, the Guards began to play an increasingly ambitious and bloody game in the Empire. For the right price, or at will, they assassinated emperors, bullied their own prefects, or turned on the people of Rome. In 41, Caligula was killed by conspirators from the senatorial class and from the Guard, along with his wife and daughter. The Praetorians placed his uncle Claudius on the throne, daring the Senate to oppose their decision. In 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, after the emperor Galba failed to provide a donative for the Praetorians, they transferred their allegiance to Otho and assassinated the emperor. Otho acquiesced in the Praetorians' demands and granted them the right to appoint their own prefects, ensuring their loyalty. After defeating Otho, Vitellius disbanded the Guard and established a new Guard sixteen cohorts strong. Vespasian relied in the war against Vitellius upon the disgruntled cohorts the emperor had dismissed, and reduced the number of cohorts back to nine upon becoming emperor himself. As a further safeguard, he appointed his son, Titus, as Praetorian prefect.[7] While the guard had the power to make or break emperors, it had no formal role in government administration, unlike the personnel of the palace, the Senate, and the bureaucracy. Often after an outrageous act of violence, revenge by the new ruler was forthcoming. In 193, Didius Julianus purchased the Empire from the Guard for a vast sum, when the Guard auctioned it off after killing Pertinax. Later that year Septimius Severus marched into Rome, disbanded the Guard and started a new formation from his own Pannonian legions. Unruly mobs in Rome often fought with the Praetorians in vicious street battles during Maximinus Thrax's reign. In 271, Aurelian sailed east to destroy the power of Palmyra, Syria, with a force of legionary detachments, Praetorian cohorts, and other cavalry units, and easily defeated the Palmyrenes. This led to the orthodox view that Diocletian and his colleagues evolved the sacer comitatus (the field escort of the emperors). The sacer comitatus included field units that used a selection process and command structure modeled after the old Praetorian cohorts, but it was not of uniform composition and was much larger than a Praetorian cohort. Organization[edit] Leadership[edit] Main articles: Praetorian prefect and Praetorian prefecture Starting in the year 2 BC, the Praetorian prefect was the commanding officer of the Praetorian Guard (previously each cohort was independent and under the orders of a tribune of equestrian rank). This role (chief of all troops stationed in Rome), was in practice a key position of the Roman polity. From Vespasian onwards the Praetorian prefecture was always held by an equestrian of the eques order. (Equestrians were traditionally that class of citizens who could equip themselves to serve in the Roman Army on horseback). From the year 2 BC, the cohorts were under the control of two prefectures; however cohorts continued to be organized independently, each commanded by a tribune. Tribunes had as immediate subordinates ordinary Centurions, all of equal rank except for the Trecenarius, the first and prime of all centurions of the Praetorian Cohorts, who commanded also the 300 speculatores, and with the exception of his second, the Prince Castrorum.[8] From the second century the Praetorian prefect oversaw not only the Praetorian Cohorts but also the rest of the garrison of Rome, including the Cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts") and the equites singulares Augusti, but not the Vigiles cohorts. Following the dissolution of the Praetorian Cohorts by the emperor Constantine after he defeated them at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, the role of the Praetorian prefect in the Empire became purely administrative, ruling large territories (prefectures) comprising Roman dioceses (geographical subdivisions of the Roman Empire) in the name of the Emperor. Size and composition[edit] The Praetorian Cohorts were designated as Equitatae (cavalry) Turmae (troops) with centuries formed of infantry, initially of 500 men each.[8] In order not to alienate the population of Rome, while conserving Republican civilian traditions, the Praetorians did not wear their armor while in the heart of the city. Instead they often wore a formal toga, which distinguished them from civilians but remained in a respectable civilian attire, the mark of a Roman citizen. Augustus, conscious of risking the only military force present in the city, often avoided concentrating them and imposed this dress code. From the reign of Tiberius, their camp was situated on the Quirinal Hill, outside Rome. In 26 AD, Sejanus, Praetorian prefect, and the favorite of emperor Tiberius, united the Urban Cohorts with nine Praetorian Cohorts, dispersed at that time throughout Italy, in one large camp situated beyond the Servian Wall, on the Esquiline Hill, the Castra Praetoria. For the 2nd century, calculations from lists of significant demobilisations suggest an increase in size to nearly 1,500 men per cohort (perhaps a doubling of 800 (since Vespasian), probably organized in 20 centuries) under Commodus in year (187–188) or under Septimius Severus (193–211), which matches the probable numbers of effectives for Urban Cohorts during the time of Cassius Dio. These figures suggest an overall size for the Guard of 4,500–6,000 men under Augustus, 12,800 under Vitellius, 7,200 under Vespasian, 8,000 from Domitian until Commodus or Septimius Severus, and 15,000 later on.[6] At the beginning of the 2nd century, Italians made up 89% of the Praetorian Guard. Under Septimius Severus, recruitment evolved to authorize the inclusion of legionaries of the Roman army, as well as of the battle hardened Army of the Danube. Severus stationed his supporters with him in Rome, and the Praetorian Guards remained loyal to his choices. Praetorian Cavalry[edit] Initially each cohort included, as for a Roman legion, a cavalry detachment; this should not be confused with the equites singulares Augusti who appeared under the emperor Trajan. The Praetorian could become a cavalryman (Eques) after almost five years service in the infantry. These Praetorians remained listed in their Centuries of origin, but operated in a turma of 30 men each commanded by an Optio equitum. There was probably one turma of cavalry for two centuries of infantry.[6] Hence, three turmae per cohorts of the Augustan period, five per cohort in 100 CE–200 CE, and ten per cohort after 200 CE, with a vexillum (flag) as emblem for each turma. Speculatores Augusti[edit] The speculatores Augusti were cavalrymen assigned to the same tasks as the Speculatores of the legions and the auxiliary units (messengers in charge of transmitting intelligence, and clandestine agents). About 300 in total (30 per cohort), they formed a unit under the orders of the senior Centurion, the Trecenarius. Selected for their impressive physique, they were used by the Emperor for clandestine operations and tasks such as arrests, imprisonment, and executions. One of their roles was to accompany the emperor on his foreign campaign journeys (a role which would later be handled by the Singulares/equites singulares Augusti). Claudius was in the habit of surrounding himself with Speculatores when attending dinners. The close security protection detail of Galba, of Otho and the dynastic line of the Flavians appear to have been formed of Speculatores (who replaced the Imperial German Bodyguard disbanded by Galba). Following the assassination of emperor Domitian, his successor Nerva was placed under the protection of Trajan, to counter possible revenge attempts and mutinies. Trajan was commander of the most important army of the time, that of the Army of Germania, and he nominated him as his heir. Accordingly, and following such an act, Trajan, aiming to reinforce his security detail in relation to the Speculatores who had remained loyal to Domitian, replaced them as close protection security detail with the Singulares/equites singulares Augusti (modelled on the Singulares of a provincial governor, a post held by Trajan). The some 300 Speculatores were reassigned by Trajan to the corps of Praetorian cohorts.[8] They were distinguished by a special (but unknown) style of boots, the Speculatoria Caliga (according to Suetonius) and they received special honorific diplomas in bronze at demobilization. They had their own Equestrian instructors (Exercitatores).[6] Service in the Praetorian Guard[edit] Funeral inscription of Quintus Pomponius Poeninus, soldier of the IV Praetorian Cohort[9] Originally, the Praetorian Guard was recruited from the populations of central Italy (Etruria, Umbria and Latium according to Tacitus). Recruits were between 15 and 32 years of age, compared to legionary recruits who ranged from 18 to 23 years of age. According to Cassius Dio, during the first two centuries AD and before the reform of Septimius Severus, the Praetorians were exclusively limited to Italy, Spain (Roman province), Macedonia and Noricum (current Austria). Under the reign of Vitellius, and starting from Septimius Severus, men were transferred from the Urban Vigiles, Urban cohorts, and the various legions. This recent method and manner of recruitment at the corps of the legions became the normal procedure to recruit in the 3rd century after Septimius Severus dealt with the undisciplined Praetorians who assassinated Pertinax in 193, and replaced them with men from his own Danube legions. At that time, the Praetorians represented the best soldiers from the legions (principally from Illyria). They were a group of elite of soldiers starting from the 3rd century, and not a category of socially privileged soldiers (such as the Italians at the time of Augustus). The Italians formed the base of the recruitment of the Legio II Parthica, a new legion created and stationed in Italy. To be admitted to the Guard, a man had to be in good physical condition, have a good moral character, and come from a respectable family. In addition, he had to make use of all sorts of patronages available to him in order to obtain letters of recommendations from important leading figures in society. Once past the recruitment procedure he was designated as Probatus, and assigned as a Miles (soldier) to one of the centuries of a cohort. After two years, if he attracted the attention of his superiors by influence or merit, he could attain the post of Immunis (similar to corporal), perhaps as a commis (junior chief) at general headquarters or as a technician. This promotion exempted him from daily chores. After another two years he could be promoted to Principalis, with a double salary, in charge of delivering messages (Tesserarius) or as an assistant centurion (Optio) or standard bearer (Signifer) at the corps of the century; or, if literate and numerate, he could join the administrative staff of the prefect. Only a few soldiers could attain the rank of Principalis; however those that did, during the course of their service, were designated Evocati Augusti by the emperor. This designation allowed them to be promoted to technical administrative posts, or instructors in Rome, or to a century in a legion, and accordingly extend their career. Certain principalis could at the end of their career be promoted to Centurion in the Guard; this would be the peak of his career. Anyone ambitious for further promotion would need to transfer to a legion. The Military tribunes (Tribuni Militum) at the head of the cohorts were Roman cavalrymen. In contrast to many superior cadres of the Army, who originated from the Equestrian Order, these tribunes started their career in the ranks of the Guard and were promoted from the ranks in the hierarchy. Next after becoming Centurions, they had to serve for a period of one year as superior centurions in one or several legions before achieving the status of Primus pilus (the highest ranked Centurion in a legion). Upon return to Rome, they occupied successively the positions of Tribunes of the Vigiles, Tribune of the Urban Cohort and finally Tribune of the Guard.[6][10] Other leading paths towards the tribunate were possible, including service entirely made in the legions, attaining the rank of Primus pilus before departing to Rome. Nevertheless, all tribunes were combat veterans with extensive military experience.[6][10] Each tribune served in Rome for one year, following which, a certain number of the men would retire. A few of them, ranking placement at the top of the hierarchy, could obtain a second term as Primus Pilus and advance towards the superior echelons of the equestrian career, possibly becoming the Praetorian prefect.[6][10] The majority of the prefects, however, were ordinary men of the equestrian rank by birth. The men who attained the command of the Guard following year 2 BC were equites with an elevated seniority, classifying right behind the prefect of Egypt. Starting from Vespasian, whose son, Titus was himself a Praetorian prefect, they were ranked first. Equipment and traditions[edit] A Praetorian soldier armed with standard Roman weapon in 2nd century AD The Praetorian Guard, like all legionnaires, disposed of various equipment to execute different missions. More particularly as bodyguard, escort or reserve military force, they housed adaptable equipment for each function. For heavy packed combat infantry lines (Triplex Acies System), they mounted helmets, armor (Lorica segmentata, Lorica hamata, Lorica squamata specially in the 2nd and 3rd centuries), heavy colorful shields (scuta), heavy javelins (pila), and later even long spears and lighter javelins (hasta, lancea). Praetorian Guard helmets included tall Galea with elaborate detail worked into the metal. Shields were ovoid and more robust compared with the regular rectangular shape sometimes used by the legions. Each legion had its own emblem displayed on its Scutum (shield) and the Praetorian Guard were probably the only unit to include additional insignia on their shields. Each cohort had their own version of Praetorian insignia. Praetorian Guard units could wear lion skin capes and their colours were so decorated with awards, that the men had difficulty in carrying them on long marches. The Praetorian Guard colours included the winged goddess of victory. For escorts, the oval shields and lances replaced the scuta and pila. Missions in Rome at the heart of the city in principle were forbidden to soldiers, so they wore a toga. The Praetorian Guard, like all legionaries, shared similar insignia, mainly on their shields. Praetorian Guard shields included wings and thunderbolts, referring to the Roman equivalent form of Jupiter and also uniquely included Scorpions, Stars and Crescents. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal War portal Ancient Greece Frumentarii Kheshig Praetorianism Pushtigban Scholae Palatinae Varangian Guard Notes[edit] ^ Andrews, Evan. "8 Things You May Not Know About the Praetorian Guard". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-04-23. ^ "Roman Economy – Prices in Ancient Rome". Ancientcoins.bis. Archived from the original on 2007-01-13. Retrieved 2007-06-13. ^ 8 Things You May Not Know About the Praetorian Guard ^ Bingham 1997, pp. 121–122. ^ In Rome, near the Emperor, they were designated as Statores Augusti (Statores Praetorianorum starting from the 3rd century); they formed a numerus assigned by the Praetorian prefect. This numerus was formed of five principal centuries which commanded the military police. At their head, there was a Curator Statorum and a Praefectus Statorum. ^ a b c d e f g Dr Boris Rankov, The Praetorian Guard, Osprey Publishing, 1994, ISBN 978-1-85532-361-2 ^ Bingham 1997, pp. 118–122. ^ a b c Y. Le Bohec, L'Armée Romaine, Picard, 1989, ISBN 2-7084-0744-9 ^ Musée de Cáceres. Q(uintus) Pomponius Potentinus / Ser(gia) h(ic) s(itus) e(st) / C(aius) Pomponius Potentinus / mil(es) c(o)hor(tis) IIII praet(oriae) / test(amento) fieri iussit. ^ a b c Paul Petit, Histoire générale de l’Empire romain, Seuil, 1974, ISBN 2020026775, p. 180 References and further reading[edit] Sandra J. Bingham, The Praetorian Guard in the Political and Social Life of Julio-Claudian Rome, unpublished PhD thesis, University of British Columbia 1997 Sandra J. Bingham, The Praetorian Guard: A History of Rome's Elite Special Forces (Waco 2012). Reviewed here. Ross Cowan, "Protecting the Emperor", Military Illustrated 259 (2009), 24–31] Ross Cowan, Roman Guardsman, 62 BC – AD 324 (Oxford 2014) de la Bédoyère, Guy (2017). Praetorian: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Imperial Bodyguard. Yale: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21895-4. Marcel Durry, Les cohortes prétoriennes (Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, 146), Paris, De Boccard, 1938 L. Keppie, "The Praetorian Guard Before Sejanus", Athenaeum 84 (1996), 101-124 = L. Keppie, Legions and Veterans (Stuttgart 2000), 99–122 & addenda at 319–320 L. Passerini, Le Coorti Pretorie (Rome 1939) B. Rankov, The Praetorian Guard (London 1994) M.P. Speidel, "Les prétoriens de Maxence", Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité 100 (1988), 183–188 M.P. Speidel, "Maxentius' Praetorians" in Roman Army Studies II (Stuttgart 1992),385–389 – a revised English version of Speidel 1988 M.P. Speidel, Riding for Caesar (Cambridge, Mass. 1994) External links[edit] Praetorian Guard – World History Encyclopedia Protecting the Emperor – life in the Praetorian Guard v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex 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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Praetorian_Guard&oldid=1028533262" Categories: Praetorian Guard Military units and formations established in the 1st century BC Military units and formations of the Roman Empire Protective security units 4th-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit 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en-wikipedia-org-8957	----	Tiber Island - Wikipedia Tiber Island From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Washington, D.C. housing complex, see Tiber Island Cooperative Homes. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tiber Island" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A view of the Tiber Island from the southeast A view on 13 December 2008 when the Tiber reached its highest level in 40 years The Tiber Island (Italian: Isola Tiberina, Latin: Insula Tiberina) is the only island in the part of the Tiber which runs through Rome. Tiber Island is located in the southern bend of the Tiber. The island is boat-shaped, approximately 270 metres (890 feet) long and 67 metres (220 feet) wide, and has been connected with bridges to both sides of the river since antiquity. Being a seat of the ancient temple of Asclepius and later a hospital, the island is associated with medicine and healing. The Fatebenefratelli Hospital founded in the 16th century, and the San Bartolomeo all'Isola dating from the 10th century are located on the island. Contents 1 History 1.1 Temple of Aesculapius (3rd century BC) 1.1.1 Additional Roman shrines 1.2 After Ancient Rome 2 Festivals 3 Popular culture 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The Western end of Isola Tiberina. The travertine stone gives a distinctive trireme shape. The island has been linked to the rest of Rome by two bridges since antiquity, and was once called Insula Inter-Duos-Pontes which means "the island between the two bridges". The Ponte Fabricio, the only original bridge in Rome, connects the island from the northeast to the Field of Mars in the rione Sant'Angelo (left bank). The Ponte Cestio, of which only some original parts survived, connects the island to Trastevere on the south (right bank). There is a legend which says that after the fall of the hated tyrant Tarquinius Superbus (510 BC), the angry Romans threw his body into the Tiber. His body then settled onto the bottom where dirt and silt accumulated around it and eventually formed Tiber Island. Another version of the legend says that the people gathered up the wheat and grain of their despised ruler and threw it into the Tiber, where it eventually became the foundation of the island. In ancient times, before Christianity spread through Rome, Tiber Island was avoided because of the negative stories associated with it. Only the worst criminals and the contagiously ill were condemned there. This however changed when a temple was built on the island. Temple of Aesculapius (3rd century BC)[edit] An illustration of the Tiber Island in a 1593 print. The Basilica di San Bartolomeo all'Isola on Tiber Island. Tiber Island was once the location of an ancient temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine and healing. Accounts say[clarification needed] that in 293 BC, there was a great plague in Rome. Upon consulting the Sibyl, the Roman Senate was instructed to build a temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, and sent a delegation to Epidauros to obtain a statue of the deity. The delegation went on board a ship to sail out and obtain a statue. Following their belief system, they obtained a snake from a temple and put it on board their ship. It immediately curled itself around the ship's mast and this was deemed as a good sign by them. Upon their return up the Tiber river, the snake slithered off the ship and swam onto the island. They believed that this was a sign from Aesculapius, a sign which meant that he wanted his temple to be built on that island. This location may have been chosen for the Aesculapius Temple because it was separate from the rest of the city, which could help protect whoever was there from plague and illnesses. The island eventually became so identified with the temple it supported that it was modeled to resemble a ship as a reminder of how it came to be. Travertine facing was added in mid or late first century by the banks to resemble a ship's prow and stern, and an obelisk was erected in the middle, symbolizing the vessel's mast. Walls were put around the island, and it came to resemble a Roman ship. Faint vestiges of Aesculapius' rod with an entwining snake are still visible on the "prow". Additional Roman shrines[edit] Entrance of the Fatebenefratelli Hospital (Ospedale Fatebenefratelli) After the Temple of Aesculapius, shrines dedicated to other deities were also erected after the 2nd century BC, namely:[1] Jupiter Jurarius ("guarantor of oaths") Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, also a witness of oath Gaia, yet another witness of oath Faunus, boundary deity Vejovis, god of healing Tiberinus, river god Bellona, war goddess After Ancient Rome[edit] In time, the obelisk was removed and replaced with a cross-topped column. After it was destroyed in 1867, Pope Pius IX had an aedicula, called "Spire", put in its place. This monument, designed by Ignazio Jacometti, is decorated with statues of four saints related to the island: St. Bartholomew, St. Paulinus of Nola, St. Francis and St. John. Parts of the obelisk are now in the museum[which?] in Naples. In 998 Emperor Otto III had a basilica, that of San Bartolomeo all'Isola, built over the Aesculapius temple's ruins on the eastern side (downstream end) of the island.[1] This was dedicated to his friend, the martyr Adalbert of Prague; the name of St. Bartholomew was added only later. In the early 20th century, prior to the Fascist regime's restoration of ancient place names, the Tiber Island was called the Isola di S. Bartolomeo.[2] Likewise, Cestius' Bridge was called the Ponte S. Bartolomeo. The island is still considered a place of healing because a hospital, founded in 1584, was built on the island and is still operating. It is staffed by the Hospitaller Order of St. John of God or "Fatebenefratelli".[3] The hospital was not built on the same spot as the temple, but stands on the western half of the island. Panoramic view of the island with the Ponte Cestio According to the documentary My Italian Secret, when the Nazis occupied Rome in 1943 and started rounding up the Jews, Dr. Borromeo, head of the hospital, invented an imaginary deadly and highly contagious illness he dubbed “Il Morbo di K” to keep the SS away and protect those Jews hiding inside the wards, just a stone's throw from the Ghetto.[4] Festivals[edit] L'Isola del Cinema, 2009 Carving of the rod of Aesculapius on the stone prow of Tiber Island During summer, the island hosts the Isola del Cinema film festival.[5] Popular culture[edit] The island serves as the player's headquarters in the 2010 action-adventure stealth video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. References[edit] ^ a b Claridge, Amanda (1998). Toms, Judith; Cubberleyv, Tony (eds.). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 9780199546831. ^ Platner, Samuel Ball; Ashby, Thomas (1929). "Insula Tiberina". A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London: Oxford University Press. p. 281‑282. ^ "Tiberian Island". Official Website of the Fatebenefratelli (Order of the Brothers of St. John of God). Archived from the original on 16 March 2008. Retrieved 19 June 2019. ^ "Characters". My Italian Secret: The Forgotten Heroes. Retrieved 19 June 2019. ^ "Isola del Cinema". Estate Romana 2007. Comune di Roma. 2 September 2007. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 19 June 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Isola Tiberina. 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en-wikipedia-org-8960	----	Commodus - Wikipedia Commodus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 176 to 192 Roman emperor Commodus Commodus as Hercules Roman emperor Reign 176 – 31 December 192 Predecessor Marcus Aurelius Successor Pertinax Co-emperor Marcus Aurelius (176–180) Born 31 August 161 Lanuvium, near Rome, Italy Died 31 December 192 (aged 31) Rome, Italy Burial Rome Spouse Bruttia Crispina Names Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus[1][2] Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus[3] Dynasty Nerva–Antonine Father Marcus Aurelius Mother Faustina the Younger Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Commodus Nerva–Antonine dynasty (AD 96–192) Chronology Nerva 96–98 Trajan 98–117 Hadrian 117–138 Antoninus Pius 138–161 Lucius Verus 161–169 Marcus Aurelius 161–180 Commodus 177–192 Family Nerva–Antonine family tree Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Succession Preceded by Flavian dynasty Followed by Year of the Five Emperors v t e Commodus (/ˈkɒmədəs/;[4] 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was Roman emperor jointly with his father Marcus Aurelius from 176 until his father's death in 180, and solely until 192. His reign is commonly considered to mark the end of the golden period of peace in the history of the Roman Empire known as the Pax Romana. Commodus accompanied his father during the Marcomannic Wars in 172 and on a tour of the Eastern provinces in 176. He was made the youngest consul in Roman history in 177 and elevated to co-augustus with his father, having been given the title imperator in 176. During his solo reign, the Empire enjoyed a period of reduced military conflict compared with the reign of Marcus Aurelius. But intrigues and conspiracies abounded, leading Commodus to an increasingly dictatorial style of leadership that culminated in a god-like personality cult, with his performing as a gladiator in the Colosseum. Throughout his reign he entrusted the management of affairs to his palace chamberlain and Praetorian prefects named Saoterus, Perennis, and Cleander. Commodus' assassination in 192 marked the end of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was succeeded by Pertinax, the first emperor in the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. Contents 1 Early life and rise to power (161–180) 1.1 Early life 1.2 Joint rule with father (176–180) 2 Solo reign (180–192) 2.1 Conspiracies of 182 2.1.1 Cleander 2.2 Dacia and Britain 2.3 Cleander's zenith and fall (185–190) 2.4 Megalomania (190–192) 2.5 Assassination (192) 3 Character and physical prowess 3.1 Character and motivations 3.2 Changes of name 3.3 Commodus and Hercules 3.4 Commodus the gladiator 4 In popular culture 5 Nerva–Antonine family tree 6 Ancestors 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Early life and rise to power (161–180)[edit] Early life[edit] A bust of Commodus as a youth (Roman-Germanic Museum, Cologne). Commodus was born on 31 August AD 161 in Lanuvium, near Rome.[5] He was the son of the reigning emperor, Marcus Aurelius, and Aurelius's first cousin, Faustina the Younger, the youngest daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius, who had died only a few months before. Commodus had an elder twin brother, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, who died in 165. On 12 October 166, Commodus was made Caesar together with his younger brother, Marcus Annius Verus.[6][7] The latter died in 169 having failed to recover from an operation, which left Commodus as Marcus Aurelius's sole surviving son.[7] Sestertius celebrating the birth of Commodus and his twin brother in 161 Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey He was looked after by his father's physician, Galen,[8][9] who treated many of Commodus' common illnesses. Commodus received extensive tutoring by a multitude of teachers with a focus on intellectual education.[10] Among his teachers, Onesicrates, Antistius Capella, Titus Aius Sanctus, and Pitholaus are mentioned.[10][11] Commodus is known to have been at Carnuntum, the headquarters of Marcus Aurelius during the Marcomannic Wars, in 172. It was presumably there that, on 15 October 172, he was given the victory title Germanicus, in the presence of the army. The title suggests that Commodus was present at his father's victory over the Marcomanni. On 20 January 175, Commodus entered the College of Pontiffs, the starting point of a career in public life. In April 175, Avidius Cassius, Governor of Syria, declared himself Emperor following rumours that Marcus Aurelius had died. Having been accepted as Emperor by Syria, Judea and Egypt, Cassius carried on his rebellion even after it had become obvious that Marcus was still alive. During the preparations for the campaign against Cassius, Commodus assumed his toga virilis on the Danubian front on 7 July 175, thus formally entering adulthood. Cassius, however, was killed by one of his centurions before the campaign against him could begin. Commodus subsequently accompanied his father on a lengthy trip to the Eastern provinces, during which he visited Antioch. The Emperor and his son then traveled to Athens, where they were initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. They then returned to Rome in the autumn of 176. Joint rule with father (176–180)[edit] Head of Bruttia Crispina Marcus Aurelius was the first emperor since Vespasian to have a legitimate biological son and, though he himself was the fifth in the line of the so-called Five Good Emperors, each of whom had adopted his successor, it seems to have been his firm intention that Commodus should be his heir. Commodus was the first (and until 337, the only) emperor "born in the purple," meaning during his father's reign.[citation needed] On 27 November 176, Marcus Aurelius granted Commodus the rank of Imperator and, in the middle of 177, the title Augustus, giving his son the same status as his own and formally sharing power. On 23 December 176, the two imperatores celebrated a joint triumph, and Commodus was given tribunician power. On 1 January 177, Commodus became consul for the first time, which made him, aged 15, the youngest consul in Roman history up to that time. He subsequently married Bruttia Crispina before accompanying his father to the Danubian front once more in 178. Marcus Aurelius died there on 17 March 180, leaving the 18-year-old Commodus sole emperor. Solo reign (180–192)[edit] Upon his ascension, Commodus devalued the Roman currency. He reduced the weight of the denarius from 96 per Roman pound to 105 per Roman pound (3.85 grams to 3.35 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 79 percent to 76 percent – the silver weight dropping from 2.57 grams to 2.34 grams. In 186 he further reduced the purity and silver weight to 74 percent and 2.22 grams respectively, being 108 to the Roman pound.[12] His reduction of the denarius during his rule was the largest since the empire's first devaluation during Nero's reign. Whereas the reign of Marcus Aurelius had been marked by almost continuous warfare, Commodus' rule was comparatively peaceful in the military sense, but was also characterised by political strife and the increasingly arbitrary and capricious behaviour of the emperor himself. In the view of Dio Cassius, his accession marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust".[13] Despite his notoriety, and considering the importance of his reign, Commodus' years in power are not well chronicled. The principal surviving literary sources are Herodian, Dio Cassius (a contemporary and sometimes first-hand observer, Senator during Commodus' reign, but his reports for this period survive only as fragments and abbreviations), and the Historia Augusta (untrustworthy for its character as a work of literature rather than history, with elements of fiction embedded within its biographies; in the case of Commodus, it may well be embroidering upon what the author found in reasonably good contemporary sources). A denarius featuring Commodus. Inscription: TR. P. VIII, IMP. VI, COS. IIII, P. P. – S. C. Commodus remained with the Danube armies for only a short time before negotiating a peace treaty with the Danubian tribes. He then returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph for the conclusion of the wars on 22 October 180. Unlike the preceding Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, he seems to have had little interest in the business of administration and tended throughout his reign to leave the practical running of the state to a succession of favourites, beginning with Saoterus, a freedman from Nicomedia who had become his chamberlain. Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would lead to a series of conspiracies and attempted coups, which in turn eventually provoked Commodus to take charge of affairs, which he did in an increasingly dictatorial manner. Nevertheless, though the senatorial order came to hate and fear him, the evidence suggests that he remained popular with the army and the common people for much of his reign, not least because of his lavish shows of largesse (recorded on his coinage) and because he staged and took part in spectacular gladiatorial combats. One of the ways he paid for his donatives (imperial handouts) and mass entertainments was to tax the senatorial order, and on many inscriptions, the traditional order of the two nominal powers of the state, the Senate and People (Senatus Populusque Romanus) is provocatively reversed (Populus Senatusque...). Conspiracies of 182[edit] Commodus with attributes of Helios, Apollo and Jupiter, late 2nd century AD, sardonyx cameo relief, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. At the outset of his reign, Commodus, aged 18, inherited many of his father's senior advisers, notably Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus (the second husband of Commodus' eldest sister Lucilla), his father-in-law Gaius Bruttius Praesens, Titus Fundanius Vitrasius Pollio, and Aufidius Victorinus, who was Prefect of the City of Rome. He also had four surviving sisters, all of them with husbands who were potential rivals. Lucilla was over ten years his senior and held the rank of Augusta as the widow of her first husband, Lucius Verus. The first crisis of the reign came in 182, when Lucilla engineered a conspiracy against her brother. Her motive is alleged to have been envy of the Empress Crispina. Her husband, Pompeianus, was not involved, but two men alleged to have been her lovers, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus (the consul of 167, who was also her first cousin) and Appius Claudius Quintianus, attempted to murder Commodus as he entered a theater. They bungled the job and were seized by the emperor's bodyguard. Quadratus and Quintianus were executed. Lucilla was exiled to Capri and later killed. Pompeianus retired from public life. One of the two praetorian prefects, Publius Tarrutenius Paternus, had actually been involved in the conspiracy but his involvement was not discovered until later on, and in the aftermath, he and his colleague, Sextus Tigidius Perennis, were able to arrange for the murder of Saoterus, the hated chamberlain. Commodus took the loss of Saoterus badly, and Perennis now seized the chance to advance himself by implicating Paternus in a second conspiracy, one apparently led by Publius Salvius Julianus, who was the son of the jurist Salvius Julianus and was betrothed to Paternus' daughter. Salvius and Paternus were executed along with a number of other prominent consulars and senators. Didius Julianus, the future emperor and a relative of Salvius Julianus, was dismissed from the governorship of Germania Inferior. Cleander[edit] After the murder of the powerful Saoterus, Perennis easily took over the reins of government and Commodus found a new chamberlain and favourite in Cleander, a Phrygian freedman who had married one of the emperor's mistresses, Demostratia. Cleander was in fact the person who had murdered Saoterus. After those attempts on his life, Commodus spent much of his time outside Rome, mostly on the family estates at Lanuvium. As he was physically strong, his chief interest was in sport: he took part in horse racing, chariot racing, and combats with beasts and men, mostly in private but also on occasion in public. Dacia and Britain[edit] A bust of Commodus (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). According to Herodian[14] he was well proportioned and attractive, with naturally blond and curly hair.[15] Commodus was inaugurated in 183 as consul with Aufidius Victorinus for a colleague and assumed the title Pius. War broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne, Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger, both distinguished themselves in the campaign. Also, in Britain in 184, the governor Ulpius Marcellus re-advanced the Roman frontier northward to the Antonine Wall, but the legionaries revolted against his harsh discipline and acclaimed another legate, Priscus, as emperor.[16] Priscus refused to accept their acclamations, and Perennis had all the legionary legates in Britain cashiered. On 15 October 184 at the Capitoline Games, a Cynic philosopher publicly denounced Perennis before Commodus. His tale was not believed and he was immediately put to death. According to Dio Cassius, Perennis, though ruthless and ambitious, was not personally corrupt and generally administered the state well.[16] However, the following year, a detachment of soldiers from Britain (they had been drafted to Italy to suppress brigands) also denounced Perennis to the emperor as plotting to make his own son emperor (they had been enabled to do so by Cleander, who was seeking to dispose of his rival), and Commodus gave them permission to execute him as well as his wife and sons. The fall of Perennis brought a new spate of executions: Aufidius Victorinus committed suicide. Ulpius Marcellus was replaced as governor of Britain by Pertinax; brought to Rome and tried for treason, Marcellus narrowly escaped death. Cleander's zenith and fall (185–190)[edit] Remnants of a Roman bust of a youth with a blond beard, perhaps depicting emperor Commodus, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Cleander proceeded to concentrate power in his own hands and to enrich himself by becoming responsible for all public offices: he sold and bestowed entry to the Senate, army commands, governorships and, increasingly, even the suffect consulships to the highest bidder. Unrest around the empire increased, with large numbers of army deserters causing trouble in Gaul and Germany. Pescennius Niger mopped up the deserters in Gaul in a military campaign, and a revolt in Brittany was put down by two legions brought over from Britain. In 187, one of the leaders of the deserters, Maternus, came from Gaul intending to assassinate Commodus at the Festival of the Great Goddess in March, but he was betrayed and executed. In the same year, Pertinax unmasked a conspiracy by two enemies of Cleander – Antistius Burrus (one of Commodus' brothers-in-law) and Arrius Antoninus. As a result, Commodus appeared even more rarely in public, preferring to live on his estates. Early in 188, Cleander disposed of the current praetorian prefect, Atilius Aebutianus, and took over supreme command of the Praetorian Guard at the new rank of a pugione ("dagger-bearer"), with two praetorian prefects subordinate to him. Now at the zenith of his power, Cleander continued to sell public offices as his private business. The climax came in the year 190, which had 25 suffect consuls – a record in the 1,000-year history of the Roman consulship—all appointed by Cleander (they included the future Emperor Septimius Severus). In the spring of 190, Rome was afflicted by a food shortage, for which the praefectus annonae Papirius Dionysius, the official actually in charge of the grain supply, contrived to lay the blame on Cleander. At the end of June, a mob demonstrated against Cleander during a horse race in the Circus Maximus: he sent the Praetorian Guard to put down the disturbances, but Pertinax, who was now City Prefect of Rome, dispatched the Vigiles Urbani to oppose them. Cleander fled to Commodus, who was at Laurentum in the house of the Quinctilii, for protection, but the mob followed him calling for his head. At the urging of his mistress Marcia, Commodus had Cleander beheaded and his son killed. Other victims at this time were the praetorian prefect Julius Julianus, Commodus' cousin Annia Fundania Faustina, and his brother-in-law Mamertinus. Papirius Dionysius was executed, too. The emperor now changed his name to Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At 29, he took over more of the reins of power, though he continued to rule through a cabal consisting of Marcia, his new chamberlain Eclectus, and the new praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus. Megalomania (190–192)[edit] A denarius of Commodus. Inscription: L. L. COMMODVS ANTONINVS AVG. In opposition to the Senate, in his pronouncements and iconography, Commodus had always stressed his unique status as a source of god-like power, liberality, and physical prowess. Innumerable statues around the empire were set up portraying him in the guise of Hercules, reinforcing the image of him as a demigod, a physical giant, a protector, and a warrior who fought against men and beasts (see "Commodus and Hercules" and "Commodus the Gladiator" below). Moreover, as Hercules, he could claim to be the son of Jupiter, the supreme god of the Roman pantheon. These tendencies now increased to megalomaniacal proportions. Far from celebrating his descent from Marcus Aurelius, the actual source of his power, he stressed his own personal uniqueness as the bringer of a new order, seeking to re-cast the empire in his own image. During 191, the city of Rome was extensively damaged by a fire that raged for several days, during which many public buildings including the Temple of Pax, the Temple of Vesta, and parts of the imperial palace were destroyed. Perhaps seeing this as an opportunity, early in 192 Commodus, declaring himself the new Romulus, ritually re-founded Rome, renaming the city Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana. All the months of the year were renamed to correspond exactly with his (now twelve) names: Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Romanus, Exsuperatorius, Amazonius, Invictus, Felix, and Pius. The legions were renamed Commodianae, the fleet which imported grain from Africa was termed Alexandria Commodiana Togata, the Senate was entitled the Commodian Fortunate Senate, his palace and the Roman people themselves were all given the name Commodianus, and the day on which these reforms were decreed was to be called Dies Commodianus.[17] Thus, he presented himself as the fountainhead of the Empire, Roman life, and religion. He also had the head of the Colossus of Nero adjacent to the Colosseum replaced with his own portrait, gave it a club, placed a bronze lion at its feet to make it look like Hercules Romanus, and added an inscription boasting of being "the only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men".[18] Assassination (192)[edit] Damnatio memoriae of Commodus on an inscription in the Museum of Roman History in Osterburken, Germany. The abbreviation "CO" has been restored with paint. In November 192, Commodus held Plebeian Games, in which he shot hundreds of animals with arrows and javelins every morning, and fought as a gladiator every afternoon, winning all the fights. In December, he announced his intention to inaugurate the year 193 as both consul and gladiator on 1 January. At this point, the prefect Laetus formed a conspiracy with Eclectus to supplant Commodus with Pertinax, taking Marcia into their confidence. On 31 December, Marcia poisoned Commodus' food but he vomited up the poison, so the conspirators sent his wrestling partner Narcissus to strangle him in his bath. Upon his death, the Senate declared him a public enemy (a de facto damnatio memoriae) and restored the original name of the city of Rome and its institutions. Statues of Commodus were demolished. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian. Commodus' death marked the end of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Commodus was succeeded by Pertinax, whose reign was short-lived; he would become the first claimant to be usurped during the Year of the Five Emperors. In 195, the emperor Septimius Severus, trying to gain favour with the family of Marcus Aurelius, rehabilitated Commodus' memory and had the Senate deify him.[19] Character and physical prowess[edit] Character and motivations[edit] Denarius of Commodus. Inscription: ΑΥΤ. ΚΑΙC. KOMMOΔΟC CEB. / ΓEP. CAP. ΔHMαρχικής EΞουσίας Δ΄, YΠATος B΄ (Greek inscription for GER. SAR. Municipal Authority IV, Consul II). Bust of Commodus from the Capitoline Museum Cassius Dio, a first-hand witness, describes him as "not naturally wicked but, on the contrary, as guileless as any man that ever lived. His great simplicity, however, together with his cowardice, made him the slave of his companions, and it was through them that he at first, out of ignorance, missed the better life and then was led on into lustful and cruel habits, which soon became second nature."[20] His recorded actions do tend to show a rejection of his father's policies, his father's advisers, and especially his father's austere lifestyle, and an alienation from the surviving members of his family. It seems likely that he was brought up in an atmosphere of Stoic asceticism, which he rejected entirely upon his accession to sole rule. After repeated attempts on Commodus' life, Roman citizens were often killed for making him angry. One such notable event was the attempted extermination of the house of the Quinctilii. Condianus and Maximus were executed on the pretext that, while they were not implicated in any plots, their wealth and talent would make them unhappy with the current state of affairs.[21] Another event—as recorded by the historian Aelius Lampridius—took place at the Roman baths at Terme Taurine, where the emperor had an attendant thrown into an oven after he found his bathwater to be lukewarm.[22][23] Changes of name[edit] His original name was Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus.[24] On his father's death in 180, Commodus changed this to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Commodus, before changing back to his birth name in 191.[1] Later that year he adopted as his full style Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus Augustus Herculeus Romanus Exsuperatorius Amazonius Invictus Felix Pius (the order of some of these titles varies in the sources). "Exsuperatorius" (the supreme) was a title given to Jupiter, and "Amazonius" identified him again with Hercules. An inscribed altar from Dura-Europos on the Euphrates shows that Commodus' titles and the renaming of the months were disseminated to the furthest reaches of the Empire; moreover, that even auxiliary military units received the title Commodiana, and that Commodus claimed two additional titles: Pacator Orbis (pacifier of the world) and Dominus Noster (Our Lord). The latter eventually would be used as a conventional title by Roman emperors, starting about a century later, but Commodus seems to have been the first to assume it.[25] Commodus and Hercules[edit] Disdaining the more philosophic inclinations of his father, Commodus was extremely proud of his physical prowess. The historian Herodian, a contemporary, described Commodus as an extremely handsome man.[26] As mentioned above, he ordered many statues to be made showing him dressed as Hercules with a lion's hide and a club. He thought of himself as the reincarnation of Hercules, frequently emulating the legendary hero's feats by appearing in the arena to fight a variety of wild animals. He was left-handed and very proud of the fact.[27] Cassius Dio and the writers of the Augustan History say that Commodus was a skilled archer, who could shoot the heads off ostriches in full gallop, and kill a panther as it attacked a victim in the arena. Commodus the gladiator[edit] Commodus also had a passion for gladiatorial combat, which he took so far as to take to the arena himself, dressed as a secutor.[28] The Romans found Commodus' gladiatorial combats to be scandalous and disgraceful.[29] According to Herodian, spectators of Commodus thought it unbecoming of an emperor to take up arms in the amphitheater for sport when he could be campaigning against barbarians among other opponents of Rome. The consensus was that it was below his office to participate as a gladiator.[30] Popular rumors spread alleging he was actually the son, not of Marcus Aurelius, but of a gladiator whom his mother Faustina had taken as a lover at the coastal resort of Caieta.[31] In the arena, Commodus' opponents always submitted to the emperor; as a result he never lost. Commodus never killed his gladiatorial adversaries, instead accepting their surrenders. His victories were often welcomed by his bested opponents, as bearing scars dealt by the hand of an Emperor was considered a mark of fortitude.[32] Citizens of Rome missing their feet through accident or illness were taken to the arena, where they were tethered together for Commodus to club to death while pretending they were giants.[33] Privately, it was also his custom to kill his opponents during practice matches.[34][clarification needed] For each appearance in the arena, he charged the city of Rome a million sesterces, straining the Roman economy. Commodus was also known for fighting exotic animals in the arena, often to the horror and disgust of the Roman people. According to Cassius Dio, Commodus once killed 100 lions in a single day.[35] Later, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart[36] and afterwards carried his sword and the bleeding head of the dead bird over to the Senators' seating area and motioned as though they were next.[37] Dio notes that the targeted senators actually found this more ridiculous than frightening, and chewed on laurel leaves to conceal their laughter.[38] On other occasions, Commodus killed three elephants on the floor of the arena by himself,[39] and a giraffe.[40] The Emperor Commodus Leaving the Arena at the Head of the Gladiators (detail) by Edwin Howland Blashfield (1848–1936), Hermitage Museum and Gardens, Norfolk, Virginia. In popular culture[edit] In The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), a fictionalized Commodus who serves as the main antagonist of the film is portrayed by Christopher Plummer. Abstract Expressionist artist Cy Twombly painted the series Nine Discourses on Commodus in 1963. In the Academy Award winner for Best Picture Gladiator (2000), a fictionalized Commodus serves as the main antagonist of the film. He is played by the actor Joaquin Phoenix, in a performance which received a nomination in the Best Supporting Actor category at the 2001 Oscars.[41] A character in the 2013 video game Ryse: Son of Rome is named Commodus and is one of the main antagonists of the game. The son of Emperor Nero, he shares several traits with the historic Commodus.[42] In Rick Riordan's book series The Trials of Apollo, Commodus appears as one of the main antagonists and Apollo's ex-lover, being part of the evil Triumvirate of deified Roman emperors. Commodus is a minor antagonist in the 2005 video game Colosseum: Road to Freedom. The player can fight Commodus in the game, who dresses as the god Hercules. The game takes liberties with the events surrounding his death, with the player being the one who actually kills him rather than the wrestler Narcissus. The 2017 docu-drama mini-series Roman Empire: Reign of Blood retells his story.[43][44] In this version, Narcissus kills Commodus after learning that the Emperor's arena opponents had been armed only with edgeless swords. Though he strangles Commodus, it is after initially challenging him to a duel and does not occur in his bath but while he is preparing for it. Aaron Jakubenko portrays Commodus in the series. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Ancestors[edit] Ancestry of Commodus 16. Marcus Annius Verus 8. Marcus Annius Verus 17. 4. Marcus Annius Verus 18. Libo Rupilius Frugi 9. Rupilia Faustina 19. Salonia Matidia 2. Marcus Aurelius 20. 10. Publius Domitius Calvisius Tullus Ruso 21. 5. Domitia Lucilla Minor 22. 11. Domitia Lucilla Major 23. 1. Commodus 24. Titus Aurelius Fulvus 12. Titus Aurelius Fulvus 25. 6. Antoninus Pius 26. Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus 13. Arria Fadilla 27. Boiona Procilla 3. Faustina the Younger 28. Marcus Annius Verus 14. Marcus Annius Verus 29. 7. Faustina the Elder 30. Libo Rupilius Frugi 15. Rupilia Faustina 31. Salonia Matidia References[edit] ^ a b Hammond, pp. 32–33. ^ RE Aurelius 89 ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ "Commodus". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ Historia Augusta – Life of Commodus 1 ^ Historia Augusta 12.8 ^ a b David L. Vagi Coinage and History of the Roman Empire Vol. One: History p.248 ^ Susan P. Mattern The Prince of Medicine: Galen in the Roman Empire p. xx ^ Cassius Dio Roman History 71.33.1 ^ a b Anthony R Birley Marcus Aurelius: A Biography p.197 ^ Historia Augusta 1.6 ^ "Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"". ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1 June 2002). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203028599 – via Google Books. ^ Colin Wells (2004) [1984, 1992]. The Roman Empire. Second Edition (sixth reprint edition). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-77770-0, p. 255. ^ a b Dio Cassius 73.10.2, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ "Roman Emperors – DIR commodus". www.roman-emperors.org. ^ Dio Cassius 73.22.3 ^ To “accept kinship with Commodus ... the bluntly pragmatic decision was taken to deify the former emperor, thus legitimizing Severus’ seizure of power.” See Annelise Freisenbruch, Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire (London and New York: Free Press, 2010), 187. ^ Dio Cassius 73.1.2, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Dio Cassius 73.5.3, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Historia Augusta. C 1, 9. – Historia Augusta Bd. 1, eingeleitet und übersetzt von E. Hohl, bearbeitet und übersetzt von E. Merten (1976) 138. – E. Mer-ten, Bäder und Badegepflogenheiten in der Darstel-lung der Historia Augusta (Antiquitas. Reihe 4, Bd. 16. 1983) 123. ^ Heinz, W. (1986). Die ''Terme Taurine'' von Civitavecchia – ein römisches Heilbad. Antike Welt, 17(4), 22–43. ^ Hammond, p. 32. ^ Spiedel, M. P (1993). "Commodus the God-Emperor and the Army". Journal of Roman Studies. 83: 109–114. doi:10.2307/300981. JSTOR 300981. ^ Grant, Michael. The Roman Emperors (1985) p. 99. ^ Dio, Cassius. Roman History: Epitome of Book LXXIII pp 111. ^ Gibbon, Edward. The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 5. Methuen, 1898. ^ Herodian's Roman History F.L. Muller Edition 1.15.7 ^ Echols, Edward C. "Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire." English translation) UCLA Press, Berkeley CA (1961), 1.15.1-9 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Marcus Aurelius, XIX. The film The Fall of the Roman Empire makes use of this story: one of the characters is an old gladiator who eventually reveals himself to be Commodus' real father. ^ Dio (Cassius.), and Earnest Cary. Roman History. Harvard University Press, 1961, 73.10.3 ^ Dio Cassius 73.20.3, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Dio Cassius 73.10.3 ^ Gibbon p.. 106 "disgorged at once a hundred lions; a hundred darts" ^ Gibbon, Edward The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Volume I Everyman's Library (Knopf) New York. 1910. p. 106 "with arrows whose point was shaped in the form of a crescent" ^ Lane Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 p. 446 "brandishing a sword in one hand and bloodied neck...He gesticulated at the Senate." ^ Roman History by Cassius Dio penelope.uchicago.edu ^ Scullard, H. H The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World Thames and Hudson. 1974 p. 252 ^ Gibbon p. 107 "*1 Commodus killed a camelopardalis or giraffe ... the most useless of the quadrupeds". ^ IMDb Commodus (Character) from Gladiator (2000) Retrieved October 2012 ^ Nichols, Derek (8 February 2014). "History Behind The Game – Ryse: Son of Rome". Venture Beat. Retrieved 11 August 2018. ^ Agius, Den (19 November 2016). "Box Set Binge: Roman Empire: Reign of Blood, The Path and Deutschland 83". What's on TV. TI Media Limited. Retrieved 20 July 2018. ^ O'Keefe, Meghan (25 November 2016). "'Roman Empire: Reign Of Blood': Who Was The Real Lucilla?". Decider. NYP Holdings, Inc. Retrieved 20 July 2018. Sources[edit] "Lucius Aurelius Commodus" , Encyclopædia Britannica, VI (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1878, pp. 207–08. "Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus" , Encyclopædia Britannica, VI (11th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911, p. 777. Further reading[edit] Geoff W Adams, The Emperor Commodus : gladiator, Hercules or a tyrant?. Boca Raton: BrownWalker Press, [2013]. ISBN 1612337228 G. Alföldy, "Der Friedesschluss des Kaisers Commodus mit den Germanen," Historia, 20 (1971), pp. 84–109. P. A. Brunt, "The Fall of Perennis: Dio-Xiphilinus 79.9.2," Classical Quarterly, 23 (1973), pp. 172–77 J. Gagé, "La mystique imperiale et l'épreuve des jeux. Commode-Hercule et l'anthropologie hercaléenne," ANRW 2.17.2 (1981), 663–83 Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646. Olivier Hekster, Commodus: An Emperor at the Crossroads: Dutch monographs on ancient history and archaeology, 23. Brill, 2002. ISSN 0924-3550 L. L. Howe, The Praetorian Prefect from Commodus to Diocletian (A.D. 180–305). Chicago, 1942 M.P. Speidel, "Commodus the God-Emperor and the Army," Journal of Roman Studies, 83 (1993), pp. 109–14. Jerry Toner, The Day Commodus Killed a Rhino: Understanding the Roman Games. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Commodus. Historia Augusta: Life of Commodus Book 73 of Cassius Dio's History Herodian's Roman History Commodus Nerva–Antonine dynasty Born: 31 August 161 Died: 31 December 192 Regnal titles Preceded by Marcus Aurelius Roman emperor 180–192 Succeeded by Pertinax Political offices Preceded by T. Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio M. Flavius Aper II as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 177 with Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus Succeeded by Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus, and Domitius Velius Rufus as ordinary consuls Preceded by Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus, and Domitius Velius Rufus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 179 with Publius Martius Verus Succeeded by Titus Flavius Claudianus, and Lucius Aemilius Iuncus as suffect consuls Preceded by Lucius Fulvius Rusticus Gaius Bruttius Praesens II, and Sextus Quintilius Condianus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 181 with Lucius Antistius Burrus Succeeded by Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, and Quintus Tineius Rufus as ordinary consuls Preceded by Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, and Quintus Tineius Rufus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 183 with Gaius Aufidius Victorinus Succeeded by Lucius Tutilius Pontianus Gentianus, and ignotus as suffect consuls Preceded by Triarius Maternus, and Tiberius Claudius Marcus Appius Atilius Bradua Regillus Atticus Consul of the Roman Empire 186 with Manius Acilius Glabrio II Succeeded by Lucius Novius Rufus, and Lucius Annius Ravus as suffect consuls Preceded by Domitius Iulius Silanus, and Quintus Servilius Silanus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 190 with Marcus Petronius Sura Septimianus Succeeded by Lucius Septimius Severus, and Apuleius Rufinus as suffect consuls Preceded by Popilius Pedo Apronianus, and Marcus Valerius Bradua Mauricus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 192 with Pertinax Succeeded by Quintus Pompeius Sosius Falco, and Gaius Julius Erucius Clarus Vibianus as ordinary consuls v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-8967	----	Caligula - Wikipedia Caligula From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from AD 37 to 41 For other uses, see Caligula (disambiguation) and Gaius Julius Caesar (disambiguation). Roman emperor Caligula Roman emperor Reign 16 March 37 – 24 January 41 Predecessor Tiberius Successor Claudius Born Gaius Caesar 31 August AD 12 Antium, Italy Died 24 January AD 41 (aged 28) Palatine Hill, Rome, Italy Burial Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome Spouse Junia Claudilla Livia Orestilla Lollia Paulina Milonia Caesonia Issue Julia Drusilla Nymphidius Sabinus (disputed) Tiberius Gemellus (adopted) Regnal name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus[1] Dynasty Julio-Claudian Father Germanicus Mother Agrippina the Elder Roman imperial dynasties Julio-Claudian dynasty Marble bust of Emperor Caligula restored to its original colours. The colours were identified from particles trapped in the marble. Chronology Augustus 27 BC – AD 14 Tiberius AD 14–37 Caligula AD 37–41 Claudius AD 41–54 Nero AD 54–68 Succession Preceded by Roman Republic Followed by Year of the Four Emperors Category Caligula (/kəˈlɪɡjʊlə/; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD), formally known as Gaius (Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 to 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus's uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in AD 14. Although Gaius was named after Gaius Julius Caesar, he acquired the nickname "Caligula" (meaning "little [soldier's] boot") from his father's soldiers during their campaign in Germania. When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted an invitation in 31 to join the emperor on the island of Capri, where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier. Following the death of Tiberius, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather as emperor in 37. There are few surviving sources about the reign of Caligula, though he is described as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance, and sexual perversion, presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources is questionable, it is known that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself, and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, however. On the day of the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorians declared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the next Roman emperor. Although the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule the empire until the fall of his nephew Nero in 68, Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line. Contents 1 Early life 2 Emperor 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Public reform 2.3 Financial crisis and famine 2.4 Construction 2.5 Feud with the senate 2.6 Western expansion 2.6.1 Mauretania 2.6.2 Britannia 2.7 Claims of divinity 2.8 Eastern policy 2.9 Scandals 2.10 Assassination and aftermath 3 Legacy 3.1 Historiography 3.2 Health 3.3 Possible rediscovery of burial site 4 Gallery 5 In popular culture 5.1 In film and series 5.2 In literature and theatre 5.3 In music 6 References 7 Bibliography 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary material 8 External links Early life[edit] See Julio-Claudian family tree. Anzio, birthplace of emperor Caligula Julia Drusilla, sister of Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar (named in honour of his famous relative) was born in Antium (modern Anzio and Nettuno[2]) on 31 August 12 AD, the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and his second cousin Agrippina the Elder,[3] who was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder; making her the granddaughter of Augustus.[3] Gaius had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus,[3] as well as three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla.[3][4] He was also a nephew of Claudius, Germanicus' younger brother and the future emperor.[5] As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania.[6] The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier's outfit, including boots and armour.[6] He was soon given an affectionate nickname, Caligula, meaning "little (soldier's) boot" in Latin, after the small boots (caligae) he wore.[7] Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname.[8] Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius, who viewed Germanicus as a political rival.[9] After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated.[10] Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival.[11] Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero, were banished in 29 on charges of treason.[12][13] The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother (and Tiberius's mother), Livia.[10] After her death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor.[10] In 30, his brother Drusus was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide.[13][14] Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under the close watch of soldiers.[15] In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for six years.[10] To the surprise of many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius.[16] According to historians, Caligula was an excellent natural actor and, recognising danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius.[10][17] An observer said of Caligula, "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!"[10][17] Caligula claimed to have planned to kill Tiberius with a dagger to avenge his mother and brother: however, having brought the weapon into Tiberius's bedroom he did not kill the Emperor but instead threw the dagger down on the floor. Supposedly Tiberius knew of this but never dared to do anything about it.[18] Suetonius claims that Caligula was already cruel and vicious: he writes that, when Tiberius brought Caligula to Capri, his purpose was to allow Caligula to live in order that he "prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world."[19] In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, a position he held until his rise to emperor.[20] Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died in prison.[21][22] Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla in 33, though she died in childbirth the following year.[18] Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally.[18] Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula.[23] In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius's estate along with Tiberius Gemellus.[24] Emperor[edit] Early reign[edit] When Tiberius died on 16 March 37 AD, his estate and the titles of the principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius's own grandson, Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Although Tiberius was 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still conjecture that he was murdered.[18][25] Tacitus writes that Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people,[25] while Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing, though this is not recorded by any other ancient historian.[18] Seneca the Elder and Philo, who both wrote during Tiberius's reign, as well as Josephus, record Tiberius as dying a natural death.[26] Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius's will nullified with regard to Gemellus on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius's wishes.[27] Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647 Caligula was proclaimed emperor by the Senate on 18 March.[28] He accepted the powers of the principate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star", among other nicknames.[28][29] Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun."[30] Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus,[29] and because he was not Tiberius.[31] Suetonius said that over 160,000 animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in the new reign.[32][33] Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful.[34] Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature.[27] To gain support, he granted bonuses to the military, including the Praetorian Guard, city troops and the army outside Italy.[27] He destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past, and recalled those who had been sent into exile.[35] He helped those who had been harmed by the imperial tax system, banished certain sexual deviants, and put on lavish spectacles for the public, including gladiatorial games.[36][37] Caligula collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus.[38] A denarius of Gaius Caligula. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. GERM. P. M. TR. POT. In October 37, Caligula fell seriously ill, or perhaps was poisoned. He soon recovered from his illness, but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical: he started to kill off or exile those who were close to him or whom he saw as a serious threat. Perhaps his illness reminded him of his mortality and of the desire of others to advance into his place.[39] He had his cousin and adopted son Tiberius Gemellus executed – an act that outraged Caligula's and Gemellus's mutual grandmother Antonia Minor. She is said to have committed suicide, although Suetonius hints that Caligula actually poisoned her. He had his father-in-law Marcus Junius Silanus and his brother-in-law Marcus Lepidus executed as well. His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock. His favourite sister, Julia Drusilla, died in 38 of a fever: his other two sisters, Livilla and Agrippina the Younger, were exiled. He hated being the grandson of Agrippa and slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was actually conceived as the result of an incestuous relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia the Elder.[40] Public reform[edit] In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius. He aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. He allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders.[41] Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of elections.[42] Cassius Dio said that this act "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many ... many disasters would result".[43] During the same year, though, Caligula was criticized for executing people without full trials and for forcing the Praetorian prefect, Macro, to commit suicide. Macro had fallen out of favor with the emperor, probably due to an attempt to ally himself with Gemellus when it appeared that Caligula might die of fever.[44] Financial crisis and famine[edit] According to Cassius Dio, a financial crisis emerged in 39.[44] Suetonius places the beginning of this crisis in 38.[45] Caligula's political payments for support, generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state's treasury. Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates.[46] Historians describe a number of Caligula's other desperate measures. To gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money.[47] He levied taxes on lawsuits, weddings and prostitution.[48] Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows.[46][49] Wills that left items to Tiberius were reinterpreted to leave the items instead to Caligula.[50] Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over spoils to the state.[50] The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money.[50] According to Suetonius, in the first year of Caligula's reign he squandered 2.7 billion sesterces that Tiberius had amassed.[45] His nephew Nero both envied and admired the fact that Gaius had run through the vast wealth Tiberius had left him in so short a time.[51] However, some historians have shown scepticism towards the large number of sesterces quoted by Suetonius and Dio. According to Wilkinson, Caligula's use of precious metals to mint coins throughout his principate indicates that the treasury most likely never fell into bankruptcy.[52] He does point out, however, that it is difficult to ascertain whether the purported 'squandered wealth' was from the treasury alone due to the blurring of "the division between the private wealth of the emperor and his income as head of state."[52] Furthermore, Alston points out that Caligula's successor, Claudius, was able to donate 15,000 sesterces to each member of the praetorian guard in 41,[25] suggesting the Roman treasury was solvent.[53] The Vatican Obelisk was first brought from Egypt to Rome by Caligula. It was the centerpiece of a large racetrack he built. A brief famine of unknown extent occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula's seizure of public carriages;[46] according to Seneca, grain imports were disrupted because Caligula re-purposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge.[54] Construction[edit] See also: Caligula's Giant Ship Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, though others were for himself. Josephus describes Caligula's improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily, allowing increased grain imports from Egypt, as his greatest contributions.[55] These improvements may have been in response to the famine.[citation needed] Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta.[56] He expanded the imperial palace.[57] He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels.[58] He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the "Vatican Obelisk") transported by sea and erected in the middle of Rome.[59] At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods.[56] He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition.[60] He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps.[56] He planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work.[56] The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace for the Emperor. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.[61][62] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[62] Caligula, who could not swim,[63] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.[62] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[62] Caligula had two large ships constructed for himself (which were recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi around 1930). The ships were among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller ship was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble floors and plumbing.[64] The ships burned in 1944 after an attack in the Second World War; almost nothing remains of their hulls, though many archaeological treasures remain intact in the museum at Lake Nemi and in the Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo) at Rome.[65] Feud with the senate[edit] In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated.[66] The subject of their disagreement is unknown. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. The Senate had become accustomed to ruling without an emperor between the departure of Tiberius for Capri in 26 and Caligula's accession.[67] Additionally, Tiberius' treason trials had eliminated a number of pro-Julian senators such as Asinius Gallus.[67] Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided, based on their actions during these trials, that numerous senators were not trustworthy.[66] He ordered a new set of investigations and trials.[66] He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death.[68] Suetonius reports that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot.[68] Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula faced a number of additional conspiracies against him.[69] A conspiracy involving his brother-in-law was foiled in late 39.[69] Soon afterwards, the Governor of Germany, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was executed for connections to a conspiracy.[69] Western expansion[edit] Map of the Roman Empire and neighboring states during the reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41 AD).   Italy and Roman provinces   Independent countries   Client states (Roman puppets)   Mauretania seized by Caligula   Former Roman provinces Thrace and Commagena made client states by Caligula . In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia. (Due to the novel I, Claudius, it is commonly believed that Caligula attempted war against Neptune at this time. This is not mentioned in any ancient source, however.)[3] The conquest of Britannia was later achieved during the reign of his successor, Claudius. Mauretania[edit] Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed.[70] Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and subsequently divided into two provinces, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, separated by the river Malua.[71] Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula, but Dio states that in 42 an uprising took place, which was subdued by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and the division only took place after this.[72] This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province, but the division was postponed because of the rebellion.[73] The first known equestrian governor of the two provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus, in office in 44.[73] Details on the Mauretanian events of 39–44 are unclear. Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost.[74] Caligula's move seemingly had a strictly personal political motive – fear and jealousy of his cousin Ptolemy – and thus the expansion may not have been prompted by pressing military or economic needs.[75] However, the rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province, and it is thus possible that Caligula's expansion was a prudent response to potential future threats.[73] Britannia[edit] There seems to have been a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted.[74] This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect seashells as "spoils of the sea".[76] The few primary sources disagree on what precisely occurred. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission.[77] The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius.[78] "Seashells", or conchae in Latin, may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia (perhaps the troops visited brothels) or boats (perhaps they captured several small British boats).[79] Claims of divinity[edit] Ruins of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. Ancient resources as well as recent archaeological evidence suggest that, at one point, Caligula had the palace extended to annex this structure. When several client kings came to Rome to pay their respects to him and argued about their nobility of descent, he allegedly cried out the Homeric line:[80] "Let there be one lord, one king."[57] In 40, Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo.[81] Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as "Jupiter" on occasion in public documents.[82][83] A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome.[83] The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the forum was linked directly to the imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula.[83][84] He would appear there on occasion and present himself as a god to the public. Caligula had the heads removed from various statues of gods located across Rome and replaced them with his own.[85] It is said that he wished to be worshipped as Neos Helios, the "New Sun". Indeed, he was represented as a sun god on Egyptian coins.[86] Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome.[87] Augustus had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from.[87] Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including senators, worship him as a tangible, living god.[88] Eastern policy[edit] Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa, who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in 37.[89] The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of Jews in the empire. Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists.[90] In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus.[91] According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews.[92] As a result, riots broke out in the city.[93] Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him.[94] In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories.[95] Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks.[96] Jews were accused of not honouring the emperor.[96] Disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia.[97] Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it.[97] In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem,[98] a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.[99] In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his".[99] The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.[100] Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.[96] However, Caligula issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem. In Rome, another statue of himself, of colossal size, was made of gilt brass for the purpose. The Temple of Jerusalem was then transformed into a temple for Caligula, and it was called the Temple of Illustrious Gaius the New Jupiter.[101] Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, c. AD 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. GERMANICVS PON. M. TR. POT. / AGRIPPINA DRVSILLA IVLIA S. C. Scandals[edit] Cameo depicting Caligula and a personification of Rome Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, short-tempered, killed on a whim, and indulged in too much spending and sex.[102] He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it,[103] killing for mere amusement,[104] deliberately wasting money on his bridge, causing starvation,[54] and wanting a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship.[98] Once, at some games at which he was presiding, he was said to have ordered his guards to throw an entire section of the audience into the arena during the intermission to be eaten by the wild beasts because there were no prisoners to be used and he was bored.[105] While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Livilla, and say he prostituted them to other men.[106] They state he sent troops on illogical military exercises,[74][107] turned the palace into a brothel,[47] and, most famously, planned or promised to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul,[108][109] and actually appointed him a priest.[83] The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government.[110] Assassination and aftermath[edit] Caligula's actions as emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, to the nobility and to the equestrian order.[111] According to Josephus, these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula.[112] Eventually, officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea succeeded in murdering the emperor.[113] The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it.[114] The situation had escalated when, in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently and to move to Alexandria in Egypt, where he hoped to be worshipped as a living god. The prospect of Rome losing its emperor and thus its political power was the final straw for many. Such a move would have left both the Senate and the Praetorian Guard powerless to stop Caligula's repression and debauchery. With this in mind Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators, who included Marcus Vinicius and Lucius Annius Vinicianus, to put their plot into action quickly. Bust of Caligula from Palazzo Massimo in Rome According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination.[115] Suetonius sees the motive in Caligula calling Chaerea derogatory names.[116] Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection.[117] Caligula would mock Chaerea with names like "Priapus" and "Venus".[118] On 24 January 41,[120] Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace, during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divine Augustus.[121] Details recorded on the events vary somewhat from source to source, but they agree that Chaerea stabbed Caligula first, followed by a number of conspirators.[122] Suetonius records that Caligula's death resembled that of Julius Caesar. He states that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea respectively).[123] By the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard responded, the Emperor was already dead. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.[124] These wounded conspirators were treated by the physician Arcyon. The cryptoporticus (underground corridor) beneath the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill where this event took place was discovered by archaeologists in 2008.[125] The senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic.[126] Chaerea tried to persuade the military to support the Senate.[127] The military, though, remained loyal to the idea of imperial monarchy.[127] Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support, the assassins sought out and killed Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and killed their young daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall.[128] They were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius. After a soldier, Gratus, found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain, he was spirited out of the city by a sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard[129] to their nearby camp.[130] Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian Guard. Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy, including Chaerea.[131] According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus; in 410, during the Sack of Rome, the ashes in the tomb were scattered. Legacy[edit] Historiography[edit] Fanciful renaissance depiction of Caligula The facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are mostly lost to history. Only two sources contemporary with Caligula have survived – the works of Philo and Seneca. Philo's works, On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus, give some details on Caligula's early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes. Seneca's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula's personality. Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in AD 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators.[132] At one time, there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula, but they are now lost. Additionally, the historians who wrote them are described as biased, either overly critical or praising of Caligula.[133] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporaneous historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embellishment and misrepresentation.[134] Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula.[135] Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula's reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against him.[69] The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula. Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they are lost. The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula 80 years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula's death. Cassius Dio's work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula's reign. A handful of other sources add a limited perspective on Caligula. Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula's assassination. Tacitus provides some information on Caligula's life under Tiberius. In a now lost portion of his Annals, Tacitus gave a detailed history of Caligula. Pliny the Elder's Natural History has a few brief references to Caligula. There are few surviving sources on Caligula and none of them paints Caligula in a favourable light. The paucity of sources has resulted in significant gaps in modern knowledge of the reign of Caligula. Little is written on the first two years of Caligula's reign. Additionally, there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula's military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate. According to legend, during his military actions in Britannia Caligula grew addicted to a steady diet of European sea eels, which led to their Latin name being Coluber caligulensis.[136] Health[edit] All surviving sources, except Pliny the Elder, characterize Caligula as insane. However, it is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally. Additionally, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for his behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis.[137] The question of whether Caligula was insane (especially after his illness early in his reign) remains unanswered.[137] Philo of Alexandria, Josephus and Seneca state that Caligula was insane, but describe this madness as a personality trait that came through experience.[95][138][139] Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once he became emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from.[140] According to Josephus, power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god.[95] Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of an illness in the eighth month of his reign in 37.[141] Juvenal reports he was given a magic potion that drove him insane. Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness", or epilepsy, when he was young.[142][143] Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures.[144] Despite swimming being a part of imperial education, Caligula could not swim.[145] Epileptics are discouraged from swimming in open waters because unexpected fits could lead to death because a timely rescue would be difficult.[146] Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon:[68] Epilepsy was long associated with the moon.[147] Suetonius described Caligula as sickly-looking, skinny and pale: "he was tall, very pale, ill-shaped, his neck and legs very slender, his eyes and temples hollow, his brows broad and knit, his hair thin, and the crown of the head bald. The other parts of his body were much covered with hair ... He was crazy both in body and mind, being subject, when a boy, to the falling sickness. When he arrived at the age of manhood he endured fatigue tolerably well. Occasionally he was liable to faintness, during which he remained incapable of any effort".[148][149] Based on scientific reconstructions of his official painted busts, Caligula had brown hair, brown eyes, and fair skin.[150] Some modern historians think that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism.[151] This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula's irritability and his "stare" as described by Pliny the Elder. Possible rediscovery of burial site[edit] On 17 January 2011, police in Nemi, Italy, announced that they believed they had discovered the site of Caligula's burial, after arresting a thief caught smuggling a statue which they believed to be of the emperor.[152] The claim has been met with scepticism by Cambridge historian Mary Beard.[153] Gallery[edit] Quadrans celebrating the abolition of a tax in AD 38 by Caligula.[154] The obverse of the coin contains a picture of a Pileus which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden. Caption: C. CAESAR DIVI AVG. PRON[EPOS] (great-grandson of) AVG. / PON. M., TR. P. III, P. P., COS. DES. RCC. (probably Res Civium Conservatae, i.e. the interests of citizens have been preserved) Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai, India, examples of Indo-Roman trade during the period. One coin of Caligula (AD 37–41), and two coins of Nero (AD 54–68). British Museum. Caption: C. CAESAR AVG. PON. M., TR. POT. III, COS. III. - NERO CAESAR. AVG. IMP. - NERO CAESAR AVG. IMP. In popular culture[edit] In film and series[edit] Referenced In Season 2, Episode 8 of the Tv series Lucifer. Lucifer, played by actor Tom Ellis, mentions him to actress Rachel Harris who plays Dr. Linda Martin in her office roughly halfway through the episode. Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius.[155] He was played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV historical drama series, The Caesars.[156] American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s, The Robe (1953) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954).[157] He was played by John Hurt in the 1976 BBC mini-series I, Claudius.[158] He was referenced by Jerry on Seinfeld in "The Jimmy" (season 6, episode 19) in 1995[citation needed] and in "The Blood" (season 9, episode 4)[citation needed] in 1997. A feature-length historical film Caligula was completed in 1979 with Malcolm McDowell in the lead role. The film contains explicit sex and violence.[159] The 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas features an Ancient Rome-themed casino called Caligula's Casino. The casino itself is mafia-run, and plays a central role in the main storyline. In season 3, episode 17 (titled “Salem the Boy”) of Sabrina the Teenage Witch Glenn Shadix portrayed Caligula. Caligula is a character in the 2015 NBC series A.D. The Bible Continues and is played by British actor Andrew Gower. His portrayal emphasises Caligula's "dabauched and dangerous" persona [160] as well as his sexual appetite, quick temper, and violent nature. The third season of the Roman Empire series (released on Netflix in 2019) is named Caligula: The Mad Emperor with South African actor Ido Drent in the leading role.[161] In season 2, episode 4 (titled "Escape to the House of Mummies (Part II))" of The Venture Bros. Caligula is a satirical caricature, portrayed to be debaucherous. In literature and theatre[edit] Caligula, by French author Albert Camus, is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla. The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to "bring the impossible into the realm of the likely".[162] In the novel I, Claudius by English writer Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as being a murderous sociopath from his childhood, who became clinically insane early in his reign. At the age of only ten, he drove his father Germanicus to despair and death by secretly terrorising him. Graves's Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla.[163] This was adapted for television in the 1976 BBC mini-series of the same name. In the book series Trials of Apollo by American writer Rick Riordan, Caligula is depicted as a wealthy and malicious emperor with plans to destroy a Roman demigod camp named "Camp Jupiter". He also wants to become the sun god with the power of Helios and Apollo. In music[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Caligula" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There is a song by the rap duo City Morgue called "Caligula" from their debut album CITY MORGUE VOL 1: HELL OR HIGH WATER. There is a song by Hip Hop rapper Ghostemane called "Caligula". Caligvla is the second album released by Canadian death metal band Ex Deo.[164] The Smiths' 1984 track "Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now" references the emperor with the following line: "What she asked of me at the end of the day, Caligula would have blushed".[165] Macy Gray released a track called "Caligula" on her 1999 album On How Life Is. "It's Just My Little Tribute to Caligula, Darling!" is a song from the 2001 Pet Shop Boys musical Closer to Heaven. In their 2019 album Fear Inoculum, Tool released a track called "Invincible" with the following line: "Tales told of battles won, of things we've done. Caligula would grin." Sodom released a track called "Caligula" on their 2016 released album Decision Day. Caligula is the third studio album by Lingua Ignota, released July 19, 2019.[166] "Caligulove" by Them Crooked Vultures is a reference to Caligula. Caligula's Horse is an Australian progressive metal band from Brisbane, Queensland. Caligula's Horse achieved their first chart success with their 2015 album release Bloom, with it reaching number 16 on the Australian Albums ARIA Chart and number 75 on the overall album chart. The album also reached number 73 on the Australian iTunes chart on 21 October 2015. References[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Paola Brandizzi Vittucci, Antium: Anzio e Nettuno in epoca romana, Roma, Bardi, 2000 ISBN 88-85699-83-9 ^ a b c d e Suetonius. "Life of Caligula". The Lives of Twelve Caesars – via uchicago.edu. ^ Wood, Susan (1995). "Diva Drusilla Panthea and the Sisters of Caligula". American Journal of Archaeology. 99 (3): 457–482. doi:10.2307/506945. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 506945. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.6. ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 9. ^ "Caligula" is formed from the Latin word caliga, meaning soldier's boot, and the diminutive infix -ul. ^ Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of a Wise Person XVIII 2–5. 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The Lives. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2.1. ^ Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 11; Josephus Antiquities of the Jews XIX 268-269; Cassius Dio, Roman History LX 3, 4. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.19. ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1. ^ Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola X, Annals XIII.20. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13. ^ Aemilius Macer, Theriaca 1.29. ^ a b Sidwell, Barbara (18 March 2010). "Gaius Caligula's Mental Illness". Classical World. 103 (2): 183–206. doi:10.1353/clw.0.0165. ISSN 1558-9234. PMID 20213971. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XIII. ^ Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of the Wise Person XVIII.1; Seneca the Younger, On Anger I.xx.8. ^ Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of the Wise Person XVII–XVIII; Seneca the Younger, On Anger I.xx.8. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II–IV. ^ Benediktson, D. Thomas (1989). "Caligula's Madness: Madness or Interictal Temporal Lobe Epilepsy?". The Classical World. 82 (5): 370–375. doi:10.2307/4350416. ISSN 0009-8418. JSTOR 4350416. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 50. ^ Benediktson, D. Thomas (1991). "Caligula's Phobias and Philias: Fear of Seizure?". The Classical Journal. 87 (2): 159–163. ISSN 0009-8353. JSTOR 3297970. ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus 64, Life of Caligula 54. ^ J.H. Pearn, "Epilepsy and Drowning in Childhood," British Medical Journal (1977) pp. 1510–11. ^ O. Temkin, The Falling Sickness (2nd ed., Baltimore 1971) 3–4, 7, 13, 16, 26, 86, 92–96, 179. ^ Suetonius: The Lives of the Twelve Caesars; An English Translation, Augmented with the Biographies of Contemporary Statesmen, Orators, Poets, and Other Associates. Suetonius. Publishing Editor. J. Eugene Reed. Alexander Thomson. Philadelphia. Gebbie & Co. 1889. ^ Tibballs, Geoff (13 July 2017). Royalty's Strangest Tales. Pavilion Books. ISBN 9781911042945. ^ "The True Colours Of Greek and Roman Statues By Archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann". 24 January 2015. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ R.S. Katz, "The Illness of Caligula" CW 65(1972),223-25, refuted by M.G. Morgan, "Caligula's Illness Again", CW 66(1973), 327–29. ^ Kington, Tom (17 January 2011). "Caligula's tomb found after police arrest man trying to smuggle statue". The Guardian. London. ^ Beard, Mary (18 January 2011). "This isn't Caligula's tomb". A don's life. London. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011. ^ Woods, David (2010). "Caligula's Quadrans". The Numismatic Chronicle. 170: 99–103. ISSN 0078-2696. JSTOR 42678887. ^ Yablonsky, Linda (26 February 2006). "'Caligula' Gives a Toga Party (but No One's Really Invited)". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2011. ^ The Caesars at IMDb ^ Robinson, Jay. The Comeback. Word Books, 1979. ISBN 978-0-912376-45-5 ^ I, Claudius at IMDb ^ "Caligula (1978)". All-Movie. Retrieved 14 March 2021. ^ Watch A.D. The Bible Continues Episodes at NBC.com, retrieved 9 May 2020 ^ Nolan, Emma (26 March 2019). "Roman Empire Caligula The Mad Emperor Netflix release date, cast, trailer, plot". Express.co.uk. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ Sheaffer-Jones, Caroline (1 January 2012). "A Deconstructive Reading of Albert Camus' Caligula: Justice and the Game of Calculations". Australian Journal of French Studies. 49 (1): 31–42. doi:10.3828/AJFS.2012.3. ISSN 0004-9468. ^ Graves, Robert I, Claudius (1934) ^ "Ex Deo Caligvla". exclaim.ca. 11 September 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "The Smiths – Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now". Retrieved 2 August 2020 – via genius.com. ^ "My Sweet Revenge: How Lingua Ignota Is Transforming The Horrors Of Abuse Into Art". Kerrang!. Retrieved 24 March 2021. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 59 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX Philo of Alexandria, (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890): On the Embassy to Gaius Flaccus Seneca the Younger On Firmness On Anger To Marcia, On Consolation On Tranquility of Mind On the Shortness of Life To Polybius, On Consolation To Helvia, On Consolation On Benefits On the Terrors of Death (Epistle IV) On Taking One's Own Life (Epistle LXXVII) On the Value of Advice (Epistle XCIV) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula Tacitus, Annals, Book 6 Secondary material[edit] Balsdon, V. D. (1934). The Emperor Gaius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Barrett, Anthony A. (1989). Caligula: the corruption of power. London: Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-5487-1. Grant, Michael (1979). The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044072-0. Hurley, Donna W. (1993). An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' Life of C. Caligula. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Sandison, A. T. (1958). "The Madness of the Emperor Caligula". Medical History. 2 (3): 202–209. doi:10.1017/s0025727300023759. PMC 1034394. PMID 13577116. Wilcox, Amanda (2008). "Nature's Monster: Caligula as exemplum in Seneca's Dialogues". In Sluiter, Ineke; Rosen, Ralph M. (eds.). Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity. Mnemosyne: Supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity. 307. Leiden: Brill. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caligula. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Gaius Caesar . Wikiquote has quotations related to: Caligula The portrait of Caligula in the Digital Sculpture Project Caligula Attempts to Conquer Britain in AD 40 Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis Franz Lidz, "Caligula’s Garden of Delights, Unearthed and Restored", New York Times, Jan. 12, 2021 Caligula Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 31 August AD 12 Died: 24 January AD 41 Roman Emperors Preceded by Tiberius Roman emperor 37–41 Succeeded by Claudius Preceded by Drusus Caesar Caesar of the Roman Empire 33–37 Succeeded by Tiberius Gemellus Political offices Preceded by Gn. Acerronius Proculus G. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus Roman consul July–August 37 With: Claudius Succeeded by A. Caecina Paetus G. Caninius Rebilus Preceded by Ser. Asinius Celer Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus Roman consul January 39 With: L. Apronius Caesianus Succeeded by Q. Sanquinius Maximus Preceded by A. Didius Gallus Gn. Domitius Afer Roman consul January 40 sine collega Succeeded by G. Laecanius Bassus Q. Terentius Culleo Preceded by G. Laecanius Bassus Q. Terentius Culleo Roman consul January 41 With: Gn. Sentius Saturninus Succeeded by Q. 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en-wikipedia-org-8975	----	Category:Annii - Wikipedia Help Category:Annii From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gens Annia. The main article for this category is Annia gens. Pages in category "Annii" The following 44 pages are in this category, out of 44 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Annia gens A Marcus Annius Afrinus Paculla Annia Lucius Annius Arrianus Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus (consul 108) Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus (consul suffectus) Lucius Annius Gaius Annius Anullinus Athenais (daughter of Herodes Atticus) Appius Annius Atilius Bradua B Lucius Annius Bassus C Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Annia Cornificia Faustina Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor E Annius Eucharius Epiphanius F Lucius Annius Fabianus Lucius Annius Fabianus (consul 141) Fadilla Faustina the Elder Faustina the Younger Annia Faustina (daughter of Ummidia Cornificia Faustina) Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina Annia Fundania Faustina Annia Faustina Florianus Works attributed to Florus G Appius Annius Gallus H Herennia Etruscilla L Marcus Annius Libo Marcus Annius Libo (consul 161) Marcus Annius Flavius Libo Lucilla Titus Annius Luscus M Marcus Aurelius Titus Annius Milo P Pescennius Niger Annius Plocamus R Appia Annia Regilla Annius Rufus U Ulpian V Marcus Annius Verus (father of Marcus Aurelius) Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius) Annius Vinicianus (condemned by Nero) Lucius Annius Vinicianus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Annii&oldid=998906023" Categories: Ancient Romans by gens Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Italiano Latina Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 15:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9006	----	Septimius Severus - Wikipedia Septimius Severus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 193 to 211 Roman emperor Septimius Severus Alabaster bust, Musei Capitolini, Rome Roman emperor Reign 14 April 193 – 4 February 211[1] Predecessor Didius Julianus Successors Caracalla and Geta Co-emperors Caracalla (198–211) Geta (209–211) Born Lucius Septimius Severus[2] 11 April 145[3] Leptis Magna, Africa Died 4 February 211 (aged 65)[4] Eboracum, Britain Spouse Paccia Marciana (m. c. 175; died c. 186) Julia Domna (m. 187) Issue Caracalla and Geta Regnal name Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus[5] Dynasty Severan Father Publius Septimius Geta Mother Fulvia Pia Roman imperial dynasties Aureus of Septimius Severus Severan dynasty Chronology Septimius Severus 193–211 Caracalla 198–217 Geta 209–211 Interlude: Macrinus 217–218 —with Diadumenian 218 Elagabalus 218–222 Severus Alexander 222–235 Dynasty Severan dynasty family tree All biographies Succession Preceded by Year of the Five Emperors Followed by Crisis of the Third Century Lucius Septimius Severus (Latin: [sɛˈweːrʊs]; 9 April 145 – 4 February 211) was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present day Al-Khums, Libya) in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of the emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors. After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor Didius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at the Battle of Issus in Cilicia. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the Kingdom of Osroene as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the Battle of Lugdunum in Gaul. After consolidating his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the Parthian Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the Tigris. He then enlarged and fortified the Limes Arabicus in Arabia Petraea. In 202, he campaigned in Africa and Mauretania against the Garamantes, capturing their capital Garama and expanding the Limes Tripolitanus along the southern desert frontier of the empire. He proclaimed as augusti (co-emperors) his elder son Caracalla in 198 and his younger son Geta in 209, both born of his second wife Julia Domna. Severus travelled to Britain in 208, strengthening Hadrian's Wall and reoccupying the Antonine Wall. In AD 209 he invaded Caledonia (modern Scotland) with an army of 50,000 men[6] but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 at Eboracum (today York, England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful wife Julia Domna, thus founding the Severan dynasty. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the Crisis of the Third Century. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Family and education 1.2 Public service 1.3 Marriages 2 Rise to power 3 Emperor 3.1 War against Parthia 3.2 Relations with the Senate and People 3.3 Military reforms 3.4 Reputed persecution of Christians 4 Military activity 4.1 Africa (202) 4.2 Britain (208) 5 Death (211) 6 Assessment and legacy 7 Severan dynasty family tree 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Early life[edit] Family and education[edit] Born on 11 April 145 at Leptis Magna (in present-day Libya) as the son of Publius Septimius Geta and Fulvia Pia,[3] Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of equestrian rank. He had Italian Roman ancestry on his mother's side, and was descended from Punic forebears on his father's side.[7] Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperor Antoninus Pius r. 138–161. His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the gens Fulvia, an Italian patrician family that originated in Tusculum.[8] Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, Publius Septimius Geta; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus's maternal cousin was the praetorian prefect and consul Gaius Fulvius Plautianus.[9] Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the local Punic language fluently, but he was also educated in Latin and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to Cassius Dio, the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably Severus received lessons in oratory: at the age of 17 he gave his first public speech.[10] Public service[edit] Dynastic aureus of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits of Geta (right), Julia Domna (centre), and Caracalla (left).[11] Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI Severus sought a public career in Rome in around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.[12] Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the cursus honorum and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.[13] It is likely that he served as a vigintivir in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.[13] At the time of Marcus Aurelius he was the State Attorney (Advocatus fisci).[14] However, he omitted the military tribunate from the cursus honorum and had to delay his quaestorship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.[13] To make matters worse, the Antonine Plague swept through the capital in 166.[15] With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.[15] According to the Historia Augusta, a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for adultery during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169 Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5 December, he took office and was officially enrolled in the Roman Senate.[16] Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The Antonine Plague had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have.[17] The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa, Mauri tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of Sardinia as compensation. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of Sardinia.[18] In 173, Severus' kinsman Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed proconsul of the Province of Africa. The elder Severus chose his cousin as one of his two legati pro praetore, a senior military appointment.[19] Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as tribune of the plebs, a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the candidatus of the emperor.[20] Marriages[edit] Busts of Septimius Severus (left) and Julia Domna (right), Munich Glyptotek About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to Paccia Marciana, a woman from Leptis Magna.[21] He probably met her during his tenure as legate under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable Historia Augusta claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years.[20] Marciana died of natural causes around 186.[22] Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into the horoscopes of prospective brides. The Historia Augusta relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife.[21] This woman was an Emesene Syrian named Julia Domna. Her father, Julius Bassianus, descended from the Arab Emesene dynasty and served as a high priest to the local cult of the sun god Elagabal.[23] Domna's older sister, Julia Maesa, would become the grandmother of the future emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus.[24] Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon, France), of which Severus was the governor.[25] The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy.[26] They had two sons, Lucius Septimius Bassianus (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4 April 188 in Lugdunum) and Publius Septimius Geta (born 7 March 189 in Rome).[27] Rise to power[edit] The Severan Tondo, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased. (Antikensammlung Berlin) In 191, on the advice of Quintus Aemilius Laetus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard, emperor Commodus appointed Severus as governor of Pannonia Superior.[28] Commodus was assassinated the following year. Pertinax was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193. In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus's legion XIV Gemina acclaimed him emperor at Carnuntum. Nearby legions, such as X Gemina at Vindobona, soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy.[29] Pertinax's successor in Rome, Didius Julianus, had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.[30] Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the Praetorian Guard, filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions.[31][32] The legions of Syria had proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer Clodius Albinus, the powerful governor of Britannia, who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank of Caesar, which implied some claim to succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the Battle of Issus (194).[32] While campaigning against Byzantium, he ordered that the tomb of his fellow-Carthaginian Hannibal be covered with fine marble.[33] He devoted the following year to suppressing Mesopotamia and other Parthian vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards Severus declared his son Caracalla as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gallia. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19 February 197 at the Battle of Lugdunum, with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of Pannonian, Moesian and Dacian legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.[34][35][36] Emperor[edit] War against Parthia[edit] The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus. Depicted are Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple). Aureus minted in 193 by Septimius Severus, to celebrate XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S. In early 197 Severus departed Rome and travelled to the east by sea. He embarked at Brundisium and probably landed at the port of Aegeae in Cilicia,[37] travelling to Syria by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the Euphrates.[38] Abgar IX, titular King of Osroene but essentially only the ruler of Edessa since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,[39] handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.[40] King Khosrov I of Armenia also sent hostages, money and gifts.[41] Severus travelled on to Nisibis, which his general Julius Laetus had prevented from falling into enemy hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.[42] The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the Parthian Empire, reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to Pescennius Niger. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of Ctesiphon and he annexed the northern half of Mesopotamia to the empire,[43][44] taking the title Parthicus Maximus, following the example of Trajan.[45] However, he was unable to capture the fortress of Hatra even after two lengthy sieges, just like Trajan who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, he also expanded the Limes Arabicus, building new fortifications in the Arabian Desert from Basie to Dumatha.[46] Relations with the Senate and People[edit] Severus' relations with the Senate were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or conspiracy against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus's reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome.[47][48] According to Cassius Dio,[49] however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian Prefect, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and Julia Domna, Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus's daughter, Fulvia Plautilla, was married to Severus's son, Caracalla. Plautianus's excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and Caracalla accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.[50] One of the two following praefecti was the famous jurist Papinian. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, Julia Domna, in the administration of the empire.[51] Military reforms[edit] Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged the Praetorian Guard,[31] which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99 mi) miles of the city on pain of death.[52] Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.[53] Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II, and III Parthica.[54] He garrisoned Legio II Parthica at Albanum, only 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[53] He gave his soldiers a donative of a thousand sesterces (250 denarii) each,[55] and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 denarii.[56] Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.[57] Reputed persecution of Christians[edit] At the beginning of Severus' reign, Trajan's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.[58] Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local, and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promoting syncretism.[59] He, possibly, issued an edict[60] that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.[61] A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.[62] This is based on the decree mentioned in the Historia Augusta,[60] an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.[63] Early church historian Eusebius described Severus as a persecutor.[64] The Christian apologist Tertullian stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,[65] employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.[63] Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the Roman Martyrology as the martyrs of Madauros, Charalambos and Perpetua and Felicity in Roman-ruled Africa. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.[66] Military activity[edit] Africa (202)[edit] The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan). In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The legatus legionis or commander of Legio III Augusta, Quintus Anicius Faustus, had been fighting against the Garamantes along the Limes Tripolitanus for five years. He captured several settlements such as Cydamus, Gholaia, Garbia, and their capital Garama – over 600 kilometres (370 mi) south of Leptis Magna.[67] The province of Numidia was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of Vescera, Castellum Dimmidi, Gemellae, Thabudeos and Thubunae.[68] By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into the Sahara.[43] Britain (208)[edit] In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering Caledonia. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.[69] Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.[70] He strengthened Hadrian's Wall and reconquered the Southern Uplands up to the Antonine Wall, which was also enhanced. Severus built a 165-acre (67 ha) camp south of the Antonine Wall at Trimontium, probably assembling his forces there.[71] Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,[72] Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of Agricola of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as Carpow.[73] Kushan ring with portraits of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, a testimony to Indo-Roman relations of the period. Around this time Severus' wife, Julia Domna, reportedly criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women. The wife of Caledonian chief Argentocoxos replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest".[74] Cassius Dio's account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.[75] By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.[76] The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.[69][77] This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.[78] The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the Maeatae.[79] Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."[80][72] Death (211)[edit] Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.[81][82] He withdrew to Eboracum (York) and died there in 211.[4] Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall.[82] Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.[83] On his death, Severus was deified by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta, who were advised by his wife Julia Domna.[84] Severus was buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. His remains are now lost.[85] Assessment and legacy[edit] The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna Though his military expenditure was costly to the empire, Severus was a strong and able ruler. The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under his reign – over 5 million square kilometres.[86][87][disputed – discuss] Edward Gibbon famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity."[88] His enlargement of the Limes Tripolitanus secured Africa, the agricultural base of the empire where he was born.[89] His victory over the Parthian Empire was for a time decisive, securing Nisibis and Singara for the empire and establishing a status quo of Roman dominance in the region until 251.[90] His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries Cassius Dio and Herodianus: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain the new and better paid army.[91][92] The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.[87] To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the Roman currency. Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased the denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5% – the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams respectively.[93] Severus' currency debasement was the largest since the reign of Nero, compromising the long-term strength of the economy.[94] Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the triumphal arch in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the Septizodium in Rome. He enriched his native city of Leptis Magna, including commissioning a triumphal arch on the occasion of his visit of 203. The greater part of the Flavian Palace overlooking the Circus Maximus was undertaken in his reign.[95][48] Severan dynasty family tree[edit] v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. See also[edit] Bulla Felix Septimia gens Arcus Argentariorum dedicated by the money changers of Rome to the Severan family. References[edit] ^ Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. 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Fake Prophecy and Polluted Sacraments: Ecclesiastical and Imperial Reactions to Montanism (Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15819-1. Campbell, Brian (1994). The Roman Army, 31 BC - AD 337: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07172-7. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Septimius Severus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Septimius Severus. Life of Septimius Severus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) Books 74, 75, 76, and 77 of Dio Cassius, covering the rise to power and reign of Septimius Severus Septimius Severus on Ancient History Encyclopedia Book 3 of Herodian De Imperatoribus Romanis Online encyclopaedia of Roman emperors Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome Lorente Muñoz, Mario: “Los prefectos de Egipto durante el gobierno de Septimio Severo (192–211 d.C.)”. Revista Historias del Orbis Terrarum, 24, 2020, pp. 31–45 Septimius Severus in Scotland Arch of Septimius Severus in Lepcis Magna Coins issued by Septimius Severus Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Septimius Severus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. THE LIFE AND REIGN OF THE EMPEROR LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, in BTM Format Septimius Severus Severan dynasty Born: 11 April 146 Died: 4 February 211 Regnal titles Preceded by Didius Julianus Roman Emperor 193–211 with Pescennius Niger (rival 193–194), Clodius Albinus (rival 193–197), Caracalla (198–211), Publius Septimius Geta (209–211) Succeeded by Caracalla, Publius Septimius Geta Political offices Preceded by Lucius Fabius Cilo, and Marcus Silius Messala Consul of the Roman Empire 194 with Clodius Albinus Succeeded by Publius Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus, and Quintus Tineius Clemens Preceded by Annius Fabianus, and Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus Consul of the Roman Empire 202 with Caracalla Succeeded by Titus Murrenius Severus, and Gaius Cassius Regallianus as Suffect consuls v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Prefect Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates Populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Theatre Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Temples Theatres Sanitation Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance New Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations Wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Fiction Films v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) Catalonia United States Czech Republic Israel 2 Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Septimius_Severus&oldid=1027660714" Categories: Septimius Severus 145 births 211 deaths 2nd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century Roman emperors 2nd-century Punic people 3rd-century Punic people Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth Imperial Roman consuls Roman governors of Gallia Lugdunensis Severan dynasty Ancient Romans in Britain Septimii Deified Roman emperors Romans from Africa Ancient Libyans People of the Roman–Parthian Wars Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Roman pharaohs Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Webarchive template archiveis links CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles EngvarB from May 2018 Use dmy dates from February 2021 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Latin-language text All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from July 2018 CS1 maint: ref duplicates default CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Commons link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 07:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9022	----	File:VologasesIV.jpg - Wikipedia File:VologasesIV.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage No higher resolution available. VologasesIV.jpg ‎(325 × 145 pixels, file size: 29 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionVologasesIV.jpg English: Coin of Vologases IV, a Parthian ruler. Source http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=60035# Author Classical Numismatic Group; [1] Permission (Reusing this file) Object Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VologasesIV.jpg Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This is a reproduction of a unit of currency that is or was in use in Iran which was designed before January 1, 1991. This work is now in the public domain in Iran, because according to the Law for the Protection of Authors, Composers and Artist Rights (1970) its term of copyright has expired after 30 years from the date of publication or public presentation as a case where the work belongs to a legal personality.(Article 16) Banknotes/coins designed after December 31, 1990: The Central Bank of Iran holds the copyright on the banknotes/coins designed after December 31, 1990. All banknotes/coins designed after December 31, 1990 will be deleted as a {{Copyvio}}. See COM:CRT/Iran#Currency for more information. This file, either completely or in part, represents a depiction of a unit of currency. Even though this file is in the public domain or otherwise not copyrighted, its use may be restricted by other legal provisions outside of copyright law. Photograph Classical Numismatic Group, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publishes it under the following licenses: Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.htmlGFDLGNU Free Documentation Licensetruetrue This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Attribution: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. This licensing tag was added to this file as part of the GFDL licensing update.http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/CC-BY-SA-3.0Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0truetrue This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license. Attribution: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5 CC BY-SA 2.5 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 truetrue You may select the license of your choice.   This work is free and may be used by anyone for any purpose. If you wish to use this content, you do not need to request permission as long as you follow any licensing requirements mentioned on this page. Wikimedia Foundation has received an e-mail confirming that the copyright holder has approved publication under the terms mentioned on this page. This correspondence has been reviewed by an OTRS member and stored in our permission archive. The correspondence is available to trusted volunteers as ticket #2006092710009217. If you have questions about the archived correspondence, please use the OTRS noticeboard. Ticket link: https://ticket.wikimedia.org/otrs/index.pl?Action=AgentTicketZoom&TicketNumber=2006092710009217 Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Wikimedia OTRS ticket number 2006092710009217 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 21:38, 16 March 2014 325 × 145 (29 KB) HistoryofIran {{subst:Upload marker added by en.wp UW}} {{Information |Description = {{en|Coin of Vologases IV, a Parthian ruler.}} |Source = http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=60035# |Author=[http://www.cngcoins.com Classical Numismatic Group]; [http://www.co... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): List of monarchs of Persia Marcus Aurelius Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on az.wikipedia.org Arşakilər Azərbaycan hökmdarlarının siyahısı Usage on de.wikipedia.org 147 Vologaeses IV. Usage on es.wikipedia.org Vologases IV de Partia Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Partiar Inperioa Usage on fa.wikipedia.org بلاش چهارم Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Avidius Cassius Liste des dirigeants de la Perse et de l'Iran Vologèse IV Usage on id.wikipedia.org Walagash IV Daftar Penguasa Persia Usage on it.wikipedia.org Vologase IV Usage on ja.wikipedia.org ヴォロガセス4世 Usage on ka.wikipedia.org ვოლოგეზ IV Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Vologases IV Usage on no.wikipedia.org Vologases IV av Partia Usage on oc.wikipedia.org Vologés IV Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Seznam perzijskih kraljev Usage on th.wikipedia.org รายพระนามพระมหากษัตริย์เปอร์เซีย Usage on uk.wikipedia.org Аршакіди (царі Парфії) Вологез IV Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Vologases IV Danh sách vua Ba Tư Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VologasesIV.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9040	----	Wikisource - Wikipedia Wikisource From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Foundation project, an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki For linking to or citing Wikisource, see Wikipedia:Wikisource. Wikisource Screenshot of wikisource.org home page using the Monobook skin Type of site Digital library Available in Multilingual (70 active sub-domains)[1] Owner Wikimedia Foundation Created by User-generated URL wikisource.org Commercial No Registration Optional Launched November 24, 2003; 17 years ago (2003-11-24)[2] Current status Online Wikisource is an online digital library of free-content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project (each instance usually representing a different language); multiple Wikisources make up the overall project of Wikisource. The project's aim is to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts (its first text was the Déclaration universelle des Droits de l'Homme), it has expanded to become a general-content library. The project officially began on November 24, 2003 under the name Project Sourceberg, a play on the famous Project Gutenberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name. The project holds works that are either in the public domain or freely licensed; professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of other digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, which ensures the reliability and accuracy of the project's texts. Some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, from comics to film to audio books. Some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. The project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration.[3] As of June 2021, there are Wikisource subdomains active for 70 languages[1] comprising a total of 4,798,092 articles and 2,561 recently active editors.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Logo and slogan 3 Tools built 4 Milestones 5 Library contents 6 Structure 6.1 Language subdomains 6.2 wikisource.org 7 Reception 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] The original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing primary evidence and original source texts, and as an archive in its own right. The collection was initially focused on important historical and cultural material, distinguishing it from other digital archives such as Project Gutenberg.[2] The original Wikisource logo The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages (a play on words for Project Gutenberg).[2] In 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary-source materials, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this. In describing the proposed project, user The Cunctator said, "It would be to Project Gutenberg what Wikipedia is to Nupedia,"[5] soon clarifying the statement with "we don't want to try to duplicate Project Gutenberg's efforts; rather, we want to complement them. Perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG."[6] Initial comments were sceptical, with Larry Sanger questioning the need for the project, writing "The hard question, I guess, is why we are reinventing the wheel, when Project Gutenberg already exists? We'd want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly?",[7] and Jimmy Wales adding "like Larry, I'm interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, which is whatever we want it to be."[8] The project began its activity at ps.wikipedia.org. The contributors understood the "PS" subdomain to mean either "primary sources" or Project Sourceberg.[5] However, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia (the ISO language code of the Pashto language is "ps"). Project Sourceberg officially launched on November 24, 2003 when it received its own temporary URL, at sources.wikipedia.org, and all texts and discussions hosted on ps.wikipedia.org were moved to the temporary address. A vote on the project's name changed it to Wikisource on December 6, 2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL (at http://wikisource.org/) until July 23, 2004.[9] Logo and slogan[edit] Since Wikisource was initially called "Project Sourceberg", its first logo was a picture of an iceberg.[2] Two votes conducted to choose a successor were inconclusive, and the original logo remained until 2006. Finally, for both legal and technical reasons – because the picture's license was inappropriate for a Wikimedia Foundation logo and because a photo cannot scale properly – a stylized vector iceberg inspired by the original picture was mandated to serve as the project's logo. The first prominent use of Wikisource's slogan — The Free Library — was at the project's multilingual portal, when it was redesigned based upon the Wikipedia portal on August 27, 2005, (historical version).[10] As in the Wikipedia portal the Wikisource slogan appears around the logo in the project's ten largest languages. Clicking on the portal's central images (the iceberg logo in the center and the "Wikisource" heading at the top of the page) links to a list of translations for Wikisource and The Free Library in 60 languages. Tools built[edit] The Proofread Page extension in action. A MediaWiki extension called ProofreadPage was developed for Wikisource by developer ThomasV to improve the vetting of transcriptions by the project. This displays pages of scanned works side by side with the text relating to that page, allowing the text to be proofread and its accuracy later verified independently by any other editor.[11][12][13] Once a book, or other text, has been scanned, the raw images can be modified with image processing software to correct for page rotations and other problems. The retouched images can then be converted into a PDF or DjVu file and uploaded to either Wikisource or Wikimedia Commons.[11] This system assists editors in ensuring the accuracy of texts on Wikisource. The original page scans of completed works remain available to any user so that errors may be corrected later and readers may check texts against the originals. ProofreadPage also allows greater participation, since access to a physical copy of the original work is not necessary to be able to contribute to the project once images have been uploaded. Thus it enhances the project's commitment to the Wikimedia principle that anyone can contribute. ThomasV built other tools as well: when the choice of whether publishing annotations or not was discussed, he made a gadget to offer the choice between texts alone or annotated texts. When the choice of modernizing or not the texts was discussed, he made another gadget to modernize the original text only when it was wished, so that it could be decided then that the texts themselves would be the original ones. ▶ Example: Old ſ (for s) and other old spellings on French Wikisource Original text Action of the modernizing tool Milestones[edit] A student doing proof reading during her project at New Law College (Pune) India Within two weeks of the project's official start at sources.wikipedia.org, over 1,000 pages had been created, with approximately 200 of these being designated as actual articles. On January 4, 2004, Wikisource welcomed its 100th registered user. In early July, 2004 the number of articles exceeded 2,400, and more than 500 users had registered. On April 30, 2005, there were 2667 registered users (including 18 administrators) and almost 19,000 articles. The project passed its 96,000th edit that same day.[citation needed] On November 27, 2005, the English Wikisource passed 20,000 text-units in its third month of existence, already holding more texts than did the entire project in April (before the move to language subdomains). On February 14, 2008, the English Wikisource passed 100,000 text-units with Chapter LXXIV of Six Months at the White House, a memoir by painter Francis Bicknell Carpenter.[14] In November, 2011, 250,000 text-units milestone was passed. But counting was difficult because what constitutes a text-unit could not be clearly defined. On May 10, 2006, the first Wikisource Portal was created. Library contents[edit] Wikisource inclusion criteria expressed as a Venn diagram. Green indicates the best possible case, where the work satisfies all three primary requirements. Yellow indicates acceptable but not ideal cases. Wikisource collects and stores in digital format previously published texts; including novels, non-fiction works, letters, speeches, constitutional and historical documents, laws and a range of other documents. All texts collected are either free of copyright or released under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.[2] Texts in all languages are welcome, as are translations. In addition to texts, Wikisource hosts material such as comics, films, recordings and spoken-word works.[2] All texts held by Wikisource must have been previously published; the project does not host "vanity press" books or documents produced by its contributors.[2][15][16][17][18] A scanned source is preferred on many Wikisources and required on some. Most Wikisources will, however, accept works transcribed from offline sources or acquired from other digital libraries.[2] The requirement for prior publication can also be waived in a small number of cases if the work is a source document of notable historical importance. The legal requirement for works to be licensed or free of copyright remains constant. The only original pieces accepted by Wikisource are annotations and translations.[19] Wikisource, and its sister project Wikibooks, has the capacity for annotated editions of texts. On Wikisource, the annotations are supplementary to the original text, which remains the primary objective of the project. By contrast, on Wikibooks the annotations are primary, with the original text as only a reference or supplement, if present at all.[18] Annotated editions are more popular on the German Wikisource.[18] The project also accommodates translations of texts provided by its users. A significant translation on the English Wikisource is the Wiki Bible project, intended to create a new, "laissez-faire translation" of The Bible.[20] Structure[edit] Language subdomains[edit] A separate Hebrew version of Wikisource (he.wikisource.org) was created in August 2004. The need for a language-specific Hebrew website derived from the difficulty of typing and editing Hebrew texts in a left-to-right environment (Hebrew is written right-to-left). In the ensuing months, contributors in other languages including German requested their own wikis, but a December vote on the creation of separate language domains was inconclusive. Finally, a second vote that ended May 12, 2005, supported the adoption of separate language subdomains at Wikisource by a large margin, allowing each language to host its texts on its own wiki. An initial wave of 14 languages was set up by Brion Vibber on August 23, 2005.[21] The new languages did not include English, but the code en: was temporarily set to redirect to the main website (wikisource.org). At this point the Wikisource community, through a mass project of manually sorting thousands of pages and categories by language, prepared for a second wave of page imports to local wikis. On September 11, 2005, the wikisource.org wiki was reconfigured to enable the English version, along with 8 other languages that were created early that morning and late the night before.[22] Three more languages were created on March 29, 2006,[23] and then another large wave of 14 language domains was created on June 2, 2006.[24] Languages without subdomains are locally incubated. As of September 2020[update], 182 languages are hosted locally. As of June 2021, there are wikisource subdomains for 72 languages of which 70 are active and 2 are closed.[1] The active sites have 4,798,092 articles and the closed sites have 13 articles.[4] There are 4,100,649 registered users of which 2,561 are recently active.[4] The top ten Wikisource language projects by mainspace article count:[4] № Language Wiki Good Total Edits Admins Users Active users Files 1 Polish pl 909,081 942,893 2,794,195 15 30,937 75 101 2 English en 878,737 3,511,556 11,387,655 24 2,996,220 433 19,569 3 Russian ru 529,379 895,785 4,068,805 5 99,911 100 1,021 4 German de 472,688 519,438 3,795,715 17 69,034 116 5,423 5 French fr 430,825 3,459,941 11,471,620 17 117,359 234 6,335 6 Chinese zh 367,172 1,011,954 2,010,999 7 86,208 144 234 7 Hebrew he 197,479 385,100 1,097,200 15 30,360 96 402 8 Italian it 162,326 652,153 2,794,813 7 58,943 99 952 9 Spanish es 114,216 247,640 1,160,155 9 76,757 57 258 10 Arabic ar 79,843 166,913 312,712 8 55,178 29 4,057 For a complete list with totals see Wikimedia Statistics:[25] wikisource.org[edit] During the move to language subdomains, the community requested that the main wikisource.org website remain a functioning wiki, in order to serve three purposes: To be a multilingual coordination site for the entire Wikisource project in all languages. In practice, use of the website for multilingual coordination has not been heavy since the conversion to language domains. Nevertheless, there is some policy activity at the Scriptorium, and multilingual updates for news and language milestones at pages such as Wikisource:2007. To be a home for texts in languages without their own subdomains, each with its own local main page for self-organization.[26] As a language incubator, the wiki currently provides a home for over 30 languages that do not yet have their own language subdomains. Some of these are very active, and have built libraries with hundreds of texts (such as Esperanto and Volapuk), and one with thousands (Hindi). To provide direct, ongoing support by a local wiki community for a dynamic multilingual portal at its Main Page, for users who go to http://wikisource.org. The current Main Page portal was created on August 26, 2005, by ThomasV, who based it upon the Wikipedia portal. The idea of a project-specific coordination wiki, first realized at Wikisource, also took hold in another Wikimedia project, namely at Wikiversity's Beta Wiki. Like wikisource.org, it serves Wikiversity coordination in all languages, and as a language incubator. But unlike Wikisource, its Main Page does not serve as its multilingual portal[27] (which is not a wiki page). Reception[edit] Play media Personal explanation of Wikisource from a project participant Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger has criticised Wikisource, and sister project Wiktionary, because the collaborative nature and technology of these projects means there is no oversight by experts and therefore their content is not reliable.[28] Bart D. Ehrman, a New Testament scholar and professor of religious studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, has criticised the English Wikisource's project to create a user-generated translation of the Bible saying "Democratization isn't necessarily good for scholarship."[20] Richard Elliott Friedman, an Old Testament scholar and professor of Jewish studies at the University of Georgia, identified errors in the translation of the Book of Genesis as of 2008.[20] In 2010, Wikimedia France signed an agreement with the Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library of France) to add scans from its own Gallica digital library to French Wikisource. Fourteen hundred public domain French texts were added to the Wikisource library as a result via upload to the Wikimedia Commons. The quality of the transcriptions, previously automatically generated by optical character recognition (OCR), was expected to be improved by Wikisource's human proofreaders.[29][30][31] Wikisource has original works on the topic: National Archives and Records Administration Collection In 2011, the English Wikisource received many high-quality scans of documents from the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) as part of their efforts "to increase the accessibility and visibility of its holdings." Processing and upload to Commons of these documents, along with many images from the NARA collection, was facilitated by a NARA Wikimedian in residence, Dominic McDevitt-Parks. Many of these documents have been transcribed and proofread by the Wikisource community and are featured as links in the National Archives' own online catalog.[32] See also[edit] Internet Archive, non-profit digital library References[edit] ^ a b c Wikimedia's MediaWiki API:Sitematrix. Retrieved June 2021 from Data:Wikipedia statistics/meta.tab ^ a b c d e f g h Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works. No Starch Press. pp. 435–436. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. ^ "Transcribe | Citizen Archivist". Retrieved 4 October 2013. ^ a b c d Wikimedia's MediaWiki API:Siteinfo. Retrieved June 2021 from Data:Wikipedia statistics/data.tab ^ a b The Cunctator (2001-10-16). "Primary sources Pedia, or Project Sourceberg". Wikipedia. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ The Cunctator (2001-10-16). "Primary sources Pedia, or Project Sourceberg". Wikipedia. Retrieved 2012-03-24. ^ Sanger, Larry (2001-10-17). "Primary sources Pedia, or Project Sourceberg". Wikipedia. Retrieved 2012-03-24. ^ Wales, Jimmy (2001-10-17). "Primary sources Pedia, or Project Sourceberg". Wikipedia. Retrieved 2012-03-24. ^ Starling, Tim (2004-07-23). "Scriptorium". Wikisource. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ "Wikisource.org". Wikisource.org. 2005-08-27. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ a b Bernier, Alex; Burger, Dominique; Marmol, Bruno (2010). "Wiki, a New Way to Produce Accessible Documents". In Miesenberger, Klaus; Klaus, Joachim; Zagler, Wolfgang; Karshmer, Arthur (eds.). Computers Helping People with Special Needs. Springer. pp. 22–24. ISBN 978-3-642-14096-9. ^ Proofread Page extension at MediaWiki. Retrieved 2011-09-29. ^ ProofreadPage at Wikisource.org. Retrieved 2011-09-29. ^ "100K" discussion on Scriptorium. English Wikisource. 14 February 2008. Retrieved 2011-09-29. ^ "Mission statement". WikimediaFoundation.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 2011-07-08. ^ "Wikisource". Wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 2011-07-08. ^ "What is Wikisource? – What do we exclude?". Wikisource.org. Wikisource. Retrieved 2011-07-08. ^ a b c Boot, Peter (2009). Mesotext. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-90-8555-052-5. ^ Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5. ^ a b c Philips, Matthew (June 14, 2008). "God's Word, According to Wikipedia". Newsweek. ^ Server admin log for August 23, 2005; a fifteenth language (sr:) was created on August 25 (above). ^ See the Server admin log for September 11, 2005, at 01:20 and below (September 10) at 22:49. ^ "Server admin log for March 29". Wikitech.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ "Server admin log for June 2, 2006". Wikitech.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ "Wikisource Statistics". Meta.Wikimedia.org. Retrieved 11 September 2020. ^ For an automatic list of local main pages, see Category:Main Pages; for a formatted list, see the wikisource.org section of the Wikisource portal. ^ "Wikiversity.org". Wikiversity.org. Retrieved 2011-07-05. ^ Anderson, Jennifer Joline (2011). Wikipedia: The Company and Its Founders. ABDO. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-1-61714-812-5. ^ "La BNF prend un virage collaboratif avec Wikisource" [BNF takes a collaborative turn with Wikisource]. ITespresso (in French). NetMediaEurope. April 8, 2010. Retrieved 2011-09-29. ^ "Wikimédia France signe un partenariat avec la BnF" [Wikimedia France sign a partnership with the BnF]. Wikimédia France (in French). April 7, 2010. Archived from the original on September 29, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-29. ^ "French National Library to cooperate with Wikisource", Wikipedia Signpost. 2010-04-12. ^ McDevitt-Parks, Dominic; Waldman, Robin (July 25, 2011). "Wikimedia and the new collaborative digital archives". The Text Message. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2011-09-29. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wikisource. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wikisource Wikisource English Wikisource Wikisource:For Wikipedians Multilingual portal About Wikisource Danny Wool on Wikisource (Wikimedia Foundation article). 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en-wikipedia-org-9064	----	Michael IV the Paphlagonian - Wikipedia Michael IV the Paphlagonian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1034 to 1041 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Michael IV the Paphlagonian Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Histamenon from the reign of Michael IV. He wears crown and loros, holding labarum and globus cruciger. Byzantine emperor Reign 11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 Coronation 12 April 1034[1] Predecessor Romanos III Argyros Successor Michael V Co-regent Zoë Porphyrogenita Born c. 1010 Paphlagonia Died 10 December 1041(1041-12-10) (aged 30–31) Monastery of the Holy Anargyroi, Constantinople Burial Monastery of the Holy Anargyroi, Constantinople Spouse Zoë Porphyrogenita Dynasty Macedonian (by marriage) Michael IV the Paphlagonian (Greek: Μιχαὴλ (Δ´) ὁ Παφλαγών, Mikhaēl ho Paphlagōn; c. 1010 – 10 December 1041) was Byzantine Emperor from 11 April 1034 to his death on 10 December 1041. The son of a peasant, Michael worked as a money changer until he was found a job at court by his brother John the Orphanotrophos. He caught the eye of the empress Zoë Porphyrogenita and they began a tempestuous and flagrant affair. It is believed that they conspired to murder her husband, Emperor Romanos III Argyros, who died in 1034. Michael and Zoë were married the same day and Michael was crowned emperor the day after. Michael, handsome and energetic, suffered from poor health and entrusted most of the business of government to his brother. He distrusted Zoë and went to lengths to ensure that he did not suffer the same fate as his predecessor. The fortunes of the Empire under Michael's reign were mixed. His most triumphant moment came in 1041 when he led the imperial army against Bulgarian rebels. He returned from this victory, but died a few months later. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Reign 2.1 Domestic policies 2.2 Foreign and military affairs 2.3 Final illness and death 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources Early life and career[edit] Michael came from a family of Paphlagonian peasants. He worked in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, as a money changer but it was believed that he was also secretly a counterfeiter of coins. One of Michael's brothers, John the Orphanotrophos, also known as John the Eunuch, was the parakoimomenos, a senior courtier who presided over the women's quarters at the imperial palace. John obtained jobs for several of his younger brothers in the court.[2][3][1] Romanos Argyros became emperor of the Byzantine Empire as Romanos III in 1028.[4] "As a ruler he had no ability whatsoever".[5] He was unable to conceive a child with his wife Empress Zoë,[6] thus alienating the couple. Soon Romanos refused to share his bed with Zoë. He limited his wife's spending and paid her little attention. Zoë, furious and frustrated, engaged in a number of affairs. Romanos tolerated these and himself took a mistress. Zoë became enamoured of the handsome young Michael to the extent of flaunting him openly and speaking of making him emperor. Romanos confronted Michael, who denied the accusations, swearing his innocence on holy relics. His suspicions assuaged, Romanos allowed Michael to become his personal servant in 1033.[7][8] Murder of emperor Romanos III Argyros under the order of Michael IV the Paphlagonian, from the Constantine Manasses Chronicle The wedding of Michael and Zoë, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes Romanos became ill in early 1034 and it was widely believed that Zoë and Michael were conspiring to have him poisoned. On 11 April Romanos was found dying in his bath.[8] According to court official and later chronicler Michael Psellus, some of his retinue had "held his head for a long time beneath the water, attempting at the same time to strangle him".[9] John Scylitzes writes as a simple fact that Romanos was drowned on Michael's orders.[9] Matthew of Edessa's account has Zoë poisoning Romanos.[9] Zoë and Michael were married on the day that Romanos III died.[6] The next day the couple summoned the Patriarch Alexios I to officiate at the coronation of the new emperor.[10] Alexios refused to co-operate until the payment of 50 pounds of gold helped change his mind.[6] He crowned Michael as the new Emperor of the Romans as Michael IV.[11][12] Reign[edit] Domestic policies[edit] Michael IV was handsome, clever and generous but he was uneducated and suffered from epilepsy. He was initially reliant on others to direct the government in his name. Zoë mistakenly believed that Michael would prove a more devoted husband than Romanos; Michael was concerned that Zoë would turn on him the way she had turned on Romanos. Consequently, he excluded her from politics and confined her to the palace gynaeceum (women's quarters) where he had her watched. Michael's visits grew more and more infrequent. Given this background and his health, he left government in the hands of his brother John, who had already become an influential minister under Constantine VIII and Romanos III.[13][14] John's reforms of the army and financial system revived the strength of the Empire against its foreign enemies but increased taxes, which caused discontent among the nobility and the commons. John's monopoly of the government and the introduction of such taxes as the Aerikon led to several conspiracies against him and Michael.[1] Poor harvests and famine caused by bad weather and by a locust plague in 1035 exacerbated discontent. When Michael tried to exercise a measure of control over Aleppo, the local citizens drove off the imperial governor.[11][15] There were revolts at Antioch, Nicopolis and in Bulgaria.[16] In 1034 Michael ordered the arrest of Constantine Dalassenos on suspicion of treason, accused of fomenting insurrection at Antioch. In 1037 Zoë conspired to have John the Eunuch poisoned.[6] In 1038 Michael's brother, Constantine, suppressed an uprising of the armies in Anatolia. In 1040 a conspiracy involved the priest Michael Keroularios, who became a monk to save his life and was elected Patriarch of Constantinople under Michael's successor. During the Bulgarian uprising of 1040, John the Eunuch arrested suspected plotters in Anatolia and Constantinople who were hoping to take advantage of the turmoil but was unable to capture the Strategos (military governor) of Theodosiopolis, who joined the rebellion and attempted to capture Thessalonica.[17][18] Foreign and military affairs[edit] In military affairs, Michael's reign began badly. The Arabs sacked Myra, the Serbs threw off Byzantine authority and the Pechenegs raided almost at will up to the gates of Thessalonica. The situation was soon stabilised: on the eastern frontier, Arab pirates were either captured or killed; the Byzantines captured the Muslim fortress of Berkri, on the eastern shore of Lake Van; Edessa was relieved after a long siege and eventually ceded to the empire in 1037.[19][20] On the western front, Michael and John ordered the general George Maniakes to drive the Arabs out of Sicily. In 1038 Maniakes landed in southern Italy and soon captured Messina. He then defeated the scattered Arab forces and captured towns in the west and south of the island. By 1040 he had stormed and taken Syracuse. He almost succeeded in driving the Arabs from the island, but Maniakes then fell out with his Lombard allies, while his Norman mercenaries, unhappy with their pay, abandoned the Byzantine general and raised a revolt on the Italian mainland, resulting in the temporary loss of Bari. Maniakes was about to strike against them when he was recalled by John the Eunuch on suspicion of conspiracy.[17] After Maniakes's recall, most of the Sicilian conquests were lost and an expedition against the Normans suffered several defeats, although Bari was eventually recaptured.[21][22] In the north, Pecheneg pressure had initially forced the Serbs to seek the protection of the Byzantine Empire and acknowledge Byzantine authority. In 1040 the Serbs again revolted, as did the Bulgarians. This uprising was partly caused by the heavy taxation in coin (and not, as before, in kind) imposed on Bulgaria by John's policies. It also aimed at the restoration of the Bulgarian state under the leadership of Peter Delyan. The rebels seized Belgrade, proclaimed Delyan Emperor of Bulgaria and then quickly took Skopje. Michael IV made things worse by removing from command the doux of Dyrrhachium, who had been marching against Peter Delyan, accusing him of a conspiracy. His troops, largely Bulgarian, joined the revolt and Delyan laid siege to Thessalonica. Dyrrhachium had been lost and Delyan defeated the Strategos of Hellas. Most of the theme of Nicopolis had risen up against Michael, disgusted with the greed of John the Eunuch.[21][23][14] Michael IV and the Byzantine army in front of a Bulgarian barricade, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes. At this point, Michael's epilepsy left him half paralysed and he developed a severe case of dropsy, which caused his legs to become gangrenous. When he announced that he intended to lead the imperial army against the Bulgarians, his advisors were aghast. Michael set off towards Macedonia with an army of 40,000 men in 1041, assisted by Norse mercenaries, including the future King Harald III of Norway. Gathering his forces at Mosynopolis the Emperor waited for the Bulgarian army. The military position of the Byzantines was aided by internal dissension among the Bulgarians. Michael advanced, relieving Thessalonica then bringing the Bulgarians to battle, defeating them and capturing Delyan. Michael pushed his army aggressively into Bulgaria. The largest remaining Bulgarian contingent was at Prilep in a fortified camp commanded by Manuel Ivats. The Byzantines stormed the camp, scattered the Bulgarians and captured Ivats. The rigours of the campaign brought Michael close to death, but he was able to return to Constantinople in triumph.[24][15] Final illness and death[edit] Tonsure and death of Michael IV, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes Despite his triumphant campaign, it was now clear to all that Michael was dying. He sought heavenly aid by visiting the shrine of Saint Demetrius at Thessalonica and by building or rebuilding churches. In 1039 he gave monetary gifts to every monk and priest in the empire and also to any parents who made him a godfather to their children. John the Eunuch, eager to ensure that power remained in his hands, forced Zoë to adopt Michael's and his nephew, their sister's son, also named Michael. After taking Holy Orders, on 10 December 1041 Michael IV died, refusing to the last to see his wife, who begged that she be allowed to visit him one more time. His nephew was crowned emperor as Michael V.[25][26][21] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b c Kazhdan, pg. 1365 ^ Norwich, pg. 283 ^ Finlay, pg. 477 ^ Treadgold, pg. 584 ^ Ostrogorski, pg. 285 ^ a b c d Garland, Zoë Porphyrogenita ^ Norwich, pg. 275–76 ^ a b Kazhdan, pg. 2228 ^ a b c Norwich, pg. 278 ^ Norwich, pg. 279 ^ a b Treadgold, pg. 586 ^ Finlay, pg. 478 ^ Finlay, pg. 480 ^ a b Norwich, pg. 287 ^ a b Treadgold, pg. 587 ^ Finlay, pg. 481–82, 485 ^ a b Treadgold, pg. 588 ^ Finlay, pg. 485 ^ Treadgold, pg. 586–87 ^ Finlay, pg. 486 ^ a b c Treadgold, pg. 587–89 ^ Norwich, pg. 285–86 ^ Finlay, pg. 490–91 ^ Norwich, pg. 286, 289 ^ Norwich, pg. 289, 292 ^ Kazhdan, pg. 1365, 2228 Sources[edit] Primary Michael Psellus, Chronographia. Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8. OCLC 1030919407. Retrieved 3 June 2018. Secondary George, Finlay (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from 716–1057. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. OCLC 906577940. Retrieved 3 June 2018. Garland, Lynda, "Zoë Porphyrogenita (wife of Romanus III, Constantine IX, and Michael IV)", De Imperatoribus Romanis[permanent dead link] (2006) Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Norwich, John Julius (1993). Byzantium: The Apogee. II. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-011448-5. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 2221721. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Michael IV the Paphlagonian Macedonian dynasty Born: 1010 Died: 10 December 1041 Regnal titles Preceded by Romanos III Byzantine emperor 1034–1041 Succeeded by Michael V Kalaphates v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9101	----	Kingdom of Iberia - Wikipedia Kingdom of Iberia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Georgian kingdom of Kartli For other uses, see Kingdom of Iberia (disambiguation). Kingdom of Iberia ქართლის სამეფო kartlis samepo c. 302 BC–580 AD Flag of the kingdom after the Christianization of Iberia Colchis and Iberia Status Vassal of the Seleucid Empire (302–159 BC), the Roman Republic (65–63 BC, 36–32 BC), the Roman Empire (1–117 AD), the Eastern Roman Empire (298–363 AD) Tributary state of Sassanid Persia (252–272 AD), vassal state of Sassanid Persia (363–482 AD, 502–523 AD) Direct Sassanid Persian rule (523–580 AD) Capital Armazi Mtskheta Tbilisi Common languages Old Georgian Government Monarchy Historical era Antiquity • Reign of Pharnavaz I c. 302 BC • Christianization of Iberia during reign of Mirian III 326 ? AD/337 ? AD • Direct Sasanian control and abolition of the monarchy. 580 AD Preceded by Succeeded by Achaemenid Empire Colchis Sasanian Iberia Today part of  Armenia  Azerbaijan  Georgia  Russia  Turkey  South Ossetia History of Georgia Prehistoric Georgia Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Legend of Kartlos Trialeti culture Colchian culture Diauehi Ancient history Colchis Kingdom of Iberia Pharnavazid dynasty Georgia in the Roman era Campaign of Pompey Iberian–Armenian War Lazica & Sasanian Iberia Chosroid dynasty Christianization of Iberia Middle Ages Iberian & Lazic Wars Principality of Iberia Arab rule in Georgia & Emirate of Tbilisi Bagrationi dynasty Kingdom of the Iberians Kingdom of Abkhazia First Kingdom of Kakheti & Hereti Theme of Iberia Duchy of Kldekari Kingdom of Georgia Georgian Golden Age Armenia within the Kingdom of Georgia Byzantine & Seljuk Wars Mongol / Timur & Turkmen invasions Triarchy and collapse of the Kingdom of Georgia Early modern history Samtskhe-Saatabago Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Imereti Principalities of Guria / Svaneti / Mingrelia & Abkhazia Safavid Georgia Childir Eyalet Trebizond Eyalet Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti Modern history Georgia within the Russian Empire Lazistan Sanjak Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Democratic Republic of Georgia Red Army invasion of Georgia & Soviet Georgia Georgia since 1991 & Russo-Georgian War History by topic Etymology Monarchs States Tbilisi Military history Wars & Battles Chronology History of Georgia v t e In Greco-Roman geography, Iberia (Ancient Greek: Ἰβηρία Iberia; Latin: Hiberia) was an exonym (foreign name) for the Georgian kingdom of Kartli (Georgian: ქართლი), known after its core province, which during Classical Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages was a significant monarchy in the Caucasus, either as an independent state or as a dependent of larger empires, notably the Sassanid and Roman empires.[1] Iberia, centered on present-day Eastern Georgia, was bordered by Colchis in the west, Caucasian Albania in the east and Armenia in the south. Its population, the Iberians, formed the nucleus of the Kartvelians (i.e. Georgians). Iberia, ruled by the Pharnavazid, Artaxiad, Arsacid and Chosroid royal dynasties, together with Colchis to its west, would form the nucleus of the unified medieval Kingdom of Georgia under the Bagrationi dynasty.[2][3] In the 4th century, after the Christianization of Iberia by Saint Nino during the reign of King Mirian III, Christianity was made the state religion of the kingdom. Starting in the early 6th century AD, the kingdom's position as a Sassanian vassal state was changed into direct Persian rule. In 580, king Hormizd IV (578-590) abolished the monarchy after the death of King Bakur III, and Iberia became a Persian province ruled by a marzpan (governor). The term "Caucasian Iberia" is also used to distinguish it from the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe.[4] Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Pharnavaz I and his descendants 2.3 Roman period and Roman/Parthian rivalry 2.4 Between Rome/Byzantium and Persia 2.5 Adoption of Orthodoxy and Sassanid Persian period 2.6 Fall of the kingdom 2.7 Arab period and restoration of the kingship 3 Eastern and Western Iberians 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading Name[edit] Further information: Name of Georgia (country) The provenance of the name "Iberia" is unclear. One theory on the etymology of the name Iberia, proposed by Giorgi Melikishvili, was that it was derived from the contemporary Armenian designation for Georgia, Virkʿ (Armenian: Վիրք, and Ivirkʿ [Իվիրք] and Iverkʿ [Իվերք]), which itself was connected to the word Sver (or Svir), the Kartvelian designation for Georgians.[5] The letter "s" in this instance served as a prefix for the root word "Ver" (or "Vir"). Accordingly, in following Ivane Javakhishvili's theory, the ethnic designation of "Sber", a variant of Sver, was derived from the word "Hber" ("Hver") (and thus Iberia) and the Armenian variants, Veria and Viria.[5] According to another theory, it is derived from a Colchian word, "Imer", meaning "country on the other side of the mountain", that is of the Likhi Range, which divided Colchis and Iberia from each other; this is also the origin of the modern name Imereti.[6] History[edit] Early history[edit] Map of Iberia and Colchis by Christoph Cellarius printed in Leipzig in 1706 In earliest times, the area of Caucasian Iberia was inhabited by several related tribes stemming from the Kura-Araxes culture, collectively called Iberians (or Eastern Iberians) in Greco-Roman ethnography. The Moschi, mentioned by various classic historians, and their possible descendants, the Saspers (who were mentioned by Herodotus), may have played a crucial role in the consolidation of the tribes inhabiting the area. The Moschi had moved slowly to the northeast forming settlements as they traveled. One of these was Mtskheta, the future capital of the Kingdom of Iberia. The Mtskheta tribe was later ruled by a prince locally known as mamasakhlisi (“father of the household” in Georgian). The written sources for the early periods of Iberia's history are mostly medieval Georgian chronicles, that modern scholarship interpret as a semi-legendary narrative.[7] One such chronicle, Moktsevay Kartlisay (“Conversion of Kartli”) mentions that a ruler named Azo and his people came from Arian-Kartli – the initial home of the proto-Iberians, which had been under Achaemenid rule until the fall of the Persian Empire – and settled on the site where Mtskheta was to be founded. Another Georgian chronicle, Kartlis Tskhovreba (“History of Kartli”) claims Azo to be an officer of Alexander’s, who massacred a local ruling family and conquered the area, until being defeated at the end of the 4th century BC by Prince Pharnavaz, at that time a local chief. The story of Alexander's invasion of Kartli, although legendary, nevertheless reflects the establishment of Georgian monarchy in the Hellenistic period and the desire of later Georgian literati to connect this event to the celebrated conqueror.[8] Pharnavaz I and his descendants[edit] Pharnavaz, victorious in a power struggle, became the first king of Iberia (c. 302 – c. 237 BC). According to the later Georgian chronicles, after driving back an invasion, he subjugated the neighboring areas, including a significant part of the western Georgian state of Colchis (locally known as Egrisi), and seems to have secured recognition of the newly founded state by the Seleucids of Syria. Pharnavaz is also said to have built a major citadel, the Armaztsikhe, and a temple to the god Armazi, and to have created a new system of administration, subdividing the country into several counties called saeristavos. His successors controlled the mountain passes of the Caucasus, with the Daryal (also known as the Iberian Gates) being the most important of them. Main article: Pharnavazid dynasty The period following this time of prosperity was one of incessant warfare as Iberia was forced to defend against numerous invasions into its territories. Some southern parts of Iberia, that were conquered from the Kingdom of Armenia, in the 2nd century BC were reunited to Armenia and the Colchian lands seceded to form separate princedoms (sceptuchoi). At the end of the 2nd century BC, the Pharnavazid king Pharnajom was dethroned by his own subjects and the crown given to the Armenian prince Artaxias who ascended the Iberian throne in 93 BC, establishing the Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia. Roman period and Roman/Parthian rivalry[edit] Main articles: Roman Georgia and Caucasian campaign of Pompey See also: Roman-Parthian Wars Iberia during the Roman Empire. This close association with Armenia and Pontus brought upon the country an invasion (65 BC) by the Roman general Pompey, who was then at war with Mithradates VI of Pontus, and Armenia; but Rome did not establish her power permanently over Iberia. Nineteen years later, the Romans again marched (36 BC) on Iberia forcing King Pharnavaz II to join their campaign against Albania. While another Georgian kingdom of Colchis was administered as a Roman province, Iberia freely accepted the Roman Imperial protection. A stone inscription discovered at Mtskheta speaks of the 1st-century ruler Mihdrat I (AD 58–106) as "the friend of the Caesars" and the king "of the Roman-loving Iberians." Emperor Vespasian fortified the ancient Mtskheta site of Arzami for the Iberian kings in AD 75. The next two centuries saw a continuation of Roman influence over the area, but by the reign of King Pharsman II (116–132) Iberia had regained some of its former power. Relations between the Roman Emperor Hadrian and Pharsman II were strained, though Hadrian is said to have sought to appease Pharsman. However, it was only under Hadrian's successor Antoninus Pius that relations improved to the extent that Pharsman is said to have even visited Rome, where Dio Cassius reports that a statue was erected in his honor and that rights to sacrifice were given. The period brought a major change to the political status of Iberia with Rome recognizing them as an ally, rather than their former status as a subject state, a political situation which remained the same, even during the Empire's hostilities with the Parthians. From the first centuries of the Christian era, the cult of Mithras and Zoroastrianism were commonly practiced in Iberia. Excavation of rich burials in Bori, Armazi, and Zguderi has produced silver drinking cups with the impression of a horse either standing at a fire-altar or with its right foreleg raised above the altar.[9] The cult of Mithras, distinguished by its syncretic character and thus complementary to local cults within Georgian mythology, especially the cult of the Sun, gradually came to merge with ancient Georgian beliefs. It is even thought that Mithras must have been the precursor of St. George in pagan Georgia.[10] Step by step, Iranian beliefs and ways of life penetrated deeply the practices of the Iberian court and elite: the Armazian script and “language,” which is based on Aramaic (see Tsereteli), was adopted officially (a number of inscriptions in Aramaic of the Classical/Hellenistic periods are known from Colchis as well,;[11] the court was organized on Iranian models, the elite dress was influenced by Iranian costume, the Iberian elite adopted Iranian personal names,[12] and the official cult of Armazi (q.v.) was introduced by King Pharnavaz in the 3rd century BC (connected by the medieval Georgian chronicle to Zoroastrianism)[13] Between Rome/Byzantium and Persia[edit] Decisive for the future history of Iberia was the foundation of the Sasanian (or Sassanid) Empire in 224 by Ardashir I.[14][15] By replacing the weak Parthian realm with a strong, centralized state, it changed the political orientation of Iberia away from Rome. Iberia became a tributary of the Sasanian state during the reign of Shapur I (241–272). Relations between the two countries seem to have been friendly at first, as Iberia cooperated in Persian campaigns against Rome, and the Iberian king Amazasp III (260–265) was listed as a high dignitary of the Sasanian realm, not a vassal who had been subdued by force of arms. But the aggressive tendencies of the Sasanians were evident in their propagation of Zoroastrianism, which was probably established in Iberia between the 260s and 290s. However, in the Peace of Nisibis (298) while the Roman empire obtained control of Caucasian Iberia again as a vassal state and acknowledged the reign over all the Caucasian area, it recognized Mirian III, the first of the Chosroid dynasty, as king of Iberia. Adoption of Orthodoxy and Sassanid Persian period[edit] See also: Sasanian Iberia Roman predominance proved crucial in religious matters, since King Mirian III and leading nobles converted to Eastern Orthodoxy around 317 and declared Orthodoxy as state religion. The event is related with the mission of a Cappadocian woman, Saint Nino, who since 303 had preached Orthodoxy in the Georgian kingdom of Iberia (Eastern Georgia). The religion would become a strong tie between Georgia and Rome (later Byzantium) and have a large scale impact on the state's culture and society. Iranian elements in ancient Georgian art and archeology gradually started to cease gradually as well since the adoptation of Eastern Orthodoxy in the same century.[16] However, after the emperor Julian was slain during his failed campaign in Persia in 363, Rome ceded control of Iberia to Persia, and King Varaz-Bakur I (Asphagur) (363–365) became a Persian vassal, an outcome confirmed by the Peace of Acilisene in 387.[17] However, a later ruler of Kartli, Pharsman IV (406–409), preserved his country's autonomy and ceased to pay tribute to Persia.[17] Persia prevailed, and Sassanian kings began to appoint a viceroy (pitiaxae/bidaxae) to keep watch on their vassal.[17] They eventually made the office hereditary in the ruling house of Lower Kartli, thus inaugurating the Kartli pitiaxate, which brought an extensive territory under its control.[17] Although it remained a part of the kingdom of Kartli, its viceroys turned their domain into a center of Persian influence.[17] Sasanian rulers put the Christianity of the Georgians to a severe test. They promoted the teachings of Zoroaster, and by the middle of the 5th century Zoroastrianism had become a second official religion in eastern Georgia alongside Eastern Orthodoxy.[18] The early reign of the Iberian king Vakhtang I dubbed Gorgasali (447–502) was marked by the relative revival of the kingdom. Formally a vassal of the Persians, he secured the northern borders by subjugating the Caucasian mountaineers, and brought the adjacent western and southern Georgian lands under his control. He established an autocephalic patriarchate at Mtskheta, and made Tbilisi his capital. In 482 he led a general uprising against Persia and started a desperate war for independence that lasted for twenty years. He could not get Byzantine support and was eventually defeated, dying in battle in 502. Fall of the kingdom[edit] See also: Principality of Iberia The continuing rivalry between Byzantium and Sasanian Persia for supremacy in the Caucasus, and the next unsuccessful insurrection (523) of the Georgians under Gurgen had severe consequences for the country. Thereafter, the king of Iberia had only nominal power, while the country was effectively ruled by the Persians. In 580, Hormizd IV (578–590) abolished the monarchy after the death of King Bakur III, and Iberia became a Persian province ruled by a marzpan (governor). Georgian nobles urged the Byzantine emperor Maurice to revive the kingdom of Iberia in 582, but in 591 Byzantium and Persia agreed to divide Iberia between them, with Tbilisi to be in Persian hands and Mtskheta to be under Byzantine control. At the beginning of the 7th century the truce between Byzantium and Persia collapsed. The Iberian Prince Stephanoz I (c. 590 – 627), decided in 607 to join forces with Persia in order to reunite all the territories of Iberia, a goal he seems to have accomplished. But Emperor Heraclius's offensive in 627 and 628 brought victory over the Georgians and Persians and ensured Byzantine predominance in western and eastern Georgia until the invasion of the Caucasus by the Arabs. Arab period and restoration of the kingship[edit] Main articles: Arab rule in Georgia and Bagratid Iberia The Arabs reached Iberia about 645 and forced its eristavi (prince), Stephanoz II (637 – c. 650), to abandon his allegiance to Byzantium and recognize the Caliph as his suzerain. Iberia thus became a tributary state and an Arab emir was installed in Tbilisi about 653. At the beginning of the 9th century, eristavi Ashot I (813–830) of the new Bagrationi dynasty, from his base in southwestern Georgia, took advantage of the weakening of the Arab rule to establish himself as hereditary prince (with the Byzantine title kouropalates) of Iberia. A successor, Adarnase IV of Iberia, formally a vassal of Byzantium, was crowned as the “king of Iberia” in 888. His descendant Bagrat III (r. 975–1014), brought the various principalities together to form a united Georgian monarchy. Eastern and Western Iberians[edit] The similarity of the name with the old inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula, the 'Western' Iberians, has led to an idea of ethnogenetical kinship between them and the people of Caucasian Iberia (called the 'Eastern' Iberians). It has been advocated by various ancient and medieval authors, although they differed in approach to the problem of the initial place of their origin. The theory seems to have been popular in medieval Georgia. The prominent Georgian religious writer George the Hagiorite (1009–1065) wrote about the wish of certain Georgian nobles to travel to the Iberian peninsula and visit the local Georgians of the West, as he called them. See also[edit] Georgian monarchs family tree of Iberia Colchis Roman Georgia Sasanian Iberia References[edit] ^ Ehsan Yarshater (1983). The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods. Cambridge University Press. pp. 520–. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9. Retrieved 18 September 2013. ^ Ronald Grigor Suny. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press, p. 13 ISBN 0-253-20915-3. ^ William Coffman McDermott, Wallace Everett Caldwell. Readings in the History of the Ancient World. p. 404. ^ Mikaberidze, p. 360 ^ a b (in Armenian) Yeremyan, Suren T. «Իբերիա» (Iberia). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. iv. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1978, p. 306. ^ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98#Georgian ^ Stephen H. Rapp. Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and Eurasian contexts, vol 601. Peeters Publishers, 2003. ISBN 90-429-1318-5, 9789042913189. P. 275. "While P’arnavaz may in fact be a fabrication, it is more feasible that over time the memory of the historical P’arnavaz accumulated a legendary facade." ^ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, pp. 141-142. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5. ^ Machabeli, pp. 37, 51–54, 65–66 ^ Makalatia, pp. 184–93 ^ Braund, pp. 126–27) ^ Braund, pp. 212–15 ^ Apakidze, pp. 397–401 ^ Spaeth 2013, p. 133. ^ Hitchins 2001, pp. 464–470. ^ "GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and archeology". Retrieved 1 January 2015. ^ a b c d e Alexander Mikaberidze. Historical Dictionary of Georgia Rowman & Littlefield, 6 feb. 2015 ISBN 978-1442241466 p 528 ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. ISBN 0253209153. Retrieved 2 January 2015. Sources[edit] Hitchins, Keith (2001). "GEORGIA ii. History of Iranian-Georgian Relations". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. X, Fasc. 4. pp. 464–470. Spaeth, Barbette Stanley (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521113960. Further reading[edit] Roger Rosen, Jeffrey Jay Foxx. Georgia: A sovereign country of the Caucasus Thomson, Robert W. Rewriting Caucasian History (1996) ISBN 0-19-826373-2 Braund, David. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-19-814473-3 Lang, David Marshall. The Georgians (London: Thames & Hudson, 1966) Toumanoff, Cyril. Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1963 Edward Gibbon, Volume II, Chapter XLII, discusses Iberia as one of the areas in the "Barbaric world" v t e Georgian states throughout history Antiquity Diauehi Colchis Iberia Lazica Early Middle Ages Principality of Iberia Kingdom of Abkhazia Bagratid Iberia Principalities of Tao & Klarjeti Kingdom of Hereti First Kingdom of Kakheti Emirate of Tbilisi High and Late Middle Ages Kingdom of Georgia Kingdom of Imereti Principality of Mingrelia Principality of Abkhazia Principality of Guria Principality of Svaneti Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Principality of Samtskhe Modern period Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti Republic of Guria Democratic Republic of Georgia Georgian SSR v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen * indicates short living provinces v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire v t e Georgia articles History Early Prehistoric Georgia Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Trialeti culture Colchian culture Diauehi Colchis Iberia Lazica Roman era Sasanian Iberia Christianization of Iberia Middle Principality of Iberia Bagrationi dynasty Arab rule Emirate of Tbilisi Kingdom of Abkhazia Bagratid Iberia Kingdom of Hereti First Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Georgia Byzantine wars Seljuk wars Battle of Didgori Golden Age Mongol invasions Timur's invasions Samtskhe atabegate Turkmen incursions Kingdom of Imereti Principality of Abkhazia Principality of Svaneti Principality of Guria Principality of Mingrelia Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Safavid Georgia Shah Abbas I's invasions Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti 1795 Persian Invasion Absorption by the Russian Empire Modern Democratic Republic of Georgia Armenian War Red Army invasion Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic April 9 tragedy Independent Georgia Civil War War in Abkhazia Rose Revolution Russo-Georgian War By topic Name of Georgia Monarchs States Military history Wars Battles Timeline of Georgian history more Geography Borders Birds Black Sea Climate Earthquakes Environmental issues Glaciers Greater Caucasus Lakes Lesser Caucasus Mammals National parks Protected areas Rivers Volcanoes more Subdivisions Administrative divisions Cities and towns Tbilisi Regions more Politics Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT Law enforcement Military Parliament Political parties President Prime Minister Economy Agriculture Central bank Companies Energy Lari (currency) Mining Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport more Culture Alphabet Architecture Art Chokha Cinema Cuisine Wine Dance Languages Georgian Laz Mingrelian Svan Media Music Mythology Names Public holidays Religion Sports World Heritage sites more Demographics Education Ethnic minorities Georgians List Diaspora Health care Women more Symbols Anthem Bolnisi cross Borjgali Coat of arms Flag Motto Saint George cross Saint Nino cross Outline Index Category Portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Iberia&oldid=1028394277" Categories: Kingdom of Iberia States and territories established in the 4th century BC 580 disestablishments Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Former countries in Europe Roman client kingdoms 302 establishments States and territories disestablished in the 6th century Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-910	----	Pax Romana - Wikipedia Pax Romana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Peaceful period in Roman history, 27 BC to 180 AD For other uses, see Pax Romana (disambiguation). Politics of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753–509 BC Roman Republic 509–27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 Principate 27 BC – AD 284 Dominate AD 284–641 Western AD 395–476 Eastern AD 395–1453 Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Executive magistrates Precedent and law Roman law Ius Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Corrector Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praeses Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Other countries v t e Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Yellow represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, while green represents gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas represent client states. AR Antoninianus of Gordian III, struck Antioch 243–244 AD with Pax Augusta on the reverse The Pax Romana (Latin for "Roman Peace") is a roughly 200-year-long timespan of Roman history which is identified as a period and golden age of increased as well as sustained Roman imperialism, order, prosperous stability, hegemonial power and expansion, despite a number of revolts, wars and continuing competition with Parthia. It is traditionally dated as commencing from the accession of Caesar Augustus, founder of the Roman principate, in 27 BC and concluding in 180 AD with the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the "Five Good Emperors".[1] Since it was inaugurated by Augustus with the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic, it is sometimes called the Pax Augusta. During this period of approximately two centuries,[2] the Roman Empire achieved its greatest territorial extent and its population reached a maximum of up to 70 million people.[3] According to Cassius Dio, the dictatorial reign of Commodus, later followed by the Year of the Five Emperors and the crisis of the third century, marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust".[4] Pax Romana can also be called truce of god, pax dei, universal peace, peace of god. Contents 1 Overview 2 Influence on trade 3 Analogous peaces 3.1 In fiction 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Overview[edit] Fresco of a relaxed seated woman from Stabiae, 1st century AD The Pax Romana is said to have been a "miracle" because prior to it there had never been peace for so many years in a given period of history. However, Walter Goffart wrote: "The volume of the Cambridge Ancient History for the years AD 70–192 is called 'The Imperial Peace', but peace is not what one finds in its pages".[5] Arthur M. Eckstein writes that the period must be seen in contrast to the much more frequent warfare in the Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Eckstein also notes that the incipient Pax Romana appeared during the Republic, and that its temporal span varied with geographical region as well: "Although the standard textbook dates for the Pax Romana, the famous “Roman Peace” in the Mediterranean, are 31 BC to AD 250, the fact is that the Roman Peace was emerging in large regions of the Mediterranean at a much earlier date: Sicily after 210 [BC], the Italian Peninsula after 200 [BC]; the Po Valley after 190 [BC]; most of the Iberian Peninsula after 133 [BC]; North Africa after 100 [BC]; and for ever longer stretches of time in the Greek East."[6] The first known record of the term Pax Romana appears in a writing by Seneca the Younger in AD 55.[7] The concept was highly influential, and the subject of theories and attempts to copy it in subsequent ages. Arnaldo Momigliano noted that "Pax Romana is a simple formula for propaganda, but a difficult subject for research."[8] In fact, the "Pax Romana" was broken by the Bellum Batonianum (described by Suetonius as the most serious Roman conflict since the Punic Wars) of 6-9, the First Jewish–Roman War, the Kitos War (also in Judea, 115–117), the Bar Kokhba Revolt (also known as the Third Jewish–Roman War), the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Trajan's Roman–Parthian War of 113, the Dacian Wars, various battles with Germanic tribes, including the Teutoburg Forest, and Boudica's war in Britain in AD 60 or 61.[citation needed] The Pax Romana began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC and became Roman emperor.[1][9][3] He became princeps, or first citizen. Lacking a good precedent of successful one-man rule, Augustus created a junta of the greatest military magnates and stood as the front man. By binding together these leading magnates in a coalition, he eliminated the prospect of civil war. The Pax Romana was not immediate, despite the end of the civil wars, because fighting continued in Hispania and in the Alps. Nevertheless, Augustus closed the Gates of Janus (a ceremony indicating that Rome was at peace) three times,[10] first in 29 BC and again in 25 BC. The third closure is undocumented, but Inez Scott Ryberg (1949) and Gaius Stern (2006) have persuasively dated the third closure to 13 BC with the commissioning of the Ara Pacis.[11][12][13] At the time of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 BC the Concept of Peace was publicized, and in 13 BC was proclaimed when Augustus and Agrippa jointly returned from pacifying the provinces. The order to construct the Ara Pacis was no doubt part of this announcement.[citation needed] Augustus faced a problem making peace an acceptable mode of life for the Romans, who had been at war with one power or another continuously for 200 years.[12] Romans regarded peace, not as an absence of war, but the rare situation which existed when all opponents had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist.[8] Augustus' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana.[12] After Augustus' death in AD 14, most of his successors as Roman emperors continued his politics. The last five emperors of the Pax Romana are known as the "Five Good Emperors".[3] Influence on trade[edit] Roman trade in the Mediterranean increased during the Pax Romana. Romans sailed East to acquire silks, gems, onyx and spices. Romans benefited from large profits and incomes in the Roman empire were raised due to trade in the Mediterranean.[14][15] As the Pax Romana of the western world by Rome was largely contemporaneous to the Pax Sinica of the eastern world by Han China,[16][17] long-distance travel and trade in Eurasian history was significantly stimulated during these eras.[17] Analogous peaces[edit] See also: List of periods of regional peace The prominence of the concept of the Pax Romana led to historians coining variants of the term to describe other systems of relative peace that have been established, attempted, or argued to have existed. Some variants include:[1] Pax Americana Pax Britannica Pax Europaea Pax Hispanica Pax Mongolica Pax Ottomana Pax Sinica Pax Khazarica Pax Syriana Pax Islamica Pax Sovietica Pax Mafiosa More generically, the concept has been referred to as pax imperia,[18][19] (sometimes spelled as pax imperium[20]) meaning imperial peace,[21][22] or—less literally—hegemonic peace.[22][23] Raymond Aron notes that imperial peace—peace achieved through hegemony—sometimes, but not always—can become civil peace. As an example, the German Empire's imperial peace of 1871 (over its internal components like Saxony) slowly evolved into the later German state. As a counter-example, the imperial peace of Alexander the Great's empire dissolved because the Greek city states maintained their political identity and more importantly, embryos of their own armed forces. Aron notes that during the Pax Romana, the Jewish war was a reminder that the overlapping of the imperial institutions over the local ones did not erase them and the overlap was a source of tension and flare-ups. Aron summarizes that, "In other words, imperial peace becomes civil peace insofar as the memory of the previously independent political units are effaced, insofar as individuals within a pacified zone feel themselves less united to the traditional or local community and more to the conquering state."[21] The concept of Pax Romana was highly influential, and attempts to imitate it occurred in the Byzantine Empire, and in the Christian West, where it morphed into the Peace and Truce of God (pax Dei and treuga Dei).[22] A theoretician of the imperial peace during the Middle Ages was Dante Aligheri. Dante's works on the topic were analyzed at the beginning of the 20th century by William Mitchell Ramsay in the book The Imperial Peace; An Ideal in European History (1913).[24][25] In fiction[edit] Isaac Asimov's fictional Galactic Empire and Foundation series refer to Pax Trantoria and Pax Imperium. Pax Soprana is the sixth episode of the HBO original series The Sopranos. In Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic, Reim's Peace is the Reim Empire's version of Pax Romana, established about 200 years prior to the series by Empress Scheherazade. Reim is a nation based on the Roman Empire. In the Street Fighter movie, antagonist M. Bison's ultimate goal is to unite the world "under the grip of Pax Bisonica". In Fallout: New Vegas Caesar aims to use his Roman-style army to create a new Pax Romana across the wasteland. First episode of season 4 of Gotham is known as "Pax Penguina". See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires: Pax Sinica Mos maiorum Imperialism Succession of the Roman Empire References[edit] ^ a b c "Pax Romana". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. ^ Head, Tom (2017-10-03). World History 101: From Ancient Mesopotamia and the Viking Conquests to NATO and WikiLeaks, an Essential Primer on World History. Simon and Schuster. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-5072-0454-2. ^ a b c "The Pax Romana". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved 2017-02-10. ^ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary ^ Walter Goffart (1989). Rome's Fall and After. Hambledon Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-85285-001-2. ^ Arthur M. Eckstein (2011) [2006]. "Conceptualizing Roman Imperial Expansion under the Republic: An Introduction". In Nathan Rosenstein; Robert Morstein-Marx (eds.). A Companion to the Roman Republic. John Wiley & Sons. p. 574. ISBN 978-1-4443-5720-2. ^ Ali Parchami (2009). Hegemonic Peace and Empire: The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2. ^ a b Momigliano, Arnaldo (1942). "The Peace of the Ara Pacis" (PDF). Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 5: 228–231. doi:10.2307/750454. JSTOR 750454. ^ Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shaped History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-5760-7075-8. ^ Augustus states in Res Gestae 13 that he closed the Gates three times, a fact documented by many other historians (See Gates of Janus). ^ Scott Ryberg, Inez (1949). "The Procession of the Ara Pacis". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 19: 77, 79–101. doi:10.2307/4238621. JSTOR 4238621. ^ a b c Stern, Gaius (2010) [2006]. Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus' vision of a new world order in 13 BCE. ISBN 978-0-549-83411-3. ^ Sir Ronald Syme had suggested a later date (but Rome was then at war). ^ Temin, Peter (2013). The Roman market economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 13. ISBN 9780691147680. OCLC 784708336. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2016). Pax Romana : war, peace, and conquest in the Roman world. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 392. ISBN 9780300178821. OCLC 941874968. ^ Plott, John C. (1989). Global History of Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 57. ISBN 9788120804562. ^ a b Krech III, Shepard; Merchant, Carolyn; McNeill, John Robert, eds. (2004). Encyclopedia of World Environmental History. 3: O–Z, Index. Routledge. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-0-415-93735-1. ^ Tatah Mentan (2010). The State in Africa: An Analysis of Impacts of Historical Trajectories of Global Capitalist Expansion and Domination in the Continent. African Books Collective. p. 153. ISBN 978-9956-616-12-1. ^ Hyo-Dong Lee (2013). Spirit, Qi, and the Multitude: A Comparative Theology for the Democracy of Creation. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8232-5501-6. ^ Stephen Ross (2004). Conrad and Empire. University of Missouri Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8262-1518-5. ^ a b Raymond Aron (2003). Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations. Transaction Publishers. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-0-7658-0504-1. ^ a b c David Gress (1985). Peace and Survival: West Germany, The Peace Movement & European Security. Hoover Press. pp. 96–99. ISBN 978-0-8179-8093-1. ^ Ali Parchami (2009). Hegemonic Peace and Empire: The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-134-00704-2. ^ James Brown Scott (2002) [1939]. Law, the State, and the International Community. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-1-58477-178-4. ^ The imperial peace; an ideal in European history. Internet Archive. Oxford, The Clarendon Press. 1913. Further reading[edit] Burton, Paul. 2011. "Pax Romana/Pax Americana: Perceptions of Rome in American Political Culture, 2000–2010." International Journal of Classical Tradition 18.1:66–104. Cornwell, Hannah. 2017. Pax and the Politics of Peace: Republic to Principate. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Galinsky, Karl. 2012. Augustus: Introduction to the Life of an Emperor. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Goldsworthy, Adrian. 2016. Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hardwick, Lorna. 2000. “Concepts of Peace.” In Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire, Edited by Janet Huskinson, 335–368. London: Routledge. Lopez, Gennaro. 2002. “Pax Romana/Pax Augusta.” Invigilata Lucernis 24: 97–110. Stern, Gaius. 2015. “The New Cult of Pax Augusta 13 BC–AD 14.” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 55.1–4: 1–16. Yannakopulos, Nikos. 2003. “Preserving the Pax Romana: The Peace Functionaries in Roman East.” Mediterraneo Antico 6.2: 825–905. 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en-wikipedia-org-9115	----	Theodosius II - Wikipedia Theodosius II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 402 to 450 For other uses, see Theodosius II (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Theodosius II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Theodosius II Bust of Theodosius II in the Louvre Roman emperor of the East Reign 10 January 402 – 28 July 450 Predecessor Arcadius (ruled until 1 May 408) Successor Marcian Western emperors Honorius (402–423) Joannes (423–425) Valentinian III (425–450) Born 10 April 401 Died 28 July 450 (aged 49) Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Aelia Eudocia Issue Licinia Eudoxia Flaccilla Arcadius (possibly) Names Flavius Theodosius Dynasty Theodosian Father Arcadius Mother Aelia Eudoxia Religion Nicene Christianity Saint Theodosius II Emperor of the Roman Empire Venerated in Eastern Orthodox Church Feast 29 July Theodosius II (Greek: Θεοδόσιος, Theodósios; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450), commonly called Theodosius the Younger,[1] was Roman emperor for most of his life, proclaimed Augustus as an infant in 402 and ruling as the eastern Empire's sole emperor after the death of his father Arcadius in 408. His reign was marked by the promulgation of the Theodosian law code and the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople. He also presided over the outbreak of two great Christological controversies, Nestorianism and Eutychianism. Contents 1 Early life 2 Emperor 2.1 Early reign 2.2 University and Law Code 2.3 Wars with the Huns, Vandals, and Persians 2.4 Theological disputes 3 Death 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Sources 6 External links Early life[edit] Solidus of Theodosius II, 439-450 Theodosius was born in 401 as the only son of Emperor Arcadius and his wife Aelia Eudoxia. On 10 January 402 he was proclaimed co-Augustus by his father, thus becoming the youngest person ever to bear this title in Roman history.[2][3] In 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire. Emperor[edit] Early reign[edit] The government was at first administered by the praetorian prefect Anthemius, under whose supervision the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople were constructed. According to Theophanes the Confessor and Procopius, the Sasanian king Yazdegerd I (399-420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia.[4] Though this story is assumed to be inconclusive, Antiochus, a eunuch of Persian origin, became a tutor and an influence on Theodosius. He also became praepositus sacri cubiculi later but Theodosius dismissed him when he reached his adulthood. In 414, Theodosius' older sister Pulcheria vowed perpetual virginity along with her sisters. She was proclaimed augusta, and acted as a guardian of her brother. The guardianship ended when he reached his majority, but it is assumed that his sister continued to exert an influence on him until his marriage. In June 421, Theodosius married Aelia Eudocia, a woman of Athenian origin.[5][6][7][8][9] The two had a daughter named Licinia Eudoxia, another named Flaccilla, and possibly a son called Arcadius. A separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple around 443, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favoured monastic Monophysitism. In 423, the Western Emperor Honorius, Theodosius' uncle, died and the primicerius notariorum Joannes was proclaimed emperor. Honorius' sister Galla Placidia and her young son Valentinian, who had earlier fled to Constantinople to escape Honorius' hostility, sought Eastern assistance to claim the throne for Valentinian, and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as emperor of the West with the assistance of the magister officiorum Helion, with his mother taking an influential role. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the empire, Theodosius' daughter Licinia Eudoxia was betrothed to Valentinian. She married Valentinian III later on 29 October 437, and became empress of the western portion of the empire. Theodosius is often seen by both ancient and modern historians as being constantly pushed around by his sister, wife, and eunuchs, particularly Chrysaphius among them.[10] In the later decades of his life, Chrysaphius rose to prominence as one of the emperor's favorites. He favored the pro-Monophysite policy, influenced the foreign policy towards the Huns, and was resented by Pulcheria, general Zeno, and ancient writers.[11] According to Theodorus Lector, Theodosius was so unmindful of his surroundings that he accidentally signed his sister's note selling his wife, Eudocia, into slavery. However, some scholars argue that contrary to hostile ancient sources, Theodosius was more in control of his government.[12] Others view that the government was controlled mostly by civilian officials, and not by a particular individual.[13] Among ancient and medieval writers, Monophysites had a favorable opinion of Theodosius.[14] University and Law Code[edit] In 425, Theodosius founded the University of Constantinople with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric. In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign of Constantine I, and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of a second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as the Codex Theodosianus in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of Emperor Justinian I, the Corpus Juris Civilis, in the following century. Wars with the Huns, Vandals, and Persians[edit] The situation between the Romans and the Sassanids deteriorated in 420 due to the Persian persecution of Christians, and the Eastern empire declared war against the Sassanids (421–422); the war ended in an indecisive stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menaced Constantinople.[15][16] Peace was arranged in 422 without changes to the status quo. The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful. The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by the Huns. Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcome Uldin's invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 433 with the rise of Attila and Bleda to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds. Theodosius became engaged with the affairs of the West after installing Valentinian III as his Western counterpart. When Roman Africa fell to the Vandals in 439, both Eastern and Western Emperors sent forces to Sicily, intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage, but this project failed. Seeing the borders without significant forces, the Huns and Sassanid Persia both attacked and the expeditionary force had to be recalled. During 443 two Roman armies were defeated and destroyed by the Huns. Anatolius negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) of gold.[17] In 447 the Huns went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city of Serdica (Sofia) and reaching Athyra (Büyükçekmece) on the outskirts of Constantinople. In 449, an Eastern Roman attempt to assassinate Attila failed, however the relations between the two did not deteriorate further. Theological disputes[edit] Theodosius welcomes the relics of John Chrysostom. Miniature from the early 11th century. Theodosius frequently attempted to resolve doctrinal controversies regarding the nature of Christ. During a visit to Syria, Theodosius met the monk Nestorius, who was a renowned preacher. He appointed Nestorius archbishop of Constantinople in 428. Nestorius quickly became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology. Nestorius tried to find a middle ground between those who, emphasizing the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man, insisted on calling the Virgin Mary Theotokos ("birth-giver of God"), and those who rejected that title because God, as an eternal being, could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title Christotokos ("birth-giver of Christ") as a compromise, but it did not find acceptance with either faction. He was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in "two Christs", a heresy later called Nestorianism. Though initially supported by the emperor, Nestorius was strongly opposed by Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria and eventually lost Theodosius' support. At the request of Nestorius, who sought to vindicate himself from Cyril's charge of heresy, the emperor called a council, which convened in Ephesus in 431. Each of the Cyrillian and Nestorian factions held their own councils in opposition to each other. Theodosius eventually favored Cyril. The council affirmed the title Theotokos and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt. Almost twenty years later, the theological dispute broke out again, this time caused by the Constantinopolitan abbot Eutyches, who asserted the Monophysite view that Christ's divine and human nature were one. Eutyches was condemned by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople but found a powerful friend in Cyril's successor Dioscurus of Alexandria. Another council was convoked in Ephesus in 449, later maligned as a "robber synod" by Pope Leo I because its outcome was opposed by the Chalcedonians. This council restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian, who was mistreated and died shortly afterwards. Leo of Rome and many other bishops protested against the outcome, but the emperor supported it. Only after his death in 450 would the decisions be reversed at the Council of Chalcedon. Death[edit] Coin of Theodosius II, found in the excavation of a monastery in Ajanta Caves, India. Theodosius died on 28 July 450 as the result of a riding accident. His sister Pulcheria married Marcian, a domesticus under the influential general Aspar, thereby making him Emperor. The eunuch Chrysaphius was executed shortly after by the new imperial couple. Like Constantine I and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII in the De Ceremoniis.[18] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Monarchy portal Biography portal Flavia (gens) List of Byzantine emperors Theodosian dynasty References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Alexander A. Vasiliev (1980). History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453, Vol. I. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 66. ^ PLRE 2, p. 1100 ^ "Theodosius II". Romanempire. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. ^ Alireza Shapour Shahbazi, "Byzantine-Iranian relations", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 15 December 1990. ^ Duncan, Alistair (1974). The noble heritage: Jerusalem and Christianity, a portrait of the Church of the Resurrection. Longman. p. 28. ISBN 0-582-78039-X. In 438 the Empress Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II, visited Jerusalem. On her return to Constantinople, after donating towards the building of new churches, she was displaced in court circles by her sister-in-law because of her Greek origin. Only one part of her churches remains. ^ Morgan, Robin (1996). Sisterhood is global: the international women's movement anthology. Feminist Press. p. 270. ISBN 1-55861-160-6. Greek women also were visible during the Byzantine period. In 421, Emperor Theodosius II married a pagan Athenian woman, Athenais; after baptism she became Eudocia. ^ Mahler, Helen A. (1952). Empress of Byzantium. Coward-McCann. p. 106. OCLC 331435. Athenais, daughter of the Athenian scholar, Leontius. Before the wedding she would receive in holy baptism the name of his mother, the exalted Empress Eudoxia but because of Athenais' Greek origin the name would be pronounced Eudocia. ^ Cheetham, Nicolas (1981). Mediaeval Greece. Yale University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-300-10539-8. Immensely proud of her Hellenic ancestry and culture, Eudocia dominated her… ^ Cuming, G. J.; Baker, Derek; Ecclesiastical History Society (1972). Popular belief and practice: Volume 8 of Studies in church history. CUP Archive. p. 13. ISBN 0-521-08220-X. Eudocia herself, the daughter of a pagan Athenian philosopher, embraced the new faith in a mood of total acceptance. Very conscious of her Hellenic heritage, as her famous address to the citizens of Antioch showed, ^ Kelly, "Chapter 1 Rethinking Theodosius," in Kelly (ed.) Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity pp. 2-6 ^ Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 97-98 ^ Elton, H, "Imperial politics at the court of Theodosius II," in Cain (ed), The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity: The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2009), 133–142 ^ Harries, J (2013) "Chapter 2 Men Without Women: Theodosius' Consistory and the Business of Government," in Kelly (ed.) Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity pp. 67–89 ^ Watts, E (2013) "Chapter 11 Theodosius II and his legacy in anti-Chalcedonian communal memory," in Kelly (ed.) Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity pp. 269-283 ^ Warren T. Treadgold, A history of the Byzantine state and society, Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8047-2630-2, p. 90. ^ G. Greatrex, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363-630: A Narrative Sourcebook, Routledge, 2002, p.36 ^ Bury, J.B., History of the Later Roman Empire vol. 1, Dover, New York, 1958, p. 271f ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1, 3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. Sources[edit] Kelly, Christopher (2013). Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Miller, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II. Berkeley: University of California Press. Elton, Hugh (2009). "Imperial politics at the court of Theodosius II," in Andrew Cain (ed), The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity: The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2009), 133–142. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. S. Crogiez-Pétrequin, P. Jaillette, J.-M. Poinsotte (eds.), Codex Theodosianus V. Texte latin d'après l'édition de Mommsen. Traduction, introduction et notes, Brepols Publishers, 2009, ISBN 978-2-503-51722-3 Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople (London: Routledge, 1994) has a significant section about Theodosius II and his sister Pulcheria. Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). "Theodosius (emperors)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.   Stokes, George Thomas (1911). "Theodosius II., emperor" . In Wace, Henry; Piercy, William C. (eds.). Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century (3rd ed.). London: John Murray. "Theodosius II" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 2051. ISBN 0195046528 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theodosius II. Reign of Theodosius II (chapter of J. B. Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire) Theodosian Code: Sections concerning religious observances (English) George Long, "Codex Theodosianus" Nathan, Geoffrey, "Theodosius II (408–450 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Theodosius II relating to Christianity. Theodosius II Theodosian dynasty Born: April 401 Died: 28 July 450 Regnal titles Preceded by Arcadius Eastern Roman emperor 408–450 Succeeded by Marcian Political offices Preceded by Arcadius Augustus V Honorius Augustus V Roman consul 403 with Rumoridus Succeeded by Honorius Augustus VI Aristaenetus Preceded by Arcadius Augustus VI Anicius Petronius Probus Roman consul II 407 with Honorius Augustus VII Succeeded by Anicius Auchenius Bassus Philippus Preceded by Anicius Auchenius Bassus Roman consul III 409 with Honorius Augustus VIII Constantine Augustus Succeeded by Varanes Tertullus Preceded by Varanes Tertullus Roman consul IV–V 411–412 with Honorius Augustus IX (412) Succeeded by Lucius Heraclianus Preceded by Constantius Constans Roman consul VI–VII 415–416 with Honorius Augustus X Junius Quartus Palladius Succeeded by Honorius Augustus XI Flavius Constantius II Preceded by Honorius Augustus XI Flavius Constantius II Roman consul VIII 418 with Honorius Augustus XII Succeeded by Monaxius Plinta Preceded by Monaxius Plinta Roman consul IX 420 with Constantius III Succeeded by Eustathius Agricola Preceded by Eustathius Agricola Roman consul X 422 with Honorius Augustus XIII Succeeded by Asclepiodotus Avitus Marinianus Preceded by Castinus Victor Roman consul XI 425 with Valentinian Caesar Iohannes Augustus (only in Rome) Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus XII Valentinian Augustus II Preceded by Theodosius Augustus XI Valentinian Caesar Roman consul XII 426 with Valentinian Augustus II Succeeded by Hierius Ardabur Preceded by Florentius Dionysius Roman consul XIII 430 with Valentinian Augustus III Succeeded by Anicius Auchenius Bassus Antiochus Preceded by Aetius Valerius Roman consul XIV 433 with Petronius Maximus Succeeded by Aspar Areobindus Preceded by Aspar Areobindus Roman consul XV 435 with Valentinian Augustus IV Succeeded by Anthemius Isidorus Flavius Senator Preceded by Aetius II Sigisvultus Roman consul XVI 438 with Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus XVII Festus Preceded by Theodosius Augustus XVI Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus Roman consul 439 with Festus Succeeded by Valentinian Augustus V Anatolius Preceded by Petronius Maximus II Paterius Roman consul XVII 444 with Caecina Decius Aginatius Albinus Succeeded by Valentinian Augustus VI Nomus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Italy United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodosius_II&oldid=1027336608" Categories: Theodosius II Theodosian dynasty Flavii Imperial Roman consuls Deaths by horse-riding accident 401 births 450 deaths Ancient child rulers Ancient legislators 5th-century Christians 5th-century Roman emperors 5th-century Byzantine emperors Christian royal saints Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2021 Articles needing additional references from June 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DCBL with Wikisource reference Commons link is defined as the pagename Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 10:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-911	----	Category:Moral philosophers - Wikipedia Help Category:Moral philosophers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moral philosophers. See also: Category:Ethicists Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. A ► Action theorists‎ (30 P) M ► Moral realists‎ (13 P) V ► Virtue ethicists‎ (27 P) Pages in category "Moral philosophers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 505 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)* List of ethicists A Robert Merrihew Adams Theodor W. Adorno Hans Albert Samuel Alexander Sabina Alkire Anita L. Allen Henri-Frédéric Amiel Manuel Ancízar Elizabeth S. Anderson Francis Anderson (philosopher) Hannah Arendt Aristotle Vilhjálmur Árnason Richard Arneson Raymond Aron Robert Arp Nomy Arpaly Archibald Arthur Ronald Field Atkinson Robert Audi J. L. Austin Michael W. Austin Armen Avanessian Diego de Avendaño Averroes Avicenna A. J. Ayer Joxe Azurmendi B Francis Bacon Roger Bacon Annette Baier Kurt Baier Samuel Bailey James Black Baillie James Balfour (philosopher) Dirk Baltzly Renford Bambrough Marcia Baron Christian Barry Christine Battersby Jean Baudrillard Per Bauhn Zygmunt Bauman Simone de Beauvoir Lawrence C. Becker Hasna Begum Gustave Belot Seyla Benhabib Jeremy Bentham Sandrine Bergès Mark H. Bernstein Andrea Biglia Maine de Biran Simon Blackburn Maurice Blanchot George Blewett Lawrence Blum Chris Bobonich Hilary Bok Bernard Bolzano Daniel Bonevac Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Bartholomew Des Bosses Vernon Bourke F. H. Bradley William Lee Bradley Michael Brady (philosopher) R. B. Braithwaite Richard Brandt Michael Bratman Bob Brecher David O. Brink Dan W. Brock Emanuel Bronner Thom Brooks Kimberley Brownlee Martin Buber Gautama Buddha Judith Butler Peter Byrne (philosopher) C Julio Cabrera (philosopher) J. Baird Callicott Archibald Campbell (philosopher) Monique Canto-Sperber Gershom Carmichael Peter Carruthers (philosopher) Alan Carter (philosopher) Héctor-Neri Castañeda Sebastian Castellio Cornelius Castoriadis John Charvet Roderick Chisholm Noam Chomsky Emil Cioran J. Caleb Clanton John B. Cobb Hermann Cohen Martin Cohen (philosopher) Priscilla Cohn Clarisse Coignet Peter Comensoli Auguste Comte Marquis de Condorcet Confucius Frederick Copleston Christopher Cordner Crates of Thebes Roger Crisp David Crocker Garrett Cullity D Daniel O. Dahlstrom Jonathan Dancy Stephen Darwall Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek Jan Deckers David DeGrazia Gilles Deleuze Daniel Dennett Jacques Derrida René Descartes Ghislain Deslandes Monique Deveaux Philip K. Dick Susan Ann Dimock Diogenes Leonidas Donskis Hubert Dreyfus Émile Durkheim E Abraham Edel Jacques Ellul Epicurus Seyyed Hassan Eslami Ardakani Rudolf Christoph Eucken A. C. Ewing F Al-Farabi Catia Faria Joanne Faulkner Julie Favre Adam Ferguson José Ferrater Mora Ludwig Feuerbach Johann Gottlieb Fichte Susan Finsen John Martin Fischer Luciano Floridi Elizabeth Flower Philippa Foot David Fordyce Charles Fourier Harry Frankfurt Benjamin Franklin Nancy Fraser Alfred J. Freddoso R. Edward Freeman Raymond Frey Fabian Freyenhagen G David Gauthier Theodore George Bernard Gert Allan Gibbard Peter Glassen Alan H. Goldman Sacha Golob Thomas Gordon (philosopher) Roger S. Gottlieb L. Gordon Graham John Gray (philosopher) A. C. Grayling T. H. Green Patricia Greenspan John Grote Charles Guignon Esperanza Guisán David P. Gushee Jean-Marie Guyau H Jürgen Habermas Simon Hailwood Everett Hall Emil Hammacher Stuart Hampshire Craig Hanks John E. Hare R. M. Hare Elizabeth Harman (philosopher) Gilbert Harman Graham Harman Karsten Harries Sam Harris John Harsanyi Verity Harte Robert S. Hartman Charles Hartshorne Gary Hatfield Daniel M. Hausman Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Erich Heller Johann Friedrich Herbart Johann Gottfried Herder Ahmad Ali Heydari (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Moral_philosophers&oldid=1021599113" Categories: Philosophers by field Ethics Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية বাংলা Cymraeg Deutsch Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Íslenska עברית Македонски Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Română Scots کوردی Suomi Svenska Türkçe اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 May 2021, at 16:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9121	----	Information for "Marcus Aurelius" - Wikipedia Help Information for "Marcus Aurelius" Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents Basic information Page protection Edit history Page properties External tools Basic information Display title Marcus Aurelius Default sort key Marcus Aurelius Page length (in bytes) 135,756 Page ID 20155 Page content language en - English Page content model wikitext Indexing by robots Allowed Number of page watchers 741 Number of page watchers who visited recent edits 95 Number of redirects to this page 40 Counted as a content page Yes Page image Page views in the past 30 days 165,180 Wikidata item ID Q1430 Local description Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Central description Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Page protection Edit Allow all users (no expiry set) Move Allow all users (no expiry set) View the protection log for this page. Edit history Page creator Clasqm (talk | contribs) Date of page creation 22:32, 2 October 2001 Latest editor Favonian (talk | contribs) Date of latest edit 17:51, 6 June 2021 Total number of edits 5,623 Recent number of edits (within past 30 days) 15 Recent number of distinct authors 10 Page properties Hidden categories (54) This page is a member of 54 hidden categories (help) : Category:AC with 30 elements Category:All articles with dead external links Category:Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Category:Articles with Internet Archive links Category:Articles with LibriVox links Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2021 Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Category:Articles with hCards Category:Articles with permanently dead external links Category:Articles with short description Category:Good articles Category:Pages using Sister project 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Wikidata entities used in this page date of birth Label: en date of death Label: en Marcus Aurelius Sitelink Title Description: en Some statements Other (Statements) External tools Revision history search Revision history statistics Edits by user Page view statistics WikiChecker Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9133	----	Vitellius - Wikipedia Vitellius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in AD 69 Roman emperor Vitellius Denarius depicting Vitellius. The inscription reads a vitellivs german imp tr p. Roman emperor Reign 19 April – 20 December 69 Predecessor Otho Successor Vespasian Born 24 September 15[2] Rome, Italy, Roman Empire Died 20 December 69(69-12-20) (aged 54)[3] Rome, Italy, Roman Empire Spouse Petronia Galeria Fundana Issue Detail Aulus Vitellius Petronianus Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Vitellia Names Aulus Vitellius Regnal name Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus Father Lucius Vitellius Mother Sextilia Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Four Emperors Chronology Galba 68–69 Otho 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasian69–79 Succession Preceded by Julio-Claudian dynasty Followed by Flavian dynasty v t e Vitellius' denarius, minted in AD 69 during the Year of the Four Emperors. Obverse: A. VITTELIVS GERMANICVS IMP. Reverse: victory seated left holding patera and palm branch. Aulus Vitellius (/vɪˈtɛliəs/; Latin: [ˈau̯lʊs wɪˈtɛlːijʊs]; 24 September 15 – 20 December AD 69) was Roman emperor for eight months, from 19 April to 20 December AD 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Vitellius was the first to add the honorific cognomen Germanicus to his name instead of Caesar upon his accession. Like his direct predecessor, Otho, Vitellius attempted to rally public support to his cause by honoring and imitating Nero who remained widely popular in the empire. His claim to the throne was soon challenged by legions stationed in the eastern provinces, who proclaimed their commander Vespasian emperor instead. War ensued, leading to a crushing defeat for Vitellius at the Second Battle of Bedriacum in northern Italy. Once he realised his support was wavering, Vitellius prepared to abdicate in favor of Vespasian. He was not allowed to do so by his supporters, resulting in a brutal battle for Rome between Vitellius' forces and the armies of Vespasian. He was executed in Rome by Vespasian's soldiers on 20 December 69. Contents 1 Family 2 Public service 2.1 Political and military career 2.2 Bid for power 3 Emperor 3.1 Administration 3.2 Challenges 3.3 Abdication and death 4 Portrayals in art 5 Fictional portrayals 6 References 7 External links 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources Family[edit] He was the son of Lucius Vitellius and his wife Sextilia, and had one brother, who was also named Lucius Vitellius. Suetonius recorded two different accounts of the origins of the gens Vitellia, one making them descendants of past rulers of Latium, the other describing their origins as lowly. Suetonius makes the sensible remark that both accounts might have been made by either flatterers or enemies of Vitellius—except that both were in circulation before Vitellius became emperor.[4] Since his father was a member of the equestrian class and achieved the senatorial rank only later in his lifetime, Vitellius became the first emperor not to be born in the senatorial family. Suetonius also recorded that when Vitellius was born his horoscope so horrified his parents that his father tried to prevent Aulus from becoming a consul.[5] In his youth he was one of the noble companions of Tiberius' retirement on Capri and there befriended Caligula, whose favour he won, according to Suetonius, by sharing in his passion for chariot racing and games of dice.[6] He married firstly before the year 40 a woman named Petronia with whom he had a son, Aulus Vitellius Petronianus, the universal heir of his mother and grandfather, whom Vitellius had killed in 69 in order to inherit his fortune. He married secondly, around the year 50, a woman named Galeria Fundana, perhaps the granddaughter of Gaius Galerius, Prefect of Egypt in 23.[citation needed] They had two children, a son called Aulus Vitellius Germanicus or Novis, the Younger, and a daughter, Vitellia, who married Decimus Valerius Asiaticus.[7] Public service[edit] Political and military career[edit] He was consul in 48, and proconsular governor of Africa in either 60 or 61, in which capacity he is said to have acquitted himself with credit. At the end of 68, Galba, to the general astonishment, selected him to command the army of Germania Inferior, and here Vitellius made himself popular with his subalterns and with the soldiers by outrageous prodigality and excessive good nature, which soon proved fatal to order and discipline.[1] Bid for power[edit] He owed his elevation to the throne to Caecina and Fabius Valens, commanders of two legions on the Rhine. Through these two men a military revolution was speedily accomplished; they refused to renew their vows of allegiance to Emperor Galba on 1 January 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor at Cologne on the following day, and then again on the day after.[8] More accurately, he was proclaimed emperor of the armies of Germania Inferior and Superior.[1] The armies of Gaul, Britannia and Raetia sided with them shortly afterwards. By the time that they marched on Rome, however, it was Otho, and not Galba, whom they had to confront. In fact, he was never acknowledged as emperor by the entire Roman world, though at Rome the Senate accepted him and decreed to him the usual Imperial honours on April 19.[9] He advanced into Italy at the head of a licentious and rough soldiery, and Rome became the scene of riot and massacre, gladiatorial shows and extravagant feasting.[1] To reward his victorious legionaries, Vitellius expanded the existing Praetorian Guard and installed his own men from his Rhine army.[10] Emperor[edit] Administration[edit] Vitellius on a coin. Laureate head right. Caption: A. VITELLIVS GERMAN. IMP. AVG. P. M., TR. Suetonius, whose father had fought for Otho at Bedriacum, gives an unfavourable account of Vitellius' brief administration: he describes him as unambitious and notes that Vitellius showed indications of a desire to govern wisely, but that Valens and Caecina encouraged him in a course of vicious excesses which threw his better qualities into the background.[1] Vitellius is described as lazy and self-indulgent, fond of eating and drinking, and an obese glutton, eating banquets four times a day and feasting on rare foods he would send the Roman navy to procure.[11][12] For these banquets, he had himself invited over to a different noble's house for each one. He is even reported to have starved his own mother to death—to fulfill a prophecy that he would rule longer if his mother died first; alternatively there is a report that his mother asked for poison to commit suicide—a request he granted.[13] Suetonius additionally remarks that Vitellius' besetting sins were luxury and cruelty.[14] Other writers, namely Tacitus and Cassius Dio, disagree with some of Suetonius' assertions, even though their own accounts of Vitellius are scarcely positive ones. Despite his short reign he made two important contributions to Roman government which outlasted him. Tacitus describes them both in his Histories: Vitellius ended the practice of centurions selling furloughs and exemptions of duty to their men, a change Tacitus describes as being adopted by 'all good emperors'. He also expanded the offices of the Imperial administration beyond the imperial pool of freedmen, allowing those of the Equites to take up positions in the Imperial civil service. Vitellius also banned astrologers from Rome and Italy on 1 October 69. Some astrologers responded to his decree by anonymously publishing a decree of their own: "Decreed by all astrologers in blessing on our State Vitellius will be no more on the appointed date." In response, Vitellius executed any astrologers he came across.[15] Furthermore, Vitellius continued Otho's policies in regard to Nero's memory, in that he honored the dead emperor and sacrificed to his spirit. He also had Nero's songs performed in public, and attempted to imitate Nero who remained extremely popular among the lower classes of the Roman Empire.[16] Challenges[edit] In July 69, Vitellius learned that the armies of the eastern provinces had proclaimed a rival emperor: their commander, Titus Flavius Vespasianus. As soon as it was known that the armies of the East, Dalmatia, and Illyricum had declared for Vespasianus, Vitellius sent several legions under Caecina to prevent the Eastern armies from entering Italy, but Caecina, dissatisfied with Vitellius's poor administration, attempted without success to defect to Vespasian. This undermined the morale of the Vitellian legions, and they were decisively defeated at the Second Battle of Bedriacum. Fabius Valens was then sent by Vitellius to rally supporting armies in Gaul, but forces loyal to Vespasian captured and executed him soon after. Vitellius, now deserted by many of his adherents, prepared to abdicate the title of emperor.[1] Abdication and death[edit] Vitellius dragged through the streets of Rome by the populace, Georges Rochegrosse (1883) Tacitus' Histories state that Vitellius awaited Vespasian's army at Mevania. The terms of abdication had actually been agreed upon with Marcus Antonius Primus, the commander of the sixth legion serving in Pannonia and one of Vespasian's chief supporters. However, as he was on his way to deposit the insignia of empire in the Temple of Concord, the Praetorian Guard refused to allow him to carry out the agreement, and forced him to return to the palace.[1] On the entrance of Vespasian's troops into Rome, Vitellius' supporters (mostly civilians) organized heavy resistance, resulting in a brutal battle. Entrenched on the city's buildings, they threw stones, javelins, and tiles on Vespasian's soldiers who consequently suffered heavy casualties in the urban fighting. Cassius Dio claims that 50,000 people died in the battle for Rome.[17] Large parts of the city were destroyed, including the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.[18] Vitellius was eventually dragged out of a hiding-place (according to Tacitus a door-keeper's lodge), driven to the fatal Gemonian stairs, and there struck down by Vespasian's supporters. "Yet I was once your emperor," were his last words. His body was thrown into the Tiber according to Suetonius; Cassius Dio's account is that Vitellius was beheaded and his head paraded around Rome, and his wife attended to his burial. His brother and son were also killed. Suetonius, in writing of Vitellius' execution, offers his physical description: "...He was in fact abnormally tall, with a face usually flushed from hard drinking, a huge belly, and one thigh crippled from being struck once by a four-horse chariot, when he was in attendance on Gaius as he was driving..."[19] Years before there was a prediction that he would fall into the power of a man from Gaul; the man who slew him was Antonius Primus of Tolosa and whose nickname was Becco which means "rooster's beak" (Gallus means both "a cock" and "a Gaul").[20] Portrayals in art[edit] The Romans in their Decadence by Thomas Couture. Vitellius is also shown in the painting The Romans in their Decadence by Thomas Couture. Fictional portrayals[edit] Vitellius is a minor character in Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel Quo Vadis, set in AD 64-68. Vitellius is a character in Kate Quinn's novel Daughters of Rome (2011), set in AD 68–79.[21] He is also a prominent character in Simon Scarrow's Eagles of the Empire series, where he is introduced as a rival to Vespasian and an adversary to the main characters, Macro and Cato, during the Roman invasion of Britain. Vitellius is a character in M C Scott's novel Rome, The Art of War (2013). Although emperor in the novel, his brother Lucius is portrayed as being the more powerful and skilled in intrigue and ruthlessness.[citation needed] He is also introduced in chapter XX of Henry Venmore-Rowland's novel The Last Caesar (2012),[22] as the newly appointed Governor of Lower Germania at the beginning of AD 69. Lindsey Davis' crime novel The Silver Pigs, the first in her series featuring Marcus Didius Falco, notes that a recipe for mushy peas was named after Vitellius. (Chapter XX, p. 3).[23] Steven Saylor devotes a chapter to Vitellius in his novel Empire. The oldest surviving manuscript of the Old English epic poem Beowulf is named "Cotton Vitellius A.XV.", since it was kept in Sir Robert Cotton's library, placed on the first shelf (A) as the 15th manuscript (XV) of the bookcase that had a bust of the Roman Emperor. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vitellius, Aulus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 147. ^ Suetonius 3: "was born on the eighth day before the Kalends of October [24 September], or according to some, on the seventh day before the Ides of September [7 September]". 24 September is generally the most accepted date.[1] ^ Tacitus (III) records the defection of his troops on December 18 and the taking of the capitol the following day. Cassius Dio (64.22) indicates that he died a day later, although his calculations indicate that he died on the 22nd, not 20. ^ Suetonius. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars: The Life of Vitellius. Chapter 1. ^ Suetonius. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars: The Life of Vitellius. Chapter 3, part 2. ^ Suetonius, Vitellius, 3.2; 4.1. ^ Cite error: The named reference o was invoked but never defined (see the help page). ^ Tacitus, Histories 1.56–57. "In the course of the night of the 1st of January [...] the 4th and 18th legions had thrown down the images of Galba... [Fabius Valens] in the course of the following day entered the Colonia Agrippinensis with the cavalry of the legion and of the auxiliaries, and together with them saluted Vitellius as emperor. All the legions belonging to the same province followed his example with prodigious zeal, and the army of Upper Germany abandoned the specious names of the Senate and people of Rome, and on the 3rd of January declared for Vitellius." ^ CIL 2051: XIII K. Mai(as) ^ "Praetorian Guard". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19 February 2019. ^ Suetonius "Vitellius" Chapter 13 ^ See also Cassius Dio Book 64. ^ Suetonius "Vitellius" Chapter 14 ^ Suetonius "Vitellius" Chapters 13–14 ^ Tamsyn Barton, Ancient Astrology, p. 47-48. ^ Varner (2017), p. 238. ^ Kelly (2007), pp. 169, 171. ^ Varner (2017), p. 250. ^ Suetonius "Vitellius" Chapter 17 ^ Suetonius "Vitellius" Chapter 18 ^ Quinn, Kate (2011). Daughters of Rome. Headline Review. ^ Venmore-Rowland, Henry (2012). The Last Caesar. Bantam Press (an imprint of Transworld Publishers). ^ "Vitellian Peas". Big Oven. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vitellius. Primary sources[edit] Life of Vitellius (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original) Cassius Dio, Book 64 Secondary sources[edit] Kelly, Benjamin (2007). "Riot Control and Imperial Ideology in the Roman Empire". Phoenix. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Classical Association of Canada. 61 (1/2): 150–176. JSTOR 20304642. Varner, Eric (2017). "Nero's Memory in Flavian Rome". In Bartsch, Shadi; Freudenberg, Kirik; Littlewood, Cedric (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Nero. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 238–258. ISBN 978-1107669239. Biography at Livius Biography at De Imperatoribus Romanis Aulus Vitellius entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Political offices Preceded by Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and Gaius Volasenna Severus as Suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 48 with Lucius Vipstanus Publicola Messalla Succeeded by Quintus Veranius Nepos, and Gaius Pompeius Longus Gallus as Suffect consuls Preceded by Otho Roman emperor 69 Succeeded by Vespasian v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Israel Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Historical Dictionary of Switzerland SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitellius&oldid=1028129227" Categories: 15 births 69 deaths 1st-century executions 1st-century murdered monarchs 1st-century Roman emperors Executed Roman emperors Filicides Imperial Roman consuls People executed by the Roman Empire People of the Year of the Four Emperors Roman governors of Africa Roman governors of Germania Inferior Vitellii Hidden categories: Pages with reference errors Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Pages with broken reference names Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 Commons link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kongo Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 01:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9141	----	John V Palaiologos - Wikipedia John V Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John V Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans 15th-century portrait of John V (from a 15th-century codex containing a copy of the Extracts of History by Joannes Zonaras) Byzantine emperor Reign 15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376 Coronation 19 November 1341[1] Predecessor Andronikos III Palaiologos Successor Andronikos IV Palaiologos Co-emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (1347–1354) Reign 1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390 Predecessor Andronikos IV Palaiologos Successor John VII Palaiologos Reign 17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391 Predecessor John VII Palaiologos Successor Manuel II Palaiologos Born 18 June 1332 Didymoteicho, Byzantine Empire[2] Died 16 February 1391 (aged 58) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Helena Kantakouzene Issue Andronikos IV Palaiologos Irene Palaiologina Manuel II Palaiologos Theodore I Palaiologos, Lord of Morea Michael Palaiologos Maria Palaiologina three unnamed daughters Names John V Palaiologos Ίωάννης E΄ Παλαιολόγος House Palaiologos Father Andronikos III Palaiologos Mother Anna of Savoy John V Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Ίωάννης Εʹ Παλαιολόγος, Iōánnēs Palaiológos; 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391) was Byzantine emperor from 1341 to 1391. Contents 1 Biography 2 Early rule and first civil war 3 Second civil war 4 Rule and defeats 5 Deposition and second rule 6 Family 7 See also 8 References 9 Ancestry 10 Sources Biography[edit] John V was the son of Emperor Andronikos III and his wife Anna,[3] the daughter of Count Amadeus V of Savoy by his wife Maria of Brabant. His long reign was marked by the gradual dissolution of imperial power amid numerous civil wars and the continuing ascendancy of the Ottoman Turks. Early rule and first civil war[edit] John V came to the throne at age eight. His reign began with an immediate civil war between his designated regent, his father's friend John VI Kantakouzenos, and a self-proclaimed council of regency composed of his mother Anna, the patriarch John XIV Kalekas, and the megas doux Alexios Apokaukos. During this civil war in 1343 Anna pawned the Byzantine crown jewels for 30,000 Venetian ducats. From 1346 to 1349, the Black Death devastated Constantinople. Second civil war[edit] Victorious in 1347, John VI Kantakouzenos ruled as co-emperor until his son Matthew Kantakouzenos was attacked by John V in 1352, leading to a second civil war. John V asked the ruler of Serbia, Stefan Dušan for help, and Dušan obliged by sending 4,000 Serbian horsemen to his aid. Matthew Kantakouzenos asked his father for help, and 10,000 Ottoman Turks showed up at Demotika (Didymoteicho) in October 1352 and engaged the forces of John V's Serbian allies in an open field battle that resulted in the destruction of the allies and a victory for the more numerous Turks in the service of the Byzantines. The Ottoman Empire thus acquired its first European territory, at Çimpe and Gallipoli. Able to retake Constantinople in 1354, John V removed and tonsured John VI Kantakouzenos; by 1357, he had deposed Matthew as well, who had been captured by the Serbs and was ransomed to John V. Rule and defeats[edit] In 1366, John V reached the Hungarian Kingdom, arriving at the Royal city of Buda to meet King Louis I of Hungary. However, the Byzantine emperor offended the king by staying on his horse, while Louis descended and approached him on foot. The Hungarian monarch then offered him help on the condition that John join the Catholic church, or at least achieve recognition by the Patriarch of the Pope's supremacy. The Emperor left the court of Buda with empty hands and continued his trip through Europe searching for assistance against the Ottomans.[4] The Ottomans, who had been allied with the Kantakouzenoi, continued to press John. Suleyman Paşa, the son of the Ottoman sultan, led their forces in Europe and was able to take Adrianople and Philippopolis and to exact tribute from the emperor. John V appealed to the West for help, proposing to Pope Urban V in 1367 to end the schism between the Byzantine and Latin churches by submitting the patriarchate to the supremacy of Rome. In October 1369 John, having travelled through Naples to Rome, formally converted to Catholicism in St Peter's Basilica and recognized the pope as supreme head of the Church. He was not accompanied by the clergy of the Byzantine Church and the move failed to bring about an end to the Schism.[5] Impoverished by war, he was detained as a debtor when he visited Venice in 1369 on his way back from Rome and was later captured on his way back through Bulgarian territories. In 1371, he recognized the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan Murad I. Murad later assisted him against his son Andronikos when the latter deposed him in 1376. Deposition and second rule[edit] In 1390, his grandson John VII briefly usurped the throne, but was quickly overthrown. The same year, John V ordered the strengthening of the Golden Gate in Constantinople, utilizing marble from the decayed churches in and around the city. Upon completion of this construction, Bayezid I demanded that John raze these new works, threatening war and the blinding of his son Manuel, whom he held in captivity. John V filled the Sultan's order but is said to have suffered from this humiliation and died soon thereafter on 16 February 1391. John V was finally succeeded to the imperial throne by his son Manuel. His younger son Theodore had already acceded to the Despotate of Morea in 1383. Family[edit] John V married Helena Kantakouzene, daughter of his co-emperor John VI Kantakouzenos and Irene Asanina, on 28 May 1347. They had at least six children -- four sons and at least two daughters.[6] Their known children include: Andronikos IV Palaiologos (2 April 1348 – 28 June 1385); Irene Palaiologina (c. 1349 – after 1362), who married her first cousin Prince Halil of Ottoman Empire, son of Orhan I and Helena's sister Theodora Kantakouzene. The couple had two sons, Princes Gunduz and Omer. Manuel II Palaiologos (27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425); Theodore I Palaiologos, Lord of Morea (c. 1355 – 24 June 1407); Michael Palaiologos (d. 1376/1377), who claimed the throne of the Empire of Trebizond from Alexios III; Maria Palaiologina (d. 1376), who was betrothed to Murad I but died before the marriage could take place; One daughter betrothed to Peter II of Cyprus, who may not be Irene or Maria; Two unnamed daughters reported to have entered a monastery in 1373, who may be different women from the ones listed above. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, "Palaiologos Ioannes V. Komnenos" ^ Επίτομο Γεωγραφικό Λεξικό της Ελλάδος (Geographical Dictionary of Greece), Μιχαήλ Σταματελάτος, Φωτεινή Βάμβα-Σταματελάτου, εκδ. Ερμής, ΑΘήνα 2001 ^ Nicol 1996a, p. 84. ^ Küküllei János: Lajos király krónikája, Névtelen szerző: Geszta Lajos királyról; Osisris Kiadó, Budapest, 2000. (Millenniumi Magyar Történelem) ^ Alexander Vasiliev History of the Byzantine Empire 324-1453. University of Wisconsin Press, 1952. pp. 671 ^ Anthony Luttrell, "John V's Daughters: A Palaiologan Puzzle", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 40 (1986), pp. 103-112 Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of John V Palaiologos 16. Michael VIII Palaiologos 8. Andronikos II Palaiologos 17. Theodora Palaiologina 4. Michael IX Palaiologos 18. Stephen V of Hungary 9. Anna of Hungary 19. Elizabeth the Cuman 2. Andronikos III Palaiologos 20. Hetoum I of Armenia 10. Levon II of Armenia 21. Zabel of Armenia 5. Rita of Armenia 22. Prince Hethum of Lampron 11. Keran of Armenia 1. John V Palaiologos 24. Thomas I of Savoy 12. Thomas II, Count of Piedmont 25. Marguerite of Geneva 6. Amadeus V, Count of Savoy 26. Teodoro III Fieschi of Lavagna 13. Beatrice di Fieschi 27. Simone della Volta 3. Anna of Savoy 28. Henry III, Duke of Brabant 14. John I, Duke of Brabant 29. Aleidis of Burgundy 7. Maria of Brabant 30. Guy of Dampierre 15. Margaret of Flanders, Duchess of Brabant 31. Matilda of Bethune Sources[edit] Harris, Jonathan, The End of Byzantium. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-11786-8 Alexander Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire 324-1453. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1952. ISBN 0299809269 Nicol, Donald M. (1996a). The Byzantine Lady: Ten Portraits, 1250-1500. Cambridge University Press. Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521439916. Nicol, Donald M. (1996b). The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295-1383. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521522014. John V Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 1332 Died: 16 February 1391 Regnal titles Preceded by Andronikos III Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1341–1376 with John VI Kantakouzenos (1347–1354) Matthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357) Andronikos IV Palaiologos (c. 1354–1373) Manuel II Palaiologos (1373–1376) Succeeded by Andronikos IV Palaiologos Preceded by Andronikos IV Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1379–1390 with Manuel II Palaiologos (1379–1390) Andronikos IV Palaiologos (1381–1385) Succeeded by John VII Palaiologos Preceded by John VII Palaiologos Byzantine emperor 1390–1391 with Manuel II Palaiologos (1390–1391) Succeeded by Manuel II Palaiologos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9144	----	Justinian I - Wikipedia Justinian I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565 This article is about the Byzantine emperor. For other uses, see Justinian (disambiguation). Byzantine emperor Justinian I Detail of a contemporary portrait mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna Byzantine emperor Augustus 1 April 527 – 14 November 565 (alone from 1 August 527) Acclamatio 1 April 527 Predecessor Justin I Successor Justin II Born Petrus Sabbatius 11 May 482 Tauresium, Dardania, Byzantine Empire[1] Died 14 November 565 (aged 83) Great Palace of Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Theodora Names Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Dynasty Justinian dynasty Father Sabbatius Justin I (adoptive) Mother Vigilantia Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Justinian I (/dʒʌˈstɪniən/; Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός, translit. Ioustinianós; 11 May 482 – 14 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[2] This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire.[3] His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi.[4] During his reign, Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before.[5] He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states.[6] His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia. He is called "Saint Justinian the Emperor" in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[7] Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been known as the "Last Roman" in mid-20th century historiography.[8] Contents 1 Life 2 Reign 2.1 Legislative activities 2.2 Nika riots 2.3 Military activities 2.3.1 War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532 2.3.2 Conquest of North Africa, 533–534 2.3.3 War in Italy, first phase, 535–540 2.3.4 War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562 2.3.5 War in Italy, second phase, 541–554 2.3.6 Other campaigns 2.3.7 Results 2.4 Religious activities 2.4.1 Religious policy 2.4.2 Religious relations with Rome 2.4.3 Authoritarian rule 2.5 Architecture, learning, art and literature 2.6 Economy and administration 3 Natural disasters 4 Cultural depictions 5 Historical sources 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Primary sources 9 Bibliography 10 External links Life[edit] The ancient town of Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's North Macedonia Mosaic of Theodora Justinian was born in Tauresium,[9] Dardania,[10] around 482. A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one),[11] he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman[12][13][14] or Thraco-Roman origins.[15][16][17] The cognomen Iustinianus, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin.[18] During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace.[19][20][21] His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the Excubitors) before he became emperor,[22] adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education.[22] As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology and Roman history.[22] Justinian served as a candidatus, one of 40 men selected from the scholae palatinae to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard.[23] The chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced and handsome. Another contemporary historian, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.[24] When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, with significant help from Justinian.[22] During Justin's reign (518–527), Justinian was the emperor's close confidant. Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on 1 April 527, although there is no conclusive evidence of this.[25] As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler.[22] Following the general Vitalian's assassination presumed to be orchestrated by Justinian or Justin, Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east.[22][26] Upon Justin's death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign.[22] The Byzantine Empire in 555 AD, under Justinian I As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" on account of his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.[27] Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.[28][29] Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses. Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562.[30] Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548[31] at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,[32] became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died on 14 November 565, he left no children. He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade.[33] Reign[edit] Legislative activities[edit] Main article: Corpus Juris Civilis The Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or Anastasius I Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law,[34] something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the Corpus juris civilis. It consists of the Codex Justinianeus, the Digesta or Pandectae, the Institutiones, and the Novellae. Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the Codex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta (or Pandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The Novellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the Corpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire. The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentum). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the Basilika of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554),[35] from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia.[36] It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.[37] Justinian discontinued the regular appointment of Consuls in 541.[38] Nika riots[edit] Main article: Nika riots Justinian's habit of choosing efficient, but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000[39] unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment,[40] Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.[41] The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia. Military activities[edit] v t e Wars of Justinian I Iberian War Thannuris Mindouos Dara Satala Callinicum Martyropolis Vandalic War and Moorish Wars Ad Decimum Tricamarum Mammes Bourgaon Carthage Membresa Babosis and Zerboule Cillium Marta Fields of Cato Gothic War Panormus Scardon 1st Naples 1st Rome Ariminum Urbinus Urviventus Auximus Ravenna Treviso Verona Faventia Mucellium 2nd Naples Otranto 2nd Rome 3rd Rome Sena Gallica Taginae Mons Lactarius Volturnus Lazic War 1st Petra Nisibis Sisauranon Anglon Edessa 2nd Petra 3rd Petra 1st Archaeopolis Cotais Telephis–Ollaria 2nd Archaeopolis Onoguris (3rd Archaeopolis) Phasis Other Conquest of Spania Melantias One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century.[42] As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art.[43] The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.[44] Reconstruction of the Column of Justinian, after Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912. The column was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543 in honour of his military victories. War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532[edit] Main article: Iberian War From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire.[45] In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum.[46] Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed.[47] When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold)[46] with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire. Conquest of North Africa, 533–534[edit] Main article: Vandalic War The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 A.D. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign.[48] In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence." An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534,[49] but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548,[50] but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.[51] War in Italy, first phase, 535–540[edit] Main article: Gothic War (535–554) Justinian's conquests As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men,[52] invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.[53] Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him. War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562[edit] Modern illustration of a medallion celebrating the reconquest of Africa, c. 535 Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540.[54] He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city),[55] besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.[55] Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.[56] The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year 543. The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30,000 men,[57] but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that the Lazic War in the North continued for several years, until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi) to be paid by the Romans.[58] War in Italy, second phase, 541–554[edit] While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships.[citation needed] During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines. Spanish Visigothic gold tremisses in the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th century. The Christian cross on the breast defines the Visigothic attribution. British Museum. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses.[59] The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men.[60] The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.[51] Procopius estimated "the loss of the Goths at 15,000,000."[61] Other campaigns[edit] Emperor Justinian reconquered many former territories of the Western Roman Empire, including Italy, Dalmatia, Africa, and southern Hispania. In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius.[62] The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.[citation needed] During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.[citation needed] Results[edit] Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought.[63] The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area over which the Empire could project its power and eliminated all naval threats to the empire. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa. Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age.[64] In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.[65] Religious activities[edit] Saint Justinian the Great Illustration of an angel showing Justinian a model of Hagia Sophia in a vision, by Herbert Cole (1912) Emperor Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Lutheranism Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople modern day Istanbul, Turkey Feast 14 November Attributes Imperial Vestment Justinian I, depicted on an AE Follis coin Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.[66] Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.[67] Religious policy[edit] Hagia Sophia mosaic depicting the Virgin Mary holding the Child Christ on her lap. On her right side stands Justinian, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. On her left, Constantine I presents a model of Constantinople. As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery, in present-day Syria, is traditionally held to have been founded by Justinian. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties,[68] whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law.[69] He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church[70] and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils.[71] The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command,[72] while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription.[73] Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia, or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates. Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold),[74] the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.[citation needed] Religious relations with Rome[edit] Consular diptych displaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521) From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon, which had condemned Monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome.[75] After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favoured Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported. This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Monophysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the Three Chapters, three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters. Authoritarian rule[edit] Justinian was one of the first Roman Emperors to be depicted holding the cross-surmounted orb on the obverse of a coin. Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodox (Nicaean). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes[76] that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.[dubious – discuss] The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.[77] In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number.[78] Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli,[79] the Huns dwelling near the Don,[80] the Abasgi,[81] and the Tzanni in Caucasia.[82] The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished,[83] and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile.[84] The Presbyter Julian[85] and the Bishop Longinus[86] conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt.[87] The civil rights of Jews were restricted[88] and their religious privileges threatened.[89] Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue[90] and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople.[91] The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment.[92] At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning.[93] Architecture, learning, art and literature[edit] The church of Hagia Sophia was built at the time of Justinian. Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area.[94] Under Justinian's reign, the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius.[22] Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. According to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice, "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.[citation needed] The present Basilica of Saint Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria, is believed to be the fifth structure to be constructed on the site and was built during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt.[95] The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia, was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple.[96] Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543.[97] Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.[98] Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum. In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Berytus[99] lost their importance during his reign.[citation needed] Economy and administration[edit] Further information: Byzantine silk Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of Indo-Roman trade during the period As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat.[100] Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople.[101] Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541.[102] In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India.[103] Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople,[104] and silk became an indigenous product. Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.[105] Scene from daily life on a mosaic from the Great Palace of Constantinople, early 6th century At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 solidi (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I.[51] Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure.[106] According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns.[107] It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 solidi in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 solidi in AD 550.[51] Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East prospered, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.[108] Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages.[109] The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s.[110] The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance.[111] Natural disasters[edit] An older Justinian; mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (possibly a modified portrait of Theodoric) Main articles: 551 Beirut earthquake, Extreme weather events of 535–536, and Plague of Justinian During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. This caused famine unlike anything those of the time had seen before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.[citation needed] The causes of these disasters aren't precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland[112] are suspected, as is an air burst event from a comet fragment.[citation needed] Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535–536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain.[113][114] In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria.[citation needed] Cultural depictions[edit] Carmagnola, an imperial porphyry head in Venice thought to represent Justinian[115] In the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy , Canto (chapter) VI, by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury. The latter holds in Heaven the souls of those whose acts were righteous, yet meant to achieve fame and honor. Justinian's legacy is elaborated on, and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire. Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments. In his introduction, "Cesare fui e son Iustinïano" ("Caesar I was, and am Justinian"[116]), his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that "glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is eternal", according to Dorothy L. Sayers.[117] Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th Century Italy, divided between Ghibellines and Guelphs, in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire. Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel Count Belisarius, by Robert Graves. He is depicted as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical legacy. Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time travel novel Lest Darkness Fall, by L. Sprague de Camp. The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of Justinian. Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip Prince Valiant, usually as a nemesis of the title character. Historical sources[edit] Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. He became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora.[118] The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which survives partially, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. Other sources include the writings of John Malalas, Agathias, John the Lydian, Menander Protector, the Paschal Chronicle, Evagrius Scholasticus, Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor, Jordanes, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna. Justinian is widely regarded as a saint by Orthodox Christians, and is also commemorated by some Lutheran churches on 14 November.[119] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, rebuilt by Justinian Flavia (gens) International Roman Law Moot Court Notes[edit] ^ History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Volume 2, J. B. Bury, Cosimo, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1605204056, p. 7. ^ J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the seventh century (Cambridge, 2003), 17–19. ^ On the western Roman Empire, see now H. Börm, Westrom (Stuttgart 2013). ^ "History 303: Finances under Justinian". Tulane.edu. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2012. ^ Evans, J. A. S., The Age of Justinian: the circumstances of imperial power. pp. 93–94 ^ John Henry Merryman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 3rd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), pp. 9–11. ^ "St. Justinian the Emperor". Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 25 November 2017. ^ For instance by George Philip Baker (Justinian, New York 1938), or in the Outline of Great Books series (Justinian the Great). ^ near Skopje, North Macedonia ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1593394926, p. 1007. ^ The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0 (p. 90). Justinian referred to Latin as his native tongue in several of his laws. See Moorhead (1994), p. 18. ^ Michael Maas (2005). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139826877. ^ Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A history of the Byzantine state and society. Stanford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the later Roman Empire. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-299-03944-8. Retrieved 28 November 2011. ^ Robert Browning (2003). Justinian and Theodora. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1593330538. ^ Shifting Genres in Late Antiquity, Hugh Elton, Geoffrey Greatrex, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2015, ISBN 1472443500, p. 259. ^ Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, András Mócsy, Routledge, 2014, ISBN 1317754255, p. 350. ^ The sole source for Justinian's full name, Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus (sometimes called Flavius Anicius Iustinianus), are consular diptychs of the year 521 bearing his name. ^ Sima M. Cirkovic (2004). The Serbs. Wiley. ISBN 978-0631204718. ^ Justiniana Prima Site of an early Byzantine city located 30 km south-west of Leskovci in Kosovo. Grove's Dictionaries. 2006. ^ Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life. Brill. 2001. ISBN 978-9004116252. ^ a b c d e f g h Robert Browning. "Justinian I" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume VII (1986). ^ Martindale, PLRE II 646 ^ Cambridge Ancient History p. 65 ^ Moorhead (1994), pp. 21–22, with a reference to Procopius, Secret History 8.3. ^ This post seems to have been titular; there is no evidence that Justinian had any military experience. See A.D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–133 (pp. 113–114). ^ See Procopius, Secret history, ch. 13. ^ M. Meier, Justinian, p. 57. ^ P. N. Ure, Justinian and his age, p. 200. ^ "DIR Justinian". Roman Emperors. 25 July 1998. Retrieved 14 November 2012. ^ Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora (1987), 129; James Allan Evans, The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian (2002), 104 ^ Theological treatises authored by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86. ^ Crowley, Roger (2011). City of Fortune, How Venice Won and Lost a Naval Empire. London: Faber & Faber Ltd. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-571-24595-6. ^ "S. P. Scott: The Civil Law". Constitution.org. 19 June 2002. Retrieved 14 November 2012. ^ Kunkel, W. (translated by J. M. Kelly) An introduction to Roman legal and constitutional history. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966; 168 ^ Darrell P. Hammer (1957). "Russia and the Roman Law". American Slavic and East European Review. JSTOR. 16 (1): 1–13. doi:10.2307/3001333. JSTOR 3001333. ^ Garland (1999), pp. 16–17 ^ Vasiliev (1952), p. I 192. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 200 ^ Diehl, Charles. Theodora, Empress of Byzantium ((c) 1972 by Frederick Ungar Publishing, Inc., transl. by S.R. Rosenbaum from the original French Theodora, Imperatice de Byzance), 89. ^ Vasiliev (1958), p. 157. ^ For an account of Justinian's wars, see Moorhead (1994), pp. 22–24, 63–98, and 101–109. ^ See A. D. Lee, "The Empire at War", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 113–33 (pp. 113–114). For Justinian's own views, see the texts of Codex Iustinianus 1.27.1 and Novellae 8.10.2 and 30.11.2. ^ Justinian himself took the field only once, during a campaign against the Huns in 559, when he was already an old man. This enterprise was largely symbolic and although no battle was fought, the emperor held a triumphal entry in the capital afterwards. (See Browning, R. Justinian and Theodora. London 1971, 193.) ^ See Geoffrey Greatrex, "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century" in Michael Maas (ed.). Age of Justinian (2005), pp. 477–509. ^ a b J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, p. 195. ^ Smith, Sidney (1954). "Events in Arabia in the 6th Century A.D.". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 16 (3): 425–468. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00086791. JSTOR 608617. ^ Moorhead (1994), p. 68. ^ Moorhead (1994), p. 70. ^ Procopius. "II.XXVIII". De Bello Vandalico. ^ a b c d "Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades". Tulane. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 215 ^ Moorhead (1994), pp. 84–86. ^ See for this section Moorhead (1994), pp. 89 ff., Greatrex (2005), p. 488 ff., and especially H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", in Chiron 36, 2006, pp. 299 ff. ^ a b J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 229 ^ Procopius mentions this event both in the Wars and in the Secret History, but gives two entirely different explanations for it. The evidence is briefly discussed in Moorhead (1994), pp. 97–98. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 235 ^ Moorhead ((1994), p. 164) gives the lower, Greatrex ((2005), p. 489) the higher figure. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 251 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 233 ^ Mavor, William Fordyce (1 March 1802). "Universal history, ancient and modern" – via Google Books. ^ Getica, 303 ^ See Lee (2005), pp. 125 ff. ^ W. Pohl, "Justinian and the Barbarian Kingdoms", in Maas (2005), pp. 448–476; 472 ^ See Haldon (2003), pp. 17–19. ^ Meyendorff 1989, pp. 207–250. ^ Treatises written by Justinian can be found in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 86. ^ Cod., I., i. 5. ^ MPG, lxxxvi. 1, p. 993. ^ Cod., I., i. 7. ^ Novellae, cxxxi. ^ Mansi, Concilia, viii. 970B. ^ Novellae, xlii. ^ P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, 283 ^ cf. Novellae, cxxxi. ^ Cod., I., xi. 9 and 10. ^ Lindberg, David C. "The Beginnings of Western Science", p. 70 ^ François Nau, in Revue de l'orient chretien, ii., 1897, 482. ^ Procopius, Bellum Gothicum, ii. 14; Evagrius, Hist. eccl., iv. 20 ^ Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23. ^ Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22. ^ Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 15. ^ Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2. ^ Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 19. ^ DCB, iii. 482 ^ John of Ephesus, Hist. eccl., iv. 5 sqq. ^ Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 20; Malalas, ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1831, pp. 433 sqq. ^ Cod., I., v. 12 ^ Procopius, Historia Arcana, 28; ^ Nov., cxlvi., 8 February 553 ^ Michael Maas (2005), The Cambridge companion to the Age of Justinian, Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–, ISBN 978-0-521-81746-2, retrieved 18 August 2010 ^ Cod., I., v. 12. ^ F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient, ii., 1897, p. 481. ^ See Procopius, Buildings. ^ Vasiliev (1952), p. 189 ^ Bardill, Jonathan (2017). "The Date, Dedication, and Design of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople". Journal of Late Antiquity. 10 (1): 62–130. doi:10.1353/jla.2017.0003. ISSN 1942-1273. ^ Brian Croke, "Justinian's Constantinople", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 60–86 (p. 66) ^ See Croke (2005), pp. 364 ff., and Moorhead (1994). ^ Following a terrible earthquake in 551, the school at Berytus was transferred to Sidon and had no further significance after that date. (Vasiliev (1952), p. 147) ^ John F. Haldon, "Economy and Administration", in Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian (Cambridge 2005), pp. 28–59 (p. 35) ^ John Moorhead, Justinian (London/New York 1994), p. 57 ^ Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity (London 1971), pp. 157–158 ^ Vasiliev (1952), p. 167 ^ See Moorhead (1994), p. 167; Procopius, Wars, 8.17.1–8 ^ "Justinian's Gold Mines – Mining Technology | TechnoMine". Technology.infomine.com. 3 December 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2012. ^ Haldon (2005), p. 50 ^ Brown (1971), p. 157 ^ Kenneth G. Holum, "The Classical City in the Sixth Century", in Michael Maas (ed.), Age of Justinian (2005), pp. 99–100 ^ Moorhead (1994), pp. 100–101 ^ John L. Teall, "The Barbarians in Justinian's Armies", in Speculum, vol. 40, No. 2, 1965, 294–322. The total strength of the Byzantine army under Justinian is estimated at 150,000 men (J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 259). ^ Brown (1971), p. 158; Moorhead (1994), p. 101 ^ "Why 536 was 'the worst year to be alive'". Science | AAAS. 14 November 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2018. ^ Mordechai, Lee; Eisenberg, Merle; Newfield, Timothy P.; Izdebski, Adam; Kay, Janet E.; Poinar, Hendrik (27 November 2019). "The Justinianic Plague: An inconsequential pandemic?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (51): 25546–25554. doi:10.1073/pnas.1903797116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6926030. PMID 31792176. ^ Mordechai, Lee; Eisenberg, Merle (1 August 2019). "Rejecting Catastrophe: The Case of the Justinianic Plague". Past & Present. 244 (1): 3–50. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtz009. ISSN 0031-2746. ^ Yuri Marano (2012). "Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople (now in Venice). Early sixth century". Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford. ^ Paradiso, Canto VI verse 10 ^ Dorothy L. Sayers, Paradiso, notes on Canto VI. ^ While he glorified Justinian's achievements in his panegyric and his Wars, Procopius also wrote a hostile account, Anekdota (the so-called Secret History), in which Justinian is depicted as a cruel, venal, and incompetent ruler. ^ In various Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the Orthodox Church in America, Justinian and his empress Theodora are commemorated on the anniversary of his death, 14 November. Some denominations translate the Julian calendar date to 27 November on the Gregorian calendar. The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada also remember Justinian on 14 November. This article incorporates text from the Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Primary sources[edit] Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64. Greek text. Procopius. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation. Procopius, The Secret History, translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota. Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys, Roger Scott et al. 1986, The Chronicle of John Malalas: A Translation, Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies) ISBN 0-9593626-2-2 Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. (According to "The Christian Roman Empire series". Evolpub.com. Retrieved 14 November 2012.) Bibliography[edit] Barker, John W. (1966). Justinian and the Later Roman Empire. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299039448. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bury, J. B. (1958). History of the later Roman Empire. 2. New York (reprint). Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Cameron, Averil; et al., eds. (2000). "Justinian Era". The Cambridge Ancient History (Second ed.). Cambridge. 14. Cumberland Jacobsen, Torsten (2009). The Gothic War. Westholme. Dixon, Pierson (1958). The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian. Evans, James Allan (2005). The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32582-3. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London: Routledge. Maas, Michael, ed. (2005). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge. Martindale, J.R., ed. (1980). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire II, A.D. 393–527. Cambridge. Meier, Mischa (2003). Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenz Erfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr (in German). Gottingen. Meier, Mischa (2004). Justinian. Herrschaft, Reich, und Religion (in German). Munich. Moorhead, John (1994). Justinian. London. Rosen, William (2007). Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe. Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8. Rubin, Berthold (1960). Das Zeitalter Iustinians. Berlin. – German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful. Sarris, Peter (2006). Economy and society in the age of Justinian. Cambridge. Ure, PN (1951). Justinian and his Age. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Vasiliev, A. A. (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire (Second ed.). Madison. Sidney Dean; Duncan B. Campbell; Ian Hughes; Ross Cowan; Raffaele D'Amato; Christopher Lillington-Martin, eds. (June–July 2010). "Justinian's fireman: Belisarius and the Byzantine empire". Ancient Warfare. IV (3). Turlej, Stanisław (2016). Justiniana Prima: An Underestimated Aspect of Justinian's Church Policy. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press. ISBN 978-8323395560. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iustinianus I. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Iustinianus I Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "Justinian I". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Fasc. 3. pp. 257–262. St Justinian the Emperor Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (14 November) The Anekdota ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation. Lewis E 244 Infortiatum at OPenn The Buildings of Procopius in English translation. The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian – by Lars Brownworth De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Preface to the Digest of Emperor Justinian Annotated Justinian Code (University of Wyoming website) Mosaic of Justinian in Hagia Sophia) Justinian I Justinian Dynasty Born: 482/483 Died: 13 November/14 November 565 Regnal titles Preceded by Justin I Byzantine Emperor 527–565 with Justin I (527) Succeeded by Justin II Political offices Preceded by Flavius Rusticius, Flavius Vitalianus Consul of the Roman Empire 521 With: Flavius Valerius Succeeded by Flavius Symmachus, Flavius Boethius Preceded by Vettius Agorius Basilius Mavortius Consul of the Roman Empire 528 Succeeded by Flavius Decius, II post consulatum Mavortii (West) VacantTitle last held by Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes, Lampadius Consul of the Roman Empire 533–534 With: Decius Paulinus Succeeded by Belisarius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9152	----	MusicBrainz - Wikipedia MusicBrainz From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from MBA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Online music metadata database MusicBrainz MusicBrainz homepage Type of site Online music encyclopedia[1] Available in English Owner MetaBrainz Foundation Created by Robert Kaye URL musicbrainz.org Commercial No Registration Optional (required for editing data) Users ~250,000 active ever[2] Launched July 17, 2000; 20 years ago (2000-07-17)[3] Current status Online Content license Part Creative Commons Zero (open data) and part CC-BY-NC-SA (not open); commercial licensing available Written in Perl with PostgreSQL database MusicBrainz is a project which aims to create a collaborative music database that is similar to the freedb project. MusicBrainz was founded in response to the restrictions placed on the Compact Disc Database (CDDB), a database for software applications to look up audio CD information on the Internet. MusicBrainz has expanded its goals to reach beyond a CD metadata (this is information about the performers, artists, songwriters, etc.) storehouse to become a structured online database for music.[4][5] MusicBrainz captures information about artists, their recorded works, and the relationships between them. Recorded works entries capture at a minimum the album title, track titles, and the length of each track. These entries are maintained by volunteer editors who follow community written style guidelines. Recorded works can also store information about the release date and country, the CD ID, cover art, acoustic fingerprint, free-form annotation text and other metadata. As of September 2020[update], MusicBrainz contained information on roughly 1.7 million artists, 2.6 million releases, and 23 million recordings.[2] End-users can use software that communicates with MusicBrainz to add metadata tags to their digital media files, such as ALAC, FLAC, MP3, Ogg Vorbis or AAC. Contents 1 Cover Art Archive 2 Fingerprinting 2.1 Proprietary services 2.2 AcoustID and Chromaprint 3 Licensing 4 Client software 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Cover Art Archive[edit] Logo of Cover Art Archive MusicBrainz allows contributors to upload cover art images of releases to the database; these images are hosted by Cover Art Archive (CAA), a joint project between Internet Archive and MusicBrainz started in 2012. Internet Archive provides the bandwidth, storage and legal protection for hosting the images, while MusicBrainz stores metadata and provides public access through the web and via an API for third parties to use. As with other contributions, the MusicBrainz community is in charge of maintaining and reviewing the data.[6] Cover art is also provided for items on sale at Amazon.com and some other online resources, but CAA is now preferred because it gives the community more control and flexibility for managing the images. Fingerprinting[edit] Besides collecting metadata about music, MusicBrainz also allows looking up recordings by their acoustic fingerprint. A separate application, such as MusicBrainz Picard, must be used for this. Proprietary services[edit] In 2000, MusicBrainz started using Relatable's patented TRM (a recursive acronym for TRM Recognizes Music) for acoustic fingerprint matching. This feature attracted many users and allowed the database to grow quickly. However, by 2005 TRM was showing scalability issues as the number of tracks in the database had reached into the millions. This issue was resolved in May 2006 when MusicBrainz partnered with MusicIP (now AmpliFIND), replacing TRM with MusicDNS.[7] TRMs were phased out and replaced by MusicDNS in November 2008. In October 2009 MusicIP was acquired by AmpliFIND.[8] Some time after the acquisition, the MusicDNS service began having intermittent problems. AcoustID and Chromaprint[edit] Since the future of the free identification service was uncertain, a replacement for it was sought. The Chromaprint acoustic fingerprinting algorithm, the basis for AcoustID identification service, was started in February 2010 by a long-time MusicBrainz contributor Lukáš Lalinský.[9] While AcoustID and Chromaprint are not officially MusicBrainz projects, they are closely tied with each other and both are open source. Chromaprint works by analyzing the first two minutes of a track, detecting the strength in each of 12 pitch classes, storing these eight times per second. Additional post-processing is then applied to compress this fingerprint while retaining patterns.[10] The AcoustID search server then searches from the database of fingerprints by similarity and returns the AcoustID identifier along with MusicBrainz recording identifiers, if known. Licensing[edit] Since 2003,[11] MusicBrainz's core data (artists, recordings, releases, and so on) are in the public domain, and additional content, including moderation data (essentially every original content contributed by users and its elaborations), is placed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA-2.0 license.[12] The relational database management system is PostgreSQL. The server software is covered by the GNU General Public License. The MusicBrainz client software library, libmusicbrainz, is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License, which allows use of the code by proprietary software products. In December 2004, the MusicBrainz project was turned over to the MetaBrainz Foundation, a non-profit group, by its creator Robert Kaye.[13] On 20 January 2006, the first commercial venture to use MusicBrainz data was the Barcelona, Spain-based Linkara in their Linkara Música service.[14] On 28 June 2007, BBC announced that it had licensed MusicBrainz's live data feed to augment their music web pages. The BBC online music editors would also join the MusicBrainz community to contribute their knowledge to the database.[15] On 28 July 2008, the beta of the new BBC Music site was launched, which publishes a page for each MusicBrainz artist.[16][17] Client software[edit] Amarok — KDE audio player Banshee — multi-platform audio player Beets — automatic CLI music tagger/organiser for Unix-like systems Clementine — multi-platform audio player CDex — Microsoft Windows CD ripper Demlo — a dynamic and extensible music manager using a CLI iEatBrainz — Mac OS X, deprecated foo_musicbrainz component for foobar2000 — music library/pudio Player Jaikoz — Java mass tag editor Max — Mac OS X CD ripper and audio transcoder Mp3tag — Windows metadata editor and music organizer MusicBrainz Picard — cross-platform album-oriented tag editor MusicBrainz Tagger — deprecated Microsoft Windows tag editor puddletag — a tag editor for PyQt under the GPLv3 Rhythmbox music player — an audio player for Unix-like systems Sound Juicer — GNOME CD ripper Zortam Mp3 Media Studio — Windows music organizer and ID3 tag editor Freedb clients could also access MusicBrainz data through the freedb protocol by using the MusicBrainz to FreeDB gateway service, mb2freedb. The gateway was shut down on March 18, 2019.[18] See also[edit] List of online music databases References[edit] ^ "About". MusicBrainz. MetaBrainz. Archived from the original on 2015-05-08. Retrieved 4 May 2015. ^ a b "Database Statistics". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2018-09-20. ^ "WHOIS Lookup". ICANN. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 23 March 2015. ^ Highfield, Ashley. "Keynote speech given at IEA Future Of Broadcasting Conference Archived 2008-04-22 at the Wayback Machine", BBC Press Office, 2007-06-27. Retrieved on 2008-02-11. ^ Swartz, A. (2002). "MusicBrainz: A semantic Web service" (PDF). IEEE Intelligent Systems. 17: 76–77. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.9338. doi:10.1109/5254.988466. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-03. Retrieved 2015-08-28. ^ Fabian Scherschel (10 October 2012). "MusicBrainz and Internet Archive create cover art database". The H. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. ^ "New fingerprinting technology available now!" (Press release). MusicBrainz community blog. 2006-03-12. Archived from the original on 2008-08-07. Retrieved 2006-08-03. ^ AmpliFIND Music Services: News Archived 2013-09-21 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Introducing Chromaprint – Lukáš Lalinský". Oxygene.sk. 2010-07-24. Archived from the original on 2018-10-10. Retrieved 2018-04-10. ^ Jang, Dalwon; Yoo, Chang D; Lee, Sunil; Kim, Sungwoong; Kalker, Ton (2011-01-18). "How does Chromaprint work? – Lukáš Lalinský". IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security. 4 (4): 995–1004. doi:10.1109/TIFS.2009.2034452. S2CID 1502596. Retrieved 2018-04-10. ^ "MusicBrainz Licenses". Archived from the original on April 13, 2003. Retrieved 2015-10-23.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ MusicBrainz License as of 13-11-2010. ^ Kaye, Robert (2006-03-12). "The MetaBrainz Foundation launches!" (Press release). MusicBrainz community blog. Archived from the original on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2006-08-03. ^ Kaye, Robert (2006-01-20). "Introducing: Linkara Musica". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. Retrieved 2006-08-12. ^ Kaye, Robert (2007-06-28). "The BBC partners with MusicBrainz for Music Metadata". MusicBrainz. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2007-07-10. ^ Shorter, Matthew (2008-07-28). "BBC Music Artist Pages Beta". BBC. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-02-12. ^ MusicBrainz and the BBC Archived 2018-02-20 at the Wayback Machine as of 2013-03-16 ^ "Freedb gateway: End of life notice, March 18, 2019". MetaBrainz Blog. 2018-09-18. Retrieved 2020-02-12. Further reading[edit] Making Metadata: The Case of MusicBrainz. Jess Hemerly. Master's project at UC Berkeley. 2011. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to MusicBrainz. Official website Cover Art Archive – official site MusicBrainz info at the BBC Music site Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MusicBrainz&oldid=1028186249" Categories: MusicBrainz Acoustic fingerprinting Free-content websites Library 2.0 Library cataloging and classification Metadata registry Multilingual websites Online music and lyrics databases Tag editors that use Qt American online encyclopedias Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link from Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2021, at 11:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9158	----	Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus - Wikipedia Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman politician and general (c. 125 – 193) Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus Marble relief of Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus (center right) with Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums in Rome Consul of the Roman Empire In office 173–173Serving with Gnaeus Claudius Severus Preceded by Servius Calpurnius Scipio Orfitus and Sextus Quintilius Maximus Succeeded by Lucius Aurelius Gallus and Quintus Volusius Flaccus Cornelianus Military Governor of Pannonia Inferior In office 164–168 Suffect Consul of the Roman Empire In office 162–162Serving with Tiberius Claudius Paullinus Preceded by Junius Rusticus and Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus Succeeded by Marcus Insteius Bithynicus and ignotus Personal details Born 132 Antioch, Syria, Roman Empire Died 192 (aged 60) Rome, Roman Empire Spouse(s) Lucilla (m. 169; d. 182) Children Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus[1] (c. 125 – 193) was a politician and military commander during the 2nd century in the Roman Empire. A general under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Pompeianus distinguished himself during Rome's wars against the Parthians and the Marcomanni. He was a member of the imperial family due to his marriage to Lucilla, a daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and was a key figure during the emperor's reign. Pompeianus was offered the imperial throne three times, though he refused to claim the title for himself. Contents 1 Early life 2 Marcomanni War 3 Under Commodus 4 Later life 5 In popular culture 6 Nerva–Antonine family tree 7 Inscriptions 8 References Early life[edit] A native of Antioch in Syria, Pompeianus was from relatively humble origins. His father was a member of the equestrian order.[2] As indicated by his name, his family first gained Roman citizenship during the reign of Emperor Claudius. Pompeianus was a novus homo ("new man") as he was the first member of his family to be appointed as a senator. Much of Pompeianus' early life has been lost to history. He participated in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 under the command of Emperor Lucius Verus, likely as a legionary commander. Sometime prior to the Parthian campaign, he was elevated to the rank of senator. He served with distinction during the war, earning him appointment as suffect consul for the remainder of the year 162 AD.[3] Marcomanni War[edit] Further information: Marcomannic Wars Following the completion the Parthian campaign, Emperor Marcus Aurelius appointed him military governor of Pannonia Inferior on the empire's northern frontier along the Danube River.[I 1][4] He likely served from 164 until 168. In late 166 or early 167, a force of 6,000 Lombards invaded Pannonia. Pompeianus defeated the invasion with relative ease, but it marked the beginning of a larger barbarian invasion.[5] Late in 167, the Marcomanni tribe invaded the empire by crossing in Pannonia. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus planned a punitive expedition to drive the barbarians back across the Danube River, but due to the effects of the Antonine Plague, the expedition was postponed until early 168. Aided by Pompeianus, the two emperors were able to force the Marcomanni to retreat. Pompeianus' military skills earned him the confidence of Marcus Aurelius and he quickly became one of the Emperor's closest advisors. As the emperors returned to their winter quarters in Aquileia, Lucius Verus fell ill and died in January 169. Marcus Aurelius arranged for his daughter Lucilla, Verus' widow, to marry Pompeianus.[2][6] As son-in-law to the emperor, Pompeianus became a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. The emperor even offered to name Pompeianus Caesar and his heir, but Pompeianus declined the title. Instead, Pompeianus was promoted and served as the emperor's chief general during the Marcomannic War. Under his guidance, the exiled senator and fellow Parthian war veteran Pertinax was recalled and joined Pompeianus on his military staff. Pompeianus' successes during the Marcomannic War further distinguished him, with the emperor awarding him a second consulship in 173.[6][7][I 2] He took part in a number of military operations in the Danubian region and was still stationed in the region following the death of Marcus Aurelius.[I 3] Under Commodus[edit] Marcus Aurelius died in 180 AD, and his 18-year-old son Commodus, Pompeianus' brother-in-law, was proclaimed emperor. Pompeianus tried to persuade Commodus to remain on the Danubian frontier to complete the conquest of the Marcomanni, but Commodus returned to Rome in the autumn of 180.[8][9] The relationship between the young emperor and the experienced officer quickly deteriorated. In 182, Lucilla, Pompeianus' wife and Commodus' sister, organized a failed assassination attempt against the emperor. Though Commodus executed Lucilla and other members of her family, Pompeianus had not participated in the conspiracy and was spared.[10][11] Following the conspiracy, Pompeianus withdrew from public life, citing old age, and retired to his estates in Italy. He spent most of his time in the country away from Rome, claiming age and an ailment of the eyes as an excuse.[12] Later life[edit] Commodus was assassinated in 192 AD by members of the Praetorian Guard. Pompeianus returned to Rome once the plot against Commodus succeeded, resuming his seat in the Senate.[12] Pertinax, who was the urban prefect at the time, offered the throne to Pompeianus, but he declined.[13] The Praetorian Guard then proclaimed Pertinax the emperor, but they assassinated him after only 87 days for attempting to impose order upon the long-undisciplined unit. Senator Didius Julianus bribed the Praetorian Guard to proclaiming him emperor, but had difficulty garnering support within the ranks of his own troops. In a desperate attempt to save himself, Julianus asked Pompeianus to become co-emperor with him. Pompeianus again declined, on the grounds of his advanced years and eye problems. Julianus was executed on the orders of Septimius Severus after ruling for only 66 days.[14] Pompeianus appears to have died sometime in 193. His children survived and prospered as members of an important family: they were the grandchildren of Marcus Aurelius. This prestige was dangerous, because the new dynasty of the Severans could have seen them as possible competition. Aurelius, son of Pompeianus, was consul in 209, but was later assassinated at the instigation of Caracalla.[15] Later descendants of Pompeianus would become consuls in 231 and 241.[16] In popular culture[edit] Russell Crowe's character Maximus Decimus Meridius in the 2000 film Gladiator is loosely based on Pompeianus and others, including Narcissus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Inscriptions[edit] ^ CIL XVI, 00123 ^ CIL IX, 04970 and CIL XI, 7555 ^ CIL III, 6176 CIL VI, 41120 ; CIL XVI, 127 = CIL 03, p 2328,72 = ILSard-01, 00182 = ZPE-133-279 = AE 1898, 00078 = AE 2008, +00022 = AE 2008, +00613; CIL III, 8484 = CIL 03, 01790a (p 2328,121) = CIL 03, 06362a = D 03381 = CINar-01, 00011a; ILTG, 239 (AE 1934, 96) ; Maybe Année Épigraphique AE 1971, 208 ( AE 1974, no. 411) PIR C 973 References[edit] ^ PIR, s. v. Claudius, no. 973, Volume 2. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Life of Marcus Aurelius, 20, 6–7. ^ (in German) W. Eck, A. Pangerl, "Eine neue Bürgerrechtskonstitution für die Truppen von Pannonia inferior aus dem Jahr 162 mit einem neuen Konsulnpaar", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 173 (2010), pp. 223–236. ^ Pflaum 1961, p. 32 ^ Cassius Dio Roman History 72.3.2. ^ a b Geoff W. Adams The Emperor Commodus: Gladiator, Hercules Or a Tyrant? p.111. ^ Historia Augusta Life of Avidius Cassius 11.8–12.2. ^ Herodian, Roman History 1.6.4–7. ^ Michael Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, pp. 64–65. ^ Herodian, Roman History 1.8.3–4. ^ Michael Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, pp. 69–70. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History 74.3. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Pertinax, 4, 10. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Didius Julianus, 9, 3. ^ Mennen, Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284, 2011, p. 107. ^ Pflaum, Hans-Georg (1961), "Les gendres de Marc Aurèle", Journal des Savants (in French), 1 (1): 33, doi:10.3406/jds.1961.1005 Military offices Preceded by Military Governor of Pannonia Inferior 164–168 Succeeded by Political offices Preceded by Junius Rusticus, and Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus as suffect consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 162 with Tiberius Claudius Paullinus Succeeded by Marcus Insteius Bithynicus, and ignotus as suffect consuls Preceded by Sextus Calpurnius Scipio Orfitus, and Sextus Quintilius Maximus as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 173 with Gnaeus Claudius Severus Succeeded by Lucius Aurelius Gallus, and Quintus Volusius Flaccus Cornelianus as ordinary consuls Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiberius_Claudius_Pompeianus&oldid=1028374020" Categories: 125 births 193 deaths Imperial Roman consuls Nerva–Antonine dynasty Claudii Ancient Roman generals 2nd-century Romans Generals of Commodus Generals of Marcus Aurelius Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 16:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9159	----	Capitoline Museums - Wikipedia Capitoline Museums From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Capitoline Museum) Jump to navigation Jump to search archaeology, Art museum, Historic site in Rome, Italy Capitoline Museums Musei Capitolini The Palazzo dei Conservatori is one of the three main buildings of the Capitoline Museums. Location within Rome Established 1734 (1734) open to public, 1471 (1471) bronzes donated by Pope Sixtus IV to the people of Rome Location Piazza del Campidoglio 1, 00186 Rome, Italy Coordinates 41°53′34″N 12°28′57″E / 41.8928°N 12.4824°E / 41.8928; 12.4824Coordinates: 41°53′34″N 12°28′57″E / 41.8928°N 12.4824°E / 41.8928; 12.4824 Type archaeology, Art museum, Historic site Director Maria Vittoria Marini Clarelli Website www.museicapitolini.org Michelangelo's design for Capitoline Hill, now home to the Capitoline Museums. Engraved by Étienne Dupérac, 1568. The Capitoline Museums (Italian: Musei Capitolini) is a single museum containing a group of art and archaeological museums in Piazza del Campidoglio, on top of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, Italy. The historic seats of the museums are Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo, facing on the central trapezoidal piazza in a plan conceived by Michelangelo in 1536 and executed over a period of more than 400 years. The history of the museum can be traced to 1471, when Pope Sixtus IV donated a collection of important ancient bronzes to the people of Rome and located them on the Capitoline Hill. Since then, the museums' collection has grown to include many ancient Roman statues, inscriptions, and other artifacts; a collection of medieval and Renaissance art; and collections of jewels, coins, and other items. The museums are owned and operated by the municipality of Rome. The statue of a mounted rider in the centre of the piazza is of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is a copy, the original being housed on-site in the Capitoline museum. Opened to the public in 1734 under Clement XII, the Capitoline Museums are considered the first museum in the world, understood as a place where art could be enjoyed by all and not only by the owners.[1] Contents 1 Buildings 1.1 Palazzo dei Conservatori 1.1.1 Main staircase 1.1.2 2nd floor 1.1.3 3rd floor 1.2 Palazzo Nuovo 1.3 Galleria di Congiunzione 1.4 New wing 2 Centrale Montemartini 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Buildings[edit] Capitoline Museums gallery Palazzo Nuovo Esquiline Venus. This section contains collections sorted by building, and brief information on the buildings themselves. For the history of their design and construction, see Capitoline Hill#Michelangelo. The Capitoline Museums are composed of three main buildings surrounding the Piazza del Campidoglio and interlinked by an underground gallery beneath the piazza. The three main buildings of the Capitoline Museums are: Palazzo Senatorio, built in the 12th century and modified according to Michelangelo's designs; Palazzo dei Conservatori, built in the mid-16th century and redesigned by Michelangelo with the first use of the giant order column design; and Palazzo Nuovo, built in the 17th century with an identical exterior design to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which it faces across the palazzo. In addition, the 16th century Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino, located off the piazza adjacent to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, was added to the museum complex in the early 20th century. Palazzo dei Conservatori[edit] The collections here are ancient sculpture, mostly Roman but also Greek and Egyptian. Main staircase[edit] Features the relief from the honorary monument to Marcus Aurelius. 2nd floor[edit] The second floor of the building is occupied by the Conservator's Apartment, a space now open to the public and housing such famous works as the bronze she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, which has become the emblem of Rome. The Conservator's Apartment is distinguished by elaborate interior decorations, including frescoes, stuccos, tapestries, and carved ceilings and doors. 3rd floor[edit] The third floor of the Palazzo dei Conservatori houses the Capitoline Art Gallery, housing the museums' painting and applied art galleries. The Capitoline Coin Cabinet, containing collections of coins, medals, jewels, and jewelry, is located in the attached Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino. Palazzo Nuovo[edit] Statues, inscriptions, sarcophagi, busts, mosaics, and other ancient Roman artifacts occupy two floors of the Palazzo Nuovo. In the Hall of the Galatian can also be appreciated the marble statue of the "Dying Gaul" also called “Capitoline Gaul” and the statue of Cupid and Psyche. Also housed in this building are: The colossal statue restored as Oceanus, located in the museum courtyard of this building A fragment of the Tabula Iliaca located at the Hall of the Doves The statue of Capitoline Venus, from an original by Praxiteles (4th century BC) Galleria di Congiunzione[edit] The Galleria di Congiunzione is located beneath the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the piazza itself, and links the three palazzos sitting on the piazza. The gallery was constructed in the 1930s. It contains in situ 2nd century ruins of ancient Roman dwellings, and also houses the Galleria Lapidaria, which displays the Museums' collection of epigraphs. New wing[edit] The new great glass covered hall — the Sala Marco Aurelio — created by covering the Giardino Romano is similar to the one used for the Sala Ottagonale and British Museum Great Court. The design is by the architect Carlo Aymonino. Its volume recalls that of the oval space designed by Michelangelo for the piazza. Its centerpiece is the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which was once in the centre of Piazza del Campidoglio and has been kept indoors ever since its modern restoration. Moving these statues out of the palazzo allows those sculptures temporarily moved to the Centrale Montemartini to be brought back. It also houses the remaining fragments of the bronze colossus of Constantine and the archaeological remains of the tuff foundations of the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, with a model, drawn and computer reconstructions and finds dating from the earliest occupation on the site (in the mid Bronze Age: 17th-14th centuries B.C.) to the foundation of the temple (6th century BC). In the three halls adjacent to the Appartamento dei Conservatori are to be found the showcases of the famous Castellani Collection with a part of the set of Greek and Etruscan vases that was donated to the municipality of Rome by Augusto Castellani in the mid-19th century. Centrale Montemartini[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) The Centrale Montemartini[2] is a former power station of Acea (active as a power-station between the 1890s and 1930s) in southern Rome, between Piramide and the basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura, close to the Metro station Garbatella. In 1997, the Centrale Montemartini was adapted to temporarily accommodate a part of the antique sculpture collection of the Capitoline museums, at that time closed for renovation; the temporary exhibition was so appreciated that the venue was eventually converted into a permanent museum.[3] Its permanent collection comprises 400 ancient statues, moved here during the reorganisation of the Capitoline Museums in 1997, along with tombs, busts, and mosaics. Many of them were excavated in the ancient Roman horti (e.g. the Gardens of Sallust) between the 1890s and 1930s, a fruitful period for Roman archaeology. They are displayed there along the lines of Tate Modern, except that (unlike there) the machinery has not been moved out.[4] Gallery[edit] The wounded Amazon, copy from original work by Phidias Capitoline Antinous Apollo Citharoedus Bust of Alexander-Helios Probably a copy of the statue of Artemis by Kephisodotos Bust of Augustus Bust of Cleopatra, Centrale Montemartini, Rome Commodus as Hercules Head of the bronze colossus of Constantine Head of the marble colossus of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius Cupid and Psyche Eros Capitolini Eros Thanatos The Dying Gaul Heracles fighting Statue from Horti Lamiani Dancing Maenad Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Mosaic. - Roman artwork from the 2d quarter of the 4th century AD Bernini's Medusa Statue of Athena, Centrale Montemartini, Rome Resting Satyr Leaning Satyr Leda and the Swan The Spinario Triton The Capitoline Venus (a Venus Pudica) Capitoline Wolf Wounded Warrior Roman Trophy displayed inside the Musei Capitolini courtyard Baby Herakles strangling a snake sent to kill him in his cradle (Roman marble, 2nd century AD) Play media Courtyard of the Capitoline Museum Panorama of busts displayed at Capitoline museum, Rome See also[edit] Capitoline Brutus References[edit] ^ AA. VV. Roma e dintorni, edito dal T.C.I. nel 1977, pag. 83. ISBN 88-365-0016-1. Sandra Pinto, in Roma, edito dal gruppo editoriale L'Espresso su licenza del T.C.I. nel 2004, pag. 443. ISBN 88-365-0016-1. AA. VV. La nuova enciclopedia dell'arte Garzanti, Garzanti editore, 2000, ISBN 88-11-50439-2, alla voce "museo". ^ Centrale Montemartini Archived October 5, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Centrale Montemartini". Inexhibit magazine. Retrieved March 7, 2016. ^ "Classical art & industrial archaeology". likealocalguide.com. Retrieved July 7, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Musei Capitolini. Capitoline Museums official website (English language version). Retrieved April 26, 2010. Capitoline Museums research website (English/German/Italian language versions). v t e Museums and art galleries in Rome List of museums in Rome National museums Galleria Borghese Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Galleria Spada MAXXI Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria National Museum of Oriental Art Pigorini National Museum Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Corsini National Roman Museum Baths of Diocletian Civic museums Capitoline Museums Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museo delle Mura Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization Museum of the Ara Pacis Ara Pacis Other Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Liberation of Rome Palazzo Colonna Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Vatican Museums Modern Religious Art Pio Cristiano Museum Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel Vatican Historical Museum v t e Michelangelo List of works ✻ attributed · lost Sculptures Florence, c. 1488–1492 Head of a Faun Madonna of the Stairs Battle of the Centaurs Crucifix Bologna, 1494–1495 Additions to the Arca di San Domenico St Petronius St Proclus Angel Rome, 1496–1500 Sleeping Cupid Bacchus Standing Cupid Pietà Florence, 1501–1505 David Madonna of Bruges Additions to the Piccolomini Altarpiece Saints Peter, Paul, Pius and Gregory Pitti Tondo Taddei Tondo St. Matthew Rothschild Bronzes Tomb of Julius II, 1505–1545 Moses Rebellious Slave Dying Slave Young Slave Bearded Slave Atlas Slave Awakening Slave The Genius of Victory Rachel Leah Florence, 1516–1534 Christ Carrying the Cross Medici Chapel Giuliano de' Medici Night Day Dusk Dawn Medici Madonna Apollo Crouching Boy Rome, 1534–1564 Brutus Florentine Pietà Palestrina Pietà ✻ Rondanini Pietà Paintings Panel paintings The Torment of Saint Anthony Manchester Madonna The Entombment Doni Tondo Leda and the Swan Salone dei Cinquecento Battle of Cascina Sistine Chapel (ceiling gallery) Ceiling Separation of Light from Darkness The Creation of the Sun, Moon and Vegetation The Creation of Adam Prophet Daniel Prophet Isaiah Prophet Jeremiah Prophet Joel Prophet Jonah The Last Judgment Pauline Chapel The Crucifixion of St. Peter The Conversion of Saul Architecture Florence New Sacristy and Laurentian Library in the Basilica of San Lorenzo Rome Capitoline Museums Piazza del Campidoglio Palazzo Farnese St. Peter's Basilica Tor San Michele ✻ San Giovanni dei Fiorentini Porta Pia Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri Works on paper, milieu, and more Works on paper Study of a Kneeling Nude Girl for The Entombment Male Back With a Flag Epifania Milieu Cecchino dei Bracci Tommaso dei Cavalieri Vittoria Colonna Ascanio Condivi Gherardo Perini Sebastiano del Piombo Febo di Poggio Luigi del Riccio Related Art patronage of Julius II Casa Buonarroti Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects Michelangelo and the Medici Replicas of David Replicas of the Pietà Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes The Titan: Story of Michelangelo (1950 documentary) The Agony and the Ecstasy (1961 novel, 1965 film) A Season of Giants (1990 TV film) Michelangelo quadrangle v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of Hercules Victor Temple of Janus Temple of Minerva Medica Temple of Portunus Temple of Saturn Temple of Vesta House of the Vestals Largo di Torre Argentina Lupercal Pantheon Porta Maggiore Basilica fora Roman Forum Imperial fora Forum of Augustus Forum of Caesar Forum of Nerva Forum of Vespasian Forum of Trajan Forum Boarium Forum Holitorium civic Basilica Argentaria Basilica Julia Basilica of Junius Bassus Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Neptune Basilica Ulpia Comitium Curia Julia Portico Dii Consentes Porticus Octaviae Tabularium entertainment Auditorium of Maecenas Circus Maximus Circus of Maxentius Circus of Nero Colosseum Ludus Magnus Gardens of Sallust Stadium of Domitian Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey palaces and villae Domus Augustana Domus Aurea Domus Transitoria Flavian Palace House of Augustus Palace of Domitian Villa Gordiani Villa of Livia Insula dell'Ara Coeli Villa of the Quintilii Villa of the sette bassi column monuments Column of Antoninus Pius Column of Marcus Aurelius "Column of Phocas" Trajan's Column "Decennalia column" "Five-column monument" commerce Porticus Aemilia Trajan's Market tombs Casal Rotondo Catacombs of Domitilla Catacombs of Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas Mausoleum of Augustus Mausoleum of Helena Mausoleum of Maxentius Pyramid of Cestius Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus Tomb of the Scipios Tombs of Via Latina Tomb of Priscilla Vigna Randanini bridges Pons Cestius Pons Fabricius Milvian Bridge Ponte Sant'Angelo Roman Catholic Basilicas Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls S. Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. 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en-wikipedia-org-9173	----	File:RomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg - Wikipedia File:RomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Size of this preview: 800 × 507 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 203 pixels | 640 × 406 pixels | 1,024 × 649 pixels | 1,491 × 945 pixels. Original file ‎(1,491 × 945 pixels, file size: 333 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Camera location 41° 54′ 04.86″ N, 12° 27′ 59.34″ E    View this and other nearby images on: OpenStreetMap 41.901350; 12.466483 Object Sant'Angelo Title Castel Sant'Angelo Date between 123 and 139 Source/Photographer Unknown artistUnknown artist Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. 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If the work is anonymous or pseudonymous (e.g., published only under a corporate or organization's name), use this template for images published more than 70 years ago. For a work made available to the public in the United Kingdom, please use Template:PD-UK-unknown instead. Photograph DescriptionRomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg English: Castel Sant'Angelo, Roma. Rainer Zenz was kind enough to enhance the colors of the original image. Because this new image is used at some pages we keep these two versions. Photo was taken using the following technique: Film: Fuji Velvia Lens: 2.8/28 Filter: none Body: Minolta 9000 Support: Manfrotto 190B Source: http://fam-tille.de/sparetime.html Image with Information in English Bild mit Informationen auf Deutsch Date Taken on 20 May 2004, 20:00–21:00 Source Own work Author Andreas Tille Permission (Reusing this file) Quote of http://fam-tille.de/italien/rom/2004_029.html - Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this images under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. 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If you have an image of similar quality that can be published under a suitable copyright license, be sure to upload it, tag it, and nominate it. azərbaycanca ∙ Bahasa Indonesia ∙ Bahasa Melayu ∙ català ∙ čeština ∙ dansk ∙ Cymraeg ∙ Deutsch ∙ eesti ∙ español ∙ English ∙ Esperanto ∙ euskara ∙ français ∙ Gagauz ∙ galego ∙ hrvatski ∙ italiano ∙ lietuvių ∙ Lëtzebuergesch ∙ magyar ∙ Malti ∙ Nederlands ∙ norsk ∙ norsk bokmål ∙ norsk nynorsk ∙ Plattdüütsch ∙ polski ∙ português ∙ português do Brasil ∙ română ∙ Schweizer Hochdeutsch ∙ sicilianu ∙ slovenščina ∙ suomi ∙ svenska ∙ Tagalog ∙ Tiếng Việt ∙ Türkçe ∙ Yorùbá ∙ Zazaki ∙ Ελληνικά ∙ беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ ∙ беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ ∙ қазақша ∙ қазақша (кирил)‎ ∙ македонски ∙ нохчийн ∙ русский ∙ српски / srpski ∙ татарча/tatarça ∙ українська ∙ ქართული ∙ հայերեն ∙ मराठी ∙ हिन्दी ∙ অসমীয়া ∙ বাংলা ∙ தமிழ் ∙ മലയാളം ∙ ไทย ∙ 조선말 ∙ 한국어 ∙ 日本語 ∙ 中文（简体）‎ ∙ 中文（繁體）‎ ∙ עברית ∙ العربية ∙ فارسی ∙ کوردی ∙ +/− Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 06:30, 18 April 2006 1,491 × 945 (333 KB) Tillea {{GPL}} File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Arts in Rome E lucevan le stelle Early life of Marcus Aurelius List of castles in Italy Marcus Aurelius Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor Pierre de Murat de Cros User:Callipides~enwiki/Images User talk:Callipides~enwiki Portal:Opera/Selected picture Portal:Opera/Selected picture/19 Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on azb.wikipedia.org مارکوس آئورلیوس Usage on az.wikipedia.org Müqəddəs Mələk qəsri Usage on bo.wikipedia.org མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Wikipedie:Obrázek týdne/2010 Wikipedie:Obrázek týdne/2010/20 Usage on de.wikipedia.org 139 Mausoleum Portal:Römisches Reich Portal:Römisches Reich/Exzellente Bilder Wikipedia:Kandidaten für exzellente Bilder/Archiv2005/6 Wikipedia:Meinungsbilder/Zweite Bewertungsstufe für Bilder Wikipedia:Kandidaten für exzellente Bilder/Archiv2006/7 Portal:Altertum/Ausgezeichnete Artikel Benutzer Diskussion:Wolfram Alster Portal:Architektur und Bauwesen/Ausgezeichnete Darstellungen Benutzer:DieBuche/Römisches Reich1 Benutzer Diskussion:Wolfram Alster/Willkommenskasten Liste von Burgen und Schlössern in Italien Benutzer:Krokofant/Schöne Bilder Portal:Burgen und Schlösser/Bild des Monats/Archiv Benutzer:Nic Preno Wikipedia:Kandidaten für exzellente Bilder/Archiv2011/2 Portal:Burgen und Schlösser/Bild des Monats/Archivgalerie Wikipedia:WikiProjekt Portale/Baustelle/Portal:Rom Usage on eo.wikipedia.org Kastelo de Sankta Anĝelo Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Sant'Angelo gaztelua Borgo (Erroma) Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Marc Aurèle Michel (archange) E lucevan le stelle Statue de l'archange saint Michel Usage on he.wikipedia.org טירת סנטאנג'לו ויקיפדיה:תמונה מומלצת/המלצות קודמות/יוני 2010 ויקיפדיה:תמונה מומלצת/הוספה למומלצים/ארכיון 15 תבנית:תמונה מומלצת 4 ביוני 2010 פורטל:אירופה/תמונה נבחרת/גלריה2 פורטל:אירופה/תמונה נבחרת/79 Usage on id.wikipedia.org Castel Sant'Angelo Usage on it.wikipedia.org E lucevan le stelle Discussione:E lucevan le stelle Angeli e demoni (film) Utente:Fallient/Lista dei castelli in Italia Usage on it.wikiquote.org Castel Sant'Angelo Usage on ja.wikipedia.org ローマ マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス ハドリアヌス サンタンジェロ城 ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝 Usage on la.wikipedia.org Castellum Sancti Angeli (Roma) Usage on lmo.wikipedia.org Roma View more global usage of this file. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomaCastelSantAngelo-2.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9178	----	Indian Ocean - Wikipedia Indian Ocean From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the rock band, see Indian Ocean (band). The ocean between Africa, Asia, Australia and Antarctica (or the Southern Ocean) Indian Ocean Extent of the Indian Ocean according to International Hydrographic Organization Location South and Southeast Asia, Western Asia, Northeast, East and Southern Africa and Australia Coordinates 20°S 80°E / 20°S 80°E / -20; 80Coordinates: 20°S 80°E / 20°S 80°E / -20; 80 Type Ocean Max. length 9,600 km (6,000 mi) (Antarctica to Bay of Bengal)[1] Max. width 7,600 km (4,700 mi) (Africa to Australia)[1] Surface area 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) Average depth 3,741 m (12,274 ft) Max. depth 7,258 m (23,812 ft) (Java Trench) Shore length1 66,526 km (41,337 mi)[2] Settlements Abu Dhabi, Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Dammam, Dar es Salaam, Denpasar, Doha, Dubai, Durban, Goa, Hafun, Hurghada, Jeddah, Karachi, Kochi, Kolkata, Kuwait City, Langkawi, Manama, Mangalore, Maputo, Mogadishu, Mombasa, Mumbai, Muscat, Padang, Perth, Port Elizabeth, Durban, Port Sudan, Suez, Toliara, Thiruvananthapuram, Visakhapatnam References [3] 1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure. The Indian Ocean, according to the CIA The World Factbook[4] (blue area), and as defined by the IHO (black outline - excluding marginal waterbodies). The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or 19.8% of the water on Earth's surface.[5] It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica, depending on the definition in use.[6] Along its core, the Indian Ocean has some large marginal or regional seas such as the Arabian Sea, the Laccadive Sea, the Somali Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Andaman Sea. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Geography 2.1 Extent and data 2.2 Coasts and shelves 2.2.1 Rivers 2.3 Marginal seas 3 Climate 4 Oceanography 5 Marine life 6 Biodiversity 7 Geology 8 History 8.1 First settlements 8.2 Antiquity 8.3 Age of Discovery 8.4 Modern era 9 Trade 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Notes 11.2 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology[edit] A 1747 map of Africa with the Indian Ocean referred to as the Eastern Ocean A 1658 naval map by Janssonius depicting the Indian Ocean, India and Arabia. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515 when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ("Indian Eastern Ocean") is attested, named for India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean, a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century (see map), as opposed to the Western Ocean (Atlantic) before the Pacific was surmised.[7] Conversely, Chinese explorers in the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans.[8] The ocean has also been known as the Hind Mahasagar, Hindu Ocean and Indic Ocean in various languages.[citation needed] In Ancient Greek geography, the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea.[9] Geography[edit] The ocean-floor of the Indian Ocean is divided by spreading ridges and crisscrossed by aseismic structures A composite satellite image centred on the Indian Ocean Extent and data[edit] The borders of the Indian Ocean, as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim, but in 2000 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°S from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. [10][11] Meridionally, the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from the southernmost point of Tasmania. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf.[11] The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km3 (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and a maximum depth of 7,906 m (25,938 ft).[5] All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east, passes through the Ninety East Ridge. Coasts and shelves[edit] In contrast to the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history.[12] The active margins of the Indian Ocean have an average depth (land to shelf break) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum depth of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average depth of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi).[13] The average width of the slopes of the continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum depth of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi).[14] Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones. The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean).[2] Rivers[edit] The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km2 (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are (order 5) the Zambezi, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Indus, Jubba, and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab, Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on the Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers.[15] Marginal seas[edit] Marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include:[11] Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while the Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez. The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz. In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separates Sri Lanka from India, while the Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of the Malacca, Sunda and Torres Straits. The Gulf of Carpentaria of located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast.[16][17][18] Arabian Sea - 3.862 million km2 Bay of Bengal - 2.172 million km2 Andaman Sea - 797,700 km2 Laccadive Sea - 786,000 km2 Mozambique Channel - 700,000 km2 Timor Sea - 610,000 km2 Red Sea - 438,000 km2 Gulf of Aden - 410,000 km2 Persian Gulf - 251,000 km2 Flores Sea - 240,000 km2 Molucca Sea - 200,000 km2 Oman Sea - 181,000 km2 Great Australian Bight - 45,926 km2 Gulf of Aqaba - 239 km2 Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Kutch Gulf of Suez Climate[edit] During summer, warm continental masses draw moist air from the Indian Ocean hence producing heavy rainfall. The process is reversed during winter, resulting in dry conditions. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline. That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon, the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current. Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific.[19] The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.[20] Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when the Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling-Allerød, Heinrich, and Younger Dryas.[21] Air pollution in South Asia spread over the Bay of Bengal and beyond. The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world.[22] Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012.[23] Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole), events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean.[23] South of the Equator (20-5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during the austral summer.[24] In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone at 60°S. This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale.[25] Oceanography[edit] 40% of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to the continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes. Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate.[26] The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between the monsoons.[27] The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan, and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys. [28] The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11 Sv, most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In the Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves.[29] Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre, the eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in the Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone.[30] North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly.[20] The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km3 (710 cu mi)) of the runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow. This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean.[31] Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36 PSU) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In the Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by the East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April.[32] An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre, this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel, and back to Australia in a period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre.[33] The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific.[34] There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in the Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation.[35] Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude, similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24 Gt.[36] Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes a global rise in sea level. Sea level increases in the Indian Ocean too, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases.[37] Marine life[edit] A dolphin off Western Australia and a swarm of surgeonfish near Maldives Islands represents the well-known, exotic fauna of the warmer parts of the Indian Ocean. King Penguins on a beach in the Crozet Archipelago near Antarctica attract fewer tourists. Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch.[38] Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.[3] Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.[39] Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles:[40] Name Distribution Trend Endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) Southwest Australia Decreasing Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculs) Global Increasing Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) Global Increasing Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) Southeast Asia Decreasing Indian Ocean humpback dolphin (Sousa plumbea) Western Indian Ocean Decreasing Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) Global Decreasing Vulnerable Dugong (Dugong dugon) Equatorial Indian Ocean and Pacific Decreasing Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) Global Unknown Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) Global Increasing Australian snubfin dolphin (Orcaella heinsohni) Northern Australia, New Guinea Decreasing Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) Southeast Asia Decreasing Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) Northern Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia Decreasing Australian humpback dolphin (Sousa sahulensis) Northern Australia, New Guinea Decreasing Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) Global Decreasing Olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) Global Decreasing Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) Global Decreasing 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, West Central Australian Shelf, Northwest Australian Shelf, and Southwest Australian Shelf. Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of the Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries. Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km2 (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina, are important to bird life.[41] Left: Mangroves (here in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia) are the only tropical to subtropical forests adapted for a coastal environment. From their origin on the coasts of the Indo-Malaysian region, they have reached a global distribution. Right: The coelacanth (here a model from Oxford), thought extinct for million years, was rediscovered in the 20th century. The Indian Ocean species is blue whereas the Indonesian species is brown. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are the most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones per square kilometre of fish. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching.[42] Mangroves covers 80,984 km2 (31,268 sq mi) in the Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km2 (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat.[43] In 2016 six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in the Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm.[44] The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth, was discovered off Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in the Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters.[45] Biodiversity[edit] Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspot nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indian Ocean. Madagascar's Elephant bird, Mauritius's Dodo bird and ostrich (from left to right) Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, the Seychelles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192) mammals.[46] The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on the islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles, day geckos, and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation.[citation needed] Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird (Raphus cucullatus) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago.[47] Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany (MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals.[46] Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species are still dependent of fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), cheetah (Acynonix jubatus), elephant (Loxodonta africana), and lion (Panthera leo).[48] Coastal forests of eastern Africa; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals.[46] This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km2 (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia.[49] Horn of Africa; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals.[46] Coral reefs of the Maldives This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands, the East African Rift valley, the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag (Ammodorcas clarkei) and Speke's gazelle (Gazella spekei); the Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis) and hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). It also contains many reptiles.[50] In Somalia, the centre of the 1,500,000 km2 (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut (Cordeauxia edulus) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen (Cyclamen somalense), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet (Carduelis johannis) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political regime has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains.[51] The Western Ghats–Sri Lanka; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals.[46] Encompassing the west coast of India and Sri Lanka, until c. 10,000 years ago a landbridge connected Sri Lanka to the Indian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species.[52] Indo-Burma; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals.[46] Aldabra giant tortoise from the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles Indo-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of Asia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats. The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods rising sea levels and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and speciation. The region includes two centres of endemism: the Annamite Mountains and the northern highlands on the China-Vietnam border.[53] Several distinct floristic regions, the Indian, Malesian, Sino-Himalayan, and Indochinese regions, meet in a unique way in Indo-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic.[54] Sundaland; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals.[46] Sundaland encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest. Endangered mammals include the Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, the proboscis monkey, and the Javan and Sumatran rhinoceroses.[55] Wallacea; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals.[46] Southwest Australia; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals.[46] Stretching from Shark Bay to Israelite Bay and isolated by the arid Nullarbor Plain, the southwestern corner of Australia is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved. From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Perth in September attracts more than half a million visitors.[56] Geology[edit] Left: The oldest ocean floor of the Indian Ocean formed c. 150 Ma when the Indian Subcontinent and Madagascar broke-up from Africa. Right: The India–Asia collision c. 40 Ma completed the closure of the Tethys Ocean (grey areas north of India). Geologically, the Indian Ocean is the ocean floor that opened up south of India. Main category: Landforms of the Indian Ocean As the youngest of the major oceans,[57] the Indian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges. In the Indian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the Rodrigues Triple Point with the Central Indian Ridge, including the Carlsberg Ridge, separating the African Plate from the Indian Plate; the Southwest Indian Ridge separating the African Plate from the Antarctic Plate; and the Southeast Indian Ridge separating the Australian Plate from the Antarctic Plate. The Central Indian Ridge is intercepted by the Owen Fracture Zone.[58] Since the late 1990s, however, it has become clear that this traditional definition of the Indo-Australian Plate cannot be correct; it consists of three plates — the Indian Plate, the Capricorn Plate, and Australian Plate — separated by diffuse boundary zones.[59] Since 20 Ma the African Plate is being divided by the East African Rift System into the Nubian and Somalia plates.[60] There are only two trenches in the Indian Ocean: the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Java Trench between Java and the Sunda Trench and the 900 km (560 mi)-long Makran Trench south of Iran and Pakistan.[58] A series of ridges and seamount chains produced by hotspots pass over the Indian Ocean. The Réunion hotspot (active 70–40 million years ago) connects Réunion and the Mascarene Plateau to the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge and the Deccan Traps in north-western India; the Kerguelen hotspot (100–35 million years ago) connects the Kerguelen Islands and Kerguelen Plateau to the Ninety East Ridge and the Rajmahal Traps in north-eastern India; the Marion hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prince Edward Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge.[61] These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above.[58] There are fewer seamounts in the Indian Ocean than in the Atlantic and Pacific. These are typically deeper than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and located north of 55°S and west of 80°E. Most originated at spreading ridges but some are now located in basins far away from these ridges. The ridges of the Indian Ocean form ranges of seamounts, sometimes very long, including the Carlsberg Ridge, Madagascar Ridge, Central Indian Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge, Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, 85°E Ridge, 90°E Ridge, Southeast Indian Ridge, Broken Ridge, and East Indiaman Ridge. The Agulhas Plateau and Mascarene Plateau are the two major shallow areas.[30] The opening of the Indian Ocean began c. 156 Ma when Africa separated from East Gondwana. The Indian Subcontinent began to separate from Australia-Antarctica 135–125 Ma and as the Tethys Ocean north of India began to close 118–84 Ma the Indian Ocean opened behind it.[58] History[edit] The Indian Ocean, together with the Mediterranean, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Atlantic and Pacific have had the roles of barriers or mare incognitum. The written history of the Indian Ocean, however, has been Eurocentric and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the colonial era. This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islamic period; the subsequent periods are often subdivided into Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods.[62] A concept of an "Indian Ocean World" (IOW), similar to that of the "Atlantic World", exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established. The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the "first global economy" and was based on the monsoon which linked Asia, China, India, and Mesopotamia. It developed independently from the European global trade in the Mediterranean and Atlantic and remained largely independent from them until European 19th-century colonial dominance.[63] The diverse history of the Indian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes. It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of India and China as regional powers.[64] First settlements[edit] According to the Coastal hypothesis, modern humans spread from Africa along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean. Pleistocene fossils of Homo erectus and other pre-H. sapiens hominid fossils, similar to H. heidelbergensis in Europe, have been found in India. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, a supereruption c. 74000 years ago at Lake Toba, Sumatra, covered India with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic humans in India and Southeast Asia.[65] The Out of Africa theory states that Homo sapiens spread from Africa into mainland Eurasia. The more recent Southern Dispersal or Coastal hypothesis instead advocates that modern humans spread along the coasts of the Arabic Peninsula and southern Asia. This hypothesis is supported by mtDNA research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the Late Pleistocene (11,000 years ago). This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Africa 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 0.7–4.0 km (0.43–2.49 mi) per year. It eventually resulted in modern humans migrating from Sunda over Wallacea to Sahul (Southeast Asia to Australia).[66] Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilisations emerged. 5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centres had evolved around the Indian Ocean: East Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, the Malay World, and Australia; each interlinked to its neighbours.[67] Food globalisation began on the Indian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago. Five African crops — sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpea, and hyacinth bean — somehow found their way to Gujarat in India during the Late Harappan (2000–1700 BCE). Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded African goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves. Broomcorn millet found its way from Central Asia to Africa, together with chicken and zebu cattle, although the exact timing is disputed. Around 2000 BCE black pepper and sesame, both native to Asia, appear in Egypt, albeit in small quantities. Around the same time the black rat and the house mouse emigrate from Asia to Egypt. Banana reached Africa around 3000 years ago.[68] At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indian Ocean coast of Indonesia between 7400 and 2900 years ago. Analysing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench. Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one in 2004 is likely to be followed by a long dormant period.[69] A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indian Ocean: the Burckle Crater in the southern Indian Ocean in 2800 BCE and the Kanmare and Tabban craters in the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia in 536 CE. Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and Chevron dunes in southern Madagascar and in the Australian gulf. Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached 205 m (673 ft) above sea level and 45 km (28 mi) inland. The impact events must have disrupted human settlements and perhaps even contributed to major climate changes.[70] Antiquity[edit] The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years.[71] Human culture spread early on the shores of the Indian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Before c. 2000 BCE, however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopotamia c. 3000 BCE but remained uncommon in Egypt before 1800 BCE.[72] During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea. Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahrain; traces of exchange between this trading centre and Mesopotamia. The Sumerians traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls.[73] Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Northwest India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt.[71] The Austronesian maritime trade network was the first trade routes in the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by Egyptians and Phoenicians during the last two millennia BCE. In the 6th century, BCE Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda made a journey to India, working for the Persian king Darius, and his now-lost account put the Indian Ocean on the maps of Greek geographers. The Greeks began to explore the Indian Ocean following the conquests of Alexander the Great, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabian Peninsula in 323 BCE. During the two centuries that followed the reports of the explorers of Ptolemaic Egypt resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portuguese era many centuries later. The main interest in the region for the Ptolemies was not commercial but military; they explored Africa to hunt for war elephants.[74] The Rub' al Khali desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabic Peninsula and the Indian Ocean from the Arabic world. This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to East Africa and India. The monsoon (from mawsim, the Arabic word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being "discovered" by Hippalus in the 1st century. Indian wood have been found in Sumerian cities, there is evidence of Akkad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between India and the Red Sea dates back to 2300 B.C. The archipelagoes of the central Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century B.C. from the Indian mainland. They appear in written history in the account of merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled.[75] Greco-Roman trade with ancient India according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an Alexandrian guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds.[71] The contemporaneous settlement of Madagascar by Austronesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries.[71] The Indian Ocean's relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar around 1 CE.[76] In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have learnt the direct route from Arabia to India around this time.[77] During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE. Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Red Sea littoral.[9] Age of Discovery[edit] The economically important Silk Road was blocked from Europe by the Ottoman Empire in c. 1453 with the fall of the Byzantine Empire. This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the Age of Discovery. Preferred sailing routes across the Indian Ocean Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesians reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the Maldives were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished.[78] Maldivians, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to Sri Lanka rather than mainland India, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the Indian Monsoon Current.[79] Arabic missionaries and merchants began to spread Islam along the western shores of the Indian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier. A Swahili stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga, Kenya. Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced Arabic script and rice as a staple in Eastern Africa.[80] Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown.[81] From 1405 to 1433 admiral Zheng He said to have led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa.[82] For most of the 16th century, the Portuguese dominated the Indian Ocean trade. The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first European to sail to India. The Swahili people he encountered along the African east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to India and to China. Among them, the Portuguese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and onboard ships. A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahili rulers, including the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a Malindi ruler in Kenya, who helped the Portuguese to reach India. In expeditions after 1500, the Portuguese attacked and colonised cities along the African coast.[83] European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640).[81] The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into the Indian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Egypt under Sultan Selim I. Although the Ottomans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indian Ocean the region was unexplored by them. Maps that included the Indian Ocean had been produced by Muslim geographers centuries before the Ottoman conquests; Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Battuta in the 14th Century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco da Gama, Arab navigator Ahmad ibn Mājid had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indian Ocean; the Ottomans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivalled the European expansion.[84] The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.[81] The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarene Islands from 1670 until 1848.[81] In all, European traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Atlantic.[81] Modern era[edit] Malé's population has increased from 20,000 people in 1987 to more than 220,000 people in 2020. Scientifically, the Indian Ocean remained poorly explored before the International Indian Ocean Expedition in the early 1960s. However, the Challenger expedition 1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front. The Valdivia expedition 1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indian Ocean. In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats. The Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 1947–1948 also sampled the Indian Ocean on its global tour and the Danish Galathea sampled deep-water fauna from Sri Lanka to South Africa on its second expedition 1950–1952. The Soviet research vessel Vityaz also did research in the Indian Ocean.[1] The Suez Canal opened in 1869 when the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of European trade in favour of trade in East Asia and Australia.[85] The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean. For example, the goldband goatfish (Upeneus moluccensis) has replaced the red mullet (Mullus barbatus); since the 1980s huge swarms of scyphozoan jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants. Plans announced in 2014 to build a new, much larger Suez Canal parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area.[86] An unnamed Chagossian on Diego Garcia in 1971 shortly before the British expelled the islanders when the island became a U.S. military base. The man spoke a French-based creole language and his ancestors were most likely brought to the uninhabited island as slaves in the 19th century. Throughout the colonial era, islands such as Mauritius were important shipping nodes for the Dutch, French, and British. Mauritius, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Africa and indenture labour from India. The end of World War II marked the end of the colonial era. The British left Mauritius in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indian descent, Mauritius became a close ally of India. In the 1980s, during the Cold War, the South African regime acted to destabilise several island nations in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles, Comoros, and Madagascar. India intervened in Mauritius to prevent a coup d'état, backed up by the United States who feared the Soviet Union could gain access to Port Louis and threaten the U.S. base on Diego Garcia.[87] Iranrud is an unrealised plan by Iran and the Soviet Union to build a canal between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of African slaves, Indian indentured labourers, and white settlers. But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Atlantic World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indian Ocean — there were Indian slaves and settlers as well as black indentured labourers. There were also a string of prison camps across the Indian Ocean, from Robben Island in South Africa to Cellular Jail in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced labourers, merchants, and people of different faiths were forcefully united. On the islands of the Indian Ocean, therefore, a trend of creolisation emerged.[88] On 26 December 2004 fourteen countries around the Indian Ocean were hit by a wave of tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding 500 km/h (310 mph), reached up to 20 m (66 ft) in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths.[89] In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region's coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indian Navy.[90] Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, a Boeing 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indian Ocean about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the coast of southwest Western Australia. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown.[91] The Sentinelese people of North Sentinel Island, which lies near South Andaman Island in the Bay of Bengal, have been called by experts the most isolated people in the world.[92] The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius.[93] In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague issued an advisory opinion stating that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius.[94] Trade[edit] Main article: Indian Ocean trade Major ocean trade routes in the world includes the northern Indian Ocean. The sea lanes in the Indian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important in the world with more than 80 percent of the world's seaborne trade in oil transits through the Indian Ocean and its vital chokepoints, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait.[95] The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean.[3] Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, Pakistan, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Mombasa Port on Kenya's Indian Ocean coast In particular, the maritime part of the Silk Road leads through the Indian Ocean on which a large part of the global container trade is carried out. The Silk Road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast and its large container ports to the south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo opposite the southern tip of India via Malé, the capital of the Maldives, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic to the northern Italian junction of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe.[96][97][98][99] The Silk Road has become internationally important again on the one hand through European integration, the end of the Cold War and free world trade and on the other hand through Chinese initiatives. Chinese companies have made investments in several Indian Ocean ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colombo and Sonadia. This has sparked a debate about the strategic implications of these investments.[100] There are also Chinese investments and related efforts to intensify trade in East Africa and in European ports such as Piraeus and Trieste.[101][102][103] See also[edit] Oceans portal Environment portal Ecology portal Geography portal Weather portal Antarctica Erythraean Sea Indian Ocean in World War II Indian Ocean literature Indian Ocean Naval Symposium Indian Ocean Research Group Indian Ocean slave trade List of islands in the Indian Ocean List of ports and harbours of the Indian Ocean List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Rim Association Maritime Silk Road Southern Ocean Territorial claims in Antarctica References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ a b c Demopoulos, Smith & Tyler 2003, Introduction, p. 219 ^ a b Keesing & Irvine 2005, Introduction, p. 11–12; Table 1, p.12 ^ a b c CIA World Fact Book 2018 ^ "Indian Ocean". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 27 November 2010. ^ a b Eakins & Sharman 2010 ^ "'Indian Ocean' — Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online". Retrieved 7 July 2012. ocean E of Africa, S of Asia, W of Australia, & N of Antarctica area ab 73,427,795 square kilometres (28,350,630 sq mi) ^ Harper, Douglas. "Indian Ocean". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 January 2011. ^ Hui 2010, Abstract ^ a b Anonymous (1912). Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . Translated by Schoff, Wilfred Harvey. ^ IHO 1953 ^ a b c IHO 2002 ^ Prange 2008, Fluid Borders: Encompassing the Ocean, pp. 1382–1385 ^ Harris et al. 2014, Table 2, p. 11 ^ Harris et al. 2014, Table 3, p. 11 ^ Vörösmarty et al. 2000, Drainage basin area of each ocean, pp. 609–616; Table 5, p 614; Reconciling Continental and Oceanic Perspectives, pp. 616–617 ^ https://www.livescience.com/29533-the-worlds-biggest-oceans-and-seas.html ^ https://www.worldatlas.com/ ^ http://listofseas.com/ ^ Schott, Xie & McCreary 2009, Introduction, pp. 1–2 ^ a b "U.S. Navy Oceanographer". Archived from the original on 2 August 2001. Retrieved 4 August 2001. ^ Dutt et al. 2015, Abstract; Introduction, pp. 5526–5527 ^ "Which Ocean is the Warmest?". Worldatlas. 17 September 2018. 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Retrieved 18 August 2019. ^ Ullah & Gadain 2016, Importance of biodiversity, pp. 17–19; Biodiversity of Somalia, pp.25–26 ^ Bossuyt et al. 2004 ^ CEPF 2012: Indo-Burma, Geography, Climate, and History, p. 30 ^ CEPF 2012: Indo-Burma, Species Diversity and Endemism, p. 36 ^ "Sundaland: About this hotspot". CEPF. Retrieved 1 September 2019. ^ Ryan 2009 ^ Stow 2006 ^ a b c d Chatterjee, Goswami & Scotese 2013, Tectonic setting of the Indian Ocean, p. 246 ^ Royer & Gordon 1997, Abstract ^ Bird 2003, Somalia Plate (SO), pp. 39–40 ^ Müller, Royer & Lawver 1993, Fig. 1, p. 275 ^ Parthasarathi & Riello 2014, Time and the Indian Ocean, pp. 2–3 ^ Campbell 2017, The Concept of the Indian Ocean World (IOW), pp. 25–26 ^ Bouchard & Crumplin 2010, Abstract ^ Patnaik & Chauhan 2009, Abstract ^ Bulbeck 2007, p. 315 ^ McPherson 1984, History and Patterns, pp. 5–6 ^ Boivin et al. 2014, The Earliest Evidence, pp. 4–7 ^ Rubin et al. 2017, Abstract ^ Gusiakov et al. 2009, Abstract ^ a b c d Alpers 2013, Chapter 1. Imagining the Indian Ocean, pp. 1–2 ^ Beaujard & Fee 2005, p. 417 ^ Alpers 2013, Chapter 2. The Ancient Indian Ocean, pp. 19–22 ^ Burstein 1996, pp. 799–801 ^ Forbes 1981, Southern Arabia and the Central Indian Ocean: Pre- Islamic Contacts, pp. 62–66 ^ Fitzpatrick & Callaghan 2009, The colonisation of Madagascar, pp. 47–48 ^ El-Abbadi 2000 ^ Cabrero 2004, p. 32 ^ Romero-Frias 2016, Abstract; p. 3 ^ LaViolette 2008, Conversion to Islam and Islamic Practice, pp. 39–40 ^ a b c d e Allen 2017, Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–299 ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 1 ^ Felber Seligman 2006, The East African Coast, pp. 90–95 ^ Casale 2003 ^ Fletcher 1958, Abstract ^ Galil et al. 2015, pp. 973–974 ^ Brewster 2014b, Excerpt ^ Hofmeyr 2012, Crosscutting Diasporas, pp. 587–588 ^ Telford & Cosgrave 2007, Immediate effects of the disaster, pp. 33–35 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTelfordCosgrave2007 (help) ^ Arnsdorf 2013 ^ MacLeod, Winter & Gray 2014 ^ Nuwer, Rachel (4 August 2014). "Anthropology: The sad truth about uncontacted tribes". 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The Eastern Africa Coastal Forests Ecoregion: Strategic Framework for Conservation 2005-2025 (PDF). Nairobi, Kenya: WWF Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office (WWF-EARPO). Retrieved 9 July 2019. Further reading[edit] Bahl, Christopher D. "Transoceanic Arabic historiography: sharing the past of the sixteenth-century western Indian Ocean." Journal of Global History 15.2 (2020): 203–223. Palat, Ravi. The Making of an Indian Ocean World-Economy, 1250–1650: Princes, Paddy fields, and Bazaars (2015) Pearson, Michael. Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World (2015_0(Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies) Schnepel, Burkhard and Edward A. Alpers, eds. Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World (2017). Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I: Commercial Structures and Exchanges (2019) Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies (2019) Serels, Steven, ed. The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945 (2018) External links[edit] Look up indian ocean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Indian Ocean (category) "The Indian Ocean in World History" (Flash). Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center. Retrieved 25 July 2015. "The Indian Ocean Trade: A Classroom Simulation" (PDF). African Studies Center, Boston University. Retrieved 25 July 2015. "Indian Ocean" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. v t e Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean Africa Comoros Djibouti Egypt Eritrea France Mayotte Réunion Kenya Madagascar Mauritius Mozambique Seychelles Somalia Somaliland South Africa Sudan Tanzania Asia Bahrain Bangladesh British Indian Ocean Territory United Kingdom Christmas Island (Australia) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Malaysia Maldives Myanmar Oman Pakistan Qatar Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Thailand Timor-Leste United Arab Emirates Yemen Other Antarctica Australian Antarctic Territory French Southern and Antarctic Lands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Australia v t e Ocean currents and gyres Currents Arctic Ocean East Greenland North Icelandic Norwegian Transpolar Drift Stream Atlantic Ocean Angola Antilles Azores Baffin Island Benguela Brazil Canary Cape Horn Caribbean East Greenland East Iceland Falkland Florida Guinea Gulf Stream Irminger Labrador Lomonosov Loop North Atlantic North Brazil North Equatorial Norwegian Portugal South Atlantic South Equatorial West Greenland West Spitsbergen Indian Ocean Agulhas Agulhas Return East Madagascar Equatorial Counter Indian Monsoon Indonesian Throughflow Leeuwin Madagascar Mozambique North Madagascar Somali South Equatorial West Australian Pacific Ocean Alaska Aleutian California Cromwell Davidson East Australian East Korea Warm Equatorial Counter Humboldt Indonesian Throughflow Kamchatka Kuroshio Mindanao North Equatorial North Korea Cold North Pacific Oyashio South Equatorial Tasman Front Southern Ocean Antarctic Circumpolar Tasman Outflow Gyres Major gyres Indian Ocean Gyre North Atlantic Gyre South Atlantic Gyre North Pacific Gyre South Pacific Gyre Other gyres Beaufort Gyre Ross Gyre Weddell Gyre Related Atmospheric circulation Boundary current Coriolis force Ekman transport Marine debris Marine garbage patches Great Pacific Indian Ocean North Atlantic South Pacific Thermohaline circulation  Oceans portal v t e Earth's primary regions and subregions v t e Regions of Africa Central Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Cameroonian Highlands forests East Sudanian savanna Congolian rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj East African montane forests Eastern Arc Mountains Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al-Habash Barbaria Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Dahlak Archipelago Hanish Islands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Red Sea Indian Ocean islands Comoro Islands Lamu Archipelago Madagascar Central Highlands (Madagascar) Northern Highlands Zanzibar Archipelago Swahili coast North Eastern Desert Maghreb Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Barbary Coast Bashmur Gibraltar Arc Ifriqiya Nile Valley Nile Delta Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Tibesti Mountains Western Sahara South Rhodesia North South Thembuland Succulent Karoo Nama Karoo Bushveld Maputaland Highveld Fynbos Indian Ocean coastal belt Albany thickets Cape Floristic Region Skeleton Coast Kalahari Desert Okavango Delta Cape Peninsula False Bay West Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Guinean Forests of West Africa Upper Guinean forests Lower Guinean forests Guinean forest-savanna mosaic Guinea Highlands Gulf of Guinea Dahomey Gap Niger Basin Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta West Sudanian savanna Yorubaland Macro-regions Aethiopia Afromontane Arab world Commonwealth realm Equatorial Africa Françafrique Greater Middle East Guineo-Congolian region Islands of Africa List of countries where Arabic is an official language Mediterranean Basin MENA MENASA Middle East Miombo woodlands Mittelafrika Negroland Northeast Africa Portuguese-speaking African countries Sahara Sahel Sub-Saharan Africa Sudan (region) Sudanian savanna Tropical Africa Zambezian region v t e Regions of Asia Central (The 'stans) Roof of the World Greater Middle East Aral Sea Aralkum Desert Caspian Sea Dead Sea Sea of Galilee Tartary Transoxiana Turan Greater Khorasan Ariana Arachosia Khwarazm Sistan Kazakhstania Kazakh Steppe Betpak-Dala Eurasian Steppe Kazakh Steppe Mongolian–Manchurian grassland Iranian Plateau Altai Mountains Pamir Mountains Tian Shan Badakhshan Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Mount Imeon Mongolian Plateau Western Regions Taklamakan Desert Karakoram Trans-Karakoram Tract Siachen Glacier Tibetan Plateau East (Northeast) Orient Japanese archipelago Northeastern Japan Arc Sakhalin Island Arc Korea Gobi Desert Taklamakan Desert Greater Khingan Mongolian Plateau Inner Asia Inner Mongolia Outer Mongolia China proper Manchuria Outer Manchuria Inner Manchuria Northeast China Plain Mongolian–Manchurian grassland North China Plain Yan Mountains Kunlun Mountains Liaodong Peninsula High-mountain Asia Himalayas Tibetan Plateau Tibet Karakoram Tarim Basin Sichuan Basin Northern Silk Road Hexi Corridor Nanzhong Lingnan Liangguang Jiangnan Jianghuai Guanzhong Huizhou Wu Jiaozhou Zhongyuan Shaannan Ordos Loop Loess Plateau Shaanbei Hamgyong Mountains Central Mountain Range Japanese Alps Suzuka Mountains Leizhou Peninsula Gulf of Tonkin Yangtze Yangtze Delta Yellow River Pearl River Delta Yenisey Basin Altai Mountains Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Far East Ring of Fire Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia North (Siberia) Arctic Arctic Circle Inner Asia Northeast Ural Ural Mountains Far East Russian Far East Okhotsk–Manchurian taiga Beringia Chukchi Peninsula Kamchatka Peninsula Extreme North Tartary Siberia Baikalia (Lake Baikal) Baraba steppe Khatanga Gulf Transbaikal West Amur Basin Yenisey Gulf Yenisey Basin Sikhote-Alin Kolyma Bering Strait Ring of Fire Outer Manchuria Asia-Pacific Southeast (Nanyang) Orient Sundaland Mainland Indochina Malay Peninsula Northern Triangle temperate forests Maritime Peninsular Malaysia Sunda Islands Greater Sunda Islands Lesser Sunda Islands Indonesian Archipelago Wallacea Timor Philippine Archipelago Luzon Visayas Mindanao Leyte Gulf Gulf of Thailand East Indies Nanyang Alpide belt Far East Ring of Fire Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia South (Indian subcontinent) Orient Greater India Indian subcontinent Himalayas Hindu Kush Bactria Carnatic region Tamilakam Western Ghats Eastern Ghats Ganges Basin Ganges Delta Guzgan Pashtunistan Punjab Balochistan Gedrosia Makran Marathwada Kashmir Kashmir Valley Pir Panjal Range Thar Desert Indus Valley Indus River Delta Indus Valley Desert Indo-Gangetic Plain Eastern Coastal Plains Kalinga Western Coastal Plains Meghalaya subtropical forests MENASA Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows Doab Bagar tract Great Rann of Kutch Little Rann of Kutch Deccan Plateau Coromandel Coast Konkan False Divi Point Hindi Belt Ladakh Aksai Chin Gilgit-Baltistan Baltistan Shigar Valley High-mountain Asia Karakoram Saltoro Mountains Siachen Glacier Bengal Bay of Bengal Gulf of Khambhat Gulf of Kutch Halar Gulf of Mannar Trans-Karakoram Tract Wakhan Corridor Wakhjir Pass Lakshadweep Laccadive Islands Aminidivi Paropamisadae Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman Islands Nicobar Islands Maldives Alpide belt Asia-Pacific Tropical Asia Tibetan Plateau West (Middle East) Greater Middle East MENASA MENA Middle East Red Sea Hanish Islands Caspian Sea Mediterranean Sea Zagros Mountains Elam Persian Gulf Pirate Coast Strait of Hormuz Greater and Lesser Tunbs Al-Faw Peninsula Gulf of Oman Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Aden Balochistan Arabian Peninsula Najd Al-Yamama Hejaz Tihamah Eastern Arabia South Arabia Hadhramaut Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert Al-Sharat Tigris–Euphrates Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia Lower Mesopotamia Sawad Nineveh Plains Akkad (region) Babylonia Suhum Eastern Mediterranean Mashriq Eber-Nari Kurdistan Levant (Syria region) Palestine region Transjordan Jordan Rift Valley Philistia Golan Heights Hula Valley Galilee Canaan Gilead Syrian Desert Judea Samaria Arabah Aram Aram-Naharaim Negev Phoenicia Retjenu Anti-Lebanon Mountains Bekaa valley Levantine Sea Sinai Peninsula Arabian Desert Fertile Crescent Azerbaijan Hauran Iranian Plateau Dasht-e Kavir Armenian Highlands Caucasus Caucasus Mountains Greater Caucasus Lesser Caucasus North Caucasus South Caucasus Shirvan Kur-Araz Lowland Lankaran Lowland Alborz Absheron Peninsula Kartli Anatolia Taurus Mountains Aeolis Paphlagonia Phasiane Isauria Ionia Bithynia Cilicia Cappadocia Caria Corduene Chaldia Doris Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Galatia Pisidia Pontus Mysia Arzawa Speri Sophene Biga Peninsula Troad Tuwana Alpide belt v t e Regions of Europe North Arctic Arctic Circle Nordic Northwestern Scandinavia Scandinavian Peninsula Fennoscandia Baltoscandia Jutland Gotland Sápmi Ingria West Nordic Baltic Baltic Sea Gulf of Bothnia Gulf of Finland Iceland Faroe Islands British Isles English Channel Channel Islands Livonia Curonian Spit Nemunas Delta East Danubian countries Prussia Galicia Volhynia Wallachia Transylvania Moldavia Bukovina Bessarabia Livonia Ruthenia Carpathian Ruthenia Donbas Sloboda Ukraine Sambia Peninsula Amber Coast Curonian Spit Izyum Trail Lithuania Minor Nemunas Delta Baltic Baltic Sea Vyborg Bay Karelia East Karelia Karelian Isthmus Lokhaniemi Southeastern Balkans Crimea North Caucasus Greater Caucasus Kabardia European Russia Arctic Arctic Circle Taman Peninsula Southern Russia Kola Peninsula East European Plain Ryn Desert Central North European Plain Baltic Baltic Sea Alpine states Alpide belt Visegrád Group Rhineland Eastphalia Westphalia Prussia Lusatia Bohemia Moravia Silesia Czech Silesia Pomerania Pomerelia Kashubia Bukovina Istria Transdanubia Polesia Germania Germania Slavica West Benelux Low Countries Northwest British Isles English Channel Channel Islands Cotentin Peninsula Doggerland Upper Rhine Plain Upper Rhine Gaul Gascony Normandy Brittany Septimania Batavia Gulf of Lion Iberia Al-Andalus Baetic System Meseta Central Pyrenees Alpide belt South Po Valley (Padania) Italian Peninsula Tuscan Archipelago Insular Italy Aegadian Islands Occitania Iberia Al-Andalus Baetic System Meseta Central Gibraltar Arc Southeastern Epirus Rumelia Balkans Aegean Sea Aegean Islands Attica Boeotia Opuntian Locris Phocis Megaris Peloponnese Chalkidiki Aetolia Gulf of Chania Istria Mediterranean Alpide belt Germanic Romance Celtic Slavic countries European Plain Eurasian Steppe Pontic–Caspian steppe Wild Fields Pannonian Basin Great Hungarian Plain Little Hungarian Plain Eastern Slovak Lowland v t e Regions of North America Upper Northern (i.e. Canada and Alaska (US)) Eastern Central Canada Atlantic Canada The Maritimes Great Lakes Northern (Canada and Alaska) North American Arctic Arctic Circle Canadian Arctic Archipelago Greenland Alaska Aleutian Arc Aleutian Range Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands Bering Strait Gulf of Alaska Western Pacific Northwest Prairie Pothole Region Canadian Prairies The Maritimes French Canada English Canada Acadia Acadian Peninsula Quebec City–Windsor Corridor Peace River Country Cypress Hills Palliser's Triangle Canadian Shield Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga Kodiak Island Newfoundland Island Vancouver Island Gulf Islands Strait of Georgia Labrador Peninsula Gaspé Peninsula Avalon Peninsula Bay de Verde Peninsula Brodeur Peninsula Melville Peninsula Bruce Peninsula Banks Peninsula (Nunavut) Cook Peninsula Gulf of Boothia Georgian Bay Hudson Bay James Bay Lower Northern (i.e. United States) Central Tallgrass prairie Midwest Upper Midwest Old Southwest Eastern East Coast Northeast Atlantic Northeast New England Mid-Atlantic Commonwealth Southeast Thirteen Colonies Northern East North Central States Great Lakes Southern Deep South Old South South Central Gulf Coast Upland South Southwestern Four Corners Great Basin Llano Estacado West Texas Santa Fe de Nuevo México Southern Rocky Mountains Western West Coast Basin and Range Province Northwest Inland Northwest Pacific Northwest Pacific Coast Ranges Oregon Trail Mormon Corridor Calumet Region Llano Estacado Third Coast Backcountry Trans-Mississippi Great North Woods Great Plains Interior Plains Great Basin Great Basin Desert Acadia Ozarks Ark-La-Tex Waxhaws Siouxland Twin Tiers Driftless Area Palouse Piedmont Atlantic coastal plain Outer Lands Black Dirt Region Blackstone Valley Piney Woods Rocky Mountains Mountain states Intermountain West Mojave Desert The Dakotas Carolinas Shawnee Hills San Fernando Valley Tornado Alley North Coast Lost Coast Emerald Triangle San Francisco Bay Area San Francisco Bay North Bay East Bay Silicon Valley Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga Gulf of Mexico Lower Colorado River Valley Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta Colville Delta Arkansas Delta Mobile–Tensaw River Delta Mississippi Delta Mississippi River Delta Columbia River Estuary Great Basin High Desert Monterey Peninsula Upper Peninsula of Michigan Lower Peninsula of Michigan Virginia Peninsula Keweenaw Peninsula Middle Peninsula Delmarva Peninsula Alaska Peninsula Kenai Peninsula Niagara Peninsula "Belt" regions Bible Belt Corn Belt Cotton Belt Rice Belt Rust Belt Sun Belt Snow Belt Mexico Central Tierra Caliente La Mixteca Huasteca Sierra Gorda Bajío Valley of Mexico Mezquital Valley Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine–oak forests Revillagigedo Islands Islas Marías Northern Basin and Range Province Baja California Peninsula Lerdo Landing Salton Trough Isla Llave Comarca Lagunera Sierra de San Francisco Gulf of California Colorado River Delta Pimería Alta Southern Sierra Madre de Oaxaca Yucatán Peninsula Ku-Maloob-Zaap Puuc Sierra Madre del Sur Triangle of the Sun Isthmus of Tehuantepec Sierra Madre de Chiapas Chiapas highlands Soconusco Petén Basin Sierra Madre Oriental Sierra Madre Occidental Gulf of Mexico Central Darién Gap Isthmus of Panama Lake Nicaragua Panama Canal Western Caribbean zone West Indies Caribbean Antilles Greater Antilles Hispaniola Lesser Antilles Leeward Islands Saint Martin Island Virgin Islands Southern Caribbean Leeward Antilles ABC islands Windward Islands Bajo Nuevo Bank San Andrés and Providencia Serranilla Bank Lucayan Archipelago Aridoamerica Mesoamerica Oasisamerica Anglo Middle America Latin French Hispanic American Cordillera Ring of Fire LAC  North America portal v t e Regions of Oceania Australia Australian Capital Territory Australian Capital Territory New South Wales Central Coast Central Tablelands Central Western Slopes Greater Western Sydney Hunter Mid North Coast Northern Rivers North West Slopes Northern Tablelands Riverina South Coast South West Slopes Southern Tablelands Western Plains Northern Territory Arnhem Land Barkly Tableland Central Australia Darwin Katherine Top End Queensland Central West Central Darling Downs Far North Gulf Country North South East South West Wide Bay–Burnett South Australia Adelaide Hills Barossa Light and Lower North Eastern Adelaide Eyre Western Far North Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island Limestone Coast Murray and Mallee Northern Adelaide Southern Adelaide Western Adelaide Yorke and Mid North Tasmania Central Highlands East Coast Midlands North East North West Northern South West Southern West Coast Victoria Barwon South West Gippsland Grampians Greater Melbourne Hume Loddon Mallee Western Australia Gascoyne Goldfields-Esperance Great Southern Kimberley Mid West Peel Pilbara South West Wheatbelt Melanesia Islands Region Bismarck Archipelago Solomon Islands North Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Fiji New Caledonia New Guinea Bonis Peninsula Papuan Peninsula Huon Peninsula Huon Gulf Bird's Head Peninsula Gazelle Peninsula Vanuatu Micronesia Caroline Islands Federated States of Micronesia Palau Kiribati Mariana Islands Guam Northern Mariana Islands Marshall Islands Nauru Wake Island Polynesia Easter Island Hawaiian Islands Cook Islands French Polynesia Austral Islands Gambier Islands Mangareva Islands Marquesas Islands Society Islands Tuamotus Kermadec Islands New Zealand South Island North Island Niue Pitcairn Islands Samoan Islands American Samoa Independent State of Samoa Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire v t e Regions of South America East Amazon basin Atlantic Forest Caatinga Cerrado North Caribbean South America West Indies Llanos The Guianas Amazon basin Amazon rainforest Gulf of Paria Paria Peninsula Paraguaná Peninsula Orinoco Delta South Tierra del Fuego Patagonia Pampas Pantanal Gran Chaco Chiquitano dry forests Valdes Peninsula Triple Frontier Río de la Plata Río de la Plata Basin West Andes Tropical Andes Wet Andes Dry Andes Pariacaca mountain range Altiplano Atacama Desert Middle Latin Hispanic Bolivarian American Cordillera Ring of Fire LAC v t e Earth's polar regions Antarctic Antarctic Peninsula East Antarctica West Antarctica Eklund Islands Ecozone Extreme points 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en-wikipedia-org-917	----	Anastasios II - Wikipedia Anastasios II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 713 to 715 For other uses, see Anastasios II (disambiguation). For other uses, see Anastasius II. Emperor of the Romans Anastasius II Emperor of the Romans A coin of Anastasius II. The inscription reads dn artemius anastasius mul. Byzantine emperor Reign 4 June 713 – 715 Predecessor Philippicus Bardanes Successor Theodosius III Died 1 June 719 Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Irene Names Artemius Anastasius Twenty Years' Anarchy Chronology Leontios 695–698 Tiberius III 698–705 Justinian II 705–711 with Tiberius as co-emperor 706–711 Philippikos Bardanes 711–713 Anastasios II 713–715 Theodosios III 715–717 Succession Preceded by Heraclian dynasty Followed by Isaurian dynasty v t e Anastasios II or Anastasius II (Greek: Ἀναστάσιος Β΄, died 719) was the Byzantine emperor from 713 to 715. Contents 1 Biography 2 See also 3 References 4 Sources 5 External links Biography[edit] Anastasios was originally named Artemius (Ἀρτέμιος, Artemios) and had served as a bureaucrat and Imperial secretary (asekretis) for his predecessors. After the Opsician army in Thrace had overthrown Emperor Philippikos Bardanes (Philippicus), they acclaimed Artemius as Emperor. He chose Anastasius as his regnal name. Soon after his accession, Anastasius II imposed discipline on the army and executed those officers who had been directly involved in the conspiracy against Philippikos. Anastasios upheld the decisions of the Sixth Ecumenical Council and deposed the Monothelete Patriarch John VI of Constantinople, replacing him with the orthodox Patriarch Germanus in 715. This also put an end to the short-lived local schism with the Catholic Church. The advancing Umayyad Caliphate surrounded the Empire by land and sea (they penetrated as far as Galatia in 714), and Anastasios attempted to restore peace by diplomatic means. His emissaries having failed in Damascus, he undertook the restoration of Constantinople's walls and the rebuilding of the Roman fleet. However, the death of the Caliph al-Walid I in 715 gave Anastasius an opportunity to turn the tables on his rival. He dispatched an army under Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to invade Syria, and he had his fleet concentrate on Rhodes with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy but to destroy their naval stores.[1] These troops of the Opsician theme, resenting the Emperor's strict measures, mutinied, slew the admiral John, and proclaimed as emperor Theodosius III (Theodosios), a tax-collector of low extraction. After a six-month siege, Constantinople was taken by Theodosius; Anastasios, who had fled to Nicaea, was eventually compelled to submit to the new emperor in 716 and retired to a monastery in Thessalonica.[2] In 719, Anastasios headed a revolt against Leo III, who had succeeded Theodosius, receiving considerable support, including auxiliaries reportedly provided by Tervel of Bulgaria. However the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor, who offers this information elsewhere, confuses Tervel with his eventual successor Kormesiy, so perhaps Anastasios was allied with the younger ruler. In any case, the rebel forces advanced on Constantinople. The enterprise failed, and Anastasios fell into Leo's hands and was put to death by his orders on 1 June. Anastasius' wife Irene had him buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[1][3] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Chisholm 1911. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Anastasius II". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 919. ^ "Roman Emperors – DIR Anastasius II". De Imperatorbis Romanis – An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Australian Catholic University. 25 November 2000. Retrieved 17 October 2020. Sources[edit] Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. External links[edit] Media related to Anastasius II at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Philippikos Bardanes Byzantine Emperor 4 June 713 – 715 Succeeded by Theodosius III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anastasios_II&oldid=1020872122" Categories: 8th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine usurpers Eastern Orthodox monks 7th-century births 719 deaths Executed Byzantine people 8th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire Twenty Years' Anarchy 710s in the Byzantine Empire Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 14:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9188	----	Lanuvium - Wikipedia Lanuvium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lanuvium Map of comune of Lanuvio within Lazio Alternative name Lanuvio Location Comune di Lanuvio Region Lazio Type Settlement History Periods Roman Republic Roman Empire Cultures Ancient Rome Site notes Excavation dates yes Public access yes Lanuvium, modern Lanuvio, is an ancient city of Latium vetus, some 32 kilometres (20 mi) southeast of Rome, a little southwest of the Via Appia.[1] Situated on an isolated hill projecting south from the main mass of the Alban Hills, Lanuvium commanded an extensive view over the low country between it and the sea. Contents 1 History 2 Cult of Juno 3 Prominent citizens 4 Monuments 5 References History[edit] Silver denarius struck by L. Papius Celsus in Rome 45 BC. The obverse depicts the Juno Sospita whose main center of worshipping was Lanuvium and the reverse depicts a founder myth. When a fire broke out spontaneously in the forest, a wolf brought some dry wood in his mouth and threw it upon the fire, and an eagle fanned the flame with the motion of his wings. But a fox, after wetting his tail in the river, was trying to put it out. Wolf and eagle got the upper hand and the fox went away. Bronze monuments of these animals are supposed to stand in the forum of Lanuvium. According to legend, Lanuvium was founded by Diomedes, or by one Lanoios, an exile from Troy. The first documented traces of the settlement date from the 9th century BC and by the 6th century BC it was part of the Latin League. The city warred against Rome at the battles of Aricia (504 BC) and Lake Regillus (496 BC), as well as in 383 and 341 BC, mostly with negative outcomes. Rome conquered Lanuvium in 338 BC; at first, its inhabitants did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but acquired it later. In imperial times the city's chief magistrate and municipal council kept the titles of dictator and senatus respectively. In the 11th c. the city became known as Civita Lavinia, a result of the confusion between it and ancient Lavinium.[2] Warrior tomb from Lanuvium (5th century BC) Cult of Juno[edit] The portico of the Sanctuary of Juno Sospita Lanuvium was especially noted for its rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes (Livy 8.14; Cic. Nat. D. 1.83; Fin. 2.63), from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 BC, and the possessions of which extended as far as the coast of the Mediterranean.[3][4] It possessed many other temples repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by (S. H. A. Ant. Pius 1), as was Commodus. Prominent citizens[edit] One prominent native of Lanuvium was Lucius Licinius Murena (consul of 62 BC) whom Cicero defended in late 63 BC. Others include the actor Roscius (Cic. Div. 36) and the Roman people's tribune of 57 BC, Titus Annius Milo, who served as the city's dictator in 52 BC (Cic. Mil. 27). Monuments[edit] Terracotta antefix with the head of a Silenus; c. 500-490 BC., from the Baths of Diocletian at Lanuvium Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in the modern town, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, in opus reticulatum, upon the north side of which is a rectangular building in opus quadratum, probably connected with the temple of Juno where archaic decorative terracottas artifacts have been found. The acropolis of the primitive city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north. The neighborhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains the remains of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius.[5] References[edit] ^ Quilici, L., S. Quilici Gigli, DARMC, R. Talbert, S. Gillies, T. Elliott, J. Becker. "Places: 422956 (Lanuvium)". Pleiades. Retrieved December 11, 2014.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Stillwell, Richard (1976). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Retrieved 15 December 2019. ^ Manlio Lilli (2001). Lanuvium: avanzi di edifici antichi negli appunti di R. Lanciani [Lanuvium: remains of ancient buildings in the notes of R. Lanciani]. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. ISBN 978-88-8265-151-0. ^ Eric Orlin Professor of Classics University of Puget Sound (30 July 2010). Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 125–. ISBN 978-0-19-978020-4. ^ R. Neudecker, Die Skulpturenausstattung römischer Villen in Italien (Mainz 1988) 164 ff. Cat. no. 22  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lanuvium". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 188. Coordinates: 41°40′29″N 12°41′51″E / 41.674696°N 12.697580°E / 41.674696; 12.697580 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lanuvium&oldid=1007970168" Categories: Roman sites in Lazio Former populated places in Italy Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Español Français مصرى Nederlands Suomi اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2021, at 21:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9190	----	Rafe de Crespigny - Wikipedia Rafe de Crespigny From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny Born 1936 (age 84–85) Adelaide, Australia Nationality Australian Occupation Sinologist, historian Awards Centenary Medal (2001) Academic background Education B.A. Honours History Cambridge (1957) M.A. History Cambridge (1961) B.A. Honours Chinese ANU (1962) M.A. Oriental Studies Honours ANU (1964) PhD Far Eastern History ANU (1968) Alma mater University of Cambridge Australian National University Thesis "The Development of the Chinese Empire in the South; a discussion of the origins of the state of Wu of the Three Kingdoms" (1968) Academic work Discipline Sinology, Chinese history Sub-discipline History, geography, and literature of the Han dynasty Notable works China: The Land and its People (1971) China This Century (1975) Northern Frontier: The Policies and Strategy of the Later Han Empire (1984) Generals of the South (1990) "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD ~ I" (PDF). East Asian History. 1 (1). 1991. To Establish Peace (1996) A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23–220 AD (2007) Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD (2010) Fire over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty 23-220 AD (2016) Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny (born 1936),[1] also known as Zhang Leifu (Chinese: 張磊夫), is an Australian sinologist and historian, currently an adjunct professor in the College of Asia and the Pacific at the Australian National University. He specialises in the history, geography, and literature of the Han dynasty, particularly the translation and historiography of material concerning the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. Contents 1 Family 2 Education 3 Publications 4 Associations and appointments 5 Honours 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 External links Family[edit] The son of Richard Geoffrey Champion de Crespigny, OBE (1907-1966),[2][3][4] and Kathleen Cavenagh Champion de Crespigny (1908-2013), née Cudmore,[5] Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny was born in Adelaide in 1936.[6] He married Christa Boltz in Turner, Australian Capital Territory on 19 May 1959.[7] Education[edit] De Crespigny received his tertiary education at the University of Cambridge (B.A. Honours History 1957; M.A. History 1961) and the Australian National University (B.A. Honours Chinese 1962; M.A. Oriental Studies Honours 1964; PhD Far Eastern History 1968). During his early years as a scholar and academic, de Crespigny benefited from the guidance of Geoffrey Elton and sinologists such as Hans Bielenstein, Otto van der Sprenkel, Fang Chao-ying, Liu Ts'un-yan,[8] and Göran Malmqvist, and he developed an interest in the late Han dynasty through the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. His doctoral dissertation of 1968 on the development of the Chinese empire in the south and the origins of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu has provided the basis for much of his later work.[9] Publications[edit] De Crespigny's publications include China: The Land and its People (Melbourne, 1971); China This Century (Melbourne 1975; 2nd Edition Hong Kong 1992), both discussions of modern China. His most significant works, however, are those concerned with the Later Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. Among these are Northern Frontier: The Policies and Strategy of the Later Han Empire (Canberra, 1984); while Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling and To Establish Peace (Canberra, 1996) provide an annotated translation of the chronicle for the years 157 to 189 (chapters 54 to 59) and 189 to 220 (chapters 59 to 69) from the Zizhi Tongjian of Sima Guang respectively. He has also published more than twenty articles in Australia and overseas. Generals of the South, published in 1990, narrates the rise of the Sun clan and the formation of the Three Kingdoms tripartite. It builds on the broad range of his translation experience and is telling about his historical interests. Like Northern Frontier, the work focuses on strategies, campaigns, and personalities. The approach owes a great deal to the narrative tradition of the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms but Generals of the South also discusses the population and development of southern China from the second century AD. In dealing with the military defence of the south via the boundary of the Yangtze River, it presents the best discussion of the Battle of Red Cliffs and early Chinese riverine warfare available in English. The work also provides an important prelude to further research into the political and cultural divisions of the Northern and Southern dynasties. In 2007, A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23–220 AD was published by Brill as a companion to Michael Loewe's biographical dictionary dealing with the Qin, Former Han, and Xin periods 221 BC – 24 AD (Brill 2000). De Crespigny's more recent publications include Imperial Warlord, a biography of Cao Cao (Brill 2010), which was awarded the Stanislas Julien Prize for 2011 by the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. In 2016 Brill published Fire over Luoyang, a narrative and analytical history of Later Han.[10] He was brought on as an consultant for the Creative Assembly strategy video game Total War: Three Kingdoms (released 2019).[11] Associations and appointments[edit] De Crespigny is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities.[12] He has also been President of the Chinese Studies Association of Australia, a Fellow of the Oriental Society of Australasia, a vice-president of the Australian Institute of International Affairs; and a member of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, the Historical Association (UK) and the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. 1971: Secretary-General of the 28th International Congress of Orientalists at Canberra[13] 1971–72: Visiting Fellow of Clare Hall, University of Cambridge 1972 and 1984: Academic Exchange Visitor of the German Academic Exchange Service [DAAD] 1978: Visiting Professor, Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii 1978: Guest Professor, College of Chinese Culture 1983–97: Honorary Treasurer, Australian Committee for the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust 1986: Visiting Fellow, Institute of Sinology, Leiden University 1991–2001: Master of University House, Australian National University[14] Honours[edit] De Crespigny was awarded a Centenary Medal in 2001 for services to Australian society in Asian studies.[15] See also[edit] C. T. C. de Crespigny, Rafe de Crespigny's grandfather, includes details of the Australian branch of the Champion de Crespigny family Footnotes[edit] ^ Rafe de Crespigny. (2014). In Contemporary Authors Online. Detroit: Gale. Accessed 7 May 2018. ^ Varsity Commemoration on Wednesday, The (Adelaide) News, (Saturday, 9 December 1933), p.5: "For the Degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery—Ad Eundem Gradum—de Crespigny, Richard Geoffrey Champion, M.B.. B.S. (Melb.)." ^ World War Two Nominal Roll: Lieutenant Colonel Richard Geoffrey Champion de Crespigny (431901 (SX1464)), Department of Veterans' Affairs. ^ (New Years Honours (1960), Order of the British Empire, Military Division): Colonel Richard Geoffrey Champion de Crespigny, E.D., C.M.F., Commonwealth of Australia Gazette, No.4, (Thursday, 14 January 1960), p.49. ^ Marriages: Champion de Crespigny—Cudmore, The (Adelaide) Chronicle, (Thursday, 6 July 1933), p.39. ^ Births: Champion de Crespigny, The (Adelaide) Chronicle, (Thursday, 26 March 1936), p.25. ^ C.U.C. Students Married On Saturday, The Canberra Times, (Tuesday, 19 May 1959), p.2; More Marriage, Woroni, (Wednesday, 24 June 1959), p.3. ^ Minford, J., "Tribute to Emeritus Professor Liu Ts'un-yan (1917-2009):, China Heritage Quarterly, No.19, September 2009. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2004). Generals of the South (PDF). Australian National University. p. 3. ^ Australian National University researchers Dr Rafe de Crespigny https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/de-crespigny-rr ^ Gordon, Jonathan (20 May 2019). "History Made Playable – The Accuracy In Total War: Three Kingdoms". All About History. Retrieved 18 December 2020. ^ Fellows - Australian Academy of the Humanities: Dr Rafe de Crespigny FAHA https://www.humanities.org.au/fellows/fellows/?find_contact_id=2951&ffc_page=7 ^ "ORIENTALISTS Australia shows its interest in Asia". The Canberra Times. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 28 December 1970. p. 8. Retrieved 21 April 2020 – via Trove. ^ "Boffins back with new decor, menu". The Canberra Times. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 8 February 1993. p. 15. Retrieved 21 April 2020 – via Trove. ^ It's an Honour References[edit] de Crespigny, Rafe, "Kathleen Cudmore: a Memoir", Anne's Family History, 1 January 2017. de Crespigny, Rafe, Champions from Normandy: An Essay on the Early History of the Champion de Crespigny family 1350-1800 AD, Anne Young, (Ballarat West), 2017. External links[edit] Publications of Rafe de Crespigny at the ANU Australian Centre on China in the World Interview with Rafe de Crespigny Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) United States Czech Republic Netherlands Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rafe_de_Crespigny&oldid=1000297499" Categories: 1936 births Living people Alumni of the University of Cambridge Australian historians Australian National University alumni Australian National University faculty Australian sinologists Fellows of the Australian Academy of the Humanities Historians of China Hidden categories: EngvarB from February 2018 Use dmy dates from February 2018 Articles with hCards Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Pages using Template:Post-nominals with missing parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Français Bahasa Indonesia مصرى Norsk bokmål Polski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-91	----	Zeno (emperor) - Wikipedia Zeno (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern Roman emperor from 474 to 475 and from 476 to 491 Roman emperor of the East Zeno Zeno depicted on a Tremissis; the coin's design celebrates Zeno's victories, and was issued during his second reign Roman emperor of the East Reign 29 January 474 – 9 January 475 Coronation 29 January 474[3] Predecessor Leo II Successor Basiliscus, revolted Reign August 476 – 9 April 491 Predecessor Basiliscus Successor Anastasius I Western emperors Julius Nepos (474–480) Romulus Augustulus (475–476) Born Tarasis c. 425 Zenopolis Died 9 April 491 (aged c. 65) Constantinople Spouse Arcadia Ariadne Issue Zenon (by Arcadia) Leo II (by Ariadne) Names Flavius Zeno[4] Dynasty Leonid Father Kodisa Mother Lalliss Flavius Zeno (/ˈziːnoʊ/; Greek: Ζήνων, translit. Zénōn; c. 425 – 9 April 491) was Eastern Roman emperor from 474 to 475 and again from 476 to 491. Domestic revolts and religious dissension plagued his reign, which nevertheless succeeded to some extent in foreign issues. His reign saw the end of the Western Roman Empire following the deposition of Romulus Augustus and the death of Julius Nepos, but he was credited with contributing much to stabilising the Eastern Empire. In ecclesiastical history, Zeno is associated with the Henotikon or "instrument of union", promulgated by him and signed by all the Eastern bishops, with the design of solving the monophysite controversy. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Rise to power 1.1.1 Early life 1.1.2 Son-in-law of Leo I 1.2 Reign 1.2.1 First reign and Basiliscus' revolt (475–476) 1.2.2 End of the Western Empire 1.2.3 Revolt of Marcian (479) 1.2.4 Revolt of Illus (484–488) 1.2.5 Affairs with the Goths (474–487) 1.2.6 Promulgation of the Henotikon (482) 1.2.7 Suppressing the Samaritan revolt (484) 1.3 Death and succession 2 In popular culture 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 5.1 Primary sources 5.2 Secondary sources 6 External links Biography[edit] Rise to power[edit] Early life[edit] A detail of the Missorium of Aspar, depicting the powerful magister militum Aspar and his elder son Ardabur (434 circa). Zeno caused Ardabur's fall, producing treacherous letters that linked him to the Sassanid King; Ardabur later bribed some of Zeno's soldiers into trying to kill him. Zeno's original name was Tarasis, and more accurately Tarasikodissa in his native Isaurian language (Latin: Trascalissaeus).[5] Tarasis was born in Isauria, at Rusumblada, later renamed Zenopolis in Zeno's honour.[6] His father was called Kodisa (as attested by his patronymic "Tarasicodissa"), his mother Lallis, his brother Longinus. Tarasis had a wife, Arcadia, whose name indicates a relationship with the Constantinopolitan aristocracy, and whose statue was erected near the Baths of Arcadius, along the steps that led to Topoi.[7] Near Eastern and other Christian traditions maintain that Zeno had two daughters, Hilaria and Theopiste, who followed a religious life,[8] but historical sources attest the existence of only one son by Arcadia, called Zenon.[9] According to ancient sources, Zeno's prestigious career—he had fought against Attila in 447 to defend Constantinople and been consul the following year—was the reason why another Isaurian officer, Tarasis, chose the Greek name Zeno when he married into the Imperial family, thus being known as Zeno when he rose to the throne.[10] Some modern historians suggest that the Isaurian general Zeno was the father of the emperor,[11] but there is no consensus about this, and other sources suggest that Tarasis was a member of Zeno's entourage. The Isaurians were a people who lived inland from the Mediterranean coast of Anatolia, in the core of the Taurus Mountains (generally what is now the Konya/Bozkir area of Turkey). Like most borderland tribes, they were looked upon as barbarians by the Romans even though they had been Roman subjects for more than five centuries. However, being Orthodox Christians rather than Arians, as the Goths and other Germanic tribes were, they were not formally barred from the throne.[6] According to some scholars, in the mid-460s, the Eastern Roman Emperor, Leo I, wanted to balance the weight of the Germanic component of the army, whose leader was the Alan magister militum Aspar. He thought that Tarasis and his Isaurians could be that counterweight, and called him, with many Isaurians, to Constantinople. This interpretation, however, has been contested.[12] By the mid-460s, Arcadia and Zeno had been living at Constantinople for some time,[7] where Lallis and Longinus also lived, the latter married to a Valeria, possibly a woman of aristocrat rank.[12] According to ancient sources, the earliest reference to Tarasis dates back to 464, when he put his hands on some letters written by Aspar's son, Ardabur, which proved that the son of the magister militum had incited the Sassanid King to invade Roman territory, promising to support the invasion. Through these letters, which Tarasis gave to Leo, the Emperor could dismiss Ardabur, who at the time was magister militum per Orientem and patricius, thus reducing Aspar's influence and ambition. As reward for his loyalty, which Leo praised to Daniel the Stylite,[13] Tarasis was appointed comes domesticorum, an office of great influence and prestige.[7] This appointment could mean that Tarasis had been a protector domesticus, either at Leo's court in Constantinople, or attached at Ardabur's staff in Antioch.[12] In 465, Leo and Aspar quarrelled about the appointment of consuls for the following year; it was on this occasion that Tarasis' position was strengthened, as he became friend and ally of the Emperor.[14] Son-in-law of Leo I[edit] Relief of Ariadne, elder daughter of Emperor Leo I and wife of Zeno. To make himself more acceptable to the Roman hierarchy and the population of Constantinople, Tarasis adopted the Greek name of Zeno and used it for the rest of his life. In mid-late 466, Zeno married Ariadne, elder daughter of Leo I and Verina; there is no reference to him divorcing Arcadia who evidently died prior to this. The next year their son was born, and Zeno became father of the heir apparent to the throne, as the only son of Leo I had died in his infancy; to stress his claim to the throne, the boy was called Leo.[15] Zeno, however, was not present at the birth of his son, as in 467, he participated in a military campaign against the Goths.[12][16] Leo I, father-in-law of Zeno, Eastern Roman Emperor from 457 to 474. Zeno, as a member of the protectores domestici, did not take part in the disastrous expedition against the Vandals, led in 468 by Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus. The following year, during which he held the honour of the consulate, he was appointed magister militum per Thracias and led an expedition in Thrace. The sources do not clearly state what enemy he fought there, and historians had proposed either Goths or Huns, or the rebels of Anagastes. Either way, before leaving, Leo and Zeno asked for Daniel the Stylite's opinion about the campaign, and Daniel answered that Zeno would be the target of a conspiracy but would escape unharmed. Indeed, Leo sent some of his personal soldiers with Zeno to protect him, but they were bribed by Aspar to capture him instead. Zeno was informed of their intention and fled to Serdica, and, because of this episode, Leo grew even more suspicious of Aspar.[17] After the attack, Zeno did not return to Constantinople, where Aspar and Ardabur were, still with considerable power. Instead, he moved to the "Long Wall" (the Long Wall of the Thracian Chersonese or, less probably, the Anastasian Wall), then to Pylai and from there to Chalcedon. While waiting here for an opportunity to return to the capital, he was appointed magister militum per Orientem. He took the monk Peter the Fuller with him and left for Antioch, his office's see, passing through Isauria, where he put down the rebellion of Indacus. Zeno stayed at Antioch for two years.[18] While living in Antioch with his family, Zeno sympathised with the Monophysite views of Peter the Fuller, and supported him against his opponent, the Chalcedonian bishop Martyrius. Zeno allowed the arrival in Antioch of monks from nearby monasteries who increased the number of Peter's followers, and did not effectively repress their violence. Martyrius went to Constantinople to ask Leo for help, but, on returning to Antioch, he was informed that Peter had been elected bishop, and resigned (470). Leo reacted by ordering Peter into exile and addressing to Zeno a law that forbade the monks from leaving their monasteries or fomenting rebellion (1 June 471).[19] In 470/471, Zeno had also to deal with an invasion of Tzanni, who attacked Roman Armenia.[20] With Zeno far from Constantinople, Aspar had increased his influence by having his son Patricius appointed Caesar and married to Leo I's younger daughter, Leontia (470). Sources are contradictory on the causes, but clearly state that in 471, Leo I had Aspar and Ardabur treacherously killed. This certainly occurred with Zeno's and Basiliscus' approval, as, on the eve of the murders, the two generals had moved closer to Constantinople (Zeno was at Chalcedon). Thereafter, Zeno returned to Constantinople and was appointed magister militum praesentalis.[21] Reign[edit] First reign and Basiliscus' revolt (475–476)[edit] Coin of Leo II, minted in the name of "Leo and Zeno perpetual Augusti"; it belongs to the period when both Zeno and his son were joint emperors, between 29 January and 17 November 474. On 25 October 473, Leo I appointed as Caesar his grandson Leo II, the son of Zeno and Ariadne. On 18 January 474, Leo I died; if Leo II had not already been proclaimed co-emperor by his grandfather, he would have become Augustus on that occasion. Since Leo II was seven years old (too young to rule himself) Ariadne and her mother Verina prevailed upon him to crown Zeno, his father, as co-emperor, which he did on 29 January 474. When Leo II became ill and died, Zeno became sole emperor. Zeno had to settle matters with the Vandal King, Genseric, who was conducting raids against the Empire's coastal cities, threatening key commercial sea routes. Zeno sent Genseric a high-ranking officer as ambassador, Severus, who succeeded in stipulating an "eternal" peace between the Vandals and the Empire, which allowed the Romans to pay ransoms for the prisoners in Vandal hands and which ended the Vandal persecution of Orthodox Christians in their territory.[22] Despite this success, Zeno continued to be unpopular with the people and Senate because of his barbarian origins; his right to the throne was limited to his marriage with Ariadne and his relationship to Verina, the dowager Empress. Therefore, he chose to draw support from the Isaurian component of the army, in particular, the Isaurian generals Illus and Trocundes, both brothers. However, Verina decided to overthrow her son-in-law Zeno and replace him with her lover, the ex-magister officiorum Patricius, with the help of her brother Basiliscus. The conspirators fomented riots in the capital against the Isaurian emperor; Basiliscus succeeded also in convincing Illus, Trocundes and the Ostrogothic general Theodoric Strabo to join the plot.[22] Coin of Basiliscus, who revolted against Zeno in January 475 and held power until Zeno's return in August 476. Basiliscus was Verina's brother; he took power after having Zeno flee from Constantinople, but alienated the people of Constantinople and was captured and put to death by Zeno. In January 475, Zeno was forced to flee Constantinople to Isauria with his wife and mother,[23] some Isaurian fellows and the Imperial treasure. Illus and Trocundes were sent to chase him, and Zeno was compelled to shut himself up in a fortress, where Illus besieged him, capturing also Zeno's brother, Longinus and keeping him as an hostage.[22] However, the conspirators quickly fell in conflict with each other. Basiliscus took the throne for himself, putting to death Verina's lover and candidate, Patricius. He also allowed the mob to kill all of the Isaurians left in Constantinople, an episode that damaged relations with the Isaurian generals Illus and Trocundes. Basiliscus appointed his nephew Armatus magister militum, thus alienating Theodoric Strabo. Since Zeno had left no money, Basiliscus was forced to levy heavy taxes. Finally, he alienated the Church by supporting the Monophysites. The people of Constantinople also put the blame on him for a great fire that burned several parts of the city. With the secret support of the Senate, and bribes paid by Zeno, Illus agreed to switch sides and united his army with Zeno's, marching on Constantinople. Basiliscus tried to recover popular support and sent another army against Zeno, under his nephew Armatus' command. Zeno succeeded in bribing Armatus too, promising to confirm his rank of magister militum praesentalis for life and promoting his son (also called Basiliscus) to the rank of Caesar; Armatus' army failed to intercept Zeno's troops during their march on Constantinople.[22] In August 476, Zeno besieged Constantinople. The Senate opened the gates of the city to the Isaurian, allowing the deposed emperor to resume the throne. Basiliscus fled with his family to the baptistery of Hagia Sophia.[24][25] Betrayed by the Patriarch Acacius, he surrendered himself and his family after extracting a solemn promise from Zeno not to shed their blood. Basiliscus and his family were sent to a fortress in Cappadocia, where Zeno had them enclosed in a dry cistern, to die from exposure.[24][26][27] After his restoration, Zeno fulfilled his promises, letting Armatus keep his title of magister militum praesentalis (possibly even raising him to the rank of patricius) and appointing his son Basiliscus Caesar in Nicaea.[28] In 477, however, Zeno changed his mind, probably at Illus' instigation, as the latter stood to gain from the fall of Armatus, and ordered Armatus' death. Zeno confiscated all of Armatus' properties, deposed his son Basiliscus, and had him ordained as a priest.[29][30][31] End of the Western Empire[edit] This solidus was minted by Odoacer in the name of Zeno. Odoacer ruled Italy under the formal patronage of the Eastern Emperor. The western emperor Olybrius died in the autumn of 472. Gundobad, the western magister militum then proclaimed Glycerius, the comes domesticorum (commander of the Imperial guard) as western emperor in Ravenna. Leo I refused to endorse Glycerius and elevated his nephew Julius Nepos to co-emperor for the west in 473. Expecting resistance, Nepos was forced by bad winter weather to delay his voyage until the next year; it was therefore left to Zeno, as Leo's successor, to support Julius Nepos' installation in Ravenna. Nepos arrived in Italy, quickly deposed Glycerius who offered no resistance, and was proclaimed emperor by the Roman Senate in June 474. Julius was on good terms with Zeno, and he even minted coins in the names of Zeno, Leo II and himself.[32] Europe and the Mediterranean Basin at the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 In August 475, during Basiliscus' reign, while Zeno was in Isauria blocked by Illus' army, Orestes, the western magister militum, revolted, forcing Nepos to flee Italy for Dalmatia; Orestes proclaimed his own son Romulus Augustus emperor, but was unable to gain the allegiance of the remnants of the Western Empire outside of Italy.[32] One year later, while Zeno was entering Constantinople to end Basiliscus' brief usurpation, Romulus and Orestes were overthrown by the Chieftain Odoacer. With the support of Odoacer, the Roman Senate sent an envoy to present the imperial insignia to the restored Zeno. They asked Zeno to dissolve the separation of the empire and rule as sole Emperor; also, to appoint Odoacer both patricius and official imperial governor of Italy. At the same time, Zeno received another embassy, sent by Julius Nepos, who asked Zeno to give him the money and the army he needed to resume his control of Italy. Zeno answered that the Roman Senate should welcome back Julius Nepos, their rightful emperor, and that Odoacer should properly receive the patriciate from Nepos, although he allowed that he would also grant it.[33] Odoacer was officially recognised and left in possession of Italy, while Nepos kept his title and the other fragments of the empire's western holdings, but no army. Perhaps in deference to Zeno, Odoacer recognised Nepos' de jure reign in Italy until his death, ruling and even minting coins in his name, but he never allowed his return. After Nepos' assassination in 480, Odoacer invaded Dalmatia to pursue and punish the assassins (and also to take Dalmatia for himself). Zeno legitimised Odoacer's authority in Dalmatia; Odoacer recognised Zeno as sole emperor of the again unitary Empire, but increasingly started using the title of king for himself.[34] Revolt of Marcian (479)[edit] Marcianus was the son of the Western Roman emperor Anthemius (467–472) and a grandson of Emperor Marcian (450–457). He had married Ariadne's sister Leontia, and was therefore Zeno's brother-in-law; he was twice consul, in 467 and 472. In 479 Marcian tried to overthrow Zeno and claim the throne for himself. With the help of his brothers Procopius Anthemius and Romulus, he gathered in Constantinople troops composed of both citizens and foreigners in the house of a Caesarius, south of the Forum of Theodosius, and from there they marched at the same time on the imperial palace and on the house of Illus, who was a supporter of Zeno. The emperor almost fell into the hands of the rebels, who, during the day, overwhelmed the imperial troops, who were also attacked by citizens from the roofs of their houses. During the night, however, Illus moved an Isaurian unit, quartered in nearby Chalcedonia, into Constantinople and also corrupted Marcian's soldiers, who allowed Zeno to flee. The following morning, Marcian, understanding that his situation was desperate and that reinforcements from Theodoric Strabo would not arrive in time, took refuge in the church of the Holy Apostles, but was arrested with his brothers.[35] Zeno sent Marcian and his brothers to Caesarea in Cappadocia. They tried to flee, but Marcian was captured and obliged to become a monk in Tarsus (Cilicia),[36] or imprisoned in Isauria, in the fortress of Papurius. He tried to escape a second time, and this time he succeeded, but, after gathering new troops and attacking Ancyra, he was defeated and captured by Trocundes, Illus' brother.[35] Revolt of Illus (484–488)[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The commanding position and popular favour of Illus rendered him an object of suspicion, and Zeno in various ways sought to rid himself of him. Also Verina, the dowager Empress, plotted against his life. Verina's attempt was unsuccessful, and Zeno, equally jealous of her and of Illus, banished her at the suggestion of the latter, confining her in the fort of Papurius. There is some doubt as to the timing of these events. Candidus of Isauria places the banishment of Verina before the revolt of Marcian, and Theodore Lector assigns as the cause of it her share in the revolt of Basiliscus. It is not unlikely, indeed, that this turbulent woman was twice banished, once before Marcian's revolt, for her connection with Basiliscus, and again after Marcian's revolt, for her plot against Illus. From her prison she managed to persuade her daughter Ariadne, the wife of Zeno, to attempt to obtain her release, first from Zeno, and then from Illus, to whom the Emperor referred her. Illus refused her request. Ariadne, like her mother, attempted to assassinate Illus. Jordanes ascribes her hatred to another cause: he says that Illus had infused jealous suspicions into Zeno's mind which had led Zeno to attempt to end her life, and that her knowledge of these things stimulated her to revenge. The assassin whom she employed only wounded Illus; the assassin was taken prisoner and Zeno, who appears to have been privy to the affair, was unable to prevent his execution. Illus — with his friend Pamprepius, Leontius and his brother Trocundes – now retired from court. They first went to Nicaea and then, on pretence of change of air and of procuring a cure for his wound, into the East where he was made magister militum. Having traversed Asia Minor, they raised the standard of revolt in 484, when Illus declared Leontius Emperor. Zeno sent an army to fight them, but Illus won, obtained possession of Papurius, released Verina, and induced her to crown Leontius at Tarsus. In 485 Zeno sent against the rebels a fresh army, said to consist of Macedonians and Scythians (Tillemont conjectures, not unreasonably, that these were Ostrogoths) under John the Hunchback, or, more probably, John the Scythian, and Theoderic the Amal, who was at this time consul. John defeated the rebels near Seleucia and drove them into the fort of Papurius where he blockaded them. After a few months Trocundes died; the fort was taken only after four years of siege, by the treachery of Trocundes's brother-in-law, who had been sent for the purpose from Constantinople by Zeno. Illus and Leontius were beheaded (488) and their heads sent to the Emperor.[37] Affairs with the Goths (474–487)[edit] Bronze weight with the name of Theoderic the Great, King of the Ostrogoths and ruler of Italy. Theoderic served under Zeno, fighting against his opponent Theodoric Strabo (476–481), and then was the leader of the army that besieged the fort of Papurius and captured and killed Illus' brother, Trocundes (484). The aggressions of the two Ostrogothic leaders, Theoderic the Amal (Theoderic the Great), the son of Theodemir and leader of the Moesian Ostrogoths, and Theodoric Strabo, the leader of the Thracian Ostrogoths, had been a constant source of danger since 472. Although Zeno at times contrived to play them off against each other, they in turn were able to profit by his dynastic rivalries. It was only by offering them pay and high command that he kept them from attacking Constantinople itself. At the death of Leo II, Theodoric Strabo rebelled against Zeno. His support was instrumental in overthrowing Zeno and raising Basiliscus to the Byzantine throne (475), but Theodoric and Basiliscus had a falling-out, so when Zeno returned to Constantinople in 476 and defeated Basiliscus, Strabo was reported to have not defended the city.[38][39] In 476/477, Zeno allied himself with Strabo's rival, Theoderic the Amal, and ordered him to attack Strabo. The leader of the Thracian Goths sent an embassy to the Emperor, offering peace and blaming the Moesian Theodoric. Zeno understood that this offering was hiding further conspiracies, and convinced the Senate and army to declare Strabo a public enemy.[31] Zeno's plan was to have the two Theoderics attack each other. He sent the Amal against Strabo, who supported the revolt of Marcianus, with the promise of a huge Roman force as reinforcement (478). When Theoderic the Amal arrived through the mountains at Mount Soundis, he did not find the Roman reinforcement army he expected, but instead Theodoric Strabo's army, in a strongly fortified camp. The two Theoderics agreed to put forward a joint request to the Emperor, in order to extend to the south the settlement territory of the Ostrogoths in Moesia.[40] Zeno tried to divide the two Theoderics by bribing the Amal, but he refused the bribe. The Imperial army obtained some initial successes, but Zeno did not press his advantage, and allowed the Amal to move westward in Thrace, plundering territories as he went. With the Amal far away, Strabo accepted an agreement with Zeno: Strabo was to be given back his wealth, money to pay 13,000 soldiers, the command of two palatinae units, and the title once more of magister militum.[40] However, the army of Theodoric Strabo, 30,000-men strong was still a menace for Zeno, who convinced the Bulgars to attack the Thracian Goths in their own base. Strabo defeated the Bulgars in 480/481, and moved towards Constantinople, but he had to deal with problems with his own men, so he could not capitalise upon his victory and was forced to return to Greece. On his way back, he died in an accident.[40] After Theodoric Strabo died in 481, the future Theoderic the Great became king of the entire Ostrogoth nation and continued to be a source of trouble in the Balkan peninsula. Zeno allied to Theoderic, whom he appointed magister militum praesentalis and even consul for the year 484, the first time a barbarian who was not a citizen of the Empire reached such a high distinction. Zeno had Theoderic fight against Illus and the usurper Leontius, besieging them at Papurius in 484–488. However, in 486 Theoderic revolted again and attacked Constantinople, severing the city's water supply. Zeno bought a peace and agreed with Theoderic that the Ostrogoths should have gone to invade Italy to fight Odoacer, who had allegedly supported Leontius, and to establish his new kingdom there (487). This all but eliminated the Germanic presence in the east.[41] Promulgation of the Henotikon (482)[edit] In religious matters, Zeno is famous for his Henotikon, or "Act of Union", issued in 482 to mediate between Chalcedonian and Miaphysite views about the nature of Christ. The Chalcedonians recognised two natures (physis) in Christ, the Miaphysites only one; the Council of Chalcedon (451) had issued the Chalcedonian Creed and condemned the Miaphysite position, but the Miaphysites were still strong, especially in the Eastern provinces of the Empire, and the Patriarch of Alexandria, Peter Mongus, was a Miaphysite. Supporting the Miaphysites was one of the mistakes made by Basiliscus, as the people of Constantinople were Chalcedonian, but Zeno needed the support of the Miaphysite provinces—Egypt, Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor; also, the Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius, was interested in reducing the distance between the two positions. Therefore, in 482 Zeno issued the Henotikon, a document he had developed with the support of Acacius and addressed to the factions in Egypt. The edict affirmed the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (i.e., the Creed of Nicaea completed at Constantinople) as affording a common, final and united symbol or expression of faith. All other symbola or mathemata were excluded; Eutyches and Nestorius were unmistakably condemned in an anathema, while the twelve chapters of Cyril of Alexandria were accepted. The teaching of Chalcedon was not so much repudiated as passed over in silence; Jesus Christ was described as the "only-begotten Son of God [...] one and not two" and there was no explicit reference to the two natures.[42] The bishop of Rome, Pope Felix III, refused to accept the document and excommunicated Acacius (484), thus beginning the Acacian schism, which lasted until 519.[43] In 488 the patriarch of Antioch, Peter the Fuller, came to Constantinople to have his right to the Church of Cyprus confirmed. Zeno called the bishop of Cyprus, Anthemius, to answer the accusations. The bishop claimed that before his departure, he had had a vision of St. Barnabas, in which the position of the tomb of the apostle had been revealed to him. In the tomb, Anthemius had found the relics of the apostle and a copy of the Gospel of Matthew written in Hebrew by Barnabas himself. Zeno received the relics and the manuscript, and in exchange he proclaimed the autonomy of the Church of Cyprus.[44] In 489 Zeno closed the Persian school of Edessa, Mesopotamia, by request of bishop Cyrus II of Edessa, because it promoted Nestorian teachings, and built a church in its place. The school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the School of Nisibis, and leading to a wave of Nestorian immigration into Persia.[45] Suppressing the Samaritan revolt (484)[edit] Mount Gerizim, where Samaritan sources have Zeno buried. According to Samaritan sources, Zeno (whom the sources call "Zait the King of Edom") persecuted the Samaritans. The Emperor went to Sichem (Neapolis), gathered the elders and asked them to convert; when they refused, Zeno had many Samaritans killed, and converted the synagogue to a church. Zeno then took for himself Mount Gerizim, where the Samaritans worshipped God, and built several edifices, among which a tomb for his recently deceased son, on which he put a cross, so that the Samaritans, worshipping God, would prostrate in front of the tomb. According to these same sources, Zeno was buried on Mount Gerizim. Later, in 484, the Samaritans revolted. The rebels attacked Sichem, burnt five churches built on Samaritan holy places and cut off the fingers of bishop Terebinthus, who was officiating the ceremony of Whitsun. They elected Justa (or Justasa/Justasus) as their king and moved to Caesarea, where a significant Samaritan community lived. Here several Christians were killed and the church of St. Sebastian was destroyed. Justa celebrated the victory with games in the circus. According to John Malalas, the dux Palestinae Asclepiades, whose troops were reinforced by the Caesarea-based Arcadiani of Rheges, defeated Justa, killed him and sent his head to Zeno.[46] According to Procopius of Caesarea, Terebinthus went to Zeno to ask for revenge; the Emperor personally went to Samaria to quell the rebellion.[47] Modern historians believe that the order of the facts preserved by Samaritan sources should be inverted, as the persecution of Zeno was a consequence of the rebellion rather than its cause, and should have happened after 484, around 489. Zeno rebuilt the church of St. Procopius in Neapolis (Sichem) and the Samaritans were banned from Mount Gerizim, on whose top a signalling tower was built to alert in case of civil unrest.[48] Death and succession[edit] Zeno died on 9 April 491,[49] of dysentery[50] or of epilepsy,[51] after ruling for 17 years and 2 months. No sons were to succeed him: Leo had died in 474, Zenon, the first son, in his youth, while living at court.[9] Ariadne then chose a favoured member of the Imperial court, Anastasius, to succeed Zeno, whose brother Longinus revolted, starting the Isaurian War. According to a popular legend recorded by two 11th century and 12th century writers, Zeno was buried alive after becoming insensible due to drinking or an illness.[52] For three days cries of "have pity on me!" could be heard from within his verd antique sarcophagus, but because of the hatred of his wife and subjects, Ariadne refused to open the tomb. This tale is not likely, as earlier and contemporary sources do not mention it, even though they too were hostile to his memory.[1] In popular culture[edit] A game of τάβλη (tabula) played by Zeno in 480 and recorded by Agathias in circa 530 because of a very unlucky dice result for Zeno. The game is similar to backgammon; Zeno (red) threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone and thus exposed to capture.[53] Zeno was a player of τάβλη (tabula), a game nearly identical to modern backgammon.[53] (Τάβλη is still used to refer to backgammon in Greece.) In 480 he had a hand that was so unlucky that he wrote an epigram to record it; Agathias reproduced it half a century later and this allowed the game to be reconstructed in the 19th century. Zeno, who was white, had a stack of seven checkers, three stacks of two checkers and two blots, checkers that stand alone on a point and are therefore in danger of being put outside the board by an incoming opponent checker. Zeno threw the three dice with which the game was played and obtained 2, 5 and 6. As in backgammon, Zeno could not move to a space occupied by two opponent (black) pieces. The white and black checkers were so distributed on the points that the only way to use all of the three results, as required by the game rules, was to break the three stacks of two checkers into blots, thus exposing them to capture and ruining the game for Zeno.[53][54] Zeno is the protagonist of a theatrical drama in Latin, called Zeno, composed c. 1641 by the Jesuit playwright Joseph Simons and performed in 1643 in Rome at the Jesuit English College.[55] An anonymous Greek drama is modelled on this Latin Zeno, belonging to the so-called Cretan Theatre. This version was written and performed at Zakynthos in 1682–83 and has Zeno buried alive and his brother Longinus executed.[56] The play Romulus the Great (1950), by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, has Zeno as one of its characters. The plot is loosely based on history; here Zeno flees to Italy and tries to convince Romulus Augustulus to unite their forces and fight together, but his plan fails. Dürrenmatt's Zeno is an Emperor oppressed by the Byzantine ceremonial. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a b c Grierson, Philip; Mango, Cyril; Ševčenko, Ihor (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042); With an Additional Note". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16: 1–63. doi:10.2307/1291157. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291157. ^ Croke, Brian (2021). Roman Emperors in Context: Theodosius to Justinian. Routledge. pp. 149–152. ISBN 9781000388305. ^ The Auctuarium Prosperi Havniense dates Leo's death and Zeno's coronation on 18 January (the most accepted date) and 29 January respectively.[1] John Malalas gives February 3 and February 9.[1] The first source is generally considered the most reliable. However, and contradictorily, most authorities use Malalas' 9 February.[2] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 508. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ The sources call him "Tarasicodissa Rousombladadiotes", and for this reason it was thought his name was Tarasicodissa. However, it has been demonstrated that this name actually means "Tarasis, son of Kodisa, [coming from] Rusumblada", and that "Tarasis" was a common name in Isauria (R.M. Harrison, "The Emperor Zeno's Real Name", Byzantinische Zeitschrift 74 (1981) 27–28). ^ a b Stephen Mitchell, A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1-4051-0856-8, p. 114. ^ a b c Croke, pp. 160–161. ^ Terry G. Wilfong, Women of Jeme: lives in a Coptic town in late antique Egypt, University of Michigan Press, 2002, ISBN 0-472-06612-9, p. 35. ^ a b Martindale, "Zenon 4", p. 1198. ^ Jordanes, 333; Evagrius, ii.15. ^ Stephen Mitchell, A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1-4051-0857-6, pp. 114–115. ^ a b c d Croke, pp. 166–168. ^ Life of Daniel the Stylite, 55, cited in Croke, p. 168. ^ The source is Photius's epitome of the first book of Candidus of Isauria's chronicle (Croke, p. 161). ^ Croke, pp. 172–173. ^ Croke, pp. 178–179. ^ Croke, pp. 185–186. ^ Croke, pp. 188–190. ^ The law is contained in the Justinian Code (1.3.29). ^ Croke, p. 194. ^ Croke, p. 198. ^ a b c d Williams and Friell, pp. 181–183. ^ Hussey, Joan (1966). The Cambridge medieval history, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 473. ^ a b John Malalas, Chronographia XV.3–5. Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Jeffreys, Michael; Scott, Roger, eds. (2017) [1986]. The Chronicle of John Malalas. Byzantina Australiensia 4. Leiden [Melbourne]: BRILL. pp. 209–210. doi:10.1163/9789004344600_018. ISBN 978-90-04-34460-0. ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiastica III.8 The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius Scholasticus. Translated Texts for Historians 33. Translated by Whitby, Michael. Liverpool University Press. 2000. pp. 142–143 & note 31. ISBN 978-0-85323-605-4. ^ Anonymus Valesianus, 41–44. The Anonymus Valesianus, First Part: History of Theodoric I: Chapter 9: Section 44. Loeb Classical Library 331. Translated by Henderson, Jeffrey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1939. pp. 534–535. Retrieved 18 August 2020. ^ Elton, Hugh (10 June 1998). "Flavius Basiliscus (AD 475–476)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. ^ There exist some solidi and tremisses in the name of "Zeno and Leo nob[ilissimus] caes[ar]". They have been attributed to Zeno as emperor and to Armatus' son as Caesar; in this case Armatus' son would have changed his name from Basiliscus, the name of the usurper, to Leo, the dynastic name of Zeno's house (Philip Grierson, Melinda Mays, Catalogue of late Roman coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection: from Arcadius and Honorius to the accession of Anastasius, Dumbarton Oaks, 1992, ISBN 0-88402-193-9, pp. 181–182). ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiae, 3.xxiv. Evagrius reports that Basiliscus, the son of Armatus, later became bishop of Cyzicus. ^ Suda, s.v. "Ἁρμάτιος". ^ a b Martindale, J.R. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-0-521-20159-9. ^ a b Ralph W. Mathisen, "Julius Nepos (19/24 June 474 – [28 August 475] – 25 April/9 May/22 June 480)" Archived 4 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, De Imperatoribus Romanis ^ Malchus, fragment 10, cited in Ralph W. Mathisen, "Romulus Augustulus (475–476 A.D.)--Two Views" Archived 4 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, De Imperatoribus Romanis. ^ Williams and Friell, p. 187. ^ a b John Bagnall Bury, "X.2 The Revolts of Marcian and Illus (A.D. 479‑488)", in History of the Later Roman Empire, Dover Books [1923], 1958. pp. 395, 397–398. ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.26.. ^ William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, volume 2, p. 570. ^ Martindale, J.R. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1073–74. ISBN 978-0-521-20159-9. ^ Zeno had become allied in this occasion with Theoderic the Amal, whose Goths had moved to attack the Empire. It has been suggested that Constantinople was defenceless during Zeno's siege because the magister militum Strabo had moved to the north to counter this menace. See Heather, Peter (May 1998). Goths. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 158–159. ISBN 978-0-631-20932-4. ^ a b c Wolfram, Herwig (1979). History of the Goths (1990 reprint ed.). University of California Press. pp. 32, 270–276. ISBN 978-0-520-06983-1. ^ Stephen Mitchell, A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: the transformation of the ancient world, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, ISBN 1-4051-0856-8, pp. 118–119 ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiastica III. 14. ^ Alexander A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453, Volume 1, University of Wisconsin Press, 1958, ISBN 0-299-80925-0, pp. 107–109. ^ Steven Runciman, Elizabeth Jeffreys, Byzantine style, religion and civilization: in honour of Sir Steven Runciman, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-521-83445-7, p. 400. ^ J.B. Segal, Edessa, the Blessed City, Gorgias Press LLC, 2005, ISBN 1-59333-059-6, p. 95. ^ Malalas, 15. ^ Procopius, 5.7. ^ Alan David Crown, The Samaritans, Mohr Siebeck, 1989, ISBN 3-16-145237-2, pp. 72–73. ^ Theophanes the Confessor, 135,31–136,5. Cited in Michael Whitby, The ecclesiastical history of Evagrius Scholasticus, Liverpool University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-85323-605-4, p. 164. ^ Malalas, 391.1–4. Cited in Whitby, ibidem. ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, 3.29. ^ Cedrenus, I; Joannes Zonaras, 14.2.31–35. Cited in Whitby, ibidem. Michael Psellus, 68. ^ a b c Austin, Roland G. "Zeno's Game of τάβλη", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 54:2, 1934. pp 202–205. ^ Robert Charles Bell, Board and table games from many civilisations, Courier Dover Publications, 1979, ISBN 0-486-23855-5, pp. 33–35. ^ James A. Parente, Religious drama and the humanist tradition: Christian theater in Germany and in the Netherlands, 1500–1680, BRILL, 1987, ISBN 90-04-08094-5, pp. 177–178. ^ Frederick W. Norris, "Henotikon", in Encyclopedia of early Christianity, Everett Ferguson, Michael P. McHugh, Frederick W. Norris, Taylor & Francis, 1998, ISBN 0-8153-3319-6. Bruce Merry, Encyclopedia of modern Greek literature, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0-313-30813-6, p. 419. Bibliography[edit] Primary sources[edit] The events of Zeno's reign are quite obscure; only one continuous account of his reign has been preserved, by Evagrius Scholasticus, in his Historia Ecclesiastica (Chapter 3). Other sources are: Life of Daniel the Stylite Suda Cedrenus, A concise history of the world Malchus, Bizantiaka John Malalas, Chronographia Procopius of Caesarea, De Aedificiis Theophanes the Confessor, Chronicle Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum Secondary sources[edit] For a full-length biography of the emperor, see: Peter Crawford, Roman Emperor Zeno. The Perils of Power Politics in Fifth-Century Constantinople, Barnsley 2019. For a scholarly study of Zeno's religious policy, see: Rafał Kosiński, The Emperor Zeno: Religion and Politics (Byzantina et slavica cracoviensia 6), Cracow 2010. Further studies of his religious policy are: Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. For a discussion of recent scholarship on the life of Zeno until Aspar's death, see: Brian Croke, "Dynasty and Ethnicity: Emperor Leo and the Eclipse of Aspar", Chiron 35 (2005), 147–203. An account of the reign of Zeno and his successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, see: Stephen Williams and J.G.P. Friell, The Rome that did not fall: the survival of the East in the fifth century, CRC Press, 1999, ISBN 0-203-98231-2. For Zeno's accession, see: McEvoy, M. A. (2019). 'Leo II, Zeno, and the transfer of power from a son to his father in AD 474', in J.-W. Drijvers and N. Lenski (eds). The Fifth Century: Age of Transformation. Edipuglia. External links[edit] Media related to Flavius Zeno at Wikimedia Commons Zeno (emperor) Leonid dynasty Born: c. 425 Died: 491 Regnal titles Preceded by Leo II Eastern Roman emperor 474–475 Succeeded by Basiliscus Preceded by Basiliscus Eastern Roman emperor 476–491 Succeeded by Anastasius I Political offices Preceded by Anthemius Augustus II Roman consul 469 with Marcianus Succeeded by Messius Phoebus Severus Iordanes Preceded by Leo junior Augustus Roman consul 475 Succeeded by Basiliscus Augustus II Armatus Preceded by Illus Roman consul 479 Succeeded by Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9203	----	Tranquillina - Wikipedia Tranquillina From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Empress of Rome and wife of Emperor Gordian III Augusta Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Augusta Marble of Furia Sabinia Tranquillina at Museo Chiaramonti Empress of the Roman Empire Tenure 241–244 Born c. 225 Died aft. 244 Spouse Gordian III Issue Furia Names Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Regnal name Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Augusta Father Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus Furia Sabinia Tranquillina (c. 225 – aft. 244) was the Empress of Rome and wife of Emperor Gordian III. She was the young daughter of the Praetorian Prefect Timesitheus by an unknown wife. In 241 her father was appointed the head of the Praetorian Guard by the Roman Emperor Gordian III. In May that year, Tranquillina had married Gordian. She became a Roman Empress and received the honorific title of Augusta. Her marriage to Gordian was an admission by the young emperor of both Timesitheus' political indispensability and Tranquillina’s suitability as an empress. Contents 1 Family tree 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 Sources 4 References 5 External links Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Prosopographia Imperii Romani (PIR) ² F 587 References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tranquillina. External links[edit] http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/tranquillina/i.html http://www.forumancientcoins.com/catalog/roman-and-greek-coins.asp?vpar=1034 http://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=Tranquillina https://www.livius.org/to-ts/tranquillina/tranquillina.html Royal titles Preceded by Caecilia Paulina Empress of Rome 241–244 Succeeded by Marcia Otacilia Severa Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tranquillina&oldid=1017248938" Categories: Roman empresses 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century Roman women 220s births 244 deaths Augustae Furii Gordian dynasty Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 18:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9206	----	Maximian - Wikipedia Maximian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 286 to 305 For other people named Maximian or Maximianus, see Maximianus (disambiguation). Roman emperor Maximian Bust of Emperor Maximian Roman emperor Augustus 2 April 286[1] – 1 May 305 (in the West, with Diocletian in the East)[2] Predecessor Diocletian (alone) Successor Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Caesar 21 July[3] or 25 July[4] 285 – 286 (under Diocletian) Augustus (again) Late 306 – 11 November 308 (self-declared)[5] 310 (self-declared)[6] Born c. 250[7] Sirmium (present-day Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died c. July 310 (aged around 60)[7] Massilia (Marseille, France) Spouse Eutropia Issue Detail Flavia Maximiana Theodora Maxentius Fausta Names Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus[8] Maximian (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus; c. 250 – c. July 310), nicknamed Herculius,[9] was Roman emperor from 286 to 305. He was Caesar[3][4] from 285 to 286, then Augustus from 286[1] to 305.[2] He shared the latter title with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian, whose political brain complemented Maximian's military brawn. Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most of his time on campaign. In late 285, he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae. From 285 to 288, he fought against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he launched a scorched earth campaign deep into Alamannic territory in 288, temporarily relieving the Rhine provinces from the threat of Germanic invasion. The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius, rebelled in 286, causing the secession of Britain and northwestern Gaul. Maximian failed to oust Carausius, and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290. Maximian's subordinate, Constantius, campaigned against Carausius' successor, Allectus, while Maximian held the Rhine frontier. The rebel leader was ousted in 296, and Maximian moved south to combat piracy near Hispania and Berber incursions in Mauretania. When these campaigns concluded in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on 1 May 305, gave the Augustan office to Constantius, and retired to southern Italy. In late 306, Maximian took the title of Augustus again and aided his son Maxentius' rebellion in Italy. In April 307, he attempted to depose his son, but failed and fled to the court of Constantius' successor, Constantine (Maximian's step-grandson and son-in-law), in Trier. At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308, Diocletian and his successor, Galerius, forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim again. In early 310, Maximian attempted to seize Constantine's title while the emperor was on campaign on the Rhine. Few supported him, and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille. Maximian killed himself in mid-310 on Constantine's orders. During Constantine's war with Maxentius, Maximian's image was purged from all public places. However, after Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius, Maximian's image was rehabilitated, and he was deified. Contents 1 Early life 2 Appointment as Caesar 3 Early campaigns in Gaul and Germany 4 Carausius 5 Maximian appointed Augustus 6 Campaigns against Rhenish tribes 6.1 Campaigns in 286 and 287 6.2 Joint campaign against the Alamanni 6.3 Constantius, Gennobaudes, and resettlement 7 Later campaigns in Britain and Gaul 7.1 Failed expedition against Carausius 7.2 Campaign against Allectus 8 Campaigns in North Africa 9 Retirement 10 Maxentius' rebellion 11 Rebellion against Constantine 12 Family tree 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External links Early life[edit] Antoninianus of Maximian. Legend: IMPerator MAXIMIANVS AVGustus. An Argenteus of Maximian. Legend: MAXIMIANVS AVGustus. Maximian was born near Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) in the province of Pannonia, around 250 into a family of shopkeepers.[10][11] Beyond that, the ancient sources contain vague allusions to Illyricum as his homeland,[12] to his Pannonian virtues,[13] and to his harsh upbringing along the war-torn Danube frontier.[14] Maximian joined the army, serving with Diocletian under the emperors Aurelian (r. 270–275) and Probus (r. 276–282). He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and attended Diocletian's election as emperor on November 20, 284 at Nicomedia.[15] Maximian's swift appointment by Diocletian as Caesar is taken by the writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes to mean that the two men were longterm allies, that their respective roles were pre-agreed and that Maximian had probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus (r. 283–285) but there is no direct evidence for this.[16] With his great energy, firm aggressive character and disinclination to rebel, Maximian was an appealing candidate for imperial office. The fourth-century historian Aurelius Victor described Maximian as "a colleague trustworthy in friendship, if somewhat boorish, and of great military talents".[17] Despite his other qualities, Maximian was uneducated and preferred action to thought. The panegyric of 289, after comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus' victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War, suggested that Maximian had never heard of them.[18] His ambitions were purely military; he left politics to Diocletian.[19] The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggested that Maximian shared Diocletian's basic attitudes but was less puritanical in his tastes, and took advantage of the sensual opportunities his position as emperor offered.[20] Lactantius charged that Maximian defiled senators' daughters and traveled with young virgins to satisfy his unending lust, though Lactantius' credibility is undermined by his general hostility towards pagans.[21] Maximian had two children with his Syrian wife, Eutropia: Maxentius and Fausta. There is no direct evidence in the ancient sources for their birthdates. Modern estimates of Maxentius' birth year have varied from c. 276 to 283,[22] and most date Fausta's birth to c. 289 or 290.[23] Theodora, the wife of Constantius Chlorus, is often called Maximian's stepdaughter by ancient sources, leading to claims by Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein that she was born from an earlier marriage between Eutropia and Afranius Hannibalianus.[24] Barnes challenges this view, saying that all "stepdaughter" sources derive their information from the partially unreliable work of history Kaisergeschichte, while other, more reliable, sources refer to her as Maximian's natural daughter.[25] Barnes concludes that Theodora was born no later than c. 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian, possibly one of Hannibalianus' daughters.[26] Appointment as Caesar[edit] Golden solidus of Maximian. Legend: MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS / CONSVL IIII Pater Patriae PROCOnSul – SMAZ (Aquileia mint). Diocletian, Maximian's senior colleague and Augustus in the east. Legend: IMP. CARAVSIVS P. F. AVG. / LEGion IIII FL – ML (Londinium mint) At Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) in July 285,[27] Diocletian proclaimed Maximian as his co-ruler, or Caesar.[28] The reasons for this decision are complex. With conflict in every province of the Empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube, Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage his heavy workload.[29] Historian Stephen Williams suggests that Diocletian considered himself a mediocre general and needed a man like Maximian to do most of his fighting.[30] Next, Diocletian was vulnerable in that he had no sons, just a daughter, Valeria, who could never succeed him. He was forced therefore to seek a co-ruler from outside his family and that co-ruler had to be someone he trusted.[31] (The historian William Seston has argued that Diocletian, like heirless emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ("Augustan son") upon his appointment to the office. Some agree, but the historian Frank Kolb has stated that arguments for the adoption are based on misreadings of the papyrological evidence.[32] Maximian did take Diocletian's nomen (family name) Valerius, however.[33]) Finally, Diocletian knew that single rule was dangerous and that precedent existed for dual rulership. Despite their military prowess, both sole-emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power.[34] In contrast, just a few years earlier, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled jointly, albeit not for long. Even the first emperor, Augustus, (r. 27 BC–AD 14), had shared power with his colleagues and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) on.[35] The dual system evidently worked well. About 287, the two rulers' relationship was re-defined in religious terms, with Diocletian assuming the title Iovius and Maximian Herculius.[36] The titles were pregnant with symbolism: Diocletian-Jove had the dominant role of planning and commanding; Maximian-Hercules the heroic role of completing assigned tasks.[37] Yet despite the symbolism, the emperors were not "gods" in the Imperial cult (although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics). Instead, they were the gods' instruments, imposing the gods' will on earth.[38] Once the rituals were over, Maximian assumed control of the government of the West and was dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels known as Bagaudae while Diocletian returned to the East.[39] Early campaigns in Gaul and Germany[edit] The Bagaudae of Gaul are obscure figures, appearing fleetingly in the ancient sources, with their 285 uprising being their first appearance.[40] The fourth-century historian Eutropius described them as rural people under the leadership of Amandus and Aelianus, while Aurelius Victor called them bandits.[41] The historian David S. Potter suggests that they were more than peasants, seeking either Gallic political autonomy or reinstatement of the recently deposed Carus (a native of Gallia Narbonensis, in what would become southern France): in this case, they would be defecting imperial troops, not brigands.[42] Although poorly equipped, led and trained – and therefore a poor match for Roman legions – Diocletian certainly considered the Bagaudae sufficient threat to merit an emperor to counter them.[43] Maximian has been implicated in a massacre of Coptic Christian troops from the headquarters unit of a legion raised in Thebes at Aucanus in modern Switzerland in early 285, during the preparations for the campaign against the Bagaudae.[44] Maximian traveled to Gaul, engaging the Bagaudae late in mid-285.[45] Details of the campaign are sparse and provide no tactical detail: the historical sources dwell only on Maximian's virtues and victories. The panegyric to Maximian in 289 records that the rebels were defeated with a blend of harshness and leniency.[46] As the campaign was against the Empire's own citizens, and therefore distasteful, it went unrecorded in titles and official triumphs. Indeed, Maximian's panegyrist declares: "I pass quickly over this episode, for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it."[47] By the end of the year, the revolt had significantly abated, and Maximian moved the bulk of his forces to the Rhine frontier, heralding a period of stability.[48] Maximian did not put down the Bagaudae swiftly enough to avoid a Germanic reaction. In late 285, two barbarian armies – one of Burgundians and Alamanni, the other of Chaibones and Heruli – forded the Rhine and entered Gaul.[49] The first army was left to die of disease and hunger, while Maximian intercepted and defeated the second.[50] He then established a Rhine headquarters in preparation for future campaigns,[51] either at Moguntiacum (Mainz, Germany), Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), or Colonia Agrippina (Cologne, Germany).[52] Carausius[edit] See also: Carausius and Carausian Revolt A Roman antefix roof tile showing the badge and standard of Legio XX Valeria Victrix, one of the legions that joined Carausius' rebellion Although most of Gaul was pacified, regions bordering the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy. The emperors Probus and Carinus had begun to fortify the Saxon Shore, but much remained to be done.[53] For example, there is no archaeological evidence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne during 270–285.[54] In response to the pirate problem, Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius, a Menapian from Germania Inferior (southern and western Netherlands) to command the Channel and to clear it of raiders.[55] Carausius fared well,[56] and by the end of 285 he was capturing pirate ships in great numbers.[57] Maximian soon heard that Carausius was waiting until the pirates had finished plundering before attacking and keeping their booty himself instead of returning it to the population at large or into the imperial treasury.[58] Maximian ordered Carausius' arrest and execution, prompting him to flee to Britain. Carausius' support among the British was strong, and at least two British legions (II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix) defected to him, as did some or all of a legion near Boulogne (probably XXX Ulpia Victrix).[59] Carausius quickly eliminated the few remaining loyalists in his army and declared himself Augustus.[60] Maximian could do little about the revolt. He had no fleet – he had given it to Carausius – and was busy quelling the Heruli and the Franks. Meanwhile, Carausius strengthened his position by enlarging his fleet, enlisting Frankish mercenaries, and paying his troops well.[60] By late 286, Britain, much of northwestern Gaul, and the entire Channel coast, was under his control.[61] Carausius declared himself head of an independent British state, an Imperium Britanniarum and issued coin of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian, earning the support of British and Gallic merchants.[62] Even Maximian's troops were vulnerable to Carausius' influence and wealth.[63] Maximian appointed Augustus[edit] Spurred by the crisis with Carausius, on April 1, 286,[1] Maximian took the title of Augustus.[64] This gave him the same status as Carausius – so the clash was between two Augusti, rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar – and, in Imperial propaganda, Maximian was proclaimed Diocletian's brother, his equal in authority and prestige.[65] Diocletian could not have been present at Maximian's appointment,[66] causing Seeck to suggest that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion has not won much support, and the historian William Leadbetter has recently refuted it.[67] Despite the physical distance between the emperors, Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers, and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his will.[68] In theory, the Roman Empire was not divided by the dual imperium. Though divisions did take place – each emperor had his own court, army, and official residences – these were matters of practicality, not substance. Imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum.[69] As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian: "So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you, without any discord, nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you, but plainly you hold the state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae, the Spartan Kings, had done."[70] Legal rulings were given and imperial celebrations took place in both emperors' names, and the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire.[71] Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian's province of Africa; Maximian could presumably have done the same for Diocletian's territory.[72] Campaigns against Rhenish tribes[edit] Campaigns in 286 and 287[edit] Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress Carausius and campaigned instead against Rhenish tribes.[73] These tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace anyway and included many supporters of Carausius.[74] Although Maximian had many enemies along the river, they were more often in dispute with each other than in combat with the Empire.[75] Few clear dates survive for Maximian's campaigns on the Rhine beyond a general range of 285 to 288.[76] While receiving the consular fasces on January 1, 287, Maximian was interrupted by news of a barbarian raid. Doffing his toga and donning his armor, he marched against the barbarians and, although they were not entirely dispersed, he celebrated a victory in Gaul later that year.[77] Maximian believed the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes of the Moselle-Vosges region to be the greatest threat, so he targeted them first. He campaigned using scorched earth tactics, laying waste to their land and reducing their numbers through famine and disease. After the Burgundians and Alemanni, Maximian moved against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones. He cornered and defeated them in a single battle. He fought in person, riding along the battle line until the Germanic forces broke. Roman forces pursued the fleeing tribal armies and routed them. With his enemies weakened from starvation,[75] Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine.[78] He moved deep into Germanic territory, bringing destruction to his enemies' homelands[75] and demonstrating the superiority of Roman arms.[79] By the end of 287, he had the advantage and the Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen.[75] Maximian's panegyrist declared: "All that I see beyond the Rhine is Roman."[80] Flavius Constantius, Maximian's praetorian prefect and husband to his daughter Theodora Joint campaign against the Alamanni[edit] Early the next year, as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East.[81] The emperors met that year, but neither date nor place is known with certainty.[82] They probably agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius.[83] Later in the year, Maximian led a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates – a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory – while Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia. Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance.[84] They added large swathes of territory to the Empire and allowed Maximian's build-up to proceed without further disturbance.[85] In the aftermath of the war, towns along the Rhine were rebuilt, bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne, and a military frontier was established, comprising forts, roads, and fortified towns. A military highway through Tornacum (Tournai, Belgium), Bavacum (Bavay, France), Atuatuca Tungrorum (Tongeren, Belgium), Mosae Trajectum (Maastricht, Netherlands), and Cologne connected points along the frontier.[86] Constantius, Gennobaudes, and resettlement[edit] In early 288, Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Constantius Chlorus, husband of Maximian's daughter Theodora, to lead a campaign against Carausius' Frankish allies. These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries, thwarting sea-attacks against Carausius. Constantius moved north through their territory, wreaking havoc, and reaching the North Sea. The Franks sued for peace and in the subsequent settlement Maximian reinstated the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes.[77] Gennobaudes became Maximian's vassal and, with lesser Frankish chiefs in turn swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes, Roman regional dominance was assured.[87] Maximian allowed a settlement of Frisii, Salian Franks, Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory, either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Netherlands) to Traiectum, (Utrecht, Netherlands)[86] or near Trier.[79] These tribes were allowed to settle on the condition that they acknowledged Roman dominance. Their presence provided a ready pool of manpower and prevented the settlement of other Frankish tribes, giving Maximian a buffer along the northern Rhine and reducing his need to garrison the region.[86] Later campaigns in Britain and Gaul[edit] Failed expedition against Carausius[edit] Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain. Legend: IMP. CARAVSIVS P. F. AVG. / LEGion IIII FL – ML (Londinium mint) By 289, Maximian was prepared to invade Carausius' Britain, but for some reason the plan failed. Maximian's panegyrist of 289 was optimistic about the campaign's prospects, but the panegyrist of 291 made no mention of it.[88] Constantius' panegyrist suggested that his fleet was lost to a storm,[89] but this might simply have been to diminish the embarrassment of defeat.[90] Diocletian curtailed his Eastern province tour soon after, perhaps on learning of Maximian's failure.[91] Diocletian returned in haste to the West, reaching Emesa by May 10, 290,[92] and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1, 290.[93] Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291.[94] Crowds gathered to witness the event, and the emperors devoted much time to public pageantry.[95] Potter, among others, has surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. The rulers discussed matters of politics and war in secret,[96] and they may have considered the idea of expanding the imperial college to include four emperors (the Tetrarchy).[97] Meanwhile, a deputation from the Roman Senate met with the rulers and renewed its infrequent contact with the imperial office.[98] The emperors would not meet again until 303.[99] Following Maximian's failure to invade in 289, an uneasy truce with Carausius began. Maximian tolerated Carausius' rule in Britain and on the continent but refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy. For his part, Carausius was content with his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul.[100] Diocletian, however, would not tolerate this affront to his rule. Faced with Carausius' secession and further challenges on the Egyptian, Syrian, and Danubian borders, he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the Empire.[101] On March 1, 293 at Milan, Maximian appointed Constantius to the office of Caesar.[102] On either the same day or a month later, Diocletian did the same for Galerius, thus establishing the "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four".[103] Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed and defeat Carausius.[104] Campaign against Allectus[edit] Allectus, Carausius' successor. Legend: IMP. C. ALLECTVS P. F. AVG. / VIRTVS AVGusti – Senatus Consulto Constantius met expectations quickly and efficiently and by 293 had expelled Carausian forces from northern Gaul. In the same year, Carausius was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer, Allectus.[105] Constantius marched up the coast to the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries where he was victorious over Carausius' Frankish allies, taking the title Germanicus maximus.[106] His sights now set on Britain, Constantius spent the following years building an invasion fleet.[107] Maximian, still in Italy after the appointment of Constantius, was apprised of the invasion plans and, in mid-296, returned to Gaul.[108] There, he held the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius' Frankish allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain.[109] Allectus was killed on the North Downs in battle with Constantius' praetorian prefect, Asclepiodotus. Constantius himself had landed near Dubris (Dover) and marched on Londinium (London), whose citizens greeted him as a liberator.[110] Campaigns in North Africa[edit] With Constantius' victorious return, Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania (Northwest Africa).[111] As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against the Bavares and Quinquegentiani, but the raiders soon returned. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from Praetorian cohorts, Aquileian, Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German auxiliaries, and Thracian recruits, advancing through Spain later that year.[112] He may have defended the region against raiding Moors[113] before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco) to protect the area from Frankish pirates.[114] By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 resting in Carthage before returning to the field.[115] Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The terrain was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare, but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the Sahara.[116] His campaign was concluded by early 298 and, on March 10, he made a triumphal entry into Carthage.[117] Inscriptions there record the people's gratitude to Maximian, hailing him – as Constantius had been on his entry to London – as redditor lucis aeternae ("restorer of the eternal light").[116] Maximian returned to Italy in early 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome.[118] After his Mauretanian campaign in 299, Maximian returned to the north of Italy, living a life of leisure in palaces in Milan and Aquilea, and leaving warfare to his subordinate Constantius.[119] Maximian was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius, and Lactantius contends that he terrorized senators, to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing several, including the prefect of Rome in 301/2.[120] In contrast, Constantius kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and spent his time in active defense of the empire. He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301 and in 302 – while Maximian was resting in Italy – continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine.[113] According to Aurelius Victor, he also built a palace near his home town of Sirmium.[121] In addition to the imperial palace in Sirmium another palace has been found at Glac which may be that of Maximian.[122] Retirement[edit] Diocletian's vicennalia, the 20-year anniversary of his reign, was celebrated in Rome in 303. Some evidence suggests that it was then that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian to retire together, passing their titles as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius.[123] Presumably Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine – children raised in Nicomedia together – would then become the new Caesars. While Maximian might not have wished to retire, Diocletian was still in control and there was little resistance. Before retirement, Maximian would receive one final moment of glory by officiating at the Secular Games in 304.[124] Silvered follis struck in Aquileia 305–306 AD commemorating Maximian's abdication. Legend: DN MAXIMIANVS BAEATISSIMO SEN. AVG. / PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG. S F – AQS (Aquileia mint) On May 1, 305, in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia, Diocletian and Maximian retired simultaneously. The succession did not go entirely to Maximian's liking: perhaps because of Galerius' influence, Galerius' former army comrade Severus and Galerius' nephew Maximinus (both of whom had long military careers) were appointed Caesar, thus excluding Constantine and Maxentius.[125] Maximian quickly soured to the new tetrarchy, which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held. Although Maximian led the ceremony that proclaimed Severus as Caesar, within two years he was sufficiently dissatisfied to support his son's rebellion against the new regime.[126] Diocletian retired to the expansive palace he had built in his homeland, Dalmatia near Salona on the Adriatic. Maximian retired to villas in Campania, Lucania or Sirmium, where he lived a life of ease and luxury.[127] Although far from the political centers of the Empire, Diocletian and Maximian remained close enough to stay in regular contact.[128] Maxentius' rebellion[edit] After the death of Constantius on July 25, 306, Constantine assumed the title of Augustus. This displeased Galerius, who instead offered Constantine the title of Caesar, which Constantine accepted. The title of Augustus then went to Severus.[129] Maxentius was jealous of Constantine's power, and on October 28, 306, he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him Augustus. Uncomfortable with sole leadership, Maxentius sent a set of imperial robes to Maximian and saluted him as "Augustus for the second time", offering him theoretic equal rule but less actual power and a lower rank.[130] Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius and sent Severus with an army to Rome to depose him. As many of Severus' soldiers had served under Maximian, and had taken Maxentius' bribes, most of the army defected to Maxentius. Severus fled to Ravenna, which Maximian besieged. The city was strongly fortified so Maximian offered terms, which Severus accepted. Maximian then seized Severus and took him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome, where he was kept as a hostage. In late 307, Galerius led a second force against Maxentius but he again failed to take Rome, and retreated north with his army mostly intact.[131] Dresden bust of Maxentius While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian made his way to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine. A deal was struck in which Constantine would marry Maximian's younger daughter Fausta and be elevated to Augustan rank in Maxentius' secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and support Maxentius' cause in Italy but would remain neutral in the war with Galerius. The deal was sealed with a double ceremony in Trier in late 307, at which Constantine married Fausta and was declared Augustus by Maximian.[132] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8 but soon fell out with his son and in early 308 challenged his right to rule before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, and ripped the imperial toga from Maxentius' shoulders. He expected the soldiers to recognize him but they sided with Maxentius, and Maximian was forced to leave Italy in disgrace.[133] On November 11, 308, to resolve the political instability, Galerius called Diocletian (out of retirement) and Maximian to a general council meeting at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube. There, Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar, with Maximinus the Caesar in the east. Licinius, a loyal military companion to Galerius, was appointed Augustus of the West.[134] In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him.[135] After Constantine and Maximinus refused to be placated with the titles of Sons of the Augusti, they were promoted in early 310, with the result that there were now four Augusti.[136] Rebellion against Constantine[edit] Marble head of Constantine In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine while the Emperor was on campaign against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with part of Constantine's army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. In Arles, Maximian announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. Although Maximian offered bribes to all who would support him, most of Constantine's army remained loyal, and Maximian was compelled to leave the city. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and moved quickly to southern Gaul, where he confronted the fleeing Maximian at Massilia (Marseille). The town was better able to withstand a long siege than Arles, but it made little difference as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured, reproved for his crimes, and stripped of his title for the third and last time. Constantine granted Maximian some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself.[137] Despite the earlier rupture in relations, after Maximian's suicide Maxentius presented himself as his father's devoted son.[138] He minted coins bearing his father's deified image and proclaimed his desire to avenge his death.[139] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted.[140] In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image.[141] Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312. Maxentius died, and Italy came under Constantine's rule.[142] Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian's son, and Maximian's memory was rehabilitated. His apotheosis under Maxentius was declared null and void, and he was re-consecrated as a god, probably in 317. He began appearing on Constantine's coinage as divus, or divine, by 318, together with the deified Constantius and Claudius Gothicus.[143] The three were hailed as Constantine's forebears. They were called "the best of emperors".[144] Through his daughters Fausta and Flavia, Maximian was grandfather or great-grandfather to every reigning emperor from 337 to 363.[145] Family tree[edit] Diocletian Roman Emperor 284–305 ∞ Prisca sister Galerius Emperor of the East Galeria Valeria Maximian co-emperor 285–286 Emperor of the West 286–305 ∞ Eutropia Eutropia Afranius Hannibalianus Maximinus II Emperor of the East 310–313 Valeria Maximilla Maxentius Roman Emperor 306–321 ∞ Valeria Maximilla Helena Constantius Chlorus Emperor of the West 305–306 (?) Flavia Maximiana Theodora Valerius Romulus Fausta Constantine I Roman Emperor 312–324 Flavius Dalmatius censor Julius Constantius consul 335 See also[edit] 20,000 Martyrs of Nicomedia, executed partially during Maximian's reign Saints Sergius and Bacchus, officers of Maximian's army who were executed for being Christians Saints Demetrius and Nestor were executed by Maximian in Thessaloniki in 306 Order of Saint Maurice (United States), a series of awards given by the National Infantry Association, named in honor of Roman legionnaires allegedly killed by Maximian rather than worship pagan gods.[146] Notes[edit] ^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42. The chronology of Maximian's appointment to Augustus is somewhat uncertain (Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 142). It is sometimes suggested that Maximian was appointed Augustus from July 285, and never appointed Caesar. This suggestion has not received much support (Potter, 281; Southern, 142; following De Casearibus 39.17). ^ a b Barnes, New Empire, 4. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4. ^ a b Potter, 280–81. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Barnes, New Empire, 13; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 13. ^ a b Barnes, New Empire, 32. ^ For full titulature, see: Barnes, New Empire, 17–29. ^ DiMaio "Maximianus Herculius" ^ Epitome de Caesaribus 40.10, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32; Barnes, New Empire, 32; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Williams, 43–44. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1996). The Emperor Constantine. Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-415-13178-0. Retrieved 12 October 2010. ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39.26, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32. ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2).2.2ff, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 32. ^ Panegrici Latini 10(2).2.4, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 44–45. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 32–33; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Williams, 43–44. ^ Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39, quoted in Williams, 44. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 44. ^ Williams, 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13. ^ Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 8, quoted in Williams, 44. ^ Tyranny and Transformation: " Born sometime between a.d. 276 and 283, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius was the son of the tetrarchic emperor Maximian and Eutropia.". ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34. Barnes dates Maxentius' birth to circa 283, when Maximian was in Syria, and Fausta's birth to 289 or 290 (Barnes, New Empire, 34). ^ Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus 39.25; Eutropius, Breviaria 9.22; Jerome, Chronicle 225g; Epitome de Caesaribus 39.2, 40.12, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33; Barnes, New Empire, 33. ^ Origo Constantini 2; Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.16a, quoted in Barnes, New Empire, 33. See also Panegyrici Latini 10(2)11.4. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 33–34. ^ The event has been dated to both July 21 (Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, 69) and July 25 (Potter, 280–81). ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 4; Bowman, 69; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 280–81. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Southern, 136. ^ Williams, 45. ^ Potter, 280; Southern, 136; Williams, 43. ^ Bowman, 69; Odahl, 42–43; Southern, 136, 331; Williams, 45. ^ Bowman, 69. ^ Potter, 280. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. ^ Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Liebeschuetz, Continuity and Change, 235–52, 240–43; Odahl, 43–44; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11–12; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Odahl, 43; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 32–33, 39, 42–52; Southern, 136–37; Williams, 58–59. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 11. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46. ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29. ^ Eutropius, Brev. 9.20; Aurelius Victor, de Caesaribus, 39.17, quoted in Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 29–30. ^ Potter, 281–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 10; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 30; Southern, 137; Williams, 45–46. ^ O'Reilly, Lost Legion Rediscovered: The Mystery of the Theban Legion, 117-122. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Bowman, 70–71. ^ Southern, 137. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2), quoted in Williams, 46; Southern, 137. ^ Southern, 139–138; Williams, 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57; Bowman, 71; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6. ^ Williams, 46. ^ Potter, 282–83. Potter and Barnes (New Empire, 56) favor Trier; Williams (Diocletian, 46) favors Mainz. ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46. ^ Potter, 284. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6; Barnes, New Empire, 57. ^ Bowman, 71; Southern, 138; Williams, 46–47. ^ Southern, 138; Williams, 46–47. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 6–7; Bowman, 71; Potter, 283–84; Southern, 137–41; Williams, 47. ^ Potter, 284; Southern, 139–40; Williams, 47. Most of the information for the legions under Carausius' control comes from his coinage. Strangely, Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum (York, United Kingdom), which, for geographical regions, should have been included in the legions Carausius had control over, generally is not (Southern, 332). The Panegyrici Latini 8(4)12.1 admits one continental legion joined him, probably the XXX Ulpia Victrix (Potter, 650). ^ a b Williams, 47. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 71; Southern, 140. ^ Williams, 47–48. ^ Potter, 284; Williams, 61–62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bleckmann; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42; Williams, 48. ^ Williams, 48. ^ Potter, 282, 649. Diocletian would have been somewhere between Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey), where he is attested for March 22, 286 and Tiberias, where he is attested from May 31, 286 through August 31 (Barnes, New Empire, 50–51; Potter, 282, 649). ^ Potter, 282, 649. ^ Potter, 282; Williams, 49. ^ Bowman, 70; Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2)9.4, quoted in Potter, 283. ^ Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65. ^ Potter, 283. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 71; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40. ^ Southern, 141; Williams, 50. ^ a b c d Williams, 50. ^ Southern, 142. Barnes' New Empire records five dates for the period: the first, February 10, 286 at Milan (Codex Justinianus 8.53(54).6; Fragmenta Vaticana 282); June 21, 286 at Mainz (Fragmenta Vaticana 271); January 1, 287 Trier or Cologne or Mainz (date of consular assumption, Panegyrici Latini 10(2).6.2 ff.); and 287, his "expedition across the Rhine" (Panegyrici Latini 10(2).7.1ff.) (Barnes, New Empire, 57). ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 72. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Williams, 50. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7. ^ Panegyrici Latini 10(2).7.7, translated by Nixon in Nixon and Rodgers, quoted in Bowman, 72. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 57; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31. ^ Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 31; Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. Barnes (Constantine and Eusebius, 7) dates the meeting to after the campaign against the Alamanni. ^ Southern, 142–43; Williams, 50. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Corcoran, "Before Constantine", 40; Southern, 143; Williams, 50. ^ a b c Williams, 50–51. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7; Bowman, 72; Williams, 51. ^ Southern, 143. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5)12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7, 288; Bowman, 72–73; Potter, 284–85, 650; Southern, 143; Williams, 55. ^ Southern, 143; Williams, 55. ^ Potter, 285; Southern, 144. ^ Codex Justinianus 9.41.9; Barnes, New Empire, 51; Potter, 285, 650. ^ Codex Justinianus 6.30.6; Barnes, New Empire, 52; Potter, 285, 650. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)10, quoted in Williams, 57. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8; Potter, 285, 288; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 69. ^ Potter, 285; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 69. ^ Panegyrici Latini 11(3)2.4, 8.1, 11.3–4, 12.2; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 288; Potter, 285, 650. ^ Potter, 285. ^ Williams, 55–56, 62. ^ Williams, 62–64. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 36–37; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Barnes, New Empire, 4, 38; Potter, 288; Southern, 146; Williams, 64–65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8, 15; Williams, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15; Potter, 288; Rees, Layers of Loyalty, 99; Southern, 149–50; Williams, 71–72. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Barnes, New Empire, 255. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 15–16; Southern, 150. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 58–59. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Southern, 150; Williams, 73. ^ Southern, 150; Williams, 73–74; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Southern, 150; Williams, 75. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Williams, 75. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16. ^ Williams, 75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59. ^ a b Odahl, 58; Williams, 75. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 59; Odahl, 58; Williams, 75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 59; Odahl, 58. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16; Barnes, New Empire, 56. ^ Lactantius, DMP 8.4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 16. ^ Aurelius Victor, Historia Romana, De Caesaribus ^ Radonjic, Milan (August 7, 2018). "Tracing Emperors' Footsteps in Serbia's Ancient Roman City". Balkan Insight. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)15.16; Lactantius DMP 20.4; Potter, 340; Southern, 152, 336. ^ Potter, 340. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Williams, 191. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Potter, 341–42. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Southern, 152. ^ Southern, 152. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27–28; Barnes, New Empire, 5; Lenski, 61–62; Odahl, 78–79. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–32. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–31; Elliott, 41–42; Lenski, 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–49. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Elliott, 42–43; Lenski, 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32. ^ Cary and Scullard, A History of Rome, p522 ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34–35; Elliott, 43; Lenski, 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352. ^ Elliott, 43; Lenski, 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 34; Elliott, 45; Lenski, 68. ^ Lactantius, DMP 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Lenski, 68. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42–44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47; Barnes, New Empire, 35. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47. ^ Barnes, New Empire, 265–66. ^ The Order of Saint Maurice References[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-7837-2221-4 Bowman, Alan K. "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy." In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, edited by Alan Bowman, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, 67–89. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 Cary, M. and Scullard, H.H. A History of Rome. MacMillan Press, 1974. ISBN 0-333-27830-5 Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815304-X Corcoran, Simon. "Before Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2 DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996a). DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Galerius (305–311 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996b). DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maximianus Herculius (286–305 A.D)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997a). DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maxentius (306–312 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997b). Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2 Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-814822-4. Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209. Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor Rodgers. In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. ISBN 0-520-08326-1 Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1 O'Reilly, Donald. Lost Legion Rediscovered: The Mystery of the Theban Legion. Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley, 2011. Hardcover ISBN 184884378X Pohlsander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-31937-4 Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans. "Constantine I (306 – 337 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2004b). Accessed December 16, 2007. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger. Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric: AD 289–307. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-924918-0 Rees, Roger (2004). Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748616602. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maximianus. A Detailed Chronology of the Tetrarchy until 324 AD Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Maximianus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Maximian Constantinian dynasty Born: 250 Died: July 310 Regnal titles Preceded by Diocletian Roman emperor 286–305 With: Diocletian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Political offices Preceded by M. Junius Maximus Vettius Aquilinus Roman consul 287–288 with Diocletian, Pomponius Januarianus Succeeded by M. Magrius Bassus L. Ragonius Quintianus Preceded by M. Magrius Bassus L. Ragonius Quintianus Roman consul 290 with Diocletian Succeeded by G. Junius Tiberianus Cassius Dio Preceded by Afranius Hannibalianus Julius Asclepiodotus Roman consul 293 with Diocletian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Preceded by Diocletian Constantius Chlorus Roman consul 297 with Galerius Succeeded by Anicius Faustus Paulinus Virius Gallus Preceded by Anicius Faustus Paulinus Virius Gallus Roman consul 299 with Diocletian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 303–304 with Diocletian Succeeded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Constantine I, Flavius Valerius Severus, Maximinus Daza, Galerius Succeeded by Diocletian, Galerius, Maxentius, Valerius Romulus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9209	----	Athenodorus Cananites - Wikipedia Athenodorus Cananites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek Stoic philosopher (c.74 BC - 7 AD) For other people, see Athenodoros. Athenodorus Cananites Ἀθηνόδωρος Κανανίτης Athenodorus and the ghost, by Henry Justice Ford, c.1900 Born c. 74 BC Canana, near Tarsus Died 7 AD Occupation Philosopher and teacher Era Ancient philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Athenodorus Cananites (Greek: Ἀθηνόδωρος Κανανίτης, Athenodoros Kananites; c. 74 BC – 7 AD) was a Stoic philosopher. Life[edit] Athenodorus was born in Canana, near Tarsus (in modern-day Turkey); his father was Sandon.[1] He was a student of Posidonius of Rhodes, and the teacher of Octavian (the future Caesar Augustus) at Apollonia. He was a personal friend of Strabo, from whom we derive some knowledge of his life.[2] In 44 BC, he seems to have followed Octavian to Rome and continued mentoring him there. He is reputed there to have openly rebuked the Emperor, and to have instructed him to recite the alphabet before reacting in anger. Later, Athenodorus returned to Tarsus, where he was instrumental in expelling the government of Boëthus and drafting a new constitution for the city, the result of which was a pro-Roman oligarchy.[3] Athenodorus is also written of by Pliny the Younger, who tells us of Athenodorus' renting of a haunted house in Athens. Athenodorus was wary because the house was exceptionally cheap for its size. When Athenodorus was writing a book of philosophy, late at night, a ghost is said to have come to him. The ghost, who was bound with chains, beckoned Athenodorus to follow him, but was allegedly indicated by Athenodorus to wait. After he finished his writing, the ghost led him to a courtyard, and suddenly vanished. Athenodorus marked the spot, and the next day, with the permission of the city magistrates, he dug up the earth from that spot, where he found the skeleton of an old man, bound with chains. After the skeleton was given a proper burial with full honours, the ghost was said to have never haunted that house again.[4] Works[edit] Strabo, Cicero, and Eusebius regarded him highly. Works attributed to Athenodorus include: A work against the Categories of Aristotle (although this is sometimes credited to Athenodoros Cordylion). A history of Tarsus. A work of some kind dedicated to Octavia Minor.[5] A work entitled περὶ σπουδῆς και παιδείας ("On zeal and education"). A work entitled περίπατοι ("Perambulations"). None of these are extant, but he also assisted Cicero in writing his De Officiis and it has been suggested that his work may have influenced Seneca and Saint Paul.[3] Following his death, the people of Tarsus held an annual festival and sacrifice in his honour. Notes[edit] ^ Strabo, xiv. 14 ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Athenodorus s.v.". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 831. ^ a b Chisholm 1911. ^ Pliny the Younger (1909–14). "LXXXIII. To Sura". In Charles W. Eliot (ed.). Letters, by Pliny the Younger; translated by William Melmoth; revised by F. C. T. Bosanquet. The Harvard Classics. 9. New York: P.F. Collier & Son. ^ Plutarch: Life of Publicola 17. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athenodorus_Cananites&oldid=986762875" Categories: 70s BC births AD 7 deaths 1st-century BC philosophers Roman-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era philosophers in Rome Roman-era Stoic philosophers People from Roman Anatolia People from Tarsus, Mersin Ghosts in popular culture Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1: abbreviated year range Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with hCards Pages using infobox philosopher with unknown parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Íslenska Italiano مصرى Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 2 November 2020, at 21:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-921	----	Euphrates the Stoic - Wikipedia Euphrates the Stoic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman Stoic philosopher (c.35 – c.118) Euphrates the Stoic Born c. 35 AD Tyre or Epiphania Died c. 118 AD (aged 82-83) Occupation Stoic philosopher Euphrates (Greek: Εὐφράτης Evfratis) was an eminent Stoic philosopher, who lived c. 35–118 AD. Biography[edit] According to Philostratus,[1] he was a native of Tyre, and according to Stephanus of Byzantium,[2] of Epiphania in Syria; whereas Eunapius calls him an Egyptian. At the time when Pliny the Younger served in Syria (c. 81 AD), he became acquainted with Euphrates, and seems to have formed an intimate friendship with him. In one of his letters[3] he gives us a detailed account of the virtues and talents of Euphrates: Euphrates is possessed of so many shining talents, that he cannot fail to strike and engage even the somewhat illiterate. He reasons with much force, penetration, and elegance, and frequently embodies all the sublime and luxuriant eloquence of Plato. His style is rich and various, and at the same time so wonderfully sweet, that it seduces the attention of the most unwilling hearer. His outward appearance is agreeable to all the rest: he has a tall figure, a comely aspect, long hair, and a large white beard: circumstances which though they may probably be thought trifling and accidental, contribute however to gain him much reverence. There is no uncouthness in his manner, which is grave, but not austere; and his approach commands respect without creating awe. Distinguished as he is by the sanctity of his life, he is no less so by his polite and affable address. He points his eloquence against the vices, not the persons of mankind, and without chastising reclaims the wanderer. His exhortations so captivate your attention, that you hang as it were upon his lips; and even after the heart is convinced, the ear still wishes to listen to the harmonious reasoner. His great power as an orator is acknowledged also by other contemporaries,[4] though Apollonius of Tyana charges him with avarice and servile flattery. He asked and obtained from emperor Hadrian the permission of putting an end to himself by poison, "since Hadrian permitted him to drink hemlock in consideration of his extreme age and his malady.[5] Marcus Aurelius may be referring to him in passing, when he laments the death of a Euphrates, along with other philosophers.[6] References[edit] ^ Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum i. 7, Vit. Apoll. i. 13 ^ Stephanus, Epiphaneia ^ Pliny the Younger, Epistles, i. 10 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 15, iv. 8; Marcus Aurelius, x. 31 ^ Dio Cassius, lxix. 8. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 10.31  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphrates_the_Stoic&oldid=1013986269" Categories: 1st-century philosophers Roman-era Stoic philosophers Ancient Romans who committed suicide 35 births 118 deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Estremeñu مصرى Português Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 24 March 2021, at 15:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-922	----	Category:Pages using infobox philosopher with embed equal yes - Wikipedia Help Category:Pages using infobox philosopher with embed equal yes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This category is used for tracking uses of Template:Infobox philosopher with |embed=yes. Pages in category "Pages using infobox philosopher with embed equal yes" The following 94 pages are in this category, out of 94 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Shah Ahmad Noorani Eqbal Ahmad Albertus Magnus Anselm of Canterbury Hannah Arendt Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens User:Atfyfe Augustine of Hippo Avicenna B Francis Bacon Robert Barron Pope Benedict XVI George Berkeley Eduard Bernstein Bessarion Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai Kenzie Bok Bonaventure Edmund Burke Joseph Butler C Carlo Cafiero Cicero John Amos Comenius Marquis de Condorcet Benedetto Croce D Surendranath Dasgupta Milovan Đilas E Friedrich Engels F Edward Feser Buckminster Fuller G Giovanni Gentile Henry George Tomás González Morago Eugenio González Rojas A. C. Grayling Robert Grosseteste Fethullah Gülen J. Hunter Guthrie H Sam Harris Robert J. Henle Christopher Hitchens Hu Shih Aldous Huxley I Template talk:Infobox person/Archive 33 Template:Infobox philosopher Template:Infobox philosopher/doc Template:Infobox philosopher/sandbox Isidore of Seville J John VIII of Constantinople John of Damascus Talk:Jordan Peterson/Archive 4 Kireet Joshi Justin Martyr L Ferdinand Lassalle Ramiro Ledesma Ramos User:Lman-Writes-Stuff/sandbox M Roderick MacFarquhar Errico Malatesta Marcus Aurelius Karl Marx Giuseppe Mazzini Brian Herbert Medlin User:Michael Goodyear/Wikiguide/Biography Gianfranco Miglio John Stuart Mill Thomas More Gaetano Mosca Boris Mouravieff N John Henry Newman O Onora O'Neill P Pantaenus Charles Sanders Peirce Sándor Petőfi Petar II Petrović-Njegoš Dmitry Pisarev Q Qazi Qadan R John Rawls S Marquis de Sade Sachal Sarmast Girolamo Savonarola User:Scandal2040/sandbox Roger Scruton Aous Shakra Adam Smith Lysander Spooner T Thomas Aquinas Alexis de Tocqueville User:TranarchaEcatgirlism Benjamin Tucker V Dirk Verhofstadt Voltaire W Richard Whately Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann Bartholomew Woodlock Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Pages_using_infobox_philosopher_with_embed_equal_yes&oldid=1001387104" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9230	----	Campania - Wikipedia Campania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Campagna. For the Cunard liner, see RMS Campania. For ships of the Royal Navy, see HMS Campania. Region in Italy Campania Region Flag Coat of arms Coordinates: 40°54′38″N 14°55′14″E / 40.91056°N 14.92056°E / 40.91056; 14.92056Coordinates: 40°54′38″N 14°55′14″E / 40.91056°N 14.92056°E / 40.91056; 14.92056[1] Country Italy Capital Naples Government  • President Vincenzo De Luca (PD) Area  • Total 13,590 km2 (5,250 sq mi) Population (30 November 2014)  • Total 5,869,029  • Density 430/km2 (1,100/sq mi) Demonyms English: Campanian Italian: Campano (man) Italian: Campana (woman) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) ISO 3166 code IT-72 GDP (nominal) €108 billion (2018)[2] GDP per capita €18,600 (2018)[2] HDI (2018) 0.845[3] very high · 19th of 21 NUTS Region ITF Website www.regione.campania.it Campania (/kæmˈpeɪniə/, also UK: /kæmˈpæniə/, US: /kɑːmˈpɑːniə/,[4][5] Italian: [kamˈpaːnja], Neapolitan: [kamˈbɑːnjə]) is an administrative region of Italy. Located on the south-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, with the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands and Capri for administration as part of the region. As of 2018, the region has a population of around 5,820,000 people, making it the third-most-populous region in the country;[6] its total area of 13,590 km2 (5,247 sq mi) makes it the most densely populated region in Italy. Campania is the most productive region in southern Italy (and the 7th in the whole country) by GDP, with Naples' urban area being the 7th-most populous in the European Union.[7] The region is home to 10 of the 55 UNESCO sites in Italy, like Pompeii and Herculaneum, the Royal Palace of Caserta, the Amalfi Coast and the Historic Centre of Naples. Moreover, Mount Vesuvius is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves.[8] Coastal areas in the region were colonised by the Ancient Greeks between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, becoming part of the so-called Magna Graecia. The leading city of Campania at this time was Capua, with Naples being a Greek-speaking anomaly. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, and the presence of archaeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Paestum, Aeclanum, Stabiae, and Velia. The name of Campania is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, which translates into English as "fertile countryside" or "happy countryside". The rich natural beauty of Campania makes it highly important in the tourism industry, with the city of Naples, the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius, and the islands of Capri and Ischia continuing to be major attractions.[9] Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient tribes, Etruscan & Greek Colonies, and Samnite Wars 1.2 Roman period 1.3 Feudalism in the Middle Ages 1.4 The Kingdom 1.4.1 Norman to Angevin 1.4.2 Aragonese to Bourbon 1.5 World War II 2 Geography 3 Economy 3.1 Decline of heavy industry 3.2 Food and agriculture 3.3 Automotive 3.4 Aerospace and rail 3.5 Fashion 3.6 Other industrial districts 3.7 Transport 3.7.1 Rail 3.7.2 Maritime 3.8 Service 3.9 Unemployment 4 Demographics 4.1 Immigration and ethnicity 5 Government and politics 5.1 Administrative divisions 6 Culture 6.1 Cuisine 6.2 Ancient, medieval, and early arts 6.3 Contemporary and modern arts 6.4 Sports 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links History[edit] See also: Ancient Campania Ancient tribes, Etruscan & Greek Colonies, and Samnite Wars[edit] See also: Samnite Wars, Etruscan Civilization, Roman Republic, Pre-Indo-European languages, Oscan language, and Magna Græcia Ancient Greek Temple of Hera, Paestum, built 550 BC The region known today as Campania was inhabited from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, if not earlier, by Oscan-speaking Italic tribes, namely the Osci, the Opici, the Aurunci, the Ausones, the Sidicini, the Hirpini, the Caudini, the Oenotrians, the Campanians (where the name of the region stems from) and the Lucanians (as the southern portion of the region, roughly corresponding to much of modern-day Salerno, which was considered part of the ancient region of Lucania).[10][11] Many of these tribes lived in simple agro-towns. There is not much known about the pre-Indo-European tribes that lived in the region of Campania beforehand, but they were probably not as technologically or culturally advanced as the Oscans. The remaining pre-IE tribes were fully Oscanised by the middle of the first millennium BC. Between the 9th and 6th centuries BC, the Etruscans from Central Italy began establishing colonies in the Campanian Plains (the inland territories of the modern provinces of Caserta and Naples), as well as in the geographical regions of Agro Nocerino Sarnese and Agro Picentino (both in the modern-day province of Salerno), where they essentially replicated their Dodecapolis (twelve cities) political model, founding the cities of Hyria (modern-day Nola), Irnthi or Marcina (modern-day Salerno), Amina (modern-day Pontecagnano Faiano), Velcha, Velsu and Uri. In addition to assimilating in their urban-political domains, the Etruscans also incorporated the pre-existing tribal Oscan agro-towns of Capua (modern-day Santa Maria Capua Vetere), Nuceria (modern-day comuni of Nocera Superiore and Nocera Inferiore), Suessula, Acerra, Ercolano, Pompeii, Stabiae and Sorrento.[12][13][14] Meanwhile, during the 8th century BC, Greek-speaking people from Euboea (in Central Greece), known as Cumaeans, began to establish colonies themselves roughly around the coastal areas of the modern-day province of Naples and in the nearby islands founding, among others, the cities of Cumae, Pithekoūsai (modern-day Ischia), Paestum, Herculaneum and Dicaearchia , later 'Puteoli', in Latin (modern-day Pozzuoli). The city of Naples began as a small commercial port called Parthenope (Παρθενόπη, meaning "Pure Eyes", a Siren in Greek mythology), which was established by Greek colonial sailors from Rhodes.[15] Ruins of Aeclanum, a Roman town in Irpinia district. At one point in history, a distinct group of Oscan-speaking tribes from Samnium (in south-central Italy), the Samnites, moved down into Campania. Since the Samnites were more warlike than the other Oscan populations, they easily took over the cities of Capua and Cumae, in an area which was one of the most prosperous and fertile in the Italian Peninsula at the time.[16] During the 340s BC, the Samnites were engaged in a war with the Roman Republic in a dispute known as the Samnite Wars, with Rome claiming the rich pastures of northern Campania during the First Samnite War.[17] The First Samnite War was initiated when the Etruscan-influenced Oscan city of Capua (in Etruscan Capeva) was being attacked by the Samnites, and thus appealed to Rome for defensive help. As the majority of Southern Italy was under Roman control at the time, the sole major remaining independent settlement in the region was the Greek colony of Neapolis, and when the city was eventually captured by the Samnites, the Neapolitan Greeks were left with no option but to call on the Romans, with whom they established an alliance, setting off the Second Samnite War.[16] The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC and allowed it to remain a Greek city with some autonomy as a civitas foederata while strongly aligned with Rome.[18] The Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling all of southern Campania and additional regions further to the south, such as parts of Lucania.[17] Roman period[edit] See also: Roman Republic, Roman Empire, and Italia (Roman Empire) Campania was a full-fledged part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures and rich countryside. Naples, with its Greek language and customs, made it a centre of Hellenistic culture for the Romans, creating the first traces of Greco-Roman culture.[19] During the Pyrrhic War in 275 BC, the Battle of Beneventum took place in Campania in the Samnite city of Maleventum, in which the Romans, led by the consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed it Beneventum (modern day Benevento), which grew in stature until it was second only to Capua in southern Italy.[20] During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, allied with Carthage.[21] The rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls.[19] Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious.[21] The Last Day of Pompeii – Karl Briullov With the initial exception of Naples, the region adopted Latin as official language, in that sense gradually replacing the native Oscan and the Greek and the Etruscan still talked respectively in their colonies of the region,[22][23][24] subsequently becoming fully Romanised.[25][26] As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, formed the most important region of the Augustan divisions of Italia, the Regio I Latium et Campania; Campania was one of the main areas for granary.[26] In ancient times Misenum (modern 'Miseno'), at the extreme northern end of the bay of Naples, was the largest base of the Roman navy, since its port (Portus Julius) was the base of the Classis Misenensis, the most important Roman fleet. It was first established as a naval base in 27 BC by Marcus Agrippa, the right-hand man of the emperor Augustus. Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri.[19] It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania. Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time.[27] Unfortunately, the period of relative calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.[28] With the Decline of the Roman Empire, its last emperor, Romulus Augustus, was put in a manor house prison near Castel dell'Ovo, Naples, in 476, ushering in the beginning of the Middle Ages and a period of uncertainty in regard to the future of the area.[19] Feudalism in the Middle Ages[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire, Duchy of Naples, Duchy of Benevento, Principality of Capua, Principality of Salerno, Duchy of Amalfi, Duchy of Sorrento, and Duchy of Apulia and Calabria The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire (also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire) and the Lombards. Under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period that elements of Spanish, French and Aragonese culture were introduced to Campania. Allegiances with the Muslim Saracens were made in 836, and the Arabs were requested to repel the siege of Lombard troops coming from the neighbouring Duchy of Benevento. However, during the 850s, Muhammad I Abu 'l-Abbas led the conquest of the city, and managed to sack it and take huge amount of its wealth.[29][30] The Kingdom[edit] Norman to Angevin[edit] See also: Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of Naples, and List of monarchs of Naples Early kings ruled from Castel Nuovo After a period as a Norman kingdom, the Kingdom of Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufens, who were a powerful Germanic royal house of Swabian origins.[31] The University of Naples Federico II was founded by Frederick II in the city, the oldest state university in the world, making Naples the intellectual centre of the kingdom.[32] Conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy, led in 1266 to Pope Innocent IV crowning Angevin Dynasty duke Charles I as the king.[33] Charles officially moved the capital from Palermo to Naples where he resided at the Castel Nuovo.[34] During this period, much Gothic architecture sprang up around Naples, including the Naples Cathedral, the main church of the city.[35] In 1281, with the advent of the Sicilian Vespers, the kingdom split in half. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily.[33] The wars continued until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of the Isle of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as the king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII.[33] Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting Pisan and Genoese merchants,[36] Tuscan bankers, and with them some of the most championed Renaissance artists of the time, such as Boccaccio, Petrarch and Giotto.[37] Alfonso I conquered Naples after his victory against the last Angevin king, René, and Naples was unified for a brief period with Sicily again.[38] Aragonese to Bourbon[edit] See also: Kingdom of Naples, Parthenopaean Republic, Two Sicilies, and List of monarchs of the Two Sicilies Revolutionary Masaniello Sicily and Naples were separated in 1458 but remained as dependencies of Aragon under Ferrante.[39] The new dynasty enhanced Naples' commerce by establishing relations with the Iberian peninsula. Naples also became a centre of the Renaissance, with artists such as Laurana, da Messina, Sannazzaro and Poliziano arriving in the city.[40] During 1501 Naples came under direct rule from France at the time of Louis XII, as Neapolitan king Frederick was taken as a prisoner to France; this lasted four years.[41] Spain won Naples at the Battle of Garigliano and, as a result, Naples then became part of the Spanish Empire throughout the entire Habsburg Spain period.[41] The Spanish sent viceroys to Naples to directly deal with local issues: the most important of which was Pedro Álvarez de Toledo, who was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban progress in the city; he also supported the Inquisition.[42] Caserta Palace, inside During this period Naples became Europe's second largest city after Paris.[43] During the Baroque era it was home to artists including Caravaggio, Rosa and Bernini; philosophers such as Telesio, Bruno, Campanella and Vico; and writers such as Battista Marino. A revolution led by local fisherman Masaniello saw the creation of a brief independent Neapolitan Republic, though this lasted only a few months before Spanish rule was regained.[41] Finally, by 1714, the Spanish ceased to rule Naples as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession; it was the Austrian Charles VI who ruled from Vienna, similarly, with viceroys.[44] However, the War of the Polish Succession saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union, which in the Treaty of Vienna were recognised as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons in 1738 under Charles VII.[45] Ferdinand, Bourbon king. During the time of Ferdinand IV, the French Revolution made its way to Naples: Horatio Nelson, an ally of the Bourbons, even arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against it. However, Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo, where he was protected by a British fleet.[46] Naples' lower classes (the lazzaroni) were pious and Royalist, favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war.[46] The Republicans conquered Castel Sant'Elmo and proclaimed a Parthenopaean Republic, secured by the French Army.[46] A counter-revolutionary religious army of lazzaroni under Fabrizio Ruffo was raised; they had great success and the French surrendered the Neapolitan castles and were allowed to sail back to Toulon.[46] Ferdinand IV was restored as king; however, after only seven years Napoleon conquered the kingdom and instated Bonapartist kings including his brother Joseph Bonaparte.[47] With the help of the Austrian Empire and allies, the Bonapartists were defeated in the Neapolitan War and Bourbon Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom.[47] The Congress of Vienna in 1815 saw the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily combined to form the Two Sicilies,[47] with Naples as the capital city. Naples became the first city on the Italian peninsula to have a railway in 1839,[48] there were many factories throughout the kingdom making it a highly important trade centre.[49] World War II[edit] In September 1943, Salerno was the scene of Operation Avalanche and suffered a great deal of damage. From 12 February to 17 July 1944, it hosted the Government of Marshal Pietro Badoglio. In those months Salerno was the temporary "Capital of the Kingdom of Italy", and the King Victor Emmanuel III lived in a mansion in its outskirts. Salerno received the first "Tricolore" in an official ceremony on 7 January 2012 from the premier Mario Monti, to celebrate the glorious story of Italy and its old capitals. Geography[edit] Main article: Geography of Campania Mount Vesuvius erupting in 1944 Campania has an area of 13,590 km2 (5,247 sq mi) and a coastline of 350 km (217 mi) on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Campania is famous for its gulfs (Naples, Salerno and Policastro) as well as for three islands (Capri, Ischia and Procida). Four other regions border Campania; Lazio to the northwest, Molise to the north, Apulia (Puglia) to the northeast and Basilicata to the east. The mountainous interior is fragmented into several massifs, rarely reaching 2,000 metres (Miletto of 2,050 m), whereas close to the coast there are volcanic massifs: Vesuvio (1,277 m) and Campi Flegrei. The climate is typically Mediterranean along the coast with warm, sunny and sultry summers and mild, rainy winters, whereas in the inner zones it is more continental, with lower temperatures in winter and warm summers. Snow is possible at higher elevations but rare at sea level. 51% of the total area is hilly, 34% mountainous and the remaining 15% is made up of plains. There is a high seismic risk across the region. Naples (Nunziatella Military School) Amalfi Coast (Positano) Island Capri Island Ischia Economy[edit] This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Some sentences look like OR or having a subjective point of view. Please help improve this section if you can. (June 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The GDP per capita in Campania is rank 18 from 20 Italian regions, surpassed only Sicily and Calabria.[2] It is only 66.7% of the Italian average. It has been speculated that a factor could be the failure to connect the region's economy with the rest of Italy, while another factor could be its peripheral position with respect to the developed central areas of Europe.[50] Some factors may contribute in keeping the economy less competitive or less flexible compared to northern Italian and European regions, among them: a larger public administration sector (which accounted for 20.4% of the whole economy in 2013, while in Italy it is 13.6%), suggesting an excessive number of public employees or white collars. In Campania, there are 5.7 lawyers every 1,000 residents, while by comparison in the northern region of Trentino-Alto Adige the number is 1.7.[51] extreme high criminal activity (Camorra) danger from volcano eruption and bradyseismic activity bad ecology because of illegal toxic waste dumping and industrial pollution poor infrastructure. Building of motorway Salerno-Reggio di Calabria (A3, which was renamed to A2) takes 55 years. [52] Decline of heavy industry[edit] Bagnoli derelict steelworks (2016) Heavy industry used to be concentrated in the Naples metropolitan area, where the largest industrial area was Bagnoli, a suburb located west of the city. Bagnoli enjoyed a favourable logistic position due to its proximity to the sea and to an industrial harbour and included steel factories that were among the largest in Europe. The steel factories operated since 1905 for about 80 years, but by the end of the sixties, all industries of the Bagnoli area gradually started to lose competitiveness, and the steel factories were definitively closed in 1991, but until 2021 the area has not been redeveloped completely. At the beginning of the 70s, plans for the de-industrialization of the area were presented, as it was perceived that the causes of competitiveness loss were impossible to remove. In 1970 the City Council decided that 30% of the space of the industrial area should be dismantled and turned into public parks. In 1976, a report concluded that the lack of competitiveness was due to the "impossibility to expand the facilities because of lack of space".[53][54] The metropolitan area of Naples is limited by two dangerous areas, the Mount Vesuvius to the east, and the Campi Flegrei to the west, leaving little space in proximity of the sea. Other large plants were also closed, e.g. Eternit, Q8 oil refinery, ICMI, Sofer, Whirlpool, Olivetti. There is no valuable small and medium enterprises in machine building, metalworking and chemical. Food and agriculture[edit] Campania mainly produces fruit and vegetables, but has also expanded its production of flowers grown in greenhouses, becoming one of the leading regions of the sector in Italy. The value added of this sector represents around 6.5% of the total value added of the region, equalling €213.7 million. Campania produces over 50% of Italy's nuts and is also the leader in the production of tomatoes, which reaches 1.5 million tonnes a year. A weak point for the region's agriculture is the very reduced size of farms, equal to 3.53 hectares. Typical products are: Apple "Annurca" with distinctive ripening process Crisommole (Vesuvian apricot) Percoca (Variety of peach) Huge lemon of Sorrento and Amalfi Coast Sorrento orange White fig of Cilento San Marzano tomato Artichoke of Paestum Pasta of Gragnano Mozzarella di bufala Liqueur "Limoncello" Anchovy A distinctive point of regional agriculture in the breeding of buffalos. The milk is used to produce mozzarella di bufala. Olive trees, mainly of the varieties Carpellese (PDO designated),[55] Cornia (Val di Cornia DOC), Frantoio, Leccino, Ogliarola Barese, Olivella, Ortice, Pisciottana (Also Ogliastrina or Olivo dell'Ascea),[56] Ravece (also known as Rotondello),[57] and Salella,[58] covers over 74,604 hectares (184,350 acres). Vineyards cover 41,129 ha, but only ca. 5,100 ha using to produce quality wine of DOC and DOCG types. There are 4 DOCG wines: Aglianico del Taburno (red and rose), Fiano di Avellino (white), Greco di Tufo (white and sparkling) and Taurasi (red). Wine production has increased as well as the quality of the wine.[59] There is a problem with illegal toxic waste dump in the Triangle of death north of Naples between Acerra, Nola and Marigliano.[60][61] In the region, over 12,000 cattle, river buffaloes and sheep had been culled before 2006.[62] High levels of mortality and abnormal foetuses were also recorded in farms in Acerra linked to elevated levels of dioxin.[62] Local studies have shown higher than permissible levels of lead in vegetables grown in the area.[63] The government blames the Mafia's illegal garbage disposal racket.[63] In samples of milk, which is using to produce mozzarella di bufala, found cancerogenic dioxine.[64] In Naples-Bagnoli is an asbestos contamination from former Eternit cement plant. [65] Millions of tons of toxic industrial waste has been dumped in Campania, not only in the Triangle of death, a region once celebrated for the fertility of its soil, but now the local population have been exposed to land contaminated with waste. This includes highly dangerous materials such as asbestos, zinc, lead, germanium, arsenic, mercurial, cadmium, chromium, dioxin and uranium. Blood tests of people living in Campania show alarming levels of dioxins. [66] Automotive[edit] Fiat Panda III Campania had a massive automotive industrial production till 2011, focused on Alfa Romeo[67]. Production of Alfa Romeo was shrinked and relocated to plant in Cassino near Rome. Currently only one low-level Fiat Panda model is produced in facilities located in Pomigliano d'Arco in the Naples metropolitan area (140,478 units in 2020).[68] A FIAT plant manufacturing engines is in Pratola Serra, Avellino. There are also plants for automotive parts suppliers like Magneti Marelli (exhaust systems) and Denso (engine cooling and air-conditioners). Buses are produced by Industria Italiana Autobus in Flumeri (ex-Irisbus). Aerospace and rail[edit] There is also a significant aerospace industry: A failed Mars mission named ExoMars in 2016 had a major part of its technology designed in Naples[69] No signal indicating a successful landing was received.[70] Also in Pomigliano d'Arco there are a Leonardo plant, which produces the fuselage and tail of ATR planes[71] and an Avio Aero plant, which manufactures parts of gas turbines. Benevento has a Leonardo Helicopters plant (aluminum and magnesium castings)[71] Radars for military and air traffic control applications and components are produced by two other Leonardo establishments in Giugliano in Campania and Bacoli[71] Vulcanair in Casoria manufactures light aircraft Seekers for missiles are made in Bacoli-Fusaro by MBDA ATR 72 Vulcanair P.68 Driverless Metro Brescia Meneghino Metro Milano Hitachi Rail Italy has headquarters, manufacturing plant and service facilities in Naples. Here it produces the metro trains Meneghino and Driverless Metro.[72] Fashion[edit] Luxury brands like Kiton, Cesare Attolini, Isaia, Rubinacci, Harmont & Blaine, E. Marinella are also located in Campania. All of them are relative small-sized with annual sales of less than 100 million euros each. Other industrial districts[edit] There are other industrial districts in Campania: Leather Shop Jewelry in Marcianise, one of the four located in Italy. It has 350 companies with ca. 2500 employees, and the annual turnover is 750 million euros. Every two years there is a special fair. Coral products, cameos and nacre in Torre del Greco. Since 1989 in Torre del Greco coral fishing is not practised, but the town still remains the most important centre in the world for coral processing, with over 2,000 employees in the sector. Leather tanning in Solofra extends over an area of about 60 km² in the south-western area of the province of Avellino, including also Montoro and Serino. This area is specialized in the tanning of sheep and goatskins, for a total of about 400 companies operating in the sector including tanneries, subcontractors and garment manufacturers, 4,000–4,500 employees and an average annual turnover of 1,500 million euros. It specializes in the processing of leathers for clothing, shoes and leather goods. Shoe making in Grumo Nevano, Aversa, Trentola Ducenta Transport[edit] Alstom AGV The region has a dense network of roads and motorways, a system of maritime connections and an international airport (Naples Airport). The port of Naples connects the region with the Mediterranean basin, and brings tourists to the archaeological sites, the cities of art (Naples and Caserta), to the coastal areas and to the islands. Rail[edit] There are high-speed rail lines: Rome–Naples Naples–Salerno There is a maintenance and service centre for high-speed trains Alstom AGV in Nola. Maritime[edit] Fincantieri shipyard Castellammare di Stabia Sea-based activity accounts for about 3.9% of the economy, which includes port movements of goods and passengers and sea transportation, as well as a sizable seaside tourism economy. In Castellammare di Stabia there is a big Fincantieri shipyard. Shipping companies Grimaldi and Tirrenia both headquarter in Naples. The most well-known person in the Italian maritime industry is Neapolitan captain Francesco Schettino who crashed super-modern, full-equipped with all navigational and safety systems, cruise ship Costa Concordia on the underwater rocks of Giglio island in serene weather without any technical problem on board. Unlike captains Edward Smith (Titanic), Alexandr Ostrovskiy (Bulgaria), Mahendra Nath Mulla (Khukri) who tried to save people and ships and go down with his ship, captain Schettino escaped from the ship with one of the first lifeboats and left onboard crew and passengers, inclusive women and children. Extremely indignant by this Coast Guard captain Gregorio de Falco commanded to him "Vada a bordo, cazzo!" ("Get back on board, asshole!"). [73]. After killing of 32 persons, Schettino was sentenced to only 16 years in prison. Service[edit] The services sector makes up for 78% of the region's gross domestic product.[59] Unemployment[edit] The unemployment rate stood at 17.9% in 2020 and was one of the highest in Italy.[74] Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 unemployment rate (in %) 12.8% 11.2% 12.5% 12.9% 13.9% 15.4% 19.2% 21.5% 21.7% 19.8% 20.4% 20.9% 20.4% 20.0% 17.9% Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Campania The region, with a population of over 5.8 million inhabitants, is divided into five provinces: Naples, Benevento, Avellino, Caserta and Salerno. Over half of the population is resident in the province of Naples, where there is a population density of 2,626 inhabitants per km2. Within the province, the highest density can be found along the coast, where it reaches 13,000 inhabitants per km2 in the city of Portici. The region, which was characterised until recently by an acute economic contrast between internal and coastal areas, has shown an improvement in the last decade thanks to the development of the provinces of Benevento and Avellino. At the same time, the provinces of Naples, Caserta and in part Salerno, have developed a variety of activities connected to advanced types of services.[75] Immigration and ethnicity[edit] The largest resident foreign-born groups on 31 December 2019[76] Nationality Population  Ukraine 41,558  Romania 41,209  Morocco 22,381  Sri Lanka 17,352 China 12,429  Bangladesh 10,383  Poland 8,909  Nigeria 8,281  India 7,959  Bulgaria 7,762 Unlike central and northern Italy, in the last decade the region of Campania has not attracted large numbers of immigrants. The Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated in January 2007 that 98,052 foreign-born immigrants live in Campania, equal to 1.7% of the total regional population.[77] Part of the reason for this is in recent times, there have been more employment opportunities in northern regions than in the Southern Italian regions. Government and politics[edit] Main article: Politics of Campania The Politics of Campania, takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democracy, whereby the President of Regional Government is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Regional Council. The Regional Council of Campania (Consiglio Regionale della Campania) is composed of 60 members, of which 47 are elected in provincial constituencies with proportional representation, 12 from the so-called "regional list" of the elected president and the last one is for the candidate for president who comes second, who usually becomes the leader of the opposition in the council. If a coalition wins more than 55% of the vote, only 6 candidates from the "regional list" will be elected and the number of those elected in provincial constituencies will be 53.[78] Administrative divisions[edit] Campania is divided into four provinces and one metropolitan city: Province Area (km2) Population Density (inhabitants/km2) Province of Avellino 2,792 427,310 153 Province of Benevento 2,071 283,393 136.83 Province of Caserta 2,639 906,596 343.54 Province of Salerno 4,923 1,092,349 222.11 Metropolitan City of Naples 1,171 3,052,763 2,606.97 Culture[edit] See also: List of museums in Campania Cuisine[edit] Main article: Neapolitan cuisine This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Campania" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) An authentic Neapolitan pizza Campanian cuisine varies within the region. While Neapolitan dishes centre on seafood, Casertan and Aversan ones rely more on fresh vegetables and cheeses. The cuisine from Sorrento combines the culinary traditions from both Naples and Salerno. Pizza was conceived in Naples.[79] Spaghetti is also a well-known dish from southern Italy and Campania. Spaghetti alla puttanesca, a spicy pasta dish topped with a sauce made of tomatoes, olives, anchovies and capers Campania produces wines including Lacryma Christi, Fiano, Aglianico, Greco di Tufo, Falerno del Massico, Taburno, Solopaca, and Taurasi. The cheeses of Campania consist of Mozzarella di Bufala (buffalo mozzarella) (mozzarella made from buffalo milk), fiordilatte ("flower of milk") a mozzarella made from cow's milk, ricotta from sheep or buffalo milk, provolone from cow milk, and caciotta made from goat milk. Buffalo are bred in the provinces of Salerno and Caserta. Several different cakes and pies are made in Campania. Pastiera pie is made during Easter. Casatiello and tortano are Easter breads made by adding lard or oil and various types of cheese to bread dough and garnishing it with slices of salami. Babà cake is a well known Neapolitan delicacy, best served with rum or limoncello (a liqueur invented in the Sorrento peninsula). It is an old Austrian cake, which arrived in Campania during the Austrian domination of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and was modified there to become a "walking cake" for citizens always in a hurry for work and other pursuits. Sfogliatella is another pastry from the Amalfi Coast, as is Zeppole, traditionally eaten on Saint Joseph's day. Struffoli, little balls fried dough dipped in honey, are enjoyed during the Christmas holidays. Dried red peppers and lemons hanging from a shop in Amalfi. Another Campanian dish is the so-called Russian salad, also known as Olivier salad, which is based on similar dishes from France. It is made of potatoes in mayonnaise garnished with shrimp and vegetables in vinegar. Another French-derived dish is "gattò" or "gâteau di patate" (an oven-baked pie made of boiled potatoes). As with the Russian salad, Campania is home to popular seafood-based dishes, such as "insalata di mare" (seafood salad), "zuppa di polpo" (octopus soup), and "zuppa di cozze" (mussel soup). Other regional seafood dishes include "frittelle di mare" (fritters with seaweed), made with edible poseidonia algae, "triglie al cartoccio" (red mullet in the bag), and "alici marinate" (fresh anchovies in olive oil). The island of Ischia is known for its fish dishes, as well as for cooked rabbit. Campania is also home to the lemons of Sorrento. Rapini (or Broccoli rabe), known locally as friarielli, are often used in regional cooking. Campania also produces many nuts, especially in the area of Avellino, Salerno and Benevento. Hazelnut production is especially relevant in the province of Avellino – in Spanish, in Portuguese and in Occitan the hazelnut is respectively called avellana, avelã and avelano,[citation needed] after the city of Avella. That is also the case of ancient Italian avellana, which is however not in use anymore. Ancient, medieval, and early arts[edit] The grand gardens of the baroque Royal Palace of Caserta The region of Campania is rich with a vast array of culture and history. Since the Greek colony of Elea, now Velia, Campania was home to philosophers of the Pre-Socratic philosophy school, such as Parmenides and Zeno of Elea, who came to prominence around 490–480 BC. The Latin poet Vergil (70 BC–19 BC) settled in Naples in his late-life: parts of his epic poem Aeneid are located in Campania. The ancient scientist Pliny the Elder studied Mount Vesuvius and died after being poisoned and killed by gas emitted from the volcano during the 79 AD eruption. Romulus Augustus, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, died as a prisoner of the German general Odoacer at Naples around 500. In the Middle Ages, the artist Giotto made some frescoes in Castel Nuovo. These works of art were subsequently destroyed by an earthquake. By the end of the Middle Ages, the medical school of Salerno, which combined ancient Roman and Greek medicine with Arab medicine, was known throughout Europe and its methods were adopted across the continent. Some have suggested that this may have been one of the first universities in Europe. Boccaccio, the Tuscan poet, visited Naples on various occasions, and in the Decameron described it as a dissolute city. He also wrote a love story involving a noblewoman close to the King of Naples. Pulcinella with a guitar In 1570, the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes, who wrote the romance novel Don Quixote, served as a Spanish soldier for a period in Naples. Poet Torquato Tasso was born in Sorrento in 1575. Years earlier in 1558, the first modern description and studies of the "camera obscura" ("dark chamber"), were established in Italy by Giovanni Battista della Porta in his Magiae Naturalis. Philosopher Giordano Bruno was born in Nola. He was the first to theorize infinite suns and infinite worlds in the universe. He was burnt in Rome by the Spanish Inquisition in 1600. Later, in c. 1606, the Baroque painter Caravaggio established his studio in Naples. Italian Baroque architect Cosimo Fanzago from Bergamo also decided to move to Naples. In the 18th century, Naples was the last city to be visited by philosophers who created the "Grand Tour" which was the big touring voyage to visit all the important cultural sites of the European continent. Italian architect Luigi Vanvitelli son of Dutch architect Caspar van Wittel built the Royal Palace in Caserta in c. 1750. He contributed to the construction of many neoclassic-style palaces in which the nobles of Naples spent their holidays. These palaces are now known worldwide as "Ville Vesuviane".[80] The island of Capri, often seen as a cultural symbol of Campania. Raimondo di Sangro, prince of Sansevero, was a scientist and one of the last alchemists. Around this time, in 1786, German writer Goethe visited Campania and Naples. German archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also visited Naples, Paestum, Herculaneum and Pompeii in 1748 and later, studying how archaeological surveys were conducted in the kingdom of Naples. He was one of the first to study drawings, statues, stones, and ancient burned scrolls made of papyrus found in the excavations of the city of Herculaneum. Archaeological excavations in Pompeii were initiated by King Charles III of Naples in 1748. He issued the first modern laws in Europe to protect, defend and preserve archaeological sites. Neapolitan musicians of that period include Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli and Giovanni Paisiello. Musician Gioachino Rossini lived for several years in Naples, where he wrote numerous compositions. Italian poet and writer Giacomo Leopardi established his home in Naples and Torre del Greco, remaining there at the end of his brief young life. He died at Naples in 1837. The first volcano observatory, the Vesuvius Observatory, was founded in Naples in 1841. Geologist Giuseppe Mercalli, born in Milan in 1850, was a director of the Vesuvius Observatory. In February 1851, British statesman William Ewart Gladstone was allowed to visit the prison where Giacomo Lacaita, legal adviser to the British embassy, was imprisoned by the Neapolitan government, along with other political dissidents.[81] He deplored their condition, and in April and July, he published two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen against the Neapolitan government, followed by An Examination of the Official Reply of the Neapolitan Government in 1852.[82] His pamphlets may have contributed to the cause of the unification of Italy in 1861. French writer Alexandre Dumas, père was directly involved in the process of the Unification of Italy and sojourned two or three years in Naples, where he wrote several historical novels regarding that city. He was also a known newspaper correspondent. Francesco de Sanctis, writer, politician and twice Minister of Instruction after the reunification of Italy in 1861, was born in Morra De Sanctis near Avellino. German scientist Anton Dohrn founded in Naples the first public aquarium in the world and laboratory for the study of the sea, known as Maritime Zoological Station. The Astronomic Observatory of Capodimonte was founded by King Joachim Murat, in 1816. The observatory now hosts the Italian Laboratory of Astrophysics. Doctors and surgeons Antonio Cardarelli and Giuseppe Moscati were representatives of medical studies in Naples. Contemporary and modern arts[edit] The so-called "School of Posillipo" and "School of Resina", dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, included painters, such as Giacinto Gigante, Federico Cortese, Domenico Morelli, Saverio Altamura, Giuseppe De Nittis, Vincenzo Gemito, Antonio Mancini, and Raffaello Pagliaccetti. Amongst the painters who inspired directly these schools, are Salvator Rosa, Pierre-Jacques Volaire, and Anton Sminck van Pitloo, who spent his last years in Naples. Opera singer Enrico Caruso was also a native of Naples. Russian revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin lived for a period in Capri. In the 20th century, the music genre called Neapolitan song became popular worldwide, with songs such as "'O sole mio", "Funiculì, Funiculà", "'O surdato 'nnammurato", "Torna a Surriento", "Santa Lucia", "Malafemmena", "'A vucchella", and "Passione". Mathematician Renato Caccioppoli, nephew of the Russian anarchic revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin, was born in Naples. The first President of the Italian Republic in 1946 (with a pro-tempore mandate of six months) was Enrico De Nicola from Torre del Greco. Campania is also home to the former Prime Minister and 6th President of the Republic Giovanni Leone, as well as the 11th President, Giorgio Napolitano. Late Baroque art inside the Palace of Caserta. The 20th century's best known philosopher and literate in Naples was Benedetto Croce, known for his studies in aesthetics, ethics, logic, economy, history, politics. Neapolitan artists, actors, playwrights, and showmen included Eduardo De Filippo and Peppino De Filippo, and their sister Titina De Filippo. Totò (byname of Antonio de Curtis) was one of the most important comedians in Naples in the 20th century. He is also known for the song "Malafemmena". Pop artist Andy Warhol created two famous paintings of the 1980 Irpinia earthquake: Fate presto and Vesuvius 365. Both originals are hosted in the exhibit Terrae Motus in the Palace of Caserta. Oscar–winning actress Sophia Loren grew up in Pozzuoli. Oscar and David-winning[83] film producer Dino De Laurentiis was born in Torre Annunziata. One of his grandchildren is Food Network personality Giada De Laurentiis. Contemporary Campanian writers include Curzio Malaparte and Roberto Saviano. 20th- and 21st-century Campanian actors and directors include Francesco Rosi, Iaia Forte, Pappi Corsicato, Teresa De Sio, Lello Arena, Massimo Troisi and director Gabriele Salvatores. Modern Italian singers and musicians from Campania include Peppino di Capri, Renato Carosone, Edoardo Bennato, Eugenio Bennato, Mario Merola, Sergio Bruni, Aurelio Fierro, Roberto Murolo, Tony Tammaro, Teresa De Sio, Eduardo De Crescenzo, Alan Sorrenti, Tullio De Piscopo, Massimo Ranieri, Pino Daniele, James Senese and his group Napoli Centrale, Enzo Avitabile, Enzo Gragnaniello, Nino D'Angelo, Gigi D'Alessio, 99 Posse, and Almamegretta. Artists who directed movies about Naples or actors who played in movies in Campania, or interpreted Neapolitans on-screen, include Vittorio De Sica, Domenico Modugno, Renzo Arbore, Lina Wertmüller, Mario Lanza as Caruso, Clark Gable in "It Started in Naples", and Jack Lemmon in the movies "Maccheroni" (which co-starred Marcello Mastroianni) and "Avanti!". The international Giffoni Film Festival, established in 1971, is the first and most important festival for a young public. Sports[edit] The Stadio San Paolo is the home ground of SSC Napoli of Serie A Campania is home to several national football, water polo, volleyball, basketball and tennis clubs. The fencing school in Naples is the oldest in the country and the only school in Italy in which a swordsman can acquire the title "master of swords", which allows him or her to teach the art of fencing. The "Circolo Savoia" and "Circolo Canottieri Napoli" sailing clubs are among the oldest in Italy and are known for their regattas. These are also home of the main water polo teams in the city. Many sailors from Naples and Campania participate as crew in the America's Cup sailing competition. Rowers Giuseppe Abbagnale and Carmine Abbagnale were born in Castellammare di Stabia: they were four times rowing world champions and Olympic gold medalists. The football teams in Campania include: S.S.C. Napoli playing in Serie A, and the only team in the south of Italy to have won the Serie A title Benevento Calcio playing in Serie A U.S. Salernitana 1919 playing in Serie B U.S. Avellino 1912 playing in Serie C Casertana F.C. playing in Serie C Cavese 1919 playing in Serie C S.S. Juve Stabia playing in Serie C Paganese Calcio 1926 playing in Serie C S.S. Turris Calcio playing in Serie C Notes[edit] ^ Campania in Geonames.org (cc-by) ^ a b c "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018" (Press release). ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 September 2020. ^ "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 13 September 2018. ^ "Campania". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ Upton, Clive; Kretzschmar, Jr., William A. (2017). The Routledge Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-138-12566-7. ^ demo.istat.it (ed.). 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Page 2. ^ Lomas, Kathryn, "The Hellenization of Italy", in Powell, Anton. The Greek World. Page 354. ^ a b "Campania: A Little History". Emmeti.it. 8 January 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Naples" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ "Secrets of the Dead: Pompeii and Herculaneum". Channel4.com. 8 January 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ Magnusson & Goring 1990 ^ Hilmar C. Krueger. "The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095" in A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years, Vol.I. Kenneth Meyer Setton, Marshall W. Baldwin (eds., 1955). University of Pennsylvania Press. p.48. ^ "Swabian Naples". Faculty.ed.umuc.edu. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "Italy: PhD Scholarships in Various Fields at University of Naples-Federico II". ScholarshipNet.info. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ a b c "Sicilian History". 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Britannica.com. 7 October 2007. ^ "Don Pedro de Toledo". Faculty.ed.umuc.edu. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "Naples Through the Ages". Fodors.com. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor". Bartleby.com. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 18 December 2007. ^ "Charles of Bourbon – the restorer of the Kingdom of Naples". RealCasaDiBorbone.it. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 26 September 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ a b c d "The Parthenopean Republic". Faculty.ed.umuc.edu. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 6 March 2001. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ a b c "Austria Naples – Neapolitan War 1815". Onwar.com. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 31 July 2001. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "La dolce vita? Italy by rail, 1839–1914". Questia.com. 7 October 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "Why Neo-Bourbons". NeoBorbonici.it. 7 October 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2009. ^ "Campania," Microsoft Encarta 2008. "Econimia della Campania". www.voyagesphotosmanu.com. Financial Times. Archived from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017. ^ Rotino, Silvia (26 March 2016). "Avvocati in Italia e in Europa – Statistiche". Web Economia. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017. ^ "Sintesi rapporto Campania 2016" (PDF). Unione Camere di Commercio. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017. ^ Marescotti, Daniele (2014). Guida alle bonifiche ambientali. Daniele Marescotti. p. 70. ISBN 978-605-03-0439-8. ^ "La storia dell'area industriale di Bagnoli". digilander.libero.it. ^ Carpellese olive oil- Retrieved 13 July 2018 ^ Pisciottana Archived 4 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 3 July 2018 ^ Ravece olive oil- Retrieved 3 July 2018 ^ Italian olives- Retrieved 3 July 2018 ^ a b "Eurostat". Circa.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 5 August 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ "Italy discovers biggest illegal waste dump in Europe". Euronews. 16 June 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2018. ^ Day, Michael (17 June 2015). "Europe's largest illegal toxic dumping site discovered in southern Italy – an area with cancer rates 80% higher than national average". The Independent. Retrieved 24 May 2018. ^ a b Perucatti, A.; Di Meo, G.P.; Albarella, S.; Ciotola, F.; Incarnato, D.; Jambrenghi, A.C.; Peretti, V.; Vonghia, G.; Iannuzzi, L. (2006). "Increased frequencies of both chromosome abnormalities and SCEs in two sheep flocks exposed to high dioxin levels during pasturage". Mutagenesis. 21 (1): 67–57. doi:10.1093/mutage/gei076. PMID 16434450. ^ a b "Mafia toxic waste dumping poisons Italy farmlands". The Hindu. Associated Press. 20 December 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2018. ^ "Mozzarella, limitate positività alla diossina. Il Governo dopo l'alt di Tokyo: no a psicoosi". Corriere della sera. 26 March 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2008. ^ "Osservatorio Amianto" (in Italian). ^ "Cammora illegal waste dumping in Campania". ^ "Fine di un'epoca" (in Italian). ^ "Stellantis production report" (in Italian). ^ Gibney, Elizabeth (11 March 2016). "Mars launch to test collaboration between Europe and Russia". Nature. 531 (7594): 288–289. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19547. ^ Chan, Sewell (20 October 2016). "No Signal From Mars Lander, but European Officials Declare Mission a Success". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 October 2016. ^ a b c "Leonardo locations in Italy". ^ "Hitachi Rail: Lo stabilimento di Napoli" (in Italian). ^ "Telephone call between Costa Concordia Captain and Italian Coast Guard"" (in Italian). ^ http://dati.istat.it/index.aspx?queryid=25524 ^ "Eurostat". Circa.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ "Foreign Citizens. Resident Population by sex and citizenship on 31st December 2019" (in Italian). National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 19 June 2018. ^ "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". Demo.istat.it. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ "Home – Consiglio Regionale della Lombardia" (PDF). Consiglio.regione.lombardia.it. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009. Retrieved 12 March 2013. ^ Helstosky, Carol (2008). Pizza: A Global History. London: Reaktion. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-1-86189-391-8. ^ "Ville Vesuviane". World Heritage Site. Retrieved 6 June 2021. ^ H. C. G. Matthew, Gladstone. 1809–1874 (Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 80-81. ^ Gladstone, William Ewart (15 June 1859). "Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen: On the State Prosecutions of the Neapolitan Government". J. Murray – via Google Books. ^ "Dino De Laurentiis: Awards". IMDb. Retrieved 1 October 2011. References[edit] Magnusson, Magnus; Goring, Rosemary, eds. (1990). Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39518-6. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Campania. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Campania. 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en-wikipedia-org-924	----	Fadilla - Wikipedia Fadilla From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Annia Aurelia Fadilla, most commonly known as Fadilla (159-died after 211[1]) was one of the daughters born to Marcus Aurelius and his wife Faustina the Younger. She was a sister to Lucilla and Commodus. Fadilla was named in honor of her late maternal aunt Aurelia Fadilla. The cognomen Fadilla, was the cognomen of the mother and a half-sister of Antoninus Pius. Her maternal grandparents were Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder and her paternal grandparents were Domitia Lucilla and praetor Marcus Annius Verus. Contents 1 Life 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 References 4 Sources Life[edit] Fadilla was born and raised in Rome. During the reign of her father, she married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, a Roman senator who served later twice as consul and as Augur, and a nephew of Roman Emperor Lucius Verus who had co-ruled with her father from 161–169 and through adoption was her uncle. The mother Plautius Quintillus was Ceionia Fabia, sister of Lucius Verus. Fadilla bore Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus two children: son (Plautius) Quintillus and a daughter Plautia Servilla. When her father died in 180, her remaining brother Commodus succeeded him as Roman Emperor. During Commodus' reign, Fadilla and her family lived in a private palace on Capitoline Hill in Rome which was later bestowed by the later Roman Emperor Elagabalus (218–222) as one of his mother's favorite residences. Her husband became one of Commodus' main advisers. According to Herodian (History of the Roman Empire 1.13.1), Fadilla warned Commodus about Marcus Aurelius Cleander, a Praetorian prefect, who was becoming too powerful. With the help from one of her sisters, she uncovered and revealed a palace conspiracy aimed at the removal of Commodus in 189. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. References[edit] ^ Jona Lendering. "Fadilla". Livius.org. Retrieved 2020-02-25. Sources[edit] "Women of History - F". A Bit of History. Lendering, Jona (2007). "Fadilla". Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fadilla&oldid=1015860615" Categories: 159 births 3rd-century deaths 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women 3rd-century Roman women Nerva–Antonine dynasty Annii Aurelii Fulvi Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Español Français Italiano Português Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 00:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9273	----	John Stuart Mill - Wikipedia John Stuart Mill From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Stuart Mill" redirects here. For the town in Australia, see Stuart Mill, Victoria. British philosopher and political economist The Honourable John Stuart Mill Mill c. 1870 Member of Parliament for the City of Westminster In office 25 July 1865 – 17 November 1868Serving with Robert Grosvenor Preceded by De Lacy Evans Succeeded by William Henry Smith Personal details Born (1806-05-20)20 May 1806 Pentonville, London, England Died 7 May 1873(1873-05-07) (aged 66) Avignon, France Political party Liberal Spouse(s) Harriet Taylor ​ ​ (m. 1851; died 1858)​ Alma mater University College London Philosophy career Era 19th-century philosophy Classical economics Region Western philosophy School Empiricism Utilitarianism Consequentialism Psychologism Classical liberalism Main interests Political philosophy, ethics, economics, inductive logic Notable ideas Public/private sphere, social liberty, hierarchy of pleasures in utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism, classical liberalism, early liberal feminism, harm principle, Mill's Methods, direct reference theory, Millian theory of proper names, emergentism Influences Plato Aristotle Socrates Demosthenes Epicurus Aquinas Hobbes Locke Hume Babbage[1] Berkeley Bentham Francis Place James Mill Harriet Taylor Mill Smith Senior Ricardo Tocqueville W. von Humboldt Goethe Bain Guizot[2] Auguste Comte Saint-Simon (Utopian Socialists)[3] Marmontel[4] Wordsworth[4] Coleridge[4] Herder[5] Sismondi Influenced Social liberalism[6] Russell[7][8] Crisp Weber[9] Ortega y Gasset Signature Part of a series on Utilitarianism Predecessors Mozi Epicurus Śāntideva David Hume Claude Adrien Helvétius William Godwin Francis Hutcheson William Paley Key proponents Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Henry Sidgwick R. M. Hare Peter Singer Types of utilitarianism Negative Rule Act Two-level Total Average Preference Classical Key concepts Pain Suffering Pleasure Utility Happiness Eudaimonia Consequentialism Equal consideration Felicific calculus Utilitarian social choice rule Problems Demandingness objection Mere addition paradox Paradox of hedonism Replaceability argument Utility monster Related topics Rational choice theory Game theory Neoclassical economics Population ethics Effective altruism Philosophy portal v t e Part of a series on Capitalism Concepts Business Business cycle Businessperson Capital Capital accumulation Capital markets Company Corporation Competitive markets Economic interventionism Economic liberalism Economic surplus Entrepreneurship Fictitious capital Financial market Free price system Free market Goods and services Investor Invisible hand Liberalization Marginalism Money Private property Privatization Profit Rent seeking Supply and demand Surplus value Value Wage labour Economic systems Anglo-Saxon Authoritarian Corporate Dirigist Free-market Humanistic Laissez-faire Liberal Libertarian Market Mercantilist Mixed Monopoly National Neoliberal Nordic Private Raw Regulated market Regulatory Rhine Social State State-sponsored Welfare Economic theories American Austrian Chartalism MMT Chicago Classical Institutional Keynesian Neo- New Post- Marxian Monetarist Neoclassical New institutional Supply-side Origins Age of Enlightenment Capitalism and Islam Commercial Revolution Feudalism Industrial Revolution Mercantilism Primitive accumulation Physiocracy Simple commodity production Development Advanced Consumer Community Corporate Crony Finance Global Illiberal Late Marxist Merchant Progressive Rentier State monopoly Techno People Adam Smith John Stuart Mill David Ricardo Thomas Robert Malthus Jean-Baptiste Say Karl Marx Milton Friedman Friedrich Hayek John Maynard Keynes Alfred Marshall Ludwig von Mises Ayn Rand Murray Rothbard Joseph Schumpeter Thorstein Veblen Max Weber Ronald Coase Related topics Anti-capitalism Capitalist state Consumerism Crisis theory Criticism of capitalism Cronyism Culture of capitalism Evergreening Exploitation of labour Globalization History History of theory Market economy Periodizations of capitalism Perspectives on capitalism Post-capitalism Speculation Spontaneous order Venture philanthropy Wage slavery Ideologies Anarcho-capitalism Authoritarian capitalism Democratic capitalism Dirigism Eco-capitalism Humanistic capitalism Inclusive capitalism Liberal capitalism Liberalism Libertarian capitalism Neo-Capitalism Neoliberalism Objectivism Ordoliberalism Right-libertarianism Third Way  Capitalism portal  Business portal  Philosophy portal  Politics portal  Money portal v t e John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873),[10] usually cited as J. S. Mill, was an English philosopher, political economist, Member of Parliament (MP), and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of classical liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, and political economy. Dubbed "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century",[11] he conceived of liberty as justifying the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control.[12] In his later years, whilst continuing to staunchly defend individual rights and freedoms, he became more critical of economic liberalism and his views on political economy moved towards a form of liberal socialism.[13] Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham. He contributed to the investigation of scientific methodology, though his knowledge of the topic was based on the writings of others, notably William Whewell, John Herschel, and Auguste Comte, and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain. He engaged in written debate with Whewell.[14] A member of the Liberal Party and author of the early feminist work The Subjection of Women, Mill was also the second Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage after Henry Hunt in 1832.[15][16] Contents 1 Biography 2 Works and theories 2.1 A System of Logic 2.2 Theory of liberty 2.2.1 Social liberty and tyranny of majority 2.2.2 Liberty 2.2.3 Freedom of speech 2.2.3.1 Harm principle 2.2.3.2 Freedom of the press 2.3 Colonialism 2.4 Slavery and racial equality 2.5 Women's rights 2.6 Utilitarianism 2.6.1 Higher and lower pleasures 2.6.2 Chapters 2.7 Achieving happiness 2.8 Economic philosophy 2.8.1 Economic democracy 2.8.2 Political democracy 2.8.3 Theories of wealth and income distribution 2.8.4 The environment 2.8.5 Rate of profit 3 In popular culture 4 Major publications 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Mill's work 7.2 Other sources 8 Further reading 9 External links 9.1 Mill's works 9.2 Secondary works 9.3 Further information Biography[edit] John Stuart Mill was born at 13 Rodney Street in Pentonville, Middlesex, the eldest son of Harriet Barrow and the Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist James Mill. John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had died.[17] Mill was a notably precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography. At the age of three he was taught Greek.[18] By the age of eight, he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Anabasis,[18] and the whole of Herodotus,[18] and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes Laërtius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato.[18] He had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra, and was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the family. His main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study and compose poetry. One of his earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he also enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe. His father's work, The History of British India was published in 1818; immediately thereafter, at about the age of twelve, Mill began a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical treatises in the original language. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, ultimately completing their classical economic view of factors of production. Mill's comptes rendus of his daily economy lessons helped his father in writing Elements of Political Economy in 1821, a textbook to promote the ideas of Ricardian economics; however, the book lacked popular support.[19] Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk to talk about political economy. At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham. The mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left a deep impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the winter courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences, as well as taking a course in higher mathematics. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, a friend of Mill's father. There he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. Mill went through months of sadness and contemplated suicide at twenty years of age. According to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his life's objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered "no", and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective. Eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy.[20] With renewed joy he continued to work towards a just society, but with more relish for the journey. He considered this one of the most pivotal shifts in his thinking. In fact, many of the differences between him and his father stemmed from this expanded source of joy. Mill had been engaged in a pen-friendship with Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism and sociology, since Mill first contacted Comte in November 1841. Comte's sociologie was more an early philosophy of science than we perhaps know it today, and the positive philosophy aided in Mill's broad rejection of Benthamism.[21] As a nonconformist who refused to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, Mill was not eligible to study at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge.[22] Instead he followed his father to work for the East India Company, and attended University College, London, to hear the lectures of John Austin, the first Professor of Jurisprudence.[23] He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1856.[24] Mill's career as a colonial administrator at the East India Company spanned from when he was 17 years old in 1823 until 1858, when the Company's territories in India were directly annexed by the Crown, establishing direct Crown control over India.[25] In 1836, he was promoted to the Company's Political Department, where he was responsible for correspondence pertaining to the Company's relations with the princely states, and in 1856, was finally promoted to the position of Examiner of Indian Correspondence. In On Liberty, A Few Words on Non-Intervention, and other works, he opined that "To characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject".[26] Mill viewed places such as India as having once been progressive in their outlook, but had now become stagnant in their development; he opined that this meant these regions had to be ruled via a form of "benevolent despotism", "provided the end is improvement".[27] When the Crown proposed to take direct control over the territories of the East India Company, he was tasked with defending Company rule, penning Memorandum on the Improvements in the Administration of India during the Last Thirty Years among other petitions.[28] He was offered a seat on the Council of India, the body created to advise the new Secretary of State for India, but declined, citing his disapproval of the new system of administration in India.[28] In 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of intimate friendship. Taylor was married when they met, and their relationship was close but generally believed to be chaste during the years before her first husband died in 1849. The couple waited two years before marrying in 1851. Brilliant in her own right, Taylor was a significant influence on Mill's work and ideas during both friendship and marriage. His relationship with Taylor reinforced Mill's advocacy of women's rights. He said that in his stand against domestic violence, and for women's rights he was "chiefly an amanuensis to my wife". He called her mind a "perfect instrument", and said she was "the most eminently qualified of all those known to the author". He cites her influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published shortly after her death. Taylor died in 1858 after developing severe lung congestion, after only seven years of marriage to Mill. Between the years 1865 and 1868 Mill served as Lord Rector of the University of St Andrews. At his inaugural address, delivered to the University on 1 February 1867, he made the now-famous (but often wrongly attributed) remark that "Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing".[29] That Mill included that sentence in the address is a matter of historical record, but it by no means follows that it expressed a wholly original insight. During the same period, 1865–68, he was also a Member of Parliament (MP) for City of Westminster.[30][31] He was sitting for the Liberal Party. During his time as an MP, Mill advocated easing the burdens on Ireland. In 1866, he became the first person in the history of Parliament to call for women to be given the right to vote, vigorously defending this position in subsequent debate. He also became a strong advocate of such social reforms as labour unions and farm cooperatives. In Considerations on Representative Government, he called for various reforms of Parliament and voting, especially proportional representation, the single transferable vote, and the extension of suffrage. In April 1868, he favoured in a Commons debate the retention of capital punishment for such crimes as aggravated murder; he termed its abolition "an effeminacy in the general mind of the country".[32] He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1867.[33] He was godfather to the philosopher Bertrand Russell. In his views on religion, Mill was an agnostic and a sceptic.[34][35][36][37] Mill died in 1873, thirteen days before his 67th birthday, of erysipelas in Avignon, France, where his body was buried alongside his wife's. Works and theories[edit] Portrait of Mill by George Frederic Watts (1873) A System of Logic[edit] Main article: A System of Logic Mill joined the debate over scientific method which followed on from John Herschel's 1830 publication of A Preliminary Discourse on the study of Natural Philosophy, which incorporated inductive reasoning from the known to the unknown, discovering general laws in specific facts and verifying these laws empirically. William Whewell expanded on this in his 1837 History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time, followed in 1840 by The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon their History, presenting induction as the mind superimposing concepts on facts. Laws were self-evident truths, which could be known without need for empirical verification. Mill countered this in 1843 in A System of Logic (fully titled A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation). In "Mill's Methods" (of induction), as in Herschel's, laws were discovered through observation and induction, and required empirical verification.[38] Matilal remarks that Dignāga analysis is much like John Stuart Mill's Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, which is inductive. He suggested that it is very likely that during his stay in India he may have come across the tradition of logic, on which scholars started taking interest after 1824, though it is unknown whether it influenced his work or not.[39][40] Theory of liberty[edit] Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Liberal democracy Economic liberalism Equality Gender Legal Freedom Market Press Religion Speech Trade Harm principle Internationalism Invisible hand Laissez-faire Liberty Negative Positive Market economy Non-aggression principle Open society Permissive society Popular sovereignty Private property Rights Civil and political Natural and legal Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Veil of ignorance Schools of thought Classical Conservative Cultural Democratic Feminist Equity Green Internationalist Muscular National Neo Ordo Radical Radical centrism Religious Christian Catholic Islamic Jewish Secular Social Techno Philosophers Acton Arnold Aron Badawi Bastiat Bentham Berlin Burke Čapek Cassirer Collingwood Condorcet Constant Croce Emerson Friedman Guizot Hayek Hu Humboldt Kant Keynes Korais Kymlicka List Locke Martineau Mill Milton Mises Montesquieu Nozick Ortega Paine Popper Priestley Rawls Ricardo Say Sen Smith Spencer Spinoza Staël Tocqueville Turgot Voltaire Weber Wollstonecraft Politicians Artigas Bright Broglie Cavour Cobden Deák Deakin George Gladstone Gokhale Itagaki Jefferson Juárez Kemal King Kołłątaj Kossuth Lamartine Levski Lincoln Macaulay Madison Mazzini Milyukov Mommsen Naoroji Ohlin Pearson Rathenau Roosevelt Sarmiento Ståhlberg Venizelos Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Venizelism Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Cobdenism Gladstonian Manchester Whiggism United States Arizona School Classical Jeffersonian Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Anti-authoritarianism Anti-communism Bias in academia Bias in the media Capitalism Democratic Centrism Economic freedom Egalitarianism Empiricism Humanism Individualism Anarchist Libertarianism Left Right Pirate Party Progressivism Utilitarianism  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Main article: On Liberty Mill's On Liberty (1859) addresses the nature and limits of the power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual. However, Mill is clear that his concern for liberty does not extend to all individuals and all societies. He states that "Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with Barbarians."[41] Mill states that it is not a crime to harm oneself as long as the person doing so is not harming others. He favours the harm principle: "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."[42][page needed] He excuses those who are "incapable of self-government" from this principle, such as young children or those living in "backward states of society". More controversially, he also argues that the state may legitimately regulate marriage and child-bearing. In fact, Gregory Claeys argues, this effectively renders his method of social analysis family-centred rather than individualistic, as is usually assumed. But this in turn must be understood as defined in part in class terms. For the harm principle seemingly permits the wealthy to do many things denied to the poor. Though this principle seems clear, there are a number of complications. For example, Mill explicitly states that "harms" may include acts of omission as well as acts of commission. Thus, failing to rescue a drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes, or failing to appear as a witness in court. All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill. By contrast, it does not count as harming someone if—without force or fraud—the affected individual Consents to assume the risk: thus one may permissibly offer unsafe employment to others, provided there is no deception involved. (He does, however, recognise one limit to consent: society should not permit people to sell themselves into slavery.) The question of what counts as a self-regarding action and what actions, whether of omission or commission, constitute harmful actions subject to regulation, continues to exercise interpreters of Mill. He did not consider giving offence to constitute "harm"; an action could not be restricted because it violated the conventions or morals of a given society.[43] John Stuart Mill and Helen Taylor. Helen was the daughter of Harriet Taylor and collaborated with Mill for fifteen years after her mother's death in 1858. Social liberty and tyranny of majority[edit] Mill believed that "the struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history."[44] For him, liberty in antiquity was a "contest…between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the government."[44] Mill defined social liberty as protection from "the tyranny of political rulers". He introduced a number of different concepts of the form tyranny can take, referred to as social tyranny, and tyranny of the majority. Social liberty for Mill meant putting limits on the ruler's power so that he would not be able to use that power to further his own wishes and thus make decisions that could harm society. In other words, people should have the right to have a say in the government's decisions. He said that social liberty was "the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual." It was attempted in two ways: first, by obtaining recognition of certain immunities (called political liberties or rights); and second, by establishment of a system of "constitutional checks". However, in Mill's view, limiting the power of government was not enough:[45] Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself. Liberty[edit] Mill's view on liberty, which was influenced by Joseph Priestley and Josiah Warren, is that the individual ought to be free to do as they wished unless they caused harm to others. Individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their well being. Government should interfere when it is for the protection of society. Mill explained:[46] The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right.… The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns him, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign. Freedom of speech[edit] On Liberty involves an impassioned defense of free speech. Mill argues that free discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress. We can never be sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion does not contain some element of the truth. He also argues that allowing people to air false opinions is productive for two reasons. First, individuals are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are engaged in an open exchange of ideas. Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm their beliefs in the process of debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma. It is not enough for Mill that one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand why the belief in question is the true one. Along those same lines Mill wrote, "unmeasured vituperation, employed on the side of prevailing opinion, really does deter people from expressing contrary opinions, and from listening to those who express them."[47][43]:51 As an influential advocate of freedom of speech, Mill objected to censorship:[48] I choose, by preference the cases which are least favourable to me – In which the argument opposing freedom of opinion, both on truth and that of utility, is considered the strongest. Let the opinions impugned be the belief of God and in a future state, or any of the commonly received doctrines of morality ... But I must be permitted to observe that it is not the feeling sure of a doctrine (be it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility. It is the undertaking to decide that question for others, without allowing them to hear what can be said on the contrary side. And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less if it is put forth on the side of my most solemn convictions. However positive anyone's persuasion may be, not only of the faculty but of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn) the immorality and impiety of opinion. – yet if, in pursuance of that private judgement, though backed by the public judgement of his country or contemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he assumes infallibility. And so far from the assumption being less objectionable or less dangerous because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the case of all others in which it is most fatal. Mill outlines the benefits of 'searching for and discovering the truth' as a way to further knowledge. He argued that even if an opinion is false, the truth can be better understood by refuting the error. And as most opinions are neither completely true nor completely false, he points out that allowing free expression allows the airing of competing views as a way to preserve partial truth in various opinions.[49] Worried about minority views being suppressed, he argued in support of freedom of speech on political grounds, stating that it is a critical component for a representative government to have to empower debate over public policy.[49] He also eloquently argued that freedom of expression allows for personal growth and self-realization. He said that freedom of speech was a vital way to develop talents and realise a person's potential and creativity. He repeatedly said that eccentricity was preferable to uniformity and stagnation.[49] Harm principle[edit] The belief that freedom of speech would advance society presupposed a society sufficiently culturally and institutionally advanced to be capable of progressive improvement. If any argument is really wrong or harmful, the public will judge it as wrong or harmful, and then those arguments cannot be sustained and will be excluded. Mill argued that even any arguments which are used in justifying murder or rebellion against the government shouldn't be politically suppressed or socially persecuted. According to him, if rebellion is really necessary, people should rebel; if murder is truly proper, it should be allowed. However, the way to express those arguments should be a public speech or writing, not in a way that causes actual harm to others. Such is the harm principle: "That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."[50] At the beginning of the 20th century, Associate justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. made the standard of "clear and present danger" based on Mill's idea. In the majority opinion, Holmes writes:[51] The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. Holmes suggested that shouting out "Fire!" in a dark theatre, which evokes panic and provokes injury, would be such a case of speech that creates an illegal danger.[52] But if the situation allows people to reason by themselves and decide to accept it or not, any argument or theology should not be blocked. Nowadays, Mill's argument is generally accepted by many democratic countries, and they have laws at least guided by the harm principle. For example, in American law some exceptions limit free speech such as obscenity, defamation, breach of peace, and "fighting words".[53] Freedom of the press[edit] In On Liberty, Mill thought it was necessary for him to restate the case for press freedom. He considered that argument already won. Almost no politician or commentator in mid-19th-century Britain wanted a return to Tudor and Stuart-type press censorship. However, Mill warned new forms of censorship could emerge in the future.[54] Indeed, in 2013 the Cameron Tory government considered setting up a so-called independent official regulator of the UK press.[55] This prompted demands for better basic legal protection of press freedom. A new British Bill of Rights could include a US-type constitutional ban on governmental infringement of press freedom and block other official attempts to control freedom of opinion and expression.[56] Colonialism[edit] Mill, an employee of the East India Company from 1823 to 1858,[57] argued in support of what he called a benevolent despotism with regard to the administration of overseas colonies.[58] Mill argued:[59] To suppose that the same international customs, and the same rules of international morality, can obtain between one civilized nation and another, and between civilized nations and barbarians, is a grave error.… To characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject. Mill expressed general support for Company rule in India, but expressed reservations on specific Company policies in India which he disagreed with.[60] Slavery and racial equality[edit] In 1850, Mill sent an anonymous letter (which came to be known under the title "The Negro Question"),[61] in rebuttal to Thomas Carlyle's anonymous letter to Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country in which Carlyle argued for slavery. Mill supported abolishing slavery in the United States, expressing his opposition to slavery in his essay of 1869, The Subjection of Women:[62] This absolutely extreme case of the law of force, condemned by those who can tolerate almost every other form of arbitrary power, and which, of all others, presents features the most revolting to the feeling of all who look at it from an impartial position, was the law of civilized and Christian England within the memory of persons now living: and in one half of Anglo-Saxon America three or four years ago, not only did slavery exist, but the slave trade, and the breeding of slaves expressly for it, was a general practice between slave states. Yet not only was there a greater strength of sentiment against it, but, in England at least, a less amount either of feeling or of interest in favour of it, than of any other of the customary abuses of force: for its motive was the love of gain, unmixed and undisguised: and those who profited by it were a very small numerical fraction of the country, while the natural feeling of all who were not personally interested in it, was unmitigated abhorrence. Mill corresponded with John Appleton, an American legal reformer from Maine, extensively on the topic of racial equality. Appleton influenced Mill's work on such, especially swaying him on the optimal economic and social welfare plan for the Antebellum South.[63][64][65] In a letter sent to Appleton in response to a previous letter, Mill expressed his view on antebellum integration:[63] I cannot look forward with satisfaction to any settlement but complete emancipation—land given to every negro family either separately or in organized communities under such rules as may be found temporarily necessary—the schoolmaster set to work in every village & the tide of free immigration turned on in those fertile regions from which slavery has hitherto excluded it. If this be done, the gentle & docile character which seems to distinguish the negroes will prevent any mischief on their side, while the proofs they are giving of fighting powers will do more in a year than all other things in a century to make the whites respect them & consent to their being politically & socially equals. Women's rights[edit] "A Feminine Philosopher". Caricature by Spy published in Vanity Fair in 1873. Mill's view of history was that right up until his time "the whole of the female" and "the great majority of the male sex" were simply "slaves". He countered arguments to the contrary, arguing that relations between sexes simply amounted to "the legal subordination of one sex to the other – [which] is wrong itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality." Here, then, we have an instance of Mill's use of 'slavery' in a sense which, compared to its fundamental meaning of absolute unfreedom of person, is an extended and arguably a rhetorical rather than a literal sense. With this, Mill can be considered among the earliest male proponents of gender equality, having been recruited by American feminist, John Neal during his stay in London circa 1825–1827.[66] His book The Subjection of Women (1861, publ.1869) is one of the earliest written on this subject by a male author.[67] In The Subjection of Women, Mill attempts to make a case for perfect equality.[68] In his proposal of a universal education system sponsored by the state, Mill expands benefits for many marginalized groups, especially for women. A universal education holds the potential to create new abilities and novel types of behavior of which the current receiving generation and their descendants can both benefit from. Such a pathway to opportunity enables women to gain “industrial and social independence” that would allow them the same movement in their agency and citizenship as men. Mill’s view of opportunity stands out in its reach, but even more so in the population he foresees could benefit from it. Mill was hopeful of the autonomy such an education could allow for its recipients and especially for women. Through the consequential sophistication and knowledge attained from it, individuals are able to properly act in ways that recedes away from those leading towards overpopulation. This stands directly in combat of the view held by many of Mill’s contemporaries and predecessors who viewed such inclusive programs to be counter intuitive. Aiming help for marginalized groups such as the poor and working class would only stand to reward them of being in that status thus incentivizing them for their lack of vast contribution to the aggregate and encourage fertility which at its extreme could lead to overproduction. He talks about the role of women in marriage and how it must be changed. Mill comments on three major facets of women's lives that he felt are hindering them: society and gender construction; education; and marriage. He argues that the oppression of women was one of the few remaining relics from ancient times, a set of prejudices that severely impeded the progress of humanity.[62][69] As a Member of Parliament, Mill introduced an unsuccessful amendment to the Reform Bill to substitute the word "person" in place of "man".[70] Utilitarianism[edit] Main article: Utilitarianism (book) The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end. ~ John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)[71] The canonical statement of Mill's utilitarianism can be found in his book, Utilitarianism. Although this philosophy has a long tradition, Mill's account is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham and Mill's father James Mill. John Stuart Mill believed in the philosophy of utilitarianism, which he would describe as the principle that holds "that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness". By happiness he means, "intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure".[72] It is clear that we do not all value virtues as a path to happiness and that we sometimes only value them for selfish reasons. However, Mill asserts that upon reflection, even when we value virtues for selfish reasons we are in fact cherishing them as a part of our happiness. Bentham's famous formulation of utilitarianism is known as the greatest-happiness principle. It holds that one must always act so as to produce the greatest aggregate happiness among all sentient beings, within reason. In a similar vein, Mill's method of determining the best utility is that a moral agent, when given the choice between two or more actions, ought to choose the action that contributes most to (maximizes) the total happiness in the world. Happiness, in this context, is understood as the production of pleasure or privation of pain. Given that determining the action that produces the most utility is not always so clear cut, Mill suggests that the utilitarian moral agent, when attempting to rank the utility of different actions, should refer to the general experience of persons. That is, if people generally experience more happiness following action X than they do action Y, the utilitarian should conclude that action X produces more utility than action Y, and so is to be preferred.[73] Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory, meaning that it holds that acts are justified insofar as they produce a desirable outcome. The overarching goal of utilitarianism—the ideal consequence—is to achieve the "greatest good for the greatest number as the end result of human action."[74] In Utilitarianism, Mill states that "happiness is the sole end of human action".[32] This statement aroused some controversy, which is why Mill took it a step further, explaining how the very nature of humans wanting happiness, and who "take it to be reasonable under free consideration", demands that happiness is indeed desirable.[11] In other words, free will leads everyone to make actions inclined on their own happiness, unless reasoned that it would improve the happiness of others, in which case, the greatest utility is still being achieved. To that extent, the utilitarianism that Mill is describing is a default lifestyle that he believes is what people who have not studied a specific opposing field of ethics would naturally and subconsciously use when faced with a decision. Utilitarianism is thought of by some of its activists to be a more developed and overarching ethical theory of Immanuel Kant's belief in goodwill, and not just some default cognitive process of humans. Where Kant would argue that reason can only be used properly by goodwill, Mill would say that the only way to universally create fair laws and systems would be to step back to the consequences, whereby Kant's ethical theories become based around the ultimate good—utility.[75] By this logic the only valid way to discern what is the proper reason would be to view the consequences of any action and weigh the good and the bad, even if on the surface, the ethical reasoning seems to indicate a different train of thought. Higher and lower pleasures[edit] Mill's major contribution to utilitarianism is his argument for the qualitative separation of pleasures. Bentham treats all forms of happiness as equal, whereas Mill argues that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) are superior to more physical forms of pleasure (lower pleasures). He distinguishes between happiness and contentment, claiming that the former is of higher value than the latter, a belief wittily encapsulated in the statement that, "it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question."[73] This made Mill believe that "our only ultimate end"[76] is happiness. One unique part of his utilitarian view, that is not seen in others, is the idea of higher and lower pleasures. Mill explains the different pleasures as: If I am asked, what I mean by difference of quality in pleasures, or what makes one pleasure more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure, except its being greater in amount, there is but one possible answer. Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference […] that is the more desirable pleasure.[77] He defines higher pleasures as mental, moral, and aesthetic pleasures, and lower pleasures as being more sensational. He believed that higher pleasures should be seen as preferable to lower pleasures since they have a greater quality in virtue. He holds that pleasures gained in activity are of a higher quality than those gained passively.[78] Mill defines the difference between higher and lower forms of pleasure with the principle that those who have experienced both tend to prefer one over the other. This is, perhaps, in direct contrast with Bentham's statement that "Quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry",[79] that, if a simple child's game like hopscotch causes more pleasure to more people than a night at the opera house, it is more incumbent upon a society to devote more resources to propagating hopscotch than running opera houses. Mill's argument is that the "simple pleasures" tend to be preferred by people who have no experience with high art, and are therefore not in a proper position to judge. He also argues that people who, for example, are noble or practise philosophy, benefit society more than those who engage in individualist practices for pleasure, which are lower forms of happiness. It is not the agent's own greatest happiness that matters "but the greatest amount of happiness altogether".[80] Chapters[edit] Mill separated his explanation of Utilitarianism into five different sections: General Remarks; What Utilitarianism Is; Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility; Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible; and Of the Connection between Justice and Utility. In the General Remarks portion of his essay, he speaks how next to no progress has been made when it comes to judging what is right and what is wrong of morality and if there is such a thing as moral instinct (which he argues that there may not be). However, he agrees that in general "Our moral faculty, according to all those of its interpreters who are entitled to the name of thinkers, supplies us only with the general principles of moral judgments".[81] In What Utilitarianism Is, he focuses no longer on background information but utilitarianism itself. He quotes utilitarianism as "The greatest happiness principle", defining this theory by saying that pleasure and no pain are the only inherently good things in the world and expands on it by saying that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure."[82] He views it not as an animalistic concept because he sees seeking out pleasure as a way of using our higher facilities. He also says in this chapter that the happiness principle is based not exclusively on the individual but mainly on the community. Mill also defends the idea of a "strong utilitarian conscience (i.e. a strong feeling of obligation to the general happiness)".[76] He argued that humans have a desire to be happy and that that desire causes us to want to be in unity with other humans. This causes us to care about the happiness of others, as well as the happiness of complete strangers. But this desire also causes us to experience pain when we perceive harm to other people. He believes in internal sanctions that make us experience guilt and appropriate our actions. These internal sanctions make us want to do good because we do not want to feel guilty for our actions. Happiness is our ultimate end because it is our duty. He argues that we do not need to be constantly motivated by the concern of people's happiness because most of the actions done by people are done out of good intention, and the good of the world is made up of the good of the people. In Mill's fourth chapter, Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible, he speaks of what proofs of Utility are affected. He starts this chapter off by saying that all of his claims cannot be backed up by reasoning. He claims that the only proof that something brings one pleasure is if someone finds it pleasurable. Next, he talks about how morality is the basic way to achieve happiness. He also discusses in this chapter that Utilitarianism is beneficial for virtue. He says that "it maintains not only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired disinterestedly, for itself."[83] In his final chapter he looks at the connection between Utilitarianism and justice. He contemplates the question of whether justice is something distinct from Utility or not. He reasons this question in several different ways and finally comes to the conclusion that in certain cases justice is essential for Utility, but in others, social duty is far more important than justice. Mill believes that "justice must give way to some other moral principle, but that what is just in ordinary cases is, by reason of that other principle, not just in the particular case."[84] The qualitative account of happiness that Mill advocates thus sheds light on his account presented in On Liberty. As he suggests in that text, utility is to be conceived in relation to humanity "as a progressive being", which includes the development and exercise of rational capacities as we strive to achieve a "higher mode of existence". The rejection of censorship and paternalism is intended to provide the necessary social conditions for the achievement of knowledge and the greatest ability for the greatest number to develop and exercise their deliberative and rational capacities. Mill redefines the definition of happiness as "the ultimate end, for the sake of which all other things are desirable (whether we are considering our own good or that of other people) is an existence as free as possible from pain and as rich as possible in enjoyments".[85] He firmly believed that moral rules and obligations could be referenced to promoting happiness, which connects to having a noble character. While Mill is not a standard act utilitarian or rule utilitarian, he is a minimizing utilitarian, which "affirms that it would be desirable to maximize happiness for the greatest number, but not that we are not morally required to do so".[86] Achieving happiness[edit] Mill believed that for the majority of people (those with but a moderate degree of sensibility and of capacity for enjoyment) happiness is best achieved en passant, rather than striving for it directly. This meant no self-consciousness, scrutiny, self-interrogation, dwelling on, thinking about, imagining or questioning on one's happiness. Then, if otherwise fortunately circumstanced, one would "inhale happiness with the air you breathe."[87][88] Economic philosophy[edit] Main article: Principles of Political Economy Essays on Economics and Society, 1967 Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets. However, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose of animal welfare.[89] He originally believed that "equality of taxation" meant "equality of sacrifice" and that progressive taxation penalized those who worked harder and saved more and was therefore "a mild form of robbery".[90] Given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed. A utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be equal one way or another. Therefore, receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance. Those who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes – some charities are more deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as a government will disburse the money equally. However, a private charity board like a church would disburse the monies fairly to those who are in more need than others.[91] Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes.[92] Within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Nonetheless, some of his views on the idea of flat taxation remained,[93] albeit altered in the third edition of the Principles of Political Economy to reflect a concern for differentiating restrictions on "unearned" incomes, which he favoured, and those on "earned" incomes, which he did not favour.[94] In his autobiography, Mill stated that in relation to his later views on political economy, his "ideal of ultimate improvement... would class [him] decidedly under the general designation of Socialists". His views shifted partly due to reading the works of utopian socialists, but also from the influence of Harriet Taylor.[13] In his work Socialism, Mill argued that the prevalence of poverty in contemporary industrial capitalist societies was "pro tanto a failure of the social arrangements", and that attempts to condone this state of affairs as being the result of individual failings did not represent a justification of them but instead were "an irresistible claim upon every human being for protection against suffering".[95] Mill's Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period.[96] As Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Principles came to dominate economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the standard text until 1919, when it was replaced by Marshall's Principles of Economics. Economic democracy[edit] Mill's main objection to socialism focused on what he saw its destruction of competition. He wrote, "I utterly dissent from the most conspicuous and vehement part of their teaching – their declamations against competition." He was an egalitarian, but he argued more for equal opportunity and placed meritocracy above all other ideals in this regard. According to Mill, a socialist society would only be attainable through the provision of basic education for all, promoting economic democracy instead of capitalism, in the manner of substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives. He says: The form of association, however, which if mankind continue to improve, must be expected in the end to predominate, is not that which can exist between a capitalist as chief, and work-people without a voice in the management, but the association of the labourers themselves on terms of equality, collectively owning the capital with which they carry on their operations, and working under managers elected and removable by themselves.[97][98] Political democracy[edit] Mill's major work on political democracy, Considerations on Representative Government, defends two fundamental principles: extensive participation by citizens and enlightened competence of rulers.[99] The two values are obviously in tension, and some readers have concluded that he is an elitist democrat,[100] while others count him as an earlier participatory democrat.[101] In one section, he appears to defend plural voting, in which more competent citizens are given extra votes (a view he later repudiated). However, in another chapter he argues cogently for the value of participation by all citizens. He believed that the incompetence of the masses could eventually be overcome if they were given a chance to take part in politics, especially at the local level. Mill is one of the few political philosophers ever to serve in government as an elected official. In his three years in Parliament, he was more willing to compromise than the "radical" principles expressed in his writing would lead one to expect.[102] Mill was a major proponent of the diffusion and use of public education to the working class. He saw the value of the individual person, and believed that "man had the inherent capability of guiding his own destiny-but only if his faculties were developed and fulfilled", which could be achieved through education.[103] He regarded education as a pathway to improve human nature which to him meant "to encourage, among other characteristics, diversity and originality, the energy of character, initiative, autonomy, intellectual cultivation, aesthetic sensibility, non-self-regarding interests, prudence, responsibility, and self-control".[104] Education allowed for humans to develop into full informed citizens that had the tools to improve their condition and make fully informed electoral decisions. The power of education lay in its ability to serve as a great equalizer among the classes allowing the working class the ability to control their own destiny and compete with the upper classes. Mill recognized the paramount importance of public education in avoiding the tyranny of the majority by ensuring that all the voters and political participants were fully developed individuals. It was through education, he believed, that an individual could become a full participant within representative democracy. Theories of wealth and income distribution[edit] In Principles of Political Economy, Mill offered an analysis of two economic phenomena often linked together: the laws of production and wealth and the modes of its distribution. Regarding the former, he believed that it was not possible to alter to laws of production, "the ultimate properties of matter and mind... only to employ these properties to bring about events we are interested".[105] The modes of distribution of wealth is a matter of human institutions solely, starting with what Mill believed to be the primary and fundamental institution: Individual Property.[106] He believed that all individuals must start on equal terms, with division of the instruments of production fairly among all members of society. Once each member has an equal amount of individual property, they must be left to their own exertion not to be interfered with by the state. Regarding inequality of wealth, Mill believed that it was the role of the government to establish both social and economic policies that promote the equality of opportunity. The government, according to Mill, should implement three tax policies to help alleviate poverty:[107] fairly-assessed income tax; an inheritance tax; and a policy to restrict sumptuary consumption. Inheritance of capital and wealth plays a large role in development of inequality, because it provides greater opportunity for those receiving the inheritance. Mill's solution to inequality of wealth brought about by inheritance was to implement a greater tax on inheritances, because he believed the most important authoritative function of the government is Taxation, and taxation judiciously implemented could promote equality.[107] The environment[edit] Mill demonstrated an early insight into the value of the natural world—in particular in Book IV, chapter VI of Principles of Political Economy: "Of the Stationary State"[108][109] in which Mill recognised wealth beyond the material, and argued that the logical conclusion of unlimited growth was destruction of the environment and a reduced quality of life. He concludes that a stationary state could be preferable to unending economic growth: I cannot, therefore, regard the stationary states of capital and wealth with the unaffected aversion so generally manifested towards it by political economists of the old school. If the earth must lose that great portion of its pleasantness which it owes to things that the unlimited increase of wealth and population would extirpate from it, for the mere purpose of enabling it to support a larger, but not a better or a happier population, I sincerely hope, for the sake of posterity, that they will be content to be stationary, long before necessity compel them to it. Rate of profit[edit] According to Mill, the ultimate tendency in an economy is for the rate of profit to decline due to diminishing returns in agriculture and increase in population at a Malthusian rate.[110] In popular culture[edit] Statue of Mill by Thomas Woolner in Victoria Embankment Gardens, London Mill is the subject of a 1905 clerihew by E. C. Bentley:[111] John Stuart Mill, By a mighty effort of will, Overcame his natural bonhomie And wrote Principles of Political Economy. Mill is mentioned in Monty Python's "Bruces' Philosophers Song" (1973) in the lines:[112] John Stuart Mill, of his own free will, On half a pint of shandy was particularly ill. Major publications[edit] Title Date Source "Two Letters on the Measure of Value" 1822 "The Traveller" "Questions of Population" 1823 "Black Dwarf" "War Expenditure" 1824 Westminster Review "Quarterly Review – Political Economy" 1825 Westminster Review "Review of Miss Martineau's Tales" 1830 Examiner "The Spirit of the Age" 1831 Examiner "Use and Abuse of Political Terms" 1832 "What is Poetry" 1833, 1859 "Rationale of Representation" 1835 "De Tocqueville on Democracy in America [i]" 1835 "State of Society In America" 1836 "Civilization" 1836 "Essay on Bentham" 1838 "Essay on Coleridge" 1840 "Essays On Government" 1840 "De Tocqueville on Democracy in America [ii]" 1840 A System of Logic 1843 Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy 1844 "Claims of Labour" 1845 Edinburgh Review The Principles of Political Economy: with some of their applications to social philosophy 1848 "The Negro Question" 1850 Fraser's Magazine "Reform of the Civil Service" 1854 Dissertations and Discussions 1859 A Few Words on Non-intervention 1859 On Liberty 1859 Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform 1859 Considerations on Representative Government 1861 "Centralisation" 1862 Edinburgh Review "The Contest in America" 1862 Harper's Magazine Utilitarianism 1863 An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy 1865 Auguste Comte and Positivism 1865 Inaugural Address at St. Andrews Concerning the value of culture 1867 "Speech In Favour of Capital Punishment"[113][114] 1868 England and Ireland 1868 "Thornton on Labour and its Claims" 1869 Fortnightly Review The Subjection of Women 1869 Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question 1870 Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism 1874 Autobiography 1873 Three Essays on Religion 1874 Socialism 1879 Belfords, Clarke & Co. "Notes on N. W. Senior's Political Economy" 1945 Economica N.S. 12 See also[edit] John Stuart Mill Institute Mill's methods John Stuart Mill Library List of liberal theorists On Social Freedom Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom Notes[edit] ^ Hyman, Anthony (1982). Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer. Princeton University Press. pp. 120–121. What effect did Babbages Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers have? Generally his book received little attention as it not greatly concerned with such traditional problems of economics as the nature of 'value'. Actually the effect was considerable, his discussion of factories and manufactures entering the main currents of economic thought. Here it must suffice to look briefly at its influence on two major figures; John Stuart Mill and Adam Smith ^ Varouxakis, Georgios (1999). "Guizot's historical works and J.S. Mill's reception of Tocqueville". History of Political Thought. 20 (2): 292–312. JSTOR 26217580. ^ Friedrich Hayek (1941). "The Counter-Revolution of Science". Economica. 8 (31): 281–320. doi:10.2307/2549335. JSTOR 2549335. ^ a b c "The Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography, by John Stuart Mill" gutenberg.org. Retrieved 11 June 2013. ^ Michael N. Forster, After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the German Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 9. ^ Ralph Raico (27 January 2018). Mises Institute (ed.). "John Stuart Mill and the New Liberalism". ^ Bertrand Russell (1998). "2: Adolescence". Autobiography. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415189859. ^ "Bertrand Russell on God". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1959. Archived from the original on 26 January 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2010. ^ Mommsen, Wolfgang J. (2013). Max Weber and His Contemporaries. Routledge. pp. 8–10. ^ Thouverez, Emile. 1908. Stuart Mill (4th ed.) Paris: Bloud & Cie. p. 23. ^ a b Macleod, Christopher (14 November 2017). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ "John Stuart Mill's On Liberty". victorianweb. Retrieved 23 July 2009. On Liberty is a rational justification of the freedom of the individual in opposition to the claims of the state to impose unlimited control and is thus a defense of the rights of the individual against the state. ^ a b McManus, Matt (30 May 2021). "Was John Stuart Mill a Socialist?". Jacobin (magazine). Retrieved 1 June 2021. ^ "John Stuart Mill (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 31 July 2009. ^ "Orator Hunt and the first suffrage petition 1832". UK Parliament. ^ "John Stuart Mill and the 1866 petition". UK Parliament. ^ Halevy, Elie (1966). The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. Beacon Press. pp. 282–284. ISBN 978-0191010200. ^ a b c d "Cornell University Library Making of America Collection". collections.library.cornell.edu. ^ Murray N. Rothbard (1 February 2006). An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Ludwig von Mises Institute. p. 105. ISBN 978-0945466482. Retrieved 21 January 2011. ^ "John Stuart Mill's Mental Breakdown, Victorian Unconversions, and Romantic Poetry". www.victorianweb.org. ^ Pickering, Mary. 1993. Auguste Comte: an intellectual biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 540. ^ Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. p. 33, Cambridge, 2004, ISBN 0521620244. ^ "Cornell University Library Making of America Collection". collections.library.cornell.edu. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter M" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 15 April 2011. ^ Mill, John Stuart. Writings on India. Edited by John M. Robson, Martin Moir and Zawahir Moir. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; London: Routledge, c. 1990. ^ Klausen, Jimmy Casas (7 January 2016). "Violence and Epistemology J. S. Mill's Indians after the "Mutiny"". Political Research Quarterly. 69: 96–107. doi:10.1177/1065912915623379. ISSN 1065-9129. S2CID 157038995. ^ Harris, Abram L. (1 January 1964). "John Stuart Mill: Servant of the East India Company". The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 30 (2): 185–202. doi:10.2307/139555. JSTOR 139555. ^ a b Lal, Vinay. 1998. "'John Stuart Mill and India', a review-article". New Quest 54(1):54–64. ^ Inaugural Address at St Andrews, Longmans, Green, Reader, And Dyer, 1867. ^ "No. 22991". The London Gazette. 14 July 1865. p. 3528. ^ Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. pp. 321–322, Cambridge, 2004, ISBN 0521620244. ^ a b Sher, George, ed. 2001. Utilitarianism and the 1868 Speech on Capital Punishment, by J. S. Mill. Hackett Publishing Co. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 21 April 2021. ^ "Editorial Notes". Secular Review. 16 (13): 203. 28 March 1885. It has always seemed to us that this is one of the instances in which Mill approached, out of deference to conventional opinion, as near to the borderland of Cant as he well could without compromising his pride of place as a recognised thinker and sceptic ^ Linda C. Raeder (2002). "Spirit of the Age". John Stuart Mill and the Religion of Humanity. University of Missouri Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0826263278. Comte welcomed the prospect of being attacked publicly for his irreligion, he said, as this would permit him to clarify the nonatheistic nature of his and Mill's "atheism". ^ Larsen, Timothy (2018). John Stuart Mill: A Secular Life. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780198753155. A letter John wrote from Forde Abbey when he was eight years old casually mentions in his general report of his activities that he too had been to Thorncombe parish church, so even when Bentham had home-field advantage, the boy was still receiving a Christian spiritual formation. Indeed, Mill occasionally attended Christian worship services during his teen years and thereafter for the rest of his life. The sea of faith was full and all around ^ Larsen, Timothy (7 December 2018). "A surprisingly religious John Stuart Mill". TL: Mill decided that strictly in terms of proof the right answer to that question of God's existence is that it is 'a very probable hypothesis.' He also thought it was perfectly rational and legitimate to believe in God as an act of hope or as the result of one’s efforts to discern the meaning of life as a whole. ^ Shermer, Michael (15 August 2002). In Darwin's Shadow: The Life and Science of Alfred Russel Wallace: A Biographical Study on the Psychology of History. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0199923854. ^ Arindam., Matilal, Bimal Krishna. Chakrabarti (1994). Knowing from words : Western and Indian philosophical analysis of understanding and testimony. Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-2345-9. OCLC 28016267. ^ Matilal, BimalKrishna (March 1989). "Ny?ya critique of the Buddhist doctrine of non-soul". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 17 (1). doi:10.1007/bf00160139. ISSN 0022-1791. S2CID 170181380. ^ On Liberty by John Stuart Mill. 1 January 2011 – via www.gutenberg.org. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 2006. On Liberty. Penguin Classics. ^ a b Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 2001. On Liberty. Kitchener, ON: Batoche Books. Retrieved 17 June 2020. ^ a b "I. Introductory. Mill, John Stuart. 1869. On Liberty". www.bartleby.com. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 2006. On Liberty. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0141441474. pp. 10–11. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 1869. On Liberty (4th ed.). London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. p. 21–22. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 1909. "On Liberty". Pp. 195–290 in Harvard Classics 25, edited by C. W. Eliot. New York: PF Collier & Son. p. 248. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 1985. On Liberty, edited by G. Himmelfarb, UK: Penguin. pp. 83–84. ^ a b c Paul, Ellen Frankel, Fred Dycus Miller, and Jeffrey Paul. 2004. Freedom of Speech 21. Cambridge University Press. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1859] 1863. On Liberty. Ticknor and Fields. p. 23 ^ Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919). ^ George & Kline 2006, p. 409. ^ George & Kline 2006, p. 410. ^ John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty: A Translation into Modern English, Kindle edition, 2013. Page 38. ISBN 9780906321638 ^ "British Press Freedom under Threat", New York Times, 14 November 2013. ^ Abbott, Lewis F. Defending Liberty: the Case for a New Bill of Rights. ISR/Google Books, 2019. Page 22. ISBN 9780906321737 ^ "J. S. Mill's Career at the East India Company". www.victorianweb.org. ^ Theo Goldberg, David (2000). ""Liberalism's limits: Carlyle and Mill on "the negro question". Nineteenth-Century Contexts. 22 (2): 203–216. doi:10.1080/08905490008583508. S2CID 194002917. ^ John Stuart Mill, Dissertations and Discussions: Political, Philosophical, and Historical (New York 1874) Vol. 3, pp. 252–253. ^ Williams, David (7 February 2020). "John Stuart Mill and the practice of colonial rule in India". Journal of International Political Theory: 175508822090334. doi:10.1177/1755088220903349. ISSN 1755-0882. ^ Mill, John Stuart. 1850. "The Negro Question". Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country 41:25–31. ^ a b Mill, John Stuart. 1869. The Subjection of Women. ch. 1. ^ a b "The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Volume XV – The Later Letters of John Stuart Mill 1849–1873 Part II – Online Library of Liberty". oll.libertyfund.org. Retrieved 28 April 2020. ^ Vile, John R. (2003). Great American Judges: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-989-8. ^ P, T. Peter (1991). "John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle, and the U.s. Civil War". Historian. 54 (1): 93–106. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1991.tb00843.x. ISSN 1540-6563. ^ Daggett, Windsor (1920). A Down-East Yankee From the District of Maine. Portland, Maine: A.J. Huston. p. 32. ^ Divinity, Jone Johnson Lewis Jone Johnson Lewis has a Master of; Member, Is a Humanist Clergy; late 1960s, certified transformational coach She has been involved in the women's movement since the. "About Male Feminist John Stuart Mill". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 9 July 2019. ^ Cunningham Wood, John. John Stuart Mill: Critical Assessments 4. ^ Mill, John Stuart. [1869] 2005. "The Subjection of Women". Pp. 17–26 in Feminist Theory: A Philosophical Anthology, edited by A. E. Cudd and R. O. Andreasen. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1405116619. ^ West, Henry R. (1 September 2015). "J. S. Mill". In Crisp, Roger (ed.). The Oxford handbook of the history of ethics. Oxford. p. 528. ISBN 9780198744405. OCLC 907652431. ^ Mill 1863, Chapter 4: Of what sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible. ^ Mill, John (2002). The Basic Writings Of John Stuart Mill. The Modern Library. p. 239. ^ a b Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. February 2004 – via www.gutenberg.org. ^ Freeman, Stephen J., Dennis W. Engels, and Michael K. Altekruse. "Foundations for Ethical Standards and Codes: The Role of Moral Philosophy and Theory in Ethics", Counseling and Values, vol. 48, no. 3, 2004, pp. 163–173, eLibrary. ^ Davis, G. Scott. 2005. "Introduction", Introduction to Utilitarianism, by John Stuart Mill, VII–XIV. Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading. ^ a b Heydt, Colin. "John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Mill, John (1961). Utilitarianism. Doubleday. p. 211. ^ Driver, Julia (27 March 2009). "The History of Utilitarianism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Bronfenbrenner, Martin (1977). "Poetry, Pushpin, and Utility". Economic Inquiry. 15: 95–110. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.1977.tb00452.x. ^ Mill 1863, p. 16. ^ Mill 1863, p. 2. ^ Mill 1863, p. 3. ^ Mill 1863, p. 24. ^ Mill 1863, p. 29. ^ Mill 1863, p. 8. ^ Fitzpatrick 2006, p. 84. ^ "Autobiography, by John Stuart Mill". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 11 March 2021. ^ "AUTO Chapter 5, John Stuart Mill, Autobiography". www.laits.utexas.edu. Retrieved 11 March 2021. ^ "Ifaw.org" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2008. ^ IREF | Pour la liberte economique et la concurrence fiscale Archived 27 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (PDF) ^ Strasser 1991. ^ Mill, John Stuart; Bentham, Jeremy (2004). Ryan, Alan. (ed.). Utilitarianism and other essays. London: Penguin Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-0140432725. ^ Wilson, Fred (2007). "John Stuart Mill: Political Economy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 4 May 2009. ^ Mill, John Stuart (1852), "On The General Principles of Taxation, V.2.14", Principles of Political Economy (3rd ed.), Library of Economics and Liberty The passage about flat taxation was altered by the author in this edition, which is acknowledged in this online edition's footnote 8: "[This sentence replaced in the 3rd ed. a sentence of the original: 'It is partial taxation, which is a mild form of robbery.']") ^ Mill, John Stuart (2011) [1st pub. Belfords, Clarke & Co.:1879]. Socialism. Project Gutenberg. p. 29. Retrieved 1 June 2021. ^ Ekelund, Robert B., Jr.; Hébert, Robert F. (1997). A History of Economic Theory and Method (4th ed.). Waveland Press [Long Grove, Illinois]. p. 172. ISBN 978-1577663812.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy, IV.7.21 John Stuart Mill: Political Economy, IV.7.21 ^ Principles of Political Economy and On Liberty, Chapter IV, Of the Limits to the Authority of Society Over the Individual ^ Thompson, Dennis F. (1976). John Stuart Mill and Representative Government. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691021874. ^ Letwin, Shirley (1965). The Pursuit of Certainty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 306. ISBN 978-0865971943. ^ Pateman, Carole (1970). Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0521290043. ^ Thompson, Dennis (2007). "Mill in Parliament: when should a philosopher compromise?". In Urbinati, N.; Zakaras, A. (eds.). J. S. Mill's Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–199. ISBN 978-0521677561. ^ Davis, Elynor G. (1985). "Mill, Socialism and the English Romantics: An Interpretation". Economica. 52 (207): 345–58 (351). doi:10.2307/2553857. JSTOR 2553857. ^ De Mattos, Laura Valladão (2000). "John Stuart Mill, socialism, and his Liberal Utopia: an application of his view of social institutions". History of Economic Ideas. 8 (2): 95–120 (97). ^ Mill, John Stuart (1885). Principles of Political Economy. New York: D. Appleton and Company. ^ Jensen, Hans (December 2001). "John Stuart Mill's Theories of Wealth and Income Distribution". Review of Social Economy. 59 (4): 491–507. doi:10.1080/00346760110081599. S2CID 145340813. ^ a b Ekelund, Robert; Tollison, Robert (May 1976). "The New Political Economy of J. S. Mill: Means to Social Justice". The Canadian Journal of Economics. 9 (2): 213–231. doi:10.2307/134519. JSTOR 134519. ^ "The Principles of Political Economy, Book 4, Chapter VI". Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2008. ^ Røpke, Inge (1 October 2004). "The early history of modern ecological economics". Ecological Economics. 50 (3–4): 293–314. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.02.012. ^ Mill, John Stuart. Principles of Political Economy (PDF). p. 25. Retrieved 1 November 2016. ^ Swainson, Bill, ed. (2000). Encarta Book of Quotations. Macmillan. pp. 642–643. ISBN 978-0312230005. ^ "Monty Python – Bruces' Philosophers Song Lyrics". MetroLyrics. Retrieved 8 August 2019. ^ Hansard report of Commons Sitting: Capital Punishment Within Prisons Bill – [Bill 36.] Committee stage: HC Deb 21 April 1868 vol. 191 cc 1033–63 including Mill's speech Col. 1047–1055 ^ His speech against the abolition of capital punishment was commented upon in an editorial in The Times, Wednesday, 22 April 1868; p. 8; Issue 26105; col E: References[edit] Mill's work[edit] Mill, John Stuart (1863). Utilitarianism. Other sources[edit] Duncan Bell, "John Stuart Mill on Colonies", Political Theory, Vol. 38 (February 2010), pp. 34–64. Brink, David O. (1992). "Mill's Deliberative Utilitarianism". Philosophy and Public Affairs. 21: 67–103. Claeys, Gregory. Mill and Paternalism (Cambridge University Press, 2013) Clifford G. Christians and John C. Merrill (eds) Ethical Communication: Five Moral Stances in Human Dialogue, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2009 Fitzpatrick, J. R. (2006). John Stuart Mill's Political Philosophy. Continuum Studies in British Philosophy. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1847143440. George, Roger Z.; Kline, Robert D. (2006). Intelligence and the national security strategist: enduring issues and challenges. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742540385. Adam Gopnik, "Right Again, The passions of John Stuart Mill", The New Yorker, 6 October 2008. Harrington, Jack (2010). Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India, Ch. 5. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230108851. Sterling Harwood, "Eleven Objections to Utilitarianism", in Louis P. Pojman, ed., Moral Philosophy: A Reader (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1998), and in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), Chapter 7. Samuel Hollander, The Economics of John Stuart Mill (University of Toronto Press, 1985) Wendy Kolmar and Frances Bartowski. Feminist Theory. 2nd ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill, 2005. Shirley Letwin, The Pursuit of Certainty (Cambridge University Press, 1965). ISBN 978-0865971943 Michael St. John Packe, The Life of John Stuart Mill (Macmillan, 1952). Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1970). ISBN 978-0521290043 Richard Reeves, John Stuart Mill: Victorian Firebrand, Atlantic Books (2007), paperback 2008. ISBN 978-1843546443 Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 184046450X. Frederick Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory), 2003. ISBN 0415220947 Spiegel, H. W. (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought. Economic history. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822309734. Strasser, Mark Philip (1991). The Moral Philosophy of John Stuart Mill: Toward Modifications of Contemporary Utilitarianism. Wakefield, New Hampshire: Longwood Academic. ISBN 978-0893416812. Chin Liew Ten, Mill on Liberty, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980, full-text online at Contents Victorianweb.org (National University of Singapore) Dennis F. Thompson, John Stuart Mill and Representative Government (Princeton University Press, 1976). ISBN 978-0691021874 Dennis F. Thompson, "Mill in Parliament: When Should a Philosopher Compromise?" in J. S. Mill's Political Thought, eds. N. Urbinati and A. Zakaras (Cambridge University Press, 2007). ISBN 978-0521677561 Brink, David, "Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Stuart Mill, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, ed. J. M. Robson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963–1991), 33 vols. 14 March 2017. Walker, Francis Amasa (1876). The Wages Question: A Treatise on Wages and the Wages Class. Henry Holt. Further reading[edit] Alican, Necip Fikri (1994). Mill's Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill's Notorious Proof. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Editions Rodopi B. V. ISBN 978-9051837483. Bayles, M. D. (1968). Contemporary Utilitarianism. Anchor Books, Doubleday. Bentham, Jeremy (2009). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Dover Philosophical Classics). Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0486454528. Brandt, Richard B. (1979). A Theory of the Good and the Right. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198245506. Lee, Sidney, ed. (1894). "Mill, John Stuart" . Dictionary of National Biography. 37. London: Smith, Elder & Co. López, Rosario (2016). Contexts of John Stuart Mill's Liberalism: Politics and the Science of Society in Victorian Britain. Baden-Baden, Nomos. ISBN 978-3848736959. Lyons, David (1965). Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press (UK). ISBN 978-0198241973. Mill, John Stuart (2011). A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1440090820. Mill, John Stuart (1981). "Autobiography". In Robson, John (ed.). Collected Works, volume XXXI. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0710007186. Moore, G. E. (1903). Principia Ethica. Prometheus Books UK. ISBN 978-0879754983. Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge. Scheffler, Samuel (August 1994). The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions, Second Edition. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198235118. Smart, J. J. C.; Williams, Bernard (January 1973). Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521098229. Francisco Vergara, « Bentham and Mill on the "Quality" of Pleasures», Revue d'études benthamiennes, Paris, 2011. Francisco Vergara, « A Critique of Elie Halévy; refutation of an important distortion of British moral philosophy », Philosophy, Journal of The Royal Institute of Philosophy, London, 1998. External links[edit] This section's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) John Stuart Millat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Mill's works[edit] A System of Logic, University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ISBN 1410202526 Works by John Stuart Mill at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Stuart Mill at Internet Archive Works by John Stuart Mill at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Online Books Page lists works on various sites Works, readable and downloadable Primary and secondary works More easily readable versions of On Liberty, Utilitarianism, Three Essays on Religion, The Subjection of Women, A System of Logic, and Autobiography Of the Composition of Causes, Chapter VI of System of Logic (1859) John Stuart Mill's diary of a walking tour at Mount Holyoke College Secondary works[edit] Macleod, Christopher. "John Stuart Mill". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. John Stuart Mill in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Further information[edit] Minto, William; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "MILL, JOHN STUART". The Encyclopaedia Britannica; A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. XVIII (MEDAL to MUMPS) (11th ed.). Cambridge, England and New York: At the University Press. pp. 454–459. Retrieved 9 September 2019 – via Internet Archive. Catalogue of Mill's correspondence and papers held at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics. View the Archives Catalogue of the contents of this important holding, which also includes letters of James Mill and Helen Taylor. John Stuart Mill's library, Somerville College Library in Oxford holds ≈ 1700 volumes owned by John Stuart Mill and his father James Mill, many containing their marginalia "John Stuart Mill (Obituary Notice, Tuesday, November 4, 1873)". Eminent Persons: Biographies reprinted from The Times. I (1870–1875). Macmillan & Co. 1892. pp. 195–224. hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t6n011x45 – via HathiTrust. John Stuart Mill at Find a Grave Mill, BBC Radio 4 discussion with A. C. Grayling, Janet Radcliffe Richards & Alan Ryan (In Our Time, 18 May 2006) Portraits of John Stuart Mill at the National Portrait Gallery, London John Stuart Mill on Google Scholar John Stuart Mill, biographical profile, including quotes and further resources, at Utilitarianism.net. 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A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 Sarah Moore Grimké Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, 1837 Flora Tristan The Emancipation of Working Class Women, 1843 Elizabeth Cady Stanton Declaration of Sentiments, 1848 Harriet Taylor Mill The Enfranchisement of Women, 1851 John Stuart Mill The Subjection of Women, 1869 Friedrich Engels The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, 1884 1940s–1960s Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex, 1949 Betty Friedan The Feminine Mystique, 1963 1970s Kate Millett Sexual Politics, 1970 Shulamith Firestone The Dialectic of Sex, 1970 Germaine Greer The Female Eunuch, 1970 Robin Morgan Sisterhood Is Powerful, 1970 Andrea Dworkin Woman Hating, 1974 Sandra Bartky "Toward a Phenomenology of Feminist Consciousness", 1974 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will, 1975 Hélène Cixous "Le Rire de la Méduse", 1975 Mary Daly Gyn/Ecology, 1978 Dale Spender Man Made Language, 1978 Audre Lorde "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House", 1979 1980s Monique Wittig "On ne naît pas femme", 1980 bell hooks Ain't I a Woman?, 1981 Marilyn Frye The Politics of Reality, 1983 Sheila Jeffreys The Spinster and Her Enemies, 1985 Gerda Lerner The Creation of Patriarchy, 1986 Catharine MacKinnon Toward a Feminist Theory of the State, 1989 Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex", 1989 1990s Judith Butler Gender Trouble, 1990 Patricia Hill Collins Black Feminist Thought, 1990 Naomi Wolf The Beauty Myth, 1990 Drucilla Cornell Beyond Accommodation, 1991 Val Plumwood Feminism and the Mastery of Nature, 1993 Christina Hoff Sommers Who Stole Feminism?, 1994 Martha Nussbaum Sex and Social Justice, 1998 Other theorists Elizabeth Anderson Martha Albertson Fineman Nancy Fraser Donna Haraway Sandra Harding Sally Haslanger Luce Irigaray Anna Jónasdóttir Ideas Écriture féminine Feminism analytical aesthetics empiricism epistemology ethics existentialism justice ethics legal theory 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9280	----	Ab epistulis - Wikipedia Ab epistulis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ab epistulis was the chancellor's office in the Roman Empire with responsibility for the emperor's correspondence.[1] The office sent mandata (instructions) to provincial governors and other officials.[2][3] Ab epistulis wrote in Latin (ab epistulis latinis) and in Greek (ab epistulis graecis), and composed the short responses to petitions on behalf of the emperor.[4] Holders of the position usually had a particular vocation for literary matters.[5][4] Notable Ab epistulis[edit] Augustus punished his secretary Thallus "for divulging the contents of a letter".[6] Caligula dictated a letter to an ab epistulis.[7] Narcissus apparently worked as ab epistulis, because he was in charge of the grammata of Claudius against Agrippina.[7] Beryllus was the ab epistulis graecis of Nero.[7] Suetonius Tranquillus, the famous biographer, was ab epistulis to Hadrian,[8] according to the Historia Augusta until he was replaced for too close relations with Empress Sabina[9] One of the leading rhetoricians of this time, "Alexander Peloplaton", was Marcus Aurelius's ab epistulis in the 170s.[4] Marcus was impressed by the orator Hadrian of Tyre, so he offered him the job ab epistulis to recognise his excellence.[4] Aspasius of Ravenna was a Greek orator, who between AD 211 and 216 served as ab epistulis.[4] Aelius Antipater was the ab epistulis of the emperor Caracalla, who defined him "my friend and teacher, entrusted with the composition of Greek letters".[4] Marcius Agrippa was a cognitionibus and ab epistulis of Caracalla.[10] References[edit] ^ Lara Peinado, Federico; Cabrero Piquero, Javier; Cordente Vaquero, Félix; Pino Cano, Juan Antonio (2009). Diccionario de instituciones de la Antigüedad (in Spanish) (1ª ed.). Fuenlabrada (Madrid): Ediciones Cátedra (Grupo Anaya, Sociedad Anónima). p. 13. ISBN 9788437626123. Retrieved 19 April 2017. ^ "Constitutiones principum". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved Aug 30, 2018. ^ Statius, Silvae 5, 1, 86-87 ^ a b c d e f Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Psychology Press. pp. 77–78. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. Retrieved Aug 31, 2018. ^ Birley, Anthony Richard (1987). Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (rev. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 122f. ISBN 0-7607-1186-0. ^ Suetonius, Div. Aug., 67 ^ a b c Millar 2005, p. 15. ^ "Hippo Regius, Inscription of Suetonius - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2021-03-18. ^ Historia Augusta, Hadrianus 11,3 ^ Millar 2005, p. 17. Bibliography[edit] Millar, Fergus (2005). Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire. 2. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 504. ISBN 9780807863695. This Ancient Rome–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ab_epistulis&oldid=1016703769" Categories: Government of the Roman Empire Ancient Rome stubs Hidden categories: CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Emiliàn e rumagnòl 한국어 Italiano Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2021, at 16:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9290	----	John II Komnenos - Wikipedia John II Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143 For other people named John Komnenos, see John Komnenos (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John II Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Mosaic of John II at the Hagia Sophia Byzantine emperor Reign 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 Coronation 1092 as co-emperor Predecessor Alexios I Komnenos Successor Manuel I Komnenos Born 13 September 1087 Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Died 8 April 1143(1143-04-08) (aged 55) Cilicia, Byzantine Empire Burial Monastery of Christ Pantocrator, Constantinople (now Zeyrek Mosque, Istanbul) Spouse Irene of Hungary Issue Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene Andronikos Komnenos Anna Komnene Isaac Komnenos Theodora Komnene Eudokia Komnene Manuel I Komnenos Dynasty Komnenos Father Alexios I Komnenos Mother Irene Doukaina Religion Orthodox John II Komnenos or Comnenus (Greek: Ίωάννης Βʹ Κομνηνός, Iōannēs II Komnēnos; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (Kaloïōannēs), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina and the second emperor to rule during the Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire. John was a pious and dedicated monarch who was determined to undo the damage his empire had suffered following the Battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier. John has been assessed as the greatest of the Komnenian emperors.[1] In the course of the quarter-century of his reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, decisively defeated the Pechenegs, Hungarians and Serbs in the Balkans, and personally led numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. John's campaigns fundamentally changed the balance of power in the east, forcing the Turks onto the defensive and restoring to the Byzantines many towns, fortresses and cities right across the Anatolian peninsula. In the southeast, John extended Byzantine control from the Maeander in the west all the way to Cilicia and Tarsus in the east. In an effort to demonstrate the Byzantine ideal of the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into Muslim Syria at the head of the combined forces of Byzantium and the Crusader states; yet despite the great vigour with which he pressed the campaign, John's hopes were disappointed by the evasiveness of his Crusader allies and their reluctance to fight alongside his forces. Under John, the empire's population recovered to about 10 million people.[2] The quarter-century of John II's reign is less well recorded by contemporary or near-contemporary writers than the reigns of either his father, Alexios I, or his son, Manuel I. In particular little is known of the history of John's domestic rule or policies.[a] Contents 1 Physical appearance and character 2 Accession to the throne 3 Military and civil administration 4 Conspiracies of the sebastokrator Isaac 5 Diplomacy 6 Religious matters 7 Military exploits 7.1 The Pechenegs destroyed (1122) 7.2 Conflict with Venice (1124–1126) 7.3 War with the Hungarians and Serbs (1127–1129 – chronology uncertain) 7.4 War of attrition against the Anatolian Turks (1119–20, 1130–35, 1139–40) 7.5 Campaigning in Cilicia and Syria (1137–1138) 7.6 Final campaigns (1142) 8 Death and succession 9 The legacy of John II 10 Family 11 Ancestry 12 See also 13 External links 14 Notes 15 References 16 Sources 17 Further reading Physical appearance and character[edit] John II Komnenos – a conjectural digital replacement of facial features damaged on the original mosaic in Hagia Sophia The Latin historian William of Tyre described John as short and unusually ugly, with eyes, hair and complexion so dark he was known as 'the Moor'.[3] Yet despite his physical appearance, John was known as Kaloïōannēs, "John the Good" or "John the Beautiful"; the epithet referred to his character. Both his parents were unusually pious and John surpassed them. Members of his court were expected to restrict their conversation to serious subjects only. The food served at the emperor's table was very frugal and John lectured courtiers who lived in excessive luxury. His speech was dignified, but he engaged in repartee on occasion. All accounts agree that he was a faithful husband to his wife, an unusual trait in a medieval ruler. Despite his personal austerity, John had a high conception of the imperial role and would appear in full ceremonial splendour when this was advantageous.[4] John was famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign. He is considered an exceptional example of a moral ruler, at a time when cruelty was the norm. He is reputed never to have condemned anyone to death or mutilation.[5] Charity was dispensed lavishly. For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius.[6] By the example of his personal morality and piety he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age. Descriptions of him and his actions indicate that he had great self-control and personal courage, and was an excellent strategist and general.[4] Accession to the throne[edit] John II (left) and his eldest son Alexios, crowned by Christ. Byzantine manuscript, early 12th century John II succeeded his father as ruling basileus in 1118, but had already been crowned co-emperor by Alexios I between 1 September and early November, 1092.[7] Despite this coronation, the accession of John was contested. That Alexios I favoured John to succeed him is made obvious by the elevation of his son to the position of co-emperor. However, Alexios' influential wife, Irene, favoured the Caesar Nikephoros Bryennios, the husband of her eldest child Anna Komnene.[8] Anna, who in infancy had been betrothed to her father's first co-emperor Constantine Doukas, herself harboured obvious aspirations to power and the throne. During Alexios' final illness both wife and daughter exploited his physical weakness to apply pressure on him in support of their agenda for the succession. Alexios endured these constant demands without formally changing his intended successor. As Alexios lay dying in the monastery of the Mangana on 15 August 1118, John, relying on trusted relatives, especially his brother Isaac Komnenos, gained entry into the monastery and obtained the imperial signet ring from his father. He then assembled his armed followers and rode to the Great Palace, gathering the support of the citizenry on the way. The palace guard at first refused to admit John without clear proof of his father's wishes, however, the mob surrounding the new emperor simply forced an entry. In the palace John was acclaimed emperor. Irene, taken by surprise, was unable either to persuade her son to step down, or to induce Nikephoros to contend for the throne.[9][10] Alexios died the night following his son's decisive move to take power. John refused to attend his father's funeral, despite the pleas of his mother, because he feared a counter-coup. However, in the space of a few days, his position seemed secure. Within a year of his accession, however, John II uncovered a conspiracy to overthrow him which implicated his mother and sister.[11] Anna's husband Nikephoros had little sympathy with her ambitions, and it was his lack of support which doomed the conspiracy. Anna was stripped of her property, which was offered to the emperor's friend John Axouch. Axouch wisely declined and his influence ensured that Anna's property was eventually returned to her and that John II and his sister became reconciled, at least to a degree. Irene retired to a monastery and Anna seems to have been effectively removed from public life, taking up the less active occupation of historian. However, Nikephoros remained on good terms with his brother-in-law.[12][13] One of the very few records of John's own words concerns the plot against him; he says that after ascending the throne, God "destroyed the cunning plots of my visible and invisible enemies and rescued me from every trap subjecting all my enemies under my feet".[14] To safeguard his own succession, John crowned his young son Alexios co-emperor in 1122.[15] Military and civil administration[edit] The family intrigues that challenged his succession to the throne probably contributed to John's approach to rulership, which was to appoint men from outside the imperial family to high office. This was a radical departure from the methods of his father, who had used the imperial family and its many connections to fill almost all senior administrative and military posts.[8] John Axouch was John II's closest adviser and was his only intimate friend. Axouch was a Turk captured as a child at the Siege of Nicaea, who had been given as a gift to John's father. Emperor Alexios had thought him a good companion for his son, and so he had been brought up alongside the prince in the imperial household. Axouch was immediately appointed Grand Domestic (in Greek: μέγας δομέστικος, megas domestikos), upon the accession of John II. The Grand Domestic was the commander in chief of the Byzantine armies. It has been suggested that references to Axouch's possession of the imperial seal early in the reign of John's successor Manuel I meant that he was, in addition to his military duties, the head of the civil administration of the Empire. This was an unofficial position known at the time as the mesazon, and equivalent to a vizier or 'prime-minister.'[16] Such an appointment was remarkable, and a radical departure from the nepotism that had characterised the reign of Alexios I. The imperial family harboured some degree of resentment at this decision, which was reinforced by the fact that they were required to make obeisance to John Axouch whenever they met him.[17] John's unwillingness to allow his family to influence his government to any great extent was to remain constant for the rest of his reign. John appointed a number of his father's personal retainers to senior administrative posts, men such as Eustathios Kamytzes, Michaelitzes Styppeiotes and George Dekanos. These were men who had been politically eclipsed during the ascendancy exercised by John's mother in the later years of the reign of Alexios I.[13] A number of 'new men' were raised to prominence by John II, these included Gregory Taronites who was appointed protovestiarios, Manuel Anemas and Theodore Vatatzes, the latter two also became his sons-in-law. John's marriage policy, of bringing new families into the imperial orbit, may have been directed towards lessening the influence of certain prominent aristocratic clans, such as the Doukas, Diogenes and Melissenos families, some of which had produced emperors themselves in the past.[18] Despite his move away from close reliance on the imperial family and its connections, John's court and government had many similarities to that of his father, not least in its serious tone and piety. Indeed, an extant collection of political advice couched in poetic form, called the Mousai, are attributed to Alexios I. The Mousai are addressed directly to John II and exhort him, amongst other things, to maintain justice during his reign and a full treasury. Alexios' advice on rulership therefore continued to be available to his son, even after the old emperor's death.[19] The increase in military security and economic stability within Byzantine western Anatolia created by John II's campaigns allowed him to begin the establishment of a formal provincial system in these regions. The theme (province) of Thrakesion was re-established, with its administrative centre at Philadelphia. A new theme, named Mylasa and Melanoudion, was created to the south of Thrakesion.[20] Conspiracies of the sebastokrator Isaac[edit] Isaac Komnenos, mosaic of from the Chora Church The younger brother of John II, Isaac, had been of essential support during the accession crisis. However, despite being given the highest of court titles, that of sebastokrator, Isaac later became estranged from his brother and became an active conspirator. With trusted advisors of his own choosing, such as John Axouch, and later the support of his son and co-emperor, Alexios, John II offered no meaningful role to Isaac in the governance of the empire. In the reign of Alexios I sebastokratores had wielded considerable power and Isaac would have had an expectation of a similar level of authority being devolved on himself. This thwarted ambition is probably what disillusioned Isaac with his brother's rule. Isaac aimed at replacing his brother as emperor. In 1130 John became aware of a plot involving Isaac and other magnates as he was leaving to campaign against the Turks. When John tried to seize Isaac, the latter escaped and fled to the Danishmend emir Ghazi, who received him, and later sent him to the breakaway Byzantine regime of the Gabrades in Trebizond. Isaac then became the guest of Masoud, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, and subsequently of Leo, the Prince of Cilician Armenia. That Isaac was seeking aid from these princes in a bid to take the Byzantine throne by force is highly likely. Such a coalition did not materialise, but Isaac seems to have retained strong support in Constantinople. In 1132 John had to return from campaign in haste, when news reached him that conspirators in Constantinople had made an appeal to Isaac to become their ruler. The triumph that John celebrated following his capture of Kastamuni in 1133 can be seen as being a public affirmation of John's legitimacy as emperor embodied in the celebration of the defeat of external foes. The brothers were briefly reconciled in 1138, and Isaac returned to Constantinople; however, a year later Isaac was exiled to Heraclea Pontica, where he remained for the rest of John's life. In the extensive artwork that Isaac commissioned, he made much of his porphyrogenete status and his relationship with his imperial father, Alexios I, but he made little or no reference to his relationship to his brother John, or to the title of sebastokrator that he had received from him.[21][22] Diplomacy[edit] A letter from John II to Pope Innocent II The central tenet of the foreign policy of John II in the West was to maintain an alliance with the German emperors (Holy Roman Empire). This was necessary to limit the threat posed by the Normans of southern Italy to Byzantine territory in the Balkans. This threat became especially acute after Roger II of Sicily made himself supreme in southern Italy and assumed the title of king. Emperor Lothair III had Byzantine backing, including a large financial subsidy, for his invasion of Norman territory in 1136, which reached as far south as Bari. Pope Innocent II, with the Church's possessions in Italy under threat by Roger II, who supported Antipope Anacletus II, was also party to the alliance of Lothair and John II. However, this alliance proved unable to resist Roger, who extracted by force a recognition of his royal title from the Pope in 1139 (Treaty of Mignano).[23] Lothair's successor Conrad III was approached in 1140 for a royal German bride for John's youngest son Manuel. Bertha of Sulzbach, Conrad's sister-in-law, was chosen and despatched to Byzantium.[24] At much the same time Roger II applied to John II for an imperial bride for his son, but was unsuccessful.[25] John's penchant for interfering with his wife's family, the rulers of Hungary, was problematic. The welcome accorded to ousted claimants of the Hungarian throne in Constantinople was seen by the Byzantines as a useful insurance policy and source of political leverage. However, the Hungarians treated this interference as a fighting matter. A Hungarian alliance with the Serbs produced serious consequences for continued Byzantine dominance in the western Balkans.[26] In the East John attempted, like his father, to exploit the differences between the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium and the Danishmendid dynasty controlling the northeastern, inland, parts of Anatolia. In 1134 the Seljuq sultan Masoud provided troops for John's attack on the Danishmend-held city of Kastamuni (reoccupied immediately after the Byzantine conquest of 1133), however, the alliance proved unreliable as the Seljuq troops abandoned the expedition, decamping during the night.[27] In the Crusader states of the Levant it was generally admitted that the Byzantine claims over Antioch were legally valid, though it was pragmatically viewed that only when the Byzantine emperor was in a position to enforce them militarily were they likely to be recognised in practice. The high point of John's diplomacy in the Levant was in 1137 when he extracted formal homage from the rulers of the Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa and the County of Tripoli. The Byzantine desire to be seen as holding a level of suzerainty over all of the Crusader states was taken seriously, as evidenced by the alarm shown in the Kingdom of Jerusalem when John informed King Fulk of his plan for an armed pilgrimage to the Holy City (1142).[28] Religious matters[edit] Former Imperial Chapels of Christ Pantokrator, now the Zeyrek Mosque, Istanbul Gold coin of John II Komnenos, depicting the Virgin Mary and John holding a cross. The reign of John II was taken up with almost constant warfare and, unlike his father who delighted in active participation in theological and doctrinal disputes, John appears to have been content to leave ecclesiastical matters to the Patriarch and the church hierarchy. Only when religion impinged directly on imperial policy, as in relations with the papacy and the possible union of the Greek and Latin churches, did John take an active part. He organised a number of disputations between Greek and Latin theologians.[29] John, alongside his wife who shared in his religious and charitable works, is known to have undertaken church building on a considerable scale, including construction of the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator (Zeyrek Mosque) in Constantinople. This monastery, with its three churches, has been described as one of the most important and influential architectural constructions of Middle Byzantine Constantinople. Attached to the monastery was a hospital, of 5 wards, open to people of all social classes. The hospital was staffed by trained layman doctors rather than monks. The monastery also served as the imperial sepulchre for the Komnenian dynasty.[30][31] Very active persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies characterised the last few years of the reign of Alexios I.[32] No records from the reign of John mention such persecution, though countermeasures against heresy by the Byzantine Church remained in force. A permanent synod in Constantinople investigated the writings of a deceased monk named Constantine Chrysomallos which had been circulating in certain monasteries. These works were ordered to be burnt by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Leo Styppes, in May 1140, on the grounds that they incorporated elements of Bogomil belief and practices.[33] One of the few members of the imperial family to be placed in an important position by John was his cousin, Adrian Komnenos (son of John's uncle the sebastokrator Isaac). Adrian had become a monk, adopting the monastic name John, and had accompanied the emperor on his campaigns of 1138. Soon afterwards, Adrian was appointed Archbishop of Bulgaria as John IV of Ohrid. Bulgaria was an autocephalous see and required a prestigious man as archbishop.[34] Military exploits[edit] Though he fought a number of notable pitched battles, the military strategy of John II relied on taking and holding fortified settlements in order to construct defensible frontiers. John personally conducted approximately twenty five sieges during his reign.[35] The Pechenegs destroyed (1122)[edit] In 1119–1121 John defeated the Seljuq Turks, establishing his control over southwestern Anatolia. However, immediately afterwards, in 1122, John quickly transferred his troops to Europe to counter a Pecheneg invasion across the Danube frontier into Paristrion. These invaders had been auxiliaries of the Prince of Kiev. John surrounded the Pechenegs as they burst into Thrace, tricked them into believing that he would grant them a favourable treaty, and then launched a devastating surprise attack upon their fortified camp. The ensuing Battle of Beroia was hard fought, John was wounded in the leg by an arrow, but by the end of the day the Byzantine army had won a crushing victory. The decisive moment of the battle was when John led the Varangian Guard, largely composed of Englishmen, to assault defensive Pecheneg wagon laager, employing their famous axes to hack their way in.[15][36] The battle put an effective end to the Pechenegs as an independent people; many of the captives taken in the conflict were settled as soldier-farmers within the Byzantine frontier.[37] Conflict with Venice (1124–1126)[edit] John II in full imperial regalia, Byzantine low relief sculpture in marble, early 12th century. After his accession, John II had refused to confirm his father's 1082 treaty with the Republic of Venice, which had given the Italian republic unique and generous trading rights within the Byzantine Empire. Yet the change in policy was not motivated by financial concerns. An incident involving the abuse of a member of the imperial family by Venetians led to a dangerous conflict, especially as Byzantium had depended on Venice for its naval strength. After a Byzantine retaliatory attack on Kerkyra, John exiled the Venetian merchants from Constantinople. But this produced further retaliation, and a Venetian fleet of 72 ships plundered Rhodes, Chios, Samos, Lesbos, Andros and captured Kefalonia in the Ionian Sea.[38] Eventually John was forced to come to terms; the war was costing him more than it was worth, and he was not prepared to transfer funds from the imperial land forces to the navy for the construction of new ships. John re-confirmed the treaty of 1082, in August 1126.[39] War with the Hungarians and Serbs (1127–1129 – chronology uncertain)[edit] Main article: Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–29) John's marriage to the Hungarian princess Piroska involved him in the dynastic struggles of the Kingdom of Hungary. In giving asylum to Álmos, a blinded claimant to the Hungarian throne, John aroused the suspicion of the Hungarians. The Hungarians, led by Stephen II, then invaded Byzantium's Balkan provinces in 1127, with hostilities lasting until 1129; however, an alternative chronology has been suggested with the Hungarian attack and Byzantine retaliation taking place in 1125 with a renewal of hostilities in 1126.[40][41][b] John launched a punitive raid against the Serbs, who had dangerously aligned themselves with Hungary, many of whom were rounded up and transported to Nicomedia in Asia Minor to serve as military colonists. This was done partly to cow the Serbs into submission (Serbia was, at least nominally, a Byzantine protectorate), and partly to strengthen the Byzantine frontier in the east against the Turks. The Serbs were forced to acknowledge Byzantine suzerainty once again.[37] The Serbian campaign may have taken place between two distinct phases in the war against Hungary.[42] The Hungarians attacked Belgrade, Nish and Sofia; John, who was near Philippopolis in Thrace, counterattacked, supported by a naval flotilla operating on the Danube.[15] After a challenging campaign, the details of which are obscure, the emperor managed to defeat the Hungarians and their Serbian allies at the fortress of Haram or Chramon, which is the modern Nova Palanka; many Hungarian troops were killed when a bridge they were crossing collapsed as they were fleeing from a Byzantine attack.[43] Following this the Hungarians renewed hostilities by attacking Braničevo, which was immediately rebuilt by John. Further Byzantine military successes, Choniates mentions several engagements, resulted in a restoration of peace.[44][45][46] The Byzantines were confirmed in their control of Braničevo, Belgrade and Zemun and they also recovered the region of Sirmium (called Frangochorion in Choniates), which had been Hungarian since the 1060s. The Hungarian pretender Álmos died in 1129, removing the major source of friction.[42] War of attrition against the Anatolian Turks (1119–20, 1130–35, 1139–40)[edit] Main article: Byzantine-Seljuq Wars v t e Byzantine–Seljuk wars Kapetron 1st Manzikert Caesarea Iconium 2nd Manzikert Seljuk campaigns in the Aegean 1st Nicaea 2nd Nicaea Philomelion Campaigns of John II Komnenos Laodicea Sozopolis Myriokephalon Hyelion and Leimocheir Claudiopolis 1st Trebizond Antalya Antioch on the Meander Sinope 2nd Trebizond Seljuq period architectural fragment from Konya, showing Seljuq appropriation of the double-headed eagle often associated with Byzantium. Ince Minare Museum, Konya. The naturalism of the sculpture looks more Greek than Syrian or Iranian in workmanship. Early in John's reign the Turks were pressing forward against the Byzantine frontier in western Asia Minor. In 1119, the Seljuqs had cut the land route to the city of Attaleia on the southern coast of Anatolia. John II and Axouch the Grand Domestic besieged and recaptured Laodicea in 1119 and took Sozopolis by storm in 1120, re-opening land communication with Attaleia.[47] This route was especially important as it also led to Cilicia and the Crusader states of Syria.[37] Following the end of hostilities with Hungary, John was able to concentrate on Asia Minor during most of his remaining years. He undertook annual campaigns against the Danishmendid emirate in Malatya on the upper Euphrates from 1130 to 1135. Thanks to his energetic campaigning, Turkish attempts at expansion in Asia Minor were halted, and John prepared to take the fight to the enemy. In order to restore the region to Byzantine control, he led a series of well planned and executed campaigns against the Turks, one of which resulted in the reconquest of the ancestral home of the Komnenoi at Kastamonu (Kastra Komnenon); he then left a garrison of 2,000 men at Gangra. John quickly earned a formidable reputation as a wall-breaker, taking one stronghold after another from his enemies. Regions that had been lost to the empire since the Battle of Manzikert were recovered and garrisoned. Yet resistance, particularly from the Danishmends of the northeast, was strong, and the difficult nature of holding the new conquests is illustrated by the fact that Kastamonu was recaptured by the Turks even as John was in Constantinople celebrating its return to Byzantine rule. John persevered, however, and Kastamonu soon changed hands once more.[27][48][49] In the spring of 1139, the emperor campaigned with success against Turks, probably nomadic Turkomans, who were raiding the regions along the Sangarios River, striking their means of subsistence by driving off their herds.[50] He then marched for the final time against the Danishmend Turks, his army proceeding along the southern coast of the Black Sea through Bithynia and Paphlagonia. The breakaway Byzantine regime of Constantine Gabras in Trebizond was ended, and the region of Chaldia brought back under direct imperial control. John then besieged but failed to take the city of Neocaesarea, in 1140. The Byzantines were defeated by the conditions rather than by the Turks: the weather was very bad, large numbers of the army's horses died, and provisions became scarce.[51][52][53] Campaigning in Cilicia and Syria (1137–1138)[edit] John II directs the Siege of Shaizar while his allies sit inactive in their camp, French manuscript 1338 In the Levant, the emperor sought to reinforce Byzantine claims to suzerainty over the Crusader States and to assert his rights over Antioch. In 1137 he conquered Tarsus, Adana, and Mopsuestia from the Principality of Armenian Cilicia, and in 1138 Prince Levon I of Armenia and most of his family were brought as captives to Constantinople.[54][55] This opened the route to the Principality of Antioch, where Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, and Joscelin II, Count of Edessa, recognized themselves as vassals of the emperor in 1137. Even Raymond II, the Count of Tripoli, hastened northwards to pay homage to John, repeating the homage that his predecessor had given John's father in 1109.[56] There then followed a joint campaign as John led the armies of Byzantium, Antioch, and Edessa against Muslim Syria. Aleppo proved too strong to attack, but the fortresses of Balat, Biza'a, Athareb, Maarat al-Numan, and Kafartab were taken by assault.[57] Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, his allies Prince Raymond of Antioch and Count Joscelin II of Edessa remained in their camp playing dice and feasting instead of helping to press the siege of the city of Shaizar. The Crusader Princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and neither wanted the other to gain from participating in the campaign. Raymond also wanted to hold on to Antioch, which he had agreed to hand over to John if the campaign was successful in capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, Homs, and Hama. Latin and Muslim sources describe John's energy and personal courage in prosecuting the siege. The city was taken, but the citadel defied assault. The Emir of Shaizar offered to pay a large indemnity, become John's vassal, and pay yearly tribute. John had lost all confidence in his allies, and a Muslim army under Zengi was approaching to try to relieve the city, therefore the emperor reluctantly accepted the offer.[58] The emperor was distracted by a Seljuq raid on Cilicia and developments in the west, where he was pursuing a German alliance directed against the threat posed by the Normans of Sicily. Joscelin and Raymond conspired to delay the promised handover of Antioch's citadel to the emperor, stirring up popular unrest in the city directed at John and the local Greek community. John had little choice but to leave Syria with his ambitions only partially realised.[59] Final campaigns (1142)[edit] In early 1142 John campaigned against the Seljuqs of Iconium to secure his lines of communication through Antalya. During this campaign his eldest son and co-emperor Alexios died of a fever. Having secured his route, John embarked on a new expedition into Syria determined to reduce Antioch to direct imperial rule.[60] This expedition included a planned pilgrimage to Jerusalem on which he intended to take his army. King Fulk of Jerusalem, fearing that the emperor's presence with overwhelming military force would constrain him to make an act of homage and formally recognise Byzantine suzerainty over his kingdom, begged the emperor to bring only a modest escort. Fulk cited the inability of his largely barren kingdom to support the passage of a substantial army.[28][61] This lukewarm response resulted in John II deciding to postpone his pilgrimage. John descended rapidly on northern Syria, forcing Joscelin II of Edessa to render hostages, including his daughter, as a guarantee of his good behaviour. He then advanced on Antioch demanding that the city and its citadel be surrendered to him. Raymond of Poitiers played for time, putting the proposal to the vote of the Antiochene general assembly. With the season well advanced John decided to take his army into winter quarters in Cilicia, proposing to renew his attack on Antioch the following year.[62] Death and succession[edit] John II hunting, French manuscript of the 14th Century Having prepared his army for a renewed attack on Antioch, John amused himself by hunting wild boar on Mount Taurus in Cilicia, where, on April 1, 1143, he accidentally cut himself on the hand with a poisoned arrow.[63] John initially ignored the wound and it became infected. He died a number of days after the accident, on April 8, probably of septicaemia. It has been suggested that John was assassinated by a conspiracy within the units of his army of Latin origins who were unhappy at fighting their co-religionists of Antioch, and who wanted to place his pro-western son Manuel on the throne.[64] However, there is very little overt support for this hypothesis in the primary sources.[c] John's final action as emperor was to choose Manuel, the younger of his surviving sons, to be his successor. John is recorded as citing two main reasons for choosing Manuel over his older brother Isaac: Isaac's irascibility, and the courage that Manuel had shown on campaign at Neocaesarea.[65][66] Another theory alleges that the reason for this choice was the AIMA prophecy, which foretold that John's successor should be one whose name began with an "M". Fittingly, John's close friend John Axouch, although he is recorded as having tried hard to persuade the dying emperor that Isaac was the better candidate to succeed, was instrumental in ensuring that Manuel's assumption of power was free from any overt opposition.[67] The legacy of John II[edit] The Byzantine empire under John II Komnenos, c. 1143 Historian John Birkenmeier argued that John's reign was the most successful of the Komnenian period. In The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180, he stresses the wisdom of John's approach to warfare, which focused on sieges rather than risking pitched battles. Birkenmeier argues that John's strategy of launching annual campaigns with limited, realistic objectives was a more sensible one than that followed by his son Manuel I. According to this view, John's campaigns benefited the Byzantine Empire because they protected the empire's heartland, which lacked reliable borders, while gradually extending its territory in Asia Minor. The Turks were forced onto the defensive, while John kept his diplomatic situation relatively simple by allying with the Holy Roman Emperor against the Normans of Sicily.[68] Overall, it is clear that John II Komnenos left the empire a great deal better off than he had found it. By the time of his death substantial territories had been recovered, and the goals of the recovery of control over central Anatolia and the re-establishment of a frontier on the Euphrates seemed achievable. However, the Greeks of the interior of Anatolia were becoming increasingly accustomed to Turkish rule and often found it preferable to that of Byzantium. Also, though it was relatively easy to extract submission and admissions of vassalage from the Anatolian Turks, Serbs and Crusader States of the Levant, converting these relationships into concrete gains for the security of the Empire had proven elusive. These problems were left for his gifted and mercurial son, Manuel, to attempt to solve.[69] Family[edit] Empress Irene, from the Komnenos mosaic in the Hagia Sophia John II Komnenos married Princess Piroska of Hungary (renamed Irene), a daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1104; the marriage was intended as compensation for the loss of some territories to King Coloman of Hungary. She played little part in government, devoting herself to piety and their large brood of children. Irene died on August 13, 1134 and was later venerated as Saint Irene. John II and Irene had 8 children:[70] Alexios Komnenos, co-emperor from 1122 to 1142 Maria Komnene (twin to Alexios), who married John Roger Dalassenos Andronikos Komnenos (died 1142) Anna Komnene (c. 1110/11 – after 1149), who married the admiral Stephen Kontostephanos, who died in battle in 1149. The couple had four children.[71] Isaac Komnenos (c. 1113 – after 1154), raised to sebastokrator in 1122, he was superseded in the succession in favour of Manuel in 1143; married twice and had several children.[72] Theodora Komnene (c. 1115 – before May 1157), who married the military commander Manuel Anemas, who was killed in action, after which she entered a monastery. The couple had at least four children.[73] Eudokia Komnene (c. 1116 – before 1150), who married the military commander Theodore Vatatzes. She had at least six children, but died early.[74] Manuel I Komnenos (28 November 1118 – 21 September 1180), became emperor, and reigned 1143–1180.[75] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of John II Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos John Komnenos (brother of Isaac I Komnenos) Alexios I Komnenos Alexios Charon Anna Dalassene Adriane Dalassene John II Komnenos Andronikos Doukas John Doukas Andronikos Doukas Irene Pegonitissa Irene Doukaina Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria Troian of Bulgaria Maria Maria of Bulgaria Kontostephane Aballanta? [76][77] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Byzantium under the Komnenos dynasty Komnenian army List of Byzantine emperors External links[edit] John II Comnenus' Hungarian campaigns An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Mosaic of John Komnenos, Eirene and Alexios in Hagia Sophia Notes[edit] ^ Alexios I was the subject of an extensive biography, the Alexiad, written by his daughter Anna Komnene, who mentions her brother, John II, very briefly. The works of Byzantine historians John Kinnamos and Niketas Choniates both include very short chapters on the reign of John II, which act as prologues, before proceeding to much fuller accounts of later events, see Birkenmeier, pp. 2, 5–6, 15, 19. ^ The primary sources, Kinnamos and Choniates, give little detail about this campaign, no dates are specified, and what they do say differs considerably. The chronology presented here, 1127–1129, follows that of Angold and other scholars, Fine has the events taking place earlier, in 1125–1126. ^ Two rather ambiguous Byzantine rhetorical allusions were the basis of this theory – all contemporary historical writing unanimously agrees on an accidental cause for the death of John II. References[edit] ^ Birkenmeier, p. 85 ^ W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, p. 700 ^ Runciman, p. 209 ^ a b Choniates, p. 27 ^ Dennis, p. 7 ^ "John II", The World-wide Encyclopedia and Gazetteer, Vol. V, Ed. William Harrison De Puy, (The Christian Herald, 1908), 3654. ^ Bucossi and Suarez, p. 16 ^ a b Magdalino, p. 207 ^ Choniates, p. 6 ^ Angold (1984), pp. 152–153 ^ Magdalino, pp. 192–193 ^ Choniates, pp. 8–9 ^ a b Angold (1984), p. 152 ^ Stathakopoulos, p. 6 ^ a b c Choniates, p. 11 ^ Magdalino, p. 254 ^ Choniates, p. 7 ^ Magdalino, pp. 207–208 ^ Bernard and Demoen, p. 21 ^ Haldon, p. 97 ^ Magdalino (2016), pp. 63-64 ^ Linardou (2016), pp. 155-182 ^ Kinnamos, pp. 74–75 ^ Angold (1984), p. 159 ^ Kinnamos, pp. 75–76 ^ Angold (1984), pp. 153–154 ^ a b Choniates, pp. 12–13 ^ a b Runciman, pp. 212–213, 222–224 ^ Angold (1995), p. 75 ^ Necipoğlu, p. 133 ^ Angold (1995), p. 310 ^ Finlay, p. 81 ^ Loos, pp. 98–99 ^ Angold (1995), pp. 173–174 ^ Birkenmeier, pp. 86–87 ^ Kinnamos, p. 16 ^ a b c Angold (1984), p. 153 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 70 ^ Angold (1084), p. 154–155 ^ Angold (1984), p. 154 ^ Fine, pp. 235–236 ^ a b Fine, p. 235 ^ Kinnamos, p. 18 ^ Angold, p. 154 ^ Choniates, pp. 11–12 ^ A. Urbansky, Byzantium and the Danube Frontier, 46 ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1995, p. 240. ^ Kinnamos, pp. 20–21 ^ Angold (1984), p. 155 ^ Choniates, p. 19 ^ Choniates, pp. 20–21 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 82 ^ Angold (1984), p. 157 ^ Kinnamos, pp. 21–22 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 76 ^ Runciman, p. 309 ^ Runciman, p. 215 ^ Runciman, pp. 215–217 ^ Angold (1984), p. 156 ^ Choniates p. 22 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and The Crusades, p. 86 ^ Angold (1984), p. 157 ^ Choniates, p. 23 ^ Magdalino, p. 41 ^ Choniates, pp. 24–26 ^ Angold (1984), pp. 157–158 ^ Magdalino, p. 195 ^ Birkenmeier, pp. 98–99 ^ Angold (1984), pp. 158–159 ^ Bucossi and Suarez, p xix ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 380–390. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 391–398. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 399–411. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 412–421. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 422–477. ^ Magdalino, pp. xxiii-xxvi ^ Comnena, Anna (1969) [Written around 1148], The Alexiad, translated by Sewter, E. R. A., Penguin Classics, Harmondsworth, pp, 522-523 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ioannes II Komnenos. Sources[edit] Primary Niketas Choniates, critical edition and translation by Magoulias, Harry J., ed. (1984). O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-1764-8. John Kinnamos, critical edition and translation by Brand, Charles M., ed. (1976). Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, by John Kinnamos. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04080-6. William of Tyre, Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum (A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea), translated by E. A. Babock and A. C. Krey (Columbia University Press, 1943). See the original text in the Latin library. Secondary Angold, Michael, (1984) The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204, a political history, Longman. ISBN 978-0-58-249060-4 Angold, Michael, (1995) Church and Society in Byzantium under the Comneni, 1081–1261. Cambridge University Press.Poetry and its Contexts in Eleventh-century Byzantium Bernard, F. and Demoen, K. (2013) Poetry and its Contexts in Eleventh-century Byzantium, Ashgate Publishing Birkenmeier, John W. (2002). The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180. Brill. ISBN 90-04-11710-5. Bucossi, Alessandra and Suarez, Alex R. (2016) John II Komnenos, emperor of Byzantium: in the shadow of father and son, Routledge. ISBN 978-1-47-246024-0 Dennis, G.T. (2001) Death in Byzantium, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 55, pp. 1–7, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Finlay, George (1854), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453, Volume 2, William Blackwood & Sons Haldon, John (1999). Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204. London: UCL Press. ISBN 1-85728-495-X. Harris, Jonathan (2014), Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Cambridge History of Islam. 1A. Cambridge University Press. Linardou, K. (2016) "Imperial Impersonations", in John II Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantium: In the Shadow of Father and Son, Bucossi, A. and Suarez, A.R. (eds.) pp. 155-182, Routledge, Abingdon and New York. ISBN 978-1-4724-6024-0 Loos, Milan (1974) Dualist Heresy in the Middle Ages Vol. 10, Springer, The Hague. Magdalino, Paul (1993). The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. Magdalino, P. (2016) "The Triumph of 1133", in John II Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantium: In the Shadow of Father and Son, Bucossi, A. and Suarez, A.R. (eds.) pp. 53-70, Routledge, Abingdon and New York. ISBN 978-1-4724-6024-0 Necipoğlu, Nevra (ed.) (2001) Byzantine Constantinople, Brill. Norwich, John J. Byzantium; Vol. 3: The Decline and Fall. Viking, 1995 ISBN 0-670-82377-5 Stathakopoulos, D. (2016) "John II Komnenos: a historiographical essay", in John II Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantium: In the Shadow of Father and Son, Bucossi, A. and Suarez, A. R. (eds.), pp. 1-10, Routledge, Abingdon and New York. ISBN 978-1-4724-6024-0 Runciman, Steven (1952) A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Urbansky, Andrew B. Byzantium and the Danube Frontier, Twayne Publishers, 1968 Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784634. Further reading[edit] Bucossi, Alessandra and Rodriguez Suarez, (2016) John II Komnenos, emperor of Byzantium: in the shadow of father and son, Routledge. ISBN 978-1-47-246024-0 John II Komnenos Komnenian dynasty Born: 13 September 1087 Died: 8 April 1143 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexios I Byzantine emperor 1118–1143 with Alexios I (1092–1118) Alexios (1122–1142) Succeeded by Manuel I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. Rulers and co-rulers are denoted in bold Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain Italy United States Greece Netherlands Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_II_Komnenos&oldid=1027190932" Categories: 1087 births 1143 deaths Komnenos dynasty 12th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Crusades Deaths by poisoning Eastern Orthodox monarchs Hunting accident deaths Family of Alexios I Komnenos Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars Burials at the Monastery of Christ Pantocrator (Constantinople) Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9307	----	Mesopotamia - Wikipedia Mesopotamia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical region within the Tigris–Euphrates river system For other uses, see Mesopotamia (disambiguation). "The Two Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see Two Rivers (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Mesopotamia" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mesopotamia Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia. Shown are Washukanni, Nineveh, Hatra, Assur, Nuzi, Palmyra, Mari, Sippar, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Isin, Lagash, Uruk, Charax Spasinu and Ur, from north to south. A modern satellite view of Mesopotamia (October 2020). Mesopotamia (Arabic: بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن‎ Bilād ar-Rāfidayn; Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία; Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ Ārām-Nahrīn or ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ Bēṯ Nahrīn)[1] is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. It occupies the area of present-day Iraq, and parts of Iran, Turkey, Syria and Kuwait.[2] The Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire. Later the Arameans dominated major parts of Mesopotamia (c. 900 BC – 270 AD)[3][4] Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with western parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the Sassanid Persians. The division of Mesopotamia between Roman (Byzantine from AD 395) and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century BC, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops, and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture". It has been known as one of the earliest civilizations to ever exist in the world. [5] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Periodization 4 Language and writing 4.1 Literature 5 Science and technology 5.1 Mathematics 5.2 Astronomy 5.3 Medicine 5.4 Technology 6 Religion and philosophy 6.1 Philosophy 7 Culture 7.1 Festivals 7.2 Music 7.3 Games 7.4 Family life 7.5 Burials 8 Economy 8.1 Agriculture 8.2 Trade 9 Government 9.1 Kings 9.2 Power 9.3 Warfare 9.4 Laws 10 Art 11 Architecture 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology Map showing the Tigris–Euphrates river system, which surrounds Mesopotamia The regional toponym Mesopotamia (/ˌmɛsəpəˈteɪmiə/, Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία '[land] between rivers'; Arabic: بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن‎ Bilād ar-Rāfidayn or Arabic: بَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْن‎ Bayn an-Nahrayn; Persian: میان‌رودان‎ miyân rudân; Syriac: ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ‎ Beth Nahrain "land of rivers") comes from the ancient Greek root words μέσος (mesos, 'middle') and ποταμός (potamos, 'river') and translates to '(land) between rivers'. It is used throughout the Greek Septuagint (c. 250 BC) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent Naharaim. An even earlier Greek usage of the name Mesopotamia is evident from The Anabasis of Alexander, which was written in the late 2nd century AD, but specifically refers to sources from the time of Alexander the Great. In the Anabasis, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria. Another name that was in use was ”Ārām Nahrīn” (Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ), this term for Mesopotamia was mainly used by the jews[6] (Hebrew: ארם נהריים Aram Naharayim).[7] This word is also used multiple times in the Old Testament of the Bible to describe ”Aram between the (two) rivers”.[8][9][10][11] The Aramaic term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept.[12] Later, the term Mesopotamia was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey.[13] The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia.[14][15][16] A further distinction is usually made between Northern or Upper Mesopotamia and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia.[17] Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jazira, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad.[14] Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.[17] In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like Syria, Jazira, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date.[13][18] It has been argued that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.[18][19] Geography Main article: Geography of Mesopotamia Known world of the Mesopotamian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures from documentary sources Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Taurus Mountains. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000-square-kilometre (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf. The arid environment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority. Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix. Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units.[20] These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq. History One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BC Main article: History of Mesopotamia Further information: History of Iraq, History of the Middle East, and Chronology of the ancient Near East The pre-history of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script in the Uruk IV period (c. 4th millennium BC), and the documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the mid-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire history ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as Iraq. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states. The region was one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile valley in Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yellow River in Ancient China. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur and Babylon, as well as major territorial states such as the city of Eridu, the Akkadian kingdoms, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon of Akkad (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Ashur-uballit II and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire). Scientists analysed DNA from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's Turkey and Iraq.[21] Periodization Pre- and protohistory After early starts in Jarmo (red dot, circa 7500 BC), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around the Hassuna culture in the north, the Halaf culture in the northwest, the Samarra culture in central Mesopotamia and the Ubaid culture in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region. Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800 BC) Jarmo (7500–5000 BC) Hassuna (~6000 BC–? BC), Samarra (~5700–4900 BC) and Halaf cultures (~6000–5300 BC) cultures Ubaid period (~6500–4000 BC) Uruk period (~4000–3100 BC) Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC)[22] Early Bronze Age Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC) Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC) Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC) Early Assyrian kingdom (24th to 18th century BC) Middle Bronze Age Early Babylonia (19th to 18th century BC) First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century BC) Minoan eruption (c. 1620 BC) Late Bronze Age Overview map in the 15th century BC showing the core territory of Assyria with its two major cities Assur and Nineveh wedged between Babylonia downstream and the states of Mitanni and Hatti upstream. Old Assyrian period (16th to 11th century BC) Middle Assyrian period (c. 1365–1076 BC) Kassites in Babylon, (c. 1595–1155 BC) Late Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th century BC) Iron Age Syro-Hittite states (11th to 7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th century BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century BC) Classical antiquity Persian Babylonia, Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th century BC) Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC) Parthian Babylonia (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD) Adiabene (1st to 2nd century AD) Hatra (1st to 2nd century AD) Roman Mesopotamia (2nd to 7th centuries AD), Roman Assyria (2nd century AD) Late Antiquity Palmyrene Empire (3nd century AD) Asōristān (3rd to 7th century AD) Euphratensis (mid-4th century AD to 7th century AD) Muslim conquest (mid-7th century AD) Language and writing One of the Nimrud ivories shows a lion eating a man. Neo-Assyrian period, 9th to 7th centuries BC. The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate. Along with Sumerian, Semitic languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia.[23] Subartuan[24] a language of the Zagros, perhaps related to the Hurro-Urartuan language family is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts. Akkadian came to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Old Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Empire: the official lect is called Imperial Aramaic. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD. Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the É, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators. The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule[25] that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerian and the Akkadian language users, which included widespread bilingualism.[26] The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[26] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[26] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate),[27] but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD. Literature Main article: Akkadian literature Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write,[28] and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up. Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sîn-lēqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure. Science and technology Mathematics Main article: Babylonian mathematics Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were fixed at 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.[29] Astronomy Main article: Babylonian astronomy From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia. The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time. During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.[30] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[31][32][33] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction). Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.[34] Medicine The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[35] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).[36] Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, enemas,[37] and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[38] The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.[35] Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.[39] Technology Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces. According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times.[40] Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.[41] Religion and philosophy Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian religion The Burney Relief, First Babylonian dynasty, around 1800 BC Statuette of Standing Nude Goddess, 1st century B.C--1st Century AD Ancient Mesopotamian religion was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc,[42] surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki.[citation needed] Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the pantheon. Philosophy The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the Abrahamic religions, especially the Hebrew Bible; its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the Book of Genesis.[43] Giorgio Buccellati believes that the origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs. Babylonian reason and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.[44] The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms.[45] Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine. Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy. In particular, the Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the Sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of dialectic, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the Socratic method.[46] The Ionian philosopher Thales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas. Culture Alabaster with shell eyes, male worshiper from Eshnunna, 2750–2600 BC Festivals Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors: The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld) The phase of the annual agricultural cycle Equinoxes and solstices The local mythos and its divine Patrons The success of the reigning Monarch The Akitu, or New Year Festival (First full moon after spring equinox) Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.) Music Main article: Music of Mesopotamia Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events. The Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.) Games Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.[47] They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ur". Family life The Babylonian marriage market by the 19th-century painter Edwin Long Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the "en", or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses, a man. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.[48] Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce.[49]:78–79 Burials Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.[50] Economy Mining areas of the ancient West Asia. Boxes colors: arsenic is in brown, copper in red, tin in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and lead in black. Yellow area stands for arsenic bronze, while grey area stands for tin bronze. Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking. It was comparable in some ways to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach.[45] Agriculture Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.[51] In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word Ensi was used[by whom?] to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.[52] The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials). With irrigation, the food supply in Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.[53] The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Thus the development of irrigation became very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slaves). Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept[by whom?]. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north. Trade This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2021) Mesopotamian trade with the Indus Valley civilisation flourished as early as the third millennium BC.[54] For much of history, Mesopotamia served as a trade nexus - east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world[55] (part of the Silk Road), as well as north-south between the Eastern Europe and Baghdad (Volga trade route). Vasco da Gama's pioneering (1497-1499) of the sea route between India and Europe and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 impacted on this nexus.[56][57] Government The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations. Kings Further information: Sumerian King List, List of kings of Babylon, and List of Assyrian kings The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods.[58] Most kings named themselves "king of the universe" or "great king". Another common name was "shepherd", as kings had to look after their people. Power When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus, and Arpad. They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors also had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. He was known as "the lawmaker", and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning. Warfare Fragment of the Stele of the Vultures showing marching warriors, Early Dynastic III period, 2600–2350 BC One of two figures of the Ram in a Thicket found in the Royal Cemetery in Ur, 2600–2400 BC With the end of the Uruk phase, walled cities grew and many isolated Ubaid villages were abandoned indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king Lugalbanda was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC but was not common until about 2500 BC. An Early Dynastic II king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against Humbaba guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later Stele of the Vultures at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the neighbouring rival city of Umma is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.[59] From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.[58] When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds. Laws See also: Mesopotamian marriage law City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of Urukagina and Lipit Ishtar have been found. The most renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi (created c. 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves[60] Art Main article: Art of Mesopotamia "Pair of Basket-Shaped Hair Ornaments", c. 2000 BC. The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also painted. The Protoliterate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion.[61] A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived.[62] Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.[63] From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.[64] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BC, and may also be moulded.[65] Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them;[66] the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type,[67] and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one.[68] The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views seem complete). Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[69] Architecture A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian ziggurat Main article: Architecture of Mesopotamia The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.[70] Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities.[71] The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Hattusa, Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age. References ^ Smith, Robert Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus. p. 388. ^ "Ancient History in depth: Mesopotamia". BBC History. Retrieved 21 July 2017. ^ Liverani, Mario (4 December 2013). The Ancient Near East. p. 549. ^ Saggs, Henry William Frederick (1984). The Might That Was Assyria. p. 128. ISBN 0-283-98961-0. ^ Milton-Edwards, Beverley (May 2003). "Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?". History & Policy. United Kingdom: History & Policy. Archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 9 December 2010. ^ Payne Smith, Robert. Thesaurus Syriacus. p. 388. ^ Hebrew Wikipedia https://he.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ארם_נהריים ^ Title of Psalm 60 https://www.bible.com/bible/114/PSA.60.NKJV ^ Genesis 24:10 https://biblehub.com/genesis/24-10.htm ^ Deuteronomy 23:4 https://biblehub.com/deuteronomy/23-4.htm ^ Judges 3:8 https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Judges%203%3A8&version=NIV&interface=amp ^ Finkelstein, J.J. (1962), "Mesopotamia", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 21 (2): 73–92, doi:10.1086/371676, JSTOR 543884, S2CID 222432558 ^ a b Foster, Benjamin R.; Polinger Foster, Karen (2009), Civilizations of ancient Iraq, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13722-3 ^ a b Canard, M. (2011), "al-ḎJazīra, Ḏjazīrat Aḳūr or Iḳlīm Aḳūr", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Leiden: Brill Online, OCLC 624382576 ^ Wilkinson, Tony J. 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It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Sumerian population became literate. ^ a b c Deutscher, Guy (2007), Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation, Oxford University Press US, pp. 20–21, ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3 ^ Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120 Chicago [1] ^ Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (28 December 2004). Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East. p. 75. ISBN 9780826416285. ^ Eves, Howard (1969). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. 31. ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology, Styx Publications, ISBN 90-5693-036-2. ^ Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), p. 1–38. ^ George Sarton (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), p. 166–173 [169]. ^ William P.D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p.38. ^ Pingree (1998) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFPingree1998 (help) ^ a b H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ Friedenwald, Julius; Morrison, Samuel (January 1940). "The History of the Enema with Some Notes on Related Procedures (Part I)". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press. 8 (1): 77. JSTOR 44442727. ^ H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, pp. 97–98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ Stephanie Dalley and John Peter Oleson (January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World", Technology and Culture 44 (1). ^ Twist, Jo (20 November 2005), "Open media to connect communities", BBC News, retrieved 6 August 2007 ^ Lambert, W.G. (2016). Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays. The Cosmology of Sumer & Babylon. Mohr Siebeck. p. 111. ISBN 978-3161536748. Retrieved 8 July 2019. ^ Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia (Paperback ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47. ^ a b "Axioms and Babylonian thought: A reply". Journal of Post Keynesian Economics. 27 (3): 385–391. April 2005. doi:10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453 (inactive 31 May 2021).CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2021 (link) ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47 43. ^ Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (1998), Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia ^ Rivkah Harris (2000), Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character. The Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45238-8. ^ Bibby, Geoffrey and Phillips, Carl (1996), "Looking for Dilmun" (Interlink Pub Group) ^ Richard Bulliet; Pamela Kyle Crossley; Daniel Headrick; Steven Hirsch; Lyman Johnson; David Northup (1 January 2010). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-538-74438-6. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ H.W.F. Saggs - Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff (2000). Babylonians. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20222-1. Retrieved 29 May 2012. ^ Roux, Georges, (1993) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin). ^ Wheeler, Mortimer (1953). The Indus Civilization. Cambridge history of India: Supplementary volume (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1968). p. 111. ISBN 9780521069588. Retrieved 10 April 2021. In calculating the significance of Indus contacts with Mesopotamia, it is obvious that the economic vitality of Mesopotamia is the controlling factor. Documentary evidence there vouches for vigorous commercial activity in the Sarginid and Larsa phases [...] ^ Bryce, James (1886). "The Relations of History and Geography". Littell's Living Age. 5. Boston: Littell and Co. 169: 70. Retrieved 10 April 2021. There was also an important trade route through central Asia, which coming down through Persia and Mesopotamia to the Levant, reached the sea in northern Syria [...]. These trade routes assumed enormous importance in the earlier Middle Ages, and upon them great political issues turned. ^ Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Headrick, Daniel R.; Hirsch, Steven W.; Johnson, Lyman L.; Northrup, David (2009). "Interregional Patterns of Culture and Contact". The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History (6 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2014). p. 279. ISBN 9781305147096. Retrieved 10 April 2021. Eurasia's overland trade faded, and merchants, soldiers, and explorers took to the seas. ^ Brebbia, Carlos A.; Martinez Boquera, A., eds. (28 December 2016). Islamic Heritage Architecture. Volume 159 of WIT transactions on the built environment. Southampton: WIT Press (published 2016). p. 111. ISBN 9781784662370. Retrieved 10 April 2021. [...] the Silk Road [...] passed through central Asia and Mesopotamia. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to the sea [...]. ^ a b Robert Dalling (2004), The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization ^ Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington DC: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32. ISSN 0091-7338. ^ Fensham, F. Charles (19620, "Widow, Orphan, and the Poor in Ancient near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature" (Journal of Near Eastern Studies Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr. 1962)), pp. 129–139 ^ Frankfort, 24–37 ^ Frankfort, 45–59 ^ Frankfort, 61–66 ^ Frankfort, Chapters 2–5 ^ Frankfort, 110–112 ^ Frankfort, 66–74 ^ Frankfort, 71–73 ^ Frankfort, 66–74; 167 ^ Frankfort, 141–193 ^ Dunham, Sally (2005), "Ancient Near Eastern architecture", in Daniel Snell (ed.), A Companion to the Ancient Near East, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 266–280, ISBN 978-0-631-23293-3 ^ "Mesopotamia". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 July 2017. Further reading Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien, Brepols, 1996 ISBN 2-503-50046-3. Benoit, Agnès; 2003. Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien, Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre. Bottéro, Jean; 1987. (in French) Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », ISBN 2-07-040308-4. Bottéro, Jean (15 June 1995). Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods. Translated by Bahrani, Zainab; Van de Mieroop, Marc. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226067278. Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, München, ISBN 3-406-51664-5 Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN 0-14-056107-2 Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris. München 2005 (4. Aufl.), ISBN 3-406-46530-7 Joannès, Francis; 2001. Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne, Robert Laffont. Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-8062-1851-X Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 B.C. 2 Vols. Routledge: London and New York. Liverani, Mario; 1991. Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia. Editori Laterza: Roma. Matthews, Roger; 2005. The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC, Turnhout 2005, ISBN 2-503-50729-8 Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977. Pollock, Susan; 1999. Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history. Routledge: London and New York. Roux, Georges; 1964. Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books. Silver, Morris; 2007. Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi, Antiguo Oriente 5: 89–112. Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005. Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000–323 BC. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mesopotamia. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Ancient Mesopotamia. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mesopotamia (Region). Ancient Mesopotamia – timeline, definition, and articles at World History Encyclopedia Mesopotamia – introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & "layered PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2005. (7.53 MB) format) Mesopotamian Archaeology, by Percy S.P. Pillow, 1912 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & "layered PDF" (PDF). (12.8 MB) format) Mesopotamia, 1920 33°56′29″N 41°10′35″E / 33.9414°N 41.17626°E / 33.9414; 41.17626Coordinates: 33°56′29″N 41°10′35″E / 33.9414°N 41.17626°E / 33.9414; 41.17626 v t e Iraq articles History Ancient c. 6500-638 Ubaid period Hassuna culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Samarra culture Uruk Period Jemdet Nasr period Sumer Amurru Subartu Saparda Akkadian Empire Simurrum culture Babylonia Assyria Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Sassanid Asorestan 638–1958 Muslim conquest of Persia Abbasid Caliphate Buyid dynasty Kara Koyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Safavids Ottoman Iraq (Mamluk dynasty) Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Kings Arab Federation Republic 1958–1968 1968–2003 2003–2011 2011–present Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (National Command) Saddam Hussein Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq Iran–Iraq War Invasion of Kuwait Gulf War Sanctions Iraq War U.S. invasion Iraqi insurgency U.S. troop withdrawal Insurgency (2011–2013) Civil War (2014–2017) Mosul liberation Insurgency (2017–present) Geography Al-Faw Peninsula Al-Jazira Borders Euphrates river Hamrin Mountains Lakes Islands Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Places Shatt al-Arab Syrian Desert Tigris river Umm Qasr Zagros Mountains Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Council of Representatives (legislative) Elections Foreign aid Foreign relations Government Council of Ministers Presidency Council President List Prime Minister List Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq in Saddam Hussein's Iraq in post-invasion Iraq in ISIL-controlled territory LGBT Freedom of religion Women Law Military Police Political parties Judiciary Wars and conflicts Economy Central Bank Dinar (currency) Infrastructure Oil Industry Oil reserves Reconstruction Stock Exchange Telecommunications Transportation Society Cinema Cuisine Culture Education Health Media Music Smoking Sports Demographics Iraqis diaspora refugees Languages Arabic Aramaic Kurdish Persian Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects Minorities Armenians Assyrians Circassians Kurds Mandaeans Marsh Arabs Persians Solluba Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman Jews Religion Islam Christianity Mandaeism Yazidis Outline Index Category Portal v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Fertile Crescent Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Hammurabi Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell Religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Sumerian religion List of Deities Mesopotamian myths Divination Prayers Ziggurat (Temple) v t e People and things in the Quran Characters Non-humans Allāh ('The God') Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous) Animals Related The baqarah (cow) of Israelites The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey) The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave The namlah (female ant) of Solomon The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah The nāqat (she-camel) of Saleh Non-related ʿAnkabūt (Female spider) Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth) Ḥimār (Wild ass) Naḥl (Honey bee) Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter') Malāʾikah (Angels) Angels of Hell Mālik Zabāniyah Bearers of the Throne Harut and Marut Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) Raqib Atid Munkar and Nakir Riḍwan Archangels Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief) Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit') Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael) Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael) Mīkāil (Michael) Jinn (Genies) Jann ʿIfrīt Qarīn Shayāṭīn (Demons) Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil) Mārid ('Rebellious one') Others Ghilmān or Wildān Ḥūr Prophets Mentioned Ādam (Adam) Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha) Ayyūb (Job) Dāwūd (David) Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?) Hārūn (Aaron) Hūd (Eber?) Idrīs (Enoch?) Ilyās (Elijah) ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam) Isḥāq (Isaac) Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) Dhabih Ullah Lūṭ (Lot) Ṣāliḥ Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?) Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David) ʿUzair (Ezra?) Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah) Yaʿqūb (Jacob) Isrāʾīl (Israel) Yūnus (Jonah) Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)') Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale') Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob) Zakariyyā (Zechariah) Ulul-ʿAzm ('Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will') Muḥammad Aḥmad Other names and titles of Muhammad ʿĪsā (Jesus) Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah) Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary) Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God) Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God) Nūḥ (Noah) Debatable ones Dhūl-Qarnain Luqmān Maryam (Mary) Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?) Implied Irmiyā (Jeremiah) Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel) Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses) People of Prophets Good ones Adam's immediate relatives Martyred son Wife Believer of Ya-Sin Family of Noah Father Lamech Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos Luqman's son People of Abraham Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo Ishmael's mother Isaac's mother People of Jesus Disciples (including Peter) Mary's mother Zechariah's wife People of Solomon Mother Queen of Sheba Vizier Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son) People of Joseph Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon) Egyptians ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin) Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd)) Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah) Mother People of Aaron and Moses Egyptians Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura) Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses) Magicians of the Pharaoh Wise, pious man Moses' wife Moses' sister-in-law Mother Sister Evil ones Āzar (possibly Terah) Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time) Hāmān Jālūt (Goliath) Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses) As-Sāmirī Abū Lahab Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr) Implied or not specified Abraha Abu Bakr Bal'am/Balaam Barṣīṣā Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua Luqman's son Nebuchadnezzar II Nimrod Rahmah the wife of Ayyub Shaddad Groups Mentioned Aṣḥāb al-Jannah People of Paradise People of the Burnt Garden Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath) Christian apostles Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus) Companions of Noah's Ark Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim? Companions of the Elephant People of al-Ukhdūd People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin People of Yathrib or Medina Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah) Nation of Noah Tribes, ethnicities or families ‘Ajam Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans') Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel) Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah) People of Ibrahim People of Ilyas People of Nuh People of Shuaib Ahl Madyan People of Madyan) Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood') Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah) Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog People of Fir'aun Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad) Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad) Anṣār (literally 'Helpers') Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina) People of Mecca Wife of Abu Lahab Children of Ayyub Sons of Adam Wife of Nuh Wife of Lut Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog) Son of Nuh Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins) ʿĀd (people of Hud) Companions of the Rass Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba) People of Sabaʾ or Sheba Quraysh Thamūd (people of Saleh) Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland') Ahl al-Bayt ('People of the Household') Household of Abraham Brothers of Yūsuf Lot's daughters Progeny of Imran Household of Moses Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim Daughters of Muhammad Muhammad's wives Household of Salih Implicitly mentioned Amalek Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah) Banu Nadir Banu Qaynuqa Banu Qurayza Iranian people Umayyad Dynasty Aus and Khazraj People of Quba Religious groups Ahl al-Dhimmah Kāfirūn disbelievers Majūs Zoroastrians Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites) Muslims Believers Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil) Ruhban (Christian monks) Qissis (Christian priest) Yahūd (Jews) Ahbār (Jewish scholars) Rabbani/Rabbi Sabians Polytheists Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot Locations Mentioned Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land') 'Blessed' Land' Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden') Jahannam (Hell) Door of Hittah Madyan (Midian) Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn Miṣr (Mainland Egypt) Salsabīl (A river in Paradise) In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan) Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills') Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars) Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib) ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām Al-Ḥijr (Hegra) Badr Ḥunayn Makkah (Mecca) Bakkah Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure') Kaʿbah (Kaaba) Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham) Safa and Marwa Sabaʾ (Sheba) ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba) Rass Sinai Region or Tīh Desert Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa) Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai) Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place') Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor In Mesopotamia Al-Jūdiyy Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed') Bābil (Babylon) Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh) Religious locations Bayʿa (Church) Miḥrāb Monastery Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration') Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove') Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration') Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca) Masjid al-Dirar A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque) The Prophet's Mosque Salat (Synagogue) Implied Antioch Antakya Arabia Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier') Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il Cave of Hira Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull) Hudaybiyyah Ta'if Ayla Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia) Canaan Cave of Seven Sleepers Dār an-Nadwa Jordan River Nile River Palestine River Paradise of Shaddad Events, incidents, occasions or times Incident of Ifk Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree) Event of Mubahala Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba) The Farewell Pilgrimage Treaty of Hudaybiyyah Battles or military expeditions Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates') Battle of Badr Battle of Hunayn Battle of Khaybar Battle of Uhud Expedition of Tabuk Conquest of Mecca Days Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday) As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday) Days of battles Days of Hajj Doomsday Months of the Islamic calendar 12 months: Four holy months Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month) Ramaḍān Pilgrimages Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage) Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage) Times for prayer or remembrance Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ): Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night) Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings') Al-Bukrah ('The Morning') Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning') Al-Layl ('The Night') Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night') Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon') Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun') Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening') Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)') Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon') Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon') Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun') Al-Fajr ('The Dawn') Implied Event of Ghadir Khumm Laylat al-Mabit The first pilgrimage Other Holy books Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus) Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad) Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham) At-Tawrāt (The Torah) Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses) Tablets of Stone Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David) Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)') Objects of people or beings Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles Noah's Ark Staff of Musa Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah) Throne of Bilqis Trumpet of Israfil Mentioned idols (cult images) 'Ansāb Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god) Of Israelites Baʿal The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites Of Noah's people Nasr Suwāʿ Wadd Yaghūth Yaʿūq Of Quraysh Al-Lāt Al-ʿUzzā Manāt Celestial bodies Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'): Al-Qamar (The Moon) Kawākib (Planets) Al-Arḍ (The Earth) Nujūm (Stars) Ash-Shams (The Sun) Plant matter Baṣal (Onion) Fūm (Garlic or wheat) Shaṭʾ (Shoot) Sūq (Plant stem) Zarʿ (Seed) Fruits ʿAdas (Lentil) Baql (Herb) Ḥabb dhul-ʿaṣf (Corn of the husk) Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber) Rummān (Pomegranate) Tīn (Fig) Ukul khamṭ (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba) Zaytūn (Olive) In Paradise Forbidden fruit of Adam Bushes, trees or plants Plants of Sheba Athl (Tamarisk) Sidr (Lote-tree) Līnah (Tender Palm tree) Nakhl (Date palm) Rayḥān (Scented plant) Sidrat al-Muntahā Zaqqūm Liquids Māʾ (Water or fluid) Nahr (River) Yamm (River or sea) Sharāb (Drink) Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. 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en-wikipedia-org-9311	----	Theophilos (emperor) - Wikipedia Theophilos (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 829 to 842 For other people with the same name, see Theophilus (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theophilos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Theophilus, in the Chronicle of John Skylitzes Byzantine emperor Reign 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 Coronation 12 May 821 Predecessor Michael II Successor Michael III Born 812 Died 20 January 842 (aged 30) Consort Theodora Issue Constantine, Michael III, Maria, Thekla, Anna, Anastasia, Pulcheria Dynasty Phrygian Father Michael II Mother Thekla Amorian or Phrygian dynasty Chronology Michael II 820–829 with Theophilos as co-emperor, 822–829 Theophilos 829–842 with Constantine (c. 833–835) and Michael III (840–842) as co-emperors Michael III 842–867 under Theodora and Theoktistos as regents, 842–855, and with Basil I the Macedonian as co-emperor 866–867 Succession Preceded by Leo V and the Nikephorian dynasty Followed by Macedonian dynasty Theophilos (Greek: Θεόφιλος; sometimes Latinized or Anglicized as Theophilus or Theophilo; c. 812  – 20 January 842) was the Byzantine Emperor from 829 until his death in 842.[1] He was the second emperor of the Amorian dynasty and the last emperor to support iconoclasm.[2] Theophilos personally led the armies in his long war against the Arabs, beginning in 831. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early 1.2 War against the Arabs 1.3 Relations with Bulgaria and Serbia 1.4 Death and legacy 2 Family 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Early[edit] Theophilos on a coin of his father, Michael II, founder of the Phrygian dynasty Theophilos was the son of the Byzantine Cappadocian Greek Emperor Michael II and his wife Thekla, and the godson of Emperor Leo V the Armenian. Michael II crowned Theophilos co-emperor on 12 May 821 (Whitsunday), shortly after his own accession.[3] Unlike his father, Theophilos received an extensive education from John Hylilas, the grammarian, and was a great admirer of music and art.[2] On 2 October 829, Theophilos succeeded his father as sole emperor.[4][5]:1363 Theophilos continued in his predecessors' iconoclasm, though without his father's more conciliatory tone,[2] issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration of icons.[6] He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession.[5]:2066 War against the Arabs[edit] The Byzantine embassy of John the Grammarian in 829 to Ma'mun (depicted left) from Theophilos (depicted right) At the time of his accession, Theophilos was obliged to wage wars against the Arabs on two fronts. Sicily was once again invaded by the Arabs, who took Palermo after a year-long siege in 831, established the Emirate of Sicily, and gradually continued to expand across the island. The defence after the invasion of Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun in 830 was led by the Emperor himself, but the Byzantines were defeated and lost several fortresses. In 831 Theophilos retaliated by leading a large army into Cilicia and capturing Tarsus. The Emperor returned to Constantinople in triumph, but in the autumn he was defeated in Cappadocia. Another defeat in the same province in 833 forced Theophilos to sue for peace (Theophilos offered 100,000 gold dinars and the return of 7,000 prisoners),[7] which he obtained the next year, after the death of Al-Ma'mun. During the respite from the war against the Abbasids, Theophilos arranged for the abduction of the Byzantine captives settled north of the Danube by Krum of Bulgaria. The rescue operation was carried out with success in c. 836, and the peace between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire was quickly restored. However, it proved impossible to maintain peace in the East. Theophilos had given asylum to a number of refugees from the east in 834, including Nasr, a Persian.[8] He baptized one of the refugees, Theophobos, who married the Emperor's aunt Irene and became one of his generals.[6] As relations with the Abbasids deteriorated, Theophilos prepared for a new war. Follis of a new type, minted in large quantities in celebration of Theophilos' victories against the Arabs from c. 835 on. On the obverse he is represented in triumphal attire, wearing the toupha, and on the reverse the traditional acclamation "Theophilos Augustus, you conquer". In 837 Theophilos led a vast army of 70,000 men towards Mesopotamia and captured Melitene and Arsamosata.[9] The Emperor also took and destroyed Zapetra (Zibatra, Sozopetra), which some sources claim as the birthplace of Caliph al-Mu'tasim.[10] Theophilos returned to Constantinople in triumph. Eager for revenge, Al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army and launched a two-pronged invasion of Anatolia in 838. Theophilos decided to strike one division of the caliph's army before they could combine. On 21 July 838 at the Battle of Anzen in Dazimon, Theophilos personally led a Byzantine army of 25,000 to 40,000 men against the troops commanded by al-Afshin.[11][12] Afshin withstood the Byzantine attack, counter-attacked, and won the battle. The Byzantine survivors fell back in disorder and did not interfere in the caliph's continuing campaign. Al-Mu'tasim took Ancyra, and al-Afshin joined him there. The full Abbasid army advanced against Amorium, the cradle of the dynasty. Initially there was determined resistance. Then a Muslim captive escaped and informed the caliph where there was a section of the wall that had only a front facade. Al-Mu'tasim concentrated his bombardment on this section, and the wall was breached. Having heroically held for fifty-five days, the city fell to al-Mu'tasim on 12 or 15 August 838.[6] In 838, in order to impress the Caliph of Baghdad, Theophilus had John the Grammarian distribute 36,000 nomismata to the citizens of Baghdad.[13] In 839 or 840, he initiated diplomatic contact with the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba. The name of his ambassador is somewhat garbled in the Arabic accounts of Ibn Hayyan, but it seems to have been the admiral Karteros. He was accompanied on his return by the Córdoban poet al-Ghazal, who signed a pact of friendship with Theophilos directed against the Abbasids.[14] Around 841, the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it failed.[15] During this campaign Al-Mu'tasim discovered that some of his top generals were plotting against him. Many of these leading commanders were arrested and some executed before he arrived home. Al-Afshin seems not to have been involved in this, but he was detected in other intrigues and died in prison in the spring of 841. Caliph al-Mu'tasim fell sick in October 841 and died on 5 January 842. It is said that Theophilos, even though fighting the Arabs built a Baghdad-style palace near the Bosporus. In those days people went about a l'arabe in kaftans and turbans. Even as far as in the normal streets of Ghuangzhou during the era of Tang, the Arab-style kaftan was in fashion[16] Relations with Bulgaria and Serbia[edit] In 836, following the expiration of the 20-year peace treaty between the Empire and Bulgaria, Theophilos ravaged the Bulgarian frontier. The Bulgarians retaliated, and under the leadership of Isbul they reached Adrianople. At this time, if not earlier, the Bulgarians annexed Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and its environs. Khan Malamir died in 836. The peace between the Serbs, Byzantine foederati, and the Bulgars lasted until 839.[17] Vlastimir of Serbia united several tribes,[18] and Theophilos granted the Serbs independence;[19] Vlastimir acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor.[17] The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation. Malamir or his successor may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation and opted to subjugate them in the midst of the conquest of Slav lands.[17] Another cause might have been that the Byzantines wanted to divert attention so that they could cope with the Slavic uprising in the Peloponnese, meaning they sent the Serbs to instigate the war.[20] It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs prompted the Serbs to unite into a state.[17] Khan Presian I (r. 836–852)[21] invaded Serbian territory in 839 (see Bulgarian–Serbian Wars). The invasion led to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir was victorious;[22] Presian was heavily defeated, made no territorial gains, and lost many of his men. The Serbs had a tactical advantage in the hills,[23] and the Bulgars were driven out by the army of Vlastimir.[20] The war ended with the death of Theophilos, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire.[24] Death and legacy[edit] The image of Theophilos on a contemporary gold solidus The health of Theophilos gradually failed, and he died on 20 January 842.[25] His reputation as a judge endured, and in the literary composition Timarion Theophilos is featured as one of the judges in the Netherworld.[5]:2066 Theophilos strengthened the Walls of Constantinople,[2] built the fortress of Sarkel on the Don river in Khazar territories, created the Cherson, Paphlagonia and Chaldia themes,[5]:2066 and built a hospital, which continued to exist until the twilight of the Byzantine Empire.[6] Family[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Solidus depicting Theophilos, with his father Michael II and his eldest son Constantine in the reverse By his marriage with Theodora, Theophilos had seven children: Constantine, co-emperor from c. 833 to c. 835. Thekla (c. 831 – after 867). She was named Augusta and her image appears in coinage during the regency of her mother. Later exiled to a monastery by her brother Michael. Anna (born c. 832). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled. Anastasia (born c. 833). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled. Pulcheria (born c. 836). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled. Maria (c. 838 – c. 842). Betrothed the Caesar Alexios Mosele. Died at the age of four. Michael III (19 January 840 – 24 September 867), who succeeded as emperor. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ Theophilos's age is discussed here - https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/viewFile/8531/4731 ^ a b c d Timothy E. Gregory (2010). A History of Byzantium. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 227. ^ Bury 1912, p. 80. ^ PmbZ, Michael II: Chronicon Altinate ^ a b c d Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911, p. 786. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee, 47 ^ I. Sevcenko, Review of New Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Slavic Review, p. 111, 1968. ^ W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 440 ^ The claim that Sozopetra or Arsamosata was Mu'tasim's native city is found only in Byzantine sources. This claim is dismissed by most scholars as a later invention, i.e. as a parallel to Amorium, the likely birthplace of Theophilos. It was probably added deliberately to balance and lessen the effect of the blow that the latter's fall represented. Bury 1912, p. 262 (Note #6); Treadgold 1988, p. 440 (Note #401) harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTreadgold1988 (help); Vasiliev 1935, p. 141 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFVasiliev1935 (help). Kiapidou 2003 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKiapidou2003 (help), Note 1. ^ J. Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, 83 ^ W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 441 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Apogee, 43 ^ Signes Codoñer 2014, pp. 316–320. ^ J. Norwich, A History of Venice, 32 ^ Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2019-04-30). Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18235-4. ^ a b c d Bury 2008, p. 372 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBury2008 (help) ^ L. Kovacevic & L. Jovanovic, Историја српскога народа, Belgrade, 1894, Book 2, pp. 38—39 ^ S. Stanojevic, Историја српскога народа, Belgrade, 1910, pp. 46—47 ^ a b Известия за българите, pp. 42—43 ^ Fine 1991, p. 108 ^ Fine 1991, p. 110 ^ Runciman 1930, p. 88 ^ Houtsma 1993, p. 199 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHoutsma1993 (help) ^ Bekker, Immanuel, ed. (1838). "Libri III: 41". Theophanes Continuatus. p. 139. Paucos hinc dies vitae superstes vigesima die Ianuarii naturae debitum solvit, imperio potitus annos duodecim menses tres. References[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Theophilus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 786–787. Bury, J. B. (1912). History of the Eastern Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil: A.D. 802–867. ISBN 1-60520-421-8. Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. John Bagot Glubb The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963 Haldon, John (2008). The Byzantine Wars. The History Press. Bosworth, C.E., ed. (1991). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXIII: Storm and Stress Along the Northern Frontiers of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Muʿtasim, A.D. 833–842/A.H. 218–227. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0493-5. Runciman, Steven (1930). A history of the First Bulgarian Empire. London: G. Bell & Sons. Signes Codoñer, Juan (2014). The Emperor Theophilos and the East: Court and Frontier in Byzantium during the Last Phase of Iconoclasm. Routledge. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theophilus. Theophilos (emperor) Phrygian dynasty Born: 813 Died: 20 January 842 Regnal titles Preceded by Michael II Byzantine emperor 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 Succeeded by Michael III v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 3 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain United States Czech Republic Greece Netherlands Poland Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theophilos_(emperor)&oldid=1028522821" Categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors Phrygian dynasty Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars 9th-century births 842 deaths Byzantine Iconoclasm 820s in the Byzantine Empire 830s in the Byzantine Empire 840s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles needing additional references from September 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 13:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9317	----	Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor - Wikipedia Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius' daughter (160-212) For her aunt, see Annia Cornificia Faustina. This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Statue of Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (Archaeological Museum in Ostia antica) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (Minor Latin for the younger, 160–212) was a daughter of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and his wife, Faustina the Younger. She was sister to Lucilla and Commodus. Her maternal grandparents were Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder, and her paternal grandparents were Domitia Lucilla and praetor Marcus Annius Verus. She was named in honor of her late paternal aunt Annia Cornificia Faustina. Contents 1 Life 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 Sources 4 External links Life[edit] Cornificia Faustina was born and raised in Rome and later married the African Roman politician Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, who served as consul in 182. Sometime after 173, she bore him a son called Petronius Antoninus. It is possible that she and her family were at the winter camp where Marcus Aurelius died in early 180. Her brother Commodus succeeded her father as emperor and, sometime between 190 and 192, he ordered the deaths of her husband, her son, her brother-in-law and her sister-in-law's family. Cornificia survived the political executions of Commodus and later married Lucius Didius Marinus, a powerful Roman noble of equestrian rank who served as Procurator in various provinces. He later became a tax collector and tribune of the first Praetorian cohort. During the brief reign of Pertinax (193), she was involved in an affair with the emperor. In 212, when she was in her fifties, Caracalla ordered her death, thus eliminating the last surviving child of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger. Historian Cassius Dio recorded the manner of her death: Her last words were 'My poor, unhappy soul, trapped in an unworthy body, go forth, be free, show them that you are the daughter of Marcus Aurelius!' Then she took off her ornaments, composed herself, opened her veins, and died. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Septimius Severus: the African emperor, By Anthony Richard Birley Edition: 2 – 1999 Roman social history: a sourcebook By Tim G. Parkin, Arthur John Pomeroy 2007 A commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto, By Michael Petrus Josephus van den Hout, Marcus Cornelius Fronto 1999 From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, by Albino Garzetti, 1974. Stefan Priwitzer, Faustina minor - Ehefrau eines Idealkaisers und Mutter eines Tyrannen quellenkritische Untersuchungen zum dynastischen Potential, zur Darstellung und zu Handlungsspielraeumen von Kaiserfrauen im Prinzipat (Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt, 2008) (Tuebinger althistorische Studien, 6). External links[edit] Did Faustina the Younger sleep around? Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Faustina II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annia_Cornificia_Faustina_Minor&oldid=1015860631" Categories: 160 births 212 deaths Nerva–Antonine dynasty Annii Cornificii 2nd-century Romans 3rd-century Romans 2nd-century Roman women 3rd-century Roman women Executed Roman women People executed by the Roman Empire Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2018 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Español Italiano Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 00:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9336	----	Cremation - Wikipedia Cremation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Final disposition of a dead body through burning An 1820 painting showing a Hindu funeral procession in South India. The pyre is to the left, near a river, the lead mourner is walking in front, the dead body is wrapped in white and is being carried to the cremation pyre, relatives and friends follow.[1] Cremation is a method of final disposition of a dead body through burning.[2] Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India and Nepal, cremation on an open-air pyre is an ancient tradition. Starting in the 19th century, cremation was introduced or reintroduced into other parts of the world. In modern times, cremation is commonly carried out with a closed furnace (cremator), at a crematorium. Cremation leaves behind an average of 2.4 kg (5.3 lbs) of remains known as "ashes" or "cremains".[3][4] This is not all ash but unburnt fragments of bone mineral, which are commonly ground into powder. They do not constitute a health risk and may be buried, interred in a memorial site, retained by relatives or scattered in various ways. Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient 1.2 Middle Ages 1.3 Reintroduction 1.4 Western spread 1.5 World War II 1.6 Modern era 2 Modern process 2.1 Body container 2.2 Burning and ash collection 2.3 Ash weight and composition 3 Retention or disposal of remains 4 Reasons 5 Environmental impact 6 Religious views 6.1 Christianity 6.1.1 Catholicism 6.1.2 Anglicanism and Lutheranism 6.1.3 Methodism 6.1.4 Eastern Orthodox and other opposition 6.1.5 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 6.2 Indian 6.3 Balinese 6.4 Islam 6.5 Judaism 6.6 Baháʼí Faith 6.7 Zoroastrianism 6.8 Chinese 7 Pets 8 Recent controversies 8.1 Tri-State Crematory incident 8.2 Indian Ocean tsunamis 9 Rates 10 See also 11 References 12 External links History[edit] Ancient[edit] Further information: Secondary cremation Bronze container of ancient cremated human remains, complete with votive offering Cremation dates from at least 17,000 years ago[5][6] in the archaeological record, with the Mungo Lady, the remains of a partly cremated body found at Lake Mungo, Australia.[7] Alternative death rituals which emphasize one method of disposal: burial, cremation, or exposure—have gone through periods of preference throughout history. In the Middle East and Europe, both burial and cremation are evident in the archaeological record in the Neolithic era. Cultural groups had their own preferences and prohibitions. The ancient Egyptians developed an intricate transmigration-of-soul theology, which prohibited cremation. This was also widely adopted by Semitic peoples. The Babylonians, according to Herodotus, embalmed their dead. Early Persians practiced cremation, but this was forbidden during the Zoroastrian Period. Phoenicians practiced both cremation and burial. From the Cycladic civilisation in 3000 BCE until the Sub-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE, Greeks practiced burial. Cremation appeared around the 12th century BCE, probably influenced by Anatolia. Until the Christian era, when inhumation again became the only burial practice, both combustion and inhumation had been practiced, depending on the era and location.[8] Romans practiced both, with cremation the rule until the later imperial period.[citation needed] In Europe, there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age (c. 2000 BCE) in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube. The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture (from c. 1300 BCE). In the Iron Age, inhumation again becomes more common, but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere. Homer's account of Patroclus' burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus, similar to Urnfield burials, and qualifying as the earliest description of cremation rites. This may be an anachronism, as during Mycenaean times burial was generally preferred, and Homer may have been reflecting the more common use of cremation at the time the Iliad was written, centuries later. The Aztec emperor Ahuitzotl being cremated. Surrounding him are a necklace of jade and gold, an ornament of quetzal feathers, a copilli (crown), his name glyph and three sacrificial vassals to accompany him in the afterlife. Criticism of burial rites is a common aspersion by competing religions and cultures, including the association of cremation with fire sacrifice or human sacrifice. Hinduism and Jainism are notable for not only allowing but prescribing cremation. Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture (from c. 1900 BCE), considered the formative stage of Vedic civilization. The Rigveda contains a reference to the emerging practice, in RV 10.15.14, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked. Cremation remained common but not universal, in both ancient Greece and ancient Rome. According to Cicero, burial was considered the more archaic rite in Rome.[citation needed] The rise of Christianity saw an end to cremation in Europe, though it may have already been in decline.[9] This stance was influenced by its roots in Judaism, the belief in the resurrection of the body, and the example of Christ's burial. Anthropologists have been able to track the advance of Christianity throughout Europe with the appearance of cemeteries.[citation needed] In early Roman Britain, cremation was usual but diminished by the 4th century. It then reappeared in the 5th and 6th centuries during the migration era, when sacrificed animals were sometimes included on the pyre, and the dead were dressed in costume and with ornaments for the burning. That custom was also very widespread among the Germanic peoples of the northern continental lands from which the Anglo-Saxon migrants are supposed to have been derived, during the same period. These ashes were usually thereafter deposited in a vessel of clay or bronze in an "urn cemetery". The custom again died out with the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons or Early English during the 7th century, when Christian burial became general.[10] Middle Ages[edit] In parts of Europe, cremation was forbidden by law, and even punishable by death if combined with Heathen rites.[11] Cremation was sometimes used by Catholic authorities as part of punishment for accused heretics, which included burning at the stake. For example, the body of John Wycliff was exhumed years after his death and burned to ashes, with the ashes thrown in a river,[12] explicitly as a posthumous punishment for his denial of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation.[13] The first to advocate for the use of cremation was the physician Sir Thomas Browne in 1658. Honoretta Brooks Pratt became the first recorded cremated European individual in modern times when she died on 26 September 1769 and was illegally cremated at the burial ground on Hanover Square in London.[14] Reintroduction[edit] The Woking Crematorium, built in 1878 as the first facility in England after a long campaign led by the Cremation Society of Great Britain. In Europe, a movement to reintroduce cremation as a viable method for body disposal began in the 1870s. This was made possible by the invention of new furnace technology and contact with eastern cultures that practiced it.[15] At the time, many proponents believed in the miasma theory, and that cremation would reduce the "bad air" that caused diseases.[16] These movements were associated with secularism and gained a following in cultural and intellectual circles.[15] In Italy, the movement was associated with anti-clericalism and Freemasonry, whereas these were not major themes of the movement in Britain.[9] In 1869, the idea was presented to the Medical International Congress of Florence by Professors Coletti and Castiglioni "in the name of public health and civilization". In 1873, Professor Paolo Gorini of Lodi and Professor Ludovico Brunetti of Padua published reports of practical work they had conducted.[17] A model of Brunetti's cremating apparatus, together with the resulting ashes, was exhibited at the Vienna Exposition in 1873 and attracted great attention[18] Meanwhile, Sir Charles William Siemens had developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s. His furnace operated at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air for combustion. In regenerative preheating, the exhaust gases from the furnace are pumped into a chamber containing bricks, where heat is transferred from the gases to the bricks. The flow of the furnace is then reversed so that fuel and air pass through the chamber and are heated by the bricks. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, and this process made cremation an efficient and practical proposal. Charles's nephew, Carl Friedrich von Siemens perfected the use of this furnace for the incineration of organic material at his factory in Dresden. The radical politician, Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, took the corpse of his dead wife there to be cremated in 1874. The efficient and cheap process brought about the quick and complete incineration of the body and was a fundamental technical breakthrough that finally made industrial cremation a practical possibility.[19] The first crematorium in the Western World opened in Milan in 1876. Milan's "Crematorium Temple" was built in the Monumental Cemetery. The building still stands but ceased to be operational in 1992.[20][21] The trial of William Price confirmed that cremation was legal in the United Kingdom. He was himself cremated after his death in 1893. Sir Henry Thompson, 1st Baronet, a surgeon and Physician to the Queen Victoria, had seen Gorini's cremator at the Vienna Exhibition and had returned home to become the first and chief promoter of cremation in England.[18] His main reason for supporting cremation was that "it was becoming a necessary sanitary precaution against the propagation of disease among a population daily growing larger in relation to the area it occupied". In addition, he believed, cremation would prevent premature burial, reduce the expense of funerals, spare mourners the necessity of standing exposed to the weather during interment, and urns would be safe from vandalism.[18] He joined with other proponents to form the Cremation Society of Great Britain in 1874."[18] They founded the United Kingdom's first crematorium in Woking,[22] with Gorini travelling to England to assist the installation of a cremator. They first tested it on 17 March 1879 with the body of a horse. After protests and an intervention by the Home Secretary, Sir Richard Cross, their plans were put on hold. In 1884, the Welsh Neo-Druidic priest William Price was arrested and put on trial for attempting to cremate his son's body.[23] Price successfully argued in court that while the law did not state that cremation was legal, it also did not state that it was illegal. The case set a precedent that allowed the Cremation Society to proceed.[24] In 1885, the first official cremation in the United Kingdom took place in Woking. The deceased was Jeanette Pickersgill, a well-known figure in literary and scientific circles.[25] By the end of the year, the Cremation Society of Great Britain had overseen 2 more cremations, a total of 3 out of 597,357 deaths in the UK that year.[22] In 1888, 28 cremations took place at the venue. In 1891, Woking Crematorium added a chapel, pioneering the concept of a crematorium being a venue for funerals as well as cremation.[21] Advertisement for woollen envelopes to wrap the body in for cremation, appearing in the Undertaker's Journal, 1889. Other early crematoria in Europe were built in 1878 in the town of Gotha in Germany and later in Heidelberg in 1891. The first modern crematory in the U.S. was built in 1876 by Francis Julius LeMoyne after hearing about its use in Europe. Like many early proponents, he was motivated by a belief it would be beneficial for public health.[26][27] Before LeMoyne's crematory closed in 1901, it had performed 42 cremations.[28] Other countries that opened their first crematorium included Sweden (1887 in Stockholm), Switzerland (1889 in Zurich) and France (1889 in Père Lachaise, Paris).[21] Western spread[edit] Some of the various Protestant churches came to accept cremation, with the rationale being, "God can resurrect a bowl of ashes just as conveniently as he can resurrect a bowl of dust." In Anglican and Nordic Protestant countries, cremation gained acceptance (though did not yet become the norm) first by the higher classes and cultural circles, and then by the rest of the population.[21] In 1905, Westminster Abbey interred ashes for the first time; by 1911 the Abbey was expressing a preference for interring ashes.[29] The 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia was critical of the development, referring to them as a "sinister movement" and associating them with Freemasonry, although it said that "there is nothing directly opposed to any dogma of the Church in the practice of cremation."[30] In the U.S. only about one crematory per year was built in the late 19th century. As embalming became more widely accepted and used, crematories lost their sanitary edge. Not to be left behind, crematories had an idea of making cremation beautiful. They started building crematories with stained-glass windows and marble floors with frescoed walls. Australia also started to establish modern cremation movements and societies. Australians had their first purpose-built modern crematorium and chapel in the West Terrace Cemetery in the South Australian capital of Adelaide in 1901. This small building, resembling the buildings at Woking, remained largely unchanged from its 19th-century style and was in full operation until the late 1950s. The oldest operating crematorium in Australia is at Rookwood Cemetery, in Sydney. It opened in 1925. In the Netherlands, the foundation of the Association for Optional Cremation[31] in 1874 ushered in a long debate about the merits and demerits of cremation. Laws against cremation were challenged and invalidated in 1915 (two years after the construction of the first crematorium in the Netherlands), though cremation did not become legally recognised until 1955.[32] World War II [edit] Crematorium at Dachau concentration camp During World War II (1939–45) Nazi Germany used specially built furnaces in at least six extermination camps throughout occupied Poland including at Auschwitz-Birkenau, Chełmno, Belzec, Majdanek, Sobibor and Treblinka, where the bodies of those murdered by gassing were disposed of using incineration. The efficiency of industrialised killing of Operation Reinhard during the most deadly phase of the Holocaust produced too many corpses, therefore the crematoria manufactured to SS specifications were put into use in all of them to handle the disposals around the clock, day and night.[33][34] The Vrba–Wetzler report offers the following description. At present there are four crematoria in operation at BIRKENAU, two large ones, I and II, and two smaller ones, III and IV. Those of type I and II consist of 3 parts, i.e.,: (A) the furnace room; (B) the large halls; and (C) the gas chamber. A huge chimney rises from the furnace room around which are grouped nine furnaces, each having four openings. Each opening can take three normal corpses at once and after an hour and a half the bodies are completely burned. This corresponds to a daily capacity of about 2,000 bodies... Crematoria III and IV work on nearly the same principle, but their capacity is only half as large. Thus the total capacity of the four cremating and gassing plants at BIRKENAU amounts to about 6,000 daily.[35] A sketch from the Vrba–Wetzler report, showing the rough layout of the crematoria used at Auschwitz, one of the several Nazi German extermination camps in occupied Poland The Holocaust furnaces were supplied by a number of manufacturers, with the best known and most common being Topf and Sons as well as Kori Company of Berlin,[36] whose ovens were elongated to accommodate two bodies, slid inside from the back side. The ashes were taken out from the front side.[37] The furnaces were also unique, in that they were of a "stand alone" type, meaning that there was no visible duct work for the exhaust gases. These furnaces, based around a design commonly used for hospital incinerators, instead vented the gasses down through a series of ducts embedded in the floor, with the help of a draft fan located at the far end of the structure. Once outside, the gasses then rose through a free standing chimney, most notable for the fact that it was not directly attached to the structure of the building itself, nor had a visible duct leading into it.[citation needed] Modern era[edit] In the 20th century, cremation gained varying degrees of acceptance in most Christian denominations. William Temple, the most senior bishop in the Church of England, was cremated after his death in office in 1944. The Roman Catholic Church accepted the practice more slowly. In 1963, at the Second Vatican Council Pope Paul VI lifted the ban on cremation,[38] and in 1966 allowed Catholic priests to officiate at cremation ceremonies. This is done on the condition that the ashes must be buried or interred, not scattered. Many countries where burial is traditional saw cremation rise to become a significant, if not the most common way of disposing of a dead body. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was an unprecedented phase of crematorium construction in the United Kingdom[15] and the Netherlands.[39] See also: List of countries by cremation rate Starting in the 1960s, cremation has become more common than burial in several countries where the latter is traditional. This has included the United Kingdom (1968), Canada (early 2000s), the United States (2016) and Finland (2017). Factors cited include cheaper costs (especially a factor after the 2008 recession), growth in secular attitudes and declining opposition in some Christian denominations.[40] Modern process[edit] An electric cremator in Austria Cremation of a human corpse inside an electric cremator The cremation occurs in a cremator, which is located at a crematorium or crematory. In many countries, the crematorium is a venue for funerals as well as cremation.[15] A cremator is an industrial furnace that is able to generate temperatures of 871–982 °C (1,600–1,800 °F) to ensure the disintegration of the corpse.[41] Modern cremator fuels include oil,[42] natural gas, propane, and, in Hong Kong, coal gas.[43] Coal and coke were used until the early 1960s.[citation needed] Modern cremators automatically monitor their interior to tell when the cremation process is complete and have a spyhole so that an operator can see inside.[44] The time required for cremation varies from body to body, with the average being 90 minutes for an adult body.[44] A cremator is not designed to cremate more than one human body at a time. Crematoria may occasionally make exceptions for cases such as still-born twins, or a baby and mother who died during childbirth.[citation needed] The chamber where the body is placed is called a cremation chamber or retort and is lined with heat-resistant refractory bricks. Refractory bricks are designed in several layers. The outermost layer is usually simply an insulation material, e.g., mineral wool. Inside is typically a layer of insulation brick, mostly calcium silicate in nature. Heavy duty cremators are usually designed with two layers of fire bricks inside the insulation layer. The layer of fire bricks in contact with the combustion process protects the outer layer and must be replaced from time to time.[45] The body is required to be inside a coffin or a combustible container.[44] This allows the body to be quickly and safely slide into the cremator. It also reduces health risks to the operators. The coffin or container is inserted (charged) into the cremator as quickly as possible to avoid heat loss. Some crematoria allow relatives to view the charging. This is sometimes done for religious reasons, such as in traditional Hindu and Jain funerals,[46] and is also customary in Japan.[15] Body container[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A relic found amid the ashes of Chan Kusalo (the Buddhist Patriarch of Northern Thailand) is placed inside a chedi shaped vial and displayed inside Wat Chedi Luang in Chiang Mai. In the United States federal law does not dictate any container requirements for cremation. Certain states require an opaque or non-transparent container for all cremations. This can be a simple corrugated cardboard box or a wooden casket (coffin). Most casket manufacturers provide lines of caskets that are specially built for cremation.[citation needed] Another option is a cardboard box that fits inside a wooden shell, which is designed to look like a traditional casket. After the funeral service, the box is removed from the shell before cremation, permitting the shell to be re-used.[47] Funeral homes may also offer rental caskets, which are traditional caskets used only during the services, after which the bodies are transferred to other containers for cremation.[citation needed] Rental caskets are sometimes designed with removable beds and liners, which are replaced after each use.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, the body is not removed from the coffin and is not placed into a container as described above. The body is cremated with the coffin[48] which is why all British coffins that are to be used for cremation must be combustible. The Code of Cremation Practice[49] forbids the opening of the coffin once it has arrived at the crematorium, and rules stipulate that it must be cremated within 72 hours of the funeral service.[50] Therefore, in the United Kingdom, bodies are cremated in the same coffin that they are placed in at the undertaker's, although the regulations allow the use of an approved "cover" during the funeral service.[50] It is recommended that jewellery be removed before the coffin is sealed, for this reason. When cremation is finished, the remains are passed through a magnetic field to remove any metal, which will be interred elsewhere in the crematorium grounds or, increasingly, recycled.[51] The ashes are entered into a cremulator[52] to further grind the remains down into a finer texture before being given to relatives or loved ones or scattered in the crematorium grounds where facilities exist.[53] In Germany, the process is mostly similar to that of the United Kingdom. The body is cremated in the coffin. A piece of fire clay with a number on it is used for identifying the remains of the dead body after burning.[54] The remains are then placed in a container called an ash capsule, which generally is put into a cinerary urn. In Australia, the deceased is cremated in a coffin supplied by the undertaker.[citation needed] Reusable or cardboard coffins are becoming popular, with several manufacturers now supplying them.[55] For low cost, a plain, particle-board coffin (known in the trade as a "chippie") can be used. Handles (if fitted) are plastic and approved for use in a cremator. Coffins vary from natural cardboard and unfinished particle board (covered with a velvet pall if there is a service) to solid timber; most are veneered particle board.[citation needed] Cremations can be "delivery only", with no preceding chapel service at the crematorium (although a church service may have been held) or preceded by a service in one of the crematorium chapels. Delivery-only allows crematoria to schedule cremations to make best use of the cremators, perhaps by holding the body overnight in a refrigerator, allowing a lower fee to be charged. Delivery-only is sometimes called west chapel service in industry jargon.[citation needed] Burning and ash collection[edit] See also: Ball mill (Germany) A piece of fire clay used for identifying the ash after burning the dead body (Germany) A cinerary urn. The laces are used to lower the urn into the ground (Germany) A sealed cinerary urn, showing the ash capsule containing the remains of the dead, along with the name and dates (Germany) The ash capsule (Germany) An open ash capsule showing the remains of the dead (Germany) Ash capsule and cinerary urn after 15 years The box containing the body is placed in the retort and incinerated at a temperature of 760 to 1,150 °C (1,400 to 2,100 °F). During the cremation process, the greater portion of the body (especially the organs and other soft tissues) is vaporized and oxidized by the intense heat; gases released are discharged through the exhaust system. The process usually takes 90 minutes to two hours, with larger bodies taking a longer time.[citation needed] Jewelry, such as necklaces, wrist-watches and rings, are ordinarily removed before cremation, and returned to the family. Several implanted devices are required to be removed. Pacemakers and other medical devices can cause surprisingly large, dangerous explosions.[56] Contrary to popular belief, the cremated remains are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverised by a machine called a Cremulator—essentially a high-capacity, high-speed blender—to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains",[56][57] although pulverisation may also be performed by hand. This leaves the bone with a fine sand like texture and color, able to be scattered without need for mixing with any foreign matter,[58] though the size of the grain varies depending on the Cremulator used. The mean weight of an adult's remains is 2.4 kg (5.3 lb); the mean weight for adult males is about 1 kg (2.2 lb) higher than that for adult females.[59] There are various types of Cremulators, including rotating devices, grinders, and older models using heavy metal balls.[60] The grinding process typically takes about 20 seconds. Bone-picking ceremony at a Japanese funeral In East Asian countries such as China, Japan or Taiwan, the bones are not pulverised, unless requested beforehand. When not pulverised, the bones are collected by the family and stored as one might do with ashes. The appearance of cremated remains after grinding is one of the reasons they are called ashes, although a non-technical term sometimes used is "cremains",[3][4] a portmanteau of "cremated" and "remains". (The Cremation Association of North America prefers that the word "cremains" not be used for referring to "human cremated remains". The reason given is that "cremains" is thought to have less connection with the deceased, whereas a loved one's "cremated remains" has a more identifiable human connection.[61]) After final grinding, the ashes are placed in a container, which can be anything from a simple cardboard box to a decorative urn. The default container used by most crematoria, when nothing more expensive has been selected, is usually a hinged, snap-locking plastic box. An unavoidable consequence of cremation is that a tiny residue of bodily remains is left in the chamber after cremation and mixes with subsequent cremations.[citation needed] Ash weight and composition[edit] Cremated ashes still in plastic bag Cremated remains are mostly dry calcium phosphates with some minor minerals, such as salts of sodium and potassium. Sulfur and most carbon are driven off as oxidized gases during the process, although about 1% -4% of carbon remains[62] as carbonate. The ash remaining represents very roughly 3.5% of the body's original mass (2.5% in children). Because the weight of dry bone fragments is so closely connected to skeletal mass, their weight varies greatly from person to person. Because many changes in body composition (such as fat and muscle loss or gain) do not affect the weight of cremated remains, the weight of the remains can be more closely predicted from the person's height and sex (which predicts skeletal weight), than it can be predicted from the person's simple weight. Ashes of adults can be said to weigh from 876 to 3,784 g (1 lb 15 oz to 8 lb 5 oz), with women's ashes generally weighing below 2,750 g (6 lb 1 oz) and men's ashes generally weighing above 1,887 g (4 lb 3 oz).[59] Not all that remains is bone. There may be melted metal lumps from missed jewellery; casket furniture; dental fillings; and surgical implants, such as hip replacements. Breast implants do not have to be removed before cremation.[63] Some medical devices such as pacemakers may need to be removed before cremation to avoid the risk of explosion. Large items such as titanium hip replacements (which tarnish but do not melt) or casket hinges are usually removed before processing, as they may damage the processor. (If they are missed at first, they must ultimately be removed before processing is complete, as items such as titanium joint replacements are far too durable to be ground.) Implants may be returned to the family, but are more commonly sold as ferrous/non-ferrous scrap metal. After the remains are processed, smaller bits of metal such as tooth fillings, and rings (commonly known as gleanings) are sieved out and may be later interred in common, consecrated ground in a remote area of the cemetery. They may also be sold as precious metal scrap. Retention or disposal of remains[edit] A U.S. Navy sailor scatters cremated remains at sea. Visible is the clear plastic inner bag containing the remains, and next to it the labeled black plastic box that contained the inner bag. This is normal in American packaging. Cremated remains are returned to the next of kin in different manners according to custom and country. In the United States, the cremated remains are almost always contained in a thick watertight polyethylene plastic bag contained within a hard snap-top rectangular plastic container, which is labeled with a printed paper label. The basic sealed plastic container bag may be contained within a further cardboard box or velvet sack, or they may be contained within an urn if the family had already purchased one. An official certificate of cremation prepared under the authority of the crematorium accompanies the remains, and if required by law, the permit for disposition of human remains, which must remain with the cremated remains. Cremated remains can be kept in an urn, stored in a special memorial building (columbarium), buried in the ground at many locations or sprinkled on a special field, mountain, or in the sea. In addition, there are several services in which the cremated remains will be scattered in a variety of ways and locations. Some examples are via a helium balloon, through fireworks, shot from shotgun shells, by boat[64] or scattered from an aeroplane. One service sends a lipstick-tube sized sample of the cremated remains into low earth orbit, where they remain for years (but not permanently) before reentering the atmosphere. Some companies[65] offer a service to turn part of the cremated remains into synthetic diamonds which can then be made into jewelry.[66] Cremated remains can be kept in cremation jewelry also known as funeral jewelry, remembrance jewelry or memorial jewelry. One of the examples of cremation jewelry was in 1861 after Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert, tragically died of Typhoid. She kept a lock of his hair in a locket necklace along with a picture of him to keep with her wherever she went..[67][68] Cremated remains may also be incorporated, with urn and cement, into part of an artificial reef, or they can also be mixed into paint and made into a portrait of the deceased. Some individuals use a very small amount of the remains in tattoo ink, for remembrance portraits. Cremated remains can be scattered in national parks in the United States with a special permit. They can also be scattered on private property with the permission of the owner. A portion of the cremated remains may be retained in a specially designed locket known as cremation jewelry, or even blown into special glass keepsakes[69] and glass orbs.[70] The cremated remains may also be entombed. Most cemeteries will grant permission for burial of cremated remains in occupied cemetery plots that have already been purchased or are in use by the families disposing of the cremated remains without any additional charge or oversight. Ashes are mildly acidic. In some areas such as Snowdon, Wales, environmental authorities have warned that the frequent scattering of ashes can change the nature of the soil, and may affect the ecology.[71] The final disposition depends on the personal preferences of the deceased as well as their cultural and religious beliefs. Some religions will permit the cremated remains to be sprinkled or retained at home. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, prefer to either bury or entomb the remains. Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, grandson, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river Ganges, preferably at one of the holy cities Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, Varanasi, or Haridwar in India. The Sikhs immerse the remains in the Sutlej, usually at Kiratpur Sahib. In southern India, the ashes are immersed in the river Kaveri at Paschima vahini in Srirangapattana at a stretch where the river flows from east to west, depicting the life of a human being from sunrise to sunset. In Japan and Taiwan, the remaining bone fragments are given to the family and are used in a burial ritual before final interment. Further information: Japanese funeral and Cremation in Japan Reasons[edit] Cremation allows for very economical use of cemetery space. Mini-gravestones in Helsinki. Aside from religious reasons (discussed below), some people find they prefer cremation over traditional burial for personal reasons. The thought of a long and slow decomposition process is unappealing to some;[72] many people find that they prefer cremation because it disposes of the body instantly.[73] Other people view cremation as a way of simplifying their funeral process. These people view a traditional ground burial as an unneeded complication of their funeral process, and thus choose cremation to make their services as simple as possible. Cremation is a more simple disposition method to plan than a burial funeral. This is because with a burial funeral one would have to plan for more transportation services for the body as well as embalming and other body preservation methods. With a burial funeral one will also have to purchase a casket, headstone, grave plot, opening and closing of the grave fee, and mortician fees. Cremation funerals only require planning the transportation of the body to a crematorium, cremation of the body, and a cremation urn.[74] The cost factor tends to make cremation attractive. Generally speaking, cremation is cheaper than a traditional burial service,[75] especially if direct cremation is chosen, in which the body is cremated as soon as legally possible without any sort of services. For some, even cremation is still relatively expensive, especially as a lot of fuel is required to perform it. Methods to reduce fuel consumption/fuel cost include the use of different fuels (i.e. natural gas or propane, compared to wood) and by using an incinerator (retort) (closed cabin) rather than an open fire. For surviving kin, cremation is preferred because of simple portability. Survivors relocating to another city or country have the option of transporting the remains of their loved ones with the ultimate goal of being interred or scattered together. Cremated remains can be scattered or buried. Cremation plots or columbarium niches are usually cheaper than a traditional burial plot or mausoleum crypt, and require less space. Some religions, such as Roman Catholicism, require the burial or entombment of cremated remains, but burial of cremated remains may often be accomplished in the burial plot of another person, such as a family member, without any additional cost. This option is charged for in England in an Anglican church where the fee is set by the Table of Parochial Fees (£36 to incumbent and £78 to church council) a total of £114 in 2010 with a marker charged as extra. It is also very common to scatter the remains in a place the deceased liked—such as the sea, a river, a beach, a park, or mountains, following their last will. This is generally forbidden in public places but easy to do. Some persons choose to have a small part of their ashes (usually less than 1 part in 1000, because of cost constraints) scattered in space (known as space burial and offered by companies such as Elysium Space, Celestis and Ascending Memories). Cremated remains can now also be converted to diamonds. Environmental impact[edit] Despite being an obvious source of carbon emissions, cremation also has environmental advantages over burial, depending on local practice. Studies by Elisabeth Keijzer for the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Research found that cremation has less of an environmental impact than a traditional burial (the study did not address natural burials), while the newer method of alkaline hydrolysis (sometimes called green cremation or resomation) had less impact than both. The study was based on Dutch practice; American crematoria are more likely to emit mercury, but are less likely to burn hardwood coffins.[76] Keijzer's studies also found that a cremation or burial accounts for only about a quarter of a funeral's environmental impact; the carbon emissions of people travelling to the funeral are far greater.[76] Each cremation requires about 110 L (28 US gal) of fuel and releases about 240 kg (540 lb) of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Thus, the roughly 1 million bodies that are cremated annually in the United States produce about 240,000 t (270,000 short tons) of carbon dioxide, which is more CO2 pollution than 22,000 average American homes generate in a year.[77] The environmental impact may be reduced by using cremators for longer periods, and relaxing the requirement for a cremation to take place on the same day that the coffin is received, which reduces the use of fossil fuel and hence carbon emissions. Cremation is therefore becoming more friendly toward the environment.[78] Some funeral and crematorium owners offer a carbon neutral funeral service incorporating efficient-burning coffins made from lightweight recycled composite board.[79] Burial is a known source of certain environmental contaminants, with the major ones being formaldehyde and the coffin itself. Cremation can also release contaminants, such as mercury from dental fillings.[76] In some countries such as the United Kingdom, the law now requires that cremators be fitted with abatement equipment (filters) that remove serious pollutants such as mercury. Another environmental concern is that traditional burial takes up a great deal of space. In a traditional burial, the body is buried in a casket made from a variety of materials. In the United States, the casket is often placed inside a concrete vault or liner before burial in the ground. While individually this may not take much room, combined with other burials, it can over time cause serious space concerns. Many cemeteries, particularly in Japan[80] and Europe as well as those in larger cities, have run out of permanent space. In Tokyo, for example, traditional burial plots are extremely scarce and expensive,[81] and in London, a space crisis led Harriet Harman to propose reopening old graves for "double-decker" burials.[82] Some cities in Germany do not have plots for sale, only for lease. When the lease expires, the remains are disinterred and a specialist bundles the bones, inscribes the forehead of the skull with the information that was on the headstone, and places the remains in a special crypt. Religious views[edit] Christianity[edit] Main article: Cremation in Christianity In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged and viewed as a desecration of God's image, and as interference with the resurrection of the dead taught in Scripture. It is now acceptable to some denominations, since a literal interpretation of Scripture is less common, [83] or because the scriptures do not expressly prohibit the practice. Catholicism[edit] Christians preferred to bury the dead rather than to cremate the remains, as was common in Roman culture. The early church carried on Judaism's respect for the human body as being created in God's image, and followed their practices of speedy interment, in hopes of the future resurrection of all dead. The Roman catacombs and Medieval veneration of relics of Roman Catholic saints witness to this preference. For them, the body was not a mere receptacle for a spirit that was the real person, but an integral part of the human person.[84] They looked on the body as sanctified by the sacraments[85] and itself the temple of the Holy Spirit,[86] and thus requiring to be disposed of in a way that honours and reveres it, and they saw many early practices involved with disposal of dead bodies as pagan in origin or an insult to the body.[87] The idea that cremation might interfere with God's ability to resurrect the body was refuted by the 2nd-century Octavius of Minucius Felix, in which he said: "Every body, whether it is dried up into dust, or is dissolved into moisture, or is compressed into ashes, or is attenuated into smoke, is withdrawn from us, but it is reserved for God in the custody of the elements. Nor, as you believe, do we fear any loss from sepulture, but we adopt the ancient and better custom of burying in the earth."[88] And while there was a clear and prevailing preference for burial, there was no general Church law forbidding cremation until 1866. In Medieval Europe, cremation was practiced mainly in situations where there were multitudes of corpses simultaneously present, such as after a battle, after a pestilence or famine, and where there was an imminent fear of diseases spreading from the corpses, since individual burials with digging graves would take too long and body decomposition would begin before all the corpses had been interred. Beginning in the Middle Ages, and even more so in the 18th century and later, non-Christian rationalists and classicists began to advocate cremation again as a statement denying the resurrection and/or the afterlife,[89] although the pro-cremation movement often took care to address these concerns.[90] Sentiment within the Catholic Church against cremation became hardened in the face of the association of cremation with "professed enemies of God."[90] When Masonic groups advocated cremation as a means of rejecting Christian belief in the resurrection, the Holy See forbade Catholics to practise cremation in 1886. The 1917 Code of Canon Law incorporated this ban. In 1963, recognizing that, in general, cremation was being sought for practical purposes and not as a denial of bodily resurrection, the choice of cremation was permitted in some circumstances.[91][92] The current 1983 Code of Canon Law, states: "The Church earnestly recommends the pious custom of Christian burial be retained; but it does not entirely forbid cremation, except if this is chosen for reasons which are contrary to Christian teaching."[93] There are no universal rules governing Catholic funeral rites in connection with cremation, but episcopal conferences have laid down rules for various countries.[91] Of these, perhaps the most elaborate are those established, with the necessary confirmation of the Holy See, by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and published as Appendix II of the United States edition of the Order of Christian Funerals.[94][95] Although the Holy See has in some cases authorized bishops to grant permission for funeral rites to be carried out in the presence of cremated remains, it is preferred that the rites be carried out in the presence of a still intact body. Practices that show insufficient respect for the ashes of the dead such as turning them into jewelry or scattering them are forbidden for Catholics, but burial on land or sea or enclosing in a niche or columbarium is now acceptable.[91] Anglicanism and Lutheranism[edit] In 1917, Volume 6 of the American Lutheran Survey stated that "The Lutheran clergy as a rule refuse" and that "Episcopal pastors often take a stand against it."[96] Indeed, in the 1870s, the Anglican Bishop of London stated that the practice of cremation would "undermine the faith of mankind in the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, hasten rejection of a Scriptural worldview and so bring about a most disastrous social revolution."[97] In The Lutheran Pastor, George Henry Gerberding stated: Third. As to cremation. This is not a Biblical or Christian mode of disposing of the dead. The Old and New Testament agree and take for granted that as the body was taken originally from the earth, so it is to return to the earth again. Burial is the natural and Christian mode. There is a beautiful symbolism in it. The whole terminology of eschatology presupposes it. Cremation is purely heathenish. It was the main practice among pagan Greeks and Romans. The majority of Hindus thus dispose of their dead. It is dishonoring to the body, intended as a temple of the Holy Ghost and to bear the image of God. It is an insidious denial of the doctrine of the resurrection.[98] Some Protestant churches welcomed the use of cremation at a much earlier date than the Catholic Church; pro-cremation sentiment was not unanimous among Protestants, as some have retained a literal interpretation of Scripture.[99] The first crematoria in the Protestant countries were built in the 1870s, and in 1908, the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey—one of the most famous Anglican churches—required that remains be cremated for burial in the abbey's precincts.[100] Today, "scattering", or "strewing," is an acceptable practice in some Protestant denominations, and some churches have their own "garden of remembrance" on their grounds in which remains can be scattered. Some denominations, like Lutheran churches in Scandinavia, favour the urns being buried in family graves. A family grave can thus contain urns of many generations and also the urns of spouses and loved ones. Methodism[edit] An early Methodist tract titled Immortality and Resurrection noted that "burial is the result of a belief in the resurrection of the body, while cremation anticipates its annihilation."[101] The Methodist Review noted that "Three thoughts alone would lead us to suppose that the early Christians would have special care for their dead, namely, the essential Jewish origin of the Church; the mode of burial of their founder; and the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, so powerfully urged by the apostles, and so mighty in its influence on the primitive Christians. From these considerations, the Roman custom of cremation would be most repulsive to the Christian mind."[102] Eastern Orthodox and other opposition[edit] Some branches of Christianity entirely oppose cremation, including non-mainstream Protestant groups and the Orthodox churches.[103] Most notably, the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches historically forbid cremation, but not dogmatically. Exceptions are made for circumstances where it cannot be avoided (when civil authority demands it, in aftermath of war or during epidemics) or if it may be sought for good cause.[clarification needed] But when a cremation is specifically and willfully chosen for no good cause by the one who is deceased, he or she is not permitted a funeral in the church and may also be permanently excluded from burial in a Christian cemetery and liturgical prayers for the departed. In Orthodoxy, cremation is perceived as a rejection of the temple of God and of the dogma of the general resurrection.[104] Most independent Bible churches, free churches, Holiness churches and those of Anabaptist faiths will not practice cremation. As one example, the Church of God (Restoration) forbids the practice of cremation, believing as the Early Church did, that it continues to be a pagan practice.[105] Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[edit] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has, in past decades, discouraged cremation without expressly forbidding it. In the 1950s, for example, Apostle Bruce R. McConkie[106] wrote that "only under the most extraordinary and unusual circumstances" would cremation be consistent with LDS teachings. More recent LDS publications have provided instructions for how to dress the deceased when they have received their temple endowments (and thus wear temple garments) prior to cremation for those wishing to do so, or in countries where the law requires cremation. Except where required by law, the family of the deceased may decide whether the body should be cremated, though the Church "does not normally encourage cremation."[107] Indian[edit] See also: Antyesti Burning ghats of Manikarnika, at Varanasi, India. Cremation of Mahatma Gandhi at Rajghat, 31 January 1948. It was attended by Jawaharlal Nehru, Lord and Lady Mountbatten, Maulana Azad, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sarojini Naidu and other national leaders. His son Devdas Gandhi lit the pyre.[108] Cremation process at Pashupatinath temple. A Hindu cremation rite in Nepal. The samskara above shows the body wrapped in saffron red on a pyre. Cremation taking place at Pashupatinath Temple. Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism practice cremation. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Buddha, was cremated. For Buddhist spiritual masters who are cremated, one of the results of cremation is the formation of Buddhist relics.[citation needed] A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried.[109][110] The rite of passage is performed in harmony with the Hindu religious view that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe.[111] The soul (Atman, Brahman) is the essence and immortal that is released at the Antyeshti ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism. They consist of five elements – air, water, fire, earth and space.[111] The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins.[109][111][112] The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows: Burn him not up, nor quite consume him, Agni: let not his body or his skin be scattered, O all possessing Fire, when thou hast matured him, then send him on his way unto the Fathers. When thou hast made him ready, all possessing Fire, then do thou give him over to the Fathers, When he attains unto the life that waits him, he shall become subject to the will of gods. The Sun receive thine eye, the Wind thy Prana (life-principle, breathe); go, as thy merit is, to earth or heaven. Go, if it be thy lot, unto the waters; go, make thine home in plants with all thy members.[113] The final rite in the case of untimely death of a child is usually not cremation but a burial. This is rooted in Rig Veda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to "neither harm our girls nor our boys", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.[114] Ashes of the cremated bodies are usually spread in a river, which are considered holy in the Hindu practice. Ganga is considered to be the holiest river and Varanasi, which is on the banks of river Ganga the holiest place to be cremated at. Balinese[edit] Cremation of the dead by Hindus in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia. Balinese Hindu dead are generally buried inside the container for a period of time, which may exceed one month or more, so that the cremation ceremony (Ngaben) can occur on an auspicious day in the Balinese-Javanese Calendar system ("Saka"). Additionally, if the departed was a court servant, member of the court or minor noble, the cremation can be postponed up to several years to coincide with the cremation of their Prince. Balinese funerals are very expensive and the body may be interred until the family can afford it or until there is a group funeral planned by the village or family when costs will be less. The purpose of burying the corpse is for the decay process to consume the fluids of the corpse, which allows for an easier, more rapid and more complete cremation. Islam[edit] Main article: Islamic funeral Islam strictly forbids cremation. Its teaching is that cremation does not fit in line with the respect and dignity due to the deceased.[115][116][117] Islam has specific rites for the treatment of the body after death.[118] Judaism[edit] Judaism has traditionally disapproved of cremation in the past, as a rejection of the respect due to humans who are created in the image of God. It was the traditional means of disposing the dead in many of the neighboring pagan Bronze Age cultures surrounding the early Hebrews. Judaism has also disapproved of preservation of the dead by means of embalming and mummifying, as this involves mutilation and abuse of the corpse.[119][120] Mummification was a practice of the ancient Egyptians, among whom the early Jews lived as slaves (according to the Book of Exodus). Through history and up to the philosophical movements of the current era Modern Orthodox, Orthodox, Haredi, and Hasidic movements in Judaism have maintained the historical practice and strict Biblical line against cremation and disapprove of it, as Halakha (Jewish law) forbids it. This halakhic concern is grounded in the literal interpretation of Scripture, viewing the body as created in the image of God and upholding a bodily resurrection as core beliefs of traditional Judaism. This was occasionally opposed by some liberal trends such as among the Sadducees, who denied resurrection. Many Scriptures teach burial, such as the clear wording of the Torah in Devarim (Deuteronomy) 21:23 "Bury, you will bury him the same day; for the (unburied body) is a curse to God" with both a positive command derived from this verse to command one to bury a dead body and a negative command forbidding neglecting to bury a dead body.[121] Some from the generally liberal Conservative Jewish also oppose cremation, some very strongly, seeing it as a rejection of God's design.[122][123] During the 19th and early 20th centuries, as the Jewish cemeteries in many European towns had become crowded and were running out of space, in a few cases cremation for the first time became an approved means of corpse disposal among emerging liberal and Reform Jewish movements in line with their across the board rejection of literal scripture interpretation and traditional Torah ritual laws. Current liberal movements like Reform Judaism still support cremation, although burial remains the preferred option.[72][124] In Israel religious ritual events including free burial and funeral services for all who die in Israel and all citizens including the majority Jewish population including for the secular or non-observant are almost universally facilitated through the Rabinate of Israel. This is an Orthodox organization following historical and traditional Jewish law. In Israel there were no formal crematories until 2004 when B&L Cremation Systems Inc. became the first crematory manufacturer to sell a retort to Israel. In August 2007, an orthodox youth group in Israel was accused of burning down the country's sole crematorium, which they see as an affront to God.[125] The crematorium was rebuilt by its owner and the retort replaced. Baháʼí Faith[edit] The Baháʼí Faith forbids cremation, "He feels that, in view of what 'Abdu'l-Bahá has said against cremation, the believers should be strongly urged, as an act of faith, to make provisions against their remains being cremated. Bahá'u'lláh has laid down as a law, in the Aqdas, the manner of Baháʼí burial, and it is so beautiful, befitting and dignified, that no believer should deprive himself of it." Zoroastrianism[edit] Traditionally, Zoroastrianism disavows cremation or burial to preclude pollution of fire or earth. The traditional method of corpse disposal is through ritual exposure in a "Tower of Silence", but both burial and cremation are increasingly popular alternatives. Some contemporary adhererents of the faith have opted for cremation. Parsi-Zoroastrian singer Freddie Mercury of the group Queen was cremated after his death. Chinese[edit] Neo-Confucianism under Zhu Xi strongly discourages cremation of one's parents' corpses as unfilial. Han Chinese traditionally practiced burial and viewed cremation as taboo and as a barbarian practice. Traditionally, only Buddhist monks in China exclusively practiced cremation because ordinary Han Chinese detested cremation, refusing to do it. But now, the atheist Communist party enforces a strict cremation policy on Han Chinese. Exceptions are made for Hui who do not cremate their dead due to Islamic beliefs.[126] The minority Jurchen and their Manchu descendants originally practiced cremation as part of their culture. They adopted the practice of burial from the Han, but many Manchus continued to cremate their dead.[127] Pets[edit] Pet cremation is practiced internationally. In Japan, more than 465 companion animal temples are in operation. These venues hold funerals and rituals for dead pets. In Australia, pet owners can purchase services to have their companion animal cremated and placed in a pet cemetery or taken home.[128] The cost of pet cremation depends on location, where the cremation is done, and time of cremation. The American Humane Society's cost for the cremation of a 22.5 kg (50 lb). or less pet is $110 while 23 kg (51 lb). or more is $145. The cremated remains are available for the owner to pick up in seven to ten business days. Urns for the companion animal range from $50 to $150.[129] Though pet cremation has accelerated in recent years, Americans are still burying their pet by a 3:1 ratio. Recent controversies[edit] Tri-State Crematory incident[edit] Main article: Tri-State Crematory scandal In early 2002, 334 corpses that were supposed to have been cremated in the previous few years at the Tri-State Crematory were found intact and decaying on the crematorium's grounds in the U.S. state of Georgia, having been dumped there by the crematorium's proprietor. Many of the corpses were decayed beyond identification. Some families received "ashes" that were made of wood and concrete dust.[130] Operator Ray Brent Marsh had 787 criminal charges filed against him. On 19 November 2004, Marsh pleaded guilty to all charges. Marsh was sentenced to two 12-year prison sentences, one each from Georgia and Tennessee, to be served concurrently; he was also sentenced to probation for 75 years following his incarceration.[130] Civil suits were filed against the Marsh family and a number of funeral homes who shipped bodies to Tri-State; these suits were ultimately settled. The property of the Marsh family has been sold, but collection of the full $80-million judgment remains doubtful. Families have expressed the desire to return the former Tri-State crematory to a natural, parklike setting.[citation needed] Indian Ocean tsunamis[edit] The magnitude 9.0–9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake triggered a series of lethal tsunamis on 26 December 2004 that killed almost 300,000 people, making them the deadliest tsunamis in recorded history. The tsunamis killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Thailand, and the northwestern coast of Malaysia), to thousands of kilometers away in the Indian subcontinent (Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives), the Horn of Africa (Somalia), and the African Great Lakes (Kenya and Tanzania). Authorities had difficulties dealing with the large numbers of bodies, and as a result, thousands of bodies were cremated together out of fear that decaying bodies would cause disease. Many of these bodies were not identified or viewed by relatives before cremation. A particular point of objection was that the bodies of Westerners were kept separate from those of Asian descent, who were mostly locals. This meant that the bodies of tourists from other Asian nations, such as Japan and South Korea, were mass-cremated, rather than being returned to their country of origin for funeral rites.[citation needed] A quake of the same magnitude off the east coast of Japan on 13 March 2011 likewise triggered an exceptionally destructive tsunami, killing tens of thousands despite advanced tsunami awareness and preparedness. Hundreds remain officially missing and were presumably washed out to sea to join victims of shipwrecks through the ages. Rates[edit] Main article: List of countries by cremation rate The cremation rate varies considerably across countries with Japan reporting a 99% cremation rate while Poland reported a rate of 6.7% in 2008. The cremation rate in the United Kingdom has been increasing steadily with the national average rate rising from 34.70% in 1960 to 75.44% in 2015.[131] According to the National Funeral Directors Association the cremation rate in the United States in 2016 was 50.2 percent and this was expected to increase to 63.8 percent by 2025 and 78.8 percent in 2035.[132] See also[edit] Antyesti Burial at sea Burial in space Death Promession Resomation Sati Self-immolation Tissue digestion References[edit]  This article incorporates text from China revolutionized, by John Stuart Thomson, a publication from 1913, now in the public domain in the United States. ^ Museum record 2007,3005.2 The British Museum, London ^ Matthews Cremation Division (2006). "Cremation Equipment Operator Training Program": 1. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b "Cremains" is a blend of "cremated" and "remains". See Carlson, p. 80 ^ a b Sublette, Kathleen; Flagg, Martin (1992). 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Plunkett, Suffolk in Anglo-Saxon Times (Tempus Publishing, Stroud 2005), 1–62. ^ von Döllinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz (1841). A History of the Church. C. Dolman and T. Jomes. p. 9. The punishment of death was inflicted on the refusal of baptism, on the heathen practice of burning the dead, and on the violation of the days of fasting [...] ^ Peach, Howard (2003). Curious Tales of Old North Yorkshire. Sigma Leisure. p. 99. ISBN 1-85058-793-0. ^ Schmidt, Dr. Alvin J. (2004). How Christianity Changed the World. Zondervan. p. 261. ISBN 0-310-26449-9. ^ Neil R Storey (2013). The Little Book of Death. The History Press. ISBN 9780752492483. ^ a b c d e "Typology: Crematorium". Architectural Review. 14 November 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2019. ^ "USA." Encyclopedia of Cremation. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2005. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012. ^ Cobb, John Storer (1901). A Quartercentury of Cremation in North America. Knight and Millet. p. 150. ^ a b c d "Introduction". Internet. 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ISBN 0-8091-3873-5. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290753255_Designing_a_place_for_goodbye_The_architecture_of_crematoria_in_the_Netherlands - Designing a place for goodbye: The architecture of crematoria in the Netherlands - Jan 2012 ^ Barron, James (10 August 2017). "In a Move Away From Tradition, Cremations Increase". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 August 2017. ^ https://www.cremationresource.org/cremation/how-is-a-body-cremated.html ^ "Project Profile of re-provisioning of Diamond Hill Crematorium" (PDF). Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong. Retrieved 5 April 2011. ^ "Proposed replacement of cremators at Fu Shan Crematorium, Shatin". Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong. Retrieved 5 April 2011. ^ a b c "This is exactly what happens to your body when it is cremated and how long it takes to burn". Cambridge News. 12 September 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2020. ^ Schacht, Charles A. (2004), Refractories Handbook, Marcel Dekker ^ Carlson, Lisa (1997). 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Retrieved 6 July 2011. ^ "Containers for Cremation – aCremation". Acremation.com. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ a b In the Netherlands these are removed by either the undertaker or the hospital where the person died. Green, Jennifer; Green, Michael (2006). Dealing With Death: Practices and Procedures. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 112. ISBN 1-84310-381-8. ^ "Cremulator" is a trademark of DWF Europe. ^ "Pulveriser for Cremated Remains". 11 November 1986. Retrieved 12 November 2008. ^ a b Warren, M; Maples, W (1997). "The anthropometry of contemporary commercial cremation". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 42 (3): 417–423. doi:10.1520/JFS14141J. PMID 9144931. ^ Davies, Douglas J.; Mates, Lewis H. (2005). "Cremulation". Encyclopedia of Cremation. Ashgate Publishing. p. 152. ISBN 0-7546-3773-5. ^ "Cremation Association of North America – About CANA". 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2008. ^ https://www.zmescience.com/science/physics/cremation-science-memorial-diamonds-052634/ ^ Dr. Ted Eisenberg and Joyce K. Eisenberg, The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths, Incompra Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-9857249-3-1 ^ "Scattering Ashes by boat". FrenchBrothersLtd. Retrieved 12 December 2013. ^ "Eterneva – Diamonds from Ashes". Eterneva. ^ Roberts, Brian (10 August 2016). "Turning The Dead into Diamonds: Meet The Ghoul Jewelers of Switzerland". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ "All the Queen's lockets". Royal Central. 23 December 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2021. ^ "What is Cremation Jewelry?". Cherished Emblems. Retrieved 14 April 2021. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Spirit Pieces Memorial Glass Orbs with Cremation Ashes". Spirit Pieces Memorials. Retrieved 4 December 2015. ^ Clark, Rhodri (26 January 2006). "(Don't) scatter my ashes on Snowdon". Walesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ a b Aiken, Lewis R. (2000). Dying, Death, and Bereavement. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 131. ISBN 0-8058-3504-0. ^ Sublette & Flagg, p. 53 ^ "5 Reasons Why You Should Choose Cremation". Safe Passage Urns. Retrieved 6 February 2018. ^ "Average Cost of Cremation". National Cremation Research Council. Retrieved 24 April 2016. ^ a b c "Dissolving the dead: Alkaline hydrolysis, a new alternative to". BBC News. 22 May 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2020. ^ Herzog, Katie (29 May 2016). "A different way to die: the story of a natural burial". Retrieved 29 May 2016. ^ Spongberg, Alison L.; Becks, Paul M. (January 2000). "Inorganic Soil Contamination from Cemetery Leachate". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 117 (1–4): 313–327. Bibcode:2000WASP..117..313S. doi:10.1023/A:1005186919370. ^ "Funeral Industry Case Study" (PDF). carbonneutral.com.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2014. ^ Shimizu, Louise Picon; Maruyama, Meredith Enman; Tsurumaki, Nancy Smith (1998). Japan Health Handbook. Kodansha International. p. 335. ISBN 4-7700-2356-1. Not only is cremation of the body and internment [sic] of the ashes in an urn a long-standing Buddhist practice, it is also a highly practical idea today, given the scarcity of burial space in crowded modern Japan. ^ Furse, Raymond (2002). Japan: An Invitation. Tuttle Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 0-8048-3319-2. [L]and prices so high that a burial plot in Tokyo a mere 21 feet square could easily cost $150,000. ^ Land, John (30 May 2006). "Double burials in UK cemeteries to solve space shortage". 24dash.com. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007. ^ Gassmann, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Oldenburg, Mark W. (4 April 2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. Scarecrow Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780810866201. Retrieved 22 April 2014. Cremation was unheard of from the time Charlemagne outlawed it (784) until the 17th century. At that point, the practice was urged primarily by those opposed to the church, and for a long time cremation was forbidden by Roman Catholicism and practiced only reluctantly by a few Protestants who did not believe in the literal resurrection of the dead. Recently, these strictures have eased, less interpret Scripture literally and more and more churches have established columbaria or memorial gardens within their precincts for the reception of the ashes by the faithful. ^ Robert Pasnau, in the introduction to his translation of Summa Theologiae, says that Aquinas is "...quite clear in rejecting the sort of substance dualism proposed by Plato [...] which goes so far as to identify human beings with their souls alone, as if the body were a kind of clothing that we put on," and that Aquinas believed that "we are a composite of soul and body, that a soul all by itself would not be a human being." See Aquinas, St. Thomas (2002). Summa Theologiae 1a, 75–89. trans. Pasnau. Hackett Publishing. p. xvii. ISBN 0-87220-613-0. ^ Davies & Mates, "Cremation, Death and Roman Catholicism", p. 107 ^ 1 Corinthians 6:19 ^ Prothero, Stephen (2002). Purified by Fire: A History of Cremation in America. University of California Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 0-520-23688-2. To the traditionalists, cremation originated among "heathens" and "pagans" and was therefore anti-Christian. ^ The full text of Octavius is available online from ccel.org. See also Davies & Mates, p. 107-108. ^ Prothero, p. 74-75 ^ a b Prothero, p. 74. ^ a b c [Edward McNamara, "Mixing Ashes of the Dead"] ^ "Piam et constantem – Over de crematie – RKDocumenten.nl". Rkdocumenten.nl. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ Code of Canon Law, canon 1176 §3 Archived 8 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine; cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2301. ^ "LITURGICAL NORMS ON CREMATION". Ewtn.com. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ "USCCB Committee on Divine Worship, "Cremation and the Order of Christian Funerals"". Usccb.org. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ "Many Minds of Many Men". American Lutheran Survey. Columbia: Lutheran Survey Publishing Company. 6: 658. 12 September 1917. ^ "Contemporary Sayings". Appleton's Journal of Literature, Science, and Art. New York: D. Appleton and Company (276–301). 1874. ^ Gerberding, George Henry (1902). The Lutheran Pastor. Lutheran Publication Society. p. 363. Retrieved 22 April 2014. ^ Prothero, p. 77. ^ Davies & Mates, "Westminster Abbey", p. 423. ^ Kelley, William (1898). The Methodist Review. Cincinnati: Methodist Book Concern. p. 986. ^ Withrow, W.H. (1874). "Withrow on the Catacombs". The Methodist Review. 26, 34, 56: 599. ^ Cloud, David. "CREMATION: What does God think?". Way of Life Literature. Archived from the original on 24 January 2007. Retrieved 3 February 2007. ^ Grabbe, Protopresbyter George. "Cremation". Retrieved 3 February 2007. ^ "Cremation – A Pagan Practice – The Church of God : Official Website". Churchofgod.net. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ McConkie, Bruce R. Mormon Doctrine, A Compendium of the Gospel, 1958 ^ "Selected Church Policies and Guidelines: 21.3.2 Cremation". Handbook 2: Administering the Church. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 12 August 2014. ^ Cremation of Gandhi's body, JAMES MICHAELS, January 31, 1948 ^ a b Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0813540689, pages 99–100 ^ J Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 59–60 ^ a b c Terje Oestigaard, in The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial (Editors: Sarah Tarlow, Liv Nilsson Stut), Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 497–501 ^ Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (2001). Living With Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Culture. Himalayan Academy. p. 750. ISBN 0-945497-98-9. ^ Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१६ Wikisource; Sukta XVI – Rigveda, English Translation: HH Wilson (Translator), pages 39–40; Wendy Doniger (1981), The Rig Veda, Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0140449891, see chapter on Death ^ Sukta XVIII – Rigveda, English Translation: HH Wilson (Translator), pages 46–49 with footnotes; Wendy Doniger (1981), The Rig Veda, Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0140449891, see chapter on Death ^ Daar, A. S.; Khitamy, A. (9 January 2001). "Bioethics for clinicians: 21. Islamic bioethics. Case 1". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 164 (1): 60–63. PMC 80636. PMID 11202669. Mutilation, and thus cremation, is strictly prohibited in Islam. ^ "Cremation Services". Retrieved 9 February 2019. In eastern religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism cremation is mandated, while in Islam it is strictly forbidden. ^ "Cremation in Islam". Islamweb.net. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ "Islamic Funeral Rites". Islam.about.com. Retrieved 15 February 2011. ^ Schulweis, Harold M. "SHAILOS & TSUVAS: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS". Archived from the original on 23 February 2007. Retrieved 21 February 2007. Judaism is a tradition which affirms life. It has struggled from its inception against concentration on death and instead focuses on the celebration of God's gift of life. ^ Bleich, J. David (2002). Judaism and Healing: Halakhic Perspectives. KTAV Publishing House. p. 219. ISBN 0-88125-741-9. ^ Devarim (Deuteronomy) 21:23 ^ Shapiro, Rabbi Morris M., Binder, Rabbi Robert (ed.) (1986). "Cremation in the Jewish Tradition". The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. The subsequent weight of opinion is against cremation and there is no convincing reason why we should deviate from the sacred established method of burial.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Rabow, Jerome A. A Guide to Jewish Mourning and Condolence. Valley Beth Shalom. Archived from the original on 22 April 2006. Retrieved 3 February 2006. ... cremation is un-questionably unacceptable to Conservative Judaism. The process of cremation would substitute an artificial and "instant" destruction for the natural process of decay and would have the disposition of the remains subject to manipulation by the survivors rather than submit to the universal processes of nature. ^ Rothschild, Rabbi Walter. "Cremation". Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 3 February 2007. [W]e have no ideological conflict with the custom which is now popularly accepted by many as clean and appropriate to modern conditions. ^ "'Arson' at Tel Aviv crematorium". BBC.co.uk. 23 August 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2007. ^ Richard V. Weekes (1984). Muslim peoples: a world ethnographic survey, Volume 1. Greenwood Press. p. 334. ISBN 0-313-23392-6. Retrieved 28 June 2010. ^ Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 264. ISBN 0804746842. Retrieved 10 March 2014. ^ Chur-Hansen, Anna. "Cremation Services Upon The Death of a Companion Animal: Views Of Service Providers And Service Users." Society & Animals 19.3 (2011): 248–260. Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 September 2013. ^ "Cremation Services." Animal Humane Society. N/D. Web. 11 October 2013. ^ a b "Crematory operator gets12 years in prison". Nbcnews.com. 1 February 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2017. ^ "International Cremation Statistics 2008". The Cremation Society of Great Britain. 15 February 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2010. ^ Barron, James (10 August 2017). "In a Move Away From Tradition, Cremations Increase". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 August 2017. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cremation. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cremation The International Cremation Federation (ICF) Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Cremation . v t e Death In medicine Cell death Necrosis Avascular necrosis Coagulative necrosis Liquefactive necrosis Gangrenous necrosis Caseous necrosis Fat necrosis Fibrinoid necrosis Temporal lobe necrosis Programmed cell death AICD Anoikis Apoptosis Autophagy Intrinsic apoptosis Necroptosis Paraptosis Parthanatos Phenoptosis Pseudoapoptosis Pyroptosis Autolysis Autoschizis Eschar Immunogenic cell death Ischemic cell death Pyknosis Karyorrhexis Karyolysis Mitotic catastrophe Suicide gene Abortion Accidental death Autopsy Brain death Brainstem death Clinical death DOA Death by natural causes Death rattle Dysthanasia End-of-life care Euthanasia Lazarus sign Lazarus syndrome Medical definition of death Organ donation Terminal illness Unnatural death Lists Causes of death by rate Expressions related to death Natural disasters 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death Extinction Fan death Festival of the Dead Fascination with death Hierarchy of death Homicide Last rites Martyr Megadeath Museum of Death Necronym Necrophilia Necrophobia The Order of the Good Death Predation Sacrifice human Suicide Assisted suicide Thanatosensitivity The Goodbye Family Category Outline v t e Fire History Control of fire by early humans Historic fires Native American use of fire in ecosystems Science Chain reaction Combustion Fire ecology Flash point Pyrolysis Components Fuel Oxygen Heat Flame Smoke Individual fires By type By country By year Crime Arson Death by burning People Pyromania Firefighter Arsonist Culture Cremation Fire worship Terra preta Organizations International Flame Research Foundation The Combustion Institute Other Wildfires List of wildfires Backdraft Firestorm Fire whirl Blue lava Slash-and-burn   Category   Commons   Wiktionary v t e Prehistoric technology Prehistory Timeline Outline Stone Age Subdivisions New Stone Age Technology history 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Dolmen Great dolmen Funeral pyre Gallery grave transepted wedge-shaped Grave goods Jar burial Long barrow unchambered Grønsalen Megalithic tomb Mummy Passage grave Rectangular dolmen Ring cairn Simple dolmen Stone box grave Tor cairn Tumulus Unchambered long cairn Other cultural Astronomy sites lunar calendar Behavioral modernity Origin of language trepanning Prehistoric medicine Evolutionary musicology music archaeology Prehistoric music Alligator drum flutes Divje Babe flute gudi Prehistoric numerals Origin of religion Paleolithic religion Prehistoric religion Spiritual drug use Prehistoric warfare Symbols symbolism Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries France (data) United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cremation&oldid=1024323336" Categories: Cremation Death customs Fire Incineration Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: 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en-wikipedia-org-9343	----	Greek language - Wikipedia Greek language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Greek language used during particular eras, see Proto-Greek language, Mycenaean Greek, Ancient Greek, Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, and Modern Greek. Indo-European language of Greece, Cyprus and other regions Greek ελληνικά Pronunciation [eliniˈka] Region Greece Cyprus Anatolia Balkans Black Sea coast Eastern Mediterranean Southern Italy Ethnicity Greeks Native speakers 13.5 million (2012)[1] Language family Indo-European Hellenic Greek Early form Proto-Greek Dialects Ancient dialects Modern dialects Writing system Greek alphabet Official status Official language in  Cyprus  Greece  European Union Recognised minority language in  Albania Language codes ISO 639-1 el ISO 639-2 gre (B) ell (T) ISO 639-3 Variously: ell – Modern Greek grc – Ancient Greek cpg – Cappadocian Greek gmy – Mycenaean Greek pnt – Pontic tsd – Tsakonian yej – Yevanic Glottolog gree1276 Linguasphere 56-AAA-a 56-AAA-aa to -am (varieties) Areas where Modern Greek is spoken (in dark blue those areas where it is the official language). This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Greek (Modern Greek: Ελληνικά, romanized: Elliniká; Ancient Greek: Ἑλληνική, romanized: Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, Albania, other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.[2] Its writing system is the Greek alphabet, which has been used for over 2,600 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary.[3] The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world.[4] Beginning with the epics of Homer, ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.[5][6] Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics. During antiquity, Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world. It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek.[7] In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora. Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary. Idealised portrayal of the author Homer Contents 1 History 1.1 Periods 1.2 Diglossia 1.3 Historical unity 2 Geographic distribution 2.1 Official status 3 Characteristics 3.1 Phonology 3.2 Morphology 3.2.1 Nouns and adjectives 3.2.2 Verbs 3.3 Syntax 3.4 Vocabulary 3.5 Greek loanwords in other languages 4 Classification 5 Writing system 5.1 Linear B 5.2 Cypriot syllabary 5.3 Greek alphabet 5.3.1 Diacritics 5.3.2 Punctuation 5.4 Latin alphabet 5.5 Hebrew alphabet 5.6 Arabic alphabet 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Main article: History of Greek Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC,[8] or possibly earlier.[9] The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,[10] making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages. Periods[edit] Proto-Greek-speaking area according to linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: Proto-Greek: the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age. [note 1] Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilization. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards. Ancient Greek: in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilization. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to western Europe. Koine Greek: The fusion of Ionian with Attic, the dialect of Athens, began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great and after the Hellenistic colonization of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, because the Apostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity. It is also known as Hellenistic Greek, New Testament Greek, and sometimes Biblical Greek because it was the original language of the New Testament and the Old Testament was translated into the same language via the Septuagint. Distribution of varieties of Greek in Anatolia, 1910. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian Greek in green, with green dots indicating individual Cappadocian Greek villages.[11] Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of Koine Greek, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek (Neo-Hellenic):[12] Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. Diglossia[edit] Main article: Greek language question In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia: the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek, which was developed in the early 19th century, and was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, having incorporated features of Katharevousa and giving birth to Standard Modern Greek, which is used today for all official purposes and in education.[13] Historical unity[edit] The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.[14] It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English".[15] Geographic distribution[edit] Further information: Greeks and Greek diaspora Geographic distribution of Greek language in the Russian Empire (1897 census) Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border.[12] A significant percentage of Albania's population has some basic knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey, though very few remain today.[2] A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which as notable communities in the United States, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and throughout the European Union, especially in Germany. Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, in what are today Southern Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, and Libya; in the area of the Black Sea, in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia, Monoikos, and Mainake. It was also used as a liturgical language in Christian Nubian kingdom of Makuria which was in modern day Sudan.[16] Official status[edit] Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.[17] It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish).[18] Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages.[19] Furthermore, Greek is officially recognized as official in Dropull and Himara (Albania), and as a minority language all over Albania,[20] as well as in parts of Italy, Armenia, Romania, and Ukraine as a regional or minority language in the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[21] Greeks are also a recognized ethnic minority in Hungary.[22] Characteristics[edit] See also: Ancient Greek grammar, Koine Greek grammar, and Modern Greek grammar The phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because at all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Phonology[edit] Main articles: Modern Greek phonology, Koine Greek phonology, and Ancient Greek phonology Spoken Modern Greek Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent. simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards /i/ (iotacism). development of the voiceless aspirated plosives /pʰ/ and /tʰ/ to the voiceless fricatives /f/ and /θ/, respectively; the similar development of /kʰ/ to /x/ may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ). development of the voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ to their voiced fricative counterparts /β/ (later /v/), /ð/, and /ɣ/. Morphology[edit] In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding[23] and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive). The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood. Many have been replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms. Nouns and adjectives[edit] Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).[note 2] Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. Verbs[edit] The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Ancient Greek Modern Greek Person first, second and third also second person formal Number singular, dual and plural singular and plural tense present, past and future past and non-past (future is expressed by a periphrastic construction) aspect imperfective, perfective (traditionally called aorist) and perfect (sometimes also called perfective; see note about terminology) imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction) mood indicative, subjunctive, imperative and optative indicative, subjunctive,[note 3] and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions) Voice active, middle, and passive active and medio-passive Syntax[edit] Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Vocabulary[edit] Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks,[24] some documented in Mycenaean texts; they include a large number of Greek toponyms. The form and meaning of many words have evolved. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian, and Turkish. During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from South Slavic (Macedonian/Bulgarian) and Eastern Romance languages (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian). Greek loanwords in other languages[edit] Further information: English words of Greek origin Further information: Greek and Latin roots in English Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary like all words ending with –logy ("discourse"). There are many English words of Greek origin.[25][26] Classification[edit] Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian,[27] which most scholars suggest may have been a dialect of Greek itself,[28][29][30] but it is poorly attested and it is difficult to conclude. Independently of the Macedonian question, some scholars have grouped Greek into Graeco-Phrygian, as Greek and the extinct Phrygian share features that are not found in other Indo-European languages.[31] Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found for grouping the living branches of the family.[32] In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian by some linguists. If proven and recognized, the three languages would form a new Balkan sub-branch with other dead European languages.[33] Writing system[edit] Greek alphabet Αα Alpha Νν Nu Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron Δδ Delta Ππ Pi Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma Ηη Eta Ττ Tau Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon Ιι Iota Φφ Phi Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi Λλ Lambda Ψψ Psi Μμ Mu Ωω Omega History Archaic local variants Diacritics Ligatures Numerals ϛ (6) ϟ (90) ϡ (900) Use in other languages Bactrian Coptic Albanian Related topics Use as scientific symbols Category v t e See also: Greek Braille Linear B[edit] Main article: Linear B Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.[34] It is basically a syllabary, which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).[34] The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.[34] Cypriot syllabary[edit] Main article: Cypriot syllabary Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic script Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.[35] Greek alphabet[edit] Main articles: Greek alphabet and Greek orthography Ancient epichoric variants of the Greek alphabet from Euboea, Ionia, Athens, and Corinth comparing to modern Greek Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill. The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position: upper case Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω lower case α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω Diacritics[edit] Main article: Greek diacritics In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs: three different accent marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (rough and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography. After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek. Punctuation[edit] In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia (άνω τελεία). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, 'whatever') from ότι (óti, 'that').[36] Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.[37] Boustrophedon, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek. Latin alphabet[edit] Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of the Frankish Empire). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios. Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.[38] The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy. Hebrew alphabet[edit] The Yevanic dialect was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet.[39] Arabic alphabet[edit] Some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet. The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina. This usage is sometimes called aljamiado as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet.[40] See also[edit] Greece portal Language portal Modern Greek Varieties of Modern Greek Medieval Greek Ancient Greek Ancient Greek dialects Hellenic languages List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes Notes[edit] ^ A comprehensive overview in J.T. Hooker's Mycenaean Greece (Hooker 1976, Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean Age", pp. 11–33 and passim); for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario, see Colin Renfrew's "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin" (Renfrew 1973, pp. 263–276, especially p. 267) in Bronze Age Migrations by R.A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973). ^ The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative, and vocative. The dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean Greek disappeared in the Archaic period. ^ There is no particular morphological form that can be identified as 'subjunctive' in the modern language, but the term is sometimes encountered in descriptions even if the most complete modern grammar (Holton et al. 1997) does not use it and calls certain traditionally-'subjunctive' forms 'dependent'. Most Greek linguists advocate abandoning the traditional terminology (Anna Roussou and Tasos Tsangalidis 2009, in Meletes gia tin Elliniki Glossa, Thessaloniki, Anastasia Giannakidou 2009 "Temporal semantics and polarity: The dependency of the subjunctive revisited", Lingua); see Modern Greek grammar for explanation. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Ancient Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Cappadocian Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Mycenaean Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Pontic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Tsakonian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box) ^ a b "Greek language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ 1922-, Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez (2005). A history of the Greek language : from its origins to the present. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12835-4. OCLC 59712402.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ A history of ancient Greek by Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Centre for the Greek Language (Thessalonikē, Greece) pg 436 ISBN 0-521-83307-8 ^ Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p52 ^ Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p9 ^ Manuel, Germaine Catherine (1989). A study of the preservation of the classical tradition in the education, language, and literature of the Byzantine Empire. HVD ALEPH. ^ Renfrew 2003, p. 35; Georgiev 1981, p. 192. ^ Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 437–438; Atkinson & Gray 2006, p. 102. ^ "Ancient Tablet Found: Oldest Readable Writing in Europe". National Geographic Society. 30 March 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2013. ^ Dawkins & Halliday 1916. ^ a b "Greek". Ethnologue. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Peter, Mackridge (1985). The modern Greek language : a descriptive analysis of standard modern Greek. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815770-0. OCLC 11134463. ^ Browning 1983. ^ Alexiou 1982, p. 161. ^ Welsby 2002, p. 239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWelsby2002 (help) ^ "Greece". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 23 January 2010. ^ "The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3". Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus, San Diego Linguistics Papers 2: pp. 25–38 [27]. ^ "The EU at a Glance – Languages in the EU". Europa. European Union. Retrieved 30 July 2010. ^ "Greek". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008. ^ "List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No. 148". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2008. ^ "Self-Government in Hungary". Project on Ethnic Relations. 27 September 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Ralli 2001, pp. 164–203. ^ Beekes 2009. ^ Scheler 1977. ^ "Πόσο "ελληνικές" είναι οι ξένες γλώσσες". NewsIt. 18 November 2019. ^ Hamp 2013, pp. 8–10, 13. ^ Crespo, Emilio (2018). "The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 329. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (2018). "Recent Research in the Ancient Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 299. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ Babiniotis 1992, pp. 29–40; Dosuna 2012, pp. 65–78. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Graeco-Phrygian". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Renfrew 1990; Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1990, pp. 110–116; Renfrew 2003, pp. 17–48; Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 435–439. ^ Holm 2008, pp. 628–636. ^ a b c T., Hooker, J. (1980). Linear B : an introduction. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-906515-69-3. OCLC 7326206. ^ "Cypriot syllabary". Britannica Academic. Retrieved 1 August 2017. ^ Nicolas, Nick (2005). "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation". Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2014. ^ Hugoe, Matthews Peter (March 2014). The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics. Oxford University Press. (Third ed.). Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-967512-8. OCLC 881847972. ^ Androutsopoulos 2009, pp. 221–249. ^ "Yevanic alphabet, pronunciation and language". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 18 April 2020. ^ Kotzageorgis, Phokion (2010). Gruber, Christiane J.; Colby, Frederick Stephen (eds.). The Prophet's Ascension: Cross-cultural Encounters with the Islamic Mi'rāj Tales. Indiana University Press. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-253-35361-0. The element that makes this text a unicum is that it is written in Greek script. In the Ottoman Empire, the primary criterion for the selection of an alphabet in which to write was religion. Thus, people who did not speak—or even know—the official language of their religion used to write their religious texts in the languages that they knew, though in the alphabet where the sacred texts of that religion were written. Thus, the Grecophone Catholics of Chios wrote using the Latin alphabet, but in the Greek language (frangochiotika); the Turcophone Orthodox Christians of Cappadocia wrote their Turkish texts using the Greek alphabet (karamanlidika); and the Grecophone Muslims of the Greek peninsula wrote in Greek language using the Arabic alphabet (tourkogianniotika, tourkokretika). Our case is much stranger, since it is a quite early example for that kind of literature and because it is largely concerned with religious themes."; p. 306. The audience for the Greek Mi'rājnāma was most certainly Greek-speaking Muslims, in particular the so-called Tourkogianniotes (literally, the Turks of Jannina). Although few examples have been discovered as yet, it seems that these people developed a religious literature mainly composed in verse form. This literary form constituted the mainstream of Greek Aljamiado literature from the middle of the seventeenth century until the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Tourkogianniotes were probably of Christian origin and were Islamized sometime during the seventeenth century. They did not speak any language other than Greek. Thus, even their frequency in attending mosque services did not provide them with the necessary knowledge about their faith. Given their low level of literacy, one important way that they could learn about their faith was to listen to religiously edifying texts such as the Greek Mi'rājnāma. Sources[edit] Alexiou, Margaret (1982). "Diglossia in Greece". In Haas, William (ed.). Standard Languages: Spoken and Written. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 156–192. ISBN 978-0-389-20291-2. Androutsopoulos, Jannis (2009). "'Greeklish': Transliteration Practice and Discourse in a Setting of Computer-Mediated Digraphia" (PDF). In Georgakopoulou, Alexandra; Silk, Michael (eds.). Standard Languages and Language Standards: Greek, Past and Present. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 221–249.[permanent dead link] Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006). "Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?". In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.). Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages. Cambridge, England: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91–109. ISBN 978-1-902937-33-5. Babiniotis, George (1992). "The Question of Mediae in Ancient Macedonian Greek Reconsidered". In Brogyanyi, Bela; Lipp, Reiner (eds.). Historical Philology: Greek, Latin and Romance. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 29–40. ISBN 9789027277473. Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4. Browning, Robert (1983) [1969]. Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23488-7. Dawkins, Richard McGillivray; Halliday, William Reginald (1916). Modern Greek in Asia Minor: A Study of Dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa with Grammar, Texts, Translations and Glossary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Dosuna, Julián Víctor Méndez (2012). "Ancient Macedonian as a Greek Dialect: A Critical Survey on Recent Work". In Giannakis, Georgios K. (ed.). Ancient Macedonia: Language, History and Culture (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Centre for the Greek Language. pp. 65–78. Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Ivanov, Vyacheslav (March 1990). "The Early History of Indo-European Languages". Scientific American. 262 (3): 110–116. Bibcode:1990SciAm.262c.110G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981). Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003). "Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin". Nature. 426 (6965): 435–439. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G. doi:10.1038/nature02029. PMID 14647380. S2CID 42340. Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 239. Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages". In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; Decker, Reinhold (eds.). Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Gesellschaft für Klassifikation e.V., Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 628–636. ISBN 978-3-540-78246-9. Hooker, J.T. (1976). Mycenaean Greece. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 9780710083791. Jeffries, Ian (2002). Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3. Ralli, Angeliki (2001). Μορφολογία [Morphology] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdoseis Pataki. Renfrew, Colin (1973). "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin". In Crossland, R. A.; Birchall, Ann (eds.). Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean; Archaeological and Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory: Proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory, Sheffield. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company Limited. pp. 263–276. ISBN 978-0-7156-0580-6. Renfrew, Colin (2003). "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.). Languages in Prehistoric Europe. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1. Renfrew, Colin (1990) [1987]. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3. Scheler, Manfred (1977). Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary] (in German). Berlin: E. Schmidt. ISBN 978-3-503-01250-3. Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2013). "A Surviving Treaty: The Lausanne Minority Protection in Greece and Turkey". In Henrard, Kristin (ed.). The Interrelation between the Right to Identity of Minorities and their Socio-economic Participation. Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 287–315. ISBN 9789004244740. Further reading[edit] Allen, W. Sidney (1968). Vox Graeca – A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20626-6. Crosby, Henry Lamar; Schaeffer, John Nevin (1928). An Introduction to Greek. Boston, MA; New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Dionysius of Thrace. Τέχνη Γραμματική [Art of Grammar] (in Greek). Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997). Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10002-1. Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. London and New York: Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited). ISBN 978-0-582-30709-4. Krill, Richard M. (1990). Greek and Latin in English Today. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86516-241-9. Mallory, James P. (1997). "Greek Language". In Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240–246. ISBN 9781884964985. Newton, Brian (1972). The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08497-0. Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508345-3. Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920]. Greek Grammar. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36250-5. External links[edit] Standard Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pontic Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Greek language For a list of words relating to Greek language, see the Greek language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Ancient Greek test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek language. Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Greek. General background Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education. The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries. Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley Language learning Wikiquote has quotations related to: Greek language Hellenistic Greek Lessons Greek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek. komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language. New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece (page in Greek) Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix) USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course Aversa, Alan. "Greek Inflector". University of Arizona. Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus. Dictionaries Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print. The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern) scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910 Literature Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books v t e Greek language Origin and genealogy Proto-Greek Pre-Greek substrate Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Hellenic languages Periods Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330) Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453) Modern Greek (since 1453) Varieties Ancient Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Homeric Locrian Pamphylian Macedonian Koine Jewish Koine Greek Modern Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Istanbul Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Phonology Ancient (accent/teaching) Koine Standard Modern Grammar Ancient Koine Standard Modern Writing systems Cypriot syllabary Linear B Greek alphabet History Archaic forms Attic numerals Greek numerals Orthography Diacritics Braille Cyrillization and Romanization Greeklish Literature Ancient Byzantine Modern Promotion and study Hellenic Foundation for Culture Center for the Greek Language Other Greek language question Exonyms Morphemes in English Terms of endearment Place names Proverbs Greek Language Day Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries v t e Languages of Greece Official language Greek Greek varieties Cretan Cappadocian Pontic Maniot Romano-Greek Tsakonian Yevanic Sign languages Greek Sign Language Other languages Aromanian Arvanitika Balkan Romani Macedonian Slavic Megleno-Romanian Pomak Bulgarian Turkish Vlax Romani v t e Languages of Cyprus Official languages Greek Turkish Semiofficial language English Vernacular languages Cypriot Greek Cypriot Turkish Minority languages Armenian Cypriot Maronite Arabic Russian Sign languages Cypriot Sign Language v t e Languages of Albania Official language Albanian (Tosk) Minority languages Aromanian Greek (Himariote) Macedonian Romani Serbian Sign languages Albanian Sign Language v t e Languages of Turkey Official language Turkish Minority languages Arabic Armenian Bulgarian Georgian Greek Kurdish (Kurmanji) Laz Zaza(ki) Sign languages Turkish Sign Language Mardin Sign Language Central Taurus Sign Language  Turkey portal Category v t e Languages of Italy Historical linguistic minorities: Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Germanic, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian, Slovene Italo-Dalmatian Venetian[a] Venetian Fiuman Triestine Central Italian Italian Italian Sign Language Regional Italian Tuscan Florentine Corsican Gallurese Sassarese Central Marchigiano Sabino Romanesco Southern Italian Cilentan Cosentino Neapolitan Beneventano Barese Irpinian Molisan Tarantino Sicilian Salentino Manduriano Southern Calabrese Pantesco Others Judaeo-Italian Sardinian Sardinian Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Occitano-Romance Catalan Algherese Occitan Vivaro-Alpine Mentonasc Niçard Gallo-Romance French Aostan Franco-Provençal Valdôtain Faetar Savoyard Gallo-Italic Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Lombard Western Lombard Brianzöö dialects Canzés Bustocco and Legnanese Comasco-Lecchese dialects Comasco Laghée Vallassinese Lecchese Milanese Ticinese Ossolano Varesino Southwestern Lombard Pavese Novarese Cremunés Spasell Eastern Lombard Bergamasque Emilian-Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Various Gallo-Italic Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Rhaeto-Romance Rhaeto-Romance Friulian Ladin Cadorino Fornes Nones Eastern Roman Eastern Roman Castelmezzanese Italy portal Albanian Arbëresh language Arbëresh Vaccarizzo Albanian South Slavic Croatian Slavomolisano Slovene Brda Gail Valley Inner Carniolan Istrian Karst Natisone Valley Resian Torre Valley Serbian Triestine Serbian Greek Italiot Greek Calabrian Greek Griko German Bavarian Cimbrian Mòcheno Southern Bavarian Other German dialects Austrian German Walser Yiddish Others Romani ^ Venetian is either grouped with the rest of the Italo-Dalmatian or the Gallo-Italic languages, depending on the linguist. v t e Languages of Ukraine Official languages Ukrainian dialects Minority languages Armenian Azerbaijani Belarusian Bulgarian Crimean Tatar Gagauz German Zipser Greek Pontic Mariupol Hungarian Karaim Krymchak Lezgian Polish Lwów Plautdietsch Romanian Moldavian Romani Carpathian Russian Rusyn Tatar Slovak Urum Yiddish Sign languages Ukrainian Sign Language See Also: Language policy in Ukraine v t e Greece topics Basic topics Alphabetical index of topics History Prehistory (pre-1100 BC) Neolithic Age Bronze Age Pelasgians Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Helladic period Mycenaean period Bronze Age collapse Antiquity (1100 BC-330 AD) Greek Dark Ages Iron Age migrations Archaic period Greco-Persian Wars Classical period Delian and Peloponnesian League Peloponnesian War League of Corinth Wars of Alexander the Great Hellenistic period Wars of the Diadochi Roman–Greek wars Roman era Foundation of Constantinople Middle Ages (330-1453) Byzantine period Persecution of paganism Migration period Plague of Justinian Arab–Byzantine wars Iconoclasm Macedonian Renaissance East–West Schism Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Empire of Nicaea, Despotate of Epirus and Despotate of the Morea Fall of Constantinople Early modern and Modern era (post-1453) Stato da Màr (Venetian Ionian islands, Kingdom of Candia) Ottoman Greece Modern Greek Enlightenment Septinsular Republic War of Independence First Republic Kingdom Balkan Wars World War I National Schism Greco-Turkish War Second Republic 4th of August Regime World War II Civil war Military junta Democratization Third Republic By topic Ancient regions and tribes Byzantine and Ottoman Greeks Christianization Colonization Coups d'état Demographic (Modern) Economic Geographical name changes Greek countries and 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en-wikipedia-org-9345	----	Alexios I Komnenos - Wikipedia Alexios I Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118 "Alexius I" redirects here. For other uses, see Alexius I (disambiguation). "Alexios Komnenos" redirects here. For other uses, see Alexios Komnenos (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Alexios I Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Portrait of Emperor Alexios I, from a Greek manuscript Byzantine emperor Reign 1 April 1081[1] – 15 August 1118 Coronation 4 April 1081[2] Predecessor Nikephoros III Botaneiates Successor John II Komnenos Born 1056/1057 Died 15 August 1118 (aged 61–62) Spouse Irene Doukaina Issue Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene Isaac Komnenos Manuel Komnenos Zoe Komnene Dynasty Komnenos Father John Komnenos Mother Anna Dalassene Alexios I Komnenos (Greek: Ἀλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός, 1056/1057 – 15 August 1118), Latinized Alexius I Comnenus, was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the founder of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuq Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the Komnenian restoration. The basis for this recovery were various reforms initiated by Alexios. His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that likely contributed to the convoking of the Crusades. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Conspiracy and revolt of the Komnenoi against Botaneiates 1.2 Wars against the Normans, Pechenegs, and Tzachas 1.3 Byzantine-Seljuq Wars and the First Crusade 1.4 Personal life 1.5 Succession 2 Pretenders and rebels 2.1 Pre First Crusade 2.2 Post First Crusade 3 Reform of the monetary system 4 Legacy 5 Family 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Sources 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Alexios was the son of the Domestic of the Schools John Komnenos and Anna Dalassene,[3] and the nephew of Isaac I Komnenos (emperor 1057–1059). Alexios' father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was thus succeeded by four emperors of other families between 1059 and 1081. Under one of these emperors, Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071), Alexios served with distinction against the Seljuq Turks.[4] Under Michael VII Doukas Parapinakes (1071–1078) and Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078–1081), he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace, and in Epirus.[5] In 1074, western mercenaries led by Roussel de Bailleul rebelled in Asia Minor,[6] but Alexios successfully subdued them by 1076.[7] In 1078, he was appointed commander of the field army in the West by Nikephoros III.[8] In this capacity, Alexios defeated the rebellions of Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder (whose son or grandson later married Alexios' daughter Anna) and Nikephoros Basilakes, the first at the Battle of Kalavrye and the latter in a surprise night attack on his camp.[citation needed] Alexios was ordered to march against his brother-in-law Nikephoros Melissenos in Asia Minor but refused to fight his kinsman. This did not, however, lead to a demotion, as Alexios was needed to counter the expected invasion of the Normans of Southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard.[citation needed] Conspiracy and revolt of the Komnenoi against Botaneiates[edit] While Byzantine troops were assembling for the expedition, the Doukas faction at court approached Alexios and convinced him to join a conspiracy against Nikephoros III. The mother of Alexios, Anna Dalassene, was to play a prominent role in this coup d'état of 1081, along with the current empress, Maria of Alania.[9] First married to Michael VII Doukas and secondly to Nikephoros III Botaneiates, she was preoccupied with the future of her son by Michael VII, Constantine Doukas. Nikephoros III intended to leave the throne to one of his close relatives,[10] and this resulted in Maria's ambivalence and alliance with the Komnenoi, though the real driving force behind this political alliance was Anna Dalassene.[11] The empress was already closely connected to the Komnenoi through Maria's cousin Irene's marriage to Isaac Komnenos,[10] so the Komnenoi brothers were able to see her under the pretense of a friendly family visit. Furthermore, to aid the conspiracy Maria had adopted Alexios as her son, though she was only five years older than he.[12] Maria was persuaded to do so on the advice of her own "Alans" and her eunuchs, who had been instigated by Isaac Komnenos. Given Anna's tight hold on her family, Alexios must have been adopted with her implicit approval.[9] As a result, Alexios and Constantine, Maria's son, were now adoptive brothers, and both Isaac and Alexios took an oath that they would safeguard his rights as emperor.[13] By secretly giving inside information to the Komnenoi, Maria was an invaluable ally.[14] Seal of Alexios as "Grand Domestic of the West" As stated in the Alexiad, Isaac and Alexios left Constantinople in mid-February 1081 to raise an army against Botaneiates.[15] However, when the time came, Anna quickly and surreptitiously mobilized the remainder of the family and took refuge in the Hagia Sophia. From there she negotiated with the emperor for the safety of family members left in the capital, while protesting her sons' innocence of hostile actions. Under the falsehood of making a vesperal visit to worship at the church, she deliberately excluded the grandson of Botaneiates and his loyal tutor, met with Alexios and Isaac, and fled for the forum of Constantine.[9] The tutor discovered they were missing and eventually found them on the palace grounds, but Anna was able to convince him that they would return to the palace shortly. Then to gain entrance to both the outer and inner sanctuary of the church, the women pretended to the gatekeepers that they were pilgrims from Cappadocia who had spent all their funds and wanted to worship before starting their return trip. However, before they were to gain entry into the sanctuary, Straboromanos and royal guards caught up with them to summon them back to the palace.[9] Anna then protested that the family was in fear for their lives, her sons were loyal subjects (Alexios and Isaac were discovered absent without leave), and had learned of a plot by enemies of the Komnenoi to have them both blinded and had, therefore, fled the capital so they may continue to be of loyal service to the emperor.[16] She refused to go with them and demanded that they allow her to pray to the Mother of God for protection. This request was granted and Anna then manifested her true theatrical and manipulative capabilities: She was allowed to enter. As if she were weighed down with old age and worn out by grief, she walked slowly and when she approached the actual entrance to the sanctuary made two genuflections; on the third she sank to the floor and taking firm hold of the sacred doors, cried in a loud voice: "Unless my hands are cut off, I will not leave this holy place except on one condition: that I receive the emperor's cross as guarantee of safety".[17] Alexios I. Manuscript illustration. Nikephoros III Botaneiates was forced into a public vow that he would grant protection to the family.[9] Straboromanos tried to give Anna his cross, but for her it was not sufficiently large enough for all bystanders to witness the oath. She also demanded that the cross be personally sent by Botaneiates as a vow of his good faith. He obliged, sending a complete assurance for the family with his own cross. At the emperor's further insistence, and for their own protection, they took refuge at the convent of Petrion, where they were eventually joined by Maria of Bulgaria, mother of Irene Doukaina.[9] Botaneiates allowed them to be treated as refugees rather than as guests. They were allowed to have family members bring in their own food and were on good terms with the guards from whom they learned the latest news.[18] Anna was highly successful in three important aspects of the revolt: she bought time for her sons to steal imperial horses from the stables and escape the city; she distracted the emperor, giving her sons time to gather and arm their troops; and she gave a false sense of security to Botaneiates that there was no real treasonous coup against him.[9] After bribing the Western troops guarding the city, Isaac and Alexios Komnenos entered the capital victoriously on April 1, 1081.[19] During this time, Alexios was rumored to be the lover of Empress Maria of Alania, the daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, who had been successively married to Michael VII Doukas and his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, and who was renowned for her beauty.[20] Alexios arranged for Maria to stay on the palace grounds, and it was thought that he was considering marrying her. However, his mother consolidated the Doukas family connection by arranging the Emperor's marriage to Irene Doukaina, granddaughter of the Caesar John Doukas, the uncle of Michael VII, who would not have supported Alexios otherwise. As a measure intended to keep the support of the Doukai, Alexios restored Constantine Doukas, the young son of Michael VII and Maria, as co-emperor[21] and a little later betrothed him to his own first-born daughter Anna, who moved into the Mangana Palace with her fiancé and his mother. This situation changed drastically, however, when Alexios' first son John II Komnenos was born in 1087:[22] Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, and she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother. Alexios became estranged from Maria, who was stripped of her imperial title and retired to a monastery, and Constantine Doukas was deprived of his status as co-emperor.[22] Nevertheless, he remained in good relations with the imperial family and succumbed to his weak constitution soon afterwards. Wars against the Normans, Pechenegs, and Tzachas[edit] Further information: Byzantine-Norman Wars The thirty-seven year reign of Alexios was full of struggle. At the outset he faced the formidable attack of the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund, who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly[5] (see Battle of Dyrrhachium).[citation needed] Alexios suffered several defeats before he was able to strike back with success. He enhanced his resistance by bribing the German king Henry IV with 360,000 gold pieces to attack the Normans in Italy,[23] which forced the Normans to concentrate on their defenses at home in 1083–84. He also secured the alliance of Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, who controlled the Gargano Peninsula and dated his charters by Alexios' reign. Henry's allegiance would be the last example of Byzantine political control on peninsular Italy. The Norman danger subsided with the death of Guiscard in 1085, and the Byzantines recovered most of their losses.[24] Alexios next had to deal with disturbances in Thrace, where the heretical sects of the Bogomils and the Paulicians revolted and made common cause with the Pechenegs from beyond the Danube.[25] Paulician soldiers in imperial service likewise deserted during Alexios' battles with the Normans.[26] As soon as the Norman threat had passed, Alexios set out to punish the rebels and deserters, confiscating their lands. This led to a further revolt near Philippopolis, and the commander of the field army in the west, Gregory Pakourianos, was defeated and killed in the ensuing battle. In 1087 the Pechenegs raided into Thrace, and Alexios crossed into Moesia to retaliate but failed to take Dorostolon (Silistra).[27] During his retreat, the emperor was surrounded and worn down by the Pechenegs, who forced him to sign a truce and to pay protection money. In 1090 the Pechenegs invaded Thrace again,[28] while Tzachas, the brother-in-law of the Sultan of Rum, launched a fleet and attempted to arrange a joint siege of Constantinople with the Pechenegs.[29] Alexios overcame this crisis by entering into an alliance with a horde of 40,000 Cumans, with whose help he crushed the Pechenegs at Levounion in Thrace on 29 April 1091.[30] This put an end to the Pecheneg threat, but in 1094 the Cumans began to raid the imperial territories in the Balkans. Led by a pretender claiming to be Constantine Diogenes, a long-dead son of the Emperor Romanos IV,[31] the Cumans crossed the mountains and raided into eastern Thrace until their leader was eliminated at Adrianople. With the Balkans more or less pacified, Alexios could now turn his attention to Asia Minor, which had been almost completely overrun by the Seljuq Turks.[32] Byzantine-Seljuq Wars and the First Crusade[edit] Further information: Byzantine-Seljuq Wars and First Crusade Europe in 1097, during the First Crusade By the time Alexios ascended the throne, the Seljuqs had taken most of Asia Minor. Alexios was able to secure much of the coastal regions by sending peasant soldiers to raid the Seljuq camps, but these victories were unable to stop the Turks altogether.[33] As early as 1090, Alexios had taken reconciliatory measures towards the Papacy,[34] with the intention of seeking western support against the Seljuqs. In 1095 his ambassadors appeared before Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza.[citation needed] The help he sought from the West was simply some mercenary forces, not the immense hosts that arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment, after the pope preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont later that same year.[35] This was the People's Crusade: a mob of mostly unarmed pilgrims led by the preacher Peter the Hermit. Not quite ready to supply this number of people as they traversed his territories, the emperor saw his Balkan possessions subjected to further pillage at the hands of his own allies.[36] Eventually Alexios dealt with the People's Crusade by hustling them on to Asia Minor. There, they were massacred by the Turks of Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.[37] The "Prince's Crusade", the second and much more formidable host of crusaders, gradually made its way to Constantinople, led in sections by Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Taranto, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and other important members of the western nobility.[38] Alexios used the opportunity to meet the crusader leaders separately as they arrived, extracting from them oaths of homage and the promise to turn over conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire.[39] Transferring each contingent into Asia, Alexios promised to supply them with provisions in return for their oaths of homage. The crusade was a notable success for Byzantium, as Alexios recovered a number of important cities and islands. The siege of Nicaea by the crusaders forced the city to surrender to the emperor in 1097, and the subsequent crusader victory at Dorylaion allowed the Byzantine forces to recover much of western Asia Minor.[40] John Doukas re-established Byzantine rule in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by Alexios' daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and deception.[5] In 1099, a Byzantine fleet of ten ships was sent to assist the crusaders in capturing Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as Tripoli. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when the Byzantine contingent under Tatikios failed to help them during the siege of Antioch;[41] Bohemund, who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch,[40] briefly went to war with Alexios in the Balkans, but he was blockaded by the Byzantine forces and agreed to become a vassal of Alexios by the Treaty of Devol in 1108.[42] Around this time, in 1106, the twentieth year of his reign, Hesychius of Miletus records that the sky suddenly darkened and a "violent southern wind" blew the great statue of Constantine at the Strategion from its column, killing a number of men and women nearby.[43] In 1116, though already terminally ill, Alexios conducted a series of defensive operations in Bythinia and Mysia to defend his Anatolian territories against the inroads of Malik Shah, the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium. In 1117 he moved onto the offensive and pushed his army deep into the Turkish-dominated Anatolian Plateau, where he defeated the Seljuq sultan at the Battle of Philomelion.[44] Personal life[edit] During the last twenty years of his life Alexios lost much of his popularity.[45] The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies[46]—one of his last acts was to publicly burn at the stake Basil, a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological dispute.[5][37] In spite of the success of the First Crusade, Alexios also had to repel numerous attempts on his territory by the Seljuqs in 1110–1117.[47] Alexios was for many years under the strong influence of an eminence grise, his mother Anna Dalassene, a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as Augusta instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene Doukaina.[48] Alexios was never happier than when taking part in military exercises and he assumed personal command of his troops whenever possible.[49] As such, Dalassene was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexios' long absences in military campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter Anna Komnene.[citation needed] Succession[edit] Alexios' last years were also troubled by anxieties over the succession. Although he had crowned his son John II Komnenos co-emperor at the age of five in 1092, his wife, Irene Doukaina wished to alter the succession in favor of their daughter Anna and Anna's husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger.[50] Bryennios had been made kaisar (Caesar) and received the newly created title of panhypersebastos ("honoured above all"), and remained loyal to both Alexios and John. Nevertheless, the intrigues of Irene and Anna disturbed even Alexios' dying hours.[citation needed] Pretenders and rebels[edit] Apart from all of his external enemies, a host of rebels also sought to overthrow Alexios from the imperial throne, thereby posing another major threat to his reign.[37] Due to the troubled times the empire was enduring, he had by far the greatest number of rebellions against him of all the Byzantine emperors.[51] These included: Pre First Crusade[edit] Raictor, a Byzantine monk who claimed to be the emperor Michael VII. He presented himself to Robert Guiscard who used him as a pretext to launch his invasion of the Byzantine Empire.[51] A conspiracy in 1084 involving several senators and officers of the army. This was uncovered before too many followers were enlisted. In order to conceal the importance of the conspiracy, Alexios merely banished the wealthiest plotters and confiscated their estates.[51] Tzachas, a Seljuq Turkic emir who assumed the title of emperor in 1092.[52] Constantine Humbertopoulos, who had assisted Alexios in gaining the throne in 1081 conspired against him in 1091 with an Armenian called Ariebes.[52] John Komnenos, Alexios' nephew, governor of Dyrrachium, accused of a conspiracy by Theophylact of Bulgaria.[52] Theodore Gabras, the quasi-independent governor of Trebizond and his son Gregory.[52] Michael Taronites, the brother-in-law of Alexios.[52] Nikephoros Diogenes, the son of emperor Romanos IV.[52] Pseudo-Diogenes, an impostor who assumed the identity of another of Romanos' sons, Leo Diogenes.[53] Karykes, the leader of a revolt in Crete.[52] Rhapsomates, who tried to create an independent kingdom in Cyprus.[52] Post First Crusade[edit] Salomon, a senator of great wealth who in 1106 engaged in a plot with four brothers of the Anemas family.[54] Gregory Taronites, another governor of Trebizond.[54] The illegitimate descendant of a Bulgarian prince named Aron formed a plot in 1107 to murder Alexios as he was encamped near Thessalonica. The presence of the empress Irene and her attendants, however, made the execution of the plot difficult. In an attempt to have her return to Constantinople, the conspirators produced pamphlets that mocked and slandered the empress, and left them in her tent. A search for the author of the publications uncovered the whole plot, yet Aron was only banished due to his connection of the royal line of Bulgaria, whose blood also flowed in the veins of the empress Irene.[55] Reform of the monetary system[edit] Scyphate (cup-shaped) hyperpyron minted under Manuel I Komnenos Under Alexios the debased solidus (tetarteron and histamenon) was discontinued and a gold coinage of higher fineness (generally .900–.950) was established in 1092, commonly called the hyperpyron at 4.45 grs. The hyperpyron was slightly smaller than the solidus. It was introduced along with the electrum aspron trachy worth a third of a hyperpyron and about 25% gold and 75% silver, the billon aspron trachy or stamenon,[56] valued at 48 to the hyperpyron and with 7% silver wash and the copper tetarteron and noummion worth 18 and 36 to the billon aspron trachy.[57] Alexios' reform of the Byzantine monetary system was an important basis for the financial recovery and therefore supported the so-called Komnenian restoration, as the new coinage restored financial confidence. Legacy[edit] Rare seal of Alexios I with a depiction of the Resurrection Alexios I had overcome a dangerous crisis and stabilized the Byzantine Empire, inaugurating a century of imperial prosperity and success.[50] He had also profoundly altered the nature of the Byzantine government.[58] By seeking close alliances with powerful noble families, Alexios put an end to the tradition of imperial exclusivity and co-opted most of the nobility into his extended family and, through it, his government. Those who did not become part of this extended family were deprived of power and prestige.[37] This measure, which was intended to diminish opposition, was paralleled by the introduction of new courtly dignities, like that of panhypersebastos given to Nikephoros Bryennios, or that of sebastokrator given to the emperor's brother Isaac Komnenos.[58] Although this policy met with initial success, it gradually undermined the relative effectiveness of imperial bureaucracy by placing family connections over merit. Alexios' policy of integration of the nobility bore the fruit of continuity: every Byzantine emperor who reigned after Alexios I Komnenos was related to him by either descent or marriage. Family[edit] By his marriage with Irene Doukaina, Alexios I had the following children:[59] Anna Komnene (1 December 1083 – 1148/55), in her infancy she was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, and with him treated as co-ruler by her father until after the birth of John II. In 1097 she married Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, later raised to Caesar. Highly ambitious, after Alexios' death she tried unsuccessfully to usurp the throne. She then withdrew to a monastery, where she wrote her history of Alexios' reign. The couple had several children, but only four survived her.[60] Maria Komnene (19 September 1085 – after 1136), initially betrothed to Gregory Gabras, but married to Nikephoros Katakalon. The couple had several children, but only two sons are known by name.[61] John II Komnenos (13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143), who succeeded as emperor.[62] Andronikos Komnenos (18 September 1091 – 1130/31), was named sebastokrator and participated in several campaigns until his death from disease. He married Irene, likely a Russian princess, and had at least two sons.[63] Isaac Komnenos (16 January 1093 – after 1152), sebastokrator. Eudokia Komnene (14 January 1094 – c. 1129), who married the son of Constantine Iasites. Theodora Komnene (15 January 1096) who married (1) Constantine Kourtikes and (2) Constantine Angelos. By him she was the grandmother of Emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos, as well as the progenitor of the ruling dynasty of the Despotate of Epirus. Through Isaac II's daughter Irene Angelina's children by Philip of Swabia, she is an ancestor of many European royal families, including all European monarchs currently reigning. Manuel Komnenos, born February 1097 and known only from a manuscript now in Moscow, died probably soon after his birth[64] Zoe Komnene, born March 1098 and known only from a manuscript now in Moscow, died probably soon after her birth[64] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal Byzantine army (Komnenian era) List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ "Alexiad", 2.10 ^ "Alexiad", 3.2 ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 63 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 4 ^ a b c d Bury, John Bagnell (1911). "Alexius I." . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 577. ^ Norwich 1995, p. 2 ^ "Alexiad", 1.1 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 3 ^ a b c d e f g Garland 2007 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 59 ^ "Alexiad", 2.2.1–2 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 5 ^ "Alexiad", 2,1,4–6, 2.3.2–3,2.3.4; cf. Bryennius 4.2, who dates the adoption to early in the reign of Botaneiates ^ "Alexiad", 2.3.4,2.4.5 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 6 ^ "Alexiad", 2.5.5 ^ "Alexiad", 2.5.6 ^ "Alexiad", 2.5.7–9 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 63 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 10 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 12 ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 658 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 21 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 25 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 101 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 78 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 102 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 104 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 26 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 27 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 86 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 108 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 111 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 30 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 31 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 33 ^ a b c d Kazhdan 1991, p. 1479 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 36 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 123 ^ a b Norwich 1995, p. 42 ^ Thomas., Asbridge (2016), The crusades: the authoritative history of the war for the holy land., Ecco, ISBN 978-1-5047-3571-1, OCLC 960237360, retrieved 2021-05-11 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 48 ^ Patria of Constantinople ^ Sewter 1969, pp. 481–487. ^ Norwich 1995, p. 54 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 81 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 58 ^ Norwich 1995, p. 59 ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall (First American ed.). New York: Knopf. p. 52. ISBN 0394537785. OCLC 18164817. ^ a b Norwich 1995, p. 61 ^ a b c Finlay 1854, p. 71 ^ a b c d e f g h Finlay 1854, p. 72 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 73 ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 74 ^ Finlay 1854, p. 75 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on August 7, 2007. Retrieved November 14, 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Lindblom 1998. ^ a b Finlay 1854, p. 69 ^ Dalven, Rae (1972). Anna Comnena. New York: Twayne Publishers. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0805722406. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 176–197. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 198–203. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 203–228. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 229–237. ^ a b Varzos 1984, p. 265. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Comnena, Anna (1969) [Written around 1148], The Alexiad, translated by Sewter, E. R. A., Penguin Classics Secondary sources[edit] Finlay, George (1854), History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453, 2, William Blackwood & Sons Garland, Lynda (25 May 2007), Anna Dalassena, Mother of Alexius I Comnenus (1081–1118), De Imperatoribus Romanis (An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers) Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Kouroupou, Matoula; Vannier, Jean-François (2005). "Commémoraisons des Comnènes dans le typikon liturgique du monastère du Christ Philanthrope (ms. Panaghia Kamariotissa 29)" [Commemorations of the Komnenoi in the liturgical typikon of the Monastery of Christ Philanthropos (ms. Panaghia Kamariotissa 29)]. Revue des études byzantines (in French). 63: 41–69. doi:10.3406/rebyz.2005.2305. Lindblom, Annette (21 March 1998), Harl, Kenneth W. (ed.), History 303: Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades, Tulane.edu, archived from the original on 5 October 2013 Norwich, John J. (1995), Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., ISBN 978-0-679-41650-0 Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784634. Further reading[edit] Angold, Michael (1997), The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204 (2nd ed.), Longman, pp. 136–70, ISBN 978-0-582-29468-4 Cheynet, Jean-Claude (1998). "La résistance aux Turcs en Asie Mineure entre Mantzikert et la Première Croisade". ΕΥΨΥΧΙΑ. Mélanges offerts à Hélène Ahrweiler (in French). Paris: Éditions de la Sorbonne. pp. 131–147. ISBN 9782859448301. Frankopan, Peter (2011), The First Crusade: the Call from the East, The Bodley Head Harris, Jonathan (2014), Byzantium and the Crusades (2nd ed.), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Plate, William (1867), "Alexios I Komnenos", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, pp. 129–130 Skoulatos, Basile (1980). Les personnages byzantins de l'Alexiade: Analyse prosopographique et synthèse [The Byzantine Personalities of the Alexiad: Prosopographical Analysis and Synthesis] (in French). Louvain-la-Neuve: Nauwelaerts. Treadgold, Warren (1997), A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, pp. 612–29, ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 External links[edit] Alexius coinage Alexios I Komnenos Komnenos dynasty Born: 1056 Died: 15 August 1118 Regnal titles Preceded by Nikephoros III Byzantine emperor 1 April 1081 –15 August 1118 with Constantine Doukas (1081–1088) John II Komnenos (1092–1118) Succeeded by John II Komnenos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. Rulers and co-rulers are denoted in bold Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain United States Japan Czech Republic Greece Netherlands Poland Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 Social Networks and Archival Context Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexios_I_Komnenos&oldid=1027190605" Categories: Alexios I Komnenos Komnenos dynasty 11th-century births 11th-century Byzantine emperors 1080s in the Byzantine Empire 1090s in the Byzantine Empire 1100s in the Byzantine Empire 1110s in the Byzantine Empire 1118 deaths 12th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Norman wars Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuk wars Byzantine people of the Crusades Christian anti-Gnosticism Domestics of the Schools Eastern Orthodox monarchs Nobilissimi Panhypersebastoi Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021 CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9339	----	Roman Empire - Wikipedia Roman Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. The readable prose size is 134 kilobytes. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (May 2021) Not to be confused with Latin Empire or Holy Roman Empire. For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). Period of Imperial Rome following the Roman Republic (27 BC–AD 476) Roman Empire Senatus Populusque Romanus  (Latin) Imperium Romanum[n 1]  (Latin) Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων (Ancient Greek) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC – AD 476 (traditional dates)[1][2] AD 395 – 476/480 (Western) AD 395–1453 (Eastern) Vexillum with the imperial aquila Imperial aquila The Roman Empire in AD 117 at its greatest extent, at the time of Trajan's death Capital Rome (de facto and de jure from 27 BC to AD 286, only de jure from 286 to 476) Mediolanum (286–402, Western) Ravenna (402–476, Western) Nicomedia (286–330, Eastern) Constantinople (330–1453, Eastern)[n 2] Common languages Latin and Greek Regional / local languages Religion Imperial cult-driven polytheism (Before AD 274) Joined by the henotheistic solar cult of Sol Invictus (Before AD 380) Nicene Christianity (officially, from 380) Government Semi-elective, functionally absolute monarchy Emperor   • 27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (first) • 98–117 Trajan • 270–275 Aurelian • 284–305 Diocletian • 306–337 Constantine I • 379–395 Theodosius I[n 3] • 474–480 Julius Nepos[n 4] • 475–476 Romulus Augustus • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 780–797 Constantine VI[n 5] • 976–1025 Basil II • 1449–1453 Constantine XI[n 6] Legislature Senate Historical era Classical era to Late Middle Ages • Final War of the Roman Republic 32–30 BC • Empire established 30–2 BC • Constantinople becomes capital 11 May 330 • Final East-West divide 17 Jan 395 • Deposition of Romulus Augustus 4 Sep 476 • Murder of Julius Nepos 25 Apr 480 • Fourth Crusade 12 Apr 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople 25 Jul 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 • Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Area 25 BC[3] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) 117 AD[3][4] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) AD 390[3] 4,400,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[5] 56,800,000 Currency sestertius,[n 7] aureus, solidus, nomisma Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum [ɪmˈpɛri.ũː roːˈmaːnũː]; Koinē Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía tōn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and the city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – AD 286). After the military crisis, the empire was ruled by multiple emperors who shared rule over the Western Roman Empire and over the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until AD 476, when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople, following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustulus. The adoption of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire in AD 380 and the fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings conventionally marks the end of Classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Those events, along with the gradual hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire is why historians distinguish the medieval Roman Empire that remained in the Eastern provinces as the Byzantine Empire. The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic (which had replaced Rome's monarchy in the 6th century BC) became severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflicts. In the mid-1st century BC, Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and proscriptions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year Octavian conquered Ptolemaic Egypt, ending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon in the 4th century BC. Octavian's power then became unassailable, and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively making him the first Roman emperor. The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse during the reign of Trajan (AD 98–117). A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus (177–192). In the 3rd century the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic Empire and Palmyrene Empire broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived emperors, often from the legions, led the empire. The empire was reunified under Aurelian (r. 270–275). In an effort to stabilize it, Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286. Christians rose to positions of power in the 4th century following the Edict of Milan of 313. Shortly after, the Migration Period, involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire. With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in AD 476 by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed; the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno formally abolished it in AD 480. Nonetheless, some states in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire would later claim to have inherited the supreme power of the emperors of Rome, most notably the Holy Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium, until Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453.[n 8] Due to the Roman Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, philosophy, law, and forms of government in the territory it governed, and far beyond. The Latin language of the Romans evolved into the Romance languages of the medieval and modern world, while Medieval Greek became the language of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom. Greek and Roman art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture, and also had a strong influence on Islamic architecture. The corpus of Roman law has its descendants in many legal systems of the world today, such as the Napoleonic Code, while Rome's republican institutions have left an enduring legacy, influencing the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. Contents 1 History 1.1 Transition from Republic to Empire 1.2 The Pax Romana 1.3 Fall in the West and survival in the East 2 Geography and demography 3 Languages 3.1 Local languages and linguistic legacy 4 Society 4.1 Legal status 4.1.1 Women in Roman law 4.1.2 Slaves and the law 4.1.3 Freedmen 4.2 Census rank 4.2.1 Unequal justice 5 Government and military 5.1 Central government 5.2 Military 5.3 Provincial government 5.4 Roman law 5.5 Taxation 6 Economy 6.1 Currency and banking 6.2 Mining and metallurgy 6.3 Transportation and communication 6.4 Trade and commodities 6.5 Labour and occupations 6.6 GDP and income distribution 7 Architecture and engineering 8 Daily life 8.1 City and country 8.2 Food and dining 8.3 Recreation and spectacles 8.3.1 Personal training and play 8.4 Clothing 9 Arts 9.1 Portraiture 9.2 Sculpture 9.2.1 Sarcophagi 9.3 Painting 9.4 Mosaic 9.5 Decorative arts 9.6 Performing arts 10 Literacy, books, and education 10.1 Primary education 10.2 Secondary education 10.3 Educated women 10.4 Shape of literacy 11 Literature 12 Religion 13 Political legacy 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Cited sources 17 External links History Main article: History of the Roman Empire See also: Campaign history of the Roman military and Roman Kingdom Transition from Republic to Empire Main article: Roman Republic The Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD) Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Then, it was an "empire" (i.e. a great power) long before it had an emperor.[6][7][8][9] The Roman Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of towns left to rule themselves (though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was ruled, not by emperors, but by annually elected magistrates (Roman Consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate.[10] For various reasons, the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.[7][11][12][13] The consuls' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, which literally means "command" (though typically in a military sense).[14] Occasionally, successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator (commander), and this is the origin of the word emperor (and empire) since this title (among others) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession.[15] Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onward, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of this era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, ending the Final War of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ("first citizen") with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to 284 AD), and gave him the name "Augustus" ("the venerated"). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome.[16] Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure. During the years of his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in part organically and in part by design), so that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor. The Pax Romana Main article: Pax Romana The so-called Five Good Emperors (from left to right): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). During this period, the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent but put down "mercilessly and swiftly" when they occurred.[17] The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and the philosophically-inclined Marcus Aurelius. Fall in the West and survival in the East Main article: Fall of the Western Roman Empire See also: Barbarian kingdoms and Byzantine Empire The Barbarian Invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Even though northern invasions took place throughout the life of the Empire, this period officially began in the 4th century and lasted for many centuries, during which the western territory was under the dominion of foreign northern rulers, a notable one being Charlemagne. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"[18]—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.[19][20] In 212 AD, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. But despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and, following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague.[21] In defining historical epochs, this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity. Aurelian (reigned 270–275) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it. Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire, but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine, "master" or "lord".[22] Diocletian's reign also brought the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution". Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy.[23] Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire.[24] The Roman Empire by 476 The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders. The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila,[25] though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself.[26] Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[27][28][29] By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor, rather than naming a puppet emperor of his own, Odoacer ended the Western Empire. He did this by sending the imperial regalia to the Eastern Emperor Zeno, in effect declaring Zeno sole emperor, and placing himself as his nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was now ruled by Odoacer alone.[27][28][30] The Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued to exist until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos. The last Roman Emperor, he died in battle on 29 May 1453 against Mehmed II "the Conqueror" and his Ottoman forces in the final stages of the Siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II would himself also claim the title of caesar or Kayser-i Rum in an attempt to claim a connection to the Roman Empire.[31][32] Geography and demography Main articles: Demography of the Roman Empire and Borders of the Roman Empire Further information: Classical demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.[33] The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end"[34]) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Vergil's epic poem the Aeneid, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter.[34][35][36][37][38] This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.[n 9] In addition to annexing large regions in their quest for empire-building, the Romans were also very large sculptors of their environment who directly altered their geography. For instance, entire forests were cut down to provide enough wood resources for an expanding empire. In his book Critias, Plato described that deforestation: where there was once "an abundance of wood in the mountains," he could now only see "the mere skeleton of the land."[39] In reality, Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. During the reign of Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo.[40] When Augustus died, the commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire.[41] Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[42] The cities of the Roman world in the Imperial Period. Data source: Hanson, J. W. (2016), Cities database, (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. (link). A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, overlooking Crag Lough The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (reigned 98–117),[38] encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres.[3][4] The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[43] accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population[44] and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.[45] Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million to more than 100 million.[46][47] Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.[48] As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine–Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—'our sea'.[43] Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled.[38] The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.[11] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.[49][50][51] Languages This section may contain misleading parts. Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page. (September 2016) Main article: Languages of the Roman Empire The language of the Romans was Latin, which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition.[52][53][54] Until the time of Alexander Severus (reigned 222–235), the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin.[55] Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire,[56] but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule.[57][58] This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great, who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language.[59] As a consequence of Alexander's conquests, Koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor.[60][61] The "linguistic frontier" dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula.[62] A 5th-century papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by Cicero[63] Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language, and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek.[64] The Julio-Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin (Latinitas), a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin, and favoured Latin for conducting official business.[65] Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek, and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin, but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek-speaking ambassadors.[65] Suetonius quotes him as referring to "our two languages".[66] In the Eastern empire, laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin.[67] The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions, which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin.[68][69] After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD, a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin, though Latin remained a marker of "Romanness."[70] Among other reforms, the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284–305) sought to renew the authority of Latin, and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as "the language of power."[71] In the early 6th century, the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law, even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East.[72] Local languages and linguistic legacy Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna, Roman Africa (present-day Libya) References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths.[73] In the province of Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD). Libyco-Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin.[74] In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.[75] The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire. These papyri, named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governor, however, was written in Greek.[76] The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral.[74] In the West, Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo-European origin. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin.[77][78][79] After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Catalan and Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide.[80] As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present.[81][82] "Gate of Domitian and Trajan" at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor, and Roman Emperor Domitian as Pharaoh of Egypt on the same gate, together with Egyptian hieroglyphs. Dendera, Egypt.[83][84] Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, linguistic distribution in the East was more complex. A Greek-speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands, western Anatolia, major cities, and some coastal areas.[61] Like Greek and Latin, the Thracian language was of Indo-European origin, as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial-era inscriptions.[61][74] Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian, although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists, who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian.[85] (Illyrian, Dacian, and Thracian, however, may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund; see Thraco-Illyrian.) Various Afroasiatic languages—primarily Coptic in Egypt, and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia—were never replaced by Greek. The international use of Greek, however, was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[61] Several references to Gaulish in late antiquity may indicate that it continued to be spoken. In the second century AD there was an explicit recognition of its usage in some legal manners,[86] soothsaying[87] and pharmacology.[88] Sulpicius Severus, writing in the 5th century AD in Gallia Aquitania, noted bilingualism with Gaulish as the first language.[87] The survival of the Galatian dialect in Anatolia akin to that spoken by the Treveri near Trier was attested by Jerome (331–420), who had first-hand knowledge.[89] Much of historical linguistics scholarship postulates that Gaulish was indeed still spoken as late as the mid to late 6th century in France.[90] Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.[90] The last reference to Galatian was made by Cyril of Scythopolis, claiming that an evil spirit had possessed a monk and rendered him able to speak only in Galatian,[91] while the last reference to Gaulish in France was made by Gregory of Tours between 560 and 575, noting that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground.[92][90] After the long period of bilingualism, the emergent Gallo-Romance languages including French were shaped by Gaulish in a number of ways; in the case of French these include loanwords and calques (including oui,[93] the word for "yes"),[94][93] sound changes,[95][96] and influences in conjugation and word order.[94][93][97] Society Further information: Ancient Roman society A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii (1st century AD) Spread of Seuso at Lacus Pelso (Lake Balaton) The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity" to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time.[98] The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".[99] Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of "class" in English may not represent accurately.[100] The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval,[101] but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid.[102] Personal relationships—patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage—continued to influence the workings of politics and government, as they had in the Republic.[103] By the time of Nero, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.[104] The blurring or diffusion of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire,[105][106] both upward and downward, to an extent that exceeded that of all other well-documented ancient societies.[107] Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them.[108] Social life in the Empire, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates) formed for various purposes: professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs,[109] performing arts troupes,[110] and burial societies.[111] Legal status Main articles: Status in Roman legal system and Roman citizenship Citizen of Roman Egypt (Fayum mummy portrait) According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons" was that all human beings were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi).[112][113] The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, held status as peregrini, non-Romans.[114] In 212 AD, by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana, the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism would have required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.[115] Women in Roman law Main article: Women in ancient Rome Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").[n 10] A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother's name part of theirs, or even used it instead.[116] Left image: Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy Right image: Bronze statuette (1st century AD) of a young woman reading, based on a Hellenistic original The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.[117] This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period:[118][119] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life,[120] and her husband had no legal power over her.[121] Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce.[122] Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.[123][124][125] A Roman mother's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit, including setting the terms of her own will, gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults.[126] As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting "family values". Adultery, which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized,[127] and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband.[n 11] Childbearing was encouraged by the state: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum). Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business,[128][129] including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes; for instance, the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma, a female member of the family honoured, and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a priestess of Venus.[130] Slaves and the law Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Italy were slaves,[131] making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy.[132] Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.[133] In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants, in addition to the majority of slaves who provided trained or unskilled labour in households or workplaces. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries would have affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.[134][135] Although the institution of slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 5th century. Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centres in the West and the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy that had created the demand for it.[136] Slave holding writing tablets for his master (relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus) Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".[137] Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped since rape could be committed only against people who were free; a slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law.[138][139] Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were sometimes recognized, and if both were freed they could marry.[140] Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.[141] Technically, a slave could not own property,[142] but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual account or fund (peculium) that he could use as if it were his own. The terms of this account varied depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave: a slave with an aptitude for business could be given considerable leeway to generate profit and might be allowed to bequeath the peculium he managed to other slaves of his household.[143] Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave in effect acting as the master of other slaves.[144] Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves.[145] The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves in the late 1st century AD prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain."[146][147] Roman slavery was not based on race.[148][149] Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, Greece... Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,[150] with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[151] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[152] During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources.[134] Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of his familia, the family household, and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.[153][154] Talented slaves with a knack for business might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.[155] Freedmen Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[156] A slave who had acquired libertas was a libertus ("freed person," feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus): the two parties continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. As a social class generally, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably.[157][158] A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor. He could not marry a woman from a family of senatorial rank, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[158] Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The rise of successful freedmen—through either political influence in imperial service or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire, and by their ownership of some of the most lavish houses at Pompeii, such as the House of the Vettii. The excesses of nouveau riche freedmen were satirized in the character of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius, who wrote in the time of Nero. Such individuals, while exceptional, are indicative of the upward social mobility possible in the Empire. Census rank See also: Senate of the Roman Empire, Equestrian order, and Decurion (administrative) The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank," none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city. Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators (3rd century) "Senator" was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii, as determined by the census.[159][160] Nero made large gifts of money to a number of senators from old families who had become too impoverished to qualify. Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600-member body by appointment.[161][162] A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate itself. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards: he was prohibited, for instance, from marrying a freedwoman or fighting in the arena.[163] In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Rome and other parts of Italy, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian.[164] The first senator from the most eastern province, Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius.[165] By the time of the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate.[166] During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).[163] Senators had an aura of prestige and were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career track, but equestrians of the Empire often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors (the "public horse"), but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire.[n 12] A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian.[167] The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cadiz and Padua alone.[n 13][168] Equestrians rose through a military career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration.[169][170] The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of the Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.[171][172] Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also a number of responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera), rather than on tax revenues, which primarily supported the military. Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures.[173] Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged by the central government to give up their seats and return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.[174] In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris, "illustrious man".[175] The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women.[176] "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated. Those in Imperial service were ranked by pay grade (sexagenarius, 60,000 sesterces per annum; centenarius, 100,000; ducenarius, 200,000). The title eminentissimus, "most eminent" (Greek exochôtatos) was reserved for equestrians who had been Praetorian prefects. The higher equestrian officials in general were perfectissimi, "most distinguished" (Greek diasêmotatoi), the lower merely egregii, "outstanding" (Greek kratistos).[177] Unequal justice Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena (3rd-century mosaic from Tunisia) As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and those who were humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders," along with certain military officers.[178][179] The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority over other citizens affirmed, particularly within the justice system.[179][180][181] Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging.[179] Execution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case,[182][183] could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered "more honourable", while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena.[184] In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfill the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom.[179][185] Government and military Main article: Constitution of the Roman Empire Forum of Gerasa (Jerash in present-day Jordan), with columns marking a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government.[186] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the military mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens (after 212 AD, all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire), the agricultural fields that fed them, and religious sites.[187] Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction, the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone. Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another: in the view of Plutarch, "it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self-governance".[188][189][190] Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence were an incentive to remain in good standing with Rome.[191] Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of the resources available to it.[192] Central government See also: Roman emperor and Senate of the Roman Empire Reconstructed statue of Augustus as Jove, holding scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD).[193] The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas) of the Roman State. The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification and acknowledged his role as father of the people similar to the concept of a pater familias' soul or manes being honoured by his sons.[194] The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of certain powers from several republican offices, including the inviolability of the tribunes of the people and the authority of the censors to manipulate the hierarchy of Roman society.[195] The emperor also made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders.[196] While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the Dominate.[197] Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161), wearing a toga (Hermitage Museum) The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible to individuals from all walks of life and to deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.[198] The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen.[199] After Nero, the unofficial influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for the sake of greater transparency.[200] Though the Senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium.[201] The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions. Plotina exercised influence on both her husband Trajan and his successor Hadrian. Her influence was advertised by having her letters on official matters published, as a sign that the emperor was reasonable in his exercise of authority and listened to his people.[202] Access to the emperor by others might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their general approval or displeasure as a group at the games held in large venues.[203] By the 4th century, as urban centres decayed, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.[204] Although the Senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it survived the Augustan restoration and the turbulent Year of Four Emperors to retain its symbolic political centrality during the Principate.[205] The Senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor needed the experience of senators as legates (legati) to serve as generals, diplomats, and administrators.[205][206] A successful career required competence as an administrator and remaining in favour with the emperor, or over time perhaps multiple emperors.[171] The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual military oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum).[207] The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. Most emperors indicated their choice of successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the Praetorian Guard and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.[206] Military The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD Main articles: Imperial Roman army and Structural history of the Roman military After the Punic Wars, the Imperial Roman army was composed of professional soldiers who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military had begun during the late Republic and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of conscripts had exercised their responsibilities as citizens in defending the homeland in a campaign against a specific threat. For Imperial Rome, the military was a full-time career in itself.[208] The Romans expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army... Their main demand of all defeated enemies was they provide men for the Roman army every year."[209] The primary mission of the Roman military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana.[210] The three major divisions of the military were: the garrison at Rome, which includes both the Praetorians and the vigiles who functioned as police and firefighters; the provincial army, comprising the Roman legions and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces (auxilia); the navy. The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as "Romanization," particularly in regard to politics, the economy, and religion.[211] Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources: Greek and Roman literary texts; coins with military themes; papyri preserving military documents; monuments such as Trajan's Column and triumphal arches, which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines; the archeology of military burials, battle sites, and camps; and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications.[212] Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus changed and regularized the legion, down to the hobnail pattern on the soles of army boots. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which is most likely to have been determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.[213] Relief panel from Trajan's Column in Rome, showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy In 9 AD, Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This disastrous event reduced the number of legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30.[214] The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the territories it conquered. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.[215] Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.[216] The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus[217] there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.[218] The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment, such as the four-horned saddle, derived from the Celts, as noted by Arrian and indicated by archeology.[219][220] The Roman navy (Latin: classis, "fleet") not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions but also helped in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another of its duties was the protection of the crucial maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates. It patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.[221] Provincial government The Pula Arena in Croatia is one of the largest and most intact of the remaining Roman amphitheatres. An annexed territory became a province in a three-step process: making a register of cities, taking a census of the population, and surveying the land.[222] Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings.[223] In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials each year to govern outside Italy.[10] Among these officials were the "Roman governors", as they are called in English: either magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in provinces excluded from senatorial control, most notably Roman Egypt.[224] A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties.[225] His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends, ranging in age and experience, who accompanied him unofficially.[225] Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.[10] Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era. Under the Republic, provincial governors and tax farmers could exploit local populations for personal gain more freely.[226] Equestrian procurators, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional," managed both state-owned property and the vast personal property of the emperor (res privata).[225] Because Roman government officials were few in number, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity, such as a procurator or a military officer, including centurions down to the lowly stationarii or military police.[225][227] Roman law Main article: Roman law Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths, one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.[101] In general, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.[101][228] The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations" or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities.[229] If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision.[101][228][230] In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous.[101] The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.[231] The pervasive exercise of Roman law throughout Western Europe led to its enormous influence on the Western legal tradition, reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law. Taxation Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of the Empire's gross product.[232] The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5%.[233] The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds; they might be in effect for a limited time.[234] Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military,[44][235] and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.[235] In-kind taxes were accepted from less-monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.[236] Personification of the River Nile and his children, from the Temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome (1st century AD) The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.[233] Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions; for example, Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax-exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile.[237] Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.[237] A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on imports and exports, including among provinces.[233] Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,[238] which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices.[239] An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax", calculated at 5% of value.[240] An inheritance tax of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1% sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans' pension fund (aerarium militare).[233] Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[44] Economy Main article: Roman economy A green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb in Guangxi, southern China; the earliest Roman glassware found in China was discovered in a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BC, and ostensibly came via the maritime route through the South China Sea[241] Moses Finley was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was "underdeveloped and underachieving," characterized by subsistence agriculture; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry; low-status artisans; slowly developing technology; and a "lack of economic rationality."[242] Current views are more complex. Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa.[243] Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities, and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry.[243] Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism,[244] and the Empire was highly monetized.[245] Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies.[246] The supply contracts for the army, which pervaded every part of the Empire, drew on local suppliers near the base (castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders.[247] The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.[248] Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.[244] Socially, economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire. Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth, patronage, good luck, or even extraordinary ability. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, a strong tendency towards plutocracy is indicated by the wealth requirements for census rank. Prestige could be obtained through investing one's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately: grand country estates or townhouses, durable luxury items such as jewels and silverware, public entertainments, funerary monuments for family members or coworkers, and religious dedications such as altars. Guilds (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking, sharing sound business practices, and a willingness to work.[178] Currency and banking See also: Roman currency and Roman finance The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, in the sense of using money as a way to express prices and debts.[249] The sestertius (plural sestertii, English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,[250] though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was used also for accounting beginning in the Severan dynasty.[251] The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as (plural asses), one-fourth sestertius.[252] Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia, "money," and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property. Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face, not for its metal content. This tendency towards fiat money led eventually to the debasement of Roman coinage, with consequences in the later Empire.[253] The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration.[249] The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.[254] Currency denominations[255] 211 BC 14 AD 286-296 AD Denarius = 10 asses Aureus = 25 denarii Aurei = 60 per pound of gold Sesterce = 5 asses Denarii = 16 asses Silver coins (contemporary name unknown) = 96 to a pound of silver Sestertius = 2.5 asses Sesterces = 4 asses Bronze coins (contemporary name unknown) = value unknown Asses = 1 Asses = 1 Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal, though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals. Seneca assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to credit.[253] Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule[256] A professional deposit banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or later nummularius) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections.[253][257] The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked "paper" or documentary transactions, the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash, particularly by sea. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk; the central government rescued the market through a loan of 100 million HS made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks (mensae).[258] Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.[253] The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves.[259] Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.[250] Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market.[253] In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply.[250] Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300.[250][253] Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.[253] Mining and metallurgy Main article: Roman metallurgy See also: Mining in Roman Britain Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the Danubian provinces (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of open-cast mining and underground mining—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of Dacia, for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century.[260] Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains"), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[261] The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes.[262][263][264] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[261][265] and lead at 80,000 t,[261][266][267] both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution;[265][266][267][268] Hispania alone had a 40% share in world lead production.[266] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum. At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[267][269] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era and dropped again thereafter.[270] Transportation and communication See also: Cursus publicus The Tabula Peutingeriana (Latin for "The Peutinger Map") an Itinerarium, often assumed to be based on the Roman cursus publicus, the network of state-maintained roads. The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (mare nostrum).[271] Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile.[272] Transport by water was preferred where possible, and moving commodities by land was more difficult.[273] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[274] Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads, which were called "viae". These roads were primarily built for military purposes,[275] but also served commercial ends. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus.[236] Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post.[276] A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.[276] Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph.[277] As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency.[278] In addition to the mansiones, some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute.[279] Trade and commodities See also: Roman commerce, Indo-Roman trade and relations, and Sino-Roman relations A map of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greco-Roman Periplus Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India.[272] The main commodity was grain.[280] Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea. Along these trade paths, the horse, upon which Roman expansion and commerce depended, was one of the main channels through which disease spread.[281] Also in transit for trade were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.[282] Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare.[283][284] The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the Tarraconensis region of Hispania, and Crete. Alexandria, the second-largest city, imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean.[285] At the retail level, taverns or specialty wine shops (vinaria) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality.[286] Labour and occupations Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii.[215] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil dealers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle dealers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), teamsters (asinarii or muliones), and stonecutters (lapidarii). These are sometimes quite specialized: one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood.[178] Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[287] In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,[101] and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.[288] The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved.[101] Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a fashion "label".[289] Better ready-to-wear was exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who were often well-to-do residents of the production centres.[290] Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants.[290] In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves.[291] The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.[292] Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.[n 14] Roman hunters during the preparations, set-up of traps, and in-action hunting near Tarraco GDP and income distribution Further information: Roman economy § Gross domestic product Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate.[293] In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40[294] to 66%[295] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland. In regard to Italy, "there can be little doubt that the lower classes of Pompeii, Herculaneum and other provincial towns of the Roman Empire enjoyed a high standard of living not equaled again in Western Europe until the 19th century AD".[296] In the Scheidel–Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion HS, with about 5% extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5% of income distribution captured about 20% of income. Another 20% went to about 10% of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence.[297] The elite were 1.2–1.7% and the middling "who enjoyed modest, comfortable levels of existence but not extreme wealth amounted to 6–12% (...) while the vast majority lived around subsistence".[298] Architecture and engineering Main articles: Ancient Roman architecture, Roman engineering, and Roman technology Amphitheatres of the Roman Empire The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault and the dome. Even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.[299][300] Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. The system of roadways facilitated military policing, communications, and trade. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. Even after the collapse of the central government, some roads remained usable for more than a thousand years. Construction on the Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum (Italy), began during the reign of Vespasian. Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone with the arch as the basic structure. Most utilized concrete as well. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall span and length.[301][302][303] The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome.[304][305][306] They built 72 dams just on the Iberian peninsula, and many more are known across the Empire, some still in use. Several earthen dams are known from Roman Britain, including a well-preserved example from Longovicium (Lanchester). The Pont du Gard aqueduct, which crosses the Gardon River in southern France, is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. A surviving treatise by Frontinus, who served as curator aquarum (water commissioner) under Nerva, reflects the administrative importance placed on ensuring the water supply. Masonry channels carried water from distant springs and reservoirs along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. After the water passed through the aqueduct, it was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites.[307] The main aqueducts in the city of Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[308] The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km.[309] Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times.[310] The Romans also made use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, at sites such as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales.[311] Insulated glazing (or "double glazing") was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine, when Hero built the aeolipile. With the crank and connecting rod system, all elements for constructing a steam engine (invented in 1712)—Hero's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps), gearing (in water mills and clocks)—were known in Roman times.[312] Daily life Main articles: Culture of ancient Rome and Agriculture in ancient Rome Cityscape from the Villa Boscoreale (60s AD) City and country In the ancient world, a city was viewed as a place that fostered civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned."[313] Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed the new imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.[314] A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an open area outside the city centre that in early times had been devoted to equestrian sports and physical training for youth. The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the Campus became one of the most attractive places in the city to visit.[314] City planning and urban lifestyles had been influenced by the Greeks from an early period,[315] and in the eastern Empire, Roman rule accelerated and shaped the local development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa altered some aspects of city planning and architecture to conform to imperial ideals, while also expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence.[316][317] In the areas of the western Empire inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of the preexisting walled settlements known as oppida.[318][319][n 15] Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast.[276] Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.[320] Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were encouraged by imperial propaganda to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".[313][321] As the classicist Clifford Ando has noted: Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture—public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art—were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.[322] Even the Christian polemicist Tertullian declared that the world of the late 2nd century was more orderly and well-cultivated than in earlier times: "Everywhere there are houses, everywhere people, everywhere the res publica, the commonwealth, everywhere life."[323] The decline of cities and civic life in the 4th century, when the wealthy classes were unable or disinclined to support public works, was one sign of the Empire's imminent dissolution.[324] Public toilets (latrinae) from Ostia Antica In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities—such as baths (thermae), toilets that were flushed with running water (latrinae), conveniently located basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering fresh water,[319] and large-scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat—were aimed primarily at the common people who lived in the insulae.[325] Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire, and some of the best-preserved Roman structures are in Spain, southern France, and northern Africa. The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions.[326] Bathing was the focus of daily socializing in the late afternoon before dinner.[327] Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with varying amenities that might include an exercise and weight-training room, sauna, exfoliation spa (where oils were massaged into the skin and scraped from the body with a strigil), ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels that circulated warmth.[328] Mixed nude bathing was not unusual in the early Empire, though some baths may have offered separate facilities or hours for men and women. Public baths were a part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths for health and cleanliness, not pleasure, but to avoid the games (ludi), which were part of religious festivals they considered "pagan". Tertullian says that otherwise Christians not only availed themselves of the baths, but participated fully in commerce and society.[329] Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses, a townhouse (domus, plural domūs) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single-family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum),[328] but it was not a place to retreat from public life.[330] Although some neighbourhoods of Rome show a higher concentration of well-to-do houses, the rich did not live in segregated enclaves. Their houses were meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every morning, from wealthy friends to poorer dependents who received charity.[314] It was also a centre of family religious rites, containing a shrine and the images of family ancestors.[331] The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground-level spaces facing the street were often rented out as shops (tabernae).[332] In addition to a kitchen garden—windowboxes might substitute in the insulae—townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden that brought a tract of nature, made orderly, within walls.[333][334] Birds and fountain within a garden setting, with oscilla (hanging masks)[335] above, in a painting from Pompeii The villa by contrast was an escape from the bustle of the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances the civilized pursuit of intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle.[336] Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.[337] It might be located on a working estate, or in a "resort town" situated on the seacoast, such as Pompeii and Herculaneum. The programme of urban renewal under Augustus, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as 1 million people, was accompanied by a nostalgia for rural life expressed in the arts. Poetry praised the idealized lives of farmers and shepherds. The interiors of houses were often decorated with painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,[337] and animals, especially birds and marine life, rendered accurately enough that modern scholars can sometimes identify them by species.[338] The Augustan poet Horace gently satirized the dichotomy of urban and rural values in his fable of the city mouse and the country mouse, which has often been retold as a children's story.[339][340][341] On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture.[342] Producing food was the top priority of land use.[343] Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life and its more specialized division of labour.[342] Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another, such as peas and cabbage to Britain.[344] Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (Cura Annonae) to citizens who registered for it.[342] About 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole, amounting to about 33 kg. per month, for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily, north Africa, and Egypt.[345] The dole cost at least 15% of state revenues,[342] but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes,[346] and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class.[342] Bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed both the emperor's position as universal benefactor, and the right of all citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest".[342] The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower-class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal, however, saw "bread and circuses" (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty:[347][348] The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.[349] Food and dining Main article: Food and dining in the Roman Empire See also: Grain supply to the city of Rome and Ancient Rome and wine Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery.[350][351] Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia).[352] Carryout and restaurant dining were for the lower classes; fine dining could be sought only at private dinner parties in well-to-do houses with a chef (archimagirus) and trained kitchen staff,[353] or at banquets hosted by social clubs (collegia).[354] Most people would have consumed at least 70% of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes.[355] Puls (pottage) was considered the aboriginal food of the Romans.[356][357] The basic grain pottage could be elaborated with chopped vegetables, bits of meat, cheese, or herbs to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto.[358] An Ostian taberna for eating and drinking; the faded painting over the counter pictured eggs, olives, fruit and radishes.[359] Urban populations and the military preferred to consume their grain in the form of bread.[355] Mills and commercial ovens were usually combined in a bakery complex.[360] By the reign of Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole.[342][361][362] The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century AD), whose treatises included one On Barley Soup. Views on nutrition were influenced by schools of thought such as humoral theory.[363] Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes,[364] for whom the evening meal (cena) had important social functions.[365] Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (triclinium), often with a view of the peristyle garden. Diners lounged on couches, leaning on the left elbow. By the late Republic, if not earlier, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men.[366] The most famous description of a Roman meal is probably Trimalchio's dinner party in the Satyricon, a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to reality even among the most wealthy.[367] The poet Martial describes serving a more plausible dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting" or "appetizer"), which was a salad composed of mallow leaves, lettuce, chopped leeks, mint, arugula, mackerel garnished with rue, sliced eggs, and marinated sow udder. The main course was succulent cuts of kid, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fresh fruit and vintage wine.[368] The Latin expression for a full-course dinner was ab ovo usque mala, "from the egg to the apples," equivalent to the English "from soup to nuts."[369] Still life on a 2nd-century Roman mosaic A book-length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet."[370] Roman "foodies" indulged in wild game, fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were brought by the fleet from the far reaches of empire, from the Parthian frontier to the Straits of Gibraltar.[371] Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.[372] The early Imperial historian Tacitus contrasted the indulgent luxuries of the Roman table in his day with the simplicity of the Germanic diet of fresh wild meat, foraged fruit, and cheese, unadulterated by imported seasonings and elaborate sauces.[373] Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce—cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit—was considered a more civilized form of food than meat. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism,[374] as it might be the product of animal sacrifice. Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal.[375] Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished, trade routes were disrupted,[374] and the rich retreated to the more limited self-sufficiency of their country estates. As an urban lifestyle came to be associated with decadence, the Church formally discouraged gluttony,[376] and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple, virtuous ways of life.[374] Recreation and spectacles See also: Ludi, Chariot racing, and Gladiator Wall painting depicting a sports riot at the amphitheatre of Pompeii, which led to the banning of gladiator combat in the town[377][378] When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses", he was referring to the state-provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a circus in Latin. The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments. From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses).[379] Although their entertainment value tended to overshadow ritual significance, the races remained part of archaic religious observances that pertained to agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death.[n 16] Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the number of days had expanded to 135.[380] Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue.[381] Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek-style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium.[382] Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet", were presented in engineered pools.[383] State-supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeum.[384] A victor in his four-horse chariot Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world,[385] though the Greeks had their own architectural traditions for the similarly purposed hippodrome. The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome after it opened in 80 AD.[386] The circus races continued to be held more frequently.[387] The Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 spectators, and the Colosseum about 50,000 with standing room for about 10,000 more.[388] Many Roman amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today.[386] The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources.[184] The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor presiding in his opulent box; senators and equestrians watching from the advantageous seats reserved for them; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else packed in-between.[389][390][391] The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in the year 532, when troops under Justinian slaughtered thousands.[392][393][394][395] The Zliten mosaic, from a dining room in present-day Libya, depicts a series of arena scenes: from top, musicians playing a Roman tuba, a water pipe organ and two horns; six pairs of gladiators with two referees; four beast fighters; and three convicts condemned to the beasts[396] The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore, with the Blues and Greens the most popular. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots.[393][397][398] Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well-compensated athletes.[399] One star of the sport was Diocles, from Lusitania (present-day Portugal), who raced chariots for 24 years and had career earnings of 35 million sesterces.[400][392] Horses had their fans too, and were commemorated in art and inscriptions, sometimes by name.[401][402] The design of Roman circuses was developed to assure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia, "shipwrecks"),[403][404] which were nonetheless frequent and spectacularly satisfying to the crowd.[405][406] The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery.[392][407][408][409][410] Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.[385] The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian" or "Gallic".[364][411][412] The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions", initially distinct from the festival games (ludi).[411][412] Throughout his 40-year reign, Augustus presented eight gladiator shows in which a total of 10,000 men fought, as well as 26 staged beast hunts that resulted in the deaths of 3,500 animals.[413][414][415] To mark the opening of the Colosseum, the emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day.[386][416][417] Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and even graffiti drawings.[414] Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers.[418] Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time-consuming investment.[417][419][420] By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed.[184] These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects.[184][421][422] Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of human sacrifice.[423][424][425] Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"[426] to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain.[427][428] The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, a way "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals".[429][430] Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory[431]—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering",[432] and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.[433][434][435][436][437][438] Personal training and play Boys and girls playing ball games (2nd-century relief from the Louvre) In the plural, ludi almost always refers to the large-scale spectator games. The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training," had a wide range of meanings such as "word play," "theatrical performance," "board game," "primary school," and even "gladiator training school" (as in Ludus Magnus, the largest such training camp at Rome).[439][440] Activities for children and young people included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks"). The sarcophagi of children often show them playing games. Girls had dolls, typically 15–16 cm tall with jointed limbs, made of materials such as wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory.[441] Ball games include trigon, which required dexterity, and harpastum, a rougher sport.[442] Pets appear often on children's memorials and in literature, including birds, dogs, cats, goats, sheep, rabbits and geese.[443] So-called "bikini girls" mosaic from the Villa del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men developed the skills of horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero's efforts to encourage gymnastic games in the Greek manner.[444] Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The famous "bikini girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines that might be compared to rhythmic gymnastics.[n 17][445] Women, in general, were encouraged to maintain their health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud (as a breathing exercise), riding in vehicles, and travel.[446] Stone game board from Aphrodisias: boards could also be made of wood, with deluxe versions in costly materials such as ivory; game pieces or counters were bone, glass, or polished stone, and might be coloured or have markings or images[447] People of all ages played board games pitting two players against each other, including latrunculi ("Raiders"), a game of strategy in which opponents coordinated the movements and capture of multiple game pieces, and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks"), involving dice and arranging pieces on a grid of letters or words.[448] A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board), to which the emperor Claudius was notoriously addicted, may have been similar to backgammon, using a dice-cup (pyrgus).[447] Playing with dice as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the December festival of the Saturnalia with its carnival, norms-overturned atmosphere. Clothing Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment gave immediate visual clues about the etiquette of interacting with the wearer.[449] Wearing the correct clothing was supposed to reflect a society in good order.[450] The toga was the distinctive national garment of the Roman male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political business and religious rites, and for going to court.[451][452] The clothing Romans wore ordinarily was dark or colourful, and the most common male attire seen daily throughout the provinces would have been tunics, cloaks, and in some regions trousers.[453] The study of how Romans dressed in daily life is complicated by a lack of direct evidence, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles from the period are rare.[452][454][455] Women from the wall painting at the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic. The length differed by wearer: a man's reached mid-calf, but a soldier's was somewhat shorter; a woman's fell to her feet, and a child's to its knees.[456] The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades, with the length determined by the type of work they did. Finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man who belonged to the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically into the fabric: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.[456] Other garments could be layered over the tunic. The Imperial toga was a "vast expanse" of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance.[451] In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how the public speaker ought to orchestrate his gestures in relation to his toga.[450][452][457] In art, the toga is shown with the long end dipping between the feet, a deep curved fold in front, and a bulbous flap at the midsection.[452] The drapery became more intricate and structured over time, with the cloth forming a tight roll across the chest in later periods.[458] The toga praetexta, with a purple or purplish-red stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all-purple toga (toga picta).[459] Claudius wearing an early Imperial toga (see a later, more structured toga above), and the pallium as worn by a priest of Serapis,[460] sometimes identified as the emperor Julian In the 2nd century, emperors and men of status are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle (himation) folded tightly around the body. Women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people, since it was associated with philosophers.[450][452][461] By the 4th century, the toga had been more or less replaced by the pallium as a garment that embodied social unity.[462] Roman clothing styles changed over time, though not as rapidly as fashions today.[463] In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embroidered stripes (clavi) and circular roundels (orbiculi) applied to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.[464] The use of silk increased, and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals, affected habits of dress: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned.[465] Arts Main article: Roman art The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio People visiting or living in Rome or the cities throughout the Empire would have seen art in a range of styles and media on a daily basis. Public or official art—including sculpture, monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins—is often analysed for its historical significance or as an expression of imperial ideology.[466][467] At Imperial public baths, a person of humble means could view wall paintings, mosaics, statues, and interior decoration often of high quality.[468] In the private sphere, objects made for religious dedications, funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce can show varying degrees of esthetic quality and artistic skill.[469] A wealthy person might advertise his appreciation of culture through painting, sculpture, and decorative arts at his home—though some efforts strike modern viewers and some ancient connoisseurs as strenuous rather than tasteful.[470] Greek art had a profound influence on the Roman tradition, and some of the most famous examples of Greek statues are known only from Roman Imperial versions and the occasional description in a Greek or Latin literary source.[471] Despite the high value placed on works of art, even famous artists were of low social status among the Greeks and Romans, who regarded artists, artisans, and craftsmen alike as manual labourers. At the same time, the level of skill required to produce quality work was recognized, and even considered a divine gift.[472] Portraiture Main article: Roman portraiture Two portraits circa 130 AD: the empress Vibia Sabina (left); and the Antinous Mondragone, one of the abundant likenesses of Hadrian's famously beautiful male companion Antinous Portraiture, which survives mainly in the medium of sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism.[473] Republican portraits had been characterized by a "warts and all" verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, the Greek convention of heroic nudity was adopted sometimes for portraying conquering generals.[474] Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature, even craggy, atop a nude or seminude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature; a portrait head might even be added to a body created for another purpose.[475] Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or sphere of activity, not the characteristics of the individual.[476] Women of the emperor's family were often depicted dressed as goddesses or divine personifications such as Pax ("Peace"). Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with the realistic painting techniques of the Empire. Marble portrait sculpture would have been painted, and while traces of paint have only rarely survived the centuries, the Fayum portraits indicate why ancient literary sources marvelled at how lifelike artistic representations could be.[477] Sculpture Main article: Roman sculpture The bronze Drunken Satyr, excavated at Herculaneum and exhibited in the 18th century, inspired an interest among later sculptors in similar "carefree" subjects.[478] Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statues and statuettes in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings, temples, and monuments such as the Ara Pacis, Trajan's Column, and the Arch of Titus. Niches in amphitheatres such as the Colosseum were originally filled with statues,[479][480] and no formal garden was complete without statuary.[481] Temples housed the cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors.[482] The religiosity of the Romans encouraged the production of decorated altars, small representations of deities for the household shrine or votive offerings, and other pieces for dedicating at temples. Divine and mythological figures were also given secular, humorous, and even obscene depictions.[citation needed] Sarcophagi Main article: Ancient Roman sarcophagi On the Ludovisi sarcophagus, an example of the battle scenes favoured during the Crisis of the Third Century, the "writhing and highly emotive" Romans and Goths fill the surface in a packed, anti-classical composition[483] Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to the 4th centuries[484] with at least 10,000 examples surviving.[485] Although mythological scenes have been most widely studied,[486] sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography,"[487] and may also depict the deceased's occupation or life course, military scenes, and other subject matter. The same workshops produced sarcophagi with Jewish or Christian imagery.[488] Painting The Primavera of Stabiae, perhaps the goddess Flora Much of what is known of Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and the theatre, landscapes and gardens, recreation and spectacles, work and everyday life, and frank pornography. Birds, animals, and marine life are often depicted with careful attention to realistic detail.[citation needed] A unique source for Jewish figurative painting under the Empire is the Dura-Europos synagogue, dubbed "the Pompeii of the Syrian Desert,"[n 18] buried and preserved in the mid-3rd century after the city was destroyed by Persians.[489][490] Mosaic Main article: Roman mosaic The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa Proconsularis (present-day Tunisia), celebrating agricultural success with allegories of the Seasons, vegetation, workers and animals viewable from multiple perspectives in the room (latter 2nd century)[491] Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls, vaulted ceilings, and columns. The most common form is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.[492] Mosaics were usually crafted on site, but sometimes assembled and shipped as ready-made panels. A mosaic workshop was led by the master artist (pictor) who worked with two grades of assistants.[493] Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases portray subject matter in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire, regional preferences also find expression. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife.[491] Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present-day Turkey, Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. More than 300 Antioch mosaics from the 3rd century are known.[494] Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique was highly prized and became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century, an abundant example of which is the Basilica of Junius Bassus.[495] Decorative arts See also: Ancient Roman pottery and Roman glass Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. The manufacture of pottery in a wide range of quality was important to trade and employment, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major item of trade in 1st-century Europe.[496] Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century, Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.[497][498] Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD) Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century Performing arts Main articles: Theatre of ancient Rome and Music of ancient Rome In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions that allowed audiences to "see" how a character was feeling. Such masks were occasionally also specific to a particular role, and an actor could then play multiple roles merely by switching masks. Female roles were played by men in drag (travesti). Roman literary theatre tradition is particularly well represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca. The circumstances under which Seneca's tragedies were performed are however unclear; scholarly conjectures range from minimally staged readings to full production pageants. More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvization, risqué language and jokes, sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance numbers, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and dancing bears.[499][500][501] Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism in acting. Female roles were performed by women, not by men.[502] Mimus was related to the genre called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue. Pantomimus combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto, often mythological, that could be either tragic or comic.[503][504] All-male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance, on a mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet Although sometimes regarded as foreign elements in Roman culture, music and dance had existed in Rome from earliest times.[505] Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences.[506] Song (carmen) was an integral part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, commissioned by Augustus, was performed publicly in 17 BC by a mixed children's choir. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge.[507] Various woodwinds and "brass" instruments were played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and percussion.[506] The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician's body, was used for military signals and on parade.[506] These instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces. Instruments are widely depicted in Roman art.[508] The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity", and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre, as well as stage performances. It was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played.[506] Although certain forms of dance were disapproved of at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome, such as those of the dancing armed Salian priests and of the Arval Brothers, priesthoods which underwent a revival during the Principate.[509] Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the international mystery religions, particularly the cult of Cybele as practiced by her eunuch priests the Galli[510] and of Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular.[511] Like gladiators, entertainers were infames in the eyes of the law, little better than slaves even if they were technically free. "Stars", however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the upper classes, including emperors.[512] Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for members of the theatre community survive.[513] Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire,[505] and Christians who integrated dance traditions and music into their worship practices were regarded by the Church Fathers as shockingly "pagan."[514] St. Augustine is supposed to have said that bringing clowns, actors, and dancers into a house was like inviting in a gang of unclean spirits.[515][516] Literacy, books, and education This article is missing information about the use of papyrus or parchment scrolls, which were very common before the invention of the codex. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (April 2017) Main article: Education in ancient Rome Pride in literacy was displayed in portraiture through emblems of reading and writing, as in this example of a couple from Pompeii (Portrait of Paquius Proculo). Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30% or higher, depending in part on the definition of "literacy".[517][518][519][520] The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word.[521][522][523][524][525] The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government's concerns."[526] Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them.[519][527] Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read.[528] The Romans had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities, as well as on binding tablets and other "magic spells", with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri.[529][530][531][532] The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records,[533] and literacy in the army was "strikingly high".[534] Urban graffiti, which include literary quotations, and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites.[535][536][n 19][79] In addition, numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce.[522][537] Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers, and some were highly educated.[538] Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out individually on a roll of papyrus (volumen) by scribes who had apprenticed to the trade.[539] The codex—a book with pages bound to a spine—was still a novelty in the time of the poet Martial (1st century AD),[540][541] but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen[539][542] and was the regular form for books with Christian content.[543] Commercial production of books had been established by the late Republic,[544] and by the 1st century AD certain neighbourhoods of Rome were known for their bookshops (tabernae librariae), which were found also in Western provincial cities such as Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France).[545][546] The quality of editing varied wildly, and some ancient authors complain about error-ridden copies,[544][547] as well as plagiarism or forgery, since there was no copyright law.[544] A skilled slave copyist (servus litteratus) could be valued as highly as 100,000 sesterces.[548][549] Reconstruction of a writing tablet: the stylus was used to inscribe letters into the wax surface for drafts, casual letterwriting, and schoolwork, while texts meant to be permanent were copied onto papyrus. Collectors amassed personal libraries,[550] such as that of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa lifestyle.[551] Significant collections might attract "in-house" scholars; Lucian mocked mercenary Greek intellectuals who attached themselves to philistine Roman patrons.[552] An individual benefactor might endow a community with a library: Pliny the Younger gave the city of Comum a library valued at 1 million sesterces, along with another 100,000 to maintain it.[553][554] Imperial libraries housed in state buildings were open to users as a privilege on a limited basis, and represented a literary canon from which disreputable writers could be excluded.[555][556] Books considered subversive might be publicly burned,[557] and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.[558][559] Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups.[560][561] Scholars such as Pliny the Elder engaged in "multitasking" by having works read aloud to them while they dined, bathed or travelled, times during which they might also dictate drafts or notes to their secretaries.[562] The multivolume Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius is an extended exploration of how Romans constructed their literary culture.[563] The reading public expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, and while those who read for pleasure remained a minority, they were no longer confined to a sophisticated ruling elite, reflecting the social fluidity of the Empire as a whole and giving rise to "consumer literature" meant for entertainment.[564] Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.[565] Primary education A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his loculus, a writing case that would contain pens, ink pot, and a sponge to correct errors[566] Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories about great men and women, or cautionary tales about individual failures, were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents and family members were expected to act as role models, and parents who worked for a living passed their skills on to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships for more advanced training in crafts or trades.[567] Formal education was available only to children from families who could pay for it, and the lack of state intervention in access to education contributed to the low rate of literacy.[568][569] Young children were attended by a pedagogus, or less frequently a female pedagoga, usually a Greek slave or former slave.[570] The pedagogue kept the child safe, taught self-discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring.[571] The emperor Julian recalled his pedagogue Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch slave who reared him from the age of 7 to 15, with affection and gratitude. Usually, however, pedagogues received little respect.[572] Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home for privileged children whose parents hired or bought a teacher.[573] Others attended a school that was "public," though not state-supported, organized by an individual schoolmaster (ludimagister) who accepted fees from multiple parents.[574] Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in-home or public schooling.[575] Schools became more numerous during the Empire and increased the opportunities for children to acquire an education.[569] School could be held regularly in a rented space, or in any available public niche, even outdoors. Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age.[576] For the socially ambitious, bilingual education in Greek as well as Latin was a must.[569] Quintilian provides the most extensive theory of primary education in Latin literature. According to Quintilian, each child has in-born ingenium, a talent for learning or linguistic intelligence that is ready to be cultivated and sharpened, as evidenced by the young child's ability to memorize and imitate. The child incapable of learning was rare. To Quintilian, ingenium represented a potential best realized in the social setting of school, and he argued against homeschooling. He also recognized the importance of play in child development,[n 20] and disapproved of corporal punishment because it discouraged love of learning—in contrast to the practice in most Roman primary schools of routinely striking children with a cane (ferula) or birch rod for being slow or disruptive.[577] Secondary education Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles in political, religious, and military life through mentoring from a senior member of their family or a family friend.[578] Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores.[579] The grammaticus or "grammarian" taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text.[580] With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Vergil and Livy also became part of the curriculum.[581] The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized as a marker of social and intellectual superiority, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence") was considered the "glue" of a civilized society.[582] Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of references to the literary canon[583]) as it was a mode of expression and decorum that distinguished those who held social power.[584] The ancient model of rhetorical training—"restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour"[585]—endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal.[586] In Latin, illiteratus (Greek agrammatos) could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication."[517] Higher education promoted career advancement, particularly for an equestrian in Imperial service: "eloquence and learning were considered marks of a well-bred man and worthy of reward".[587] The poet Horace, for instance, was given a top-notch education by his father, a prosperous former slave.[588][589][590] Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture embued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[591] Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning as an expression of cultural achievement.[592] Young men from Rome who wished to pursue the highest levels of education often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to one of several Greek schools in Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training along with literacy and numeracy.[593] On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties, though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits. Quintilian held the first chair of grammar.[594][595] In the eastern empire, Berytus (present-day Beirut) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law.[596] The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st–3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and esthetic values, and the Greek proclivities for which Nero had been criticized were regarded from the time of Hadrian onward as integral to Imperial culture.[597] Educated women Portrait of a literary woman from Pompeii (ca. 50 AD) Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes.[598][599] The "girlfriends" addressed in Augustan love poetry, although fictional, represent an ideal that a desirable woman should be educated, well-versed in the arts, and independent to a frustrating degree.[600][601] Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders during the Empire.[575] A highly educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household, but one that Martial regards as an unnecessary luxury.[598] The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria, who educated young men in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy, and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, who may have been implicated in her violent death in 415 at the hands of a Christian mob.[602] Shape of literacy Literacy began to decline, perhaps dramatically, during the socio-political Crisis of the Third Century.[603] After the Christianization of the Roman Empire the Christians and Church Fathers adopted and used Latin and Greek pagan literature, philosophy and natural science with a vengeance to biblical interpretation.[604] Edward Grant writes that: With the total triumph of Christianity at the end of the fourth century, the Church might have reacted against Greek pagan learning in general, and Greek philosophy in particular, finding much in the latter that was unacceptable or perhaps even offensive. They might have launched a major effort to suppress pagan learning as a danger to the Church and its doctrines. But they did not. Why not? Perhaps it was in the slow dissemination of Christianity. After four centuries as members of a distinct religion, Christians had learned to live with Greek secular learning and to utilize it for their own benefit. Their education was heavily infiltrated by Latin and Greek pagan literature and philosophy... Although Christians found certain aspects of pagan culture and learning unacceptable, they did not view them as a cancer to be cut out of the Christian body.[605] Julian, the only emperor after the conversion of Constantine to reject Christianity, banned Christians from teaching the Classical curriculum, on the grounds that they might corrupt the minds of youth.[595] While the book roll had emphasized the continuity of the text, the codex format encouraged a "piecemeal" approach to reading by means of citation, fragmented interpretation, and the extraction of maxims.[606] In the 5th and 6th centuries, due to the gradual decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy.[607] However, in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantine Empire, reading continued throughout the Middle Ages as reading was of primary importance as an instrument of the Byzantine civilization.[608] Literature Main article: Latin literature See also: Roman historiography, Church Fathers, and Latin poetry Statue in Constanța, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating Ovid's exile In the traditional literary canon, literature under Augustus, along with that of the late Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, embodying the classical ideals of "unity of the whole, the proportion of the parts, and the careful articulation of an apparently seamless composition."[609] The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Vergil, Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Vergil wrote the Aeneid, creating a national epic for Rome in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of the Augustan moral programme; it was one of the ostensible causes for which the emperor exiled him to Tomis (present-day Constanța, Romania), where he remained to the end of his life. Ovid's Metamorphoses was a continuous poem of fifteen books weaving together Greco-Roman mythology from the creation of the universe to the deification of Julius Caesar. Ovid's versions of Greek myths became one of the primary sources of later classical mythology, and his work was so influential in the Middle Ages that the 12th and 13th centuries have been called the "Age of Ovid."[610] The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome's founding and early history became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. Vitruvius's book De Architectura, the only complete work on architecture to survive from antiquity, also belongs to this period. Latin writers were immersed in the Greek literary tradition, and adapted its forms and much of its content, but Romans regarded satire as a genre in which they surpassed the Greeks. Horace wrote verse satires before fashioning himself as an Augustan court poet, and the early Principate also produced the satirists Persius and Juvenal. The poetry of Juvenal offers a lively curmudgeon's perspective on urban society. The period from the mid-1st century through the mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. Under Nero, disillusioned writers reacted to Augustanism.[611] The three leading writers—Seneca the philosopher, dramatist, and tutor of Nero; Lucan, his nephew, who turned Caesar's civil war into an epic poem; and the novelist Petronius (Satyricon)—all committed suicide after incurring the emperor's displeasure. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the later epigrammatist and keen social observer Martial, who expressed his pride in his Celtiberian heritage.[79] Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae had a far-reaching influence on Renaissance literature,[612] wrote during the reign of Domitian. The so-called "Silver Age" produced several distinguished writers, including the encyclopedist Pliny the Elder; his nephew, known as Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus. The Natural History of the elder Pliny, who died during disaster relief efforts in the wake of the eruption of Vesuvius, is a vast collection on flora and fauna, gems and minerals, climate, medicine, freaks of nature, works of art, and antiquarian lore. Tacitus's reputation as a literary artist matches or exceeds his value as a historian;[613] his stylistic experimentation produced "one of the most powerful of Latin prose styles."[614] The Twelve Caesars by his contemporary Suetonius is one of the primary sources for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Jewish historian Josephus, and the senator Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer and antiquarian Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian. Popular Greek romance novels were part of the development of long-form fiction works, represented in Latin by the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius. From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, the Christian authors who would become the Latin Church Fathers were in active dialogue with the Classical tradition, within which they had been educated. Tertullian, a convert to Christianity from Roman Africa, was the contemporary of Apuleius and one of the earliest prose authors to establish a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective.[615] When the orator Symmachus argued for the preservation of Rome's religious traditions, he was effectively opposed by Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and future saint—a debate preserved by their missives.[616] Brescia Casket, an ivory box with Biblical imagery (late 4th century) In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Augustine, another of the Church Fathers from the province of Africa, has been called "one of the most influential writers of western culture", and his Confessions is sometimes considered the first autobiography of Western literature. In The City of God against the Pagans, Augustine builds a vision of an eternal, spiritual Rome, a new imperium sine fine that will outlast the collapsing Empire. In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality that has been compared to the mosaics characteristic of the period.[617] A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius Apollinaris. Ausonius (d. ca. 394), the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian, was at least nominally a Christian, though, throughout his occasionally obscene mixed-genre poems, he retains a literary interest in the Greco-Roman gods and even druidism. The imperial panegyrist Claudian (d. 404) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted. Prudentius (d. ca. 413), born in Hispania Tarraconensis and a fervent Christian, was thoroughly versed in the poets of the Classical tradition,[618] and transforms their vision of poetry as a monument of immortality into an expression of the poet's quest for eternal life culminating in Christian salvation.[619] Sidonius (d. 486), a native of Lugdunum, was a Roman senator and bishop of Clermont who cultivated a traditional villa lifestyle as he watched the Western empire succumb to barbarian incursions. His poetry and collected letters offer a unique view of life in late Roman Gaul from the perspective of a man who "survived the end of his world".[617][620] Religion Main articles: Religion in ancient Rome and Imperial cult (ancient Rome) See also: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Early Christianity, and Religious persecution in the Roman Empire A Roman priest, his head ritually covered with a fold of his toga, extends a patera in a gesture of libation (2nd–3rd century) The Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem, from a Western religious manuscript, c.1504 Religion in the Roman Empire encompassed the practices and beliefs the Romans regarded as their own, as well as the many cults imported to Rome or practiced by peoples throughout the provinces. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been handed down from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors" or "tradition", viewed as central to Roman identity. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state". The priesthoods of the state religion were filled from the same social pool of men who held public office, and in the Imperial era, the Pontifex Maximus was the emperor. Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[621] Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. Apuleius (2nd century) described the everyday quality of religion in observing how people who passed a cult place might make a vow or a fruit offering, or merely sit for a while.[622][623] The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi).[624] Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. As the first Roman emperor, Augustus justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. Imperial cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at Najran, in present-day Saudi Arabia.[625] Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason against the emperor. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio. Statuettes representing Roman and Gallic deities, for personal devotion at private shrines The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists.[n 21] As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy, in general, was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them.[n 22] One way that Rome promoted stability among diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods.[621][626][627][628] By the height of the Empire, numerous cults of pseudo-foreign gods (Roman reinventions of foreign gods) were cultivated at Rome and in the provinces, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems.[629] The Pompeii Lakshmi, an ivory statuette from the Indian subcontinent found in the ruins of Pompeii Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. At the same time, however, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted (interpretatio romana) within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo-Roman religion coalesced, with its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France). The sanctuary established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman-provincial identity.[630] Relief from the Arch of Titus in Rome depicting a menorah and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem carried in Roman triumph. The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that the Jewish religion, unlike that of the Christians, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion." Wars between the Romans and the Jews occurred when conflict, political as well as religious, became intractable. When Caligula wanted to place a golden statue of his deified self in the Temple in Jerusalem, the potential sacrilege and likely war were prevented only by his timely death.[631] The Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora). Christianity emerged in Roman Judea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century AD. The religion gradually spread out of Jerusalem, initially establishing major bases in first Antioch, then Alexandria, and over time throughout the Empire as well as beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials.[632][633][634][635][636][637] This funerary stele from the 3rd century is among the earliest Christian inscriptions, written in both Greek and Latin: the abbreviation D.M. at the top refers to the Di Manes, the traditional Roman spirits of the dead, but accompanies Christian fish symbolism. The first persecution by an emperor occurred under Nero, and was confined to the city of Rome. Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians.[638] After Nero, a major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian[639][640] and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo-Roman religious capital. A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians.[641] The Decian persecution of 246–251 was a serious threat to the Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance.[642] Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe persecution of Christians, lasting from 303 to 311. In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. During the rest of the fourth century, Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. The emperor Julian, under the influence of his adviser Mardonius made a short-lived attempt to revive traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the special status of Judaism, but in 380 (Edict of Thessalonica), under Theodosius I Christianity became the official state church of the Roman Empire, to the exclusion of all others. From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers had begun to condemn the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire collectively as "pagan."[643] Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected by the efforts of Pope Damasus I and Ambrose – Roman administrator turned bishop of Milan (374-397); Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but Rome's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms,[644][645] and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. Political legacy Main article: Legacy of the Roman Empire Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second). These concepts are known as Translatio imperii.[646] When the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire.[647] He even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire and invited European artists to his capital, including Gentile Bellini.[648] In the medieval West, "Roman" came to mean the church and the Pope of Rome. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire and is still used by Greeks in addition to their common appellation.[649] The Roman Empire's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would influence Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861.[650] Further Roman imperialism was claimed by fascist ideology, particularly by the Italian Empire and Nazi Germany. The Virginia State Capitol (left), built in the late 1700s, was modelled after the Maison Carrée, a Gallo-Roman temple built around 16 BC under Augustus. In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition,[651] and used classical models for landmarks and buildings in Washington, D.C., to avoid the feudal and religious connotations of European architecture such as castles and cathedrals.[652][653][654][655][656][657][658] In forming their theory of the mixed constitution, the founders looked to Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism for models, but regarded the Roman emperor as a figure of tyranny.[659][660] See also Ancient Rome portal History portal Asia portal Daqin ("Great Qin"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also Sino-Roman relations Fall of the Western Roman Empire Imperial Italy List of Roman dynasties Notes ^ Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum (also in Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn – ["Dominion (literally 'kingdom' but also interpreted as 'empire') of the Romans"]) and Romania. Res publica means Roman "commonwealth" and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. Imperium Romanum (or "Romanorum") refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. Populus Romanus ("the Roman people") was/is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations. The term Romania, initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Eastern Roman Empire (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3). ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus – all contenders for rule of the empire. The Empire of Nicaea is considered[by whom?] the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople. ^ The final emperor to rule over all of the Roman Empire's territories before its conversion to a diarchy. ^ Officially the final emperor of the Western empire. ^ Final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman Emperor, including by the surviving empire in the East, the Papacy, and by kingdoms in Western Europe. ^ Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire. ^ Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see #Currency and banking for currency denominations by period. ^ The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of Rûm" (Ottoman Turkish: دولت علنإه روم‎, lit. 'Exalted State of Rome'). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century. See the following: Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. Bloomsbury Studies in Military History. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-78093-800-4. Retrieved 4 January 2020. After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).) ^ Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry, as noted by Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), pp. 73, 203. St. Augustine, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in The City of God. See also J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine; Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011) "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome," in The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons; and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē). ^ The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman: A.N. Sherwin-White (1979) Roman Citizenship. Oxford University Press. pp. 211 and 268; Frier, pp. 31–32, 457. In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD. See Sara Elise Phang, The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Brill, 2001), p. 2, and Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144. ^ That is, a double standard was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status. See McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1991). "Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 121: 335–375 (342). doi:10.2307/284457. JSTOR 284457.; Martha C. Nussbaum (2002) "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 124, citing Papinian, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 104; Edwards, pp. 34–35. ^ The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse." See Wiseman, pp. 78–79. ^ Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain, and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy, were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual. Strabo 3.169, 5.213 ^ Vout, p. 212. The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters; see Jinyu Liu (2009) Collegia Centonariorum: The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West. Brill. Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products." ^ Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called Avaricum (Bourges, France), a center of the Bituriges, an urbs, "city." Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial production, walled for the purposes of defense, but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year-round: see Harding, D.W. (2007) The Archaeology of Celtic Art. Routledge. pp. 211–212. ISBN 113426464X; Collis, John (2000) "'Celtic' Oppida," in A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 229–238; Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems. Cambridge University Press, 1995, 1999, p. 61. ^ Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice: Humphrey, pp. 544, 558; Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Manuel des Institutions Romaines (Hachette, 1886), p. 549; "Purificazione," in Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum (LIMC, 2004), p. 83. ^ Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises: Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10: 45–75. sees them as gymnasts, while M. Torelli, "Piazza Armerina: Note di iconologia", in La Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina, edited by G. Rizza (Catania, 1988), p. 152, thinks they are dancers at the games. ^ By Michael Rostovtzeff, as noted by Robin M. Jensen (1999) "The Dura-Europos Synagogue, Early-Christian Art and Religious Life in Dura Europos," in Jews, Christians and Polytheists in the Ancient Synagogue: Cultural Interaction during the Greco-Roman Period. Routledge. p. 154. ^ Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii: Antonio Varone, Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ("L'Erma" di Bretschneider, 2002). Soldiers sometimes inscribed sling bullets with aggressive messages: Phang, "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300. ^ Bloomer, W. Martin (2011) The School of Rome: Latin Studies and the Origins of Liberal Education (University of California Press, 2011), pp. 93–99; Morgan, Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds, p. 250. Quintilian uses the metaphor acuere ingenium, "to sharpen talent," as well as agricultural metaphors. ^ For an overview of the representation of Roman religion in early Christian authors, see R.P.C. Hanson, "The Christian Attitude to Pagan Religions up to the Time of Constantine the Great," and Carlos A. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2 ^ Johnson (2009), p. 46ff. ^ Peachin, p. 97. ^ Clifford Ando poses the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?' in Ando, p. 101 (see also p. 87 on "the government's obsessive documentation"). ^ Ando, pp. 86–87. ^ Ando, p. 101 ^ Ando, pp. 152, 210. ^ Beard, Mary (1991) "Ancient Literacy and the Written Word in Roman Religion," in Literacy in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. p. 59ff ^ Dickie, Matthew (2001) Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. pp. 94–95, 181–182, and 196 ^ Potter (2009), p. 555 ^ Harris, pp. 29, 218–219. ^ Phang, Sara Elise (2011) "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," in A Companion to the Roman Army. Blackwell. pp. 286–301. ^ Mattern, Rome and the Enemy, p. 197, citing Harris, pp. 253–255. ^ Harris, pp. 9, 48, 215, 248, 258–269 ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 47, 54, 290ff. ^ Mattern, Rome and the Enemy, p. 197 ^ Gagarin, pp. 19–20. ^ a b Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18. ^ Martial, Epigrams 1.2 and 14.184–92, as cited by Johnson (2010), p. 17 ^ Cavallo, pp. 83–84. ^ Cavallo, pp. 84–85. ^ Cavallo, p. 84. ^ a b c Marshall, p. 253. ^ Cavallo, p. 71 ^ Marshall, p. 253, citing on the book trade in the provinces Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 9.11.2; Martial, Epigrams 7.88; Horace, Carmina 2.20.13f. and Ars Poetica 345; Ovid, Tristia 4.9.21 and 4.10.128; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 35.2.11; Sidonius, Epistulae 9.7.1. ^ Strabo 13.1.54, 50.13.419; Martial, Epigrams 2.8; Lucian, Adversus Indoctum 1 ^ According to Seneca, Epistulae 27.6f. ^ Marshall, p. 254. ^ Marshall, pp. 252–264. ^ Cavallo, pp. 67–68. ^ Marshall, pp. 257, 260. ^ Pliny, Epistulae 1.8.2; CIL 5.5262 (= ILS 2927) ^ Marshall, p. 255. ^ Marshall, 261–262 ^ Cavallo, p. 70. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 2.1 and Annales 4.35 and 14.50; Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 7.19.6; Suetonius, Augustus 31, Tiberius 61.3, and Caligula 16 ^ Suetonius, Domitian 10; Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 9.2.65 ^ Marshall, p. 263. ^ Johnson (2009), pp. 114ff, 186ff. ^ Potter (2009), p. 372. ^ Johnson (2010) p. 14. ^ Johnson (2009), p. 320ff. ^ Cavallo, pp. 68–69, 78–79. ^ Cavallo, pp. 81–82. ^ Peachin, p. 95. ^ Peachin, pp. 84–85. ^ Laes, p. 108 ^ a b c Peachin, p. 89. ^ Laes, pp. 113–116. ^ Peachin, pp. 90, 92 ^ Laes, pp. 116–121. ^ Peachin, pp. 87–89. ^ Laes, p. 122. ^ a b Peachin, p. 90. ^ Laes, pp. 107–108, 132. ^ Peachin, pp. 93–94. ^ Peachin, pp. 88, 106 ^ Laes, p. 109. ^ Laes, p. 132. ^ Potter (2009), pp. 439, 442. ^ Peachin, pp. 102–103, 105. ^ Peachin, pp. 104–105. ^ Peachin, pp. 103, 106. ^ Peachin, p. 110. ^ Peachin, p. 107. ^ Saller, R. 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(1998) The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 122–123 ^ Rawson (2003), p. 80. ^ James, Sharon L. (2003) Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy. University of California Press. pp. 21–25 ^ Johnson, W.R. "Propertius," pp. 42–43, and Sharon L. James, "Elegy and New Comedy," p. 262, both in A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell, 2012. ^ Gagarin, p. 20. ^ Harris, p. 3. ^ Numbers, Ronald (2009). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-674-03327-6. ^ Grant, Edvard. (1996) "The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. 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(1990) "Tacitus' Historical Works: A Survey and Appraisal," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.33.2, p. 853. ^ Albrecht, p. 1294. ^ Albrecht, p. 1443. ^ a b Roberts, p. 70. ^ Albrecht, p. 1359ff. ^ "Not since Vergil had there been a Roman poet so effective at establishing a master narrative for his people": Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), p. 3. ^ Bowersock, p. 694 ^ a b Rüpke, p. 4. ^ Apuleius, Florides 1.1 ^ Rüpke, p. 279. ^ Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 246. ^ The caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran": جواد علي, المفصل في تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام (Jawad Ali, Al-Mufassal fi Tarikh Al-'Arab Qabl Al-Islam; "Commentary on the History of the Arabs Before Islam"), Baghdad, 1955–1983; P. 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JSTOR 23952852. ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.44 ^ Eusebius of Caesarea (425). Church History. ^ Smallwood, E.M. (1956). "'Domitian's attitude towards the Jews and Judaism". Classical Philology. 51: 1–13. doi:10.1086/363978. S2CID 161356789. ^ Pliny, Epistle to Trajan on the Christians ^ Frend, W. H. C. (1959). "The Failure of the Persecutions in the Roman Empire". Past and Present. 16 (16): 10–30. doi:10.1093/past/16.1.10. JSTOR 650151. ^ Bowersock, p. 625 ^ Rüpke, pp. 406–426 ^ On vocabulary, see Schilling, Robert (1992) "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. p. 110. ^ Burgan, Michael (2009). Empire of Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-1-4381-2659-3. ^ Noble, Thomas F. X.; Strauss, Barry; Osheim, Duane J.; Neuschel, Kristen B.; Accampo, Elinor Ann (2010). Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries, 1300–1815. Cengage Learning. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-4240-6959-0. ^ Goffman, Daniel (2002). The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, History of Europe, The Romans, 2008, O.Ed. ^ Collier, Martin (2003). Italian Unification, 1820–71. Heinemann. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-435-32754-5. ^ Briggs, Ward (2010) "United States," in A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Blackwell. p. 279ff. ^ Meinig, D.W. (1986) The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. Atlantic America, 1492–1800. Yale University Press. Vol. 1. pp. 432–435. ISBN 0-300-03882-8. ^ Vale, Lawrence J. (1992) Architecture, Power, and National Identity. Yale University Press. pp. 11, 66–67 ^ Mallgrave, Harry Francis (2005) Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673–1968. Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–145 ^ Kornwall, James D. (2011) Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, vol. 3. pp. 1246, 1405–1408. 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territories Albania (Classical - Medieval) Algeria Armenia (Classical - Late Antique) Azerbaijan Austria Balkans Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria (Classical - High Medieval) Britain (England) Crimea (Classical - Medieval) Croatia Cyprus (Classical - Medieval) Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique) France (Corsica (Classical - Early Medieval)) Georgia Germany Greece (Classical - Medieval) (Crete (Classical - Medieval)) Hungary Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique) Italy (Classical - Medieval) (Sicily (Classical - Medieval), Sardinia (Classical - Early Medieval)) Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique) Libya Liechtenstein Luxembourg Malta Macedonia Monaco Montenegro Morocco The Netherlands North Africa Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique) Portugal Romania Scotland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain (Classical - Late Antique) Switzerland Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique) Tunisia (Roman Carthage) Turkey (Classical - Medieval) (Thrace (Classical - Medieval)) Wales v t e Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact Occupied temporarily Arabia Azerbaijan Roman Armenia Byzantine Armenia Assyria Roman Crimea Cherson Dacia Georgia Germany Mesopotamia Netherlands Persia Slovakia Scotland Sudan Contacts & explorations Canary Islands China India Ireland Scandinavia Somalia Sub-Saharan Africa Equatorial Africa See also Borders of the Roman Empire v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Xianbei Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Tunni Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Geledi Habr Yunis Hobyo Isaaq Majeerteen Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e List of historic states of Italy Etruscan civilization Lega dei popoli Etruscan dodecapolis Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Italy (4th/3rd century BC–476 AD) Sicilia (241 BC–476 AD) Corsica and Sardinia (238 BC–455 AD) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (285 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy (337 AD–584 AD) Medieval and Early Modern states Early Italian Kingdom (476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Holy Roman Empire and other independent states Bishopric of Bressanone Corsican Republic City of Fiume and its District Commune of Rome County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla County of Santa Fiora Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Tyrol Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Savoyard state Savoy County of Savoy Piedmont Duchy of Aosta County of Nice County of Tenda Papal States (754–1870) Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Holy See Duchy of Parma Duchy of Urbino Republics Republic of Cospaia Republic of Ancona Republic of Florence Republic of Genoa Republic of Noli Republic of Lucca Republic of Massa Republic of Pisa Republic of Siena Republic of Venice (697–1797) Dogado Domini di Terraferma Stato da Màr Southern Italy (774–1139) Byzantine Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Gaeta Catepanate of Italy Longobardia Theme of Lucania Duchy of Naples Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily Duchy of Sorrento Arab Emirate of Bari Emirate of Sicily Lombard Principality of Benevento Principality of Salerno Principality of Capua Norman County of Apulia and Calabria County of Aversa County of Sicily Principality of Taranto Sardinia (from the 9th century) Judicates Agugliastra Arborea Cagliari Gallura Logudoro Oristano Republic of Sassari Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1861) Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816) and Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816) State of the Presidi Duke of San Donato Duchy of Sora Principality of Taranto Terra Sancti Benedicti Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648) Hospitaller Malta Gozo Malta Protectorate Crown Colony of Malta French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras (1792–1815) Republics Cisalpinia Cispadania Italy Liguria Lucca Parthenopea Piedmont Rome Subalpinia Transpadania Monarchies Benevento Etruria Guastalla Italy Lucca and Piombino Massa and Carrara Naples Pontecorvo Tuscany Elba Corsica Post-Napoleonic states Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848) Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829) Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859) Duchy of Parma (1814–1859) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859) Italian United Provinces (1831) Provisional Government of Milan (1848) Republic of San Marco (1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Venezia Giulia Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e History of Europe Prehistory Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe Classical antiquity Classical Greece Roman Republic Hellenistic period Roman Empire Early Christianity Christianity in late antiquity Crisis of the Third Century Fall of the Western Roman Empire Late antiquity Middle Ages Early Middle Ages Migration Period Christianity in the Middle Ages Christianization Francia Byzantine Empire Papal States Bulgarian Empire First Second Maritime republics Venice Genoa Pisa Amalfi Viking Age Kievan Rus' Crown of Aragon Holy Roman Empire High Middle Ages Republic of Florence Feudalism Crusading movement Crusades Mongol invasion Serbian Empire Late Middle Ages Black Death Hundred Years' War Kalmar Union Early modern Renaissance Christianity in the modern era Reformation Age of Discovery Baroque Grand Duchy of Tuscany Thirty Years' War Absolute monarchy Ottoman Empire Portuguese Empire Spanish Empire Early modern France Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack Hetmanate Swedish Empire Dutch Republic British Empire Habsburg Monarchy Russian Empire Age of Enlightenment Modern Great Divergence Industrial Revolution French Revolution Napoleonic Wars Nationalism Revolutions of 1848 World War I Russian Revolution Interwar period World War II Cold War European integration COVID-19 pandemic See also Art of Europe Genetic history of Europe History of Christianity History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime history of Europe Military history of Europe Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat Other Microsoft Academic 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en-wikipedia-org-9361	----	Oclatinia gens - Wikipedia Oclatinia gens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tiberius Oclatius Severus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Roman family The gens Oclatinia was an obscure Roman family of imperial times. It is best known from a single individual, Marcus Oclatinius Adventus, consul for the second time[i] in AD 218, together with the emperor Macrinus. From various sources, we know that he was procurator Augustorum under Septimius Severus in AD 202,[1] and governor of Britain between 205 and 207.[2][3][4] Contents 1 Origin 2 Footnotes 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography Origin[edit] The nomen Oclatinius clearly shares a root with Oclatius, borne by Tiberius Oclatius Severus, consul suffectus in AD 160, and is perhaps an orthographic variant of Ocratius, part of a class of gentilicia formed using the suffix -atius, derived from place-names ending in -as or -atis, or passive participles ending in -atus.[5] Footnotes[edit] ^ The date of his first consulate is not known. See also[edit] List of Roman gentes References[edit] ^ CIL VII, 1003, CIL VII, 1346. ^ Cassius Dio, lxxviii. 13, 14. ^ Herodian, iv. 12, 1; 14, 1. ^ PIR, vol. II, p. 424. ^ Chase, p. 127. Bibliography[edit] Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. Herodianus, History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus. Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897). Paul von Rohden, Elimar Klebs, & Hermann Dessau, Prosopographia Imperii Romani (The Prosopography of the Roman Empire, abbreviated PIR), Berlin (1898). GENS This article about Roman gentes is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oclatinia_gens&oldid=995959116" Categories: Roman gentes Roman gentes stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 19:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9365	----	Nikephoros I - Wikipedia Nikephoros I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 802 to 811 This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (August 2020) "Nicephorus I" redirects here. For other uses, see Nicephorus I (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Nikephoros I Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Nikephoros I, depicted in the 12th century Manasses Chronicle Byzantine emperor Reign 31 October 802 – 26 July 811 Predecessor Irene Successor Staurakios Born 750 Died 26 July 811 (aged 60–61) Battle of Pliska, Pliska Issue Staurakios Prokopia Dynasty Nikephorian Nikephorian dynasty Chronology Nikephoros I 802–811  with Staurakios as co-emperor 803–811  Staurakios 811 Michael I 811–813  with Theophylact as co-emperor 811–813  Succession Preceded by Isaurian dynasty Followed by Leo V and the Amorian dynasty v t e Nikephoros I or Nicephorus I (Greek: Νικηφόρος; 750 – 26 July 811) was Byzantine emperor from 802 to 811, when he was killed in the Battle of Pliska. Prior to his accession, he had served as genikos logothetēs, whence he is sometimes surnamed "the Logothete" (ὁ Λογοθέτης) and "Genikos" or "Genicus" (ὁ Γενικός). Contents 1 Background 2 Reign 3 Family 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources Background[edit] Both Syriac sources such as Michael the Syrian and Arabic ones like al-Tabari and Mas'udi hold that the emperor was of a Ghassanid Arab origin.[1][2][3] Byzantine chronicles, however, although generally hostile to him, make no explicit mention about his ethnic background.[1] On the other hand, al-Tabari claims that he learned of Nikephoros' Arab origins from Byzantine sources.[4] Some scholars, like Paul Julius Alexander, accept al-Tabari's account, citing a Byzantine apocalyptic text in which the emperor is said to be "from the race of Gopsin".[5] The word "Gopsin" could be a Greek rendering of the name "Ghassan", or the name "Gafna", the eponym of the Ghassanids.[6] Reign[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Nikephoros I" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Byzantine Empire at the beginning of the reign of Nikephoros I, in 802 AD. A patrician from Seleucia Sidera, Nikephoros was appointed finance minister (logothetēs tou genikou) by the Empress Irene. With the help of the patricians and eunuchs he contrived to dethrone and exile Irene, and to be chosen as Emperor in her stead on 31 October 802. He crowned his son Staurakios co-emperor in 803. His rule was endangered by Bardanes Tourkos, one of his ablest generals, who revolted and received support from other commanders, notably the later emperors Leo V the Armenian and Michael II the Amorian in 803. But Nikephoros gained over the latter two, and by inducing the rebel army to disperse achieved the submission of Bardanes, who was blinded and relegated to a monastery. A conspiracy headed by the patrician Arsaber had a similar result. Nikephoros embarked on a general reorganization of the Roman Empire, creating new themes in the Balkans (where he initiated the re-Hellenization by resettling Greeks from Anatolia) and strengthening the frontiers. Needing large sums to increase his military forces, he set himself with great energy to increase the Empire's revenue. By his rigorous tax imposts he alienated his subjects, especially the clergy, whom he otherwise sought to control firmly. Although he appointed an iconodule, Nikephoros, as patriarch, Emperor Nikephoros was portrayed as a villain by ecclesiastical historians like Theophanes the Confessor. Khan Krum feasts while a servant brings the skull of Nikephoros I fashioned into a drinking cup. In 803, Nikephoros concluded a treaty, called the "Pax Nicephori", with Charlemagne, but refused to recognize the latter's imperial dignity. Relations deteriorated and led to a war over Venice in 806–810. In the process, Nikephoros had quelled a Venetian rebellion in 807, but suffered extensive losses to the Franks. The conflict was resolved only after Nikephoros' death, and Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast and South Italy were assigned to the East, while Rome, Ravenna and the Pentapolis were included in the Western realm. By withholding the tribute which Irene had agreed to pay to the caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd, Nikephoros committed himself to a war against the Arabs.[7] Compelled by Bardanes' disloyalty to take the field himself, he sustained a severe defeat at the Battle of Krasos in Phrygia (805).[7] In 806 a Muslim army of 135,000 men invaded the Empire. Unable to counter the Muslim numbers, Nikephoros agreed to make peace on condition of paying 50,000 nomismata immediately and a yearly tribute of 30,000 nomismata. With a succession struggle enveloping the caliphate on the death of Hārūn al-Rashīd in 809, Nikephoros was free to deal with Krum, Khan of Bulgaria, who was harassing his northern frontiers and had just conquered Serdica (Sofia). In 811, Nikephoros invaded Bulgaria, defeated Krum twice, and sacked the Bulgarian capital Pliska. The Chronicle of the 12th-century patriarch of the Syrian Jacobites, Michael the Syrian, describes the brutalities and atrocities of Nikephoros: "Nikephoros, emperor of the Byzantine empire, walked into the Bulgarians' land: he was victorious and killed great number of them. He reached their capital, seized it and devastated it. His savagery went to the point that he ordered to bring their small children, got them tied down on earth and made thresh grain stones to smash them." During Nikephoros' retreat, the imperial army was ambushed and destroyed in Varbishki mountain passes on 26 July by Krum. Nikephoros was captured during the battle and sent to Pliska, where Krum ordered his decapitation. Krum is said to have made a drinking-cup of Nikephoros' skull. Family[edit] By an unknown wife Nikephoros I had at least two children: Staurakios, who succeeded as emperor. Prokopia, who married Michael I Rangabe, emperor 811–813. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Bekkum, Wout Jac van; Drijvers, Jan Willem; Klugkist, Alexander Cornelis (2007). Syriac Polemics: Studies in Honour of Gerrit Jan Reinink. Peeters Publishers. p. 97. ISBN 9789042919730. ^ Cooper, Eric; Decker, Michael J. (2012). Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia. Springer. p. 42. ISBN 9781137029645. ^ Biliarsky, Ivan (2013). The Tale of the Prophet Isaiah: The Destiny and Meanings of an Apocryphal Text. BRILL. p. 208. ISBN 9789004254381. ^ Alexander, Paul Julius (1985). The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition. University of California Press. p. 66. ISBN 9780520049987. ^ Alexander, Paul Julius (1985). The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition. University of California Press. p. 66 (note 21). ISBN 9780520049987. ^ Shahîd, Irfan (1995). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Harvard University Press. p. 150. ISBN 9780884023470. ^ a b Mikaberidze 2011, p. 222. Sources[edit] Mikaberidze, Alexander, ed. (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. |volume= has extra text (help); Missing or empty |title= (help) The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, ed. by Alexander Kazhdan, Oxford University Press, 1991.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Nicephorus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 647–648. Norwich, John J. (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-394-53779-3. Nikephoros I Nikephorian dynasty Born: 8th century Died: 26 July 811 Regnal titles Preceded by Irene Byzantine emperor 802–811 Succeeded by Staurakios v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikephoros_I&oldid=1027088696" Categories: 750 births 811 deaths 9th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars 8th-century Byzantine people 8th-century births Roman emperors killed in battle Monarchs killed in action Christian monarchs 800s in the Byzantine Empire 810s in the Byzantine Empire Byzantine people of Arab descent Nikephorian dynasty Logothetai tou genikou Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from August 2020 All articles needing rewrite Use dmy dates from April 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles needing additional references from October 2019 All articles needing additional references CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1 errors: missing title CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-936	----	John VIII Palaiologos - Wikipedia John VIII Palaiologos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1425 to 1448 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans John VIII Palaiologos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Portrait by Benozzo Gozzoli Byzantine emperor Reign 21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448 Coronation 19 January 1421 Predecessor Manuel II Palaiologos Successor Constantine XI Palaiologos Born 18 December 1392 Died 31 October 1448(1448-10-31) (aged 55) Spouse Anna of Moscow ​ ​ (m. 1414; died 1417)​ Sophia of Montferrat ​ ​ (m. 1421⁠–⁠1426)​ Maria of Trebizond ​ ​ (m. 1427; died 1439)​ Dynasty Palaiologos Father Manuel II Palaiologos Mother Helena Dragaš Religion Catholic/Orthodox This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (May 2021) John VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος, romanized: Iōánnēs Palaiológos; 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448) was the penultimate Byzantine emperor, ruling from 1425 to 1448. Contents 1 Biography 2 Marriages 3 Representation in art 3.1 Gallery 4 Ancestry 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 Further reading Biography[edit] John VIII was the eldest son of Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš,[1] the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš. He was associated as co-emperor with his father before 1416 and became sole emperor on 1 July 1425,[2] although he had already assumed full power on 19 January 1421.[3][4][5] In June 1422, John VIII Palaiologos supervised the defense of Constantinople during a siege by Murad II,[6] but had to accept the loss of Thessalonica, which his brother Andronikos had given to Venice in 1423. To secure protection against the Ottomans, he made two journeys to Italy in 1423 and 1439. In 1423 he became the last Byzantine emperor (the first since emperor Constans II´visit in 663) to make a visit to Rome.[7] During the second journey he visited Pope Eugene IV in Ferrara and consented to the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The Union was ratified at the Council of Florence in 1439, which John attended with 700 followers including Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople and George Gemistos Plethon, a Neoplatonist philosopher influential among the academics of Italy. The Union failed due to opposition in Constantinople, but through his prudent conduct towards the Ottoman Empire he succeeded in holding possession of the city. John VIII Palaiologos named his brother Constantine XI, who had served as regent in Constantinople in 1437–1439, as his successor. Despite the machinations of his younger brother Demetrios Palaiologos his mother Helena was able to secure Constantine XI's succession in 1448. John VIII died at Constantinople in 1448, becoming the last reigning Byzantine emperor to die of natural causes. Marriages[edit] John VIII Palaiologos was married three times. His first marriage was in 1414 to Anna of Moscow, daughter of Grand Prince Basil I of Moscow (1389–1425) and Sophia of Lithuania.[8] She died in August 1417 of plague. The second marriage, arranged by his father Manuel II and Pope Martin V, was to Sophia of Montferrat in 1421.[8] She was a daughter of Theodore II, Marquess of Montferrat, and his second wife Joanna of Bar. Joanna was a daughter of Robert I, Duke of Bar, and Marie de Valois. Her maternal grandparents were John II of France and Bonne of Bohemia. His third marriage, arranged by the future cardinal, Bessarion, was to Maria of Trebizond in 1427.[8] She was a daughter of Alexios IV of Trebizond and Theodora Kantakouzene.[8] She died in the winter of 1439, also from plague.[9] None of the marriages produced any children. Representation in art[edit] John VIII Palaiologos was famously depicted by several painters on the occasion of his visit to Italy.[10] Perhaps the most famous of his portraits is the one by Benozzo Gozzoli, on the southern wall of the Magi Chapel, at the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, in Florence. According to some interpretations, John VIII would be also portrayed in Piero della Francesca's Flagellation. A portrait of John appears in a manuscript at the Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula. Gallery[edit] Portrait of John VIII Palaiologos from a manuscript at Saint Catherine's Monastery circa 1440 Medal of the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438). The legend reads, in Greek: "John the Palaiologos, basileus and autokrator of the Romans". Sketches of John VIII Palaiologos during his visit at the Council of Florence in 1438, by Pisanello Piero della Francesca's Flagellation, possibly depicting John VIII Palaiologos as Pontius Pilatus (the leftmost figure) Device of the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, featuring the double-headed eagle with the sympilema (family cypher) of the Palaiologos dynasty Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of John VIII Palaiologos 16. Michael IX Palaiologos 8. Andronikos III Palaiologos 17. Rita of Armenia 4. John V Palaiologos 18. Amadeus V, Count of Savoy 9. Anna of Savoy 19. Maria of Brabant 2. Manuel II Palaiologos 20. Michael Kantakouzenos 10. John VI Kantakouzenos 21. Theodora Palaiologina Angelina Kantakouzene 5. Helena Kantakouzene 22. Andronikos Asen 11. Irene Asanina 23. Tarchaneiotissa 1. John VIII Palaiologos 12. Dejan 6. Constantine Dragaš 26. Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia 13. Theodora of Serbia 27. Maria Palaiologina 3. Helena Dragaš See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ Çelik 2021, p. xx. ^ Chasin 1989, p. 281. ^ Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, p. 1053 ^ Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, "Palaiologos, Ioannes VIII." ^ Speake, Graham (2021). Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. Routledge. p. 852. ISBN 9781135942069. ^ Barker 1969, p. xxxiv. ^ Çelik 2021, p. 380. ^ a b c d Nicol 1992, p. 5. ^ Runciman 1965, p. 21. ^ Drawings of John VIII Palaiologos Archived 5 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine by Pisanello, Florence 1439 Sources[edit] Barker, John W. (1969). Manuel II Palaeologus (1391-1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship. Rutgers University Press. Çelik, Siren (2021). Manuel II Palaiologos (1350–1425): A Byzantine Emperor in a Time of Tumult. Cambridge University Press. Chasin, Martin (1989). "The Crusade of Varna". In Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P. (eds.). A History of the Crusades:The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. 6. University of Wisconsin Press. Nicol, Donald M. (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge University Press. Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge University Press. Further reading[edit] Harris, Jonathan, The End of Byzantium. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-300-11786-8 Kolditz, Sebastian, Johannes VIII. Palaiologos und das Konzil von Ferrara-Florenz (1438/39). 2 Vol., Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann Verlag 2013–2014, ISBN 978-3-7772-1319-4. Lazaris, Stavros, "L’empereur Jean VIII Paléologue vu par Pisanello lors du concile de Ferrare – Florence", Byzantinische Forschungen, 29, 2007, p. 293-324 [1] Nicol, Donald M. (1993) [1972]. The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ioannes VIII Palaiologos. John VIII Palaiologos Palaiologos dynasty Born: 18 December 1392 Died: 31 October 1448 Regnal titles Preceded by Manuel II Palaiologos Byzantine Emperor 1425–1448 Succeeded by Constantine XI Palaiologos Dragases v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-937	----	Petronius Maximus - Wikipedia Petronius Maximus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 455 Roman emperor of the West Petronius Maximus Solidus of Emperor Petronius Maximus Roman emperor of the West (unrecognized in the East) Reign 17 March – 31 May 455, with Marcian as Eastern emperor Predecessor Valentinian III Successor Avitus Born c. 397 Died 31 May 455 (aged c. 58) Rome Spouse Possibly Lucina Licinia Eudoxia Issue Palladius Father Possibly Anicius Probinus Petronius Maximus (c. 397 – 31 May 455) was Roman emperor of the West for two and a half months in 455. A wealthy senator and a prominent aristocrat, he was instrumental in the murders of the Western Roman magister militum, Aëtius, and the Western Roman emperor, Valentinian III. Maximus secured the throne the day after Valentinian's death by ensuring the backing of the senate and by bribing the palace officials. He strengthened his position by forcing Valentinian's widow to marry him and forcing Valentinian's daughter to marry his son. He cancelled the betrothal of his new wife's daughter to the son of the Vandal king Genseric. This infuriated both his stepdaughter and Genseric, who sent a fleet to Rome. Maximus failed to obtain troops from the Visigoths and he fled as the Vandals arrived, became detached from his retinue and bodyguard in the confusion, and was killed. The Vandals thoroughly sacked Rome. Contents 1 Early career 2 Murder of Valentinian III and accession of Maximus 3 Reign and death 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources Early career[edit] Petronius Maximus was born about 397.[1] Although he was of obscure origin, it is believed that he belonged to the Anicius family.[2] Related to the later Emperor Olybrius, Maximus was the son of Anicius Probinus,[3] and the grandson of Anicia Faltonia Proba and Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus,[4] who was prefect of Illyricum in 364, prefect of Gaul in 366, prefect of Italy from 368 to 375 and again in 383 and consul in 371.[5][6] Maximus had a remarkable early career. His earliest known office was praetor, held in about 411;[7] around 415 he served as a tribunus et notarius, which was an entry position to the imperial bureaucracy and led to his serving as comes sacrarum largitionum (count of the sacred largess) between 416 and 419.[7] From January or February 420 to August or September 421 he was praefectus urbi of Rome, meaning that he had executive authority for much of the municipal administration of Rome; he held the office again sometime before 439. As praefectus he restored the Old St. Peter's Basilica. He was also appointed praetorian prefect, a leading military and judicial position, sometime between 421 and 439. It was either while holding this post or during his second urban prefecture that he was appointed consul for the year 433. Becoming a consul was considered the highest honour of the Roman state.[8] From August 439 to February 441 he held the praetorian prefecture of Italy, the most important administrative and judicial non-imperial position in the Western Empire.[9] He was awarded a second consulship in 443. In 445 he was granted the title of patrician, the Empire's senior honorific title, which was limited to a very small number of holders.[10] During this year he was briefly the most honoured of all non-imperial Romans, until the third consulate of Flavius Aëtius, generalissimo, or magister militum, of the Western Empire, the following year.[7] Between 443 and 445 Maximus built a forum, the Forum Petronii Maximi,[11] in Rome, on the Caelian Hill between the via Labicana and the Basilica di San Clemente.[8] Murder of Valentinian III and accession of Maximus[edit] According to the historian John of Antioch,[12] Maximus poisoned the mind of the Emperor against Aëtius, resulting in the murder of his rival at the hands of Valentinian III. John's account has it that Valentinian and Maximus placed a wager on a game that Maximus ended up losing.[7] As he did not have the money available, Maximus left his ring as a guarantee of his debt. Valentinian then used the ring to summon to court Lucina, the chaste and beautiful wife of Maximus, whom Valentinian had long lusted after. Lucina went to the court, believing she had been summoned by her husband, but instead found herself at dinner with Valentinian. Although initially resisting his advances, the Emperor managed to wear her down and succeeded in raping her.[7] Returning home and meeting Maximus, she accused him of betrayal, believing that he had handed her over to the Emperor. Although Maximus swore revenge, he was equally motivated by ambition to supplant "a detested and despicable rival",[13] so he decided to move against Valentinian.[7] According to John of Antioch, Maximus was acutely aware that while Aëtius was alive he could not exact vengeance on Valentinian, so Aëtius had to be removed.[7] He therefore allied himself with a eunuch of Valentinian's, the primicerius sacri cubiculi Heraclius, who had long opposed the general, with the hope of exercising more power over the emperor. The two of them convinced Valentinian that Aëtius was planning to assassinate him and urged him to kill his magister militum during a meeting, which Valentinian did with his own hands, with the help of Heraclius, on 21 September 454.[7][14] The Western Roman Empire at about this period, in red only Once Aëtius was dead, Maximus asked Valentinian for Aëtius's now-vacant position, but the Emperor refused;[15] Heraclius, in fact, had advised the Emperor not to allow anyone to possess the power that Aëtius had wielded. According to John of Antioch, Maximus was so irritated by Valentinian's refusal to appoint him as his magister militum that he decided to have Valentinian assassinated as well. He chose as accomplices Optilia and Thraustila, two Scythians who had fought under the command of Aetius and who, after the death of their general, had been appointed as Valentinian's escort.[7] Maximus easily convinced them that Valentinian was the only one responsible for the death of Aetius, and that the two soldiers must avenge their old commander, while at the same time also promising them a reward for the betrayal of the Emperor. On 16 March 455 Valentinian, who was in Rome, went to Campus Martius with some guards, accompanied by Optilia, Thraustila and their men.[7] As soon as the Emperor dismounted to practice with the bow, Optilia came up with his men and stabbed him in the temple. As Valentinian turned to look at his attacker, Optila finished him off with another thrust of his blade. At the same moment, Thraustila killed Heraclius. The two Scythians took the imperial diadem and robe and brought them to Maximus.[7] The sudden and violent death of Valentinian III left the Western Roman Empire without an obvious successor to the throne. Several candidates were supported by various groups of the imperial bureaucracy and the military. In particular, the army's support was split among three main candidates:[7] Maximianus, the former domesticus (bodyguard) of Aëtius, who was the son of an Egyptian merchant named Domninus who had become rich in Italy; the future emperor Majorian, who commanded the army after the death of Aetius and who had the backing of the Empress Licinia Eudoxia; and Maximus himself, who had the support of the Roman Senate and who secured the throne on 17 March by distributing money to the officials of the imperial palace.[7] Reign and death[edit] After gaining control of the palace, Maximus consolidated his hold on power by immediately marrying Licinia Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian.[15] She married him reluctantly, suspecting that he had been involved in the murder of her late husband; and indeed Maximus treated Valentinian III's assassins with considerable favour.[7] The eastern court at Constantinople refused to recognise his accession. To further secure his position Maximus quickly appointed Avitus as magister militum and sent him on a mission to Toulouse to gain the support of the Visigoths.[16] He also proceeded to cancel the betrothal of Licinia's daughter, Eudocia, to Huneric, the son of the Vandal king Geiseric, and marry her to his own son. Again he anticipated that this would further his and his family's imperial credentials. This repudiation infuriated the Vandal king, who only needed the excuse of Licinia's despairing appeal to the Vandal court to begin preparations for the invasion of Italy.[17] By May, within two months of Maximus gaining the throne, news reached Rome that Geiseric was sailing for Italy. As the news spread, panic gripped the city and many of its inhabitants took to flight.[7] The Emperor, aware that Avitus had not yet returned with the expected Visigothic aid, decided that it was fruitless to mount a defence against the Vandals. So he attempted to organise his escape, urging the Senate to accompany him. However, in the panic, Petronius Maximus was abandoned by his bodyguard and entourage and left to fend for himself.[7] A depiction of the sack of Rome by the Vandals As Maximus rode out of the city on his own on 31 May 455, he was set upon by an angry mob, which stoned him to death (another account has it that he was killed by "a certain Roman soldier named Ursus").[18] His body was mutilated and flung into the Tiber.[7] He had reigned for only seventy-five days. His son from his first marriage, Palladius, who had held the title of caesar between 17 March and 31 May, and who had married his stepsister Eudocia, was probably executed.[7][19] Aftermath[edit] On 2 June 455, three days after Maximus' death, Geiseric captured the city of Rome and sacked it for two weeks. Amidst the pillaging and looting of the city, and in response to the pleas of Pope Leo I, the Vandals are said to have refrained from arson, torture, and murder.[20] Such modern historians as John Henry Haaren state that temples, public buildings, private houses and even the emperor's palace were destroyed. The Vandals also shipped many boatloads of Romans to North Africa as slaves, destroyed works of art and killed a number of citizens. The Vandals' activities during the sack gave rise to the modern term vandalism.[21] Geiseric also carried away the empress Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters Placidia and Eudocia.[22] See also[edit] Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire References[edit] ^ Drinkwater & Elton 2002, pp. 118, 120. ^ Drinkwater & Elton 2002, p. 117. ^ Drinkwater & Elton 2002, p. 120. ^ Drinkwater & Elton 2002, p. 112. ^ Cameron, Alan (1985). "Polyonomy in the Late Roman Aristocracy: The Case of Petronius Probus". Journal of Roman Studies. 75: 178–181. doi:10.2307/300658. JSTOR 300658. ^ Jones & Martindale 1992, vol. 1 p. 737 (1971 ed.). ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Mathisen 1999. ^ a b Jones & Martindale 1992, p. 750. ^ Norwich 1990, p. 160. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1600. ^ Richardson, jr, Lawrence (1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8018-4300-6. Retrieved 1 June 2020. ^ John of Antioch, fragments 200–201; translated in C.D. Gordon, The Age of Attila: Fifth-Century Byzantium and the Barbarians (Ann Arbor, 1960), pp. 51ff ^ Gibbon 1776, chapter 35. ^ Cameron, Ward-Perkins & Whitby 2001, p. 473. ^ a b Jones & Martindale 1992, p. 751. ^ Cameron, Ward-Perkins & Whitby 2001, p. 20. ^ Cameron, Ward-Perkins & Whitby 2001, p. 125. ^ Browne 1859, p. 350. ^ Cameron, Ward-Perkins & Whitby 2001, p. 21. ^ Hughes 2017, p. 140. ^ "vandal". Online Etymology Dictionary. Cited from Encyclopædia Britannica (13 ed.). 1926. OCLC 313128834. ^ Norwich 1990, p. 162. Sources[edit] Browne, Robert William (1859). A history of Rome from A.D. 96 to the fall of the Western empire. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. OCLC 26234691. Cameron, Averil; Ward-Perkins, Bryan; Whitby, Michael (2001). "Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600". The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume 14. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32591-2. |volume= has extra text (help) Drinkwater, John; Elton, Hugh (2002). Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521529334. Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. I. OCLC 810900761. |volume= has extra text (help) Hughes, Ian (2017). Gaiseric: The Vandal Who Destroyed Rome. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-9030-5. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, John Robert (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521201599. Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Volume 3. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0195046526. |volume= has extra text (help) Mathisen, Ralph (1999). "Petronius Maximus (17 March 455 – 22 May 455)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Norwich, John Julius (1990). Byzantium: The Early Centuries. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140114478. Regnal titles Preceded by Valentinian III Western Roman emperor 455 Succeeded by Avitus Political offices Preceded by Aetius Valerius Roman consul 433 with Theodosius Augustus XIV Succeeded by Aspar Areobindus Preceded by Dioscorus Eudoxius Roman consul II 443 with Paterius Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus XVIII Albinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petronius_Maximus&oldid=1022490266" Categories: 390s births 455 deaths 4th-century Romans 5th-century Christians 5th-century murdered monarchs 5th-century Roman emperors Comites sacrarum largitionum Executed Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Imperial Roman praetors Patricii People executed by stoning People executed by the Roman Empire Petronii Praetorian prefects of Italy Theodosian dynasty Urban prefects of Rome Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2020 Good articles EngvarB from April 2018 CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 May 2021, at 20:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-939	----	Legio V Macedonica - Wikipedia Legio V Macedonica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman legion This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Legio V Macedonica Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, under emperor Hadrian, showing the LEGIO V MACEDONICA, stationed on the river Danube at Troesmis (Romania), in Moesia Inferior province, from AD 107 to 161 Active 43 BC to sometime in the 7th century Country Roman Republic, Roman Empire, East Roman Empire Type Roman legion (Marian) later a comitatensis unit Role Infantry assault (some cavalry support) Size Varied over unit lifetime. 5,000–6,000 men during Principate Garrison/HQ Macedonia (30 BC–6) Oescus, Moesia (6–62) Oescus (71–101) Troesmis, Dacia (107–161) Potaissa, Dacia Porolissensis (166–274) Oescus (274–5th century) Nickname(s) possibly Urbana and/or Gallica (before 31 BC) Macedonica, "Macedonia" (since AD 6) Pia Fidelis, "faithful and loyal", or Pia Constans, "faithful and reliable" (since 185–7) Pia III Fidelis III (under Valerian) Pia VII Fidelis VII (under Gallienus) Mascot(s) Bull and eagle Engagements Battle of Actium (31 BC) Corbulo Parthian campaign (63) First Jewish-Roman War (66–70) Trajan's Dacian Wars (101–106) Verus Parthian campaign (161–166) vexillationes of the 5th participated in many other campaigns. This coin was issued by Roman emperor Gallienus to celebrate the V Macedonica, whose symbol, the eagle, is crowned of wrath by Victoria. The legend on the reverse says LEG V MAC VI P VI F, which means "Legio V Macedonica VI times faithful VI times loyal" Sestertius minted in 247 by Philip the Arab to celebrate Dacia province and its legions, V Macedonica and XIII Gemina. Note the eagle and the lion, V's and XIII's symbols, in the reverse. Legio V Macedonica (the Fifth Macedonian Legion) was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied in 43 BC by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus (later known as the Emperor Augustus). It was based in the Balkan provinces of Macedonia, Moesia and Dacia. In the Notitia Dignitatum records from beginning of the fifth century, the legion was still stationed in Dacia, with detachments stationed in the east and Egypt. The last known evidence shows the legion, or detachments from it, stationed in Egypt in the seventh century one or two years before the Islamic conquest of Egypt. It is often assumed that the legion fought in this war and was destroyed, although it is uncertain whether detachments or the whole legion were in Egypt, and there is no further evidence of the legion's eventual fate. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well. Contents 1 History 1.1 1st century BC: Creation and deployment in Macedonia 1.2 1st century: First Jewish–Roman War 1.3 2nd century: In Dacia and Near East 1.4 Later centuries: Honors and evolution 2 Gallery 3 Attested members 4 See also 5 Bibliography 5.1 References History[edit] 1st century BC: Creation and deployment in Macedonia[edit] The Legio V was one of the original twenty-eight legions raised by Octavian. There are two other fifth legions recorded: the V Gallica and the V Urbana. It is possible that these both were early names for the V Macedonica. The legion probably participated in the Battle of Actium (31 BC). It later moved to Macedonia, where it stayed from 30 BC to AD 6, gaining its cognomen, before moving to Oescus (Moesia). 1st century: First Jewish–Roman War[edit] It took part in the suppression of rebellion among the Thracians south of the Balkan Range during the establishment of the new province of Moesia in AD 45. In 62, some vexillationes of the Fifth fought under Lucius Caesennius Paetus in the Nero's Parthian War in Armenia. After the defeat of the Battle of Rhandeia, the whole V Macedonica, together with III Gallica, VI Ferrata, and X Fretensis under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, was sent to the east to fight in the conclusion of the war. The Fifth was probably still in the East when the First Jewish–Roman War in Iudaea Province began in 66. Nero gave the V Macedonica, the X Fretensis and the XV Apollinaris to Titus Flavius Vespasianus to counter the revolt. In 67, in Galilee, the city of Sepphoris surrendered peacefully to the Roman army, and later the V Macedonica conquered Mount Gerizim, the chief sanctuary of the Samaritans. In the Year of the Four Emperors, 68, the legion stayed inactive in Emmaus, where several tombstones of soldiers of the V Macedonica remain. After the proclamation of Vespasian as Emperor and the end of the war under his son Titus, the V Macedonica left Iudaea and returned to Oescus in 71. It took part in the first phase of Domitian's Dacian War in 85-86.[1] In 96 emperor Hadrian served the legion as an officer (tribunus militum). 2nd century: In Dacia and Near East[edit] In 101, the legion moved to Dacia, to fight in Emperor Trajan's campaign against the king Decebalus. After the war ended in 106, the legion remained in Troesmis (modern Iglita), near the Danube Delta since 107. A centurion of the legion, Calventius Viator, rose to prominence and was eventually promoted to commander of the emperor's horse guards, the equites singulares Augusti. Based on a Roman inscription discovered near Betar, Hadrian removed the V Macedonica from Dacia (present-day Romania) and sent it to Provincia Iudaea, or what is Judea, along with Legio XI Claudia,[2] in order to put down an insurrection that broke out in the 16th year of his reign as Roman Emperor, while Tineius (Tynius) Rufus was governor of the province,[3] and which later became known as the Jewish Revolt under Bar Kokhba. Roman Inscription found near Battir mentioning the 5th and 11th Roman Legions When Emperor Lucius Verus started his campaign against the Parthians (161–166), the legion moved to the east, but was later returned in Dacia Porolissensis, with a basecamp in Potaissa. The northern frontier was a hot border of the Empire; when emperor Marcus Aurelius had to fight against the Marcomanni, the Iazyges, and the Quadi, the V Macedonica was involved in these fights. At the beginning of the reign of Commodus, the V Macedonica and the XIII Gemina once again defeated the Iazyges, under the later usurpers Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. The Fifth later supported Septimius Severus, in his fight for the purple. In 185 or 187, the legion was awarded of the title Pia Constans ("Faithful and reliable") or Pia Fidelis ("Faithful and loyal"), after defeating a mercenary army in Dacia. Later centuries: Honors and evolution[edit] While remaining at Potaissa for most of the 3rd century, V Macedonica fought several times, earning honors. Valerian gave the Fifth the name III Pia III Fidelis; his son, Gallienus gave the legion the title VII Pia VII Fidelis, with the 4th, 5th and 6th titles awarded probably when the legion was used as a mobile cavalry unit against usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus (260, Moesia). A vexillatio fought against Victorinus (Gaul, 269–271). The legion returned to Oescus in 274, after Aurelian had retired from Dacia. It guarded the province in later centuries, becoming a comitatensis unit under the Magister Militum per Orientis. It probably became part of the Byzantine army. The cavalry unit created by Gallienus was definitively detached by Diocletian, and become part of his comitatus. This unit was sent to Mesopotamia, where it successfully fought against the Sassanid Empire in 296, and then to Memphis, where it remained until becoming part of the Byzantine army. Legio V Macedonica is mentioned again in the Notitia Dignitatum, stationed in Dacia Ripensis, with detachments in the Oriental Field Army and in Egypt.[4] Legio V Macedonica is again mentioned in both Antaeapolis and Heliopolis in inscriptions, which seem to have been detachments of the units in Memphis. The last inscription provides the date of 635 or 636, indicating that at least part of the Legion was in Egypt until just before the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs began in 637. This would make Legio V Macedonica the longest-lived Roman Legion known to history, spanning 680 years from 43 BC to 637 AD; the entire history of the Roman Empire in the Classical Era.[5] Gallery[edit] Tombstone of Legio V Macedonica soldier, found near Emmaus. On display at the Hecht Museum, Haifa LVM Marked brick in Potaissa Shield pattern of Legio V Macedonica in the early 5th century as depicted in Notitia Dignitatum, Or. VII. Attested members[edit] Name Lucius quintus severus Rank centurio Time frame 108-110 Province Moesia superior Soldier located in Veteran located in Source Atilius Verus [6] centurio before 62 Moesia Inferior ? ? AE 1912, 188 = ILB 52 M. Blossius Q. f. Aniensis Pudens [6] centurio 67–70 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL VI, 3580 a, b = ILS 2641 Ti. Claudius T. f. Vitalis [6] centurio 81–85 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL VI, 3584 = ILS 2656 = IPD 4 794 = IDRE I 3 M. Iulius V(o)ltinia [6] centurio between 85 and 95 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 7397 Resius Albanus [6] centurio reign of Tiberius? Moesia Inferior ? ? AE 1927, 51 = ILB 47 L. Lepidius L. f. An(iensi) Proculus [6] centurio 67–70 Italia Ariminum ? CIL III, 12411 Valerius Crispus [6] centurio between 71 and 101 Moesia Inferior ? ? E. Peeva, N. Sharankov, Archaeologia Bulgarica 10, 2006, 1, pp. 25–33, A-C L. Valerius L. f. Proculus [6] centurio between 85 and 95 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 12411 Pollio [6] centurio 67–71 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 14155 Stiminius [6] centurio 67–71 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 14155 Lucius Artorius Castus centurio, primipilus before 185 Moesia Inferior ? Pituntium (Dalmatia) CIL III, 1919; CIL III, 14224 Annius Vinicianus [6] legatus 63 Armenia ? ? Tacitus, Annales, XV.28 Sex. Vettulenus Cerialis[6] legatus 67-70 Judea ? ? Flavius Josephus, BJ III, 7, 32; VI, 4, 3 Marcus Cominius Secundus[7] legatus c. 141 - c. 144 ? ? Marcus Sedatius Severianus[7] legatus c. 144 – c. 147 ? ? AE 1913, 55 = ILS 9487; AE 1933, 249 Quintus Caecilius Redditus[7] legatus c. 152 ? ? AE 1957, 266 Aelius Optatus[7] legatus c. 156 – c. 159 ? ? AE 1960, 337 Publius Vigellius Saturninus[7] legatus c. 159 – c. 162 ? ? CIL III, 775 = CIL III, 6183 = ILS 1116 Publius Martius Verus[7] legatus c. 162–166 Cappadocia ? ? CIL III, 6169 Marcus Valerius Maximianus[8] legatus 180 ? ? AE 1956, 124 Tiberius Claudius Claudianus[9] legatus between 194 and 196 ? ? CIL III, 905, CIL VIII, 5349 Domitius Antigonius[9] legatus c. 222 ? ? AE 1966, 262 P(ublius) Oppiu[s]?[10] optio c. 69-c.70 Judea? ? Emmaus L. Praecilius Clemens Iulianus [6] praefectus castrorum 36–43 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 8753 C. Baebius Atticus [6] primipilus reign of Claudius Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL V, 1838; 1839 = ILS 1349 T. Pontinius [6] primipilus reign of Claudius? Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL XI, 4368 L. Praecilius Clemens Iulianus [6] primipilus between 36 and 43 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL III, 8753 [A]prenas Clemens [6] tribunus angusticlavius  ? Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL XI, 4119 (Narnia, Regio VI) L. Clodius P. f. Cla(udia) Ingenuus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Vespasian or Domitian Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL VI, 37274 C. Nonius C. f. Vel(ina) Flaccus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Vespasian? Moesia Inferior ? ? AE 1975, 353 C. Set[tidius] C. f. Pup(inia) Fir[mus] [6] tribunus angusticlavius 67-70 Moesia Inferior ? ? PME, S 45 (Pola, Regio X) T. Rutilius Varus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Nero Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL X, 1258 M. Valerius M. f. Gal. Propinquus Grattius Cerealis [6] tribunus angusticlavius 84/85 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL II, 4251 = ILS 2711 L. Volcacius Primus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Claudius or Nero Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL IX, 5363 = ILS 2737 Marcus Opsius Navius Fannianus[11] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Tiberius ? ? ? IG XIV.719 (IGR I.431); Tacitus, Annales IV.68, 71 Ignotus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Claudius Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL X, 6442, PME, Inc 183 Ignotus [6] tribunus angusticlavius reign of Claudius or Nero Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL XI, 4789, Spoletium, Regio VI, PME, Inc 204 C. Iulius Montanus [6] tribunus laticlavius before 56 Moesia Inferior ? ? CIL XI, 5884 = ILS 978; after Tacitus, Annales XIII, 25 Titus Junius Montanus [6] tribunus laticlavius reign of Nero Moesia Inferior ? ? AE 1973, 500 Publius Aelius Hadrianus tribunus laticlavius c. 95 Historia Augusta, "Hadrian", 3 Publius Cluvius Maximus Paullinus tribunus laticlavius before 127 AE 1940, 99 Gaius Javolenus Calvinus tribunus laticlavius before 138 CIL XIV, 2499 = ILS 1060 Gaius Julius Septimius Castinus tribunus laticlavius late 2nd century CIL III, 10473 Q. Cornelius M. f. Gal(eria tribu) Valerianus [6] praefectus vexillationum reign of Claudius Thracia ? ? CIL II, 3272; after CIL II, 2079 = ILS 2713 M. Clodius M. f. Fab(ia tribu) Ma[...] [6] praefectus vexillationum prior 56/57 Italia Brixia ? CIL V, 4326 See also[edit] List of Roman legions Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Legio V Macedonica. livius.org account E. Ritterling, "Legio", RE XII, col. 1572-5 Rumen Ivanov, "Lixa Legionis V Macedonicae aus Oescus", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 80, 1990, p. 131-136 D. Barag, S. Qedar, "A Countermark of the Legio Quinta Scytica from the Jewish War", INJ 13 (1994–1999), pp. 66–69. S. Gerson, "A New Countermark of the Fifth Legion", INR 1 (2006), pp. 97–100 Dr. Gerson, "A Coin Countermarked by Two Roman Legions", Israel Numismatic Journal 16, 2007–08, pp. 100–102 P. M. Séjourné, "Nouvelles de Jérusalem", RB 6, 1897, p. 131 E. Michon, "Inscription d'Amwas", RB 7, 1898, p. 269–271 J. H. Landau, "Two Inscribed Tombstones", Atiqot, vol. XI, Jerusalem, 1976 References[edit] ^ ILIAN BOYANOV, Oescus - from castra to colonia. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297565828_Oescus_-_from_castra_to_colonia [accessed Apr 03 2021] ^ C. Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Palestine during the Years 1873-74, London 1899, pp. 463-470. ^ Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba, Random House New York 1971, p. 258. ^ Notitia Dignitatum In Partibus Occidentis ^ Ross Cowan, The Longest Lived Legion, Ancient Warfare ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Matei-Popescu, Florian (2010). "The Roman Army in Moesia Inferior". STRATEG Project - PNCDI II. Conphys Publishing House. p. 325. Retrieved January 5, 2016. ^ a b c d e f Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen (Bonn: Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 299 ^ Paul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1989), p. 339 ^ a b Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare, p. 340 ^ 22952 Grabstele des Publius Oppius ...cio ^ Bernard Rémy, Les carrières sénatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolie au Haut-Empire (31 av. J.-C. - 284 ap. J.-C.) (Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes-Georges Dumézil, 1989), p. 79 v t e Roman legions Legio I Adiutrix Legio I Armeniaca Legio I Flavia Constantia Legio I Germanica Legio I Iovia Legio I Isaura Sagittaria Legio I Italica Legio I Macriana liberatrix Legio I Maximiana Legio I Minervia Legio I Parthica Legio II Adiutrix Legio II Armeniaca Legio II Augusta Legio II Flavia Constantia Legio II Flavia Virtutis Legio II Gallica Legio II Herculia Legio II Isaura Legio II Italica Legio II Parthica Legio II Traiana Fortis Legio III Augusta Legio III Cyrenaica Legio III Diocletiana Legio III Gallica Legio III Isaura Legio III Italica Legio III Parthica Legio IV Flavia Felix Legio IV Italica Legio IV Macedonica Legio IV Scythica Legio V Alaudae Legio V Iovia Legio V Macedonica Legio V Parthica Legio VI Ferrata Legio VI Herculia Legio VI Hispana Legio VI Victrix Legio VII Claudia Legio VII Gemina Legio VIII Augusta Legio IX Hispana Legio X Equestris Legio X Fretensis Legio X Gemina Legio XI Legio XI Claudia Legio XII Fulminata Legio XIII Gemina Legio XIV Gemina Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Primigenia Legio XVI Flavia Firma Legio XVI Gallica Legio XVII Legio XVIII Legio XIX Legio XX Valeria Victrix Legio XXI Rapax Legio XXII Deiotariana Legio XXII Primigenia Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legio_V_Macedonica&oldid=1015918727" Categories: Roman legions 40s BC establishments 1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic Macedonia (Roman province) Comitatenses Military units and formations established in the 1st century BC First Jewish–Roman War Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2011 All articles lacking in-text citations Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 09:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9409	----	Epulones - Wikipedia Epulones From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Priesthoods of ancient Rome Flamen (AD 250–260) Major colleges Pontifices · Augures · Septemviri epulonum Quindecimviri sacris faciundis Other colleges or sodalities Fetiales · Fratres Arvales · Salii Titii · Luperci · Sodales Augustales Priests Pontifex Maximus · Rex Sacrorum Flamen Dialis · Flamen Martialis Flamen Quirinalis · Rex Nemorensis Curio maximus Priestesses Virgo Vestalis Maxima Flaminica Dialis · Regina sacrorum Related topics Religion in ancient Rome · Imperial cult Glossary of ancient Roman religion Gallo-Roman religion v t e Goddess (Vesta or Concordia), extending a patera, emblem of the Epulones The epulones (Latin for "feasters"; sing. epulo) arranged feasts and public banquets at festivals and games (ludi). They constituted one of the four great religious corporations (quattuor amplissima collegia) of ancient Roman priests.[1] Establishment and influence[edit] The college was founded in 196 BC. The need for such a college arose as the increasingly elaborate festivals required experts to oversee their organization.[2] There were four great religious corporations (quattuor amplissima collegia) of ancient Roman priests; the two most important were the College of Pontiffs and the college of augurs; the fourth was the quindecimviri sacris faciundis. The third college was the epulones; their duties to arrange the feasts and public banquets for festivals and games (ludi) had originally been carried out by the pontiffs.[1] The College of Epulones was established long after civil reforms had opened the magistracies and most priesthoods to plebeians, who were thus eligible from its beginning.[3] Initially there were three epulones, but later their number was increased to seven; hence they were also known as the septemviri epulonum, "seven men of the epulones". Julius Caesar expanded the college to ten, but after his death it was reduced back to seven. The patera was the sacred bowl used by the epulones. It was shallow with a raised center so that when held in the palm, the thumb could be placed on the raised centre without profaning the libation, as it is poured into the focus, or sacred fire. The patera was the special emblem of the epulones. The paten used today by Roman Catholic priests, omits the raised center. References[edit] ^ a b Lintott, Andrew (1 April 1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Clarendon Press. pp. 184 ff. ISBN 978-0-19-158467-1. ^ "Religion in the Roman Empire". Archived from the original on 2016-05-12. Retrieved 2006-08-24. ^ "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities". p. 221. Archived from the original on 3 December 2010. External links[edit] Lacus Curtius website: Epulones from William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. Roman Magistrates religio Romana: Patera Epulones This Ancient Rome–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epulones&oldid=1014906440" Categories: Epulones Ancient Roman religious titles Ancient Rome stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 18:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-9442	----	Honorius (emperor) - Wikipedia Honorius (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Honorius. Roman emperor from 393 to 423 Roman emperor Honorius Solidus of Honorius Roman emperor (in the West) Reign 23 January 393 – 15 August 423 Predecessor Theodosius I Successor Joannes Alongside Arcadius (East, 393–408) Theodosius II (East, 408–423) Constantine III (Gaul, 409–411) Constantius III (421) Born 9 September 384 Constantinople Died 15 August 423 (aged 38) Ravenna, Italy Burial Old St. Peter's Basilica Spouse Maria (m. 398, died 407) Thermantia (m. 408, divorced) Names Flavius Honorius Dynasty Theodosian Father Theodosius I Mother Aelia Flaccilla Religion Nicene Christianity Flavius Honorius (9 September 384 – 15 August 423) was Roman emperor from 393 to 423. He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Arcadius, who ruled the eastern half of the empire from 395, when their father died, until his death in 408. In 410, during Honorius's reign over the western Roman Empire, Rome was sacked for the first time in almost 800 years.[1] Even by the standards of the rapidly declining Western Empire, Honorius's reign was precarious and chaotic. His early reign was supported by his principal general, Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian (during his childhood) and his father-in-law (after the emperor became an adult). Contents 1 Family 2 Emperor 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Stilicho and the defense of Italy 2.3 Constantius and the beginning of erosion of the Western Empire 2.4 Death 3 Sack of Rome 4 Assessments 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Family[edit] Honorius was born to emperor Theodosius I and empress Aelia Flaccilla on September 9, 384 in Constantinople. He was brother to Arcadius and Pulcheria. In 386, his mother died, and in 387, Theodosius married Galla who had taken a temporary refuge in Thessaloniki with her family, including her brother Valentinian II and mother Justina, away from usurper Magnus Maximus. Theodosius and Galla had two children, Galla Placidia and Gratian, making Honorius half-brother to them. Honorius, Arcadius and Galla Placidia were the only children of Theodosius to survive into adulthood. Emperor[edit] Early reign[edit] The Western Roman Emperor Honorius, Jean-Paul Laurens (1880). Honorius became Augustus on 23 January 393, at the age of eight. After holding the consulate at the age of two in 386, Honorius was declared Augustus by his father Theodosius I, and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393 after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius.[2] When Theodosius died, in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire, so that Honorius became Western Roman Emperor at the age of ten.[3] During the early part of his reign Honorius depended on the military leadership of the general Stilicho, who had been appointed by Theodosius[4] and was of mixed Vandal and Roman ancestry.[5] To strengthen his bonds with the young emperor and to make his grandchild an imperial heir, Stilicho married his daughter Maria to him.[6] The epithalamion written for the occasion by Stilicho's court poet Claudian survives.[7] Honorius was also influenced by the Popes of Rome. So it was that Pope Innocent I and Western bishops may have been successful in persuading Honorius to write to his brother, arguing for convening a synod in Thessalonica.[8] At first Honorius based his capital in Milan, but when the Visigoths under King Alaric I entered Italy in 401 he moved his capital to the coastal city of Ravenna, which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications.[9] While the new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect Central Italy from the increasingly regular threat of barbarian incursions. It was significant that the Emperor's residence remained in Ravenna until the overthrow of the last western Roman Emperor in 476. That was probably the reason why Ravenna was chosen not only as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy, but also for the seat of the Byzantine exarchs as well.[9] Stilicho and the defense of Italy[edit] Inscription honouring Honorius, as florentissimo invictissimoque, the most excellent and invincible, 417–418, Forum Romanum Honorius' reign experienced continued barbarian incursions into Gaul, Italy and Hispania. At the same time, a host of usurpers rose up. Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406) The first crisis faced by Honorius was a revolt led by Gildo, the Comes Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam, in Northern Africa, which lasted for two years (397–398).[10] It was eventually subdued by Stilicho, under the local command of Mascezel, the very brother of Gildo.[11] The next crisis was the Visigothic invasion of Italy in 402 under the command of their king, Alaric. Stilicho was absent in Raetia in the latter months of 401, when Alaric, who was also the Eastern Empire's magister militum in Illyricum, suddenly marched with a large army through the Julian Alps and entered Italy.[12] Stilicho hurried back to protect Honorius and the legions of Gaul and Britain were summoned to defend Italy. Honorius, at Milan, was besieged by Alaric, who marched into Liguria. Stilicho narrowly defeated Alaric at Pollentia, on the river Tanarus on Easter Day (6 April 402). Alaric retreated to Verona, where Stilicho attacked him again yet the battle was not entirely conclusive. The Visigoths were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum.[13] In 405 Stilicho met an invasion of Italy led across the Danube by Radagaisus. They brought devastation to the heart of the Empire, until Stilicho defeated them in 406 and recruited most of them into his forces.[9] Then, in 405/6, a tribal confederation, composed of Suevians, Vandals, Alans and Goths crossed the frozen Rhine and invaded Gaul. The situation in Britain was even more difficult. The British provinces were isolated, lacking support from the Empire, and the soldiers supported the revolts of Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III. Constantine invaded Gaul in 407, occupying Arles, and while Constantine was in Gaul, his son Constans ruled over Britain.[14] By 410, Britain may have been told to look after its own affairs and expect no aid from Rome, although it has been argued that the order was sent to the people of Bruttium in Italy, not Britain.[15][16] The western empire was effectively overstretched due to the massive invasion of Alans, Suebi and Vandals who, although they had been repulsed from Italy in 406, moved into Gaul on 31 December 406,[14] and arrived in Hispania in 409. In early 408, Stilicho attempted to strengthen his position at court by marrying his second daughter, Thermantia, to Honorius after the death of the Empress Maria in 407[17] making Honorius the last Western Roman Emperor to have multiple wives during their term in the office. Another invasion by Alaric was prevented in 408 by Stilicho when he forced the Roman Senate to pay 4,000 pounds of gold to persuade the Goths to leave Italy.[18][better source needed] Honorius, in the meantime, was at Bononia, on his way from Ravenna to Ticinum, when the news reached him of his brother's death in May 408. He at first was planning to go to Constantinople to help set up the court during the transition from Arcadius to Theodosius II.[19] Summoned from Ravenna for advice, Stilicho advised Honorius not to go, and proceeded to go himself. In Stilicho's absence, a minister named Olympius gained the confidence of Honorius. He convinced the emperor that his father-in-law was conspiring with the barbarians to overthrow him.[20] On his return to Ravenna, Honorius ordered the arrest and execution of Stilicho. With Stilicho's fall, Honorius moved against all of his former father-in-law's allies, killing and torturing key individuals and ordering the confiscation of the property of anyone who had borne any office while Stilicho was in command. Honorius's wife Thermantia, daughter of Stilicho, was taken from the imperial throne and given over to her mother; Eucherius, the son of Stilicho, was put to death.[21] The purge also massacred the families of Stilicho's foederati troops, and they defected en masse to Alaric. In 409, Alaric returned to Italy to claim more gold and land to settle in, as feudatory vassals of the Empire, which Stilicho had promised him. Honorius refused to fulfill his former general's promises and Alaric marched on Rome,[22] which bought him off after a short siege with Rome on the verge of famine. A palace revolution in Honorius' court led meanwhile to a change of ministers, and those hostile to the Goths were replaced by officers favorable to Alaric, who began peace negotiations. While the embassy was absent, a new change occurred at Ravenna, and Honorius disclaimed the peace which was on the verge of being concluded.[23] The enraged Alaric returned to Rome and forced the Senate to elect Priscus Attalus as emperor, who ratified Alaric's former treaty with Stilicho.[24] In 410, the Eastern Roman Empire sent six legions (6,000 men; due to changes in tactics, legions of this period were about 1,000 soldiers, down from the 6,000-soldier legions of the Republic and early Empire periods)[25] from Ravenna to aid Honorius, but Alaric ambushed the legions on the way, and only a handful of them reached Rome.[26] To counter Attalus, Honorius tried to negotiate with Alaric in addition to restricting grain shipments to Rome from North Africa. Attalus dispatched an army to conquer Africa and restore the grain supply to Rome, but the governor, Heraclian, who was loyal to Honorius, wiped out this force as soon as it landed on the coast.[27] As Rome was dependent on North African grain for sustenance, the populace was faced with the prospect of famine, and they blamed Attalus for the impending calamity. Growing desperate, Attalus searched for means of pacifying the people, but found himself, in consequence of conciliatory expenditures, incapable of satisfying his debt to Alaric, and thus alienated both Romans and Goths. In turn he came out to be exploited in political terms. Confronted with the increasing unpopularity and truculence of Attalus, Alaric dethroned him in 410 and proposed to renew negotiations with Honorius.[27] Honorius, overconfident at Attalus' fall and the victory of his general Heraclian over Attalus' African expeditionary force, refused negotiation, and declared Alaric the eternal enemy of the Republic.[28] The infuriated Alaric turned on the defenseless Rome and sacked the city. Constantius and the beginning of erosion of the Western Empire[edit] Christian pendant of Empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, and wife of Honorius. The pendant reads, around a central cross (clockwise): HONORI MARIA SERHNA VIVATIS STELICHO. Latin and Greek characters were intermingled in this one. The letters form a Christogram. Louvre, Paris. The revolt of Constantine III in the west continued through this period. In 409, Gerontius, Constantine III's general in Hispania, rebelled against him, proclaimed Maximus Emperor, and besieged Constantine at Arles.[29] Honorius now found himself an able commander, Constantius, who defeated Maximus and Gerontius, and then Constantine, in 411. Gaul was again a source of troubles for Honorius: just after Constantius's troops had returned to Italy, Jovinus revolted in northern Gaul, with the support of Alans, Burgundians, and the nobility of Gallic descent.[30] Jovinus tried to negotiate with the invading Goths of Ataulf (412), but his proclamation of his brother Sebastianus as Augustus made Ataulf seek alliance with Honorius. Honorius had Ataulf defeat and execute Jovinus in 413.[31] At the same time, Heraclianus raised the standard of revolt in North Africa, but failed during an invasion of Italy. Defeated, he fled back to Carthage and was killed.[31] In 414, Constantius attacked Ataulf, who proclaimed Priscus Attalus emperor again. Constantius drove Ataulf into Hispania, and Attalus, having again lost Visigoth support, was captured and deposed once again. In the eleventh consulship of Honorius and the second of Constantius, the Emperor entered Rome in triumph, with Attalus at the wheels of his chariot. Honorius punished Attalus by cutting off his right finger and thumb, inflicting the same fate with which Attalus had threatened Honorius. Remembering how Attalus had suggested that Honorius should retire to some small island, he returned the favor by banishing Attalus to the island of Lipara.[32] Northeastern Gaul became subject to even greater Frankish influence, while a treaty signed in 418 granted to the Visigoths southwestern Gaul, the former Gallia Aquitania. Under the influence of Constantius, Honorius issued the Edict of 418, which was designed to enable the Empire to retain a hold on the lands which were to be surrendered to the Goths.[33] This edict relaxed the administrative bonds that connected all the Seven Provinces (The Maritime Alps, Narbonensis Prima, Narbonensis Secunda, Novempopulania, Aquitania Prima, Aquitania Secunda and Viennensis) with the central government. It removed the imperial governors and allowed the inhabitants, as a dependent federation, to conduct their own affairs, for which purpose representatives of all the towns were to meet every year in Arles.[34] In 417, Constantius married Honorius's sister, Galla Placidia, much against her will.[32] In 421, Honorius recognized him as co-emperor Constantius III;[35] however, when the announcement of his elevation was sent to Constantinople, Theodosius refused to recognise him. Constantius, enraged, began preparations for a military conflict with the eastern empire but before he could commence it, he died early in 422.[36] In 420–422, another Maximus (or perhaps the same) gained and lost power in Hispania. By the time of Honorius's death in 423, Britain, Spain and Gaul had been ravaged by barbarians.[37] In his final years, Honorius reportedly developed a physical attraction to his half-sister, and in order to escape his unwelcome attentions, Galla Placidia and her children, the future emperor Valentinian III and his sister, Honoria, fled to Constantinople.[38] Death[edit] Honorius died of edema on 15 August 423, leaving no heir.[17] In the subsequent interregnum Joannes was nominated Emperor. The following year, however, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II installed his cousin Valentinian III, son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III, as Emperor. The Mausoleum of Honorius was located on the Vatican Hill, accessed from the transept of the Old Saint Peter's Basilica. It was first used for Maria. Probably Thermantia and Honorius's sister Galla Placidia, and perhaps other imperial family members, were later buried there. In the 8th century it was transformed into a church, the Chapel of St Petronilla, which held the relics of the saint and was demolished when the New St Peter's was erected.[39][40] Sack of Rome[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Sack of Rome (410) The Favorites of the Emperor Honorius, by John William Waterhouse, 1883 His reign saw the assault and Sack of Rome on 24 August 410 by the Visigoths under Alaric. The city had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408.[41] Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly Germanic Roman army, Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could in the situation: wait passively for the Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could. Unfortunately, this course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius' indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians. Whether this plan could have worked is perhaps debatable. In any case, it was overtaken by events. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and the Goths poured in. The city had not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gauls some eight centuries before. The sack itself was notably mild as sacks go. For example, churches and religious statuary went unharmed.[42] The psychological blow to the contemporary Roman world was considerably more painful. The shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired Augustine to write his magnum opus, The City of God. The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions, called the Rescript of Honorius. Preoccupied with the Visigoths, Honorius lacked any military capability to assist the distant province. According to the sixth century Byzantine scholar Zosimus, "Honorius wrote letters to the cities in Britain, bidding them to guard themselves."[43] This sentence is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy.[44][45][46] Assessments[edit] Solidus of emperor Honorius minted at Ravenna In his History of the Wars, Procopius mentions a likely apocryphal story where, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", Honorius was initially shocked; thinking the news was in reference to a favourite chicken he had named "Roma". "At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Rome had perished. And he cried out and said, 'And yet it has just eaten from my hands!' For he had a very large cock, Rome by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Rome which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: 'But I thought that my fowl Rome had perished.' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed." —Procopius, The Vandalic War (III.2.25–26) With regard of Procopius' tale, recently, T. Kovács argued that the fowl and Rome were not two entities but one, the possibility of being a monarch ruling over the Eastern and the Western sides of the empire. Honorius’ rooster, indeed, symbolized his father’s (Theodosius the Great) rise to the throne, his rule over both the Eastern and the Western halves of the Roman Empire.[47] Honorius was negatively assessed by some 19th and 20th century historians, including J.B. Bury.[48] Honorius issued a decree during his reign, prohibiting men from wearing trousers in Rome.[49] The last known gladiatoral games took place during the reign of Honorius,[50] who banned the practice in 399 and again in 404, reportedly due to the martyrdom of a Christian monk named Telemachus while he was protesting a gladiator fight. See also[edit] Usurpers during Honorius reign: Priscus Attalus in Rome (two times, both as a puppet of Alaric); Maximus in Hispania; Marcus, Gratian, Constantine "III" and Constans "II" in Gaul and Britain; Jovinus and Sebastianus (joint puppets of Gundahar and Goar). Co-emperors with Honorius: Constantius III. Succession to Honorius: Joannes and Valentinian III. Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire Notes[edit] ^ Doyle, Chris (2018). Honorius: The Fight for the Roman West AD 395-423. Routledge Roman Imperial Biographies series. ^ Williams, Stephen and Gerard Friell, Theodosius: The Empire at Bay, Yale University Press, 1994, p. 129 ^ Victor, 48:19 ^ Zosimus, 4:59:1 ^ Frasetto, Michael (2003). Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576072630, p. 320. Google Books. ^ Zosimus, 5:3:1 ^ Bury, p. 77 ^ Bury, p. 105 ^ a b c Bury, p. 110 ^ Bury, p. 76 ^ Zosimus, Book 5 ^ Bury, p. 108 ^ Bury, p. 109 ^ a b Bury, p. 111 ^ Zosimus, 10:2 ^ Birley, Anthony Richard The Roman Government of Britain OUP Oxford (29 Sep 2005) ISBN 978-0199252374 pp. 461-463 ^ a b Jones, p. 442 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 131 ^ Bury, p. 112 ^ Bury, p. 113 ^ Zosimus, 5:44 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XXXI., pp. 1088, 1089 ^ Gibbon, pp. 1112-14 ^ Gibbon, pp. 1114-16 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 136 ^ Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower, paperback edition published in 2010 by Phoenix, an imprint of Orion Books Ltd, London, p. 310 ^ a b Gibbon, p. 1118 ^ Gibbon, p. 1119 ^ Bury, p. 142 ^ Bury, p. 145 ^ a b Bury, p. 146 ^ a b Bury, p. 150 ^ Bury, p. 153 ^ Bury, p. 154 ^ Bury, p. 151 ^ Bury, p. 155 ^ Bury, p. 211 ^ Bury, p. 156 ^ The Roman Imperial Mausoleum in Late Antiquity ^ Roger Pearse (16 May 2014). "Old St Peters, the Circus of Caligula and the Phrygianum". Roger Pearse's blog. Retrieved 1 December 2015. ^ Bury, pp. 174-75 ^ Bury, pp. 183-84 ^ Zosimus, vi.10.2 ^ Birley, Anthony R. (2005). The Roman Government of Britain. OUP Oxford. pp. 461–63. ISBN 978-0-19-925237-4. ^ Halsall, Guy Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 December 2007) ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1 pp. 217–218 ^ Discussion in Martin Millett, The Romanization of Britain, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' Britannia vol. 13, 1982 p. 260 ^ Kovács, Tamás (2020). "410: Honorius, his Rooster, and the Eunuch (Procop. Vand. 1.2.25–26)" (PDF). Graeco-Latina Brunensia. 25 (2): 131–148. doi:10.5817/GLB2020-2-10. Archived from the original on 2020. ^ Summarising Procopius' account of Honorius's reign, wrote: "His name would be forgotten among the obscurest occupants of the Imperial throne were it not that his reign coincided with the fatal period in which it was decided that western Europe was to pass from the Roman to the Teuton." After listing the disasters of those 28 years, Bury concluded:"[Honorius] himself did nothing of note against the enemies who infested his realm, but personally he was extraordinarily fortunate in occupying the throne till he died a natural death and witnessing the destruction of the multitude of tyrants who rose up against him."John Bagnall Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 1923 (New York: Dover, 1958), p. 213 ^ Codex Theodosianus 14.10.2–3, tr. C. Pharr, "The Theodosian Code," p. 415. ^ "The Reign of Honorius – Telemachus and the End of the Gladiators" by Linda Alchin, "Honorius", 5 March 2015, retrieved 12 October 2016 References[edit] Primary sources Aurelius Victor, "Epitome de Caesaribus", English version of Epitome de Caesaribus Zosimus, "Historia Nova", Books 4–6 Historia Nova Secondary sources Doyle, Chris. 'Honorius: The Fight for the Roman West AD395-423'. Roman Imperial Biographies. Routledge. (2018) https://www.routledge.com/Honorius-The-Fight-for-the-Roman-West-AD-395-423/Doyle/p/book/9781138190887 Doyle, Christopher. The Endgame of Treason: Suppressing Rebellion and Usurpation in the Late Roman Empire AD 397‑411. (2014) National University of Ireland Galway. Unpublished doctoral thesis. https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/handle/10379/4631 Kovács, Tamás. “410: Honorius, His Rooster, and the Eunuch (Procop. Vand. 1.2.25–26).” Graeco-Latina Brunensia 25, no. 2 (2020): 131–48. https://doi.org/10.5817/GLB2020-2-10. Mathisen, Ralph, "Honorius (395–423 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2010). 'Rome and the transformation of the imperial office in the late fourth - mid-fifth centuries A.D.', Papers of the British School at Rome 78: 151–192. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367-455. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). 'The mausoleum of Honorius: late Roman imperial Christianity and the city of Rome in the fifth century', in Rosamond McKitterick, John Osbourne, Carol M. Richards, Joanna Story (eds.), Old St Peter's, Rome, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 119–136. Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Bury, J. B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I (1889) Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) External links[edit] This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Honorius relating to Christianity. Media related to Flavius Augustus Honorius at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Theodosius I Western Roman emperor 395–423 with Constantius III (421) Succeeded by Joannes Political offices Preceded by Arcadius Bauto Roman consul 386 with Flavius Euodius Succeeded by Valentinian II Eutropius Preceded by Theodosius I Abundatius Roman consul II 394 with Arcadius Succeeded by Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Anicius Probinus Preceded by Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Anicius Probinus Roman consul III 396 with Arcadius Succeeded by Caesarius Nonius Atticus Preceded by Caesarius Nonius Atticus Roman consul IV 398 with Eutychianus Succeeded by Mallius Theodorus Eutropius Preceded by Vincentius Fravitta Roman consul V 402 with Arcadius Succeeded by Theodosius II Rumoridus Preceded by Theodosius II Rumoridus Roman consul VI 404 with Aristaenetus Succeeded by Stilicho Anthemius Preceded by Arcadius Anicius Petronius Probus Roman consul VII 407 with Theodosius II Succeeded by Anicius 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en-wikipedia-org-9452	----	Category:Use dmy dates from May 2020 - Wikipedia Help Category:Use dmy dates from May 2020 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Update this page Use dmy dates (refresh) Subtotals January 2011 2,816 February 2011 981 March 2011 628 April 2011 1,082 May 2011 1,579 June 2011 1,206 July 2011 1,518 August 2011 1,378 September 2011 2,449 October 2011 1,344 November 2011 728 January 2012 3,546 February 2012 945 March 2012 3,812 April 2012 9,340 May 2012 2,187 June 2012 1,474 July 2012 1,792 August 2012 5,038 September 2012 3,296 October 2012 6,689 November 2012 9,442 December 2012 2,471 January 2013 4,276 February 2013 5,032 March 2013 3,890 April 2013 4,154 May 2013 6,183 June 2013 10,420 July 2013 20,043 August 2013 7,084 September 2013 10,235 October 2013 9,846 November 2013 5,018 December 2013 4,607 January 2014 7,021 February 2014 5,372 March 2014 5,665 April 2014 5,987 May 2014 7,204 June 2014 5,623 July 2014 6,044 August 2014 13,897 September 2014 10,944 October 2014 4,923 November 2014 3,744 December 2014 4,590 January 2015 6,055 February 2015 5,911 March 2015 7,859 April 2015 5,812 May 2015 7,870 June 2015 7,449 July 2015 8,738 August 2015 8,851 September 2015 12,784 October 2015 8,952 November 2015 11,086 December 2015 8,492 January 2016 8,558 February 2016 7,424 March 2016 8,622 April 2016 7,715 May 2016 9,117 June 2016 8,007 July 2016 8,824 August 2016 9,137 September 2016 8,212 October 2016 7,897 November 2016 8,062 December 2016 9,298 January 2017 10,296 February 2017 7,760 March 2017 10,689 April 2017 11,560 May 2017 7,001 June 2017 13,082 July 2017 8,495 August 2017 7,590 September 2017 7,900 October 2017 9,579 November 2017 7,831 December 2017 8,609 January 2018 12,074 February 2018 11,444 March 2018 12,327 April 2018 14,831 May 2018 11,761 June 2018 12,237 July 2018 10,236 August 2018 8,777 September 2018 7,337 October 2018 9,224 November 2018 8,488 December 2018 9,448 January 2019 10,447 February 2019 6,972 March 2019 8,178 April 2019 7,304 May 2019 7,780 June 2019 8,689 July 2019 35,189 August 2019 25,001 September 2019 24,482 October 2019 34,292 November 2019 28,257 December 2019 11,837 January 2020 18,717 February 2020 19,177 March 2020 26,422 April 2020 23,238 May 2020 20,457 June 2020 23,513 July 2020 20,287 August 2020 20,817 September 2020 19,981 October 2020 19,241 November 2020 15,783 December 2020 18,476 January 2021 19,903 February 2021 18,318 March 2021 17,189 April 2021 13,681 May 2021 13,699 June 2021 5,869 Undated articles 0 All articles 1,220,047 This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. 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en-wikipedia-org-9466	----	Seneca's Consolations - Wikipedia Seneca's Consolations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seneca’s three Consolatory works written around 40–45 AD "consolations" redirects here. For the act of consoling, see Consolation. Seneca's Consolations refers to Seneca’s three Consolatory works, De Consolatione ad Marciam, De Consolatione ad Polybium, De Consolatione ad Helviam, written around 40–45 AD. Contents 1 Context of the Consolations 2 De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem 3 De Consolatione ad Polybium 4 De Consolatione ad Marciam 5 Consolatory letters 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Translations 9 External links Context of the Consolations[edit] Seneca’s three Consolatory works, De Consolatione ad Marciam, De Consolatione ad Polybium, and De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem, were all constructed in the Consolatio Literary Tradition, dating back to the fifth century BC. The Consolations are part of Seneca’s Treatises, commonly called Dialogues, or Dialogi.[1] These works clearly contain essential principles of Seneca’s Stoic teachings. Although they are personal addresses of Seneca, these works are written more like essays than personal letters of consolation. Furthermore, although each essay is particular in its address of consolation, the tone of these works is notably detached. Seneca seems more preoccupied with presenting facts of the universe and the human condition instead of offering solace. This detachment may be a result of Seneca’s attempt to gain favor and contrive a return from exile through these Consolatio works, instead of merely offering a friendly hand of comfort.[2][3] De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem[edit] In De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem, Seneca writes his mother to console her on his recent exile to Corsica. In this work, Seneca employs many of the rhetorical devices common to the Consolatio Tradition, while also incorporating his Stoic Philosophy. Seneca is the consoler and the one inflicting suffering in this work, and notes this paradox in the text. Seneca was charged with adultery with Julia Livilla, sister of Emperor Caligula in 41 AD. He was shortly after exiled to Corsica. Scholars have concluded that the De Consolatione ad Helviam is dated roughly 42/43 AD. In the text, Seneca tells his mother he does not feel grief, therefore she should not mourn his absence. He refers to his exile merely as a ‘change of place’ and reassures her his exile did not bring him feelings of disgrace. Seneca comments on his mother’s strong character as a virtue that will allow her to bear his absence.[1] Seneca’s seemingly positive outlook on his own exile follows his Stoic philosophy teachings that one should not be upset by uncontrollable events. This quote from De Consolatione ad Helviam, shows Seneca’s presentation of his life as tolerable, and even spiritually enjoyable. I am joyous and cheerful, as if under the best of circumstances. And indeed, now they are the best, since my spirit, devoid of all other preoccupations, has room for its own activities, and either delights in easier studies or rises up eager for the truth, to the consideration of its own nature as well as that of the universe…[4] De Consolatione ad Polybium[edit] Seneca wrote De Consolatione ad Polybium approximately 43/44 AD, during his years in exile. Scholars often refer to this work as the definitive representation of the part of Seneca’s life he spent in exile. This Consolatio addresses Polybius, Emperor Claudius’ Literary Secretary, to console him on the death of his brother. The essay contains Seneca’s Stoic philosophy, with particular attention to the inescapable reality of death. Although the essay is about a very personal matter, the essay itself doesn’t seem particularly empathetic to Polybius’ unique case, but rather a broader essay on grief and bereavement. In fact, the reader doesn’t ever find out the name of Polybius’ deceased brother. One scholar claims that the De Consolatione ad Polybium is an attempt by Seneca to contrive his return from exile. (Rudich) This letter to Polybius clearly tries to gain his favor, and as well as flatter the Emperor Claudius, ironically seeking to draw empathy for himself in the process: As many tears as are left to me by my own fortune I do not refuse to shed lamenting yours. For I will manage to find in my eyes, exhausted as they are by my private crying, some that still may pour out, if this will do you any good.[4] In the text of De Consolatione ad Polybium, Seneca encourages Polybius to distract himself from grief with his busy work schedule. The tonal switch from consoling Polybius to flattery of Emperor Claudius occurs in chapter 12. (Ball) Seneca credits the emperor as the source of his ‘high station’ and as the giver of his, ‘pleasure of being able to perform duties.’ (Ball) Seneca then delves into a series of prayers of devotion and flattery, which invoke long life for the emperor. This switch is sudden, abrupt, and incongruent with Seneca’s Stoic philosophy. (Rudrich) It appears almost desperate in its presentation. In fact, the tone is so recognizably changed, some scholars claim other authorship besides Seneca. (Ball) However, it is most widely accepted that the tonal switch in De Consolatione ad Polybium was nothing more than Seneca’s desperate attempt to escape exile and return from Corsica. (Rudich) De Consolatione ad Marciam[edit] De Consolatione ad Marciam ("On Consolation to Marcia") is a work by Seneca written around 40 AD. Like Seneca’s other Consolatory works, this Consolation is constructed in the Consolatio tradition, and takes the form of an essay versus a personal letter. Seneca was most likely motivated to write this letter of consolation to Marcia in order to gain her favor; Marcia was the daughter of a prominent historian, Aulus Cremutius Cordus, and her family’s enormous wealth and influence most likely inspired Seneca to write this letter of consolation. Through the essay he sticks to philosophical abstractions concerning Stoic precepts of life and death. For a letter offering solace, he notably lacks empathy toward Marcia's individual grief and loss.[4] Marcia actively mourned the death of her son Metilius for over three years. In De Consolatione ad Marciam, Seneca attempts to convince her that the fate of her son, while tragic, should not have been a surprise. She knew many other mothers who had lost their sons; why should she expect her own son to survive her? The acknowledgement, even expectation, of the worst of all possible outcomes is a tenet of Seneca's Stoic philosophy. While Seneca sympathised with Marcia, he reminded her that "we are born into a world of things which are all destined to die," and that if she could accept that no one is guaranteed a just life (that is, one in which sons always outlive their mothers), she could finally end her mourning and live the rest of her life in peace. the inhabited world... in huge conflagration it will burn and scorch and burn all mortal things... stars will clash with stars and all the fiery matter of the world... will blaze up in a common conflagration. Then the souls of the Blessed, who have partaken of immortality, when it will seem best for god to create the universe anew… will be changed again into our former elements. Happy, Marcia, is your son who knows these mysteries! (Seneca, Ad Marciam de Consolatione) Seneca contrasted two models of maternal grieving: that of Octavia Minor, sister of Augustus, who, on losing her only son Marcellus in his twenties, "set no bounds to her tears and moans"; with that of Livia, wife of Augustus, who on losing her son Drusus "as soon as she had placed him in the tomb, along with her son she laid away her sorrow, and grieved no more than was respectful to Caesar or fair Tiberius, seeing that they were alive."[5] Consolatory letters[edit] Several of Seneca's Moral Epistles are also consolations. Two of the consolations are addressed to Lucilius: Epistle 63[6] consoles him on the death of his friend Flaccus; Epistle 93[7] consoles him on the death of the philosopher Metronax. Epistle 99[8] consists largely of a copy of a letter Seneca wrote to his friend Marullus,[9] following the death of his "little son." See also[edit] Consolation of Philosophy Consolatio Literary Genre References[edit] ^ a b Costa, C.D.N. Seneca: Four Dialogues. Aris and Phillips Ltd. England 1994 ^ Scourfield, J. H. D. Consoling Heliodorus: a commentary on Jerome, Letter 60. PAGES 15-22. Oxford UP, 1993. 19 July 2009. pp. 15–22. ^ Baltussen, Han. "PERSONAL GRIEF AND PUBLIC MOURNING IN PLUTARCH'S CONSOLATION TO HIS WIFE." INTRODUCTION: BEGINNINGS OF CONSOLATION. American Journal of Philology 130 (2009): 67. July–Aug. 2009. ^ a b c Rudich, Vasily. Dissidence and literature under Nero. Routledge, 1997. pp. 27–35 ^ De Consolatione ad Marciam, commentary Archived 2008-11-05 at the Wayback Machine ^ Seneca, Epistles, lxiii. ^ Seneca, Epistles, xciii. ^ Seneca, Epistles, xcix. ^ Possibly Junius Marullus, consul designatus in 62 AD, cf. Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 48 Further reading[edit] Translations[edit] Seneca, Moral Essays, Volume II. Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 0-674-99280-6 Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, Gareth D. Williams (2014). Seneca: Hardship and Happiness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226748332 External links[edit] Seneca's Dialogues, translated by Aubrey Stewart at Standard Ebooks Of Consolation: To Helvia – English text, translated by Aubrey Stewart (1900), at Wikisource Of Consolation: To Polybius – English text, translated by Aubrey Stewart (1900), at Wikisource Of Consolation: To Marcia – English text, translated by Aubrey Stewart (1900), at Wikisource "Ad Helviam Matrem, de Consolatione" – (Original, in Latin) at The Latin Library "Ad Polybium, de Consolatione" – (Original, in Latin) at The Latin Library "Ad Marciam, de Consolatione" – (Original, in Latin) at The Latin Library v t e Seneca the Younger Philosophy Dialogues De Beneficiis De Brevitate Vitae De Clementia De Constantia Sapientis De Ira De Otio De Providentia De Tranquillitate Animi De Vita Beata Letters Letters to Lucilius Consolations Seneca's Consolations (ad Helviam Matrem, ad Marciam, ad Polybium) Natural philosophy Naturales quaestiones Literature Extant plays Agamemnon Hercules Furens Medea Oedipus Phaedra Phoenissae Thyestes Troades Plays of questionable authorship Hercules Oetaeus Octavia Satire Apocolocyntosis Other Letters of Paul and Seneca (spurious) Related Senecan tragedy Stoicism Portraits Socrates and Seneca Double Herm Pseudo-Seneca The Death of Seneca (1773 painting) Family Seneca the Elder (father) Gallio (brother) Pompeia Paulina (wife) Lucan (nephew) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seneca%27s_Consolations&oldid=1027358756" Categories: Philosophical works by Seneca the Younger Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 7 June 2021, at 13:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9478	----	Category:Cultural critics - Wikipedia Help Category:Cultural critics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is cultural critic. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. * ► Social commentators‎ (7 C, 98 P) A ► American cultural critics‎ (1 C, 58 P) B ► British cultural critics‎ (22 P) I ► Irish social commentators‎ (6 P) Pages in category "Cultural critics" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 266 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)  Cultural critic A Bijan Abdolkarimi Theodor W. Adorno Giorgio Agamben Dries van Agt Jaafar Aksikas Tariq Ali Amy Allen (philosopher) America Alone Francis Anderson (philosopher) Hannah Arendt Aristotle Raymond Aron David Attenborough Robert Audi Armen Avanessian Averroes Avicenna A. J. Ayer Hiroki Azuma Joxe Azurmendi B Babette Babich Mikhail Bakunin Dagmar Barnouw Roland Barthes Jean Baudrillard Stephen Bayley Simone de Beauvoir Ruth Ben-Ghiat Seyla Benhabib Walter Benjamin Frithjof Bergmann Gautam Bhatia Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher) Pierre Bourdieu Frankie Boyle F. H. 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Ong José Ortega y Gasset George Orwell P Troy Parfitt Jason Parham John Passmore George S Paul Haviva Pedaya François Picavet Plato Karl Polanyi Michael Polanyi Maria Popova Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Cultural_critics&oldid=1014979962" Categories: Critics Culture Hidden categories: Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 201–300 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans বাংলা Čeština Cymraeg Esperanto فارسی 한국어 ქართული Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Simple English اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2021, at 01:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9485	----	Cynicism (philosophy) - Wikipedia Cynicism (philosophy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient school of philosophy For modern use of the word for distrust of others' motives, see Cynicism (contemporary). Statue of an unknown Cynic philosopher from the Capitoline Museums in Rome. This statue is a Roman-era copy of an earlier Greek statue from the third century BC.[1] The scroll in his right hand is an 18th-century restoration. Cynicism (Ancient Greek: κυνισμός) is a school of thought of ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics (Ancient Greek: Κυνικοί; Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, in agreement with nature. As reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame. Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions. The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. He was followed by Diogenes, who lived in a ceramic jar on the streets of Athens.[2] Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism gradually declined in importance after the 3rd century BC,[3] but it experienced a revival with the rise of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire, and similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appeared in early Christianity. By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions. Contents 1 Origin of the Cynic name 2 Philosophy 3 History of Cynicism 3.1 Influences 3.2 Symbolisms 3.3 Antisthenes 3.4 Diogenes of Sinope 3.5 Crates of Thebes 3.6 Other Cynics 4 Cynicism in the Roman world 5 Cynicism and Christianity 5.1 Jesus as a Jewish Cynic 5.2 Cynic influences on early Christianity 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 10 External links Origin of the Cynic name[edit] The term cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός (kynikos) 'dog-like', and κύων (kyôn) 'dog' (genitive: kynos).[4] One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called "dogs" was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens.[5] The word cynosarges means the "place of the white dog". It seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the "Dog",[6] a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."[7] Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.[8] Philosophy[edit] Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies.[9] It claimed to offer people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as follows:[10][11][12] The goal of life is eudaimonia and mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια)—literally "freedom from smoke (τύφος)" which signified false belief, mindlessness, folly, and conceit. Eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason. Arrogance (τύφος) is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions, unnatural desires, and a vicious character. Eudaimonia, or human flourishing, depends on self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia, and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (adiaphora ἁδιαφορία).[12] One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices (ἄσκησις) which help one become free from influences such as wealth, fame, and power that have no value in Nature. Instead they promoted living a life of ponos. For the Cynics, this did not seem to mean actual physical work. Diogenes of Sinope, for example, lived by begging, not by doing manual labor. Rather, it means deliberately choosing a hard life—for instance, wearing only a thin cloak and going barefoot in winter.[13] A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια) and defaces the nomos of society: the laws, customs, and social conventions that people take for granted. The Cynics adopted Heracles, shown here in this gilded bronze statue from the second century AD, as their patron hero.[14][15] Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation.[10] A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention.[16] The Cynics adopted Heracles as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic.[14] Heracles "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes."[15] According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog."[17] The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well: [Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body.[18] None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society. Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behaviour.[10] The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)."[19] The ideal Cynic would evangelise; as the watchdog of humanity, they thought it their duty to hound people about the error of their ways.[10] The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting satire) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions.[10] Although Cynicism concentrated primarily on ethics, some Cynics, such as Monimus, addressed epistemology with regard to tuphos (τῦφος) expressing skeptical views. Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for Stoicism. The Stoic Apollodorus, writing in the 2nd century BC, stated that "Cynicism is the short path to virtue."[20] History of Cynicism[edit] Bust of Antisthenes The classical Greek and Roman Cynics regarded virtue as the only necessity for happiness, and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining it. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title of Cynic, derived from the Greek word κύων (meaning "dog") because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc., in a manner reminiscent of dogs. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self-sufficient; and live only in accordance with nature. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, power, and fame, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.[21] The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticise the types of behaviours, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries,[22] to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others."[23] This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire."[24] Influences[edit] Various philosophers, such as the Pythagoreans, had advocated simple living in the centuries preceding the Cynics. In the early 6th century BC, Anacharsis, a Scythian sage, had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics.[25] Perhaps of importance were tales of Indian philosophers, known as gymnosophists, who had adopted a strict asceticism. By the 5th century BC, the sophists had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as religion, law and ethics. However, the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates. Although he was not an ascetic, he did profess a love of virtue and an indifference to wealth,[26] together with a disdain for general opinion.[27] These aspects of Socrates' thought, which formed only a minor part of Plato's philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates' pupils, Antisthenes. Symbolisms[edit] Cynics were often recognized in the ancient world by their apparel—an old cloak and a staff. The cloak came as an allusion to Socrates and his manner of dress, while the staff was to the club of Heracles. These items became so symbolic of the Cynic vocation that ancient writers accosted those who thought that donning the Cynic garb would make them suited to the philosophy.[28] In the social evolution from the archaic age to the classical, the public ceased carrying weapons into the poleis. Originally it was expected that one carried a sword while in the city; However, a transition to spears, and then to staffs occurred until wearing any weapon in the city became a foolish old custom.[29] Thus, the very act of carrying a staff was slightly taboo itself. According to modern theorists, the symbol of the staff was one which both functions as a tool to signal the user's dissociation from physical labour, that is, as a display of conspicuous leisure, and at the same time it also has an association with sport and typically plays a part in hunting and sports clothing. Thus, it displays active and warlike qualities, rather than being a symbol of a weak man's need to support himself.[30][31] The staff itself became a message of how the Cynic was free through its possible interpretation as an item of leisure, but, just as equivalent, was its message of strength - a virtue held in abundance by the Cynic philosopher. Antisthenes[edit] Main article: Antisthenes The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445–365 BC),[32][33] who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. About 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates' disciples.[34] Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism,[35] his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by Diogenes Laërtius,[36] writings on language, dialogue and literature far outnumber those on ethics or politics,[37] although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time.[38] It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty: I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not [even] Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?[39] Diogenes of Sinope[edit] Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man (c. 1780) attributed to J. H. W. Tischbein Main article: Diogenes Diogenes (c. 412–323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at Sinope, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage.[40] (The phrase "defacing the currency" later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.)[41] Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes,[42] but it is by no means certain that they ever met.[43][44][45] Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes' teachings and the ascetic way of life, pursuing a life of self-sufficiency (autarkeia), austerity (askēsis), and shamelessness (anaideia).[46] There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub),[47] his shameless behaviour (eating raw meat),[48] and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters"),[49] and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.[50] Crates of Thebes[edit] Crates of Thebes (c. 365–c. 285 BC) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens.[51] He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes,[52] but again this is uncertain.[53] Crates married Hipparchia of Maroneia after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens,[54] where Crates was treated with respect.[55] Crates' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism.[56] The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his Republic) can be ascribed to Crates' influence.[57] Other Cynics[edit] There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, including Onesicritus (who sailed with Alexander the Great to India), the skeptic Monimus, the moral satirist Bion of Borysthenes, the diatribist Teles and Menippus of Gadara. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC, Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline,[3][58] and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival. Cynicism in the Roman world[edit] Diogenes Sitting in His Tub (1860) by Jean-Léon Gérôme There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; Cicero (c. 50 BC), who was much interested in Greek philosophy, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor."[59] However, by the 1st century AD, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of Imperial Rome, like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again.[60] Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about virtue.[61] Lucian complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog,"[62] and Aelius Aristides observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence."[63] The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius, whom Seneca praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects."[64] Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus,[65] nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue.[66] Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse.[67] According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered."[68] Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind."[69] Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century.[70] The emperor, Julian (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism.[71] The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century.[72] A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism. Cynicism and Christianity[edit] Coptic icon of Saint Anthony of the Desert, an early Christian ascetic. Early Christian asceticism may have been influenced by Cynicism.[73] Jesus as a Jewish Cynic[edit] Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the Q document, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke, has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics.[74][75] Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus, such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar, have argued that 1st-century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of Gadara, only a day's walk from Nazareth, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy,[76] and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure."[77] For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel.[78] Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance.[79] Cynic influences on early Christianity[edit] Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians, and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the Cynics.[80] Some Cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities.[81] One Cynic, Peregrinus Proteus, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism,[82] whereas in the 4th century, Maximus of Alexandria, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty,[83] although they scorned Cynic shamelessness, Augustine stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs."[84] The ascetic orders of Christianity (such as the Desert Fathers) also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church, who in outward appearance and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age.[73] Emmanuel College scholar Leif E. Vaage compared the commonalities between the Q document and Cynic texts, such as the Cynic epistles.[74] The epistles contain the wisdom and (often polemical) ethics preached by Cynics along with their sense of purity and aesthetic practices.[85] During the 2nd century, Crescens the Cynic clashed with Justin Martyr, recorded as claiming the Christians were atheotatous (“the most atheist ones”), in reference to their rejection of the pagan gods and their absence of temples, statues, or sacrifices. This was a popular criticism of the Christians and it continued on into the 4th century.[86] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Anticonformism Asceticism Cynic epistles Encratites Foolishness for Christ List of ancient Greek philosophers List of Cynic philosophers Natural law Stoicism Kotzker Rebbe (a chasidic "Cynic" in the ancient sense of the word) Notes[edit] ^ Christopher H. Hallett, (2005), The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 BC–AD 300, page 294. Oxford University Press ^ Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14. ^ a b Dudley 1937, p. 117 ^ Kynikos, "A Greek-English Lexicon", Liddell and Scott, at Perseus ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 13. Cf. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 2nd edition, p. 165. ^ An obscure reference to "the Dog" in Aristotle's Rhetoric (3.10.1411a25) is generally agreed to be the first reference to Diogenes. ^ Diogenes of Sinope, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, iii. 13. 44. ^ Christian August Brandis, Scholium on Aristotle's Rhetoric, quoted in Dudley 1937, p. 5 ^ Long 1996, p. 28 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ a b c d e Kidd 2005 ^ Long 1996, p. 29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ a b Navia, Luis E. Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. pg 140. ^ Adamson, Peter (2015). Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2, 71; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 26–32; Pseudo-Lucian, Cynicus, 13; Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 4, 33, 36. ^ a b Orlando Patterson: Freedom. p. 186 ^ Long 1996, p. 34 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead, 21 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 70 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 63 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 121 ^ Cynics – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ David Mazella, (2007), The Making of Modern Cynicism, University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2615-7 ^ Cynicism, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. 2006. Houghton Mifflin Company. ^ Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, page 231. Simon and Schuster. ^ R. Martin, The Scythian Accent: Anacharsis and the Cynics, Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Plato, Apology, 41e. ^ Xenophon, Apology, 1. ^ Epictetus, 3.22 ^ Aristotle, Politics (Aristotle): bk 2, 1268b ^ Veblen, 1994[1899]: 162 ^ Jon Ploug Jørgensen, The taming of the aristoi - an ancient Greek civilizing process? History of the Human Sciences: July 2014 vol. 27 no. 3, pg 42-43 ^ Dudley 1937, p. 1 ^ Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996, p. 6 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Xenophon, Symposium, 4.57–64. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 15–18 ^ Prince 2005, p. 79 ^ Navia 1996, p. 40 ^ Xenophon, Symposium, 4.34. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20–21 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20, 71 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 6, 18, 21; Aelian, x. 16; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63 ^ Long 1996, p. 45 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Dudley 1937, p. 2 ^ Prince 2005, p. 77 ^ Sarton, G., Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece, Dover Publications. (1980). ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 34 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 66 ^ Long 1996, p. 33 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 87–88 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 85, 87; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63 ^ Long 1996, p. 46 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLong1996 (help) ^ Although there is no mention in ancient sources of them actually begging. Cf. Doyne Dawson, (1992), Cities of the gods: communist utopias in Greek thought, page 135. Oxford University Press ^ Plutarch, Symposiacs, 2.1; Apuleius, Florida, 22; Julian, Orations, 6.201b ^ Diogenes Laërtius, i. 15, vi. 105, vii. 2, etc ^ Schofield 1991 ^ Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996, p. 13 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBracht_BranhamGoulet-Cazé1996 (help) ^ Cicero, De Officiis, i. 41. ^ Dudley 1937, p. 124 ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 3 ^ Lucian, Fugitivi, 16. ^ Aelius Aristides, iii. 654–694 ^ Seneca, De Beneficiis, vii. ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini. ^ Lucian, Demonax. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 23 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 80 ^ Dudley 1937, p. 202 ^ Julian, Oration 6: To the Uneducated Cynics; Oration 7: To the Cynic Heracleios. ^ Damascius, Life of Isidorus: fragments preserved in the Commentary on Plato's Parmenides by Proclus, in the Bibliotheca of Photius, and in the Suda. ^ a b Dudley 1937, pp. 209–211 ^ a b Leif Vaage, (1994), Galilean Upstarts: Jesus' First Followers According to Q. TPI ^ F. Gerald Downing, (1992), Cynics and Christian Origins. T. & T. Clark. ^ In particular, Menippus (3rd century BC), Meleager (1st century BC), and Oenomaus (2nd century AD), all came from Gadara. ^ Quoted in R. Ostling, Who was Jesus?", Time, August 15, 1988, pages 37–42. ^ John Dominic Crossan, (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, ISBN 0-06-061629-6 ^ Craig A. Evans, Life of Jesus Research: An Annotated Bibliography, page 151. BRILL ^ F. Gasco Lacalle, (1986) Cristianos y cinicos. Una tificacion del fenomeno cristiano durante el siglo II, pages 111–119. Memorias de Historia Antigua 7. ^ Dio Cassius, Epitome of book 65, 15.5; Herodian, Roman History, 1.9.2–5 ^ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 10–15 ^ Origen, adv. Cels. 2.41, 6.28, 7.7; Basil of Caesarea, Leg. Lib. Gent. 9.3, 4, 20; Theodoret, Provid. 6; John Chrysostom, Ad. Op. Vit. Monast. 2.4, 5 ^ Augustine, De Civitate Dei 14.20. ^ Leif E. Vaage, (1990), Cynic Epistles (Selections), in Vincent L. Wimbush, Ascetic Behavior in Greco-Roman Antiquity: A Sourcebook, pages 117-118. Continuum International ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2007). Martin, Michael T (ed.). The Cambridge companion to atheism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-521-84270-0. Retrieved 2011-04-09. References[edit] Branham, R. Bracht; Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile, eds. (2000), The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-21645-7 Dudley, R. (1937), A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D., Cambridge University Press Kidd, I. (2005), "Cynicism", in Rée, Jonathan; Urmson, J. O. (eds.), The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32924-8 Long, A. A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics", in Branham and Goulet-Cazé, pp. 28–46 (ed.), Missing or empty |title= (help) Navia, Luis (1996), Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study, Greenwood Press, ISBN 978-0-313-30015-8 Prince, Susan (2005), "Socrates, Antisthenes, and the Cynics", in Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.), A Companion to Socrates, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4051-0863-8 Schofield, Malcolm (1991), The Stoic Idea of the City, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-226-74006-5 Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae, ed. G. Giannantoni, 4 volumes (Naples, 1990). Volume 2 collects fragments of the early Cynics from Antisthenes to Crates. The Cynic Philosophers, ed. R. Dobbin (Penguin, 2012) Diogenes the Cynic: Sayings and Anecdotes: With Other Popular Moralists, ed. R. Hard (Oxford, 2012) Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Book VI: The Cynics Dio Chrysostom, Cynic Discourses: Oration 6, Oration 8, Oration 9, Oration 10. Epictetus, Discourse 3.22, On Cynicism Pseudo-Lucian[citation needed], The Cynic Julian the Apostate, 6th Oration - To the Uneducated Cynics Julian the Apostate, 7th Oration - To the Cynic Heracleios Secondary sources[edit] Ian Cutler, (2005), Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert. McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-7864-2093-6 William D. Desmond, (2006), The Greek Praise of Poverty: Origins of Ancient Cynicism. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-02582-7 ————, (2008), Cynics. Ancient Philosophies Series. Acumen Publishing. ISBN 1-84465-129-0 F. Gerald Downing, (1992), Cynics and Christian Origins. T. & T. Clark. ISBN 0-567-09613-0 Luis E. Navia, (1996), Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30015-1 Lousa Shea (2009), The Cynic Enlightenment: Diogenes in the Salon Johns Hopkins University Press. H. C. Baldry, "Zeno's Ideal State". Published in The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 79 (1959), pp. 3–15. DOI: 10.2307/627917 Kathy L. Gaca, "Early Stoic Eros: The Sexual Ethics of Zeno and Chrysippus and their Evaluation of the Greek Erotic Tradition". Published in Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science, Vol. 33, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 207–238. External links[edit] Look up cynicism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cynic philosophers. Cynicism on In Our Time at the BBC "Cynicism (philosophy)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Cynicism", in The Dictionary of the History of Ideas Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Cynic School of Philosophy" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Lives & Writings on the Cynics, directory of literary references to Ancient Cynics v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles 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en-wikipedia-org-9489	----	Lucius Mindius - Wikipedia Lucius Mindius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman senator Lucius Mindius is an unattested Roman Aristocrat who lived in the Roman Empire in the second half of the 1st century. Mindius was a Roman Senator of Consular rank.[citation needed] Little is known on his origins. In 84, Mindius married Salonina Matidia, the niece of future Roman Emperor Trajan, becoming her second husband. Matidia was previously widowed from her first marriage to suffect consul Lucius Vibius Sabinus, who left Matidia a daughter Vibia Sabina. In 85, Matidia bore Mindius a daughter called Mindia Matidia, commonly known as Matidia Minor or Matidia the Younger. Like Matidia’s first marriage, Matidia’s marriage to Lucius Mindius was short-lived. Shortly after the birth of Mindia Matidia, Lucius Mindius had died. In 86 Matidia married the consul Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] http://www.roman-emperors.org/goodemp2.htm Julian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps, a Life and Times, Illustrated edition (Routledge, 1997) ISBN 0-415-16524-5, ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucius_Mindius&oldid=1002429852" Categories: 85 deaths 1st-century Romans Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Senators of the Roman Empire 1st-century births Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Romans from unknown gentes Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ελληνικά Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 12:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9512	----	Justin II - Wikipedia Justin II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in the East, 565–574 Justin II Solidus of Justin II Byzantine emperor Reign 15 November 565 – December 574 Predecessor Justinian I Successor Tiberius II Constantine Born 520 Constantinople Died 5 October 578 (aged 58) Constantinople Spouse Sophia Issue Arabia Names Flavius Iustinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Iustinus Augustus[a] Dynasty Justinian dynasty Father Dulcidio (or Dulcissimus) Mother Vigilantia Religion Chalcedonian Christianity Justin II or Justin the Younger (Latin: Iustinus Iunior; Greek: Ἰουστῖνος, translit. Ioustînos; c. 520 – 5 October 578) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 565 to 574. He was the nephew of Justinian I and the husband of Sophia, the niece of the Empress Theodora, and was therefore a member of the Justinian Dynasty. His reign was marked by war with the Sassanid Empire, and the loss of the greater part of Italy. He presented the Cross of Justin II to Saint Peter's, Rome. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Accession 2.2 Foreign policy 3 Succession and abdication 4 Footnotes 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Family[edit] He was a son of Vigilantia and Dulcidio (or Dulcissimus), respectively the sister and brother-in-law of Justinian. His siblings included Marcellus and Praejecta. With Sophia he had a daughter Arabia and possibly a son, Justus, who died young. He also had a niece named Helena. Reign[edit] Accession[edit] Justinian I died on the night of 14 to 15 November 565. Callinicus [pl], the praepositus sacri cubiculi, seems to have been the only witness to his dying moments, and later claimed that Justinian had designated "Justin, Vigilantia's son" as his heir in a deathbed decision. The clarification was needed because there was another nephew and candidate for the throne, Justin, son of Germanus. Modern historians suspect Callinicus may have fabricated the last words of Justinian to secure the succession for his political ally.[3] As historian Robert Browning observed: "Did Justinian really bring himself in the end to make a choice, or did Callinicus make it for him? Only Callinicus knew."[4] In any case, Callinicus started alerting those most interested in the succession, originally various members of the Byzantine Senate. Then they jointly informed Justin and Vigilantia, offering the throne. Justin accepted after the traditional token show of reluctance, and with his wife Sophia, he was escorted to the Great Palace of Constantinople. The Excubitors blocked the palace entrances during the night, and early in the morning, John Scholasticus, Patriarch of Constantinople, crowned the new Augustus. Only then was the death of Justinian and the succession of Justin publicly announced in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.[5] Both the Patriarch and Tiberius, commander of the Excubitors, had been recently appointed, with Justin having played a part in their respective appointments, in his role as Justinian's curopalates. Their willingness to elevate their patron and ally to the throne was hardly surprising.[5] In the first few days of his reign Justin paid his uncle's debts, administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious toleration. On January 1, 566, he became a consul, thereby reviving a post Justinian had discontinued since 541. Justin and Sophia initially promised to make peace with Justin's cousin and rival to the throne, Justin (son of Germanus), but had him assassinated in Alexandria not long after. According to a hostile source, the imperial couple kicked his severed head with their feet.[6] Foreign policy[edit] 100 nummi coin of Justin II minted in Carthage. Helmeted and cuirass-wearing facing bust, holding shield Monogram; cross above, 100 below. Faced with an empty treasury, he discontinued Justinian's practice of buying off potential enemies. Immediately after his accession, Justin halted the payment of subsidies to the Avars, ending a truce that had existed since 558. After the Avars and the neighbouring tribe of the Lombards had combined to destroy the Gepids, from whom Justin had obtained the Danube fortress of Sirmium, Avar pressure caused the Lombards to migrate West, and in 568 they invaded Italy under their king Alboin. They quickly overran the Po valley, and within a few years they had made themselves masters of nearly the entire country. The Avars themselves crossed the Danube in 573 or 574, when the Empire's attention was distracted by troubles on the Persian frontier. They were only placated by the payment of a subsidy of 60,000 silver pieces by Justin's successor Tiberius.[7] The North and East frontiers were the main focus of Justin's attention. In 572 his refusal to pay tribute to the Persians in combination with overtures to the Turks led to a war with the Sassanid Empire. After two disastrous campaigns, in which the Persians under Khosrow I overran Syria and captured the strategically important fortress of Dara, Justin lost his mind.[8] Shortly after the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire from China by Nestorian Christian monks, the 6th-century Byzantine historian Menander Protector writes of how the Sogdians attempted to establish a direct trade of Chinese silk with the Byzantine Empire. After forming an alliance with the Sassanid ruler Khosrow I to defeat the Hephthalite Empire, Istämi, the Göktürk ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, was approached by Sogdian merchants requesting permission to seek an audience with the Sassanid king of kings for the privilege of traveling through Persian territories in order to trade with the Byzantines.[9] Istämi refused the first request, but when he sanctioned the second one and had the Sogdian embassy sent to the Sassanid king, the latter had the members of the embassy poisoned to death.[9] Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi to send an embassy directly to Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered not only silk as a gift to Justin, but also proposed an alliance against Sassanid Persia. Justin agreed and sent an embassy to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct silk trade desired by the Sogdians.[9][10] In 1937, the historian Previte-Orton described Justin as "a rigid man, dazzled by his predecessor's glories, to whom fell the task of guiding an exhausted, ill-defended Empire through a crisis of the first magnitude and a new movement of peoples". Previte-Orton continues, In foreign affairs he took the attitude of the invincible, unbending Roman, and in the disasters which his lack of realism occasioned, his reason ultimately gave way. It was foreign powers which he underrated and hoped to bluff by a lofty inflexibility, for he was well aware of the desperate state of the finances and the army and of the need to reconcile the Monophysites."[11] Succession and abdication[edit] Justin II and Sophia depicted on a Nummi coin After 572, Justin was reported to have fits of insanity. John of Ephesus, whose Monophysite sect suffered persecutions under Justin, offered a vivid description of Justin's madness, in which he behaved like a wild animal, was wheeled about on a mobile throne and required organ music to be played day and night.[12] In 574, at Sophia's suggestion, he adopted the general Tiberius as his son and heir, and then retired in his favor.[13] According to Theophylact Simocatta, Justin remained sufficiently clear-minded to make an eloquent speech as he passed the crown: You behold the ensigns of supreme power. You are about to receive them, not from my hand, but from the hand of God. Honor them, and from them you will derive honor. Respect the empress your mother: you are now her son; before, you were her servant. Delight not in blood; abstain from revenge; avoid those actions by which I have incurred the public hatred; and consult the experience, rather than the example, of your predecessor. As a man, I have sinned; as a sinner, even in this life, I have been severely punished: but these servants (and he pointed to his ministers), who have abused my confidence, and inflamed my passions, will appear with me before the tribunal of Christ. I have been dazzled by the splendor of the diadem: be thou wise and modest; remember what you have been, remember what you are. You see around us your slaves, and your children: with the authority, assume the tenderness, of a parent. Love your people like yourself; cultivate the affections, maintain the discipline, of the army; protect the fortunes of the rich, relieve the necessities of the poor.[13] Sophia and Tiberius ruled together as joint regents for four years. According to John of Ephesus, Evagrius and Gregory of Tours, Tiberius spent greater amount of money than the frugal Justin. When Justin died in 578, Tiberius succeeded him as Tiberius II Constantine.[citation needed] Footnotes[edit] Byzantine Empire portal ^ The full imperial title of Justin II in Latin is attested in a novel of 570: Imperator Caesar Flavius Iustinus fidelis in Christo mansuetus maximus benefactor Alamannicus Gothicus Francicus Germanicus Anticus Vandalicus Africanus pius felix inclitus victor ac triumphator semper Augustus ("Emperor Caesar Flavius Justin, faithful in Christ, mild, majestic, greatest benefactor; victor over the Alamanni, Goths, Franks, Germans, Antae, Vandals, in Africa; pious, fortunate, renowned, victorious and triumphant, ever august").[1][2] References[edit] ^ Rösch 1978, p. 168. ^ Sodini 1973, pp. 378, 383. ^ Evans (1999), pp. 263–264 ^ Browning (2003), p. 165 ^ a b Evans (1999), p. 264 ^ Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History, 5.2 ^ Norwich, John J. Byzanptium: the Early Centuries (London:Penguin 1988) p.571 gives this subsidy to Avars as 80,000 silver pieces. ^ Nicholson, Canepa & Daryaee 2018. ^ a b c Howard, Michael C., Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies, the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 133. ^ Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History, ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 168. ^ Previte-Orton, Charles William, The shorter Cambridge medieval history (Cambridge: University Press, 1952), p. 201. ^ John of Ephesus, Ecclesiastical History, Part 3, Book 3 ^ a b Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XLV, Part II Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Edward Walford, translator (1846) The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. [1] Secondary sources[edit] Browning, Robert (2003), Justinian and Theodora, Gorgias Press LLC, ISBN 1-59333-053-7 Evans, James Allan Stewart (2000), The age of Justinian: the circumstances of imperial power, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23726-2 Garland, Lynda (1999), Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204, CRC Press, ISBN 0-203-02481-8 Martindale, John R., ed. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395–527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20159-4. Martindale, John R., ed. (1992). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume III, AD 527–641. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20160-8. Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. Nicholson, Oliver; Canepa, Matthew; Daryaee, Touraj (2018). "Khosrow I Anoshirvan". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Rösch, Gerhard (1978). Onoma Basileias: Studien zum offiziellen Gebrauch der Kaisertitel in spätantiker und frühbyzantinischer Zeit. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-0260-1. Sodini, Jean-Pierre (1973). "Une titulature faussement attribuée à Justinien Ier. Remarque sur une inscription trouvée à Kythrea, Chypre". Travaux et Mémoires du Centre de Recherche d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance (in French). 5. pp. 373–384. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Justin II. . Media related to Justin II at Wikimedia Commons DIR: De Imperatoribus Romanis: Justin II Justin II Justinian dynasty Born: c. 520 Died: 578 Regnal titles Preceded by Justinian I Byzantine emperor 565–578 with Tiberius II Constantine (574–578) Succeeded by Tiberius II Constantine Political offices Preceded by Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius in 541, then lapsed Consul of the Roman Empire 566 Succeeded by Lapsed, Tiberius Constantinus Augustus in 579 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9520	----	Chrysippus - Wikipedia Chrysippus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek Stoic philosopher This article is about the philosopher. For other people named Chrysippus, see Chrysippus (disambiguation). Chrysippus of Soli Roman copy of a Hellenistic bust of Chrysippus (British Museum) Born c. 279 BC Soli, Cilicia Died c. 206 BC (aged 73) Athens Cause of death Death from laughter Era Hellenistic philosophy Region Western philosophy School Stoicism Main interests Logic Physics Ethics Notable ideas Systemization of Stoicism Pneuma Nominalism[1][2] Influences Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Diodorus Cronus Philo Aristotle Plato Influenced Stoic school Chrysippus of Soli (/kraɪˈsɪpəs, krɪ-/;[3] Greek: Χρύσιππος ὁ Σολεύς, Chrysippos ho Soleus; c. 279 – c. 206 BC[4]) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the school, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.[5] Chrysippus excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge, ethics, and physics. He created an original system of propositional logic in order to better understand the workings of the universe and role of humanity within it. He adhered to a deterministic view of fate, but nevertheless sought a role for personal freedom in thought and action. Ethics, he thought, depended on understanding the nature of the universe, and he taught a therapy of extirpating the unruly passions which depress and crush the soul. He initiated the success of Stoicism as one of the most influential philosophical movements for centuries in the Greek and Roman world. Of his written works, none have survived except as fragments. Recently, segments of some of his works were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri.[6] Contents 1 Life 2 Philosophy 3 Logic 3.1 Propositions 3.2 Conditional propositions 3.3 Syllogistic 3.4 Other logical work 3.5 Later reception 4 Epistemology 5 Physics 5.1 Fate 5.2 Divination 5.3 God 5.4 Theodicy 6 Mathematics 7 Ethics 7.1 On Passions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Life[edit] Of Phoenician descent,[7] Chrysippus, the son of Apollonius of Tarsus, was born at Soli, Cilicia.[8] He was slight in stature,[9] and is reputed to have trained as a long-distance runner.[10] While still young, he lost his substantial inherited property when it was confiscated to the king's treasury.[11] Chrysippus moved to Athens, where he became the disciple of Cleanthes, who was then the head (scholarch) of the Stoic school.[12] He is believed to have attended the courses of Arcesilaus and his successor Lacydes, in the Platonic Academy.[13] Chrysippus threw himself eagerly into the study of the Stoic system. His reputation for learning among his contemporaries was considerable.[10] He was noted for intellectual audacity and self-confidence and his reliance on his own ability was shown, among other things, in the request he is supposed to have made to Cleanthes: "Give me the principles, and I will find the proofs myself."[10] He succeeded Cleanthes as head of the Stoic school when Cleanthes died, in around 230 BC. Chrysippus was a prolific writer. He is said to rarely have gone without writing 500 lines a day[14] and he composed more than 705 works.[15] His desire to be comprehensive meant that he would take both sides of an argument[13] and his opponents accused him of filling his books with the quotations of others.[16] He was considered diffuse and obscure in his utterances and careless in his style, but his abilities were highly regarded, and he came to be seen as a preeminent authority for the school.[17] Final moments in the life of Chrysippus. Engraving from 1606. He died during the 143rd Olympiad (208–204 BC) at the age of 73.[4] Diogenes Laërtius gives two different accounts of his death.[18] In the first account, Chrysippus was seized with dizziness having drunk undiluted wine at a feast, and died soon after. In the second account, he was watching a donkey eat some figs and cried out: "Now give the donkey a drink of pure wine to wash down the figs", whereupon he died in a fit of laughter. His nephew Aristocreon erected a statue in his honour in the Kerameikos.[19] Chrysippus was succeeded as head of the Stoic school by his pupil Zeno of Tarsus.[20] Of his written works, none survived except as fragments quoted in the works of later authors like Cicero, Seneca, Galen, Plutarch, and others. Recently, segments from Logical Questions and On Providence were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri.[6] A third work by Chrysippus may also be among them.[6] Philosophy[edit] Chrysippus had a long and successful career of resisting the attacks of the Academy[21] and hoped not simply to defend Stoicism against the assaults of the past, but also against all possible attack in the future. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and crystallized them into what became the definitive system of Stoicism.[21] He elaborated the physical doctrines of the Stoics and their theory of knowledge[17] and he created much of their formal logic.[22] In short, Chrysippus made the Stoic system what it was. It was said that "without Chrysippus, there would have been no Stoa".[23] Logic[edit] See also: Stoic logic Chrysippus wrote much on the subject of logic and created a system of propositional logic. Aristotle's term logic had been concerned with the interrelations of terms such as "Socrates" or "man" ("all men are mortal, Socrates is a man, so Socrates is mortal"). Stoic logic, on the other hand, was concerned with the interrelations of propositions such as "it is day" ("if it is day, it is light: but it is day: so it is light").[24] Though the earlier Megarian dialecticians – Diodorus Cronus and Philo – had worked in this field and the pupils of Aristotle – Theophrastus and Eudemus – had investigated hypothetical syllogisms,[25] it was Chrysippus who developed these principles into a coherent system of propositional logic.[25][26] Propositions[edit] Chrysippus defined a proposition as "that which is capable of being denied or affirmed as it is in itself" and gave examples of propositions such as "it is day" and "Dion is walking."[27] He distinguished between simple and non-simple propositions, which in modern terminology are known as atomic and molecular propositions.[25] A simple proposition is an elementary statement such as "it is day."[28] Simple propositions are linked together to form non-simple propositions by the use of logical connectives. Chrysippus enumerated five kinds of molecular propositions according to the connective used:[28] Logical connectives Type Example if if it is day, it is light and it is day and it is light either ... or either it is day or it is night because because it is day, it is light more/less likely ... than more likely it is day than it is night Thus several types of molecular propositions, familiar to modern logic, were listed by Chrysippus, including the conjunction, the disjunction, and the conditional,[29] and Chrysippus studied their criteria of truth closely.[29] Conditional propositions[edit] The first logicians to debate conditional statements were Diodorus Cronus and his pupil Philo. Writing five-hundred years later, Sextus Empiricus refers to a debate between Diodorus and Philo.[30] Philo regarded all conditionals as true except those which with a correct antecedent had an incorrect consequent, and this meant a proposition such as "if it is day, then I am talking," is true unless it is day and I fall silent.[31] But Diodorus argued that a true conditional is one in which the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusion – thus, because the proposition "if it is day, then I am talking" can be false, it is invalid.[30] However, paradoxical propositions were still possible such as "if atomic elements of things do not exist, atomic elements exists."[31] Chrysippus adopted a much stricter view regarding conditional propositions, which made such paradoxes impossible:[32] to him, a conditional is true if denial of the consequent is logically incompatible with the antecedent.[33] This corresponds to the modern-day strict conditional.[33] Syllogistic[edit] Chrysippus developed a syllogistic or system of deduction in which he made use of five types of basic arguments or argument forms called indemonstrable syllogisms, which played the role of axioms, and four inference rules, called themata by means of which complex syllogisms could be reduced to these axioms.[34] The forms of the five indemonstrables were:[35] Name[36] Description Example Modus ponens If A, then B.  A.  Therefore, B. If it is day, it is light. It is day. Therefore, it is light. Modus tollens If A, then B.  Not B.  Therefore, not A. If it is day, it is light. It is not light. Therefore, it is not day. Modus ponendo tollens  i Not both A and B.  A.  Therefore, not B.  It is not both day and night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night.  ii Either A or B.  A.  Therefore, not B. It is either day or night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night. Modus tollendo ponens Either A or B.  Not A.  Therefore, B. It is either day or night. It is not day. Therefore, it is night. Of the four inference rules, only two survived. One, the so-called first thema, was a rule of antilogism. The other, the third thema, was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms.[37] The purpose of Stoic syllogistic was not merely to create a formal system. It was also understood as the study of the operations of reason, the divine reason (logos) which governs the universe, of which human beings are a part.[38] The goal was to find valid rules of inference and forms of proof to help people find their way in life.[25] Other logical work[edit] Chrysippus analyzed speech and the handling of names and terms.[17] He also devoted much effort in refuting fallacies and paradoxes.[17] According to Diogenes Laërtius, Chrysippus wrote twelve works in 23 books on the Liar paradox; seven works in 17 books on amphiboly; and another nine works in 26 books on other conundrums.[39] In all, 28 works or 66 books were given over to puzzles or paradoxes.[39] Chrysippus is the first Stoic for whom the third of the four Stoic categories, i.e. the category somehow disposed is attested.[40] In the surviving evidence, Chrysippus frequently makes use of the categories of substance and quality, but makes little use of the other two Stoic categories (somehow disposed and somehow disposed in relation to something).[41] It is not clear whether the categories had any special significance for Chrysippus, and a clear doctrine of categories may be the work of later Stoics.[41] Later reception[edit] Chrysippus came to be renowned as one of the foremost logicians of ancient Greece. When Clement of Alexandria wanted to mention one who was master among logicians, as Homer was master among poets, it was Chrysippus, not Aristotle, he chose.[42] Diogenes Laërtius wrote: "If the gods use dialectic, they would use none other than that of Chrysippus."[43] The logical work by Chrysippus came to be neglected and forgotten. Aristotle's logic prevailed, partly because it was seen as more practical, and partly because it was taken up by the Neoplatonists.[38] As recently as the 19th century, Stoic logic was treated with contempt, a barren formulaic system, which was merely clothing the logic of Aristotle with new terminology.[44] It was not until the 20th century, with the advances in logic, and the modern propositional calculus, that it became clear that Stoic logic constituted a significant achievement.[25] Epistemology[edit] For the Stoics, truth is distinguished from error by the sage who possesses right reason.[45] Chrysippus's theory of knowledge was empirical.[46] The senses transmit messages from the external world, and their reports are controlled not by referring them to innate ideas, but by comparing them to previous reports stored in the mind.[46] Zeno had defined impressions of sense as "an impression in the soul"[47] and this was interpreted literally by Cleanthes, who compared the impression on the soul to the impression made by a seal on wax.[48] Chrysippus preferred to regard it as an alteration or change in the soul;[47] that is, the soul receives a modification from every external object that acts upon it, just as the air receives countless strokes when many people are speaking at once.[47] In the receipt of an impression, the soul is purely passive and the impression reveals not only its own existence, but that also of its cause—just as light displays itself and the elements that are in it.[47] The power to name the object resides in the understanding. First must come the impression, and the understanding—having the power of utterance—expresses in speech the affection it receives from the object.[49] True presentations are distinguished from those that are false by the use of memory, classification and comparison.[46] If the sense organ and the mind are healthy—and provided that an external object can be really seen or heard—the presentation, due to its clearness and distinctness, has the power to extort the assent that always lies in our power, to give or to withhold.[50] In a context in which people are understood to be rational beings, reason is developed out of these notions.[51] Physics[edit] A partial marble bust of Chrysippus that is a Roman copy of a Hellenistic original (Louvre Museum). Chrysippus insisted on the organic unity of the universe, as well as the correlation and mutual interdependence of all of its parts.[52] He said, the universe is "the soul and guide of itself."[53] Following Zeno, Chrysippus determined fiery breath or aether to be the primitive substance of the universe.[54] Objects are made up of inert formless matter and an informing soul, "pneuma", provides form to the undifferentiated matter.[55] The pneuma pervades all of substance and maintains the unity of the universe and constitutes the soul of the human being.[55] The classical elements change into one another by a process of condensation and rarefaction.[56] Fire first becomes solidified into air; then air into water; and lastly, water into earth. The process of dissolution takes place in the reverse order: earth being rarefied into water, water into air and air into fire.[56] The human soul was divided by Chrysippus into eight faculties: the five senses, the power of reproduction, the power of speech, and the "ruling part" that is located in the chest rather than the head.[57] Individual souls are perishable; but, according to the view originated by Chrysippus, the souls of wise people survive longer after their death.[57] No individual soul can, however, survive beyond the periodic conflagration, when the universe is renewed.[57] Fate[edit] For Chrysippus, all things happen according to fate: what seems to be accidental has always some hidden cause.[58] The unity of the world consists in the chain-like dependence of cause upon cause.[59] Nothing can take place without a sufficient cause.[60] According to Chrysippus, every proposition is either true or false, and this must apply to future events as well:[61] If any motion exists without a cause, then not every proposition will be either true or false. For that which has not efficient causes is neither true nor false. But every proposition is either true or false. Therefore, there is no motion without a cause. And if this is so, then all effects owe their existence to prior causes. And if this is so, all things happen by fate. It follows therefore that whatever happens, happens by fate.[62] The Stoic view of fate is entirely based on a view of the universe as a whole. Individual things and persons only come into consideration as dependent parts of this whole.[63] Everything is, in every respect, determined by this relation, and is consequently subject to the general order of the world.[59] If his opponents objected that, if everything is determined by destiny, there is no individual responsibility, since what has been once foreordained must happen, come what may, Chrysippus replied that there is a distinction to be made between simple and complex predestination.[64] Becoming ill may be fated whatever happens but, if a person's recovery is linked to consulting a doctor, then consulting the doctor is fated to occur together with that person's recovery, and this becomes a complex fact.[65] All human actions – in fact, our destiny – are decided by our relation to things,[66] or as Chrysippus put it, events are "co-fated" to occur:[65] The non-destruction of one's coat, he says, is not fated simply, but co-fated with its being taken care of, and someone's being saved from his enemies is co-fated with his fleeing those enemies; and having children is co-fated with being willing to lie with a woman. ... For many things cannot occur without our being willing and indeed contributing a most strenuous eagerness and zeal for these things, since, he says, it was fated for these things to occur in conjunction with this personal effort. ... But it will be in our power, he says, with what is in our power being included in fate.[67] Thus our actions are predetermined, and are causally related to the overarching network of fate, but nevertheless the moral responsibility of how we respond to impressions remains our own.[68] The one all-determining power is active everywhere, working in each particular being according to its nature, whether in rational or irrational creatures or in inorganic objects.[69] Every action is brought about by the co-operation of causes depending on the nature of things and the character of the agent.[69] Our actions would only be involuntary if they were produced by external causes alone, without any co-operation, on the part of our wills, with external causes.[69] Virtue and vice are set down as things in our power, for which, consequently, we are responsible.[70] Moral responsibility depends only on freedom of the will, and what emanates from our will is our own, no matter whether it is possible for us to act differently or not.[70] This rather subtle position which attempts to reconcile determinism with human responsibility is known as soft-determinism, or compatibilism.[71] Divination[edit] Cleromancy in ancient Greece. Chrysippus accepted divination as part of the causal chain of fate. Chrysippus also argued for the existence of fate based on divination, which he thought there was good evidence for.[72] It would not be possible for diviners to predict the future if the future itself was accidental.[60] Omens and portents, he believed, are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences.[73] There must be countless indications of the course of providence, for the most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity.[73] To those who argued that divination was superfluous as all events are foreordained, he replied that both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which it affords are included in the chain of causation.[73] God[edit] The Stoics believed that the universe is God, and Chrysippus affirmed that "the universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul."[74] It is the guiding principle of the universe, "operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality which embraces all existence."[74] Based on these beliefs, physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein identified Chrysippus as a Pandeist.[75] Chrysippus sought to prove the existence of God, making use of a teleological argument: If there is anything that humanity cannot produce, the being who produces it is better than humanity. But humanity cannot produce the things that are in the universe – the heavenly bodies, etc. The being, therefore, who produces them is superior to humanity. But who is there that is superior to humanity, except God? Therefore, God exists.[76] Chrysippus spoke of God and gods interchangeably. He interpreted the gods of traditional Greek religion by viewing them as different aspects of the one reality. Cicero tells us that "he further maintained that aether is that which people call Zeus, and that the air which permeates the seas is Poseidon, and that the earth is what is known by the name of Demeter, and he treated in similar style the names of the other gods."[74] In addition, the universe exists for the benefit of the universal god: We should infer in the case of a beautiful dwelling-place that it was built for its owners and not for mice; we ought, therefore, in the same way to regard the universe as the dwelling-place of the gods.[77] Theodicy[edit] In response to the question of how evil could exist in a good universe, Chrysippus replied "evil cannot be removed, nor is it well that it should be removed."[78] Firstly, he argued, following Plato, that it was impossible for good to exist without evil, for justice could not be known without injustice, courage without cowardice, temperance without intemperance or wisdom without foolishness.[79] Secondly, apparent evils exist as a consequent of nature's goodness, thus it was necessary for the human skull to be made from small and thin bones for reasons of utility, but this superior utility meant that the skull is vulnerable to blows.[79] Thirdly, evils are distributed according to the rational will of Zeus, either to punish the wicked or because they are important to the world-order as a whole.[80] Thus evil is good under disguise, and is ultimately conducive to the best. Chrysippus compared evil to the coarse jest in the comedy; for, just as the jest, though offensive in itself, improves the piece as a whole, "so too you may criticize evil regarded by itself, yet allow that, taken with all else, it has its use."[81] Mathematics[edit] The puzzle of Democritus. If a cone is sliced horizontally, are the surfaces produced equal or unequal? Chrysippus regarded bodies, surfaces, lines, places, the void and time as all being infinitely divisible.[82] He determined one of the principal features of the infinite set: since a man and a finger have an infinite number of parts as do the universe and a man, it cannot be said that a man has more parts than his finger, nor that the universe has more parts than a man.[83] Chrysippus also responded to a problem first posed by Democritus.[84] If a cone is divided by a plane parallel to its base, are the surfaces of the segments equal or unequal? If they are equal, then the cone becomes a cylinder; if they are unequal, then the surface of the cone must be stepped.[83] The reply of Chrysippus was that the surfaces are both equal and unequal.[85] Chrysippus was, in effect, negating the law of excluded middle with respect to the equal and unequal, and thus he may have anticipated an important principle of modern infinitesimal calculus, namely, the limit and the process of convergence towards a limit.[85] Chrysippus was notable for claiming that "one" is a number. One was not always considered a number by the ancient Greeks since they viewed one as that by which things are measured. Aristotle in his Metaphysics wrote, "... a measure is not the things measured, but the measure or the One is the beginning of number."[86] Chrysippus asserted that one had "magnitude one" (Greek: πλῆθος ἕν),[87] although this was not generally accepted by the Greeks, and Iamblichus wrote that "magnitude one" was a contradiction in terms.[86] Ethics[edit] Greek amphora depicting Euripides' Medea. Chrysippus regarded Medea as a prime example of how bad judgments could give rise to irrational passions.[88] Chrysippus taught that ethics depended on physics. In his Physical Theses, he stated: "for there is no other or more appropriate way of approaching the subject of good and evil on the virtues or happiness than from the nature of all things and the administration of the universe."[89] The goal of life, said Chrysippus, is to live in accordance with one's experience of the actual course of nature.[90] A person's individual nature is part of the nature of the whole universe,[91] and thus life should be lived in accordance with one's own human nature as well as that of the universe.[92] Human nature is ethical, and humanity is akin to the Divine, emanating from the primal fire or aether, which, though material, is the embodiment of reason; and people should conduct themselves accordingly.[93] People have freedom, and this freedom consists in emancipation from irrational desires (lust, riches, position in life, domination, etc.) and in subjecting the will to reason.[93] Chrysippus laid the greatest stress on the worth and dignity of the individual, and on the power of will.[93] The Stoics admitted between the good and the bad a third class of things – the indifferent (adiaphora).[94] Of things morally indifferent, the best includes health, and riches, and honour, and the worst includes sickness and poverty.[95] Chrysippus accepted that it was normal in ordinary usage to refer to the preferred indifferent things as "good",[94] but the wise person, said Chrysippus, uses such things without requiring them.[95] Practice and habit are necessary to render virtue perfect in the individual – in other words, there is such a thing as moral progress, and character has to be built up.[93] On Passions[edit] Main article: On Passions The Stoics sought to be free of the unruly emotions, which they regarded as being contrary to nature. The passions or emotions (pathe) are the disturbing element in right judgment.[93] Chrysippus wrote a whole book, On Passions (Greek: Περὶ παθῶν), concerning the therapy of the emotions.[96] The passions are like diseases which depress and crush the soul, thus he sought to eradicate them (apatheia).[96] Wrong judgements turn into passions when they gather an impetus of their own, just as, when one has started running, it is difficult to stop.[97] One cannot hope to eradicate the emotions when one is in the heat of love or anger: this can only be done when one is calm.[98] Therefore, one should prepare in advance, and deal with the emotions in the mind as if they were present.[99] By applying reason to emotions such as greed, pride, or lust, one can understand the harm which they cause.[99] See also[edit] Apocatastasis Deixis History of logic Lazy argument List of unusual deaths Notes[edit] ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: "[Stoics] have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial Platonic Forms or in some other manner.". ^ Chrysippus – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ "Chrysippus". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ a b He died according to Apollodorus of Athens (ap. Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 184) at the age of 73 during the 143rd Olympiad (208–204 BC). Thus his date of birth is placed between 281 and 277. The statements in Pseudo-Lucian (Macr. 20) that he died aged 81, and Valerius Maximus that he was still writing at the age of 80 (Val. Max. viii. 7) are considered less credible. Cf. Dorandi 1999, p. 40 ^ Dorandi 1999, p. 40 ^ a b c "The first of Chrysippus' partially preserved two or three works is his Logical Questions, contained in PHerc. 307 ... The second work is his On Providence, preserved in PHerc 1038 and 1421 ... A third work, most likely by Chrysippus is preserved in PHerc. 1020," Fitzgerald 2004, p. 11 ^ Woolmer, Mark (30 April 2017). A Short History of The Phoenicians. I.B. Tauris (2017). ISBN 9781786722171. ^ Gould 1970, p. 7, citing Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 179; Galen, Protreptic, 7; de Differentia Pulsuum, 10 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 182 ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 179 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 181. The king is not named, but Cilicia was contested between Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Antiochus I Soter during this period, cf. Green 1993, p. 639 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 179. The claim that he studied under Zeno is less likely because Zeno died in 262/1. Cf. Dorandi 1999, p. 40 ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 184 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 181 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 180 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 181, x. 26–7 ^ a b c d Davidson 1908, p. 614 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 185 ^ Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 183 ^ Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, 15. 18; Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 35 ^ a b "Chrysippus", J. O. Urmson, Jonathan Rée, The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy, 2005, pages 73–74 of 398 pages. ^ Barnes 1999, p. 65 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 183. Greek: εἰ μὴ γὰρ ἦν Χρύσιππος, οὐκ ἂν ἦν στοά ^ Sharples 2014, p. 24 ^ a b c d e Johansen & Rosenmeier 1998, p. 466 ^ Sharples 2014, pp. 24–25 ^ Gould 1970, pp. 69–70 ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 71 ^ a b Johansen & Rosenmeier 1998, p. 467 ^ a b Sextus Empiricus, Pyr. Hyp. ii. 110–112; Adv. Math. viii. 112–117 ^ a b Sextus Empiricus, Pyr. Hyp., ii. 110–112 ^ When Sextus Empiricus reports the different criteria offered by ancient philosophers for the truth of conditional propositions, he does not mention Chrysippus by name, but modern scholars believe that Chrysippus authored, or, at least, held this view. See Gould 1970, pp. 72–82 ^ a b Johansen & Rosenmeier 1998, p. 468 ^ Susanne Bobzien, Stoic Syllogistic, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 14, 1996, pp. 133–192 ^ Diogenes Laertius, vii. 79; Sextus Empiricus, Hyp. Pyr. ii. 156–9; cf. Adv. Math. viii. 223ff. ^ These Latin names, unknown to Chrysippus, date from the Middle Ages. Sharples 2014, p. 24 ^ Bobzien, Susanne. "Ancient Logic: Stoic Syllogistic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b Sharples 2014, p. 26 ^ a b Barnes 1999, p. 71 ^ Stephen Menn, The Stoic Theory of Categories, in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy: Volume XVII: 1999, 215–47. ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 107 ^ Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, vii. 16 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 180. ^ O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 403 ^ Hicks 1910, p. 70 ^ a b c Gould 1970, p. 90 ^ a b c d Stock 1908, p. 22 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 77 ^ Stock 1908, p. 23 ^ Hicks 1911, p. 946 ^ Hicks 1910, p. 66 ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii, 19 ^ Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis, 41. ^ Hicks 1911, p. 944 ^ a b O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 431 ^ a b Stock 1908, p. 79 ^ a b c Sharples 2014, p. 67 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 178 ^ a b Zeller 1880, p. 176 ^ a b Zeller 1880, p. 175 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 174 ^ Cicero, On Fate, 20–21 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 177 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 181 ^ a b Kenny 2006, p. 195 referencing Cicero, On Fate, 28–9 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 182 ^ Diogenianus in Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica, vi. 8, quoted in Inwood & Gerson 1997, p. 190 ^ Brunschwig & Sedley 2003, p. 172 ^ a b c Zeller 1880, p. 179 ^ a b Zeller 1880, p. 180 ^ Gould 1970, p. 152, note 3 ^ Gould 1970, pp. 144–145 ^ a b c Hicks 1911, p. 947 ^ a b c Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 15 ^ Max Bernhard Weinsten, Welt- und Lebensanschauungen, Hervorgegangen aus Religion, Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis ("World and Life Views, Emerging From Religion, Philosophy and Perception of Nature") (1910), page 233: "Dieser Pandeismus, der von Chrysippos (aus Soloi 280-208 v. Chr.) herrühren soll, ist schon eine Verbindung mit dem Emanismus; Gott ist die Welt, insofern als diese aus seiner Substanz durch Verdichtung und Abkühlung entstanden ist und entsteht, und er sich strahlengleich mit seiner Substanz durch sie noch verbreitet." ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii. 10. Cf. ii. 6 for the fuller version of this argument ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii. 10 ^ Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis, 1051 B ^ a b Aulus Gellius, vii. 1 ^ Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis, 1050 E; De Communibus Notitiis, 1065 B ^ Plutarch, De Communibus Notitiis, 1065 D ^ Gould 1970, p. 116 ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 117 ^ Plutarch, De Communibus Notitiis, 1079F ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 118 ^ a b Heath 1921, p. 69 ^ Iamblichus, in Nicom., ii. 8f; Syrianus, in Arist. Metaph., Kroll 140. 9f. ^ Galen, On The Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, iii.3.13–22, iv.2.27, iv.6.19–27. See also Epictetus, Discourses, i.28.6–10; ii.17.19–23, for an example of this play being discussed in the setting of a Stoic school ^ Stock 1908, p. 13 ^ Gould 1970, p. 163 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 87 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 88 ^ a b c d e Davidson 1908, p. 615 ^ a b Kenny 2006, pp. 282–3 ^ a b Zeller 1880, p. 284 ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 186 ^ Sharples 2014, p. 68 ^ Gould 1970, p. 187 ^ a b Gould 1970, p. 188 References[edit] Barnes, Jonathan (1999), "The History of Hellenistic Logic", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Jonathan; Mansfeld, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-61670-0 Brunschwig, Jacques; Sedley, David (2003), "Hellenistic philosophy", in Sedley, David (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-77503-5 Davidson, William Leslie (1908), "Chrysippus", in Hastings, James (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 3, T. & T. Clark Dorandi, Tiziano (1999), "Chronology", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Jonathan; Mansfeld, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-61670-0 Fitzgerald, John T. (2004), "Philodemus and the Papyri from Herculaneum", in Fitzgerald, John T.; Obbink, Dirk; Holland, Glenn Stanfield (eds.), Philodemus and the New Testament world Philosophy, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-11460-2 Gould, Josiah (1970), The Philosophy of Chrysippus, SUNY, ISBN 0-87395-064-X Green, Peter (1993), Alexander to Actium: the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-08349-0 Heath, Thomas Little (1921), A History of Greek Mathematics, Vol 1: From Thales to Euclid, Oxford Hicks, Robert Drew (1910), Stoic and Epicurean, C. Scribner Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 942–951. Inwood, Brad; Gerson, Lloyd P. (1997), Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings, Hackett, ISBN 0-87220-378-6 Johansen, Karsten Friis; Rosenmeier, Henrik (1998), A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12738-6 Kenny, Anthony (2006), Ancient Philosophy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-875273-3   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "The Stoics: Cleanthes" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "The Stoics: Chrysippus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. O'Toole, Robert R.; Jennings, Raymond E. (2004), "The Megarians and the Stoics", in Gabbay, Dov; Woods, John (eds.), Handbook of the History of Logic: Greek, Indian, and Arabic logic, North Holland, ISBN 0-444-50466-4 Sharples, R. W. (2014), Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy, Routledge, pp. 67–68, ISBN 978-1134836390 Stock, St. George William Joseph (1908), Stoicism, Constable Zeller, Eduard (1880), The Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, Longmans Further reading[edit] Bobzien, Susanne (1998), Determinism and Freedom in Stoic Philosophy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-199-24767-6 Susanne Bobzien, (1999), Chrysippus' Theory of Causes. In K. Ierodiakonou (ed.), Topics in Stoic Philosophy, Oxford: OUP, 196-242. ISBN 0-19924-880-X Émile Bréhier, (1951), Chrysippe et l'ancien stoicisme. Paris. ISBN 2-903925-06-2 Richard Dufour, (2004), Chrysippe. Oeuvre philosophique. Textes traduits et commentés par Richard Dufour, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2 volumes (logic and physics), ISBN 2-251-74203-4 D. E. Hahm, Chrysippus' solution to the Democritean dilemma of the cone, Isis 63 (217) (1972), 205–220. H. A. Ide, Chrysippus's response to Diodorus's Master Argument, History and Philosophy Logic 13 (2) (1992), 133–148. Christoph Jedan (2009) Stoic Virtues: Chrysippus and the Theological Foundations of Stoic Ethics. Continuum Studies in Ancient Philosophy. ISBN 1-4411-1252-9 Teun L. Tieleman (1996) Galen and Chrysippus on the Soul: Argument and Refutation in the "De Placitis" Books II–III. Philosophia Antiqua. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10520-4 Teun L. Tieleman (2003) Chrysippus' "on Affections": Reconstruction and Interpretation. Philosophia Antiqua. Brill. ISBN 90-04-12998-7 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Chrysippus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chrysippus of Soli. Kirby, Jeremy. "Chrysippus". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Chrysippus", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews Early Stoic Logic: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes of Assos, Chrysippus of Soli an annotated bibliography on the logic of Chrysippus Preceded by Cleanthes Leader of the Stoic school 230–206 BC Succeeded by Zeno of Tarsus Links to related articles v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis 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en-wikipedia-org-9523	----	Mausoleum - Wikipedia Mausoleum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Mausolea" redirects here. For the genus of flowering plants, see Mausolea (plant). Monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people This article duplicates the scope of other articles, specifically, Mazar (mausoleum). Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. (January 2019) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Mausoleum" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, a UNESCO World Heritage Site A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb, or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. Contents 1 Overview 2 Notable mausolea 2.1 Africa 2.2 Asia, Eastern, Southern, and Southeast 2.2.1 China 2.2.2 India and Pakistan 2.2.3 Japan 2.2.4 Philipines 2.2.5 Taiwan 2.2.6 Others 2.3 Asia, western 2.4 Europe 2.5 Latin America 2.6 Northern America 2.6.1 Canada 2.6.2 United States 2.7 Oceania 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Footnotes 6 External links Overview[edit] The word mausoleum derives from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[1] Historically, mausolea were, and still may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausolea soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire, these were often in necropoles or along roadsides: the via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausolea for kilometres outside Rome. When Christianity became dominant, mausolea were out of use.[2] Later, mausolea became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods. A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. This contains the body or bodies, probably within sarcophagi or interment niches. Modern mausolea may also act as columbaria (a type of mausoleum for cremated remains) with additional cinerary urn niches. Mausolea may be located in a cemetery, a churchyard or on private land. In the United States, the term may be used for a burial vault below a larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and cinerary urn spaces for interments in the lower level of the building. It is known as the "crypt mausoleum". In Europe, these underground vaults are sometimes called crypts or catacombs. Notable mausolea[edit] Main article: List of mausolea Ming Xiaoling, Hongwu Emperor's mausoleum in Nanjing, China The entrance to Higashi Otani Mausoleum in Kyoto, Japan National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Taipei, Taiwan Yeongneung, King Sejong's mausoleum in Yeoju, South Korea Kumsusan Palace of the Sun, Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il's mausoleum in Pyongyang, North Korea Muhammad Ali Jinnah Mausoleum in Karachi, Pakistan The exterior view of the Mausoleum of Emperor Jahangir, located in Punjab, Pakistan Habib Bourguiba's mausoleum in Monastir, Tunisia The interior of the Spring Valley Mausoleum in Minnesota, listed on the National Register of Historic Places Percival Lowell - Mausoleum 2013 at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona The Khazneh at Petra is believed to be Nabataean King Aretas IV's mausoleum. Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Ankara, Turkey Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, mausoleum of Muhammad in Medina, Saudi Arabia The mausoleum of Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, Iraq Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae, Iran Mausoleum of Later Abbasid Caliph Ar-Rashid bi-llāh Africa[edit] Mausoleum of Mohammed V Bourguiba mausoleum El Alia Cemetery, Mausoleum of the Late President, Algeria. The Dr. John Garang De Mabior mausoleum in Juba, South Sudan. Mastabas dating from ancient Egypt. Agostinho Neto's Mausoleum in Luanda, Angola. Mausolée (Pyramide) du Président Mathieu Kerekou, Natitingou, Benin. Omar Bongo's Mausoleum (A replica of the Mausoleum of Mohammed V) in Franceville, Gabon. Léon M'ba's Memorial Mausoleum in Libreville, Gabon. Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum Atta Mills's Mausoleum at Asomdwee Park in Accra, Ghana. Mausoleum of Late President Levy Mwanawasa, Frederick Chiluba and Michael Sata at Embassy Park in Lusaka, Zambia. Domoni Mosque Mausoleum Indoor inside first president of Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah's Mausoleum. Marien Ngouabi's mausoleum and Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza's mausoleum in Brazzaville, The Republic of Congo. Mausoleum of the late president Felix Houphouet-Boigny in Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire. Laurent Kabila's mausoleum in Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo. The pyramids of ancient Egypt and Nubian pyramids are also types of mausolea.[citation needed] Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque, is the Mausoleum of Gamal Abdel Nasser, in Cairo, Egypt. Unknown Soldier Memorial (Egypt) Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania Al Hussein Mosque, Cairo – Holy Shrine and mausoleum, and purported grave of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson. Qalawun Mausoleum is the Mausoleum of Qalawun, Located in Cairo, Egypt, it was regarded by scholars as the second most beautiful medieval mausoleum ever to be built. Jedars - thirteen ancient monumental Berber mausoleums located south of Tiaret. Palm Grove Cemetery, Monrovia, Liberia. National Hall, Mausoleum of the Late President William Tubman in Monrovia, Montserrado, Liberia. Late President Eyadema's Family Mausoleum in Kara, Togo. Kamuzu Banda Mausoleum, in Lilongwe, Malawi. Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika, President of Malawi built a mausoleum in which his late first wife and Bingu himself are buried. Meles Zenawi's grave in Holy Trinity Cathedral, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. King Sobhuza II Memorial Park, Lobamba, Swaziland. Julius Nyerere's mausoleum in Mwalimu Nyerere Museum Centre, Butiama, Tanzania. The Heroes Square, Maputo, Mozambique. Amilcar Cabral's mausoleum in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Mausoleum of the Late President of Kenya Mzee Jomo Kenyatta in Nairobi, Kenya. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Mausoleum, Bondo, Kenya. Camayanne Mausoleum and contains the tombs of Guinea national hero Samori Ture, Sekou Toure and Alfa Yaya. Nnamdi Azikiwe's burial site, Onitsha, Nigeria. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa's tomb, Bauchi, Nigeria. Mausoleum of Obafemi Awolowo, Ogun State, Nigeria. Mausoleum of Sani Abacha, Kano, Nigeria. National Heroes Acre in Harare, Zimbabwe. Asia, Eastern, Southern, and Southeast[edit] China[edit] Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor biggest underground mausoleum The pyramids of ancient China are also types of mausolea. Qianling Mausoleum in China, houses the remains of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and the ruling Empress Wu Zetian, along with 17 others in auxiliary tombs. Mausoleum of Genghis Khan in Ordos City, Inner Mongolia. Thirteen Imperial Mausoleums of Ming Dynasty Emperors, Beijing Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum, Nanjing Fuling Tomb, Shenyang Zhao Mausoleum (Qing Dynasty) Eastern Qing Tombs Western Qing Tombs Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, Beijing. Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, Nanjing. India and Pakistan[edit] Taj Mahal at Agra, India Qutb Shahi Tombs at Hyderabad, India Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, India Humayun's Tomb at Delhi, India Tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara, near Lahore, Pakistan. Mazar-e-Quaid at Karachi, Pakistan Data Durbar at Lahore, Pakistan Japan[edit] Nikkō Tōshō-gū at Nikkō, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the "Shrines and Temples of Nikkō", Mausoleum of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tokugawa shōguns. Rinnō-ji at Nikkō, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. The temple also administers the Taiyū-in Reibyō (大猷院霊廟), which is the mausoleum of Tokugawa Iemitsu, the third Tokugawa shōgun. Together with Nikkō Tōshō-gū and Futarasan Shrine. Zuihōden at Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan is the mausoleum complex of Date Masamune and his heirs, daimyō of the Sendai Domain. Sennyū-ji, Kyoto, Japan. Musashi Imperial Graveyard, is a mausoleum complex at Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan. Tamaudun, at Shuri, Okinawa, Japan. Philipines[edit] Rizal Monument at Rizal Park in Manila, Philippines, houses the remains of Dr. Jose Rizal, national hero of the Philippines. Mausoleum of the Veterans of the Revolution, enshrining participants in the 1896 revolution against the Spanish Empire. Quezon Memorial, in Quezon City, Philippines, houses the remains of President Manuel Quezon and his consort, Doña Aurora. Marcos Museum and Mausoleum in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, housing the remains of President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Taiwan[edit] National Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, Taipei, Taiwan. National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, Taipei, Taiwan. Mausoleum of Late President Lord Chiang Kai-shek, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Mausoleum of Late President Chiang Ching-kuo, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Chen Tsyr-shiou Memorial Park, Former Mausoleum and Memorial of Late Vice President Chen Cheng, Taishan District, New Taipei, Taiwan. Others[edit] Astana Giribangun Suharto family complex in traditional Javanese architectural style in Matesih, Karanganyar Regency, Central Java Imogiri complex in Imogiri, Central Java is the cemetery for Mataram royals and the Hamengkubuwana Royals of Yogyakarta and Pakubuwono of Surakarta Kandawmin Garden Mausolea, Myanmar. Martyrs' Mausoleum, Myanmar. Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea Mausoleum of Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in Gopalganj, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bandaranaike family Estate in Horagolla Bandaranaike Samadhi, Sri Lanka Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi, Vietnam Kumsusan Palace of the Sun or Kim Il-sung Mausoleum, Pyongyang, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) Asia, western[edit] Tomb of Hafez (Hāfezieh) in Shiraz, Iran Al-Khazneh at Petra, Jordan Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae, Iran. Naqsh-e Rustam at Persepolis Iran, Tombs of Persian Achaemenid kings (522-486 BCE). Tomb of Ferdowsi in Mashhad, Iran. Tomb of Hafez (Hāfezieh) in Shiraz, Iran The Shrine of the Báb and the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Haifa and Acre, Israel, respectively. Imam Husayn Mosque, Karbala – according to Shī‘ah belief,[3] the head and body of Husayn ibn Ali, along with all others who fell at the Battle of Karbala are buried here. Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, Iran The Mausoleum of Khomeini in Tehran, Iran Anıtkabir mausoleum of Atatürk the founder of the Republic of Turkey at Ankara, Turkey Mausoleum of Yasser Arafat in Ramallah, West Bank Europe[edit] See also: Burial sites of European monarchs and consorts The Panthéon in Paris, France Oplenac in Topola, Serbia Jusélius Mausoleum at the Käppärä Cemetery in Pori, Finland Bismarck Mausoleum outside Friedrichsruh in northern Germany Hamilton Mausoleum at Hamilton in Scotland House of Karageorgevich Mausoleum, St. George's Church, Oplenac in Topola, Serbia Royal Mausoleum and the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum at Frogmore, England Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, Russia Cathedral of the Archangel in Moscow, Russia Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow, Russia Cathedral of Saint Domnius in Split, Croatia Lajos Batthyány's Mausoleum in Budapest, Hungary Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Italy. Pantheon, Rome in Italy Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome, Italy Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna, Italy Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy Mausoleum of Marasesti in Marasesti, Romania Pyramid of Tirana in Tirana, Albania Batenberg Mausoleum in Sofia, Bulgaria Trentham Mausoleum near Stoke-on-Trent, England Panthéon, Paris in France Les Invalides in France Valle de los Caídos, in San Lorenzo del Escorial, Spain Imperial Crypt in Austria Church of Our Lady of Laeken in Belgium Oplenac Mausoleum in Topola, Serbia, the Mausoleum of the Serbian and Yugoslav Royal House of Karađorđević National Pantheon / Church of Santa Engrácia in Lisbon, Portugal Mausoleum of Njegoš in Lovćen, Montenegro Wilhelm II Mausoleum in Doorn, Netherlands Juselius Mausoleum in Finland Latin America[edit] The mausoleum of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his family in the Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara in Petrópolis, Brazil El Ángel Victory column and mausoleum to the heroes of the Mexican Independence in Mexico City, Mexico. Monumento a la Revolución monument commemorating and mausoleum to the heroes of the Mexican Revolution in Mexico City, Mexico. Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral Panteon San Fernando, Mexico City, Mexico. Jardines Del Humaya, a cemetery with opulent multi-story and air-conditioned mausoleums of Mexican drug cartel members. Obelisk of São Paulo mausoleum to the heroes of Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo City, São Paulo, Brazil. Chico Xavier mausoleum in Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Cemitério de São João Batista, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Panteón de los Próceres, Peru. Presbitero Maestro mausoleum and museum in Lima, Peru. Cathedral Basilica of St. John the Apostle and Evangelist, Lima Mausoleo a los Heroes de El Polvorín, at Cementerio Civil de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral, mausoleum of General San Martín. La Recoleta Cemetery, Buenos Aires, Argentina. La Chacarita cemetery, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mausoleum of Néstor Kirchner, Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz, Argentina. Santa Ifigenia Cemetery, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Los Ilustres Cemetery, Salvador. Cementerio General, Trujillo, Honduras. Guatemala City General Cemetery Cementerio General Occidental, Managua, Nicaragua. Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, La Paz, mausoleum of Andrés de Santa Cruz, Bolivia General Cemetery of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Cementerio General de Cochabamba, mausoleum of “general del pueblo” René Barrientos Ortuño, Bolivia. Central Cemetery of Bogotá, Colombia. San Diego Cemetery, Quito, Ecuador. Haiti’s National Cemetery in Port-au-Prince, where François Duvalier, who ruled from 1957 to 1971, is buried. Omar Torrijos Mausoleum, Amador, Panama City, Panama. Cathedral of La Plata, mausoleum of Dardo Rocha. Artigas Mausoleum, mausoleum of José Gervasio Artigas. Altar de la Patria of Chile. Cementerio General de Santiago, Chile. National Pantheon of Venezuela, mausoleum of Simón Bolívar. National Pantheon of the Heroes Altar de la Patria, mausoleum to the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. National Pantheon of the Dominican Republic Monument to the Independence of Brazil JK Memorial San Salvador Cathedral Cathedral of Quito Mausoleo en el Centro Cívico Ciudad Alfaro, Montecristi, Ecuador. Northern America[edit] Canada[edit] Eaton family mausoleum at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario Hart Massey's mausoleum at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario Sir Henry Pellatt's mausoleum at Forest Lawn in Toronto, Ontario United States[edit] Community Mausoleum of All Saints Cemetery, des Plaines, Illinois, United States Henry Flagler's mausoleum in St. Augustine, Florida Presidential memorials in the United States and Presidents' graves of the United States Grant's Tomb in New York, New York Abraham Lincoln's tomb in Springfield, Illinois MacArthur Memorial Miles Mausoleum in Arlington National Cemetery Queen of Heaven Mausoleum in Queen of Heaven Cemetery, Hillside, Illinois Rose Chapel Mausoleum in Roseland Park Cemetery, Berkley, Michigan Shrine of the Good Shepherd Chapel Mausoleum in Green Bay, Wisconsin Tacoma Mausoleum in Tacoma, Washington Tombs of the Uga mascots inside Sanford Stadium in Athens, Georgia Brigadier General Egbert Ludovicus Viele's Egyptian-style pyramid mausoleum in West Point, New York Rapper XXXTentacion's mausoleum at The Gardens of Boca Raton in Boca Raton, Florida Oceania[edit] Massey Memorial in Wellington, New Zealand where New Zealand Prime Minister William Massey and his wife are interred. Savage Memorial at Bastion Point in Auckland, New Zealand where New Zealand Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage is interred. Royal Mausoleum in Honolulu, Hawaii where the members of the Kamehameha and Kalākaua dynasties are interred. See also[edit] List of types of funerary monument Morgue or mortuary National Cemetery Ohel (grave) Sepulchre Guard mounting Notes[edit] ^ The plurals mausoleums and mausolea are both used in English, although mausoleums is more common. Footnotes[edit] ^ Toms, J. Mason (Winter 2019). "Arkansas Listings in the National Register of Historic Places: The Community Mausoleums of Cecil E. Bryan". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 78 (4): 423–431. ISSN 0004-1823. ^ Paul Veyne, in A History of Private Life: I. From Pagan Rome to Byzantium, Veyne, ed. (Harvard University Press) 1987:416. ^ al-Qummi, Ja'far ibn Qūlawayh (2008). Kāmil al-Ziyārāt. trans. Sayyid Mohsen al-Husaini al-Mīlāni. Shiabooks.ca Press. p. 63. External links[edit] Look up mausoleum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mausoleums. Mausolea and Monuments Trust, gazetteer of mausolea in England Marvelous Mausoleums Around The World - slideshow at The Huffington Post Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries France (data) United States v t e Sufism terminology Sufis Abdal Ahl al-Khutwa Al-Insān al-Kāmil Bash Hezzab Dervish Fakir Hafiz Hezzab Imam Khatib Majzoob Marabout Mudaqiq [ar] Muqaddam Muqarrab [ar] Murshid Mutahaqiq [ar] Murid Nass al-Houdhour Pir Qalandar Qāriʾ Qutb Rabbani Salik Sheikh Siddiq Sufis ranks [ar] Talibe The Seven ranks [ar] Wali Wassil Concepts Aayane [ar] Aayane Thabita [ar] Aql Baqaa Dhawq Fana Ghaflah Haal Hijab Ihsan Ishq Ismul Azam Lataif-e-Sitta Maqaam Nafs Qalb Ran [ar] Rouh [ar] Sadr [ar] Yaqeen Awrads Dhikr Djamaa [ar] Djoua [ar] Dua Ibara [ar] Ichara [ar] Latifa [ar] Lazimi Muhasabah [ar] Muraqabah Raising hands in Dua Sabr Sahar [ar] Salat al-Fatih Salawat Samt [ar] Shuhud [ar] Shukr Sufism pillars [ar] Tafakur Tahara [ar] Tahlia [ar] Takhlia [ar] Tawajud [ar] Tawakkul Tawassul Tazkiah Uzla [ar] Wajd Wazifa Zarruqiyya Wird Zuhd Waridates Barakah Basira [ar] Bast [ar] Djadba [ar] Fath [ar] Haqiqa Hidayah Ilham Irfan Ishrak Karamat Kashf Khatir [ar] Ma'rifa Nūr Qabdh [ar] Rabita [ar] Ru'ia [ar] Sirr [ar] Tajalli Uns [ar] Walayah Warid Misconducts Rahbaniya Shath Wihdat Shuhud [ar] Zandaqa Ceremonies Ashura Bay'ah Haḍra Hizb Rateb Idjaza Mawlid Mawsim Salka Sbooa [fr] Sebiba Silsila Sufi orders Tariqa Tweeza Wezeea Ziyarat Arts Ashewiq [ar] Madih nabawi Nasheed Naʽat Qawwali Sama Sufi cosmology Sufism history Sufi metaphysics Sufi music Sufis persecution Sufi philosophy Sufi poetry Sufi psychology Sufi whirling Places Daara Dargah Datuk Keramat Eidgah Gonbad Gongbei Jama masjid Jama'at Khana Khalwa Khanqah Külliye Kuttab Madrasa Maqam Maqbara Mausoleum Mazar Mosque Musalla Qubba Rauza Ribat Surau Tekyeh Turbah Türbe Zawiya Objects Ammama Balgha Burnous Djellaba Gandoura Jellabiya Khirqa Misbaha Miswak Prayer rug Qashabiya Tagelmust Taqiyah Tarboosh Turban Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mausoleum&oldid=1026730994" Categories: Mausoleums Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Duplicate articles Articles needing additional references from August 2012 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 June 2021, at 23:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9524	----	John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I) - Wikipedia John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search John Komnenos (Greek: Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός, romanized: Iōannēs Komnēnos; August/September 1159 – September 1185) was the second son of the Byzantine aristocrat, and emperor in 1183–1185, Andronikos I Komnenos. His father appointed him co-emperor over his older brother Manuel, but when Andronikos was deposed on 12 September 1185, John was also seized and probably killed. Contents 1 Early life 2 Co-emperor 3 References 4 Bibliography Early life[edit] John was born to the future Andronikos I Komnenos and his first wife, whose name is unknown, in August or September 1159. He was conceived in early 1159, when his mother was in prison, and Andronikos visited her secretly one night.[1] The young John probably accompanied his father when the latter was named military governor (doux) of Cilicia in 1166, as he definitely was with his father during his subsequent exile and long wanderings across the principalities of the Near East, while his older brother Manuel and his sister Maria remained in Constantinople.[2] It was not until late 1178 or early 1179 that Andronikos was allowed back to the Byzantine capital, bringing John, along with his niece and mistress Theodora Komnene and their children, with him.[3] At this point, John may have received the title of sebastos from his uncle, Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180).[3] After Manuel I died, John and his older brother Manuel sided with Manuel I's daughter, the Caesarissa Maria Komnene, against the regency of the young Alexios II Komnenos (r. 1180–1183), headed by Empress-dowager Maria of Antioch and another cousin, the protosebastos Alexios Komnenos. The conspiracy was uncovered, however, and both John and Manuel were imprisoned until the regency was overthrown by their father in April 1182.[3] Co-emperor[edit] Miniature portrait of John's father, Andronikos I, from a 15th-century codex When his father assumed the regency, John received an unspecified high title, but in November 1183, after Andronikos was crowned emperor and Alexios II was deposed and murdered, John was also named as co-emperor and heir apparent to his father.[3] Andronikos' choice fell on John, rather than the older Manuel, because Manuel was known to object to his father's policies. John was considered more loyal, while furthermore his elevation to the throne adhered to the AIMA prophecy by having an emperor whose name started with "A" followed by one whose name (in Greek) started with "I".[4] While Manuel never made secret his disapproval for Andronikos' policies, John supported or tolerated them initially. When at last he criticized his father for his persecution of the aristocracy, according to Eustathius of Thessalonica, he received the rebuke that he and Manuel were "women", who could not rule securely until all the leading men of the state were eliminated, so that only the common people remained.[5] According to the scholar Konstantinos Varzos, it is "without a doubt that the younger son was a much lesser man than the older Manuel". According to Niketas Choniates, one of Andronikos' leading ministers, the megas hetaireiarches Constantine Tripsychos, was accused by his bitter rival the logothetes tou dromou Stephen Hagiochristophorites of uttering disparaging remarks on John's character and qualities, comparing him with the jester Zintziphitzes, a common and vulgar man known in the taverns and streets of the capital. Though clearly slanderous, these accusations must have contained a kernel of truth, according to Varzos, for Tripsychos was duly demoted and imprisoned.[6] In 1185, the Italo-Norman King of Sicily William II launched an invasion of the Byzantine Empire, and his troops laid siege to the Empire's second city, Thessalonica. John was one of the commanders sent out by Andronikos to assist the city and confront the Normans, giving him command of troops in Philippopolis. Rather than face the hazards of war, John preferred to stay at Philippopolis hunting. According to the eyewitness account of Eustathius of Thessalonica, the besieged called and prayed upon "Good John" to come and save them, but in vain; after the city fell, the Normans mockingly repeated these pleas to the captive Thessalonians.[7] Finally, on 12 September 1185, a popular uprising in Constantinople overthrew Andronikos, who fled the city. On the same day, Manuel was captured and blinded. Shortly after, the news of Andronikos' fall reached Philippopolis. The army at once rose up, and John was seized and blinded, before he was killed.[8] References[edit] ^ Varzos 1984, p. 528. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 528–529. ^ a b c d Varzos 1984, p. 529. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 521, 529–530. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 520–522, 530. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 530–531. ^ Varzos 1984, pp. 531–532. ^ Varzos 1984, p. 532. Bibliography[edit] Magoulias, Harry J. (2011). "Andronikos I Komnenos: A Greek Tragedy". Byzantina Symmeikta. 21: 101–136. doi:10.12681/byzsym.1032. ISSN 1791-4884. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). B. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784665. v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. Rulers and co-rulers are denoted in bold Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Komnenos_(son_of_Andronikos_I)&oldid=996091985" Categories: 1159 births 1185 deaths 12th-century Byzantine emperors Byzantine junior emperors Komnenos dynasty Heirs apparent who never acceded 12th-century murdered monarchs Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Norman wars Byzantine prisoners and detainees Prisoners and detainees of the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Latina Polski Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 13:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9534	----	William O. Stephens - Wikipedia William O. Stephens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American philosopher William O. Stephens Born 10 June 1962 Lafayette, Indiana Occupation Philosopher, writer William O. Stephens (born 10 June 1962), is an American philosopher and scholar of Stoicism. He is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Creighton University after retiring from teaching at their Omaha Campus in 2020. Contents 1 Biography 2 Vegetarianism 3 Selected publications 4 See also 5 References Biography[edit] Stephens was born in Lafayette, Indiana and grew up in West Lafayette where he attended West Lafayette Senior High School and began his study of ancient civilizations and Latin.[1] He studied Philosophy at the College of Wooster for two years before transferring to Earlham College, where he earned his undergraduate degree. Stephens completed his graduate work at the University of Pennsylvania, studying under Charles H. Kahn, Alexander Nehamas, and Martin Ostwald. He received his doctorate in Philosophy in 1990.[1] In August 1990, he joined the faculty at Creighton University where he received the Omicron Delta Kappa Teaching for Tomorrow award in 2005. During his tenure at Creighton, Stephens published four books and numerous articles on topics including Stoic ethics, Epicureanism, philosophical vegetarianism, personhood, and sex and love.[2] He has also written on being a Stoic and a Chicago Cubs fan, and on the similarities the Jedi philosophy in Star Wars shares with Stoicism.[3] He presented on phobias, terrorism, and Stoic fearlessness[4] at Stoicon in Toronto, Canada, October 14, 2017,[5] and on a Stoic approach to travel and tourism at Stoicon in London, England, September 29, 2018.[6] He is frequently interviewed about topics in Stoicism. Vegetarianism[edit] Stephens authored an influential paper examining five arguments for vegetarianism.[7][8] These were the arguments from distributive justice, environmental harm, sexual politics, moral consideration for animals, and the prudential argument from health. He concluded that compassion, humility, and integrity make working toward a meatless diet virtuous.[9] Selected publications[edit] Books Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4411-2561-3. Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom. London: Continuum, 2007. ISBN 0-8264-9608-3. The Person: Readings in Human Nature. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006. ISBN 978-0-13-184811-5. The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus, William O. Stephens trans., New York: Peter Lang, 1996. ISBN 0-8204-3027-7. Papers Five Arguments for Vegetarianism (Philosophy in the Contemporary World, 1994) Fake Meat (Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics, 2018) Public Health, Ethical Vegetarianism, and the Harms of the Animal Food Industry (Archives in Biomedical Engineering & Biotechnology, 2019) See also[edit] List of animal rights advocates References[edit] ^ a b "Biography". William O. Stephens. ^ Solomon, Avi (2011-11-04). "Interview with a Stoic: William O. Stephens". Boing Boing. Retrieved 2014-07-29. ^ Hanselman, Stephen (2017-07-26). "Is There a Connection Between the Jedi and the Stoics? Professor William O. Stephens Has the Answer". Daily Stoic. Retrieved 2017-11-17. ^ Sadler, Gregory (2017-10-28). "Phobias, Terrorism, and Stoic Fearlessness by William O. Stephens". Modern Stoicism. Retrieved 2017-11-17. ^ "Stoicon 2017: William Stephens on Phobias, Terrorism and Stoic Fearlessness". Modern Stoicism. 2018-11-06 – via YouTube. ^ "Stoicon 2018: William Stephens 'A Stoic Approach to Travel and Tourism'". Modern Stoicism. 2018-11-08 – via YouTube. ^ Sabate, Joan. (2001). Vegetarian Nutrition. CRC Press. p. 478. ISBN 0-8493-8508-3 ^ Gamlund, Espen. The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism. In Matthias Kaiser, Marianne Elisabeth Lien. (2006). Ethics and the Politics of Food. Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 123-127. ISBN 978-90-8686-008-1 ^ Stephens, William O. Five Arguments for Vegetarianism. In Susan Jean Armstrong, Richard George Botzler. (2003). The Animal Ethics Reader. Routledge. pp. 201-208. ISBN 0-415-27588-1 v t e Veganism and vegetarianism Perspectives Veganism Animal-free agriculture Fruitarianism History Raw veganism Nutrition Vegan organic gardening Vegan school meal Vegan studies Vegetarianism Economic vegetarianism Environmental vegetarianism History Orthopathy Lacto vegetarianism Ovo vegetarianism Ovo-lacto vegetarianism Cuisine Vegetarian Diet Pyramid Ecofeminism Nutrition By country Lists Vegetarians Vegans Fictional characters Vegetarian festivals Vegetarian organizations Vegetarian restaurants List of vegan media Ethics Secular Animal rights Animal welfare Carnism Deep ecology Environmental vegetarianism Ethics of eating meat Meat paradox Nonviolence Replaceability argument Sentientism Speciesism Tirukkuṟaḷ Religious Buddhism Christianity (Seventh-day Adventist Church) Hinduism Sattvic Ahimsa Islam Jainism Judaism Pythagoreanism Rastafari Sikhism Food and drink Agar Agave nectar Coconut burger Coconut milk Fruits Grains cereals legumes Meat analogue List of meat substitutes Miso Mochi Mock duck Nutritional yeast Plant cream Plant milk Quinoa Quorn Seitan Soy yogurt Tempeh Tofu Tofurkey Cheese Vegepet Vegetables Hot dog Vegetarian mark Sausage Beer Wine Veggie burger Groups and events Vegan American Vegan Society Beauty Without Cruelty Food Empowerment Project Go Vegan Our Hen House Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine Plamil Foods Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme Vegan Awareness Foundation Vegan flag Vegan Ireland Vegan Outreach Vegan Prisoners Support Group The Vegan Society The Good Food Institute Veganuary Veganz World Vegan Day Vegetarian Boston Vegetarian Society Christian Vegetarian Association European Vegetarian Union French Vegetarian Society Hare Krishna Food for Life International Vegetarian Union Jewish Veg Meat-free days Meatless Monday Friday Fast Order of the Golden Age ProVeg Deutschland ProVeg International ProVeg Nederland Swissveg Toronto Vegetarian Association Vegetarian Federal Union Vegetarian Society Vegetarian Society (Singapore) Veggie Pride Viva! Health World Esperantist Vegetarian Association World Vegetarian Day Companies List of vegetarian and vegan companies Books, reports, journals An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty (1802) Vegetable Cookery (1812) A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813) Reasons for not Eating Animal Food (1814) Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824) Nature's Own Book (1835) Fruits and Farinacea (1845) The Pleasure Boat (1845) The Ethics of Diet (1883) What is Vegetarianism? (1886) Shelley's Vegetarianism (1891) Behind the Scenes in Slaughter-Houses (1892) Why I Am a Vegetarian (1895) Figs or Pigs? (1896) Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian (1903) The Meat Fetish (1904) A Fleshless Diet (1910) The Benefits of Vegetarianism (1927) Ten Talents (1968) Diet for a Small Planet (1971) The Farm Vegetarian Cookbook (1975) Laurel's Kitchen (1976) Moosewood Cookbook (1977) Fit for Life (1985) Diet for a New America (1987) The Sexual Politics of Meat (1990) Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone (1997) The China Study (2004) Skinny Bitch (2005) Livestock's Long Shadow (2006) The Bloodless Revolution (2006) Eating Animals (2009) Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows (2009) Animal (De)liberation (2016) The End of Animal Farming (2018) Meat Atlas (annual) Films The Animals Film (1981) A Cow at My Table (1998) Meet Your Meat (2002) Peaceable Kingdom (2004) Earthlings (2005) A Sacred Duty (2007) Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead (2010) Planeat (2010) Forks Over Knives (2011) Vegucated (2011) Live and Let Live (2013) Cowspiracy (2014) What the Health (2017) Carnage (2017) Dominion (2018) The Game Changers (2018) Magazines Naked Food Satya Vegetarian Times VegNews The Animals' Agenda Academics, authors, physicians Contemporary Elisa Aaltola Carol J. Adams Martin Balluch Neal D. Barnard David Benatar Steven Best Yves Bonnardel Will Bonsall T. Colin Campbell Jan Deckers Sue Donaldson Mylan Engel Gidon Eshel Caldwell Esselstyn Michael Allen Fox Gary L. Francione Joel Fuhrman Greta Gaard Valéry Giroux Michael Greger A. Breeze Harper Oscar Horta Melanie Joy Michael Klaper Aph Ko Renan Larue Thomas Lepeltier Andrew Linzey Clair Linzey Howard Lyman Reed Mangels John A. McDougall James E. McWilliams Jack Norris David Olivier Dean Ornish David Pearce Tom Regan Richard H. Schwartz Jérôme Segal Peter Singer William O. Stephens David Sztybel Kim A. Williams Corey Lee Wrenn Laura Wright Historical William Alcott Bertrand P. Allinson Thomas Allinson William Axon Horace A. Barrows George Bedborough Ernest Bell Ragnar Berg Rynn Berry Maximilian Bircher-Benner Ernest Bonnejoy Lucius Duncan Bulkley J. L. Buttner Paul Carton George Cheyne Henry S. Clubb Antonio Cocchi Charles W. Forward Narasinh Narayan Godbole Lewis Gompertz Jeremiah Hacker John Haddon Alexander Haig Edward Hare Philippe Hecquet Martin Luther Holbrook Isaac Jennings John Harvey Kellogg Norman Kerr Daniel H. Kress William Lambe W. R. C. Latson Elmer Lee Elmer McCollum Harry Willis Miller J. Howard Moore Reuben D. Mussey Helen Nearing Scott Nearing Francis William Newman Josiah Oldfield Cyril V. Pink James Rachels Rollo Russell Henry Stephens Salt Russell Thacher Trall Ellen G. White Severin Wielobycki Howard Williams Frank Wokes Related Vegetarian and vegan symbolism Vegetarian characters in fiction List of vegan media Juice fasting Vegetarian and vegan dog diet Vegaphobia Sustainable diet Low-carbon Planetary health Semi-vegetarianism Pescetarianism Pollotarianism Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) Catalonia United States Netherlands Other SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_O._Stephens&oldid=1027633813" Categories: 1962 births Living people American philosophers Animal rights scholars College of Wooster alumni Creighton University faculty Earlham College alumni People from Lafayette, Indiana University of Pennsylvania alumni Vegetarianism activists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 02:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9552	----	JSTOR - Wikipedia JSTOR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from JSTOR (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search distributor of eBooks and other digital media JSTOR Screenshot The JSTOR front page Type of site Digital library Available in English (includes content in other languages) Owner Ithaka Harbors[1] Created by Andrew W. Mellon Foundation URL jstor.org Registration Yes Launched 1995; 26 years ago (1995) Current status Active OCLC number 46609535 Links Website www.jstor.org Title list(s) support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115007466248-JSTOR-Title-Lists JSTOR (/ˈdʒeɪstɔːr/;[2] short for Journal Storage)[3] is a digital library founded in 1995 in New York City, United States. Originally containing digitized back issues of academic journals, it now encompasses books and other primary sources as well as current issues of journals in the humanities and social sciences.[4] It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals. As of 2013[update], more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries had access to JSTOR.[5] Most access is by subscription but some of the site is public domain, and open access content is available free of charge.[6] JSTOR's revenue was $86 million in 2015.[7] Contents 1 History 2 Content 3 Access 3.1 Aaron Swartz incident 3.2 Limitations 3.3 Increasing public access 4 Use 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988,[8] founded JSTOR in 1995. JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a comprehensive collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term. Online access and full-text searchability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution.[9] However, Ira Fuchs, Princeton University's vice president for Computing and Information Technology, convinced Bowen that CD-ROM was becoming an increasingly outdated technology and that network distribution could eliminate redundancy and increase accessibility. (For example, all Princeton's administrative and academic buildings were networked by 1989; the student dormitory network was completed in 1994; and campus networks like the one at Princeton were, in turn, linked to larger networks such as BITNET and the Internet.) JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its initial sites, and it became a fully searchable index accessible from any ordinary web browser. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear and readable.[10] With the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, the then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665. The work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000.[10] The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially. Until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Then JSTOR merged with the nonprofit Ithaka Harbors, Inc.[11]—a nonprofit organization founded in 2003 and "dedicated to helping the academic community take full advantage of rapidly advancing information and networking technologies".[1] Content[edit] JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers.[5] The database contains more than 1,900 journal titles,[5] in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is uniquely identified by an integer value, starting at 1.[clarification needed] In addition to the main site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service.[12] This site offers a search facility with graphical indication of the article coverage and loose integration into the main JSTOR site. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and basic metadata. They are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, subject to a non-disclosure agreement. JSTOR Plant Science[13] is available in addition to the main site. JSTOR Plant Science provides access to content such as plant type specimens, taxonomic structures, scientific literature, and related materials and aimed at those researching, teaching, or studying botany, biology, ecology, environmental, and conservation studies. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative (GPI)[14] and are accessible only to JSTOR and GPI members. Two partner networks are contributing to this: the African Plants Initiative, which focuses on plants from Africa, and the Latin American Plants Initiative, which contributes plants from Latin America. JSTOR launched its Books at JSTOR program in November 2012, adding 15,000 current and backlist books to its site. The books are linked with reviews and from citations in journal articles.[15] In September 2014, JSTOR launched JSTOR Daily, an online magazine meant to bring academic research to a broader audience. Posted articles are generally based on JSTOR entries, and some entries provide the backstory to current events.[16] Access[edit] JSTOR is licensed mainly to academic institutions, public libraries, research institutions, museums, and schools. More than 7,000 institutions in more than 150 countries have access.[4] JSTOR has been running a pilot program of allowing subscribing institutions to provide access to their alumni, in addition to current students and staff. The Alumni Access Program officially launched in January 2013.[17] Individual subscriptions also are available to certain journal titles through the journal publisher.[18] Every year, JSTOR blocks 150 million attempts by non-subscribers to read articles.[19] Inquiries have been made about the possibility of making JSTOR open access. According to Harvard Law professor Lawrence Lessig, JSTOR had been asked "how much would it cost to make this available to the whole world, how much would we need to pay you? The answer was $250 million".[20] Aaron Swartz incident[edit] Main article: United States v. Aaron Swartz See also: Aaron Swartz § JSTOR In late 2010 and early 2011, Aaron Swartz, an American computer programmer, writer, political organizer and Internet activist, used MIT's data network to bulk-download a substantial portion of JSTOR's collection of academic journal articles.[21][22] When the bulk-download was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film the mysterious visitor and the relevant computer was left untouched. Once video was captured of the visitor, the download was stopped and Swartz was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in June 2011 they reached a settlement wherein he surrendered the downloaded data.[21][22] The following month, federal authorities charged Swartz with several "data theft"-related crimes, including wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[23][24] Prosecutors in the case claimed that Swartz acted with the intention of making the papers available on P2P file-sharing sites.[22][25] Swartz surrendered to authorities, pleaded not guilty to all counts, and was released on $100,000 bail. In September 2012, U.S. attorneys increased the number of charges against Swartz from four to thirteen, with a possible penalty of 35 years in prison and $1 million in fines.[26][27] The case still was pending when Swartz committed suicide in January 2013.[28] Prosecutors dropped the charges after his suicide.[29] Limitations[edit] The availability of most journals on JSTOR is controlled by a "moving wall", which is an agreed-upon delay between the current volume of the journal and the latest volume available on JSTOR. This time period is specified by agreement between JSTOR and the publisher of the journal, which usually is three to five years. Publishers may request that the period of a "moving wall" be changed or request discontinuation of coverage. Formerly, publishers also could request that the "moving wall" be changed to a "fixed wall"—a specified date after which JSTOR would not add new volumes to its database. As of November 2010[update], "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of 29 journals made available[needs update] online through sites controlled by the publishers.[30] In 2010, JSTOR started adding current issues of certain journals through its Current Scholarship Program.[31] Increasing public access[edit] Beginning September 6, 2011, JSTOR made public domain content available at no charge to the public.[32][33] This "Early Journal Content" program constitutes about 6% of JSTOR's total content, and includes over 500,000 documents from more than 200 journals that were published before 1923 in the United States, and before 1870 in other countries.[32][33][34] JSTOR stated that it had been working on making this material free for some time. The Swartz controversy and Greg Maxwell's protest torrent of the same content led JSTOR to "press ahead" with the initiative.[32][33] As of 2017[update], JSTOR does not have plans to extend it to other public domain content, stating that "We do not believe that just because something is in the public domain, it can always be provided for free".[35] In January 2012, JSTOR started a pilot program, "Register & Read", offering limited no-cost access (not open access) to archived articles for individuals who register for the service. At the conclusion of the pilot, in January 2013, JSTOR expanded Register & Read from an initial 76 publishers to include about 1,200 journals from over 700 publishers.[36] Registered readers may read up to six articles online every calendar month, but may not print or download PDFs.[37] JSTOR is conducting a pilot program with Wikipedia, whereby established editors are given reading privileges through the Wikipedia Library, as with a university library.[38][39] Use[edit] In 2012, JSTOR users performed nearly 152 million searches, with more than 113 million article views and 73.5 million article downloads.[5] JSTOR has been used as a resource for linguistics research to investigate trends in language use over time and also to analyze gender differences and inequities in scholarly publishing, revealing that in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions and that women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers.[40][41][42] JSTOR metadata is available through CrossRef and the Unpaywall dump,[43] which as of 2020 identifies nearly 3 million works hosted by JSTOR as toll access, as opposed to over 200,000 available in open access (mainly through third party open access repositories). See also[edit] Literature portal Internet portal New York City portal Aluka ARTstor ArXiv Digital preservation HAL (open archive) Japanese Historical Text Initiative JHOVE List of academic databases and search engines Project MUSE References[edit] ^ a b "About". Ithaka. Retrieved 2009-10-25. ^ "JSTOR Videos". YouTube. Retrieved 16 December 2012. ^ Douglas F. Morgan; Marcus D. Ingle; Craig W. Shinn (3 September 2018). New Public Leadership: Making a Difference from Where We Sit. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9780429832918. JSTOR means journal storage, which is an online service created in 1995 to provide electronic access to an extensive array of academic journals. ^ a b Genicot, Léopold (February 13, 2012). "At a glance". Études Rurales (PDF) (45): 131–133. JSTOR 20120213. ^ a b c d "Annual Summary" (PDF). JSTOR. 19 March 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2013. ^ "Register and read beta". ^ "Ithaka Harbors, Inc". Nonprofit Explorer. ProPublica. Retrieved 2018-04-24. ^ Leitch, Alexander. "Bowen, William Gordon". Princeton University Press. ^ Schonfeld, Roger C. (2003). JSTOR: A History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11531-3. ^ a b Taylor, John (2001). "JSTOR: An Electronic Archive from 1665". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 55 (1): 179–81. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2001.0135. JSTOR 532157. ^ "About". JSTOR. Retrieved 28 November 2015. ^ Data for Research. JSTOR. ^ JSTOR Plant Science. JSTOR. ^ Global Plants Initiative. JSTOR. ^ "A New Chapter Begins: Books at JSTOR Launches". JSTOR. 2012-11-12. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15. Retrieved 2021-06-08. ^ Lichterman, Joseph. "Opening up the archives: JSTOR wants to tie a library to the news". Nieman Lab. Retrieved September 18, 2017. ^ "Access for alumni". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ "Individual subscriptions". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ Every Year, JSTOR Turns Away 150 Million Attempts to Read Journal Articles. The Atlantic. Retrieved 29 January 2013. ^ Lessig on "Aaron's Laws—Law and Justice in a Digital Age". YouTube (2013-02-20). Retrieved on 2014-04-12. ^ a b "JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case". JSTOR. 2011-07-19. ^ a b c Carter, Zach; Grim, Ryan; Reilly, Ryan J. (2013-01-12). "Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer, Found Dead Amid Prosecutor 'Bullying' In Unconventional Case". Huffington Post. The Huffington Post. ^ Bilton, Nick (July 19, 2011). "Internet activist charged in M.I.T. data theft". Bits Blog, The New York Times website. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ Schwartz, John (July 19, 2011). "Open-Access Advocate Is Arrested for Huge Download". New York Times. Retrieved July 19, 2011. ^ Lindsay, Jay (July 19, 2011). "Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers". Associated Press. Retrieved July 20, 2011. ^ Ortiz, Carmen (2011-07-19). "Alleged Hacker Charged with Stealing over Four Million Documents from MIT Network". The United States Attorney's Office". Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. ^ Kravets, David (2012-09-18). "Feds Charge Activist with 13 Felonies for Rogue Downloading of Academic Articles". Wired. ^ "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26", BBC News ^ "Aaron Swartz's father: He'd be alive today if he was never arrested", money.cnn.com ^ "Moving wall". JSTOR. ^ "About current journals". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ a b c Brown, Laura (2011-09-07). "JSTOR–Free Access to Early Journal Content and Serving 'Unaffiliated' Users". JSTOR. Archived from the original on 2013-04-05. Retrieved 2021-06-08. ^ a b c Rapp, David (2011-09-07). "JSTOR Announces Free Access to 500K Public Domain Journal Articles". Library Journal. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-10-21. ^ "Early journal content". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ "About JSTOR: Frequently Asked Questions". JSTOR. Archived from the original on 2017-05-11. Retrieved 2017-05-18. ^ Tilsley, Alexandra (January 9, 2013). "Journal Archive Opens Up (Some)". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ "My JSTOR Read Online Free". JSTOR. Retrieved 2018-03-26. ^ Orlowitz, Jake; Earley, Patrick (January 25, 2014). "Librarypedia: The Future of Libraries and Wikipedia". The Digital Shift. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Price, Gary (June 22, 2014). "Wikipedia Library Program Expands With More Accounts from JSTOR, Credo, and Other Database Providers". INFOdocket. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. (1998). "A Study in Computer-Assisted Lexicology: Evidence on the Emergence of Hopefully as a Sentence Adverb from the JSTOR Journal Archive and Other Electronic Resources". American Speech. 73 (3): 279–296. doi:10.2307/455826. JSTOR 455826. ^ Wilson, Robin (October 22, 2012). "Scholarly Publishing's Gender Gap". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ West, Jevin D.; Jacquet, Jennifer; King, Molly M.; Correll, Shelley J.; Bergstrom, Carl T. (2013-07-22). "The Role of Gender in Scholarly Authorship". PLOS ONE. 8 (7): e66212. arXiv:1211.1759. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...866212W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066212. PMC 3718784. PMID 23894278. ^ Heather (2018-09-14). "It's time to insist on #openinfrastructure for #openscience". Our Research blog. Retrieved 2020-04-25. Further reading[edit] Gauger, Barbara J.; Kacena, Carolyn (2006). "JSTOR usage data and what it can tell us about ourselves: is there predictability based on historical use by libraries of similar size?". OCLC Systems & Services. 22 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1108/10650750610640801. Seeds, Robert S. (November 2002). "Impact of a digital archive (JSTOR) on print collection use". Collection Building. 21 (3): 120–22. doi:10.1108/01604950210434551. Spinella, Michael P. (2007). "JSTOR: Past, Present, and Future". Journal of Library Administration. 46 (2): 55–78. doi:10.1300/J111v46n02_05. Spinella, Michael (2008). "JSTOR and the changing digital landscape". Interlending & Document Supply. 36 (2): 79–85. doi:10.1108/02641610810878549. External links[edit] Official website "Libraries and institutions offering access". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Searchable database, includes many public libraries offering free access to library card holders. "Register & Read". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Free individual registration, offering free read-only access (no printing or saving) to three articles every two weeks (seventy-eight per year). JSTOR Early Journal Content : Free Texts : Download & Streaming : Internet Archive Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway France (data) United States Israel Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JSTOR&oldid=1027603916" Categories: 1995 establishments in New York City Academic publishing Andrew W. 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en-wikipedia-org-9564	----	File:0 Marcus Aurelius - Piazza del Campidoglio (2).JPG - Wikipedia File:0 Marcus Aurelius - Piazza del Campidoglio (2).JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 708 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 283 × 240 pixels | 567 × 480 pixels | 907 × 768 pixels | 1,209 × 1,024 pixels | 2,417 × 2,048 pixels | 3,043 × 2,578 pixels. Original file ‎(3,043 × 2,578 pixels, file size: 6.23 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary Object Author AnonymousUnknown author Date circa 175 Medium Bronze Place of discovery Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy Source/Photographer Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0_Marcus_Aurelius_-_Piazza_del_Campidoglio_(2).JPG Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. 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Photograph Description0 Marcus Aurelius - Piazza del Campidoglio (2).JPG Français : Statue en bronze de Marc-Aurèle, place du Capitole à Rome. Copie moderne d'un original romain du IIe siècle ap. J.-C., aujourd'hui conservé au Palais Neuf, musées du Capitole English: Bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. Modern copy of a Roman original of the 2nd century CE, now kept in the Palazzo Nuovo, Musei Capitolini. Italiano: Statua in bronzo di Marco Aurelio, Piazza del Campidoglio a Roma. Copia moderna di un originale romano del II secolo dC. AC, ora nel Palazzo Nuovo, Musei Capitolini. Date 2 October 2011 Source Self-photographed Author Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Permission (Reusing this file) This illustration was made by Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Please credit this : Jean-Pol GRANDMONT An email to Jean-Pol GRANDMONT would be appreciated. Camera location 41° 53′ 35.83″ N, 12° 28′ 58.52″ E    View this and other nearby images on: OpenStreetMap 41.893286; 12.482922 Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following licenses: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 CC BY-SA 3.0 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 truetrue Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.htmlGFDLGNU Free Documentation Licensetruetrue You may select the license of your choice. Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0_Marcus_Aurelius_-_Piazza_del_Campidoglio_(2).JPG This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Italy license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/it/deed.en CC BY 2.0 it Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 it truetrue Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value object has role: photographer URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jean-Pol_GRANDMONT author name string: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Wikimedia username: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Italy source of file original creation by uploader inception 2 October 2011 image captured with Canon EOS 400D coordinates of the point of view 41°53'35.830"N, 12°28'58.519"E heading: 270 degree File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 08:56, 27 April 2013 3,043 × 2,578 (6.23 MB) Jean-Pol GRANDMONT {{Information |Description ={{fr|1=Statue en bronze de Marc-Aurèle, place du Capitole à Rome. Copie moderne d'un original romain du IIe siècle ap. J.-C., aujourd'hui conservé au Palais Neuf, musées du Capitole}} |Source ={{own}} |Author... File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Statue équestre de Marc Aurèle Liste des monuments de la Rome antique Usage on ko.wikipedia.org 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 기마상 Usage on lt.wikipedia.org Markas Aurelijus Usage on uk.wikipedia.org Кінний монумент Марку Аврелію Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer Canon Camera model Canon EOS 400D DIGITAL Exposure time 1/320 sec (0.003125) F-number f/14 ISO speed rating 400 Date and time of data generation 15:41, 2 October 2011 Lens focal length 31 mm Author © Jean-Pol GRANDMONT Image title Copie en bronze de la statue originale romaine de Marc Aurèle, aujourdhui conservée au Palazzo Nuovo Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi File change date and time 10:50, 27 April 2013 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Not defined Exif version 2.21 Date and time of digitizing 15:41, 2 October 2011 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Shutter speed 8.3219299316406 APEX aperture 7.6147155761719 Exposure bias 0 Metering mode Pattern Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression Short title Copie en bronze de la statue originale romaine de Marc Aurèle, aujourdhui conservée au Palazzo Nuovo Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:0_Marcus_Aurelius_-_Piazza_del_Campidoglio_(2).JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9574	----	Antonia Gordiana - Wikipedia Antonia Gordiana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Roman imperial dynasties Year of the Six Emperors 238 AD Maximinus Thrax Gordian I and Gordian II Pupienus and Balbinus, nominally with Gordian III v t e Antonia Gordiana (201 - ?) was a prominent, wealthy and noble Roman woman who lived in the troubled and unstable 3rd century. She was the daughter of Roman Emperor Gordian I; sister to Roman Emperor Gordian II and mother to Roman Emperor Gordian III. Gordiana’s mother may be the granddaughter of Greek Sophist, consul and tutor Herodes Atticus. Augustan History names her as Maecia Faustina, however modern historians dismiss her name as false. She was most probably born in Rome. Along with her elder brother were raised and spent their childhoods in the house that Roman Republican General Pompey had built in Rome. Previous owners included Roman Triumvir Mark Antony and Roman Emperor Tiberius. After 214, Gordiana married an unnamed Roman Senator. Augustan History names her husband as Junius Balbus, however modern historians dismiss his name as false. She bore her husband a son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Pius (known as Gordian III), born 20 January 225. The birth name of Gordian III is unknown and his birthplace is unknown. The name of Gordian (as we know him) he assumed when he became Roman Emperor. Her husband had died before 238. After the brief reigns of her father and brother, the Roman Senate in April appointed Balbinus and Pupienus as joint emperors. During the brief reign of Balbinus and Pupienus, her son became popular with Roman citizens and the joint emperors were forced to adopt her son as their heir. On July 29 238, Balbinus and Pupienus were both murdered by the Praetorian Guard and later that day her son became the new Roman Emperor. There is a possibility that Gordiana might have bribed the various Guards to murder the joint emperors, so that her son could become emperor. To keep in the favor of the Roman Senate, Gordian III assumed the name of his maternal grandfather and maternal uncle. The political fractions that supported Gordiana’s father and brother, also supported her son. Through them, she was able assist her son in directing affairs and create reformed policies in administration, fiscal affairs and Roman Army. Effects were made to limit the charges against the Roman wealthy and notable. Attention was made to strengthen defences along the empire’s borders and Roman Governors were prosecuted if they abused Roman taxes and power of the provinces. In 241, her son had appointed the able and efficient Timesitheus as prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Later, in May of that year, Gordian would marry Timesitheus’ daughter Tranquillina, who became Roman Empress. Timesitheus died in 243, and Gordian appointed the ambitious Philip the Arab as the new prefect. In February 244, Gordian died of unknown causes. Gordian either died in battle or was possibly murdered on the orders of Philip; however, Philip was proclaimed the new emperor. Gordian’s wife and daughter survived him. The fate of Gordiana after her son’s death is unknown. Family tree[edit] previous Maximinus Thrax Roman Emperor 235–238 Pupienus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian I Roman Emperor 238 ∞ (?) Fabia Orestilla Balbinus Roman Emperor 238 Gordian II co-emperor 238 Antonia Gordiana (doubted) Junius Licinius Balbus consul suffectus Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus praetorian prefect next Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 244–249 Gordian III Roman Emperor 238 Furia Sabinia Tranquillina Philip II Roman Emperor co-emperor 247–249 Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] http://www.roman-emperors.org/gordo1.htm http://www.roman-emperors.org/gordo3.htm http://www.fofweb.com/Onfiles/Ancient/AncientDetail.asp?iPin=AGRW0295 http://gordianiiirpc.ancients.info/reign%20of%20gordian.html Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonia_Gordiana&oldid=1017248794" Categories: 3rd-century Romans 3rd-century Roman women 201 births Antonii Gordian dynasty Daughters of Roman emperors Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 AC with 0 elements Date of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Español Italiano مصرى Português Română Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 18:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9579	----	Cousin marriage - Wikipedia Cousin marriage From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs attention from an expert in Genealogy. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Genealogy may be able to help recruit an expert. (May 2021) Marriage between those with common grandparents or other recent ancestors Part of a series on the Anthropology of kinship Basic concepts Affinity Consanguinity Marriage Incest taboo Endogamy Exogamy Moiety Monogamy Polygyny Polygamy Concubinage Polyandry Bride price Bride service Dowry Parallel / cross cousins Cousin marriage Levirate Sororate Ghost marriage Joking relationship Family Lineage Clan Cohabitation Fictive / Milk / Nurture kinship Descent Cognatic / Bilateral Matrilateral House society Avunculate Linealities Ambilineality Unilineality Matrilineality Patrilineality Household forms and residence Extended Matrifocal Matrilocal Neolocal Nuclear Patrilocal Terminology Kinship terminology Classificatory terminologies By group Iroquois Crow Omaha Eskimo (Inuit) Hawaiian Sudanese Dravidian (debated) Case studies Australian Aboriginal Burmese Chinese Philippine Polyandry in Tibet / in India Feminist Chambri Mosuo Sexuality Coming of Age in Samoa Major theorists Diane Bell Tom Boellstorff Jack Goody Gilbert Herdt Don Kulick Roger Lancaster Louise Lamphere Eleanor Leacock Claude Lévi-Strauss Bronisław Malinowski Margaret Mead Henrietta Moore Lewis H. Morgan Stephen O. Murray Michelle Rosaldo David M. Schneider Marilyn Strathern Related articles Alliance theory Matrilineal / matrilocal societies Feminist anthropology Sex and Repression in Savage Society Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship Social anthropology Cultural anthropology v t e A cousin marriage is a marriage where the spouses are cousins (i.e. people with common grandparents or people who share other fairly recent ancestors). The practice was common in earlier times, and continues to be common in some societies today, though in some jurisdictions such marriages are prohibited.[1] Worldwide, more than 10% of marriages are between first or second cousins.[2] Cousin marriage is an important topic in anthropology and alliance theory.[3] In some cultures and communities, cousin marriages are considered ideal and are actively encouraged and expected; in others, they are seen as incestuous and are subject to social stigma and taboo. Cousin marriage was historically practised by indigenous cultures in Australia, North America, South America, and Polynesia.[4] Different religions have ranged from prohibiting up to sixth cousins from marrying (some forms of Hinduism and Catholicism) to freely allowing first cousin marriage (Protestantism, Islam and Judaism). In some jurisdictions, cousin marriage is legally prohibited: for example, in China, Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea, the Philippines and 24 of the 50 United States.[5][6] The laws of many jurisdictions set out the degree of consanguinity prohibited among sexual relations and marriage parties. Supporters of cousin marriage where it is banned may view the prohibition as discrimination,[7][8] while opponents may appeal to moral or other arguments.[9] The number next to each box in the Table of Consanguinity indicates the degree of relationship relative to the given person. Opinions vary widely as to the merits of the practice. Children of first-cousin marriages have an increased risk of autosomal recessive genetic disorders, and this risk is higher in populations that are already highly ethnically similar.[10] Children of more distantly related cousins have less risk of these disorders, though still higher than the average population.[10] A study indicated that between 1800 and 1965 in Iceland, more children and grandchildren were produced from marriages between third or fourth cousins (people with common great-great- or great-great-great-grandparents) than from other degrees of separation.[11] Contents 1 History 1.1 China 1.2 Middle East 1.2.1 Middle Eastern parallel-cousin marriage 1.3 Africa 1.4 Catholic Church and Europe 1.4.1 Ancient Europe 1.4.2 Early medieval 1.5 United States 2 Legal status 2.1 East Asia/Southeast Asia 2.2 Southeast Asia 2.3 United States 3 Prevalence 3.1 Brazil 3.2 East Asia 3.3 Europe 3.3.1 Germany 3.3.2 The Netherlands 3.3.3 Norway 3.3.4 United Kingdom 3.4 Middle East 3.5 South Asia 3.5.1 India 3.5.2 Pakistan 3.5.3 Afghanistan 3.6 United States 4 Social aspects 5 Religious views 5.1 Hebrew Bible 5.2 Christianity 5.3 Islam 5.4 Hinduism 5.5 Other religions 6 Biological aspects 6.1 Genetics 6.2 Fertility 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links History[edit] The prevalence of first-cousin marriage in Western countries has declined since the late 19th century and early 20th century.[12][13] In the Middle East and South Asia, cousin marriage is still strongly favoured.[14][15][16] Cousin marriage has often been practised to keep cultural values intact, preserve family wealth, maintain geographic proximity, keep tradition, strengthen family ties, and maintain family structure or a closer relationship between the wife and her in-laws. Many such marriages are arranged (see also pages on arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent, arranged marriages in Pakistan, and arranged marriages in Japan).[2][17][18][19][20] China[edit] Further information: Chinese marriage Confucius described marriage as "the union of two surnames, in friendship and in love".[21] In ancient China, some evidence indicates in some cases, two clans had a longstanding arrangement wherein they would only marry members of the other clan. Some men also practiced sororate marriage, that is, a marriage to a former wife's sister or a polygynous marriage to both sisters. This would have the effect of eliminating parallel-cousin marriage as an option, but would leave cross-cousin marriage acceptable.[22] In the ancient system of the Erya dating from around the third century BC, the words for the two types of cross cousins were identical, with father's brother's children and mother's sister's children both being distinct.[23] However, whereas it may not have been permissible at that time, marriage with the mother's sister's children also became possible by the third century AD.[24] Eventually, the mother's sister's children and cross cousins shared one set of terms, with only the father's brother's children retaining a separate set.[25] This usage remains today, with biao (表) cousins considered "outside" and paternal tang (堂) cousins being of the same house.[26] In some periods in Chinese history, all cousin marriage was legally prohibited, as law codes dating from the Ming Dynasty attest. However, enforcement proved difficult and by the subsequent Qing Dynasty, the former laws had been restored.[27] The following is a Chinese poem by Po Chu-yi (A.D. 772–846).[28] In Ku-feng hsien, in the district of Ch'u chou [Kiangsu] Is a village called Chu Ch'en [the names of the two clans]. There are only two clans there Which have intermarried for many generations. Anthropologist Francis Hsu described mother's brother's daughter (MBD) as being the most preferred type of Chinese cousin marriage, mother's sister's daughter (MSD) as being tolerated, and father's brother's daughter (FBD) as being disfavored.[29] Some writers report this last form as being nearly incestuous.[30] One proposed explanation is that in FBD marriage, the daughter does not change her surname throughout her life, so the marriage does not result in an extension of the father's kinship ties. In Chinese culture, these patrilineal ties are most important in determining the closeness of a relation.[31] In the case of the MSD marriage, no such ties exist, so consequently, this may not even be viewed as cousin marriage. Finally, one reason that MBD marriage is often most common may be the typically greater emotional warmth between a man and his mother's side of the family.[32] Later analyses have found regional variation in these patterns; in some rural areas where cousin marriage is still common, MBD is not preferred but merely acceptable, similar to MSD.[30] By the early to mid-20th century, anthropologists described cross-cousin marriage in China as "still permissible ... but ... generally obsolete" or as "permitted but not encouraged".[27][28] Middle East[edit] Main article: Cousin marriage in the Middle East Cousin marriage has been allowed throughout the Middle East for all recorded history.[33] Anthropologists have debated the significance of the practice; some view it as the defining feature of the Middle Eastern kinship system[34] while others note that overall rates of cousin marriage have varied sharply between different Middle Eastern communities.[35] Very little numerical evidence exists of rates of cousin marriage in the past.[36] Raphael Patai reports that in central Arabia, no relaxation of a man's right to the father's brother's daughter seems to have taken place in the past hundred years before his 1962 work. Here the girl is not forced to marry her male cousin, but she cannot marry another unless he gives consent.[37] The force of the custom is seen in one case from Jordan when the father arranged for the marriage of his daughter to an outsider without obtaining the consent of her male cousin. When the marriage procession progressed with the bride toward the house of the bridegroom, the male cousin rushed forward, snatched away the girl, and forced her into his own house. This was regarded by all as a lawful marriage.[38] In Iraq, the right of the cousin has also traditionally been followed and a girl breaking the rule without the consent of the male cousin could have ended up murdered by him.[39] The Syrian city of Aleppo during the 19th century featured a rate of cousin marriage among the elite of 24% according to one estimate, a figure that masked widespread variation: some leading families had none or only one cousin marriage, while others had rates approaching 70%. Cousin marriage rates were highest among women,[clarification needed] merchant families, and older well-established families.[40] In-marriage was more frequent in the late pre-Islamic Hijaz than in ancient Egypt. It existed in Medina during Muhammad's time, but at less than today's rates.[41] In Egypt, estimates from the late 19th and early 20th centuries state variously that either 80% of fellahin married first cousins or two-thirds married them if they existed. One source from the 1830s states that cousin marriage was less common in Cairo than in other areas. In traditional Syria-Palestina, if a girl had no paternal male cousin (father's brother's son) or he renounced his right to her, the next in line was traditionally the maternal male cousin (mother's brother's son) and then other relatives. Raphael Patai, however, reported that this custom loosened in the years preceding his 1947 study.[38] In ancient Persia, the Achaemenid kings habitually married their cousins and nieces,[42] while between the 1940s and 1970s, the percentage of Iranian cousin marriages increased from 34 to 44%.[43] Cousin marriage among native Middle Eastern Jews is generally far higher than among the European Ashkenazim, who assimilated European marital practices after the diaspora.[44] According to anthropologist Ladislav Holý, cousin marriage is not an independent phenomenon, but rather one expression of a wider Middle Eastern preference for agnatic solidarity, or solidarity with one's father's lineage. According to Holý, the oft-quoted reason for cousin marriage of keeping property in the family is, in the Middle Eastern case, just one specific manifestation of keeping intact a family's whole "symbolic capital".[45] Close agnatic marriage has also been seen as a result of the conceptualization of men as responsible for the control of the conduct of women.[46] Honor is another reason for cousin marriage: while the natal family may lose influence over the daughter through marriage to an outsider, marrying her in their kin group allows them to help prevent dishonorable outcomes such as attacks on her or her own unchaste behavior.[47] Pragmatic reasons for the husband, such as warmer relations with his father-in-law, and those for parents of both spouses, like reduced bride price and access to the labor of the daughter's children, also contribute.[48][49] Throughout Middle Eastern history, cousin marriage has been both praised and discouraged by various writers and authorities.[50] A 2009 study found that many Arab countries display some of the highest rates of consanguineous marriages in the world, and that first cousin marriages which may reach 25–30% of all marriages.[51] In Qatar, Yemen, and UAE, consanguinity rates are increasing in the current generation. Research among Arabs and worldwide has indicated that consanguinity could have an effect on some reproductive health parameters such as postnatal mortality and rates of congenital malformations.[52] Middle Eastern parallel-cousin marriage[edit] Andrey Korotayev claimed that Islamization was a strong and significant predictor of parallel cousin (father's brother's daughter – FBD) marriage, bint 'amm marriage. He has shown that while a clear functional connection exists between Islam and FBD marriage, the prescription to marry a FBD does not appear to be sufficient to persuade people to actually marry thus, even if the marriage brings with it economic advantages. According to Korotayev, a systematic acceptance of parallel-cousin marriage took place when Islamization occurred together with Arabization.[53] Africa[edit] Cousin marriage rates from most African nations outside the Middle East are unknown. An estimated 35–50% of all sub-Saharan African populations either prefer or accept cousin marriages.[54] In Nigeria, the most populous country of Africa, the three largest tribes in order of size are the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo.[55] The Hausa are overwhelmingly Muslim, though followers of traditional religions do exist. Muslim Hausas practice cousin marriage preferentially, and polygyny is allowed if the husband can support multiple wives.[56] The book Baba of Karo presents one prominent portrayal of Hausa life: according to its English coauthor, it is unknown for Hausa women to be unmarried for any great length of time after around the age of 14.[57] Divorce can be accomplished easily by either the male or the female, but females must then remarry.[58] Even for a man, lacking a spouse is looked down upon.[59] Baba of Karo's first of four marriages was to her second cousin. She recounts in the book that her good friend married the friend's first cross cousin.[60] The Yoruba people are 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 10% adherent of their own indigenous religious traditions.[61] A 1974 study analyzed Yoruba marriages in the town Oka Akoko, finding that among a sample of highly polygynous marriages having an average of about three wives, 51% of all pairings were consanguineous. These included not only cousin marriages, but also uncle-niece unions. Reportedly, it is a custom that in such marriages at least one spouse must be a relative, and generally such spouses were the preferred or favorite wives in the marriage and gave birth to more children. However, this was not a general study of Yoruba, but only of highly polygynous Yoruba residing in Oka Akoko.[62] The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria, who are predominantly Christian, strictly practice non-consanguineal marriages, where kinfolks and cousins are not allowed to marry or have intimacy. Consequently, men and women are forbidden to marry within their recent patrilineage and matrilineage. Before the advent of Christianity through colonization, the Igbos had always frowned upon and specifically prohibited consanguineal marriages, both the parallel and cross-cousin types, which are considered incestuous and cursed. Arranged marriages, albeit in great decline, was also done to consciously prevent accidental consanguineal and bad marriages, such that the impending in-laws were aware of each other's family histories. Currently, like in the old days, before courtship commences, thorough enquiries are made by both families to not only ascertain character traits, but to also ensure their children are not related by blood. Traditionally, parents closely monitor whom their children relate intimately to avoid having them commit incest. Proactively, it is customary for parents to groom their children to know their immediate cousins and, when opportune, their distant cousins. They encourage their adult children to disclose their love interests for consanguineal screening.[63] In Ethiopia, most of the population was historically rigidly opposed to cousin marriage, and could consider up to third cousins the equivalent of brother and sister, with marriage at least ostensibly prohibited out to sixth cousins.[64] They also took affinal prohibitions very seriously. The prospect of a man marrying a former wife's "sister" was seen as incest, and conversely for a woman and her former husband's "brother".[65] Though Muslims make up over a third of the Ethiopian population, and Islam has been present in the country since the time of Muhammad, cross-cousin marriage is very rare among most Ethiopian Muslims.[66] In contrast to the Nigerian situation, in Ethiopia, Islam cannot be identified with a particular ethnicity and is found across most of them, and conversions between religions are comparatively common.[67] The Afar practice a form of cousin marriage called absuma that is arranged at birth and can be forced.[68] Catholic Church and Europe[edit] Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity.[69] This was calculated by counting up from one prospective partner to the common ancestor, then down to the other prospective partner.[70] Early Medieval Europe continued the late Roman ban on cousin marriage. Under the law of the Catholic Church, couples were also forbidden to marry if they were within four degrees of consanguinity.[71] In the 9th century, the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated.[72] Eventually, the nobility became too interrelated to marry easily as the local pool of unrelated prospective spouses became smaller; increasingly, large payments to the church were required for exemptions ("dispensations"), or retrospective legitimizations of children.[73] In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council reduced the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four.[74][75] The method of calculating prohibited degrees was changed also.[76] Instead of the former practice of counting up to the common ancestor then down to the proposed spouse, the new law computed consanguinity by counting back to the common ancestor.[76] In the Catholic Church, unknowingly marrying a closely consanguineous blood relative was grounds for a declaration of nullity, but during the 11th and 12th centuries, dispensations were granted with increasing frequency due to the thousands of persons encompassed in the prohibition at seven degrees and the hardships this posed for finding potential spouses.[77] After 1215, the general rule was that while fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, the need for dispensations was reduced.[77] For example, the marriage of Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Spain was a first-cousin marriage on both sides.[78] It began to fall out of favor in the 19th century as women became socially mobile. Only Austria, Hungary, and Spain banned cousin marriage throughout the 19th century, with dispensations being available from the government in the last two countries.[79] First-cousin marriage in England in 1875 was estimated by George Darwin to be 3.5% for the middle classes and 4.5% for the nobility, though this had declined to under 1% during the 20th century.[80] Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were a preeminent example.[81][82] The 19th-century academic debate on cousin marriage developed differently in Europe and America. The writings of Scottish deputy commissioner for lunacy Arthur Mitchell claiming that cousin marriage had injurious effects on offspring were largely contradicted by researchers such as Alan Huth and George Darwin.[83][84] In fact, Mitchell's own data did not support his hypotheses and he later speculated that the dangers of consanguinity might be partly overcome by proper living. Later studies by George Darwin found results that resemble those estimated today. His father, Charles Darwin, who did marry his first cousin, had initially speculated that cousin marriage might pose serious risks, but perhaps in response to his son's work, these thoughts were omitted from a later version of the book they published. When a question about cousin marriage was eventually considered in 1871 for the census, according to George Darwin, it was rejected on the grounds that the idle curiosity of philosophers was not to be satisfied.[85] In Southern Italy, cousin marriage was a common practice within regions such as Calabria and Sicily where first cousin marriage in the previous century was close to 50% of all marriages.[86] Cousin marriage to third cousins is allowed and considered favourably in Greece.[87] Ancient Europe[edit] Cousin marriage were legal in ancient Rome from the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), until it was banned by the Christian emperor Theodosius I in 381 in the West, and until after the death of Justinian (565) in the East,[88][89] but the proportion of such marriages is not clear. Anthropologist Jack Goody said that cousin marriage was a typical pattern in Rome, based on the marriage of four children of Emperor Constantine to their first cousins and on writings by Plutarch and Livy indicating the proscription of cousin marriage in the early Republic.[90] Professors Brent Shaw and Richard Saller, however, counter in their more comprehensive treatment that cousin marriages were never habitual or preferred in the western empire: for example, in one set of six stemmata (genealogies) of Roman aristocrats in the two centuries after Octavian, out of 33 marriages, none was between first or second cousins. Such marriages carried no social stigma in the late Republic and early Empire. They cite the example of Cicero attacking Mark Antony not on the grounds of cousin marriage, but instead on grounds of Antony's divorce. Shaw and Saller propose in their thesis of low cousin marriage rates that as families from different regions were incorporated into the imperial Roman nobility, exogamy was necessary to accommodate them and to avoid destabilizing the Roman social structure. Their data from tombstones further indicate that in most of the western empire, parallel-cousin marriages were not widely practiced among commoners, either. Spain and Noricum were exceptions to this rule, but even there, the rates did not rise above 10%.[91] They further point out that since property belonging to the nobility was typically fragmented,[clarification needed] keeping current assets in the family offered no advantage, compared with acquiring it by intermarriage. Jack Goody claimed that early Christian marriage rules forced a marked change from earlier norms to deny heirs to the wealthy and thus to increase the chance that those with wealth would will their property to the Church. Shaw and Saller, however, believe that the estates of aristocrats without heirs had previously been claimed by the emperor, and that the Church merely replaced the emperor. Their view is that the Christian injunctions against cousin marriage were due more to ideology than to any conscious desire to acquire wealth.[91] For some prominent examples of cousin marriages in ancient Rome, such as the marriage of Octavian's daughter to his sister's son, see the Julio-Claudian family tree. Marcus Aurelius also married his maternal first cousin Faustina the Younger, and they had 13 children. Cousin marriage was more frequent in ancient Greece, and marriages between uncle and niece were also permitted there.[3] One example is King Leonidas I of Sparta, who married his half-niece Gorgo. A Greek woman who became epikleros, or heiress with no brothers, was obliged to marry her father's nearest male kin if she had not yet married and given birth to a male heir. First in line would be either her father's brothers or their sons, followed by her father's sisters' sons.[92] Early medieval[edit] According to Goody, cousin marriage was allowed in the newly Christian and presumably also pre-Christian Ireland, where an heiress was also obligated to marry a paternal cousin. From the seventh century, the Irish Church only recognized four degrees of prohibited kinship, and civil law fewer. This persisted until after the Norman conquests in the 11th century and the synod at Cashel in 1101.[93] In contrast, contemporary English law was based on official Catholic policy, and Anglo-Norman clergy often became disgusted with the Irish "law of fornication".[94] Ironically, within less than a hundred years of the Anglo-Norman Invasion of Ireland the Catholic Church reformed Canon Law on cousin marriage at the Fourth Lateran Council, with the effect bringing the Catholic Church's teaching back into alignment with the Irish Church and the original Christian Church's teachings. The Catholic Churches' teachings had proved unworkable in practice as they required people to know, and not marry, all relations back as far as their common Great Great Great Great Great Grandparents (i.e. as far as their sixth cousins) or else purchase a dispensation from the church.[95] Finally, Edward Westermarck states that marriage among the ancient Teutons was apparently prohibited only in the ascending and descending lines and among siblings.[96] United States[edit] Anthropologist Martin Ottenheimer argues that marriage prohibitions were introduced to maintain the social order, uphold religious morality, and safeguard the creation of fit offspring.[97] Writers such as Noah Webster (1758–1843) and ministers like Philip Milledoler (1775–1852) and Joshua McIlvaine helped lay the groundwork for such viewpoints well before 1860. This led to a gradual shift in concern from affinal unions, like those between a man and his deceased wife's sister, to consanguineous unions. By the 1870s, Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) was writing about "the advantages of marriages between unrelated persons" and the necessity of avoiding "the evils of consanguine marriage", avoidance of which would "increase the vigor of the stock". To many, Morgan included, cousin marriage, and more specifically parallel-cousin marriage, was a remnant of a more primitive stage of human social organization.[98] Morgan himself had married his cousin in 1853.[99] In 1846, Massachusetts Governor George N. Briggs appointed a commission to study mentally handicapped people (termed "idiots") in the state. This study implicated cousin marriage as responsible for idiocy. Within the next two decades, numerous reports (e.g., one from the Kentucky Deaf and Dumb Asylum) appeared with similar conclusions: that cousin marriage sometimes resulted in deafness, blindness, and idiocy. Perhaps most important was the report of physician Samuel Merrifield Bemiss for the American Medical Association, which concluded cousin inbreeding does lead to the "physical and mental depravation of the offspring". Despite being contradicted by other studies like those of George Darwin and Alan Huth in England and Robert Newman in New York, the report's conclusions were widely accepted.[100] These developments led to 13 states and territories passing cousin marriage prohibitions by the 1880s. Though contemporaneous, the eugenics movement did not play much of a direct role in the bans. George Louis Arner in 1908 considered the ban a clumsy and ineffective method of eugenics, which he thought would eventually be replaced by more refined techniques. By the 1920s, the number of bans had doubled.[8] Since that time, Kentucky (1943) and Texas have banned first-cousin marriage and since 1985, Maine has mandated genetic counseling for marrying cousins to minimize risk to any of serious health defect to their children. The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws unanimously recommended in 1970 that all such laws should be repealed, but no state has dropped its prohibition.[6][17][101] Legal status[edit] This section needs expansion with: more countries and regions. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010)   First-cousin marriage legal   Allowed with restrictions   Legality dependent on religion or culture2   Statute bans marriage   Banned with exceptions   Criminal offence   No available data 1For information on US states see the map below. 2See sections on India and Hinduism. East Asia/Southeast Asia[edit] In the Far East, South Korea is especially restrictive with bans on marriage out to third cousins, with all couples having the same surname and region of origin having been prohibited from marrying until 1997.[102] Taiwan and North Korea also prohibit first-cousin marriage.[6][103] China has prohibited first-cousin marriage since 1981.[104] Currently, according to the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China, Article 7, "No marriage may be contracted under any of the following circumstances: (1) if the man and the woman are lineal relatives by blood, or collateral relatives by blood up to the third degree of kinship."[105] Southeast Asia[edit] In Vietnam, Clause 3, Article 10 of the 2000 Vietnamese Law on Marriage and Family forbids marriages of people related by blood up to the third degree of kinship.[106][107] Cousin marriage is also prohibited in the Philippines. United States[edit] Laws regarding first-cousin marriage in the United States   First-cousin marriage is legal   Allowed with requirements   Banned with exceptions1   Statute bans marriage1   Criminal offense1 1Some US states recognize marriages performed elsewhere, especially when the spouses were not residents of the state when married.clarification needed Further information: Cousin marriage law in the United States Several states of the United States have bans on cousin marriage.[108][109] As of February 2014[update], 24 U.S. states prohibit marriages between first cousins, 19 U.S. states allow marriages between first cousins, and 7 U.S. states allow only some marriages between first cousins.[5] Six states prohibit first-cousin-once-removed marriages.[9] Some states prohibiting cousin marriage recognize cousin marriages performed in other states, but this does not hold true in general despite occasional claims to the contrary.[110] Prevalence[edit] World map showing prevalence of marriage between cousins, up to and including second cousins, according to data published in 2012 by the United States National Center for Biotechnology Information.[111] Brazil[edit] Recent 2001 data for Brazil indicate a rate of cousin marriage of 1.1%, down from 4.8% in 1957.[112] The geographic distribution is heterogeneous: in certain regions, the rate is at typical European levels, but in other areas is much higher. Newton Freire-Maia [pt] found paternal parallel cousin marriage to be the most common type.[113] In his 1957 study, the rate varied from 1.8% in the south to 8.4% in the northeast, where it increased moving inward from the coast,[114] and was higher in rural regions than in urban. Consanguinity has decreased over time and particularly since the 19th century. For example, in São Paulo in the mid-19th century, the rate of cousin marriage apparently was 16%,[115] but a century later, it was merely 1.9%.[112] East Asia[edit] First-cousin marriage is allowed in Japan, though the incidence has declined in recent years.[18] China has prohibited first-cousin marriage since 1981,[104] although cross-cousin marriage was commonly practised in China in the past in rural areas.[18][116] An article in China Daily from the 1990s reported on the ban's implementation in the northeastern province of Liaoning, along with a ban on marriage of the physically and mentally handicapped, all justified on "eugenic" grounds.[116] Limited existing data indicate some remaining cousin marriage of types besides father's brother's daughter in many villages, with percentages usually in the lower single digits.[112] A 2002 Time article claims that an increasing imbalance in the number of males and females is causing more cousin marriages, as "desperate" males struggle to find brides.[117] Europe[edit] Germany[edit] Cousin marriages remain legal in Germany. In fact, a fourth of all marriages among Turks in Germany are marriages to a family relative according to a survey by the Essen Center for Turkish Studies.[118] The Netherlands[edit] The Netherlands has also had a recent debate that has reached the level of the Prime Minister proposing a cousin marriage ban. The proposed policy is explicitly aimed at preventing "import marriages" from certain nations like Morocco with a high rate of cousin marriage. Critics argue that such a ban would contradict Section 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, is not based on science, and would affect more than immigrants. While some proponents argue such marriages were banned until 1970, according to Frans van Poppel of the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute, they are confusing cousin marriage with uncle-niece marriage.[119] Norway[edit] Norway banned cousin marriage in November 2020, in order to improve the integration of immigrants into Norwegian society.[120][121] United Kingdom[edit] In the English upper and upper-middle classes, the prevalence of first-cousin marriage had remained steady at between 4% and 5% for much of the 19th century.[122] However, after the First World War, there was a sudden change, and cousin marriage became very unusual. By the 1930s, only one marriage in 6,000 was with a first cousin. A study of a middle-class London population conducted in the 1960s found that just one marriage in 25,000 was between first cousins.[123] There has been a great deal of debate in the United Kingdom about whether to discourage cousin marriages through government public relations campaigns, or ban them entirely.[citation needed] In the 1980s researchers found that children to closely related Pakistani parents had an autosomal recessive condition rate of 4% compared to 0.1% for the European group.[124] For example, Environment Minister (later Immigration Minister) Phil Woolas said in 2008, "If you have a child with your cousin the likelihood is there'll be a genetic problem" and that such marriages were the "elephant in the room".[125] Physician Mohammad Walji has spoken out against the practice, saying that it is a "very significant" cause of infant death, and his practice has produced leaflets warning against it.[126] However, Alan Bittles of the Centre for Comparative Genomics in Australia states that the risk of birth defects rises from roughly 2% in the general population to 4% for first cousins, and therefore that "It would be a mistake to ban it".[127] Aamra Darr of the University of Leeds has also criticized what she called an "alarmist presentation of data" that exaggerates the risk.[128] A 2008 analysis of infant mortality in Birmingham showed that South Asian infants had twice the normal infant mortality rate and three times the usual rate of infant mortality due to congenital anomalies.[124][16] Middle East[edit] Main article: Cousin marriage in the Middle East The Middle East has uniquely high rates of cousin marriage among the world's regions. Iraq was estimated in one study to have a rate of 33% for cousins marrying. All Arab countries in the Persian Gulf currently require advance genetic screening for prospective married couples. Qatar was the last Persian Gulf nation to institute mandatory screening in 2009, mainly to warn related couples who are planning marriage about any genetic risks they may face. The current rate of cousin marriage there is 54%, an increase of 12–18% over the previous generation.[129] A report by the Dubai-based Centre for Arab Genomic Studies (CAGS) in September 2009 found that Arabs have one of the world's highest rates of genetic disorders, nearly two-thirds of which are linked to consanguinity. Research from Ahmad Teebi suggests consanguinity is declining in Lebanon, Jordan, Morocco and among Palestinians in Israel, but is increasing in the United Arab Emirates.[130] Ahmad Teebi links the increase in cousin marriage in Qatar and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf to tribal tradition and the region's expanding economies. "Rich families tend to marry rich families, and from their own – and the rich like to protect their wealth," he said. "So it's partly economic, and it's also partly cultural." In regard to the higher rates of genetic disease in these societies, he says: "It's certainly a problem," but also that "The issue here is not the cousin marriage, the issue here is to avoid the disease."[15] In many Middle Eastern nations, a marriage to the father's brother's daughter (FBD) is considered ideal, though this type may not always actually outnumber other types.[131] One anthropologist, Ladislav Holý, argues that it is important to distinguish between the ideal of FBD marriage and marriage as it is actually practiced, which always also includes other types of cousins and unrelated spouses. Holý cites the Berti people of the Sudan, who consider the FBD to be the closest kinswoman to a man outside of the prohibited range. If more than one relationship exists between spouses, as often results from successive generations of cousin marriage, only the patrilineal one is counted. Marriage within the lineage is preferred to marriage outside the lineage even when no exact genealogical relationship is known. Of 277 first marriages, only 84 were between couples unable to trace any genealogical relationship between them. Of those, in 64, the spouses were of the same lineage. However, of 85 marriages to a second or third wife, in 60, the spouses were of different lineages.[132][133] The Marri have a very limited set of incest prohibitions that includes only lineal relatives, the sister, and aunts except the mother's brother's wife. Female members of the mother's lineage are seen as only loosely related. Finally, the Baggara Arabs favor MBD marriage first, followed by cross-cousin marriage if the cross cousin is a member of the same surra, a group of agnates of five or six generations depth. Next is marriage within the surra. No preference is shown for marriages between matrilateral parallel cousins. South Asia[edit] India[edit] Rate of cross-cousin marriage in various regions of India, 2015-16 (%)[134] State Northern India Jammu and Kashmir (incl. Ladakh) 16.0 Uttar Pradesh 7.7 Delhi 5.1 Uttarakhand 4.3 Haryana 3.6 Rajasthan 2.8 Punjab 1.7 Himachal Pradesh 0.5 Western India Maharashtra 12.1 Goa 6.9 Gujarat 6.2 Central India Madhya Pradesh 6.2 Chhattisgarh 3.4 Eastern India Odisha 4.8 Bihar 3.6 West Bengal 3.1 Jharkhand 2.3 Northeast India Arunachal Pradesh 2.1 Mizoram 2.1 Nagaland 2.0 Meghalaya 1.6 Manipur 1.5 Assam 0.9 Sikkim 0.6 Tripura 0.2 South India Tamil Nadu 29.5 Andhra Pradesh 25.9 Karnataka 23.8 Telangana 22.0 Kerala 3.6 Religion Hindu 9.19 Muslim 14.62 Other 8.47 Caste Scheduled Caste (SC) 10.0 Scheduled Tribe (ST) 8.4 Other Backward Class (OBC) 11.1 Other 8.0 Educational attainment No education 9.2 Primary 10.1 Secondary 10.7 Higher 8.0 All-India 9.9 Attitudes in India on cousin marriage vary sharply by region and culture. The family law in India takes into account the religious and cultural practices and they are all equally recognized. For Muslims, governed by uncodified personal law, it is acceptable and legal to marry a first cousin, but for Hindus, it may be illegal under the 1955 Hindu Marriage Act, though the specific situation is more complex. The Hindu Marriage Act makes cousin marriage illegal for Hindus with the exception of marriages permitted by regional custom.[135] Practices of the small Christian minority are also location-dependent: their cousin marriage rates are higher in southern states with high overall rates.[136] Apart from the religion-based personal laws governing marriages, the civil marriage law named Special Marriage Act, 1954 governs. Those who do not wish to marry based on the personal laws governed by religious and cultural practices may opt for marriage under this law. It defines the first-cousin relationship, both parallel and cross, as prohibited. Conflict may arise between the prohibited degrees based on this law and personal law, but in absence of any other laws, it is still unresolved.[137] Cousin marriage is proscribed and seen as incest for Hindus in North India. In fact, it may even be unacceptable to marry within one's village or for two siblings to marry partners from the same village.[138] The northern kinship model prevails in the states of Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal.[139] In many North Indian communities, such as certain Brahmins, Rajputs, Vaishyas, Jats, Gurjars, Yadavs, everyone who is immediately associated with specifically paternal gotra falls outside the permissible marriage circle. Any two candidates who want to marry cannot have a common gotra. The marriage is allowed only when paternal gotras are different for both the candidates, so this automatically rules out closer cousin marriages. However, for many communities in South India, especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, it is common for Hindu cross cousins to marry, with matrilateral cross-cousin (mother's brother's daughter) marriages being especially favored.[140] In the region, "uncle-niece and first-cousin unions are preferential and jointly account for some 30% of marriages." These practices are particularly followed in landed communities such as the Reddys or Vellalars, who wish to keep wealth within the family. Also unlike North India, this practice is also common in Brahmins in the region.[141] Practices in West India overall are closer to the northern than the southern,[142] but differences exist here again. For instance, in Mumbai, studies done in 1956 showed 7.7% of Hindus married to a second cousin or closer. By contrast, in the northern city of New Delhi, only 0.1% of Hindus were married to a first cousin during the 1980s. At the other extreme, studies were done in the South Indian state of Karnataka during that period show fully one-third of Hindus married to a second cousin or closer.[143] Pre-2000 Madhya Pradesh, from which Chhattisgarh has now split, and Maharashtra, which contains Mumbai, are states that are intermediate in their kinship practices. India's Muslim minority represents about 14% of its population and has an overall rate of cousin marriage of 22% according to a 2000 report. This may be a legacy of the partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan, when substantial Muslim migration to Pakistan occurred from the eastern parts of the former unified state of Punjab. In south India, by contrast, the rates are fairly constant, except for the South Indian Malabar Muslims of Kerala (9%) who claim descent from Arab traders who settled permanently in India in the eighth century. Most Indian Muslims, by contrast, are the result of Hindus' conversions to Islam in the 16th century or later. The lowest rate for a whole Indian region was in East India (15%). Consanguinity rates were generally stable across the four decades for which data exist, though second-cousin marriage appears to have been decreasing in favor of first-cousin marriage. Pakistan[edit] In Pakistan, cousin marriage is legal and common. Reasons for consanguinity are for economic, religious and cultural reasons.[144] Consanguineous marriage in Pakistan was reported to be higher than 60% of the population in 2014.[145][146][147] In some areas, higher proportion of first-cousin marriages in Pakistan has been noted to be the cause of an increased rate of blood disorders in the population.[147] Afghanistan[edit] Consanguineous marriages are legal and relatively common in Afghanistan. The proportion of consanguineous marriages in the country stands at 46.2%, with significant regional variations ranging from 38.2% in Kabul province to 51.2% in Bamyan province.[148] United States[edit] Data on cousin marriage in the United States is sparse. It was estimated in 1960 that 0.2% of all marriages between Roman Catholics were between first or second cousins, but no more recent nationwide studies have been performed.[143] It is unknown what proportion of that number were first cousins, which is the group facing marriage bans. To contextualize the group's size, the total proportion of interracial marriages in 1960, the last census year before the end of anti-miscegenation statutes, was 0.4%, and the proportion of black-white marriages was 0.13%.[149] While recent studies have cast serious doubt on whether cousin marriage is as dangerous as is popularly assumed, professors Diane B. Paul and Hamish G. Spencer speculate that legal bans persist in part due to "the ease with which a handful of highly motivated activists—or even one individual—can be effective in the decentralized American system, especially when feelings do not run high on the other side of an issue."[150] A bill to repeal the ban on first-cousin marriage in Minnesota was introduced by Phyllis Kahn in 2003, but it died in committee. Republican Minority Leader Marty Seifert criticized the bill in response, saying it would "turn us into a cold Arkansas".[151] According to the University of Minnesota's The Wake, Kahn was aware the bill had little chance of passing, but introduced it anyway to draw attention to the issue. She reportedly got the idea after learning that cousin marriage is an acceptable form of marriage among some cultural groups that have a strong presence in Minnesota, namely the Hmong and Somali.[152] In contrast, Maryland delegates Henry B. Heller and Kumar P. Barve sponsored a bill to ban first-cousin marriages in 2000.[153] It got further than Kahn's bill, passing the House of Delegates by 82 to 46 despite most Republicans voting no, but finally died in the state senate. In response to the 2005 marriage of Pennsylvanian first cousins Eleanor Amrhein and Donald W. Andrews Sr. in Maryland, Heller said that he might resurrect the bill because such marriages are "like playing genetic roulette".[154] Texas actually did pass a ban on first-cousin marriage the same year as Amrhein and Andrews married, evidently in reaction to the presence of the polygamous Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS). Texas Representative Harvey Hilderbran, whose district includes the main FLDS compound, authored an amendment[155] to a child protection statute to both discourage the FLDS from settling in Texas and to "prevent Texas from succumbing to the practices of taking child brides, incest, welfare abuse and domestic violence".[156] While Hilderbran stated that he would not have authored a bill solely to ban first-cousin marriage, he also said in an interview, "Cousins don't get married just like siblings don't get married. And when it happens you have a bad result. It's just not the accepted normal thing."[2] Some news sources then only mentioned the polygamy and child abuse provisions and ignored the cousin marriage portion of the bill, as did some more recent sources.[157][158][159][160] The new statute made sex with an adult first cousin a more serious felony than with adult members of one's immediate family. However, this statute was amended in 2009; while sex with close adult family members (including first cousins) remains a felony, the more serious penalty now attaches to sex with an individual's direct ancestor or descendant.[161] The U.S. state of Maine allows first-cousin marriage if the couple agrees to have genetic counseling, while North Carolina allows it so long as the applicants for marriage are not rare double first cousins, meaning cousins through both parental lines.[162] In the other 25 states permitting at least some first-cousin marriage, double cousins are not distinguished.[163] States have various laws regarding marriage between cousins and other close relatives,[164] which involve factors including whether or not the parties to the marriage are half-cousins, double cousins, infertile, over 65, or whether it is a tradition prevalent in a native or ancestry culture, adoption status, in-law, whether or not genetic counselling is required, and whether it is permitted to marry a first cousin once removed. Social aspects[edit] Cousin marriages (second-degree cousins or closer) in the world, in percentage (%).[165][166]   <1   1–4   5–9   10–19   20–29   30–39   40–49   50+ Slightly over 10% of all marriages worldwide are estimated to be between second cousins or closer.[2][18] The overall rate appears to be declining.[101] Robin Bennett, a University of Washington researcher,[167] has said that much hostility towards married cousins constitutes discrimination. It's a form of discrimination that nobody talks about. People worry about not getting health insurance—but saying that someone shouldn't marry based on how they're related, when there's no known harm, to me is a form of discrimination."[8] In a different view, William Saletan of Slate magazine accuses the authors of this study of suffering from the "congenital liberal conceit that science solves all moral questions". While readily conceding that banning cousin marriage cannot be justified on genetic grounds, Saletan asks rhetorically whether it would be acceptable to legalize uncle-niece marriage or "hard-core incest" between siblings and then let genetic screening take care of the resulting problems.[9] An article in The New York Times by Sarah Kershaw documents fear by many married cousins of being treated with derision and contempt. "While many people have a story about a secret cousin crush or kiss, most Americans find the idea of cousins marrying and having children disturbing or even repulsive," notes the article. It gives the example of one mother, Mrs. Spring, whose daughter Kimberly Spring-Winters, 29, married her cousin Shane Winters, 37. She stated that when she has told people about her daughter's marriage, they have been shocked and that consequently she is afraid to mention it. They live in a small Pennsylvania town and she worries that her grandchildren will be treated as outcasts and ridiculed due to their parental status. Another cousin couple stated that their children's maternal grandparents have never met their two grandchildren because the grandparents severed contact out of disapproval for the couple's marriage. This couple withheld their names from publication.[2] In most societies, cousin marriage apparently is more common among those of low socio-economic status, among the illiterate and uneducated, and in rural areas.[18] This may be due in part to the token or significantly reduced dowries and bridewealths that exist in such marriages and also the much smaller pool of viable marriage candidates in rural areas. Some societies also report a high prevalence among land-owning families and the ruling elite: here the relevant consideration is thought to be keeping the family estate intact over generations.[19] The average age at marriage is lower for cousin marriages, the difference in one Pakistani study being 1.10 and 0.84 years for first and second cousins, respectively. In Pakistan, the ages of the spouses were also closer together, the age difference declining from 6.5 years for unrelated couples to 4.5 years for first cousins. A marginal increase in time to first birth, from 1.6 years generally to 1.9 years in first cousins, may occur due to the younger age at marriage of consanguineous mothers and resultant adolescent subfertility or delayed consummation.[168] Predictions that cousin marriage would decline during the late 20th century in areas where it is preferential appear to have been largely incorrect. One reason for this is that in many regions, cousin marriage is not merely a cultural tradition, but is also judged to offer significant social and economic benefits. In South Asia, rising demands for dowry payments have caused dire economic hardship and have been linked to "dowry deaths" in a number of North Indian states. Where permissible, marriage to a close relative is hence regarded as a more economically feasible choice. Second, improvements in public health have led to decreased death rates and increased family sizes, making it easier to find a relative to marry if that is the preferred choice. Increases in cousin marriage in the West may also occur as a result of immigration from Asia and Africa. In the short term, some observers have concluded that the only new forces that could discourage such unions are government bans like the one China enacted in 1981. In the longer term, rates may decline due to decreased family sizes, making it more difficult to find cousins to marry.[169] Cousin marriage is important in several anthropological theories by prominent authors such as Claude Lévi-Strauss, Sir Edward Tylor, and Lewis Henry Morgan. Lévi-Strauss viewed cross-cousin marriage as a form of exogamy in the context of a unilineal descent group, meaning either matrilineal or patrilineal descent. Matrilateral cross-cousin marriage in societies with matrilineal descent meant that a male married into the family his mother's brother, building an alliance between the two families. However, marriage to a mother's sister daughter (a parallel cousin) would be endogamous, here meaning inside the same descent group, and would therefore fail to build alliances between different groups. Correspondingly, in societies like China with patrilineal descent, marriage to a father's brother's daughter would fail at alliance building. And in societies with both types of descent, where a person belongs to the group of his mother's mother and father's father but not mother's father or father's mother, only cross-cousin marriages would successfully build alliances.[170] Lévi-Strauss postulated that cross-cousin marriage had the two consequences of setting up classes which automatically delimit the group of possible spouses and of determining a relationship that can decide whether a prospective spouse is to be desired or excluded. Whereas in other kinship systems one or another of these aspects dominates, in cross-cousin marriage they overlap and cumulate their effects. It differs from incest prohibitions in that the latter employs a series of negative relationships, saying whom one cannot marry, while cross-cousin marriage employs positive relationships, saying whom should marry. Most crucially, cross-cousin marriage is the only type of preferential union that can function normally and exclusively and still give every man and woman the chance to marry a cross-cousin. Unlike other systems such as the levirate, the sororate, or uncle-niece marriage, cross-cousin marriage is preferential because for obvious reasons these others cannot constitute the exclusive or even preponderant rule of marriage in any group. Cross-cousin marriage divides members of the same generation into two approximately equal groups, those of cross-cousins and "siblings" that include real siblings and parallel cousins. Consequently, cross-cousin marriage can be a normal form of marriage in a society, but the other systems above can only be privileged forms. This makes cross-cousin marriage exceptionally important.[171] Cross-cousin marriage also establishes a division between prescribed and prohibited relatives who, from the viewpoint of biological proximity, are strictly interchangeable. Lévi-Strauss thought that this proved that the origin of the incest prohibition is purely social and not biological. Cross-cousin marriage in effect allowed the anthropologist to control for biological degree by studying a situation where the degree of prohibited and prescribed spouses were equal. In understanding why two relatives of the same biological degree would be treated so differently, Lévi-Strauss wrote, it would be possible to understand not only the principle of cross-cousin marriage but of the incest prohibition itself. For Lévi-Strauss cross-cousin marriage was not either socially arbitrary or a secondary consequence of other institutions like dual organization or the practice of exogamy. Instead, the raison d'etre of cross-cousin marriage could be found within the institution itself. Of the three types of institution of exogamy rules, dual organization, and cross-cousin marriage, the last was most significant, making the analysis of this form of marriage the crucial test for any theory of marriage prohibitions.[172] Matrilateral cross-cousin marriage has been found by some anthropological researchers to be correlated with patripotestal jural authority, meaning rights or obligations of the father. According to some theories, in these kinship systems a man marries his matrilateral cross-cousin due to associating her with his nurturant mother. Due to this association, possibly reinforced by personal interaction with a specific cousin, he may become "fond" of her, rendering the relationship "sentimentally appropriate".[173] Patrilateral cross-cousin marriage is the rarest of all types of cousin marriage, and there is some question as to whether it even exists.[174] In contrast to Lévi-Strauss who viewed the exchange of women under matrilateral cross-cousin marriage as fundamentally egalitarian, anthropologist Edmund Leach held that such systems by nature created groups of junior and senior status and were part of the political structure of society. Under Leach's model, in systems where this form of marriage segregates descent groups into wife-givers and wife-takers, the social status of the two categories also cannot be determined by a priori arguments. Groups like the Kachin exhibiting matrilateral cross-cousin marriage do not exchange women in circular structures; where such structures do exist they are unstable. Moreover, the exchanging groups are not major segments of the society, but rather local descent groups from the same or closely neighboring communities. Lévi-Strauss held that women were always exchanged for some "prestation" which could either be other women or labor and material goods. Leach agreed but added that prestations could also take the form of intangible assets like "prestige" or "status" that might belong to either wife-givers or wife-takers.[175] Anthropologists Robert Murphy and Leonard Kasdan describe preferential parallel cousin marriage as leading to social fission, in the sense that "feud and fission are not at all dysfunctional factors but are necessary to the persistence and viability of Bedouin society". Their thesis is the converse of Fredrik Barth's, who describes the fission as leading to the cousin marriage.[176] Per Murphy and Kasdan, the Arab system of parallel cousin marriage works against the creation of homogenous "bounded" and "corporate" kin groups and instead creates arrangements where every person is related by blood to a wide variety of people, with the degree of relationship falling off gradually as opposed to suddenly. Instead of corporate units, Arab society is described as having "agnatic sections", a kind of repeating fractal structure in which authority is normally weak at all levels but capable of being activated at the required level in times of war. They relate this to an old Arab proverb: "Myself against my brother; my brother and I against my cousin; my cousin, my brother and I against the outsider."[177] "In such a society even the presence of a limited amount of cross-cousin marriage will not break the isolation of the kin group, for first cross cousins often end up being second parallel cousins."[178] Instead of organizing horizontally through affinal ties, when large scale organization is necessary it is accomplished vertically, by reckoning distance from shared ancestors. This practice is said to possess advantages such as resilience and adaptability in the face of adversity.[179] A recent research study of 70 nations has found a statistically significant negative correlation between consanguineous kinship networks and democracy. The authors note that other factors, such as restricted genetic conditions, may also explain this relationship.[180] This follows a 2003 Steve Sailer essay published for The American Conservative, where he claimed that high rates of cousin marriage play an important role in discouraging political democracy. Sailer believes that because families practicing cousin marriage are more related to one another than otherwise, their feelings of family loyalty tend to be unusually intense, fostering nepotism.[181] Religious views[edit] Hebrew Bible[edit] Jacob encountering Rachel with her father's herds Main article: Incest in the Bible Cousins are not included in the lists of prohibited relationships set out in the Hebrew Bible, specifically in Leviticus 18:8–18 and 20:11–21 and in Deuteronomy.[3] However, the Bible prohibits relationships with any blood relative in Leviticus 18:6. There are several examples in the Bible of cousins marrying. Isaac married Rebekah, his first cousin once removed (Genesis 24:12–15). Also, Isaac's son Jacob married Leah and Rachel, both his first cousins (Genesis 28–29). Jacob's brother Esau also married his first cousin Mahalath, daughter of Ishmael, Isaac's half-brother. According to many English Bible translations, the five daughters of Zelophehad married the "sons of their father's brothers" in the later period of Moses; although other translations merely say "relatives". (For example, the Catholic RSV-CE and NAB differ in Numbers 36:10–12.) During the apportionment of Israel following the journey out of Egypt, Caleb gives his daughter Achsah to his brother's son Othniel according to the NAB (Joshua 15:17), though the Jewish Talmud says Othniel was simply Caleb's brother (Sotah 11b). The daughters of Eleazer also married the sons of Eleazer's brother Kish in the still later time of David (1 Chronicles 23:22). King Rehoboam and his wives Maacah and Mahalath were grandchildren of David (2 Chronicles 11:20). Finally, according to the book of Tobit, Tobias had a right to marry Sarah because he was her nearest kinsman (Tobit 7:10), though the exact degree of their cousinship is not clear. Christianity[edit] In Roman Catholicism, all marriages more distant than first-cousin marriages are allowed,[182] and first-cousin marriages can be contracted with a dispensation.[183] This was not always the case, however: the Catholic Church has gone through several phases in kinship prohibitions. At the dawn of Christianity in Roman times, marriages between first cousins were allowed. For example, Emperor Constantine, the first Christian Roman Emperor, married his children to the children of his half-brother. First and second cousin marriages were then banned at the Council of Agde in AD 506, though dispensations sometimes continued to be granted. By the 11th century, with the adoption of the so-called canon-law method of computing consanguinity, these proscriptions had been extended even to sixth cousins, including by marriage. But due to the many resulting difficulties in reckoning who was related to whom, they were relaxed back to third cousins at the Fourth Lateran Council in AD 1215. Pope Benedict XV reduced this to second cousins in 1917,[100] and finally, the current law was enacted in 1983.[183] In Catholicism, close relatives who have married unwittingly without a dispensation can receive an annulment. There are several explanations for the rise of Catholic cousin marriage prohibitions after the fall of Rome. One explanation is increasing Germanic influence on church policy. G.E. Howard states, "During the period preceding the Teutonic invasion, speaking broadly, the church adhered to Roman law and custom; thereafter those of the Germans ... were accepted."[184] On the other hand, it has also been argued that the bans were a reaction against local Germanic customs of kindred marriage.[185] At least one Frankish King, Pepin the Short, apparently viewed close kin marriages among nobles as a threat to his power.[186] Whatever the reasons, written justifications for such bans had been advanced by St. Augustine by the fifth century. "It is very reasonable and just", he wrote, "that one man should not himself sustain many relationships, but that various relationships should be distributed among several, and thus serve to bind together the greatest number in the same social interests".[3] Taking a contrary view, Protestants writing after the Reformation tended to see the prohibitions and the dispensations needed to circumvent them as part of an undesirable church scheme to accrue wealth, or "lucre".[3] Since the 13th century the Catholic Church has measured consanguinity according to what is called the civil-law method. Under this method, the degree of relationship between lineal relatives (i.e., a man and his grandfather) is simply equal to the number of generations between them. However, the degree of relationship between collateral (non-lineal) relatives equals the number of links in the family tree from one person, up to the common ancestor, and then back to the other person. Thus brothers are related in the second degree, and first cousins in the fourth degree.[187] Protestant churches generally allow cousin marriage,[188] in keeping with criticism of the Catholic system of dispensations by Martin Luther and John Calvin during the Reformation.[99] This includes most of the major US denominations, such as Baptist, Pentecostal, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Methodist. The Anglican Communion has also allowed cousin marriage since its inception during the rule of King Henry VIII. According to Luther and Calvin, the Catholic bans on cousin marriage were an expression of Church rather than divine law and needed to be abolished.[3] John Calvin thought of the Biblical list only as illustrative and that any relationship of the same or smaller degree as any listed, namely the third degree by the civil-law method, should therefore be prohibited. The Archbishop of Canterbury reached the same conclusion soon after.[100] But in contrast to both Protestantism and Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodox Church prohibits up to second cousins from marrying.[18] But, according to the latest constitution (of 2010) of The Orthodox Church of Cyprus, second cousins may marry as the restriction is placed up to relatives of the 5th degree.[189] The reasoning is that marriage between close relatives can lead to intrafamily strife. The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia refers to a theory by the Anglican bishop of Bath and Wells speculating that Mary and Joseph, the mother of Jesus and her husband, were first cousins.[190] Jack Goody describes this theory as a "legend".[191] Islam[edit] See also: Cousin marriage in the Middle East The Qur'an does not state that marriages between first cousins are forbidden. In Sura An-Nisa (4:22–24), Allah mentioned the women who are forbidden for marriage: to quote the Qur'an, "... Lawful to you are all beyond those mentioned, so that you may seek them with your wealth in honest wedlock…" In Sura Al-Ahzab (33:50), O Prophet, indeed We have made lawful to you your wives to whom you have given their due compensation and those your right hand possesses from what Allah has returned to you [of captives] and the daughters of your paternal uncles and the daughters of your paternal aunts and the daughters of your maternal uncles and the daughters of your maternal aunts who emigrated with you and a believing woman if she gives herself to the Prophet [and] if the Prophet wishes to marry her, [this is] only for you, excluding the [other] believers. We certainly know what We have made obligatory upon them concerning their wives and those their right hands possess, [but this is for you] in order that there will be upon you no discomfort. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.[192][193] Muslims have practiced marriages between first cousins in non-prohibited countries since the time of Muhammad. In a few countries the most common type is between paternal cousins.[192] Muhammad actually did marry two relatives.[19] One was a first cousin, Zaynab bint Jahsh, who was not only the daughter of one of his father's sisters but was also divorced from a marriage with Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Haritha. It was the issue of adoption and not cousinship that caused controversy due to the opposition of pre-Islamic Arab norms.[194] Many of the immediate successors of Muhammad also took a cousin as one of their wives. Umar married his cousin Atikah bint Zayd ibn Amr ibn Nifayl,[195][196] while Ali married Fatimah,[197] the daughter of his paternal first cousin Muhammad and hence his first cousin once removed.[198] Although marrying his cousin himself, Umar, the second Caliph, discouraged marrying within one's bloodline or close cousins recurringly over generations and advised those who had done so to marry people unrelated to them, by telling a household that did so, "You have become frail, so marry intelligent people unrelated to you."[199] Even though many Muslims practice cousins marriage now, two of the Sunni Muslims madhhabs (schools, four in total) like Shafi'i (about 33.33% of Sunni Muslims, or 29% of all Muslims) and Hanbali consider it as Makruh (disliked),[200] and there are three Hadiths that prefer marriage outside family but all of them are considered ḍaʿīf (weak). Some scholars like Ibn Qudamah and Al-Ghazali prefer marriage outside the family, because if a divorce happens between the couple, the family bond – which is considered as sacred in Islam – will be weakened or broken due to that, but other scholars such as Ibn Baz said that if there was no better non-family potential bride (none of the "potential in-family bride" and the "potential non-family bride" was better than the other) it's advised to marry the one who is in the family to make the family bond stronger.[201] Imam Shafi'i, the founder of the Shafi'i madhab, went further in his condemnation of persistent generational bloodline marriages and said, "Whenever the people of a household do not allow their women to marry men outside of their line, there will be fools among their children.”[199] Hinduism[edit] The Hindu Marriage Act prohibits marriage for five generations on the father's side and three on the mother's side, but allows cross-cousin marriage where it is permitted by custom.[135][202] Hindu rules of exogamy are often taken extremely seriously, and local village councils in India administer laws against in-gotra endogamy.[203] Social norms against such practices are quite strong as well.[204] In the 18th and 19th Centuries, Hindu Kurmis of Chunar and Jaunpur are known to have been influenced by their Muslim neighbors and taken up extensively the custom of cousin marriage.[205] In the Mahabharata, one of the two great Hindu Epics, Arjuna took as his fourth wife his first and cross cousin Subhadra, the sister of Krishna. Arjuna had gone into exile alone after having disturbed Yudhishthira and Draupadi in their private quarters. It was during the last part of his exile, while staying at the Dvaraka residence of his cousins, that he fell in love with Subhadra. While eating at the home of Balarama, Arjuna was struck with Subhadra's beauty and decided he would obtain her as his wife. Subhadra and Arjuna's son was the tragic hero Abhimanyu. According to Andhra Pradesh oral tradition, Abhimanyu himself married his first cross-cousin Shashirekha, the daughter of Subhadra's brother Balarama.[206][207] Cross cousins marriages are evident from Arjuna's marriage with Subhadra, Pradyumna's (Eldest son of Krishna) marriage with Rukmi's (Brother of Rukmini) daughter. Also Krishna married his cross cousin Mitravinda (Daughter of Vasudeva's sister Rajadhi who was Queen of Avanti) and Bhadra (Daughter of Vasudeva's sister Shrutakirti who was the Queen of Kekaya Kingdom.) Other religions[edit] This section needs expansion with: Buddhism. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010) Buddhism does not proscribe any specific sexual practices, only ruling out "sexual misconduct" in the Five Precepts.[208] Zoroastrianism allows cousin marriages.[209] Sikhism largely follows the pattern of ban on the same clan marriages, many Sikhs choose to marry their children with a partner from a different village or town, just to avoid chances of consanguinity between them.[210] Biological aspects[edit] Genetics[edit] Cousin marriages have genetic aspects arising an increased chance of sharing genes for recessive traits. The percentage of consanguinity between any two individuals decreases fourfold as the most recent common ancestor recedes one generation. First cousins have four times the consanguinity of second cousins, while first cousins once removed have half that of first cousins. Double first cousins have twice that of first cousins and are as related as half-siblings. In April 2002, the Journal of Genetic Counseling released a report which estimated the average risk of birth defects in a child born of first cousins at 1.1–2.0 percentage points over an average base risk for non-cousin couples of 3%, or about the same as that of any woman over age 40.[211] In terms of mortality, a 1994 study found a mean excess pre-reproductive mortality rate of 4.4%,[212] while another study published in 2009 suggests the rate may be closer to 3.5%.[2] Put differently, a single first-cousin marriage entails a similar increased risk of birth defects and mortality as a woman faces when she gives birth at age 41 rather than at 30.[213] Repeated consanguineous marriages within a group are more problematic. After repeated generations of cousin marriage the actual genetic relationship between two people is closer than the most immediate relationship would suggest. In Pakistan, where there has been cousin marriage for generations and the current rate may exceed 50%, one study estimated infant mortality at 12.7 percent for married double first cousins, 7.9 percent for first cousins, 9.2 percent for first cousins once removed/double second cousins, 6.9 percent for second cousins, and 5.1 percent among nonconsanguineous progeny. Among double first cousin progeny, 41.2 percent of prereproductive deaths were associated with the expression of detrimental recessive genes, with equivalent values of 26.0, 14.9, and 8.1 percent for first cousins, first cousins once removed/double second cousins, and second cousins respectively.[214] Even in the absence of preferential consanguinity, alleles that are rare in large populations can randomly increase to high frequency in small groups within a few generations due to the founder effect and accelerated genetic drift in a breeding pool of restricted size.[215] For example, because the entire Amish population is descended from only a few hundred 18th-century German-Swiss settlers, the average coefficient of inbreeding between two random Amish is higher than between two non-Amish second cousins.[216] First-cousin marriage is taboo among Amish, but they still suffer from several rare genetic disorders. In Ohio's Geauga County, Amish make up only about 10 percent of the population but represent half the special needs cases. In the case of one debilitating seizure disorder, the worldwide total of 12 cases exclusively involves Amish sufferers.[217] Similar disorders have been found in the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, who do allow first-cousin marriage and of whom 75 to 80 percent are related to two 1830s founders.[218][219] Studies into the effect of cousin marriage on polygenic traits and complex diseases of adulthood have often yielded contradictory results due to the rudimentary sampling strategies used. Both positive and negative associations have been reported for breast cancer and heart disease. Consanguinity seems to affect many polygenic traits such as height, body mass index, intelligence and cardiovascular profile.[220][221][222] Long-term studies conducted on the Dalmatian islands in the Adriatic Sea have indicated a positive association between inbreeding and a very wide range of common adulthood disorders, including hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, uni/bipolar depression, asthma, gout, peptic ulcer, and osteoporosis. However, these results may principally reflect village endogamy rather than consanguinity per se. Endogamy is marrying within a group and in this case the group was a village. The marital patterns of the Amish are also an example of endogamy.[223] The Latin American Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformation found an association between consanguinity and hydrocephalus, postaxial polydactyly, and bilateral oral and facial clefts. Another picture emerges from the large literature on congenital heart defects, which are conservatively estimated to have an incidence of 50/1,000 live births. A consistent positive association between consanguinity and disorders such as ventricular septal defect and atrial septal defect has been demonstrated, but both positive and negative associations with patent ductus arteriosus, atrioventricular septal defect, pulmonary atresia, and Tetralogy of Fallot have been reported in different populations. Associations between consanguinity and Alzheimer's disease have been found in certain populations.[223] Studies into the influence of inbreeding on anthropometric measurements at birth and in childhood have failed to reveal any major and consistent pattern, and only marginal declines were shown in the mean scores attained by consanguineous progeny in tests of intellectual capacity. In the latter case, it would appear that inbreeding mainly leads to greater variance in IQ levels, due in part to the expression of detrimental recessive genes in a small proportion of those tested.[224] A BBC report discussed Pakistanis in Britain, 55% of whom marry a first cousin.[225] Given the high rate of such marriages, many children come from repeat generations of first-cousin marriages. The report states that these children are 13 times more likely than the general population to produce children with genetic disorders, and one in ten children of first-cousin marriages in Birmingham either dies in infancy or develops a serious disability. The BBC also states that Pakistani-Britons, who account for some 3% of all births in the UK, produce "just under a third" of all British children with genetic illnesses. Published studies show that mean perinatal mortality in the Pakistani community of 15.7 per thousand significantly exceeds that in the indigenous population and all other ethnic groups in Britain. Congenital anomalies account for 41 percent of all British Pakistani infant deaths.[226] The BBC story contained an interview with Myra Ali, whose parents and grandparents were all first cousins. She has a very rare recessive genetic condition, known as epidermolysis bullosa which will cause her to lead a life of extreme physical suffering, limited human contact and probably an early death from skin cancer. Knowing that cousin marriages increase the probability of recessive genetic conditions, she is understandably against the practice. Finally, in 2010 the Telegraph reported that cousin marriage among the British Pakistani community resulted in 700 children being born every year with genetic disabilities.[227] The increased mortality and birth defects observed among British Pakistanis may, however, have another source besides current consanguinity. This is population subdivision among different Pakistani groups. Population subdivision results from decreased gene flow among different groups in a population. Because members of Pakistani biradari have married only inside these groups for generations, offspring have higher average homozygosity even for couples with no known genetic relationship.[228] According to a statement by the UK's Human Genetics Commission on cousin marriages, the BBC also "fails to clarify" that children born to these marriages were not found to be 13 times more likely to develop genetic disorders. Instead they are 13 times more likely to develop recessive genetic disorders. The HGC states, "Other types of genetic conditions, including chromosomal abnormalities, sex-linked conditions and autosomal dominant conditions are not influenced by cousin marriage." The HGC goes on to compare the biological risk between cousin marriage and increased maternal age, arguing that "Both represent complex cultural trends. Both however, also carry a biological risk. They key difference, GIG argue, is that cousin marriage is more common amongst a British minority population."[229] Genetic effects from cousin marriage in Britain are more obvious than in a developing country like Pakistan because the number of confounding environmental diseases is lower. Increased focus on genetic disease in developing countries may eventually result from progress in eliminating environmental diseases there as well.[230] Comprehensive genetic education and premarital genetic counseling programs can help to lessen the burden of genetic diseases in endogamous communities. Genetic education programs directed at high-school students have been successful in Middle Eastern countries such as Bahrain. Genetic counseling in developing countries has been hampered, however, by lack of trained staff, and couples may refuse prenatal diagnosis and selective abortion despite the endorsement of religious authorities.[231] In Britain, the Human Genetics Commission recommends a strategy comparable with previous strategies in dealing with increased maternal age, notably as this age relates to an increased risk of Down syndrome. All pregnant women in Britain are offered a screening test from the government-run national health service to identify those at an increased risk of having a baby with Down syndrome. The HGC states that similarly, it is appropriate to offer genetic counseling to consanguineous couples, preferably before they conceive, in order to establish the precise risk of a genetic abnormality in offspring. Under this system the offering of genetic counseling can be refused, unlike, for example, in the US state of Maine where genetic counseling is mandatory to obtain a marriage license for first cousins. Leading researcher Alan Bittles also concluded that though consanguinity clearly has a significant effect on childhood mortality and genetic disease in areas where it is common, it is "essential that the levels of expressed genetic defect be kept in perspective, and to realize that the outcome of consanguineous marriages is not subject to assessment solely in terms of comparative medical audit".[232] He states that the social, cultural, and economic benefits of cousin marriage also need to be fully considered.[233] Fertility[edit] Higher total fertility rates are reported for cousin marriages than average, a phenomenon noted as far back as George Darwin during the late 19th century. There is no significant difference in the number of surviving children in cousin marriages because this compensates for the observed increase in child mortality.[234] The total fertility increase may be partly explained by the lower average parental age at marriage, and age at first birth, observed in consanguineous marriages. Other factors include shorter birth intervals and possibly a lower likelihood of using reliable contraception.[18] There is also the possibility of more births as a compensation for increased child mortality, either via a conscious decision by parents to achieve a set family size or the cessation of lactational amenorrhea following the death of an infant.[235] According to a recent paper the fertility difference is probably not due to any underlying biological effect.[236] In Iceland, where marriages between second and third cousins were common, in part due to limited selection, studies show higher fertility rates.[237] Earlier papers claimed that increased sharing of human leukocyte antigens, as well as of deleterious recessive genes expressed during pregnancy, may lead to lower rates of conception and higher rates of miscarriage in consanguineous couples. Others now believe there is scant evidence for this unless the genes are operating very early in the pregnancy. Studies consistently show a lower rate of primary infertility in cousin marriages, usually interpreted as being due to greater immunological compatibility between spouses.[238] See also[edit] Affinity (Catholic canon law) Assortative mating Coefficient of relationship Cousin marriage in the Middle East Cousin marriage law in the United States Endogamy Genetic distance Genetic diversity Genetic sexual attraction Inbreeding Inbreeding avoidance Inbreeding depression Incest taboo Jewish views on incest Legality of incest List of coupled cousins Mahram Pedigree collapse Proximity of blood Watta satta Westermarck effect References[edit] ^ History, Mr (24 January 2017). "When Did Cousin Marriage Become Unacceptable?". HistoryNet. Retrieved 10 August 2019. ^ a b c d e f Kershaw, Sarah (26 November 2009). "Shaking Off the Shame". The New York Times. ^ a b c d e f Ottenheimer, Martin (1996). "Chapter 5". Forbidden Relatives: The American Myth of Cousin Marriage. University of Illinois. ^ Dousset, Laurent (17 May 2018), "Part three: Western Desert kinship ethnography", Australian Aboriginal Kinship : An introductory handbook with particular emphasis on the Western Desert, Manuels du Credo, Marseille: pacific-credo Publications, pp. 75–94, ISBN 978-2-9563981-1-0, retrieved 15 April 2021 ^ a b "The Surprising Truth About Cousins and Marriage". 14 February 2014. ^ a b c Paul, Diane B.; Spencer, Hamish G. (23 December 2008). ""It's Ok, We're Not Cousins by Blood": The Cousin Marriage Controversy in Historical Perspective". PLOS Biology. 6 (12): 2627–30. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060320. PMC 2605922. PMID 19108607. ^ "Final Thoughts". Cousin Couples. Retrieved 4 June 2016. ^ a b c Brandon Keim (23 December 2008). "Cousin Marriage OK by Science". Wired. ^ a b c Saletan, William (10 April 2002). "The Love That Dare Not Speak Its Surname" – via Slate. ^ a b Hamamy, Hanan (July 2012). "Consanguineous marriages". 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London. ^ Bittles 1994, p. 572, 574 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 572 ^ Hostetler 1963, p. 330 ^ McKay 2005 ^ Dougherty 2005 ^ Reuters 2007 ^ Fareed, M; Afzal M (2014). "Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort". American Journal of Human Biology. 26 (6): 784–795. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22599. PMID 25130378. S2CID 6086127. ^ Fareed, M; Afzal M (2014). "Estimating the inbreeding depression on cognitive behavior: a population based study of child cohort". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e109585. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9585F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109585. PMC 4196914. PMID 25313490. ^ Fareed, M; Afzal M (2016). "Increased cardiovascular risks associated with familial inbreeding: a population-based study of adolescent cohort". Annals of Epidemiology. 26 (4): 283–292. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.03.001. PMID 27084548. ^ a b Bittles and Black, 2009, Section 6 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 575 ^ Rowlatt, J, (2005) "The risks of cousin marriage", BBC Newsnight. Accessed 28 January 2007 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 576 ^ Lefort, Rebecca (22 August 2010). "700 children born with genetic disabilities due to cousin marriages every year" – via www.telegraph.co.uk. ^ Bittles and Black, 2009, Section 5 ^ "Statement on cousins who marry", Human Genetics Commission. Accessed 1 November 2009 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 579 ^ Bittles and Black, 2009, Section 4 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 578 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 793 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 790 ^ Bittles 1994, p. 571 ^ Hussein, R.; Bittles, A.H. (1999), Consanguineous marriage and differentials in age at marriage, contraceptive use and fertility in Pakistan, Journal of Biosocial Science, pp. 121–138 ^ Third Cousins Have Greatest Number Of Offspring, Data From Iceland Shows, Science Daily, 7 February 2008 ^ Bittles 1994, pp. 568–569 Sources[edit] Bener, Abdulbari; Hussain, Rafat (2006). "Consanguineous Unions and Child Health in the State of Qatar". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 20 (5): 372–378. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2006.00750.x. PMID 16911015. Bittles, Alan H. (September 1994). "The Role and Significance of Consanguinity as a Demographic Variable". Population and Development Review. 20 (3): 561–584. doi:10.2307/2137601. JSTOR 2137601. Bittles, Alan; Hussain, Rafat (2000). "An analysis of consanguineous marriage in the Muslim population of India at regional and state levels". Annals of Human Biology. 27 (2): 163–171. doi:10.1080/030144600282271. PMID 10768421. Bittles, Alan (2009). "Commentary: The background and outcomes of the first-cousin marriage controversy in Great Britain". International Journal of Epidemiology. 38 (6): 1453–1458. doi:10.1093/ije/dyp313. PMID 19926668. Bittles, Alan; Black, Michael (September 2009). "Consanguinity, human evolution, and complex diseases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (suppl 1): 1779–1786. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906079106. PMC 2868287. PMID 19805052. Bittles, Alan (2009). "Tables of the global prevalence of consanguinity". consang.net. Retrieved 8 February 2010. Darwin, George H (1875). "Marriages between first cousins in England and their effects". Journal of the Statistical Society. XXXVIII Part II (2): 153–184. JSTOR 2338660. Đõ, Quý Toàn; Iyer, Sriya; Joshi, Shareen (2006). The Economics of Consanguineous Marriages. World Bank, Development Research Group, Poverty Team. Dougherty, John (29 December 2005). "Forbidden Fruit". Phoenix New Times. Retrieved 10 February 2010. Freire-Maia, Newton (December 1957). "Inbreeding in Brazil". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 9 (4): 284–298. PMC 1932014. PMID 13497997. Givens, Benjamin P.; Hirschman, Charles (November 1994). "Modernization and Consanguineous Marriage in Iran". Journal of Marriage and Family. 56 (4): 820–834. doi:10.2307/353595. JSTOR 353595. Goody, Jack (1983). The development of the family and marriage in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grubbs, Judith Evans (2002). Women and the law in the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15240-2. Retrieved 13 February 2010. Hajnal, J.; et al. (10 December 1963). "Concepts of Random Mating and the Frequency of Consanguineous Marriages". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 159 (974): 125–177. Bibcode:1963RSPSB.159..125H. doi:10.1098/rspb.1963.0071. PMID 14087988. S2CID 45211684. Holý, Ladislav (1989). Kinship, honour, and solidarity: cousin marriage in the Middle East. Manchester University Press ND. ISBN 978-0-7190-2890-8. Hostetler, John Andrew (1993). Amish Society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4442-3. Leach, Edmund (2009). "The Structural Implications of Matrilateral Cross-Cousin Marriage". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 1/2 (6): 23–55. JSTOR 2844015. McKay, Mary Jayne (8 June 2005). "Genetic Disorders Hit Amish Hard". CBS. Retrieved 10 February 2010. Murphy, Robert F.; Kasdan, Leonard (February 1959). "The Structure of Parallel Cousin Marriage". American Anthropologist. 61 (1): 17–29. doi:10.1525/aa.1959.61.1.02a00040. JSTOR 666210. Ottenheimer, Martin (1996). Forbidden Relatives: The American Myth of Cousin Marriage. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Patterson, Cynthia B. (1998). The Family in Greek History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-29270-3. Prem, Chowdhry (2004). "Consanguineous Unions and Child Health in the State of Qatar". Modern Asian Studies. 38 (1): 55–84. "Polygamist community faces genetic disorder". Reuters. 15 June 2007. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 10 February 2010. Shami, S A; Schmitt, L H; Bittles, A H (1989). "Consanguinity related prenatal and postnatal mortality of the populations of seven Pakistani Punjab cities". Journal of Medical Genetics. 26 (4): 267–271. doi:10.1136/jmg.26.4.267. PMC 1017301. PMID 2716036. Shaw, Brent; Saller, Richard (September 1984). "Close-Kin Marriage in Roman Society?". Man. New Series. 19 (3): 432–444. doi:10.2307/2802181. JSTOR 2802181. Shaw, Alison (2009). "Kinship, Cultural Preference and Immigration: Consanguineous Marriage among British Pakistanis". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 7 (2): 315–334. doi:10.1111/1467-9655.00065. JSTOR 2661225. Westermarck, Edward (1922). The History of Human Marriage. New York: Allerton Book Co. Further reading[edit] Abbink, Jon (December 1998). "An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics". Journal of African Cultural Studies. 11 (2): 109–124. doi:10.1080/13696819808717830. hdl:1887/9486. JSTOR 1771876. Baba of Karo; Smith, Mary Felice (1981). Baba of Karo. Yale University. ISBN 978-0-300-02741-9. Bittles, Alan H.; et al. (10 May 1991). "Reproductive Behavior and Health in Consanguineous Marriages". Science. 252 (5007): 789–794. Bibcode:1991Sci...252..789B. doi:10.1126/science.2028254. PMID 2028254. S2CID 1352617. "Census of India, Population by Religious Communities". Census of India. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. 2001. Retrieved 7 February 2010. Chen, T. S.; Shryock, J. K. (October–December 1932). "Chinese Relationship Terms". American Anthropologist. 34 (4): 623–669. doi:10.1525/aa.1932.34.4.02a00080. JSTOR 662675. "Nigeria". The CIA World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. 15 January 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010. Crummey, Donald (1983). "Family and Property amongst the Amhara Nobility". The Journal of African History. 24 (2): 207–220. doi:10.1017/S0021853700021940. JSTOR 181641. Dawson, Miles Menander, ed. (1915). "The Family". The Ethics of Confucius. New York: Putnam. Dyson, Tim; Moore, Mick (March 1983). "On Kinship Structure, Female Autonomy, and Demographic Behavior in India". Population and Development Review. 9 (1): 35–60. doi:10.2307/1972894. JSTOR 1972894. "2007 Census" (PDF). Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2012. Feng, Han-yi (1967). The Chinese Kinship System. Cambridge: Harvard. Givens, Benjamin P.; Hirschman, Charles (November 1994). "Modernization and Consanguineous Marriage in Iran". Journal of Marriage and Family. 56 (4): 820–834. doi:10.2307/353595. JSTOR 353595. Hsu, Francis L. K. (January–March 1945). "Observations on Cross-Cousin Marriage in China". American Anthropologist. 47 (1): 83–103. doi:10.1525/aa.1945.47.1.02a00050. JSTOR 663208. "Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China". Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in New York. 14 November 2003. Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2010. Meriwether, Margaret Lee (1999). The kin who count: family and society in Ottoman Aleppo, 1770–1840. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75224-5. Qin, Zhaoxiong (22 September 2001). "Rethinking Cousin Marriage in Rural China". Ethnology. 40 (4): 347–360. doi:10.2307/3773881. JSTOR 3773881. "Learning from Children, Families, and Communities to Increase Girls' Participation in Primary School (Ethiopia)" (PDF). Save the Children USA. 31 July 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2010. Schwimmer, Brian (September 2003). "Census of India, Population by Religious Communities". Kinship and Social Organization. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 7 February 2010. Scott-Emuakpori, Ajovi B. (1974). "The Mutation Load in an African Population". Am J Hum Genet. 26 (2): 674–682. Suberu, Rotimi T. (2001). Federalism and ethnic conflict in Nigeria. Washington, DC: Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace. ISBN 978-1-929223-28-2. Swanson, Eleanor C.; Robert O. Lagace. "Hausa". Ethnographic Atlas. Centre for Social Anthropology and Computing, University of Kent at Canterbury. Archived from the original on 17 February 2010. Retrieved 8 February 2010. "Marriages between cousins has become more common in the UAE". khaleejtimes. 20 November 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2017. External links[edit] Look up cousincest in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Consanguinity/Endogamy Resource by Dr. Alan Bittles and Dr. Michael Black Shaking Off the Shame by Sarah Kershaw for The New York Times Forbidden Fruit by John Dougherty v t e Incest Types Accidental incest Avunculate marriage Child incestuous abuse Consanguine marriage Cousin marriage notable cases in the Middle East Covert incest Incest between twins Parallel and cross cousins Snokhachestvo Legality Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code Consanguinity In the United States cousin marriage laws court cases Mahram Muth v. Frank Prohibited degree of kinship Ten Abominations Culture In the Bible In folklore Popular culture film and television literature Pornography Incest taboo Jewish views on incest Xwedodah Theory Science Coefficient of inbreeding and relationship Inbreeding depression Pedigree collapse Westermarck effect Kin recognition Psychology Electra complex Jocasta complex Oedipus complex Phaedra complex Cases 2019 South Wales paternal sex abuse case Alvarez case Armando Lucero Colt clan incest case Fritzl case Goler clan Maria Ersdotter Moe incest case Mongelli case Patrick Stübing Sheffield incest case Related Genetic sexual attraction Inbreeding Motherfucker Westermarck effect Assortative mating in humans v t e Types of marriages Legal scenarios Civil Covenant Customary Nikah 'urfi Plaçage Fleet Monogamy Serial monogamy Marriage Remarriage Same-sex Temporary Hollywood Nikah mut'ah Wedlease Voidable Putative Void Religious Jewish Christian Catholic Josephite Eastern Orthodox Mormon Quaker Clerical marriage Islamic Marriage in Islam Misyar Nikah mut'ah Nikah 'urfi Levirate Yibbum Natural Scientology Self-uniting Widow conservation Yogic Age Marriageable age Child Teen Arranged Sister exchange Flash Forced Abduction Raptio Heqin Miai Shotgun Tongyangxi Ceremonial Betrothal Handfasting Wedding Las Vegas Proxy Circumstantial basis Death Posthumous France Germany Chinese ghost marriage Widow inheritance Ghost marriage in South Sudan Levirate Yibbum Financial Flash Hypergamy Naked Peer Tongyangxi Trial Convenience Lavender Sham Green card Marriage allowance Predatory Other Exchange Watta satta Heqin Love Sologamy Mixed-orientation Sororate De facto Common-law Plaçage Endogamy Consanguine Avunculate Cousin Middle Eastern Same-surname Homogamy Royal intermarriage Exogamy Human–animal Hypergamy Inter-caste Interethnic International Interracial Interfaith Morganatic Non-monogamous Group Line Open Plural Bigamy Polygamy Polyandry Polygyny Sexless Mariage blanc Other Boston Concubinage Mail-order bride Marriage in pre-Islamic Arabia Walking Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries United States Other Microsoft Academic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cousin_marriage&oldid=1027956912" Categories: Genealogy articles needing expert attention Endogamy Incest Cousin marriage Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no) CS1 Norwegian Bokmål-language sources (nb) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2021 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template archiveis links CS1 uses Arabic-language script (ar) CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) Articles needing expert attention from May 2021 All articles needing expert attention Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2017 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2011 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2012 Articles to be expanded from March 2010 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2014 All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MA identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano Кыргызча Nederlands 日本語 Русский Simple English اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2021, at 00:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-958	----	Quintus Servilius Pudens - Wikipedia Quintus Servilius Pudens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search second century AD Roman senator and governor Quintus Servilius Pudens was a Roman senator active during the second century AD. He was ordinary consul for the year 166 with Lucius Fabius Gallus as his colleague,[1] and he was proconsular governor of Africa around 180. Pudens is known only through surviving inscriptions. Pudens may be related to Marcus Servilius Silanus, consul in 152 and 188, and both may be related to the consul of 189, Quintus Servilius Silanus.[2] Pudens is confidently known to have married Ceionia Plautia, daughter of Lucius Aelius, the adopted son of the emperor Hadrian.[3] His mansion in Rome has been located; the associated baths have been found and excavated in part.[4] There appears to have been two Servilii Pudentes living about the same time: an inscription attests that a man of the same name was prefectus frumenti dandi, juridicus of Regio VIII Aemilia, and governor of Crete and Cyrenaica.[5] Géza Alföldy notes that juridici for the districts of Italy did not come into existence until 166, and were praetorian offices held prior to the consulate. Because any son of Pudens the consul would be related to the imperial family, this relationship would excuse him from holding praetorian offices; the younger Quintus Servilius Pudens might then be the nephew of the consul of 166.[6] See also[edit] Servilia (gens) References[edit] ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 180 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 101 n. 13 ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, revised edition (London: Routledge, 1987), pp. 238, 247 ^ Ancient Bath Complex Unearthed in Rome (Accessed 29 October 2017) ^ CIL VIII, 5354 ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 264 n. 314 Political offices Preceded by Marcus Gavius Orfitus, and Lucius Arrius Pudens as ordinary consuls Consul of the Roman Empire 166 with Lucius Fufidius Pollio Succeeded by Marcus Vibius Liberalis, and Publius Martius Verus as suffect consuls This article about an Ancient Roman politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quintus_Servilius_Pudens&oldid=1020816749" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Imperial Roman consuls Servilii Ancient Roman politician stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Italiano Latina Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2021, at 06:07 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9591	----	Stoic logic - Wikipedia Stoic logic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search System of propositional logic developed by the Stoic philosophers Stoic logic is the system of propositional logic developed by the Stoic philosophers in ancient Greece. It was one of the two great systems of logic in the classical world. It was largely built and shaped by Chrysippus, the third head of the Stoic school in the 3rd-century BCE. Chrysippus's logic differed from Aristotle's term logic because it was based on the analysis of propositions rather than terms. The smallest unit in Stoic logic is an assertible (the Stoic equivalent of a proposition) which is the content of a statement such as "it is day". Assertibles have a truth-value such that they are only true or false depending on when it was expressed (e.g. the assertible "it is night" will only be true if it is true that it is night). [1] In contrast, Aristollean propositions strongly affirm or deny a subject and seek to have its truth validated or falsified. Compound assertibles can be built up from simple ones through the use of logical connectives. The resulting syllogistic was grounded on five basic indemonstrable arguments to which all other syllogisms were claimed to be reducible. Towards the end of antiquity Stoic logic was neglected in favour of Aristotle's logic, and as a result the Stoic writings on logic did not survive, and the only accounts of it were incomplete reports by other writers. Knowledge about Stoic logic as a system was lost until the 20th-century when logicians familiar with the modern propositional calculus reappraised the ancient accounts of it. Contents 1 Background 2 Propositions 2.1 Assertibles 2.2 Compound assertibles 2.3 Modality 3 Syllogistic 3.1 Arguments 3.2 Analysis 4 Paradoxes 5 Stoic practice 6 Later reception 7 Notes 8 Citations 9 References 10 External links Background[edit] See also: History of logic Stoicism is a school of philosophy which developed in the Hellenistic period around a generation after the time of Aristotle.[2] The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, i.e. by a God which is immersed in nature itself.[2] Logic (logike) was the part of philosophy which examined reason (logos).[3] To achieve a happy life—a life worth living—requires logical thought.[2] The Stoics held that an understanding of ethics was impossible without logic.[4] In the words of Brad Inwood, the Stoics believed that:[5] Logic helps a person see what is the case, reason effectively about practical affairs, stand his or her ground amid confusion, differentiate the certain from the probable, and so forth. Chrysippus, who created much of Stoic logic Aristotle's term logic can be viewed as a logic of classification.[6] It makes use of four logical terms "all", "some", "is/are", and "is/are not" and to that extent is fairly static.[6][7] The Stoics needed a logic that examines choice and consequence.[4] The Stoics therefore developed a logic of propositions which uses connectives such as "if ... then", "either ... or", and "not both".[8] Such connectives are part of everyday reasoning.[8] Socrates in the Dialogues of Plato often asks a fellow citizen if they believe a certain thing; when they agree, Socrates then proceeds to show how the consequences are logically false or absurd, inferring that the original belief must be wrong.[8] Similar attempts at forensic reasoning must have been used in the law-courts, and they are a fundamental part of Greek mathematics.[8] Aristotle himself was familiar with propositions, and his pupils Theophrastus and Eudemus had examined hypothetical syllogisms, but there was no attempt by the Peripatetic school to develop these ideas into a system of logic.[9] The Stoic tradition of logic originated in the 4th-century BCE in a different school of philosophy known as the Megarian school.[10] It was two dialeticians of this school, Diodorus Cronus and his pupil Philo, who developed their own theories of modalities and of conditional propositions.[10] The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, studied under the Megarians and he was said to have been a fellow pupil with Philo.[11] However, the outstanding figure in the development of Stoic logic was Chrysippus of Soli (c. 279 – c. 206 BCE), the third head of the Stoic school.[10] Chrysippus shaped much of Stoic logic as we know it creating a system of propositional logic.[12] As a logician Chrysippus is sometimes said to rival Aristotle in stature.[11] The logical writings by Chrysippus are, however, almost entirely lost,[10] instead his system has to be reconstructed from the partial and incomplete accounts preserved in the works of later authors such as Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laërtius, and Galen.[11] Propositions[edit] To the Stoics, logic was a wide field of knowledge which included the study of language, grammar, rhetoric and epistemology.[3] However, all of these fields were interrelated, and the Stoics developed their logic (or "dialectic") within the context of their theory of language and epistemology.[13] Assertibles[edit] The Stoics held that any meaningful utterance will involve three items: the sounds uttered; the thing which is referred to or described by the utterance; and an incorporeal item—the lektón (sayable)—that which is conveyed in the language.[14] The lekton is not a statement but the content of a statement, and it corresponds to a complete utterance.[15][16] A lekton can be something such as a question or a command, but Stoic logic operates on those lekta which are called "assertibles" (axiomata), described as a proposition which is either true or false and which affirms or denies.[15][17] Examples of assertibles include "it is night", "it is raining this afternoon", and "no one is walking."[18][19] The assertibles are truth-bearers.[20] They can never be true and false at the same time (law of noncontradiction) and they must be at least true or false (law of excluded middle).[21] The Stoics catalogued these simple assertibles according to whether they are affirmative or negative, and whether they are definite or indefinite (or both).[22] The assertibles are much like modern propositions, however their truth value can change depending on when they are asserted.[1] Thus an assertible such as "it is night" will only be true when it is night and not when it is day.[17] Compound assertibles[edit] Simple assertibles can be connected to each other to form compound or non-simple assertibles.[23] This is achieved through the use of logical connectives.[23] Chrysippus seems to have been responsible for introducing the three main types of connectives: the conditional (if), conjunctive (and), and disjunctive (or).[24] A typical conditional takes the form of "if p then q";[25] whereas a conjunction takes the form of "both p and q";[25] and a disjunction takes the form of "either p or q".[26] The or they used is exclusive, unlike the inclusive or generally used in modern formal logic.[27] These connectives are combined with the use of not for negation.[28] Thus the conditional can take the following four forms:[29] If p, then q | If not p, then q | If p, then not q | If not p, then not q Later Stoics added more connectives: the pseudo-conditional took the form of "since p then q"; and the causal assertible took the form of "because p then q".[a] There was also a comparative (or dissertive): "more/less (likely) p than q".[30] Logical connectives Name Type Example Conditional if if it is day, it is light Conjunction and it is day and light Disjunction either ... or either it is day or night Pseudo-conditional since since it is day, it is light Causal because because it is day, it is light Comparative more/less likely ... than more likely it is day than night Modality[edit] Assertibles can also be distinguished by their modal properties[b]—whether they are possible, impossible, necessary, or non-necessary.[31] In this the Stoics were building on an earlier Megarian debate initiated by Diodorus Cronus.[31] Diodorus had defined possibility in a way which seemed to adopt a form of fatalism.[32] Diodorus defined possible as "that which either is or will be true".[33] Thus there are no possibilities that are forever unrealised, whatever is possible is or one day will be true.[32] His pupil Philo, rejecting this, defined possible as "that which is capable of being true by the proposition's own nature",[33] thus a statement like "this piece of wood can burn" is possible, even if it spent its entire existence on the bottom of the ocean.[34] Chrysippus, on the other hand, was a causal determinist: he thought that true causes inevitably give rise to their effects and that all things arise in this way.[35] But he was not a logical determinist or fatalist: he wanted to distinguish between possible and necessary truths.[35] Thus he took a middle position between Diodorus and Philo, combining elements of both their modal systems.[36] Chrysippus's set of Stoic modal definitions was as follows:[37] Modal definitions Name Definition possible An assertible which can become true and is not hindered by external things from becoming true impossible An assertible which cannot become true or which can become true but is hindered by external things from becoming true necessary An assertible which (when true) cannot become false or which can become false but is hindered by external things from becoming false non-necessary An assertible which can become false and is not hindered by external things from becoming false Syllogistic[edit] Arguments[edit] In Stoic logic, an argument form contains two (or more) premisses related to one another as cause and effect.[38] A typical Stoic syllogism is:[39] If it is day, it is light; It is day; Therefore it is light. It has a non-simple assertible for the first premiss ("If it is day, it is light") and a simple assertible for second premiss ("It is day").[39] The second premiss doesn't always have to be simple but it will have fewer components than the first.[39] In more formal terms this type of syllogism is:[17] If p, then q; p; Therefore q. Thus, like Aristotle's term logic, Stoic logic uses variables, but the values of the variables are propositions not terms.[40] Chrysippus listed five basic argument forms, which he regarded as true beyond dispute.[c] These five indemonstrable arguments are made up of conditional, disjunction, and negation conjunction connectives,[41] and all other arguments are reducible to these five indemonstrable arguments.[16] Indemonstrable arguments Name[d] Description Modern sequent Example Modus ponens If p, then q.  p.  Therefore, q. p → q , p ⊢ q {\displaystyle p\to q,\;p\;\;\vdash \;\;q} If it is day, it is light. It is day. Therefore, it is light. Modus tollens If p, then q.  Not q.  Therefore, not p. p → q , ¬ q ⊢ ¬ p {\displaystyle p\to q,\;\neg q\;\;\vdash \;\neg p} If it is day, it is light. It is not light. Therefore, it is not day. Conjunctive syllogism Not both p and q.  p.  Therefore, not q.  ¬ ( p ∧ q ) , p ⊢ ¬ q {\displaystyle \neg (p\land q),\;p\;\;\vdash \;\neg q} It is not both day and night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night.  Modus tollendo ponens Either p or q.  Not p.  Therefore, q. p ∨ q , ¬ p ⊢ q {\displaystyle p\lor q,\;\neg p\;\;\vdash \;\;q} It is either day or night. It is not day. Therefore, it is night. Modus ponendo tollens Either p or q.  p.  Therefore, not q. p ∨ _ q , p ⊢ ¬ q {\displaystyle p{\underline {\lor }}q,\;p\;\;\vdash \;\neg q} It is either day or night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night. There can be many variations of these five indemonstrable arguments.[42] For example the assertibles in the premises can be more complex, and the following syllogism is a valid example of the second indemonstrable (modus tollens):[29] if both p and q, then r; not r; therefore not: both p and q Similarly one can incorporate negation into these arguments.[29] A valid example of the fourth indemonstrable (modus tollendo ponens or disjunctive syllogism) is:[43] either [not p] or q; not [not p]; therefore q which, incorporating the principle of double negation, is equivalent to:[43] either [not p] or q; p; therefore q Analysis[edit] Many arguments are not in the form of the five indemonstrables, and the task is to show how they can be reduced to one of the five types.[28] A simple example of Stoic reduction is reported by Sextus Empiricus:[44] if both p and q, then r; not r; but also p; Therefore not q This can be reduced to two separate indemonstrable arguments of the second and third type:[45] if both p and q, then r; not r; therefore not: both p and q not: both p and q p; therefore not q The Stoics stated that complex syllogisms could be reduced to the indemonstrables through the use of four ground rules or themata.[46] Of these four themata, only two have survived.[33] One, the so-called first thema, was a rule of antilogism:[33] When from two [assertibles] a third follows, then from either of them together with the contradictory of the conclusion the contradictory of the other follows (Apuleius, De Interpretatione 209. 9–14). The other, the third thema, was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms.[e] The importance of these rules is not altogether clear.[47] In the 2nd-century BCE Antipater of Tarsus is said to have introduced a simpler method involving the use of fewer themata, although few details survive concerning this.[47] In any case, the themata cannot have been a necessary part of every analysis.[48] Paradoxes[edit] Why should not the philosopher develop his own reason? You turn to vessels of crystal, I to the syllogism called The Liar; you to myrrhine glassware, I to the syllogism called The Denyer. –Epictetus, Discourses, iii.9.20 Next to describing inferences which are valid, another subject which engaged the Stoics was the enumeration and refutation of false arguments, and in particular of paradoxes.[49] Part of a Stoic's logical training was to prepare the philosopher for paradoxes and help find solutions.[50] A false argument could be one with a false premiss or which is formally incorrect, however paradoxes represented a challenge to the basic logical notions of the Stoics such as truth or falsehood.[51] One famous paradox, known as The Liar, asked "A man says he is lying; is what he says true or false?"—if the man says something true then it seems he is lying, but if he is lying then he is not saying something true, and so on.[52] Chrysippus is known to have written several books on this paradox, although it is not known what solution he offered for it.[53] Another paradox known as the Sorites or "Heap" asked "How many grains of wheat do you need before you get a heap?"[53] It was said to challenge the idea of true or false by offering up the possibility of vagueness.[53] The response of Chrysippus however was: "That doesn't harm me, for like a skilled driver I shall restrain my horses before I reach the edge ... In like manner I restrain myself in advance and stop replying to sophistical questions."[53] Stoic practice[edit] Training in logic included a mastery of logical puzzles, the study of paradoxes, and the dissection of arguments.[54] However, it was not an end in itself, but rather its purpose was for the Stoics to cultivate their rational powers.[55] Logic, for instance, was not limited to an abstract theory of reasoning, nor even to school exercises in syllogistics; rather, there was a daily practice of logic applied to the problems of everyday life. Logic was thus the mastery of inner discourse. ... The Stoics believed that the human passions correspond to a misuse of human discourse. In other words, they are the result of errors in judgement and in reasoning. We must therefore monitor our inner discourse to see whether erroneous value judgments have crept into it.[56] Stoic logic was thus a method of self-discovery.[57] Its aim was to enable ethical reflection, permit secure and confident arguing, and lead the pupil to truth.[54] The end result would be thought that is consistent, clear and precise, and which exposes confusion, murkiness and inconsistency.[58] Diogenes Laërtius gives a list of dialectical virtues, which were probably invented by Chrysippus:[59] First he mentions aproptosia, which means literally 'not falling forward' and is defined as 'knowledge of when one should give assent or not' (give assent); next aneikaiotes, 'unhastiness', defined as 'strong-mindedness against the probable (or plausible), so as not to give in to it'; third, anelenxia, 'irrefutability', the definition of which is 'strength in argument, so as not to be driven by it to the contradictory'; and fourth, amataiotes, 'lack of emptyheadedness', defined as 'a disposition which refers impressions (phantasiai) to the correct logos.[59] Later reception[edit] For around five hundred years Stoic logic was one of the two great systems of logic.[60] The logic of Chrysippus was discussed alongside that of Aristotle, and it may well have been more prominent since Stoicism was the dominant philosophical school.[61] From a modern perspective Aristotle's term logic and the Stoic logic of propositions appear complementary, but they were sometimes regarded as rival systems.[28] In late antiquity the Stoic school fell into decline, and the last pagan philosophical school, the Neoplatonists, adopted Aristotle's logic for their own.[62] Only elements of Stoic logic made their way into the logical writings of later commentators such as Boethius, transmitting confused parts of Stoic logic to the Middle Ages.[61] Propositional logic was redeveloped by Peter Abelard in the 12th-century, but by the mid-15th-century the only logic which was being studied was a simplified version of Aristotle's.[63] In the 18th-century Immanuel Kant could pronounce that "since Aristotle ... logic has not been able to advance a single step, and is thus to all appearance a closed and complete body of doctrine."[64] To 19th-century historians, who believed that Hellenistic philosophy represented a decline from that of Plato and Aristotle, Stoic logic could only be seen with contempt.[65] Carl Prantl thought that Stoic logic was "dullness, triviality, and scholastic quibbling" and he welcomed the fact that the works of Chrysippus were no longer extant.[66] Eduard Zeller remarked that "the whole contribution of the Stoics to the field of logic consists in their having clothed the logic of the Peripatetics with a new terminology."[67] Modern logic begins in the middle of the 19th-century with the work of George Boole and Augustus de Morgan,[63] but Stoic logic was only rediscovered in the 20th-century.[66] The first person to reappraise their ideas was the Polish logician Jan Łukasiewicz from the 1920s onwards.[66] He was followed by Benson Mates.[66] Stoic concepts often differ from modern ones, but nevertheless there are many close parallels between Stoic and 20th-century theories.[68] What we see as a result is a close similarity between [these] methods of reasoning and the behaviour of digital computers. ... The code happens to come from the nineteeth-century logician and mathematician George Boole, whose aim was to codify the relations studied much earlier by Chrysippus (albeit with greater abstraction and sophistication). Later generations built on Boole's insights ... but the logic that made it all possible was the interconnected logic of an interconnected universe, discovered by the ancient Chrysippus, who labored long ago under an old Athenian stoa.[69] Notes[edit] a. ^ The minimum requirement for a conditional is that the consequent follows from the antecedent.[25] The pseudo-conditional adds that the antecedent must also be true. The causal assertible adds an asymmetry rule such that if p is the cause/reason for q, then q cannot be the cause/reason for p. Bobzien 1999, p. 109 b. ^ "Stoic modal logic is not a logic of modal propositions (e.g., propositions of the type 'It is possible that it is day' ...) ... instead, their modal theory was about non-modalized propositions like 'It is day', insofar as they are possible, necessary, and so forth." Bobzien 1999, p. 117 c. ^ Most of these argument forms had already been discussed by Theophrastus, but: "It is plain that even if Theophrastus discussed (1)–(5), he did not anticipate Chrysippus' achievement. ... his Aristotelian approach to the study and organization of argument-forms would have given his discussion of mixed hypothetical syllogisms an utterly unStoical aspect." Barnes 1999, p. 83 d. ^ These Latin names date from the Middle Ages. Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 288 e. ^ For a brief summary of these themata see Susanne Bobzien's Ancient Logic article for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. For a detailed (and technical) analysis of the themata, including a tentative reconstruction of the two lost ones, see Bobzien 1999, pp. 137–148 Citations[edit] ^ a b Bobzien 1999, p. 95 ^ a b c Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 74 ^ a b Sellars 2006, p. 55 ^ a b Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 78 ^ Inwood 2003, p. 229 ^ a b Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 73 ^ Sellars 2006, p. 57 ^ a b c d Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 79 ^ Ierodiakonou 2009, p. 507 ^ a b c d Bobzien 1996a, p. 880 ^ a b c Sellars 2006, p. 56 ^ Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 80 ^ O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 400 ^ Everson 1994, p. 85 ^ a b Johansen & Rosenmeier 1998, p. 466 ^ a b Ierodiakonou 2006, p. 678 ^ a b c Sellars 2006, p. 58 ^ Sellars 2006, pp. 58–9 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 102 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 92 ^ Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 88 ^ Bobzien 1999, pp. 97–8 ^ a b Bobzien 1999, p. 103 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 105 ^ a b c Bobzien 1999, p. 106 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 109 ^ Inwood 2003, p. 231 ^ a b c Sellars 2006, p. 60 ^ a b c Bobzien 1999, p. 129 ^ Bobzien 1999, pp. 109–111 ^ a b Sellars 2006, p. 59 ^ a b Adamson 2015, p. 136 ^ a b c d Bobzien, Susanne. "Ancient Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Adamson 2015, p. 138 ^ a b Adamson 2015, p. 58 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 120 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 118 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 113 ^ a b c Bobzien 1999, p. 121 ^ Bobzien 1996a, p. 881 ^ Asmus & Restall2012, p. 21 ^ Bobzien 1999, p. 128 ^ a b Shenefelt & White 2013, p. 87 ^ Ierodiakonou 2009, p. 521 ^ Ierodiakonou 2009, p. 522 ^ Bobzien 1996b, p. 133 ^ a b Barnes 1997, p. 82 ^ Barnes 1997, p. 83 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 122 ^ Inwood 2003, p. 232 ^ Ierodiakonou 2009, p. 525 ^ Asmus & Restall 2012, p. 20 ^ a b c d Ierodiakonou 2009, p. 526 ^ a b Nussbaum 2009, p. 349 ^ Long 2001, p. 95 ^ Hadot 2002, p. 135 ^ Long 2001, p. 102 ^ Nussbaum 2009, pp. 348–9 ^ a b Long 2001, p. 92 citing Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 46f. ^ Kneale & Kneale 1962, p. 113 ^ a b Kneale & Kneale 1962, p. 177 ^ Sharples 2003, p. 156 ^ a b Hurley 2011, p. 6 ^ O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 403 quoting Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. ^ O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 403 ^ a b c d O'Toole & Jennings 2004, p. 397 ^ Zeller 1880, p. 124 ^ Bonevac & Dever 2012, p. 181 ^ Shenefelt & White 2013, pp. 96–7 References[edit] Adamson, Peter (2015), Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-872802-3 Asmus, Conrad; Restall, Greg (2012), "A History of the Consequence Relations", in Gabbay, Dov M.; Pelletier, Francis Jeffry; Woods, John (eds.), Handbook of the History of Logic, 2, Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-444-52937-4 Barnes, Johnathan (1997), Logic and the Imperial Stoa, Brill, ISBN 90-04-10828-9 Barnes, Johnathan (1999), "Logic: The Peripatetics", in Algra, Keimpe (ed.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25028-5 Bobzien, Susanne (1996a), "Logic", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1986-6172-6 Bobzien, Susanne (1996b), "Stoic Syllogistic", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 14, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1982-3670-2 Bobzien, Susanne (1999), "Logic: The Stoics", in Algra, Keimpe (ed.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25028-5 Bonevac, Daniel; Dever, Josh (2012), "A History of the Connectives", in Gabbay, Dov M.; Pelletier, Francis Jeffry; Woods, John (eds.), Handbook of the History of Logic, 2, Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-444-52937-4 Everson, Stephen (1994), Companions to Ancient Thought 3: Language, Cambridge University Press Hadot, Pierre (2002), What is Ancient Philosophy?, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-00733-6 Hurley, Patrick J. (2011), A Concise Introduction to Logic, Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-8400-3417-5 Ierodiakonou, Katerina (2006), "Stoicism", in Wilson, Nigel (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Psychology Press, ISBN 978-0-4158-7396-3 Ierodiakonou, Katerina (2009), "Stoic Logic", in Gill, Mary Louise; Pellegrin, Pierre (eds.), A Companion to Ancient Philosophy, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-8834-0 Inwood, Brad (2003), "Stoicism", in Furley, David (ed.), Routledge History of Philosophy Volume II: Aristotle to Augustine, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-4153-0874-8 Johansen, Karsten Friis; Rosenmeier, Henrik (1998), A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12738-6 Kenny, Anthony (2006), Ancient Philosophy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875272-1 Kneale, William; Kneale, Martha (1962), The Development of Logic, Clarendon Press Long, A. A. (2001), "Dialectic and the Stoic Sage", Stoic Studies, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-22974-6 Nussbaum, Martha C. (2009), The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14131-2 O'Toole, Robert R.; Jennings, Raymond E. (2004), "The Megarians and the Stoics", in Gabbay, Dov M.; Woods, John (eds.), Handbook of the History of Logic, 1, Elsevier, ISBN 0-444-51596-8 Sellars, John (2006), Ancient Philosophies: Stoicism, Acumen, ISBN 978-1-84465-053-8 Shenefelt, Michael; White, Heidi (2013), If A, Then B: How Logic Shaped the World, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-53519-9 Sharples, Robert W. (2003), "The Peripatetic School", in Furley, David (ed.), Routledge History of Philosophy Volume II: Aristotle to Augustine, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-4153-0874-8 Zeller, Eduard (1880), The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co. External links[edit] Bobzien, Susanne. "Ancient Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stoic Logic (1953) by Benson Mates (1919–2009) v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoic_logic&oldid=1004915417" Categories: Classical logic History of logic Philosophical logic Propositional calculus Stoicism Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 5 February 2021, at 01:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9609	----	Virtue ethics - Wikipedia Virtue ethics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Normative ethical theories This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series on Socrates "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony · Socratic method Socratic paradox · Socratic questioning Socratic problem · Socratici viri Disciples Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus · Aeschines Related topics Academic Skepticism · Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics · Platonism · Aristotelianism · Stoicism · Virtue ethics · The Clouds Category v t e Part of a series on the Catholic Church St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City Overview Pope: Francis Hierarchy History (timeline) Theology Liturgy Sacraments Mary Background Jesus Crucifixion Resurrection Ascension Early Christianity Peter Paul Fathers History of the Catholic Church History of the papacy Ecumenical councils Magisterium Four Marks of the Church One true church Apostolic succession Organisation Holy See Roman Curia College of Cardinals Ecumenical councils Episcopal polity Latin Church Eastern Churches Canon law Theologies Doctrine God Trinity Father Son Holy Ghost Consubstantialitas Filioque Divinum illud munus Divine Law Decalogus Ex Cathedra Deificatio Realms beyond the States of the Church Heaven Purgatory Limbo Hell Paschal mystery Passion of Jesus Crucifixion of Jesus Harrowing of Hell Resurrection Ascension Blessed Virgin Mary Mariology Veneration Immaculate Conception Mater Dei Perpetual virginity Assumption Dormition Titles Queen Apparition Mediatrix Salvation Baptism of desire Divine grace Outside the Church there is no salvation Infused righteousness Invincible ignorance Justification Means of grace Merit Mortal sin Satisfaction Moral influence Sanctification Synergism Venial sin Ecclesiology College of Bishops Deposit of faith Infallibility of the Church Mystical Body of Christ Papal primacy People of God Perfect community Subsistit in Other teachings Josephology Morality Body Lectures Sexuality Apologetics Amillennialism Original sin Hypostatic union Predestination Seven deadly sins Beatific vision Saints Dogma Texts Bible Old Testament New Testament Official Bible Vulgate Sixtine Vulgate Sixto-Clementine Vulgate Nova Vulgata Peshitta Apostles' Creed Nicene Creed Athanasian Creed Catechism of the Catholic Church Papal bull Apostolic exhortation Epistula Encyclica Philosophy Cardinal Virtues Just war Natural law Catholic ethics Personalism Probabilism Social teaching Philosophy of canon law Philosophers Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Scholasticism Thomism Scotism Occamism Christian humanism Molinism Neo-scholasticism Worship Liturgy Mass Divine Liturgy Holy Qurbana Divine Office Liturgical year Sacraments Baptism Penance Eucharist Confirmation Anointing of the Sick Matrimony Holy orders Prayer Devotions Bible Biblical canon Rites Latin Roman Post-Vatican II Tridentine Anglican Use Zaire Use Gallican Ambrosian Braga Mozarabic Eastern Antiochene Maronite West Syriac Syro-Malankara Chaldean East Syriac Syro-Malabar Byzantine Armenian Alexandrian Ethiopic Miscellaneous Antipopes Anti-Catholicism Criticism Deism/Pandeism Ecumenism Monasticism Relations with: Islam Judaism Protestantism Societal issues Art Evolution Health care HIV/AIDS Homosexuality Sexual abuse Music Nazi Germany Politics (in the United States) Role in civilization Science Sex and gender roles Slavery the Age of Discovery Links and resources Index Outline Glossary Category Media Templates WikiProject  Vatican City portal  Catholic Church portal v t e Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics[1] /ˌærəˈteɪ.ɪk/, from Greek ἀρετή (aretḗ)) is a class of normative ethical theories which treat the concept of moral virtue as central to ethics. Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in normative ethics, consequentialism and deontology, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance of goodness of states of affairs or moral duties to ethics, it emphasizes moral virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like eudaimonia, to an extent that other theories do not. Contents 1 Key concepts 1.1 Virtue and vice 1.2 Phronesis and Eudaimonia 2 History of virtue 2.1 Contemporary "aretaic turn" 3 Lists of virtues 4 Criticisms 4.1 Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism 4.2 Kantian Critque 4.3 Utopianism and pluralism 5 Topics in virtue ethics 5.1 Virtue ethics as a category 5.2 Virtue and politics 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Key concepts[edit] Virtue and vice[edit] Main articles: Virtue and Moral character In virtue ethics, a virtue is a morally good disposition to think, feel, and act well in some domain of life.[2][3] Similarly, a vice is a morally bad disposition involving thinking, feeling, and acting badly. Virtues are not everyday habits; they are character traits, in the sense that they are central to someone’s personality and what they are like as a person. A virtue is a trait that makes its possessor a good person, and a vice is one that makes its possessor a bad person. In ancient Greek and modern eudaimonistic virtue ethics, virtues and vices are complex dispositions that involve both affective and intellectual components.[4] That is, they are dispositions that involve both being able to reason well about what the right thing to do is (see below on phronesis), and also to engage our emotions and feelings correctly. For example, a generous person can reason well about when to help people, and also helps people with pleasure and without conflict. In this, virtuous people are contrasted not only with vicious people (who reason poorly about what to do and are emotionally attached to the wrong things) and the incontinent (who are tempted by their feelings into doing the wrong thing even though they know what is right), but also the continent (whose emotions tempt them toward doing the wrong thing but whose strength of will lets them do what they know is right). Phronesis and Eudaimonia[edit] Practical wisdom is an acquired trait that enables its possessor to identify the thing to do in any given situation.[5] Unlike theoretical wisdom, practical reason results in action or decision.[6] As John McDowell puts it, practical wisdom involves a "perceptual sensitivity" to what a situation requires.[7] Eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία) is a state variously translated from Greek as 'well-being', 'happiness', 'blessedness', and in the context of virtue ethics, 'human flourishing'.[8] Eudaimonia in this sense is not a subjective, but an objective, state.[citation needed] It characterizes the well-lived life. According to Aristotle, the most prominent exponent of eudaimonia in the Western philosophical tradition, eudaimonia is the proper goal of human life. It consists of exercising the characteristic human quality—reason—as the soul's most proper and nourishing activity. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, like Plato before him, argued that the pursuit of eudaimonia is an "activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue",[9] which further could only properly be exercised in the characteristic human community—the polis or city-state. Although eudaimonia was first popularized by Aristotle, it now belongs to the tradition of virtue theories generally.[10] For the virtue theorist, eudaimonia describes that state achieved by the person who lives the proper human life, an outcome that can be reached by practicing the virtues. A virtue is a habit or quality that allows the bearer to succeed at his, her, or its purpose. The virtue of a knife, for example, is sharpness; among the virtues of a racehorse is speed. Thus, to identify the virtues for human beings, one must have an account of what is the human purpose. History of virtue[edit] Part of a series on Catholic philosophy   Aquinas, Scotus, and Ockham Ethics Cardinal virtues Just price Just war Probabilism Natural law Personalism Social teaching Virtue ethics Schools Augustinianism Cartesianism Molinism Occamism Salamanca Scholasticism Neo-scholasticism Scotism Thomism Philosophers Ancient Ambrose Athanasius the Great Augustine of Hippo Clement of Alexandria Cyprian of Carthage Cyril of Alexandria Gregory of Nyssa Irenaeus of Lyons Jerome John Chrysostom John of Damascus Justin Martyr Origen Paul the Apostle Tertullian Postclassical Pseudo-Dionysius Boethius Isidore of Seville Scotus Eriugena Bede Anselm of Canterbury Hildegard of Bingen Peter Abelard Symeon the New Theologian Bernard of Clairvaux Hugh of Saint Victor Thomas Aquinas Benedict of Nursia Pope Gregory I Peter Lombard Bonaventure Albertus Magnus Duns Scotus Roger Bacon Giles of Rome James of Viterbo Giambattista Vico Gregory of Rimini William of Ockham Catherine of Siena Paul of Venice Modern Baltasar Gracián Erasmus of Rotterdam Thomas Cajetan Nicholas of Cusa Luis de Molina Teresa of Ávila Thomas More Francis de Sales Francisco de Vitoria Domingo de Soto Martín de Azpilcueta Tomás de Mercado Antoine Arnauld René Descartes Robert Bellarmine Ignacy Krasicki Hugo Kołłątaj François Fénelon Alphonsus Liguori Nicolas Malebranche Blaise Pascal Francisco Suárez Giovanni Botero Félicité de La Mennais Antonio Rosmini John Henry Newman Contemporary Pope Benedict XVI Pope John Paul II G. E. M. Anscombe Hans Urs von Balthasar Maurice Blondel G. K. Chesterton Yves Congar Henri de Lubac John Finnis Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange Étienne Gilson René Girard Nicolás Gómez Dávila Romano Guardini John Haldane Dietrich von Hildebrand Bernard Lonergan Marshall McLuhan Alasdair MacIntyre Gabriel Marcel Jean-Luc Marion Jacques Maritain Emmanuel Mounier Josef Pieper Karl Rahner Edith Stein Charles Taylor  Catholicism portal  Philosophy portal v t e Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Like much of the Western tradition, virtue theory seems to have originated in ancient Greek philosophy. Virtue ethics began with Socrates, and was subsequently developed further by Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics.[11][12][13] Virtue ethics refers to a collection of normative ethical philosophies that place an emphasis on being rather than doing. Another way to say this is that in virtue ethics, morality stems from the identity or character of the individual, rather than being a reflection of the actions (or consequences thereof) of the individual. Today, there is debate among various adherents of virtue ethics concerning what specific virtues are morally praiseworthy. However, most theorists agree that morality comes as a result of intrinsic virtues. Intrinsic virtues are the common link that unites the disparate normative philosophies into the field known as virtue ethics. Plato and Aristotle's treatment of virtues are not the same. Plato believes virtue is effectively an end to be sought, for which a friend might be a useful means. Aristotle states that the virtues function more as means to safeguard human relations, particularly authentic friendship, without which one's quest for happiness is frustrated. Discussion of what were known as the Four Cardinal Virtues—wisdom, justice, fortitude, and temperance—can be found in Plato's Republic. The virtues also figure prominently in Aristotle's moral theory found in Nicomachean Ethics. Virtue theory was inserted into the study of history by moralistic historians such as Livy, Plutarch, and Tacitus. The Greek idea of the virtues was passed on in Roman philosophy through Cicero and later incorporated into Christian moral theology by St. Ambrose of Milan. During the scholastic period, the most comprehensive consideration of the virtues from a theological perspective was provided by St. Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae and his Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics. Though the tradition receded into the background of European philosophical thought in these past few centuries, the term "virtue" remained current during this period, and in fact appears prominently in the tradition of classical republicanism or classical liberalism. This tradition was prominent in the intellectual life of 16th-century Italy, as well as 17th- and 18th-century Britain and America; indeed the term "virtue" appears frequently in the work of Niccolò Machiavelli, David Hume, the republicans of the English Civil War period, the 18th-century English Whigs, and the prominent figures among the Scottish Enlightenment and the American Founding Fathers. Contemporary "aretaic turn"[edit] Although some Enlightenment philosophers (e.g. Hume) continued to emphasise the virtues, with the ascendancy of utilitarianism and deontology, virtue theory moved to the margins of Western philosophy. The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher Elizabeth Anscombe's 1958 essay "Modern Moral Philosophy". Following this: In the 1976 paper "The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories", Michael Stocker summarises the main aretaic criticisms of deontological and consequentialist ethics.[14] Philosopher, psychologist, and encyclopedist Mortimer Adler has appealed to Aristotelian ethics, and the virtue theory of happiness or eudaimonia throughout his published work. Philippa Foot, who published a collection of essays in 1978 entitled Virtues and Vices. Alasdair MacIntyre has made an effort to reconstruct a virtue-based theory in dialogue with the problems of modern and postmodern thought; his works include After Virtue and Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry. Paul Ricoeur has accorded an important place to Aristotelian teleological ethics in his hermeneutical phenomenology of the subject, most notably in his book Oneself as Another. Theologian Stanley Hauerwas has also found the language of virtue quite helpful in his own project. Rosalind Hursthouse has published On Virtue Ethics. Roger Crisp and Michael Slote have edited a collection of important essays titled Virtue Ethics. Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen have employed virtue theory in theorising the capability approach to international development. Julia Annas wrote The Morality of Happiness (1993). Lawrence C. Becker identified current virtue theory with Greek Stoicism in A New Stoicism. (1998).[15] Psychologist Martin Seligman drew on classical virtue ethics in conceptualizing Positive psychology. Psychologist Daniel Goleman opens his book on Emotional Intelligence with a challenge from Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics.[16] The aretaic turn in moral philosophy is paralleled by analogous developments in other philosophical disciplines. One of these is epistemology, where a distinctive virtue epistemology has been developed by Linda Zagzebski and others. In political theory, there has been discussion of "virtue politics", and in legal theory, there is a small but growing body of literature on virtue jurisprudence. The aretaic turn also exists in American constitutional theory, where proponents argue for an emphasis on virtue and vice of constitutional adjudicators. Aretaic approaches to morality, epistemology, and jurisprudence have been the subject of intense debates. One criticism that is frequently made focuses on the problem of guidance; opponents, such as Robert Louden in his article "Some Vices of Virtue Ethics", question whether the idea of a virtuous moral actor, believer, or judge can provide the guidance necessary for action, belief formation, or the decision of legal disputes. Lists of virtues[edit] There are several lists of particular virtues. Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge, which suggests that there is really only one virtue.[17] The Stoics concurred, claiming the four cardinal virtues were only aspects of true virtue. John McDowell is a recent defender of this conception. He argues that virtue is a "perceptual capacity" to identify how one ought to act, and that all particular virtues are merely "specialized sensitivities" to a range of reasons for acting.[18] Aristotle's list Aristotle identifies approximately eighteen virtues that enable a person to perform their human function well.[19] He distinguished virtues pertaining to emotion and desire from those relating to the mind.[20] The first he calls "moral" virtues, and the second intellectual virtues (though both are "moral" in the modern sense of the word). Each moral virtue was a mean (see golden mean) between two corresponding vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. Each intellectual virtue is a mental skill or habit by which the mind arrives at truth, affirming what is or denying what is not.[21] In the Nicomachean Ethics he discusses about 11 moral virtues: Moral Virtues 1. Courage in the face of fear 2. Temperance in the face of pleasure and pain 3. Liberality with wealth and possessions 4. Magnificence with great wealth and possessions 5. Magnanimity with great honors 6. Proper ambition with normal honors 7. Truthfulness with self-expression 8. Wittiness in conversation 9. Friendliness in social conduct 10. Modesty in the face of shame or shamelessness 11. Righteous indignation in the face of injury SPHERE OF ACTION OR FEELING EXCESS MEAN DEFICIENCY Fear and Confidence Rashness Courage Cowardice Pleasure and Pain Licentiousness/Self-indulgence Temperance Insensibility Getting and Spending(minor) Prodigality Liberality Illiberality/Meanness Getting and Spending(major) Vulgarity/Tastelessness Magnificence Pettiness/Stinginess Honour and Dishonour(major) Vanity Magnanimity Pusillanimity Honour and Dishonour(minor) Ambition/empty vanity Proper ambition/pride Unambitiousness/undue humility Anger Irascibility Patience/Good temper Lack of spirit/unirascibility Self-expression Boastfulness Truthfulness Understatement/mock modesty Conversation Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness Social Conduct Obsequiousness Friendliness Cantankerousness Shame Shyness Modesty Shamelessness Indignation Envy Righteous indignation Malicious enjoyment/Spitefulness Intellectual virtues Nous (intelligence), which apprehends fundamental truths (such as definitions, self-evident principles) Episteme (science), which is skill with inferential reasoning (such as proofs, syllogisms, demonstrations) Sophia (theoretical wisdom), which combines fundamental truths with valid, necessary inferences to reason well about unchanging truths. Aristotle also mentions several other traits: Gnome (good sense) – passing judgment, "sympathetic understanding" Synesis (understanding) – comprehending what others say, does not issue commands Phronesis (practical wisdom) – knowledge of what to do, knowledge of changing truths, issues commands Techne (art, craftsmanship) Aristotle's list is not the only list, however. As Alasdair MacIntyre observed in After Virtue, thinkers as diverse as: Homer; the authors of the New Testament; Thomas Aquinas; and Benjamin Franklin; have all proposed lists.[22] Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) is a book by Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman (2004) listing virtues in a modern, empirical, and rigorously scientific manner. The introduction of CSV suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history. These traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. CSV identifies 6 classes of virtue (i.e., "core virtues"). These virtues are made up of 28 measurable "character strengths". CSV is intended to provide a theoretical framework to assist in developing practical applications for positive psychology. Criticisms[edit] Some philosophers criticize virtue ethics as culturally relative. Since different people, cultures and societies often have different opinions on what constitutes a virtue, perhaps there is no one objectively right list.[citation needed] For example, regarding what are the most important virtues, Aristotle proposed the following nine: wisdom; prudence; justice; fortitude; courage; liberality; magnificence; magnanimity; temperance. In contrast, one modern-era philosopher proposed as the four cardinal virtues: ambition/humility; love; courage; and honesty.[23] As another example, regarding virtues once supposedly applicable to women, many would have once considered a virtuous woman to be quiet, servile, and industrious. This conception of female virtue no longer holds true in many modern societies. Proponents of virtue theory sometimes respond to this objection by arguing that a central feature of a virtue is its universal applicability. In other words, any character trait defined as a virtue must reasonably be universally regarded as a virtue for all sentient beings. According to this view, it is inconsistent to claim for example servility as a female virtue, while at the same time not proposing it as a male one. Other proponents of virtue theory, notably Alasdair MacIntyre, respond to this objection by arguing that any account of the virtues must indeed be generated out of the community in which those virtues are to be practiced: the very word ethics implies "ethos". That is to say that the virtues are, and necessarily must be, grounded in a particular time and place. What counts as a virtue in 4th-century Athens would be a ludicrous guide to proper behavior in 21st-century Toronto and vice versa. To take this view does not necessarily commit one to the argument that accounts of the virtues must therefore be static: moral activity—that is, attempts to contemplate and practice the virtues—can provide the cultural resources that allow people to change, albeit slowly, the ethos of their own societies. MacIntyre appears to take this position in his seminal work on virtue ethics, After Virtue. One might cite (though MacIntyre does not) the rapid emergence of abolitionist thought in the slave-holding societies of the 18th-century Atlantic world as an example of this sort of change: over a relatively short period of time, perhaps 1760 to 1800, in Britain, France, and British America, slave-holding, previously thought to be morally neutral or even virtuous, rapidly became seen as vicious among wide swathes of society. While the emergence of abolitionist thought derived from many sources, the work of David Brion Davis, among others,[who?] has established that one source was the rapid, internal evolution of moral theory among certain sectors of these societies, notably the Quakers. Another objection to virtue theory is that the school does not focus on what sorts of actions are morally permitted and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of qualities someone ought to foster in order to become a good person. In other words, while some virtue theorists may not condemn, for example, murder as an inherently immoral or impermissible sort of action, they may argue that someone who commits a murder is severely lacking in several important virtues, such as compassion and fairness. Still, antagonists of the theory often object that this particular feature of the theory makes virtue ethics useless as a universal norm of acceptable conduct suitable as a base for legislation. Some virtue theorists concede this point, but respond by opposing the very notion of legitimate legislative authority instead, effectively advocating some form of anarchism as the political ideal.[citation needed] Others argue that laws should be made by virtuous legislators. Still, others argue that it is possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than rules. Some virtue theorists might respond to this overall objection with the notion of a "bad act" also being an act characteristic of vice.[citation needed] That is to say that those acts that do not aim at virtue, or stray from virtue, would constitute our conception of "bad behavior". Although not all virtue ethicists agree to this notion, this is one way the virtue ethicist can re-introduce the concept of the "morally impermissible". One could raise an objection with Foot that she is committing an argument from ignorance by postulating that what is not virtuous is unvirtuous. In other words, just because an action or person 'lacks of evidence' for virtue does not, all else constant, imply that said action or person is unvirtuous. Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism[edit] Martha Nussbaum has suggested that while virtue ethics is often considered to be anti-Enlightenment, "suspicious of theory and respectful of the wisdom embodied in local practices",[24] it is actually neither fundamentally distinct from, nor does it qualify as a rival approach to deontology and utilitarianism. She argues that philosophers from these two Enlightenment traditions often include theories of virtue. She pointed out that Kant's "Doctrine of Virtue" (in The Metaphysics of Morals) "covers most of the same topics as do classical Greek theories", "that he offers a general account of virtue, in terms of the strength of the will in overcoming wayward and selfish inclinations; that he offers detailed analyses of standard virtues such as courage and self-control, and of vices, such as avarice, mendacity, servility, and pride; that, although in general, he portrays inclination as inimical to virtue, he also recognizes that sympathetic inclinations offer crucial support to virtue, and urges their deliberate cultivation."[24] Nussbaum also points to considerations of virtue by utilitarians such as Henry Sidgwick (The Methods of Ethics), Jeremy Bentham (The Principles of Morals and Legislation), and John Stuart Mill, who writes of moral development as part of an argument for the moral equality of women (The Subjection of Women). She argues that contemporary virtue ethicists such as Alasdair MacIntyre, Bernard Williams, Philippa Foot, and John McDowell have few points of agreement and that the common core of their work does not represent a break from Kant. Kantian Critque[edit] In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and the Critique of Practical Reason, Immanuel Kant offers many different criticisms of ethical frameworks and theories against moral theories before him[citation needed]. Kant rarely mentioned Aristotle by name but did not exclude his moral philosophy of virtue ethics from his critique. Many Kantian arguments against Virtue Ethics claim that Virtue Ethics is inconsistent, or sometimes that it isn't a real moral theory at all.[25] Kantian arguments often come from the notion that Virtue Ethics does not provide enough significance to the idea of "duty" which Kant spent most of his time writing about. Kantians also disagree with Aristotle's ethics because he uses a rule of moderation to determine what can be virtuous which raises many questions about characteristics such as the moderation between murder and saving someone. Some also believe that Virtue Ethics isn't a real ethical theory as it proposes that the virtuous person will know how to act in any given situation adding a layer of subjectivity to the theory. Utopianism and pluralism[edit] Robert B. Louden criticizes virtue ethics on the basis that it promotes a form of unsustainable utopianism.[26] Trying to come to a single set of virtues is immensely difficult in contemporary societies as, according to Louden, they contain "more ethnic, religious, and class groups than did the moral community which Aristotle theorized about" with each of these groups having "not only its own interests but its own set of virtues as well". Louden notes in passing that MacIntyre, a supporter of virtue-based ethics, has grappled with this in After Virtue but that ethics cannot dispense with building rules around acts and rely only on discussing the moral character of persons.[27] Topics in virtue ethics[edit] Virtue ethics as a category[edit] Virtue ethics can be contrasted to deontological ethics and consequentialist ethics by an examination of the other two (the three being together the most predominant contemporary normative ethical theories). Deontological ethics, sometimes referred to as duty ethics, places the emphasis on adhering to ethical principles or duties. How these duties are defined, however, is often a point of contention and debate in deontological ethics. One of the predominant rule schemes utilized by deontologists is the Divine Command Theory. Deontology also depends upon meta-ethical realism, in that it postulates the existence of moral absolutes that make an action moral, regardless of circumstances. For more information on deontological ethics refer to the work of Immanuel Kant. The next predominant school of thought in normative ethics is consequentialism. While deontology places the emphasis on doing one's duty, which is established by some kind of moral imperative (in other words, the emphasis is on obedience to some higher moral absolute), consequentialism bases the morality of an action upon the consequences of the outcome. Instead of saying that one has a moral duty to abstain from murder, a consequentialist would say that we should abstain from murder because it causes undesirable effects. The main contention here is what outcomes should/can be identified as objectively desirable. The Greatest Happiness Principle of John Stuart Mill is one of the most commonly adopted criteria. Mill asserts that our determinant of the desirability of an action is the net amount of happiness it brings, the number of people it brings it to, and the duration of the happiness. He also tries to delineate classes of happiness, some being preferable to others, but there is a great deal of difficulty in classifying such concepts. Further information: Utilitarianism, Utilitarianism (book), and On Liberty Virtue ethics differs from both deontology and consequentialism as it focuses on being over doing. A virtue ethicist identifies virtues, desirable characteristics, that the moral or virtuous person embodies. Possessing these virtues is what makes one moral, and one's actions are a mere reflection of one's inner morality. To the virtue philosopher, action cannot be used as a demarcation of morality, because a virtue encompasses more than just a simple selection of action. Instead, it is about a way of being that would cause the person exhibiting the virtue to make a certain "virtuous" choice consistently in each situation. There is a great deal of disagreement within virtue ethics over what are virtues and what are not. There are also difficulties in identifying what is the "virtuous" action to take in all circumstances, and how to define a virtue. Consequentialist and deontological theories often still employ the term 'virtue', but in a restricted sense, namely as a tendency or disposition to adhere to the system's principles or rules. These very different senses of what constitutes virtue, hidden behind the same word, are a potential source of confusion. This disagreement over the meaning of virtue points to a larger conflict between virtue theory and its philosophical rivals. A system of virtue theory is only intelligible if it is teleological: that is, if it includes an account of the purpose (telos) of human life, or in popular language, the meaning of life.[citation needed] Obviously, strong claims about the purpose of human life, or of what the good life for human beings is, will be highly controversial. Virtue theory's necessary commitment to a teleological account of human life thus puts the tradition in sharp tension with other dominant approaches to normative ethics, which, because they focus on actions, do not bear this burden.[citation needed] Virtue ethics mainly deals with the honesty and morality of a person. It states that practicing good habits such as honesty, generosity makes a moral and virtuous person. It guides a person without specific rules for resolving the ethical complexity. Virtue and politics[edit] Virtue theory emphasises Aristotle's belief in the polis as the acme of political organisation, and the role of the virtues in enabling human beings to flourish in that environment. Classical republicanism in contrast emphasises Tacitus' concern that power and luxury can corrupt individuals and destroy liberty, as Tacitus perceived in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire; virtue for classical republicans is a shield against this sort of corruption and a means to preserve the good life one has, rather than a means by which to achieve the good life one does not yet have. Another way to put the distinction between the two traditions is that virtue ethics relies on Aristotle's fundamental distinction between the human-being-as-he-is from the human-being-as-he-should-be, while classical republicanism relies on the Tacitean distinction of the risk-of-becoming.[28] Virtue ethics has a number of contemporary applications. Social and political philosophy Within the field of social ethics, Deirdre McCloskey argues that virtue ethics can provide a basis for a balanced approach to understanding capitalism and capitalist societies.[29] Education Within the field of philosophy of education, James Page argues that virtue ethics can provide a rationale and foundation for peace education.[30] Health care and medical ethics Thomas Alured Faunce has argued that whistleblowing in the healthcare setting would be more respected within clinical governance pathways if it had a firmer academic foundation in virtue ethics.[31][32] He called for whistleblowing to be expressly supported in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights.[33] Barry Schwartz argues that "practical wisdom" is an antidote to much of the inefficient and inhumane bureaucracy of modern health care systems.[34] Technology and the virtues In her book Technology and the Virtues,[35] Shannon Vallor proposed a series of 'technomoral' virtues that people need to cultivate in order to flourish in our socio-technological world: Honesty (Respecting Truth), Self-control (Becoming the Author of Our Desires), Humility (Knowing What We Do Not Know), Justice (Upholding Rightness), Courage (Intelligent Fear and Hope), Empathy (Compassionate Concern for Others), Care (Loving Service to Others), Civility (Making Common Cause), Flexibility (Skillful Adaptation to Change), Perspective (Holding on to the Moral Whole), and Magnanimity (Moral Leadership and Nobility of Spirit). See also[edit] Aretaic turn Arete Aristotelian ethics Applied ethics Buddhist Ethics (discipline) Confucianism Cardinal virtues Cynicism Environmental virtue ethics Eudaimonism Modern Stoicism Moral character Phronesis Rule according to higher law Seven virtues Stoicism The Kural Virtue Virtue epistemology Virtue jurisprudence References[edit] ^ David Carr, Jan Steutel (eds.), Virtue Ethics and Moral Education, Routledge, 1999, p. 22. ^ Hursthouse, Rosalind; Pettigrove, Glen (2018). "Virtue Ethics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 2021-02-19. ^ Annas, Julia (2015-09-22). "Virtue and Duty: Negotiating Between Different Ethical Traditions". Journal of Value Inquiry. 49 (4): 609. doi:10.1007/s10790-015-9520-y. S2CID 143268990 – via SpringerLink. ^ Annas, Julia (1993). The Morality of Happiness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 0-19-507999-X. ^ Pincoffs, Edmund (1971). Quandary ethics. Mind 80 (320):552–571. ^ Kraut, Richard (2016-01-01). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Aristotle's Ethics (Spring 2016 ed.). Archived from the original on 2019-03-18. Retrieved 2016-05-05. ^ McDowell, John. "Virtue and Reason". The Monist. 1979. ^ Pojman, L.P. & Fieser, J. (2009). Virtue Theory. In Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong (pp. 146–169). (6th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ^ Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. pp. Book I. ^ Hursthouse, Rosalind (8 Dec 2016). "Virtue Ethics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2020. Although modern virtue ethics does not have to take a “neo-Aristotelian” or eudaimonist form..., almost any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are arête (excellence or virtue), phronesis (practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually translated as happiness or flourishing). ^ Gardiner, P. (2003-10-01). "A virtue ethics approach to moral dilemmas in medicine". Journal of Medical Ethics. 29 (5): 297–302. doi:10.1136/jme.29.5.297. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 1733793. PMID 14519840. Archived from the original on 2019-11-06. ^ J. Bowin. "Aristotle's Virtue Ethics" Archived 2020-07-12 at the Wayback Machine University of California, Santa Cruz Accessed November 24, 2017 ^ T. Chappell (2010). Plato: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Archived 2018-10-26 at the Wayback Machine p. 10 Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 019980902X Accessed November 24, 2017 ^ Stocker, Michael (1976). "The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories". The Journal of Philosophy. 73 (14): 453–466. doi:10.2307/2025782. JSTOR 2025782. ^ Becker, Lawrence C. (1998). A New Stoicism. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0691009643. ^ Goleman, Daniel (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Aristotle's Challenge, pp. xix-xxiv: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-38371-3. ^ Plato, Meno. ^ McDowell, John. "Virtue and reason." The monist 62.3 (1979): 331–350. ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics. ^ Nicomachean Ethics, Book II. ^ Nicomachean Ethics Book VI ^ MacIntyre, After Virtue, chp 16. ^ Kaufmann, W., 1961. The Faith Of A Heretic. Doubleday & Co., pp. 317–338. ^ a b Nussbaum, Martha C. (1999). "Virtue Ethics: A Misleading Category?". The Journal of Ethics. 3 (3): 163–201. doi:10.1023/A:1009877217694. JSTOR 25115613. S2CID 141533832. ^ Sullivan, Roger J. (1974). "The Kantian Critique of Aristotle's Moral Philosophy: An Appraisal". The Review of Metaphysics. 28 (1): 24–53. JSTOR 20126582. ^ "Robert Louden PhD | Philosophy Department | University of Southern Maine". usm.maine.edu. Archived from the original on 2020-10-28. Retrieved 2021-01-10. ^ Louden, Robert B. (July 1984). "On Some Vices of Virtue Ethics". American Philosophical Quarterly. 21 (3): 227–236. JSTOR 20014051. ^ J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment[ISBN missing] ^ McCloskey, D. The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics for an Age of Commerce. (2007) Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-55664-2. ^ Page, James S. (2008) Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59311-889-1. ^ Faunce TA "Developing and Teaching the Virtue-Ethics Foundations of Healthcare Whistle Blowing" Monash Bioethics Review 2004; 23(4): 41–55 ^ Faunce TA and Jefferys S. "Whistleblowing and Scientific Misconduct: Renewing Legal and Virtue Ethics Foundations". Journal of Medicine and Law 2007, 26 (3): 567–84 ^ Faunce TA and Nasu H. "Normative Foundations of Technology Transfer and Transnational Benefit Principles in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights". Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 0 : 1–26, 2009 doi:10.1093/jmp/jhp021 ^ Schwartz, Barry. "Our loss of wisdom". www.ted.com. Archived from the original on 2016-05-07. Retrieved 2016-05-05. ^ Technology and the Virtues: A Philosophical Guide to a Future Worth Wanting. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2016. ISBN 978-0190498511. Archived from the original on 2018-06-19. Retrieved 2018-09-24. Further reading[edit] Crisp, Roger; Slote, Michael (1997). Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hursthouse, Rosalind (1997). On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Devettere, Raymond J. (2002). Introduction to Virtue Ethics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Taylor, Richard (2002). An Introduction to Virtue Ethics. Amherst: Prometheus Books. Darwall, ed., Stephen (2003). Virtue Ethics. Oxford: B. Blackwell.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Swanton, Christine (2003). Virtue Ethics: a Pluralistic View. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gardiner, ed., Stephen M. (2005). Virtue Ethics, Old and New. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Russell, ed., Daniel C. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Virtue: Confucius and Aristotle by Jiyuan Yu External links[edit] "Virtue Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hursthouse, Rosalind. "Virtue Ethics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Homiak, Marcia. "Moral Character". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Virtue Ethics – summary, criticisms and how to apply the theory Legal theory lexicon: Virtue ethics by Larry Solum. The Virtue Ethics Research Hub The Four Stoic Virtues v t e Philosophy Branches Traditional Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics Philosophy of... 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en-wikipedia-org-9640	----	File:Antoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg - Wikipedia File:Antoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata No higher resolution available. Antoninus_Pius,_sestertius,_AD_140-144,_RIC_III_601.jpg ‎(800 × 394 pixels, file size: 219 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionAntoninus Pius, sestertius, AD 140-144, RIC III 601.jpg English: Antoninus Pius. AD 138-161. Æ Sestertius (34mm, 26.21 g, 11h). Rome mint. Struck AD 140-144. 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en-wikipedia-org-9656	----	Lateran Palace - Wikipedia Lateran Palace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient palace of the Roman Empire and the main papal residence in Rome St. John in Lateran square with the Lateran Palace (left) and the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran (right) and the Obelisk of Thutmosis III in front The Lateran Palace (Latin: Palatium Lateranense), formally the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran (Latin: Palatium Apostolicum Lateranense), is an ancient palace of the Roman Empire and later the main papal residence in southeast Rome. Located on St. John's Square in Lateran on the Caelian Hill, the palace is adjacent to the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, the cathedral church of Rome. From the fourth century, the palace was the principal residence of the popes, and continued so for about a thousand years until the Apostolic Residence ultimately moved to the Vatican. The palace is now used by the Vatican Historical Museum, which illustrates the history of the Papal States. The palace also houses the offices of the Vicariate of Rome, as well as the residential apartments of the Cardinal Vicar, the pope's delegate for the daily administration of the diocese. Until 1970, the palace was also home to the important collections of the Lateran Museum, now dispersed among other parts of the Vatican Museums. Following the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the palace and adjoining basilica are extraterritorial properties of the Holy See.[Notes 1] Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-papal use 1.2 Constantinian era 1.3 Subsequent renovations 1.4 Avignon Papacy 1.5 16th-century alterations 2 Modern use 2.1 Seat of the Vicariate of Rome 3 In popular culture 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Pre-papal use[edit] The site on which the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano sits was occupied during the early Roman Empire by the domus of the Plautii Laterani family. The Laterani served as administrators for several emperors; their ancestor Lucius Sextius Lateranus is said to have been the first plebeian to attain the rank of consul, in 366 BC. One of the Laterani, Consul-designate Plautius Lateranus, became famous for being accused by Nero of conspiracy against the emperor. The accusation resulted in the confiscation and redistribution of his properties.[1] Constantinian era[edit] Main article: Bishops of Rome under Constantine the Great The Domus Laterani came into the possession of the emperor when Constantine I married his second wife Fausta, sister of Maxentius. Around 312, Constantine had razed the imperial horse-guards barracks adjoining the palace, which was known as Domus Faustae or "House of Fausta" by this time; the equites singulares Augusti had supported Maxentius against Constantine. He commissioned the construction of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano on the site.[2] The Domus was eventually given to the Bishop of Rome by Constantine. The actual date of the gift is unknown but scholars believe it had to have been during the pontificate of Pope Miltiades, in time to host a synod of bishops in 313 that was convened to challenge the Donatists.[1] Subsequent renovations[edit] Copy of the Byzantine mosaics that used to be on the apse of the Leonian Triclinium, one of the main halls of the ancient Lateran palace As Byzantium grew less able to help prevent Lombard incursions, the papacy became more independent of the Empire. Prior to the early eighth century, the residence of the bishops of Rome was not called a palace, but rather the "Lateran patriarchate".[3] The incentive to refurbish the Lateran patriarchate as a true palace was to create an imperial residence from which the pope could exercise not only spiritual but also temporal authority.[4] The pope's palace at the Lateran in Rome was extensively added to in the late eighth century by Pope Hadrian I (772–95) and Pope Leo III (795–816), who built an enormous triclinium. It was one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace and was the state banqueting hall, lined with mosaics. Nothing remains of this, but in 1743 copies of the mosaics were made from drawings and placed in a specially built structure opposite the palace. The existing structure is not ancient, but a representation of the original mosaics is preserved in a three-part mosaic: In the centre Christ gives their mission to the Apostles; on the left he gives the keys to St. Peter and the Labarum to Constantine; while on the right St. Peter gives the stole to Leo III and the standard to Charlemagne, an image meant to represent the Frankish king's duty to protect the Church.[4] The triclinium and the sala del concilio, an oblong hall with apse mosaic and five ornate niches on each side, were built around 800 to serve as the heart of papal ceremonial. Architecturally they were reminiscent of Byzantine imperial buildings in Constantinople.[4] Base of obelisk with citation of Emperor Constantine I In the tenth century Sergius III restored the palace after a disastrous fire, and later it was greatly embellished by Innocent III. This was the period of its greatest magnificence, when Dante speaks of it as beyond all human achievements. At this time the centre of the piazza was occupied by the palace and tower of the Annibaldi family. Between this palace and the Lateran basilica was the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which at the time was erroneously believed to represent the Christian Emperor Constantine (which association probably accounted for its preservation). A copy of the equestrian statue is now placed in the centre of the Capitoline Square while the original has been safely preserved for display in the Capitoline Museums. In its place, the Lateran obelisk was erected. Originally commissioned by the 18th dynasty Pharaoh Tuthmosis III, it was completed by his grandson, Tuthmosis IV. At 32.18 m (45.70 m including the base) it is the tallest obelisk in Rome and the largest standing ancient Egyptian obelisk in the world, weighing over 230 tons. Following the annexation of Egypt to the Empire, it was taken from the temple of Amun in Karnak[Notes 2] and brought to Alexandria with another obelisk by Constantius II. From there it was brought on its own to Rome in 357 to decorate the spina of the Circus Maximus. The dedication on the base, however, gives the glory to Constantine I, not to his son who brought it to Rome. The whole of the front of the palace was taken up with the Aula Concilii ("Hall of the Council"), a magnificent hall with eleven apses, in which were held the various Councils of the Lateran during the medieval period. The private apartments of the popes in this palace were situated between the triclinium and the city walls. Avignon Papacy[edit] The Lateran during medieval times, from a 17th-century engraving by Giovanni Giustino Ciampini The Lateran after its reconstruction, from an 18th-century engraving by Giuseppe Vasi The fall of the palace from this position of glory was the result of the departure of the popes from Rome during the Avignon Papacy. Two destructive fires, in 1307 and 1361, did irreparable harm, and although vast sums were sent from Avignon for the rebuilding, the palace never again attained its former splendour. The palace had Gothic architectural elements at this point. When the popes returned to Rome they resided first at Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, then at Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and lastly fixed their residence at the Vatican. St. Peter's Basilica, also built by Constantine, had until then served primarily as a pilgrimage church. Sixtus V, more concerned with rationalized urban planning than the preservation of antiquities, then destroyed what still remained of the ancient palace of the Lateran in 1586 preserving only the Sancta Sanctorum, and erected the present much smaller edifice in its place, designed by his favorite architect Domenico Fontana.[2] 16th-century alterations[edit] The architect he employed, immediately upon his election, was Domenico Fontana, who was engaged in alterations to the basilica at the same time. Fontana's strong, restrained style was influenced by Giacomo Vignola and modeled upon Palazzo Farnese for its regular and harmonious if somewhat bland major façade. Fontana's sound engineering basis and power of coordinating a complicated architectural program on a tightly constrained site, which Sixtus urged forward at top speed, have been considered remarkable.[5] A notice on 29 August 1589 announced that the work had been completed: "A great palace in Piazza Lateranese has been brought to completion by Sixtus V."[5] Fontana reapplied motifs of the Lateran Palace in the part of the Vatican Palace containing the present papal apartments, which he undertook later, and in his additions to the Quirinal Palace. The east front was finished under Clement XII, who surmounted it with his coat-of-arms in 1735. From the old Lateran constructions three monuments survive, two of which are located in one building built by Domenico Fontana in 1589 opposite the Lateran Basilica. These monuments are the Scala Santa and the Chapel of the Sancta Sanctorum. Modern use[edit] The Lateran remained in a suburban environment, surrounded by gardens and vineyards, until the growth of modern Rome in the later nineteenth century. Its site was considered unhealthy in Rome's malarial summers, however. In the late seventeenth century, Innocent XII located, in a part of it, a hospice for orphans who were set to work in a little silk manufactory. In the nineteenth century, Gregory XVI and Pius IX founded at the Lateran a museum of religious art and pagan culture for overflow from the Vatican galleries. In 1925 Pius XI established an ethnographic museum devoted to artifacts sent back by missionaries. On 11 February 1929, the Lateran Treaty was signed here, at last regulating the relations between the Holy See and the Italian State. It established that both the basilica and the Lateran Palace were extraterritorial properties of the Holy See, enjoying privileges similar to foreign embassies on Italian soil.[Notes 1] During the Second World War, the Lateran and its related buildings provided a safe haven from the Nazis and Italian Fascists for numbers of Jews and other refugees. Among those who found shelter there were Alcide De Gasperi, Pietro Nenni, Ivanoe Bonomi and others. The Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and the sixty orphan refugees they cared for were ordered to leave their convent on the Via Carlo Emanuele. The Sisters of Maria Bambina, who staffed the kitchen at the Pontifical Major Roman Seminary at the Lateran offered a wing of their convent. The grounds also housed Italian soldiers.[6] Fathers Vincenzo Fagiolo and Pietro Palazzini, vice-rector of the seminary, were recognized by Yad Vashem for their efforts to assist Jews.[7][8] Seat of the Vicariate of Rome[edit] Pope John XXIII returned to the palace some pastoral functions by fixing here the seat of the vicariate and offices of the Diocese of Rome. The same pope removed the collections of the Lateran Museum to the Vatican. The Lateran Palace is now also occupied by the Museo Storico Vaticano, which illustrates the history of the Papal States. It was moved to the palace in 1987 and opened to the public in 1991. On 27 July 1992, a bomb explosion devastated the facade of the Rome Vicariate at the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran. The attack is widely assumed to have been the work of the Italian Mafia, a warning against Pope John Paul II's frequent anti-Mafia statements. Repairs were completed in January 1996.[2] As for the present pastoral functions of the palace, it today houses the offices of the Vicariate of Rome, as well as the living quarters of the Cardinal Vicar General of His Holiness for the Diocese of Rome. Tourists can visit the papal apartments, usually in the morning. In popular culture[edit] In Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood (2010), the basilica of the palace is presented as a dilapidated structure which holds a scroll of Romulus. See also[edit] Index of Vatican City-related articles Notes[edit] ^ a b The basilica and the palace, which are owned by the Holy See (article 13 of the Lateran Treaty), Archived 2011-08-13 at the Wayback Machine "form(s) part of the territory of the Italian State (but) enjoy(s) the immunities granted by International Law to the headquarters of the diplomatic agents of foreign States" (article 15 of the Lateran Treaty). ^ Geographic location: 25°43′7.46″N 32°39′26.64″E / 25.7187389°N 32.6574000°E / 25.7187389; 32.6574000 (Lateranense_Karnak) References[edit] ^ a b "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Saint John Lateran". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2020-07-05. ^ a b c Hager, June. "Churches of Rome: Christianity's First Cathedral", Inside the Vatican, February 1996 ^ Peter Partner, The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance (University of California Press, 1972), p. 15. ^ a b c Thunø, Erik (2002). Image and Relic: Mediating the Sacred in Early Medieval Rome. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. ISBN 978-88-8265-217-3. ^ a b Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages, vol. X p 616. ^ Marchione, Margherita. Yours Is a Precious Witness: Memoirs of Jews and Catholics in Wartime Italy, Paulist Press, 2001 ISBN 9780809140329 ^ "Palazzini". db.yadvashem.org. Retrieved 2020-07-05. ^ "Yadvashem". Yadvashem. Retrieved 2020-07-05. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lateran Palace. Official site (in Italian) palace – map of piazza and plates (engravings) Interactive Nolli Map Website v t e Vatican City articles Index Outline Holy See Properties Pope: Francis List of sovereigns Vicar General for Vatican City History History of the papacy "Prisoner in the Vatican" Circus of Nero Old St. Peter's Basilica Papal tombs Leonine City Cortile del Belvedere Santo Stefano degli Ungheresi Lateran Treaty Borgo Nuovo Borgo Vecchio Piazza Scossacavalli Geography Major basilica St. Peter's Basilica Chair of Saint Peter St. Peter's Baldachin Pietà Vatican Necropolis Saint Peter's tomb Papal tombs Tomb of the Julii Monument to the Royal Stuarts Apostolic Palace Redemptoris Mater Chapel Borgia Apartments Clementine Hall Papal apartments Stufetta del cardinal Bibbiena Cappella Paolina Raphael Rooms Niccoline Chapel Sala Regia Scala Regia Sistine Chapel altarpiece ceiling Vatican Museums Historical Paintings Modern Religious Pio-Clementino Chiaramonti Gregoriano Etrusco Gregoriano 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primacy Patrimony of Saint Peter Old St. Peter's Basilica Lateran Palace Museum Duchy of Rome Donation of Sutri Donation of Pepin Avignon Papacy Papal States Temporal power Investiture Controversy Age of Revolution "Prisoner in the Vatican" Savoyard era Vatican City Lateran Treaty World War II Warsaw Pact Sovereign subject of international law (Legal status) Officials Pope Francis Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin Cardinals List Advisers Governance Secretariat of State College of Cardinals Papal conclave Government Roman Curia Apostolic Camera Commissions For Vatican City State Councils Congregations Dicasteries Foreign affairs (Multilateral policy) Section for Relations with States To the Holy See Of the Holy See Heads Italy United Nations Permanent Observer in Geneva European Union Permanent Observer to the Council of Europe Apostolic Nunciature Nuncio Treaties Concordats Diocese of Rome with universal full communion (Papal primacy) Synods Ordinary general assemblies Extraordinary general assemblies Special assemblies Ecclesiastical province of Rome (Vicariate: Rome, Vatican City) Suburbicarian sees Ostia Velletri-Segni Porto-Santa Rufina Frascati Palestrina Albano Sabina-Poggio Mirteto Territorial abbeys Montecassino Subiaco Suffragan dioceses Gaeta Anagni-Alatri Civita Castellana Civitavecchia-Tarquinia Frosinone-Veroli-Ferentino Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno Rieti Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo Tivoli Viterbo Properties including extra- territoriality Inside Rome Major basilicas St. Peter's Basilica Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Basilica of Saint Mary Major Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls Lateran Palace Lateran University Scala Sancta Adjoining buildings Palace of Saint Callixtus Gianicolo Hill area Pontifical Urban University Pontifical North American College Bambino Gesù Hospital Palazzo della Cancelleria Palace of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples Palace of the Holy Office Palace of the Congregation for the 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Guard  Vatican City portal  Catholicism portal v t e Landmarks of Rome Walls and gates Aurelian Walls Ardeatina Asinaria Latina Maggiore Metronia Nomentana Pia Pinciana Popolo Portese San Pancrazio San Paolo San Giovanni San Sebastiano Settimiana Tiburtina Leonine Wall Cavalleggeri Pertusa Santo Spirito Castra Praetoria Janiculum Wall Terreus Wall Romuli Wall Servian Wall Caelimontana Dolabella Gallienus Esquilina Ancient obelisks Lateran Obelisk Flaminian Obelisk Obelisk of Minerveo Obelisk of Montecitorio Ancient Roman landmarks triumphal arches Arch of Constantine Arch of Dolabella Arch of Drusus Arch of Gallienus Arch of Janus Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Arcus Novus aqueducts Aqua Alexandrina Aqua Anio Vetus Aqua Claudia Cloaca Maxima public baths Baths of Agrippa Baths of Caracalla Baths of Diocletian Baths of Nero Baths of Trajan religious Ara Pacis Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Temple of Apollo Palatinus Temple of Apollo Sosianus Temple of Hadrian Temple of 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Lorenzo fuori le mura S. Agnese fuori le mura S. Agostino S. Anastasia al Palatino S. Andrea delle Fratte S. Andrea della Valle S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana S. Apollinare alle Terme Ss. Apostoli S. Balbina S. Bartolomeo all'Isola Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio S. Camillo de Lellis S. Carlo al Corso S. Cecilia in Trastevere Ss. Celso e Giuliano S. Clemente Ss. Cosma e Damiano S. Crisogono S. Croce in Via Flaminia S. Croce in Gerusalemme S. Eugenio S. Eustachio S. Francesca Romana S. Giovanni a Porta Latina S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini Ss. Giovanni e Paolo S. Lorenzo in Damaso S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Maria Ausiliatrice S. Marco S. Maria degli Angeli S. Maria in Montesanto S. Maria in Cosmedin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in Aracoeli S. Maria del Popolo S. Maria sopra Minerva S. Maria in Trastevere S. Maria in Via S. Maria in Via Lata S. Maria della Vittoria S. Martino ai Monti Ss. Nereo e Achilleo S. Nicola in Carcere S. Pancrazio Pantheon S. Pietro in Vincoli S. Prassede S. Pudenziana Ss. Quattro Coronati S. Saba S. Sabina Sacro Cuore di Maria Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio S. Sebastiano fuori le mura S. Silvestro in Capite S. Sisto Vecchio S. Sofia a Via Boccea S. Stefano Rotondo S. Teresa S. Vitale Other churches List of churches in Rome Castles and palaces Sant'Angelo Castle House of the Knights of Rhodes Domus Internationalis Paulus VI Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Borghese Palazzo della Cancelleria Palazzo Chigi Palazzo Colonna Palazzo della Consulta Palazzo Farnese Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini Palazzo Giustinani Lateran Palace Palazzo Madama Palazzo Malta Palazzo di Giustizia Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne Palazzo Mattei Palazzo del Quirinale Palazzo Pamphilj Palazzo Poli Palazzo Riario Palazzo Ruspoli Palazzo Spada Palazzo Valentini Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli Palazzo del Viminale Palazzo Wedekind Palazzo Zuccari Villa Farnesina Villa Giulia Villa Madama Fountains Api Acqua Felice Acqua Paola Babuino Barcaccia Il Facchino Marforio Moro Nasone Navicella Neptune Nettuno del Pantheon Pianto di Piazza d'Aracoeli di Piazza Colonna di Piazza Farnese della Piazza dei Quiriti di Piazza Nicosia in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere di Ponte Sisto Quattro Fiumi Quattro Fontane Tartarughe Trevi Fountain Tritons Tritone Other landmarks Altare della Patria (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy) Campo Verano Capocci Tower Column of the Immaculate Conception Conti Tower Hospital of the Holy Spirit Milizie Tower Sisto Bridge Spanish Steps Squares, streets and public spaces Appian Way Campo de' Fiori Clivus Capitolinus Piazza Colonna Piazza d'Aracoeli Piazza del Popolo Piazza della Minerva Piazza della Repubblica Piazza Farnese Piazza Navona Piazza di Spagna Piazza Venezia Via dei Coronari Via del Corso Via della Conciliazione Via dei Fori Imperiali Via Sacra Via Veneto Parks, gardens and zoos Bioparco Villa Ada Villa Borghese gardens Villa Doria Pamphili Villa Medici Villa Torlonia Parco degli Acquedotti Museums and art galleries Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum Capitoline Museums Casa di Goethe Doria Pamphilj Gallery Galleria Borghese Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna Giorgio de Chirico House Museum Galleria Spada Jewish Museum of Rome Keats-Shelley Memorial House MAXXI Museo delle anime del Purgatorio Museum of the Ara Pacis Museo Archeologico Ostiense Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica Museo Civico di Zoologia Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Museum of the Liberation of Rome Museo delle Mura Museo Nazionale Etrusco Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria Museo di Roma Museo di Roma in Trastevere Museum of Roman Civilization National Museum of Oriental Art National Roman Museum Palazzo Colonna Palazzo delle Esposizioni Pigorini National Museum Porta San Paolo Railway Museum Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum Venanzo Crocetti Museum Art Apollo Belvedere Augustus of Prima Porta Colossus of Constantine La Bocca della Verità Laocoön and His Sons Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Portonaccio sarcophagus Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel ceiling Velletri Sarcophagus Landscape Seven Hills Aventine Caelian Capitoline Esquiline Palatine Quirinal Viminal Tiber Island Monte Testaccio Metropolitan City of Rome Capital Appian Way Regional Park Capo di Bove Castello Orsini-Odescalchi Frascati Hadrian's Villa Ostia Antica Villa Aldobrandini Villa d'Este Villa Farnese Events and traditions Festa della Repubblica Rome Quadriennale Rome Film Festival Related Vatican City St. Peter's basilica St. Peter's Square Sistine Chapel ceiling Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Czech Republic Coordinates: 41°53′11.8″N 12°30′20.7″E / 41.886611°N 12.505750°E / 41.886611; 12.505750 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lateran_Palace&oldid=1001044583" Categories: Episcopal palaces Palaces in Rome Properties of the Holy See Rome R. I Monti Episcopal palaces of the Catholic Church Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 00:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9658	----	File:Marc Aurel column detailed view 01.jpg - Wikipedia File:Marc Aurel column detailed view 01.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 148 × 597 pixels. Other resolutions: 59 × 240 pixels | 119 × 480 pixels | 148 × 600 pixels | 190 × 768 pixels | 253 × 1,024 pixels | 507 × 2,048 pixels | 5,152 × 20,782 pixels. Original file ‎(5,152 × 20,782 pixels, file size: 13.93 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Warning The original file has a large number of pixels and when opened at full resolution, may either not load properly or cause your browser to freeze. These problems can be avoided by use of the ZoomViewer. Open in ZoomViewer Summary Object Author Anonymous Date between 176 and 193 Medium Carrara marble Place of discovery Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy Source/Photographer Column of Marcus Aurelius Permission (Reusing this file) Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marc_Aurel_column_detailed_view_01.jpg Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired and its author is anonymous. 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Photograph DescriptionMarc Aurel column detailed view 01.jpg Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelis. Panoramic view, scaled down, the original jpeg had 50 MB. Date 18 February 2008 Source Own work Author MatthiasKabel Permission (Reusing this file) GFDL Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following licenses: Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.htmlGFDLGNU Free Documentation Licensetruetrue This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license. 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Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:MatthiasKabel Wikimedia username: MatthiasKabel author name string: MatthiasKabel copyright status copyrighted copyright license GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported inception 18 February 2008 image captured with Canon EOS 5D source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 08:44, 2 March 2008 5,152 × 20,782 (13.93 MB) MatthiasKabel {{Information |Description=Detailed view of the Column of Marcus Aurelis. Panoramic view, scaled down, the original jpeg had 50 MB. |Source=Own work |Date=18.02.2008 |Author= MatthiasKabel |Permission=GFDL }} [[Category:Column of M File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Marcus Aurelius Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Piazza Colonna Usage on de.wikipedia.org Mark-Aurel-Säule Liste antiker Wendeltreppen Usage on hr.wikipedia.org Stup Marka Aurelija Usage on it.wikipedia.org Guerre marcomanniche Civiltà romana Utente:Cristiano64/Prove/C Usage on no.wikipedia.org Marcus Aurelius-søylen Usage on uk.wikipedia.org Колона Марка Аврелія Usage on vi.wikipedia.org Thành viên:Ti2008/Nháp 4 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer Canon Camera model Canon EOS 5D Date and time of data generation 16:24, 18 February 2008 Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Y and C positioning Centered Exif version 2.2 Date and time of digitizing 16:24, 18 February 2008 Color space Uncalibrated Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marc_Aurel_column_detailed_view_01.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9661	----	Dictionary.com - Wikipedia Dictionary.com From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Online dictionary Dictionary.com Type of site Dictionary Available in English Owner Rock Holdings Created by Brian Kariger Daniel Fierro URL www.dictionary.com Commercial Yes Launched May 14, 1995; 26 years ago (1995-05-14) Dictionary.com is an online dictionary whose domain was first registered on May 14, 1995.[1] The content for Dictionary.com is based on the latest version of Random House Unabridged Dictionary, with editors for the site providing new and updated definitions.[2][3] Supplementary content comes from the Collins English Dictionary, American Heritage Dictionary and others.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Features and services 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Dictionary.com was founded by Brian Kariger and Daniel Fierro as part of Lexico Publishing, which also started Thesaurus.com and Reference.com.[5] At the time of its launch, it was one of the web's first in-depth reference sites.[6] In July 2008, Lexico Publishing Group, LLC, was acquired by Ask.com, an IAC company,[7] and renamed Dictionary.com, LLC.[8] In 2018, IAC sold Dictionary.com and Thesaurus.com to Rock Holdings.[9] At the time of the sale, Dictionary.com was the 447th most trafficked website in the United States, according to the website tracking service SimilarWeb.[9] In 2015, they estimated that there are 5.5 billion word searches a year on its site.[10] Features and services[edit] Among its features, Dictionary.com offers a Word of the Day,[11] a crossword solver,[12] and a pop culture dictionary[13] that includes emoji and slang sections. In 2010, Dictionary.com began a Word of the Year feature with the word 'change'.[14] The selection is based on search trends on the site throughout the year and the news events that drive them.[15] Dictionary.com's words of the year have been:[14] 2010: Change 2011: Tergiversate 2012: Bluster 2013: Privacy 2014: Exposure 2015: Identity 2016: Xenophobia 2017: Complicit 2018: Misinformation 2019: Existential[15] 2020: Pandemic[16] In April 2009, they launched an app on the App Store allowing users to find definitions and synonyms. It also included audio pronunciations, alphabetical indexing, and synonym example sentences.[17] Since then, Dictionary.com released a standalone thesaurus app called Thesaurus Rex along with education apps, Dictionary.com Flashcards, Word Dynamo, and Learning to Read with Zoo Animals. In early 2020, in response to COVID-19 quarantine home-schooling needs, Dictionary.com launched an interactive platform for learning at home, and an online tutoring service.[18] Later that year Dictionary.com’s sister site, Thesaurus.com, launched a writing assistant and grammar checker called Grammar Check.[19] The coronavirus outbreak led to the addition of novel words to the main dictionary (e.g., fomites) and the slang dictionary (e.g., ‘rona’).[20] See also[edit] Lexico Lists of dictionaries References[edit] ^ "Dictionary.com WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info - DomainTools". whois.domaintools.com. Retrieved 16 June 2016. ^ Herman, Barbara (May 12, 2015). "Deep Web, Revenge Porn And Microaggression Are Just Some of Dictionary.com's Latest Additions". International Business Times. Retrieved February 24, 2021. ^ Treisman, Rachel (2020-09-03). "Dictionary.com's Largest Update (Re)defines Thousands Of Words, Focusing On Identity". NPR. Retrieved 2021-04-16. ^ Perlman, Merrill (April 29, 2019). "Dictionaries recently added more than 1,500 words. Here are some new entries". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved February 25, 2020. ^ "Lexico, Dictionary.com Being Acquired By Ask.com; Price In $100 Million Range". Gigacom. Retrieved 2014-01-24. ^ Alpert, Lukas (March 26, 2018). "Defining Moment for Dictionary.com - It's For Sale". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 17, 2020. ^ Auchard, Eric (July 4, 2008). "Ask.com closes acquisition of Dictionary.com". Reuters. Retrieved October 14, 2019. ^ "Amended and Restated Operating Agreement of Dictionary.com, LLC". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. July 17, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2019. ^ a b Reindl, JC (November 15, 2018). "Cleveland Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert just dipped into the online dictionary, thesaurus business". WKYC Studios. ^ Stevens, Heidi (November 11, 2015). "'Mx.' instead of 'Mr.' or 'Mrs.?' It's in the dictionary now". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 25, 2020. ^ "Definition of emolument | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. ^ "15 crossword solvers for Android, iOS, and the web that actually work!". Android Authority. 2020-03-05. Retrieved 2020-05-08. ^ "Terms Like 'OK Boomer' Are Hard to Define. This Dictionary Is Trying Anyway". Time. Retrieved 2020-05-08. ^ a b "What Dictionary.com's words of the year say about us". CNN. December 15, 2018. Retrieved December 19, 2019. ^ a b ""Existential' crowned word of the year by Dictionary.com". Click on Detroit. Retrieved December 19, 2019. ^ "The Dictionary.com Word Of The Year For 2020 Is ..." Dictionary.com. 2020-11-30. Retrieved 2021-01-24. ^ Rao, Leena (April 8, 2009). "Dictionary.com Launches Free iPhone App". Tech Crunch. ^ Lane, Ana (March 18, 2020). "41 totally free educational resources for kids stuck at home". USA TODAY. Retrieved May 8, 2020. ^ Magid, Anigah (2020-10-28). "Dictionary.com Launches Tutoring and Learning Features to Combat Language Ambiguity and Learning Burnout in 2020". eLearningInside News. Retrieved 2021-06-13. ^ Camero, Katie (April 23, 2020). "Dictionary has been updated to cover COVID-19. These are the new words". Retrieved May 1, 2020. External links[edit] Official website Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dictionary.com&oldid=1028418837" Categories: Online English dictionaries Thesauri Internet properties established in 1995 IAC (company) Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Português සිංහල سنڌي Українська اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 21:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9663	----	Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer - Wikipedia Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Father of emperor Hadrian This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) P. A. Hadrianus Afer from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer was a distinguished and wealthy Roman senator and soldier who lived in the Roman Empire during the 1st century. Hadrianus Afer was originally from Hispania; however, he was of Roman descent. He was born and raised in the city of Italica (near modern Seville, Spain) in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. He came from a well-established, wealthy and aristocratic family of Praetorian rank. He was the son of the noble Roman woman Ulpia and his father was the Roman senator, Publius Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus. Hadrianus Afer’s maternal uncle was the Roman general and senator Marcus Ulpius Traianus, the father of Ulpia Marciana and her younger brother Emperor Trajan. Ulpia Marciana and Trajan were his maternal cousins. Throughout his life, Hadrianus Afer spent some of his time in Rome. His surname Afer is Latin for African. He received the surname Afer as a nickname, due to his outstanding service in Mauretania. Hadrianus Afer married Domitia Paulina, a Hispanic Roman woman from a distinguished senatorial family who came from Gades (modern Cádiz, Spain). Their children were a daughter, Aelia Domitia Paulina (75–130) and a son, Emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76–138). After reaching the praetorship, Afer and his wife died in 86. His son and daughter were placed in the guardianship of his cousin Trajan and the Roman officer Publius Acilius Attianus. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sources[edit] Historia Augusta - Life of Hadrian Roman-emperors.org Library.thinkquest.org Romans-inbritain.org.uk Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Publius_Aelius_Hadrianus_Afer&oldid=1002429688" Categories: 1st-century births 80s deaths 1st-century Romans Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty Romans from Hispania Aelii Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from March 2015 All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Čeština Ελληνικά Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 12:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9666	----	Arcadius - Wikipedia Arcadius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 383 to 408 For other people with the same name, see Arcadius (disambiguation). Roman emperor Arcadius Idealising bust of Arcadius in the Theodosian style combines elements of classicism with the new hieratic style (Istanbul Archaeology Museum) Roman emperor (in the East) Augustus 19 January 383 – 1 May 408 Predecessor Theodosius I Successor Theodosius II Co-rulers Theodosius I (383–395) Honorius (West, 393–408) Theodosius II (402–408) Born c. 377[1] Hispania Died 1 May 408 (aged c. 31) Burial Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Spouse Aelia Eudoxia Issue Flacilla Pulcheria Arcadia Theodosius II Marina Names Flavius Arcadius Dynasty Theodosian Father Theodosius I Mother Aelia Flaccilla Religion Nicene Christianity Flavius Arcadius (Greek: Ἀρκάδιος, translit. Arkádios; c. 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to 408. He was the eldest son of the augustus Theodosius I (r. 379–395) and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and the brother of Honorius (r. 393–423). Arcadius ruled the eastern half of the empire from 395, when their father died, while Honorius ruled the west. A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by a series of powerful ministers and by his wife, Aelia Eudoxia.[2] Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Birth 2 Emperor 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Later reign 3 Death 4 Character and achievements 5 Notes 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Early life[edit] Birth[edit] Arcadius was born in 377 in Hispania, the eldest son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Honorius, who would become the Western Roman emperor. In 19 January 383, his father declared the five-year-old Arcadius an Augustus and co-ruler for the eastern half of the Empire.[3] Later in the year a corresponding declaration made Honorius Augustus of the western half. Arcadius passed his early years under the tutelage of the rhetorician Themistius and Arsenius Zonaras, a monk.[3] Emperor[edit] Early reign[edit] As emperors both of Theodosius' sons proved to be inexperienced, capable of being dominated by ambitious subordinates.[4] In 394 Arcadius briefly exercised independent power with the help of his advisors in Constantinople, when his father Theodosius went west to fight Arbogastes and Eugenius.[5] Theodosius died in 17 January 395, and Arcadius, still aged only 17, fell under the influence of the praetorian prefect of the East, Rufinus. Honorius, aged 10, was consigned to the guardianship of the magister militum Stilicho.[6] Rufinus ambitiously sought to marry his daughter to Arcadius and thereby gain the prestige of being the emperor's father-in-law.[7] However, when the prefect was called away to business in Antioch (where according to Zosimus, Rufinus had Lucianus, the comes orientis, flogged to death with whips loaded with lead),[8] Arcadius was shown a painting of Aelia Eudoxia, the daughter of the deceased Frankish magister militum per orientem, Bauto. Seeing the young emperor's interest in Eudoxia Eutropius, the eunuch praepositus sacri cubiculi, arranged for the two to meet. Arcadius fell in love and a marriage was quickly arranged, with the ceremony performed on 27 April 395.[9] According to Zosimus, Rufinus assumed that his daughter was still to be the bride, only discovering otherwise when the nuptial procession went to Eudoxia's residence rather than his own.[10] The rise of Eudoxia, facilitated by a general who was a rival of Rufinus, demonstrates the shifting of the centres of power in the eastern court.[11] Such jostling for influence over the malleable emperor would be a recurring feature of Arcadius's reign.[12] The first crisis facing the young Arcadius was the rebellion of the Visigoths in 395, under the command of Alaric I (r. 395–410), who sought to take advantage of the accession of two inexperienced Roman emperors.[13] As Alaric marched towards Constantinople, plundering Macedonia and Thrace, the eastern court could offer no response, as the majority of its army had gone to Italy with Theodosius and was now in the hands of Stilicho.[14] Perhaps sensing an opportunity to exercise power in the eastern half of the empire as well, Stilicho declared that Theodosius had made him guardian over both his sons. He traveled eastward, ostensibly to face Alaric, leading both his own forces and the Gothic mercenaries whom Theodosius had taken west in the civil war with Eugenius. Arcadius and Rufinus felt more threatened by Stilicho than by Alaric;[15] upon landing in Thessaly Stilicho received an imperial order to send along the eastern regiments, but himself to proceed no further. Stilicho complied, falling back to Salona while Gainas led the mercenaries to Constantinople.[16] Arcadius and his entourage received Gainas in the Campus Martius, a parade ground adjacent to the city, on 27 November 395. There Rufinus was suddenly assassinated by the Goths, on the orders of Stilicho and possibly with the support of Eutropius.[17] The murder certainly created an opportunity for Eutropius and for Arcadius' wife, Eudoxia, who took Rufinus' place as advisors and guardians of the emperor.[18] While Eutropius consolidated his hold on power in the capital, the distracted government still failed to react to the presence of Alaric in Greece.[19] At first Eutropius may have coordinated with Stilicho around the defence of Illyricum; by 397, when Stilicho personally led a blockade that compelled Alaric to retreat into Epirus, the atmosphere of the eastern court had changed.[20] As neither Arcadius nor Eutropius was keen to have Stilicho intervening in the affairs of the eastern empire, they provided no further military aid to Stilicho, who then abandoned the blockade of the Visigoths.[21] At Eutropius's urging, Arcadius declared Stilicho to be a hostis publicus, and came to an arrangement with Alaric, making him magister militum per Illyricum.[22] At around the same time, the eastern court persuaded Gildo, the magister utriusque militiae per Africam, to transfer his allegiance from Honorius to Arcadius, causing relations between the two imperial courts to deteriorate further.[23] Eutropius' influence lasted four years, during which time he sought to marginalise the military and promote the civilian offices within the bureaucracy. He brought to trial two prominent military officers, Timasius and Abundantius.[24] He also had Arcadius introduce two administrative innovations: the running of the cursus publicus (office of postmaster general) and the office in charge of manufacturing military equipment was transferred from the praetorian prefects to the magister officiorum (master of offices). Secondly, the role that Eutropius held, the praepositus sacri cubiculi (grand chamberlain) was given the rank of illustris, and therefore equal in rank to the praetorian prefects.[25] In the autumn of 397 he issued a law in Arcadius's name, targeting the Roman military, where any conspiracy involving soldiers or the barbarian regiments against persons holding the rank of illustris was considered to be treason, with the conspirators to be sentenced to death, and their descendants to be deprived of citizenship.[26] Although in 398, Eutropius led a successful campaign against the Huns in Roman Armenia, his convincing of Arcadius to grant him the consulship for 399 triggered protests across the empire. For traditionalists, the granting of the consulship to a eunuch and former slave was an insult to the Roman system and other contemporary Romans, and the western court refused to recognize him as consul.[27] The crisis escalated when the Ostrogoths who had been settled in Asia Minor by Theodosius I, and led by Tribigild, revolted, demanding the removal of Eutropius. The emperor sent out two forces to deal with Tribigild; the first one under Leo was defeated. The second one, commanded by Gainas, rival of Eutropius in the Eastern court, returned to Arcadius, and argued that the Ostrogoths could not be defeated and that it would be sensible to agree to their demand.[28] Although Arcadius was still wanting to support Eutropius, it was the intervention of his wife Eudoxia that finally brought Arcadius to making decision opposite to his will, who saw an opportunity to get rid of the powerful rival and replace him as the main influential figure over Arcadius.[29] Arcadius therefore dismissed Eutropius and sent him into exile (17 August 399), before recalling him to face trial and execution during the autumn of 399.[30] The imperial edict issued by Arcadius detailing Eutropius's banishment survives: The Emperors Arcadius and Honorius, Augusti, to Aurelian, Praetorian Prefect. We have added to our treasury all the property of Eutropius, who was formerly the Praepositus sacri cubiculi, having stripped him of his splendour, and delivered the consulate from the foul stain of his tenure, and from the recollection of his name and the base filth thereof ; so that, all his acts having been repealed, all time may be dumb concerning him ; and that the blot of our age may not appear by the mention of him ; and that those who by their valour and wounds extend the Roman borders or guard the same by equity in the maintenance of law, may not groan over the fact that the divine reward of consulship has been befouled and defiled by a filthy monster. Let him learn that he has been deprived of the rank of the patriciate and all lower dignities that he stained with the perversity of his character. That all the statues, all the images —whether of bronze or marble, or painted in colours, or of any other material used in art—we command to be abolished in all cities, towns, private and public places, that they may not, as a brand of infamy on our age, pollute the gaze of beholders. Accordingly under the conduct of faithful guards let him be taken to the island of Cyprus, whither let your sublimity know that he has been banished ; so that therein guarded with most watchful diligence he may be unable to work confusion with his mad designs.[31] Later reign[edit] With Eutropius' fall from power, Gainas sought to take advantage of Arcadius's current predicament.[32] He joined the rebel Ostrogoths, and, in a face to face meeting with Arcadius, forced the emperor to make him magister militum praesentalis and Consul designate for 401.[33] Arcadius also acquiesced when Gainas asked for the dismissal of further officials, such as the urban prefect Aurelianus, as well as a place for settlement for his troops in Thrace.[34] However, Arcadius refused to agree to Gainas's demand for an Arian church in Constantinople for his Gothic mercenaries, following the advice of John Chrysostom, the Archbishop of Constantinople.[35] By July 400, the actions of Gainas had irritated a significant portion of the population of Constantinople to the point that a general riot broke out in the capital.[36] Although Gainas had stationed his troops outside of the capital walls, he was either unable or unwilling to bring them into the capital when many Goths in the city were hunted down and attacked.[37] As many as 7,000 Goths were killed in the rioting; those who took refuge in a church were stoned and burned to death, after they received the emperor's permission, nor was it condemned by the Archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom.[38] Although initially staying his hand (probably through the intervention of the new Praetorian Prefect of the East Caesarius),[39] Gainas eventually withdrew with his Gothic mercenaries into Thrace and rebelled against Arcadius. He attempted to take his forces across the Hellespont into Asia, but was intercepted and defeated by Fravitta, another Goth who held the position of magister militum praesentalis. Following his defeat, Gainas fled to the Danube with his remaining followers, but was ultimately defeated and killed by Uldin the Hun in Thrace.[40] With the fall of Gainas, the next conflict emerged between Eudoxia and John Chrysostom. The Archbishop was a stern, ascetic individual, who was a vocal critic of all displays of extravagant wealth. But his ire tended to focus especially on wealthy women, and their use of clothing, jewellery and makeup as being vain and frivolous.[41] Eudoxia assumed that Chrysostom's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her.[42] As the tensions between the two escalated, Chrysostom, who felt that Eudoxia had used her imperial connections to obtain the possessions of the wife of a condemned senator, preached a sermon in 401 in which Eudoxia was openly called Jezebel, the infamous wife of the Israelite king Ahab.[43] Eudoxia retaliated by supporting Bishop Severian of Gabala in his conflict with Chrysostom. As Chrysostom was very popular in the capital, riots erupted in favour of the Archbishop, forcing Arcadius and Eudoxia to publicly back down and beg Chrysostom to revoke Severian's excommunication.[44] Then in 403, Eudoxia saw another chance to strike against the Archbishop, when she threw her support behind Theophilus of Alexandria who presided over a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak) to charge Chrysostom with heresy. Although Arcadius originally supported Chrysostom, the Archbishop's decision not to participate caused Arcadius to change his mind and support Theophilus, resulting in Chrysostom's deposition and banishment.[45] He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people started rioting over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace.[46] There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.[47] Peace was short-lived. In September 403 a silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion, near the Magna Ecclesia church. Chrysostom, who was conducting a mass at the time, denounced the noisy dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the Empress in harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and again desires to receive John's head in a charger",[48] an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist. This time Arcadius was unwilling to overlook the insult to his wife; a new synod was called in early 404 where Chrysostom was condemned. Arcadius hesitated until Easter to enforce the sentence, but Chrysostom refused to go, even after Arcadius sent in a squad of soldiers to escort him into exile. Arcadius procrastinated, but by 20 June 404, the emperor finally managed to get the Archbishop to submit, and he was taken away to his place of banishment, this time to Abkhazia in the Caucasus.[49] Eudoxia did not get to enjoy her victory for long, dying later that year.[50] Death[edit] With the passing of Eudoxia, Arcadius once again fell under the domination of a member of his court, this time the competent Anthemius, the Praetorian Prefect. He would rule in Arcadius's name for the final four years of his reign, seeking to repair the harm done by his predecessors. He attempted to heal the divisions of the past decade by trying to make peace with Stilicho in the West. Stilicho, however, had lost patience with the eastern court, and in 407 encouraged Alaric and the Visigoths to seize the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and hand it over to the western empire.[51] Stilicho's plan failed, and soon after, on 1 May 408, Arcadius died. He was succeeded by his young son, Theodosius [52] Like Constantine the Great and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.[53] Solidus of Arcadius. Character and achievements[edit] In noting the character of Arcadius, the historian J. B. Bury described him and his abilities thus: He was of short stature, of dark complexion, thin and inactive, and the dullness of his wit was betrayed by his speech and by his sleepy, drooping eyes. His mental deficiency and the weakness of his character made it inevitable that he should be governed by the strong personalities of his court.[54] Traditional interpretations of the reign of Arcadius have revolved around his weakness as an Emperor, and the formulation of policy by prominent individuals (and the court parties that formed and regrouped round them) towards curtailing the increasing influence of barbarians in the military, which in Constantinople at this period meant the Goths. Scholars such as the historian J. B. Bury spoke of a group in Arcadius's court with Germanic interests and, opposed to them, a Roman faction.[55] So when interpreting the revolt of Gainas and the massacre of the Goths in Constantinople in 400, the episode has been traditionally interpreted by scholars such as Otto Seeck as a violent anti-barbarian reaction that functioned to stabilize the East and prevent the rise of all powerful Romanised barbarian military leaders such as Stilicho in the West - what has been termed the victory of anti-Germanism in the eastern empire.[56][57] The main source of this interpretation has been the works Synesius of Cyrene, specifically Aegyptus sive de providentia and De regno. Both works have traditionally been interpreted to support the thesis that there were anti-barbarian and pro-barbarian groups, with the Praetorian Prefect Aurelianus being the leader of the anti-barbarian faction.[58] Recent scholarly research has revised this interpretation, and has instead favoured the interaction of personal ambition and enmities among the principal participants as being the leading cause for the court intrigue throughout Arcadius's reign.[59] The gradual decline of the use of Gothic mercenaries in the eastern empire's armies that began in the reign of Arcadius was driven by recruitment issues, as the regions beyond the Danube were made inaccessible by the Huns, forcing the empire to seek recruitment in Asia Minor.[60] The current consensus can be summarised by the historian Thomas S. Burns: "Despite much civilian distrust and outright hatred of the army and the barbarians in it, there were no anti-barbarian or pro-barbarian parties at the court."[61] With respect to Arcadius himself, as emperor was more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters. Not being a military leader, he began to promote a new type of imperial victory through images, not via the traditional military achievements, but focusing on his piety.[62] Arcadius's reign saw the growing push towards the outright abolishment of paganism.[63] On 13 July 399, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished. In terms of buildings and monuments, a new forum was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of Constantinople, the Xērolophos, in which a column was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the column was only completed after Arcadius' death by Theodosius II). The Pentelic marble portrait head of Arcadius (now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum) was discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating foundations for new buildings of the University at Beyazit.[64] The neck was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or inscription was found. The diadem is a fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about with pearls over the young Emperor's forehead. A more nuanced assessment of Arcadius's reign was provided by Warren Treadgold: By failing to reign, Arcadius had allowed a good deal of maladministration. But by continuing to reign - so harmlessly that nobody had taken the trouble to depose him - he had maintained legal continuity during a troubled time.[65] Arcadius had four children with Eudoxia: three daughters, Pulcheria, Arcadia and Marina, and one son, Theodosius, the future Emperor Theodosius II. Notes[edit] ^ RE Arkadios 2 ^ Nicholson, p. 119 ^ a b Jones, p. 99 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 290 ^ Kazhdan, p. 173 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 290; Jones, p. 779 ^ Bury, p. 62 ^ Jones, p. 779; Bury, p. 63 ^ Bury, p. 63 ^ Zosimus, 5.3.5 ^ Lee, p. 90; Long, p. 10 ^ Nicholson, p. 119; Goldsworthy, p. 290 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 291 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 292 ^ Treadgold, p. 79 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 292; Bury, pp. 64-66 ^ Cameron, p. 319; Jones, p. 780; Bury, p. 66 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 292; Gibbon, p. 1039 ^ Treadgold, p. 81; Goldsworthy, p. 292 ^ Long, p. 10 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 292; Bury, p. 68 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 292; Long. P. 10 ^ Long, p. 11 ^ Lee, p. 91 ^ Bury, p. 71 ^ Bury, p. 74 ^ Long, p. 11; Goldsworthy, p. 293 ^ Cameron, p. 324; Lee, pp. 91-92; Long, p. 12 ^ Long, p. 12; Bury, p. 84 ^ Long, p. 12 ^ Bury, pp. 85-86 ^ Cameron, pp. 227-231 ^ Treadgold, p. 84; Cameron, p. 327 ^ Lee, p. 92; Gibbon, pp. 1158-1159 ^ Theodoret Ecclesiastical History 5.32.6, Cameron, p. 327; Treadgold, p. 84; Bury, p. 87 ^ Cameron, p. 333; Bury p. 88 ^ Cameron, pp. 207-209 ^ Cameron, p. 231; Bury, p. 88; Burns, p. 173; Lee, p. 92 ^ Cameron, pp. 231-232 ^ Burns, p. 173; Cameron, p. 331; Lee, p. 92 ^ Liebeschuetz, pp. 231-232; Bury, pp. 91-93 ^ Liebeschuetz, p. 236 ^ Liebeschuetz, p. 233 ^ Liebeschuetz, p. 233; Bury, pp. 96-97 ^ Liebeschuetz, pp. 237-239 ^ Socrates Scholasticus (1995) [1890]. "Book VI, Chapter XVI: Sedition on Account of John Chrysostom's Banishment". In Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.). Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. II: Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclesiastical Histories. Translated by Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry. Zenos, A. C. (rev., notes) (reprint ed.). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. p. 149. ISBN 1-56563-118-8. Retrieved 29 March 2007. ^ "St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople". Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 29 March 2007. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, op cit "Chapter XVIII: Of Eudoxia's Silver Statue", p. 150. ^ Bury, pp. 100-102 ^ Treadgold, p. 86 ^ Treadgold, p. 86 ^ Bury, p. 106 ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1, 3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. ^ Bury, p. 107 ^ Bury, pp. 78-80 ^ de la Fuente, David Hernández (2011). New Perspectives on Late Antiquity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 125-126 ^ Cameron, p. 328 ^ Cameron, pp. 120-122 ^ Nicholson, p. 119 ^ Burns, pp. 174-175 ^ Burns, p. 182 ^ Kazhdan, pp. 173-174 ^ Nicholson, p. 120 ^ Nezih Firatli, "A Late Antique Imperial Portrait Recently Discovered at Istanbul" American Journal of Archaeology 55.1 (January 1951), pp. 67–71. ^ Treadgold, p. 87 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Zosimus, "Historia Nova", Book 5 Secondary sources[edit] McEvoy, Meaghan, An imperial jellyfish? The emperor Arcadius and imperial leadership in the late fourth century A.D.', in Erika Manders, Daniëlle Slootjes (eds), Leadership, ideology and crowds in the Roman empire of the fourth century AD. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag (2020). Nicholson, O. ed. (2018). "Arcadius, Flavius". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565, Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-748-66835-7 Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. (2011). Ambrose and John Chrysostom: Clerics Between Desert and Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-199-59664-6 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). The Fall of the West: The Death of the Roman Superpower. Phoenix. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press. Long, Jacqueline (1996). Claudian's In Eutropium, Or, How, When, and why to Slander a Eunuch. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-807-82263-9 Burns, Thomas Samuel (1994). Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome: A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, Ca. 375-425 A.D. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-31288-4 Cameron, A.; Long, J., Sherry, L., (1993). Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06550-6 Kazhdan, Alexander ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Jones, A. H. M., John Robert Martindale, John Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire I. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-07233-6 Bury, J. B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene I. Gibbon, Edward (1932) [1789]. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York: The Modern Library. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arcadius. Laws of Arcadius, extracted from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis Watts, Edward, "the motifs of Imperial authority in the bust of Arcadius" This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Arcadius relating to Christianity. Arcadius Theodosian dynasty Born: 377 Died: 1 May 408 Regnal titles Preceded by Theodosius I Eastern Roman emperor 395–408 Succeeded by Theodosius II Political offices Preceded by Ricomer Clearchus Roman consul 385 with Bauto Succeeded by Honorius Euodius Preceded by Eutolmius Tatianus Q. Aurelius Symmachus Roman consul II 392 with Rufinus Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus III Abundantius Preceded by Theodosius Augustus III Abundantius Roman consul III 394 with Honorius Augustus II Succeeded by Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Anicius Probinus Preceded by Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius Anicius Probinus Roman consul IV 396 with Honorius Augustus III Succeeded by Caesarius Nonius Atticus Preceded by Vincentius Fravitta Roman consul V 402 with Honorius Augustus V Succeeded by Theodosius Augustus Rumoridus Preceded by Stilicho II Anthemius Roman consul VI 406 with Anicius Petronius Probus Succeeded by Honorius Augustus VIII Theodosius Augustus II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9671	----	Baiae - Wikipedia Baiae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Human settlement in Bacoli, Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, Italy Baiae Baia Thermal baths of the sector of Sosandra Shown within Campania Show map of Campania Baiae (Italy) Show map of Italy Location Bacoli, Campania, Italy Region Italia Coordinates 40°49′00″N 14°04′11″E / 40.81667°N 14.06972°E / 40.81667; 14.06972 Type Settlement History Cultures Roman Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for centuries in antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Capri, Pompeii, and Herculaneum by wealthy Romans, who built villas here from 100 BC to AD 500. It was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumours of corruption and scandal. The lower part of the town later became submerged in the sea due to local volcanic, bradyseismic activity which raised or lowered the land, and recent underwater archaeology has revealed many of the fine buildings now protected in the submerged archaeological park.[1] Many impressive buildings from the upper town can be seen in the Parco Archeologico delle Terme di Baia. Contents 1 Name 2 History 3 Archaeology 4 Monuments 4.1 Temple of Diana 4.2 Temple of Mercury 4.3 Temple of Venus 4.4 Villa of the Ambulatio 4.5 Sector of Sosandra 4.6 Other sites 5 Cultural depictions 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Name[edit] Baiae was said to have been named after Baius (Greek: Βαῖος, Baîos), the helmsman of Odysseus's ship in Homer's Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby.[2] The adjacent "Baian Gulf" (Latin: Sinus Baianus) was named after the town. It now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli.[2] The settlement was also mentioned in 178 BC under the name Aquae Cumanae ("Cumaean Waters").[3] History[edit] Satellite view of area Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area. It was perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae. Baiae was particularly fashionable towards the end of the Roman Republic. Marius, Lucullus, and Pompey all frequented it.[4] Julius Caesar had a villa there, and much of the town became imperial property under Augustus.[citation needed] Nero had a notable villa constructed in the middle of the 1st century and Hadrian died at his villa in AD 138.[5] It was also a favourite spot of the emperor Septimius Severus.[4] The resorts sometimes capitalised on their imperial associations: Suetonius mentions in his history that the cloak, brooch, and gold bulla given to the young Tiberius by Pompey's daughter Pompeia Magna were still on display around AD 120. According to Suetonius, in AD 39, Baiae was the location for a stunt by the eccentric emperor Caligula to answer the astrologer Thrasyllus's prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae". Caligula ordered a 3-mile-long pontoon bridge to be built from impounded ships of the area, fastened together and weighted with sand, stretching from Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. Clad in a gold cloak, he then crossed it upon a horse.[6] Cassius Dio's Roman History also includes the event, with the detail that the emperor ordered resting places and lodging rooms with potable water erected at intervals along the bridge.[7] As late as the 18th century, scattered fragments were still being shown to tourists as the "Bridge of Caligula".[8] Malloch has argued that Suetonius's account was likely coloured by his bias against Caligula; instead, he claims that "the act of bridging the Bay of Naples was an excellent—and safe—means by which to lay the foundation for [Caligula’s] military glory."[9] Baiae was notorious for the hedonistic lifestyle of its residents and guests. In 56 BC, the prominent socialite Clodia was condemned by the defence at the trial of Marcus Caelius Rufus as living as a harlot in Rome and at the "crowded resort of Baiae", indulging in beach parties and long drinking sessions. An elegy by Sextus Propertius written in the Augustan Age describes it as a "den of licentiousness and vice". In the 1st century, "Baiae and Vice" formed one of the moral epistles written by Seneca the Younger; he described it as a "vortex of luxury" and a "harbour of vice" where girls went to play at being girls, old women as girls and some men as girls according to a first century BC wag.[citation needed] It never attained municipal status, being administered throughout by nearby Cumae.[4] From 36BC, Baiae included Portus Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Roman Navy before it was abandoned because of the silting up of Lake Lucrinus (from which a short channel led to Lake Avernus) for the two harbours at Cape Misenum 4 miles (6.4 km) south. Baiae was sacked during the barbarian invasions[4] and again by Muslim raiders in the 8th century. It was deserted owing to recurrent malaria by 1500,[citation needed] but Pedro de Toledo erected a castle, the Castello di Baia, in the 16th century.[4] Archaeology[edit] Temple of Mercury The site had occasionally revealed Roman sculptures. The Aphrodite of Baiae, a variant of the Venus de Medici, was supposedly excavated there sometime before 1803, when the English antiquary Thomas Hope began displaying it in his gallery on Duchess Street in London.[10] The important archaeological remains were intensively excavated from 1941, revealing layers of buildings, villas and thermal complexes belonging to periods from the late Republican age, the Augustan, Hadrianic to the late empire. The lowering of the ground below sea level, due to bradyseism, seems to have occurred in two phases: between the third and fifth centuries, still in the late Imperial era, followed by a more substantial submersion a century later. The lower part of Baiae was largely submerged by the sea by the 8th century.[11] A cache of plaster casts of Hellenistic sculptures was discovered in the cellar of the Baths of Sosandra at Baiae; they are now displayed at the town's archaeological museum.[12] The collection includes parts of several famous sculptures, including Athens's Harmodius and Aristogeiton and the Athena of Velletri. It suggests that the area had a workshop mass-producing marble or bronze copies of Greek art for the Italian market.[13] Monuments[edit] Temple of Diana "Temple of Mercury" which has remarkable acoustic properties Temple of Venus Villa of the Ambulatio Among the most significant and remarkable remains are several dome-like structures such as the great so-called Temple of Mercury, the Temple of Venus, and the Temple of Diana, which were traditionally credited to some of the more famous residents of the town's villas, (although they were not temples but parts of thermal baths).[4] Temple of Diana[edit] This colossal ogival dome, today half collapsed, originally collected vapours coming from the ground below and was used for thermal baths. It was decorated with marble friezes depicting hunting scenes.[14] Temple of Mercury[edit] The so called "Temple of Mercury"[15] contains a large 21.5 m (71 ft) diameter dome, the largest in the world prior to the construction of Rome's Pantheon in 128 AD.[16][17] The dome has a central hole or oculus, four square skylights,[18] was made with large tuff blocks, and is the oldest known surviving dome made of concrete.[19] Built in the 1st century BC during the late Roman Republic, it was used to enclose the frigidarium or cold pool of the public baths.[20] From the eighteenth century descriptions it appeared to have had six niches of which four were semicircular. Temple of Venus[edit] Another octagonal building, sunken 3 metres in the ground, had eight large arched windows and a balcony inside overlooking the pool. It owes its name to Scipione Mazzella who claimed to have found the statue of the goddess there.[21] Sector of Sosandra Villa of the Ambulatio[edit] Overlooking the sea is the "Villa of the Ambulatio" with a series of six terraces connected to each other by a complex of staircases of which the last leads to the "sector of Mercury". It is named after the 'ambulatio', the long corridor with two longitudinal naves on the second terrace, intended to be a covered walk with large openings with a magnificent panorama of the gulf below. Traces of precious stucco can be seen on the brick structure of the central pillars. On the upper terrace were the residential areas, once richly decorated with several rooms dedicated to leisure. The third terrace is now transformed into a tree-lined garden. The fourth terrace was for service areas. On the fifth terrace are several rooms probably used as places to stay and rest, open to the sea and to the last terrace below that once was occupied by a garden, as today, perhaps surrounded by a colonnade. Sector of Sosandra[edit] Bounded by two parallel staircases is the sector or "Temple of Sosandra" from the name of the statue found in 1953 and now located in the National Museum of Naples. The complexity of this sector on four terraces does not allow its intended use to be identified but it was either a spa, a villa, a hospitalia (a sort of hotel for visitors to the nearby spa), or even a meeting place of Nero for the entertainment of sailors of the nearby Classis Misenensis, the Miseno fleet. On the highest terrace are service areas and a small balneum with rich stucco decorations on the ceiling. The next level has a large terrace open to the sea and bordered on three sides by a portico. In the garden are four parallel walls that perhaps delimited three triclinia in the open. Above the peristyle are several residential rooms, once richly finished, particularly the original precious mosaic floors representing theatrical masks inside geometric frames. Below this level is a semicircular building surmounted by five vaulted rooms once hidden by a façade decorated with niches and columns, overall making an impressive composition. On the axis of the complex is a room perhaps used as a nymphaeum from which flowed the water that fed an existing large external circular tank. On the peristyle of the lower terrace are paintings from two successive periods: those with an Egyptian taste (characters and symbols of the cult of Isis) from the middle of the 1st century AD; these are largely covered by paintings of the 2nd century, which depict male and female figures within architectural schemes. Other sites[edit] Completely submerged by the waters is the nymphaeum of Emperor Claudius whose sculptures have been transferred to the town's archaeological museum, the Museo Archeologico dei Campi Flegrei [it] (Phlegraean Fields Archaeological Museum) which also contains other items excavated on the site. The public and private baths of Baiae were filled with warm mineral water directed to their pools from underground hot springs, as many still are today. Roman engineers were also able to construct a complex system of chambers that channelled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas. In addition to their recreational function, the baths were used in Roman medicine to treat various illnesses and physicians would attend their patients at the springs.[22] Mosaic in the baths of Venus Baiae was supplied with fresh drinking water from a branch of the Aqua Augusta aqueduct, a cross-section of which can be seen nearby.[23] Cultural depictions[edit] Seneca the Younger, the Roman Stoic philosopher, makes reference to this city in one of his Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium. Giovanni Gioviano Pontano (d. 1503) wrote his Two Books of Hendecasyllables on the pleasures of Baiae. The lost wonders of Baiae were a common feature of Romantic poetry. It appears in John Keats's "Ode to May" and in the third stanza of Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind". The vanished columns of the ancient town inundated by the sea is the central conceit of Konstantin Batyushkov's 1819 "You awake, oh Bayya, from the tomb..." (Ты пробуждаешься, о Байя, из гробницы...), "one of his last and finest poems".[24] The "princely" seaside resort of the empire appears in J. Meade Falkner's 1895 novel The Lost Stradivarius and Anatole France's 1902 "Procurator of Judea" (Le Procurateur de Judée). In current fiction, it is the setting of Caroline Lawrence's Sirens of Surrentum; John Maddox Roberts's Under the Shadow of Vesuvius; Steven Saylor's 1992 Arms of Nemesis, set during the Spartacus Rebellion; and Marguerite Yourcenar's Memoirs of Hadrian. In the Ecce Romani series of Latin textbooks, Baiae is the location of the character Gaius Cornelius Calvus's summer villa. Baiae was featured in the PBS show Secrets of the Dead in the March 2017 episode "Nero's Sunken City".[25] Baiae was featured on Channel 4 programme Rome's Sunken Secrets, which aired on in the UK on 16 April 2017. A forgotten Baiae tunnel complex features prominently in the UK series called Forbidden History, whereby the presenter visits a supposed grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl. See also[edit] Fusaro Lake List of Roman cisterns List of Roman domes Notes[edit] ^ Archaeological park: Parco archeologico sommerso di Baia: Sunken Nymphaeum ^ a b EB (1911). ^ EBO (2007). ^ a b c d e f EB (1878). ^ Historia augusta, ch. 25 ^ Suet., "Caius Caesar Caligula", 12 Caes. ^ Cassius Dio, Rom. Hist., Bk LIX ^ Holland, Elizabeth, Ilchester, Lord (ed.), Journal, p. 23 ^ Malloch, Simon J.V. (2001), "Gaius' Bridge at Baiae and Alexander-Imitatio", The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 206–217 |volume= has extra text (help) ^ Waywell & al. (1986), p. 41 & fig. 11. ^ Eduardo Scognamiglio, The survey of the submerged Bay: reteissa.it ^ "Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum", CVA Online ^ "B216", Beazley Archive ^ Mileto S. (1998) The Phlegraean Fields , Rome, Newton & Compton, p. 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , ISBN 88-8183-026-4 . ^ "The thermo-mineral complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis", Access My Library ^ Mark & al. (1986), p. 24. ^ "The Ancient Baths of Baiae", Tour Italy ^ Lehmann, Karl (1945). "The Dome of Heaven". In Kleinbauer, W. Eugène (ed.). Modern Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology of Twentieth-Century Writings on the Visual Arts (Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching). 25. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press (published 1989). p. 249. ISBN 978-0-8020-6708-1.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) ^ Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context (illustrated ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-521-84202-0.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) ^ "Baiae, historic site, Italy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 6 June 2021. ^ Mazzella S. (1591) Site and antiquity of the city of Pozzuolo ^ Yegül (1996). ^ Aqua Augusta - Serino (Italy): http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/serino2/index.html ^ Altshuller (1992), p. 127. ^ "Nero's Sunken City | Full Episode | Secrets of the Dead | PBS". Secrets of the Dead. 30 March 2017. References[edit] Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878), "Baiæ" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 240 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Baiae" , Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 214 "Baiae", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007. Altshuller, Mark (1992), "The Transition to the Modern Age: Sentimentalism and Preromanticism, 1790–1820", in Moser, Charles (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russian Literature, rev. ed., Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521425670 Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (March 1986), "On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon", Art Bulletin, Vol. 68 |volume= has extra text (help). Waywell, Geoffrey B.; Laev, Raoul (1986), The Lever and Hope Sculptures: Ancient Sculptures in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, and a Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures Formerly in the Hope Collection, London and Deepdene. Yegül, Fikret K. (1996), "The Thermo-Mineral Complex at Baiae and De Balneis Puteolanis", The Art Bulletin, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 137–161 |volume= has extra text (help) v t e Archaeological sites in Campania Province of Avellino Aeclanum Aequum Tuticum Compsa Province of Benevento Benevento Arch of Trajan Roman Theatre Caudium Ligures Baebiani Saticula Province of Caserta Allifae Ausona Calatia Cales Santa Maria Capua Vetere Arch of Hadrian (Capua) Amphitheatre of Capua Casilinum Sant'Angelo in Formis Sinuessa Trebula Balliensis Vescia Province of Naples Atella Baiae Cumae Grotta di Cocceio Herculaneum Villa of the Papyri Liternum Miseno Piscina Mirabilis Naples Aqua Augusta Bourbon Tunnel Catacombs of San Gaudioso Catacombs of San Gennaro Crypta Neapolitana Virgil's tomb Macellum of Naples Oplontis Villa Poppaea Palazzo a Mare Pompeii Pozzuoli Flavian Amphitheater (Pozzuoli) Lucrinus Lacus Lake Avernus Macellum of Pozzuoli Portus Julius Stabiae Suessula Castello Barbarossa Villa Jovis Villa Boscoreale Province of Salerno Monte Pruno Paestum Heraion at the mouth of the Sele Temple of Athena Second Temple of Hera Tomb of the Diver Pertosa Caves Velia Villa Romana of Minori Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baiae&oldid=1027709695" Categories: Frazioni of the Province of Naples Roman sites of Campania Spa towns in Italy Former populated places in Italy Roman towns and cities in Italy Bacoli Archaeological sites in Campania Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing Neapolitan-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015 Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing French-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands Napulitano Polski Русский Slovenščina Ślůnski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 14:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9675	----	Sestertius - Wikipedia Sestertius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sestertius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Anonymous AR sestertius Helmed Roma head right, IIS behind Dioscuri riding right, ROMA in linear frame below. RSC4, C44/7, BMC13 AR 0.96 g – RSC4, C44/7, BMC13 The sestertius (plural sestertii), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an ancient Roman coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it was a large brass coin. The name sestertius means "two and one half", referring to its nominal value of two and a half asses (a bronze Roman coin, singular as), a value that was useful for commerce because it was one quarter of a denarius, a coin worth ten asses. The name is derived from semis, "half" and "tertius", "third", in which "third" refers to the third as: the sestertius was worth two full asses and half of a third. English-language sources routinely use the original Latin form sestertius, plural sestertii; but older literature frequently uses sesterce, plural sesterces, terce being the English equivalent of tertius. A modern shorthand for values in sestertii is IIS (Unicode 𐆘), in which the Roman numeral II is followed by S for semis, and the whole struck through; but because this symbol and striking through letters are not always convenient, HS may be used instead, with the horizontal bar of the 'H' representing the strike through the numeral II, rather than the letter H.[1] Example of a detailed portrait of Hadrian 117 to 138 Contents 1 History 2 Unit of account 3 Numismatic value 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History[edit] The sestertius was introduced c. 211 BC as a small silver coin valued at one-quarter of a denarius (and thus one hundredth of an aureus). A silver denarius was supposed to weigh about 4.5 grams, valued at ten grams, with the silver sestertius valued at two and one-half grams. In practice, the coins were usually underweight. When the denarius was retariffed to sixteen asses (due to the gradual reduction in the size of bronze denominations), the sestertius was accordingly revalued to four asses, still equal to one quarter of a denarius. It was produced sporadically, far less often than the denarius, through 44 BC. Hostilian under Trajan Decius AD 250 In or about 23 BC, with the coinage reform of Augustus, the sestertius was reintroduced as a large brass denomination. While the as, now made of copper, was worth one quarter of a sestertius. Augustus tariffed the value of the sestertius as one hundredth of the gold aureus. The sestertius was produced as the largest brass denomination until the late 3rd century AD. Most were struck in the mint of Rome but from AD 64 during the reign of Nero (AD 54–68) and Vespasian (AD 69–79), the mint of Lyon (Lugdunum), supplemented production. Lyon sestertii can be recognised by a small globe, or legend stop, beneath the bust.[citation needed] The brass sestertius typically weighs in the region of 25 to 28 grams, is around 32–34 mm in diameter and about 4 mm thick. The distinction between bronze and brass was important to the Romans. Their name for brass was orichalcum, also spelled aurichalcum (echoing the word for a gold coin, aureus), meaning 'gold-copper', because of its shiny, gold-like appearance when the coins were newly struck (see, for example Pliny the Elder in his Natural History Book 34.4). Orichalcum was considered, by weight, to be about double the value of copper. This is why the half-sestertius, the dupondius, was around the same size and weight as the bronze was, but was worth two asses. Sestertii continued to be struck until the late 3rd century, although there was a marked deterioration in the quality of the metal used and the striking even though portraiture remained strong. Later emperors increasingly relied on melting down older sestertii, a process which led to the zinc component being gradually lost as it burned off in the high temperatures needed to melt copper (zinc melts at 419 °C but boils at 907 °C, copper melts at 1085 °C). The shortfall was made up with bronze and even lead. Later sestertii tend to be darker in appearance as a result and are made from more crudely prepared blanks (see the Hostilian coin on this page). The gradual impact of inflation caused by debasement of the silver currency meant that the purchasing power of the sestertius and smaller denominations like the dupondius and as was steadily reduced. In the 1st century AD, everyday small change was dominated by the dupondius and as, but in the 2nd century, as inflation hit, the sestertius became the dominant small change. In the 3rd century silver coinage contained less and less silver, and more and more copper or bronze. By the 260s and 270s the main unit was the double-denarius, the Antoninianus, but by then these small coins were almost all bronze. Although these coins were theoretically worth eight sestertii, the average sestertius was worth far more in plain terms of the metal it contained. Some of the last sestertii were struck by Aurelian (270–275 AD). During the end of its issue, when sestertii were reduced in size and quality, the double sestertius was issued first by Trajan Decius (249–251 AD) and later in large quantity by the ruler of a breakaway regime in the West, named Postumus (259–268 AD), who often used worn old sestertii to overstrike his image and legends on. The double sestertius was distinguished from the sestertius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor, a device used to distinguish the dupondius from the as and the Antoninianus from the denarius. Eventually, many sestertii were withdrawn by the state and by forgers, to melt down to make the debased Antoninianus, which made inflation worse. In the coinage reforms of the 4th century, the sestertius played no part and passed into history. Sestertius of Hadrian, dupondius of Antoninus Pius, and as of Marcus Aurelius Unit of account[edit] This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sestertius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The sestertius was also used as a standard unit of account and was represented on inscriptions with the monogram HS. Large values were recorded in terms of sestertium milia, thousands of sestertii, with the milia often omitted and implied. The wealthy general and politician of the late Roman Republic, Crassus, who fought in the war to defeat Spartacus, was said by Pliny the Elder to have had "estates worth 200 million sesterces". A loaf of bread cost roughly half a sestertius, and a sextarius (c. 0.5 L) of wine anywhere from less than half to more than one sestertius. One modius (6.67 kg) of wheat in 79 AD Pompeii cost seven sestertii, of rye three sestertii, a bucket two sestertii, a tunic fifteen sestertii, a donkey five hundred sestertii.[2] According to Tacitus' Annals, book I, chapter 17.4 and 17.5, soldiers of the Rhine army who rose against Tiberius were paid ten asses a day, out of which they had to pay, among other things, for their own uniforms. They demanded to be paid a denarius a day, and they got it.[3] Records from Pompeii show a slave being sold at auction for 6,252 sestertii. A writing tablet from Londinium (Roman London), dated to c. 75–125 AD, records the sale of a Gallic slave girl called Fortunata for 600 denarii, equal to 2,400 sestertii, to a man called Vegetus. It is difficult to make any comparisons with modern coinage or prices, but for most of the 1st century AD, the ordinary legionary was paid nine hundred sestertii per annum, rising to twelve hundred under Domitian (81–96 AD), the equivalent of 3.3 sestertii per day. Half of it was deducted for living costs, leaving the soldier, if he was lucky enough to get paid, with about 1.65 sestertii per day. Numismatic value[edit] A sestertius of Nero, struck at Rome in 64 AD. The reverse depicts the emperor on horseback with a companion. The legend reads DECVRSIO, meaning "a military exercise". Diameter 35 mm Early brass sestertii are highly valued by numismatists, since their large size gave engravers a large area in which to produce detailed portraits and reverse types. The most celebrated are those produced for Nero (54–68 AD) between the years 64 and 68 AD, created by some of the most accomplished coin engravers in history. The brutally realistic portraits of this emperor, and the elegant reverse designs, greatly impressed and influenced the artists of the Renaissance. The series issued by Hadrian (117–138 AD), recording his travels around the Roman Empire, depicts the Empire at its height, and included the first representation on a coin of the figure of Britannia; centuries later it was revived by English king Charles II, and continues to feature on the United Kingdom coinage. As a result of ceasing production and withdrawals from circulation in the 4th century, sestertii are less common as a whole compared to other Roman bronze coins. Fully struck examples with sharp detail often command high premiums at auction.[4] See also[edit] The Asterix comic series often mentions prices in sestertii. Roman currency References[edit] ^ Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1930). The Revised Latin Primer. London: Longmans. p. 214. ^ "Roman Economy – Prices & Cost in Ancient Rome". 13 January 2007. Archived from the original on 13 January 2007.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ Tacitus, Annales 1.17.4 and 1.17.5: Enimvero militiam ipsam gravem, infructuosam: denis in diem assibus animam et corpus aestimari: hinc vestem arma tentoria, hinc saevitiam centurionum et vacationes munerum redimi. At hercule verbera et vulnera, duram hiemem, exercitas aestates, bellum atrox: aut sterilem pacem sempiterna) Nec aliud levamentum quam si certis sub legibus militia iniretur, ut singulos denarios mererent, sextus decumus stipendii annus finem adferret, ne ultra sub vexillis tenerentur, sed isdem in castris praemium pecunia solveretur. ^ Sear, David R. (1981). Roman Coins and their Values. London: Seaby. pp. 10–12. ISBN 0-900652-57-8. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sestertius. An early (211/10 CE) Sestertius at the American Numismatic Society (numismatics.org:1975.134.7) An Augustan Sestertius from an Asian Mint (numismatics.org:2006.21.9)[permanent dead link] Sestertius issued by Caligula in memory of his mother Agrippina the Elder (numismatics.org:1952.81.2)[permanent dead link] [1] v t e Currencies of Ancient Rome Proto-currency Bronze Aes rude Aes signatum Republican era Gold Aureus Silver Denarius Sestertius Victoriatus Quadrigatus Bronze and copper Dupondius (2 asses) As (1) Dodrans (3⁄4) Bes ( 2⁄3) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quincunx ( 5⁄12) Triens ( 1⁄3) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Sextans ( 1⁄6) Uncia ( 1⁄12) Semuncia ( 1⁄24) Early Empire Gold Aureus Dacicus Silver Antoninianus (32 asses) Denarius (16) Quinarius (8) Copper Double sestertius (8) Sestertius ( 2+1⁄2; later 4) Dupondius (2) As (1) Semis ( 1⁄2) Quadrans ( 1⁄4) Diocletian era Gold Solidus Silver Argenteus Nummus Copper Radiate Laureate Denarius Late Empire Gold Solidus Tremissis Silver Miliarense Siliqua Copper and bronze Follis Nummus Constantinian bronzes Centenionalis Ancient Rome Portal Numismatics Portal Authority control Integrated Authority File Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sestertius&oldid=1028470441" Categories: Coins of ancient Rome Hidden categories: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles needing additional references from October 2007 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 Articles needing additional references from November 2009 Commons link from Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego 贛語 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2021, at 05:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9687	----	Wikipedia:Contact us - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contact us From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Introduction Readers How to report a problem with an article, or find out more information. Article subjects Problems with articles about you, your company, or somebody you represent. Licensing How to copy Wikipedia's information, donate your own, or report unlicensed use of your information. Donors Find out about the process, how to donate, and information about how your money is spent. Press and partnerships If you're a member of the press looking to contact Wikipedia, or have a business proposal for us. Back to main page Thank you for your interest in contacting Wikipedia. Before proceeding, some important disclaimers: Wikipedia has no central editorial board. Contributions are made by a large number of volunteers at their own discretion. Edits are neither the responsibility of the Wikimedia Foundation (the organisation that hosts the site) nor of its staff and edits will not generally be made in response to an email request. Although Wikipedia was founded by Jimmy Wales, he is not personally responsible for our content. If you have questions about the concept of Wikipedia rather than a specific problem, the About Wikipedia page may help. If you want to ask other users for help with editing or using Wikipedia, stop by the Teahouse, Wikipedia's live help channel, or the help desk to ask someone for assistance. If you disagree with an article's content, or are involved in a content dispute, see Dispute resolution. The links on the left should direct you to how to contact us or resolve problems. If you cannot find your issue listed there, you can email helpful, experienced volunteers at info-enwikimedia.org. Please refrain from emailing about disagreements with content; they will not be resolved via email. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Contact_us&oldid=967537943" Categories: Wikipedia tutorials Wikipedia quick introductions Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Project page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Banjar Basa Banyumasan भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Malti Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2020, at 20:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9692	----	Leo II (emperor) - Wikipedia Leo II (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern Roman emperor in 474 Roman emperor in the East Leo II Illustration of Leo II (right) with his grandfather Leo I (left) from the Icones Imperatorum Romanorum (1557), based on coins bearing their image Roman emperor in the East Reign 18 January – 17 November 474 Coronation 17 November 473 Predecessor Leo I Successor Zeno Alongside Leo I (until 18 January) Zeno (from 9 February) Glycerius (West, 473–474) Julius Nepos (West, 474) Born Summer 469 AD[1][2] Died 17 November 474 (aged 5) Constantinople Burial Church of the Holy Apostles Dynasty Leonid Father Zeno Mother Ariadne Solidus of Leo II, marked: d·n· leo et zeno p·p· aug·("Our Lords Leo and Zeno, Fathers of the Fatherland, Augusti")showing Leo and Zeno enthroned and nimbate and each holding a mappa on the reverse, marked: salus reipublicae ("the Health of the Republic") Leo II (Greek: Λέων, Leōn; 469 – 17 November 474 AD), nicknamed "the Younger" or "the Small" (Greek: ὁ μικρός, translit. ho Mikrós),[3] was briefly Roman emperor in 474 when he was a child aged six or seven. He was the son of Zeno, the Isaurian general and future emperor, and Ariadne, a daughter of the emperor Leo I (r. 457–474), who ruled the eastern Roman empire. Leo II was made co-emperor with his grandfather Leo I on 17 November 473, and became sole emperor on 18 January 474 after Leo I died of dysentery. His father Zeno was made co-emperor by the Byzantine Senate on 29 January and they co-ruled for a short time before Leo II died ten months later,[4] probably on 17 November.[5] Contents 1 History 2 References 2.1 Primary sources 2.2 Citations 2.3 Bibliography History[edit] Leo II was born in 469, the son of Zeno, an Isaurian general under Leo I, and Ariadne, the daughter of then emperor Leo I.[6] He was the maternal grandson of Emperor Leo I and Empress Verina.[7] Leo II was made caesar in late 472 and then augustus in 17 November 473,[1][2][4] and made him co-emperor alongside his grandfather.[6][7][8] He was crowned at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, and the ceremony was presided over by the Ecumenical Patriarch.[9] He was also appointed as the sole consul for 474 around this time.[8] When Leo I died of dysentery on 18 January 474, Leo II ascended the throne as sole augustus.[6][7][10][11] Some weeks later, the Byzantine Senate made his father Zeno co-augustus under Leo II, as Leo II was too young to sign official documents.[8][12] Leo II died soon after, on 17 November 474,[5][8][13] at the age of 5, leaving Zeno as the sole emperor.[6][7] His death having occurred so soon after he became emperor has led to speculation among some modern scholars that he was poisoned by his mother Ariadne so that Zeno could ascend to the throne. However no contemporary sources raised this suggestion, even though Zeno was unpopular, thus it is considered likely that Leo II's death was natural, especially when the high child mortality rate of the time is considered.[6][7][10] Victor of Tonona, a 6th-century chronicler, says that Leo II did not actually die, but was rather taken by Ariadne and hidden at a monastery. This is very likely a confusion with Basiliscus, the son of the Byzantine commander Armatus. Basiliscus was crowned caesar in 476 and was almost executed in 477 after his father was murdered by Zeno, but was saved by Ariadne. The confusion likely stems from the fact that Basiliscus was renamed Leo in order to avoid association with the usurper who rose against Zeno.[14] Zeno was vastly unpopular, due to a lack of dynastic prestige, with his only familial ties to the imperial throne being his marriage to Ariadne, the daughter of Leo I, and through his now-dead son Leo II. Additionally, because he was an Isaurian, he was seen as a foreigner by the Byzantine elite, and the treasury was empty on his ascension.[15] Zeno's sole rule was opposed by the Leonid dynasty, with Verina, the widow of Leo I, proclaiming her brother Basiliscus as emperor in January 475. Zeno fled, and for 20 months Basiliscus ruled before Zeno returned and retook the throne.[7][16] Zeno's rule was marked by constant unrest, and it was only through cunning and bribery that he managed to rule for 17 years, until his death on 9 April 491.[7][15][16] References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Anonymus Valesianus II (Anonymous, 6th century).[17] Chronicon Paschale (Anonymous, 7th century).[17] Makhtbhanuth Zabhne (Bar Hebraeus, 13th century).[18] Chronicle of Domninos (6th century).[19] Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius Scholasticus (6th century).[17] Book XIV of the Chronographia of John Malalas (6th century).[20] Romana (Jordanes, 6th century).[17] Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (12th century).[18] Chronicle of Nestorianos (6th century).[21] Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor (8th century).[18] Chronicle of Victor of Tonona (6th century).[17] Extracts of History (Joannes Zonaras, 12th century).[17] Citations[edit] ^ a b Croke, Brian (2021). Roman Emperors in Context: Theodosius to Justinian. Routledge. pp. 139–152. ISBN 9781000388305. ^ a b Kosiński, Rafał (2003). "Leo II - Some chronological questions". A Journal of Ancient History. 3: 209–214. ^ Bury, J. B. (1958) [1889]. "Chapter X: the reign of Leo I". History of the Later Roman Empire. 1. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 323, note 1. ISBN 978-0-486-14338-5. ^ a b Elton, Hugh (2018). The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780521899314. ^ a b The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, p. 1207 ^ a b c d e Carr 2015, p. 55. ^ a b c d e f g Lee 2013, p. 100. ^ a b c d James 2013, p. 110. ^ Dagron 2003, pp. 81–82. ^ a b Adkins & Adkins 2004, p. 38. ^ Meijer 2004, p. 159. ^ Kosinski 2016, p. 148. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKosinski2016 (help) ^ Allen, Pauline, ed. (2000). "Zeno and Basiliscus". The Cambridge Ancient History. XIV. p. 816. ISBN 9780521325912. ^ Shalev-Hurvitz 2015, p. 231. ^ a b Jones 2014, p. 91. ^ a b Freely 2010, p. 108. ^ a b c d e f Jones & Martindale 1980, p. 141. ^ a b c McClanan 2016, p. 67. ^ Jeffreys, Croke & Scott 2017, p. 33. ^ Jeffreys, Croke & Scott 2017, p. 2. ^ Jeffreys, Croke & Scott 2017, p. 142. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (2004). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 9780816074822. Carr, John (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473856400. Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Dagron, Gilbert (2003). Emperor and Priest: the Imperial Office in Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521801232. Freely, John (2010). Children of Achilles: the Greeks in Asia Minor Since the Days of Troy. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 9781845119416. James, Liz (2013). Wonderful things: Byzantium Through Its Art: Papers From the 42nd Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, London, 20-22 March 2009. Farnham: Ashgate Variorum. ISBN 9781409455141. Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Croke, Brian; Scott, Roger (2017). Studies in John Malalas. BRILL. ISBN 9789004344624. Jones, A.H.M. (2014). The Decline of the Ancient World. Routledge. ISBN 9781317873051. Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Martindale, J. R. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume 2, AD 395-527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521201599. Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: the Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748668359. McClanan, A. (2016). Representations of Early Byzantine Empresses: Image and Empire. Springer. ISBN 9781137044693. McEvoy, M. A. (2019). 'Leo II, Zeno, and the transfer of power from a son to his father in AD 474', in J.-W. Drijvers and N. Lenski (eds). The Fifth Century: Age of Transformation. Edipuglia. Meijer, Fik (2004). Emperors Don't Die in Bed. Routledge. ISBN 9781134384051. Shalev-Hurvitz, Vered (2015). Holy Sites Encircled: The Early Byzantine Concentric Churches of Jerusalem. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199653775. Leo II (emperor) Leonid dynasty Born: 469 Died: 17 November 474 Regnal titles Preceded by Leo I Eastern Roman emperor 474 Succeeded by Zeno Political offices Preceded by Leo I Roman consul 474 Succeeded by Zeno v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9700	----	List of governors of Roman Egypt - Wikipedia List of governors of Roman Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Augustal prefect) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article "Pompey's Pillar", erected in Alexandria by the governor Aristius Optatus in the reign of Diocletian (r. 284–305) During the Roman Empire, the governor of Roman Egypt (praefectus Aegypti) was a prefect who administered the Roman province of Egypt with the delegated authority (imperium) of the emperor. Egypt was established as a Roman province in consequence of the Battle of Actium, where Cleopatra as the last independent ruler of Egypt and her Roman ally Mark Antony were defeated by Octavian, the adopted heir of the assassinated Roman dictator Julius Caesar. Octavian then rose to supreme power with the title Augustus, ending the era of the Roman Republic and installing himself as princeps, the so-called "leading citizen" of Rome who in fact acted as an autocratic ruler. Although senators continued to serve as governors of most other provinces (the senatorial provinces), especially those annexed under the Republic, the role of Egypt during the civil war with Antony and its strategic and economic importance prompted Augustus to ensure that no rival could secure Aegyptus as an asset. He thus established Egypt as an imperial province, to be governed by a prefect he appointed from men of the equestrian order. A prefect of Egypt usually held the office for three or four years.[1] An equestrian appointed to the office received no specialized training, and seems to have been chosen for his military experience and knowledge of Roman law and administration.[1] Any knowledge he might have of Egypt and its arcane traditions of politics and bureaucracy—which Philo of Alexandria described as "intricate and diversified, hardly grasped even by those who have made a business of studying them from their earliest years"—was incidental to his record of Roman service and the emperor's favor.[1] Contents 1 Prefects during the Principate 2 Later Roman Diocese (330 – 395) 3 First Byzantine Period (395 – 616) 4 Sassanian Occupation 5 Second Byzantine Period (628-642) 6 References 7 Further reading Prefects during the Principate[edit] Unless otherwise noted, governors from 30 BC to AD 299 are taken from Guido Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 17 (1975), pp. 263-321, 323-328 30–26 BC: Gaius Cornelius Gallus 26–24 BC: Aelius Gallus 24–22 BC: Gaius Petronius or Publius Petronius 13–12 BC: Publius Rubrius Barbarus 7–4 BC: Gaius Turranius AD 2–3: Publius Octavius 3–10: Quintus Ostorius Scapula 10–11: Gaius Julius Aquila 11–12: Lucius Antonius Pedo 12–14: Marcus Magius Maximus circa 15: Lucius Seius Strabo circa 15: Aemilius Rectus 16–32: Gaius Galerius circa 32: Vitrasius Pollio (died in office) circa 32: Hiberus (Vice prefect) 33–38: Aulus Avilius Flaccus circa 38: Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro 38–41: Gaius Vitrasius Pollio 41–42: Lucius Aemilius Rectus between 42 and 45: Marcus Heius 45–48: Gaius Julius Postumus 48–52: Gnaeus Vergilius Capito circa 54: Lucius Lusius Geta 55–59: Tiberius Claudius Balbillus Modestus 60–62: Lucius Julius Vestinus 63–66: Gaius Caecina Tuscus 66–69: Tiberius Julius Alexander 70: Lucius Peducius Colo(nus?) 71–73: Tiberius Julius Lupus circa 74: Gaius Valerius Paulinus 75–76: [S]ept[imius?] Nu[...] 76/77 or 77/78:[2] Lucius Julius Ursus 78–79: Gaius Aeterius Fronto 80–82: Gaius Tettius Cassianus Priscus 83–84: Lucius Laberius Maximus 85–88: Gaius Septimius Vegetus 89–92: Marcus Mettius Rufus 92–93: Titus Petronius Secundus 94–98: Marcus Junius Rufus 98–100: Gaius Pompeius Planta 100–103: Gaius Minicius Italus 103–107: Gaius Vibius Maximus 107–112: Servius Sulpicius Similis 113–117: Marcus Rutilius Lupus 117–119: Quintus Rammius Martialis 120–124: Titus Haterius Nepos 126: Petronius Quadratus[3] 126–133: Titus Flavius Titianus 133–137: Marcus Petronius Mamertinus 137–142: Gaius Avidius Heliodorus 142–143: Gaius Valerius Eudaemon 144–147: Lucius Valerius Proculus 147–148: Marcus Petronius Honoratus 150–154: Lucius Munatius Felix 154–159: Marcus Sempronius Liberalis 159–160: Titus Furius Victorinus 161: Lucius Volusius Maecianus 161–164: Marcus Annaeus Syriacus 164–167: Titus Flavius Titianus 167–168: Quintus Baienus Blassianus 168–169: Marcus Bassaeus Rufus 170–176: Gaius Calvisius Statianus 176: Gaius Caecilius Salvianus (Vice prefect) 176–179[4] Titus Pactumeius Magnus 179–180: Titus Aius Sanctus circa 181: Titus Flavius Piso 181–183: Decimus Veturius Macrinus circa 184:Vernasius Facundus 185: Titus Longaeus Rufus 185–187: Pomponius Faustinianus 188: Marcus Aurelius Verrianus circa 188: Marcus Aurelius Papirius Dionysius 189–190: Quintus Tineius Demetrius 190: Claudius Lucilianus 192: Larcius Memor 192–194: Lucius Mantennius Sabinus 195–196: Marcus Ulpius Primianus 197–200: Quintus Aemilius Saturninus 200–203: Quintus Maecius Laetus 203–206: Claudius Julianus 206–211: Tiberius Claudius Subatianus Aquila 212–213: Lucius Baebius Aurelius Juncinus 214–215:[5] Marcus Aurelius Septimius Heraclitus (executed by Caracalla) 216: Aurelius Antinous (vice prefect) 216–217: Lucius Valerius Datus 218: Julius Basilianus 218–219: Callistianus 219–221: Geminius Chrestus 222: Lucius Domitius Honoratus 222–223: Marcus Aedinius Julianus 224: Marcus Aurelius Epagatus 224–225: Tiberius Claudius Herennianus 229–230: Claudius Masculinus 231: Marcus Aurelius Zeno Januarius 232–237: Maebius Honoratianus circa 240: Lucius Lucretius Annianus 241–242: Gnaeus Domitius Philippus 242–245: Aurelius Basileus 245–248: Gaius Valerius Firmus 249–250: Aurelius Appius Sabinus 251–252: Faltonius Restitutianus 252–253: Lissenius Proculus 253: Septimius [...][6] 253: Lucius Titinius Clodianus 253–256: Titus Magnius Felix Crescentillianus 257–258: Ulpius Pasion circa 258: Claudius Theodorus 258–262: Lucius Mussius Aemilianus 262–263: Aurelius Theodotus circa 264: Gaius Claudius Firmus 266: Cussonius I[...] 267: Juvenius Genialis 270: Tenagino Probus 271: Julius Marcellinus 271–273: Statilius Ammianus 273: Gaius Claudius Firmus 280–281: Sallustius Hadrianius 283: Celerinus 283–284: Pomponius Januarianus circa 284: Marcus Aurelius Diogenes 285: Aurelius Mercurius circa 286: Peregrinus 287–290: Gaius Valerius Pompeianus 291–292:[7] Titius Honoratus 292–293: Rupilius Felix 297: Aristius Optatus 297: Aurelius Achilles 298: Aemilius Rusticianus 298–299: Aelius Publius 299–300: Heraclius between 303 and 311: Apollonius c. 303: Eustratius (?) 303–306: Clodius Culcianus 307: Sossianus Hierocles[8] 308: Valerius Victorinus 308–309: Aelius Hyginus c. 310: Titinnius Clodianus 312: Aurelius Ammonius before 328: Aurelius Apion Later Roman Diocese (330 – 395)[edit] Prefects of the province of Egypt. Names and dates taken from the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 1, pp. 1084–1085. Magnilianus (330) Florentius (331) Hyginus (331–332) Paterius (333–335) Philagrius I (335–337) Antonius Theodorus ([337?–]338) Philagrius II (338–340) Longinus (341–343) Palladius (344) Nestorius (345–352) Sebastianus (353–354) Maximus (355 – 11 Feb. 356) Catafronius (10 Jun. 356 – 357) Parnassius (357–359) Italicianus (3 months in 359) Faustinus (359–361) Hermogenes (uncertain, before 361?) Himerius (early–mid 4th century?) Gerontius (30 Nov. 361 – 4 Feb. 362) Ecdicius Olympus (Oct. 362 – 16 Sep. 363) Hierius (364) Maximus (364) Flavianus (364 – 21 Jul. 366) Proclianus (366–367) Anonymous (between 367 and 375) Eutolmius Tatianus (27 Jan. 367 – 6 Oct. 370)[9] Olympius Palladius (370–371) Aelius Palladius (371–374) ??Publius (376?) ??Bassianus (379) ??Hadrianus (379) Julianus (17 Mar. 380) ??Antoninus (381[–382?]) Palladius (14 May 382) Hypatius I (29 Apr. – 8 May 383) Optatus (4 Feb. 384) Florentius (20 Dec. 384 – 16 Jun. 386) Paulinus (25 Jul. – 30 Nov. 386) Eusebius (387) Ulpius Erythrius (30 Apr. 388) Alexander (388 – 18 Feb. 390) Evagrius (16 Jun. 391) Hypatius II (Apr. 392) Potamius (5 May – 30 Jul. 392) Damonicus (uncertain, late 4th century?) Theodorus (late 4th century) First Byzantine Period (395 – 616)[edit] Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989).[10] Titles: Prefect (395 - 539)[10] Dux (539 - 616)[10] # Governor Start End 1 Charmosynus 395 5 February 396 2 Gennadius (or Torquatus) 5 February 396 30 March 396 3 Remigius 30 March 396 17 June 397 4 Archelaus 17 June 397 ? 5 Unknown ? ? 6 Pentadius 403 404 7 Euthalius 404 ? 8 Unknown ? ? 9 Orestes 415 ? 10 Callistus 422 ? 11 Cleopater 435 ? 12 Charmosinus 442 ? 13 Theodorus 451 ? 14 Florus 453 ? 15 Alexander 468 ? 16 Unknown ? ? 17 Boethus 476 477 18 Anthemius 477 478 19 Theoctistus 478 479 20 Theognostus 479 ? 21 Apollonius 482 482 22 Pergamius 482 ? 23 Eutrechius 485 ? 24 Theodorus 487 487 25 Arsenius 487 ? 26 Eustathius 501 ? 27 Theodosius c. 510 ? 28 Licinius 520 ? 29 Hephaestus 527 ? 30 Dioscorus 535 ? 31 Rhodon 537 ? 32 Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius 539 542 33 Ioannes Laxarion 542 ? 34 Flavorinus c. 560 ? 35 Iustinus 566 ? 36 Ioannes 582 ? 37 Paulus c. 585 ? 38 Ioannes c. 588 ? 39 Constantinus c. 592 ? 40 Menas c. 595 ? 41 Petrus (or Iustinus) 600 603 42 Ioannes c. 606 ? 43 Nicetas 614 ? Sassanian Occupation[edit] # Governor Start End Termination 1 Shahrbaraz 618 before 621 2 Sahralanyozan ca. 621 625? 3 Shahrbaraz ca. 626? ca. 628 Egypt recorded as being under Shahrbaraz's control when he concluded his agreement with Heraclius on withdrawal of Persian troops Second Byzantine Period (628-642)[edit] # Governor Start End Title as governor Termination 1 Unknown[10] 628 629 - - 2 Anastasius[10] 629[10] 640[10] Military Prefect[10] - Cyrus of Alexandria 630s 630s Patriarch and Pope recalled by the emperor 3 Theodorus[10] 641[10] 17 September 642[10] Military Prefect[10] - Cyrus of Alexandria 630s 642 Patriarch and Pope surrendered to Umar References[edit] ^ a b c Alan K. Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest (University of California Press, 1986, 1996), p. 66. ^ Following here Magioncalda Andreina, "La carriera di l. Iulius Ursus e le alte prefetture equestri nel I sec. D.C.", Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz, 23 (2012), pp. 118f ^ O.W. Reinmuth disagrees, dating Quadratus between 180 and 190. ("A Working List of the Prefects of Egypt, 30 B.C. to 299 A.D.", in Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists, 4 (1967), p. 104) ^ Guido Bastianini ("Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p: Aggiunte e correzioni", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 38 (1980), p. 83) found a document from his term dated to 179 ^ Bastianini ("Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p: Aggiunte e correzioni", p. 86) found a document from his term dated to 214 ^ Added from Bastianini, "Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p: Aggiunte e correzioni", pp. 75-89 ^ Guido Bastianini ("Lista dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30a al 299p: Aggiunte e correzioni", p. 86) found a document from his term dated to 291 ^ However, John R. Martindale dates his tenure to 310 ("Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Addenda et Corrigenda to Volume I", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 23 (1974) p. 248) ^ First governor to be styled "Augustal prefect". PLRE 1, p. 876 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 48. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. Further reading[edit] Heinz Hübner: Der Praefectus Aegypti von Diokletian bis zum Ende der römischen Herrschaft. Filser, München-Pasing 1952. Oscar William Reinmuth: The Prefect of Egypt from Augustus to Diocletian. Leipzig 1935. Arthur Stein: Die Präfekten von Ägypten in der römischen Kaiserzeit. Francke, Bern 1950. v t e Roman governors Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes (Alpes Cottiae, Alpes Maritimae and Alpes Poeninae) Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gaul (Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Narbonensis) Germania (Germania Inferior and Germania Superior) Hispania (Hispania Baetica and Hispania Tarraconensis) Iudaea Lusitania Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania (Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana) Mesopotamia Moesia (Moesia Inferior and Moesia Superior) Noricum Pannonia (Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior) Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_governors_of_Roman_Egypt&oldid=1026962361" Categories: Roman governors of Egypt Roman Egypt Lists of Roman governors Lists of rulers of Egypt Lists of equites Byzantine Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Deutsch Español Italiano Nederlands Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 07:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9721	----	Marcus Sedatius Severianus - Wikipedia Marcus Sedatius Severianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman senator, consul and general (105–161/162) Marcus Sedatius Severianus Consul of the Roman Empire In office July – September 153Serving with Publius Septimius Aper Preceded by Sextus Caecilius Maximus with Marcus Pontius Sabibus Succeeded by Gaius Cattius Marcellus with Quintus Petiedius Gallus Personal details Born c. 105 Lemonum, Gaul Died 161 Elegeia, Armenia Spouse(s) Julia Regina Children Marcus Sedatius Severus Occupation Politician, general Military service Allegiance Roman Empire Commands Quaestor of Sicily Governor of Dacia Governor of Cappadocia Battles/wars Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Siege of Elegeia Marcus Sedatius Severianus (105–161 or 162)[1][2] was a Roman senator, suffect consul, and general during the 2nd century AD, originally from Gaul. Severianus was a provincial governor and later a provincial consul. The peak of his career was as suffect consul for the nundinium of July–September 153 as the colleague of Publius Septimius Aper.[3] He was governor of Cappadocia at the start of the Roman war with Parthia, during which he was convinced by the untrustworthy oracle to invade Armenia in 161.[4] Sedatius committed suicide while under siege in the Armenian city of Elegeia, on the upper Euphrates. The legion he led was wiped out shortly after. He was replaced as governor of Cappadocia by Marcus Statius Priscus.[5] Contents 1 Origins 2 Family 3 Early career 4 Cappadocia 4.1 War with Parthia 5 Aftermath 6 Family tree 7 Notes 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 Inscriptions Origins[edit] The Roman Empire at the time of Severianus. Armenia is shown as a Roman client state. A Roman inscription found in modern Poitiers mentioning Severianus establishes this as his birthplace. The city was then known as Lemonum; it was in Roman Gaul, in an area inhabited by the Pictones.[I 1] His Gallic origins are also briefly mentioned by Lucian of Samosata.[4] Another inscription[I 2] mentions that Severianus is from the tribe Quirina, which indicates that his ancestors had become Roman under either Claudius or the Flavians. Nearly all of the inhabitants of Gaul had become Quirites during the 1st century.[6] Family[edit] Severinus' full pedigree was: Marcus Sedatius C. f. [i.e. Gaii filius] Severianus Iulius Acer Metillius Nepos Rufinus Ti. Rutilianus Censor.[I 2] The transliteration of his name into Ancient Greek was: Μ. Σηδάτιος Σεουηριανὸς;[I 3] The power of Severianus' wealthy family, the Sedatii, came from trade and commerce. The Sedatii depended on the Loire river, and were known to have had interests in Ostia, the port of Rome.[7] The social and political rise of the Sedatii illustrates the decline of the aristocratic Iulii who had been the leading class in Roman Gaul since the time of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the first dynasty of Roman emperors. The possible marriage of Severianus' father to Julia Rufina may have been a way of confirming the association between winemakers and land owners in Gaul.[8] Severianus is known to have had at least one son, Marcus Sedatius Severus Julius Reginus Gallus. All that is known of his son's career is that he was the patron of a college in Ostia. The name Julius Reginus probably came to him from his mother, Severianus' wife. It has been suggested that Severianus was adopted by his father-in-law. If true, this would mean that Sevarianus inherited the name from his mother.[9] Early career[edit] Ruins of the forum from the Roman colony, Sarmizegetusa, which Severianus was the patron of.[I 2] The first magisterial position which we know Severianus held was that of quaestor of Sicily; he would have supervised the provincial treasury and audited its accounts. Once having served as a quaestor, a man was admitted to the Senate.[10] The political authority of the Senate was negligible, as the Emperor held the true power of the state. Membership of the Senate was sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than executive authority. Severianus probably became a senator late in the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138). He is first mentioned as a senator in inscriptions from Ostia in the 140s.[I 4] The traditional Republican magistracy of tribune of the plebs followed, another prestigious position which had lost its independence and most of its practical functions. He is also recorded as having been the patron of a city, probably Cadurci (now Cahors) in Gaul. Next he served as a praetor, commanding the Legio V Macedonica which was stationed in Troesmis in Moesia Inferior (which roughly corresponds to modern Serbia. He was then appointed curator, or overseer, of the Via Flaminia, the major road north from Rome over the Apennines.[11] Severianus was governor of Roman Dacia and commander of Legio XIII Gemina, which was stationed there, from 151 to 152. This is attested by many inscriptions from Dacia.[12] Two inscriptions from Sarmizegetusa, the capital of Dacia, give his full name and states that he is the patron of the city.[I 5] The monuments that hold the inscriptions were erected after his consulship. Sarmizegetusa sent a message to Rome to congratulate Severianus and express its gratitude to him for his administration.[I 6] In 153 Severianus was appointed consul for part of the year, from July to September, by Emperor Antoninus Pius. A consulship was the highest honour of the Roman state, and candidates were chosen carefully by the emperor.[13][14] He served alongside Publius Septimius Aper, great-uncle of the future emperor Septimius Severus.[I 7] Cappadocia[edit] Severianus is best known as the governor of Cappadocia in the late 150s.[15] The position was important, for Cappadocia was a border province, which is why Severianus, with his military background and experience of frontier provinces, was assigned. Historian Marcel Le Glay suggests that his promotion was due to the support of Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus,[16] the governor of Asia who is famous as a follower of the self-described prophet Alexander of Abonoteichus thanks to the works of Lucian.[17] In Cappadocia, Servianus' actions seem to have been popular: on an inscription from Zela[18] he is honored as the benefactor (Greek: evergetes) and founder (Greek: ktistes)[Note 1] of the city.[19] He also appears on an inscription in Sebastopolis.[I 8] As governor of Cappadocia Servianus was allocated two legions. War with Parthia[edit] Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 In the summer of 161, the Parthian Vologases IV invaded Armenia, expelled the ruler Sohaemus placed there by the Romans, and installed his own relative Pacoras as king. Being governor of Cappadocia meant Severianus would be on the front line of any conflict involving Armenia,[20] Alexander of Abonutichus had enraptured Severianus, as he had the proconsul Rutilianus.[21][Note 2] Alexander convinced Severianus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself.[22][23] Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana[24]) into Armenia, but was trapped by the Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, near the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.[25][23] He was replaced as governor of Cappadocia by Marcus Statius Priscus.[5] Some historians believe that the defeat of Severianus at Elegeia explains the disappearance of the legions XXII Deiotariana and IX Hispana,[26] but no proof exists that could confirm this hypothesis; the fate of the two legions is still controversial.[Note 3] Aftermath[edit] The governor of Syria was also defeated by the Parthians.[5] Co-Emperor Lucius Verus (he ruled with his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius) took command against the Parthians and brought in reinforcements on a large scale.[5] These included four whole legions and large detachments from many others. The war ended in a Roman victory five years later, with the capture and sack of the Parthian capital.[27][28] Family tree[edit] Family tree of Sedatius[1] M. Sedatius born c. 45 Julius Rufinus C. Sedatius Severus born c. 75 Julia Rufina M. Sedatius Severianus born c. 105 Regina M. Sedatius Severus Julius Reginus born c. 130 Notes[edit] ^ The term is an honorific and should not be taken literally. As patron Severianus was incorporated into the city's founding myth and eulogised accordingly. ^ On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 241–50. ^ The XXII Deiotariana is attested for the last time in Egypt in 119 : J. Schwartz, Où est passée la legio XXII Deiotariana ? Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 76 (1989), pp. 101–102; the IX Hispana in Nijmegen in 130: P.J. Sijpesteijn, Die legio nona hispania in Nimwegen Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 111 (1996), pp. 281–282. Footnotes[edit] ^ a b Picard 1981, p. 889. ^ The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and various friends p.21, 342 ^ Werner Eck, "Die Fasti consulares der Regungszeit des Antoninus Pius, eine Bestandsaufnahme seit Géza Alföldys Konsulat und Senatorenstand" in Studia epigraphica in memoriam Géza Alföldy, hg. W. Eck, B. Feher, and P. Kovács (Bonn, 2013),p. 76 ^ a b Lucian Alexander 27 ^ a b c d Birley 1993, p. 123. ^ Picard 1981, p. 888. ^ Picard 1981, pp. 893–915. ^ (in French) Bernard Rémy, Les carrières sénatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolieau Haut-Empire (31 av. J.-C. - 284 ap. J.-C.), (Istanbul: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes-Georges Dumézil, 1989), p. 220. ^ (in French) André Chastagnol, Les modes d'accès du Sénat romain au début de l'empire, published by BSNAF, 1971, pp. 282–313. ^ Richard Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton: University Press, 1984), p. 16 ^ Birley 2000, p. 37. ^ Ioan Piso, Fasti Provinciae Daciae I, 1993, p. 61–65. ^ Smallwood 2010, p. 12. ^ Mennen 2011, p. 129. ^ Bernard Rémy, Les carrières sénatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolie, Istanbul-Paris, 1989, pp. 219-222. ^ (in French) Marcel Le Glay, D'Abônouteichos à Sabratha, les déviations de la religion romaine au temps de Marc Aurèle, citing Attilio Mastino (dir.), L'Africa romana 6, Sassari, 1989, pp. 35–41. ^ Lucian, Alexander 30 ^ Henri Grégoire, Franz Cumont, Studia Pontica, III, p. 244, no. 271. ^ Deniz Burcu Erciyas, Wealth, Aristocracy And Royal Propaganda Under the Hellenistic Kingdom of the Mithradatids in the Central Black Sea Region of Turkey, Brill Academic Publishers, 2005, p. 52. ^ A.R. Birley The Fasti of Roman Britain 1981 p. 121 ^ Birley 1993, p. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27 ^ a b Birley 1993, pp. 121–22. ^ Birley 1993, p. 278n. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25 ^ M. Mor, "Two Legions - The same fate ? (The disappearance of the legions IX Hispana and XXII Deiotariana)", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 62 (1986), p. 267 ^ HA Verus 8.3–4 ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163 References[edit] Birley, Anthony R. (1993). Marcus Aurelius. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415171250. Birley, Anthony R. (2000). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415165914. Prosopographia Imperii Romani, S 231 Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20359-4. Picard, Gilbert Charles (1981). "Ostie et la Gaule de l'Ouest". Mélanges de l'école française de Rome. MEFRA (in French). 93 (2): 883–915. doi:10.3406/mefr.1981.1301. Smallwood, E. Mary (2010). Principates of Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian. Cambridge: Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-12894-0. Inscriptions[edit] ^ AE 1981, 640 ^ a b c AE 1913, 55 = ILS 1981 ^ Studia Pontica III, p.244 no.271 ^ CIL XIV, 246, CIL XIV, 247, CIL XIV, 248, and CIL XIV, 250 ^ (ILS 9487) ; IDR III/2, 97 and IDR III/2, 98. See also CIL III, 1575 ; IDR III/1, 70 in From Mehadia. ^ CIL III, 1562 (ILS, 3896). ^ Fasti Ostienses, fragment XXIX and CIL II, 2008 ; CIL II, 5 ^ IGR III, 113 Political offices Preceded by Sextus Caecilius Maximus, and Marcus Pontius Sabinus Suffect consul of the Roman Empire 153 with Publius Septimius Aper Succeeded by Gaius Cattius Marcellus, and Quintus Petiedius Gallus Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries United States Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Sedatius_Severianus&oldid=1022585143" Categories: Imperial Roman consuls 2nd-century Gallo-Roman people Roman governors of Dacia Roman governors of Cappadocia Ancient Roman generals Roman generals killed in action Sedatii 105 births 160s deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 May 2021, at 10:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9753	----	Wikipedia:About - Wikipedia Wikipedia:About From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search General introduction for visitors to this Wikipedia For a guide to help pages in Wikipedia, see Help:About help pages. "Wikipedia:Wikipedia" redirects here. For other uses, see Wikipedia:Wikipedia (disambiguation). This is a general introduction for visitors to Wikipedia. The project also has an encyclopedia article about itself, an introduction, and a tutorial for aspiring contributors. Shortcuts WP:ABOUT WP:WIKIPEDIA About Wikipedia Administration FAQ Contributing Tips Tasks Tutorial Help menu Directories Cheatsheet Asking questions Help desk Reference desk Teahouse English Wikipedia right now MediaWiki version: 1.37.0-wmf.9 (cdeef1c) Content articles: 6,317,090 Total pages: 53,581,281 Uploaded files: 894,111 Edits: 1,023,807,817 Registered users: 41,720,968, including 132,814 active this month and 1,094 administrators Data as of 12:59, 14 June 2021 (UTC). Update v t e Wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopedia project helping to create a world in which everyone can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. It is supported by the Wikimedia Foundation and based on a model of freely editable content. The name "Wikipedia" is a blending of the words wiki (a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. 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Contents 1 About Wikipedia 1.1 History 1.2 Contributors 1.3 Trademarks and copyrights 1.4 Credits 2 Uses 2.1 Exploration 2.2 Basic navigation 2.3 Research 2.4 Wikipedia versus paper encyclopedias 2.5 Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality 2.6 Disclaimers 3 Contributing 3.1 Editorial quality review 4 Technical attributes 5 Feedback and questions 5.1 Frequently asked questions (FAQ) 5.2 Static help 5.3 Giving feedback 5.4 Research help and similar questions 5.5 Community discussion 5.6 Contacting individual editors 6 Other languages 7 Sister projects 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links About Wikipedia For information on the administrative structure of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Administration. See also: Wikipedia:Purpose Further information: Wikipedia:Essay directory § About Wikipedia History Further information: History of Wikipedia The English edition of Wikipedia has grown to 6,317,090 articles, equivalent to around 2,900 print volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Including all language editions, Wikipedia has 56,638,127 articles, equivalent to around 21,200 print volumes.[1] Wikipedia was founded as an offshoot of Nupedia, a now-abandoned project to produce a free encyclopedia, begun by the online media company Bomis. Nupedia had an elaborate system of peer review and required highly qualified contributors, but articles' writing was slow. During 2000, Jimmy Wales (founder of Nupedia and co-founder of Bomis), and Larry Sanger, whom Wales had employed to work on the encyclopedia project, discussed ways of supplementing Nupedia with a more open, complementary project. 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However, additional editors eventually expand and contribute to articles and strive to achieve balance and comprehensive coverage. Also, Wikipedia operates several internal resolution processes that can assist when editors disagree on content and approach. Usually, editors eventually reach a consensus on ways to improve the article. External video "Using Wikipedia" with John Green, from Crash Course's Navigating Digital Information series, YouTube video The ideal Wikipedia article is well written, balanced, neutral, and encyclopedic, containing comprehensive, notable, verifiable knowledge. An increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. Our best articles are called Featured Articles (and display a small star in the upper right corner of the article), and our second-best tier of articles are designated Good Articles. However, this process can take months or years to be achieved through editors' concerted effort. Some articles contain statements that have not yet been fully cited. Others will later be augmented with new sections. Some information will be considered by later contributors to be insufficiently founded and, therefore, may be removed. While the overall trend is toward improvement, it is important to use Wikipedia carefully if it is intended to be used as a research source. Individual articles will vary in quality and maturity by their nature. Guidelines and information pages are available to help users and researchers do this effectively, as is an article that summarizes third-party studies and assessments of the reliability of Wikipedia. Wikipedia versus paper encyclopedias Like a paper encyclopedia, Wikipedia attempts to compile world knowledge but is not bound by the restrictions of a paper encyclopedia. Illustration from Nuremberg Chronicle 1493 Main page: Wikipedia is not paper (on Wikimedia Meta-Wiki). Wikipedia has advantages over traditional paper encyclopedias. First, it is not limited in space: it can keep growing as fast as people add. Second, there are no qualifications required to be able to author its articles. It draws from a vast pool of contributors: the whole world. This, and the first advantage mentioned above, have enabled Wikipedia to become the most comprehensive encyclopedia on Earth. Third, a paper encyclopedia remains static (stays the same) and falls out of date until its next edition. Wikipedia is more dynamic: You don't have to wait for the next edition to come out (there are no editions), as Wikipedia is published online as it is written online. Articles are made available as is, regardless of what stage of development they are in. You can update Wikipedia at any moment. People do so continually around the clock, thereby helping each other keep abreast of the most recent events everywhere and the latest facts in every subject. Fourth, Wikipedia has a meager "publishing" cost for adding or expanding entries, as it is online, with no need to buy paper or ink for distribution. This has allowed it to be made available for free, making it more accessible to everyone. This has also enabled Wikipedia to be independently developed and published in many different languages simultaneously by people literate in each. Of the 290+ different language Wikipedias, 137 of them have 10,000 or more articles. Fifth, Wikipedia has a low environmental impact in some respects, since it never needs to be printed. However, computers have their own environmental cost. Sixth, Wikipedia is extra-linear (more than linear). Instead of in-line explanations, Wikipedia incorporates hypertext in the form of wikilinks. Throughout its content is a robust network of links, providing another dimension of knowledge accessibility. The encyclopedia also has correlated to tables of contents and indexes, with each entry in them hyperlinked to an article on the topic specified. Seventh, each Wikipedia article provides an introduction summarizing the more extensive detail of its contents. Eighth, being open to anyone to edit, articles on Wikipedia are subject to additions that might be erroneous or written poorly, which in turn are subject to being corrected or rewritten. It is a community effort, with most people involved helping to improve the work, fixing problems they encounter along the way. See more about Wikipedia's strengths and weaknesses below ... Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality Main pages: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great and Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great See also: Reliability of Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia The Wikipedia Monument (2014) by Mihran Hakobyan in Slubice, Poland, honors the Wikipedia community. Wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses, and differences arise because it is open to anyone. According to editorial guidelines and policies, it has a large contributor base, and its articles are written by consensus. Wikipedia is open to a large contributor base, drawing many editors from diverse backgrounds. This allows Wikipedia to reduce regional and cultural bias found in many publications significantly and makes it very difficult for any person or group to censor and impose bias. A large, diverse editor base also provides access and breadth on subject matter otherwise inaccessible or poorly documented. Many editors contributing at any moment can produce encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. Like any publication, Wikipedia may reflect the cultural, age, socio-economic, and other biases of its contributors. There is no systematic process to make sure "obviously important" topics are written about, so Wikipedia may suffer unexpected oversights and omissions. While anyone may alter most articles, in practice, editing will be performed by a certain demographic (younger rather than older, male rather than female, literate, rich enough to afford a computer, et cetera) and may, therefore, show some bias. Some topics may not be covered well, others in great depth. Allowing anyone to edit Wikipedia makes it easily vandalized and susceptible to unverified information, which requires removal. See Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism. While blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, Wikipedia is more subject to subtle viewpoint promotion than a typical reference work. However, a bias that would be unchallenged in a traditional reference work is likely to be eventually challenged or considered on Wikipedia. While Wikipedia articles generally attain a good standard after editing, it is important to note that fledgling articles and those monitored less well may be susceptible to vandalism and insertion of false information. Wikipedia's radical openness also means any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state, such as in the middle of a large edit or a controversial rewrite. Many contributors do not yet comply fully with key policies or may add information without citable sources. Wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be relatively promptly corrected. Numerous editors at any given time are monitoring recent changes and edit articles on their watchlists. Wikipedia is written by open and transparent consensus—an approach with its pros and cons. Censorship or imposing "official" points of view is complicated and usually fails after a time. Eventually, all notable views become fairly described for most articles, and a neutral point of view reached. In reality, the process of reaching consensus may be long and drawn-out, with articles fluid or changeable for a long time while they find the "neutral approach" all sides can agree on. Reaching neutrality is occasionally made harder by extreme-viewpoint contributors. Wikipedia operates a full editorial dispute resolution process that allows time for discussion and resolution in-depth. Still, it also permits disagreements to last for months before poor-quality or biased edits are removed. A common conclusion is that Wikipedia is a valuable resource and provides a good reference point on its subjects. That said, articles and subject areas sometimes suffer from significant omissions, and while misinformation and vandalism are usually corrected quickly, this does not always happen. (See for example this incident in which a person inserted a fake biography linking a prominent journalist to the Kennedy assassinations and Soviet Russia as a joke on a co-worker which went undetected for four months, saying afterward he "didn't know Wikipedia was used as a serious reference tool.") Wikipedia is written largely by amateurs. Those with expert credentials are given no additional weight. Wikipedia is also not subject to any peer review for scientific, medical, or engineering articles. One advantage of having amateurs write in Wikipedia is that they have more free time on their hands to make rapid changes in response to current events. The wider the general public interest in a topic, the more likely it is to attract contributions from non-specialists. The MediaWiki software that runs Wikipedia retains a history of all edits and changes. Thus information added to Wikipedia never "vanishes" irreversibly. Discussion pages are an important resource on contentious topics. Therefore, serious researchers can often find a wide range of vigorously or thoughtfully advocated viewpoints not present in the consensus article. As with any source, the information should be checked. A 2005 editorial by a BBC technology writer comments that these debates are probably symptomatic of cultural changes that are happening across all sources of information (including search engines and the media) and may lead to "a better sense of how to evaluate information sources." [3] Disclaimers Main page: Wikipedia:General disclaimer Wikipedia disclaimers apply to all pages on Wikipedia. However, the consensus in Wikipedia is to put all disclaimers only as links and at the end of each article. Proposals to have a warning box at the beginning have been rejected. Some do not like the way it looks or that it calls attention to possible errors in Wikipedia. Wikipedia, in common with many websites, has a disclaimer that, at times, has led to commentators citing these to support the view that Wikipedia is unreliable. A selection of similar disclaimers from places which are often regarded as reliable (including sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica, Associated Press, and the Oxford English Dictionary) can be read and compared at Wikipedia:Non-Wikipedia disclaimers. Contributing Main pages: Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia and Help:Introduction to Wikipedia See also: Help:Your first article and Guide to fixing vandalism A downloadable "Editing Wikipedia guide" in PDF form written by the staff at the Wikimedia Foundation Play media Go ahead and be bold—click the edit button! (1:06 min) Anyone can contribute to Wikipedia by clicking on the Edit tab in an article, and editors are encouraged to be bold. To get started, the intro tutorial has helpful advice. Also, creating an account offers many benefits. Editors are expected to add only verifiable and factual information rather than personal views and opinions, and to remain civil when discussing issues. Vandals will have their edits reverted and be blocked from editing. Most articles start as stubs, but after many contributions, they can become featured articles. All editors are unpaid volunteers, including administrators, trusted editors who are given elevated permissions. The ease of editing Wikipedia results in many people editing. That makes updating the encyclopedia very quick. Every page has an associated talk page tab, where improvements to it are discussed. Editorial quality review Play media Video guided tour #2: Why does Wikipedia work even though anyone can edit it? As well as systems to catch and control substandard and vandalistic edits, Wikipedia also has a full style and content manual and various positive systems for continual article review and improvement. Examples of the processes include peer review, good article assessment, and the featured article process, a rigorous review of articles that are intended to meet the highest standards and showcase Wikipedia's capability to produce high-quality work. Besides, specific types of articles or fields often have their own specialized and comprehensive projects, assessment processes (such as biographical article assessment), and expert reviewers within specific subjects. Nominated articles are also frequently the subject of specific focus on the neutral point of view noticeboard or in WikiProject Cleanup. Technical attributes Wikipedia uses MediaWiki software, the open-source program used not only on Wikimedia projects but also on many other third-party websites. The hardware supporting the Wikimedia projects is based on several hundred servers in various hosting centers worldwide. Full descriptions of these servers and their roles are available on this Meta-Wiki page. For technical information about Wikipedia, check Technical FAQ. Wikipedia publishes various types of metadata; and, across its pages, are many thousands of microformats. Feedback and questions Wikipedia is run as a communal effort. It is a community project whose result is an encyclopedia. Feedback about the content should, in the first instance, be raised on the discussion pages of those articles. Be bold and edit the pages to add information or correct mistakes. Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Main page: Wikipedia:FAQ FAQ index Category:Wikipedia FAQs Static help The Help:Contents may be accessed by clicking help displayed under the ► Interaction tab at the top left of all pages. Help:Menu—is a menu-style page that will direct you to the right place to find information. Help:Directory—is a descriptive listing of all Wikipedia's informative, instructional, and consultation pages. Giving feedback There is an established escalation-and-dispute process within Wikipedia and pages designed for questions, feedback, suggestions, and comments. For a full listing of the services and assistance that can be requested on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Request directory. Talk pages—the associated discussion page for discussion of an article or policy's contents (usually the first place to go) Wikipedia:Vandalism—a facility for reporting vandalism (but fix vandalism as well as report it) Dispute resolution—the procedure for handling disputes that remain unresolved within an article's talk space Village pump—the Wikipedia discussion area, part of the Community portal Wikipedia:Contact us See also: Bug tracker—a facility for reporting problems with the Wikipedia website or the MediaWiki software that runs it Village pump: proposals page—a place for making non-policy suggestions Wikipedia:Help desk—Wikipedia's general help desk, if other pages have not answered the query Research help and similar questions Facilities to help users researching specific topics can be found at: Wikipedia:Requested articles—to suggest or request new articles. Wikipedia:Reference desk—to ask for help with any questions or find specific facts. Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia—for information on using Wikipedia as a research tool. Because of Wikipedia's nature, it is encouraged that people looking for information should try to find it themselves in the first instance. If, however, information is found to be missing from Wikipedia, please be bold and add it. Community discussion For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the dashboard. For specific discussion not related to article content or editor conduct, see the Village pump, which covers such subjects as milestone announcements, policy and technical discussion, and information on other specialized portals such as the help, reference and peer review desks. The Community portal is a centralized place to find things to do, collaborations, and general editing to help information and find out what is happening. The Signpost, a community-edited newspaper, has recent news regarding Wikipedia, its sister projects, and the Wikimedia Foundation. Contacting individual editors To contact individual contributors, leave a message on their talk page. Standard places to ask policy and project-related questions are the Village pump, online, and the Wikipedia mailing lists, over e-mail. Reach other Wikipedians via IRC and e-mail. Besides, the Wikimedia Foundation Meta-Wiki is a site for coordinating the various Wikipedia projects and sister projects (and abstract discussions of policy and direction). Also available are places for submitting bug reports and feature requests. For a full list of contact options, see Wikipedia:Questions. Other languages This Wikipedia is written in English. Many other Wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. 1,000,000+ articles العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 250,000+ articles Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Esperanto Euskara فارسی‎ עברית 한국어 Magyar Norsk Bokmål Română Srpski Srpskohrvatski Suomi Türkçe 50,000+ articles Asturianu Bosanski Eesti Ελληνικά Simple English Galego Hrvatski Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Македонски Norsk nynorsk Slovenčina Slovenščina ไทย Sister projects Wikipedia is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects: Commons Free media repository MediaWiki Wiki software development Meta-Wiki Wikimedia project coordination Wikibooks Free textbooks and manuals Wikidata Free knowledge base Wikinews Free-content news Wikiquote Collection of quotations Wikisource Free-content library Wikispecies Directory of species Wikiversity Free learning tools Wikivoyage Free travel guide Wiktionary Dictionary and thesaurus Please note that while other sites may also use MediaWiki software and therefore look like Wikipedia [dot org]—"wiki-" or "-pedia" or anything similar—the only projects which are part of the Wikimedia Foundation are those listed above. See also Help desk Help portal Internet portal For useful directories and indexes, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. Wikipedia:Formal organization Wikipedia:History of Wikipedian processes and people Wikipedia:Quality control Wikipedia:Ten things you may not know about Wikipedia Wikimedia power structure (Meta) References ^ "Wikistats - Statistics For Wikimedia Projects". stats.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 9 January 2021. ^ "Milestones 2001". Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org. ^ Bill Thompson, "What is it with Wikipedia?" BBC, December 16, 2005. Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Wikipedia Phoebe Ayers; Charles Matthews; Ben Yates (2008). How Wikipedia Works. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55387-6. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55377-7. Dan O'Sullivan (24 September 2009). Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8606-0. Andrew Lih (17 March 2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch Of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6. Joseph Michael Reagle, Jr.; Lawrence Lessig (30 September 2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. External links Wikipedia on Facebook Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Mission statement—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia values—The six values of the Wikimedia Foundation Frequently asked questions|In a nutshell, what is Wikipedia? And what is the Wikimedia Foundation?—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia founding principles—Principles generally supported by all the Wikimedia communities Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia v t e  Basic information on Wikipedia Help directory menu Reference desk Help desk About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Purpose Who writes Wikipedia? 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en-wikipedia-org-9759	----	List of Roman emperors - Wikipedia List of Roman emperors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article Augustus, the first Roman emperor The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, after major roles played by the populist dictator and military leader Julius Caesar. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the council)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus' official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of northern Africa and western Asia. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the Senate and People of Rome. During the republic, the chief magistrates of Rome were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, and the election was controlled by the emperor. In the late 3rd century, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called Dominate period of the Roman Empire. This was characterised by the explicit increase of authority in the person of the emperor, and the use of the style dominus noster 'our lord'. The rise of powerful Barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire and the challenge they posed to defense of far-flung borders and unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration geographically of the Empire in 286 with a co-Augustus. In 313, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Milan along with Licinius that granted freedom in the worship of Christianity. In 330, he established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognised senior emperor, with the division usually based in geographic terms. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.[2] However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, and so the end of a separate list of emperors below, is dated either from the de facto date of 476 when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. In the period that followed, the Empire is usually treated by historians as the Byzantine Empire governed by the Byzantine emperors, although this designation is not used universally, and continues to be a subject of specialist debate today.[3] In the 7th century reign of Heraclius, the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 saw much of Rome's eastern territory lost to the Sasanian Empire, recovered by Heraclius, and then lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad and establishment of Islam. The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars. The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were captured by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II.[4] The Ottoman dynasty carried on using the title of Caesar of Rome. Counting all individuals to have possessed the full imperial title, including those who did not technically rule in their own right (e.g. co-emperors or minors during regencies), this list contains 194 emperors and 3 ruling empresses, for a total of 197 monarchs. Contents 1 Legitimacy 1.1 Emperors after 395 2 The Principate 2.1 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty 2.2 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 2.3 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty 2.4 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty 2.5 235–285: Crisis of the Third Century 3 The Dominate 3.1 284–363: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty 3.2 363–395: from Jovian to Theodosius 4 Western emperors 4.1 395–455: Theodosian dynasty 4.2 455–480: Last western emperors 5 Eastern emperors 5.1 395–457: Theodosian dynasty 5.2 457–518: Leonid dynasty 5.3 518–602: Justinian dynasty 5.4 610–695: Heraclian dynasty 5.5 695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy 5.6 717–802: Isaurian dynasty 5.7 802–813: Nikephorian dynasty 5.8 820–867: Amorian dynasty 5.9 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty 5.10 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty 5.11 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty 5.12 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty 5.13 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty 5.14 1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Legitimacy[edit] This article is about legitimate Roman emperors. For other individuals claiming the title of Emperor, see List of Roman usurpers. The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors, and who appear in published regnal lists.[5][6][7] The word 'legitimate' is used by most authors, but usually without clear definition, perhaps not surprisingly, since the emperorship was itself rather vaguely defined legally. In Augustus' original formulation, the princeps was selected by either the Senate or "the people" of Rome, but quite quickly the legions became an acknowledged stand-in for "the people." A person could be proclaimed as emperor by their troops or by "the mob" in the street, but in theory needed to be confirmed by the Senate. The coercion that frequently resulted was implied in this formulation. Furthermore, a sitting emperor was empowered to name a successor and take him on as apprentice in government and in that case the Senate had no role to play, although it sometimes did when a successor lacked the power to inhibit bids by rival claimants. By the medieval (or Byzantine) period, the very definition of the Senate became vague as well, adding to the complication.[8] Lists of legitimate emperors are therefore partly influenced by the subjective views of those compiling them, and also partly by historical convention. Many of the 'legitimate' emperors listed here acceded to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. That said, this list uses the following criteria: Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, is a 'legitimate emperor' (1). Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor (1), and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor (2). Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor (3), at least during the Principate. So for instance, Aurelian, though acceding to the throne by usurpation, was the sole and undisputed monarch between 270 and 275, and thus was a legitimate emperor. Gallienus, though not in control of the whole Empire, and plagued by other claimants, was the legitimate heir of (the legitimate emperor) Valerian. Claudius Gothicus, though acceding illegally, and not in control of the whole Empire, was the only claimant accepted by the Senate, and thus, for his reign, was the legitimate emperor. Equally, during the Year of the Four Emperors, all claimants, though not undisputed, were at some point accepted by the Senate and are thus included; conversely, during the Year of the Five Emperors neither Pescennius Niger nor Clodius Albinus were accepted by the Senate, and are thus not included. There are a few examples where individuals were made co-emperor, but never wielded power in their own right (typically the child of an emperor); these emperors are legitimate, but are not included in regnal lists, and in this article are listed together with the senior emperor. Emperors after 395[edit] After 395, the list of emperors in the East is based on the same general criteria, with the exception that the emperor only had to be in undisputed control of the Eastern part of the empire, or be the legitimate heir of the Eastern emperor. The situation in the West is more complex. Throughout the final years of the Western Empire (395–480) the Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. Furthermore, after 455 the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire;[9] some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, Romulus Augustulus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures. The Principate[edit] Main article: Principate 27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty[edit] Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Augustus Caesar Augustus 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 (40 years, 7 months and 3 days) Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, became emperor as a result of settlement with the Roman Senate 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14 (aged 75)[10] Died of natural causes Tiberius Tiberius Caesar Augustus 18 September 14 – 16 March 37 (22 years, 5 months and 26 days) Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37 (aged 77)[11] Died probably of natural causes, possibly murdered at the instigation of Caligula Caligula (Gaius) Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 18 March 37 – 24 January 41 (3 years, 10 months and 6 days) Grandnephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 (aged 28)[12] Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard, senators and freedmen Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 24 January 41 – 13 October 54 (13 years, 8 months and 19 days) Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted as such by the Senate 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54 (aged 63)[13] Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favour of her son Nero Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 13 October 54 – 9 June 68 (13 years, 7 months and 27 days) Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 (aged 30)[14] Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate 68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty[edit] Main articles: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Galba Servius Galba Caesar Augustus[15] 8 June 68 – 15 January 69 (7 months and 7 days) Revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69 (aged 72)[16] Murdered by the Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho Otho Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus[15] 15 January – 16 April 69 (3 months and 1 day) Seized the purple in a coup against Galba 28 April 32 – 16 April 69 (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius[17] Vitellius Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus 18 April – 20 December 69 (8 months and 2 days) Seized power with support of Rhine legions, in opposition to Galba and Otho 24 September 15 – 20 December 69 (aged 54)[18] Tortured and murdered by Vespasian's troops Vespasian Caesar Vespasianus Augustus[15] 21 December 69 – 24 June 79 (9 years, 6 months and 3 days) Seized power with the support of the eastern legions 17 November 9 – 23/24 June 79 (aged 69) Died of natural causes[19] Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus[15] 24 June 79 – 13 September 81 (2 years, 2 months and 20 days) Son of Vespasian 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 (aged 41) Died of natural causes[20] Domitian Caesar Domitianus Augustus[15] 14 September 81 – 18 September 96 (15 years and 4 days) Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian, was accepted as emperor by the Praetorian Guard and the Senate 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 (aged 44) Assassinated in a palace conspiracy[21] 96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty[edit] Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Nerva Nerva Caesar Augustus[15] 18 September 96 – 27 January 98 (1 year, 4 months and 9 days) Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Domitian. First of the "Five Good Emperors". 8 November 30 – 27 January 98 (aged 67) Died after suffering a stroke[22] Trajan Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus[15] 28 January 98 – 8 August 117 (19 years, 6 months and 11 days) Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. 18 September 53 – 8 August 117 (aged 63) Died of natural causes[23] Hadrian Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus[15] 11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (20 years, 10 months and 29 days) Supposedly adopted by Trajan 24 January 76 – 10 July 138 (aged 62) Died of natural causes[24] Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius 10 July 138 – 7 March 161 (22 years, 7 months and 25 days) Adopted son and heir of Hadrian 19 September 86 – 7 March 161 (aged 74) Died of natural causes[25] Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus[26] 7 March 161 – 17 March 180 (19 years and 10 days) Adopted son and son-in-law of Antoninus Pius. Adoptive brother and co-emperor of Lucius Verus. Last of the "Five Good Emperors". 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 (aged 58) Died of natural causes (likely the Antonine Plague)[27] Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus 7 March 161 – 23 January 169 (7 years, 10 months and 15 days) Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death 15 December 130 – 23 January 169 (aged 38) Died of natural causes (Antonine Plague)[28] Commodus Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus 17 March 180 – 31 December 192 (12 years, 9 months and 14 days) Son of Marcus Aurelius 31 August 161 – 31 December 192 (aged 31) Strangled to death in his bath[29] 193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty[edit] Main articles: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax 31 December 192 – 28 March 193 (2 months and 28 days) Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Commodus 1 August 126 – 28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[30] Didius Julianus Marcus Didius Severus Julianus 28 March – 1 June 193 (2 months and 4 days) Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor 29 January 137 – 1 June 193 (aged 56) Executed on orders of the Senate[31] Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax 9 April 193 – 4 February 211 (17 years, 9 months and 26 days) Proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions 11 April 145 – 4 February 211 (aged 65) Died of natural causes[32] Caracalla (formally Antoninus) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 4 February 211 – 8 April 217 (6 years, 2 months and 4 days) Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Geta 4 April 188 – 8 April 217 (aged 29) Murdered by a soldier in a conspiracy possibly involving Macrinus[33] Geta Publius Septimius Geta 4 February 211 – 2 February 212 (11 months and 29 days) Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Caracalla 7 March 189 – 2 February 212 (aged 22) Murdered on the orders of Caracalla Macrinus Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus 11 April 217 – 8 June 218 (1 year, 1 month and 28 days) Praetorian prefect to Caracalla, whom he possibly conspired to have murdered, and afterwards became himself emperor with consent of the army 164 or 166 – mid-218 (aged approximately 53) Executed in favor of Elagabalus[34] Diadumenian Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus Late May – June 218 Son of Macrinus, named emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus 14 September 208 – June 218 (aged 9) Caught in flight and executed in favor of Elagabalus[35] Elagabalus (formally Antoninus) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 16 May 218 – 11 March 222 (3 years, 9 months and 23 days) Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the army, in opposition to Macrinus 203 or 204 – 11 March 222 (aged around 18) Murdered, thrown into the Tiber[36] Severus Alexander Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander 13 March 222 – 19 March 235 (13 years and 6 days) Cousin and adopted heir of Elagabalus, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the troops 1 October 208 – 19 March 235 (aged 26) Lynched by mutinous troops alongside his mother[37] 235–285: Crisis of the Third Century[edit] Main articles: Crisis of the Third Century and Year of the Six Emperors Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Maximinus Thrax Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus 20 March 235 – 24 June 238 (3 years, 3 months and 4 days) Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander c. 173 – 24 June 238 (aged approximately 65) Murdered by his men during the siege of Aquileia[38] Gordian I Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days) Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, Gordian II, while serving as governor of Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son, Gordian II[39] Gordian II Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus 22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days) Proclaimed emperor alongside father Gordian I, during revolt in Africa against Maximinus Killed outside Carthage in battle against an army loyal to Maximinus[39] Pupienus Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus 22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days) Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[40] Balbinus Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus 22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days) Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[40] Gordian III Marcus Antonius Gordianus 29 July 238 – c. February 244 (51⁄2 years) Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor 20 January 225 – c. February 244 (aged 19) Died during campaign against Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by his successor, Philip the Arab[41] Philip the Arab Marcus Julius Philippus c. February 244 – c. September 249 (5 years and 7 months) Praetorian prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death Killed at the Battle of Verona against Decius Philip II Marcus Julius Severus Philippus Summer 247 – c. September 249 (2 years) Son of Philip the Arab, named co-emperor in 247 Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[42] Decius Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius c. September 249 – June 251 (1 year and c. 9 months) Proclaimed emperor by the troops in Moesia, then defeated Philip the Arab in battle c. 201 – June 251 (aged approximately 50) Killed at the Battle of Abrittus against the Goths[43] Herennius Etruscus Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius c. June 251 Son of Decius, appointed joint emperor Killed in battle against the Goths alongside his father, Decius[44] Hostilian Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus June – c. November 251 (approximately 5 months) Son and heir of Decius, accepted as emperor by Trebonianus Gallus Probably died of the plague, possibly killed by Trebonianus Gallus[45] Trebonianus Gallus Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus June 251 – c. August 253 (2 years and 2 months) Proclaimed emperor by the army after Decius's death c. 206 – c. August 253 Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Aemilian[46] Volusianus Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus c. August 251 – c. August 253 (2 years) Son of Trebonianus Gallus, appointed joint emperor c. 230 – c. August 253 Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father[47] Aemilian Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus c. July – September 253 (2–3 months) Commander of the army in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers after defeating barbarians, and in opposition to Gallus Murdered by his own troops, in favor of Valerian[48] Valerian Publius Licinius Valerianus September 253 – c. June 260 (6 years and c. 9 months) Army commander in Raetia and Noricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian Captured at Edessa by the Persian king Shapur I, died in captivity[49] Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus September 253 – c. September 268 (15 years) Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor c. 218 – c. September 268 (aged 50) Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving his successors Claudius and Aurelian[50] Saloninus (Publius Licinius Cornelius) Saloninus Valerianus January 260 – fall 260 Son of Gallienus, briefly co-emperor Murdered in 260 by the soldiers of Postumus[51] Claudius Gothicus Marcus Aurelius Claudius September 268 – c. April 270[52] (1 year and c. 7 months) Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death 10 May 214 – 270 (aged 55) Died of disease, possibly the plague of Cyprian Quintillus Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus c. April–May 270 (17 days or more) Brother of Claudius Gothicus, proclaimed emperor after his death Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian[53] Aurelian Lucius Domitius Aurelianus c. May 270 – c. October 275 (5 years and c. 5 months)[54] Supreme commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius's death, in opposition to Quintillus 9 September 214 – c. October 275 (aged 61) Murdered by the troops[55] Tacitus Marcus Claudius Tacitus c. December 275 – c. June 276 (6–7 months) Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian Died of an illness or killed by his own troops[56] Florianus Marcus Annius Florianus c. June–September 276 (2–3 months) Likely half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed emperor by the troops after Tacitus's death Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Probus[57] Probus Marcus Aurelius Probus c. June 276 – c. September 282 (6 years and c. 3 months)[58] Proclaimed emperor by eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus 19 August 232 – c. September 282 (aged 50) Murdered by his troops, in favour of Carus[59] Carus Marcus Aurelius Carus c. September 282 – c. July 283 (10 months)[60] Praetorian prefect to Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder Died during a campaign against Persia, likely of illness, or possibly killed by lightning[61] Numerian Marcus Aurelius Numerianus c. July 283 – November 284 (1 year and 4 months) Younger son and heir of Carus, reigned jointly with his older brother, Carinus Died during army march to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated[62] Carinus Marcus Aurelius Carinus 283–285 (2 years) Eldest son of Carus, who appointed him joint emperor Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his men[63] The Dominate[edit] Main article: Dominate 284–363: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty[edit] Main articles: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar". Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus 20 November 284 – 1 May 305 (20 years, 5 months and 11 days) Proclaimed emperor by the army after death of Numerian, and defeated Numerian's brother, Carinus, in battle c. 242/245 – 311/312 (aged c. 68) Abdicated, later died in unclear circumstances[64][65] Maximian Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus 1 April 286 – 1 May 305 (19 years and 1 month) Elevated by Diocletian c. 250 – c. July 310 (aged c. 60) Abdicated with Diocletian, later tried to regain the purple with, and then from, Maxentius, before being finally killed on orders of Constantine I Galerius Galerius Valerius Maximianus 1 May 305 – May 311 (6 years) Appointed Caesar in 293 by Diocletian, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus c. 258 – May 311 (aged c. 53) Died of natural causes[66] Constantius I Flavius Valerius Constantius 1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (1 year, 2 months and 24 days) Appointed Caesar to Maximian in 293, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus c. 250 – 25 July 306 Died of natural causes[67] Constantine I Flavius Valerius Constantinus 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (30 years, 9 months and 27 days) Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops. Accepted as Caesar by Galerius in 306, promoted to Augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to Caesar in 309. 27 February 272 – 22 May 337 (aged 65) Died of natural causes Severus Flavius Valerius Severus August 306 – c. April 307 (c. 8 months) Elevated by Galerius upon Constantius I's death Murdered or forced to commit suicide in September 307 after surrendering to Maximian and Maxentius[68] Maxentius Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius 28 October 306 – 28 October 312 (6 years) Son of Maximian, seized power after being initially passed over in the succession Died on 28 October 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I[69] Licinius Valerius Licinianus Licinius 11 November 308 – 19 September 324 (15 years, 10 months and 8 days) Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daza in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313. c. 265 – 325 (aged around 60) Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine I[70] Maximinus ("Daza") Galerius Valerius Maximinus 310 – c. July 313 (3 years) Named Caesar by his uncle, Galerius, and proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 310 Died c. July 313 Defeated in civil war against Licinius, died shortly afterward[71][72] Valerius Valens Aurelius Valerius Valens October 316 – c. February 317 General under Licinius, elevated in opposition to Constantine Executed in lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and Constantine[73][74] Martinian Mar(...) Martinianus July – 19 September 324 (2 months) Senior bureaucrat under Licinius, elevated in opposition to Constantine Deposed by Constantine and banished to Cappadocia, executed the following year[75] Constantine II Flavius Claudius Constantinus 9 September 337 – April 340 (2 years and 7 months) Son and heir of Constantine I, acclaimed by the troops jointly with his brothers, Constantius II and Constans 7 August 316 – April 340 (aged 23) Killed in war against his brother, Constans[76] Constantius II Flavius Julius Constantius 9 September 337 – 3 November 361 (24 years, 1 month and 25 days) Son and heir of Constantine I, acclaimed by the troops jointly with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans 7 August 317 – 3 November 361 (aged 44) Died of natural causes[76] Constans Flavius Julius Constans 9 September 337 – 18 January 350 (12 years, 4 months and 9 days) Son and heir of Constantine I, acclaimed by the troops jointly with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II c. 323 – c. January 350 (aged 23) Overthrown and killed by Magnentius[76] Vetranio 1 March – 25 December 350 (9 months and 24 days) General of Constans, proclaimed emperor in opposition to Magnentius and temporarily recognized by Constantius II Compelled to abdicate and retire, died 6 years later Julian ("the Apostate") Flavius Claudius Julianus 3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (1 year, 7 months and 23 days) Acclaimed by the Gallic army in early 360, became sole undisputed emperor after the death of his cousin, Constantius II 331 – 26 June 363 (aged 31–32) Last non-Christian emperor of Rome. Mortally wounded during campaign against Persia.[77] 363–395: from Jovian to Theodosius[edit] Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Jovian Jovianus 27 June 363 – 17 February 364 (7 months and 21 days) Commander of Julian's household guard, acclaimed as emperor by the troops after Julian's death 331 – 17 February 364 Allegedly died due to inhaling poisonous fumes[78][79] Valentinian I Valentinianus 26 February 364 – 17 November 375 (11 years, 8 months and 22 days) Elected by the army to replace Jovian 3 May 321 – 17 November 375 (aged 54) Died of natural causes Valens 28 March 364 – 9 August 378 (14 years, 4 months and 12 days) Elevated by his brother, Valentinian, and given charge of the eastern provinces c. 328 – 9 August 378 (aged 49) Killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths[80] Gratian Gratianus 24 August 367 – 25 August 383 (16 years and 1 day) Elevated by his father, Valentinian I 18 April 359 – 25 August 383 (aged 24) Overthrown and killed by Magnus Maximus[81][82] Valentinian II Valentinianus 22 November 375 – 15 May 392 (16 years, 5 months and 23 days) Son of Valentinian I, elevated by Pannonian army, accepted as nominal ruler of Italy and north Africa by Gratian and Valens 371 – 15 May 392 Found hanged, probably committed suicide Theodosius I 19 January 379 – 17 January 395 (15 years, 11 months and 29 days) Appointed by Gratian to replace Valens in the east. Last Roman emperor to personally rule both halves of the empire. 11 January 347 – 17 January 395 (aged 48) Died of natural causes Magnus Maximus 383 – 28 August 388 (5 years) Usurped power from Gratian, recognized as ruler of Gaul, Britain, and Hispania by the other emperors Died on 28 August 388 (aged 53) Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save Victor Flavius Victor 384 or 387 – August 388 Elevated by his father, Magnus Maximus Executed by count Arbogast at the behest of Theodosius I Eugenius 22 August 392 – 6 September 394 (2 years and 15 days) Secretary of Valentinian II, elevated by the master of soldiers, Arbogast, after Valentinian's death Died 6 September 394 Defeated at the Battle of the Frigidus and executed by Theodosius Western emperors[edit] Main article: Western Roman Empire 395–455: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Main article: Theodosian dynasty Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death. Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Honorius 17 January 395 – 15 August 423 (28 years, 6 months and 29 days) Raised to the purple on 23 January 393 by his father, Theodosius I, after the death of Valentinian II, and became western emperor upon his father's death 9 September 384 – 15 August 423 (aged 38) Died of edema Constantine III Flavius Claudius Constantinus 407 – c. September 411 4 years Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died in September 411 Abdicated, executed immediately thereafter Constantius III 8 February – 2 September 421 (6 months and 25 days) A prominent general and courtier, elevated by his brother-in-law Honorius as a reward for his military successes. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died on 2 September 421, of natural causes, shortly after his elevation Joannes 27 August 423 – May 425 (1 year and 9 months) A senior bureaucrat, proclaimed emperor by the master of soldiers, Castinus, to replace Honorius. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died in June or July 425 Defeated by the Eastern Roman army, captured and executed Valentinian III Placidus Valentinianus 23 October 425 – 16 March 455 (29 years, 4 months and 21 days) Son of Constantius III and nephew of Honorius, elevated by the Eastern Empire after the death of Joannes 2 July 419 – 16 March 455 (aged 35) Murdered by retainers of Aetius 455–480: Last western emperors[edit] Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Petronius Maximus 17 March – 31 May 455 (2 months and 14 days) A prominent senator, seized power after instigating the death of Valentinian III, whose widow he then forcibly married. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. c. 397 – 31 May 455 Lynched by a mob in the lead-up to the Vandal sack of Rome Avitus Eparchius Avitus 9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (1 year, 3 months and 8 days) A prominent Gallo-Roman aristocrat, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths after Petronius's death. Recognized by the Roman Senate, but not the Eastern Empire. Died in 457 Deposed by Ricimer and Majorian. Became bishop of Placentia, but died soon after, possibly murdered. Majorian Julius Valerius Maiorianus 28 December 457 – 2 August 461 (3 years, 7 months and 5 days) A leading officer in the Italian army, proclaimed emperor by the troops. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. c. 420 – 7 August 461 Deposed and executed by the master of soldiers, Ricimer Libius Severus 19 November 461 – 14 November 465 (3 years, 11 months and 26 days) A senator, elevated by the master of soldiers, Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died on 14 November 465 Anthemius Procopius Anthemius 12 April 467 – 11 July 472 (5 years, 2 months and 29 days) Son-in-law of eastern emperor Marcian, elevated by Marcian's successor Leo I Died on 11 July 472 Murdered by Ricimer's nephew, Gundobad Olybrius Anicius Olybrius 11 July – 2 November 472 (3 months and 22 days) Son-in-law of Valentinian III, elevated by Ricimer in opposition to Anthemius. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Died of natural causes on 2 November 472, shortly after his elevation Glycerius 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 (1 year and 3 months) Elevated by the patrician Gundobad. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. Deposed by Julius Nepos, appointed bishop of Salona afterward Julius Nepos June 474 – 480 Driven out of Italy on 28 August 475 by the master of soldiers, Orestes Head of the Roman army in Dalmatia, seized power from Glycerius. Recognized by the Eastern Empire. Last claimant to the western imperial office. Continued ruling Dalmatia as a Roman rump state after Odoacer's 476 coup in Italy. Murdered by several of his retainers in 480. Romulus ("Augustulus") 31 October 475 – 4 September 476 (10 months and 4 days) Appointed by his father, the master of soldiers, Orestes, after the deposition of Nepos. Not recognized outside Italy. Deposed by Odoacer, which effectively ended the Western Empire in Italy. Most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa. Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Medieval Roman Empire; the latter two beginning to replace the former in more modern scholarship. Eastern emperors[edit] Main article: List of Byzantine emperors 395–457: Theodosian dynasty[edit] Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death. Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Arcadius 17 January 395 – 1 May 408 (13 years, 3 months and 14 days) Raised to rank of Augustus by his father, Theodosius I, in January 383, and became senior eastern emperor after his father's death 1 January 377 – 1 May 408 (aged 31) Theodosius II 1 May 408 – 28 July 450 (42 years, 2 months and 27 days) Son and successor of Arcadius, elevated to rank of Augustus on 10 January 402 10 April 401 – 28 July 450 (aged 49) Died of injuries suffered during a hunting accident Marcian Marcianus 25 August 450 – 26 January 457 (6 years, 5 months and 1 day) Elevated by the master of soldiers, Aspar, and married Theodosius II's sister, Pulcheria, for legitimacy c. 392 – 26 January 457 (aged 65) Died of gout 457–518: Leonid dynasty[edit] See also: House of Leo Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Leo I 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 (16 years, 11 months and 11 days) Chosen by the army c. 401 – 18 January 474 (aged 73) Died of dysentery Leo II 18 January – 10 November 474 (9 months and 23 days) Grandson of Leo I c. 467 – 10 November 474 (aged 7) Cause unknown, possibly poisoned Zeno 17 November 474 – 9 April 491 (17 years) Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474. c. 425 – 9 April 491 (aged 66) Died of dysentery or epilepsy Basiliscus 9 January 475 – August 476 (1 year, 7 months) Seized throne from Zeno Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno Marcus 9 January 475 – August 476 (1 year, 7 months) Son of Basiliscus. Starved to death alongside his father, Basiliscus Anastasius I "Dicorus" 11 April 491 –9 July 518 (27 years, 2 months and 28 days) Son-in-law of Leo I c. 430 – 9 July 518 (aged 87) Died of natural causes 518–602: Justinian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Justin I Iustinus 10 July 518 – 1 August 527 (9 years and 22 days) Elected by army Died of natural causes at age 77. Justinian I Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus 1 April 527 – 14 November 565 (38 years, 7 months and 13 days) Nephew of Justin I Died of natural causes at age 83. Justin II Iustinus 14 November 565 – 5 October 578 (13 years) Nephew of Justinian I Died of natural causes at age 58. Suffered dementia Tiberius II Constantine Tiberius Constantinus 5 October 578 – 14 August 582 (3 years, 10 months) Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574 14 August 582 (aged 62) Natural causes Maurice Mauricius Tiberius 14 August 582 – 22 November 602 (20 years) Son-in-law of Tiberius II Executed by Phocas Theodosius (III) 26 March 590 – 22 November 602 (12 years) Son of Maurice 4 August 583/585– 602 (aged c. 16–19) Executed by supporters of Phocas Phocas 23 November 602 – 4 October 610 (8 years) Seized throne 547 – 5 October 610 (aged 62–63) Executed 610–695: Heraclian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Heraclius Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Flavius Heraclius 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 (30 years) Revolt c. 575 – 11 February 641 (aged 65 or 66) Natural causes Constantine III Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Heraclius Novus Constantinus 11 February – 24/26 May 641 (3 months) Son of Heraclius 3 May – 24/26 May 641 (aged 28) Tuberculosis Heraklonas Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος with Tiberius 11 February 641 – September 641 (7 months) Son of Heraclius; his brother Tiberius briefly served as co-emperor. unknown, but probably before 642 Constans II Κωνσταντῖνος Constantinus September 641 – 15 September 668 (27 years) Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor. 7 November 630–15 September 668 (aged 37) Assassinated Constantine IV Κωνσταντῖνος with Heraclius and Tiberius 15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius) Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681. 652 – 14 September 685 (aged 33) Dysentery Justinian II 'the Slit-nosed' (first reign) Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Ῥινότμητος 14 September 685 – 695 Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681 Exiled to the Crimea 695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy[edit] Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Leontios Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος 695 – 698 Revolt February 706 Executed Tiberios III Apsimaros Τιβέριος (Αὔγουστος) 698 – 705 Revolt February 706 Executed Justinian II (second reign) with Tiberius August 705 – December 711 Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706. 668/669 – 11 December 711 (aged 42) Killed by the army Philippikos Bardanes Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος December 711 – 3 June 713 Revolt Died in 713 Anastasios II (Ἀρτέμιος) Ἀναστάσιος June 713 – November 715 Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers Died in 718 during attempt to regain the throne Theodosius III Θεοδόσιος May 715 – 25 March 717 Chosen by troops Unknown. Became a monk. 717–802: Isaurian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Leo III the Isaurian (Λέων ὁ Ἴσαυρος) 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 Rebellion c. 685 – June 741 (aged 56) Died of Edema Constantine V (Κωνσταντῖνος) 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 Son of Leo III 14 September 775 (aged 57) Died of Carbuncle Artabasdos (Ἀρτάβασδος) with Nikephoros June 741/742 – 2 November 743 Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742 Leo IV the Khazar (Λέων) 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 Son of Constantine V 750 – 780 Died of tuberculosis Constantine VI (Κωνσταντῖνος) 8 September 780 – August 797 Son of Leo IV 771 – 797 (aged 26) Died after being blinded by his mother Irene of Athens (Εἰρήνη) August 797 – 31 October 802 Regent during minority of Constantine VI. Seized throne from son in 797. First Byzantine empress regnant. c. 752 – 9 August 803 (aged 51) 802–813: Nikephorian dynasty[edit] Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Nikephoros I (Νικηφόρος) 31 October 802 – 26 July 811 Rebellion 750 – 26 July 811 (aged 60–61) After the Battle of Pliska Staurakios (Σταυράκιος) 26 July 811 – 2 October 811 Son of Nikephoros I c. 780 – 11 January 812 (aged ~30) Died of gangrene Michael I Rangabe (Μιχαὴλ Ῥαγγαβέ) with Theophylact (Θεοφύλακτος) 2 October 811 – 22 June 813 Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, appointed his son Theophylact (born c. 793) as co-emperor on 25 December 811 January 11 844 (aged ~74) Died in a monastery on Prote Island, Theophylact died in a monastery on Plate Island on January 15 849 Leo V the Armenian (Λέων) with Constantine (Κωνσταντῖνος) 11 July 813 – 25 December 820 Rebellion, appointed his son Symbatios as co-emperor under the name Constantine on Christmas 813 Murdered by successor's conspirators; Constantine died in exile in monastery on Prote Island at a later date 820–867: Amorian dynasty[edit] See also: Byzantium under the Amorian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Michael II (Μιχαὴλ) 25 December 820 – 2 October 829 Chosen after murder of predecessor c. 775 – 2 October 829 (aged ~54) Theophilos (Θεόφιλος) 2 October 829 – 20 January 842 Only son of Michael II and co-emperor since 821 805 – 20 January 842 (aged 37) Died after an unknown disease Michael III (Μιχαὴλ) 20 January 842 – 23 September 867 Son of Theophilos 19 January 840 – 23 September 867 (aged 27) Assassinated by successor 867–1056: Macedonian dynasty[edit] See also: Macedonian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειος ὁ Μακεδών) 867 – 29 August 886 Previous co-emperor, full emperor upon death of predecessor. ¿811? – 29 August 886 (aged 75) Died in a hunting accident Leo VI the Wise (Λέων ὁ Σοφός) 886 – 11 May 912 Son of Basil I (potentially in reality the son of Michael III), co-emperor since 870. 19 September 886 – 11 May 912 (aged 45) Alexander (Ἀλέξανδρος) 11 May 912 – 6 June 913 Son of Basil I, co-emperor since 879. Born on 23 November 870, died of exhaustion after a game of tzykanion (aged 42) Constantine VII (Κωνσταντῖνος) 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 Son of Leo VI, co-emperor since 908. Born on 17/18 May 905. Died at age 54, possibly poisoned by his son Romanos II. Romanos I Lekapenos (Ῥωμανὸς Λεκαπηνός) with Christopher Lekapenos (Χριστόφορος Λακαπηνός) and Stephen Lekapenos (Στέφανος Λακαπηνός) and Constantine Lekapenos (Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός) 17 December 920 – 16 December 944 20 May 921 – August 931 (Christopher) 924 – 945 (Stephen & Constantine) Regent for the young Constantine VII, crowned himself senior emperor during Constantine VII's minority. Proclaimed his three sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as co-emperors. Was overthrown by Stephen in 944, who briefly ruled as senior emperor (for a few weeks) until he himself was overthrown by Constantine VII. Died as a monk on 15 June 948. Christopher died in August of 931. Both Stephen and Constantine died in exile as monks; Stephen on Easter 963 on Lesbos and Constantine in 946–948 on Samothrace trying to escape exile and reclaim imperial power Romanos II (Ῥωμανὸς) 9 November 959 – 15 March 963 Son of Constantine VII 15 March 963 (aged 24–25) Possibly poisoned Nikephoros II Phokas (Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς) 16 August 963 – 11 December 969 Chosen by the army, acted as senior emperor during the regency of young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII 11 December 969 (aged 56–57), Constantinople Assassinated by successor John I Tzimiskes John I Tzimiskes (Ἰωάννης Τζιμισκής) 11 December 969 – 10 January 976 Nephew of Nikephoros II Phokas, succeeded as senior emperor and regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII Died on 10 January 976 (aged 50–51), poisoned by Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos Basil II 'the Bulgar Slayer' (Βασίλειος ὁ Βουλγαροκτόνος) 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 Eldest son of Romanos II 958 – 15 December 1025 (aged 67–68) Constantine VIII Porphyrogenetos (Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος) 15 December 1025 – 15 November 1028 Second son of Romanos II, co-emperor since 962. 960 – 15 November 1028 (aged 68) Zoe Porphyrogenita (Ζωὴ ἡ Πορφυρογέννητη) 15 November 1028 – June 1050 Daughter of Constantine VIII, succeeded on her father's death along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her. c. 978 – June 1050 (aged 72) Romanos III Argyros (Ῥωμανὸς Ἀργυρός) 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 Chosen by Constantine VIII to marry his daughter Zoe and succeed him as emperor. 968 – 11 April 1034 (aged 65–66), allegedly murdered Michael IV the Paphlagonian (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Παφλαγών) 11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 Succeeded Romanos III as Zoe's husband and emperor. 1010 – 10 December 1041 (aged 31), died after a long illness. Michael V Kalaphates (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Καλαφάτης) 10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042 Nephew and adopted son of Michael IV. 1015 – 24 August, 1042 (aged 27). Deposed, blinded, castrated and tonsured after attempting to sideline Zoe and her sister Theodora. Theodora Porphyrogenita (Θεοδώρα ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος) 19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056 Younger sister of Zoe, raised to co-empress in 1042. c. 980 – 31 August 1056 (aged 75–76), died after sudden illness. Constantine IX Monomachos (Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος) 11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055 Zoe's third husband c. 1000 – 11 January 1055 (aged ~55), died after illness. Michael VI Bringas (Μιχαὴλ Βρίγγας) September 1056 – 31 August 1057 Chosen as successor by Empress Theodora Died in 1059, confined to a monastery after having been deposed by his successor. Isaac I Komnenos (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός) 5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059 Rebellion Died around 1061 (aged 53) after having voluntarily abdicated. 1059–1081: Doukid dynasty[edit] See also: Doukas Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Constantine X Doukas (Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας) 24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067 Chosen successor of Isaac I Komnenos 1006 – 22 May 1067 (aged 61) Michael VII Doukas (Μιχαὴλ Δούκας) with Andronikos Doukas (Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας) and Konstantios Doukas (Κωνστάντιος Δούκας) and Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) 22 May 1067 – 31 March 1078 1068 – 1070s (Andronikos) 1060 – 1078 (Konstantios)1074 – 1078 (Constantine) Son of Constantine X Doukas and co-emperor since 1059, resigned the throne in 1078. Andronikos died in the 1070s while Konstantios briefly succeeded Michael as senior emperor before being handed over to the usurper Nikephoros III and exiled. Michael's son Constantine was also raised to co-emperor in 1074. 1050 – 1090 Konstantios died in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, having been recalled as a general by Alexios I. Constantine was later raised to co-emperor again under Alexios I and died in 1095 Romanos IV Diogenes (Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης) 1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071 Married to Constantine X's widow and senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X 1030 – 1072 (aged 42), died after having been deposed, blinded and exiled Nikephoros III Botaneiates (Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης) 31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081 Rebellion 1001 – 10 December 1081 (aged 80), died after having been deposed and exiled to a monastery 1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty[edit] See also: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Alexios I Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) with Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) (second co-emperorship) 4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 1081 – 1087 (Constantine) Rebellion, nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, appointed Constantine Doukas (a previous co-emperor under Michael VII) as co-emperor in 1081. Replaced Constantine with his own son John II in 1087. 1056 – 15 August 1118 (aged 70) John II Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) with Alexios Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 1122 – 1142 (Alexios) Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since 1087, appointed his son Alexios co-emperor in 1122 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143 (aged 55) Accidentally cut himself on a poisoned arrow. Alexios died in Attaleia on 2 August 1142 of a fever Manuel I Komnenos (Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός) 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180 Son of John II 28 Nov. 1118 – 24 September 1180 (aged 61) Alexios II Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) 24 September 1180 – October 1183 Son of Manuel I 14 Sept. 1169 – October 1183 (aged 14) Deposed and killed by successor Andronikos I Komnenos (Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός) with John Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) October 1183 – 12 September 1185 Nephew of John II (son of his brother Isaac), uncle of Alexios II, appointed his son John as co-emperor in November 1183 c. 118 – 12 September 1185 (aged 66–67) Overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising, John also seized and probably killed 1185–1204: Angelid dynasty[edit] See also: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) (first reign) 1185 – 1195 Rebellion Alexios III Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος) 1195 – 17/18 July 1203 Rebellion, elder brother of Isaac II c. 1153 – 1211 (aged 58), Died in captivity in the Empire of Nicaea Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) (second reign) 18 July 1203 – 27/28 January 1204 Restored to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his son Alexios IV September 1156 – 25 January 1204 (aged 47) Died possibly of shock or poison Alexios IV Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος) 1 August 1203 – 27/28 January 1204 Raised to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his father Isaac II c. 1182 – 8 February 1204 (aged 21–22) Strangled by successor Alexios V Doukas 'Murtzuphlus' (Ἀλέξιος Δούκας ὁ Μούρτζουφλος) 5 February 1204 – 13 April 1204 Coup in the Imperial Palace, son-in-law of Alexios III c. 1140 – December 1204 (aged 64) Captured by crusaders of the newly founded Latin Empire and publicly executed 1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty[edit] See also: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea Note: Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when Constantinople was occupied by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because they had the support of the (Orthodox) Patriarch of Constantinople and managed to re-take Constantinople. Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Theodore I Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις) 1205 – November 1221 His brother Constantine Laskaris was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day the city fell to the Crusaders; he later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208. c. 1174 – November 1221 (aged 48) John III Doukas Vatatzes (Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης) 15 December 1221 – 3 November 1254 Son-in-law of Theodore I c. 1192 – 3 November 1254 (aged 62), Nymphaion Theodore II Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις) 3 November 1254 – 18 August 1258 Son of John III c. 1222 – 18 August 1258 (aged 36), Magnesia Epilepsy John IV Laskaris (Ἰωάννης Λάσκαρις) 18 August 1258 – 25 December 1261 Son of Theodore II Christmas 1250 – c. 1305 (aged 55) Blinded and imprisoned by successor in 1261, died in captivity 1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty[edit] See also: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details Michael VIII Palaiologos (Μιχαὴλ Παλαιολόγος) January 1, 1259 – December 11, 1282 Senior emperor and regent of John IV Laskaris, grandnephew of John III by marriage and great-grandson of Alexios III 1223 – December 11, 1282 (aged 58) Andronikos II Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328 Son of Michael VIII 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332 (aged 72) Michael IX Palaiologos (Μιχαήλ Παλαιολόγος) 1295 – 12 October 1320 Son of Andronikos II, reigned alongside him as co-emperor with full imperial style 17 April 1277 – 12 October 1320 (aged 43) Andronikos III Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341 Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor in 1316 and rival emperor since 1321. Deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and reigned as sole emperor 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341 (aged 44) Possibly chronic malaria John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (first reign) 15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376 Son of Andronikos III Deposed John VI Kantakouzenos (Ἰωάννης Καντακουζηνός) with Matthew Kantakouzenos (Ματθαίος Ασάνης Καντακουζηνός) 8 February 1347 – 4 December 1354 1353 – 1357 (Matthew) Maternal relative of the Palaiologi, declared co-emperor by John V in 1341 and recognized as senior emperor in 1347 following a civil war. Appointed his son Matthew as co-emperor in 1353 c. 1292 – 15 June 1383 (aged 90 or 91), deposed and in exile as a monk in the Peloponnese, Matthew was defeated in 1357 and later served as the governor of the Morea until his death on the same day as his father Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379 Son of John V, co-emperor since 1352, deposed his father John V in 1376 11 April 1348 – 28 June 1385 (aged 37) John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (second reign) 1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390 Restored to the throne after overthrowing his son Andronikos IV Deposed John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) 14 April 1390 – 17 September 1390 Rebellion, son and co-emperor of Andronikos IV, deposed his grandfather John V 1370 – 22 September 1408 (aged 38) John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (third reign) 17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391 Restored to the throne after overthrowing his grandson John VII 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391 (aged 58) Manuel II Palaiologos (Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος) with John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) and Andronikos V Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος) 16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425 1403 – 1408 (John VII) 1403 – 1407 (Andronikos V) Son of John V, co-emperor since 1373. John VII, who previously usurped the throne, was proclaimed co-emperor in 1403, keeping the title until his death in 1408. John VII also proclaimed his son, Andronikos V, co-emperor but Andronikos died before his father, in 1407. The imperial status of John and Andronikos was purely honorary. 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425 (aged 75) John died 22 September 1408 at Thessaloniki, Andronikos died aged 7 on September 24th, 1407. John VIII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) 21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448 (23 years, 3 months and 10 days) Son of Manuel II, co-emperor since 1416 18 December – 31 October 1448 (aged 55), Constantinople Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos (Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος) 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453 (4 years, 4 months and 23 days) Son of Manuel II 8 February 1405 – May 29, 1453 (aged 48) Refused to surrender Constantinople to the sultan Mehmed II and died fighting during the final Ottoman attack See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Monarchy portal List of Byzantine emperors List of condemned Roman emperors List of Roman consuls List of Roman dictators List of Roman usurpers Roman Emperors family tree Pretenders to the Byzantine throne On Weights and Measures –- contains chronology of Roman emperors Notes[edit] ^ Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634 ^ Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678. ^ Herrin, Judith (2011-03-12). "The Glories of Byzantium". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-12-10. ^ Asimov, [title?], p. 198. ^ Lee, pp. 163–164. ^ Goldsworthy, pp. 425–440 ^ Breeze & Dobson, pp. 251–255 ^ Moss, Henry, The Birth of the Middle Ages Clarendon Press (London) 1935; Folio Society reprint (London) 1998; pp. 24-28, 281-284. ^ "Roman Emperors After Theodosius I". Retrieved 30 September 2014. ^ DIR, "Augustus"; Kienast, pp. 61, 63. ^ Kienast, p. 76; DIR, "Tiberius". ^ Kienast, p. 85; DIR, "Gaius (Caligula)". ^ Kienast, p. 90; DIR, "Claudius". ^ Kienast, pp. 96–97. ^ a b c d e f g h Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Hammond, p. 24; Kienast, p. 102; DIR, "Galba". ^ Hammond, pp. 24–25; Kienast, p. 105; DIR, "Otho". ^ Kienast, p. 106; DIR, "Vitellius". ^ Cooley, p. 490; Kienast, p. 108; DIR, "Vespasian", "Titus". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 111; DIR, "Titus". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 115; DIR, "Domitian". ^ Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 120; DIR, "Nerva". ^ Kienast, p. 122; Hammond, pp. 28, 39; DIR, "Hadrian". ^ DIR, "Hadrian"; Kienast, p. 28; Hammond, p. 29. ^ Kienast, p. 134; Hammond, pp. 30–31. ^ Around this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' start to be regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles. In particular, 'Caesar' is used to denote the heir-apparent, as opposed to 'Augustus', which indicates the emperor himself. Hammond, pp. 29–31. ^ Kienast, pp. 137–138; Hammond, p. 32. ^ Hammond, p. 32. ^ Hammond, pp. 32–33; Kienast, pp. 147–148; DIR, "Commodus". ^ Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Pertinax". ^ Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Didius Julianus". ^ Hammond, p. 34; DIR, "Septimius Severus". ^ Hammond, pp. 35, 36; DIR, "Caracalla"; Cooley, p. 475. ^ Kienast, p. 169; DIR, "Macrinus"; Cooley, p. 476. ^ Hammond, pp. 36–37; Kienast, pp. 170–171; DIR, "Macrinus". ^ DIR, "Elagabalus"; Kienast, p. 172; Cooley, p. 476. ^ Cooley, p. 476; DIR, "Alexander Severus". ^ DIR, "Pupienus and Balbinus". ^ a b DIR, 'Gordian I', 'Pupienus and Balbinus'. ^ a b DIR, 'Pupienus and Balbinus', 'Gordian III'. ^ DIR, 'Gordian III'; Kienast, p. 195. ^ DIR, "Philip the Arab". ^ DIR, 'Decius'; Kienast, p. 204. ^ Kienast, p. 206; Peachin, p. 33. ^ Kienast, p. 207; Peachin, p. 34. ^ DIR, 'Trebonianus Gallus and Gaius Vibius Volusianus'; Kienast, p. 209. ^ Kienast, p. 210; Peachin, p. 36. ^ DIR, 'Aemilius Aemilianus'; Peachin, pp. 36–37. ^ DIR, 'Valerian and Gallienus'; Peachin, pp. 37–38. ^ DIR, 'Valerian and Gallienus'; Peachin, pp. 39–40. ^ Kienast, p. 221. ^ Stein, pp. 45, 50. Claudius's death has also been dated to c. August, based on evidence from Egyptian coin issues. Weigel in DIR, 'Claudius II Gothicus', wrote that "this view was raised over a century ago and has not generally prevailed". DIR, 'Aurelian', says that literary sources all favor a death date early in the year, but nonetheless dates Claudius's death to September without any explanation. ^ DIR, 'Quintillus'; Stein, pp. 46, 50. ^ For the dates, Stein, pp. 46, 50; PLRE I, p. 130. The date of Aurelian's acclamation, variably said to have been May or September 270, presents the same problem as the date of Claudius's death. The literary sources of antiquity say that Aurelian's reign lasted 5 1⁄2 years, matching with the earlier date. Some modern sources (e.g. Peachin, pp. 43–44) argue in favor of September based on Egyptian documents, but, according to Weigel in DIR, "Claudius II Gothicus", these are unreliable. According to Stein, p. 46, the earliest document attesting Aurelian as emperor is dated 25 May. ^ DIR, 'Aurelian'; Stein, pp. 46, 50; Kienast, p. 234; Peachin, pp. 43–44. ^ DIR, 'Tacitus', 'Probus'; Watson, pp. 110, 225, 250 (n. 46). ^ DIR, 'Florian'; Peachin, pp. 46–47. ^ Chronograph of 354; Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae 9.17. ^ DIR, 'Probus'; Peachin, p. 47. ^ Chronograph of 354 ^ DIR, 'Carus'; Peachin, p. 49; Kienast, p. 258. ^ DIR, 'Numerian'; Peachin, pp. 49–50; Kienast, p. 260. ^ DIR, 'Carinus'; Kienast, p. 161. ^ Barnes, pp. 4, 30–32. ^ Kienast, pp. 266–267. ^ PLRE I, pp. 574–575; Cooley, p. 502. ^ Barnes, p. 4; Kienast, p. 280. ^ Kienast, p. 290; DIR, "Severus II". ^ Kienast, p. 291; DIR, "Maxentius". ^ PLRE I, p. 509; DIR, "Licinius". ^ RE, vol. IV.2, col. 1986–1990 (Daia). sfn error: no target: CITEREFRE (help) ^ Barnes, p. 6–7. ^ Kienast, p. 296. ^ Barnes, p. 15. ^ Kienast, p. 297. ^ a b c Kienast, pp. 310, 312, 314; Barnes, p. 8. ^ DIR, "Julian the Apostate". ^ RE, vol. IX.2, cols. 2006–2011 (Iovianus 1). sfn error: no target: CITEREFRE (help) ^ Kienast, p. 326. ^ Kienast, p. 330. ^ RE, vol. VII.2, cols. 1831–1839 (Gratianus 3). sfn error: no target: CITEREFRE (help) ^ Kienast, p. 333. References[edit] Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-28066-0. David J. Breeze, Brian Dobson Hadrian's Wall 4th Edition, Penguin, 2000, ISBN 0-14-027182-1 Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Degrassi, Attilio (1952). I fasti consolari dell'impero romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo (in Italian). Roma. Dessau, Hermann, ed. (1916). "Imperatores et Domus Eorum". Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae [ILS]. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 257–315. DIR – De Imperatoribus Romanis Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, Phoenix, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7538-2692-8 Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646. Min Lee (editor), Larousse Pockect Guide Kings and Queens, Larousse, 1995 ISBN 0-7523-0032-6 Keppie, Lawrence (1991). Understanding Roman Inscriptions (PDF). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–137. ISBN 0-8018-4322-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-10. Kienast, Dietmar (1996). Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 3-534-13289-0. Mastino, Attilio (1981). Le Titolature di Caracalla e Geta attraverso le iscrizioni (indici) (PDF). Studi di storia antica (in Italian). 5. Bologna: Editrice CLUEB. ISBN 978-88-491-0255-0. McFayden, Donald (1920). The History of the Title Imperator under the Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press. hdl:2027/mdp.39015068391971. Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0. PLRE I – The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. A.H.M. Jones & J.R. Martindale & J. Morris eds. Cambridge University Press (1971). ISBN 0-521-07233-6. Stein, Arthur (1924). "Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian". Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. S2CID 161464046. Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century (PDF). London: Routledge. doi:10.2307/4352566. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. JSTOR 4352566. S2CID 153920517. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-18. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman emperors. The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus. List of the Roman Emperors 27 BC – 395 AD List of Roman Emperors The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. Timeline of Roman Emperors and Empresses v t e Roman emperors by time period List of Roman emperors Roman Empire Family tree Early Principate Crisis of the Third Century Dominate Western Roman Empire and the Middle Ages Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–68 AD) Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69) Flavian dynasty (69–96) Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192) Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193) Severan dynasty (193–235) Year of the 6 Emperors (238) Gordian dynasty (238–244) Illyrian emperors (268–284) Gallic emperors (260–274) Britannic emperors (286–297) Tetrarchies (293–313) Constantinian dynasty (305–363) Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) Theodosian dynasty (378–455) Western Roman emperors (395–476) Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453) Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261) Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461) Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246) Latin emperors (1204–1261) Holy Roman emperors (800–1806) v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Roman_emperors&oldid=1027745298" Categories: Roman emperors Government of the Roman Empire Lists of monarchs Lists of office-holders in ancient Rome Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar მარგალური مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Nouormand Occitan پنجابی Picard Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2021, at 19:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-977	----	Ekpyrosis - Wikipedia Ekpyrosis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ekpyrosis (/ˌɛkpɪˈroʊsɪs/; Ancient Greek: ἐκπύρωσις ekpýrōsis, "conflagration") is a Stoic belief in the periodic destruction of the cosmos by a great conflagration every Great Year. The cosmos is then recreated (palingenesis) only to be destroyed again at the end of the new cycle. This form of catastrophe is the opposite of kataklysmos (κατακλυσμός, "inundation"), the destruction of the earth by water.[1] The destruction of the universe was in the form of fire. The time frame of destruction was never defined or given by any of the Stoics. The fire destruction was to cleanse the universe.[2] The cleansing of the universe was to help create a pure universe. The flames would destroy everything in the universe. Then, everything would be rebuilt in the exact same way in every detail before the fire. After so long, the process by fire would happen again and again. This cleansing of the universe is infinite.[2] Contents 1 Causes of Ekpyrosis 2 Ekpyrosis among Stoics 3 Abandonment of Ekpyrosis 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Causes of Ekpyrosis[edit] There are three reasons why this belief was taught by the Greeks. The reasons come from the theories of Zeno and Cleanthes.[2] The first cause is that the god of the universe keeps increasing in size making himself have to absorb himself when he gets too big.[2] The second is that the sun and stars burn so hot and bright that they dry out the universe. With everything so dry, it causes the universe to catch fire burning everything up. Zeno states that the fire that destroys the universe will not destroy the very thing that gives itself life, which is the seas. Zeno's thought was to fix the issue caused by the theory of elemental anathymiasis. So the fire would not destroy the sea.[2] The third is that when the planets all return to their position from when the universe was first created, it would also start the process of Ekpyrosis. Ekpyrosis among Stoics[edit] The concept of Ekpyrosis is attributed to Chrysippus by Plutarch.[3][4] Ekpyrosis itself however, was not a universally accepted theory by all Stoics. Other prominent stoics such as Panaetius, Zeno of Tarsus, Boethus of Sidon, and others either rejected Ekpyrosis or had differing opinions regarding its degree.[5] Once such idea is that Ekpyrosis by some was generally viewed as a positive event that would result in a "purification" of the soul and a renewal of all that was destroyed. While another such as the Roman Poet Lucan, depicted Ekpyrosis as just an end with no new beginning, that Ekpyrosis brought about only destruction upon the world.[6] The extent to which Stoics discussed and disagreed regarding Ekyrosis is largely attributed to works of Hippolytus of Rome, found in the Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. Abandonment of Ekpyrosis[edit] Ekpyrosis itself was, for the most part a short lived cosmological theory. With both Zeno of Tarus, and Cleanthes theorizing on Ekpyrosis in the third century B.C., and then Chrysippus expanding upon this soon after in the second century B.C., Ekpyrosis would begin to be abandoned all together by early Roman Stoics as early as the first and second century B.C.. A strong acceptance of Aristotle's theories of the universe combined with a more practical lifestyle practiced by the Roman people, caused these later Stoics to focus their main effort on their own social well being on earth, and not concentrate on the cosmos.[4] A prime example of this is the prominent Stoic and Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurelius. In his personal writing Meditations, Marcus Aurelius chooses to discuss how one should act and live their life, rather than speculate on cosmological theories. See also[edit] Apocatastasis Ekpyrotic universe Notes[edit] ^ Thomas G. Rosenmeyer, Senecan Drama and Stoic Cosmology, University of California Press, 1989, p. 149. ^ a b c d e Lapidge, Michael (1978). "The Stoics". Stoic Cosmology: 180–184. ^ Plutarch, De Stoicorum repugnantiis 1053b ^ a b M. Lapidge, "Stoic Cosmology," in The Stoics, ed. J. Rist (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978): p. 183-184 ^ Mannsfeld, Jaap (September 1983). "Resurrection Added: The Interpretatio Christiana of a Stoic Doctrine". Vigiliae Christianae. Vol. 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1983) (3): 218–233. doi:10.1163/157007283X00089 – via JSTOR. |volume= has extra text (help) ^ R. Sklenar (1999). "Nihilistic Cosmology and Catonian Ethics in Lucan's "Bellum Civile"". The American Journal of Philology. 120 (2): 281–296. doi:10.1353/ajp.1999.0028. S2CID 170470283 – via JSTOR. References[edit] Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, 2.605 Michael Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmology,' in: John M. Rist (ed.), The Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 161–186, pp. 180–184. J. Albert Harrill, "Stoic Physics, the Universal Conflagration, and the Eschatological Destruction of the “Ignorant and Unstable” in 2 Peter", in: Tuomas Rasimus, Troels Engberg-Pedersen, Ismo Dunderberg (eds.), Stoicism in Early Christianity, Baker Academic, 2010, p. 121. v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism This philosophy-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ekpyrosis&oldid=1026795017" Categories: Stoicism Theories in ancient Greek philosophy Philosophy stubs Hidden categories: CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Français Italiano Latina Português Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 08:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9796	----	Valerian (emperor) - Wikipedia Valerian (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 253 to 260 "Valerianus" redirects here. For other people, see Valerianus (name). Roman emperor Valerian Aureus of Emperor Valerian; legend: imp c p lic valerianus aug Roman emperor Reign 22 October 253 – spring 260 Predecessor Aemilianus Successor Gallienus (alone) Co-emperor Gallienus Born c. 199[1] Died After 260 or 264 AD Bishapur or Gundishapur Spouse Mariniana Cornelia Gallonia Issue Detail Gallienus Licinius Valerianus Names Publius Licinius Valerianus[2] Valerian (/vəˈlɪəriən/; Latin: Publius Licinius Valerianus; c. 199 – 260 or 264) was Roman emperor from 253 to spring 260 AD. He persecuted Christians and was later taken captive by the Persian emperor Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the first Roman emperor to be captured as a prisoner of war, causing shock and instability throughout the Roman Empire. The unprecedented event and the unknown fate of the captured emperor generated a variety of different reactions and "new narratives about the Roman Empire in diverse contexts".[3] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Origins and rise to power 1.2 Rule and fall 1.3 Persecution of Christians 1.4 Death in captivity 2 Family 3 In popular fiction 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 6.1 Primary sources 6.2 Secondary sources 7 External links Biography[edit] Origins and rise to power[edit] Unlike many of the would-be emperors and rebels who vied for imperial power during the Crisis of the Third Century of the Roman Empire, Valerian was of a noble and traditional senatorial family. Details of his early life are sparse, except for his marriage to Egnatia Mariniana, with whom he had two sons: later emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus and Licinius Valerianus.[4] He was Consul for the first time either before 238 AD as a Suffectus or in 238 as an Ordinarius. In 238 he was princeps senatus, and Gordian I negotiated through him for senatorial acknowledgement for his claim as emperor. In 251 AD, when Decius revived the censorship with legislative and executive powers so extensive that it practically embraced the civil authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen censor by the Senate,[5] though he declined to accept the post. During the reign of Decius he was left in charge of affairs in Rome when that prince left for his ill-fated last campaign in Illyricum.[6] Under Trebonianus Gallus he was appointed dux of an army probably drawn from the garrisons of the German provinces which seems to have been ultimately intended for use in a war against the Persians.[7] However, when Trebonianus Gallus had to deal with the rebellion of Aemilianus in 253 AD it was to Valerian he turned for assistance in crushing the attempted usurpation. Valerian headed south but was too late: Gallus was killed by his own troops, who joined Aemilianus before Valerian arrived. The Raetian soldiers then proclaimed Valerian emperor and continued their march towards Rome. Upon his arrival in late September, Aemilianus's legions defected, killing Aemilianus and proclaiming Valerian emperor. In Rome, the Senate quickly acknowledged Valerian, not only for fear of reprisals but also because he was one of their own. Radiate of Valerian Rule and fall[edit] A bas relief of Emperor Valerian standing at the background and held captive by Shapur I found at Naqsh-e Rustam, Shiraz, Iran. The kneeling man is probably Philip the Arab.[8][9][10] Valerian's first act as emperor on October 22, 253, was to appoint his son Gallienus caesar. Early in his reign, affairs in Europe went from bad to worse, and the whole West fell into disorder. In the East, Antioch had fallen into the hands of a Sassanid vassal and Armenia was occupied by Shapur I (Sapor).[5] Valerian and Gallienus split the problems of the empire between them, with the son taking the West, and the father heading East to face the Persian threat. In 254, 255, and 257, Valerian again became Consul Ordinarius. By 257, he had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria to Roman control. The following year, the Goths ravaged Asia Minor. In 259, Valerian moved on to Edessa, but an outbreak of plague killed a critical number of legionaries, weakening the Roman position, and the town was besieged by the Persians. At the beginning of 260, Valerian was decisively defeated in the Battle of Edessa and held prisoner for the remainder of his life. Valerian's capture was a tremendous defeat for the Romans.[11] Persecution of Christians[edit] See also: Anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire § Valerian While fighting the Persians, Valerian sent two letters to the Senate ordering that firm steps be taken against Christians. The first, sent in 257, commanded Christian clergy to perform sacrifices to the Roman gods or face banishment. The second, the following year, ordered the execution of Christian leaders. It also required Christian senators and equites to perform acts of worship to the Roman gods or lose their titles and property, and directed that they be executed if they continued to refuse. It also decreed that Roman matrons who would not apostatize should lose their property and be banished, and that civil servants and members of the Imperial household who would not worship the Roman gods should be reduced to slavery and sent to work on the Imperial estates.[12] This indicates that Christians were well-established at that time, some in very high positions.[13] The execution of Saint Prudent at Narbonne is taken to have occurred in 257.[14] Prominent Christians executed in 258 included Pope Sixtus II (6 August), Saint Romanus Ostiarius (9 August) and Saint Lawrence (10 August). Others executed in 258 included the saints Denis in Paris, Pontius in Cimiez, Cyprian in Carthage and Eugenia in Rome. In 259 Saint Patroclus was executed at Troyes and Saint Fructuosus at Tarragona.[14] When Valerian's son Gallienus became emperor in 260, the decree was rescinded.[13] Cameo of Shapur I capturing Valerian at the Battle of Edessa Death in captivity[edit] Eutropius, writing between 364 and 378 AD, stated that Valerian "was overthrown by Shapur king of Persia, and being soon after made prisoner, grew old in ignominious slavery among the Parthians."[15] An early Christian source, Lactantius, thought to be virulently anti-Persian, thanks to the occasional persecution of Christians by some Sasanian monarchs,[16] maintained that, for some time prior to his death, Valerian was subjected to the greatest insults by his captors, such as being used as a human footstool by Shapur when mounting his horse. According to this version of events, after a long period of such treatment, Valerian offered Shapur a huge ransom for his release.[5] In reply, according to one version, Shapur was said to have forced Valerian to swallow molten gold (the other version of his death is almost the same but it says that Valerian was killed by being flayed alive) and then had Valerian skinned and his skin stuffed with straw and preserved as a trophy in the main Persian temple.[5] It was further alleged that it was only after a later Persian defeat against Rome that his skin was given a cremation and burial.[17] The captivity and death of Valerian has been frequently debated by historians without any definitive conclusion.[16] The Humiliation of Emperor Valerian by Shapur I, pen and ink, Hans Holbein the Younger, ca. 1521. Kunstmuseum Basel. According to the modern scholar Touraj Daryaee,[16] contrary to the account of Lactantius, Shapur I sent Valerian and some of his army to the city of Bishapur or Gundishapur where they lived in relatively good conditions. Shapur used the remaining soldiers in engineering and development plans. Band-e Kaisar (Caesar's dam) is one of the remnants of Roman engineering located near the ancient city of Susa.[18] In all the stone carvings on Naghshe-Rostam, in Iran, Valerian is represented holding hands with Shapur I, a sign of submission. According to the early Persian Muslim scholar Abu Hanifa Dinawari, Shapur settled the prisoners of war in Gundishapur and released Valerian, as promised, after the construction of Band-e Kaisar.[19] It has been alleged that the account of Lactantius is coloured by his desire to establish that persecutors of the Christians died fitting deaths;[20] the story was repeated then and later by authors in the Roman Near East fiercely hostile to Persia.[21] The joint rule of Valerian and Gallienus was threatened several times by usurpers. Nevertheless, Gallienus held the throne until his own assassination in 268 AD.[22] Family[edit] Gallienus Licinius Valerianus was another son of Valerian I. Consul in 265, he was probably killed by usurpers, some time between the capture of his father in 260 and the assassination of his brother Gallienus in 268. Aulus Egnatius Priscillianus philosopher Quintus Egnatius Proculus consul suffectus Lucius Egnatius Victor Egnatius Victor Marinianus consul suffectus 1.Mariniana Valerian Roman Emperor 253-260 2.Cornelia Gallonia previous Aemilianus Roman Emperor 253 (1) Gallienus Roman Emperor 253-268 ∞ Cornelia Salonina (2) Licinius Valerianus consul suffectus Claudius Gothicus Roman Emperor 268-270 Quintillus Roman Emperor 270 next Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 ∞ Ulpia Severina Valerian II caesar Saloninus co-emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus consul 268 In popular fiction[edit] Valerian appears in Harry Sidebottom's historical fiction series of novels Warrior of Rome. He also appears in Anthony Hecht's poem "Behold the Lilies of the Field" in the collection The Hard Hours. He is referenced in Evelyn Waugh's Helena: "Do you know what has happened to the Immortal Valerian?...They have him on show in Persia, stuffed." See also[edit] Gallienus usurpers for all the usurpers of Valerian and Gallienus' reigns. Valeriana, a genus of plants named for the emperor. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Valerianus, Publius Licinius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 859. ^ RE 13.1 (1926) col. 488, Licinius 173. John Malalas 12.298 gives his age at death as 61 years, but apparently mistakes the emperor for his identically-named son. Weigel says he was born shortly before 200. ^ Valerian's full title at his death was Imperator Caesar Pvblivs Licinivs Valerianvs Pivs Felix Invictvs Avgvstvs Germanicvs Maximvs Pontifex Maximvs Tribuniciae Potestatis VII Imperator I Consul IV Pater Patriae, "Emperor Caesar Publius Licinus Valerianus, Patriotic, Favored, Unconquered Augustus, Conqueror of the Germans, Chief Priest, seven times Tribune, once Emperor, four times Consul, Father of the Fatherland". ^ Caldwell, Craig H. (2018). "The Roman Emperor as Persian Prisoner of War: Remembering Shapur's Capture of Valerian". Brill's Companion to Military Defeat in Ancient Mediterranean Society. pp. 335–358. ^ Bray, J. (1997). Gallienus: A study in reformist and sexual politics. Kent Town, S. Australia: Wakefield Press. p. 20. ISBN 1-86254-337-2. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911. ^ Zonaras. Epitome Historiarum. p. XII, 20. ^ Christol, Michel (1980). "A propos de la politique exterieure de Trebonien Galle". Revue Numismatique. 22 (6): 63–74. doi:10.3406/numi.1980.1803. ^ Overlaet, Bruno (2017). "ŠĀPUR I: ROCK RELIEFS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. The two emperors who are named are shown in the way they are described: Philip the Arab is kneeling, asking for peace, and Valerian is physically taken prisoner by Šāpur. Consequently, the relief must be made after 260 CE. ^ Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 274. ISBN 978-1610693912. (...) while another figure, probably Philip the Arab, kneels, and the Sasanian king holds the ill-fated Emperor Valerian by his wrist. ^ Corcoran, Simon (2006). "Before Constantine". In Lenski, Noel (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0521521574. He recorded these deeds for posterity in both words and images at Naqsh-i Rustam and on the Ka'aba-i Zardušt near the ancient Achaemenid capital of Persepolis, preserving for us a vivid image of two Roman emperors, one kneeling (probably Philip the Arab, also defeated by Shapur) and the second (Valerian), uncrowned and held captive at the wrist by a gloriously mounted Persian king. ^ Valerian ^ W. H. C. Frend (1984). The Rise of Christianity. Fortress Press, Philadelphia. p. 326. ISBN 978-0800619312. ^ a b Moss 2013, p. 153. ^ a b Baudoin 2006, p. 19. ^ Eutropius. Abridgement of Roman History. Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1853. (Book 9.7) ^ a b c Daryaee, Touraj (2008). Sasanian Iran. Mazda. ISBN 978-1-56859-169-8. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, v; Wickert, L., "Licinius (Egnatius) 84" in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie 13.1 (1926), 488–495; Parker, H., A History of the Roman World A.D. 138 to 337 (London, 1958), 170. From [1]. ^ Abdolhossein Zarinkoob "Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi" pp. 195 ^ Abū Ḥanīfah Aḥmad ibn Dāvud Dīnavarī; Mahdavī Dāmghānī, Maḥmūd (2002). Akhbār al-ṭivāl (5th ed.). Tihrān: Nashr-i Nay. p. 73. ISBN 9789643120009. Retrieved 30 August 2017. ^ Meijer, Fik (2004). Emperors don't die in bed. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31202-7. ^ Isaacs, Benjamin (1997). The Near East under Roman Rule. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 440. ISBN 90-04-09989-1. ^ Saunders, Randall T. (1992-01-11). "Who Murdered Gallienus?". Antichthon. 26: 80–94. doi:10.1017/S0066477400000708. ISSN 0066-4774. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, The Two Valerians Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Baudoin, Jacques (2006), "Saint Prudent", Grand livre des saints: culte et iconographie en Occident (in French), EDITIONS CREER, ISBN 978-2-84819-041-9, retrieved 2017-12-20 Moss, Candida (2013), The Myth of Persecution, HarperCollins, p. 153, ISBN 978-0-06-210452-6 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Valerianus I. "Valerian and Gallienus", at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Regnal titles Preceded by Aemilianus Roman emperor 253–260 With: Gallienus Succeeded by Gallienus Political offices Preceded by Volusianus L. Valerius Poplicola Roman consul 254–255 with Gallienus Succeeded by L. Valerius Maximus M. Acilius Glabrio Preceded by L. Valerius Maximus M. Acilius Glabrio Roman consul 257 with Gallienus Succeeded by Marcus Nummius Tuscus Mummius Bassus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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en-wikipedia-org-9798	----	Ataraxia - Wikipedia Ataraxia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Equanimity, tranquility, imperturbability For other uses, see Ataraxia (disambiguation). Ataraxia (Greek: ἀταραξία, from alpha privative ("a-", negation) and tarachē "disturbance, trouble";[1] hence, "unperturbedness", generally translated as "imperturbability", "equanimity", or "tranquility") is a Greek term first used in Ancient Greek philosophy by Pyrrho and subsequently Epicurus and the Stoics for a lucid state of robust equanimity characterized by ongoing freedom from distress and worry. In non-philosophical usage, the term was used to describe the ideal mental state for soldiers entering battle.[2] Achieving ataraxia is a common goal for Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism, but the role and value of ataraxia within each philosophy varies in accordance with their philosophical theories. The mental disturbances that prevent one from achieving ataraxia vary among the philosophies, and each philosophy has a different understanding as to how to achieve ataraxia. Contents 1 Pyrrhonism 2 Epicureanism 3 Stoicism 4 Buddhism 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Pyrrhonism[edit] Part of a series on Pyrrhonism Precursors Heraclitus Democritus Buddha Anaxarchus Xenophanes Philosophy Acatalepsy Adiaphora Aporia Ataraxia Astathmēta Impermanence Dependent origination Dogma Epoché Agrippa's trilemma Phantasiai Problem of induction Problem of the criterion Reductio ad absurdum Regress argument Relativism Circular reasoning Dissent Ten Modes of Aenesidemus Five Modes of Agrippa Pyrrhonists Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Michel de Montaigne Sextus Empiricus Timon of Phlius Similar philosophies Academic Skepticism Madhyamaka Buddhism Empiric school Cyrenaicism Cynicism Contrary philosophies Stoicism Aristotelianism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Ataraxia is the central aim of Pyrrhonist practice. Pyrrhonists view ataraxia as necessary for bringing about eudaimonia (happiness) for a person,[3] representing life's ultimate purpose.[4] The Pyrrhonist method for achieving ataraxia is through achieving epoché (i.e., suspension of judgment) regarding all matters of dogma (i.e., non-evident belief). The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus summarized Pyrrhonism as "a disposition to oppose phenomena and noumena to one another in any way whatever, with the result that, owing to the equipollence among the things and statements thus opposed, we are brought first to epoché and then to ataraxia... Epoché is a state of the intellect on account of which we neither deny nor affirm anything. Ataraxia is an untroubled and tranquil condition of the soul."[5] Sextus gave this detailed account of ataraxia: We always say that as regards belief (i.e., dogma) the Pyrrhonist's goal is ataraxia, and that as regards things that are unavoidable it is having moderate pathè. For when the Pyrrhonist set out to philosophize with the aim of assessing his phantasiai – that is, of determining which are true and which are false so as to achieve ataraxia – he landed in a controversy between positions of equal strength, and, being unable to resolve it, he suspended judgment. But while he was thus suspending judgment there followed by chance the sought-after ataraxia as regards belief. For the person who believes that something is by nature good or bad is constantly upset; when he does not possess the things that seem to be good, he thinks he is being tormented by things that are by nature bad, and he chases after the things he supposes to be good; then, when he gets these, he falls into still more torments because of irrational and immoderate exultation, and, fearing any change, he does absolutely everything in order not to lose the things that seem to him good. But the person who takes no position as to what is by nature good or bad neither avoids nor pursues intensely. As a result, he achieves ataraxia. Indeed, what happened to the Pyrrhonist is just like what is told of Apelles the painter. For it is said that once upon a time, when he was painting a horse and wished to depict the horse's froth, he failed so completely that he gave up and threw his sponge at the picture – the sponge on which he used to wipe the paints from his brush – and that in striking the picture the sponge produced the desired effect. So, too, the Pyrrhonists were hoping to achieve ataraxia by resolving the anomaly of phenomena and noumena, and, being unable to do this, they suspended judgment. But then, by chance as it were, when they were suspending judgment the ataraxia followed, as a shadow follows the body. We do not suppose, of course, that the Pyrrhonist is wholly untroubled, but we do say that he is troubled only by things unavoidable. For we agree that sometimes he is cold and thirsty and has various feelings like those. But even in such cases, whereas ordinary people are affected by two circumstances – namely by the pathé themselves and not less by its seeming that these conditions are by nature bad – the Pyrrhonist, by eliminating the additional belief that all these things are naturally bad, gets off more moderately here as well. Because of this we say that as regards belief the Pyrrhonist's goal is ataraxia, but in regard to things unavoidable it is having moderate pathé.[6] Epicureanism[edit] Ataraxia is a key component of the Epicurean conception of the highest good.[7] Epicureans value ataraxia highly because of how they understand pleasure. Epicureans argue that pleasure is the highest good. They break pleasure down into two categories: the physical and the mental.[7] They consider mental, not physical, pleasures to be the greatest sort of pleasure because physical pleasures exist only in the present; whereas mental pleasures exist in the past, the present, and the future.[8] Epicureans further separate pleasure into what they call kinetic and katastematic pleasures.[9] Kinetic pleasures are those pleasures which come about through action or change.[10] Such an action could be satisfying a desire or removing a pain, as that very sort of act is pleasurable in itself.[11] Actions that feel good, even if not done to satisfy a desire or remove a pain, such as eating good-tasting food, also fall under the category of kinetic pleasures.[9] Mental pleasures could also be kinetic in nature. Epicurus is said to have described joy as an example of a kinetic mental pleasure.[9] Katastematic pleasure is pleasure which comes about from the absence of pain or distress.[11] This sort of pleasure can be physical or mental. Physical katastematic pleasure comes in freedom from physical disturbances, such as simply being in the state of not being thirsty.[10] Comparatively, mental katastematic pleasure comes in freedom from mental disturbance.[9] Those who achieved freedom from physical disturbance were said to be in a state of aponia, while those who achieved freedom from mental disturbances were said to be in a state of ataraxia.[9] Katastematic pleasures were regarded to be better than kinetic pleasures by Epicurus, believing that one could feel no more pleasure than the removal of all pain.[12] Indeed, he is reported to have said: The magnitude of pleasure reaches its limit in the removal of all pain. When pleasure is present, so long as it is uninterrupted, there is no pain either of body or of mind or of both together.[13] Being both a mental and katastematic pleasure, ataraxia has a supreme importance in Epicurean ethics and is key to a person's happiness.[12] In the Epicurean view, a person experiences the highest form of happiness should they ever be both in a state of aponia and ataraxia at the time.[12] Stoicism[edit] Unlike in Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism, in Stoicism ataraxia is not the ultimate goal of life. Instead, a life of virtue according to nature is the goal of life.[14] However, according to the Stoics, living virtuously in accordance with nature would lead to ataraxia as a byproduct.[14] An important distinction to be made is the difference in Stoicism between ataraxia and the Stoic idea of apatheia. While closely related to ataraxia, the state of apatheia was the absence of unhealthy passions; a state attained by the ideal Stoic sage.[15] This is not the same as ataraxia. Apatheia describes freedom from the disturbance of emotions, not tranquility of the mind.[16] However, apatheia is integral for a Stoic sage to reach the stage of ataraxia. Since the Stoic sage does not care about matters outside of himself and is not susceptible to emotion because of his state of apatheia, the Stoic sage would be unable to be disturbed by anything at all, meaning that he was in a stage of mental tranquility and thus was in the state of ataraxia.[16] Buddhism[edit] Buddhism, an oriental doctrine based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama in the sixth century BC, affirms that the main cause of pain due to anguish is desire (any desire, which, because it is always associated with fear and hope, makes the heart anguish). So the flight or redemption of pain lies in the extinction or nakedness -nirvana- of all desire or disturbing affection, as especially the desire to live. See also[edit] Enlightenment (spiritual) Euthymia (philosophy) Flow (psychology) Freedom from fear Inner peace Jivanmukti Moksha Nirvana Qingjing Jing Upekṣā Wa (Japanese culture) References[edit] ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://www.iep.utm.edu/epictetu/ ^ Adrian Kuzminiski, Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism 2008 p2 ^ Machuca, Diego E. (2006). "The Pyrrhonist's Ἀταραξία and Φιλανθρωπία" (PDF). Ancient Philosophy. 26 ((1)1): 114. ^ Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ^ Sextus Empiricus, "The Skeptic Way", Translated by Benson Mates, Book I, Chapter 4 ^ Sextus Empiricus, "The Skeptic Way", Translated by Benson Mates, Book I, Chapter 12 ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 117–121. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 118–119. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 119–120. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 91–92. ^ a b Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 120. ^ Laertius, Diogenes (1925). Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Volume II: Books 6-10. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambrdige, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 665. ^ a b Striker, Gisela (1990). "ATARAXIA: HAPPINESS AS TRANQUILLITY". The Monist. 73 (1): 99. doi:10.5840/monist199073121. ^ Steven K. Strange, (2004), The Stoics on the Voluntariness of Passion in Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations, page 37. Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Striker, Gisela (1990). "ATARAXIA: HAPPINESS AS TRANQUILLITY". The Monist. 73 (1): 100–101. doi:10.5840/monist199073121. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ataraxia Look up ataraxia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. v t e Epicureanism Philosophers Greek era Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Roman era Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Modern era Pierre Gassendi Denis Diderot Jeremy Bentham Jun Tsuji Christopher Hitchens Michel Onfray Philosophy Epicureanism (cf. Hedonism) Tetrapharmakos Concepts Aponia Ataraxia Clinamen Eikas Eudaimonia Hedone Metakosmia Works On the Nature of Things List of English translations of De rerum natura v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence Shortness of Life Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures (Musonius Rufus) On Passions (Chrysippus) Republic (Zeno) Related articles Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta Stoic Opposition Moral intellectualism v t e Ancient Greek philosophical concepts Adiaphora (nonmoral) Anamnesis (recollection) Apatheia (equanimity) Apeiron (the unlimited) Aponia (pleasure) Aporia (impasse) Arche (first principle) Arete (excellence) Ataraxia (tranquility) Becoming Being Cosmos (order) Demiurge (creator) Diairesis (division) Diegesis (narrate) Differentia / Genus Doxa (common opinion) Dunamis / Energeia (potentiality / actuality) Episteme (knowledge) Epoché (suspension) Ethos (character) Eudaimonia (flourishing) Henosis (oneness) Hexis (active condition) Hyle (matter) Hylomorphism (matter and form) Hylozoism (matter and life) Hypokeimenon (substratum) Hypostasis (underpinning) Idea (Idea) Katalepsis (comprehension) Kathēkon (proper function) Logos (reasoned discourse) Metempsychosis (reincarnation) Mimesis (imitation) Monad (unit) Nous (intellect) Oikeiôsis (affinity) Ousia (substance) Pathos (emotional) Phronesis (practical wisdom) Physis (natural law) Sophia (wisdom) Telos (purpose) Tetractys (fourth triangular number) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ataraxia&oldid=1025503170" Categories: Concepts in ancient Greek philosophy of mind Epicureanism Happiness Pyrrhonism Stoicism Concepts in ancient Greek ethics Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 May 2021, at 23:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9808	----	Manuel I Komnenos - Wikipedia Manuel I Komnenos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1143 to 1180 "Manuel Komnenos" redirects here. For other uses, see Manuel Komnenos (disambiguation). Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Manuel I Komnenos Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Manuscript miniature of Manuel I (part of double portrait with Maria of Antioch, Vatican Library, Rome) Byzantine emperor Reign 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180 Predecessor John II Komnenos Successor Alexios II Komnenos Born 28 November 1118 Died 24 September 1180(1180-09-24) (aged 61) Spouses Bertha of Sulzbach Maria of Antioch Issue Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos House Komnenos Father John II Komnenos Mother Irene of Hungary Religion Greek Orthodox Manuel I Komnenos (Greek: Μανουήλ Α' Κομνηνός; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized Comnenus, also called Porphyrogennetos ("born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history of Byzantium and the Mediterranean. His reign saw the last flowering of the Komnenian restoration, during which the Byzantine Empire had seen a resurgence of its military and economic power, and had enjoyed a cultural revival. Eager to restore his empire to its past glories as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, Manuel pursued an energetic and ambitious foreign policy. In the process he made alliances with Pope Adrian IV and the resurgent West. He invaded the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, although unsuccessfully, being the last Eastern Roman emperor to attempt reconquests in the western Mediterranean. The passage of the potentially dangerous Second Crusade through his empire was adroitly managed. Manuel established a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader states of Outremer. Facing Muslim advances in the Holy Land, he made common cause with the Kingdom of Jerusalem and participated in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reshaped the political maps of the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean, placing the kingdoms of Hungary and Outremer under Byzantine hegemony and campaigning aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. However, towards the end of his reign Manuel's achievements in the east were compromised by a serious defeat at Myriokephalon, which in large part resulted from his arrogance in attacking a well-defended Seljuk position. Although the Byzantines recovered and Manuel concluded an advantageous peace with Sultan Kilij Arslan II, Myriokephalon proved to be the final, unsuccessful effort by the empire to recover the interior of Anatolia from the Turks. Called ho Megas (ὁ Μέγας, translated as "the Great") by the Greeks, Manuel is known to have inspired intense loyalty in those who served him. He also appears as the hero of a history written by his secretary, John Kinnamos, in which every virtue is attributed to him. Manuel, who was influenced by his contact with western Crusaders, enjoyed the reputation of "the most blessed emperor of Constantinople" in parts of the Latin world as well.[1] Modern historians, however, have been less enthusiastic about him. Some of them assert that the great power he wielded was not his own personal achievement, but that of the dynasty he represented; they also argue that, since Byzantine imperial power declined catastrophically after Manuel's death, it is only natural to look for the causes of this decline in his reign.[2] Contents 1 Accession to the throne 2 Second Crusade and Raynald of Châtillon 2.1 Prince of Antioch 2.2 Expedition against Konya 2.3 Arrival of the Crusaders 2.4 Cyprus invaded 2.5 Manuel in Antioch 3 Italian campaign 3.1 Roger II of Sicily 3.2 Papal-Byzantine alliance 3.3 Failure of the Church union 3.4 Byzantine policy in Italy after 1158 4 Balkan frontier 5 Relations with Russia 6 Invasion of Egypt 6.1 Alliance with the Kingdom of Jerusalem 6.2 Failure of the expedition 7 Kilij Arslan II and the Seljuk Turks 8 Doctrinal controversies (1156–1180) 9 Chivalric narrations 10 Family 11 Assessments 11.1 Foreign and military affairs 11.2 Internal affairs 11.3 Legacy 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Sources 15.1 Primary sources 15.2 Secondary sources 16 Further reading 17 External links Accession to the throne[edit] Death of John II Komnenos, and crowning of Manuel I Komnenos (from the Manuscript of William of Tyre's Historia and Old French Continuation, painted in Acre, Israel, 13th century, Bibliothèque nationale de France). Born on 28 November 1118, Manuel Komnenos was the fourth son of John II Komnenos and Irene of Hungary, so it seemed very unlikely that he would succeed his father.[3] His maternal grandfather was St. Ladislaus. Manuel favourably impressed his father by his courage and fortitude during the unsuccessful Siege of Neocaesarea (1140), against the Danishmendid Turks. In 1143 John II lay dying as a result of an infected wound; on his deathbed he chose Manuel as his successor, in preference to his elder surviving brother Isaac. John cited Manuel's courage and readiness to take advice, in contrast to Isaac's irascibility and unbending pride, as the reasons for his choice. After John died on 8 April 1143, his son, Manuel, was acclaimed emperor by the armies.[4] Yet his succession was by no means assured: with his father's army in the wilds of Cilicia far from Constantinople, he recognised that it was vital he should return to the capital as soon as possible. He still had to take care of his father's funeral, and tradition demanded he organise the foundation of a monastery on the spot where his father died. Swiftly, he dispatched the megas domestikos John Axouch ahead of him, with orders to arrest his most dangerous potential rival, his brother Isaac, who was living in the Great Palace with instant access to the imperial treasure and regalia. Axouch arrived in the capital even before news of the emperor's death had reached it. He quickly secured the loyalty of the city, and when Manuel entered the capital in August 1143, he was crowned by the new patriarch, Michael II Kourkouas. A few days later, with nothing more to fear as his position as emperor was now secure, Manuel ordered the release of Isaac.[5] Then he ordered 2 golden pieces to be given to every householder in Constantinople and 200 pounds of gold (including 200 silver pieces annually) to be given to the Byzantine Church.[6] The empire that Manuel inherited from his father had undergone great changes since the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine I eight centuries before. In the time of Justinian I (527–565), parts of the former Western Roman Empire had been recovered including Italy, Africa and part of Spain. However, the empire had diminished greatly following this. The most obvious change had occurred in the 7th century: the soldiers of Islam had taken Egypt, Palestine and much of Syria away from the empire irrevocably. They had then swept on westwards into what in the time of Constantine had been the western provinces of the Roman Empire, in North Africa and Spain. In the centuries since, the emperors had ruled over a realm that largely consisted of Asia Minor in the east, and the Balkans in the west. In the late 11th century the Byzantine Empire entered a period of marked military and political decline, which had been arrested and largely reversed by the leadership of Manuel's grandfather and father. Yet the empire that Manuel inherited was a polity facing formidable challenges. At the end of the 11th century, the Normans of Sicily had removed Italy from the control of the Byzantine emperor. The Seljuk Turks had done the same with central Anatolia. And in the Levant, a new force had appeared – the Crusader states – which presented the Byzantine Empire with new challenges. Now, more than at any time during the preceding centuries, the task facing the emperor was daunting indeed.[7] Second Crusade and Raynald of Châtillon[edit] Further information: Second Crusade Prince of Antioch[edit] The County of Edessa in the context of the other states of the Near East in 1135 The first test of Manuel's reign came in 1144, when he was faced with a demand by Raymond, Prince of Antioch for the cession of Cilician territories. However, later that year the crusader County of Edessa was engulfed by the tide of a resurgent Islamic jihad under Imad ad-Din Zengi. Raymond realized that immediate help from the west was out of the question. With his eastern flank now dangerously exposed to this new threat, there seemed little option but for him to prepare for a humiliating visit to Constantinople. Swallowing his pride, he made the journey north to submit to Manuel and ask for protection. He was promised the support that he had requested, and his allegiance to Byzantium was secured.[8] Expedition against Konya[edit] In 1146 Manuel assembled his army at the military base Lopadion and set out on a punitive expedition against Mas'ud the Sultan of Rûm, who had been repeatedly violating the frontiers of the Empire in western Anatolia and Cilicia.[9] There was no attempt at a systematic conquest of territory, but Manuel's army defeated the Turks at Acroënus, before capturing and destroying the fortified town of Philomelion, removing its remaining Christian population.[9] The Byzantine forces reached Masud's capital, Konya, and ravaged the area around the city, but could not assault its walls. Among Manuel's motives for mounting this razzia there included a wish to be seen in the West as actively espousing the crusading ideal; Kinnamos also attributed to Manuel a desire to show off his martial prowess to his new bride.[10] While on this campaign Manuel received a letter from Louis VII of France announcing his intention of leading an army to the relief of the crusader states.[11] Arrival of the Crusaders[edit] Arrival of the Second Crusade before Constantinople, portrayed in Jean Fouquet's painting from around 1455–1460, Arrivée des croisés à Constantinople. Manuel was prevented from capitalizing on his conquests by events in the Balkans that urgently required his presence. In 1147 he granted a passage through his dominions to two armies of the Second Crusade under Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France. At this time, there were still members of the Byzantine court who remembered the passage of the First Crusade, a defining event in the collective memory of the age that had fascinated Manuel's aunt, Anna Komnene.[12] Many Byzantines feared the Crusade, a view endorsed by the numerous acts of vandalism and theft practiced by the unruly armies as they marched through Byzantine territory. Byzantine troops followed the Crusaders, attempting to police their behaviour, and further troops were assembled in Constantinople, ready to defend the capital against any acts of aggression. This cautious approach was well advised, but still the numerous incidents of covert and open hostility between the Franks and the Greeks on their line of march, for which it seems both sides were to blame, precipitated conflict between Manuel and his guests. Manuel took the precaution – which his grandfather had not taken – of making repairs to the city walls, and he pressed the two kings for guarantees concerning the security of his territories. Conrad's army was the first to enter the Byzantine territory in the summer of 1147, and it figures more prominently in the Byzantine sources, which imply that it was the more troublesome of the two.[a] Indeed, the contemporary Byzantine historian Kinnamos describes a full-scale clash between a Byzantine force and part of Conrad's army, outside the walls of Constantinople. The Byzantines defeated the Germans and, in Byzantine eyes, this reverse caused Conrad to agree to have his army speedily ferried across to Damalis on the Asian shore of the Bosphoros.[13][14] After 1147, however, the relations between the two leaders became friendlier. By 1148 Manuel had seen the wisdom of securing an alliance with Conrad, whose sister-in-law Bertha of Sulzbach he had earlier married; he actually persuaded the German king to renew their alliance against Roger II of Sicily.[15] Unfortunately for the Byzantine emperor, Conrad died in 1152, and despite repeated attempts, Manuel could not reach an agreement with his successor, Frederick Barbarossa.[b] Cyprus invaded[edit] Letter by Manuel I Komnenos to Pope Eugene III on the issue of the crusades (Constantinople, 1146, Vatican Secret Archives): with this document, the Emperor answers a previous papal letter asking Louis VII of France to free the Holy Land and reconquer Edessa. Manuel answers that he is willing to receive the French army and to support it, but he complains about receiving the letter from an envoy of the King of France and not from an ambassador sent by the Pope.[16] Manuel's attention was again drawn to Antioch in 1156, when Raynald of Châtillon, the new Prince of Antioch, claimed that the Byzantine emperor had reneged on his promise to pay him a sum of money and vowed to attack the Byzantine province of Cyprus.[17] Raynald arrested the governor of the island, John Komnenos, who was a nephew of Manuel, and the general Michael Branas.[18] The Latin historian William of Tyre deplored this act of war against fellow Christians and described the atrocities committed by Raynald's men in considerable detail.[19] Having ransacked the island and plundered all its wealth, Raynald's army mutilated the survivors before forcing them to buy back their flocks at exorbitant prices with what little they had left. Thus enriched with enough booty to make Antioch wealthy for years, the invaders boarded their ships and set sail for home.[20] Raynald also sent some of the mutilated hostages to Constantinople as a vivid demonstration of his disobedience and his contempt for the Byzantine emperor.[18] Manuel responded to this outrage in a characteristically energetic way. In the winter of 1158–59, he marched to Cilicia at the head of a huge army; the speed of his advance (Manuel had hurried on ahead of the main army with 500 cavalry) was such that he managed to surprise the Armenian Thoros of Cilicia, who had participated in the attack on Cyprus.[21] Thoros fled into the mountains, and Cilicia swiftly fell to Manuel.[22] Manuel in Antioch[edit] Meanwhile, news of the advance of the Byzantine army soon reached Antioch. Raynald knew that he had no hope of defeating the emperor, and in addition knew that he could not expect any aid from King Baldwin III of Jerusalem. Baldwin did not approve of Raynald's attack on Cyprus, and in any case had already made an agreement with Manuel. Thus isolated and abandoned by his allies, Raynald decided that abject submission was his only hope. He appeared dressed in a sack with a rope tied around his neck, and begged for forgiveness. Manuel at first ignored the prostrate Raynald, chatting with his courtiers; William of Tyre commented that this ignominious scene continued for so long that all present were "disgusted" by it.[23] Eventually, Manuel forgave Raynald on condition that he would become a vassal of the Empire, effectively surrendering the independence of Antioch to Byzantium.[3] Antioch under Byzantine protection (1159–1180) Peace having been restored, a grand ceremonial procession was staged on 12 April 1159 for the triumphant entry of the Byzantine army into the city, with Manuel riding through the streets on horseback, while the Prince of Antioch and the King of Jerusalem followed on foot. Manuel dispensed justice to the citizens and presided over games and tournaments for the crowd. In May, at the head of a united Christian army, he started on the road to Edessa, but he abandoned the campaign when he secured the release by Nur ad-Din, the ruler of Syria, of 6,000 Christian prisoners captured in various battles since the second Crusade.[24] Despite the glorious end of the expedition, modern scholars argue that Manuel ultimately achieved much less than he had desired in terms of imperial restoration.[c] Satisfied with his efforts thus far, Manuel headed back to Constantinople. On their way back, his troops were surprised in line of march by the Turks. Despite this, they won a complete victory, routing the enemy army from the field and inflicting heavy losses. In the following year, Manuel drove the Turks out of Isauria.[25] Italian campaign[edit] Roger II of Sicily[edit] Southern Italy in 1112, at the time of Roger II's coming of age, showing the major states and cities. The border of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1154, at the time of Roger's death, is shown by a thicker black line encircling most of southern Italy. In 1147 Manuel was faced with war by Roger II of Sicily, whose fleet had captured the Byzantine island of Corfu and plundered Thebes and Corinth. However, despite being distracted by a Cuman attack in the Balkans, in 1148 Manuel enlisted the alliance of Conrad III of Germany, and the help of the Venetians, who quickly defeated Roger with their powerful fleet. In 1149, Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared to take the offensive against the Normans, while Roger II sent George of Antioch with a fleet of 40 ships to pillage Constantinople's suburbs.[26] Manuel had already agreed with Conrad on a joint invasion and partition of southern Italy and Sicily. The renewal of the German alliance remained the principal orientation of Manuel's foreign policy for the rest of his reign, despite the gradual divergence of interests between the two empires after Conrad's death.[15] Roger died in February 1154 and was succeeded by William I, who faced widespread rebellions against his rule in Sicily and Apulia, leading to the presence of Apulian refugees at the Byzantine court. Conrad's successor, Frederick Barbarossa, launched a campaign against the Normans, but his expedition stalled. These developments encouraged Manuel to take advantage of the multiple instabilities on the Italian peninsula.[27] He sent Michael Palaiologos and John Doukas, both of whom held the high imperial rank of sebastos, with Byzantine troops, ten ships, and large quantities of gold to invade Apulia in 1155.[28] The two generals were instructed to enlist the support of Frederick, but he declined because his demoralised army longed to get back north of the Alps as soon as possible.[b] Nevertheless, with the help of disaffected local barons, including Count Robert of Loritello, Manuel's expedition achieved astonishingly rapid progress as the whole of southern Italy rose up in rebellion against the Sicilian Crown and the untried William I.[15] There followed a string of spectacular successes as numerous strongholds yielded either to force or the lure of gold.[24] Papal-Byzantine alliance[edit] The city of Bari, which had been the capital of the Byzantine Catapanate of Italy for centuries before the arrival of the Normans, opened its gates to the Emperor's army, and the overjoyed citizens tore down the Norman citadel. After the fall of Bari, the cities of Trani, Giovinazzo, Andria, Taranto, and Brindisi were also captured. William arrived with his army, including 2,000 knights, but was heavily defeated.[29] Encouraged by the success, Manuel dreamed of restoration of the Roman Empire, at the cost of union between the Orthodox and the Catholic Church, a prospect which would frequently be offered to the Pope during negotiations and plans for alliance.[30] If there was ever a chance of reuniting the eastern and western churches, and coming to reconciliation with the Pope permanently, this was probably the most favourable moment. The Papacy was never on good terms with the Normans, except when under duress by the threat of direct military action. Having the "civilised" Byzantines on its southern border was infinitely preferable to the Papacy than having to constantly deal with the troublesome Normans of Sicily. It was in the interest of Pope Adrian IV to reach a deal if at all possible, since doing so would greatly increase his own influence over the entire Orthodox Christian population. Manuel offered a large sum of money to the Pope for the provision of troops, with the request that the Pope grant the Byzantine emperor lordship of three maritime cities in return for assistance in expelling William from Sicily. Manuel also promised to pay 5,000 pounds of gold to the Pope and the Curia.[31] Negotiations were hurriedly carried out, and an alliance was formed between Manuel and Hadrian.[27] "Alexios Komnenos and Doukas ... had become captive to the Normans' lord [and] again ruined matters. For as they had already pledged to the Sicilians many things not then desired by the emperor, they robbed the Romans of very great and noble achievements. [They] ... very likely deprived the Roman of the cities too soon." John Cinnamus[32] At this point, just as the war seemed decided in his favour, events turned against Manuel. Byzantine commander Michael Palaiologos alienated allies with his attitude, stalling the campaign as Count Robert III of Loritello refused to speak to him. Although the two were reconciled, the campaign had lost some of its momentum: Michael was soon recalled to Constantinople, and his loss was a major blow to the campaign. The turning point was the Battle of Brindisi, where the Normans launched a major counterattack by both land and sea. At the approach of the enemy, the mercenaries that had been hired with Manuel's gold demanded huge increases in their pay. When this was refused, they deserted. Even the local barons started to melt away, and soon John Doukas was left hopelessly outnumbered. The arrival of Alexios Komnenos Bryennios with some ships failed to retrieve the Byzantine position.[d] The naval battle was decided in favour of the Normans, while John Doukas and Alexios Bryennios (along with four Byzantine ships) were captured.[33] Manuel then sent Alexios Axouch to Ancona to raise another army, but by this time William had already retaken all of the Byzantine conquests in Apulia. The defeat at Brindisi put an end to the restored Byzantine reign in Italy; in 1158 the Byzantine army left Italy and never returned again.[34] Both Nicetas Choniates and Kinnamos, the major Byzantine historians of this period, agree, however, that the peace terms Axouch secured from William allowed Manuel to extricate himself from the war with dignity, despite a devastating raid by a Norman fleet of 164 ships (carrying 10,000 men) on Euboea and Almira in 1156.[35] Failure of the Church union[edit] Pope Adrian IV, who negotiated with Manuel against the Norman King William I of Sicily During the Italian campaign, and afterwards, during the struggle of the Papal Curia with Frederick, Manuel tried to sway the popes with hints of a possible union between the Eastern and Western churches. Although in 1155 Pope Adrian IV had expressed his eagerness to prompt the reunion of the churches,[e] hopes for a lasting Papal-Byzantine alliance came up against insuperable problems. Adrian IV and his successors demanded recognition of their religious authority over all Christians everywhere and sought superiority over the Byzantine emperor; they were not at all willing to fall into a state of dependence from one emperor to the other.[30] Manuel, on the other hand, wanted an official recognition of his secular authority over both East and West.[36] Such conditions would not be accepted by either side. Even if a pro-western emperor such as Manuel agreed, the Greek citizens of the empire would have rejected outright any union of this sort, as they did almost three hundred years later when the Orthodox and Catholic churches were briefly united under the pope. In spite of his friendliness towards the Roman Church and his cordial relations with all the popes, Manuel was never honoured with the title of augustus by the popes. And although he twice sent embassies to Pope Alexander III (in 1167 and 1169) offering to reunite the Greek and Latin churches, Alexander refused, under pretext of the troubles that would follow union.[37] The final results of the Italian campaign were limited in terms of the advantages gained by the Empire. The city of Ancona became a Byzantine base in Italy, accepting Manuel as sovereign. The Normans of Sicily had been damaged and now came to terms with the Empire, ensuring peace for the rest of Manuel's reign. The Empire's ability to get involved in Italian affairs had been demonstrated. However, given the enormous quantities of gold which had been lavished on the project, it also demonstrated the limits of what money and diplomacy alone could achieve. The expense of Manuel's involvement in Italy must have cost the treasury a great deal (probably more than 2,160,000 hyperpyra or 30,000 pounds of gold), and yet it produced only limited solid gains.[38][39] Byzantine policy in Italy after 1158[edit] Frederick Barbarossa submits to the authority of Pope Alexander III after his defeat at the Battle of Legnano (fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, by Spinello Aretino). After 1158, under the new conditions, the aims of the Byzantine policy changed. Manuel now decided to oppose the objective of the Hohenstaufen dynasty to directly annex Italy, which Frederick believed should acknowledge his power. When the war between Frederick I Barbarossa and the northern Italian communes started, Manuel actively supported the Lombard League with money subsidies, agents, and, occasionally, troops.[40] The walls of Milan, demolished by the Germans, were restored with Manuel's aid.[41] Ancona remained important as a centre of Byzantine influence in Italy. The Anconitans made a voluntary submission to Manuel, and the Byzantines maintained representatives in the city.[42] Frederick's defeat at the Battle of Legnano, on 29 May 1176, seemed rather to improve Manuel's position in Italy. According to Kinnamos, Cremona, Pavia, and a number of other "Ligurian" cities went over to Manuel;[43] his relations were also particularly favourable in regard to Genoa and Pisa, but not to Venice. In March 1171 Manuel had suddenly broken with Venice, ordering all 20,000 Venetians on imperial territory to be arrested and their property confiscated.[44] Venice, incensed, sent a fleet of 120 ships against Byzantium. Due to an epidemic, and pursued by 150 Byzantine ships, the fleet was forced to return without great success.[45] In all probability, friendly relations between Byzantium and Venice were not restored in Manuel's lifetime.[30] Balkan frontier[edit] On his northern frontier Manuel expended considerable effort to preserve the conquests made by Basil II over one hundred years earlier and maintained, sometimes tenuously, ever since. Due to distraction from his neighbours on the Balkan frontier, Manuel was kept from his main objective, the subjugation of the Normans of Sicily. Relations had been good with the Serbs and Hungarians since 1129, so the Serb rebellion came as a shock. The Serbs of Rascia, being so induced by Roger II of Sicily, invaded Byzantine territory in 1149.[3] A hyperpyron, a form of Byzantine coinage, issued by Manuel. One side of the coin (left image) depicts Christ. The other side depicts Manuel (right image). Manuel forced the rebellious Serbs, and their leader, Uroš II, to vassalage (1150–1152).[46] He then made repeated attacks upon the Hungarians with a view to annexing their territory along the Sava. In the wars of 1151–1153 and 1163–1168 Manuel led his troops into Hungary and a spectacular raid deep into enemy territory yielded substantial war booty. In 1167, Manuel sent 15,000 men under the command of Andronikos Kontostephanos against the Hungarians,[47] scoring a decisive victory at the Battle of Sirmium and enabling the Empire to conclude a very advantageous peace with the Kingdom of Hungary by which Syrmia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia were ceded. By 1168 nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.[48] Efforts were also made towards a diplomatic annexation of Hungary. The Hungarian heir Béla, younger brother of the Hungarian king Stephen III, was sent to Constantinople to be educated in the emperor's court. Manuel intended the youth to marry his daughter, Maria, and to make him his heir, thus securing the union of Hungary with the Empire. At court Béla assumed the name Alexius and received the title of despot, which had previously been applied only to the emperor himself. However, two unforeseen dynastic events drastically altered the situation. In 1169, Manuel's young wife gave birth to a son, thus depriving Béla of his status as heir of the Byzantine throne (although Manuel would not renounce the Croatian lands he had taken from Hungary). Then, in 1172, Stephen died childless, and Béla went home to take his throne. Before leaving Constantinople, he swore a solemn oath to Manuel that he would always "keep in mind the interests of the emperor and of the Romans". Béla III kept his word: as long as Manuel lived, he made no attempt to retrieve his Croatian inheritance, which he only afterwards reincorporated into Hungary.[48] Relations with Russia[edit] Manuel Komnenos attempted to draw the Russian principalities into his net of diplomacy directed against Hungary, and to a lesser extent Norman Sicily. This polarised the Russian princes into pro- and anti-Byzantine camps. In the late 1140s three princes were competing for primacy in Russia: prince Iziaslav II of Kiev was related to Géza II of Hungary and was hostile to Byzantium; Prince Yuri Dolgoruki of Suzdal was Manuel's ally (symmachos), and Vladimirko of Galicia is described as Manuel's vassal (hypospondos). Galicia was situated on the northern and northeastern borders of Hungary and, therefore, was of great strategic importance in the Byzantine-Hungarian conflicts. Following the deaths of both Iziaslav and Vladimirko, the situation became reversed; when Yuri of Suzdal, Manuel's ally, took over Kiev and Yaroslav, the new ruler of Galicia, adopted a pro-Hungarian stance.[49] In 1164–65 Manuel's cousin Andronikos, the future emperor, escaped from captivity in Byzantium and fled to the court of Yaroslav in Galicia. This situation, holding out the alarming prospect of Andronikos making a bid for Manuel's throne sponsored by both Galicia and Hungary, spurred the Byzantines into an unprecedented flurry of diplomacy. Manuel pardoned Andronikos and persuaded him to return to Constantinople in 1165. A mission to Kiev, then ruled by Prince Rostislav, resulted in a favourable treaty and a pledge to supply the Empire with auxiliary troops; Yaroslav of Galicia was also persuaded to renounce his Hungarian connections and return fully into the imperial fold. As late as 1200 the princes of Galicia were providing invaluable services against the enemies of the Empire, at that time the Cumans.[50] The restoration of relations with Galicia had an immediate benefit for Manuel when, in 1166, he dispatched two armies to attack the eastern provinces of Hungary in a vast pincer movement. One army crossed the Walachian Plain and entered Hungary through the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), while the other army made a wide circuit to Galicia and, with Galician aid, crossed the Carpathian Mountains. Since the Hungarians had most of their forces concentrated on the Sirmium and Belgrade frontier, they were caught off guard by the Byzantine invasion; this resulted in the Hungarian province of Transylvania being thoroughly ravaged by the Byzantine armies.[51] Invasion of Egypt[edit] Alliance with the Kingdom of Jerusalem[edit] The marriage of Amalric I of Jerusalem and Maria Comnena at Tyre in 1167 (from a manuscript of William of Tyre's Historia, painted in Paris c. 1295 – 1300, Bibliothèque Municipale, Épinal). Control of Egypt was a decades-old dream of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, and king Amalric I of Jerusalem needed all the military and financial support he could get for his policy of military intervention in Egypt.[52] Amalric also realised that if he were to pursue his ambitions in Egypt, he might have to leave Antioch to the hegemony of Manuel who had paid 100,000 dinars for the release of Bohemond III.[53][54] In 1165, he sent envoys to the Byzantine court to negotiate a marriage alliance (Manuel had already married Amalric's cousin Maria of Antioch in 1161).[55] After a long interval of two years, Amalric married Manuel's grandniece Maria Komnene in 1167, and "swore all that his brother Baldwin had sworn before."[f] A formal alliance was negotiated in 1168, whereby the two rulers arranged for a conquest and partition of Egypt, with Manuel taking the coastal area, and Amalric the interior. In the autumn of 1169 Manuel sent a joint expedition with Amalric to Egypt: a Byzantine army and a naval force of 20 large warships, 150 galleys, and 60 transports, under the command of the megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos, joined forces with Amalric at Ascalon.[55][56] William of Tyre, who negotiated the alliance, was impressed in particular by the large transport ships that were used to transport the cavalry forces of the army.[57] Although such a long-range attack on a state far from the centre of the Empire may seem extraordinary (the last time the Empire had attempted anything on this scale was the failed invasion of Sicily over one hundred and twenty years earlier), it can be explained in terms of Manuel's foreign policy, which was to use the Latins to ensure the survival of the Empire. This focus on the bigger picture of the eastern Mediterranean and even further afield thus led Manuel to intervene in Egypt: it was believed that in the context of the wider struggle between the crusader states and the Islamic powers of the east, control of Egypt would be the deciding factor. It had become clear that the ailing Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt held the key to the fate of the crusader states. If Egypt came out of its isolation and joined forces with the Muslims under Nur ad-Din, the crusader cause was in trouble.[52] A successful invasion of Egypt would have several further advantages for the Byzantine Empire. Egypt was a rich province, and in the days of the Roman Empire it had supplied much of the grain for Constantinople before it was lost to the Arabs in the 7th century. The revenues that the Empire could have expected to gain from the conquest of Egypt would have been considerable, even if these would have to be shared with the Crusaders. Furthermore, Manuel may have wanted to encourage Amalric's plans, not only to deflect the ambitions of the Latins away from Antioch, but also to create new opportunities for joint military ventures that would keep the King of Jerusalem in his debt, and would also allow the Empire to share in territorial gains.[52] Failure of the expedition[edit] Manuel and the envoys of Amalric – arrival of the crusaders in Pelusium (from the Manuscript of William of Tyre's Historia and Old French Continuation, painted in Acre, Israel, 13th century, Bibliothèque nationale de France). The joined forces of Manuel and Amalric laid siege to Damietta on 27 October 1169, but the siege was unsuccessful due to the failure of the Crusaders and the Byzantines to co-operate fully.[58] According to Byzantine forces, Amalric, not wanting to share the profits of victory, dragged out the operation until the emperor's men ran short of provisions and were particularly affected by famine; Amalric then launched an assault, which he promptly aborted by negotiating a truce with the defenders. On the other hand, William of Tyre remarked that the Greeks were not entirely blameless.[59] Whatever the truth of the allegations of both sides, when the rains came, both the Latin army and the Byzantine fleet returned home, although half of the Byzantine fleet was lost in a sudden storm.[60] Despite the bad feelings generated at Damietta, Amalric still refused to abandon his dream of conquering Egypt, and he continued to seek good relations with the Byzantines in the hopes of another joined attack, which never took place.[61] In 1171 Amalric came to Constantinople in person, after Egypt had fallen to Saladin. Manuel was thus able to organise a grand ceremonial reception which both honoured Amalric and underlined his dependence: for the rest of Amalric's reign, Jerusalem was a Byzantine satellite, and Manuel was able to act as a protector of the Holy Places, exerting a growing influence in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.[62] In 1177, a fleet of 150 ships was sent by Manuel I to invade Egypt, but returned home after appearing off Acre due to the refusal of Count Philip of Flanders and many important nobles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to help.[63] Kilij Arslan II and the Seljuk Turks[edit] Further information: Battle of Myriokephalon This image by Gustave Doré shows the Turkish ambush at the pass of Myriokephalon. This ambush destroyed Manuel's hope of capturing Konya Between 1158 and 1162, a series of Byzantine campaigns against the Seljuk Turks of the Sultanate of Rûm resulted in a treaty favourable to the Empire. According to the agreement, certain frontier regions, including the city of Sivas, should be handed over to Manuel in return for some quantity of cash, while it also obliged the Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II to recognize his overlordship.[40][64] Kilij Arslan II used the peace with Byzantium, and the power vacuum caused by the death in 1174 of Nur ad-Din Zangi the ruler of Syria, to expel the Danishmends from their Anatolian emirates. When the Seljuk sultan refused to cede some of the territory he had taken from the Danishmends to the Byzantines, as he was obliged to do as part of his treaty obligations, Manuel decided that it was time to deal with the Turks once and for all.[40][65][66] Therefore, he assembled the full imperial army and marched against the Seljuk capital, Iconium (Konya).[40] Manuel's strategy was to prepare the advanced bases of Dorylaeum and Sublaeum, and then to use them to strike as quickly as possible at Iconium.[67] Yet Manuel's army of 35,000 men was large and unwieldy – according to a letter that Manuel sent to King Henry II of England, the advancing column was ten miles (16 km) long.[68] Manuel marched against Iconium via Laodicea, Chonae, Lampe, Celaenae, Choma, and Antioch. Just outside the entrance to the pass at Myriokephalon, Manuel was met by Turkish ambassadors, who offered peace on generous terms. Most of Manuel's generals and experienced courtiers urged him to accept the offer. The younger and more aggressive members of the court urged Manuel to attack, however, and he took their advice and continued his advance.[24] Manuel made serious tactical errors, such as failing to properly scout out the route ahead.[69] These failings caused him to lead his forces straight into a classic ambush. On 17 September 1176 Manuel was checked by Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II at the Battle of Myriokephalon (in highlands near the Tzibritze pass), in which his army was ambushed while marching through the narrow mountain pass.[40][70] The Byzantines were hemmed in by the narrowness of the pass, this allowed the Seljuks to concentrate their attacks on part of the Byzantine army, especially the baggage and siege train, without the rest being able to intervene.[71] The army's siege equipment was quickly destroyed, and Manuel was forced to withdraw – without siege engines, the conquest of Iconium was impossible. According to Byzantine sources, Manuel lost his nerve both during and after the battle, fluctuating between extremes of self-delusion and self-abasement;[72] according to William of Tyre, he was never the same again.[citation needed] The terms by which Kilij Arslan II allowed Manuel and his army to leave were that he should remove his forts and armies on the frontier at Dorylaeum and Sublaeum. Since the Sultan had already failed to keep his side of the earlier treaty of 1162, however, Manuel only ordered the fortifications of Sublaeum to be dismantled, but not the fortifications of Dorylaeum.[73] Nevertheless, defeat at Myriokephalon was an embarrassment for both Manuel personally and also for his empire. The Komnenian emperors had worked hard since the Battle of Manzikert, 105 years earlier, to restore the reputation of the empire. Yet because of his over-confidence, Manuel had demonstrated to the whole world that Byzantium still could not decisively defeat the Seljuks, despite the advances made during the past century. In western opinion, Myriokephalon cut Manuel down to a humbler size: not that of Emperor of the Romans but that of King of the Greeks.[70] The defeat at Myriokephalon has often been depicted as a catastrophe in which the entire Byzantine army was destroyed. Manuel himself compared the defeat to Manzikert; it seemed to him that the Byzantine defeat at Myriokephalon complemented the destruction at Manzikert. In reality, although a defeat, it was not too costly and did not significantly diminish the Byzantine army.[70] Most of the casualties were borne by the right wing, largely composed of allied troops commanded by Baldwin of Antioch, and also by the baggage train, which was the main target of the Turkish ambush.[74] The limited losses inflicted on native Byzantine troops were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces defeated a force of "picked Turks".[67] John Komnenos Vatatzes, who was sent by the Emperor to repel the Turkish invasion, not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way. Vatatzes caught the Turks in an ambush as they were crossing the Meander River; the subsequent Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir effectively destroyed them as a fighting force. This is an indication that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful.[75] After the victory on the Meander, Manuel himself advanced with a small army to drive the Turks from Panasium, south of Cotyaeum.[73] In 1178, however, a Byzantine army retreated after encountering a Turkish force at Charax, allowing the Turks to capture many livestock.[3] The city of Claudiopolis in Bithynia was besieged by the Turks in 1179, forcing Manuel to lead a small cavalry force to save the city, and then, even as late as 1180, the Byzantines succeeded in scoring a victory over the Turks.[3] The continuous warfare had a serious effect upon Manuel's vitality; he declined in health and in 1180 succumbed to a slow fever. Furthermore, like Manzikert, the balance between the two powers began to gradually shift – Manuel never again attacked the Turks, and after his death they began to move further west, deeper into Byzantine territory.[citation needed] Doctrinal controversies (1156–1180)[edit] A Byzantine mosaic of John Chrysostom from the Hagia Sophia (9th/10th century). The controversy of 1156–57 concerned the interpretation of John's liturgy for the Eucharist, "Thou art He who offers and is offered and receives." Three major theological controversies occurred during Manuel's reign. In 1156–1157 the question was raised whether Christ had offered himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the world to the Father and to the Holy Spirit only, or also to the Logos (i.e., to himself).[76] In the end a synod held at Constantinople in 1157 adopted a compromise formula, that the Word made flesh offered a double sacrifice to the Holy Trinity, despite the dissidence of Patriarch of Antioch-elect Soterichus Panteugenus.[3] Ten years later, a controversy arose as to whether the saying of Christ, "My Father is greater than I", referred to his divine nature, to his human nature, or to the union of the two.[76] Demetrius of Lampe, a Byzantine diplomat recently returned from the West, ridiculed the way the verse was interpreted there, that Christ was inferior to his father in his humanity but equal in his divinity. Manuel, on the other hand, perhaps with an eye on the project for Church union, found that the formula made sense, and prevailed over a majority in a synod convened on 2 March 1166 to decide the issue, where he had the support of the patriarch Luke Chrysoberges[3] and later Patriarch Michael III.[77] Those who refused to submit to the synod's decisions had their property confiscated or were exiled.[g] The political dimensions of this controversy are apparent from the fact that a leading dissenter from the Emperor's doctrine was his nephew Alexios Kontostephanos.[78] A third controversy sprung up in 1180, when Manuel objected to the formula of solemn abjuration, which was exacted from Muslim converts. One of the more striking anathemas of this abjuration was that directed against the deity worshipped by Muhammad and his followers:[79] And before all, I anathematize the God of Muhammad about whom he [Muhammad] says, "He is God alone, God made of solid, hammer-beaten metal; He begets not and is not begotten, nor is there like unto Him any one." The emperor ordered the deletion of this anathema from the Church's catechetical texts, a measure that provoked vehement opposition from both the Patriarch and bishops.[79] Chivalric narrations[edit] Manuel is representative of a new kind of Byzantine ruler who was influenced by his contact with western Crusaders. He arranged jousting matches, even participating in them, an unusual and discomforting sight for the Byzantines. Endowed with a fine physique, Manuel has been the subject of exaggeration in the Byzantine sources of his era, where he is presented as a man of great personal courage. According to the story of his exploits, which appear as a model or a copy of the romances of chivalry, such was his strength and exercise in arms that Raymond of Antioch was incapable of wielding his lance and buckler. In a famous tournament, he is said to have entered the lists on a fiery courser, and to have overturned two of the stoutest Italian knights. In one day, he is said to have slain forty Turks with his own hand, and in a battle against the Hungarians he allegedly snatched a banner, and was the first, almost alone, who passed a bridge that separated his army from the enemy. On another occasion, he is said to have cut his way through a squadron of five hundred Turks, without receiving a wound; he had previously posted an ambuscade in a wood and was accompanied only by his brother and Axouch.[80] Family[edit] Manuscript miniature of Maria of Antioch with Manuel I Komnenos, Vatican Library, Rome Manuel had two wives. His first marriage, in 1146, was to Bertha of Sulzbach, a sister-in-law of Conrad III of Germany. She died in 1159. Children: Maria Komnene (1152[81]–1182), wife of Renier of Montferrat.[citation needed] Anna Komnene[81] (1154–1158).[citation needed] Manuel's second marriage was to Maria of Antioch (nicknamed Xene), a daughter of Raymond and Constance of Antioch, in 1161. By this marriage, Manuel had one son: Alexios II Komnenos, who succeeded as emperor in 1180.[82] Manuel had several illegitimate children: By Theodora Vatatzina: Alexios Komnenos (born in the early 1160s), who was recognised as the emperor's son, and indeed received a title (sebastokrator). He was briefly married to Eirene Komnene, illegitimate daughter of Andronikos I Komnenos, in 1183–1184, and was then blinded by his father-in-law. He lived until at least 1191 and was known personally to Choniates.[83] By Maria Taronitissa, the wife of John Doukas Komnenos: Alexios Komnenos, a pinkernes ("cupbearer"), who fled Constantinople in 1184 and was a figurehead of the Norman invasion and the siege of Thessalonica in 1185.[citation needed] By other lovers: A daughter whose name is unknown. She was born around 1150 and married Theodore Maurozomes before 1170. Her son was Manuel Maurozomes, and some of her descendants ruled the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm.[84] A daughter whose name is unknown, born around 1155. She was the maternal grandmother of the author Demetrios Tornikes.[85] Assessments[edit] Foreign and military affairs[edit] As a young man, Manuel had been determined to restore by force of arms the predominance of the Byzantine Empire in the Mediterranean countries. By the time he died in 1180, 37 years had passed since that momentous day in 1143 when, amid the wilds of Cilicia, his father had proclaimed him emperor. These years had seen Manuel involved in conflict with his neighbours on all sides. Manuel's father and grandfather before him had worked patiently to undo the damage done by the battle of Manzikert and its aftermath. Thanks to their efforts, the empire Manuel inherited was stronger and better organised than at any time for a century. While it is clear that Manuel used these assets to the full, it is not so clear how much he added to them, and there is room for doubt as to whether he used them to best effect.[1] "The most singular feature in the character of Manuel is the contrast and vicissitude of labour and sloth, of hardiness and effeminacy. In war he seemed ignorant of peace, in peace he appeared incapable of war." Edward Gibbon[86] Manuel had proven himself to be an energetic emperor who saw possibilities everywhere, and whose optimistic outlook had shaped his approach to foreign policy. However, in spite of his military prowess Manuel achieved but a slight degree of his object of restoring the Byzantine Empire. Retrospectively, some commentators have criticised some of Manuel's aims as unrealistic, in particular citing the expeditions he sent to Egypt as proof of dreams of grandeur on an unattainable scale. His greatest military campaign, his grand expedition against the Turkish Sultanate of Iconium, ended in humiliating defeat, and his greatest diplomatic effort apparently collapsed, when Pope Alexander III became reconciled to the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Peace of Venice. Historian Mark C. Bartusis argues that Manuel (and his father as well) tried to rebuild a national army, but his reforms were adequate for neither his ambitions nor his needs; the defeat at Myriokephalon underscored the fundamental weakness of his policies.[87] According to Edward Gibbon, Manuel's victories were not productive of any permanent or useful conquest.[86] His advisors on western church affairs included the Pisan scholar Hugh Eteriano.[citation needed] Internal affairs[edit] Choniates criticised Manuel for raising taxes and pointed to Manuel's reign as a period of excession; according to Choniates, the money thus raised was spent lavishly at the cost of his citizens. Whether one reads the Greek encomiastic sources, or the Latin and oriental sources, the impression is consistent with Choniates' picture of an emperor who spent lavishly in all available ways, rarely economising in one sector in order to develop another.[25] Manuel spared no expense on the army, the navy, diplomacy, ceremonial, palace-building, the Komnenian family, and other seekers of patronage. A significant amount of this expenditure was pure financial loss to the Empire, like the subsidies poured into Italy and the crusader states, and the sums spent on the failed expeditions of 1155–1156, 1169, and 1176.[88] The problems this created were counterbalanced to some extent by his successes, particularly in the Balkans; Manuel extended the frontiers of his Empire in the Balkan region, ensuring security for the whole of Greece and Bulgaria. Had he been more successful in all his ventures, he would have controlled not only the most productive farmland around the Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic seas, but also the entire trading facilities of the area. Even if he did not achieve his ambitious goals, his wars against Hungary brought him control of the Dalmatian coast, the rich agricultural region of Sirmium, and the Danube trade route from Hungary to the Black Sea. His Balkan expeditions are said to have taken great booty in slaves and livestock;[89] Kinnamos was impressed by the amount of arms taken from the Hungarian dead after the battle of 1167.[90] And even if Manuel's wars against the Turks probably realised a net loss, his commanders took livestock and captives on at least two occasions.[89] This allowed the Western provinces to flourish in an economic revival that had begun in the time of his grandfather Alexios I and continued till the close of the century. Indeed, it has been argued that Byzantium in the 12th century was richer and more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasion during the reign of Herakleios, some five hundred years earlier. There is good evidence from this period of new construction and new churches, even in remote areas, strongly suggesting that wealth was widespread.[91] Trade was also flourishing; it has been estimated that the population of Constantinople, the biggest commercial center of the Empire, was between half a million and one million during Manuel's reign, making it by far the largest city in Europe. A major source of Manuel's wealth was the kommerkion, a customs duty levied at Constantinople on all imports and exports.[92] The kommerkion was stated to have collected 20,000 hyperpyra each day.[93] Furthermore, Constantinople was undergoing expansion. The cosmopolitan character of the city was being reinforced by the arrival of Italian merchants and Crusaders en route to the Holy Land. The Venetians, the Genoese, and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with Byzantium via Constantinople.[94] These maritime traders stimulated demand in the towns and cities of Greece, Macedonia, and the Greek Islands, generating new sources of wealth in a predominantly agrarian economy.[95] Thessaloniki, the second city of the Empire, hosted a famous summer fair that attracted traders from across the Balkans and even further afield to its bustling market stalls. In Corinth, silk production fuelled a thriving economy. All this is a testament to the success of the Komnenian Emperors in securing a Pax Byzantina in these heartland territories.[91] Legacy[edit] Map of the Byzantine Empire under Manuel, c. 1180 To the rhetors of his court, Manuel was the "divine emperor". A generation after his death, Choniates referred to him as "the most blessed among emperors", and a century later John Stavrakios described him as "great in fine deeds". John Phokas, a soldier who fought in Manuel's army, characterised him some years later as the "world saving" and glorious emperor.[96] Manuel would be remembered in France, Italy, and the Crusader states as the most powerful sovereign in the world.[3] A Genoese analyst noted that with the passing of "Lord Manuel of divine memory, the most blessed emperor of Constantinople ... all Christendom incurred great ruin and detriment."[97] William of Tyre called Manuel "a wise and discreet prince of great magnificence, worthy of praise in every respect", "a great-souled man of incomparable energy", whose "memory will ever be held in benediction." Manuel was further extolled by Robert of Clari as "a right worthy man, [...] and richest of all the Christians who ever were, and the most bountiful."[98] A telling reminder of the influence that Manuel held in the Crusader states in particular can still be seen in the church of the Holy Nativity in Bethlehem. In the 1160s the nave was redecorated with mosaics showing the councils of the church.[99] Manuel was one of the patrons of the work. On the south wall, an inscription in Greek reads: "the present work was finished by Ephraim the monk, painter and mosaicist, in the reign of the great emperor Manuel Porphyrogennetos Komnenos and in the time of the great king of Jerusalem, Amalric." That Manuel's name was placed first was a symbolic, public recognition of Manuel's overlordship as leader of the Christian world. Manuel's role as protector of the Orthodox Christians and Christian holy places in general is also evident in his successful attempts to secure rights over the Holy Land. Manuel participated in the building and decorating of many of the basilicas and Greek monasteries in the Holy Land, including the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where thanks to his efforts the Byzantine clergy were allowed to perform the Greek liturgy each day. All this reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem respectively. Manuel was also the last Byzantine emperor who, thanks to his military and diplomatic success in the Balkans, could call himself "ruler of Dalmatia, Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria and Hungary".[100] Byzantium looked impressive when Manuel died on 24 September 1180,[3][101] having just celebrated the betrothal of his son Alexios II to the daughter of the king of France.[102] Thanks to the diplomacy and campaigning of Alexios, John, and Manuel, the empire was a great power, economically prosperous, and secure on its frontiers; but there were serious problems as well. Internally, the Byzantine court required a strong leader to hold it together, and after Manuel's death stability was seriously endangered from within. Some of the foreign enemies of the Empire were lurking on the flanks, waiting for a chance to attack, in particular the Turks in Anatolia, whom Manuel had ultimately failed to defeat, and the Normans in Sicily, who had already tried but failed to invade the Empire on several occasions. Even the Venetians, the single most important western ally of Byzantium, were on bad terms with the empire at Manuel's death in 1180. Given this situation, it would have taken a strong emperor to secure the Empire against the foreign threats it now faced, and to rebuild the depleted imperial treasury. But Manuel's son was a minor, and his unpopular regency government was overthrown in a violent coup d'état. This troubled succession weakened the dynastic continuity and solidarity on which the strength of the Byzantine state had come to rely.[102] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors Notes[edit] ^ a: The mood that prevailed before the end of 1147 is best conveyed by a verse encomium to Manuel (one of the poems included in a list transmitted under the name of Theodore Prodromos in Codex Marcianus graecus XI.22 known as Manganeios Prodromos), which was probably an imperial commission, and must have been written shortly after the Germans had crossed the Bosporus. Here Conrad is accused of wanting to take Constantinople by force, and to install a Latin patriarch (Manganeios Prodromos, no 20.1).[103] ^ b: According to Paul Magdalino, one of Manuel's primary goals was a partition of Italy with the German empire, in which Byzantium would get the Adriatic coast. His unilateral pursuit, however, antagonized the new German emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, whose own plans for imperial restoration ruled out any partnership with Byzantium. Manuel was thus obliged to treat Frederick as his main enemy, and to form a web of relationships with other western powers, including the papacy, his old enemy, the Norman kingdom, Hungary, several magnates and cities throughout Italy, and, above all, the crusader states.[102] ^ c: Magdalino underscores that, whereas John had removed the Rupenid princes from power in Cilicia twenty years earlier, Manuel allowed Toros to hold most of his strongholds he had taken, and effectively restored only the coastal area to imperial rule. From Raynald, Manuel secured recognition of imperial suzerainty over Antioch, with the promise to hand over the citadel, to instal a patriarch sent from Constantinople (not actually implemented until 1165–66), and to provide troops for the emperor's service, but nothing seems to have been said about the reversion of Antioch to direct imperial rule. According to Magdalino, this suggests that Manuel had dropped this demand on which both his grandfather and father insisted.[21] For his part, Medieval historian Zachary Nugent Brooke believes that the victory of Christianity against Nur ad-Din was made impossible, since both Greeks and Latins were concerned primarily with their own interests. He characterises the policy of Manuel as "short-sighted", because "he lost a splendid opportunity of recovering the former possessions of the Empire, and by his departure threw away most of the actual fruits of his expedition".[104] According to Piers Paul Read, Manuel's deal with Nur ad-Din was for the Latins another expression of Greeks' perfidy.[18] ^ d: Alexios had been ordered to bring soldiers, but he merely brought his empty ships to Brindisi.[33] ^ e: In 1155 Hadrian sent legates to Manuel, with a letter for Basil, Archbishop of Thessaloniki, in which he exhorted that bishop to procure the reünion of the churches. Basil answered that there was no division between the Greeks and Latins, since they held the same faith and offered the same sacrifice. "As for the causes of scandal, weak in themselves, that have separated us from each other", he added, "your Holiness can cause them to cease, by your own extended authority and the help of the Emperor of the West."[105] ^ f: This probably meant that Amalric repeated Baldwin's assurances regarding the status of Antioch as an imperial fief.[55] ^ g: According to Michael Angold, after the controversy of 1166 Manuel took his responsibilities very seriously, and tightened his grip over the church. 1166 was also the year in which Manuel first referred in his legislation to his role as the disciplinarian of the church (epistemonarkhes).[106] References[edit] ^ a b P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 3 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 3–4 ^ a b c d e f g h i A. Stone, Manuel I Comnenus ^ Gibbon, The decline and fall of the Roman Empire, 72 ^ Gibbon, The decline and fall of the Roman Empire, 72 * J. H. Norwich, A short history of Byzantium * A. Stone, Manuel I Comnenus ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 87–88 ^ "Byzantium". Papyros-Larousse-Britannica. 2006. ^ J. Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, 33–35 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 40 ^ a b W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 640 ^ J. Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, 47 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 42 ^ Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, p. 42 ^ A. Komnene, The Alexiad, 333 ^ Kinnamos, pp. 65–67 ^ Birkenmeier, p. 110 ^ a b c P. Magdalino, The Byzantine Empire, 621 ^ Letter by the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos Archived 2 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Vatican Secret Archives. ^ P. P. Read, The Templars, 238 ^ a b c P. P. Read, The Templars, 239 ^ William of Tyre, Historia, XVIII, 10 ^ C. Hillenbrand, The Imprisonment of Raynald of Châtillon, 80 * T. F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 65 ^ a b P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 67 ^ Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Jeffreys, Michael (2015) "A Constantinopolitan Poet Views Frankish Antioch". In: Chrissis, Nikolaos G.; Kedar, Benjamin Z.; Phillips, Jonathan (eds.) Crusades, Ashgate, ISBN 978-1-472-46841-3, vol. 14, p. 53 ^ B. Hamilton, William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire, 226 * William of Tyre, Historia, XVIII, 23 ^ a b c Z. N. Brooke, A History of Europe, from 911 to 1198, 482 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 67 * J. H. Norwich, A short history of Byzantium ^ a b K. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Db, 134 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 98 and 103 ^ a b J. Duggan, The Pope and the Princes, 122 ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 114 * J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 112 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 112–113 ^ a b c A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, VII ^ William of Tyre, Historia, XVIII, 2 ^ J. Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, 172 ^ a b J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 115 * J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 115 ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 115–116 * A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, VII ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 116 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 61 ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 114 ^ Abbé Guettée, The Papacy, Chapter VII * J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 114 ^ J. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 116 ^ W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 643 ^ a b c d e Rogers, Clifford J, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: Vol. 1., 290 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 84 * A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, VII ^ Abulafia, D. (1984) Ancona, Byzantium and the Adriatic, 1155–1173, Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 52, pp. 195–216, 211 ^ J. Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, 231 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 84 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 93 ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 131 ^ Curta, Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, xxiii ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 241 ^ a b J. W. Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 372 ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, 299–300. ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, 300–302. ^ M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204, 177. ^ a b c P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 73 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and The Crusades, 107 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 73 * J. G. Rowe, Alexander III and the Jerusalem Crusade, 117 ^ a b c P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 74 ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 158 ^ William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea ^ R. Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century, 84–86 ^ William of Tyre, Historia, XX 15–17 ^ T. F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 68 ^ T. F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 68–69 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 75 * H. E. Mayer, The Latin East, 657 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and The Crusades, 109 ^ I. Health, Byzantine Armies, 4 ^ Magdalino, pp. 78 and 95–96 ^ K. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Db, 140 ^ a b J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 128 ^ Birkenmeier, p. 132. ^ J. Bradbury, Medieval Warfare, 176 ^ a b c D. MacGillivray Nicol, Byzantium and Venice, 102 ^ Haldon 2001, pp. 142–143 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 98 ^ a b W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 649 ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 128 * K. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Db, 141 ^ J. W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army, 196 ^ a b J. H. Kurtz, History of the Christian Church to the Restoration, 265–266 ^ P. Magdalino, p. 279. ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 217 ^ a b G. L. Hanson, Manuel I Komnenos and the "God of Muhammad", 55 ^ Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 73 * K. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Db, 121 ^ a b Garland-Stone, Bertha-Irene of Sulzbach, first wife of Manuel I Comnenus ^ K. Varzos, Genealogy of the Komnenian Dynasty, 155 ^ Každan-Epstein, Change in Byzantine Culture, 102 ^ C. M. Brand, The Turkish Element in Byzantium, 12 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 98 ^ K. Varzos, Genealogy of the Komnenian Dynasty, 157a ^ a b Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 74. ^ M. Bartusis, The Late Byzantine Army, 5–6 ^ N. Choniates, O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, 96–97 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 173 ^ a b P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 174 ^ J. Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, 274 ^ a b M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, 25 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, 26 ^ G. W. Day, Manuel and the Genoese, 289–290 ^ P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 143–144 ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 3 ^ G. W. Day, Manuel and the Genoese, 289–290 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 3 ^ Robert of Clari, "Account of the Fourth Crusade", 18 Archived 13 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine ^ B. Zeitler, Cross-cultural interpretations ^ J. W. Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 372–373 ^ Harris, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium, PT78 ^ a b c P. Magdalino, The Medieval Empire, 194 ^ Jeffreys-Jeffreys, The "Wild Beast from the West", 102 * P. Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 49 ^ Z. N. Brooke, A History of Europe, from 911 to 1198, 482 ^ Abbé Guettée, The Papacy, Chapter VII ^ M. Angold, Church and Society under the Komneni, 99 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Choniates, Nicetas (1984). O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs. Translated by Harry J. Magoulias. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1764-2. Cinammus, John, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, trans. Charles M. Brand. Columbia University Press, 1976. Komnene (Comnena), Anna; Edgar Robert Ashton Sewter (1969). "XLVIII: The First Crusade". The Alexiad of Anna Comnena translated by Edgar Robert Ashton Sewter. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044215-4. Robert of Clari (c. 1208). Account of the Fourth Crusade. William of Tyre, Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum (A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea), translated by E. A. Babock and A. C. Krey (Columbia University Press, 1943). See the original text in the Latin library. Secondary sources[edit] Abbé Guettée (1866). "Chapter VII". The Papacy: Its Historic Origin and Primitive Relations with the Eastern Churches. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. Angold, Michael (1995). "Church and Politics under Manuel I Komnenos". Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081–1261. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26432-4. Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204. Longman. ISBN 0-582-29468-1. Birkenmeier, John W. (2002). "The Campaigns of Manuel I Komnenos". The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11710-5. Bradbury, Jim (2006). "Military events". The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. Read Country Books. ISBN 1-84664-983-8. Brand, Charles M. (1989). "The Turkish Element in Byzantium, Eleventh-Twelfth Centuries". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. 43: 1–25. doi:10.2307/1291603. JSTOR 1291603. Brooke, Zachary Nugent (2004). "East and West: 1155–1198". A History of Europe, from 911 to 1198. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-22126-9. "Byzantium". Papyros-Larousse-Britannica (Volume XIII) (in Greek). 2006. ISBN 960-8322-84-7. Curta, Florin (2006). "Chronology". Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0. Day, Gerald. W. (June 1977). "Manuel and the Genoese: A Reappraisal of Byzantine Commercial Policy in the Late Twelfth Century". The Journal of Economic History. 37 (2): 289–301. doi:10.1017/S0022050700096947. Duggan, Anne J. (2003). "The Pope and the Princes". Adrian IV, the English Pope, 1154–1159: Studies and Texts edited by Brenda Bolton and Anne J. Duggan. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-0708-9. Garland Lynda, Stone Andrew. "Bertha-Irene of Sulzbach, first wife of Manuel I Comnenus". Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 5 February 2007. Gibbon, Edward (1995). "XLVIII: The Decline and Fall". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume III). Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-043395-3. Haldon, John (2001), The Byzantine Wars, Stroud: Tempus, ISBN 0-7524-1777-0 Hamilton, Bernard (2003). "William of Tyre and the Byzantine Empire". Porphyrogenita: : Essays on the History and Literature of Byzantium and the Latin East in Honor of Julian Chrysostomides, edited by Charalambos Dendrinos, Jonathan Harris, Eirene Harvalia-Crook and Judith Herrin. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-3696-8. Hanson, Graig L. (2003). "Manuel I Komnenos and the "God of Muhammad": A Study in Byzantine Ecclesiastical Politics". Medieval Christian Perceptions of Islam: A Book of Essays edited by John Tolan. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92892-3. Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 Harris, Jonathan and Tolstoy, Dmitri, 'Alexander III and Byzantium', in Alexander III (1159–81: The Art of Survival, ed. P. Clarke and A. Duggan, Ashgate, 2012, pp. 301–13. ISBN 978 07546 6288 4 Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0. Heath, Ian (1995). Byzantine Armies 1118–1461 AD (Illustrated by Angus McBride). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-347-8. Hillenbrand, Carole (2003). "The Imprisonment of Raynald of Châtillon". Texts, Documents, and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D. S. (Donald Sidney) Richards edited by Chase F. Robinson. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10865-3. Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Jeffreys Michael (2001). "The "Wild Beast from the West": Immediate Literary Reactions in Byzantium to the Second Crusade" (PDF). The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World edited by Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 0-88402-277-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2017. Každan, Alexander P.; Epstein, Ann Wharton (1990). "Popular and Aristocratic Popular Trends". Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06962-5. Kurtz, Johann Heinrich (1860). "Dogmatic Controversies, 12th and 14th Centuries". History of the Christian Church to the Reformation. T. & T. Clark. ISBN 0-548-06187-4. "Letter by the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos To Pope Eugene III on the Issue of the Crusades". Vatican Secret Archives. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2007. Madden, Thomas F. (2005). "The Decline of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade". The New Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-3822-2. Magdalino, Paul (2004). "The Byzantine Empire (1118–1204)". In Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4, c.1024–c.1198, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 611–643. ISBN 9781139054027. Magdalino, Paul (2002). "The Medieval Empire (780–1204)". The Oxford History of Byzantium By Cyril A. Mango. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3. Magdalino, Paul (2002) [1993]. The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1. Mayer, Hans (2004). "The Latin East, 1098–1205". In Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4, c.1024–c.1198, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 644–674. ISBN 9781139054027. Nicol, Donald M. (1988). "The Parting of the Ways". Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34157-4. Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025960-0. Norwich, John J. (1995). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-679-41650-1. Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe 500–1453. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-84212-019-0. Paparrigopoulos, Constantine; Karolidis, Pavlos (1925). History of the Hellenic Nation (in Greek). Db. Athens: Eleftheroudakis.. Read, Piers Paul (2003) [1999]. The Templars (translated in Greek by G. Kousounelou). Enalios. ISBN 960-536-143-4. Rogers, Clifford J. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195334036. Rogers, Randal (1997). "The Capture of the Palestinian Coast". Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820689-5. Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). "Foreign Affairs". East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97290-4. Stone, Andrew. "Manuel I Comnenus (A.D. 1143–1180)". Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved 5 February 2007. Varzos, Konstantinos (1984). Η Γενεαλογία των Κομνηνών [The Genealogy of the Komnenoi] (PDF) (in Greek). A. Thessaloniki: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Thessaloniki. OCLC 834784634. Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). "Byzantium and the Crusades". History of the Byzantine Empire. ISBN 0-299-80925-0. Zeitler, Barbara (1994). "Cross-cultural Interpretations of Imagery in the Middle Ages". The Art Bulletin. 76 (4): 680–694. doi:10.2307/3046063. JSTOR 3046063. Further reading[edit] Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium – A History. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2343-6. Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (1988). Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096–1204. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820407-8. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manuel I Komnenos. Manuel coinage Manuel I Komnenos Komnenian dynasty Born: 28 November 1118 Died: 24 September 1180 Regnal titles Preceded by Andronikos Komnenos (son of Alexios I), Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I) Sebastokrator of the Byzantine Empire 1122–1143 With: Andronikos Komnenos (son of Alexios I) (until 1130/31), Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I), Andronikos Komnenos (son of John II) (1122–1142), Isaac Komnenos (son of John II) Succeeded by Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I) Isaac Komnenos (son of John II) Preceded by John II Komnenos Byzantine emperor 1143–1180 Succeeded by Alexios II Komnenos v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e The Komnenoi of the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond 1st generation Nikephoros Komnenos Manuel Erotikos Komnenos 2nd generation Isaac I Komnenos John Komnenos 3rd generation Manuel Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos Adrianos Komnenos Nikephoros Komnenos 4th generation John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Constantine Komnenos Adrianos/John IV, Archbishop of Ohrid Anna Komnene Maria Komnene John II Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Eudokia Komnene Theodora Komnene 5th generation Alexios Komnenos Andronikos Komnenos Isaac Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos John Tzelepes Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos 6th generation John Doukas Komnenos Theodora Komnene, Duchess of Austria Alexios Komnenos Maria Komnene, Queen of Hungary Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Maria Komnene Alexios II Komnenos Alexios Komnenos Manuel Komnenos John Komnenos Alexios Komnenos 7th generation Maria Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem Theodora Komnene, Princess of Antioch David Komnenos Alexios I Megas Komnenos 8th generation John I Axouchos Manuel I Megas Komnenos 9th generation Andronikos II Megas Komnenos Theodora Megale Komnene George Megas Komnenos John II Megas Komnenos 10th generation Alexios II Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos 11th generation Andronikos III Megas Komnenos Basil Megas Komnenos Anna Anachoutlou John III Megas Komnenos 12th generation Manuel II Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos 13th generation Anna Megale Komnene, Queen of Georgia Manuel III Megas Komnenos Eudokia Megale Komnene, Lady of Sinop 14th generation Alexios IV Megas Komnenos 15th generation John IV Megas Komnenos Maria Megale Komnene, Byzantine empress Alexander Megas Komnenos David Megas Komnenos 16th generation Theodora Megale Komnene ("Despina Khatun") Uncertain generation Eudokia Komnene, Lady of Montpellier Related subjects AIMA prophecy Only male-line descendants who are independently notable are shown. 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en-wikipedia-org-9813	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search multiple sources for a book given a 10- or 13-digit International Standard Book Number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Romania 4.9.23 Russia 4.9.24 Serbia 4.9.25 Slovenia 4.9.26 Spain 4.9.27 Sweden 4.9.28 Switzerland 4.9.29 Turkey 4.9.30 United Kingdom 4.9.30.1 Public libraries 4.9.30.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .pl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). At Archive.org you can borrow and read entire books online. Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. 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en-wikipedia-org-9843	----	Marcus Iallius Bassus - Wikipedia Marcus Iallius Bassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd century Roman senator, governor and legate Fragment of an inscription detailing the cursus honorum of Marcus Iallius Bassus. Marcus Iallius or Jallius Bassus was a Roman senator, general, and literary figure who held several offices in the imperial service during the mid-second century AD. He was suffect consul around the year 159.[1] Bassus is known primarily from inscriptions. His full name was Marcus Iallius Bassus Fabius Valerianus. Bassus was from Alba Helviorum (modern Joyeuse, Ardèche), where two inscriptions record his cursus honorum.[2] These inscriptions give his father's name as Marcus; he might be the Marcus Iallius Bassus who was buried at Alba Helviorum.[3] He was probably closely related to the Quintus Iallius Bassus who was consul in 158.[4] Bassus' senatorial career began with his adlection inter tribunicios, that is as having held the office of plebeian tribune. After his accession to praetor, he was commissioned legatus legionis, or commander of a legion, but its name was not preserved on either inscription; Géza Alföldy dates his command from around the year 153 to 156, and suggests that the unknown legion could be either Legio I Adiutrix or Legio X Gemina.[5] Then Bassus was governor of Pannonia Inferior, which Alföldy dates from around the year 156 to 159.[6] His consulate followed. His senatorial career as an ex-consul encompasses more than the average number of offices. First Bassus held the post of curator operum locorumque publicorum et aedium sacrum, which Alföldy dates to the year 161.[7] Then he was appointed governor of Moesia Inferior; Alföldy dates his office to the year 162.[8] Bassus was then made one of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius' comites, an inner circle of advisors, during the Parthian War. Upon the resolution of that conflict, Bassus was appointed governor of Pannonia Superior; Alföldy dates his tenure in that province from around 166 to 169.[9] See also[edit] Iallia gens References[edit] ^ Géza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), p. 73. ^ CIL XII, 2718, CIL XII, 2719. ^ CIL XII, 2681. ^ CIL XVI, 108, AE 1968, 400. ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 302. ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 251. ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 290. ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 232. ^ Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand, p. 237. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Iallius_Bassus&oldid=1015928092" Categories: 2nd-century Romans Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Roman governors of Pannonia Inferior Roman governors of Lower Moesia Roman governors of Pannonia Superior Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 11:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9857	----	Victorinus - Wikipedia Victorinus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 269 to 271 For other uses, see Victorinus (disambiguation). Augustus of Gaul and Britannia Victorinus Augustus of Gaul and Britannia Aureus of Victorinus, marked: imp· victorinus p·f· aug· Emperor of the Gallic Empire Reign 268–270[1] or 269–271[2] Predecessor Marcus Aurelius Marius Successor Tetricus I Born Roman Gaul Died 270 or early 271 Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) Issue Victorinus Junior Names Marcus Piavonius Victorinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Piavonius Victorinus Augustus Mother Victoria Marcus Piavonius Victorinus[note 1] was emperor in the Gallic provinces from 268 to 270[1] or 269 to 271,[2] following the brief reign of Marius. He was murdered by a jealous husband whose wife he tried to seduce. Contents 1 Reign 2 Notes 3 References 4 Sources 4.1 Primary sources 4.2 Secondary sources 5 External links Reign[edit] Mosaic with the name of Victorinus from Augusta Treverorum (CIL XIII, 03679 (4, p 43); Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier) Bronze double denarius of the Gallic Roman emperor Victorinus (269–271) found at U Thong, Thailand. Hailing from Gaul,[3] Victorinus was born to a family of great wealth,[2] and was a soldier under Postumus, the first of the so-called Gallic emperors.[1] He showed considerable ability, as he held the title of tribunus praetorianorum (tribune of the praetorians) in 266/267,[1][2] and rose swiftly to become co-consul with Postumus in 268.[4] It is also possible that Postumus then elevated him to the post of praetorian prefect.[5] After engineering the death of Marius, Victorinus was declared emperor by the troops located at Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in the fall of 269.[5] His principal concern was to prevent the western provinces from submitting to the central authority of the Roman Empire, a fact made clear to him from the first few weeks when only the provinces of Gaul, Germania and Britain recognised him. Hispania deserted the Gallic Empire and declared its loyalty to Claudius Gothicus.[5][2] Claudius then sent his trusted general Placidianus to south-east Gaul with instructions to bring over as many of the wavering cities as he could.[4] Very quickly Placidianus captured Cularo (Grenoble), but did not proceed any further.[5] The presence of Placidianus inspired the city of Augustodunum Haeduorum (Autun) to abandon Victorinus and declare its intention to declare for Claudius Gothicus.[4][5] This forced Victorinus to march south and besiege it, where it fell after seven months, after which Victorinus’ troops plundered and destroyed the city.[4][2] Victorinus returned to Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) in triumph.[2] It remains a mystery just why Claudius did not authorise Placidianus to go to the relief of Augustodunum; however, it is speculated that Claudius, who was fully engaged either in Italy against the Alamanni or in the Balkans against the Goths, did not wish to open a second theatre of operations in Gaul, which would not only have involved a major military effort, but would also have required Claudius to assume responsibility for the defense of the Rhine frontier had he been successful.[6] There is evidence to suggest that Claudius was having some difficulties in the East, which also occupied his attention.[5] Victorinus was murdered at Colonia[1] in early 271[7] by Attitianus, one of his officers, whose wife Victorinus had supposedly seduced.[8] Since the motive was personal and not political,[2][8] Victorinus' mother, Victoria (or Vitruvia), was able to continue to hold power after the death of Victorinus and she arranged for his deification and, after considerable payment to the troops, the appointment of Tetricus I as his successor.[8][2] Another military commander appears to have been proclaimed as the emperor Domitianus II, but was soon eliminated.[citation needed] Victorinus is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta. The dubious Historia Augusta equally has a short description of Victorinus Junior, allegedly the son of Victorinus, who was appointed emperor by his family the day his father was murdered, and would have been killed immediately afterwards by the troops. The Historia Augusta also says that both father and son were buried near Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in marble tombs.[9] Notes[edit] ^ Some of the inscriptions record his name as M. Piavvonius Victorinus, as does the first release of coins from the Colonia mint. A mosaic from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) lists him as Piaonius. References[edit] ^ a b c d e Martindale, p. 965 ^ a b c d e f g h i Polfer, Victorinus ^ Potter, p. 261 ^ a b c d Southern, p. 118 ^ a b c d e f Potter, p. 266 ^ Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. p. 90. ^ Potter, p. 272 ^ a b c Southern, p. 119 ^ Historia Augusta, Tyranni Triginta, 7:1 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, The Thirty Tyrants Secondary sources[edit] Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. Potter, David Stone (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge. Jones, A.H.M.; Martindale, J.R. (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395. Cambridge University Press. Polfer, Michel (1999). "Victorinus (A.D. 269-271)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. J. F. Drinkwater, The Gallic Empire: Separatism and Continuity in the North-western Provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260–274 (Stuttgart 1987) External links[edit] Media related to Victorinus at Wikimedia Commons Works by Victorinus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Regnal titles Preceded by Marcus Aurelius Marius Emperor of the Gallic Empire 269-271 Succeeded by Domitianus and/or Tetricus I Political offices Preceded by Gallienus, Sabinillus Consul of the Roman Empire 268 with Postumus, Ovinius Paternus, Arcesilaus Succeeded by Aspasius Paternus, Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus, Postumus Preceded by Aspasius Paternus, Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus, Postumus Consul of the Roman Empire 269-270 with Sanctus, Claudius II, Paternus Succeeded by Aurelian, Pomponius Bassus, Tetricus I v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victorinus&oldid=1017214652" Categories: Gallic emperors Deified Roman emperors Thirty Tyrants (Roman) Imperial Roman consuls 3rd-century monarchs in Europe 3rd-century murdered monarchs Piavonii Murdered Roman emperors 270s deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Lombard Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2021, at 14:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9860	----	Aemilianus - Wikipedia Aemilianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 253 For other uses, see Aemilianus (disambiguation). Roman emperor Aemilianus Coin featuring Aemilian. Legend: imp. aemilianvs pivs fel avg. Roman emperor Reign June–September 253 Predecessor Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus Successor Valerian and Gallienus Born c. 210 Girba, Africa Died September 253 near Spoletium, Italy (aged approximately 43) Spouse Cornelia Supera Names Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus[1] Regnal name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus[2] Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus (c. 210 – September 253), also known as Aemilian, was Roman emperor for three months in 253. Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaimed emperor by his army. He then moved quickly to Roman Italy, where he defeated Emperor Trebonianus Gallus at the Battle of Interamna Nahars in August 253, only to be killed by his own men a month later when another general, Valerian, proclaimed himself emperor and moved against Aemilian with a larger army. Contents 1 Origins 2 Military career 3 Rise 4 Fall 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Origins[edit] Cornelia Supera (or Supra), was the wife of Aemilianus. Legend: CORNEL. SVPERA AVG. / VESTA Aemilian was born in the Roman province of Africa. According to the 4th century source Epitome de Caesaribus, he was born at Girba (modern Djerba, an island off the coast of Tunisia) and was a Moor;[3] a reference in the same source hints that he was born around 207.[4] The 12th-century historian Joannes Zonaras, who calls him a Libyan (that is, coming from western Egypt-eastern Libya) rather than a Moor,[5] and another chronicle of the 13th century hold that he was forty at the time of his death in 253.[6] Regarding his lineage, there are two versions, both exaggerated: while Eutropius and his translator Paeanius probably defame a failed usurper when they say that he was from an insignificant family,[7] John of Antioch may refer to Aemilian's propaganda when he says that the usurper used his ancestry to take power.[8] Aemilian married Cornelia Supera, a woman of African origin; the year of their marriage is unknown, but since both were from the same place, it is possible they married before Aemilian left Africa.[9] Military career[edit] During the reign of Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus (251–253), Aemilian was sent to the Balkans to command an army.[10] His primary responsibility was to assure peace along the Danube frontier, which had been subject to several attacks by the Goths led by king Cniva. Gallus secured the throne after the death of Emperor Decius at the hands of Cniva in the Battle of Abrittus (251), and later had to manage an outbreak of plague that devastated Rome. He was not popular with the army, mainly due to humiliating treaties signed in 251 with the Goths and King Shapur I of Persia who attacked Syria. According to John of Antioch, upon his appointment to the Moesian command, Aemilian was already envious of Gallus and plotted treachery against him. He was also an opponent of the Roman Senate,[9] and his seditious plans are confirmed by Jerome and Jordanes.[11] Rise[edit] In 253, the Goths, led by king Cniva, claimed they had not received the tribute due from the Romans according to the treaty of 251. They crossed the border and attacked Cappadocia, Pessinus, and Ephesus. Modern historians believe that this missing payment was not a change in Roman policy, and the Goths were more likely trying to capitalize on their military prowess.[9] Aemilian had command of the army assigned to defend the area, but the recent defeat at the Battle of Abrittus put his troops on edge. Aemilian exhorted them, reminding them of Roman honor (according to Zosimus) and promising tribute from the Goths (according to Zonaras). The Romans took the Goths by surprise, killing most of them, followed by an invasion of Goth territory resulting in booty and the liberation of prisoners. The Roman soldiers, gathered by Aemilian, acclaimed him emperor.[5][12] Jordanes claims, however, that Aemilian's troops plundered Roman territory, rather than keep the tribute of the Goths.[13] The Flaminian Way, here in purple, divided into two branches next to modern Terni; Aemilian, who was descending from north upon Rome, defeated Trebonianus Gallus on the eastern branch. With his few men, Aemilian left his province unguarded and moved quickly towards Rome to meet the legitimate emperor, Gallus, before the latter could receive reinforcements. While Aemilian descended upon Rome along the Flaminian Way, Gallus and Volusianus had him proclaimed "enemy of the State" by the Roman senate,[14] then exited Rome to meet the usurper. This strategy suggests that Aemilian's army was smaller than theirs, as they probably did not expect reinforcements to come in time but trusted their larger army to win the clash.[9] The two armies met at the Battle of Interamna Nahars near modern Terni, at the southern end of the eastern branch of the Flaminia, and Aemilian won the battle;[15] Gallus and Volusianus fled to the north with a few followers, probably as a delay tactic before the arrival of reinforcements, but, in August 253, at Forum Flaminii (modern San Giovanni Profiamma), on the western branch of the Flaminia, they were killed by some of their own guards,[8] who thought that their betrayal could earn them a reward.[16] Coin of Aemilian, showing at the obverse the god of war Mars, a reference to the military virtues of the emperor. Legend: IMP. CAES. AEMILIANVS AVG. P. F. AVG. / MARTI PACIF. Aemilian continued towards Rome. The Roman senate, after a short opposition,[17] decided to recognize him as emperor. According to some sources, Aemilian then wrote to the Senate, promising to fight for the Empire in Thrace and against Persia, and to relinquish his power to the Senate, of which he considered himself a general.[6][18] Aemilian received the titles of Pius, Felix and Pater Patriae, the tribunicia potestas, and was elevated to the rank of pontifex maximus; he was not, however, elevated to consulate (possibly a hint of his non-senatorial birth).[19] His coinage shows that his propaganda focused on his capability as a military commander—he defeated the Goths when nobody thought this possible, and thus he was the right man for the job of restoring the power of the Roman Empire.[19] Fall[edit] Valerian, governor of the Rhine provinces, was on his way south with an army which, according to Zosimus, had been called in as a reinforcement by Gallus.[20] But modern historians believe this army, possibly mobilized for an incumbent campaign in the East, moved only after Gallus' death to support Valerian's bid for power.[21] Emperor Aemilian's men, fearful of a civil war and Valerian's larger force, mutinied. They killed Aemilian at Spoletium[22] or at the Sanguinarium bridge, between Oriculum and Narnia (halfway between Spoletium and Rome), and recognized Valerian as the new emperor.[23] After Aemilian's death, which happened between late July and mid-September, a damnatio memoriae against him was declared.[9][14][22] It is possible that the usurper Silbannacus was an officer left by Aemilian in Rome before moving against Valerian, who later tried to become emperor but then was killed.[24] The troubled administration of emperor Aemilian was perhaps best summed up by Eutropius: Aemilianus came from an extremely insignificant family, his reign was even more insignificant, and he was slain in the third month.[25] Notes[edit] ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 499. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. p. 499. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. ^ Epitome de Caesaribus, 31.1–2. ^ Epitome de Caesaribus, 31.3. ^ a b Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum, 12.21. ^ a b Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum, 12.22. ^ Eutropius, Breviariun ab Urbe condita, 9.6; Paeanius, 9.6. ^ a b John of Antioch, fr. 150. ^ a b c d e Banchich. ^ John of Antioch says he was archon of Moesia (fr. 150), Zosimus puts him at the head of the Pannonian units (New History, i.28), while Joannes Zonaras claims he was commander of the Moesian legions (12.21). ^ Jerome, Chronicon, Ol. 258; Jordanes, Romana, 285. ^ Zosimus, New History, i.28.1–2. ^ Jordanes, Getica, 105. ^ a b Varner, Eric, Mutilation and Transformation, Brill Academic Publishers, 2004, ISBN 90-04-13577-4, p. 209. ^ Eutropius, 9.5; Paeanius 9.5, p. 153; Aurelius Victor 31.1 ^ Aurelius Victor, 31.1 ^ Aurelius Victor, 31.3. ^ Anonymous Continuator of Cassius Dio, fr. 2. ^ a b Richard Beale, "Roman Imperial Coins of 249–253 A.D." Archived 2008-07-20 at the Wayback Machine ^ Zosimus, i.28.3. ^ Potter, David S., Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 322. ^ a b Potter (2004), p. 252 ^ Zonaras, 12.22; Epitome de Caesaribus, 31.2; Zosimus, i.29.1; Chronographer of 354. Only Aurelius Victor reports Aemilianus' death by illness (31.3). ^ Estiot, Sylviane, "L'empereur Silbannacus. Un second antoninien", in Revue numismatique, 151, 1996, pp. 105–117. ^ Eutropius, Brevarium ab Urbe condita, 9.6 References[edit] Banchich, Thomas, "Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus (ca. July – ca. September, 253)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Potter, David S., The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 External links[edit] Media related to Aemilianus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Roman emperor 253 Succeeded by Valerian v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Vatican Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aemilianus&oldid=1026075467" Categories: 210 births 253 deaths 3rd-century murdered monarchs Crisis of the Third Century Murdered Roman emperors Romans from Africa 3rd-century Roman emperors Aemilii Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Romans from Moesia Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lombard Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9871	----	List of ancient Germanic peoples - Wikipedia List of ancient Germanic peoples From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Germanic tribes) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article contains translated text and needs attention from someone fluent in German and English. Please see this article's entry on Pages needing translation into English for discussion. If you have just labeled this article as needing attention, please add {{subst:Needtrans|pg=List of ancient Germanic peoples |language=German |comments= }} ~~~~ to the bottom of the WP:PNTCU section on Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English. This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This list of ancient Germanic peoples is a list of groups and alliances of ancient Germanic peoples in ancient times. These reports begin in the 2nd century BC and extend into late antiquity. Beginning with the states of the Early Middle Ages, the period in which earlier forms of kingship had a historical impact ends, with the exception of Northern Europe, where the Vendel Period from 550 AD to 800 AD and the subsequent Viking Age until 1050 AD are still seen in the Germanic context. The associations and locations of the numerous peoples and groups in ancient sources are subject to uncertainty and speculation, and classifications of ethnicity with a common culture or a temporary alliance of heterogeneous groups are disputed. For some, it is not even certain that these groups are Germanic in the broader linguistic sense, or in other words, that they consisted of speakers of a Germanic language. In this respect, the names listed here are not terms for ethnic groups in any modern sense, but the names of groups that were perceived in ancient and late antiquity as Germanic, that is, as peoples, groups, alliances and associations of the Barbaricum east of the Rhine and to the north of the Danube, also known as Germania, especially those that arrived during the Migration Period. Contents 1 In alphabetical order 2 Ancestors 3 Possible ethnolinguistic kinship 3.1 East Germanic peoples (Vandilians) 3.2 North Germanic peoples (Norsemen) 3.3 West Germanic peoples 4 Germanic peoples or tribes of unknown ethnolinguistic kinship 5 Ancient peoples with partially Germanic background 5.1 Germano-Celtic 5.2 Germano-Slavic 6 Ancient peoples of uncertain origin with possible Germanic or partially Germanic background 6.1 Mixed peoples that had some Germanic component 6.1.1 Celtic-Germanic-Iranian 6.2 Possible Germanic or non-Germanic peoples 6.2.1 Germanic or Slavic 6.2.2 Germanic or Celtic 6.2.3 Germanic or Dacian 6.2.4 Germanic or Iranian 6.2.5 Germanic or Uralic (Balto-Finnic) 7 Mythical founders 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links In alphabetical order[edit] This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section needs expansion with: more Germanic tribes and more information about them like their ancient names (in Greek and Latin), descriptions, locations and sources, and more references (footnotes), like it was on the older revisions of this article in English. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. The present list is largely based on the list of Germanic tribal names and its spelling variants contained in the first register of the Reallexikons der Germanischen Altertumskunde.[1] The first column contains the English name and its variants, if one is common, otherwise the traditional ancient name. The second column contains ancient names of Latin and Greek authors, the latter both in transcription and in Greek. The third column gives a brief description followed by a location. The fifth column gives important sources of tradition for the group in question. The few ancient main sources for names and location of Germanic tribes are not linked. These are: Julius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico Jordanes: De origine actibusque Getarum, short Getica Ptolemy: Geography Tacitus: Germania Name Ancient name Description Location Sources A Adogit Hålogaland, the northernmost Norwegian Petty Kingdom. Between the Namdalen valley in Nord-Trøndelag and the Lyngen fjord in Troms. Jordanes Adrabaecampi Adrabaikampoi (´Αδραβαικαμποι) See Kampoi North of the Danube, south of Bohemia Ptolemy Aduatuci, Atuatuci Aduatici, Atouatikoi (Ἀτουατικοί) Left bank of the Rhine in the squad of the Belgian tribes against Caesar In the first century BC in the area of today's Tongeren (Belgium), between the Scheldt and the Meuse Julius Caesar Aelvaeones, Elouaiones, Elvaiones, Aelvaeones, Ailouaiones, Alouiones, Ailouones Alouiones (Αλουίωνες), Helouaiones ('Ελουαίωνες) See Helveconae Presumably at the middle Oder, today's Silesia Tacitus, Ptolemy Aglies Agradingun Saxon tribe Middle course of the Weser Ahelmil Scandza Jordanes Alemanni, Alamanni Alamanni From various Elbe Germanic tribes, among them probably Suebian tribes, armies and followers from the 3rd century on provincial Roman soil (Agri decumates) developed population group Core areas in Baden-Württemberg and Alsace, in Bavarian Swabia, German-speaking Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Vorarlberg Ambrones, Obrones, Ymbre Ambrones Participation of tribal groups in the train of the Cimbri and the Teutons at the end of the 2nd century BC Amoþingas Ampsivarii, Ampsivari, Amsivarii, Amsivari Ansibarii, Ansivaroi (Ἀνσιβαριοί) Southern neighbours of the Frisii 1st century in the lower Emsland Tacitus Anartes, Anarti, Anartii, Anartoi Anarti Possibly Germanic tribe in the border area between the Teutons and the Dacians Hungary or Romania Julius Caesar Angarii See Angrivarii Angeron Angisciri Tribe in the wake of Dengizich Jordanes Angles, Anglians Anglii, Angeiloi (Άγγειλοι), Angiloi (Άγγιλοι) At Tacitus to the Ingaevones counted North Germanic people Originally in Jutland (Schleswig-Holstein), later Mittelelb-Saale area, from 200 emigration to Great Britain Tacitus Anglevarii, Angleverii, Anglevaries, Angleveries Anglies Anglo-Saxons From the Angles and Saxons, as well as the Jutes, Frisii and Franks on British soil originated collecting people Southeastern England Angrivarii, Angrevarii, Angrivari, Angrevari, Angarii, Angerii, Angrii, Angari, Angeri, Angri, Aggeri, Angriouarroi, Aggerimenses, Angerienses Angrivarii, Angriouarioi (Αγγριουάριοι) In the 1st century, south of the Chauci, north of the Cherusci, northwest of the Dulgubnii and east of the Ampsivarii On the Weser, mainly on the right bank, from the tributary of the Aller to the Steinhuder Meer Aringon Armalausi, Armilausi Probably a part of the Hermunduri, in the 3rd and 4th centuries between the Alemanni and the Marcomanni Possibly in the Upper Palatinate Tabula Peutingeriana Arochi Arosaetan Ascomanni Designation of the Vikings at Adam of Bremen Astfalon Atmoni Auarinoi Augandxii Augandzi Avarpi, Auarpoi, Avarni Aviones, Auiones, Chaibones Aviones B Baemi, Baimoi Bainaib Baiuvarii, Bavarii, Baioarii, Baiovarii Bavarii Towards the end of the migration of peoples in the 5th century, people formed with the core area in Raetia and Noricum Altbayern, Austria and South Tyrol Banochaemae, Bainochaimai Bardes, Bards, Bardi Possibly a non-southward group of the Lombards South of the Elbe, in the area of Bardowick and Lüneburg Bardongavenses Bastarnae, Bastarni, Basternae Bastarnae Fights with the Romans in the 3rd century BC, probably outweigh Germanic tribe East side of the Carpathian Mountains to the mouth of the Danube estuary Polybius Batavi, Batavii, Batavians Batavi Originally allies of the Romans in the province of Gallia Belgica, 69 Revolt of the Batavi under Gaius Julius Civilis In the 1st century at the mouth of the Rhine Bateinoi, Batini Batini Bergio Betasii, Baetasi Baetasii Boutones Brisgavi, Brisigavi Brisgavi, Brisigavi Alemannic tribe in the 5th century Breisgau Brondings Bructeri, Boructuarii, Boruactii, Borchtii Bructeri, Boructuarii, Broukteroi (Βρούκτεροι) In the 1st century, opponents of the Romans in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest Between the middle Ems and the upper Lippe Bructuarii Bucinobantes Bucinobantes Alemannic tribe in the 4th century Main estuary at Mainz Ammianus Marcellinus Burgodiones Burgundians Burgundiones East Germanic people with late antique foundations on the Rhine and later the Rhone Buri Buri C Caemani Caemani, Paemani Caeroesi, Caerosi Caerosi, Caeroesi, Ceroesi, Cerosi Left Rhine Celto-Germanic tribe In the 1st century BC in the Eifel-Ardennes area Julius Caesar Calucones Campsiani Cananefates, Canninefates, Caninefates, Canenefatae Cannenefates, Canninefates, Cannenafates, Cannefates In the 1st century, western neighbours of the Batavi Around Voorburg in South Holland Cantware Caracates. Caeracates Possibly an old Northern German Celtic tribe of the Cimbri or a Vindelician tribe. Location unknown. Carpi, Carpiani Carpi, Carpiani Southeastern European people, classification as Germanic is controversial End of the 3rd century in Moesia and Dacia Caritni Ludwigshafen am Rhein Ptolemy Casuari Caulci Chaedini Chaideinoi Chaemae Chaetuori Chaituoroi (Χαιτούωροι) Chaibones, Aviones, Auiones Chaideinoi Chali Chali Chamavi Chamavi, Chamauoi (Χαμαυοί) Neighbours of the Angrivarii and Dulgubnii, eventually went into the Franks In the 1st century on the Lower Rhine Tacitus Charini, Charinni, Harii Charini, Harii Charudes See Harudes Chasuarii See Chattuarii Chatti, Catti, Cattai, Cathi, Cathai, Chattai, Chatthi, Chatthai Chatti, Catti, Cathi, Chattai (Χάτται), Chattoi (Χάττοι) In the 1st century, neighbours of the Suebi, precursors of the Hesse Valleys of the Eder, Fulda and the upper reaches of the Lahn Chattuarii, Chasuarii, Hasuarii, Attuarii Atthuarii, Attuarii, Chattouarioi (Χαττουάριοι) Chatvores, Catvori? Name is Greek or Latin in origin and means "bristle eater" Upper Palatinate Ptolemy Chaubi Chauboi (Χαῦβοι) Chauci Chauki, Chauchi, Cauci, Kauchoi (Καῦχοι), Kaukoi (Καῦκοι) From Tacitus to the Ingaevones counted tribe On both sides of the lower Weser Cherusci Cherusci, Cherouskoi (Χεροῦσκοι), Chairouskoi (Χαιρουσκοί) Tribe of Arminius, in the 1st century, opponents of the Romans On both sides of the upper Weser run in East Westphalia and in Lower Saxony to the Elbe Cilternsaetan, Ciltate/Ciltanati? Possibly a tribe of Etruscan origin or a tribe named after the Roman Plebeian family Cilnii. Cimbri Combri, Cymbri, Cimbri, Kimbroi (Κίμβροι) Along with the Teutons and Ambrones from 120 BC incidence in Gaul and Italy Originally probably northern Jutland. Most consider this tribe a confederation of Northern German Celtic tribes before their defeat against the Romans. If Celtic most likely a Q-Celtic speaking people. Clondicus Kloilios (Κλοίλιος), Claodikus Cobandi Jutland Coldui Condrusi Condrusi Celtic-Germanic mixed culture In the 1st century BC in the left bank of the Middle Rhine region Julius Caesar Corconti Korkontoi Crimean Goths Descendants of the Ostrogoths From the middle of the 3rd century on the Crimean peninsula Cugerni, Cuberni, Guberni Cugerni, Cuberni Tribe of the Rhine-Weser Germanic peoples In the 1st century in the left bank of the Lower Rhine (Kreis Kleve) Curiones D Daliterni Danduti Dandutoi (Δανδοῦτοι) Danes Dani, Danoi (Δανοι) From the 6th century in Scania and Jutland Scania and Jutland Procopius, Jordanes Danube Suebi Dauciones Daukiones (Δαυκίωνες) Deanas Deningei Derlingun Diduni Diduni Doelir Dorsaetan Dornware Dounoi Δοῦνοι Dulgubnii Dulgubnii, Dulgitubini, Dulcubuni In the 1st century, southeast of the Angrivarii and the Chamavi South of Hamburg in the area of the Lüneburg Heath and all around Celle Tacitus E East Herules, Ostherules East Saxons Eburones Eburones Probably Celtic tribe, counted from Caesar to the Germanic people Between the Rhine, Meuse, Rhineland, Northern Ardennes and Eifel Elbe Germans Archaeologically defined group of Germanic tribes (including the Semnones, Hermunduri, Quadi, Marcomanni and Lombards) From the Elbe estuary on both sides of the river to Bohemia and Moravia Elbe Suebi Elmetsaetan Elouaiones Ailouaiones (Αἰλουαίωνες), Alouiones (Αλουίωνες), Helouaiones ('Ελουαίωνες), Ailouones (Αἰλούονες), Helouones ('Ελουωνες) Endoses Eudoses Eudusii, Eudoses, Eduses, Edures, Eudures Eunixi Eutes see Jutes Evagre F Falchovarii Fariarix Farodini Favonae Favonae, Phauonai (Φαυόναι) Færpingas Feppingas Fervir Finnaithae Finnaithae Firaesi Phrisioi (Φρίσιοι), Phiraisoi (Φιραῖσοι) Firðir Firihsetan Virsedi Fosi, Fosii Fosi Small neighbouring tribe of the Cherusci, who went under with these In the 1st century in the headwaters of the Aller Franks Large tribal union, which integrated numerous Germanic tribes in late antiquity Right of the Rhine to the mouth of the Rhine estuary, from the 4th century onwards to Roman territory left of the Rhine Frisiavones Frisiavones, Frisaebones Rhine delta Pliny the Elder, Natural History 4,101; CIL 6, 3260 et al. Frisii, Frisians Frisii North Sea Germanic tribe, counted from Tacitus to the Ingaevones In the 1st century from the mouth of the Rhine to about the Ems Tacitus Frugundiones East of the Oder Ptolemy Frumtingas Fundusi Jutland G Gambrivii Gambrivi Probably near the Weser Strabo, Tacitus Gautigoths Gautigoth Probably in Västergötland Jordanes Geats Goutai (Γου̑ται), Geatas, Getae North Germanic people, often identified with the Goths Southern Sweden Ptolemy Geddingas Gegingas Gepids Gepidi, Gebidi, Gipedae From the middle of the 5th century, empire-building on the middle Danube, possibly related to the Goths Romania Jordanes, Procopius Gewisse, Gewissæ Saxon ethnic group in Britain At the end of the 5th century on the Upper Thames in England Gifle Gillingas Glomman Goths, Gotones, Gutones Gutones Split up during the Migration Period into the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, each with their own imperial formations on Roman soil At the turn of the day, north of the Vistula knee Jordanes Gotthograikoi Graioceli Grannii Granii Greuthungi, Greuthungs, Greutungi, Greutungs Greothingi, Grutungi, Grauthungi, Greutungi Another name of the Ostrogoths Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes Guddinges Guiones Gumeningas Gutes, Gotlanders H Haddingjar Hadubardes, Heaðobeardan Háleygir Hallin Hallin Halogit Harii Harii Tribe of the Lugii Between the Vistula and the Oder Tacitus Harudes, Charudes, Harothes Harudes, Charudes (Χαροῦδες), Arudes In the 1st century BC, allies of the Ariovistus against Caesar To Ptolemy in the middle of the 2nd century in Jutland Julius Caesar, Ptolemy Hasdingi, Asdingi, Haddingjar Tribe of the Vandals In the 2nd century in Romania and Hungary Hedeninge Heinir, Heiðnir Helisii Helusii Hellusii Helveconae, Helvaeonae, Helvecones, Helvaeones, Helouaiones Helvecones Tribe of the Lugii Between the Vistula and the Oder Tacitus Herefinnas Herminones, Erminones, Hermiones, Irminones Herminones Large group of Germanic people, occupying the middle between the Ingaevones and the Istvaeones Tacitus, Pliny the Elder, Pomponius Mela Hermunduri, Ermunduri, Hermanduri, Hermunduli, Hermonduri, Hermonduli Ermunduri, Hermunduri Elbe Germanic tribe Upper reaches of the Elbe Herules, Erules, Heruli, Eruli Eruli, Erouloi (Ερουλοι) Participants in the parades of the Goths From the middle of the 3rd century on the north coast of the Black Sea Hilleviones Hilleviones Holstens, Holcetae Holtsaeten Holtsati Hordar Hreiðgoths Hringar Hugones Hundingas See Hundings Widsith I Incriones, Inkriones Inkriones (ιγκριονες) Tribe of the Rhine-Weser Germanic peoples, middle of the 2nd century, neighbours of the Tencteri Between the Rhine and the Taunus Ptolemy Ingaevones, Ingvaeones, Ingwaeones, Inguaeones, Inguiones, Ingwines, Guiones Ingvaeones, Ingaevones, Ingvaenoes, Inguaeones Large group of Germanic tribes located on the North Sea coast by Tacitus Tacitus, Pliny the Elder Inguiones Inguaii, Ingwaii Intuergi Intouergoi, Intouergoi (Ιντουεργοι) Between the Rhine and the Taunus Ptolemy Irminones, Herminones, Hermiones Istvaeones, Istaevones, Istriaones, Istriones, Sthraones Istvaenoes, Istaevones Large group of Germanic tribes located on the Rhine by Tacitus Tacitus J Jutes, Eudoses, Eutes, Euthiones Eurii, Eutii, Eucii, Euthiones Originally in Jutland, later in the south of Great Britain Until the 5th century on Jutland Juthungi Iouthungi, Iuthungi Probably an Alemannic tribe From the 3rd to the 5th century, north of the Danube and Altmühl K Kampoi, Campi, Campes Kampoi (Κάμποι) Group of unclear destination north of the Danube and south of Bohemia in the 2nd century Ptolemy Kvenir, Kvanes L Lacringi Landoudioi, Landi Landi, Landoudioi From the 1st century on the Lahn in Middle Hesse Strabo, Ptolemy Lemovii, Lemonii Lemovii At Tacitus neighbours of the Rugii and Goths From the 1st century, southern Baltic Sea coast between the Oder and the Vistula Lentienses, Linzgau Lentienses Alemannic tribe Mid-3rd century between the Danube in the north, Iller in the east and Lake Constance in the south Ammianus Marcellinus Levoni Liothida Little Goths Gothi minores Group of the Goths, Ulfilas tribe, at the time of the Jordanes in the area of Nicopolis in Moesia South bank of the lower Danube Jordanes Lombards, Longobards, Langobards, Winili, Winnili, Winnilers Langobardi, Langobardoi (Λαγγοβάρδοι) Part of the Suebi, from the middle of the 6th century founding of the empire in Italy (Kingdom of the Lombards) In the 1st century BC on the lower Elbe Lugii, Lygii Lugii, Lúgioi M Maiates, Maiati Manimi Manimi Tribe of the Lugii Between the Vistula and the Oder Tacitus Marcomanni Marcomanni Possibly a tribe of the Suebi, from the middle of the 2nd century, opponents of the Romans in the Marcomannic Wars In the 1st century in Bohemia Marezaten Marobudui Marsaci Marsi, Marsigni Marsi, Marsoí (Μαρσοί), Marsigni Destroyed after participation in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in the year 14 by Germanicus Between the Rhine, Ruhr and Lippe Marvingi Marouingoi Lower Saxony/North Rhine-Westphalia Ptolemy Mattiaci Mattiaci, Mattiakoi (Ματτιακοί) Probably a part of the Chatti, Romanised from the 1st century Around Wiesbaden, in the Taunus and in the Wetterau Menapii, Manapi Menapii Celtic-Germanic mixed people, subjugated by Caesar in the 1st century BC in Gallia Belgica Lower Rhine, Flanders Julius Caesar Merscware Mimmas Mixi Called by Jordanes as residents of Scandza Scandinavia Jordanes Moselle Franks, Mosellians Subset of the Franks, separated from the Ripuarian Franks in the 5th century Upper Rhine and Moselle Mugilones Mougilones Myrgingas East Frisian part of the Frisii, who settled around 700 in Nordfriesland Nordfriesland, Tönnern, Rungholdt Widsith N Nahanarvali, Naharvali Nahanarvali, Naharvali Tribe of the Lugii Between the Vistula and the Oder Tacitus Narisci, Naristi, Varisti, Varasci, Varisci Naristi, Varisti, Varistae Neighbours of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Armalausi Upper Palatinate, Upper Franconia and North Bohemia Tacitus Neckar Suebi Suebi Nicrenses Romanised tribe of the Suebi In the 1st and 2nd century in the area of Ladenburg Nemetes Nemetai (Νεμῆται) (Probably Germanic) allies of the Ariovistus In the 1st century BC on the Rhine between Lake Constance and Palatinate Julius Caesar Nertereanes Nervii Nervii Strongly Celtic Germanic tribe[2][3] In the Gallia Belgica between the Meuse and the Scheldt in the north and the west of today's Belgium Julius Caesar, Tacitus Nictrenses Nistresi Njars Nordliudi Normans Collective name for the Northern European Germanic tribes, which undertook raids in the 8th and 11th century to the south (England, Ireland, Francia, the Mediterranean and present-day Russia), also synonymous with the Vikings North Suebi Nuithones, Nuitones O Omanii Ostrogoths Ostrogothi, Ostrogoti, Ostrogotae, Ostrogothae, Austrogothi Part of the Goths, first in Pannonia, then empire-building in Italy Jordanes Otingis P Paemani, Permani Paemani, Caemani Left Rhine Celto-Germanic people Eifel, Ardennes Julius Caesar Parmaecampi Parmaikampoi (Παρμαικαμπο) See Kampoi North of the Danube in Bavaria Ptolemy Peucini Part of the Bastarnae Tacitus Peucmi Phalians As Germanic "natives" of Westphalia and Eastphalia constructed tribe Pharodini Pharadinoi Mecklenburg Q Quadi Quadi Tribe of the Suebi, participants of the Marcomannic Wars Tacitus Quirounoi? Possibly a mistaken transliteration of the Greek name Ούίρουνοι = Oúírounoi; O and not Q, mistaken O for a Q? Initial Greek Ou = W; Viruni in Latin; possibly a variant of Varini? Ουαρίνοι - Ouarínoi = Warínoi R Raetovari Raetobarii Alemannic tribe Probably in Nördlinger Ries Ragnaricii, Ranii Raumarici Reudignes, Reudinges, Reudinges, Reudingi, Holstens Ripuarian Franks, Ripuarians, Ripuarii, Rhinefranks, Rhine Franks Subset of the Franks in the Middle Rhine Rosomoni Rosomoni Routiklioi Rugii, Rygir, Rugians Rugii Moved in the Migration Period with the Goths to the south Originally between the Vistula and the Oder, later empire-building in Lower Austria Rus' See Varangians S Sabalingioi Sabalingioi Jutland Sahslingun Salian Franks, Salians Salii Part of the Franks Originally from the Lower Rhine to the Salland on the IJssel, then in North Brabant and later in the Tournai area Saxons Saxones West Germanic people's Association of the Chauci, Angrivarii and Cherusci From the 1st century in northwest Germany and the east of the Netherlands Scopingun Scordisci Related to the Bastarnae according to Titus Livy Šar Mountains to Singidunum in the Balkans Titus Livy Scotelingun Sedusii Sedusii Ally of the Ariovistus, classified by Caesar as Germanic Julius Caesar Segni Segni Semnones Semnones (Σεμνόνες) Part of the Suebi, at Tacitus their tribe Around 100 between the Elbe and the Oder from the Bohemian border to the Havel Tacitus Sibini Sibinoer Sicambri Sugambri Sidini Western Pomerania Sidones Sigambres See Sugambri Silingi, Silings Silingae Part of the Vandals Silesia, later Andalusia Singulones Sigulones Jutland Sitones, Sithones Neighbours of the Suiones Probably Scandinavia Tacitus Skirii, Scirii Moved with the Bastarnae to the south, in the 5th century short imperial formation in Pannonia Steoringun Sturii Sturii Sturmarii Sturmera Suarines, Suardones Suarines, Suarmes, Smarines Tribe of the Suebi Around Lake Schwerin in Mecklenburg Suebi, Suevi, Suavi, Suevians, Swabians Suebi, Suewi, Sueboi (Σύηβοι) Important Germanic tribal group, to which according to Tacitus the Semnones, Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Quadi and Lombards belonged In the northeast of Germania on the Baltic Sea up to the German Central Uplands Tacitus Suetides Sugambri, Sigambri, Sugambi, Sigambri Sugambri, Sygambri, Sugambroi (Σύγαμβροι), Sugumbri, Sucambri, Sycambres, Sugameri 7 BC defeated by Tiberius and settled on the left of the Rhine In the 1st century left-bank areas on the Meuse Suiones, Suones, Sueones, Suehans, Sweones, Swiones, Sviones Suiones Northern European sea people described by Tacitus Possibly Scandinavia Sulones Sunuci, Sinuci, Sunici Sunuci Possibly precursors of the Ubii In the 1st and 2nd century in the Rhineland between Aachen and Jülich Swedes, Svear Svea North Germanic tribe Svealand in the region of the Mälaren river valley as well as Uppland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Södermanland T Taetel Taifals Taifali, Taifalae, Theifali Probably a Germanic tribe in the group of the Visigoths From the 3rd century in Dacia and Moesia Tencteri, Tenchteri, Tenctheri Tencteri, Toncteri, Tenkteroi (Τέγκτηροι) Northern neighbours of the Usipetes, opponents of Caesar In the 1st century BC on the Lower Rhine Thervingi, Tervingi, Teruingi Tervingi See Visigoths Thelir Thilir, Þilir, teler, telar The Migration Period and the Viking Age The region now known as Upper Telemark in modern Norway Teuriochaimai Teutonoari Unterelbe (Lower Elbe) Teutons Teutoni, Teutones Together with the Cimbri and the Ambrones from the 120 BC invasion of Gaul and Italy Originally Jutland, south of the Cimbri Texuandri Theustes Thiadmariska Thiadmariski Thuringii, Thuringians, Turingi, Toringi Thueringi, Tueringi, Thuringin, Turingi In the 3rd or 4th century from the Angles, Warini and other originated tribal groups Between the Thuringian Forest, Werra, Harz and the Elbe Texandri, Texuandri, Taxandri, Toxandrians Between the rivers Meuse and Scheldt in the Belgian-Dutch border region[4] Treveri, Treviri Treverii, Treviri, Treveri Strongly Celtic Germanic tribe[5][3] From the Rhine[6] to the land of the Remi Julius Caesar, Tacitus Triboci, Tribocci Triboces, Triboci, Tribocci, Tribochi, Tribocchoi (Τριβόκχοι) In the 1st century BC, allies of the Ariovistus On the Rhine around Strasbourg and Haguenau Julius Caesar, Ptolemy Tubantes, Tubanti Tubanti, Tubantes, Toubantoi (Τούβαντοι) In the 1st century, opponents of Germanicus End of the migration period in the eastern Netherlands in the Twente region Tacitus Tulingi Possibly Celto-Germanic tribe Julius Caesar Tungri, Tungrians, Tungrii, Tongri Tungri, Tongri Opponents of Caesar in the 1st century BC Left side of the Rhine around Tongeren Julius Caesar, Tacitus Turcilingi, Torcilingi, Thorcilingi Turcilingae Turones, Turoni Turoni Possibly Celto-Germanic tribe, south and later southeast of the Chatti (see Thuringii above) Ptolemy Twihanti, Twihantes, Tuihanti, Tuihantes Tuihanti Tylangii U Ubii Ubii Originally right of the Rhine Germanic, subjected to Caesar and from the early imperial period on the left bank of the Rhine and Romanised Originally from the Sieg over the Lahn to the lower Main, later in the area of Bonn and Cologne Ulmerugi Urugundes Incursions around 256 into the Roman Empire Lower Danube Zosimus Usipetes, Usipii Usipetes, Usipii, Ousipetai (Ουσιπέται), Ousipioi (Ουσίπιοι) In the 1st century BC, opponents of Caesar On the right bank of the Lower Rhine V Vagoths Probably on Gotland Valagoths Vandals Vandali, Vanduli, Vandaloi (Οὐανδαλοί), Wandeloi (Βανδῆλοι), Wandiloi (Βανδίλοι) Originally in the northeastern Germania, during the Migration Period in Spain and North Africa, plunder of Rome 455 Vangiones Vangiones Affiliation to Celts or Germanic peoples not secured Area around Worms, Germany (Civitas Vangionum) Varangians Similar to the Vikings' and Normans' name for the northern European Germanic people, who came on their journeys into contact with Slavic peoples (there also as Rus') and over the Volga and the Black Sea to Byzantium Varini See Warini Varisci Victophalians Vidivarii Vidivarii According to Jordanes, a mixed people At the mouth of the Vistula Jordanes Vinoviloth Viruni Mecklenburg Visburgii Wisburgi Between the Upper Oder and the Vistula[7] Visigoths, Thervingi Visigothi, Wisigothae, Tervingi Part of the Goths, plunder of Rome 410, Visigothic Kingdom in southwestern Gaul and Spain Jordanes Vispi South of Caritner Vistula Veneti, Baltic Veneti, Veneti Venedi, Venetae, Venedae Possibly Germanic people in eastern Germania W Waledungun Warini, Varini Varini, Varinae, Ouarinoi (Ουαρίνοι) Smaller, after Tacitus unwarlike tribe Northern Germany Tacitus West Herules, Westherules Independent group of the Herules on the Black Sea, which appears as Roman auxiliary troops and in the 5th century as pirates in appearance Winnilers, Winnili, Winili See Lombards X Y Z Zumi Ancestors[edit] Map 1: Indo-European migrations as described in The Horse, the Wheel, and Language by David W. Anthony Proto-Indo-Europeans (Proto-Indo-European speakers) Proto-Germanics (Proto-Germanic speakers) Possible ethnolinguistic kinship[edit] The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BCE – 1 CE (after the Penguin Atlas of World History 1988):    Settlements before 750 BCE    New settlements by 500 BCE    New settlements by 250 BCE    New settlements by 1 CE Map 3: One proposed theory for approximate distribution of the primary Germanic dialect groups, and matching peoples, in Europe around the year 1 AD: North Germanic peoples:   North Germanic - Norsemen: Suiones/Swedes, Geats/Scandinavian Goths, Gutes, Danes, Raumarici, Arothi, Adogit, others West Germanic peoples:   North Sea Germanic - Ingvaeonic peoples - Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Chauci, Frisii/Frisians, others   Weser-Rhine Germanic - Istvaeonic peoples: Franks, others   Elbe Germanic - Herminonic/Irminonic peoples: Suebes/Alemanni, Swabians, Hermunduri/Thuringians, Marcomanni, Quadi, Bavarians, others East Germanic peoples:   East Germanic - Vandilic peoples: Goths, Burgundians, Vandals, Gepids, Rugii, Buri, Herules, others East Germanic peoples (Vandilians)[edit] Map 4: Gothic associated regions and archaeological cultures.   Götaland   the island of Gotland   Wielbark culture in the early 3rd century   Chernyakhov culture, in the early 4th century   Roman Empire Avarpi Burgundians / Burgundiones / Burgundes / Burgodiones (Frugundiones? may have been a variant of Burgundiones with the "B" as an "F" Furgundiones > Frugundiones) (Urugundes? may have been a variant of Burgundes without the initial "B" (B)urugundes > Urugundes, i.e. the Burgundians) (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Burgundian Kingdom) (Burgundians or part of them may have dwelt in Bornholm island for a time - old name of the island was Borgundarholm) (they were assimilated by the Gallo-Roman majority, however their ethnonym was the origin for the name of the region Burgundy - Bourgogne): Nibelungs (Old German) / Niflung (Old Norse), clan that was the Burgundian royal house known as Gibichungs (Old German) or Gjúkings (Old Norse) Goths / Gothones / Gutones / Gautae / Geats Gepids Goths / Hreidgoths Gothi Minores Greuthungi (direct ancestors or an older name of the Ostrogoths) Ostrogoths / Hreiðgoths (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Pannonia, northern Illyria and Italia) (they were assimilated by the Italo-Roman majority) Crimean Goths (existed as a people until 16th and 17th centuries in southern Crimea Peninsula or Taurida Peninsula) (they were later assimilated by Crimea Germans, Black Sea Germans, Crimean Greeks and Crimean Tatars) Thervingi (direct ancestors or an older name of the Visigoths) Visigoths (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Southern Gaul and Hispania) (they were assimilated by the Hispano-Roman majority) Herules, East Germanic (East Germanic Herules) East Herules West Herules Lemovii (=Turcilingi?) (also probably identical with Widsith's Glommas, Glomma or Glomman was the singular form) Lugians (Longiones?) (=Vandals?) Buri (Lugi Buri) (part of the Buri accompanied the Suebi in their invasion of Hispania, the Iberian Peninsula, and established themselves in a mountainous area of modern northern Portugal in the 5th century. They settled in the region between the rivers Cávado and Homem, in the area known as Terras de Bouro (Lands of the Buri) - Bouros = Buri - Buros in the masculine accusative Latin declension) Diduni (Lugi Diduni) / Dunii / Duni (Δοῦνοι - Doūnoi was the Greek variant of the Latin name) Harii Helisii / Elysii / Helusii / Hellusii Manimi / Omani? / Omanii? (Lugi Omani?) (the Omani may have been the same as the Manimi) Marsigni Vandals / Vandilii (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they migrated towards West allied with a Sarmatian Iranian people, the Alans, and founded the Vandalic Kingdom first in the Southern and Western regions of Hispania, Iberian Peninsula, the Hasdingi Vandals, settled in Gallaecia, the Silingi vandals settled in Baetica, roughly today's Andalusia; sometime after many left Hispania, and migrated to North Africa) (they were assimilated by the Hispano-Roman majority in Hispania, however their ethnonym was the origin for the name of the region Andalusia - (V)andalusia and for the Arabic name of Hispania and the Iberian Peninsula - Al-Andalus) (they were assimilated by the Berber majority and African-Romans in North Africa, including the Moors, in the narrow sense, the descendants of the Mauri) Asdingi / Astingi / Hasdingi (Haddingjar?) Helvecones / Helveconae / Aelvaeones / Elouaiones (possibly the Ilwan and Eolas[8] of Widsith; Eolas was the nominative plural and Eolum the dative plural) Lacringes / Lacringi Nahanarvali Silingi (same as the Nahanarvali?) (at one point they lived in Silesia, and the name of this region could be derived from their ethnonym as well as, although indirectly, Andalusia - (V)andal-usia, where Silingi Vandals initially settled in Hispania) Victohali / Victuali / Victabali Rugi / Rugii / / Ulmerugi / Variant Latin name for the Rugians: Rugiclei? / Greek names and variants for the Rugians: Rougíklioi / Routiklioi Scirii (Skirians) Angisciri Sulones (may have been the same as the Silingi) Turcilingi / Torcolingi (may have been ancestors of part of the Thuringians) Vidivarii Visburgi / Visburgii North Germanic peoples (Norsemen)[edit] Map 5: Possible map of Scandza, with a selection of tribes Map 6: Relief map of the Faroe Islands. Map 7: Travels of the first Scandinavians in Iceland during the ninth century AD or CE, Settlement of Iceland time. Map 8: A map of the Eastern Settlement on Greenland, covering approximately the modern municipality of Kujalleq. Eiriksfjord (Erik's fjord) and his farm Brattahlid are shown, as is the location of the bishopric at Garðar, Greenland. East North Germanic (East Scandinavians) Ahelmil Aviones / Chaibones / Eowan (more probably they lived in Öland island, southeastern Sweden, and not in Jutland Peninsula) Bergio Brondingas / Brondingar (Brondings) (East North Germanic tribe that lived in the island of Brännö, west of Gothenburg in the Kattegatt) Danes (Germanic tribe): Scyldingas (Skjöldungar) clan Dauciones Eunixi Evagreotingis / Evagres Favonae Fervir (in Fyæræ) Finnaithae (old name for Finnveden, the name derives from an old Germanic word for hunters - finn, they were not necessarily Finnic or Saami) (they lived in Finnveden, Western Småland) Firaesi / Phiraisoi Gevlegas / Gevlegar (Gefflegas / Gevlegs) (East North Germanic tribe that dwelt in today's Gävleborg County) Goths, Scandinavian (Scandinavian Goths) Geats / Gautigoths, Scandinavian (Scandinavian Gautigoths) / Gautae Ostrogothae, Scandinavian (Scandinavian Ostrogoths): Wulfings / Ylfings clan Gutes / Gotlanders / Vagoths / Valagoths Hallin / Hilleviones? (possibly they lived in Halland and were the same as the tribe called Hallin by Jordanes) Hälsingas / Hälsingar (Hälsings) (East North Germanic tribe that lived in Hälsingland) Herules, Scandinavian (Scandinavian Herules / Erules) Hocings (tribe or clan of Hnæf, son of Hoc Healfdene - Hoc, the Half Dane, mentioned by Widsith, may have been the same chieftain known as Haki by the Norsemen, mentioned in the Ynglinga Saga) Levoni / Levonii Liothida Mixi Njars Otingis Sitones Suðrmenn (in Södermanland) Suiones / Sviones / Suehans / Suetidi / Suetides (ancient Swedes) (Svíar): Wægmunding clan; Ynglings / Scylfings clan (Scylfingas / Skilfingar) Västermännen (in Västmanland) (Svionic tribe that lived to the west of Uppland) (not to be confused with the Vestmenn - Old Norse word for the Gaels of Ireland and Britain) Virdar (in Småland) Theustes Vinili / Winnili / Vinoviloth (Scandinavian Lombards or Longobards or Langobards): Hundingas / Hundings clan? Normans - they were formed by the merger and assimilation of a North Germanic minority (that mainly came from Denmark - East North Germanics, but also Norway, and Iceland - West North Germanics) and Frankish (West Germanic) minority with a Gallo-Roman majority, ethnogenesis of the native people inhabiting Normandy, in France West North Germanic (West Scandinavians) Adogit / Halogit / Háleygir (they lived in Hålogaland) (northernmost Germanic tribe) Aprochi Arothi ("Arochi") Augandii / Augandzi (Egðir) / Augandxii (in Agder, southern Norway) Chaedini / Chaedenoi (possibly in Hedemark / Hedmark) Doelir (possibly a tribe that lived inland, in the valleys of Dalen, Telemark, Tokke, Telemark, many of the counties were based on older tribal lands or territories) Filir / Fjalir Firdir (tribe that lived in today's Sogn og Fjordane county, Firdafylke was one of two historic counties, many of the counties were based on older tribal lands or territories) Granni / Grenir Haðar Háleygir Heinir / Heiðnir (Chaideinoi / Haednas) (in Hedmark, Norway) Horðar (in Hordaland, known before as Hordafylke, many of the counties were based on older tribal lands or territories) (not originating from the Charudes/Harudes in Jutland) Hringar (name means "rings", from hring - "ring") Lidingar / Lidingas[9] Jamtr / Jamtar Ragnaricii / Aeragnaricii Rani / Ranii / Renir Raumarici / Raumariciae / Raumar (Heatho-Reams of Widsith) (they lived in today's Romerike) Rugi, Scandinavian (Scandinavian Rugi) / Rygir (Holmrygir of Widsith) Taetel Throwenas / Throwenar (Throwens of Widsith) (West North Germanic tribe that possibly dwelt in Trøndelag) Wrosnas (mentioned by Widsith as a tribe ruled by Holen, possibly from Holen) Old Faroese / Old Faroe Islanders (formed by the merger of several West North Germanic tribes with the addition of Celtic Gaels that settled in the Faroe islands) Old Icelanders (formed by the merger of several West North Germanic tribes with the addition of Celtic Gaels that settled in Iceland) (they were organized in clans in the Icelandic Commonwealth - Icelandic clans: Ásbirningar; Haukdælir; Oddaverjar; Sturlungar; Svínfellingar; Vatnsfirðingar) Greenland Norsemen (mainly descendants from Old Icelanders that settled in Norse Greenland) Vikings (in the Western Europe) / Varangians (in the Eastern Europe) (generic word for warriors, marauders and traders of Scandinavian or Norse i.e. North Germanic origin that went to or returned from other lands regardless of the tribe, they were not a specific Norse tribe or a Norse ethnic group, their arising in History is called Viking Age) (they contributed to the formation of the Rus’ people and Kievan Rus' loose federation that was ruled by the Varangian Rurik dynasty) / Ascomanni (name for the Vikings by Adam of Bremen) West Germanic peoples[edit] Map 9: Depiction of Magna Germania in the early 2nd century including the location of many ancient Germanic peoples and tribes (by Alexander George Findlay 1849) Map 10: Early Roman Empire with some ethnic names in and around Germania Map 11: Suebic migrations across Europe. Map 12: Lombard migration from Scandinavia Map 13: Old Saxony. The later stem duchy of Saxony (circa 1000 AD), which was based in the Saxons' traditional homeland bounded by the rivers Ems, Eider and Elbe. Saxon tribes (after later Saxon expansion) and their lands are also shown. Map 14: Migration of Angles, Saxons and Jutes towards Britannia, today's England, and their settlement in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Map 15: The tribes of the Tribal Hidage. Where an appropriate article exists, it can be found by clicking on the name. Map 16: Subdivisions of Mercia, almost all of them matched Middle Anglian individual tribes or groups of tribes, except for the Middle Saxons, see Tribal Hidage. Map 17: Approximate location of the original Frankish tribes in the 3rd century (in green). Map 18: Salian settlement in Toxandria in 358 where Julian the Apostate made them dediticii.   Roman Empire   Salian Franks   Germanic tribes east of the Rhine Elbe Germanics (Herminones / Hermiones / Irminones) Baemi-Baenochaemae Baemi / Baimoi Baenochaemae / Banochaemae Bateinoi Calucones (ancient Germanic tribe, not to be confuse with the Calucones, a Rhaetian tribe) Caritni / Carini Chatti-Mattiaci (originally they were an Elbe Germanic people later assimilated by the Istvaeones or Wesser-Rhine peoples, it was by the merger of the Istvaeones tribes with the Chatti and related tribes that the Franks were formed) Chatti / Hatti (their ethnonym may have originated the name Hesse by phonetic change over time) Mattiaci Batavi-Cananefates Batavi Cananefates / Canninefates Chasuarii / Hasuarii (closely related or not to the Chatti) Chattuarii / Attoarii / Hattuarii / Hetware (possibly mentioned in Beowulf as Hetwaras) (they lived in Hettergouw or Hetter gouw) (closely related or not to the Chatti) Chatvores Cherusci (some were assimilated by the Mainland Saxons to the north) Fosi Marvingi / Marouingoi Suebes / Suebi or Alemanni (synonymous with the Suebes in the broad sense) (large tribal confederation) Brisgavi Bucinobantes Butones / Boutones Corconti Hermunduri Armalausi Campi (tribe on the river Cham or Chamb, tributary of the Regen, close to Cham city) Adrabaecampi / Campi Parmaecampi Curiones Danduti Vangiones / Vargiones / Woingas (of Widsith) Thuringians (Thuringii / Toringi) (formed by the merging of Hermunduri tribes, a tribal confederation part of the Elbe Germanic peoples) (some Turcilingi or Torcolingi were assimilated to the Thuringians) (some Thuringians joined the Longobardian migration towards south) Graffelti[10] (a late Thuringian tribe that lived in Grabfeld) Lentienses Lombards / Langobards / Longobards (Vinili) (Elbe Germanic Lombards) (they lived in Lüneburg Heath) (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Lombard Kingdom) (they were assimilated by the Italo-Roman majority, however their ethnonym was the origin for name of the region Lombardy - Lombardia) Bardes Heaðobards / Hadubardes / Heaðubeardan (Headubarden) Marcomanni Baiuvarii (Bavarians) Mugilones Nertereanes Quadi / Coldui / Danube Suebi Old Swabians (Danube Suebi that migrated westward) (they had a close relation with the Upper Rhine Alemanni and were descendants from common ancestors but they migrated in an East towards West migration route through the Danube from what is today's Moravia and from there from the Elbe basin in even older times, until they settled in Swabia) (ancestors of Swabian German speakers) Suebi, Gallaecian (Gallaecian Suebi) (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Kingdom of the Suebi in Gallaecia, Northwestern Iberian Peninsula, roughly in today's Galicia, North Portugal and North Central Portugal, Asturias and León) (Suevos) Racatriae / Racatae Raetovari Scotingi Sedusii (a Germanic tribe that dwelled across the eastern region of the Rhine river and was part of the Suebic tribal confederation, mentioned by Julius Caesar) Semnones Iuthungi / Juthungi (descendants of the Semnones) Sibini Sidini Suarines / Suardones (they may have lived in Schwerin region) Suebi Nicrenses / Suebi, Neckar (Neckar Suebi) / Nictrenses / Upper Alemanni (Upper Rhine Alemanni, ancestors of Alemannic German speakers - Alemanni in the narrow sense) (they had a close relation with the Old Swabians and were descendants from common ancestors but they migrated in a direct North towards South migration route from the Elbe basin until they settled in Alemannia or Alamannia and Eastern Upper Burgundy, roughly in today's Western and Western Central Baden-Wurtenberg - Neckar river basin, Baden, Alsace, Lake Constance - Bodensee region, and Central Switzerland): Ahalolfings or Alaholfings Sudini Teuriochaemae / Teuriochaimai Triboci Varisti / Varisci / Narisci / Naristi Victophalians[11] / Victofalians / Victophali / Victofali Zumi Teutonari / Teutonoari Varini / Warini / Auarinoi (may have been the same as the Varini, a variant name in Greek) / Viruni / Quirounoi? or Oúírounoi (possibly a mistaken transliteration of the Greek Ούίρουνοι = Oúírounoi - Viruni in Latin) / Warni / Viruni / Pharodini? / Farodini? (may have been the same as the Varini or Viruni) North Sea Germanics (Ingaevones / Ingvaeones) Ambrones (possibly the Imbers / Ymbers / Ymbrum of Widsith, tribe that dwelt in Jutland or in the Emmer (Ambriuna) river region; also they could have lived in the Island of Amrum, in the Atlantic coast, or in the island of Imbra, now known as Fehmarn, in the Baltic coast) Ampsivarii / Amsivarii Angles / Anglies Island Angles / Insular Angles (in England they merged with Saxons and Jutes to form the new ethnolinguistic group of the Anglo-Saxons) Mainland Angles / Continental Angles (later assimilated by the Danes in Angeln, Schleswig, North part of Schleswig-Holstein and by Frisians, North Frisians, in Southern Jutland Peninsula Atlantic coast and islands) (Aglies? a possible variant of the name Angles) Anglevarii / Angrivarii (Angrarii / Angarii) (later assimilated by the Saxons) Angrivarii (Angrarii / Angarii) (later assimilated by the Saxons) Caulci (possibly a North Sea Germanic tribe mentioned by Strabo, he wrote that they lived close to the Ocean - the North Sea, they are mentioned along with North Sea Germanic tribes - Ingaevones) Chali / Hallinger Charudes / Harudes / Arochi Chaubi (possibly a North Sea Germanic tribe mentioned by Strabo, he wrote that they lived close to the Ocean - the North Sea, they are mentioned along with North Sea Germanic tribes - Ingaevones) Chauci Chauci Maiores Chauci Minores / Hugas (Saxon Hugas) Cherusci (some were assimilated by the Mainland Saxons) Cobandi Cimbri / Cymbri Dulgibini / Dulgubnii Eudoses / Eutes / Euthiones (ancestors of the Jutes or a variant name of "Jutes"; Eutes > Iutes > Yutes > Jutes) (Endoses? possibly a variant of the name "Eudoses") Jutes Island Jutes (in England they merged with the Angles and Saxons to form the new ethnolinguistic group of the Anglo-Saxons) Mainland Jutes (later assimilated by the Danes in Jutland, today's Mainland Denmark) Frisii Frisiavones / Frisiabones (Frisii Minores) Frisii (Frisii Maiores) (possible ancestors of the Frisians) Old Frisians Fundusi (a Germanic tribe that lived in Jutland) Guiones (a tribe mentioned by the Massiliot Greek sea traveler and explorer Pytheas in his work - The Ocean that possibly lived in Jutland) Hæleþan (Haelethan) (tribe that lived near the Randers Firth in North Jutland) Nuithones / Nuitones Sabalingioi / Sabalingi Saxons (Old Saxons) Island Saxons / Insular Saxons (in England they merged with the Angles and Jutes to form the new ethnolinguistic group of the Anglo-Saxons) Mainland Saxons / Continental Saxons (the variants Ga, Gao, Gau, Gabi, Go, Gowe, Gouw, Ge were the word for Gau - Old Saxon or Old Low German and Old High German term equivalent of the English Shire, regional administration, many times they matched a tribal land or territory, Old English had some traces, some Germanic cognates like Ga / Gа̄ or Ge, of this meaning which was ousted by Old English Scire - Shire, from an early time) Agradingun (same as the Angrivarii or Angarii) Myrgingas / Myrgings (tribe of Widsith, the wandering bard) Later Saxons (after merger and assimilation of several North Sea Germanic and Elbe Germanic peoples and tribes) Nordalbingi (Nordalbingians) / Nordliudi / Transalbingians (North of the Elbe, called before Alba or Albis river, in Holstein) (the original land of the Saxons) (their land included the Limes Saxonicus and the Danish March) Holtsaetan / Holtsaeten / Holtsati / Holsatians / Holcetae (Holt Saetan - "Forest / Wood Settlement" or "Forest / Wood Settlers" - from which Holstein originate its name, and not from "Forest Stone"[12]) (a Nordalbingian tribe, North of the Elbe river, part of the Saxon tribal confederation) Thietmaresca / Thiadmariska Sturmarians (Sturmarii / Sturmera) Angarians / Angrians (same as the Angrivarii or Angarii) (in Angaria) (in the plain of Old Saxony south of the Elbe and along Weser river valley) Agradingun / Agradine (lived in Agradingo / Agradingo go) Almangas (they lived in Almango or Almango go) Ammeri Bursibani Bucki Dersi Derve Heilungun (they lived in Heilanga / Heilanga ga) Hessi (in Hessa) (a North Hessian tribe assimilated by the Mainland Saxons) Hlisgas (they lived in Hlisgo or Hlisgo go) Hostingabi / Hostinga (they lived in Hostingabi / Hostinga gabi) Huettas (they lived in Huettago or Huetta go) Lagni Lara Lidbeke (they lived in Lidbekegowe or Lidbeke gowe) Lohingi (they lived in Lohingao or Lohingi gao) Moronas (they lived in Moronga or Moron ga) Mosde Netga / Nete (they lived in Netga or Net ga) Pathergi / Padergi (they lived in Patherga or Pather ga) Sturmi Tilithi Waldseti / Waldseton Wehsige (in Wehsigo or Wehsi go) Wigmodia / Wihmodi (Bremon, today's Bremen was in their land) Phalians (in Phalia) (in the plateau of Old Saxony) Eastphalians (Ostfalahi) (in Eastphalia) Bardeagawi / Barde / Bardongavenses (they lived in Bardeagawi / Bardea gawi / Bardengau or Barden Gau) Derlinas (they lived in Derlingowe or Derlin Gowe - Derlingau or Derlin Gau) Flutwide Frisonovel Gretingun / Gretingas (they lived in Gretinga / Gretinga ga) Guottingi / Guddinges / Gotingi (a Gothic tribe that merged and assimilated to the Saxons) (they lived in Guotinga or Guotinga ga or Gotinga ga) Hartinas (lived in Hartingowe or Hartin gowe) Hasi (they lived in Hasigowe or Hasi gowe) Hastfalon / Astfalon (they lived in Hastfalagowe or Hastfala gowe) Maerstem Nordsuavi (in Suavia) (a Northern Suebi / Suevi tribe that merged and assimilated to the Saxons) Nortthuringun (a Northern Thuringian tribe that merged and assimilated to the Saxons) (lived in Nortthuringowe or Nort Thurin gowe) Salthgas (they lived in Salthga or Salth ga) Westphalians (Westfalahi / Westfali) (in Westphalia) Angeron (they lived in Angeron) Auas (they lived in Auga or Au ga) Dreini (they lived in Dreini) Grainas (they lived in Grainga or Grain ga) Hama (a tribe descendant of the Chamavi / Hamavi, a Rhine-Weser Germanic tribe, one component of the Franks, that was later assimilated by the Mainland Saxons) (they lived in Hamaland or Hama land) Hasi (they lived in Hasagowe) Lerige (lived in Lerige or Leri ge) Nihthersi Scopingun Sudergo (lived in Sudergo or Suder go) Theotmalli Threcwiti Westfalon proper Aringon Firihsetan / Virsedi Sahslingun Scotelingun Steoringun Thiadmthora Waledungun Reudigni / Rendingi / Randingi / Rondingas / Rondings / Reudignes / Reudingi / Reudinges Singulones / Sigulones Sturii (a Germanic tribe that lived south of the Frisii) Teutones (Teutons) Anglo-Jutes-Saxons (Anglian-Jutish-Saxonian tribes, organized in Tribal Hidages, tribal lands) (new ethnolinguistic group formed by migration toward and settlement of Germanic tribes in Britannia, today's England, and also by assimilation of the conquered British Celts) Angles (Island Angles) Northumbrians (North of the Humber estuary) Amoþingas / Amothingas (Emmotland in Yorkshire, anciently Aet Eamotum, perhaps also Amotherley, also in Yorkshire) Beodarsæte (Anglian tribe that lived in Sunderland region) Elmedsætan / Elmetsaete (Elmet) Loidis (Anglian tribe that lived in Leeds region) Southumbrians (South of the Humber estuary) East Angles / East Anglians (in East Anglia) Herstingas (Anglian tribe that lived in Cambridge region) Ikelgas (Anglian tribe that lived in Icklingham region) Norfolk (Anglian tribe - "North folk" of East Anglia that lived in Norfolk region) Suffolk (Anglian tribe - "South folk" of East Anglia that lived in Suffolk region) Middle Angles / Midlanders (in Mercia, roughly today's Midlands) East Middle Angles / Middle Angles Proper (roughly in today's Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire and South Oxfordshire) Bilmingas / Bilmigas (part of south Lincolnshire) Cilternsæte / Cilternsætan (Settlers of Chiltern Hills – Middle Anglian tribe or clan) Dornwaras (Settlers of river Dorn – Middle Anglian tribe or clan) Færpingas / Feppingas / Faerpinga in Middelenglum (Charlbury and near Thame) Giflas / Gifle (River Ivel, near Bedford) Gyrwas / Gyrwe (Angle tribe or clan that dwelt in the fen) (in the Fens) (near Peterborough region) North Gyrwas / North Gyrwe Suth Gyrwas / Suth Gyrwe Elge (Anglian tribe that lived in Elge - Isle of Ely) Hiccas / Hicce (around today's Hitchin) Hurstingas (River Ivel, near Bedford) Spaldas / Spaldingas (Anglian tribe that lived in Spalding region) Sweordoras (Whittlesey Mere) Wideringas (near Stamford) Wigestas Willas / Wille East Willas / East Wille West Willas / West Wille Wixnas East Wixnas West Wixnas Lindisfaras (Anglian tribe that lived in Lindisfarona Tribal Hidage, Lindsey and North Lincolnshire) Gaininingas / Gaini (Gainsborough, Lincolnshire) Lindisfarningas (an outlier tribe that lived in the Lindisfarne island and region in the Northumbrian coast) Mercians / Mercians Proper (they founded the Kingdom of Mercia, with Mercian conquests of other Middle Angles in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, "Mercian" and "Middle Angles" became almost synonymal) North Mercians (the Mercians dwelling north of the River Trent, roughly in today's East Staffordshire, Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire) Reagesate (Anglian tribe that lived in Repton) Snotingas (Anglian tribe that occupied the settlement of Snottengaham or Snodengaham - modern Nottingham, Nottinghamshire) South Mercians (the Mercians dwelling south of the River Trent, roughly in today's South Staffordshire and North Warwickshire) Beormingas (Anglian tribe that lived in Birmingham region) Bilsaete (Bilston) Pencersaete (Penkridge) Tomsaete (Tamworth, Staffordshire) Outer Mercians (an early phase of Mercian expansion, possibly 6th century AD, roughly in today's South Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Northamptonshire and North Oxfordshire) Undalas (Anglian tribe that lived in Undaium region, modern-day Oundle, in Northamptonshire) Wideriggas Pecsæte / Pecsætan (Anglian tribe that lived in today's Peak District, roughly in North Derbyshire) Herefinnas (Derbyshire) Hwiccians / Hwincas (Hwicce) (roughly in today's Gloucestershire, Worcestershire and South Warwickshire) Arosæte / Arosaetan (in and around today's Droitwich Spa, Arosætna Tribal Hidage) Duddensaete (Dudley) Husmerae (Kidderminster) Stoppingas (Anglian tribe that lived in Wootton Wawen and the valley of the River Alne in modern-day Warwickshire) Weorgoran (Worcester) Westernas Magonsæte / Magonsætan (roughly in today's Herefordshire and South Shropshire) Hahlsæte (Ludlow) Temersæte (Hereford) Wreocensæte (Wrekinsets) (Wrēocensǣte, Wrōcensǣte, Wrōcesǣte, Wōcensǣte, Wocansaete) (Anglian tribe that lived in Wocansaetna Tribal Hidage) (roughly in today's Northern Shropshire, Flintshire and Cheshire) Meresæte (in and around Chester) Rhiwsæte (in and around Wroxeter, Shropshire) Tribes of the Land Between Ribble and Mersey (Anglian tribes that lived in what is today's Merseyside, in the Mersey Valley Land, today's Manchester and Liverpool region - Greater Manchester, and in south of the Ribble Valley Land, today's South Lancashire, roughly today's Lancashire) (a disorganized region under Mercian control from the 7th century AD) Jutes (Island Jutes) Cantwara / Centingas (Kentish / Kentish Men, in Cantwarena Tribal Hidage, Kent) Andredes Leag (Jute tribe that lived in Andredsley and Newenden region in Kent) Boroware (Jute tribe that lived in Canterbury region) Ceasterware (Jute tribe that lived in Rochester, Kent region) Eastorege (Jute tribe that lived in Sandwich, Kent region) Limenwara Merscware (Dwellers of Romney Marsh, Kent) Wihtwara (Wight Islanders) (Wihtgara Tribal Hidage) (in the Isle of Wight) Meonwara / Meonware / Meonsæte (south-east Hampshire and Southampton, mainly on the Meon valley) Ytenesæte (Jute tribe that lived in what is today's New Forest) Saxons (Island Saxons) East Saxons (East Secsenas) (in Essex) Brahhingas (Saxon tribe centred on the settlement of Braughing in modern-day Hertfordshire) Dæningas / Daenningas / Deningei / Deningel Gegingas Haeringas Haueringas (Saxon tribe or clan that lived in today's London Borough of Havering, East End, London) Hroðingas Tewingas Tota Waeclingas Middle Saxons (in Middlesex, roughly in what is today's Greater London, Hertfordshire, Surrey) Bedingas (Bedfordshire) Geddingas-Gillingas-Mimmas[13] Geddingas Gillingas (Saxon tribe or clan that lived in today's Ealing, West End, London) Mimmas Gumeningas (Saxon tribe or clan that lived in today's Harrow on the Hill, West End, London) Hakas (Saxon tribe that lived in Hackney, London) Noxgaga / Noxga gā (gā is cognate of Gau) (Berkshire / Thames Valley Saxons) Æbbingas / Aebbingas (Abingdon) Braccingas (Bracknell) Readingas (Reading) Sunningas (Sonning) Woccingas (Wokingham) Padendene (Saxon tribe or clan that lived in Pæding-tun, modern-day Paddington, London) Suther-ge (ge is cognate of Gau) (Surrey) Ælffingas (Effingham) Godhelmingas (Godalming) Ohtgaga / Ohtga gā (Somewhere in Surrey) Totingas (Tooting) Wochingas (Woking) South Saxons (South Saxons') (Sussex) Haestingas (Hastings) West Saxons (in Wessex) Basingas (Basingstoke) Eorlingas (Arlingham) Glasteningas / Glestingas (Glastonbury) Dornsaete / Dorsætan (Dorset) Gewisse (Dorchester on Thames) Hendricas (Wiltshire or Test Valley) Sumortūnsǣte / Sumorsǣte / Sumorsætan (Somerset) Unecunga / Unecung (they lived in Unecunga Ga - Unecunga Gau or Land, in the Upper Thames region) Wilsætan (Wiltshire) Wesser-Rhine Germanics (Istvaeones) Baetasii / Betasii Bructeri / Bructeres / Bructuarii / Borthari?[10] (a possible changed name of Bructeri) Chamavi / Hamavi (they lived in the region today called Hamaland, in the Gelderland province of the Netherlands, between the IJssel and Ems rivers) Cugerni Falchovarii Gamabrivii / Gambrivii Incriones Landoudioi / Landi Sicambri / Sigambres / Sugambri Marsi Marsaci / Marsacii Salii / Salians (before formation of the Franks) (originally they only inhabited the northern Low Rhine area, in Salland) (later, those that stayed in Salland, were conquered and assimilated by the Saxons) Sunici / Sunuci Tencteri (etymology of the tribe's name is Celtic) Tubantes / Tuihanti Ubii Usipetes / Usipii / Vispi (etymology of the tribe's name is Celtic) Franks / Hugones (formed by the merging of Wesser-Rhine Germanic tribes - Istvaeones tribes and by the merging and assimilation of the Chatti and related tribes) (at the time of the Migration Period and Decline of the Roman Empire, they founded the Frankish Kingdom) (those living in what is today's West Central Germany and the Low Countries, mainly Ripuarian Franks, are the ancestors of the Franconian Germans (traditionally they spoke Franconian languages) and many of the Dutch, those living in what is today's France, mainly Salian Franks, were assimilated by the Gallo-Roman majority, however their ethnonym was the origin for another ethnonym "French" of the French people) Ripuarian Franks (originally Rhine river banks Franks, Eastern Austrasia Franks, Rhineland Franks in Rhineland, Hesse, Palatinate and also in Upper Franconia, that before was Thuringian) Hessian Franks / Hessians Lognai (late Frankish tribe that lived in Lahngau, west of Taunus Mountains) Moselle Franks Nistresi[10] (Nister Franks? Diemel Franks?) (a late Frankish tribe) Suduodi (late Frankish tribe) Upper Franconia Franks (originally it was a Thuringian region before Frankish conquest) Wedrecii (late Frankish tribe that lived in around Wetter river or Wetterau, east of the Taunus Mountains) Salian Franks (originally they inhabited the northern Low Rhine area, specifically today's Salland, later they expanded in the Low Countries, and most stayed there; even later, many migrated outside Eastern Austrasia, that included Rhineland, and beyond Silva Carbonaria and the Arduenna Silva, outside the original area of Frankish settlement where Gallo-Romans were the majority, scattered throughout the territory of the Kingdom of the Franks, roughly today's France, especially the northern regions, Western Austrasia and Neustria, they were later assimilated by the Gallo-Roman majority) (later, those that stayed in Salland, were conquered and assimilated by the Saxons) Low Rhine Franks (Salian Franks that stayed in the Low Rhine region of Eastern Austrasia, later known as the Low Countries, ancestors of many of the Dutch and Flemish) Western Austrasian Franks (in Western Austrasia, out of the Frank majority regions) Neustrian Franks (in Neustria or Neustrasia, out of the Frank majority regions) Germanic peoples or tribes of unknown ethnolinguistic kinship[edit] Eight tribes or peoples are only mentioned by the Old Mainland Saxon wandering bard, of the Myrgingas tribe, named Widsith - Aenenes; Baningas; Deanas (they are differentiated from the Danes); Frumtingas; Herefaran; Hronas or Hronan; Mofdingas and Sycgas (not to be confused with Secgan, short name for the work in Old English called On the Resting-Places of the Saints about saints' resting places in England). Ancient peoples with partially Germanic background[edit] Map 19: Regions of Scotland and Isle of Man settled by the Norse. Ethnogenesis of the Norse-Gaels. Map 20: Regions of Ireland settled by the Norse. Ethnogenesis of the Norse-Gaels. Germano-Celtic[edit] Norse-Gaels (Austmenn - "Eastmen" - "People of the East", people who had come from the East - Scandinavia; Gaels of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man were called Vestmenn - "Westmen" - "People of the West" - British Islands) (people of mixed Gaelic and Norse ancestry and culture that was formed in the Viking Age) Norn people (Norðr - People of the North Islands) Shetlanders (Hjaltar) Orcadians Sodor people (Hebridians-Manese Norse-Gaels) (Sodor - People of the South Islands) Hebridians Norse-Gaels Outer Hebridians Norse-Gaels Inner Hebridians Norse-Gaels Man Norse-Gaels Ireland Norse-Gaels Dublin Norse-Gaels Wexford Norse-Gaels Waterford Norse-Gaels Cork Norse-Gaels Limerick Norse-Gaels Germano-Slavic[edit] Osterwalde (a Mainland Saxon tribe living in the same land and in close contact with the Drevani = "Wood" or "Wood Tribe", the Lipani and the Belesem or Byelozem = "White Earth" or "White Earth Tribe" Slavic tribes of the Obodrite confederacy that lived scattered in the west banks of the Elbe river, part of the Polabian Slavs or Elbe Slavs, West Slavs) (they lived in Oster Walde / Osterwalde - "Eastern Woods" in the Old Mainland Saxon view) (Osterwalde and Luneburg Heath also matched the land where the Langobards lived for a time before most of them migrated towards South) (mostly in today's Lower Saxony, in the Hanoverian Wendland, Germany) Rus’ people, of Kievan Rus', loose federation that was ruled by the Varangian Rurik dynasty (they were formed by a mainly East Norse or East North Germanic minority, the Varangians, that came from coastal eastern Sweden or coastal Svealand, around the 8th century AD, from Roslagen in Sweden or Roden, that was assimilated by the East Slavic majority) Ancient peoples of uncertain origin with possible Germanic or partially Germanic background[edit] Mixed peoples that had some Germanic component[edit] Celtic-Germanic-Iranian[edit] Bastarnae, an ancient people who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the Carpathian Mountains and the river Dnieper, to the north and east of ancient Dacia, possibly they were originally a Celtic tribe later mixed with Germanics and Sarmatians (a group of ancient Iranian peoples) - one possible origin of the name is from Avestan and Old Persian cognate bast- "bound, tied; slave" (cf. Ossetic bættən "bind", bast "bound") and Proto-Iranian *arna- "offspring") Atmoni / Atmoli Peucini / Peucini Bastarnae (a branch of the Bastarnae that lived in the region north of the Danube Delta) (Peucmi? possibly a variant of the name "Peucini") Sidoni Possible Germanic or non-Germanic peoples[edit] Germanic or Slavic[edit] Vistula Veneti / Venedi (more probably a Balto-Slavic people) Germanic or Celtic[edit] Anartes (more probably a Celtic tribe later assimilated by Dacians) Campsiani (originally Celtic, assimilated by Germanics) Cotini / Gotini (more probably a Celtic tribe) Daliterni,[14] their name was based on a river called Dala in older times (early name of the Veragri, a probable Gallic tribe located in present-day Switzerland, in the Valais canton, however there is the possibility, according to Livy, that they were a half Germanic tribe) Germani Cisrhenani / Tungri? (a collective name for 7 tribes) (names’ etymologies of many of the tribes were Celtic; Belgic people? Chiefs anthroponyms were also Celtic) Aduatuci / Atuatuci Ambivaretes / Ambivareti Caemani / Paemani Caeraesi / Caeroesi / Caerosi Condrusi Eburones (later Toxandri / Texuandri?) Segni Graioceli (more probably a Celtic tribe) Maeatae / Maiates / Maiatae / Maiati / Miathi (probably a Southern Pictish tribal confederation beyond and north the Antonine Wall that lived in the land between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Tay or parts of what is now Clackmannanshire, Fife and Stirlingshire and also in the Isle of May from the 2nd century AD to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; there is also the possibility, although weaker, that they were of Norse origin) Nemeti / Nemetes / Nemetai (Νεμῆται) (more probably a Celtic tribe by its name Etymology, Tponyms and Theonyms) Nervii (more probably a Belgic tribal confederation) Treveri (more probably a Belgic tribe) Tylangii (more probably a Celtic tribe related to the Tulingi or descendant from them) Germanic or Dacian[edit] Carpi / Carpiani (more probably a Dacian tribe) Germanic or Iranian[edit] Taifals (possibly they were a Sarmatian Iranian people assimilated by the Goths, before the Goths settled in what is today the steppe area of Ukraine, including Crimea, in the 2nd century AD, this area was inhabited by the Sarmatians) Germanic or Uralic (Balto-Finnic)[edit] Idumingas / Idumings[8] (more probably a Livonian tribe, called Ydumaei by Henricus Lettus or Henricus de Lettis or Heinrich von Lettland, who wrote the Chronicon Livoniae or Livonian Chronicle of Henry) Kvenir[15] / Kvænir mentioned in Egils Saga / Kvanes / Cwenas mentioned by Ohthere[15] (more probably they were the Kainulaiset, that dwelt in Kvenland, a probable reference to Saami peoples also called Scridefinnas / Screrefennae or a related Uralic people) (over time their name became confused with the Old Norse word kván or kvæn - "woman", genitive plural kvenna, and became mistakenly confused with the legendary Amazons, a mythical all-women tribe that had relations with the Gargareans, a mythical all-men tribe) Mythical founders[edit] This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Further information: Eponymous ancestor Many of the authors relating ethnic names of Germanic peoples speculated concerning their origin, from the earliest writers to approximately the Renaissance. One cross-cultural approach over this more than a millennium of historical speculation was to assign an eponymous ancestor of the same name as, or reconstructed from, the name of the people. For example, Hellen was the founder of the Hellenes. Although some Enlightenment historians continued to repeat these ancient stories as though fact, today they are recognised as manifestly mythological. There was, for example, no Franko, or Francio, ancestor of the Franks. The convergence of data from history, linguistics and archaeology have made this conclusion inevitable. A list of the mythical founders of Germanic peoples follows. Angul — Angles (the Kings of Mercia, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, other Anglo-Saxon dynasties are derived from other descendants of Woden) Ask — Istvaeones Aurvandil — Vandals Burgundus — Burgundians (Historia Brittonum) Dan — Danes (Chronicon Lethrense) Francio — Franks (Liber Historiae Francorum) Gothus — Goths/Geats/Gutes Ingve — Ingvaeones, Ynglings Irmin — Irminones Mannus — Manni, or "men", a name fragment as in the later Alemanni (Germania) Nór — Norwegians (Chronicon Lethrense) Seaxnēat — Saxons See also[edit] History portal Germania Germanic peoples Norse clans Sippe Tribal Hidage Widsith Beowulf Notes[edit] ^ Heinrich Beck et al. (editor): Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. volume 36/37 (register volume 1 and 2): Authors, keywords, subject index, abbreviations, 2nd edition. de Gruyter, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019146-2, p. 20 ff.; "PDF; 499 kB" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-21.. In: degruyter.com, Retrieved 5 December 2017. ^ Tacitus, Germania 28; Strabo 4, 3, 4. ^ a b Cornelius Tacitus: Germania. Transmitted and explained by Arno Mauersberger. VMA-Verlag, Wiesbaden [1981?], p. 142, DNB-IDN 810365324 (Latin, German; licensed edition of Dieterich's publishing house accountant, Leipzig). ^ Maurits Gysseling: Toponymisch Woordenboek van België, Nederland, Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en West-Duitsland. Ghent 1960, DNB-IDN 560536216, p. 956 (kantl.be, Retrieved 5 December 2017; Dutch). ^ Tacitus, Germania 28. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico book III, 11: […] Treveros, qui proximi flumini Rheno sunt. ("The Treveri who live near the Rhine.") ^ L. S.: Visbu´rgii. In: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. 2 volumes. Edited by William Smith. Walton and Maberly, John Murray, London 1854, OCLC 1000689106 (perseus.tufts.edu, Retrieved 5 December 2017). ^ a b Muir, Bernard James (1989). Leođ: Six Old English Poems : A Handbook. ISBN 9782881243578. ^ Muir, Bernard James (1989). Leođ: Six Old English Poems : A Handbook. ISBN 9782881243578. ^ a b c Jedin, Hubert; Dolan, John Patrick (1969). "Handbook of Church History". ^ Aubenas, Joseph Adolphe (1845). "Revue de bibliographie analytique: Ou Compte rendu des ouvrages scientifiques et de haute litterature". ^ https://archive.org/stream/englishwords00unkngoog/englishwords00unkngoog_djvu.txt ^ Wyatt, Louise (15 February 2018). Secret Hayes. ISBN 9781445672212. ^ Hazlitt, William (1851). "The Classical Gazetteer: A Dictionary of Ancient Geography, Sacred and Profane". ^ a b Jones, Gwyn (2001). A History of the Vikings. ISBN 9780192801340. References[edit] Thorsten Andersson: Altgermanische Ethnika. In: Namn och bygd. Tidskrift för nordisk ortnamnsforskning. 97 (2009), ISSN 0077-2704, pp. 5–39 (PDF; 9.7 MB; total year). Otto Bremer: Ethnographie der germanischen Stämme. In: Hermann Paul (editor): Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie. volume 2, part 1: Literaturgeschichte. 2nd, improved and enlarged edition. Karl Trübner Verlag, Strasbourg 1900, pp. 735–930. Ernst Künzl: Die Germanen (= Theiss WissenKompakt). Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 3-8062-2036-0. Günter Neumann: Namenstudien zum Altgermanischen (= Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde – Ergänzungsbände. volume 59). Edited by Heinrich Hettrich, Astrid van Nahl. de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-021044-6, urn:nbn:de:101:1-2016061717834. Rudolf Much: Die Germania des Tacitus. 3rd considerable adult edition. Edited by Wolfgang Lange in collaboration with Herbert Jankuhn and Hans Fromm. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 1967, DNB-IDN 457642858. Rudolf Much: Deutsche Stammeskunde. 3rd verb edition. Scientific association. Publisher, Berlin/Leipzig 1920, DNB-IDN 580772896; outlook Verlag, Bremen 2015, ISBN 978-3-86403-235-6. Heinrich Beck et al. (editor): Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. 2nd edition. de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1972–2008. Hermann Reichert: Lexikon der altgermanischen Namen. Publisher of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 1987, ISBN 3-7001-0931-8. Ludwig Rübekeil: Völkernamen Europas. In: Ernst Eichler et al. (editor): Namenforschung. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Onomastik. volume 2, de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1996, ISBN 3-11-020343-X, pp. 1330–1343. Moritz Schönfeld: Wörterbuch der altgermanischen Personen- und Völkernamen nach der Überlieferung des klassischen Altertums (= Germanische Bibliothek. department 1: Elementar- und Handbücher. series 4: Wörterbücher. volume 2). Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 1911, DNB-IDN 362646430; Reprints each as 2nd, unchanged edition: (= Germanische Bibliothek. series 3 [much 2]). Winter, Heidelberg 1965, DNB-IDN 454448473; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1965, DNB-IDN 454448465. Ernst Schwarz: Germanische Stammeskunde (= Germanische Bibliothek. volume 5). Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 1956, DNB-IDN 454606672; reprint: VMA-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-938586-10-5. Alexander Sitzmann, Friedrich E. Grünzweig: Altgermanische Ethnonyme. Ein Handbuch zu ihrer Etymologie. Using a bibliography by Robert Nedoma editor of Hermann Reichert (= Philologica Germanica. volume 29). Fassbaender, Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-902575-07-4. Reinhard Wenskus: Stammesbildung und Verfassung. Das Werden der frühmittelalterlichen gentes. 2nd, unchanged edition. Böhlau Verlag, Cologne/Vienna 1977, ISBN 3-412-00177-5. External links[edit] Germania of Tacitus A speculative Findlay map of 1849 Strabo's work The Geography (Geographica). Book 7, Chapters 1 and 2, are about Germania. v t e Germanic peoples Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages History Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age Early culture Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Mythology Continental Frankish Norse Names Gothic Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Scripts Gothic alphabet Runic Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking Languages Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages West Germanic languages North Germanic languages Ancient tribes Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Scirii Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini Christianization Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ancient_Germanic_peoples&oldid=1026088860" Categories: Early Germanic peoples Lists of ancient Indo-European peoples and tribes Lists of ancient people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing cleanup after translation Wikipedia articles needing cleanup after translation from German Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from May 2020 All articles needing rewrite Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles needing additional references from January 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles to be expanded from January 2018 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Dynamic lists Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Français Italiano Latina Polski Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:18 (UTC). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-9875	----	Temple of Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Temple of Marcus Aurelius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Temple in Rome The Temple of Marcus Aurelius was a temple in Rome dedicated to the deified Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius by his son Commodus. The temple has no surviving archaeological remains, but was probably sited just to the west of the column of Marcus Aurelius, where now stands the Palazzo Wedekind on Piazza Colonna. A porticus probably surrounded both the temple and the column. See also[edit] List of Ancient Roman temples Bibliography[edit] Petersen, Domaszewski and Calderini, Die Marcussäule auf piazza Colonna, Munich 1896 This article contains text from Platner and Ashby's A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, a text now in the public domain. - Column of Marcus Aurelius Coordinates: 41°54′03″N 12°28′48″E / 41.9008°N 12.4799°E / 41.9008; 12.4799 This article about an Italian building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This article about an Ancient Roman building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temple_of_Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1014903706" Categories: Temples in Rome Nerva–Antonine dynasty Marcus Aurelius Roman temples of the Imperial cult Italian building and structure stubs Ancient Roman building and structure stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 29 March 2021, at 18:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9882	----	Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius) - Wikipedia Titus Aurelius Fulvus (father of Antoninus Pius) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1st century Roman senator Titus Aurelius Fulvus from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Titus Aurelius Fulvus was a Roman senator, who was active during the reign of Domitian. He was ordinary consul in AD 89 with Marcus Asinius Atratinus as his colleague.[1] Fulvus is best known as the father of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. His father, also named Titus Aurelius Fulvus, had also been twice consul and promoted to the patrician class. Contents 1 Biography 2 Nerva–Antonine family tree 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Titus Aurelius Fulvus was consul in 89.[2] This Fulvus has been described by Augustan History as a "stern and upright man". The younger Fulvus married Arria Fadilla, a daughter of the consul Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus and friend to the historian Pliny the Younger. Their only child was Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius, who was born in Lanuvium (modern Lanuvio, Italy) on 19 September 86; who was raised by Fulivus' father-in-law after his early death. This son became the emperor Antoninus Pius. Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit] v t e Nerva–Antonine family tree Q. Marcius Barea Soranus Q. Marcius Barea Sura Antonia Furnilla M. Cocceius Nerva Sergia Plautilla P. Aelius Hadrianus Titus (r. 79–81) Marcia Furnilla Marcia Trajanus Pater Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia[i] Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Julia Flavia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salonius Matidius[iv] Trajan (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilius Attianus P. Aelius Afer[v] Paulina Major[vi] Lucius Mindius (2) Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) Matidia[vii] L. Vibius Sabinus (1)[viii] Paulina Minor[vi] L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix] Matidia Minor[vii] Suetonius?[x] Sabina[iii] Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antinous[xii] Julia Balbilla?[xiii] C. Fuscus Salinator I Julia Serviana Paulina M. Annius Verus[xiv] Rupilia Faustina[xv] Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrius Antoninus L. Ceionius Commodus Appia Severa C. Fuscus Salinator II L. Caesennius Paetus Arria Antonina Arria Fadilla[xvi] T. Aurelius Fulvus L. Caesennius Antoninus L. Commodus Plautia ignota[xvii] C. Avidius Nigrinus M. Annius Verus[xv] Domitia Calvilla[xviii] Fundania[xix] M. Annius Libo[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Aelius Caesar[xvii] Avidia[xvii] Cornificia[xv] MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Minor[xx] C. Avidius Cassius[xxi] Aurelia Fadilla[xvi] LUCIUS VERUS (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceionia Fabia[xvii] Plautius Quintillus[xxii] Q. Servilius Pudens Ceionia Plautia[xvii] Cornificia Minor[xxiii] M. Petronius Sura COMMODUS (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadilla[xxiii] M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx] Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) Lucilla[xx] M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii] Junius Licinius Balbus Servilia Ceionia Petronius Antoninus L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) Aurelia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antistius Burrus (1) Plautius Quintillus Plautia Servilla C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus Antonia Gordiana Junius Licinius Balbus? Furia Sabina Tranquillina GORDIAN III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse   Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty   lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned   grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants   bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other) Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". ^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link] ^ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA Hadrianus 11:3 ^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link] ^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. ^ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. ^ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. ^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ^ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA "Marcus Aurelius" 24. ^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. References: DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 2015-04-14. Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. See also[edit] Augustan History References[edit] ^ Paul Gallivan, "The Fasti for A. D. 70-96", Classical Quarterly, 31 (1981), pp. 191, 217 ^ Gallivan, "The Fasti", p. 191 External links[edit] Roman-empire.net Roman-emperors.org Political offices Preceded by Marcus Otacilius Catulus Sextus Julius Sparsus as suffecti Roman consul 89 with Marcus Asinius Atratinus Succeeded by Publius Sallustius Blaesus Marcus Peducaeus Saenianus as suffecti Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titus_Aurelius_Fulvus_(father_of_Antoninus_Pius)&oldid=1011146929" Categories: 1st-century Romans Aurelii Fulvi Imperial Roman consuls People from Nîmes Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Español Français Latina Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 March 2021, at 08:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9907	----	Herennius Etruscus - Wikipedia Herennius Etruscus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 251 Roman emperor Herennius Etruscus Sestertius bearing the bust of Herennius Etruscus. The inscription reads q her etr mes decivs nob c. Roman emperor Reign May–June 251 (with Decius) Predecessor Philip the Arab Successor Trebonianus Gallus and Hostilian Co-emperor Decius Born c. 227 Died 251 (aged 23–24) Abritus (Razgrad, Bulgaria) Names Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Regnal name Imperator Caesar Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Augustus Father Decius Mother Herennia Etruscilla Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius (c. 227 – June 251) was Roman emperor in 251, ruling jointly with his father Decius. His father was proclaimed emperor by his troops in September 249 while in Pannonia and Moesia, in opposition to Emperor Philip the Arab. Decius defeated Philip in battle, and was then proclaimed emperor by the Roman Senate. Herennius Etruscus was elevated to caesar in 250, then further raised to augustus in May 251. When the Goths, under Cniva, invaded the Danubian provinces, Herennius Etruscus was sent with a vanguard, followed by the main body of Roman troops, led by Decius. They ambushed Cniva at the Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum in 250, routing him, before being ambushed and routed themselves at the Battle of Beroe. Herennius Etruscus was killed in the Battle of Abritus the following year, alongside his father. After the deaths of both emperors, Trebonianus Gallus, who had been governor of Moesia, was elected emperor by the remaining Roman forces. Coin of Herennius Etruscus. Legend: Inscription: HER. ETR. MES. DECIVS NOB. C. / CONCORDIA AVG. F Contents 1 Life 2 References 2.1 Primary 2.2 Citations 2.3 Bibliography Life[edit] Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius was born about 227 AD, to Decius, a Roman general who later became emperor, and Herennia Etruscilla, his wife. Decius became emperor after being sent to lead troops in the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia, where he was declared emperor by his troops in September 249, in opposition to Philip the Arab. He led his troops against Philip, their forces meeting in September 249, near Verona, Italy. In this battle, Philip was slain, after which the Roman Senate declared Decius emperor, and honored him with the name Traianus, a reference to Emperor Trajan.[1][2] Herennius Etruscus was elevated to caesar in 250, making him the designated heir of Decius, before being elevated to augustus in May 251, making him co-emperor under Decius.[1] After Herennius Etruscus was made augustus, his younger brother Hostilian was made caesar.[3] Herennius Etruscus was also made consul for 251.[2] Map of the Gothic Invasion led by Cniva. In 249 the Goths, led by King Cniva, invaded the Danubian provinces of the Roman Empire with a huge force. They split into two columns; one column launched an assault on Dacia, and the other force, made up of 70,000 men, and personally led by Cniva, invaded Moesia. Cniva's forces further split into two groups; one marched to assault Philippopolis, and the other marched to Novae. Cniva was prevented from laying siege to Novae by Trebonianus Gallus, the governor of Moesia and future emperor, and thus moved south, on to Nicopolis.[4] By this time news of the invasion reached Rome, and both Decius and Herennius Etruscus traveled to repulse the Gothic invasion, although Hostilian remained in Rome.[4][5] Herennius Etruscus was sent forward with a vanguard, followed by the main body of Roman forces, led by Decius.[6] Decius and Herennius Etruscus took the Gothic forces by surprise in the Battle of Nicopolis, and beat them decisively. Following the crushing defeat, Cniva retreated over the Haemus Mons (Balkan Mountains), and met up with his other forces at Philippopolis. Cniva then ambushed the forces of Decius and Herennius Etruscus at the Battle of Beroe, near the small town of Beroca at the base of the Haemus Mons. The Roman forces were beaten decisively in this engagement and fled in disarray to Moesia where Decius and Herennius Etruscus worked to reorganize them. Cniva then returned to Philippopolis, and with the help of Titus Julius Priscus, the Roman governor of Thrace, managed to capture the city.[4] Decius and Herennius Etruscus launched a counterattack in spring 251 and were initially successful in pushing back the Goths. However, Cniva set an ambush for them, in June 251, near Abritus (modern-day Razgrad, Bulgaria).[4][7] In this battle, both Decius and Herennius Etruscus were killed. The exact circumstances of the death of Herennius Etruscus are vague. The main source for the event, Aurelius Victor, says only that Herennius Etruscus was killed when he "pressed the attack too boldly". Aurelius Victor specifies that he was acting as an imperator, commanding troops from a distance but not physically engaging in the combat, rather than a commilito, who physically fought in the battle. After the news of his death reached Decius, he refused to be consoled, stating that the loss of one life was minor to a battle, and thus continued the combat, in which he was also slain. The death of Decius is similarly obscure, although it is agreed upon that he must have died either during the battle, as a commilito, during the retreat from the battle, or else was slain while serving as imperator.[1][8] The reserve forces of Trebonianus Gallus failed to reinforce the main army in time to save Decius and Herennius Etruscus, although whether this was due to treachery or misfortune is unknown.[9] After the death of both Decius and Herennius Etruscus, and much of the Roman army with them, the remaining forces immediately elected Trebonianus Gallus, the governor of Moesia, as emperor. Trebonianus Gallus made peace with Cniva on humiliating terms, allowing them to keep their prisoners and spoils in order to secure peace.[4] In order to gain popular support, Trebonianus Gallus retained Herennia Etruscilla as augusta (empress), and elevated Hostilian to augustus, making him co-emperor alongside Trebonianus Gallus himself.[1][10][11] Hostilian died in November 251, either from a plague or murder,[1][10] after which Volusianus, Trebonianus Gallus' son, was raised to augustus. After Trebonianus Gallus was overthrown by Aemilianus in 253, Herennia Etruscilla faded into obscurity.[5] References[edit] Primary[edit] Anonymous in their Epitome de Caesaribus. (29.3).[12] Aurelius Victor in his De Caesaribus (29.5).[8][13] Jordanes in his Getica (18.103).[13] Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius in his De Mortibus Persecutorum (4).[12] Zonaras in his Epitome Historiarum (12.20).[12] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 28. ^ a b Chrystal 2015, p. 193. ^ Bunson 2014, p. 265. ^ a b c d e Bunson 2014, p. 297. ^ a b Bunson 2014, p. 256. ^ Taylor 2016, p. 140. ^ Ivanov & Stojanof 1985, p. 1. ^ a b Hebblewhite 2016, p. 24. ^ Vagi 2000, p. 337. ^ a b Salisbury & Mattingly 1924, p. 16. ^ Bunson 2014, p. 266. ^ a b c Taylor 2016, p. 46. ^ a b Hebblewhite 2016, p. 32. Bibliography[edit] Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195123326. Bunson, Matthew (2014). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 9781438110271. Chrystal, Paul (2015). Roman Military Disasters: Dark Days & Lost Legions. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473873964. Hebblewhite, Mark (2016). The Emperor and the Army in the Later Roman Empire, AD 235–395. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317034308. Ivanov, Teofil; Stojanof, Stojan (1985). Abritus, its History and Archaeology. Razgrad, Bulgaria: Cultural and Historical Heritage Directorate. OCLC 15631456. Salisbury, F. S.; Mattingly, H. (1924). "The Reign of Trajan Decius". The Journal of Roman Studies. 14 (1–2): 1–23. doi:10.2307/296323. JSTOR 296323. Taylor, Donathan (2016). Roman Empire at War: A Compendium of Roman Battles from 31 B.C. to A.D. 565. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473869110. Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579583163. Media related to Herennius Etruscus at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles Preceded by Philip the Arab Roman Emperor 251 Served alongside: Decius Succeeded by Trebonianus Gallus Hostilian Political offices Preceded by Decius, Vettius Gratus Consul of the Roman Empire 251 with Decius Succeeded by Trebonianus Gallus, Volusianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries France (data) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herennius_Etruscus&oldid=1021669513" Categories: 220s births 251 deaths 3rd-century Roman emperors Imperial Roman consuls Crisis of the Third Century Roman emperors killed in battle Deaths by arrow wounds Deified Roman emperors Herennii Messii Sons of Roman emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Articles containing Latin-language text Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 May 2021, at 00:40 (UTC). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-9928	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with VIAF identifiers.The VIAF identifier appears as VIAF in the General section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P214. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-9941	----	Digital object identifier - Wikipedia Digital object identifier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Doi (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the use of digital object identifiers on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Digital Object Identifier. ISO standard unique string identifier for a digital object Digital object identifier Acronym DOI Organisation International DOI Foundation Introduced 2000 (2000) Example 10.1000/182 Website www.doi.org A digital object identifier (DOI) is a persistent identifier or handle used to identify objects uniquely, standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[1] An implementation of the Handle System,[2][3] DOIs are in wide use mainly to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as journal articles, research reports, data sets, and official publications. However, they also have been used to identify other types of information resources, such as commercial videos. A DOI aims to be "resolvable", usually to some form of access to the information object to which the DOI refers. This is achieved by binding the DOI to metadata about the object, such as a URL, indicating where the object can be found. Thus, by being actionable and interoperable, a DOI differs from identifiers such as ISBNs and ISRCs which aim only to identify their referents uniquely. The DOI system uses the indecs Content Model for representing metadata. The DOI for a document remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. Referring to an online document by its DOI is supposed to provide a more stable link than simply using its URL. But every time a URL changes, the publisher has to update the metadata for the DOI to link to the new URL.[4][5][6] It is the publisher's responsibility to update the DOI database. If they fail to do so, the DOI resolves to a dead link leaving the DOI useless.[citation needed] The developer and administrator of the DOI system is the International DOI Foundation (IDF), which introduced it in 2000.[7] Organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the DOI system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign DOIs.[8] The DOI system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the IDF.[9] By late April 2011 more than 50 million DOI names had been assigned by some 4,000 organizations,[10] and by April 2013 this number had grown to 85 million DOI names assigned through 9,500 organizations. Contents 1 Nomenclature and syntax 1.1 Display 2 Content 3 Features and benefits 4 Comparison with other identifier schemes 5 Resolution 6 IDF organizational structure 7 Standardization 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Nomenclature and syntax[edit] A DOI is a type of Handle System handle, which takes the form of a character string divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash. prefix/suffix The prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that DOI. Most legal Unicode characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a case-insensitive manner. The prefix usually takes the form 10.NNNN, where NNNN is at least a four digit number greater than or equal to 1000, whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants.[11][12] The prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like 10.NNNN.N.[13] For example, in the DOI name 10.1000/182, the prefix is 10.1000 and the suffix is 182. The "10" part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the DOI namespace, as opposed to some other Handle System namespace,[A] and the characters 1000 in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the International DOI Foundation itself. 182 is the suffix, or item ID, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the DOI Handbook). DOI names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms, performances, and abstract works[14] such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc. The names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus DOI names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. The choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the DOI system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a DOI name, using a data dictionary based on the indecs Content Model. Display[edit] The official DOI Handbook explicitly states that DOIs should display on screens and in print in the format doi:10.1000/182.[15] Contrary to the DOI Handbook, CrossRef, a major DOI registration agency, recommends displaying a URL (for example, https://doi.org/10.1000/182) instead of the officially specified format (for example, doi:10.1000/182)[16][17] This URL is persistent (there is a contract that ensures persistence in the DOI.ORG domain), so it is a PURL – providing the location of an HTTP proxy server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked item.[8][18] The CrossRef recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the DOI is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate URL – the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full URL to actually bring up the page for the DOI, thus the entire URL should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the DOI to copy-and-paste the URL, by hand, into a new window/tab in their browser in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the DOI represents.[19] Since DOI is a namespace within the Handle system, it is semantically correct to represent it as the URI info:doi/10.1000/182. Content[edit] Major content of the DOI system currently includes: Scholarly materials (journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through Crossref, a consortium of around 3,000 publishers; Airiti, a leading provider of Chinese and Taiwanese electronic academic journals; and the Japan Link Center (JaLC) an organization providing link management and DOI assignment for electronic academic journals in Japanese. Research datasets through Datacite, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers; European Union official publications through the EU publications office; The Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure project at Tsinghua University and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC), two initiatives sponsored by the Chinese government. Permanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the Entertainment ID Registry, commonly known as EIDR. In the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's publication service OECD iLibrary, each table or graph in an OECD publication is shown with a DOI name that leads to an Excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. Further development of such services is planned.[20] Other registries include Crossref and the multilingual European DOI Registration Agency.[21] Since 2015, RFCs can be referenced as doi:10.17487/rfc….[22] Features and benefits[edit] The IDF designed the DOI system to provide a form of persistent identification, in which each DOI name permanently and unambiguously identifies the object to which it is associated (although when the publisher of a journal changes, sometimes all the DOIs will be changed, with the old DOIs no longer working). It also associates metadata with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. Included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow DOI names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. To achieve its goals, the DOI system combines the Handle System and the indecs Content Model with a social infrastructure. The Handle System ensures that the DOI name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its DOI name, and that no two objects are assigned the same DOI name. Because DOI names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the URI specification. The DOI name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on open architectures, incorporates trust mechanisms, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the DOI system.[23] DOI name-resolution may be used with OpenURL to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request.[24] However, despite this ability, the DOI system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents, that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations.[25] The indecs Content Model as used within the DOI system associates metadata with objects. A small kernel of common metadata is shared by all DOI names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. Registrants may update the metadata for their DOI names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different URL. The International DOI Foundation (IDF) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. The social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering DOI services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as GS1 and ISBN. Comparison with other identifier schemes[edit] A DOI name differs from commonly used Internet pointers to material, such as the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. It implements the Uniform Resource Identifier (Uniform Resource Name) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure.[26] A DOI name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the ISBN, ISRC, etc. The purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the DOI system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections.[27] The DOI system offers persistent, semantically-interoperable resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). It uses a managed registry (providing social and technical infrastructure). It does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. Several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed. The comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. Imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as "identifiers" doesn't mean that they can be compared easily. Other "identifier systems" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy to use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), URLs, Globally Unique Identifiers (GUIDs), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme. The DOI system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. Various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the DOI system for specific sectors (e.g., ARK). A DOI name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a Uniform Resource Name (URN) or PURL but differs from an ordinary URL. URLs are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the Internet although the same document at two different locations has two URLs. By contrast, persistent identifiers such as DOI names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same DOI name. Resolution[edit] DOI name resolution is provided through the Handle System, developed by Corporation for National Research Initiatives, and is freely available to any user encountering a DOI name. Resolution redirects the user from a DOI name to one or more pieces of typed data: URLs representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. To the Handle System, a DOI name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. Each handle value must have a data type specified in its <type> field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. While a DOI persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, DOI resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues. To resolve a DOI name, it may be input to a DOI resolver, such as doi.org. Another approach, which avoids typing or cutting-and-pasting into a resolver is to include the DOI in a document as a URL which uses the resolver as an HTTP proxy, such as https://doi.org/ (preferred)[28] or http://dx.doi.org/, both of which support HTTPS. For example, the DOI 10.1000/182 can be included in a reference or hyperlink as https://doi.org/10.1000/182. This approach allows users to click on the DOI as a normal hyperlink. Indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how CrossRef recommends that DOIs always be represented (preferring HTTPS over HTTP), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable. Other DOI resolvers and HTTP Proxies include http://hdl.handle.net, and https://doi.pangaea.de/. At the beginning of the year 2016, a new class of alternative DOI resolvers was started by http://doai.io. This service is unusual in that it tries to find a non-paywalled (often author archived) version of a title and redirects the user to that instead of the publisher's version.[29][30] Since then, other open-access favoring DOI resolvers have been created, notably https://oadoi.org/ in October 2016[31] (later Unpaywall). While traditional DOI resolvers solely rely on the Handle System, alternative DOI resolvers first consult open access resources such as BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).[29][31] An alternative to HTTP proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for browsers, thereby avoiding the conversion of the DOIs to URLs,[32] which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the DOI to be treated as a normal hyperlink. For example. the CNRI Handle Extension for Firefox, enables the browser to access Handle System handles or DOIs like hdl:4263537/4000 or doi:10.1000/1 directly in the Firefox browser, using the native Handle System protocol. This plug-in can also replace references to web-to-handle proxy servers with native resolution. A disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the DOIs in a browser, mail reader, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed. IDF organizational structure[edit] The International DOI Foundation (IDF), a non-profit organisation created in 1998, is the governance body of the DOI system.[33] It safeguards all intellectual property rights relating to the DOI system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the DOI system. The IDF ensures that any improvements made to the DOI system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of DOI names) are available to any DOI registrant. It also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the IDF on users of the DOI system. The IDF is controlled by a Board elected by the members of the Foundation, with an appointed Managing Agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. Membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. The IDF holds annual open meetings on the topics of DOI and related issues. Registration agencies, appointed by the IDF, provide services to DOI registrants: they allocate DOI prefixes, register DOI names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. Registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the DOI system, to cooperate with the IDF in the development of the DOI system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. A list of current RAs is maintained by the International DOI Foundation. The IDF is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the Handle System by the DONA Foundation (of which the IDF is a board member), and is responsible for assigning Handle System prefixes under the top-level 10 prefix.[34] Registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new DOI name; parts of these fees are used to support the IDF. The DOI system overall, through the IDF, operates on a not-for-profit cost recovery basis. Standardization[edit] The DOI system is an international standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization in its technical committee on identification and description, TC46/SC9.[35] The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS 26324, Information and documentation – Digital Object Identifier System met the ISO requirements for approval. The relevant ISO Working Group later submitted an edited version to ISO for distribution as an FDIS (Final Draft International Standard) ballot,[36] which was approved by 100% of those voting in a ballot closing on 15 November 2010.[37] The final standard was published on 23 April 2012.[1] DOI is a registered URI under the info URI scheme specified by IETF RFC 4452. info:doi/ is the infoURI Namespace of Digital Object Identifiers.[38] The DOI syntax is a NISO standard, first standardised in 2000, ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier.[39] The maintainers of the DOI system have deliberately not registered a DOI namespace for URNs, stating that: URN architecture assumes a DNS-based Resolution Discovery Service (RDS) to find the service appropriate to the given URN scheme. However no such widely deployed RDS schemes currently exist.... DOI is not registered as a URN namespace, despite fulfilling all the functional requirements, since URN registration appears to offer no advantage to the DOI System. It requires an additional layer of administration for defining DOI as a URN namespace (the string urn:doi:10.1000/1 rather than the simpler doi:10.1000/1) and an additional step of unnecessary redirection to access the resolution service, already achieved through either http proxy or native resolution. If RDS mechanisms supporting URN specifications become widely available, DOI will be registered as a URN. — International DOI Foundation, Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications See also[edit] arXiv Bibcode DataCite Digital identity Metadata standards Object identifier ORCID PMID Publisher Item Identifier (PII) Permalink Scientific literature Universally unique identifier (UUID) Notes[edit] ^ Other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix. Handle names that begin with "100." are also in use, as for example in the following citation: Hammond, Joseph L., Jr.; Brown, James E.; Liu, Shyan-Shiang S. (May 1975). "Development of a Transmission Error Model and an Error Control Model l". Technical Report RADC-TR-75-138. Rome Air Development Center. Bibcode:1975STIN...7615344H. hdl:100.2/ADA013939. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) References[edit] ^ a b "ISO 26324:2012(en), Information and documentation – Digital object identifier system". ISO. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ "The Handle System". ^ "Factsheets". ^ Witten, Ian H.; David Bainbridge & David M. Nichols (2010). How to Build a Digital Library (2nd ed.). Amsterdam; Boston: Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 352–253. ISBN 978-0-12-374857-7. ^ Langston, Marc; Tyler, James (2004). "Linking to journal articles in an online teaching environment: The persistent link, DOI, and OpenURL". The Internet and Higher Education. 7 (1): 51–58. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.004. ^ "How the 'Digital Object Identifier' works". BusinessWeek. BusinessWeek. 23 July 2001. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Assuming the publishers do their job of maintaining the databases, these centralized references, unlike current web links, should never become outdated or broken. ^ Paskin, Norman (2010), "Digital Object Identifier (DOI) System", Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (3rd ed.), Taylor and Francis, pp. 1586–1592 ^ a b Davidson, Lloyd A.; Douglas, Kimberly (December 1998). "Digital Object Identifiers: Promise and problems for scholarly publishing". Journal of Electronic Publishing. 4 (2). doi:10.3998/3336451.0004.203. ^ "Welcome to the DOI System". Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI News, April 2011: 1. DOI System exceeds 50 million assigned identifiers". Doi.org. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "doi info & guidelines". CrossRef.org. Publishers International Linking Association, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 October 2002. Retrieved 10 June 2016. All DOI prefixes begin with "10" to distinguish the DOI from other implementations of the Handle System followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary). ^ "Factsheet—Key Facts on Digital Object Identifier System". doi.org. International DOI Foundation. 6 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. Over 18,000 DOI name prefixes within the DOI System ^ "DOI Handbook—2 Numbering". doi.org. International DOI Foundation. 1 February 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. The registrant code may be further divided into sub-elements for administrative convenience if desired. Each sub-element of the registrant code shall be preceded by a full stop. ^ "Frequently asked questions about the DOI system: 6. What can a DOI name be assigned to?". International DOI Foundation. 3 July 2018 [update of earlier version]. Retrieved 19 July 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "DOI Handbook – Numbering". doi.org. 13 February 2014. Section 2.6.1 Screen and print presentation. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2014. ^ "DOI Display Guidelines". ^ "New Crossref DOI display guidelines are on the way". ^ Powell, Andy (June 1998). "Resolving DOI Based URNs Using Squid: An Experimental System at UKOLN". D-Lib Magazine. ISSN 1082-9873. ^ ChrissieCW. "Crossref Revises DOI Display Guidelines - Crossref". www.crossref.org. ^ Green, T. (2009). "We Need Publishing Standards for Datasets and Data Tables". Research Information. doi:10.1787/603233448430. ^ "multilingual European DOI Registration Agency". mEDRA.org. 2003. ^ Levine, John R. (2015). "Assigning Digital Object Identifiers to RFCs § DOIs for RFCs". IAB. doi:10.17487/rfc7669. RFC 7669. ^ Timmer, John (6 March 2010). "DOIs and their discontents". Ars Technica. Retrieved 5 March 2013. ^ DeRisi, Susanne; Kennison, Rebecca; Twyman, Nick (2003). "Editorial: The what and whys of DOIs". PLoS Biology. 1 (2): e57. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000057. PMC 261894. PMID 14624257. ^ Franklin, Jack (2003). "Open access to scientific and technical information: the state of the art". In Grüttemeier, Herbert; Mahon, Barry (eds.). Open access to scientific and technical information: state of the art and future trends. IOS Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58603-377-4. ^ "DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications". Doi.org. 18 May 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI System and standard identifier registries". Doi.org. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ International DOI Foundation (7 August 2014). "Resolution". DOI Handbook. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ a b "DOAI". CAPSH (Committee for the Accessibility of Publications in Sciences and Humanities). Retrieved 6 August 2016. ^ Schonfeld, Roger C. (3 March 2016). "Co-opting 'Official' Channels through Infrastructures for Openness". The Scholarly Kitchen. Retrieved 17 October 2016. ^ a b Piwowar, Heather (25 October 2016). "Introducing oaDOI: resolve a DOI straight to OA". Retrieved 17 March 2017. ^ "DOI System Tools". ^ "Chapter 7: The International DOI Foundation". DOI Handbook. Doi.org. Retrieved 8 July 2015. ^ "DONA Foundation Multi-Primary Administrators". Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. ^ "Digital object identifier (DOI) becomes an ISO standard". iso.org. 10 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012. ^ "about_the_doi.html DOI Standards and Specifications". Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "Overviews & Standards – Standards and Specifications: 1. ISO TC46/SC9 Standards". Doi.org. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "About "info" URIs – Frequently Asked Questions". Info-uri.info. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2000 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier". Techstreet.com. Retrieved 7 August 2010. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: DOI (P356) (see uses) Official website Short DOI – DOI Foundation service for converting long DOIs to shorter equivalents Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications CrossRef DOI lookup v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10628 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14617 14644 14649 14651 14698 14750 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 16023 16262 16355-1 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17799 18000 18004 18014 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000–29999 20000 20022 20121 20400 20802 21000 21047 21500 21827 22000 22300 22395 23090-3 23270 23271 23360 24517 24613 24617 24707 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30000+ 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 56000 80000 Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File National libraries France (data) United States Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_object_identifier&oldid=1027046810" Categories: Academic publishing Electronic documents Identifiers Index (publishing) Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Jawa ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 June 2021, at 19:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9943	----	Wayback Machine - Wikipedia Wayback Machine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the time machine from Peabody's Improbable History, see Wayback Machine (Peabody's Improbable History). For help citing the Wayback Machine in the English Wikipedia, see Help:Using the Wayback Machine. Digital archive founded by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine Type of site Archive Area served Worldwide (except China) Owner Internet Archive URL web.archive.org Registration Optional Launched May 1996; 25 years ago (1996-05) (private) October 24, 2001; 19 years ago (2001-10-24) (public) Current status Active Written in Java, Python The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web. It was founded by the Internet Archive, a nonprofit library based in San Francisco, California. Created in 1996 and launched to the public in 2001, it allows the user to go "back in time" and see how websites looked in the past. Its founders, Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, developed the Wayback Machine with the intention of providing "universal access to all knowledge" by preserving archived copies of defunct webpages. Since its creation in 1996, over 544 billion pages have been added to the archive. The service has also sparked controversy over whether creating archived pages without the owner's permission constitutes copyright infringement in certain jurisdictions. Contents 1 History 2 Technical details 2.1 Storage capacity and growth 2.2 Website exclusion policy 2.2.1 Oakland Archive Policy 3 Uses 3.1 Limitations 3.2 In legal evidence 3.2.1 Civil litigation 3.2.1.1 Netbula LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. 3.2.1.2 Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite 3.2.2 Patent law 3.2.3 Limitations of utility 4 Legal status 5 Archived content legal issues 5.1 Scientology 5.2 Healthcare Advocates, Inc. 5.3 Suzanne Shell 5.4 Daniel Davydiuk 6 Censorship and other threats 7 See also 8 References 9 External links History[edit] The Wayback Machine began archiving cached web pages in May 1996,[1][2] with the goal of making the service public five years later.[3] Internet Archive founders Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat launched the Wayback Machine in San Francisco, California,[4] in October 2001,[5][6] primarily to address the problem of website content vanishing whenever it gets changed or when a website is shut down.[7] The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a "three-dimensional index".[8] Kahle and Gilliat created the machine hoping to archive the entire Internet and provide "universal access to all knowledge".[9] The name "Wayback Machine" is a reference to a fictional time-traveling and translation device, the "Wayback Machine", used by the characters Mister Peabody and Sherman in the animated cartoon The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends.[10][11] In one of the cartoon's segments, "Peabody's Improbable History", the characters used the machine to witness, participate in, and often alter famous events in history. From 1996 to 2001, the information was kept on digital tape, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the "clunky" database.[12] When the archive reached its fifth anniversary in 2001, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley.[13] By the time the Wayback Machine launched, it already contained over 10 billion archived pages.[14] The data is stored on the Internet Archive's large cluster of Linux nodes.[9] It revisits and archives new versions of websites on occasion (see technical details below).[15] Sites can also be captured manually by entering a website's URL into the search box, provided that the website allows the Wayback Machine to "crawl" it and save the data.[3] On October 30, 2020, the Wayback Machine began fact-checking content.[16] Technical details[edit] Software has been developed to "crawl" the Web and download all publicly accessible information and data files on webpages, the Gopher hierarchy, the Netnews (Usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software.[17] The information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the Internet, since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives.[18] Crawls are contributed from various sources, some imported from third parties and others generated internally by the Archive.[15] For example, crawls are contributed by the Sloan Foundation and Alexa, crawls run by IA on behalf of NARA and the Internet Memory Foundation, mirrors of Common Crawl.[15] The "Worldwide Web Crawls" have been running since 2010 and capture the global Web.[15][19] The frequency of snapshot captures varies per website.[15] Websites in the "Worldwide Web Crawls" are included in a "crawl list", with the site archived once per crawl.[15] A crawl can take months or even years to complete, depending on size.[15] For example, "Wide Crawl Number 13" started on January 9, 2015, and completed on July 11, 2016.[20] However, there may be multiple crawls ongoing at any one time, and a site might be included in more than one crawl list, so how often a site is crawled varies widely.[15] As of October 2019, users are limited to 5 archival requests and retrievals per minute.[citation needed][why?] Storage capacity and growth[edit] As technology has developed over the years, the storage capacity of the Wayback Machine has grown. In 2003, after only two years of public access, the Wayback Machine was growing at a rate of 12 terabytes/month. The data is stored on PetaBox rack systems custom designed by Internet Archive staff. The first 100TB rack became fully operational in June 2004, although it soon became clear that they would need much more storage than that.[21][22] The Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage in 2009, and hosts a new data center in a Sun Modular Datacenter on Sun Microsystems' California campus.[23] As of 2009[update], the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month.[24] A new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and a fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing in 2011.[25] In March that year, it was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "the Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year."[26] Also in 2011, the Internet Archive installed their sixth pair of PetaBox racks which increased the Wayback Machine's storage capacity by 700 terabytes.[27] In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs.[28] In October 2013, the company introduced the "Save a Page" feature[29][30] which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL, and quickly generates a permanent link unlike the preceding liveweb feature. In December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained 435 billion web pages—almost nine petabytes of data, and was growing at about 20 terabytes a week.[14][31][32] In March 2015,[date verification needed] security researchers became aware of the threat posed by the service's unintentional hosting of malicious binaries from archived sites.[33][34] In July 2016, the Wayback Machine reportedly contained around 15 petabytes of data.[35] In September 2018, the Wayback Machine contained over 25 petabytes of data.[36][37] As of December 2020, the Wayback Machine contained over 70 petabytes of data.[38] Wayback Machine Growth[39][40] Wayback Machine by Year Pages Archived (billion) 2005 40 2008 85 2012 150 2013 373 2014 400 2015 452 2020 514 Between October 2013 and March 2015, the website's global Alexa rank changed from 163[41] to 208.[42] In March 2019 the rank was at 244.[43] Website exclusion policy[edit] Historically, Wayback Machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled – or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt-out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that "Sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests."[44] In addition, the website says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other Internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."[45][46] On April 17, 2017, reports surfaced of sites that had gone defunct and became parked domains that were using robots.txt to exclude themselves from search engines, resulting in them being inadvertently excluded from the Wayback Machine.[47] The Internet archive changed the policy to now require an explicit exclusion request to remove it from the Wayback Machine.[48] Oakland Archive Policy[edit] Wayback's retroactive exclusion policy is based in part upon Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests and Preserving Archival Integrity published by the School of Information Management and Systems at University of California, Berkeley in 2002, which gives a website owner the right to block access to the site's archives.[49] Wayback has complied with this policy to help avoid expensive litigation.[50] The Wayback retroactive exclusion policy began to relax in 2017, when it stopped honoring robots.txt on U.S. government and military web sites for both crawling and displaying web pages. As of April 2017, Wayback is ignoring robots.txt more broadly, not just for U.S. government websites.[51][52][53][54] Uses[edit] From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. Social science scholars have used the Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the company's growth.[14] When the Wayback Machine archives a page, it usually includes most of the hyperlinks, keeping those links active when they just as easily could have been broken by the Internet's instability. Researchers in India studied the effectiveness of the Wayback Machine's ability to save hyperlinks in online scholarly publications and found that it saved slightly more than half of them.[55] "Journalists use the Wayback Machine to view dead websites, dated news reports, and changes to website contents. Its content has been used to hold politicians accountable and expose battlefield lies."[56] In 2014, an archived social media page of Igor Girkin, a separatist rebel leader in Ukraine, showed him boasting about his troops having shot down a suspected Ukrainian military airplane before it became known that the plane actually was a civilian Malaysian Airlines jet (Malaysia Airlines Flight 17), after which he deleted the post and blamed Ukraine's military for downing the plane.[56][57] In 2017, the March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit that indicated someone had visited Archive.org and discovered that all references to climate change had been deleted from the White House website. In response, a user commented, "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington".[58][59][60] Furthermore, the site is used heavily for verification, providing access to references and content creation by Wikipedia editors.[61] In September 2020, a partnership was announced with Cloudflare to automatically archive websites served via its "Always Online" service, which will also allow it to direct users to its copy of the site if it cannot reach the original host.[62] Limitations[edit] In 2014 there was a six-month lag time between when a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the Wayback Machine.[63] Currently, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours.[64] The Wayback Machine offers only limited search facilities. Its "Site Search" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.[65] The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript and progressive web applications, because those functions require interaction with the host website. This means that, since June 2013, the Wayback Machine has been unable to display YouTube comments when saving YouTube pages, as, according to the Archive Team, comments are no longer "loaded within the page itself."[66] The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML or one of its variants, which can often result in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that are not linked to by other pages.[65][67] The Wayback Machine's crawler only follows a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.[19] Starting in April 2018, administrative staff members of the Wayback Machine's archive team have enforced the Quarter month rule, by occasionally deleting time intervals of 23 days or 39 days (3/4 and 5/4 of a month, respectively), in order to reduce the queue size.[citation needed] In legal evidence[edit] Civil litigation[edit] Netbula LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc.[edit] In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc., defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its website that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Netbula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case.[68] Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's website and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly.[69] An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."[68] Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.[68] Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite[edit] In an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. October 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network. Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's website. Telewizja Polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial.[70][71] At the trial, however, District Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings, and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page, printouts were not self-authenticating.[72][73] Patent law[edit] Main article: Internet as a source of prior art Provided some additional requirements are met (e.g., providing an authoritative statement of the archivist), the United States patent office and the European Patent Office will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when a given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application.[74] Limitations of utility[edit] There are technical limitations to archiving a website, and as a consequence, it is possible for opposing parties in litigation to misuse the results provided by website archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screenshots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-RESTful e-commerce databases in their archives.[75] Legal status[edit] In Europe, the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated, so the Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator.[76] The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site.[77] Archived content legal issues[edit] A number of cases have been brought against the Internet Archive specifically for its Wayback Machine archiving efforts. Scientology[edit] See also: Scientology and the Internet In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of Scientology from the Wayback Machine.[78] An error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner".[79] Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the Church of Scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.[80] Healthcare Advocates, Inc.[edit] In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their website from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their website, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff website from the Wayback Machine, however, some material continued to be publicly visible on Wayback.[81] The lawsuit was settled out of court, after Wayback fixed the problem.[82] Suzanne Shell[edit] Activist Suzanne Shell filed suit in December 2005, demanding Internet Archive pay her US$100,000 for archiving her website profane-justice.org between 1999 and 2004.[83][84] Internet Archive filed a declaratory judgment action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California on January 20, 2006, seeking a judicial determination that Internet Archive did not violate Shell's copyright. Shell responded and brought a countersuit against Internet Archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her terms of service.[85] On February 13, 2007, a judge for the United States District Court for the District of Colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract.[84] The Internet Archive did not move to dismiss copyright infringement claims Shell asserted arising out of its copying activities, which would also go forward.[86] On April 25, 2007, Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit.[83] The Internet Archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in the Wayback Machine of persons who do not wish to have their Web content archived. We recognize that Ms Shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her Web site and we regret that the inclusion of her Web site in the Wayback Machine resulted in this litigation." Shell said, "I respect the historical value of Internet Archive's goal. I never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm."[87] Daniel Davydiuk[edit] Between 2013 and 2016, a pornographic actor named Daniel Davydiuk tried to remove archived images of himself from the Wayback Machine's archive, first by sending multiple DMCA requests to the archive, and then by appealing to the Federal Court of Canada.[88][89][90] Censorship and other threats[edit] Archive.org is currently blocked in China.[91][92] After the Islamic State terrorist organization was banned, the Internet Archive had been blocked in its entirety in Russia as a host of an outreach video from that organization, for a short time in 2015–16.[56][93][94][needs update] Since 2016 the website has been back, available in its entirety, although local commercial lobbyists are suing the Internet Archive in a local court to ban it on copyright grounds.[95] Alison Macrina, director of the Library Freedom Project, notes that "while librarians deeply value individual privacy, we also strongly oppose censorship".[56] There are known rare cases where online access to content which "for nothing" has put people in danger was disabled by the website.[56][clarification needed] Other threats include natural disasters,[96] destruction (remote or physical),[97] manipulation of the archive's contents (see also: cyberattack, backup), problematic copyright laws[98] and surveillance of the site's users.[99] Alexander Rose, executive director of the Long Now Foundation, suspects that in the long-term of multiple generations "next to nothing" will survive in a useful way, stating, "If we have continuity in our technological civilization, I suspect a lot of the bare data will remain findable and searchable. But I suspect almost nothing of the format in which it was delivered will be recognizable", because sites "with deep back-ends of content-management systems like Drupal and Ruby and Django" are harder to archive.[100] In an article reflecting on the preservation of human knowledge, The Atlantic has commented that the Internet Archive, which describes itself to be built for the long-term,[101] "is working furiously to capture data before it disappears without any long-term infrastructure to speak of."[102] See also[edit] List of Web archiving initiatives Heritrix Library Genesis Web archiving Time capsule Time travel References[edit] ^ "MTV Online: Main Page – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved July 17, 2020. ^ "Infoseek Guide – Wayback Machine". Wayback Machine. May 12, 1996. Archived from the original on May 12, 1996. Retrieved December 16, 2016. ^ a b "Internet Archive: Wayback Machine". archive.org. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved October 15, 2018. ^ "Wayback Machine General Information". archive.org. Archived from the original on December 5, 2019. Retrieved March 2, 2021. ^ "WayBackMachine.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Archived from the original on May 14, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ "InternetArchive.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Archived from the original on May 12, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ Notess, Greg R. (March–April 2002). "The Wayback Machine: The Web's Archive". Online. 26: 59–61. INIST:13517724. ^ "The Wayback Machine", Frequently Asked Questions, archived from the original on September 18, 2018, retrieved September 18, 2018 ^ a b "20,000 Hard Drives on a Mission | Internet Archive Blogs". blog.archive.org. October 25, 2016. Archived from the original on October 20, 2018. Retrieved October 15, 2018. ^ Green, Heather (February 28, 2002). "A Library as Big as the World". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on December 20, 2011. ^ Tong, Judy (September 8, 2002). "Responsible Party – Brewster Kahle; A Library Of the Web, On the Web". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 20, 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2011. ^ Cook, John (November 1, 2001). "Web site takes you way back in Internet history". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 15, 2011. ^ Mayfield, Kendra (October 28, 2001). "Wayback Goes Way Back on Web". Wired. Archived from the original on October 16, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2017. ^ a b c Arora, Sanjay K.; Li, Yin; Youtie, Jan; Shapira, Philip (May 5, 2015). "Using the wayback machine to mine websites in the social sciences: A methodological resource". Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. 67 (8): 1904–1915. doi:10.1002/asi.23503. ISSN 2330-1635. ^ a b c d e f g h Kalev Leetaru (January 28, 2016). "The Internet Archive Turns 20: A Behind the Scenes Look at Archiving the Web". Forbes. Archived from the original on October 16, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2017. ^ Graham, Mark (October 30, 2020). "Fact Checks and Context for Wayback Machine Pages". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved January 17, 2021. ^ Kahle, Brewster. "Archiving the Internet". Scientific American – March 1997 Issue. Archived from the original on April 3, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2011. ^ Jeff Kaplan (October 27, 2014). "Archive-It: Crawling the Web Together". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2017. ^ a b "Worldwide Web Crawls". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2017. ^ "Wide Crawl Number 13". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2017. ^ "Internet Archive: Petabox". archive.org. Retrieved October 25, 2018. ^ Kanellos, Michael (July 29, 2005). "Big storage on the cheap". CNET News.com. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved July 29, 2007. ^ "Internet Archive and Sun Microsystems Create Living History of the Internet". Sun Microsystems. March 25, 2009. Archived from the original on March 26, 2009. Retrieved March 27, 2009. ^ Mearian, Lucas (March 19, 2009). "Internet Archive to unveil massive Wayback Machine data center". Computerworld.com. Archived from the original on March 23, 2009. Retrieved March 22, 2009. ^ "Updated Wayback Machine in Beta Testing". Archived from the original on August 23, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2011. ^ "Beta Wayback Machine, in forum". Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2014. ^ "Internet Archive Forums: 6th pair of racks go into service: over 2PB of data space used". archive.org. Archived from the original on October 24, 2016. Retrieved October 25, 2018. ^ "Wayback Machine: Now with 240,000,000,000 URLs | Internet Archive Blogs". January 9, 2013. Archived from the original on April 14, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2014. ^ Rossi, Alexis (October 25, 2013). "Fixing Broken Links on the Internet". archive.org. San Francisco, CA, US: Collections Team, the Internet Archive. Archived from the original on November 7, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2015. We have added the ability to archive a page instantly and get back a permanent URL for that page in the Wayback Machine. This service allows anyone – wikipedia editors, scholars, legal professionals, students, or home cooks like me – to create a stable URL to cite, share or bookmark any information they want to still have access to in the future. ^ "The new Internet Archive Wayback Machine now online". www.digitaljournal.com. October 23, 2013. Archived from the original on November 19, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2020. Cite uses generic title (help) ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". Archived from the original on October 21, 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2015. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". December 18, 2014. Archived from the original on December 18, 2014. Retrieved December 13, 2018. ^ The VirusTotal Team (March 25, 2015). "207.241.226.190 IP address information". virustotal.com. Dublin 2, Ireland: VirusTotal. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2015. 2015-03-25: Latest URLs hosted in this IP address detected by at least one URL scanner or malicious URL dataset. ... 2/62 2015-03-25 16:14:12 [complete URL redacted]/Renegotiating_TLS.pdf ... 1/62 2015-03-25 04:46:34 [complete URL redacted]/CBLightSetup.exeCS1 maint: location (link) ^ Advisory provided by Google (March 25, 2015). "Safe Browsing Diagnostic page for archive.org". google.com/safebrowsing. Mountain View, CA, US. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015. Retrieved March 25, 2015. 2015-03-25: Part of this site was listed for suspicious activity 138 time(s) over the past 90 days. ... What happened when Google visited this site? ... Of the 42410 pages we tested on the site over the past 90 days, 450 page(s) resulted in malicious software being downloaded and installed without user consent. The last time Google visited this site was on 2015-03-25, and the last time suspicious content was found on this site was on 2015-03-25. ... Malicious software includes 169 trojan(s), 126 virus, 43 backdoor(s). ^ "Can the manipulation of big data change the way the world thinks?". The National. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ Crockett, Zachary (September 28, 2018). "Inside Wayback Machine, the internet's time capsule". The Hustle. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018. Retrieved October 26, 2018. ^ Heffernan, Virginia (September 18, 2018). "Things Break and Decay on the Internet—That's a Good Thing". WIRED. Archived from the original on September 25, 2018. 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Archived from the original on April 15, 2011. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. ^ Cox, Joseph (May 22, 2018). "The Wayback Machine Is Deleting Evidence of Malware Sold to Stalkers". Archived from the original on May 23, 2018. Retrieved May 23, 2018. ^ "Robots.txt meant for search engines don't work well for web archives". Internet Archive. April 17, 2017. Retrieved June 29, 2019. ^ "Using The Wayback Machine". Internet Archive Help Center. ^ "Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests And Preserving Archival Integrity". University of California. December 14, 2002. Archived from the original on September 18, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2017. ^ "Retroactive robots.txt removal of past crawls AKA Oakland Archive Policy". Internet Archive. July 7, 2014. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2017. ^ Mark Graham (April 17, 2017). "Robots.txt meant for search engines don't work well for web archives". Internet Archive Blogs. Archived from the original on April 17, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2017. ^ "Archivierung des Internets: Internet Archive ignoriert künftig robots.txt" (in German). heise online. Archived from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "Suchmaschinen: Internet Archive will künftig Robots.txt-Einträge ignorieren – Golem.de" (in German). Archived from the original on June 19, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "Internet Archive will ignore robots.txt files to keep historical record accurate". Digital Trends. April 24, 2017. Archived from the original on May 16, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ Sampath Kumar, B.T.; Prithviraj, K.R. (October 21, 2014). "Bringing life to dead: Role of Wayback Machine in retrieving vanished URLs". Journal of Information Science. 41 (1): 71–81. doi:10.1177/0165551514552752. ISSN 0165-5515. S2CID 28320982. ^ a b c d e "Wayback Machine Won't Censor Archive for Taste, Director Says After Olympics Article Scrubbed". Archived from the original on January 6, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ Lepore, Jill (January 26, 2015). "What the Web Said Yesterday". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "The March for Science began with this person's 'throwaway line' on Reddit". Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 23, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017. ^ "Are scientists going to march on Washington?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017. ^ Foley, Katherine Ellen. "The global March for Science started with a single Reddit thread". Quartz. Archived from the original on April 24, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017. ^ Graham, Mark (October 1, 2018). "More than 9 million broken links on Wikipedia are now rescued". ^ Graham, Mark (September 17, 2020). "Cloudflare and the Wayback Machine, joining forces for a more reliable Web". Internet Archive Blogs. Retrieved September 17, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". Internet Archive. April 2, 2014. Archived from the original on April 2, 2014. Retrieved November 23, 2018. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". archive.org. Retrieved November 23, 2018. ^ a b Bates, Mary Ellen (2002). "The Wayback Machine". Online. 26: 80. ^ "YouTube - Archiveteam". archiveteam.org. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2020. ^ "Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions". archive.org. Archived from the original on April 20, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2018. ^ a b c Lloyd, Howard (October 2009). "Order to Disable Robots.txt" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 8, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2009. ^ Cortes, Antonio (October 2009). "Motion Opposing Removal of Robots.txt". Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2009. ^ Gelman, Lauren (November 17, 2004). "Internet Archive's Web Page Snapshots Held Admissible as Evidence". Packets. 2 (3). Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. Retrieved January 4, 2007. ^ Howell, Beryl A. (February 2006). "Proving Web History: How to use the Internet Archive" (PDF). Journal of Internet Law: 3–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2010. Retrieved August 6, 2008. ^ "Looking For Evidence in Virtual Places Admissibility of Internet Evidence". Archived from the original on July 1, 2019. Retrieved June 14, 2020. ^ Levitt, Carole A.; Rosch, Mark E. (2010). Find Info Like a Pro: Mining the Internet's Publicly Available Resources for Investigative Research, Tom 1. American Bar Association. pp. 194–196. ISBN 978-1-60442-890-2. Archived from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved June 14, 2020. ^ Wynn W. Coggins (Fall 2002). "Prior Art in the Field of Business Method Patents – When is an Electronic Document a Printed Publication for Prior Art Purposes?". USPTO. Archived from the original on September 21, 2012. Retrieved August 15, 2012. ^ "Debunking the Wayback Machine". Archived from the original on June 29, 2010. ^ Bahr, Martin (2002). "The Wayback Machine und Google Cache - eine Verletzung deutschen Urheberrechts?". JurPC (in German): 9. doi:10.7328/jurpcb/20021719. Archived from the original on August 23, 2009. ^ "Internet Archive FAQ". Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2014. ^ Bowman, Lisa M (September 24, 2002). "Net archive silences Scientology critic". CNET News.com. Archived from the original on May 15, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2007. ^ Jeff (September 23, 2002). "exclusions from the Wayback Machine" (Blog). Wayback Machine Forum. Internet Archive. Archived from the original on February 11, 2007. Retrieved January 4, 2007. Author and Date indicate initiation of forum thread. ^ Miller, Ernest. "Sherman, Set the Wayback Machine for Scientology". LawMeme. Yale Law School. Archived from the original (Blog) on November 16, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2007. ^ Dye, Jessica (2005). "Website Sued for Controversial Trip into Internet Past". EContent. 28. 11: 8–9. ^ Bangeman, Eric (August 31, 2006). "Internet Archive Settles Suit Over Wayback Machine". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on November 5, 2007. Retrieved November 29, 2007. ^ a b Internet Archive v. Shell, 505 F.Supp.2d 755 at justia.com, 1:2006cv01726 (Colorado District Court August 31, 2006) ("'April 25, 2007 Settlement agreement announced.' Filing 65, 2007-04-30: '...therefore ORDERED that this matter shall be DISMISSED WITH PREJUDICE...'"). ^ a b Babcock, Lewis T., Chief Judge (February 13, 2007). "Internet Archive v. Shell Civil Action No. 06cv01726LTBCBS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 25, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2015. 1) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for conversion and civil theft (Second Cause of Action) is GRANTED, 2) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for breach of contract (Third Cause of Action) is DENIED; 3) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for Racketeering under RICO and COCCA (Fourth Cause of Action) is GRANTED. ^ Claburn, Thomas (March 16, 2007). "Colorado Woman Sues To Hold Web Crawlers To Contracts". New York, NY, US: InformationWeek, UBM Tech, UBM LLC. Archived from the original on September 4, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2015. Computers can enter into contracts on behalf of people. The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) says that a 'contract may be formed by the interaction of electronic agents of the parties, even if no individual was aware of or reviewed the electronic agents' actions or the resulting terms and agreements.' ^ Samson, Martin H., Phillips Nizer LLP (2007). "Internet Archive v. Suzanne Shell". internetlibrary.com. Internet Library of Law and Court Decisions. Archived from the original on August 3, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2015. More importantly, held the court, Internet Archive's mere copying of Shell's site, and display thereof in its database, did not constitute the requisite exercise of dominion and control over defendant's property. Importantly, noted the court, the defendant at all times owned and operated her own site. Said the Court: 'Shell has failed to allege facts showing that Internet Archive exercised dominion or control over her website, since Shell's complaint states explicitly that she continued to own and operate the website while it was archived on the Wayback machine. Shell identifies no authority supporting the notion that copying documents is by itself enough of a deprivation of use to support conversion. Conversely, numerous circuits have determined that it is not.' ^ brewster (April 25, 2007). "Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell Settle Lawsuit". archive.org. Denver, CO, USA: Internet Archive. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. Retrieved March 25, 2015. Both parties sincerely regret any turmoil that the lawsuit may have caused for the other. Neither Internet Archive nor Ms Shell condones any conduct which may have caused harm to either party arising out of the public attention to this lawsuit. The parties have not engaged in such conduct and request that the public response to the amicable resolution of this litigation be consistent with their wishes that no further harm or turmoil be caused to either party. ^ Stobbe, Richard (December 5, 2014). "Copyright Implications Of A "Right To Be Forgotten"? Or How To Take-Down The Internet Archive". Mondaq. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2019. ^ McVeigh, Glennys (October 16, 2014). Philpott, James; Weissman, Adam; Bucholz, Ren; Kettles, Brent; Pearl, Aaron (eds.). "Davydiuk v. Internet Archive Canada, 2014 FC 944". CanLII. Federation of Law Societies of Canada. Archived from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved March 8, 2019. ^ Southcott, Richard F. (November 30, 2016). Philpott, John; Alton, Alex; Bucholz, Ren (eds.). "Davydiuk v. Internet Archive Canada and Internet Archive, 2016 FC 1313 (CanLII)". CanLII. Ottawa, Ontario: Federation of Law Societies of Canada. Archived from the original on June 29, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2019. ^ Conger, Kate. "Backing up the history of the internet in Canada to save it from Trump". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on December 27, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "Where to find what's disappeared online, and a whole lot more: the Internet Archive". Public Radio International. Archived from the original on March 28, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ Chirgwin, Richard. "There's no Wayback in Russia: Putin blocks Archive.org". Archived from the original on October 7, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "Russia won't go Wayback, blocks the Internet Archive". Digital Trends. June 26, 2015. Archived from the original on April 17, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "В России разблокирован крупнейший интернет-архив". Российская газета (in Russian). Archived from the original on April 5, 2019. Retrieved October 18, 2020. ^ "Help Us Keep the Archive Free, Accessible, and Reader Private | Internet Archive Blogs". November 29, 2016. Archived from the original on May 21, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved September 28, 2020.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Internet Archive: Proposed Changes To DMCA Would Make Us "Censor The Web"". Consumerist. June 7, 2016. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ Herb, Ulrich. "Die Trump-Angst grassiert" (in German). heise online. Archived from the original on December 7, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ LaFrance, Adrienne. "The Internet's Dark Ages". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on May 7, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ "The Entire Internet Will Be Archived In Canada to Protect It From Trump". Motherboard. November 29, 2016. Archived from the original on May 16, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2017. ^ LaFrance, Adrienne (June 3, 2016). "The Human Fear of Total Knowledge". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 2, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2017. External links[edit] Official website Internet history is fragile. This archive is making sure it doesn’t disappear. San Francisco: PBS Newshour. Retrieved September 19, 2018. v t e Digital preservation Concepts Artifactual value Curation Dark age Obsolescence Open Archival Information System Techniques Forensics Emulation By type Artworks Email Websites Organizations Computer museums Digital Curation Centre National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (USA) Lists Preservation initiatives Timeline Timeline of audio formats Web archiving initiatives Years in home video Category v t e Internet Archive Universal access to all knowledge Projects Wayback Machine PetaBox Open Library NASA Images Open Content Alliance Archive-It SFlan Partners & Collaborators Bibliotheca Alexandrina Library of Congress American Libraries Canadian Libraries Biodiversity Heritage Library Sloan Foundation Collections Lists of Internet Archive's collections Image NASA Images USGS Maps Texts American Libraries Canadian Libraries Children's Library RECAP US Federal Court Documents Microfilm US Government Documents Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Collected texts of Simon Schwartzman Audio Live Music Archive LibriVox Video NASA Images FedFlix Democracy Now! 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en-wikipedia-org-9945	----	Ronald Syme - Wikipedia Ronald Syme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search New Zealand born British historian and classicist (1903-1989) This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ronald Syme" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sir Ronald Syme OM FBA Born (1903-03-11)11 March 1903 Eltham, New Zealand Died 4 September 1989(1989-09-04) (aged 86) Oxford, England Nationality New Zealander, British Academic background Education New Plymouth Boys' High School Alma mater University of Auckland Victoria University of Wellington Oriel College, Oxford Academic work Discipline Ancient historian Sub-discipline Roman history Crisis of the Roman Republic Roman army prosopography Institutions Trinity College, Oxford Brasenose College, Oxford Wolfson College, Oxford Doctoral students Barbara Levick Miriam T. Griffin Fergus Millar Notable works The Roman Revolution (1939) Sir Ronald Syme, OM, FBA (11 March 1903 – 4 September 1989) was a New Zealand-born historian and classicist.[1][2] His great work was The Roman Revolution (1939), a masterly and controversial analysis of Roman political life in the period following the assassination of Julius Caesar. Contents 1 Life 2 Major works 3 Legacy 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Syme was born to David and Florence Syme in Eltham, New Zealand, where he attended primary and secondary school; a bad case of measles seriously damaged his vision during this period. He moved to New Plymouth Boys' High School (a house of which bears his name today) at the age of 15, and was head of his class for both of his two years. He continued to the University of Auckland and Victoria University of Wellington, where he studied French language and literature while working on his degree in Classics. He was then educated at Oriel College, Oxford between 1925 and 1927, gaining First Class honours in Literae Humaniores (ancient history and philosophy). In 1926, he won the Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose for translating a section of Thomas More's Utopia into Platonic prose, and the following year won the Prize again (for Verse) for a translation of part of William Morris's Sigurd the Volsung into Homeric hexameters. His first scholarly work was published by the Journal of Roman Studies in 1928.[3] In 1929 he became a Fellow of Trinity College, where he became known for his studies of the Roman army and the frontiers of the Empire. During the Second World War, he worked as a press attaché in the British Embassies of Belgrade (where he acquired a knowledge of Serbo-Croatian) and Ankara, later taking a chair in classical philology at Istanbul University. His refusal to discuss the nature of his work during this period led some to speculate that he worked for the British intelligence services in Turkey, but proof for this hypothesis is lacking. Sir Ronald's work at Unesco is referred to in the autobiographical works of a collaborator, Jean d'Ormesson. After being elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1944, Syme was appointed Camden Professor of Ancient History at Brasenose College, Oxford in 1949, a position which he held until his retirement in 1970. Syme was also appointed Fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford from 1970 until the late 1980s, where an annual lecture was established in his memory. Syme was knighted in 1959 and received the Order of Merit in 1976. He continued his prolific writing and editing until his death at the age of 86. Major works[edit] The work for which Syme is chiefly remembered, The Roman Revolution (1939), is widely considered a masterly and controversial analysis of Roman political life in the period following the 44 BCE assassination of Julius Caesar. Inspired by the rise of fascist regimes in Germany and Italy, and following Tacitus in both literary style and pessimistic insight, the work challenged prevailing attitudes concerning the last years of the Roman Republic. Syme's main conclusion was that the structure of the Republic and its Senate were inadequate for the needs of Roman rule; Augustus merely did what was necessary to restore order in public life, but was a dictatorial figure whose true nature was cloaked by the panegyrics written to honour him in his last years and after his death. "The Roman constitution", Syme wrote, "was a screen and a sham"; Octavian's supposed restoration of the Republic was a pretence on which he had built a monarchy based on personal relationships and the ambition of Rome's political families. In The Roman Revolution Syme first used, with dazzling effect, the historical method of prosopography—tracing the linkages of kinship, marriage, and shared interest among the various leading families of republican and imperial Rome. By stressing prosopographical analysis, Syme rejected the force of ideas in politics, dismissing most such invocations of constitutional and political principle as nothing more than "political catchwords". In this bleak cynicism about political ideas and political life, The Roman Revolution strongly resembled another controversial historical masterwork, The Structure of English Politics at the Accession of George III, published in 1930 by the specialist in eighteenth-century British political history, Sir Lewis B. Namier. Syme's next great work was his definitive two-volume biography of Tacitus (1958), his favourite among the ancient historians. The work's forty-five chapters and ninety-five appendices make up the most complete study of Tacitus yet produced, backed by an exhaustive treatment of the historical and political background—the Empire's first century—of his life. Syme blended biographical investigation, historical narrative and interpretation, and literary analysis to produce what may be the single most thorough study of a major historian ever published.[citation needed] In 1958 Oxford University Press published Colonial Élites. Rome, Spain and the Americas, which presents the three lectures that Syme offered at McMaster University in January 1958 as part of the Whidden Lectures. Syme compares the three empires that have endured for the longest periods of time in Western History: Rome, Spain, and Britain. Syme considers that the duration of an Empire links directly to the character of the men who are in charge of the imperial administration, in particular that of the colonies. In his own words, the "strength and vitality of an empire is frequently due to the new aristocracy from the periphery". This book is currently out of print.[4] Syme's biography of Sallust (1964), based on his Sather Lectures at the University of California, is also regarded[5][6] as authoritative. His four books and numerous essays on the Historia Augusta firmly established the fraudulent nature of that work; he famously dubbed the anonymous author "a rogue grammarian".[7] His History in Ovid (1978) places the great Roman poet Ovid firmly in his social context. Syme's The Augustan Aristocracy (1986) traces the prominent families under Augustus as a sequel to The Roman Revolution. Syme examined how and why Augustus promoted bankrupt patrician families and new politicians simultaneously to forge a coalition in government that would back his agenda for a new Rome. A posthumous work (edited for publication by A. Birley), Anatolica (1995), is devoted to Strabo and deals with the geography of southern Armenia and mainly eastern parts of Asia Minor. His shorter works are collected in the seven volumes of Roman Papers (1979–1991), the first two volumes of which are edited by E. Badian, and the remainder by Anthony Birley. Syme's doctoral students at the University of Oxford included Barbara Levick (whose thesis in the mid-1950s dealt with Roman colonies in south Asia Minor), and Miriam T. Griffin (1968), whose thesis was entitled Seneca: the statesman and the writer. Legacy[edit] Victoria University of Wellington's Classics Department holds a lecture in Syme's honour every two years. References[edit] ^ "Ronald Syme, 86, Classics Scholar And Historian at Oxford, Is Dead", The New York Times, 7 September 1989 ^ Bowersock, G. W. (March 1991). "Ronald Syme (March 11, 1903 – September 4, 1989)". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 135 (1): 118–122. JSTOR 987156. ^ "Rhine and Danube Legions under Domitian", Journal of Roman Studies 18 (1928) 41–55; see Anthony Birley, "Editor's Introduction", in The Provincial at Rome (Presses Université Laval, 2000), p. xi online and pp. xi–xx on Syme's publications and scholarly career. ^ "Colonial Élites. Rome, Spain and the Americas – Sir Ronald Syme". Francisco Vázquez. Archived from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2010. ^ Earl, D. C. (1965). "Sallust by Ronald Syme". The Journal of Roman Studies. 55: 232–240. JSTOR 297442. ^ Sumner, G. V. (September 1965). "Sallust by Ronald Syme". Phoenix (classics journal). 19 (1): 240–244. JSTOR 1086288. ^ Emperors and Biography (Oxford, 1971), p. 263. Further reading[edit] Edmond, Martin (2017). The Expatriates. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. pp. 104–179. ISBN 978-1-988533-17-9. Obituaries of Syme appear in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (vol. 135, no. 1, 119–122) and in The Journal of Roman Studies (vol. 80, xi–xiv) Mitchell, S. (1989). "Obituary: Sir Ronald Syme". Anatolian Studies. 39: 17. doi:10.1017/s0066154600007626. JSTOR 3642808. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ronald Syme. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ronald Syme Academic offices Preceded by Hugh Last Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford University 1949–1970 Succeeded by Peter Brunt v t e Prosopography Publications Prosopographia Imperii Romani Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit Prosopography of ancient Rome Projects Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England Prosopography of the Byzantine World Prosopographers A. H. M. Jones John Morris John Robert Martindale Friedrich Münzer T. R. S. Broughton Ronald Syme T. P. Wiseman Erich S. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-9961	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with SNAC-ID identifiers.The SNAC-ID identifier appears as Social Networks and Archival Context in the Other section. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P3430. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 130,674 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)0–9 2nd Tennessee Cavalry Regiment (Union) 100 Black Men of America 369th Infantry Regiment (United States) A Thomas Turner à Beckett Thomas A'Becket (composer) Pieter van der Aa Herb Aach Hans von Aachen Beverly Aadland Jeppe Aakjær Mikkel Aaland Aino Aalto Alvar Aalto Elissa Aalto Veikko Aaltonen Wäinö Aaltonen Fred G. Aandahl Hans Aanrud Willem Aantjes Verna Aardema Alden Aaroe Benjamin Aaron Caroline Aaron Chester Aaron Daniel Aaron David L. Aaron Hank Aaron Israel Aaron Richard Aaron Al Aarons Edward S. 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Abbott Samuel Warren Abbott Thomas Kingsmill Abbott Tommy Abbott Wilbur Cortez Abbott William Louis Abbott William Osler Abbott Joseph Abboud Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Abd-al-Baqi al-Zurqani Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz Gamal Abdel-Rahim Emir Abdelkader Faye Glenn Abdellah Emil Abderhalden Adel Abdessemed Reza Abdoh Vadim Abdrashitov Muhammad Abduh Ghaith Abdul-Ahad ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Lida Abdul Paula Abdul Ian Abdulla Abdullah Abdul Kadir Abdullah I of Jordan Achmed Abdullah Abdullah Abdurahman Edward Strutt Abdy Maria Abdy Rowena Meeks Abdy Aktan Abdykalykov Kōbō Abe Abe Isoo Satoru Abe Arthur William à Beckett Gilbert Abbott à Beckett Gilbert Arthur à Beckett William à Beckett David Abeel Gustavus Abeel Richard Abegg Ludwig Abeille Heinrich Abeken (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_SNAC-ID_identifiers&oldid=994492485" Categories: Pages with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Miscellaneous pages with SNAC-ID identifiers Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Български Bosanski فارسی 한국어 Ilokano עברית Lëtzebuergesch मराठी Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Nordfriisk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Română Sardu Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi ไทย Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 00:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9966	----	Wikipedia:Good articles - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Good articles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Type of Wikipedia article Main Criteria Instructions Nominations Discussion Reassessment Report "WP:GA" redirects here. For the country of Georgia WikiProject, see Wikipedia:WikiProject Georgia (country). For the U.S. state of Georgia WikiProject, see Wikipedia:WikiProject Georgia (U.S. state). Good articles in Wikipedia A good article (GA) is an article that meets a core set of editorial standards, the good article criteria, passing through the good article nomination process successfully. They are well written, contain factually accurate and verifiable information, are broad in coverage, neutral in point of view, stable, and illustrated, where possible, by relevant images with suitable copyright licenses. Good articles do not have to be as comprehensive as "featured articles" (FA), but they should not omit any major facets of the topic: a comparison of the criteria for good and featured articles describes further differences. Currently, out of the 6,317,207 articles on Wikipedia, 34,175 are categorized as good articles (about 1 in 185), most of which are listed below. An additional 5,926 are listed as featured articles (about 1 in 1,070) and 3,808 as featured lists (about 1 in 1,660). Because articles are only included on one list, a good article that has been promoted to featured status is removed from the good articles list. Adding good and featured articles and lists together gives a total of 43,909 articles (about 1 in 144). A small plus sign inside a circle () in the top-right corner of an article's page indicates that the article is good. The process for designating an article as a good article is intentionally straightforward. Any editor, preferably one who creates or contributes to an article, who believes that the article meets the good article criteria, may nominate the article for an impartial reviewer to assess. Another editor may review the article after selecting it from a queue of good article nominations then evaluating it against the good article criteria. If it is accepted by the reviewer, the nominated article is added to the list of good articles below. Anyone may nominate or review an article by following the instructions. Similarly, anyone who believes that an article no longer meets the good article criteria may propose to delist it by following the instructions for reassessment. More good content is available at Wikipedia:Good topics. Shortcuts WP:GA WP:GOOD Good article tools: Good articles Good article nominations Good article reassessment Good article instructions Good article criteria Good article report Good article statistics Good article mismatches Delisted good articles Project page GAN Backlog Drives Related pages Good topics Featured articles Former featured articles Vital articles Did you know Recently listed good articles: 1989 Football League Third Division play-off Final — Wright, Chely — Symphyotrichum lateriflorum — "Milk" (The 1975 song) — Baker,Kate — Tolkien's legendarium — Khraniteli — She's a Woman — Bugchasing — Diamond Dogs — Bontempelli, Marcus — Veronica jovellanoides — "A New Start" (Degrassi High) — Lohn Estate Random Good Article of the Day: Boletellus ananas Read a random good article View the entire list of all good articles List of good articles, arranged by topic Agriculture, food, and drink Agriculture, food, and drink Art and architecture Art Architecture Engineering and technology Computing and engineering Transport Geography and places Geography Places History World history Royalty, nobility, and heraldry Language and literature Language and literature Mathematics Mathematics and mathematicians Media and drama Film Television Media and drama Music Albums Classical compositions Songs Other music articles Natural sciences Biology and medicine Chemistry and materials science Earth science Physics and astronomy Philosophy and religion Philosophy Religion Social sciences and society Culture, sociology, and psychology Education Economics and business Law Magazines and print journalism Politics and government Sports and recreation Football Baseball Basketball Cricket Hockey Pro wrestling Recreation Multi-sport event Other sports Video games Video games Warfare Armies and military units Battles, exercises, and conflicts Military aircraft Military decorations and memorials Military people Warships and naval units Weapons, equipment, and buildings Click any of the topics above for a list of good articles on that topic. Cleanup listing for this project is available. See also the tool's wiki page and the index of WikiProjects. 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9979	----	Domitian II - Wikipedia Domitian II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Domitianus II) Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 271 Usurper of the Gallic Empire Domitian II Usurper of the Gallic Empire Coin portrait of Domitian II, inscribed: imp·c·domitianus p·f· aug· Reign c. 271 Predecessor Victorinus Successor Tetricus I Died c. 271 Names Domitianus (Full name unknown) Regnal name Imperator Caesar Domitianus Pius Felix Augustus Domitian II (Latin: Domitianus) was probably a Roman soldier of the mid 3rd century who was acclaimed emperor, probably in northern Gaul in late 270 or early 271, and struck coins to advertise his elevation. It is now generally assumed that this man is to be equated with the Domitianus who is twice mentioned in the literary sources as a significant figure in the politics of the age, but on neither occasion as an outright contender for the Imperial throne. Given that his reign lasted for, at best, only a few weeks after his acclamation and he does not seem to have secured significant military or political support, Domitianus is more properly categorized as a Roman usurper rather than an emperor. His attempted coup should also be understood in the context of the troubled later history of the Gallic Empire rather than that of the Empire as a whole. Contents 1 Numismatic evidence 2 Literary sources 3 Suggested interpretation 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Numismatic evidence[edit] The only evidence for the existence and rule of an Imperial claimant named Domitianus derives from two coins. The first was part of a hoard discovered at Les Cléons, in the commune of Haute-Goulaine in the Loire-Atlantique department of France in 1900. The authenticity/significance of this particular item was much debated and as late as 1992 Domitianus was widely considered "at best a conjectural figure".[1] The other coin was found fused in a pot with some 5,000 other coins of the period 250–275 — thus providing incontrovertible provenance — in the village of Chalgrove in Oxfordshire, England, in 2003. The hoard was acquired by the Ashmolean Museum in 2004.[2][3] In 2006 a third specimen of the same enigmatic usurper was found somewhere in the Vidin region in North-Western Bulgaria, and the coin in question was also discovered and found by an amateur archeologist with metal detector, and like the second from England, also again with the help of a metal detector. A curious detail in this case is that the coin from Vidin, Bulgaria is different from the two known so far found in France and England, respectively. While they have an image of the goddess Concordia on the reverse, unlike the coin from Bulgaria, there is an image of the goddess Laetitia on the reverse (the inscription is respectively: LAET ... (ITIA) ... AVG (16/18mm.; 1,53g.). The unique coin is from a single find and be stored in the fund of Sofia National Museum of History (in the complex "Boyana"), under "Inv. No. 45197". The design of third coins is typical of those associated with the Gallic Empire. They are of the radiate type and depict Domitianus as a bearded figure wearing a spiky or radiate crown representing the rays of the sun, in reference to Sol Invictus (i.e. the sun perceived as a deity lit. '"the Unconquered Sun"'). The representation is not realistic, but standardized and stereotypical and is very similar to that of the later coins of the Gallic Emperor Victorinus (269–271) and the earliest of Tetricus I, the last Gallic Emperor (271–274). Both coins bear the same legend, IMP C DOMITIANUS P F AUG, an abbreviation for Imperator Caesar Domitianus Pius Felix Augustus. An unusual feature here is the absence of any reference to Domitianus's nomen or praenomen. Gallic Empire coins usually bear the full tria nomina of the prince celebrated the better to carry out their propagandist function. On the reverse, the coins show Concordia, and have the legend CONCORDIA MILITVM, a propagandistic claim that the army was united behind Domitianus. Again this is a standard slogan for the Gallic Emperors. The design of the Chalgrove coin, the Region of Vidin(Bulgaria) coin and its Les Cléons counterpart is typical of others struck under the Gallic Empire. This suggests that it was struck by the mint (or mints) which serviced that regime – at Trier in the province of Gallia Belgica or Cologne in Germania Inferior – or, at least, from a die produced by artisans who were strongly influenced the design-ethos of those mints. It also suggests that the date of the coin was prior to 274 when the Emperor Aurelian suppressed the Gallic regime. Literary sources[edit] There are only two literary references for Domitianus's existence, neither of which names him as an emperor: The 6th-century Byzantine historian Zosimus (1.49) records that a certain Domitianus was punished for a revolt during the reign of Aurelian (270–275). The text is vague as to the nature of his disloyalty and against whom it was directed. Because Zosimus places his coup in the reign of Aurelian and because he equates Domitianus with Septiminus (or Septimius) who was acclaimed Emperor by the Dalmatian garrison at about the same time it has usually been assumed that Domitianus was directly challenging Aurelian and that his revolt took place within the territory of the central Empire – those provinces not controlled by either the Gallic Emperors in the west or Zenobia's Palmyrene Empire in the east. (Watson suggests that his command lay somewhere southwest of Lake Geneva, in the frontier region between the Gallic Empire and the central Empire[4]); The notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta (12.14) mentions a Domitianus as a general involved in the suppression of the revolt of Macrianus Major in 261.[2] This text asserts that in this operation Domitianus was an associate (possibly, a cliens, client or protégé) of Gallienus’s hipparchos (cavalrymaster general) Aureolus who is normally credited with the victory over Macrianus. However, the reference is made in terms that suggest that Domitianus was already a distinguished commander in his own right. There is nowhere in the text any suggestion that this Domitianus or any other man of that name was involved in any anti-regime activities during Aurelian's reign. Historia Augusta also suggests that Domitianus was descendant of the Emperor Domitian, the son of Vespasian and his wife Domitilla the Elder. The intention here may be to suggest that Domitianus was of senatorial rank. It is possible that his motive in doing this was to deflect some of the glory accruing to the low-born Aureolus from his suppression of the Macrianic rebellion. The text's author cannot bring himself to say anything that might appear to denigrate the achievement of Aureolus in this connection in comparison to the supine effeminacy of his bête noire, the unworthy Gallienus. However, he was probably happy to be able suggest that his associate, Domitianus, was "one of us". One might remark that if Domitianus had been a senator he would probably have fallen foul of the decision taken by Gallienus early in his sole reign to strip all aristocratic army officers of their commissions. He would not, therefore, have been allowed to command the forces sent against the Macriani. Suggested interpretation[edit] The evidence is not sufficient to confirm that the associate or protégé of Aureolus mentioned in the HA, the obscure rebel of Aurelian’s reign mentioned by Zosimus and the Imperial claimant celebrated in the coins were one and the same man. However, academic opinion is inclined to the view that, more likely than not, they were one and the same. It is quite possible that, as a client of Aureolus, Domitianus would later have become associated with the Gallic regime given what is suspected and known about his patron's relations with Postumus. If Historia Augusta’s assertions as to his military reputation are correct it is not unlikely that he would have been welcomed into the entourage of the Gallic Emperor and his successors. However, the evidence is too vague and circumstantial. The evidence of his coins suggests that the Domitianus was almost certainly a military figure associated with the rebel Gallic Empire who commanded troops close enough to one of the mint cities of Trier or Cologne to ensure that his Imperial pretensions were proclaimed in the traditional manner. It was very difficult for would-be Emperors in regions where there was no established mint to issue coins.[note 1] Given what is known of the chronology of the Gallic Empire his bid for Empire is most probably associated with the period of confusion following the officers’ coup against the Gallic Emperor Victorinus early in 271. The men who murdered Victorinus seem to have had no political agenda and it is not surprising that there should have been period of confusion after his death. In this circumstance it would not have been surprising that a faction may have been tempted to put forward a figure such as Domitianus who had an established military reputation – particularly if he was, indeed, the same man as the conqueror of the Macriani mentioned in Historia Augusta. On the other hand, the literary evidence does suggest that the forces favouring Tetricus I as the new Emperor were able to assert themselves so swiftly and decisively that Domitianus’s elevation was hardly remarked outside the provinces controlled by the Gallic Empire. The most likely interpretation of the evidence of the coins is that Domitianus was involved in the officers' coup that overthrew Victorinus and managed to secure temporary control of one of the Gallic mints. It is thus more likely that he was suppressed by Tetricus I than by the central Roman Emperor Aurelian as the Zosimus reference would appear to suggest. The use of the cognomen alone in the Imperial title is sufficiently unusual to raise questions about the circumstances in which the coins were produced. The circumstances in which the Chalgrove specimen was discovered leaves no doubt that it was, indeed, struck by somebody in the early 270s, but we have to consider that it might have been produced by a faction of the Rhine army officer cadre which hoped to use Domitianus as a figurehead, possibly without his knowledge or approval. Domitianus's fate is unknown. One possibility is that he was either executed by Tetricus or, more likely, that he was murdered by his own troops when the main Rhine army garrisons declared for Tetricus. A second possibility is that he was defeated by Placidianus, a general loyal to Aurelian who had been stationed to guard the lower Rhône valley during Victorinus' assault on Autun in 270. This would suggest that his rebellion took place in southern Gaul, near enough to the central empire's provinces to be of concern to Aurelian.[5] Notes[edit] ^ So far as is known Domitianus’s contemporary Septiminus in Dalmatia did not issue coins (having no mint) and the Illyrian rebel, Ingenuus, had similarly failed twenty years before because Gallienus had removed his mint when he transferred his main theatre of operations in the defence of the west from the Danube to the Rhine. Regalianus too had only produced limited editions of overstrikes even though he survived for some considerable time after making his bid for power in 260. References[edit] ^ Okamura, Lawrence (1992). "Forging a Usurper in Late Roman Aquitania". Hermes. 120 (1): 105. ^ a b Leins, Ian. "Domitianus II – the forgotten emperor". Current Archaeology (194): 76–79. ^ Abdy, Richard (2009). "The Domitian II coin from Chalgrove: a Gallic emperor returns to history". Antiquity. 83 (321): 751–757. ^ Watson, A. (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. p. 52. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 167. External links[edit] Coin unearths new Roman emperor, BBC News, February 25, 2004 v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domitian_II&oldid=1026087752" Categories: Gallic emperors 3rd-century monarchs in Europe 270s deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from February 2018 Articles containing Latin-language text Romans from unknown gentes Year of death uncertain Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Lombard Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 09:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-997	----	Stoicism - Wikipedia Stoicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search School of Hellenistic Greek philosophy Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, in the Farnese collection, Naples – Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969. Part of a series on Stoicism Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle Crates of Thebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoic logic Stoic categories Stoic passions Stoic physics Virtue ethics Stoics Zeno of Citium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Seneca the Younger Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Epictetus Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Stoic works Discourses of Epictetus Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium The Meditations Similar positions Cynicism Aristotelianism Middle Platonism Contrary positions Pyrrhonism Academic Skepticism Epicureanism  Philosophy portal v t e Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to eudaimonia (happiness, or blessedness) is found in accepting the moment as it presents itself, by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain, by using one's mind to understand the world and to do one's part in nature's plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in themselves (adiaphora), but have value as "material for virtue to act upon". Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature". Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness", a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm", though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.[3] Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[4] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Origins 1.2 Modern usage 2 Basic tenets 3 History 4 Logic 4.1 Propositional logic 4.2 Categories 4.3 Epistemology 5 Physics 6 Ethics 6.1 The doctrine of "things indifferent" 6.2 Spiritual exercise 7 Social philosophy 8 Influence on Christianity 9 Stoic philosophers 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 12.2 Studies 13 External links Name[edit] Origins[edit] Stoicism was originally known as "Zenonism", after the founder Zeno of Citium. However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise, and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.[5] The name "Stoicism" derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes, on the north side of the Agora in Athens, where Zeno and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.[6][7] Sometimes Stoicism is therefore referred to as "The Stoa", or the philosophy of "The Porch".[5] Modern usage[edit] The word "stoic" commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.[8] The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently" was first cited in 1579 as a noun and in 1596 as an adjective.[9] In contrast to the term "Epicurean", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins."[10] Basic tenets[edit] Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life. — Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature."[11] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[12] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[13] The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[11] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",[12] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[14] History[edit] Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch"), from which his philosophy got its name.[15] Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Bust of Seneca Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater. Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survive from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive.[16] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire,[17] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics."[18] Logic[edit] Main article: Stoic logic Propositional logic[edit] Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking."[19] Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes."[19] Categories[edit] Main article: Stoic categories The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.[20] Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[21] They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.[22] Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories. substance (ὑποκείμενον) The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are made of quality (ποιόν) The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter somehow disposed (πως ἔχον) Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον) Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects Make for yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object that is presented to you in life, and always to look at things so as to see at the same time what kind of universe this is, and what kind of use everything performs in it, and what value everything has with reference to the whole. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iii. 11 Stoics outlined what we have control over categories of our own action, thoughts and reaction. The opening paragraph of The Enchiridion states the categories as: "Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in a word, whatever are not our own actions." These suggest a space that is within our own control. Epistemology[edit] The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[23] The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. Physics[edit] Main article: Stoic physics See also: De Mundo According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos),[24] known as God or Nature, which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".[25] The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (logos),[24] is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. — Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39 Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40 Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[26] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis", conflagration) and re-created again,[27] and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also Eternal return). Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[28] According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason[24] or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe.[29] The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.[30][31] Ethics[edit] Ancient stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts than today. The word "stoic" has since come to mean "unemotional" or indifferent to pain because Stoic ethics taught freedom from "passion" by following "reason". The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute "askēsis", that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm.[32] Logic, reflection, and focus were the methods of such self-discipline, temperance is split into self-control, discipline, and modesty. Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads".[citation needed] One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of pathos (plural pathe) translated here as passion was "anguish" or "suffering",[33] that is, "passively" reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word. Terms used in Stocism related to pathos include propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings that result from the correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment. The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; literally, "without passion") or peace of mind,[34] where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense—being objective or having "clear judgment" and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. According to reason and virtue, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426–435): Wisdom (Greek: φρόνησις "phronesis" or σοφία "sophia", Latin: prudentia or sapientia) Courage (Greek: ανδρεία "andreia", Latin: fortitudo) Justice (Greek: δικαιοσύνη "dikaiosyne", Latin: iustitia) Temperance (Greek: σωφροσύνη "sophrosyne", Latin: temperantia) Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness. The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy: to examine one's own judgments and behavior and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature. The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life.[35] Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[36] Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease,[35] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[37] The doctrine of "things indifferent"[edit] Main article: Adiaphora See also: Eudaimonia In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law—that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekonta, "convenient actions", or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes). As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent" developed: things to prefer because they assist life according to nature; things to avoid because they hinder it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense. The principle of adiaphora was also common to the Cynics. Philipp Melanchthon revived the doctrine of things indifferent during the Renaissance. Spiritual exercise[edit] Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, mortality salience, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to mindfulness and some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions e.g. with journaling. Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II.I: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of the ignorance of real good and ill ... I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together ... Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[38] According to French philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.[39] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[40] Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice.[41] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified.[42] Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. Three such consolations by Seneca have survived. Stoics commonly employ ‘The View from Above’, reflecting on society and otherness in guided visualization, aiming to gain a "bigger picture", to see ourselves in context relevant to others, to see others in the context of the world, to see ourselves in the context of the world to help determine our role and the importance of happenings. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, in Book 7.48 it is stated; A fine reflection from Plato. One who would converse about human beings should look on all things earthly as though from some point far above, upon herds, armies, and agriculture, marriages and divorces, births and deaths, the clamour of law courts, deserted wastes, alien peoples of every kind, festivals, lamentations, and markets, this intermixture of everything and ordered combination of opposites. Social philosophy[edit] A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism; according to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy."[43] This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said, "I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world."[44] They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies."[45] Influence on Christianity[edit] See also: Neostoicism Justus Lipsius, founder of Neostoicism In St. Ambrose of Milan's Duties, "The voice is the voice of a Christian bishop, but the precepts are those of Zeno."[46][47] Regarding what he called "the Divine Spirit", Maxwell Staniforth wrote: Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's 'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly, it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated—in the Christian as in the Stoic mind—with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.[48] Regarding the Trinity, Staniforth wrote: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, 'This Power we sometimes call the All-ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the Holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny.' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion 'these three are One', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions.[48] The apostle Paul met with Stoics during his stay in Athens, reported in Acts 17:16–18. In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of Christianity.[49] Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of St. Ambrose, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[50] The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[51][52] nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[28] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,[28] and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic writings such as Meditations by Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day. Middle and Roman Stoics taught that sex is just within marriage, for unitive and procreative purposes only.[53][54] This teaching is accepted by the Catholic Church to this day.[55] Saint Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. Stoic philosophers[edit] Main article: List of Stoic philosophers Zeno of Citium (332–262 BC), founder of Stoicism and the Stoic Academy (Stoa) in Athens Aristo of Chios (fl. 260 BC), pupil of Zeno; Herillus of Carthage (fl. 3rd century BC) Cleanthes (of Assos) (330–232 BC), second head of Stoic Academy Chrysippus (280–204 BC), third head of the academy Diogenes of Babylon (230–150 BC) Antipater of Tarsus (210–129 BC) Panaetius of Rhodes (185–109 BC) Posidonius of Apameia (c. 135–51 BC) Diodotus (c. 120–59 BC), teacher of Cicero Cato the Younger (94–46 BC) Seneca (4 BC – 65 AD) Gaius Musonius Rufus (1st century AD) Rubellius Plautus (33–62 AD) Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (1st century AD) Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (1st century AD) Epictetus (55–135 AD) Hierocles (2nd century AD) Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD) See also[edit] 4 Maccabees Ecclesiastes Dehellenization Deixis Glossary of Stoic terms Ekpyrosis, palingenesis, apocatastasis Ekpyrotic universe (cosmological theory) List of Stoic philosophers Megarian school Oikeiôsis Stoic passions Paradoxa Stoicorum Plank of Carneades Sage (philosophy) Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta "Stoic Opposition" Tirukkural References[edit] ^ Sharpe, Matthew. "Stoic Virtue Ethics." Handbook of Virtue Ethics, 2013, 28–41. ^ John Sellars. Stoicism, 2006, p. 32. ^ Stoicism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). A New Stoicism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400822447. ^ a b Robertson, Donald (2018). Stoicism and the Art of Happiness. Great Britain: John Murray. ^ "Definition of STOIC". ^ Williamson, D. (1 April 2015). Kant's Theory of Emotion: Emotional Universalism. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-49810-6. ^ "Modern Stoicism | Build The Fire". Build The Fire. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary – Stoic". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (13 December 2004). "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Stoicism". Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 254 ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 264 ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, p. 253. ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4 ^ Becker, Lawrence (2003). A History of Western Ethics. New York: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-96825-6. ^ A.A.Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 115. ^ Amos, H. (1982). These Were the Greeks. Chester Springs: Dufour Editions. ISBN 978-0-8023-1275-4. OCLC 9048254. ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (1946). ^ a b Ancient Logic by Susanne Bobzien. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Jacques Brunschwig, Stoic Metaphysics in The Cambridge Companion to Stoics, ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, p.206-32 ^ Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton) ^ Marcelo D. Boeri, The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723-752 ^ Diogenes Laërtius (2000). Lives of eminent philosophers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VII.49 ^ a b c Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan Monotheism and Pagan Cult". "Theism" and Related Categories in the Study of Ancient Religions. SCS/AIA Annual Meeting. 75.4. Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies (University of Pennsylvania). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Historical authors generally refer to “the divine” (to theion) or “the supernatural” (to daimonion) rather than simply “God.” [...] The Stoics, believed in a God identifiable with the logos or hegemonikon (reason or leading principle) of the universe and downgraded the traditional gods, who even disappear during the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical discourse, generally speak of this God, not the gods, as responsible for the creation and providence of the universe. They, too, however, do not seem to have directly practiced a religious cult to their God. ^ Seneca, Epistles, lxv. 2. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 21. ^ Michael Lapidge, Stoic Cosmology, in: John M. Rist, The Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 182–183. ^ a b c Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2003, p. 368. ^ Tripolitis, A., Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age, pp. 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ^ John Sellars, Stoicism, Routledge, 2014, pp. 84–85: "[Stoics] have often been presented as the first nominalists, rejecting the existence of universal concepts altogether. ... For Chrysippus there are no universal entities, whether they be conceived as substantial Platonic Forms or in some other manner.". ^ Chrysippus – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ Graver, Margaret (2009). Stoicism and Emotion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30558-5. OCLC 430497127. ^ "Passion". Merriam-Webster. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ Seddon, Keith (2005). Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes. New York: Routledge. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-415-32451-9. OCLC 469313282. ^ a b Don E. Marietta, (1998), Introduction to ancient philosophy, pp. 153–54. Sharpe ^ Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. (2007). "Cato's suicide in Plutarch AV Zadorojnyi". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (1): 216–230. doi:10.1017/S0009838807000195. ^ William Braxton Irvine, (2009), A guide to the good life: the ancient art of Stoic joy, p. 200. Oxford University Press ^ Davidson, A.I. (1995) Pierre Hadot and the Spiritual Phenomenon of Ancient Philosophy, in Philosophy as a Way of Life, Hadot, P. Oxford Blackwells, pp. 9–10 ^ Hadot, P. (1992) La Citadelle intérieure. Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle. Paris, Fayard, pp. 106–15 ^ Hadot, P. (1987) Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135. ^ Mac Suibhne, S. (2009). "'Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you': Marcus Aurelius, reflective practitioner". Reflective Practice. 10 (4): 429–36. doi:10.1080/14623940903138266. S2CID 219711815. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 5. 26 ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 9. 1 ^ Seneca, Moral letters to Lucilius, Letter 47: On master and slave, 10, circa AD 65. ^ "On the Duties of the Clergy". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 1 March 2017. ^ Aurelius, Marcus (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ a b Marcus Aurelius (1964). Meditations. London: Penguin Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-140-44140-6. ^ Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1958, p. 208. ISBN 978-0139365911 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Stoicism. §Stoic elements in Pauline and patristic thought ^ Agathias. Histories, 2.31. ^ David, Sedley. "Ancient philosophy". In E. Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 October 2008. ^ Musonius Rufus. "Lecture XII "On Sexual Indulgence"." Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates (Lectures and Fragments), Introduction and Translation by Cora E. Lutz, From Volume X of the Yale Classical Studies, Yale University Press, 1947 ^ The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. From University of California Press, 2003 ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 2366. Further reading[edit] Primary sources[edit] A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008. Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint Edition, January 1955. Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995. Irvine, William, A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0-19-537461-2 Hadas, Moses (ed.), Essential Works of Stoicism, Bantam Books 1961. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925. Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928. Long, George, Discourses of Epictetus, Kessinger Publishing, January 2004. Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0-14-044210-3 Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0-14-044140-9, or translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0-679-64260-9. Also Available on wikisource translated by various translators Oates, Whitney Jennings, The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius, Random House, 9th printing 1940. Studies[edit] Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, May 2005, ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998) ISBN 0-691-01660-7 Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006) Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Hall, Ron, Secundum Naturam (According to Nature). Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021. Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0-253-22376-8 Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0-520-22974-6 Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1 Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1-84465-053-7 Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London: Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0-8264-9608-3 Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0-521-82709-4 Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892 External links[edit] Library resources about Stoicism Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to: Stoicism Listen to this article (43 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 30 September 2019 (2019-09-30), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). The Stoic Therapy eLibrary The Stoic Library Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic "A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012. BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Stoicism (requires Flash) An introduction to Stoic Philosophy The Stoic Registry (formerly New Stoa) :Online Stoic Community Stoicism Today Project The Four Stoic Virtues v t e Stoicism Philosophers Early Zeno of Citium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno of Tarsus Crates of Mallus Diogenes of Babylon Dioscorides Zenodotus Dionysius of Cyrene Apollodorus Antipater of Tarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus Antipater of Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Late Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius Chaeremon Mara bar Serapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism Modern Stoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Works Epictetus Discourses Enchiridion Marcus Aurelius Meditations Seneca Letters to Lucilius Essays: 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en-wikipedia-org-998	----	Romanos III Argyros - Wikipedia Romanos III Argyros From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 1028 to 1034 Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Romanos III Argyros Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Silver miliaresion of Romanos III Byzantine emperor Reign 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 Predecessor Constantine VIII Successor Michael IV and Zoë Co-regent Zoë Porphyrogenita Born 968 (0968) Ierapolis, Thracesian Theme, Byzantine Empire Died 11 April 1034 (1034-04-12) (aged 65/66) Constantinople, Byzantine Empire Spouse Zoë Porphyrogenita Dynasty Macedonian/Argyros Romanos III Argyros (Greek: Ρωμανός Γ΄ Αργυρός; 968 – 11 April 1034), or Romanus III Argyrus, was Byzantine Emperor from 15 November 1028 until his death. He was a Byzantine noble and senior official in Constantinople when the dying Constantine VIII forced him to divorce his wife and marry the emperor's daughter Zoë. Upon Constantine's death three days later, Romanos took the throne. Romanos has been recorded as a well meaning but ineffective emperor. He disorganised the tax system and undermined the military, personally leading a disastrous military expedition against Aleppo. He fell out with his wife and foiled several attempts on his throne, including two which revolved around his sister-in-law Theodora. He spent large amounts on the construction and repair of churches and monasteries. He died after six years on the throne, allegedly murdered, and was succeeded by his wife's young lover, Michael IV. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Family and early career 1.2 Reign 2 See also 3 References 4 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Family and early career[edit] Romanos Argyros, born in 968,[1] was the son of an unnamed member of the Argyros family. This may have been either Pothos Argyros who defeated a Magyar raid in 958 (identified by some scholars with an older namesake), or Eustathios Argyros, known only for commissioning a poem in honour of Romanos II in 950.[2] Romanos' grandfather was the son of another Romanos Argyros, who had married Agatha, a daughter of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 919–944).[3] Romanos had several siblings: Basil Argyros, who served as general and governor under Basil II (r. 976–1025);[4] Leo, who served under Basil and was killed in Italy in 1017;[5] Pulcheria Argyropoulina, who married the magistros Basil Skleros;[1] a sister who married Constantine Karantenos, who served as doux of Antioch under Romanos;[5] and Maria Argyropoulina, who married Giovanni Orseolo, son of Doge Pietro II Orseolo.[5] Constantine VIII on the reverse of a histamenon He served as krites (judge) in Opsikion, with the rank of protospatharios (one of the highest judicial ranks, usually awarded to senior generals and provincial governors). In this capacity he persecuted heretics at Akmoneia.[6] He was then promoted to the post of quaestor (the senior judicial official for the imperial capital, Constantinople) and became one of the judges of the Hippodrome, the High Court of the Empire. In this role he is mentioned in the Peira, a compendium of legal decisions compiled by the noted jurist Eustathios Rhomaios.[7] He was promoted further to the rank of patrikios and the post of oikonomos (administrator) of the Great Church, while continuing to preside over the High Court.[8] Under Emperor Constantine VIII he held the post of urban prefect of Constantinople, which made him the formal head of the Senate and one of the emperor's chief lieutenants.[8] Reign[edit] Mosaic of Zoë at the Hagia Sophia Late in 1028, Constantine VIII lay on his deathbed. Wishing to secure the Macedonian dynasty, but having no son, he summoned Constantine Dalassenos from Antioch to marry his oldest daughter, Zoë. Dalassenos, the doux of Antioch, was an experienced military commander, influential patrician, and unswervingly loyal to the ruling house. The emperor's advisors preferred not to have a strong military figure as the new emperor, and persuaded the Emperor to choose Romanos instead, as a potentially more pliable and certainly less travelled candidate.[9][10] Constantine VIII forced Romanos to divorce his wife (who was sent to a monastery) and to marry Zoë, aged 50 at the time; Romanos was 60.[11] The marriage took place on 12 November 1028, and three days later Constantine VIII died, leaving Romanos III as emperor.[12] The new emperor was eager to make his mark as a ruler, but was mostly ineffectual in his enterprises. He idealised Marcus Aurelius, aspiring to be a new philosopher king, and similarly sought to imitate the military prowess of Trajan.[12] He spent large sums on new buildings and in endowing churches and monasteries.[12] He endeavoured to relieve the pressure of taxation on the aristocracy, which undermined the finances of the state. Previous emperors had attempted to control the privileges of the nobles over the common people. Coming from the aristocracy himself, Romanos III abandoned this policy. This failure to stand up to the aristocrats allowed them to exploit the rural mass of landed peasantry, who increasingly fell into a condition of serfdom. This in turn undermined the traditional recruiting base of the Byzantine army. The combination of a reduced tax base and fewer native-born troops had long-term consequences. As revenue declined, the subsequent impoverishment of the state weakened the military's recruitment power still further.[13] Arab cavalry pursue fleeing Byzantines after the Battle of Azaz In 1030 he resolved to lead an army in person against the Mirdasids of Aleppo, despite their having accepted the Byzantines as overlords, with disastrous results.[14] The army camped at a waterless site and its scouts were ambushed. An attack by the Byzantine cavalry was defeated.[15] That night Romanos held an imperial council at which the demoralised Byzantines resolved to abandon the campaign and return to Byzantine territory. Romanos also ordered his siege engines to be burned.[16] On 10 August 1030 the army departed its camp and made for Antioch. Discipline broke down in the Byzantine army, with Armenian mercenaries using the withdrawal as an opportunity to pillage the camp's stores.[16] The Emir of Aleppo launched an attack and the imperial army broke and fled. Only the imperial bodyguard, the Hetaireia, held firm, but Romanos was nearly captured.[17] Accounts vary on the battle losses: John Skylitzes wrote that the Byzantines suffered a "terrible rout" and that some troops were killed in a chaotic stampede by their fellow soldiers,[15] Yahya of Antioch wrote that the Byzantines suffered remarkably few casualties.[18][19][15] According to Yahya, two high ranking Byzantine officers were among the fatalities, and another officer was captured by the Arabs.[15] After this defeat the army became a "laughing-stock".[17][14] Despite his victory, the Emir of Aleppo opened negotiations and signed a treaty that made Aleppo an Imperial tributary and allowed for a Greek governor to preside over the city.[20] In 1032 the capture and successful defence of Edessa by George Maniakes[21] and the sound defeat of a Saracen fleet in the Adriatic did little to restore Romanos' early popularity. The murder of Romanos III Argyros in a bath, from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Romanos faced several conspiracies, mostly centred on his sister-in-law Theodora. In 1029 she planned to marry the Bulgarian prince Presian and to usurp the throne. The plot was discovered, Presian was blinded and tonsured as a monk but Theodora was not punished.[22] In 1031 she was implicated in another conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium,[18] and was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion.[23] In a vain attempt to reduce expenditure, Romanos limited his wife's expenses, which merely exacerbated the alienation between the two.[13] Romanos took a mistress. Zoë in turn fell in love with Michael, the brother of high-ranking court eunuch John the Orphanotrophos. Romanos, unaware, allowed Michael to become one of his personal servants.[24] Having survived the attempts on his throne by Theodora, his death on 11 April 1034[25] was supposed to have been due to poison administered by his wife.[11] There is also speculation that he was drowned in a bath on his wife's orders.[11] He was buried in the Church of St. Mary Peribleptos, which he built.[26] Zoë and Michael were married on the same day that Romanos III died.[27] The next day the couple summoned the Patriarch Alexios I to officiate in the coronation of the new emperor.[28] Although he initially refused to co-operate, the payment of 50 pounds of gold helped change his mind.[27] He proceeded to crown Michael IV as the new emperor of the Romans.[29][30] See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b Cheynet & Vannier 2003, p. 68. ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, pp. 64–65. ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, pp. 63–64, 68. ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, pp. 72–73. ^ a b c Cheynet & Vannier 2003, p. 73. ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, p. 69. ^ Cheynet & Vannier 2003, pp. 69–70. ^ a b Cheynet & Vannier 2003, p. 70. ^ Patlagean 2007, pp. 131–132. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 584. ^ a b c Duggan 1997, p. 145. ^ a b c Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 322. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 286. ^ a b Shepard 2010, p. 102. ^ a b c d Wortley 2010, pp. 359–360. ^ a b Zakkar 1971, p. 116. ^ a b Norwich 1991, p. 273. ^ a b The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991 ^ Sewter 1966, p. 43. ^ Stevenson 1968, p. 256. ^ Angold 2004, p. 224. ^ Garland 1999, pp. 161–162. ^ Finlay 1853, p. 471. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 276. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 324. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 279–80. ^ a b Garland, Zoë Porphyrogenita ^ Norwich, pg. 279 ^ Treadgold, pg. 586 ^ Finlay, pg. 478 Sources[edit] Angold, Michael (2004). "The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1118". In Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4, c.1024–c.1198, Part 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 217–253. ISBN 9781139054034. Cheynet, J.-C.; Vannier, J.-F. (2003). "Les Argyroi" (PDF). Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta (in French). 40: 57–90. doi:10.2298/ZRVI0340057C. ISSN 0584-9888. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-23.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Romanus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 583–584. Duggan, Anne J., ed. (1997). Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe. Rochester: The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-657-6. Finlay, George (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire: from 716 to 1057. Edinburgh. OCLC 906577940. Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527–1204. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61944-8. Norwich, John (1991). Byzantium: the Apogee. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-80252-4. Ostrogorsky, George (1957). History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. OCLC 2221721. Ostrogorsky, George (1969) [1957]. History of the Byzantine State. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0599-2. Patlagean, Évelyne (2007). Un Moyen Âge Grec: Byzance, IXe–XVe siècle (in French). Paris, France: Albin Michel. ISBN 978-2-226-17110-8. Sewter, Edgar Robert Ashton, ed. (1966). The Chronographia of Michael Psellus. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. OCLC 314287374. Shepard, Jonathan (2010). "Battle of Azaz". In Rogers, Clifford J. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6. |volume= has extra text (help) Stevenson, William B. (1968). Tanner, J.R.; Previte-Orton, C.W.; Brooke, Z.N. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History:The Contest of Empire and Papacy. Vol. V. Cambridge University Press. OCLC 1001099260. |volume= has extra text (help) Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. Wortley, John, ed. (2010). John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76705-7. Zakkar, Suhayl (1971). The Emirate of Aleppo: 1004–1094. Aleppo: Dar al-Amanah. OCLC 977126570. Michael Psellus, Chronographia. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Further reading[edit] Thurn, Hans, ed. (1973). Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis historiarum. Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8. Lauritzen, F. (2009). "The Miliaresion Poet: the dactylic inscription on a silver coin of Romanos III Argyros". Byzantion. 79: 231–240. ISSN 0378-2506. External links[edit] Media related to Romanos III Argyros at Wikimedia Commons Romanus coinage Romanos III Argyros Macedonian dynasty Born: 968 Died: 11 April 1034 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantine VIII Byzantine emperor 15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 Succeeded by Michael IV and Zoë v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General VIAF 1 WorldCat (via VIAF) National libraries Croatia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanos_III_Argyros&oldid=1027187458" Categories: 11th-century Byzantine emperors 968 births 1034 deaths Argyros family Macedonian dynasty Urban prefects of Constantinople Burials at the Church of St. Mary Peribleptos (Constantinople) Patricii Byzantine officials Protospatharioi Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles EngvarB from April 2018 Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 errors: extra text: volume CS1: long volume value Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 16:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9996	----	Project Gutenberg - Wikipedia Project Gutenberg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Project Gutenberg (disambiguation). Online digital book library Project Gutenberg Established December 1971; 49 years ago (1971-12) (first document posted)[1] Collection Size Over 60,000 documents Website Project Gutenberg Home Page Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks."[2] It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library.[3] Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of books in the public domain. The Project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, open formats that can be used on almost any computer. As of 22 May 2021[update], Project Gutenberg had reached 65,405 items in its collection of free eBooks.[4] The releases are available in plain text, but other formats, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, and Plucker are included wherever possible. Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that provide additional content, including region- and language-specific works. Project Gutenberg is closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Contents 1 History 1.1 Affiliated organizations 2 CD and DVD project 3 Scope of collection 4 Ideals 5 Copyright 6 Criticism 7 Affiliated projects 7.1 List of affiliated projects 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] Michael S. Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006 Michael S. Hart began Project Gutenberg in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence.[5] Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the university's Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with a virtually unlimited amount of computer time; its value at that time has since been variously estimated at $100,000 or $100,000,000.[6] Hart explained he wanted to "give back" this gift by doing something one could consider to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge by the end of the 20th century.[7] This particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed one day the general public would be able to access computers and decided to make works of literature available in electronic form for free. He used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project for Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution. By the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort. He manually entered all of the text until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more available, making book scanning more feasible.[8] Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenberg's finances. As the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the project's day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an improved online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access and hyperlink. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role (1994–2004), the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in "best of the Web" listings, and contributing to the project's popularity.[9] Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois, at the age of 64.[10] Affiliated organizations[edit] In 2000, a non-profit corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, Inc. was chartered in Mississippi, United States, to handle the project's legal needs. Donations to it are tax-deductible. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundation's first CEO.[11] Also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders (DP), which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet. This effort increased the number and variety of texts being added to Project Gutenberg, as well as making it easier for new volunteers to start contributing. DP became officially affiliated with Project Gutenberg in 2002.[12] As of 2018[update], the 36,000+ DP-contributed books comprised almost two-thirds of the nearly 60,000 books in Project Gutenberg. CD and DVD project[edit] In August 2003, Project Gutenberg created a CD containing approximately 600 of the "best" e-books from the collection. The CD is available for download as an ISO image. When users are unable to download the CD, they can request to have a copy sent to them, free of charge. In December 2003, a DVD was created containing nearly 10,000 items. At the time, this represented almost the entire collection. In early 2004, the DVD also became available by mail. In July 2007, a new edition of the DVD was released containing over 17,000 books, and in April 2010, a dual-layer DVD was released, containing nearly 30,000 items. The majority of the DVDs, and all of the CDs mailed by the project, were recorded on recordable media by volunteers. However, the new dual layer DVDs were manufactured, as it proved more economical than having volunteers burn them. As of October 2010[update], the project has mailed approximately 40,000 discs. As of 2017, the delivery of free CDs has been discontinued, though the ISO image is still available for download.[13] Scope of collection[edit] Growth of Project Gutenberg publications from 1994 until 2015 As of August 2015[update], Project Gutenberg claimed over 60,000 items in its collection, with an average of over 50 new e-books being added each week.[14] These are primarily works of literature from the Western cultural tradition. In addition to literature such as novels, poetry, short stories and drama, Project Gutenberg also has cookbooks, reference works and issues of periodicals.[15] The Project Gutenberg collection also has a few non-text items such as audio files and music-notation files.[16] Most releases are in English, but there are also significant numbers in many other languages. As of April 2016[update], the non-English languages most represented are: French, German, Finnish, Dutch, Italian, and Portuguese.[3] Whenever possible, Gutenberg releases are available in plain text, mainly using US-ASCII character encoding but frequently extended to ISO-8859-1 (needed to represent accented characters in French and Scharfes s in German, for example). Besides being copyright-free, the requirement for a Latin (character set) text version of the release has been a criterion of Michael Hart's since the founding of Project Gutenberg, as he believes this is the format most likely to be readable in the extended future.[17] Out of necessity, this criterion has had to be extended further for the sizable collection of texts in East Asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese now in the collection, where UTF-8 is used instead. Other formats may be released as well when submitted by volunteers. The most common non-ASCII format is HTML, which allows markup and illustrations to be included. Some project members and users have requested more advanced formats, believing them to be easier to read. But some formats that are not easily editable, such as PDF, are generally not considered to fit with the goals of Project Gutenberg. Also Project Gutenberg has two options for master formats that can be submitted (from which all other files are generated): customized versions of the Text Encoding Initiative standard (since 2005)[18] and reStructuredText (since 2011).[19] Beginning in 2009, the Project Gutenberg catalog began offering auto-generated alternate file formats, including HTML (when not already provided), EPUB and plucker.[20] Ideals[edit] Michael Hart said in 2004, "The mission of Project Gutenberg is simple: 'To encourage the creation and distribution of ebooks'".[2] His goal was "to provide as many e-books in as many formats as possible for the entire world to read in as many languages as possible".[3] Likewise, a project slogan is to "break down the bars of ignorance and illiteracy",[21] because its volunteers aim to continue spreading public literacy and appreciation for the literary heritage just as public libraries began to do in the late 19th century.[22][23] Project Gutenberg is intentionally decentralized; there is no selection policy dictating what texts to add. Instead, individual volunteers work on what they are interested in, or have available. The Project Gutenberg collection is intended to preserve items for the long term, so they cannot be lost by any one localized accident. In an effort to ensure this, the entire collection is backed-up regularly and mirrored on servers in many different locations.[24] Copyright[edit] Project Gutenberg is careful to verify the status of its ebooks according to United States copyright law. Material is added to the Project Gutenberg archive only after it has received a copyright clearance, and records of these clearances are saved for future reference. Project Gutenberg does not claim new copyright on titles it publishes. Instead, it encourages their free reproduction and distribution.[3] Most books in the Project Gutenberg collection are distributed as public domain under United States copyright law. There are also a few copyrighted texts, such as those of science fiction author Cory Doctorow, that Project Gutenberg distributes with permission. These are subject to further restrictions as specified by the copyright holder, although they generally tend to be licensed under Creative Commons. "Project Gutenberg" is a trademark of the organization, and the mark cannot be used in commercial or modified redistributions of public domain texts from the project. There is no legal impediment to the reselling of works in the public domain if all references to Project Gutenberg are removed, but Gutenberg contributors have questioned the appropriateness of directly and commercially reusing content that has been formatted by volunteers. There have been instances of books being stripped of attribution to the project and sold for profit in the Kindle Store and other booksellers, one being the 1906 book Fox Trapping.[25] The website is not accessible within Germany, as a result of a court order from S. Fischer Verlag regarding the works of Heinrich Mann, Thomas Mann and Alfred Döblin. Although they were in the public domain in the United States, the German court (Frankfurt am Main Regional Court) recognized the infringement of copyrights still active in Germany, and asserted that the Project Gutenberg website was under German jurisdiction because it hosts content in the German language and is accessible in Germany.[26] This judgment was confirmed by the Frankfurt Court of Appeal on 30 April 2019 (11 U 27/18, available at [27]). The Frankfurt Court of Appeal has not given permission for a further appeal to the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof), however, an application for permission to appeal has been filed with the Federal Court of Justice. As of 4 October 2020 that application was still pending (Federal Court of Justice I ZR 97/19). Criticism[edit] This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2019) The text files use the format of plain text encoded in UTF-8 and are typically wrapped at 65–70 characters, with paragraphs separated by a double line break. In recent decades, the resulting relatively bland appearance and the lack of a markup possibility have often been perceived as a drawback of this format.[28] Project Gutenberg attempts to address this by making many texts available in HTML, ePub, and PDF versions as well. HTML versions of older texts are autogenerated versions. Another not-for-profit project, Standard Ebooks, aims to address these issues with its collection of public domain titles that are formatted and styled. It corrects issues related to design and typography.[29] In December 1994, Project Gutenberg was criticized by the Text Encoding Initiative for failing to include documentation or discussion of the decisions unavoidable in preparing a text, or in some cases, not documenting which of several (conflicting) versions of a text has been the one digitized.[30] The selection of works (and editions) available has been determined by popularity, ease of scanning, being out of copyright, and other factors; this would be difficult to avoid in any crowd-sourced project.[31] In March 2004, an initiative was begun by Michael Hart and John S. Guagliardo[32] to provide low-cost intellectual properties. The initial name for this project was Project Gutenberg 2 (PG II), which created controversy among PG volunteers because of the re-use of the project's trademarked name for a commercial venture.[11] Affiliated projects[edit] All affiliated projects are independent organizations that share the same ideals and have been given permission to use the Project Gutenberg trademark. They often have a particular national or linguistic focus.[33] List of affiliated projects[edit] Project Gutenberg Australia hosts many texts that are public domain according to Australian copyright law, but still under copyright (or of uncertain status) in the United States, with a focus on Australian writers and books about Australia.[34] Project Gutenberg Canada.[35] Project Gutenberg Consortia Center specializes in collections of collections. These do not have the editorial oversight or consistent formatting of the main Project Gutenberg. Thematic collections, as well as numerous languages, are featured.[36] Projekt Gutenberg-DE claims copyright for its product and limits access to browsable web-versions of its texts.[37] Project Gutenberg Europe is run by Project Rastko in Serbia. It aims at being a Project Gutenberg for all of Europe, and began posting projects in 2005. It uses the Distributed Proofreaders software to quickly produce etexts.[38] Project Gutenberg Luxembourg publishes mostly, but not exclusively, books that are written in Luxembourgish.[39] Projekti Lönnrot, started by Finnish Project Gutenberg volunteers, derives its name from the Finnish philologist Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884)[40] Project Gutenberg of the Philippines aims to "make as many books available to as many people as possible, with a special focus on the Philippines and Philippine languages".[41] Project Gutenberg Russia (Rutenberg) aims to collect public domain books in Slavic languages, particularly in Russian. The discussion of the project and its legal side began in April 2012. The word Rutenberg is a combination of words "Russia" and "Gutenberg".[42] Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press, also known as Project Gutenberg Consortia Center.[43] Unlike the Gutenberg Project itself, Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing allows submission of texts never published before, including self-published ebooks.[44] Launched in 2012,[43][45] also owns the "gutenberg.us" domain.[46] Project Gutenberg of Taiwan seeks to archive copyright free books with a special focus on Taiwan in English, Mandarin and Taiwan-based languages. It is a special project of Forumosa.com[47] See also[edit] Aozora Bunko Chinese Text Project Google Books HathiTrust Internet Archive LibriVox free online audiobook library, with many texts used from Project Gutenberg List of digital library projects On-line Guitar Archive Open Content Alliance Project Runeberg, for books significant to the culture and history of the Nordic countries. Runivers, for Russian historical documents Sefaria, for Jewish texts Virtual volunteering Wikisource or Project Sourceberg Standard Ebooks References[edit] ^ Hart, Michael S. United States Declaration of Independence by United States. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 26 January 2007. Retrieved 17 February 2007. "The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America by Thomas Jefferson" is the bold heading of the linked webpage twelve years later (6 June 2019). No author but Jefferson is identified, nor is Hart otherwise named. Officially this is Project Gutenberg Ebook #1 (assigned December 1993?), or the current index to multiple formats of the same. What Ebook #1 actually contains is heavily annotated re-release of the first two e-texts that were released in December 1971 (as by Michael S. Hart?). For more information, open the HTML format, for instance, and search for "December" or "Michael". ^ a b Hart, Michael S. (23 October 2004). "Gutenberg Mission Statement by Michael Hart". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ a b c d Thomas, Jeffrey (20 July 2007). "Project Gutenberg Digital Library Seeks To Spur Literacy". US Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Releases eBook #50,000". Project Gutenberg News. 25 February 2017. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. ^ "Hobbes' Internet Timeline". Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009. ^ Hart, Michael S. (August 1992). "Gutenberg:The History and Philosophy of Project Gutenberg". Archived from the original on 29 November 2006. Retrieved 5 December 2006. ^ Day, B. H.; Wortman, W. A. (2000). Literature in English: A Guide for Librarians in the Digital Age. Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. p. 170. ISBN 0-8389-8081-3. ^ Vara, Vauhini (5 December 2005). "Project Gutenberg Fears No Google". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ "Gutenberg:Credits". Project Gutenberg. 8 June 2006. Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ "Michael_S._Hart". Project Gutenberg. 6 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011. ^ a b Hane, Paula (2004). "Project Gutenberg Progresses". Information Today. 21 (5). Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "The Distributed Proofreaders Foundation". Distributed proofreaders. August 2007. Archived from the original on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2007. ^ "The CD and DVD Project". Gutenberg. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2012. ^ According to gutindex-2006 Archived 13 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, there were 1,653 new Project Gutenberg items posted in the first 33 weeks of 2006. This averages out to 50.09 per week. This does not include additions to affiliated projects. ^ For a listing of the categorized books, see: "Category:Bookshelf". Project Gutenberg. 28 April 2007. Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Sheet Music | Manchester-by-the-Sea Public Library". Manchesterpl.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2014. ^ Various Project Gutenberg FAQs allude to this. See, for example: "File Formats FAQ". Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2012. You can view or edit ASCII text using just about every text editor or viewer in the world. [...] Unicode is steadily gaining ground, with at least some support in every major operating system, but we're nowhere near the point where everyone can just open a text based on Unicode and read and edit it. ^ "The Guide to PGTEI". Project Gutenberg. 12 April 2005. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2013. ^ The Project Gutenberg RST Manual. Project Gutenberg. 25 November 2010. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013. ^ "Help on Bibliographic Record". Project Gutenberg. 4 April 2010. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011. ^ "The Project Gutenberg Weekly Newsletter". Project Gutenberg. 10 December 2003. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2008. ^ Perry, Ruth (2007). "Postscript about the Public Libraries". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Lorenzen, Michael (2002). "Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library: The Sociological Reasons Behind Andrew Carnegie's Millions to Libraries". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Walker, Joseph (30 November 2013). Information Technology and Collection Management for Library User Environments. ISBN 9781466647404. ^ Pegoraro, Rob (30 November 2010). "Amazon charges Kindle users for free Project Gutenberg e-books". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2018. ^ "Court Order to Block Access in Germany". Project Gutenberg Library Archive Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 March 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2018. ^ "OLG Frankfurt judgment of 30 April 2019". ^ Boumphrey, Frank (July 2000). "European Literature and Project Gutenberg". Cultivate Interactive. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2007. ^ Partick Lucas Austin (20 June 2017). "Standard eBooks is a Gutenberg Project You'll Actually Use". LifeHacker.com. Retrieved 20 October 2020. ^ Michael Sperberg-McQueen, "Textual Criticism and the Text Encoding Initiative", 1994, "Textual Criticism and the Text Encoding Initiative". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015., retrieved 25 July 2015. ^ Hoffmann, Sebastian (2005). Grammaticalization And English Complex Prepositions: A Corpus-based Study (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36049-8. OCLC 156424479. ^ Executive director of the World eBook Library. ^ "Gutenberg:Partners, Affiliates and Resources". Project Gutenberg. 17 July 2007. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg of Australia". 24 January 2007. Archived from the original on 14 August 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2006. ^ "Project Gutenberg Canada". Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Consortia Center". 2004. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Projekt Gutenberg-DE". Spiegel Online. 1994. Archived from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Europe". EUnet Yugoslavia. 2005. Archived from the original on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Kirps, Jos (22 May 2007). "Project Gutenberg Luxembourg". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ Riikonen, Tapio (28 February 2005). "Projekti Lönnrot". Archived from the original on 10 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg of the Philippines". Archived from the original on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007. ^ "Project Gutenberg Russia". Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012. ^ a b "Partners, Affiliates and Resources". Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2016. ^ "Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press". Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. 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en-wikipedia-org-9998	----	Vetranio - Wikipedia Vetranio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor in 350 For the saint of this name, see Bretannio. For the Scottish painter, see Jack Vettriano. Augustus Vetranio Augustus Coin of Vetranio Roman emperor Reign 1 March – 25 December 350 Predecessor Constans Successor Constantius II Born Moesia in modern Serbia Died c. 356 Bithynia Vetranio (died c. 356) was a Roman soldier, statesman and co-Emperor, a native of the province of Moesia (in modern Serbia).[1][2] Contents 1 Life and career 1.1 Early life 1.2 Emperor 1.3 Sardica 1.4 Later life and death 2 References 3 External links Life and career[edit] Early life[edit] Vetranio was born in the almost uncivilized regions of the Roman province of Moesia, sometime in the late 3rd century, to low-born parents. His early professions are unknown, but it is evident that very early in his youth he joined the army.[3] Though unlettered, Vetranio rose rapidly through the ranks from obscurity, being ultimately elevated by Constans to the governor of Illyria. He held this command during a long period, and by the time of Constans' death (A.D. 350, January) was considered an officer of popularity and experience. After the murder of Constans by the usurper Magnentius, Constantina, Constans' sister and the daughter of Constantine the Great asked the aged Vetranio to assume the purple. She most likely thought Vetranio could protect her family and herself against the usurper, and merely hoped to secure his fidelity, though Edward Gibbon credits her notoriously unscrupulous ambition for the scheme, suggesting interested motives on her part.[4] In any case, Constantius II was then embroiled in a dangerous struggle with Shapur II, the king of the Sasanian Empire. Constantina may have doubted her brother's resolution. Emperor[edit] On the reverse of this coin struck under Vetranio, the emperor is holding two labara, the ensigns introduced by Constantine I Vetranio accepted the purple, and coins were minted in his name, showing the title of Augustus (full emperor), rather than Caesar, and the coins indicated that he expected to rule for five years, and hoped for ten.[5] Constantius was not initially disinclined to accept the election of the Illyrian emperor, but the latter soon joined himself to the cause of Magnentius, and the two presented a united front against Constantius II in their embassy to his court at Heraclea in Thrace, where he had arrived from the Persian war. They offered him the senior title in the Empire, and Magnentius proposed to wed his daughter to Constantius, himself to marry Constantia the emperor's sister. But they required that the emperor lay down his arms and ratify their claims to the western provinces. Constantius, supposedly inspired by his father Constantine in a nocturnal vision, indignantly declined the offer.[6] Constantius, however, designed to conceal his enmity to Vetranio, and, while disdaining negotiation with Magnentius, speciously conceded his (Vetranio's) claims and title, wishing to reconcile him to his cause for the war against Magnentius. The vacillating Illyrian accepted the rapproachment, again uniting himself to the house of Constantine. Constantius met with Vetranio either at Naissus, or Sirmium, or at Serdica, to unite their strength for the war.[7] Sardica[edit] Constantius presently threw off the disguise. On 25 December 350, in a scene contrived by officers in Vetranio's army well-disposed towards Constantius, the two emperors mounted a tribunal to address the assembled legions; Constantius succeeded, by means of a strong speech, in which he invoked the glories of the house of Constantine I, to have the Illyrian legions acclaim him sole emperor. Vetranio threw himself on the ground and begged Constantius' clemency. The emperor gently raised the aged general by the hand, honoring him with the name of father, and gave him instant pardon. Later life and death[edit] Later he was dismissed in peace. Though dismissed from his command, he was allowed to live the remainder of his years as a private citizen on a state pension in Prusa ad Olympum, Bithynia. He lived a further six years, dying in simple happiness.[8] He is said to have recommended to Constantius as his friend, during his happy retirement in Brusa, that peace could only be obtained in a private station.[9] See Philostorgius 3.22 for detail on his rise to power. References[edit] ^ Roman Empire, Vetranio ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XVIII., p. 589, note 75 ^ Gibbon, Ibid, note ^ Gibbon, p. 589 ^ Roma Numismatics: Roman Empire, Vetranio - Not so Loyal After All ^ Gibbon, p. 590 ^ Gibbon, p. 591, note 78. Gibbon favors the latter. ^ Gibbon, p. 592 ^ Gibbon, p. 592 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vetranio. M. DiMaio Jr., "Vetranio (350 A.D.)", in DIR (1996). Vetranio coinage Most complete internet database of known coin types of Vetranio Regnal titles Preceded by Constans Roman emperor 350 Succeeded by Constantius II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vetranio&oldid=1020672951" Categories: 356 deaths 4th-century Roman emperors 4th-century Roman usurpers Monarchs who abdicated Flavii Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons link is on Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 30 April 2021, at 12:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikiquote-org-802	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikiquote Marcus Aurelius From Wikiquote Jump to navigation Jump to search The universe is change; our life is what our thoughts make it. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana (27 BC to 180), an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Be not as one that hath ten thousand years to live; death is nigh at hand: while thou livest, while thou hast time, be good. I shall meet today inquisitive, ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill. An angry countenance is much against nature...But were it so, that all anger and passion were so thoroughly quenched in thee, that it were altogether impossible to kindle it any more, yet herein must not thou rest satisfied, but further endeavour by good consequence of true ratiocination, perfectly to conceive and understand, that all anger and passion is against reason. You will find rest from vain fancies if you perform every act in life as though it were your last. Contents 1 Quotes 1.1 Meditations (c. AD 121–180) 1.1.1 Book I 1.1.2 Book II 1.1.3 Book III 1.1.4 Book IV 1.1.5 Book V 1.1.6 Book VI 1.1.7 Book VII 1.1.8 Book VIII 1.1.9 Book IX 1.1.10 Book X 1.1.11 Book XI 1.1.12 Book XII 1.2 Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. (1919) 2 Disputed 3 Misattributed 4 Quotes about Marcus Aurelius 5 External links Quotes[edit] Meditations (c. AD 121–180)[edit] (full text) There are many different translations of these, often with different nuances of interpretation and sometimes different arrangements. Book I[edit] Of my grandfather Verus I have learned to be gentle and meek, and to refrain from all anger and passion... I have learned both shamefastness and manlike behaviour. Of my mother I have learned to be religious, and bountiful; and to forbear, not only to do, but to intend any evil; to content myself with a spare diet, and to fly all such excess as is incidental to great wealth. I, 1 Her reverence for the divine, her generosity, her inability not only to do wrong but even to conceive of doing it. And the simple way she lived—not in the least like the rich. (Hays translation) I, 3 From Apollonius, true liberty, and unvariable steadfastness, and not to regard anything at all, though never so little, but right and reason: and always..that it was possible for the same man to be both vehement and remiss: a man not subject to be vexed, and offended with the incapacity of his scholars and auditors in his lectures and expositions. I, 5 Of Fronto, to how much envy and fraud and hypocrisy the state of a tyrannous king is subject unto, and how they who are commonly called [Eupatridas Gk.], i.e. nobly born, are in some sort incapable, or void of natural affection. I, 8 Not to display anger or other emotions. To be free of passion and yet full of love. (Hays translation) I, 9 Self-control and resistance to distractions. Optimism in adversity—especially illness. (Hays translation) I, 15 He was a man who looked at what ought to be done, not to the reputation which is got by a man's acts. I, 16 Book II[edit] Ἕωθεν προλέγειν ἑαυτῷ: συντεύξομαι περιέργῳ, ἀχαρίστῳ, ὑβριστῇ, δολερῷ, βασκάνῳ, ἀκοινωνήτῳ: πάντα ταῦτα συμβέβηκεν ἐκείνοις παρὰ τὴν ἄγνοιαν τῶν ἀγαθῶν καὶ κακῶν. When you wake up in the morning, tell yourself: The people I deal with today will be meddling, ungrateful, arrogant, dishonest, jealous, and surly. They are like this because they can't tell good from evil. (Hays translation) Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today inquisitive, ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill. II, 1 γεγόναμεν γὰρ πρὸς συνεργίαν ὡς πόδες, ὡς χεῖρες, ὡς βλέφαρα, ὡς οἱ στοῖχοι τῶν ἄνω καὶ κάτω ὀδόντων. τὸ οὖν ἀντιπράσσειν ἀλλήλοις παρὰ φύσιν. We are all made for mutual assistance, as the feet, the hands, and the eyelids, as the rows of the upper and under teeth, from whence it follows that clashing and opposition is perfectly unnatural. II, 1 Whatever this is that I am, it is flesh and a little spirit and an intelligence. (Hays translation) This that I am, whatever it be, is mere flesh and a little breathe and the ruling Reason (Haines translation) This Being of mine, whatever it really is, consists of a little flesh, a little breath, and the part which governs. A little flesh, a little breath, and a Reason to rule all – that is myself. II, 2 What is divine is full of Providence. Even chance is not divorced from nature, from the inweaving and enfolding of things governed by Providence. Everything proceeds from it. (Hays translation) All that is from the gods is full of Providence. II, 3 There is a limit to the time assigned you, and if you don't use it to free yourself it will be gone and never return. (Hays translation) II, 4 Concentrate every minute like a Roman—like a man—on doing what's in front of you with precise and genuine seriousness, tenderly, willingly, with justice. And on freeing yourself from all other distractions. (Hays translation) II, 5 Yes, you can--if you do everything as if it were the last thing you were doing in your life, and stop being aimless, stop letting your emotions override what your mind tells you, stop being hypocritical, self-centered, irritable. (Hays translation) You will find rest from vain fancies if you perform every act in life as though it were your last. II, 5 You see how few things you have to do to live a satisfying and reverent life? If you can manage this, that's all even the gods can ask of you. (Hays translation) Thou seest how few be the things, the which if a man has at his command his life flows gently on and is divine. II, 5 Give thyself time to learn something new and good, and cease to be whirled around. II, 7 This thou must always bear in mind, what is the nature of the whole... Τούτων ἀεὶ μεμνῆσθαι, τίς ἡ τῶν ὅλων φύσις II, 9 You could leave life right now. Let that determine what you do and say and think. (Hays translation) II, 11 Yet living and dying, honour and dishonour, pain and pleasure, riches and poverty, and so forth are equally the lot of good men and bad. Things like these neither elevate nor degrade; and therefore they are no more good than they are evil. II, 11 The longest-lived and the shortest-lived man, when they come to die, lose one and the same thing. II, 14 Remember that all is opinion. Ὅτι πᾶν ὑπόληψις. II, 15 No state sorrier than that of the man who keeps up a continual round, and pries into "the secrets of the nether world," as saith the poet, and is curious in conjecture of what is in his neighbour's heart. II, 13 Though thou be destined to live three thousand years and as many myriads besides, yet remember that no man loseth other life than that which he liveth, nor liveth other than that which he loseth. II, 14 For a man can lose neither the past nor the future; for how can one take from him that which is not his? So remember these two points: first, that each thing is of like form from everlasting and comes round again in its cycle, and that it signifies not whether a man shall look upon the same things for a hundred years or two hundred, or for an infinity of time; second, that the longest lived and the shortest lived man, when they come to die, lose one and the same thing. II, 14 Human life. Duration: momentary. Nature: changeable. Perception: dim. Condition of Body: decaying. Soul: spinning around. Fortune: unpredictable. Lasting Fame: uncertain. Sum Up: The body and its parts are a river, the soul a dream and mist, life is warfare and a journey far from home, lasting reputation is oblivion. (Hays translation) II, 17 As for life, it is a battle and a sojourning in a strange land; but the fame that comes after is oblivion. II, 17 Book III[edit] What means all this? III, 3 Waste not the remnant of thy life in those imaginations touching other folk, whereby thou contributest not to the common weal. III, 4 ...undefiled by pleasures, invulnerable to any pain, untouched by arrogance, unaffected by meanness, an athlete in the greatest of all contests—the struggle not to be overwhelmed by anything that happens. (Hays translation) III, 4 The lot assigned to every man is suited to him, and suits him to itself. III, 4 For we carry our fate with us — and it carries us. (Hays translation) III, 4 Be not unwilling in what thou doest, neither selfish nor unadvised nor obstinate; let not over-refinement deck out thy thought; be not wordy nor a busybody. III, 5 A man should be upright, not kept upright. III, 5 But that which is useful is the better. III, 6 Choose what's best.—Best is what benefits me. (Hays translation) III, 6 Never esteem anything as of advantage to you that will make you break your word or lose your self-respect. III, 7 Respect the faculty that forms thy judgments. III, 9 Remember that man lives only in the present, in this fleeting instant; all the rest of his life is either past and gone, or not yet revealed. Short, therefore, is man's life, and narrow is the corner of the earth wherein he dwells. III, 10 Each of us lives only now, this brief instant. (Hays translation) III, 10 The span we live is small—small as the corner of the earth in which we live it. Small as even the greatest renown, passed from mouth to mouth by short-lived stick figures, ignorant alike of themselves and those long dead. (Hays translation) III Nothing has such power to broaden the mind as the ability to investigate systematically and truly all that comes under thy observation in life. III, 11 If you do the job in a principled way, with diligence, energy and patience, if you keep yourself free of distractions, and keep the spirit inside you undamaged, as if you might have to give it back at any moment— If you can embrace this without fear or expectation—can find fulfillment in what you're doing now, as Nature intended, and in superhuman truthfulness (every word, every utterance)—then your life will be happy. (Hays translation)— III, 12 As surgeons keep their instruments and knives always at hand for cases requiring immediate treatment, so shouldst thou have thy thoughts ready to understand things divine and human, remembering in thy every act, even the smallest, how close is the bond that unites the two. III, 13 Nothing earthly succeeds by ignoring heaven, nothing heavenly by ignoring the earth. (Hays translation) III, 14 Book IV[edit] Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being. The ruling power within, when it is in its natural state, is so related to outer circumstances that it easily changes to accord with what can be done and what is given it to do. IV, 1 Let no act be done at haphazard, nor otherwise than according to the finished rules that govern its kind. IV, 2 By a tranquil mind I mean nothing else than a mind well ordered. IV, 3 Men seek retreats for themselves, houses in the country, sea-shores, and mountains; and thou too art wont to desire such things very much. But this is altogether a mark of the most common sort of men, for it is in thy power whenever thou shalt choose to retire into thyself. For nowhere either with more quiet or more freedom from trouble does a man retire than into his own soul. Variant translation: Nowhere can man find a quieter or more untroubled retreat than in his own soul. IV, 3. The universe is change; our life is what our thoughts make it. The universe is flux, life is opinion. The universe is transformation: life is opinion. (Long translation) ὁ κόσμος ἀλλοίωσις, ὁ βίος ὑπόληψις. IV, 3 Think on this doctrine,—that reasoning beings were created for one another's sake; that to be patient is a branch of justice, and that men sin without intending it. IV, 3 People try to get away from it all—to the country, to the beach, to the mountains. You always wish that you could too. Which is idiotic: you can get away from it anytime you like. By going within. Nowhere you can go is more peaceful—more free of interruptions—than your own soul. (Hays translation) IV, 4 The abyss of endless time that swallows it all. The emptiness of all those applauding hands. The people who praise us—how capricious they are, how arbitrary. And the tiny region in which it all takes place. (Hays translation) IV, 4 Be straightforward. Look at things like a man, like a human being, like a citizen, like a mortal. (Hays translation) IV, 4 Disturbance comes only from within—from our own perceptions. (Hays translation) IV, 4 “The world is nothing but change. Our life is only perception.” (Hays translation) IV, 4 Nothing can come out of nothing, any more than a thing can go back to nothing. IV, 4 If mind is common to us, then also the reason, whereby we are reasoning beings, is common. If this be so, then also the reason which enjoins what is to be done or left undone is common. If this be so, law also is common; if this be so, we are citizens; if this be so, we are partakers in one constitution; if this be so, the Universe is a kind of Commonwealth. IV, 4 (as translated by ASL Farquharson) Death, like generation, is a secret of Nature. IV, 5 Choose not to be harmed—and you won't feel harmed. Don't feel harmed—and you haven't been. (Hays translation) IV, 7 That which makes the man no worse than he was makes his life no worse: it has no power to harm, without or within. IV, 8 Whatever happens at all happens as it should; you will find this true, if you watch narrowly. IV, 10 You have a mind? —Yes. Well, why not use it? (Hays translation) IV, 13 Death hangs over thee: whilst yet thou livest, whilst thou mayest, be good. IV, 14 (trans. Meric Casaubon) Variant: Death hangs over thee. While thou livest, while it is in thy power, be good. τὸ χρεὼν ἐπήρτηται· ἕως ζῇς, ἕως ἔξεστιν, ἀγαθὸς γενοῦ. IV, 17 (trans. George Long) Many the lumps of frankincense on the same altar; one falls there early and another late, but it makes no difference. IV, 15 Not to live as if you had endless years ahead of you. Death overshadows you. While you're alive and able—be good. (Hays translation) IV, 17 How much time he gains who does not look to see what his neighbor says or does or thinks, but only at what he does himself, to make it just and holy. IV, 18 Doth perfect beauty stand in need of praise at all? Nay; no more than law, no more than truth, no more than loving kindness, nor than modesty. IV, 20 Whatever is in any way beautiful hath its source of beauty in itself, and is complete in itself; praise forms no part of it. So it is none the worse nor the better for being praised. Variant: That which is really beautiful has no need of anything. (trans. George Long) IV, 20 Does anything genuinely beautiful need supplementing? No more than justice does—or truth, or kindness, or humility. Are any of those improved by being praised? Or damaged by contempt? Is an emerald suddenly flawed if no one admires it? Or gold, or ivory, or purple? Lyres? Knives? Flowers? Bushes? (Hays translation) IV, 20 All that is harmony for you, my Universe, is in harmony with me as well. Nothing that comes at the right time for you is too early or too late for me. Everything is fruit to me that your seasons bring, Nature. All things come of you, have their being in you, and return to you. Πᾶν μοι συναρμόζει ὃ σοὶ εὐάρμοστόν ἐστιν, ὦ κόσμε· οὐδέν μοι πρόωρον οὐδὲ ὄψιμον ὃ σοὶ εὔκαιρον. πᾶν μοι καρπὸς ὃ φέρουσιν αἱ σαὶ ὧραι, ὦ φύσις· ἐκ σοῦ πάντα, ἐν σοὶ πάντα, εἰς σὲ πάντα. ἐκεῖνος μέν φησιν· IV, 23 "Let your occupations be few," says the sage, "if you would lead a tranquil life." Ὀλίγα πρῆσσε, φησίν, εἰ μέλλεις εὐθυμήσειν IV, 24 Because most of what we say and do is not essential. If you can eliminate it, you'll have more time, and more tranquillity. Ask yourself at every moment, “Is this necessary?” But we need to eliminate unnecessary assumptions as well. To eliminate the unnecessary actions that follow. (Hays translation) IV, 24 Love the little trade which thou hast learned, and be content therewith. IV, 31 Remember this— that there is a proper dignity and proportion to be observed in the performance of every act of life. IV, 32 You're better off not giving the small things more time than they deserve. (Hays translation) IV, 32 Then what should we work for?Only this: proper understanding; unselfish action; truthful speech. A resolve to accept whatever happens as necessary and familiar, flowing like water from that same source and spring. (Hays translation) IV, 33 All is ephemeral — fame and the famous as well. Πᾶν ἐφήμερον, καὶ τὸ μνημονεῦον καὶ τὸ μνημονευόμενον. IV, 35 Observe always that everything is the result of a change, and get used to thinking that there is nothing Nature loves so well as to change existing forms and to make new ones like them. IV, 36 Search men's governing principles, and consider the wise, what they shun and what they cleave to. Search men's governing principles, and consider the wise, what they shun and what they cleave to. IV, 38 It needs to realize that what happens to everyone—bad and good alike—is neither good nor bad. (Hays translation) IV, 39 Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things which exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the contexture of the web. IV, 40 Thou art a little soul bearing about a corpse, as Epictetus used to say. IV, 41 Time is a sort of river of passing events, and strong is its current; no sooner is a thing brought to sight than it is swept by and another takes its place, and this too will be swept away. IV, 43 All that happens is as usual and familiar as the rose in spring and the crop in summer. IV, 44 That which comes after ever conforms to that which has gone before. IV, 45 “Those who have forgotten where the road leads.” “They are at odds with what is all around them”—the all-directing logos. And “they find alien what they meet with every day.” (Hays translation) IV, 46 Mark how fleeting and paltry is the estate of man - yesterday in embryo, tomorrow a mummy or ashes. So for the hairsbreadth of time assigned to thee, live rationally, and part with life cheerfully, as drops the ripe olive, extolling the season that bore it and the tree that matured it. IV, 48 Don't let yourself forget how many doctors have died, after furrowing their brows over how many deathbeds. How many astrologers, after pompous forecasts about others' ends. How many philosophers, after endless disquisitions on death and immortality. How many warriors, after inflicting thousands of casualties themselves. How many tyrants, after abusing the power of life and death atrociously, as if they were themselves immortal. (Hays translation) IV, 48 To be like the rock that the waves keep crashing over. It stands unmoved and the raging of the sea falls still around it. IV, 49 It's unfortunate that this has happened. No. It's fortunate that this has happened and I've remained unharmed by it—not shattered by the present or frightened of the future. It could have happened to anyone. But not everyone could have remained unharmed by it. IV, 49a So remember this principle when something threatens to cause you pain: the thing itself was no misfortune at all; to endure it and prevail is great good fortune. IV, 49a Deem not life a thing of consequence. For look at the yawning void of the future, and at that other limitless space, the past. IV, 50 Always take the short cut; and that is the rational one. Therefore say and do everything according to soundest reason. IV, 51 Book V[edit] At dawn, when you have trouble getting out of bed, tell yourself: ‘I have to go to work – as a human being. What do I have to complain of, if I’m going to do what I was born for – the things I was brought into the world to do? Or is this what I was created for? To huddle under the blankets and stay warm?’ (Hays translation) At dawn of day, when you dislike being called, have this thought ready: "I am called to man's labour; why then do I make a difficulty if I am going out to do what I was born to do and what I was brought into the world for?(Farquharson translation) Ὄρθρου, ὅταν δυσόκνως ἐξεγείρῃ, πρόχειρον ἔστω ὅτι ἐπὶ ἀνθρώπου ἔργον ἐγείρομαι· ἔτι οὖν δυσκολαίνω, εἰ πορεύομαι ἐπὶ τὸ ποιεῖν ὧν ἕνεκεν γέγονα καὶ ὧν χάριν προῆγμαι εἰς τὸν κόσμον; ἢ ἐπὶ τοῦτο κατεσκεύασμαι, ἵνα κατακείμενος ἐν στρωματίοις ἐμαυτὸν θάλπω; V, 1 You don't love yourself enough. Or you'd love your nature too, and what it demands of you. People who love what they do wear themselves down doing it, they even forget to wash or eat. Do you have less respect for your own nature than the engraver does for engraving, the dancer for the dance, the miser for money or the social climber for status? When they're really possessed by what they do, they'd rather stop eating and sleeping than give up practicing their arts. Is helping others less valuable to you? Not worth your effort? (Hays translation) V, 1 How easy it is to repel and to wipe away every impression which is troublesome or unsuitable, and immediately to be in all tranquility. To shrug it all off and wipe it clean--every annoyance and distraction--and reach utter stillness. Child's play. (Hays translation) V, 2 Some people, when they do someone a favor, are always looking for a chance to call it in. And some aren't, but they're still aware of it--still regard it as a debt. But others don't even do that. They're like a vine that produces grapes without looking for anything in return. (Hays translation) A man makes no noise over a good deed, but passes on to another as a vine to bear grapes again in season. V, 6 A horse at the end of the race...A dog when the hunt is over...A bee with its honey stored...And a human being after helping others. They don't make a fuss about it. They just go on to something else, as the vine looks forward to bearing fruit again in season. We should be like that. Acting almost unconsciously. (Hays translation) V, 6 The other reason is that what happens to the individual is a cause of well-being in what directs the world--of its well-being, its fulfillment, or its very existence, even. Because the whole is damaged if you cut away anything--anything at all--from its continuity and its coherence. Not only its parts, but its purposes. And that's what you're doing when you complain: hacking and destroying. (Hays translation) V, 7 Not to feel exasperated, or defeated, or despondent because your days aren't packed with wise and moral actions. But to get back up when you fail, to celebrate behaving like a human--however imperfectly--and fully embrace the pursuit that you've embarked on. (Hays translation) Flinch not, neither give up nor despair, if the achieving of every act in accordance with right principle is not always continuous with thee. V, 9 The things you think about determine the quality of your mind. Your soul takes on the color of your thoughts. (Hays translation) The soul becomes dyed with the colour of its thoughts. V, 16 It is crazy to want what is impossible. And impossible for the wicked not to do so. (Hays translation) To seek what is impossible is madness: and it is impossible that the bad should not do something of this kind. Τὸ τὰ ἀδύνατα διώκειν μανικόν· ἀδύνατον δὲ τὸ τοὺς φαύλους μὴ τοιαῦτά τινα ποιεῖν. V, 17 Nothing happens to anyone that he can't endure. (Hays translation) Nothing happens to anybody which he is not fitted by nature to bear. Οὐδὲν οὐδενὶ συμβαίνει ὃ οὐχὶ ἐκεῖνο πέφυκε φέρειν. V, 18 Things have no hold on the soul. They have no access to it, cannot move or direct it. It is moved and directed by itself alone. It takes the things before it and interprets them as it sees fit. (Hays translation) V, 19 In a sense, people are our proper occupation. Our job is to do them good and put up with them. But when they obstruct our proper tasks, they become irrelevant to us--like sun, wind, and animals. Our actions may be impeded by them, but there can be no impeding our intentions or our dispositions. Because we can accommodate and adapt. The mind adapts and converts to its own purposes the obstacle to our acting. The impediment to action advances action. What stands in the way becomes the way. (Hays translation) V.20 Prize that which is best in the universe; and this is that which useth everything and ordereth everything. V, 21 The mind is the ruler of the soul. It should remain unstirred by agitations of the flesh--gentle and violent ones alike. Not mingling with them, but fencing itself off and keeping those feelings in their place. When they make their way into our thoughts, through the sympathetic link between mind and body, don't try to resist the sensation. The sensation is natural. But don't let the mind start in with judgments, calling it 'good' or 'bad.' (Hays translation) V, 26 Live with the gods. V, 27 Art thou angry with him whose arm-pits stink? art thou angry with him whose mouth smells foul? What good will this anger do thee? V, 28 The intelligence of the universe is social. V, 30 Consider all that you've gone through, all that you've survived. And that the story of your life is done, your assignment complete. How many good things have you seen? How much pain and pleasure have you resisted? How many honors have you declined? How many unkind people have you been kind to? (Hays translation) V, 31 ...be tolerant with others and strict with yourself. Remember, nothing belongs to you but your flesh and blood—and nothing else is under your control. (Hays translation) V, 33 But true good fortune is what you make for yourself. Good fortune: good character, good intentions, and good actions. (Hays translation) V, 37 Book VI[edit] Just that you do the right thing. The rest doesn't matter. Cold or warm. Tired or well-rested. Despised or honored. Dying . . . or busy with other assignments. (Hays translation) VI, 2 Ἔσω βλέπε· μηδενὸς πράγματος μήτε ἡ ἰδία ποιότης μήτε ἡ ἀξία παρατρεχέτω σε. Look beneath the surface; let not the several quality of a thing nor its worth escape thee. VI, 3 The controlling Intelligence understands its own nature, and what it does, and whereon it works. VI, 5 The best revenge is not to be like your enemy. VI, 6 Whensoever by some present hard occurrences thou art constrained to be in some sort troubled and vexed, return unto thyself as soon as may be, and be not out of tune longer than thou must needs. For so shalt thou be the better able to keep thy part another time, and to maintain the harmony, if thou dost use thyself to this continually; once out, presently to have recourse unto it, and to begin again. VI, 9 Μή, εἴ τι αὐτῷ σοὶ δυσκαταπόνητον, τοῦτο ἀνθρώπῳ ἀδύνατον ὑπολαμβάνειν, ἀλλ εἴ τι ἀνθρώπῳ δυνατὸν καὶ οἰκεῖον, τοῦτο καὶ σεαυτῷ ἐφικτὸν νομίζειν. Do not think that what is hard for you to master is humanly impossible; but if a thing is humanly possible, consider it to be within your reach. VI, 19 If any man can convince me and bring home to me that I do not think or act aright, gladly will I change; for I search after truth, by which man never yet was harmed. But he is harmed who abideth on still in his deception and ignorance. Variant translation: If someone is able to show me that what I think or do is not right, I will happily change, for I seek the truth, by which no one ever was truly harmed. Harmed is the person who continues in his self-deception and ignorance. VI, 21 I do what is mine to do; the rest doesn't disturb me. (Hays translation) VI, 22 Death,—a stopping of impressions through the senses, and of the pulling of the cords of motion, and of the ways of thought, and of service to the flesh. VI, 28 Stir up thy mind, and recall thy wits again from thy natural dreams, and visions, and when thou art perfectly awoken, and canst perceive that they were but dreams that troubled thee, as one newly awakened out of another kind of sleep look upon these worldly things with the same mind as thou didst upon those, that thou sawest in thy sleep. VI, 29 Ὅρα μὴ ἀποκαισαρωθῇς, μὴ βαφῇς· γίνεται γάρ. τήρησον οὖν σεαυτὸν ἁπλοῦν, ἀγαθόν, ἀκέραιον, σεμνόν, ἄκομψον, τοῦ δικαίου φίλον, θεοσεβῆ, εὐμενῆ, φιλόστοργον, ἐρρωμένον πρὸς τὰ πρέποντα ἔργα. ἀγώνισαι, ἵνα τοιοῦτος συμμείνῃς, οἷόν σε ἠθέλησε ποιῆσαι φιλοσοφία. αἰδοῦ θεούς, σῷζε ἀνθρώπους. βραχὺς ὁ βίος· εἷς καρπὸς τῆς ἐπιγείου ζωῆς, διάθεσις ὁσία καὶ πράξεις κοινωνικαί. Take heed not to be transformed into a Caesar, not to be dipped in the purple dye, for it does happen. Keep yourself therefore, simple, good, pure, grave, unaffected, the friend of justice, religious, kind, affectionate, strong for your proper work. Wrestle to be the man philosophy wished to make you. Reverence the gods, save men. Life is brief; there is but one harvest of earthly existence, a holy disposition and neighborly acts. VI, 30 Reverence the gods, and help men. Short is life. VI, 30 I consist of a little body and a soul. VI, 32 Οἷς συγκεκλήρωσαι πράγμασι, τούτοις συνάρμοζε σεαυτόν, καὶ οἷς συνείληχας ἀνθρώποις, τούτους φίλει, ἀλλ ἀληθινῶς. Adapt yourself to the environment in which your lot has been cast, and show true love to the fellow-mortals with whom destiny has surrounded you. VI, 39 But if we judge only those things which are in our power to be good or bad, there remains no reason either for finding fault with God or standing in a hostile attitude to man. VI, 41 The only thing that isn't worthless: to live this life out truthfully and rightly. And be patient with those who don't. (Hays translation) VI, 47 What is not good for the swarm is not good for the bee. VI, 54 How many together with whom I came into the world are already gone out of it. VI, 56 Book VII[edit] Everywhere and at all times it is in thy power piously to acquiesce in thy present condition, and to behave justly to those who are about thee, and to exert thy skill upon thy present thoughts, that nothing shall steal into them without being well examined. I can control my thoughts as necessary; then how can I be troubled? (Hays translation) VII, 2 Understand however that every man is worth just so much as the things are worth about which he busies himself. VII, 3 How many, once lauded in song, are given over to the forgotten; and how many who sung their praises are clean gone long ago! VII, 6 Never let the future disturb you. You will meet it, if you have to, with the same weapons of reason which today arm you against the present. VII, 8 (Penguin Classics edition of Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth) Whatever may befall you, it was preordained for you from everlasting. Πάντα ἀλλήλοις ἐπιπέπλεκται καὶ ἡ σύνδεσις ἱερά, καὶ σχεδόν τι οὐδὲν ἀλλότριον ἄλλο ἄλλωι· συγκατατέτακται γὰρ καὶ συγκοσμεῖ τὸν αὐτὸν κόσμον. κόσμος τε γὰρ εἷς ἐξ ἁπάντων καὶ θεὸς εἷς δι᾽ ἁπάντων καὶ οὐσία μία καὶ νόμος εἷς, λόγος κοινὸς πάντων τῶν νοερῶν ζώιων, καὶ ἀλήθεια μία, εἴγε καὶ τελειότης μία τῶν ὁμογενῶν καὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ λόγου μετεχόντων ζώιων. All things are implicated with one another, and the bond is holy; and there is hardly anything unconnected with any other things. For things have been co-ordinated, and they combine to make up the same universe. For there is one universe made up of all things, and one god who pervades all things, and one substance, and one law, and one reason. VII, 9 Of things that are external, happen what will to that which can suffer by external accidents. Those things that suffer let them complain themselves, if they will; as for me, as long as I conceive no such thing, that that which is happened is evil, I have no hurt; and it is in my power not to conceive any such thing. You have power over your mind - not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength." ..If you are troubled by external circumstances, it is not the circumstances that trouble you, but your own perception of them - and they are in your power to change at any time. If you are distressed by anything external, the pain is not due to the thing itself, but to your estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any moment. VII, 11. Whatsoever any man either doth or saith, thou must be good; not for any man's sake, but for thine own nature's sake; as if either gold, or the emerald, or purple, should ever be saying to themselves, Whatsoever any man either doth or saith, I must still be an emerald, and I must keep my colour.' VII, 12 Remember, that to change thy mind upon occasion, and to follow him that is able to rectify thee, is equally ingenuous, as to find out at the first, what is right and just, without help. For of thee nothing is required, that is beyond the extent of thine own deliberation and judgment, and of thine own understanding. VII, 14 No matter what anyone says or does, my task is to be good. (Hays translation) VII, 15 An angry countenance is much against nature, and it is oftentimes the proper countenance of them that are at the point of death. But were it so, that all anger and passion were so thoroughly quenched in thee, that it were altogether impossible to kindle it any more, yet herein must not thou rest satisfied, but further endeavour by good consequence of true ratiocination, perfectly to conceive and understand, that all anger and passion is against reason. VII, 18 Is any man afraid of change? Why what can take place without change? VII, 18 Ἐγγὺς μὲν ἡ σὴ περὶ πάντων λήθη, ἐγγὺς δὲ ἡ πάντων περὶ σοῦ λήθη. Soon you will have forgotten the world, and soon the world will have forgotten you. VII, 21 Ἴδιον ἀνθρώπου φιλεῖν καὶ τοὺς πταίοντας. It is man's peculiar duty to love even those who wrong him. VII, 22 Nature which governs the whole will soon change all things which thou seest, and out of there substance will make other things, and again other things from the substance of them, in order that the world may ever be new. VII, 25 (See also Charles Darwin) Think not so much of what thou hast not as of what thou hast: but of the things which thou hast, select the best, and then reflect how eagerly they would have been sought, if thou hadst them not. At the same time, however, take care that thou dost not, through being so pleased with them, accustom thyself to overvalue them, so as to be disturbed if ever thou shouldst not have them. Variant Translation: Let not thy mind run on what thou lackest as much as on what thou hast already. VII, 27 Retire into thyself. The rational principle which rules has this nature, that it is content with itself when it does what is just, and so secures tranquility. VII, 28 Wipe out the imagination. Stop pulling the strings. Confine thyself to the present. ...Divide and distribute every object into the causal [formal] and the material. ...Let the wrong which is done by a man stay there where the wrong was done. VII, 29 Direct thy attention to what is said. Let thy understanding enter into the things that are doing and the things which do them. VII, 30 Adorn thyself with simplicity and with indifference towards the things which lie between virtue and vice. Love mankind. Follow God. The poet says that Law rules all. And it is enough to remember that law rules all. VII, 31 About fame... Just as the sand-dunes, heaped one upon another, hide each the first, so in life the former deeds are quickly hidden by those that follow after. VII, 34 From Plato: the man who has an elevated mind and takes a view of all time and of all substance, dost thou suppose it possible for him to think that human life is anything great? It is not possible, he said. Such a man then will think that death also is no evil. VII, 35 From Antisthenes: It is royal to do good and be abused. VII, 36 It is a base thing for the countenance to be obedient and to regulate and compose itself as the mind commands, and for the mind not to be regulated and composed by itself. VII, 37 It is not right to vex ourselves at things, For they care not about it. VII, 38 If the gods care not for me and for my children, There is a reason for it. VII, 41 For thus it is, men of Athens, in truth: wherever a man has placed himself thinking it is the best place for him, or has been placed by a commander, there in my opinion he ought to stay and to abide the hazard, taking nothing into the reckoning, either death or anything else, before the baseness [of deserting his post]. VII, 45 Look round at the courses of the stars, as if thou wert going along with them; and constantly consider the changes of the elements into one another; for such thoughts purge away the filth of the terrene life. VII, 47 This is a fine saying of Plato: That he who is discoursing about men should look also at earthly things as if he viewed them from some higher place; should look at them... a mixture of all things and an orderly combination of contraries. VII, 48 Thou mayest foresee... the things which will be. For they will certainly be of like form, and it is not possible that they should deviate from the order of things now: accordingly to have contemplated human life for forty years is the same as to have contemplated it for ten thousand years. VII, 49 That which had grown from the earth, to the earth, But that which has sprung from heavenly seed, Back to the heavenly realms returns. This is either a dissolution of the mutual involution of the atoms, or a similar dispersion of the unsentient elements. VII, 50 Another may be more expert in casting [throwing] his opponent; but he is not more social, nor more modest, nor better disciplined to meet all that happens, nor more considerate with respect to the faults of his neighbors. VII, 52 Where any work can be done conformably to the reason which is common to gods and men, there we have nothing to fear; for where we are able to get profit by means of the activity which is successful and proceeds according to our constitution, there no harm is to be suspected. VII, 53 Everywhere and at all times it is in thy power piously to acquiesce in thy present condition, and to behave justly to those who are about thee, and to exert thy skill upon thy present thoughts, that nothing shall steal into them without being well examined. VII, 54 Every being ought to do that which is according to its constitution; and all other things have been constituted for the sake of the superior, but the rational for the sake of one another. VII, 55 Consider thyself to be dead, and to have completed thy life up to the present time; and live according to nature the remainder which is allowed thee. VII, 56 Love that only which happens to thee and is spun with the thread of thy destiny. For what is more suitable? VII, 57 Why then dost thou choose to act in the same way? and why dost thou not leave these agitations which are foreign to nature, to those who cause them and those who are moved by them? And why art thou not altogether intent upon the right way of making use of things which happen to thee? for then thou wilt use them well, and they will be material for thee. Only attend to thyself, and resolve to be a good man in every act which thou doest; and remember... VII, 58 Look within. Within is the fountain of the good, and it will ever bubble up, if thou wilt ever dig. VII, 59 The art of life is more like the wrestler's art than the dancer's, in respect of this, that it should stand ready and firm to meet onsets which are sudden and unexpected. VII, 61 Every soul, the philosopher says, is involuntarily deprived of truth; consequently in the same way it is deprived of justice and temperance and benevolence and everything of the kind. It is most necessary to keep this in mind, for thus thou wilt be more gentle towards all. VII, 63 In the case of most pains let this remark of Epicurus aid thee, that the pain is neither intolerable nor everlasting, if thou bear in mind that it has its limits, and if thou addest nothing to it in imagination... VII, 64 Very little is needed to make a happy life. ἐν ὀλιγίστοις κεῖται τὸ εὐδαιμόνως βιῶσαι VII, 67 To live each day as though one's last, never flustered, never apathetic, never attitudinizing – here is perfection of character. VII, 69 It's silly to try to escape other people's faults. They are inescapable. Just try to escape your own. (Hays translation) VII, 71 The nature of the All moved to make the universe. VII, 75 Book VIII[edit] A wrongdoer is often a man who has left something undone, not always one who has done something. On the occasion of every act ask thyself, How is this with respect to me? Shall I repent of it? A little time and I am dead, and all is gone. VIII, 2 You may break your heart, but men will still go on as before. Ὅτι οὐδὲν ἧττον τὰ αὐτὰ ποιήσουσι, κἂν σὺ διαρραγῇς. VIII, 4 Constantly and, if it be possible, on the occasion of every impression on the soul, apply to it the principles of Physic, of Ethic, and of Dialectic. VIII, 13 To change your mind and to follow him who sets you right is to be nonetheless the free agent that you were before. Remember that to change thy opinion and to follow him who corrects thy error is as consistent with freedom as it is to persist in thy error. (Long translation) VIII, 16 Nature has had regard in everything no less to the end than to the beginning and the continuance, just like a man who throws up a ball. What good is it then for the ball to be thrown up, or harm for it to come down... what good is it to the bubble while it holds together, or what harm when it is burst? VIII, 20 Short-lived are both the praiser and the praised, and rememberer and the remembered: and all this in a nook of this part of the world; and not even here do all agree, no, not any one with himself: and the whole earth too is a point. VIII, 21 Look to the essence of a thing, whether it be a point of doctrine, of practice, or of interpretation. Πρόσεχε τῷ ὑποκειμένῳ ἢ τῇ ἐνεργείᾳ ἢ τῷ δόγματι ἢ τῷ σημαινομένῳ. VIII, 22 Thou sufferest justly: for thou choosest rather to become good to-morrow than to be good to-day. VIII, 22 Remember this, then, that this little compound, thyself, must either be dissolved, or thy poor breath must be extinguished, or be removed and placed elsewhere. VIII, 25 Where have they gone, the brilliant, the insightful ones, the proud? (Hays translation) VIII, 25 It is satisfaction to a man to do the proper works of a man. VIII, 26 There are three relations [between thee and other things]: the one to the body which surrounds thee; the second to the divine cause from which all things come to all; and the third to those who live with thee. VIII, 27 To accept it without arrogance, to let it go with indifference. (Hays translation) VIII, 33 Suppose that thou hast detached thyself from the natural unity... yet here there is this beautiful provision, that it is in thy power again to unite thyself. God has allowed this to no other part, after it has been separated and cut asunder, to come together again. ...he has distinguished man, for he has put it in his power not to be separated at all from the universal ...he has allowed him to be returned and to be united and to resume his place as a part. VIII, 34 As the nature of the universal has given to every rational being all the powers that it has, so we have received from it this power also. For as the universal nature converts and fixes in its predestined place everything which stands in the way and opposes it, and makes such things a part of itself, so also the rational animal is able to make every hindrance its own material, and to use it for such purpose as it may have designed. VIII, 35 Remember that neither the future nor the past pains thee, but only the present. But this is reduced to a very little, if thou only circumscribest it, and chidest thy mind, if it is unable to hold out against even this. VIII, 36 If thou canst see sharp, look and judge wisely, says the philosopher. VIII, 38 In the constitution of that rational animal I see no virtue which is opposed to justice, but I see a virtue which is opposed to love of pleasure, and that is temperance. VIII, 39 The things... which are proper to the understanding no other man is used to impede, for neither fire, nor iron, nor tyrant, nor abuse, touches it in any way. When it has been made a sphere, it continues a sphere. VIII, 41 It is not fit that I should give myself pain, for I have never intentionally given pain even to another. VIII, 42 If...it be a thing external that causes thy grief, know, that it is not that properly that doth cause it, but thine own conceit and opinion concerning the thing: which thou mayest rid thyself of, when thou wilt. VIII, 45 External things are not the problem. It's your assessment of them. Which you can erase right now. (Hays translation) VIII, 47 The mind which is free from passions is a citadel, for man has nothing more secure to which he can fly for refuge and for the future be inexpugnable. He then who has not seen this is an ignorant man: but he who has seen it and does not fly to this refuge is unhappy. VIII, 48 The universal nature has no external space; but the wondrous part of her art is that though she has circumscribed herself, everything which is within her which appears to decay and to grow old and to be useless she changes into herself, and again makes other new things from these very same, so that she requires neither substance from without nor wants a place into which she may cast that which decays. She is content then with her own space, and her own matter, and her own art. VIII, 50 The cucumber is bitter? Then throw it out. There are brambles in the path? Then go around them. That's all you need to know. (Hays translation) VIII, 50 No carelessness in your actions. No confusion in your words. No imprecision in your thoughts. (Hays translation) Be not careless in deeds, nor confused in words, nor rambling in thought. VIII, 51 A man standing by a spring of clear, sweet water and cursing it. While the fresh water keeps on bubbling up. He can shovel mud into it, or dung, and the stream will carry it away, wash itself clean, remain unstained. (Hays translation) Suppose that men kill thee, cut thee in pieces, curse thee. What then can these things do to prevent thy mind from remaining pure, wise, sober, just? For instance, if a man should stand by a limpid pure spring, and curse it, the spring never ceases sending up potable water; and if he should cast clay into it or filth, it will speedily disperse them and wash them out, and will not be at all polluted. How then shalt thou possess a perpetual fountain? By forming thyself hourly to freedom conjoined with contentment, simplicity and modesty. VIII, 51 He who does not know what the world is, does not know where he is. And he who does not know for what purpose the world exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is. But he who has failed in any one of these things could not even say for what purpose he exists himself. What then dost thou think of him who [avoids or] seeks the praise of those who applaud, of men who know not either where they are or who they are? He that knows not what the world is, knows not where he is himself. He that knows not for what he was made, knows not what he is nor what the world is. VIII, 52 You want praise from people who kick themselves every fifteen minutes, the approval of people who despise themselves. (Is it a sign of self-respect to regret nearly everything you do?) (Hays translation) VIII, 53 No longer let thy breathing only act in concert with the air which surrounds thee, but let thy intelligence also now be in harmony with the intelligence which embraces all things. For the intelligent power is no less diffused in all parts and pervades all things for him who is willing to draw it to him than the aërial power for him who is able to respire it. VIII, 54 He who fears death either fears to lose all sensation or fears new sensations. In reality, you will either feel nothing at all, and therefore nothing evil, or else, if you can feel any sensations, you will be a new creature, and so will not have ceased to have life. VIII, 58 Men exist for the sake of one another. Teach them then or bear with them. (Long translation) All men are made one for another: either then teach them better, or bear with them. (trans. Meric Casaubon). Οἱ ἄνθρωποι γεγόνασιν ἀλλήλων ἕνεκεν· ἢ δίδασκε οὖν ἢ φέρε. VIII, 59 An arrow has one motion and the mind another. Even when pausing, even when weighing conclusions, the mind is moving forward, toward its goal. (Hays translation) VIII, 60 Book IX[edit] The nature of the universe is the nature of things that are. Now, things that are have kinship with things that are from the beginning. Further, this nature is styled Truth; and it is the first cause of all that is true. IX, 1 He would be the finer gentleman that should leave the world without having tasted of lying or pretence of any sort, or of wantonness or conceit. IX, 2 Think not disdainfully of death, but look on it with favor; for even death is one of the things that Nature wills. IX, 3 A wrongdoer is often a man who has left something undone, not always one who has done something. Ἀδικεῖ πολλάκις ὁ μὴ ποιῶν τι, οὐ μόνον ὁ ποιῶν τι. IX, 5 And you can also commit injustice by doing nothing. (Hays translation) IX, 5 Objective judgment, now, at this very moment. Unselfish action, now, at this very moment. Willing acceptance—now, at this very moment—of all external events. That's all you need. (Hays translation) IX, 6 Blot out vain pomp; check impulse; quench appetite; keep reason under its own control. IX, 7 Things that have a common quality ever quickly seek their kind. IX, 9 Today I escaped from anxiety. Or no, I discarded it, because it was within me, in my own perceptions—not outside. (Hays translation) IX, 13 All things are the same,—familiar in enterprise, momentary in endurance, coarse in substance. All things now are as they were in the day of those whom we have buried. IX, 14 The happiness and unhappiness of the rational, social animal depends not on what he feels but on what he does; just as his virtue and vice consist not in feeling but in doing. IX, 16 All things are changing; and thou thyself art in continuous mutation and in a manner in continuous destruction and the whole universe to. IX, 19 Turn thy thoughts now to the consideration of thy life, thy life as a child, as a youth, thy manhood, thy old age, for in these also every change was a death. Is this anything to fear? IX, 21 Hasten [to examine] thy own ruling faculty and that of the universe and that of thy neighbor: thy own, that thy may make it just; and that of the universe, that thou mayst remember of what thou art a part; and that of thy neighbor, that thy mayst know whether he has acted ignorantly or with knowledge, and that thou mayst also consider that his ruling faculty is akin to thine. IX, 22 As thou thyself art a component part of a social system, so let every act of thine be a component part of social life. Whatever act of thine that has no reference, either immediately or remotely, to a social end, this tears asunder thy life, and does not allow it to be one, and it is of the nature of a mutiny, just as when in a popular assembly a man acting by himself stands apart from the general agreement. IX, 23 The universal intelligence puts itself in motion for every separate effect... or it puts itself in motion once, and everything else comes by way of a sequence in a manner; or individual elements are the origin of all things. In a word, if there is a god, all is well; and if chance rules, do not thou be governed by it. IX, 28 If man reflects on the changes and transformations which follow one another like wave after wave and their rapidity, he will despise everything which is perishable. IX, 28 Do what nature now requires. Set thyself in motion, if it is in thy power, and do not look about thee to see if any one will observe it; nor yet expect Plato's Republic: but be content if the smallest thing goes on well, and consider such an event to be no small matter. Forward, as occasion offers. Never look round to see whether any shall note it.... Be satisfied with success in even the smallest matter, and think that even such a result is no trifle. IX, 29 Let there be freedom from perturbations with respect to the things which come from the external cause; and let there be justice in the things done by virtue of the internal cause, that is, let there be movement and action terminating in this, in social acts, for this is according to thy nature. IX, 31 He that dies in extreme old age will be reduced to the same state with him that is cut down untimely. IX, 33 The rottenness of the matter which is the foundation of everything! IX, 36 Either all things proceed from one intelligent source and come together as in one body, and the part ought not to find fault with what is done for the benefit of the whole; or there are only atoms, and nothing else than a mixture and dispersion. Why, then, art thou disturbed? Say to this ruling faculty, Art thou dead, art thou corrupted, art thou playing the hypocrite, art thou become a beast, dost thou herd and feed with the rest? IX, 39 Why dost thou not pray... to give thee the faculty of not fearing any of the things which thou fearest, or of not desiring any of the things which thou desirest, or not being pained at anything, rather than pray that any of these things should not happen or happen? IX, 40 Is it not better to use what is in thy power like a free man than to desire in a slavish and abject way what is not in thy power? IX, 40 One man prays thus: How shall I be able to lie with that woman? Do thou pray thus: How shall I not desire to lie with her? Another prays: How shall I be released from this? Another prays: How shall I not desire to be released? Another thus: How shall I not lose my little son? Thou thus: How shall I not be afraid to lose him? In fine, turn thy prayers this way, and see what comes. IX, 40 Art thy not content that thou hast done something conformable to thy nature, and dost thou seek to be paid for it? Just as if the eye demanded recompense for seeing, or the feet for walking. For as these members are formed for a particular purpose... so also is man formed by nature to acts of benevolence. IX, 42 Yes, boorish people do boorish things. What's strange or unheard-of about that? Isn't it yourself you should reproach—for not anticipating that they'd act this way? (Hays translation) IX, 42 Book X[edit] Wilt thou then, my soul, never be good and simple and one and naked, more manifest than the body which surrounds thee? Wilt thou never enjoy an affectionate and contented disposition? Wilt thou never be full and without a want of any kind, longing for nothing more, nor desiring anything, either animate of inanimate, for the enjoyment of pleasures? nor yet desiring time wherein thou shalt have longer enjoyment, or place, or pleasant climate, or society of men with whom thou mayst live in harmony? but wilt thou be satisfied with thy present condition, and pleased with all that is around thee, and wilt thou convince thyself that thou hast everything and that it comes from the gods, that everything is well for thee, and will be well whatever shall please them, and whatever they shall give for the conservation of the perfect living being, the good and just and beautiful, which generates and holds together all things, and contains and embraces all things which are dissolved for the production of other like things? Wilt thou never be such that thou shalt so dwell in community with gods and men as neither to find fault with them at all, nor to be condemned by them? X, 1 Use these rules then, and trouble thyself about nothing else. X, 2 Everything that happens is either endurable or not. If it's endurable, then endure it. Stop complaining. If it's unendurable . . . then stop complaining. Your destruction will mean its end as well. (Hays translation) X, 3 If a man is mistaken, instruct him kindly and show him his error. But if thou art not able, blame thyself, or blame not even thyself. X, 4 Whatever may happen to thee, it was prepared for thee from all eternity; and the implication of causes was from eternity spinning the thread of thy being, and of that which is incident to it. Alternate Translation: Whatever may befall you, it was preordained for you from everlasting. X, 5 The whole contains nothing which is not or its advantage; and all natures indeed have this common principle, but the nature of the universe has this principle besides, that it cannot be compelled even by any external cause to generate anything harmful to itself. X, 6 By remembering then that I am a part of such a whole, I shall be content with everything that happens. And inasmuch as I am in a manner intimately related to the parts which are of the same kind with myself, I shall do nothing unsocial, but I shall rather direct myself to the things which are of the same kind with myself, and I shall turn all my efforts to the common interest, and divert them from the contrary. X, 6 Remember that the term Rational was intended to signify a discriminating attention to every several thing and freedom from negligence; and that Equanimity is the voluntary acceptance of things which are assigned to thee by the common nature; and the Magnanimity is the elevation of the intelligent part above the pleasurable or painful sensations of the flesh, and above that poor thing called fame, and death, and all such things. If then, thou maintainest thyself in the possession of these names, without desiring to be called by these names by others, thou wilt be another person and wilt enter into another life. X, 8 Rememberest the gods, and that they wish not to be flattered, but wish all reasonable beings to be made like themselves; and... rememberest that what does the work of a fig-tree is a fig-tree, and that what does the work of a dog is a dog, and that what does the work of a bee is a bee, and that what does the work of a man is a man. X, 8 Acquire the contemplative way of seeing how all things change into one another, and constantly attend to it, and exercise thyself about this part [of philosophy]. For nothing is so much adapted to produce magnanimity. ...But as to what any man shall say or think about him, or do against him, he never even thinks of it, being himself contented with these two things: with acting justly in what he now does, and being satisfied with what is now assigned to him; and he lays aside all distracting and busy pursuits, and desires nothing else than to accomplish the straight course through the law, and by accomplishing the straight course to follow God. X, 11 What need is there of suspicious fear, since it is in thy power to inquire what ought to be done? And if thy seest clear, go by this way content, without turning back: but if thy dost not see clear, stop and take the best advisers. But if any other things oppose thee, go on according to thy powers with due consideration, keeping to that which appears to be just. For it is best to reach this object, and if thou dost fail, let thy failure be in attempting this. He who follows reason in all things is both tranquil and active at the same time, and also cheerful and collected. X, 12 To her who gives and takes back all, to nature, the man who is instructed and modest says, Give what thou wilt; take back what thou wilt. And he says this not proudly, but obediently and well pleased with her. X, 14 Live as on a mountain. ...Let men see, let them know a real man who lives according to nature. If they cannot endure him, let them kill him. For that is better than to live thus. X, 15 Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be one. Μηκέθ᾽ ὅλως περὶ τοῦ οἷόν τινα εἶναι τὸν ἀγαθὸν ἄνδρα διαλέγεσθαι, ἀλλὰ εἶναι τοιοῦτον. X, 16 Constantly contemplate the whole of time and the whole of substance, and consider that all individual things as to substance are a grain of a fig, and as to time the turning of a gimlet. X, 17 Look at everything that exists, and observe that it is already in dissolution and change, and as it were putrefaction or dispersion, or that everything is so constituted in nature as to die. X, 18 "Earth loves the rain, the proud sky loves to give it." The whole world loves to create futurity. I say then to the world, "I share your love." Is this not the source of the phrase, "This loves to happen"? ῾Ἐρᾷ μὲν ὄμβρου γαῖα, ἐρᾷ δὲ ὁ σεμνὸς αἰθήρ,᾿ ἐρᾷ δὲ ὁ κόσμος ποιῆσαι ὃ ἂν μέλλῃ γίνεσθαι. λέγω οὖν τῷ κόσμῳ ὅτι σοὶ συνερῶ. μήτι δὲ οὕτω κἀκεῖνο λέγεται, ὅτι: φιλεῖ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι; (The last phrase is quoted in J.D. Salinger's Franny and Zooey as "It loved to happen"; the tense is ambiguous in Greek.) X, 21 Let this always be plain to thee, that this piece of land is like any other; and that all things here are the same with all things on the top of a mountain, or on the sea-shore, or wherever thou chooses to be. For thou wilt find just what Plato says, Dwelling within the walls of the city as in a shepherd's fold on a mountain. X, 23 What is my ruling faculty now to me? and of what nature am I now making it? and for what purpose am I now using it? is it void of understanding? is it loosed and rent asunder from social life? is it melted and mixed with the poor flesh so as to move together with it? X, 24 He who flies from his master is a runaway; but the law is master, and he who breaks the law is a runaway. And he also who is grieved or angry or afraid, is dissatisfied because something has been or is or shall be of the things which are appointed by Him who rules all things, and He is Law, and assigns to every man what is fit. He then who fears or is grieved or is angry is a runaway. X, 25 All those [events in history] were such dramas as we see now, only with different actors. X, 27 Only to the rational animal is it given to follow voluntarily what happens; but simply to follow is a necessity imposed on all. X, 28 When thou art offended at any man's fault, forthwith turn to thyself and reflect in what manner thou doest error thyself... For by attending to this thou wilt quickly forget thy anger, if this consideration is also added, that the man is compelled; for what else could he do? or, if thou art able, take away from him the compulsion. X, 30 Continuously thou wilt look at human things as smoke and nothing at all; especially if thou reflectest at the same time, that what has once changed will never exist again in the infinite duration of time. But thou, in what a brief space of time is thy existence? And why art thou not content to pass through this short time in an orderly way? X, 31 What matter and opportunity [for thy activity] art thou avoiding? For what else are all these things, except exercises for the reason, when it has viewed carefully and by examination into their nature the things which happen in life? Persevere then until thou shalt have made these things thy own, as the stomach which is strengthened makes all things its own, as the blazing fire makes flame and brightness out of everything that is thrown into it. X, 31 To live your brief life rightly, isn't that enough? (Hays translation) X, 31 Let it not be in any man's power to say truly of thee that thou art not simple or that thou art not good; but let him be a liar whoever shall think anything of this kind about thee; and this is altogether in thy power. X, 32 It is not given to a cylinder to move everywhere by its own motion, nor yet to water nor to fire nor to anything else which is governed by nature or an irrational soul, for the things which check them and stand in the way are many. But intelligence and reason are able to go through everything that opposes them, and in such manner as they are formed by nature and as they choose. Place before thy eyes this facility with which the reason will be carried through all things, as fire upwards, as a stone downwards, as a cylinder down an inclined surface, and seek for nothing further. For all other obstacles either affect the body only, which is a dead thing; or, except for opinion and the yielding of reason itself, they do not crush nor do any harm of any kind; for if they did, he who felt it would immediately become bad. X, 33 In the case of all things which have a certain constitution, whatever harm may happen to any of them, that which is affected becomes consequently worse; but in like case, a man becomes both better... and more worthy of praise, by making the right use of these accidents. X, 33 And finally remember that nothing harms him who is really a citizen, which does not harm the state; nor yet does anything harm the state which does not harm law [order]; and of these things which are called misfortunes not one harms law. What then does not harm law does not harm either state or citizen. X, 33 "Leaves, some the wind scatters on the ground—So is the race of man." Leaves, also, are thy children; and leaves, too, are they who cry out so if they are worthy of credit, or bestow their praise, or on the contrary curse, or secretly blame and sneer; and leaves, in like manner, are those who shall receive and transmit a man's fame to after-times. For all such things as these "are produced in the season of spring," as the poet says; then the wind casts them down; then the forest produces other leaves in their places. But a brief existence is common to all things, and yet thou avoidest and pursuest all things as if they would be eternal. X, 34 A little time, and thou shalt close thy eyes; and him who has attended thee to thy grave, another soon will lament. X, 34 The healthy eye ought to see all visible things and not to say, I wish for green things; for this is the condition of the diseased eye. And the healthy hearing and smelling ought to be ready to perceive all that can be heard and smelled. And the healthy stomach ought to be with respect to all food just as the mill with respect to all things which it is formed to grind. And accordingly the healthy understanding ought to be prepared for everything which happens; but that which says, Let my dear children live, and let all men praise whatever I may do, is an eye which seeks for green things, or teeth which seek for soft things. X, 35 There is no man so fortunate that there shall not be by him when he is dying some who are pleased with what is going to happen. Suppose that he was a good and a wise man, will there not be at least some one to say to himself, Let us at last breathe freely, being relieved from this schoolmaster? It is true that he was harsh to none of us, but I perceive that he tacitly condemns us.—This is what is said of a good man. But in our own case how many other things are there for which there are many who wish to get rid of us. X, 36 Learn to ask of all actions, “Why are they doing that?” Starting with your own. (Hays translation) X, 37 Remember that what pulls the strings is the force hidden within; there lies the power to persuade, there the life,—there, if one must speak out, the real man. X, 38 In contemplating thyself never include the vessel which surrounds thee, and these instruments which are attached about it. For they are like an ax, differing only in this, that they grow to the body. For indeed there is no more use in these parts without the cause which moves and checks them than in the weaver's shuttle, and the writer's pen, and the driver's whip. X, 38 Book XI[edit] Have I done something for the general interest? Well then I have had my reward. Let this always be present to thy mind, and never stop doing such good. XI, 4 Everything harmonizes with me, which is harmonious to thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too early or too late, which is in due time for thee Rememberest the gods, and that they wish not to be flattered, but wish all reasonable beings to be made like themselves There is no nature which is inferior to art, the arts imitate the nature of things. XI, 10 Someone despises me. That's their problem. Mine: not to do or say anything despicable. Someone hates me. Their problem. Mine: to be patient and cheerful with everyone, including them. (Hays translation) XI, 13 The man who is honest and good ought to be exactly like a man who smells strong, so that the bystander as soon as he comes near him must smell whether he choose or not. XI, 15 A straightforward, honest person should be like someone who stinks: when you're in the same room with him, you know it. (Hays translation) XI, 15 How much more damage anger and grief do than the things that cause them. (Hays translation) XI, 18 Pain is the opposite of strength, and so is anger. (Hays translation) XI, 18 That to expect bad people not to injure others is crazy. It's to ask the impossible. And to let them behave like that to other people but expect them to exempt you is arrogant—the act of a tyrant. (Hays translation) XI, 18 “If you don’t have a consistent goal in life, you can’t live it in a consistent way.” (Hays translation) XI, 21 Socrates used to call the opinions of the many by the name of Lamiae, bugbears to frighten children. XI, 23 And virtue they will curse, speaking harsh words. XI, 32 “No thefts of free will reported.” (Hays translation) XI, 36 Book XII[edit] All those things at which thou wishest to arrive by a circuitous road, thou canst have now, if thou dost not refuse them to thyself. XII, 1 ...that to expect a bad person not to harm others is like expecting fig trees not to secrete juice, babies not to cry, horses not to neigh—the inevitable not to happen. (Hays translation) XII, 16 If it is not right, do not do it, if it is not true, do not say it. For let thy efforts be — XII, 17 Consider that everything is opinion, and opinion is in thy power. Take away then, when thou choosest, thy opinion, and like a mariner, who has doubled the promontory, thou wilt find calm, everything stable, and a waveless bay. XII, 22 Know the joy of life by piling good deed on good deed until no rift or cranny appears between them. τί λοιπὸν ἢ ἀπολαύειν τοῦ ζῆν συνάπτοντα ἄλλο ἐπ ἄλλῳ ἀγαθόν, ὥστε μηδὲ τὸ βραχύτατον διάστημα ἀπολείπειν; XII, 29 Everything harmonizes with me, which is harmonious to thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too early or too late, which is in due time for thee. There is one light of the sun, though it is interrupted by walls, mountains and infinite other things. There is one common substance, though it is distributed among countless bodies which have their several qualities. There is one soul, though it is distributed among several natures and individual limitations. There is one intelligent soul, though it seems to be divided. XII, 30 Depart then satisfied, for he also who releases thee is satisfied. XII, 36 Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. (1919)[edit] Quotes reported in Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. (1919). Find time still to be learning somewhat good, and give up being desultory. Meditations. ii. 7. Be not as one that hath ten thousand years to live; death is nigh at hand: while thou livest, while thou hast time, be good. Meditations. iv. 17. In the morning, when thou art sluggish at rousing thee, let this thought be present; “I am rising to a man’s work.” Meditations. v. 1. No form of Nature is inferior to Art; for the arts merely imitate natural forms. Meditations. xi. 10. Everything is in a state of metamorphosis. Thou thyself art in everlasting change and in corruption to correspond; so is the whole universe. Meditations. ix. 19. Disputed[edit] He who lives in harmony with himself lives in harmony with the universe. Attributed in The Life You Were Born to Live : Finding Your Life Purpose (1995) by Dan Millman, Pt. 2, Ch. 2 : Cooperation and Balance Misattributed[edit] Live a good life. If there are gods and they are just, then they will not care how devout you have been, but will welcome you based on the virtues you have lived by. If there are gods, but unjust, then you should not want to worship them. If there are no gods, then you will be gone, but will have lived a noble life that will live on in the memories of your loved ones. This quote may be a paraphrase of Meditations, Book II: Since it is possible that thou mayest depart from life this very moment, regulate every act and thought accordingly. But to go away from among men, if there are gods, is not a thing to be afraid of, for the gods will not involve thee in evil; but if indeed they do not exist, or if they have no concern about human affairs, what is it to me to live in a universe devoid of gods or devoid of Providence? But Gods there are, undoubtedly, and they regard human affairs; and have put it wholly in our power, that we should not fall into what is truly evil No printed sources exist for this prior to 2009, and this seems to have been an attribution which arose on the internet, as indicated by web searches and rationales provided at "Marcus Aurelius and source checking" at Three Shouts on a Hilltop (14 June 2011) Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth. Cited as being from The Meditations. This quote does not exist there; although there are several other statements about everything being an opinion, none of these are connected to a sentence about perspectives. The object in life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane. The first citation appears in a 1946 translation of Leo Tolstoy's Recollections and Essays [1] by Oxford University Press. The claim made that it is from Marcus Aurelius. Nothing closely resembling it appears in Meditations, nor does it appear in a 1904 translation of Bethink Yourselves. The other surrounding quotations from Kant also appear to be attributed or do not exist. Quotes about Marcus Aurelius[edit] A man's greatness lies not in wealth and station, as the vulgar believe, not yet in his intellectual capacity, which is often associated with the meanest moral character, the most abject servility to those in high places and arrogance to the poor and lowly; but a man's true greatness lies in the consciousness of an honest purpose in life, founded on a just estimate of himself and everything else, on frequent self-examination, and a steady obedience to the rule which he knows to be right, without troubling himself, as the emperor [Marcus Aurelius] says he should not, about what others may think or say, or whether they do or do not do that which he thinks and says and does. George Long, "M. Aurelius Antoninus" (1862) Harvard Classics, Vol.2 (1909) The absolute ruler may be a Nero, but he is sometimes Titus or Marcus Aurelius; the people is often Nero, and never Marcus Aurelius. Antoine de Rivarol, as quoted in Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1952), Liberty or Equality: The Challenge of Our Time, The Caxton Printers LTD, p. 150 [W]e shall observe that Jewish intellectual qualities have remained constant, that certain characteristics, certain peculiar features of the Jewish soul may be traced as far back as the formation of the Jewish ethnical group. We cannot prove all this directly, because we have no reliable accounts of the Jewish popular character dating from early times. What we do possess are brief and scanty expressions of opinions, valuable, however, as far as they go. It is of great interest, for example, to note that the Pentateuch (in four places— Exod. xxxii. 9, xxxiv. 9; Deut. ix. 13 and 27) asserts of the Jews what Tacitus said of them later—that they are a stiff-necked people. No less interesting is Cicero’s statement that they hang together most fraternally, or Marcus Aurelius’s that they are a restless people, to whom he cries, “O ye Marcomanni, O ye Quadi, O ye Sarmatae, at length have I found a race more restless than you!”; or finally Juan de la Huarte's that their intellect is keen and well fitted for worldly things. [...] Under the Caesars their lot [the Jews] was no different [than in other nations of antiquity]: “I am just sick of these filthy, noisy Jews,” said Marcus Aurelius. Werner Sombart (1913), The Jews and Modern Capitalism, Chapter 13, Translated by M. Epstein; original publication in the German as Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben (1911) Hannibal Lecter: I've read the case files. Have you? Everything you need to find him is right there in those pages. Clarice Starling: Then tell me how. Hannibal Lecter: First principles, Clarice: simplicity. Read Marcus Aurelius, "Of each particular thing, ask: What is it in itself? What is its nature?" What does he do, this man you seek? Clarice Starling: He kills women. Hannibal Lecter: No, that is incidental. What is the first and principal thing he does, what needs does he serve by killing? Clarice Starling: Anger, social acceptance, and, uh, sexual frustration ... Hannibal Lecter: No, he covets. That's his nature. And how do we begin to covet, Clarice? Do we seek out things to covet? Make an effort to answer, now. Clarice Starling: No. We just ... Hannibal Lecter: No. We begin by coveting what we see every day. Ted Tally (1991), Silence of the Lambs screenplay, adapted from the novel by Thomas Harris; Lecter is paraphrasing or quoting an alternate translation of Meditations Book VIII, 11: "This thing, what is it in itself, in its own constitution? What is its substance and material?" (George Long translation, 1862) Marcus Aurelius was the perfect man, says Renan. Yes; the great emperor was a perfect man. But how intolerable were the endless claims upon him! He staggered under the burden of the empire. He was conscious how inadequate one man was to bear the weight of that Titan and too vast orb. Oscar Wilde, in The Soul of Man under Socialism, 1891 Marcus Aurelius was the most modest, introspective and long-suffering of monarchs... [H]e was a good man and an enlightened ruler who wished only the best for his people. He had been carefully chosen and groomed for his job. Sickly and serious-minded as a child, he had developed (under the guidance of 25 distinguished tutors) into a dedicated Stoic, a practitioner of a philosophy that preached simplicity, self-discipline, endurance and duty. Here was the true philosopher-king that Plato had talked about long ago... LIFE (Vol. 60, No. 22), 3 June 1966, p. 70 External links[edit] Wikipedia has an article about: Marcus Aurelius Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Marcus Aurelius Wikisource has original works written by or about: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Aurelius entry at De Imperatoribus Romanis Project Gutenberg e-Book e-texts of Meditations Greek text Ta eis heauton Military related quotes by Marcus Aurelius]] Retrieved from "https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=2947955" Categories: Pages including material from Bartlett's 1919 to be reviewed Philosophers from Rome Roman emperors Social critics Cultural critics Stoics Latin authors 2nd century births 2nd century deaths Roman military leaders People from Rome Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Village pump Recent changes Random page Help Donate Contact Wikiquote Wikiquote links People Literary works Proverbs Films TV shows Themes Categories Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikisource In other languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Esperanto Español Eesti فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული 한국어 Kurdî Lietuvių Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2021, at 16:40. 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en-wikisource-org-1834	----	1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Wikisource, the free online library Download 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcus Aurelius Antoninus From Wikisource < 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Jump to navigation Jump to search ← Marcou, Jules 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 17 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by John Malcolm Mitchell Marcy, William Learned → sister projects: Wikipedia article, quotes, Wikidata item. See also Marcus Aurelius on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. 17252411911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 17 — Marcus Aurelius AntoninusJohn Malcolm Mitchell ​MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (121–180), Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, was born in Rome A.D. 121, the date of his birth being variously stated as the 6th, 21st and 26th of April. ​His original name was Marcus Annius Verus.[1] His mother Domitia Calvilla (or Lucilla) was a lady of consular rank, and the family of his father Annius Verus (prefect of the city and thrice consul), originally Spanish, had received patrician rank from Vespasian. Marcus was three months old when his father died, and was thereupon adopted by his grandfather. The moral training which he received from his grandfather and his mother must have been all but perfect. The noble qualities of the child attracted the attention of Hadrian, who, playing upon the name “Verus,” said that it should be changed to “Verissimus” (BHPICCIMOC on medals). Hadrian adopted, as his successor, Titus Antoninus Pius (uncle of Marcus), on condition that he in turn adopted both Marcus (then seventeen) and Lucius Ceionius Commodus, the son of Aelius Caesar, who had originally been intended by Hadrian as his successor, but had died before him. Marcus had been, at the age of fifteen, betrothed to Fabia, the sister of Commodus; the engagement was broken off by Antoninus Pius, and he was betrothed to Faustina, the daughter of the latter. In 139 the title of Caesar was conferred upon him and he dropped the name of Verus. The full name he then bore was Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus, Aelius coming from Hadrian’s family, and Aurelius being the original name of Antoninus Pius. In 140 he was made consul. The education of Aurelius in his youth was minute (see Medit. i. 1-16). A better guardian than Antoninus Pius could not be conceived. Marcus himself says, “To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, good kinsmen and friends, nearly everything good.” He was educated, not at school, but by tutors, Herodes Atticus and M. Cornelius Fronto (q.v.) in the usual curriculum of rhetoric and poetry; but at the age of eleven he became acquainted with Diognetus the painter and Stoic philosopher (Hist. script. aug. i. 305, notes), was fascinated by the philosophy he taught, assumed the dress of his sect, and ultimately abandoned rhetoric and poetry for philosophy and law, having among his teachers of the one Sextus of Chaeronea, grandson of Plutarch, and later Q. Junius Rusticus, and of the other L. Volusius Maecianus (or Metianus), a distinguished jurist. He went thoroughly into the practice as well as the theory of Stoicism, and lived so abstemious and laborious a life that he injured his health. From his Stoic teachers he learned to work hard, to deny himself, to avoid listening to slander, to endure misfortunes, never to deviate from his purpose, to be grave without affectation, delicate in correcting others, “not frequently to say to any one, nor to write in a letter, that I have no leisure,” nor to excuse the neglect of duties by alleging urgent occupations. Through all his Stoical training Aurelius preserved the natural sweetness of his nature. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 to 161), the concord between him and Aurelius was complete; Capitolinus (c. 7) says “nec praeter duas noctes per tot annos mansit diversis vicibus.” The two were associated in the administration and in the simple country occupations of the seaside villa of Lorium, the birthplace of Pius, to which he loved to retire. It has been assumed on the strength of a passage in Capitolinus that Aurelius married Faustina in 146, but the passage is not clear, and other evidence points strongly to 140; at all events it seems certain that a daughter was born to him in 140. Antoninus Pius died in 161, having recommended as his successor Aurelius, then forty years of age, without mentioning Commodus, his other adopted son, commonly called Lucius Verus. It is believed that the senate urged Aurelius to take the sole administration. But he showed the magnanimity of his nature by at once admitting Verus as his partner, giving him the tribunician and proconsular powers, and the titles Caesar and Augustus. This was the first time that Rome had two emperors as colleagues. Verus, a weak, self-indulgent man, had a high respect for his adoptive brother, and deferred uniformly to his judgment. In the first year of his reign Faustina gave birth to twins, one of whom became the emperor Commodus. The early part of the reign of Aurelius was clouded by national misfortunes. An inundation of the Tiber swept away a large part of Rome, destroying fields, drowning cattle, and causing a famine (162); then came earthquakes, fires and plagues of insects; the soldiers in Britain tried to induce their general Statius Priscus to proclaim himself emperor; finally, the Parthians under Vologaeses III. resumed hostilities, annihilated the Roman forces under Severianus at Elegia in Cappadocia, and devastated Syria. Verus, originally a man of considerable courage and ability, was sent to oppose the Parthians, but gave himself up to sensual excesses, and the Roman cause in Armenia would have been lost, and the empire itself, perhaps, imperilled, had not Verus had under him able generals,[2] the chief of whom was Avidius Cassius (see Cassius, Avidius). By them the Parthian War was brought to a conclusion in 165, but Verus and his army brought back with them a terrible pestilence, which spread through the whole empire. The people seem to have thought that the last days of the empire had come. The Parthians had at the best been beaten, not subdued; the Britons threatened revolt; there were signs that various tribes beyond the Alps intended to break into Italy. Indeed, the bulk of the reign of Aurelius was spent in efforts to ward off the attacks of the barbarians. He went himself to the wars with Verus in 167, first to Aquileia and then on into Pannonia and Noricum, wintering at Sirmium in Pannonia. Ultimately the Marcomanni, the fiercest of the tribes that inhabited the country between Illyria and the sources of the Danube, sued for peace in 168. In January or February 160 Verus died at Altinum, apparently of apoplexy, though some ventured to say that he was poisoned by Aurelius. Aurelius was thenceforth indisputed master of the empire, during one of the most troubled periods of its history. His reign is well described by F. W. Farrar (Seekers after God): “He regarded himself as being, in fact, the servant of all. The registry of the citizens, the suppression of litigation, the elevation of public morals, the care of minors, the retrenchment of public expenses, the limitation of gladiatorial games and shows, the care of roads, the restoration of senatorial privileges, the appointment of none but worthy magistrates, even the regulation of street traffic, these and numberless other duties so completely absorbed his attention that, in spite of indifferent health, they often kept him at severe labour from early morning till long after midnight. His position, indeed, often necessitated his presence at games and shows, but on these occasions he occupied himself either in reading, in being read to, or in writing notes. He was one of those who held that nothing should be done hastily, and that few crimes were worse than the waste of time.” The comprehensiveness of his legal and judicial reforms is very striking. Slaves, heirs, women and children, were benefited, and he made serious attempts to deal with the steady fall in the birth-rate of legitimate children. In the autumn of 169 two of the German tribes, the Quadi and the Marcomanni, with their allies the Vandals, Iazyges and Sarmatians, renewed hostilities and, for three years, Aurelius resided almost constantly at Carnuntum. In the end the Marcomanni were driven out of Pannonia, and were almost destroyed in their retreat across the Danube. In 174 Aurelius gained over the Quadi a decisive victory, which is commemorated by one of the sculptures on the column of Antonine. The story is that the Romans, entangled in a defile, were suffering from thirst. A sudden storm gave abundance of rain, while hail and thunder confounded their enemies, and enabled the Romans to gain an easy and complete victory. This triumph was universally considered at the time, and for long afterwards, to have been a miracle, and bore the title of “The Miracle of the Thundering Legion.” The pagan writers (e.g. Dio Cassius, lxx. 8–10) ascribed the victory to the magic arts of an Egyptian named Arnuphis who prevailed on Mercury and other gods to ​give relief, while the Christians attributed it to the prayers of their brethren in a legion to which, they affirmed, the emperor then gave the name of “The Thundering.” Dacier, however, and others who adhere to the Christian view of the miracle, admit that the appellation of “Thundering” or “Lightning” (κεραυνοβόλος, or κεραυνοφόρος) was given to the legion because there was a figure of lightning on their shields. It has also been virtually proved that it had the title even in the reign of Augustus. Aurelius next marched to Germany. There news reached him that Avidius Cassius, the commander of the Roman troops in Asia, had revolted and proclaimed himself emperor (175). But after three months Cassius was assassinated, and his head was brought to Aurelius, who with characteristic magnanimity, persuaded the senate to pardon all the family of Cassius. It is a proof of the wisdom of Aurelius’s clemency that he had little or no trouble in pacifying the provinces which had been the scene of rebellion. He treated them all with forbearance, and it is said that when the correspondence of Cassius was brought him he burnt it without reading it. During his journey of pacification, Faustina, who had borne him eleven children, died. Dio Cassius and Capitolinus charge Faustina with the most shameless infidelity to her husband, who is even blamed for not paying heed to her crimes. But none of these stories rests on trustworthy evidence; on the other hand, there can be no doubt that Aurelius trusted her while she lived, and mourned her loss. After the death of Faustina and the pacification of Syria, Aurelius proceeded, on his return to Italy, through Athens, and was initiated in the Eleusinian mysteries, the reason assigned for his doing so being that it was his custom to conform to the established rites of the countries he visited. He gave large sums of money for the endowment of chairs in philosophy and rhetoric, with a view to making the schools the resort of students from all parts of the empire. Along with his son Commodus he entered Rome in 176, and obtained a triumph for victories in Germany. In 177 occurred that persecution of Christians, the share of Aurelius in which has been the subject of so much controversy. Meanwhile the German War continued, and the two Quintilii, who had been left in command, begged Aurelius once more to take the field. In this campaign Aurelius, after a series of successes, was attacked, according to some authorities, by an infectious disease, of which he died after a seven days’ illness, either in his camp at Sirmium (Mitrovitz), on the Save, in Lower Pannonia, or at Vindobona (Vienna), on the 17th of March 180, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Other accounts are: (1) that he was poisoned in the interests of Commodus (Dio. Cass. lxxi. 33, 4), (2) that he died of a chronic stomachic disease; the latter is perhaps the most likely. His ashes (according to some authorities, his body) were taken to Rome. By common consent he was deified and all those who could afford the cost obtained his statue or bust; for a long time his statues held a place among the penates of the Romans. Commodus, who was with his father when he died, erected to his memory the Antonine column (now in the Piazza Colonna at Rome), round the shaft of which are sculptures in relief commemorating the miracle of the Thundering Legion and the various victories of Aurelius over the Quadi and the Marcomanni. A bronze equestrian statue was set up in the Forum, now on the Capitol. Aurelius throughout his reign was hostile to Christianity. The Christians suffered from systematic persecution, and many historians, with a strange lack of historical insight, have poured denunciation upon him for an attitude which was the natural outcome of his convictions. During his reign the atmosphere of Roman society was heavily charged with the popular Greek philosophy to which, ethics apart, Christianity was diametrically opposed. Under Antoninus the “pursuit” of Christians was unknown; under Trajan and Hadrian it was forbidden (cf. Keim, Aus dem Urchrist, p. 99). But Aurelius was an eager patriot and a man of logical mind. From his earliest youth he had learned to identify the ritual of the Roman religion with the very essence of the imperial idea. He became a Salian priest at the age of eight, and soon knew by heart all the forms and liturgical order of the official worship, and even the sacred music. In the earliest statue we have he is a youth offering incense; he is a priest at the sacrificial altar in the latest triumphal reliefs. Naturally he felt that the prevalence of Christianity was incompatible with his ideal of Roman prosperity, and therefore that the policy of the Flavian emperors was the only logical solution of an important problem. Neumann argued that the recrudescence of active persecution was initiated by a deliberate ad hoc rescript issued probably in A.D. 176. Sir W. M. Ramsay, however, doubts this (The Church in the Roman Empire, London, 1893), and argues that it was due to a long series of instructions to provincial governors (mandata, not decreta) who interpreted their duty largely in conformity with the attitude of the reigning emperor. In other words the governors were ordered merely to punish sacrilege, and, under Aurelius, Christianity was regarded as such. In the second place, though it is true that the persecutions indicated by Celsus (Origen, Celsus, viii. 69), Justin, Melito (in Eusebius, H.E., iv. 26), Athenagoras (Libellus pro Christianis) and the Acts of Martyrs, were greatly in excess of those recorded in previous reigns, it must not be forgotten that it was only in this period that the Christians began to keep records. Thirdly, there can be no doubt that the Christians had recently assumed a much bolder attitude, and thus segregated themselves from the mass of those unorthodox sects which the Roman could afford to despise. Like the Druids in Gaul (cf. T. Mommsen, Prov. Rom. Emp., Eng. trans. i. 105, and V. Duruy, Rev. archéol., Apr. 1880), the Christians were particularly dangerous, inasmuch as they taught a unity which transcended that of the Roman Empire, and must, therefore, have been regarded as antagonistic to the existing political and social organism. When, therefore, we remember that Aurelius knew little of the Christians, that the only mention of them in the Meditations is a contemptuous reference to certain fanatics of their number whom even Clement of Alexandria compares for their thirst for martyrdom to the Indian gymnosophists, and finally that the least worthy of them were doubtless the most prominent, we cannot doubt that Aurelius was acting unquestionably in the best interests of a perfectly intelligible ideal. He was “Roman in resolution and repression, Roman in civic nobility and pride, Roman in tenacity of imperial aim, Roman in respect for law, Roman in self-effacement for the service of the State” (G. H. Rendall). Philosophy.—The book which contains the philosophy of Aurelius is known by the title of his Reflections, or Meditations, although that is not the name which he gave to it himself ( Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν). Of the genuineness of the work no doubts are now entertained. It is believed that he wrote also an autobiography, which has perished. The Meditations were written, it is evident, as occasion offered—in the midst of public business, and on the eve of battles on which the fate of the empire depended—hence their fragmentary appearance, but hence also much of their practical value and even of their charm. It is believed by many critics that they were intended for the guidance of Aurelius’s son, Commodus (q.v.); at all events they are generally considered as one of the most precious of the legacies of antiquity. Renan even called them “the most human of all books,” and they are described by J. S. Mill in his Utility of Religion as almost equal in ethical elevation to the Sermon on the Mount. Aurelius throughout his life adhered to the Stoical philosophy. But, as Tenneman says, he imparted to it “a character of gentleness and benevolence, by making it subordinate to a love of mankind, allied to religion.” His thoughts represent a transitional movement, and it is difficult to discover in them anything like a systematic philosophy. From the manner, however, in which he seeks to distinguish between matter and cause or reason, and from the earnestness with which he advises men to examine all the impressions on their minds, it may be inferred that he held the view of Anaxagoras—that God and matter exist independently, but that God governs matter. There can be no doubt that Aurelius believed in a deity, although Schultz is probably right in maintaining that all his theology amounts to this—the soul of man is most intimately united to his body, and together they make one animal which we call man; and so the deity is most intimately united to the world or the material universe, and together they form one whole. We find in the Meditations no speculations on the absolute nature of the deity, and no clear expressions of opinion as to a future state. ​We may also observe here that, like Epictetus, he is by no means so decided on the subject of suicide as the older Stoics. Aurelius is, above all things, a practical moralist. The goal in life to be aimed at, according to him, is not happiness, but tranquillity, or equanimity. This condition of mind can be obtained only by “living conformably to nature,” that is to say, one’s whole nature, and as a means to that man must cultivate the four chief virtues, each of which has its distinct sphere—wisdom, or the knowledge of good and evil; justice, or the giving to every man his due; fortitude, or the enduring of labour and pain; and temperance, or moderation in all things. It is no “fugitive and cloistered virtue” that Aurelius seeks to encourage; on the contrary, man must lead the “life of the social animal,” must “live as on a mountain”; and “he is an abscess on the universe who withdraws and separates himself from the reason of our common nature through being displeased with the things which happen.” While the prime principle in man is the social, “the next in order is not to yield to the persuasions of the body, when they are not conformable to the rational principle which must govern.” This divinity “within a man,” this “legislating faculty,” which, looked at from one point of view, is conscience, and from another is reason, must be implicitly obeyed. He who thus obeys it will attain tranquillity of mind; nothing can irritate him, for everything is according to nature, and death itself “is such as generation is, a mystery of nature, a composition out of the same elements, and a decomposition into the same, and altogether not a thing of which any man should be ashamed, for it is not contrary to the nature of a reasonable animal, and not contrary to the reason of our constitution.” The morality of Marcus Aurelius cannot be said to have been new when it was given to the world. Its charm lies in its exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness. But above all, what gives the sentences of Marcus Aurelius their enduring value and fascination, and renders them superior to the utterances of Epictetus and Seneca, is that they are the gospel of his life. His precepts are simply the records of his practice. To the saintliness of the cloister he added the wisdom of the man of the world; he was constant in misfortune, not elated by prosperity, never “carrying things to the sweating-point,” but preserving, in a time of universal corruption, unreality and self-indulgence, a nature sweet, pure, self-denying, unaffected. Bibliography.—P. B. Watson’s M. Aurelius Antoninus (1884) contains a general account—life, character, philosophy, relations with Christianity—as well as a bibliography; see also art. in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, s.v. “Annius” (No. 94), col. 2279. For special points see: (1) Historical: Authorities under Rome: Ancient History; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to M. Aurelius (London, 1904). (2) Relations to Christianity: Sir W. M. Ramsay, op. cit.; W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, A.D. 1-600 (Eng. trans., A. Rutherford, 1892); W. E. Addis, Christianity and the Roman Empire (1893); E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (1894), pp. 145 sqq., which criticizes both Neumann and Ramsay; Leonard Alston, Stoic and Christian of the 2nd century (1906); J. Dartigue-Peyrou, Marc-Aurèle dans ses rapports avec le christianisme (Paris, 1897). (3) Philosophical: Besides article Stoics, E. Renan, Marc. Antoninus et la fin du monde antique (Paris, 1882; Eng. trans., W. Hutchinson, 1904); W. Pater, Marius the Epicurean (London, 1888); Matthew Arnold’s Essays; C. H. W. Davis, Greek and Roman Stoicism (1903); editions of the Meditations (5, below). (4) Military: E. Napp, De rebus imperat. M. Aurel. Anton, in oriente gestis (Bonn, 1879); Conrad, Mark Aurels Markomannenkrieg (1889); Th. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., W. P. Dickson, London, 1886); for the Aurelius column, E. Petersen, A. von Domaszewski, and G. Calderini, Die Marcussäule (Munich, 1896), with historical introduction by Th. Mommsen. (5) The Meditations were published by Xylander in 1558; the best critical edition is that of J. Stich in the Teubner series (Leipzig, 1882; 2nd ed., 1903); textual emendations also in Journal of Philology, xxiii. 116-160 (G. H. Rendall); Classical Review, xix. (1905), pp. 18 sqq. (Herbert Richards), ibid., pp. 301 sqq. (A. J. Kronenberg). Translations exist in almost every language; that of George Long (London, 1862, re-edited 1900) has been superseded by those of G. H. Rendall (London, 1898, with valuable introduction) and J. Jackson (Oxford, 1906, with introduction by Charles Bigg). (6) For a full account of the correspondence of Aurelius and Fronto, see Robinson Ellis, Correspondence of Fronto and M. Aurelius (Oxford, 1904).  (J. M. M.) ↑ Capitolinus states that he was originally called Catilius Severus after his mother’s grandfather; if so the name was early discarded. ↑ Aurelius has been severely criticized for sending Verus. Among various reasons, the most convincing is that the presence of Aurelius was required in Rome; moreover, the real leader was evidently Cassius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus&oldid=10853613" Category: EB1911:People:Ancient:Roman Hidden categories: Subpages Pages with contributor Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 15:53. 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en-wikisource-org-2156	----	Συγγραφέας:Μάρκος Αυρήλιος - Βικιθήκη Συγγραφέας:Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Από Βικιθήκη (Ανακατεύθυνση από Μάρκος Αυρήλιος) Μετάβαση στην πλοήγηση Πήδηση στην αναζήτηση ←Συγγραφείς: Μάρκος Αυρήλιος (Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) (121–180) Δείτε επίσης βιογραφία, γκαλερί εικόνων. //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Marc_Aurele.jpg Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Έργα[Επεξεργασία] Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Σύνδεσμοι σε καταλόγους καθιερωμένων όρων  WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 ΕΒΕ: 150699 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 Project Gutenberg: 998 BNE: XX932158 w:CiNii: DA00596148 Ανακτήθηκε από «https://el.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Συγγραφέας:Μάρκος_Αυρήλιος&oldid=97679» Κατηγορίες: Συγγραφείς-Α Συγγραφείς Φιλόσοφοι Αρχαίοι συγγραφείς Κρυμμένες κατηγορίες: AC με 17 στοιχεία Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά VIAF Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά EBE Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά LCCN Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά ISNI Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά GND Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά SELIBR Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά BNF Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά BIBSYS Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά ULAN Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά MusicBrainz Διάφορες σελίδες με αναγνωριστικά NLA Μενού πλοήγησης Προσωπικά εργαλεία Χωρίς Σύνδεση Σελίδα συζήτησης αυτής της διεύθυνσης IP Συνεισφορές Δημιουργία λογαριασμού Σύνδεση Ονοματοχώροι Συγγραφέας Συζήτηση Παραλλαγές Προβολές Ανάγνωση Επεξεργασία Προβολή ιστορικού Περισσότερα Αναζήτηση Πλοήγηση Κύρια Σελίδα Ἀρχαία English Γραμματεία Πρόσφατες αλλαγές Τυχαίο κείμενο Τυχαίος συγγραφέας Τυχαία μεταγραφή Βοήθεια Δωρεές Εργαλειοθήκη Συνδέσεις προς εδώ Σχετικές αλλαγές Επιφόρτωση αρχείου Ειδικές σελίδες Σταθερός σύνδεσμος Πληροφορίες σελίδας Αντικείμενο Wikidata Εκτύπωση/εξαγωγή Δημιουργία βιβλίου Κατέβασμα ως PDF Εκτυπώσιμη έκδοση Σε άλλα εγχειρήματα Wikimedia Commons Βικιπαίδεια Βικιφθέγματα Σε άλλες γλώσσες বাংলা Čeština Deutsch English Esperanto Français עברית Italiano Polski Português Română Русский தமிழ் Επεξεργασία συνδέσμων Η σελίδα αυτή τροποποιήθηκε τελευταία φορά στις 3 Ιούνιος 2017, στις 05:18. Όλα τα κείμενα είναι διαθέσιμα υπό την Άδεια Creative Commons Αναφορά Δημιουργού-Παρόμοια Διανομή 3.0· μπορεί να ισχύουν πρόσθετοι όροι. Δείτε τους Όρους Χρήσης για λεπτομέρειες. Πολιτική ιδιωτικότητας Για την Βικιθήκη Αποποίηση ευθυνών Προβολή κινητού Προγραμματιστές Στατιστικά Δήλωση cookie 
en-wikisource-org-5604	----	Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Wikisource, the free online library Author:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus From Wikisource (Redirected from Author:Marcus Aurelius) Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Author Index: Ma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121–180) sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons gallery, Commons category, quotes, Wikidata item. Roman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 129858Q1430Marcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusMarcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusMarcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusRoman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Works[edit] Meditations: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - His Meditations concerning himselfe, translated by Meric Casaubon, 1634 The Emperor Marcus Antoninus - His Conversation with Himself,(transcription project), translated by Jeremy Collier, 1702 'The Commentaries of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus',(transcription project), translated by James Thomson, 1747 'The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus',(transcription project), translated by Richard Graves, 1792 The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, translated by George Long, 1862 The communings with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, translated by C. R. Haines, 1916 (transcription project) The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, translated by A. S. L. Farquharson, 1944 Letters: The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto, translated by C. R. Haines, 1919 (contains many letters between Fronto and Marcus). Works about Marcus Aurelius[edit] "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus," by John Malcolm Mitchell in Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911) "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus," by Patrick Joseph Healy in Catholic Encyclopedia, (ed.) by Charles G. Herbermann and others, New York: The Encyclopaedia Press (1913) "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus," in The New Student's Reference Work, Chicago: F.E. Compton and Co. (1914) History of the Empire From the Death of Marcus by Herodian Works by this author published before January 1, 1926 are in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago. Translations or editions published later may be copyrighted. Posthumous works may be copyrighted based on how long they have been published in certain countries and areas.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Authority control VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 CiNii: DA00596148 PTBNP: 272140 NTA: 06867452X BAV: ADV12179132 NLI: 000088890 NUKAT: n96103790 LibriVox: 4398 Project Gutenberg: 998 Find a Grave: 35001023 BNE: XX932158 NLR: 000136425 Open Library: OL133986A Freebase: /m/051x8 PRDL: 5943 GEC: 0040045 BN.br: 000181323  English Wikisource: 129858  WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Author:Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus&oldid=11154971" Categories: 121 births 180 deaths Ancient authors Authors-Ma Male authors Author-PD-old Ancient Roman authors Roman emperors Ancient philosophers Hidden categories: Author pages with Wikidata image Author pages with gender in Wikidata Author pages connected to Wikidata Author pages with authority control data Author pages with VIAF on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Author Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikiquote In other languages বাংলা Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Esperanto Français עברית Italiano Polski Português Română Русский தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 11:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-6000	----	Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Wikisource, the free online library Download Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marcus Aurelius Antoninus From Wikisource < Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) Jump to navigation Jump to search ← Aurelius Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 2 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Patrick Joseph Healy Petrus Aureoli → related authors: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. sister projects: Wikidata item. 95470Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 2 — Marcus Aurelius AntoninusPatrick Joseph Healy Roman Emperor, A.D. 161-180, born at Rome, 26 April, 121; died 17 March, 180. HIS EARLY LIFE (121-161) His father died while Marcus was yet a boy, and he was adopted by his grandfather, Annius Verus. In the first pages of his "Meditations" (I, i-xvii) he has left us an account, unique in antiquity, of his education by near relatives and by tutors of distinction; diligence, gratitude and hardiness seem to have been its chief characteristics. From his earliest years he enjoyed the friendship and patronage of the Emperor Hadrian, who bestowed on him the honour of the equestrian order when he was only six years old, made him a member of the Salian priesthood at eight, and compelled Antoninus Pius immediately after his own adoption to adopt as sons and heirs both the young Marcus and Ceionius Commodus, known later as the Emperor Lucius Verus. In honour of his adopted father he changed his name from M. Julius Aurelius Verus to M. Aurelius Antoninus. By the will of Hadrian he espoused Faustina, the daughter of Antoninus Pius. He was raised to the consularship in 140, and in 147 received the "tribunician power". HIS REIGN (161-180) His co-reign with Lucius Verus (161-169). In all the later years of the life of Antoninus Pius, Marcus was his constant companion and adviser. On the death of the former (7 March, 161) Marcus was immediately acknowledged as emperor by the Senate. Acting entirely on his own initiative he at once promoted his adopted brother Lucius Verus to the position of colleague, with equal rights as emperor. With the accession of Marcus, the great Pax Romana that made the era of the Antonines the happiest in the annals of Rome, and perhaps of mankind, came to an end, and with his reign the glory of the old Rome vanished. Younger peoples, untainted by the vices of civilization, and knowing nothing of the inanition which comes from overefinement and over-indulgence, were preparing to struggle for the lead in the direction of human destiny. Marcus was scarcely seated on the throne when the Picts commenced to threaten in Britain the recently erected Wall of Antoninus. The Chatti and Chauci attempted to cross the Rhine and the upper reaches of the Danube. These attacks were easily repelled. Not so with the outbreak in the Orient, which commenced in 161 and did not cease until 166. The destruction of an entire legion (XXII Deiotariana) at Elegeia aroused the emperors to the gravity of the situation. Lucius Verus took the command of the troops in 162 and, through the valor and skill of his lieutenants in a war known officially as the Bellum Armeniacum el Parthicum, waged over the wide area of Syria, Cappadocia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Media, was able to celebrate a glorious trumph in 166. For a people so long accustomed to peace as the Romans were, this war was wellnigh fatal. It taxed all their resources, and the withdrawal of the legions from the Danubian frontier gave an opportunity to the Teutonic tribes to penetrate into the rich and tempting territory. People with strange-sounding names — the Marcomanni, Varistae, Hermanduri, Quadis, Suevi, Jazyges, Vandals — collected along the Danube, crossed the frontiers, and became the advance-guard of the great migration known as the "Wandering of the Nations", which four centuries later culminated in the overthrow of the Western Empire. The war against these invaders commenced in 167, and in a short time had assumed such threatening proportions as to demand the presence of both emperors at the front. After the death of Lucius Verus (169-180). Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus was left to carry on the war alone. His difficulties were immeasurably increased by the devastation wrought by the plague carried westward by the returning legions of Verus, by famine and earthquakes, and by inundations which destroyed the vast granaries of Rome and their contents. In the panic and terror caused by these events the people resorted to the extremes of superstition to win back the favour of the deities through whose anger it was believed these visitations were inflicted. Strange rites of expiation and sacrifice were resorted to, victims were stain by thousands, and the assistance of the gods of the Orient sought for as well as that of the gods of Rome. The Thundering Legion incident (174). During the war with the Quadi in 174 there took place the famous incident of the Thundering Legion (Legio Fulminatrix, Fulminea, Fulminata) which has been a cause of frequent controversy between Christian and non-Christian writers. The Roman army was surrounded by enemies with no chance of escape, when a storm burst. The rain poured down in refreshing showers on the Romans, while the enemy were scattered with lighting and hail. The parched and famishing Romans received the saving drops first on their faces and parched throats, and afterwards in their helmets and shields, to refresh their horses. Marcus obtained a glorious victory as a result of this extraordinary event, and his enemies were hopelessly overthrown. That such an event did really happen is attested both by pagan and Christian writers. The former attribute the occurrence either to magic (Dion Cassius, LXXI, 8-10) or to the prayers of the emperor (Capitolinus, "Vita Marci", XXIV; Themistius, "Orat. XV ad Theod"; Claudian, "De Sext. Cons. Hon.", V, 340 sqq.; "Sibyl. Orac.", ed. Alezandre, XII, 196 sqq. Cf. Bellori, "La Colonne Antonine", and Eckhel, "Doctrina Nummorum", III, 64). The Christian writers attributed the fact to the prayers of the Christians who were in the army (Claudius Apollinaris in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", V, 5; Tertullian, "Apol.", v; ad Seap. c. iv), and soon there grew up a legend to the effect that in consequence of this miracle the emperor put a stop to the persecution of the Christians (cf. Euseb. and Tert. opp cit.). It must be conceded that the testimony of Claudius Apollinaris (see Smith and Wace, "Dict. of Christ. Biogr.", I, 132-133) is the most valuable of all that we possess, as he wrote within a few years of the event, and that all credit must be given to the prayers of the Christians, though it does not necessarily follow that we should accept the elaborate detail of the story as given by Tertullian and later writers [Allard, op. cit. infra, pp. 377, 378; Renan, "Marc-Aurèle" (6th ed., Pari 1891), XVII, pp. 273-278; P. de Smedt, "Principes de la critique hist." (1883) p. 133]. His death (180). The last years of the reign of Marcus were saddened by the appearance of a usurper, Avidius Cassius, in the Orient, and by the consciousness that the empire was to fall into unworthy hands when his son Commodus should come to the throne. Marcus died at Vindobona or Sirmium in Pannonia. The chief authorities for his life are Julius Capitolinus, "Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi" (SS. Hist. Aug. IV); Dion Cassius, "Epitome of Xiphilinos"; Herodian; Fronto, "Epistolae" and Aulus Gellius "Noctes Atticae". ASSESSMENT General assessment. Marcus Aurelius was one of the best men of heathen antiquity. Apropos of the Antonines the judicious Montesquieu says that, if we set aside for a moment the contemplation of the Christian verities, we can not read the life of this emperor without a softening feeling of emotion. Niebuhr calls him the noblest character of his time, and M. Martha, the historian of the Roman moralists, says that in Marcus Aurelius "the philosophy of Heathendom grows less proud, draws nearer to a Christianity which it ignored or which it despised, and is ready to fling itself into the arms of the Unknown God." On the other hand, the warm eulogies which many writers have heaped on Marcus Aurelius as a ruler and as a man seem excessive and overdrawn. It is true that the most marked trait in his character was his devotion to philosophy and letters, but it was a curse to mankind that "he was a Stoic first and then a ruler". His dilettanteism rendered him utterly unfitted for the practical affairs of a large empire in a time of stress. He was more concerned with realizing in his own life (to say the truth, a stainless one) the Stoic ideal of perfection, than he was with the pressing duties of his office. Philosophy became a disease in his mind and cut him off from the truths of practical life. He was steeped in the grossest superstition; he surrounded himself with charlatans and magicians, and took with seriousness even the knavery of Alexander of Abonoteichos. The highest offices in the empire were sometimes conferred on his philosophic teachers, whose lectures he attended even after he became emperor. In the midst of the Parthian war he found time to keep a kind of private diary, his famous "Meditations", or twelve short books of detached thoughts and sentences in which he gave over to posterity the results of a rigorous self-examination. With the exception of a few letters discovered among the works of Fronto (M. Corn. Frontonis Reliquiae, Berlin, 1816) this history of his inner life is the only work which we have from his pen. The style is utterly without merit and distinction, apparently a matter of pride for he tells us he had learned to abstain from rhetoric, and poetry, and fine writing. Though a Stoic deeply rooted in the principles developed by Seneca and Epictetus, Aurelius cannot be said to have any consistent system of philosophy. It might be said, perhaps, in justice to this "seeker after righteousness", that his faults were the faults of his philosophy rooted in the principle that human nature naturally inclined towards evil and heeded to be constantly kept in check. Only once does he refer to Christianity (Medit., XI, iii), a spiritual regenerative force that was visibiy increasing its activity, and then only to brand the Christians with the reproach of obstinacy (parataxis), the highest social crime in the eyes of Roman authority. He seems also (ibid.) to look on Christian martyrdom as devoid of the serenity and calm that should accompany the death of the wise man. For the possible relations of the emperor with Christian bishops see ABERCIUS OF HIEROPOLIS, and . His dealings with the Christians. In his dealings with the Christians Marcus Aurelius went a step farther than any of his predecessors. Throughout the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, the procedure followed by Roman authorities in their treatment of the Christians has that outlined in Trajan's rescript to Pliny, by which it was ordered that the Christians should not be sought out; if brought before the courts, legal proof of their guilt should be forthcoming. [For the much-disputed rescript "Ad conventum Asiae" (Eus., Hist. Eccl., IV, xiii), see ]. It is clear that during the reign of Aurelius the comparative leniency of the legislation of Trajan gave way to a more severe temper. In Southern Gaul, at least, an imperial rescript inaugurated an entirely new and much more violent era of persecution (Eus., Hist. Eccl., V, i, 45). In Asia Minor and in Syria the blood of Christians flowed in torrents (Allard, op. cit. infra. pp. 375, 376, 388, 389). In general the recrudescence of persecution seems to have come immediately through the local action of the provincial governors impelled by the insane outcries of terrified and demoralized city mobs. If any general imperial edict was issued, it has not survived. It seems more probable that the "new decrees" mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. IV, xx-i, 5) were local ordinances of municipal authorities or provincial governors; as to the emperor, he maintained against the Christians the existing legislation, though it has been argued that the imperial edict (Digests XLVIII, xxix, 30) against those who terrify by superstition "the fickle minds of men" was directed against the Christian society. Duchesne says (Hist. Ancienne de l'Eglise, Paris, 1906 p. 210) that for such obscure sects the emperor would not condescend to interfere with the laws of the empire. It is clear, however, from the scattered references in contemporary writings (Celsus "In Origen. Contra Celsum", VIll, 169; Melito, in Eus., "Hist. Eccl.", IV, xxvi; Athenagoras, "Legatio pro Christianis", i) that throughout the empire an active pursuit of the Christians was now undertaken. In order to encourage their numerous enemies, the ban was raised from the delatores, or "denouncers", and they were promised rewards for all cases of successful conviction. The impulse given by this legislation to an unrelenting pursuit of the followers of Christ rendered their condition so precarious that many changes in ecclesiastical organization and discipline date, at least in embryo, from this reign. Another significant fact, pointing to the growing numbers and influence of the Christians, and the increasing distrust on the part of the imperial authorities and the cultured classes, is that an active literary propaganda, emanating from the imperial surrounding, was commenced at this period. The Cynic philosopher Crescens took part in a public disputation with St. Justin in Rome. Fronto, the precepter and bosom friend of Marcus Aurelius, denounced the followers of the new religion in a formal discourse (Min. Felix, "Octavius", cc. ix, xxxi) and the satirist Lucian of Samosata turned the shafts of his wit against them, as a party of ignorant fanatics. No better proof the tone of the period and of the widespread knowledge of Christian beliefs and practices which prevailed among the pagans is needed than the contemporary "True Word" of Celsus (see ), a work in which were collected all the calumnies of pagan malice and all the arguments, set forth with the skill of the trained rhetorician, which the philosophy and experience of the pagan world could muster against the new creed. The earnestness and frequency with which the Christians replied to these assaults by the apologetic works (see , , ) addressed directly to the emperors themselves, or to the people at large, show how keenly alive they were to the dangers arising from these literary or academic foes. From such and so many causes it is not surprising that Christian blood flowed freely in all parts of the empire. The excited populace saw in the misery and bloodshed of the period a proof that the gods were angered by the toleration accorded to the Christians, consequently, they threw on the latter all blame for the incredible public calamities. Whether it was famine or pestilence, drought or floods, the cry was the same (Tertullian, "Apologeticum", V, xli): Christianos ad leonem (Throw the Christians to the lion). The pages of the Apologists show how frequently the Christians were condemned and what penalties they had to endure, and these vague and general references are confirmed by some contemporary "Acta" of unquestionable authority, in which the harrowing scenes are described in all their gruesome details. Among them are the "Acta" of Justin and his companions who suffered at Rome (c. 165), of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonica, who were put to death in Asia Minor, of the Scillitan Martyrs in Numidia, and the touching Letters of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne (Eus., Hist. Eccl., V, i-iv) in which is contained the description of the tortures inflicted (177) on Blandina and her companions at Lyons. Incidentally, this document throws much light on the character and extent of the persecution of the Christians in Southern Gaul, and on the share of the emperor therein. PATRICK J. HEALY Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus&oldid=9159379" Category: CE biographies Hidden categories: Subpages Pages with contributor Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 22 March 2019, at 04:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikisource-org-6362	----	The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Wikisource, the free online library Download The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus From Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search The Thoughts Of The Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, translated by George Long sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons category, Wikidata item. First edition: 1862. Second revised edition: 1873.  Information about this edition 90158The Thoughts Of The Emperor Marcus Aurelius AntoninusGeorge LongMarcus Aurelius Antoninus THE THOUGHTS OF THE EMPEROR MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. TRANSLATED BY GEORGE LONG. BOSTON: LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY. 1889. PREFACE. ———— I have carefully revised the Life and Philosophy of Antoninus, in which I have made a few corrections, and added a few notes. I have also made a few alterations in the translation where I thought that I could approach nearer to the author's meaning; and I have added a few notes and references. There still remain difficulties which I cannot remove, because the text is sometimes too corrupt to be understood, and no attempt to restore the true readings could be successful. George Long.   CONTENTS. ———— Biographical Sketch Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus The Thoughts: Book I Book II Book III Book IV Book V Book VI Book VII Book VIII Book IX Book X Book XI Book XII Index of Terms General Index   This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content. Original: This work was published before January 1, 1926, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Translation: This work was published before January 1, 1926, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_Thoughts_of_the_Emperor_Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus&oldid=10776168" Categories: PD-old Ancient Greek philosophical works Works originally in Koine Greek 1862 works Hidden category: Pages using left-margin without text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 16:39. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-7593	----	The New Student's Reference Work - Wikisource, the free online library Download The New Student's Reference Work From Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search The New Student's Reference Work  (1914)  edited by Chandler B. Beach and Frank Morton McMurry related portals: Reference Works. sister projects: Commons category, Wikidata item. Shortcut: NSRW   See the disclaimer for this project. This work is incomplete. If you'd like to help expand it, see the help pages and the style guide, or leave a comment on the talk page. (sources: see NSRW Index and Information about this edition) List of volumes Volume I: A—CZER Volume II: D—KREU Volume III: KRU—PLE Volume IV: PLI—UTR Volume V: V—ZYG[1] 133237The New Student's Reference Work1914edited by Chandler B. Beach and Frank Morton McMurry ​ THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK FOR TEACHERS, STUDENTS AND FAMILIES EDITED BY CHANDLER B. BEACH, A.M. ASSOCIATE EDITOR FRANK MORTON McMURRY, Ph.D. VOLUME I CHICAGO F. E. COMPTON AND COMPANY 1914 ↑ Also includes Arithmetic ∙ Outlines ∙ Questions ∙ Index This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1926. The author died in 1936, so this work is also in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 80 years or less. This work may also be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work&oldid=11341369" Categories: 1914 works PD-old-80-US The New Student's Reference Work Hidden categories: Incomplete texts Pages with override author Mainspace pages with shortcuts Pages needing conversion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other projects Wikimedia Commons In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 31 May 2021, at 07:58. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-7793	----	The New Student's Reference Work/Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus - Wikisource, the free online library Download The New Student's Reference Work/Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus From Wikisource < The New Student's Reference Work Jump to navigation Jump to search ← Aurelian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus The New Student's Reference Work (1914) Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Aurora (mythology) → sister projects: Wikipedia article. See also Marcus Aurelius on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer. 80661The New Student's Reference Work (1914) — Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Aure′lius Antoni′nus, Marcus, the noblest and, in personal qualities, the most attractive of the Roman emperors, was born at Rome, 121 A. D. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. Both his father, Annius Verus, and his mother, Domitia Camilla, were of noble blood. On the death of his father, Marcus was adopted by his grandfather, who bestowed the greatest possible care on his education. When a child he attracted the interest of the emperor, Hadrian, who, when he named Antoninus Pius as his successor, stipulated that the latter in turn should adopt both Marcus, who was his nephew, and Lucius C. Commodus. In Antoninus, who was a wise and prudent ruler and a thoroughly food man, Marcus had the best of guardians. In appreciation of the advantages of his youth Marcus himself says: “To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, nearly everything good.” While he first studied rhetoric and poetry, he early abandoned these for the study of philosophy and law, having become fascinated with the Stoic philosophy as taught by Diognetus. It was from his stoic teachers that he learned so many valuable lessons—to work hard, to deny himself, to avoid listening to slander, to endure misfortunes, never to deviate from his purpose, to be delicate in correcting others. Through all his stoical training Aurelius preserved the natural sweetness of his nature and became the most lovable and saintliest of pagans. In the year 140 A. D. he was made consul, and from this period on to the death of Antoninus, in 161 A. D., he discharged the duties of his various offices with the greatest fidelity. Antoninus in his last moments left the succession to Aurelius, without naming Commodus; but Aurelius voluntarily shared the throne with the latter, who henceforth bore the name of Lucius Verus, and Rome for the first time was governed by two emperors. Before the close of 161 A. D. the Parthian War broke out and Lucius was sent to quell the insurrection; but he gave himself up to licentious pleasures and intrusted the army to Cassius, who proved an able general, and gained several victories. The empire was now beset by many dangers. A revolt broke out in the German provinces; in Rome a pestilence raged; floods and earthquakes had laid large portions of the city in ruins; and these calamities increased the terror in which the people held their savage enemies. To allay the public alarm Aurelius placed himself at the head of the Roman legions and marched against the barbarians. He conquered the rebellious tribes and made them sue for peace in 168 A. D. Lucius died in the following year. In 170 A. D. the barbarous tribes again revolted, and from this time the contest continued almost through the whole life of the emperor. Though fond of peace, he was brave and relentless in suppressing rebellion. The most famous of all his victories was the one gained over the Quadi in 174 A. D. The effect was to bring the Germanic tribes from all quarters to sue for peace. Aurelius was now called to the east, where Cassius, the governor, had rebelled and seized the whole of Asia Minor; but before he reached there he learned that Cassius had been killed. On his arrival he burned the papers of Cassius without reading them, so that he might not learn who had been guilty of treason, treated the provinces which had rebelled with great kindness, and freely forgave the nobles who had favored Cassius. On his way home he visited Egypt and Greece, everywhere showing a deep interest in the welfare of his vast empire and securing the warm regard of his subjects, who were astonished at his lenity and goodness. He reached Rome in 176 A. D. The next year he went to Germany, where the tribes had again revolted. He again was victorious in several bloody battles, but, worn out with anxiety and fatigue, he died March 17, 180 A. D. The one blot on the character of Marcus Aurelius was his persecution of the Christians, who had been misrepresented to him and whom he regarded as enemies of the empire. His Meditations have been translated into English, German, French and Spanish, Several books have been written on his life and character. The best estimate of him is found in Dean Farrar’s Seekers After God. Compare, also, Pater’s Marius the Epicurean. Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Aurelius_Antoninus,_Marcus&oldid=9159380" Category: The New Student's Reference Work/All articles Hidden category: Subpages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 22 March 2019, at 04:08. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikisource-org-7836	----	Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Wikisource, the free online library Author:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus From Wikisource Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Author Index: Ma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121–180) sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons gallery, Commons category, quotes, Wikidata item. Roman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 129858Q1430Marcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusMarcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusMarcus Aurelius Antoninus AugustusRoman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Works[edit] Meditations: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - His Meditations concerning himselfe, translated by Meric Casaubon, 1634 The Emperor Marcus Antoninus - His Conversation with Himself,(transcription project), translated by Jeremy Collier, 1702 'The Commentaries of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus',(transcription project), translated by James Thomson, 1747 'The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus',(transcription project), translated by Richard Graves, 1792 The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, translated by George Long, 1862 The communings with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, translated by C. R. Haines, 1916 (transcription project) The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, translated by A. S. L. Farquharson, 1944 Letters: The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto, translated by C. R. Haines, 1919 (contains many letters between Fronto and Marcus). Works about Marcus Aurelius[edit] "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus," by John Malcolm Mitchell in Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911) "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus," by Patrick Joseph Healy in Catholic Encyclopedia, (ed.) by Charles G. Herbermann and others, New York: The Encyclopaedia Press (1913) "Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus," in The New Student's Reference Work, Chicago: F.E. Compton and Co. (1914) History of the Empire From the Death of Marcus by Herodian Works by this author published before January 1, 1926 are in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago. Translations or editions published later may be copyrighted. Posthumous works may be copyrighted based on how long they have been published in certain countries and areas.   Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse Authority control VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 CiNii: DA00596148 PTBNP: 272140 NTA: 06867452X BAV: ADV12179132 NLI: 000088890 NUKAT: n96103790 LibriVox: 4398 Project Gutenberg: 998 Find a Grave: 35001023 BNE: XX932158 NLR: 000136425 Open Library: OL133986A Freebase: /m/051x8 PRDL: 5943 GEC: 0040045 BN.br: 000181323  English Wikisource: 129858  WorldCat Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Author:Marcus_Aurelius_Antoninus&oldid=11154971" Categories: 121 births 180 deaths Ancient authors Authors-Ma Male authors Author-PD-old Ancient Roman authors Roman emperors Ancient philosophers Hidden categories: Author pages with Wikidata image Author pages with gender in Wikidata Author pages connected to Wikidata Author pages with authority control data Author pages with VIAF on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Author Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia Wikiquote In other languages বাংলা Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Esperanto Français עברית Italiano Polski Português Română Русский தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 4 April 2021, at 11:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wiktionary-org-2414	----	安 - Wiktionary 安 Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search 安 U+5B89, &#23433; CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89 ← 守 [U+5B88] CJK Unified Ideographs 宊 → [U+5B8A] Contents 1 Translingual 1.1 Han character 1.1.1 Derived characters 1.1.2 Descendants 1.1.3 References 2 Chinese 2.1 Glyph origin 2.2 Etymology 2.3 Pronunciation 2.4 Definitions 2.5 Compounds 2.6 Descendants 3 Japanese 3.1 Kanji 3.1.1 Readings 3.1.2 Derived terms 3.2 Etymology 3.3 Affix 3.3.1 Derived terms 4 Korean 4.1 Hanja 4.1.1 Compounds 5 Vietnamese 5.1 Han character 5.1.1 Compounds 5.2 References 6 Zhuang 6.1 Classifier 6.2 References Translingual[edit] Stroke order Stroke order Han character[edit] 安 (radical 40, 宀+3, 6 strokes, cangjie input 十女 (JV), four-corner 30404, composition ⿱宀女) Derived characters[edit] 侒, 咹, 垵, 姲, 峖, 𪫲, 按, 洝, 㫨, 胺, 桉, 𤇼, 𤥃, 𥅥, 𥞬, 𫃀, 𥿽, 𬢨, 銨(铵), 鞍, 𫗒, 𩣑(䯃), 鮟(𩽾), 𠡓, 䢿, 頞, 𮪂, 鴳(𫛩), 晏, 氨, 荌, 𡋅, 案, 䀂, 䅁, 㝧, 鞌 Descendants[edit] あ (Hiragana character derived from man'yōgana) References[edit] KangXi: page 282, character 8 Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 7072 Dae Jaweon: page 552, character 5 Hanyu Da Zidian (first edition): volume 2, page 913, character 9 Unihan data for U+5B89 Chinese[edit] simp. and trad. 安 alternative forms 侒 𠕷 𭑨 𡚴 Wikipedia has articles on: 安 (Written Standard Chinese?) 安 (Cantonese) 安 (Gan) Glyph origin[edit] Historical forms of the character 安 Shang Western Zhou Shuowen Jiezi (compiled in Han) Liushutong (compiled in Ming) Oracle bone script Bronze inscriptions Small seal script Transcribed ancient scripts Characters in the same phonetic series (安) (Zhengzhang, 2003)  Old Chinese 安 *qaːn 鞍 *qaːn 鞌 *qaːn 侒 *qaːn 按 *qaːns 案 *qaːns 洝 *qaːns 荌 *qaːns 晏 *qaːns, *qraːns 鴳 *qraːns 騴 *qraːns 鷃 *qraːns 頞 *qaːd 胺 *qaːd 咹 *qaːd Ideogrammic compound (會意): 宀 (“house”) + 女 (“a woman or a kneeling person”) – person in a kneeling position sitting on the heels at home. Etymology[edit] calm; peaceful A parallel stem is 宴 (OC *qeːns, “to be at ease; to rest”) (Wang, 1982; Schuessler, 2007). Cognate with 按 (OC *qaːns, “to push down with hand”), an exoactive derivative, literally “to cause to be settled; calmed” (ibid.). Starostin reconstructs Proto-Sino-Tibetan *ʔɨāɫ (“rest”), comparing it to Mizo âwl (“to rest”) (and also noting Dhimal [script needed] (el-ka, “good”)). STEDT, however, traces the Mizo word to Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-grwal ~ *ʔwal (“finish, loose, relax”) and did not list 安 (OC *qaːn) among its comparanda: namely 完 (OC *ɦŋoːn), 緩 (OC *ɢʷaːnʔ), 諼 (OC *qʰʷan, *qʰʷanʔ), 援 (OC *ɢʷans, *ɢʷan). where; how Cognate with 惡 (OC *qaː, “how”) and 焉 (OC *qran, *qan, “where; how”), the latter of which is probably a variant of 安 (OC *qaːn). Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Standard) (Pinyin): ān (an1) (Zhuyin): ㄢ (Chengdu, SP): ngan1 (Dungan, Cyrillic): нан (nan, I) Cantonese (Guangzhou, Jyutping): on1 (Taishan, Wiktionary): on1 Gan (Wiktionary): ngon1 Hakka (Sixian, PFS): ôn (Meixian, Guangdong): on1 Jin (Wiktionary): ghan1 Min Bei (KCR): úing Min Dong (BUC): ăng Min Nan (Hokkien, POJ): an / oaⁿ (Teochew, Peng'im): ang1 / uan1 Wu (Wiktionary): oe (T1) Xiang (Wiktionary): ngan1 Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: ān Zhuyin: ㄢ Wade–Giles: an1 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: an Tongyong Pinyin: an Sinological IPA (key): /ˀän⁵⁵/ (Chengdu) Sichuanese Pinyin: ngan1 Scuanxua Ladinxua Xin Wenz: ngan Sinological IPA (key): /ŋan⁵⁵/ (Dungan) Cyrillic: нан (nan, I) Sinological IPA (key): /næ̃²⁴/ (Note: Dungan pronunciation is currently experimental and may be inaccurate.) Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: on1 Yale: ōn Cantonese Pinyin: on1 Guangdong Romanization: on1 Sinological IPA (key): /ɔːn⁵⁵/ Note: The zero initial /∅-/ is commonly pronounced with a ng-initial /ŋ-/ in some varieties of Cantonese, including Hong Kong Cantonese. (Taishanese, Taicheng) Wiktionary: on1 Sinological IPA (key): /ᵘɔn³³/ Gan (Nanchang) Wiktionary: ngon1 Sinological IPA (key): /ŋɵn⁴²/ Hakka (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Meinong) Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: ôn Hakka Romanization System: on´ Hagfa Pinyim: on1 Sinological IPA: /on²⁴/ (Meixian) Guangdong: on1 Sinological IPA: /ɔn⁴⁴/ Jin (Taiyuan)+ Wiktionary: ghan1 Sinological IPA (old-style): /ɣæ̃¹¹/ Min Bei (Jian'ou) Kienning Colloquial Romanized: úing Sinological IPA (key): /uiŋ⁵⁴/ Min Dong (Fuzhou) Bàng-uâ-cê: ăng Sinological IPA (key): /aŋ⁵⁵/ Min Nan (Hokkien) Pe̍h-ōe-jī: an / oaⁿ Tâi-lô: an / uann Phofsit Daibuun: afn, voaf IPA (Xiamen): /an⁴⁴/, /uã⁴⁴/ IPA (Quanzhou): /an³³/, /uã³³/ IPA (Zhangzhou): /an⁴⁴/, /uã⁴⁴/ IPA (Taipei): /an⁴⁴/, /uã⁴⁴/ IPA (Kaohsiung): /an⁴⁴/, /uã⁴⁴/ Note: an - literary; oaⁿ - vernacular. (Teochew) Peng'im: ang1 / uan1 Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: ang / uaⁿ Sinological IPA (key): /aŋ³³/, /ũã³³/ Note: ang1 - literary; uan1 - vernacular. Wu (Shanghainese) Wiktionary: oe (T1) Sinological IPA (key): /ø⁵³/ Xiang (Changsha) Wiktionary: ngan1 Sinological IPA (key): /ŋan³³/ Dialectal data Variety Location edit 安 Mandarin Beijing /an⁵⁵/ Harbin /an⁴⁴/ /nan⁴⁴/ Tianjin /nan²¹/ Jinan /ŋã²¹³/ Qingdao /ɣã²¹³/ Zhengzhou /an²⁴/ Xi'an /ŋã²¹/ Xining /nã⁴⁴/ Yinchuan /an⁴⁴/ Lanzhou /ɛ̃n³¹/ Ürümqi /an⁴⁴/ Wuhan /ŋan⁵⁵/ Chengdu /ŋan⁵⁵/ Guiyang /ŋan⁵⁵/ /an⁵⁵/ 新 Kunming /ã̠⁴⁴/ Nanjing /aŋ³¹/ Hefei /ʐæ̃²¹/ Jin Taiyuan /ɣæ̃¹¹/ Pingyao /ŋɑŋ¹³/ Hohhot /ŋæ̃³¹/ Wu Shanghai /ø⁵³/ Suzhou /ø⁵⁵/ Hangzhou /ʔẽ̞³³/ Wenzhou /y³³/ Hui Shexian /ŋɛ³¹/ Tunxi /uːə¹¹/ Xiang Changsha /ŋan³³/ Xiangtan /ŋan³³/ Gan Nanchang /ŋɵn⁴²/ Hakka Meixian /on⁴⁴/ Taoyuan /on²⁴/ Cantonese Guangzhou /ɔn⁵³/ Nanning /ɔn⁵⁵/ Hong Kong /ɔn⁵⁵/ Min Xiamen (Min Nan) /an⁵⁵/ /uã⁵⁵/ Fuzhou (Min Dong) /aŋ⁴⁴/ Jian'ou (Min Bei) /uiŋ⁵⁴/ Shantou (Min Nan) /aŋ³³/ /uã³³/ Haikou (Min Nan) /aŋ²³/ /ua²³/ Middle Chinese: /ʔɑn/ Rime Character 安 Reading # 1/1 Initial (聲) 影 (34) Final (韻) 寒 (61) Tone (調) Level (Ø) Openness (開合) Open Division (等) I Fanqie 烏寒切 Reconstructions Zhengzhang Shangfang /ʔɑn/ Pan Wuyun /ʔɑn/ Shao Rongfen /ʔɑn/ Edwin Pulleyblank /ʔan/ Li Rong /ʔɑn/ Wang Li /ɑn/ Bernard Karlgren /ʔɑn/ Expected Mandarin Reflex ān Expected Cantonese Reflex on1 Old Chinese (Baxter–Sagart): /*[ʔ]ˤa[n]/ (Zhengzhang): /*qaːn/ Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014) Character 安 安 安 Reading # 1/3 2/3 3/3 Modern Beijing (Pinyin) ān ān ān Middle Chinese ‹ 'an › ‹ 'an › ‹ 'an › Old Chinese /*[ʔ]ˁa[n]/ /*[ʔ]ˁa[n]/ /*[ʔ]ˁa[n]/ English peace(ful) how 安息 Ānxī (Iranian country in the western regions, W. Hàn; from Aršaka = Arsaces, founder of the Arsacid dynasty) Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p; * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary. Zhengzhang system (2003) Character 安 Reading # 1/1 No. 11 Phonetic component 安 Rime group 元 Rime subdivision 1 Corresponding MC rime 安 Old Chinese /*qaːn/ Definitions[edit] 安 calm; peaceful; tranquil; quiet comfortable; at ease safe; secure to calm; to pacify to feel satisfied with to find a place for; to plant to fit; to install to cherish; to harbour to confer (a title); to bestow; to put (the blame on someone) where 沛公安在？ [Classical Chinese, trad. and simp.] From: The Records of the Grand Historian, by Sima Qian, circa 91 BCE Pèigōng ān zài? [Pinyin] Where is Pei Gong (Liu Bang)? how; why 暴而不戢，安能保大？ [Classical Chinese, trad. and simp.] From: Commentary of Zuo, circa 4th century BCE Bào ér bù jí, ān néng bǎo dà? [Pinyin] Cruel and not calling in the weapons of war, how can I preserve our greatness? 雄兔腳撲朔，雌兔眼迷離。兩兔傍地走，安能辨我是雄雌？ [Classical Chinese, trad.] 雄兔脚扑朔，雌兔眼迷离。两兔傍地走，安能辨我是雄雌？ [Classical Chinese, simp.] From: 《木蘭詩》; translation by Jack Yuan Xióng tù jiǎo pūshuò, cí tù yǎn mílí. Liǎng tù bàng dì zǒu, ān néng biàn wǒ shì xióng cí? [Pinyin] The buck bounds here and there, whilst the doe has narrow eyes. But when the two rabbits run side by side, how can you tell the female from the male? (physics) Short for 安培 (ānpéi, “ampere”). A surname​. (historical) A surname given to people from the Arsacid or Parthian Empire (安息 or 安國／安国) Compounds[edit] Derived terms from 安 一路平安 (yīlùpíng'ān) 上下相安 不安 (bù'ān) 不安其室 不安分 不安席 不安於位／不安于位 不安於室／不安于室 不安本分 不安生 不得安穩／不得安稳 不得安身 乂安 (Yì'ān) 久安長治／久安长治 (jiǔ'ānchángzhì) 交通安全 人不自安 佈陣安營／布阵安营 侷促不安 便安 (biàn'ān) 保國安民／保国安民 保安 (bǎo'ān) 保安族 (Bǎo'ānzú) 保安林 保安處分／保安处分 保安警察 偏安 (piān'ān) 偷安 (tōu'ān) 備安庫／备安库 入土為安／入土为安 (rùtǔwéi'ān) 內興安嶺／内兴安岭 公共安全 公安 (gōng'ān) 公安局 (gōng'ānjú) 公安體／公安体 六安 (Liù'ān) 六安茶 六畜不安 六神不安 冒露安身 動盪不安／动荡不安 南安 (Nán'ān) 印第安人 (yìndì'ānrén) 去危就安 吉安 (Jí'ān) 吉安鄉／吉安乡 同安 (Tóng'ān) 呂安題鳳／吕安题凤 咸安 (Xián'ān) 問安／问安 (wèn'ān) 問安視膳／问安视膳 國安局／国安局 國安法／国安法 (guó'ānfǎ) 國泰民安／国泰民安 (guótàimín'ān) 坐不安席 (zuò bù ān xí) 坐立不安 坐臥不安／坐卧不安 報任安書／报任安书 報竹平安／报竹平安 大不安 大安 (dà'ān) 大安溪 大槐安國／大槐安国 大興安嶺／大兴安岭 (Dàxīng'ānlǐng) 天安門／天安门 (Tiān'ānmén) 太安 奉安 (fèng'ān) 奠安 妨害治安 守道安貧／守道安贫 安上 安下 (ānxià) 安不上 安不忘危 (ānbùwàngwēi) 安之若命 安之若素 (ānzhīruòsù) 安享 (ānxiǎng) 安享天年 安享餘年／安享余年 安人 安仁鬢秋／安仁鬓秋 安伏 安住 (ānzhù) 安佚 安克拉治 安內／安内 安內攘外／安内攘外 安全 (ānquán) 安全係數／安全系数 (ānquán xìshù) 安全刀片 安全剃刀 (ānquán tìdāo) 安全島／安全岛 (ānquándǎo) 安全帶／安全带 (ānquándài) 安全帽 (ānquánmào) 安全感 (ānquángǎn) 安全期 安全梯 安全氣囊／安全气囊 (ānquán qìnáng) 安全火柴 (ānquánhuǒchái) 安全燈／安全灯 (ānquándēng) 安全率 安全玻璃 安全理事會／安全理事会 (Ānquán Lǐshìhuì) 安全距離／安全距离 安全速度 安全門／安全门 (ānquánmén) 安全閥／安全阀 (ānquánfá) 安全電壓／安全电压 安全電流／安全电流 安公子 安凱／安凯 (Ānkǎi) 安分 (ānfèn) 安分守己 (ānfènshǒujǐ) 安分守紀／安分守纪 安南 (Ānnán) 安南子 安南山脈／安南山脉 安卡拉 (Ānkǎlā) 安危 (ānwēi) 安厝 安可 (ānkě) 安史之亂／安史之乱 (Ān Shǐ Zhī Luàn) 安命 (ānmìng) 安和 安和樂利／安和乐利 安咐 安哥拉 (Āngēlā) 安哥拉兔 (āngēlā tù) 安固 安土 安土樂業／安土乐业 安土重遷／安土重迁 (āntǔzhòngqiān) 安在 安坐 (ānzuò) 安坐待斃／安坐待毙 安坪 (Ānpíng) 安培 (ānpéi) 安培定則／安培定则 安培小時／安培小时 安培計／安培计 (ānpéijì) 安堵 (āndǔ) 安堵如故 安堵樂業／安堵乐业 安大略湖 (Āndàlüè Hú) 安太歲／安太岁 安好 (ānhǎo) 安如泰山 (ānrútàishān) 安如盤石／安如盘石 安如磐石 (ānrúpánshí) 安妥 安存 安宅 安宅正路 安守本分 安安穩穩／安安稳稳 安安靜靜／安安静静 安定 (āndìng) 安定器 安定均衡 安定學派／安定学派 安定翼 安家 (ānjiā) 安家帖 安家樂業／安家乐业 安家立業／安家立业 (ānjiālìyè) 安家落戶／安家落户 (ānjiāluòhù) 安家費／安家费 安宿 安富 安富尊榮／安富尊荣 安富恤窮／安富恤穷 安富恤貧／安富恤贫 安寢／安寝 (ānqǐn) 安寧／安宁 (ānníng) 安寧照顧／安宁照顾 安居 (ānjū) 安居工程 安居樂業／安居乐业 (ānjūlèyè) 安山岩 安帖 安席 安常履順／安常履顺 安常處順／安常处顺 安平 (ānpíng) 安平古堡 安平港 安床 安度 (āndù) 安座 安康 (ānkāng) 安康計畫／安康计画 安廣／安广 (ānguǎng) 安得 (āndé) 安德魯／安德鲁 (Āndélǔ) 安徽 (Ānhuī) 安心 (ānxīn) 安心落意 安必思危 安恬 安息 (ānxī) 安息年 安息日 (ānxīrì) 安息香 (ānxīxiāng) 安息香樹／安息香树 安息香酸 (ānxīxiāngsuān) 安慰 (ānwèi) 安扎 安打 (āndǎ) 安抵 (āndǐ) 安拉 (Ānlā) 安排 (ānpái) 安提瓜和巴布達／安提瓜和巴布达 (Āntíguā hé Bābùdá) 安提阿 安插 (ānchā) 安撫／安抚 (ānfǔ) 安放 (ānfàng) 安於／安于 (ānyú) 安於一隅／安于一隅 安於泰山／安于泰山 安於現狀／安于现状 (ānyúxiànzhuàng) 安普 安曼 (Ānmàn) 安村 (Āncūn) 安枕 (ānzhěn) 安枕無憂／安枕无忧 安枕而臥／安枕而卧 安根子 安業／安业 安樂／安乐 (ānlè) 安樂世界／安乐世界 安樂國／安乐国 安樂椅／安乐椅 (ānlèyǐ) 安樂死／安乐死 (ānlèsǐ) 安樂窩／安乐窝 (ānlèwō) 安歇 (ānxiē) 安步 (ānbù) 安步當車／安步当车 (ānbùdàngchē) 安死 安民 (ānmín) 安民告示 (ānmín gàoshì) 安民恤眾／安民恤众 (ānmín xù zhòng) 安汶島／安汶岛 安泊 安泰 (āntài) 安濟坊／安济坊 安瀋鐵路／安沈铁路 安瀾／安澜 安然 (ānrán) 安然無事／安然无事 安然無恙／安然无恙 (ānránwúyàng) 安營／安营 (ānyíng) 安營下寨／安营下寨 (ānyíngxiàzhài) 安營扎寨／安营扎寨 安營紮寨／安营扎寨 (ānyíngzhāzhài) 安理會／安理会 (Ānlǐhuì) 安琪兒／安琪儿 (ānqí'ér) 安生 (ānshēng) 安眉帶眼／安眉带眼 安眠 (ānmián) 安眠藥／安眠药 (ānmiányào) 安睡 (ānshuì) 安知 安石榴 (ānshíliú) 安碓磑／安碓硙 安神 (ānshén) 安福寺 (Ānfúsì) 安禪／安禅 安穩／安稳 (ānwěn) 安童 安置 (ānzhì) 安老懷少／安老怀少 安老院 (ānlǎoyuàn) 安聲／安声 安胎符 安胎藥／安胎药 安胡 安能 (ānnéng) 安舒 安良 安若泰山 安著 安葬 (ānzàng) 安處／安处 安裝／安装 (ānzhuāng) 安親班／安亲班 (ānqīnbān) 安設／安设 (ānshè) 安詳／安详 (ānxiáng) 安謐／安谧 (ānmì) 安貧／安贫 安貧守道／安贫守道 安貧樂賤／安贫乐贱 安貧樂道／安贫乐道 (ānpínlèdào) 安足 安跡／安迹 安身 (ānshēn) 安身之地 安身之所 安身之處／安身之处 安身樂業／安身乐业 安身立命 (ānshēnlìmìng) 安車／安车 (ānchē) 安輯／安辑 (ānjí) 安輿／安舆 安辦／安办 安迪爾／安迪尔 (Āndí'ěr) 安逸 (ānyì) 安道爾／安道尔 (Āndào'ěr) 安適／安适 (ānshì) 安適如常／安适如常 安邊／安边 安那其主義／安那其主义 (ānnàqízhǔyì) 安邦 (ānbāng) 安邦定國／安邦定国 (ānbāngdìngguó) 安邦治國／安邦治国 安釘子／安钉子 安門／安门 安閒／安闲 (ānxián) 安闍那／安阇那 安陵 (Ānlíng) 安陸／安陆 (Ānlù) 安陽／安阳 (Ānyáng) 安陽河／安阳河 安雅 安集 安難／安难 安靈／安灵 安靖 (ānjìng) 安靜／安静 (ānjìng) 安靜自在／安静自在 安非他命 (ānfēitāmìng) 安頓／安顿 (āndùn) 安養／安养 (ānyǎng) 安香 安骨 安魂曲 (ānhúnqǔ) 定安 (Dìng'ān) 宴安 宴安鴆毒／宴安鸩毒 富國安民／富国安民 寢不安席／寝不安席 寢不遑安／寝不遑安 寢食不安／寝食不安 (qǐnshíbù'ān) 寢食難安／寝食难安 (qǐnshínán'ān) 小興安嶺／小兴安岭 (Xiǎoxīng'ānlǐng) 少安勿躁 少安毋躁 少安無躁／少安无躁 局促不安 局蹐不安 居安思危 (jū'ānsīwēi) 居安慮危／居安虑危 居安資深／居安资深 居無求安／居无求安 帶眼安眉／带眼安眉 平安 (píng'ān) 平安夜 (píng'ānyè) 平安帖 平安火 平安無事／平安无事 (píng'ānwúshì) 平安竹報／平安竹报 平安險／平安险 平平安安 床上安床 (chuángshàng'ānchuáng) 床下安床 (chuángxià'ānchuáng) 建安 (Jiàn'ān) 建安七子 建安文學／建安文学 建安風骨／建安风骨 建安體／建安体 弭盜安民／弭盗安民 心安 (xīn'ān) 心安理得 (xīn'ānlǐdé) 心安神泰 忐忑不安 (tǎntèbù'ān) 怏怏不安 怔忡不安 恐懼不安／恐惧不安 (kǒngjùbù'ān) 惴惴不安 惶恐不安 (huángkǒngbù'ān) 惶悚不安 惶惶不安 (huánghuángbù'ān) 慈安太后 慰安 (wèi'ān) 慰安婦／慰安妇 (wèi'ānfù) 懷安／怀安 打火安身 招安 (zhāo'ān) 捨安就危／舍安就危 損人安己／损人安己 撫安／抚安 擲果潘安／掷果潘安 攘外安內／攘外安内 (rángwài'ānnèi) 教安 新安派 於心不安／于心不安 早安 (zǎo'ān) 晚安 (wǎn'ān) 望安 (Wàng'ān) 朱理安曆／朱理安历 東安／东安 (Dōng'ān) 松安 (Sōng'ān) 柳安 (liǔ'ān) 栗栗不安 槐安國／槐安国 樂天安命／乐天安命 樂業安居／乐业安居 樂道安貧／乐道安贫 欠安 (qiàn'ān) 武安 (Wǔ'ān) 歲歲平安／岁岁平安 毫安 民不安枕 民安 (Mín'ān) 民安國泰／民安国泰 民安物阜 永安 (Yǒng'ān) 永安宮／永安宫 (Yǒng'āngōng) 治國安民／治国安民 治安 (zhì'ān) 治安機關／治安机关 治安法庭 治安策 泰安 (Tài'ān) 泰山之安 海安 (Hǎi'ān) 海安集 (Hǎi'ānjí) 淮安 (Huái'ān) 潘安 潘安之貌 潘安再世 潘安容儀／潘安容仪 潘安白髮／潘安白发 濟世安人／济世安人 濟世安民／济世安民 濟世安邦／济世安邦 炕上安鍋／炕上安锅 燕安 燕安鴆毒／燕安鸩毒 物阜民安 甕安／瓮安 畏難苟安／畏难苟安 (wèinángǒu'ān) 盤石之安／盘石之安 盧安達／卢安达 (Lú'āndá) 相安 (xiāng'ān) 相安無事／相安无事 (xiāng'ānwúshì) 知命安身 知安忘危 碇安 (Dìng'ān) 社會安全／社会安全 神安氣定／神安气定 神安氣集／神安气集 福安 (Fú'ān) 立命安身 立國安邦／立国安邦 立業安邦／立业安邦 立鼎安爐／立鼎安炉 竹報平安／竹报平安 紅安／红安 (Hóng'ān) 索米長安／索米长安 結夏安居／结夏安居 緊張不安／紧张不安 翔安 (Xiáng'ān) 能忍自安 臥不安席／卧不安席 臥不安枕／卧不安枕 臺安／台安 興國安邦／兴国安邦 興安嶺／兴安岭 (Xīng'ānlǐng) 良心不安 艾安 苟且偷安 苟安 (gǒu'ān) 苟安一隅 萬安／万安 (wàn'ān) 處安思危／处安思危 行坐不安 (xíngzuòbù'ān) 袁安臥雪／袁安卧雪 西安 (Xī'ān) 西安事變／西安事变 (Xī'ān Shìbiàn) 覆盂之安 計將安出／计将安出 (jì jiāng ān chū) 討安歇／讨安歇 誨安／诲安 請安／请安 (qǐng'ān) 謝安折屐／谢安折屐 變危為安／变危为安 貪安好逸／贪安好逸 跼蹐不安 踧踖不安 轉側不安／转侧不安 轉危為安／转危为安 辛安驛／辛安驿 道安 遠安／远安 (Yuǎn'ān) 鈞安／钧安 銀安殿／银安殿 錫安／锡安 (Xī'ān) 錫安主義／锡安主义 (Xī'ān-zhǔyì) 鎮安／镇安 (Zhèn'ān) 長安／长安 (Cháng'ān) 長安如弈／长安如弈 長安道上／长安道上 長治久安／长治久安 (chángzhìjiǔ'ān) 門裡安心／门里安心 阿利安人 除暴安良 (chúbào'ānliáng) 隨寓而安／随寓而安 隨遇而安／随遇而安 (suíyù'ér'ān) 雅利安 (yǎlì'ān) 雅安 (Yǎ'ān) 集體安全／集体安全 靈安社／灵安社 靖安 頭上安頭／头上安头 養心安神／养心安神 馬安／马安 (Mǎ'ān) 高山安仰 高枕安寢／高枕安寝 高枕安臥／高枕安卧 麾安 黛安娜 (Dài'ānnà) Descendants[edit] Sino-Xenic (安): → Japanese: 安(あん) (an) → Korean: 안 (安, an) → Vietnamese: an (安) Japanese[edit] Kanji[edit] See also: Category:Japanese terms spelled with 安 安 (grade 3 “Kyōiku” kanji) Readings[edit] Go-on: あん (an, Jōyō) Kan-on: あん (an, Jōyō) Kun: やすい (yasui, 安い, Jōyō); やすらか (yasuraka, 安らか); やすんじる (yasunjiru, 安んじる); いずくんぞ (izukunzo, 安んぞ) Nanori: あ (a); あす (asu); あず (azu); あっ (a'); や (ya) Derived terms[edit] あ: the hiragana letter a Etymology[edit] Kanji in this term 安 あん Grade: 3 on’yomi Sino-Japanese. Affix[edit] 安(あん) • (an)  calm; peaceful safe; secure easy; simple cheap; inexpensive (chemistry) ammonium Derived terms[edit] Compounds 塩安(えんあん) (en'an): ammonium chloride 硝安(しょうあん) (shōan): ammonium nitrate 炭安(たんあん) (tan'an): ammonium carbonate 硫安(りゅうあん) (ryūan): ammonium sulphate 燐安(りんあん) (rin'an): ammonium phosphate 安易(あんい) (an'i) 安逸(あんいつ) (an'itsu) 安穏(あんのん) (annon) 安危(あんき) (anki) 安心(あんしん) (anshin), 安心(あんじん) (anjin) 安息(あんそく) (ansoku) 安泰(あんたい) (antai) 安置(あんち) (anchi) 安直(あんちょく) (anchoku) 安堵(あんど) (ando) 安寧(あんねい) (annei) 安否(あんぴ) (anpi) 安眠(あんみん) (anmin) 安楽(あんらく) (anraku) 安宿(やすやど) (yasuyado) Korean[edit] Hanja[edit] 安 (eumhun 편안 안 (pyeonan an)) Hanja form? of 안 (“peace, peacefulness”). Compounds[edit] 안전 (安全, anjeon) 안심 (安心, ansim) 안녕 (安寧, annyeong) Vietnamese[edit] Han character[edit] 安: Hán Việt readings: an[1][2][3][4][5], yên[4][5] 安: Nôm readings: yên[1][2][3][6][4][7], an[1][2][4][7], án[1], ăn[1] Hán tự form of an (“safe; secure”). Hán tự form of yên (“calm; peaceful”). Compounds[edit] Compounds derived from 安 (an) 安南 (An Nam) 安然 (an nhiên) 安寧 (an ninh) 安全 (an toàn) 保安 (bảo an) 平安 (bình an) 公安 (công an) Compounds derived from 安 (yên) 平安 (bình yên) 興安 (Hưng Yên) 安穩 (yên ổn) 安心 (yên tâm) 安靜 (yên tĩnh) References[edit] ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Nguyễn (2014). ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Nguyễn et al. (2009). ↑ 3.0 3.1 Trần (2004). ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Bonet (1899). ↑ 5.0 5.1 Génibrel (1898). ^ Hồ (1976). ↑ 7.0 7.1 Taberd & Pigneau de Béhaine (1838). Zhuang[edit] Classifier[edit] 安 Alternative form of 𬻹 (“Sawndip form of aen”) References[edit] 古壮字字典 [Dictionary of Old Zhuang Characters], Guangxi: Ethnic Publishing House (广西民族出版社), 2012, →ISBN, page 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=安&oldid=62530440" Categories: CJK Unified Ideographs block Han script characters Translingual lemmas Translingual symbols Han ideogrammic compounds Chinese terms inherited from Proto-Sino-Tibetan Chinese terms derived from Proto-Sino-Tibetan Mandarin terms with audio links Min Nan terms with audio links Middle Chinese lemmas Old Chinese lemmas Chinese lemmas Mandarin lemmas Dungan lemmas Cantonese lemmas Taishanese lemmas Gan lemmas Hakka lemmas Jin lemmas Min Bei lemmas Min Dong lemmas Min Nan lemmas Teochew lemmas Wu lemmas Xiang lemmas Chinese adjectives Mandarin adjectives Dungan adjectives Cantonese adjectives Taishanese adjectives Gan adjectives Hakka adjectives Jin adjectives Min Bei adjectives Min Dong adjectives Min Nan adjectives Teochew adjectives Wu adjectives Xiang adjectives Chinese adverbs Mandarin adverbs Dungan adverbs Cantonese adverbs Taishanese adverbs Gan adverbs Hakka adverbs Jin adverbs Min Bei adverbs Min Dong adverbs Min Nan adverbs Teochew adverbs Wu adverbs Xiang adverbs Chinese verbs Mandarin verbs Dungan verbs Cantonese verbs Taishanese verbs Gan verbs Hakka verbs Jin verbs Min Bei verbs Min Dong verbs Min Nan verbs Teochew verbs Wu verbs Xiang verbs Chinese pronouns Mandarin pronouns Dungan pronouns Cantonese pronouns Taishanese pronouns Gan pronouns Hakka pronouns Jin pronouns Min Bei pronouns Min Dong pronouns Min Nan pronouns Teochew pronouns Wu pronouns Xiang pronouns Chinese nouns Mandarin nouns Dungan nouns Cantonese nouns Taishanese nouns Gan nouns Hakka nouns Jin nouns Min Bei nouns Min Dong nouns Min Nan nouns Teochew nouns Wu nouns Xiang nouns Chinese proper nouns Mandarin proper nouns Dungan proper nouns Cantonese proper nouns Taishanese proper nouns Gan proper nouns Hakka proper nouns Jin proper nouns Min Bei proper nouns Min Dong proper nouns Min Nan proper nouns Teochew proper nouns Wu proper nouns Xiang proper nouns Chinese terms with IPA pronunciation Chinese hanzi Chinese Han characters Chinese terms with quotations zh:Physics Chinese short forms Chinese surnames Chinese terms with historical senses Intermediate Mandarin Japanese Han characters Grade 3 kanji Japanese kanji with kun reading やす-い Japanese kanji with kun reading やす-らか Japanese kanji with kun reading やす-んじる Japanese kanji with kun reading いずく-んぞ Japanese kanji with kan'on reading あん Japanese kanji with goon reading あん Japanese kanji with nanori reading あ Japanese kanji with nanori reading あす Japanese kanji with nanori reading あず Japanese kanji with nanori reading あっ Japanese kanji with nanori reading や Han characters from which hiragana were derived Japanese terms spelled with 安 read as あん Japanese terms read with on'yomi Japanese lemmas Japanese affixes Japanese terms spelled with third grade kanji Japanese terms written with one Han script character Japanese terms spelled with 安 ja:Chemistry Korean lemmas Korean Han characters Vietnamese Han tu Vietnamese lemmas Vietnamese Han characters Vietnamese Nom Zhuang lemmas Zhuang classifiers Zhuang Sawndip forms Hidden categories: Requests for native script for Dhimal terms Min Nan terms needing pronunciation attention Japanese single-kanji terms Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Bân-lâm-gú Español Français 한국어 Italiano Kurdî Кыргызча Limburgs Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська 中文 This page was last edited on 15 May 2021, at 03:12. 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en-wiktionary-org-2934	----	敦 - Wiktionary 敦 Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search 敦 U+6566, &#25958; CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6566 ← 敥 [U+6565] CJK Unified Ideographs 敧 → [U+6567] Contents 1 Translingual 1.1 Han character 1.1.1 Derived characters 1.1.2 References 2 Chinese 2.1 Glyph origin 2.2 Etymology 1 2.2.1 Pronunciation 2.2.2 Definitions 2.2.3 Compounds 2.3 Etymology 2 2.3.1 Pronunciation 2.3.2 Definitions 2.3.3 Compounds 2.4 Etymology 3 2.4.1 Pronunciation 2.4.2 Definitions 2.5 Etymology 4 2.5.1 Pronunciation 2.5.2 Definitions 2.6 Etymology 5 2.6.1 Pronunciation 2.6.2 Definitions 2.7 Etymology 6 2.7.1 Pronunciation 2.7.2 Definitions 2.8 Etymology 7 2.8.1 Pronunciation 2.8.2 Definitions 2.9 Etymology 8 2.10 Etymology 9 2.11 Etymology 10 2.12 Etymology 11 2.13 Etymology 12 2.14 Etymology 13 2.15 Etymology 14 2.16 Etymology 15 3 Japanese 3.1 Kanji 3.1.1 Readings 3.1.2 Compounds 3.2 Etymology 3.3 Pronunciation 3.4 Noun 3.5 Proper noun 3.6 References 4 Korean 4.1 Hanja 5 Vietnamese 5.1 Han character 5.2 References Translingual[edit] Han character[edit] 敦 (radical 66, 攴+8, 12 strokes, cangjie input 卜木人大 (YDOK), four-corner 08440, composition ⿰享攵) Derived characters[edit] 墩, 撴, 噋, 獤, 潡, 憞, 橔, 暾, 犜, 燉, 礅, 𧝋, 鐓 (镦), 蹾, 譈, 驐, 鷻, 墪, 撉, 憝, 鐜 References[edit] KangXi: page 473, character 8 Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 13276 Dae Jaweon: page 826, character 10 Hanyu Da Zidian (first edition): volume 2, page 1468, character 1 Unihan data for U+6566 Chinese[edit] simp. and trad. 敦 Glyph origin[edit] Historical forms of the character 敦 Western Zhou Shuowen Jiezi (compiled in Han) Liushutong (compiled in Ming) Bronze inscriptions Small seal script Transcribed ancient scripts Characters in the same phonetic series (敦) (Zhengzhang, 2003)  Old Chinese 弴 *tjuː, *tuːn 敦 *tuːl, *doːn, *tuːn, *tuːns 錞 *duːlʔ, *duːls, *djun 憝 *duːls 憞 *duːls 譈 *duːls 鐓 *duːls 鷻 *doːn 鶉 *doːn, *djun 惇 *tuːn, *tjun 墩 *tuːn 驐 *tuːn 燉 *tuːns, *tʰuːn, *duːn 焞 *tʰuːn, *djun 啍 *tʰuːn, *duːn 暾 *tʰuːn 噋 *tʰuːn, *kʰʷaːɡ 諄 *tjun, *tjuns 埻 *tjunʔ, *kʷaːɡ, *kʷreːɡ 稕 *tjuns 醇 *djun 淳 *djun 犉 *njun Phono-semantic compound (形聲, OC *tuːl, *doːn, *tuːn, *tuːns): phonetic 𦎫 + semantic 攴 (“hand”) Etymology 1[edit] “thick; earnest; plentiful; large” From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *(t/d)ow-n (“thick”). This etymology is incomplete. You can help Wiktionary by elaborating on the origins of this term. Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): dūn (dun1) (Zhuyin): ㄉㄨㄣ Cantonese (Jyutping): deon1 Hakka (Sixian, PFS): tûn Min Dong (BUC): dŭng Min Nan (Hokkien, POJ): tun (Teochew, Peng'im): dung1 Wu (Wiktionary): ten (T1) Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: dūn Zhuyin: ㄉㄨㄣ Wade–Giles: tun1 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: duen Tongyong Pinyin: dun Sinological IPA (key): /twən⁵⁵/ Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: deon1 Yale: dēun Cantonese Pinyin: doen1 Guangdong Romanization: dên1 Sinological IPA (key): /tɵn⁵⁵/ Hakka (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Meinong) Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: tûn Hakka Romanization System: dun´ Hagfa Pinyim: dun1 Sinological IPA: /tun²⁴/ Min Dong (Fuzhou) Bàng-uâ-cê: dŭng Sinological IPA (key): /tuŋ⁵⁵/ Min Nan (Hokkien) Pe̍h-ōe-jī: tun Tâi-lô: tun Phofsit Daibuun: dwn IPA (Xiamen): /tun⁴⁴/ IPA (Quanzhou): /tun³³/ IPA (Zhangzhou): /tun⁴⁴/ IPA (Taipei): /tun⁴⁴/ IPA (Kaohsiung): /tun⁴⁴/ (Teochew) Peng'im: dung1 Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: tung Sinological IPA (key): /tuŋ³³/ Wu (Shanghainese) Wiktionary: ten (T1) Sinological IPA (key): /təɲ⁵³/ Middle Chinese: /tuən/ Rime Character 敦 Reading # 2/4 Initial (聲) 端 (5) Final (韻) 魂 (55) Tone (調) Level (Ø) Openness (開合) Closed Division (等) I Fanqie 都昆切 Reconstructions Zhengzhang Shangfang /tuən/ Pan Wuyun /tuon/ Shao Rongfen /tuən/ Edwin Pulleyblank /twən/ Li Rong /tuən/ Wang Li /tuən/ Bernard Karlgren /tuən/ Expected Mandarin Reflex dūn Expected Cantonese Reflex doen1 Old Chinese (Baxter–Sagart): /*tˤur/ (Zhengzhang): /*tuːn/ Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014) Character 敦 敦 Reading # 2/3 3/3 Modern Beijing (Pinyin) dūn dūn Middle Chinese ‹ twon › ‹ twon › Old Chinese /*tˁur/ /*tˁur/ English solid, thick 敦煌 ~ 燉煌 Dūnhuáng Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p; * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary. Zhengzhang system (2003) Character 敦 Reading # 3/4 No. 2597 Phonetic component 敦 Rime group 文 Rime subdivision 2 Corresponding MC rime 敦 Old Chinese /*tuːn/ Definitions[edit] 敦 † angry to urge † to advise and encourage † diligent earnest; honest; generous † intimate † thick † plentiful; rich † large † to attach importance to; to esteem; to revere † to put something down with great force A river in Shanxi A surname​. Compounds[edit] 京斯敦 (Jīngsīdūn) 倫敦／伦敦 (Lúndūn) 倫敦宣言／伦敦宣言 倫敦影展／伦敦影展 倫敦鐵塔／伦敦铁塔 克敦孝行 厚厚敦敦 可敦 可賀敦／可贺敦 培敦 摩敦 敦世厲俗／敦世厉俗 敦仁 敦促 (dūncù) 敦倫／敦伦 (dūnlún) 敦化 (Dūnhuà) 敦厚 (dūnhòu) 敦品勵學／敦品励学 (dūnpǐnlìxué) 敦囑／敦嘱 敦坐 敦實／敦实 (dūnshi) 敦序 敦打 敦搠 敦敦實實／敦敦实实 敦樸／敦朴 敦煌 (Dūnhuáng) 敦煌壁畫／敦煌壁画 敦煌曲子 敦煌石室 敦煌石窟 敦睦 (dūnmù) 敦聘 敦親睦鄰／敦亲睦邻 敦請／敦请 (dūnqǐng) 敦蹄刷腳／敦蹄刷脚 敦風厲俗／敦风厉俗 溫柔敦厚／温柔敦厚 王敦擊壺／王敦击壶 貝希斯敦／贝希斯敦 (Bèixīsīdūn) 鄧虜淪敦／邓虏沦敦 開普敦／开普敦 (Kāipǔdūn) 陪敦 Etymology 2[edit] Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): duì (dui4) (Zhuyin): ㄉㄨㄟˋ Cantonese (Jyutping): deoi3, deoi6 Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: duì Zhuyin: ㄉㄨㄟˋ Wade–Giles: tui4 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: duey Tongyong Pinyin: duèi Sinological IPA (key): /tweɪ̯⁵¹/ Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: deoi3, deoi6 Yale: deui, deuih Cantonese Pinyin: doey3, doey6 Guangdong Romanization: dêu3, dêu6 Sinological IPA (key): /tɵy̯³³/, /tɵy̯²²/ Definitions[edit] 敦 ancient vessel used to hold grains Compounds[edit] 敦槃 Etymology 3[edit] Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): duī (dui1) (Zhuyin): ㄉㄨㄟ Cantonese (Jyutping): deoi1 Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: duī Zhuyin: ㄉㄨㄟ Wade–Giles: tui1 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: duei Tongyong Pinyin: duei Sinological IPA (key): /tweɪ̯⁵⁵/ Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: deoi1 Yale: dēui Cantonese Pinyin: doey1 Guangdong Romanization: dêu1 Sinological IPA (key): /tɵy̯⁵⁵/ Middle Chinese: /tuʌi/ Rime Character 敦 Reading # 1/4 Initial (聲) 端 (5) Final (韻) 灰 (42) Tone (調) Level (Ø) Openness (開合) Closed Division (等) I Fanqie 都回切 Reconstructions Zhengzhang Shangfang /tuʌi/ Pan Wuyun /tuoi/ Shao Rongfen /tuɒi/ Edwin Pulleyblank /twəj/ Li Rong /tuᴀi/ Wang Li /tuɒi/ Bernard Karlgren /tuɑ̆i/ Expected Mandarin Reflex duī Expected Cantonese Reflex deoi1 Old Chinese (Baxter–Sagart): /*tˤur/ (Zhengzhang): /*tuːl/ Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014) Character 敦 Reading # 1/3 Modern Beijing (Pinyin) duī Middle Chinese ‹ twoj › Old Chinese /*tˁur/ (dialect: *-r > *-j) English manage, direct Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p; * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary. Zhengzhang system (2003) Character 敦 Reading # 1/4 No. 2587 Phonetic component 敦 Rime group 微 Rime subdivision 2 Corresponding MC rime 磓 Old Chinese /*tuːl/ Definitions[edit] 敦 † to administer; to manage 敦商之旅，克咸厥功。 [Classical Chinese, trad. and simp.] From: The Classic of Poetry, circa 11th – 7th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version Duī Shāng zhī lǚ, kè xián jué gōng. [Pinyin] [Wu] disposed of the troops of Shang; He and his men shared equally in the achievement. † solitary 敦彼獨宿，亦在車下。 [Classical Chinese, trad.] 敦彼独宿，亦在车下。 [Classical Chinese, simp.] From: The Classic of Poetry, circa 11th – 7th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version Duī bǐ dú sù, yì zài chē xià. [Pinyin] And quietly and solitarily did we pass the night, Under our carriages. † to throw † to force upon 王事敦我，政事一埤遺我。 [Classical Chinese, trad.] 王事敦我，政事一埤遗我。 [Classical Chinese, simp.] From: The Classic of Poetry, circa 11th – 7th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version Wángshì duī wǒ, zhèngshì yī pí yí wǒ. [Pinyin] The king's business is thrown on me, And the affairs of our government are left to me more and more. Etymology 4[edit] See 團 (OC *doːn). Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): tuán (tuan2) (Zhuyin): ㄊㄨㄢˊ Cantonese (Jyutping): tyun4 Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: tuán Zhuyin: ㄊㄨㄢˊ Wade–Giles: tʻuan2 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: twan Tongyong Pinyin: tuán Sinological IPA (key): /tʰwän³⁵/ Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: tyun4 Yale: tyùhn Cantonese Pinyin: tyn4 Guangdong Romanization: tün4 Sinological IPA (key): /tʰyːn²¹/ Middle Chinese: /duɑn/ Rime Character 敦 Reading # 3/4 Initial (聲) 定 (7) Final (韻) 桓 (62) Tone (調) Level (Ø) Openness (開合) Closed Division (等) I Fanqie 度官切 Reconstructions Zhengzhang Shangfang /duɑn/ Pan Wuyun /dʷɑn/ Shao Rongfen /duɑn/ Edwin Pulleyblank /dwan/ Li Rong /duɑn/ Wang Li /duɑn/ Bernard Karlgren /dʱuɑn/ Expected Mandarin Reflex tuán Expected Cantonese Reflex tyun4 Old Chinese (Zhengzhang): /*doːn/ Zhengzhang system (2003) Character 敦 Reading # 2/4 No. 2594 Phonetic component 敦 Rime group 元 Rime subdivision 3 Corresponding MC rime 團 Old Chinese /*doːn/ Definitions[edit] 敦 † clustered † Alternative form of 團／团 (tuán, “round”). 有敦瓜苦，烝在栗薪。 [Classical Chinese, trad. and simp.] From: The Classic of Poetry, circa 11th – 7th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version Yǒu tuán guā kǔ, zhēng zài lì xīn. [Pinyin] There were the round bitter gourds hanging, From the branches of the chestnut trees. Etymology 5[edit] Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): dùn (dun4) (Zhuyin): ㄉㄨㄣˋ Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: dùn Zhuyin: ㄉㄨㄣˋ Wade–Giles: tun4 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: duenn Tongyong Pinyin: dùn Sinological IPA (key): /twən⁵¹/ Middle Chinese: /tuənH/ Rime Character 敦 Reading # 4/4 Initial (聲) 端 (5) Final (韻) 魂 (55) Tone (調) Departing (H) Openness (開合) Closed Division (等) I Fanqie 都困切 Reconstructions Zhengzhang Shangfang /tuənH/ Pan Wuyun /tuonH/ Shao Rongfen /tuənH/ Edwin Pulleyblank /twənH/ Li Rong /tuənH/ Wang Li /tuənH/ Bernard Karlgren /tuənH/ Expected Mandarin Reflex dùn Expected Cantonese Reflex doen3 Definitions[edit] 敦 † to erect † Alternative form of 墩 (dūn, “mound”). Etymology 6[edit] Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): dùn (dun4) (Zhuyin): ㄉㄨㄣˋ Cantonese (Jyutping): deon6 Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: dùn Zhuyin: ㄉㄨㄣˋ Wade–Giles: tun4 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: duenn Tongyong Pinyin: dùn Sinological IPA (key): /twən⁵¹/ Cantonese (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou)+ Jyutping: deon6 Yale: deuhn Cantonese Pinyin: doen6 Guangdong Romanization: dên6 Sinological IPA (key): /tɵn²²/ Definitions[edit] 敦 Only used in 混敦 and 敦然. Etymology 7[edit] Pronunciation[edit] Mandarin (Pinyin): tūn (tun1) (Zhuyin): ㄊㄨㄣ Mandarin (Standard Chinese)+ Pinyin: tūn Zhuyin: ㄊㄨㄣ Wade–Giles: tʻun1 Gwoyeu Romatzyh: tuen Tongyong Pinyin: tun Sinological IPA (key): /tʰwən⁵⁵/ Definitions[edit] 敦 Only used in 敦恨. Etymology 8[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 雕 (“to engrave; to inlay; to carve; carving; etc.”). (This character, 敦, is a variant form of 雕.) Etymology 9[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 燾 (“to illuminate everything; to cover; to envelope; etc.”). (This character, 敦, is a variant form of 燾.) Etymology 10[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 淳 (“thick; honest; etc.”). (This character, 敦, is a variant form of 淳.) Etymology 11[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 屯 (“village, hamlet; camp; etc.”). (This character, 敦, is a variant form of 屯.) Etymology 12[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 墩 (“mound; block of stone or wood; etc.”). (This character, 敦, is the second-round simplified form of 墩.) Notes: Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore. Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Etymology 13[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 礅 (“large stone”). (This character, 敦, is the second-round simplified form of 礅.) Notes: Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore. Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Etymology 14[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 蹾 (“to squat; to crouch”). (This character, 敦, is the second-round simplified form of 蹾.) Notes: Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore. Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Etymology 15[edit] For pronunciation and definitions of 敦 – see 撉 (“to hold tight; to seize; to jolt; to thump”). (This character, 敦, is the second-round simplified form of 撉.) Notes: Simplified Chinese is mainly used in Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore. Traditional Chinese is mainly used in Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Japanese[edit] Kanji[edit] See also: Category:Japanese terms spelled with 敦 敦 (“Jinmeiyō” kanji used for names) kindness, affinity Readings[edit] Go-on: とん (ton); たい (tai) Kan-on: とん (ton); たい (tai) Kan’yō-on: つい (tsui) Kun: あつい (atsui, 敦い) Nanori: あつし (atsushi); つとむ (tsutomu) Compounds[edit] Compounds 敦盛(あつもり) (atsumori) 敦賀(つるが) (Tsuruga): Tsuruga, Fukui 敦厚(とんこう) (tonkō) 敦煌(とんこう) (Tonkō); Dunhuang Etymology[edit] Kanji in this term 敦 たい Jinmeiyō on’yomi From Middle Chinese 敦 (MC tuʌi, tuən, duɑn, tuənH). Pronunciation[edit] On’yomi (Tokyo) た​い [táꜜì] (Atamadaka – [1])[1] IPA(key): [ta̠i] Noun[edit] 敦(たい) • (tai)  dui (vessel) Proper noun[edit] 敦(あつし) or 敦(つとむ) • (Atsushi or Tsutomu)  A male given name References[edit] ^ 2006, 大辞林 (Daijirin), Third Edition (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Sanseidō, →ISBN Korean[edit] Hanja[edit] 敦 • (don, toe) (hangeul 돈, 퇴, revised don, toe, McCune–Reischauer ton, t'oe, Yale ton, thoy) This term needs a translation to English. Please help out and add a translation, then remove the text {{rfdef}}. Vietnamese[edit] Han character[edit] 敦: Hán Việt readings: đôn (都(đô)昆(côn)切(thiết))[1][2][3][4], dun[4] 敦: Nôm readings: đon[1][2][3][5][6][7], run[1][2][3][4][6][7], xôn[2][5][4], xun[3][5][6], đôn[3][4][7], giun[4][6][7], dun[4][6][7], don[4][6][7], dồn[1][2], ton[3][5], rủn[3][6], gion[5][6], chon[1], trôn[1], đun[1], dôn[3], giôn[3], đùn[3], đũn[6], dún[7] Nôm form of run (“to tremble; to shiver”). References[edit] ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Nguyễn (2014). ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Nguyễn et al. (2009). ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Trần (2004). ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Bonet (1899). ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Hồ (1976). ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Génibrel (1898). ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Taberd & Pigneau de Béhaine (1838). Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=敦&oldid=58983971" Categories: CJK Unified Ideographs block Han script characters Translingual lemmas Translingual symbols Han phono-semantic compounds Chinese terms inherited from Proto-Sino-Tibetan Chinese terms derived from Proto-Sino-Tibetan Middle Chinese lemmas Old Chinese lemmas Chinese lemmas Mandarin lemmas Cantonese lemmas Hakka lemmas Min Dong lemmas Min Nan lemmas Teochew lemmas Wu lemmas Chinese adjectives Mandarin adjectives Cantonese adjectives Hakka adjectives Min Dong adjectives Min Nan adjectives Teochew adjectives Wu adjectives Chinese verbs Mandarin verbs Cantonese verbs Hakka verbs Min Dong verbs Min Nan verbs Teochew verbs Wu verbs Chinese proper nouns Mandarin proper nouns Cantonese proper nouns Hakka proper nouns Min Dong proper nouns Min Nan proper nouns Teochew proper nouns Wu proper nouns Chinese terms with IPA pronunciation Chinese hanzi Chinese Han characters zh:Rivers in Shanxi zh:Rivers in China zh:Places in Shanxi zh:Places in China Chinese surnames Chinese nouns Mandarin nouns Cantonese nouns Chinese terms with quotations Chinese variant forms Hakka nouns Min Dong nouns Min Nan nouns Chinese simplified forms Jin lemmas Jin nouns Jin verbs Chinese classifiers Mandarin classifiers Cantonese classifiers Jin classifiers Min Nan classifiers Japanese Han characters Kanji used for names Japanese kanji with kun reading あつ-い Japanese kanji with kan'yōon reading つい Japanese kanji with kan'on reading とん Japanese kanji with kan'on reading たい Japanese kanji with goon reading とん Japanese kanji with goon reading たい Japanese kanji with nanori reading あつし Japanese kanji with nanori reading つとむ Japanese terms spelled with 敦 read as たい Japanese terms read with on'yomi Japanese terms derived from Middle Chinese Japanese terms with IPA pronunciation Japanese lemmas Japanese nouns Japanese terms spelled with jinmeiyō kanji Japanese terms written with one Han script character Japanese terms spelled with 敦 Japanese proper nouns Japanese words with multiple readings Japanese given names Japanese male given names Korean lemmas Korean Han characters Vietnamese Han tu Vietnamese lemmas Vietnamese Han characters Vietnamese Nom Hidden categories: Chinese redlinks Chinese redlinks/m Requests for expansion of etymologies in Chinese entries Kenny's testing category 2 Japanese single-kanji terms Requests for definitions in Korean entries Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Français 한국어 Kurdî Limburgs Magyar 日本語 Norsk Polski Српски / srpski ไทย 中文 This page was last edited on 23 March 2020, at 07:10. 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eo-wikipedia-org-3926	----	Marko Aŭrelio - Vikipedio Marko Aŭrelio El Vikipedio, la libera enciklopedio Salti al navigilo Salti al serĉilo Marko Aŭrelio romia imperiestro Persona informo Naskonomo Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Naskiĝo 26-an de aprilo 121 (0121-04-26) en Romo, Romia Italio,  Romia Imperio Morto 17-an de marto 180 (0180-03-17) (58-jara) en Vindobona, Upper Pannonia,  Romia Imperio Mortis pro pesto [#] Tombo Kastelo de Sankta Anĝelo [#] Religio Romia religio [#] Etno Romianoj [#] Lingvoj latina • antikva greka [#] Loĝloko Romo [#] Ŝtataneco Roma regno [#] Familio Dinastio Antonina dinastio [#] Patro Marcus Annius Verus [#] Patrino Domitia Calvilla [#] Gefratoj Annia Cornificia Faustina [#] Edz(in)o Faŭstino la Juna [#] Infanoj Komodo • Marcus Annius Verus Caesar • Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina • Fadilla • Lucilla • Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor • Vibia Aurelia Sabina • Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus • Domitia Faustina [#] Profesio Okupo politikisto • filozofo • verkisto [#] Laborkampo filozofio [#] Verkado Verkoj Pensoj al mi mem [#] [#] Fonto: Vikidatumoj v • d • r Marko Aŭrelio, latine: Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (naskiĝis la 26-an de aprilo 121, mortis la 17-an de marto 180) estis romia imperiestro ekde 161 ĝis 180. Li estis adopta filo de sia antaŭulo Antonino Pia. Marko Aŭrelio sekvas la stoikajn instruaĵojn de Epikteto, kaj verkis sian propran libron, "Meditaĵoj". Oni nomas lin ankaŭ "filozofo sur imperiestra trono". Lia rajda statuo, staranta sur la Kapitola Placo en Romo, estas bildigita sur la itala 50-cenda monero. Antaŭulo: Antonino Pia (138 - 161) Romiaj imperiestroj Posteulo: Komodo (180 - 192) Vidu ankaŭ[redakti | redakti fonton] 7447 Markoaŭrelio Eksteraj ligiloj[redakti | redakti fonton] Marcus Aurelius de Herbert W. Benario en An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors The Life of Marcus Aurelius en Historia Augusta The Meditations Meditaĵoj en greka Marko Aŭrelio en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Kategorio Marko Aŭrelio en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Marko Aŭrelio en la Vikicitaro (Kolekto de citaĵoj) Marko Aŭrelio en Vikifontaro (Universala biblioteko) Bibliotekoj PeEnEo: 17187 GND: 118577468 LCCN: n80051702 VIAF: 102895066 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LIBRIS: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: 11914476c ULAN: 500115701 MBA: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 BIBSYS: 90564087 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 Elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marko_Aŭrelio&oldid=7097577" Kategorioj: Naskiĝintoj en Romo Naskiĝintoj en 121 Mortintoj en 180 Romiaj imperiestroj Romiaj konsuloj Romiaj filozofoj Helenismaj verkistoj Stoikistoj Romiaj militistoj Personoj de Romo Navigada menuo Personaj iloj Ne ensalutinta Diskuto Kontribuoj Krei konton Ensaluti Nomspacoj Artikolo Diskuto Variantoj Vidoj Legi Redakti Redakti fonton Vidi historion Pli Serĉi Navigado Ĉefpaĝo Komunuma portalo Diskutejo Aktualaĵoj Lastaj ŝanĝoj Novaj paĝoj Hazarda paĝo Helpo Donaci Iloj Ligiloj ĉi tien Rilataj ŝanĝoj Alŝuti dosieron Specialaj paĝoj Konstanta ligilo Informoj pri la paĝo Citi ĉi tiun artikolon Ero en Vikidatumoj Presi/elporti Krei libron Elŝuti kiel PDF Presebla versio En aliaj projektoj Vikimedia Komunejo Vikicitaro Vikifontaro En aliaj lingvoj Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Redakti ligilojn Ĉi tiu paĝo estis lastafoje redaktita je 15:15, 9 jan. 2021. La teksto disponeblas laŭ la permesilo Krea Komunaĵo Atribuite-Samkondiĉe 3.0 Neadaptita; eble aldonaj kondiĉoj aplikeblas. Vidu la uzkondiĉojn por detaloj. Regularo pri respekto de la privateco Pri Vikipedio Malgarantioj Poŝtelefona vido Programistoj Statistikoj Deklaro pri kuketoj 
es-wikipedia-org-189	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Marco Aurelio De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Marco Aurelio Emperador de Roma Busto de Marco Aurelio. Museo Saint-Raymond. Reinado 8 de marzo de 161 - 169 (con Lucio Vero). 169 - 177 (en solitario). 177 - 17 de marzo de 180 (con Cómodo). Predecesor Antonino Pío. Sucesor Cómodo. Información personal Nombre secular Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Nacimiento 26 de abril de 121. Roma[1]​ (Italia) Fallecimiento 17 de marzo de 180. (58 años) Vindobona (Panonia Superior) o Sirmio (Panonia Inferior)[1]​ Familia Dinastía Antonina. Padre Marco Annio Vero (biológico). Antonino Pío (adoptivo). Madre Domicia Lucila. Consorte Faustina la Menor (145-175) Descendencia Cómodo, Galeria Lucila, Marco Annio Vero César, Fadila, Annia Cornificia Faustina la Menor. [editar datos en Wikidata] Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto,[2]​ apodado el Sabio o el Filósofo[3]​ (Roma, 26 de abril de 121[4]​-Vindobona o Sirmio, 17 de marzo de 180), fue emperador del Imperio romano desde el año 161 hasta el año de su muerte en 180. Fue el último de los llamados Cinco Buenos Emperadores, tercero de los emperadores procedentes de una familia de antiguos colonos itálicos asentados en la provincia de Baetica,[5]​[6]​ y está considerado como una de las figuras más representativas de la filosofía estoica. Marco Aurelio y Lucio Vero fueron hijos adoptivos de Antonino Pío por mandato de Adriano y los dos primeros que imperaron conjuntamente en la historia de Roma.[3]​ Su gobierno estuvo marcado por los conflictos militares en Asia frente a un revitalizado Imperio parto y en Germania Superior frente a las tribus bárbaras asentadas a lo largo del Limes Germanicus, en la Galia y a lo largo del Danubio. Durante el período de su imperio tuvo que hacer frente a una revuelta en las provincias del este liderada por Avidio Casio, la cual aplastó. La gran obra de Marco Aurelio, Meditaciones, escrita en griego helenístico durante las campañas de la década de 170, todavía está considerada como un monumento al gobierno perfecto. Se la suele describir como «una obra escrita de manera exquisita y con infinita ternura».[7]​ Índice 1 Juventud 1.1 Familia 2 Heredero del Imperio 3 Emperador de Roma 3.1 Ascenso al trono 3.2 Conflictos internacionales 3.2.1 Guerra con Partia 3.2.2 Germania y el Danubio 4 Muerte y sucesión 5 Matrimonio y descendencia 6 Obra literaria 7 Representaciones en el arte 8 El retorno de Marco Aurelio 9 Apariciones en la literatura y en el cine 10 Véase también 11 Referencias 12 Bibliografía 13 Enlaces externos Juventud[editar] Familia[editar] Era el único heredero varón del político Marco Annio Vero y Domicia Lucila. Fruto de este matrimonio nació también su hermana menor, Annia Cornificia Faustina, la cual era aproximadamente dos años más joven que él. Domicia Lucila procedía de una rica y poderosa familia de rango consular, mientras que el padre de Marco Aurelio procedía de una familia de colonos itálicos pertenecientes a una rama de la gens Annia,[8]​ oriundos de Setia (ciudad del Lacio, en Italia),[9]​[10]​ pero asentados en la provincia de Hispania Baetica y más precisamente en Ucubi (actual Espejo, Córdoba);[11]​ [12]​ su padre, habiendo entrado en el Senado romano, había ostentado el cargo de pretor y había muerto cuando su hijo tenía tres años de edad. Cuando ascendió al trono, Marco Aurelio siempre alegó que su madre le había enseñado que era posible vivir sin ostentación (Meditaciones, 1.3.).[13]​ Su tía abuela paterna era Vibia Sabina, mujer del emperador Adriano. Rupilia Faustina (la abuela paterna de Marco Aurelio) y Vibia Sabina eran hermanastras, ambas hijas de Matidia la Mayor, sobrina del emperador Trajano. Tras la muerte de su padre, fue adoptado y designado heredero por su madre y por su abuelo paterno, Marco Annio Vero. Vero murió en el año 138, cuando Marco Aurelio tenía diecinueve años de edad. Heredero del Imperio[editar] Busto del joven Marco Aurelio, Roma. En el año 136, el emperador Adriano designó como su heredero a Lucio Ceionio Cómodo, conocido comúnmente con el nombre de Lucio Elio César. Por su parte, Marco Aurelio había atraído la atención de Adriano, que le apodó cariñosamente verissimus. Este término podría traducirse como honesto. Cuando el joven noble tenía seis años, fue el propio emperador Adriano el que gestionó su ingreso en el ordo equester.[14]​ Posteriormente, Marco Aurelio fue prometido en matrimonio con la hija de Elio César, Ceionia Fabia. Sin embargo, tras la muerte de Elio el compromiso fue anulado y Marco Aurelio se prometió con la hija de Antonino. Adriano, al morir su hijo adoptivo, Lucio Elio César, decidió nombrar como heredero del Imperio a Antonino Pío con la condición de que adoptara a Marco Aurelio, entonces llamado Marco Elio Aurelio Vero, y a Lucio Ceionio Cómodo, el hijo de Lucio Elio, al que posteriormente se conocería como Lucio Vero, como herederos y que les nombrara como los siguientes en la línea sucesoria. Antonino cumplió su palabra y tras su adopción formal, les designó como sus herederos y sucesores al trono el 25 de febrero de 138, cuando Marco Aurelio tenía solamente 17 años de edad. A la edad de 40 años, Marco Aurelio ascendió finalmente al trono junto con Lucio Vero, situación que se prolongaría hasta la muerte del segundo. Historiadores modernos han teorizado que los nombramientos de Elio César y Antonino Pío como césares estaban destinados únicamente a legitimar el ascenso de los jóvenes y precoces Marco Aurelio y Lucio Vero. Las informaciones acerca de la vida de Marco Aurelio durante el reinado de Antonino Pío han llegado hasta nosotros a través de la correspondencia que mantuvo con uno de los tutores que le había asignado el finado emperador Adriano, Marco Cornelio Frontón, una relevante figura de la cultura de la época. A través de estas cartas, Marco se muestra como un hombre inteligente, centrado y trabajador. Además de su papel informador, su carácter epistolar nos muestra la creciente importancia de la filosofía en la vida del heredero del imperio: Marco Aurelio realizó pequeñas obras en griego y en latín, y llegó a convertirse en un amante de la obra del poeta estoico Epicteto, Diatribai (Discursos). Marco Aurelio empezó también a desempeñar un papel cada vez más importante en la vida pública de Roma, aunque siempre a la sombra de Antonino. La carrera política de Marco Aurelio comenzó cuando fue designado por Antonino Pío para el consulado en los años 140, 145 y 161. Marco contaba además con gran influencia en las decisiones que tomaba el emperador. En 147 recibió un imperium proconsular, efectivo en las afueras de la capital y tribunicia potestas, el mayor poder que podía recibir alguien que no fuera el propio emperador. En el año 145 se casó con Ania Galeria Faustina, más conocida como Faustina la Menor, hija del emperador Antonino y con ello prima paterna de Marco Aurelio. Tras el matrimonio, Aurelio cambió su nombre por el de Marco Anio Vero.[15]​[16]​ Emperador de Roma[editar] Ascenso al trono[editar] Áureo de Marco Aurelio. Estatua ecuestre de Marco Aurelio, Museos Capitolinos. Cuando Antonino Pío murió el 7 de marzo de 161, Marco Aurelio aceptó el trono con la condición de que Vero y él fueran nombrados de manera conjunta Augusto. Al ser nombrado emperador, cambió de manera definitiva su nombre por el de Marco Aurelio Antonino. A pesar de esta disposición, Vero, menos popular y más joven que Marco Aurelio, aceptó un papel subordinado en el gobierno del Imperio.[17]​ La insistencia de Marco Aurelio en que Vero fuera elegido emperador junto a él motivó la lealtad de este hacia el primero durante toda su vida. La sucesión conjunta pudo haber sido debida a que Vero contaba con experiencia y talento militar, algo muy necesario durante el mandato de Marco Aurelio, en el que el Imperio se mantuvo constantemente en guerra con varios pueblos. Urgía una figura autoritaria y valorada entre los soldados, y Marco Aurelio no podía defender los frentes de Partia y Germania al mismo tiempo. A pesar de todo, Marco Aurelio podría haber nombrado a un general para que liderara las legiones en el este. No obstante, existía un mal precedente por el cual los generales Julio César y Vespasiano habían derrocado a sus respectivos gobiernos instalándose ellos mismos en una posición de poder incontestable. Marco Aurelio solucionó el problema enviando a Vero a comandar las legiones asentadas en Oriente. Vero constituía una figura lo suficientemente autoritaria como para garantizar la plena lealtad de las tropas, pero no era lo suficientemente poderoso como para poder aspirar a derrocar a Marco Aurelio. La maniobra del emperador salió bien y Vero se mantuvo leal hasta su muerte en una campaña del año 169. El imperio compartido recuerda ligeramente al sistema electivo empleado en la República Romana, en el que no se permitía a ningún hombre ostentar el poder supremo. El gobierno conjunto fue revivido por el emperador Diocleciano, durante el establecimiento de la Tetrarquía a finales del siglo III. Al comienzo de su período, Marco Aurelio siguió el camino de sus predecesores emitiendo numerosas reformas de ley en las que limitaba los abusos de la jurisprudencia civil. Promovió sobre todo medidas favorables para los esclavos, las viudas y los menores de edad, reconociendo las relaciones de sangre en lo que respectaba a la sucesión. En derecho civil estableció una división social entre los honestiores y los humiliores ("el más distinguido" y "el menos distinguido", respectivamente). Bajo el imperio de Marco Aurelio la situación de los cristianos se mantuvo igual que en la época de Trajano, eran legalmente más vulnerables que el resto de la plebe, pero las persecuciones se tornaron muy escasas. Cuando en el año 177, probablemente a causa de una revuelta popular, se produjeron matanzas de cristianos en la ciudad francesa de Lyon, el gobernador local le remitió una consulta sobre las medidas que debía tomar al respecto; Marco Aurelio le contestó que debía perdonar solo a aquellos que no renegaran de su fe.[18]​ Conflictos internacionales[editar] Guerra con Partia[editar] Véanse también: Imperio parto, Guerras párticas y Campaña parta de Lucio Vero. Arco de Marco Aurelio en Trípoli, erigido en memoria del emperador. En la provincia de Asia, un revitalizado Imperio Parto renovó el asalto a las posesiones imperiales en 161. El conflicto comenzó con la derrota de dos ejércitos romanos y la invasión parta de los territorios de Armenia y Siria. Al tener noticias del inicio de las hostilidades, Marco Aurelio decidió enviar a su colega con órdenes de comandar las legiones estacionadas en Oriente y hacer frente al invasor. La guerra finalizó con éxito en el año 166, aunque el mérito de la victoria se debió exclusivamente al buen hacer de los generales subordinados de Vero, como Cayo Avidio Casio. Cuando volvió de su campaña, Vero fue recompensado con un triunfo. El desfile de la ciudad fue tremendamente inusual, ya que incluyó a los dos emperadores y toda su familia, recordando al de Tito cuando volvió de su campaña en Judea. Los dos hijos de Marco Aurelio, Cómodo y Annio Vero, fueron elevados a la categoría de César para la ocasión. La vuelta del ejército de Vero trajo consigo una plaga, conocida como la Plaga Antonina o la Plaga de Galeno, que se extendió por el Imperio romano entre 165 y 180. La enfermedad se tornó en una incontrolable pandemia variedad de la viruela o el sarampión y dañó de manera irreversible las vidas de los dos emperadores de la época. Lucio Vero perdió la vida en el año 169 a causa de esta plaga y Marco Aurelio vio dañada su reputación, ya que se dio el nombre de su familia (Antonina) a la plaga. Según el historiador Dión Casio la enfermedad reapareció nueve años después causando 2000 muertes diarias en Roma. Se estima que perecieron millones de personas durante esta época. Germania y el Danubio[editar] Artículo principal: Guerras marcomanas Busto de Marco Aurelio, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Nueva York. Desde la década de 160, los pueblos germánicos y otras tribus nómadas lanzaron incursiones a lo largo de la frontera norte del Imperio, con ataques sobre todo en la Galia y a lo largo de los territorios del Danubio. Este nuevo ímpetu hacia el Oeste de estos pueblos se debía probablemente a los ataques de las tribus del lejano Oriente. Una primera invasión de los chatti en la provincia de Germania Superior fue rechazada sin problemas en 162. Más peligrosa fue otra invasión iniciada en 166, cuando los marcomanos procedentes de Bohemia, que habían sido clientes del Imperio desde el año 19, cruzaron el Danubio en compañía de los lombardos y otros pueblos germanos. Al mismo tiempo los sármatas, pueblo de origen iranio, atacaron el territorio comprendido entre los ríos Danubio y Theiss. Dada la peligrosa situación en el este, Marco Aurelio y Vero solamente pudieron responder con una única expedición de castigo en el año 167, liderada por ellos dos. Tras la muerte de Vero en 169, Marco Aurelio dirigió personalmente las fuerzas contra los germanos, permaneciendo en este puesto gran parte de su vida. Los romanos sufrieron al menos dos derrotas a manos de los cuados y los marcomanos, que habían cruzado los Alpes amenazando Opitergium (Oderzo) y sitiando Aquilea, la ciudad más importante del noreste de Italia. Al mismo tiempo, la tribu de los costobocos emigró de sus asentamientos ubicados en los Montes Cárpatos e invadió Moesia, Macedonia y Grecia. Tras una prolongada y cruenta guerra, Marco Aurelio logró hacer retroceder a los invasores. Muchos de estos pueblos germánicos se asentaron tras su derrota en los territorios de Dacia, Panonia, Germania y la misma Italia. Esta situación no sentaba un precedente, ya que en anteriores ocasiones migraciones de pueblos bárbaros habían arrebatado territorios al Imperio. Sin embargo, el gran número de los nuevos habitantes obligó a Marco Aurelio a establecer dos nuevas provincias en la orilla occidental del Danubio, Sarmatia y Marcomania, que incluyen lo que hoy en día son Bohemia y Hungría. Tras la victoria sobre los germanos, el emperador pudo concentrar sus esfuerzos en aplastar una revuelta en Oriente liderada por el general Avidio Casio (año 175). El general rebelde había sido engañado con falsas informaciones de que el emperador Marco Aurelio había muerto tras una larga enfermedad. Todas las provincias orientales, excepto Capadocia y Bitinia, se posicionaron del lado de los rebeldes. Sin embargo, cuando llegaron noticias de que Marco Aurelio estaba vivo, la suerte de Casio cambió y fue rápidamente ejecutado por sus propias tropas tras haber permanecido solo cien días en el poder. Con el fin de restablecer la maltrecha fama del Imperio en las provincias orientales, Marco Aurelio realizó una gira por allí junto a su mujer Faustina. Visitó Atenas, declarándose ante los habitantes de la ciudad como un protector de la filosofía. Tras su triunfo en Roma, marchó al año siguiente hacia la frontera del Danubio, donde logró una decisiva victoria contra los germanos. Tras su victoria, la anexión de los territorios de Bohemia parecía inminente; sin embargo, los preparativos de la invasión final se vieron detenidos cuando Marco Aurelio volvió a caer enfermo de viruela en el año 180. Muerte y sucesión[editar] El Imperio romano al final del reinado de Marco Aurelio, en 180 Marco Aurelio murió el 17 de marzo de 180 en la ciudad de Vindobona (moderna Viena), en compañía de su hijo y sucesor Cómodo. Tras su muerte fue deificado y sus cenizas se transportaron a Roma, donde permanecieron en el Mausoleo de Adriano (moderno Castillo de Sant'Angelo), hasta el saqueo visigodo de la ciudad en el año 410. Se construyó además una columna conmemorando sus victorias contra los sármatas y los germanos. A su muerte, Marco Aurelio fue capaz de asegurar la sucesión de su hijo Cómodo, al que nombró César en 166 y con el que compartió el gobierno del Imperio desde el año 177. Sin embargo, al final esta decisión se tornaría muy poco afortunada. Este nombramiento, que puso fin a una serie de «emperadores adoptivos», fue criticado posteriormente por una serie de historiadores, debido sobre todo a que Cómodo se convirtió en un líder político y militar paranoico, tremendamente egoísta y afectado por problemas neuróticos. Por esta razón, la muerte de Marco Aurelio ha sido considerada como el fin de la época de mayor prosperidad del Imperio, conocida como Pax Romana. Es posible que la elección de Cómodo se debiera a la ausencia de otros candidatos o al miedo de que una sucesión incierta diera pie a una guerra civil. Matrimonio y descendencia[editar] Busto de Faustina la Menor, Louvre, París. Marco Aurelio contrajo matrimonio con Faustina la Menor en 145. Durante sus treinta años de matrimonio, Faustina dio a luz a trece niños, de los cuales solo un varón y cuatro mujeres sobrevivieron a su padre: Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147-165) Gemelo de Lucila (muerto alrededor de 150) Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucila (148/50-182), casada con el coemperador de su padre, Lucio Vero Tito Elio Antonino (nacido en 150-fallecido antes del 7 de marzo de 161) Tito Elio Aurelio (nacido en 150-fallecido antes del 7 de marzo de 161) Adriano (nacido en 152-fallecido antes del 7 de marzo de 161) Domicia Faustina (nacida en 150-fallecida antes del 7 de marzo de 161) Aurelia Fadila (nacida en 159-fallecida antes de 192) Annia Cornificia Faustina la Menor (nacida en 160-fallecida durante el reinado del emperador Caracalla (211–217) Tito Aurelio Fulvo Antonino (161-165) Lucio Aurelio Cómodo Antonino, que posteriormente se convertiría en emperador (161–192) Marco Annio Vero César (162-169) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-fallecida antes de 217) Obra literaria[editar] Al tiempo que luchaba en las campañas de los años 170 y 180, Aurelio escribió sus Meditaciones como fuente para su guía y mejora personal. El emperador había sido sacerdote en los altares de sacrificio romano y era un convencido patriota. Sus notas son representativas de una mente lógica y de un pensamiento filosófico y espiritual acorde con el estoicismo, y en consonancia con los principales estoicos de raíz bética cordobesa: Séneca, Lucano, Helvia, Novato, etc. Sus Meditaciones están consideradas como un monumento literario a un gobierno al servicio del deber. Es una obra que ha sido elogiada por su exquisito acento y dulzura. Como muchos de los emperadores de Roma, Marco Aurelio fue amado por su pueblo. Representación de Marco Aurelio en la edición traducida de George Long Pensamientos de Marco Aurelio Antonino. El libro fue publicado por primera vez en el año 1558 en Zúrich, transcrito de un manuscrito que hoy en día se ha perdido. La copia del manuscrito perdido se encuentra en los Museos Vaticanos. La importancia de la muerte estaba cargada de gran significado en la filosofía estoica, aunque no creía en la vida después de la muerte. En una de sus obras, Marco Aurelio escribe: «Vivimos por un instante, sólo para caer en el completo olvido y el vacío infinito de tiempo de esta parte de nuestra existencia." "Piensa en lo que han hecho, tras pasar una vida de implacable enemistad, sospecha, odio... ahora están muertos y reducidos a cenizas».[19]​ Según Marco Aurelio todo acaba cayendo en el olvido, incluso las leyendas. «La vida del hombre es una simple duración, un punto en el tiempo, su contenido una corriente de distancia, la composición del cuerpo propensa a la descomposición, el alma un vórtice, la fortuna incalculable y la fama incierta. Las cosas del cuerpo son como un río y las cosas del alma como un sueño de vapor, la vida es una guerra y la fama después de la muerte, solo olvido». «Todo lo existente se desintegra y todo lo creado por la naturaleza está destinado a morir». «La duración de la vida de cada uno es irrelevante, un paso para ver el enorme abismo de tiempo detrás de ti y antes de ti en otro infinito por venir. En esta eternidad de la vida de un bebé de tres días y la vida de un Néstor de tres siglos se funden como uno solo». «Los deseos conducen a la permanente preocupación y decepción, ya que todo lo que se desea de este mundo es miserable y corrupto».[19]​ Para Marco Aurelio la muerte es deseable, ya que pone fin a todos los deseos.[20]​ A pesar de estas reflexiones sobre la vida y la muerte, Marco Aurelio fue un defensor racional de la virtud. Según Jonathan Dollimore, Marco Aurelio tenía una especie de indiferencia hacia las brutalidades en la vida. Como emperador, persiguió a los cristianos y dirigió con frecuencia ejércitos en las campañas militares. Su misma forma de gobernar justifica el hecho de que cuando escribe minusvalore o haga ver la insignificancia de los asuntos mundanos.[21]​ Representaciones en el arte[editar] Estatua ecuestre de bronce de Marco Aurelio. Museo Capitolino, Roma. Existe una estatua ecuestre en bronce de Marco Aurelio que durante la Edad Media había permanecido en el Palacio de Letrán en Roma. En 1538 fue reubicada en la plaza del Campidoglio, en la Colina Capitolina. Actualmente, el original se encuentra dentro del Museo Capitolino, mientras en la plaza se exhibe una copia de la misma. Estatua de Marco Aurelio en la Piazza del Campidoglio. Se trata de la única estatua de bronce que perdura de un emperador romano de la época precristiana; la razón para su supervivencia es que, después de la conversión de Roma al cristianismo, cuando las estatuas de los emperadores se fundían para hacer estatuas con destino a las iglesias cristianas, se pensó, equivocadamente, que se trataba de una estatua del emperador Constantino I el Grande, quien cristianizó Roma, y por este motivo no fue destruida. Fue una de las pocas estatuas romanas que permanecieron a la vista del público durante la Edad Media. Aunque la imagen representa a un victorioso emperador, al mostrarse sin armas, Marco Aurelio parece más un pacificador que un héroe militar. Esta estatua está también representada en la moneda italiana de 50 céntimos de euro, diseñada por Roberto Mauri. El retorno de Marco Aurelio[editar] En la antigua ciudad de Sagalassos, en el sur de Turquía, un equipo de arqueólogos dirigido por el profesor Marc Wealkens, de la universidad belga de Lovaina, encontró en agosto de 2008 fragmentos de mármol que conformarían una colosal estatua del emperador Marco Aurelio. Su busto pesa cerca de 30 kg y la cabeza es de aproximadamente un metro de altura. Los restos fueron desenterrados del cuarto más grande en el baño romano de Sagalassos, parcialmente destruido durante un terremoto entre los años 540 y 620. Esta sala se usaba probablemente como frigidarium, una piscina de agua fría en la cual los asistentes podían sumergirse tras un baño caliente. En el último año, los arqueólogos hallaron en el mismo lugar fragmentos de otras esculturas colosales de Adriano y de Faustina la Mayor, esposa del emperador Antonio Pío. Por ello piensan que la sala albergaba una galería con las figuras de la dinastía Antonina, una dinastía de origen hispano que presidió el Imperio romano en el siglo II. Marco Aurelio, que reinó desde 161 hasta 180, reflejó una visión del mundo modelada por la filosofía estoica en su obra Meditaciones. Ahora su cabeza de Sagalassos presenta marcados sus ojos saltones, que Waelkens considera significativos, pues afirma que las pupilas miran hacia arriba «como si estuviera en un acto de profunda contemplación, muy adecuado para un gobernante que era más filósofo que soldado».[22]​ Apariciones en la literatura y en el cine[editar] Memorias de Adriano, de Marguerite Yourcenar (1951). Una biografía ficticia aunque plausible de uno de sus predecesores, Adriano. La caída del Imperio romano (1964), en la que Sir Alec Guinness interpreta el papel de Marco Aurelio. Household Gods, de Judith Tarr (1999). Un viaje en el tiempo a la época de Marco Aurelio. ISBN 0-613-35147-9 Gladiator (2000), película de Ridley Scott, donde el papel de Marco Aurelio está interpretado por el actor Richard Harris. The Silence of the Lambs (1991), película de Jonathan Demme, Sir Anthony Hopkins, quien interpreta el papel del asesino en serie Hannibal Lecter cita brevemente las Meditaciones de Marco Aurelio. Black Sails (2014), serie de Jonathan E. Steinberg y Robert Levineen, en la que se cita un fragmento de las Meditaciones de Marco Aurelio. Véase también[editar] Augusto (título) Los cinco emperadores buenos Estoicismo Galeno Anexo:Emperadores romanos (7447) Marcusaurelius Referencias[editar] ↑ a b «Marcus Aurelius». Encyclopaedia Britannica. Consultado el 7 de agosto de 2007.  ↑ Desde su ascenso al trono Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. ↑ a b Francisco de Padilla. Historia Ecclesiastica de España, 1605, T1, folio 78. ↑ Historia Augusta, "Marco Aurelio". ↑ Knight, Charles (1856). The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Biography. Bradbury & Evans. p. 439. «Marcus Aurelius Malennius and Numa.»  ↑ Pisa Sánchez, Jorge (2010). Breve Historia de Hispania. Nowtilus. p. 165. ISBN 8497637690. Consultado el 9 de noviembre de 2012.  ↑ John Stuart Mill en su Utility of Religion, compara las Meditaciones con el Sermón de la montaña. ↑ HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. ↑ «Università di Trieste: Roma e le Priscae Latinae Coloniae, excursus storico-geografico sulla espansione romana nel Lazio, dalla Repubblica alla guerra latina».  ↑ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. ↑ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, pp. 180 ("Annia Gens"), 439–443 ("Aurelius", "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus"). ↑ Sánchez, p. 165. ↑ Grimal, 1997, pp. 35-38. ↑ "Marco Aurelio Antonino". Enciclopedia Católica (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company. ↑ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1. ↑ Dión Casio, lxix, 21 Archivado el 29 de marzo de 2020 en la Wayback Machine.. ↑ Dión Casio, Historia Romana, 71.1. ↑ Grimal, 1997, p. 322. ↑ a b Marco Aurelio, Meditaciones. ↑ Jonathan Dollimore, Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture (London 1998) 32–34. ↑ Ibid., 34–35. ↑ (2008) - Clío - El Pasado Presente - 84 - Afrika Korps. Editorial: MC Ediciones. 10 págs. ISSN 1579-3532. Bibliografía[editar] Aurelio, Marco. Emperador de Roma (1994). Meditaciones (1ª edición). Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 84-249-3497-0.  Sobre Marco Aurelio Daurel, Fran (2000). Marco Aurelio: vida y pensamientos. Barcelona: Viena ediciones (en catalán). ISBN 84-8330-095-8.  Grimal, Pierre (1997). Marco Aurelio. México D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 84-375-0434-1.  Guevara, Fray Antonio de, Sevilla 1528 (1994). Libro áureo de Marco Aurelio: década de Césares. Obra completa, tomo 1. Madrid: Ediciones Turner, S.A. ISBN 84-7506-404-3.  Enlaces externos[editar] Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Marco Aurelio. Wikiquote alberga frases célebres de o sobre Marco Aurelio. Biografía de Marco Aurelio en el sitio Escolar. FRAY ANTONIO DE GUEVARA: Libro Áureo de Marco Aurelio. Sevilla. 1528. Texto en el sitio Filosofía. Sobre Marco Aurelio en el sitio de la Enciclopedia Católica. Sobre las guerras marcomanas en el sitio Sátrapa. Monedas del período de Marco Aurelio: texto en el sitio Tesorillo. Estudio de la estatua ecuestre de Marco Aurelio; en el sitio de la Universidad Abierta de Cataluña. Historia Augusta: Marco Aurelio. Texto latino con índice electrónico en el Proyecto Perseus. Empleando el rótulo activo "load", que se halla en la parte superior derecha, se obtiene ayuda en inglés con el vocabulario latino del texto. Texto en latín, en Wikisource. Texto en latín, en el sitio The Latin Library (La Biblioteca Latina). Frases célebres del emperador Marco Aurelio; en el sitio Proverbia. MARCO AURELIO. Traducciones al italiano, en Wikisource. Traducciones al francés, en el mismo sitio. Traducciones al inglés, en el mismo sitio. Textos en griego, en el mismo sitio. MARCO AURELIO: Meditaciones (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν). Texto español Archivado el 21 de junio de 2014 en la Wayback Machine. en el sitio Imperivm. Texto griego en el sitio de la Bibliotheca Augustana (Augsburgo). Texto griego en Wikisource. MARCO AURELIO sobre él mismo: texto griego en el Proyecto Perseus. Empleando el rótulo activo "load", que se halla en la parte superior derecha, se obtiene ayuda en inglés con el vocabulario griego del texto. MARCO AURELIO: Pensamientos. Texto en francés, con anotaciones en este idioma, en el sitio de Philippe Remacle (1944 - 2011): trad. de Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire (1805 - 1895); ed. de 1876, en París. Texto bilingüe griego - francés, con introducción y anotaciones en este idioma, en el sitio de Philippe Remacle: la traducción francesa es la misma. Cartas de Marco Aurelio y de Frontón. Texto bilingüe latín - francés en el sitio de Philippe Remacle: ed. de 1830, en París. Marco Aurelio en el sitio de la Bibliotheca Augustana. Predecesor: Antonino Pío Emperador romano 161 - 180 con Lucio Vero (161-169) y con Cómodo (177-180) Sucesor: Cómodo Predecesor: Antonino Pío Emperador Antonino 161 - 180 Sucesor: Cómodo Predecesor: Antonino Pío y Cayo Brutio Presente Cónsul del Imperio romano junto con Antonino Pío 140 Sucesor: Tito Henio Severo y Marco Peduceo Estloga Priscino Predecesor: Lucio Hedio Rufo Loliano Avito y Tito Estatilio Máximo Cónsul del Imperio romano junto con Antonino Pío 145 Sucesor: Sexto Erucio Claro y Gneo Claudio Severo Arabiano Predecesor: Apio Annio Atilio Bradua y Tito Clodio Vibio Varo Cónsul del Imperio romano junto con Lucio Vero 161 Sucesor: Quinto Junio Rústico y Lucio Ticio Plaucio Aquilino Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q1430 Multimedia: Marcus Aurelius Citas célebres: Marco Aurelio Identificadores WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X BNA: 000026945 BNE: XX932158 BNF: 11914476c (data) BNM: 000088265 BNC: 000166929 CANTIC: a10491697 GND: 118577468 LCCN: n80051702 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 CiNii: DA00596148 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 ULAN: 500115701 BIBSYS: 90564087 UB: a1072619 Open Library: OL133986A Diccionarios y enciclopedias DBE: url Britannica: url Treccani: url Repositorios digitales BVMC: 356 Proyecto Gutenberg: 998 PHI: 1224 Datos: Q1430 Multimedia: Marcus Aurelius Citas célebres: Marco Aurelio Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=136299271» Categorías: Hombres Nacidos en 121 Fallecidos en 180 Emperadores de la Antigua Roma del siglo II Miembros de la dinastía Antonina Cónsules del Imperio romano Filósofos de la Antigua Roma Filósofos del siglo II Filósofos estoicos Gens Aurelia Emperadores de la Antigua Roma deificados Antiguos romanos del Alto Imperio romano Marco Aurelio Nacidos en Roma Categorías ocultas: Wikipedia:Artículos buenos Wikipedia:Artículos destacados en la Wikipedia en italiano Wikipedia:Artículos destacados en la Wikipedia en extremeño Wikipedia:Artículos buenos en la Wikipedia en alemán Wikipedia:Artículos destacados en la Wikipedia en francés Wikipedia:Artículos buenos en la Wikipedia en inglés Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores ISNI Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNA Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNE Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNM Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNC Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores CANTIC Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores NLA Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores SNAC Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores ULAN Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BIBSYS Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores UB Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Open Library Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores DBE Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BVMC persona Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Proyecto Gutenberg autor Wikipedia:Control de autoridades con 29 elementos Wikipedia:Páginas con enlaces mágicos de ISBN Menú de navegación Herramientas personales No has accedido Discusión Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Espacios de nombres Artículo Discusión Variantes Vistas Leer Editar Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidad Actualidad Cambios recientes Páginas nuevas Página aleatoria Ayuda Donaciones Notificar un error Herramientas Lo que enlaza aquí Cambios en enlazadas Subir archivo Páginas especiales Enlace permanente Información de la página Citar esta página Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir En otros proyectos Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote En otros idiomas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Editar enlaces Esta página se editó por última vez el 13 jun 2021 a las 14:34. 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et-wikipedia-org-7549	----	Marcus Aurelius – Vikipeedia Marcus Aurelius Allikas: Vikipeedia Mine navigeerimisribale Mine otsikasti Marcus Aurelius Sündinud 26. aprill 121 Surnud 17. märts 180 (vanus 58) Abikaasa(d) Faustina noorem [muuda Wikidatas] Marcus Aurelius (Imperator Caesar Divi Antonini Pii Divi Hadriani Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; sünninimi Marcus Annius Catilius Severus; 26. aprill 121 – 17. märts 180) oli Vana-Rooma keiser 7. märtsist 161 kuni surmani. Teda on nimetatud filosoofiks keisritroonil. Kirjutas aastal 167 stoitsismil põhineva filosoofilise raamatu "Iseendale". Valitsejana tuli tal enamiku ajast tegeleda germaanlaste ja teiste vaenulike jõudude rünnakute tõrjumisega, mistõttu ta viibis Roomas väga harva. Suri loomulikku surma. Omandatud tiitlid: Armeniacus (164), Medicus (166), Parthicus (166), Germanicus (172), Sarmaticus (175). Kirjandus[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Macrus Aurelius "Iseendale", Eesti Raamat 1983. Vanakreeka keelest tõlkinud Jaan Unt. Välislingid[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Teose "Iseendale" kaks ingliskeelset tõlget Teose "Iseendale" ingliskeelne tõlge Pildid, videod ja helifailid Commonsis: Marcus Aurelius Tsitaadid Vikitsitaatides: Marcus Aurelius Eelnev: Antoninus Pius Vana-Rooma keiser 161–180 koos Lucius Verusega (161–169) Järgnev: Commodus Pärit leheküljelt "https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=5866090" Kategooriad: Vana-Rooma keisrid Vana-Rooma konsulid Sündinud 121 Surnud 180 Stoikud Navigeerimismenüü Isiklikud lehed Sisse logimata Arutelu Kaastöö Loo konto Logi sisse Nimeruumid Artikkel Arutelu Variandid vaatamisi Vaata Muuda Muuda lähteteksti Näita ajalugu Veel Otsing Navigeerimine Esileht Üldine arutelu Sündmused maailmas Viimased muudatused Juhuslik lehekülg Juhend Annetused Kontakt Trüki või ekspordi Koosta raamat Laadi alla PDF-failina Prinditav versioon Tööriistad Lingid siia Seotud muudatused Erileheküljed Püsilink Lehekülje teave Viita leheküljele Andmeüksus Teistes projektides Commons Vikitsitaadid Teistes keeltes Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Muuda linke Selle lehekülje viimane muutmine: 01:59, 3. aprill 2021. Tekst on kasutatav vastavalt Creative Commonsi litsentsile "Autorile viitamine + jagamine samadel tingimustel"; sellele võivad lisanduda täiendavad tingimused. Täpsemalt vaata Wikimedia kasutamistingimustest. Andmekaitsepõhimõtted Tiitelandmed Lahtiütlused Mobiilivaade Arendajad Arvandmed Küpsiste avaldus 
eu-wikipedia-org-8920	----	Marko Aurelio - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea. Jump to content Toggle sidebar Bilatu Tresna pertsonalak Saioa hasi gabe Eztabaida Ekarpenak Sortu kontua Hasi saioa Nabigazio menua Nabigazioa Azala Txikipedia Txokoa Albisteak Aldaketa berriak Ausazko orria Laguntza Dohaintza egin Tresnak Honanzko esteka duten orriak Lotutako orrietako aldaketak Fitxategia igo Orri bereziak Lotura iraunkorra Orri honen datuak Artikulu hau aipatu Wikidata itema Inprimatu/esportatu Liburu bat sortu PDF gisa jaitsi Inprimatzeko bertsioa Beste proiektuetan Wikimedia Commons Beste hizkuntzak Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Aldatu loturak Izen-tarteak Artikulua Eztabaida Aldaerak Ikusketak Irakurri Aldatu Aldatu iturburu kodea Ikusi historia Gehiago Marko Aurelio Wikipedia, Entziklopedia askea Marko Aurelio Irudi gehiago Erromatar enperadorea 161eko martxoaren 7a - 180ko martxoaren 17a ← Antonino Pio - Komodo → Erromako kontsula Antzinako Erromako senataria Kuestore Bizitza Izen osoa Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Jaiotza Erroma, 121eko apirilaren 26a Herrialdea Antzinako Erroma Bizilekua Erroma Talde etnikoa antzinako erromatarra Heriotza Vindobona, 180ko martxoaren 17a (58 urte) Hobiratze lekua Sant'Angelo gaztelua Heriotza modua berezko heriotza: izurri bubonikoa Familia Aita Marcus Annius Verus Ama Domitia Calvilla Ezkontidea(k) Faustina Gaztea Seme-alabak ikusi Komodo Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (en) Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (en) Fadilla (en) Lucilla (en) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (en) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (en) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (en) Domitia Faustina (en) Anai-arrebak ikusi Annia Cornificia Faustina (en) Leinua Antoniar leinu Hezkuntza Hizkuntzak latina antzinako greziera Irakaslea(k) Alexander of Cotiaeum (en) Herodes Atticus (en) Marcus Cornelius Fronto Junius Rusticus (en) Jarduerak Jarduerak politikaria, filosofoa eta idazlea Lan nabarmenak Meditations (en) Sinesmenak eta ideologia Erlijioa Antzinako Erromako erlijioa Artikulu hau enperadoreari buruzkoa da; beste esanahietarako, ikus «Marko». Marko Aurelio Antonio (latinez: Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, jaiotzez Marcus Annius Catilius Severus eta ezkontzerakoan Marcus Annius Verus; 121eko apirilaren 26a - 180ko martxoaren 17a) erromatar enperadorea izan zen, 161tik hil zen arte. Bost Enperadore Onetako azkena izan zen. Eduki-taula 1 Estreinako urteak 2 Agintean 3 Izkribuak 4 Heriotza Estreinako urteak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Hadriano enperadorearen iloba, Antonino Piok oinordeko hautatu zuen 138an, Marko Antoniok 17 urte zituelarik. Antonino Piok Luzio Vero ere oinordeko izendatu zuen. 161ean, Antonino hil zenean, bi oinordekoek agintea onartu zuten botere paretsuak izanez gero. Praktikan, halere, Luzio Vero Marko Antonioren trebetasunaren azpian geratzen zen. Marko Aurelio Faustina Minorrekin ezkondu zen 145. 13 seme-alaba izan zituzten, haien artean Komodo enperadorea izatekoa, eta Luzila, Luzio Veroren emaztea. Agintean[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Aldi bereko aginte hori beher militarrak bultzatu zuen. Izan ere, germaniarrek Inperioko mugak zeharkatzeari berriko ekin zioten. Ekialdean, Partiako erresumak indarra berreskuratu zuen. Enperadore batek ezin izan zuen bi mugak aldi berean defendatu. Hori zela eta, Luzio Vero ekialdera joan zen. Troparen leialtasuna eskuratzeko gai izateaz gain, Marko Aurelio kanporatzeko motiborik ez zuen. Leial jarraitu zuen Luzio Vero kanpainan hil zen arte, 169an. Aldi bereko agintaldi honek Errepublikan zeukan oinarria. Garai hartan kargu guztiak gutxienez bi pertsonak betetzen zituzten, botere osoa esku berean gera ez zedin. Dioklezianok sistema hauek berreskuratu zituen Tetrarkia sortzerakoan. Izkribuak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Marko Aurelio Kanpainetan ari zela, 170 eta 180 bitartean, Aureliok Gogoetak idatzi zuen, gida modukoa. Liburuan Aurelioren abertzaletasuna eta adimen logikoa agerian geratzen dira, Estoikoen filosofia beti oinarrian. Liburua goraipatua da gobernarien eginkizuna eta zerbitzuaren isla paregabea delako. Heriotza[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Markomanien kontra ari zela hil zen Marko Aurelio, 180ko martxoaren 17an. Haren errautsak Erromara itzuli ziren, Hadrianoren Mausoleoan geratzeko. Komodo semeak jarraitu zion agintean. Marko Aureliok 177an enperadorea izendatu zuen, eskarmentua har zezan. Hala ere, historialari askoren arabera, arrakastarik gabeko hautaketa izan zen hori. Komodorekin Pax Romana delakoak bukatu zuen. Wikimedia Commonsen badira fitxategi gehiago, gai hau dutenak: Marko Aurelio Erromatar eta bizantziar enperadoreak Printzerria 27 BC – 235 AD Augusto Tiberio Kaligula Klaudio Neron Galba Oton Vitelio Vespasiano Tito Domiziano Nerva Trajano Hadriano Antonino Pio Marko Aurelio eta Luzio Vero Komodo Pertinax Didio Juliano (Peszenio Nigro) (Klodio Albino) Septimio Severo Karakala eta Geta Makrino eta Diadumeniano Heliogabalo Alexandro Severo Krisialdia 235–284 Maximino Trax Gordiano I.a eta Gordiano II.a Pupieno eta Balbino Gordiano III.a Filipo Arabiarra eta Filipo II.a Dezio eta Herenio Etrusko Hostiliano Treboniano Galo eta Volusiano Emiliano Valeriano Galieno, Salonino eta Valeriano II.a Klaudio Gotiko Kintilo Aureliano Tazito Floriano Probo Karo Karino eta Numeriano Galietako enperadoreak: Postumo (Leliano) Mario Viktorino (Domiziano II.a) Tetriko I.a eta Tetriko II.a Dominatua 284–395 Diokeziano (inperio osoa) Diokeziano (ekialdea) eta Maximiano (mendebaldea) Diokeziano (ekialdea) eta Maximiano (mendebaldea) eta Galerio (ekialdea) eta Konstantzio Kloro (West) Galerio (ekialdea) eta Konstantzio Kloro (mendebaldea) eta Severo II.a (mendebaldea) eta Maximino Daia (ekialdea) Galerio (ekialdea) eta Severo II.a (mendebaldea) eta Konstantino I.a Handia (mendebaldea) eta Maximino Daia (ekialdea) Galerio (ekialdea) eta Maxentzio (mendebaldea) eta Konstantino I.a Handia (mendebaldea) eta Maximino Daia (ekialdea) Galerio (ekialdea) eta Lizinio (mendebaldea) eta Konstantino I.a Handia (mendebaldea) eta Maximino Daia (ekialdea) Maxentius (bakarrik) Lizinio (mendebaldea) eta Maximino Daia (ekialdea) eta Konstantino I.a Handia (bere burua aldarrikatua) eta Valerio Valente Lizinio (ekialdea) eta Konstantino I.a Handia (mendebaldea) eta Lizinio II.a, Konstantino II.a eta Krispo (Martiniano) Konstantino I.a Handia (inperio osoa) eta Krispo Konstantino II.a Konstante Magnentzio eta Dezentzio Konstantzio II.a eta Vetranio Juliano Apostata Joviano Valentiniano I.a Valente Graziano Valentiniano II.a Magno Maximo eta Flavio Viktor Teodosio I.a Handia (Flavio Eugenio) Mendebaldeko Inperioa 395–480 Honorio (Konstantino III.a eta Konstantzio II.a) Konstantzio III.a Joan, mendebaldeko usurpatzailea Ravenan Valentiniano III.a Petronio Maximo eta Paladio Avito Maioriano, Libio Severo, Antemio eta Olibrio Glizerio Julio Nepote (de iure) Romulo Augustulo (usurpatzailea) Ekialdeko/ Bizantziar Inperioa 395–1204 Arkadio Teodosio II.a Pulkeria Martziano Leon I.a Leon II.a Zenon I.a (1. agintaldia) Basilisko eta Marko Zenon I.a (2. agintaldia) Anastasio I.a Justino I.a Justiniano I.a Justino II.a Tiberio II.a Maurizio eta son Teodosio Fokas Heraklio Konstantino III.a Heraklonas Konstante II.a Konstantino IV.a eta Heraklio, Tiberio eta Justiniano II.a Justiniano II.a (1. agindaldia) Leontzio Tiberio III.a Justiniano II.a (2. agintaldia) eta Tiberio Filipiko Anastasio II.a Teodosio III.a Leon Isauriarra Konstantino V.a Artabasdo Leon IV.a Khazariarra Konstantino VI.a Irene Nizeforo I.a Estaurazio Mikel I.a Rangabe eta Teofilakto Leon V.a Armeniarra eta Konstantino Mikel II.a Teofilo Mikel III.a Basilio Mazedoniarra Leon VI.a Jakituna Alexandro Bizantziokoa Konstantino VII.a Porfirogeneta Erroman I.a Lakapetarra eta Kristobal, Eztebe eta Konstantino Erroman II.a Nizeforo II.a Fokas Joan I.a Tzimiskes Basilio II.a Konstantino VIII.a Zoe (1. agindaldia) eta Erroman III.a Zoe (1. agindaldia) eta Mikel IV.a Mikel V.a Zoe (2. agindaldia) eta Teodora Zoe (2. agindaldia) eta Konstantino Monomako Konstantino Monomako (bakarrik) Teodora Mikel VI.a Isaak I.a Komneno Konstantino X.a Dukas Erroman IV.a Diogenes Mikel VII.a Dukas eta Androniko, Konstantios eta Konstantino Nizeforo III.a Botaniates Alexio I.a Komneno Joan II.a Komneno eta Alexio Komneno Emanuel I.a Komneno Alexio II.a Komneno Androniko I.a Komneno Isaak II.a Angelo Alexio III.a Angelo Alexio IV.a Angelo Nikolas Kanabos, usurpatzailea Alexio V.a Dukas Nizeako Inperioa 1204–1261 Konstantino Laskaris Teodoro I.a Laskaris Joan III.a Dukas Vatatzes Teodoro II.a Laskaris Joan IV.a Dukas Laskaris Ekialdeko/ Bizantziar Inperioa 1261–1453 Mikel VIII.a Paleologo Androniko II.a Paleologo eta Mikel IX.a Paleologo Androniko III.a Paleologo Joan V.a Paleologo Joan VI.a Kantakuzeno eta Joan V.a Paleologo eta Mateo Kantakuzeno Joan V.a Paleologo Androniko IV.a Paleologo Joan VII.a Paleologo Androniko V.a Paleologo Emanuel II.a Paleologo Joan VIII.a Paleologo Konstantino XI.a Paleologo Letra etzanean usurpatzaile edo enperadorekideak. 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ext-wikipedia-org-3955	----	Marcu Uréliu - Güiquipeya Marcu Uréliu Dendi Güiquipeya Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Bustu Marcu Uréliu, ena Glyptothek Munich Marcu Uréliu [ˈmaɾku uˈɾelju] (en latín Marcus Annius Verus Catilius Seuerus, [ˈmaɾkʊs ˈanːɪʊs ˈweːɾʊs kɶːˈtɪlɪʊs sɛˈweːɾʊs]) hue un filósofu estoicu i emperaol romanu el sigru II, el últimu los cincu güenus emperaoris. Hue el prototipu sábiu governanti. Continius 1 Via 1.1 Família 1.2 Nacéncia i primerus añus 1.3 Estúdius joventú 1.4 Via política de nuevu 1.5 En baju la protecion Antoninu 1.6 Marcu hunda una família 1.7 Marcus Imperator 1.7.1 Las guerras contra los partus 1.7.2 Contautus con China 1.7.3 Las guerras contra los puebrus el norti 1.7.4 Golpi dau pol general Avídiu Cássiu 1.8 Últimus añus 2 Obra 2.1 Títulu 2.2 Estória 2.3 El testu los Revacaerus 2.4 Estilu 3 Abreviaturas 4 Anégotas 5 Huentis 5.1 Referéncias 5.2 Notas 5.3 Bibliografia 6 Atijus 7 Véasi tamién Via[eital | eital coigu] Família[eital | eital coigu] Marcu tuvu nacéncia endrentu la família los Ánius Verus, de quartus i con agarris políticus. La família el pairi es del monicípiu d'Ucubi (ogañu Espejo), al sulesti Corduba i tenia tradicion política entre los sus miembrus varonis. Su agüelu paternu hue el políticu Ániu Veru, quien trebajó de consu en el 121 i en el 126 i de senaol, por ordin Vespasianu i anduvu tamien ena pretura. Su pairi, de mesmu nombri Marcu Ániu Veru, trebajó de pretol i se casó con Domícia Lucila, quien recreia duna família la nueva aristocrácia que posseia frábicas ladrillus de los que se bastecia Roma. La ermana Domícia, Ánia Galéria Faustina se casó con el emperaol Antoninu Piu i hue tamien, amás de tia, suegra Marcu Uréliu. Nacéncia i primerus añus[eital | eital coigu] Pocus endilguis essestin tocantis a los primerus añus el filósofu. Se sabi de ciertu que tuvu nacéncia el 26 Abril el 121 quandu era consu su agüelu Marcu Ániu Veru (el vieju). Se crió en un cortiju familial en el tesu Céliu, andi vivian las famílias ricas de Roma. Un pal paí d’añus naci su ermana Ánia Cornifícia Faustina, hutura mujel Umídiu Quadratu. Por desgrácia, el pairi dambus a dos zagalinus enfeneció mentris trebajava comu pretol, tuviendu Marcu Uréliu apeninas 3 o 4 añinus. S’acupó la custódia el agüelu Ániu Veru i des que l’espenó el iju se muarun pa la su mansion, junta el tempru lateranu[1]. Allina de mocinu escomiença a recebil los primerus endilguis conos que el bisagüelu costeó sin arreparu[2] i prencipió a deprendel griegu, polo que el pilraeru por esta léngua vinu dende la infáncia. Es anegóticu el hechu de que Marcu Uréliu palrara en griegu cona mairi, ca i quandu se derigia a ella. Ya de polos sus primerus añus se muestra un zagalinu sériu[3]. Por mó el libru primeru la obra que queó, se tien conocéncia del ambienti en que se crió de muchachu: el portamientu pastueñu el agüelu[4], la religiosiá la mairi[5], el espiparru la educáncia el bisagüelu[6] i la nombreria i güena fama que le queó su pairi [7]. Estúdius joventú[eital | eital coigu] La família puu pagá-le a Marcu Uréliu los mejoris professoris. S'estilava ena epoca no dil a las escuelas púbricas los moçus cuya família pia pagá-le una enseñança privá en casa[8]. Assinque cuentó conos professionalis mas punterus enas diversas ramas el conocimientu. Por mé el libru I que sirvi de prólogu a los sus Revacaerus i la biografia ena Historia Augusta se conocin la huerça las pressonaliais que endilgarun al moçu Marcu. Bustu Marcu Uréliu de quandu nuevu. En el sabel literáriu lo enició un tal Uforión, seguramenti angún escravu griegu, cosa que conprementaria conos endilguis el cómicu Géminu (cómicu) ena adolescéncia. Con él deprendió el arti la comédia griega, el entonaeru i tamien el recitaeru. Andrón, músicu de profession, le deprendió las artis musicalis i matemáticas, antañu inseparabris, i los primerus escalahansus la geomatria. Los prencípius la gramática i tamien la conposicion los deprendió de Alejandru el Gramáticu, a quien mandarun a buscal dende Frigia. De pa esta epoca, quandu tenia unus 11 añus se dis que mençó a revistil de filósofu i a portal-se comu tal. Ascuchó licionis de representantis las destintas escuelas oratória el empériu, sin canteal-se por denguna en concretu. El oraol d’origin griegu Erodi Áticu le deprendió oratória. Endispués lo tuvu comu güen amigu. Con quien tamién hizu dispuesinu mu güena gavilla hue con Frontón, maestru retólica. Él quiju enverea-le en el caminu la retólica en paragi el su huturu comu emperaol, pero no hue escapás, pos prefirió la filosofia. Mantuvun professol i alunu albondosa correspondéncia de la qual avemus muchas muestras. A él le agraeci el ve-le enseñau no el entressenu la retólica, sino la alverténcia de cómu el poel i la tirania enputecin a los ombris[9]. Dionetu hue el su gran maestru, maestru de cosas utis pa la via de ca dia, comu el ejercíciu corporal i los primerus endilgus filosóficus. Hue quien lo hurgava pal deporti i pa la caça, activiais en tó conparantis a las moernas i cona que las joventuis antíguas se esparigian. Tamien l’enseñó debuju i portamientus el mó via rúspiru, al mó i manera melital, sin grandis regalezas i con reziura[10]. Hue quien lo enició ansimesmu a la filosofia i lo que le resultó mu aparenti: destinguil a los chalratanis de los verdaerus hablaoris. Ara, quien mas asseñalarun el pensaeru i mó via Marcu Uréliu huerun los sus maestrus filosofia, prencipalmenti Rústicu. Por mó de Rústicu, Marcu assumió el su huturu comu filósofu enque tuviessi que vivil de continu comu ombri púbricu enas sus briegas comu ejecutivu. Se margulló enas enseñanças el estoicu Epictetu, a quien muchu apreció i al que mienta en várias ocassionis ena su obra. Hue sin dua quien mas le infruyó, lo mesmu en el pensaeru que en el estilu. De Rústicu deprendió la moral rézia i reta el estoicu, comu él mesmu asseñala: Παρὰ Ῥουστίκου τὸ λαβεῖν φαντασίαν τοῦ χρῃζειν διορθώσεως καὶ θεραπείας τοῦ ἤθους — Revacaerus I 6 "De pa Rústicu, vel cogiu la muestracion el nessecital de la retitú i el cúdiu el caraiti”. En essi mesmu passagi l’agraeci el ve-lo desapartau de la retólica pa abraçal assín la filosofia i tamien el deprendé-le a leel desenreliandu el conteniu i enbebiendu-se d'él, no a passal los ojus por cima las letras. Con Rústicu s’alvierti el trumfu el conteniu sobri la horma, algu que tamién asseñalarava el própiu estilu los sus testus. Pero tamién uvu d'algotrus filósofus las sus conferéncias. Quandu Antoninu Piu, les precuró a él i a Lúziu Veru a unus los mas notabris filósofus la epoca: Apolóniu de Calcedónia. Tamién contarun conas palramentas Sestu de Queronea, filósofu estoicu, sobrinu el celebri Plutarcu. A dambus a dos agraeci sel ombris de conduta rézia i güenus ejemprus moralis[11]. Tamién oyó las licionis de Catulu el estoicu i Atenódotu. Via política de nuevu[eital | eital coigu] Marcu enos jardinis Versallis. Marcu Uréliu, enque a un plontu no se le tenia comu el sucessol al mandu emperial, cuentó con una dobri via dende mu chiquinu: una política, comu tó ombri aristocráticu que se terciara, i otra en baju el techu familial, a la sombra los librus i ascucha los mas eminentis espertus la epoca. Des que tuvu seis añus hata el dia la su muerti, Marcu anduvu agateandu gracis políticus i hacinandu un haci títulus. Quandu apeninas tenia 6, Adrianu nomina a Marcu a engressal enos equites. Al sotru añu, con 7, eá ena que quiciá enpençara tamien la su educacion, entra en el prestigiosu colégiu sacerdotal los sálius, siendu salius palatinus. De que hizu los 15 recebi la toga viril, lo qual le supón margullil-se ena via política comu un ciaanu mas. El emperaol Adrianu, precurandu atijá-lo cona família el que tendria que vel siu el próssimu emperaol Éliu Cesa, lo prometi cona ija d'ésti. Con tó i con essu, el casóriu no siguió palantri, pos Éliu Cesa mueri de chopetón i Adrianu acoloca comu el su sucessol a Antoninu Piu, tiu Marcu Uréliu. En baju la protecion Antoninu[eital | eital coigu] Dos añus despues, en el 136, Antoninu adota a Marcu Uréliu i a Lúziu Veru, iju Éliu, endespues de la decision Adrianu de siguil en el poel. Namás mueri el emperaol, el moçu Marcu Uréliu, ejecutandu el su encargu políticu, organiza los juegus fúnebris i la apoteosi Adrianu, con gran acogia el púbricu, oviamenti. D'essa eá la su carrera política trasciendi de mou espasmosu. Con namás 17 añus, es hechu qüestol, seuir turmarum equitum romanorum, princeps iuuentis i participa de várius colégius sacerdotalis. Amás tamien es nombrau Caesar por Antoninu, de los Urélius, quien densiguia vidu en él el próssimu sucessol. Marcu tuvu que mual-se el nombri i adotal el de Uréliu, queandu-se assina Marcu Uréliu Antoninu. Por esta epoca tien que mual-se a las dependéncias Adrianu, algu que no le petó albondu. Conos endilguis el emperaol, Marcu escomiença a hazel-se-le familial las activiais el mandu emperial. Por suerti, tuvu güen paradigma, pos Antoninu tuvu fama de sel güen i justu governanti i de sel religiosu i clementi (vé-le í el moti Pius). A él enos Revacaerus le dedica una sérii agraecimientus i asseñala rehuertimenti las vertuis que tuvu Antoninu comu pressona i derigenti. Con tó, Antoninu no le dió potestá trebunícia ni proconsulal ata que no llevó unus nuevi añus de aprendizagi. A los 26 ya via siu consu por dos vezis. Marcu hunda una família[eital | eital coigu] Faustina la Menol. En el añu 145 Marcu se casa cona ija el emperaol, Faustina la Menol. D'esti jeitu quean bien cierraus los cérculus familiaris sucession. Faustina era prima carnal Marcu, pos la mairi d'aquella era la su tia Faustina la Mayol, ermana Domícia. Las boas huerun mu sonás en el empériu, pos se llegó hata acuñal una monea comemorativa i se dierun donativus al puebru i al ejércitu. Cómou conparanti a Érculi. Con tó i con essu, la estória trata a la mujel de mou destintu a la que Marcu asseñala, pusiendu-la de mujel fria. Tamien se l’acusó de vel participau ena conjura el general Avídiu Cásiu, enque essu está sujetu a destintas entrepetacionis. A la contra, Marcu agraeci ve-le caiu una mujel tan güena i cenzilla i amorosa. Más, con ella tuvu mas duna dozena ijus, tós arreconocius, pero de los que poquinus sobrevivierun. Quearun Ánia Urélia, Víbia Urélia Sabina i Cornifícia entre las hembras i de varón namás Cómou, quien le siguiria a él en el empériu. Cómou hue mellizu Antoninu, quien murió quandu namás tenia quatru añinus. De que murió Faustina recebió tolas celebracionis correspondientis a una emperatrís. Marcus Imperator[eital | eital coigu] En el añu 161 mueri Antoninu en Lori, andi tenia un cortiju particulal. Antinu d’espenal, Antoninu le queó dau el mandu i a su ija Faustina. Marcu hue llamau altonci Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus i sigún se hizu con tan altu cargu, lo conpartió con su amigu i quasi ermanu Lúziu Veru, que muó tamien el su nombri Lúciu Cejóniu Cómou por Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. Dambus a dos ejercierun el poel de horma equitativa junta el Senau. La inconpatibiliá caraiteris i la destinta naturaleza dambus regentis no enpiyó qu’el empériu apencara conos destintus gabarrus que lo enpataratavan. El própiu Marcu l’entriegó en matrimoñu a su ijina Lucila. Mala fama governaol tuvu Lúziu Veru quienm mas que ejercel el su poel, se dedicó a dil en furriona en furriona de que aballó de Roma pa salienti, mentris que Marcu derigia la precupanti situacion el empériu dende Roma, entre estúdiu i estúdiu. Las guerras contra los partus[eital | eital coigu] El cámbiu goviernu prevocó que enos puebrus de la Armenia se produjieran nuevus entaramaus. Vologesu III, rei partu, enpón en Armenia un préncipi, Pacoru, enque la zona estuviera manejá por dos legionis pendientis del governaol Capadocia. Se enlió una batalla que tuvu comu conseqüéncia la perda las terrenus arménius i de parti Siria i numerosas vias los melitaris que se hallavan pallí. Con un pobrema assín, Marcu Uréliu s’atermina por mandal pallá el contingenti qu’andava al cúdiu los arrayus conos germanus al mandu el general Estáciu Priscu mentris que en Salienti Avídiu Cásiu precura reorganizal las huerças disponibris i Lúziu Veru ahila pa Siria con idea de derigil la custion. La verdá es que Lúziu passó el tiempu de charrangana en Antioquia sin dil a assomal-se a la guerra enos quatru añus que duró. En el 165, endespues de una sérii vitórias al mandu Avídiu Cásiu, la situacion s’apazígua i Lúziu Verru güelvi pa Roma. El Senau le da el títulu de Particus a Lúziu por ganal a los partus i Marcu es llamau Imperator por tercel ves. Contautus con China[eital | eital coigu] Una de las conseqüéncias que tuvu el vel venciu a los partus hue el logral un passu seguru a las regionis mas orientalis conocias. S’abrió una ruta pol Golfu Pérsicu hata topal China i embajás huerun mandás pallá. Unas corónicas chinas la epoca mientan a Marcu Uréliu con el nombri de An-Tum, anque las rutas abiertas no huerun de mucha freqüéncia, pola alejacion i la poca segurança que avia. Las guerras contra los puebrus el norti[eital | eital coigu] Mapa las guerras contra los marcomanus entre el 178-179. Se barruntava el rehileu los puebrus el norti i las fronteras no estavan bien assegurás dende tiempu á. Arrancarun los estaramaus en el 166 i durarun hata el 180 a lo largu los arrayus danubianus. Se vidun en el enfrentamientu destintas tribus norteñas, comu los quadus, dende siempri unius a los marcomanus, los sármatas, ermundurus, yazigus, vitovalus i lombardus. Más, el libru que sirvi de prólogu a los Revacaerus acaba cona frasi Τὰ ἐν Κουάδοις πρὸς τῶ Γρανούᾳ “Pa entre los quadus, junta Gránua”. El cagaçu i la precupacion en Roma huerun tan grandis de que los marcomanus assitiarun Aquilea en el 167, que Marcu Uréliu tuvu qu’acuil a un ritu espurechamientu del que no se jechava manu dende el 399 e. C., el lectisternium. Entre el 169 i el 170, cona muerti Lúziu Veru i las correspondientis honras fúnebris, Marcu Uréliu tuvu que aballal pa Roma, momentu que aprovecharun los marcomanus pa avançal-se sobre los arruinacaus ejércitus. A ellus s’ajuntarun puebrus romanizaus tiempu á, comu los sequanus i los belgas pa pola Galia. Las vitórias sobre aquellus puebrus en alantri huerun enteosas i rebalizas i ná puun assegural de ciertu, llegandu a arcançal los arrayus Macedonia i Graecia. Situacion entrincanti que duró hata el 173, quandu várius ejércitus emperialis tuvun luchis contra los marcomanus i en 175 contra los yazigus huendu escapás de hazé-los engajeral-se. D'esti jeitu se firmarun trataus pas por duracion de tres añus (175-178). Golpi dau pol general Avídiu Cássiu[eital | eital coigu] Arcu Marcu Uréliu, Trípoli. El general Avídiu Cássiu que via hechu una estrordinária lavol enos luchis contra los orientalis, en viendu el perigru que se recechava Roma, s’alevantó cona idea de hazel-se cona parti oriental el empériu. Aquí es andi se cuenta la tradicion por parti la mujel Marcu Uréliu, Faustina, pos se izi ena Historia Augusta que conocia las entencionis el general, de mois que no hizu ná pa enpií-lo, entre otras cosas pol ve-le llegau enteracionis de que su mariu via muertu. Pero los alevantamientus poquinu durarun, pos los própius ombris Cássiu lo matarun i cuertandu-le la cabeça se la llevarun a Marcu Uréliu, quien via aballau pa Antioquia de que s’enteró del casu. Pero antigual de castigal o achacinal a los que estavan enliaus ena tracamundina, el emperaol se muestró conpassivu, quijiendu entendel las causas de semejanti alevantamientu. Hue indulgenti cona família Cássiu i ordenó que baju concetu dengunu s’ensultara a naidi de los sus miembrus. Últimus añus[eital | eital coigu] La pas que firmarun conos marcomanus i quadus s’eschangó, quiciá pola incapaciá d'estus puebrus de cumpril conos mandaus los romanus. Los estaramaus atoñarun en el 178 i derivarian en nuevas guerras hata el 180, añu en que murió el emperaol. Una mijinina enantis la su muerti, Cómou acui al norti con ideas de tajal definitivamenti los pobremas conos marcomanus i quadus. Pero el pairi tenia pensau[12] vel acontinau las guerras ata rendí-los, puyendu acopral nuevus terrenus al empériu i buscal, a la final, la ansiá pas romana, decision que comunicó al su iju enantinu de dal la boqueá i que, a la contra, desobeeció. El 17 Marçu el 180, Marcu Uréliu espena endespues duna larga malotia que l’afetava al bandul, seguramenti, canci estógamu[13]. La Historia Augusta[14] dis que Marcu Uréliu se despii ligeramenti del su iju, no huera sel que le contagiara, polo que puyera vel-se tratau de pesti, malotia que dende las guerras contra los partus se via destendiu por tol empériu. Tenia 58 añus. Por mó el Senau i el puebru romanu, Marcu Uréliu hue devinizau i decretarun tolo correspondienti a tal onol: arcu trumfal, estauta oru en el Senau, tempru, altal i sacerdotis. Coluna Marcu Uréliu, Roma. Obra[eital | eital coigu] Marcu Uréliu á passau a la estória las letras pol vel queau una las obras mas ralas de las que la estória s’á dinau a que sobreviviera, los Revacaerus. Títulu[eital | eital coigu] El títulu la obra es conpricau, pos enos manuscritus que Guillelmu Silandru d’Asburgu saca dun códici palatinu le da el nombri de Tὰ εἰς ἑαυτὸν “Las cosas pa sí mesmu”. Dende altonci, las traducionis a las destintas léngas l’án dau títulus comu Meditaciones[n 1], Soliloquios o Reflexiones morales[n 2], The Meditations[n 3], To Himself[15], His conversation with himself, Thoughts… En estremeñu acontinandu cona tradicion ispana, lo entitulamus Revacaerus. Estória[eital | eital coigu] Dende que Marcu Uréliu queó escrita esta obra, probabrimenti quandu andava de campaña contra los marcomanus i los quadus sigún firma en el acaberu el primel libru, l’obra hata tiempus moernus á teniu poca acogia por parti el púbricu i los especialistas. Al pocu de moril el emperaol, utoris comu Dión Cássiu o Erodianu mientan esta obra enos sus escritus. Un sigru enpues, ya en el IV, Temístiu, refiriendu-se al testu marcurelianu lo llama Almonicionis. Pa essi mesmu sigru ain enteracionis en Urelianu Vitu i ena ya citá Historia Augusta. No se güelvin a tenel endilguis a tentu los Revacaerus hata el primeru el sigru X, quandu el obispu Cesarea, Areta, en una carta los mienta. Ya en el sigru XVI, en el 1558, Andrés Gesneru saca la primel edicion el testu enprentá, con traducion latina, por piticion de Conrau. A esta edicion le siguierun otras renpressionis. En 1626 aparici una edicion ludunensi qu’umenta los marrus que arrastravan las anterioris edicionis, ata que por fin, en 1643 Mericu Casaubón espubrica una edicion cudiá tamien en el griegu original i cona traducion en latín. En 1652 sal una edicion en Cambridge, enriquecia con variantis, comentárius i testus aljuntus, a cargu de Thomas Gataker, hundamental pal entendieru mas concretu la obra Marcu Uréliu. En Oxford hizun una edicion tamien grecolatina en 1680. Enas edicionis mas moernas, a partil el sigru XX, campean la hecha en Belles Letres (con traducion francesa) por A. I. Tannoy en 1925 i la ossoniensi en 1944 pol A. S. L. Farquharson, en dos volúmin, una con testu i traducion ingresa i otru con un ricu comentáriu. El testu los Revacaerus[eital | eital coigu] Lo primeru que llama l’atencion es sin dua el hechu de que Marcu Uréliu escreviera una obra entera en griegu, con un conteniu tan íntimu, en un momentu en que el Estau se diva esbarrungandu pol pesu las destintas culturas i pensaerus qu’albarcava i prejisava un ajuntamientu que se precurava por mé la pas. Los motivus son mas simpris: Marcu Uréliu era coscienti de que la luenga la filosofia pol esceléncia era el griegu, enque llevaran dende Cicerón un caminu bastanti largu andau eno tocanti a la capaciá el latín pa espressal el pensaeru filosóficu. Pero el filósofu-emperaol no mirava los testus ni de Cicerón ni de Séneca, sino a los grandis filósofus que mas l’infruyerun por mó el estoicismu i las enseñanças los sus tantus professoris, que son vé-lo equí Eraclitu, Sócrati i Epictetu, prencipalmenti. De Sócrati apañó al moelu ombri moral i conseqüenti, pero de Eraclitu i Epictetu bichó la horma de comunical el pensaeru, la física por parti Eraclitu i el mas puru estoicismu de Epictetu. Lo mesmu unu qu’otru eran griegus i en griegu escrivierun. I el hormatu de Eraclitu hue el aforismu i el de Epictetu mas de lo mesmu, prencipalmenti en el Enchiridion. Vé-le í, los estuyosus encasullan la obra el emperaol entre la escritura aforística o bien entre el géneru los hypomnemata o notas pressonalis. L’obra se devii en dozi librus, enque no essesti un atiju craru entre unas partis i otras. Namás está crara la destinción entre el libru primeru i el restu l’obra. El primel libru, a mou de prólogu, se conpón de una retahila agraecimientus a las pressonas que mas enfruyerun ena su via, dende familiaris mas allegaus hata maestrus, amigus, el própiu emperaol Antoninu Piu i a los própius diosis. S’inora si los pensaerus qu’espón dessa manera huerun escritus con un propósitu o no. Angunus arreparan ena possibiliá de ve-los escritus comu manual pal su iju Cómou, enque lo mas seguru es que los escreviera aspécii notas cabildaeru própias pa sí própiu, sin idea de espubricacion. Otrus estudiosus opinan que prejisamenti por mistériu de sel notas, tuviera en menti una obra mas organizá i mejol redatá pal púbricu, enque tó essu son conjeturas. Estilu[eital | eital coigu] Los Revacaerus son escritus en un estilu eminentimenti antirretólicu, cosa estrordinária en una epoca andi la horma pulava por cima el conteniu. Marcu Uréliu ahuyia de tó tipu retólicas, algu que le vinu dau pol su professol Rústicu. Enque essu no senifica que descúdii la espression, tuviendu periodus bellus i gastandu metáforas, que, enque preteneçan al repertóriu tradicional estoicu, son verdaeraementi sugerentis. Las uariationes son albondosas, pos la repiticion temas l’obriga a la varieá hormas, repiticion, por otra parti, justificá pol valol dotrinal. Abreviaturas[eital | eital coigu] Sigún el Liddell-Scott, esti autol recebi la abreviatura M. Ant. del su nombri latinu Marcus Antoninus. Anégotas[eital | eital coigu] Cierta ves qu’andavan honrandu al dios Marti en el colégiu sálius, Marcu Uréliu con 7 o 8 añus namás, hondeandu cona corona comu era costumbri entre los miembrus sálius a la estauta el dios la guerra, la suya hue a cael encimita la cabeça Marti. Esti hechu hue agurau comu que aquel zagalinu averia de sel emperaol. El emperaol Adrianu lo enmotó Verissimus, pola serieá i reziura el jovin Marcu Uréliu, por altoncis de nombri Ániu Veru. Con onzi añinus ya escomençó a revistil-se de filósofu. En I 14 confiessa vel-se enbahal-se muchas vezis por mó del su maestru Rústicu, pero que grácias a los diosis el assuntu no llegó a las manus. Marcu Uréliu hue un prohundu anticristianu, llegandu a hurgal las repressionis contras los prencipalis núclius cristianus el empériu, comu aconteció en Lugdunum (ogañu Lyon) en 177. Pa cubril conos gastus que suponian engrossal los frentis el ejércitu con un mayol númeru efetivus (entre los que se hallavan escravus i gladiaoris), tuvu que vendel gran parti el mobiliáriu paláciu. Comu melital no tuvu mucha fortuna. En diendu de reconocimientu tuvu la mala folla de que le hondearan conas hondas enemigas i un alabán peñuscus vinun sobre él i la escassina escorta que gastava. Hormi acabava una batalla diva al campu a assestil a los herius i a conpaecel a los muertus. Marcu Uréliu le iju a la su mujel Faustina que lamentava no vel piu ejercel la su cleméncia pa enpiil la muerti el general Avídiu Cássiu, a quien matarun los sus própius ombris pol repuchal-se al empériu i querel-se queal cona parti oriental. Contra la su via escassina en lujus i el su pensaeru, quandu Faustina murió se la honró con tó tipu cerimónias, estautas oru i apoteosi, piticion hecha por él mesmu al Senau. Marcu Uréliu rechaçó a la ermana Lúziu Veru comu esposa de que murió Faustina, no quijiendu da-le madrasta a los sus ijus. En atorgandu-le títulus a Cómou, Marcu Uréliu tenia la idea de que dejaria de portal-se de manera desvergonçua. El efetu hue tolo contráriu: Cómou se enpandurró, llegandu a aviental a tol pressonal que le tenia dau el pairi pa la su protecion i conseju. Erodianu trasmiti el supuestu discursu parenéticu a Cómou que su pairi le prenunció poquinu enantis de enfenecel. Hizun a Marcu Uréliu pressonagi de fición en destintas obras. En literatura, destaca la novela Mémoires d’Hadrien, la escreviora Marguerite Yourcenar. En el cini es memorabri la penícula The fall of the Roman Empire, andi Alec Guinnes encarna el pressonagi Marcu Uréliu. Amás aparici ena soná penícula Gladiator, cuyu papel lo representa Richard Harris. Huentis[eital | eital coigu] Referéncias[eital | eital coigu] ↑ Historia Augusta, uita Marci, VII. ↑ M. Ant. I 4. ↑ Vita Marci, II 1. ↑ M. Ant., I 1. ↑ M. Ant., I 3. ↑ M. Ant., I 4. ↑ M. Ant., I 2. ↑ M. Ant. I 4. ↑ M. Ant., I 11. ↑ M. Ant., I 6. ↑ M. Ant., I 18, 19. ↑ Vita Marci, XXVIII 1. ↑ Dión Cassiu, 71 33. ↑ Vita Marci, XXVIII 8. ↑ Pol Rendall. Notas[eital | eital coigu] ↑ Es títulu que le da Gabaudán pa la su traducion i la huerça las traducionis hechas en castellanu. ↑ Sigún Díaz de Miranda. ↑ Títulu la edicion J. Collier. Bibliografia[eital | eital coigu] Marco Aurelio, Meditaciones, ed. Fco. Cortés Gabaudán i M. J. Rodríguez Gervás, Mairil, Cátedra, 2001. Marco Aurelio, Soliloquios o Reflexiones a sí mismo, trad. i not. J. Díaz de Miranda, Buenos Aires, Austral, 1947. Liddell H., G., Scott R., A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford, 1996. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν, ed. A. S. L. Farquharson, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1944, vol. I. Atijus[eital | eital coigu] En Wikimedia Commons ai conteníu multimedia a tentu de Marcu Uréliu. (español) Frasis Marcu Uréliu (ingrés) Meditations, tradución G. Long (ingrés) Marcu Uréliu, ena IEP (griegu) Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν (original en griegu). (latín) Marci Antonini imperatoris commentarium quos ipse sibi scripsit. Véasi tamién[eital | eital coigu] Eraclitu. Epictetu. Estoicismu. Faustina la Menol. Faustina la Mayol. Marcu Ániu Veru (el vieju). Marcu Ániu Veru. Rústicu. Sócrati. 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fa-wikipedia-org-807	----	مارکوس آئورلیوس - ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد پرش به محتوا جمع و باز کردن نوار کناری جستجو ابزارهای شخصی به سامانه وارد نشده‌اید بحث مشارکت‌ها ایجاد حساب کاربری ورود منوی ناوبری بازدید محتوا صفحهٔ اصلی رویدادهای کنونی مقالهٔ تصادفی کمک مالی همکاری تغییرات اخیر ویکی‌نویس شوید! راهنما تماس با ویکی‌پدیا ابزارها پیوندها به این صفحه تغییرات مرتبط بارگذاری پرونده صفحه‌های ویژه پیوند پایدار اطلاعات صفحه ارجاع به این صفحه آیتم ویکی‌داده نسخه‌برداری ایجاد کتاب دریافت به‌صورت PDF نسخهٔ قابل چاپ در دیگر پروژه‌ها ویکی‌انبار ویکی‌گفتاورد به زبان‌های دیگر Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 ویرایش پیوندها فضاهای نام مقاله بحث گویش‌ها بازدیدها خواندن ویرایش نمایش تاریخچه بیشتر مارکوس آئورلیوس از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد مارکوس آئورلیوس شانزدهمین امپراتور امپراتوری روم سلطنت ۸ مارس ۱۶۱ - ۱۶۹ (همراه با لوسیوس وروس ۱۶۹-۱۷۷ (به تنهایی) ۱۷۷-۱۷ مارس ۱۸۰ (همراه با کومودوس) پیشین آنتونیوس پیوس جانشین کومودوس (به تنهایی) زاده ۲۶ آوریل ۱۲۱ رم درگذشته ۱۷ مارس ۱۸۰ (۵۸ سال) ویندوبونا یا سیرمیوم آرامگاه آرامگاه هادریان، رم فرزند(ان) کومودوس نام کامل مارکوس آئورلیوس آنتونیوس دودمان آنتونی نروایی پدر مارکوس آنیوس وروس آنتونیوس پیوس (فرزندخوانده) مادر دومیتیا لوسیا مارکوس آئورلیوس آنتونیوس یا مارک اورل (به لاتین: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus، به فرانسه: Marc Aurel) از امپراتوران بزرگ روم است. او یکی از «پنج امپراتور خوب»، از دودمان آنتونی نروایی، و یک فیلسوف رواقی است. وی در ۲۶ آوریل سال ۱۲۱ میلادی زاده‌شد.[۱] مارک اورل در ۱۷ مارس ۱۸۰ میلادی به بیماری تیفوس درگذشت. مارکوس آئورلیوس نقش برجسته‌ای در آخرین دوره جنگ‌های رم علیه اشکانیان داشت.[۲] او کتاب تأملات (به انگلیسی: Meditations) را در میان سال‌های ۱۷۰ تا ۱۸۰ در حالی که روم در حال جنگ بود، تألیف کرد. محتویات ۱ زندگی‌نامه ۲ اثر ۳ نقل قول‌هایی از کتاب تاملات ۴ پانویس ۵ منابع زندگی‌نامه[ویرایش] مارکوس آئورلیوس فرمانروایی بود که فرمانروایی را دوست نداشت. او از کودکی علاقه‌مند بود که فیلسوف شود و همچنین او با مطالعه زندگی سقراط به وجد می‌آمد. راستی و شرف برای او از قدرت و ثروت مهم‌تر بودند. او همچون روستایی‌ها لباس‌های ساده می‌پوشید و بر تخت‌های سخت و خشن می‌خوابید تا اینکه در هجده سالگی از عمرش عموی وی امپراتور آنتونیوس پیوس او را به ولیعهدی خود برگزید؛ و این شاهزادهٔ از دنیا بریده را وارد دنیایی کرد که آن را دوست نمی‌داشت. مارکوس آئورلیوس تأملات خود را مثل بسیاری از فیلسوفان در پشت میز تحریر اتاق خویش ننوشته‌است؛ بلکه ثبت آن‌ها مربوط به سال‌های ۱۶۵–۱۷۵ در کارزار جنگ است. نبردی که به گفته مورخان با متجاوزگران قبایل سارماتی‌ها و … بوده‌است. مطابق نوشتهٔ ویل دورانت می‌توان او را دید که پس از نبردی سخت در روز؛ شب هنگام در اردوگاه سربازان در نزدیکی یکی از آبریزهای فرعی دانوب در حالی که مقابل چادر خود آتش بزرگی برپا کرده‌است؛ دربارهٔ عمل و تصورات خود در آن روز می‌اندیشد: «هنگام روز سرمتها (یا سارماتی‌ها، آلمانی‌های بربر در آن ایام) را تعقیب می‌کرد، و شب هنگام می‌توانست دربارهٔ ایشان با همدردی بنویسد.» در نهاد او نیرویی بود که می‌بایست همواره کشش و کوشش از سرگیرد. همین که بیدار می‌شد خود را در تنگنا می‌یافت. افکاری به وی روی می‌آورد که آشفته اش می‌ساخت؛ دیگران به سبب آنچه آئورلیوس آن را نیکو می‌شمرد بر او ملامت روا می‌داشتند. از دربار خود رنج می‌برد؛ جامعه او را می‌آزرد؛ احساس خلاء می‌نمود؛ همه چیز را یک‌نواخت و ناچیز می‌شمرد. از هوس جسم پرهیز داشت؛ شدت خشم را نکوهش می‌کرد؛ می‌دانست که آنچه به مردم تعلیم می‌شود نمایش بیهوده‌ای‌ست و می‌گفت که سرزنش مردم که با خشونت همراه است روش نیکویی نیست، تأثیر نمی‌بخشد. نظر اصلی او همیشه و در همه‌جا پیوستگی فرد به کل عالم است؛ تنها همین یک امر است که به زندگی آدمی که چنین بی‌قرار و ناپایدار است معنی می‌دهد. آئورلیوس با این که فرمانروای روم بود اما خود را شهروند عالم تلقی می‌کرد و خود را دارای دو وطن می‌دانست: «از آن حیث که انسانم جهان را وطن خود می‌شمارم؛ می‌دانم که موجودی عاقلم، می‌دانم که دو وطن دارم؛ از آن حیث که نام من مارکوس آئورلیوس است وطنم روم هم هست و از آن حیث جهان را وطن خود می‌شمارم؛ می‌دانم تنها چیزی نیکوست که به این هر دو وطن سود رساند.» اثر[ویرایش] تاملات این فیلسوف و فرمانروای رواقی در طول تاریخ بر روی بسیاری تأثیرگذار بوده‌است از آن‌ها می‌توان به گوته، فردریک کبیر، جان استوارت‌میل، بیل کلینتون و امیل چوران اشاره کرد. تأملات اثری شامل دوازده کتاب است؛ که آئورلیوس اندیشه‌های خود را در آن در قالب کلمات بیان کرده‌است. این اثر که شامل متن‌های کوتاه و یادداشت‌هایی است؛ در دنیای غرب بسیار مورد توجه است و بارها به زبان‌های اروپایی ترجمه شده‌است. نقل قول‌هایی از کتاب تاملات[ویرایش] «مرا بردار و هر جای این جهان که می‌خواهی بینداز! هر جا که باشم، خدای قلبم را خوشحال و راضی نگه می‌دارد؛ که این نتیجه وقتی‌ست که کردار و رفتار ما، طبعیت حقیقی خود را دنبال کنند… آیا آنچه که بر من می‌گذرد دلیلی کافی خواهد بود برای این که من بیمار و شکسته، تحقیر شده و گرسنه و در غل و زنجیر باشم؟ آیا (هیچ جا) دلیلی کافی برای این‌گونه زیستن داری؟»[۳] «ای هستی! نظم تو نظم درونی من است: هیچ چیز اگر در زمان مناسب توست، نه برمن زود و نه بر من دیر است. ای حقیقت هستی! هر چه که فصل‌هایت بار آرد بر من میوه (رضا) است: که همه چیز از تو می‌آید و هستی همه چیز در توست و به تو بازمی‌گردد…» «این فکر را که «من رنج کشیده‌ام» را بیرون کن و رنج خود بیرون خواهد رفت.»[۴] شرم‌آور است که عقل ظاهر مان را شکل می‌دهد اما قادر به شکل‌دادن خود نیست؛ بدیهی است که هیچ‌گاه در زندگی شرایطی بهتر از این برای فراگیری فلسفه نخواهی داشت! زمانی که روز خود را آغاز می‌کنید، به این فکر کنید که چه موهبت با ارزشیست که زنده اید - که نفس می‌کشید، تفکر می‌کنید، لذت می‌برید، که عشق می‌ورزید.[۵] شادی زندگی شما به کیفیت افکارتان بستگی دارد.[۵] به درونت بنگر! در درونت چشمه‌ی قدرتی وجود دارد که هر وقت بخوانی اش، به تو کمک خواهد کرد.[۵] خودت را در رویاهای داشتن چیزهایی که نداری، غرق نکن، اما موهبت‌هایی که دارا هستی را بشمار، و شکرگزارانه به خاطر داشته باش که چطور رویای داشتن شان را در سرت می‌پروراندی اگر نداشتی‌شان.[۵] هدف زندگی این نیست که با اکثریت همراه شوی، بلکه در نپیوستن به جمع بی خردان است.[۵] اصلی که بایستی در آینده به خاطر بسپاری، وقتی که رنج‌ها مجبورت می کنند که احساس تلخی کنی، این است: که افتادن اتفاق تلخ بداقبالی نیست، که تحمل رنج‌ها بدون از دست دادن امید است که خوش اقبالی است.[۵] هرآنچه که قسمتت شده را بپذیر، که چه چیزی مناسب تر از این می تواند نیازهای تو را برآورده سازد؟[۵] مجبور نیستی هر پیش آمد بیرونی را تبدیل به موضوعی برای رنج بردن کنی. این نباید تو را ناراحت کند. [۵] همه ما قدرت خوب زندگی کردن را داریم. اگر یاد بگیریم تا نسبت به آن چه هیچ اهمیتی ندارد، بی اهمیت باشیم. مرگ خودت را تصور کن و فکر کن که زندگی ات را به تمامی زندگی کرده ای و مرده ای. حال، آن فصل‌ها را که زندگی نکرده ای به یاد بیاور و زندگی‌ت را به کمال زندگی کن. مرگ به همه ما لبخند می زند، اما تمام آن کاری که انسان می تواند انجام دهد، پاسخ دادن آن با لبخندی است بهترین انتقام این است که شبیه دشمنت نباشی ذهنت از آن چه تو مکرراً در افکارت نگه میداری شکل می‌گیرد، چرا که روح انسان رنگ احساساتش را می‌گیرد. آنچه که مانع از حرکت می‌شود، خود باعث پیشرفت حرکت است. آنچه که در میان راه قرار می‌گیرد، خود بخشی از راه می‌شود می توانی آنقدر نفس نکشی تا بمیری اما مردم همچنان مثل قبل زندگی خواهند کرد تو تنها توانایی کنترل ذهن خودت را داری و نه آن چه که در بیرون اتفاق می افتد این نکته را بفهم و فهمیدنش تو را توانا خواهد کرد این مرگ نیست که باید انسان از آن بترسد، بلکه او بایستی از این که هیچ گاه زندگی کردن را آغاز نکند، بهراسد هرگز به آینده اجازه نده که مزاحم امروز تو شود. تو آینده را، اگر مجبور باشی، با همان سلاح عقلانیتی که امروز در برابر زمان حال سپر توست، ملاقات خواهی کرد زندگی شاد به چیزهای زیادی نیاز ندارد؛ تمامش در درون خود توست، در نوع افکارت فقدان هیچ چیزی جز تغییر نیست، و تغییر مایه شوق طبیعت است. شادی واقعی یک انسان انجام دادن کارهایی است که او برایشان ساخته شده.[۵] پانویس[ویرایش] ↑ Iranians History on This Day ↑ وبلاگ گزارشگران: ماجرای پوشش خبری یک داستان متحرک، بی‌بی‌سی فارسی ↑ مارکوس آئورلیوس (۲۱ ژانویه ۲۰۱۸). «تاملات کتاب ۸ نوشته ۴۵». تاملات دانیال کشانی. ↑ مارکوس آئورلیوس. «تاملات دانیال کشانی». ↑ ۵٫۰ ۵٫۱ ۵٫۲ ۵٫۳ ۵٫۴ ۵٫۵ ۵٫۶ ۵٫۷ ۵٫۸ جملات برگزیده مارکوس آئورلیوس، ترجمه سعید حسین زاده منابع[ویرایش] «تاریخ فلسفه» نوشتهٔ ویل دورانت تأملات بر پایه داده‌هایی در آی کتاب (برداشت آزاد) Potter، David. Emperors of Rome: Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor. مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا. «Marcus Aurelius». در دانشنامهٔ ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، بازبینی‌شده در ۲۸ سپتامبر ۲۰۱۰. مجموعه‌ای از گفتاوردهای مربوط به مارکوس آئورلیوس در ویکی‌گفتاورد موجود است. در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ مارکوس آئورلیوس موجود است. داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای WorldCat Identities VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (داده‌ها) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MBA: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CINII: DA00596148 SNAC: w6c851bs ن ب و امپراتوران روم غربی و روم شرقی نخستین ۲۷ پیش‌ازمیلاد تا ۲۳۵ آگوستوس • تیبریوس • کالیگولا • کلادیوس • نرون • گالبا • اتو • ویتلیوس • وسپاسیان • تیتوس فلاویوس • دومیتیان • نروا • تراژان • هادریانوس • آنتونیوس پیوس • مارکوس آرلیوس با لوسیوس وروس • کومودوس • پرتیناکس • دیدیوس ژولیانوس • سپتیموس سوروس • کاراکالا • گتا • ماکرینوس با دیادومنیان • هلیوگابال • الکساندر سوروس بحران سده ۳ ۲۳۵ تا ۲۸۴ ماکسیمینوس ترکس • گردیان یکم و گردیان دوم • پوپینوس و بالبینوس • گردیان سوم • فیلیپ عرب • دسیوس با هرنیوس اتروسکوس • هوستیلیان • تربونیانوس گالوس با ولوسیانوس • آئمیلیانوس • والرین • گالینوس با سالونینوس • کلادیوس گوتیکوس • کوئینتیلوس • اورلیان • تاسیتوس • فلوریانوس • پروبوس • کاروس • کارینوس • نومریان چیرگی ۲۸۴ تا ۳۹۵ دیوکلتیان • ماکسیمیان • کنستانتیوس کلوروس • گالریوس • سوروس • ماکسنتیوس • ماکسیمینوس دایا • لیسینیوس با والریوس والنس و مارتینیانوس • کنستانتین یکم • کنستانتین دوم • کنستانس یکم • کنستانتیوس دوم با وترانیو • ژولیان • ژوویان • والنتینیان یکم • والنس • گراتیان • والنتینیان دوم • ماگنوس ماکسیموس با فلاویوس ویکتور • تئودوسیوس یکم امپراتوری روم غربی ۳۹۵ تا ۴۸۰ هونوریوس • کنستانتیوس سوم • ژوآنس • والنتینیان سوم • پترونیوس ماکسیموس • آویتوس • ماژوریان • لیبیوس سوروس • آنتمیوس • الیبریوس • گلیسریوس • ژولیوس نپوس • رومولوس آگوستولوس امپراتوری بیزانس ۳۹۵ تا ۱۰۲۴ آرکادیوس • تئودوسیوس دوم • مارسیانوس • لئون یکم • لئون دوم • زنون • باسیلیسکوس • آناستاسیوس یکم • ژوستین یکم • ژوستینیان یکم • ژوستین دوم • تیبریوس دوم کنستانتین • موریس • فوکاس • هراکلیوس • کنستانتین سوم • هراکلوناس • کنستانس دوم • کنستانتین چهارم • ژوستینیان دوم • لئونتیوس • تیبریوس سوم • فیلیپیکوس • آناستاسیوس دوم • تئودوسیوس سوم • لئوی سوم • کنستانتین پنجم • آرتاباسدوس • لئوی چهارم • کنستانتین ششم • ایرنه • نیکه‌فوروس یکم • استوراکیوس • میخائیل یکم • لئوی پنجم • میخائیل دوم • تئوفیلوس • میخائیل سوم • باسیلیوس یکم • لئوی ششم • الکساندر • کنستانتین هفتم • رومانوس یکم • رومانوس دوم • نیکه‌فوروس دوم • ژان یکم • باسیلیوس دوم • کنستانتین هشتم • زوئه مقدونی • رومانوس سوم • میخائیل چهارم • میخائیل پنجم • کنستانتین نهم • تئودورای مقدونی • میخائیل ششم • ایزاک یکم • کنستانتین دهم • رومانوس چهارم • میخائیل هفتم • نیکه‌فوروس سوم • آلکسیوس یکم • ژان دوم • مانوئل یکم • آلکسیوس دوم • آندرونیکوس یکم • ایزاک دوم • آلکسیوس سوم • آلکسیوس چهارم • نیکولائوس کانابوس • آلکسیوس پنجم امپراتوری نیقیه ۱۰۲۴ تا ۱۲۶۱ کنستانتین لاسکاریس • تئودور یکم • ژان سوم • تئودور دوم • ژان چهارم امپراتوری بیزانس ۱۲۶۱ تا ۱۴۵۳ میخائیل هشتم • آندرونیکوس دوم • میخائیل نهم • آندرونیکوس سوم • ژان پنجم • ژان ششم • ماتیوس کانتاکوزنوس • آندرونیکوس چهارم • ژان هفتم • آندرونیکوس پنجم • مانوئل دوم • ژان هشتم • کنستانتین یازدهم رده درگاه ن ب و فلسفه یونان باستان فلسفه پیشاسقراطی مکتب ایونی اپیمنیدس فرسید دیوژن آپولونی Metrodorus of Lampsacus کسنوفانس Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene آناکارسیس مکتب ملطی تالس آناکسیماندروس آناکسیمنس مکتب افسوسی هراکلیتوس کراتولوس Antisthenes Atomist لئوکیپوس (فیلسوف) دموکریت Italian هیپو Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea مکتب فیثاغوری فیثاغورس هیپاسوس فیلولائوس ارخوطس الکمئون Brontinus تیانو Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus مکتب الئایی پارمنیدس زنون الئایی ملیسوس مکتب چندگانه‌گرایی آناکساگوراس آرخلوس امپدوکلس سوفسطایی‌گری پروتاگوراس گرگیاس پرودیکوس هیپیاس Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles تراسیماخوس Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus کریتیاس سقراط سقراط گزنفون سیبس Simmias of Thebes مکتب کلبیون آنتیستنس دیوژن کلبی Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates هیپارچیا Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius مکتب کورنایی آریستیپوس Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger تئودوروس بی‌خدا Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade اوهمروس Eretrian فایدون الیسی Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius مکتب مگارایی اقلیدس مگارایی Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides استیلپو Nicarete Pasicles بروسون آخایی Dialectical کلینوماخوس Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides فلسفه مشاء ارسطو آریستوکسنوس Clearchus of Soli دیکایارخوس اودموس رودسی ثئوفراستوس استراتون Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus آندرونیکوس رودسی Cratippus آندرونیکوس رودسی Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus اسکندر افرودیسی تمیستیوس Olympiodorus the Elder فلسفه افلاطونی افلاطون اودوکسوس کنیدوسی فیلیپ اوپوسی Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus اسپئوسیپوس Axiothea of Phlius هراکلیدس پونتیکوس Menedemus of Pyrrha گزنوکراتس Crantor پولمون Crates of Athens فلسفه هلنیستی Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa سیسرون Dio of Alexandria اپیکوریسم اپیکور Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus هرمارخوس کولوتس ثمیستا Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon زینون صیدونی Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus فیلودموس لوکرتیوس Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Middle Platonic Antiochus فیلون اسکندرانی پلوتارک ژوستین شهید Gaius Albinus Alcinous آپولیوس Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus کلمنت اسکندریه Origen the Pagan Calcidius فلسفه نوافلاطونی آمونیوس ساکاس فلوطین Disciples اوریجن Amelius پورفیری (فیلسوف) یامبلیخوس Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine ژولیان سالوستیوس Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus گریگوری نیسا هیپاتیا آگوستین Macrobius Plutarch of Athens Hierius Asclepigenia هیروکلس اسکندرانی Syrianus Hermias Aedesia پروکلس لیکایوس Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore داماسکیوس سیمپلیکیوس Priscian مکتب نوفیثاغورسی فیگولوس بلیناس حکیم Moderatus of Gades نیکوماخوس Alexicrates Anaxilaus بلوس مندس Cronius دامیس Numenius of Apamea Secundus the Silent Quintus Sextius Sotion تئون مکتب پیرهونی پیرهون انیسیدموس Agrippa the Skeptic Arcesilaus Hecataeus of Abdera Heraclides of Tarentum Herodotus of Tarsus Menodotus of Nicomedia نوزیفانس سکستوس امپریکوس Theodas of Laodicea Timon of Phlius رواقی‌گری Greek زنون رواقی Persaeus آراتوس Athenodorus of Soli Aristo of Chios Apollophanes of Antioch Dionysius the Renegade Sphaerus Herillus of Carthage کلئانتس اراتوستن Hermagoras of Amphipolis کرایسپوس Dioscorides Aristocreon Zeno of Tarsus Eudromus کراتس Diogenes of Babylon Zenodotus Apollodorus of Seleucia Basilides Antipater of Tarsus آپولودور Archedemus of Tarsus پانائتیوس Boethus of Sidon Polemon of Athens Marcus Vigellius Heraclides of Tarsus Dardanus Mnesarchus Publius Rutilius Rufus Stilo Dionysius of Cyrene Quintus Lucilius Balbus Hecato of Rhodes Diotimus the Stoic پوسیدونیوس Crinis Proclus of Mallus Diodotus the Stoic Geminus of Rhodes Athenodoros Cordylion Apollonius of Tyre کاتوی کوچک Antipater of Tyre Porcia Catonis Apollonides Jason of Nysa Athenodoros Cananites Quintus Sextius Arius Didymus Roman Attalus Papirius Fabianus سنکای جوان Thrasea Paetus Lucius Annaeus Cornutus Chaeremon of Alexandria Paconius Agrippinus Publius Egnatius Celer پرسیوس (سراینده) Helvidius Priscus Arulenus Rusticus Musonius Rufus Fannia Euphrates the Stoic Cleomedes اپیکتت Hierocles آریان (مورخ) Basilides Apollonius of Chalcedon Claudius Maximus Junius Rusticus مارکوس آئورلیوس برگرفته از «https://fa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=مارکوس_آئورلیوس&oldid=31792279» رده‌ها: افراد ارتش روم باستان امپراتوران روم امپراتوران روم ایزد انگاشته اهالی رم تاریخ ایده‌ها درگذشتگان ۱۸۰ (میلادی) روحانیان سده ۲ (میلادی) زادگان ۱۲۱ (میلادی) فرزندخواندگان روم باستان فیلسوفان اجتماعی فیلسوفان اخلاق فیلسوفان اهل ایتالیای روم فیلسوفان ذهن فیلسوفان رواقی‌گری رومی فیلسوفان سده ۲ (میلادی) فیلسوفان سیاسی فیلسوفان قانون کنسول‌های امپراتوری روم مارکوس اورلیوس منتقدان اجتماعی منتقدان فرهنگی رده‌های پنهان: مقالات دارای جعبه اطلاعات مقاله‌های دارای واژگان به زبان انگلیسی مقاله‌های دارای الگوی یادکرد-ویکی انبار رده با پیوند محلی مشابه در ویکی‌داده داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای با ۱۶ عنصر مقاله‌های دارای مستندات مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های VIAF مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های LCCN مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های ISNI مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های GND مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های SELIBR مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های BNF مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های BIBSYS مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های ULAN مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های MusicBrainz مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های NLA مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های SNAC-ID این صفحه آخرین‌بار در ‏۱۵ آوریل ۲۰۲۱ ساعت ‏۰۱:۵۴ ویرایش شده‌است. همهٔ نوشته‌ها تحت مجوز Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike در دسترس است؛ برای جزئیات بیشتر شرایط استفاده را بخوانید. ویکی‌پدیا® علامتی تجاری متعلق به سازمان غیرانتفاعی بنیاد ویکی‌مدیا است. سیاست محرمانگی دربارهٔ ویکی‌پدیا تکذیب‌نامه‌ها نمای تلفن همراه توسعه‌دهندگان آمار اظهارنامهٔ کوکی 
fi-wikipedia-org-2445	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Wikipediasta Siirry navigaatioon Siirry hakuun Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Rooman keisari 7. maaliskuuta 161 – 17. maaliskuuta 180[1] Edeltäjä Antoninus Pius Seuraaja Commodus Henkilötiedot Syntynyt 26. huhtikuuta 121[1] Rooma, Italia, Rooman valtakunta Kuollut 17. maaliskuuta 180 (58 vuotta)[1] Vindobona (Wien) Arvonimi Armeniacus (164), Medicus, Parthicus (166), Germanicus (172), Sarmaticus (175)[1] Puoliso Faustina nuorempi [ Muokkaa Wikidatassa ] Infobox OK Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (synt. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, myöh. Marcus Annius Verus, yleisesti Marcus Aurelius; 26. huhtikuuta 121 – 17. maaliskuuta 180) oli Rooman keisari 8. maaliskuuta 161 – 17. maaliskuuta 180. Valtakautensa alusta vuoteen 169 hän hallitsi kanssahallitsijana adoptioveljensä Lucius Veruksen kanssa. Aurelius tunnetaan myös filosofina. Sisällysluettelo 1 Elämä 1.1 Varhainen elämä 1.2 Keisarina 1.3 Yhteydet Kiinaan 1.4 Kuolema 2 Filosofia ja teokset 3 Lähteet 3.1 Kirjallisuus 3.2 Viitteet 4 Kirjallisuutta 4.1 Suomennetut teokset 4.2 Muuta kirjallisuutta 5 Aiheesta muualla Elämä[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Varhainen elämä[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Marcus Aureliuksen setä Antoninus Pius adoptoi hänet omaksi pojakseen ja määräsi hänet seuraajakseen 25. helmikuuta 138, jolloin Marcus oli vasta 17-vuotias. Antoninus määräsi myös Lucius Veruksen seuraajakseen. Kun Antoninus kuoli 7. maaliskuuta 161, Marcus suostui hallitsijaksi sillä ehdolla, että hän ja Lucius Verus hallitsisivat yhdessä. Käytännössä Verus oli kuitenkin vain avustavassa asemassa. Syy tällaiseen järjestelyyn on epäselvä. Sen on ajateltu olleen seurausta Antoninuksen edeltäjän Hadrianuksen tekemistä vallanperimysjärjestelyistä. Kun Hadrianuksen ensimmäinen ottopoika Lucius Aelius oli kuollut, Hadrianus määräsi seuraajakseen Antoninus Piuksen sillä ehdolla, että Antoninus vuorostaan adoptoisi Marcus Annius Veruksen, vaimonsa veljenpojan, sekä Luciuksen, Aelius Veruksen pojan, ja järjestäisi nämä seuraajikseen valtaan. Aurelius meni naimisiin Faustina nuoremman kanssa vuonna 145. Heidän kolmikymmenvuotisen avioliittonsa aikana Faustina synnytti kolmetoista lasta. Merkittävimmät heidän lapsistaan olivat Commodus, josta tuli seuraava keisari sekä tytär Lucilla, joka naitettiin Lucius Verukselle tämän Marcus Aureliuksen kanssa tekemänsä liiton lujittamiseksi. Keisarina[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Vallanjako kahden henkilön välillä saattoi olla seurausta myös valtakunnan sotilaallisista tarpeista. Marcus Aurelius oli valtakaudellaan lähes yhtämittaisesti sodassa Rooman eri naapurikansojen kanssa. Sekä germaaniheimot että muut kansat hyökkäsivät usein Rooman pitkää Euroopan mantereen puoleista rajaa vastaan, erityisesti Galliaan. Todennäköisesti samaan aikaan idempänä asuneet vielä sotaisammat kansat hyökkäilivät puolestaan germaanien alueelle. Aasian puolella uhan aiheutti puolestaan uudelleen voimia kerännyt Parthian valtakunta. Joukkojen komentajaksi vaadittiin korkea-arvoista henkilöä, mutta yksi keisari ei kuitenkaan voinut puolustaa kumpaakin rintamaa samanaikaisesti. Hän ei myöskään voinut nimittää päällikköä johtamaan sotaa toisella rintamalla, sillä aikaisemmin sellaiset sotilasjohtajat kuin Julius Caesar ja Vespasianus olivat käyttäneet armeijaa apuna syöstessään vanhat hallitsijat vallasta ja noustessaan valtaan. Marcus Aureliuksen ratsastajapatsas Capitolium-kukkulalla. Marcus Aurelius ratkaisi ongelman lähettämällä Veruksen johtamaan roomalaisia legioonia itäisellä rintamalla. Hän oli sekä tarpeeksi korkea-arvoinen saavuttaakseen joukkojen uskollisuuden että tarpeeksi kiinni vallassa, ettei hänellä ollut juuri haluja syrjäyttää Marcusta. Suunnitelma onnistui hyvin – Verus pysyi uskollisena rintamalla vuonna 169 tapahtuneeseen kuolemaansa saakka. Kahden keisarin järjestelmä muistutti jossain määrin Rooman tasavallan poliittista järjestelmää, joka perustui kahden konsulin valtaan, joka esti yhtä henkilöä saavuttamasta kaikkea valtaa. Tämä hallintomuoto otettiin uudelleen käyttöön Diocletianuksen tetrarkia-järjestelmässä 200-luvun loppupuolella. Yhteydet Kiinaan[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Katso myös: Rooman ja Kiinan väliset yhteydet Marcus Aurelius lähetti luultavasti ensimmäiset roomalaiset lähetystöt Kiinaan, vaikka kiinalainen historiankirja Hou Hanshu (Myöhemmän Han-dynastian historia) on laittanut tämän Antoninus Piuksen nimiin. Sekaannus on saattanut aiheutua siitä, että Marcus Aurelius liitti hallitsijanimeensä edeltäjiensä nimet kunnioituksen osoituksena. Kiinan historiassa häneen viitataan nimellä An Tun ("Antoninus"). Antoninus Pius kuoli vuonna 161, ja saattue saapui Kiinan pääkaupunkiin Luoyangiin vuonna 166. Saattueen otti vastaan Han-dynastian keisari Huan. Kuolema[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Marcus Aurelius kuoli 17. maaliskuuta vuonna 180 sotaretkellä markomanneja vastaan Vindobonan (nykyinen Wien) kaupungissa. Kuolinsyynä on pidetty tuolloin riehunutta Antoninuksen ruttoa.[2] Hänen tuhkansa tuotiin Roomaan ja haudattiin Hadrianuksen mausoleumiin, nykyiseen Castel Sant'Angeloon. Aurelius onnistui takaamaan vallanperimyksen pojalleen Commodukselle, josta hän teki kanssahallitsijan jo elinaikanaan vuonna 177. Valinta saattoi kuitenkin olla onneton. Commodus oli paitsi sekä poliittisesti että sotilaallisesti ulkopuolinen, myös äärimmäinen egoisti. Monet historioitsijat ovat katsoneet Rooman valtakunnan alamäen alkaneen Commoduksen aikana. Tämän vuoksi Marcus Aureliuksen kuolemaa pidetään yleisesti Pax Romanan, roomalaisen rauhan, ajan päättymisenä. Filosofia ja teokset[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Marcus Aureliuksen pylväs Roomassa. Marcus Aurelius kiinnostui filosofiasta ja halusi tulla filosofiksi jo nuorena. Historia Augustan mukaan hän ilmoitti 12-vuotiaana haluavansa nukkua paljaalla lattialla niin kuin askeetit. Hänen opettajansa oli reetori Cornelius Fronto, joka painotti tälle erityisesti kaunopuheisuuden merkitystä, mutta oli jossain määrin huolissaan tulevan keisarin "liiallisesta" innostuksesta filosofiaan. Aureliusta opetti myös stoalainen filosofi Junius Rusticus, joka tutustutti hänet muun muassa Epiktetoksen teoksiin. Tällä oli merkittävä vaikutus hänen ajatteluunsa. Marcus Aureliuksen tunnetuin ja ainoa säilynyt teos on Itselleni (Τα ἐισ ἑαυτον), joka on suomennettu myös nimellä Itsetutkisteluja. Aurelius kirjoitti teoksen sotaretkillä joskus vuosien 170 ja 180 välillä, jolloin hän oli yli 50-vuotias, sairaalloinen ja kuolemaa odottava. Hän kirjoitti teoksen nimenomaisesti itselleen, hänen oman henkisen kehityksensä oppikirjaksi, eikä sitä ollut tarkoitettu julkaistavaksi. Hänen merkintänsä edustavat stoalaista filosofiaa, josta hän etsi mielenrauhaa ja elämänohjeita. Filosofisten teosten joukossa teoksen tekee erityisen mielenkiintoiseksi myös kirjoittajan yhteiskunnallinen asema. Marcus Aurelius kirjoitti ajan oppineiden tapaan kreikaksi, vaikka hänen äidinkielensä olikin latina. Kirjoitusaikoihin Marcus Aureliuksen terveys horjui, ja hänen kerrotaan käyttäneen kipuihinsa päivittäin oopiumia, jonka on sanottu näkyneen kirjoitustyylissä. Lähteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Kirjallisuus[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Benario, Herbert W.: Marcus Aurelius De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors roman-emperors.org. (englanniksi) Lendering, Jona: Marcus Aurelius Livius.org. Viitattu 24.5.2011. (englanniksi) Viitteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] ↑ a b c d Lendering ↑ Verity Murphy: Past pandemics that ravaged Europe BBC News. 7.11.2005. Viitattu 25.10.2020. Kirjallisuutta[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Wikisitaateissa on kokoelma sitaatteja aiheesta Marcus Aurelius. Suomennetut teokset[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Marcus Aurelius: Itselleni: Keisarin mietteitä elämästä. (Alkuteos: Ta eis heauton, noin 170–180.) Suomentanut Marke Ahonen. Helsinki: Basam Books, 2004. ISBN 952-9842-98-8. Marcus Aurelius (1950): Itsetutkisteluja. (Alkuteos: Ta eis heauton, noin 170–180.) Kreikasta suomentanut Yrjö Raivio. Porvoo: WSOY. (2. painos 1951. 3. painos 1953. Itselleni-teoksen varhaisempi suomennos.) Muuta kirjallisuutta[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Henrikson, Alf: Antiikin tarinoita 1–2. WSOY, 1993. ISBN 951-0-18515-9. Kivimäki, Arto & Tuomisto, Pekka: Rooman keisarit. Karisto, 2000. ISBN 951-23-4094-1. Aiheesta muualla[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Wikimedia Commonsissa on kuvia tai muita tiedostoja aiheesta Marcus Aurelius. Life of Marcus Aurelius Historia Augusta (englanniksi) Kamtekar, Rachana: Marcus Aurelius The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab. Stanford University. (englanniksi) Sellars, John: Marcus Aurelius The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (englanniksi) Edeltäjä Antoninus Pius Rooman keisari Kanssahallitsija: Lucius Verus Seuraaja Commodus Antiikin filosofia – Stoalainen koulukunta Varhaisstoa Zenon Kitionilainen · Dionysios · Ariston Khioslainen · Persaios · Kleanthes · Khrysippos · Herillos · Sfairos · Zenon Tarsoslainen · Diogenes Babylonialainen · Krates Malloslainen · Antipatros Tarsoslainen · Apollodoros Keskistoa Panaitios · Dardanos · Mnesarkhos · Hekaton · Polemon Ilionlainen · Poseidonios · Iason Nysalainen · Diodotos · Antipatros Tyroslainen, vanhempi · Antipatros Tyroslainen, nuorempi · Geminos · Athenodoros Kananalainen Myöhäisstoa Attalus · Seneca · Eufrates · Epiktetos · Lucius Annaeus Cornutus · Musonius Rufus · Athenodoros Kordylion · Junius Rusticus · Hierokles · Sekstos Khaironeialainen · Marcus Aurelius Auktoriteettitunnisteet BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: 000136425 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat (VIAF): 102895066   Noudettu kohteesta ”https://fi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=19578971” Luokat: Roomalaiset filosofit Roomalaiset kirjailijat Stoalaiset filosofit Vuonna 121 syntyneet Vuonna 180 kuolleet Rooman keisarit Piilotetut luokat: Kotoistettuja päivämääriä sisältävät artikkelit Syntymäaika on Wikidatassa eri Kuolinaika on Wikidatassa sama Yhteiskuntaan liittyvät artikkelit Wikipedia-artikkelit BIBSYS-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNE-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit BNF-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit CANTIC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit CINII-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit GND-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit ISNI-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit LCCN-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit LNB-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit MusicBrainz-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NDL-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NKC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLA-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLG-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLI-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLK-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLP-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NLR-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NSK-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit NTA-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit RERO-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SELIBR-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SNAC-ID-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit SUDOC-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit Trove-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit ULAN-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit VIAF-tunnisteilla Wikipedia-artikkelit WorldCat-VIAF -tunnisteilla AC with 28 elements Seulonnan keskeiset artikkelit Sivut, jotka käyttävät ISBN-taikalinkkejä Navigointivalikko Henkilökohtaiset työkalut Et ole kirjautunut Keskustelu Muokkaukset Luo tunnus Kirjaudu sisään Nimiavaruudet Artikkeli Keskustelu Kirjoitusjärjestelmät Näkymät Lue Muokkaa Muokkaa wikitekstiä Näytä historia Muut Haku Valikko Etusivu Tietoja Wikipediasta Kaikki sivut Satunnainen artikkeli Osallistuminen Ohje Kahvihuone Ajankohtaista Tuoreet odottavat muutokset Tuoreet muutokset Lahjoitukset Työkalut Tänne viittaavat sivut Linkitettyjen sivujen muutokset Toimintosivut Ikilinkki Sivun tiedot Viitetiedot Wikidata-kohde Tulosta tai vie Lataa PDF-tiedostona Tulostettava versio Muissa hankkeissa Wikimedia Commons Wikisitaatit Muilla kielillä Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Muokkaa linkkejä Sivua on viimeksi muutettu 18. helmikuuta 2021 kello 22.00. 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foundation-wikimedia-org-5547	----	Privacy policy - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Privacy policy From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search العربية azərbaycanca تۆرکجه беларуская (тарашкевіца) български روچ کپتین بلوچی বাংলা bosanski català нохчийн کوردی čeština català Cymraeg Deutsch Deutsch (Sie-Form) Zazaki Ελληνικά emiliàn e rumagnòl English Canadian English British English Esperanto español euskara فارسی suomi français Nordfriisk Frysk galego Avañe'ẽ עברית हिन्दी hrvatski magyar Bahasa Indonesia italiano 日本語 ქართული ភាសាខ្មែរ 한국어 Ripoarisch Кыргызча Lëtzebuergesch Ligure lietuvių Basa Banyumasan македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano norsk bokmål नेपाली Nederlands nl-formal Diné bizaad occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plautdietsch polski پښتو português português do Brasil română русский Scots سنڌي ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး සිංහල Soomaaliga shqip српски / srpski svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் తెలుగు тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkçe удмурт українська اردو Tiếng Việt მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 中文（简体） 中文（繁體） This policy is approved by the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees to apply to all Wikimedia projects. It may not be circumvented, eroded, or ignored by local policies. Want to help translate? Translate the missing messages. Privacy Policy This is a summary of the Privacy Policy. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Privacy Policy and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full Privacy Policy. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to our Privacy Policy. Because we believe that you shouldn’t have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement, you may: Read, edit, or use any Wikimedia Site without registering an account. Register for an account without providing an email address or real name. Because we want to understand how Wikimedia Sites are used so we can make them better for you, we collect some information when you: Make public contributions. Register an account or update your user page. Use the Wikimedia Sites. 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Introduction Use of info Sharing Protection Important info Contents Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Welcome! 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.2 What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover 2 Collection & Use of Info 2.1 Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It 2.1.1 Your Public Contributions 2.1.2 Account Information & Registration 2.1.3 Location Information 2.1.3.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.1.3.2 Metadata 2.1.3.3 IP Addresses 2.2 Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites 2.2.1 Information We Receive Automatically 2.2.2 Information We Collect 2.3 How We Use Information We Receive From You 2.4 Other 2.4.1 Location Information 2.4.1.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.4.1.2 Metadata 2.4.1.3 IP Addresses 3 Sharing 3.1 When May We Share Your Information? 3.1.1 With Your Permission 3.1.2 For Legal Reasons 3.1.3 If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) 3.1.4 To Protect You, Ourselves & Others 3.1.5 To Our Service Providers 3.1.6 To Understand & Experiment 3.1.7 Because You Made It Public 4 Protection 4.1 How Do We Protect Your Data? 4.2 How Long Do We Keep Your Data? 5 Important info 5.1 Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? 5.2 Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals 5.3 Changes to This Privacy Policy 5.4 Contact Us 5.5 Thank You! Introduction Welcome! The Wikimedia Foundation is the nonprofit organization that operates collaborative, free knowledge websites, like Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, and Wiktionary. This Policy explains how we collect, use, and share your personal information. We collect very little personal information about you. We do not rent or sell your information to third parties. By using Wikimedia Sites, you consent to this Policy. The Wikimedia movement is founded on a simple, but powerful principle: we can do more together than any of us can do alone. We cannot work collectively without gathering, sharing, and analyzing information about our users as we seek new ways to make the Wikimedia Sites more usable, safer, and more beneficial. We believe that information-gathering and use should go hand-in-hand with transparency. This Privacy Policy explains how the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, like Wikipedia, collects, uses, and shares information we receive from you through your use of the Wikimedia Sites. It is essential to understand that, by using any of the Wikimedia Sites, you consent to the collection, transfer, processing, storage, disclosure, and use of your information as described in this Privacy Policy. That means that reading this Policy carefully is important. We believe that you shouldn't have to provide nonpublic personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement. You do not have to provide things like your real name, address, or date of birth to sign up for a standard account or contribute content to the Wikimedia Sites. We do not sell or rent your Personal Information, nor do we give it to others to sell you anything. We use it to figure out how to make the Wikimedia Sites more engaging and accessible, to see which ideas work, and to make learning and contributing more fun. Put simply: we use this information to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you. After all, it's people like you, the champions of free knowledge, who make it possible for the Wikimedia Sites to not only exist, but also grow and thrive. Definitions Back to top We recognize that only a minority of you are familiar with technical terms like “tracking pixels” and “cookies” used in the Privacy Policy. Whether you are brand new to privacy terminology or you are an expert who just wants a refresher, you might find our Glossary of Key Terms helpful. Because everyone (not just lawyers) should be able to easily understand how and why their information is collected and used, we use common language instead of more formal terms throughout this Policy. To help ensure your understanding of some particular key terms, here is a table of translations: When we say... ... we mean: "the Wikimedia Foundation" / "the Foundation" / "we" / "us" / "our" The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., the non-profit organization that operates the Wikimedia Sites. "Wikimedia Sites" / "our services" Wikimedia websites and services (regardless of language), including our main projects, such as Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons, as well as mobile applications, APIs, emails, and notifications; excluding, however, sites and services listed in the "What This Privacy Policy Doesn't Cover" section below. "you" / "your" / "me" You, regardless of whether you are an individual, group, or organization, and regardless of whether you are using the Wikimedia Sites or our services on behalf of yourself or someone else. "this Policy" / "this Privacy Policy" This document, entitled the "Wikimedia Foundation Privacy Policy". "contributions" Content you add or changes you make to any Wikimedia Sites. "personal information" Information you provide us or information we collect from you in the context of your use of the Wikimedia Sites that could be used to personally identify you. To be clear, while we do not necessarily collect all of the following types of information, we consider at least the following to be Personal Information if it can be used to identify you: (a) name, address, phone number, email address, username, password, identification number on government-issued ID, IP addresses, user-agent information, and credit card number; and; (b) when associated with an identifiable person, any sensitive data such as date of birth, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origins, marital or familial status, genetic and biometric data, medical conditions or disabilities, political affiliation, and religion. "third party" / "third parties" Individuals, entities, websites, services, products, and applications that are not controlled, managed, or operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. This includes other Wikimedia users and independent organizations or groups who help promote the Wikimedia movement such as Wikimedia chapters, thematic organizations, and user groups as well as volunteers, employees, directors, officers, grant recipients, and contractors of those organizations or groups. What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover Except as explained below, this Privacy Policy applies to our collection and handling of information about you that we receive as a result of your use of any of the Wikimedia Sites. This Policy also applies to information that we receive from our partners or other third parties. To understand more about what this Privacy Policy covers, please see below. Examples of What This Privacy Policy Covers For the sake of clarity, this Privacy Policy covers, regardless of language: All of our major sites (found at list of major projects), such as Wikipedia, including user pages, discussion pages, and noticeboards. Our blogs and APIs (unless we have provided a separate policy for those services). Official Wikimedia Foundation mobile applications. Emails, SMS, and notifications from us or sent to us from you. This Privacy Policy, however, does not cover some situations where we may gather or process information. For example, some uses may be covered by separate privacy policies (like those of the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (such as third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). To understand more about what this Privacy Policy does not cover, please see below. More on what this Privacy Policy doesn’t cover This section is part of the Privacy Policy and is meant to explain in detail which situations are not covered by our Privacy Policy. Wikimedia Sites and Tools with alternative policies Some Wikimedia Foundation websites or tools have alternative privacy policies or provisions that differ from this Privacy Policy. These websites include: Wikimedia Shop (covered by the shop's policy); donate.wikimedia.org, including the donation process, such as clicking on a donation banner (covered by the Donor Privacy Policy); and the Wikipedia Reading Lists Browser Extension, which is governed by a separate Privacy Policy. This separate policy will also be made available where the Extension can be downloaded. If a Wikimedia Foundation website is governed by an alternative privacy policy, it will link to such policy. When a Wikimedia Foundation tool is governed by an alternative privacy policy, the page where the tool may be downloaded or enabled will include a link to that policy. Community members The Wikimedia Sites are collaborative labors of love that are constantly maintained and updated by a global community of volunteers. As a result, some volunteers have access to certain Personal Information, and use of that Personal Information may not be governed by this Privacy Policy. Volunteers that have such access include: Administrative volunteers, such as CheckUsers or Stewards. These are volunteers who enforce Wikimedia Site policies and ensure the safety of the Wikimedia Sites. When these administrators access Personal Information that is nonpublic, they are required to comply with our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy, as well as other, tool-specific policies. Tool providers. Tool providers. We support platforms for third-party developers to experiment and develop new tools and sites, such as wmflabs.org. When you use one of the tools developed by these volunteers, you may transfer information to them. When these volunteers access nonpublic information or Personal Information, they are required to comply with the terms governing the particular platform the tool is available on. Other users. We provide several tools that allow users to communicate with each other. The communications may be covered by this Policy while they pass through our systems, but the users who receive these communications, and what they do with the communications once they receive them, are not covered by this Policy. Examples include: posting to Foundation-hosted email lists; requesting support from volunteers through our online ticketing system (email sent to info[at]wikimedia.org goes to this system); emailing other users through the Wikimedia Sites (for example, by using the "Email this user" feature); and chatting on IRC (such as on the #wikipedia channel). Third parties This Privacy Policy only covers the way the Wikimedia Foundation collects, uses and discloses Personal Information and does not address the practices of third parties. For example, this Privacy Policy does not address the practices of: Websites run by other organizations, like websites linked to from the “References” sections of Wikipedia, or run by Wikimedia chapters or other movement organizations. These organizations may receive information from you if you visit their websites after using one of the Wikimedia Sites. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Mobile applications provided by other organizations or individuals. These organizations or individuals may receive information from you if you use those applications to access the Wikimedia Sites or Wikimedia Site content. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Sometimes, volunteers may place a data-collecting tool, such as a script, gadget, tracking pixel, or share button, on a Wikimedia Site without our knowledge. This Policy does not cover how third parties handle the information they receive as a result of such a tool. If you come across such a third-party tool, and you believe it violates this Policy, you can remove the tool yourself, or report it to privacy[at]wikimedia.org so we can investigate. Where community policies govern information, such as the CheckUser policy, the relevant community may add to the rules and obligations set out in this Policy. However, they are not permitted to create new exceptions or otherwise reduce the protections offered by this Policy. Collection & Use of Info Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It Your Public Contributions Whatever you post on Wikimedia Sites can be seen and used by everyone. When you make a contribution to any Wikimedia Site, including on user or discussion pages, you are creating a permanent, public record of every piece of content added, removed, or altered by you. The page history will show when your contribution or deletion was made, as well as your username (if you are signed in) or your IP address (if you are not signed in). We may use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. Publicly Visible Information Unless this Policy says otherwise, you should assume that information that you actively contribute to the Wikimedia Sites, including Personal Information, is publicly visible and can be found by search engines. Like most things on the Internet, anything you share may be copied and redistributed throughout the Internet by other people. Please do not contribute any information that you are uncomfortable making permanently public, like revealing your real name or location in your contributions. You should be aware that specific data made public by you or aggregated data that is made public by us can be used by anyone for analysis and to infer further information, such as which country a user is from, political affiliation and gender. Back to top Account Information & Registration You do not need to create an account to use any Wikimedia Site. If you do create an account, you do not need to give us your name or email address. If you do not create an account, your contributions will be publicly attributed to your IP address. Want to create an account? Great! Don't want to create an account? No problem! You are not required to create an account to read or contribute to a Wikimedia Site, except under rare circumstances. However, if you contribute without signing in, your contribution will be publicly attributed to the IP address associated with your device. If you want to create a standard account, in most cases we require only a username and a password. More on Usernames Your username will be publicly visible, so please be careful about using your real name as your username. Your password is only used to verify that the account is yours. Your IP address is also automatically submitted to us, and we record it temporarily to help prevent abuse. No other personal information is required: no name, no email address, no date of birth, no credit card information. Once created, user accounts cannot be removed entirely (although you can usually hide the information on your user page if you choose to). This is because your public contributions must be associated with their author (you!). In some circumstances, the Wikimedia communities can assist users with removing additional information related to their account from the projects. To gain a better understanding of the demographics of our users, to localize our services and to learn how we can improve our services, we may ask you for more demographic information, such as gender or age, about yourself. We will tell you if such information is intended to be public or private, so that you can make an informed decision about whether you want to provide us with that information. Providing such information is always completely optional. If you don't want to, you don't have to—it's as simple as that. Back to top Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies Some features we offer work better if we know what area you are in. If you consent, we can use GPS (and other technologies commonly used to determine location) to show you more relevant content. We keep information obtained by these technologies confidential, except as provided in this Policy. You can learn more by checking out the list of examples of how we use these technologies in our FAQ. Back to top Metadata Sometimes, we automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you want to upload a photo on the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, we may receive metadata, such as the place and time you took the photo, automatically from your device. Please be aware that, unlike location information collected using GPS signals described above, the default setting on your mobile device typically includes the metadata in your photo or video upload to the Wikimedia Sites. If you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses Finally, when you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. Back to top Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites We use certain technologies to collect information about how you use Wikimedia Sites. Like other websites, we receive some information about you automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. We also use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to collect information regarding how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We want to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you by learning more about how you use them. Examples of this might include how often you visit the Wikimedia Sites, what you like, what you find helpful, how you get to the Wikimedia Sites, and whether you would use a helpful feature more if we explained it differently. We also want this Policy and our practices to reflect our community's values. For this reason, we keep information related to your use of the Wikimedia Sites confidential, except as provided in this Policy. Back to top Information We Receive Automatically Because of how browsers work, we receive some information automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. This information includes the type of device you are using (possibly including unique device identification numbers, for some beta versions of our mobile applications), the type and version of your browser, your browser's language preference, the type and version of your device's operating system, in some cases the name of your internet service provider or mobile carrier, the website that referred you to the Wikimedia Sites, which pages you request and visit, and the date and time of each request you make to the Wikimedia Sites. Put simply, we use this information to enhance your experience with Wikimedia Sites. For example, we use this information to administer the sites, provide greater security, and fight vandalism; optimize mobile applications, customize content and set language preferences, test features to see what works, and improve performance; understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites, and analyze trends. Back to top Information We Collect We use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We actively collect some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. We realize that some of these technologies do not have the best reputation in town and can be used for less-than-noble purposes. So we want to be as clear as we can about why we use these methods and the type of information we collect with them. Depending on which technology we use, locally stored data can be anything from text, pictures, and whole articles (as we explain further below) to Personal Information (like your IP address) and information about your use of the Wikimedia Sites (like your username or the time of your visit). We use this information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. We will never use third-party cookies, unless we get your permission to do so. If you ever come across a third-party data collection tool that has not been authorized by you (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report it to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. More on Locally Stored Data Locally stored data, JavaScript, and tracking pixels help us do things like: Provide you with a customizable experience, such as using cookies to know your language preference, to remember the user preferences you set so we can provide you with the customized look and feel that you want, and to tell you about interesting Wikimedia issues and events in your area. Deliver more relevant content to you faster. For example, we use local storage to store your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly. Also, we use cookies to learn about the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, so that we know what works and what is useful. For example, we might use cookies to learn about the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites across different devices, so that we can make our varied Wikimedia Sites more efficient and effective for you. Make the Wikimedia Sites more convenient to use, such as by using cookies to maintain your session when you log in or to remember your username in the login field. Want to know even more? You can read more about some of the specific cookies we use, when they expire, and what we use them for in our FAQ. We believe this data collection helps improve your user experience, but you may remove or disable some or all locally stored data through your browser settings, depending on your browser. You can learn more about some options you have in our FAQ. While locally stored data may not be necessary to use our sites, some features will not function properly if you disable locally stored data. While the examples above concerning information about you collected through the use of data collection tools are kept confidential in accordance with this Policy, please note that some information about the actions taken by your username is made publicly available through public logs alongside actions taken by other users. For example, a public log may include the date your account was created on a Wikimedia Site along with the dates that other accounts were created on a Wikimedia Site. Back to top How We Use Information We Receive From You We and our service providers use your information for the legitimate purpose of pursuing our charitable mission, including: Operating the Wikimedia Sites, sharing your contributions and administering our Services. To help you share your knowledge with the world and add new features to our Services. To arrange access to your account and provide you with related service. To send administrative information to you, such as changes to our policies. To allow you to send messages to another person if you choose to do so. Direct communications between users (such as messages sent through the "Email this user" feature), to the extent such communications are nonpublic and stored in or in transit through Wikimedia Foundation systems, are kept confidential by us, except as provided in this Policy. We engage in these activities to manage our relationship with you, because we have a legitimate interest and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Providing customized Services. To provide to you custom content, notices and settings and to enhance your experience with the Wikimedia Sites. We will customize the Services, in some instances, at your direction; in all instances, in keeping with our legitimate charitable purpose of pursuing our mission. Sending emails with news updates, surveys and communications about items we believe may be of interest to you. To let you know about things that are happening with the Wikimedia Foundation, the Wikimedia Sites or the Wikimedia movement. To alert you when there has been a change to an article that you have decided to follow. We will send these types of emails to you only with your consent. We do not sell, rent, or use your email address to advertise third-party products or services to you. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Sending optional surveys and requesting feedback. We will always tell you, at the time we give you an opportunity to share your thoughts, how we plan on using your answers and any personal information you provide. Your responses to our surveys and feedback requests are always optional. We will email these types of requests to you only with your consent. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Improving the Wikimedia Sites and making your user experience safer and better. To use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. For research and analytics. To fight spam, identity theft, malware and other kinds of abuse. To optimize mobile and other applications. To test features to see what works, understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites and analyze trends. We engage in these activities to further our legitimate charitable purpose and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Back to top Other Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies As stated above, we can use commonly-used location technologies to show you more relevant content. For example, our mobile apps can identify articles from the Wikimedia sites about points of interest near your location. As a reminder, you can deactivate our access to these location technologies at any time, and still use the Wikimedia Sites. Back to top Metadata As stated above, we may automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you upload a photo using the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, please be aware that the default setting on your mobile device typically results in the metadata associated with your photo being included in the upload. As a reminder, if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses When you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. We keep IP addresses confidential, except as provided in this Policy. If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we may use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. We use this location information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. For example, we use this information to provide greater security, optimize mobile applications, and learn how to expand and better support Wikimedia communities. We also use Personal Information in the manner described in the sections of this Policy titled "For Legal Reasons" and "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others." Back to top Sharing When May We Share Your Information? We may share your information when you give us specific permission to do so, for legal reasons, and in the other circumstances described below. With Your Permission We share your information when you give us specific permission to do so. We share your information for a particular purpose, if you agree. You can find more information in the list of examples in our FAQ. Back to top For Legal Reasons We will disclose your information in response to an official legal process only if we believe it to be legally valid. We will notify you of such requests when possible. We will access, use, preserve, and/or disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to satisfy a valid and legally enforceable warrant, subpoena, court order, law or regulation, or other judicial or administrative order. However, if we believe that a particular request for disclosure of a user's information is legally invalid or an abuse of the legal system and the affected user does not intend to oppose the disclosure themselves, we will try our best to fight it. We are committed to notifying you via email at least ten (10) calendar days, when possible, before we disclose your Personal Information in response to a legal demand. However, we may only provide notice if we are not legally restrained from contacting you, there is no credible threat to life or limb that is created or increased by disclosing the request, and you have provided us with an email address. Nothing in this Privacy Policy is intended to limit any legal objections or defenses you may have to a third party's request (whether it be civil, criminal, or governmental) to disclose your information. We recommend seeking the advice of legal counsel immediately if such a request is made involving you. For more information, see our Subpoena FAQ. Back to top If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) In the unlikely event that the ownership of the Foundation changes, we will provide you 30 days’ notice before any personal information is transferred to the new owners or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. In the extremely unlikely event that ownership of all or substantially all of the Foundation changes, or we go through a reorganization (such as a merger, consolidation, or acquisition), we will continue to keep your Personal Information confidential, except as provided in this Policy, and provide notice to you via the Wikimedia Sites and a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list at least thirty (30) calendar days before any Personal Information is transferred or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. Back to top To Protect You, Ourselves & Others We, or users with certain administrative rights, may disclose information that is reasonably necessary to: enforce or investigate potential violations of the Wikimedia Foundation or community-based policies; protect our organization, infrastructure, employees, contractors, or the public; or prevent imminent or serious bodily harm or death to a person. We, or particular users with certain administrative rights as described below, may need to share your Personal Information if it is reasonably believed to be necessary to enforce or investigate potential violations of our Terms of Use, this Privacy Policy, or any Wikimedia Foundation or user community-based policies. We may also need to access and share information to investigate and defend ourselves against legal threats or actions. Wikimedia Sites are collaborative, with users writing most of the policies and selecting from amongst themselves people to hold certain administrative rights. These rights may include access to limited amounts of otherwise nonpublic information about recent contributions and activity by other users. They use this access to help protect against vandalism and abuse, fight harassment of other users, and generally try to minimize disruptive behavior on the Wikimedia Sites. These various user-selected administrative groups have their own privacy and confidentiality guidelines, but all such groups are supposed to agree to follow our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy. These user-selected administrative groups are accountable to other users through checks and balances: users are selected through a community-driven process and overseen by their peers through a logged history of their actions. However, the legal names of these users are not known to the Wikimedia Foundation. We hope that this never comes up, but we may disclose your Personal Information if we believe that it's reasonably necessary to prevent imminent and serious bodily harm or death to a person, or to protect our organization, employees, contractors, users, or the public. We may also disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to detect, prevent, or otherwise assess and address potential spam, malware, fraud, abuse, unlawful activity, and security or technical concerns. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ for more information.) Back to top To Our Service Providers We may disclose personal information to our third party service providers or contractors to help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites and provide services in support of our mission. As hard as we may try, we can't do it all. So sometimes we use third-party service providers or contractors who help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites for you and other users. We give access to your Personal Information to these providers or contractors as needed to perform their services for us or to use their tools and services. We put requirements, such as confidentiality agreements, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with, and no less protective of your privacy than, the principles of this Policy. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. Back to top To Understand & Experiment We give volunteer developers and researchers access to systems that contain your information to allow them to protect, develop, and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. We also share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with third parties interested in studying the Wikimedia Sites. When we share information with third parties for these purposes, we put reasonable technical and contractual protections in place to protect your information consistent with this Policy. The open-source software that powers the Wikimedia Sites depends on the contributions of volunteer software developers, who spend time writing and testing code to help it improve and evolve with our users' needs. To facilitate their work, we give some developers limited access to systems that contain your Personal Information, but only as reasonably necessary for them to develop and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. Similarly, we share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with researchers, scholars, academics, and other interested third parties who wish to study the Wikimedia Sites. Sharing this information helps them understand usage, viewing, and demographics statistics and patterns. They then can share their findings with us and our users so that we can all better understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites. When we give access to personal information to third-party developers or researchers, we put requirements, such as reasonable technical and contractual protections, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with the principles of this Policy and in accordance with our instructions. If these developers or researchers later publish their work or findings, we ask that they not disclose your personal information. Please note that, despite the obligations we impose on developers and researchers, we cannot guarantee that they will abide by our agreement, nor do we guarantee that we will regularly screen or audit their projects. (You can learn more about re-identification in our FAQ.) Back to top Because You Made It Public Information that you post is public and can been seen and used by everyone. Any information you post publicly on the Wikimedia Sites is just that – public. For example, if you put your mailing address on your talk page, that is public, and not protected by this Policy. And if you edit without registering or logging into your account, your IP address will be seen publicly. Please think carefully about your desired level of anonymity before you disclose Personal Information on your user page or elsewhere. Back to top Protection How Do We Protect Your Data? We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures to help protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We strive to protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures (such as access control procedures, network firewalls, and physical security) designed to protect our systems and your Personal Information. Unfortunately, there's no such thing as completely secure data transmission or storage, so we can't guarantee that our security will not be breached (by technical measures or through violation of our policies and procedures). We will never ask for your password by email (but may send you a temporary password via email if you have requested a password reset). If you ever receive an email that requests your password, please let us know by sending it to privacy@wikimedia.org, so we can investigate the source of the email. Back to top How Long Do We Keep Your Data? Except as otherwise stated in this policy, we only keep your Personal Information as long as necessary to maintain, understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites or to comply with U.S. law. Once we receive Personal Information from you, we keep it for the shortest possible time that is consistent with the maintenance, understanding, and improvement of the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under applicable U.S. law. Non-personal information may be retained indefinitely. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) Please remember that certain information, such as your IP address (if you edit while not logged in) and any public contributions to the Wikimedia Sites, is archived and displayed indefinitely by design; the transparency of the projects’ contribution and revision histories is critical to their efficacy and trustworthiness. To learn more about our data retention practices, see our data retention guidelines. For further information about how you may request access to or deletion of your Personal Information, or other rights you may have with respect to your Personal Information, see our FAQ. Back to top Important info For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? The Wikimedia Foundation is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California, with servers and data centers located in the U.S. If you decide to use Wikimedia Sites, whether from inside or outside of the U.S., you understand that your Personal Information will be collected, transferred, stored, processed, disclosed and otherwise used in the U.S. as described in this Privacy Policy. You also understand that your information may be transferred by us from the U.S. to other countries, which may have different or less stringent data protection laws than your country, in connection with providing services to you. Back to top Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals We do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited. We do not share your data with third parties for marketing purposes. We are strongly committed to not sharing nonpublic information and Personal Information with third parties. In particular, we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited (including analytics services, advertising networks, and social platforms), nor do we share your Personal Information with any third parties for marketing purposes. Under this Policy, we may share your information only under particular situations, which you can learn more about in the “When May We Share Your Information” section of this Privacy Policy. Because we protect all users in this manner, we do not change our behavior in response to a web browser's "do not track" signal. For more information regarding Do Not Track signals and how we handle them, please visit our FAQ. Back to top Changes to This Privacy Policy Substantial changes to this Policy will not be made until after a public comment period of at least 30 days. Because things naturally change over time and we want to ensure our Privacy Policy accurately reflects our practices and the law, it may be necessary to modify this Privacy Policy from time to time. We reserve the right to do so in the following manner: In the event of substantial changes, we will provide the proposed changes to our users in at least three (3) languages (selected at our discretion) for open comment period lasting at least thirty (30) calendar days. Prior to the start of any comment period, we will provide notice of such changes and the opportunity to comment via the Wikimedia Sites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or a similar mailing list. For minor changes, such as grammatical fixes, administrative or legal changes, or corrections of inaccurate statements, we will post the changes and, when possible, provide at least three (3) calendar days' prior notice via WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list. We ask that you please review the most up-to-date version of our Privacy Policy. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after this Privacy Policy becomes effective constitutes acceptance of this Privacy Policy on your part. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after any subsequent version of this Privacy Policy becomes effective, following notice as outlined above, constitutes acceptance of that version of the Privacy Policy on your part. Contact Us If you have questions or suggestions about this Privacy Policy, or the information collected under this Privacy Policy, please email us at privacy@wikimedia.org or contact us directly. Depending on your jurisdiction, you also may have the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority competent for your country or region. Thank You! Thank you for reading our Privacy Policy. We hope you enjoy using the Wikimedia Sites and appreciate your participation in creating, maintaining, and constantly working to improve the largest repository of free knowledge in the world. Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Back to top This version was approved by Katherine Maher on May 17, 2018, pursuant to the Delegation of policy-making authority by the Board, and went into effect on May 24, 2018. Previous versions can be found below: Privacy policy (June 2014 - May 2018): effective from June 6, 2014 until May 24, 2018 Privacy policy (November 2008 - June 2014): effective from November 25, 2008 until June 6, 2014 Privacy policy (August 2008 - November 2008): effective from August 19, 2008 until November 25, 2008. Privacy policy (June 2006 - August 2008): effective from June 21, 2006 until August 19, 2008. Privacy policy (April 2005 to June 2006): effective from April 2005 until June 21, 2006 Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. ± Privacy-related pages Privacy policy · FAQ · Glossary of key terms · Wikimedia blog privacy policy · Subpoena FAQ · Access to nonpublic information · Data retention guidelines · Donor policy · Requests for user information Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privacy_policy&oldid=123545" Categories: Privacy policy Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 8 October 2020, at 00:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-9671	----	Terms of Use - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Terms of Use From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki < Terms of Use(Redirected from Terms of Use) Jump to navigation Jump to search In other languages English  · العربية · asturianu · беларуская (тарашкевіца) · български · বাংলা · català · čeština · Deutsch · Ελληνικά · English · español · suomi · français · galego · עברית · Bahasa Indonesia · italiano · 日本語 · 한국어 · македонски · മലയാളം · Nederlands · polski · português do Brasil · русский · ไทย · українська · Tiếng Việt This is a summary of the Terms of Use. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Terms of Use This is a human-readable summary of the Terms of Use. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Terms of Use and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the legal language of our Terms of Use. Part of our mission is to: Empower and Engage people around the world to collect and develop educational content and either publish it under a free license or dedicate it to the public domain. Disseminate this content effectively and globally, free of charge. You are free to: Read and Print our articles and other media free of charge. Share and Reuse our articles and other media under free and open licenses. Contribute To and Edit our various sites or Projects. Under the following conditions: Responsibility – You take responsibility for your edits (since we only host your content). Civility – You support a civil environment and do not harass other users. Lawful Behavior – You do not violate copyright or other laws. No Harm – You do not harm our technology infrastructure. Terms of Use and Policies – You adhere to the below Terms of Use and to the applicable community policies when you visit our sites or participate in our communities. With the understanding that: You License Freely Your Contributions – you generally must license your contributions and edits to our sites or Projects under a free and open license (unless your contribution is in the public domain). No Professional Advice – the content of articles and other projects is for informational purposes only and does not constitute professional advice. Our Terms of Use Imagine a world in which every single human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. That's our commitment. – Our Vision Statement Welcome to Wikimedia! The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (“we” or “us”), is a nonprofit charitable organization whose mission is to empower and engage people around the world to collect and develop content under a free license or in the public domain, and to disseminate it effectively and globally, free of charge. To support our vibrant community, we provide the essential infrastructure and organizational framework for the development of multilingual wiki Projects and their editions (as explained here) and other endeavors which serve this mission. We strive to make and keep educational and informational content from the Projects available on the internet free of charge, in perpetuity. We welcome you (“you” or the “user”) as a reader, editor, author, or contributor of the Wikimedia Projects, and we encourage you to join the Wikimedia community. Before you participate, however, we ask that you please read and agree to the following Terms of Use (“Terms of Use”). Overview These Terms of Use tell you about our public services at the Wikimedia Foundation, our relationship to you as a user, and the rights and responsibilities that guide us both. We want you to know that we host an incredible quantity of educational and informational content, all of which is contributed and made possible by users like yourself. Generally we do not contribute, monitor, or delete content (with the rare exception of policies like these Terms of Use or legal compliance for DMCA notices). This means that editorial control is in the hands of you and your fellow users who create and manage the content. We merely host this content. The community – the network of users who are constantly building and using the various sites or Projects – are the principal means through which the goals of the mission are achieved. The community contributes to and helps govern our sites. The community undertakes the critical function of creating and enforcing policies for the specific Project editions (such as the different language editions for the Wikipedia Project or the Wikimedia Commons multi-lingual edition). You are welcome to join as a contributor, editor, or author, but you should follow the policies that govern each of the independent Project editions. The largest of our Projects is Wikipedia, but we host other Projects too, each with different objectives and work methods. Each Project edition has a team of contributors, editors or authors who work together to create and manage the content on that Project edition. You are welcome to join these teams and work with them to improve these Projects. Because we are dedicated to making content freely accessible to the public, we generally require that all content you contribute is available under a free license or in the public domain. Please be aware that you are legally responsible for all of your contributions, edits, and re-use of Wikimedia content under the laws of the United States of America and other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content). This means it is important that you use caution when posting content. In light of this responsibility, we have some rules about what you cannot post, most of which is either for your own protection or for the protection of other users like yourself. Please keep in mind that the content we host is for general informational purposes only, so if you need expert advice for a particular question (such as medical, legal, or financial issues), you should seek the help of a licensed or qualified professional. We also include other important notices and disclaimers, so please read these Terms of Use in their entirety. For clarity, other organizations, such as local Wikimedia chapters and associations, that may share in the same mission are nevertheless legally independent and separate from the Wikimedia Foundation and have no responsibility for the operations of the website or its content. Contents 1 Our Terms of Use 2 Overview 3 1. Our Services 4 2. Privacy Policy 5 3. Content We Host 6 4. Refraining from Certain Activities 7 5. Password Security 8 6. Trademarks 9 7. Licensing of Content 10 8. DMCA Compliance 11 9. Third-party Websites and Resources 12 10. Management of Websites 13 11. Resolutions and Project Policies 14 12. Termination 15 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction 16 14. Disclaimers 17 15. Limitation on Liability 18 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use 19 17. Other Terms 20 Thank You! 1. Our Services The Wikimedia Foundation is dedicated to encouraging the growth, development and distribution of free multilingual content, and to hosting the full content of these wiki-based Projects for the public free of charge. Our role is to host some of the largest collaboratively edited reference Projects in the world, which can be found here. However, we act only as a hosting service, maintaining the infrastructure and organizational framework that allows our users to build the Wikimedia Projects by contributing and editing content themselves. Because of our unique role, there are a couple of things you should be aware of when considering our relationship to you, the Projects, and the other users: We do not take an editorial role: Because the Wikimedia Projects are collaboratively edited, all of the content that we host is provided by users like yourself, and we do not take an editorial role. This means that we generally do not monitor or edit the content of the Project websites, and we do not take any responsibility for this content. Similarly, we do not endorse any opinions expressed via our services, and we do not represent or guarantee the truthfulness, accuracy, or reliability of any submitted community content. Instead, we simply provide access to the content that your fellow users have contributed and edited. You are responsible for your own actions: You are legally responsible for your edits and contributions on Wikimedia Projects, so for your own protection you should exercise caution and avoid contributing any content that may result in criminal or civil liability under any applicable laws. For clarity, applicable law includes at least the laws of the United States of America. Although we may not agree with such actions, we warn editors and contributors that authorities may seek to apply other country laws to you, including local laws where you live or where you view or edit content. WMF generally cannot offer any protection, guarantee, immunity or indemnification. 2. Privacy Policy We ask that you review the terms of our Privacy Policy, so that you are aware of how we collect and use your information. Because our services are used by people all over the world, personal information that we collect may be stored and processed in the United States of America or any other country in which we or our agents maintain facilities. By using our services, you consent to any such transfer of information outside your country. 3. Content We Host You may find some material objectionable or erroneous: Because we provide a wide array of content that is produced or gathered by fellow users, you may encounter material that you find offensive, erroneous, misleading, mislabeled, or otherwise objectionable. We therefore ask that you use common sense and proper judgment when using our services. Our content is for general informational purposes only: Although we host a great deal of information that pertains to professional topics, including medical, legal, or financial issues, this content is presented for general informational purposes only. It should not be taken as professional advice. Please seek independent professional counseling from someone who is licensed or qualified in the applicable area in lieu of acting on any information, opinion, or advice contained in one of the Project websites. 4. Refraining from Certain Activities The Projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation only exist because of the vibrant community of users like you who collaborate to write, edit, and curate the content. We happily welcome your participation in this community. We encourage you to be civil and polite in your interactions with others in the community, to act in good faith, and to make edits and contributions aimed at furthering the mission of the shared Project. Certain activities, whether legal or illegal, may be harmful to other users and violate our rules, and some activities may also subject you to liability. Therefore, for your own protection and for that of other users, you may not engage in such activities on our sites. These activities include: Harassing and Abusing Others Engaging in harassment, threats, stalking, spamming, or vandalism; and Transmitting chain mail, junk mail, or spam to other users. Violating the Privacy of Others Infringing the privacy rights of others under the laws of the United States of America or other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content); Soliciting personally identifiable information for purposes of harassment, exploitation, violation of privacy, or any promotional or commercial purpose not explicitly approved by the Wikimedia Foundation; and Soliciting personally identifiable information from anyone under the age of 18 for an illegal purpose or violating any applicable law regarding the health or well-being of minors. Engaging in False Statements, Impersonation, or Fraud Intentionally or knowingly posting content that constitutes libel or defamation; With the intent to deceive, posting content that is false or inaccurate; Attempting to impersonate another user or individual, misrepresenting your affiliation with any individual or entity, or using the username of another user with the intent to deceive; and Engaging in fraud. Committing Infringement Infringing copyrights, trademarks, patents, or other proprietary rights under applicable law. Misusing Our Services for Other Illegal Purposes Posting child pornography or any other content that violates applicable law concerning child pornography; Posting or trafficking in obscene material that is unlawful under applicable law; and Using the services in a manner that is inconsistent with applicable law. Engaging in Disruptive and Illegal Misuse of Facilities Posting or distributing content that contains any viruses, malware, worms, Trojan horses, malicious code, or other device that could harm our technical infrastructure or system or that of our users; Engaging in automated uses of the site that are abusive or disruptive of the services and have not been approved by the Wikimedia community; Disrupting the services by placing an undue burden on a Project website or the networks or servers connected with a Project website; Disrupting the services by inundating any of the Project websites with communications or other traffic that suggests no serious intent to use the Project website for its stated purpose; Knowingly accessing, tampering with, or using any of our non-public areas in our computer systems without authorization; and Probing, scanning, or testing the vulnerability of any of our technical systems or networks unless all the following conditions are met: such actions do not unduly abuse or disrupt our technical systems or networks; such actions are not for personal gain (except for credit for your work); you report any vulnerabilities to MediaWiki developers (or fix it yourself); and you do not undertake such actions with malicious or destructive intent. Paid contributions without disclosure These Terms of Use prohibit engaging in deceptive activities, including misrepresentation of affiliation, impersonation, and fraud. As part of these obligations, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation. You must make that disclosure in at least one of the following ways: a statement on your user page, a statement on the talk page accompanying any paid contributions, or a statement in the edit summary accompanying any paid contributions. Applicable law, or community and Foundation policies and guidelines, such as those addressing conflicts of interest, may further limit paid contributions or require more detailed disclosure. A Wikimedia Project community may adopt an alternative paid contribution disclosure policy. If a Project adopts an alternative disclosure policy, you may comply with that policy instead of the requirements in this section when contributing to that Project. An alternative paid contribution policy will only supersede these requirements if it is approved by the relevant Project community and listed in the alternative disclosure policy page. For more information, please read our FAQ on disclosure of paid contributions. We reserve the right to exercise our enforcement discretion with respect to the above terms. 5. Password Security You are responsible for safeguarding your own password and should never disclose it to any third party. 6. Trademarks Although you have considerable freedoms for re-use of the content on the Project websites, it is important that, at the Wikimedia Foundation, we protect our trademark rights so that we can protect our users from fraudulent impersonators. Because of this, we ask that you please respect our trademarks. All Wikimedia Foundation trademarks belong to the Wikimedia Foundation, and any use of our trade names, trademarks, service marks, logos, or domain names must be in compliance with these Terms of Use and in compliance with our Trademark Policy. 7. Licensing of Content To grow the commons of free knowledge and free culture, all users contributing to the Projects are required to grant broad permissions to the general public to re-distribute and re-use their contributions freely, so long as that use is properly attributed and the same freedom to re-use and re-distribute is granted to any derivative works. In keeping with our goal of providing free information to the widest possible audience, we require that when necessary all submitted content be licensed so that it is freely reusable by anyone who cares to access it. You agree to the following licensing requirements: Text to which you hold the copyright: When you submit text to which you hold the copyright, you agree to license it under: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (“CC BY-SA”), and GNU Free Documentation License (“GFDL”) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). (Re-users may comply with either license or both.) The only exception is if the Project edition or feature requires a different license. In that case, you agree to license any text you contribute under that particular license. For example, at the publication of this version of the Terms of Use, English Wikinews mandates that all text content is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (CC BY 2.5) and does not require a dual license with GFDL. Please note that these licenses do allow commercial uses of your contributions, as long as such uses are compliant with the terms. Attribution: Attribution is an important part of these licenses. We consider it giving credit where credit is due – to authors like yourself. When you contribute text, you agree to be attributed in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the article to which you contributed (since each article has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). Importing text: You may import text that you have found elsewhere or that you have co-authored with others, but in such case you warrant that the text is available under terms that are compatible with the CC BY-SA 3.0 license (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the Project edition or feature)("CC BY-SA"). Content available only under GFDL is not permissible. You agree that, if you import text under a CC BY-SA license that requires attribution, you must credit the author(s) in a reasonable fashion. Where such credit is commonly given through page histories (such as Wikimedia-internal copying), it is sufficient to give attribution in the edit summary, which is recorded in the page history, when importing the text. The attribution requirements are sometimes too intrusive for particular circumstances (regardless of the license), and there may be instances where the Wikimedia community decides that imported text cannot be used for that reason. Non-text media: Non-text media on the Projects are available under a variety of different licenses that support the general goal of allowing unrestricted re-use and re-distribution. When you contribute non-text media, you agree to comply with the requirements for such licenses as described in our Licensing Policy, and also comply with the requirements of the specific Project edition or feature to which you are contributing. Also see the Wikimedia Commons Licensing Policy for more information on contributing non-text media to that Project. No revocation of license: Except as consistent with your license, you agree that you will not unilaterally revoke or seek invalidation of any license that you have granted under these Terms of Use for text content or non-text media contributed to the Wikimedia Projects or features, even if you terminate use of our services. Public domain content: Content that is in the public domain is welcome! It is important however that you confirm the public domain status of the content under the law of the United States of America as well as the laws of any other countries as required by the specific Project edition. When you contribute content that is in the public domain, you warrant that the material is actually in the public domain, and you agree to label it appropriately. Re-use: Re-use of content that we host is welcome, though exceptions exist for content contributed under "fair use" or similar exemptions under copyright law. Any re-use must comply with the underlying license(s). When you re-use or re-distribute a text page developed by the Wikimedia community, you agree to attribute the authors in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the page or pages that you are re-using (since each page has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). If the text content was imported from another source, it is possible that the content is licensed under a compatible CC BY-SA license but not GFDL (as described in “Importing text,” above). In that case, you agree to comply with the compatible CC BY-SA license and do not have the option to re-license it under GFDL. To determine the license that applies to the content that you seek to re-use or re-distribute, you should review the page footer, page history, and discussion page. In addition, please be aware that text that originated from external sources and was imported into a Project may be under a license that attaches additional attribution requirements. Users agree to indicate these additional attribution requirements clearly. Depending on the Project, such requirements may appear for example in a banner or other notations pointing out that some or all of the content was originally published elsewhere. Where there are such visible notations, re-users should preserve them. For any non-text media, you agree to comply with whatever license under which the work has been made available (which can be discovered by clicking on the work and looking at the licensing section on its description page or reviewing an applicable source page for that work). When re-using any content that we host, you agree to comply with the relevant attribution requirements as they pertain to the underlying license or licenses. Modifications or additions to material that you re-use: When modifying or making additions to text that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content under CC BY-SA 3.0 or later (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the specific Project edition or feature). When modifying or making additions to any non-text media that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content in accordance with whatever license under which the work has been made available. With both text content and non-text media, you agree to clearly indicate that the original work has been modified. If you are re-using text content in a wiki, it is sufficient to indicate in the page history that you made a change to the imported text. For each copy or modified version that you distribute, you agree to include a licensing notice stating which license the work is released under, along with either a hyperlink or URL to the text of the license or a copy of the license itself. 8. DMCA Compliance The Wikimedia Foundation wants to ensure that the content that we host can be re-used by other users without fear of liability and that it is not infringing the proprietary rights of others. In fairness to our users, as well as to other creators and copyright holders, our policy is to respond to notices of alleged infringement that comply with the formalities of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Pursuant to the DMCA, we will terminate, in appropriate circumstances, users and account holders of our system and network who are repeat infringers. However, we also recognize that not every takedown notice is valid or in good faith. In such cases, we strongly encourage users to file counter-notifications when they appropriately believe a DMCA takedown demand is invalid or improper. For more information on what to do if you think a DMCA notice has been improperly filed, you may wish to consult the Chilling Effects website. If you are the owner of content that is being improperly used on one of the Projects without your permission, you may request that the content be removed under the DMCA. To make such a request, please email us at legalwikimedia.org or snail mail our designated agent at this address. Alternatively, you may make a request to our community, which often handles copyright issues faster and more effectively than prescribed under the DMCA. In that case, you can post a notice explaining your copyright concerns. For a non-exhaustive and non-authoritative list of the relevant processes for the different Project editions, look here. Before filing a DMCA claim, you also have the option of sending an email to the community at infowikimedia.org. 9. Third-party Websites and Resources You are solely responsible for your use of any third-party websites or resources. Although the Projects contain links to third-party websites and resources, we do not endorse and are not responsible or liable for their availability, accuracy, or the related content, products, or services (including, without limitation, any viruses or other disabling features), nor do we have any obligation to monitor such third-party content. 10. Management of Websites The community has the primary role in creating and enforcing policies applying to the different Project editions. At the Wikimedia Foundation, we rarely intervene in community decisions about policy and its enforcement. In an unusual case, the need may arise, or the community may ask us, to address an especially problematic user because of significant Project disturbance or dangerous behavior. In such cases, we reserve the right, but do not have the obligation to: Investigate your use of the service (a) to determine whether a violation of these Terms of Use, Project edition policy, or other applicable law or policy has occurred, or (b) to comply with any applicable law, legal process, or appropriate governmental request; Detect, prevent, or otherwise address fraud, security, or technical issues or respond to user support requests; Refuse, disable, or restrict access to the contribution of any user who violates these Terms of Use; Ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access for actions violating these Terms of Use, including repeat copyright infringement; Take legal action against users who violate these Terms of Use (including reports to law enforcement authorities); and Manage otherwise the Project websites in a manner designed to facilitate their proper functioning and protect the rights, property, and safety of ourselves and our users, licensors, partners, and the public. In the interests of our users and the Projects, in the extreme circumstance that any individual has had his or her account or access blocked under this provision, he or she is prohibited from creating or using another account on or seeking access to the same Project, unless we provide explicit permission. Without limiting the authority of the community, the Wikimedia Foundation itself will not ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access solely because of good faith criticism that does not result in actions otherwise violating these Terms of Use or community policies. The Wikimedia community and its members may also take action when so allowed by the community or Foundation policies applicable to the specific Project edition, including but not limited to warning, investigating, blocking, or banning users who violate those policies. You agree to comply with the final decisions of dispute resolution bodies that are established by the community for the specific Project editions (such as arbitration committees); these decisions may include sanctions as set out by the policy of the specific Project edition. Especially problematic users who have had accounts or access blocked on multiple Project editions may be subject to a ban from all of the Project editions, in accordance with the Global Ban Policy. In contrast to Board resolutions or these Terms of Use, policies established by the community, which may cover a single Project edition or multiple Projects editions (like the Global Ban Policy), may be modified by the relevant community according to its own procedures. The blocking of an account or access or the banning of a user under this provision shall be in accordance with Section 12 of these Terms of Use. 11. Resolutions and Project Policies The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees releases official policies from time to time. Some of these policies may be mandatory for a particular Project or Project edition, and, when they are, you agree to abide by them as applicable. 12. Termination Though we hope you will stay and continue to contribute to the Projects, you can stop using our services any time. In certain (hopefully unlikely) circumstances it may be necessary for either ourselves or the Wikimedia community or its members (as described in Section 10) to terminate part or all of our services, terminate these Terms of Use, block your account or access, or ban you as a user. If your account or access is blocked or otherwise terminated for any reason, your public contributions will remain publicly available (subject to applicable policies), and, unless we notify you otherwise, you may still access our public pages for the sole purpose of reading publicly available content on the Projects. In such circumstances, however, you may not be able to access your account or settings. We reserve the right to suspend or end the services at any time, with or without cause, and with or without notice. Even after your use and participation are banned, blocked or otherwise suspended, these Terms of Use will remain in effect with respect to relevant provisions, including Sections 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9-15, and 17. 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction Highlighted for emphasis We hope that no serious disagreements arise involving you, but, in the event there is a dispute, we encourage you to seek resolution through the dispute resolution procedures or mechanisms provided by the Projects or Project editions and the Wikimedia Foundation. If you seek to file a legal claim against us, you agree to file and resolve it exclusively in a state or federal court located in San Francisco County, California. You also agree that the laws of the State of California and, to the extent applicable, the laws of the United States of America will govern these Terms of Use, as well as any legal claim that might arise between you and us (without reference to conflict of laws principles). You agree to submit to the personal jurisdiction of, and agree that venue is proper in, the courts located in San Francisco County, California, in any legal action or proceeding relating to us or these Terms of Use. To ensure that disputes are dealt with soon after they arise, you agree that regardless of any statute or law to the contrary, any claim or cause of action you might have arising out of or related to use of our services or these Terms of Use must be filed within the applicable statute of limitations or, if earlier, one (1) year after the pertinent facts underlying such claim or cause of action could have been discovered with reasonable diligence (or be forever barred). 14. Disclaimers Highlighted for emphasis At the Wikimedia Foundation, we do our best to provide educational and informational content to a very wide audience, but your use of our services is at your sole risk. We provide these services on an "as is" and "as available" basis, and we expressly disclaim all express or implied warranties of all kinds, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement. We make no warranty that our services will meet your requirements, be safe, secure, uninterrupted, timely, accurate, or error-free, or that your information will be secure. We are not responsible for the content, data, or actions of third parties, and you release us, our directors, officers, employees, and agents from any claims and damages, known and unknown, arising out of or in any way connected with any claim you have against any such third parties. No advice or information, whether oral or written, obtained by you from us or through or from our services creates any warranty not expressly stated in these Terms of Use. Any material downloaded or otherwise obtained through your use of our services is done at your own discretion and risk, and you will be solely responsible for any damage to your computer system or loss of data that results from the download of any such material. You agree that we have no responsibility or liability for the deletion of, or the failure to store or to transmit, any content or communication maintained by the service. We retain the right to create limits on use and storage at our sole discretion at any time with or without notice. Some states or jurisdictions do not allow the types of disclaimers in this section, so they may not apply to you either in part or in full depending on the law. 15. Limitation on Liability Highlighted for emphasis The Wikimedia Foundation will not be liable to you or to any other party for any direct, indirect, incidental, special, consequential or exemplary damages, including but not limited to, damages for loss of profits, goodwill, use, data, or other intangible losses, regardless of whether we were advised of the possibility of such damage. In no event shall our liability exceed one thousand U.S. dollars (USD 1000.00) in aggregate. In the case that applicable law may not allow the limitation or exclusion of liability or incidental or consequential damages, the above limitation or exclusion may not apply to you, although our liability will be limited to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law. 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use Just as the Wikimedia community's input is essential for the growth and maintenance of the Projects, we believe that community input is essential for these Terms of Use to properly serve our users. It is also essential for a fair contract. Therefore, we will provide these Terms of Use, as well as any substantial future revisions of these Terms of Use, to the community for comment at least thirty (30) days before the end of the comment period. If a future proposed revision is substantial, we will provide an additional 30 days for comments after posting a translation of the proposed revision in at least three languages (selected at our discretion). The community will be encouraged to translate the proposed revision in other languages as appropriate. For changes for legal or administrative reasons, to correct an inaccurate statement, or changes in response to community comments, we will provide at least three (3) days' notice. Because it may be necessary to modify these Terms of Use from time to time, we will provide notice of such modifications and the opportunity to comment via the Project websites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L. However, we ask that you please periodically review the most up-to-date version of these Terms of Use. Your continued use of our services after the new Terms of Use become official following the notice and review period constitutes an acceptance of these Terms of Use on your part. For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users like yourself, if you do not agree with our Terms of Use, you cannot use our services. 17. 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fo-wikipedia-org-4087	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Frá Wikipedia, hin frælsa alfrøðin Jump to navigation Jump to search Bringumynd av Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius (á latínskum Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26. apríl 121 - 17. mars 180) var keisari Rómverjaríkisins á árunum 161 - 180. Hann var fimti og siðsti keisarin av hinum "fimm góðu keisarunum", ið stýrdu Rómverjaríkið frá 96 til 180. Hann var stóikari og ónevnda verk hansara, ið á okkara døgum verður nevnt Hugleiðingar, er týðandi kelda til núverandi kunnleika okkara um stóisismuna. Verkið verður ofta talt ímillum hini størstu verkini um heimspeki. [1] Keldur[rætta | rætta wikitekst] ↑ Desmond Collins (19 July 1973). Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting. Cambridge University Press Archive. p. 58. GGKEY:XUFU58U7ESS.   Hendan greinin er ein stubbi. Tú kanst hjálpa Wikipedia við at víðka hann. Heintað frá "https://fo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=348304" Bólkar: Heimspekingar 2. øld Navigatiónsskrá Persónlig amboð Ikki ritað inn Kjak til hesa ip-adressuna Íkøst Stovna kontu Rita inn Navnarúm Grein Kjak Ymisk sløg Skoðanir Les Rætta Rætta wikitekst Vís søgu More Leita Navigatión Forsíða Bólkar Tilvildarlig síða Núverandi hendingar Luttøka Vælkomin Undirhúsið Høvundaforsíða Seinastu broytingar Hjálp Amboð Hvat slóðar higar Viðkomandi broytingar Legg fílu upp Serligar síður Støðug slóð Kunning um síðuna Sitera hesa greinina Wikidata lutur Skriva út/útflyt Ger eina bók Tak niður sum PDF Prentvinarlig útgáva Aðrar verkætlanir Wikimedia Commons Onnur mál Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Rætta leinkjur Hendan síðan var seinast broytt 04:55, 22. mai 2018. Teksturin er tøkur undir Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; aðrar treytir kunnu vera galdandi. Les brúkaratreytirnar fyri at hoyra nærri um smálutir. Handfaring av persónligum upplýsingum Um Wikipedia Fyrivarni Mobil vísing Mennarar Statistics Cookie statement 
fr-wikipedia-org-1244	----	Marc Aurèle — Wikipédia Aller au contenu Afficher / masquer la barre latérale Rechercher Outils personnels Non connecté Discussion Contributions Créer un compte Se connecter Menu de navigation Navigation Accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Contribuer Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Modifications récentes Faire un don Outils Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Pages spéciales Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Élément Wikidata Imprimer / exporter Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Dans d’autres projets Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Dans d’autres langues Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Modifier les liens Espaces de noms Article Discussion Variantes Affichages Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Plus Marc Aurèle Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Vous lisez un « article de qualité ». Marc Aurèle Empereur romain Buste de Marc Aurèle cuirassé exposé au musée Saint-Raymond de Toulouse (Inv. Ra 61 b). Règne 8 mars 161 - 17 mars 180 (19 ans et 9 jours) Période Antonins Précédé par Antonin le Pieux Co-empereur Lucius Aurelius Verus (de 161 à 169) Usurpé par Avidius Cassius (175) Suivi de Commode Biographie Nom de naissance Marcus Catilius Severus Naissance 26 avril 121 à Rome, Italie Décès 17 mars 180 (à 58 ans) à Vindobona, Pannonie Inhumation Mausolée d'Hadrien Père Marcus Annius Verus Mère Domitia Lucilla Fratrie Annia Cornificia Faustina Épouse Faustine la Jeune Descendance (1) Commode (2) Faustina (3) Annia Lucilla (3) Gemellus Lucillæ (4) Fadilla (5) Cornificia (6) Sabina (7) Annius Verus Empereur romain modifier  Marc Aurèle (en latin : Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) est un empereur, philosophe stoïcien et écrivain romain né le 26 avril 121 à Rome et mort le 17 mars 180 à Sirmione (selon Tertullien) ou à Vindobona. Il est le dernier des souverains connus sous le nom des « cinq bons empereurs » et le dernier empereur de la Pax Romana, une époque de paix et de stabilité relatives pour l'Empire romain. Il est consul romain en 140, 145 et 161. Marc Aurèle naît sous le règne d'Hadrien. Il est le fils du préteur Marcus Annius Verus et de l'héritière Domitia Lucilla Minor. Son père meurt alors qu'il est encore enfant et Marc Aurèle est élevé par sa mère et ses grands-pères. Après la mort du fils adoptif d'Hadrien, Lucius Aelius, en 138, l'empereur adopte l'oncle de Marc Aurèle, Antonin le Pieux, comme nouvel héritier. À son tour, Antonin adopte Marc Aurèle et Lucius Aurelius Verus, le fils d'Aelius. Hadrien meurt cette année-là et Antonin devient empereur. Alors héritier du trône, Marc Aurèle étudie les lettres grecques et latines sous la direction de tuteurs tels qu'Hérode Atticus et Fronton. Il entretient par la suite une correspondance étroite avec Fronton pendant de nombreuses années. Marc Aurèle épouse la fille d'Antonin, Faustine la Jeune, en 145. Après la mort d'Antonin en 161, Marc Aurèle accède au trône aux côtés de son frère adoptif Lucius. Le règne de Marc Aurèle est marqué par des conflits militaires. En Orient, l'Empire romain combat avec succès un Empire parthe revitalisé et le royaume rebelle d'Arménie. Marc Aurèle défait les Marcomans, Quades et Sarmates Iazyges dans les guerres marcomanes. Cependant, ces peuples et d'autres peuples germaniques continuent à représenter une menace pour l'Empire, et les conflits armés reprennent très vite malgré une trêve signée. En outre, une grave pandémie connue comme la « peste antonine » éclate vers 166 et dévaste la population de l'Empire pendant plusieurs décennies. Le co-empereur Lucius Verus meurt en 169. Contrairement à certains de ses prédécesseurs, Marc Aurèle choisit de ne pas adopter d'héritier. Parmi ses enfants, Lucilla, qui épouse Lucius, et Commode, dont la succession à Marc Aurèle fait l'objet de débats entre les historiens contemporains et modernes. La colonne et la statue équestre de Marc Aurèle se trouvent toujours à Rome, où elles ont été érigées pour célébrer ses victoires militaires. Dernier grand monument du stoïcisme, les Pensées pour moi-même sont une source importante pour la compréhension moderne des philosophes antiques. Sommaire 1 Sources 2 Origines et noms 3 Biographie 3.1 Jeunesse et premières fonctions politiques (121-161) 3.1.1 Enfance et jeunesse 3.1.2 La succession d'Hadrien 3.1.3 Héritier d'Antonin le Pieux 3.1.4 Formation oratoire et philosophique 3.1.5 Naissances et décès dans la famille 3.1.6 Les dernières années d'Antonin 3.2 Règne (161-180) 3.2.1 Accession au pouvoir impérial 3.2.2 Co-empereur avec Lucius (161-169) 3.2.2.1 Guerre romano-parthique 3.2.2.2 Commerce avec l'Est 3.2.2.3 Guerres marcomanes 3.2.2.4 « Peste antonine » 3.2.3 Unique empereur (169-176) 3.2.3.1 Multiples fronts militaires 3.2.3.2 Révolte de Cassius 3.2.3.3 Voyage en Orient 3.2.4 Co-empereur avec Commode (176-180) 3.2.4.1 Accession au pouvoir de Commode 3.2.4.2 Dernière offensive en Marcomanie et en Sarmatie 3.3 Mort 3.4 Succession 4 Pratique du pouvoir 5 Pensées pour moi-même 5.1 L'œuvre 5.2 La philosophie de Marc Aurèle 5.2.1 L'indifférence 5.2.2 L'âme rationnelle et la destinée humaine 5.2.3 Rapport à la gloire 5.2.4 L'écriture comme refuge 6 Postérité et représentations 6.1 Représentations artistiques antiques 6.2 Réputation de Marc Aurèle 6.2.1 Marc Aurèle le philosophe 6.2.2 Perception par le christianisme 6.2.3 Interprétations modernes 6.3 Représentations artistiques modernes 6.4 Hommages 7 Notes et références 7.1 Notes 7.2 Références 7.3 Traductions 8 Bibliographie 8.1 Textes anciens 8.2 Textes modernes 8.2.1 En allemand 8.2.2 En anglais 8.2.3 En français 8.2.4 En italien 9 Voir aussi 9.1 Articles connexes 9.2 Liens externes Sources[modifier | modifier le code] Les principales sources décrivant la vie et le règne de Marc Aurèle sont fragmentaires et souvent peu fiables. Le groupe de sources le plus important est un ensemble de biographies contenues dans l’Histoire Auguste, prétendument écrites par un groupe d'auteurs au début du IVe siècle après J.-C., mais qui sont plus vraisemblablement l’œuvre d'un seul auteur, à partir de 395 environ[1]. L’Histoire Auguste doit cependant être utilisée avec prudence : bien qu'utilisant des sources antérieures aujourd'hui perdues (entre autres Marius Maximus), l'ouvrage est entrecoupé de racontars et d'inventions, et chaque affirmation doit ainsi être recoupée par une autre source[2]. Pour la vie et le règne de Marc Aurèle, les biographies d'Hadrien, d'Antonin le Pieux, de Marc Aurèle et de Lucius Aurelius Verus sont largement fiables, mais celles de Lucius Aelius et d'Avidius Cassius ne le sont pas[3]. Des correspondances entre le précepteur de Marc Aurèle, Fronton, et divers fonctionnaires Antonins ont été conservées dans une série de manuscrits disparates, couvrant la période allant de 138 à 166 environ[4],[5]. Pensées pour moi-même de Marc Aurèle offre une fenêtre sur sa vie intérieure, mais est difficile à dater et fait peu de références spécifiques aux affaires du monde[6]. La principale source narrative de cette période est Dion Cassius, un sénateur romain originaire de Nicée en Bithynie qui a écrit l'histoire de Rome depuis sa fondation jusqu'en 229 en quatre-vingts livres. Dion est essentiel pour l'histoire militaire de la période, mais ses préjugés sénatoriaux et sa forte opposition à l'expansion impériale obscurcissent sa perspective[7]. On trouve également des éléments chez l'historien Hérodien — qui, contemporain de Dion Cassius, s'en inspire et se pose en témoin oculaire[8] — chez Aurelius Victor, Eutrope, ainsi que dans l’Épitomé de Caesaribus[9]. D'autres sources littéraires fournissent des détails spécifiques : les écrits du médecin Claude Galien sur les habitudes de l'élite antonine, les oraisons d'Aelius Aristide sur l'état de la rhétorique de l'époque, et les textes de lois conservés dans le Digeste et le Code de Justinien sur l'œuvre juridique de Marc Aurèle[10]. Des inscriptions, des pièces de monnaie et des papyrus complètent les sources littéraires[10],[11]. La numismatique offre un cadre chronologique et révèle parfois des politiques impériales et l'attitude de l'empereur en place[12]. Il est en effet possible de replacer historiquement plusieurs salutations impériales, victoires et autres événements grâce aux inscriptions sur des pièces de monnaie et des médaillons[13],[14]. L’épigraphie permet quant à elle de découvrir certains personnages inconnus ayant une importance significative dans l'histoire et de dater certains événements. L'ensemble des découvertes archéologiques liées à l'Empire romain peut amener des changements significatifs de perspective. Enfin, la colonne de Marc-Aurèle ne permet pas de connaître de détails exacts des guerres sous son règne, mais elle permet de les situer chronologiquement grâce aux représentations graphiques de l'Auguste et de son armée[12]. Origines et noms[modifier | modifier le code] Portraits des parents de Marc Aurèle, Marcus Annius Verus et Domitia Lucilla Minor, imaginés par Guillaume Rouillé dans Promptuarium iconum insigniorum en 1553. La famille du père de Marc Aurèle, Marcus Annius Verus III, est apparentée à la gens Annia qui n'a pas laissé jusqu'alors de trace importante dans les annales de l'histoire romaine mais s'est répandue en Italie et dans les provinces[15]. Les Annii Veri apparaissent à l'histoire au milieu du Ier siècle en Espagne romaine, dans la province de Bétique à Ucubi (Colonia Claritas Iulia Ucubi, aujourd'hui Espejo), une petite ville située au sud-est de Cordoue[15]. Les Annii Veri s'imposent à Rome à la fin du Ier siècle apr. J.-C. avec l'arrière-grand-père de Marc Aurèle, Marcus Annius Verus I, qui est sénateur et, selon l’Histoire Auguste, ancien préteur ; son grand-père Marcus Annius Verus II est fait patricien en 73 ou 74[15]. Par sa grand-mère paternelle Rupilia Faustina (en), Marc Aurèle est peut-être apparenté à la dynastie des Antonins : il a été conjecturé que la mère de cette dernière — dont le nom est inconnu — puisse être Salonia Matidia[16], nièce sororale de l'empereur Trajan[17] et mère par un troisième mariage de Vibia Sabina, la femme d'Hadrien[note 1]. La mère de Marc Aurèle, Domitia Lucilla Minor (également connue sous le nom de Domitia Calvilla), est issue de l'union du patricien romain Publius Calvisius Ruso Tullus avec la riche Domitia Lucilla Maior et hérite d'une fortune colossale[16] de ses parents et grands-parents[note 2]. Elle est ainsi propriétaire de grandes briqueteries dans la banlieue de Rome — une entreprise rentable à une époque où la ville est en pleine expansion[23] — ainsi que des Horti Domitia Calvillae (ou Lucillae), une villa domaniale sur la colline du Cælius à Rome[24]. L'enfant reçoit le praenomen « Marcus » — le seul qu'il porte toute sa vie durant[25] — après la traditionnelle cérémonie de purification quelques jours après sa naissance, et reçoit les mêmes noms que son grand-père paternel et que son père, « Annius Verus », qu'il porte pendant ses dix-sept premières années[26]. Pendant quelques années, il semble qu'on ait accolé en outre à son nom d'origine, le nom de « Catilius Severus », tiré du nom du beau-père de Lucilla Maior[27]. Lorsque Marcus entre dans l'entourage de l'empereur Hadrien, ce dernier, vraisemblablement à la fois pour souligner les qualités du garçon et appuyer les liens avec son grand-père, transpose son cognomen au superlatif pour le surnommer plaisamment Verissimus (« le très véridique »)[28], un surnom qui restera accolé au jeune homme ainsi qu'en attestent notamment certains monnayages[29]. Biographie[modifier | modifier le code] Jeunesse et premières fonctions politiques (121-161)[modifier | modifier le code] Enfance et jeunesse[modifier | modifier le code] Marc Aurèle jeune (Musées du Capitole, Rome) Marc Aurèle naît à Rome de Domitia Lucilla Minor et Marcus Annius Verus III le 26 avril 121, ou, selon le calendrier romain, le sixième jour avant les calendes de mai, l'année du deuxième consulat de son grand-père Marcus Annius Verus, qui correspond à l'année 874 de la fondation de Rome[30]. Les premières années de la vie de Marc Aurèle sont largement entourées d'incertitude[31]. Marc Aurèle naît dans la villa Horti Domitia Calvillae appartenant à sa mère et située sur le Cælius[31] qu'il appelle affectueusement « mon Cælius »[18]. C'est alors un faubourg prisé de l'élite, avec peu de bâtiments publics mais où se concentrent demeures et jardins de l'aristocratie[31]. Sa sœur cadette, Annia Cornificia Faustina, naît probablement en 122 ou 123[18]. Son père meurt jeune, vraisemblablement en 124 ou 125, alors qu'il est préteur[32]. Bien qu'il l'ait à peine connu, Marc Aurèle écrit dans ses Pensées pour moi-même qu'il apprend « la modestie et la virilité » du souvenir de son père et de sa réputation posthume[33]. Lucilla ne s'est jamais remariée[18]. La mère de Marc Aurèle, conformément à la coutume de la nobilitas, passe peu de temps avec son fils, le confiant aux soins de nourrices[34]. Néanmoins, Marc Aurèle attribue à sa mère « la piété et la générosité ; l’habitude de s’abstenir non pas seulement de faire le mal, mais même d’en concevoir jamais la pensée ; et aussi, la simplicité de vie, si loin du faste ordinaire des gens opulents[35] ». Dans ses lettres, Marc Aurèle fait de fréquentes et affectueuses références à sa mère morte vers 156[36], lui exprimant sa gratitude : « ma mère, qui devait mourir à la fleur de son âge, a pu cependant passer avec moi ses dernières années[37] »,[38]. Après la mort de son père, Marc Aurèle est adopté par son grand-père paternel Marcus Annius Verus[27] dont le palais est adjacent au Latran et où le jeune Marc Aurèle passe une bonne partie de son enfance[25]. Marc Aurèle est reconnaissant à son grand-père paternel de lui avoir appris « la bonté et la douceur[39] » ; quelques années plus tard, il rend grâce de n'avoir pas dû vivre dans la même maison que la concubine de ce dernier, au charme de laquelle le jeune homme — décrit comme un enfant grave depuis sa plus tendre enfance — ne semble pas avoir été insensible[38]. Une autre personne semble avoir joué un rôle important dans son éducation, un personnage décrit comme son « arrière-grand-père maternel » mais plus vraisemblablement le beau-père ou le père adoptif de Lucilla Maior, grand mère maternelle d'Hadrien : Lucius Catilius Severus, un homo novus originaire de Bythinie qui mène une brillante carrière jusqu'à le rendre proche de l'empereur Hadrien[27]. Ce dernier fait enrôler Marc Aurèle à l'âge inhabituellement bas de six ans parmi les equites, puis, un an plus tard, au sein du collège des Saliens, une confrérie de prêtres romains consacrés à Mars[40]. Dans ses écrits, Marc Aurèle sait gré à Catilius d'avoir grâce à lui bénéficié « de bons professeurs à la maison »[40] : il reçoit en effet son enseignement à domicile, conformément aux tendances aristocratiques de l'époque[41]. Ses premiers professeurs sont un affranchi grec prénommé Euphorio et un comédien nommé Geminus[40]. Son professeur de peinture, Diognète[note 3], s'avère particulièrement influent, l'initiant à la pratique philosophique et lui apprenant l'usage de la raison[42]. En avril 132, sur sa recommandation, Marc Aurèle commence à pratiquer les habitudes des philosophes et à utiliser leurs vêtements, comme la tunique rêche grecque[43]. D'autres tutores, Trosius Aper, Tuticius Proculus, le géomètre et musicien Andro et le grammairien Alexandre de Cotyaion, décrit comme le principal érudit homérique de son temps, contribuent à sa formation entre 132 et 133. Marc Aurèle doit à Alexandre son apprentissage du style littéraire, visible dans de nombreux passages des Pensées pour moi-même[44]. La succession d'Hadrien[modifier | modifier le code] Article connexe : Hadrien. Buste d'Hadrien, empereur romain de 117 à 138, conservé aux musées du Capitole à Rome. Fin 136, Hadrien, en convalescence dans sa villa de Tivoli après avoir risqué de mourir d'une hémorragie, choisit Lucius Aelius comme successeur, l'adoptant contre la volonté de ses proches[45]. Bien que ses motifs ne soient pas certains, il semble que le but d'Hadrien soit l'accession de Marc Aurèle au trône sur le long terme. En effet, la santé de Lucius Aelius est mauvaise, au point que, lors d'une cérémonie marquant son accession à la succession d'Hadrien, il est trop faible pour lever seul un grand bouclier[46],[47]. Après un bref séjour sur la frontière du Danube, Lucius Aelius retourne à Rome pour s'adresser au Sénat le premier jour de l'année 138. La nuit précédant le discours, il tombe malade et meurt d'une hémorragie plus tard dans la journée[48],[49]. Statue représentant l'adoption de Marc Aurèle (à gauche) et Lucius Aurelius Verus par Antonin le Pieux, conservée au musée Ephesos à Vienne. Hadrien désigne un nouveau successeur le 24 janvier 138. Son choix tombe sur Antonin le Pieux, le gendre de Marcus Annius Verus, qui est accepté par le Sénat le lendemain, après un examen soigneux de sa situation, et est adopté par Hadrien sous le nom de Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus[50]. À son tour, conformément aux demandes d'Hadrien, Antonin adopte Marc Aurèle, alors âgé de dix-sept ans, et le jeune Lucius Aurelius Verus, fils du défunt Lucius Aelius[51]. À partir de ce moment, Marc Aurèle change de nom pour devenir « Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus » et Lucius prend le nom « Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus ». Marc Aurèle aurait accueilli la nouvelle avec tristesse, car il doit quitter à contrecœur la maison de sa mère sur le Cælius pour la maison privée d'Hadrien[50],[52]. La nuit suivant l'annonce de son adoption, Marc Aurèle rêve qu'il a des épaules en ivoire qui lui permettent de porter de plus lourds fardeaux[50]. Ce rêve est vu comme un bon présage, et il fait directement référence au mythe grec de Pélops[53]. Peu de temps après, Hadrien demande au Sénat d'exempter Marc Aurèle de la loi qui exige que le candidat à la fonction de questeur ait 25 ans. Le Sénat donne son accord et il devient d'abord questeur en 139, puis reçoit l'« imperium proconsulare maius » en 139 ou 140 et le consulat en 140, alors qu'il n'a que dix-huit ans[54],[55]. Cette adoption facilite son ascension sociale : il peut alors devenir d'abord responsable des questions monétaires impériales et plus tard tribun militaire dans une légion. Marc Aurèle aurait probablement préféré voyager et approfondir ses études[55]. D’après sa biographie dans l’Histoire Auguste, son caractère est resté inchangé : « il eut pour tous ses parents le même respect qu’il leur témoignait auparavant. Aussi économe, aussi laborieux dans le palais que dans sa maison, il ne voulut agir, parler, penser même, que d’après les principes de son père[56] »[57]. La santé d'Hadrien s'aggrave au point qu'il fait une tentative de suicide, arrêtée par son successeur Antonin[58]. L'empereur, gravement malade, quitte Rome pour sa résidence d'été, une villa à Baïes, une station balnéaire de la côte de Campanie. Sa condition ne s'y améliore pas, et il arrête de suivre le régime préconisé par ses médecins. Il convoque alors Antonin, qui est à ses côtés lorsqu'il meurt d'un œdème pulmonaire le 10 juillet 138[59]. Le sénat refuse d'abord la déification d'Hadrien, jugeant son règne aussi négatif que celui de Tibère ou Néron. Antonin, soucieux d'être considéré comme illégitime en cas de remise en question des décisions de son prédécesseur, parvient finalement à convaincre les sénateurs, notamment en commuant les peines de mort des hommes jugés dans les derniers jours d'Hadrien[60]. La succession se fait ainsi de manière pacifique et la stabilité règne : Antonin maintient les personnes nommées en fonction par Hadrien et apaise le Sénat en respectant ses privilèges[61]. Pour son comportement respectueux vis-à-vis de son père adoptif, Antonin reçoit le surnom de « Pieux »[61],[62]. Héritier d'Antonin le Pieux[modifier | modifier le code] Article connexe : Antonin le Pieux. Denier d'Antonin le Pieux, premier portrait numismatique de Marc Aurèle. Buste d'Antonin le Pieux, empereur romain de 138 à 161, conservé à la glyptothèque de Munich. Immédiatement après la mort d'Hadrien, Antonin s'adresse à Marc Aurèle pour lui demander de modifier les modalités de son mariage. Marc Aurèle accepte, et ses fiançailles avec Ceionia Fabia sont annulées. Il se fiance à Faustine la Jeune, la fille d'Antonin, ce qui annule les fiançailles entre cette dernière et le frère de Ceionia, Lucius Commodus[63]. Marc Aurèle est nommé sevir, l'un des six commandants des chevaliers, lors de la parade annuelle de l'ordre le 15 juillet 139. En tant qu'héritier présomptif, Marc Aurèle devient princeps iuventutis, chef de l'ordre équestre. Il prend alors le nom de « Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar », nom dont Marc Aurèle se méfie : « Veille à ne pas tomber au nombre des Césars, à ne pas t’empreindre de leur couleur, comme cela s’est vu[64] »,[65]. À la demande du sénat, Marc Aurèle rejoint tous les collèges sacerdotaux (pontifes, augures, quindecemviri sacris faciundis, épulons, etc.[66]) ; cependant, les preuves directes de l'appartenance ne sont disponibles que pour les Frères Arvales[67]. Antonin exige que Marc Aurèle réside dans la maison de Tibère, le palais impérial du Palatin, et adopte l'apparence de son nouveau rang, l’aulicum fastigium ou « apparat de la cour », contre les objections de Marc Aurèle, qui peine à concilier la vie de la cour avec ses aspirations philosophiques[66]. Il se dit que c'est un objectif réalisable mais somme toute difficile : « En quelque endroit qu’on vive, on y peut toujours vivre bien ; si c’est à la cour que l’on vit, on peut vivre bien et se bien conduire même dans une cour[68] ». Il se critique d'ailleurs lui-même dans Pensées pour moi-même pour s'être plaint « contre la vie publique qu’on mène à la cour »[66]. En tant que questeur, Marc Aurèle semble jouer un rôle administratif encore secondaire. Il est chargé de lire les lettres impériales au Sénat en l'absence d'Antonin, et plus généralement d'être une sorte de secrétaire particulier des sénateurs[69]. Ses fonctions de consul sont, au contraire, plus importantes, puisqu'il préside les réunions au sommet de l'administration de l'État. Il se sent alors absorbé par le travail de bureau et s'en plaint à son tuteur, Marcus Cornelius Fronto : « Je suis tellement essoufflé d'avoir dicté près de trente lettres »[70]. Selon son biographe, c'était une façon de l'entraîner à gouverner l'État[71]. Il a également l'occasion d'exercer ses capacités oratoires en faisant des discours devant les sénateurs de l'assemblée, une formation essentielle pour un empereur[72]. En 140, Marc Aurèle est nommé consul aux côtés d'Antonin et prend part de manière plus active à l'administration de l'Empire auprès de ce dernier dont l'influence sur le son fils adoptif est considérable, ce que celui-ci salue dans un long passage de ses Pensées[71] : il en dresse un portait éloquent, louant entre autres qualités sa mansuétude, son affabilité, sa maîtrise de lui-même ainsi que sa capacité à veiller sans cesse aux nécessités de l'Empire[73]. Au Sénat, Marc Aurèle occupe dès lors un rôle de premier plan dans les fonctions administratives — présidant certaines réunions et menant des cérémonies tant officielles que religieuses — et assiste par ailleurs aux réunions du conseil impérial afin d'y observer la manière dont les affaires de l'empire sont menées[71]. Le 1er janvier 145, Marc Aurèle est nommé consul une deuxième fois. Dans une lettre, Fronton lui demande de dormir suffisamment « pour que vous puissiez entrer au Sénat avec de belles couleurs et lire votre discours d'une voix forte »[72]. Marc Aurèle s'est en effet plaint d'une maladie dans une lettre précédente : « En ce qui concerne ma force, je commence à la retrouver, et il n'y a aucune trace de la douleur dans ma poitrine. Mais cet ulcère [...] [note 4], je suis traité et je fais attention à ne rien faire qui puisse le gêner »[72]. Marc Aurèle, qui n'a jamais été particulièrement sain ni fort, est loué pour son dévouement au devoir malgré ses diverses maladies par Dion Cassius lorsqu'il écrit sur ses dernières années[72]. Sesterce d'Antonin le Pieux, datés entre 140 et 144, célébrant l'union de Marc Aurèle avec Faustine la Jeune. Au-dessus des jeunes mariés se trouvent Antonin et Faustine l'Ancienne portant une statue de Concorde. En avril 145, Marc Aurèle épouse Faustine, âgée de 14 ans, comme prévu depuis 138[74]. Selon le droit romain, pour que le mariage ait lieu, Antonin doit libérer officiellement l'un des deux enfants de son autorité paternelle ; sinon Marc Aurèle, en tant que fils adoptif d'Antonin, aurait épousé sa sœur. On ne sait pas grand-chose de la cérémonie, mais l’Histoire Auguste la qualifie de « remarquable »[74]. Des pièces de monnaie sont émises avec les têtes du couple, et Antonin, en tant que Pontifex maximus, aurait officié. Dans ses lettres, Marc Aurèle ne fait aucune référence claire à son mariage, qui dure 31 ans, et se contente de mentionner quelquefois Faustine[74]. Formation oratoire et philosophique[modifier | modifier le code] Après avoir pris la toga virilis en 136, Marc Aurèle commence probablement sa formation à l'art oratoire[75]. Il a trois tuteurs en grec, Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer et Hérode Atticus, et un en latin, Fronton. Ces deux derniers sont les orateurs les plus estimés de leur temps, et deviennent probablement ses tuteurs après son adoption par Antonin en 138[76]. La prépondérance des tuteurs grecs indique l'importance de la langue grecque pour l'aristocratie de Rome[76]. C'est l'époque de la seconde Sophistique, une renaissance des lettres grecques. Bien qu'éduqué à Rome, dans les Pensées pour moi-même, Marc Aurèle écrit ses pensées les plus intimes en grec[77]. Buste d'Hérode Atticus, conservé au musée national archéologique d'Athènes. Hérode Atticus est un personnage controversé : Athénien extrêmement riche, peut-être l'homme le plus riche d'Orient, il est prompt à la colère, et ses compatriotes athéniens lui en veulent pour sa condescendance[78]. Atticus est un adversaire invétéré du stoïcisme et des prétentions philosophiques[79]. Il trouve insensé le désir des stoïciens d'avoir un « manque de sentiment » ; selon lui, ils vivraient « une vie lente et amère »[80]. Malgré l'influence d'Atticus, Marc Aurèle devient plus tard un stoïcien. Il ne mentionne pas Atticus dans ses Pensées, bien qu'ils restent en contact au cours des décennies suivant son apprentissage[80]. Fronton jouit quant à lui d'une très bonne réputation. Au sein des amateurs anciens de la littérature latine, on le considère comme le deuxième après Cicéron, peut-être même comme une alternative à celui-ci[81],[note 5] et il est l'orateur romain le plus réputé de son époque[84]. Il ne se soucie guère d'Atticus, bien que Marc Aurèle finisse par mettre les deux hommes sur un pied d'égalité. Fronton possède une maîtrise complète du latin ; il est capable de retracer des expressions à travers la littérature, de produire des synonymes obscurs et de remettre en question des irrégularités mineures dans le choix des mots des autres[81]. Une grande partie de la correspondance entre Fronton et Marc Aurèle a survécu. S'il n'existe pas de traduction française de ces 88 lettres, elles permettent de retracer le quotidien de Marc Aurèle en tant que César puis comme empereur ; leur style littéraire est celui de la correspondance et le propos des deux hommes est souvent d'apparence futile[85]. Marc Aurèle et Fronton sont très proches et utilisent un langage intime dans leurs lettres : « Au revoir mon souffle. […] Ici même, à la même période, l'an dernier, je me consumais de manque pour ma mère. Cette année c'est toi qui allumes ce manque en moi »[86]. Marc Aurèle passe également du temps avec la femme et la fille de Fronton, toutes deux nommées Cratia, avec qui il a des conversations légères[87]. Le jour de son anniversaire, il écrit une lettre à Fronton dans laquelle il affirme l'aimer comme il s'aime lui-même et demande aux dieux de faire en sorte que chaque mot qu'il apprenne de la littérature, il l'apprenne « des lèvres de Fronton ». Ses prières pour la santé de Fronton sont plus que conventionnelles, Fronton étant souvent malade ; il semble être toujours souffrant — environ un quart des lettres qui nous sont parvenues traitent de ses maladies[88]. Marc Aurèle demande que la douleur de Fronton soit infligée à lui-même, « de mon propre gré, avec toutes sortes de maux »[88]. Fronton ne devient jamais l'enseignant à plein temps de Marc Aurèle et poursuit sa carrière d'avocat. Une affaire notoire le met en conflit avec Atticus[89]. Marc Aurèle demande à Fronton de ne pas attaquer Atticus, d'abord par « conseil », puis comme « faveur », ayant déjà demandé à Atticus de s'abstenir de porter les premiers coups. Fronton est surpris de découvrir que Marc Aurèle considère Atticus comme un ami[note 6] et admet que Marc Aurèle peut avoir raison, mais affirme néanmoins son intention de gagner l'affaire par tous les moyens nécessaires : « [L]es accusations sont effrayantes et doivent être qualifiées d'effrayantes. Celles qui se réfèrent en particulier aux coups et aux vols que je décrirai de manière à ce qu'ils sentent le fiel et la bile. Si je l'appelle un petit Grec sans éducation, cela ne signifie pas une guerre à mort »[90]. L'issue du procès n'est pas connue[91]. Dessin de Quintus Junius Rusticus tiré de l'édition 1825 du Crabbes Historical Dictionary. À l'âge de vingt-cinq ans (entre avril 146 et avril 147), Marc Aurèle se désintéresse de ses études de jurisprudence et montre les signes d'un malaise général. Il décrit son maître à Fronton comme étant un vantard désagréable qui l'a pris à partie : « Il est facile de bailler à côté d'un juge, mais être juge est un noble travail »[92]. Marc Aurèle se lasse de ses exercices, de prendre position dans des débats qu'il juge imaginaires. Lorsqu'il critique le manque de sincérité du langage conventionnel, Fronton se met à défendre celui-ci[93]. En tout cas, l'éducation formelle de Marc Aurèle est désormais terminée. Il garde de bonnes relations avec ses professeurs. Le fait d'avoir consacré tant d'efforts à ses études « a des effets néfastes sur sa santé », selon le biographe de l’Histoire Auguste[94]. C'est la seule chose que celui-ci reproche à Marc Aurèle durant sa jeunesse[93]. Fronton met très tôt en garde Marc Aurèle contre l'étude de la philosophie : « Il est préférable de ne jamais avoir touché à l'enseignement de la philosophie... que de l'avoir goûté superficiellement, avec le bord des lèvres, comme le dit le dicton ». Il dédaigne la philosophie et les philosophes, et regarde de haut les sessions de Marc Aurèle avec Apollonios de Chalcédoine et d'autres philosophes de son cercle[95]. Fronton émet une interprétation peu charitable de la « conversion à la philosophie » de Marc Aurèle : « À la manière des jeunes, fatigués du travail ennuyeux », Marc Aurèle se tourne vers la philosophie pour échapper aux exercices répétés de l'entraînement oratoire[96]. Marc Aurèle reste en contact étroit avec Fronton, mais ignore ses scrupules[97]. Apollonios introduit probablement Marc Aurèle à la philosophie stoïque, mais Quintus Junius Rusticus aurait l'influence la plus forte sur le garçon[96],[note 7]. Il est l'homme que Fronton considère comme ayant « attiré Marc Aurèle » loin de l'art oratoire[96]. Il est plus vieux que Fronton et de vingt ans plus âgé que Marc Aurèle. Petit-fils d'Arulenus Rusticus, l'un des martyrs de la tyrannie de Domitien, il est l'héritier de la tradition du Ier siècle de « l'opposition stoïque » aux « mauvais empereurs » ; le vrai successeur de Sénèque (par opposition à Fronton, le faux)[99]. Dans ses Pensées, Marc Aurèle remercie Rusticus de lui avoir appris à « se détourner de la rhétorique, de la composition poétique, du bel esprit ; […] à écrire des lettres simples[100] »,[101]. Naissances et décès dans la famille[modifier | modifier le code] « La génération des hommes est semblable à celle des feuilles. Le vent répand les feuilles sur la terre, et la forêt germe et en produit de nouvelles, et le temps du printemps arrive. C’est ainsi que la génération des hommes naît et s’éteint »[102]. Iliade vi.146, cité en partie par Marc Aurèle dans Pensées pour moi-même. Il considère ce passage comme « le dicton le plus bref et le plus familier... assez pour dissiper la tristesse et la peur »[103]. Le 30 novembre 147, Faustine donne naissance à une fille, nommée Domitia Faustine. Elle est la première d'au moins treize enfants (dont deux paires de jumeaux) que Faustine porte au cours des vingt-trois années suivantes[104]. Le 1er décembre, Antonin donne à Marc Aurèle la puissance tribunitienne et l’imperium - l'autorité sur les armées et les provinces de l'empereur. La puissance tribunitienne donne à Marc Aurèle le droit de proposer une mesure avec préemption sur le Sénat et sur Antonin lui-même, et est renouvelée avec celle d'Antonin le 10 décembre 147[104]. La première mention de Domitia dans les lettres de Marc Aurèle révèle sa mauvaise santé : « César à Fronton. Si les dieux le veulent, il semble que nous ayons un espoir de guérison. La diarrhée a cessé, les petits accès de fièvre ont été chassés. Mais l'émaciation est encore extrême et il y a encore pas mal de toux ». Marc Aurèle et Faustine sont très occupés par les soins de la jeune fille, mais Domitia finit par mourir en 151[105]. Le mausolée d'Hadrien, où sont enterrés les enfants de Marc Aurèle et Faustine. Le mausolée fait partie du château Saint-Ange. En 149, Faustine donne naissance à des jumeaux. Des pièces de monnaie contemporaines commémorent l'événement, avec des cornes d'abondance croisées sous les bustes des deux petits garçons et la légende temporum felicitas, « béatitude des temps »[106]. Cependant, les deux jeunes ne survivent pas longtemps ; Titus Aurelius Antoninus et Tiberius Aelius Aurelius, noms connus grâce à leur épitaphe, sont morts très tôt (fin 149) et sont enterrés dans le mausolée d'Hadrien[107]. Avant la fin de l'année, une autre pièce de monnaie est émise : elle montre seulement une petite fille, Domitia Faustine, et un bébé garçon ; la pièce est finalement remplacée par une autre, qui montre la fille seule. Marc Aurèle écrit dans Pensées : « Un homme prie : « Comment ne pas perdre mon jeune enfant », mais vous devez prier : « Comment ne pas avoir peur de le perdre »[108] »,[107]. Une autre fille naît le 7 mars 150 et est nommée Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. Entre 155 et 161, probablement peu après 155, la mère de Marc Aurèle Domitia Lucilla meurt[109]. Faustine a probablement eu une autre fille, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, entre 151 et 153[109]. Un nouveau fils, Tibère Aelius Antoninus, est né en 152. Une émission de pièces célèbre la fecunditati Augustae, « la fécondité de l'Augusta », et présente deux filles et un enfant. Le garçon n'a pas survécu longtemps, comme en témoignent les pièces de 156, qui ne représentent que les deux filles. Il serait mort en 152, la même année que la sœur de Marc Aurèle, Cornificia[110]. Le 28 mars 158, un autre de ses enfants au nom inconnu meurt[111]. En 159 et 160, Faustine donne naissance à des filles : Fadilla et Cornificia, nommées respectivement en hommage aux sœurs décédées de Faustine et de Marc Aurèle[111]. D'autres enfants naissent plus tard : Commode et son jumeau Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, mort jeune, en 161, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar en 162, un garçon du nom d'Hadrien qui ne survit pas et enfin, dernière enfant connue du couple, une fille du nom de Vibia Aurelia Sabina, née en 170 ou 171[112]. Les dernières années d'Antonin[modifier | modifier le code] Articles connexes : Lucius Aurelius Verus et Antonin le Pieux. Lucius commence sa carrière politique en tant que questeur en 153 et devient consul pour l'année suivante, à vingt-quatre ans[113]. Il n'a pas de titres honorifiques, à l'exception de celui de « fils d'Auguste ». Il a une personnalité bien différente de celle de Marc Aurèle : il aime les sports de toutes sortes, mais surtout la chasse et la lutte ; il prend un plaisir évident aux jeux du cirque et aux combats de gladiateurs[note 8], à la différence de Marc Aurèle qui au cirque s'adonne à la lecture afin de marquer ostensiblement son ennui[110]. Lucius ne se marie qu'en 164. Antonin n'approuve pas complètement le comportement de ce dernier qu'il veut néanmoins conserver dans sa famille, sans pour autant lui confier de pouvoir[110]. Comme l'indiquent les statues de cette période, Marc Aurèle commence à porter une barbe (en plus des cheveux bouclés typiques de l'époque des Antonins), poursuivant la mode commencée par Hadrien[note 9] et suivie par Antonin, qui remplace l'apparence traditionnelle de l'homme romain, complètement glabre[115],[116]. En 156, Antonin a 70 ans. Il jouit toujours d'un état de santé satisfaisant, même si il a du mal à se tenir droit sans un corset et doit commencer à grignoter du pain sec pour lui donner la force de rester éveillé pendant ses réceptions du matin. À mesure qu'Antonin vieillit, Marc Aurèle assume des tâches administratives plus importantes, en particulier lorsqu'il devient préfet du prétoire à la mort de Marcus Gavius Maximus en 156 ou 157[117]. En 160, Marc Aurèle et Lucius sont désignés consuls conjoints pour l'année suivante, peut-être parce qu'Antonin sent la fin de sa vie approcher[111]. Selon les récits de l’Histoire Auguste, deux jours avant sa mort, l'empereur, qui se trouve dans sa propriété de Lorium, a une indigestion, vomit et est pris de fièvre. Le lendemain, le 7 mars 161, il convoque le conseil impérial et passe tous ses pouvoirs à Marc Aurèle, ordonnant que la statue d'or de Fortuna, qui se trouve dans la chambre des empereurs, soit apportée à celui-ci. Il donne ensuite le mot de passe au tribun de garde pour la nuit, « aequanimitas », puis se retourne, comme pour s'endormir, et meurt à l'âge de 75 ans[111]. Sa mort met fin au règne le plus long depuis Auguste, surpassant de quelques mois celui de Tibère[118]. Règne (161-180)[modifier | modifier le code] Accession au pouvoir impérial[modifier | modifier le code] Après la mort d'Antonin le Pieux, Marc Aurèle est le seul héritier de l'Empire. Le Sénat lui accorde le titre d'Auguste et d'Imperator, en plus de celui de Pontifex maximus, prêtre à la tête des cultes officiels de la religion romaine. Il semble que Marc Aurèle soit réticent à l'idée d'assumer le pouvoir impérial, au moins au début, puisque l'Histoire Auguste le décrit comme « contraint » par le Sénat à prendre en charge la Res publica[119],[120],[note 10],[122]. Marc Aurèle, avec sa préférence pour la vie philosophique, trouve la fonction impériale peu attrayante. Sa formation de stoïcien le pousse cependant à comprendre que c'est son devoir, et il finit par accepter ces responsabilités[120],[122]. Buste de Lucius Aurelius Verus, frère adoptif de Marc Aurèle, conservé au Metropolitan Museum of Art. Bien qu'il ne montre pas d'affection personnelle pour Hadrien dans ses Pensées pour moi-même, Marc Aurèle le respecte beaucoup et ressent probablement le devoir de mettre en œuvre ses plans de succession. C'est peut-être conscient de sa santé précaire et pour alléger le fardeau de la tâche qui l'attend que ce dernier choisit d'associer son frère adoptif au pouvoir[123]. Ainsi, même si le sénat ne veut confirmer que lui, il refuse de prendre ses fonctions sans que Lucius ne reçoive les mêmes honneurs : le sénat est finalement contraint d'accepter et accorde à Lucius Verus les titres d'Auguste et d'Imperator. Marc Aurèle prend, comme titulature officielle, « Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus » tandis que Lucius, prenant le nom de famille de Marc Aurèle, Verus, et renonçant au nom Commodus, devient l'empereur « Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus »[note 11]. Pour la première fois, Rome est gouvernée par deux empereurs en même temps[124],[note 12]. Malgré le statut de diarchie, Marc Aurèle dispose de plus d'auctoritas que Lucius ; Marc Aurèle a été consul une fois de plus que Lucius, il a participé au règne d'Antonin et lui seul est Pontifex Maximus, le titre ne pouvant être partagé[124],[126]. Le public pouvait alors clairement savoir quel empereur avait le plus de pouvoir, et Lucius n'a jamais contesté cette prééminence[127]. Le biographe de l'Histoire Auguste a écrit : « Vérus se montra, il est vrai, reconnaissant des bienfaits de Marc-Aurèle, et lui fut soumis comme un lieutenant l’est à un proconsul, ou un gouverneur de province à l’empereur[128] »[129]. Immédiatement après la confirmation du Sénat, les empereurs procèdent à la cérémonie d'inauguration au Castra Praetoria, le camp de la garde prétorienne. Lucius s'adresse alors aux troupes déployées, qui acclament les imperatores. Puis, comme tout nouvel empereur depuis Claude, Lucius promet aux troupes une donation spéciale[130]. Celle-ci représente le double des donations reçues par le passé : 20 000 sesterces soit 5 000 deniers par soldat — dont la solde annuelle est de 300 deniers à l'époque d'Hadrien[131] —, les officiers recevant une somme plus grande[124]. En échange de cette donation, égale à plusieurs années de salaire, les troupes jurent allégeance aux deux empereurs et assurent leur protection[130],[132]. La cérémonie n'est pas entièrement nécessaire, étant donné que la passation de pouvoir est pacifique et incontestée, mais elle constitue une assurance valable contre d'éventuelles révoltes de soldats[130]. Les funérailles d'Antonin sont célébrées de façon que son esprit puisse s'élever vers les dieux, comme le veut la tradition, et son corps est placé sur un bûcher. Lucius et Marc Aurèle font diviniser leur père adoptif par un flamine chargé de la cérémonie, avec le consentement du Sénat[133]. Le temple dédié à la femme d'Antonin, Faustine l'Ancienne, devient le temple d'Antonin et Faustine[133]. Selon ses dernières volontés, la succession d'Antonin ne passe pas directement à Marc Aurèle, mais à Faustine la Jeune, alors enceinte de trois mois[note 13]. Pendant sa grossesse, elle rêve qu'elle donne naissance à deux serpents, l'un plus féroce que l'autre[135]. Le 31 août, les deux jumeaux, Titus Aurelius Fulvius Antoninus et Commode, naissent à Lanuvio. Outre le fait que les jumeaux sont nés le même jour que Caligula, il semble que les présages soient favorables et que les astrologues tirent des auspices positifs pour les deux nouveau-nés. Les naissances sont célébrées sur des pièces de monnaie impériales[135]. Co-empereur avec Lucius (161-169)[modifier | modifier le code] Bustes de Marc Aurèle (à gauche) et Lucius Aurelius Verus, conservés au British Museum. Immédiatement après l'accession au pouvoir, Marc Aurèle promet à Lucius sa fille de onze ans, Lucilla, bien qu'il soit officiellement son oncle[133]. Lors des cérémonies de commémoration de l'événement, de nouvelles dispositions sont prises pour soutenir les enfants pauvres, sur le modèle de fondations impériales antérieures[133]. Marc Aurèle et Lucius se révèlent populaires auprès des Romains, qui approuvent fortement leur comportement sans manières. Les empereurs autorisent la liberté d'expression, comme en témoigne le fait qu'un auteur de comédies nommé Marullus est capable de les critiquer sans subir de représailles. Comme l'écrit le biographe de l’Histoire Auguste : « Les deux empereurs se conduisirent avec une bonté qui fit même oublier celle d’Antonin le Pieux[136] »[135]. Dès que la nouvelle de l'accession au trône impérial de ses élèves lui parvient, Fronton quitte sa maison à Cirta et retourne à sa résidence romaine le 28 mars. Il envoie une note à l'affranchi impérial Charilas, lui demandant d'entrer en contact avec les empereurs car, dit-il plus tard, il n'ose pas leur écrire directement[137]. Le professeur se montre immensément fier de ses élèves. En repensant au discours qu'il a prononcé pour l'ascension au consulat en 143, il loue Marc Aurèle en ces termes : « Il y avait alors en toi une capacité naturelle extraordinaire, maintenant perfectionnée à l'excellence, le grain qui a poussé est maintenant une récolte mûre ». Lucius, en revanche, est moins estimé par Fronton, ses intérêts étant considérés d'un niveau inférieur[135]. L'enseignement de Fronton se poursuit dans les premières années du règne de Marc Aurèle. Fronton estime que, compte tenu du rôle de Marc Aurèle, les leçons sont plus importantes aujourd'hui que jamais. Il pense que Marc Aurèle « commence à ressentir à nouveau le désir d'être éloquent, bien qu'il en ait perdu l'intérêt pendant un certain temps ». Fronton rappelle à nouveau à son élève les problèmes de compatibilité entre son rôle et ses prétentions philosophiques : « Suppose, César, que tu puisses atteindre la sagesse de Cléanthe et de Zénon de Kition, mais, contre ta volonté, pas la cape de laine du philosophe »[138]. Les débuts du règne de Marc Aurèle sont les moments les plus heureux de la vie de Fronton : Marc Aurèle est aimé du peuple de Rome, un excellent empereur, un élève passionné, et peut-être surtout, aussi éloquent qu'on pouvait le souhaiter[139]. Marc Aurèle fait preuve d'habileté rhétorique dans un discours au Sénat après un tremblement de terre à Cyzique, et impressionne l'audience en racontant en détail la catastrophe : « soudain, l'esprit des auditeurs était plus violemment agité pendant le discours que la ville pendant le tremblement de terre ». Le discours satisfait extrêmement Fronton[138]. Néanmoins, loin de mettre œuvre un quelconque « programme philosophique » de gouvernement, le principat de Marc-Aurèle s'inscrit dans la continuité de son père adoptif, à la manière d'un aristocrate romain attaché au droit et à la tradition dans le souci de maintenir l'ordre terrestre et cosmique que dicte la Providence[140]. Afin de mener à bien sa tâche, l'empereur s'entoure d'administrateurs et de généraux compétents qui le conseillent en tant qu'« amis du prince » (amici principis) ou le suivent en campagne comme « compagnons d'Auguste » (comites Augusti)[123], remplaçant en outre un certain nombre de hauts fonctionnaires de l'empire. Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, chargé de la correspondance impériale, est ainsi remplacé par Titus Varius Clemens, militaire brillant originaire de Norique et plusieurs fois procurateur[141], considéré comme quelqu'un de capable pour une période de crise militaire[142]. Pour nourrir son intense activité législative et judiciaire, il s'appuie sur des techniciens expérimentés comme Quintus Cervidius Scævola[140] ou encore son ancien tuteur Lucius Volusius Maecianus, gouverneur préfectoral d'Égypte, qui est rappelé à Rome et nommé sénateur ainsi que préfet du Trésor (aerarium Saturni) puis consul peu après[143]. De nouvelles préoccupations marquent la fin du Felicitas temporum proclamé par les pièces de 161[137]. À l'automne 161 ou au printemps 162, le Tibre déborde et dévaste une grande partie de Rome[note 14]. De nombreux animaux se noient et la ville est en proie à la famine. « Marc Aurèle et Lucius font face personnellement à ces catastrophes » et les communautés italiennes touchées par la famine sont aidées, ce qui leur permet de s'approvisionner en céréales en provenance de la capitale[146]. En d'autres temps de famine, les empereurs aident les communautés italiennes en leur faisant parvenir de la nourriture depuis les entrepôts romains[147]. Guerre romano-parthique[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Guerre romano-parthique de 161-166. Dans la seconde moitié de 161, le changement d'empereur semble encourager Vologèse IV de Parthie à attaquer le royaume d'Arménie, allié de l'Empire romain, en nommant un roi fantoche, Pacorus, un Aršakouni comme lui[148],[149]. L'Empire des Parthes, vaincu et partiellement soumis par Trajan près de cinquante ans plus tôt (114-116), revient donc pour renouveler ses attaques sur les provinces romaines de l'est à partir des anciens territoires de l'Empire perse[143],[150]. Le gouverneur de Cappadoce, Marcus Sedatius Severianus, convaincu qu'il peut vaincre les Parthes facilement, mène une de ses légions en Arménie, mais, à Elegeia, il est vaincu et préfère se suicider, tandis que sa légion est démantelée[151]. En outre, de nouvelles menaces se profilent le long des frontières septentrionales de la Bretagne et du limes germano-rhétique, là où les Chattes du Taunus ont pénétré dans les champs Décumates. Il semble que ni Marc Aurèle ni Lucius ne soient préparés à affronter de tels problèmes car, comme le rappelle le biographe de l’Histoire Auguste, ils n'ont pu acquérir d'expérience militaire suffisante, ayant passé toute leur éducation en Italie et non dans une province, contrairement à leurs prédécesseurs, tels que Trajan ou Hadrien[152]. Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, gendre de Fronton, est nommé gouverneur de la Germanie supérieure[143] en 161 pour juguler l'invasion des Chattes tandis que Sextus Calpurnius Agricola, un autre proche de Fronton, est nommé en Bretagne pour contenir les troubles occasionnés par les Bretons[153]. Scène de guerre entre Romains et Parthes, sur le Monument aux Parthes à Éphèse, célébrant les victoires de Lucius Aurelius Verus et Marc Aurèle contre Vologèse IV. Peu après, les Romains apprennent que l'armée du gouverneur de la province de Syrie a également été vaincue par les Parthes et qu'elle bat en retraite de façon désordonnée. Il faut donc intervenir très rapidement, notamment dans le choix des officiers à envoyer sur ce secteur, considéré stratégiquement important pour l'Empire. Marc Aurèle met son frère Lucius à la tête de l'expédition (expeditio parthica) car, comme le suggère Dion Cassius, il est « robuste, plus jeune que Marc Aurèle et mieux adapté à l'activité militaire[154] ». Le biographe de Lucius de l’Histoire Auguste suggère que Marc Aurèle veut pousser Lucius à abandonner la vie dissolue qu'il mène et à accepter son devoir. En tout cas, le Sénat donne son accord et, à l'été 162, Lucius part, laissant Marc Aurèle à Rome, car la ville demande la présence d'un empereur ; il faut cependant placer à côté de Lucius un état-major militaire adéquat (comitatus), large et expérimenté, et comprenant également l'un des deux préfets du prétoire : l'élu est Titus Furius Victorinus[155]. Des renforts de nombreuses provinces impériales sont envoyés à la frontière parthienne[156]. Entre-temps, Marc Aurèle se retire pendant quatre jours à Alsium, une ville balnéaire sur la côte d'Étrurie, mais de nombreux soucis l'empêchent de se détendre. Il écrit à son ami Fronton, en évitant volontairement de décrire en détail ce qu'il fait à Alsium car il sait qu'il lui ferait des reproches. Fronton répond avec ironie et l'encourage à se reposer, à l'instar de ses prédécesseurs : Antonin pratiquait plusieurs loisirs, tels que le gymnase, la pêche et le théâtre, tandis que Marc Aurèle passe la plupart de ses nuits — blanches — à résoudre des affaires judiciaires. D'après leur correspondance, Marc Aurèle n'a pas pu mettre en pratique les conseils de Fronton : « j'ai des devoirs qui m'attendent et qui peuvent difficilement être délégués et reportés ». Il conclut en s'informant de la santé de son ami et en lui disant « au revoir mon excellent professeur, homme de bon cœur »[157]. Fronton répond quelque temps plus tard, en envoyant à son ami une sélection de lectures et, pour compenser son malaise face à la guerre contre les Parthes, une longue lettre réfléchie, pleine de références historiques, intitulée dans les éditions modernes des œuvres de Fronton, De bello Parthico (Sur la guerre des Parthes). Fronton écrit que, même si dans le passé Rome a subi de lourdes défaites, à la fin les Romains ont toujours prévalu sur leurs ennemis : « Toujours et partout Mars a transformé nos difficultés en succès et nos terreurs en triomphes[158] »[159]. Carte du Caucase et de la Mésopotamie à l'Antiquité, principaux lieux des campagnes militaires orientales de Lucius Aurelius Verus. Entre-temps, Lucius, qui a quitté l'Italie et est arrivé en Syrie après un long voyage, fait d'Antioche son « quartier général », passant les hivers à Laodicée et les étés à Daphné[160]. Pendant la guerre, à l'automne/hiver 163 ou 164, Lucius se rend à Éphèse pour épouser Lucilla, selon le vœu de Marc Aurèle, et ce malgré les rumeurs sur ses maîtresses, notamment sur une certaine Panthea, une femme d'origine modeste. Lucilla a environ quinze ans et est accompagnée de sa mère Faustine la Jeune, ainsi que de l'oncle de Lucius, Marcus Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, nommé pour l'occasion comes. Marc Aurèle, qui aurait aimé accompagner sa fille à Izmir, n'a finalement pas dépassé Brindisi. De retour à Rome, celui-ci envoie des instructions précises aux gouverneurs provinciaux pour qu'ils ne préparent aucune réception officielle[161]. Lucilla reçoit néanmoins le titre d'Augusta et donne naissance à une fille peu après, à Antioche[162]. La capitale arménienne, Artachat, est prise par les Romains en 163 et à la fin de cette même année, Lucius prend le titre d’Armeniacus, bien qu'il n'ait jamais participé directement aux opérations militaires. Marc Aurèle refuse d'abord ce titre mais est convaincu l'année suivante par Lucius de l'accepter[163]. Cependant, suivant Fronton[164], lorsque Lucius est acclamé imperator, Marc Aurèle accepte directement sa deuxième salutatio imperatoria[160]. Plus tard, à la mort de Lucius, Marc Aurèle abandonne tous ses titres gagnés pendant la guerre parthique[165]. En 164, les armées romaines s'installent définitivement en Arménie et l'ancien consul originaire d'Emesa, Sohaemus, est couronné roi d'Arménie, avec le consentement de Marc Aurèle[161]. En 165, les armées romaines entrent victorieusement en Mésopotamie, où elles rétablissent sur le trône d'Osrhoène le roi vassal Mannus[162]. Avidius Cassius atteint les deux métropoles jumelles de la Mésopotamie : Séleucie, sur la rive droite du Tigre, et Ctésiphon sur la gauche. Les deux villes sont occupées et incendiées[166]. Cassius, malgré le manque de ravitaillement et des premiers symptômes de la peste antonine contractée à Séleucie, parvient à ramener son armée victorieuse sans complication. Lucius est ainsi acclamé Parthicus Maximus, tandis que, avec Marc Aurèle, il est de nouveau salué comme empereur, obtenant sa deuxième acclamation impériale[167]. En 166, Avidus Cassius envahit de nouveau le pays des Mèdes, au-delà du Tigre, permettant à Lucius de se parer du titre de Medicus, tandis que Marc Aurèle obtient sa IVe salutation impériale et le titre de Parthicus Maximus[168]. Les Parthes se retirent sur leurs territoires, à l'est de la Mésopotamie. Marc Aurèle sait alors qu'il doit attribuer le plus grand mérite de la victoire finale à son frère Lucius. Parmi les commandants romains se distingue Avidius Cassius, Légat de légion de la legio III Gallica, une des légions syriennes[169]. À son retour de la campagne, Lucius est récompensé par un triomphe, le 12 octobre 166. Le défilé est inhabituel car il comprend les deux empereurs — qui acceptent le titre de « père de la patrie »[162] — leurs fils et leurs filles non mariées, comme une grande fête de famille. À cette occasion, Marc Aurèle élève ses deux fils, Commode cinq ans et Marcus Annius Verus trois ans, au rang de César (le frère jumeau de Commode, Fulvus Antoninus, est mort l'année précédente)[170]. Commerce avec l'Est[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Relations entre l'Empire romain et la Chine. Pendant la guerre romano-parthique, Marc Aurèle favorise peut-être l'ouverture de nouvelles routes commerciales avec l'Extrême-Orient. Les annales de la Chine impériale mentionnent en effet une ambassade envoyée à l'empereur chinois de la dynastie Han en 166, dans laquelle les Chinois appelent l'empereur romain par le nom de Ngan-touen ou An-dun (« 安 敦 »). Cela semble confirmer que cette ambassade, peut-être composée uniquement de marchands, est arrivée en Extrême-Orient sous le règne de Marc Aurèle ou de son prédécesseur, Antonin le Pieux, An-dun étant l'équivalent en langues chinoises du nom latin de la famille impériale des « Antoninus »[171],[172],[173]. En plus des verreries romaines de l'époque républicaine trouvées à Guangzhou le long de la mer de Chine méridionale[174], des médaillons d'or romains fabriqués sous le règne d'Antonin et peut-être même de Marc Aurèle ont été trouvés à Óc Eo, au Viêt Nam, qui faisait alors partie du royaume de Fou-nan près de la province chinoise de Jiaozhi (dans le nord du Viêt Nam). Il s'agit peut-être de la ville portuaire de Kattigara, décrite par Claude Ptolémée (vers 150) comme étant visitée par un marin grec nommé Alexandre et située au-delà de la Chersonèse d'or (c'est-à-dire la péninsule Malaise)[175]. Des pièces romaines datant des règnes de Tibère et d'Aurélien ont été trouvées à Xi'an, en Chine (site de Chang'an, la capitale des Han), bien que la quantité de pièces romaines en Inde soit beaucoup plus importante, ce qui suggère que le commerce maritime romain pour l'achat de la soie chinoise était centré dans cette ville, et non en Chine ou même sur la route de la soie qui traverse la Perse[176]. Guerres marcomanes[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Guerres marcomanes. Limes entre l'Empire romain et les peuples germaniques en 170. Selon l’Histoire Auguste, c'est à la fin de la guerre des Parthes que celle contre les Marcomans éclate. Ces derniers sont une coalition militaire composée d'une dizaine de populations germaniques et sarmates ; des Marcomans de Moravie, aux Quades de Slovaquie, des populations Vandales de la région des Carpates, aux Iazyges de la plaine de la Tisza, jusqu'aux Bures de la lignée des Suèves du Banat. C'est la conséquence d'une série de troubles internes importants et de flux migratoires continus qui ont alors modifié l'équilibre avec l'Empire romain voisin. Ces peuples cherchent de nouveaux territoires où s'installer, à la fois en raison de la forte poussée qu'ils subissent de la part d'autres populations, et de la croissance démographique continue de la Germanie ; ils sont également attirés par les richesses du monde romain[177]. La situation le long de la frontière nord est extrêmement compliquée. Un poste le long des champs Décumates est détruit et il semble que de nombreux habitants d'Europe centrale et du Nord soient dans la tourmente. De plus, la corruption règne parmi les officiers romains : Victorinus est contraint de demander la démission d'un légat de légion qui a accepté des pots-de-vin, et de nombreux gouverneurs expérimentés sont remplacés par des amis et des parents de la famille impériale[178],[143]. À partir de 160, les tribus germaniques et autres peuples nomades commencent leurs premières incursions le long des frontières romaines du nord, notamment en Gaule et sur le Danube. Ce nouvel élan vers l'ouest est dû à la pression qu'exercent sur eux les tribus germaniques de l'est et du nord, escomptant peut-être une baisse de vigilance occasionné par le changement d'empereur ; l'invasion de Chattes en Germanie supérieure et en Rhétie est repoussée en 162 par Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, envoyé pour juguler l'invasion et nommé gouverneur la province de la Germanie supérieure, où il s'installe avec toute sa famille[142]. L'invasion de 166 est beaucoup plus périlleuse, lorsque les Marcomans de Bohême, clients de l'Empire romain depuis 19 — mais rebelles sous Domitien et Nerva — traversent le Danube à la tête d'une ligue de tribus germaniques[179]. À cette époque, la frontière du Danube ne peut pas compter sur une grande partie de son personnel, à la fois parce que de nombreuses légions doivent affecter des détachements importants à la guerre des Parthes[180] et parce que l'apparition de la grave épidémie de peste antonine a touché de nombreuses circonscriptions. Deux nouvelles légions italiennes sont néanmoins levées pour renforcer le secteur du Haut-Danube, la Panonnie inférieure est élevée au rang de province consulaire et confiée à un proche de l'empereur, Claudius Pompeianus, tandis que les différentes entités de la Dacie sont rassemblées sous l'autorité unique de Sextus Calpurnius Agricola et dotées d'une légion supplémentaire[181]. En 166/167 se produit le premier affrontement le long du limes pannonicus contre quelques bandes de maraudeurs lombards et obii, qui, grâce à l'intervention rapide des troupes frontalières dirigées par Macrinius Avitus[182], sont rapidement repoussés[183]. Après différentes opérations militaires et diplomatiques, la paix est signée avec une délégation de onze peuples germaniques voisins du nord du Danube, conduite par le roi des Marcomans Ballomar[181] ; mais la situation demeure précaire au point que les deux empereurs prennent aux-même la tête d'une expédition et se rendent jusqu'à la lointaine forteresse légionnaire de Carnuntum en 168[184]. « Peste antonine »[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Peste antonine. À partir de 165 et jusqu'à environ 190, la population de l'Empire romain est atteinte par une pandémie connue dans l'historiographie sous la dénomination de « peste antonine », impropre dans la mesure où il s'agit, en l'état du consensus savant, plus vraisemblablement de variole, une maladie infectieuse extrêmement contagieuse d'origine virale[185]. Si le développement de la maladie a probablement été favorisé par les nombreux déplacements des légions romaines, le scénario longtemps retenu d'une infection en 166 par l'armée de Lucius Verus de retour de Séleucie du Tigre semble désormais trop simpliste[185]. Il est indubitable que, conjugués aux conséquences des guerres marcomanniques, les effets de la « peste » antonine ont constitué une épreuve pour le règne de Marc Aurèle, un évènement marquant, d'une ampleur inouïe[186]. Néanmoins, la question est ouverte de savoir si elle n'est pas plutôt un symptôme que l'origine dans la crise qui traverse le milieu du principat de ce dernier, s'additionnant à des causes multifactorielles entre les disettes récurrentes, les invasions et autres révoltes[187]. Sa diffusion impacte néanmoins l'économie en perturbant l'exploitation des domaines impériaux, occasionnant une baisse substantielle des rentes et rentrées fiscales[188] ainsi qu'elle affaiblit, du moins temporairement, l'armée qui ne parvient à contenir les incursions barbares qu'au prix de recrutements extraordinaires[187]. Les conséquences précises de l'épidémie sur les plans démographique et historique sont cependant objets de débats et requestionnées depuis la fin du XXe siècle[189] tant par un travail sur les sources que sur un ensemble de disciplines comme l'histoire comparative, la paléopathologie, l'épidémiologie ou encore la biologie moléculaire[185]. Les hypothèses sur les impacts globaux de la pandémie opposent des approches « minimalistes » — qui concluent à des effets limités et passagers ainsi qu'à une bonne résilience[190] — à des conclusions « maximalistes » — qui envisagent une mortalité de 20 à 25 % de la population de l'Empire à la fin du IIe siècle, engageant une phase de déclin[185]. Lors de l'une des multiples résurgences de la maladie sous le règne de Commode, en 189, Dion Cassius évoque jusqu'à 2 000 décès par jour à Rome et une infection atteignant jusqu'à un quart de la population totale[191]. Unique empereur (169-176)[modifier | modifier le code] Multiples fronts militaires[modifier | modifier le code] À l'occasion des guerres marcomanes, en 169, Marc Aurèle installe probablement son quartier général à Sirmium[192]. Fin 168, avant de repartir en campagne pour consolider la frontière danubienne, les co-empereurs prennent leurs quartiers d'hiver à Aquilée mais la ville est gagnée par l'épidémie, précipitant le départ de ceux-ci vers Rome, à la demande insistante de Lucius[193]. C'est sur le chemin, en janvier 169 que ce dernier meurt des suites d'une apoplexie près d'Altinum. Marc Aurèle accompagne la dépouille de Lucius à Rome où il conduit les cérémonies funéraires et fait diviniser son collègue en Divus Verus[194],[195]. Marc Aurèle se retrouve dès lors seul empereur et décide d'affronter les rebelles. Plutôt que d'imposer de nouvelles taxes aux provinciaux, il organise au forum de Trajan une vente aux enchères d'objets précieux appartenant au patrimoine impérial, dont des coupes en or et en cristal, des vases royaux, des robes en soie, des courtepointes en or ayant également appartenu à son auguste épouse, ainsi qu'une collection de pierres précieuses trouvées dans le coffre d'Hadrien[194]. Cette année-là, Marc Aurèle remarie sa fille Lucilla, veuve de Lucius, au fidèle Claudius Pompeianus mais le mariage déplaît tant à Lucilla qu'à Faustine, qui n'aiment pas l'homme[196]. Il est possible que Marc Aurèle ait cherché à remarier sa fille au plus vite pour mettre un terme à la convoitise envers Lucilla et empêcher la naissance d'enfants capables de concurrencer ses propres héritiers. Marc Aurèle ne cherche pas de remplaçant à Lucius car, après huit années de règne, il se sent probablement capable de régner seul et sa succession, malgré la disparition la même année de son plus jeune fils, le césar Annius Verus à l'âge de sept ans[194], demeure assurée[197]. Pendant ce temps, le long du front septentrional, les Romains subissent deux lourdes défaites contre les populations Quades et Marcomans qui pénètrent par la route de l'ambre, traversent les Alpes et dévastent Opitergium (Oderzo)[198], puis assiègent Aquilée, principale ville romaine du nord-est de l'Italie, en Vénétie[199]. Bien que le siège soit infructueux, ces événements frappant le cœur de la romanité créent un véritable traumatisme[198], aucune force étrangère n'ayant assiégé de centre urbain de l'Italie[200] depuis la guerre des Cimbres et des Teutons, plus deux-cent cinquante ans auparavant[201]. La légitimité politique de Marc Aurèle s'en trouve ébranlée et l'empereur se doit de réagir énergiquement[198]. À la même époque, une série d'offensives de différents peuples ou coalitions prennent place aux frontières septentrionales et orientales de l'empire, dont la chronologie est mal établie[202]. Marc Aurèle est ainsi contraint à mener une longue et épuisante guerre contre les populations du Nord, d'abord en les rejetant et en « nettoyant » les territoires de Gaule cisalpine, de Norique et de Rhétie (170-171), puis en contre-attaquant par une offensive massive en territoire germanique (172-173) et sarmate (174-175), dans des affrontements qui durent plusieurs années[203]. Dans les années 170, plusieurs peuples traversent le Danube et envahissent la Mésie inférieure[201]. Les Costoboces, venus de la région des Carpates orientales, envahissent la Mésie et la Macédoine, allant jusqu'en Achaïe, où ils incendient le sanctuaire d'Éleusis, échouant toutefois à s'emparer d'Athènes[201]. Concomitamment, une coalition menée par les Bastarnes opère des incursions en Thrace puis en Asie Mineure[201]. Après une longue lutte menée énergiquement par des généraux chevronnés comme Lucius Iulius Vehilius Iulianus, Claudius Pompeianus, Publius Helvius Pertinax et Marcus Valerius Maximianus, Rome réussit desserrer l'étreinte et repousser les envahisseurs[201]. De nombreuses populations germaniques s'installent alors dans les régions frontalières telles que la Dacie, les deux Pannonies, les deux Germanies et l'Italie elle-même. Marc Aurèle travaille à la création de deux nouvelles provinces frontalières appelées Sarmatia et Marcomannia sur la rive gauche du Danube, entre l'actuelle République tchèque et la Hongrie. Des Germains qui s'étaient installés à Ravenne se rebellent et réussissent à prendre la ville, à la suite de quoi Marc Aurèle interdit l'installation des Germains en Italie et bannit ceux qui y sont présents[204]. À la suite de ces conflits, l'empereur prend les titres Germanicus (172) et Sarmaticus (175), mais, en même temps, il abandonne officiellement les titres Armeniacus, Medicus et Particus, qu'il ne souhaite plus conserver après la mort de Lucius Verus, puisque c'est à ce dernier qu'il faut attribuer leur création[205]. Le « miracle de la pluie » représenté sur la colonne de Marc-Aurèle. Dion Cassius et les autres biographes racontent également certains épisodes particuliers de la guerre, comme le prétendu « miracle de la pluie », également représenté dans la scène XVI sur la colonne de Marc-Aurèle[206]. Les Romains, entourés par les Quades en territoire ennemi et pendant une période de grande chaleur, sont sauvés, d'abord par la pluie puis par la foudre qui fait fuir les ennemis[207]. L'événement est romancé à plusieurs occasions. Une lettre de Marc Aurèle au Sénat officialise tout d'abord que l'arrivée de la pluie est considérée comme une intervention divine, mais Marc Aurèle n'y mentionne pas de dieu précis[208]. La version de Dion Cassius fait état de la présence d'un prêtre égyptien nommé Arnouphis dans le camp romain, priant pour l'intervention de Thot[207]. Il est également possible qu'Arnouphis ait fait appel au dieu grec Hermès, le dieu de l'air. L’événement est repris plus tard par des apologistes chrétiens, tels que Claude Apollinaire, qui parlent alors de prières de Marc Aurèle et de ses soldats au Dieu chrétien[209]. Toujours en 172-173, une violente révolte éclate en Égypte. Elle est menée par le prêtre Isidore, qui vient menacer la ville d'Alexandrie. L'intervention d'Avidius Cassius et les discordes internes des rebelles conduisent cependant à la fin du conflit en peu de temps[210]. Enfin vers la même époque, la péninsule ibérique est le théâtre d'une incursion de maures qui nécessite la réunion des provinces de Bétique et d'Hispanie citérieure sous une même autorité ainsi que l’intervention de Iulianus, déjà vainqueur des Costoboces[211]. Révolte de Cassius[modifier | modifier le code] En 175, alors qu'il prépare une nouvelle campagne contre les habitants de la plaine de la Tisza, Marc Aurèle apprend que le gouverneur de Syrie, Avidius Cassius, l'un des meilleurs commandants militaires romains, tente d'usurper le titre d'empereur. D'après Dion Cassius, Avidius Cassius croit que Marc Aurèle est mort. Une explication très probablement inventée par Dion Cassius veut qu'Avidius Cassius aurait accepté la pourpre impériale sur ordre de Faustine, car elle croit que Marc Aurèle va mourir et craint que l'empire ne tombe entre les mains d'un autre, puisque Commode est encore trop jeune[212],[213],[214]. Selon Benoît Rossignol, Avidius Cassius peut tenter un soulèvement principalement car il est à la tête d'une des provinces romaines les plus puissantes depuis plusieurs années et il se sent en position de force, une grande partie du blé de l'Empire romain arrivant depuis l'Égypte, province dans laquelle il était intervenu[215]. Avidius Cassius annonce la mort de Marc Aurèle dans sa province, le fait déifier et se présente à son armée en habits d'empereur. Des lettres sont envoyées à toutes les autres provinces romaines pour annoncer l’avènement d'un nouvel empereur[216]. Publius Martius Verus, gouverneur de Cappadoce, une puissante province romaine voisine de la Syrie, refuse de rejoindre Avidius Cassius et informe Marc Aurèle de l'usurpation en cours[217]. Au début, Marc Aurèle essaye de garder secrète la nouvelle de l'usurpation, mais, quand il est obligé de la rendre publique devant l'agitation des soldats, il s'adresse à eux avec un discours (adlocutio) révélant qu'il veut éviter un bain de sang inutile entre les Romains. Mais après seulement trois mois, lorsque la nouvelle de la mort de Marc Aurèle s'est officiellement révélée fausse, le Sénat romain proclame Cassius hostis publicus, ennemi de l'État et du peuple romains. Marc Aurèle prépare alors une expédition pour contrer la rébellion et, afin d'affirmer le statut d'héritier de Commode, le fait venir de Rome pour le présente aux légions Danubiennes, lui confère la toge virile et le fait nommer prince de la jeunesse[218]. Cependant, Cassius est tué par deux de ses propres soldats[219] : la tête de l'usurpateur est apportée à Marc Aurèle, comme preuve de l'exécution, mais l'empereur refuse de la voir. Un des fils d'Avidius Cassius est tué peu après son père, et l'autre est envoyé en exil par Marc Aurèle. Ce dernier refuse cependant de condamner à mort les sénateurs ayant participé à l'usurpation, principalement de peur de voir son règne terni par des actes peut-être jugés tyranniques[220]. Voyage en Orient[modifier | modifier le code] Aureus représentant Marc Aurèle (à gauche) et felicitas, daté de 176. Dans la dernière décennie de son règne, alors qu'il se trouve aux frontières septentrionales de l'empire, Marc Aurèle écrit Pensées pour moi-même et retourne rarement à Rome. Malgré la mort de Cassius et afin de réaffirmer son autorité ainsi que d'asseoir la légitimité de son fils, Marc Aurèle entreprend avec celui-ci l'expédition prévue dans les provinces orientales[221] à la tête d'une importante armée, en compagnie de l'Augusta Faustine et de Lucilla mais aussi des comites du Consilium principis qui se sont illustrés lors des guerres marcomaniques[222]. Il quitte Sirmium en juillet 175 et passe par Byzance, Nicomédie, Prusias ad Hypium et Ancyre avant d'arriver à Tarse en Cilicie province où, selon Dion Cassius, le peuple s'était rangé du côté d'Avidius Cassius[221]. La clémence dont l'empereur fait montre n'empêche pas que la reprise en main soit efficace[223]. Au printemps 176, sur le chemin de retour vers l'Asie, Faustine, partie en avance, meurt dans un village appelé Halala[223], situé un peu au-delà de Tyane en Cappadoce[224], au pied des monts Taurus, dans des circonstances peu claires dont Dion Cassius rapporte plusieurs versions : une première émet l'hypothèse d'un suicide, motivé par le fait d'avoir passé des accords de succession avec Avidus Cassius ; une seconde met en cause la goutte ; une troisième dit que Faustine est morte en couches après une nouvelle grossesse à l'âge de quarante-cinq ans[224]. Après sa mort, elle est officiellement divinisée lors de cérémonies à Rome, sur ordre du Sénat. L’Augusta, qui avait souvent accompagné son mari à la guerre, est la première des impératrices romaines à recevoir le titre de mater castrorum et Halala, son lieu de décès, est rebaptisé « Faustinopolis »[225]. En son honneur, des collèges de prêtresses sont établis et les puellae Faustinianae, une institution caritative qui s'occupe des orphelines de la péninsule italienne, sont créées[226]. Certaines sources anciennes, contrairement aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle, accusent souvent Faustine de débauche et d'avoir trompé son mari à plusieurs reprises, avec des marins et des gladiateurs, entretenant une « légende noire de Faustine » basée sur des accusations probablement malveillantes : l'épisode d'un rêve de Septime Sévère, rapporté par Dion Cassius, où Faustine prépare une chambre nuptiale pour le futur empereur et Julia Domna dans le temple de Vénus — qui accueille un autel en l'honneur de Marc Aurèle et Faustine devant lequel sacrifient les jeunes gens avant de se marier — tend à montrer qu'à cette époque l'image de Faustine n'est pas encore entachée de rumeurs d'infidélité[227]. Après ce décès, le princeps part pour la Syrie, s'arrêtant peut-être pour visiter la ville d'Antioche (qui s'était rangée du côté de Cassius), pardonnant à ses habitants, et y passant l'hiver. Il reprend donc son voyage pour arriver en été 176 en Égypte, où il reçoit une délégation de l'Empire parthe[221],[228]. Au retour d'Orient, après s'être embarqué pour l'Asie Mineure, il passe par Éphèse, puis Smyrne (où il rencontre Aelius Aristide) et enfin Athènes, où le philosophe cynique Zénon de Kition a fondé en 301 av. J.-C. l'école stoïque, sous le célèbre portique. Il crée et finance des chaires permanentes pour chacune des grandes écoles philosophiques : platonicienne, aristotélicienne, épicurienne et stoïcienne[229],[230]. En Grèce, il participe également aux rites des mystères d'Éleusis[231]. Au cours du voyage en Asie mineure et de l'escale à Athènes, certains pères apologistes chrétiens se tournent également vers Marc Aurèle et Commode[221]. Co-empereur avec Commode (176-180)[modifier | modifier le code] Accession au pouvoir de Commode[modifier | modifier le code] Le 27 novembre 176, Marc Aurèle décide d'associer au trône impérial son fils Commode, le seul survivant parmi ses fils (après la mort du jeune Annius Verus et celle de quelques neveux), en le nommant Auguste et en lui accordant la puissance tribunitienne et l’imperium[232]. Marc Aurèle célèbre ensuite le mariage de Commode avec Bruttia Crispina[233]. De retour à Rome, Marc Aurèle se consacre à l'administration de la justice, en essayant de réparer les torts et les abus du passé ; il ordonne cependant la célébration de jeux de cirque, en mettant une limite à ceux des gladiateurs[234]. Le 23 décembre 176, Marc Aurèle, qui a battu les populations germaniques et sarmates au nord le long des limes du Danube, obtient par décret du Sénat romain le triomphe avec son fils Commode. En l'honneur de Marc Aurèle, une statue équestre est érigée[235]. Dernière offensive en Marcomanie et en Sarmatie[modifier | modifier le code] L'Empire romain en 180. La trêve signée avec les peuples germaniques, en particulier les Marcomans, Quades et Iazigi, ne dure cependant que quelques années, jusqu'en 177. Le 3 août 178, Marc Aurèle est en effet contraint de marcher une nouvelle fois vers la frontière du Danube, à la suite d'un nouveau soulèvement des Marcomans. Il ne reviendra jamais à Rome[236]. Il fait de la forteresse légionnaire de Brigetio son nouveau quartier général et c'est de là qu'il mène sa dernière campagne au printemps de 179, qui a pour but d'occuper définitivement une partie de la Germanie (Marcomanie) et de la Sarmatie[237]. « Les Quades, ne pouvant pas supporter la présence de forteresses romaines construites sur leur territoire [...] ont tenté de migrer tous ensemble vers les terres des Semnons. Mais Marc Aurèle, qui avait cette information en avance de leur intention de partir pour d'autres territoires, décida de leur fermer toutes les voies d'évacuation, empêchant ainsi leur départ. » — Dion Cassius (72, 20.2.) Après une victoire décisive en 178, le plan d'annexion de la Moravie et de la Slovaquie occidentale (Marcomanie), visant à mettre fin une fois pour toutes aux incursions germaniques, semble en bonne voie de réalisation, mais il est abandonné après que Marc Aurèle tombe gravement malade en 180[238]. Sa santé, toujours fragile et en déclin constant, semble l'avoir contraint à prendre de l'opium pour soulager les douleurs persistantes qui l'affligent depuis des années au niveau de l'estomac, un remède prescrit par Galien lui-même[239]. Mort[modifier | modifier le code] Dernières paroles de l’empereur Marc Aurèle, tableau d'Eugène Delacroix réalisé en 1844. Marc Aurèle meurt le 17 mars 180, à l'âge de cinquante-huit ans environ. Si la date ne fait pas débat, il n'en va pas de même pour son lieu de décès, une question qui reste non tranchée entre différentes localités de Pannonie où l'empereur mène campagne contre les sarmates : si plusieurs sources situent sans précision la mort de l'Auguste dans cette région, son contemporain, l'apologiste chrétien Tertullien, situe son décès plus précisément apud Sirmium, ce qui peut se traduire « à » ou « près de » Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, dans l'actuelle Serbie), une ville qui accueillait un palais impérial et qui servait de quartier général hivernal à ses troupes[240]. Aurelius Victor cite lui le camp romain du nom de Vindobona ce qui correspond à l'actuelle Vienne, en Pannonie Supérieure ce dont semble également attester le Chronographe de 354 ; une assonance entre Vindobona et Bononia a amené l'historien Anthony Birley à proposer l'actuelle village de Bátmonostor qui accueillait alors un fort situé à 32 km au nord de Sirmium[241],[242] mais l'hypothèse n'est pas sans poser de problèmes[243]. On ignore les causes précises du mal qui emporte Marc Aurèle en à peine une semaine, dont la rapidité marque ses contemporains : tant la maladie que l'empoisonnement ont été évoqués[244]. Ainsi, bien que Dion Cassius affirme que la mort est survenue « non pas à cause de la maladie dont il souffrait encore, mais à cause des médecins qui, comme je l'ai clairement entendu, ont voulu favoriser l'ascension de Commode » ou que l'on évoque parfois la peste qui sévit dans l'empire depuis des années[238], les hypothèses sur sa mort demeurent des conjectures[245]. Ce que l'on sait de ses derniers jours est rapporté par l’Histoire Auguste[246] : commençant à se sentir malade, il appelle Commode à son chevet et lui demande d'abord de mettre fin à la guerre honorablement, afin qu'il ne semble pas avoir « trahi » la Res publica. Son fils promet qu'il s'en chargera, mais il s'intéresse d'abord à la santé de son père. Il demande donc qu'il puisse attendre quelques jours avant de repartir. Marc Aurèle, sentant que ses jours sont finis et son devoir accompli, accepte comme stoïque une mort honorable, s'abstenant de manger et de boire, et aggravant ainsi la maladie pour lui permettre de mourir le plus rapidement possible. Le sixième jour, lorsqu'il appelle ses amis, il leur dit : « Pourquoi pleurez-vous à cause de moi au lieu de réfléchir à la peste et à notre destin commun de la mort (...) puisque vous me quittez déjà, je vous dis adieu et vous précède »[246]. Lorsqu'on lui demande à qui il recommande son fils, il répond : « à vous, s’il en est digne, et aux dieux immortels »[246]. Le septième jour, son état s'aggrave et il n'admet que brièvement son fils en sa présence, le renvoyant presque immédiatement afin de ne pas le contaminer. Après la sortie de Commode, il se couvre la tête comme pour dormir, comme son père Antonin le Pieux, et meurt cette nuit-là[247]. « Ô homme, tu as été le citoyen de cette grande cité ; que t’importe de l’avoir été cinq ans, ou seulement trois ? La règle qui est conforme aux lois est égale pour tous. Dès lors, quel mal y a-t-il à ce que tu sortes de la cité, d’où t’éloigne non point un tyran, non point un juge inique, mais la nature même, qui t’y avait introduit ? Ce n’est qu’un acteur quittant la scène, quand il reçoit congé du chef de la troupe qui le commandait. — « Mais, je n’ai pas joué mes cinq actes ! je n’en ai joué que trois. » — « Tu les as bien joués ; et dans la vie, parfois, la pièce est complète avec trois actes seulement ; car Celui-là marque le terme où tout est accompli, qui naguère avait décidé que des éléments seraient combinés, et qui décide aujourd’hui qu’ils seront dissous. Quant à toi, tu n’es pour rien, ni dans un cas, ni dans l’autre. Pars donc, le cœur serein ; car Celui qui te délivre est plein d’une bienveillante sérénité »[248]. » — Dernière pensée de Marc Aurèle dans Pensées pour moi-même. Succession[modifier | modifier le code] Buste de Commode en Hercule, conservé aux musées du Capitole à Rome. Après les funérailles, Marc Aurèle est incinéré et immédiatement déifié. Ses cendres sont transportées à Rome et placées dans le mausolée d'Hadrien, qui devient alors le tombeau familial depuis Hadrien jusqu'à Commode et, peut-être, aussi pour certains empereurs ultérieurs, jusqu'à ce que, en 410, le sac wisigoth de la ville l'endommage gravement. Ses campagnes victorieuses contre les peuples germains et les sarmates sont commémorées par la construction de la Colonne de Marc-Aurèle et d'un temple[249]. Marc Aurèle est remplacé par son fils Commode, qui a déjà été nommé César en 166, puis Auguste (co-empereur) en 177[250]. Cette décision, qui met fin à la série des « empereurs adoptifs », est fortement critiquée par les historiens ultérieurs, car non seulement Commode est un étranger à la politique et au milieu militaire, il est aussi décrit, déjà à un jeune âge, comme extrêmement égoïste et avec de graves problèmes psychologiques, excessivement passionné par les jeux de gladiateurs (auxquels il participe lui-même)[251],[252],[250]. À la fin du règne de Marc Aurèle, Dion Cassius écrit un éloge funèbre à l'empereur, tout en décrivant le passage à Commode avec tristesse et regret : « [Marc Aurèle] ne jouit pas du bonheur qu'il méritait : [son corps], en effet, était débile, et, pendant tout le temps de son règne, pour ainsi dire, il éprouva de nombreux malheurs. A mes yeux, c'est là une raison de l'admirer davantage, pour s'être tiré lui-même d'affaires difficiles et embarrassantes et avoir maintenu l'intégrité de l'empire. Une seule chose fut mise sur le compte de son infortune : c'est qu'après avoir élevé et instruit son fils aussi bien que possible, il fut compétemment déçu dans ses espérances. Il faut, dès à présent, parler de ce fils, puisque, pour nous aujourd'hui, comme les affaires pour les Romains de ce temps, l'histoire est tombée d'un règne d'or dans un règne de fer et de rouille[253],[254]. » Pratique du pouvoir[modifier | modifier le code] Statue de Marc Aurèle portant la toge, conservée au British Museum. Les tâches administratives de Marc Aurèle consistent prioritairement à clarifier et améliorer le système déjà en place, la plupart de ses actes étant motivés par le mauvais état financier de l'empire : il régularise l'utilisation d'un registre de la population — chaque citoyen romain peut enregistrer ses enfants dans les trente jours suivant leur naissance —, système remontant à Auguste ; il crée un poste spécifiquement pour l'assignation de tutelles, géré par un sénateur romain ; il augmente considérablement le nombre de curateurs de cités, un poste qui devient un passage presque obligatoire pour quiconque désire devenir un jour sénateur[255]. Marc Aurèle passe également une grande partie de son règne à défendre les frontières de l'empire[256]. Les affaires judiciaires ont une place importante dans le règne de Marc Aurèle. Il travaille avec minutie sur chaque cas, s'aide de l'avis du conseil impérial et traite toutes les affaires avec la même importance[257]. Certains procès durent jusqu'à douze jours et sont parfois menés de nuit. Marc Aurèle croit fermement que chaque détail d'une affaire doit être analysé et que la moindre erreur pourrait remettre en cause le bien-fondé de sa décision[258]. Toutes les décisions judiciaires sont prises au nom de Marc Aurèle et de Lucius Aurelius Verus, bien que ce dernier soit très souvent en voyage[259]. À une occasion, les empereurs établissent l'innocence d'un enfant qui a tué un parent dans un moment de folie, recourant ainsi à un premier concept de maladie mentale. Les avocats de profession qualifient Marc Aurèle d'« empereur versé dans le droit » et, comme le soutient Papinien, « très prudent et consciencieusement juste ». Il manifeste un vif intérêt pour trois domaines du droit : la libération des esclaves, la protection des orphelins et des enfants, et le choix des conseillers municipaux (décurions). Il réévalue la monnaie qu'il a précédemment dévaluée, mais, deux ans plus tard, elle connaît une nouvelle dévaluation en raison des guerres marcomanes qui amènent une grave crise militaire au sein de l'empire[260],[261]. Tandis que son frère Lucius est engagé à l'Est contre l'Empire parthe, Marc Aurèle est occupé à Rome par des questions familiales. Sa grand-tante Matidia Minor est décédée et un litige juridique pèse sur son testament, son importante succession attirant l'attention de nombreuses personnes. Certains de ses clients ont réussi à se faire inscrire dans son testament par le biais de divers codicilles. Toutefois, ces testaments ne peuvent pas être reconnus comme valables, car conformément à la lex Falcidia, Matidia doit céder au moins le quart de son héritage à l'héritier principal. Cet héritier principal n'est autre que Faustine, la femme de Marc Aurèle[262]. Fronton exhorte Marc Aurèle à poursuivre les revendications de la famille, mais ce dernier, après avoir soigneusement étudié le dossier, préfère que la décision finale, qui nous est inconnue, soit prise par son frère[263],[264],[note 15]. Marc Aurèle est souvent vu comme un empereur plus clément que ses prédécesseurs, mais sa vision sur l'esclavage n'apporte pas de réelle modification au système en place. Sur une décision de Marc Aurèle et Lucius Vérus, les propriétaires n'ont plus le droit de vendre d'eux-mêmes des esclaves pour être utilisés contre des bêtes sauvages dans l'arène. Lorsqu'un esclave est lié à une affaire judiciaire, la décision ne va dans le sens de l'esclave que si elle ne lèse pas le maître. La traque d'esclave en fuite est permise, et les affranchissements par demande du peuple ou acclamation sont interdits. Marc Aurèle supprime cependant une loi qui rend obligatoire la torture et la mort de tous les esclaves se trouvant dans les environs en cas d'assassinat du propriétaire[265]. Dans une affaire de falsification de testament portée à son attention par son ami Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, Marc Aurèle favorise un esclave, une décision citée par la suite par les juristes comme un précédent décisif[266]. Le règne de Marc Aurèle n'a pas d'influence sur la pratique de la torture, et elle ne lui posait certainement pas de problème puisqu'elle faisait partie intégrale du système judiciaire Romain. En effet, la torture est appliquée sans hésitation, surtout contre les esclaves et les étrangers. Il est cependant mal vu de torturer un esclave pour recueillir des informations sur son maître, sauf si l'affaire concerne l'empereur ou est politique. La torture est également utilisée dans des affaires d’adultères, mais uniquement si l'accusateur n'est pas un membre de la famille[265]. Pour les citoyens éminents, l'exil est généralement préféré à la torture[267]. Pensées pour moi-même[modifier | modifier le code] Article détaillé : Pensées pour moi-même. L'œuvre[modifier | modifier le code] Premières pages de Pensées pour moi-même, édition en allemand datant du XVIIIe siècle. Lors de campagnes militaires entre 170 et 180, Marc Aurèle écrit ses pensées en grec comme source d'inspiration et d'amélioration personnelle[268]. Le titre original de cette œuvre, si elle en avait un, est inconnu. Le titre Pensées pour moi-même, parfois simplement Pensées, est adopté plus tard. Les Pensées sont considérées comme un chef-d'œuvre de littérature et de philosophie, et contiennent les principales maximes du stoïcisme. Elles font partie des principaux ouvrages de ce mouvement philosophique, avec le Manuel et les Entretiens d'Épictète ainsi que l'œuvre de Sénèque[269]. Le livre fait entre autres partie des lectures de la reine Christine, de Frédéric le Grand, de John Stuart Mill, de Matthew Arnold, de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Giacomo Leopardi, Arthur Schopenhauer, Emil Cioran, Léon Tolstoï, Simone Weil, Michel Onfray, Wen Jiabao et Bill Clinton[270],[271],[272],[273],[274],[275],[276]. On ignore dans quelle mesure les écrits de Marc Aurèle sont diffusés après sa mort. Certaines références littéraires anciennes concernant la popularité de ses préceptes sont erronées, et Julien l'Apostat, qui prend Marc Aurèle comme modèle autant pour ses principes que pour ses actes, ne mentionne pas spécifiquement les Pensées pour moi-même[277]. Les premières mentions du livre, ainsi que son premier nom connu les écrits de Marc Aurèle à lui-même, proviennent d'Aréthas de Césarée au Xe siècle et de la Souda byzantine. Il est publié pour la première fois en 1558 à Zurich par Guilielmus Xylander à partir d'un manuscrit perdu peu après. La plus ancienne copie manuscrite complète qui subsiste se trouve à la bibliothèque du Vatican et date du XIVe siècle[278]. La philosophie de Marc Aurèle[modifier | modifier le code] Marc Aurèle semble reprendre les positions stoïques classiques, en partant de Zénon de Kition à Épictète, en soulignant le sentiment d'impuissance de l'être humain face à la divinité et au destin, et la superficialité des représentations humaines. Marc Aurèle, en tant que dernier grand philosophe stoïcien, n'a pas réellement d'apport fondamental au stoïcisme, bien que son ouvrage Pensées pour moi-même soit une synthèse complète du mouvement philosophique[279]. Il s'est laissé guider par la philosophie même pendant les moments difficiles de sa vie publique et personnelle (entre autres le nombre élevé de ses enfants morts jeunes ; seul cinq de ses treize enfants ont atteint l'âge adulte[280]), et il a pu, en tant qu'homme d'État, suivre la voie du philosophe[281]. L'indifférence[modifier | modifier le code] Le stoïcisme et Marc Aurèle en particulier affirment que l'homme est capable de rester indifférent peu importe la situation, positive ou négative. Le bien moral et le mal moral sont les seuls concepts qui comptent ; la mort, la pauvreté, la maladie et l'échec, tout comme leurs contraires, ne doivent provoquer que de l'indifférence[282]. Il faut dès lors suivre sa raison et rester le même dans les moments les plus difficiles[283]. « Se rendre ferme comme le roc que les vagues ne cessent de battre. Il demeure immobile, et l’écume de l’onde tourbillonne à ses pieds. — « Ah ! quel malheur pour moi, dis-tu, que cet accident me soit arrivé ! » — Tu te trompes ; et il faut dire : « Je suis bien heureux, malgré ce qui m’arrive, de rester à l’abri de tout chagrin, ne me sentant, ni blessé par le présent, ni anxieux de l’avenir. » Cet accident en effet pouvait arriver à tout le monde ; mais tout le monde n’aurait pas reçu le coup avec la même impassibilité que toi. Pourquoi donc tel événement passe-t-il pour un malheur plutôt que tel autre pour un bonheur ?[284] » L'âme rationnelle et la destinée humaine[modifier | modifier le code] Dessin d'Épictète. Comme chez Sénèque, pour Marc Aurèle, l'âme est distincte et séparée du corps, mais elle est ensuite composée de l'âme elle-même, comprise comme l'esprit, le pneuma ou souffle vital et l'intellect ou principe directeur, siège de l'activité spirituelle. Marc Aurèle mentionne aussi souvent Épictète, avec des références au dihairesis (comprendre la nature des choses, qu'elles puissent ou non être influencées par la volonté humaine) et au prohairesis (la division pratique en choses dans nos propres facultés ou dans celles des « autres »), les facultés rationnelles humaines, qui nous permettent de discerner et de comprendre les phénomènes rationnels et irrationnels, ce que nous devons fuir ou auquel nous devons nous adapter, ou non[285]. Marc Aurèle fait également référence à des philosophes non stoïciens, tels que Socrate (considéré comme un exemple de rectitude morale, d'acceptation du destin et de sagesse, malgré la mesquinerie de ses adversaires), Épicure, Platon, Démocrite, Héraclite et d'autres comme des exemples de grands hommes, mais aussi de la fugacité de la gloire et de l'incertitude quant au véritable destin de l'âme humaine, voire de ces grands hommes eux-mêmes[286],[287]. « Après avoir guéri bien des malades, Hippocrate est mort, lui aussi, atteint par la maladie. Les Chaldéens, après avoir prédit le trépas de tant de gens, n’ont pu échapper plus que d’autres aux prises de la destinée. Alexandre, Pompée, Caïus-César, après avoir tant de fois ruiné de fond en comble des cités entières, après avoir massacré un nombre incalculable de cavaliers et de fantassins en bataille rangée, ont dû à leur tour aussi sortir un jour de la vie. Héraclite, après avoir tant disserté sur l’embrasement du monde détruit par le feu, est mort d’hydropisie et couvert de bouse de vache. La vermine a fait mourir Démocrite ; une vermine d’une autre espèce a tué Socrate. Qu’est-ce que tout cela signifie ? Le voici : Tu t’es embarqué sur un navire ; tu as navigué ; tu es parvenu au port ; débarque. Si c’est dans une autre vie que tu abordes, rien au monde n’est vide des Dieux, et tu les trouveras là tout aussi bien qu’ailleurs. Si, au contraire, tu dois tomber alors dans une insensibilité absolue, te voilà délivré des souffrances et des plaisirs, et tu n’as plus à te soumettre servilement à cette enveloppe matérielle, d’autant plus vile que son esclave lui est absolument supérieur ; car d’un côté, c’est l’intelligence et le génie ; de l’autre, la terre et la fange[288]. » Rapport à la gloire[modifier | modifier le code] Citation de Marc Aurèle sur la Library Walk à New York. Marc Aurèle rapporte à plusieurs occasions que, selon lui, la gloire est éphémère et qu'elle ne permet pas d'échapper à la mort. C'est un des rares points peu abordé par le stoïcisme que Marc Aurèle semble avoir apporté au mouvement. Il prend en exemple plusieurs grands noms oubliés et relativise sa vie par rapport à l'univers, insignifiante et si rapidement oubliée[289] : « Ainsi donc, jette de côté tout le reste, et ne t’attache solidement qu’à ces quelques points. Souviens-toi toujours aussi que le seul temps qu’on vive est uniquement le présent, c’est-à-dire un instant imperceptible ; et que, pour les autres parties de la durée, ou bien on les a vécues, ou bien on ne sait jamais si l’on doit les vivre. C’est donc bien peu de chose que le temps que vit chacun de nous ; c’est bien peu de chose que le misérable coin de terre où l’on vit. C’est peu de chose même encore que cette renommée qui nous survit, prît-on celle qui dure le plus longtemps. Et cette renommée elle-même ne tient qu’à la succession de ces pauvres hommes, qui vont mourir dans un moment et qui ne se connaissent point eux-mêmes, loin de pouvoir connaître quelqu’un qui est mort depuis de si longues années[290]. » L'écriture comme refuge[modifier | modifier le code] Dans son rôle d'empereur, Marc Aurele remplit stoïquement son devoir dans son rôle politique[281], mais il ressent la futilité d'actions qui ne changeront pas l'irrationalité qui sévit dans de nombreux événements du monde : « […] regarde un peu l’oubli rapide de toutes choses, l’abîme du temps pris dans les deux sens, l’inanité de ce bruit et de cet écho, la mobilité et l’incompétence des juges, qui semblent t’applaudir, et l’exiguïté du lieu où la renommée se renferme. La terre entière n’est qu’un point, et la partie que nous habitons n’en est que le coin le plus étroit. Là même, ceux qui entonneront tes louanges, combien sont-ils et quels sont-ils encore ? Il reste donc uniquement à te souvenir que tu peux toujours faire retraite dans cet humble domaine qui n’appartient qu’à toi[291]. » Postérité et représentations[modifier | modifier le code] Représentations artistiques antiques[modifier | modifier le code] La statue équestre de Marc Aurèle à Rome est la seule statue équestre romaine qui ait survécu à l'époque moderne, peut-être parce qu'elle est identifiée à tort au Moyen Âge comme une représentation de l'empereur chrétien Constantin le Grand, évitant ainsi la destruction infligée aux statues de personnages païens. Fabriquée en bronze vers 175, elle mesure 3,5 mètres et se trouve aujourd'hui dans les musées du Capitole à Rome. La main de l'empereur est tendue dans un acte de clémence offert à l'ennemi vaincu, tandis que l'expression de son visage, fatigué par le stress de mener Rome dans des batailles presque constantes, représente peut-être une rupture avec la tradition classique de la sculpture[292]. Depuis 2002, la statue figure sur les pièces de 50 centimes d'euro italiennes[293]. La statue équestre de Marc Aurèle Vue complète. Vue rapprochée. Réplique de la statue au Capitole de Rome. Pièce de 50 centimes d'euro italienne sur laquelle figure la statue équestre de Marc Aurèle. La colonne de Marc-Aurèle, établie à Rome soit dans les dernières années de sa vie, soit après son règne et achevée en 193, est construite pour commémorer sa victoire sur les Sarmates et les tribus germaniques en 176. Une spirale de reliefs sculptés s'enroule autour de la colonne, montrant des scènes de ses campagnes militaires. Une statue de Marc Aurèle se trouvait au sommet de la colonne mais disparaît au cours du Moyen Âge. Elle est remplacée par une statue de Saint Paul en 1589 par le pape Sixte V[294]. La colonne de Marc Aurèle et la colonne de Trajan sont souvent comparées par les érudits étant donné qu'elles sont toutes deux de style dorique, qu'elles ont un piédestal à la base, des frises sculptées représentant leurs victoires militaires respectives et une statue au sommet[295]. La colonne de Marc-Aurèle Vue complète. Vue rapprochée. En 1939, un buste en or de Marc Aurèle est retrouvé à Avenches, en Suisse, dans une canalisation sous la cour du sanctuaire du Cigognier. Il y aurait été placé afin de le protéger d'une menace étrangère, peut-être à l'occasion d'une invasion des Alamans. Réalisé autour de l'an 180, il a probablement servi d'imago pour les étendards romains, puis peut-être d'image de culte pour la cité romaine d'Aventicum. Il est l'un des trois derniers bustes en or d'empereur romain ayant échappé au recyclage de l'or. Le buste est exposé pour la première fois en 1996 et est conservé par le musée romain d'Avanches[296]. En 2008, une équipe d'archéologues belges et turcs exhume les restes d'une statue géante représentant l'empereur Marc Aurèle dans les thermes romains de Sagalassos, l'actuel Ağlasun (province de Burdur) dans l'Ouest de la Turquie. Entière, la statue devait mesurer 4,5 mètres. Elle est cependant retrouvée en plusieurs morceaux ; la tête, mesurant 90 centimètres, et le bras droit, tenant un globe, sont les seules parties dans un très bon état. Les jambes de la statue ont également été exhumées[297]. Le corps de la statue, en bronze selon le professeur belge Marc Waelkens, a probablement été pillé durant l'antiquité tardive pour être réutilisé[298]. Buste en or de Marc Aurèle. Tête de la statue retrouvée à Sagalassos. Réputation de Marc Aurèle[modifier | modifier le code] Marc Aurèle le philosophe[modifier | modifier le code] Marc Aurèle acquiert la réputation de philosophe roi de son vivant, et ce titre lui reste après sa mort ; Dion Cassius l'appelle « le philosophe »[299],[300],[301],[302]. Ce titre est également donné par des chrétiens comme Justin de Naplouse, Athénagoras d'Athènes et Eusèbe de Césarée[301],[303],[304]. Ce dernier va jusqu'à qualifier Marc Aurèle de « plus philanthropique et philosophe » qu'Antonin et Hadrien, et l'oppose aux empereurs persécuteurs Domitien et Néron pour rendre le contraste plus marqué[301],[304]. L'historien Hérodien écrit : « Il a donné la preuve de son savoir non pas par de simples mots ou par la connaissance de doctrines philosophiques, mais par son caractère irréprochable et son mode de vie tempéré »[305]. L'écrivain britannique Iain King conclut que l'héritage de Marc Aurèle est tragique, car « la philosophie stoïque de l'empereur — qui porte sur la retenue, le devoir et le respect des autres — a été si abjectement abandonnée par la ligne impériale qu'il a ointe à sa mort »[306]. Perception par le christianisme[modifier | modifier le code] L'impression laissée par Marc Aurèle dans le christianisme de la fin de l'Antiquité et du Moyen Âge est celle de persécuteur des chrétiens. Cependant, ses contemporains chrétiens ne réagissent pas unanimement par un rejet. Tertullien, contemporain de l'empereur et influencé par la Seconde Sophistique, le voit même comme un protecteur du christianisme, résultant de la gratitude de Marc Aurèle envers les chrétiens qui, dans la première guerre marcomane, ont supposément sauvé les romains en priant pour une pluie miraculeuse[307]. Mais la réception chrétienne à long terme est surtout influencée par le contemporain de l'empereur Constantin Eusèbe de Césarée qui, écrivant près d'une centaine d'années après son règne, décrit Marc Aurèle comme persécuteur des chrétiens en lui imputant particulièrement le martyre de Polycarpe de Smyrne — l'un des plus importants martyrs de l'histoire chrétienne[308] — en 155, confondant Marc Aurèle et Antonin le Pieux qui était encore empereur à cette date[309]. Eusèbe, plus soucieux de faire l'apologie des martyrs que de vérité historique, influence durablement la perception chrétienne de l'empereur[309] : suivant l'apologiste, Augustin d'Hippone cite Marc Aurèle dans son ouvrage La Cité de Dieu comme le quatrième des dix plus grands persécuteurs de chrétiens parmi les empereurs romains. L'image créée par Eusèbe, celle d'un empereur de l'ancien monde ayant gagné d'importantes guerres contre les Parthes et ayant ordonné la persécution des chrétiens, survit presque tout au long du Moyen Âge[310]. Interprétations modernes[modifier | modifier le code] Edward Gibbon fait l'éloge de Marc Aurèle dans Histoire de la décadence et de la chute de l'Empire romain au XVIIIe siècle, le nommant dans les « cinq bons empereurs »[311]. À la Renaissance, Marc Aurèle est redécouvert et de nouveau révéré comme un souverain idéal. Dans le XIXe chapitre de son ouvrage Le Prince, Nicolas Machiavel lui rend hommage en comparant son règne à ceux de ses successeurs et des soldats-empereurs du IIIe siècle. Marc Aurèle est le seul empereur romain à être universellement vénéré, de son vivant et après sa mort, car il prend la relève en tant qu'héritier légitime, n'a aucune dette envers les soldats ou le peuple, et peut donc les contenir tous les deux sans jamais susciter la haine ou le mépris. Selon Jörg Fündling, au siècle des Lumières, Marc Aurèle devient un auteur à la mode, notamment pour Voltaire. « La raison, l'humanité, le sens du devoir et une conception non chrétienne de Dieu : voilà comment un roi doit être »[312]. Edward Gibbon, dans son célèbre ouvrage Histoire de la décadence et de la chute de l'Empire romain en référence à Dion Cassius, exprime l'opinion que, en conséquence de la mort de Marc Aurèle, un âge d'or s'est achevé[313]. En 1882, Ernest Renan clôt sa fresque Histoire des origines du christianisme avec Marc Aurèle et la fin du monde antique, un ouvrage qui, malgré quelques reproches, dépeint Marc Aurèle comme un « chef puissant d'un empire immense, qu'il gouverna […] avec justice et philosophe stoïcien ». En plus d'offrir un ouvrage essentiel à l'étude du Christianisme à l'époque de Marc Aurèle, Renan a permis une nouvelle interprétation de l'empereur philosophe, dont la culture « profondément grecque » est vue comme l'ayant doté d'un caractère « exemplaire »[314]. Jean-Baptiste Gourinat se concentre sur une double vision, apparemment contradictoire, de la compatibilité entre le rôle de dirigeant guerrier et celui de philosophe, dans Pensées pour moi-même. Au début du livre VIII, Marc Aurèle dit « Une considération bien faite pour te détourner de la présomption de la vaine gloire, c’est que tu ne peux pas te flatter d’avoir passé ta vie entière, du moins à partir de ta jeunesse, comme un vrai philosophe. Bien des gens l’ont su ; et toi-même, tu sais aussi bien que personne que tu étais alors très-loin des sentiers de la philosophie. Voilà donc ton personnage défiguré ; et te faire la réputation d’un philosophe n’est plus guère facile pour toi »[315]. Selon sa propre évaluation, Marc Aurèle ne peut prétendre au rang et à la renommée d'un philosophe — aussi parce que sa vie quotidienne lui fait obstacle. Mais ce point de vue se retrouve ailleurs : « Que tu dois voir clairement qu’il n’est pas, dans la vie, de meilleure route à suivre pour être philosophe que celle que tu suis maintenant »[316]. Pour Gourinat, ces deux points de vue ont pour conséquence que, d'une part, la vie politique de Marc Aurèle lui coûte la réputation du philosophe, mais d'autre part, elle dicte une pratique politique qui ne le tente pas d'écrire des traités ou de passer son temps sur des spéculations théoriques très éloignées de la pratique[317]. Pour Marcel van Ackeren et Jan Opsomer, Marc Aurèle ne peut être appréhendé de manière adéquate dans une perspective purement historique. On dit qu'il intéresse une multitude de disciplines, dont l'archéologie, la philosophie, la philologie, la numismatique, les sciences politiques et l'histoire du droit, comme pratiquement aucune autre figure de l'Antiquité. Les Pensées pour moi-même, la colonne de Marc-Aurèle, sa statue équestre, les monnaies très variées ainsi que les découvertes archéologiques ont nécessité et permis une recherche interdisciplinaire dans le but d'élaborer et de communiquer une compréhension multiforme de Marc Aurèle et de son impact par le biais d'une méthodologie comparative[318]. Le récit de l'historien Alexander Demandt semble aller dans ce sens également, car il vise une « nouvelle tentative » de « classer les preuves littéraires et épigraphiques, numismatiques et archéologiques des événements de guerre dans une chronique de telle sorte qu'elles ne s'opposent pas les unes aux autres et rendent compréhensible la séquence géostratégique des événements »[319]. Représentations artistiques modernes[modifier | modifier le code] Joseph-Marie Vien, Marc Aurèle secourant le peuple, 1765, Amiens, musée de Picardie Plusieurs épisodes de la vie de Marc Aurèle ont fait l'objet d'interprétations peintes ou sculptées à l'époque moderne, les sujets tirés de l'histoire romaine étant considérés comme propices à l'instruction et à l'élévation morale, notamment au XVIIIe siècle. Une tenture sur le thème de la vie de Marc-Aurèle est tissée vers 1670 dans les ateliers anversois de Michiel Wauters, d'après des cartons d'Abraham van Diepenbeeck. Connaissant un grand succès, la tenture sera remise sur le métier de nombreuses fois jusqu'à la fin du XVIIe siècle[320]. Vers 1720, le peintre italien Giambattista Tiepolo représente un monumental Triomphe de Marc Aurèle (Turin, Galeria Sabauda). Parmi les « actions généreuses » des empereurs romains peints pour la galerie du château de Choisy en 1765, le peintre Joseph-Marie Vien représente Marc Aurèle secourant le peuple (Amiens, musée de Picardie)[321]. Alexandre Charles Guillemot peint en 1827 une Clémence de Marc Aurèle pour un mur de l'antichambre du Conseil d'État au Palais du Louvre[322]. Un médaillon en bas-relief représentant Marc Aurèle soigné par Galien est réalisé par le sculpteur Louis-Aimé Lejeune pour la façade de la « nouvelle Faculté de Médecine », rue des Saints-Pères à Paris, entre 1950 et 1953. Le sujet de la mort de Marc Aurèle inspire un tableau à Pierre Félix Trezel (exposé au Salon de 1806) et à Eugène Delacroix, qui représente les Dernières paroles de l'empereur Marc Aurèle dans un tableau présenté au Salon de 1845 (Lyon, musée des Beaux-Arts). Marc Aurèle est représenté deux fois au cinéma, dans La Chute de l'Empire romain d'Anthony Mann et Gladiator de Ridley Scott. Il est interprété respectivement par Alec Guinness et Richard Harris. Les deux films ont une trame similaire. En effet, Marc Aurèle y déshérite Commode au profit respectivement de Livius et Maximus, des personnages fictifs, ce qui entraîne son assassinat. Dans La Chute de l'Empire romain, il est empoisonné par un groupe de conspirateurs pensant bénéficier à l'accession de Commode au pouvoir, et, dans Gladiator, c'est ce dernier qui assassine Marc Aurèle en l'étouffant[323]. Hommages[modifier | modifier le code] L'astéroïde (7447) Marcaurèle est nommé en hommage à l'empereur[324]. Notes et références[modifier | modifier le code] Notes[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ Dion Cassius affirme que les Annii étaient des proches parents d'Hadrien, et que c'est à ces liens familiaux qu'ils devaient leur ascension au pouvoir[18]. La nature précise de ces liens de parenté n'est précisée nulle part, mais on pense que Rupilia était la fille du sénateur consulaire Libo Rupilius Frugi et de Salonia Matidia, qui était également la mère (probablement par un autre mariage) de Sabine, l'épouse d'Hadrien[19],[20],[21]. ↑ L'héritage reçu par Domitia Lucilla Minor est détaillé dans une lettre de Pline le Jeune[22]. ↑ Certains auteurs l'ont identifié comme le destinataire de l’Épître à Diognète ; cf. par ex. (en) Brian J. Arnold, Justification in the Second Century, de Gruyter, 2017 (ISBN 978-3-11-047823-5), p. 83 ↑ Le manuscrit est corrompu à cet endroit[72]. ↑ Certains auteurs modernes n'offrent pas une évaluation aussi positive. Son deuxième éditeur moderne, Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1816), le trouve stupide et frivole ; son troisième éditeur, S.A. Naber (1867), le trouve méprisable[82]. Les historiens le voient comme « pédant et ennuyeux », ses lettres n'offrant ni l'analyse politique courante d'un Cicéron ni le reportage consciencieux d'un Pline le Jeune. Les récentes recherches prosopographiques ont réhabilité sa réputation, mais pas de beaucoup[83]. ↑ Il est possible qu'à ce moment Atticus n'était pas encore le tuteur de Marc Aurèle. ↑ Champlin note que l'éloge de Marc Aurèle sur Rusticus dans Pensées pour moi-même occupe une place spéciale (il est loué immédiatement après Diogène de Tarse, qui avait initié Marc Aurèle à la philosophie), ce qui lui donne une importance particulière[98]. ↑ Bien qu'une partie du récit du biographe de Lucius soit fictive (probablement pour imiter Néron, dont Lucius partageait l'anniversaire) et une autre partie mal compilée à partir d'une meilleure source biographique, les chercheurs ont accepté ces détails biographiques comme étant exacts[114]. ↑ Peut-être en hommage aux philosophes grecs ou à cause d'une cicatrice[115]. ↑ Pour illustrer la réticence de Marc Aurèle face à ses nouvelles responsabilités, le biographe Anthony Birley utilise le terme horror imperii, la « peur du pouvoir impérial », tiré de l'Histoire Auguste[120],[121]. ↑ Ces changements de noms se sont avérés si confus que même l'Histoire Auguste, notre principale source pour l'époque, se trompe parfois[124],[125]. L'historien ecclésiastique du IVe siècle, Eusèbe de Césarée, fait preuve d'une confusion encore plus grande[125]. La croyance erronée que Lucius avait le nom de « Verus » avant de devenir empereur s'est révélée particulièrement populaire[124]. ↑ Il y existe cependant de nombreux précédents. Le consulat était une double magistrature, et les empereurs précédents avaient souvent eu un lieutenant subordonné avec de nombreux bureaux impériaux (sous Antonin, le lieutenant était Marc Aurèle). De nombreux empereurs avaient prévu une succession commune dans le passé : Auguste prévoyait de laisser Caius et Lucius Caesar comme co-empereurs à sa mort ; Tibère souhaitait que Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus et Caligula le fassent également ; Claude a laissé l'empire à Néron et Britannicus, imaginant qu'ils accepteraient un rang égal. Tous ces arrangements se sont soldés par un échec, soit par un décès prématuré (Gaius et Lucius César), soit par un meurtre sanctionné par la justice (Gemellus par Caligula et Britannicus par Néron)[124]. ↑ Marc Aurèle n'avait guère besoin de la fortune de sa femme. En effet, lors de son accession, Marc Aurèle a transféré une partie de la succession de sa mère à son neveu, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus (en)[134]. ↑ Comme Lucius et Marc Aurèle auraient tous deux participé activement aux opérations de secours[144], l'inondation a dû se produire avant le départ de Lucius pour l'est en 162 ; comme elle apparaît dans le récit du biographe après la fin des funérailles d'Antonin et l'installation des empereurs dans leurs bureaux, elle ne doit pas avoir eu lieu au printemps 161. Une date en automne 161 ou au printemps 162 est probable, et, étant donné la répartition saisonnière normale des inondations du Tibre, la date la plus probable est au printemps 162[145]. Birley date l'innondation à l'automne 161[137]. ↑ Champlin date les lettres entre Marc Aurèle et Fronton à l'été 162 ou au printemps 165[264]. Références[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ (en) David Rohrbacher, The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta, University of Wisconsin Pres, 2016 (ISBN 978-0-299-30604-5, lire en ligne), p. 5 ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 522. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 230. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 226. ↑ (en) Mary Beard, « Was he quite ordinary? », sur London Review of Books, 23 juillet 2009 (consulté le 4 juin 2020). ↑ Birley 2000, p. 227. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 228-229, 253. ↑ (en) Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond, Rowman & Littlefield, 2013 (ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2, lire en ligne), p. 23 ↑ (en) Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond, Rowman & Littlefield, 2013 (ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2, lire en ligne), p. 11 ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 227-228. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 273. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 27. ↑ Stéphane Hiland, « Les guerres danubiennes dans le monnayage de Marc-Aurèle », Les monnaies de l'Antiquité, numéro 2 (2012),‎ mai 2012 (lire en ligne, consulté le 20 septembre 2020) ↑ Maxime Yevadian, « Le monnayage de Marc-Aurèle et Lucius Verus relatif à l’Arménie », dans Mémoires de la Société des amis de Jacob Spon, Paris, 2019, 367-371 p. (ISBN 978-2-909142-06-7, lire en ligne) ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 28. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 29. ↑ Levick 2014, p. 161, 163. ↑ a b c et d Birley 2000, p. 31. ↑ McLynn 2009, p. 14. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 28-29. ↑ (en) Ronald Syme, Roman Papers, vol. 1, Clarendon Press, 1991 (ISBN 978-0-19-814490-8), p. 244 ↑ Pline le Jeune, 8.18. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 30. ↑ (en) Lawrence Richardson Jr, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8018-4300-6, lire en ligne), p. 114, 198 ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 32. ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, chap. 8 « Early Life : Family, Youth, and Education », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 139 ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 33. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. P. I, ch. 4. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 38. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 17. ↑ a b et c (en) Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond, Rowman & Littlefield, 2013 (ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2, lire en ligne), p. 58 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 31, 244. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 53. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 32-33. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 1.3. ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, chap. 8 « Early Life : Family, Youth, and Education », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 151 ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 1.17. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 35. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 1.1. ↑ a b et c (en) Anthony R. Birley, chap. 8 « Early Life : Family, Youth, and Education », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 140 ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 55. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 57. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 37-38. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 40. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 41-42. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 42-43. ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, « Early Life: Family, Youth, and Education », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch8, lire en ligne), p. 142 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 43. ↑ Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 148. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 49. ↑ Clemente 2008, p. 629-630. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 69. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 69-70. ↑ Clemente 2008, p. 630. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 50. ↑ Histoire Auguste, Marc Aurèle, v. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 49-50. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 50-51. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 70. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 75-76. ↑ a et b Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 151. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 76. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 53-54. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 6.30. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 56. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 57. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 57, 272. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 5.16. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 57-58. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 90. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 58. ↑ a b c d et e Birley 2000, p. 89. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 1.16. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 90-91. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 61. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 62. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 54. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 63-64. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 64-65. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 65. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 65-67. ↑ Champlin 1980, p. 1-2. ↑ (en) Ronald Mellor, « Review of Fronto and Antonine Rome », The American Journal of Philology, vol. 103, no 4,‎ 1982, p. 459-462 (ISSN 0002-9475, DOI 10.2307/294531, lire en ligne, consulté le 10 juin 2020) ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 86. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 87-88. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 88. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 76-77. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 73. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 77. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 78-79. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 80. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 93. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 94. ↑ Histoire Auguste, Marc Aurèle, iii. 5-8. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 69. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 95. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 94, 105. ↑ Champlin 1980, p. 137. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 94-95, 101. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 1.7. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 94-95. ↑ Homère (trad. Leconte de Lisle), Iliade, A. Lemerre, 1866 (lire en ligne), p. 107 ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 10.34. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 103. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 105, 247. ↑ Roman Imperial Coinage III 857; pour une image, voir British Museum 1856,1101.19. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 106. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 9.40. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 107. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 108. ↑ a b c et d Birley 2000, p. 114. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 119, 128, 162. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 108,109. ↑ (en) T. D. Barnes, « Hadrian and Lucius Verus », The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 57, nos 1-2,‎ novembre 1967, p. 66-69 (ISSN 1753-528X et 0075-4358, DOI 10.2307/299345, lire en ligne) ↑ a et b (it) Chiara Melani, Francesca Fontanella et Giovanni Alberto Cecconi, Roma antica : dalle origini alla caduta dell'impero, Giunti, 2006, 383 p. (ISBN 978-88-09-04580-4), p. 58 ↑ (it) Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli et Mario Torelli, L'arte dell'antichità classica. Etruria-Roma, UTET Università, 2008, 475 p. (ISBN 978-88-6008-053-0), p. 131 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 112. ↑ Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 156. ↑ Histoire Auguste, Marc Aurèle, vii. 5. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 116. ↑ Histoire Auguste, xiii. 1 et xv. 8. ↑ a et b Rossignol 2020, p. 164. ↑ a et b Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 331. ↑ a b c d e et f Birley 2000, p. 117. ↑ a et b Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 157. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 166. ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, « Marcus' Life as Emperor », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch9, lire en ligne), p. 155 ↑ Histoire Auguste, Lucius Verus, 4.2. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 117, 278. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 117-118. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 20. ↑ (en) Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge University Press, 2 mai 2002, 264 p. (ISBN 978-0-521-89289-6, lire en ligne), p. 109 ↑ a b c et d Birley 2000, p. 118. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 118-119. ↑ a b c et d Birley 2000, p. 119. ↑ Histoire Auguste, Marc Aurèle, 8. ↑ a b et c Birley 2000, p. 120. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 128. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 127-128. ↑ a et b Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 330. ↑ (en) Irena Lazar, « The Inhabitants of Roman Celeia : An Insight into Intercultural Contacts and Impacts Trough Centuries », Anodos, Studies of the Ancient World, Trnavská univerzita,‎ 2011, p. 178-179 (ISSN 1338-5410) ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 122-123. ↑ a b c et d Birley 2000, p. 123. ↑ Histoire Auguste, Marc Aurèle, 8.4-5. ↑ (en) Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in Ancient Rome, Baltimore, JHU Press, 5 mars 2007, 338 p. (ISBN 978-0-8018-8405-4 et 0-8018-8405-5, lire en ligne), p. 30-31 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 120-121. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 135. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 121. ↑ Mazzarino 2015, p. 335. ↑ Clemente 2008, p. 663. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 121-122. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 122. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 122123. ↑ Dion Cassius, 71.2.1. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 123-125. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 125-126. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 126-127. ↑ Fronton, De bello Parthico 10. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 127. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 129. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 131. ↑ a b et c Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 334. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 217. ↑ Fronton, Ad Verum Imperator, 2.3. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 218. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 130. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 140. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 144. ↑ Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 163-164. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 147. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 144-145. ↑ (en) Edwin G. Pulleyblank, « The Roman Empire as Known to Han China », Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 119, no 1,‎ 1999, p. 71-79 (ISSN 0003-0279, DOI 10.2307/605541, lire en ligne, consulté le 6 août 2020) ↑ Mazzarino 2015, p. 338. ↑ (en) Annette L. Juliano, Judith A. Lerner et Asia Society, Nomads, Traders and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road : Papers Presented at a Symposium Held at The Asia Society in New York, November 9-10, 2001, Brepols Publishers, 2002, 125 p. (ISBN 978-2-503-52178-7, lire en ligne), p. 83 ↑ (en) Gary K. Young, Rome's Eastern Trade : International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC - AD 305, Routledge, 4 octobre 2003, 320 p. (ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7, lire en ligne), p. 29-30 ↑ (en) Warwick Ball, Rome in the East : The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, 10 juin 2016, 594 p. (ISBN 978-1-317-29634-8, lire en ligne), p. 154 ↑ (en) Patricia Southern, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 16 décembre 2003, 416 p. (ISBN 978-1-134-55380-8, lire en ligne), p. 203-206 ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 182. ↑ (en) « Marcomanni », dans Matthew Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Facts on File, 2002 (ISBN 9781438110271), p. 348 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 249. ↑ a et b Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 337. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 161. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 149. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 249, 252. ↑ a b c et d Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 339. ↑ Benoît Rossignol, « La peste antonine (166 ap. J.-C.) », dans Claude Gauvard (dir.), Hypothèses 1999, Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne, 2000 (ISBN 9782859443917, lire en ligne), p. 31-37 ↑ a et b Benoît Rossignol, « La peste antonine (166 ap. J.-C.) », dans Claude Gauvard (dir.), Hypothèses 1999, Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne, 2000 (ISBN 9782859443917, lire en ligne), p. 32 ↑ Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 340. ↑ Voir par exemple l'ouvrage de Kyle Harper, Comment l'Empire romain s'est effondré : Le climat, les maladies et la chute de Rome, La Découverte, 2019 (ISBN 978-2-348-04236-2) ↑ AHFé, « Intervention de Benoît Rossignol à la table ronde L’impact économique des crises sanitaires : de la peste antonine aux crises actuelles », sur Association française d'histoire économique, 13 octobre 2018 (consulté le 20 septembre 2020) ↑ Dion Cassius, 72, 14.3-4. ↑ Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 168. ↑ (en) R.B. Rutherford, « Aurelius, Marcus », dans Simon Hornblower et Antony Spawforth (dirs.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2012, 4e éd. (ISBN 9780199545568), p. 210 ↑ a b et c (en) Anthony R. Birley, « Marcus' Life as Emperor », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch9, lire en ligne), p. 165 ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, « The Wars and Revolts », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch13, lire en ligne), p. 223 ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 199. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 292-293. ↑ a b et c Rossignol 2020, p. 326. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 164. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 168. ↑ a b c d et e Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 345. ↑ Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 347. ↑ Clemente 2008, p. 635. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 333. ↑ (de) Peter Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser: Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des ersten und zweiten Jahrhunderts, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969, 253 p. (ISBN 978-3-525-25113-3, lire en ligne), p. 206-207 ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, « Cassius Dio and the Historia Augusta », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch1, lire en ligne), p. 25 ↑ a et b Grimal 1991, p. 208. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 387. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 388-389. ↑ (en) Michael Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, Routledge, 6 mai 2016, 248 p. (ISBN 978-1-317-97210-5, lire en ligne), p. 50 ↑ Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 346. ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 222. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 397. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 184-185. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 398. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 396. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 399. ↑ Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 348. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 399, 400, 403 et 406. ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 220-221. ↑ a b c et d (it) Maria Laura Astarita, Avidio Cassio, Ed. di Storia e Letteratura, 1983, 222 p. (lire en ligne), p. 155-162 ↑ Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 348,350. ↑ a et b Faure, Tran et Virlouvet 2018, p. 350. ↑ a et b Birley 2000, p. 191. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 428-429. ↑ (en) Anthony R. Birley, « Marcus' Life as Emperor », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch9, lire en ligne), p. 166 ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 429. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 193. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 195. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 444. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 440-441. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 447. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 469. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 448-452. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 447-448. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 487, 488, 493, 494. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 494-495. ↑ a et b Clemente 2008, p. 636. ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 286. ↑ (en) Péter Kovács, Marcus Aureliusa Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars, BRILL, 2009 (ISBN 978-90-04-16639-4, lire en ligne), p. 249 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 210. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 504. ↑ L'historien Péter Kovács relève en 2009 que la localité ne prend le nom de Bononia qu'à l'époque de la tétrarchie, s'appelant jusque là Malata ; cf. (en) Péter Kovács, Marcus Aureliusa Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars, BRILL, 2009 (ISBN 978-90-04-16639-4, lire en ligne), p. 249 ↑ Véronique Boudon-Millot, Marc Aurèle, Presses Universitaires de France, 9 septembre 2020 (ISBN 978-2-13-082220-2, lire en ligne), Pt77 ↑ Birley 2000, p. 209-210. ↑ a b et c Véronique Boudon-Millot, Marc Aurèle, Presses Universitaires de France, 2020 (ISBN 978-2-13-082220-2, lire en ligne), Pt78 ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 238. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 12.36. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 514-515. ↑ a et b Bowman, Garnsey et Rathbone 1982, p. 186-191. ↑ Marc Fourny, « Commode : l'empereur qui se rêvait gladiateur », sur Le Point, 16 septembre 2018 (consulté le 29 août 2020) ↑ Renan 1882, p. 491-492. ↑ Dion Cassius, 72, 36.3-4. ↑ « Dion Cassius : Histoire Romaine : livre LXX (bilingue) », sur remacle.org (consulté le 29 août 2020) ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 238-240. ↑ (it) Ernest Renan, Marco Aurelio e la fine del mondo antico, Lit edizion, 27 août 2014, 288 p. (ISBN 978-88-6826-777-3, lire en ligne), p. 21-23 ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 200-201. ↑ Grimal 1991, p. 247. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 201. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 160, 283. ↑ (en) Fergus Millar, « Emperors at Work », The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 57, nos 1/2,‎ 1967, p. 9-19 (ISSN 0075-4358, DOI 10.2307/299337, lire en ligne, consulté le 6 août 2020) ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 199. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 132. ↑ a et b Champlin 1980, p. 134. ↑ a et b Rossignol 2020, p. 234-235. ↑ Birley 2000, p. 137-138. ↑ Rossignol 2020, p. 413. ↑ Clay 2006, p. XX, XXI. ↑ « Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne - stoïcisme », sur www.larousse.fr, Éditions Larousse (consulté le 8 juin 2020) ↑ Hays, p. XLIX. ↑ (it) Giacomo Leopardi, Zibaldone, 1898, p. 4096-97 ↑ McLynn 2009, p. 511. ↑ Emil Cioran, Cahiers, 1957-1972, Gallimard, 2001, 998 p. (EAN 9782070749355), p. 179 ↑ (it) Tatiana Soukhotina-Tolstaïa, Anni con mio padre, Jouvence, 2019, 293 p. (ISBN 978-88-7801-705-4), p. 180 ↑ (it) Simone Weil, Corrispondenza, SE, 80 p. (ISBN 978-88-7710-298-0), p. 38 ↑ « Michel Onfray et le système hédoniste », sur L'Humanité, 4 novembre 2006 (consulté le 8 juin 2020) ↑ Marcellin, Livre XVI, chap. I. ↑ Hays, p. XLVIII-XLIX. ↑ Cantonnet 2017, p. 2. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 9.40, 10.34. ↑ a et b (it) Luciano Perelli, Storia della letteratura latina, Torino, Paravia, 1969 (ISBN 88-395-0255-6), p. 320-324 ↑ Cantonnet 2017, p. 12. ↑ Cantonnet 2017, p. 13. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 4.49. ↑ Cantonnet 2017, p. 14. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 9.41, 10.23. ↑ (en) Richard Sorabji, Self: Ancient and Modern Insights about Individuality, Life, and Death, Clarendon Press, 14 septembre 2006, 416 p. (ISBN 978-0-19-156916-6, lire en ligne), p. 192 ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 3.3. ↑ Cantonnet 2017, p. 18. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 3.10. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 4.3. ↑ (en) Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner's Art through the Ages : The Western Perspective, Cengage Learning, 30 décembre 2008, 193 p. (ISBN 978-0-495-57355-5, lire en ligne) ↑ Albert Deman, « L'Euro et l'Antiquité européenne, grecque et romaine », L'Antiquité Classique, vol. 72, no 1,‎ 2003, p. 245-260 (DOI 10.3406/antiq.2003.2526, lire en ligne, consulté le 24 septembre 2020) ↑ (en) « Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column », sur curate.nd.edu (consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ (en) « The Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius · Classics », sur omeka1.grinnell.edu (consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ « Marc Aurèle : L’incroyable découverte du buste en or à Avenches », Echos du musée,‎ 2006, p. 7 (lire en ligne) ↑ « Une statue géante de l'empereur Marc Aurèle découverte en Turquie », Le Monde.fr,‎ 26 août 2008 (lire en ligne, consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ Bruno D. Cot, « Une statue de Marc-Aurèle découverte en Turquie », L'Express,‎ 28 août 2008 (lire en ligne, consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ Histoire Auguste, i. 1, xxvii. ↑ Dion Cassius, lxxi. 1.1. ↑ a b et c (en) James A. Francis, Subversive Virtue : Asceticism and Authority in the Second-century Pagan World, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995, 222 p. (ISBN 978-0-271-01304-6, lire en ligne), p. 21 ↑ (en) Joshua Mark, « Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King », sur Ancient History Encyclopedia, 9 mai 2018 (consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ Athénagoras d'Athènes, Apologie des Chrétiens, t. Tome second, Paris, Sapia, 1838 (lire sur Wikisource), « Apologie des Chrétiens », p. 303 ↑ a et b Eusèbe, 4.26.9-11. ↑ (el) Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci, sumptibus et typis B.G. Teubneri, 1855 (lire en ligne), i.2.4. ↑ (en-US) « Thinkers at War - Marcus Aurelius », sur Military History Matters, 18 août 2014 (consulté le 9 juin 2020) ↑ (en) Julia Bruch et Katrin Herrmann, chap. 31 « The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 488 ↑ (en) Julia Bruch et Katrin Herrmann, chap. 31 « The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 491 ↑ a et b (en) Julia Bruch et Katrin Herrmann, chap. 31 « The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age », dans Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-4051-9285-9), p. 489 ↑ (en) Julia Bruch et Katrin Herrmann, « The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age », dans A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012 (ISBN 978-1-118-21983-6, DOI 10.1002/9781118219836.ch31, lire en ligne), p. 490 et 493 ↑ (en) « Five Good Emperors : Summary, Accomplishments, History, & Facts », sur Encyclopedia Britannica (consulté le 28 août 2020) ↑ Fündling 2008, p. 180. ↑ (en) Edward Gibbon, Histoire de la décadence et de la chute de l'Empire romain, t. 1, New York, AMS Press, 1974 (ISBN 0-404-02820-9) ↑ Iphigénie Botouropoulou, « Marc-Aurèle, le plus grec des Romains », Études Renaniennes, vol. 115, no 1,‎ 2014, p. 131-138 (DOI 10.3406/renan.2014.1623, lire en ligne, consulté le 8 septembre 2020) ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 8.1. ↑ Pensées pour moi-même, 11.7. ↑ (en) Jean-Baptiste Gourinat, « Was Marcus Aurelius a philosopher? », dans Marcel van Ackeren, Selbstbetrachtungen und Selbstdarstellungen. Der Philosoph und Kaiser Marc Aurel im interdisziplinaren Licht, Wiesbaden, 2012, p. 71 ↑ (de) Marcel van Ackeren et Jan Opsomer, « Der Kaiser und Philosoph Marc Aurel als Gegenstand interdisziplinärer Forschung », dans Selbstbetrachtungen und Selbstdarstellungen (ISBN 978-3-89500-929-7), p. 15-17 ↑ (de) Alexander Demandt, Marc Aurel : Der Kaiser und seine Welt, C.H.Beck, 17 janvier 2019, 592 p. (ISBN 978-3-406-73720-6, lire en ligne), p. 10 ↑ M.J. de Mendonça, « As tapeçarias da história de Marco Aurelio », Boletim dos Museus Nacionais de Arte Antiga, 1, 1939, no 2, p. 57-67. ↑ Thomas W. Gaehtgens, Jacques Lugand, Joseph-Marie Vien, peintre du roi (1716-1809), Paris, Arthena, 1988, p. 175-177. ↑ Sébastien Allard, Le Louvre à l'époque romantique. Les décors du Palais (1815-1835), Paris, Musée du Louvre, 2006, p. 108. Avec erreur sur le nom du peintre (Gautherot). ↑ (en) Martin M. Winkler, The Fall of the Roman Empire : Film and History, John Wiley & Sons, 2012, 288 p. (ISBN 978-1-118-58981-6, lire en ligne). ↑ (en) « (7447) Marcusaurelius », sur le site du Centre des planètes mineures (consulté le 23 septembre 2020). Traductions[modifier | modifier le code] (en) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé « Marcus Aurelius » (voir la liste des auteurs). (it) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en italien intitulé « Marco Aurelio » (voir la liste des auteurs). (de) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en allemand intitulé « Mark Aurel » (voir la liste des auteurs). Bibliographie[modifier | modifier le code] Textes anciens[modifier | modifier le code] Corpus juris civilis (lire en ligne). (la) Code de Théodose (lire en ligne). Histoire Auguste : Vie de Marc-Aurèle (Julius Capitolinus) (lire sur Wikisource). (la) Aelius Aristide, Discours. Ammien Marcellin, Histoire de Rome (lire sur Wikisource). Aulu-Gelle (trad. Chaumont, Flambart et Buisson), Les Nuits attiques Œuvres complètes d’Aulu-Gelle, vol. 1, Paris, Garnier, 1919 (lire sur Wikisource). Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus (lire sur Wikisource). Aurelius Victor, Épitomé de Caesaribus (Abrégé des Césars) (lire sur Wikisource). Dion Cassius (trad. Étienne Gros), Histoire romaine, Didot, 1845-1870 (lire sur Wikisource). (en) Eusèbe de Césarée, Histoire ecclésiastique (lire sur Wikisource). Eutrope (trad. Nicolas-Auguste Dubois), Abrégé de l’histoire romaine (lire sur Wikisource). (la) Fronton, Epistulae (lire sur Wikisource). (la) Gaius, Institutes (lire sur Wikisource). Hérodien (trad. Léon Halévy), Histoire des empereurs romains de Marc-Aurèle à Gordien III, Didot, 1860 (lire sur Wikisource). Lucien de Samosate (trad. Eugène Talbot), Œuvres complètes de Lucien de Samosate, Paris, Hachette, 1866 (lire sur Wikisource). Marc Aurèle (trad. Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire), Pensées pour moi-même, Paris, Germer-Baillière, 1876 (lire sur Wikisource). Pline le Jeune (trad. Louis de Sacy revue et corrigée par Jules Pierrot), Lettres : Tome premier, Paris, éditeur Panckoucke, 1826 (lire sur Wikisource). Plutarque (trad. Alexis Pierron), Vies des hommes illustres, t. 1, Paris, Charpentier, 1853 (lire sur Wikisource). Suétone (trad. Désiré Nisard), Vie des douze Césars, 1855 (lire sur Wikisource). Tacite (trad. Jean-Louis Burnouf), Dialogue des orateurs, 1859 (lire sur Wikisource). Tertullien (trad. J.P. Waltzing), Apologétique, 1914 (lire sur Wikisource). Tite-Live (trad. Désiré Nisard), Histoire romaine - Œuvres de Tite-Live, t. 1, Paris, Firmin Didot frères, 1864 (lire sur Wikisource). Textes modernes[modifier | modifier le code] En allemand[modifier | modifier le code] (de) Jörg Fündling, Marc Aurel, Dresde, Primus Verlag, 2008, 240 p. (ISBN 978-3-89678-609-8).  En anglais[modifier | modifier le code] Articles (en) Edward Champlin, « The Chronology of Fronto », The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 64,‎ 1974, p. 136-159 (ISSN 1753-528X et 0075-4358, DOI 10.2307/299265, lire en ligne, consulté le 10 juin 2020).  Ouvrages (en) Geoffrey William Adams, Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond, Rowman & Littlefield, 2013, 333 p. (ISBN 978-0-7391-7638-2, lire en ligne).  (en) Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius : A Biography, Londres, Routledge, 2000, 320 p. (ISBN 0-203-13759-0).  (en) Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey et Dominic Rathbone, The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 1982 (ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1, lire en ligne), « Hadrian to the Antonines ».  (en) Edward Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, Harvard University Press, 1980, 185 p. (ISBN 978-0-674-33178-5, lire en ligne).  (en) Diskin Clay, Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations, Penguin Classics, 2006, 254 p. (ISBN 978-0-14-044933-4).  (en) Gregory Hays, Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations, Londres, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2003, 256 p. (ISBN 978-0-8129-6825-5) (en) Barbara Levick, Faustina I and II : Imperial Women of the Golden Age, New York, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2014, 248 p. (ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9, lire en ligne).  (en) Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius : Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, Londres, Bodley Head, 2009, 722 p. (ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2).  (en) Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius : A Life, Da Capo Press, 2009, 684 p. (ISBN 978-0-306-81830-1) (en) Paul Noyen, « Marcus Aurelius, the greatest practician of Stoicism », L’Antiquité classique, t. 24, no 2,‎ 1955, p. 372-383 (lire en ligne, consulté le 6 avril 2020) (en) Marcel van Ackeren (dir.), A Companion to Marcus Aurelius, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, 600 p. (ISBN 978-1-118-21982-9).  En français[modifier | modifier le code] Articles Pierre Grimal, « Le cas Marc Aurèle », Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, no 1,‎ mars 1991, p. 45-55 (lire en ligne, consulté le 6 avril 2020) Louis Leschi, « Domitia Lucilla, mère de Marc Aurèle », Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire, t. 52,‎ 1935, p. 81-94 (lire en ligne, consulté le 6 avril 2020) Hans-Georg Pflaum, « Les gendres de Marc Aurèle », Journal des savants, no 1,‎ 1961, p. 28-41 (lire en ligne, consulté le 6 avril 2020) Dr. Robert Dailly et Henri Van Effenterre, « Le cas Marc-Aurèle. Essai de psychosomatique historique », Revue des Études Anciennes, t. 56,‎ 1954, p. 347-365 (lire en ligne, consulté le 6 avril 2020) Ouvrages Véronique Boudon-Millot, Marc Aurèle, Presses Universitaires de France, 9 septembre 2020, 176 p. (ISBN 978-2-13-082220-2, lire en ligne).  Nicolas Cantonnet, Marc Aurèle, Le Petit Philosophe, 2017, 26 p. (ISBN 978-2-8062-4955-5).  Annabelle Chabert et Thomas Roussot, Marc Aurèle et l'Empire romain, L'Harmattan, coll. « Ouverture philosophique », 2005, 128 p. (ISBN 978-2-7475-8048-9, lire en ligne) Pierre Dulau (trad. du grec ancien), Commentaire des livres II à IV des Pensées, Paris, Gallimard, coll. « Folioplus philosophie », 2008, 137 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-035516-7) Patrice Faure, Nicolas Tran et Catherine Virlouvet, Rome, Cité universelle : De César à Caracalla à Théodoric, 70 av. J.-C.-212 apr. J.-C., Belin, coll. « Mondes anciens », 2018 (ISBN 978-2-7011-6496-0), chap. 5 (« L'équilibre précaire de l'« Âge d'Or Antonin » (117-180) »).  W. Görlitz, Marc Aurèle, empereur et philosophe, Payot, 1962, 272 p. Pierre Grimal, Marc Aurèle, Fayard, 1991, 452 p. (ISBN 978-2-213-64806-4, lire en ligne).  Pierre Hadot, La citadelle intérieure : Introduction aux Pensées de Marc Aurèle, Fayard, 1992, 386 p. (ISBN 978-2-213-65215-3, lire en ligne) Paméla Ramos, La véritable histoire de Marc Aurèle, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2009, 171 p. (ISBN 978-2-251-04004-2) Ernest Renan, Marc Aurèle ou la fin du monde antique, Calmann-Lévy, 1882 (lire sur Wikisource).  Yves Roman, Marc Aurèle, l'empereur paradoxal, Paris, Payot, 2013, 490 p. (ISBN 978-2-228-90863-4). Benoît Rossignol, Marc Aurèle, Paris, Perrin, 2020, 680 p. (ISBN 978-2262037451).  Robert Turcan, Le Temps de Marc Aurèle (121-180), Dijon, Faton, 2012, 240 p. (ISBN 978-2-87844-159-8) Pierre Vesperini, Droiture et mélancolie, Sur les écrits de Marc Aurèle, Lagrasse, Verdier, 2016, 186 p. (ISBN 978-2-86432-864-3) En italien[modifier | modifier le code] (it) Guido Clemente, Storia Einaudi dei Greci e dei Romani, vol. XVI, Oscar Mondadori, 2008.  (it) Santo Mazzarino, L'Impero romano. 2, Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa, 2015, 448 p. (ISBN 978-88-581-1680-7, lire en ligne).  Sur les autres projets Wikimedia : Marc Aurèle, sur Wikimedia Commons Marc Aurèle, sur Wikisource Marc Aurèle, sur Wikiquote Voir aussi[modifier | modifier le code] Articles connexes[modifier | modifier le code] Colonne de Marc Aurèle Statue équestre de Marc Aurèle Antonins Liens externes[modifier | modifier le code] Notices d'autorité : Fichier d’autorité international virtuel International Standard Name Identifier CiNii Bibliothèque nationale de France (données) Système universitaire de documentation Bibliothèque du Congrès Gemeinsame Normdatei Bibliothèque nationale de la Diète Bibliothèque nationale d’Espagne Bibliothèque royale des Pays-Bas Bibliothèque nationale de Pologne Bibliothèque nationale d’Israël Bibliothèque universitaire de Pologne Bibliothèque nationale de Catalogne Bibliothèque nationale de Suède Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Bibliothèque apostolique vaticane Autorités Canadiana WorldCat Notices dans des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes : Brockhaus Enzyklopädie • Deutsche Biographie • Diccionario Biográfico Español • Dizionario di Storia • Enciclopedia italiana • Enciclopedia De Agostini • Encyclopædia Britannica • Encyclopædia Universalis • Encyclopédie Treccani • Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana • Hrvatska Enciklopedija • Swedish Nationalencyklopedin • Proleksis enciklopedija • Store norske leksikon • Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija Ressources relatives aux beaux-arts : Royal Academy of Arts (de + en) Artists of the World Online (en) Grove Art Online (en) National Portrait Gallery (de + en + la) Sandrart.net (en) Union List of Artist Names Ressources relatives à la recherche : Les Classiques des sciences sociales Isidore (en) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (en) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Ressources relatives à la musique : (it) Discografia Nazionale della Canzone Italiana (en) MusicBrainz Ressource relative à la religion : Dictionnaire de spiritualité Ressource relative au spectacle : Les Archives du spectacle Marc Aurèle Antonin, Vie de Marc Aurèle Antonin par Aurelius Victor. Empereur romain (liste) / Antonins Précédé par En fonction Suivi par Antonin le Pieux (138-161) Marc Aurèle (161-180) avec Lucius Aurelius Verus (161-169) Commode (180-192) v · m Empereurs romains Principat (27 av. J.-C. – 235) Auguste Tibère Caligula Claude Néron Galba Othon Vitellius Vespasien Titus Domitien Nerva Trajan Hadrien Antonin Marc Aurèle (avec Lucius Verus) Commode Pertinax Didius Julianus Septime Sévère Caracalla Geta Macrin (avec Diaduménien) Héliogabale Sévère Alexandre Crise du troisième siècle (235-284) Maximin le Thrace Gordien Ier et Gordien II Maxime Pupien et Balbin Gordien III Philippe l'Arabe (avec Philippe II) Dèce (avec Herennius Etruscus) Trébonien Galle (avec Hostilien puis Volusien) Émilien Valérien Gallien (avec Salonin) Claude le Gothique Quintillus Aurélien Tacite Florien Probus Carus Carin Numérien Dominat (284-395) Dioclétien Maximien Constance Chlore Galère Sévère Maxence Maximin Daïa Licinius (avec Valerius Valens et Martinien) Constantin Ier Constantin II Constant Ier Constance II (avec Vétranion) Julien Jovien Valentinien Ier Valens Gratien Valentinien II Théodose Ier Empire d'Occident (395-476) Honorius (avec Constance III) Valentinien III Pétrone Maxime Avitus Majorien Libius Severus Anthémius Olybrius Glycérius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustule Empire d'Orient (395-1204) Arcadius Théodose II Marcien Léon Ier Léon II Zénon Basiliscus Anastase Ier Justin Ier Justinien Ier Justin II Tibère II Constantin Maurice Phocas Héraclius Constantin III Héraclonas Constant II Constantin IV Justinien II Léonce Tibère III Philippicos Anastase II Théodose III Léon III Constantin V Artabasde Léon IV Constantin VI Irène Nicéphore Ier Staurakios Michel Ier Léon V Michel II Théophile Michel III Basile Ier Léon VI Alexandre Constantin VII Romain Ier Romain II Nicéphore II Jean Ier Basile II et Constantin VIII Zoé avec Romain III puis Michel IV puis Michel V puis Constantin IX Théodora Michel VI Isaac Ier Constantin X Romain IV Michel VII Nicéphore III Alexis Ier Jean II Manuel Ier Alexis II Andronic Ier Isaac II Alexis III Alexis IV Nicolas Kanabos Alexis V Empire d'Orient divisé (1204-1261) Empire de Nicée Constantin Lascaris Théodore Ier Jean III Théodore II Jean IV Empire latin Baudouin Ier Henri Ier Pierre de Courtenay Robert de Courtenay Jean de Brienne Baudouin II Empire d'Orient restauré (1261-1453) Michel VIII Andronic II Michel IX Andronic III Jean V Jean VI Mathieu Cantacuzène Andronic IV Jean VII Manuel II Andronic V Jean VIII Constantin XI Voir aussi Impératrices romaines Usurpateurs romains Portails : Portail de l'Empire romain Portail de la Rome antique Portail du monde byzantin v · m Philosophie hellénistique Stoïcisme Philosophie antique · Philosophie hellénistique Frise chronologique Autres philosophes Persée de Cition · Ariston de Chios · Hérillos de Carthage  · Denys le Transfuge · Sphéros · Chrysippe de Soles · Aristocréon  · Caton d'Utique · Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus Épicurisme Aire grecque Épicure · Métrodore · Hermarque de Mytilène · Dionysios de Lamptrée · Zénon de Sidon · Polystrate · Apollodore · Philodème de Gadara · Diogène d'Œnoanda · Idoménée de Lampsaque · Batis de Lampsaque · Colotès · Léontée de Lampsaque · Basilide Aire romaine Lucrèce Scepticisme Pyrrhon d'Élis · Timon de Phlionte · Énésidème · Agrippa · Sextus Empiricus Voir aussi : Esquisses pyrrhoniennes · Vocabulaire · Liste des sceptiques anciens La Nouvelle Académie Antiochos d'Ascalon · Arcésilas de Pitane · Carnéade · Charmadas · Cicéron · Clitomaque de Carthage · Pamphile · Philon de Larissa · Héraclite de Tyr Portail de la Rome antique • section Empire romain Portail de la philosophie antique Cet article est reconnu comme « article de qualité » depuis sa version du 17 octobre 2020 (comparer avec la version actuelle). Pour toute information complémentaire, consulter sa page de discussion et le vote l'ayant promu. La version du 17 octobre 2020 de cet article a été reconnue comme « article de qualité », c'est-à-dire qu'elle répond à des critères de qualité concernant le style, la clarté, la pertinence, la citation des sources et l'illustration. Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marc_Aurèle&oldid=183800998 ». 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fy-wikipedia-org-287	----	Markus Aurelius - Wikipedy Markus Aurelius Ut Wikipedy Springe nei navigaasje Springe nei sykjen Buste fan Markus Aurelius Pylder fan Markus Aurelius op de Piazza Colonna ('Pylderplein') yn Rome Markus Aurelius (26 april 121 - 17 maart 180) wie in Keizer fan Rome en regearde oer it Romeinske Ryk fan 161 oant 180 en wie de fiifde en lêste fan de adoptyfkeizers. Hy wie in tige rjochtfeardige en minsklike hearsker dy't lykwols in grut part fan syn regear besteegje moast oan it fieren fan oarloggen oan de grinzen, de wichtigste dêrfan wienen de Markomannenoarloggen. Ynhâld 1 Jeugd 2 Keizer 3 Dea en opfolging 4 Sjoch ek 5 Boarnen, noaten en referinsjes Jeugd[bewurkje seksje | boarne bewurkje] Markus Aurelius waard yn 121 yn Rome berne as Markus Annius Ferus en wie in neef fan Faustina de Aldere. Syn heit kaam ier te ferstjerren en hy waard troch syn pake grutbrocht. Keizer Hadrianus learde him al jong kennen en wie ûnder de yndruk fan syn dwaan en litten. Doe't hy 15-jier âld wie, regele Hadrianus it sà dat Markus fersein waard oan de dochter fan syn adopsjesoan en takomstige opfolger, Aelius. Aelius stoar lykwols te gau dat sadwaande moasten syn plannen oanpast wurde. Hadrianus bepaalde yn 138, krekt foar syn dea, dat Markus troch syn opfolger, Antoninus Pius adoptearre wurde moast. Lusius Ferus, de soan fan Aelius, moast dêrby ek adoptearre wurde. Ien jier letter 139 krige Markus de titel Caesar en waard syn fersizzing oan de dochter fan Aelius ûntbûn en nei in arranzjearre fersizzen fersein oan Faustina de Jongere, de dochter fan Antonius Pius. Dit houlik fûn plak yn 145. Sy krigen 13 bern wêrfan't mear as de helt yn 'e bernejierren stjerre soe. Lang om let soe mar ien fan syn soannen yn libben bliuwe, dat wie Kommodus. Yn syn jeugd, mar ek letter doe't er al keizer wie, bestege Markus Aurelius in soad tiid oan de filosofystúdzje. Hy wie in oanhinger fan de Stoïsynske lear fan Epiktetus. Markus waard oplieden yn de filosofy troch Apollonius fan Chalchedon en yn de retorika troch Fronto. Der is in korrespondinsje tusken learling en learmaster Fronto oerlevere en dit jout in goed byld fan Markus syn oplieding. Keizer[bewurkje seksje | boarne bewurkje] Nei de dea fan Antoninus Pius op 7 maart 161 krige Markus Aurelius de titel fan Augustus, (keizer). Syn earste keizerlike died wie om, neffens de wil fan Hadrianus, de keizerlike macht te dielen mei Lusius Ferus. Al gau bruts der grutte rebûlje út oan de eastgrins, sadat Ferus yn 162 nei de eastlike provinsjes ta moast, wylst Markus Aurelius yn Rome efterbleau. Ferus kearde yn triomf werom mar syn troepen brochten ek de pestepidemy mei nei it westen, dy't grutte parten fan it keizerryk en ek Rome sels teheisterje soe. Bûtendat krigen sy te meitsjen mei in fijannige ynvaazje. Germaanske stammen, lykas de Markomannen en de Kwaden wienen de Alpen oerstutsen en Itaalje ynfallen. Beide keizers kamen yn aksje en twongen de Germanen tebek foarby de Alpen. Sy kearden yn 169 werom nei de haadstêd en ûnderweis krige Ferus in sykte-oanfal dêr't hy oan stjerre soe. Nei in koarte perioade fan rêst yn Rome bruts der fannijs fijannigens út oan de grinzen en waard Markus Aurelius wer twongen om der mei it leger hinne te gean. In nije rige fan oarloggen soe him de folgende acht jier tsjinhâlde om foar in langere perioade nei Rome werom te gean. Yn dizze perioade kaam syn ferneamde filosofyske wurk Ta eis heauton (oersetten as Meditaties) ta stân. Yn 175 wie hy sa slim siik dat it der op like dat hy stjerre soe. Syn frou ljochte de gouverneur fan Syria, Gaius Avidius Cassius, hjiroer yn, en dizze kaam yn opstân. Guon tinke dat sy ferhinderje woe dat har eigen soan Kommodus opfolger wurde koe, om't sy syn karakter as nimmen oars better koe en fermoede dat syn keizerskip jammerdearlik ôfrinne soe foar it Romeinske ryk. Markus Aurelius genies lykwols en sloech de opstân del. Faustina de Jongere soe in jier letter stjerre. Yn 177 kearde Markus Aurelius werom nei Rome en ferhege Kommodus as Augustus. Oant syn dea, trije jier letter, soe de keizerlike macht troch beiden dield wurden. Yn 178 bruts der wer oarloch út en wer gong Markus Aurelius nei it grinsgebiet. Dea en opfolging[bewurkje seksje | boarne bewurkje] Op 17 maart 180 stoar Markus Aurelius, op 59-jierrige leeftyd, ôfmêde troch jierren fan kriich, in natuerlike dea. Hy bruts mei de tradysje fan de adoptyfkeizers sûnt Nerva om in kapabele adoptyfsoan as opfolger te beneamen. Syn soan Kommodus folge him op. De klassike skiedkundigen, lykas yn de Historia Augusta skreaun, moasten neat hawwe fan Kommodus. Neffens harren optyk wie de beneaming fan syn eigen soan as opfolger de grutste misslach fan de oars sa wize Markus Aurelius. Mei de dea fan dizze keizer kaam ek in ein oan de gouden iuw fan it Ympearium. Troch de opfolgers fan Markus Aurelius soe it ryk hieltyd mear ferwurde ta in ûnbidich strang regele militêre diktatuer. Sjoch ek[bewurkje seksje | boarne bewurkje] Ta eis heauton better bekend as Meditaties fragmint út "Ta eis heauton" (Wikisource) Boarnen, noaten en referinsjes[boarne bewurkje] Boarnen, noaten en/as referinsjes: Literatuer: Anton Van Hooff, De Keizer-Filosoof, Utjouwerij Ambon-2012. 'Keppeling om utens: H.W. Benario, art. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180), yn DIR (2001). Nederlânske oersetting Overpeinzingen (pdf) Ingelske oersetting Meditations Opfrege fan "https://fy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markus_Aurelius&oldid=1007770" Kategoryen: Romeinsk filosoof Romeinsk politikus Keizer fan it Romeinske Ryk Fergoade persoan Persoan berne yn 121 Persoan stoarn yn 180 Navigaasjemenu Persoanlik ark Net oanmeld Oerlis Bydragen Akkount meitsje Oanmelde Nammeromten Artikel Oerlis Farianten Werjeften Lêze Bewurkje Boarne bewurkje Skiednis besjen Mear Sykje Navigaasje Haadside Wikipedy-mienskip Hjoed Koartlyn feroare Samar in side Help Donaasjes Helpmiddels Hjirmei keppele Keppelings folgje Bysûndere siden Fêste keppeling Sidegegevens Dizze side sitearje Wikidata-item Ofdrukke/eksportearje Boek meitsje Ynlade as PDF Ofdrukferzje Yn oare projekten Wikimedia Commons Yn oare talen Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Cymraeg Čeština Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Հայերեն Hrvatski Magyar Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Yorùbá Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy မြန်မာဘာသာ Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 文言 粵語 Bân-lâm-gú Keppelings bewurkje Dizze side is it lêst bewurke op 22 aug 2020 om 18.56. De tekst is beskikber ûnder de lisinsje Creative Commons Nammefermelding-Lyk diele; der kinne oanfoljende betingsten fan tapassing wêze. Sjoch de Gebrûksbetingsten foar mear ynformaasje. Privacybelied Oer Wikipedy Foarbehâld Mobile ferzje Untwikkelders Statistiken Taljochting koekjes 
ga-wikipedia-org-4329	----	Marcas Áiréilias - Vicipéid Marcas Áiréilias Ón Vicipéid, an chiclipéid shaor. Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcas Áiréilias. Impire Rómhánach Réimeas 8 Márta 161 – 17 Márta 180 Dáta breithe 26 Aibreán 121 Áit bhreithe An Róimh Dáta báis 17 Márta 180 Áit bháis Vindobona Réamhtheachtaí Antoninus Pius Comharba Commodus Rítheaghlach Nerva–Antonine Céile Faustina Minor B'é Marcas Áiréilias. (Laidin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustu; a rugadh ar an 26 Aibreán 121 san Róimh agus fuair bás ar an 17 Márta 180), an tImpire Rómhánach ó 8 Márta 161 go 17 Márta 180 Is síol é an t-alt seo. Cuir leis, chun cuidiú leis an Vicipéid. Má tá alt níos forbartha le fáil i dteanga eile, is féidir leat aistriúchán Gaeilge a dhéanamh. Aisghafa ó "https://ga.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcas_Áiréilias&oldid=936173" Catagóirí: Impirí Rómhánacha Daoine a rugadh i 121 Básanna i 180 Roghchlár nascleanúna Do chuid uirlisí Níl tú logáilte isteach Plé Dréachtaí Cruthaigh cuntas Logáil isteach Ainmspásanna Alt Plé Leaganacha Malartacha Radhairc Léigh Cuir in eagar Cuir foinse in eagar Féach ar stair More Cuardaigh Nascleanúint Príomhleathanach Tairseach chomhphobail Cúrsaí reatha Athruithe deireanacha Leathanach fánach Cabhair Síntiúis Uirlisí Cad a nascann anseo Athruithe gaolmhara Leathanaigh speisialta Nasc buan Eolas faoin leathanach Luaigh an lch seo Mír Wikidata Priontáil/easpórtáil Cruthaigh leabhar Íoslódáil mar PDF Leagan inphriontáilte I dtionscadail eile Wikimedia Commons I dteangacha eile Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Athraigh naisc Tugadh an leathanach seo cothrom le dáta an 2 Lúnasa 2019 ag 12:42. Tá an téacs ar fáil faoi réir an Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; féadann téarmaí eile a bheith i bhfeidhm sa bhreis. Féach ar Téarmaí Úsáide le sonraí a fháil. Trádmharc cláraithe is ea Wikipedia® de chuid Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., eagraíocht neamhbhrabúis. Polasaí príobháideachais Maidir le Vicipéid Séanadh Amharc móibíleach Forbróirí Statistics Cookie statement 
gd-wikipedia-org-620	----	Marcus Aurelius - Uicipeid Marcus Aurelius O Uicipeid Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius quaestor (en) Roman consul (en) seanadair Ròmanach Impire na Ròimhe 7 dhen Mhàrt 161 - 17 dhen Mhàrt 180 ← Antoninus Pius - Commodus → Beatha Ainm slàn Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Breith An Ròimh, 26 dhen Ghiblean 121 Dùthaich An t-Seann Ròimh Àite-fuirich An Ròimh Cinneadh Roman people (en) Bàs Vindobona (en) , 17 dhen Mhàrt 180 Àite-adhlacaidh Castel Sant'Angelo (en) Nàdar a’ bhàis adhbharan nàdarra (plàigh) Teaghlach Athair Marcus Annius Verus Màthair Domitia Calvilla Cèile Faustina Bheag Clann liosta Commodus Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (en) Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (en) Fadilla (en) Lucilla (en) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (en) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (en) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (en) Domitia Faustina (en) Bràithrean ⁊ peathraichean liosta Annia Cornificia Faustina (en) Fine Nerva–Antonine dynasty (en) Foghlam Cànain Laideann Seann-Ghrèigis Luchd-teagaisg Alexander à Cotiaeum Herodes Atticus (en) Marcus Cornelius Fronto (en) Junius Rusticus (en) Dreuchd Dreuchd neach-poileataigs, feallsanaiche agus sgrìobhadair Obraichean comharraichte Meditations (en) Creideamh Creideamh creideamh san t-Seann-Ròimh B' e Ìmpire Ròmanach agus feallsanach eadar 161 agus 180 AC a bh' ann am Marcus Aurelius (Laideann: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26 an Giblean 121–17 am Màrt 180 AC). Dh'uchd-mhacaich an Ìmpire Antoninus Pius e ann an 138. Dh'ionnsaich e reatoraig fo Marcus Cornelius Fronto is an sin feallsanachd. Chaidh e na cho-ìmpire còmhla ri Lucius Verus ann an 161 is mhair e mar ìmpire nuair a bhàsaich Lucius Verus ann an 169. Stèidhich e cathraichean feallsanachd Plàtonach, Stòthach, Epiciùirianach agus Aristotlach san Àithne. Tha e as ainmeile airson a leabhar Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν (Meòrachaidhean) a sgrìobh e san 170an, anns an do sgrìobh e mu fheallsanachd pearsanta. Bha buaidh mhòr aig feallsanachd Stòthach agus aig Epictetus oirre.[1] Iomraidhean[deasaich | deasaich an tùs] ↑ Sellars, John (2002): “Marcus Aurelius 121–180 C.E.”. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Air a thogail 17mh dhen Mhàrt 2019. Feallsanaich ainmeil ann an eachdraidh Na Ro-Shocrataich • Socrates • Plato • Aristotle • Epicureans • Stoics • Marcus Aurelius • Plotinus • Augustine à Hippo • Boëthius • Al-Farabi • Anselm • Peter Abelard • Averroës • Maimonides • Thomas Aquinas • Albertus Magnus • Duns Scotus • Ramon Llull • Occam • Giovanni Pico della Mirandola • Marsilio Ficino • Michel de Montaigne • René Descartes • Thomas Hobbes • Blaise Pascal • Baruch Spinoza • John Locke • Nicolas Malebranche • Gottfried Leibniz • Giambattista Vico • Julien Offray de La Mettrie • George Berkeley • Baron de Montesquieu • Francis Hutcheson • David Hume • Voltaire • Jean-Jacques Rousseau • Denis Diderot • Johann Herder • Immanuel Kant • Jeremy Bentham • Friedrich Schleiermacher • Johann Gottlieb Fichte • G. W. F. Hegel • Friedrich von Schelling • Friedrich von Schlegel • Arthur Schopenhauer • Søren Kierkegaard • Henry David Thoreau • Ralph Waldo Emerson • John Stuart Mill • Karl Marx • Mikhail Bakunin • Friedrich Nietzsche • Vladimir Soloviev • William James • Wilhelm Dilthey • C. S. 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gl-wikipedia-org-5212	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia, a enciclopedia libre Marco Aurelio Na Galipedia, a Wikipedia en galego. Saltar ata a navegación Saltar á procura Este artigo precisa de máis fontes ou referencias que aparezan nunha publicación acreditada que poidan verificar o seu contido, como libros ou outras publicacións especializadas no tema. Por favor, axude mellorando este artigo. (Desde febreiro de 2017.) Marco Aurelio Emperador de Roma. Busto de Marco Aurelio. Gliptoteca de Múnic. Reinado 8 de marzo de 161 - 169 (con Lucio Vero). 169 - 177 (en solitario). 177 - 17 de marzo de 180 (con Cómodo). Nome completo Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Nacemento 26 de abril de 121 Roma.[1] Falecemento 17 de marzo de 180 Vindobona ou Sirmio.[1] Predecesor Antonino Pío Sucesor Cómodo Consorte Faustina a Menor Descendencia Cómodo, Galeria Lucila, Marco Annio Vero César, Fadilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor Proxenitores Marco Annio Vero (biolóxico) Antonino Pío (adoptivo) Domicia Lucila v c e Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto[2] (alcumado o Sabio ou Filósofo[3]) (en latín: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus), nado en Roma o 26 de abril de 121[4] e finado o 17 de marzo de 180, foi co-emperador do Imperio Romano dende o ano 161 até o ano da súa morte en 180. Foi o derradeiro dos chamados Cinco bos emperadores, terceiro dos emperadores de orixe hispano[5] e está considerado como unha das figuras máis representativas da filosofía estoica. Marco Aurelio e Lucio Vero foron fillos adoptivos de Antonino Pío por mandato de Hadriano e os dous primeiros que imperaron conxuntamente na historia de Roma.[3] Índice 1 Comezo do seu mandato 2 A política exterior de Marco Aurelio 3 O problema xermano 4 Morte 5 Notas 6 Véxase tamén 6.1 Outros artigos Comezo do seu mandato[editar | editar a fonte] Antonino Pio asociara o seu goberno ao nome de Marco Aurelio. Nacido en Roma de familia hispana, este emperador que chegou ao poder aos 40 anos, pasou á historia como un eminente filósofo estoico, foi alén disto un grande xurista, home de vasta cultura e un emperador cunhas altas cualidades de estadista, aínda que o período que lle tocou vivir non tivera a brillantez dos inmediatamente anteriores. Con el péchase o período que ten definido como felicior aetas(a época máis feliz) Cando foi elevado ao imperio, Marco Aurelio posuía unha ampla experiencia de goberno, case 15 anos como césar xunto ao seu predecesor. Compartira ese cargo con Lucio Vero, quen recibira o título de augusto. Esta organización do cumio do poder (un emperador,un césar e un augusto) era garantía de continuidade. No 169, morreu Lucio Vero e Marco Aurelio asociou como augusto o seu fillo Cómodo, froito do seu matrimonio con Faustina, filla de Antonino Pio. Foi unha pésima elección como amosaron os acontecementos que seguiron. A historia tende a considerar este período como un punto de inflexión, tras o cal comeza unha longa e lenta decadencia de Roma. A burocracia converteuse nunha cuncha que asfixiaba o Estado e frustraba os logros e eficacia anteriores, e que a propia complicación administrativa e a política fiscal promoveron unhas diferenzas cada vez mais acusadas entre a cidade e o medio rural, aspecto que para moitos historiadores é causa a longo prazo da ruína do Imperio. A realidade é que por unha serie de causas, o sistema de equilibrios que até entón facían posible a Pax Romana entrou en crise. As ameazas nas fronteiras multiplicábanse e a maquinaria do Estado perdía eficacia. O mantemento dun exército en continua loita nos dilatados límites do Imperio resultaba moi gravoso para a facenda pública e a produción comeza a exceder a capacidade de consumo. A política exterior de Marco Aurelio[editar | editar a fonte] Estatua ecuestre do emperador romano Marco Aurelio, situada na Praza do Campidoglio, na actual cidade de Roma. Marco Aurelio pasou boa parte do seu mandato envorcado nos problemas exteriores e ausente de Roma. O rei parto Vologeso, que mantivera unha respectuosa distancia cos romanos no período anterior, reivindicou os seus dereitos sobre Armenia, invadíndoa no ano 161 e vencendo un exército romano. Non satisfeito con isto, invadiu Siria. O augusto Lucio Vero logrou mudar a situación, e ademais de recuperar Armenia, saqueou a capital parta Ctesifonte. A campaña parouse a causa dunha epidemia de peste que decimou as forzas dos dous bandos. Roma nunca máis volveu a impoñer a súa soberanía máis aló do Éufrates, pero por un tratado de paz, asegurouse que naquel intre a política daqueles non entrara en conflito cos intereses romanos (166). O problema xermano[editar | editar a fonte] Nas fronteiras do Danubio, a situación era moi preocupante, a causa da axitación dos pobos xermánicos (cuados, marcomanos, hermunduros). Sen que se saiba moi ben cal foi o desencadeamento, varios destes pobos racharon as defensas romanas, atravesaron os Alpes e chegaron á cidade de Aquilea, unha fundación romana na cabeceira do Mar Adriático, non lonxe da actual Venecia. Marco Aurelio e Lucio Vero venceron os cuados. Pouco despois, outros pobos, entre eles os marcomanos e os derrotados cuados, volveron á ofensiva. Marco Aurelio trasladouse á rexión danubiana e permaneceu nela ao longo de seis anos, deica o 175. Foi entón cando escribiu, en grego, os seus Pensamentos, un clásico da filosofía estoica. Venceu os cuados e marcomanos no 172 e 175 respectivamente. Logo, volveu a Roma e substituíunos á fronte das tropas o seu fillo Cómodo, quen apenas contaba con 20 anos. Morte[editar | editar a fonte] Marco Aurelio morre o 17 de marzo do 180 nunha expedición contra os marcomanos en Vindobona, a que é a actual Viena. A morte de Marco Aurelio marca, para moitos historiadores, o final da Pax Romana. Imperio Romano Segue a: Antonino Pío Marco Aurelio(161-180) Precede a: Cómodo Dinastía dos Antoninos Notas[editar | editar a fonte] ↑ 1,0 1,1 "Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Consultado o 7 de agosto de 2007.  ↑ Dende o seu ascenso ó trono Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Francisco de Padilla. Historia Ecclesiastica de España, 1605, T1, folio 78. ↑ Historia Augusta, "Marco Aurelio". ↑ Pisa Sánchez, Jorge (2010). "Breve Historia de Hispania". Nowtilus: 165. ISBN 8497637690. Consultado o 9 de novembro de 2012.  Véxase tamén[editar | editar a fonte] Commons ten máis contidos multimedia sobre: Marco Aurelio A Galicitas posúe citas sobre: Marco Aurelio Outros artigos[editar | editar a fonte] Cinco bos emperadores v c e Árbore familiar Nerva–Antonina (1) = primeira esposa (2) = segunda esposa (non mostrada) (3) = terceira esposa O púrpura escuro indica Emperador da dinastía Nerva-Antonina; púrpura claro indica herdeiro imperial designado que nunca reinou liñas discontinuas indican adopción; liñas punteadas indican relacións amorosas/fóra do matrimonio Versaleta = deificado póstumamente (Augusti, Augustae, ou outros) Q. Marcio Barea Sorano Q. Marcio Barea Sura Antonia Furnila M. Cocceio Nerva Serxia Plautila P. Elio Hadrián Tito (r. 79-81) Marcia Furnila Marcia Traxano Pai Nerva (r. 96–98) Ulpia Elio Hadrián Marulino Xulia Flavia Marciana C. Salonio Matidio Traxano (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acilio Atiano P. Elio Afer Paulina Maior L. Xulio Urso Serviano Lucio Mindio (2) Libón Rupilio Frugi (3) Matidia L. Vibio Sabino (1) Antínoo Hadrián (r. 117–138) Paulina Menor Matidia Minor Suetonio Sabina M. Annio Vero C. Fuscus Salinator I Xulia Serviana Paulina Rupilia Faustina Boionia Procilla Cn. Arrio Antonino L. Cesenio Paeto L. Ceionio Cómodo Apia Severa C. Fusco Salinator II Arria Antonia Arria Fadila T. Aurelio Fulvo L. Cesenio Antonino Lucio Cómodo Fundania Plautia Ignota Plautia C. Avidio Nigrino Antonino Pío (r. 138–161) M. Anio Vero Domitia Lucilla Fundania M. Anio Libón FAUSTINA Lucio Elio César Avidia Plautia Cornificia MARCO AURELIO (r. 161–180) FAUSTINA Menor C. Avidio Casio Aurelia Fadila LUCIO VERO (r. 161–169) (1) Ceionia Fabia Plautio Quintilo Q. Servilio Pudente Ceionia Plautia Cornificia Menor M. Petronio Sura CÓMODO (r. 177–192) Fadila M. Anio Vero César Ti. Claudio Pompeiano (2) Lucila M. Plautio Quintilo Xunio Licinio Balbo Servilia Ceionia Petronio Antonino L. Aurelio Agaclito (2) Aurelia Sabina L. Antistio Burro (1) Plautio Quintilo Plautia Servila C. Furio Sabino Timesiteo Antonia Gordiana Xunio Licinio Balbo Furia Sabina Tranquilina GORDIANO III (r. 238-244) Control de autoridades : Q1430 WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 BAV: ADV12179132 BIBSYS: 90564087 BLBNB: 000181323 BMT: 140707 BNA: 000026945 BNCHL: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: 11914476c BNR: 000136425 BRE: 2186553 BVMC: 356 CANTIC: a10491697 CERL: cnp01259662 CiNii: DA00596148 DBE: marco-aurelio DeutscheBio: 118577468 EBID: ID FAST: 54205 GEC: 0040045 GND: 118577468 Gutenberg: 998 IMDb: ch0002130 Isidore: marc_aurele_empereur_romain_auteur_du_texte ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LAC: 1020L1335F LCCN: n80051702 LibraryThing: aureliusmarcus LibriVox: 4398 MusicBrainz: ID NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NNDB: 000087718 NPG: mp83552 NTA: 06867452X OBP: ID OL: OL133986A openMLOL: 22237 PTBNP: 272140 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Treccani: marco-aurelio ULAN: 500115701 UNZ: AureliusMarcus WikiTree: Aurelius-1 Traído desde "https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=5564521" Categorías: Emperadores romanos Escritores en lingua grega Nados en 121 Finados en 180 Categorías ocultas: Wikipedia:Todos os artigos que requiren referencias Wikipedia:Artigos que requiren referencias desde febreiro de 2017 Menú de navegación Ferramentas persoais Non accedeu ao sistema Conversa Contribucións Crear unha conta Acceder ao sistema Espazos de nomes Artigo Conversa Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar a fonte Ver o historial Máis Procura Navegación Portada Portal da comunidade A Taberna Actualidade Cambios recentes Artigos de calidade Páxina aleatoria Axuda Doazóns Ferramentas Páxinas que ligan con esta Cambios relacionados Páxinas especiais Ligazón permanente Información da páxina Citar esta páxina Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Noutros proxectos Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Outras linguas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Editar as ligazóns A última edición desta páxina foi o 19 de agosto de 2020 ás 22:18. 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hak-wikipedia-org-3935	----	Marcus Aurelius - 自由編輯个維基百科 Marcus Aurelius Chhiùng Wikipedia lòi 跳至導覽 跳至搜尋 Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aurelius, 121-ngièn 4-ngie̍t 26-ngit －180-ngièn 3-ngie̍t 17-ngit), yúng yû Caesar chhṳ̂n-ho (Imperator Caesar), kì-he Lò-mâ Ti-koet ńg-hièn-ti sṳ̀ -thoi chui-heu yit-ke fòng-ti, yî 161-ngièn chṳ 180-ngièn chhai-vi, ngìn-chhṳ̂n “chet-ho̍k-kâ fòng-ti”. Marcus Aurelius he Lò-mâ Ti-koet chui ví-thai ke fòng-ti chṳ̂-yit, Sṳ̂-tô-kat ho̍k-phai ho̍k-chá, khì thúng-chhṳ sṳ̀ -khì pûn ngin-vì he Lò-mâ vòng-kîm sṳ̀ -thoi ke phiêu-tsì. Kì put-than he yit-ke hàn-yû chṳ-fi ke kiûn-chú, thùng-sṳ̀ ya-he yit-ke hàn-yû sṳ̀n-chhiu ke sṳ̂-sióng-kâ, yû-yî Hî-lia̍p-vùn siá-sṳ̀n ke kôan-yî Sṳ̂-tô-kat chet-ho̍k ke chho̍k-chok 《Chhṳ̀m-sṳ̂-liu̍k》 (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν) chhòn-sṳ. Chhai-cháng ke sî-fông vùn-mìn chṳ̂-chûng, Aurelius ya son-he yit-ke séu-kien ke hièn-kiûn. Aurelius yî 121-ngièn 4-ngie̍t 26-ngit sâng-yî Lò-mâ, chhai yit ke hàn-yû chṳn-chhṳ sṳ-li̍t yî-khi̍p fu-yû ke kâ-thìn chûng chhòng-thai. Séu-ke sṳ̀ -hèu chhiu pûn tông-sṳ̀ ke Lò-mâ fòng-ti Hadrianus chu-yi to, yîn yì tet-to thi̍t-sû ke kau-yuk. Liuk-se chit sṳ̂n-vì khì-sṳ kiê-kip, chhit-se ngi̍p-ho̍k yî lò-mâ ke Sat-li Sṳn-ho̍k-yen (Salii), pin tet-to kok-chúng vùn-fa chûng chîn-yîn ke kau-yuk. Chṳ̂n-chang pá Aurelius thûi-ngi̍p chṳn-thàn ke he chhièn-chêu fòng-ti Hâ tet liòng. Lòi chhṳ "https://hak.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=103291" Fûn-lui: Lò-mâ fòng-ti Thô-hòng chhoi-tân Sṳ̂-ngìn kûng-khí Hàn-mò tên-ngi̍p Kâu-liù Kung-hien Khôi fu-thèu Tên-ngi̍p Miàng-sṳ khûng-kiên 頁面/Ya̍p-mien 交流/Kâu-liù Pien-von Chhà-khon-sú Thu̍k Phiên-siá 編寫原始碼 Khon li̍t-sṳ́ 更多 Sêu-chhìm Thô-hòng Thèu-ya̍p Chui-khiûn kiên-kói Sùi-kî ya̍p-mien Pông-sú Sa-khî chú-ya̍p 廳下 Pông-sú 恁般讀客家話? 自家个測試 贊助𠊎兜維基媒體 Kûng-khí-siông Nâi-têu lièn to liá-têu Siông-kôan kiên-kói Sông-chhòn tóng-on Thi̍t-sû ya̍p Ku-thin lièn-kiet Ya̍p-mien chṳ̂-sín Yín-yung liá-ya̍p Wikidata hong-muk Yin-chho/fi-chhut Kien-li̍p sû-sit Hâ-chai vì PDF Cho-tet yin-chho ke pán-pún Khì-thâ chiá-moi kie-va̍k Wikimedia Commons Khì-thâ ngî-ngièn Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Phiên-siá lièn-kiet Liá-chak ya̍p-mien chui-khiûn siû-thin yî 10 Kiú-ngie̍t 2016 06:41. Só-yû vùn-sṳ tû-he thûng-yung Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; khì-thâ khí-thí ke thiàu-vùn chhiáng ngì khon Terms of Use. Yún-sṳ̂ chṳn-chhet Yû-kôan Wikipedia Miên-chit sâng-mìn Sú-kî pán kiám-sṳ Khôi-fat ngìn-yèn 統計 Cookie sâng-mìn 
he-wikipedia-org-3128	----	מרקוס אורליוס – ויקיפדיה לדלג לתוכן שינוי מצב סרגל צד חיפוש כלים אישיים לא בחשבון שיחה תרומות יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון תפריט ניווט ניווט עמוד ראשי ברוכים הבאים שינויים אחרונים ערכים מומלצים פורטלים ערך אקראי תרומה לוויקיפדיה קהילה שער הקהילה עזרה ייעוץ מזנון כיכר העיר חדשות לוח מודעות יצירת קשר ספר אורחים כלים דפים המקושרים לכאן שינויים בדפים המקושרים דפים מיוחדים קישור קבוע מידע על הדף ציטוט דף זה פריט ויקינתונים הדפסה/ייצוא יצירת ספר הורדה כ־PDF גרסה להדפסה במיזמים אחרים ויקישיתוף ויקיציטוט ויקיטקסט דף זה בשפות אחרות English Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 עריכת הקישורים מרחבי שם ערך שיחה גרסאות שפה צפיות קריאה עריכת קוד מקור עריכה גרסאות קודמות עוד מרקוס אורליוס מתוך ויקיפדיה, האנציקלופדיה החופשית מרקוס אורליוס Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus פסל ראש וחזה של הקיסר מרקוס אורליוס, מוצג, נכון ל-2007, בגליפטותק, מינכן, גרמניה לידה 26 באפריל 121 רומא, האימפריה הרומית פטירה 17 במרץ 180 (בגיל 58) וינדובונה, האימפריה הרומית שם מלא 1. מרקוס אניוס קטיליוס סוורוס (121-138) 2. מרקוס אניוס ורוס (128-161) 3. אימפרטור קיסר מרקוס אורליוס אנטונינוס אוגוסטוס (לאחר ההכתרה) מדינה האימפריה הרומית מקום קבורה איטליה טירת סנטאנג'לו, רומא עיסוק פוליטיקאי, פילוסוף, סופר בת זוג אניה גלריה פאוסטינה הצעירה שושלת הנרווה-אנטונינים אב מרקוס אניוס ורוס אנטונינוס פיוס (מאמץ) אם דומיטיה לוקילה צאצאים קומודוס Marcus Annius Verus Caesar Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina Fadilla Lucilla Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor Vibia Aurelia Sabina Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus Domitia Faustina קיסר האימפריה הרומית ה־16 7 במרץ 161–17 במרץ 180 (19 שנים) שותף לשלטון 1. לוקיוס ורוס (161-169) 2. קומודוס (177-180) → אנטונינוס פיוס, אביו המאמץ קומודוס, בנו ← מַרְקוּס אוֹרֶלְיוּס אנטונינוס אוגוסטוס (בלטינית: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus‏; 26 באפריל 121 - 17 במרץ 180), היה קיסר רומא ופילוסוף. הוא שלט יחד עם לוקיוס ורוס משנת 161 ועד מותו של ורוס בשנת 169, והמשיך לשלוט עד מותו בשנת 180. הוא היה האחרון מבין "חמשת הקיסרים הטובים", ונחשב לאחד הפילוסופים הסטואים החשובים ביותר. את רוב ימי שלטונו הקדיש אורליוס להרחבת גבולותיה המזרחיים והצפוניים של האימפריה הרומית. תוכן עניינים 1 קורות חייו 2 ייחודו כסטואיקן 3 תרגומי כתביו לעברית 4 ראו גם 5 לקריאה נוספת 6 קישורים חיצוניים 7 הערות שוליים קורות חייו[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מרקוס אורליוס נולד ברומא, בירת האימפריה, למשפחה מבוססת מהאריסטוקרטיה הרומאית. סב-רבו, מרקוס אניוס ורוס, שימש בתפקיד פראיטור. אביו מת כשהיה בגיל צעיר, והיו לו זכרונות מעטים מאביו[דרוש מקור]. מרקוס אורליוס זכה לחינוך הטוב ביותר באותה תקופה, ותואר כילד שקט, אך חובב ספורט היאבקות וציד. עם השנים התקרב לקיסר אדריאנוס באמצעות קשרי נישואים. אדריאנוס אהב אותו מאוד ולפני מותו, אימץ את אנטונינוס פיוס ליורש, וציווה עליו שבשנות שלטונו יאמץ את מרקוס אורליוס ולוקיוס ורוס, בן של קרובו של אדריאנוס, כדי שיהיו יורשיו. מרקוס אורליוס נשא לאישה ב-145 את גלריה פאוסטינה (אנ'), בתו של הקיסר אנטונינוס פיוס. לזוג נולדו שלושה עשר ילדים במהלך נישואיהם. עם מותו של אנטונינוס פיוס ב-161 הפך מרקוס אורליוס לקיסר יחיד. על פי צוואתו של הקיסר אדריאנוס, מינה את לוקיוס ורוס כשותפו לשלטון. אף על פי שמבחינה רשמית הם היו שותפים שווים בשלטון, בפועל מעמדו של ורוס הצעיר והבלתי מנוסה היה נחות מזה של אורליוס.[דרוש מקור] מרקוס אורליוס נאלץ להתמודד עם אתגרים צבאיים רבים, השבטים הגרמאנים שישבו מעבר לנהר הדנובה ניסו לפרוץ את גבולותיה של האימפריה הרומית. ב-178 יצא מרקוס אורליוס למערכה עם צבאו, כדי לייצב את גבול האימפריה באזור הרי הקרפטים של בוהמיה וגליציה (צ'כיה ודרום פולין המודרניות). הוא זכה בניצחונות על השבטים הגרמניים, אך נכנע למגפה שפקדה את האזור. הוא נאלץ לדכא מרד במזרח שהובל על ידי גאיוס אווידיוס קסיוס(אנ') בשנת 175. במהלך העשור האחרון לחייו (180-170 לספירה), תוך כדי מלחמותיו בשבטים הגרמאניים, אורליוס חיבר את ספרו הפילוסופי "רעיונות".[1] מרקוס אורליוס מת בוינדובונה(אנ') (וינה המודרנית שבאוסטריה) ב-180 לספירה, אחרי שנדבק במחלה כתוצאה ממגפה. בנו קומודוס ירש אותו אחרי מותו. אורליוס היה מן הנאורים שבשליטי רומא. הוא הושפע מכתביו של הפילוסוף אפיקטטוס, והפך לפילוסוף סטואי. הוא ניהל אורח חיים צנוע, וראה מתפקידו לדאוג לחינוכם של הדורות הבאים. אורליוס גילם את רעיון השליט-הפילוסוף שבכתבי אפלטון. הוא כתב את יצירתו "הרהורים" עבור עצמו, כמדריך לשיפור אישיותו והתנהגותו. אך יצירה זו הפכה לחלק של הספרות הסטואית, ושל תורת המוסר בפילוסופיה הרומית. פסל מרקוס אורליוס ברומא קיסרי רומא שאפו לפאר ולהנציח את שמם והדרך היחידה לממש מטרה זו הייתה האמנות. הקיסרים בנו פסלים ומבנים שונים שבהם תוארו. אורליוס בנה פסל בדמותו הניצב במרכז רומא. בפסל זה הוא מתואר כרוכב על סוס ונואם אל העם. האנדרטה הייתה מצופה זהב ועקבות הציפוי ניכרים עד ימינו. בנוסף לכך, הוקם לכבודו עמוד מרקוס אורליוס לאחר ניצחון גדול במלחמה. מאורעות המלחמה מונצחים על העמוד בתבליט. כמעט שאין בידינו ידיעות אודות יחסיו של מרקוס אורליוס עם היהודים. לפי מקור אחד, מפיו של ההיסטוריון בן המאה הרביעית אמיאנוס מרקלינוס, אפשר ויחסו של אורליוס כלפי היהודים היה עוין ומלא בוז.[2] לעומת זאת, היו שזיהו את מרקוס אורליוס עם "אנטונינוס" ידידו של רבי יהודה הנשיא המופיע בסיפורים שונים בתלמודים.[3] חוקרים אחרים דחו זיהוי זה מטעמים שונים.[4] ייחודו כסטואיקן[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] גישתו הסטואית של אורליוס הושפעה רבות מאפיקטטוס, אך קיננה בו גם תחושת שותפות עם הטבע והאנושות - שותפות שהוא מזהה כחובה של אזרח במדינה האידיאלית. במילים אחרות, המלך-הפילוסוף נותר אצלו בגדר אידיאל מוסרי ולא מדיני. אורליוס התמקד במידותיו, בתהליך ההתפתחות המוסרית של עצמו, וביחסו כלפי אחרים.[5] תרגומי כתביו לעברית[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] רעיונות מרקוס אברליוס אנטונינוס (תרגם מיוונית: א' קמינקא), ורשה: הוצאת אברהם יוסף שטיבל, תרפ"ג. הרהורים של מרקוס אורליוס (תרגם מיוונית והקדים מבוא: א' ויסמן) ירושלים, י' מרכוס ושות', תשמ"א-1981. מרקוס אורליוס: מחשבות לעצמי תרגם מיוונית, כתב מבוא והוסיף הערות: אברהם ארואטי, בנימינה: נהר ספרים, 2012. ראו גם[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מרקוס אורליוס (פסל) עמוד מרקוס אורליוס לקריאה נוספת[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] היסטוריה אוגוסטה: הקיסרים האנטונינים, מרקוס אורליוס, עמ' 103–147. תרגם מלטינית, הוסיף מבוא והערות דוד גולן. ירושלים, הוצאת ספרים ע"ש י"ל מאגנס, 2007. (הספר בקטלוג ULI) זאב רובין, פרק בחינוכו של קיסר רומי, זמנים, 2, חורף 1980, עמ' 30–37 קישורים חיצוניים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מיזמי קרן ויקימדיה ציטוטים בוויקיציטוט: מרקוס אורליוס טקסט בוויקיטקסט: מחבר:מרקוס אורליוס תמונות ומדיה בוויקישיתוף: מרקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס - קיסר ופילוסוף מאמר באתר אקרופוליס החדשה מרקוס אורליוס, באתר "Find a Grave" (באנגלית) מרקוס אורליוס, באתר אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה (באנגלית) הערות שוליים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] ^ משה עמית, תולדות הקיסרות הרומית, (ירושלים: מאגנס, תשס"ג), עמ' 518-519. ^ אמיאנוס מרקלינוס, 22.5.5 ^ יעקב בן-שלמה זלוטניק, זיהוי אנטונינוס ידיד רבי, סיני כא (תש"ז), עמ' קלו-קמז ^ משה עמית, תולדות הקיסרות הרומית, הוצאת מאגנס, האוניברסיטה העברית, תשס"ג, עמ' 525-526 ^ פילוסופיה - בעריכת פרופ' ג'.או. יורמסון, הוצאת ש. פרידמן, 1967 קיסרי רומא תקופת הפרינקיפט אוגוסטוס קיסר • טיבריוס קיסר • קליגולה • קלאודיוס קיסר • נירון קיסר • גלבה • אותו • ויטליוס • אספסיאנוס • טיטוס • דומיטיאנוס • נרווה • טראיאנוס • אדריאנוס • אנטונינוס פיוס • לוקיוס ורוס • מרקוס אורליוס • קומודוס • פרטינקס • דידיוס יוליאנוס • ספטימיוס סוורוס • קרקלה • מקרינוס • אלאגבאלוס • אלכסנדר סוורוס תקופת משבר המאה השלישית מקסימינוס תראקס • גורדיאנוס הראשון עם גורדיאנוס השני • פופיאנוס ובלבינוס • גורדיאנוס השלישי • פיליפוס הערבי • דקיוס עם הרניוס אטרוסקוס • טרבוניאנוס גאלוס עם הוסטיליאנוס • טרבוניאנוס גאלוס עם וולוסיאנוס • איימליאנוס • ולריאנוס עם גליאנוס • גליאנוס • קלאודיוס השני גותיקוס • קווינטילוס • אורליאנוס • טקיטוס • פלוריאנוס • פרובוס • קארוס • קארינוס עם נומריאנוס תקופת הדומינט דיוקלטיאנוס עם מקסימיאנוס • קונסטנטיוס כלורוס • גלריוס • פלביוס ולריוס סוורוס • מקסימינוס דאיה • מקסנטיוס • ליקיניוס • קונסטנטינוס "הגדול" • קונסטנטיוס השני עם קונסטנס ועם קונסטנטינוס השני• יוליאנוס • יוביאנוס • ולנטיניאנוס הראשון עם ואלנס • גרטיאנוס עם ולנטיניאנוס השני • תאודוסיוס הראשון האימפריה הרומית בקרת זהויות BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BnF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: [1] NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VcBA: 495/54003 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat: lccn-n80051702 אוחזר מתוך "https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=מרקוס_אורליוס&oldid=31053689" קטגוריות: קיסרי רומא פילוסופים רומאים השושלת הנרווה-אנטונינית ילידי 121 נפטרים ב-180 קטגוריות מוסתרות: ויקינתונים:ערכים חסרי תווית בעברית: צאצא ויקינתונים:ערכים חסרי תווית בעברית ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: אב ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: אם ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים: אזרחות ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: מקום קבורה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: מקום לידה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: מקום פטירה ויקיפדיה: ערכים הדורשים מקורות ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BIBSYS ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNE ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה CANTIC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה CINII ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה GND ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ISNI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LCCN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LNB ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה MusicBrainz ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NDL ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NKC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLG ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLK ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLP ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLR ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NSK ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NTA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה RERO ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SELIBR ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SNAC-ID ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SUDOC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה Trove ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ULAN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VcBA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VIAF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה WORLDCATID בקרת זהויות עם 29 פריטים דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־3 באפריל 2021, בשעה 17:04. הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון Creative Commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה 3.0; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר' את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. מדיניות הפרטיות אודות ויקיפדיה הבהרות משפטיות תצוגת מכשירים ניידים מפתחים סטטיסטיקות הצהרה על עוגיות 
hi-wikipedia-org-7256	----	मार्कस ऑरेलियस - विकिपीडिया मार्कस ऑरेलियस मुक्त ज्ञानकोश विकिपीडिया से Jump to navigation Jump to search मार्कस ऑरेलियस एन्तोनिअस आगस्तस Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France Joint 16th Emperor of the Roman Empire शासनावधि 8 March 161 – 17 March 180 पूर्ववर्ती Antoninus Pius उत्तरवर्ती Commodus Co-emperors Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) जन्म 26 अप्रैल 121 Rome निधन 17 मार्च 180(180-03-17) (उम्र 58) Vindobona or Sirmium समाधि Hadrian's Mausoleum संतान 14, incl. Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla पूरा नाम Marcus Annius Verus (name at birth,[1][2] or upon the death of his father and adoption by his grandfather, or upon coming of age[3]) Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (name at birth,[3] or for some period of his youth[2]) Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus (name at birth[4]) Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus (upon adoption by Antoninus Pius[5]) Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (as imperial heir) Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (upon joint ascension, with Lucius Verus, to the throne[4]) राजवंश Antonine पिता Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (adoptive) माता Domitia Lucilla मार्कस ऑरेलियस (Marcus Aurelius ; /ɔːˈriːliəs/; लातिन : Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus;[6][notes 1][9] 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 AD) रोम का सम्राट था जिसने १६१ से १८० ई॰ तक शासन किया। वह उन पाँच सम्राटों में अन्तिम सम्राट था जिन्हें 'पाँच अच्छे सम्राट' कहा जाता है। वह स्टोइक दर्शन का अभ्यासी था। उसने बिना शीर्षक के एक पुस्तक की रचना की थी जिसे आजकल 'मेडिटेशन्स' (Meditations) नाम से जाना जाता है। वर्तमान समय में प्राचीन स्टोइक दर्शन को समझने की यह महत्वपूर्ण स्रोत है। बहुत से टिप्पणीकार दर्शन की महानतम पुस्तकों में इसे गिनते हैं।[10] सन्दर्भ[संपादित करें] ↑ Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 8 p. 139 ↑ अ आ Birley ch. 2 p. 33 ↑ अ आ Historia MA I.9–10 ↑ अ आ Companion to Marcus Aurelius, ch. 5 p. 78 ↑ Birley ch. 2 p. 39 ↑ In Classical Latin, Aurelius' name would be inscribed as MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ↑ Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 315–403), in his chronology of the Roman emperors, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus (vide: Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures – The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 32) ↑ Desmond Collins (19 July 1973). Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting. Cambridge University Press Archive. पृ॰ 58. GGKEY:XUFU58U7ESS. मूल से 15 अप्रैल 2017 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 26 अगस्त 2017. सन्दर्भ त्रुटि: "notes" नामक सन्दर्भ-समूह के लिए <ref> टैग मौजूद हैं, परन्तु समूह के लिए कोई <references group="notes"/> टैग नहीं मिला। यह भी संभव है कि कोई समाप्ति </ref> टैग गायब है। "https://hi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=मार्कस_ऑरेलियस&oldid=4785322" से लिया गया श्रेणियाँ: रोमन सम्राट दार्शनिक छुपी हुई श्रेणियाँ: लातिनी भाषा पाठ वाले लेख सन्दर्भ त्रुटि के साथ पृष्ठ दिक्चालन सूची व्यक्तिगत उपकरण लॉग इन नहीं किया है वार्ता योगदान खाता बनाएँ लॉग इन नामस्थान लेख संवाद संस्करण दर्शाव पढ़ें सम्पादन इतिहास देखें और खोजें परिभ्रमण मुखपृष्ठ चौपाल हाल में हुए परिवर्तन हाल की घटनाएँ समाज मुखपृष्ठ निर्वाचित विषयवस्तु यादृच्छिक लेख योगदान प्रयोगपृष्ठ अनुरोध दान करें सहायता सहायता स्वशिक्षा अक्सर पूछे जाने वाले प्रश्न देवनागरी कैसे टाइप करें दूतावास (Embassy) उपकरण यहाँ क्या जुड़ता है पृष्ठ से जुड़े बदलाव फ़ाइल अपलोड विशेष पृष्ठ स्थायी कड़ी इस पृष्ठ पर जानकारी छोटा यू॰आर॰एल यह लेख उद्धृत करें Wikidata प्रविष्टि मुद्रण/निर्यात पुस्तक बनायें पीडीएफ़ रूप डाउनलोड करें प्रिन्ट करने लायक अन्य परियोजनाओं में विकिमीडिया कॉमन्स अन्य भाषाओं में Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 कड़ी संपादित करें अन्तिम परिवर्तन 11:05, 15 जून 2020। यह सामग्री क्रियेटिव कॉमन्स ऍट्रीब्यूशन/शेयर-अलाइक लाइसेंस के तहत उपलब्ध है; अन्य शर्ते लागू हो सकती हैं। विस्तार से जानकारी हेतु देखें उपयोग की शर्तें गोपनीयता नीति विकिपीडिया के बारे में अस्वीकरण मोबाइल दृश्य डेवेलपर्स Statistics कुकी का वर्णन 
hr-wikipedia-org-7250	----	Marko Aurelije – Wikipedija Marko Aurelije Izvor: Wikipedija Prijeđi na navigaciju Prijeđi na pretraživanje Marko Aurelije Marko Aurelije Antička filozofija Helenističko-rimsko razdoblje Rođenje 121. Smrt 180. Škola/tradicija Stoa Glavni interesi Etika, Religija Portal o životopisima Marko Aurelije, lat. Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, rođen kao Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (Rim, 26. travnja 121. – Vindobona (Beč), 17. ožujka 180.), vladao od godine 161. do smrti (po jednima od raka, po drugima od malarije), rimski car i filozof. Pesimističke crte njegove stoičke filozofije javljaju se u razdoblju opadanja moći Rimskog carstva, pa se u njegovim kontemplacijama o pokvarenosti i taštini svijeta i o prolaznosti i kratkom trajanju ljudskog života pokazuju elementi fatalizma karakteristični za to povijesno razdoblje, a u izvjesnom smislu i za stoičku rimsku filozofiju u cjelini. "Vrijeme je ljudskog života trenutak; bit tog života je vječiti tijek; osjet je nejasan; struktura čitavog tijela trošna; duša – nepostojana; sudbina – zagonetna; slava – nepouzdana. Jednom riječju, sve što se odnosi na tijelo slično je rijeci; sve što se odnosi na dušu – snu i dimu." Sve se zbiva ne samo u skladu s određenim poretkom već i u skladu s optimalnom pravednošću. Njegovo jedino djelo "Samomu sebi", napisano na grčkom jeziku i nastalo na bojnim pohodima koje je car vodio tijekom cijeloga života (na jednome od njih je i umro, pretpostavlja se od malarije), filozofski je dnevnik u kojem se jasno ističu pomirljive tendencije njegove filozofije, kao i težnja k etičkom usavršavanju. Čak je i zlo u svijetu, po Marku Aureliju, dio svjetskog božanskog plana, i u ovom savršenom i harmoničnom svijetu ono je samo prirodna pojava koja ulazi u svjetski poredak stvari. Onaj, međutim, koji narušava taj poredak čini nepravdu, jer iz razumnosti svega postojećeg proizlazi potreba o pokoravanju postojećim zakonima. Život je prolazni trenutak: "Zato provedi taj trenutak vremena u skladu s prirodom, a zatim se rastani sa životom isto onako lako kao što pada zrela maslina: slaveći prirodu koja ju je rodila i puna zahvalnosti prema drveću koje ju je odgojilo." Kao što je Bertrand Russell primijetio, čitajući Marka Aurelija jasno osjećamo dah jednoga umornoga i zasićenoga doba, doba kojega su najbolji protagonisti tražili utjehu u etici pasivizma i fatalizma. Stavimo li careve "Meditacije" pokraj Descartesovih, odmah je uočljiva razlika između jedne ere koja ide kraju i druge, pune nade i vjere u budućnost. Marko Aurelije je posljednji car iz perioda znanog kao Pet dobrih careva (96. – 180.). Skoro čitava njegova vladavina ispunjena je ratovima. Godine 162. partski kralj Vologaz III. je napao Armeniju i učvrstio na prijestolju svog kandidata. Namjesnik provincije Kapadokije mu je pokušao pružiti otpor, ali je poginuo u bitki. Partske postrojbe upale su u Siriju i napale sirske gradove. Rimljani su zauzeli Armeniju, a zatim i Mezopotamiju. Rimska vojska je prešla Tigris i upala u Mediju. Ali, među postrojbama se iznenada pojavila kuga, koja je Rimljanima nanijela velike gubitke. Rat je završio 166. Armenija je ponovno postala kraljevina. Veliki dio osvojenog teritorija vraćen je Partskom kraljevstvu. Pod rimskom vlašću ostao je samo sjeverozapadni dio Mezopotamije. U Arabiji je sagrađen limes. Već 167. na teritorij carstva provaljuju Markomani, Kvadi i Sarmati. Marko Aurelije je pripremio novi pohod, ali je već na njegovom početku umro Aurelijev vojskovođa i suvladar Lucije Var. Rat je završio pobjedom Rimljana 175., a dio barbara naseljen je na rimskom teritoriju. Rat s Kvadima i Markomanima je obnovljen 177. i Marko Aurelije kreće u novi pohod. I ovaj je pohod završio pobjedom Rimljana, ali se car razbolio i umro na području današnjeg Beča. Naslijedio ga je nesposobni sin Komod (180. – 31. prosinca 192.). Prethodnik: Rimski carevi Nasljednik: Antonin Pio (138. – 161.) Komod (180. – 193.) Relevantni članci[uredi | uredi kôd] Na Zajedničkom poslužitelju postoje datoteke na temu: Marko Aurelije. 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hu-wikipedia-org-8147	----	Marcus Aurelius római császár – Wikipédia Marcus Aurelius római császár A Wikipédiából, a szabad enciklopédiából Ez a közzétett változat, ellenőrizve: 2021. január 9. 4 változtatás vár ellenőrzésre. Pontosság ellenőrzött Ugrás a navigációhoz Ugrás a kereséshez Marcus Aurelius Marcus Annius Catillius Severus (születési)[1] Marcus Annius Verus (130-tól,[2] apja halála után[3]) Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (139-től)[4] Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Verus Augustus (uralkodói)[5] Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Marcus Aurelius a Római Birodalom princepse Uralkodási ideje 161. március 7.[6] – 180. március 17.[7] (19 évig) Elődje Antoninus Pius Utódja Commodus, Lucilla Életrajzi adatok Uralkodóház Antoninus-dinasztia Született 121. április 26. Róma Elhunyt 180. március 17. (58 évesen) Vindobona vagy Sirmium Nyughelye Hadrianus Mauzóleuma Édesapja Marcus Annius Verus Édesanyja Domitia Lucilla Testvérei Annia Cornificia Faustina Házastársa Faustina Minor Gyermekei Commodus A Wikimédia Commons tartalmaz Marcus Aurelius témájú médiaállományokat. Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Verus Augustus, általánosan elterjedt néven Marcus Aurelius császár, született Marcus Annius Catillius Severus (Róma, 121. április 26. – Vindobona vagy Sirmium, 180. március 17.) – a Római Birodalom császára (161. március 7. – 180. március 17.) Tartalomjegyzék 1 Élete 1.1 Családja és ifjúkora 1.2 Társuralkodó 1.3 Háborúi 1.4 Viszonya a keresztényekhez 1.5 Kapcsolata Kínával 1.6 Halála 2 Utódai és történelmi öröksége 2.1 Önéletírása 2.2 Ábrázolása a művészetben 2.2.1 Szobrok, érmék 2.2.2 Versek 2.2.3 Regények 2.2.4 Filmek 3 Magyarul 4 Megjegyzések 5 Hivatkozások 6 Források 7 További információk 7.1 Dokumentumfilmek Élete[szerkesztés] Családja és ifjúkora[szerkesztés] Ragadványneve Verus helyett anyai nagyapja után lett Catillius Severus. Dédapja Marcus Annius Verus Hispaniából származott, családjából ő lett először szenátor. Nagyapja – szintén Marcus Annius Verus – Vespasianus idején kezdte politikai karrierjét és Hadrianus idején már harmadszor volt consul és Róma praefectusa.[8] Apja Marcus Annius Verus, praetor, Antoninus Pius császár feleségének fivére, anyja Domitia Lucilla. Előkelő hispániai (Baetica provincia, Ucubi kisváros), konzuli család (Annius) fia, az Antoninusok császári házának rokonságához tartozott. Édesapja korán meghalt, nagyapja nevelte és kisgyermek korától Róma leggazdagabb, patriciusok lakta részén (Collis Caelius) élt. – Fiatalon Hadrianus császár kedvelte tehetségéért, művelődési készségéért, igazságra törekvéséért, tetterejéért. – Kora gyermekkorának tanítói után tanárai közt volt Diognetus, Alexander Cotiaeum, Trosius Aper és Tuticius Proculus. Bölcseleti (retorikai) tanulmányokkal foglalkozott Herodes Atticus, Marcus Cornelius Fronto és Junius Rusticus vezetésével. Görög nyelvre, irodalomra Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer és Herodes Atticus oktatták, míg filozófiából Quintus Junius Rusticus és Apollóniosz Chalcedon személyes ismertsége volt rá a legnagyobb hatással. Formális tanulmányait a jogtudomány megismerésével fejezte be. Műveltségével – különösen görögtudásával – korának arisztokrata fiataljai közül is kiemelkedett. Már hatéves korában – Hadrianus ajánlásával, szokatlanul fiatalon – a lovagrend (Ordo equester) tagja lett (127), majd – ugyancsak kivételezett módon – bekerült a Salii papi kollégiumba (128), ahol az évente sorra kerülő ünnepségeken nagyon komolyan teljesítette feladatait, amikre később is megelégedéssel, örömmel emlékezett vissza. Kora ifjú éveit Rómán kívül, a Birodalom határán vagy vidéken igazgatási munkával, a helyi ügyek intézésével töltötte. Amikor visszatért a városba (135), fiatal arisztokratákkal és a császári család tagjaival együtt dolgozott a Róma városának, kikötőinek, valamint a város környékének alapvető hatósági ügyeit intéző prefektusi hivatalban, részt vett vallási ünnepek megszervezésében is. Ezzel a munkával gyakorlatában ismerte meg a közigazgatás szinte minden területét, feladatát. – Quaestor (139), majd konzul (140) volt, de megismerkedett a Birodalom pénzügyeivel és a pénzügypolitikával is (triumvir monetalis). Végül Tribunicia potestas lett (147). Hadrianus halála után Antoninus Pius, Hadrianus kívánságát teljesítve, Lucius Verussal együtt adoptálta (138). A következő években magas tisztségeket töltött be, és 145-ben feleségül vette a császár lányát, Faustinát (Annia Galeria Faustina II – 130–176). Fogadott apjának, apósának hű és meghitt fiaként/barátjaként osztozott az uralkodás gondjaiban és jártasságot szerzett a császári hatalommal járó feladatok megoldásában. Miután megismerkedett a sztoicizmus eszméivel, azoknak megfelelően igyekezett élni. Így lett a sztoicizmus egyik legjelentősebb római képviselője. Császárként, a birodalmat ért súlyos csapások alatt is bátorságával, kötelességei kitartással történő teljesítésével, ha kellett az egyéni örömökről való lemondással, önmegtartóztatással, sokszor kimerülten és kételkedve, a konfliktusokban a természet törvényeinek megfelelően rendezett élettel, az emberi életben a tökéletesség felé törekedve is a sztoikus erényeket követte, azoknak szentelte magát. „Szerezd… meg magadnak azt, ami… tőled függ: légy őszinte, méltóságteljes, munkabíró, ne hajhászd az élvezetet, ne elégedetlenkedj sorsoddal, légy kevéssel beérő, jóindulatú, szabad, komoly, keresetlen, nagylelkű. Nem érzed-e, hogy mennyi mindent meg tudnál szerezni, amire nem hozhatod fel kifogásnak az alkalmatlanságot, a rátermettség hiányát? Te pedig szántszándékkal alatta maradsz a mércének? Vajon a rátermettség hiánya kényszerít rá, hogy zúgolódj, az élethez görcsösen ragaszkodj, hízelegj, testi állapotodat okold, hogy tetszelegj, hogy komolytalan légy, hogy lelkednek annyi nyugtalanságot okozz? Nem!, az istenekre nem! Mindezeket a hibákat már régen levetkőzhetted volna, s legföljebb csak azzal vádolhatnának, hogy valóban lassúbb, nehezebb felfogású vagy. Ezen is segítened kell azonban gyakorlással, s nem szabad elnézned magadnak ezt a mentségedet, vagy éppen tetszelegned benne.”[9] Társuralkodó[szerkesztés] Marcus Aurelius mellszobra, Capitolium Múzeumok, Róma Amikor Antoninus Pius meghalt (161. március 7.), zökkenőmentesen és osztatlan támogatással vette át a hatalmat, úgy, hogy Lucius Verus lett a társuralkodója. Sokat tettek a Rómában kitört éhínség enyhítésére, lecsendesítették a Germania Inferior és Britannia provinciákban kitört lázadásokat. A közös uralkodást többek között a katonai igények is indokolták, mivel uralkodásának egész időtartama alatt a Birodalom háborúkat viselt különböző külső ellenségekkel. A csapatok irányítását nagy tekintélyű személyre kellett bíznia, hiszen a császár egymaga egyidejűleg nem vezethette a germánok és a Pártus Birodalom támadásai elleni harcokat. Tábornokot sem nevezhetett ki a római légiók vezényletére; a korábbi népszerű katonai vezetők, mint például Julius Caesar vagy Vespasianus arra használták a katonaságot, hogy megdöntsék a fennálló hatalmat és magukat választassák meg császárnak. Ő úgy oldotta meg a problémát, hogy Verust elküldte a keleti légiók élére. Verus elég tekintélyes volt ahhoz, hogy biztosítsa a csapatok lojalitását, ugyanakkor elég hatalmas volt ahhoz, hogy keveset nyerjen az ő megdöntésével, az egyedüli, az önálló császári hatalommal. A terve bevált; Verus hűséges társa maradt a pártus-hadjárat után bekövetkezett haláláig. A társcsászárság emlékeztetett a római köztársaság politikai berendezkedésére, amely nem engedte meg, hogy egyetlen személy birtokolja a legfőbb hatalmat. Háborúi[szerkesztés] Uralkodása szakadatlan háborúkkal telt el. A támadó pártusok elleni hadjáratot (162–166) tábornokai vitték sikerre. A keletről hazatérő sereg azonban pestist hurcolt magával, amely fertőzésével szörnyű pusztítást végzett az egész Birodalomban. Eközben a Dunán átözönlő germán törzsek feldúlták az észak-itáliai Opitergiumot. Megostromolták Aquileiát, és városáig nyomultak előre, ahonnan csak súlyos harcok árán sikerült őket visszaverni. Győzelmét Rómában emlékoszlopon örökítették meg. Lucius Verus halálát (169) követően egyedüli uralkodóként fogott hozzá Pannonia védelmi problémájának megoldásához. A hadi költségek fedezésére elárvereztette a császári kincstárat és gondosan készülve indult Pannoniába. A harcok nagy kiterjedésű frontszakaszon és különböző helyeken folytak. Előbb a markomannok és kvádok, egy évre rá pedig a szarmaták, jazigok ellen győzött (170–174; 175).[megj 1] Ellenségeit a Birodalom érdekeinek megfelelő békére kényszerítette. Az esetleges újabb támadások ellen katonasággal erősítette meg a határon épített védelmi rendszer (limes) táborait. A térség tartós rendjét úgy is biztosítani remélte, hogy a határtartományokba idegeneket telepített. A telepeseknek olyan jogokat adott, amelyek alapján azok colonusok lettek. Ezzel hozzájárult a dunai provinciák gazdasági megerősödéséhez, városaik fejlődéséhez. Tervezte, hogy a Dunától, Pannonia és Noricum provinciáktól északra (a mai Nyugat-Szlovákia a morva területekkel) és keletre, Pannóniától Dacia provinciáig (a Duna–Tisza köze és a Tiszántúl egy része) új provinciákat létesít (Markomannia, Sarmatia). Elképzelésében megakadályozta, hogy Avidius Cassius, szíriai helytartó – a pártus háborúban jeleskedő egyik vezére, majd az egyiptomi pásztorok agrárjellegű felkelésének leverője (172) – fellázadt Róma ellen. Emiatt a pannóniai hadszínteret, térséget el kellett hagynia, terve realizálását fel kellett függesztenie, s a keleti tartományokba kényszerült menni. Cassius gyorsan elvesztette hívei támogatottságát, s azok a császári légiók odaérkezése előtt megölték őt. A Dunához ismét határsértések szólították (177). Carnuntumnál újra megverte a kvádokat (178), de a terület teljes pacifikálását ezúttal sem sikerült befejeznie. Váratlan halála miatt szándéka – a Birodalom határvidékei tartós békéjének biztosítása – soha sem valósult meg. Viszonya a keresztényekhez[szerkesztés] Uralkodása első időszakában a keresztények békében élhettek, számuk egyre nőtt. Környezete azonban a háborúkért, az éhínségért és a pestisért a keresztényeket tette felelőssé, ezért elindította a 4. keresztényüldözést (176), amely a birodalom egészére kiterjedt. A rangosabbakat száműzték, a többieket kivégezték. Rómában Justinianus vértanú (100–165), Lugdunum Sequanorumban (ma Lyon) 48 keresztény (177), Pergamonban Karposz, Papülosz és Agathoniké lett az üldözés áldozata (161 és 169 között a későbbi történetírók szerint). Nincsenek biztos, megbízható adatok a császársága idején történt üldöztetés pontos helyeiről, illetve az áldozatok számáról. Kapcsolata Kínával[szerkesztés] Egy kínai történeti munka[10] említést tesz a Kínai Birodalomba küldött első római követekről, akik egy császár megbízásából mentek oda. Érkezésük dátuma (166) alapján valószínűsíthető, hogy ez a római császár talán Marcus Aurelius lehetett. A küldöttség délről érkezett – valószínűleg tengeri úton –, és orrszarvútülköt, elefántcsontot, teknőspáncélt vitt ajándékba magával. Amikor a küldöttség megérkezett Luoyang kínai fővárosba, fogadta őket Huan császár. – A római forrásokban semmilyen feljegyzés nem erősíti meg az említett császári küldöttség létét, ezért lehetséges, hogy a „követek” kereskedők voltak, akik Aureliustól függetlenül indultak útnak, s jutottak el Kínába. Halála[szerkesztés] A markomannok és kvádok ellen indított második hadjárata végén, talán pestisben halt meg Vindobona (a mai Bécs) vagy Sirmium városában (180. március 17.). Hamvait hazavitték Rómába és azokat Hadrianus mauzóleumába (a mai Angyalvár) temették el. Hajlamai ellenére sok háborút kellett viselnie, különösen kormányzása elején gondoskodott népei jólétéről, részint jó törvények, részint a törvényszékek szaporítása által; maga is részt vett a szenátus ülésein, amelyet nagyra becsült, s jelentékenyebb hatáskörrel ruházott föl, mint elődei. Gyűlölte a tékozlást, igen takarékosan élt. Utódai és történelmi öröksége[szerkesztés] Lelkiismeretes, önzetlen, alkotmánytisztelő uralkodó volt. Nem rajta múlott, hogy uralkodása végére a pestis és a súlyos háborúk következtében a birodalom erőforrásai kimerülőben voltak. Az utódlást sikerült ugyan fia, Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus számára biztosítania, akit még életében társuralkodójává választott (177), a választás azonban elég balszerencsés volt, mert Commodus sem a politikában, sem a hadviselésben nem volt járatos; ezenkívül önző is volt. Sok történész úgy véli, hogy Róma hanyatlása Commodus alatt kezdődött. Ezért gyakran úgy tartják, hogy Aurelius halála volt a Pax Romana vége. Önéletírása[szerkesztés] Marcus Aurelius császár Elmélkedéseinek egy 1923-as magyar kiadása Napjainkban Elmélkedések címen[11] publikált írásai (XII „könyv” – fejezet) a világirodalom legolvasottabb művei közé tartoznak. A görögül írt aforisztikus naplójegyzetekben gondolkodása a sztoicizmus és a neoplatonizmus filozófiája szellemiségét tükrözi. Platonizáló sztoicista. Erkölcsiségét a szolgálat és kötelességteljesítés határozta meg, ezért is különösen értékes, tanító tartalmakat fogalmazott meg minden korszak fiataljainak. „A mű fennmaradt formájának kialakulásáról semmi közelebbit nem tudunk. Marcus említi, hogy fiatal kora óta készített jegyzeteket olvasmányaiból… ezek közül kerülhetett az Elmélkedések-be, ugyanígy a hozzájuk és más olvasmányaihoz esetleg korábban fűzött gondolatai is. A II. és III. könyv felirata megmondja, hogy táborban, a Garam partján, illetve Carnuntumban… a Duna mellett készült… elejtett történeti utalás… a szarmata háborúk éveire mutat. Mindez azonban csak nagyjából határozza meg az Elmélkedések keletkezési idejét. A császár nem művet akart alkotni, csak gondolatait rögzítette alkalmanként a maga számára, semmi nem bizonyítja, hogy ezeket ő rendezte jelenlegi sorrendjükbe, hogy az egyes könyvek anyagát ő állította össze és sorolta egymás után, még kevésbé azt, hogy a gondolatok és a könyvek jelenlegi egymásutánja keletkezésük rendjét mutatja. Egyes részeket… valószínűleg azzal az igénnyel fogalmazta meg, hogy mások is olvassák, de bizonyos, hogy egyiket sem szánta nyilvános közlésre. Írnokai vagy családja révén kerülhettek nyilvánosságra, és eldönthetetlen, volt-e egyáltalán magának a szerzőnek szerepe, és ha igen, mennyi, a könyv jelenlegi formájának kialakításában… Az I. könyv kivételével egyik sem egységes, folyamatos írás, legföljebb kisebb-nagyobb gondolatcsoportok függenek össze szorosabban… A tizenkét könyvre való beosztásról sem biztos, hogy Marcustól, illetve a mű ókori kiadójától származik… a forma… azt tükrözi, hogy olyan feljegyzésekről van szó, amelyeket szerzőjük legalábbis túlnyomórészt kizárólag a maga számára írt…” [12] Ábrázolása a művészetben[szerkesztés] Marcus Aurelius szobra a Capitoliumon Szobrok, érmék[szerkesztés] Marcus Aurelius épségben megmaradt bronz lovasszobrát, amely a középkorban a római lateráni palotában állt, 1538-ban visszahelyezték a Capitoliumra (Piazza del Campidoglio). Noha Róma kereszténnyé válását követően általános gyakorlat volt, hogy a bronzból készült szobrokat beolvasztották új szobrok öntéséhez, ez a szobor egyedüliként fennmaradt. Ennek az volt az oka, hogy az ókor végén / középkor kezdetén tévesen úgy vélték, hogy a szobor az első keresztény uralkodót, I. Konstantint ábrázolja. Ez a szobor szerepel az olasz 50 eurocentes érmén, amelyet Roberto Mauri tervezett. Marcus Aurelius-oszlop (Colonna di Marco Aurelio): carrarai márványból faragott diadaloszlop a császárnak a markomannok és a szarmaták felett aratott győzelme tiszteletére a római Piazza Colonnán. Mellszobrok az antikvitásból: British Múzeum, London; Louvre, Párizs; Glyptothek, München; Capitolium Múzeum és Palazzo Massimo, Róma; Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Nápoly; Museo archeologico nazionale, Athén; Múzeum, Epheszosz; Avenches (Svájc); Metropolitan Múzeum, New York; Baltimore stb. Magyarországi szobrok: Ifjú képmása (Marcus Aurelius feltételezett portréja), Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest; M. Aurelius (dunaszekcsői) portré, Múzeum Pécs; M. Aurelius mészkőfej, Aquincumi Múzeum, Budapest; Félfej, alatta márványlap a császárnak 173-ban a Pannóniát támadó barbárok felett a diósjenői tó közelében történt győzelme emlékére (a nógrád-megyei Diósjenőn, a jenői horgásztó partján – Miskédi György kőfaragó alkotása – felállítás éve: 1989(?)) – Előfordul Szent Flóriánkénti ábrázolás is (Salgótarján – a Tűzoltóság falán lévő dombormű). Versek[szerkesztés] Faludy György: Marcus Aurelius – Versek – Digitális Irodalmi Akadémia, Petőfi Irodalmi Múzeum, Budapest, 2011. – A hozzáférés ideje: 2012. augusztus 24. Kosztolányi Dezső: Marcus Aurelius – Számadás – 1935 Regények[szerkesztés] Giese, Alexander: Marcus Aurelius: országában idegenként – fordította: Tandori Dezső – Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1979. 351 o. ISBN 963-280-731-6. Judith Tarr and Harry Turtledove: Household Gods – Tor, New York, 1999, 508 o. Kosztolányi Dezső: Aurelius – Kínai kancsó – 1931 (novella) Filmek[szerkesztés] A Római Birodalom bukása, 1964, rendező: Anthony Mann; Marcus Aurelius szerepében Alec Guinness. M. Aurelius – film – 1 M. Aurelius – film – 2 M. Aurelius – film – 3 M. Aurelius – film – 4 Gladiátor, 2000, rendező: Ridley Scott; Marcus Aurelius szerepében Richard Harris. Magyarul[szerkesztés] Marc. Aurel. Antoninus elmélkedései. 12 könyvben; ford. Perlaky Sándor; Trattner-Károlyi Ny., Pest, 1847 Marcus Aurelius Antonius római császár elmélkedései; ford. Huszti József; Pfeifer, Bp., 1923 (Filozófiai könyvtár) Marcus Aurelius vallomásai; vál., ford., bev. Vajda László; Officina, Bp., 1942 (Officina könyvtár) Lucius Annaeus Seneca: Óvakodj a haragtól! / Marcus Aurelius: Tanítások könyve; ford. Vágó Gy. Zsuzsanna; Kassák, Szada, 2003 (Bölcsességek kincsestára) Lucius Annaeus Seneca: Az emberség nagykönyve / Marcus Aurelius: Teremtő gondolatok; ford., szerk. Vágó Gy. Zsuzsanna; Kassák, Szada, 2007 (Évezredek bölcsessége sorozat) Marcus Aurelius elmélkedései. Cassius Dio Cocceianus Marcus-életrajzával; ford. Huszti József, átdolg., jegyz., utószó Steiger Kornél; Atlantisz Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2016 (A kútnál), ISBN 9789639777392 Megjegyzések[szerkesztés] ↑ Markomann-háborúk (162–173; 177–179/180) A markomann–kvád–szarmata-jazig törzseknek a Római Birodalom elleni támadásai a népvándorlás népmozgásaival együtt, annak részeként érthetők meg. A germán törzsekhez tartozó markomannok és kvádok a Dunától északra támadták Noricum, de leginkább Pannonia provinciát, míg az iráni eredetű szarmaták, szövetkezve a markomanokkal, a Tisza–Duna közéről, illetve a Tiszántúlról Dáciára és Pannoniára jelentettek veszélyt. A támadásokat a keleti (osztro-) gótok, a vandálok és a burgundok törzseinek mozgása következményeként, illetve a Birodalom katonai meggyengülésével együttesen lehet értelmezni. Első markomann háború (162–173) 2 irányból érkezett a támadás: a Birodalom nyugati területeit, Raetia és Germania Superior provinciát, támadták meg germán törzsek, majd a Pannóniából indítandó római büntetőakció elmaradása, támadásra késztette a markomannokat, aki átkelve a Dunán a római csapatokkal történő megütközés előtt visszavonultak a Dunán túli területeikre (168/169). – Területeik békéjének tartós biztosítása érdekében a rómaiak támadást intéztek a jazigok ellen, ám a markomannok és kvádok északon Carnuntumnál betörtek a Birodalomba és jelentős eredményeket értek el. Feldúlták Opitergiumot, és ostrom alá vették Aquileiát (170). A római ellentámadás sikeres volt, átkeltek a Dunán előbb megverték a markomannokat, jazigokat (171), majd a kvádokat kényszerítették békekötésre (173). Második markomann háború (177–178/180) Míg Marcus Aurelius keleten tartózkodott addig a kvádok fellázadtak a rómaiakkal kötött béke ellen. Hozzájuk csatlakoztak a markomannok is. A rómaiak átkelve a Dunán a lázadó törzsek földjén – döntő csatával Laugaricio közelében (a mai Trencsén) – arattak győzelmet, kényszerítve békefeltételeik elfogadására őket. (A császár a győztes harcok végén halt meg.) Hivatkozások[szerkesztés] ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 213. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 209. o. ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok 212. o. ↑ Marcus Aurelius elmélkedései – 5. könyv 5. ↑ Hou Han su, a késői Han-dinasztia (Kr. e. 25. – Kr. u. 220.) történelmét összefoglaló forrás a dinasztia Római Birodalommal történt kapcsolatáról is beszámol. ↑ I. H. Leopold [Jan Hendrik Leopold (1865–1925)]: M. Antoninus imperator ad se ipsum. Oxonii [Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca Oxoniensis], 1908-as szövegkiadását Huszti József fordította magyarra – A Huszti fordítása 1. kiadásának bibliográfiai adatai: Marcus Aurelius Antonius római császár elmélkedései – fordította: Huszti József – Pfeifer Ferdinánd, Budapest, 1923. 196 o. – A legutóbbi kiadás: Kossuth Kiadó, Budapest, 2010, 144 o. – ISBN 978-963-09-6197-4 ↑ Szilágy János György: Utószó – Marcus Aurelius: Elmélkedések – Kossuth Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1991. Források[szerkesztés] ↑ Krawczuk: Római császárok: Krawczuk, Aleksander. Római császárok. Lazi Könyvkiadó, Szeged (2008). ISBN 978-963-267-023-2  További információk[szerkesztés] A Wikimédia Commons tartalmaz Marcus Aurelius római császár témájú médiaállományokat. Marcus Aurelius elmélkedései - Cassius Dio Cocceinas Marcus-életrajzával (ford. Steiger Kornél), Atlantisz Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2016, ISBN 9789639777392 Barth, Paul: A sztoa – fordította: Szerémy György – Farkas Lőrinc Imre Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1998. 274 o. – ISBN 963-7310-31-2. Benkő Samu: Marcus Aurelius elmélkedései – In: Marcus Aurelius elmélkedései – Kriterion, Kiadó, Bukarest, 1983. Castiglione László: Az ókor nagyjai – Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1971. 138. tábla, 340. o. – ISBN 963-05-1500-8. Egyetemes történet I–IV. – szerkesztették: Hóman Bálint, Szekfű Gyula, Kerényi Károly – I. kötet Ókor – Pán Könyvkiadó Kft., Budapest, 1991. 635–644. o. – ISBN 963-7965-12-2. Historia Augusta – latin és angol nyelvű szöveg. Marcus Aurelius 1. – Historia Augusta – magyar nyelvű szöveg. Marcus Aurelius 2. – Historia Augusta – magyar nyelvű szöveg. Medveczky Frigyes: A római stoicismus társadalmi elméletei: adatok a társadalmi és jogbölcseleti eszmék történetéhez – Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, Bp., 1913. 51 o. Russell, Bertrand: A nyugati filozófia története: a politikai és társadalmi körülményekkel összefüggésben, a legkorábbi időktől napjainkig – Göncöl, Budapest, 2004. 226–262. o. (A sztocizmus; A Római Birodalom és a kultúra viszonya; Plótínosz) – ISBN 963-9183-48-2. Sztoikus etikai antológia – válogatta, az utószót, a jegyzeteket és a fogalommutatót írta Steiger Kornél – Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1983. 571 o. – ISBN 963-281-254-9. Ifjú fej – feltételezett M. Aurelius fej – Budapest. Marcus Aurelius emlékműve Diósjenőn Aleksander Krawczuk: Római császárnék (Ford.: Dávid Csaba), Lazi Könyvkiadó Kft., Szeged, 2008, ISBN 978 963 267 024-9 Dokumentumfilmek[szerkesztés] Marcus Aurelius – Edward Gibbon Marcus Aurelius diadalünnepe Elmélkedések Aurelius-lovasszobor Aurelius-oszlop Elődei: Marcus Ceccius Iustinus (suff) és Caius Iulius Bassus (suff) Consul 140. január-június Kollégája: Antoninus Pius Utódai: ? (suff) és ? (suff) Elődei: Marcus Calpurnius Longus (suff) és Decimus Velius Fidus (suff) Consul 145 Kollégája: Antoninus Pius Utódai: Lucius Lamia Silvanus (suff) és Lucius Publicola Priscus (suff) Elődei: ? (suff) és ... Novius Sabinianus (suff) Consul 161 Kollégája: Lucius Verus Utódai: Marcus Annius Libo (suff) és Quintus Camurius Numisius Iunior (suff) Előző uralkodó: Antoninus Pius Római császár 161 – 180 Következő uralkodó: Commodus Nemzetközi katalógusok WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 LIBRIS: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 NKCS: jn19981001808 BNF: cb11914476c BNE: XX932158 KKT: 00431918 BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 Sablon:Római császárok m v sz A Római Birodalom és a Keletrómai Birodalom, Bizánc uralkodói Sablon:Római császárok m v sz Principatus, i. e. 27 – i. sz. 235 Augustus  · Tiberius  · Caligula  · Claudius  · Nero  · Galba  · Otho  · Vitellius  · Vespasianus  · Titus  · Domitianus  · Nerva  · Traianus  · Hadrianus  · Antoninus Pius  · Marcus Aurelius  · Lucius Verus  · Commodus  · Pertinax  · Didius Iulianus  · Clodius Albinus  · Septimius Severus  · Caracalla  · Geta  · Macrinus  · Diadumenianus  · Elagabalus (Heliogabalus)  · Severus Alexander Sablon:Római császárok m v sz Válság kora, 235 – 284 Maximinus Thrax  · I. Gordianus  · II. Gordianus  · Pupienus  · Balbinus  · III. Gordianus  · I. Philippus Arabs  · II. Philippus  · Decius  · Priscus  · Herennius Etruscus  · Hostilianus  · Trebonianus Gallus  · Volusianus  · Aemilianus  · I. Valerianus  · Gallienus  · Saloninus  · I. Macrianus  · II. Macrianus  · Mussius Aemilianus  · Aureolus  · II. Claudius Gothicus  · Quintillus  · Aurelianus  · Tacitus  · Florianus  · Probus  · Carus  · Carinus  · Numerianus Sablon:Római császárok m v sz Dominatus, 284 – 395 Diocletianus  · Maximianus  · Lucius Domitius Domitianus  · I. Constantius Chlorus  · Galerius  · Severus  · Maxentius  · Maximinus Daia  · Licinius  · Valerius Valens  · Sextus Martinianus  · I. Constantinus · II. Constantinus  · I. Constans  · Magnentius  · II. Constantius  · Claudius Silvanus  · Vetranio  · Iulianus  · Iovianus  · Procopius  · I. Valentinianus  · Valens  · Gratianus  · II. Valentinianus  · Eugenius  · I. Theodosius Sablon:Római császárok m v sz Nyugatrómai Birodalom, 395 – 480 Honorius  · Victor  · Iovinus  · III. Constantius  · Ioannes  · III. Valentinianus  · Petronius Maximus  · Avitus  · Maiorianus  · Libius Severus  · Anthemius  · Olybrius  · Glycerius  · Iulius Nepos  · Romulus Augustus Sablon:Római császárok m v sz Keletrómai Birodalom és Bizánc 395 – 1453 Arcadius  · II. Theodosius  · Marcianus  · I.  León  · II. León  · Zénón  · Basziliszkosz  · I. Anasztasziosz  · I. Iusztinosz  · I. Iusztinianosz  · II. Iusztinosz  · II. Tiberiosz  · Maurikiosz  · Phókasz  · Hérakleiosz  · III. Kónsztantinosz  · Hérakleónasz  · II. Kónsztasz  · IV. Kónsztantinosz  · II. Iusztinianosz  · Leontiosz  · III. Tiberiosz  · Philippikosz  · II. Anasztasziosz  · III. Theodosziosz  · III. León  · V. Kónsztantinosz  · Artabaszdosz  · IV. León  · VI. Kónsztantinosz  · Eiréné  · I. Niképhorosz  · Sztauriakosz  · I. Mikhaél  · V. León  · II. Mikhaél  · Theophilosz  · III. Mikhaél  · I. Baszileiosz  · VI. León  · III. Alexandrosz  · VII. Kónsztantinosz  · II. Rómanosz  · II. Niképhorosz  · I. Ióannész  · II. Baszileiosz  · VIII. Kónsztantinosz  · III. Rómanosz  · IV. Mikhaél · V. Mikhaél  · IX. Kónsztantinosz  · Zóé  · Theodóra  · VI. Mikhaél  · I. Iszaakiosz  · X. Kónsztantinosz  · IV. Rómanosz  · VII. Mikhaél  · III. Niképhorosz  · I. Alexiosz  · II. Ióannész  · I. Manuél  · II. Alexiosz  · I. Andronikosz  · II. Iszaakiosz  · III. Alexiosz  · IV. Alexiosz  · V. Alexiosz  · I. Theodórosz  · III. Ióannész  · II. Theodórosz  · IV. Ióannész  · VIII. Mikhaél  · II. 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Mikhaél  · III. Andronikosz  · V. Ióannész  · VI. Ióannész  · I. Matthaiosz  · IV. Andronikosz  · VII. Ióannész  · II. Manuél  · V. Andronikosz  · VIII. Ióannész  · XI. Kónsztantinosz Ókorportál Filozófiaportál Az ókori Róma portálja A lap eredeti címe: „https://hu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius_római_császár&oldid=23435241” Kategória: Antoninus-dinasztia Ókori római filozófusok Többszörös római consulok Consulok a 2. században 121-ben született személyek 180-ban elhunyt személyek Rejtett kategóriák: Wikipédia-szócikkek VIAF azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek LCCN azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek ISNI azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek GND azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek SELIBR azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek BNF azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek KKT azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek BIBSYS azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek ULAN azonosítóval Navigációs menü Személyes eszközök Nem vagy bejelentkezve Vitalap Közreműködések Fiók létrehozása Bejelentkezés Névterek Szócikk Vitalap Változatok Nézetek Olvasás Nem ellenőrzött változat Szerkesztés Laptörténet Több Keresés Navigáció Kezdőlap Tartalom Kiemelt szócikkek Friss változtatások Lap találomra Tudakozó Részvétel Kezdőknek Segítség Közösségi portál Kapcsolatfelvétel Adományok Eszközök Mi hivatkozik erre? 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hy-wikipedia-org-165	----	Մարկոս Ավրելիոս - Վիքիպեդիա՝ ազատ հանրագիտարան Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Վիքիպեդիայից՝ ազատ հանրագիտարանից Jump to navigation Jump to search Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Ծնվել է՝ ապրիլի 26, 121[1] Ծննդավայր Հռոմ, Հռոմեական Իտալիա, Հռոմեական կայսրություն Մահացել է՝ մարտի 17, 180[2][1] (58 տարեկան) բնական մահով Վախճանի վայր Վինդոբոնա, Վերին Պանոնիա, Հռոմեական կայսրություն Սուրբ Հրեշտակի ամրոց Երկիր Հին Հռոմ Ազգություն հին հռոմեացիներ Տոհմ Nerva–Antonine dynasty? քաղաքական գործիչ, փիլիսոփա և գրող Հայր Մարկո Աննիոս Վերոս Մայր Դոմինիտա Լուսիլա Երեխաներ Կոմմոդոս, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar?, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina?, Fadilla?, Lucilla?, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor?, Vibia Aurelia Sabina?, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus? և Domitia Faustina? Հավատք հին հռոմեական կրոն Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Անտոնինոս (լատ.՝ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, ապրիլի 26, 121[1], Հռոմ, Հռոմեական Իտալիա, Հռոմեական կայսրություն - մարտի 17, 180[2][1], Վինդոբոնա, Վերին Պանոնիա, Հռոմեական կայսրություն), Հռոմի կայսր Անտոնինոսների հարստության ներկայացուցիչ, ուշ ստոիկյան դպրոցին պատկանող փիլիսոփա, Էպիկտետոսի հետևորդ, «Խորհրդածություններ» երկի հեղինակ։ Կենսագրություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հաջորդել է Անտոնինոս Պիոսին։ 162-166 թթ. հռոմեա-պարթևական պատերազմում հաղթել է պարթևներին, որոնց հետ 166 թ. կնքած պայմանագրով Հռոմեական կայսրությանն է անցել Միջագետքի արևմտյան մասը, Հայաստանը ճանաչվել է անկախ, որտեղ, սակայն, թագավորելու էին Հռոմի դրածոները։ 166-180 թթ. պատերազմում պարտության է մատնել գերմանական ցեղերին և սարմատներին։ 172 թ. ճնշել է Եգիպտոսում բռնկված «բուկոլոսների» (հովիվների) ապստամբությունը։ Լինելով ստոիկյան դպրոցի հետևորդ՝ Մարկոս Ավրելիոսը իր «Խորհրդածություններ» (հունարեն վերնագիրը` «Ինքն իրեն/Ինքն իր համար» (հուն․՝ Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν), հայերեն թարգմանվել է նաև «Գիրք ոսկեղենիկ» անվամբ) փիլիսոփայական աշխատության մեջ (բաղկացած է 12 «գրքերից» կամ գլուխներից) արտահայտել է ինքնակատարելագործման ձգտում, հոռետեսորեն է վերաբերվել քաղաքական կարգի կատարելագործման հնարավորությանը։ Մարկոս Ավրելիոսի «Խորհրդածություններ» աշխատությունը թարգմանվել է արևելահայերեն հին հունարենից Արամ Թոփչյանի և Գոհար Մուրադյանի կողմից և հրատարակվել 2018 թ. [3]։ Գրականություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հայկական սովետական հանրագիտարան, հատ. 7, Երևան, 1981, էջ 324։ Արտաքին հղումներ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Վիքիքաղվածքն ունի քաղվածքների հավաքածու, որոնք վերաբերում են Մարկոս Ավրելիոս հոդվածին «Խորհրդածություններ» աշխատության հայերեն թարգմանության էջը «Զանգակ» հրատարակչության կայքում Հատվածներ Մարկոս Ավրելիոսի «Խորհրդածություններ» երկից Սա անձի մասին անավարտ հոդված է։ Դուք կարող եք օգնել Վիքիպեդիային՝ ուղղելով և լրացնելով այն։ դ ք խ Հռոմի կայսրեր Պրինցիպատ մ․թ․ա․ 27 – 235 Օկտավիանոս Օգոստոս · Տիբերիոս · Կալիգուլա · Կլավդիոս · Ներոն · Գալբա · Օտոն · Վիտելլիոս · Վեսպասիանոս · Տիտոս · Դոմիցիանոս · Ներվա · Տրայանոս · Հադրիանոս · Անտոնինոս Պիոս · Մարկոս Ավրելիոս և Լուցիոս Վերոս · Կոմմոդոս · Պերտինաքս · Դիդիուս Հուլիանուս · Սեպտիմիոս Սևերոս · Կարակալլա · Գետա · Մարկինոս և Դիադումենիանոս · Գելիոս Մաքսիմուս · Վերոս · Սելևկոս  · Էլագաբալուս  · Ալեքսանդր Սևերոս Ճգնաժամ 235–284 Մաքսիմինոս Թրակիացի · Գորդիանոս I և Գորդիանոս II · Պուպենիոս և Բալբինոս · Գորդիանոս III · Սաբինիանոս  · Փիլիպոս I Արաբ · Դեցիոս և Հերենիոս Էստրուկոս · Հոստիլիանոս · Տրեբոնիան Գալ և Վոլուզիան · Էմիլիանուս · Վալերիանոս · Գալիեն և Սալոնինուս · Սաբինիանոս  · Կլավդիոս II · Քվինտիլոս · Ավրելիանոս · Տացիտոս · Ֆլորիանոս · Պրոբոս · Կարոս · Կարինոս և Նումերիանոս Դոմինատ 284–395 Դիոկղետիանոս · Մաքսիմիան · Կոնստանդիոս I Քլոր · Գալերիոս · Ֆլավիոս Սևերոս · Մաքսենցիոս · Մաքսիմինոս · Լիցինիոսը Վալերիոսի և Մարտինիանոսի հետ · Կոստանդիանոս Ա · Կոստանդիոս II · Կոստանդ · Կոստանդիանոս II և Վետրանիոն · Հուլիանոս Ուրացող · Հովիանոս · Վալենտինիանոս I · Վաղես · Գրացիանոս · Վալենտենիանոս II · Թեոդոսիոս Ա Արևմտյան կայսրություն 395–480 Հոնորիոս · Մարկոս  · Գրացիանոս  · Կոնստանտին III · Հովհաննես · Վաղենտիանոս III · Պետրոնիոս Մաքսիմոս · Ավիտոս · Մայորիանոս · Լիբիոս Սեվերոս · Պրոկոպիոս Անտեմիոս · Օլիբրիոս · Գլիկերիոս · Հուլիոս Նեպոտ · Հռոմուլոս Ավգուստուլուս      Թեմատիկ կայքեր MusicBrainz · Գուտենբերգ նախագիծ · Find A Grave · WikiTree · WeRelate · Rodovid Բառարաններ և հանրագիտարաններ Բրիտանիկա (11-րդ) · Բրիտանիկա (օնլայն) · Բրիտանիկա (օնլայն) · Բրոքհաուս · Բրոքհաուսի և Եփրոնի · Բրոքհաուսի և Եփրոնի փոքր · Դասական հնությունների իրական բառարան · Մեծ կատալոնական · Մեծ նորվեգական · Մեծ ռուսական · Սիտինի ռազմական · Notable Names Database · Treccani · Universalis  Չափորոշչային վերահսկողություն ՀԳՀԳ: 14710 · BAV: ADV12179132, ADV12667279, ADV11069824, ADV11069825, ADV12420148 · BIBSYS: 90564087 · BNC: a10491697 · BNE: XX932158 · BNF: 11914476c · CiNii: DA00596148 · CONOR: 6923107 · GND: 118577468 · ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X · LCCN: n80051702 · LNB: 000027790 · NDL: 00431918 · NKC: jn19981001808 · NLA: 35966523 · NLG: 150699 · NLR: 000136425 · NLP: A1180743X · NSK: 000083919 · NTA: 06867452X · NUKAT: n96103790 · PTBNP: 272140 · LIBRIS: 194415 · SUDOC: 027008614 · VIAF: 102895066 · ULAN: 500115701 · WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 Любкер Ф. Antoninus (ռուս.) // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Марк-Аврелий, Антонин (ռուս.) // Военная энциклопедия — СПб.: Иван Дмитриевич Сытин, 1914. — Т. 15. — С. 201. ↑ [1] Ստացված է «https://hy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Մարկոս_Ավրելիոս&oldid=7832570» էջից Կատեգորիաներ: Ապրիլի 26 ծնունդներ 121 ծնունդներ Հռոմ քաղաքում ծնվածներ Մարտի 17 մահեր 180 մահեր Իտալիայում թաղվածներ Անձինք այբբենական կարգով Անավարտ հոդվածներ Անավարտ հոդվածներ անձի մասին Հռոմի կայսրեր Փիլիսոփայություն 2-րդ դարի փիլիսոփաներ Ստոյիկականություն Հռոմեական կայսրության կոնսուլներ Քաղաքական փիլիսոփաներ Թաքցված կատեգորիաներ: Վիքիպեդիա:Հոդվածներ Վիքիտվյալներից աղբյուրներով Վիքիպեդիա:Վիքիդատայի հայերեն չթարգմանված տարրեր պարունակող հոդվածներ Նավարկման ցանկ Անձնական գործիքներ Դուք չեք մտել համակարգ Քննարկում Ներդրումներ Ստեղծել մասնակցային հաշիվ Մուտք գործել Անվանատարածքներ Հոդված Քննարկում Տարբերակներ Դիտումները Կարդալ Խմբագրել Խմբագրել կոդը Դիտել պատմությունը Ավելին Որոնել Նավարկում Գլխավոր էջ Կատեգորիաներ Պատահական հոդված Նոր էջեր Ընթացիկ իրադարձություններ Մասնակցել Էությունը Խորհրդարան Վերջին փոփոխություններ Օգնություն Նվիրաբերել Գործիքներ Այստեղ հղվող էջերը Կապված փոփոխություններ Սպասարկող էջեր Մշտական հղում Էջի վիճակագրություն Մեջբերել այս էջը Վիքիտվյալների տարր Տպել/արտահանել Ստեղծել գիրք Ներբեռնել որպես PDF Տպելու տարբերակ Այլ նախագծերում Վիքիպահեստ Վիքիքաղվածք Այլ լեզուներով Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Փոխել հղումները Այս էջը վերջին անգամ փոփոխվել է 18 Մարտի 2021-ի ժամը 12:40-ին: Տեքստը հասանելի է Քրիեյթիվ Քոմոնս Հղման-Համանման տարածման թույլատրագրի ներքո, առանձին դեպքերում հնարավոր են հավելյալ պայմաններ։ Մանրամասնությունների համար այցելեք՝ Օգտագործման պայմաններ։ Գաղտնիության քաղաքականություն Վիքիպեդիայի մասին Հրաժարագրեր Տեսքը բջջայինով Ծրագրավորողներ Վիճակագրություն Cookie statement 
ia-wikipedia-org-4322	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia, le encyclopedia libere Marco Aurelio De Wikipedia, le encyclopedia libere Il ha 1 modification in iste version que attende revision. Le version stabile ha essite revidite le 18 novembre 2017. Il ha 1 modification in iste version que attende revision. Le version stabile ha essite revidite le 18 novembre 2017. Saltar al navigation Saltar al recerca Marco Aurelio Sexo mascule Nascentia 121-04-26 (Roma) Decesso 180-03-17 (Vindobona) Causa de decesso Peste Loco de reposo Castel Sant'Angelo[*] Ethnicitate Roman people[*] Citatania Roma antique Occupation politico[*], philosopho[*], scriptor Obras notabile Meditations[*] Religion Religion in Roma antique Conjuge Faustina the Younger[*] Infantes Commodus[*], Marcus Annius Verus Caesar[*], Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina[*], Fadilla[*], Lucilla[*], Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor[*], Vibia Aurelia Sabina[*], Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus[*], Domitia Faustina[*] Parentes matre Domitia Calvilla[*] patre Marcus Annius Verus[*] Fratres/sorores Annia Cornificia Faustina[*] Lingua latino, lingua grec ancian Identificatores ISNI 0000 0001 1031 946X VIAF 102895066 Commons Marcus Aurelius Marco Aurelio Nomine regnal IMP · CAES · M · AVRELIVS · ANTONINVS · AVG Principato 8 de martio 161 – 17 de martio 180 Predecessor Antonino Pio Collega Lucio Vero (161-169), Commodo (177 e seqq.) Successor Commodo Sposa Faustina Minor (145-175) Prole Commodo e 13 alteres Nomine original M · ANNIVS · CATILIVS · SEVERVS Dynastia antonin Patre Marco Annio Vero Matre Domitia Lucilla Nate 26 de april 121 Roma Morte 13 de octobre 54 EC (al etate de 63 annos) Vindobona (probabilemente) Occupation philosopho-rege Religion pagan Nomine divin DIVVS · MARCVS, DIVVS · M · AVRELIVS o DIVVS · M · ANTONINVS Marco Aurelio (in latino: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) esseva un imperator roman del seculo 2, notate como un philosopho, scriptor e general. Quando ille esseva in campania contra le invasores marcoman, ille scribeva un libro de Meditationes, partialmente autobiographic, que attesta un forte influentia del stoicismo in su pensata. Le Meditationes son un de solmente cinque obras per autores stoic a superviver in forma integre; illo es reverite hodie como un monumento a un philosophia de servicio e incumbentia. Quanto al politica interne, Marco Aurelio ha un reputation de clementia, bon senso e humanitate, in accordo con su preceptos philosophic. Hereditario del tradition del «cinque bon imperatores», i.e. le dynastia adoptive o antonin, Marco Aurelio participava harmoniosemente in le mesme dignitate imperial que su fratre adoptive, Lucio Vero. (In obedientia al instructiones del imperator Hadriano, Antonino Pio habeva adoptate e Marco e Lucio como su proprie heredes.) Le politica externe de Marco Aurelio esseva plus difficile, gratias a un activitate hostil crescente del parte del parthos e de varie tribos «barbare». Addente a iste difficultates, un seriose pesta feriva le imperio in 166 tamben. Un patre de 14 filios, Marco Aurelio moriva in 180 durante un expedition contra le marcomannos, probabilemente in o presso Vindobona (le actual Vienna). In le vista del historico Cassio Dion, Marco Aurelio «non trovava le bon fortuna que meritava, pro que non esseva forte del corpore e se implicava in multe calamitates durante practicamente su principato integre. De mi proprie parte, io le admira tanto plus pro iste mesme ration, que facie a tal difficultates extraordinari ille superviveva ipse e preservava le imperio. Solmente un cosa le preveniva de esser completemente felice, a saper que post cultivar e educar su filio del optime maniera, iste le disappunctava enormemente.»[1] Con Marco Aurelio termina le succession de imperatores adoptive, reputate un del epochas del Imperio Roman del plus prospere, stabile e pacific. Le regno de Commodo vadeva inaugurar un periodo de tyrannia megalomane, sequite per instabilitate e guerras civil. Marco Aurelio esseva divinisate per le Senato post su morte. On le venerava sub le nomine de dive Marco, o como dive Marco Aurelio o dive Marco Antonino (le formas Marco Aurelio e Marco Antonino coexisteva durante su vita). Referentias[modificar | modificar fonte] ↑ Cassio Dion (c. 229). Historia roman 71.36.3–4 Pecietta de biographia e historia Iste articulo es ancora in stato embryonic: illo es un pecietta. Nos te invita cordialmente a completar lo pro meliorar Wikipedia in interlingua. Obtenite de "https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=622858" Categorias: Imperatores roman Philosophos Peciettas de biographia Peciettas de historia Menu de navigation Instrumentos personal Tu non ha aperite session Discussion Contributiones Crear conto Aperir session Spatios de nomines Articulo Discussion Variantes Representationes Leger Modificationes pendente Modificar Modificar fonte Vider historia Plus Recerca Navigation Pagina principal Portal del communitate Actualitates Modificationes recente Pagina aleatori Adjuta Donationes Instrumentos Paginas ligate a iste Modificationes ligate Incargar file Paginas special Ligamine permanente Information sur le pagina Citar iste pagina Elemento Wikidata Imprimer/exportar Crear un libro Discargar como PDF Version pro imprimer In altere projectos Wikimedia Commons In altere linguas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Modificar ligamines Iste pagina esseva modificate le plus recentemente le 28 februario 2020 a 16:23. 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id-loc-gov-1641	----	Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress skip navigation Library of Congress Search Everything Audio Recordings Books/Printed Material Films, Videos Legislation Manuscripts/Mixed Material Maps Notated Music Newspapers Periodicals Personal Narratives Photos, Prints, Drawings Software, E-Resources Archived Web Sites Web Pages 3D Objects Suggestions enabled. Search Search toggle menu Discover Services Visit Education Connect About Ask a Librarian Help Contact Search Online Catalog Copyright.gov Congress.gov The Library of Congress > Linked Data Service > LC Name Authority File (LCNAF) Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 URI(s) http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80051702 Instance Of MADS/RDF PersonalName MADS/RDF Authority SKOS Concept Scheme Membership(s) Library of Congress Name Authority File Collection Membership(s) Names Collection - Authorized Headings LC Names Collection - General Collection Variants Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marḳus Orelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marks Aurēlijs, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 מארקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס, קיסר רומא, 121-180 Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Additional Information http://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/n80051702 Birth Date 01210426 Death Date 01800317 Birth Place (naf) Rome Death Place (naf) Sremska Mitrovica (Serbia) Associated Locale (naf) Rome Death Place Viminacium (Extinct city) Gender male Associated Language grc Associated Language lat Occupation Emperors Philosophers Exact Matching Concepts from Other Schemes http://viaf.org/viaf/sourceID/LC%7Cn++80051702#skos:Concept Closely Matching Concepts from Other Schemes Marcus Aurelius Label from public data source Wikidata Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Earlier Established Forms Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Sources found: Marc Aurel, 1979:t.p. (Marc Aurel) found: His The Emperor Marcus Antoninus, his conversation with himself, 1701:t.p. (The Emperor Marcus Antoninus) found: InU/Wing STC files(usage: Markou Antōninou ...) found: Rilievi storici capitolini, c1986:t.p. (Marco Aurelio) found: Sigad, R. ha-Emet ki-ṭragedyah, c1990:t.p. (Marḳus Aʼurelyus) t.p. verso (Marcus Aurelius [in rom.]) found: Spiegel, N. Marḳus Orelyus, 1980. found: Pašam sev, 1991:t.p. (Marks Aurēlijs) found: Marci Aurelii Antonini ad se ipsum libri XII, 1988:p. 1 (Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου Αὐτοκράτορος τῶν εἰς ἑαθτὸν βιβλίον α) found: Brill's new Pauly online, 23 September 2013(Marcus Aurelius; Roman emperor and philosopher; born 26 April 121 in Rome, son of Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla; originally named M. Annius Verus; became emperor 3 July 161, with name M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; at first joint ruler with Lucius Verus; upon Verus' death in 169, Marcus Aurelius ruled alone; died on military campaign in Viminacium and Sirmium on 17 March 180) LC Classification PA3939 Editorial Notes [Machine-derived non-Latin script reference project.] [Non-Latin script references not evaluated.] Change Notes 1980-06-10: new 2013-10-10: revised Alternate Formats RDF/XML (MADS and SKOS) N-Triples (MADS and SKOS) JSON (MADS/RDF and SKOS/RDF) MADS - RDF/XML MADS - N-Triples MADS/RDF - JSON SKOS - RDF/XML SKOS - N-Triples SKOS - JSON MADS/XML MARC/XML Subject Of Works Looking for related works... Contributor To Works Looking for related works... Follow Us Email Facebook Twitter Youtube Pinterest Flickr Instagram iTunes Take our survey External Accessibility Legal Inspector General External Link Disclaimer USA.gov Careers Contact Media Donate Shop Congress.gov United States Copyright Office 
id-wikipedia-org-2213	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Marcus Aurelius Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Loncat ke navigasi Loncat ke pencarian Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26 April 121 – 17 Maret 180) adalah Kaisar Romawi dari 161 sampai kematiannya 180. Dia dilahirkan dengan nama Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, dan pada pernikahan dia mengambil nama Marcus Annius Verus. Ketika naik takhta sebagai kaisar, ia diberikan nama Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Dia merupakan kaisar terakhir dari Lima Kaisar Baik. Daftar isi 1 Kehidupan 1.1 Diadopsi oleh Antoninus 2 Roman emperor 2.1 Menjadi kaisar bersama 2.2 Peperangan Aurelius 2.2.1 Jerman dan Donau 2.2.2 Parthia 3 Referensi 4 Daftar pustaka modern 5 Pranala luar Kehidupan[sunting | sunting sumber] Diadopsi oleh Antoninus[sunting | sunting sumber] Marcus Aurelius adalah kemenakan Antoninus Pius dan anak ipar laki-laki Hadrianus. Karenanya, ketika anak angkat pertama Hadrianus, Aelius Verus meninggal dunia, Hadrianus membuat prasyarat kepada pengantinya agar Antoninus mengadopsi Marcus (saat itu namanya Marcus Annius Verus) dan Lucius Verus (anak laki-laki Aelius Verus), dan mengatur agar mereka menjadi calon penggantinya. Ia menjadi Kaisar Romawi pada 161 M dan mangkat pada 19 tahun kemudian. Antoninus melakukan hal ini, mengadopsi, dan menetapkan mereka sebagai calon-calon penggantinya pada 25 Februari 138, ketika Marcus baru berusia 17 tahun. Roman emperor[sunting | sunting sumber] Patung Marcus Aurelius di Bukit Capitoline. Menjadi kaisar bersama[sunting | sunting sumber] Ketika Antoninus meninggal dunia pada 7 Maret 161, Marcus menerima takhta dengan syarat bahwa ia dan Verus diangkat sebagai kaisar bersama (Augusti), dengan Verus yang kedudukannya sedikit lebih rendah. Ini sebagian disebabkan karena mereka sama-sama pewaris Antoninus. Suksesi bersama ini juga mungkin dimotivasi tuntutan-tuntutan militer karena, selama pemerintahannya, Marcus Aurelius hampir terus-menerus berperang dengan berbagai penduduk di luar kekaisaran. Seorang tokoh yang sangat berwibawa dibutukan untuk mengomandoi pasukan-pasukan, namun kaisar sendiri tidak dapat mempertahankan front Jerman dan Parthia pada saat yang bersamaan. Ia pun tidak dapat begitu saja menunjuk seorang jenderal untuk memimpin legiun-legiun. Para pemimpin militer populer sebelumnya seperti Julius Caesar dan Vespasianus pernah menggunakan militer untuk menggulingkan pemerintahan yang ada dan mengangkat diri mereka sebagai pemimpin tertinggi. Marcus Aurelius memecahkan masalahnya dengan mengutus Verus untuk memimpin legiun-legiun di timur. Ia cukup berwibawa untuk mendapatkan kesetiaan penuh dari pasukan-pasukannya, tetapi juga cukup kuat sehingga ia hanya membutuhkan sedikit insentif untuk menggulingkan Marcus. Rencana ini berhasil—Verus tetap setia kepadanya hingga kematiannya dalam peperangan pada 169. Pemerintahan bersama sebagai kaisar ini sedikit mengingatkan akan sistem politik dari Republik Romawi, yang berfungsi sesuai dengan prinsip kerekanan dan tidak membiarkan seseorang memiliki kekuasaan tertinggi. Pemerintahan bersama ini dihidupkan kembali ketika Diocletianus menciptakan Tetrarki pada akhir abad ke-3. Peperangan Aurelius[sunting | sunting sumber] Jerman dan Donau[sunting | sunting sumber] Suku-suku Jermanik dan banyak bangsa lain pernah melakukan banyak serangan di sepanjang perbatasan Utara, khususnya ke Gaul dan menyeberangi Donau— bangsa-bangsa Jerman, pada gilirannya, mungkin pernah diserang oleh suku-suku yang suka berperang jauh di timur. Peperangannya melawan mereka diperingati pada Tiang Marcus Aurelius. Parthia[sunting | sunting sumber] Di Asia, sebuah Kekaisaran Parthia yang bangkit kembali, melakukan serangan baru. Marcus Aurelius mengutus rekan kaisarnya, Verus, untuk memimpin legiun-legiun di timur untuk menghadapi ancaman ini. Ketika kembali dari peperangan dengan kemenangan, Verus dianugerahi dengan kejayaan; arak-arakan itu tidak lazim karena mengikutsertakan Verus, Marcus Aurelius, anak-anak lelaki mereka, dan anak-anak perempuan mereka yang belum menikah, sebagai sebuah perayaan besar keluarga. Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber] Daftar pustaka modern[sunting | sunting sumber] Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F. Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Facts on File, 2008. ISBN 978-0816063864. Adams, Geoff W. Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. ISBN 978-0739176382. An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-2503521787. Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. OCLC 461867183. Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-0415720786. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. DOI:10.2307/299345. JSTOR 299345. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. DOI:10.2307/299693. JSTOR 299693. Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', Phoenix 26:2 (1972): 140–82. DOI:10.2307/1087714. JSTOR 1087714. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 978-1134695690. Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0521263351. Bowman, John L. A Reference Guide to Stoicism. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. ISBN 978-1496900173. Bury, John Bagnell. The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.). New York: Harper, 1893. OCLC 1067064647. Champlin, Edward. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. DOI:10.2307/299265. JSTOR 299265. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 978-0674331778. Collins, Desmond. Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. OCLC 879899744. De Crespigny, Rafe. A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Boston: Brill, 2007. ISBN 978-9047411840. Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0521892896. 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius'. Musei Capitolini. Gagarin, Michael. The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0195170726. Giacosa, Giorgio. Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. ISBN 0839001932. Gilliam, J. F. 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. American Journal of Philology 82.3 (1961): 225–51. DOI:10.2307/292367. JSTOR 292367. Gnecchi, Francesco. I medaglioni Romani, 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. OCLC 6529816. Grant, Michael. The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-1317972105. Grant, Michael. The Climax Of Rome. London: Orion, 2011. ISBN 978-1780222769. Haas, Charles. The Antonine plague (in French). Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. OCLC 958470753. Hadot, Pierre. The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0674461710. Hays, Gregory. Meditations. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. ISBN 978-1842126752. Irvine, William B. A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1522632733. Kemezis, Adam M. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1107062726. Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. ISBN 978-0495573555. Le Bohec, Yann. The Imperial Roman Army. Routledge, 2013. ISBN 978-1135955137. Levick, Barbara M. Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0199702176. Magill, Frank N. Dictionary of World Biography. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1579580407. Mattingly, Harold; Sydenham, Edward A. The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus. London: Spink & Son, 1930. OCLC 768929523. Mellor, Ronald, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982). Merrony, Mark. The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. London: Routledge, 2017. ISBN 978-1351702782. McLaughlin, Raoul. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. ISBN 978-1847252357. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0306819162. McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0224072922. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0674778863. Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1999. 119 (1). DOI:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. Reed, J. Eugene. The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476). Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Diarsipkan 4 August 2019 di Wayback Machine.. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. Rohrbacher, David. The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0299306045. Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano [Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. ISBN 978-8497637695. Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1441125613. Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–39. DOI:10.2307/4348712. JSTOR 4348712. Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. JSTOR 4435015. Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-1-405-19285-9. OCLC 784124210. Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Pranala luar[sunting | sunting sumber] Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. Marcus Aurelius (IEP) (Inggris) Marcus Aurelius Kehidupan (Inggris) Marcus Aurelius Kehidupan (2) (Inggris) l b s Stoikisme Filsuf Awal Zeno dari Citium Persaios Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus Zeno dari Tarsus Crates dari Mallus Diogenes dari Babilon Apollodorus Antipater dari Tarsus Tengah Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Geminus Antipater dari Tyre Athenodorus Cananites Akhir Seneca Cornutus Musonius Rufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles Junius Rusticus Marcus Aurelius l b s Daftar kaisar Romawi Barat dan Timur Kaisar Romawi Raja Romawi Principatus 27 SM – 235 M Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasianus Titus Domitianus Nerva Trajanus Hadrianus Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius dan Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla dgn Geta Macrinus dgn Diadumenian Elagabalus Alexander Severus Krisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I dan Gordian II Pupienus dan Balbinus Gordian III Filipus si Arab dan Philippus II Decius dgn Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus dgn Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus dgn Saloninus dan Valerianus II Klaudius Gothikus Kuintillus Aurelianus Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus dan Numerianus Kaisar-kaisar Galia: Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I dgn Tetricus II sbg Caesar Dominatus 284–395 Diokletianus (seluruh kekaisaran) Diokletianus (Timur) dan Maximianus (Barat) Diokletianus (Timur) dan Maximianus (Barat) dgn Galerius (Timur) dan Konstantius Klorus (Barat) sbg Caesar Galerius (Timur) dan Konstantius Klorus (Barat) dgn Severus (Barat) dan Maximinus II (Timur) sbg Caesar Galerius (Timur) Severus (Barat) dgn Konstantinus Agung (Barat) dan Maximinus II (Timur) sbg Caesar Galerius (Timur) dan Maxentius (Barat) dgn Konstantinus Agung (Barat) dan Maximinus II (Timur) sbg Caesar Galerius (Timur) dan Licinius (Barat) dgn Konstantinus Agung (Barat) dan Maximinus II (Timur) sbg Caesar Maxentius (sendiri) Licinius (Barat) dan Maximinus II (Timur) dgn Konstantinus Agung (proklamasi sendiri sbg Augustus) dan Valerius Valens Licinius (Timur) dan Konstantinus Agung (Barat) dgn Lisinius II, Konstantinus II dan Krispus sbg Caesar Martinianus Konstantinus Agung (seluruh kekaisaran) dgn putra Krispus sbg Caesar Konstantinus II Konstans Magnentius Decentius sbg Caesar Konstantius II dgn Vetranio Flavius Claudius Julianus Yovianus Valentinianus I Valens Gratianus Valentinianus II Magnus Maximus dgn Victor Theodosius I Eugenius Romawi Barat 395–480 Honorius Konstantinus III dgn putra Konstans II Konstantius III Joannes Valentinianus III Petronius Maximus dgn Palladius Avitus Majorianus Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustus Romawi Timur Bizantium 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcianus Leo I Leo II Zeno (pemerintahan pertama) Basiliscus dgn putra Marcus sbg rekan-kaisar Zeno (pemerintahan kedua) Anastasius I Dicorus Yustinus I Yustinianus I Yustinus II Tiberius II Konstantinus Mauricius dgn putra Theodosius sbg rekan-kaisar Phocas Heraklius Konstantinus III Heraklonas Konstans II Konstantinus IV dgn saudara-saudara Heraklius dan Tiberius dan kemudian Yustinianus II sbg rekan-kaisar Yustinianus II (pemerintahan pertama) Leontios Tiberius III Yustinianus II (pemerintahan kedua) dgn putra Tiberius sbg rekan-kaisar Philippikos Bardanes Anastasius II Theodosius III Leōn III Kōnstantinos V Artabasdos Leōn IV Khazar Kōnstantinos VI Irene Nikēphoros I Staurakios Mikhaēl I Rangabes dgn putra Theophylaktos sbg rekan-kaisar Leo V Armenia dgn Konstantinus sbg kaisar junior Mikhaēl II Theophilos Mikhaēl III Basileios I Leōn VI Alexander Konstantinus VII Romanos I Lekapenos dgn putra-putra Christopher Lakapenos, Stefanos Lakapinos dan Konstantinos Lakapinos sbg rekan-kaisar junior Rōmanos II Nikēphoros II Phōkas Iōannēs I Tzimiskēs Basileios II Boulgaroktonos Kōnstantinos VIII Zōē (pemerintahan pertama) dan Rōmanos III Argyros Zōē (pemerintahan pertama) dan Mikhaēl IV Paphlagōn Mikhael V Kalafatis Zōē (pemerintahan kedua) dgn Theodōra dan Kōnstantinos IX Monomakhos Kōnstantinos IX Monomakhos (kaisar tunggal) Theodōra Mikhaēl VI Bringas Isaakius I Komnenos Kōnstantinos X Doukas Mikhaēl VII Doukas dgn saudara-saudara Andronikos dan Konstantios dan putra Kōnstantinos Rōmanos IV Diogenēs Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexius I Komnenus Iōannēs II Komnēnos dgn Alexius Komnenus sbg rekan-kaisar Manouēl I Komnēnos Alexios II Komnēnos Andronikos I Komnenos Isaakius II Angelus Alexius III Angelus Alexios IV Angelus Nikolaos Kanavos (dipilih oleh Senat Alexios V Doukas Kekaisaran Nicea 1204–1261 Konstantinos Laskaris Theodōros I Laskaris Iōannēs III Doukas Vatatzēs Theodōros II Doukas Laskaris Iōannēs IV Doukas Laskaris Romawi Timur Bizantium 1261–1453 Mikhaēl VIII Paleologos Andronikos II Palaiologos dgn Mikhaēl IX Paleologos sbg rekan-kaisar Andronikos III Palaiologos Iōannēs V Paleologos Iōannēs VI Kantakouzēnos dgn Iōannēs V Palaiologos dan Matthaios Asanēs Kantakouzēnos sbg rekan-kaisar Iōannēs V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos Iōannēs VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manouel II Palaiologos Iōannēs VIII Paleologos Kōnstantinos XI Dragasēs Paleologos Dēmētrios Palaiologos Thōmas Palaiologos Andreas Palaiologos Huruf cetak miring menunjukkan seorang rekan-kaisar, sedangkan yang digaris bawahi menunjukkan seorang perampas kekuasaan. Lihat pula: Kerajaan Romawi Republik Romawi Julius Caesar Kekaisaran Romawi Suci Diperoleh dari "https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=18509795" Kategori: Kelahiran 121 Kematian 180 Kaisar Romawi abad ke-2 Filsuf Romawi Filsuf Stoik Filsuf abad ke-2 Kategori tersembunyi: Templat webarchive tautan wayback Pranala Commons dari Wikidata Menu navigasi Perkakas pribadi Belum masuk log Pembicaraan Kontribusi Buat akun baru Masuk log Ruang nama Halaman Pembicaraan Varian Tampilan Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Lihat riwayat Lainnya Pencarian Navigasi Halaman Utama Daftar isi Perubahan terbaru Artikel pilihan Peristiwa terkini Halaman baru Halaman sembarang Komunitas Warung Kopi Portal komunitas Bantuan Wikipedia Tentang Wikipedia Pancapilar Kebijakan Menyumbang Hubungi kami Bak pasir Bagikan Perkakas Pranala balik Perubahan terkait Halaman istimewa Pranala permanen Informasi halaman Kutip halaman ini Butir di Wikidata Cetak/ekspor Buat buku Unduh versi PDF Versi cetak Dalam proyek lain Wikimedia Commons Wikikutip Bahasa lain Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Sunting pranala Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 14 Juni 2021, pukul 05.09. Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Creative Commons Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. Lihat Ketentuan Penggunaan untuk lebih jelasnya. Kebijakan privasi Tentang Wikipedia Penyangkalan Tampilan seluler Pengembang Statistik Pernyataan kuki 
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io-wikipedia-org-3765	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedio Marcus Aurelius De Wikipedio Salti al navigilo Irez a serchilo Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus o plu kurte Marcus Aurelius (26ma di aprilo 121 til la 17 di marto 180) esis Roman imperiestro de 161 til 180. Il regnis kune kun Lucius Verus til la morto di Verus la yaro 169. Aurelius esforcis proximigar Platonal idealo pri filozofo-rejulo, ed ilu judikesas kom un ek la maxim importanta filozofi stoikal. Ilu skriptis 12 libri di pensi por su ipsa en la Koyne-Greka, quon on publikigis kom Meditaji pos lua morto. Ta artiklo esas klada. Vu povas helpar ni per plugrosigar lu. Obtenita de "https://io.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=948753" Kategorii: Kladi Romana imperiestri Romana filozofi Stoikala filozofi Selektar dum la navigado Personala utensili Sesiono ne esas iniciata Debatar per ca IP-adreso Kontributadi Krear konto Enirar Nomaro Artiklo Debato Varianti Apari Lektar Redaktar Redaktar fonto Vidar versionaro Pluse Serchuro Navigado Chefpagino Portalo di la komunitato Aktualajo Recenta chanji Pagino hazarde Helpo Donacaji Utensili Quo ligesas adhike? Relatanta chanji Adkargar arkivo Specala pagini Permananta ligilo Informo pri ca pagino Citar ca pagino Redakto en Wikidata Imprimar/prezervar Kreez libro Deskargar quale PDF-formato Imprimebla versiono En altra projeti Wikimedia Commons Altra lingui Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Redaktar ligili Ica pagino modifikesis ye 00:30, 13 jul. 2019. La texto esas disponebla sub la Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; suplementala reguli forsan aplikesas. Videz Reguli pri uzo por detali. Sistemo di agado pri privateso Pri Wikipedio Legala averto Vidado por portebla aparati Kreinti di la programo Statistiko Informo pri l'uzo di 'cookies' 
is-wikipedia-org-411	----	Markús Árelíus - Wikipedia, frjálsa alfræðiritið Markús Árelíus Úr Wikipediu, frjálsa alfræðiritinu Jump to navigation Jump to search Markús Árelíus Rómverskur keisari Valdatími 161 – 180 með Luciusi Verusi (161 – 169) með Commodusi (177 – 180) Fæddur: 26. apríl 121 Fæðingarstaður Róm Dáinn: 17. mars 180 Dánarstaður Vindobona (Vínarborg) Forveri Antónínus Píus Eftirmaður Commodus Maki/makar Faustina yngri Börn 14 börn, þ.á.m: Lucilla Commodus Faðir Marcus Annius Verus Móðir Lucilla Domitia Fæðingarnafn Marcus Annius Verus Keisaranafn Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Ætt Antónínska ættin Tímabil Góðu keisararnir fimm Markús Árelíus Antonínus Ágústus (26. apríl 121 – 17. mars 180) var keisari Rómaveldis á árunum 161 – 180. Hann var fimmti og síðasti keisarinn af hinum „fimm góðu keisurum“ sem ríktu frá 96 til 180. Markús Árelíus var einnig stóískur heimspekingur og ritaði Hugleiðingar. Efnisyfirlit 1 Fjölskylda 2 Leiðin til valda 3 Keisari 3.1 Sameiginleg stjórn 3.2 Stríð 3.2.1 Parþar 3.2.2 Germanir 4 Dauði 5 Tilvísanir 6 Heimildir Fjölskylda[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Markús Árelíus var fæddur árið 121, sonur hjónanna Domitiu Lucillu og Marcusar Anniusar Verusar. Marcus Annius Verus var ættaður frá Baeticu, á núverandi Spáni. Afi hans (langafi Markúsar Árelíusar) var fyrsti öldungaráðsmaðurinn (senator) í ættinni, en fjölskylda hans hafði efnast á ólífurækt. Föðurafi Markúsar Árelíusar (sem einnig hét Marcus Annius Verus) varð ræðismaður (consul) þrisvar sinnum og hjá honum ólst Markús að miklu leiti upp. Markús átti eina yngri systur, sem hét Annia Cornificia Faustina, og var hún um tveimur árum yngri en hann. Faðir Markúsar lést þegar hann var um þriggja ára. Móðir hans, Domitia Lucilla, var af efnuðu fólki komin og átti fjölskylda hennar þakflísaverksmiðju, sem Markús erfði.[1] Markús giftist Faustinu yngri árið 145. Faustina var dóttir Antónínusar Píusar og hafði áður verið trúlofuð Luciusi Verusi. Markús og Faustina áttu 14 börn saman, þ.á.m. Lucillu og Commodus. Lucilla giftist síðar Luciusi Verusi, en Commodus varð keisari Rómaveldis að föður sínum látnum, árið 180. Faustina hafði orð á sér að eiga marga elskhuga aðra en Markús en engu að síður entist hjónaband þeirra í þrjátíu ár, eða til ársins 175, þegar Faustina lést. Leiðin til valda[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Marcus Annius Verus var frændi Trajanusar keisara og einnig var hann mágur Antónínusar Píusar, sem síðar varð keisari. Árið 138 kaus Hadríanus, þáverandi keisari, Antónínus Píus sem eftirmann sinn og ættleiddi hann þann 25. febrúar. Sama dag, að fyrirmælum Hadríanusar, ættleiddi Antónínus Píus Markús Árelíus og Lucius Verus, son Aeliusar Verusar, með það fyrir augum að þeir yrðu eftirmenn hans. Markús var þá 16 ára en Lucius Verus var aðeins 7 ára.[2] Eftir ættleiðinguna urðu Markús og Antónínus nánir og Markús fór að taka að sér opinber störf og skyldur. Árið 139 fékk hann titilinn Caesar sem þýddi að hann væri þá undirkeisari og árið 140 var hann ræðismaður ásamt Antónínusi.[3] Keisari[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Sameiginleg stjórn[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Við dauða Antónínusar Píusar, 7. mars 161, tók Markús Árelíus við keisaratigninni. Antónínus hafði gert það ljóst skömmu fyrir dauða sinn að Markús ætti að verða arftaki hans með því að senda honum styttu af gyðjunni Fortunu. Valdataka Markúsar var algjörlega átakalaus og það fyrsta sem hann gerði var að deila völdum með Luciusi Verusi, líkt og Hadríanus hafði kveðið á um.[4] Þetta var í fyrsta skipti sem tveir keisarar deildu völdum í Rómaveldi, en slíkt fyrirkomulag varð algengt síðar. Á þessum tíma var orðið illmögulegt að kljást bæði við germanska þjóðflokka í norðri og á sama tíma við Parþa í austri. Lucius Verus barðist við Parþa framan af valdaferli sínum. Hann giftist Lucillu dóttur Markúsar Árelíusar. Lucius Verus lést árið 169 og varð Markús þá einn keisari. Stytta af Markúsi Árelíusi. Stríð[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Parþar[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Lucius Verus þurfti snemma á valdaferli þeirra Markúsar að berjast við Parþa um yfirráð yfir Armeníu. Þar hafði verið konungur hliðhollur Rómverjum en Parþar steyptu honum af stóli árið 161. Verus hélt til austur-landamæra ríkisins til að mæta Pörþum og barðist við þá frá 162 til 166. Verus endurheimti Armeníu úr höndum Parþa árið 163, og þar var á ný settur konungur hliðhollur Rómverjum. Parþar voru lagðir að velli árið 166. Verus fagnaði sigrinum í Róm með Markúsi seint á árinu 166 og báðir tóku þeir sér titlana „Armeniacus“, „Parthicus Maximus“ og „Medicus“ af þessu tilefni. Þegar herdeildirnar sneru til baka úr stríðinu báru þær með sér plágu, sem breiddist út og varð að faraldri árið 167. Plágan geisaði í mörg ár og varð Rómarborg sérstaklega illa úti. Germanir[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Sigurbogi Markúsar Árelíusar í Trípólí Germanskir þjóðflokkar höfðu ráðist ítrekað á norðanverð landamæri Rómaveldis. Sérstaklega inn í Gallíu og yfir Dóná. Árið 168 héldu Markús og Lucius Verus til norður-landamæranna við Dóná til þess að bregðast við árásunum en ekki reyndist þörf á miklum aðgerðum á þeim tímapunkti og því sneru þeir til baka vorið 169. Á leiðinni heim varð Verus skyndilega alvarlega veikur og lést nokkrum dögum síðar. Eftir að hafa séð um útför Verusar í Róm þurfti Markús fljótlega að halda aftur norður til að mæta germönunum. Germanirnir höfðu náð að ráðast allt suður til Aquileia, borgar á Norður-Ítalíu, og takmark Markúsar var að reka þá aftur norður fyrir landamærin við Dóná. Herbragð Markúsar í stríðinu var að einangra hvern og einn ættbálk innan þjóðflokkanna og berjast við þá sér, og neiða þá þannig til að semja um frið. Þessi stefna Markúsar var árangursrík en einnig tímafrek og varð til þess að keisarinn varði mestum sínum tíma, það sem eftir var valdaferils síns, á vígstöðvunum.[5] Rómverjar börðust undir stjórn Markúsar við germanska þjóðflokka á árunum 169 til 175 og 178 til 180, einkum við Marcomanni og Quadi 172 og 173 og svo við Sarmatia 174. Minntust menn þessara herferða með reisn. Í Róm var reist Súla Markúsar Árelíusar þar sem saga herferðanna var skráð. Árið 175 lýsti landsstjórinn í Sýrlandi, Avidius Cassius, sjálfan sig keisara. Avidius hafði verið einn helsti hershöfðinginn í stríðinu gegn Pörþum, undir stjórn Luciusar Verusar. Þessi uppreisn virðist reyndar hafa verið byggð á þeim miskilningi að Markús hefði látist í stríðinu gegn germönum. Avidius hélt uppreisninni engu að síður áfram eftir að hafa gert sér grein fyrir miskilningnum, og fékk stuðning víðs vegar um austanvert heimsveldið. Markús hélt af stað til þess að mæta honum en Avidius var myrtur, af hermanni hliðhollum Markúsi, áður en til átaka kom. Árið 177 gerði Markús Árelíus Commodus, son sinn, að meðkeisara og stýrði Rómaveldi með honum til dauðadags. Dauði[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Markús Árelíus andaðist 17. mars 180 í herleiðangri gegn Marcomönnum og Quadum þar sem nú er Vínarborg. Skömmu síðar voru Germönsku þjóðflokkarnir sigraðir. Ýmsir álita að Rómarfriði hafi lokið við andlát Markúsar Árelíusar.   Wikimedia Commons er með margmiðlunarefni sem tengist Markús Árelíus Tilvísanir[breyta | breyta frumkóða] ↑ Illustrated History of the Roman Empire ↑ Scarre (1995): 114. ↑ Scarre (1995): 114. ↑ Benario (2001). ↑ Benario (2001). Heimildir[breyta | breyta frumkóða] Benario, Herbert W., „Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180).“ De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001). „'Marcus Aurelius' Marcus Annius Verus (AD 121 - AD 180) Geymt 2013-05-25 í Wayback Machine.“ Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. Scarre, Chris, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, the Reign–by–Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome (London: Thames & Hudson, 1995). http://www.livius.org/di-dn/divi_fratres/marcus.html Fyrirrennari: Antónínus Píus Keisari Rómaveldis (161 – 180) Eftirmaður: Commodus s r b Stóuspeki Stóuspekingar Snemmstóuspeki Zenon frá Kitíon · Persajos · Ariston frá Kíos · Sfæros · Kleanþes · Krýsippos · Zenon frá Tarsos · Krates frá Mallos · Díogenes frá Babýloníu · Antipatros frá Tarsos Miðstóuspeki Panætíos · Dardanos · Mnesarkos · Hekaton frá Ródos · Póseidóníos · Díodótos · Geminos · Antipatros frá Týros · Aþenodóros Cananites Síðstóuspeki Seneca yngri · Cornutus · Musonius Rufus · Kleomedes · Epiktetos · Híerókles · Markús Árelíus Heimspeki stóuspeki · stóísk frumspeki · stóísk náttúruspeki · stóísk rökfræði · stóísk siðfræði · Nýstóuspeki Hugtök Dygð · Frelsi viljans · Hamingja · Sálarró · Skylda · Skynsemi · Þekking Rit Ritgerðir (Epiktetos) · Handbókin (Epiktetos) · Samræðurnar (Seneca) · Bréfin (Seneca) · Hugleiðingar (Markús Árelíus) s r b Rómverskir og austrómverskir keisarar Rómverska keisaradæmið 27 f.Kr – 476 e.Kr Principatið 27 f.Kr – 235 e.Kr Ágústus · Tíberíus · Calígúla · Claudíus · Neró · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasíanus · Títus · Dómitíanus · Nerva · Trajanus · Hadríanus · Antonínus Píus · Markús Árelíus · Lucius Verus · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Julianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus með Diadumenianusi · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus 3. aldar kreppan 235–284 Maximinus Thrax · Gordianus 1. og Gordianus 2. · Pupienus og Balbinus · Gordianus 3. · Philippus arabi · Decius með Herenniusi Etruscusi · Hostilianus · Trebonianus Gallus með Volusianusi · Aemilianus · Valerianus · Gallienus með Saloninusi · Claudius Gothicus · Quintillus · Aurelianus · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerianus Dóminatið 284–395 Diocletianus · Maximianus · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Severus · Maxentius · Maximinus Daia · Licinius með Valeriusi Valens og Martinianusi · Konstantínus mikli með Crispusi · Constantinus 2. · Constans 1. · Constantius 2. með Vetranio · Julianus · Jovianus · Valentinianus 1. · Valens · Gratianus · Valentinianus 2. · Magnus Maximus · Theodosius 1. Vestrómverska keisaradæmið 395–476 Honorius · Constantius 3. · Joannes · Valentinianus 3. · Petronius Maximus · Avitus · Majorianus · Libius Severus · Anthemius · Olybrius · Glycerius · Julius Nepos · Romulus Augustus Austrómverska keisaradæmið 395–1453 395 – 717 Arcadius · Theodosius 2. · Pulcheria · Marcianus · Leo 1. · Leo 2. · Zeno · Basiliscus · Anastasius 1. · Justinus 1. · Justinianus 1. · Justinus 2. · Tiberius 2. · Mauricius · Phocas · Heraclius · Constantinus 3. · Heraklonas · Constans 2. · Constantinus 4. · Justinianus 2. · Leontios · Tiberios 3. · Philippikos · Anastasios 2. · Theodosios 3. 717 – 1204 Leo 3. · Constantinus 5. · Artabasdos · Leo 4. · Constantinus 6. · Irene · Nikephoros 1. · Staurakios · Mikael 1. · Leo 5. · Mikael 2. · Theophilos · Mikael 3. · Basileios 1. · Leo 6. · Alexander · Constantinus 7. · Romanos 1. · Romanos 2. · Nikephoros 2. · Johannes 1. · Basileios 2. · Constantinus 8. · Zoe · Romanos 3. · Mikael 4. · Mikael 5. · Constantinus 9. · Theodora · Mikael 6. · Isaac 1. · Constantinus 10. · Mikael 7. · Romanos 4. · Nikephoros 3. · Alexios 1. · Johannes 2. · Manuel 1. · Alexios 2. · Andronikos 1. · Isaac 2. · Alexios 3. · Alexios 4. · Nikolaos Kanabos · Alexios 5. Keisaradæmið í Níkeu 1204–1261 Constantinus Laskaris · Theodoros 1. · Johannes 3. · Theodoros 2. · Johannes 4. 1261–1453 Mikael 8. · Andronikos 2. · Mikael 9. · Andronikos 3. · Johannes 5. · Johannes 6. · Mattheus Kantakouzenos · Andronikos 4. · Johannes 7. · Andronikos 5. · Manuel 2. · Johannes 8. · Constantinus 11. Sjá einnig Listi yfir rómverska keisara · Listi yfir austrómverska keisara Sótt frá „https://is.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markús_Árelíus&oldid=1696748“ Flokkar: Fólk fætt árið 121 Fólk dáið árið 180 Rómverskir keisarar Stóuspekingar Leiðsagnarval Tenglar Ekki skráð/ur inn Spjall Framlög Stofna aðgang Skrá inn Nafnrými Síða Spjall Útgáfur Sýn Lesa Breyta Breyta frumkóða Breytingaskrá Meira Leit Flakk Forsíða Úrvalsefni Efnisflokkar Handahófsvalin síða Hjálp Verkefnið Nýlegar breytingar Nýjustu greinar Samfélagsgátt Potturinn Fjárframlög Verkfæri Hvað tengist hingað Skyldar breytingar Hlaða inn skrá Kerfissíður Varanlegur tengill Síðuupplýsingar Vitna í þessa síðu Wikidata hlutur Prenta/sækja Búa til bók Sækja PDF-skrá Prentvæn útgáfa Í öðrum verkefnum Wikimedia Commons Á öðrum tungumálum Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Breyta tenglum Þessari síðu var síðast breytt 29. desember 2020, klukkan 07:41. 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it-wikipedia-org-7041	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia Marco Aurelio Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. Jump to navigation Jump to search Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Marco Aurelio (disambigua). Marco Aurelio imperatore romano Busto dell'imperatore Marco Aurelio (Musei Capitolini, Roma). Nome originale Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Tribunicia potestas 9 anni (da solo), 6 con Lucio Vero, 4 con Commodo e 15 con Antonino Pio per un totale di 34 volte: la prima volta (I) dal 1º dicembre del 147, rinnovata annualmente al 10 dicembre di ogni anno[1] Cognomina ex virtute Armeniacus nel 164,[2][3][4] Medicus e Parthicus Maximus nel 166,[2][3][5] Germanicus nel 172,[3][6][7][8][9] Sarmaticus nel 175[3][8][10] Titoli Pater Patriae dal 166 Salutatio imperatoria 10 volte:[1] I (al momento della assunzione del potere imperiale) nel 161, (II) nel 163,[11] (III) 165,[12] (IV) 166, (V) 167,[13] (VI) 171,[14] (VII) 174,[15] (VIII) 175,[16] (IX) 177[17] e (X) 179.[1] Nascita 26 aprile 121[18] Roma Morte 17 marzo 180 Sirmio o Vindobona [19][20](attuale Vienna) Predecessore Antonino Pio Successore Commodo Coniuge Faustina minore Figli Domizia Faustina Aurelia Tito Aurelio Antonino Tito Elio Aurelio Lucilla Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina Tito Elio Antonino Fadilla Annia Cornificia Faustina minore Commodo Tito Aurelio Fulvio Antonino Marco Annio Vero Cesare Vibia Aurelia Sabina Adriano Un altro figlio di cui non si conosce il nome nato dopo Tito Elio Antonino Gens Annia Dinastia Antonini Padre Marco Annio Vero adottivo: Antonino Pio Madre Domizia Lucilla Consolato 3 volte: nel 140, 145 e 161.[1] Pontificato max nel 161[1][21] «Solo il presente ci è tolto, dato che solo questo abbiamo.» (Marco Aurelio, Pensieri, II, 14) Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto (in latino: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; nelle epigrafi: IMP·CAES·M·AVREL·ANTONINVS·AVG[22]; Roma, 26 aprile 121 – Sirmio o Vindobona, 17 marzo 180[23]), meglio conosciuto semplicemente come Marco Aurelio, è stato un imperatore, filosofo e scrittore romano. Su indicazione dell'imperatore Adriano, fu adottato nel 138 dal futuro suocero e zio acquisito Antonino Pio che lo nominò erede al trono imperiale. Nato come Marco Annio Catilio Severo[24][25] (Marcus Annius Catilius Severus), divenne Marco Annio Vero (Marcus Annius Verus), che era il nome di suo padre, al momento del matrimonio con la propria cugina Faustina, figlia di Antonino, e assunse quindi il nome di Marco Aurelio Cesare, figlio dell'Augusto (Marcus Aurelius Caesar Augusti filius) durante l'impero di Antonino stesso.[26] Marco Aurelio fu imperatore dal 161 sino alla sua morte, avvenuta per malattia nel 180 a Sirmio secondo il contemporaneo Tertulliano[20] o presso Vindobona.[19] Fino al 169 mantenne la coreggenza dell'impero assieme a Lucio Vero, suo fratello adottivo nonché suo genero, anch'egli adottato da Antonino Pio. Dal 177, morto Lucio Vero, associò al trono suo figlio Commodo.[27] È considerato dalla storiografia tradizionale come un sovrano illuminato, il quinto dei cosiddetti "buoni imperatori"[28] menzionati da Edward Gibbon.[29] Il suo regno fu tuttavia funestato da conflitti bellici (guerre partiche e marcomanniche), da carestie e pestilenze.[30][31] Marco Aurelio è ricordato anche come importante filosofo stoico, autore dei Colloqui con sé stesso (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν nell'originale in greco).[32] Alcuni imperatori successivi utilizzarono il nome "Marco Aurelio" per accreditare un inesistente legame familiare con lui.[33] Indice 1 Fonti biografiche, storiografia antica e moderna 2 Biografia 2.1 Origini familiari 2.2 Infanzia e giovinezza (121-136) 2.3 Successione di Adriano (136-138) 2.4 Governo con Antonino Pio (139-161) 2.4.1 Matrimonio con Faustina 2.4.2 Formazione oratoria e filosofica (136-147) 2.4.3 Nascite e morti nella famiglia (147-161) 2.4.4 Ultimi anni di Antonino (152-161) 2.5 Principato (161-180) 2.5.1 Ascesa alla porpora imperiale 2.5.2 Governo imperiale con Lucio (161-169) 2.5.2.1 Politica interna: l'amministrazione dello stato 2.5.2.2 Lavoro legale e amministrativo 2.5.2.3 Politica estera 2.5.2.3.1 Guerra partica (161/2-166) 2.5.2.3.2 Scambi commerciali con l'Oriente 2.5.2.3.3 Guerre marcomanniche 2.5.2.4 Peste antonina 2.5.3 Unico imperatore (169-176) 2.5.3.1 Frontiere settentrionali (169-175) 2.5.3.2 Rivolta di Cassio (175) 2.5.3.3 Viaggio in Oriente (175-176) 2.5.4 Governo imperiale con Commodo (176-180) 2.5.4.1 Offensiva finale in Marcomannia e Sarmatia (177-180) 2.5.4.2 Morte (180) 2.5.4.3 Successione 3 Carattere e pensiero filosofico 4 Politica religiosa e atteggiamento nei confronti dei cristiani 5 Monetazione imperiale del periodo 6 Marco Aurelio nella cultura 7 Note 8 Bibliografia 9 Altri progetti 10 Collegamenti esterni Fonti biografiche, storiografia antica e moderna[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Fonti e storiografia su Marco Aurelio. Le principali fonti per la vita e il ruolo di Marco Aurelio sono frammentarie e spesso inaffidabili. Il gruppo più importante è rappresentato dalle biografie contenute nella Historia Augusta, composte in epoca successiva al IV secolo.[34] Le biografie derivate principalmente da fonti ormai perdute (come Mario Massimo), ma anche da Eutropio e Aurelio Vittore, ovvero quelle di Marco Aurelio, Adriano, Antonino Pio e Lucio Vero, sono ritenute accurate e affidabili.[34] Di Frontone, maestro di retorica di Marco e di vari funzionari di Antonino Pio, si conservano una serie di manoscritti irregolari, che coprono il periodo che va dal 138 al 166. Nei Colloqui con sé stesso Marco offre una finestra sulla sua vita interiore, ma gran parte dei libri risultano senza riferimenti cronologici e con pochi accenni al mondo esterno.[35] La più attendibile fra le fonti del periodo è Cassio Dione, Egli scrisse una storia di Roma dalla sua fondazione al 229, chiamata Historia romana.[36] Altre fonti letterarie e giuridiche, come gli scritti del medico Galeno, le orazioni di Elio Aristide e le costituzioni imperiali dello stesso Marco Aurelio forniscono ulteriori informazioni sul contesto storico e sociale in cui visse l'imperatore. Epigrafi e monete possono integrarle, così come i numerosi reperti archeologici.[37] Biografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Cronologia degli eventi principali riguardanti la vita di Marco Aurelio. Origini familiari[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Albero genealogico degli Imperatori adottivi. Un giovane Marco Aurelio (Musei Capitolini, Roma) La famiglia di Marco era di origine romana, ma stabilita da tempo a Ucubi (Colonia Claritas Iulia Ucubi, odierna Espejo),[38] una piccola cittadina della Spagna romana situata a sud est di Cordŭba. Essa salì alla ribalta alla fine del I secolo, quando il suo bisnonno, Marco Annio Vero, fu senatore e forse pretore. Nel 73-74 il nonno, anch'egli di nome Marco Annio Vero, fu elevato al rango di patrizio.[39][40] Il terzo Marco Annio Vero, cioè suo padre, sposò Domizia Lucilla.[41][42] Lucilla maggiore, la di lei nonna materna, aveva ereditato una grande fortuna, tra cui una fabbrica di mattoni (figlina) a Roma, attività alquanto redditizia in un'epoca in cui la città era interessata da una notevole espansione edilizia.[43] La famiglia della madre era di rango consolare, mentre quella del padre vantava addirittura una discendenza da Numa Pompilio.[44] Infanzia e giovinezza (121-136)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Età traianea e adrianea. Busto di Marco Aurelio giovane uomo, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, collezione Farnese. Il busto (fino al collo) è un rifacimento moderno. Marco Aurelio nacque a Roma da Lucilla e Vero il 26 aprile del 121, secondo il calendario romano il sesto giorno prima delle calende di maggio, l'anno del secondo consolato di suo nonno Marco Annio Vero, corrispondente all'anno 874 dalla fondazione di Roma;[44] la sorella, Annia Cornificia Faustina, nacque probabilmente nel 122 o nel 123.[43] Il padre Annio Vero morì giovane, durante la sua pretura,[45] presumibilmente nel 124,[46] quando Marco aveva solo tre anni. Anche se difficilmente può averlo conosciuto, Marco Aurelio scrisse nelle sue Meditazioni che aveva imparato "modestia e virilità" dal ricordo di suo padre e dalla sua reputazione postuma. Lucilla non si risposò più.[47] La madre di Marco, come da usanza della nobilitas, trascorse poco tempo col figlio, affidandolo alle cure delle domestiche.[48] Ciononostante, Marco accredita a sua madre l'insegnamento della pietà religiosa, la semplicità nella dieta e come evitare le vie dei ricchi.[49] Nelle sue lettere Marco fa frequente e affettuoso riferimento alla madre, manifestandole la sua gratitudine, nonostante mia madre fosse condannata a morire giovane, trascorse i suoi ultimi anni di vita con me.[50] Dopo la morte del padre, il piccolo Marco Aurelio andò a stare dal nonno paterno Marco Annio Vero. Ma anche Lucio Catilio Severo, descritto come il "bisnonno materno" di Marco (probabilmente il patrigno o padre adottivo di Lucilla maggiore), partecipò alla sua istruzione. Marco crebbe nella casa dei suoi genitori, sul Celio, dove era nato, in un quartiere che avrebbe affettuosamente ricordato come il mio Celio.[51] Era una zona esclusiva, con pochi edifici pubblici e molte domus nobiliari fra cui il palazzo del nonno, adiacente al Laterano, dove Marco avrebbe trascorso gran parte della sua infanzia. Marco era riconoscente al nonno per avergli insegnato a tener lontano il brutto carattere,[52] ma era anche grato agli eventi che gli evitarono di vivere nella stessa casa con la concubina presa dal nonno dopo la morte della moglie, Rupilia Faustina. Evidentemente questa donna o qualcuno del suo seguito, secondo il Birley, potevano costituire una tentazione per il giovane Marco.[53] La sua istruzione avvenne in casa, in linea con le tendenze aristocratiche del tempo.[54] Uno dei suoi maestri, Diogneto, si dimostrò particolarmente influente, introducendo Marco a una visione filosofica della vita e insegnandogli l'uso della ragione.[55] Nell'aprile del 132, per volere di Diogneto (da taluni identificato come il destinatario della lettera A Diogneto[56]), Marco prese a praticare le abitudini proprie dei filosofi e a utilizzarne l'abbigliamento, come il ruvido mantello greco.[57] Altri tutores, Trosio Apro, Tuticio Proculo e il grammatico Alessandro di Cotieno, descritto come un importante letterato (il principale studioso omerico del suo tempo), continuarono a occuparsi della sua istruzione nel 132-133. Marco deve ad Alessandro la sua formazione nello stile letterario, rilevabile in molti passi dei Colloqui con sé stesso.[58] Successione di Adriano (136-138)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Antonino Pio § Adozione da parte di Adriano. Busto dell'imperatore Adriano (Musei Capitolini, Roma) Alla fine del 136 Adriano, convalescente nella sua villa di Tivoli dopo aver rischiato di morire per un'emorragia, scelse Lucio Ceionio Commodo (conosciuto poi come Lucio Elio Cesare) come suo successore, adottandolo contro la volontà delle persone a lui vicine. Lucio però si ammalò e il 1º gennaio del 138 morì, costringendo il princeps Adriano a indicare un nuovo successore; era il 24 gennaio del 138 quando la scelta cadde su Aurelio Antonino,[59] il genero di Marco Annio Vero che il giorno successivo, dopo essere stato attentamente esaminato, fu accettato dal Senato e adottato col nome di Tito Elio Cesare Antonino. A sua volta, come da disposizioni dello stesso princeps, Antonino adottò Marco, allora diciassettenne, e il giovane Lucio Commodo, figlio dello scomparso Lucio Elio Vero.[60] Da questo momento Marco mutò il suo nome in Marco Elio Aurelio Vero e Lucio in Lucio Elio Aurelio Commodo. Marco rimase sconcertato quando seppe che Adriano lo aveva adottato come nipote: solo con riluttanza passò dalla casa di sua madre sul Celio a quella privata di Adriano, che il Birley ritiene non fosse ancora la «casa di Tiberio» (come veniva chiamata la residenza imperiale sul Palatino).[61] Poco tempo più tardi, Adriano chiese in Senato che Marco fosse esentato dalla legge che richiedeva il venticinquesimo anno compiuto per il candidato alla carica di questore. Il Senato acconsentì e Marco divenne prima questore nel 139, ricevette quindi l'imperium proconsulare maius nel 139-140[62] e il consolato nel 140, a soli diciotto anni.[63] L'adozione facilitò il percorso della sua ascesa sociale: egli sarebbe verosimilmente divenuto prima triumvir monetalis (responsabile delle emissioni monetali imperiali) e in seguito tribunus militum in una legione. Marco probabilmente avrebbe preferito viaggiare e approfondire gli studi. Il suo biografo attesta che il suo carattere rimase inalterato: mostrava ancora lo stesso rispetto per i rapporti come aveva quando era un cittadino comune ed era così parsimonioso e attento dei suoi beni come lo era stato quando viveva in una abitazione privata.[64] La salute di Adriano peggiorò al punto da fargli desiderare la morte,[65] tentando anche il suicidio, impeditogli dal successore Antonino.[66] L'imperatore, gravemente malato, lasciò Roma per la sua residenza estiva, una villa a Baiae, località balneare sulla costa campana, ove morì infine di edema polmonare il 10 luglio del 138. La successione di Antonino era ormai stabilita e non presentava appigli per eventuali colpi di mano. Per il suo comportamento, rispettoso dell'ordine senatorio e delle nuove regole, Antonino fu insignito dell'appellativo "Pio".[25][67] Governo con Antonino Pio (139-161)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Età antonina. L'adozione (Monumento dei Parti, oggi presso il Museo di Efeso di Vienna): Antonino Pio (al centro) con Lucio Vero di sette anni (a destra) e Marco Aurelio di diciassette anni (a sinistra, alle spalle). All'estrema destra, sembra esserci Adriano. Subito dopo la morte di Adriano, Antonino pregò la moglie Faustina di accertarsi se Marco fosse disposto a modificare i suoi precedenti accordi matrimoniali. Marco acconsentì a sciogliere la promessa fatta a Ceionia Fabia e a fidanzarsi con Faustina minore, la loro giovane e bella figlia, inizialmente promessa a Lucio.[68] Marco ricoprì il suo primo consolato nel 140, con Antonino come collega. In qualità di erede designato, fu quindi nominato princeps iuventutis, il comandante dell'ordine equestre. Assunse il titolo di Cesare,[69] divenendo Marco Elio Aurelio Vero Cesare, ma in seguito si schermì dal prendere troppo sul serio l'incarico.[70] Su invito del Senato, Marco venne inserito contemporaneamente nei principali collegi sacerdotali, tra i quali figuravano i pontifices, gli augures, i quindecemviri sacris faciundis e i septemviri epulones.[71] Antonino gli chiese di prendere la residenza nella Domus Tiberiana, uno dei palazzi imperiali sul Palatino. Marco avrebbe avuto difficoltà a conciliare la vita di corte con le sue aspirazioni filosofiche, anche se ammirò sempre e profondamente Antonino come un uomo giusto, esempio di condotta integerrima.[72] Marco si convinse che la vita serena a corte doveva essere un obiettivo raggiungibile, dove la vita è possibile, allora è possibile vivere una vita giusta, la vita è possibile in un palazzo, per cui è possibile vivere la vita proprio in un palazzo[73][74] affermò, trovandolo comunque di difficile attuazione. Nei Colloqui con sé stesso Marco sembrava criticarsi per aver abusato della vita di corte di fronte alla società.[74][75] Come questore, Marco sembra abbia ricoperto un ruolo amministrativo secondario: i compiti erano la lettura delle lettere imperiali al Senato, quando Antonino era assente, e più in generale quello di essere una sorta di segretario privato del princeps. I suoi compiti come console furono invece più significativi, presiedendo le riunioni che avevano un ruolo importante nelle funzioni amministrative del corpo statale. Si sentiva assorbito dal lavoro d'ufficio e se ne lamentò con il suo tutore Frontone: Sono senza fiato a causa di dover dettare quasi trenta lettere. Egli era stato, nelle parole del suo biografo, preparato per governare lo Stato.[63][76] Il 1º gennaio 145, Marco venne nominato console per la seconda volta, a soli ventiquattro anni.[77] Una lettera di Frontone esortava Marco a dormire molto in modo che potrai entrare in Senato con un buon colorito e leggere il discorso con una voce forte. Marco si era lamentato di una malattia in una lettera precedente: Per quanto riguarda la mia forza essa è migliorata, sto cominciando a guarire e non vi è alcuna traccia di dolore nel mio petto, ma riguardo l'ulcera [...] sto facendo un trattamento e faccio attenzione a non fare nulla che interferisca con esso.[78] Marco era di salute cagionevole: lo storico romano Cassio Dione, scrivendo dei suoi ultimi anni, lo elogiò per essersi comportato a dovere, nonostante le numerose malattie.[79] Matrimonio con Faustina[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Busto di Faustina Minore, Louvre, Parigi. Nell'aprile del 145 Marco sposò la quattordicenne Faustina, come era stato programmato sin dal 138.[80] Secondo il diritto romano, per far sì che il matrimonio potesse aver luogo, fu necessario che Antonino liberasse ufficialmente uno dei due figli dalla sua autorità paterna; in caso contrario Marco, in quanto figlio adottivo di Antonino, avrebbe sposato sua sorella. Poco si sa della cerimonia stessa. Vennero coniate delle monete con le immagini degli sposi e di Antonino, che avrebbe officiato la cerimonia come pontifex maximus. Nelle lettere rimanenti Marco non fa esplicito riferimento al matrimonio, durato trentun anni, e accenna solo raramente a Faustina.[81] Formazione oratoria e filosofica (136-147)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Pensiero di Marco Aurelio § Formazione filosofica e rapporto con i maestri. Dopo aver indossato la toga virilis nel 136 iniziò probabilmente la sua formazione oratoria. Aveva tre maestri di greco, tra cui Erode Attico, e uno di latino, Marco Cornelio Frontone, che Marco ricorda spesso come suo maestro di stile e di vita nei Colloqui con sé stesso.[82] Frontone e Attico erano gli oratori più stimati dell'epoca, ma divennero suoi precettori solo dopo la sua adozione da parte di Antonino, nel 138. La preponderanza dei tutores greci indica l'importanza di quella lingua per l'aristocrazia di Roma. Questa era l'età della seconda sofistica, una rinascita della letteratura greca. Sebbene istruito a Roma, Marco userà il greco per scrivere i suoi pensieri più profondi nei Colloqui con sé stesso.[63][83] Erode era un uomo molto ricco e discusso, forse il più ricco d'Oriente e mal sopportava gli stoici, ma era un abile oratore e sofista; Marco, che sarebbe diventato proprio uno stoico, non lo ricorda affatto nei suoi Colloqui, nonostante si fossero incontrati molte volte nel corso dei decenni successivi.[84] Quinto Giunio Rustico in un disegno riportato nel Crabbes Historical Dictionary, edizione 1825. Busto di Erode Attico in marmo, risalente al II secolo d.C. e conservato al Museo del Louvre di Parigi. Frontone godeva di grande reputazione: nel mondo consapevolmente antiquato della letteratura latina era considerato, come oratore, secondo solo a Cicerone, una fama che oggi, in base ai pochi frammenti rimasti, può lasciare meravigliati.[85] Non correva una gran simpatia fra Frontone ed Erode; eppure i due seppero in ultimo far scorrere una vena di reciproca cortesia e gentilezza, grazie anche a Marco.[86] Frontone non divenne insegnante a tempo pieno di Marco e continuò la sua carriera di avvocato. Una causa famosa lo portò in contrasto con Erode, che era il principale accusatore di Tiberio Claudio Demostrato, un notabile ateniese difeso proprio da Frontone. L'esito del processo è ignoto, ma Marco riuscì a far riconciliare i due.[87] All'età di venticinque anni Marco cominciò a disamorarsi degli studi in giurisprudenza, mostrando segnali di un diffuso malessere. Era stanco dei suoi esercizi e di prendere posizione in dibattiti immaginari.[88] In ogni caso, l'istruzione formale di Marco era ormai finita. Aveva mantenuto con i suoi insegnanti buoni rapporti e continuava a seguirli con devozione, anche se la lunga istruzione ebbe negative influenze sulla sua salute.[89] Quando Marco era giovane Frontone lo aveva messo in guardia contro lo studio della filosofia, disapprovando come una deviazione giovanile le sue lezioni con Apollonio di Calcide.[90] Pur se Apollonio potrebbe aver introdotto Marco alla filosofia stoica, sarebbe stato Quinto Giunio Rustico, il vero successore di Seneca, ad aver esercitato la maggior influenza sul ragazzo. Marco s'ispirò anche ad Epitteto di Ierapoli, le cui letture fu proprio Rustico a suggerire.[91] Nascite e morti nella famiglia (147-161)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Il 30 novembre 147 Faustina diede alla luce una bambina di nome Domizia Faustina Aurelia. Era solo la prima di almeno quattordici figli (tra cui due coppie di gemelli) che Faustina avrebbe partorito nei successivi ventitré anni.[92] Il giorno successivo, 1º dicembre, Antonino Pio attribuì a Marco il potere tribunizio, mentre l'imperium, cioè l'autorità sugli eserciti e sulle province imperiali, potrebbe essergli già stato conferito nel 139-140.[62] Il potere tribunizio conferiva a Marco il diritto di proporre un provvedimento con prelazione sul Senato e sullo stesso Antonino. Questi poteri gli furono rinnovati, insieme ad Antonino, il 10 dicembre.[1][93] La prima menzione di Domizia nelle lettere di Marco ne rivela la salute malferma.[94] Lui e Faustina furono molto occupati nella cura della bambina, che sarebbe morta poi nel 151.[92][95][96] Nel 149 nacquero a Faustina due gemelli, celebrati da una moneta con cornucopie incrociate sotto i busti dei due bambini e la scritta "felicità dei tempi" (temporum felicitas). Essi però non sopravvissero a lungo. Tito Aurelio Antonino e T. Elio Aurelio, questi i nomi ricavati dagli epitaffi, morirono molto presto (entro la fine del 149) e furono sepolti nel mausoleo di Adriano.[92][96] Lo stesso Marco scrisse: Uno prega: «che io non debba perdere mio figlio!»; ma tu devi pregare: «che io non tema di perderlo!»[97] Marco Aurelio: aureo[98] FAVSTINA AVGVSTA, busto con drappeggio FECVNDITA-TI AVGVSTAE, la Fecunditas (fertilità) seduta, con un bambino sulle ginocchia e altri due in piedi AV (7,37 g); 161 circa Il 7 marzo del 150 nacque una bambina, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, cui seguì Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, che sembra sia nata non più tardi del 153 (un altro figlio, Tito Elio Antonino, viene citato dalle fonti nel 152). Una moneta celebra la fertilità dell'Augusta (FECVNDITAS), raffigurando due bambine e un bambino (Lucilla, Faustina e Antonino, appunto).[98] Il maschio non sopravvisse a lungo, considerando che sulle monete del 156 erano raffigurate solo le due femmine. Egli potrebbe essere morto nel 152, lo stesso anno in cui mancò la sorella di Marco, Cornificia.[92][96] Un settimo figlio nacque e morì poco dopo tra la fine del 157 e gli inizi del 158, come risulta da una lettera di Marco, datata 28 marzo del 158. Nel 159 e 160 Faustina diede alla luce altre due figlie: Fadilla e Cornificia, che portavano i nomi delle defunte sorelle di Faustina e di Marco.[99] Altri figli nacquero in seguito, oltre a Commodo e al gemello di questi, Fulvio Antonino. Si trattava di Marco Annio Vero Cesare, Vibia Aurelia Sabina e Adriano, che morì anche lui giovanissimo.[92][100] Ultimi anni di Antonino (152-161)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Nel 152 Lucio divenne questore all'età di ventitré anni, due anni prima dell'età legale (Marco aveva ricoperto lo stesso incarico a soli diciassette anni).[63] Nel 154 ottenne il consolato all'età di venticinque, sette anni prima dell'età legale. Lucio non aveva altri titoli onorifici, tranne quello di figlio dell'Augusto. Aveva una personalità molto diversa da Marco: amava l'attività sportiva di ogni genere, in particolare la caccia e la lotta, e aveva evidente piacere ad assistere ai giochi circensi e alle lotte dei gladiatori. Non si sposò fino al 164. Antonino Pio non condivideva i suoi stessi interessi: desiderava mantenere Lucio in famiglia, ma non era sicuro di potergli dare gloria e potere.[101] Come si nota dalle statue di questo periodo, Marco cominciò a portare la barba (oltre ai tipici capelli arricciati dell'età antonina), proseguendo la moda iniziata da Adriano,[102] seguita da Antonino e che durò a lungo, sostituendo il tradizionale aspetto dell'uomo romano, completamente sbarbato.[103] Nel 156 Antonino Pio compì settanta anni. Godeva ancora di un discreto stato di salute, seppure avesse difficoltà a stare eretto senza utilizzare dei sostegni. Il ruolo di Marco andò via via crescendo, in particolare quando il prefetto del pretorio Gavio Massimo, che per quasi vent'anni era risultato di fondamentale importanza con i suoi consigli su come governare, morì tra il 156 e il 157. Il suo successore, Gavio Tattio Massimo, sembra non avesse lo stesso peso politico presso il princeps e poi non durò a lungo.[104] Nel 161 Marco e Lucio furono designati consoli insieme, forse perché il padre adottivo sentiva avvicinarsi la fine che infatti giunse nei primi mesi dello stesso anno.[105][106] Secondo i racconti della Historia Augusta l'imperatore, che si trovava nella sua tenuta di Lorium, due giorni prima di morire aveva fatto indigestione, vomitò e fu colto da febbre. Aggravatosi il giorno successivo, il 7 marzo 161, convocò il consiglio imperiale (compresi i prefetti del pretorio Furio Vittorino e Sesto Cornelio Repentino) e passò tutti i suoi poteri a Marco, ordinando che la statua d'oro della Fortuna, che era nella camera da letto degli imperatori, fosse portata da Marco. Diede quindi la parola d'ordine al tribuno di guardia, «equanimità», poi si girò, come per andare a dormire, e morì all'età di settantacinque anni.[105][107] Principato (161-180)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Ascesa alla porpora imperiale[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Dinastia degli Antonini. Busto di Lucio Vero risalente al II secolo d.C. e conservato al British Museum di Londra. Dopo la morte di Antonino Pio, Marco Aurelio era di fatto unico princeps dell'Impero. Il Senato gli avrebbe presto concesso il titolo di Augusto e di imperator, oltre a quello di Pontifex Maximus, sacerdote a capo dei culti ufficiali della religione romana. Sembra che Marco dimostrasse, almeno inizialmente, tutta la sua riluttanza a farsi carico del potere imperiale, poiché il suo biografo scrive che fu "costretto dal Senato ad assumere la direzione della Res publica dopo la morte di Pio". Egli deve aver avuto una vera e propria paura del potere imperiale (horror imperii), considerando la sua predilezione per la vita filosofica, ma sapeva, da stoico qual era, quello che doveva fare e come farlo.[108] Governo imperiale con Lucio (161-169)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Anche se nei Colloqui con sé stesso non sembra mostrare affetto personale per Adriano, Marco lo rispettò molto e presumibilmente ritenne suo dovere metterne in atto i piani di successione. E così, anche se il Senato voleva confermare solo lui, egli rifiutò di entrare in carica senza che Lucio ricevesse gli stessi onori: alla fine il Senato fu costretto ad accettare e insignì Lucio Vero del titolo di Augustus. Marco divenne, nella titolatura ufficiale, Imperatore Cesare Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto mentre Lucio, assumendo il nome di famiglia di Marco, Vero, e rinunciando al suo cognomen di Commodo, divenne Imperatore Cesare Lucio Aurelio Vero Augusto. Per la prima volta Roma veniva governata da due imperatori contemporaneamente.[109] Fin dalla sua ascesa al principato, Marco ottenne dal Senato che Lucio Vero gli fosse associato su un piano di parità (diarchia),[62][69] con gli stessi titoli, ad eccezione del pontificato massimo che non si poteva condividere.[21][109] La formula era innovativa: per la prima volta alla testa dell'impero vi era una collegialità e una parità totale tra i due principes. In teoria i due fratelli ebbero gli stessi poteri, in realtà Marco conservò una preminenza che Vero mai contestò.[110] Le ragioni pratiche di questa collegialità, voluta da Adriano forse per onorare la memoria di Lucio Elio, adottandone il figlio, e al tempo stesso lasciare l'impero a Marco Aurelio di cui aveva capito le grandi qualità, non sono completamente chiare.[111] A dispetto della loro uguaglianza nominale, Marco ebbe maggior auctoritas di Lucio Vero. Fu console una volta di più, avendo condiviso la carica già con Antonino Pio, e fu il solo a divenire Pontifex Maximus. E questo fu chiaro a tutti. L'imperatore più anziano deteneva un comando superiore al fratello più giovane: Vero obbedì a Marco... come il tenente obbedisce a un proconsole o un governatore obbedisce all'imperatore.[109][112] Subito dopo la conferma del Senato, gli imperatori procedettero alla cerimonia di insediamento presso i Castra Praetoria, l'accampamento della guardia pretoriana. Lucio affrontò le truppe schierate, che acclamarono la coppia di imperatores. Poi, come ogni nuovo imperatore, da Claudio in poi, Lucio promise alle truppe un donativo speciale, che fu il doppio di quelli passati: 20.000 sesterzi (5.000 denari) pro capite ai pretoriani, e in proporzione agli altri militari dell'esercito.[113] In cambio della donazione, pari a diversi anni di stipendium, le truppe giurarono fedeltà ai due imperatori. La cerimonia non del tutto necessaria, considerando che l'ascesa di Marco era stata pacifica e incontrastata, costituì comunque una valida assicurazione contro possibili rivolte da parte dei militari.[109] In seguito a questi eventi sembra che la moneta d'argento, il denario, cominciò un lento processo di svalutazione, che portò sia alla riduzione del suo peso che del suo titolo (% di argento presente nella lega), che passò dall'89% dell'epoca di Traiano al 79%.[109][114] Il funerale di Antonino fu celebrato in modo che lo spirito potesse ascendere agli dèi, come era tradizione. Il corpo venne posto su una pira. Lucio e Marco divinizzarono il padre adottivo attraverso un sacerdozio preposto al suo culto, con il consenso del Senato.[115] Secondo le sue ultime volontà, il patrimonio di Antonino non passò direttamente a Marco,[116] ma a Faustina, che in quel momento era incinta di tre mesi. Durante la gravidanza sognò di dare vita a due serpenti, uno più agguerrito rispetto all'altro.[117][118] Il 31 agosto a Lanuvium nacquero infatti due gemelli: Tito Aurelio Fulvio Antonino e Commodo, che poi sarebbe succeduto al padre come imperatore. A parte il fatto che i gemelli erano nati lo stesso giorno di Caligola, i presagi sembra fossero favorevoli, e gli astrologi trassero auspici positivi per i due neonati. Le nascite furono celebrate sulla monetazione imperiale.[119] Statua equestre di Marco Aurelio (Equus Marci Aurelii Antonini), in bronzo, situata al Campidoglio (copia moderna non fedele dell'originale che si trova ai Musei capitolini) Subito dopo l'adozione, Marco promise come sposa a Lucio la figlia undicenne, Lucilla, nonostante fosse formalmente suo zio.[120] Alle celebrazioni dell'evento, furono donate delle somme per i bambini poveri, come aveva fatto in precedenza Antonino Pio quando volle commemorare la moglie scomparsa. I sovrani divennero popolari tra la gente di Roma.[118] Gli imperatori concessero piena libertà di parola, come dimostra il fatto che un noto commediografo, un certo Marullus, poté criticarli senza subire ritorsioni. In ogni altro momento, sotto qualsiasi altro imperatore, sarebbe stato giustiziato. Ma era un periodo di pace e di clemenza e il biografo riporta che Nessuno rimpiangeva i modi miti di Pio.[118][121] Marco Aurelio sostituì vari funzionari dell'impero: Sesto Cecilio Crescenzio Volusiano, responsabile della corrispondenza imperiale, con Tito Vario Clemente, un provinciale, originario del Norico, che aveva prestato servizio militare nella guerra in Mauretania e in seguito aveva servito come Procurator Augusti in cinque differenti province. Costituiva l'uomo adatto per affrontare un periodo di emergenza militare.[122] Lucio Volusio Meciano, che era stato uno degli insegnanti di Marco Aurelio, era governatore della prefettura d'Egitto. Marco lo nominò senatore, poi prefetto della tesoreria (Praefectus aerarii Saturni) e poco dopo ottenne anche il consolato.[123] Il figlio adottivo di Frontone, Gaio Aufidio Vittorino, padre dei futuri consoli di età severiana Gaio Aufidio Vittorino[124] e Marco Aufidio Frontone, venne nominato governatore della Germania superiore.[125] Non appena la notizia dell'ascesa imperiale dei suoi allievi lo raggiunse, Frontone lasciò la sua casa di Cirta e il 28 marzo rientrò nella sua residenza romana. Inviò una nota al liberto imperiale Charilas, chiedendo di potersi mettere in contatto con gli imperatori poiché, disse in seguito, non aveva osato scrivere direttamente agli imperatori.[126] L'insegnante si dimostrò immensamente orgoglioso dei suoi allievi. Egli, ripensando al discorso tenuto per l'ascesa al consolato del 143, elogiò Marco con queste parole: C'era allora una straordinaria capacità naturale in te, perfezionata ora in eccellenza, il grano che cresceva è ora un raccolto maturo. Lucio era invece meno stimato dallo stesso precettore, i suoi interessi erano di livello inferiore.[118] Annia Lucilla, figlia di Marco e moglie di Lucio Vero Il primo periodo di regno procedette senza intoppi, così che Marco Aurelio poté dedicarsi alla filosofia e alla ricerca dell'affetto popolare. Ben presto, però, nuove preoccupazioni avrebbero significato la fine della Felicitas temporum, che il conio del 161 aveva con disinvoltura proclamato.[127] Nell'autunno del 161, il Tevere esondò dalle sue sponde, devastando alcune comunità italiche e gran parte di Roma. Annegarono molti animali, lasciando la città in preda alla carestia. «Marco e Lucio affrontarono personalmente questi disastri» e le comunità italiche colpite dalla carestia furono aiutate, permettendo loro di rifornirsi del grano della capitale.[127][128] In altri tempi di carestia, gli imperatori avevano tenuto le comunità italiche fuori dai granai romani.[129] Gli insegnamenti di Frontone continuarono nei primi anni di regno di Marco. Frontone riteneva che, visto il ruolo ricoperto da Marco, le lezioni fossero più importanti oggi di quanto non fossero mai state prima. Riteneva che Marco desiderasse riacquistare l'eloquenza di una volta, eloquenza per la quale aveva per un certo periodo di tempo perso interesse.[130] Frontone ricordò nuovamente al suo allievo l'antitesi tra il suo ruolo e le sue aspirazioni filosofiche: Supponiamo, Cesare, che tu possa raggiungere la saggezza di Cleante e Zenone, eppure, contro la tua volontà, tu non possa comunque avere la mantella di lana del filosofo. I primi giorni di regno di Marco furono i più felici della vita di Frontone: il suo allievo era amato dal popolo di Roma, era un ottimo imperatore, uno studente appassionato, e, forse più importante, eloquente come lui voleva. Marco diede prova di grande abilità retorica nel suo discorso al Senato dopo un terremoto avvenuto a Cizico. Aveva trasmesso il dramma del disastro, e il senato era stato intimorito: improvvisamente la mente degli ascoltatori era più violentemente agitata durante il discorso, che la città durante il terremoto". E Frontone ne fu enormemente soddisfatto.[130] Politica interna: l'amministrazione dello stato[modifica | modifica wikitesto] In politica interna, Marco Aurelio si comportò, come già Augusto, Nerva e Traiano, da princeps senatus, cioè "primo tra i senatori" e non da monarca assoluto, rivelandosi rispettoso delle prerogative del Senato, consentendogli di discutere e di decidere sui principali affari di Stato, come le dichiarazioni di guerra alle popolazioni ostili o le stipule dei trattati, come anche sulle nomine alle magistrature.[131] Avviò anche una politica tendente a valorizzare le altre categorie sociali: ai provinciali fu reso possibile raggiungere le più alte cariche dell'amministrazione statale. Né ricchezza, né illustri antenati influenzarono il giudizio di Marco, ma solo il merito personale. Egli concesse cariche a persone che riconosceva come illustri eruditi e filosofi, senza guardare alla loro condizione di nascita.[132] L'assetto amministrativo introdotto da Augusto quasi centocinquant'anni prima, che fino a quel momento aveva preservato l'Impero anche quando si erano succeduti imperatori dissoluti come Caligola e Nerone, oppure in occasione della guerra civile del 69, era imponente e la sua classe dirigente cominciava ad acquisire piena consapevolezza del proprio potere.[133] Lavoro legale e amministrativo[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Marco istituì l'anagrafe: ogni cittadino romano aveva l'obbligo di registrare i propri figli entro trenta giorni dalla loro nascita; colpì l'usura, regolarizzò le vendite pubbliche[134] e distrusse tutti i libelli diffamatori che circolavano su molte persone.[135] Proibì i processi pubblici prima che fossero raccolte prove certe, garantì ai senatori l'antica immunità dalle condanne capitali, a meno che ci fossero prove certe e una condanna ufficiale.[132] Impiegò il denaro non in splendide architetture, ma in opere di ricostruzione estremamente necessarie, o in migliorie della rete stradale, da cui dipendeva la difesa dell'impero e il progresso del commercio, o in fortezze, accampamenti e città.[135][136] Egli non amava particolarmente i giochi gladiatorii e gli spettacoli cruenti del circo, ma li indiceva e li frequentava solo se non poteva esimersi; più tardi formò unità militari ausiliarie di gladiatori a supporto delle legioni del nord, ma dovette richiamarli per il malcontento del popolo che, nonostante le economie necessarie a causa della guerra, reclamava il suo divertimento.[137] Non riuscì a realizzare i suoi ideali stoici di eguaglianza e libertà perché l'esigenza di controllare le finanze locali portò alla formazione di una classe burocratica che presto volle arrogarsi diritti e privilegi e che si costituì quale classe chiusa. Marco Aurelio Pontefice Massimo Trascorse, inoltre, molto tempo del suo regno a difendere le frontiere.[138] Tra le altre leggi proibì la tortura per i cittadini eminenti, prima e dopo la condanna, poi per tutti i cittadini liberi, come era stato in epoca repubblicana.[139] Restò valida per gli schiavi, ma solo se non si trovavano altre prove.[140] Venne comunque proibito di vendere uno schiavo per utilizzarlo nei combattimenti contro le belve.[141] Nei processi da lui presieduti cercò sempre la massima giustizia ed equità per tutti, anche quando doveva emettere una condanna secondo le leggi.[142] Marco e Lucio stabilirono ad esempio la non punibilità di un figlio che avesse ucciso un genitore in un momento di follia, materializzando così un primo concetto di infermità mentale.[143] Come molti imperatori, Marco trascorse la maggior parte del suo tempo ad affrontare questioni di diritto come petizioni e controversie, prendendosi molta cura nella teoria e nella pratica della legislazione. Avvocati di professione lo definirono un «imperatore versato nella legge» e, come sosteneva il grande Emilio Papiniano, «molto prudente e coscienziosamente giusto».[144] Egli mostrò uno spiccato interesse in tre aree del diritto: l'affrancamento degli schiavi, la tutela degli orfani e dei minori, e la scelta dei consiglieri cittadini (decuriones). Rivalutò la moneta da lui svalutata, ma due anni dopo tornò sui suoi passi a causa della grave crisi militare che l'impero stava affrontando a causa delle guerre marcomanniche.[145] E mentre il fratello Lucio era impegnato in Oriente contro i Parti, Marco era impegnato a Roma in questioni familiari. La prozia Vibia Matidia era morta e sul suo testamento pendeva una disputa legale, dato che il suo ingente patrimonio aveva attratto l'attenzione di molte persone. Alcuni dei suoi clientes erano riusciti a farsi includere nel suo testamento attraverso vari codicilli. Tuttavia, le sue volontà non potevano essere riconosciute come valide, poiché in contrasto con la lex Falcidia: Matidia aveva infatti assegnato più di tre quarti del suo patrimonio non alla propria familia ma a gente estranea, fra cui un gran numero di suoi clientes. Marco si trovò così in una posizione imbarazzante, dato che Matidia non aveva mai confermato la validità dei documenti, anche se sul letto di morte alcuni dei sedicenti eredi avevano colto l'opportunità per farli convalidare. Frontone esortò Marco a portare avanti le rivendicazioni della famiglia ma quest'ultimo, studiato attentamente il caso, preferì che fosse il fratello a prendere la decisione finale.[146] Benché a Roma vigessero la tortura e la pena di morte, applicate con facilità soprattutto nei confronti di schiavi e stranieri, la normativa di molti imperatori "illuminati" cercò di ridurre il numero di reati punibili con pene severe, come in passato aveva già fatto Tito.[147][148] Per Marco anche gli schiavi andavano trattati come persone, seppure subordinate, e non come oggetti,[149] evitando quindi ogni crudeltà e rispettandone la dignità, a differenza dei cristiani che spesso non si pronunciavano a favore della classe servile.[150] Alcuni critici tuttavia temevano che il movimento filosofico-giuridico legato alla politica di affrancamento degli Antonini, se non fosse stato profondamente ancorato al sistema economico romano, basato principalmente sulla schiavitù, avrebbe portato all'abolizione de facto dell'istituto servile entro un secolo, ed avrebbe comportato gravi ripercussioni economiche.[151] Marco mostrò un grande interessamento affinché a ogni schiavo fosse data la possibilità di riguadagnare la propria libertà, qualora il padrone avesse espresso la propria disponibilità a restituirgliela. Si racconta, infatti, che in una causa di manomissione, portata alla sua attenzione dall'amico Aufidio Vittorino, e citata in seguito dai giuristi come un precedente decisivo, egli favorì uno schiavo. Coerente con lo stoicismo, filosofia contraria alla schiavitù, emanò numerose norme favorevoli alla classe servile, estendendo le leggi già promulgate dai suoi predecessori, a partire da Traiano, e ribadendo per esempio il concetto di diritto di asilo per gli schiavi fuggitivi (che potevano essere puniti e uccisi in ogni modo dal padrone) garantendo loro l'immunità finché si trovassero presso qualsiasi tempio o qualsiasi statua dell'imperatore.[152] Politica estera[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Guerra partica (161/2-166)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero. Sul letto di morte, Antonino Pio aveva espresso la sua collera nei confronti di alcuni re clienti, che il Birley interpreta fossero quelli posti lungo i confini orientali.[153] Il cambio al vertice dell'Impero romano sembra infatti abbia incoraggiato Vologese IV di Partia ad aggredire, nella seconda metà del 161, il Regno d'Armenia, alleato dell'Impero romano, nominando un re fantoccio a lui gradito, Pacoro III, un arsacide come lui.[154][155] L'Impero dei Parti, sconfitto e parzialmente sottomesso da Traiano quasi cinquant'anni prima (114-116), era così tornato a rinnovare i suoi attacchi alle province orientali romane dagli antichi territori dell'Impero persiano.[154][156] Il governatore della Cappadocia, Marco Sedazio Severiano, convinto che avrebbe potuto sconfiggere i Parti facilmente,[157] condusse una delle sue legioni in Armenia, ma a Elegia fu sconfitto e preferì suicidarsi, mentre l'intera legione veniva completamente distrutta.[154][158] E mentre tutto ciò accadeva in Oriente, nuove minacce si profilavano lungo le frontiere settentrionali della Britannia e del limes germanico-retico, dove i Catti dei monti Taunus erano penetrati negli Agri Decumates.[154] Sembra che Marco non fosse pronto ad affrontare simili problematiche poiché, come ricorda il suo biografo, non aveva potuto maturare un'adeguata esperienza militare, avendo trascorso l'intero periodo del regno di Antonino Pio in Italia e non nelle province, al contrario dei suoi predecessori, come Traiano o Adriano.[122] Scena di guerra tra Romani e Parti, sul Monumento dei Parti a Efeso, celebrativo delle vittorie di Lucio Vero e Marco Aurelio contro Vologese IV. Poco dopo giunse la notizia che anche l'esercito del governatore provinciale della Siria era stato sconfitto dai Parti e che si stava ritirando disordinatamente. Era quindi necessario intervenire con grande rapidità, anche nella scelta dei migliori ufficiali da inviare lungo quel settore dell'Impero così strategicamente importante. Marco pose a capo della spedizione (expeditio parthica) il fratello Lucio perché, come suggerisce Cassio Dione, era robusto e più giovane del fratello Marco, più adatto all'attività militare.[159] Il Birley suggerisce che Marco volesse spingere Lucio ad abbandonare la vita dissoluta che conduceva e a capire i suoi doveri. In ogni caso, il Senato diede il suo assenso, e nell'estate del 162 Lucio partì, lasciando Marco Aurelio a Roma, perché la città ha chiesto la presenza di un imperatore.[160] Era però necessario affiancare a Lucio un adeguato staff militare (comitatus), ampio e ricco di esperienza, e che comprendesse anche uno dei due prefetti del pretorio: il prescelto fu Tito Furio Vittorino.[161] I rinforzi vennero inviati da numerose province imperiali fino alla frontiera partica.[162] Frattanto Marco si ritirò per quattro giorni a Alsium, una nota località turistica sulle coste dell'Etruria, ma le numerose preoccupazioni gli impedirono di rilassarsi. Egli scrisse allora all'amico Frontone, dicendogli che avrebbe evitato di descrivergli nei particolari quello che stava facendo a Alsium, perché sapeva che sarebbe stato rimproverato. Frontone rispose ironicamente e lo incoraggiò a riposare, prendendo esempio dai suoi predecessori: Antonino era stato un appassionato di palaestra, di pesca e di teatro, Marco trascorreva invece gran parte delle sue notti insonni a risolvere questioni giudiziarie. Dai loro scambi epistolari sappiamo che Marco non riuscì a mettere in pratica i consigli di Frontone poiché ho doveri che incombono su di me che difficilmente possono essere delegati e rimandati, adducendo la sua devozione al dovere. Conclude informandosi della salute dell'amico e salutandolo addio mio ottimo maestro, uomo dal cuore buono.[163] Frontone rispose qualche tempo dopo, inviando all'amico una selezione di letture e, per rimediare al suo disagio per lo svolgimento della guerra contro i Parti, una lunga e meditata lettera, piena di riferimenti storici, indicata, nelle edizioni moderne sulle opere di Frontone, De bello Parthico (Sulla guerra partica). Frontone scrive che, anche se in passato Roma aveva subito pesanti sconfitte, alla fine i Romani avevano sempre prevalso sui loro nemici: Sempre e ovunque [Marte] ha cambiato le nostre difficoltà in successi e i nostri terrori in trionfi.[164] Il teatro delle campagne militari orientali di Lucio Vero Intanto Lucio, partito dall'Italia e giunto dopo un lungo viaggio in Siria, fece di Antiochia il suo "quartier generale", trascorrendo gli inverni a Laodicea e le estati a Daphne.[165] Durante la guerra, nel periodo autunnale/invernale del 163 o del 164, Lucio andò a Efeso per sposarsi con Lucilla, secondo quanto stabilito da Marco, nonostante circolassero voci sulle sue amanti, in particolare su una certa Panthea, donna di umili origini. Lucilla aveva circa quindici anni e venne accompagnata dalla madre Faustina, insieme a uno zio di Lucio, Marco Vettuleno Civica Barbaro, nominato per l'occasione comes Augusti. Marco che avrebbe voluto accompagnare la figlia fino a Smirne, in realtà non andò oltre Brindisi. Una volta tornato a Roma, inviò istruzioni specifiche ai governatori provinciali affinché non preparassero alcun ricevimento ufficiale.[166][167] La capitale armena Artaxata, venne presa nel 163 e alla fine di quello stesso anno Lucio assunse il titolo di Armeniacus, pur non avendo mai partecipato direttamente alle operazioni militari, mentre Marco si rifiutò di accettare l'appellativo fino all'anno successivo. Al contrario, quando Lucio venne acclamato imperator, anche Marco accettò la sua seconda salutatio imperatoria.[168][169] Nel 164 le armate romane si attestarono stabilmente in Armenia e l'ex console di origine emesana, Gaio Giulio Soemo, venne incoronato re tributario d'Armenia,[170] con l'assenso di Marco.[169][171][172] Il 165 vide le armate romane entrare vittoriose in Mesopotamia, dove posero sul trono il re vassallo Manno. Avidio Cassio raggiunse le metropoli gemelle della Mesopotamia: Seleucia, sulla riva destra del Tigri, e Ctesifonte su quella sinistra. Entrambe le città vennero occupate e date alle fiamme.[173] Cassio, nonostante la penuria di rifornimenti e i primi effetti della peste contratta a Seleucia, riuscì a riportare indietro e in buon ordine la sua armata vittoriosa. Lucio venne così acclamato Parthicus Maximus, mentre insieme a Marco venne salutato nuovamente imperator, ottenendo la sua seconda acclamazione imperiale.[173] Nel 166 ancora Avidio Cassio invase il paese dei Medi, al di là del Tigri, permettendo a Lucio di fregiarsi del titolo vittorioso di Medicus, mentre Marco otteneva la IV salutatio imperatoria e il titolo di Parthicus Maximus.[174][175] I Parti si ritirarono nei loro territori, a oriente della Mesopotamia. Marco sapeva di dover ascrivere il maggior merito della vittoria finale allo staff militare del fratello Lucio. Tra i comandanti romani si distinse Gaio Avidio Cassio, legatus legionis della III Gallica, una delle legioni siriane.[167][175] Al ritorno dalla campagna, a Lucio venne tributato un trionfo (12 ottobre del 166). La parata risultò insolita perché comprendeva i due imperatori, i loro figli e le figlie nubili, come una grande festa di famiglia. Nell'occasione Marco elevò i due figli, Commodo di cinque anni e Marco Annio Vero di tre al rango di Cesare (il gemello di Commodo, Fulvio Antonino, era morto l'anno precedente).[176] Scambi commerciali con l'Oriente[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Relazioni diplomatiche sino-romane. Proprio durante la guerra partica Marco potrebbe aver favorito l'apertura di nuove vie commerciali con l'Estremo Oriente. Si ricorda, infatti, negli annali del "Celeste impero", un'ambasceria inviata presso l'Imperatore cinese della dinastia Han, Huandi (nel 166), nella quale i Cinesi chiamarono l'imperatore romano col nome di Ngan-touen o Antoun. Ciò sembra confermare che tale ambasceria (forse composta da soli mercanti), sia giunta in Estremo Oriente proprio durante il regno di Marco Aurelio o del suo predecessore, Antonino Pio, in quanto Antoun equivarrebbe in lingua cinese al nome latino della famiglia imperiale degli "Anto[u]n-ini".[177] Guerre marcomanniche[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Guerre marcomanniche. Statua di Marco Aurelio in uniforme militare (Museo del Louvre, Parigi). Marcomanni e Sarmati nel 178 Il figlio adottivo di Frontone, Gaio Aufidio Vittorino, venne inviato, dal 162 al 166, a governare la provincia della Germania superiore, ove si trasferì con l'intera famiglia (a parte un figlio che rimase a Roma con i nonni). La situazione lungo la frontiera settentrionale si presentava estremamente difficile. Una postazione lungo gli Agri Decumati era stata distrutta e sembra che molte delle popolazioni dell'Europa centrale e settentrionale fossero in fermento. Regnava, inoltre, molta corruzione tra gli ufficiali romani: Vittorino fu costretto, infatti, a chiedere le dimissioni di un legatus legionis che aveva preso tangenti[27][178][179] e numerosi governatori esperti vennero sostituiti da amici e parenti della famiglia imperiale.[179][180] A partire dal 160, le tribù germaniche e altri popoli nomadi avevano iniziato le prime incursioni lungo i confini settentrionali romani, in particolare in Gallia e sul Danubio. Questo nuovo slancio verso occidente era causato dalle pressioni che subivano a loro volta dalle tribù germaniche più orientali e settentrionali. Una prima invasione di Catti nella Germania superiore era stata respinta nel 162.[179] Molto più pericolosa fu l'invasione del 166, quando i Marcomanni della Boemia, clienti dell'impero romano dal 19 (ma ribelli sotto Domiziano, che vi scatenò contro un'offensiva), attraversarono il Danubio, insieme a Longobardi e altre tribù germaniche. Contemporaneamente, i Sarmati Iazigi attaccarono i territori compresi tra il Danubio e il fiume Tibisco.[181] Secondo la Historia Augusta, conclusa la guerra partica, scoppiava così quella contro i Marcomanni, una coalizione di natura militare, composta da una decina di popolazioni germaniche e sarmatiche (dai Marcomanni propriamente detti della Moravia, ai Quadi della Slovacchia, dalle popolazioni vandaliche dell'area carpatica, agli Iazigi della piana del Tibisco, fino ai Buri di stirpe suebica del Banato). Era la naturale conseguenza di una serie di forti agitazioni interne e dei continui flussi migratori che avevano ormai modificato gli equilibri con il vicino Impero romano. Questi popoli erano alla ricerca di nuovi territori dove insediarsi, sia in conseguenza della forte spinta che subivano da altre popolazioni, sia per il continuo aumento demografico della Germania Magna. Erano, inoltre, attratti dalle ricchezze e dalla vita agiata del mondo romano.[182] In quel periodo la frontiera danubiana non poteva contare su buona parte dei suoi effettivi, sia perché molte legioni avevano dovuto destinare consistenti distaccamenti alla guerra partica, sia perché la grave epidemia di peste aveva falcidiato numerosi reparti. Tale epidemia avrebbe causato una catastrofe demografica prolungatasi per oltre un ventennio e paragonabile a quella causata dalla peste nera.[183] Nel 166/167 avvenne il primo scontro lungo il limes pannonicus ad opera di poche bande di predoni longobardi e osii che, grazie al sollecito intervento delle truppe di confine, furono prontamente respinte. La pace stipulata con le limitrofe popolazioni germaniche a nord del Danubio fu gestita direttamente dagli stessi imperatori, Marco e Lucio, ormai diffidenti nei confronti dei barbari aggressori, recatisi pertanto fino alla lontana fortezza legionaria di Carnunto (nel 168).[184] Peste antonina[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Peste antonina. Al ritorno dalla campagna partica l'esercito portò con sé una terribile pestilenza, in seguito conosciuta come la "peste antonina" o "peste di Galeno", che si diffuse a partire dalle fine del 165 per quasi un ventennio, mietendo milioni di vittime e riducendo drasticamente la popolazione dell'Impero romano. Qualche anno dopo la malattia, una pandemia che oggi si ritiene potesse invece essere vaiolo o morbillo,[185] avrebbe finito per reclamare la vita dei due imperatori stessi. La malattia scoppiò di nuovo, nove anni più tardi, secondo Dione, e causò fino a 2.000 morti al giorno a Roma, infettando fino a un quarto dell'intera popolazione. I decessi totali sono stati stimati in cinque milioni.[30][186] Unico imperatore (169-176)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Frontiere settentrionali (169-175)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] La colonna di Marco Aurelio o colonna antonina, fatta costruire dal figlio Commodo Dopo che la morte colse Lucio agli inizi del 169 (secondo la Historia Augusta in seguito ad un attacco apoplettico che lo colpì non molto distante da Aquileia,[187] mentre autori moderni sostengono che il decesso, forse causato dalla stessa peste, sopraggiunse mentre era impegnato in nuove manovre militari lungo il limes danubiano),[184] Marco Aurelio si trovò ad affrontare da solo i barbari ribelli e con decisione, piuttosto che imporre nuove tasse ai provinciali, organizzò una vendita all'asta nel Foro di Traiano degli oggetti preziosi appartenenti al patrimonio imperiale, tra cui coppe d'oro e di cristallo, vasellame regale, vesti di seta, trapunte d'oro appartenuti anche all'augusta moglie, oltre a una raccolta di gemme trovata in un forziere di Adriano.[188] In quell'anno Marco diede alla figlia Lucilla, rimasta vedova di Vero, un nuovo marito, il fedele Claudio Pompeiano, un militare esperto e affidabile, premiato in seguito con il consolato, nel 173. Marco avrebbe voluto associarlo al trono, al posto dello scomparso Lucio Vero, conferendogli perlomeno il titolo di Cesare, ma egli rifiutò sempre la porpora imperiale.[189] Frattanto lungo il fronte settentrionale, i Romani subirono un paio di pesanti sconfitte contro le popolazioni di Quadi e Marcomanni le quali, una volta penetrate lungo la via dell'ambra e attraversate le Alpi, devastarono Opitergium (Oderzo) e assediarono Aquileia, il cuore della Venetia, la principale città romana del nord-est dell'Italia.[27][190] Questo evento provocò un'enorme impressione:[191] era dai tempi di Mario che una popolazione barbara non assediava dei centri del nord Italia.[192] Contemporaneamente la popolazione dei Costoboci, proveniente dalla zona dei Carpazi orientali, aveva invaso la Mesia e la Macedonia, spingendosi fino in Grecia, dove riuscì a saccheggiare il santuario di Eleusi. Dopo una lunga lotta, Marco riuscì a respingere gli invasori. Numerosi barbari germanici vennero allora stabiliti nelle regioni di frontiera come la Dacia, le due Pannonie, le due Germanie e la stessa Italia. E sebbene ciò non costituisse una novità, Marco si adoperò per creare sulla riva sinistra del Danubio, tra l'odierna Repubblica Ceca e l'Ungheria, due nuove province di frontiera chiamate Sarmazia e Marcomannia. Quelli che erano stati insediati a Ravenna si ribellarono e riuscirono a impadronirsi della città. Per questo motivo, Marco non portò mai più nessun altro barbaro in Italia, e mise al bando quelli che qui si erano stabiliti in precedenza.[193] Il miracolo della pioggia. Marco fu così costretto a combattere una lunga ed estenuante guerra contro le popolazioni barbariche del Nord, prima respingendole e "ripulendo" i territori della Gallia Cisalpina, del Norico e della Rezia (170-171), poi contrattaccando con una massiccia offensiva in territorio germanico (172-173) e sarmatico (174-175), in scontri prolungatisi per diversi anni.[194] L'imperatore, in seguito a questi conflitti, poté fregiarsi dei cognomina Germanicus (172) e Sarmaticus (175), ma contestualmente abbandonò ufficialmente i titoli Armeniaco, Medico e Partico, che non volle più tenere dopo la morte di Lucio Vero, giacché andava a quest'ultimo il merito del loro conseguimento;[195] tuttavia egli, per via dell'impegno profuso lungo il fronte pannonico, non riuscirà più a far ritorno a Roma. Dione e gli altri biografi raccontano anche alcuni episodi particolari della guerra, come il cosiddetto miracolo della pioggia, rappresentato anche nella scena XVI sulla colonna di Marco Aurelio.[196] I Romani, circondati dai Quadi in territorio nemico, si salvarono a stento da un possibile nuovo disastro. L'evento fu utilizzato dagli apologeti cristiani per sostenere che non sarebbero state le preghiere dell'imperatore a ottenere la pioggia in favore dei soldati romani assetati, ma quelle di alcuni legionari di fede cristiana.[197] Sempre nel 172-173 scoppiò una violenta rivolta in Egitto, guidata dal sacerdote Isidoro, che arrivò a minacciare la stessa città di Alessandria. L'intervento di Gaio Avidio Cassio e le discordie interne ai rivoltosi portarono alla fine del conflitto entro breve tempo[198]. Rivolta di Cassio (175)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Avidio Cassio § La ribellione. Nel 175, mentre preparava una nuova campagna contro le popolazioni della piana del Tibisco, l'imperatore fu raggiunto dalla notizia che il governatore della Siria, Avidio Cassio, uno dei migliori comandanti militari romani, alla falsa notizia della sua morte, si era autoproclamato imperatore. Secondo quanto ci tramandano sia Cassio Dione che la Historia Augusta, Avidio Cassio accettò la porpora imperiale per volere di Faustina, poiché la stessa credeva che Marco stesse per morire e temeva che l'impero potesse cadere nelle mani di qualcun altro, visto che Commodo era ancora troppo giovane.[199] Cassio venne acclamato imperator dalla Legio III Gallica mentre la gran parte delle province orientali, escluse Cappadocia e Bitinia, si schieravano a fianco dei ribelli. All'inizio Marco cercò di tenere segreta la notizia dell'usurpazione, ma quando fu costretto a renderla pubblica, di fronte all'agitazione dei soldati si rivolse loro con un discorso (adlocutio) rivelando di voler evitare inutili spargimenti di sangue tra Romani. Ma dopo soli tre mesi, quando la notizia della morte di Marco si rivelò ufficialmente falsa, il Senato romano proclamò Cassio hostis publicus, nemico dello stato e del popolo romano e Avidio fu ucciso dai suoi stessi soldati. La testa dell'usurpatore fu portata a Marco, come testimonianza dell'uccisione, ma l'imperatore, che avrebbe voluto dimostrargli il suo perdono e salvarlo, non esultò, al contrario esclamò: Mi è stata tolta un'occasione di clemenza: la clemenza, infatti, dà soprattutto prestigio all'imperatore romano agli occhi dei popoli. Io però risparmierò i suoi figli, il genero e la moglie, lasciando metà del patrimonio paterno ai figli di Avidio Cassio, e donando una grande quantità di oro, di argento e di gemme alla figlia.[200] Viaggio in Oriente (175-176)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Marco Aurelio: aureo[201] M ANTONINVS AVG GERM SARM, testa laureata con corazza e paludamentum TR P XXX IMP VIII COS III, la Felicitas con caduceo e scettro AV (7,33 g); coniato nel 176 Nell'ultimo decennio di regno, mentre si trovava lungo i confini settentrionali imperiali, Marco scrisse i Colloqui con sé stesso, tornando di rado a Roma. Insieme alla moglie Faustina, al figlio Commodo, al seguito composto dai comites del consilium principis e a un ingente esercito, Marco visitò le province orientali nel 175-176.[202] Partito da Sirmio nel luglio del 175, dopo essere passato per Bisanzio, Nicomedia, Prusias ad Hypium e per Ancyra, giunse a Tarso, sostando in Cilicia dove, secondo Dione,[202] molti si erano schierati dalla parte di Avidio. Poco dopo aver passato la località di Tanya, Faustina morì in circostanze poco chiare in un villaggio di nome Halala, sito in Cappadocia ai piedi dei Monti Tauri. Cassio Dione riporta alcune versioni sulla morte dell'Augusta: una prima ipotizza il suicidio, motivato dall'aver stretto accordi per la successione con Avidio Cassio; una seconda chiama in causa la gotta; una terza vedrebbe Faustina morire di parto dopo un'ennesima gravidanza all'età di quarantacinque anni.[203] Dopo la morte venne divinizzata ufficialmente con degne cerimonie a Roma, per volere del Senato. L'Augusta, che aveva spesso accompagnato il marito in guerra, era stata la prima delle imperatrici romane a essere insignita del titolo di mater castrorum.[204] Halala, il villaggio dove era morta, venne rinominato "Faustinopolis". In suo onore furono istituiti collegi di sacerdotesse e create le puellae Faustinianae, in ricordo dell'istituzione benefica sorta in memoria della madre, la moglie di Antonino Pio, istituzione che si occupava di fanciulle orfane della penisola italica.[204] Le fonti antiche, in contrasto coi Ricordi di Marco Aurelio, spesso accusarono Faustina di dissolutezza e di aver ripetutamente tradito il marito, con marinai e gladiatori, tanto che da una di queste relazioni sarebbe nato Commodo, secondo una diceria riportata dal biografo della Historia Augusta.[205] Dopo questa ennesima disgrazia famigliare, il princeps ripartì per la Siria, forse fermandosi a visitare la città di Antiochia (che si era schierata con Cassio), perdonandone i suoi abitanti, e qui potrebbe avervi svernato, incontrando alcuni personaggi locali come il patriarca Giuda I. Riprese, quindi, il suo viaggio per giungere nell'estate nel 176 in Egitto, dove ricevette una delegazione dei Parti.[202][206] Il trionfo di Marco Aurelio Nel viaggio di ritorno dall'Oriente, dopo essersi imbarcato per l'Asia Minore, passò per Efeso, poi Smirne (dove incontrò Elio Aristide) e, da ultimo, Atene, dove il filosofo cinico Zenone aveva fondato la scuola stoica, sotto il famoso portico dipinto, dichiarandosi "protettore della filosofia".[207][208] Istituì quattro cattedre permanenti di studio, finanziandole, una per ogni principale scuola filosofica: platonici, aristotelici, epicurei e stoici.[209] In Grecia prese parte anche ai riti dei misteri eleusini.[210][211] Durante il tragitto lungo l'Asia Minore e la tappa a Atene si rivolsero a Marco Aurelio e a Commodo anche alcuni padri apologisti cristiani.[202] Governo imperiale con Commodo (176-180)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Il 27 novembre del 176, Marco decise di associare al trono imperiale il figlio Commodo,[212] l'unico maschio superstite tra i suoi figli (dopo la morte del giovane Marco Vero Cesare e quella di alcuni nipoti), nominandolo Augusto e concedendogli la tribunicia potestas e l'imperium,[213] benché avesse nei confronti del figlio alcune perplessità.[214] Marco celebrò, quindi, il matrimonio di Commodo con Bruzia Crispina.[215] A Roma, si dedicò ad amministrare la giustizia, cercando di riparare a torti e abusi del passato; dispose la celebrazione di giochi circensi, mettendo però un limite di spesa a quelli gladiatorii.[216] Il 23 dicembre del 176, Marco, che aveva battuto le popolazioni germaniche e sarmatiche a nord del medio corso del Danubio, ottenne per decreto del Senato romano il trionfo insieme al figlio Commodo, da poco nominato Augusto. In suo onore venne eretta una statua equestre, tuttora custodita nel Palazzo dei Conservatori.[217] Offensiva finale in Marcomannia e Sarmatia (177-180)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] L'impero romano alla fine del regno di Marco Aurelio, nel 180 L'apparente tregua sottoscritta con le popolazioni germaniche, in particolare Marcomanni, Quadi e Iazigi, durò però solo un paio d'anni, fino al 177. Il 3 agosto del 178 Marco fu infatti costretto a marciare ancora una volta verso la frontiera danubiana, a seguito di una nuova sollevazione dei Marcomanni. Non sarebbe mai più tornato a Roma.[27][218] Egli fece della fortezza legionaria di Brigetio il suo nuovo quartier generale e da qui condusse l'ultima campagna nella primavera successiva del 179, che aveva come obiettivo quello di occupare stabilmente parte della Germania Magna (Marcomannia) e della Sarmatia.[219] Si racconta infatti che: «I Quadi essendo poco disposti a sopportare la presenza di forti romani costruiti nel loro territorio [...] tentarono di migrare tutti insieme verso le terre dei Semnoni. Ma Marco Aurelio Antonino che ebbe queste informazioni in anticipo della loro intenzione di partire per altri territori, decise di chiudere loro tutte le vie di fuga, impedendo la loro partenza.» (Cassio Dione, 72, 20.2.) Dopo una vittoria decisiva nel 178, il piano per annettere la Moravia e la Slovacchia occidentale (Marcomannia), per porre fine una volta per tutte alle incursioni germaniche, sembrava avviato al successo, ma venne abbandonato dopo che Marco Aurelio si ammalò gravemente nel 180, forse anch'egli colpito dalla peste che affliggeva l'impero da anni.[220] La sua salute, da sempre fragile e in costante declino, sembra lo costringesse a fare uso anche di oppio per alleviare il dolore persistente che lo affliggeva da anni allo stomaco, rimedio prescritto dallo stesso Galeno.[221] Morte (180)[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Eugène Delacroix, Ultime parole dell'imperatore Marco Aurelio, una rappresentazione moderna della morte di Marco: l'imperatore, al centro, siede a letto, circondato da amici e dignitari, e stringe il braccio di Commodo (a destra), vestito di rosso, sbarbato e abbigliato in maniera orientaleggiante, con orecchini e una corona, e che appare distante e poco interessato. «Uomo, sei stato cittadino in questa grande città: che ti importa se per cinque anni o per cento? Quel che è secondo le leggi ha per ognuno pari valore. Che c'è di grave allora se dalla città ti espelle non un tiranno o un giudice ingiusto, ma la natura che ti ci aveva introdotto? (...) A stabilire che il dramma è completo infatti è chi allora fu responsabile della composizione, ora del dissolvimento; tu invece non sei responsabile né dell'una né dell'altro. Quindi parti sereno: chi ti congeda è sereno.» (Marco Aurelio, 12.36.) Marco Aurelio morì il 17 marzo 180, a circa cinquantanove anni, secondo Aurelio Vittore nella città-accampamento di Vindobona (Vienna).[19] Secondo invece quanto riferisce Tertulliano, uno storico e apologeta cristiano suo contemporaneo, sarebbe invece deceduto sul fronte sarmatico, non molto distante da Sirmio (odierna Sremska Mitrovica, nell'attuale Serbia),[20] che fungeva da quartier generale invernale delle sue truppe, in vista dell'ultimo assalto. Il Birley ritiene infatti che Marco potrebbe essere morto a Bononia sul Danubio (che per assonanza ricorda la località di Vindobona), venti miglia a nord di Sirmio.[222] Iniziando a stare male, chiamò Commodo al capezzale e gli chiese per prima cosa di concludere onorevolmente la guerra, affinché non sembrasse che lui avesse "tradito" la Res publica. Il figlio promise che se ne sarebbe fatto carico, ma che gli interessava prima di tutto la salute del padre. Chiese pertanto di poter aspettare pochi giorni prima di partire. Marco, sentendo che i suoi giorni erano alla fine e il dovere compiuto, accettò da stoico una morte onorevole, astenendosi dal mangiare e bere, e aggravando così la malattia per permettergli di morire il più rapidamente possibile. Il sesto giorno, chiamati gli amici e deridendo le cose umane disse loro: perché piangete per me e non pensate piuttosto alla pestilenza e alla morte comune?[223] Se vi allontanerete da me, vi dico, precedendovi, statemi bene. Mentre anche i soldati si disperavano per lui, alla domanda su a chi affidasse il figlio, rispose ai subordinati: a voi, se ne sarà degno, e agli dèi immortali. Nel settimo giorno si aggravò e ammise brevemente solo il figlio alla sua presenza, ma quasi subito lo mandò via, per non contagiarlo. Uscito Commodo, coprì il capo come se volesse dormire, come il padre Antonino Pio, e quella notte morì.[224] Cassio Dione aggiunge che la morte avvenne "non a causa della malattia per cui stava ancora soffrendo, ma a causa dei medici che, come ho chiaramente sentito, volevano favorire l'ascesa di Commodo", anche se secondo il Birley, "è inutile avanzare ipotesi".[225] Successione[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Commodo, figlio e successore di Marco Aurelio, raffigurato come Ercole Officiato il funerale, venne cremato, e fu immediatamente divinizzato, mentre le sue ceneri furono portate a Roma e deposte nel mausoleo di Adriano, che divenne così il sepolcro di famiglia da Adriano a Commodo e, forse, anche per alcuni imperatori successivi, finché, nel 410, il sacco visigoto della città lo danneggiò gravemente. Le sue campagne vittoriose contro Germani e Sarmati furono commemorate con la costruzione della Colonna Aureliana e di un tempio.[226] Marco Aurelio aveva stabilito che a succedergli fosse il figlio Commodo, che già aveva nominato Cesare nel 166 e poi Augusto (co-imperatore) nel 177. Questa decisione, che mise di fatto fine alla serie dei cosiddetti "imperatori adottivi", venne fortemente criticata dagli storici successivi, poiché Commodo non solo era estraneo alla politica e all'ambiente militare, ma fu inoltre descritto, già in giovane età, come estremamente egoista e con gravi problemi psichici, appassionato in maniera eccessiva di giochi gladiatorii (a cui lui stesso prendeva parte), passione ereditata dalla madre. Marco Aurelio riteneva, a torto, che il figlio avrebbe abbandonato quel genere di vita così poco adatto a un princeps, assumendosi le necessarie responsabilità nel governare un Impero come quello romano, ma così non fu.[227] A conclusione del principato di Marco Aurelio, Cassio Dione scrisse un elogio all'imperatore, pur descrivendo il passaggio a Commodo con dolore e rammarico: «[Marco] non ebbe la fortuna che meritava, perché non era fisicamente forte e poiché dovette affrontare, per la durata del suo regno, numerose difficoltà. Proprio per questo motivo lo ammiro maggiormente, in quanto egli, in mezzo a difficoltà insolite e straordinarie, non solo sopravvisse ma salvò l'impero. Solo una cosa lo rese infelice, il fatto che, dopo aver dato l'educazione migliore possibile al figlio, questi deluse le sue aspettative. Questa materia deve essere il nostro prossimo argomento, dato che da quel periodo dei Romani deriva oggi la nostra storia, decaduta da un regno d'oro a uno di ferro e ruggine.» (Cassio Dione, 72, 36.3-4.) Carattere e pensiero filosofico[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Colloqui con sé stesso, Pensiero di Marco Aurelio e Letteratura greca alto imperiale. Statua equestre di Marco Aurelio (Roma, Musei capitolini) Marco Aurelio fu l'ultimo grande esponente dello Stoicismo.[228] Tra il 170 e il 180, Marco scrisse i Colloqui con sé stesso, come esercizio per il proprio orientamento e auto-miglioramento.[228] Il titolo è stata un'aggiunta postuma, originariamente Marco intitolò l'opera A se stesso, ma non si sa se avesse intenzione di renderla pubblica. Il libro è considerato uno dei capolavori letterari e filosofici di tutti i tempi.[228] «Sii come il promontorio contro cui si infrangono incessantemente i flutti: resta immobile e intorno ad esso si placa il ribollire delle acque. «Me sventurato, mi è capitato questo». Niente affatto! Semmai: «Me fortunato, perché anche se mi è capitato questo resisto senza provar dolore, senza farmi spezzare dal presente e senza temere il futuro». Infatti una cosa simile sarebbe potuta accadere a tutti, ma non tutti avrebbero saputo resistere senza cedere al dolore. Allora perché vedere in quello una sfortuna anziché in questo una fortuna?» (Marco Aurelio, 4.49.) Politica religiosa e atteggiamento nei confronti dei cristiani[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Persecuzione dei cristiani sotto Marco Aurelio. Sebbene Marco abbia da sempre seguito la linea indulgente degli imperatori Adriano e Antonino Pio, che continuò nei confronti dei culti ammessi, è elencato tra gli imperatori persecutori dei cristiani. Molti disordini si verificarono sotto il regno di Marco Aurelio, segnato da epidemie, carestie e invasioni e più volte le folle diedero la caccia ai cristiani, ritenuti responsabili di tutto (per aver causato la collera degli dèi, avendoli negati), e i martiri furono numerosi. Marco Aurelio, personalmente, non mostrò esplicito disprezzo per i cristiani, né li considerò un vero pericolo, ma piuttosto dei fanatici.[229][230] Monetazione imperiale del periodo[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Monetazione degli Antonini. Marco Aurelio nella cultura[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Marco Aurelio nell'eredità storica culturale. Il prototipo di statua equestre è senza alcun dubbio la statua equestre di Marco Aurelio. In precedenza l’opera bronzea si trovava nella piazza del Campidoglio a Roma, prima di essere sostituita da una copia e trasferita nell’adiacente Palazzo dei Conservatori. Note[modifica | modifica wikitesto] ^ a b c d e f Scarre 1995, p. 113. ^ a b AE 1998, 1622; AE 1998, 1625, AE 1998, 1626; AE 1966, 517. ^ a b c d AE 1897, 124. ^ RIC, Marcus Aurelius, III, 92, 142 e 198; AMN-43/44-203; AE 1999, 1103; MIR, 18, 88-4/30; RSC 469. ^ AE 1975, 785; AE 2001, 2154; AE 1998, 1626; AE 1997, 1332. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 12.9. ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 3.5. ^ a b AE 1961, 318; AE 2006, 1837. ^ RIC, Marcus Aurelius, III, 357, 1054 e 1184; MIR, 18, 370-6/37; Banti, 64. ^ RIC, Marcus Aurelius, III, 1188; MIR, 18, 372a-19/50; Cohen, 170. ^ AE 2000, 1537, AE 1986, 528. ^ CIL VIII, 14435, AE 1992, 1184. ^ CIL VIII, 24103, CIL VIII, 26248, AE 1912, 47, AE 2004, 1695. ^ CIL VIII, 26249, CIL VIII, 17972, CIL VIII, 4209. ^ CIL VIII, 17869. ^ CIL III, 6578. ^ CIL VIII, 26250. ^ Birley 1990, p. 60. ^ a b c Aurelio Vittore, De Caesaribus, 16. ^ a b c Tertulliano, 25. ^ a b Grant 1996, p. 27. ^ Testo per esteso dell'epigrafe: Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. ^ Il luogo della morte è incerto tra Sirmio o Vindobona: Tertulliano, 25: (LA) «[...] cum M. Aurelio apud Sirmium rei publicae exempto die sexto decimo Kalendarum Aprilium [...]» (IT) «essendo stato Marco Aurelio strappato allo Stato a Sirmio il 17 marzo.» Aurelio Vittore, De Caesaribus, 16.14: (LA) «Ita anno imperii octavo decimoque aevi validior Vendobonae interiit, maximo gemitu mortalium omnium» (IT) «Il diciottesimo anno del suo governo, tra grandi lamenti, il più forte e più grande di tutti gli uomini morì a Vindobona» Riportato invece così in Aurelio Vittore, Epitome de Caesaribus, 16.12 (compendio, più tardo, della stessa opera di Vittore, attribuita a lui stesso, ma con molta incertezza): (LA) «Ipse vitae anno quinquagesimo nono apud Bendobonam morbo consumptus est» (IT) «Egli stesso, nel cinquantanovesimo anno della sua vita, venne consumato da una malattia a Vindobona.» ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1.9; McLynn 2009, p. 24. ^ a b Cassio Dione, 69, 21.1. ^ Asse della zecca di Roma antica (del 151-152), RIC, III, 1308a (Antoninus Pius); BMCRE, p. 1917; Cohen, 653. ^ a b c d Cassio Dione, 72, 11.3-5. ^ Machiavelli 1531, I.10. ^ Gibbon 1776-1789, capitolo I: Estensione e forza militare dell'Impero nel secolo degli Antonini; in particolare I.78, in cui l'autore descrive il buon governo degli imperatori adottivi; inoltre, p. 273 nota 4 del testo disponibile su Google libri, in cui usa l'espressione "good emperors". ^ a b Cassio Dione, 72, 14.3-4. Il libro completo, che parla dell'epidemia avvenuta sotto Marco Aurelio, è andato perduto; questa nuova epidemia fu la più grave che lo storico avesse mai visto, a quanto narra nella "vita di Marco Aurelio". ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 12.13, 17.1-2 e 22.1-8. ^ Renan 1937. ^ Tra questi vi furono: Marco Aurelio Probo (CIL XI, 1178), Marco Aurelio Mario (imperatore nelle Gallie), Marco Aurelio Caro e Marco Aurelio Carino (CIL VIII, 10956), oltre a due imperatori suoi omonimi, Caracalla (AE 1911, 56) ed Eliogabalo (il cui nome imperiale ufficiale era "Marco Aurelio Antonino"; CIL VI, 40677 e AE 1990, 469) e che furono i primi, pur non appartenendo alla dinastia antonina, ad usare il suo nome. Questi ultimi due, in particolare, come già il padre di Caracalla, Settimio Severo, che aveva riabilitato la memoria di Commodo, divinizzandolo e rimuovendo la damnatio memoriae imposta dal Senato, e dato al figlio il nome di Marco Aurelio, cercavano un collegamento diretto con gli Antonini al fine di nobilitare le loro origini africane e asiatiche, quindi provinciali. Inoltre, una delle mogli di Eliogabalo era una nipote di Marco Aurelio stesso, Annia Faustina. Il nome Marco Aurelio divenne, quindi, un nome di famiglia dei Severi e, come «Cesare», «Augusto» e, più tardi, «Flavio», venne utilizzato come prenome imperiale da molti altri. ^ a b Birley 1990, pp. 317-318. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 269 ss. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 316. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 313-319. ^ CIL II, 656 (p 696). ^ Birley 1990, p. 31. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1.2-1.4. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 32-34. ^ McLynn 2009, p. 14. ^ a b Birley 1990, p. 34. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1. ^ Poiché suo fratello Marco Annio Libone è stato console nel 128 e difficilmente potrebbe essere stato pretore più tardi del 126, Annio Vero deve essere stato a sua volta pretore prima di questa data, verosimilmente, appunto, nel 124. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 34-35; Marco Aurelio, 1.2 ^ Birley 1990, pp. 36-37; Tacito, Dialogus de oratoribus, 28-29; Marco Aurelio, 5.4. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.3. ^ Birley 1990, p. 40; Marco Aurelio, 1.17.7. ^ Birley 1990, p. 35; Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 2.1; Marco Aurelio, 1.14. ^ Birley 1990, p. 39; Marco Aurelio, 1.1. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.17; Birley 1990, p. 39. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.4. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.6. ^ Norelli, p. 75 nota 1. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.6; Birley 1990, p. 43. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.10 e 1.12; Birley 1990, p. 46. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 51-52. ^ Guido Clemente 2008, pp. 629-630. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 55 ss. ^ a b c Guido Clemente 2008, p. 630. ^ a b c d Birley 1990, p. 69. ^ Birley 1987, pp. 38-42. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 50-51; Cassio Dione, 69, 22.4; Historia Augusta, Hadrianus, 25.5-6 ^ Cassio Dione, 69, 22.1-4; Historia Augusta, Hadrianus, 24.8-13. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 63-66; Grant 1996, p. 12. ^ Birley 1990, p. 63. ^ a b Mazzarino 1973, p. 328. ^ Marco Aurelio, 6.30: "Bada di non cesarizzarti, di non impregnarti con la porpora: succede infatti". ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 6.5; Birley 1990, pp. 67-68. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.16. ^ Marco Aurelio, 5.16. ^ a b Birley 1990, p. 68. ^ Marco Aurelio, 8.9. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 2.4 e 3.6. ^ Birley 1990, p. 108. ^ Frontone, Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8 (trad. da Haines 1.184 ss.). ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 36.3. ^ Grant 1996, p. 24. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 110-111. ^ Marco Aurelio, 1.11. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 2.4; Cameron 1967, p. 347. ^ Aulo Gellio, 9, 2.1–7 e 19.12; Birley 1990, pp. 76-78. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 65-67; molti critici moderni hanno avuto dubbi per l'ammirazione dei contemporanei. Filologi di fama espressero numerose critiche: Barthold Georg Niebuhr, lo descrisse "frivolo", Samuel Adrian Naber lo trovò "disprezzabile" (Champlin 1980, capp. 1-2); altri lo hanno definito "pedante e noioso", scrivendo che le sue lettere non offrono né l'analisi politica di un Cicerone né l'introspezione di un Plinio (Mellor 1982 commentando Champlin 1980); una ricerca prosopografica degli anni '80 ha riabilitato, almeno in parte, la sua reputazione, cfr. ad esempio, sempre Mellor 1982 su Champlin 1980. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 88 ss. ^ Birley 1990, p. 78. ^ Birley 1990, p. 113. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 114 ss. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 83 ss.; Marco Aurelio, 1.8. ^ Marco ricorda Epitteto come una guida spirituale, facendo spesso riferimento alle sue Diatribe e al Manuale come ad esempio in Marco Aurelio, 11.34, dove lo cita e ne commenta alcune massime. ^ a b c d e Birley 1990, pp. 336-339. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 126 ss. ^ Champlin 1980, p. 174 n. 12. ^ Frontone, Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (trad. da Haines 1.202 ss.). ^ a b c Birley 1990, pp. 130-132. ^ Marco Aurelio, 9.40. ^ a b RIC, III 682 (Aurelius); MIR, 18, 13-2a; Calicó, 2055 (moneta illustrata); BMCRE, p. 399 note. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes, 4.1399, tradotta da Birley 1990, p. 140. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 205 e 339. ^ Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 2.9-11 e 3.4-7; Birley 1990, pp. 132-133. ^ Forse in omaggio ai filosofi greci o a causa di una cicatrice (cfr. Melani, Fontanella e Cecconi, p. 58). ^ Bianchi Bandinelli e Torelli 1976, scheda 131 (ritratti di Adriano). ^ Birley 1990, pp. 137-138. ^ a b Birley 1990, p. 140. ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 33.4-5. ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius, 12.4-8. ^ Birley 1990, p. 142; Historia Augusta, Pertinax, 13.1 e 15.8 ^ a b c d e Birley 1990, pp. 142-143. ^ Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 4.2. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 15-16. ^ Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 3.8; Birley 2000, p. 156 ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 7.9. ^ Savio 2001, p. 331. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 7.10-11; Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius, 12.8; Birley 1990, pp. 144-145. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 19.1-2; Birley 1990, p. 145. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 1.2. ^ a b c d Birley 1990, pp. 145-147. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 145-146 cita Mattingly 1940, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155 ss.; 949 ss. ^ Cassio Dione, 71.1, 3; 73.4.4–5. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 8.1. ^ a b Birley 1990, p. 150. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 8.8; Birley 1990, p. 151 cita Eck 1995, pp. 65 ss. ^ Vittorino minore fu console assieme al nipote di Marco Aurelio, Tiberio Claudio Severo Proculo nel 200 (AE 1996, 1163 e CIL III, 8237). ^ Birley 1990, p. 151 cita Frontone, Ad Verum Imperator 1.3.2 (trad. da Haines 1.298 ss.). ^ Frontone, Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.2.3 (trad. da Haines 1.302 ss.). ^ a b Birley 1990, pp. 148 ss. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 8.4-5. ^ Birley 1987, pp. 278. ^ a b Birley 1990, pp. 158 ss. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 8-10 e 12. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 10. ^ Pulleyblank 1999. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 9. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 11. ^ La grandiosa colonna di Marco Aurelio di fronte a Palazzo Chigi (alta 42 m) fu eretta per ricordare proprio le vittorie sul fronte germanico-sarmatico del Danubio. La colonna era sormontata da una statua dell'Imperatore, dove ora è posta quella di san Paolo, così come accadde per la colonna di Traiano, dove venne posizionata una statua di san Pietro in sostituzione di quella dell'Optimus princeps), in Coarelli 2008, pp. 42-43. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 17 e 23. ^ Renan 1937, pp. 21-23. ^ Eusebio, 5.1.77. ^ Codice Giustinianeo, Digesto, 1, 18, 13. ^ Codice Giustinianeo, Digesto, XVIII, 1,42. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 24.1-3. ^ Codice Giustinianeo, Digesto, XLVIII, 9, 9, 2. ^ Codice Giustinianeo, Digesto, XXXI, 67.10: «Item Marcus imperator […] et ideo princeps providentissimus et iuris religiosissimus cum fideicommissi verba cessare animadverteret, eum sermonem pro fideicommisso rescripsit accipiendum». ^ Birley 1990, pp. 165 ss.; Millar 1993, pp. 6 e ss. Vedi anche Millar 1967, pp. 9-19 ^ Frontone, Ad Antoninum Imperator 2.1-2 (trad. da Haines 2.94); Birley 1990, p. 164; Champlin 1980, p. 134. ^ Historia Augusta, 24.1-3. ^ Svetonio, Titus, 8 e 9. ^ Casadei e Mattarelli 2009, pp. 107-108. ^ Bloch 1947. ^ Renan 1937, pp. 336-337. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 170-172. ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius, 12.7; Birley 1990, p. 148. ^ a b c d Birley 1990, p. 149. ^ Mazzarino 1973, pp. 335 ss. ^ Frontone, De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (trad. da Haines 2.19); Frontone, De bello Parthico 1-2 (trad. da Haines 2.21-23); e 10 (trad. da Haines 2.31); Guido Clemente 2008, p. 633. ^ Luciano di Samosata, Alessandro, 27. ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 2.1; Luciano di Samosata, 21; 24-25 ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 2.1. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 8.9. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 151-154. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 154-155. ^ Champlin 1980, p. 134; Frontone, De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (trad. da Haines 2.19); Birley 1990, pp. 156-157. ^ Frontone, De bello Parthico 10 (trad. da Haines 2.31); Birley 2000, pp. 150-164; Birley 1990, p. 157. ^ Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 9; Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 9.4; Birley 1990, p. 159. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 9.4-6; Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 7.7; Birley 1990, p. 162. ^ a b Birley 2000, p. 163. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 9.1; Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 7.1-2; Frontone, Ad Verum Imperator 2.3 (trad. da Haines 2.133); Birley 1990, p. 159; Mattingly 1940, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, 233 e ss.. ^ a b Birley 2000, p. 162. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 165; RIC, III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus, n. 511-513 p. 255 e n. 1370-1375 p. 322. ^ Birley 1990, p. 163. ^ Mattingly 1940, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ a b Birley 1990, p. 174. ^ ILS 1098; Birley 1990, pp. 179-180; Mattingly 1940, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, pp. 401 ss.. ^ a b Birley 2000, p. 164. ^ Birley 1990, p. 183. ^ Birley 1990, p. 180; Pulleyblank 1999; Mazzarino 1973, pp. 338 ss.. ^ Frontone, De nepote amisso 2 (trad. da Haines 2.222); Frontone, Ad Verum Imperator 2.9-10 (trad. da Haines 2.232 ss.) ^ a b c Birley 1990, pp. 164-165. ^ Lucio Dasumio Tullio Tusco, un lontano parente di Adriano, fu inviato in Pannonia superiore, per sostituire l'esperto Marco Nonio Macrino. La Pannonia inferiore venne affidata al poco conosciuto Tiberio Aterio Saturnino. M. Servilio Fabiano Massimo venne trasferito dalla Mesia inferiore a quella Superiore quando Iallio Basso si era recato ad Antiochia di Siria da Lucio Vero. La Mesia inferiore venne allora affidata al figlio, Marco Ponzio Leliano. La Dacia venne divisa in tre distretti, governati da un senatore pretoriano e da due procuratori. La pace non poteva durare a lungo, la Pannonia inferiore disponeva di una sola legione, ad Aquinco. Cfr. Alföldy 1977, Moesia Inferior, p. 232 ss.; Moesia Superior, p. 234 ss.; Pannonia Superior, p. 236 ss.; Dacia, 245 ss.; Pannonia Inferior, p. 251. ^ Birley 1990, p. 189. ^ Southern 2001, pp. 203-206. ^ Ruffolo 2004, p. 84. ^ a b Birley 1990, 194-197. ^ Stathakopoulos 2004, p. 95. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 186-187. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 14.8; Historia Augusta, Lucius Verus, 9.11. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 17.4. ^ Cassio Dione, 72-2, 3; 73-4,5 e 20,1; 74-3, 1,2. ^ Birley 1990, p. 207; Alföldy 1977, Moesia Inferior, p. 232 ss.; Moesia Superior, p. 234 ss.; Pannonia Superior, p. 236 ss.; Dacia, pp. 245 ss.; Pannonia Inferior, p. 251. ^ Cassio Dione, 72, 3.1. ^ Questa invasione avvenne secondo Birley 1990, pp. 184-186, 194-196 e 207-208 ed altri studiosi moderni (Brizzi e Sigurani 2010, pp. 393-394 e 398) nel 170. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 208-213. ^ Guido Clemente 2008, p. 635. ^ Kneissl 1969, pp. 206-207. Infatti i cognomina Armeniaco, Medico e Partico sono assenti nella documentazione di carattere ufficiale posteriori al 172, come ad esempio i diplomi militari: nello specifico si veda, ad esempio, AE 1990, 1023 o AE 1987, 843 (entrambi del 179). ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 24.4. ^ Tertulliano, 5, 6. ^ Michael Grant, The Antonines. The Roman Empire in Transition, Routledge, 1994, p. 50. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 230-231. ^ Cassio Dione, 72, 27-29; Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 26.10-12. ^ RIC, Marcus Aurelius, 357 corr. (no P P); MIR, p. 18, 322-2/35; Calicó, 2017; BMCRE, p. 674. ^ a b c d Astarita 1983, pp. 155-162. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 239-240. ^ a b Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 26.3-9. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 19.1-8 e 26.3-9. ^ Ammiano, 22, 5.5; Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 25 e 26; Birley 1990, pp. 241 ss.. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 1.1 e 27.1-7. ^ Cassio Dione, 71, 1.1. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 243-244. ^ IG II2 3620 ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 27.1. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 12.4. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 27.5. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 27.11-12. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 27.8; Cassio Dione, 71.31.1 ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 27.6. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 12.5; Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 16.1-2 e 17.3. ^ Historia Augusta, Commodus, 12.6. ^ Birley 1990, pp. 259-261. ^ Guido Clemente 2008, p. 636. ^ Cassio Dione, 72, 36; Grimal 2004, p. 228. ^ Birley 1990, p. 264. ^ citato in Antonio de Guevara, Vita, gesti, costumi, discorsi, lettere, di Marco Aurelio imperatore, Venezia, 1557, p. 80. ^ Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 28. ^ Cassio Dione, 72, 33.4; Birley 1990, pp. 263-4. ^ Cassio Dione, 72, 36.3-4. ^ Erodiano, Commodo, I, 13.1; Historia Augusta, Commodus ^ a b c Perelli 1969, pp. 320-324. ^ Marco Aurelio, 11.3. ^ Sordi 2004, pp. 103 ss. 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Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des ersten und zweiten Jahrhunderts, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969. in francese Marc Bloch, Comme et pourqoi finit l'esclavage antique, in Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, vol. 2, n. 1, 1947, pp. 30-44. Marco Aurelio nelle opere letterarie e filosofiche moderne Niccolò Machiavelli, Il Principe, 1527. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discorsi sopra la prima Deca di Tito Livio, 1531. Voltaire, Dizionario filosofico, 1764. Cataloghi e raccolte numismatiche (abbreviazioni) Banti = Alberto Banti, I Grandi Bronzi Imperiali, vol. II.1 (Nerva, Traianvs), Firenze, 1983. BMCRE = Harold Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, vol. IV (Antoninus Pius to Commodus), London, 1968-1978. Calicó = Xavier F. Calicó, The Roman Aurei, vol. I (From the Republic to Pertinax, 196 B.C.-193 A.D), Barcellona, 2003. Cohen = Henry Cohen, Description historique des Monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, communément appelées Médailles impériales, vol. II (De Nerva à Antonin, 96 à 161 après J.-C.), Paris, 1880-18922. URL consultato il 26 gennaio 2014 (archiviato dall'url originale il 16 ottobre 2017). MIR = Bernhard Woytek, Moneta Imperii Romani, in OAW, vol. XIV (Die Reichsprägung des Kaisers Traianus, 98-117), Wien, 1984-2010. RIC = Harold Mattingly & Edward Allen Sydenham, Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. II (Vespasian to Hadrian) e III (Antoninus Pius to Commodus), London, Spink & Son, 1923-1994. Altri progetti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Altri progetti Wikisource Wikisource Wikiquote Wikimedia Commons Wikisource contiene una pagina dedicata a Marco Aurelio Wikisource contiene una pagina in lingua greca dedicata a Marco Aurelio Wikiquote contiene citazioni di o su Marco Aurelio Wikimedia Commons contiene immagini o altri file su Marco Aurelio Collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Marco Aurelio, su Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Marco Aurelio, in Enciclopedia Italiana, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Marco Aurelio, in Dizionario di storia, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 2010. Marco Aurelio, su sapere.it, De Agostini. (EN) Marco Aurelio / Marco Aurelio (altra versione), su Enciclopedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Marco Aurelio, su BeWeb, Conferenza Episcopale Italiana. (LA) Opere di Marco Aurelio, su Musisque Deoque. (LA) Opere di Marco Aurelio, su PHI Latin Texts, Packard Humanities Institute. Opere di Marco Aurelio / Marco Aurelio (altra versione) / Marco Aurelio (altra versione) / Marco Aurelio (altra versione) / Marco Aurelio (altra versione), su openMLOL, Horizons Unlimited srl. (EN) Opere di Marco Aurelio, su Open Library, Internet Archive. (EN) Opere di Marco Aurelio, su Progetto Gutenberg. (EN) Audiolibri di Marco Aurelio, su LibriVox. (EN) Marcus Aurelius (autore), su Goodreads. (EN) Marco Aurelio (personaggio), su Goodreads. Marco Aurelio, su Discografia nazionale della canzone italiana, Istituto centrale per i beni sonori ed audiovisivi. (EN) Rachana Kamtekar, Marcus Aurelius, in Edward N. Zalta (a cura di), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Università di Stanford. Predecessore Imperatore romano Successore Antonino Pio 161–180 (fino al 169 con Lucio Vero, dal 177 con Commodo) Commodo Predecessore Console romano Successore Gaio Bruttio Presente Lucio Fulvio Rustico II 140 Marco Peduceo Stloga Priscino I con Imperatore Cesare Tito Elio Adriano Antonino Augusto Pio II con Imperatore Cesare Tito Elio Adriano Antonino Augusto Pio III con Tito Enio Severo Tito Statilio Massimo 145 Gneo Claudio Severo Arabiano II con Lucio Edio Rufo Lolliano Avito con Imperatore Cesare Tito Elio Adriano Antonino Augusto Pio IV con Sesto Erucio Claro II Appio Annio Atilio Bradua 161 Quinto Giunio Rustico II III con Tito Clodio Vibio Varo con Lucio Elio Aurelio Commodo II con Lucio Tizio Plauzio Aquilino Marco Aurelio Eventi e fonti Cronologia degli eventi principali riguardanti la vita di Marco Aurelio · Età antonina · Fonti e storiografia · Monetazione degli Antonini · Persecuzione dei cristiani sotto Marco Aurelio · Peste antonina Marco Aurelio 121 ~ 180 d.C. Dinastia e familiari Albero genealogico degli Imperatori adottivi · Dinastia degli Antonini · Elenco completo dei figli di Marco Aurelio Campagne militari Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero · Guerre marcomanniche · Rivolta di Avidio Cassio Filosofia e interpreti del periodo Colloqui con sé stesso · Pensiero filosofico · Stoicismo Claudio Massimo · Erode Attico · Celso · Luciano di Samosata · Apollonio di Calcide · Marco Cornelio Frontone · Tertulliano · Quinto Giunio Rustico Arte e cultura Arte dei primi Antonini · Arte nell'età di Commodo · Letteratura del periodo · Marco Aurelio nell'eredità storica culturale (Il gladiatore · La caduta dell'Impero romano) Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero Eventi e fonti Cronologia delle campagne partiche di Lucio Vero · Fonti e storiografia · Peste antonina Parthicus Scenario geopolitico Impero romano · Impero partico · Regno d'Armenia Battaglie (165 d.C.) Dura Europos · Ctesifonte Protagonisti Imperatori romani: Lucio Vero e Marco Aurelio Altri personaggi romani: Gaio Avidio Cassio · Marco Claudio Frontone · Marco Iallio Basso Fabio Valeriano · Marco Ponzio Leliano Larcio Sabino · Marco Sedazio Severiano · Marco Stazio Prisco Licinio Italico · Publio Giulio Gemino Marciano · Publio Marzio Vero · Quinto Antistio Advento Postumio Aquilino · Tito Furio Vittorino Parti: Vologase IV Alleati di Romani e/o Parti: Pacoro d'Armenia · Soemo Eserciti Esercito romano · Esercito partico Monumenti commemorativi Monumento dei Parti di Efeso Campagne partiche di Lucio Vero (162 ~ 166 d.C.) Guerre marcomanniche Eventi e fonti Cronologia delle guerre marcomanniche · Fonti e storiografia · Peste antonina Germanicus et Sarmaticus Scenario geopolitico Impero romano · Germani (Buri, Catti, Costoboci, Cotini, Longobardi, Marcomanni, Naristi, Osii, Quadi, Vandali asdingi e lacringi) · Sarmati iazigi Battaglie (170) Carnuntum · (170) Aquileia · (172) Miracolo della pioggia · (179) Marcomannia Fortezze romane in Marcomannia: Leugaricio · Mušov Protagonisti Imperatori romani: Lucio Vero, Marco Aurelio e Commodo Altri personaggi romani: Aulo Giulio Pompilio Tito Vivio Levillo Pisone Bereniciano · Clodio Albino · Didio Giuliano · Gaio Aufidio Vittorino · Gaio Vettio Sabiniano Giulio Ospite · Lucio Giulio Veilio Grato Giuliano · Marco Claudio Frontone · Marco Iallio Basso Fabio Valeriano · Marco Ponzio Leliano Larcio Sabino · Marco Sedazio Severiano · Pertinace · Pescennio Nigro · Publio Tarutieno Paterno · Quinto Antistio Advento Postumio Aquilino · Sesto Calpurnio Agricola · Tiberio Claudio Pompeiano · Tito Furio Vittorino · Valerio Massimiano Germani e Sarmati: Ariogeso (Quadi) · Ballomar (Marcomanni) · Furzio e Ariogeso (Quadi) · Battarius (Iazigi?) · Tarbus (Daci liberi?) · Raus e Raptus (Vandali asdingi) · Valao (Naristi) · Zantico e Bandanasp (Iazigi) Eserciti Esercito romano · Organizzazione militare dei Germani Monumenti commemorativi Colonna Antonina o Aureliana e Tempio · Statua equestre sul Campidoglio (Equus Marci Aurelii Antonini) · Arco di trionfo Guerre marcomanniche (166 ~ 189 d.C.) Imperatori adottivi Imperatori adottivi Marcia Marco Ulpio Traiano Marco Cocceio Nerva Cesare Augusto (30 - 98) Ulpia Traiana Publio Elio Adriano Marullino Gaio Salonino Matidio Patriuno Ulpia Marciana Cesare Marco Ulpio Nerva Traiano Augusto (53 - 117) Pompea Plotina Publio Elio Adriano Afro Domizia Paolina Lucio Escribonio Libo Rupilio Frugi Salonina Matidia (1) Lucio Vibio Sabino Cesare Publio Elio Traiano Adriano Augusto (76 - 138) Elia Domizia Paolina Lucio Giulio Urso Serviano Lucio Fundanio Lamia Eliano Rupilia Annia Marco Annio Vero Rupilia Faustina Vibia Matidia Vibia Sabina Giulia Serviana Paolina Gneo Pedanio Fusco Salinatore Fundania Marco Annio Libone Marco Annio Vero Domizia Lucilla Faustina maggiore Cesare Tito Elio Adriano Antonino Pio Augusto (86 - 161) Avidia Plauzia Lucio Elio Cesare Gneo Pedanio Fusco Salinatore Marco Annio Libone Annia Fundania Faustina Annia Cornificia Faustina Gaio Ummidio Quadrato Anniano Vero Cesare Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto (121 - 180) Faustina minore (1) Cesare Lucio Vero Aurelio Augusto (130 - 169) Gaio Avidio Ceionio Commodo Ceionia Fabia Plauzio Quintillo Ceionia Plauzia Quinto Servilio Pudente Marco Numidio Quadrato Anniano Numidia Cornificia Faustina Gneo Claudio Severo Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina Tiberio Claudio Pompeiano Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla Tito Aurelio Fulvio Antonino Cesare Marco Aurelio Commodo Antonino Augusto (161 - 192) Bruzia Crispina Vibia Aurelia Sabina Lucio Antistio Burro Giunio Licinio Balbo Servilia Ceionia discendenza Marco Petronio Sura Mamertino Annia Cornificia Faustina minore Lucio Didio Marino Annia Aurelia Fadilla discendenza Marco Annio Vero Cesare Marco Peduceo Plauzio Quintillo discendenza Nota: la linea tratteggiata indica l'adozione (se verso il basso) o il matrimonio (se laterale) (1) = primo coniuge (2) = secondo coniuge (non mostrato) V · D · M Imperatori romani e relative linee di successione Dinastia giulio-claudia Augusto (27 a.C.-14 d.C.) · Tiberio (14-37) · Caligola (37-41) · Claudio (41-54) · Nerone (54-68) Legenda: * associati Anno dei quattro imperatori Galba (68-69) · Otone (69) · Vitellio (69) Dinastia flavia Vespasiano (69-79) · Tito (79-81) · Domiziano (81-96) Principato adottivo Nerva (96-98) · Traiano (98-117) · Adriano (117-138) · Antonino Pio (138-161) · Marco Aurelio (161-180)* · Lucio Vero (161-169)* · Commodo (180-192) Guerra civile (193-197) Pertinace (192-193) · Didio Giuliano (193) · Pescennio Nigro (193-194) · Clodio Albino (193-197) Dinastia dei Severi Settimio Severo (193-211) · Caracalla (211-217)* · Geta (211)* · Macrino (217-218) · Diadumeniano (218) · Eliogabalo (218-222) · Alessandro Severo (222-235) Anarchia militare Massimino il Trace (235-238) · Gordiano I (238)* · Gordiano II (238)* · Pupieno (238)* · Balbino (238)* · Gordiano III (238-244) · Filippo l'Arabo (244-249) · Decio (249-251)* · Erennio Etrusco (251)* · Treboniano Gallo (251-253)* · Volusiano (251-253)* · Ostiliano (251) · Emiliano (253) · Valeriano (253-260)* · Gallieno (253-268) · Claudio il Gotico (268-270) · Quintillo (270) · Aureliano (270-275) · Tacito (275-276) · Floriano (276) · Probo (276-282) · Caro (282-283) · Carino (283-285)* · Numeriano (283-284) Tetrarchia e dinastia costantiniana Diocleziano (284-305)* · Massimiano (286-305)* · Costanzo Cloro (305-306)* · Galerio (305-311)* · Massimino Daia (308-311)* · Licinio (308-324)* · Costantino I (306-337)* · Valerio Valente (316-317)* · Sesto Martiniano (324)* · Costantino II (337-340)* · Costante I (337-350)* · Costanzo II (337-361)* · Giuliano (360-363) Gioviano, dinastia di Valentiniano e Teodosio I Gioviano (363-364) · Valentiniano I (364-375)* · Valente (364-378)* · Graziano (375-383)* · Valentiniano II (375-392)* · Teodosio I (379-395)* Casata di Teodosio (Impero Romano d'Occidente) Onorio (393-423)* · Costanzo III (421)* · Valentiniano III (425-455) Impero romano d'Occidente Petronio Massimo (455) · Avito (455-456) · Maggioriano (457-461) · Libio Severo (461-465) · Antemio (467-472) · Anicio Olibrio (472) · Glicerio (473-474) · Giulio Nepote (474-475) · Romolo Augusto (475-476) Elenco degli imperatori romani · Linea di successione degli imperatori romani V · D · M Stoicismo Filosofi Antica Stoà Zenone di Cizio · Perseo di Cizio · Aristone di Chio · Sfero di Boristene · Erillo · Cleante · Crisippo di Soli · Zenone di Tarso · Cratete di Mallo · Diogene di Babilonia · Apollodoro di Seleucia · Antipatro di Tarso Media Stoà Panezio · Dardano di Atene · Mnesarco di Atene · Ecatone di Rodi · Posidonio · Diodoto · Gemino · Antipatro di Tiro · Atenodoro Cananita · Catone Uticense · Marco Giunio Bruto Nuova Stoà Lucio Anneo Seneca · Persio · Lucio Anneo Cornuto · Gaio Musonio Rufo · Eufrate · Cleomede · Epitteto · Flavio Arriano · Ierocle · Sesto di Cheronea · Aruleno Rustico · Claudio Massimo · Apollonio di Calcide · Plinio il Vecchio · Quinto Giunio Rustico · Marco Aurelio (Pensiero) Filosofia Stoicismo · Categorie stoiche · Fisica stoica · Neostoicismo Concetti Adiaphora · Apatia · Atarassia · Diairesi · Eudemonismo · Catalessi · Logos · Katékon · Oikeiosis · Physis · Pneuma · Proairesi Opere Dialoghi (Seneca) · Epistulae morales ad Lucilium (Seneca) · Discorsi e Manuale di Epitteto · Colloqui con sé stesso (Marco Aurelio) · La Repubblica (Zenone) · SVF (frammenti) Portale:Antica Grecia · Portale:Antica Roma · Portale:Filosofia Controllo di autorità VIAF (EN) 102895066 · ISNI (EN) 0000 0001 1031 946X · LCCN (EN) n80051702 · GND (DE) 118577468 · BNF (FR) cb11914476c (data) · BNE (ES) XX932158 (data) · ULAN (EN) 500115701 · NLA (EN) 35966523 · BAV (EN) 495/54003 · CERL cnp01259662 · NDL (EN, JA) 00431918 · WorldCat Identities (EN) lccn-n80051702 Portale Antica Roma Portale Biografie Portale Filosofia Portale Letteratura Questa è una voce in vetrina, identificata come una delle migliori voci prodotte dalla comunità. 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ja-wikipedia-org-53	----	マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス - Wikipedia マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス 出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ナビゲーションに移動 検索に移動 「マルクス・アウレリウス」はこの項目へ転送されています。その他の人物については「アウレリウス」をご覧ください。 マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス Marcus Aurelius Antoninus アウレリウス胸像（メトロポリタン美術館所蔵） 在位 161年3月8日 - 169年（ウェルス帝と共同） 169年 - 177年（単独統治） 177年 - 180年3月17日（コンモドゥス帝と共同） 全名 カエサル・マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス・アウグストゥス Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 出生 121年4月26日 ローマ 死去 (180-03-17) 180年3月17日（58歳没） ウィンドボナ、もしくはシルミウム 埋葬 ハドリアヌス廟 継承 ルキウス・アウレリウス・コンモドゥス 配偶者 小ファウスティナ 子女 コンモドゥス ルキッラ（英語版） ファディラ 小コルニフィキア 家名 アントニヌス家 王朝 ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝 父親 マルクス・アンニウス・ウェルス 母親 ドミティア・ルキッラ テンプレートを表示 マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス（古典ラテン語：Marcus Aurelius Antoninus [notes 1]121年4月26日 - 180年3月17日[3]）は、第16代ローマ皇帝（在位：161年 - 180年）であり、ストア派の哲学者である[4]。ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝では第五代皇帝。第15代皇帝アントニヌス・ピウスの后妃ファウスティナ・マイヨル（大ファウスティナ）の甥で先帝の外戚にあたり、また大ファウスティナはハドリアヌスとトラヤヌスの傍系血族でもある。 外叔父アントニヌスの皇女で自身の従姉妹であるファウスティナ・ミノル（小ファウスティナ）と結婚して帝位を継承したが、共同皇帝としてハドリアヌスの重臣の子ルキウス・ウェルスが立てられていた。アウレリウスは小ファウスティナとの長女ルキッラ（英語版）を嫁がせて両皇帝の結束を固めたが、169年にウェルスが崩御した事で単独の皇帝となった。 ストア哲学などの学識に長け、良く国を治めた事からネルウァ、トラヤヌス、ハドリアヌス、アントニヌスに並ぶ皇帝（五賢帝）と評された。対外政策ではパルティアとの戦争に勝利を収めたが、蛮族への予防戦争として始めたマルコマンニ人、クアディ人、サルマティア人などへの遠征（マルコマンニ戦争）は長期戦となり、国力を疲弊させ、自らも陣中で崩御した。 軍事よりも学問を好んだ皇帝という姿は、彼の著作である『自省録』への評価を通じて今日も維持されている。これは『国家』を執筆したプラトンの時代から学識者にとって理想とされた「哲人君主」の実現例と見なされているからである。 また、後漢書に見られる大秦国王の安敦とは、彼のことだとされている[5]。 目次 1 歴史資料 2 生い立ち 2.1 家族と出自 2.2 ハドリアヌス帝による寵愛 2.3 叔父アントニヌスの即位 2.4 アウレリウスの教師達 2.5 家庭と子女 2.6 アントニヌス帝の死 3 治世 3.1 皇帝即位 3.2 初期統治 3.3 パルティア戦争 3.3.1 初期の敗北 3.3.2 アンティオキア 3.3.3 戦争終結 3.3.4 凱旋 3.4 マルコマンニ戦争 3.5 死没 4 略年表 4.1 建築物 5 著作 6 子息 7 家系図 8 創作作品 8.1 文学 8.2 映画 8.3 漫画 9 ノート 10 引用 11 資料 11.1 古代 11.2 現代 12 外部リンク 歴史資料[編集] マルクス・アウレリウスの人生と治世に関する資料は疎らで、信憑性の薄い物が多く含まれている。例えば主要な情報源とされる「ローマ皇帝群像」は多くの問題を持った資料であり、引用元の資料よりも価値は低い[6]。ハドリアヌスからアウレリウスまでの評伝は作中でも比較的に信憑性があるが、それでもアエリウス・ウェルスやガイウス・アウィディウス・カッシウスの評伝は完全な捏造であると見られる[7]。 マルクス・アウレリウス自身は「自省録」という著作を残したが、これは主にアウレリウスの内面についての記述や思索であって、俗事の出来事については余り触れられていない[8]。同時代の歴史家にはカッシウス・ディオがおり、特に軍政についての記述においては重要な記録を残している。しかしディオの元老院階級としての偏見や、帝国領土の拡大に対する反対意見は真意を不明瞭にしている[9]。 他にアウレリウスと関わった様々な人が残した記録は、細かい出来事についての詳細を提供している。アントニヌス朝の貴族達について記録した宮殿医ガレノス、時代の風潮を推測させるアエリウス・アリスティデスの演説、そして東ローマ時代の勅法彙纂に記録されるアウレリウスの法整備などがそれにあたる[10]。碑銘、通貨なども治世を調べる上での情報源とされる[11]。 生い立ち[編集] 詳細は「en:Early life and career of Marcus Aurelius」を参照 家族と出自[編集] 少年時代のアウレリウス像[12] マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌスこと、マルクス・アンニウス・カティリウス・セウェルスは、貴族マルクス・アンニウス・ウェルス3世の子としてローマに生まれた。 父方の一族であるウェルス家は属州ヒスパニア・バエティカのコルドバに所領を持ち、西暦1世紀頃からローマ中央でも知られた存在にまで台頭し始めた。曽祖父アンニウス・ウェルス1世が元老院議員として議席を与えられ、祖父のウェルス2世の代で貴族に列された[13][notes 2]。アンニウス・ウェルス3世はドミティア・ルキッラと結婚してカティリウス・セウェルス（アウレリウス）という子を儲けた[16] 両親には二人の子供がおり、アウレリウス以外にコルニフィキアという姉がいた[17]。ドミティア・ルキッラは、有力貴族のカルビシウス・トゥルス・ルッソの子であり、また母の大ドミティアも親族の財産を相続した資産家であった（この事はガイウス・プリニウス・カエキリウス・セクンドゥスの書簡にも書き残されている）[18]。彼女は後に煉瓦生産の工房など、両親の財産を相続してウェルス家を更に富ませた[19]。 父であるウェルス3世も元老院で法務官などの要職を歴任していたが、アウレリウスが3歳の時に病没した[20][notes 3]。従って後の皇帝としての方針に父の影響がどの程度あったのかは不明であるが、彼自身は「自省録」で彼が「謙虚と剛毅さ」を父の思い出と死後の話で学び知ったと語っている[22]。母ドミティアは再婚しなかったが[20]、当時の貴族階級にとっての常として子供の養育は家庭教師や侍従達に任せていた[23]。一方で貴族としての優雅な生活で堕落しないように「宗教的な敬虔さ」と「粗食」を躾として教えられたという[24]。アウレリウスは母親についての感謝を述べる手紙を書き残している[25]。 父の死後、アウレリウスは祖父ウェルス2世に引き取られ[26]、ルキウス・カティリウス・セウェルスという男性が養育を手伝った。ルキウス・カティリウスは「母方の曾祖父」と言われ、恐らくは大ドルシッラの継父であったと見られている[26]。アウレリウスは彼の両親が残したカエリウスの丘にある邸宅で過ごし[27]、そこは僅かな公共施設を除けば殆どが貴族の別荘からなる高級住宅街であった。また祖父はラテラノ大聖堂の近くに邸宅を持ち、アウレリウスにとって馴染み深い場所となった[28]。祖父の教育については「良心と自制心」を教わったと書き残しているが[29]、祖父が祖母の死後に連れてきた妾とは折り合いが悪かったという[30] 幸いにして妾が出入りするようになって直に家から出られた事を、アウレリウスは幸運だったと述べている[31]。 アウレリウスは当時の貴族階級の常として、家庭教師による教育を受けている[32]。これは曽祖父カティリウス・セウェルスの意向によるところだったとアウレリウス自身が述べている[33]。ディオゲネトゥスという教師から特に深い影響を受け、哲学的な生活様式を学んだ[34]。132年4月、アウレリウスはディオゲネトゥスと同じ哲学者風の衣服で過ごし始め、母親から窘められるまでベッドではなく地面で寝ていたという[35]。133年からはアレクザンデル[notes 4]という人物が何人かの教師と共に赴任した[37]。アレクサンデルは当時のローマ帝国で、ホメロスの研究によって知られた文学者であった[38]。アウレリウスは彼から修辞法を学んでおり[39]、「自省録」の文体にその影響が見られる[40]。 ハドリアヌス帝による寵愛[編集] ハドリアヌス胸像 127年、叔母ファウスティナ・マイヨルの親族であるハドリアヌス帝の推薦を受けて、アウレリウスは6歳の時に騎士名簿へ登録された。少年時代に騎士階級へ叙任された事については、アウレリウス以前にも全く例がない訳ではないが、極めて珍しい出来事であった。更に翌年にはサリイという聖職の為の学校へ推薦されたが、入学規定を満たしていなかったアウレリウスの為に規定を改訂させている[41]。ハドリアヌスはアウレリウスを寵愛しており、ウェリッシムス（Verissimus）という渾名で呼んでいた[42][notes 5]。アウレリウスは神学校で熱心に学び、優れた聖職者としての素養を得た[44]。一方でハドリアヌスは帝都ローマに留まらず、各属州への巡行に時間を費やしていたので、アウレリウスと直接会う機会はそれほどなかった[notes 6]。 135年、ハドリアヌスが久しぶりにローマに戻った時、アウレリウスは皇帝の重臣ルキウス・アエリウス（ハドリアヌスを暗殺しようとしたガイウス・アウィディウス・ニグリヌスの娘婿で、ルキウス・ウェルスの父）の腹心に成長していた。136年、成人したアウレリウスはハドリアヌスの命令によって、アエリウスの娘ケイオニアと婚約して皇帝の側近としての立場を確立した[46]。結婚からまもなく、ルキウス・アエリウスによってアウレリウスは首都長官に任命された。この時代の首都長官は要職という位置づけながら、何の実権も伴わない名誉職という部分が大きく、貴族の若者の登竜門のような意味合いがあった。アウレリウスは首都長官として相応しい振る舞いをしたという[47]。 ルキウス・アエリウスを通して、アウレリウスは「カルケドンのアポロニウス」というストア派の哲学者の知遇を得た。ストア派哲学との出会いはアウレリウスの禁欲的な生き方として多大な影響を与えた。またアポロニウスは哲学の教師としてアウレリウスにストア派の講義を行い、アウレリウスから神に出会いを感謝された3人の一人となった[48]。後に姉コルニフィキアが従兄弟のウッミディウス・クァドラトゥスと結婚した時、アウレリウスは母ドミティア・ルキッラから父の遺産の一部を姉に持参金として譲るように求めたが、アウレリウスは遺産全てを姉に譲ったという[49]。 136年、既にハドリアヌスは不治の病に侵されていたが、同性愛者であった事から嫡男を授かっていなかった。別荘で病床に就いたハドリアヌスは、腹心であるルキウス・アエリウスを後継者に指名した[50]。ハドリアヌスがアエリウスを特に選んだ理由については明確には分かっていない。 138年、ドナウ川における短い駐屯を経てルキウス・アエリウスは元老院で演説を行う為に帰路へ就いた。しかし演説を行う前日に吐血して倒れ、そのままローマで病没した[51][notes 7]。この事件が起きた後、ハドリアヌスは1月24日にもう一人の重臣で、大ファウスティナと結婚していたアウレリウス・アントニヌスを後継者に指名した[53]。ただし帝位継承には、「ルキウス・アエリウスの子ルキウス・ウェルスと、大ファウスティナの甥であるカティリウス（アウレリウス）を養子とする事」と、「大ファウスティナとの子である小ファウスティナを、ルキウス・ウェルスと婚約させる事」が条件とされた。2月25日、アントニヌスはハドリアヌスの後継者となる事を受け入れ、条件の履行を約束した[54]。 ちなみにアウレリウス自身には相談されていなかったらしく、突然に叔母夫婦の養子とされた事に愕然としたという。アウレリウスは渋々といった態度で母の家から離れ、ハドリアヌスの離宮へと移り住んだ[55]。 ハドリアヌスは元老院に対し、アウレリウスが財務官への就任年齢（24歳）の規定から特例的に除外されるように命令した。元老院は要求に屈して、後にアウレリウスは18歳で財務官に就任している[56]。アウレリウスが皇帝候補者である外叔父アントニヌスの養子とされた事は、典型的な過程を無視した立身に繋がった。恐らく普通の立身であれば、まずアウレリウスは造幣官に任命されていたと考えられる。ある程度の経歴を積んだ元老院議員はトリブヌス・ミリトゥム（軍団幕僚）となり、名目上の軍団副司令官を務めるのが一般的であった。恵まれた立場にあったアウレリウスであったが、周囲の貴族的な退廃には呑まれず、清廉な生き方を続けた[57]。 バイアエ 日に日にハドリアヌスの病状は悪化していき、何度か自殺未遂を繰り返しては周囲に押し留められていた。治療を諦めたハドリアヌスはカンパニアの保養地バイアエへ向かい、そこで食事や飲食などの放蕩に耽る様になった。138年7月10日、ハドリアヌスはアントニヌスに看取られて病没した[58]。彼の遺骸はポッツオーリに埋葬された[59]。 元老院と終始敵対し続けていたハドリアヌスの後であったが、アントニヌスは元老院を尊重した事で安定して帝位は継承された。またアントニヌスはハドリアヌスへの弾劾を取り下げるように元老院を宥めた[60]。周囲と軋轢無く政治を進めるアントニヌスは「アントニヌス・ピウス」（慈悲深きアントニヌス）という渾名で呼ばれた[61]。 叔父アントニヌスの即位[編集] ハドリアヌスの死後、直ぐにアントニヌスは妻の甥（アウレリウス）を政敵の息子（ウェルス）より重用する姿勢を見せ、アウレリウスからすれば従姉妹である小ファウスティナとの結婚を要請した。アウレリウスと小ファウスティナはそれぞれの元の婚約を破棄すると、親族同士（いとこ婚）による結婚に同意した[62]。 叔父の皇帝即位と、その子女である従姉妹との結婚は、アウレリウスの宮殿における地位を大幅に引き上げた。140年にアウレリウスはアントニヌスの同僚執政官に叙任され、続いて全エクイテスを指揮する騎士総長（iuventutis）に任命された。皇帝の後継者としての証である副帝の称号も受け、全名をマルクス･アエリウス・アウレリウス・ウェルス・カエサル（Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar）に改名した[63]。アウレリウスは自身の名声に溺れず、清廉な生き方を貫く様に意識したと語っている[64]。神学に関する専門知識も健在であり、元老院の命によって幾つかの神学者の組織(pontifices、augures、quindecimviri sacris faciundis、septemviri epulonum、Arval Brethren)に加わっているが[65]、歴史的資料で証明できるものは「Arval Brethren」への参加のみである[66]。 アントニヌスは質素な生活を好んだ甥に宮殿で生活するように命じ、また皇帝の親族に相応しい華やかな生活を行うべきだと促した[65]。叔父の命に従って宮殿に移り住んだアウレリウスは、退廃した貴族文化と自身の生き方との食い違いに悩んだ。アウレリウスの望みはストア派哲学に基づいた禁欲と自省であり、人間の持つ理性がそれを可能にすると信じていた。最終的にアウレリウスは「生命がある限り、人間は理性で己を律する可能性を持つ。そして宮殿は退廃した場所だが、生きる上での不都合まではない。従って周囲が退廃に満ちている宮殿においても、己を律することは可能である」と結論している[67]。しかしこうした結論にも関わらず、アウレリウスは宮殿の退廃にしばしば飲み込まれてしまい、「自省録」では自らその罪を書き連ねて懺悔している[68]。 財務官としてのアウレリウスの仕事や権限は無いに等しく、皇帝不在の時に手紙を代読するといった秘書的な役割が精々だった。執政官としては二つの元老院議長の一人として議会を統制する立場であった[69]。代読作業についてアウレリウスは自身の秘書官に「毎日30通の手紙を口述しているおかげで息が切れそうだ」と皮肉を口にしている[70] 歴史家たちは「アウレリウスは政務に才覚があった」と述べている[71]。毎日元老院で演説と議論の統制を行っていたアウレリウスは、必然的に弁論術を学ばなければならなくなった[72]。 145年、アウレリウスは二度目の執政官叙任を受けた。この時にアウレリウスは体調を崩していた可能性があり、秘書官は「貴方が良い顔色で元老院に入って力強く演説できるように、十分な睡眠を取るべきです」とする手紙を送っている[73]。アウレリウス自身の手紙では「私の体調は快方に向かっている。かつてのように胸に痛みを感じる事はなくなった。しかし私は自分の潰瘍[notes 8]（中略）…について常に意識した治療を行っている[74]。アウレリウスは余り体が丈夫な方ではなく、カッシウス・ディオはそうした部分を感じさせずに振舞う様を賞賛している[75]。 妻・小ファウスティナ 145年、アウレリウスは7年前に結んだ婚約に従って従姉妹の小ファウスティナと結婚した。血統上でも既に近い親族関係にあった両者であるが、法律的には義理の兄妹ですらあったので、どちらかに対して家父長権を放棄せねばならなかった[76]。二人の式典についての記録は散逸しているが、当時の注目を集めた出来事であった事は分かっている[77]。二人の結婚を記念する通貨が出され、また最高神祇官でもあったアントニヌスが式典を監督したと見られる[78]。 アウレリウスの教師達[編集] 136年に成人の儀式を終えたアウレリウスは直ちに弁論術の教育を始めたと考えられている[79]。彼は三人のギリシャ人学者と一人のラテン人学者を教師としたが、これは当時のローマにおけるギリシャ文化の勢威を示している[80] 自省録にもそうした影響が見て取れる箇所がある[81]。 弁護士ヘロデ・アティクス その中でも最も重用されていた人物で、アテネ随一の財産家でもあった弁護士ヘロデ・アッティクスの存在は常に論争の的であった。ヘロデは癇癪持ちで神経質な性格をしており、また傲慢な態度で振る舞って同じアテネ人からも嫌われていた[82]。加えて豪勢な生活を好んだヘロデはストア主義を否定し、ギリシャ哲学の権威自体も軽視していた[83]。彼はストア派の唱える禁欲を愚かな発想と一蹴して「鈍感で無気力な人生に何の価値がある」と嘲笑した[84]。アウレリウスはヘロデから弁論術を学び続けたが、やはり個人的には反りが合わなかったらしく「自省録」にヘロデについては一切言及されていない[85]。 一方、唯一のラテン人家庭教師であったマルクス・コルネリウス・フロントという人物とはとても親密な間柄となった[86]。フロントはマルクス・トゥッリウス・キケロに次ぐ才人と評され[87][notes 9]、ラテン語の弁論術と修辞学に関して完璧な知識を持っていた[87]。アウレリウスとフロントの往復書簡は大部分が現存しており[91]、アウレリウスはフロントに以下の言葉を贈っている。「親愛なる我が師よ、さようなら。例え何処に居ようとも、貴方への愛と喜びに変わるところはありません。私は貴方を愛しています。なのに何故貴方は此処に居ないのか。」[92] アウレリウスはフロントと家族ぐるみの付き合いすら持ち、彼の娘と手紙を交わしている[93]。別の手紙では「弁論術の全てを貴方から学べるよう、神に祈りを捧げた」と記されている[94]。フロントは病弱な人物でよく体調を崩して療養する事があり[95]、アウレリウスが書き送った手紙の4分の1は病気を気遣う内容であった[96]。アウレリウスは不幸な師と同じ病が自らに降りかかることすら望んだという[97]。 フロントはアウレリウスに弁論術を教える傍ら弁護士としての活動を続けていたが、ある裁判でヘロデと争う事になった[98]。アウレリウスはフロントに好意を持っていたが、助言という形でヘロデとも諍いをしないように求めた[99]。フロントはアウレリウスがヘロデもまた友として扱った事に感心したが[100]、この一件ばかりは自分も引き下がれないと拒否したという[101]。裁判の結果は記録が残っていない[102]。 26歳の時、アウレリウスはいかに陪審員を説得するかに重きを置いているローマの司法制度に不満を感じるようになっていた。フロントへの手紙で「弁護士の仕事は裁判官の隣で欠伸をするだけと呼ばれないようにすべきです」と書き送っている[103]。アウレリウスは様々な場面を想定して行われる問答や仮想議論に熱意を失い、弁論術の用いる詭弁や言葉遊びの要素を不誠実だと批判したが、フロントには受け入れてもらえず叱責されている[104]。フロントはアウレリウスが哲学に傾倒する事を窘める発言をしている[105]。フロントもまたヘロデと同じくギリシャ哲学を軽んじていたのである[91]。彼は哲学を「必要な知識を得ることに飽きた若者が傾倒する学問」と形容した上で、アウレリウスが弁論術の修行を怠る事を嘆く手紙を残している[106]。弁論術を学ばなくなってからもアウレリウスはフロントと親密だったが、良心は咎めていたようである[107]。 アウレリウスは次第に興味を哲学へと移していたが、弁論学も直向に学んでいたことに違いは無い。彼の青年時代の教育については、「体を大事にしなかった」こと以外に批判すべき点は見当たらない[108]。 ストア派については上述の通りアポロニウスの存在が大きいが、ユニウス・ルスティクスも大きな影響を与えていた[109][notes 10]彼はフロントより年上のストア派哲学者で、強権的なドミティアヌス帝の治世に反対して処刑された元老議員アウレリウス・ルスティクスの末裔でもあった[111]。彼はキケロの再来と呼ばれたフロントに対して、暴君ネロを窘めて自殺させられた哲学者ルキウス・アンナエウス・セネカの再来と呼ばれていた[112]。アウレリウスはルティクスを最良の師と呼び、生涯尊敬を続けることとなる[113]。 家庭と子女[編集] The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried 147年11月30日、小ファウスティナは最初の子供を生み、アウレリウスは長女となる娘にガレリア・ファウスティナと名付けた。ガレリアはその後の23年間で生まれた14人の子供（2度の双生児を含む）の長子となった。その翌日である12月1日にアントニヌスはアウレリウスに護民官職権を与えた[114]。ガレリア・ファウスティナは元老院議員グナエウス・クラウディウス・セウェルスと結婚してグナエウス・クラウディウス・セウェルス（西暦200年に執政官叙任）を生んだが、175年以降からアウレリウスが亡くなる180年以前に病没した。 149年、二度目の出産では双子の兄妹（二卵性双生児）が生まれ、双子の誕生を祝う硬貨（temporum felicitas）が発行された。長男となる兄はゲメルス、次女となる妹はルキッラ（英語版）と名付けられた。この内、次女ルキッラは成人して後にアウレリウスの共同皇帝となったルキウス・ウェルスと結婚した。跡継ぎである長男ゲメルスは子供の死亡率が高い古代ローマでは良くあった事とは言え、不幸にも1歳で亡くなった[115]。それから短期間に四人の子供（次男・三男・四男・三女）が産まれたが157年に四男を失い、161年に相次いで次男・三男・三女を失った。次男と三男については出生を祝う硬貨と二人の墓で分かったことであり、碑銘には「アントニヌス」と「アエリウス」と刻まれている[115]。三女はドミティア・ファウスティナ、四男はハドリアヌスという名で記録されている。 相次いで5人の子供に先立たれたアウレリウスは動じる事無く不幸を受け止めた[116]。彼は「自省録」でイーリアスの有名な言葉を引用している。 木に実る葉 風はその幾つかを地面へと落とす 子供とはそういうものだ ―――『イーリアス』 6.146[117] アントニヌス 自身の母ドミティア・ルキッラが亡くなってから5年後となる159年に四女ファデイラが生まれ、翌年となる160年に五女コルニフィキアが生まれた。後にファディラは元老議員マルクス・ペドゥカエウス・プラウティヌス・クィントゥルス、コルニフィキアは元老議員マルクス・ペトロニウス・マメルティヌスとそれぞれ結婚して父の治世を固めるのに貢献した。 そして161年、12年ぶりに双子の子供が出産され、二人の男児を授かることになる。双子はそれぞれ五男ティトゥス、六男コンモドゥスと名付けられた。続いて翌年にも七男ウェルスも生まれ、暫くは子育てに専念するべく子供は儲けられたなかった。9年後の171年、久しぶりに子供を儲けて六女サヴィナと名付けられるが、彼女が夫妻の最後の子供となった。 ちなみに158年以前に没した子供がいるが、早世した為か性別不明である。 アントニヌス帝の死[編集] 152年、ルキウス・ウェルスがアントニヌスから財務官へ指名を受け、続いて2年後の154年に執政官へ叙任された。 アウレリウスは財務官と執政官の両職を既に終えていたので、一連の出来事は遅ればせながら後継者候補が等しい立場になった事を意味した。それまでルキウスは皇子を除く称号を与えられていなかった。これはアントニヌスが親族を優先しただけでなく、ルキウスに皇帝の資質が伴っていないという周囲の批判によるものであった[118][notes 11]。個人的にもアントニヌスはルキウスを嫌い、皇族の一員として残す事はともかくそれ以上の権威は極力与えたがらなかった[122]。160年までルキウス・ウェルスを象った通貨は発行されていない[123]。 156年、70歳を迎えていたアントニヌスは目に見えて衰弱しており、まともに立つことも困難になりつつあった。老いた皇帝は早朝の会議で眠らないように乾いたパンを口の中で噛み続ける習慣を行ったとも言われる。アウレリウスは叔父の補佐官として行動する機会が増え、皇帝の政務を一部代行するようになった[124]。アウレリウスとルキウスが執政官と共同執政官に叙任された160年には既に不治の病を抱えていた[125]。 ある日、アルプス産のチーズを食べたアントニヌスはその夜に嘔吐と発熱を起こした。161年3月7日、アントニヌスは病を押して議会を開くと、自らの寝室に置かれていたフォルトゥナ神の銅像を「アウレリウスの寝室に移せ」と命じた。言い終えるとアントニヌスはそのまま仰向けに倒れて息を引き取った[126][127]。 治世[編集] 詳細は「en:Emperorship of Marcus Aurelius」を参照 皇帝即位[編集] トーガを被るアウレリウス アントニヌス帝崩御後、誰もが甥にして娘婿であるアウレリウスの即位を有力視し、実質的に皇帝候補者は一人だけのように扱われた。元老院は直ちにアウグストゥス（尊厳者）とインペラトル（軍指揮官）の二大称号を授与、更には最高神官長にも就任した。アウレリウスは皇帝即位を拒む素振りを見せ、複数の伝記作家は「彼は無理に帝位を継がされたのだ」とまで論じている[128]。事実はともかく、アウレリウスのストア派的な価値観からすれば皇帝としての権力に魅力を感じず、退廃した宮廷での政務を好ましく思わなかった可能性はある[129]。 また叔父と自身の即位を企てたハドリアヌス帝を個人的に好んではいなかった（「自省録」ではハドリアヌスに辛辣な評価を与えている）が、恩人の考えに狂いを生じさせるのも不義理と考えていた[130]。従って元老院と叔父が意図的に除外していたルキウス・ウェルスも、ハドリアヌス帝の遺言の通りに自らの共同皇帝にするように命じた[131]。かくしてルキウスも共同皇帝として元老院から認可され、「アウグストゥス」「インペラトル」の称号と護民官職権を得た[132]。 ルキウス・ウェルス像 戴冠した二人はそれぞれ皇帝インペトラル・カエサル・マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス・アウグストゥス（Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus）、共同皇帝インペトラル・カエサル・ルキウス・アウレリウス・ウェルス・アウグストゥス（Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus）と名乗った[133][notes 12]。いわゆる「共同皇帝制」が採用されたのはこれが初めての事例となった[136][notes 13]。名目上はともかく、実質的にアウレリウスの方が遥かに多くの権限を持ち、ルキウスはアウレリウスの共同者でしかなかった。どちらが皇帝で、どちらがその共同皇帝かは民衆の間ですら明らかであった[136]。伝記作家は「ルキウスはアウレリウスに従った。ちょうど属州総督が皇帝に従うのと同じ理屈で、臣下として従ったのだ」と書き残している[137]。 即位後すぐに二人の皇帝は近衛隊の駐留する城砦カステル・プラトリアに赴いた。ルキウス帝は近衛隊にクラウディウス帝時代からの慣習となっていたドナティブム（皇帝即位時の特別給金）を約束した[138]。しかしルキウスが約束したドナティブムは通例の二倍となる5000セルティウスという巨額であり、数年分の賃金に相当する恩給で近衛隊の忠誠を確固たるものにした[139]。アウレリウス帝の権力継承が磐石であったことを考えれば絶対に必要な行動という訳ではなく、もしもの時の保険という意味合いが強かった[140]。 アントニヌス帝の壮大な葬儀が終わった後[141]、アウレリウス帝とルキウス帝は先帝を神の列に並べる事を提案した。かつてそのアントニヌス帝がハドリアヌス帝を神格化しようとした時の猛烈な反発とは対照的に、元老院はアントニヌス帝を神として祭る事を直ちに承認した。遺骸はハドリアヌス廟に葬られたと伝えられる[142]。アントニヌス神殿は後にアウレリウスの妻で、先帝の娘である小ファウスティナも祭られ、アントニヌス・ファウスティナ神殿と呼ばれた。現在もこの神殿はカトリック教会によって保全されている。[140]。 先帝の財産は全て娘である妻ファウスティナが相続したが[143]、アウレリウス個人も富豪の娘である母ドミティアから財産を受け継いでいたのでそれほど重要な出来事ではなかった[144]。父の死の直後、ファウスティナはコモドゥスとティトゥスの双子を出産したが、その際に二つの恐ろしい怪物を生む夢を見たとされる[145][146][notes 14]。占い師達は双子の出産を吉兆としたが、かの暴君カリグラと同じ誕生日である事だけは不安に感じられた[148]。五男と六男の誕生は盛大に祝われ、二人の皇子を象った通貨が発行された[149]。 初期統治[編集] 即位してすぐにまずアウレリウス帝は自らの長女で、法律上はルキウス帝の義姪にあたるルキッラとルキウス帝の結婚を決定した[150]。同時に帝国初期の路線に沿って、貧民階級の子供に対する慈善政策を進めた[151]。アウレリウスはその質素な生活と、貴族的でない謙虚な振る舞いから民衆の人気を集めていた。言論の自由は保障され、喜劇作家が皇帝を揶揄する文言を発表しても決して罰せられなかった。それ以前の皇帝達はもちろん、以後の皇帝達でもこうした事を許す場合は少なかった。伝記作家は「寛大な方法を見落とさなかった」と述べている[152]。 次にアウレリウス帝は人事政策に着手し、帝国要職の刷新を行った。通信長官（Ab epistulis）をセクストゥス・カエキリウス・クレスセンス・ウォルシアヌス（Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus）からティトゥス・ウァリウス・クレメンス（Titus Varius Clemens）に交代させた。ティトゥス・クレメンスはマウレタニア戦争での活躍で台頭し、5つの属州総督を歴任した人物であった。彼は軍部隊指揮に関する実績があり、有事に備えての人事であった[153]。かつてアウレリウスの教育に携わった人物の一人であり、即位時にはエジプト総督を務めていたルキウス・ウォルシウス・マエキアヌス（Lucius Volusius Maecianus）は元老院議席を与えられて国庫長官 (aerarium Saturni)に指名された。後にウォルシウスは執政官にも叙任されている[154]。更に恩師フロントの子息オウフィディウス・ウィクトリアヌス（Aufidius Victorinus）も抜擢され、属州ゲルマニア・スペリオルの総督に任命された[155]。 ティベリス川 属州アフリカのキルタ市で隠棲していたフロントは教え子の即位を聞くと3月28日に帝都ローマへ向かい、自由民にアウレリウス帝への手紙を託した。あえてフロントは直接アウレリウス帝に手紙を送ることはしなかった[156]。フロントは自らの教え子を誇りに思い、手紙にこう記した。「貴方には天賦の才があった。その才は今完成しつつある。成長する果実は実をつけ、民衆に熟した収穫を与えるだろう。私は貴方に希望を抱き、そしてその希望は現実となった」[157]。後に二人は再会の場を持つが、そこにルキウス帝を呼ぶ考えは双方に無かった[158]。ルキウス帝はアウレリウス帝ほどフロントから敬意を受けていなかった[159]。アウレリウス帝は恩師に今読んでいる本（ルキウス・コエリウス・アンティパテル）についての話をした[160]。アウレリウスは確かに「庶民的な皇帝」として大衆に人気があったが[161]、次第に多くの困難を抱え始め「最も幸福な時代」と呼ばれた初期の統治は終わりを迎える[162]。 162年の春[notes 15]、ティベリス川（現テヴェレ川）の増水によってラティウム地方に甚大な被害が及び、農作物の損失から飢饉が発生した[164][notes 16]。 全ての皇帝がそうであるように、君主の政務の殆どは公文書の制作と署名で費やされる[166]。アウレリウスは法律に関する専門的知識を持ち、それに基づいた改革や行政を行った[167][168]。特にアウレリウスは孤児や少年少女の保護、解放奴隷についての法律、市議会議員の選出方法などを改革した[169]。 パルティア戦争[編集] 詳細は「パルティア戦争」および「第六次パルティア戦争（英語版）」を参照 初期の敗北[編集] アントニヌス帝は死の間際に何時の日か帝国の脅威となるだろう周辺国の君主について言い残したが[170]、その一人に含まれていたパルティア王ヴォロガセス4世による戦乱が引き起こされた[171]。161年に、帝国の庇護下にあったアルメニア王国にパルティア軍が侵攻、王を追放して新たに親パルティア派の君主を立てる行動に出た[172]。アルメニア王国を管轄内とするカッパドキア総督マルクス・セダティウス・セウェリアヌス(Marcus Sedatius Severianus)はガリア地方で幾つもの軍功を挙げた人物であった[173]。セウェリアヌスは占い師の助言もあって積極的な攻勢を決断し、軍を率いてアルメニア王国へ向かった[174]。第9軍団ヒスパナ[175]) を中心とするセウェリアヌス軍はアルメニア領内に到達したが、途中でパルティア軍の伏兵攻撃に大敗を喫してカッパドキアへ敗走した[176]。 時同じくしてブリタンニア・ラエティア・ゲルマニアなどでも周辺勢力の攻撃が活発化、特にカッティ族とタウヌス族の存在が国境防衛を脅かしていた[177]。アウレリウスはこうした状況に何ら有効な準備を行えなかった。アウレリウスは政務に関する経験は豊富ながら軍事的な知識や才覚に乏しく、国境地帯の属州総督を経験したこともなかった[178][notes 17]。状況は刻一刻と悪化を続け、対応に遅れるアウレリウスを尻目にパルティア軍はカッパドキアに続いてシリア総督の軍勢も撃破する勝利を挙げた[180]。 それから暫くして漸くアウレリウスは対パルティアの増援部隊を編成する準備を整え、元老院議員ユリウス・ゲミニウス・マルキアヌスを司令官に第10軍団「ゲミナ」をウィンドボナから派遣した[181]。更に追加で属州ゲルマニア・スペリオルのボンナから第1軍団「ミネルウァ」を[182]、属州パンノニアのアクィクムから第2軍団「アディウトリクス」を[183]、そして属州ダキアのトロエミスから第5軍団「マケドニカ」をそれぞれ東方属州に投入した[184]。必然的に西方の守りは弱まる事になるため、アウレリウスは各国境駐屯軍に周辺勢力を刺激しないように厳命した[185]。これらの増援軍と現地軍を取りまとめる属州シリアの総督には新たにアウレリウスの従兄弟マルクス・アンニウス・リボが任命された[186]。しかし彼は特段の軍事的功績があった訳ではなく、アウレリウスは能力より自らが信頼できる人物を送り込むという決断を下した[187]。 遠征軍派遣後、アウレリウスはエトルリア地方のアルシウムで4日間の休養を取ることになった。アウレリウスは文通を続けていたコルネリウス・フロントにアルシウムの滞在について相談事はしないと書き送っている[188]。フロントは「君が暇を潰すためにアルシウムへ向かったことを知らないとでも？」と皮肉を述べ[189]、きちんと休養を取るのであれば先帝アントニヌスの様に釣りやレスリングに興じてはどうかと助言した[190]。しかし不安に苛まれていたアウレリウスはもっぱら滞在中は公文書を書き続けることで時間を潰していた[191]。アウレリウスはフロントに「私はどんな状態でも行わなければならない義務がある」と書き[192]、手紙の内容からは敗北の責任を感じている事が伺える[193]。 フロントはアウレリウスに幾つかの読み物を差し入れる一方[194]、現在も保存されている「De bello Parthico (パルティア戦争について)」と題した長大な手紙をアウレリウスに送っている。この手紙は古今東西の歴史上における事件や人物・格言を例に出しながら、不安を感じているアウレリウスを宥める目的で書かれている[195]。手紙は「過去にローマが敵に敗れ去った事は何度もある」とした上で、「だが最後は常にローマがその力を敵に思い知らせてきたのだ」と記述されている[196]。 アンティオキア[編集] 自堕落なシリア軍は戦場よりアンティオキアで過ごす時間の方が多いと揶揄された[197] 一向に事態が好転しない事に対する不安が募る中、思いがけず白羽の矢が立てられたのが無能力さから今回の動乱にも無関係と思われていたルキウス帝であった。元老院はルキウス帝を前線に派遣することで軍の督戦を行わせようと考えた[198]。しかしルキウスに関する伝記はそれ以外にも「ルキウス帝に皇帝の責務を自覚させる」「戦場の恐怖で倫理観を抱かせる」といった具合に、云わば厄介払いとしての部分もあったのではないかと記録している[199][notes 18]。ともかく162年に元老院はルキウス帝の親征を承認する決議を行ったが、アウレリウスに関しては「民衆が滞在を望んでいる」としてローマへ留まることが勧められた[201]。 ルキウス帝は一部の例を除いて殆どの時間をアンティオキアの後方陣営地で過ごした[202]。同時代の論者達はルキウスの退廃癖が前線でも改められていないと批判し[203]、朝から晩までルキウス帝は賭け事に熱中して前線を訪問せず[204]、周囲にお気に入りの役者達を置いて気侭な生活を送っていた[205][notes 19]。更に実務面を統括していたシリア総督アンニウス・リボの存在を疎んで暗殺したと噂されている[207]。 163年、アウレリウス帝は自身の長女ルキッラとルキウス帝の婚姻を取り決めた[208]。アウレリウス帝はルキウス帝が既に大勢の愛人を抱えていることを知っていたが、敢えてルキウス帝への親睦として娘を嫁がせた[209]。この時、ルッキラは15歳に満たない少女であったと考えられている[210]。結婚の仲介役としてルキウス帝の叔父にあたるウェトゥレヌス・シウィカ・バルバルウス（Vettulenus Civica Barbarus）を向かわせた[211]。バルバルウスは実質的にアンニウスの後任としてルキウスの目付け役も兼ねていたと思われる[212]。 当初、アウレリウスも娘の婚姻に合わせて前線に向かう計画もあったが、これは実現しなかった[213]。アウレリウスは途中まで娘と一行を見送ると自らはローマに戻り[214]、各属州に一行に対して何かしらの特別扱いを行わないように命令を下している[215]。 戦争終結[編集] 緩慢な反撃を続けるローマ軍は163年になってアルメニア王国の首都アルカタを占領した[216]。ルキウスは戦争に何ら寄与していなかったが、名目上の司令官として「アルメニクス（Armeniacus）」の称号を元老院から与えられた。同時にアウレリウスにも称号授与が行われたが、彼は戦争終結までは辞退すると返答している[217]。しかしインペトラル（凱旋将軍）の称号については共に受け取ったと見られる[218]。 ユーフラテス河畔のラッカ。エデッサの南 アルメニアを奪還したローマは荒廃したアルカタを放棄して新しい都を建設して、そこに首都を遷都させた[219]。新しい皇帝にはローマの元老院議員・執政官カイウス・イウリウス・ソハエムスが着任、形式的な王の戴冠式はアルメニア領内外で行われた[220]。ルキウス帝がアルメニア王の宮殿に訪れると、ソハエムスは元老議員として玉座を皇帝に譲り、ルキウス帝が玉座に座る儀式が行われた[221]。 一方、パルティア王国軍は反撃として今度はオスロエネ王国のエデッサに軍を送り込み、再び傀儡君主を立てる行動に出た[222]。対するローマ軍は軍を南下させてユーフラテス川の南側から渡河を決行[223]、そこから北進して南からパルティア軍を牽制した[224]。ほどなくユーフラテスの北側も制圧したローマ軍はオスロエネ王国へ援軍を派遣してエデッサの南西部に拠点を確保した[225]。 165年、ローマ軍はエデッサを陥落させて親ローマ派の君主を復位させた[226]。パルティア軍はニシビスに退いて抵抗を続けたが、やがてオスロエネ王国からチグリス川へ撤収した[227]。戦いで顕著な活躍を見せたのが第3軍団「ガリカ」を率いる元老院議員ガイウス・アウィディウス・カッシウスであり、ドゥラの戦いでパルティア軍に多大な損害を与えた[228]。同年の暮れまでに追撃を続けるアウィディウス軍はセレウキアとクテシフォンというパルティア王国の二大都市を占領する大功を挙げた。クテシフォンに入城したローマ軍はパルティア王の宮殿を焼き払い、これに恐れをなしたセレウキアのギリシャ系住民はパルティア軍を追い払って自ら開城した。しかしセレウキアに入城したローマ軍は約束を反故にして略奪を行い、大勢の市民が虐殺された。元老院の批判に対してルキウス帝は「セレウキアの住民が約束を破った」と強弁した[229]。 物資不足と疫病の関係からローマ軍の戦力は削られたが、問題なくアウィディウスは軍勢を本土へと帰還させた[230]。元老院はアンティオキアのルキウス帝に「パルティニクス・マキシムス」を新たな称号として与え、アウレリウスとルキウスはインペトラル経験数を3回へと増やした[231]。またアウィディウスが帰還途中にメディアを占領したので、ルキウスは「メディクス」の称号と[232] 4度目のインペトラルを授与された。後にアウレリウスも「パルティニクス・マキシムス」の称号を与えられている[233]。 凱旋[編集] 上記のようにルキウス帝（次いでアウレリウス帝も）はパルティア戦争の勝利に関する多くの栄誉を元老院から与えられた。しかし真の功労者が前線で戦っていた軍指揮官達、特にクテシフォンとセレウキアを攻め落としたカイウス・アウィディウス・カッシウスであった事は誰の目にも明らかであった。アウィディウスは属州シリアのキュロス出身で、ガイウス・アウィディウス・ヘリオドルス（Gaius Avidius Heliodorus）の子として生まれた。ハドリアヌス帝時代に軍人として頭角を現し、エジプト総督などを歴任していた[234]。論功行賞で166年にアウィディウスは直属の軍司令官マルティウス・ウェルス（Martius Verus）と共に執政官に叙任され、それぞれシリア総督（アウィディウス）とカッパドキア総督（マルティウス）に任命された[235]。 ローマ本国ではアウレリウス帝とルキウス帝による凱旋式が挙行され、二人の皇帝に加えてその妻や子供も含めたかつてない大規模な式典が行われた。その一員に5歳になった嫡男の六男コンモドゥスと七男ウェルスが居り、二人は父から副帝（カエサル）の称号を与えられ、民衆に後継者であることが示された。戦争終結に沸くローマであったが、翌年から始まったアントニヌスの疫病と呼ばれた天然痘の大流行によってウェルスは病没し、アウレリウスやコンモドゥスも病に倒れた。カッシウス・ディオによれば一日2000名の人間が死に絶え、帝国全土に広がった疫病は500万以上の人命を失わせた。 この時、アントニヌス帝が東方属州から派遣した使者が中国の漢帝国に到達したことは広く知られており、歴史書には大秦国王（ローマ帝国皇帝）の安敦（アントニヌス）の使者が訪れたと記録されている[236]。 マルコマンニ戦争[編集] 詳細はマルコマンニ戦争を参照 アウレリウス死没時の帝国領 コルネリウス･フロントの子息オウフィディウス・ウィクトリアヌスはゲルマニア・スペリオル総督として滞在、ゲルマニア地方の諸族に対する外交政策を一任されていた[237]。ウィクトリアヌスはゲルマニア地方の防備が極めて粗雑な状態にあると報告した。辺境の要塞は多くが破壊され、中欧や北欧では動乱の兆しが見られ、駐屯軍の指揮官階級は腐敗しつつあった[238]。 しばしばアウレリウス時代の総督達は経験ではなく縁故主義によってアウレリウスとその王朝（ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝）と親しい人物から任命された。ルキウス・ダスミウス・トゥッリウス・トゥスクス（L. Dasumius Tullius Tuscus）はハドリアヌス帝の親族で、経験豊富であった上パンノニア総督ノニウス・マクリヌス（Nonius Macrinus）の後任となった。下パンノニア総督は無名の人物ティベリウス・ハテリウス・サトゥルニヌス（Ti. Haterius Saturnius）が務めていた。ラッリウス・バッスス（Iallius Bassus）がルキウス帝のアンティオキアの陣地を訪れた時、マルクス・セルウィリウス・ファビアヌス・マクシムス（M. Servilius Fabianus Maximus）は上モエシア総督から下モエシア総督へと転任した。後任の上モエシア総督にはポンティウス・ラエリアヌス（Pontius Laelianus）の息子が派遣された。西方の防備は弱まる一方で、下パンノニアに至っては軍団が一つも配置されていなかった[239]。 160年代、ゲルマニアやそれ以外の地域に住む諸民族は各地でローマ国境への侵入を試みるようになり、特にドナウ川流域では全域にわたって蛮族の攻撃が繰り返された。この動きは恐らく、より遠方（サルマティアなど）での動乱が影響したものと考えられている。最初に始まった162年のカッティ族による攻撃はゲルマニア・スペリオルの駐屯軍によって撃退された。しかし続いて166年に起きたドナウ川での攻撃はより深刻な事態となり、マルコマンニ族を中核にロンバルディア族・クアディ族などを含めた遊牧勢力がドナウ川を渡河した。さらにこれに呼応してサルマティア族がドナウ川と隣接するティサ川を越えて同じく帝国領内へ進出した。 これらの動きはパルティア戦争の影響で有効に対処できず、3年後の167年になって反撃が模索されはじめた。今度はアウレリウス帝とルキウス帝の双方が軍を指揮したが、169年にルキウス帝が謎の死を遂げるとアウレリウスが単独で親征を継続した。戦いは泥沼の長期戦となり、アウレリウスのそれから死没までの人生はマルコマンニ戦争で使い果たされることになる。遠征の最中、7人兄弟で唯一の生き残りとなっていたコンモドゥスが共同皇帝に指名され、もしもに備えての権力移譲も整えられた。 戦いはローマ軍の苦戦が続き、取り分けクアディ族とマルコマンニ族は2度にわたってローマ軍を打ち破って南下を続けた。両部族は一時イタリア本土にまで到達してオデルツォ市とアクイレイア市が包囲される事態となった。またダキアではコストボキ族がモエシアを越えてマケドニアやギリシャ諸都市を脅かしていた。10年以上にわたって次々と増援戦力が編成されては前線に送り込まれ、アウレリウスは軍勢を鼓舞することに努め続けた。戦争末期には概ねの敵が元の国境地帯に押し返された。しかし蛮族との最終的な和睦は模索されたままで戦いは続き、アウレリウスは発想を転換して逆にゲルマニアへ新しい領域を形成する攻勢主義へと転じる決断を下した。しかし計画は長引く戦乱に対する不満を背景にしたガイウス・アウィディウス・カッシウスの反乱によって断念された。東方属州の大部分を纏め上げていたアウィディウスは、身体の衰えが隠せなくなっていたアウレリウスが病没した噂から挙兵を決断した。しかし後にこれは誤りであったことが判明し、アウィディウスは遠征に出る前にアウレリウス側に内通していた将官によって暗殺された。 その後、再びアウレリウスはボヘミア地方への進出を目指してその準備に奔走したが、実現するより先に寿命が訪れることになった。 死没[編集] 180年3月17日、アウレリウスは滞在中のウィンドボナで病没した。遺骸は直ちに陣営地で火葬により弔われ、遺灰が厳重な警備の元に帝都ローマのハドリアヌス廟へ送られた。ゲルマニア諸族とサルマティア諸族に抵抗し続けた彼の治世後半は英雄的な評価を確実なものとし、元老院はアウレリウスを他のネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝の歴代君主と並んで神に祭ることを認めた。帝位は既に生前に禅譲されていたコンモドゥスがそのまま継承することが決められた。当初は清廉な青年であったコンモドゥスが次第にローマ史の著名な暴君の一人として名を残す結果となると、この決定は後世の歴史家の間で議論の対象となった。 同時代の歴史家で元老院議員でもあったカッシウス・ディオは以下のように述べている。 ……アウレリウスは厳格で賢明な生き方を選んだにも関わらず、苦難に満ちた人生を生きる結果になった。 彼は常に持病と闘いながら、周囲の出来事を取りまとめることに奔走していた。しかしまさしく私はこうした人生を生きたからこそアウレリウスを尊敬する。 途方も無い困難と苦難の中で彼は広大な帝国を維持することに努め、それを全うした。唯一つ、彼の息子への完全な教育を終えることができなかったことを除けば。 ローマは、黄金の帝国から鉄と錆の王国へと没落し始めるのである。 — カッシウス・ディオ 71.36.3 現代の歴史家マイケル・グラントは「ローマの最盛期」（1968年）においてアウレリウスの権力移譲を解説する文章を記述した。 ……今日的な常識では青年期は経験に乏しく、情緒も不安定なものである。アウレリウスが父としてその事実を理解していたとしても、若い青年に全権を預ける以外に選択肢は無かったといえる。 君主に直系の子息がおり既に権力も委譲されている状態で突然に廃嫡すれば、事態は父子間の対立だけでは済まされない。一挙に政治情勢を混迷化させ、帝国を内戦へと向かわせるだろう。 — マイケル・グラント、『ローマの最盛期』 略年表[編集] 121年 ローマにて出生 138年 叔父アントニヌス・ピウスの後継者に指名 叔父の娘ファウスティナと婚約（従兄妹婚） 139年 クァエストル就任 140年 一度目の執政官叙任 145年 二度目の執政官叙任 160年 三度目の執政官叙任 161年 皇帝即位（共同皇帝ルキウス・ウェルス） パルティア戦争 164年 元老院からアルメニクスの称号を与えられる 166年 元老院からパルティニクスの称号を与えられる 168年 第一次マルコマンニ戦争 171年 元老院からダキアニクスの称号を与えられる 172年 元老院からゲルマニクスの称号を与えられる 175年 ガイウス・アウィディウス・カッシウスの反乱 177年 第二次マルコマンニ戦争 180年 ウィンドボナで崩御 建築物[編集] アントニヌス・ピウスの記念柱 アウレリウスの大橋 著作[編集] 英語版ウィキソースに本記事に関連した原文があります。 Author:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ギリシャ語版ウィキソースに本記事に関連した原文があります。 Μάρκος Αυρήλιος アウレリウスはマルコマンニ戦争の後半から、自らへの戒めを兼ねて思索を綴って著作「自省録」を完成させた。本来は他者に公開するために書いた訳ではなかった為、原文には「自分自身へ」と簡潔な表題が書かれていた。彼は少年期に傾倒したストア派の禁欲主義を生涯にわたって守り続け、これを美徳として価値観の中心に置いていた。したがってストア派の思想書として第一に挙げられ、近代でもフリードリヒ2世、ジョン・スチュアート・ミル、マシュー・アーノルド、ヨハン・ヴォルフガング・フォン・ゲーテ、温家宝などが愛読書としていた[240]。 自省録が後世のローマ帝国にどんな程度の影響を与えたのかは定かではないが、後世の皇帝であるフラウィウス・クラウディウス・ユリアヌスは自省録自体には触れないながらもアウレリウスの哲学者としての影響を論じている[241]。現在見ることができる自省録は10世紀に書かれた原文の写本を1558年に出版形式に直したものである[242]。 子息[編集] Bust of Faustina the Younger, Louvre, Paris アウレリウスと小ファウスティナは30年間の結婚生活で14人の子息を儲けた。女児はドミティアを除いて成人したが、男児は長男ゲメルスから五男ティトゥス、七男ウェルスまでの6人に早世される不幸があり、六男コンモドゥスのみが生き残り、帝位を継承した（ちなみに158年以前に夭折した子息がいるが性別不明の為、「7男7女」（女児2人が早世したのか）なのか「8男6女」（男児が7人早世したのか）なのかは不明）。つまり、幼児期を無事越すことができたのは半数以下の6人（1男5女：長女ガレリア、次女ルキッラ、四女ファディッラ、五女アンニア・コルニフィキア・ファウスティナ・ミノル、六男コンモドゥス、六女サビナ）で、アウレリウスの死後も生き残ったのは次女ルキッラ、四女ファディッラ、五女アンニア・コルニフィキア・ファウスティナ・ミノル、六男コンモドゥス、六女サビナの1男4女の5人。更に自身の子女が記録されているのは長女ガレリア、次女ルキッラ、四女ファディッラ、五女アンニア・コルニフィキア・ファウスティナ・ミノルの4人と絞られ、男系子孫は192年のコンモドゥス暗殺で途絶えた為、後世に残ったアウレリウスの子孫は全て女系子孫となる。 長男ゲメルス・ルキラエ（149年 - 150年）：ルキッラとは双子。幼児にて病没。 次男ティトゥス・アエリウス・アントニヌス（150年以降 - 161年）：早世。 三男ティトゥス・アエリウス・アウレリウス（150年以降 - 161年）：早世。 四男ハドリアヌス（152年 - 157年）：早世。 五男ティトゥス・アウレリウス・フラウィウス・アントニヌス（161年 - 165年）：コンモドゥスとは双子。幼児にて病没。 六男ルキウス・アウレリウス・コンモドゥス・アントニヌス（161年 - 192年）：第17代ローマ皇帝。男子の中で唯一、アウレリウス死後も生き残り、帝位を継承。ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝と深い繋がりを持っていたブルッティウス家の子女ブルッティア・クリスピナ（164年 - 191年）と結婚、子女は無く、コンモドゥスも暗殺されたことで、ネルウァ=アントニヌス朝からの皇帝の輩出はコンモドゥスの代で途絶えることとなる。 七男マルクス・アンニウス・ウェルス（162年5月以降 - 169年9月10日）：副帝叙任後に6～7歳で病没。 長女アンニア・アウレリア・ガレリア・ファウスティナ（147年11月30日 - 175年以降から180年以前）：第1子（長子）。執政官グナエウス・クラウディウス・セウェルスと結婚してグナエウス・クラウディウス・セウェルス（西暦200年に執政官叙任）を儲ける。182年の弟コンモドゥス暗殺未遂事件の際、アウレリウスの5人の子女が生き残っていたことが（次女ルキッラ、四女ファディッラ、五女アンニア・コルニフィキア・ファウスティナ・ミノル、六男コンモドゥス、六女サビナ）が記録に確実に見られるが、その中にガレリアの名前が見られないことから、175年からアウレリウスが没する180年の間に亡くなったと推測できる。ガレリアの血筋は8世紀以降も存続している。ローマ帝国崩壊後も子孫が続いたことが確実なのはガレリアのみである。 次女アンニア・アウレリア・ルキッラ（149年 - 182年）：ゲメルス・ルキラエとは双子。共同皇帝ルキウス・ウェルスと結婚。ルキウス・ウェルスの死後、ティベリウス・クラウディウス・ポンペイアヌス（125年 - 193年）と再婚。ルキッラの血筋は少なくとも3世紀（ルキッラの死から50～60年後）まで存続していることが確認される。一説に姉ガレリアの血筋と合体し、8世紀まで続いたともされるが不明。 三女ドミティア・ファウスティナ（150年以降 - 161年）：早世。 四女アンニア・アウレリア・ファディッラ（159年 - 211年以降）：執政官マルクス・ペドゥカエウス・プラウティウス・クィンティッルスと結婚。息子プラウティウス・クィンティッルスと娘プラウティア・セルウィッラの1男1女がいるが、この代で血筋が絶えている。 五女アンニア・コルニフィキア・ファウスティナ・ミノル（160年 - 212年） ：執政官マルクス・ペトロニウス・マメルティヌスと結婚。173年以降に息子ペトロニウス・アントニヌスを儲けたが、この息子は妻子無く、190年から192年の間にコンモドゥスによって殺害された。後にルキウス・ディディウス・ マリヌスと再婚したが、子女は無い。 六女ウィビア・アウレリア・サビナ（170年 - 217年以前）：執政官ルキウス・ブッルスと結婚。188年にブッルスが処刑された後は、ルキウス・アウレリウス・アガクリュトゥスと再婚。いずれの夫との間には子女は無い。 性別不明：158年以前に没。何番目に生まれたかは正確には不明だが、少なくとも長女アンニア・アウレリア・ガレリア・ファウスティナ（147年生誕）よりも後で、四女アンニア・アウレリア・ファディッラ（159年生誕）よりも前である。 家系図[編集]                                                                                 マルキア   大トラヤヌス   ネルウァ   ウルピア（英語版）                                                                                               マルキアナ   トラヤヌス   ポンペイア （英語版）                                                       ハドリアヌス・ アフェル（英語版）   大パウリナ （英語版）                         フルギ （英語版）   マティディア （英語版）       サビニウス （英語版）                                                                                                                                                                         ルピリア・アンニア   アンニウス・ ウェルス（英語版）   ルピリア （英語版）   ウィビア・サビナ （英語版）   ハドリアヌス   アンティノウス   小パウリナ （英語版）                                                                                                                 ドミティア・ ルキッラ（英語版）   アンニウス・ ウェルス（英語版）   リボ（英語版）   大ファウスティナ   アントニヌス・ ピウス   ルキウス・ アエリウス   ユリア・パウリナ （英語版）                                                                                                                               大コルニフィキア （英語版）   マルクス・ アウレリウス   小ファウスティナ   アウレリア・ ファディラ                         サリナトル                                                                                                               小コルニフィキア （英語版）   ファディッラ （英語版）   コンモドゥス   ルキッラ   ルキウス・ウェルス   ケイオニア・ プラウティア                                                                               アンニア・ ファウスティナ       ユリア・マエサ       ユリア・ドムナ   セプティミウス・ セウェルス   セルウィリア・ ケイオニア           ゴルディアヌス1世                                                                                                                                   ユリア・ソエミアス   ユリア・アウィタ   カラカラ   ゲタ   リキニウス・ バルブス   アントニア・ ゴルディアナ   ゴルディアヌス2世                                                                       アウレリア・ ファウスティナ   ヘリオガバルス   アレクサンデル・ セウェルス                       ゴルディアヌス3世   創作作品[編集] 文学[編集] 1885年の小説『享楽主義者マリウス』（ウォルター・ペイター作）で度々言及されている。 1978年の小説『ガープの世界』（ジョン・アーヴィング作）にアウレリウスをモチーフにした章が登場する。 映画[編集] 1964年の映画『ローマ帝国の滅亡』（The Fall of the Roman Empire）では、アレック・ギネスが演じた。 2000年のアカデミー賞を受賞した『グラディエーター』（The Gladiator）では、リチャード・ハリスが演じた。 理想的な共和主義者として描写されている。世襲による帝政を嫌い、共和制へローマを戻すそうとするが皇子コンモドゥスにより暗殺される。 漫画[編集] 『テルマエ・ロマエ』では、登場人物の一人として少年時代のアウレリウスが主人公に協力する。 ノート[編集] ^ 即位前の本名はマルクス・アンニウス・カティリウス・セウェルス（Marcus Annius Catilius Severus）で[1]、先帝アントニヌスの后妃の兄である父マルクス・アンニウス・ウェルスによって名付けられた[2]。その後、叔父にあたるアントニヌス帝の娘（従姉妹となる）小ファウスティナと結婚して帝位を継ぐ際、入り婿としてマルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス（Marcus Aurelius Antoninus）に改名した。 ^ Cassius Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[14] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated. One conjectural bond runs through Annius Verus (II). Verus' wife Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and an unnamed mother. It has been hypothesized Rupilia Faustina's mother was Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[15] ^ Farquharson dates his death to 130, when Marcus was nine.[21] ^ Birley amends the text of the HA Marcus from "Eutychius" to "Tuticius".[36] ^ Others put a harsher light on Hadrian's nickname. McLynn calls it an example of Hadrian's waspish (McLynn says "vespine") wit and adduces it in support of his contention that Marcus was a "prig".[43] ^ Birley, following the textual and epigraphic citations, concludes that he might only have seen Rome in 127, briefly in 128, and in 131.[45] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus' eventual succession anyways.[52] ^ The manuscript is corrupt here.[72] ^ Moderns have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor, Niebhur, thought him stupid and frivolous; his third editor, Naber, found him contemptible.[88] Historians have seen him as a "pedant and a bore", his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny.[89] Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much.[90] ^ Champlin notes that Marcus' praise of him in the Meditations is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.[110] ^ Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared[119]), and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source,[120]。scholars have accepted these biographical details as accurate.[121] ^ These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the Historia Augusta, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight.[134] The fourth-century ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Caesarea shows even more confusion.[135] The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name "Verus" before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.[136] ^ There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Pius, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past?Augustus planned to leave Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Gaius Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; Claudius left the empire to Nero and Britannicus, imagining that they would accept equal rank?but all of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero).[136] ^ The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.[147] ^ Because both Verus and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (HA Marcus 8.4?5), the flood must have happened before Verus' departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Pius' funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162.[163] (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.[158]) ^ Since 15 CE, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis ("Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers") was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of the builder of Hadrian's Wall, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos' likely predecessor, M. Statius Priscus. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than "paid leave".[165] ^ Alan Cameron adduces the fifth-century writer Sidonius Apollinaris's comment that Marcus commanded "countless legions" vivente Pio (while Pius was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the Historia Augusta (Birley's source) are particularly reliable on second-century history.[179]) ^ Birley believes there is some truth in these considerations.[200] ^ The whole section of the vita dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (HA Verus 4.4?6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.[206] 引用[編集] All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ^ Marcus Aurelius emperor of Rome Encyclopædia Britannica ^ NHK100分で名著86 自省録 2019年4月1日放送 ^ Western Civilization: Sources, Images and Interpretations, Dennis Sherman, Vol. 1, 5th Ed., p. 104. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229 30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Uber Zeit und Personlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65?74. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228?29, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227?28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ HA Marcus 1.2, 1.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 28; McLynn, 14. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2?3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31, 44. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 30. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95?96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ HA Marcus 2.1 and Meditations 5.4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 32. ^ Meditations 1.3, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Meditations 1.17.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 33. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 2.8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31?32. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Meditations 1.17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, 23; cf. Meditations 1.17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ McLynn, 20?21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, 20. ^ HA Marcus 2.2, 4.9; Meditations 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 21?22. ^ HA Marcus 2.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; McLynn, 21. ^ Birley, Later Caesars, 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, 39ff. ^ HA Marcus 2.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, citing Aelius Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, 21. ^ Meditations 1.10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40; McLynn, 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) 2.453. ^ HA Marcus 4.1, 4.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 1.10, 2.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. The appellation also survives on inscriptions: Birley cites (at Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.24) Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 697, and L'Annee epigraphique 1940.62. On the Salii, see: Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36?37; McLynn, 18?19. ^ McLynn, 18, citing Michael Grant, The Antonines (1994), 26 for the characterization of verissimus as an example of Hadrian's waspish wit. ^ HA Marcus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 19. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38, 270 n.24. ^ HA Marcus 4.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 39?40; McLynn, 24?25; R. Syme, "The Ummidii", Historia 17:1 (1968): 93?94. ^ HA Marcus 4.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ HA Marcus 4.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41?42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15?16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1?7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Pius 4.6?7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48?49. ^ HA Marcus 5.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49?50. ^ HA Marcus 5.6?8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 50. ^ Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian 25.5?6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 50?51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio 69.22.1?4; HA Hadrian 24.8?13. ^ HA Hadrian 25.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53. ^ HA Pius 5.3, 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 55?56; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 55; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 151. ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3?4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 53?54. ^ Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 56. ^ Meditations 6.30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. ^ a b HA Marcus 6.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. ^ Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57?58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 90. ^ HA Marcus 6.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 58. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 89. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 90?91. ^ HA Pius 10.2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 61. ^ HA Marcus 2.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 62. ^ Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 347. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 63?64. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1?7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 64?65. ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 67?68, citing E. Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome (1980), esp. chs. 3 and 4. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 65?67. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 1?2. ^ Ronald Mellor, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, The American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982): 460. ^ Cf., eg.: Ronald Mellor, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, The American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982): 461 and passim. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 76. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 76?77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.10?11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 73. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 77. On the date, see Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 78?79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 77?78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 79. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 93. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 69. ^ De Eloquentia 4.5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): "Conversion to Philosophy". ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94, 105. ^ HA Marcus 3.5?8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 95; Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 174 n. 12. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94?95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Meditations 1.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 94?95. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 206?7. ^ Meditations 9.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 207. ^ Meditations 10.34, tr. Farquharson, 78, 224. ^ HA Verus 2.9?11; 3.4?7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 108. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6.1; HA Verus 1.8; Barnes, 67; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 158. See also: Barnes, 69?70; Pierre Lambrechts, "L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de rehabilitation" (in French), Antiquite Classique 3 (1934), 173ff. ^ Barnes, 66. Poorly compiled: eg. Barnes, 68. ^ Barnes, 68?69. ^ HA Verus 2.9?11; 3.4?7; Barnes, 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 108. ^ Barnes, 68, citing J. Vogt, Die Alexandrinischen Miinzen (1924), I, III; 2, 62ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ HA Pius 12.4?8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ Dio 71.33.4?5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114. ^ HA Marcus 7.5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. 13.1 and 15.8. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 156. ^ HA Verus 3.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 156. ^ HA Verus 4.1; Marcus 7.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 116?17. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157 n.53. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157 n.53. ^ a b c d Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117. ^ HA Verus 4.2, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117?18. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 117?18. "twice the size": Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 109. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ HA Marcus 7.10, tr. David Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus 7.10?11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ HA Pius 12.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118?19. ^ HA Marcus 7.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ HA Comm. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ HA Comm. 1.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ HA Marcus 19.1?2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.9. ^ HA Comm. 1.4, 10.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ HA Marcus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organisation Italiens (1979), 146ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 157. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 122?23, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrieres procuratoriennes equestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I?III (Paris, 1960?61); Supplement (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrieres procuratoriennes equestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I?III (Paris, 1960?61); Supplement (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus 8.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), 65ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator 1.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 119. ^ a b Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120, citing Ad Verum Imperator 1.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ HA Marcus 8.3?4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ Gregory S. Aldrete, Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 30?31. ^ HA Marcus 8.4?5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 120. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932[リンク切れ] (Nepos), 1092[リンク切れ] (Priscus); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC ? AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. "Emperors at Work", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9?19. ^ Codex Justinianus 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ Digest 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. ^ HA Pius 12.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 114, 121. ^ Event: HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, "The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos," Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): 281. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121?22. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 241?50. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 278 n.19. ^ Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 121?22. ^ HA Marcus 8.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 122. ^ HA Pius 7.11; Marcus 7.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 103?4, 122. ^ Pan. Ath. 203?4, qtd. and tr. Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 349. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050?51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097[リンク切れ]?98[リンク切れ]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091[リンク切れ]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311[リンク切れ]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Marcus 12.13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ L'Annee Epigraphique 1972.657; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126?27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6?12 (= Haines 2.11?19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 126?27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1?2 (= Haines 2.21?23). ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Dio 71.1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123. ^ HA Verus 5.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123, 125. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125. ^ HA Marcus 8.9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 123?26. On Lucius' voyage, see: HA Verus 6.7?9; HA Marcus 8.10?11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 125?26. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 4.6, tr. Magie; cf. 5.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ HA Verus 8.7, 8.10?11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129. ^ Barnes, 69. ^ HA Verus 9.2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130?31. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Barnes, 72; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163; cf. also Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians", Journal of Roman Studies 58:1?2 (1968), 39; "Some Persons in the Historia Augusta", Phoenix 26:2 (1972), 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Anne Epigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.5?6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; HA Verus 7.1?2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 129; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio 71.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 280 n. 42; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130, 279 n. 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, 112. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098[リンク切れ]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 130. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3?4; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), 124ff., on the date. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der romischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Gottingen, 1969), 99 ff. ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ 2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 164, citing Alfoldy, Konsulat, 24, 221. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. (1999). “The Roman Empire as Known to Han China”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 119 (1): 71?79. doi:10.2307/605541. http://jstor.org/stable/605541.  ^ Dio 72.11.3?4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 132. ^ Dio 72.11.3?4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 132, citing De nepote amisso 2 (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator 2.9?10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133, citing Geza Alfoldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: 232 f.; Moesia Superior: 234f.; Pannonia Superior: 236f.; Dacia: 245f.; Pannonia Inferior: 251. ^ Gregory Hays. Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations Weidenfeld and Nicholson London2003 pxlix ^ Stertz, 434, citing Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius 3.5; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 16.9. ^ Gregory Hays. Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations Weidenfeld and Nicholson London 2003 pp xlviii?xlix. 資料[編集] 古代[編集] Aelius Aristides. Orationes (Orations). Aurelius Victor. De Caesaribus. Codex Justinianus. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian, in The Civil Law. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Digest. Scott, S.P., trans. The Digest or Pandects in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Cassius Dio. Roman History. Cary, Earnest, trans. Roman History. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914?27. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 31 August 2009. Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2. Accessed 26 August 2009. Galen. ad Pisonem de Theriaca. de Antidotis. Gellius, Aulus. Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Rolfe, J.C., trans. The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927?28. Vols. 1 and 2 online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Herodian. Ab Excessu Divi Marci (History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius). Echols, Edward C., trans. Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. Online at Tertullian and Livius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Institutes. Scott, S.P., trans. Institutes of Gaius in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Accessed 31 August 2009. Lucian. Alexander. Harmon, A.M., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1936. Alexander online at Tertullian. Accessed 26 August 2009. Historia Quomodo Conscribenda (The Way to Write History). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. The Way to Write History, in volume 2, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Imagines (Essays in Portraiture [Images]). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. A Portrait Study, in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Pro Imaginibus (Essays in Portraiture Defended). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. Defence of the 'Portrait-Study', in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Accessed 26 August 2009. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. Pausanias. Description of Greece. Jones, W.H.S., and H.A. Omerod, trans. Pausanias' Description of Greece. 4 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1918. Online at Theoi and Perseus at Tufts. Accessed 27 August 2009. Philostratus. Heroicus (On Heroes). Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. On Heroes. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online at Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies[リンク切れ]. Accessed 27 August 2009. Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). Butler, H.E., trans. The Orator's Education. 5 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920?22. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 14 September 2009. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921?32. Online at LacusCurtius. Accessed 26 August 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Themistius. Orationes (Orations). 現代[編集] Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Barnes, Timothy D. "Hadrian and Lucius Verus." Journal of Roman Studies 57:1?2 (1967): 65?79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines." In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70?192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132?94. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136?59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC ? AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 9780224072922 Stertz, Stephen A. "Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought." The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433?39. Syme, Ronald. "The Ummidii." Historia 17:1 (1968): 72?105. 外部リンク[編集] ウィキメディア・コモンズには、マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌスに関連するメディアがあります。 英語版ウィキソースにマルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス著の原文があります。 マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス - Find a Grave（英語） マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス - Notable Names Database（英語） マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス アントニヌス朝 ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝家分家 121年4月26日 - 180年3月17日 爵位・家督 先代： アントニヌス・ピウス ローマ皇帝 161年-180年 (共同皇帝ルキウス・ウェルス 161年-169年) 次代： コンモドゥス 公職 先代： アントニヌス・ピウス、ガイウス・ブルッティウス・プラエセヌス、ルキウス・フルウィウス・ルスティクス 執政官（同僚執政官アントニヌス・ピウス） 140年 次代： ティトゥス・ホエニウス・セウェルス、マルクス・ペドゥカエウス・ストロガ・プリスキヌス 先代： ロルリアヌス・アウィトゥス、ティトゥス・スタティリウス・マキシムス 執政官（同僚執政官アントニヌス・ピウス） 145年 次代： セクストゥス・エルキウス・クラルス、ガエヌス・クラウディウス・セウェルス・アラビヌス 先代： アッピウス・アンニウス・アティリウス・ブラドゥア、ティトゥス・クロディウス・ウィビウス・ウァルス 執政官（同僚執政官ルキウス・ウェルス） 161年 次代： ユニウス・ルスティクス、ルキウス・ティトゥス・プラウティヌス・アクアリヌス 表 話 編 歴 ローマ皇帝 ユリウス＝クラウディウス朝 アウグストゥス前27-後14 ティベリウス14-37 カリグラ37-41 クラウディウス41-54 ネロ54-68 四皇帝の年 ガルバ68-69 オト69 ウィテッリウス69 フラウィウス朝 ウェスパシアヌス69-79 ティトゥス79-81 ドミティアヌス81-96 ネルウァ＝アントニヌス朝 ネルウァ96-98 トラヤヌス98-117 ハドリアヌス117-138 アントニヌス・ピウス138-161 マルクス・アウレリウス161-180 ルキウス・ウェルス（共同皇帝）161-169 コンモドゥス180-192 五皇帝の年 ペルティナクス193 ディディウス・ユリアヌス193 ペスケンニウス・ニゲル（僭称）193 クロディウス・アルビヌス（僭称）193 セウェルス朝 セプティミウス・セウェルス193-211 カラカラ211-217 ゲタ（共同皇帝）209-211 マクリヌス217-218 ディアドゥメニアヌス（共同皇帝）217-218 ヘリオガバルス218-222 アレクサンデル・セウェルス222-235 3世紀の危機 軍人皇帝 マクシミヌス・トラクス235-238 マクシムス（共同皇帝）236-238 ゴルディアヌス1世238 ゴルディアヌス2世（共同皇帝）238 プピエヌス・マクシムス238 バルビヌス238 ゴルディアヌス3世238-244 ピリップス・アラブス244-249 ピリップス2世（共同皇帝）244-249 デキウス249-251 ヘレンニウス・エトルスクス（共同皇帝）249-251 ホスティリアヌス251 トレボニアヌス・ガッルス251-253 ウォルシアヌス（共同皇帝）251-253 アエミリアヌス253 ウァレリアヌス253-260 ガッリエヌス253-268 サロニヌス（共同皇帝）260 クラウディウス・ゴティクス268-270 クィンティッルス270 アウレリアヌス270-275 タキトゥス275-276 フロリアヌス276 プロブス276-282 カルス282-283 カリヌス283-285 ヌメリアヌス（共同皇帝）283-284 ガリア帝国 ポストゥムス260-269 マルクス・アウレリウス・マリウス269 ウィクトリヌス269-271 テトリクス1世271-274 テトラルキア 東 ディオクレティアヌス284-305 ガレリウス293-311 マクシミヌス・ダイア305-313 リキニウス308-324 ウァレリウス・ウァレンス（英語版）（共同皇帝）316-317 リキニウス2世（英語版）（副帝）317-324 セクストゥス・マルティニアヌス（英語版）（共同皇帝）324 西 マクシミアヌス286-305 コンスタンティウス1世293-306 フラウィウス・ウァレリウス・セウェルス305-307 マクセンティウス306-312 ドミティウス・アレクサンドロス（英語版）（僭称）308-311 コンスタンティヌス朝 コンスタンティヌス1世306-337 クリスプス（副帝）317-326 コンスタンティヌス2世337-340 コンスタンティウス2世337-361 コンスタンティウス・ガッルス（副帝）351-354 コンスタンス1世337-350 ウェトラニオ（共同皇帝）350 マグネンティウス（僭称）350-353 デケンティウス（英語版）（僭称）350-353 ユリアヌス360-363 ヨウィアヌス363-364 ウァレンティニアヌス朝 ウァレンティニアヌス1世364-375 ウァレンス364-378 グラティアヌス367-383 ウァレンティニアヌス2世375-392 マグヌス・マクシムス383-388 フラウィウス・ウィクトル（英語版）383-387 エウゲニウス（僭称）392-394 テオドシウス朝 テオドシウス1世379-395 アルカディウスとホノリウスで領土分割、以後東ローマ帝国と西ローマ帝国に分裂が恒久化 一覧 カテゴリ 典拠管理 BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (データ) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MBA: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: 000136425 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VcBA: 495/54003 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80051702 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MARCVS ANNIVS VERVS AVRELIVS CAESAR AVGVSTI PII FILIVS) (დ. 26 აპრილი, 121 — გ. 17 მარტი, 180) — რომის იმპერატორი 161 წლიდან თავის გარდაცვალებამდე. სექციების სია 1 ბიოგრაფია 2 მემკვიდრეობა და რეპუტაცია 3 ლიტერატურა 4 სქოლიო ბიოგრაფია[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] მარკუს ავრელიუსი ისტორიაში დამკვიდრდა, როგორც დასავლური ცივილიზაციის განათლებული მონარქი და მოაზროვნე. იგი დაიბადა 121 წლის 26 აპრილს რომში, წარჩინებულთა მდიდარ ოჯახში, რომლის წარმომადგენლებიც აქტიურ მონაწილეობას იღებდნენ იმპერიის პოლიტიკურ ცხოვრებაში. იგი იყო შვილობილი იმპერატორ ანტონინუს პიუსისა (ანტონინუსთა დინასტიის ეპოქაში ასეთი ტრადიცია იყო დამკვიდრებული: რომის იმპერატორები ჩვეულებრივ, მემკვიდრეობით კი არ ცვლიდნენ ერთმანეთს, არამედ ყოველ მათგანს, როგორც შვილობილს, წინამორბედი ასახელებდა ტახტის მემკვიდრედ და სიცოცხლეშივე თანამმართველად ნიშნავდა). მისი პაპა, ანიუს ვერუსი, სენატორთა წრეს განეკუთვნებოდა და მუდამ ეკავა პრეტორისა თუ კონსულის (სამგზის) საპატიო თანამდებობები. სამი წლის იქნებოდა მარკუსი როდესაც მამა გარდაეცვალა და შემდგომ მისი აღზრდა პაპამ ითავა. მარკუსის დედა-დომიტია ლუკილა, ასევე წარჩინებულთა ოჯახიდან იყო მის პაპას, კატილიუს სევერუსს, რომის პრეფექტის, ხოლო მამას, კალვისიუს ტულიუსს, კონსულის(ორგზის) თანამდებობები ეკავათ. მარკუს ავრელიუსს ეკუთვნის ფილოსოფიური დღიური „ფიქრები“, რომელიც მისი სიკვდილის შემდეგ, საიმპერატორო კარავში იპოვეს. მემკვიდრეობა და რეპუტაცია[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ანტონინუს პიუსის (მარცხნივ), მარკუს ავრელიუსის (ცენტრში) და კლოდიუს ალბინუსის (მარჯვნივ) ბიუსტები, პუშკინის მუზეუმი, მოსკოვი მარკუს ავრელიუსის სახელს მის სიცოცხლეშივე დაუკავშირეს „მეფე-ფილოსოსფოსის“ ცნება. იმპერატორს ეს სახელი სიკვდილის შემდეგაც შემორჩა. კასიუს დიონ კოქცეიანუსი იმპერატორს მოიხსენიებს, როგორც ფილოსოფოსს.[1] ქრისტიანები, მათ შორის: წმინდა იუსტინე, ათენაგორასი და მელიტო იმპერატორს მსგავსად იხსენიებენ.[2] უკანასკნელი უფრო შორს წავიდა - იმპერატორს ანტონინუს პიუსსა და ადრიანეზე მეტად „ფილანტროპად და ფილოსოფოსად“ მიიჩნევს და უფრო დიდი კონტრასტულობის საჩვენებლად ნერონსა და —ომიციანეს ადარებს.[3] „იმპერატორთა შორის,—წერს ჰეროდიანე,—მან მოგვცა საკუთარი სწავლებისა ნათელი საბუთი, არა უბრალო სიტყვებით ან ფილოსოფიური დოქტრინების ცოდნით, არამედ თავისი უმანკო ბუნებითა და ცხოვრების ზომიერი წესით“.[4] ბრიტანელი მწერალი, ლეინ კინგი მარკუს ავრელიუსის მემკვიდრეობას მოიხსენიებს როგორც ტრაგიკულს, რადგანაც იმპერატორის „სტოიცისტური ფილოსოფია, რომელიც თავშეკავებულობას, მოვალეობის პირნათლად შესრულებასა და სხვებისადმი პატივისცემას ქადაგებს, ავრელიუსის გარდაცვალების შემდეგ საიმპერატორო ხაზმა საერთოდ უარყო“.[5] 1964 წლის ფილმში რომის იმპერიის დაცემა მარკუს ავრელიუსს ალეკ გინესი განასახიერებს. 2000 წლის ფილმში გლადიატორი კი, — რიჩარდ ჰარისი. 1964 წლის ფილმში მარკუს ავრელიუსს კომოდუსის დამქაშები წამლავენ, რათა იმპერატორმა თავის მემკვიდრედ გაიუს ლივიუსი არ გამოაცხადოს. 2000 წლის ფილმში კი მარკუსს ავრელიუსს თავისი ვაჟი, კომოდუსი კლავს. ლიტერატურა[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ვიკიციტატაში არის გვერდი თემაზე: მარკუს ავრელიუსი ვიკისაწყობში არის გვერდი თემაზე: მარკუს ავრელიუსი Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Barnes, Timothy D. "Hadrian and Lucius Verus." Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines." In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 online review Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed[მკვდარი ბმული]. London: Continuum, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4411-2561-3 Stertz, Stephen A. "Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought." The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–39. Syme, Ronald. "The Ummidii." Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. სქოლიო[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] ↑ HA Marcus 1.1, 27.7; Dio 71.1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ↑ Francis, 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ↑ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ↑ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci 1.2.4, tr. Echols. ↑ This is the conclusion of King's biography of Aurelius, Thinker at War, published August 2014, accessed November 2014. ხ • გ • რ დასავლეთისა და აღმოსავლეთ იმპერიების იმპერატორები პრინციპატი ძვ. წ. 27 – 235 ოქტავიანე ავგუსტუსი · ტიბერიუსი · კალიგულა · კლავდიუსი · ნერონი · გალბა · ოტონი · ვიტელიუსი · ვესპასიანე · ტიტუსი · დომიციანე · ნერვა · ტრაიანე · ადრიანე · ანტონინუს პიუსი · მარკუს ავრელიუსი ლუციუს ვერუსთან ერთად · კომოდუსი · პერტინაქსი · იულიანე · სეპტიმიუს სევერუსი · კარაკალა · გეტა · მაკრინუსი დიადუმენიანთან ერთად · ჰელიოგაბალუსი · ალექსანდრე სევერუსი კრიზისი 235–284 მაქსიმინუსი · გორდიანე I და გორდიანე II · პუპიენუსი და ბალბინუსი · გორდიანე III · ფილიპე არაბი · დეციუსი ჰერენიუს ეტრუსკუსთან ერთად · ჰოსტილიანუსი · ტრებონიანე ვოლუსიანუსთან ერთად · ემილიანუსი · ვალერიანე · გალიენუსი · კლავდიუს II · კვინტილუსი · ავრელიანე · ტაციტუსი · ფლორიანუსი · პრობუსი · კარუსი · კარინუსი · ნუმერიანე დომინატი 284–395 დიოკლეტიანე · მაქსიმიანუსი · კონსტანციუს I ქლორუსი · გალერიუსი · სევერუს II · მაქსენციუსი · მაქსიმინუს II · ლიცინიუსი მარტინიანუსსა და ვალერიუს ვალენსთან ერთად · კონსტანტინე I დიდი · კონსტანტინე II · კონსტანტი · კონსტანციუს II · იულიანე განდგომილი · იოვიანი · ვალენტინიანე I · ვალენტი · გრაციანეი · ვალენტინიანე II · თეოდოსიუს I დასავლეთის იმპერია 395–476 ჰონორიუსი · კონსტანტინე III · იოვინუსი · ვალენტინიანე III · პეტრონიუს მაქსიმე · ავიტუსი · მაიორიანი · ლიბიუს სევერუსი · ანთიმოზი · ოლიბრიუსი · გლიცერიუსი · იულიუს ნეპოტი · რომულუს ავგუსტულუსი ბიზანტიის იმპერია 395–1204 არკადიუსი · თეოდოსიუს II · მარკიანე · ლეონ I · ლეონ II · ზენონი · ბასილისკოსი · ანასტასიოს I · იუსტინე I · იუსტინიანე I · იუსტინე II · ტიბერიუს II კონსტანტინე · მავრიკიოსი · ფოკა · ჰერაკლე · კონსტანტინე III · ჰერაკლონასი · კონსტანტი II · კონსტანტინე IV · იუსტინიანე II · ლეონტიოსი · ტიბერიუს III · ფილიპიკოსი · ანასტასიოს II · თეოდოსიოს III · ლეონ III ისავრიელი · კონსტანტინე V · არტაბასდოსი · ლეონ IV · კონსტანტინე VI · ირინე ათენელი · ნიკიფორე I · სტაურაკიოსი · მიხეილ I · ლეონ V · მიხეილ II · თეოფილე · მიხეილ III · ბასილი I · ლეონ VI · ალექსანდრე · კონსტანტინე VII · რომანოზ I · რომანოზ II · ნიკიფორე II · იოანე I ციმისკე · ბასილი II ბულგართმმუსვრელი · კონსტანტინე VIII · ზოია · რომანოზ III · მიხეილ IV · მიხეილ V · კონსტანტინე IX · თეოდორა · მიხეილ VI · ისააკ I · კონსტანტინე X დუკა · მიხეილ VII · რომანოზ IV · ნიკიფორე III · ალექსი I · იოანე II · მანუელ I · ალექსი II · ანდრონიკე I · ისააკ II · ალექსი III · ალექსი IV · ალექსი V ნიკეის იმპერია 1204–1261 კონსტანტინე ლასკარისი · თეოდორე I · იოანე III დუკა ვატაცე · თეოდორე II · იოანე IV ბიზანტიის იმპერია 1261–1453 მიხეილ VIII პალეოლოგი · ანდრონიკე II · მიხეილ IX · ანდრონიკე III · იოანე V · იოანე VI · ანდრონიკე IV · იოანე VII · ანდრონიკე V · მანუელ II · იოანე VIII · კონსტანტინე XI მოძიებულია „https://ka.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=მარკუს_ავრელიუსი&oldid=4126331“-დან კატეგორია: ყველა სტატია მკვდარი გარე ბმულით ყველა სტატია მკვდარი გარე ბმულით - თებერვალი 2021 თარგები თარგში არასწორი პარამეტრით რომის იმპერატორები რომაელი ფილოსოფოსები დაბადებული 26 აპრილი დაბადებული 121 გარდაცვლილი 17 მარტი გარდაცვლილი 180 რომის გაღმერთებული იმპერატორები II საუკუნის რომის იმპერატორები დამალული კატეგორია: გვერდები, რომლებიც იყენებენ ISBN magic ბმულებს სანავიგაციო მენიუ პირადი ხელსაწყოები შესული არ ხართ განხილვა წვლილი ანგარიშის შექმნა შესვლა სახელთა სივრცე სტატია განხილვა ვარიანტები გადახედვა კითხვა რედაქტირება წყაროს რედაქტირება ისტორია მეტი ძიება ნავიგაცია მთავარი გვერდი თემატური ძიება რჩეული სტატიები შემთხვევითი გვერდი ახალი გვერდები მონაწილეობა ინფორმაცია დახმარება ფორუმი ბოლო ცვლილებები შემოწირულობები ხელსაწყოები ბმული გვერდზე დაკავშირებული ცვლილებები სპეციალური გვერდები მუდმივი ბმული გვერდის ინფორმაცია ამ გვერდის ციტირება ვიკიმონაცემები ელემენტი ბეჭდვა/ექსპორტი წიგნის შექმნა გადაწერა PDF ფორმატში დასაბეჭდი ვერსია სხვა პროექტებში ვიკისაწყობი ვიკიციტატა სხვა ენებზე Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 ბმულების რედაქტირება ეს გვერდი ბოლოს დარედაქტირდა: 14:52, 2 თებერვალი 2021. ტექსტი ვრცელდება Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ლიცენზიით; 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kg-wikipedia-org-2589	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Katuka Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) vwandaka ntinu ya Nsi ya Roma tuka 161 ti 180. Yandi butukaka na 26 ngonda ya iya 121 na Roma, mpe kufwaka na 17 ngonda ya tatu 180 na Vindobona. Me kuzwa katuka "https://kg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=41955" Mutîndu: Nsi ya Roma Navigation menu Personal tools Nge me kota ve Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Mukânda Disolo Variants Bantadilu Tânga Soba Edit source Tala bansoba More Sosa Navigation Mukânda ya ngudi Mbôngi Mâmbu ya yimpa Bansoba ya yimpa Mukânda na bweso Lusadisu Donate Bisadilu Mikânda ke sônga awa Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Bandînga ya nkaka Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Edit links Mukânda yayi me sobama na kilumbu 14 ngônda ya yivwa 2016 na ngûnga 14:35 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy Luzâbu ya Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
kk-wikipedia-org-1339	----	Марк Аврелий — Уикипедия Марк Аврелий Уикипедия — ашық энциклопедиясынан алынған мәлімет Jump to navigation Jump to search Марк Аврелий ( Marcus Aurelius, 121-180жж)- Pим императоры (161-180жж). Антонин Пийдің асырап алған баласы, заңдалақта және бюрократтық аппаратты тәртіпке келтіруге ұмтылды. 162-166 жылдары Шығыств парфиялықтардың біраз жерін жаулап алды. 166-180 жылдары Дунай маңындағы провинцияларға басып кірген германдықтар мен сарматтарға қарсы соғыс жүргізді. Толассыз соғыстар тмперияны әлсіретіп, халықты күйзелтті. Бұған наразылық ретінде 172 жылда Египетте халық көтерілісі шықты. Аврелий стоикалық бағыттағы философ болды, "Толғаныстар" кітабын жазды, дүниеге көз қарасында моралдық жағынан озін-өзі жетілдіруді жақтады, саяси құрылысты жетілдіру мүмкіндігіне сеңбеу бағытын ұстады. Дереккөздер[өңдеу] Бұл мақаланы Уикипедия сапа талаптарына лайықты болуы үшін уикилендіру қажет. Бұл мақалада еш сурет жоқ. Мақаланы жетілдіру үшін қажетті суретті енгізіп көмек беріңіз. Суретті қосқаннан кейін бұл үлгіні мақаладан аластаңыз. Суретті мыннан табуға болады: осы мақаланың тақырыбына байланысты сурет Ортақ қорда табылуы мүмкін; мақаланың өзге тіл уикилеріндегі нұсқаларын қарап көріңіз; өзіңіз жасаған суретті жүктеңіз (авторлық құқықпен қорғалған сурет қоспаңыз!). Бұл — мақаланың бастамасы. Бұл мақаланы толықтырып, дамыту арқылы, Уикипедияға көмектесе аласыз. Бұл ескертуді дәлдеп ауыстыру қажет. «https://kk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелий&oldid=2790872» бетінен алынған Санат: Климатология Жасырын санат: Уикилендіруі қажет мақалалар Еш медиа файлы жоқ мақалалар Аяқталмаған мақалалар Үлгісін дәлдеу қажет аяқталмаған мақалалар Бағыттау мәзірі Жеке құралдар Кірмегенсіз Талқылау Үлесім Тіркелу Кіру Есім кеңістіктері Мақала Талқылау kk kk kk-cyrl kk-latn kk-arab kk-kz kk-tr kk-cn Көрініс Оқу Өңдеу Өңделу тарихы Тағы Іздеу Шарлау Басты бет Қауым порталы Жуықтағы өзгерістер Ең жаңа беттер Кездейсоқ бет А — Я тізімдеуі Анықтама Форум Талқылау легі Қателер туралы хабарлау Демеу беру Құралдар Мұнда сілтейтін беттер Қатысты өзгерістер Арнайы беттер Тұрақты сілтеме Мәлімет Беттен дәйексөз алу Уикидерек данасы Баспа/экспорт PDF ретінде жүктеп алу Басып шығару Басқа жобаларда Ортаққор Басқа тілдерде Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Сілтемелерді өңдеу Бұл беттің соңғы өзгертілген кезі: 2020 ж. қыркүйектің 6, 17:51. Мәтін Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike лицензиясы аясында қолжетімді; қосымша шарттар қолданылуы мүмкін. Бұл сайтты қолдану арқылы Қолдану шарты және Құпиялық саясатымен келісесіз. Wikipedia® Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. коммерциялық емес ұйымының тіркелген сауда маркасы. Құпиялық саясаты Уикипедия туралы Жауапкершіліктен бас тарту Мобайлды көрініс Жасақтаушылар Statistics Cookie statement 
kopkatalogs-lv-8862	----	Autoritatīvā DB - Full View of Record Latvijas Nacionālās bibliotēkas autoritatīvā datubāze Reģistrēties | Beigt darbu | Lietotājs | Datubāzes | Komentāri | Palīdzība     Pārlūkošana | Meklēšana | Rezultātu saraksts | Iepriekšējie meklējumi | Mans e-plaukts | English         Pievienot e-Plauktam  |  Saglabāt/Sūtīt  |    Pilns ieraksts Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Sistēmas nr.   000027790 Entītes veids   Persona Persona   Marks Aurēlijs, Romas imperators, 121-180 Norāde   Marcus Aurelius, Romas imperators, 121-180   Marc Aurel, Romas imperators, 121-180   Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Romas imperators, 121-180   Markos Antōninos, Romas imperators, 121-180   Marcus Antoninus, Romas imperators, 121-180   Aurēlijs, Marks, Romas imperators, 121-180   Aurelius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180   Aurelius Antonius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180   Antoninus, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180   Make Aoleliu, Romas imperators, 121-180   Aoleliu, Make, Romas imperators, 121-180   马可·奥勒留, Romas imperators, 121-180   Марк Аврелий, Romas imperators, 121-180   Марк Аврелий Антонин, Romas imperators, 121-180   Аврелий, Марк, Romas imperators, 121-180   Аврелий, Марк Антонин, Romas imperators, 121-180 Saist. ieraksts   Marks Aurēlijs, 121-180 [VIAF] http://viaf.org/viaf/102895066    Marks Aurēlijs, 121-180 [ISNI] http://www.isni.org/000000011031946X    Marks Aurēlijs, 121-180 [Wikidata] https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1430    Marks Aurēlijs, 121-180 [Union List of Artist Names] http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500115701  Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Komentāri - Palīdzība - Pārlūkošana - Meklēšana - Rezultātu saraksts - Iepriekšējie meklējumi - Datubāzes © 2014 Ex Libris 
ko-wikipedia-org-4660	----	마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전 내용으로 건너뛰기 사이드바 토글 검색 개인 도구 로그인하지 않음 토론 기여 계정 만들기 로그인 둘러보기 메뉴 둘러보기 대문 최근 바뀜 요즘 화제 임의의 문서로 기부 사용자 모임 사랑방 사용자 모임 관리 요청 편집 안내 도움말 정책과 지침 질문방 도구 여기를 가리키는 문서 가리키는 글의 최근 바뀜 파일 올리기 특수 문서 목록 고유 링크 문서 정보 이 문서 인용하기 위키데이터 항목 인쇄/내보내기 책 만들기 PDF로 다운로드 인쇄용 판 다른 프로젝트 위키미디어 공용 위키인용집 다른 언어 Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 링크 편집 이름공간 문서 토론 변수 보기 읽기 편집 역사 보기 더 보기 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전. 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 이스탄불 고고학 박물관에 있는 흉상 지위 로마 제국의 16대 황제 재위 161년 3월 7일 – 180년 3월 17일 전임 안토니누스 피우스 후임 콤모두스 공동재위자 루키우스 베루스 (161-169) 콤모두스 (177-180) 신상정보 출생일 121년 4월 26일 출생지 로마 사망일 180년 3월 17일(180-03-17) (58세) 사망지 빈도보나 또는 시르미움 매장지 하드리아누스 영묘 가문 네르바-안토니누스 왕조 부친 친부 : 마르쿠스 안니우스 베루스 양부 : 안토니누스 피우스 모친 도미티아 루킬라 자녀 14명 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스(Marcus Aurelius)는 로마 제국의 제16대 황제(121년 4월 26일 - 180년 3월 17일)이다. ‘철인황제(哲人皇帝)’로 불리며, 5현제 중 한 사람이다. 중국의 역사서 《후한서》에 기술된 ‘대진국왕(大秦國王) 안돈(安敦)’이 바로 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스라고 한다. 그러나 그의 죽음을 끝으로 로마 제국의 전성기는 끝났으며, 군인 황제 시대가 도래하였다. 목차 1 생애 1.1 유년시절 1.2 차기황제의 길 1.3 치세 1.4 죽음 1.5 저서 2 읽어보기 3 외부 링크 생애[편집] 유년시절[편집] 121년 4월 26일, 로마에서 마르쿠스 안니우스 베루스와 도미티아 루킬라의 아들로 태어났으며, 3살 때 아버지가 죽자 3번 집정관을 연임한 할아버지 마르쿠스 안토니우스 베루스에게 입양되었다. 어린 시절부터 자질이 특출하였던 그는 하드리아누스의 눈에 띄었다. 차기황제의 길[편집] 136년 하드리아누스는 자신의 후계자로 당시 30세 안팎이었던 루키우스 케이오니쿠스 콤모두스를 지명하였는데, 같은 해 마르쿠스는 루키우스 케이오니쿠스 콤모두스의 딸 케이오니나와 약혼함으로써 일약 로마 정계 전면에 부상하였다. 그러나 138년 1월 1일 케이오니쿠스 콤모두스가 급사하자, 하드리아누스는 마르쿠스의 고모부인 티투스 안토니누스를 양아들로 맞아들여 새로운 후계자로 삼았는데, 나중에 그는 제위에 올라 안토니누스 피우스라 불린다. 안토니누스 피우스는 하드리아누스의 명령에 따라 마르쿠스를 자신의 양아들로 입적하였다. 이 때 마르쿠스의 이름은 마르쿠스 아일리우스 베루스 카이사르로 바뀌었다. 안토니누스 피우스는 나중에 케이오니나와 마르쿠스의 약혼을 파기시키고 자신의 딸 파우스티나와 결혼시켰다. 치세[편집] 161년 안토니누스 피우스가 죽은 후, 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스는 케이오니쿠스 콤모두스의 아들 루키우스 베루스와 함께 공동 황제의 자리에 오른다. 재위 첫해부터 본국 이탈리아와 그 주변에 걸쳐 기근과 홍수가 일어났다. 같은 해 파르티아가 제국 동방에 침입하여 반격에 나섰던 1개 군단이 궤멸당하고 카파도키아의 세다티우스 세베리아누스총독은 패전의 책임을 지고 자결하였으며, 대아르메니아 왕국이 파르티아의 영향권에 들어가는 사태가 일어난다. 이에 카파도키아 총독에 스타티우스 프리스쿠스를 임명하고 공동 황제 루키우스 베루스를 동방으로 보내어 파르티아 전쟁을 수행하게 했다. 그러나 전쟁에 관심이 없었던 루키우스 베루스를 대신하여 직접 전쟁을 수행한 사람은 아비디우스 카시우스였다. 그는 163년 동방의 남은 군단들을 이끌고 파르티아군을 격파한 뒤 대아르메니아 왕국의 수도 아르타크사타를 탈환했으며 165년에는 유프라테스 강 건너편까지 진격하고 166년 티그리스 강을 건너 파르티아의 심장부로 깊숙히 쳐들어가 철저히 격파했다. 한편 168년부터 게르마니아 전쟁이 발발해 이 과정에서 169년 공동 황제 루키우스가 죽었고 170년 봄부터 클라우디우스 프론토가 이끄는 로마군은 다키아 속주에서부터 북상해 대규모 공세를 감행해 게르만족들을 패주시켰으나 이 과정에서 사령관 프론토가 전사하고 2만 명이 포로로 끌려갔다. 설상가상으로 270년 만에 북부 방위선이 뚫리면서 게르만족이 이탈리아 북부까지 쳐들어왔으며, 이에 대응하여 황제는 4개 군단을 신규로 창설했다. 뿐만 아니라 171년 북아프리카 속주에서는 마우리타니아인들이 반란을 일으켜 히스파니아까지 쳐들어와 눌러앉는 사태가 발생하였고, 마르쿠스는 베테랑 장군 아우피디우스 빅토리우스를 파견해 이를 진압했다. 172년부터 본격적인 제1차 게르마니아 전쟁이 시작되어 빈과 베오그라드에서 동시에 공세를 감행했으나 도나우 강 건너편에서 근위대가 패배하고 근위대장 빈덱스가 전사하는 등 성과가 좋지 않았다. 그러자 173년부터는 각개격파작전으로 선회하여 전쟁을 우세하게 이끌었고 174년 강화가 성립되었다. 175년에는 시리아 총독 아비디우스 카시우스가 마르쿠스가 죽었다는 오보를 접하고는 황제를 자칭하며 반란을 일으켰다가, 소문이 사실이 아니라는 것을 알고 불안에 빠진 부하들에 의해 암살당했다. 177년그때까지의 5현제의 관습을 타파하고 친아들인 콤모두스를 자신의 후계자로 결정하여 5현제 시대는 끝나게 된다 죽음[편집] 178년에 시작된 제2차 게르마니아 전쟁에서 로마군은 집정관 율리우스 베루스가 전사함에도 불구하고 보헤미아(현재의 체코)에서 대공세를 펼친 결과 마르코마니족, 콰디족, 야지게스족을 압도하며 전황을 우세하게 이끌었다. 그러나 180년 3월 17일 황제 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스는 도나우 강변의 군사기지였던 빈도보나(현재의 빈)에서 재개될 전쟁을 준비하던 도중 지병이 악화되며 병사하였다. 그의 시신은 테베레 강변의 하드리아누스 영묘에 안치되었으며, 원로원은 그를 신격화하였다. 저서[편집] 한편, 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스는 자신의 사색과 철학에 관한 내용을 토대로 쓴 《명상록》이라 불리는 에세이를 남겼다. 그는 정신적 스승이었던 에픽테토스, 세네카와 함께 스토아 학파를 대표하는 철학자이며, 금욕과 절제를 주장하였으며 수많은 명언을 남길 정도로 공부를 많이 하였다. 전쟁터에서 틈틈이 쓴 그의 명상록 12편은 로마 스토아 철학의 대표적인 책으로 일컬어지고 있다. 그는 언제나 인정이 많고 자비로워 백성을 널리 사랑하였다. 그의 유명한 저서인 《명상록》에는 철학인으로서의 그의 사상이 잘 나타나 있다. 읽어보기[편집] 로마 황제 연대표 외부 링크[편집] 위키미디어 공용에 관련된 미디어 자료가 있습니다. 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 위키인용집에 이 문서와 관련된 문서가 있습니다. 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 Online Greek Text of the Meditations English Translation by George Long (1862) Latin Version by J. M. Schulz (1802) Biography resources dedicated to Marcus Aurelius 전임 안토니누스 피우스 제16대 로마 제국 황제 (공동 루키우스 베루스) 161년 - 180년 후임 콤모두스 v t e 로마 황제 원수정 27 BC – 235 AD 아우구스투스 티베리우스 칼리굴라 클라우디우스 네로 갈바 오토 비텔리우스 베스파시아누스 티투스 도미티아누스 네르바 트라야누스 하드리아누스 안토니누스 피우스 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 & 루키우스 베루스 콤모두스 페르티낙스 디디우스 율리아누스 셉티미우스 세베루스 카라칼라 & 게타 마크리누스 엘라가발루스 세베루스 알렉산데르 군인 황제 235–284 막시미누스 트락스 고르디아누스 1세 & 고르디아누스 2세 푸피에누스 & 발비누스 고르디아누스 3세 필리푸스 아라부스 데키우스 & 헤렌니우스 에트루스쿠스 호스틸리아누스 트레보니아누스 갈루스 & 볼루시아누스 아이밀리아누스 발레리아누스 갈리에누스 클라우디우스 고티쿠스 퀸틸루스 아우렐리아누스 타키투스 플로리아누스 프로부스 카루스 카리누스 누메리아누스 전제정 284–395 디오클레티아누스 & 막시미아누스 & 콘스탄티우스 클로루스 & 갈레리우스 & 세베루스 & 막시미누스 2세 막센티우스 루키니우스 1세 & 발레리우스 발렌스 & 마르티아누스 & 루키니우스 2세 콘스탄티누스 1세 (대제) 콘스탄티누스 2세 콘스탄스 콘스탄티우스 2세 & 베트라니오 율리아누스 요비아누스 발렌티니아누스 1세 발렌스 그라티아누스 발렌티니아누스 2세 마그누스 막시무스 & 플라비우스 빅토르 테오도시우스 1세 (대제) 서로마 황제 395–480 호노리우스 & 콘스탄티누스 3세 콘스탄티우스 3세 발렌티니아누스 3세 페트로니우스 막시무스 아비투스 마요리아누스 리비우스 세베루스 안테미우스 올리브리우스 글리케리우스 율리우스 네포스 로물루스 아우구스투스 동로마 황제 395–1204 아르카디우스 테오도시우스 2세 마르키아누스 레오 1세 레오 2세 제논 바실리스쿠스 아나스타시우스 1세 유스티누스 1세 유스티니아누스 1세 유스티누스 2세 티베리우스 2세 콘스탄티누스 마우리키우스 포카스 이라클리오스 콘스탄티노스 3세 이라클로나스 콘스탄스 2세 콘스탄티노스 4세 유스티니아노스 2세 레온티오스 티베리오스 3세 필리피코스 아나스타시오스 2세 테오도시오스 3세 레온 3세 이사우로스 콘스탄티노스 5세 아르타바스도스 레온 4세 콘스탄티노스 6세 이리니 니키포로스 1세 스타우라키오스 미하일 1세 레온 5세 미하일 2세 테오필로스 미하일 3세 바실리오스 1세 레온 6세 알렉산드로스 콘스탄티노스 7세 로마노스 1세 로마노스 2세 니키포로스 2세 요안니스 1세 바실리오스 2세 콘스탄티노스 8세 조이 로마노스 3세 미하일 4세 미하일 5세 콘스탄티노스 9세 테오도라 미하일 6세 이사키오스 1세 콘스탄티노스 10세 로마노스 4세 미하일 7세 니키포로스 3세 알렉시오스 1세 요안니스 2세 마누일 1세 알렉시오스 2세 안드로니코스 1세 이사키오스 2세 알렉시오스 3세 알렉시오스 4세 알렉시오스 5세 니케아 황제 1204–1261 콘스탄티노스 라스카리스 테오도로스 1세 요안니스 3세 테오도로스 2세 요안니스 4세 동로마 황제 1261–1453 미하일 8세 안드로니코스 2세 & 미하일 9세 안드로니코스 3세 요안니스 5세 요안니스 6세 & 요안니스 5세 & 마쎄오스 안드로니코스 4세 요안니스 7세 & 안드로니코스 5세 마누일 2세 요안니스 8세 콘스탄티노스 11세 전거 통제 BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MBA: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: [1] NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X PLWABN: 9810673347405606 RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VcBA: 495/54003 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80051702 원본 주소 "https://ko.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=마르쿠스_아우렐리우스&oldid=29075728" 분류: 121년 태어남 180년 죽음 2세기 로마 황제 로마 제국의 집정관 고대 로마의 철학자 스토아 철학자 2세기 철학자 로마 출신 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 숨은 분류: 라틴어 표기를 포함한 문서 BIBSYS 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNE 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 CANTIC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 CINII 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 GND 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ISNI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LCCN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LNB 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 MusicBrainz 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NDL 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NKC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLG 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLK 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLP 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLR 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NSK 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NTA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 PLWABN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 RERO 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SELIBR 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SNAC-ID 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SUDOC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 Trove 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ULAN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VcBA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VIAF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 WORLDCATID 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 30개의 요소가 포함된 전거 통제 이 문서는 2021년 4월 2일 (금) 11:35에 마지막으로 편집되었습니다. 모든 문서는 크리에이티브 커먼즈 저작자표시-동일조건변경허락 3.0에 따라 사용할 수 있으며, 추가적인 조건이 적용될 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 이용 약관을 참고하십시오. 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la-wikipedia-org-7877	----	Marcus Aurelius - Vicipaedia Marcus Aurelius E Vicipaedia Jump to navigation Jump to search -3 (maxdubium) Latinitas huius rei maxime dubia est. Corrige si potes. Vide {{latinitas}}. Marcus Aurelius Res apud Vicidata repertae: Nativitas: 26 Aprilis 121; Roma Obitus: 17 Martii 180; Vindobona Patria: Roma antiqua Nomen nativum: Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Officium Officium: Imperator Romanus, Senator Romanus, consul, Quaestor Munus: politicus, philosophus, scriptor Consociatio Religio: Religio Romana Familia Genitores: Marcus Annius Verus; Domitia Calvilla Coniunx: Annia Galeria Faustina Minor Proles: Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, Domitia Faustina Familia: Nerva–Antonine dynasty Memoria Sepultura: Castellum Sancti Angeli Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26 Aprilis 121—17 Martii 180) fuit philosophus Stoicus et imperator Romanus ab anno 161 usque ad mortem suam anno 180. Index 1 Vita 2 Frontonis Disciplinae 3 Matrimonium 4 Mors 5 Opera 6 Iudicia de eo facta 7 Opera 8 Fontes de vita et principatu Marci Aurelii 9 Notae 10 Bibliographia 11 Nexus interni Vita[recensere | fontem recensere] Statua Marci Aurelii, Musea Capitolina, Romae Marcus Aurelius vicesimo sexto die Aprilis in anno CXXI natus est. Pater Annius Verus praetor Romanus erat, et mater Domita Lucilla erat Soror ei etiam nomine Annia Cornifica habuit[1]. Pater Marci, cum is valde iuvenis erat, mortuus est, sed Marcus in Meditationibus breviter locutus est Pudorem et virtutem laudat, et necessarius in sua vita usus est. Marcus in villam Collem Caelium. dum crevit, Marcus a magistris multis doctus est postulantibus avoris, Annio Vero et Lucio Catilio Servero[2]. Fabula accepta de Marco cum iuvenes erat. Tam occupatus cum philosphiam erat ut in tabulatum mater inveniret. Mater festinato surgere iussit et ad lectum ire[1].  Anno CXXXVIII post mortem successoris Hadriani, Lucii Aelii Caesaris, Antoninus successor novus Hadriani optatus est. Ita, Antoninus Marcum voto Hadriani cum fīlio Lucii Aelii, nomine Lucius Verus, adscivit[1]. Apud Historiam Augustam, Marcus a Hadriano amatus est, qui honores multos dedit. Hadrianus Marcum aptissimum successorem sibi vidit. Item, anno CXXXVIII Marcus quaestor Antonino ascriptus est etsi praetextus erat. Post mortem Hadriani, Antoninus imperatorem ascriptus est. Marcus consulem ascriptus est et iterum honores multi dati sunt[1]. Post annos multos, Marcus Faustinam Minorem duxit uxorem, quae sobrina erat. Liberos tredecim peperunt et multi iuvenes mortui sunt. Antequam Marcus imperator factus sit, affinitates cum magistris multis constituit. Fronto notissimus erat. Dum Marco tres magistri linguae Graecae, unus magister linguae Latinae fuerunt. Magister Marcus Cornelius Fronto vir notus ipse erat. Arts rhetorica tanta erat ut Ciceroni componeretur. Saepe Fronto affinitatem amicam cum Marco et familia eius habuit. Postea cum consilium Marci studendum philosophiam Stoicam ei displicuit est. Nonnulli rogaverunt quo modo Stoicam doctrinam in regia et civilitate toleraret[2]. Multum scientiae de Marco ex litteris cum Frontone est. CLXI Antoninus mortuus est et imperium Marco reliquit. Marco ipso imperium non placuit, sed officium respexit, cum plus potestatem Marco erat quam Lucio[1]. In Principio Marcus consuetudines Antonini non movit. Autem postmodo officia mutavit[2]. Saepe notos senatores citavit, et illi fideles erant. Simul, beneficia de recognitis ante publicum iudicum dedit. Lucius nam delicato more et stupro aleae saepe patiebatur[1] Fabula magna regnorum de indulgentia est. Civis eos illusit et irritavit, sed non punitus est[1].Denique, Marcus omnibus liberis nomina dedit et systema monumenti publici. Ex CLX ad anno CLXVII, Marcus et Lucius bellum cum Parthis gesserunt. Cum non ipsi in bello pugnaverint, uterque imperator addititia nominibus suis “Armeniacus” et “Parthicus” accepit. In bello cum Parthis, duo imperatores cum nomadibus pugnaverunt. Marcus valde commovit, et ritum religiosum confecit. Bellum longum erat et Marcus non redīre Romam voluit. Cum Verus mortuus est, a Marco consecratus est et flamini datus est. Autem, nonulli dixerunt Marcum Verum interfecisse. Adlegationis numquam sustinuerunt, et nonulli non drediderunt[1]. Apsimilis bellum cum Parthia, ambo imperatores a bello abierunt. Marcus naturaliter mortuus est quinquagesimo nono anno aetatis die Martii CLXXX. Cinis secus tumulum Hadriani, Antonini, et familiae posita est[2]. Quod ultimus de “quinque bonis imperatoribus,” tanti ut difficilis secutu esset. Mox filius Commodus imperator factus est, et cives quomodo operaretur. Adlegationis adulterium Faustinae et cur Commodum malum erat aperuit  Inter regno in multum gladiatorium ludum pugnavit et pauci adjuncti cum patre communicavit[1]. Successio cum frustratio et tristia visus est, et brevissimum imperium erat. Anno CXCII interfectus est.[2]   Frontonis Disciplinae[recensere | fontem recensere] Quid nunc sciatur de necessitudine Marci cum Frontone cognoscitum est, parte magna, per seriem prolixam epistularum inter se scriptarum, quarum antiquissimae post annum centesimum et undequadragesimum fortasse scriptae sunt, in quo anno Marcus, priore anno ab Hadriano adoptus discipulusque Frontonis factus, imperator factus est.[3] Num igitur hoc verum sit, pro certo non scitur. Sculptura Marci Aurelii, Musea Capitolina, Romae In epistulis multis post finem disciplinarum Frontonis scriptis, Fronto Marci eloquentiam supra omnes alias virtutes laudat: "Nam quam omnes virtutes [tuas] diligam et amplectar, fateor tamen praecipuum me et proprium gaudium ex eloquentia [tua] capere."[4] Fronto quidem credidit hanc eloquentiam Marci partim natura, partim a se tributam esse. Nam in quadam epistula Marco "Crede," inquit, "autem hoc mihi, omnium, quos ego cognoverim, uberiore quam tu sis ingenio adfectum comperisse me neminem," sed in eadem epistula etiam dicit se in orationibus Marci vestigia disciplinarum suarum invenire posse[4]. In scholis primis Frontonis, Marcus in arte rhetorica instructus est; Fronto enim eloquentiam dicendi scribendique maximi momenti quidem esse credidit. Itaque Marcus suum animum ad doctrinam Frontonis vertit et per gradus modi severi eius docendi ductus est, quorum primus operibus poetarum antiquorum oratorumque studere fuit. Postea se ad studium historiae et Latine Graeceque reddendi et versuum scribendorum vertit. Deinde ad finem disciplinae, controversis studuit, in qua utrasque partes quaestionis et verae et falsae excussit. Fronto has exercitationes necessarias esse credidit ut Marcus in arte persuasionis se honestissime gereret.[5] Postea tamen anno vicesimo quarto vitae, Marcus constituit se arti rhetoricae non iam studere velle; nam quaestionis utrasque partes non iam disputare voluit, quod artis studio rhetoricae iussum est[5]. Pro arte rhetorica, animum ad studium philosophiae Stoicae vertere constituit, de qua ad finem vitae duodecim libros, nomine Meditationes, scripsit. Apud epistulas complures, haec sententia Marci Frontoni displicet. In quadam epistula, Fronto Marcum de periculis disciplinarum philosophiae leviter studendarum monet: “Philosophiae quoque disciplinas aiunt satius esse numquam adtigisse quam leviter et primoribus, ut dicitur, labiis delibasse”[4]. In eadem epistula eum de periculis verborum inelegantium monet. Apud hanc epistulam, Fronto quidem credidit inscitiam hominum, qui in arte dicendi scribendique non satis docti sunt, facilius deprendi acerbiusque iudicari quam inscitiam hominum, qui in ceteris artibus non satis docti sunt; propter quod, apud Frontonem, aliquis, qui in dicendo scribendoque inelegans est, a certis iudicabitur "verborum ignaru[s] esse, eaque male probare et temere existimare et inscie contrectare, neque modum neque pondus verbi internosse."[4] Cum a ceteris hoc modo iudicetur, in persuasione ceterorum potens minor sit quam aliquis qui in verbis exstruendis peritior est; atque propter quod Marco eloquentia praecipue necessaria est. Quisnam enim in senatu inter homines doctos sententiam suam facile arguere possit nisi etiam in cottidianis rebus inter homines vulgares ita facere potest? Ut igitur Marcus imperator optimus sit, apud Frontonem, in quoque dicendo scribendoque eloquens esse debet. Cum Marcus arti rhetoricae studere non continuaret, ut Fronto monuerat, Fronto tamen in multis locis eum ob eloquentiam laudat. Ipse etiam in quadam epistulam Marcum valde vitam eloquentem egisse concedit, cum philosophiae studere constituisset. Matrimonium[recensere | fontem recensere] Faustina minor Anno 145 Aurelius in matrimonium Faustinam minorem duxit, quae tredecim liberos ei peperit, quorum Commodus et Lucilla, uxor Lucii Veri futura, clarissimi erant. Mors[recensere | fontem recensere] Marcus Aurelius die 17 Martii 180[6] aut Vindobonae aut Sirmii[7] mortuus est in expeditione contra Marcomannos. Corpus eius Romae in campo Martio combustum est. Ustrinum imperatoris nonnullorumque eius propinquorum, temporibus antiquis monumentum redditum, nostra aetate tectum est aedibus "Palazzzo Montecitorio" dictis, quae ab anno 1871 sedes sunt camerae deputatorum.[8] Cineres in Mausoleo Hadriani positi sunt. Anno 177, successionem filii sui Commodi parare potuerat, sed Commodus imperator malus fuisse habetur; quo regnante, occasus imperii coepisse dicitur. Propter haec, Aurelius ultimus ex quinque imperatoribus qui dicuntur "boni" habetur. Opera[recensere | fontem recensere] Marcus Aurelius (Louvre, Paris) Marcus Aurelius, qui a puero tanto veri amore flagravit, ut ab imperatore Hadriano Verissimus appellaretur, nomen philosophi Stoici habet. Septendecim enim annos natus quaestor et duobus annis post consul factus, quamquam propter officia sua litteris, arti dicendi, philosophiae tantam operam dare non potuit, tamen philosophia nihil maius esse iudicavit neque inter sectas eius ullam Stoicis graviorem. Princeps autem, cum populum Romanum gubernaret et procul a Roma saepe bella gereret, ex libris magnorum philosophorum excerpta quaedam collegit, quorum libri duodecim, qui Ad se ipsum vel Meditationes inscribuntur, lingua Graeca conscripti extant (qui quidem Graece Σκέψεις inscripti sunt). Meditationum libro primo de propinquis atque magistris narravit, quorum exempla sequeretur, in ceteris autem, quid sentiret et iudicaret ipse, nisi eis, quae collegit, excerptis non exposuit. Iudicia de eo facta[recensere | fontem recensere] Posteri autem de imperatore illo (quo quis sapientiam umquam magis amavit?) nullo modo consentiunt. Sunt enim, qui eum principem summis virtutibus praeditum fuisse existiment, ut etiam nobilissimus hominum appellatus sit, alii autem virium parum in eo fuisse admonent, omnes denique reprehendunt, quod Commodum filium suum imperii haeredem fecerit, cuius tamen maxima vitia non ignoraret. Opera[recensere | fontem recensere] Meditationes (Graece; versio Latina anno 1702 ab I.M. Schulz scripta) Frontonis, Marci Aurelii, aliorum epistulae (Latine) Fontes de vita et principatu Marci Aurelii[recensere | fontem recensere] Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 16 Cassius Dio, Historia Romana libri 71-72 (pars huius operis deperdita quidem sed a monacho Byzantino Xiphilino abbreviata) Epitome de Caesaribus 16 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica libri 4-5 Eutropius, Breviarium 8.9-14 Herodianus, Ab excessu Divi Marci 1.1-3 Historia Augusta, "Vita Marci Antonini philosophi" Iulio Capitolino tributa Notae[recensere | fontem recensere] ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Magie, David. Historia Augusta. Harvard University Press, 1921. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Wikipedia Contributors. Marcus Aurelius. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 24 Apr. 2018. < https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius> ↑ Henderson, Jeffrey. Introduction. Correspondence. By Fronto. Ed. Henderson. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1919. xx-xxi. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Fronto. Correspondence. 2 vols. Ed. Jeffrey Henderson. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1919. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Henderson, Jeffrey. Foreword. Fronto, the Orator and the Man. Correspondence. By Fronto. Ed. Henderson. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1919. xxxiv-xxxv. ↑ "Die sexto decimo kalendarum Aprilium": Tertullianus, Apologeticus 25.5; "τῇ ἑπτακαιδεκάτῃ τοῦ Μαρτίου": Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 72.33. ↑ "Vendobonae": Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 16.14. "Apud Bendobonam": Epitome de Caesaribus 16.12. "Apud Sirmium": Tertullianus, Apologeticus 25.5. "Ἐν Παίοσι" (apud Paeones): Herodianus, Ab excessu Divi Marci 1.3.1 ↑ Romolo A. Staccioli, Guida di Roma antica. Milano 1994. P .343 et 344. Bibliographia[recensere | fontem recensere] A. R. Birley, Marcus Aurelius: a biography. 2a ed. Londinii: Batsford, 1987. ISBN 0-7134-5428-8 (Anglice) A. S. L. Farquharson, ed., The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus. 2 voll. Oxonii 1944 (Graece, Anglice) Jörg Fündling, Marc Aurel. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2008 (Theodisce) J. F. Gilliam, "The Plague under Marcus Aurelius" in American Journal of Philology vol. 82 (1961) pp. 225-251. Pierre Grimal, Marc Aurèle. Lutetiae 1991 (Francogallice) Richard Klein, ed., Marc Aurel. Darmstadt, 1979. ISBN 3-534-07802-0 (Theodisce) Cornelius Motschmann, Die Religionspolitik Marc Aurels. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2002 (Hermes-Einzelschriften, 88). ISBN 3-515-08166-6 (Theodisce) Klaus Rosen, Marc Aurel. Reinbek: Rowohlt, 2004. 3a ed. ISBN 3-499-50539-8 (Theodisce) Nexus interni Pestis Antonina 7447 Marcusaurelius Imperatores Romani Augustus · Tiberius · Caligula · Claudius · Nero · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasianus · Titus · Domitianus · Nerva · Traianus · Hadrianus · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius · Lucius Verus · Avidius Cassius (usurpator) · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Iulianus · Pescennius Niger (usurpator) · Clodius Albinus (usurpator) · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus · Diadumenianus · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus · Maximinus Thrax · Gordianus I · Gordianus II · Pupienus · Balbinus · Gordianus III · Philippus Arabs · Philippus II · Decius · Herennius Etruscus · Hostilianus · Trebonianus Gallus · Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerianus · Gallienus · Saloninus · Postumus (usurpator) · Laelianus (usurpator) · Marius (usurpator) · Victorinus (ursurpator) · Tetricus I (usurpator) · Tetricus II (usurpator) · Claudius Gothicus · Quintillus · Aurelianus · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerianus · Diocletianus · Maximianus · Carausius (usurpator) · Allectus (usurpator) · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Constantinus I · Licinius · Flavius Valerius Severus · Maximinus · Maxentius · Domitius Alexander (usurpator) · Constantius II · Constantinus II · Constans · Magnentius (usurpator) · Iulianus · Iovianus · Valentinianus I · Valens · Procopius (usurpator) · Gratianus · Valentinianus II · Magnus Maximus (usurpator) · Theodosius I · Eugenius (usurpator) · Honorius · Arcadius · Constantius III · Priscus Attalus (usurpator) · Constantinus III (usurpator) · Iovinus (usurpator) · Valentinianus III · Ioannes (usurpator) · Petronius Maximus · Marcianus · Avitus · Leo I · Maiorianus · Libius Severus · Anthemius · Olybrius · Leo II · Glycerius · Zeno · Iulius Nepos · Romulus AugustusImperium Romanum • Index Imperatorum Romanorum Capsae cognatae: Imperatores Constantinopolitani Antecessores: Imp. Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius II et Gaius Bruttius Praesens Lucius Fulvius Rusticus II Consul 140 cum Imp. Caesare Tito Aelio Hadriano Antonino Augustuo Pio III Successores: Titus Hoenius Severus et Marcus Peducaeus Stloga Priscinus Antecessores: Lucius Hedius Rufus Lollianus Avitus et Titus Statilius Maximus Consul 145 cum Imp. Caesare Tito Aelio Hadriano Antonino Augusto Pio IV Successores: Sextus Erucius Clarus II et Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus Antecessores: Appius Annius Atilius Bradua et Titus Clodius Vibius Varus Consul 161 cum Lucio Aelio Aurelio Commodo II Successores: Quintus Iunius Rusticus II et Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus Receptum de "https://la.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=3614407" Categoriae: Viri Consules Nati 121 Mortui 180 Gens Aurelia Imperatores Romani Philosophi Italiae Romanae Philosophi Stoici Categoriae celatae: Latinitas -3 (maxdubium) L -3 Paginae cum sectione nexuum internorum Myrias Homines Pages using ISBN magic links Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Res Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Fontem recensere Historiam inspicere Plus Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima Novissima Pagina fortuita Categoriae Nuper mutata Communitas Invitatio Taberna Auxilium Donationes Instrumenta Nexus ad paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Fasciculum imponere Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Res Wikidata Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Inceptis aliis Vicimedia Communia Linguis aliis Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Nexus recensere Novissima mutatio die 7 Aprilis 2021 hora 10:26 facta. 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lfn-wikipedia-org-4061	----	Marco Aurelio - Vicipedia Marco Aurelio De Vicipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marco Aurelio Imperor de la Impero Roman Periodo de governa: 8 marto 161 – 17 marto 180 Presedor: Antonio Pio Seguor: Comodo {{{Titulo political2}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa2}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor2}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor2}}} {{{Titulo political3}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa3}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor3}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor3}}} {{{Titulo political4}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa4}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor4}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor4}}} {{{Politikala_titulo5}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa5}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor5}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor5}}} {{{Politikala_titulo6}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa6}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor6}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor6}}} {{{Politikala_titulo7}}} Periodo de governa: {{{Periodo de governa7}}} Presedor: {{{Presedor7}}} Seguor: {{{Seguor7}}} Informa personal Data de nase: 26 april 121 Loca de nase: Roma Data de mori: 17 marto 180 Loca de mori: Vindobona o Sirmium Spos: Faustina la Joven Profesa: Partito political: Marco Aurelio ia es imperor roman de 161 a 180, renante junta a sua frate adotada, Lucio Vero, asta sua mori en 169 e, a pos, con sua fio, Comodo, de 177 asta la mori de Aurelio. El ia es la ultima de la nomida Sinco Imperores Bon Retraeda de "https://lfn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=23551" Categorias: Biografia Imperores roman Menu de naviga Utiles personal No autenticida Discute Contribuis Crea un conta Autentici Spasios de nom Paje Discute Varias Aspetas Leje Edita Edita la fonte Mostra istoria More Xerca Naviga Paje xef Porton de comunia Avenis corente Cambias resente Paje acaso Aida Fa un dona Utiles Lias a esta paje Cambias relatada Carga fix Pajes spesial Lia permanente Informa de paje Refere a esta paje Dato de Vicidatos Primi/esporta Crea un libro Descarga como PDF Varia primable En otra projetas Wikimedia Commons En otra linguas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Edita lias La edita la plu resente de esta paje ia es a 16 setembre 2018, a 07:47 Testo es disponeda su la Lisensa Attribution-ShareAlike de Creative Commons; plu restrinjes pote pertine. Vide Contrata de usa per detalias. Promete de privatia Sur Vicipedia Renunsias Aspeta per telefoneta Developores Statistics Declara de cuci 
librivox-org-7353	----	LibriVox LibriVox Acoustical liberation of books in the public domain Menu Skip to content About Contact Forum Help Twitter rss Search LibriVox Advanced search Browse the catalog Author Title Genre/Subject Language Project type all solo group Donate to LibriVox Thank a reader LibriVox recordings are Public Domain in the USA. If you are not in the USA, please verify the copyright status of these works in your own country before downloading, otherwise you may be violating copyright laws. Marcus Aurelius (121 - 180) Marcus Aurelius (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; April 26, 121 CE – March 17, 180 CE), was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. External Links Wiki - Marcus Aurelius Total matches: 4 Order by Alphabetically Release date 
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lt-wikipedia-org-8625	----	Markas Aurelijus – Vikipedija Markas Aurelijus Straipsnis iš Vikipedijos, laisvosios enciklopedijos. Jump to navigation Jump to search    Šiam straipsniui ar jo daliai trūksta išnašų į šaltinius. Jūs galite padėti Vikipedijai pridėdami tinkamas išnašas su šaltiniais. Markas Aurelijus Markas Aurelijus (Metropoliteno meno muziejus, Niujorkas) Antoninų dinastija Gimė 121 m. balandžio 26 d. Romoje Mirė 180 m. kovo 17 d. (58 metai) Vindibonoje, dab. Viena Tėvas Marcus Annius Verus Motina Domitia Lucilla Vaikai Komodas Romos imperatorius Valdė 161 m. - 180 m. (~19 metų) Pirmtakas Antoninas Pijus Įpėdinis Komodas Vikiteka Markas AurelijusVikiteka Markas Aurelijus Antoninas (Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 121 m. balandžio 26 d. Romoje – 180 m. kovo 17 d. Vindibonoje, dab. Viena) – Romos imperatorius 161–180 m., karvedys, filosofas stoikas. Jaunystė[redaguoti | redaguoti vikitekstą] Šeima Tikrasis vardas – Markas Anijus Katilijus Severas, po vedybų pasivadino Marku Anijumi Veru. Tapęs imperatoriumi, pasivadino Marku Aurelijumi Antoninu. Jis buvo vienintelis Marko Anijaus Vero ir Domicijos Liucilos sūnus. Jo vienintelė artima giminaitė buvo dvejais metais jaunesnė sesuo Anija Kornificija Faustina. Domicija Liucila buvo kilusi iš turtingos konsulo rango šeimos. Marko Aurelijaus tėvas kilęs iš Ispanijos, buvo pretoriumi ir mirė, kai sūnui tebuvo treji metai. Markas Aurelijus pamini, kad iš jo išmoko "vyriškumo be puikybės". Jo tėvo teta iš motinos pusės buvo Vibija Sabina, Romos imperatoriaus Adriano žmona. Rupilija Faustina (Marko Aurelijaus senelė iš tėvo pusės) ir Vibia Sabina buvo pusiau seserys ir Saloninos Matidijos (Romos imperatoriaus Trajano dukterėčios) dukros. Jo tėvo sesuo buvo Faustina Vyresnioji, Romos imperatoriaus Antonino Pijaus žmona. Po tėvo mirties jį įsūnijo senelis iš tėvo pusės Markas Anijus Veras. Senelis mirė 138 m., sulaukęs beveik devyniasdešimties metų. Imperijos įpėdinis Jauno Marko Aurelijaus biustas, Kapitolijaus muziejus, Roma 136 m. Adrianas paskelbė, kad jo įpėdiniu taps Lucijus Cejonijus Komodas, pasivadinęs Liucijum Elijum Cezariu. Markas tada jau buvo patraukęs Adriano dėmesį (ir davė jam pravardę verissimus, išvertus "teisingiausias"). Jis buvo sužadėtas su Cejonija Fabija, Komodo dukra. Tačiau sužadėtuvės buvo nutrauktos po Komodo mirties, ir Markas Aurelijus buvo sužieduotas su Antonino Pijaus dukra. Tad po Liucijaus Elijaus (Komodo) mirties Adrianas iškėlė sąlygą, kad Antoninas, jei nori tapti įpėdiniu, turi įsūnyti Marką (tada jis vadinosi Marku Elijum Aurelijum Veru) ir Lucijų Cejonijų Komodą (Liucijaus Elijo sūnų, dešimt metų jaunesnį už Marką, pavadintą Liucijum Veru) ir paskirti juos abu savo įpėdiniais. Antoninas įvykdė sąlygą ir įsūnijęs paskelbė juos savo įpėdiniais 138 m. vasario 25 d., kai Markui buvo septyniolika metų. Jis tapo imperatoriumi sulaukęs 40 m. Spėjama, kad Adrianas buvo nusprendęs, jog Antoninas ir Komodas paruoš vietą jaunajam Markui Aurelijui ir Liucijui Verui. Apie Marko gyvenimą valdant Antoninui, žinoma iš jo susirašinėjimų su vienu iš Adriano paskirtų mokytojų Frontonu, svarbia figūra to meto kultūroje. Šiuose laiškuose Markas atrodo esąs protingas, rimtas ir sunkiai dirbantis jaunuolis. Jie taip pat rodo didėjančią filosofijos įtaką būsimajam imperatoriui: iš pradžių rodęs nepasitenkinimą nesibaigiančiomis lotynų ir graikų kalbų pamokomis, jis susidomi Epikteto, įtakingo stoikų mokyklos moralės filosofo, Diatribėmis. Taip pat jis pradėjo reikštis viešajame gyvenime šalia Antonino, tapdamas konsulu 140 m., 145 m. ir 161 m. Tai rodė bendradarbiavimą priimant sprendimus. 147 m. jis gavo prokonsulo imperium už Romos ribų ir tribunicia potestas, pagrindines formalias imperatoriaus galias. 145 m. jis vedė Aniją Galeriją Faustiną ar Faustiną Jaunesniąją, kuri buvo Antonino dukra ir jo pusseserė iš tėvo pusės. Imperatorius[redaguoti | redaguoti vikitekstą] Bendravaldystė Raito Marko Aurelijus skulptūra ant Kapitolijaus kalvos 161 m. kovo 7 d. Antoninas Pijus mirė, ir Markas Aurelijus su Liucijum Veru tapo imperatoriais. Nors formaliai lygūs, Markas Aurelijus buvo vyresnis ir tikriausiai populiaresnis, tad Liucijui Verui dažnai tekdavo pavaldinio vaidmuo. Marko Aurelijaus reikalavimas imperatorium kartu paskirti ir Liucijų Verą aiškinamas jo ištikimybe jų įtėvio valiai. Bendravaldystei galėjo turėti įtakos karai, nes Markas Aurelijus beveik visą valdymą dalyvavo kariniuose žygiuose prieš gentis, gyvenusias už imperijos ribų. Reikėjo autoritetingo asmens įsakinėti kariams, bet pats imperatorius negalėjo tuo pat metu ginti sienų nuo germanų ir partų. Jis nenorėjo tam paskirti karvedžio, nes jau anksčiau sėkmingi karvedžiai, tokie kaip Julijus Cezaris ar Vespasianas, pasinaudojo armija nuversti valdžią ir įsitvirtinti soste. Markas Aurelijus išsprendė problemą, paskirdamas Verą vadovauti kariams Rytuose. Liucijus Veras buvo pakankamai autoritetingas vadovauti kariams ir pakankamai galingas, kad neturėtų paskatos nuversti Marką Aurelijų. Jis išliko ištikimas Markui iki mirties 169 m. žygio metu. Karai su partais Marko Aurelijaus arka Tripolyje, pastatyta imperatoriui atminti Azijoje atsinaujinusi partų imperija 161 m. atnaujino išpuolius, nugalėjo dvi romėnų armijas ir įsiveržė į Armėniją ir Siriją. Markas Aurelijus pasiuntė Liucijų Verą vadovauti armijai. Karas sėkmingai baigėsi 166 m., nors nuopelnai turėtų būti priskirti jo vadovaujamiems generolams, pavyzdžiui, Gajui Avidijui Kasijui. Grįžęs iš žygio Liucijus Veras buvo apdovanotas triumfu. Paradas buvo neįprastas, nes jame dalyvavo du imperatoriai, jų sūnūs ir netekėjusios dukros. Ta proga Marko Aurelijaus sūnūs – penkiametis Komodas ir trimetis Anijus Veras – buvo paskelbti cezariais. Sugrįžusi armija parsinešė užkratą, vadinamą Antonino pandemija ar Galeno pandemija, kuris išplito po imperiją tarp 165 ir 180 m. Liga, sukėlusi pandemiją, tikriausiai buvo raupai ar tymai ir pareikalavo abiejų imperatorių gyvybių: Liucijus Veras mirė 169 m., o Markas Aurelijus 180 m. Liga atsinaujino po devynerių metų ir, pasak Kasijaus Dio, per dieną Romoj mirdavo iki 2000 žmonių, t. y. ketvirtis infekuotųjų. Iš viso mirė apie 5 mln. žmonių. Germanija ir Dunojus Taip pat skaitykite pagrindinį straipsnį Markomanų karai Marko Aurelijaus biustas, Kapitolijaus muziejus, Roma Apie 160 m. germanų gentys ir kiti klajokliai pradėjo veržtis pro šiaurines sienas, tiksliau, į Galiją ir per Dunojų. Taip tikriausiai atsitiko dėl toli rytuose gyvenusių genčių spaudimo. Pirmoji katų invazija į Germania Superior buvo atremta 162 m. Pavojingesnis buvo markomanų iš Bohemijos, Romos imperijos klientų nuo 19 m. e. m., lombardų ir kitų germanų genčių bendras įsiveržimas per Dunojų. Tuo pat metu Irano sarmatai įsiveržė tarp Dunojaus ir Tisos upių. Dėl padėties rytuose baudžiamasis žygis galėjo būti surengtas tik 167 m. Abu imperatoriai vadovavo kariams. Po Vero mirties 169 m. Markas Aurelijus beveik visą likusį gyvenimą asmeniškai vadovavo žygiams prieš germanus. Romėnai patyrė bent du didelius pralaimėjimus kvadams ir markomanams, kurie kirto Alpes, nusiaubė Opitergium (Oderzo), apgulė Akvilėją, pagrindinį romėnų miestą šiaurės rytų Italijoje. Tuo pat metu kostobokai, atvykę iš Karpatų srities, įsiveržė į Mesiją, Makedoniją ir Graikiją. Po ilgos kovos Markas Aurelijus išvijo įsibrovėlius. Daugybė germanų apsigyveno tokiuose pasienio regionuose kaip Dakija, Panonija, Germanija ir pati Italija. Tai ne naujas reiškinys, bet dėl gausybė persikėlusiųjų reikėjo įkurti dvi naujas pasienio provincijas kairiajame Dunojaus krante – Sarmatiją ir Markomaniją. Markas Aurelijaus planams sutrukdė Avidijaus Kasijaus maištas Rytuose, kurį sukėlė gandas apie tariamą imperatoriaus mirtį nuo ligos. Iš Rytų provincijų tik Bitinija ir Kapadokija neprisidėjo prie maištininkų. Kai paaiškėjo tiesa, Avidijų Kasijų nužudė jo paties kariai. Su žmona Faustina Markas Aurelijus iki 173 m. keliavo po Rytų provincijas. Jis lankėsi Atėnuose, pasiskelbdamas filosofijos globėju. Praėjus metams po triumfo Romoje, jis vėl išžygiavo į Dunojaus frontą. Po lemiamos pergalės 178 m. atrodė, kad planas prijungti Bohemiją pavyks, bet jis nebuvo įgyvendintas dėl imperatoriaus ligos ir mirties 180 m. Mirtis ir Įpėdinis Markas Aurelijus mirė 180 m. kovo 17 d. Vindibonoje. Jį lydėjo sūnus ir įpėdinis Komodas. Markas Aurelijus iš karto sudievintas, o pelenai sugrąžinti į Romą ir palaidoti Adriano mauzoliejuje, kur ilsėjosi iki 410 m., kai vizigotai nusiaubė Romą. Kovoms su germanais ir sarmatais atminti Romoje pastatyta Marko Aurelijaus kolona. Markas Aurelijus Atėnuose įsteigė keturias filosofijos katedras – po vieną kiekvienai tuo metu labiausiai paplitusiai mokyklai: akademinei, peripatetikų, stoikų ir epikūriečių. Dėstytojams buvo skiriamas valstybės išlaikymas. Parašė 12 knygų „Sau pačiam“ (Ad se ipsum libri).   Romos imperatorius   Anksčiau valdė: Antoninas Pijus Markas Aurelijus (161–180) Antoninų dinastija Vėliau valdė: Komodas Straipsnių serijos apie Senovės Romą dalis ž • a • r Romos imperatoriai Principatas 27 pr.m.e. – 235 m. Augustas • Tiberijus • Kaligula • Klaudijus • Neronas • Galba • Otonas • Vitelijus • Vespasianas • Titas • Domicianas • Nerva • Trajanas • Hadrianas • Antoninas Pijus • Markas Aurelijus kartu su Lucijus Veras • Komodas • Pertinakas • Didijus Julianas • Septimijus Severas • Karakala • Geta • Makrinas kartu su Diadumenianas • Elagabalas • Aleksandras Severas Krizė 235–284 Maksiminas Trakietis • Gordianas I ir Gordianas II • Pupienas 'ir Balbinas • Gordianas III • Filipas Arabas • Decijus kartu su Herenijus Etruskas • Hostilianas • Trebonianas Galas kartu su Voluzianas • Emilianas • Valerianas • Galienas kartu su Saloninas • Klaudijus Gotikas • Kvintilijus • Aurelianas • Tacitas • Florianas • Probas • Karas • Karinas • Numerianas Dominatas 284–395 Diokletianas • Maksimianas • Konstancijus I Chloras • Galerijus • Severas • Maksencijus • Maksiminas Daja • Licinijus kartu su Valerijus Valentas ir Martinianas • Konstantinas I • Konstantinas II • Konstantas I • Konstancijus II kartu su Vetranijus • Julianas • Jovianas • Valentinianas I • Valentas • Gracianas • Valentinianas II • Teodosijus I Didysis Vakarų Romos imperija 395–480 Honorijus kartu su Konstantinas III • Konstancijus III • Joanas • Valentinianas III • Petronijus Maksimas • Avitas • Majorianas • Libijus Severas • Antemijus • Olibrijus • Glicerijus • Julijus Nepotas • Romulas Augustulas Vikicitatos Puslapis Vikicitatose – Markas Aurelijus Rodomas puslapis "https://lt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markas_Aurelijus&oldid=6001184" Kategorijos: Romos imperatoriai Senovės Romos rašytojai Senovės Romos filosofai Senovės Romos karvedžiai Romos imperijos konsulai Paslėptos kategorijos: Straipsniai be šaltinių nuo 2006 m. balandžio Straipsniai be šaltinių pažymėti nuo 2020 m. vasario Straipsniai be šaltinių Naršymo meniu Asmeniniai įrankiai Neprisijungęs Šio IP aptarimų puslapis Indėlis Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Vardų sritys Straipsnis Aptarimas Variantai Žiūrėti Skaityti Keisti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Daugiau Paieška Naršymas Pagrindinis puslapis Bendruomenės portalas Forumas Naujausi keitimai Atsitiktinis straipsnis Pagalba Parama Įrankiai Susiję straipsniai Susiję keitimai Specialieji puslapiai Nuolatinė nuoroda Puslapio informacija Cituoti straipsnį Vikiduomenys įrašas Spausdinti/eksportuoti Kurti knygą Parsisiųsti kaip PDF Versija spausdinimui Kituose projektuose Vikiteka Vikicitatos Kitomis kalbomis Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Keisti nuorodas Šis puslapis paskutinį kartą keistas 4 gruodžio 2020 12:18. Tekstas pateikiamas pagal Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Licenciją; gali būti taikomos papildomos sąlygos. Detaliau – Terms of Use . Privatumo politika Apie Vikipediją Jokių garantijų Mobili peržiūra Kūrėjai Statistika Slapukų politika 
lv-wikipedia-org-8	----	Marks Aurēlijs — Vikipēdija Marks Aurēlijs Vikipēdijas lapa Jump to navigation Jump to search Marks Aurēlijs Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Marka Aurēlija statuja Kapitolija muzejā Romā Romas imperators Amatā 161. gadā — 180. gada 17. marts Priekštecis Antonijs Pijs Pēctecis Komods Dzimšanas dati 121. gada 26. aprīlī Roma, Itālija, Romas impērija Miršanas dati 180. gada 17. martā (58 gadu vecumā) Vindobona, Romas impērija (tagad Vīne,  Austrija) Dzīvesbiedrs(-e) Faustīna Jaunākā Reliģija romiešu politeisms Marks Aurēlijs (latīņu: Marcus Aurelius; 121—180) bija Romas imperators no 161. līdz 180. gadam. Pēdējais no tā sauktajiem "pieciem labajiem imperatoriem". Pazīstams arī kā stoicisma filozofs, vēlās Romas stoiķu skolas pārstāvis. Sarakstījis vairākus filozofiskus traktātus, no kuriem saglabājušās "Meditācijas" (grieķu: Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν — ‘domas sev pašam’). Dzīvesgājums[labot šo sadaļu | labot pirmkodu] Jaunībā ieguva labu izglītību. Imperators Adriāns augstu vērtēja Marka Aurēlija krietno raksturu, tāpēc adoptēdams un ar to izraudzīdams par troņa mantinieku Aurēliju Antonīnu, vēlāko Antonīnu Piju, viņš 138. gadā uzdeva viņam savukārt adoptēt Marku Aurēliju, A. Antonīnu un Lūciju Vēru. Marku Aurēliju imperators Antonīns Pijs apprecināja ar savu meitu Faustīnu un piešķīra viņam cēzara titulu, tā noteikdams viņu par troņa mantinieku. Pēc A. Pija M. Aurēlijs pieņēma L. Vēru par līdzvaldnieku. Tad Romā pirmo reizi bija divi imperatori ar pilnīgi vienādām tiesībām, tomēr īstais valdnieks bija Marks Aurēlijs, jo L. Vērs labprātīgi atzina sava adopcijas brāļa pārākumu. M. Aurēlijs valdīja labā saskaņā ar senātu, kura autoritāti viņš mēģināja vairot. Pavalstnieku labklājība bija imperatora darbības cēlais mērķis, bet viņa valdības gadi bija aizēnoti ar gandrīz nemitīgu karadarbību. Viņa vadībā impērijas karaspēks sakāva atdzimušo Partas valsti Persijā. Eiropā karoja ar sarmatiem un daudzām ģermāņu ciltīm kā arī veiksmīgi noslēdza t.s. Markomāņu karus. Tomēr neskatoties uz to, ģermāņu ciltis sāka sagādāt aizvien lielākas problēmas impērijas robežām. 170.gadu sākumā kopā ar sievu apceļoja impērijas austrumu provinces. Apmeklēja arī Atēnas kur pasludināja sevi par filozofijas aizstāvi. Tomēr jau 174. gadā atkal devās militārā kampaņā pie Donavas kur arī pavadīja atlikušos dzīves gadus. 180. gadā saslimis un 17. martā miris karaspēka nometnē Vindobonas pilsētā (mūsdienu Vīnē). Darbi[labot šo sadaļu | labot pirmkodu] Meditācijas Meditationes (latīniski) Marka Aurēlija vēstules (latīniski) Skatīt arī[labot šo sadaļu | labot pirmkodu] Pieci labie imperatori Šis ar Senajiem laikiem saistītais raksts ir nepilnīgs. Jūs varat dot savu ieguldījumu Vikipēdijā, papildinot to. s d l s d l Senās Romas un Bizantijas imperatori Principāts 27 p.m.ē. – 235 m.ē. Oktaviāns Tiberijs Kaligula Klaudijs Nerons Galba Otons Vitēlijs Vespasiāns Tits Domiciāns Nerva Trajāns Adriāns Antonijs Pijs Marks Aurēlijs un Lūcijs Vers Kommods Pertinakss Didijs Jūliāns (Peskēnijs Nigers) (Klodijs Albīns) Septimijs Severs Karakalla ar Getu Makrīns ar Diadumeniānu Elagabals Severs Aleksandrs Trešā gadsimta juku periods 235–284 Maksimīns Trakss Gordiāns I un Gordiāns II Pupiēns un Balbīns Gordiāns III Filips Arābs ar Filipu II Decijs ar Herēnijs Etrusks Hostiliāns Treboniāns Galls ar Volusiānu Emiliāns Valeriāns Galliēns ar Saloninu un Valeriāns II Klaudijs II Kvintils Aureliāns Tacits Floriāns Probs Kārs Karīns un Numeriāns Gallijas imperatori: Postums (Laeliāns) Marijs Viktorīns (Domitiāns II) Tetriks I ar Tetriku II kā ķeizaru Domināts 284–395 Diokletiāns (visa impērija) Diokletiāns (austrumi) un Maksimiāns (rietumi) Diokletiāns (austrumi) un Maksimiāns (rietumi) ar Galēriju (austurmi) un Konstanciju Hloru (rietumi) kā ķeizariem Galērijs (austrumi) un Konstancijs Hlors (rietumi) ar Valēriju Severu (rietumi) un Maksiminu II (austrumi) kā ķeizariem Galērijs (austrumi) un Valērijs Severs (rietumi) ar Konstantīnu I (rietumi) un Maksiminu II (austrumi) kā ķeizariem Galērijs (austrumi) un Maksentijs (rietumi) ar Konstantīnu I (rietumi) un Maksiminu II (austrumi) kā ķeizariem Galērijs (austrumi) un Licīnijs I (rietumi) ar Konstantīnu I (rietumi) un Maksiminu II (austrumi) kā ķeizariem Maksentijs (viens pats) Licīnijs I (rietumi) un Maksimins II (austrumi) ar Konstantīnu I (pašpasludināts augusts) un Valēriju Valensu Licīnijs I (austrumi) un Konstantīns I (rietumi) ar Licīniju II, Konstantīnu II un Krispu kā ķeizariem (Martiniāns) Konstantīns I (visa impērija) ar dēlu Krispu kā ķeizaru Konstantīns II Konstants Magnentijs ar Decentiju kā ķeizaru Konstantijs II ar Vetranio Jūliāns Joviāns Valentiniāns I Valenss Graciāns Valentiniāns II Magnuss Maksims ar Viktoru Teodosijs I (Eugenijs) Rietumromas impērija 395–480 Honorijs Konstantīns III ar dēlu Konstantu II Konstantijs III Joanness Valentiniāns III Petronijs Maksims ar Palladiju Avits Majorāns Lībijs Severs Antēmijs Olibrijs Glicerijs Jūlijs Neps Romuls Augustuls Austrumromas/ Bizantijas impērija 395–1204 Arkādijs Teodosijs II Pulherija Marciāns Leons I Trāķietis Leons II Zenons (pirmā valdīšana) Bazilisks ar dēlu Markuss kā līdzimperatoru Zenons (otrā valdīšana) Anastasijs I Justins I Justiniāns I Justins II Tibērijs II Maurīcijs ar dēlu Teodosiju kā līdzimperatoru Foka Hēraklijs Konstantīns III Hēraklons Konstants II Konstantīns IV ar brāļiem Hērakliju un Tiberiju, vēlāk Justiniānu II kā līdzimperatoriem Justiniāns II (pirmā valdīšana) Leontijs Tiberijs III Justiniāns II (otrā valdīšana) ar dēlu Tiberiju kā līdzimperatoru Filipiks Anastasijs II Teodosijs III Leons III Izaurs Konstantīns V Artabasdoss Leons IV Konstantīns VI Irēna no Atēnām Nikefors I Staurakijs Mihaels I Rangabe ar dēlu Teofilaktu kā līdzimperatoru Leons V Armēnietis ar dēlu Simbatiju-Konstantīnu kā jaunāko imperatoru Mihaels II Teofils Mihaels III Bazīlijs I Maķedonietis Leons VI Gudrais Aleksandrs Konstantīns VII Romāns I Lakapins ar dēliem Kristoferu, Stefanu un Konstantīnu kā jaunākajiem līdzimperatoriem Romāns II Nikefors II Foka Joanns I Cimiskis Basilejs II Konstantīns VIII Zoja (pirmā valdīšana) un Romāns III Agrirs Zoja (pirmā valdīšana) un Mihaels IV Paflagoniāns Mihaels V Kalafāts Zoja (otrā valdīšana) ar Teodoru Porhiregenitu Zoja (otrā valdīšana) un Konstantīns IX Monomahs Konstantīns IX Monomahs Teodora Porhiregenita Mihaels VI Brings Īzaks I Komnēns Konstantīns X Duka Romāns IV Diogēns Mihaels VII Duka ar brāļiem Androniku Duku un Konstantiju Duku, kā arī dēlu Konstantīnu Duku Nikefors III Botaniāts Aleksijs I Komnēns Joanns II Komnēns ar Aleksiju Komnēnu kā līdzimperatoru Manuils I Komnēns Aleksijs II Komnēns Androniks I Komnēns ar Joannu Komnēnu kā līdzimperatoru Īzaks II Angels Aleksijs III Angels Aleksijs IV Angels Nikolass Kanaboss (ievēlēja Bizantijas senāts) Aleksijs V Duka Nīkejas impērija 1204–1261 Konstantīns Laskaris Teodors I Laskaris Joanns III Duka Vatacs Teodors II Laskaris Joanns IV Laskaris Austrumromas/ Bizantijas impērija 1261–1453 Mihaels VIII Paleologs Androniks II Paleologs ar Mihaelu IX Paleologu kā līdzimperatoru Androniks III Paleologs Joanns V Paleologs Joanns VI Kantakūzens ar Joannu V Paleologu un Mateju Kantakūzenu kā līdzimperatoriem Joanns V Paleologs Androniks IV Paleologs Joanns VII Paleologs Androniks V Paleologs Manuels II Paleologs Joanns VIII Paleologs Konstantīns XI Paleologs Slīprakstā norādīti līdzimperatori, bet pasvītrojums norāda uzurpētāju (prettiesisku varas sagrābēju). Autoritatīvā vadība WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LNB: 000027790 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 Saturs iegūts no "https://lv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marks_Aurēlijs&oldid=3265541" Kategorijas: Nepabeigti raksti par Senajiem laikiem 121. gadā dzimušie 180. gadā mirušie Romas imperatori Romas konsuli Latīņu valodā rakstošie Romiešu filozofi 2. gadsimta filozofi Stoiķi Slēpta kategorija: Visi Vikipēdijas aizmetņi Navigācijas izvēlne Dalībnieka rīki Nav pieslēdzies Diskusijas Devums Izveidot jaunu Vikipēdijas kontu Ieiet Vikipēdijā Vārdtelpas Raksts Diskusija Varianti Apskates Skatīt Labot Labot pirmkodu Hronoloģija Vairāk Meklēt Navigācija Sākumlapa Kopienas portāls Aktualitātes Pēdējās izmaiņas Nejauša lapa Palīdzība Paziņot par kļūdu Ziedojumi Kontakti Rīki Norādes uz šo rakstu Saistītās izmaiņas Īpašās lapas Pastāvīgā saite Lapas informācija Atsauce uz šo lapu Ieraksts Vikidatos Drukāt/eksportēt Izveidot grāmatu Lejupielādēt kā PDF Drukājama versija Citos projektos Vikikrātuve Citās valodās Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Labot saites Šī lapa pēdējoreiz labota: 2020. gada 4. jūlijs plkst. 15.37. 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mak-bn-org-pl-370	----	BAZY BIBLIOTEKI NARODOWEJ Baza: Deskryptory BN Indeks: Nr_rekordu Szukasz: 981067334740560            Dokument 1 LDR   b n c z d + e + f n g + h +4500 001   a 9810673347405606 008   a 050120n!!aznnnaabn++++++++++!a+aaa++++!+ 010   a p 2004410274 040   a WA N c WA N 100 0. a Marek Aureliusz c (cesarz rzymski ; d 121-180) 400 0. a Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus 400 0. a Marcus Annius Catilius Severus 400 0. a Marcus Aurelius 400 0. a Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 400 0. a Marc Aurèle 400 0. a Marqws Abrelyws Antŵniynws 550   a Kolumna Marka Aureliusza (Rzym) 667   a osobowe 670   a Rozmyślania / Marek Aureliusz. - [Wyd. 3 i. e. 6]. - Warszawa, 1988 670   a SPA Program MAKWWW, wersja 1.47 z dnia 03.09.2012 (LINUX) Program opracowany przez: Właściciel programu: Biblioteka Narodowa Biblioteka Narodowa Zakład Technologii Informatycznych al. Niepodległości 213 02-086 Warszawa 
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mg-wikipedia-org-5564	----	Marko Aorelio - Wikipedia Marko Aorelio Avy amin'i Wikipedia Aller à la navigation Aller à la recherche Marko Aorelio Ankapobeny Anarana Marko Aorelio Teraka 25 Avrily 121 Maty 16 Marsa 180 Fiaviana sy ny andraikitra Firenena Empira Romana Asa : Tsy fantatra Fiainana manokana Marko Aorelio dia mizaka ny zom-pirenen'i Empira Romana teraka ny 25 Aprily 121 tao Roma ary maty ny 16 Martsa 180 Ny fiainany manokana[hanova | hanova ny fango] I Marcus Annius Verus no rainy. Ny vadiny dia Faustina Zandriny. Ny zanany dia Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina. Jereo koa[hanova | hanova ny fango] Biôgrafia Rohy ivelany[hanova | hanova ny fango] Ao amin'i Freebase: [1] Mbola ambangovangony ity lahatsoratra ity ary tokony hofenoina. Azonao atao ny mandray anjara eto amin'ny Wikipedia amin'ny alàlan'ny fanitarana azy. Jereo koa ny pejy Ahoana ny manao takelaka rehefa te-hijery hoe ahoana no fanaovana azy. Hita tao amin'ny "https://mg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marko_Aorelio&oldid=978169" Sokajy : Olona Biôgrafia Vangovango Teraka tamin'ny taona 121 Maty tamin'ny taona 180 Sokajy misitrika 1 : No local image but image on Wikidata Meny fitetezana Fitaovana manokana Tsy tafiditra Pejin-dresaka Fandraisan'anjara Hamorona kaonty Hiditra Valam-pejy Lahatsoratra dinika Ny ''skin'' Voasintona Fijerena Hamaky Hanova Hanova ny fango Hijery ny tantara Misimisy kokoa Tadiavo Fikarohana Fandraisana Wikipedia finday Pejy rehetra Pejy vaovao Takelaka kisendra Fikambanana Toerana iraisana Toerana iombonana Non-malagasy speakers Handray anjara Fampidirana Fiovana farany Ny vaovao Handefa takelaka Fanomezana Kianjam-pasika Fanoroana sy fitsipika Renipejy Fototra dimy Fanamboarana takelaka Fitaovana Pejy mirohy eto Novaina Handefa rakitra Pejy manokana Rohy maharitra Fampahalalana mikasika ny pejy Hitanisa ity pejy ity Zavatra Wikidata Printiana/avoaka Hanorina boky Hampidina ho toa PDF Ny votoatiny azo atonta printy Amin'ny tetikasa hafa Wikimedia Commons Amin'ny tenim-pirenena hafa Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Hanova ny rohy Voaova farany tamin'ny 4 Desambra 2019 amin'ny 18:37 ity pejy ity. Azo ampiasaina araka ny fepetra apetraky ny lisansa Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ; Mety misy ny fepetra fanampiny mihatra. Jereo fepetram-pampiasana ho an'ny antsipirihany. Fitsipika momba ny zavatra tsy sarababem-bahoaka Mombamomba ny Wikipedia Fampitandremana Jery am-pinday Mpanitatra Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) 
mk-wikipedia-org-1392	----	Марко Аврелиј — Википедија Марко Аврелиј Од Википедија — слободната енциклопедија Прејди на прегледникот Прејди на пребарувањето Марко Аврелиј (26 април 121 - 17 март 180), римски цар (161 - 180) и филозоф, најпознат по делото „Разгледување за самиот себе“, во 12 книги. Содржина 1 Животопис 2 Философски погледи 3 Влијание 4 Наводи Животопис[уреди | уреди извор] Философски погледи[уреди | уреди извор] Марко Аврелиј зборува за пријателството со голем оптимизам. Тој смета дека човечкото срце најмногу се радува кога ќе ја види супериорноста на своите пријатели: активноста на едниот, внимателноста на другиот, дарежливоста на третиот, останатите доблести на четвртиот и најпосле, доблестите на сите други. Според него, најголемата среќа во животот е да им се восхитуваме на доблестите на другите, како пријателите така и сограѓаните.[1] Влијание[уреди | уреди извор] Една песна на полскиот поет Збигњев Херберт се вика „На Марко Аврелиј“.[2] Наводи[уреди | уреди извор] ↑ Јован Дучић, Благо Цара Радована (друго издање). Београд: Laguna, 2018, стр. 207. ↑ Zbignjev Herbert, Izabrane pesme. Beograd: Treći trg – Čigoja štampa, стр. 6. п р у Римски цареви Принципат 27 п.н.е. — 235: Август • Тибериј • Калигула • Клавдиј -{I}- • Нерон • Галба • Отон • Вителиј • Веспазијан • Тит • Домицијан • Нерва • Трајан • Адријан • Антонин Пиј • Марко Аврелиј • Лукиј Вер • Комод • Пертинакс • Дидиј Јулијан • Септимиј Север • Каракала • Макрин • Елагабал • Александар Север Криза од III век 235 - 284: Максимин Трак • Гордијан I • Гордијан II • Пупијан • Балбин• Гордијан III • Филип Арапски • Дециј Трајан • Требонијан Гал cо Хостилијан и Волусијан• Емилијан • Валеријан • Галиен • Клавдиј II • Квинтил • Аврелијан • Тацит • Флоријан • Проб • Кар • Нумеријан • Карин Доминат 284 - 395: Диоклецијан • Максимијан • Констанциј I Хлор • Галериј • Север II • Максенциј • Максимин II Даја • Лициниј • Константин I Велики • Константин II • Констанс I • Констанциј II • Јулијан Отпадник • Јовијан • Валентинијан I • Валенс • Грацијан • Валентинијан II • Теодосиј I Западно царство (395 - 476): Хонориј • Констанциј III • Јован • Валентинијан III • Петрониј Максим • Авит • Мајоријан • Либиј Север • Антемиј • Олибриј • Глицериј • Јулиј Непот • Ромул Августул Источно (Византиско) царство (395 - 1453): Аркадиј • Теодосиј II • Маркијан • Лав I • Лав II • Зенон • Василиск • Анастасиј I • Јустин I • Јустинијан I • Јустин II • Тибериј II • Маврикиј • Фока • Ираклиј I • Константин III • Ираклиј II • Констанс II • Константин IV • Јустинијан II • Леонтиј • Тибериј III • Филипик • Анастасиј II • Теодосиј III • Лав III • Константин V • Лав IV • Константин VI • Ирина • Никифор I • Ставрикиј • Михаил I • Лав V • Михаил II • Теофил • Михаил III • Василиј I • Лав VI • Константин VII • Роман I • Роман II • Никифор II • Јован I • Василиј II • Константин VIII • Роман III • Михаил IV • Михаил V • Константин IX • Зоја • Теодора • Михаил VI • Исак I • Константин X • Роман IV • Михаил VII • Никифор III • Алексиј I • Јован II • Мануил I • Алексиј II • Андроник I • Исак II • Алексиј III • Алексиј IV • Алексиј V • Константин XI • Теодор I • Јован III • Теодор II • Јован IV • Михаил VIII • Андроник II • Андроник III • Јован V • Јован VI • Андроник IV • Јован VII • Мануил II • Јован VIII • Константин XI Оваа биографска статија за е никулец. Можете да помогнете со тоа што ќе ја проширите. п р у Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (податоци) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 Преземено од „https://mk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марко_Аврелиј&oldid=4415409“ Категории: Родени во 121 година Починати во 180 година Никулци за биографии Нерво-Трајанска династија Римски цареви од 2 век Конзули на Римското Царство Нерво-Антониска династија Римски филозофи Луѓе од Рим Скриени категории: Родени на 26 април Родени во април Починати на 17 март Починати во март Нормативна контрола со 15 елементи Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (VIAF) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (LCCN) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (ISNI) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (GND) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (SELIBR) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (BNF) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (BIBSYS) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (ULAN) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (MusicBrainz) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (NLA) Прегледник Лични алатки Не сте најавени Разговор Придонеси Направи сметка Најава Именски простори Страница Разговор Варијанти Посети Читај Уреди Уреди извор Историја Повеќе Пребарај Прегледник Главна страница Што е Википедија? 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mn-wikipedia-org-9718	----	Марк Аврелий — Википедиа нэвтэрхий толь Марк Аврелий Чөлөөт нэвтэрхий толь — Википедиагаас Jump to navigation Jump to search Маркус Аурелиус Ромын эзэнт гүрний эзэн хаан Мюнхений Глиптотек дэх Маркус Аурелиусын цээж баримал Хаанчлал 161 оны 3 сарын 8–169 (Луциус Верусын хамт); 169–177 (ганцаар); 177–180 оны 3 сар (Коммодусын хамт) (&0000000000000019.00000019 жил, &0000000000000009.0000009 хоног) Бүтэн нэр Цезарь Маркус Аурелиус Антонинус Аугустус Төрсөн огноо 121 оны 4 сарын 26 (121-04-26) Төрсөн газар Ром Өнгөрсөн огноо 180 оны 3 сарын 17 (58 насалсан) Өнгөрсөн газар Виндобона буюу Сирмиус Оршуулсан Хадрианы бунхан Өмнөх Антонинус Пиус Удаах Коммодус (ганцаар) Хатан Залуу Фаустина Эцэг Маркус Анниус Верус Эх Домитиа Луцилла Хүүхэд Коммодус, Маркус Анниус Верус, Антонинус, Луцилла зэрэг 13 Улс Антонине Марк Аврелий буюу Маркус Аурелиус Антонинус (лат. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 121 оны 4 сарын 26 – 180 оны 3 сарын 17) нь 161 - 180 онд Ромын эзэн хаан байсан хүн юм. Тэрээр Принсеп болон түүний өргөмөл аав Антониус Пиус-ын залгамж хаан байсан бөгөөд өөрийгөө Маркус Аурелиус Антонинус Агустус гэж нэрлэжээ. Түүний засаглалын үеэр Ромын эзэнт гүрэн гадаад болон дотоод байдал тогтвортой байж эзэнт гүрэн цэцэглэн хөгжиж байв. Түүний үеийг Өргөмөл хаан-ы үе гэж нэрлэдэг юм. Марк Аурел бол энэ үеийн хамгийн сүүлчийн хаан бөгөөд түүний төрсөн хүү Коммодус-д энэхүү хаан залгамжлах эрхийг өвлөсөн байна. Дотоод бодлоготоо Аурелиус дорой буурай тэр тусмаа боол болон эмэгтэйчүүдэд хуулийн орчинд тэдний эрхийг сайжруулах арга хэмжээ авч байв. Түүний засаглалын үе дэх хүнд хэцүү жилүүдэд хөнөөлт Тибер хотын үер, Антонисийн Халдварт Тахал болон Ром дахь Христийг дагах хөдөлгөөн зэрэг ордог юм. Тэрээр 161 оноос Луциус Верустай хамтран төр барьж байсан бөгөөд тэд 169 онд Верусыг нас нөгчих хүртэл хамтдаа хаанчилжээ. "Таван сайн эзэн хаан"-ы сүүлийнх болох тэрээр Стойк урсгалын философичдын чухал төлөөлөгч билээ. "https://mn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелий&oldid=618807"-с авсан Ангилал: 2-р зууны ноёрхогч Ромын эзэн хаан Эртний гүн ухаантан Аврелий Аннии Афорист 121 онд төрсөн 180 онд өнгөрсөн Хажуугийн цэс Хувийн хэрэгсэлүүд нэвтрээгүй байна Энэ IP-н яриа Contributions Бүртгүүлэх Нэвтрэх Хуудсын төрөл Өгүүлэл Хэлэлцүүлэг Хувилбарууд Харсан тоо Унших Засварлах Edit source Түүх More Хайх Залуурдагч Нүүр хуудас Сүүлийн үеийн мэдээ Сүүлийн өөрчлөлтүүд Санамсаргүй хуудас Тусламж А — Я хэлхээс Багаж хэрэгсэл Энэ холбогдсон нь Холбогдох өөрчлөлт Файл оруулах Тусгай хуудсууд Тогтмол холбоос Хуудасны мэдээлэл Эндээс эш татах Төслөөр холбогдох Хэвлэх/Экспортлох Шинээр ном нээх PDF хэлбэрээр татаж авах Хэвлэх хувилбар In other projects Wikimedia Commons Бусад хэлээр Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Холбоос засах Энэ хуудсыг хамгийн сүүлд өөрчилсөн нь 05:39, 2 Зургаадугаар сар 2020. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Хувийн мэдээллийн талаарх баримтлал Википедиагийн тухай Татгалзал Мобайл хувилбар Хөгжүүлэгчид Statistics Cookie statement 
mr-wikipedia-org-4004	----	मार्कस ऑरेलियस - विकिपीडिया मार्कस ऑरेलियस विकिपीडिया, मुक्‍त ज्ञानकोशातून Jump to navigation Jump to search मार्कस ऑरेलियस मार्कस ऑरेलियस पूर्ण नाव मार्कस ऑरेलियस ॲंटोनिनस ऑगस्टस जन्म एप्रिल २६, इ.स. १२१ मृत्यू मार्च १७, इ.स. १८० मार्कस ऑरेलियस ॲंटोनिनस ऑगस्टस (एप्रिल २६, इ.स. १२१ - मार्च १७, इ.स. १८०) हा इ.स. १६१ ते मृत्यूपर्यंत रोमन सम्राट होता. कृपया स्वत:च्या शब्दात परिच्छेद लेखन करून या लेखाचा / विभागाचा विस्तार करण्यास मदत करा. अधिक माहितीसाठी या लेखाचे चर्चा पान, विस्तार कसा करावा? किंवा इतर विस्तार विनंत्या पाहा. ब च सं रोमन सम्राट रोमन सम्राट अँटोनियस पायस  · ऑगस्टस  · ऑरेलियन  · कालिगुला  · कॉन्स्टन्टाईन पहिला, रोमन सम्राट  · कॉन्स्टान्शियस क्लोरस, रोमन सम्राट  · कॉन्स्टान्शियस दुसरा, रोमन सम्राट  · कॉन्स्टान्स  · कोमॉडस  · क्लॉडियस  · गॅल्बा  · जुलियस सीझर  · जोव्हियन  · ज्युलियन, रोमन सम्राट  · टायटस  · ट्राजान  · डोमिशियन  · टायबीअरिअस  · थियोडोसियस पहिला  · नर्व्हा  · नीरो  · नेपोटियानस  · पर्टिनॅक्स  · पेट्रोनियस मॅक्झिमस  · फ्लाव्हियस ऑनरियस  · फ्लाव्हियस व्हॅलेरियस सेव्हेरस  · माजोरियन  · मार्कस ऑरेलियस  · मार्कस साल्व्हियस ओथो  · मार्कस सेव्हेरस डिडियस ज्युलियानस  · मॅक्झेंटियस  · मॅक्रिनस  · मॅक्सिमिनस  · रोमन सम्राट  · लिसिनियस  · लुसियस व्हेरस  · व्हिटेलियस  · व्हॅलेंटिनियन पहिला  · व्हॅलेंटिनियन तिसरा  · व्हॅलेन्स  · व्हेस्पासियन  · सेप्टिमियस सेव्हेरस  · हेड्रियान "https://mr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=मार्कस_ऑरेलियस&oldid=1757801" पासून हुडकले वर्ग: विस्तार विनंती रोमन सम्राट इ.स. १२१ मधील जन्म इ.स. १८० मधील मृत्यू लपविलेला वर्ग: पुरुष चरित्रलेख दिक्चालन यादी वैयक्तिक साधने आल्याची नोंद केलेली नाही(लॉग इन केलेले नाही) चर्चा पान योगदान नवीन खाते तयार करा प्रवेश करा(लॉग इन करा) नामविश्वे लेख चर्चा चले(व्हेरियंट्स) दृष्ये वाचा संपादन इतिहास पहा More शोध सुचालन मुखपृष्ठ धूळपाटी कार्यशाळा साहाय्य/मदतकेंद्र अलीकडील बदल अविशिष्ट लेख चावडी दूतावास (Embassy) ऑनलाइन शब्दकोश दान साधनपेटी येथे काय जोडले आहे या पृष्ठासंबंधीचे बदल संचिका चढवा विशेष पृष्ठे शाश्वत दुवा पानाबद्दलची माहिती लघु यूआरएल(Short URL) लेखाचा संदर्भ द्या विकिडाटा कलम छापा/ निर्यात करा ग्रंथ तयार करा PDF म्हणून उतरवा छापण्यायोग्य आवृत्ती इतर प्रकल्पात विकिमिडिया कॉमन्स इतर भाषांमध्ये Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 दुवे संपादा या पानातील शेवटचा बदल २९ मार्च २०२० रोजी २२:५५ वाजता केला गेला. येथील मजकूर हा क्रियेटीव्ह कॉमन्स अट्रीब्युशन-शेअरअलाईक लायसन्स अंतर्गत उपलब्ध आहे; अतिरिक्त अटी लागू असू शकतात. हे संकेतस्थळ वापरुन आपण याच्या वापरण्याच्या अटी आणि गोपनीयता धोरणांचे पालन करण्यास आपली सहमती देत आहात. Wikipedia® हे Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. एक ना-नफा ना-तोटा संस्थेचे नोंदणीकृत ट्रेडमार्क आहे. गुप्तता नीती विकिपीडिया बद्दल उत्तरदायित्वास नकार भ्रमणध्वनी-दृश्य विकसक Statistics कुकिंचा तक्ता 
ms-wikipedia-org-5515	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas Marcus Aurelius Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas. Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Patung kepala Marcus Aurelius di Muzium Arkeologi Istanbul, Turki Maharaja Empayar Romawi Pemerintahan 8 Mac 161 – 17 Mac 180 Didahului oleh Antoninus Pius Diikuti oleh Commodus Maharaja bersama Lucius Verus (161–169) Commodus (177–180) Keputeraan (121-04-26)26 April 121 tahun tidak sah Rom Kemangkatan 17 Mac 180(180-03-17) (umur 58) Vindobona atau Sirmium Pemakaman Hadrian's Mausoleum Pasangan Faustina yang Muda Anakanda 14, termasuk Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus dan Lucilla Nama diraja Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dinasti Nerva-Antonine Ayahanda Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Pius (ayah angkat) Bonda Domitia Lucilla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[notes 1][notes 2] 26 April 121 – 17 Mac 180 Masihi) merupakan Maharaja Rom 161 to 180. Baginda memerintah bersama kakanda angkatnya, Lucius Verus (sehingga 169) dan Commodus (anak Lucius, sehingga 177). Baginda berpegang kuat kepada falsafah Stoikisme, penulisan mengenai pengalamannya berfalsafah sendiri iaitu Ta eis heauton dianggap sebagai salah satu mahakarya dalam bidang ini secara umumnya.[3] Kemangkatan baginda menandakan berakhirnya Pax Romana[4] lalu membawa kepada runtuhnya Empayar Rom Barat akibat ketidakstabilan dalaman yang berlaku di seluruh kawasannya. Nota[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ In Classical Latin, Aurelius' name would be inscribed as MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS. ^ Baginda asalnya diberi nama Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (atau barangkalinya Marcus Catilius Severus).[1] Baginda menggelarkan dirinya Marcus Annius Verus semasa diperisterikan,[2] dan baginda memakai nama Marcus Aurelius Antoninus semasa dimahkotakan. Rujukan[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ^ Desmond Collins (19 July 1973). Background to Archaeology: Britain in Its European Setting. Cambridge University Press Archive. m/s. 58. GGKEY:XUFU58U7ESS. ^ Mark Merrony (6 Julai 2017). The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. Taylor & Francis. m/s. 85. ISBN 978-1-351-70278-2. Pautan luar[sunting | sunting sumber] Projek Gutenberg: Karya-karya oleh Marcus Aurelius Karya oleh atau tentang Marcus Aurelius di Internet Archive Karya oleh Marcus Aurelius di LibriVox (buku audio domain awam) Marcus Aurelius - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Diambil daripada "https://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=4427481" Kategori: Laman yang menggunakan templat umur dengan tarikh tidak sah Rencana dengan pautan LibriVox Kelahiran 121 Kelahiran abad ke-2 Kematian abad ke-2 Kategori tersembunyi: Rencana dengan pautan Internet Archive Menu pandu arah Alat peribadi Belum log masuk Perbincangan Sumbangan Buka akaun Log masuk Ruang nama Rencana Perbincangan Kelainan Rupa Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Lihat sejarah Lagi Cari Pandu arah Laman Utama Tinjau Hal semasa Rencana rawak Perhubungan Tentang Wikipedia Portal masyarakat Perubahan terkini Hubungi kami Menderma Bantuan Kedai Kopi Peralatan Pautan ke laman ini Perubahan berkaitan Muat naik fail Laman khas Pautan kekal Maklumat laman Petik laman ini Butir Wikidata Cetak/eksport Cipta buku Muat turun sebagai PDF Versi boleh cetak Dalam projek lain Wikimedia Commons Dalam bahasa lain Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Sunting pautan Laman ini kali terakhir disunting pada 14:08, 5 September 2018. Teks disediakan dengan Lesen Creative Commons Pengiktirafan/Perkongsian Serupa; terma tambahan mungkin digunakan. Lihat Terma Penggunaan untuk butiran lanjut. Dasar privasi Perihal Wikipedia Penafian Paparan mudah alih Pembangun Statistik Kenyataan kuki 
musicbrainz-org-9826	----	Marcus Aurelius - MusicBrainz Log In Create Account Artist Event Recording Release Release Group Series Work Area Instrument Label Place Annotation Tag CD Stub Editor Documentation About Us ▾ About MusicBrainz Sponsors Team Shop Contact Us Data Licenses Social Contract Code of Conduct Privacy Policy GDPR Compliance Auto-editor Elections Privileged User Accounts Statistics Timeline Graph Products ▾ MusicBrainz Picard AudioRanger Mp3tag Yate Music Tagger MusicBrainz for Android MusicBrainz Server MusicBrainz Database Developer Resources MusicBrainz API Live Data Feed Search ▾ Search Entities Search Edits Tags Top CD Stubs Documentation ▾ Beginners Guide Style Guidelines How Tos FAQs Documentation Index Edit Types Relationship Types Instrument List Genre List Development English ▾ Deutsch English Français Italiano Nederlands (reset language) Help Translate Marcus Aurelius (Roman emperor) ~ Person Overview Releases Recordings Works Events Relationships Aliases Tags Details Edit Discography Filter Other + Audiobook Year Title Artist Rating Releases 2010 Meditations Marcus Aurelius narrated by Duncan Steen 2 Showing official release groups by this artist. Artist information Sort name: Aurelius, Marcus Type: Person Gender: Male Born: 0121-04-26 Born in: Rome, Roma, Lazio, Italy Died: 0180-03-17 (aged 58) Died in: Wien, Austria Area: Europe ISNI code: 0000 0001 1031 946X Rating Genres (none) Other tags (none) See all tags External links BnF Catalogue BookBrainz DNB en: Marcus Aurelius Open Library VIAF: 102895066 Wikidata: Q1430 View all relationships Editing Log in to edit Open edits Editing history Subscriptions Subscribe Subscribers Last updated on 2020-04-23 04:00 UTC Donate | Wiki | Forums | Chat (IRC) | Bug Tracker | Blog | Twitter | Use beta site Brought to you by MetaBrainz Foundation and our sponsors and supporters. Cover Art provided by the Cover Art Archive. 
my-wikipedia-org-1150	----	မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် - ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား မှ အ​ညွှန်း​သို့ ခုန်ကူးရန် ရှာဖွေရန် ခုန်ကူးမည် မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ်၏ ရုပ်ထု မားကပ်ဩရီးယပ် အန်တိုင်နိုင်းနပ် (အင်္ဂလိပ်: Marcus Aurelius; /ɔːˈriːliəs/; လက်တင်: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus;[၁][notes ၁] ၂၆ ဧပြီ ၁၂၁ – ၁၇ မတ် ၁၈၀ အေဒီ) သည် ရောမ ဧကရာဇ် ဘုရင်ကောင်းငါးပါး တွင် တစ်ပါးအပါအဝင်ဖြစ်သည်။ ရောမနိုင်ငံတော်ကို ခရစ် ၁၆၁ မှ ၁၈ဝ ပြည့်နှစ်အထိ အုပ်စိုး၏။ ရှေး ရောမဧကရာဇ်မင်းတို့သည် မိမိတို့တွင် သားတော်သမီးတော် မထွန်းကားခဲ့သော် မျိုးတော်ထဲမှ တစ်ဦးဦးကို မွေးစားလေ့ရှိကြ၏။ သို့အားဖြင့် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ်ပိုင်းယပ်ဘုရင် (ခရစ် ၈၆-၁၆၁) သည် တူတော်သူ မားကပ်ဩရီးလိယပ်ကို သားအဖြစ် မွေးစားခဲ့လေရာ အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ်ပိုင်းယပ် လွန်သည်တွင် မားကပ်ဩရီးလီယပ်သည် ဧကရာဇ်အဖြစ် ဆက်ခံခဲ့၏။ မားကပ်ဩရီးလိယပ်ကို မွေးစားသည့် အချိန်မှာပင် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် ပိုင်းယပ်သည် လူစီးယပ်ဗီးရပ်အား လည်း မွေးစားခဲ့၏။ မားကပ်ဩရီး လီယပ်သည် ဧကရာဇ်အဖြစ် ခံယူသောအခါ ညီတော်သူ လူစီးယပ်ဗီးရပ်အား မိမိနှင့်အတူ ရောမ နိုင်ငံတော်ကို တွဲဖက်အုပ်စိုးစေခဲ့သည်။ လူစီးယပ်သည် ၁၆၈ ခုနှစ်တွင် ကွယ်လွန်သဖြင့် ထိုအချိန်မှစ၍ မားကပ်ဩရီးလီယပ်သည် ရောမနိုင်ငံကို တစ်ဦးတည်း အုပ်စိုးခဲ့လေသည်။ မားကပ်ဩရီးလီယပ် နန်းတက်သည့် အချိန်မှစ၍ နိုင်ငံတော် မငြိမ်မသက် ရှိခဲ့သည်။ ဖြစ်ပေါ်လာသမျှသော ရန်အပေါင်း ကိုလည်း နှိမ်နင်းရလေသည်။ ၁၆၁ ခုနှစ်တွင် ပါသီယာပြည်နှင့် ဖြစ်ပွားခဲ့သော စစ်ပွဲသည် ၁၆၅ ခုနှစ်တွင်မှ ပြီးငြိမ်း၏။ ယင်းစစ်ပွဲ ပြီးသည့်နောက်တွင် ဂျာမန်လူရိုင်းတို့သည် ရောမနိုင်ငံတော်ကို ထိပါးတိုက်ခိုက်လာ၏။ ထိုအချိန်တွင် လူစီးယပ်ဗီးရပ်လည်း မရှိတော့ပြီဖြစ်ရကား စစ်တပ်များကို ဦးစီးတိုက်ခိုက်ရန် အရေးမှာ ဩ ရီးလီယပ်၏ တာဝန်သာ ဖြစ်နေခဲ့လေသည်။ ဩရီးလီယပ် သည် မာကိုမန္နီနှင့် အခြား ဂျာမန်လူရိုင်းတို့ကို တိုက်ခိုက်အောင်မြင်၏။ ထိုအတောအတွင်း ဆီးရီးယားနယ်မှ ဘုရင်ခံဖြစ်သူ အဗစ်ဒီယပ် ကက်ဆီယပ်သည် သစ္စာဖောက်၍ တော်လှန်ပုန်ကန်ခဲ့ ၏။ ဩရီးလိယပ်သည် ဂျာမန်လူရိုင်းတို့၏ရန် အေးငြိမ်းစအချိန်မှာ ပင် ဆီးရီးယားသို့ လှည့်ရပြန်၏။ သို့သော် ဩရီးလီယပ် အာရှတိုက်သို့ မရောက်မီပင် အဗစီ်းယပ် ကက်ဆီယပ်သည် သူ၏ နောက်လိုက်ငယ်သားတစ်ဦး၏ လက်ချက်ကြောင့် သေဆုံးသွားသဖြင့် သူပုန်ရန်လည်း အေးငြိမ်းသွား၏။ ဩရီးလီယပ်သည် အီဂျစ်နှင့် ဂရိနိုင်ငံတို့သို့ သွားရောက်ခဲ့ပြီးနောက် ရောမနိုင်ငံတော် သို့ ပြန်လည်ရောက်ရှိခဲ့၏။ များမကြာမီပင် မာကိုမန္နီတို့သည် နိုင်ငံတော်ကို တစ်ဖန် ထိပါးတိုက်ခိုက်လာပြန်သည့်အတွက် ဩရီး လီယပ်သည် စစ်မြေပြင်သို့ ဆင်းရပြန်၏။ ယင်းတို့ကို သုံးလေးကြိမ် နှိမ်နင်းအောင်မြင်ခဲ့သော်လည်း ယင်းတို့၏ ရန်မီးကား လုံးဝအေးငြိမ်းသွားခြင်းမရှိခဲ့ပေ။ ဩရီးလိယပ်သည် ယင်းတို့နှင့် စစ်ပွဲများ တိုက်ခိုက်နေဆဲမှာပင် ခရစ် ၁၈ဝ ပြည့်နှစ်တွင် ကွယ်လွန်လေသည်။ မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ်သည် အလွန် သိမ်မွေ့နူးညံ့၍ ကိုယ်ကျင့်တရားနှင့် ပြည့်စုံသော ဧကရာဇ်ဘုရင်တစ်ပါးဖြစ်၏။ ရောမနိုင်ငံတွင် ထိုစဉ်က အကောင်းဆုံးဖြစ်သော ပညာရေးကိုလည်း သင်ကြားခဲ့ရသူ၊ ပညာရှိ ကဝိဟူသမျှတို့နှင့်လည်း ရင်းနှီးသိကျွမ်း ခဲ့သောသူ ဖြစ်၏။ မိမိသိမြင်မှတ်ကြားရသည့်အတိုင်းပင် ကျင့်သုံး သောကြောင့် မှည့်တပေါက် မစွန်းသော ဟူ၏။ သတ္တိရှိရန်၊ မိမိ ကိုယ်ကို ထိန်းသိမ်းရန်၊ ခြိုးခြံရန်နှင့် တရားမျှတရန်တို့ကို သင်ကြားသော စတိုးဝစ်ယထာဘူတ သဘောတရားတို့ကို ၁၂ နှစ်သားအရွယ်က စတင်သင်ယူကာ တစ်သက်ပတ်လုံးလည်း လိုက်နာ ကျင့်သုံးခဲ့၏။ နိုင်ငံတော်ကို အုပ်ချုပ်ရာ၌လည်း တိုင်းနိုင်ငံ ကောင်းစားရေးကို ရှေးရှူ၍ ဂလက်ဒီယေးတားခေါ် လူသတ် ကစားပွဲများကို ကန့်သတ်ပေးပြီးလျှင် ငွေဝယ်ကျွန်များ၊ အမွေဆက် ခံသူများ၊ အမျိုးသမီးများနှင့် ကလေးသူငယ်များအတွက် အကျိုးရှိ စေမည့် ဥပဒေများကို ပြဋ္ဌာန်းခဲ့၏။ သို့ရာတွင် သူ၏လက်ထက်၌ ခရစ်ယာန်တို့ ညှဉ်းပန်းနှိပ်စက်ခြင်းခံရ၏။ ရောမနိုင်ငံတော် ပျက်သုန်းသွားမည်စိုးရိမ်သောကြောင့် ဤသို့ ပြုလုပ်ခဲ့ခြင်းဖြစ်လေသည်။ မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ်သည် တိုင်းပြည်အုပ်ချုပ်၍ ရန်စွယ်အပေါင်းကို နှိမ်နင်းနေရသည့် ကြားကပင် အားလပ်သော အချိန်ကလေးများတွင် သလိုက်နာကျင့်သုံးမည့် စည်းမျဉ်းများကို ဂရိဘာသာဖြင့် ချမှတ်ရေးဆွဲ၏။ 'မက်ဒီတေးရှင်း' ခေါ်နီတိကျမ်းသည် ဤသို့အားဖြင့် ဖြစ်ပေါ်လာ၏။ ယနေ့တိုင် ထိုကျမ်းသည် ကျမ်းကောင်းတစ်စောင်အဖြစ် ထင်ရှားလေသည်။[၄] မှတ်စုများ[ပြင်ဆင်ရန်] ↑ He was originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (or perhaps Marcus Catilius Severus).[၂] When he married he took the name Marcus Annius Verus,[၃] and when he was named emperor, he was given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ကိုးကား[ပြင်ဆင်ရန်] ↑ In Classical Latin, Aurelius' name would be inscribed as MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ↑ မြန်မာ့စွယ်စုံကျမ်း၊ အတွဲ(၉) "https://my.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=မားကပ်_ဩရီးလီယပ်_အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ်&oldid=363863" မှ ရယူရန် ကဏ္ဍများ: နိုင်ငံတကာ ဘုရင်များ ၂ ရာစု ရောမအင်ပါယာရှင်များ လမ်းညွှန်မီနူး ကိုယ်ပိုင် ကိရိယာများ အကောင့် မဝင်ထားပါ ဆွေးနွေးရန် ဆောင်ရွက်ချက်များ အကောင့် ဖန်တီးရန် အကောင့်ဝင်ရန် အမည်ညွှန်းများ စာမျက်နှာ ဆွေးနွေးချက် အမျိုးမျိုးအပြားပြား အမြင်ပုံစံများ ဖတ်ရန် ပြင်ဆင်ရန် ရာဇဝင်ကြည့်ရန် ပို၍ ရှာဖွေရန် အ​ညွှန်း​ ဗဟိုစာမျက်နှာ ပေါင်းကူးနေရာ လက်ရှိဖြစ်ရပ်များ လတ်တလော အပြောင်းအလဲများ ကျပန်းစာမျက်နှာ အ​ကူ​အ​ညီ​ လှူဒါန်း​မှု​ ကိရိယာများ ဘယ်ကလင့်ခ်ထားလဲ ဆက်စပ်သော အပြောင်းအလဲများ အထူး စာမျက်နှာများ ပုံ​သေ​လိပ်​စာ​ စာမျက်နှာ အချက်အလက်များ ဤစာမျက်နှာကို ကိုးကားပြုရန် ဝီကီဒေတာ item ပရင့်/ပို့လွှတ် စာအုပ် ဖန်တီးရန် PDF အနေဖြင့် ရယူရန် ပရင့်ထုတ်နိုင်သော ဗားရှင်း အခြား ပရောဂျက်များတွင် ဝီကီမီဒီယာ ကွန်မွန်းစ် အခြား ဘာသာစကားများဖြင့် Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 လင့်ခ်များကို တည်းဖြတ်ရန် ဤစာမျက်နှာကို ၂၄ ဧပြီ ၂၀၁၇၊ ၀၈:၅၁ အချိန်တွင် နောက်ဆုံး ပြင်ဆင်ခဲ့သည်။ စာသားများကို Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike လိုင်စင်ဖြင့် ရရှိနိုင်ပြီး ထပ်ဆောင်းသတ်မှတ်ချက်များ ရှိနိုင်သည်။ အသေးစိတ်အတွက် အသုံးပြုခြင်းဆိုင်ရာ သတ်မှတ်ချက်များတွင် ကြည့်ပါ။ ကိုယ်ပိုင်ရေးရာ မူဝါဒ ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား အကြောင်း သတိပြုစရာများ မိုလ်ဘိုင်း ဆော့ဖ်ဝဲလ်တီထွင်ရေးသားသူများ စာရင်းအင်း ကွတ်ကီး ထုတ်ပြန်ချက် 
nap-wikipedia-org-5591	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia Marco Aurelio 'A Wikipedia. Jump to navigation Jump to search Marco Aurelio. Cesare Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto (Romma, 26 'e abbrile 121 – Vindobona, 17 'e màrzo 180) è stato nu mperatore, filoseco e scrittore rommano. Quanno era guaglione, int''o 138, l'addottaje Antonino Pio 'o futuro zio sujo, ca s''o pigliaje a careco e 'o crescette. Fuje stu zio ca l'annummenaje erède a 'o prievolo mperiale. Estratto 'e "https://nap.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=634199" Categurìa: Romma Menu 'e navigazzione Strumente perzonale Acciesso nun affettuato Chiacchierate pe chisto IP Cuntribbute Cria nu cunto nuovo Trase Namespace Articulo Chiàcchiera Variante Visite Liegge Cagna Cagna surgente Vide 'a cronologgia Cchiù Truova Navegazzione Paggena prencepale Porta d’'a commonetà Nuvità Urdeme cagnamiénte Na paggena qualonca Ajùto Donate Strumente Paggene ca se cullegano a chesta Cagnamiénte cullegate Careca file Paggene speciale Jonta permanente 'Nfurmazzione d''a paggena Zita st'artículo Elemento Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crìa nu libbro Scarreca cumme PDF Verzione pe stampà Int'a n'ati pruggette Wikimedia Commons Ate léngue Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Cagna 'e cullegamiente Urdema cagnamiénto pe' a paggena: 00:03, 21 Màr 2014. Chistu testo sta pubbrecate cu 'na licenza Creative Commons Attribuzzione-Condividi tale e quale; ce ponno stà ate regule ccà e llà. Vedite 'a paggena Termini pe ll'uso pe n'avé cchiù nfurmazzione. 'Nfurmazzione p''a privacy Nfromma ncòpp'a Wikipedia Avvertimiente Vista d' 'o mobbele Sviluppature Statistiche Dicerazzione ncopp'ê cookie 
news-bbc-co-uk-732	----	BBC NEWS | Health | Past pandemics that ravaged Europe Home News Sport Radio TV Weather Languages [an error occurred while processing this directive] Low graphics|Accessibility help One-Minute World News News services Your news when you want it News Front Page Africa Americas Asia-Pacific Europe Middle East South Asia UK Business Health Medical notes Science & Environment Technology Entertainment Also in the news ----------------- Video and Audio ----------------- Programmes Have Your Say In Pictures Country Profiles Special Reports RELATED BBC SITES SPORT WEATHER ON THIS DAY EDITORS' BLOG Last Updated: Monday, 7 November 2005, 20:36 GMT E-mail this to a friend Printable version Past pandemics that ravaged Europe By Verity Murphy BBC News By the end of the plague Athens had lost a third of its army In 430BC, during the Peloponnesian war against their great rival Sparta, the people of Athens were hit by a deadly disease that has defied diagnosis to this day. The Greek historian Thucydides survived a bout of this unknown killer and left a vivid account of its symptoms, which make for frightening reading. "People in good health were all of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath," Thucydides starts by saying. But that was just the beginning - sneezing and coughing were next, then diarrhoea, vomiting and violent spasms. Next came livid skin, covered in pustules and ulcers, and a burning, unquenchable thirst. Scholars believe the Antonine Plague was most likely smallpox Most died around the seventh or eighth day, but if not the disease moved to the bowels, where violent ulceration and worsening diarrhoea, combined with exhaustion, was usually enough to prove fatal. A handful did survive, but the disease left its mark - toes, fingers, genitals and sight were often lost. For others the legacy was an entire loss of memory, so that, as Thucydides says, they "did not know either themselves or their friends". The world's first recorded pandemic had arrived. Rome reduced Thucydides says the disease began in Ethiopia, spreading through Egypt and Libya, then into the Greek world. Over the next four years it killed almost a third of the Athenian population and its armed forces, along with the city's leader and mastermind of Athenian glory, Pericles. It is unsurprising perhaps that the word pandemic is derived from Greek - "pan" meaning all, and "demos" meaning people. By the 2nd Century AD, the mantle of European power had passed to Rome, largely thanks to the might of its army. 10,000 people were said to be dying in Constantinople each day But this army almost proved the civilisation's downfall, when in AD165, troops returning from campaigns in the east of the empire brought back a disease which killed an estimated five million people. Known as the Antonine Plague, after Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, one of two Roman emperors who died from the disease, it killed a quarter of those who caught it. In AD166, the Greek physician and writer Galen travelled from Rome to his home in present-day Turkey and recorded some of the disease's symptoms. In his treatise Methodus Medendi, he describes fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days, symptoms which has led scholars to conclude the disease was most likely smallpox. A second outbreak occurred between AD251 and 266, and at its height some 5,000 people were said to be dying in Rome every day. Age-old tale But even this extraordinary toll was surpassed when in the 6th Century AD, under the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, a plague hit the city of Constantinople. The disease is thought to have begun in Ethiopia or Egypt and spread northwards via ships transporting huge quantities of grain to the city's great public granaries. The bubonic plague killed an estimated 137 million worldwide A now familiar tale of disease-ridden fleas, carried on the backs of ship-borne rats, the Plague of Justinian, as it came to be known, was in fact the first great pandemic of the bubonic plague. From AD541 to 542 it killed 40% of Constantinople's population, with the Byzantine historian Procopius claiming that at its peak the plague was killing 10,000 people in the city every day. The disease fanned out across the eastern Mediterranean, wiping out a quarter of the region's population. A second major outbreak in AD588 went further, spreading up into France, leaving an estimated final death toll for the disease of about 25 million. Blackened skin For the next 800 years, Europe was spared the misery of another pandemic, but in the middle of the 14th Century, the Plague of Justinian disease returned - only this time it bore another name. Now known as the Black Death, thanks to the blackening of the skin which victims suffered through haemorrhaging under the skin, the disease arrived from Asia. People fled in its path, but instead of escaping as they had hoped, they merely aided its spread across the continent. Cholera is still a killer in the developing world From 1347 to 1350, the Black Death killed at least a quarter of Europe's population - an estimated 25 million people. There were similar bubonic plague outbreaks in Asia and the Middle East at the same time, indicating that it was a global pandemic. Bubonic plague outbreaks occurred repeatedly in Europe, reportedly gathering strength with each generation, until the 1700s. By then the estimated worldwide death toll for the bubonic plague had reached a dizzying 137 million. Cities under threat Urban areas were particularly affected by the Black Death, with the disease often claiming 50% of the population in cities. The next pandemic was also worse in cities, where poor sanitation provided a perfect breeding ground. Cholera had been described by Portuguese physician Garcia de Orta in the 16th century, but it was in 1816 that the disease went truly global. Spanish flu killed more people than World War I Already endemic to India, the disease now spread along trade routes into Russia and Eastern Europe, before shifting to Western Europe and even North America. The world has been ravaged by no less than seven cholera pandemics, six of them starting in the 19th Century, with every continent except Antarctica suffering outbreaks. The most recent occurred in 1961, starting in Indonesia, and though modern sanitation has curbed the disease's power, it is still a killer today. Young people hit Cholera may have been the scourge of the 19th century, but in the 20th Century it was influenza. During the last century there were three flu pandemics. The first and worst, the Spanish flu, started in 1918 in three far-flung locations: Brest, in France; Boston in the US; and Freetown in Sierra Leone. The disease had an incredibly high mortality rate and unusually people aged 20-40 were its victims rather than the old and weak. It also moved across the globe with breathtaking speed, killing 25 million people in the course of six months; a fifth of the world's population was infected. The disease disappeared almost as fast as it had appeared, but by then it had killed an estimated 40 million people, more than had died in World War I, which was coming to an end at the time. For many years the precise strain of flu could not be identified, but new research conducted by the US Armed Forces Institute of Pathology indicates that it most probably originated in birds. E-mail this to a friend Printable version BIRD FLU KEY STORIES China cull amid bird flu outbreak Fresh bird flu outbreak in India Japan vaccinates bird flu workers Father 'caught bird flu from son' ANALYSIS AND BACKGROUND Bird flu journey Watch the spread of bird and human cases of the H5N1 virus Map: Global impact Bird flu: Still a threat? Q&A: Bird flu Your concerns answered Quick Guide: Bird flu RELATED INTERNET LINKS World Health Organization The BBC is not responsible for the content of external internet sites TOP HEALTH STORIES Stem cell method put to the test Hospitals 'eyeing private market' Low vitamin D 'Parkinson's link' MOST POPULAR STORIES NOW MOST SHARED MOST READ Tourists flock to 'Jesus's tomb' in Kashmir Most popular now, in detail MOST SHARED MOST READ BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News BBC News Most popular now, in detail FEATURES, VIEWS, ANALYSIS Ghost town Has China's housing bubble burst? The guerilla plant How the world's oldest clove tree defied an empire Walking away Why Royal Ballet principal Sergei Polunin quit Most Popular NowMost Popular Now | 56,514 people are reading stories on the site right now."; PRODUCTS & SERVICES E-mail news Mobiles Alerts News feeds Podcasts BBC Copyright Notice MMIX Most Popular Now | 17,029 pages were read in the last minute."; Back to top ^^ Help Privacy and cookies policy News sources About the BBC Contact us 
nla-gov-au-8048	----	Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 - Full record view - Libraries Australia Search Please enable JavaScript. JavaScript is required to use most of the features of Libraries Australia. Skip to content National Library of Australia   Login Home Help Contact us Login     Libraries Australia Authorities - Full view Record ID: 35966523 (Libraries Australia Authorities) Authority type: Name. Description conventions: rda LC number: n 80051702 Heading: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Birth: 01210426 Rome Death: 01800317 Sremska Mitrovica (Serbia) Viminacium (Extinct city) Associated with: Rome Occupations: Emperors Philosophers Used for: ̓Αντωνῖνος, Μάρκος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 מארקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס, קיסר רומא, 121-180 מרקוס אורליוס Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marḳus Orelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marks Aurēlijs, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Notes: Do not confuse with Aurelius Antoninus, known as Caracalla, emperor 211-217. Machine-derived non-Latin script reference project. Non-Latin script references not evaluated. Brill's new Pauly online, 23 September 2013 (Marcus Aurelius; Roman emperor and philosopher; born 26 April 121 in Rome, son of Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla; originally named M. Annius Verus; became emperor 3 July 161, with name M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; at first joint ruler with Lucius Verus; upon Verus' death in 169, Marcus Aurelius ruled alone; died on military campaign in Viminacium and Sirmium on 17 March 180) His The Emperor Marcus Antoninus, his conversation with himself, 1701 t.p. (The Emperor Marcus Antoninus) InU/Wing STC files (usage: Markou Antōninou ...) Marc Aurel, 1979 t.p. (Marc Aurel) Marci Aurelii Antonini ad se ipsum libri XII, 1988 p. 1 (Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου Αὐτοκράτορος τῶν εἰς ἑαθτὸν βιβλίον α) Pašam sev, 1991 t.p. (Marks Aurēlijs) Rilievi storici capitolini, c1986 t.p. (Marco Aurelio) Sigad, R. ha-Emet ki-ṭragedyah, c1990 t.p. (Marḳus Aʼurelyus) t.p. verso (Marcus Aurelius [in rom.]) Spiegel, N. Marḳus Orelyus, 1980. Local system number: (AuPaJTL)6481 abv01948031 000000972115 Cataloguing source: DLC eng rda DLC DLC NjP DLC-R WU INS-SF OCoLC UPB ICU UPB OCoLC Authentication code: kin Quick links Australian Libraries Gateway Trove Help Fact sheets and user guides Manual (PDF) Training Privacy © National Library of Australia Version: 1.9.7 
nl-go-kr-2738	----	국립중앙도서관 시스템 점검에 따른홈페이지 서비스 불가 안내 국립중앙도서관은 안정적인 서비스 제공을 위하여 시스템 점검을 실시할 계획입니다. 작업 시간 동안 서비스가 일시 중단됨을 알려 드리오니, 이용에 참고하시기 바랍니다. 일시 2021.06.14.(월) 22:00 ~ 2021.06.15.(화) 08:00 예정 대상 대표홈페이지 영문홈페이지 사서지원서비스 공공도서관지원서비스 연구정보서비스 COVID-19 도서관 서비스 한국학사서 글로벌 네트워크 
nl-wikipedia-org-408	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie Naar navigatie springen Naar zoeken springen Marcus Aurelius Geboortedatum 121 Sterfdatum 180 Tijdvak Adoptiefkeizers Periode 161-180 Voorganger Antoninus Pius Opvolger Commodus Staatsvorm principaat Medekeizer Lucius Verus (161-169) Commodus (177-180) Caesar onder Antoninus Pius (139-161) Persoonlijke gegevens Naam bij geboorte Marcus Annius Verus Naam als keizer Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Zoon van Annius Verus en Domitia Lucilla Geadopteerde zoon van Antoninus Pius Vader van Lucilla (149), Commodus (161) en nog 11 kinderen Gehuwd met Faustina de Jongere Neef van Faustina de Oudere Romeinse keizers Portaal    Romeinse Rijk Denarius, geslagen 140 na Chr. met afbeelding van Antoninus Pius op de voorzijde en zijn adoptiefzoon Marcus Aurelius op de keerzijde Standbeeld Marcus Aurelius, Musei Capitolini, Rome Zuil van Marcus Aurelius op de Piazza Colonna ('Zuilplein') te Rome Marcus Aurelius (Latijn: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) (Rome, 26 april 121 – Vindobona of Sirmium, 17 maart 180) regeerde van 161 tot 180 over het Romeinse rijk. Marcus Aurelius behoorde tot het geslacht der Antonini. Meteen na zijn aantreden stelde hij Lucius Verus (161-169) als medekeizer aan. Marcus Aurelius was de laatste van de "Vijf Goede Keizers". Tijdens zijn heerschappij versloeg het Romeinse Rijk het nieuw leven ingeblazen Parthische Rijk; Aurelius' generaal, Avidius Cassius, plunderde de hoofdstad Ctesiphon in 164. Aurelius bevocht met succes de Marcomannen, de Quaden en de Sarmaten tijdens de Marcomannenoorlog, maar de Germaanse dreiging begon een zorgwekkende realiteit te vormen voor het keizerrijk. Een opstand in het oosten onder leiding van Avidius Cassius kwam op gang maar werd onmiddellijk onderdrukt doordat Avidius Cassius door een van zijn eigen officieren werd vermoord. Marcus Aurelius werd door velen gezien als een toonbeeld van een rechtvaardig en menselijk heerser, die de voorchristelijke Stoïcijnse deugden van Rome belichaamde. Het stoïcijnse werk Ta eis heauton van Marcus Aurelius, geschreven in het Grieks tijdens een veldtocht tussen 170 en 180, wordt nog steeds als literair monument vereerd voor de filosofie van dienst en plicht. Het beschrijft hoe men te midden van een conflict zijn gemoedsrust moet vinden en kan behouden door het volgen van de natuur als een bron van begeleiding en inspiratie. Inhoud 1 Jeugd 1.1 In de gunst bij Hadrianus 1.2 Tweede man achter Antoninus Pius 2 Keizerschap 2.1 Gedeeld keizerschap 2.2 Romeins-Parthische Oorlog 2.3 Strijd in het noorden 2.4 Opstand van Avidius Cassius 2.5 Commodus tot opvolger benoemd 3 Overlijden en opvolging 4 Geschriften 5 Stamboom 6 Trivia 7 Zie ook 8 Voetnoten 9 Verder lezen 10 Externe links Jeugd[bewerken | bron bewerken] In de gunst bij Hadrianus[bewerken | bron bewerken] Marcus Aurelius werd in 121 in Rome geboren als Marcus Annius Verus; hij was een neef van Faustina de Oudere. Na het vroegtijdig overlijden van zijn vader werd hij door zijn grootvader Marcus Annius Verus II grootgebracht. Keizer Hadrianus leerde hem vroeg kennen en was onder de indruk van de jongeman. Toen hij 15 was, arrangeerde Hadrianus een verloving tussen Marcus en de dochter van zijn adoptiezoon en toekomstige opvolger, Lucius Aelius Verus Caesar. Aelius stierf echter voortijdig en de plannen moesten worden gewijzigd. Hadrianus bepaalde in 138, korte tijd voor zijn dood, dat Marcus geadopteerd moest worden door Hadrianus' nieuwe opvolger, Antoninus Pius. Lucius Verus, de zoon van Aelius, moest ook geadopteerd worden. Tijdens zijn jeugd en ook later gedurende zijn keizerschap, dat meer dan 20 jaar duurde, besteedde Marcus Aurelius veel tijd aan de filosofiestudie. Hij was een aanhanger van de stoïcijnse leer van Epictetus. Marcus werd opgeleid in filosofie door Apollonius van Chalchedon en in retorica door Fronto. Correspondentie tussen leerling en leermeester Fronto is overgeleverd en geeft een beeld van Marcus' opleiding. Tweede man achter Antoninus Pius[bewerken | bron bewerken] Een jaar later, in 139, verwierf Marcus de titel Caesar, werd zijn verloving met de dochter van Aelius ontbonden en een verloving gearrangeerd met Faustina de Jongere, de dochter van zijn adoptiefvader. Het huwelijk vond plaats in 145. Zij kregen 13 kinderen, van wie meer dan de helft gedurende de kinderjaren stierf. Van hun zoons overleefde slechts een, Commodus, zijn kinderjaren. Keizerschap[bewerken | bron bewerken] Gedeeld keizerschap[bewerken | bron bewerken] Na de dood van Antoninus Pius op 7 maart 161 kreeg Marcus Aurelius de titel Augustus. Zijn eerste keizerlijke daad was om, conform het testament van Hadrianus, de keizerlijke macht te delen met Lucius Verus. Romeins-Parthische Oorlog[bewerken | bron bewerken] Zie Romeins-Parthische Oorlog (161-166) voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp. Spoedig braken grote onlusten uit, zodat Verus in 162 naar de oostelijke provincies moest vertrekken, terwijl Marcus Aurelius in Rome bleef. Verus keerde in triomf terug, maar zijn troepen brachten ook een pestepidemie naar het westen, die grote delen van het keizerrijk en ook Rome zelf teisterde. Strijd in het noorden[bewerken | bron bewerken] Zie Marcomannenoorlog voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp. Bovendien begonnen Germaanse stammen, de Marcomanni en de Quadi, de Alpen over te trekken en Italië binnen te vallen. Beide keizers kwamen in actie en drongen de Germanen terug tot voorbij de Alpen. In 169 keerden zij terug naar Rome. Op de terugweg kreeg Verus een ziekteaanval en stierf. Na een korte periode in Rome braken er opnieuw oorlogen uit en werd Marcus Aurelius weer gedwongen naar de Germaanse grensgebieden te vertrekken. Een serie oorlogen zou hem de volgende acht jaar verhinderen om lange tijd in Rome te blijven. Gedurende deze periode schreef hij zijn beroemde filosofische werk Ta eis heauton (vertaald als Meditaties). Na succesvolle veldtochten in Germanië ontving hij in 172 samen met zijn zoon Commodus de titel Germanicus. De zuil op de Piazza Colonna te Rome toont tientallen taferelen van Marcus Aurelius' veldtocht. Daarna braken oorlogen uit in het oostelijk deel van het rijk. Opstand van Avidius Cassius[bewerken | bron bewerken] In 175 werd hij zo zwaar ziek dat hij op sterven leek te liggen. Zijn vrouw liet de gouverneur van Syria, Avidius Cassius, inlichten, zodat deze in opstand kon komen tegen Marcus Aurelius. De meest voor de hand liggende reden is wel dat zij wilde verhinderen dat haar zoon Commodus, waarvan zij het karakter als geen ander kende, keizer zou worden, omdat zij kon vermoeden hoe rampzalig dit voor Rome zou zijn. Marcus Aurelius genas echter en sloeg de opstand neer. Een jaar later stierf Faustina de Jongere. Commodus tot opvolger benoemd[bewerken | bron bewerken] In 177 keerde Marcus Aurelius terug naar Rome en verhief zijn zoon Commodus tot Augustus. Tot aan zijn dood, drie jaar later, zou de keizerlijke macht worden gedeeld tussen Marcus Aurelius en Commodus. In 178 braken er echter opnieuw oorlogen uit en weer moest de keizer naar de grensgebieden. Overlijden en opvolging[bewerken | bron bewerken] Op 17 maart 180 stierf Marcus Aurelius, op 58-jarige leeftijd, uitgeput door jaren van oorlog, een natuurlijke dood. Hij brak met de traditie van de adoptiefkeizers sinds Nerva om een capabele adoptiefzoon als opvolger te benoemen. Zijn zoon Commodus volgde hem op. De klassieke geschiedschrijving, bijvoorbeeld Historia Augusta, moest niets van Commodus hebben. De benoeming van zijn eigen zoon tot zijn opvolger was in die optiek de grootste fout van de anders zo wijze Marcus Aurelius. Zo kwam een eind aan de gouden eeuw van het Imperium. Geschriften[bewerken | bron bewerken] Van Marcus Aurelius zijn geschriften overgeleverd, namelijk correspondentie met zijn leermeester Fronto en persoonlijke notities, de Meditaties. Terwijl hij in de jaren 170 op veldtocht was, schreef Marcus Aurelius zijn Meditaties als een manier om tot zelfkennis te komen en een middel tot zelfverbetering. Hij schreef dit werk in het Grieks, in die tijd de taal van de filosofie. In het Grieks luidt de titel van dit werk, Ta eis heauton, wat zoiets als Aan mijzelf betekent. Marcus Aurelius had een logische geest en zijn aantekeningen zijn een weergave van zijn stoïcijnse filosofie en spiritualiteit. Zijn Meditaties wordt tot op de huidige dag nog steeds gezien als een literair monument voor een bestuur van dienstbaarheid en plichtsbetrachting. Het boek is door de eeuwen heen een favoriet geweest ven vele auteurs en leiders van staten; voorbeelden zijn Frederik de Grote, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, Goethe, Wen Jiabao en Bill Clinton.[1] Een voorbeeld van zijn notities is: Alles wat we horen is een mening, geen feit. Alles wat we zien is een perspectief, niet de waarheid. Het is niet bekend in hoeverre Marcus Aurelius' geschriften na zijn dood de ronde hebben gedaan. Men vindt wel sporadische verwijzingen in de antieke literatuur naar de populariteit van zijn voorschriften, en bijvoorbeeld Julianus II was zich terdege bewust van Marcus' reputatie als filosoof, hoewel hij niet expliciet melding maakt van de Meditaties.[2] Het boek wordt in de 10e eeuw genoemd in een briefwisseling door Arethas van Caesarea en ook in de Byzantijnse encyclopedie, de Suda. Het werd in 1558 voor het eerst in Zürich gepubliceerd door Wilhelm Holzmann, dit aan de hand van een manuscript dat nu verloren is gegaan.[3] De enige overlevende volledige kopie van het manuscript bevindt zich in de Vaticaanse Bibliotheek. Stamboom[bewerken | bron bewerken] Belangrijkste leden van de Gens Aurelia Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Commodus             Antoninus Pius (keizer)   Faustina de Oudere                                               Marcus Aurelius (keizer)   Faustina de Jongere                                                                       Lucius Verus (keizer)   Lucilla   Commodus (keizer)     Trivia[bewerken | bron bewerken] Munten met afbeeldingen van Marcus Aurelius zijn zo ver teruggevonden als de stad Óc Eo in Vietnam. De huidige Italiaanse euromunt van 50 eurocent bevat een afbeelding van het ruiterstandbeeld van Marcus Aurelius. De geromaniseerde memoires van Hadrianus genoemd Mémoires d'Hadrien van Marguerite Yourcenar is opgevat als een lange brief aan Marcus Aurelius en begint heel vertrouwelijk met "Cher Marc". De prijzen die op het Internationaal filmfestival van Rome, dat sinds 2006 bestaat, worden toegekend zijn genoemd naar Marcus Aurelius. In diverse categorieën wordt een 'premio Marc'Aurelio' toegekend. De winnaars krijgen een kunstwerkje waarop het ruiterstandbeeld van Marcus Aurelius is afgebeeld. De Amerikaanse filosoof Brand Blanshard plaatste Marcus Aurelius als rationalistische denker op een lijn met de modernen John Stuart Mill, Ernest Renan en Henry Sidgwick In de film Gladiator (film), wordt Marcus Aurelius gedood door zijn zoon Commodus Zie ook[bewerken | bron bewerken] Aspendos Voetnoten[bewerken | bron bewerken] ↑ Gregory Hays, Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations, Weidenfeld en Nicholson, Londen, 2003, pxlix ↑ Stertz, blz. 434, citeert Themistius, Oratio, 6.81; HA Cassius 3,5; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 16,9. ↑ Gregory Hays, Inleiding tot Marcus Aurelius Meditaties, Weidenfeld en Nicholson, Londen, 2003, blz. XLVIII-xlix. Bibliografische informatie Bibsys: 90564087 Biblioteca Nacional de Chile: 000166929 Biblioteca Nacional de España: XX932158 Bibliothèque nationale de France: cb11914476c (data) Catàleg d'autoritats de noms i títols de Catalunya: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 Gemeinsame Normdatei: 118577468 International Standard Name Identifier: 0000 0001 1031 946X Library of Congress Control Number: n80051702 Nationale Bibliotheek van Letland: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b Bibliotheek van het Japanse parlement: 00431918 Nationale Bibliotheek van Tsjechië: jn19981001808 Nationale bibliotheek van Australië: 35966523 Nationale Bibliotheek van Israël: 000088890 Nationale Bibliotheek van Polen: A1180743X Nationale Bibliotheek van Roemenië: 000136425 Nationale en Universitaire bibliotheek Zagreb: 000083919 Nederlandse Thesaurus van Auteursnamen Persoon ID: 06867452X RÉRO (Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidental): 02-A000014105 LIBRIS: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs Système universitaire de documentation: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 Union List of Artist Names: 500115701 Virtual International Authority File: 102895066 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 102895066 Verder lezen[bewerken | bron bewerken] Birley, A.R.: Marcus Aurelius, a biography, 1966, Routledge London & New York 1987, 2004 Pierre Grimal, Marcus Aurelius: een biografie, uitgeverij Ambo, 1994 Anton van Hooff, Marcus Aurelius: de keizer-filosoof, uitgeverij Ambo, 2012, ISBN 9789026324154 Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 2010, ISBN 9781844135271 Externe links[bewerken | bron bewerken] H.W. Benario, art. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180), in DIR (2001). Jona Lendering, art. Marcus Aurelius op www.livius.org fragment uit "Ta eis heauton" in het Grieks Nederlandse vertaling Overpeinzingen Engelse vertaling Meditations Mediabestanden Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Marcus Aurelius op Wikimedia Commons. Antieke filosofie Presocratici: Alcmaeon van Croton · Aminias · Amyclas · Anaxagoras · Anaximander · Anaximenes · Archelaüs · Archytas · Bias van Priëne · Cleobulina van Rhodos · Cratylus · Critias · Democritus · Diogenes van Apollonia · Empedocles · Epimenides · Gorgias · Heraclitus · Hippias van Elis · Leucippus · Melissus van Samos · Metrodorus van Chios · Mnesarchos · Orpheus · Parmenides · Perictione · Perictione II · Pherecydes van Syros · Philolaus · Phintys van Sparta · Prodicus · Protagoras · Pythagoras · Thales van Milete · Theano II · Thrasymachos · Xenophanes · Zeno van Elea Postsocratici: Aedesia · Aenesidemus · Aeschines Socraticus · Agathocles · Ammonius Hermiae · Anaxarchos · Andronicus van Rhodos · Anniceris · Antiochus van Ascalon · Antipater van Cyrene · Antipater van Tarsus · Antisthenes · Apollonius van Tyana · Aratus · Archippos · Arete van Cyrene · Aristaeus · Aristippos de Jongere · Aristippos van Cyrene · Aristobulus van Paneas · Ariston van Chios · Aristoteles · Aristoxenos · Arkesilaos · Aspasius · Bion · Callicles · Celsus · Chilon van Sparta · Chrysippos · Cleobulus · Diodoros Cronos · Diodoros van Tyros · Diogenes van Babylon · Diogenes van Sinope · Epictetus · Epicurus · Eubulides van Milete · Euclides van Megara · Eudemus van Rhodos · Hierius · Hypatia · Klearchos van Soloi · Krates van Athene · Krates van Mallos · Krates van Thebe · Menander · Meton van Athene · Monimos · Mesarchos · Nicomachus · Panaetius van Rodos · Periander · Philo van Larissa · Pisistratus · Pittakos van Mytilene · Plato · Plotinus · Plutarchus van Athene · Porphyrius · Posidonius · Proclus · Pyrrho van Elis · Socrates · Solon · Strabo · Synesius van Cyrene · Theano · Theophrastus · Zeno van Citium Romeinse filosofen: Agrippa · Alcinoüs · Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius · Anaxilaus · Julia Domna · Lucius Annaeus Seneca · Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis · Marcus Aurelius · Marcus Tullius Cicero · Persius · Sextus Empiricus · Titus Lucretius Carus · Tyrannion Overgenomen van "https://nl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=58064387" Categorieën: Antonijnse dynastie Gens Annia Gens Aurelia Romeins keizer Stoïcijns filosoof Romeins filosoof Persoon in de 2e eeuw Navigatiemenu Persoonlijke hulpmiddelen Niet aangemeld Overleg Bijdragen Account aanmaken Inloggen Naamruimten Artikel Overleg Varianten Weergaven Lezen Bewerken Brontekst bewerken Geschiedenis Meer Zoeken Navigatie Hoofdpagina Vind een artikel Vandaag Etalage Categorieën Recente wijzigingen Nieuwe artikelen Willekeurige pagina Informatie Gebruikersportaal Snelcursus Hulp en contact Doneren Hulpmiddelen Links naar deze pagina Gerelateerde wijzigingen Bestand uploaden Speciale pagina's Permanente koppeling Paginagegevens Deze pagina citeren Wikidata-item Afdrukken/exporteren Boek maken Downloaden als PDF Printvriendelijke versie In andere projecten Wikimedia Commons In andere talen Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Koppelingen bewerken Deze pagina is voor het laatst bewerkt op 18 jan 2021 om 20:39. 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nn-wikipedia-org-9352	----	Marcus Aurelius av Romarriket – Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius av Romarriket Frå Wikipedia – det frie oppslagsverket Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Marcus Aurelius Fødd 26. april 121 Fødestad Roma Død 17. mars 180 Dødsstad Vindobona Gravstad Castel Sant'Angelo Gift med Faustina den yngre Dynasti Nervan-antoninske dynasti Far Marcus Annius Verus Mor Domitia Lucilla Born Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, Domitia Faustina Marcus Aurelius (26. april 121–17. mars 180) var romersk keisar 161-180. Han forfatta Til meg selv, og er rekna som ein av dei fremste stoiske filosofane. Marcus Aurelius blei fødd som Marcus Annius Verus og var av spanskætta patrisiarslekt. Far hans døydde tidleg, og han voks opp saman med mora og farfaren i nærleiken av Keisarpalasset i Roma. Han utmerkte seg tidleg hjå den dåverande keisar Hadrian. På dødsleiet adopterte Hadrian den komande keisar Pius, som så adopterte Marcus Aurelius. Frå 138 til 145 konsentrerte Aurelius seg om studiene, og fekk ei grundig utdanning i i retorikk, jus og statsstell. Frå 147 deltok han i regjeringa til adoptivfaren. Etter at Pius døydde i 161 blei han keisar under namnet Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Pius), men hadde adoptivbroren Lucius Aurelius Verus som medregent fram til denne døydde i 169. «Pass på at ikke mennesket går under i keiserverdigheten, at ikke purpuren smitter av på deg. Slikt hender. Hold deg selv enkel, god, ren, verdig, uaffektert, rettferdig, from, velvillig, kjærlig, sterk nok til de riktige oppgåver. Kjemp for at du stadig må være slik som filosofien vil gjøre deg. Vis ærefrykt for gudene, frels mennesker. Livet er kort. Den eneste frukt av et jordeliv er fromhet og handlinger til samfunnets gagn.» Marcus Aurelius Til meg selv Jamvel om Aurelius var ein filosofisk, fredsæl mann, blei keisartida hans prega av stadige konfliktar, og han blei nøydd til å føre ei rad forsvarskrigar fram til sin død. Frå 161 utkjempa han ein krig mot Partia, Romarrikets gamle erkefiendar i aust. Denne konflikten opphøyrde i 166, men blei etterfølgd av krig same året mot ei germansk folkegruppe som hadde kryssa Brennerpasset. I 173 måtte Aurelius til fronten enno ein gong, etter at det kom til krig med eit rytterfolk på steppene i Austeuropa, før han i 174 igjen nedkjempa ei germansk folkegruppe. I tillegg blei Italia i denne perioden råka av fleire epidemiar og naturkatastrofar. I år 177 tok han sonen Commodus som medkeisar, og braut dermed tradisjonen der keisaren valde sin etterfølgjar ved adopsjon. Same året reiste han til fronten for igjen å kjempe mot germanske stammar. Han døydde under felttoget i 180, moglegvis ved dagens Mitrovic ved elva Save, eller i Wien. Trass i alle konfliktene var Aurelius rekna for å vere ein mild og human herskar. Han forsøkte å gjere den romerske lovgivinga meir rettferdig, og prøvde å lette skadeverknadene frå pest og naturkatastrofar gjennom gåver og ettergjeving av skatt. Aurelius sin personlegdom kjem kanskje best fram gjennom dei tolv kapitla som utgjer Til meg selv. Her skildrar han ei mild stoisk livshaldning etter mønster av Epiktet og Seneca. Boka er skriven på gresk, og forfatta medan Aurelius oppheldt seg ved krigsfronten. I boka legg han vekt på sjølvprøving og god opptreden overfor andre menneske. Han uttrykkjer ei tru på eit forsyn som ordnar alt til det beste, og han understrekar at alle menneske er del av den same naturen. Kjelder[endre | endre wikiteksten] Denne artikkelen baserer seg heilt eller delvis på det danske Salmonsens konversationsleksikon 2. utgåve (1915–1930). «Innledning» av Rebecca Hammering Bang i Aurelius, Marcus. Til meg selv. Cappelen, Oslo 2004. 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no-wikipedia-org-6389	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopedi Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Marcus AureliusMarcvs Avrelivs Født Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus 26. april 121[1] Roma Død 17. mars 180[2][3] (58 år) Vindobona Naturlige årsaker Gravlagt Castel Sant'Angelo Ektefelle Faustina den yngre[4] Far Marcus Annius Verus Mor Domitia Lucilla Søsken Annia Cornificia Faustina Barn 9 oppføringer Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus Caesar, Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina, Fadilla, Lucilla, Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, Vibia Aurelia Sabina, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, Domitia Faustina Beskjeftigelse Politiker, filosof, skribent Embete Romersk keiser (161–180), romersk senator, romersk konsul, kvestor (139) Nasjonalitet Romerriket Navn som keiser: MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS Regjerte 161–180 Dynasti Nerva-antoninske Forgjenger Antoninus Pius Etterfølger Commodus Marcus Aurelius på Commons Se også liste over romerske keisere Marcus Aurelius (latin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus;[5][6] født 26. april 121, død 17. mars 180) var romersk keiser fra 161 til 180. Han styrte sammen med Lucius Verus som medkeiser fra 161 og fram til Verus’ død i 169. Han var den siste av de fem gode keiserne, og grunnet sin stoiske filosofi og forfatterskap kalles han i ettertid gjerne for «filosofkeiseren».[7] I løpet av hans styre beseiret Romerriket et revitalisert partisk rike i øst; Aurelius' general Avidius Cassius herjet hovedstaden Ktesifon i 164. I Sentral-Europa bekjempet Aurelius med hell barbariske stammer som markomannere, kvadere og sarmatere i de markomanniske kriger. Et opprør i øst, ledet av Avidius Cassius, mislyktes i å skaffe seg tilstrekkelig kraft og ble slått ned øyeblikkelig. Marcus Aurelius’ stoiske verk Til meg selv, skrevet på gresk mens han drev krig mellom 170 og 180 er fortsatt vurdert som et litterært monument til en stoisk filosofi om tjeneste og plikt, og beskriver hvordan man kan finne og bevare likevekt og sinnsro i midten av en konflikt ved å følge naturen som en kilde til rettledning og inspirasjon. Innhold 1 Kilder 2 Liv og verk 2.1 Bakgrunn og utdannelse 2.2 Hadrians etterfølgelse, 136–138 2.3 Arving til Antoninus Pius, 138–145 2.4 Fronto og ytterligere utdannelse, 136–161 2.5 Fødsler og død, 147–160 2.6 Antoninus Pius’ siste år, 152–161 3 Som keiser 3.1 Tiltredelsen til Marcus og Lucius, 161 3.2 Tidlig styre, 161–162 3.3 Krig med Partia, 161–166 3.3.1 Opprinnelsen til Lucius' avskjed, 161–162 3.3.2 Lucius ved Antiokia, 162–165 3.3.3 Motangrep og seier, 163–166 3.3.4 Krigens slutt og hendelser i Roma, fram til 167 3.3.5 Juridisk og administrativt arbeid, 161–180 3.3.6 Krig med germanske stammer, 166–180 3.4 Død og arverekkefølge 4 Arv og omdømme 5 Forfatterskap 6 Ekteskap og barn 7 Litteratur 8 Se også 9 Referanser 10 Eksterne lenker Kilder[rediger | rediger kilde] Rytterstatue av Marcus Aurelius (utsnitt) i Kapitolmuseene i Roma. De fremste kildene for livet og keisertiden til Marcus Aurelius er av ujevn kvalitet og til tider upålitelige. Den viktigste gruppen av kilder er en rekke biografier i Historia Augusta. Dette verket består av tvilsomme kilder og innhold som er ren diktning, men til tross for disse problemene, er verket et av få fra perioden, og dens detaljer blir således stadig revurdert.[8] Senere biografier over underordnete keisere og opprørske fordringshavere til keisertittelen er preget av propaganda, løgner og diktning, men tidligere biografier, avledet fra eldre og nå tapte kilder, som Marius Maximus og Ignotus «den gode biograf»,[9] er langt mer nøyaktige, men de om Aelius Verus og Avidius Cassius er preget av ren diktning.[10] Brevvekslingen mellom Marcus Aurelius’ lærer Fronto og rekke myndighetsbrev fra tiden til Antoninus Pius har blitt bevart i rekke hullete manuskripter, og som dekker perioden fra rundt 138 til 166.[11] Marcus’ egne Meditasjoner gir et vindu inn i hans indre liv, men er i stor grad uten dateringer og har få særskilte referanser til ytre affærer.[12] Den fremste kilden for perioden er Dio Cassius, gresktalende senator fra byen Nikea i Bitynia, som skrev en historie om Roma fra dens grunnleggelse og til 229 i åtti bøker (bokruller). Dio Cassius er vesentlig for periodens militære historie, men hans senatoriske fordommer og sterke opposisjon til keiserdømmets ekspansjon gjør hans perspektiv uklart.[13] En del andre litterære kilder har gitt spesifikke detaljer: skriftene til legen Galenos (Aelius Galenus eller Galen) om skikkene til eliten under det nerva-antoninske dynasti; talene til Aelius Aristides om tidens lynne; og lovverkene bevart i Digest og Codex Justinianus om Marcus Aurelius’ lovarbeid.[14] Inskripsjoner og myntfunn har utfylt litterære kilder.[15] Liv og verk[rediger | rediger kilde] Bakgrunn og utdannelse[rediger | rediger kilde] Denarius, utstedt i 140 med portrett av Antoninus Pius (forside) og med hans adoptivsønn Marcus Aurelius (bakside). En byste av Marcus Aurelius som en ung gutt (Kapitolmuseene). Marcus' familie hadde sin opprinnelse i Ucubi, i dag hetende Espejo, en liten by sørøst for Córdoba i iberiske Baetica. Familien klatret sosialt på 100-tallet. Marcus’ oldefar Marcus Annius Verus (I) var en senator og (i henhold til Historia Augusta) tidligere pretor; i 73–74 ble hans bestefar, Marcus Annius Verus (II), gjort til patrisier.[16][17] Verus' eldre sønn, far til Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Annius Verus (III) giftet seg med Domitia Lucilla.[18] Lucilla var datteren av patrisieren P. Calvisius Tullus Ruso og den eldre Domitia Lucilla. Den eldre Domitia Lucilla hadde arvet en stor formue (omfattende beskrevet i et av Plinius den yngres brev) fra hennes bestefar på morssiden ved adopsjon.[19] Den yngre Lucilla kom til å få mye av sin mors rikdom, inkludert en stor mursteinsfabrikk i utkanten av Roma — et lønnsomt foretak i en tid da byen gjennomgikk en stor byggefase.[20] Lucilla og Verus (III) fikk to barn: en sønn, Marcus, født den 26. april 121, og en datter, Annia Cornificia Faustina, antagelig født i 122 eller 123.[21] Verus (III) døde antagelig i 124 mens han var pretor da Marcus var kun tre år gammel.[22][23] Selv om han knapt kan ha kjent ham skrev Marcus Aurelius i sine Meditasjoner at han hadde lært «beskjedenhet og mandighet» fra sine minner om faren, og fra hans posthume omdømme.[24] Lucilla giftet seg ikke på nytt.[22] Lucilla tilbrakte antagelig ikke mye tid med sin sønn, i henhold til de rådende aristokratiske skikkene. Han ble tatt hånd om kvinnelige tjenere, men likevel har Marcus rost sin mor for å ha lært ham «religiøs fromhet, enkelhet i matveien» og hvordan å unngå «de rikes væremåter».[25] I sine brev kom Marcus jevnlig og med hengivne henvisninger til henne; han var takknemlig for at «selv om hennes skjebne var å dø ung, tilbrakte hun sine siste år med meg.»[26] Etter sin fars død ble Marcus oppfostret av sin bestefar på morssiden, Marcus Annius Verus, som i henhold til romersk lov alltid hadde beholdt «patria potestas» over sin sønn og sønnesønn. Teknisk sett var dette ikke en adopsjon ettersom det ville ha vært en juridisk opprettelse av en ny og annerledes «patria potestas» (II).[27] En annen mann, Lucius Catilius Severus, deltok også i hans oppfostring. Severus er beskrevet som Marcus’ «oldefar på morssiden»; han er antagelig stefar til den eldre Lucilla.[27] Marcus vokste opp i sine foreldres hjem på Celiohøyden, et område han kom til å omtale med hengivenhet som «mitt Celio».[28] Det var en eksklusiv region, få offentlige bygninger, men mange aristokratiske villaer. Bestefar til Marcus eide sitt eget palass ved siden av Lateranpalasset og hvor Marcus kom til å tilbringe mye av sin barndom.[29] Marcus kom til å takke bestefaren for å ha lært ham «god karakter og unngå dårlig lynne.»[30] Han var mindre begeistret for den elskerinne som bestefaren tok og som han levde sammen med etter at hans hustru Rupilia Faustina døde.[31] Han var takknemlig for at han ikke trengte å bo sammen med henne lengre enn han gjorde.[32] Marcus fikk undervisning i hjemmet slik som det var i samtidens aristokrati;[33] han takket Catilius Severus for å ha oppmuntret ham til å unngå offentlige skoler.[34] En av hans lærere, Diognetus, som underviste maleri, viste seg å ha være særlig innflytelsesrik; han synes å ha vært den som introduserte Marcus til en filosofisk holdning til livet.[35] I april 132, på bud av Diognetus, begynte Marcus å kle seg og ta til seg leveviset til filosofer; han studerte mens han bar en grov gresk slengkappe, og sov på gulvet inntil hans mor overbeviste ham om å sove i en seng.[36] En ny rekke av lærere — Aleksander fra Cotiaeum (Kotyaion), Trosius Aper og Tuticius Proculus[37] — tok over hans undervisning en gang i 132 eller 133.[38] Lite er kjent om de to sistnevnte (begge var lærere i latin), men Aleksander var en betydelig litterat og den ledende Homer-eksperten i sin tid.[39] Marcus takket Aleksander for hans undervisning i litterær stil.[40] Aleksanders innflytelse — vektlegging på sak framfor stil, på omsorgsfull valg av ord og med tidvis sitat fra Homer — har blitt påvist i Marcus’ Til meg selv.[38] Hadrians etterfølgelse, 136–138[rediger | rediger kilde] Portrett av keiser Marcus Aurelius - Palazzo Nuovo (Kapitolmuseene). På slutten av 136 hadde Hadrian nesten dødd fra en endetarmsblødning. Som rekonvalesent i sin villa ved Tivoli utenfor Roma, valgte han Lucius Ceionius Commodus som sin etterfølger, og adopterte ham som sin sønn.[41] Valgte ble gjort invitis omnibus, «mot alles ønsker»;[42] de eventuelle rasjonelle grunnene er fortsatt uklare.[43] Som en del av sin adopsjon tok Commodus navnet Lucius Aelius Cæsar. Etter en kort stasjoneringen ved grensen langs Donau, kom Aelius tilbake til Roma for å tale til det romerske senatet på den første dagen i 138. Natten før han skulle holde talen, ble han imidlertid syk og døde fra endetarmsblødning senere på dagen.[44] Den 24. januar 138 valgte Hadrian en ny etterfølger, Aurelius Antoninus.[45] Etter noen dagers betenkningstid aksepterte Antoninus. han ble adoptert den 25. februar. Som en del av Hadrians betingelser måtte Antoninus adoptere Marcus og Lucius Verus, sønn av Lucius Aelius. Ved denne planen ble Lucius Verus, som allerede var Hadrians barnebarn via adopsjon via hans biologiske far, også hans adopterte sønn via hans nye far. Adopsjonen av Marcus Aurelius var antagelig et forslag fra Antoninus selv ettersom Marcus var nevø av hans hustru og kom til å bli hans favorittsønn. Som adoptert ble Marcus’ nye navn M. Aelius Aurelius Verus; Lucius ble L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. På Hadrians anmodning ble Antoninus’ datter Faustina trolovet med Lucius.[46] Marcus ble sjokkert til å høre at keiseren skulle bli hans adopterte bestefar. Kun med ulyst flyttet han fra sin mors hus på Celiohøyden og til Hadrians private hjem.[47] En gang i 138 anmodet Hadrian i senatet at Marcus ble fritatt fra loven som unntok ham fra å bli kvestor før han hadde fylt 24 år. Senatet bøyde seg og Marcus tjenestegjorde under Antoninus, konsul for 139.[48] Marcus’ adopsjon adskilte ham fra den typiske karrierevei som tilhørte hans samfunnsklasse. På grunn av hans adopsjon ble han sannsynligvis triumvir monetalis, en av tre myndighetspersoner i Roma som ble utpekt for å overvåke pregingen av statens mynter; etter det kunne han ha tjenestegjort som tribun for en legion og normalt ha blitt legionens andrekommanderende i navnet. Marcus kunne antagelig ha valgt å reise og tatt videre utdannelse, eksempelvis i Athen som flere av adelens unge sønner ofte gjorde. Som det var sto han i en annen posisjon enn sine jevnaldrende, men uansett bevitner hans biograf at hans vesen forble uaffektert: «Han viste fortsatt den samme respekt i sine forhold som han hadde gjort da han var en vanlig borger, og han var så sparsommelig og forsiktig med sin eiendeler som han hadde vært som da han bodde i en privat husholdning.»[49] Etter en rekke forsøk på selvmord, alle forhindret av Antoninus, reiste Hadrian til Baiae, et feriested ved kysten av Campania. Hans kondisjon ble ikke bedre, og han oppga å holde seg til den diett som hans leger hadde foreskrevet, og henga seg til mat og drikke. Han sendte bud på Antoninus, som således var ved hans side da han døde den 10. juli 138.[50] Antoninus’ etterfølgelse til keisertronen var fredelig og stabil. Antoninus behold Hardians utvalgte i deres posisjoner og tilfredsstilte senatet, respekterte dets privilegier og reduserte de dødsdommer som var blitt anklaget i Hadrians siste dager.[51] For sin pliktoppfyllende oppførsel ble Antoninus bedt om å akseptere navnet Pius («den fromme»).[52] Arving til Antoninus Pius, 138–145[rediger | rediger kilde] Baiae, feriested ved kysten og hvor Hadrian hadde sine siste dager. Marcus ferierte i byen med den keiserlige familie i sommeren 143.[53] (J.M.W. Turner, The Bay of Baiae, with Apollo and Sybil, 1823) Umiddelbart etter Hadrians død henvendte Antoninus seg til Marcus og anmodet om hans arrangementer for bryllupet ble endret: Marcus’ trolovelse til Ceionia Fabia ville bli annullert, og ville isteden bli trolovet til Faustina, Antoninus’ datter. Faustinas opprinnelige forlovelse med Ceionias bror Lucius Commodus ble også annullert. Marcus aksepterte Antoninus’ forslag.[54] Antoninus støttet opp om Marcus’ verdighet. Han ble gjort til konsul for året 140 sammen med keiseren som hans kollega, og ble dessuten utpekt til å være seviri, en av rytternes seks kommandanter ved ordenens årlige parade den 15. juli 139. Som kronprins til keisertronen ble Marcus gjort til princeps iuventutis, leder for equites, den romerske rytterorden. Han tok navnet Cæsar (som i tittelen cæsar): Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Cæsar.[55] Marcus kom senere til advare seg selv om å ta navnet for alvorlig: «Se til at du ikke endres til en cæsar; ikke bli dyppet i purpurfarge — for det kan skje.»[56] På senatets anmodning ble Marcus medlem av samtlige prestekollegier (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);[57] direkte bevis på medlemskap er imidlertid kun tilgjengelig for Fratres Arvales (= «Brødrene for markene»), de prester som ofret for god høsting.[58] Antoninus krevde at Marcus begynte å bo i Tiberius’ hus,[59] det keiserlige palass på Palatinerhøyden. Antoninus fikk ham også til å rette se getter motene på stedet, aulicum fastigium («hoffets prakt»), til tross for Marcus’ innsigelser.[57] Marcus kom til å slite med å forsone sin filosofiske lengsel med livet ved hoffet. Han fortalte seg selv at det var et oppnåelig mål; «hvor liv er mulig, da er det mulig å leve det riktige liv; liv er mulig i et palass, så det er mulig å leve det riktige liv i et palass.»[60] Men han det uansett vanskelig. Han kom til å kritisere seg selv i Til meg selv for «misbruke hofflivet» foran andre.[61] Som kvestor ville Marcus ha svært lite virkelig administrativt arbeid å gjøre. Han ville lese keiserlige brev til senatet når Antoninus var fraværende, og ville gjøre sekretærarbeid for senatorene. Hans plikter som konsul var mer betydningsfulle; som den ene av to seniorrepresentanter i senatet ville han presidere over møter og ha en betydelig rolle i forsamlingens administrative funksjoner.[62] Han ble druknet i papirarbeid, og klagde til sin lærer Fronto: «Jeg er helt uten pust igjen etter å ha diktert bortimot tretti brev.»[63] Han var «tilpasset for å styre staten», i ordene til hans biograf.[64] Det var også påkrevd at han talte til forsamlingen av senatorer og studerte taleteknikk og retorikk som var vesentlig for oppgaven.[65] Den 1. februar 145 ble Marcus gjort til konsul for andre gang. Han kan ha vært noe syk på denne tiden: et brev fra Fronto som kan ha blitt sendt på denne tiden henstilte Marcus å få nok søvn «slik at du kan komme inn i senatet med en god farge og lese din tale med en sterk stemme.»[66] Marcus hadde klaget på en sykdom i et tidligere brev: «Angående min styrke, så begynner jeg å få den tilbake; og det er ikke spor av smerten i brystet mitt. (…) Jeg har fått behandling og er omsorgsfull for ikke å gjøre noe forstyrrer med det.»[67] Marcus var aldri særskilt frisk og sterk. Den romerske historikeren Dio Cassius, som skrev om hans senere år, roste ham for å oppfylle sine plikter til tross for hans ulike sykdommer.[68] En byste av Faustina den yngre, Marcus' hustru (Louvre). I april 145 giftet Marcus seg med Faustina, slik som det hadde vært planlagt siden 138. Ettersom Marcus var, ved adopsjon, Antoninus Pius’ giftet han seg formelt under romersk lov med sin søster. Antonius måtte ha fristilt den eller den andre fra hans faderlige autoritet, hans patria potestas («familiens overhode») for at seremonien kunne finne sted.[69] Få detaljer er kjent om bryllupet, men det er sagt at det var «bemerkelsesverdig».[70] Mynter ble utstedt med hodene til paret, og Antoninus, som Pontifex Maximus, ville ha forerettet. Marcus gjør ingen åpenbar referanse til ekteskapet i hans bevarte brev, og kun sparsommelige referanser til Faustina.[71] Fronto og ytterligere utdannelse, 136–161[rediger | rediger kilde] Etter å ha tatt toga virilis i 136, begynte Marcus antagelig sin undervisning i stemme- og talekunst.[72] Han hadde tre lærere i gresk, Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, og Herodes Atticus, og en i latin, Fronto. De to sistnevnte var de to aktede retorikere og talere i samtiden.[73] Fronto og Atticus ble antagelig ikke hans lærere før han ble adoptert av Antoninus in 138. Overvekten av greske lærere indikerer vektleggingen av å kunne gresk for Romas aristokrati.[74] Dette var tidsalderen for «den andre sofisme», en renessanse for gresk dannelse. Selv om Marcus fikk sin undervisning i Roma, valgte Marcus i sine Meditasjoner å skrive sine filosofiske tanker på gresk, ikke latin. Byste av Herodes Atticus, fra hans villa ved Kifissia utenfor Athen. Herodes Atticus var kontroversiell, en særdeles rik greker fra Athen, antagelig en av de aller rikeste borgere i den østlige delen av Romerriket, ble raskt rasende, og ikke særlig godt likt av andre i Athen for sitt snobbete, foraktfulle vesen.[75] Atticus var en inngrodd motstander av stoisme og filosofiske pretensjoner.[76] Han mente at stoikernes ønske om «fravær av følelser» var tåpelig; de ville leve et «langsomt, enerverende liv.»[77] Marcus kom derimot til å bli en stoiker. Han nevner ikke Atticus i det hele tatt i sine Meditasjoner, til tross for at de holdt kontakten i de neste tiårene.[78] Fronto var meget vel ansett: i den selvbevisste antikvariske verden av latinske tekster,[79] var han vurdert som kun nest etter Cicero, kanskje selv også som et alternativ til ham.[80][81] Historikere har sett på ham som «pedantisk og kjedelig», hans tekster har verken gitt politiske analyser tilsvarende en Cicero eller samvittighetsfulle reportasjer tilsvarende en Plinius den eldre.[82] Nyere prosopografisk forskning har dog rehabilitert en del av hans dårlige moderne omdømme.[82] Fronto hadde ikke sans for Atticus, men Marcus fikk dem på talefot. Fronto mestret latin til fingerspissene, i stand til å spore uttrykk og talemåter i litteraturen, skape spissfindige og uklare synonymer, og utfordre mindre utilbørligheter i valgene av ord.[80] En betydelig mengde av brevvekslingen mellom Fronto og Marcus har overlevd.[83] De to sto meget nær hverandre som venner. Marcus tilbrakte tid med Frontos hustru og datter, som begge het Cratia, og de likte omgjengelige samtaler.[84] Marcus skrev et brev til Fronto på hans fødselsdag hvor han svulstig hevdet at han elsket sin venn som han elsket seg selv, og påkalte gudene for å sikre at hvert eneste ord han lærte fra litteraturen, ville han lære fra Frontos egne lepper.[85] Hans bønner for Frontos helse var mer enn høflighetsfraser ettersom Fronto var jevnlig syk; til tider synes han å ha vært bortimot invalid, alltid med lidelser,[86] og bortimot en fjerdedel av de bevarte brevene omhandler mannens sykdommer.[87] Marcus ber om at Frontos smerter isteden må falle på ham selv.[88] Fronto ble aldri Marcus’ lærer på full tid, og fortsatte sin karriere som advokat. En beryktet sak førte ham i konflikt med Herodes Atticus.[89] Marcus anmodet Fronto, først med «råd», deretter som en «tjeneste», om ikke å angripe Atticus; han hadde allerede bedt Atticus om ikke å angripe først.[90] Fronto svarte at han var overrasket over å oppdage at Marcus regnet Atticus som en venn (kanskje Atticus ennå ikke var blitt Marcus’ lærer), og innrømmet at Marcus kunne ha rett,[91] men bedyret uansett at hans hensikt var å vinne saken med alle midler som var tilgjengelig: «… anklagene var fryktelige og bli uttalt som fryktelige. Disse i særdeleshet som refererer til overfall og ran vil jeg beskrive på en slik måte at de smaker av galle. Om jeg kommer til å kalle ham for en udannet liten greker, betyr det ikke en krig til døden.»[92] Utkommet av rettssaken er ukjent.[93] Da Marcus var 24 år (mellom april 146 og april 147) hadde han blitt trett og misfornøyd med sine studier av rettsvitenskapen, og viste en del tegn på generelt ubehag. Hans mester, skrev han til Fronto, var en ubehagelig skrythals. Han hadde gått lei av øvelsene, å ta standpunkt i tenkte debatter. Når han kritiserte falskheten i konvensjonelt språk, begynte Fronto å forsvare det.[94] I uansett tilfelle var Marcus’ formelle utdannelse nå over. Han hadde opprettholdt et godt forhold til sine lærere og fulgt dem ydmykt. Det hadde «påvirket hans helse ugunstig», skrev hans biograf, å legge så mye anstrengelser i studiene. Det var det ene tingen som biografen fant feil med i hele hans ungdomstid.[95] Fronto hadde advart Marcus mot studere filosofi for tidlig: «det er bedre å aldri ha berørt filosofiens lære… enn å ha smakt det overfladisk, så vidt med leppene...»[96] Han foraktet filosofi og filosofer, og nedvurderte Marcus’ samlinger med Apollonios fra Khalkedon og andre innenfor denne sirkelen.[83] Fronto ga en uvennlig tolkning av Marcus’ «konvertering til filosofi» som «ungdom trett av arbeid», og hadde Marcus vendt seg til filosofi for å slippe unna de gjentatt øvelsene med taletrening.[97] Marcus beholdt kontakten med Fronto, overså hans betenkeligheter.[98] Apollonios kan ha introdusert Marcus til stoisk filosofi, men Quintus Junius Rusticus var antagelig den som hadde størst innflytelse på den unge mannen.[99] Han var den som Fronto anklaget for å ha fristet Marcus fra studier av talekunst.[100] Han var tjue år eldre enn Marcus og eldre enn Fronto. Som sønnesønn av Arulenus Rusticus, en av ofrene for tyranniet til Domitianus som styrte i 81-96, han var arvingen til tradisjonen med «stoisk opposisjon» til «grusomme keisere» på 100-tallet,[101] den virkelige etterfølgeren til Seneca (i motsetningen til Fronto, den falske).[102] Marcus takket Rusticus for å ha lært ham «ikke å bli forledet inn i retorikkens entusiasme, for å skrive om spektakulære ting, for å foredra om moraliserende tekster… Unngå det oratoriske, poetiske, og 'gylne penner'.»[103] Fødsler og død, 147–160[rediger | rediger kilde] Hadrians mausoleum, hvor barna til Marcus og Faustina ble gravlagt. Den 30. november fødte Faustina en pike som ble gitt navnet Domitia Faustina. Hun var den første av minst tretten barn (inkludert to ganger tvillinger) som Faustina fødte i løpet av de neste 23 årene. Den neste dagen, den 1. desember, ga Antoninus Pius sin svigersønn maktposisjonene som tribun og imperium, sistnevnte autoritet over keiserens hæravdelinger og provinser. Som tribun hadde Marcus retten til fremme en sak for senatet. Han makt som tribun ble fornyet den 10. desember 147.[104] Første gang Domitia nevnes i brevene til Marcus avslører henne som et sykelig barn. «Cæsar til Fronto. Om gudene er villige, vil se håp om bedring. Diaréen har stoppet opp, de små angrepene med feber har blitt drevet tilbake. Men avmagringen er fortsatt stor og det er fortsatt ganske mye hosting.» Han og Faustina, skrev Marcus, har vært «ganske opptatt» av omsorgen av den lille piken.[105] Domitia døde i 151.[106] I 149 fødte Faustina på nytt, to tvillinger. Samtidens mynter feiret hendelsen med krysset cornucopiae (fruktbarhetssymbol, overflod og lykke)[107] under portrettbyster av to små gutter, og teksten temporum felicitas, «tidens lykke». Lykken varte dog ikke lenge, og guttebarna døde, men ved slutten av året ble enda en familiemynt preget: det viste en tynn liten pike, Domitia Faustina, og et guttebarn. Deretter enda en: en pike alene. Barna ble gravlagt i Hadrians mausoleum, hvor deres epitafer har overlevd. De ble kalt for Titus Aurelius Antoninus og Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.[108] Marcus beroliget seg selv: «En mann ber: ‘Hvordan kan jeg slippe å miste mitt lille barn’, men du må be. ‘Hvordan kan jeg ikke være redd for å miste ham’.»[109] Han siterte fra Iliaden det han kalte den «korteste og mest kjente munnhell… nok til å spre sorg og frykt: Liksom trærnes vekslende løv er menneksers slekter. Vindene hvirvler til jord de visnede blade; men skogen kler seg i løv og blomster påny, når det stunder mot våren. Således spirer en slekt av menn, mens en annen må visne. – Homer: Iliaden [110] En annen datter ble født den 7. mars 250, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. En gang mellom 155 og 161, antagelig kort tid etter 155, døde Marcus mor Domitia Lucilla, died.[111] Faustina fødte antagelig enda en datter i 151, men barnet Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina kan muligens ikke ha vært født før i 153. En myntutgivelse feiret fecunditati Augustæ, «Augustas fruktbarhet» og viste to piker og en gutt. Gutten overlevde ikke lenge, på mynter fra 156 er det kun to piker som er avbildet. Han kan ha dødd i 152, det samme året som Marcus’ søster Cornificia døde.[112] Den 28. mars 158, imidlertid, da et barn var dødt, takket Marcus tempelsynoden, «selv om dette kom til bli noe annet.» Barnets navn er ukjent.[113] I 159 og 160 fødte Faustina to døtre: Fadilla, etter en av Faustinas døde søstre, og Cornificia, etter en av Marcus’ døde søstre.[114] Antoninus Pius’ siste år, 152–161[rediger | rediger kilde] Antoninus Pius, Marcus’ adoptivfar og forgjenger som keiser (Glyptothek). I mellomtiden, under styret til Antoninus Pius, hadde Marcus’ adoptivbror Lucius Verus, som kronprins og framtidig keiser, fått en omsorgsfull utdannelse fra den berømte grammaticus Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Det ble sagt at den unge Verus var en utmerket student, glad i å skrive poesi og gi taler. Lucius begynte sin karriere som kvestor i 153, to år før den lovlige alder på 25 (Marcus hadde hatt posisjonen da han var 17 år). I 154 var han konsul, ni år før den lovlige alderen på 32 år (Marcus hadde posisjonen da han var 18 og deretter 23 år), og i 161 var han konsul på nytt med Marcus Aurelius som hans eldre partner. Lucius hadde ingen andre titler enn «sønn av Augustus». Han hadde en markant annen personlighet enn Marcus; han var glad i alle former for sport og idrett, men særlig jakt og bryting. Han hadde glede av sirkusleker og gladiatorkamper.[115] Han giftet seg ikke før i 164.[116] I 156 ble Antoninus Pius 70 år. Han fant det vanskelig å holde seg oppreist uten å gå med støtte, en form for korsett. Han begynte å knaske på tørt brød for å få styrke til å holde seg våken under sin morgensesjoner. Etter hvert som Antoninus ble eldre begynte Marcus å overta flere av de administrative pliktene, enda flere da han ble pretoriansk prefekt (en posisjon som var mer preget av sekretærarbeid enn militært) etter at Gavius Maximus døde i 156 eller 157.[117] I 160 ble Marcus og Lucius utnevnt som felles-konsuler for det følgende året. Kanskje Antoninus allerede var syk; i uansett tilfelle døde han før året var omme.[114] To dager før sin død forteller hans biograf at Antoninus var ved sine forfedres eiendom ved Lorium i Etruria,[118] rundt 19 km fra Roma.[119] Han spiste ost fra Alpene til middag med god appetitt, men om natten kastet han opp og fikk feber neste dag. Dagen deretter, den 7. mars 161,[120] samlet han det keiserlige råd, overdro staten og sin datter til Marcus. Keiseren ga kjernen til sitt liv i det siste ordet han mumlet da tribunen for nattvakten kom for å be om passord; "aequanimitas" («sinnsro»).[121] Han snudde seg som om han ville sove og døde.[122] Hans død avsluttet det lengste regimet siden Augustus, overgikk Tiberius med et par måneder.[123] Som keiser[rediger | rediger kilde] Lucius Verus, Marcus’ med-keiser fra 161 og til Verus’ død i 169 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, på lån fra Musée du Louvre). Tiltredelsen til Marcus og Lucius, 161[rediger | rediger kilde] Etter at Antoninus Pius døde, ble Marcus i praksis enehersker av Romerriket. Formalitetene for posisjon kom etter hvert. Senatet ga ham snart navnet Augustus og tittelen imperator, og han ble snart formelt valgt som Pontifex Maximus, ypperste prest for de offisielle religiøse kulter. Marcus viste en del tegn på motstand: biografen skrev at han var «tvunget» til å ta den keiserlige posisjon.[124] Det kan ha vært en ektefølt horror imperii, «frykt for keiserlig makt». Marcus, som foretrakk et filosofisk liv, fant ikke posisjonen som keiser fristende. Hans undervisning som stoiker hadde imidlertid gjort valget klart. Det var hans plikt. En stoiker skulle gjøre sin plikt.[125] Selv om Marcus ikke viste noen personlig hengivenhet for Hadrian (det er påtagelig at han ikke mottar takk i hans første bok av Meditasjoner), antagelig mente at det var hans plikt bestemme mannens etterfølgerplaner.[126] Således hadde senatet planlagt bekrefte Marcus alene som keiser, men han nektet ta imot posisjon om ikke Lucius fikk tilsvarende myndighet.[127] Senatet aksepterte, ga Lucius imperium, tribunal makt, og navnet Augustus.[128] Marcus ble i den offisielle tituleringen til Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, oppga sitt navn Commodus og Marcus' familienavn Verus og ble Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.[129][130] Dette var den første gangen at Roma ble styrt av to keisere samtidig.[131][132] Til tross for at de var formelt likestilte, hadde Marcus mer auctoritas, «autoritet», enn Lucius. Han hadde vært konsul en gang mer enn Lucius, han hadde delt Antoninus’ administrasjon, og han alene var Pontifex Maximus. Det ville ha vært åpenbart for folket hvilken keiser som var den eldste og ledende.[131] Som biografen skrev, «Verus adlød Marcus… som en løytnant adlyder en prokonsul eller en guvernør adlyder en keiser.»[133] Umiddelbart etter at de var blitt bekreftet av det romerske senatet, dro keiserne til Castra Praetoria, leiren til pretorianergarden. Lucius talte til de samlede troppene som deretter utropte paret som imperatores, keisere. Deretter, som enhver keiser siden Claudius, lovte Lucius troppene en særskilt gave.[134] Denne var imidlertid dobbelt så stor som tidligere. 20 000 sestercer (5 000 denarii) per hode, og mer til offiserene. I gjenytelse for denne gaven, tilsvarende som flere årslønner, sverget troppene en ed om å beskytte keiserne.[135] Seremonien var kanskje ikke helt nødvendig gitt at Marcus tiltredelse som keiser hadde vært fredelig og uten opposisjon, men det var en god forsikring mot senere militære vanskeligheter.[136] Straks han var blitt keiser devaluerte Marcus også den romerske valutaen. Han minsket sølvrenheten i denarius fra 83,5 % til 79 % og sølvvekten sank fra 2,68 gram til 2,57 gram.[137] Imidlertid kom Marcus senere til å endre valutareformen. Antoninus Pius’ begravelsesseremonier var omfattende.[138] Om hans begravelse fulgte mønsteret til tidligere begravelser, ville hans legeme ha blitt plassert på et likbål ved Campus Martius, slik at hans ånd kunne stige opp til gudenes hjem i himlene. Marcus og Lucius nominerte deres for gudeliggjøring. I kontrast til deres oppførsel under Antoninus’ kampanje for å gudeliggjøre Hadrian, motsatte senatet seg ikke deres ønsker. En flamen, eller kultprest, ble utnevnt for administrere den religiøse kulten til den guddommeliggjorte Antoninus, nå Divus Antoninus. Hans levninger ble gravlagt i Hadrians mausoleum, ved siden av levningene av Marcus' tidligdødte barn og Hadrian selv.[139] Tempelet han hadde dedikert til sin hustru, Diva Faustina, ble Tempelet til Antoninus og Faustina. Det overlevde ved å bli kirken til «San Lorenzo i Miranda».[136] Den står i Forum Romanum, ved Via Sacra, motsatt av Regia. I henhold til sitt testamente gikk Antoninus’ formue til Faustina.[140] (Marcus hadde lite behov for sin hustrus formue. Faktisk, da han ble keiser, overførte Marcus deler av sin mors eiendommer til sin nevø, Ummius Quadratus.[141]) Faustina var gravid i tredje måned da Marcus ble keiser. Under svangerskapet drømte hun om å føde to slanger, den ene mer fryktelig enn den andre.[142] Den 31. august fødte hun to tvillinger ved Lanuvium: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus og Lucius Aurelius Commodus.[143] Bortsett fra det faktum at tvillingene ble født på Caligulas fødselsdag, var varslene gode, og astrologene trakk opp positive horoskoper for barna.[144] Fødselene ble feiret på keiserlige myntutgivelser.[145] Tidlig styre, 161–162[rediger | rediger kilde] Marmorportrett av Marcus Aurelius[146] Mynt med profilportrett av Marcus Aurelius Kort tid etter at han tok purpurkappen ble Marcus 11 år gamle datter Annia Lucilla forlovet til Lucius (til tross for at han formelt sett var hennes onkel).[147] Ved seremoniene som markerte hendelsen ble det gitt provisjoner til støtte for fattige barn, tilsvarende som tidligere keiserlige opprettelser.[148] Marcus og Lucius ble populære hos folket i Roma som var godt fornøyd med deres oppførsel av civiliter («mangel på prakt»). Keiserne godtok ytringsfrihet, bevist ved det faktum at komedieforfatteren Marullus kunne kritisere dem uten å bli straffet. Under en hvilken som helst annen tid under hvilken som helst annen keiser, ville han ha blitt henrettet. Men det var en fredelig tid, en med tilgivelse, og således kunne biografen slå fast, «Ingen savnet de mer lemfeldige måter til Pius.»[149] Marcus erstattet en rekke av imperiets fremste embetsmenn. Ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, med ansvaret for keiserlig brevskriving, ble erstattet med Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens var fra grenseprovinsen Pannonia og hadde tjenestegjort i krigen i Mauretania. I den siste tiden hadde han tjenestegjort som prokurator av fem provinser. Han var en mann velegnet for en tid med militære kriser.[150] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus’ tidligere lærer, hadde vært praefectus augustalis (prefekturell guvernør) av provinsen Aegyptus da Marcus ble keiser. Maecianus ble kalt til Roma, gjort til senator og utnevnt til prefekt av skattekammeret, aerarium Saturni, og kort senere ble han forfremmet til konsul.[151] Frontos svigersønn, Aufidius Victorinus, ble utnevnt til guvernør av Germania Superior.[152] Fronto kom tilbake til sitt romerske byhus om kvelden den 28. mars etter å ha forlatt sitt hjem i Cirta så snart nyheten hadde nådd ham om at hans elev var blitt den mektigste mann i Romerriket. Han sendte en beskjed til den keiserlige frimann Charilas med forespørsel om han kunne kontakte keiserne. Fronto kom senere til å forklare at ikke hadde våget å skrive direkte til keiserne.[153] Læreren var mektig stolt av sine tidligere studenter. Reflektert i en tale han hadde skrevet da han ble konsul i 143 og hvor han lovpriste den unge Marcus, Fronto var meget glad: «Det var en framstående naturlig evne hos deg som nå er perfeksjonert til det utmerkede. Det var den gang en åker med voksende korn; det er nå en innhøsting avling. Hva jeg håpet den gang, det har jeg nå. Håpet har blitt virkelighet.»[154] Fronto påkalte Marcus alene; ingen tenkte på å invitere Lucius.[155] Tiberøya sett ved en førtiårig vannmerke ved Tiber, desember 2008. Lucius var mindre høyaktet av sin lærer enn hans bror da hans interesser var på et lavere nivå. Lucius ba Fronto om å felled om i en diskusjon han hadde med sin venn Calpurnius om de relative prestasjonene til to skuespillere.[156] Marcus fortalte Fronto om hva han leste — Coelius og en del av Cicero — og fortalte om sin familie. Hans døtre var i Roma, og deres grandtante Matidia; Marcus mente at kveldsluften på landet var for kald for ham. Han spurte Fronto om «særskilt veltalende bøker, noe av ditt eget, eller Cato, eller Cicero, eller Sallustius eller Gracchus — eller en eller annen poet, for jeg trenger avledning, særlig av denne typen, ved å lese noe som er oppløftende og adspre mine pressende bekymringer.»[157] Marcus’ tidlige styre fortsatte i beste gjenge. Han var i stand til hengi seg helt til filosofien og til bli omtykt.[158] Imidlertid fant han snart ut at han hadde mange bekymringer. Det betydde slutten på felicitas temporum («de lykkelige tider») som myntutgivelsene i 161 så altfor raskt hadde proklamert.[159] Våren 162 flommet elven Tiber over sine bredder og gjorde store ødeleggelser på Roma. Den druknet mange dyr og førte til sult i byen. Marcus og Lucius ga flommen og dens effekter deres fulle oppmerksomhet. .[160][161] (Birley daterer oversvømmelsen til høsten161. Jf. Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120. Siden 15 e.Kr. hadde elven blitt andministert av et eget råd med en senator som leder og en fast stab. I 161 var curator alevi Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis («Kurator av Tibers elveleie og bredder og byens kloakker») A. Platorius Nepos, sønn eller sønnesønn av byggmannen av Hadrians mur, og som hadde samme navn. Han var antagelig ikke spesielt uegnet og den som egentlig var inkompetent var antagelig hans forgjenger, M. Statius Priscus. Som en militærmann og konsul for 159 betraktet anagelig Priscus denne posisjonen som ikke mer enn «betalt fravær».[162] I andre tider med utbredt sult er det hevdet at keiserne skaffet de sultne mat ved å trekke veksler på romerske kornlagre.[163] Frontos brev fortsatte gjennom Marcus’ tidlige styre. Fronto mente at på grunn av Marcus’ framtredende posisjoner og høytstående plikter, var hans lærdom viktigere nå enn hva de hadde vært tidligere. Han mente at Marcus var «begynte å føle behovet for å være veltalende enda mer, til tross for en tid med tapt interesse for veltalenhet.»[164] Fronto kom igjen til å minne sin elev på spenningen mellom hans rolle og hans filosofiske pretensjoner: «Anta, Cæsar, at du kan få visdommen til Kleanthes og Zenon, men dog, og mot din egen vilje, ikke filosofens ulldrakt.» [165] Den første tiden i Marcus’ styre var de lykkeligste dagene i Frontos liv: hans elev var meget omtykt av folket i Roma, en utmerket keiser, en kjærlig elev, og kanskje viktigst av alt, så veltalende som kunne ønske.[166] Marcus hadde vist retorisk dyktighet i sine taler til senatet etter jordskjelvet ved Kyzikos på Anatolia. Den hadde manet fram katastrofens drama, og senatet hadde vært fylt med ærefrykt: «ikke mer brått eller voldelig hadde byen blitt rørt av jordskjelvet enn sinnene til de som hørte din tale.» Fronto var særedeles fornøyd.[167] Krig med Partia, 161–166[rediger | rediger kilde] Opprinnelsen til Lucius' avskjed, 161–162[rediger | rediger kilde] På sin dødsleie hadde Antoninus Pius snakket kun om staten og utenlandske konger som hadde motarbeidet ham.[168] En av disse kongene, Vologases IV av Partia, begynte å bevege på seg sent på sommeren eller tidlig på høsten 161.[169] Vologases hadde gått inn i kongedømmet Armenia (den gang en romersk klientrike), forvist dets konge og installert sin egen, Pacorus, en som tilhørte Akamenide-dynastiet som han selv.[170] Den romerske guvernøren av Kappadokia, frontlinjene til armenske konflikter, var Marcus Sedatius Severianus, fra Gallia og med stor militær erfaring.[171] Overbevist av den greske profeten og mystikeren Aleksander fra Abonuteichos at han med letthet ville beseire partierne og vinne ære for seg selv,[172] ledet Severianus en legion (kanskje IX Hispana[173]) inn i Armenia, ble innestengt i en felle av den store partiske hærføreren Khusrau (Chosrhoes) ved Elegia, en by rett bortenfor grensen av Kappadokia, høyd over utspringet til elven Eufrat. Severianus forsøkte å bekjempe Khusrau, men innså til sist at han var sjanseløs og begikk selvmord. Hans hær ble massakrert. Krigskampanjen hadde vart i kun tre dager.[174] Det var også trusler om krig ved andre grenser — i Britannia, og Raetia og Germania Superior, hvor chattere i Taunusfjellene hadde nylig bevegd som over limes (grensen).[175] Marcus var ikke forberedt. Antoninus synes å ha gitt ham liten militær erfaring; biografen skrev at Marcus tilbrakte hele tiden av Antoninus Pius’ 23 år lange styre ved hans side — og ikke i provinsene hvor de fleste av de tidligere keiserne hadde tilbrakt sin tidligste karriere.[176][177] Det kom mere dårlige nyheter: den syriske guvernørens hær hadde også blitt beseiret av partierne, og hadde trukket seg tilbake i uorden.[178] Forsterkninger ble sendt av sted til grensen mot Partia. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, en nordafrikansk senator kommanderte X Gemina ved Vindobona (Wien), reiste til Kappadokia med erfarne soldater fra legionene ved Donau.[179] Tre legioner ble også sendt østover: I Minervia fra Bonna (dagens Bonn) i øvre Germania,[180] II Adiutrix fra Aquincum,[181] og V Macedonica fra Troesmis.[182] Marcus tok en ferie på fire dager ved Alsium, en ferieby ved kysten av Etruria. Han var altfor nervøs til å slappe av. Da han skrev til Fronto slo han fast at ikke ville snakke om sin ferie.[183] Fronto svarte ironisk: «Hva? Vet jeg ikke at du dro til Alsium med det mål å hengi deg selv til leker, spøk og fullstending avslapping for fire hele dager?»[184] Han oppmuntret Marcus til å hvile, og minnet om eksempelet til hans forgjengere (Antoninus hadde nytt øvelser i palaestra, fiske, og komedieteater),[185] og gikk så langt som å skrive en fabel om gudenes deling av dagen mellom morgen og kveld — Marcus hadde åpenbart benyttet det meste av kveldene til juridiske emner framfor avslapning.[186] Marcus kunne ikke ta til seg Frontos råd: «Jeg har plikter hengende over meg som jeg knapt kan slippe unna,» skrev han tilbake.[187] Marcus tok på seg Frontos stemme for å tukte seg selv: «’Mye godt har mitt råd gitt deg’, vil du si!» Han hadde slappet av og ville hvile ofte, men «— denne hengivenheten til plikten! Hvem kjenner ikke bedre enn du hvor krevende den er!»[188] Fronto sendte Marcus et utvalg av lesemateriale,[189] og for dulme hans uro over krigen med Partia, et langt og tenksomt brev, fylt med historiske referanser. I moderne utgaver av Frontos verker er dette gitt tittelen De bello Parthico («Om den partiske krigen»). Det hadde vært omvendt i Romas fortid, skev Fronto,[190] men til sist hadde romerne alltid vunnet over sine fiender: «alltid og overalt hvor [Mars] har endret våre vanskeligheter til suksess og vår frykt til triumf.»[191] Lucius ved Antiokia, 162–165[rediger | rediger kilde] Det ble sagt at den utsvevende syriske hæren tilbrakte mer tid i Antiokias kroer enn i sine militære enheter.[192] (Gravering av William Miller etter en tegning av H. Warren fra en skisse av kaptein Byam Martin, R.N., 1866) I løpet av vinteren 161-162 kom det mere dårlige nyheter — et opprør brøt ut i Syria. Det ble besluttet at Lucius skulle lede krigen mot Partia i egen person. Han var sterkere og friskere enn Marcus, og åpenbart mer egnet for militær aktivitet.[193] Lucius' biograf antyder underliggende motiver: å begrense Lucius’ utsvevelser, å gjøre ham sparsommelig, å reformere hans moral ved krigens grusomheter, og få ham til å innse at han var en keiser.[194][195] I uansett tilfelle ga senatet sin tilslutning og sommeren 162 reiste Lucius mens Marcus ble igjen i Roma «som krevde tilstedeværelsen av en keiser».[196] Lucius tilbrakte det meste av krigføringen i Antiokia ved Orontes, skjønt han overvintret i havnebyen Laodicea og sommeren i Daphne, et feriested rett utenfor Antiokia.[197] Kritikere fordømte Lucius' luksuriøse livsstil.[198] Han hadde begynt med gambling og spill, de sa han ville «kaste terninger hele natten igjennom.»[199] Han likte å være i selskap med skuespillere.[200][201] Midt under krigen, kanskje høsten 163 eller tidlig på året 164, reiste Lucius til den greske byen Efesos på vestkysten av Anatolia for å gifte seg med Marcus’ datter Lucilla.[202] Marcus flyttet opp datoen; kanskje hadde han allerede hørt om Lucius’ elskerinne, Panthea, vakker men fra beskjeden familie.[203] Lucilla fylte 13 år i mars 163; uansett dato for hennes ekteskap, var hun ennå ikke femten år.[204] Lucilla ble fulgt av sin mor Faustina og M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, halvbroren av Lucius' far.[205] Civica ble gjort til comes Augusti, «ledsager av keisere»; kanskje Marcus ønsket han voktet over Lucius.[206] Marcus kan ha planlagt å følge dem hele veien til Smyrna (biografen sier at han fortalte senatet at han ville); det skjedde likevel ikke.[207] Marcus fulgte reistefølge kun så langt som til Brundisium hvor de gikk om bord i et skip som seilte østover.[208] Marcus vendte tilbake til Roma kort tid etter og sendte ut særlige instruksjoner til sine prokonsuler om ikke å gi reisefølget noen offisiell mottagelse.[209] Motangrep og seier, 163–166[rediger | rediger kilde] Elven Eufrat i nærheten av Ar-Raqqah i Syria. Den armenske hovedstaden Artaxata ble erobret i 163.[210] Ved slutten av året tok Lucius Verus tittelen Armeniacus til tross for at han ikke hadde sett kamp. Marcus avslo å akseptere tittelen før året etter.[211] Da Lucius ble hyllet som imperator igjen, nølte ikke Marcus å ta Imperator II med ham.[212] Det okkuperte Armenia ble rekonstruert på romerske betingelser. I 164 erstattet den nye hovedstaden Kaine Polis («Nybyen») tidligere Artaxata.[213] En ny konge ble installert: en romersk senator og i slekt med arsakidedynastiet, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. Det er mulig at han ikke en gang ble kronet i Armenia, men i Antiokia eller selv i Efesos.[214] Sohaemus ble hyllet på keiserlige myntutgivelser i 164 under forklaringen Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius satt på en trone med sin stab mens Sohamenus sto foran og hyllet keiseren.[215] I 163 grep Partia inn i Osroene, en romersk klientstat i øvre Mesopotamia sentrert ved Edessa, og plasserte deres egen konge på dets trone.[216] Som reaksjon ble romerske styrker forflyttet sørover og over Eufrat.[217] Før slutten på 163 hadde imidlertid de romerske styrkene bevegd seg nordover for å okkupere Dausara og Nicephorium på den nordlige bredden av Partia.[218] Kort tid etter erobringen av den nordlige bredden av Eufrat, ble en annen romersk hær forflyttet mot Osroene fra Armenia, erobret Anthemusia, en by sørvest for Edessa.[219] I 165 hadde romerske styrker bevegd seg inn i Mesopotamia. Edessa ble okkupert på nytt og Mannus, kongen som var blitt avsatt av Partia, ble installert på nytt.[220] Partierne trakk seg tilbake til Nisibis, men denne byen ble også beleiret og erobret. Den partiske hæren trakk seg tilbake over Tigris.[221] En andre hær, kommandert av Avidius Cassius, sammen med III Gallica, bevegde seg nedover Eufrat, og utkjempet et stort slag ved Dura.[222] Mot slutten av året hadde Cassius’ hær nådde de to tvillingstorbyene i Mesopotamia: Seleukia på høyre bredde av Tigris og Ktesifon på venstre. Ktesifon ble erobret og det kongelige palasset ble satt i brann. Borgerne i Seleukia, i stor grad grekere eller gresktalende, åpnet sine porter for romerne. Byen ble uansett herjet og etterlot et svart merke på Lucius’ omdømme. Unnskyldninger ble forsøkt konstruert i ettertid ved å hevde at fienden hadde forbrutt seg først.[223] Cassius' hær, selv om det led av mangel på forsyninger og var rammet sykdom fra pestutbrudd som ofte fulgte i kjølvannet av krig, klarte den å komme seg tilbake til romersk område.[224] Lucius tok tittelen Parthicus Maximus, og både ham selv og Marcus ble på nytt hyllet som imperatores, og ble 'imp. III'.[225] Cassius' hær vendte tilbake til slagmarken i 166, krysset over Tigris og dro inn i Media. Lucius tok da tittelen 'Medicus',[226] og keiserne ble igjen hyllet som imperatores, og ble da 'imp. IV' i keiserlig tiltaleform. Marcus tok også Parthicus Maximus nå etter enda et taktfullt opphold.[227] Krigens slutt og hendelser i Roma, fram til 167[rediger | rediger kilde] En byste av Marcus Aurelius, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Det meste av årsaken til krigens suksess kan bli tilskrevet underordnete generaler, de fremste av disse var C. Avidius Cassius, kommandant av III Gallica, en av legionene fra Syria. Cassius var en ung senator av beskjeden klassebakgrunn fra den nordsyriske byen Cyrrhus (Khoros). Hans far, Heliodorus, hadde ikke vært senator, men var uansett en mann av en viss betydning; han hadde vært Hadrians ab epistulis, fulgte keiseren på hans reiser og var prefekt av Egypt ved slutten av keiserens styre. Cassius hevdet også ubeskjedent at han nedstammet fra Selevkiderikets konger.[228] Cassius og hans medkommandant i krigen, Martius Verus, var antagelig i midten av 30-årene, og tok konsulskapet for 166. Etter dette ble de gjort til guvernører: Cassius for Syria og Martius Verus for Kappadokia.[229] I Roma var Marcus opptatt med familiesaker. Matidia, hans grandtante, hadde dødd. Imidlertid var hennes testamente ikke gyldig under lex Falcidia: Matidia hadde gitt mer enn tre fjerdedeler av hennes eiendommer til ikke-slektninger. Årsaken var at altfor mange av hennes klienter var inkludert i hennes ‘’codicils’’. Hun hadde heller aldri bekreftet dokumentene, men da hun lå døende hadde hennes klienter forseglet dem med originalen og gjort dem gyldige. Fronto manet Marcus til presse på i familiesaken, men Marcus hadde innsigelser. Han sa at hans bror måtte ta den endelige beslutningen.[230] Da Lucius kom tilbake fra sin seierrike krig ble han belønnet med en tradisjonelt triumftog. Paraden var uvanlig ettersom den omfattet to keisere, deres sønner og ugifte døtre som en eneste stor familiefeiring. Marcus Aurelius' to sønner, Commodus, fem år gammel, og Annius Verus, tre år, ble opphøyd til statusen av cæsar for anledningen. Den hjemvendte hæren fraktet med seg pestsmitte som senere ble kjent som Antoninus-pesten (den har fått navn etter Marcus Aurelius via hans familienavn Antoninus). Pesten spredte seg gjennom Romerriket i tidsrommet 165-180. Sykdommen var en pandemi, antatt å være enten kopper eller meslinger. Den kom til sist å kreve livet av to romerske keisere, — Lucius Verus som døde i 169, og senere Marcus Aurelius i 180. Sykdommen brøt ut på nytt igjen ni år senere, i henhold til den romerske historikeren Dio Cassius, og førte til opptil 2000 døde per dag i Roma, en fjerdedel av de som ble smittet. Det totale antallet døde har blitt beregnet til rundt fem millioner. « Det er mulig at det var en kontakt med Han-dynastiets Kina skjedde i 166 da en romersk reisende besøkte Han-keiserens hoff og hevdet å være en ambassadør som representerte en viss Andun (kinesisk: 安敦), som kan bli identifisert med enten Marcus Aurelius eller hans forgjenger Antoninus Pius.[231] Juridisk og administrativt arbeid, 161–180[rediger | rediger kilde] Som mange keisere tilbrakte Marcus mye av sin tid med å svare på juridiske saker som ansøkninger og høre disputter;[232] men i motsetningen til mange av hans forgjengere, var han allerede erfaren og dyktig i keiserlig administrasjon da han overtok makten.[233] Marcus tok nøye for seg praktiseringen av lovgivningen, både dens teori og praksis. Profesjonelle jurister har karakterisert ham som «en keiser meget dyktig i lovverket».[234] og «en meget forsiktig og samvittighetsfull rettferdig keiser.»[235] Han viste markant interesse i tre områder av loven: frigjøring av slaver, verger for mindreårige og foreldreløse, og valget av byrådene (decuriones).[236] I 168 endret han denarius, økte sølvrenheten fra 79 % til 82 % — den faktiske sølvvekten økte fra 2,57 gram til 2,67 gram. Imidlertid endret han to år senere til de tidligere verdier grunnet de militære kriser som imperiet sto overfor.[137] Krig med germanske stammer, 166–180[rediger | rediger kilde] Romerriket under Marcus Aurelius. Hans annektering av germanske landområder, kanskje de som ble provinsene Marcomannia og Sarmatia[237] – ble minsket i 175 ved opprøret til Avidius Cassius og i 180 ved keiserens død.[238] I løpet av tidlig på 160-tallet var Frontos svigersønn Victorinus stasjonert som en legat i Germania. Han var der med sin hustru og barn (et annet barn ble værende hos Fronto og hans hustru i Roma).[239] Forholdene ved den nordlige grensen var alvorlig. En grensepost hadde blitt ødelagt, og det synes som om alle folk i nordlige og sentrale Europa var i uro og bevegelse. Det var korrupsjon blant offiserene: Victorinus krevde avskjed for legionærlegat som hadde tatt bestikkelser.[240] Erfarne guvernører hadde blitt erstattet av venner og slektninger av den keiserlige familie. L. Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, en fjern slektning av Hadrian, var i øvre Pannonia, etterfulgte den erfarne M. Nonius Macrinus. Nedre Pannonia var underlagt den uklare Ti. Haterius Saturnius. M. Servilius Fabianus Maximus var sendt videre fra nedre Moesia til øvre Moesia da Iallius Bassus hadde reist med Lucius til Syria. Nedre Moesia tatt av Pontius Laelianus' sønn. Provinsene i Dacia var fortsatt inndelt, styrt av en pretorisk senator og to prokuratorer. Freden kunne ikke vare, og nedre Pannonia hadde ikke en gang en legion for beskyttelse.[241] Begynnende på 160-tallet begynte ulike germanske stammer angripe langs flere steder langs nordlige grensen ved Germania, men særlig inn i Gallia og over Donau. Den nye driven vestover hadde antagelig sin årsak i angrep fra andre stammer lengre øst. En første invasjon av chattere i provinsen Germania Superior ble slått tilbake i 162. Langt mer alvorlig var invasjonen i 166 da markomannere i det som i dag er Böhmen, inngått vennskapsavtaler med romerne sin 19, krysset Donau sammen med langobarder og andre germanske stammer. På samme tid angrep lengre øst i Europa iranske sarmatere mellom elvene Donau og Tisza. Grunnet situasjonen i øst var det kun en straffeekspedisjon som kunne bli igangsatt i 167. Både Marcus og Verus ledet troppene. Etter Verus døde i 169, ledet Marcus selv kampen mot de germanske stammene de meste av hans gjenværende liv. Romerne led minst to alvorlig nederlag mot kvadere og markomannere som hadde krysset Alpene, herjet Opitergium (Oderzo) og beleiret Aquileia, de to fremste byene i nordøstlige Italia. På samme tid hadde kostobokere, som kom fra fjellområdene i Karpatene, invadert Moesia, Makedonia og det greske fastlandet. Etter en langvarig strid greide Marcus Aurelius få presset angriperne ut. Tallrike medlemmer av germanske stammer bosatte seg i grenseområdene som Dakia, Pannonia, Germania og selv i Italia. Dette var ikke noe nytt, men denne gangen var antallet nykommere av en slik størrelse at krevde opprettelsen av to ny grenseprovinser på venstre side av Donau, Sarmatia og Marcomannia (dagens Tsjekkia, Slovakia og Ungarn). En del germanske stammer som bosatte seg i italienske Ravenna gjorde opprør og greide å ta byen i besittelse. Av denne grunn besluttet Marcus Aurelius å ikke aksepetere flere barbarere i Italia, men også forviste også de som allerede hadde sluppet inn.[242] Keiserens planer ble imidlertid forhindret av et opprør i øst, ledet av Avidius Cassius, som ble utløst av feilaktige rykter om at Marcus hadde dødd etter en sykdom. I de østlige provinsene var det kun Kappadokia og Bitynia som ikke deltok på opprørernes side. Da det ble åpenbart at Marcus Aurelius fortsatt levde, sank omdømmet Cassius raskt og han ble drept av sine egne soldater etter kun 100 dager som opprørsleder. Sammen med sin hustru Faustina reiste Marcus Aurelius på en turne i de østlige provinsene fram til 173. Han besøkte Athen hvor han erklærte seg selv som en beskytter av filosofien. Etter en triumf i Roma, måtte han det påfølgende året igjen marsjere til grensen ved Donau. Etter en avgjørende seier i 178 var planen å annektere Moravia og vestlige Slovakia, men det ble det ikke noe av da keiseren igjen ble syk i 180. Død og arverekkefølge[rediger | rediger kilde] Rytterstatue i bronse av Marcus Aurelius, piazza del Campidoglio i Roma. Marcus Aurelius døde den 17. mars 180 i byen Vindobona (dagens by Wien). Han ble umiddelbart guddommeliggjort og hans aske ble fraktet til Roma, og gravlagt i Hadrians mausoleum (dagens Castel Sant'Angelo) hvor den ble værende inntil vestgotere herjet Roma i 410. Hans militære kampanjer mot germanere og sarmatere ble også minnet ved en egen søyle, Marcus Aurelius-søylen, på Piazza Colonna, og et eget tempel (hvor det ikke finnes levninger igjen av) i Roma. Marcus lot sin sønn Commodus arve keisertronen og han hadde allerede navngitt ham som cæsar i 166 og gjort ham til medkeiser i 177. Denne beslutningen, som avsluttet rekken med «adopterte keisere», ble meget kritisert av senere historikere ettersom Commodus var en skuffelse: en politisk og militær fremmed, og dessuten en ekstrem egoist med nevrotiske problemer. Mot slutten av Dio Cassius’ historie om Marcus’ styre, skrev han en encomium, lovprisning, til keiseren og beskrev overgangen til Commodus’ styre, som var Dios egen tid, med sorg. ...[Marcus] fikk ikke den gode lykke som hadde fortjent, for han var ikke sterk i kroppen og hadde en tallrike vanskeligheter gjennom bortimot hele hans styre. Men for min del beundrer jeg ham for nettopp denne grunnen, at midt uvanlige og særskilte vanskeligheter overlevde han både selv og bevarte imperiet. Kun en ting forhindret ham fra å være helt lykkelig, nemlig at etter å ha oppdratt og utdannet sin sønn på aller beste måte, var meget skuffet over ham. Denne saken må bli vårt neste emne; for vår historie synker fra en kongerike av gull til ett av jern og rust, slik hendelsene gikk for romerne den gang. – Dio Cassius 71.36.3–4 [243] Michael Grant i The Climax of Rome (1968),[244] skrev om Commodus: Ungdommen viste seg å være svært uberegnelig, eller i det minste så utradisjonell at katastrofe ikke var til å unngå. Men om Marcus burde eller ikke hadde kjent til at det ville bli så, avvisningene av sin sønns krav på tronen til fordel for en annen, ville nesten helt sikkert ha ført til en av de innbyrdeskriger som spredte seg katastrofalt ved framtidige etterfølgelser på tronen. Arv og omdømme[rediger | rediger kilde] Byste av Marcus Aurelius, støpt i Pusjkinmuseet etter original på British Museum. Marcus Aurelius fikk et omdømme som en «filosofikeiser» allerede i sin levetid, og den tittelen har fortsatt etter hans død; både Dio Cassius og biografen kaller ham «filosofen».[245] Kristne, som Justinus martyren, Athenagoras, Melito, karakteriserte ham også som det.[246] Sistnevnte gikk så langt som kalle Marcus for «mer filantropisk og filosofisk» enn Antoninus Pius og Hadrian, og plasserte ham opp mot undertrykkende keisere som Domitianus og Nero for å gjøre kontrasten dristigere.[247] «Alene blant keiserne,» skrev historikeren Herodianus, «ga han bevis på sin visdom ikke kun ved ord eller kjennskap til filosofiske læresetninger, men ved sin lastefri karakter og sitt beherskede levesett.» [248] Betegnelsen «filosofikonge» går tilbake til Platons verk Staten hvor han hevdet at filosofer burde bli konger og de som er konger burde bli filosofer.[249] Platon definerte en filosof som «en som elsket visdom» og skilte mellom en som elsket den sanne visdom i motsetning til ren erfaring eller utdannelse ved at filosofen er den eneste som har tilgang til ideer. Den sanne filosof er et ideal, og frambringe et virkelig rettferdig samfunn er nær umulig.[250] Gjennom sine nitten år som keiser ble legemliggjøringen av Platons ideal jevnlig plaget av krig, pest, naturkatastrofer og hjemlige tragedier. Han har blitt stående i historien, ikke bare som den vise keiseren, men som den gode hersker, slik Dio Cassius skriver, «I tillegg til å besitte andre fortreffeligheter, styrte han bedre enn noen andre som noen gang hadde vært i posisjon med makt.»[251] Ikke minst er det bevitnet i hans Til meg selv hvor han benyttet sin kunnskap i stoisk filosofi til å endre sin egen oppførsel. Hans mål var å bli den beste – den mest rettskafne – person som han var i stand til å bli. Han så seg selv og den verden han levde, stormende og opprivende som den var, fra et kosmisk perspektiv. Han greide å overkomme de vanskeligheter han sto overfor. Til tross for krig, pest, personlige tragedier og sin egen sykdom, var han i stand til å beholde sin egen emosjonelle kontroll, styre rettvist og klokt. «Han fikk ikke den gode skjebne han hadde fortjent,» mente Dio Cassius, «for han hadde ikke et sterkt legeme og var involvert i utallige vanskeligheter gjennom praktisk talt hele sitt styre. Men for min del beundrer jeg ham alt mer av den grunn, at midt i de uvanlige og spesielle vanskeligheter både overlevde han seg selv og bevarte imperiet.»[252] Han opprettholdt den vanskelige maktbalansen og bevarte imperiet i det som har blitt kalt for Romas sølvalder ved å gjøre det han kunne for at borgernes liv var så framgangsrikt og trygt som mulig. Det ble sagt om Marcus’ karakter at «han var streng, men ikke forherdet; beskjeden, men ikke fryktsom; og alvorlig, men ikke uhyggelig.»[253] Som en stoiker hadde han en fast tro på sin plikt til de under seg i hierarkiet. I kampen mot barbariske invasjoner, økte han ikke skatte for å finansiere krigen, men solgte alle sine keiserlige besittelser for å betale for sin bestrebelser.[250] Som lovgiver dikterte hans filosofiske levemåte også hans beslutninger. Historia Augustus, som ikke alltid er pålitelige, men antagelig riktig i dette tilfellet, sa at han straffet alle forbrytelser med lettere dommere enn som vanligvis ble gitt, «men til tider, mot de som var opplagt skyldig i alvorlige lovovertredelser forble han ubøyelig.»[254] Et gjentagende tema i hans bok Til meg selv er at man må opprettholde fokus og være uten distraksjoner samtidig som man opprettholder sterke etiske prinsipper for å være et godt menneske.[255] Michael Grant karakteriserte Marcus Aurelius som «den edlreste av alle menn som, ved ren intelligens og i kraft av sin karakter, har vurdert og oppnådd godhet for sin egen skyld og for noen belønning.»[256] Den engelske filosofen Iain King konkluderte med at Marcus Aurelius' arv er tragisk ettersom keiserens «Stoiske filosofi – som handler om selvbeherskelse, plikt, og respekt for andre – var så uverdig forlatt av den keiserlige slekt han salvet ved sin død.»[257] I filmen The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964) ble Marcus Aurelius framstilt av Alec Guinness og filmen Gladiator (2000) ble portrettert av Richard Harris. Begge filmene fremmet påstanden at Marcus Aurelius ble myrdet av sin sønn ettersom han hadde til hensikt å gi keiserverdigheten til sin adopterte sønn, en romersk general, framfor sin biologiske sønn Commodus. Forfatterskap[rediger | rediger kilde] Det etterlatte forfatterskapet til Marcus Aurelius består av hans brev, og hans bok som konvensjonelt har fått tittelen Til meg selv som han skrev på gresk, ikke latin, mens han var på krigskampanje i tiden mellom 170 og 180. Han skrev den for sin egen rettledning og for å forbedre seg selv. Den norske tittelen er noenlunde hva han selv oppga, uten at den var ment for utgivelse, men etter hans død har den blitt kalt andre ting, eksempelvis Meditations på engelsk. Boken er delt inn i 12 bøker (bokruller) som opptegner ulike perioder i keiserens liv. Hver del er ikke i en kronologisk orden og skrivestilen er enkel, rettfram og reflekterer kanskje Marcus Aurelius' eget stoiske perspektiv på teksten. Han hadde et logisk sinn, og hans tekster er representative for stoisk filosofi og åndelighet. Til meg selv er fortsatt vurdert som et litterært monument for selvoppofrende tjeneste og plikt. Boken har vært høyt vurdert av andre historiske figurer som Fredrik den store, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, Goethe, Wen Jiabao, og Bill Clinton.[258] Boken var en inspirasjonskilde for Nelson Mandela, både for å holde ut sitt 27 år lange fangenskap på Robben Island, men også i arbeidet med hans egen selvbiografi Samtaler med meg selv.[259][260] Det er ikke kjent i hvilken grad hans skrifter ble sirkulert etter hans død. Det er spredte referanser i antikkens litteratur til populariteten til hans forskrifter, og Julianus II var godt kjent med Marcus' omdømme som en filosofi-keiser, skjønt han gjør ikke særskilte referanser til Til meg selv.[261] Boken i seg selv, skjønt nevnt i brevvekslingen til Arethas av Caesarea på 900-tallet og i det bysantinske leksikonet Suda, ble først utgitt i 1558 i Zürich av Wilhelm Holzmann fra en manuskriptkopi som siden har gått tapt.[262] Den eneste andre fullstendig bevarte kopi av manuskriptet befinner seg i Vatikanbiblioteket. Ekteskap og barn[rediger | rediger kilde] Byste av Faustina den yngre, Louvre, Paris. Aurelius giftet seg min sin kusine Faustina i 145. I løpet av deres ekteskap i tretti år fødte Faustina 13 barn. Kun en sønn og fire døtre levde lengre enn sin far.[263] Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147–etter 165)[264] Gemellus Lucillae (died around 150), twin brother of Lucilla[263][264] Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/50–182), tvillingsøster avGemellus, giftet til hennes fars medkeiser Lucius Verus[264] Titus Aelius Antoninus (født etter 150, døde før 7. mars 161)[264] Titus Aelius Aurelius (født etter 150, døde før 7. mars 161)[264] Hadrianus (152–157)[264] Domitia Faustina (født etter 150, døde før 7. mars 161)[264] Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159–etter 211)[264] Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–etter 211)[264] Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), tvillingbror Commodus[264] Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192), tvillingbror av Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, senere etterfølger og keiser[263][264] Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162–169)[264] Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170–døde før 217)[264] Litteratur[rediger | rediger kilde] Primære kilder Aelius Aristides: Orationes (Orations). Aurelius Victor: De Caesaribus. Codex Justinianus. Dio Cassius: Romersk historie. Epitome de Caesaribus. Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. Galenos: ad Pisonem de Theriaca. Galenos: de Antidotis. Gellius, Aulus: Noctes Atticae (Attiske netter). Herodianus: Ab Excessu Divi Marci (Historien til Romerriket fra Marcus Aurelius' død). Historia Quomodo Conscribenda (Måten å skrive historie). Marcus Aurelius: Om meg selv. Pausanias: Beskrivelse av Hellas. Filostratos: Heroicus (Om helter). Marcus Fabius Quintilianus: Institutio Oratoria Historiae Augustae Themistius: Orationes. Sekundære kilder Astarita, Maria L. (1983): Avidio Cassio. Roma: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura. Barnes, Timothy D. (1967): «Hadrian and Lucius Verus» i: Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2: 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. (1966): Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, revidert 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. (2000): «Hadrian to the Antonines» i The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, red. Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, & Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward (1974): «The Chronology of Fronto» i: Journal of Roman Studies 64: 136–59. Champlin, Edward (1980): Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Furtak, Rick Anthony (2009): «Marcus Aurelius: Kierkegaard's Use and Abuse of the Stoic Emperor» i: Kierkegaard and the Roman World, red. Jon Stewart, 69-74. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6554-0 Millar, Fergus (1993): The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-77886-3 McLynn, Frank (2009): Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, ISBN 978-0-224-07292-2 omtale online Stephens, William O. (2012): Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, ISBN 978-1-4411-2561-3 Stertz, Stephen A. ((1977)): «Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought» i: The Classical World 70:7: 433–39. Syme, Ronald (1968): «The Ummidii» i: Historia 17:1 : 72–105. Se også[rediger | rediger kilde] De fem gode keiserne Referanser[rediger | rediger kilde] ^ Antoninus, kildekvalitet uspesifisert kalender ^ Antoninus, kildekvalitet uspesifisert kalender, «Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии.» ^ Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin, kildekvalitet uspesifisert kalender, «... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены.» ^ Antoninus ^ I klassisk latin ville Aurelius’ navn ha blitt skrevet som MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS. ^ Han var opprinnelig navngitt Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (eller kanskje Marcus Catilius Severus), se Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn (2009), 24. Da han giftet seg tok han navnet Marcus Annius Verus, se Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn (2009), 24. Da han ble keiser ble han gitt navnet Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ^ Eksempelvis forlaget Cappelen Damms omtale av Marcus Aurelius ^ Breisach, Ernst (2007): Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 3. utg., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, s. 75. ^ Kovács, Péter (2009): Marcus Aureliusa Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars, BRILL, s. 65 ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 230. Om HA Verus, se Barnes (1967), s. 65–74. ^ Beard, Mary (23. juli 2009): «Was He Quite Ordinary?», London Review of Books 31:14; Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 226. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 227. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 228–229, 253. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 227–228. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 228. ^ HA Marcus 1.2, 1.4; Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 28; McLynn (2009), s. 14. ^ Cassius Dio forsikrer at Annii var nær slektning av Hadrian, og det var grunnet disse familiebåndene at de skyldte deres egen vekst til makt; Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31. Det nøyaktige forholdet til disse slektsforholdene er derimot ikke uttrykt noe sted. Et antatt bånd går via Annius Verus (II). Verus' hustru Rupilia Faustina var datter av konsulære senatoren Libo Rupilius Frugi og en ukjent mor. Det har blitt spekulert om Rupilia Faustinas mor var Matidia, og som også var mor (antagelig gjennom et annet ekteskap) med Vibia Sabina, husrtu av Hadrian. Jf. Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579; Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 29; McLynn (2009), 14, 575 n. 53, sitert i Syme, Ronald (1979): Roman Papers, 1, 244. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 29; McLynn (2009), 14. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 29, siterer Plinius: Epistulæ 8.18. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 30. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31, 44. ^ a b Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31. ^ Farquharson (1944), 1.95–96, daterer hans død til 130 da Marcus var ni. ^ Til meg selv 1.1, sitert hos Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31. ^ Til meg selv 1.3, sitert hos Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 35. ^ Til meg selv 1.17.7, sitert hos Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 35. ^ a b Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 33. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 2.8.2 (= Haines 1.142), sitert av Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31. ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 31–32. ^ Til meg selv 1.1 ^ Birley (1967): Marcus Aurelius, s. 35. ^ Til meg selv 1.17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, 23; sammenlign med Til meg selv 1.17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ McLynn, 20–21. ^ Til meg selv 1.4; McLynn, 20. ^ HA Marcus 2.2, 4.9; Til meg selv 1.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 37; McLynn, 21–22. ^ HA Marcus 2.6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 38; McLynn, 21. ^ Birley, Later Caesars, 109, 109 n.8 (Birley endret teksten i HA Marcus fra «Eutychius» til «Tuticius»); Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27, siterer Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, 39ff. ^ a b HA Marcus 2.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 40, 270 n.27. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 40, siterer Aelius Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, 21. ^ Til meg selv 1.10; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 40; McLynn, 22. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 42. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 42. Om etterfølgelsen til Hadrian, se også: Barnes, T.D. (1967): «Hadrian and Lucius Verus» i: Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2, s. 65–79; VanderLeest, J. (1995): «Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo» i: Phoenix 49:4, s. 319–330. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 45; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 148. Commodus var kjent for sitt overforbruk på den tiden han ble adoptert. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 46. Date: Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Antoninus Pius 4.6–7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 48–49. ^ HA Marcus 5.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 49. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 49–50. ^ HA Marcus 5.6–8, sitert hos Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 50. ^ Dio Cassius 69.22.4; HA Hadrian 25.5–6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 50–51. Hadrians selvmordsforsøk: Dio Cassius 69.22.1–4; HA Hadrian 24.8–13. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 5.3, 6.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 55–56; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 151. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 55; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 151. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 80–81. ^ HA Marcus 6.2; Verus 2.3–4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 53–54. ^ Dio Cassius 71.35.5; HA Marcus 6.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 56. ^ Til meg selv 6.30, sitert hos Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, 270 n.9, med noter til den engelske oversettelsen. ^ a b HA Marcus 6.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine., 6.379 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine., cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.. ^ The Ancient House of Tiberius ^ Til meg selv 5.16, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57. ^ Til meg selv 8.9, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 57–58. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.7, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 90. ^ HA Marcus 6.5; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 58. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.1, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 89. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 89. ^ Dio Cassius 71.36.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 89. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 90–91. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 10.2, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 91. ^ Birley, Marcus Unko Aurelius, 91. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 61. ^ HA Marcus 3.6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 62. ^ HA Marcus 2.4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 62. ^ Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 63–64. ^ Aulus Gellius: Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 64–65. ^ Aulus Gellius: Noctes Atticae 19.12, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 65. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 65. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 67–68, siterer E. Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome (1980), særskilt kapitlene 3 og 4. ^ a b Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 65–67. ^ Den moderne verden har ikke samme positive vurdering. En av hans moderne redaktører, den tyske historikeren Barthold Georg Niebuhr, karakteriserte Fronto som dum og overfladisk; en annen, Samuel Adrian Naber, betraktet ham med forakt. Jf. Champlin, Fronto, 1–2. ^ a b Mellor, Ronald (1982): bokomtale av Edward Champlins Fronto and Antonine Rome, The American Journal of Philology 103:4, s. 460-461 og videre. ^ a b Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 69. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 76–77. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 73. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 73. ^ Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 138. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 5.74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 73. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 77. Om dateringen, se Champlin, "Chronology of Fronto", 142, som (sammen med Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argumenterer for en dato på 150-tallet; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 78–79, 273 n.17 (med Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argumenterer for 140. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.2 (= Haines 1.58ff), sitter i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 77–78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 78. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 3.3 (= Haines 1.62ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 79. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 80. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 94. ^ HA Marcus 3.5–8, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 94. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.3, sitter i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 69. ^ De Eloquentia 4.5 (= Haines 2.74), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 95. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 94, 105. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 95; Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 95. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 94–95, 101. ^ Champlin, Fronto, 120. ^ Til meg selv 1.7, sitert i Marcus Aurelius, 94–95. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 103. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 105. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 247 F.1. ^ Cornucopiae, Forum Ancient Coins ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 206–7. ^ Til meg selv 9.40, sitter i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 207. ^ Til meg selv 10.34, tekst fra Homer: Iliaden, sang 6, 146-149, gjendiktet av P. Østbye, Oslo: Aschehoug, 1980, s. 99 ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 107. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 108. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 114. ^ a b Birley, 114. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 108. ^ HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 68; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 108. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 112. ^ Bowman, s. 156; Victor, 15:7 ^ Victor, 15:7 ^ Dio Cassius 71.33.4–5; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 114. ^ Bury, s. 532 ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 114. ^ Bowman, s. 156 ^ HA Marcus 7.5, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 116. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 116. Birley tok frasen horror imperii fra HA Pert. 13.1 og 15.8. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 156. ^ HA Verus 3.8; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 116; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 156. ^ HA Verus 4.1; Marcus 7.5; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 116. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 116–17. ^ Disse endringene av navn har vist seg å være såpass forvirrende at selv Historia Augusta, en av de fremste kildene for perioden, ikke klarte å holde dem fra hverandre. Jf. Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 157 n.53. Kirkehistorikeren fra 300-tallet, Eusebius av Cæsarea, var enda mer forvirret. Jf. Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 157 n.53. Den feilaktige troen at Lucius hadde navnet «Verus» før han ble keiser har vært særlig vanskelig å endre. Jf. Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117. ^ a b Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117 ^ Det var imidlertid mye presedens. Konsulatet var en tvillingposisjon, og tidligere keisere hadde ofte en underordnet person med flere keiserlige posisjoner eller oppgaver (under Antoninus Pius hadde denne personen vært Marcus selv). Mange keisere hadde planlagt felles etterfølgelse tidligere; Augustus hadde planlagt å gjøre Gaius Cæsar og Lucius Cæsar som felleskeisere ved sin død; Tiberius ønsket å ha Gaius Caligula og Tiberius Gemellus som det samme; Claudius etterlot riket til Nero og Britannicus og forestilte seg at de ville akseptere likestilt rangposisjon, — men alle disse oppleggene hadde endt mislykket, enn gjennom for tidlig død (Gaius og Lucius Cæsar) eller juridisk mord (Gemellus av Caligula og Britannicus av Nero). Jf. Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117. ^ HA Verus 4.2, tr. David Magie, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117, 278 n.4. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117–18. ^ HA Marcus 7.9; Verus 4.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 117–118. «twice the size»: Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 109. ^ a b Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118. ^ a b «Roman Currency of the Principate» Arkivert 10. februar 2001 hos Wayback Machine., Tulane University ^ HA Marcus 7.10, overs. David Magie, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118, 278 n.6. ^ HA Marcus 7.10–11; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.8; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118–19. ^ HA Marcus 7.4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119. ^ HA Comm. 1.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119. ^ HA Comm. 1.2; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119. ^ HA Comm. 1.4, 10.2; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119, siterer Mattingly, H. (1940): Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus, London, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ^ «Portrait of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius». The Walters Art Museum. ^ HA Marcus 7.7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 118, siterer Werner Eck, Die Organisation Italiens (1979), 146ff. ^ HA Marcus 8.1, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 157. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 122–23, siterer Pfalum, H.G. (1960–61): Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III, Paris; Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Birley, Eric (1953): Roman Britain and the Roman Army, 142ff., 151ff. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123, siterer Pfalum, H.G. (1960–61): Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III, Paris; Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. ^ HA Marcus 8.8; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123, siterer Eck, W. (1985): Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen, 65ff. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120, siterer Ad Verum Imperator 1.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 119. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120, siterer Ad Verum Imperator 1.1 (= Haines 1.305). ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 4.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120. ^ HA Marcus 8.3–4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120, siterer Mattingly, H. (1940): Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus, London, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. ^ HA Marcus 8.4–5; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 120. ^ Oversvømmelsen må ha skjedd før Verus reiste østover i 162 ettersom den nevnes i biografens fortelling etter at Antonius’ begravelse var ferdig og de to keiserne hadde tatt sine posisjoner, og således ikke hadde skjedd våren 161. Datering til høsten 161 eller våren 162 er mer sannsynlig; gitt de vanlige sesongoversvømmelsene er våren 162 mest sannsynlig. Jf. Aldrete, Gregory S. (2007): Floods of the Tiber in ancient Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 30–31. ^ Jf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5932 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine. (Nepos), 1092 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine. (Priscus); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121. ^ HA Marcus 11.3, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 278 n.16. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 128. ^ De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 128. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 127–28. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 128. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 12.7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 114, 121. ^ Hendelse: HA Marcus 8.6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121. Dato: Flinterman, Jaap-Jan (1997): «The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos» i: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119, s. 281. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121. ^ Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121. ^ Lukian: Alexander 27; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121–22. Om Aleksander, se: Fox, Robin Lane (1986): Pagans and Christians, Harmondsworth: Penguin, s. 241–50. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 278 n.19. ^ Dio Cassius 71.2.1; Lukian: Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 121–22. ^ HA Marcus 8.7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 122. ^ HA Antoninus Pius 7.11; Marcus 7.2; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 103–4, 122. ^ Alan Cameron har anført en kommentar fra Sidonius Apollinaris, skribent fra 400-tallet, som hevder at Marcus kommanderte «talløse legioner» vivente Pio (mens Pius fortsatt levde), noe som bestrider Birleys påstand at Marcus manglet militær erfaring. (Verken Apollinaris eller Historia Augusta (Birleys kilde) er særskilt pålitelig for historien på 100-tallet. Jf.Pan. Ath. 203–4, sitert i Alan Cameron, bokomtale av Anthony Birleys Marcus Aurelius i: The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): 349. ^ HA Marcus 8.6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.–51 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.–98 Arkivert 2. juni 2017 hos Wayback Machine.; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311 Arkivert 29. april 2012 hos Wayback Machine.; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 126. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 126–27. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, overs. Haines 2.19; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 127. ^ De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 127. ^ De bello Parthico 10 (= Haines 2.31), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 127. ^ De bello Parthico 1–2 (= Haines 2.21–23). ^ De bello Parthico 1 (= Haines 2.21), sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 127. ^ Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.19 (= Haines 2.149); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129. ^ Dio Cassius 71.1.3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123. ^ HA Verus 5.8; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123, 125. ^ Birley tror at det er noe sannferdig i disse hentydningene. Jf. Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 125. ^ HA Marcus 8.9, overs. Magie; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 123–26. Om Lucius' sjøreise, se: HA Verus 6.7–9; HA Marcus 8.10–11; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 125–26. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129. ^ HA Verus 4.4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129. ^ HA Verus 4.6, overs. Magie; jf. 5.7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129. ^ HA Verus 8.7, 8.10–11; Fronto, Principae Historia 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129. ^ Hele seksjonen av vita tar for seg Lucius’ utsvevelser, HA Verus 4.4–6.6, imidlertid er det et innskudd i en fortelling som ellers er overskrevet fra en tidligere kilde. De meste av detaljene er fabrikkert av biografen selv uten annet grunnlag enn hans egen fantasi. Jf. Barnes, 69. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Barnes, 72; Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163; jf. også Barnes (1968): «Legislation Against the Christians» i: Journal of Roman Studies 58:1–2, 39; «Some Persons in the Historia Augusta» i: Phoenix 26:2 (1972), 142, siterer Vita Abercii 44ff. ^ HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131. Jf. Lukian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Marcus 9.4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131, siterer Anné Épigraphique 1958.15. ^ HA Verus 7.7; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.5–6; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162. ^ HA Marcus 9.1; HA Verus 7.1–2; Ad Verrum Imperator 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 129; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162, siterer H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. ^ Dio Cassius 71.3.1; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162; Millar, Near East, 113. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 280 n. 42; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 131; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162, siterer H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 130, 279 n. 38; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163, siterer Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, 112. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 130; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162. ^ Fronto, Ad Verum Imperator 2.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 130; «Hadrian to the Antonines», 162. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098 Arkivert 2. juni 2017 hos Wayback Machine.; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 130. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163, siterer Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. ^ Lukian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163. ^ Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163, siterer Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. ^ HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 163. Birley siterer R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), 124ff., om datoen. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 164. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 164, siterer H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 164, siterer P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), 99 ff. ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 164, siterer H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 130, siterer Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 1402f.; 1405; Astarita, passim; Syme, Bonner Historia-Augustia Colloquia 1984 (= Roman Papers IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ?). ^ Birley, «Hadrian to the Antonines», 164, siterer Alföldy, Konsulat, 24, 221. ^ Ad Antoninum Imperator 2.1–2 (= Haines 2.94ff.); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 132. Champlin daterer disse brevene til enten sommeren 162 eller tidlig i 165, jf. Champlin, Fronto, 134. ^ Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. (1999): «The Roman Empire as Known to Han China» i: Journal of the American Oriental Society 119 (1): 71–79. doi:10.2307/605541. JSTOR 605541. ^ Millar, Fergus (1977): The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337, London: Duckworth, s. 6ff. Se også: idem. «Emperors at Work» i: Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. ^ «Pius, en av de keiserne som tjenestegjorde lengst, ble svakelig i sine siste år, slik at Marcus Aurelius overtok gradvis de keiserlige pliktene. På den tiden da han etterfulgte i 161, var han allerede erfaren i offentlig administrasjon.» Sitatet er fra filosofen Iain King, som skrev om Aurelius in Thinkers At War, publisert august 2014. ^ Codex Justinianus 7.2.6, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 133. ^ Digest 31.67.10, sitert i Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 133. ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 133. ^ Birley, 253 ^ Birley, 183 ^ Dio Cassius 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 132. ^ Dio Cassius 72.11.3–4; Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 132, siterer De nepote amisso 2 (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator 2.9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). ^ Birley (1966): Marcus Aurelius, s. 133, siterer Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: 232 f.; Moesia Superior: 234f.; Pannonia Superior: 236f.; Dacia: 245f.; Pannonia Inferior: 251. ^ Dio Cassius 72.11.4-5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius ^ Dio Cassius 71.36.3–4, engelsk oversettelse: Roman History, Epitome of Book LXXII, s. 69. ^ Grant, Michael (30. desember 2011): The Climax Of Rome. Orion. ISBN 978-1-78022-276-9. s. 15. Oversettelse ved Wikipedia for anledningen. Originalsitat: «The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrously around future successions.» ^ HA Marcus 1.1, 27.7; Dio Cassius 71.1.1; Francis, James (1995): Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 21 n. 1. ^ Francis, 21 n.1, siterer Justinus: 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras: Leg. 1; Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, sitert i Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodianus, Ab Excessu Divi Marci 1.2.4. ^ Platon: Staten, 5.473d ^ a b Umbrello, Steven (22. juli 2015): «Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher Emperor or Philosopher-King?», Ancient History ^ Dio Cassius: Romersk historie 72. 34-35. I engelsk oversettelse, s. 63 ^ Dio Cassius: Romersk historie 72. 72. 36. I engelsk oversettelse, s. 69 ^ Historia Augusta, 4. 5 ^ Historia Augusta, 24. 1 ^ Roberts, John (2011): «Aurelius, Marcus», "Oxford Reference Online" ^ Grant, Michael ([1968] 1993): The Climax of Rome: The Final Achievements of the Ancient World, AD 161–337. London: Weidenfeld. ISBN 0-297-81391-9. s. 139 ^ King, Iain (august 2014): «Thinker at War – Marcus Aurelius», Military History. ^ Hays, Gregory (2003): Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations, Weidenfeld and Nicholson London, s. XLIX ^ David L. Ulin (5. desember 2013). «Nelson Mandela, remembered through his books». Los Angeles Times. Besøkt 4. mai 2021. «Harris’ assertion comes in his introduction to “Conversations With Myself,” which was “inspired most directly by Marcus Aurelius’s ‘Meditations’” and featured a foreword by Barack Obama, another transformational politician who owes Mandela an enormous debt»  ^ «There’s no emotion we ought to think harder about than anger – Martha C Nussbaum | Aeon Essays». Aeon (engelsk). Besøkt 4. mai 2021.  ^ Stertz, 434, siterer Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius 3.5; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 16.9. ^ Hays, Gregory (2003): Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations, Weidenfeld and Nicholson London, s. XLVIII–XLIX ^ a b c «DIR Marcus Aurelius». Roman Emperors. 30. januar 2001 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lendering, Jona: «Marcus Aurelius». Livius.org. 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oc-wikipedia-org-8549	----	Marc Aurèli - Wikipèdia Marc Aurèli Un article de Wikipèdia, l'enciclopèdia liura. Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Marc Aurèli Descobridor o inventaire Data de descobèrta Contrari Color Simbòl de quantitat Simbòl d'unitat Proprietat de Fondador Compren Data de debuta Data de fin Precedit per Seguit per Coordenadas Pèça de moneda dau rèine de Marc Aurèli Biografia Naissença 26 d'abril 121 N. a Decès 17 de març 180 D. a Causa de decès Assassinat/ada per Luòc d'enterrament Lenga mairala Fogal ancestral País de nacionalitat Paire Maire Oncle Tanta Grands Bèlamaire Bèlpaire Fraire Sòrre Conjunt Companh/a Filh/a Religion Membre de Familha nòbla Membre de l'equipa esportiva posicion de jòc tir (esquèrra/drecha) grad dan/kyu Grop etnic Orientacion sexuala Profession Emplegaire Domeni d'activitat Escolaritat Diplòma Director de tèsi Estudiant de tèsi Foncion politica Residéncia oficiala Predecessor Successor Partit Tessitura Label discografic Lista de cançons Discografia Mission de l'astronauta Distincions e prèmis Branca militara Grad militar Etapa de canonizacion Familha nòbla Títol de noblesa Títol onorific Comandament Conflicte Jorn de la fèsta País: Empèri roman Epòca: Antiquitat Règne: 161 a 180 Davancièr: Antonin lo Pietós Coemperaire: Lucius Verus Successor: Commòde Marc Aureli o Marc Aurèli Antonin August (en latin Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) (26 d'abril de 121 - 17 de març de 180) foguèt un emperaire roman de 161 fins a sa mòrt. Foguèt lo darrièr dels "Cinc Bons Emperaires" que governèron l'Empèri Roman entre 96 e 180, e es tanben considerat coma un dels mai importants filosòfs estoïcians. Renhe[modificar | modificar la font] Bust de Marc Aurèli al British Museum de Londres Son renhe foguèt marcat per de guèrras en Asia contra l'Empèri Part reviscolat, e amb las tribús germanicas a las frontièras germanicas de l'empèri (Limes Germanicus), en Gàllia e a travèrs de Danubi. Una revòlta dins l'èst menada per Avidius Cassius, foguèt pas capitada.   Los emperaires romans   Antonins Precedit per : Antonin lo Pietós (138 - 161) Marc Aurèli (161 - 180) coemperaire amb Lucius Verus fins a 169 Seguit de : Commòde (180-192) Seria Roma antica Recuperada de « https://oc.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marc_Aurèli&oldid=2188250 » Categorias de la pagina : Emperaire roman Naissença en 121 Decès en 180 Categoria amagada : Paginas amb de proprietats pas resolgudas Menú de navigacion Aisinas personalas Vos sètz pas identificat(ada) Discussion Contribucions Crear un compte Se connectar Espacis de noms Article Discussion Variantas Afichatges Legir Modificar Modificar la font Veire l'istoric Mai Recercar Navigacion Acuèlh La tavèrna Portals tematics Indèx alfabetic Una pagina a l'azard contact Far un don Contribuir Ajuda Comunautat Darrièrs cambiaments Acuèlh dels novèls venguts Far un don Bóstia d'aisinas Paginas ligadas a aquesta Seguit dels ligams Importar un fichièr Paginas especialas Ligam permanent Informacion sus la pagina Citar aqueste article Element Wikidata Imprimir / exportar Crear un libre Telecargar coma PDF Version imprimibla Dins d'autres projèctes Wikimedia Commons Dins d'autras lengas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Modificar los ligams Aquesta pagina es estada modificada pel darrièr còp lo 25 abril de 2020 a 14.23. Drech d'autor : Los tèxtes son disponibles jos licéncia Creative Commons paternitat pertatge a l’identic ; d’autras condicions se pòdon aplicar. Vejatz las condicions d’utilizacion per mai de detalhs, e mai los credits grafics. Wikipedia® es una marca depausada de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organizacion de benfasença regida pel paragraf 501(c)(3) del còde fiscal dels Estats Units. Politica de confidencialitat Avertiments Afichatge mobil Desvolopaires Estatisticas Declaracion suls cookies 
penelope-uchicago-edu-1277	----	LacusCurtius • Gellius — Noctes Atticae Short URL for this page: https://bit.ly/GelliusWPT mail: Bill Thayer Italiano Help Up Home Gellius: Noctes Atticae The Text on LacusCurtius and Elsewhere On October 5, 2006 David Camden's Forum Romanum, after a run of nearly 10 years providing a very useful index to Latin literature online, and many of the texts themselves, suddenly disappeared. One of the most useful texts that had been there and nowhere else, at least in full, was Aulus Gellius' Noctes Atticae. These pages on LacusCurtius are therefore in the nature of an emergency rescue: I retrieved them from Google's cache of the expired website, reformatted them to match my usual habits, inserted local links at the chapter and section numbers, and threw them back online; at which point, after a fair amount of work on my part which I'm not about to let go for naught, Forum Romanum happily reappeared online, and is still online today (2020). At some point then I'll go thru the text, convert the Greek (currently transliterated), conform it to the Loeb edition, add the occasional critical notes in that edition, apply a consistent format, etc. For now though, the sections marked below as not proofread are strictly "as is". A partial transcription of Gellius — whether from the same edition as this one or not, I haven't checked — may be found, unidentified as to source, here. Translation The English translation, on the other hand, was not online anywhere, and having been dragged into this particular author by a sort of accident, I'm taking advantage of it to input it here from scratch. It is the one by J. C. Rolfe, first published in 1927 in three volumes as part of the Loeb Classical Library, and revised in various years. Volumes I and II of my exemplar are in the public domain for sure; Volume III may not be; if not, I will use another edition, of course. (Details on copyright expiration here.) Proofreading As noted, the transcription will be minutely proofread. In the table of contents below, the Books that I have completely proofread are shown on blue backgrounds; any red backgrounds indicate that the proofreading is still incomplete. The header bar at the top of each webpage will remind you with the same color scheme. In either case of course, should you spot an error, please do report it. Latin original English translation Praefatio Preface Capitula Chapter Headings Liber I Book 1 Liber II Book 2 Liber III Book 3 Liber IV Book 4 Liber V Book 5 Liber VI Book 6 Liber VII Book 7 Liber VIII Book 8 Liber IX Book 9 Liber X Book 10 Liber XI Book 11 Liber XII Book 12 Liber XIII Book 13 Liber XIV Book 14 Liber XV Book 15 Liber XVI Book 16 Liber XVII Book 17 Liber XVIII Book 18 Liber XIX Book 19 Liber XX Book 20 Chapter and Section Numbering, Local Links Both chapters (large numbers) and sections (small numbers) mark local links, according to a consistent scheme; you can therefore link directly to any passage. Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Site updated: 23 Sep 20 
penelope-uchicago-edu-1429	----	Historia Augusta • Life of Marcus Aurelius (Part 2 of 2) mail: Bill Thayer Latine Italiano Help Up Home previous: Part 1 This webpage reproduces part of the Historia Augusta published in the Loeb Classical Library, 1921 The text is in the public domain. This page has been carefully proofread and I believe it to be free of errors. If you find a mistake though, please let me know! next: Lucius Verus (Vol. I) Historia Augusta  p171  The Life of Marcus Aurelius Part 2 15 1 It was customary with Marcus to read, listen to, and sign documents at the circus-games; because of this habit he was openly ridiculed, it is said, by the people. 2 The freedmen Geminas and Agaclytus​99 were very powerful in the reign of Marcus and Verus. 3 Such was Marcus' sense of honour,​100 moreover, that although Verus' vices mightily offended him, he concealed and defended them; he also deified him after his death,​101 aided and advanced his aunts and sisters by means of honours and pensions,​102 honoured Verus himself with many sacrifices, 4 consecrated a flamen for him and a college of Antonine priests,​103 and gave him all honours that are appointed for the deified. 5 There is no emperor who is not the victim of some evil tale, and Marcus is no exception. For it was bruited about, in truth, that he put Verus out of the way, either with poison — by cutting a sow's womb with a knife smeared on one side with poison,​a and then offering the poisoned portion to his brother to eat, while keeping the harmless portion for himself​104 — 6 or, at least, by employing the physician Posidippus, who bled Verus, it is said, unseasonably. After Verus' death Cassius revolted from Marcus.105  p173  16 1 Such was Marcus' kindness toward his own family that he bestowed the insignia of every office on all his kin, while on his son,​106 and an accursed and foul one he was, he hastened to bestow the name of Caesar,​107 then afterward the priesthood,​108 and, a little later, the title of imperator​109 and a share in a triumph​110 and the consulship. 2 It was at this time that Marcus, though acclaimed imperator, ran on foot in the Circus by the side of the triumphal car in which his son was seated. 3 After the death of Verus, Marcus Antoninus held the empire alone, a nobler man by far and more abounding in virtues, 4 especially as he was no longer hampered by Verus' faults, neither by those of excessive candour and hot-headed plain speaking, from which Verus suffered through natural folly, nor by those others which had particularly irked Marcus Antoninus even from his earliest years, the principles and habits of a depraved mind. 5 Such was Marcus' own repose of spirit that neither in grief nor in joy did he ever change countenance, being wholly given over to the Stoic philosophy, which he had not only learned from all the best masters,​111 but also acquired for himself from every source. 6 For this reason Hadrian would have taken him for his own successor to the throne had not his youth prevented. 7 This intention, indeed, seems obvious from the fact that he chose Marcus to be the son-in‑law of Pius,​112 in order that the direction of the Roman state might some time at least come into his hands, as to those of one well worthy.  p175  17 1 Toward the provinces from then on he acted with extreme restraint and consideration. He carried on a successful campaign against the Germans. 2 He himself singled out the Marcomannic war — a war which surpassed any in the memory of man — and waged it with both valour and success, and that at a time when a grievous pestilence had carried away thousands of civilians and soldiers.​113 3 And so, by crushing the Marcomanni, the Sarmatians, the Vandals, and even the Quadi, he freed the Pannonias from bondage,​114 and with Commodus his son, whom he had previously named Caesar, triumphed at Rome, as we told above.​115 4 When he had drained the treasury for this war, moreover, and could not bring himself to impose any extraordinary tax on the provincials, he held a public sale in the Forum of the Deified Trajan​116 of the imperial furnishings, and sold goblets of gold and crystal and murra,​117 even flagons made for kings, his wife's silken gold-embroidered robes, and, indeed, even certain jewels which he had found in considerable numbers in a particularly holy cabinet of Hadrian's. 5º This sale lasted for two months, and such a store of gold was realised thereby, that after he had conducted the remainder of the Marcomannic war in full accordance with his plans, he gave the buyers to understand that if any of them wished to return his purchases and recover his money, he could do so. Nor did he make it unpleasant for anyone who did or did not return what he had bought.  p177 6 At this time, also, he granted permission to the more prominent men to hold banquets with the same pomp that he used himself and with servants similar to his own. 7 In the matter of public games, furthermore, he was so liberal as to present a hundred lions together in one performance and have them all killed with arrows. 18 1 After he had ruled, then, with the good-will of all, and had been named and beloved variously as brother, father, or son by various men according to their several ages, in the eighteenth year of his reign and the sixty-first of his life he closed his last day.​118 2 Such love for him was manifested on the day of the imperial funeral that none thought that men should lament him, since all were sure that he had been lent by the gods and had now returned to them. 3 Finally, before his funeral was held, so many say, the senate and people, not in separate places but sitting together, as was never done before or after, hailed him as a gracious god. 4 This man, so great, so good, and an associate of the gods both in life and in death, left one son Commodus; and had he been truly fortunate he would not have left a son. 5 It was not enough, indeed, that people of every age, sex, degree and rank in life, gave him all honours given to the gods, but also whosoever failed to keep the Emperor's image in his home, if his fortune were such that he could or should have done so, was deemed guilty of sacrilege. 6 Even to‑day, in fine, statues of Marcus Antoninus stand in many a home among the household gods. 7 Nor were there lacking men who observed that he foretold many things by dreams and were thereby themselves enabled to predict events that did come to pass.  p179 8 Therefore a temple was built for him and priests were appointed, dedicated to the service of the Antonines, both Sodales​119 and flamens, and all else that the usage of old time decreed for a consecrated temple. 19 1 Some say, and it seems plausible, that Commodus Antoninus, his son and successor, was not begotten by him, but in adultery; 2 they embroider this assertion, moreover, with a story current among the people. On a certain occasion, it was said, Faustina, the daughter of Pius and wife of Marcus, saw some gladiators pass by, and was inflamed for love of one of them; and afterwards, when suffering from a long illness, she confessed the passion to her husband. 3 And when Marcus reported this to the Chaldeans, it was their advice that Faustina should bathe in his blood and thus couch with her husband. 4 When this was done, the passion was indeed allayed, but their son Commodus was born a gladiator, not really a prince; 5 for afterwards as emperor he fought almost a thousand gladiatorial bouts before the eyes of the people, as shall be related in his life.​120 6 This story is considered plausible, as a matter of fact, for the reason that the son of so virtuous a prince had habits worse than any trainer of gladiators, any play-actor, any fighter in the arena, anything brought into existence from the offscourings of all dishonour and crime. 7 Many writers, however, state that Commodus was really begotten in adultery, since it is generally known that Faustina, while at Caieta, used to choose out lovers from among the sailors and gladiators.​121 8 When Marcus Antoninus was told about  p181 this, that he might divorce, if not kill her, he is reported to have said "If we send our wife away, we must also return her dowry". 9 And what was her dowry? the Empire, which, after he had been adopted at the wish of Hadrian, he had inherited from his father-in‑law Pius. 10 But truly such is the power of the life, the holiness, the serenity, and the righteousness of a good emperor that not even the scorn felt for his kin can sully his own good name. 11 For since Antoninus held ever to his moral code and was moved by no man's whispered machinations, men thought no less of him because his son was a gladiator, his wife infamous. 12 Even now he is called a god, which ever has seemed and even now seems right to you, most venerable Emperor Diocletian, who worship him among your divinities, not as you worship the others, but as one apart, and who often say that you desire, in life and gentleness, to be such a one as Marcus, even though, as far as philosophy is concerned, Plato himself, were he to return to life, could not be such a philosopher. So much, then, for these matters, told briefly and concisely. 20 1 But as for the acts of Marcus Antoninus after the death of his brother,​122 they are as follows: First of all, he conveyed his body to Rome and laid it in the tomb of his fathers.​123 2 Then divine honours were ordered for Verus.​124 Later, while rendering thanks to the senate for his brother's deification, he darkly hinted that all the strategic plans whereby the Parthians had been overcome were his own. 3 He added, besides, certain statements in which he indicated that now at length he would make a fresh beginning in the management of the state, now that Verus, who  p183 had seemed somewhat negligent, was removed. 4 And the senate took this precisely as it was said, so that Marcus seemed to be giving thanks that Verus had departed this life. 5 Afterwards he bestowed many privileges and much honour and money on all Verus' sisters, kin, and freedmen.​125 For he was exceedingly solicitous about his good reputation, indeed he was wont to ask what men really said of him, and to correct whatever seemed justly blamed. 6 Just before setting out for the German war,​126 and before the period of mourning had yet expired, he married his daughter​127 to Claudius Pompeianus, the son of a Roman knight, and now advanced in years, a native of Antioch, whose birth was not sufficiently noble (though Marcus later made him consul twice), 7 since Marcus' daughter was an Augusta and the daughter of an Augusta. Indeed, Faustina and the girl who was given in marriage were both opposed to this match. 21 1 Against the Mauri, when they wasted almost the whole of Spain,​128 matters were brought to a successful conclusion by his legates; 2 and when the warriors of the Bucolici did many grievous things in Egypt,​129 they were checked by Avidius Cassius, who later attempted to seize the throne.​130 3 Just before his departure,​131 while he was living in retreat at Praeneste, Marcus lost his seven-year‑old son, by name Verus Caesar,​132 from an operation on a tumour under his ear. 4 For no more than five days did he mourn him; and even during this period, when consulted on public affairs he gave some time to them.  p185 And because the games of Jupiter Optimus Maximus​133 were then in progress 5 and he did not wish to have them interrupted by public mourning, he merely ordered that statues should be decreed for his dead son, that a golden image of him should be carried in procession at the Circus, and that his name should be inserted in the song of the Salii.134 6 And since the pestilence​135 was still raging at this time, he both zealously revived the worship of the gods and trained slaves for military service — just as had been done in the Punic war — whom he called Volunteers, after the example of the Volones.​136 7 He armed gladiators also, calling them the Compliant, and turned even the bandits of Dalmatia and Dardania​137 into soldiers. He armed the Diogmitae,​138 besides, and even hired auxiliaries from among the Germans for service against Germans. 8 And besides all this, he proceeded with all care to enrol legions​139 for the Marcomannic and German war. 9 And lest all this prove burdensome to the provinces, he held an auction of the palace furnishings in the Forum of the Deified Trajan, as we have related,​140 and sold there, besides robes and goblets and golden flagons, even statues and paintings by great artists. 10 He overwhelmed the Marcomanni while they were crossing the Danube,​141 and restored the plunder to the provincials.  p187  22 1 Then, from the borders of Illyricum even into Gaul, all the nations banded together against us — the Marcomanni, Varistae, Hermunduri and Quadi, the Suebians, Sarmatians, Lacringes and Buri, these and certain others together with the Victuali, namely, Osi, Bessi, Cobotes, Roxolani, Bastarnae, Alani, Peucini, and finally, the Costoboci. Furthermore, war threatened in Parthia and Britain. 2 Thereupon, by immense labour on his own part, while his soldiers reflected his energy, and both legates and prefects of the guard led the host, he conquered these exceedingly fierce peoples, accepted the surrender of the Marcomanni, and brought a great number of them to Italy.142 3 Always before making any move, he conferred with the foremost men​143 concerning matters not only of war but also of civil life. 4 This saying particularly was ever on his lips: "It is juster that I should yield to the counsel of such a number of such friends than that such a number of such friends should yield to my wishes, who am but one". 5 But because Marcus, as a result of his system of philosophy, seemed harsh in his military discipline and indeed in his life in general, he was bitterly assailed; 6 to all who spoke ill of him, however, he made reply either in speeches or in pamphlets. 7 And because in this German, or Marcomannic, war, or rather I should say in this "War of Many Nations," many nobles perished, for all of whom he erected statues in the Forum of Trajan,​144 8 his friends often urged him to abandon the war and return to Rome. He, however, disregarded this advice and stood his ground, nor did he withdraw before he had brought all the wars to a conclusion.​145 9 Several proconsular provinces he  p189 changed into consular,​146 and several consular provinces into proconsular​147 or praetorian,​148 according to the exigencies of war. 10 He checked disturbances among the Sequani by a rebuke and by his personal influence; 11 and in Spain,​149 likewise, he quieted the disturbances which had arisen in Lusitania. 12 And having summoned his son Commodus to the border of the empire, he gave him the toga virilis,​150 in honour of which he distributed largess among the people,​151 and appointed him consul before the legal age.152 23 1 He was always displeased at hearing that anyone had been outlawed by the prefect of the city. 2 He himself was very sparing of the public money in giving largess​153 — a fact which we mention rather in praise than in disparagement — 3 but nevertheless he gave financial assistance to the deserving, furnished aid to towns on the brink of ruin,​154 and, when necessity demanded, cancelled tribute or taxes.​155 4 And  p191 while absent from Rome he left forceful instructions that the amusements of the Roman people should be provided for by the richest givers of public spectacles, 5 because, when he took the gladiators away to the war, there was talk among the people that he intended to deprive them of their amusements and thereby drive them to the study of philosophy. 6 Indeed, he had ordered that the actors of pantomimes should begin their performances nine days later than usual in order that business might not be interfered with. 7 There was talk, as we mentioned above,​156 about his wife's intrigues with pantomimists; however, he cleared her of all these charges in his letters. 8 He forbade riding and driving within the limits of any city. He abolished common baths for both sexes.​157 He reformed the morals of the matrons and young nobles which were growing lax. He separated the sacred rites of Serapis from the miscellaneous ceremonies of the Pelusia.​158 9 There was a report, furthermore, that certain men masquerading as philosophers had been making trouble both for the state and for private citizens; but this charge he refuted. 24 1 It was customary with Antoninus to punish all crimes with lighter penalties than were usually inflicted by the laws; although at times, toward those who were clearly guilty of serious crimes he remained implacable. 2 He himself held those trials of distinguished men which involved the death-penalty, and always with the greatest justice. Once, indeed, he rebuked a praetor who heard the pleas of accused men in too summary a fashion, and ordered  p193 him to hold the trials again, saying that it was a matter of concern to the honour of the accused that they should be heard by a judge who really represented the people. 3 He scrupulously observed justice, moreover, even in his dealings with captive enemies. He settled innumerable foreigners on Roman soil.​159 4 By his prayers he summoned a thunderbolt from heaven against a war-engine of the enemy, and successfully besought rain for his men when they were suffering from thirst.160 5 He wished to make a province of Marcomannia and likewise of Sarmatia,​161 and he would have done so 6 had not Avidius Cassius just then raised a rebellion in the East.​162 This man proclaimed himself emperor, some say, at the wish of Faustina, who was now in despair over her husband's death; 7 others, however, say that Cassius proclaimed himself emperor after spreading false rumours of Antoninus' death, and indeed he had called him the Deified. 8 Antoninus was not much disturbed by this revolt, nor did he adopt harsh measures against Cassius' dear ones. 9 The senate, however, declared Cassius a public enemy and confiscated his property to the public treasury. 25 1 The Emperor, then, abandoning the Sarmatian and Marcomannic wars, set out against him. 2 At Rome there was a panic for fear that Cassius would arrive during Antoninus' absence; but he was speedily slain and his head was brought to Antoninus. 3 Even then, Marcus did not rejoice at Cassius' death, and gave  p195 orders that his head should be buried. 4 Maecianus,​163 Cassius' ally, in whose charge Alexandria had been placed, was killed by the army; likewise his prefect of the guard — for he had appointed one — was also slain. 5 Marcus then forbade the senate to impose any heavy punishment upon those who had conspired in this revolt; 6 and at the same time, in order that his reign might escape such a stain, he requested that during his rule no senator should be executed.​164 7 Those who had been exiled, moreover, he ordered to be recalled; and there were only a very few of the centurions who suffered the death-penalty. 8 He pardoned the communities which had sided with Cassius, and even went so far as to pardon the citizens of Antioch, who had said many things in support of Cassius and in opposition to himself. 9 But he did abolish their games and public meetings, including assemblies of every kind, and issued a very severe edict against the people themselves. 10 And yet a speech which Marcus delivered to his friends, reported by Marius Maximus, brands them as rebels. 11 And finally, he refused to visit Antioch when he journeyed to Syria,​165 12 nor would he visit Cyrrhus, the home of Cassius. Later on, however, he did visit Antioch. Alexandria, when he stayed there, he treated with clemency. 26 1 He conducted many negotiations with kings, and ratified peace with all the kings and satraps of Persia when they came to meet him. 2 He was exceedingly beloved by all the eastern provinces, and on many, indeed, he left the imprint of philosophy. 3 While in Egypt he conducted himself like a  p197 private citizen and a philosopher at all the stadia, temples, and in fact everywhere. And although the citizens of Alexandria had been outspoken in wishing Cassius success, he forgave everything and left his daughter among them. 4 And now, in the village of Halala, in the foothills of Mount Taurus, he lost his wife Faustina, who succumbed to a sudden illness.​166 5 He asked the senate to decree her divine honours and a temple, and likewise delivered a eulogy of her, although she had suffered grievously from the reputation of lewdness.​167 Of this, however, Antoninus was either ignorant or affected ignorance. 6 He established a new order of Faustinian girls​168 in honour of his dead wife, 7 expressed his pleasure at her deification by the senate,​169 8 and because she had accompanied him on his summer campaign, called her "Mother of the Camp".​170 9 And besides this, he made the village where Faustina died a colony, and there built a temple in her honour. This, however, was afterwards consecrated to Elagabalus.171 10 With characteristic clemency, he suffered rather than ordered the execution of Cassius, 11 while Heliodorus, the son of Cassius, was merely banished, and others of his children exiled but allowed part of their father's property.​172 12 Cassius's sons, moreover, were granted over half their father's estate and were enriched besides with sums of gold and silver, while the women of the family were presented with jewels. Indeed, Alexandria, Cassius' daughter, and Druncianus, his son-in‑law, were allowed to travel wherever  p199 they wished, and were even put under the protection of the Emperor's uncle by marriage. 13 And further than this, he grieved at Cassius' death, saying that he had wished to complete his reign without shedding the blood of a single senator.173 27 1 After he had settled affairs in the East he came to Athens, and had himself initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries​174 in order to prove that he was innocent of any wrong-doing, and he entered the sanctuary unattended. 2 Afterwards, when returning to Italy, he encountered a violent storm on the way. 3 Then, reaching Italy by way of Brundisium, he donned the toga​175 and bade his troops do likewise, nor indeed during his reign were the soldiers ever clad in the military cloak.​176 4 When he reached Rome he triumphed,​177 then hastened to Lavinium. 5 Presently he appointed Commodus his colleague in the tribunician power,​178 bestowed largess upon the people,​179 and gave marvellous games; shortly thereafter he remedied many civil abuses, 6 and set a limit to the expense of gladiatorial shows. 7 Ever on his lips was a saying of Plato's, that those states prospered where the philosophers were kings or the kings philosophers. 8 He united his son in marriage with the daughter of Bruttius Praesens,​180 performing the ceremony in the manner of ordinary citizens; and in celebration of the marriage he gave largess to the people.  p201  9 He then turned his attention to completing the war,​181 in the conduct of which he died. During this time the behaviour of his son steadily fell away from the standard the Emperor had set for himself. 10 For three years thereafter he waged war with the Marcomanni, the Hermunduri, the Sarmatians, and the Quadi, and had he lived a year longer he would have made these regions provinces. 11 Two days before his death, it is said, he summoned his friends and expressed the same opinion about his son that Philip expressed about Alexander when he too thought poorly of his son,​182 and added that it grieved him exceedingly to leave a son behind him. 12 For already Commodus had made it clear that he was base and cruel.183 28 1 He died in the following manner:​184 When he began to grow ill, he summoned his son and besought him first of all not to think lightly of what remained of the war, lest he seem a traitor to the state. 2 And when his son replied that his first desire was good health, he allowed him to do as he wished,​185 only asking him to wait a few days and not leave at once. 3 Then, being eager to die, he refrained from eating or drinking, and so aggravated the disease. 4 On the sixth day he summoned his friends, and with derision for all human affairs and scorn for death, said to them: "Why do you weep  p203 for me, instead of thinking about the pestilence​186 and about death which is the common lot of us all?" 5 And when they were about to retire he groaned and said: "If you now grant me leave to go, I bid you farewell and pass on before." 6 And when he was asked to whom he commended his son he replied: "To you,​187 if he prove worthy, and to the immortal gods". 7 The army, when they learned of his sickness, lamented loudly, for they loved him singularly. 8 On the seventh day he was weary and admitted only his son, and even him he at once sent away in fear that he would catch the disease. 9 And when his son had gone, he covered his head as though he wished to sleep and during the night he breathed his last.​188 10 It is said that he foresaw that after his death Commodus would turn out as he actually did, and expressed the wish that his son might die, lest, as he himself said, he should become another Nero, Caligula, or Domitian. 29 1 It is held to Marcus' discredit that he advanced his wife's lovers, Tertullus and Tutilius​189 and Orfitus and Moderatus, to various offices of honour, although he had caught Tertullus in the very act of breakfasting with his wife. 2 In regard to this man the following dialogue was spoken on the stage in the presence of Antoninus himself. The Fool asked the Slave the name of his wife's lover and the Slave answered "Tullus" three times; and when the Fool kept on asking, the Slave replied, "I have already told you thrice Tullus is his name".​190 3 But the city-populace and others besides talked a great deal about this incident and found fault with Antoninus for his forbearance.  p205  4 Previous to his death, and before he returned to the Marcomannic war, he swore in the Capitol that no senator had been executed with his knowledge and consent, and said that had he known he would have spared even the insurgents.​191 5 Nothing did he fear and deprecate more than a reputation for covetousness, a charge of which he tried to clear himself in many letters. 6 Some maintain — and held it a fault — that he was insincere and not as guileless as he seemed, indeed not as guileless as either Pius or Verus had been. 7 Others accused him of encouraging the arrogance of the court by keeping his friends from general social intercourse and from banquets. 8 His parents were deified at his command, and even his parents' friends, after their death, he honoured with statues. 9 He did not readily accept the version of those who were partisans in any matter, but always searched long and carefully for the truth. 10 After the death of Faustina, Fabia​192 tried to manoeuvre a marriage with him. But he took a concubine instead, the daughter of a steward of his wife's, rather than put a stepmother over so many children. The Editor's Notes: 99 Cf. Ver. ix.3. ❦ 100 The section of the vita from this point through c. xix is a later interpolation; see Intro., p. xxii. ❦ 101 Cf. c. xx.1‑2, and the coins of Divus Verus with the legend Consecratio; see Cohen, III2, p176 f., Nos. 53‑59. ❦ 102 Cf. c. xx.5. ❦ 103 See note to Hadr. xxvii.3, and Pius, xiii.4. This priesthood was now called sodales Antoniniani Veriani, after (p171)Marcus' deification Marciani was added, after Pertinax' death Helviani (Pert., xv.4), after Severus' Severiani (CIL VI.1365), after Alexander's Alexandriani (Alex., lxiii.4). ❦ 104 Cf. Ver., xi.2; Dio, LXXI.3.1. According to another story, he was poisoned by Faustina; see Ver., x.1‑5. ❦ 105 In 175; see c. xxiv.6 f.; Av. Cass., vii, f. ❦ 106 i.e., Commodus. ❦ 107 See c. xii.8 and note. ❦ 108 On 20 January, 175; see Com., i.10; xii.1. On the priesthood held by sons of emperors see note to c. vi.3. ❦ 109 On 27 November, 176; see Com., ii.4; xii.4. ❦ 110 On 23 December, 176; see Com., ii.4; xii.5. This, however, seems not to have been the triumph held by Marcus in celebration of his victory in Pannonia; see c. xvii.3 and note. ❦ 111 Cf. c. ii.6‑iii.3. ❦ 112 This is an error, for Hadrian betrothed him to the daughter of Aelius Caesar; see c. iv.5 and vi.2. ❦ 113 See c. xiii.3. ❦ 114 This sentence sums up the war from Marcus' departure from Rome in October, 169 (cf. coins with Profectio Augusti, Cohen, III2, p51, No. 500) to the victory over the Sarmatians in 175, after which Marcus was acclaimed Imperator for the eighth time and assumed the title Sarmaticus; see c. xxiv.5 and Cohen, III2, p91 f., Nos. 916‑925. ❦ 115 See c. xvi.2. His triumph over the Germans and the Sarmatians was held in 176 after his return from the East; see c. xxvii.3; Cohen, III2, p17, No. 154, and p18, No. 164; CIL VI.1014 = Dessau, Ins. Sel., 374. Since the coins and the inscriptions date this triumph in the 30th year of the tribunician (p175)power of Marcus (10 December, 175 – 9 December, 176), and since the triumph of Commodus was held on 23 December, 176, the statement that Commodus triumphed with his father, as made here and in Com., ii.4, must be erroneous. ❦ 116 See note to Hadr., vii.6. ❦ 117 Probably a variety of agate; see J. Marquardt, Privatleben d. Römer2, II, p765 f. ❦ 118 See c. xxviii. ❦ 119 See note to Hadr., xxvii.3, and c. xv.4. ❦ 120 See Com., xi.12; xii.11. ❦ 121 For similar stories see c. xxiii.7 and xxix.1‑3; Victor. Caes., xvi.2. Evidence to the contrary seems to be afforded (p179)by Marcus' own affection and respect for her; see εἰς ἑαυτ. I.17.7. ❦ 122 See c. xiv.8. The interpolated section ends with c. xix; see note to c. xv.3. ❦ 123 i.e., the Tomb of Hadrian; see Ver., xi.1. His sepulchral inscription is CIL VI.991 = Dessau, Ins. Sel., 369. ❦ 124 Cf. c. xv.3‑4. ❦ 125 Cf. c. xv.3. ❦ 126 After his return to Rome with the body of Verus. He set out in October, 169; see note to c. xvii.3. ❦ 127 Lucilla, the widow of Verus. ❦ 128 Cf. c. xxii.11. The date is probably 172‑173, see Sev., ii.4. ❦ 129 According to Av. Cass., vi.7, this statement is taken from Marius Maximus' Life of Marcus. The rebellion is somewhat more fully described in Dio, LXXI.4. The Boukoloi, a tribe of herdsmen and brigands, lived in the NW of the Delta, not far from Alexandria. According to Dio's chronology, the rebellion happened after Marcus' assumption of the name Germanicus, i.e. in 172‑173. ❦ 130 See c. xxiv.6 f.; Av. Cass. vii f. ❦ 131 i.e., for the German war; see c. xx.6. ❦ 132 M. Annius Verus; see note to c. xii.8. ❦ 133 Probably the Ludi Capitolini, held on 15 October. ❦ 134 Germanicus' name had been similarly inserted in this song after his death; see Tac. Ann., II.82. ❦ 135 See c. xiii.3. ❦ 136 The name given to the slaves who volunteered for military service after the defeat at Cannae in the Second Punic War; see Livy, XXII.57.11, and Festus, p370. ❦ 137 The district east of southern Dalmatia; it is now the southern portion of the kingdom of Serbia. ❦ 138 The Diogmitai were the military police maintained by the Greek cities. They were also called upon to perform military service — the suppression of brigands — in 368; see Amm. Marc., XXVII.9.6. ❦ 139 These new legions were named Legio II Pia and Legio (p185)III Concordia; see CIL III.1980. They were afterwards called Legio II and III Italica; see Dio, LV.24.4. ❦ 140 See c. xvii.4‑5. ❦ 141 This is probably the victory commemorated by coins of 172 with a representation of Marcus and his soldiers crossing a bridge, presumably over the Danube; see Cohen, III2, p99 f., Nos. 999‑1001. Other coins of this year bear the legend Germania Subacta; see Cohen, III2, p23, Nos. 215‑216. It was in this year too that Marcus took the name Germanicus; see CIL III.1450. ❦ 142 Cf. c. xxiv.3. ❦ 143 i.e., his consilium; see Hadr., viii.9 and note. ❦ 144 See note to Hadr., vii.6. ❦ 145 But see c. xxiv.5 and xxv.1. ❦ 146 i.e., he took them from under the control of the senate and made them imperial provinces governed by legates of consular rank; see note to Hadr., iii.9. ❦ 147 i.e., transferred from the control of the emperor to that of the senate. ❦ 148 Either the author fails to understand what is trying to say here, or an omission in the text must be assumed, such as Hirschfeld's proposed insertion ex procuratoriis. He seems to mean that certain provinces now received as governors legates of praetorian rank (see note to Hadr., iii.9). As there is no evidence for the supposition that any provinces were transferred from the "consular" class to the "praetorian," it must be assumed that the provinces in question were previously governed by equestrian procurators. Such a transfer from "procuratory" to "praetorian" provinces was actually made under Marcus in the cases of Raetia and Noricum, to which were sent the two new legions mentioned in c. xxi.8. ❦ 149 Cf. c. xxi.1. ❦ 150 See Com., ii.2; xii.3; Dio, LXXI.22.2. The ceremony took place on the Danube frontier immediately prior to Marcus' departure for Syria. ❦ 151 Commemorated on coins of 175 with the legend Liberalitas Aug(usti) VI; see Cohen, III2, p43, Nos. 416‑420. ❦ 152 Under the empire the minimum age for the consulship seems to have been 33. See also note to Pius, vi.10. ❦ 153 Yet his coins record seven different largesses to the populace; see Cohen, III2, p41 f., Nos. 401‑427. See also c. xxvii.5 and note. His donation to the soldiers on his accession was unusually large (see c. vii.9), but on another occasion he is said to have refused the army's request for a donation; see Dio, LXXI.3.3. ❦ 154 See also c. xi.3. He also came to the relief of Smyrna when destroyed by an earthquake in 178; see Dio, LXXI.32.2. ❦ 155 In 178 all arrears due the treasury or the privy-purse were cancelled; see Dio, LXXI.32.2. This was merely an application of the principle established by Hadrian; see note to Hadr., vii.6. ❦ 156 See c. xix. ❦ 157 Cf. Hadr., xviii.10. ❦ 158 The Serapia, the annual festival of the Egyptian deity Serapis, was celebrated on 25 April; see Calendar of Philocalus (CIL I2, p262). A festival called Pelusia, celebrating the annual overflow of the Nile, was held on 20 March; see Lydus, de Mens., IV.40. The statement of the biographer has been explained by Mommsen (CIL I2 p313) as meaning that the customary licence of the Pelusia was limited in order to save the festival of Serapis from desecration. But in view of the interval between the dates this explanation is not altogether convincing; furthermore, licence is an unnatural meaning for vulgaritas and sacra Serapidis does not necessarily refer to the Serapia. The sentence seems rather (p191)to mean that the rites of Serapis were isolated from the mass of Egyptian cults celebrated at the Pelusia; so also Wilcken, Klio, IX p131 f. ❦ 159 Cf. c. xxii.2. ❦ 160 In the war against the Quadi in 174; see Dio, LXXI.8‑10. According to Dio, the thunder-storm was sent by Hermes at the prayer of an Egyptian magician. The Christian legend, on the other hand, declared that the storm was an answer to the prayers of the Twelfth Legion, the Fulminata, entirely composed of Christians; see Xiphilinus in Dio, LXII.9. ❦ 161 In 175, after a victory so decisive that Marcus was acclaimed Imperator for the eighth time, and took the title Sarmaticus; see Cohen, III2, p91 f., Nos. 916‑925; CIL VIII.2276. ❦ 162 Cf. Av. Cass., vii f. ❦ 163 Possibly, though not probably, the jurist L. Volusius Maecianus (see Pius, XII.1). ❦ 164 For his general policy in the punishment of senators, see c. x.6. ❦ 165 Faustina and Commodus seem to have accompanied him (p195)on this journey through Syria and Egypt; see c. xxvi.4 and Com., ii.3. ❦ 166 According to Dio, LXXI.29.1, her death was by some attributed to suicide. ❦ 167 Cf. c. xix. ❦ 168 Cf. Pius, viii.1. See also CIL VI.10222. ❦ 169 Commemorated by coins of Diva Faustina, with the legend Consecratio; see Cohen, III2, p141 f., Nos. 65‑83. She also received the name Pia; see the coins and CIL VI.1019 = Dessau, Ins. Sel., 382. ❦ 170 After his victory over the Quadi in 174; see Dio, LXXI.10.5. The title appears on her coins issued both before and after her deification; see Cohen, III2, p149 f., Nos. 159‑167. ❦ 171 The sun-god of Emesa in Syria, whose worship was introduced into Rome by the Emperor Elagabalus; see Carac., xi.7; Hel., i.5 f. ❦ 172 Cf. Av. Cass., ix.2‑4. ❦ 173 Cf. c. xxv.6. ❦ 174 As Hadrian had done; see Hadr., xiii.1. ❦ 175 See Hadr., xxii.2‑3. His return was commemorated by coins with the legend Fort(una) Red(ux); see Cohen, III2, p22, No. 210. ❦ 176 i.e., while they were in Italy. ❦ 177 See note to c. xvii.3. ❦ 178 On the significance of this appointment see Pius, iv.8 and note. It is commemorated on coins of Commodus of 177; see Cohen, III2, p326 f., Nos. 733‑738. ❦ 179 According to Dio, LXXI.32.1, each citizen received eight (p199)aurei (one for each year of Marcus' absence from Rome), a largess greater than had ever been given before. ❦ 180 Her name was Bruttia Crispina; see Dio, LXXI.31.1, and CIL X.408 = Dessau, Ins. Sel., 1117. The marriage was commemorated by coins, Cohen, III2, p388 f. She was afterwards banished on a charge of adultery and put to death in exile; see Dio, LXXII.4.6. ❦ 181 He and Commodus left Rome for Pannonia on 3 August, 178; see Com., xii.6. This war seems to have been called the Expeditio Germanica Secunda (CIL II.4114, and VI.8541 = Dessau, Ins. Sel., 1140 and 1573) or the Expeditio Sarmatica (CIL X.408 = Dessau, 1117). ❦ 182 Probably uttered during the period of estrangement when Alexander was living in Illyricum; see Plut., Alex., ix. ❦ 183 Cf. Com., i.7‑9. ❦ 184 His death occurred at Sirmium (Mitrowitz on the Save) according to Tertullian, Apologet., 25, at Vindobona (Vienna) according to Victor, Caes., XVI.12, Epit., XVI.12. According to a story preserved by Dio (LXXI.33.4), his physicians poisoned him in order to please Commodus. It has been supposed that he died of the plague (cf. §§ 4 and 8), but without very good reason. ❦ 185 Apparently, to abandon the campaign; cf. Com., iii.5. ❦ 186 See note to c. xiii.3. ❦ 187 Cf. Dio, LXXI.34.1, and Herodian, I.4. ❦ 188 Cf. Dio, LXII.33.4. ❦ 189 See note to Com., viii.1. ❦ 190 Ter-tullus means "Thrice-tullus". ❦ 191 See c. x.6; xxv.5‑6; xxvi.13. ❦ 192 He had been betrothed to her in his youth; see c. iv.5. Thayer's Note: a Now just in case you're chuckling to yourself that you'd never have been had that way — sow's womb was, although a delicacy, a standard item of food. Today the gossips would be hinting darkly at something like foie gras. Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Historia Augusta Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Page updated: 27 Oct 17 
penelope-uchicago-edu-1791	----	LacusCurtius • Cassius Dio's Roman History Short URL for this page: https://bit.ly/CDioWPT mail: Bill Thayer Italiano Help Up Home Cassius Dio: Roman History Rome: The Senate-House. Dio will never let you forget he was a Roman senator! Since, however, our author was not Italian, but Greek, I've greyed out the modern Monument to Victor Emmanuel in the far background; nor is there any evidence that he might have been Christian, so the church of SS. Luca and Martina in the closer background is also greyed out. In fact, though, the building that remains — the Curia as we have it today — Cassius Dio never saw. The Curia Julia he knew burnt to the ground about fifty years after he died; it was replaced by the one you see. The details, and the original undoctored version of this photo, are in an article in Platner and Ashby's Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. The Author For the little we know of Dio, filled out with a bit of reasonable conjecture, as well as a brief analysis and critique of the History and a somewhat longer account of the tangled manuscript situation, see Prof. Cary's Introduction. The excerptors are less well represented online; except for Zonaras, on whom see this brief but careful article in the Catholic Encyclopedia. The Text of Cassius Dio on LacusCurtius The entire work is online and has been subjected to several preliminary proofreading passes; but the local link scheme, detailed proofreading, addition of links, commentary, illustrations, etc. are still in progress. As almost always, I retyped the text rather than scanning it: not only to minimize errors prior to proofreading, but as an opportunity for me to become intimately familiar with the work, an exercise which I heartily recommend. (Well-meaning attempts to get me to scan text, if successful, would merely turn me into some kind of machine: gambit declined.) I ran a first proofreading pass immediately after entering each book, and later got sustained help from four other readers, so that the text of all the books is quite good already. I've now started final proofreading: in the table of contents below, books whose text I believe to be completely errorfree are shown on blue backgrounds. Edition Used Loeb Classical Library, 9 volumes, Greek texts and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1914 thru 1927. Translation by Earnest Cary. Now in the public domain pursuant to the 1978 revision of the U. S. Copyright Code, since the copyright on the earlier volumes has lapsed and that on the later volumes was not renewed at the appropriate time, which would have been in various years thru 1955. (Details here on the copyright law involved.) Section Numbering, Local Links The Book, chapter, and section numbering is confusing. While it follows the standard system used in the Boissevain edition, Prof. Cary exercised a good deal of editorial judgment on the fragmentary texts of Dio and reassembled them in an order that suited him — leaving, however, the standard numbering in place to facilitate reference. As a result, to the casual reader it appears very disordered; for example, sections assigned by Boissevain to one Book often appear in a different Book of the Loeb edition — while keeping the original Book numbering. I in turn follow the Loeb edition, with a single exception of my own! in which I return a piece of text to its place in the Boissevain edition: I mark the spot. For citation purposes, the Loeb edition pagination is indicated by local links in the sourcecode; except that only the principal text of Dio is so marked in the right margin. Because some pages of the printed edition contain only excerpts, e.g., by Xiphilinus or Zonaras or Tzetzes, some pages will appear even more disordered, seeming to have been skipped in this transcription: but they haven't, and the separate pagination will be found in the sourcecode. The confusing mess that the Loeb editor superadded to an already complex text, and the technical difficulties involved in sorting it out, were in turn so depressing and took so much of my time (that seemed to me better devoted to more productive purposes) that parts of this transcription, while provided with their numbering, may not actually have local anchors installed and you therefore can't link directly to them. I suppose I'll get to them eventually; if you need some specific local link though, let me know which, and I'll slip it in. Generally speaking, I will not field the all too many questions or comments I get on the numbering of sections or pages! unless it's clear that you've read all this. Book Subject 1 The origins of Rome: Aeneas, Lavinium, and Alba Longa. Romulus founds Rome. Numa. 2 The reigns of Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquin the Proud. Brutus, the rape of Lucretia, and the expulsion of Tarquin. 3 Brutus, Valerius Publicola, and the beginnings of the Republic. (Very fragmentary) 4 Porsenna becomes Rome's ally. Serious dissension between the patricians and the plebeians, mostly over debts, threatens Rome's survival. Establishment of the office of dictator. The Aventine secession of the plebs. The first tribunes of the plebs. 5 War with the Volsci. Treason of Coriolanus: Rome saved by his mother and his wife. Internecine warfare between patricians and plebeians, with bouts of unity brought about by wars against the Etruscans, the Aequi, and the Sabines. The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 6 The establishment of the offices of consular tribune and of censor. Wars with the Etruscans, with Veii. The dictator Camillus celebrates a triumph. Description of a Roman triumph. War with the Faliscans. 7 War with the Gauls. The Capitol besieged. Marcus Capitolinus attempts to take power: he is thwarted and killed. Camillus dictator for several terms. The story of the Lacus Curtius. War with the Latins. Harshness of Manlius Torquatus. 8 Wars with the Samnites and with Capua. The tribunes annul the debts of the people. 9 War with Tarentum and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus: in a first stage, they are successful. 10 Defeat of Tarentum and Pyrrhus. The Romans intervene in the internal struggles of the Volsinii, on the side of the nobility. 11 First Punic War, fought mostly in Sicily and the islands. Duilius builds Rome's first navy. Rectitude and bravery of Regulus, hostage to the Carthaginians. 12 Rome is victorious in the First Punic War. Wars with the Gauls, the Faliscans, Liguria, Corsica, and Sardinia. Rome intervenes in Greek affairs. 13 Beginning of the Second Punic War: the Saguntines in Spain; the Gauls ally themselves with the Carthaginians. 14 Second Punic War: reverses. Fabius Maximus, elected dictator, opts for a passive policy in order to wear out the enemy; from which he acquires the name of The Delayer (Cunctator). 15 Second Punic War: the disaster at Cannae. The Romans successfully besiege Syracuse. Death of Archimedes. Rome captures Capua: a turning-point. 16 Second Punic War: Scipio's successful campaigns in Spain. 17 Second Punic War: Scipio gains an ally in Masinissa, a North African, and together they bring the war to Africa. The Carthaginians defeated. 18 After the Punic war: war with Philip of Macedonia. The Carthaginians stir up the Gauls on Rome's other flank. Battle of Cynoscephalae. Philip defeated. Cato: his stance on the sumptuary laws, his dealings with Spain. 19 Rome becomes further embroiled in Greece. War with Antiochus. Death of Hannibal, an exile in Bithynia. 20 War against Perseus. Dealings with Rhodes, Cappadocia, Egypt. Campaign against Dalmatia. 21 Third Punic War. War against Corinth. Both end in total victory for the Romans. Carthage and Corinth destroyed. 22‑29 (Very fragmentary) Wars in Spain: the rebellion of Viriathus. The demagoguery of Tiberius Gracchus. The Bacchanalian scandal. Wars against the Cimbri and the Marsians. 30‑35 (Very fragmentary) Mithridatic Wars. Civil war: Marius and Cinna and the proscriptions. 36 Mithridatic War and Armenian campaigns. Pompey against the pirates. 37 The career of Pompey the Great and Mithridatic War, continued: war against the Asiatic Iberians, annexation of Syria and Phoenicia. The First Triumvirate (Crassus, Caesar, and Pompey). 38 Julius Caesar's first consulate. Exile of Cicero. Caesar against the Helvetii. 39 Gallic War, continued. Caesar crosses into Britain. Ptolemy expelled from Egypt and restored. 40 Gallic War, continued. Caesar crosses into Britain a second time. Crassus goes to war against the Parthians, is defeated and killed. Clodius and Milo. Beginning of the rift between Caesar and Pompey. 41 Caesar crosses the Rubicon: civil war. Caesar's war in Spain. Caesar and Pompey in Macedonia: battle of Dyrrhachium; battle of Pharsalus, in which Pompey is defeated. 42 Pompey flees to Egypt and dies there. Caesar in Egypt. Honors voted to Caesar in Rome. Caesar and Cleopatra. 43 Caesar defeats Scipio and conquers Numidia. Suicide of Cato of Utica. Caesar's triumphs celebrated in Rome. Ground broken for the Forum of Caesar. The Julian calendar reform. Caesar defeats Gnaeus Pompey in Spain. 44 Caesar: personality cult leads to his murder. His funeral. 45 Character of Julius Caesar's nephew and heir Octavian. The Second Triumvirate (Octavian, Antony, Lepidus). Rift between Octavian and Antony. Cicero against Antony. 46 Octavian defeats Antony at Mutina. The Third Triumvirate (Octavian, Antony, Lepidus again). 47 Proscriptions under the Third Triumvirate. Battle of Philippi: Brutus and Cassius defeated. 48 More tangled relationships under the Third Triumvirate. Octavian and Antony make agreements with Sextus Pompey then turn on him and defeat him. 49 Octavian defeats Sextus Pompey and eliminates Lepidus. Wars against the Parthians, in which Antony is defeated. Octavian conquers Pannonia. Rome acquires Mauretania. 50 With only two men left in the triumvirate, Octavian and Antony turn on each other: the latter is decisively defeated in the battle of Actium. 51 Antony and Cleopatra. Suicide of Antony. Octavian conquers Egypt. Octavian celebrates triumphs in Rome. Marcus Crassus conquers Moesia. 52 Octavian prepares to become the sole ruler of Rome. 53 Octavian, to be known henceforth as Augustus, officially becomes the sole ruler of Rome: the beginning of the imperial period. Organization of provincial administration. The rôle of Augustus's friend Agrippa. Major construction projects in Rome: dedication of the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, the Saepta, the Pantheon, the Basilica of Neptune, the Baths of Agrippa. Wars in NW Spain and Arabia. Galatia falls to the Romans. 54 Augustus continues to consolidate his power. Roman rule extends to Rhaetia, Noricum, the Maritime Alps, and the Chersonesus. 55 Death of Drusus. Dedication of the Precinct of Livia, the Campus Agrippae, the Diribitorium, the Temple of Mars. Tiberius retires to Rhodes. Lucius and Gaius Caesar, the natural heirs of Augustus, both die young. Influence of Augustus's wife Livia. Institution of the corps of watchmen (vigiles). 56 Augustus encourages population growth by rewarding those who have more children, and penalizing those who have fewer and those who do not marry. Three legions lost in Germany: the Disaster of Varus. Dedication of the Temple of Concord and the Portico of Livia. Death of Augustus; his funeral. 57 Tiberius becomes emperor. His character. Cappadocia becomes Roman. Deaths of Drusus and Germanicus Caesar. 58 Rise and fall of Sejanus. Tiberius consolidates his hold on power despite revolts and scandals in his family. 59 Gaius Caesar becomes emperor; universally known as Caligula. His excesses. 60 Claudius becomes emperor and unexpectedly turns out to be a rather good ruler. Britain conquered. 61 Claudius' reign, continued. Claudius dies, poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Nero becomes emperor. Influence of the imperial freedmen. 62 Agrippina gets her comeuppance: Nero has his mother murdered. In Britain, the revolt of Boudicca (Buduica in the text). The Great Fire of Rome. Domitius Corbulo conquers Armenia. Nero's tutor Seneca plots to overthrow him, but the conspiracy is found out and Seneca is forced to commit suicide. Nero's excesses and artistic pretensions. 63 Nero's reign, continued: the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul, the revolt of the Jews put down by Vespasian. Nero overthrown and killed. The brief reigns of Galba and Otho. 64 The brief reign of Vitellius, consumed in civil war. 65 Vespasian becomes emperor. His son Titus captures Jerusalem and destroys the Temple. Vespasian subdues Egypt. Temple of Jupiter Capitoline rebuilt after its destruction by fire. 66 Upon the death of Vespasian, Titus becomes emperor for two years. The eruption of Vesuvius that buried Pompeii. A major fire in Rome. Titus's character. 67 The reign and character of Domitian, notoriously paranoid and cruel. 68 The brief reign of Nerva, then the longer reign of Trajan, who proves to be an excellent man (according to Dio and everyone else). The Dacian Wars end in the subjugation of Dacia. More moderately successful campaigns in Armenia and Parthia. A major earthquake in Antioch. The unsuccessful siege of Hatra. Trajan dies of uncertain causes. 69 Trajan's adoptive son Hadrian succeeds to the throne. His character and interests. Antinous. Final revolt of the Jews and destruction of Judaea. Hadrian's protracted last illness and death. 70 The reign of Antoninus Pius. (Very fragmentary) 71 Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor. The war against Vologaesus in Armenia. Roman bridge-building technique. (Very fragmentary) 72 Wars against the Marcomans and the Iazyges. The revolt of Cassius in Syria ends in Cassius' death. Character of Marcus Aurelius. 73 The reign of Marcus Aurelius' son Commodus: his character and excesses. Here too the historians are unanimous: his cowardice, narcissism, lechery, cruelty. His gladiatorial pretensions. His assassination. 74 The brief reign of Pertinax, and his character. His assassination. The empire is auctioned off by the Praetorian guard to a very rich and foolish man: Didius Julianus his reign, even briefer, and his assassination. 75 Septimius Severus fights his way to the throne. His character. He puts down a rebellion by Pescennius Niger. Successful siege of Byzantium. 76 Severus defeats yet another pretender to the throne: Albinus. War in Caledonia, and second siege of Hatra in Mesopotamia: neither one particularly successful. Power of Plautianus, prefect of the city. 77 Eruption of Vesuvius. The downfall of Plautianus. The robber Bulla terrorizes central Italy. Severus campaigns personally in Caledonia, and dies at Eburacum in northern Britain. 78 The emperor Caracalla: his cruelty of character, his wars, his destruction of Alexandria. 79 Caracalla's Parthian campaign, during which Macrinus revolts, kills Caracalla, and seizes power. Macrinus' reign chiefly occupied with civil war. He is overthrown by a Syrian family that places one of its young members on the throne: Elagabalus. 80 Elagabalus (Heliogabalus): his character and excesses, mostly sexual. He is overthrown and killed, and the throne passes to Alexander Severus. Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) My warm thanks to Peter Kordas, Adriana Oliva, Susan Rhoads and Russell Towle for sharing in the labor of proofreading this Web transcription. UP TO: Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Site updated: 18 Jun 11 
penelope-uchicago-edu-7307	----	Historia Augusta • Life of Hadrian (Part 1 of 2) mail: Bill Thayer Latine Italiano Help Up Home This webpage reproduces part of the Historia Augusta published in the Loeb Classical Library, 1921 The text is in the public domain. This page has been carefully proofread and I believe it to be free of errors. If you find a mistake though, please let me know! next: Part 2 (Vol. I) Historia Augusta  p3  The Life of Hadrian​a Part 1 1 1   The original home of the family of the Emperor Hadrian was Picenum, the later, Spain; for Hadrian himself relates in his autobiography​1 that his forefathers came from Hadria,​2 but settled at Italica​3 in the time of the Scipios. 2 The father of Hadrian was Aelius Hadrianus, surnamed Afer, a cousin of the Emperor Trajan; his mother was Domitia Paulina, a native of Cadiz; his sister was Paulina, the wife of Servianus,​4 his wife was Sabina,​5 and his great-grandfather's grandfather was Marullinus, the first of his family to be a Roman senator. 3 Hadrian was born in Rome​6 on the ninth day before the Kalends of February in the seventh consulship  p5 of Vespasian and the fifth of Titus. 4 Bereft of his father at the age of ten, he became the ward of Ulpius Trajanus, his cousin, then of praetorian rank,​7 but afterwards emperor, and of Caelius Attianus,​8 a knight. 5 He then grew rather deeply devoted to Greek studies, to which his natural tastes inclined so much that some called him "Greekling." 2 1 He returned to his native city in his fifteenth year and at once entered military service, but was so fond of hunting that he incurred criticism for it, and for this reason Trajan recalled him from Italica. 2 Thenceforth he was treated by Trajan as his own son, and not long afterwards he was made one of the ten judges of the inheritance-court,​9 and, later, tribune of the Second Legion, the Adjutrix.​10 3 After this, when Domitian's principate was drawing to a close, he was transferred to the province of Lower Moesia.​11 4 There, it is said, he heard from an astrologer the same prediction of his future power which had been made, as he already knew, by his great-uncle, Aelius Hadrianus, a master of astrology. 5 When Trajan was adopted​12 by Nerva, Hadrian was sent to convey to him the army's congratulations and was at once  p7 transferred to Upper Germany.​13 6 When Nerva died, he wished to be the first to bring the news to Trajan, but as he was hastening to meet him he was detained by his brother-in‑law, Servianus, the same man who had revealed Hadrian's extravagance and indebtedness and thus stirred Trajan's anger against him. He was further delayed by the fact that his travelling-carriage had been designedly broken, but he nevertheless proceeded on foot and anticipatedº Servianus' personal messenger.​14 7 And now he became a favourite of Trajan's, and yet, owing to the activity of the guardians of certain boys whom Trajan loved ardently, he was not free from . . . which Gallus fostered. 8 Indeed, at this time he was even anxious about the Emperor's attitude towards him, and consulted the Vergilian oracle.​15 This was the lot given out:16 But who is yonder man, by olive wreath Distinguished, who the sacred vessel bears? I see a hoary head and beard. Behold The Roman King whose laws shall stablish Rome Anew, from tiny Cures' humble land Called to a mighty realm. Then shall arise . . .​b Others, however, declare that this prophecy came to him from the Sibylline Verses. 9 Moreover, he received a further intimation of his subsequent power, in a response which issued from the temple of Jupiter at Nicephorium​17 and has been quoted by Apollonius of Syria,​18 the Platonist. 10 Finally, through the good offices of Sura,​19 he was instantly restored to a friendship with Trajan that was closer than ever, and  p9 he took to wife the daughter of the Emperor's sister​20 — a marriage advocated by Plotina, but, according to Marius Maximus,​21 little desired by Trajan himself. 3 1 He held the quaestorship​22 in the fourth consulship of Trajan and the first of Articuleius, and while holding this office he read a speech of the Emperor's to the senate and provoked a laugh by his somewhat provincial accent. He thereupon gave attention to the study of Latin until he attained the utmost proficiency and fluency. 2 After his quaestorship he served as curator of the acts of the senate,​23 and later accompanied Trajan in the Dacian war​24 on terms of considerable intimacy, 3 seeing, indeed, that falling in with Trajan's habits, as he says himself, he partook freely of wine, and for this was very richly rewarded by the Emperor. 4 He was made tribune of the plebs in the second consulship of Candidus and Quadratus, 5 and he claimed that he received an omen of continuous tribunician​25 power during this magistracy, because he lost the heavy cloak which is worn by the tribunes of the plebs in rainy weather, but never by the emperors. And down to this day the emperors do not wear cloaks when they appear in public before civilians. 6 In the second Dacian war, Trajan appointed him to the command of the First Legion, the Minervia, and took him with him to the war; and in this campaign his many remarkable deeds won great renown. 7 Because of this he was presented with a diamond which  p11 Trajan himself had received from Nerva, and by this gift he was encouraged in his hopes of succeeding to the throne.​26 8 He held the praetorship in the second consulship of Suburanus and Servianus,​27 and again received from Trajan two million sesterces with which to give games. 9 Next he was sent as praetorian legate to Lower Pannonia,​28 where he held the Sarmatians in check, maintained discipline among the soldiers, and restrained the procurators,​29 who were overstepping too freely the bounds of their power. 10 In return for these services he was made consul. While he was holding this office he learned from Sura that he was to be adopted by Trajan, and thereupon he ceased to be an object of contempt and neglect to Trajan's friends. 11 Indeed, after Sura's death Trajan's friendship for him increased, principally on account of the speeches which he composed for the Emperor. 4 1 He enjoyed, too, the favour of Plotina,​30 and it was due to her interest in him that later, at the time of the campaign against Parthia, he was appointed the legate of the Emperor.​31 2 At this same time he enjoyed, besides, the friendship of Sosius Papus and Platorius Nepos,​32 both of the  p13 senatorial order, and also of Attianus, his former guardian, of Livianus,​33 and of Turbo,​34 all of equestrian rank. 3 And when Palma and Celsus,​35 always his enemies, on whom he later took vengeance, fell under suspicion of aspiring to the throne, his adoption seemed assured; 4 and it was taken wholly for granted when, through Plotina's favour, he was appointed consul for the second time. 5 That he was bribing Trajan's freedmen and courting and corrupting his favourites all the while that he was in close attendance at court, was told and generally believed. 6 On the fifth day before the Ides of August, while he was governor of Syria, he learned of his adoption by Trajan, and he later gave orders to celebrate this day as the anniversary of his adoption. 7 On the third day before the Ides of August he received the news of Trajan's death, and this day he appointed as the anniversary of his accession. 8 There was, to be sure, a widely prevailing belief that Trajan, with the approval of many of his friends, had planned to appoint as his successor not Hadrian but Neratius Priscus,​36 even to the extent of saying to Priscus: "I entrust the provinces to your care in case anything happens to me". 9 And, indeed, many aver that Trajan had purposed to follow the example of Alexander of Macedonia and die without naming a successor. Again, many others declare that  p15 he had meant to send an address to the senate, requesting this body, in case aught befell him, to appoint a ruler for the Roman empire, and merely appending the names of some from among whom the senate might choose the best. 10 And the statement has even been made that it was not until after Trajan's death that Hadrian was declared adopted, and then only by means of a trick of Plotina's; for she smuggled in someone who impersonated the Emperor and spoke in a feeble voice. 5 1 On taking possession of the imperial power Hadrian at once resumed the policy of the early emperors,​37 and devoted his attention to maintaining peace throughout the world. 2 For the nations which Trajan had conquered began to revolt; the Moors, moreover, began to make attacks,​38 and the Sarmatians to wage war,​39 the Britons could not be kept under Roman sway, Egypt​40 was thrown into disorder by riots, and finally Libya​41 and Palestine​42 showed the spirit of rebellion. 3 Whereupon he relinquished all the conquests east of the Euphrates and the Tigris, following, as he used to say, the example of Cato, who urged that the Macedonians, because they could not be held as subjects, should be declared free and independent.​43 4 And Parthamasiris,​44 appointed king  p17 of the Parthians by Trajan, he assigned as ruler to the neighbouring tribes, because he saw that the man was held in little esteem by the Parthians. 5 Moreover, he showed at the outset such a wish to be lenient, that although Attianus advised him by letter in the first few days of his rule​45 to put to death Baebius Macer,​46 the prefect of the city, in case he opposed his elevation to power, also Laberius Maximus,​47 then in exile on an island under suspicion of designs on the throne, and likewise Crassus Frugi,​48 he nevertheless refused to harm them. 6 Later on, however, his procurator, though without an order from Hadrian, had Crassus killed when he tried to leave the island, on the ground that he was planning a revolt. 7 He gave a double donative to the soldiers in order to ensure a favourable beginning to his principate. 8 He deprived Lusius Quietus​49 of the command of the Moorish tribesmen, who were serving under him, and then dismissed him from the army, because he had fallen under the suspicion of having designs on the throne; and he appointed Marcius Turbo, after his reduction of Judaea, to quell the insurrection in Mauretania. 9 After taking these measures he set out from Antioch to view the remains of Trajan,​50 which were  p19 being escorted by Attianus, Plotina, and Matidia.​51 10 He received them formally and sent them on to Rome by ship and at once returned to Antioch; he then appointed Catilius Severus​52 governor of Syria, and proceeded to Rome by way of Illyricum.53 6 1 Despatching to the senate a carefully worded letter, he asked for divine honours for Trajan. This request he obtained by a unanimous vote; indeed, the senate voluntarily voted Trajan many more honours than Hadrian had requested. 2 In this letter to the senate he apologized because he had not left it the right to decide regarding his accession,​54 explaining that the unseemly haste of the troops in acclaiming him emperor was due to the belief that the state could not be without an emperor. 3 Later, when the senate offered him the triumph which was to have been Trajan's, he refused it for himself, and caused the effigy of the dead Emperor to be carried in a triumphal chariot, in order that the best of emperors might not lose even after death the honour of a triumph.​55 4 Also he refused for the present the title of Father of his Country, offered to him at the time of his accession and again later on, giving as his reason the fact that Augustus had not won it until late in life.​56 5 Of the crown-money57  p21 for his triumph he remitted Italy's contribution, and lessened that of the provinces, all the while setting forth grandiloquently and in great detail the straits of the public treasury. 6 Then, on hearing of the incursions of the Sarmatians and Roxolani,​58 he sent the troops ahead and set out for Moesia. 7 He conferred the insignia of a prefect on Marcius Turbo after his Mauretanian campaign and appointed him to the temporary command of Pannonia and Dacia.​59 8 When the king of the Roxolani complained of the diminution of his subsidy, he investigated his case and made peace with him. 7 1 A plot to murder him while sacrificing was made by Nigrinus, with Lusius and a number of others as accomplices, even though Hadrian had destined Nigrinus​60 for the succession; but Hadrian successfully evaded this plot. 2 Because of this conspiracy Palma was put to death at Tarracina, Celsus at Baiae, Nigrinus at Faventia,​61 and Lusius on his journey homeward, all by order of the senate, but contrary to the wish of Hadrian, as he says himself in his autobiography. 3 Whereupon Hadrian entrusted  p23 the command in Dacia to Turbo, whom he dignified, in order to increase his authority, with a rank analogous to that of the prefect of Egypt. He then hastened to Rome in order to win over public opinion, which was hostile to him because of the belief that on one single occasion he had suffered four men of consular rank to be put to death. In order to check the rumours about himself, he gave in person a double largess to the people,​62 although in his absence three aurei​63 had already been given to each of the citizens. 4 In the senate, too, he cleared himself of blame for what had happened, and pledged himself never to inflict punishment on a senator until after a vote of the senate.​64 5 He established a regular imperial post,​65 in order to relieve the local officials of such a burden. 6 Moreover, he used every means of gaining popularity. He remitted to private debtors in Rome and in Italy immense sums of money owed to the privy-purse,​66 and in the provinces he remitted large amounts of arrears; and he ordered the promissory notes to be burned in the Forum of the Deified Trajan,​67 in order that the general sense of security might thereby be increased. 7 He gave orders that the property of condemned persons should not accrue to the privy-purse,  p25 and in each case deposited the whole amount in the public treasury. 8 He made additional appropriations for the children to whom Trajan had allotted grants of money.​68 9 He supplemented the property of senators impoverished through no fault of their own, making the allowance in each case proportionate to the number of children, so that it might be enough for a senatorial career;​69 to many, indeed, he paid punctually on the date the amount allotted for their living. 10 Sums of money sufficient to enable men to hold office he bestowed, not on his friends alone, but also on many far and wide, 11 and by his donations he helped a number of women to sustain life. 12 He gave gladiatorial combats for six days in succession, and on his birthday he put into the arena a thousand wild beasts. 8 1 The foremost members of the senate he admitted to close intimacy with the emperor's majesty. 2 All circus-games decreed in his honour he refused, except those held to celebrate his birthday.​70 3 Both in meetings of the people and in the senate he used to say that he would so administer the commonwealth that men would know that it was not his own but the people's. 4 Having himself been consul three times, he reappointed many to the consulship for the third time and men without number to a second term; 5 his own third consulship he held for only four months, and during his term he often administered justice.  p27 6 He always attended regular meetings of the senate if he was present in Rome or even in the neighbourhood. 7 In the appointment of senators he showed the utmost caution and thereby greatly increased the dignity of the senate, and when he removed Attianus from the post of prefect of the guard and created him a senator with consular honours,​71 he made it clear that he had no greater honour which he could bestow upon him. 8 Nor did he allow knights to try cases involving senators​72 whether he was present at the trial or not. 9 For at that time it was customary for the emperor, when he tried cases, to call to his council​73 both senators and knights and give a verdict based on their joint decision. 10 Finally, he denounced those emperors who had not shown this deference to the senators. 11 On his brother-in‑law Servianus, to whom he showed such respect that he would advance to meet him as he came from his chamber, he bestowed a third consulship, and that without any request or entreaty on Servianus' part; but nevertheless he did not appoint him as his own colleague, since Servianus had been consul twice before Hadrian, and the Emperor did not wish to have second place.74 9 1 And yet, at the same time, Hadrian abandoned many provinces won by Trajan,​75 and also destroyed,  p29 contrary to the entreaties of all, the theatre which Trajan had built in the Campus Martius. 2 These measures, unpopular enough in themselves, were still more displeasing to the public because of his pretence that all acts which he thought would be offensive had been secretly enjoined upon him by Trajan. 3 Unable to endure the power of Attianus and formerly his guardian, he was eager to murder him. He was restrained, however, by the knowledge that he already laboured under the odium of murdering four men of consular rank,​76 although, as a matter of fact, he always attributed their execution to the designs of Attianus. 4 And as he could not appoint a successor for Attianus except at the latter's request, he contrived to make him request it,​77 and at once transferred the power to Turbo; 5 ºat the same time Similis​78 also, the other prefect,​79 received a successor, namely Septicius Clarus.80 6 After Hadrian had removed from the prefecture the very men to whom he owed the imperial power, he departed for Campania, where he aided all the towns of the region by gifts and benefactions​81 and attached all the foremost men to his train of friends. 7 But when at Rome, he frequently attended the official functions of the praetors and consuls, appeared at the  p31 banquets of his friends, visited them twice or thrice a day when they were sick, even those who were merely knights and freedmen, cheered them by words of comfort, encouraged them by words of advice, and very often invited them to his own banquets. 8 In short, everything that he did was in the manner of a private citizen. 9 On his mother-in‑law he bestowed especial honour by means of gladiatorial games and other ceremonies.82 10 1 After this he travelled​83 to the provinces of Gaul,​84 and came to the relief of all the communities with various acts of generosity; 2 and from there he went over into Germany.​85 Though more desirous of peace than of war, he kept the soldiers in training just as if war were imminent, inspired them by proofs of his own powers of endurance, actually led a soldier's life among the maniples,​86 and, after the example of Scipio Aemilianus,​87 Metellus, and his own adoptive father Trajan, cheerfully ate out of doors such camp-fare as bacon, cheese and vinegar. And that the troops might submit more willingly to the increased harshness of his orders, he bestowed gifts on many and honours on a few. 3 For he reestablished the discipline of the camp,​88 which since  p33 the time of Octavian had been growing slack through the laxity of his predecessors. He regulated, too, both the duties and the expenses of the soldiers, and now no one could get a leave of absence from camp by unfair means, for it was not popularity with the troops but just deserts that recommended a man for appointment as tribune. 4 He incited others by the example of his own soldierlyº spirit; he would walk as much as twenty miles fully armed; he cleared the camp of banqueting-rooms, porticoes, grottos, and bowers, 5 generally wore the commonest clothing, would have no gold ornaments on his sword-belt or jewels on the clasp, would scarcely consent to have his sword furnished with an ivory hilt, 6 visited the sick soldiers in their quarters, selected the sites for camps, conferred the centurion's wand on those only who were hardy and of good repute, appointed as tribunes only men with full beards or of an age to give to the authority of the tribuneship the full measure of prudence and maturity, 7 permitted no tribune to accept a present from a soldier, banished luxuries on every hand, and, lastly, improved the soldiers' arms and equipment. 8 Furthermore, with regard to length of military service he issued an order that no one should violate ancient usage by being in the service at an earlier age than his strength warranted, or at a more advanced one than common humanity permitted. He made it a point to be acquainted with the soldiers and to know their numbers. 11 1 Besides this, he strove to have an accurate knowledge of the military stores, and the receipts from the provinces he examined with care in order to make good any deficit that might occur in any particular instance. But more than any other emperor he made it a point not to purchase or maintain anything that was not serviceable.  p35  2 And so, having reformed the army quite in the manner of a monarch, he set out for Britain,​89 and there he corrected many abuses and was the first to construct a wall,​90 •eighty miles in length, which was to separate the barbarians from the Romans. 3 He removed from office Septicius Clarus,​91 the prefect of the guard, and Suetonius Tranquillus,​92 the imperial secretary, and many others besides, because without his consent they had been conducting themselves toward his wife, Sabina, in a more informal fashion than the etiquette of the court demanded. And, as he was himself wont to say, he would have sent away his wife too, on the ground of ill-temper and irritability, had he been merely a private citizen. 4 Moreover, his vigilance was not confined to his own household but extended to those of his friends, and by means of his private agents​93 he even pried into all their secrets, and so skilfully that they were never aware that the Emperor was acquainted with their private lives until he revealed it himself. 5 In this connection, the insertion of an incident will not be unwelcome, showing that he found out much about his friends. 6 The wife of a certain man wrote to her husband, complaining that he was so preoccupied by  p37 pleasures and baths that he would not return home to her, and Hadrian found this out through his private agents. And so, when the husband asked for a furlough, Hadrian reproached him with his fondness for his baths and his pleasures. Whereupon the man exclaimed: "What, did my wife write you just what she wrote to me?" 7 And, indeed, as for this habit of Hadrian's, men regard it as a most grievous fault, and add to their criticism the statements which are current regarding the passion for males​c and the adulteries with married women to which he is said to have been addicted, adding also the charge that he did not even keep faith with his friends. 12 1 After arranging matters in Britain he crossed over to Gaul, for he was rendered anxious by the news of a riot in Alexandria, which arose on account of Apis;​94 for Apis had been discovered again after an interval of many years, and was causing great dissension among the communities, each one earnestly asserting its claim as the place best fitted to be the seat of his worship. 2 During this same time he reared a basilica of marvellous workmanship at Nîmes in honour of Plotina.​95 3 After this he travelled to Spain​96 and spent the winter at Tarragona,​97 and here he restored at his own expense the temple of Augustus. 4 To this place, too, he called all the inhabitants of Spain for a general meeting, and when  p39 they refused to submit to a levy, the Italian settlers​98 jestingly, to use the very words of Marius Maximus, and the others very vigorously, he took measures characterized by skill and discretion. 5 At this same time he incurred grave danger and won great glory; for while he was walking about in a garden at Tarragona one of the slaves of the household rushed at him madly with a sword. But he merely laid hold on the man, and when the servants ran to the rescue handed him over to them. Afterwards, when it was found that the man was mad, he turned him over to the physicians for treatment, and all this time showed not the slightest sign of alarm. 6 During this period and on many other occasions also, in many regions where the barbarians are held back not by rivers but by artificial barriers, Hadrian shut them off by means of high stakes planted deep in the ground and fastened together in the manner of a palisade.​99 7 He appointed a king for the Germans, suppressed revolts among the Moors,​100 and won from the senate the usual ceremonies of thanksgiving. 8 The war with the Parthians had not at that time advanced beyond the preparatory stage, and Hadrian checked it by a personal conference.101 13 1 After this Hadrian travelled by way of Asia and the islands to Greece,​102 and, following the  p41 example of Hercules and Philip,​103 had himself initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries.​104 He bestowed many favours on the Athenians and sat as president of the public games.​105 2 And during this stay in Greece care was taken, they say, that when Hadrian was present, none should come to a sacrifice armed, whereas, as a rule, many carried knives. 3 Afterwards he sailed to Sicily,​106 and there he climbed Mount Aetna to see the sunrise, which is many-hued, they say, like the rainbow. 4 Thence he returned to Rome,​107 and​108 from there he crossed over to Africa,​109 where he showed many acts of kindness to the provinces. 5 Hardly any emperor ever travelled with such speed over so much territory. 6 Finally, after his return to Rome from Africa, he immediately set out for the East, journeying by  p43 way of Athens.​110 Here he dedicated the public works which he had begun in the city of the Athenians, such as the temple to Olympian Jupiter​111 and an altar to himself; and in the same way, while travelling through Asia, he consecrated the temples called by his name.​112 7 Next, he received slaves from the Cappadocians for service in the camps.​113 8 To petty rulers and kings he made offers of friendship, and even to Osdroes,​114 king of the Parthians. To him he also restored his daughter, who had been captured by Trajan, and promised to return the throne captured at the same time.​115 9 And when some of the kings came to him, he treated them in such a way that those who had refused to come regretted it. He took this course especially on account of Pharasmanes,​116 who had haughtily scorned his invitation. 10 Furthermore, as he went about the provinces he punished procurators and governors as their actions demanded, and indeed with such severity that it was believed that he incited those who brought the accusations. 14 1 In the course of these travels he conceived such a hatred for the people of Antioch that he wished to separate Syria from Phoenicia, in order that Antioch might not be called the chief city of so many communities.​117 2 At this time also the  p45 Jews began war, because they were forbidden to practice circumcision.​118 3 As he was sacrificing on Mount Casius,​119 which he had ascended by night in order to see the sunrise, a storm arose, and a flash of lightning descended and struck both the victim and the attendant. 4 He then travelled through Arabia​120 and finally came to Pelusium,​121 where he rebuilt Pompey's tomb on a more magnificent scale.​122 5 During a journey on the Nile he lost Antinous,​123 his favourite, and for this youth he wept like a woman. 6 Concerning this incident there are varying rumours;​124 for some claim that he had devoted himself to death for Hadrian, and others — what both his beauty and Hadrian's sensuality suggest. 7 But however this may be, the Greeks deified him at Hadrian's request, and declared that oracles were given through his agency, but these, it is commonly asserted, were composed by Hadrian himself.125 (For the end of chapter 14, see Part 2.) The Editor's Notes: 1 For the Autobiography of Hadrian, now lost, cf. c. xvi. It seems to have been written toward the close of his life, and, to judge from scanty citations from it, its purpose was to contradict current statements about himself which he considered derogatory to his reputation and to present him in a favourable light to posterity. ❦ 2 An ancient town of Picenum, which became a Roman colony, probably about the time of Sulla. ❦ 3 In Hispania Baetica, on the Baetis (Guadalquivir),º (p3)founded by Scipio Africanus about 205 B.C., received the rights of a municipality under Julius or Augustus, and was made a colony by Hadrian. ❦ 4 L. Julius Ursus Servianus frequently mentioned in this biography. He governed several provinces under Trajan, and was made consul for a third time by Hadrian in 134. On his death in 136, see c. xxiii.2, 8; xxv.8; Dio, LXIX.17. ❦ 5 See c. ii.10 and note. ❦ 6 This is, of course, a fiction, and the biography contradicts itself, for Italica is clearly the patria referred to in c. ii.1 and 2, and c. xix.1. ❦ 7 Trajan was praetor about 85, and so, until he became consul, in 91, was a vir praetorius. ❦ 8 The name Caelius is an error. His name was Acilius Attianus, as it appears on an inscription from Elba; see Röm. Mitt., XVIII.63‑67. He became prefect of the guard under Trajan and seems to have been instrumental in securing the throne for Hadrian. On his retirement from the prefecture, see c. viii.7; ix.3‑5. ❦ 9 The decemviri stlitibus iudicandis had originally, in the republican period, the duty of determining disputed claims to freedom. Augustus removed suits for freedom from their jurisdiction, and gave them the conduct of the court of the Centumviri, which dealt with suits for inheritances. Appointment to this, or to one of five other minor magisterial (p5)boards constituting the vigintiviri, was the first step in a career of public office. Thayer's Note: For comprehensive details and sources, see the articles Decemviri, Vigintisexviri, and Centumviri in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 10 So called because it had been recruited (by Vespasian) from an auxiliary force of marines. At this time it was serving probably in the province of Pannonia Inferior. ❦ 11 As tribune of the Fifth Legion, the Macedonica. This command is listed among his other offices in an inscription set up in his honour at Athens in 112 (CIL III.550 = Dessau, Inscr. Sel. 308), and it is known that this legion was quartered in Moesia Inferior at this time. ❦ 12 Trajan was governor of the province of Germania Superior; he seems to have been appointed by Nerva in 96. ❦ 13 As tribune of the Twenty-second Legion, the Primigenia Pia Fidelis, according to the Athenian inscription (see p5, n5). ❦ 14 A beneficiarius was a soldier who had been relieved of active service by some commandant and was attached to the suite of this official. Thayer's Note: It's not quite as clear-cut as that. For details and sources, see the article Beneficium in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 15 For similar consultations, cf. Cl. Alb. v.4; Alex. iv.6; xiv.5; Claud. x.4 f. ❦ 16 Aen. VI.808‑812. The passage refers to Numa Pompilius. ❦ 17 Perhaps the place of this name near Pergamon. ❦ 18 Unknown. ❦ 19 L. Licinius Sura was consul for the third time in 107. He commanded the army in the wars in Dacia and received the triumphal insignia and other high honours. ❦ 20 Vibia Sabina, the daughter of L. Vibius and Matidia, who was the daughter of Marciana, Trajan's sister. Plotina was Trajan's wife. ❦ 21 L. Marius Maximus was the author of biographies of the emperors from Nerva to Elagabalus, frequently cited in these Vitae; see Intro., p. xvii f. He is probably the senator of the same name who held many important administrative posts under Septimius Severus and his successors. ❦ 22 He is called in the Athenian inscription quaestor imperatoris Traiani, i.e. he was one of the quaestors detailed to transact business for the emperor, and particularly to convey his messages to the senate and read them before the house. ❦ 23 The official known as curator actorum senatus or ab actis senatus drafted the record of the senate's transactions. Thayer's Note: For comprehensive details and sources — and somewhat more accurate, since curator does not appear to have been part of the title — see the article Acta in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 24 The first Dacian war (101‑102). The inscription cited above reads: Comes expeditionis Dacicae, donis militaribus ab eo (Traiano) donatus bis. ❦ 25 An allusion to the tribunician power held by the emperors, which was regarded as the basis of their civil powers; see note to Marc. vi.6. ❦ 26 Due to a precedent established by Augustus, who, when ill in 23 B.C., gave his ring to Agrippa, apparently intending him to be his successor; see Dio, LIII.30. ❦ 27 The reading of P is impossible, for no such person as Suranus is known, but it is difficult to emend the text satisfactorily, since Suburanus was consul for the second time in 104, and Servianus was consul for the second time in 102. The consuls of 107, in which year Hadrian was probably praetor, were Sura, for the third time, and Senecio, for the second time. ❦ 28 This province was one of the "imperial provinces," which were governed in theory by the emperor but in practice by a deputy appointed by him with the title legatus Augusti pro praetore. The governor of the province under the control of the senate, on the other hand, had the title of proconsul. (p11)Hadrian is called here legatus praetorius because he held this position as a vir praetorius, i.e. one who had been praetor but not yet consul. ❦ 29 The procurator was charged with the collection of taxes and other sources of revenue in an imperial province and their transmission to the fiscus, or privy purse. ❦ 30 Cf. c. ii.10. ❦ 31 The appointment as legate refers to his governorship of Syria; see §6. ❦ 32 A. Platorius Nepos was prominent under Trajan as a magistrate at Rome and the governor of several important provinces and was consul with Hadrian in 119. He afterward incurred Hadrian's enmity; see c. xv.2; xxiii.4. ❦ 33 T. Claudius Livianus was prefect of the guard under Trajan and held a command in the first Dacian war; see Dio, LXIX.9. ❦ 34 For the career of Q. Marcius Turbo under Trajan and Hadrian see c. v‑vii. He was finally appointed prefect of the guard; see c. ix.4. ❦ 35 A. Cornelius Palma and L. Publilius Celsus held important offices under Trajan and statues were erected in their (p13)honour. Nothing is known of the suspicion alluded to here, but the two men, together with Nigrinus and Lusius Quietus, were later accused of a conspiracy against Hadrian and put to death; see c. vii.1‑3. ❦ 36 L. Neratius Priscus was a famous jurist and his works were used in the compilation of Justinian's Digest. He was a member of Trajan's imperial council, and later was one of Hadrian's advisers in legal questions; see c. xviii.1. ❦ 37 Augustus had bequeathed as a policy the consilium coercendi intra terminos imperii (Tacitus, Annals, I.11), these natural boundaries being the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates. This policy had been abandoned by Trajan in his conquests of Dacia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Hadrian's new policy is proclaimed in the legends on his coins, Iustitia (Cohen, II2 p179, No. 874 f.) and Pax (Cohen, II2 p190, No. 1011 f.). ❦ 38 Cf. §8 and c. vi.7. ❦ 39 Cf. c. vi.6. ❦ 40 i.e. Alexandria, where the Jews were rioting, incited perhaps by the example of their fellow-countrymen in Palestine. ❦ 41 i.e. the Cyrenaica, where at the end of Trajan's reign the Jews had risen and massacred many Greeks and Romans; see Dio, LXVIII.32. ❦ 42 Cf. §8. ❦ 43 This measure was apparently advocated in a speech made before the senate in 167 B.C. after the defeat of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, at Pydna (see Livy, XLV.17‑18). Macedonia was divided into four independent districts, an arrangement which proved untenable. ❦ 44 An error for Parthamaspates. This prince had deserted his cousin, the Parthian king, and sided with Trajan in the (p16)Parthian war; he was rewarded by being made king after Trajan's victory in 116‑117. The Parthians deposed him, and Hadrian accordingly assigned to him, at least for a time, the district of Osrhoene in north-western Mesopotamia. Cf. c. xxi.10, and Dio, LXVIII.30 and 33. ❦ 45 The biography is anticipating here. This letter was doubtless written after Attianus had returned to Rome with Trajan's ashes; see §10. ❦ 46 Baebius Macer was one of the friends and correspondents of the younger Pliny; see Pliny, Epist. III.5. The prefect of the city was in command of the three cohorts which were responsible for the maintenance of order in Rome. ❦ 47 M'. Laberius Maximus seems to have held a command in the first Dacian war, and was consul for the second time in 103. Nothing further is known of these "designs". ❦ 48 C. Calpurnius Crassus Frugi conspired against Nerva and was banished to Tarentum. He was later brought to trial on the charge of conspiring against Trajan and was condemned (Dio, LXVIII.3 and 16). ❦ 49 Lusius Quietus, a Moor by birth and a captain of a squadron (p17)of Moorish horse, had been a commander in Trajan's Parthian war. He had subsequently been appointed governor of Judaea by Trajan. The dismissal of the Moorish troops was a preliminary to the enforced retirement of Quietus, since he was now unable to offer any resistance to Hadrian. He was afterwards accused of conspiring against Hadrian and was put to death; see c. vii.1‑3. ❦ 50 Probably to Seleucia, whither Trajan's body was brought from Selinus in Cilicia, the place of his death. Here the body was burned and the ashes sent to Rome; cf. Victor, Epit. XIV.12. ❦ 51 See note to c. ii.10. ❦ 52 L. Catilius Severus was a friend and correspondent of Pliny; see Pliny, Epist. I.22; III.12. He became consul for the second time in 120, was proconsul of Asia, and in 138 prefect of the city; see c. xxiv.6‑8. He was the great-grandfather of Marcus Aurelius; see Marc. i.4. ❦ 53 Used here to denote the provinces along the southern bank of the Danube. His route lay across Asia Minor, and it was probably in this region that he received the news of the war threatened by the tribes north of the river; cf. c. vi.6. He arrived in Moesia in the spring of 118, and finally reached Rome in July, 118; cf. c. vii.3. ❦ 54 Acclamation by the army constituted a strong de facto claim to the imperial power, but it is now generally recognized (in spite of Mommsen's theory to the contrary) that only the senate could legally confer the imperium. Thayer's Note: Mommsen is not online, but an equally great scholar, writing two years after the Loeb editor's note, viewed acclamation by the army as necessary to legitimize the imperial succession; see J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, ch. 1, p5. ❦ 55 This triumph was commemorated by coins bearing on the obverse the head of Trajan with the legend Divo Traiano Parth(ico) Aug(usto) Patri and on the reverse a four-horse chariot driven by the Emperor who holds a laurel-branch and a sceptre, with the legend triumphus Parthicus; see Cohen, II2 p78, No. 585. ❦ 56 This title was conferred on Augustus in 2 B.C., twenty-five years after he received the imperium and the name of Augustus. In the case of the Julio-Claudian emperors after Tiberius (who never held this title) about a year was allowed to elapse before the honour was conferred. Hadrian finally accepted it in 128; see note to c. xiii.4. The precedent of a postponement was also followed by Pius (Pius vi.6), and Marcus (Marc. ix.3). ❦ 57 A contribution for the purpose of providing gold wreaths (in imitation of laurel) which were held over the head of the general in his triumph. Such contributions were originally voluntary, but soon became obligatory. Augustus had remitted them (Mon. Anc. c. 21), but his example does not seem to have been followed by his immediate successors. Partial remission is recorded in the cases of Pius (Pius iv.10) and Alexander (Alex. xxxi.5), and proclamations of remission by Trajan and Marcus are preserved in a papyrus (Fayoum Towns and their Papyri, No. 116). Thayer's Note: also remitted by Julian, according to Ammian (XXV.4.15). For further details and sources, see the article Aurum Coronarium in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 58 The compressed style of the narrative combines those two tribes here, but they must be carefully distinguished. The Roxolani lived at the mouth of the Danube; they had been constituted a vassal-state by Trajan. On the other hand, the term Sarmatae is used to denote the independent Iazyges (p21)who lived in the great plain between the Theiss and the Danube. ❦ 59 This was an extraordinary command, for Pannonia and Dacia, like other imperial provinces, were always assigned to senatorial legates, and Turbo was a knight. The only instance of an equestrian governor was the prefect of Egypt, the viceroy of the emperor (who in theory was king of Egypt), and this appointment of a knight to govern the provinces on the Danube seemed to have a precedent in the prefecture of Egypt (cf. c. vii.3). ❦ 60 Probably C. Avidius Nigrinus, mentioned by Pliny in Epist. ad Traian. lxv and lxvi. On the other conspirators see notes to c. iv.3, and v.8. ❦ 61 Now Faenza; in the Po Valley, about thirty miles SE of Bologna. ❦ 62 As he had already done for the soldiers; see c. v.7. ❦ 63 A gold coin of the value of 100 sesterces or 25 denarii, or (very approximately) five dollars. Thayer's Note: About $45 in 2004; and for comprehensive details and sources on the aureus, see the article Aurum in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 64 It had long been a moot question whether the emperor had the right to put senators to death without formal trial and condemnation by the senate. Neither the later Julio-Claudian nor the Flavian emperors had recognized the right of a senator to trial by his fellow-senators only. Nerva, on the other hand, took an oath that he would not put a senator to death (Dio, LXVII.2), and Trajan seems to have followed his example (Dio, LXVIII.5). For the practice of later emperors see Marc. x.6; xxv.6; xxvi.13; xxix.4. ❦ 65 Also called cursus vehicularius (Pius xii.3), and munus vehicularium (Sev. xiv.2). Previous to Hadrian's reform the cost of the maintenance of the post had fallen on the provincial towns, but henceforth it was borne by the fiscus. The department was under the direction of an official of equestrian rank, known as the praefectus vehiculorum. ❦ 66 The sum remitted was 900,000,000 sesterces; see coins (p23)of 118, Cohen, II2 p208 f., Nos. 1210‑1213, and an inscription found at Rome, CIL VI.967. He also issued an order providing for a similar cancelling every fifteen years; see Dio, LXIX.8.1; cf also Marc. xxiii.3, and note. ❦ 67 Situated at the south-western corner of the Esquiline Hill, a part of which was cut away in order to provide sufficient space. It was surrounded by colonnades, portions of which are extant, and on its north-western side was the Basilica Ulpia; north-west of this was the column of Trajan, flanked by two buildings containing the Bibliotheca Ulpia. Just beyond was the Templum Divi Traiani et Plotinae, erected by Hadrian (c. xix.9). Thayer's Note: For comprehensive details and sources, see the article Forum Trajani in Platner and Ashby's Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, and the further sites linked there for photographs, plans, etc. ❦ 68 The alimenta were grants of money paid by the imperial government to the children of the poor of Italy. The plan was made by Nerva but actually carried out by Trajan. For this purpose of the distribution of these grants Italy was divided into districts, often known by the name of the great roads which traversed them (see Pert. ii.2). Thayer's Note: For details and sources, including something of the history of the program with further citations from the Historia Augusta itself, see the article Alimentarii in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 69 The sum necessary for the position of senator was 1,000,000 sesterces. ❦ 70 The custom had arisen that on important occasions in (p25)the reign of an emperor races in the Circus should be voted by the senate as a mark of honour. From the time of Augustus the birthday of the emperor was similarly celebrated, and in the case of some emperors, e.g. Pertinax and Severus, also the natalis imperii or day of accession to the throne; see Pert. xv.5 and Dio, LXXVIII.8. Pius followed Hadrian's example in accepting birthday-games only; see Pius v.2. ❦ 71 This did not include a seat in the senate, but consisted of the privilege of sitting with the senators of consular rank at the public festivals and at sacred banquets and of wearing the toga praetexta on such occasions. Since the time of Nero this honorary rank had often been bestowed on prefects of the guard on their retirement from office; see also Pius x.6. ❦ 72 See note to c. vii.4. ❦ 73 The consilium of the emperor was a development from the old principle that a magistrate, before rendering an important decision, should ask advice from trusted friends. So Augustus (p27)and his successors had their boards of advisers. Until the time of Hadrian this board was not official or permanent, but from his reign on its members, the consiliarii Augusti, had a definite position and received a salary. Jurists of distinction were included in it; see c. xviii.1. ❦ 74 If Servianus, who was consul for the second time in 102, were associated with Hadrian in the Emperor's second consulship in 118 or third in 119, he would by reason of his seniority outrank his imperial colleague; see Mommsen, Röm. Staatsrecht, iii p976, n4. ❦ 75 Cf. c. v.3. ❦ 76 Cf. c. vii.2‑3. ❦ 77 The term of office of the prefect of the guard was unlimited, and often was for life. This passage seems to show that at least a form of voluntary resignation from the office was customary. Attianus, according to precedent, was advanced to senatorial rank with the ornamenta consularia; see c. viii.7. ❦ 78 C. Sulpicius Similis was prefect of the grain-supply, of Egypt, and, finally, of the praetorian guard. According to Dio (LXIX.20), it was only with difficulty that he secured Hadrian's permission to retire. ❦ 79 From the time of Augustus the old republican principle of colleagueship had been applied to the command of the praetorian guard and there were ordinarily two prefects with (p29)equal powers. The principle, however, had been disregarded at times, e.g. in the case of Sejanus under Tiberius (Dio, LVII.19). Under the later emperors there were sometimes three prefects; cf. Com. vi.12; Did. Jul. vii.5; Zosimus, I.11. ❦ 80 C. Septicius Clarus was the friend of Suetonius, who dedicated to him his Lives of the Caesars. He also encouraged Pliny to publish his letters; see Plin., Epist. I.1. On his retirement from the prefecture see c. xi.3. ❦ 81 The following are attested by inscriptions of the years 121‑122: Antium, Caiatia, Surrentum, and the road from Naples to Nuceria; see CIL X.6652, 4574, 676, 6939, 6940. ❦ 82 By a largess of spices (see c. xix.5), and by issuing coins bearing the legend Divae Matidiae Socrui with a representation of a temple-like building in which Matidia is seated between niches holding statuettes of Victory; see Cohen, II2 p152, No. 550. ❦ 83 His first journey is described in c. x.1‑xi.2 and xii.1‑xiii.3. It covered the years 121‑125. Then followed a journey to Africa and back in 128. This was followed by his second journey, which included the eastern part of the empire only, in 128‑134; see c. xiii.6‑xiv.6 (the portion of the journey which fell after 130 is not included). ❦ 84 His visit was commemorated by coins with the legends Adventui Galliae (Cohen, II2 p109 f., Nos. 31‑35) and Restitutor Galliae (Cohen, II2 p211, Nos. 1247‑1257). ❦ 85 His journey probably lay along the road from Lugdunum (p31)(Lyon) to Augusta Treverorum (Trier), which was repaired in 121; see Brambach, Corp. Inscr. Rhen., 1936. His visit to the German armies was commemorated on coins with the legend Exercitus Germanicus; see Cohen, II2 p156, Nos. 573 and 574. ❦ 86 Used here merely to denote the common soldiers; the "maniple" consisted of two centuriae. ❦ 87 i.e. Scipio Africanus the younger, conqueror of Carthage. Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus commanded in the war against Jugurtha in 109‑107 B.C. (cf. Sall. Jug. 43‑80). ❦ 88 Hadrian's reforms are also described in Dio, LXIX.9. They are commemorated by coins with the legend Disciplina Aug(usti); see Cohen, II2 p151 f., Nos. 540‑549. ❦ 89 From Germany he visited the provinces of Raetia and Noricum, and then returned to the lower Rhine, where his presence is commemorated in the name Forum Hadriani (near Leyden). From Holland he crossed to Britain. The legend Adventui Aug. Britanniae appears on coins; see Cohen, II2 p109, No. 28. ❦ 90 This fortification extended from Wallsend at the mouth of the Tyne to Bowness on the Firth of Solway, a distance of •73½ English miles. Its remains show that it consisted of two lines of embankment with a moat between them, and a stone wall running parallel on the north. In the space between the embankment and the wall were small strongholds about a mile apart with an occasional larger stronghold, all (p35)connected by a military road; see inscriptions dating from Hadrian's time, CIL VII.660 f., 835. Thayer's Note: For good details on Hadrian's Wall, including a map, a typical cross-section, then a further link to a very thorough, comprehensive site, see Chapter 3 of John Ward's Roman Military Remains in Britain. ❦ 91 See c. ix.5. ❦ 92 The author of the de Vita Caesarum and the de Viris Illustribus. ❦ 93 The frumentarii, at first petty-officers connected with the commissary of the army, became, probably under Trajan, couriers charged with the conveyance of military dispatches; see Max.‑Balb. x.3; Victor, Caes. xiii.5, 6. Many of them were then attached to the imperial service as a sort of secret police; see also Macr. xii.4 and Claud. xvii.1. Thayer's Note: For some further details and sources see the article Frumentarii in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 94 The sacred bullock of the Egyptians, begotten, according to their belief, by a ray of light from heaven (Herodotus, III.28). He was recognized by certain markings, including representations of the sun and the moon, and his appearance was the occasion of great rejoicing. It was apparently customary at this period to keep the young Apis, for a time at least, in the locality in which he appeared (Aelian, Nat. An. XI.10). The riot was checked by a severe letter from Hadrian (Dio, LXIX.8.1, frag. from Petr. Patr. exc. Vat. 108). ❦ 95 According to Dio, LXIX.10.3, the building was erected in (p37)honour of Plotina after her death, which occurred about this time. ❦ 96 See the coins with the legend Adventui Aug(usti) Hispaniae, Cohen, II2 p110, Nos. 36‑41. His benefactions and public works were commemorated by coins inscribed Restitutor Hispaniae, Cohen, II2 p211 f., Nos. 1258‑1272. ❦ 97 Made a Roman colony in 45 B.C. and the chief city of Hispania Tarraconensis. ❦ 98 Levies from these Italian settlers seem to have been forbidden by Trajan; see Marc. xi.7. ❦ 99 Just such a palissade has been found on the German frontier where the rivers Main and Neckar do not constitute a natural boundary; see the Limesblatt of the Imperial German Limeskommission for 1894, pp302, 483 f., and Pelham, Essays on Roman History, p200 f. ❦ 100 Although not necessarily in person; see CIL VIII praef. p. xxi. ❦ 101 The process of abbreviation has obscured the narrative by omitting the description of Hadrian's journey from Spain to Syria in the spring of 123. This journey was almost certainly made by sea from Spain to Antioch. The danger of the Parthian war seems to have been connected with the overthrow of the Romanized pretender, Parthamaspates (see note to c. v.4), and the restoration of the legitimate dynasty in the person of Osrhoes (cf. c. xiii.8). ❦ 102 His route lay from the Euphrates across Asia Minor to Ancyra in Galatia (cf. I.G.R., III.209) and thence to Bithynia, (p40)where his arrival is commemorated on coins inscribed Adventui Aug(usti) Bithyniae (Cohen, II2 p109, Nos. 26 and 27) and Restitutori Bithyniae (id. p210 f., Nos. 1238‑1246). He then travelled through Mysia, founding the town of Hadrianotherae (see c. xx.13), to Ilion and thence southward to Ephesus. From here he sailed to Rhodes (see an inscription from Ephesus, Dittenberger, Sylloge2, No. 388), northwest through the Aegean to Samothrace and Thrace (see an inscription from Callipolis of 123‑124, CIG 2013). Thence he visited the provinces of Moesia and Dacia (see Weber, p150 f.), and travelled southward through Macedonia and Thessaly to Athens, where he arrived probably in September, 124. ❦ 103 Father of Alexander the Great. ❦ 104 Admitted to the lower grade of μύστης. On his second visit to Athens in 128‑129 he was initiated into the higher grade, of ἐπόπτης; see Dio, LXIX.11. An epigram inscribed on the base of a statue erected in honour of the priestess who initiated him is extant (I.G. III.900 = Kaibel, Epigr. Gr. 864). ❦ 105 The Dionysia, in March, 125. Previous to this he had made a journey through the Peloponnesus, visiting the principal cities; dedications to him are recorded in extant inscriptions, and various benefactions of his are mentioned by Pausanias. ❦ 106 Travelling by way of the Corinthian Gulf, he visited Delphi (cf. CIG 1713), Actium, and Dyrrhachium, and sailed thence to Sicily. His arrival was commemorated by coins inscribed Adventui Aug(usti) Siciliae (Cohen, II2 p112, No. 75), and Restitutori Siciliae (id. ii2 p214, Nos. 1292‑1295). ❦ 107 In the summer of 125. Coins commemorating his return bear the legend Adventui Aug(usti) Italiae (Cohen, II2 p110, Nos. 42‑50). ❦ 108 Here a period of over three years is omitted, in which Hadrian built many public buildings in the towns of Italy. Early in 128 he finally accepted the title of Pater Patriae (cf. note to c. vi.4); see Eckhel, D. N. VI.515 f. ❦ 109 See the coins inscribed Adventui Aug(usti) Africae and Restitutori Africae (Cohen, II2 p107 f., Nos. 8‑15, and p209 f., Nos. 1221‑1232), and Adventui Aug(usti) Mauretaniae (Cohen, II2 p111, Nos. 63‑71). His stay in Africa lasted about four months in the spring and early summer of 128. On the Kalends of July was delivered his famous allocutio or address to the troops at Lambaesis, fragments of which are now in the Louvre. ❦ 110 His stay in Athens was from September 128 to March 129. ❦ 111 The Olympieion, on the southern edge of the city near the Ilissos. After the dedication of this building in 131‑132, Hadrian accepted the title Ὀλύμπιος and received divine honours in the temple (Dio, LXIX.16.1); hence the ara mentioned here. ❦ 112 They were later called simply "Hadrian's temples," and it was asserted that he had intended to consecrate them to Christ; see Alex. xliii.6. They were, in fact, temples dedicated to the cult of the emperors, including Hadrian himself, who was worshipped in the cities of Asia Minor as well as in the Olympieion at Athens. In inscriptions he has the cult-name Olympios or Zeus Olympios. ❦ 113 The camp of a Cappadocian legion (12th., Fulminata) was at Melitene, near the upper Euphrates. Hadrian probably travelled thither from Antioch. His visit to the camp was commemorated by coins inscribed Exercitus Cappadocicus (Cohen, II2 p153, No. 553). ❦ 114 More correctly Osrhoes; see also note to c. xii.8. ❦ 115 Antoninus Pius refused to keep this promise; see Pius ix.7. ❦ 116 King of the Hiberi, who inhabited part of the district which is now Trans-Caucasia. On the gifts exchanged by him and Hadrian see c. xvii.11‑12 and xxi.13. ❦ 117 The statement that Hadrian hated Antioch seems to be contradicted by the fact that he built many public buildings there; see Malalas, p278B. It may be a deduction from the fact that he did raise three other cities of Syria, Tyre, Damascus, and Samosata, to the rank of μητρόπολις. The actual division of Syria into two provinces, Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice, took place under Severus in 194. The object of the division was to lessen the power of the governor of so important a province. ❦ 118 According to Dio, LXIX.12‑14, probably a more correct account, the outbreak of the war was due to the anger of the Jews at the dedication of a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the Temple of Jehovah. This was done in connection with the "founding" of the new colony in 130; accordingly, this sentence is not in chronological order. The war was actually begun after Hadrian's departure from Egypt, and finally necessitated his return. The outbreak was quelled, after much bloodshed, in 134. ❦ 119 Probably the mountain of this name at the mouth of the river Orontes. This incident is also narrated as having happened to Hadrian at Antioch immediately after he became emperor; see Dio, LXIX.2.1. ❦ 120 See the coins inscribed Adventui Aug(usti) Arabiae (Cohen, II2 p108 f., Nos. 20‑23). He seems to have travelled thither by way of Palmyra and Damascus. His visit to Gerasa (mod. Djerash), in the north-western part of the province of Arabia, is attested by an inscription of 130 (I.G.R. III.1347). From here he went probably by way of Philadelphia (mod., 'Ammân) to Jerusalem, which he "founded" as the Colonia Aelia Capitolina. ❦ 121 According to Dio, LXIX.11.1, Hadrian offered a sacrifice to the manes of Pompey and in a line of poetry expressed his sorrow at the meanness of the tomb. ❦ 122 He also visited Alexandria, and his arrival was commemorated by coins of the city struck in 130; see also the (p45)Roman coins with the legend Adventui Aug(usti) Alexandriae (Cohen, II2 p108, Nos. 105‑108). ❦ 123 This beautiful youth was a native of Bithynium in Bithynia; see Dio, LXIX.11. He died near Besa, near the southern end of the Heptanomis. Here Hadrian founded a new city, called Antinoe or Antinoopolis, and consecrated a shrine to him. ❦ 124 According to Dio, LXIX.11, Hadrian claimed in his autobiography (see note to c. i.1) that Antinous was drowned in the Nile; he then adds that the true cause of his death was his voluntary sacrifice of himself, apparently in consequence of some prophecy, in order to save the Emperor's life. ❦ 125 Here the narrative of Hadrian's journey breaks off abruptly. After a visit to Thebes, where he and Sabina heard "the singing Memnon" (I.G.R., I.1186 and 1187), he returned to Alexandria, and thence travelled, apparently by ship (Cat. of Coins in the Brit. Mus., Alex., p101, No. 871), to Syria and Asia Minor. During a stay at Athens he dedicated the Olympieion (cf. note to c. xiii.6) in 131‑132; see Dio, LXIX.16.1. He was then called to Judaea on account of the long duration of the Jewish revolt (see note to c. xiv.2). He finally returned to Rome early in 134. Thayer's Notes: a An older English translation of the Life (by William Maude, 1900) is also online at Elfinspell. ❦ b Aen. VIII.808‑812, referring to Numa, the traditional second king of Rome. ❦ c Presumably carried away by the mores of his own time, the Loeb edition translator puts both feet in it. The Latin (q.v.), rather than "males", has adultorum: grown-up men. What disturbed the Roman critics was that Hadrian didn't leave it at young boys. It should also be noticed that the context here is security, which is still a concern today with philandering heads of government, e.g. U. S. president John Kennedy. Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Historia Augusta Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Page updated: 29 May 20 
penelope-uchicago-edu-8649	----	Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 72 mail: Bill Thayer Italiano Help Up Home previous: Book LXXI This webpage reproduces a Book of Roman History by Cassius Dio published in Vol. IX of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1927 The text is in the public domain. This text has not yet been proofread. If you find a mistake though, please let me know! next: Book LXXIII (Vol. IX) Cassius Dio Roman History Thayer's Note: Before e-mailing me with questions, comments, or corrections involving the numbering of Books, chapters, and sections in this text, please read the orientation page. Vol. IX p11 Epitome of Book LXXII LXXI 3 Cassius, however, was ordered by Marcus to have charge of all Asia. The emperor himself fought for a long time, almost his entire life, one might say, with the barbarians in the region of the Ister, with both the Iazyges and the Marcomani, one after the other, using Pannonia as his base. Six thousand Langobardi and Obii crossed the Ister, but the cavalry under Vindex issued forth and the infantry commanded by Candidus arrived, so that the barbarians were completely routed. Then, thrown into consternation by such an outcome to their very first undertaking, the barbarians sent envoys to Iallius Bassus, the governor of Pannonia, choosing for the purpose Ballomarius, king of the Marcomani, and ten others, one for each nation. These envoys made peace, which they ratified with oaths, and then returned home. 2 Many of the Germans, too, from across the Rhine, advanced as far Italy and inflicted many injuries upon the Romans. They were in turn attacked by Marcus, who opposed to them his lieutenants Pompeianus and Pertinax; and Pertinax (who later became emperor) greatly distinguished himself. Among the corpses of the barbarians there were  p13 found even women's bodies in armour. 3 Yet, though a mighty struggle had taken place and a brilliant victory had been won, the emperor nevertheless refused the request of the soldiers for a donative, declaring that whatever they obtained over and above the regular amount would be wrung from the blood of their parents and kinsmen; 4 as for the fate of the sovereignty, Heaven alone could determine that.​1 So temperately and so firmly did he rule them, that, even when involved in so many and so great wars, he did naught that was unseemly either by way of flattery or as the result of fear. 11 Marcus Antoninus remained in Pannonia in order to give audience to the embassies of the barbarians; for many came to him at this time also. Some of them, under the leadership of Battarius, a boy twelve years old, promised an alliance; these received a gift of money and succeeded in restraining Tarbus, a neighbouring chieftain, who had come into Dacia and was demanding money and threatening to make war if he should fail to get it. Others, like the Quadi, asked for peace, which was granted them, both in the hope that they might be detached from the Marcomani, and also because they gave him many horses and cattle and promised to surrender all the deserters and the captives, besides, — thirteen thousand at first, and later all the others as well. The right to attend the markets, however, was not  p15 granted to them, for fear that the Iazyges and the Marcomani, whom they had sworn not to receive nor to allow to pass through their country, should mingle with them, and passing themselves off for Quadi, should reconnoitre the Roman positions and purchase provisions. Besides these that came to Marcus, many others sent envoys, some by tribes and some by nations, and offered to surrender. Some of them were sent on campaigns elsewhere, as were also the captives and deserters who were fit for service; others received land in Dacia, Pannonia, Moesia, the province of Germany, and in Italy itself. Some of them, now, who settled at Ravenna, made an uprising and even went so far as to seize possession of the city: and for this reason Marcus did not again bring any of the barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously come there. Both the Astingi and the Lacringi came to the assistance of Marcus. 12 The Astingi, led by their chieftains Raüs and Raptus, came into Dacia with their entire households, hoping to secure both money and land in return for their alliance. But failing of their purpose, they left their wives and children under the protection of Clemens, until they should acquire the land of the Costoboci by their arms; but upon conquering that people, they proceeded to injure Dacia no less than before. The Lacringi, fearing that Clemens in his dread of them might lead these  p17 newcomers into the land which they themselves were inhabiting, attacked them while off their guard and won a decisive victory. As a result, the Astingi committed no further acts of hostility against the Romans, but in response to urgent supplications addressed to Marcus they received from him both money and the privilege of asking for land in case they should inflict some injury upon those who were then fighting against him. Now this tribe really did fulfill some of its promises; whereas the Cotini, though they made similar offers, nevertheless, upon receiving Tarrutenius Paternus, the secretary in charge of the emperor's Latin correspondence, on the pretext that they wished to make a campaign with him against the Marcomani, not only failed to do so, but even treated Paternus himself shamefully, thereby bringing about their own destruction later. 3 5 When the Marcomani were successful in a certain battle and slew Marcus Vindex, the prefect, the emperor erected three statues in his honour; and after conquering the foe he himself received the title of Germanicus (for we give the name of Germans to those who dwell in the northern regions). 4 The people called the Bucoli​2 began a disturbance in Egypt and under the leadership of one Isidorus, a priest, caused the rest of the Egyptians to revolt. At first, arrayed in women's garments, they had deceived the Roman centurion, causing him to believe that they were women of the Bucoli and were going to give him gold as ransom for their  p19 husbands, and had then struck down when he approached them. They also sacrificed his companion, and after swearing an oath over his entrails, they devoured them. 2 Isidorus surpassed all his contemporaries in bravery. Next, having conquered the Romans in Egypt in a pitched battle, they came near capturing Alexandria, too, and would have succeeded, had not Cassius been sent against them from Syria. He contrived to destroy their mutual accord and to separate them from one another (for because of their desperation as well as of their numbers he had not ventured to attack them while they were united), and thus, when they fell to quarrelling, he subdued them. 5 It was during Marcus' war against the Germans that the following incidents occurred (I hope these anecdotes may be thought worthy of record). A captive lad, on being asked a question by him, replied: "I cannot answer you because of the cold. So, if you want to find out anything, command that a coat be given me, if you have one." And a soldier who was doing guard duty one night on the Ister, upon hearing a shout from his fellow-soldiers in captivity on the other side, at once swam across just as he was, released them, and then returned. One of the prefects of Marcus was Bassaeus Rufus, who was a good man in other respects, but was uneducated because of his rustic origin and had been reared in poverty in his youth. On a certain occasion someone had checked him while he was engage in pruning a vine that grew upon a tree, and when he did not come down at the first summons, the man had rebuked him and said: "Come now, prefect, get down." That is, he had  p21 used this title in speaking to him as to one who was now bearing himself haughtily but had formerly been of lowly station; and it was precisely this title that Fortune subsequently gave him. Once when Marcus was talking to someone in Latin and not only the man addressed but no one else of the bystanders, either, knew what he had said, Rufus, the prefect, exclaimed: "No wonder, Caesar, that he does not know what you said; for he does not understand Greek either." Indeed, he himself was ignorant of what had been said. 6 The emperor, as often as he had leisure from war, would hold court; he used to allow abundant time to the speakers,​3 and entered into the preliminary inquiries and examinations at great length, so as to ensure strict justice by every possible means. In consequence, he would often be trying the same case for as much as eleven or twelve days, even though he sometimes held court at night. For he was industrious and applied himself diligently to all the duties of his office; and he neither said, wrote, nor did anything as if it were a minor matter, but  p23 sometimes he would consume whole days over the minutest point, not thinking it right that the emperor should do anything hurriedly. For he believed that if he should slight even the smallest detail, this would bring reproach upon all his other actions. Yet he was so frail in body that at first he could not endure the cold, but even after the soldiers had assembled at his command he would retire before addressing a word to them; and he took but very little food and that always at night. It was never his practice to eat during the daytime, unless it were some of the drug called theriac. This drug he took, not so much because he feared anything, as because his stomach and chest were in bad condition; and it is reported that this practice enabled him to endure both this and other maladies. 7 The Iazyges were conquered by the Romans on land at this time and later on the river. By this I do not mean that any naval battle took place, but that the Romans pursued them as they fled over the frozen Ister and fought there as on dry land. The Iazyges, perceiving that they were being pursued, awaited their opponents' onset, expecting to overcome them easily, as the others were not accustomed to the ice. Accordingly, some of the barbarians dashed straight at them, while others rode round to attack their flanks, as their horses had been trained to run safely even over a surface of this kind. The Romans upon observing this were not alarmed, but formed in a compact body, facing all their foes at once, and most of them laid down their shields and rested one  p25 foot upon them, so that they might not slip so much; and thus they received the enemy's charge. Some seized the bridles, others the shields and spearshafts of their assailants, and drew the men toward them; and thus, becoming involved in close conflict, they knocked down both men and horses, since the barbarians by reason of their momentum could no longer keep from slipping. The Romans, to be sure, also slipped; but in case one of them fell on his back, he would drag his adversary down on top of him and then with his feet would hurl him backwards, as in a wrestling match, and so would get on top of him; and if one fell on his face, he would actually seize with his teeth his antagonist, who had fallen first. For the barbarians, being unused to a contest of this sort, and having lighter equipment, were unable to resist, so that but few escaped out of a large force. 13 Envoys were sent to Marcus by the Iazyges to request peace, but they did not obtain anything. For Marcus, both because he knew their race to be untrustworthy and also because he had been deceived by the Quadi, wished to annihilate them utterly. For the Quadi had not only fought on the side of the Iazyges at this time, but on an earlier occasion, too, had received in their own and any Marcomanian fugitives who were hard pressed while that tribe was still at war with the Romans. Moreover, they were not carrying out any of their agreements; in particular, they had not restored all the captives, but only a few, and these such as they could neither sell nor employ at any labour. Or, if they ever did give up any of those who were in good physical  p27 condition, they would keep their relatives back in order that the men given up might desert again to rejoin these. They also expelled their king Furtius, and on their own responsibility made Ariogaesus their king instead. In consequence, the emperor neither recognized Ariogaesus as their legally constituted king nor renewed the treaty of peace, though they promised to give up fifty thousand captives if he would do so. 14 Against Ariogaesus Marcus was so bitter that he issued a proclamation to the effect that anyone who brought him in alive should receive a thousand gold pieces, and anyone who slew him and exhibited his head, five hundred. Yet in general the emperor was always accustomed to treat even his most stubborn foes humanely; thus, when Tiridates, a satrap, stirred up trouble in Armenia and slew the king of the Heniochi, and then thrust his sword in Verus'​4 face when the latter rebuked him for it, he did not put him to death, but merely sent him to Britain. It can be seen from this, then, how exasperated he was against Ariogaesus at this time; nevertheless, when the man was later captured, he did him no harm, but merely sent him off to Alexandria. 8 So Marcus subdued the Marcomani and the Iazyges after many hard struggles and dangers. A great war against the people called the Quadi also fell to his lot and it was his good fortune to win an unexpected victory, or rather it was vouchsafed him by Heaven. For when the Romans were in peril in the course of the battle, the divine power saved  p29 them in a most unexpected manner. The Quadi had surrounded them at a spot favourable for their purpose and the Romans were fighting valiantly with their shields locked together; then the barbarians ceased fighting, expecting to capture them easily as the result of the heat and their thirst. So they posted guards all about and hemmed them in to prevent their getting water anywhere; for the barbarians were far superior in numbers. The Romans, accordingly, were in a terrible plight from fatigue, wounds, the heat of the sun, and thirst, and so could neither fight nor retreat, but were standing and the line and at their several posts, scorched by the heat, when suddenly many clouds gathered and a mighty rain, not without divine interposition, burst upon them. Indeed, there is a story to the effect that Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician, who was a companion of Marcus, had invoked by means of enchantments various deities and in particular Mercury, the god of the air, and by this means attracted the rain. 9 This is what Dio says about the matter,​5 but he is apparently in error, whether intentionally or otherwise; and yet I am inclined to believe his error was chiefly intentional. It surely must be so, for he was not ignorant of the division of soldiers that bore the special name of the "Thundering" Legion, — indeed he mentions it in the list along with the others,​6 — a title which was given it for no other reason (for no other is reported) than because of the incident that  p31 occurred in this very war. It was precisely this incident that saved the Romans on this occasion and brought destruction upon the barbarians, and not Arnuphis, the magician; for Marcus is not reported to have taken pleasure in the company of magicians or in witchcraft. Now the incident I have reference to is this: Marcus had a division of soldiers (the Romans call a division a legion) from Melitene; and these people are all worshippers of Christ. Now it is stated that in this battle, when Marcus found himself at a loss what to do in the circumstances and feared for his whole army, the prefect approached him and told him that those who are called Christians can accomplish anything whatever by their prayers and that in the army there chanced to be a whole division of this sect. Marcus on hearing this appealed to them to pray to their God; and when they had prayed, their God immediately gave ear and smote the enemy with a thunderbolt and comforted the Romans with a shower of rain. Marcus was greatly astonished at this and not only honoured the Christians by an official decree but also named the legion the "thundering" Legion. It is also reported that there is a letter of Marcus extant on the subject. But the Greeks, though they know that the division was called the "Thundering" Legion and themselves bear witness to the fact, nevertheless make no statement whatever about the reason for its name. 10 Dio goes on to say that when the rain poured down, at first all turned their faces upwards and received the water in their mouths; then some held out their shields and some their helmets to catch it, and they not only took deep draughts themselves  p33 but also gave their horses to drink. And when the barbarians now charged upon them, they drank and fought at the same time; and some, becoming wounded, actually gulped down the blood that flowed into their helmets, along with the water. So intent, indeed, were most of them on drinking that they would have suffered severely from the enemy's onset, had not a violent hail-storm and numerous thunderbolts fallen upon the ranks of the foe. Thus in one and the same place one might have beheld water and fire descending from the sky simultaneously; so that while those on the one side were being consumed by fire and dying; and while the fire, on the one hand, did not touch the Romans, but, if it fell anywhere among them, was immediately extinguished, the shower, on the other hand, did the barbarians no good, but, like so much oil, actually fed the flames that were consuming them, and they had to search for water even while being drenched with rain. Some wounded themselves in order to quench the fire with their blood, and others rushed over to the side of the Romans, convinced that they alone had the saving water; in any case Marcus took pity on them. He was now saluted imperator by the soldiers, for the seventh time; and although he was not wont to accept any such honour before the senate voted it, nevertheless this time he took it as a gift from Heaven, and he sent a despatch to the senate. Moreover Faustina was given the title of "Mother of the Camp."7  p35  22 When Pertinax as a reward for his brave exploits obtained the consulship, there were nevertheless some who showed displeasure in view of the fact that he was of obscure family, and they quoted this line from tragedy: "Such things accursed war brings in its train."​8 Little did they realize that he should be emperor as well.9 15 When the Marcomani sent envoys to him, Marcus, in view of the fact that they had fulfilled all the conditions imposed of them, albeit grudgingly and reluctantly, restored to them one-half of the neutral zone along their frontier, so that they might now settle to within a distance of five miles​10 from the Ister; and he established the places and the days for their trading together (for these had not been previously fixed) and exchanged hostages with them. 16 The Iazyges were defeated and came to terms, Zanticus himself appearing as a suppliant before Antoninus. Previously they had imprisoned Banadaspus, their second king, for making overtures to him; but now all the chief men came with Zanticus and made the same compact as that to which the Quadi and the Marcomani had agreed, except that they were required to dwell twice as far away from  p37 the Ister as those tribes. Indeed, the emperor had wished to exterminate them utterly. For that they were still strong at this time and had done the Romans great harm was evident from the fact that they returned a hundred thousand captives that were still in their hands even after the many who had been sold, had died, or had escaped, and that they promptly furnished as their contribution to the alliance eight thousand cavalry, fifty-five hundred of whom he sent to Britain. 17 The revolt of Cassius and Syria forced Marcus Antoninus to make terms with the Iazyges very much against his will; indeed, he was so alarmed by the news that he did not even communicate to the senate the conditions of the peace made with them, as he was wont to do in other cases. 222 When Cassius rebelled in Syria, Marcus in great alarm summoned his son Commodus from Rome, as being now entitled to assume the toga virilis. Cassius, who was a Syrian from Cyrrhus, had shown himself an excellent man and the sort one would desire to have as an emperor, save for the fact that he was the son of one Heliodorus,​11 who had been content to secure the governorship of Egypt as the reward of his oratorical ability. 3 But Cassius in rebelling made a terrible mistake, due to his having been deceived by Faustina. The latter, who was the daughter of Antoninus Pius, seeing that her husband had fallen ill and expecting that he would die at any moment, was afraid that the throne might fall  p39 to some outsider, inasmuch as Commodus was both too young and also rather simple-minded, and that she might thus find herself reduced to a private station.​12 Therefore she secretly​13 induced Cassius to make his preparations so that, if anything should happen to Antoninus, he might obtain both her and the imperial power. 23 Now while he was considering this project, a message came that Marcus was dead (in such circumstances reports always represent matters as worse than they really are), and immediately, without waiting to confirm the rumor, he laid claim to the throne, on the ground that he had already been elected by the soldiers who were then in Pannonia. And in spite of the fact that he learned the whole truth before long, nevertheless, having once made a beginning, he did not change his course, but speedily won over the whole region south of the Taurus and was making preparations to gain the throne by war. Marcus, on being informed of his uprising by Verus, the governor of Cappadocia, concealed the news for a time; but as the soldiers were becoming greatly disturbed by the reports and were talking a great deal, he called them together and read an address to the following purport:  p41  24 "Fellow-soldiers: I have come before you, not to express indignation, but to bewail my fate. For why become angry at Heaven, which is all-powerful? But it is necessary, perhaps, for those who meet with undeserved misfortune to indulge in lamentations; and that is now my case. Is it not dreadful that we become engaged in war after war? Is it not horrible that we are even involved in civil war? And are not both these evils surpassed in dreadfulness and horror by the discovery that there is no such thing as loyalty among men? For a plot has been formed against me by my dearest friend and I have been forced into a conflict against my will, though I have done nothing wrong or amiss. What virtue, what friendship shall henceforth be deemed secure after this experience of mine? Has not faith, has not confident hope perished? Now if the danger were mine alone, I should have regarded the matter as of no moment (for I presume I was not born to be immortal!), but since there has been a public secession, or rather rebellion, and the war touches us all alike, I could have wished, had it been possible, to invite Cassius here and to argue before you or the senate the matter at issue between us; and I would gladly have yielded the supreme power to him without a struggle, if this had seemed to be for the good of the State. For it is on behalf of the State that I continue to toil and to undergo dangers and that I have spent so much time here outside of Italy, though already an old man and weak, unable to take either food without pain or sleep without anxiety.  p43  25 "But since Cassius would never consent to adopt this course, — for how could he trust me after having shown himself so untrustworthy toward me? — you, at least, fellow-soldiers, ought to be of good cheer. For surely Cilicians, Syrians, Jews, and Egyptians have never proved superior to you and never will, even if they should muster as many tens of thousands more than you as they now muster fewer. Nor would even Cassius himself appear to deserve any consideration now, however much he may seem to possess high qualities of generalship or however many successes he may seem to have gained. For an eagle is not formidable when in command of an army of daws nor a lion when in command of fawns; and as for those Arabian and Parthian wars, it was not Cassius, but you, that brought them to an end. Again, even though he is renowned because of his achievements against the Parthians, yet you have Verus, who has been no less successful than he, but, on the contrary, more successful, in winning many victories and in acquiring much territory. But Cassius has perhaps already changed his mind on hearing that I am alive; for surely he has done this thing on no other assumption than that I was dead. But even if he persists in his course, yet when he learns that we are approaching, he will surely think better of it, both out of fear of you and out of respect for me. 26 "There is only one thing I fear, fellow-soldiers, for you shall be told the whole truth, — and that is, that either he will kill himself because ashamed to come into our presence or that someone else will do so upon learning that I am to come and am  p45 already setting out against him. 2 For then I should be deprived of a great prize both of war and of victory, a prize such as no human being has ever yet obtained. And what is this prize? To forgive a man who has wronged one, to remain a friend to one who has transgressed friendship, to continue faithful to one who has broken faith. 3 Perhaps all this seems incredible to you, but you ought not to disbelieve it; for surely all goodness has not yet entirely perished from among men, but there is still in us a remnant of the ancient virtue. And if anyone should disbelieve it, that but renders the more ardent my desire, in order that men may see accomplished what no one would believe could come to pass. 4 For that would be the one profit I could derive from our present ills, if I could settle this affair well and show to all mankind that there is a right way to deal even with civil wars." 27 This is what Marcus both said to the soldiers and wrote to the senate, never abusing Cassius in any way save that he constantly termed him ungrateful. Nor, indeed, did Cassius ever utter or write anything insulting to Marcus. Marcus, when he was making preparations for the war against Cassius, would accept no barbarian assistance, although many nations rushed to offer their services; for he declared that the barbarians ought not to know of the troubles arising between Romans. 2 While Marcus was making preparations for the  p47 civil war, the death of Cassius was reported to him at the same time with the news of many victories over various barbarians.​14 Cassius, it appears, while proceeding on foot, had encountered Antonius, a centurion, who suddenly wounded him in the neck, though the blow was not exactly a mortal one. Antonius, now, was carried on by the momentum of his horse and left the deed incomplete, so that his victim nearly escaped; but in the meantime the decurion finished what remained to be done. They cut off Cassius' head and set out to meet the emperor. 28 Marcus Antoninus was so greatly grieved at the death of Cassius that he could not bring himself even of the look at the severed head of his enemy, but before the murderers drew near gave orders that it should be buried. 27 32Thus was this pretender slain after a dream of empire lasting three months and six days; and his son, who was somewhere else, was also murdered. Marcus, upon reaching the provinces that had joined in Cassius' uprising, treated them all very leniently and did not put anyone to death, whether obscure or prominent.15  p49  282 This same emperor neither slew nor imprisoned nor put under guard at all any of the senators who had been associated with Cassius. Indeed, he did not so much as bring them before his own court, but merely sent them before the senate, as though charged with some other offence, and set a definite day for their trial. 3 Of the others, he executed a very few, who had been guilty of some overt crime not only in co-operation with Cassius but also on their own account. A proof of this is that he did not slay or deprive of his property Flavius Calvisius,​16 the governor of Egypt, but merely confined him on an island. 4 He also caused the records made in this man's case to be burned, in order that no reproach should attach to him from this source; and he released all who had been associated with him. 29 About this time Faustina also died, either of the gout, from which she suffered, or in some other manner, in order to avoid being convicted of her compact with Cassius. And yet Marcus destroyed all the papers that were found in the chests of Pudens​17 without reading any of them, in order that he might not learn even the name of any of the conspirators who had written anything against him and so be reluctantly forced to hate them. Another story is to the effect that Verus, who had been sent ahead into Syria, of which he had secured the governorship, found these papers among the effects of Cassius and destroyed them, remarking that this course would probably be most  p51 agreeable to the emperor, but that, even if he should be angry, it would be better that he himself alone should perish rather than many others. Marcus, indeed, was so averse to bloodshed that he even used to watch the gladiators in Rome contend, like athletes, without risking their lives; for he never gave any of them a sharp weapon, but they all fought with blunted weapons like foils furnished with buttons. And so far was he from countenancing any bloodshed that although he did, at the request of the populace, order a certain lion to be brought in that had been trained to eat men, yet he would not look at the beast nor emancipate his trainer, in spite of the persistent demands of the spectators; instead, he commanded proclamation to be made that the man had done nothing to deserve his freedom. 30 In his great grief over the death of Faustina he wrote to the senate asking that no one of those who had co-operated with Cassius should be put to death, as if in this fact alone he could find some consolation for her loss.​18 "May it never happen," he  p53 continued, "that any one of you should be slain during my reign either by my vote or by yours." And in concluding he said, "If I do not obtain this request, I shall hasten to my death." So pure and excellent and god-fearing did he show himself from first to last; and nothing could force him to do anything inconsistent with his character, neither the wickedness of their rash course nor the expectation of similar uprisings as the result of his pardoning these rebels.​19 So far, indeed, was he from inventing any imaginary conspiracy or concocting any tragedy that had not really occurred, that he actually released those who had in the most open manner risen against him and taken up arms both against him and against his son, whether they were generals or heads of states or kings; and he put none of them to death either by his own action or by that of the senate or on any other pretext whatever. Hence I verily believe that if he had captured Cassius himself alive, he would certainly have spared his life. For he actually conferred benefits upon many who had been the murderers, so far as lay in their power, of both himself and his son. 31 A law was passed at this time that no one should serve as governor in the province from which he had originally come, inasmuch as the revolt of Cassius had occurred during his administration of Syria, which included his native district. And it was decreed by the senate that silver images of Marcus and Faustina should be set up in the temple of  p55 Venus and Rome, and that an altar should be erected whereon all the maidens married in the city and their bridegrooms should offer sacrifice; 2 also that a golden statue of Faustina should be carried in a chair into the theatre, on every occasion when the emperor was to be a spectator, and placed in the special section from which she herself had been wont, when alive, to view the games, and that the most influential women should sit round about it. 3 When Marcus had come to Athens and had been initiated into the Mysteries, he not only bestowed honours upon the Athenians, but also, for the benefit of the whole world, he established teachers at Athens in every branch of knowledge, granting these teachers an annual salary. 32 Then upon his return to Rome he made an address to the people; and while he was saying, among other things, that he had been absent many years, they cried out, "eight," and indicated this also with their hands, in order that they might receive that number of gold pieces​20 for a banquet. He smiled and also said "eight"; and later he distributed to them eight hundred sesterces apiece, a larger amount than they had ever received before. 2 Not only did he do this, but he remitted all debts owed by anyone to the emperor's private treasury or to the public treasury for a period of forty-five years, not including the fifteen years of Hadrian;​21 and he ordered all the documents relating to these debts  p57 to be burned in the Forum. 3 He also gave gifts of money to many cities, including Smyrna, which had suffered terrible destruction by an earthquake; and he assigned the task of rebuilding that city to a senator of praetorian rank. Therefore I am surprised to hear people even to‑day censuring him on the ground that he was not an open-handed prince. For, although in general he was most economical in very truth, yet he never avoided a single necessary expenditure, even though, as I have stated,​22 he burdened no one by levies of money and though he found himself forced to lay out very large sums beyond the ordinary requirements. 33 When the Scythian situation once more demanded his attention, it caused him to give his son a wife, Crispina, sooner than he wished. For the Quintilii had been unable to end the war, although there were two of them and they possessed great shrewdness, courage and experience; and consequently the rulers themselves were forced to take the field. 2 Marcus also asked the senate for money from the public treasury, not because such funds were not already at the emperor's disposal, but because he was wont to declare that all the funds, both these and others, belonged to the senate and to the people. "As for us," he said, in addressing the senate, "we are so far from possessing anything of our own that even the house in which we live is yours." 3 Then, after making this speech and after hurling the bloody spear, that was kept in the temple of  p59 Bellona, into what was supposed to be the enemy's territory​a (as I have heard men who were present relate), he set out; and he gave a large force to Paternus and sent him to the scene of the fighting. The barbarians held out for the entire day, but were all cut down by the Romans; and Marcus was saluted imperator for the tenth time. 18 The Iazyges sent an embassy and asked to be released from certain of the agreements they had made; and some concessions were granted them, to prevent their becoming entirely alienated. Yet neither they nor the Buri were willing to join the Romans as allies until they had received pledges from Marcus that he would without fail prosecute the war to the uttermost; for they were afraid he might make a treaty with the Quadi, as before, and leave enemies dwelling at their doors. 19 Marcus gave audience to those whom came as envoys from outside nations, but did not receive them all on the same footing; for this varied according as the several states were worthy to receive citizenship, or freedom from taxes, or perpetual or temporary exemption from the tribute, or even to enjoy permanent support. And when the Iazyges proved most useful to them, he released them from many of the restrictions that had been imposed upon them, — in fact, from all save those affecting their assembling and trading together and the requirements that they should not used boats of their own and should keep away from the islands in the Ister. And he permitted them to pass through Dacia  p61 in order to have dealings with the Rhoxolani, as often as the governor of Dacia should give them permission. 20 With regard to the Quadi and the Marcomani, who sent envoys:— the twenty thousand soldiers that were stationed in forts among each of these tribes would not allow them to pasture their flocks or till the soil or do anything else in security, but kept receiving many deserters from the enemy's ranks and captives of their own; yet the soldiers themselves were enduring no great hardships, inasmuch as they had baths and all the necessaries of life in abundance. The Quadi, accordingly, being unwilling to endure the forts built to keep watch over them, attempted to migrate in a body to the land of the Semnones. But Antoninus learned beforehand of their intention and by barring the roads prevented their departure. This showed that he desired, not to acquire their territory, but to punish the men themselves. 21 And the Naristi, who had suffered hardships, at one and the same time deserted to the number of three thousand and received land in our territory. 33 Now if Marcus had lived longer, he would have subdued that entire region; but as it was, he passed away on the seventeenth of March, not as a result of the disease from which he still suffered, but by the act of his physicians, as I have been plainly told, who wished to do Commodus a favour. 34 When now he was at the point of death, he commended his son to the protection of the soldiers (for he did not wish his death to appear to be due to Commodus), and to the military tribune who asked him for the watchword he said: "Go to the  p63 rising sun; I am already setting." After his death he received many marks of honour; among other things a gold statue of him was set up in the senate-house itself. This then was the manner of Marcus' death. Marcus was so godfearing that even on the dies nefasti​23 he sacrificed at home. In addition to possessing all the other virtues, he ruled better than any others who had ever been in any position of power. To be sure, he could not display many feats of physical prowess; yet he had developed his body from a very weak one to one capable of the greatest endurance. Most of his life he devoted to beneficence, and that was the reason, perhaps, for his erecting a temple to Beneficence on the Capitol, though he called her by a most peculiar name, that had never been heard before.​24 He himself, then, refrained from all offences and did nothing amiss whether voluntarily or involuntarily; but the offences of the others, particularly those of his wife, he tolerated, and neither inquired into them nor punished them. So long as a person did anything good, he would praise him and use him for the service in which he excelled, but to his other conduct he paid no attention; for he declared that it is impossible for one to create such men as one desires to have, and so it is fitting to employ those who are already in existence for whatever service each of them may be able to render to the State. And that his whole conduct was due to no pretence but to real excellence is clear; for although he lived fifty-eight years, ten months, and  p65 twenty-two days, of which time he had spent a considerable part as assistant to the first Antoninus, and had been emperor himself nineteen years and eleven days, yet from first to last he remained the same and did not change in the least. So truly was he a good man and devoid of all pretence. 35 His education was of great assistance to him, for he had been trained both in rhetoric and in philosophical disputation. In the former he had Cornelius Fronto and Claudius Herodes for teachers, and, in the latter, Junius Rusticus and Apollonius of Nicomedeia,​25 both of whom professed Zeno's doctrines. 2 As a result, great numbers pretended to pursue philosophy, hoping that they might be enriched by the emperor. Most of all, however, he owed his advancement to his own natural gifts; for even before he associated with those teachers he had a strong impulse towards virtue. 3 Indeed, while still a boy he so pleased all his relatives, who were numerous, influential and wealthy, that he was loved by them all; and when Hadrian, chiefly for this reason, had adopted him, he did not become haughty, but, though young and a Caesar, served Antoninus most loyally throughout all the latter's reign and without giving offence showed honour to the others who were foremost in the State. 4 He used always to salute the most worthy men in the House of Tiberius, where he lived, before visiting his father, not only without putting on the attire befitting his rank, but actually dressed as a private citizen, and receiving them in the very apartment  p67 where he slept. He used to visit many who were sick, and never missed going to his teachers. 5 He would wear a dark cloak whenever he went out unaccompanied by his father, and he never employed a torch-bearer for himself alone. Upon being appointed leader of the knights he entered the Forum with the rest, although he was a Caesar. 6 This shows how excellent was his natural disposition, though it was greatly aided by his education. He was always steeping himself in Greek and Latin rhetorical and philosophical learning, even after he had reached man's estate and had hopes of becoming emperor. 36 Even before he was appointed Caesar he had a dream in which he seemed to have shoulders and arms of ivory, and to use them in all respect like his other members. 2 As a result of his close application and study he was extremely frail in body, though in the beginning he had been so vigorous that he used to fight in armour, and on the chase would strike down wild boars while on horseback; and not only in his early youth but even later he wrote most of his letters to his intimate friends with his own hand. 3 However, he did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. 4 Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his  p69 son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day.  p71  FRAGMENTS Yet he did not on this account collect money from the subject nations. On one occasion when, with wars impending, he found himself at a loss for funds, he neither devised any new tax nor brought himself to ask anyone for money, but instead exposed in the Forum all the heirlooms of the palace together with any ornaments that belonged to his wife, and urged any who so desired to buy them. In this way he raised funds which he paid to the soldiers. Then, after winning the war and gaining many times the amount in question, he issued a proclamation to the effect that any one of the purchasers of the imperial property who wished might return the article purchased and receive its value. Some did this, but the majority declined; and he compelled no one to return to him any object that had been thus acquired. Marcus Antoninus, when the treasuries had become exhausted in the course of the war, could not bring himself to make levies of money contrary to precedent, but took all the imperial ornaments to the Forum and sold them for gold. When the barbarian uprising had been put down, he returned the purchase price to those who voluntarily brought back the imperial possessions, but used no compulsion in the case of those who were unwilling to do so. The Loeb Editor's Notes: 1 Or, as Patricius puts it: "the power of the sovereignty depended, not on the soldiers, but on God." ❦ 2 This name (literally "Herdsmen") was given to the population of a district in the Delta near Alexandria. ❦ 3 Literally, "used to order a most liberal supply of water to be measured out for the speakers." The time allowed the speakers in Greek and Roman courts was measured by the clepsydra, or water-clock. ❦ 4 P. Martius Verus. ❦ 5 This paragraph, it will be observed, is simply Xiphilinus' own comment on Dio's narrative. ❦ 6 The reference is evidently to Book LV.23, but it should be observed that the names, though very possibly having the same sense, are not identical; the legion is here called κεραυνοβόλος (Fulminatrix), but in the former passage κεραυνοφόρος (Fulminifera, Fulminata). ❦ 7 Mater Castrorum; cf. Hist. Aug., Marc. 26.8, Corp. Inscr. Lat. XIV.40. ❦ 8 Euripides, Suppl. 119. ❦ 9 Cf. Petr. Patric.: "Marcus fell so gravely ill that he entertained slight hopes of recovery, and he frequently used to utter during his illness this verse of tragedy: 'Such things accursed war brings in its train.' " ❦ 10 Literally, "about 38 stades." The excerptor here evidently follows Dio in reckoning 7½ stades to the mile; but compare the same excerptor in LXXII (LXXIII).3, where apparently the same distance is called 40 stades (8 stades often being counted to the mile). ❦ 11 C. Avidius Heliodorus (cf. LXIX.3). ❦ 12 Cf. Joann. Ant.: "Cassius, the governor of Syria, a skilful general who had performed many notable achievements in the course of the Parthian war, was naturally inclined toward rebellion and was now encouraged to revolt, being led to this thought by Faustina, the wife of Marcus. For when Marcus fell ill, she, believing that he would die, especially as he was always sickly, became afraid," etc. ❦ 13 Joan. Ant. says: "secretly sending some of those who were loyal to her." ❦ 14 Cf. Joan. Antioch.: "And he set out for Syria from Paeonia [Pannonia?], but he had no need of arms against the rebels, for Cassius had already perished at the hands of one of his followers." ❦ 15 Cf. Joan. Antioch.: "And coming peacefully to Syria and Egypt, he neither investigated nor punished any who appeared to have favoured Cassius, whether nation or city, private citizen or official." ❦ 16 Identified by Klebs with C. Calvisius Statianus. ❦ 17 Reimar suggested that perhaps Pudens was secretary of the Greek correspondence of Cassius, as Manilius (cf. LXXII [LXXIII].7.4) was of his Latin correspondence. ❦ 18 Cf. Joan. Antioch.: "But also on behalf of those arrested in Rome (for even there many of the senators had been convicted of openly favouring the cause of Cassius) he sent a message to the senate asking them not to pass any harsh decree, his exact words being as follows (for I shall give his very words, which clearly show the excellence of the man): "I implore you, the senate, to keep my reign unstained by the blood of any senator. May it never happen," etc. Petr. Patric.: "When the senate was insisting on the death of those who had co‑operated with Cassius, together with their relatives, he wrote back to them among other things: 'I beseech and implore you to keep my reign unstained,' " etc. ❦ 19 Cf. Joann. Antioch.: "And nothing roused Marcus or induced him to depart from his customary principles of action — neither the injustice and wickedness of their rash course nor the faithlessness of those who had ventured upon it nor yet the fear of similar uprisings in the future." ❦ 20 The gold piece (aureus) was worth 100 sesterces. ❦ 21 Literally, forty-six and sixteen years, reckoning inclusively; cf. LXIX.8.12. There was an interval of sixty years (4 × 15) between Hadrian's order (A.D. 118) and that of Marcus (A.D. 178). See Mommsen Röm. Staatsrecht II2.1015, n4. ❦ 22 The reference may possibly be to a passage preserved by Zonaras (12, 1), and printed as a fragment at the end of this book (pp70‑71). ❦ 23 Days on which no public business could be transacted; some were festal days and some unlucky days. Thayer's Note: For fuller details, see this section of the article Dies in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. ❦ 24 Wissowa identifies this goddess with Indulgentia. ❦ 25 An error for Chalcedon. Thayer's Note: a See Platner & Ashby, s.v. Columna Bellica. ◂ previous next ▸ Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Cassius Dio Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Page updated: 21 Aug 12 
penelope-uchicago-edu-8848	----	LacusCurtius • The Historia Augusta mail: Bill Thayer Italiano Help Up Home The Historia Augusta The Text on LacusCurtius Text and translation are transcribed from the Loeb Classical Library edition. The Latin text is, as stated in the Preface, that of Susan H. Ballou (thru Avidius Cassius), then that of Hermann Peter (from Commodus on). The English translation is by David Magie. Both text and translation are in the public domain: Vol. I was copyright 1921 and is thus expired; the copyrights on Vol. II and Vol. III were 1924 and 1932, but were not renewed at the appropriate times (1951‑1952 and 1959‑1960 respectively), and thus fell into the public domain. (Details here on the copyright law involved.) As usual, I retyped the text rather than scanning it: not only to minimize errors prior to proofreading, but as an opportunity for me to become intimately familiar with the work, an exercise which I heartily recommend. (Well-meaning attempts to get me to scan text, if successful, would merely turn me into some kind of machine: gambit declined.) This transcription has been minutely proofread. In the table of contents below, the sections are therefore shown on blue backgrounds, indicating that I believe the text of them to be completely errorfree. As elsewhere onsite, the header bar at the top of each chapter's webpage will remind you with the same color scheme. Should you spot an error, however . . . please do report it. Further details on the technical aspects of the site layout follow the Table of Contents. Background The Historia Augusta poses special problems to the modern reader or researcher: if — either perusing the biographies in it at some length or seeking to mine the work for as little as a single small piece of information — you are not familiar with these problems, it is critically important that you become so before you put your foot in it. They are covered by the editor's introductory material on this site, but not very satisfactorily. Probably the most clear-headed exposition of it all can be found on Livius.Org's introduction to the Historia Augusta: read it. Another Latin text of the Historia may be found at Latin Library; beware, however: although it is not marked as such, it is incomplete (the biggest problem is the Life of Alexander Severus, reduced there to a few fragments although in fact it has come down to us complete). Loeb Editor's Introduction Loeb Editor's Notice on the Manuscripts Latin Text English Translation HADRIANVS: Capp. 1‑14.7: adoptio a Traiano, imperium Capp. 14.8‑27: vita privata, mores; mors. HADRIAN: Chs. 1‑14.7: adoption by Trajan, public life Chs. 14.8‑27: private life, character; death. HELIVS AELIUS ANTONINVS PIVS ANTONINUS PIUS MARCVS ANTONINVS PHILOSOPHVS: Capp. 1‑14: usque ad Veri mortem Capp. 15‑29: post Veri mortem. MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS: Chs. 1‑14: up to the death of Verus Chs. 15‑29: after the death of Verus. VERVS LUCIUS VERUS AVIDIVS CASSIVS AVIDIUS CASSIUS COMMODVS ANTONINVS COMMODUS HELVIVS PERTINAX PERTINAX DIDIVS IVLIANVS DIDIUS JULIANUS SEVERVS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS PESCENNIVS NIGER PESCENNIUS NIGER CLODIVS ALBINVS CLODIUS ALBINUS ANTONINVS CARACALLA CARACALLA ANTONINVS GETA GETA OPILIVS MACRINVS OPELLIUS MACRINUS DIADVMENVS ANTONINVS DIADUMENIANUS ANTONINVS HELIOGABALVS: Capp. 1‑18.3: mores et mors Capp. 18.4‑35: fabulae de luxuria eius. ELAGABALUS: Chs. 1‑18.3: his character and death Chs. 18.4‑35: tales of his extravagance. ALEXANDER SEVERVS: Capp. 1‑28: familia, initium imperii Capp. 29‑52: vita privata et mores Capp. 53‑68: belli, mors. SEVERUS ALEXANDER: Chs. 1‑28: family, accession, early rule Chs. 29‑52: private life and character Chs. 53‑68: campaigns, death. MAXIMINI DVO THE TWO MAXIMINI GORDIANI TRES THE THREE GORDIANS MAXIMVS ET BALBINVS MAXIMUS AND BALBINUS VALERIANI DVO THE TWO VALERIANS GALLIENI DVO THE TWO GALLIENI TYRANNI TRIGINTA: Cyriades, Postumus, Postumus Iunior, Lollianus, Victorinus, Victorinus Iunior, Marius, Ingenuus, Regalianus, Aureolus, Macrianus, Macrianus Iunior, Quietus, Odaenathus, Herodes, Maeonius, Ballista, Valens, Valens Superior, Piso, Aemilianus, Saturninus, Tetricus Senior, Tetricus Iunior, Trebellianus, Herennianus, Timolaus, Celsus, Zenobia, Victoria, Titus, Censorinus. THE THIRTY PRETENDERS: Cyriades, Postumus, Postumus the Younger, Lollianus, Victorinus, Victorinus the Younger, Marius, Ingenuus, Regalianus, Aureolus, Macrianus, Macrianus the Younger, Quietus, Odaenathus, Herodes, Maeonius, Ballista, Valens, Valens the Elder, Piso, Aemilianus, Saturninus, Tetricus the Elder, Tetricus the Younger, Trebellianus, Herennianus, Timolaus, Celsus, Zenobia, Victoria, Titus, Censorinus. DIVVS CLAVDIVS THE DEIFIED CLAUDIUS DIVVS AVRELIANVS: Capp. 1‑15: priusquam imperator fuisset Capp. 16‑37.4: imperium et mors Capp. 37.5‑50: fabulae variae. THE DEIFIED AURELIAN: Chs. 1‑15: until he became emperor Chs. 16‑37.4: rule and death Chs. 37.5‑50: various anecdotes. TACITVS TACITUS PROBVS PROBUS FIRMVS SATVRNINVS PROCVLVS ET BONOSVS FIRMUS, SATURNINUS, PROCULUS AND BONOSUS CARVS ET CARINVS ET NVMERIANVS CARUS, CARINUS AND NUMERIAN Chapter and Section Numbering, Local Links Both chapters (large numbers) and sections (small numbers) mark local links, according to a consistent scheme; you can therefore link directly to any passage. In the Latin text, each American flag is a link to the corresponding section of the English translation, opening in another window; in the English text, each Vatican flag is a link to the corresponding section of the Latin text, opening in another window. Apparatus The Loeb edition provides no comprehensive apparatus criticus, but occasionally marks a variant or a crux. I'm including these notes. Notes The Loeb translation includes many notes, designed to elucidate the text for a general reader. For the Web, they are both overkill and not enough: so while of my own initiative I wouldn't have put most of them online, given that they're there, I've often linked them to more detailed and specific sources. In the print edition, some notes are referred to a note to a previous Life; I found it simpler to do the same, although often enough that previous note is not thoroughly satisfactory: still, the diligent reader will probably not begrudge me the shortcut — and the superficial reader will never notice. The icon I use to indicate this subsite is a view of the portrait-bust of Caracalla in the Room of the Emperors in the Capitoline Museum in Rome: not one of the "good emperors", but not one of the monsters or the fly-by‑nights, either. Images with borders lead to more information. The thicker the border, the more information. (Details here.) UP TO: Classical Texts LacusCurtius Home A page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one *asterisk. If the URL has two **asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is © Bill Thayer. See my copyright page for details and contact information. Site updated: 25 Jul 19 
pl-wikipedia-org-5613	----	Marek Aureliusz – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia Marek Aureliusz Z Wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii Przejdź do nawigacji Przejdź do wyszukiwania Marek Aureliusz Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (od 136 r. Marcus Annius Verus) — Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus — Cesarz rzymski Okres od 7 marca 161 do 17 marca 180 Poprzednik Antoninus Pius Następca Kommodus Dane biograficzne Dynastia Antoninów Data i miejsce urodzenia 26 kwietnia 121 Rzym Data i miejsce śmierci 17 marca 180 Vindobona (Wiedeń) Moneta Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Marek Aureliusz Antoninus, Marek Anniusz Aureliusz Werus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Annius Aurelius Verus; ur. 26 kwietnia 121 w Rzymie, zm. 17 marca 180 w Vindobonie) – w latach 161–180 cesarz rzymski, pisarz i filozof. Ankeruhr, Wiedeń, cesarz jako jedna ze wskazówek na zegarze Spis treści 1 Życie 1.1 Młodość 1.2 Przed objęciem rządów 1.3 Okres rządów 1.3.1 Poselstwo do Chin 2 Dzieci 3 Filozofia 4 Religia 5 Wizerunek 5.1 Obecność w kulturze 6 Dzieła 7 Przypisy 8 Bibliografia 9 Linki zewnętrzne Życie[edytuj | edytuj kod] Młodość[edytuj | edytuj kod] Urodził się w 121 r. w południowej części Rzymu jako Marcus Annius Verus. Jego ojciec, Anniusz Werus, był osobą zamożną, właścicielem kilku cegielni. Rodzina należała do arystokracji, a pradziadek Marka, Lucjusz Katyliusz Sewer, był dwukrotnym konsulem, namiestnikiem Azji i Syrii i prefektem miasta[1]. Gdy Marek miał 3 lata ojciec zmarł, a dzieckiem zaopiekował się cesarz Hadrian. W 138 Hadrian zaadoptował Antonina, przeznaczając go na swojego następcę. Antonin był spowinowacony z Markiem, będąc mężem jego ciotki Faustyny. W tym samym roku, po śmierci Hadriana, Antonin został cesarzem Antoninusem Piusem, a w 139 podniósł Marka do godności cezara. Marek otrzymał staranne, wszechstronne wykształcenie. Interesował się szczególnie retoryką i filozofią. Uczył się u rzymskich i greckich stoików i retorów (m.in. Juniusza Rustyka, Heroda Attyka, Apoloniusza z Chalcedonu[2]. Przed objęciem rządów[edytuj | edytuj kod] Od czasu objęcia rządów przez Antoninusa, aż do jego śmierci (23 lata) Marek ciągle przebywał w towarzystwie cesarza, przygotowując się do objęcia rządów w przyszłości. Traktował swojego przybranego ojca z szacunkiem i traktował go jako wzór cnotliwego władcy[3][4]. W 145 Marek poślubił córkę Antoninusa Piusa, Faustynę. Podczas 30 lat małżeństwa miał z nią 13 dzieci, z których sześcioro dożyło wieku dorosłego, a jeden z synów (Kommodus) został cesarzem[3]. Antoninus Pius zmarł w 161. Do objęcia władzy po nim przygotowywani byli Marek oraz jego przybrany brat Lucjusz, którym przysługiwał tytuł cezara. To Marek został uznany przez Antoninusa za bardziej godnego następstwa i to on został obrany cesarzem po jego śmierci. Marek podzielił się jednak z Lucjuszem władzą, i zamiast mianować go cezarem, obdarzył go tytułem augusta. Zaręczył go z własną córką, trzynastoletnią Lucillą i uczynił go współcesarzem. Lucjuszowi nadano cognomen Werus (które kiedyś nosił Marek), przez co można wnioskować, że Marek uczynił się ojcem Lucjusza[5]. Marek Aureliusz i Lucjusz Werus rządzili wspólnie, aż do śmierci tego ostatniego w 169[6]. Okres rządów[edytuj | edytuj kod] Marek Aureliusz prowadził skromne, spokojne życie, zgodne z surowymi zasadami stoickimi. Miał głębokie poczucie obowiązku służenia krajowi i obywatelom. Dbał o dobre stosunki z senatem, przeprowadził reformy w dziedzinie administracji i prawa cywilnego. Czasy rządów Marka Aureliusza przypadły na okres bardzo trudny: wojny (wywoływane również przez ekspasywną politykę Rzymu) i klęski żywiołowe (wylewy Tybru w 161, trzęsienia ziemi w Kyzikos (165) i Smyrnie (178), głód, rozruchy uliczne, pożary, plaga szarańczy, epidemia dżumy). Głównymi wrogami Rzymu były wówczas plemiona germańskie i Partowie. W 161 Partowie najechali wschód Cesarstwa. Wojska rzymskie ponosiły początkowo porażki. Lucjusz wyruszył na wschód i wraz z doświadczonymi generałami Stacjuszem Priskusem i Awidiuszem Kasjuszem pokonał w kampanii wojennej Partów, najeżdżając ich królestwo i zdobywając Ktezyfon i Seleucję (163-166)[6]. Wojska rzymskie podjęły również działania przeciwko Medii, gdzie odniosły pewne sukcesy[7]. Wracające ze Wschodu wojska sprowadziły do Imperium epidemię nazwaną "Zarazą Antoninów" (165). Epidemia spustoszyła cały kraj, prowadząc od znacznego osłabienia demograficznego i gospodarczego[8]. Tuż po zakończeniu tej kampanii, w 166 północnej Italii zaczęli zagrażać Kwadowie i Markomanowie i sam Marek zaczął planować wyprawę przeciwko tym plemionom[9]. Zaczął się okres wojen markomańskich (167-180). Polityka Marka była zróżnicowana, obok walki zbrojnej, umacniał granicę na Dunaju, uciekał się do negocjacji, a także zgadzał się na osiedlenie części plemion w Dacji, Pannonii, Mezji, Germanii i Italii[10]. Marek i Lucjusz wyruszyli przeciwko tym plemionom, spędzając zimę w Akwilei. W 169 po ataku apopleksji umarł Lucjusz, a Marek wrócił do Rzymu, by wziąć udział w pogrzebie. Pojawiły się plotki, że Lucjusz został zabity przez Marka, jego żoną Faustynę, lub żonę Lucjusza Lucyllę. Kasjusz Dion w Historia Augusta podaje, że Lucjusz planował zabić Marka by zająć jego miejsce, lecz został przezeń otruty. Poglądy te są sceptycznie traktowane przez współczesnych historyków[11]. W 169 Maurowie zaatakowali i spustoszyli hiszpańską Betykę. Marek wysłał w jej obronie Aufidiusza Wiktoryna[12] Marek kontynuował działania wojenne w prowincjach naddunajskich i w 170 przystąpił do ofensywy w Dolnej Pannonii. Tymczasem Kwadowie i Markomanowie przekroczyli granice w innym miejscu i wkroczyli do Italii, zdobyli miasto Opitergium i oblegali Akwileję, pustosząc okolice, zaatakowali również Dację, , Mezję Górną, a także (Kostobocy) Achaję[13]. W 172 wojska Marka przekroczyły Dunaj i zaatakowały terytoria Markomanów, odnosząc zwycięstwo, a Marek przyjął przydomek Gemanicus[14]. W 173 Marek rozpoczął kolejną kampanię, tym razem przeciwko Kwadom. Pokonał ich i wyruszył przeciwko sarmackim Jazygom. Po ich pokonaniu przyjął przydomek Sarmaticus[15]. Marek zawarł z pobitymi plemionami pokój. Kwadowie i Markomanowie nie mogli się osiedlać w odległości mniejszej niż 5 mil, a Jazygowie 10 mil. Rzymianie założyli również strażnice pilnujące granic. Prawdopodobnie również musieli dostarczać rekruta[16]. W 175 we wschodnich prowincjach wybuchł bunt Awidiusza Kasjusza. Udało się go stłumić zanim Marek wyruszył na Wschód, dzięki wierności rządcy Kapadocji, Marcjusza Werusa[6][17]. W 175 Marek odbył długą podróż po wschodnich prowincjach, (Egipt, Syria, Cylicja) wraz z żoną Faustyną i synem Kommodusem. W trakcie podróży, jesienią 175, umarła Faustyna. Wieś, w której zmarła przemianowano na Faustinopolis[18]. W Smyrnie słuchał przemów Elusza Arystydesa[19]. W Atenach, Marek i Kommodus zostali wtajemniczeni w misteria eleuzyjskie[20]. Kasjusz Dion podaje, że podczas pobytu w Atenach Marek ustanowił cztery katedry (płatne posady) dla nauczycieli głównych kierunków filozoficznych: perypatetyckiej, platońskiej, epikurejskiej i stoickiej, a także katedrę retoryki. Prawdopodobnie stało się to jednak wiele lat wcześniej, a w 176 Marek jedynie słuchał tu wykładów[21]. Już przed wyjazdem na Wschód, Marek zaczął przygotowywać swego syna, Kommodusa, do objęcia rządów po sobie. Podzielił się z nim władzą, a po powrocie obaj otrzymali tytuł imperatores i odbyli wspólny tryumf[22]. W 178 wyruszył na kolejną wyprawę wojenną przeciwko plemionom naddunajskim, które skonfliktowały się ze sobą i nie zachowywały warunków pokoju. Za pomocą działań militarnych i dyplomatycznych, Marek zaprowadzał porządek, dążąc do stopniowej romanizacji tych plemion[23]. Zmarł 17 marca 180 roku w Vindobonie (dzisiejszy Wiedeń) lub w Sirmium. Przyczyna śmierci nie jest pewna. Historia Augusta sugeruje, że zmarł na dżumę[24]. Po śmierci został ubóstwiony. Pochowano go w Mauzoleum Hadriana. Poselstwo do Chin[edytuj | edytuj kod] Chińska Księga Późniejszych Hanów (Houhanshu) zanotowała informację, iż w roku 166 drogą morską przez Ocean Indyjski do kraju Jinan (Annam) przybyło poselstwo króla Andun z Daqin (Rzymu), oferując kość słoniową, rogi nosorożca i szylkret[25]. Imię Andun (安敦) uważa się powszechnie za fonetyczny zapis nazwiska rodowego cesarza Marka Aureliusza (Antoninus), trwają jednak spory, czy było to oficjalne poselstwo rzymskie, czy samodzielna inicjatywa kupców, chcących handlować bez pośredników obecnych na jedwabnym szlaku[26]. Dzieci[edytuj | edytuj kod] Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147 – po 165), babka cesarzowej Annii Faustiny; Gemellus Lucillae (zm. ok. 150), brat-bliźniak poniższej; Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/150–182), siostra-bliźniaczka powyższego, żona współcesarza, Lucjusza Werusa; Titus Aelius Antoninus (po 150 – przed 7 marca 161); Titus Aelius Aurelius (po 150 – przed 7 marca 161); Hadrianus (152 – przed 7 marca 161); Domitia Faustina (po 150 – przed 7 marca 161); Fadilla (159 – po 192), babka cesarzowej Annii Faustiny; Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160 – między 211–217); Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), brat-bliźniak poniższego; Lucius Aurelius Commodus (161–192), brat-bliźniak powyższego, cesarz rzymski; Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162–169); Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170 – przed 217). Filozofia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Marek Aureliusz był przedstawicielem stoicyzmu, ostatnim znaczącym przedstawicielem tego nurtu w starożytności[27]. Był zwolennikiem filozofii Epikteta, odkąd w r. 121 n.e. za namową swego nauczyciela Juliusza Rustyka przeczytał jego Diatryby. Stoicyzm Marka Aureliusza ograniczony jest do tematyki moralnej, z istotnym elementem religijnym[27]. Jego filozofia ma też pewne cechy eklektyczne |(m.in. wpływy Epikura, sceptyka Ainezydema i medioplatoników)[27]. Marek Aureliusz był stoikiem. Jego dzieło Rozmyślania (taki tytuł przyjął się w tłumaczeniach, oryginał to: Do siebie samego), napisane w grece. Nazywany jest filozofem na tronie. przetrwało wieki i nadal jest źródłem inspiracji. Wyłania się zeń obraz władcy jako człowieka skromnego i ze wszech miar umiarkowanego. Ironią wydaje się więc fakt, że jego syn, a jednocześnie następca, Kommodus zapisał się w historii jako władca gwałtowny i okrutny (starożytne plotki głosiły zresztą, że Kommodus nie był synem Marka Aureliusza, lecz gladiatora). Poglądy: Uczył panowania nad emocjami. Uważał, iż nie należy dążyć do rozkoszy, sławy i bogactwa. Spokój powinniśmy odnajdować w pracowitości oraz być życzliwymi, choć nieco sceptycznymi w stosunku do innych, a także sumiennymi w wypełnianiu własnych obowiązków. Świat jest teatrem, ludzie aktorami wyznaczonymi do odegrania skromnej zazwyczaj roli. Nie należy buntować się i lękać się śmierci, która mieści się w naturalnym porządku świata (z fragmentów Jana Tomkowskiego). Religia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Za jego panowania miały miejsce prześladowania skierowane przeciwko wspólnotom chrześcijańskim, choć ich liczba i skala nie jest potwierdzona. Nie jest pewne na ile te prześladowania były zamierzone przez samego Marka, a na ile były działaniami władz prowincjonalnych, czy spontanicznymi rozruchami. Ok. roku 165 prefekt Rzymu Junius Rustyk skazał Justyna Męczennika, późniejszego świętego, na śmierć przez ścięcie[9]. Najlepiej udokumentowane są krwawe "prześladowania lyońskie", do których doszło ok. 176[28]. Wizerunek[edytuj | edytuj kod] Wizerunki Marka Aureliusza Marek Aureliusz w wieku ok. 17 lat (Muzeum Kapitolińskie). Marek Aureliusz składa ofiarę (relief, Muzeum Kapitolińskie). Triumf Marka Aureliusza (Relief, Muzeum Kapitolińskie). Zachowały się liczne wizerunki przedstawiające Marka Aureliusza, z różnych okresów jego życia. Z okresu młodzieńczego zachowało się popiersie przechowywane obecnie w Muzeum Kapitolińskim. Jest prawdopodobne, że zostało ono wykonane w okresie, gdy Antonin dokonał adopcji Marka (miał on wtedy 17 lat), a popiersie miało być częścią oficjalnej ikonografii rodziny cesarskiej, przez co niekoniecznie oddaje indywidualne rysy modelu[29]. Zachowały się również reliefy z Efezu przedstawiające karierę Lucjusza Werusa. Reliefy przedstawiają scenę adopcji Marka, jednak wykonane je wiele lat po tym wydarzeniu[29]. Znane jest 11 płaskorzeźb dużych rozmiarów przedstawiających Marka w okresie rządów. 8 pochodzi z niezachowanego łuku Marka Aureliusza, wybudowanego w 176 po zwycięskich wojnach z Germanami. Wykorzystane zostały powtórnie przez Konstantyna do ozdoby attyki jego własnego łuku. Trzy kolejne płaskorzeźby znajdują się obecnie w Palazzo dei Conservatori. Wyglądają Są bardzo podobne do poprzednich i można przypuszczać (choć bywa to kwestionowane), że pochodzą z tego samego łuku triumfalnego z 176[29]. Wyobrażony na tym łuku cykl płaskorzeźb przedstawiał prawdopodobnie historię wojny z Germanami, prowadzącą do zwycięstwa Rzymian. Również te wyobrażenia mają charakter w dużym stopniu symboliczny[29]. Więcej cech indywidualnych zawiera wizerunek cesarza na kolumnie Marka Aureliusza. Została ona jednak wykonana już po jego śmierci[30]. Autentyczny wizerunek może też znajdować się na przechowywanej w Luwrze kamei z podwójnym portretem: Marka Aureliusza i Werusa, a wykonanej przed śmiercią Werusa w 169. Kamea przedstawia Marka Aureliusza w wieku czterdziestu kilku lat[30]. Najsłynniejszym wizerunkiem cesarza jest pomnik konny Marka Aureliusza. Znajdował się początkowo na Lateranie, a w 1538 został przeniesiony przez papieża Pawła III na Kapitol[31]. Ten najlepszy wizerunek cesarza ocalał dzięki przekonaniu późniejszych chrześcijan, że przedstawia cesarza Konstantyna I Wielkiego, który dopiero w 132 lata po śmierci Marka Aureliusza edyktem mediolańskim dał wszystkim mieszkańcom obu części imperium swobodę wyznania. Wizerunek Marka Aureliusza widnieje też na licznych monetach z epoki jego rządów. Na najwcześniejszych z nich (139) Marek przedstawiony jest jako młody cezar. Na ich rewersie znajdują się nazwy lub symbole ubóstwionych pojęć abstrakcyjnych: młodości (Iuventas), wesołości czy młodzieńczej bujności (Hilaritas), nadziei (Spes), honoru (Honos), wierności (Fides), zgody (Concordia), a także wizerunek Minerwy w hełmie z włócznią i tarczą[32]. W 145 z okazji zaślubin Marka i Faustyny wybito monetę z wizerunkiem małżonków. Późniejsze emisje monet związane są z wydarzeniami z okresu cesarstwa, np. kampaniami wojennymi[33] Obecność w kulturze[edytuj | edytuj kod] Postać Marka Aureliusza pojawiła się w filmie Gladiator Ridleya Scotta, w którym zagrał ją Richard Harris. W filmie występują elementy fikcyjne, np. Marek Aureliusz zostaje zamordowany przez swojego syna Kommodusa, chcącego w ten sposób przejąć władzę. Postać Marka Aureliusza występuje również w powieści Teodora Jeske-Choińskiego pt. Gasnące Słońce, której akcja rozgrywa się właśnie w czasach panowania tego cesarza. Dzieła[edytuj | edytuj kod] Jedynym dziełem Marka Aureliusza są Rozmyślania. Ponadto, przetrwała jego korespondencja z nauczycielem retoryki Frontonem, którą prowadził przez trzydzieści lat. Zawiera ona liczne szczegóły dotyczące życia na dworze cesarskim i obyczajów epoki[34]. Przypisy[edytuj | edytuj kod] ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 32. ↑ Reale 1999 ↓, s. 149. ↑ a b Hadot 2004 ↓, s. 7. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 75-83. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 137. ↑ a b c Hadot 2004 ↓, s. 8. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 149. ↑ Hadot 2004 ↓, s. 9. ↑ a b Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 152. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 154. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 159. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 162. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 161. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 164. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 165-168. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 169-170. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 170-173. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 178. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 180. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 181. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 182. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 183. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 189. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 190. ↑ Raoul McLaughlin: Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010, s. 134. ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7. ↑ Lionel Casson: Podróże w starożytnym świecie. Wrocław: Ossolineum, 1981, s. 87. ISBN 83-04-00543-3. ↑ a b c Reale 1999 ↓, s. 150. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 29-30. ↑ a b c d Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 23. ↑ a b Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 25. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 26. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 27. ↑ Grimal 1994 ↓, s. 28-29. ↑ Hadot 2004 ↓, s. 7-8. Bibliografia[edytuj | edytuj kod] PierreP. Grimal PierreP., Marek Aureliusz, A.A. Łukaszewicz (tłum.), Warszawa: PIW, 1994 . PierreP. Hadot PierreP., Twierdza wewnętrzna. Wprowadzenie do "Rozmyślań" Marka Aureliusza, Kęty: Antyk, 2004 . Ch.Ch. Parain Ch.Ch., Marek Aureliusz, JulianJ. Rogoziński (tłum.), Warszawa 1962 . GiovanniG. Reale GiovanniG., Historia filozofii starożytnej, t. 4, Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 1999 . GiovanniG. Reale GiovanniG., Historia filozofii starożytnej, t. 5, Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL, 2012 . Linki zewnętrzne[edytuj | edytuj kod] RachanaR. Kamtekar RachanaR., Marcus Aurelius, [w:] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [online], CSLI, Stanford University, 22 grudnia 2017, ISSN 1095-5054 [dostęp 2018-08-07]  (ang.). JohnJ. Sellars JohnJ., Marcus Aurelius, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 2161-0002 [dostęp 2018-06-27]  (ang.). p d e Cesarze rzymscy pięciu dobrych cesarzy august (tytuł) cezar (tytuł) Dynastia julijsko-klaudyjska Oktawian August (27 p.n.e. – 14 n.e.) Tyberiusz (14–37) Kaligula (37–41) Klaudiusz (41–54) Neron (54–68) Rok czterech cesarzy Galba (68–69) Oton (69) Witeliusz (69) Flawiusze Wespazjan (69–79) Tytus (79–81) Domicjan (81–96) Dynastia Antoninów Nerwa (96–98) Trajan (98–117) Hadrian (117–138) Antoninus Pius (138–161) Marek Aureliusz (161–180) Lucjusz Werus (161–169) Kommodus (180–192) Bez dynastii Pertynaks (193) Didiusz Julianus (193) Sewerowie Septymiusz Sewer (193–211) Geta (211–212) Karakalla (211–217) Makrynus (217–218) Diadumenian (218) Heliogabal (218–222) Aleksander Sewer (222–235) Kryzys wieku III Maksymin Trak (235–238) Gordian I i Gordian II (238) Pupien i Balbin (238) Gordian III (238–244) Filip I Arab (244–249) Filip II (247–249) Decjusz (249–251), Herenniusz i Hostylian (251) Trebonian Gallus i Woluzjan (251–253) Emilian (253) Walerian I (253–260) Galien (253–268) Klaudiusz II Gocki (268–270) Kwintyllus (270) Aurelian (270–275) Tacyt (275–276) Florian (276) Probus (276–282) Karus (282–283) Numerian (283–284) i Karinus (283–285) Tetrarchia i Dynastia konstantyńska Dioklecjan (284–305) Maksymian (286–305) Konstancjusz I Chlorus (293–306) Galeriusz (293–311), Sewer II (305–307), Maksymin Daja (305–313) Maksencjusz (306–312) Konstantyn I Wielki (306–337), Licyniusz (308–324) i Licyniusz II (317–324) Konstantyn II (337–340) Konstans I (337–350) i Konstancjusz II (337–361) Julian Apostata (361–363) Jowian (363–364) Dynastia walentyniańska Walentynian I (364–375), Walens (364–378), Gracjan (367–383), Walentynian II (375–392) i Eugenius (392–394) Dynastia teodozjańska Teodozjusz I Wielki (392–395) Cesarstwo zachodniorzymskie Honoriusz (395–423) Konstancjusz III (421) Jan (423–425) Walentynian III (425–455) Petroniusz Maksymus (455) Awitus (455–456) Majorian (457–461) Libiusz Sewer (461–465) Antemiusz (467–472) Olibriusz (472) Gliceriusz (473–474) Juliusz Nepos (474–475) Romulus Augustulus (475–476) Kontrola autorytatywna (osoba): ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X VIAF: 102895066 ULAN: 500115701 LCCN: n80051702 GND: 118577468 NDL: 00431918 LIBRIS: zw9cdphh3v38g0d BnF: 11914476c SUDOC: 027008614 NLA: 35966523 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 BNR: 000136425 NTA: 06867452X BIBSYS: 90564087 CiNii: DA00596148 Open Library: OL133986A PLWABN: 9810673347405606 NUKAT: n96103790 NLI: 000088890 PTBNP: 272140 CANTIC: a10491697 LNB: 000027790 NSK: 000083919 BNA: 000026945 CONOR: 6923107 BNC: 000166929 ΕΒΕ: 150699 BLBNB: 000181323 KRNLK: KAC200403589 LIH: LNB:V*99486;=BW WorldCat: lccn-n80051702 Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marek_Aureliusz&oldid=63680345” Kategorie: Cesarze rzymscy Dynastia Antoninów Etycy Filozofowie starożytnego Rzymu Konsulowie Cesarstwa Rzymskiego Ludzie urodzeni w Rzymie Stoicy Zmarli na dżumę Urodzeni w 121 Zmarli w 180 Ukryte kategorie: Właściwość P569 inna niż wpisana lokalnie Brak właściwości P119 wpisanej lokalnie Menu nawigacyjne Narzędzia osobiste Nie jesteś zalogowany Dyskusja Edycje Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Przestrzenie nazw Artykuł Dyskusja Warianty Widok Czytaj Edytuj Edytuj kod źródłowy Historia i autorzy Więcej Szukaj Nawigacja Strona główna Losuj artykuł Kategorie artykułów Najlepsze artykuły Częste pytania (FAQ) Dla czytelników O Wikipedii Zgłoś błąd Zgłoś błąd w pliku Kontakt Wspomóż Wikipedię Dla wikipedystów Pierwsze kroki Portal wikipedystów Ogłoszenia Zasady Pomoc Ostatnie zmiany Narzędzia Linkujące Zmiany w linkowanych Prześlij plik Strony specjalne Link do tej wersji Informacje o tej stronie Cytowanie tego artykułu Element Wikidanych Drukuj lub eksportuj Utwórz książkę Pobierz jako PDF Wersja do druku W innych projektach Wikimedia Commons Wikicytaty Wikiźródła W innych językach Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edytuj linki Tę stronę ostatnio edytowano 13 cze 2021, 21:44. Tekst udostępniany na licencji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na tych samych warunkach, z możliwością obowiązywania dodatkowych ograniczeń. Zobacz szczegółowe informacje o warunkach korzystania. Polityka prywatności O Wikipedii Korzystasz z Wikipedii tylko na własną odpowiedzialność Wersja mobilna Dla deweloperów Statystyki Komunikat na temat ciasteczek 
pms-wikipedia-org-3183	----	March Aureli - Wikipedia an piemontèis, l'enciclopedìa lìbera e a gràtis March Aureli Da Wikipedia. Jump to navigation Jump to search Vos an lenga piemontèisa Për amprende a dovré 'l sistema dle parlà locaj ch'a varda sì. Marc Aureli March Aureli (an latin Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Roma 26 avril 121 dGC – Sirmio, 17 ëd mars 180 dGC), a l’é stàit l'imperator roman ch'a fa sëddes. A fasìa part ëd la Dinastìa dj'Antonin. D'apress a la mòrt ëd Antonin ël Pio a l’ha pijà ël podèj dël 161 për 8 agn ansema a Lucio Ver. Apress la mort ëd Lucio Ver a l'ha regnà dël 169 për autri 11 agn. Sò serior a l'e stàit Còmod. Aiuto per la lettura Ayuda para la lectura Help for Reading Rintré ant la Piòla Contaté j'Aministrator Lìber për Amprende Coression ortogràfica Tastadura piemontèisa Portaj e Proget Agiut pr'ij Contributor Travajòt sempi Pijàit da "https://pms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=March_Aureli&oldid=847712" Categorìa: Imperator roman Lista ëd navigassion Utiss përsonaj a l'é pa ant ël sistema Discussion Contribussion Creé un cont Rintré ant ël sistema Spassi nominaj Artìcol Discussion Variant vìsite Lese Modifiché Modifiché la sorgiss Smon-e la stòria Ëd pi Sërca navigassion Intrada Piòla Neuve Ùltime modìfiche Na pàgina qualsëssìa Agiut Doné! utiss Pàgine con dj'anliure che a men-o a costa-sì Modìfiche colegà Pàgine Speciaj Anliura fissa Anformassion an sla pàgina Sita sta pàgina-sì Element Wikidata Stampa/espòrta Crea un lìber Dëscaria com PDF Version bon-a për stampé An autri proget Wikimedia Commons Àutre lenghe Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Modifiché j'anliure Modificà l'ùltima vira dël 29 Aos 2019, al 15:24. Ël test a l'é disponìbil sota la licensa Creative Commons atribussion-partagi ugual; a podrìo aplichesse d'àutre condission. Ch'a vëdda le Condission d'usagi për ij detaj. Polìtica ëd confidensialità Difide Visualisassion an sël sacociàbil Dësvlupator Statìstiche Diciarassion an sij bëscotin 
pnb-wikipedia-org-2101	----	مارکس اورلیس - وکیپیڈیا مارکس اورلیس آزاد انسائیکلوپیڈیا، وکیپیڈیا توں Jump to navigation Jump to search مارکس اورلیس (26 اپریل 121 – 17 مارچ 180 ) اک رومی شہنشاہ سی جیہنے 161 توں 180 تک راج کیتا۔ اوہ شہنشاہ ہون دے نال نال اک فلسفی وی سی۔ "https://pnb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=مارکس_اورلیس&oldid=410743" توں لیا ۱ گٹھ: رومی سلطنت کھوج پتر ذاتی اوزار لاگ ان نئیں ہوۓ او گل بات حصےداری کھاتہ کھولو لاگ ان ہوو ناں تھانواں: صفحہ گل بات قسماں وکھالے پڑھو لِکھو تریخ دیکھو ہور کھوج کھوج پہلا صفہ رلے ملے صفحے نواں آرٹیکل لِکھو سارے صفحے سریع لسٹ اج کل دیاں خبراں عطیہ دیو تعامل مدد بیٹھک حالیہ تبدیلیاں فائل اپلوڈ رابطہ کرو سَند ایتھے کِس دا جوڑ اے رلدیاں ملدیاں تبدیلیاں فائل چڑھاؤ خاص صفحے پکا جوڑ صفحہ جانکاری ایس صفحے دا اتہ پتہ دیو ویکی ڈیٹا آئیٹم چھاپو/اگے بھیجو کتاب بناؤ ڈاؤنلوڈ بشکل پی ڈی ایف PDF چھپن جوگا صفحہ ہور منصوبےآں وچ ویکیمیڈیا کامنز دوجیاں بولیاں وچ Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 جوڑ لکھو اس صفحے نوں آخری واری ۲ دسمبر ۲۰۱۵ تریخ نوں ۱۳:۱۶ وجے بدلیا گیا۔ لکھت کریئیٹیو کامنز انتساب/ اکوجہے-شراکت لائسنس دے ہیٹھ دستیاب اے، ہور شرطاں وی لاگو ہوسکدیاں نیں۔ ویروے لئی ورتن شرطاں دیکھو۔ ویکیپیڈیا® اک غیر منافع بخش تنظیم ویکیمیڈیا فاؤنڈیشن انکارپوریشن دا تجارتی مارکہ اے۔ پرائیویسی پالیسی وکیپیڈیا بارے وچ لاتعلقی اظہار موبائیل سائٹ ترقی دین والے آنکڑے کوکیز تفصیلاں 
pt-wikipedia-org-6811	----	Marco Aurélio – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre Saltar para o conteúdo Alternar barra lateral Busca Ferramentas pessoais Não autenticado Discussão Contribuições Criar uma conta Entrar Menu de navegação Navegação Página principal Conteúdo destacado Eventos atuais Esplanada Página aleatória Portais Informar um erro Colaboração Boas-vindas Ajuda Página de testes Portal comunitário Mudanças recentes Manutenção Criar página Páginas novas Contato Donativos Ferramentas Páginas afluentes Alterações relacionadas Carregar ficheiro Páginas especiais Hiperligação permanente Informações da página Citar esta página Elemento Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Criar um livro Descarregar como PDF Versão para impressão Noutros projetos Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Noutras línguas Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Editar hiperligações Espaços nominais Artigo Discussão Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar código-fonte Ver histórico Mais Marco Aurélio Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. Marco Aurélio Augusto Imperador Romano Reinado 8 de março de 161 a 17 de março de 180 Predecessor Antonino Pio Sucessor Cômodo Co-monarcas Lúcio Vero (161–169) Cômodo (177–180)   Esposa Faustina, a Jovem Descendência Ânia Galéria Aurélia Faustina Gêmelo Lucila Lucila Tito Élio Antonino Tito Élio Aurélio Adriano Domícia Faustina Fadila Ânia Cornifícia Faustina Tito Aurélio Fulvo Antonino Cômodo Marco Ânio Vero César Víbia Aurélia Sabina Dinastia Nerva-Antonina Nome completo Marco Ânio Vero Marco Élio Aurélio Vero César Marco Aurélio Antonino Augusto Nascimento 20 de abril de 121 Roma, Itália, Império Romano Morte 17 de março de 180 (58 anos) Vindobona ou Sírmio, Panônia, Império Romano Enterro Mausoléu de Adriano, Roma, Lácio, Itália Pai Marco Ânio Vero Antonino Pio (adotivo) Mãe Domícia Lucila  Nota: Para outros significados, veja Marco Aurélio (desambiguação). Marco Aurélio (em latim Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; 26 de abril de 121 — 17 de março de 180), foi imperador romano desde 161 até sua morte. Seu reinado foi marcado por guerras na parte oriental do Império Romano contra os partas, e na fronteira norte, contra os germanos. Foi o último dos cinco bons imperadores, e é lembrado como um governante bem-sucedido e culto; dedicou-se à filosofia, especialmente à corrente filosófica do estoicismo, e escreveu uma obra que até hoje é lida, Meditações. Índice 1 Família 2 Juventude 3 Sucessão de Adriano 4 Herdeiro de Antonino Pio 5 Governo 5.1 Guerra com os partas (161-166) 5.2 Guerra com as tribos germânicas (166-180) 5.3 Revolta de Avídio Cássio (175) 5.4 Trabalho jurídico e administrativo 6 Morte e sucessão 7 Escritos 8 Legado 8.1 Na arte 9 Casamento e filhos 9.1 Árvore genealógica 10 Ver também 11 Referências 12 Ligações externas Família[editar | editar código-fonte] A família paterna de Marco Aurélio era de origem romana ítalo-hispânica. Seu pai foi o pretor Marco Ânio Vero.[1] A gens Ânia era de origem italiana, e um ramo dela mudou-se para Úcubos, uma pequena cidade ao sudeste de Córdova, na Bética.[2][3] Este ramo dos Aurélios com base na Espanha romana, os Ânios Veros, ganhou destaque em Roma no final do século I. O bisavô de Marco, Marco Ânio Vero, era um senador e, de acordo com a História Augusta, pretor. Seu avô, Marco Ânio Vero, foi prefeito de Roma, cônsul três vezes e tornou-se patrício em 73-74.[4] Por meio de sua avó Rupília — sobrinha-neta do imperador Trajano e meia-irmã das imperatrizes Víbia Sabina e Matídia Menor — Marco era um membro da dinastia Nerva-Antonina.[5] Sua mãe, Domícia Lucila, era filha do patrício romano Cneu Domício Tulo e herdou uma grande fortuna de seus pais e avós. Sua herança incluía grandes olarias nos arredores de Roma - um empreendimento lucrativo em uma época em que a cidade estava passando por uma onda de construção - e uma villa na colina do Célio em Roma.[6] Juventude[editar | editar código-fonte] Marco Aurélio jovem, Museus Capitolinos Seu pai provavelmente morreu em 124, quando Marco tinha três anos. Embora ele dificilmente possa ter conhecido seu pai, Marco escreveu em suas Meditações que ele havia aprendido dele "modéstia e virilidade". Sua mãe Lucila não se casou novamente e, seguindo os costumes aristocráticos prevalentes, provavelmente não passava muito tempo com seu filho. Em vez disso, Marco ficou sob os cuidados de babás. Após a morte de seu pai passou a ser criado por seu avô Marco Ânio Vero, que o adotou. Depois de adulto, Marco agradeceu ao avô por ensinar-lhe "bom caráter e evitar o mau humor". Lúcio Catílio Severo, bisavô materno, também participou de sua educação.[7] Desde jovem demonstrou entusiasmo pela luta livre, treinando até a adolescência e aprendendo a lutar com armadura. Também liderou um grupo de dança chamado Colégio dos Sálios, realizando danças rituais dedicadas a Marte, o deus da guerra, enquanto vestiam uma armadura, carregando escudos e armas.[8] Estudou letras latinas e gregas, direito, retórica, filosofia e pintura.[9] Foi educado em casa, de acordo com as tendências aristocráticas da época, e agradeceu Catílio Severo por encorajá-lo a evitar escolas públicas. Um de seus professores, Diogneto, mestre de pintura, provou ser particularmente influente; ele parece ter apresentado a Marco Aurélio o estilo de vida filosófico. Em abril de 132, incentivado por Diogneto, Marco assumiu os trajes e os hábitos dos filósofos: estudava com uma capa grega grosseira e dormia no chão, até que sua mãe o convenceu a dormir em uma cama. Um novo conjunto de tutores — o gramático e estudioso de Homero Alexandre de Cotieu, professor de grego, juntamente com Trósio Aper e Tutício Próculo, professores de latim — assumiu a sua educação em 132 ou 133.[10][11] Segundo a História Augusta, também o ensinaram Alexandre, o Platônico, através de quem veio a conhecer a obra de Platão; Apolônio, que o introduziu no estoicismo e de quem absorveu princípios de moral e ética; Rústico, que o apresentou à filosofia de Epicteto; Cláudio Máximo, que lhe mostrou as qualidades do verdadeiro homem de bem; e Sexto Empírico, que lhe evidenciou as virtudes da benevolência e da modéstia e enfatizou o modelo patriarcal de família.[12] Sucessão de Adriano[editar | editar código-fonte] No final de 136 Adriano quase morreu de hemorragia. Convalescente em sua villa em Tivoli, ele escolheu Lúcio Ceiônio Cômodo, pretendido sogro de Marco, como seu sucessor e filho adotivo. Embora seus motivos não sejam claros, é possível que seu objetivo tenha sido eventualmente colocar o então jovem Marco no trono. Como parte de sua adoção, Cômodo adotou o nome de Lúcio Élio César. Sua saúde estava tão má que, durante uma cerimônia para marcar sua chegada à posição de herdeiro do trono, não teve forças para erguer sozinho um grande escudo. Após uma breve parada na fronteira do Danúbio, Lúcio Élio voltou a Roma para fazer um discurso ao Senado no primeiro dia de 138. No entanto, morreu na noite anterior ao discurso.[13] Em 24 de janeiro de 138 Adriano escolheu Aurélio Antonino, marido da tia de Marco, Faustina, a Velha, como seu novo sucessor. Como parte dos termos de nomeação, Antonino, por sua vez, adotou Marco e Lúcio Cômodo, filho de Lúcio Élio. Marco adotou o nome Marco Élio Aurélio Vero. Marco aparentemente recebeu a notícia de que Adriano havia se tornado seu avô adotivo com tristeza, em vez de alegria. Foi com relutância que se mudou da casa de sua mãe no Célio para a casa de Adriano.[14] Em algum momento em 138, Adriano solicitou ao Senado que Marco fosse isento da lei que o proibia de se tornar questor antes de seu vigésimo quarto aniversário. O Senado concordou, e Marco serviu sob Antonino, o cônsul de 139. A adoção de Marco o desviou da carreira típica de sua classe. Se não fosse pela adoção, ele provavelmente teria se tornado triúnviro monetalis, um cargo altamente conceituado envolvendo a administração da casa da moeda; depois disso poderia ter servido como tribuno de uma legião. Provavelmente ele teria optado por viajar e estudar mais. Após a morte de Adriano a sucessão de Antonino foi pacífica: manteve os indicados de Adriano no cargo e apaziguou o Senado, respeitando seus privilégios e comutando as sentenças de morte de homens acusados ​​nos últimos dias de Adriano.[15] Herdeiro de Antonino Pio[editar | editar código-fonte] Sestércio de Antonino Pio celebrando o noivado de Marco Aurélio e Faustina em 139 Marco Aurélio em torno de 138-144 no Museu Antigo Imediatamente após a morte de Adriano, Antonino se aproximou de Marco e solicitou que seus arranjos de casamento fossem alterados: o noivado de Marco com Ceiônia Fábia seria anulado, e ele se tornaria noivo de Faustina, filha de Antonino. O noivado de Faustina com o irmão de Ceiônia, Lúcio Cômodo, também teria de ser anulado. Marco consentiu com a proposta e foi nomeado César em 139, e cônsul em 140, junto com Antonino. Como herdeiro aparente, Marco tornou-se chefe da ordem equestre e assumiu o nome Marco Élio Aurélio Vero César. A pedido do Senado, foi admitido em todos os colégios sacerdotais. Antonino exigiu que Marco residisse no palácio imperial no Palatino, e assumisse os hábitos de sua nova condição, a "pompa da corte", contra o desejo de Marco, que lutaria para reconciliar a vida de cortesão com seus anseios filosóficos.[16] Como questor, Marco teria pouco trabalho administrativo real para fazer. Leria cartas imperiais ao Senado quando Antonino estivesse ausente e faria trabalho de secretariado para os senadores, além de fazer discursos treinando sua oratória.[17] Em 1º de janeiro de 145 foi nomeado cônsul pela segunda vez. Em abril de 145 casou-se com Faustina. Foram emitidas moedas com as efígies do casal.[18] Em 146 recebeu poder tribunício e o imperium proconsular, tornando-se na prática co-imperador com Antonino e participando das decisões e atos do governo.[9] Nesta época continuou seus estudos sob a orientação de Anino Macer, Canínio Celer, Herodes Ático e especialmente com o retórico, gramático e advogado Marco Cornélio Frontão, de quem tornou-se amigo íntimo, apesar das reservas que o professor mantinha contra a filosofia.[19] O filósofo estoico Júnio Rústico também exerceu muita influência sobre ele.[20][21] À medida que Antonino envelhecia, Marco assumia mais funções administrativas, ainda mais quando se tornou prefeito pretoriano em 156 ou 157. Em 160, Marco e Lúcio foram designados cônsules conjuntos para o ano seguinte. Antonino Pio havia designado Marco como herdeiro e sucessor em 25 de fevereiro de 138, juntamente com Lúcio Vero. Quando Antonino faleceu, em 161, Marco Aurélio subiu ao trono em conjunto com Vero, na condição de serem ambos co-imperadores, ressalvando, no entanto, que a sua posição seria superior à de Vero. Marco Aurélio na prática governaria sozinho. Como ele já detinha poderes imperiais a transição foi pacífica. O Senado logo lhe atribuiu os títulos de imperador e augusto, e pouco depois foi formalmente eleito pontífice máximo, sacerdote-chefe dos cultos oficiais. A partir de então foi chamado Marco Aurélio Antonino Augusto.[22][23] Governo[editar | editar código-fonte] Imediatamente após a confirmação do Senado, os dois imperadores seguiram para o acampamento da guarda pretoriana. Lúcio se dirigiu às tropas reunidas, que os aclamaram como imperadores. Então, como todo novo imperador desde Cláudio, Lúcio prometeu às tropas uma doação especial. Esta doação foi o dobro do costume: 20.000 sestércios per capita, e mais para os oficiais. Em troca dessa recompensa, equivalente a vários anos de pagamento, as tropas juraram proteger os imperadores. A cerimônia talvez não fosse necessária, visto que a ascensão de Marco fora pacífica e sem oposição, mas era uma boa segurança contra futuros problemas militares. Marco e Lúcio se tornaram estimados junto ao povo de Roma, que aprovava fortemente seu comportamento civil sem pompas. Os imperadores permitiram a liberdade de expressão, evidenciada pelo fato de o escritor de comédias Marulo ter sido capaz de criticá-los sem sofrer represálias.[24][25] No outono de 161 ou na primavera de 162 o rio Tibre transbordou, inundando grande parte de Roma, afogando muitos animais e deixando a cidade com fome. Marco e Lúcio deram à crise uma atenção pessoal.[26] Guerra com os partas (161-166)[editar | editar código-fonte] Áureo de Marco Aurélio celebrando a vitória contra os partas Os primeiros problemas de seu reinado surgiram com os partas na fronteira oriental. Em 161 o rei parta Vologases IV invadiu o Reino da Armênia, que era um Estado cliente de Roma, e instalou no trono Aurélio Pácoro. Convencido pelo profeta Alexandre de Abonútico de que poderia derrotar os partas facilmente e ganhar a glória para si mesmo, Marco Sedácio Severiano, legado da Capadócia, liderou uma legião para a Armênia, mas seu exército era pequeno e Severiano foi preso pelo general parta Cosroes em Elegeia, uma cidade logo além das fronteiras da Capadócia. Severiano fez alguns esforços infrutíferos para enfrentar Cosroes, mas acabou cometendo suicídio e sua legião foi massacrada. A campanha durou apenas três dias. No ano seguinte Atídio Corneliano, governador da Síria, também foi derrotado.[27][28] Neste meio tempo surgiram ameaças de guerra também em outras fronteiras — na Britânia, na Récia e na Germânia. Marco não estava preparado, Antonino parece não ter-lhe dado nenhuma instrução militar. As fronteiras do norte foram deliberadamente enfraquecidas; governadores de fronteira foram instruídos a evitar conflitos sempre que possível. Durante o inverno de 161-162, chegou a notícia de que uma rebelião estava se formando na Síria, e foi decidido que Lúcio deveria dirigir a guerra parta em pessoa. O Senado deu sua aprovação e, no verão de 162, Lúcio partiu.[29] Porém, parece ter havido alguma insegurança a respeito de suas capacidades militares, pois foi-lhe dado um grupo de auxiliares experientes, entre eles Avídio Cássio.[30] É a esses colaboradores que se deve creditar o bom sucesso da campanha.[23] Marco permaneceria em Roma. A capital armênia, Artaxata, foi capturada em 163. No final do ano, Lúcio assumiu o título de "Armênio", apesar de nunca ter visto um combate pessoalmente; Marco se recusou a aceitar o título até o ano seguinte.[29] A Armênia ocupada foi reconstruída em termos romanos. Em 164 uma nova capital substituiu Artaxata e o senador Caio Júlio Soemo foi instalado como rei.[31] Em 163 os partos intervieram em Osroene, um cliente romano centrado em Edessa, e instalou seu próprio rei no trono. Em resposta, as forças romanas foram movidas para cruzar o Eufrates em um ponto mais ao sul. Antes do final de 163, no entanto, os romanos moveram-se para o norte para ocupar Dausara e Nicéfora na margem norte do Eufrates. Logo após a conquista da margem norte, outras forças romanas partiram da Armênia para Osroene, tomando Antemusia.[32] Em 165 as forças romanas avançaram sobre a Mesopotâmia. Edessa foi reocupada e Mano, o rei deposto pelos partas, foi reinstalado. Os partas retiraram-se para Nisibis, mas esta também foi sitiada e capturada. O exército parta se dispersou e uma segunda força, comandada por Avídio Cássio, desceu o Eufrates e travou uma grande batalha em Dura. No final do ano o exército de Cássio alcançou Selêucia e Ctesifonte e as saqueou. O exército de Cássio, embora sofrendo com a escassez de suprimentos e os efeitos de uma epidemia de peste, conseguiu voltar ao território romano com segurança. Cássio voltou ao campo em 166, cruzando o Tigre em direção da Média.[33][34] Em 166 Marco e Lúcio celebraram um triunfo pela vitória sobre os partas.[9] Contudo, os exércitos trouxeram a peste consigo, que afligiu o império por muitos anos.[23] Guerra com as tribos germânicas (166-180)[editar | editar código-fonte] Ver artigo principal: Guerras Marcomanas Durante o início dos anos 160 o genro de Frontão, Vitorino, foi nomeado legado da Germânia. A condição na fronteira norte parecia grave. Um posto de fronteira havia sido destruído e parecia que os povos da Europa central e do norte estavam em crise.[35] A partir da década de 160 tribos germânicas e outros povos nômades lançaram ataques ao longo da fronteira norte, particularmente na Gália e através do Danúbio. Este novo ímpeto para o oeste foi provavelmente devido a ataques de tribos mais a leste. Uma primeira invasão dos catos na província da Germânia Superior foi repelida em 162.[36] Muito mais perigosa foi a invasão de 166, quando os marcomanos da Boêmia, clientes do Império Romano desde o ano 19, cruzaram o Danúbio junto com os lombardos e outras tribos germânicas,[37] penetrando massivamente no Vêneto e assediando Aquileia.[23] Logo depois os sármatas iranianos atacaram entre os rios Danúbio e Tísia.[38] Os costobócios, vindos da área dos Cárpatos, invadiram a Mésia, a Macedônia e a Grécia.[39] Neste momento a fragilidade da estrutura militar do império e a rigidez da sua burocracia financeira se tornaram evidentes, sendo exigidas medidas extraordinárias para enfrentar a ameaça.[23] Marco constituiu nove novas legiões e obteve fundos vendendo em leilão parte do patrimônio imperial. Os germanos foram batidos na Panônia, Récia e Nórica em 167. Em 169, morto Lúcio Vero, Marco continuou sozinho as campanhas, derrotando os quados em 171, em 172 venceu os marcomanos no norte e suprimiu uma revolta dos mauros na Hispânia. Em 173 os marcomanos voltaram a atacar, em 174 os iáziges foram vencidos, e em 175 concluiu um tratado de paz com os germanos. Entre 175 e 176 esteve no oriente, onde morreu Faustina, que o acompanhava. Em 176 celebrou em Roma seu triunfo sobre os germanos e em 177 associou seu filho Cômodo ao trono. No mesmo ano os marcomanos retomaram as investidas. A guerra foi difícil e a situação foi piorada por uma epidemia de peste.[9] Numerosas tribos germânicas se estabeleceram em regiões fronteiriças como a Dácia, Panônia, Germânia e a própria Itália. Isso não era uma novidade, mas desta vez o número de colonos exigiu a criação de duas novas províncias fronteiriças na margem esquerda do Danúbio, a Sarmácia e a Marcomânia. Algumas tribos germânicas que se estabeleceram em Ravena revoltaram-se e conseguiram se apoderar da cidade. Por esta razão, Marco decidiu não apenas não trazer mais bárbaros para a Itália, mas até baniu aqueles que já haviam se instalado.[39] Revolta de Avídio Cássio (175)[editar | editar código-fonte] Enquanto enfrentava a guerra germânica, Marco Aurélio teve de lidar com a insurreição de seu antigo colaborador fiel, Avídio Cássio, que estava governando o Egito e mantinha influência em todas as províncias orientais. Aparentemente a revolta foi desencadeada pela chegada de notícias falsas a respeito da morte do imperador, mas há indícios de que Faustina tenha participado da conspiração. Seja como for, em 175 Cássio foi proclamado imperador pela legião egípcia, a II Traiana Fortis. Obteve o apoio de legiões da Síria e da Arábia, mas esse apoio não foi suficiente. Caio Vécio Sabiniano Júlio Hospes foi enviado com um grande exército para suprimir a revolta e Cássio acabou sendo morto pelos seus próprios soldados.[40][23] Marco Aurélio parece não ter dado grande importância ao evento, não impôs represálias às províncias rebeldes,[41] embora tenha feito visitas de inspeção e pacificação a Antioquia, Alexandria e Atenas, onde foi iniciado nos mistérios de Elêusis.[23] Segundo fontes antigas Marco lamentou a morte de Cássio, pois teria desejado perdoá-lo. Segundo Sérgio Alves, "Marco Aurélio preocupou-se essencialmente em eliminar as provas desta conspiração, tendo feito desaparecer relatórios e processos comprovativos vindos do governo central, talvez devido ao bem possível envolvimento da sua mulher Faustina. Deve acreditar-se, todavia, que o fez para que o seu principado ficasse imaculado, comprovando que o Princeps nutria o desejo de se tornar num modelo".[41] Trabalho jurídico e administrativo[editar | editar código-fonte] Estátua de Marco Aurélio, Museu do Louvre Como muitos imperadores, Marco Aurélio passava a maior parte de seu tempo tratando de questões jurídicas, como petições e disputas auditivas, mas, ao contrário de muitos de seus predecessores, ele já era proficiente na administração imperial quando assumiu o poder. Ele teve muito cuidado na teoria e na prática da legislação.[42] Desenvolveu intensa atividade legislativa, esclarecendo pontos obscuros da lei e amenizando rigores excessivos.[23] Entendia a jurisdição e a legislação como um assunto político de máxima importância, e ao mesmo tempo em que era rigoroso na punição dos crimes graves e das denúncias falsas, punha em relevo um espírito escrupuloso, racional e humanitário nas leis. Acredita-se que grande parte do corpo jurídico romano nas instituições pré-justinianas e no Corpus Iuris Civilis se deve à sua autoria. Foi o primeiro imperador a definir a competência senatorial e a esclarecer a jurisdição consular, e o primeiro a redigir as leis sobre os gladiadores, preocupando-se em diminuir a violência dos jogos e salvaguardar a vida dos combatentes obrigando-os a usar armas embotadas.[43] Fez muito para melhorar a condição dos escravos, dos órfãos e menores e das viúvas. Reconheceu o parentesco de sangue nas questões de herança. Apesar das inovações que introduziu, seu trabalho foi mais no sentido de aperfeiçoar o que já existia antes do que criar padrões radicalmente novos. Em certos aspectos suas intervenções causaram retrocessos, especialmente provocando uma distinção mais aguda entre as classes, com tratamentos jurídicos diferenciados, penalizando mais pesadamente os criminosos da classe inferior.[23] Demonstrou muito respeito pelo Senado Romano e rotineiramente pedia permissão para fazer despesa, embora não precisasse fazer isso como governante absoluto do Império.[44] Soube delegar o poder a auxiliares hábeis a quem conhecia pessoalmente, reconhecia o mérito alheio, defendia a disciplina, criou novos departamentos de trabalho administrativo, deu atenção às províncias e ao exército, e se preocupou em desenvolver a administração imperial de maneira eficiente e econômica. Manteve um equilíbrio entre as demandas do povo e aquelas de setores influentes da aristocracia, mas em linhas gerais se mostrou conservador no tocante à estruturação social, seguindo o modelo de seus predecessores.[43] Em 168 reformou o denário, aumentando a pureza da prata de 79% para 82%. No entanto, dois anos depois, ele voltou aos valores anteriores por causa das crises militares que o império enfrentou.[45] Para Sérgio Alves, "As características de Aurélio como governante-ideal foram efetivamente a energia, a pertinência e a inflexibilidade dos princípios, que, por sua parte, eram combinados com a generosidade, humanidade e compreensão da sociedade. E ao nível financeiro, mantém a mesma postura de moderação, acima de tudo nos casos entre o tesouro público e as fortunas privadas. [...] A exatidão e claridade de posições judiciais são um dos alicerces para o modelo político-legislativo de Aurélio, como se tratasse de um pré-requisito para a ordem político-social, definindo cada vez mais as suas intenções e atos, nas quais a humanidade ocupa um pano de fundo. [...] O objetivo do modelo político de Aurélio consistiu em alcançar uma organização mais rigorosa da sociedade livre para aumentar consecutivamente a ordem do estado público".[46] Tem havido um grande debate sobre sua posição em relação ao cristãos. O estatuto dos cristãos em seu tempo continuava sendo o mesmo desde Trajano: os cristãos eram foras-da-lei, mas de hábito eram deixados em paz. Essa política incongruente produzia pouca consequência em tempos de tranquilidade e prosperidade, mas em momentos de crise era comum que a população pagã atribuísse os problemas aos cristãos e os denunciasse às autoridades, e então os oficiais do império acabavam sendo obrigados a intervir aplicando a lei. O imperador não os apreciava, mas não ordenou perseguições sistemáticas, embora algumas tenham ocorrido em seu reinado.[23] Morte e sucessão[editar | editar código-fonte] Coluna de Marco Aurélio em Roma O imperador morreu aos 58 anos em 17 de março de 180, de causas desconhecidas, em seus aposentos militares perto da cidade de Sirmium, na Panônia, durante uma expedição contra os marcomanos que cercavam Vindobona (atual Viena, na Áustria), parte de uma ofensiva expansionista que pretendia redesenhar as fronteiras do norte.[23] Foi deificado pelo Senado e suas cinzas foram devolvidas a Roma, onde descansaram no mausoléu de Adriano até o saque visigodo de 410. Suas campanhas contra os germanos e sármatas foram comemoradas por uma coluna e um templo construídos em Roma.[47] Marco foi sucedido por seu filho Cômodo, a quem havia nomeado César em 166, e com quem governava conjuntamente desde 177. Os historiadores romanos criticaram a sucessão de Cômodo, citando seu comportamento errático e a falta de perspicácia política e militar.[48] No final de sua história sobre o reinado de Marco, Dião Cássio escreveu um elogio ao imperador, e descreveu a transição para Cômodo com tristeza: "[Marco] não teve a boa sorte que merecia, pois não era forte de corpo e esteve envolvido em uma infinidade de problemas durante praticamente todo o seu reinado. Mas, de minha parte, admiro-o ainda mais por isso mesmo, que em meio a dificuldades incomuns e extraordinárias ele sobreviveu e preservou o império. Só uma coisa o impedia de ser completamente feliz, a saber, que depois de criar e educar seu filho da melhor maneira possível, ficou muito decepcionado com ele. Este assunto deve ser nosso próximo tópico; pois nossa história agora desce de um reino de ouro para um de ferro e ferrugem, como acontecia com os romanos daquela época".[49] Escritos[editar | editar código-fonte] Ver artigos principais: Meditações e Estoicismo Provavelmente durante as campanhas de 171-175, Marco Aurélio escreveu suas Meditações como exercícios filosóficos para sua própria orientação e autoaperfeiçoamento.[50][51] De certa maneira, as Meditações parecem ter sido escritas para o autor imbuir a si mesmo de coragem para suportar o peso do seu cargo. Escritas em grego, refletem o processo de fusão das culturas romana e grega que estava em curso. O título original da obra é desconhecido. Seu conteúdo é representativo da filosofia e espiritualidade estoica, em particular da orientação de Epicteto, mas não se limita estritamente a esta corrente, incorporando alguns elementos do platonismo e do epicurismo, além de aparecerem citações de Antístenes, Crísipo, Demócrito, Eurípides e Homero. Sua estrutura é descontínua, constituída de anotações breves, epigramas, reflexões e trechos discursivos.[23][51] Não se trata, de fato, de um tratado de filosofia, sendo carente de uma organização sistemática e de uma tese claramente definida a defender.[51] No geral há uma preocupação em avaliar seu próprio julgamento e um desejo de cultivar uma "perspectiva cósmica" da vida e do universo dentro de uma visão racional, tentando superar a perspectiva limitada do indivíduo. Seguindo Epicteto, Marco afirma que todas as atribuições do bem ou do mal são produto de julgamentos humanos. Como disse Epicteto, o que perturba as pessoas não são as coisas em si, mas sim seus julgamentos sobre elas. A tarefa do filósofo seria então submeter as impressões a um exame rigoroso, certificando-se de não tomar como verdadeiras as impressões que incluam quaisquer julgamentos de valor injustificados.[50] Para ele o universo é fruto da providência divina, e a felicidade está dentro do alcance, residindo na virtude e no trabalho em prol do bem-estar coletivo, não fazendo distinção entre o bem do indivíduo e o bem de toda a comunidade, comparando a comunidade com um corpo e os indivíduos como seus membros, constituídos de forma a trabalhar juntos,[51] mas em muitas passagens se impõe ideais altos demais em termos de conduta pessoal, enquanto lamenta a superficialidade, a rusticidade, a impiedade e outras falhas em si mesmo e na humanidade em geral.[23] No contraste entre o ideal e a realidade, suas reflexões frequentemente assumem um tom cético e pessimista. Em vários momentos recupera a ideia de Heráclito do "fluxo eterno" das coisas, contemplando a inevitável dissolução de toda a realidade. Em outros momentos, é apocalíptico e desesperado. O problema da morte o angustiava, pois não chegou a conceber a ideia da imortalidade da alma, imaginando em vez uma espécie de insensibilidade após a morte, onde todas as dores são apagadas.[9] Outros interesses que transparecem no texto são problemas de ética e lógica.[50] Meditações é reverenciado como um monumento literário a um governo de serviço e dever. De acordo com Hays, o livro era um dos favoritos de Cristina da Suécia, Frederico, o Grande, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold e Goethe, e é admirado por figuras modernas como Wen Jiabaoe e Bill Clinton.[52] Tem sido considerado por muitos comentaristas como uma das maiores obras da filosofia.[23][53] Não se sabe quão amplamente os escritos de Marco circularam após sua morte. Existem referências errôneas na literatura antiga à popularidade de seus preceitos. Juliano, o Apóstata, estava bem ciente de sua reputação como filósofo, embora não mencione especificamente Meditações.[54] A obra sobreviveu nas tradições acadêmicas da Igreja Oriental e as primeiras referências conhecidas pelo nome "Meditações" são de Aretas de Cesareia no século X e no Suda bizantino (talvez inserido pelo próprio Aretas). Foi publicado pela primeira vez em 1558 em Zurique por Wilhelm Xylander, a partir de um manuscrito supostamente perdido logo depois.[55] A cópia manuscrita completa mais antiga que sobreviveu está na Biblioteca do Vaticano e data do século XIV.[56] Além das Meditações, também sobrevive uma coleção de cartas de Marco a seu professor Frontão. Embora interessantes, elas tratam principalmente de questões de retórica[51] e pouco acrescentam ao conhecimento de sua vida ou filosofia.[50] Legado[editar | editar código-fonte] Estátua equestre de Marco Aurélio, Museus Capitolinos Marco Aurélio foi o último dos "cinco bons imperadores", adquiriu a reputação de rei-filósofo ainda em vida, e o título permaneceria após seu desaparecimento.[57][58] Cristãos como Justino Mártir, Atenágoras de Atenas e Eusébio também lhe deram o título.[59] Para os historiadores antigos, notadamente Dião Cássio e Herodiano, o reinado de Marco Aurélio teria sido o último momento de uma Roma feliz, cuja harmonia foi quebrada com a subida de Cômodo ao poder.[60] Segundo Joshua Mark, "foi aclamado como 'o mais nobre de todos os homens que, por pura inteligência e força de caráter, valorizaram e alcançaram o bem pelo bem em si e não por qualquer recompensa' (Grant, 139). Seu reinado foi caracterizado pela devoção ao seu povo e isso, bem como seu trabalho filosófico duradouro, Meditações, atesta a verdade do louvor de Grant. O acadêmico Michael Grant, entretanto, dificilmente é o primeiro a expressar tais sentimentos. Aurélio foi altamente respeitado em sua vida e é referido como 'o filósofo' por fontes antigas posteriores, como Dião Cássio e o autor (ou autores) da História Augusta".[58] Essa visão altamente positiva se tornou quase uma unanimidade historiográfica que persiste até na atualidade. Contudo, em tempos recentes diversos estudos vêm questionando esse consenso sobre o governante imaculadamente virtuoso e bem sucedido, apresentando-o mais realisticamente como um personagem nuançado e humano, sujeito a contradições e fraquezas. Em primeiro lugar, a imagem de perfeição que se formou em seu redor, estabelecida na Antiguidade e muito repetida posteriormente, deve ser entendida como uma idealização,[61] e sua transmissão da Antiguidade para os tempos modernos se deve em grande parte ao trabalho do historiador Edward Gibbon.[62][63] Para Mariana Cerri, Gibbon fez uma leitura acrítica das fontes antigas, e "as boas relações que Marco Aurélio manteve com o Senado lhe garantiram boa reputação histórico-biográfica, o que não têm continuação no sucessor Cômodo que é, na opinião do Senado, pior do que Nero ou Domiciano. Dessa maneira, Gibbon percebe o período dos Antoninos, até o governo de Cômodo, como 'o período da história do mundo durante o qual a condição da raça humana foi mais ditosa e mais próspera'. Em contrapartida, com Cômodo, passando pelos Severos, inicia-se o 'declínio e queda' do Império".[62] Para Igor Cardoso, a influência da narrativa de Gibbon está presente na obra de importantes historiadores contemporâneos que se dedicaram a Marco Aurélio, como Anthony Birley e Pierre Hadot, dentre outros, "ao apresentarem o imperador Marco Aurélio como bom governante em razão da aplicação de algumas teorias estoicas em sua administração".[63] Segundo Deivid Valerio Gaia, "os elogios à dinastia Antonina são quase um topos na historiografia e na literatura tanto antigas quanto contemporâneas. Não obstante, hoje, o acesso a uma documentação mais variada e a formação de visões pautadas em teorias e metodologias diversificadas apresentam essa época com mais complexidade, sobretudo quando se parte de uma perspectiva na qual se questiona a tradicional mentalidade senatorial romana que selecionou o que dizer sobre esses imperadores".[64] Estátua do imperador criada por Santino Solari no século XVII A idealização da sua pessoa e governo deve ser posta contra o pano de fundo de um amplo processo de construção de uma imagem idealizada do modelo sociopolítico imperial, que em sua época estava sendo desenvolvido pelos intelectuais e panegiristas helenísticos, do qual ele foi colocado como a encarnação perfeita e como o maior modelo de governante iluminado,[65] contra o qual todos os seus sucessores foram comparados.[62] É de notar também que se por um lado ele se prestou a essa construção por ser dotado de qualidades invulgares, sua figura foi magnificada exageradamente pela sistemática vilipendiação dos que estavam em seu redor, a quem se atribuiu todos os problemas do império de seu tempo, isentando o imperador de todas as culpas. Ainda deve ser assinalado que a historiografia antiga foi sistematicamente expurgada dos relatos em que suas faltas se tornavam evidentes, onde se incluem, por exemplo, seu oportunismo político, sua constante preocupação em negar problemas e fazer propaganda do seu bom nome e da beneficência do seu governo, seu erros de avaliação nas situações de crise, especialmente a nomeação do sucessor, as suspeitas sobre crimes de assassinato e suas práticas religiosas heterodoxas, que se tornaram motivo de críticas e sátiras. Em vista das pesquisas recentes, não se pode sustentar que seu reinado foi uma "era dourada", como quiseram mostrar seus biógrafos e aduladores, mas em grande parte, em particular em seus últimos anos, foi assolado por tumultos militares, massacres, perseguições religiosas e outras calamidades, das quais, no entanto, ele foi sempre desculpado por um ou outro motivo. Como adverte Alves, "fica a possibilidade de se estar diante de uma ficção gigantesca montada com peças previamente fabricadas para criar a utopia do governante ideal".[65] Na visão de Igor Cardoso, "o reconhecimento em Marco Aurélio da figura de um Sócrates, senão ideal, mas possível", parece ser um impedimento para uma discussão mais objetiva sobre os jogos de poder, as estruturas de promoção e ascensão social, os interesses subjacentes a cada posição, os personalismos políticos tão comuns na época e as estratégias discursivas que alimentaram a criação dos mitos historiográficos.[63] Para John Anthony Crook, "Marco talvez mereça o título de estadista, mas não foi um de grande calibre, nem foi realmente um sábio. Em geral, ele é uma figura historicamente superestimada, presidindo sem direção certa um império sob cuja aparência dourada já havia muitos sinais de decadência. Mas sua nobreza e dedicação pessoais sobreviveram ao escrutínio mais implacável".[23] Na arte[editar | editar código-fonte] Este artigo ou secção não cita fontes confiáveis e independentes. Ajude a inserir referências. O conteúdo não verificável pode ser removido.—Encontre fontes: Google (notícias, livros e acadêmico) A estátua equestre de Marco Aurélio de bronze dourado, hoje nos Museus Capitolinos, erigida na praça em frente ao Palácio de Latrão, restaurada por Michelangelo e transferida para a Praça do Capitólio, em Roma, em 1538, tornou-se o protótipo de todas as estátuas equestres do Renascimento. Uma cópia da estátua de bronze está na Praça do Capitólio. Uma imagem dessa estátua figura na moeda de 50 cêntimos de Euro italiana, desenhada por Roberto Mauri. O imperador também apareceu em várias produções de literatura e cinema: A Queda do Império Romano: filme de 1964, sendo o papel de Marco Aurélio desempenhado por sir Alec Guinness. Household Gods, livro de 1999, da autoria de Judith Tarr e Harry Turtledove (ISBN 0-613-35147-9). Gladiador, filme de 2000, com o papel de Marco Aurélio sendo desempenhado por Richard Harris. Marco Aurélio, Diis Manibus, livro de 2003, da autoria de Mário Sousa Cunha. Lisboa, Ésquilo Ed. Multimédia. Citado pelo personagem Hannibal Lecter em O Silêncio dos Inocentes, filme estadunidense de 1991. Citado em Roma - império de Sangue, de 2016 (série documental em 6 capítulos produzida pela Netflix). Citado no filme Assassinos Múltiplos (Acts of Vengeance), de 2017, com o protagonismo de Antonio Banderas, cujo desenrolar da trama é pautado em reflexões do livro que orientam o personagem em sua busca por justiça. Casamento e filhos[editar | editar código-fonte] Faustina e Marco Aurélio figurados como os deuses Vênus e Marte. Museus Capitolinos Em seus trinta anos de casamento, Faustina e Marco Aurélio tiveram treze filhos: Ânia Aurélia Galéria Faustina (147 -165); Gêmelo Lucila (m. c. 150, gêmeo de Lucila; Ânia Aurélia Galéria Lucila (148/50 - 182), irmã gêmea de Gêmelo e casada com o co-imperador do pai, Lúcio Vero; Tito Élio Antonino (n. depois de 150, m. antes de 7 de março de 161); Tito Élio Aurélio (n. depois de 150, m. antes de 7 de março de 161); Adriano (152-157); Domícia Faustina (n. depois de 150, m. antes de 7 de março de 161); Ânia Aurélia Fadila (159 - fl. 211[66]); Ânia Cornifícia Faustina Menor (160 - fl. 211[66]); Tito Aurélio Fúlvio Antonino (161 - 165), irmão gêmeo de Cômodo; Cómodo (161 - 192), irmão gêmeo de Fúlvio e futuro imperador; Marco Ânio Vero César (162 - 169); Víbia Aurélia Sabina (170 - antes de 217). Árvore genealógica[editar | editar código-fonte] v d e Árvore genealógica da Dinastia nerva-antonina Q. Márcio Bareia Sorano Q. Márcio Bareia Sura Antônia Furnila M. Coceio Nerva Sérgia Plaucila P. Élio Adriano Tito (r. 79–81) Márcia Furnila Márcia Trajano pai Nerva (r. 96–98) Úlpia[i] Élio Adriano Marulino Júlia Flávia[ii] Marciana[iii] C. Salônio Matídio[iv] Trajano (r. 98–117) Plotina P. Acílio Aciano P. Élio Afer[v] Paulina Maior[vi] Lúcio Míndio (2) Libão Rupílio Frúgio (3) Matídia[vii] L. Víbio Sabino (1)[viii] Paulina Menor[vi] L. Júlio Urso Serviano[ix] Matídia Menor[vii] Suetônio?[x] Sabina[iii] Adriano [v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138) Antínoo[xii] Júlia Balbila?[xiii] C. Fusco Salinador I Júlia Serviana Paulina M. Ânio Vero[xiv] Rupília Faustina[xv] Boiônia Prócila Cn. Árrio Antonino L. Ceiônio Cômodo Ápia Severa L. Fusco Salinador L. Cesênio Peto Árria Antonina Árria Fadila[xvi] T. Aurélio Fulvo L. Cesênio Antonino L. Ceiônio Cômodo Fundânia Pláucia ignota[xvii] C. Avídio Nigrino M. Ânio Vero[xv] Domícia Lucila[xviii] Fundânia[xix] M. Ânio Libão[xv] FAUSTINA[xvi] Antonino Pio (r. 138–161)[xvi] L. Élio César[xvii] Avídia Pláucia[xvii] Cornifícia[xv] MARCO AURÉLIO (r. 161–180)[xx] FAUSTINA Menor[xx] C. Avídio Cássio[xxi] Aurélia Fadila[xvi] LÚCIO VERO (r. 161–169)[xvii] (1) Ceiônia Fábia[xvii] Pláucio Quintílio[xxii] Q. Servílio Pudente Ceiônia Pláucia[xvii] Cornifícia Menor[xxiii] M. Petrônio Sura CÔMODO (r. 177–192)[xx] Fadila[xxiii] M. Ânio Vero César[xx] Ti. Cláudio Pompeiano (2) Lucila[xx] M. Pláucio Quintílio[xvii] Júnio Licínio Balbo Servília Ceiônia Petrônio Antonino L. Aurélio Agáclito (2) Aurélia Sabina[xxiii] L. Antíscio Burro (1) Pláucio Quintílio Pláucia Servília C. Fúrio Sabino Timesiteu Antônia Gordiana Júnio Licínio Balbo? Fúria Sabina Tranquilina GORDIANO III (r. 238–244) (1) = 1ª esposa (2) = 2ª esposa (3) = 3ª esposa   Vinho escuro indica um imperador da Dinastia nerva-antonina   Vinho claro indica um herdeiro aparente da mesma dinastia que não chegou a assumir o trono   Cinza indica um aspirante fracassado ao trono   Roxo indica um imperador de outras dinastias Linhas tracejadas indicam uma adoção; linhas pontilhadas indicam casos amorosos ou relações fora do casamento Minúsculas = pessoas deificadas postumamente (augustos, augustas ou outras) Notas: Exceto se explicitado de outra forma, as notas abaixo indicam que o parentesco de um indivíduo em particular é exatamente o que foi indicado na árvore genealógica acima. ↑ Irmã do pai de Trajano: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ↑ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. ↑ a b Levick (2014), p. 161. ↑ Marido de Úlpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. ↑ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7. ↑ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Adriano". ↑ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9. ↑ Marido de Salonina Matídia: Levick (2014), p. 161. ↑ Smith (1870), "Júlio Servianus". ↑ Suetônio seria um possível amante de Sabina: uma possível interpretação de HA, Adriano 11:3 ↑ Smith (1870), "Adriano", pp. 319–322.[ligação inativa] ↑ Amante de Adriano: Lambert (1984), p. 99 e passim; deificação: Lamber (1984), pp. 2-5, etc. ↑ Júlia Bálbila seria uma possível amante de Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), Adriano, the Restless imperador, p. 251, citado em Levick (2014), p. 30, que é cético em relação a esta hipótese. ↑ Marido de Rupília Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. ↑ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163. ↑ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162. ↑ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164. ↑ Esposa de M. Ânio Vero: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ↑ Esposa de M. Ânio Libão: Levick (2014), p. 163. ↑ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10. ↑ Pseudo-Dião Cássio (72.22) conta que Faustina, a Velha, prometeu se casar com Avídio Cássio, uma história que também aparece na HA "Marco Aurélio" 24. ↑ Marido de Ceiônia Fábia: Levick (2014), p. 164. ↑ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117. Referências: DIR contributors (2000). «De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families». Consultado em 14 de abril de 2015  Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Césars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2  Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of Adriano and Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2  Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. [S.l.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9  William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. [S.l.: s.n.]  Ver também[editar | editar código-fonte] O Commons possui imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Marco Aurélio O Wikiquote possui citações de ou sobre: Marco Aurélio Império Romano Os cinco bons imperadores, dos quais Marco Aurélio é considerado o último Pax Romana Lista de imperadores romanos Referências ↑ Knight, Charles. The English Cyclopædia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Bradbury & Evans, 1856, p. 439 ↑ Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Ediciones Nowtilus, 2010, p. 165 ↑ Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. Routledge, 1987, p. 29 ↑ Birley, p. 28 ↑ Levick, Barbara M. Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. Oxford University Press, 2014, pp. 161-163 ↑ Birley, p. 29-30 ↑ Birley, pp. 31-35 ↑ Robertson, Donald J. "Stoicism as a Martial Art". Medium, 01/06/2020 ↑ a b c d e "Marco Aurèlio". In: Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, online. Istituto Giovanni Treccani ↑ McLynn, pp. 20-21 ↑ Birley, pp. 37-40 ↑ Alves, Sérgio Lourosa. Marco Aurélio e Cómodo, a luz e a sombra: a construção historiográfica da dinastia Antonina. Mestrado. Universidade de Lisboa, 2010, p. 64 ↑ Birley, pp. 41-45 ↑ Birley, pp. 46-49 ↑ Birley, pp. 49-56 ↑ Birley, pp. 53-57 ↑ Birley, pp. 57-58 ↑ Birley, pp. 90-91 ↑ Birley, pp. 69-76 ↑ Birley, p. 95 ↑ Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Harvard University Press, 1980, p. 120 ↑ Birley, pp. 112-116 ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Crook, John Anthony. "Marcus Aurelius". In: Encyclopaedia Britannica, online. Consulta em 21/04/2021 ↑ Birley, pp. 117-119 ↑ Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy. Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 109 ↑ Birley, p. 120 ↑ Birley, pp. 12-122 ↑ Alves, p. 65 ↑ a b Birley, pp. 123-129 ↑ Alves, p. 67 ↑ Birley, p. 280 ↑ Birley, p. 130 ↑ McDowell, R. H. Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris. University of Michigan Press, 1935, p. 124 ↑ Kneissl, P. Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts. Göttingen, 1969, p. 99 ↑ Birley, p. 132 ↑ McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press, 2009, pp. 323-324 ↑ Le Bohec, Yann. The Imperial Roman Army. Routledge, 2013, p. 56 ↑ Grant, 'Michael. 'The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. Routledge, 2016, p. 29 ↑ a b Birley, p. 253 ↑ Birley, p. 186 ↑ a b Alves, p. 69 ↑ Birley, p. 133 ↑ a b Alves, pp. 103-116 ↑ Irvine, William B. A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 57–58 ↑ Roman currency of the Principate. Tulane.edu. ↑ Alves, pp. 108-109 ↑ Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective. Cengage Learning, 2008, p. 230 ↑ Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines". In: Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 186-191 ↑ Cary, Earnest. Roman History. Heinemann, 1914–1927, lxxi, 36: 3-4 ↑ a b c d Sellars, John. "Marcus Aurelius (121—180 C.E.)". In: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, onlinde. Consulta em 21/04/20121 ↑ a b c d e Kamtekar, Rachana. "Marcus Aurelius". In: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, online. Consulta em 21/04/2021 ↑ Hays, Gregory. Meditations. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, p. xlix ↑ Collins, Desmond. Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting. Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973, p. 58 ↑ Stertz, Stephen A. "Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought". In: The Classical World, 1977; 70 (7): 433–439 ↑ Hays, pp. xlviii–xlix ↑ Hadot, Pierre. The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Harvard University Press, 1998, p. 22 ↑ Francis, James. Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995, p. 21 ↑ a b Mark, Joshua J. "Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King". In: World History Encyclopedia, 09/05/2018 ↑ Francis, p. 21 ↑ Arantes Junior, Edson. Regime de memória romano: imagens do herói Héracles nos escritos de Luciano de Samósata (século II d.C.). Mestrado. Universidade Federal de Goiás, 2008, p. 28 ↑ Adams, Geoff. The Emperor Commodus: Gladiator, Hercules or a Tyrant? BrownWalker, 2013, p. 59 ↑ a b c Cerri, Mariane. A biografia do imperador Cômodo na História Augusta como uma crítica ao Dominato. Mestrado. Universidade Estadual Paulista, 2020, pp. 93-95 ↑ a b c Cardoso, Igor B. "O século II em perspectiva: ou, da grandeza do Império à ficção da vida privada". In: Em Tempo de Histórias, 2019; 35 ↑ Gaia, Deivid Valerio. "O século de ouro e a 'adoção do melhor': considerações sobre a sucessão imperial durante o século II d.C." In: História (São Paulo), 2020; 39 ↑ a b Alves, pp. 62-75; 159-174 ↑ a b Jona Lendering. «Marcus Aurelius». Livius.org. Consultado em 15 de junho de 2012  Ligações externas[editar | editar código-fonte] «Biografia» (em espanhol)  «Historia Augusta: Life of Marcus Aurelius» (em inglês)  «De Imperatoribus Romanis» (em inglês)  Precedido por Antonino Pio Imperador romano 161 - 180 Sucedido por Cómodo v d e Estoicismo Filósofos Estoicismo antigo Zenão de Cítio Perseu de Cítio Arísto de Quios Esfero Hérilos Cleantes de Assos Crisipo de Solos Zenão de Tarso Crates de Malo Diógenes da Babilônia Apolodoro Antípatro de Tarso Estoicismo médio Panécio de Rodes Dárdano de Atenas Mnesarco de Atenas Hecato de Rodes Posidónio Diódoto Gêmino Antípatro de Tiro Atenodoro de Tarso Novo estoicismo Séneca Cornuto Musónio Rufo Eufrates Cleómedes Epiteto Hiérocles Sexto de Queroneia Júnio Rústico Marco Aurélio Filosofia Estoicismo Categorias estoicas Paixões estoicas Física estoica Neoestoicismo Conceitos Adiáfora Apatheia Ataraxia Diairesis Eudemonia Catalepsia Logos Kathekon Physis Pneuma Prohairesis Obras Diálogos (Séneca) Discursos (Epicteto) Enquirídio (Epicteto) Epístolas (Séneca) Meditações (Marco Aurélio) A República (Zenão) v d e Imperadores romanos Dinastia júlio-claudiana (27 a.C. — 68 d.C.) Augusto • Tibério • Calígula • Cláudio • Nero Ano dos quatro imperadores (68 — 69) Galba • Otão • Vitélio • Vespasiano Dinastia flaviana (69 — 96) Vespasiano • Tito • Domiciano Antoninos (96 — 192) Nerva • Trajano • Adriano • Antonino Pio • Marco Aurélio • Lúcio Vero • Cômodo Governo pretoriano (193) Pertinax • Dídio Juliano Dinastia severa (193-217) Septímio Severo • Caracala • Geta Dinastia macrina (217-218) Macrino • Diadumeniano Dinastia severa (218-235) Heliogábalo • Alexandre Severo Crise do Terceiro Século (235-284) Maximino Trácio • Gordiano I • Gordiano II • Pupieno • Balbino • Gordiano III • Filipe, o Árabe • Décio • Treboniano Galo • Emiliano • Valeriano • Galiano Império das Gálias (260-274) Tétrico I Império de Palmira (261-271) Odenato • Vabalato • Zenóbia Imperadores Ilírios (268-282) Cláudio II • Quintilo • Aureliano • Marco Cláudio Tácito • Marco Ânio Floriano • Probo • Marco Aurélio Caro • Carino • Numeriano Tetrarquia e dinastia constantiniana Diocleciano • Constâncio Cloro • Constantino I • Constâncio II • Juliano • Joviano Dinastia valentiniana Valentiniano I • Graciano Dinastia teodosiana Teodósio I Portal de biografias Portal da Roma Antiga Portal da filosofia Portal da política Portal da filosofia Controle de autoridade : Q1430 WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 BAV: ADV12179132 BIBSYS: 90564087 BNB: 000181323 BMT: 140707 BNA: 000026945 BNCHL: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: 11914476c BRE: 2186553 BVMC: 356 CANTIC: a10491697 CERL: cnp01259662 CiNii: DA00596148 DBE: marco-aurelio EBID: ID FAST: 54205 GEC: 0040045 GND: 118577468 Find a Grave: 35001023 Gutenberg: 998 Isidore: marc_aurele_empereur_romain_auteur_du_texte ISNI: ID LAC: 1020L1335F LCCN: n80051702 LibriVox: 4398 MusicBrainz: ID NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 Biblioteca Nacional da Roménia: 000136425 NNDB: 000087718 NPG: mp83552 NTA: 06867452X NUKAT: n96103790 OBP: ID openMLOL: 22237 PTBNP: 272140 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Treccani: marco-aurelio UNZ: AureliusMarcus WikiTree: Aurelius-1 ULAN: 500115701 IMDb: ch0002130 OL: OL133986A NLI: 000088890 Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurélio&oldid=61350074" Categorias: Nascidos em 121 Mortos em 180 Marco Aurélio Filósofos pagãos Antonino Pio Categorias ocultas: !Artigos com ligações inativas !Artigos destacados na Wikipédia em italiano !Artigos destacados na Wikipédia em estremenho !Artigos bons na Wikipédia em alemão !Artigos destacados na Wikipédia em francês !Artigos bons na Wikipédia em inglês !Artigos bons na Wikipédia em espanhol !Artigos que carecem de fontes !Artigos que carecem de fontes sem indicação de tema !Artigos que carecem de fontes maiores que 40000 bytes !CS1 espanhol-fontes em língua (es) !CS1 inglês-fontes em língua (en) !Páginas que usam hiperligações mágicas ISBN Esta página foi editada pela última vez às 06h23min de 9 de junho de 2021. 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ro-wikipedia-org-5843	----	Marc Aureliu - Wikipedia Marc Aureliu De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liberă Sari la navigare Sari la căutare Un editor consideră că această pagină conține citate prea multe sau prea extinse pentru a constitui un articol enciclopedic valid. Vă rugăm să îmbunătățiți articolul ștergând citatele în exces sau transferându-le la Wikicitat.(ianuarie 2021) Deși acest articol conține o listă de referințe bibliografice, sursele sale rămân neclare deoarece îi lipsesc notele de subsol. Puteți ajuta introducând citări mai precise ale surselor. Marc Aureliu Date personale Nume la naștere Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Născut 26 aprilie 121 d.Hr.[1] Roma, Imperiul Roman Decedat 17 martie 180 d.Hr. (58 de ani)[2][1] Vindobona, Imperiul Roman Înmormântat Castelul Sant'Angelo Cauza decesului cauze naturale (pestă) Părinți Marcus Annius Verus[*][[Marcus Annius Verus (Father of Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Domitia Calvilla[*][[Domitia Calvilla (mother of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Frați și surori Annia Cornificia Faustina[*][[Annia Cornificia Faustina (sister of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Căsătorit cu Faustina the Younger[*][[Faustina the Younger (Roman Empress and wife to Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]][1] Copii Commodus Marcus Annius Verus Caesar[*][[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (Caesar of the Roman Empire (c.162-169))|​]] Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina[*][[Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (2nd century Roman noblewoman)|​]] Fadilla[*][[Fadilla (daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Lucilla Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor[*][[Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius' daughter (160-212))|​]] Vibia Aurelia Sabina[*][[Vibia Aurelia Sabina (youngest daughter of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus[*][[Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (son of Marcus Aurelius, twin brother of Commodus)|​]] Domitia Faustina[*][[Domitia Faustina (daughter of emperor Marcus Aurelius)|​]] Cetățenie Roma Antică Etnie Roman people[*][[Roman people (cultural identity and people group from ancient Rome)|​]] Religie Religia în Roma antică Ocupație politician filozof scriitor Activitate Apartenență nobiliară Titluri Împărat Familie nobiliară Dinastia Antoninilor Împărat roman Domnie 7 martie 161 d.Hr. – 17 martie 180 d.Hr. Predecesor Antoninus Pius Succesor Commodus Senator roman[*]​ Consul Chestor Modifică date / text  Dinastii imperiale romane Dinastia Nerva – Antonină Cronologie Nerva 96 d.Hr. – 98 Traian 98 – 117 Hadrian 117 – 138 Antoninus Pius 138 – 161 Marcus Aurelius 161 – 180 Lucius Verus 161 – 169 Commodus 180 – 192 Familie Dinastia Antoninilor (arbore genealogic) Categorie:Dinastia Antoninilor Succesiune Precedată de Dinastia Flaviană Urmată de Anul celor cinci împărați Marc Aureliu (în latină Marcus Aurelius, n. 26 aprilie 121 d.Hr.,[1] Roma, Imperiul Roman – d. 17 martie 180 d.Hr.,[2][1] Vindobona, Imperiul Roman) a fost un împărat roman din dinastia Antoninilor, între anii 161 și 180 d.Hr., și filosof stoic. Născut ca Marcus Annius Verus sau Marcus Catilius Severus, a luat mai târziu, după ce a fost adoptat de împăratul Antoninus Pius, numele de Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus. Ca împărat s-a numit Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. Cuprins 1 Biografie 1.1 Marc Aureliu: împărat roman 1.2 Marc Aureliu: filosof 2 Citate din Marc Aureliu 3 Note 4 Bibliografie 5 Legături externe Biografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Statuia ecvestră a lui Marc Aureliu în "Piazza del Campidogllio", Roma Columna lui Marc Aureliu, Roma Marc Aureliu s-a născut la 26 aprilie 121 la Roma, fiu al lui Annius Verus. Era nepot prin alianță al viitorului împărat (între anii 138-161) Antoninus Pius, care l-a adoptat la dorința împăratului Hadrian, predecesorul său. După ce Antoninus Pius a devenit el însuși împărat, l-a căsătorit în anul 145 pe Marc Aureliu din motive dinastice cu fiica sa, Annia Galeria (sau Faustina minoris) și în anul următor l-a asociat la conducerea imperiului. În anul 161, Marc Aureliu devine el însuși împărat. Marc Aureliu: împărat roman[modificare | modificare sursă] Marc Aureliu preia conducerea imperiului roman în vremuri dificile, trebuind să facă față unor amenințări din diferite părți. După ce reușește să înăbușe în zona apuseană revoltele unor triburi germanice și britanice, este confruntat în anul 165 cu invazia parților a provinciilor orientale ale imperiului. În timp ce fratele său prin adopțiune, Lucius Verus - asociat la conducerea imperiului -, suferă înfrângeri dezastruase, încredințarea comenzii militare unor generali capabili, Statius Priscus și Avidius Cassius, permite romanilor să reprime atacurile parților, ocupându-le și două orașe principale, Seleucia și Ctesifona. Triumful militar este celebrat la Roma, dar legiunile romane aduc cu ele din orient o teribilă epidemie de ciumă, cu grave consecințe sociale și economice. În zona Dunăreană, triburile germanice Marcomanii și Sarmații amenință direct Italia de nord. Conducătorii hasdingi (vandali) Raus și Raptus, solicită permisiunea în 171 să intre în Dacia Traiană. Marc Aureliu preia direct conducerea operațiilor militare, care vor dura mai mult de cinci ani, din 169 până în 175. Încurajat de un zvon fals, privind pretinsa moarte a lui Marc Aureliu, generalul Avidius Cassius, guvernator al provinciilor din zona Siriei, se proclamă în 175 împărat. Marc Aureliu se pregătește să pornească împotriva generalului rebel, dar - înainte de a se ajunge la un război civil - Cassius este omorât și liniștea este restabilită datorită fidelității guvernatorului Cappadociei, Martius Verus. Marc Aureliu încheie pace cu Sarmații și se îndreaptă totuși spre provinciile orientale, vizitează Cilicia, Siria și Egiptul, apoi se întoarce prin Smirna și Atena, unde se inițiază - împreună cu fiul său Commodus - în misterele din Eleusis. În timpul acestei călătorii, moare soția sa, Faustina. Întors la Roma, sărbătorește triumful asupra Marcomanilor și Sarmaților, iar în 177 îl asociază pe Commodus la conducerea imperiului. În același an trebuie să plece din nou în provinciile dunărene, pentru a reprima noi revolte ale triburilor germanice. În anul 180, moare în urma unei boli infecțioase în orașul Vindobona (azi Viena). În politica internă, Marc Aureliu a condus afacerile imperiului în strânsă colaborare cu Senatul și a inițiat o serie de reforme în problemele administrative și de drept, a construit școli, spitale și orfelinate. Domnia lui Marc Aureliu a fost marcată de aspre persecuții ale creștinilor, cum a fost cea din 177 la Lugdunum (azi Lyon). Marc Aureliu: filosof[modificare | modificare sursă] Încă din tinerețe, Marc Aureliu a primit o educație solidă în retorica greacă și latină prin instructorii săi, Herodes Atticus și Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Cu acesta din urmă a întreținut o bogată corespondență, în parte păstrată până azi. Formația sa filosofică a fost marcată de doctrina stoică, reprezentată de Epictet, Apollonius din Calcedonia și Sextus din Cheroneia. Singura sa lucrare a fost redactată în limba greacă, Ta eis heauton ("Către mine însumi"), tradusă mai târziu în limba latină cu titlul Meditationes ("Meditații"), în 12 cărți. Conținutul lor are în special un caracter moral, o filosofie practică pentru viața de fiecare zi. Ele exprimă convingerea autorului, după care numai o viață morală după legile naturii poate realiza liniștea interioară, mărinimia și perfecțiunea. Omul trebuie să tindă către ceea ce este util și pe măsura comunității. Important este prezentul, nu viitorul și nici trecutul care ne împovărează. Moartea face parte din Natură, pentru că totul este în continuă transformare, conform eternității în care totul se produce, se reproduce și se transformă la infinit. Citate din Marc Aureliu[modificare | modificare sursă] Marc Aureliu tânăr Dacă un om ți-a greșit cu ceva, gândește-te ce reprezentare are el asupra binelui și asupra răului pentru a comite acea greșeală. Dați-mi liniștea de a accepta lucrurile ce nu le pot schimba, curajul de a le schimba pe cele ce se pot schimba, și înțelepciunea de a le putea distinge unele de altele. Consecințele mâniei sunt mult mai grave decât cauzele ei. „Epistola Împăratului Marcus Aurelius către Senat, în care arată că creștinii au fost cauza biruinței romanilor Împăratul Cezar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Germanic, Partic, Sarmatic, către poporul romanilor și către Sacrul Senat, salutare! V-am adus la cunoștință măreția planurilor mele pe care le aveam pe când mă găseam la granițele Germaniei, unde, din cauza împrejurărilor care au urmat, străduindu-mă și pătimind am fost înconjurat, în localitatea Carnuti, de către 9074 de cohorte de draconi. Aceștia găsindu-se în apropierea noastră, spionii noștri ne-au adus la cunoștință, iar Pompeianus, șeful miliției noastre, ne-a arătat, ceea ce de altfel știam (căci eram înconjurat de o mulțime imensă și ordonată, având cu mine legiunile: prima, a zecea, gemina, frentensia, un amestec numărat), fiind de față o mulțime de nouă sute șaptezeci și șapte de mii de oameni.Cercetând, deci, mulțimea din jurul meu, în comparație cu mulțimea barbarilor și a vrăjmașilor, care era cu mult mai mare, am ajuns la concluzia să invocăm ajutorul zeilor părintești. Fiind, însă, neglijat de ei și considerând strâmtorarea puterii mele am apelat la aceia care se numesc la noi creștini. Și, întrebând, am aflat o mare mulțime dintre aceștia, la care am apelat, ceea ce n-ar fi trebuit să fac, pentru că ar fi urmat să recunosc puterea lor, la ei ca să ne ajute. Iar aceia au început de îndată, nu prin pregătirea de săgeți, nici de arme și nici prin sunete de trâmbițe, deoarece așa ceva este neîngăduit la ei, din cauza lui Dumnezeu, pe care-L poartă în conștiințele lor. În felul acesta, aceia pe care noi îi socotim că sunt atei, poartă pe Dumnezeu zidit în conștiințele lor. Deci, aceștia, aruncându-se la pământ, s-au rugat nu numai pentru noi, ci și pentru întreaga noastră armată pentru ușurarea ei de pe urma setei și a foamei de care pătimea. Căci cei care fuseseră trimiși după apă, nu au adus niciun strop, din cauză că nu au găsit. Și ne aflam pe atunci în inima Germaniei și în granițele vrăjmașilor noștri. Dar de îndată ce aceștia s-au aruncat la pământ și au început să se roage Dumnezeului pe care eu Îl ignoram până atunci, a început să cadă ploaie din cer și anume, asupra romanilor o ploaie cât se poate de rece, iar asupra vrăjmașilor romanilor o grindină ca de foc. Dar și prezența directă a lui Dumnezeu, care a avut loc în cursul acestei rugăciuni, a fost îndată pe cât de incomparabilă, pe atât de cu neputință de înțeles. Deci, din momentul acesta începând, noi îngăduim unora ca aceștia să fie creștini pentru ca nu cumva cerând și împotriva noastră o astfel de armă, să o dobândească. Unul ca acesta, sfătuiesc, ca atare, să nu fie învinuit cum că este creștin. Iar, de s-ar găsi cineva să aducă învinuire unui creștin, pentru faptul că este creștin, vreau ca creștinul adus înaintea judecății să fie lăsat liber, dacă va mărturisi acest lucru și dacă nu i se va mai putea imputa nimic altceva, decât faptul că este creștin, iar cel ce-l târăște la judecată, să fie ars de viu. De asemenea, cel căruia i s-a încredințat spre conducere provincia să nu poată sili să-și schimbe părerea, sau aduce la o stare de lipsă de libertate, pe creștinul care mărturisește că este creștin și care a primit asigurări cu privire la libertatea lui de credință. Lucrurile acestea vreau să le întăresc și prin hotărârea senatului și poruncesc ca această dispoziție a mea să fie afișată și în forul lui Traian, ca să poată fi citită de toți. De asemenea, prin grija prefectului Vitrasius Pollio, să fie trimisă și în provinciile din jur. Și oricine voiește să se folosească de ea și s-o aibă, să nu fie împiedicat să o primească din cele ce au fost puse la dispoziție de către noi.” APOLOGEȚI DE LIMBĂ GREACĂ, Colecția Părinți și Scriitori Bisericești, Vol.2, Editura Institului Biblic și de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, București, 1980, Pagina 74. Note[modificare | modificare sursă] ^ a b c d e RSKD / Antoninus[*][[RSKD / Antoninus (dictionary entry)|​]]  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) ^ a b VIe / Mark-Avrelii, Antonin[*][[VIe / Mark-Avrelii, Antonin (articol enciclopedic)|​]]  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) Bibliografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Anthony R. Birley: Marcus Aurelius. A biography, Batsford, Londra, 1987 Klaus Rosen: Marc Aurel, Rowohlt, Reinbek, 1997 Herwig Wolfram The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples pagina 43 Univ of California Press, 18 mars 2005 - 361 pages Legături externe[modificare | modificare sursă] "Meditațiile" lui Marc Aureliu traduse în engleză de George Long Predecesor: Antoninus Pius Împărat Roman 161 - 180 Succesor: Commodus v • d • m Lista împăraților romani Principatul 27 î.Hr. – 235 d.Hr. Augustus · Tiberius · Caligula · Claudius · Nero · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasian · Titus · Domițian · Nerva · Traian · Hadrian · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius cu Lucius Verus · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Iulianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus cu Diadumenian · Elagabalus · Alexandru Sever Criza secolului al III-lea 235–284 Maximin Tracul · Gordian I și Gordian al II-lea · Pupienus și Balbinus · Gordian al III-lea · Filip Arabul · Decius cu Herennius Etruscus · Hostilian · Trebonianus Gallus cu Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerian · Gallienus cu Saloninus · Claudius Gothicus · Quintillus · Aurelian · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerian Dominatul 284–395 Dioclețian · Maximian · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Severus · Maxentius · Maximinus Daia · Licinius cu Valerius Valens și Martinianus · Constantin I · Constantin al II-lea · Constant · Constantin al II-lea cu Vetranio · Iulian Apostatul · Iovianus · Valentinian I · Valens · 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Alexandru · Constantin al VII-lea · Romanos I · Romanos al II-lea · Nicefor al II-lea · Ioan I Tzimiskes · Vasile al II-lea · Constantin al VIII-lea · Zoe · Romanos al III-lea · Mihail al IV-lea · Mihail al V-lea · Constantin al IX-lea · Teodora · Mihail al VI-lea · Isaac I Comnen · Constantin al X-lea  · Romanos al IV-lea · Mihail al VII-lea · Nicefor al III-lea · Alexios I Comnen · Ioan al II-lea Comnen · Manuel I Comnen · Alexios al II-lea Comnen · Andronic I Comnen · Isaac al II-lea · Alexios al III-lea · Alexios al IV-lea · Nicolae Kanabos · Alexios al V-lea Imperiul de la Niceea 1204–1261 Constantin Lascaris · Teodor Lascaris · Ioan al III-lea Ducas Vatațis · Teodor al II-lea Lascaris · Ioan al IV-lea Lascaris · Mihail al VIII-lea Paleologul Imperiul Bizantin 1261–1453 Mihail al VIII-lea Paleologul · Andronic al II-lea Paleologul · Mihail al IX-lea Paleologul · Andronic al III-lea Paleologul · Ioan al V-lea Paleologul · Ioan al VI-lea Cantacuzino · Matei Cantacuzino · Andronic al 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ru-wikipedia-org-1496	----	Марк Аврелий — Википедия Марк Аврелий Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Марк Аврелий Антонин лат. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Римский император 7 марта 161 — 17 марта 180 Совместно с Луций Вер (7 марта 161 — январь 169), Коммод (177 — 17 марта 180) Предшественник Антонин Пий Преемник Коммод Рождение 26 апреля 121(0121-04-26) Рим, Италия, Римская империя Смерть 17 марта 180(0180-03-17) (58 лет) Виндобона, Верхняя Паннония[d], Римская империя Место погребения Замок Святого Ангела Род Антонины Имя при рождении лат. Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Отец Марк Анний Вер[d] Мать Домиция Луцилла Супруга Фаустина Младшая[1] Дети Анния Аврелия Галерия Луцилла, Анния Аврелия Галерия Фаустина, Элий Антонин, Элий Адриан, Домиция Фаустина, Анния Аврелия Фадилла, Корнифиция, Коммод, Тит Аврелий Фульвий Антонин, Элий Аврелий, Марк Анний Вер Цезарь, Вибия Аврелия Сабина Деятельность философия Отношение к религии древнеримская религия  Медиафайлы на Викискладе В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с именем Марк Аврелий. Марк Авре́лий Антони́н (лат. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; 26 апреля 121, Рим — 17 марта 180, Виндобона) — римский император (161—180) из династии Антонинов, философ, представитель позднего стоицизма, последователь Эпиктета. Последний из пяти хороших императоров. Содержание 1 Происхождение 2 Ранние годы 3 Правление 4 Философия 5 Образ в кино 6 Примечания 7 Литература 7.1 Тексты и переводы 7.1.1 Русские переводы 7.2 Исследования 8 Ссылки Происхождение[править | править код] Марк Аврелий принадлежал к сенаторской семье испанского происхождения. Его прадед по отцу Анний Вер (преномен неизвестен) переехал в Рим из Бетики, получил претуру при императоре Нероне, а при Веспасиане был включён в состав патрициата (73/74 год). Сын Вера, Марк Анний Вер, трижды занимал должность консула (в 97, 121 и 126 годах) и породнился с императорской фамилией. Его жена Рупилия Фаустина (бабка Марка Аврелия) была единоутробной сестрой жены Адриана Вибии Сабины и приходилась внучатой племянницей Траяну. Дочь Вера и Рупилии, Галерия Фаустина, стала женой Тита Аврелия Фульва Бойония Аррия Антонина, более известного как Антонин Пий, — пасынка Адриана и наследника его власти[2]. Отцом Марка Аврелия был ещё один Марк Анний Вер (сын Марка Анния-старшего и Рупилии Фаустины), а матерью — Домиция Луцилла, дочь консула 109 года Публия Кальвизия Тулла Рузона[3]. Ранние годы[править | править код] Марк Анний Вер (позднее после первого усыновления — Марк Анний Катилий Север, а после второго — Марк Элий Аврелий Вер Цезарь), вошедший в историю под именем Марка Аврелия, родился в Риме 26 апреля 121 года. Он был первоначально усыновлён третьим мужем матери императора Адриана Домиции Луциллы Паулины — Публием Катилием Севером (консулом 120 года) и стал именоваться Марком Аннием Катилием Севером. В 139 году после смерти своего приёмного отца он был усыновлён императором Антонином Пием и стал именоваться Марк Элий Аврелий Вер Цезарь. Марк Аврелий получил прекрасное образование. При жизни императора Адриана Марк Аврелий, несмотря на свой юный возраст, был намечен в квесторы, а через полгода после смерти Адриана вступил в должность квестора (5 декабря 138 года) и начал заниматься административной деятельностью. В том же году он был помолвлен с Аннией Галерией Фаустиной, которая приходилась ему двоюродной сестрой — дочерью императора Антонина Пия, преемника Адриана на престоле. От брака с ней Марк Аврелий имел детей: Аннию Аврелию Галерию Луциллу, Аннию Аврелию Галерию Фаустину, Элия Антонина, Элия Адриана, Домицию Фаустину, Фадиллу, Корнифицию, Коммода (будущего императора), Тита Аврелия Фульвия Антонина, Элия Аврелия, Марка Анния Вера Цезаря, Вибию Аврелию Сабину. Из 12 детей Марка Аврелия 6 умерли в детском возрасте, до взрослых лет дожили только Коммод, Луцилла, Фаустина, Сабина, Фадилла и Корнифиция. Он был намечен Антонином Пием в консулы на 140 год и объявлен цезарем. В 145 году объявлен консулом вторично, вместе с Пием. В 25 лет Марк Аврелий начал заниматься философией; главным наставником Марка Аврелия был Квинт Юний Рустик. Имеются сведения и о других философах, вызванных для него в Рим. Руководителем Марка Аврелия в изучении гражданского права был знаменитый юрист Луций Волузий Мециан. 1 января 161 года Марк вступил в своё третье консульство вместе с приёмным братом Луцием Вером. В марте того же года скончался император Антонин Пий и началось совместное правление Марка Аврелия с Луцием Вером, продолжавшееся до смерти Луция в январе 169 года, после чего Марк Аврелий правил единолично (до 177 года). Правление[править | править код] Марк Аврелий Марк Аврелий многому научился у своего приёмного отца Антонина Пия. Подобно ему, Марк Аврелий всячески подчёркивал своё уважение к сенату как учреждению и к сенаторам как членам этого учреждения. Большое внимание Марк Аврелий уделял судопроизводству. Общее направление его деятельности в области права: «не столько вводил новшества, сколько восстанавливал старинное право». В Афинах он учредил четыре кафедры философии — для каждого из господствовавших в его время философских направлений — академического, перипатетического, стоического, эпикурейского. Профессорам было назначено государственное содержание. Так же как и при его предшественниках, сохранялся институт поддержки детей малообеспеченных родителей и сирот через финансирование так называемых алиментарных учреждений. Не обладавшему воинственным характером Аврелию приходилось многократно участвовать в военных действиях. Парфяне вторглись в римские владения сразу же после смерти Антонина Пия и в двух битвах нанесли поражение римлянам. Римская империя заключила мир с Парфией в 166 году, по которому к Империи отходила Северная Месопотамия, а Армения признавалась входящей в сферу римских интересов. В том же году германские племена вторглись в римские владения на Дунае. Маркоманы вторглись в провинции Паннония, Норик, Реция и через альпийские проходы проникли в Северную Италию вплоть до Аквилеи. В Северную Италию и Паннонию были переброшены дополнительные воинские контингенты, в том числе и с восточного фронта. Был произведён набор дополнительных войск, в том числе из среды гладиаторов, рабов. Императоры-соправители выступили в поход против варваров. Ещё не была закончена война с германцами и сарматами, как начались волнения в Северном Египте (172). В 178 году Марк Аврелий возглавил поход против германцев, и ему удалось добиться больших успехов, но римские войска настигла эпидемия чумы. 17 марта 180 года Марк Аврелий скончался от чумы в Виндобоне на Дунае (современная Вена). После смерти Марк Аврелий был официально обожествлён. Время его правления считается в античной исторической традиции золотым веком. Марка Аврелия называют «философом на троне». Он исповедовал принципы стоицизма, и главное в его записках — этическое учение, оценка жизни с философско-нравственной стороны и советы, как к ней относиться. Философия[править | править код] Конная статуя Марка Аврелия (найдена в эпоху Возрождения и воздвигнута на римском Капитолии). Бюст Palazzo Nuovo — Капитолийского музея в Риме Марк Аврелий оставил философские записи — 12 написанных на греческом языке «книг» (глав книги), которым обычно приписывают общее название «К самому себе»[4]. Среди учителей философии Марка Аврелия были стоики: Юний Рустик, Аполлоний Халкедонский, Максим Клавдий. Будучи представителем позднего стоицизма[5], Марк Аврелий наибольшее внимание в своей философии уделяет этике, а остальные разделы философии служат целям пропедевтическим[4]. Предшествующая традиция стоицизма различала в человеке тело и душу, представляющую собой пневму. Марк Аврелий усматривает в человеке три начала, добавляя к душе (или пневме) и телу (или плоти) ещё интеллект (или разум, или нус). Если прежние стоики считали душу-пневму главенствующим началом, то Марк Аврелий называет ведущим началом разум[4][6]. Разум-нус представляет неиссякаемый источник импульсов, необходимых для достойной человека жизни[6]. Нужно привести свой разум в согласие с природой целого и достигнуть благодаря этому бесстрастия. В согласии со всеобщим разумом заключено счастье[4]. Образ в кино[править | править код] Образ Марка Аврелия воплощён Алеком Гиннессом в фильме Энтони Манна «Падение Римской Империи» (1964) и Ричардом Харрисом в фильме Ридли Скотта «Гладиатор» (2000). В 2002 году телекомпания «Альтаир-ТВ» выпустила документальный фильм «Марк Аврелий. Последний триумф императора». Примечания[править | править код] ↑ Любкер Ф. Antoninus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский, пер. А. Д. Вейсман, Ф. Гельбке, Л. А. Георгиевский, А. И. Давиденков, В. А. Канский, П. В. Никитин, И. А. Смирнов, Э. А. Верт, О. Ю. Клеменчич, Н. В. Рубинский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107. ↑ Доватур, 1993, с. 78—79. ↑ Доватур, 1993, с. 79. ↑ 1 2 3 4 Столяров А. А. Марк Аврелий Антонин — статья в Новой философской энциклопедии. ↑ Столяров А. А. Стоицизм / Новая философская энциклопедия в 4-х томах. М.: Мысль, 2000—2001. — ISBN 5-244-00961-3. 2-е изд., испр. и допол. — М.: Мысль, 2010. — ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9. ↑ 1 2 Д. Реале, Д. Антисери. Марк Аврелий. — В книге: Д. Антисери, Д. Реале. Западная философия от истоков до наших дней. Т.1-2 Античность и средневековье. СПб., 2003. — 688 с. — ISBN 5-901151-04-6. — С.148-150. Литература[править | править код] Тексты и переводы[править | править код] Греческий текст (издание 1882 года) Английский перевод Дж. Лонга В «Loeb classical library» сочинение издано под № 58. В серии «Collection Budé» начато издание его сочинения: Marc Auréle. Écrits pour lui-même. Tome I: Introduction générale. Livre I. Texte établi et traduit par P. Hadot, avec la collaboration de C. Luna. 2e tirage 2002. CCXXV, 94 p. Русские переводы[править | править код] Житие и дела Марка Аврелия Антонина цесаря римского, а при том собственныя и премудрыя его рассуждения о себе самом. С немецкого перевёл С. Волчков. СПб., 1740. 112, 256 стр. 5-е изд. СПб., 1798. Размышления императора Марка Аврелия О том, что важно для самого себя. / Пер. Л. Д. Урусова. Тула, 1882. X, 180 стр. переизд.: М., 1888, 1891, 1895, 108 с.; М., 1902, 95 с. М., 1911, 64 с. М., 1991. К самому себе. Размышления. / Пер. П. Н. Краснова. СПб., 1895. 173 стр. Наедине с собой. Размышления. / Пер. С. М. Роговина, вступ. очерк С. Котляревского. (Серия «Памятники мировой литературы»). М.: Изд-во Сабашниковых, 1914. LVI, 199 стр. (неоднократно переиздавался с 1991 года) Марк Аврелий Антонин. Размышления. / Пер. и прим. А. К. Гаврилова. Статьи А. И. Доватура, А. К. Гаврилова, Я. Унта. Комм. Я. Унта. (Серия «Литературные памятники»). Л.: Наука, 1985. 245 стр. 25000 экз. 2-е изд, испр. и доп. СПб.: Наука, 1993. 248 стр. 30000 экз. Марк Аврелий. К себе самому. / Пер. В. Б. Черниговского. М.: Алетейа, Новый Акрополь, 1998. 224 стр. Исследования[править | править код] Франсуа Фонтенruen. Марк Аврелий / Перевод Н. Зубкова. — М.: Молодая гвардия, 2005. — 336 с. — (Жизнь замечательных людей). — 5000 экз. — ISBN 5-235-02787-6. Ренан Э. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. СПб., 1906. Унт Я. «Размышления» Марк Аврелия как литературный и философский памятник // Марк Аврелий. Размышления. Пер. А. К. Гаврилова. Л., 1985. — С. 93—114. Ссылки[править | править код] В родственных проектах Цитаты в Викицитатнике Тексты в Викитеке Медиафайлы на Викискладе Марк Аврелий в библиотеке Максима Мошкова Пантелеев А. Д. Христиане в правление Марка Аврелия (рус.). Исследования и публикации по истории античного мира. 2005. Архивировано 4 августа 2012 года. Марк Аврелий. «Наедине с собой» Хорхе Анхель Ливрага «Последний триумф императора», статья в журнале «Новый Акрополь», 1998 г.     Тематические сайты MusicBrainz Проект «Гутенберг» Словари и энциклопедии Большая каталанская Большая норвежская Большая российская Брокгауза и Ефрона Военная Сытина Испанский биографический Литовская универсальная Малый Брокгауза и Ефрона Реальный словарь классических древностей Britannica (11-th) Britannica (онлайн) Britannica (онлайн) Brockhaus Notable Names Database Pauly-Wissowa Treccani Universalis Генеалогия и некрополистика Find a Grave WikiTree WeRelate Нормативный контроль BAV: ADV12179132, ADV12667279, ADV11069824, ADV11069825, ADV12420148 BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: a10491697 BNE: XX932158 BNF: 11914476c CiNii: DA00596148 CONOR: 6923107 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLR: 000136425 NLP: A1180743X NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X NUKAT: n96103790 PTBNP: 272140 LIBRIS: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 VIAF: 102895066 ULAN: 500115701 РНБ: 77119754, 7783243, 7784075 WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 Римские императоры Принципат 27 до н. э. — 235  Октавиан Август Тиберий  Калигула Клавдий Нерон  Гальба  Отон  Вителлий  Веспасиан  Тит  Домициан  Нерва Траян Адриан  Антонин Пий Марк Аврелий и Луций Вер Коммод  Пертинакс  Дидий Юлиан  Песценний Нигер  Клодий Альбин  Септимий Север Каракалла  Гета Макрин и Диадумениан Гелиогабал Александр Север Кризис 235—284 Максимин I Фракиец  Гордиан I и Гордиан II Пупиен и  Бальбин  Гордиан III  Филипп I Араб и Филипп II Младший  Деций Траян и  Геренний Этруск Гостилиан Требониан Галл и  Волузиан Эмилиан Валериан I и Валериан II Галлиен и Салонин  Клавдий II Готский  Квинтилл  Аврелиан  Тацит  Флориан  Проб  Кар  Карин и  Нумериан Доминат 284—395 Диоклетиан  Максимиан  Констанций I Хлор  Галерий  Флавий Север Максенций Максимин II Даза Лициний c Валентом и Мартинианом Константин I  Константин II  Констант Констанций II c Ветранион и Далмаций Младший и Констанций Галл Юлиан Отступник  Иовиан Валентиниан I Валент II Грациан Валентиниан II Феодосий I Великий Западная империя 395—480 Гонорий Констанций III  Константин III Иоанн Валентиниан III  Петроний Максим и  Палладий Авит Майориан  Либий Север Прокопий Антемий Олибрий  Глицерий Юлий Непот  Ромул Август Восточная империя 395—476 (до падения Рима) Аркадий Феодосий II Маркиан Лев I Макелла Лев II Зенон Василиск Зенон Династия Антонинов (96—192) Пять хороших императоров Нерва (96—98) Траян (98—117) Адриан (117—138) Антонин Пий (138—161) Марк Аврелий (161—180) и Луций Вер (161—169) Коммод (180—192) Консулы 118—138 годов → Консулы Римской империи 139—160 → Консулы 161—192 годов 139: Имп. Цезарь Тит Элий Адриан Антонин Август Пий (во 2-й раз) и Гай Бруттий Презент (во 2-й раз), суффекты — Луций Миниций Натал Квадроний Вер, Луций Клавдий Прокул Корнелиан, Гай Юлий Скапула, Марк Цекций Юстин и Гай Юлий Басс — 140: Имп. Цезарь Тит Элий Адриан Антонин Август Пий (в 3-й раз) и Марк Аврелий Цезарь, суффекты — Юлий Крассип, Марк Барбий Эмилиан и Тит Флавий Юлиан — 141: Тит Гений Север и Марк Педуцей Стлога Присцин, суффект — Луций Анний Фабиан — 142: Луций Куспий Пактумей Руфин и Луций Статий Квадрат, суффекты — Раний Каст, Марк Корнелий Фронтон, Луций Лаберий Приск, Луций Тусидий Кампестер, Квинт Корнелий Сенецион Анниан и Сульпиций Юлиан — 143: Гай Беллиций Торкват и Луций Вибуллий Гиппарх Тиберий Клавдий Аттик Герод, суффекты — Квинт Юний Калам и Марк Валерий Юниан — 144: Луций Гедий Руф Лоллиан Авит и Тит Статилий Максим, суффекты — Квинт Мусций Приск, Марк Понтий Лелиан Ларций Сабин, Марк Кальпурний Лонг и Децим Велий Фид — 145: Имп. Цезарь Тит Элий Адриан Антонин Август Пий (в 4-й раз) и Марк Аврелий Цезарь (во 2-й раз), суффекты — Луций Публикола Приск, Луций Плавтий Элий Ламия Сильван, Гней Аррий Корнелий Прокул, Децим Юний Пет, Луций Петроний Сабин, Гай Викрий Руф, Гай Фадий Руф и Публий Викрий — 146: Секст Эруций Клар (во 2-й раз) и Гней Клавдий Север Арабиан, суффекты — Квинт Модестин Секст Аттий Лабеон, Публий Муммий Сизенна Рутилиан, Тит Приферний Пет, Луций Аврелий Галл, Гней Луций Теренций Гомулл Юниор, Квинт Воконий Сакса Фид, Гай Анниан Вер, Луций Эмилий Лонг и Квинт Корнелий Прокул — 147: Гай Прастина Мессалин и Луций Анний Ларг, суффекты — Авл Клавдий Харакс, Квинт Фуфиций Корнут, Купрессен Галл, Квинт Корнелий Квадрат, Секст Кокцей Севериан Гонорин, Тиберий Лициний Кассий Кассиан и Гай Попилий Кар Педон — 148: Луций Октавий Корнелий Публий Сальвий Юлиан Эмилиан и Гай Беллиций Кальпурний Торкват, суффекты — Сатурий Фирм, Гай Сальвий Капитон, Луций Целий Фест, Публий Орфидий Сенецион, Гай Фабий Агриппин и Марк Антоний Зенон — 149: Сервий Корнелий Сципион Сальвидиен Орфит и Квинт Помпей Сосий Приск, суффекты — Квинт Пассиен Лицин, Гай Юлий Авит и Тит Флавий Лонгин Квинт Марций Турбон — 150: Марк Гавий Сквилла Галликан и Секст Карминий Вет, суффекты — Марк Кассий Аполлинар и Марк Петроний Мамертин — 151: Секст Квинтилий Кондиан и Секст Квинтилий Валерий Максим, суффекты — Луций Аттидий Корнелиан и Марк Коминий Секунд — 152: Маний Ацилий Глабрион и Марк Валерий Гомулл, суффекты — Луций Клавдий Модест, Луций Дазумий Туллий Туск, Публий Суфенат Вер, Гай Новий Приск, Луций Юлий Ромул, Публий Клувий Максим Паулин и Марк Сервилий Силан — 153: Гай Бруттий Презент и Авл Юний Руфин, суффекты — Секст Цецилий Максим, Марк Понтий Сабин, Публий Септимий Апр, Марк Седаций Севериан, Квинт Петиедий Галл и Гай Катий Марцелл — 154: Луций Аврелий Вер и Тит Секстий Латеран, суффекты — Тит Приферний Пет, Марк Ноний Макрин, Тиберий Клавдий Юлиан, Секст Кальпурний Агрикола, Гай Юлий Статий Север и Тит Юний Север — 155: Гай Юлий Север и Марк Юний Руфин Сабиниан, суффекты — Гай Ауфидий Викторин, Марк Гавий Максим, Анций Поллион, Миниций Опимиан, Децим Рупилий Север и Луций Юлий Север — 156: Марк Цейоний Сильван и Гай Серий Авгурин, суффекты — Авл Авиллий Уринатий Квадрат, Страбон Эмилиан, Квинт Канузий Пренесцин и Гай Лузий Спарс — 157: Марк Веттулен Цивика Барбар и Марк Метилий Аквиллий Регул, суффекты — Гай Целий Секунд и Гай Юлий Коммод Орфициан — 158: Секст Сульпиций Тертулл и Квинт Тиней Сакердот Клемент, суффекты — Марк Сервилий Фабиан Максим и Квинт Яллий Басс — 159: Плавтий Квинтилл и Марк Стаций Приск Лициний Италик, суффекты — Луций Матукций Фусцин, Марк Писибаний Лепид и Авл Курций Криспин Аррунциан — 160: Аппий Анний Атилий Брадуа и Тит Клодий Вибий Вар, суффекты — Авл Платорий Непот Кальпурниан, Марк Постумий Фест, Гай Септимий Север, Цезорий Павел, Тиберий Оклаций Север, Нинний Хастиан и Новий Сабиниан Консулы 139—160 годов → Консулы Римской империи 161—192 → Консулы 193—234 годов 161: Марк Аврелий Цезарь (в 3-й раз) и Луций Элий Аврелий Коммод (во 2-й раз), суффекты — Марк Анний Либон и Квинт Камурий Нумизий Юниор — 162: Квинт Юний Рустик (во 2-й раз) и Луций Тиций Плавтий Аквилин, суффекты — Децим Фонтей Фронтиниан Луций Стерциний Руф и Марк Инстей Вифиник — 163: Марк Понтий Лелиан и Авл Юний Пастор — 164: Марк Помпей Макрин и Публий Ювентий Цельс, суффекты — Тиберий Гатерий Сатурнин и Квинт Цецилий Авит — 165: Марк Гавий Орфит и Луций Аррий Пудент — 166: Квинт Сервилий Пудент и Луций Фуфидий Поллион, суффекты — Марк Вибий Либерал и Публий Марций Вер — 167: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Вер Август (в 3-й раз) и Марк Уммидий Квадрат Анниан, суффекты — Квинт Цецилий Денцилиан, Марк Антоний Паллас, Луций Семпроний Гракх и Квинт Антистий Адвент Постумий Аквилин — 168: Луций Венулей Апрониан Октавий Приск (во 2-й раз) и Луций Сергий Павел — 169: Квинт Помпей Сенецион Сосий Приск и Публий Целий Аполлинар — 170: Гай Эруций Клар и Марк Гавий Корнелий Цетег, суффект — Тит Гений Север — 171: Тит Статилий Север и Луций Альфидий Геренниан — 172: Сервий Кальпурний Сципион Орфит и Секст Квинтилий Максим — 173: Гней Клавдий Север и Тиберий Клавдий Помпеян — 174: Луций Аврелий Галл и Квинт Волузий Флакк Корнелиан — 175: Луций Кальпурний Пизон и Публий Сальвий Юлиан, суффекты — Публий Гельвий Пертинакс, Марк Дидий Север Юлиан и Публий Корнелий Ануллин — 176: Тит Помпоний Прокул Витразий Поллион (во 2-й раз) и Марк Флавий Апр (во 2-й раз) — 177: Луций Аврелий Коммод Цезарь и Марк Педуцей Плавтий Квинтилл — 178: Сервий Корнелий Сципион Сальвидиен Орфит и Децим Велий Руф Юлиан — 179: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (во 2-й раз) и Публий Марций Вер (во 2-й раз), суффекты — Тит Флавий Клавдиан, Луций Эмилий Юнк, Маний Ацилий Вибий Фаустин и Луций Юлий Прокулиан — 180: Гай Бруттий Презент (во 2-й раз) и Секст Квинтилий Кондиан — 181: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (в 3-й раз) и Луций Антистий Бурр — 182: Марк Петроний Сура Мамертин и Квинт Тиней Руф, суффекты — Аврелиан и Луций Аттидий Корнелиан — 183: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (в 4-й раз) и Гай Ауфидий Викторин, суффекты — Луций Тутилий Понтиан Гентиан, Марк Геренний Секунд, Марк Эгнаций Постум, Тит Пактумей Магн и Луций Септимий Флакк — 184: Луций Коссоний Эггий Марулл и Гней Папирий Элиан, суффект — Гай Октавий Виндекс — 185: Триарий Матерн Ласцивий и Тиберий Клавдий Брадуа Аттик, суффект — Марк Умбрий Прим — 186: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (в 5-й раз) и Маний Ацилий Глабрион, суффекты — Луций Новий Руф и Луций Анний Рав, Гай Сабуций Майор Цецилиан и Валерий Сенецион — 187: Луций Бруттий Квинций Криспин и Луций Росций Элиан Пакул — 188: Сей Фусциан (во 2-й раз) и Марк Сервилий Силан (во 2-й раз) — 189: Дулий Силан и Квинт Сервилий Силан — 190: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (в 6-й раз) и Марк Петроний Сура Септимиан, суффекты — Луций Септимий Север и Апулей Руфин — 191: Попилий Педон Апрониан и Марк Валерий Брадуа Маврик — 192: Имп. Цезарь Луций Аврелий Коммод Август (в 7-й раз) и Публий Гельвий Пертинакс (во 2-й раз), суффекты — Квинт Тиней Сакердот и Публий Юлий Скапула Приск, Луций Юлий Мессала Рутилиан и Гай Эмилий Север Кантабриан В сносках к статье найдены неработоспособные викиссылки. Исправьте короткие примечания, установленные через шаблон {{sfn}} или его аналоги, в соответствии с инструкцией к шаблону, или добавьте недостающие публикации в раздел источников. Список сносок: Доватур, 1993 Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелий&oldid=114237892 Категории: Родившиеся 26 апреля Родившиеся в 121 году Родившиеся в Риме Умершие 17 марта Умершие в 180 году Похороненные в Италии Персоналии по алфавиту Римские императоры по алфавиту Антонины Римские консулы II века Поздние стоики Древнегреческие философы Философы Древнего Рима Философы II века Персоналии:Этика Умершие в Вене Умершие от чумы Римские императоры II века Античные писатели, чьи труды дошли до нашего времени Писатели II века Скрытые категории: Страницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN Википедия:Статьи с источниками из Викиданных Статьи со ссылками на Викицитатник Статьи со ссылками на Викитеку Википедия:Статьи с некорректным использованием гарвардской системы цитирования Навигация Персональные инструменты Вы не представились системе Обсуждение Вклад Создать учётную запись Войти Пространства имён Статья Обсуждение Варианты Просмотры Читать Править Править код История Ещё Поиск Навигация Заглавная страница Рубрикация Указатель А — Я Избранные статьи Случайная страница Текущие события Участие Сообщить об ошибке Сообщество Форум Свежие правки Новые страницы Справка Пожертвовать Инструменты Ссылки сюда Связанные правки Служебные страницы Постоянная ссылка Сведения о странице Цитировать страницу Элемент Викиданных Печать/экспорт Создать книгу Скачать как PDF Версия для печати В других проектах Викисклад Викицитатник Викитека На других языках Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Править ссылки Эта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 16 мая 2021 в 16:20. 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scn-wikipedia-org-3978	----	Marcu Aureliu - Wikipedia Marcu Aureliu Dâ Wikipedia, la nciclupidìa lìbbira. Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcu Aureliu. Bustu ô British Museum di Londra. Marcu Aureliu (121-180) riditau lu mperu rumanu ntô 161 ô piriudu dâ massima spansioni, succissiva a Traianu e Adrianu. Fu figghiu aduttivu di Antuninu Piu ô quali succidìu nsemmula cu Luciu Veru. Fu na pirsuna assai ntilliggenti, e eni canusciutu puru comu lu mpiraturi filòsufu. Eni ricurdatu puru ppî Meditationes, n'òpira filusòfica arrivata nzinu a oggi. Ccu iddu, lu mperu passau lu piriudu di paci cchiù longu. Li suli prioccupazzioni militari foru li guerri girmànichi pi lu cuntrollu dî frunteri sittintriunali contra li barbari, guerri chi nun arriniscìu a vinciri difinitivamenti. Pridicissuri: Mpiraturi rumanu Succissuri: [[Mmàggini:{{{Mmàggini}}}|30px]] Antuninu Piu 161 - 180 Còmmudu I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X con con con con Antuninu Piu {{{data}}} Còmmudu Estrattu di "https://scn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcu_Aureliu&oldid=710385" Catigurìi: Storia Filusufìa Biografìi Littiratura latina Roma antica Mpiratura rumani Menù di navigazzioni Strumenta pirsunali Nun v'aviti riggistratu Discussioni cuntribbuti Crea un cuntu novu Trasi Namespace artìculu Discussioni Varianti Vìsiti Leggi Cancia Cancia surgenti Talìa la crunuluggìa Àutri cosi Arriscedi Navigazzioni Pàggina principali Porta dâ cumunitati Nutizzî Canciati antura Na pàggina a muzzu Ajutu Cumunitati Lu Cìrculu Artìculu ntâ vitrina IRC (#wikipedia-scn) Grammàtica Cumpenniu stilìsticu Dunazzioni Pirmessi bot (Request bot status) Strumenta Chi punta ccà Canciamenti culligati Càrrica nu file Pàggini spiciali Liami pirmanenti Nfurmazzioni ncapu la pàggina Cita st'artìculu Suggettu nta Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crea nu libbru Scàrrica comu PDF Virsioni stampàbbili Àutri pruggetti Wikimedia Commons Àutri lingui Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Cancia li culligamenti Sta pàggina fu canciata a 12:42 di lu 28 maiu 2016. Stu testu è dispunìbbili sutta â Licenza Creative Commons Attribuzzioni/Spartuta dâ stissa manera; si ponnu applicari àutri cunnizzioni. Talìa li Cunnizzioni d'Usu pi li dittagghî. Pulìtica supra la privacy Nfurmazzioni supra a Wikipedia Avvirtenzi Virsioni mòbbili Sviluppatura Statistiche Dichiarazione sui cookie 
sco-wikipedia-org-5671	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Frae Wikipedia, the free beuk o knawledge Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 16t Emperor o the Roman Empire Ring 8 Mairch 161–169 (wi Lucius Verus); 169–177 (alone); 177 – Mairch 180 (wi Commodus) Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus Born 26 Apryle 121(121-04-26) Roum Dee'd 17 Mairch 180(180-03-17) (aged 58) Vindobona or Sirmium Buirial Hadrian's Mausoleum Wife Faustina the Younger Full name Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (or Marcus Catilius Severus; birth to marriage) Marcus Annius Verus (marriage tae adoption bi Antoninus Pius) Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (as imperial heir) Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (as emperor) Dynasty Antonine Faither Marcus Annius Verus Mither Domitia Lucilla Marcus Aurelius (/ɔːˈriːliəs/; Laitin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus;[1][notes 1] 26 Aprile 121 AD – 17 Mairch 180 AD) wis a Roman Emperor frae 161 tae 180. He ruled wi Lucius Verus as co-emperor frae 161 till Verus' daith in 169. He wis the last o the Five Guid Emperors, an is an aa considered ane o the maist important Stoic philosophers. Notes[eedit | eedit soorce] ↑ He wis originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (or perhaps Marcus Catilius Severus).[2] When he married he teuk the name Marcus Annius Verus,[3] an when he wis named emperor, he wis given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. References[eedit | eedit soorce] ↑ In Clessical Laitin, Aurelius' name would be inscribed as MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. Taen frae "https://sco.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=793291" Categeries: Marcus Aurelius 121 births 180 daiths 2nt-century philosophers 2nt-century Roman emperors Aelii Annii Aurelii Deified Roman emperors Hellenistic writers Imperial Roman consuls Nerva–Antonine dynasty Fowk frae Roum Philosophers o Roman Italy Roman-era Stoic philosophers Buirials at mausoleums Skauk't categeries: Pages uisin infobox ryalty wi unkent parameters Airticles conteenin Laitin-leid text Navigâtion menu Personal tuils No loggit in Collogue for this IP Contreibutions Mak accoont Log in Namespaces Airticle Collogue Variants Views Read Eedit Eedit soorce See histerie More Rake Navigation Main page Commonty Yett Mercat Cross Recent chynges Wale page allevolie Help Propines Tuilkist Whit airts tae here Relatit chynges Uplaid file Byordinar pages Permanent airtin Page information Cite this airticle Wikidata item Prent/export Create a beuk Dounload as PDF Prent version In ither projects Wikimedia Commons In ither leids Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Eedit airtins This page wis last eeditit on 10 September 2020, at 10:59. Text is available unner the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mey apply. See Terms o Uise for details. Preevacie policie Aboot Wikipedia Disclamation Mobile view Deveelopers Statistics Cookie statement 
sh-wikipedia-org-355	----	Marko Aurelije - Wikipedia Marko Aurelije Iz Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Marko Aurelije Marko Aurelije, punim imenom po rođenju Marko Anije Katilije Sever (lat. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus), nakon ženidbe Marko Anije Ver (lat. Marcus Annius Verus), nakon stupanja na presto Marko Aurelije Antonin (lat. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), rođen 121. god. n. e., stupio na presto 161. godine, umro 180. godine, bio je rimski car, naslednik i posinak Antonina Pija, pripadnik antoninske dinastije i poslednji u nizu "petorice dobrih careva". Marko Aurelije je nasledio Antonina i ispoštovao Hadrijanove namere tako što je Lucija Vera uzeo za punopravnog savladara. Budući da su Verove sposobnosti bile ograničene, ovaj potez ne izgleda mudro, ali je Ver, srećom, odlučivanje prepustio Aureliju. Aurelijev je potez bio opasan iz još jednog razloga: on se veoma udaljavao od ideje carskog jedinstva i anticipirao je kasniju definitivnu podelu carstva na zapadni i istočni deo. Marko Aurelije je bio stoički filozof, a svoje poglede zapisao je na grčkom jeziku u beleškama koje nose naslov Τά εις εαυτόν (= "Samome sebi"), koje se danas ponekada navode i kao "Razmišljanja" ili "Meditacije". Ranije uspostavljena sloga između senata i cara nije narušavana ni pod Markom Aurelijem. On je potvrdio Trajanovo naređenje da senatori jedan deo svojih sredstava moraju ulagati u italsku zemlju, ali je visinu uloga smanjio s jedne trećine na četvrtinu. Od svog prethodnika Marko Aurelije primio je carstvo koje je živeo u blagostanju: državna blagajna raspolagala je znatnim sredstvima, nemiri u provincijama bili su ugušeni. Ipak, gotovo čitava vladavina Marka Aurelija bila je ispunjena ratovima i on je u vojnim operacijama proveo više vremena nego i jedan car pre njega. Parćanski kralj Vologaz III napao je 162. godine Jermeniju i na prestolu učvrstio svog štićenika. Namesnik provincije Kapadokije pokušao je da mu se suprotstavi, ali je pretrpeo poraz i bio ubijen. Parćanske trupe upale su u Siriju i napale sirijske gradove. Na istok su upućene trupe iz raznih provincija: sa Dunava, Rajne, iz Afrike i Egipta. Na čelu rimskih snaga nalazio se Lucije Ver, ali su trupama zapravo komandovale iskusne vojskovođe, među kojima se isticao Avidije Kasije. On je zauzeo Jermeniju i Mesopotamiju, pa čak i parćansku prestonicu Ktesifon. Rimska vojska prešla je čak reku Tigar i upala u Mediju, ali je u trupama iznenada počela da se širi kuga. Rat je završen 166. godine, tako što je Jermenija ponovo postala vazalna kraljevina, znatan deo osvojene teritorije vraćen je Partiji, dok je pod rimskim uticajem ostao samo severozapadni deo Mesopotamije. Pobede na istoku obezbedile su mir za izvesno vreme, ali je tome doprineo i sistem utvrđenja duž istočnih granica, stvorenog po uzoru na zapadne oblasti. Podunavske oblasti, sve do Italije, bile su 167. godine napadnute od raznih varvarskih plemena. Zajedno sa germanskim plemenima ― Kvadima i Markomanima ― napadali su Sarmati. Opasnost je pretila ne samo zapadnim provincijama, nego čak i Aziji. Ova opasnost naterala je oba cara da krenu u pohod. Već na početku pohoda, 169. godine, umro je Lucije Ver, i čitavim ratom rukovodio je sam Marko Aurelije. Rimljani su odneli pobedu: najpre su razbijeni Markomani, zatim Kvadi, a najzad i Sarmati. Postojali su planovi o stvaranju novih provincija, ali su to sprečili događaji u istočnom delu carstva. Tamo se, posle lažne vesti o Aurelijevoj smrti, na ustanak digao Avidije Kasije. Stoga je car morao požuriti na istok, pa je s varvarima 175. godine sklopio mir, po kome su varvari priznali rimski protektorat, a na njihovoj teritoriji raspoređeni su rimski garnizoni; osim toga, jedan je deo varvara s pravima kolona naseljen u rimskim oblastima. Ipak, Aurelijev odlazak na istok otvorio je vrata novim napadima varvara. Na sreću, Kasije je uskoro bio poražen i ubijen, pa je rat sa Kvadima i Markomanima obnovljen 177. godine. Car je ponovo krenuo u pohod, koji se završio pobedom Rimljana, ali je umro 180. godine u Vindoboni (danas Beč), za vreme novog talasa epidemije kuge, koja se raširila u trupama. Aurelije je carstvo ostavio svom 19-godišnjem sinu Komodu, koga je tri dana pre smrti proglasio za savladara. Marko Aurelije bio je odmah deifikovan odlukom senata, a njegovi posmrtni ostaci prenešeni su u grad Rim i položeni u Hadrijanov mauzolej (danas Castel Sant'Angelo). Njegovi ratni pohodi zabeleženi su na stubu podignutom u njegovu čast, koji i danas stoji netaknut u Rimu. Eksterni linkovi[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Marko Aurelije na Wikimedijinoj ostavi Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Marcus Aurelius entry at De Imperatoribus Romanis Marcus Aurelius entry at livius.org Prethodnik: Rimski car 161. - 180. Nasljednik: Antonin Pije 138. - 161. Komod 180. - 192. v r u Stoicizam Filozofi Stara stoa Zenon iz Kitija Persej Ariston Sfer Heril Kleant Hrizip Zenon iz Tarsa Kratet iz Mala Diogen iz Babilona Dioskorid Zenodot Dionisije iz Kirene Apolodor Antipatar iz Tarsa Srednja stoa Panetije Dardan Mnesarh Hekaton Posejdonije Diodot Diotim Gemin Antipatar iz Tira Atenodor Kananit Nova stoa Seneka Kornut Muzonije Ruf Eufrat Kleomed Epiktet Hijerokle Junije Rustik Marko Aurelije Heremon Mara bar Serapion Filozofija Stoicizam kategorije logika strasti fizika Neostoicizam Moderni stoicizam Koncepti Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos Djela Epiktet Razgovori Enchiridion Marko Aurelije Meditacije Seneka Pisma Luciliju Eseji: O dobročinstvima O kratkoći života O blagosti O postojanosti mudraca O gnjevu O dokolici O proviđenju O spokojstvu duše O sretnom životu Utjehe Drugo Predavanja (Muzonije Ruf) O strastima (Hrisip) Država (Zenon) Povezano Paradoxa stoicorum Stoicorum veterum fragmenta Stoička opozicija Moralni intelektualizam Dobavljeno iz "https://sh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marko_Aurelije&oldid=41048082" Kategorije: Rođeni 121. Umrli 180. Marko Aurelije Rimski carevi Pet dobrih careva Navigacijski meni Lični/osobni alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor sa IP adresom Doprinosi Izradi račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija/Историја Više Traži-Тражи Orijentacija-Оријентација Glavna stranica Izabrani članci Nedavne izmene Slučajna strana interakcija - интеракција Pomoć/Помоћ Pijaca/Пијаца Portal zajednice Alatke-Алатке Što vodi ovdje/Шта води овде? 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simple-wikipedia-org-2203	----	Marcus Aurelius - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Marcus Aurelius From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Emperor of the Roman Empire Bust of Marcus Aurelius Reign 8 March 161–169 (with Lucius Verus); 169–177 (alone); 177–March 180 (with Commodus) (19 years, 9 days) Predecessor Antoninus Pius Successor Commodus (alone) Born (121-04-26)26 April 121 Rome Died 17 March 180(180-03-17) (aged 58) Vindobona or Sirmium Burial Hadrian's Mausoleum Spouse Faustina the Younger Full name Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Dynasty Antonine Father Marcus Annius Verus Mother Domitia Lucilla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. He ruled with Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Verus' death in 169.[1] He was the last of the Five Good Emperors, and is considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Marcus Aurelius' work Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered. It serves as an example of how Aurelius approached the Platonic ideal of a philosopher–king, and how he symbolized much of what was best about Roman civilization.[2] Contents 1 Continuous warfare 2 Aftermath 3 Marriage and issue 4 References Continuous warfare[change | change source] At the start of his reign, the Empire, under the joint rule of Marcus and Lucius Verus, defeated a revitalized Parthian Empire in a war from 161 to 166. The unforeseen consequences for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them a plague (the so-called Antonine Plague), which may have been smallpox. It would eventually kill about 5 million people,[3] and severely weaken the Empire. Aurelius fought the German tribes during a long war from 166 to 180. The pressure from the Goths moving west pushed settled Germanic tribes into invading Roman client states in Gaul, and across the Danube. The plague raging in the Empire limited Rome's ability to respond. The Marcomanni tribe entered Italy, which had not been invaded for nearly 200 years, and defeated the army of the Praetorian Prefect. This disaster forced Marcus to collect forces from other frontiers, and move them against the Marcomanni. The Roman army was commanded by Claudius Pompeianus, Marcus' son-in-law, with the future emperor Pertinax as one of his lieutenants. The invaders were thrown out of Italy, and Marcus began planning to cross the Danube into their territory. Intense diplomatic activity followed, as the Romans tried to win over various barbarian tribes in preparation for a crossing of the Danube. A peace treaty was signed with some tribes, while others became Roman allies. In 172, Marcus defeated the Marcommani, and in 173 their allies, the Quadi, were defeated. It took until 174 for the Quadi to be subdued. Marcus was now interrupted by a revolt in the east, led by the Roman general Avidius Cassius. He was suppressed by Marcus' army. Marcus then returned to Rome.[4] A triumph was celebrated with his son Commodus. In 177 the Quadi rebelled again, and the Marcommani joined them. Marcus arrived on the scene in August 178, and in due course the Romans won a decisive battle in what is now Slovakia. The emperor Marcus died in 180, still fighting the German tribes. Victories were achieved in the next couple of years, sufficient for Commodus to claim credit with a triumph. The battles had been fought by his generals. Aftermath[change | change source] The war had exposed the weakness of Rome's northern frontier. From then on, half the Roman legions (16 out of 33) would be stationed along the Danube and the Rhine. For the Germanic tribes, although for the moment checked, the Marcomannic wars were only the prelude. Later invasions in the 4th and 5th centuries would eventually end the Western Roman Empire. Marriage and issue[change | change source] Bust of Faustina the Younger, Louvre, Paris. Aurelius married his first cousin Faustina the Younger in 145. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore 13 children. Only one son and four daughters outlived their father: Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/50–182), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus. Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159–after 211) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160–after 211) Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192) became the next emperor. Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170–died before 217) References[change | change source] ↑ Birley, Anthony R. 1987 [1966]. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 ↑ Western Civilization: sources, images and interpretations. Dennis Sherman, vol 1, 5th ed, p104 ↑ BBC: Past pandemics that ravaged Europe, 7 November 2005 ↑ Birley, Anthony R. 2000. "Hadrian to the Antonines", in The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Retrieved from "https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=7249606" Category: Roman Emperors Hidden category: Pages using infobox royalty with unknown parameters Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Talk Variants Views Read Change Change source View history More Search Getting around Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us Give to Wikipedia About Wikipedia Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing In other projects Wikimedia Commons In other languages Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Change links This page was last changed on 4 January 2021, at 09:26. 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sk-wikipedia-org-6563	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipédia Marcus Aurelius z Wikipédie, slobodnej encyklopédie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Marcus Aurelius Cisár Rímskej ríše Panovanie Dynastia Antoninovciadoptovaní cisári Panovanie 161  – 169 (s Luciom Verom); 169 – 177 (sám); 177–17. marec 180 (s Commodom) Predchodca Antoninus Pius Nástupca Commodus Biografické údaje Narodenie 26. apríl 121 (Rím) Úmrtie 17. marec 180 (58 rokov) (Vindobona, teraz Viedeň) Rodina Manželka Faustina Potomstvo 13, vrátane Commoda, Marca Vera a Lucilly Otec Marcus Annius Verus Matka Domitia Lucilla Odkazy Projekt Guttenberg Marcus Aurelius (plné texty diel autora) Marcus Aurelius (multimediálne súbory na commons) Historický portál Biografický portál Marcus Aurelius alebo Markus Aurélius, celým menom Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (* 26. apríl 121, Rím – † 17. marec 180, Vindobona – teraz Viedeň) bol rímsky cisár a filozof (prezývaný „filozof na tróne“), predstaviteľ mladšieho stoicizmu. Obsah 1 Životopis 2 Cisár 3 Vojny 3.1 Partská vojna 3.2 Markomanské vojny 4 Filozofia 5 Pramene 6 Literatúra 7 Zdroj 8 Iné projekty Životopis[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Marcus Annius Verus pochádzal z váženej rímskej rodiny. Jeho rodina pochádzala pôvodom z Hispánie a boli to potomkovia starých italických kolonistov, ktorí zbohatli na výrobe olivového oleja. Predkovia Marca boli aj vplyvné osobnosti politiky, ktoré siahali až do republiky. Marcus Aurelius bol aj potomkom Caesarovho rivala, triumvira Gnaea Pompeia. Marcus Aurelius bol obľúbencom cisára Hadriana, preto mu bolo povolené vstúpiť do senátu pred dovŕšením oficiálneho veku. Hadrianus si za nástupcu vybral Antonina Pia a jemu určil za nástupcu Marca. Antoninus Pius dal Marcovi Aureliovi za manželku svoju dcéru Faustinu (Mladšiu – jej matka bola Faustina Staršia) na znak toho, že pokladá Marca Aurelia za svojho nástupcu. Marcus si rozvážnu osobu Antonina Pia ctil a keď v roku 161 Antoninus zomrel, Marcus nastúpil na trón, spolu so spolucisárom Luciom Verom. Cisár[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Bol posledným z tzv. adoptovaných cisárov. V rímskej historiografii (pohanskej i kresťanskej) je pokladaný za jedného z najlepších cisárov, ktorí vládli v Rímskej ríši. Spĺňal požiadavky, ktoré na dobrého panovníka kládol Platón vo svojom spise Politeia (Ústava) a Politikos. Voči senátu sa správal tak, že nedal žiadneho z jeho členov popraviť, snažil sa o umiernenú politiku. Vojny[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Prakticky celé obdobie jeho vlády bolo vyplnené vojnami – najprv to bola vojna proti Partom na Východe (161 – 166), vzápätí to boli vojny s germánskymi, sarmatskými a inými kmeňmi. Počas jeho vlády došlo aj k prenasledovaniu kresťanov - (okolo roku 167 a okolo roku 177). Obe prenasledovania sa týkali viac-menej lokálnych problémov v Lugdunskej Gallii. Napriek tomu aj kresťanskí historici zaraďovali cisára Marca Aurelia medzi dobrých cisárov. Partská vojna[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Len čo Marcus Aurelius nastúpil na trón, prepukla vojna na Východe s Partmi, ktorí prenikli na rímske územie a plienili ho. Do vojny sa vybral Marcus Aurelius spolu so svojím spoluvládcom Luciom Verom, ktorý sa však – podľa údajov niektorých antických historikov – venoval viac zábavkám v Antiochii. Jedným z najlepších vojvodcov tejto vojny bol Avidius Cassius. Keď vojna skončila porážkou Partov, Marcus Aurelius a Lucius Verus sa vrátili do Ríma a Avidius Cassius sa stal miestodržiteľom provincie Sýrie. Markomanské vojny[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Ešte neskončila vojna na Východe a prepukli markomanské vojny. Niekedy sa označujú aj ako germánsko-sarmatské vojny podľa dvoch hlavných kmeňov, ktoré sa na vojne zúčastnili. Toto označenie nie je presné, pretože na vojne sa zúčastnilo 26 rôznych kmeňov, medzi ktorými boli rôzne germánske kmene, sarmatské kmene a niektoré kmene, ktoré sídlili na severe Európy. Barbari prekročili dunajský limes (od horného toku Dunaja v dnešnom Nemecku až po ústie Dunaja do Čierneho mora, a dostali sa na územie ríše). Vojnu začali vojenské oddiely Obiov a Longobardov, ktoré v roku 166 prenikli cez Dunaj a prenikli až do severnej Itálie. V tejto prvej fáze vojny utrpeli Rimania niekoľko vážnych porážok, v ktorých zahynuli aj vysokí rímski dôstojníci – praefecti praetorii. Preto Marcus Aurelius urýchlene ukončil vojnu na Východe a presunul časť vojska z Východu na podunajskú hranicu. Toto vojsko zavlieklo do Európy aj mor (údajne z Antiochie), ktorý v nasledujúcich rokoch vyľudnil rozsiahle rímske územia v strednom Podunajsku. Marcus Aurelius spolu s Luciom Verom urýchlene smerovali na stredný Dunaj, pričom pri Aquilei porazili v roku 169 niektoré barbarské oddiely, odobrali im korisť, získanú pri prepadoch rímskeho územia. Barbari sa stiahli za Dunaj. Marcus Aurelius a Lucius Verus sa vracali späť do Ríma, ale pri spiatočnej ceste Lucius Verus zomrel – niektorí antickí autori obviňovali Marca Aurelia, že ho otrávil. V nasledujúcich rokoch útočili cez rímsku hranicu na Dunaji ďalšie barbarské kmene. Teraz sa do bojov zapojili aj Markomani a Kvádi, ktorí sídlili na území dn. Česka a Slovenska, Sarmati, ktorí sídlili medzi Dunajom a Tisou a ďalšie kmene, sídliace na severe, na území dn. Poľska. Marcus Aurelius pripravoval obranu, v Carnunte sústreďoval vojenské oddiely a zásoby. Keď bolo vojsko sústredené, dal vybudovať pontónový most, po ktorom rímske vojsko preniklo na územie barbarov. Rimania ničili a plienili dediny domáceho obyvateľstva, zabíjali mužov, ženy a deti brali do zajatia. Rimania však utrpeli aj niekoľko menších porážok. Barbari odpozerali od Rimanov spôsob boja, naučili sa budovať obliehacie zariadenia a takto dokonca obliehali rímsky vojenský tábor. Len zásah bleskom zničil barbarskú obliehaciu vežu.Inokedy (pravdepodobne v roku 172) oddiel rímskeho vojska obkľúčili barbarskí vojaci (niekde v blízkosti Hrona) na mieste, kde nebola voda. Po niekoľkých dňoch bez vody zvieratá i vojaci zomierali a keď sa barbari chystali na rozhodujúci útok, spustila sa letná búrka, ktorá zachránila rímskych vojakov a barbarov zase ničili blesky. Príhoda so "zázračným dažďom" sa stala aj vážnym bodom sporu medzi pohanmi a kresťanmi v tom, že ktorý boh vlastne zachránil rímske vojsko. Aby mohol Marcus Aurelius viesť vojnu proti Markomanom, musel dať do dražby cisársky majetok – zlaté poháre, nábytok, odevy a drahokamy. Keď sa úspešne skončila prvá fáza markomanských vojen, cisár umožnil obyvateľom vrátiť tento majetok späť do cisárskej pokladnice s tým, že im vyplatil späť aj peniaze, ktoré zaplatili pri dražbe. V roku 175 prerušil markomanské vojny vážny incident na Východe. Sýrsky miestodržiteľ dostal správu (údajne od manželky Marca Aurelia Faustiny Mladšej), že cisár zahynul a Avidius Cassius sa s podporou sýrskeho vojska vyhlásil za cisára. Marcus Aurelius začal pripravovať vojsko na odchod na Východ, ale po troch mesiacoch bol Avidius Cassius zavraždený a uzurpácia bola zažehnaná. Následne sa Marcus Aurelius odobral naspäť za Germánmi. Na vojenskej výprave, ktorú viedol už so svojím synom Commodom ako spolucisárom a ktorú zobrazuje napríklad úvodná časť filmu Gladiátor, prenikli jeho vojská až k Trenčínu (Laugaricio – bola postavená za jeho vlády ako stanica pre kupcov s jantárom), kde prezimovali v zime 179 – 180. Prvé obdobie tzv. markomanských vojen (alebo germánsko-sarmatských) zobrazuje historický reliéf na stĺpe Marca Aurelia, ktorý dal postaviť jeho syn Commodus v Ríme. V roku 180 Rimania doviedli vojnové ťaženie do úspešného konca. Marcus sa chystal založiť nové provincie za Dunajom (v dnešných štátoch Česko a Slovensko). To však už nestihol, pretože bol nakazený morom, možno v Carnunte, neskôr zomrel vo Vindobone. Filozofia[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Na filozofické myslenie Marca Aurelia malo vplyv najmä čítanie Epikteta. Približne v poslednom desaťročí svojho života po grécky napísal 12 kníh filozofických meditácií Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν (Ta eis heauton – v slovenčine vyšlo ako Myšlienky k sebe, tradičný preklad je Hovory k sebe samému), časť vznikla na území dnešného Slovenska, niekde pri Hrone. Vesmír je podľa Marca Aurelia veľkým štátom, v ktorom je najvyšším zákonom božská prozreteľnosť. Človek ako rozumná bytosť má pochopiť jej zámery a spolupracovať s ňou. Vo vesmíre sa nemôže diať z hľadiska celku nič zlého. Neustála zmena, vznik a zánik jednotlivých bytostí patrí k prirodzenému chodu vesmíru, takže len obmedzený ľudský pohľad môže považovať smrť za zlo. S nesmrteľnosťou duše a posmrtnými trestami jeho filozofia neráta. To všetko vystihuje jeden z jeho citátov: „Preži tento okamih života v súlade s prírodou a potom sa s ním rozlúč tak ľahko, ako keď odpadne dozretá slivka: oslavujúc prírodu, ktorá ju stvorila, s vďačnosťou k stromu, ktorý ju zrodil..." Pramene[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Životopis Marca Aurelia sa zachoval v zbierke známej pod menom Scriptores Historiae Augustae (SHA) Grécky historik Cassius Dio písal o vláde Marca Aurelia v 71. a 72. knihe svojho diela Rímske dejiny Stručne popisuje Marcovu vládu grécky historik Herodianos Literatúra[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Anthony R. Birley: Marcus Aurelius. A biography. Batsford, London 1987, ISBN 0-7134-5428-8 (Standardwerk). Detlev von der Burg (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel. Der Reiter auf dem Kapitol. Hirmer, München 1999, ISBN 3-7774-8340-0 (umelecko-historická štúdia k jazdeckej soche). Richard P. Duncan-Jones: The impact of the Antonine plague. In: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Band 9, 1996, S. 108–136. Jörg Fündling: Marc Aurel. Kaiser und Philosoph. Primus Verlag, Darmstadt 2008, ISBN 978-3-89678-609-8 (Rezension). Pierre Grimal: Marc Aurèle. Paris 1991. Richard Klein (Hrsg.): Marc Aurel. Darmstadt 1979, ISBN 3-534-07802-0 (wichtige Aufsatzsammlung). Cornelius Motschmann: Die Religionspolitik Marc Aurels. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-515-08166-6 (Hermes-Einzelschriften, Band 88). Klaus Rosen: Marc Aurel. 3. Auflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2004, ISBN 3-499-50539-8 (knappe, aber nützliche Einführung). Klaus Rosen: Die angebliche Samtherrschaft von Marc Aurel und Lucius Verus. Ein Beitrag der Historia Augusta zum Staatsrecht der Römischen Kaiserzeit. In: Historiae Augustae Colloquia. Nov. Ser. I, Macerata 1991, S. 271–285. Greg R. Stanton: Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. 1962–1972. In: Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Band II 2, 1975, S. 478–549 (älterer Forschungsüberblick). Vojtech Zamarovský: Dejiny písané Rímom, vydavateľstvo Mladé letá, Bratislava 1988, ISBN 066-140-88 Zdroj[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Informácie v infoboxe sú sčasti alebo úplne prebrané z infoboxu článku Editing Marcus Aurelius zverejneného na anglickej Wikipédii. Iné projekty[upraviť | upraviť zdroj] Wikicitáty Commons Wikicitáty ponúkajú citáty od alebo o Marcus Aurelius Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Marcus Aurelius Literárny portál Marcus Aurelius Dynastia Antónovcov Vladárske tituly Predchodca Antoninus Pius Rímsky cisár (161 – 169 spolucisár Lucius Verus) (177 – 180 spolucisár Commodus) 161 – 180 Nástupca Commodus z d u Starovekí filozofi Predsokratovci Táles Anaximandros Anaximenes Pytagoras Herakleitos Xenofanes Parmenides Zenón Anaxagoras Empedokles Leukippos Demokritos Protagoras a ďalší Grécki filozofi klasického obdobia Sokrates Eukleides z Megary Antisténes z Atén Aristippos Platón Speusippos Diogenes zo Sinope Xenokrates Aristoteles Stilpón z Megary Teofrastos a ďalší Filozofi obdobia helenizmu Pyrrhon Epikuros Zenón z Kitia Archimedes Chrysippos Filón z Larissy Poseidonios Antiochos z Askalónu Ainesidémos Filón Alexandrijský Agrippa a ďalší Filozofi z obdobia Rímskej ríše Cicero Lucretius Carus Seneca Ploutarchos Epiktetos Marcus Aurelius Klement Alexandrijský Sextos Empeirikos Plotinos Porfyrios z Tyru Iamblichos a ďalší Perzskí filozofi Zarathuštra Mání Čínski filozofi Lao-c’ Sun-c’ Konfucius Meng-c’ Mo-c’ Jang Ču Čuang-c’ Liou An Sün-c’ Wang Čchung Indickí filozofi Uddálaka Gautama Budha Bódhidharma Makkhalé Gósála Mahávíra Kanáda Kapila Nágárdžuna Pataňdžali Áčarja Šankara Sáramati Kumáraláta a ďalší Autoritné údaje: AUT: jn19981001808 | GND: 118577468 | ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X | LCCN: n80051702 | ULAN: 500115701 | VIAF: 102895066 | WorldcatID: lccn-n80051702 Zdroj: „https://sk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=7009460“ Kategórie: Narodenia 26. apríla Narodenia v 121 Úmrtia 17. marca Úmrtia v 180 Cisári starovekého Ríma Rímski konzuli Filozofi starovekého Ríma Filozofi z obdobia Rímskej ríše Filozofi 2. storočia Stoici Skrytých kategórií: Portál:História/Zapojené články Portál:Ľudia/Zapojené články Portál:Literatúra/Zapojené články Wikipédia:Články priamo volajúce šablónu Portál Stránky s magickými odkazmi ISBN Navigačné menu Osobné nástroje Neprihlásený/á Diskusia Príspevky Vytvoriť účet Prihlásiť sa Menné priestory Stránka Diskusia Varianty Zobrazenia Čítať Upraviť Upraviť zdroj Zobraziť históriu Viac Hľadať Navigácia Hlavná stránka Portál komunity Kaviareň Posledné úpravy Náhodná stránka Pomoc Prispieť Nástroje Odkazy na túto stránku Súvisiace úpravy Nahrať súbor Špeciálne stránky Trvalý odkaz Informácie o stránke Citovať túto stránku položka Wikidata Tlačiť/exportovať Vytvoriť knihu Stiahnuť ako PDF Verzia pre tlač V iných projektoch Wikimedia Commons Wikicitáty V iných jazykoch Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Upraviť odkazy Dátum a čas poslednej úpravy tejto stránky: 31. marec 2020, 07:59. 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sl-wikipedia-org-9192	----	Mark Avrelij - Wikipedija, prosta enciklopedija Mark Avrelij Iz Wikipedije, proste enciklopedije Jump to navigation Jump to search Mark Avrelij Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 16. cesar Rimskega cesarstva Vladanje • 8. marec 161–169 z Lucijem Verom; • 169–177 sam; • 177–marec 180 s Komodom Predhodnik Antonin Pij Naslednik Komod Rojstvo Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus 26. april 121[1] Rim, Italija (rimska provinca), Rimsko cesarstvo Smrt 17. marec 180[2][1] (58 let) Vindobona, Gornja Panonija, Rimsko cesarstvo Pokop Hadrijanov mavzolej, Rim Otroci 13, med njimi • Komod • Mark Anij Ver • Antonin in • Lucila Polno ime • Marcus Annius Catilius Severus ali Marcus Catilius Severus (od rojstva do poroke) • Marcus Annius Verus (od poroke do posvojitve) • Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar (kot cesarjev dedič ) • Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (kot cesar) Dinastija Antoninska dinastija Oče Mark Anij Ver, pretor Mati Domicija Lucila Mark Avrelij, rimski vojskovodja, cesar in filozof * 26. april 121 Rim, † 17. marec 180 Vindobona (danes Dunaj). Mark Avrelij se je rodil 26. aprila leta 121 očetu Marku Aniju Veru in materi Domitiji Lukili. Očeta je izgubil že v rani mladosti, tako da ga praktično ni poznal. Pri 17 letih ga je posinovil Antonin Pij, ki je takrat postal cesar. Ko je leta 161 Antonin Pij umrl je vladarska oblast prešla v roke Marka Avrelija. Toda Mark je že ob nastopu svoje vlade predlagal svojega adoptivnega brata Lucija za sovladarja. Skupaj sta vladala do 169 do smrti Lucija Vera. Mark Avrelij ni imel lahkega vladanja. Vseskozi so na ozemlje rimskega cesarstva vdirala barbarska plemena. Tako je Mark velik del svojega vladanja preživel izven Rima na bojiščih proti barbarom. Cesar Mark Avrelij je zaradi bolezni umrl pomladi leta 180. Vsebina 1 Filozofija 2 Preganjanja kristjanov 3 Mark Avrelij v sodobnih medijih 4 Sklici 5 Zunanje povezave Filozofija[uredi | uredi kodo] Mark Avrelij je že zgodaj začutil ljubezen do filozofije. Zgledoval se je po vseh grških filozofski smereh, zato je tudi eden zadnjih rimskih filozofov, ki je še razlikoval posamezne filozofske šole (stoike, epikurejce, platoniste, peripatetike).[3] Najbolj pa je nanj vplival stoicizem, vendar se v določenih značilnostih od stoe tudi močno razlikuje. Pri njem strogost do sebe ostane, strogost do drugih, ki je značilna za stoiško filozofijo, pa je odpade in na njeno mesto pride človeška altuistična dobrota. Njegova filozofija ne raste iz knjig, ampak iz življenja. Mark Avrelij je živel v skladu s svojo filozofijo. Zaradi spoštovanja do grške filozofije je tudi Dnevnik napisal v grškem jeziku, kar je za takratne pisce velika redkost. Stoiki delijo filozofijo na tri velike veje: logiko, fiziko in etiko. Mark Avrelij se v glavnem ukvarja le z etiko (nekaj tudi s fiziko – kozmos). Da pridemo do sreče, moramo živeti v skladu z naravo. Etika poudarja tudi enakost in povezanost (tudi odvisnost) vseh ljudi. Delo Dnevnik cesarja Marka Avrelija (Ta eis Heauton) je tvori iz 12 knjig. Po zgradbi ima obliko dnevnika. Z izjemo 1. knjige, ki je nastala ločeno od ostalih, delo nima premišljene kompozicije. To potrjuje domneve, da je Mark Avrelij to delo pisal na vojnih pohodih po srednji Evropi. Značilnost dela je, da je vsak odstavek zaključena celota in ni odvisen od odstavka prej in kasneje. Delo se začne z uvodno pesnitvijo Himna Zeusu. V njej hvali Zeusovo mogočnost in veličino. Taka pesniška oblika (himna s heksametrom kot značilnim verzom) je veljala pri stoikih za najčistejšo pesniško obliko, zato so jo avtorji pogosto uporabljali. Mark Avrelij sicer ni bil najboljši pesnik, vendar je uspel posredovati želeno sporočilo. 1. knjiga se od preostalih močno razlikuje, saj v njej ne opisuje svoje filozofije. V 1. knjigi se zahvali vsem, ki so imeli pomembno vlogo v njegovem življenju, predvsem pri njegovi izobrazbi. Pri vsaki osebi našteje nekaj lastnosti, ki so mu jih le-te posredovale. Tako lahko že na začetku dobimo približno sliko o Markovem življenju in tudi njegovi filozofiji. Osrednje mesto je Mark namenil svojemu »očetu«, kot ga sam poimenuje. V bistvu je s tem mislil na cesarja Antonina Pija. Že s poimenovanjem kaže, koliko mu je pomenil. Po njegovem vzoru je kasneje Mark deloval na prestolu. Antoninova načela je ponotranjil in jih vključil v svojo filozofijo. Preganjanja kristjanov[uredi | uredi kodo] Zdi se nenavadno, da so se ravno v času tako blagega in človekoljubnega cesarja razplamtela preganjanja kristjanov. Med vidnejšimi žrtvami iz njegovega časa je tudi filozof in apologet Justin Mučenec. Po vsej verjetnosti Mark Avrelij ni želel nastopiti proti krščanstvu kot takemu, pač pa je želel zajetiti nekatere heterodoksne struje, ki so ogrožale državno enotnost (zavračanje vojaške službe v času potrebe po obrambi meja ipd.). Zaradi preslabega poznavanja mladega religioznega pojava pa je udaril po vseh kristjanih. Mark Avrelij v sodobnih medijih[uredi | uredi kodo] Z okoliščinami in prikazom bojevanja v drugi markomanski vojni ter s smrtjo Marka Avrelija se začne leta 2000 predstavljeni film Gladiator režiserja Ridleya Scotta. [4] Sklici[uredi | uredi kodo] ↑ 1,0 1,1 Любкер Ф. Antoninus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру — Sankt Peterburg.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107.d:Track:Q101490d:Track:Q30059240d:Track:Q24933120d:Track:Q45275993 ↑ Марк-Аврелий, Антонин // Военная энциклопедия — Sankt Peterburg.: Иван Дмитриевич Сытин, 1914. — Т. 15. — С. 201.d:Track:Q4448234d:Track:Q4114391d:Track:Q26160611d:Track:Q25397449 ↑ Collins, Randall, »The Sociology of Philosophies, A Global Theory of Intellectual Change«, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, 1998, s. 115 (COBISS) (v angleščini) ↑ "Gladiator (2000)". IMDb. Pridobljeno dne 19.5.2014. Zunanje povezave[uredi | uredi kodo] Wikinavedek vsebuje navedke o temi: Mark Avrelij Poglejte si besedo mark avrelij v Wikislovarju, prostem slovarju. Wikimedijina zbirka ponuja več predstavnostnega gradiva o temi: Mark Avrelij Mark Avrelij Antoninska dinastija Podveja Nervansko-antoninska dinastija Rojen: 26. april 121 Umrl: 17. marec 180 Vladarski nazivi Predhodnik: Antonin Pij Cesar Rimskega cesarstva 161–180 (161–169 z Lucijem Verom) Naslednik: Komod Politične funkcije Predhodnik: Antonin Pij, Gaj Brutij Prezens in Lucij Fulvij Rustik Konzul Rimskega cesarstva z Antoninom Pijem 140 Naslednik: Tit Henij Sever in Mark Peducej Stloga Priscin Predhodnik: Lolijan Avit in Tit Stacilij Maksim Konzul Rimskega cesarstva z Antoninom Pijem 145 Naslednik: Sekst Erucij Klar in Gnej Klavdij Sever Arabijan Predhodnik: Apij Anij Atilij Bradua in Tit Klodij Vibij Var Konzul Rimskega cesarstva z Lucijem Verom 161 Naslednik: Kvint Junij Rustik in Lucij Tit Plavcij Akvilin Normativna kontrola WorldCat Identities VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (data) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 CONOR.SI: 6923107 Vzpostavljeno iz »https://sl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Avrelij&oldid=5422373« Kategorije: Rojeni leta 121 Umrli leta 180 Rimski cesarji v 2. stoletju Nervansko-Antoninska dinastija Rimski filozofi Stoicizem Rimski konzuli Skrite kategorije: Brez lokalne slike, slika je v Wikipodatkih Članki z viri iz Wikipodatkov 16 elementov normativne kontrole Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji VIAF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji LCCN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ISNI Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji GND Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SELIBR Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SUDOC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BIBSYS Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ULAN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji MusicBrainz Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NLA Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NDL Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NKC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNE Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji CINII Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji CONOR.SI Navigacijski meni Osebna orodja Niste prijavljeni Pogovorna stran Prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stran Pogovor Različice Pogled Preberi Uredi Uredi kodo Zgodovina Več Iskanje Navigacija Glavna stran Dobrodošli Izbrani članki Naključni članek Zadnje spremembe Občestvo Portal občestva Pod lipo Kontaktna stran Pomoč Denarni prispevki Orodja Kaj se povezuje sem Sorodne spremembe Posebne strani Trajna povezava Podatki o strani Navedba članka Predmet v Wikipodatkih Tiskanje/izvoz Ustvari e-knjigo Prenesi kot PDF Različica za tisk V drugih projektih Wikimedijina zbirka Wikinavedek V drugih jezikih Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Uredi povezave Čas zadnje spremembe strani: 09:57, 5. januar 2021. Besedilo se sme prosto uporabljati v skladu z dovoljenjem Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 3.0; uveljavljajo se lahko dodatni pogoji. Za podrobnosti glej Pogoje uporabe. Wikipedia® je tržna znamka neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation Inc. Pravilnik o zasebnosti O Wikipediji Zanikanja odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvijalci Statistika O piškotkih 
snaccooperative-org-7917	----	Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 - Social Networks and Archival Context Toggle navigation snac Search Browse Resource Descriptions About Help Rest API Commands Contact Us Login Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Variant names Detailed View Revision History Sources Export JSON EAC-CPF XML Hide Profile Biography Resources Relationships Places Subjects Occupations Functions View Collection Locations Archival Resources Role Title Holding Repository creatorOf Guevara, Antonio de, Bp., d. 1545?. The larum of the court : written in Spanish by Don Antodio de Guevara, Bishop of Mondonnedo in Spaine, and translated into English by Sr. Br. gent : manuscript, [16--] Houghton Library referencedIn Brown, Walter Lee, 1853-1904. Walter Lee Brown papers relating to his collection of editions of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, [18--]-ca. 1902. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library referencedIn Brown, Walter Lee, 1853-1904. Walter Lee Brown papers relating to his collection of editions of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, [18--]-ca. 1902. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library referencedIn ChacoÌ�n, Alfonso, 1540-1599. Alfonso ChacoÌ�n reports, 1578-1589. Getty Research Institute creatorOf Gray, Thomas, 1716-1771. Notes : on Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Marcus Aurelius : manuscript, [17--] Houghton Library referencedIn Psychomath Club (Waltham, Mass.). Records, 1896-1902. Waltham Public Library referencedIn Theodore Roosevelt Collection: Books, pamphlets, periodicals, 18-- - <ongoing> Theodore Roosevelt Collection, Harvard College Library, Harvard University creatorOf Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma. Algunas cartas de Marco Aurelio [Manuscrito] traducidas al castellano y andan impresas con otras obras que dioÌ� a luz y a la estampa el Señor Don Antonio de Guevara, obispo que fue de Mondoñedo (h. 1-22). Sumario de la chronica del Rey Don Enrique 4o. hijo del Rey Don Juan el 2o. de Castilla (h. 23-54) / por el lizenciado Diego Enriquez del Castillo, su coronista y capellaÌ�n. Biblioteca Nacional de España, Biblioteca Nacional - Madrid referencedIn Saint Non, Jean Claude Richard de, 1727-1791,. [Statue antique, sur un pieÌ�destal, entoureÌ�e de personnages, le tout parmi des ruines] [graphic] / Robert del. ; Saint Non sc. 1766. Getty Research Institute referencedIn Moore, Henry Ludwell, 1869-1958. Collection on economics and econometrics, [ca. 1900]-1940. Columbia University in the City of New York, Columbia University Libraries Bibliographic and Digital Archival Resources Role Title Holding Repository Filters: Connection Graph Radial Graph Relation Name associatedWith Brown, Walter Lee, 1853-1904. person associatedWith ChacoÌ�n, Alfonso, 1540-1599. person associatedWith Enrique IV, Rey de Castilla. person associatedWith EnriÌ�quez del Castillo, Diego person associatedWith Gray, Thomas, 1716-1771. person associatedWith Guevara, Antonio de, Bp., d. 1545? person associatedWith Guevara, Antonio de ca. 1480-1545. person associatedWith Moore, Henry Ludwell, 1869-1958. person associatedWith Psychomath Club (Waltham, Mass.) corporateBody associatedWith Saint Non, Jean Claude Richard de, 1727-1791, person Place Name Admin Code Country Castilla (Reino) Subject Occupation Function Person Exist Dates: Birth 0121-04-26 Death 0180-03-17 Nationality: Italians Languages Used: Latin, Greek, Ancient (to 1453) Related Descriptions Virtual International Authority File WorldCat Identities LC/NACO Wikidata Search Elsewhere ArchiveGrid Search DPLA Search Information Permalink: http://n2t.net/ark:/99166/w6c851bs Ark ID: w6c851bs SNAC ID: 75709129 × Variant Names Annius Verus, Marcus 121-180 Antonin, Marc, 121-180 Antonino, imperatore romano, 121-180 Antoninos Autokrator, Markos 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Antoninus, Marcus A. 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius romersk kejsare 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius římský císaÅ™ 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Imperador de Roma, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Romas imperators 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Antonius, Marcus Aurelius, romersk kejsare, 121-180 Aoleiliu, .. 121-180 Aoleliu, .. 121-180 Aurel, Marc Aurel, Marc 121-180 Aurele, Marc Aurelije, Marko Aurelio, Marco Aurelio, Marco 121-180 Aurelio, Marco Emperador de Roma Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Emperor of Rome Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Roma Kotei 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus empereur de Rome 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus ローマ コウテイ 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180, ローマ皇å¸� Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, imperatore romano, 121-180 Aurelius Antonius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurelius Marcus Antoninus Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus empereur de Rome 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus imperatore romano 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, Emperador de Roma Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Aureliusz, Marek AureÌ€le, Marc, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Aurèle, Marc Aurèle, Marc empereur de Rome 121-180 Aurélio, Marco Aurélio, Marco, 121-180 AurÄ“lijs, Marks Romas imperators 121-180 Avrelyws, Markos 121-180 Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor Marcus Aurelius M. Antoninus Marc Antonin Empereur 121-180 Marc Antonin, 121-180 Marc Antonin. Marc Aurel Marc Aurel emperador de Roma 121-180 Marc Aurel, 121-180 Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marc Aurel, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marc Aurele Antonin Empereur 121-180 Marc Aureli Marc Aureli, Antoni, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marc Aureli, Emperador de Roma Marc Aureli, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marc AureÌ€le Empereur 121-180 Marc AureÌ€le, 121-180 Marc AureÌ€le, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marc AureÌ€le, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Marc AureÌ€le, empereur romain, 0121-0180 Marc Aurèle 121-180 Marc Aurèle Empereur 121-180 Marc Aurèle Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marc Aurèle empereur de Rome 121-180 Marc'Aurelio Marc-Antonin empereur romain Marc-Antonin empereur romain 0121-0180 Marc-AureÌ€le Antonin empereur romain 0121-0180 Marc-AureÌ€le de Rome 121-180 Marc-Aurèle Marc-Aurèle Antonin empereur romain 0121-0180 Marc-Aurèle de Rome 121-180 Marco Aurelio Marco Aurelio 121-180 Marco Aurelio Antonino, 121-180 Marco Aurelio Antonino, Emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio Antonous 121-180 Marco Aurelio empereur romain 0121-0180 Marco Aurelio imperatore romano 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Antonio, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marco Aurelio, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marco Aurélio Marco Aurélio Antonino Vero Imperador de Roma 121-180 Marco Filosofo Stoico 121-180 Marco Imperatore Romano 121-180 Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus. Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus 121-180 Marcus Annius Catilius Severus. Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Annius Verus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Imperator 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Romas imperators 121-180 Marcus Antoninus emperador de Roma 121-180 Marcus Antoninus empereur romain Marcus Antoninus empereur romain 0121-0180 Marcus Antoninus. Marcus Aurel 121-180 Marcus Aurelis emperador de Roma 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (imperator Imperii Romani ; 121-180). [m] Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Römisches Reich, Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Römisches Reich, Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus empereur romain 0121-0180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus imperatore romano 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Romeins keizer, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, empereur romain Marcus Aurelius Antonius Marcus Aurelius Antonius Imperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, římský císaÅ™, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antonius, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Philosoph 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Verus Marcus Aurelius kejser over romerriget Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus, římský císaÅ™, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius, Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome (Roman emperor and patron, 121-180 CE) Marcus Aurelius, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, romersk kejsare, 121-180 Marek Aureli Marek Aureliusz Marek Aureliusz (cesarz rzymski ; 121-180). Marek Aureliusz Emperor of Rome 121-180 Mark Aurel Mark Aurel Römisches Reich, Kaiser 121-180 Mark Aurel, 121-180 Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark AvreliÄ­ Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marko Antonin Filozof Marko Aurelije Marko Aurelije Autokrator Markos Antonimos. Markos AntoÌ„ninos, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Markos AntoÌ„nios 121-180 Markos AntÅ�ninos Emperor of Rome 121-180 Markos AntÅ�ninos, Romas imperators, 121-180 Markos AntÅ�nios 121-180 Marks AureÌ„lijs, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marks AurÄ“lijs Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marks AurÄ“lijs, Romas imperators, 121-180 MarkÌ£us Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 MarkÌ£us Orelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marqus ʾAvrelyus ʾAntÌ£oninus, 121-180 Marqus ʾAvrelyus ʾAná¹­oninus 121-180 Marḳus Aʼurelyus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marḳus Orelyus Emperor of Rome 121-180 MaÌ�rkos ’AntoÌ„ninos empereur romain 0121-0180 MaÌ‚rkos 'AureÌ„Ì�lios, empereur romain MaÌ‚rkos 'AuriÌ„Ì�lios, empereur romain MaÌ‚rkos ’AureÌ„Ì�lios empereur romain 0121-0180 MaÌ‚rkos ’AuriÌ„Ì�lios empereur romain 0121-0180 Márkos ’AntÅ�ninos empereur romain 0121-0180 Mârkos 'AurÄ«Ì�lios empereur romain Mârkos 'Aurḗlios empereur romain Mârkos ’AurÄ«Ì�lios empereur romain 0121-0180 Mârkos ’Aurḗlios empereur romain 0121-0180 as emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus before adoption, Marcus Annius Verus Ἀντωνῖνος, ΜαÌ�Ï�κος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Αá½�Ï�ήιλος Ἀντώνιος, ΜάÏ�κος ΜάÏ�κος ΑυÏ�ήλιος ΜάÏ�κος ΑυÏ�ήλιος Αντωνίνος ΑÏ�γουστος ΜάÏ�κος Ἀντωνῖνος Emperor of Rome 121-180 ΜάÏ�κος ἈυÏ�ήλιος empereur romain 0121-0180 ΜαÌ�Ï�κος Ἀντωνῖνος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 ΜαÌ�Ï�κος ἈυÏ�ηÌ�λιος empereur romain 0121-0180 Ð�врелий, Марк Romas imperators 121-180 Ð�врелий, Марк Ð�нтоний РимÑ�кий Император 121-180 Ð�врелий, Марк Ð�нтонин, Romas imperators, 121-180 Марк Ð�врелий Марк Ð�врелий Ð�нтонин Romas imperators 121-180 Марк Ð�врелий, Romas imperators, 121-180 Марк Ð�врелий, РимÑ�кий Император, 121-180 מ×�רקוס ×�ורליוס מרקוס ×�ורליוס מרקוס ×�ורליוס ×�נטוניוס קיסר רומה מרקוס ×�ורליוס, קיסר רומ×�, 121-180 מרקוס ×�ורליוס, קיסר רומה, 121-180 ماركوس أوريليوس Ἀντωνῖνος, ΜάÏ�κος Emperor of Rome 121-180 アウレリウス アウレリウス, M アウレーリウス, マルクス マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス 马å�¯Â·å¥¥å‹’ç•™ Close × Shared Related Resources Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Title Close Social Networks and Archival Context SNAC is a discovery service for persons, families, and organizations found within archival collections at cultural heritage institutions. 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sq-wikipedia-org-1047	----	Mark Aureli - Wikipedia Mark Aureli Nga Wikipedia, enciklopedia e lirë This is the stable version, checked on 28 prill 2020. 1 pending change awaits review. Statusi Kthjellët Jump to navigation Jump to search Mark Aureli Marcus Aurelius, shqipërimi: Mark Aureli (latinisht: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26 prill 121 – 17 mars 180 p.k) Perandori dhe filozofi romak kishte prejardhjen nga një familje senatorësh spanjolle. U adoptua nga xhaxhai i tij që më pas do të bëhej perandori Antonio Pio (Antonius Pius), me urdhër të perandorit Adrian. Që në moshën 8 vjeçare u pranua nga Këshilli Klerikal i Romës. U edukua në retorikën greke dhe atë latine nga Frodo dhe Herod Attiko. Filozofia Stoike, e joshi tejmase, dhe që në moshën 12 vjeçare veshi uniformën stoike, duke adoptuar mënyrën e thjeshtë të jetesës së tyre. U bë njeri nga filozofët stoikë më të njohur. Kryesisht e kishte influencuar mësimdhënia e Epiktitit. Forma që zgjodhi për ti dhënë veprave të tija, duhet të ketë prejardhje nga Herakliti, pasi Mark Aureli me gjithë qejf i afrohet filozofisë së tij dhe zhvillon dhe më tej mendimet e filozofit, në një formë meditimi personal. Për jetën dhe mënyrën e të menduarit të tij, shumë informacione dalin nga libri i tij "Mbi Vetveten" që ai vetë shkruajti në greqisht, gjatë periudhës 170 – 178 para erës sonë, tashmë si perandor, libër i cili përmban fjalë të urta, me xhentilesë në shprehje, natyrale, se në mënyrën që përdor dhe një thjeshtësi klasike. 12 librat e meditimeve të tij vërtetojnë se sa qetësi brendësore dhe lehtësim mund ti ofronte Doktrina Stoike dhe sidomos në kohë të vështira me përplasje dhe trazira. Veprat e tija janë shpëtuar në minimumin e mundur, që në realitet nuk është asgjë tjetër përveç ditarit të tij personal, i cili nuk është i shkruar në mënyrë që mund të lexohet lehtë, por megjithatë duket dëshira e përgjegjshme e këtij filozofi – perandor për të ofruar shërbimet e tij kundrejt njerëzve, dhe detyrimi pozitiv të bashkëpunojë nga posti i tij dhe me të gjitha forcat e tij për mirëmbajtjen e komunitetit, anëtar i të cilit ndjehej dhe ai vetë. Nëpërmes kësaj dëshmie të shkëlqyer e tij, filozofi, i cili nga kalimi i tij nga Athina, ishte initacionuar në Misteret e Elevsinës, guxon të zhytet në rrënjët gati të paarritshme për të vdekshmit, të "Detyrës", me një Vetëdije të thellë jetës njerëzore, por nga ana tjetër dhe të përjetësisë së parashikimit të Botës. Ky qëndrim nuk e bën eremit dhe as jashtëtokësor, por përkundrazi një njeri thellësisht shoqëror që deklaron pa rezervimin më të vogël se : "Të gjithë ne jemi krijuar për arsye të bashkënjerëzve tanë, të cilëve u detyrohemi ose ti ndihmojmë të kultivohen ose ti pranojmë ashtu siç janë". Si perandor ishte tejmase i drejtë, i dashur me njerëzit dhe i durueshëm, pavarësisht se përballonte të përmbledhura kundër tij problemet më të vështira. - Armenia pëson epidrominë e Parthëve dhe atje lufta zgjat deri në vitin 166 p.K. vit në të cilin Perandoria pëson pushtimin nga murtaja shkatërruese që vjen nga Armenia, e cila shkatërroi Botën Klasike duke shfarosur pjesën më të madhe të popullsisë. - Komandanti i Legjeonëve të Sirisë, Avid Kasio, po përparon në një qëndrim përçarës, pasi është vetëquajtur në Antioki "Perandor i Lindjes". - Markomanët Gjermanë po hyjnë me forcë në kufinjtë veriore dhe që atëherë perandori po shpenzon të gjithë jetën e tij atje, me përjashtim ekspeditën e tij të shkurtër në Lindje për kontrollimin e qëndrimit të Kasjit, deri në vdekjen e tij më 17 Mars të vitit 180 në Vindobona (Vjena e sotme), duke mbrojtur vijën kufitare të Dunabit, me vizita të shkurtra të tij në Romë. - Uria, shkatërimet natyrale dhe dramat e tij familjare, pasi nga 13 fëmijët e tij nuk mbijetuan përveç se 5 të tillë, plotësojnë skenën brenda së cilës thërritet ky burrë i madh të zbatojë praktikisht, urdhrat Stoike. Trajtoi njerëzit gjithmonë si qënie etike, formoi legjislaturën e vështirë të asaj kohe dhe u përpoq të kompozonte një shumë ligjesh që të kishte si qëllim barazinë ligjore dhe lirinë e fjalës (për barazinë e ligjit brënda qytetit, për barazinë e nështetasve…’’ shkruan ai vetë, A, 14) , formoi një arkë të veçantë financash për varrimin e qytetarëve të varfër, kufizoi prostitucionin dhe veset jo etike, krijoi këshillin e përkujdesshmërisë për jetimët, imponoi mbajtjen e detyruar të regjistrit të lindjeve dhe të popullsisë, përgjithësoi çlirimin e skllevërve dhe ju dha aftësi të plota për akte legale por edhe të drejtë trashëgimnië nga pronarët e tyre nëse mungonin njerëzit e afërm, ndaloi ndëshkimet trupore dhe ndoqi penalisht shpifjet dhe vrasjet e skllevërve nga pronari i tyre, organizoi një sistem perfekt të rezervave ushqimore me të cilin bëri të pamundura, të paktën në gadishullin apenin, krizat e urisë. Parashikoi shfajësimin e të akuzuarve me sëmundje mendore, legalizoi "Favorizimin e lirisë" dhe u përpoq – por pa sukses - të largonte popullin nga spektaklet e amfiteatrove. Konceptet e tij filozofike nuk e ndaluan të bëhej ndjekës i të krishterëve, pasi i konsideronte si kërcënimin më të madh të shtetit Romak. Kështu realizoi dy ndjekje të krishterëve që zgjatën pak vite, nga 166 e deri në 168 dhe 177 deri në 180, që përbëjnë një dëshmi të mirë historike për madhësinë e kriminalitetit të aktivitetit të krishterë të asaj kohe, të cilët sulmonin hapur akoma dhe simbole dhe tempuj por edhe kundër të gjithë rrjetit shoqëror. Njëkohësisht, apologjisti i Kristianizmit, Tertiliani, në librin e tij ‘’Apologji’’ quan Mark Aurelin ‘’mbrojtës i të Krishterëve’’. Kjo shpjegohet pasi Mark Aureli në 15 vitet e para të perandorimit të tij mbronte të krishterët dhe madje krijoi dhe një ligj që dënonte të gjithë ata që i bezdisnin jo për arsye penale por për shkak të veçorisë së besimit të tyre. Me të vërtetë, Mark Aureli, qëndroi gjithmonë mbi gjërat dhe subjektivitetet, u soll gjithmonë me Drejtësi dhe duke mos mbajtur inat, akoma dhe me armiqtë e tij: atëherë kur tradhëtari Kasjo u vra nga një oficer i tij, e varrosi me të gjitha nderet ushtarake. Referime[Redakto | Redakto nëpërmjet kodit] [1] Marrë nga "https://sq.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Aureli&oldid=2100554" Kategoria: Filozofë romakë Menyja e lëvizjeve Mjete vetjake Nuk keni hyrë brenda Diskutimi Kontribute Krijo llogari Hyni Emërhapësira Artikulli Diskutim Variante Shikime Lexoni Duke kontrolluar Redakto Redakto nëpërmjet kodit Shihni historikun Më shumë Kërko Lëvizje Mirë se vini! 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sr-wikipedia-org-3435	----	Марко Аурелије — Википедија Пређи на садржај Укључи/искључи бочну траку Претрага Личне алатке Нисте пријављени Разговор Доприноси Отвори налог Пријави ме Мени за навигацију Навигација Главна страна Садржај Радионица Скорашње измене Случајна страница Интеракција Помоћ Трг Актуелности Контакт Донације Алатке Шта води овамо Сродне измене Отпреми датотеку Посебне странице Трајна веза Подаци о страници Цитирај страницу Ставка на Википодацима Штампање/извоз Преузми (PDF) Одштампај На другим пројектима Викиостава Викицитат На другим језицима Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Български Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Cymraeg Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Հայերեն Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili 한국어 Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy Монгол मराठी မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Piemontèis پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 文言 粵語 Уреди везе Именски простори Чланак Разговор Ћир./lat. Ћир./lat. Ћирилица Latinica Погледи Читај Уреди Уреди извор Историја Више Марко Аурелије С Википедије, слободне енциклопедије Овај чланак садржи списак литературе, сродне писане изворе или спољашње везе, али његови извори остају нејасни, јер нису унети у сам текст. Помозите у његовом побољшавању навођењем прецизнијих извора. (детаљније о уклањању овог шаблона обавештења) Марко Аурелије Биста Марка Аурелија, Музеј Сен-Рајмон, Тулуз Пуно име Марко Аније Вер (по рођењу) Марко Аније Катилије Север (рођење до брака) Марко Елије Аурелије Вер (брак до усвајања од стране Антонина Пија) Марко Елије Аурелије Вер Цезар (као наследник) Император Цезар Марко Аурелије Антонин Август (као император) Датум рођења (121-04-26)26. април 121. Место рођења Рим Римско царство Датум смрти 17. март 180.(180-03-17) (58 год.) Место смрти Виндобона или Сирмијум Римско царство Гроб Хадријанов маузолеј Династија Антонини Отац Марко Аније Вер Мајка Домиција Луцила Супружник Фаустина Млађа Потомство Комод Марко Аније Вер Антонин Луцила Римски цар Период 8. март 161. — 169. (са Луцијем Вером) 169. — 177. (самостално) 177. — 17. март 180. (са Комодом) (19 год.) Претходник Антонин Пије Наследник Комод Марко Аурелије (лат. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus; од 130. године: M. Annius Verus; после усиновљења 138. године: M. Aelius Verus Aurelius Caesar; као цар: Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninius Augustus) - (рођен 26. априла 121. године у Риму, умро 17. марта 180. године у Виндобони - данас Беч) био је од 161. године до своје смрти римски цар. Рођен је као Марк Катилије Север, а пошто га је усвојио цар Антонин Пије, Марко је добио име Марко Елије Аурелије Вер, а као цар његово пуно име је гласило: Марко Аурелије Антонин Август. Марко Аурелије био је 16. и последњи римски цар који је то постао усвајањем. Он је морао после дугострајног мирног периода у историји Рима да се поново прихвати ратова. Велики непријатељи су му били Парти на источној граници, а на другом крају света, Рим су нападали варвари, Маркомани који су угрожавали дунавски лимес. Марко Аурелије који је владао заједно са својим братом по усвојењу, Луцијем Вером умро је током једног похода против Германа. Због својих „Разговора са самим собом“, Марко Аурелије је био познат као цар-филозоф. Садржај 1 Извори 2 Биографија 2.1 Порекло 2.2 Успон ка власти 2.3 Владавина, 161—180. 2.4 Смрт и слава после смрти 2.5 Породица 3 Цар филозоф 4 Популарна култура 5 Референце 6 Спољашње везе Извори[уреди | уреди извор] Значајни извори податак о животу и владавини Марка Аурелија често су пуни неједнакости и непоуздани. Најважнија група извора, биографије садржане у Historia Augusta су вероватно написане у IV веку, али су заправо дело једног јединог аутора, из касног четвртог века (око 395). Биографија[уреди | уреди извор] Порекло[уреди | уреди извор] Антонин Пије, римски император у периоду од 138—161. Маркова породица потицала је из места Укуби, малог града југоисточно од Кордобе у римској провинцији Баетици, данашња Шпанија. Породица се истакла у касном I веку нове ере, Марков прадеда, Марко Аније Вер Први, био је сенатор и бивши претор; око 73./74. н.е., његов деда, Марко Аније Вер Други, учињен је патрицијем. Веров старији син - отац Марка Аурелија - Марко Аније Вер Трећи, оженио је Домицију Луцилу. Луцила је била кћер патриција, Калвисија Тула и Домиције Луциле Старије која је наследила велико богатство (подробно описаног у једном од Плинијевих писама) од њеног деде по мајци и њеног деде по оцу путем усвајања. Млађа Луција добиће већи део мајчиног богатства, укључујући и велику циглану у предграђу Рима, профитабилан посао у то време с обзиром да је град доживљавао процват грађевинске делетности. Луцила и Вер Трећи имали су двоје деце: сина Марка, рођеног 26. априла 121., и кћер Анију Корнифицију Фаустину, вероватно рођену 122. или 123. Вер је вероватно преминуо 124., када је Марку било само три година. Иако га је једва познавао, Марко Аурелије написао је у својим медитацијама да је научио скромност и мужевност, по узору на своја сећања оца и његовој постхумној репутацији. Маркова мајка, Луција, није се преудала. По тадашњом аристократској пракси, Луција вероватно није проводила много времена са сином. Марко је био предат на бригу неговатељицама. Ипак, Марко одаје признање својој мајци због тога што га је подучила религиозности и једноставној исхрани и начинина како да избегне „Навике богатих”. У својим писмима, Марко наводи честе и нежне референце о њој, био је захвалан јер: „Иако јој је било суђено да умре млада, провела је своју последњу годину са мном.” Након смрти оца Марка је усвојио његов деда, Марко Аније Вер Други. Још један човек, Луције Катилије Север, учествовао је у његовом одгајању. Север је описан као Марков прадеда по мајци. Марко је одрастао у дому својих родитеља, на римском брежуљку Целију, део рима који ће нежно називати „Мој Целиј”. Успон ка власти[уреди | уреди извор] Луције Вер, цар заједно са Марком Аурелијем од 161. до своје смрти 169. Музеј Метрополитен, Њујорк. Касне 136., император Хадријан умало је умро услед крварења. Опорављајући се у својој вили у Тиволију, одабрао је Луција Цеонија Комода (Луција Елија Вера) за свог наследника, и усвојио га као сина. Избор је извршен invitis omnibus, против жеља свих а објашњење је и даље нејасно. После кратког боравка на дунавској граници, Луције се вратио у Рим да би се обратио сенату, првог дана 138. године. У ноћи пре говора разболео се и умро од крварења касније истог дана. 24. јануара 138. Хадријан је изабрао Аурелија Антонина за свог новог наследника. Након неколико дана размишљања Антонин је прихватио и усвојен је 25. фебруара. Као део Хадријанових услова, Антонин је усвојио Марка и Луција Вера, сина Елија. На Хадријанов захтев, Антонинова кћер Фаустина верена је за Луција. Запањен сазнањем да га је Хадријан усвојио, Марко се неодлучно преселио из куће своје мајке на целију у Хадријанов приватни дом. Током 138. Хадријан је захтевао од сената да Марко буде изузет од закона који је забрањивао избор на функцију квестора пре двадесетчетврте године живота. Сенат се сложио и Марко је служио као Конзул под Антонином, за 139. годину. Владавина, 161—180.[уреди | уреди извор] Пијев усвојени син и наследник, Марко Аурелије владао је царством од 161. до 180. године. Од 161. до 169., званично Марко и Луције Вер заједнички су владали царством (што је био први пут да Рим има два цара), међутим, од почетка је било јасно да је Марко имао већу власт иако су оба цара номинално била једнака. Убрзо по доласку на престо, Аурелијева једанаестогодишња ћерка, Анија Луција, верена је за Луција Вера. Оба цара била су веома популарна. Од 161. до 166. Луције Вер предводио је римске снаге у рату са Парћанима. Повод сукоба поново је била Јерменија, тада држава под римским протекторатом. Парћански краљ, Вологез IV, ушао је у Јерменију и отерао краља са престола, заменивши га својим кандидатом, који је припадао владајућој парћанској породици Арсакида. Одлучено је да Луције преузме команду у рату, будући јачи и здравији од Аурелија и тиме погоднији за војничку активност. Током већег дела рата, Луције се налазио у Антиохији где је речено да је живео у великом луксузу. Статуа Марка Аурелија на коњу, Пјаца дел Кампидољо, Рим. Луције Вер, цар заједно са Марком Аурелијем од 161. до своје смрти 169. Музеј Метрополитен, Њујорк. Након што се ток рата преокренуо у римску корист, а јерменска престоница освојена 163. године[2], Луције - иако заправо никада лично није био у борби - узео је титулу Armeniacus (освајач Јерменије). На престо Јерменије доведен је римски сенатор арсакидског порекла. Напослетку се рат завршио римском победом, парћанска престоница Ктесифон поново је освојена. На повратку у Рим, Луције је награђен тријумфом, првом у коме су учествовала два цара. Међутим, војници су са истока донели кугу (Антонинска куга), која ће у периоду између 165. и 180. проширити скоро читавим царством и изазвати смрт огромног броја људи међу којима је и сам Луције Вер, који је умро 169. Девет година касније, болест је поново избила а према Касију Диону, дневно је умирало 2.000 људи док је укупан број страдалих процењен на око пет милиона. Биста Фаустине Млађе, супруге Марка Аурелија, Лувр. Након успешног окончаног рата са парћанима, нова претња по царство дошла је са севера. У периоду од 166. до 180. Аурелије ће водити серију кампања против племена Сарматских Јазига и Германских Маркомана и Квада, сукобу познатом као Маркомански рат. Борбе су се водиле читавим током Дунава који је формирао североисточну границу римске империје. Иако су напослетку римљани однели победу, овај рат био је увод у касније инвазије Германских племена што ће на крају довести до пада западне поливине царства. Маркомански ратови показали су слабост северних граница и због тога ће након тога чак половина римских легија (16 од 33) бити стационарино на Дунаву и Рајни. Марко Аурелије провео је велики део рата на Дунаву, руководећи војним операцијама. Током Маркоманских ратова, у периоду између 170. и 180. Аурелије је написао своје најпознатије филозофско дело Самоме Себи (Meditations) које је написано на грчком језику. Ово дело зацементирало је Аурелијев положај као најважнијег филозофа позностоичке школе али и било узрок његове славе после смрти. Не само што је Аурелијево дело јасни носилац стоичке филозофије и духовности, оно је такође прожето јаким осећајем савести и дужности којих се Марко и као владар и особа увек држао. Након што је након дуготрајних борби, Аурелије потиснуо германска племена ситуација на истоку се веома закомпликовала. Године 175., Авидије Касије, победник над Партима у рату 161—166., се после погрешних вести о Аурелијевој смрти, прогласио за императора. Извори наводе да га је на овај поступак охрабрила супруга Марка Аурелија, Фаустина која је била забринута због лошег здравља свог мужа, верујући да се Марко налази близу смрти због чега је осећала потребу да Касије делује као њен заштитник, будући да је њен и Аурелијев син, Комод, са тринаест година, још био премлад за долазак на власт. Император се опоравио, но, у међувремену египатске легије признале су Касија за цара. Аурелије је испрва покушао да сакрије вести о побуни, али када у томе није успео, у обраћању војницима (Аурелије је у то време предводио легије и походу против племена на северу). И говору који историчар Касије Дион приписује Марку, император жали над издајом „Драгог пријатеља“ истовремено изразивши наду да Касије неће бити убијен нити извршити самоубиство, да би му могао указати милост. Сенат је у међувремену прогласио Касија за јавног непријатеља. Касије се на почетку побуне налазио у добром положају, будући да је успешно окончао кампању против Парта услед чега је имао добру базу подршке. Располагао је са седам легија, три из Сирије, две из Палестине, једном из Арабије и једном из Египта. Ипак, Касије није успео да обезбеди ширу подршку за своје амбиције, гувернер Кападокије Мартије Вер, остао је лојалан Марку Аурелију стога је било јасно да је у бољој позицији. Касија је напослетку убио центурион, његова глава послата је императору који је одбио да је види и наредио да је сахране. Марко Аурелије поново се разболео 180. године и умро 17. марта у Виндобони (данашњи Беч). Одмах је деификован а његов пепео враћен у Рим и положен у Хадријановом Маузолеју. На крају историје Маркове владавине, историчар Касије Дион, написао је похвални говор о покојном императору, описујући транзицију према Комодовој владавини, чији је сам био сведок: "...(Марка) није пратила добра срећа коју је заслужио, јер није био физички јак и био је суочен са невољама које нису престајале током његове читаве владавине. Али, што се мене тиче, још више му се дивим управо због тога, јер, нашавши се усред необичних и ванредних околности, успео је да сам преживи и још очува и царство. Само једна ствар спречила га је да буде потпуно срећан, наиме, пошто је и након неговања и образовања сина на најбољи могући начин, био много разочаран у њега. Ова ствар мора бити наша следећа тема; јер наша историја сада се од краљевства злата, претвара у краљевство рђе и челика..." Услед оваквог коментара, неки историчари, предвођени Едвардом Гибоном, узимају почетак Комодове владавине као почетну тачку пропадања Римског царства. Смрт и слава после смрти[уреди | уреди извор] Марко Аурелије је започео 3. августа 178. године, заједно са својим сином Комодом други рат против Маркомана. Током овог похода, цар је умро, вероватно у Виндобони, данашњем Бечу. Други извор као место његове смрти помиње Сирмијум, данашњу Сремску Митровицу. Његов пепео је пренет у Рим и положен у маузолеј цара Хадријана. Сматра се да је умро од куге. У част Марка Аурелија, Сенат је подигао почасни стуб. Он се и данас налази у Риму. Најпознатија представа Марка Аурелија је бронзана статуа цара на коњу у Риму. Она се од ренесансе налази на тргу Кампидољо, чији је нацрт напаравио Микеланђело. Због оштећења од атмосферилија, данас се статуа налази унутар музеја на истом тргу. Статуа је преживела Средњи век захваљујући томе што је у том периоду портретисани цар идентификован са првим хришћанским римским царем Константином Великим. Породица[уреди | уреди извор] Са својом женом Фаустином, Марко је имао више деце, међу којима и Комода, који је постао цар након очеве смрти. Цар филозоф[уреди | уреди извор] Марко Аурелије се током читавог живота бавио филозофијом. И као цар похађао је филозофска предавања. Његово дело, написано на грчком језику, Самоме себи (Meditations), састоји се од мисли и упозорења које је цар самом себи упутио током једног ратног похода против Маркомана. Цар Марко Аурелије један је од главних представника позностоичког учења. Дело Самоме себи није објавио док је био жив него је пронађено после његове смрти и у њему је писао песимистично о ништавности свега.[1] Као владар, помагао је неговање филозофије. У Атини, 176. године нове ере основао је филозофску школу са четири катедре (платоновска, аристотеловска, стоичка и епикурејска) а филозофима који су били на челу тих катедри одредио је државне плате.[2] Популарна култура[уреди | уреди извор] Марко Аурелије и његов син Комод су једни од главних протагониста у филму Гладијатор. Референце[уреди | уреди извор] ^ Милан Узелац. „Историја филозофије, I”. стр. 116-117. Приступљено 22. 1. 2021.  ^ Милан Узелац. „Историја филозофије, I”. стр. 135. Приступљено 22. 1. 2021.  Спољашње везе[уреди | уреди извор] Портал Биографија Портал Антички Рим Портал Историја Више информација о чланкуМарко Аурелијепронађите на Википедијиним сестринским пројектима: Медији на Остави Цитати на Викицитату Подаци на Википодацима (језик: енглески) Радови цара Марка Аурелија на пројекту Гутенберг (језик: грчки) Оригинални текст дела „Самом себи“ на грчком језику (језик: енглески) Енглески превод дела „Самом себи“ Цар филозоф Милан Узелац, Историја филозофије I (Приступљено 22.1.2021) Претходник: Антонин Пије Римски цар Наследник: Луције Вер Римски и византијски цареви Принципат (27. п. н. е. — 235 н. е.) Октавијан Август Тиберије Калигула Клаудије Нерон Галба Отон Вителије Веспазијан Тит Домицијан Нерва Трајан Хадријан Антонин Пије Марко Аурелије Луције Вер Комод Пертинакс Дидије Јулијан Септимије Север Каракала Макрин Елагабал Александар Север Криза 3. века (235—284) Максимин Трачанин Гордијан I Гордијан II Пупијен и Балбин Гордијан III Филип Арабљанин Трајан Деције Требонијан Гал ca Хостилијаном и Волусијаном Емилијан Валеријан Галијен Клаудије II Готски Квинтил Аурелијан Тацит Флоријан Проб Кар Нумеријан Карин Доминат (284—395) Диоклецијан Максимијан Констанције I Хлор Галерије Север II Максенције Максимин Даја Лициније Константин Велики Константин II Констанс I Констанције II Јулијан Флавије Клаудије Јовијан Валентинијан I Валенс Грацијан Валентинијан II Теодосије I Западно царство (395—476) Хонорије Констанције III Јован Валентинијан III Петроније Максим Авит Мајоријан Либије Север Антемије Олибрије Глицерије Јулије Непот Ромул Августул Источно (Византијско) царство (395—1453) Аркадије Теодосије II Маркијан Лав I Лав II Зенон Василиск Анастасије I Јустин I Јустинијан I Јустин II Млађи Тиберије II Константин Маврикије Фока Ираклије Ираклије Нови Константин Ираклона Констанс II Погонат Константин IV Јустинијан II Ринотмет Леонтије Тиберије III Апсимар Филипик Анастасије II Теодосије III Лав III Исавријанац Константин V Копроним Лав IV Хазар Константин VI Ирина Нићифор I Ставракије Михаило I Рангабе Лав V Јерменин Михаило II Аморијац Теофило Михаило III Аморијац Василије I Македонац Лав VI Мудри Константин VII Порфирогенит Роман I Лакапин Роман II Нићифор II Фока Јован I Цимискије Василије II Бугароубица Константин VIII Роман III Аргир Михајло IV Пафлагонац Михајло V Калафат Константин IX Мономах Зоја Теодора Михајло VI Стратиотик Исак I Комнин Константин X Дука Роман IV Диоген Михајло VII Парапинак Нићифор III Вотанијат Алексије I Комнин Јован II Комнин Манојло I Комнин Алексије II Комнин Андроник I Комнин Исак II Анђел Алексије III Анђел Алексије IV Анђел Алексије V Дука Мурзуфл Константин Ласкарис Теодор I Ласкарис Јован III Дука Ватац Теодор II Ласкарис Јован IV Ласкарис Михајло VIII Палеолог Андроник II Палеолог Андроник III Палеолог Јован V Палеолог Јован VI Кантакузин Андроник IV Палеолог Јован VII Палеолог Манојло II Палеолог Јован VIII Палеолог Константин XI Палеолог Драгаш Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 102895066 LCCN: n80051702 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X GND: 118577468 SELIBR: 194415 SUDOC: 027008614 BNF: cb11914476c (подаци) BIBSYS: 90564087 ULAN: 500115701 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NLA: 35966523 NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 BNE: XX932158 CiNii: DA00596148 IATH: w6c851bs CONOR.SI: 6923107 NSK: 000083919 Преузето из „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марко_Аурелије&oldid=23563658” Категорије: Рођени 121. Умрли 180. Римски цареви Династија Антонина Стоицизам Сакривене категорије: Чланци којима недостају извори у тексту Сви чланци којима недостају извори у тексту Чланци који садрже текст на језику — латински Чланци са спољашњим везама на језику — енглески Чланци са спољашњим везама на језику — грчки НК са 18 елемената Википедијски чланци са VIAF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са LCCN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ISNI идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са GND идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SELIBR идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BNF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BIBSYS идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ULAN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са MusicBrainz идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са NLA идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SNAC-ID идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са CONOR.SI идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са NSK идентификаторима Датум и време последње измене странице: 23. јануар 2021. у 14:34 Текст је доступан под лиценцом Creative Commons Ауторство—Делити под истим условима; могући су и додатни услови. Погледајте услове коришћења за детаље. Политика приватности О Википедији Одрицање одговорности Мобилни приказ За програмере Статистика Изјава о колачићима 
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sv-wikipedia-org-1418	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Från Wikipedia Hoppa till navigering Hoppa till sök Marcus Aurelius Byst föreställande Marcus Aurelius. Glyptothek i München. Romersk kejsare Regeringstid 7 mars 161 – 17 mars 180 (med Lucius Verus 161-169, med Commodus 177-180) Företrädare Antoninus Pius Efterträdare Commodus Gemål Faustina den yngre Barn Commodus Ätt Nervansk-antoninska dynastin Far Marcus Annius Verus Mor Domitia Lucilla Minor Född 26 april 121 Rom Död 17 mars 180 (58 år) Nära Sirmium Begravd Hadrianus mausoleum i Rom Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, född Marcus Annius Verus, adopterad som Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus, blev kejsare som Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, född 26 april 121 i Rom, död 17 mars 180 nära Sirmium, var romersk kejsare från den 7 mars 161 till sin död. Han var även känd som stoicistisk tänkare. Han medregerade först med sin adoptivbror[1] Lucius Verus från 161 till 169 och mellan 177 och 180 med sin äldste son Commodus.[2] Han hade åtta söner och sex döttrar. Vid hans död efterträdde Commodus honom som kejsare.[1] Marcus Aurelius ryttarstaty är den enda bevarade antika ryttarstatyn. Detta beror på att man under lång tid trodde att statyn föreställde Konstantin den store, den förste kristne kejsaren. Den stod tidigare på Kapitolieplatsen i Rom, men är numera ersatt med en kopia. Innehåll 1 Vägen till makten 2 Kejsare 2.1 Krig mot parther och germaner 2.2 Upproret i Syrien 2.3 Filosofi och karaktär 3 Svenska översättningar av Ta eis heautón 4 Marcus Aurelius i nutida kultur 4.1 Litteratur 4.2 Filmer 5 Källor 5.1 Noter 5.2 Tryckta källor 6 Se även 7 Externa länkar Vägen till makten[redigera | redigera wikitext] Hans familj kom ursprungligen från Ucubi i närheten av Córdoba i Baetica. Släkten hade blivit rik på olivolja och dessutom politiskt framgångsrik. Både farfadern och morfadern hade varit konsuler och faderns syster gifte sig med Antoninus Pius. När Marcus var tre år gammal dog fadern.[3] Redan som mycket ung väckte han Hadrianus intresse. När han var sex år gammal gjorde Hadrianus honom till riddare. När han var sexton år kastades han in det politiska livets rampljus; han förlovades på Hadrianus initiativ med dottern till Lucius Ceionius Commodus som Hadrianus sedan adopterade. När Lucius Ceionius Commodus sedan dog blev Antoninus Pius den nye efterträdaren och adopterade Commodus båda söner: Marcus och den biologiske son som skulle bli Lucius Verus.[4] Marcus fick tidigt hjälpa Antoninus att styra riket. År 139 fick han titeln Caesar och han blev konsul när han bara var 18 år gammal. Antoninus beslutade sig för att gifta bort sin dotter, Annia Galeria Faustina den yngre, till Marcus och bröt därför Marcus förlovning. Marcus gifte sig med Faustina den yngre 145. Giftermålet kom att resultera i 14 barn.[4] När Antoninus dog rådde det inget tvivel om att han ville se Marcus som ensam kejsare. Marcus Aurelius övertalade dock senaten att ge Lucius kejsartitlarna Caesar och Augustus och lät praetorianerna utropa båda till imperator. Beslutet kan ha motiverats av att Marcus ville ägna sig åt sina filosofiska intressen.[5] Kejsare[redigera | redigera wikitext] Krig mot parther och germaner[redigera | redigera wikitext] Endast fyra av Marcus tjugo år vid makten skulle vara utan krig. Den gamla konflikten kring Armenien blossade åter upp; år 161 invaderade partherna det romerska protektoratet. Det bestämdes att Lucius Verus skulle åka österut för att ta saken i egna händer. År 166 återvände Verus och bröderna hyllades på Verus initiativ tillsammans i Rom.[6] Med sig hem hade soldaterna tagit pesten, vilket ledde till en förödande epidemi 167 och nya utbrott under de kommande tio åren.[6] År 166 började en serie av germanska angrepp över Donau. Kejsarna åkte tillsammans för att försvara riket men när de kom fram till fronten var stridigheterna över. Lucius Verus dog i början av år 169 i Altium i sviterna av slaganfall.[7] Aurelius återvände till Rom för att begrava sin bror men var redan 169 på väg till fronten igen. De följande fem åren ledde han strider mot quader och markomanner. År 170 invaderade dessa folk Norditalien och belägrade Aquileia för att sedan börja drivas tillbaka följande år. Kriget blev utdraget och blodigt och utkämpades ofta i hård terräng. Det var i denna miljö som Aurelius började författa sina Meditationer.[8] Upproret i Syrien[redigera | redigera wikitext] Provinsen Syrien. Våren 175 fick Aurelius besked om att guvernören i Syrien, Gaius Avidius Cassius, ledde ett uppror mot honom. Cassius hade varit till stor nytta under kriget mot Partien och hade därför fått förtroendet att styra i öst medan Aurelius stred mot germanerna. Upproret berodde troligtvis på ett falskt rykte om att kejsaren var död och det verkar inte troligt att Cassius hade för avsikt att inleda ett uppror mot sin kejsare. Men då han redan blivit utropad till kejsare av sina trupper fanns ingen återvändo. Upproret gick till en början bra; han fick snabbt över Aegyptus på sin sida. Men när Aurelius lojala soldater mördade Cassius dog upproret ut.[9] Efter upproret lät Aurelius, för att förhindra nya uppror, tillkännage att hans son Commodus var medregent och skulle ärva riket. Sedan återvände han för att fortsätta kriget mot germanerna. Den 23 december 176 hyllades han som segrare men kriget tog fart igen mot slutet av 178. År 179 var man åter i hårda strider med quaderna.[10] Aurelius hade då varit sjuk länge och drabbats av buksmärtor och andningsproblem, troligen någon sorts cancer. De sista åren gick han på drogen teriak som innehöll bland annat opium. Den 17 mars 180 avled han av sin sjukdom i Sirmium.[10] Enligt en annan uppgift avled han av pesten i Vindobona (dagens Wien).[11] Filosofi och karaktär[redigera | redigera wikitext] Aureus föreställande Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius hade redan i ungdomen tagit intryck av den stoiska filosofin. Som kejsare försökte han efterleva denna skolas ideal, och därmed uppfylla Platons dröm att skapa en föredömlig härskare genom filosofisk utbildning. Han var dock både självkritisk och blygsam i denna fråga.[12] Hans världsbild kan beskrivas som panteistisk, då han uppfattade gudomen som något levande och verkande i allt som sker i världen. Att inse och acceptera denna sanning såg han som människans uppgift och hennes lycka.[13] Denna filosofi finns beskriven i hans självbektraktelser (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν, Ta eis heautón)[13], ett verk på grekiska i tolv delar, där han i form av en inre dialog diskuterar tankar om det egna jaget, andra människor, världen och försynen. Det är delvis på grund av denna skrift som synen på adoptivkejsarnas tid som en guldålder har uppstått.[12] På grund av sin filosofiska inriktning och en respekt för den romerska religionen var han misstänksam mot kristendomen.[13] Det förekom kristendomsförföljelser under hans tid som kejsare, och många kristna avrättades för att ha vägrat visa respekt för den romerska statens gudar.[14] Som regent lär han ha varit plikttrogen, samvetsgrann och välmenande med ett sedligt allvar, även om han inte var förstklassig som befälhavare eller statsman.[12][13] Han räknas som mer kompetent än sin medkejsare Lucius Verus.[14] Svenska översättningar av Ta eis heautón[redigera | redigera wikitext] Den romerske keisarens Marci Aurelii Antonini Betraktelser öfwer sig sielf ... (översättning Christopher Manderström, Stockholm, 1755) Själfbetraktelser (översättning E. Weer (dvs. Ellen Wester), Bonnier, 1911) Självbetraktelser (översättning av Ellen Wester, reviderad av Vera Silverstolpe, Forum, 1967) Självbetraktelser (översättning av Ellen Wester, bearbetad av Daniel Martinez, Sjösala förlag, 2017) Självbetraktelser (översättning av Ellen Wester, kommenterad av Tomas Öberg, Utsigten AB, 2017) Självbetraktelser (översättning och inledning av Mikael Johansson, Bokförlaget Daidalos, 2021) Marcus Aurelius i nutida kultur[redigera | redigera wikitext] Litteratur[redigera | redigera wikitext] Hadrianusminnen av Marguerite Yourcenar Household Gods av Judith Tarr och Harry Turtledove Självbetraktelser. Marcus Aurelius, Forum, 1967. ISBN 91-37-05842-8. Självbetraktelser. Marcus Aurelius, e-bok, Utsigten, 2017. ISBN 978-91-639-4806-0. Filmer[redigera | redigera wikitext] Romarrikets fall Gladiator Roman Empire (TV-serie) Källor[redigera | redigera wikitext] Noter[redigera | redigera wikitext] ^ [a b] Scarre 1995, s. 112 ^ ”Commodus”. Nationalencyklopedin. https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/commodus. Läst 21 maj 2020.  ^ Scarre 1995, s. 113–114 ^ [a b] Scarre 1995, s. 114 ^ Scarre 1995, s. 114–115 ^ [a b] Scarre 1995, s. 115–116 ^ Scarre 1995, s. 116 ^ Scarre 1995, s. 116–117 ^ Scarre 1995, s. 117–118 ^ [a b] Scarre 1995, s. 118 ^ Linders 2003, s. 180 ^ [a b c] ”Marcus Aurelius”. Nationalencyklopedin. https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/marcus-aurelius. Läst 21 maj 2020.  ^ [a b c d] ”Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 17. Lux - Mekanik”. runeberg.org. 1912. sid. 881-882. http://runeberg.org/nfbq/0469.html. Läst 21 maj 2020.  ^ [a b] Henrikson, Alf (1978). Alla Tider  Tryckta källor[redigera | redigera wikitext] Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Antony, red (1996) (på engelska). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. sid. 219–221. ISBN 0-19-866172-X  Linders, Tullia (2003). Vem är vem i antikens Grekland och i romarriket: människor och gudar under tusen år fram till Kristi födelse. Stockholm: Prisma. sid. 178–181. ISBN 91-518-4254-8  Scarre, Christopher (1995) (på engelska). Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0500050775  Se även[redigera | redigera wikitext] 7447 Marcusaurelius Externa länkar[redigera | redigera wikitext] Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Marcus Aurelius.Bilder & media Marcus Aurelius (121-180) hos Litteraturbanken Företrädare: Antoninus Pius Romersk kejsare 161–180 med Lucius Verus 161–169 och Commodus 177–192 Efterträdare: Commodus v • r Romerska kejsare Principatet 27 f.Kr.–235 e.Kr. 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zw9cdphh3v38g0d • SUDOC: 027008614 • BNF: cb11914476c (data) • BIBSYS: 90564087 • ULAN: 500115701 • NLA: 35966523 • NDL: 00431918 • NKC: jn19981001808 • BNE: XX932158 • CiNii: DA00596148 • CANTIC: a10491697 Hämtad från "https://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=49105094" Kategorier: Födda 121 Avlidna 180 Marcus Aurelius Romerska filosofer Stoiker Män Personer inom Romerska riket under 100-talet Romerska kejsare Gravsatta i Hadrianus mausoleum Personer från Rom Dolda kategorier: Litteraturbanken Artiklar med successionsbox som bör uppdateras Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från VIAF Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från LCCN Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från ISNI Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från GND Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från LIBRIS Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från BNF Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från BIBSYS Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från ULAN Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från NLA 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sw-wikipedia-org-66	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru Marcus Aurelius Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius (26 Aprili, 121 – 17 Machi, 180) alikuwa Kaizari wa Dola la Roma kuanzia 8 Machi, 161 hadi kifo chake. Alimfuata Antoninus Pius. Mpaka 169 alitawala pamoja na Lucius Verus, na kuanzia 177 alitawala pamoja na mwana wake, Commodus. Tazama pia[hariri | hariri chanzo] Orodha ya Makaizari wa Roma Makala hii kuhusu Kaizari fulani wa Roma bado ni mbegu. Je, unajua kitu kuhusu Marcus Aurelius kama wasifu wake, habari za maisha au kazi yake? Labda unaona habari katika Wikipedia ya Kiingereza au lugha nyingine zinazofaa kutafsiriwa? Basi unaweza kuisaidia Wikipedia kwa kuihariri na kuongeza habari. Rudishwa kutoka "https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1087147" Jamii: Mbegu za Makaizari wa Roma Makaizari wa Roma Waliozaliwa 121 Waliofariki 180 Urambazaji Vifaa binafsi Hujaingia Majadiliano ya IP hii Michango Unda akaunti Ingia Maeneo ya wiki Makala Majadiliano Vibadala Mitazamo Soma Hariri Hariri chanzo Fungua historia More Tafuta Urambazaji Mwanzo Jumuia Matukio ya hivi karibuni Mabadiliko ya karibuni Ukurasa wa bahati Msaada Michango Vifaa Viungo viungavyo ukurasa huu Mabadiliko husika Pakia faili Kurasa maalum Kiungo cha daima Maelezo ya ukurasa Taja ukurasa huu Wikidata item Chapa/peleka nje Tunga kitabu Pakua kama PDF Ukurasa wa kuchapika Miradi mingine Wikimedia Commons Lugha zingine Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Hariri viungo Ukurasa huu umebadilishwa kwa mara ya mwisho tarehe 28 Septemba 2019, saa 13:13. Maandishi yanapatikana chini ya leseni ya Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; matakwa mengine yanaweza kutakiwa. Tazama maelezo zaidi ya Matakwa ya Utumiaji. Sera ya faragha Kuhusu Wikipedia Kanusho Mtazamo wa rununu Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
ta-wikipedia-org-8062	----	மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் - தமிழ் விக்கிப்பீடியா மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் கட்டற்ற கலைக்களஞ்சியமான விக்கிப்பீடியாவில் இருந்து. Jump to navigation Jump to search மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் பிறப்பு 26 ஏப்ரல் 121 உரோம் இறப்பு 17 மார்ச் 180 (அகவை 58) விண்டோபொனா கல்லறை காஸ்டல் சாண்ட்'ஏஞ்சலோ பணி எழுத்தாளர் வாழ்க்கைத் துணை(கள்) பாஸ்டினா தி யங்கர் [விக்கித்தரவில் திருத்து] மார்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் (/ɑːˈriːliəs/ or /ɑːˈriːljəs/;[1] இலத்தீன்: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; ( 26 ஏப்ரல் 121 - 17 மார்ச் 180) என்பவர் கி.பி 161 முதல் 180 வரை உரோமைப் பேரரசராகவும் உறுதிப்பாட்டுவாத மெய்யிலராகவும் இருந்தார். இவர் ஐந்து நல்ல பேரரசர்கள் என்று அழைக்கப்பட்ட ஆட்சியாளர்களில் கடைசி மன்னராவார். மேலும் பாக்ஸ் ரோமானாவின் கடைசி பேரரசர், உரோமைப் பேரரசின் அமைதி மற்றும் ஸ்திரத்தன்மை காலக்கட்டத்துக்குச் சொந்தக்காரர். கி.பி 140, 145 மற்றும் 161 ஆம் ஆண்டுகளில் உரோமானிய தூதராக பணியாற்றியவர். இவர் மார்கஸ் அன்னியஸ் வெரஸ் (III) மற்றும் டொமிடியா லூசில்லா ஆகியோருக்கு மகனாக உரோமானியப் பேரரசர் ஹட்ரியன் ஆட்சியின் போது பிறந்தார். இவர் பிறந்து மூன்று மாதத்தில் இவரது தந்தை இறந்தார். இவரது தந்தையின் மரணத்தைத் தொடர்ந்து, மார்கசை இவரது தாயார் மற்றும் தாத்தா மார்கஸ் அன்னியஸ் வெரஸ் (II) ஆகியோர் வளர்த்தனர். 138 இல் உரோமப் பேரரசர் ஹட்ரியனின் வளர்ப்பு மகன் ஏலியஸ் சீசர் இறந்ததைத் தொடர்ந்து, மார்கசின் மாமாவான அன்டோனினஸ் பியசை தனது புதிய வாரிசாக மன்னர் ஏற்றுக்கொண்டார். இதன் பிறகு, அன்டோனினஸ் மார்கசையும் ஏலியஸின் மகனான லூசியசையும் தத்தெடுத்தார் (பின்னர் மார்கசுடன் லூசியஸ் வெரசும் இணைந்து உரோமைப் பேரரசராக ஆட்சி செய்தார்). அந்த ஆண்டு ஹட்ரியன் இறந்தார், அன்டோனினஸ் பேரரசரானார். இப்போது சிம்மாசனத்தின் வாரிசாக ஆன மார்கஸ், ஹீரோட்ஸ் அட்டிகஸ் மற்றும் மார்கஸ் கொர்னேலியஸ் ஃப்ராண்டோ போன்ற ஆசிரியர்களிடம் கிரேக்க மற்றும் லத்தீன் மொழிகளைக் கற்றார். பின்னர் பல ஆண்டுகள் இவர் தன் ஆசிரியரான ஃபிரான்டோவுடன் நெருங்கிய கடிதத் தொடர்பு கொண்டிருந்தார். மார்கஸ் 145 இல் அன்டோனினசின் மகள் ஃபாஸ்டினாவை மணந்தார். அன்டோனினஸ் 161 இல் ஒரு நோய் பாதிப்பால் இறந்தார். அவர் இறந்த பிறகு மன்னரின் இன்னொரு வளர்ப்பு மகனான லூசியஸ் வெரசுடன் இணைந்து அரியாசனம் ஏறி இருவரும் சம உரிமையுடன் சக்ரவர்த்திகளாக இருந்துகொண்டு நாட்டை ஆளத் துவங்கினர். சுமார் எட்டு வருஷங்கள் இவ்வாறு ஆட்சி நடந்துவந்ததது. ஒன்பதாவது ஆண்டில் வேரஸ் இறந்தார். அதன் பிறகு மார்க்கஸ் ஏகச் சக்கரவர்த்தியாக ஆட்சியை நடத்திவந்தார். மார்கஸ் அரேலியஸின் ஆட்சி இராணுவ மோதல்கள் கொண்டதாகவே இருந்தது. உரோமானியப் பேரரசானது கிழக்கில் புத்துயிர் பெற்ற பார்த்தியப் பேரரசு மற்றும் கிளர்ச்சி செய்த ஆர்மீனியா இராச்சியத்துடன் வெற்றிகளை ஈட்டும்விதமாக போர்புரிந்தது . மார்கோமன்னிக் போர்களில் மார்கோமன்னி, குவாடி மற்றும் சர்மாட்டியன் ஐஸீஜெஸை மார்கஸ் தோற்கடித்தார்; இருப்பினும், இவர்களும் பிற ஜெர்மானிய மக்களும் யதார்தத்தில் பேரரசிற்கு சிரமத்தைத்தரக்கூடிய மாற்று சக்கியாகத் துவங்கினர். இவர் உரோமன் நாணய, பணத்தில் வெள்ளி தூய்மையில் மாற்றம் கொண்டுவந்தார். ரோமானியப் பேரரசில் கிறிஸ்தவர்களுக்கு எதிரான துன்புறுத்தல்கள் இவரது ஆட்சிக் காலத்தில் அதிகரித்ததாக நம்பப்படுகிறது. அன்டோனைன் பிளேக் 165 அல்லது 166 இல் வெடித்து பரவியது. இதனால் உரோமானிய பேரரசின் மக்கள் பேரழிவிற்கு ஆளாயினர், இந்த நோயின் தாக்கத்தால் ஐந்து மில்லியன் மக்கள் இறந்தனர். 169 இல் பிளேக்கினால் லூசியஸ் வெரஸ் இறந்திருக்கலாம் எனப்படுகிறது. இவரது முன்னோடிகளில் சிலரைப் போல, மார்கஸ் ஒரு வாரிசைத் தத்தெடுக்க விரும்பவில்லை. இவரது பிள்ளைகளில் லூசியசை மணந்த லூசில்லா மற்றும் கொமோடஸ் ஆகியோர் அடங்குவர். மார்கசுக்குப் பின் ஆட்சிக்கு வந்தவர் குறித்து சமகால மற்றும் நவீன வரலாற்றாசிரியர்களிடையே விவாதத்திற்கு உட்பட்டதாக உள்ளது. இவருடைய நினைவாக ரோமாபுரியில் ஒரு கோபுரம் கட்டி அதில் இவர் குதிரைமீது அமர்ந்த தோற்றத்தில் சிலையை நிறுவினர். இச்சிலை இன்னும் ரோமில் நிற்கிறது, அங்கு இவரது இராணுவ வெற்றிகளைக் கொண்டாடும் வகையில் இந்த சின்னங்கள் அமைக்கப்பட்டன. மெடிடேசன்ஸ், "தத்துவஞானியின்" எழுத்துக்கள் - என்பது இவர் எழுதிய நூலாக சமகால வரலாற்று ஆசிரியர்கள் குறிப்பிடுகின்றனர். இந்த நூல் பண்டைய உறுதிப்பாட்டு மெய்யலை புரிந்துகொள்ள நவீன காலத்தில் கிடைக்கும் ஒரு குறிப்பிடத்தக்க ஆதாரமாகும். அவர் இறந்த பல நூற்றாண்டுகளுக்குப் பிறகும் எழுத்தாளர்கள், மெய்யியலாளர்கள், மன்னர்கள் மற்றும் அரசியல்வாதிகள் போன்றோரால் பாராட்டப்பட்டுள்ளனர். வெளி இணைப்புகள்[தொகு] விக்கிமூலத்தில் பின்வரும் தலைப்பிலான எழுத்தாக்கம் உள்ளது: இதய உணர்ச்சி/மார்க்க ஔரேலியன் சரித்திரம் மேற்கோள்கள்[தொகு] ↑ 'Marcus Aurelius' பரணிடப்பட்டது 28 திசம்பர் 2018 at the வந்தவழி இயந்திரம். 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tg-wikipedia-org-7547	----	Марк Аврелий — Википедия Марк Аврелий Мавод аз Википедиа — донишномаи озод Jump to navigation Jump to search Марк Аврелий Антонин лот. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Императори Рим 7 марти 161 — 17 марти 180 Совместно с Лусий Вер (7 марти 161 — январь 169), Коммод (177 — 17 марти 180) Пешгузашта Антонин Пий Ҷонишин Коммод Таваллуд 26 апрел 121(0121-04-26) Рим Даргузашт 17 март 180(0180-03-17) (58 сол) Vindobona[d], Upper Pannonia[d], Имперотурии Рум[d] Мадфан Castel Sant'Angelo[d] Ҷинс Антонинҳо Ном ҳангоми таваллуд Марк Анний Вер Падар Marcus Annius Verus[d] Модар Domitia Calvilla[d] Ҳамсар Faustina the Younger[d][1] Фарзандон Commodus[d], Marcus Annius Verus Caesar[d], Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina[d], Fadilla[d], Lucilla[d], Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor[d], Vibia Aurelia Sabina[d], Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus[d] ва Domitia Faustina[d] Фаъолият фалсафа Эътиқод ancient Roman religion[d]  Парвандаҳо дар Викианбор Марк Авре́лий Антони́н (лот. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; 26 апрели 121, Рим — 17 марти 180, Виндобона) — императори Рими Қадим (аз соли 161). Мундариҷа 1 Ҳукумрониҳо 2 Муборизаҳо 3 Эзоҳ 4 Сарчашма Ҳукумрониҳо[вироиш] Аз овони ҷавонӣ майл ба фалсафа дошт. Амакаш Антоний Пий (императори Рим аз соли 138) Аврелийро соли 138 ба писархондӣқабул кард ва аз соли 146 Аврелий пайваста бо амакаш ҳукмро­нӣ менамуд. То соли 169 ҳамроҳи додарандараш Лутсий Вер ҳукмронӣ кардааст. Ҳукмронии вай охирин давраи осудаи сулолаи антониниҳо ба шумор меравад. Сиёсати дохилии Аврелий бо ҳамфикрӣ бо сенат, намояндагони дастгоҳи давлатии империя фарқ мекард. Соли 162 исёне, ки дар Британия сар зад, пахш карда шуд, солҳои 162 – 166 дар натиҷаи ҷанг бо Парфия назорат аз болои Осроена ва Арманистон барқарор карда шуд. Мутаассифона, сипоҳиён ба Империя марази гузарандаи ваборо оварданд, ки то соли 189 идома ёфт. Қариб тамоми мӯҳлати ҳукмрониашро Аврелий дар Дунай, ки ҷангҳои Маркоманӣ давом доштанд (166 – 180), гузарондааст. Муборизаҳо[вироиш] Аврелий бо мушкилӣҳамлаҳои доимии сарматҳову маркоманҳо, квадҳову вандалҳоро рафъ намуда, соли 172 музаффарият ба даст овард ва дар Рим сутуни 30-метраеро дар майдони ҳарб бино кард. Баъд аз аввалин музаффарият хост, ки дар гирду атрофи Дунай вилоятҳои нав ташкил кунад, аммо исёни дар Миср саршуда (175) [[[Авидия Кассия]]] халал расонд ва Аврелий соли 178 аз нав ба тарафи Дунай, шаҳри Виндобон (ҳозира Вена) раҳсипор шуд. Он ҷо зидди германиягиҳо ҷангид ва баъдтар аз бемории вабо фавтид. Асари фалсафии «Дар танҳоӣ дар рӯҳияи истодагарӣ ва мутеъ шудан ба тақдир навишта шудааст. Эзоҳ[вироиш] ↑ Любкер Ф. Antoninus (рус.) // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский, пер. А. Д. Вейсман, Ф. Гельбке, Л. А. Георгиевский, А. И. Давиденков, В. А. Канский, П. В. Никитин, И. А. Смирнов, Э. А. Верт, О. Ю. Клеменчич, Н. В. Рубинский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107. Сарчашма[вироиш] А — Асос. — Д. : СИЭМТ, 2011. — 608 с. — (Энсиклопедияи Миллии Тоҷик : [тахм. 25 ҷ.] / сармуҳаррир А. Қурбонов ; 2011—2017, ҷ. 1). — ISBN 978-99947-33-45-3. Ин мақолаи хурд дар бораи одам аст. Бо густариши он ба Википедия кумак кунед. Дар сурати имкон ин ёддошт бояд дақиқтар ҷойгузин шавад. Баргирифта аз "https://tg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелий&oldid=1207313" Гурӯҳҳо: Зодагони 26 апрел Зодагони соли 121 Шахсиятҳо аз рӯи алифбо Зодагони Рим Даргузаштагони 17 март Даргузаштагони соли 180 Мақолаҳои бо шаблон-қуттиҳои беном Мақолаҳои хурд дар бораи одамон Мақолаҳои хурд, ниёзманди аниқсозии шаблон Ашхос аз рӯи алифбо Императорони Рим Гурӯҳҳои пинҳон: Саҳифаҳои дорои аргументи такрорӣ дар фарохонии шаблон Википедия:Мақолаҳои бо сарчашма аз Викидода Мақолаҳое, ки бар асоси маводи ЭМТ навишта шудаанд Саҳифаҳои дорои пайванди сеҳрноки ISBN Менюи гаштан Абзорҳои шахсӣ Ба систем вуруд нашудаед Баҳс Саҳмгузориҳо Эҷоди ҳисоб Вуруд Фазоҳои ном мақола мубоҳисавӣ кирилликӣ кирилликӣ lotinī Назарот Хондан Вироиш Намоиши таърих More Ҷустуҷӯ Гаштан Саҳифаи аслӣ Вуруди корбарон Рӯйдодҳои кунунӣ Тағйироти охирин Саҳифаҳои тасодуфӣ Роҳнамо Кумаки молӣ Ҷаъбаи абзор Пайвандҳо ба ин саҳифа Тағйироти монандӣ Фиристодани парванда Саҳифаҳои вижа Пайванди доимӣ Иттилооти саҳифа Ёд кардани пайванди ин мақола Элементи Викидода Print/export Download as PDF Нусхаи чопӣ Дигар лоиҳаҳо Викианбор Ба забонҳои дигар Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Вироиши пайвандҳо Ин саҳифаро бори охир дар 2 ноябри 2020, 20:22 вироиш карда буданд. 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th-wikipedia-org-5714	----	จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส - วิกิพีเดีย จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส จากวิกิพีเดีย สารานุกรมเสรี ไปยังการนำทาง ไปยังการค้นหา บทความนี้ใช้ระบบคริสต์ศักราช เพราะอ้างอิงคริสต์ศักราชและคริสต์ศตวรรษ หรืออย่างใดอย่างหนึ่ง มาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส จักรพรรดิ แห่ง จักรวรรดิโรมัน รูปแกะครึ่งตัวของมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส พระนามเต็ม มาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส อันโตนินุส เอากุสตุส (ซีซาร์) ราชวงศ์ เนอร์วัน-อันโตเนียน ครองราชย์ สมัย 8 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 161 - ค.ศ. 169 ร่วมกับ จักรพรรดิลูกิอุส เวรุส สมัยที่ 2 ค.ศ. 169 - ค.ศ. 177 ร่วมกับ ด้วยตนเอง สมัยที่ 3 ค.ศ. 177 - 17 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 180 ร่วมกับ คอมโมดัส รัชกาลก่อนหน้า จักรพรรดิอันโตนินัส ไพอัส รัชกาลถัดไป ก็อมมอดุส บทบาท/งาน “Meditations” ข้อมูลส่วนพระองค์ เกิด ราว 26 เมษายน ค.ศ. 121, กรุงโรม[1] เสียชีวิต 17 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 180, วินโดโบนา หรือ ซีร์มิอุม บิดา มาร์กุส อันนิอุส เวรุส มารดา โดมิเชีย ลูกิลลา บุตร/ธิดา 13 คนรวมทั้ง คอมโมดัส หมวดหมู่: จักรพรรดิโรมัน จักรพรรดิโรมันตะวันตก - จักรพรรดิไบแซนไทน์ จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส (ละติน: Marcus Aurelius หรือ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; ราว 26 เมษายน ค.ศ. 121[2] – 17 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 180) มาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุสเป็นจักรพรรดิแห่งจักรวรรดิโรมันระหว่างวันที่ 8 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 161 ถึง ค.ศ. 169 โดยปกครองร่วมกับ ลูกิอุส เวรุส (Lucius Verus) พระอนุชาบุญธรรม จนเวรุสสิ้นพระชนม์ในปี 169; จากนั้นเอาเรลิอุสทรงปกครองต่อมาโดยลำพังพระองค์เองระหว่างปี ค.ศ. 169 ถึง ค.ศ. 177 และ ทรงปกครองร่วมกับ ก็อมมอดุส (Commodus) ผู้เป็นราชโอรสของพระองค์ ระหว่าง ค.ศ. 177 จนกระทั่งสิ้นพระชนม์เมื่อวันที่ 17 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 180 มาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุสเป็นจักรพรรดิองค์สุดท้ายของ “จักรพรรดิโรมันผู้ทรงคุณธรรมห้าพระองค์” (Five Good Emperors) และถือกันว่าเป็นนักปรัชญาลัทธิสโตอิก (Stoicism) คนสำคัญคนหนึ่ง เหตุการณ์สำคัญในสมัยการปกครองของมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุสก็ได้แก่สงครามในเอเชียกับจักรวรรดิพาร์เธียน (Parthian Empire), และกับชนเผ่าเจอร์มานิคตามบริเวณพรมแดนโรมัน-เจอร์มานิคัส (LimesGermanicus) เข้าไปในกอลและข้ามแม่น้ำดานูบ และการปฏิวัติทางตะวันออกที่นำโดยอาวิเดียส คาสเซียส (Avidius Cassius) ที่ไม่ประสบความสำเร็จ นอกจากความสามารถในการสงครามแล้วมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุสก็ยังมีงานเขียน “Meditations” ที่เขียนเป็นภาษากรีกระหว่างที่ทำการรณรงค์ระหว่างปี ค.ศ. 170 ถึง ค.ศ. 180 ที่ยังถือกันว่าเป็นงานชิ้นสำคัญทางวรรณกรรมสำหรับการปกครองของหน้าที่และหน้าที่ที่ได้รับการสรรเสริญในเนื้อหาที่ “exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness”[3] อ้างอิง[แก้] ↑ "Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopaedia Britannica. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-08-07. ↑ Augustan History, "Marcus Aurelius" ↑ John Stuart Mill in his Utility of Religion, compared Meditations to the Sermon on the Mount ข้อมูลเพิ่มเติม[แก้] จักรวรรดิโรมัน ด ค ก จักรพรรดิแห่งโรมัน และ จักรพรรดิไบแซนไทน์ (จักรวรรดิโรมันตะวันออก) ปฐมกาล 27 ก่อน ค.ศ.–ค.ศ. 235 เอากุสตุส ติแบริอุส กาลิกุลา เกลาดิอุส แนโร กัลบา ออโท วิแต็ลลิอุส แว็สปาซิอานุส ติตุส ดอมิติอานุส แนร์วา ไตรยานุส ฮาดริอานุส อันโตนีนุส ปิอุส มาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส ลูกิอุส เวรุส ก็อมมอดุส แปร์ตินักส์ ดิอุส ยูลิอานุส (เพสเซนนิอุส ไนเจอร์) (โคลดิอุส อัลบินุส) แซ็ปติมิอุส แซเวรุส การากัลลา แกตา มากรีนุส ดิอาดูแมนิอานุส เอลากาบาลุส แซเวรุส อาแล็กซันแดร์ วิกฤตการณ์ ค.ศ. 235–285 มักซิมินุส ทรากส์ กอร์ดิอานุสที่ 1 กอร์ดิอานุสที่ 2 พูพิเอนัส บาลบินัส กอร์ดิอานุสที่ 3 ฟิลิปชาวอาหรับ ฟิลิปที่ 2 เดซิอัส เฮแร็นนิอุส แอตรุสกุส จักรพรรดิโฮสติเลียน แตรโบนิอานุส กัลลุส โวลุซิอานุส เอมิลิอานุส วาเลเรียน กาลลิเอนุส ซาโลนินุส เกลาดิอุส กอทิกุส ควินทิลลุส ออเรเลียน อุลเพีย แซเวรินา ตากิตุส โฟลริอานุส โพรบุส คารุส คารินุส นุเมริอานุส จักรวรรดิกอลลิก โปสตุมุส (แลเลียนุส) มาริอุส วิคโตรินุส (ดอมิติอานุสที่ 2) เตตริคุสที่ 1 กับ เตตริคุสที่ 2 จักรวรรดิพาลไมรีน วาบาลลาทุส เซโนเบีย แซ็ปติมิอุส อันติโอคุส เรืองอำนาจ ค.ศ. 284–395 ดิออเกลติอานุส มักซิมิอานุส กาเลริอุส คอนสแตนติอุส โคลรุส แซเวรุส คอนสแตนตินมหาราช มักแซ็นติอุส ลิกินิอุส มักซิมินุส ดาซา (วาเลริอุส วาเลนส์) (มาร์ตินิอานุส) คอนสแตนตินที่ 2 คอนสแตนติอุสที่ 2 คอนสแตนที่ 1 มักเนนติอุส เวทรานิโอ จูเลียน โจเวียน วาเลนติอานุสที่ 1 (ตะวันตก) วาเลนส์ (ตะวันออก) กราติอานุส (ตะวันตก) วาเลนติอานุสที่ 2 (ตะวันตก) เทออดอซิอุสที่ 1 มักนุส มักซิมุส วิคโตร (ยูจีนิอุส) โรมันตะวันตก ค.ศ. 395–480 ฮอโนริอุส คอนสแตนตินที่ 3 กับบุตรชาย คอนสแตนที่ 2 คอนสแตนติอุสที่ 3 โจอันเนส วาเลนติอานุสที่ 3 เปโตรนิอุส มักซิมุส อาวิตุส มาโจริอานุส ลิบิอุส แซเวรุส อันเทมิอุส ออลีบรีอุส กรีเซริอุส ยูลิอุส แนโปส โรมุลุส เอากุสตุส โรมันตะวันออก/ ไบแซนไทน์ ค.ศ. 395–1204 อาร์กาดิอุส เทออดอซิอุสที่ 2 มาร์ซิอานุส เลโอที่ 1 เลโอที่ 2 เซโน บาซิลิสคัส มาร์กุส อนาสตาซิอุสที่ 1 ยุสตีนุสที่ 1 ยุสตินิอานุสที่ 1 ยุสตีนุสที่ 2 ติแบริอุสที่ 2 เมาริกิอุส กับบุตรชาย เทออดอซิอุส โพกัส เฮราคลิอุส คอนสแตนตินที่ 3 เฮราโคลนาส คอนสแตนที่ 2 คอนสแตนตินที่ 4 กับน้องชาย เฮราคลิอุส กับ ติแบริอุส และ ยุสตินิอานุสที่ 2 ยุสตินิอานุสที่ 2 (สมัยแรก) ลีออนติออส ติแบริอุสที่ 3 ยุสตินิอานุสที่ 2 (สมัยสอง) กับบุตรชาย ติแบริอุส ฟิลิปปิกอส อนาสตาซิอุสที่ 2 เทออดอซิอุสที่ 3 เลโอที่ 3 คอนสแตนตินที่ 5 อาร์ตาบาสดอส เลโอที่ 4 คอนสแตนตินที่ 6 ไอรีน นิเกโพรอสที่ 1 สตอรากิออส มิคาเอลที่ 1 กับบุตรชาย เทออฟีแลค เลโอที่ 5 กับ ซิมบาติออส-คอนสแตนติน มิคาเอลที่ 2 เทออฟิลอส มิคาเอลที่ 3 บาซิลที่ 1 เลโอที่ 6 อาแล็กซันแดร์ คอนสแตนตินที่ 7 โรมานอสที่ 1 กับบุตรชาย คริสโตเฟอร์, สตีเฟน และ คอนสแตนติน โรมานอสที่ 2 นิเกโพรอสที่ 2 จอห์นที่ 1 บาซิลที่ 2 คอนสแตนตินที่ 8 โซอี (สมัยแรก) และ โรมานอสที่ 3 โซอี (สมัยแรก) และ มิคาเอลที่ 4 มิคาเอลที่ 5 โซอี (สมัยสอง) กับ เทออดอรา โซอี (สมัยสอง) และ คอนสแตนตินที่ 9 คอนสแตนตินที่ 9 (จักรพรรดิองค์เดียว) เทออดอรา มิคาเอลที่ 6 ไอแซ็คที่ 1 คอนสแตนตินที่ 10 โรมานอสที่ 4 มิคาเอลที่ 7 กับน้องชาย อันโดรนิคอส และ กอนสแตนติออส และบุตรชาย คอนสแตนติน นิเกโพรอสที่ 3 อเล็กซิออสที่ 1 จอห์นที่ 2 กับ อเล็กซิออส โคมเนนอส มานูเอลที่ 1 อเล็กซิออสที่ 2 อันโดรนิคอสที่ 1 กับ จอห์น โคมเนนอส ไอแซ็คที่ 2 อเล็กซิออสที่ 3 อเล็กซิออสที่ 4 นิโคลอส คานาบอส (เลือกโดยวุฒิสภา) อเล็กซิออสที่ 5 จักรวรรดิไนเซีย ค.ศ. 1204–1261 คอนสแตนติน ลาสคาริส เทออดอที่ 1 จอห์นที่ 3 เทออดอที่ 2 จอห์นที่ 4 จักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์ ค.ศ. 1261–1453 มิคาเอลที่ 8 อันโดรนิคอสที่ 2 กับ มิคาเอลที่ 9 อันโดรนิคอสที่ 3 จอห์นที่ 5 จอห์นที่ 6 กับ จอห์นที่ 5 และ แมทธิว คานตาคอเซนอส จอห์นที่ 5 อันโดรนิคอสที่ 4 จอห์นที่ 7 อันโดรนิคอสที่ 5 มานูเอลที่ 2 จอห์นที่ 8 คอนสแตนตินที่ 11 ตัวเอียง หมายถึงจักรพรรดิร่วม, ขีดเส้นใต้ หมายถึงการแย่งชิง บทความเกี่ยวกับชีวประวัตินี้ยังเป็นโครง คุณสามารถช่วยวิกิพีเดียได้โดยเพิ่มข้อมูล เข้าถึงจาก "https://th.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส_เอาเรลิอุส&oldid=8740709" หมวดหมู่: บุคคลที่เกิดในปี พ.ศ. 664 บุคคลที่เสียชีวิตในปี พ.ศ. 723 ราชวงศ์แนร์วา-อันโตนีนุส 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tl-wikipedia-org-1822	----	Marco Aurelio - Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Marco Aurelio Mula sa Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Jump to navigation Jump to search Huwag itong ikalito kay Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of the Roman Empire Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Glyptothek, Munich Paghahari 8 March 161–169 (with Lucius Verus); 169–177 (alone); 177–17 March 180 (with Commodus) Buong pangalan (Caesar) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Pinaglibingan Hadrian's Mausoleum Sinundan Antoninus Pius Kahalili Commodus (alone) Konsorte kay Faustina the Younger Dinastiya Antonine Ama Marcus Annius Verus Ina Domitia Lucilla Mga anak 13, incl. Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla Marcus Aurelius Si Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[notes 1](Abril 26, 121 – Marso 17, 180) ay ang emperador ng Roma mula 161 hanggang sa kanyang kamatayan noong 180. Siya ay naging Emperador ng Roma mula sa taong 161 hanggang 180. Kasabay niyang naging emperador si Lucius Verus hanggang sa pagpanaw ni Verus noong 169. Siya ang huli sa "Limang Mabubuting mga Emperador" at sinasabi na siya bilang isa sa mga mga pinakamahalagang mga pilosopong Stoiko. Sa kanyang pamumuno ng imperyo, tinalo nito ang isang nag-babalik-kapangyarihan na Imperyong Parthiano; Isang heneral ni Aurelius na si Avidius Cassius ang nagnakaw sa kabiserang sinakop na nagngangalang Ctesiphon noong 164. Kinalaban ni Aurelius ang mga Marcomanni, Quadi, at Sarmatia na may tagumpay sa mga Digmaang Marcomanniko ngunit nagkaroon ng banta mula sa mga tribong Aleman at ito ay naging isang naka-aalarma na katotohanan sa imperyo. Isang himagsikan sa silangan na pinamunuan ng kanyang heneral na nagngangalang Avidius Cassius ay hindi naging matagumpay na makaasenso at dali-daling tinapos ng pamahalaan. Ang kanyang akda, ang Meditations (literal na "Mga Meditasyon") na nakasulat sa Wikang Griyego habang nasa kampanya sa pagitan ng 170 at 180 ay bina-balik-balikan bilang isang monumento ng panitikan para sa isang pamahalaan ng paglilingkod at tungkulin. Ito ay nagpapakita ng halimbawa ng kung paano hinarap ni Marcus Aurelies ang Platonikong kaisipan ng isang pilosopong-hari at kung paano niya binigyan ng simbolismo ang pinakamaganda na paglalarawan sa Sibilisasyong Romano.[3] t u b Mga Emperador Romano Prinsipado 27 BC - 235 AD Augusto · Tiberio · Caligula · Claudio I · Nero · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasian · Titus · Domiciano · Nerva · Trajan · Hadrian · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius · Lucius Verus · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Julianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus Krisis 235 AD - 284 AD Maximinus I Thrax · Gordian I at Gordian II · Pupienus at Balbinus · Gordian III · Felipe ang Arabo · Decius · Herennius Etruscus · Trebonianus Gallus · Hostilian · Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerian · Gallienus · Claudio II · Quintillus · Aurelian · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerian Dominado 284 AD - 1453 AD Diocletian · Maximian · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Severus · Maxentius · Maximinus Daia · Licinius kasama ni Valerius Valens at Martinianus · Constantine I · Constantine II · Constans I · Constantius II · Juliano ang Tumalikod · Jovian · Valentinian I · Valens · Gratian · Valentinian II · Theodosius I Kanlurang Imperyo Romano 395–480 Honorius · Constantius III · Joannes · Valentinian III · Petronius Maximus · Avitus · Majorian · Libius Severus · Anthemius · Olybrius · Glycerius · Julius Nepos · Romulus Augustus Silangan/ Imperyong Bizantino 395–1204 Arcadius · Theodosius II · Marcian · Leo I · Leo II · Zeno · Basiliscus · Anastasius I · Justin I · Justinian I · Justin II · Tiberius II Constantine · Maurice · Phocas · Heraclius · Constantine III · Heraklonas · Constans II · Constantine IV · Justinian II · Leontios · Tiberios III · Philippikos · Anastasios II · Theodosios III · Leo III the Isaurian · Constantine V Copronymus · Artabasdos · Leo IV the Khazar · Constantine VI · Irene · Nikephoros I · Staurakios · Michael I Rangabe · Leo V the Armenian · Michael II the Stammerer · Theophilos · Michael III the Drunkard · Basil I the Macedonian · Leo VI the Wise · Alexander · Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos · Romanos I Lekapenos · Romanos II · Nikephorus II Phokas · John I Tzimiskes · Basil II Boulgaroktonos · Constantine VIII · Zoe · Romanos III Argyros · Michael IV Paphlagon · Michael V Kalaphates · Constantine IX Monomachos · Theodora the Macedonian · Michael VI the Aged · Isaac I Komnenos · Constantine X Doukas · Romanos IV Diogenes · Michael VII Doukas · Nikephoros III Botaneiates · Alexios I Komnenos · John II Komnenos · Manuel I Komnenos · Alexios II Komnenos · Andronikos I Komnenos · Isaac II Angelos · Alexios III Angelos · Alexios IV Angelos · Nikolaos Kanabos · Alexios V Doukas Imperyo ng Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris · Theodore I Laskaris · John III Doukas Vatatzes · Theodore II Laskaris · Juan IV Laskaris Silangan/ Imperyong Bizantino 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos · Andronikos II Palaiologos · Michael IX Palaiologos · Andronikos III Palaiologos · John V Palaiologos · John VI Kantakouzenos · Matthew Kantakouzenos · Andronikos IV Palaiologos · John VII Palaiologos · Andronikos V Palaiologos · Manuel II Palaiologos · Juan VIII Palaiologos · Constantine XI Palaiologos Mga nota[baguhin | baguhin ang batayan] ↑ He was originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (or perhaps Marcus Catilius Severus).[1] When he married he took the name Marcus Annius Verus,[2] and when he was named emperor, he was given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Mga sanggunian[baguhin | baguhin ang batayan] ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ↑ Western Civilization: Sources, Images and Interpretations, Dennis Sherman, Vol. 1, 5th Ed., p. 104. 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tr-wikipedia-org-2978	----	Marcus Aurelius - Vikipedi İçeriğe atla Kenar çubuğunu aç/kapat Ara Kişisel araçlar Oturum açık değil Mesaj Katkılar Hesap oluştur Oturum aç Gezinti menüsü Gezinti Anasayfa Hakkımızda İçindekiler Rastgele madde Seçkin içerik Yakınımdakiler Katılım Bağış yapın Deneme tahtası İş birliği projesi Köy çeşmesi Son değişiklikler Topluluk portali Wikimedia dükkânı Yardım Araçlar Sayfaya bağlantılar İlgili değişiklikler Özel sayfalar Kalıcı bağlantı Sayfa bilgisi Bu sayfaya kaynak göster Vikiveri ögesi Yazdır/dışa aktar Bir kitap oluştur PDF olarak indir Basılmaya uygun görünüm Diğer projelerde Wikimedia Commons Vikisöz Diğer diller Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն İnterlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Bağlantıları değiştir Ad alanları Madde Tartışma Değişkenler Görünüm Oku Değiştir Kaynağı değiştir Geçmişi gör Daha fazla Marcus Aurelius Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus İmparator Marcus Aurelius'un büstü 16. Roma İmparatoru Hüküm süresi 8 Mart 161 - 169 (Lucius Verus ile); 169–177 (yalnız); 177 – Mart 180 (Commodus ile) Önce gelen Antoninus Pius Sonra gelen Commodus (yalnız) Eş(ler)i Genç Faustina Tam ismi Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Hanedan Nervan-Antoninler Hanedanı Babası Annius Verus Annesi Domitia Lucilla Doğum 26 Nisan 121 Roma Ölüm 17 Mart 180 (58 yaşında) Vindobona veya Sirmium Defin Hadrianus'un Mozolesi Roma İmparatorluk Hanedanları Nervan-Antoninler Hanedanı Nerva Çocukları    Öz - (yok)    Evlatlık - Trajan Trajan Çocukları    Öz - (yok)    Evlatlık - Hadrianus Hadrianus Çocukları    Öz - (yok)    Evlatlık - Lucius Aelius    Evlatlık - Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius Çocukları    Öz - Genç Faustina, ayrıca bir kızı ve iki oğlu 138 yılından önce ölmüşlerdir.    Evlatlık - Marcus Aurelius ve Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius ve Lucius Verus Marcus Aurelius Tek başına Çocukları    Öz - Commodus ve Lucilla dahil 13 Commodus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26 Nisan 121 – 17 Mart 180) 161 - 180 yılları arası Roma İmparatoru. 96 - 180 yılları arasında görev yapan Beş İyi İmparator'dan sonuncusudur ve aynı zamanda en önemli Stoacı filozoflardan biri olarak kabul edilir. Adını ilk olarak Asya'da yeniden güçlenmeye başlayan Pers İmparatorluğu'na karşı ve limes Germanicus (Cermen sınırı) boyunca Cermen kabilelerle yaptığı savaşlar ve ardından Tuna nehrini aşmasıyla duyurur. Doğuda, Avidius Cassius önderliğindeki bir isyanı bastırmıştır. Marcus Aurelius'a ait Kendime Düşünceler adlı felsefi eser 170–180 arasında savaştayken yazılmıştır. Eser edebi bir başyapıt olarak günümüzde bile hala saygı görür ve "mükemmel vurgusu ve sonsuz narinliği" ile övgüyü hak etmektedir.[1] İçindekiler 1 Çocukluğu 2 Gençliği 3 Roma İmparatoru 3.1 İkili İmparatorluk 4 Savaşları 4.1 Part İmparatorluğu 4.2 Germanya ve Tuna 5 Çin'le İlk Temas 6 Ölümü ve Halefi 7 Evliliği ve çocukları 8 Popüler kültürde Marcus Aurelius 9 Notlar 10 Kaynakça 10.1 Birincil kaynaklar 10.2 Diğer kaynaklar 11 Dış bağlantılar Çocukluğu[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Asıl adı Marcus Annius Catilius Severus olup, evlenince Marcus Annius Verus adını aldı. İmparator olunca kendisine Marcus Aurelius Antoninus adı verildi. Marcus Aurelius, Domitia Lucilla ile Marcus Annius Verus'un tek oğluydu. Tek öz kardeşi, kendisinden 2 yaş küçük kız kardeşi Annia Cornificia Faustina'dır. Annesi Domitia Lucilla Konsül mevkisindeki varlıklı bir aileden gelir. İspanyol kökenli olan ve praetor olarak görev yapan babası Marcus Annius Verus, Marcus Aurelius henüz üç yaşında iken ölmüştü. Marcus Aurelius onu "gösterişsiz yiğitlik" şeklinde öğreterek şereflendirir.[2] Babasının halası Vibia Sabina, İmparatoriçe ve Roma İmparatoru Hadrianus'un karısıydı. Rupilia Faustina (Marcus Aurelius'un babaannesi), Vibia Sabina ve Salonina Matidia (Roma İmparatoru Trajan'ın yeğeni) üvey kardeştiler. Babasının kız kardeşi Yaşlı Faustina Roma İmparatoru Antoninus Pius'la evli bir İmparatoriçedir. Babasını ölümünün ardından Aurelius, Dedesi Marcus Annius Verus tarafından evlat edinildi ve annesiyle birlikte büyütüldü. 138 yılında dedesi yaklaşık 90 yaşında öldü. Gençliği[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] 136 yılında İmparator Hadrianus, halefinin kesin olarak Lucius Ceionius Commodus (yeni adıyla L. Aelius Caesar) olduğunu ilan etti. Marcus çoktan Hadrianus'un dikkatini çekmişti (Marcus'u verissimus ("en dürüst"), olarak adlandıran oydu): sonradan Commodus'un kızı Ceionia Fabia ile nişanlandı. Nişan, her nedense, Commodus'un ölümünün ardından Marcus'un Antoninus'un kızına verdiği evlilik sözü ile bozuldu. Bu sebeple, Hadrianus'un ilk evlatlığı L. Aelius Verus'un ölümü üzerine, Hadrianus imparatorluk sıralaması için önce Antoninus'u halefi ilan etti, ardından Antoninus Marcus'u (Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus) ve Lucius Ceionius Commodus olarak isim değiştirdi ve Lucius Aurelius Verus olarak isimlendirilen Lucius Aelius'un Marcus'dan 10 yaş küçük oğlunu evlat edindi. Antoninus, bu evlat edinmenin ardından her ikisini de 25 Şubat 138'de Marcus henüz 17 yaşındayken halef İmparator olarak gösterdi. 40 yaşında İmparator olacaktı. İddialara göre Commodus ve Antoninus Pius, Hadrianus tarafından genç Marcus ve Verus için "koltuk ısıtıcı" olarak planlanmıştı. Antoninus yönetimi sırasında Marcus'un hayatı Hadrianus tarafından atanan ve döneminin kültür hayatıyla oldukça ilgili olan öğretmeni Fronto ile olan yazışmalarından dolayı kesintisiz olarak bilinmektedir. Bu mektuplara göre Marcus zeki, ciddi fikirli ve çalışkan bir genç portresi çizer. Mektuplar aynı zamanda geleceğin imparatoru için felsefenin artan önemini gösterir: Yunan ve Latin retorikleri üzerine bitmek bilmeyen alıştırmalar için sabırsızlığını ki sonra Epiktetos'un Diatribai ("Söylemler")'inin aşığı ve Stoa Okulu'nun önemli bir ahlakçı filozofu olacaktır. Marcus aynı zamanda Antoninus'un yanında 140, 145 ve 161 yıllarındaki konsüllüğünde, kararlarda iş birliği yaparak artan toplumsal rollerde almaya başladı. 147'de Roma dışında proconsular İmperium ve ardından da imparatorluktaki ana resmi güç Tribunicia Potestas oldu. 145 yılında Marcus Antoninus'un kızı ve aynı zamanda yeğeni (Annia Galeria Faustina) Genç Faustina ile evlendi. Marcus Aurelius' atlı heykeli Capitol Tepesi. Roma İmparatoru[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] İkili İmparatorluk[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Antoninus Pius'un (7 Mart 161) ölümü üzerine Lucius Verus'la birlikte ikili imparatorluk koşullarını kabul etti. (Augusti). Teoride yasal olarak eşit olmalarına rağmen, Verus hem daha genç hem de daha az tanınmış olması sebebiyle pratikte ikinci sıradaydı.[3]. Müşterek dönüşüm belki de Marcus Aurelius'un sürekli olarak imparatorluğun dışında birileriyle savaşta olması nedeniyle askeri deneyimlerden hareketle hayata geçirilmişti. İmparatorun hem Germen hem de Pers cephesindeki birliklere aynı anda kumanda edecek yeteneği henüz olmadığından bir hayli otoriter bir yöneticiye ihtiyaç vardı. Ancak Jül Sezar ve Vespasian örneklerinde olduğu gibi herhangi bir komutanın yetkiyle birliklerin başına geçirilmesi zamanla bu generallerin birliklerin yardımıyla yönetimi ele geçirip kendilerini diktatör olarak ilan etmeleriyle sonuçlanma riskine sahipti. Marcus Aurelius problemi Verus'u doğu lejyonları komutanı yaparak çözdü. Verus birliklerini onların sadâkatiyle otoriter biçimde yönetecek kadar güçlüydü ve aynı zamanda Marcus'u devirecek kadar dürtüye de sahipti. Verus 169'da bir seferde ölene kadar sadık kaldı. Müşterek İmparatorluk hafiften Roma Cumhuriyeti döneminde bir kişinin tüm gücü elinde toplamasını engelleyen ve Collegiality prensibine istinaden çalışan bir politik sistemi anımsatır. Müşterek yönetim 3. yüzyıl sonlarında Diocletianus'un Tetrarchy'yi (4'lü yönetim) ilan etmesiyle yeniden hayat buldu. Acil olarak yönetiminin ilk yıllarında Marcus, seleflerince çıkarılan birçok kanunda özellikle de sivil hukuktaki suistimal ve kuraldışılığa karşı reform yaptı. Bizzat uygun ölçülerle, köleler, dullar ve azınlıkları kategorize etti; kan ilişkisini yeniden tanımladı. Ceza Hukukundaki farklı cezalandırmalardan kaynaklanan sınıf farkını honestiores ve humiliores ("daha dürüstler" ve "daha alçak gönüllüler") olarak düzenledi. Marcus'un yönetiminde, Hristiyanların durumu Trajan zamanında olduğu gibi değişmedi. Yasal olarak cezalandırılabilmelerine rağmen (gerçekte) nadiren eziyet edilirdi. Örneğin 177'de Lyon'da bir grup Hıristiyan idam edildi ancak eylem esasen yerel valinin inisiyatifi olarak nitelenebilir. İmparator olması anısına Trablus'da yapılan Marcus Aurelius Kemeri. Savaşları[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Part İmparatorluğu[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Asya'da tekrar güçlenen Part İmparatorluğu, 161'de iki Roma ordusunu bozguna uğrattıktan sonra Ermenistan ve Suriye'yi işgal etmişti. Marcus Aurelius, Müşterek İmparator Verus'u Lejyonlara kumanda etmesi ve tehlikeyi önlemesi için doğuya gönderdi. Savaş 166 yılında, her ne kadar Gaius Avidius Cassius gibi alt kademedeki generallerin liyakati ile kazanılmış olsa da başarıyla sona erdi. Savaştan dönüşte Verus triumph'la (bir tür onursal karşılama töreni) ödüllendirildi; geçit töreni oldukça sıradışıydı çünkü törende iki İmparator vardı ve İmparatorların oğulları ve evlenmemiş kızlarıyla birlikte oldukça büyük bir aile kutlamasıydı. Bu arada fırsattan istifade Marcus Aurelius'un, beş yaşındaki oğlu Commodus ve üç yaşındaki Annius Verus'a Sezar statüsüne verildi. Savaştan dönen ordunun tüm İmparatorluğa yaydığı veba (çiçek hastalığı olduğu da iddia edilir) birkaç yıl boyunca etkili oldu. MS 180 yılında Roma İmparatorluğu ve Marcus Aurelius'un fetihleri Germanya ve Tuna[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] 160'ların başında, Germen kabileler ve diğer kuzeyli halklar kuzeydeki sınır boyunca (limes Germanicus) yağmalarla Tuna nehrini geçerek Galya içlerine ulaşmıştı. Batı yönündeki bu yeni şiddet dalgası, belki de uzak doğudaki kabileler yüzündendi. Germania Superior (yukarı Germanya eyaleti) idari bölgesi Catti'deki ilk işgal 162'de püskürtüldü. Asıl büyük işgal, M.S. 19'dan beri Roma vatandaşı olan Bohemya'lı Marcomanni kabilesinin 166'da Lombard'lar ve diğer Germen kabilelerle Tuna nehrini geçtiği zaman ortaya çıktı. Yine bu sıralarda Sarmatian'lar, Tuna ve Tisza nehirleri arasından saldırdı. Doğudaki durum yüzünden cezalandırıcı bir sefer ancak 167 yılında mümkün oldu. Marcus ve Verus'un her ikisi de birliklere eşlik ettiler. Verus'un 169'da ölümünden sonra Marcus, Germenlere karşı hayatının geri kalan büyük bir kısmında kişisel olarak mücadele etti. Romalılar en az iki kez ciddi olarak, Alpleri geçen Quadi ve Marcomanni'lerin Oderzo'daki Opitergiumu yağmalaması ve Kuzey doğu İtalya'daki ana şehir Aquileia'yı kuşatmasıyla çok zor durumda kaldı. Aynı anda Karpat Dağları'ndan gelen Costoboci'ler Moesia, Makedonya ve Yunanistan'ı işgal ettiler. Uzun bir mücadeleden sonra, Marcus Aurelius işgalcileri bu topraklardan çıkarmayı başardı. Birçok Germen kendiliklerinden cephedeki Dacia ve Pannonia ile Germanya ve İtalya'ya yerleştiler. Bu yeni bir şey değildi ancak bu defa yerleşimciler Tuna nehrini sol kıyısında Sarmatia ve Marcomannia'da (bugünkü Bohemya ve Macaristan dahil) iki yeni sınır şehri kurulmasını talep ettiler. İmparatorun planları Avidius Cassius tarafından uydurulan ve Marcus Aurelius'un hastalıktan öldüğü şeklindeki söylenti yüzünden çıkan isyan sebebiyle engellendi. Doğu eyaletlerinden sadece Kapadokya ve Bithynia isyancıların tarafına geçmedi. Marcus Aurelius'un yaşadığı haberi duyulunca Cassius'un kaderi hemen çizildi ve birlikleri tarafından sadece 100 günlük bir saltanattan sonra öldürüldü. Karısı Faustina ile Marcus Aurelius 173'e doğrudoğu eyaletlerini ziyaret ettiler. Atina'yı ziyaretinde kendisinifelsefe'nin koruyucusu olarak ilan etti. Roma'daki bir triumph'in ardından takip eden yıl tekrar Tuna hududuna hareket etti. 178'deki kesin zaferin ardından, Bohemya'nın ilhak planı başarıyla hazırlansa da Marcus Aurelius'un 180'de hastalanmasıyla yarım kaldı. Marcus Aurelius Sütunu Çin'le İlk Temas[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Marcus Aurelius zamanında, Han hanedanı kayıtları 166'da Roma'dan bir temsil heyetinin Çin'in başkenti Luoyang'da Çin İmparatoru Huan'la[kaynak belirtilmeli]görüştüğünü yazar. Kayıtlara göre, Romalılar Antun tarafından gönderildiklerini belirttiler. Belirtilen tarihe göre bu Marcus Aurelius Antoninus olabilir. Diğer taraftan, çağdaşı Roma kayıtları Çin'le irtibat için herhangi bir girişimden söz etmez. Ölümü ve Halefi[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Marcus Aurelius 17 Mart 180 tarihinde halefi Commodus kendisine eşlik ederken Vindobona'da (günümüzde Viyana)'da öldü. Hemen tanrılaştırıldı ve külleri Roma'ya gönderilerek Vizigotların şehri yağmaladığı 410 yılına kadar ayakta kalan Hadrianus Mausoleum'una (günümüzde Sant'Angelo Kalesi) yerleştirildi. Germen ve Sarmatlara karşı mücadelesi anısına Roma'da Marcus Aurelius Sütunu dikildi. Marcus Aurelius 166'da Ceasar ve 177'de yardımcı İmparator yaptığı Commodus'un halefi olmasını -farkında olunmayan bir talihsizliğe rağmen- sağlamıştı. Bu karar, talihli Evlatlık İmparatorlar dönemini sona erdirmişti ve Commodus sonradan tarihçiler tarafından, politika ve askerlikle ilgisi olmayan, aşırı egoist ve sinirli birisi olarak çok eleştirilmiştir. Bu sebep yüzünden Marcus Aurelius'un ölümü Pax Romana 'nın sonu olarak kabul edilir. Commodus'u fazla aday olmadığı için ya da ölümünün ardından meydana gelebilecek olası bir iç savaş korkusuyla seçmiştir. Evliliği ve çocukları[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Eşi Genç Faustine Aurelius, 145'te Genç Faustina ile evlendi. 30 yıllık evliliği boyunca Faustina 13 çocuk doğurdu. Bunlardan sadece bir oğlan ve dört kız babalarından daha uzun yaşadılar. Çocuklarının isimleri; Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147- 165'den sonra) Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/50-181) Lucius Verus'la evlendi. Lucilla'nın Gemellus Lucillae adında bir ikizi vardır (149-150) Titus Aelius Antoninus (150 doğumda, 7 Mart 161'den önce öldü) Titus Aelius Aurelius (150 doğumda, 7 Mart 161'den önce öldü) Hadrianus (152doğumda, 7 Mart 161'den önce öldü) Domitia Faustina (150 doğumda, 7 Mart 161'den önce öldü) Fadilla (159, 192) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160, İmparator Caracalla'nın saltanatında öldü. 211-217) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161-165) ve sonradan İmparator olan Commodus, (161-192) Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162-169) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170-217) Popüler kültürde Marcus Aurelius[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Çöküşü (1964), Anthony Mann'ın yönettiği filmde Marcus Aurelius'u Alec Guinness canlandırmıştı. Gladyatör (2000), Ridley Scott'ın yönetmenliğini yaptığı filmde Marcus Aurelius'u Richard Harris canlandırmıştır. Notlar[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] ^ John Stuart Mill in his Utility of Religion, compared Meditations to the Sermon on the Mount. ^ 1964 Maxwell Staniforth translation. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 71.1 Kaynakça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Birincil kaynaklar[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Cassius Dio, Roma Tarihi. Orijinal text için bkz. Lacus Curtius. İngilizce Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. İngilizce Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Historia Augusta. Orijinal text için bkz. LacusCurtius28 Mayıs 2020 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.. İngilizce Diğer kaynaklar[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Wikimedia Commons'ta Marcus Aurelius ile ilgili ortam dosyaları bulunmaktadır. Filozofi başlığı için internet ansiklopedisi, İngilizce Marcus Aurelius1 Şubat 2013 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. De Imperatoribus Romanis başlığı, İngilizce Marcus Aurelius livius.org'de ilgili başlık, İngilizce Marcus Aurelius: Roma'nın Filozof imparatorları - Marcus Aurelius'a onun liderlik açısından bakış denemesi, İngilizce. Dış bağlantılar[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Vikisöz'de Marcus Aurelius ile ilgili sözleri bulabilirsiniz. Meditation'lar için Online Yunanca metin Orijinal metinden George Long İngilizce çevirisi(1862) Latince Versiyonu, J. M. Schulz (1802)4 Şubat 2012 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Marcus Aurelius'a ithaf edilmiş biyografi araştırması, İngilizce[ölü/kırık bağlantı] Marcus Aurelius Antoninler Hanedanı Alt kolu Nervan–Antoninler Hanedanı Doğumu: 26 April 121 Ölümü: 17 March 180 Resmî unvanlar Önce gelen: Antoninus Pius Roma İmparatoru 161 - 180 (161-169 arası Lucius Verus ile) Sonra gelen: Commodus g t d Roma ve Bizans imparatorları Principatus MÖ 27-MS 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Neron Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasianus Titus Domitianus Nerva Trajan Hadrianus Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius ile Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus ile Diadumenianus Elagabalus Alexander Severus Kriz 235-284 I. Maximinus I. Gordianus ile II. Gordianus Pupienus ile Balbinus III. Gordianus Philippus Decius ile Herennius Etruscus Hostilianus Trebonianus Gallus ile Volusianus Aemilianus Valerianus Gallienus ile Saloninus ve II. Valerianus II. Claudius Quintillus Aurelianus Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus ile Numerianus Galyalı imparatorlar: Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (II. Domitianus) I. Tetricus ile II. Tetricus Dominatus 284-395 Diocletianus Diocletianus (Doğu) ile Maximianus (Batı) Diocletianus (Doğu) ile Maximianus (Batı) ile Galerius (Doğu) ve I. Constantius (Batı) Galerius (Doğu) ile I. Constantius (Batı) ve II. Severus (Batı) ile II. Maximinus (Doğu) Galerius (Doğu) ile II. Severus (Batı) ve I. Konstantin (Batı) ile II. Maximinus (Doğu) Galerius (Doğu) ile Maxentius (Batı) ve I. Konstantin (Batı) ile II. Maximinus (Doğu) Galerius (Doğu) ile Licinius (Batı) ve I. Konstantin (Batı) ile II. Maximinus (Doğu) Maxentius Licinius (Batı) ile II. Maximinus (Doğu) ve I. Konstantin (augustus) ile Valerius Valens Licinius (Doğu) ile I. Konstantin (Batı) ve Licinius, II. Constantinus ile Crispus (Martinianus) I. Konstantin ile Crispus II. Constantinus I. Konstans Magnentius ile Decentius II. Constantius ile Vetranio Julianus Jovianus I. Valentinianus Valens Gratianus II. Valentinianus Magnus Maximus ile Flavius Victor I. Theodosius (Eugenius) Batı Roma 395-476 Honorius III. Constantius ile II. Constans III. Constantius Ravenna'daki gaspçı olarak Joannes III. Valentinianus Petronius Maximus ile Palladius Avitus Majorianus sonrası Libius Severus sonrası Anthemius sonrası Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos (de jure) Romulus Augustus (gaspçı) Bizans 395-1204 Arcadius II. Theodosius Pulcheria Marcianus I. Leo II. Leo Zeno Basiliscus ile Marcus Zeno I. Anastasius I. Justinus I. Justinianus II. Justinus II. Tiberius Mauricius ile Theodosius Phocas Herakleios* III. Konstantinos Heraklonas II. Konstans IV. Konstantinos ile Herakleios ile Tiberios ile II. Justinianos II. Justinianos Leontios III. Tiberios II. Justinianos ile Tiberios Filippikos II. Anastasios III. Theodosios III. Leon V. Konstantinos Artabasdos IV. Leon VI. Konstantinos İrini I. Nikiforos Stavrakios I. Mihail ile Theofilaktos V. Leon ile Konstantinos II. Mihail Theofilos III. Mihail I. Basileios VI. Leon Aleksandros VII. Konstantinos I. Romanos ile Hristoforos ile Stefanos ile Konstantinos II. Romanos II. Nikiforos I. İoannis II. Basileios VIII. Konstantinos Zoi ile III. Romanos Zoi ile IV. Mihail V. Mihail IX. Konstantinos Theodora VI. Mihail I. İsaakios X. Konstantinos Romen Diyojen VII. Mihail ile Andronikos ile Konstantios ile Konstantinos III. Nikiforos I. Aleksios II. İoannis ile Aleksios I. Manuil II. Aleksios I. Andronikos II. İsaakios III. Aleksios IV. Aleksios Senato tarafından seçilen gaspçı Nikolaos V. Aleksios İznik 1204-1261 Konstantinos I. Theodoros III. İoannis II. Theodoros IV. İoannis Bizans 1261-1453 VIII. Mihail II. Andronikos ile IX. Mihail III. Andronikos V. İoannis VI. İoannis ile V. İoannis ile Matheos V. İoannis IV. Andronikos VII. İoannis V. Andronikos II. Manuil VIII. İoannis XI. Konstantinos Eğik yazılanlar gaspçı ya da ortak imparatordur. *Herakleios döneminden itibaren Grekçe resmî dil olmuş, bu tarihten itibaren imparatorların Latince yerine Grekçe adları yazılmıştır. Otorite kontrolü BIBSYS: 90564087 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CANTIC: a10491697 CiNii: DA00596148 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLG: 150699 NLI: 000088890 NLK: KAC200403589 NLP: A1180743X NLR: 000136425 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 06867452X RERO: 02-A000014105 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 Trove: 1166401 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 WorldCat: lccn-n80051702 "https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=25289194" sayfasından alınmıştır Kategori: 121 doğumlular 180 yılında ölenler 2. yüzyıl filozofları 2. yüzyıl Roma imparatorları Nervan-Antoninler Hanedanı Ahlâkçılar Antik Yunan yazarlar Glykon kültü Gizli kategoriler: Kaynaksız anlatımlar içeren maddeler Webarşiv şablonu wayback bağlantıları Ölü dış bağlantıları olan maddeler BIBSYS tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri BNC tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri BNE tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri BNF tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri CANTIC tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri CINII tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri GND tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri ISNI tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri LCCN tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri LNB tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri MusicBrainz tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NDL tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NKC tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLA tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLG tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLI tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLK tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLP tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NLR tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NSK tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri NTA tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri RERO tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri SELIBR tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri SNAC-ID tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri SUDOC tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri Trove tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri ULAN tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri VIAF tanımlayıcısı olan Vikipedi maddeleri WorldCat tanımlayıcısı içeren Vikipedi maddeleri Sayfa en son 10.53, 10 Nisan 2021 tarihinde değiştirildi. 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uk-wikipedia-org-7894	----	Марк Аврелій — Вікіпедія Марк Аврелій Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. 42 зміни у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено 16 травня 2020. 42 зміни у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено 16 травня 2020. Перейти до навігації Перейти до пошуку У Вікіпедії є статті про інших людей із прізвищем Марк Аврелій. Божественний Аврелій І лат. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Римський Імператор 23 січня 169 — 17 березня 180 Попередник: Вер Наступник: Коммод Авґуст Цезар Rex Pontifex Maximus   Ім'я при народжені: лат. Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus Народження: 26 квітня 121[1] Рим, Італія (Стародавній Рим), Римська імперія Смерть: 17 березня 180[2][1] (58 років) Віндобона, Верхня Панноніяd, Римська імперія Поховання: Замок Сант-Анджело Національність: римляни Країна: Стародавній Рим Релігія: давньоримська релігія Рід: Антоніни Батько: Марк Анній Вер[d] Мати: Доміція Луцілла Молодша Шлюб: Фаустіна Молодша[1] Діти: Коммод, Марк Анній Вер Цезарd, Аннія Аврелія Галерія Фаустіна, Аннія Аврелія Фаділла, Аннія Луціла, Аннія Корніфіція Фаустина Молодшаd, Вібія Аврелія Сабінаd, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninusd і Domitia Faustinad  Медіафайли у Вікісховищі Висловлювання у Вікіцитатах Божественний Марк Авре́лій Антоні́н (лат. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26 квітня 121, Рим — 17 березня 180, Віндобона, нині Відень) — римський імператор з 161 року, належав до династії Антонінів. Був сином Анія Вера і Доміції Луцілли. Відомий як філософ-стоїк. Зміст 1 Життєпис 1.1 Ранні роки 1.2 Правління Римською імперією 1.3 Смерть 2 Методи правління та погляди 2.1 Методи правління 2.2 Ставлення до християн 3 Літературний спадок 3.1 Філософська збірка «Роздуми» 4 Ушанування пам′яті 4.1 Астероїди 4.2 Скульптура 4.3 Живопис 4.4 Кінематограф 5 Видання українською мовою 6 Примітки 7 Посилання Життєпис[ред. | ред. код] Цей розділ потрібно повністю переписати відповідно до стандартів якості Вікіпедії. Ви можете допомогти, переробивши його. Можливо, сторінка обговорення містить зауваження щодо потрібних змін. (травень 2020) Ранні роки[ред. | ред. код] Марк Аврелій народився в аристократичній родині в Римі в 121 році нашої ери. За народження мав ім'я Маркус Аніус Катіліус Северус (лат. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus). Отримав прекрасну освіту. З волі діда по матері він навчався вдома. Марк згадує про Діогнета, який уводив його в філософію й одночасно навчав живопису. Незважаючи на свій юний вік, був намічений у квестори, а через пів року після смерті Адріана, у 138 році, вступив на посаду квестора, тобто почав практично займатися адміністративною діяльністю. У тому ж році він був заручений з Фаустиною, дочкою імператора Антоніна Пія, наступника Адріана на престолі. Антоній Пій усиновив Марка Аврелія та Луція Вера, які стали співправителями Римської імперії після смерті імператора. Навесні 145 року Марк одружився з кузиною Фаустиною. Для римлян цей шлюб був великим святом, для молодих людей — втратою невинности, для імперської політики — новим етапом. Про свято відомо тільки те, що воно запам'яталося.[3] Марк Аврелій навчався у Фронтона і Ірода Аттика риториці і від 146 року почав проявляти інтерес до філософії. Вона була тоді свого роду релігійним сповіданням, яке вимагало умертвіння плоті і дотримання майже монастирських правил. У 12 років Марк одягнувся у філософську мантію, привчився спати на твердому і виконувати всі суворі вимоги аскетизму стоїків.[4] Антонін Пій помер 7 березня 161 року у своєму Лоріумському палаці, з усім спокоєм вищої мудрості. Відчувши наближення смерти, він упорядкував сімейні справи як проста людина, і наказав перенести в кімнату свого прийманого сина, Марка Аврелія, золоту статую Фортуни, яка завжди повинна була перебувати в покоях імператора.[5] Правління Римською імперією[ред. | ред. код] На початку правління Марк керував імперією зі співправителем, Луцієм Вером, який був його зведеним братом. Батьком Луція Вера був Луцій Елій, першообраний наступник Адріана. Статусу зведеного брата Луція Маркус набув після всиновлення Антоніном Пієм. Після смерти Луція Вера у 169 році нашої ери Маркус залишився єдиним правителем імперії. Період правління Марка Аврелія відзначився запеклими оборонними битвами, що знаменували кінець відносно спокійного розвитку епохи принципату. У 162 році було придушене повстання в Британії і йшли бої з хаттами в районі німецького лімесу. Після війни з парфянами (162—166 рр.) Вірменія і Едеське царство опинилися в залежності від Римської держави. Спроба узурпації верховної влади з боку намісника Сирії Гая Авіди Касія в 175 році і повстання в Єгипті знову загострили внутрішньополітичну ситуацію. У 176 році Марк знову обрав собі співправителя. Цього разу ним став його син — Коммод. Смерть[ред. | ред. код] Марк Аврелій вів захисні війни проти германських племен у Галії та понад Дунаєм, а також проти Парфянського царства на сході. Саме в поході до австрійських земель він помер 17 березня 180 року[6], ймовірно, від чуми, яка спалахнула в той рік серед місцевих племен. Не виключають і того, що це була моровиця іншого захворювання — натуральної віспи. Методи правління та погляди[ред. | ред. код] Методи правління[ред. | ред. код] Цей розділ потрібно повністю переписати відповідно до стандартів якості Вікіпедії. Ви можете допомогти, переробивши його. Можливо, сторінка обговорення містить зауваження щодо потрібних змін. (травень 2020) Марк Аврелій багато чому навчився у свого прийманого батька Антоніна Пія. Подібно до нього, Марк всіляко підкреслював свою повагу до сенату як до установи, і до сенаторів, як до членів цієї установи. Як правитель, Марк Аврелій був втіленням помірної політики у вищій її досконалості. Основу його дій становила повага до людей[7]. Громадська допомога, яка отримала початок при правлінні Нерві та Траяна, розвинена Антоніном, досягла при правлінні Марка Аврелія вищої точки свого розвитку. Внаслідок незадовільності норовів і помилкових економічних принципів, що лежали в основі суспільства, вихованням дітей вільних станів особливо переймалися державні люди. З часів Траяна, на цей предмет звернені були кошти, здобуті з-під застави майна, доходами яких завідували прокуратори. Марк Аврелій зробив цих прокураторів першорядними чиновниками, вибирав їх з найбільшим старанням з колишніх консулів і преторів та розширив їх права. Величезне багатство полегшувало йому ці розумні пожертвування. Він сам заклав багато допоміжних кас для юнацтва обох статей.[8] Марк Аврелій, наприклад, активно підключав до судових справ сенаторів, доручивши їм те, чим раніше займався сам. Але в той же час сенат був вищою імперською владою. Імператор був головним сенатором, тобто першим серед рівних.[9] Час Марка Аврелія став періодом, відомим під назвою «сенатський ренесанс», а Марк Аврелій відкрито заявляв про своє підпорядкування сенату[9] За правління Марка Аврелія ввели до сенату більше провінціалів, ніж при будь-якому колишньому правителі, особливо зі східних і африканських провінцій. Тепер провінціали становили в сенаті не менше половини. Ці заходи потрібні були не стільки для підняття авторитету сенату, скільки для інкорпорації сенату в загальну бюрократичну структуру державного управління імперії. Марк Аврелій став ніби опікуном усіх, над ким не було опіки. Дитині бідній, дитині хворій був забезпечений дбайливий догляд. Для опікування сиріт створили претуру, що завідувала справами опіки.[4] Найбільші благодіяння Марк Аврелій, разом з Антоніном, надали рабам. Деякі найбільш жахливі сторони рабства були пом'якшені. Припустили можливість існування несправедливости власника щодо раба. Види тілесних покарань були визначені законом. Убивство раба стало злочином.[4] Велику увагу Марк Аврелій приділяв судочинству. Загальний напрямок його діяльности в галузі права: «не так впроваджував нововведення, скільки відновлював старовинне право». В Афінах він заснував чотири кафедри філософії — для кожної свій напрямок — академічний, перипатетичний, стоїчний, епікурейський. Ставлення до християн[ред. | ред. код] Правління Марка Аврелія, яке, за словами архієпископа Євсевія, відрізнялося особливою жорстокістю по відношенню до християн, не дає якихось нових антихристиянських указів. Марк Аврелій, стоїк, філософ на троні, якого звинувачували в тому, що «віднявши у народу розваги, він хоче змусити народ займатися філософією», звичайно, ставився до християн з презирством.[10] Під час правління Марка Аврелія гноблення християн у різних частинах імперії посилюється. Дискусійним залишається питання про те, чи відбувалося це з його ініціативи, і чи був Марк Аврелій взагалі причетний до цих переслідувань.[11] За словами британського історика Едварда Гіббона з початком Германської війни, його ставлення до християн погіршується, що було нехарактерним для правління батька Марка Аврелія та його попередників.[12] Літературний спадок[ред. | ред. код] Філософська збірка «Роздуми»[ред. | ред. код] Цей розділ потрібно повністю переписати відповідно до стандартів якості Вікіпедії. Ви можете допомогти, переробивши його. Можливо, сторінка обговорення містить зауваження щодо потрібних змін. (травень 2020) Марка Аврелія безумовно називають «філософом на троні». Його твір відомий у світі під загальною назвою «До себе самого» (давньогрец. Εἰς ἑαυτόν), а в Європі переважно знаний як «Роздуми» (лат. "Mediatationes"). Праця складається з 12 книг написаних давньогрецькою мовою у вигляді щоденника приблизно в 70 роки ІІ століття. Дослідники життя і творчості Аврелія припускають, що робота була створена у той час, коли імператор перебував у Центральній Європі. Саме завдяки «Роздумам» Марк Аврелій і отримав звання філософа. У «Роздумах» Марка Аврелія дослідники бачать лише одну з версій стоїцизму, вчення про гарне життя, набір моралей тощо. Але ніхто з попередників-стоїків не припускав можливість власного апофеозу, ніхто з них не проводив цю процедуру у відношенні своїх близьких, ніхто не керував релігійним життям римської громади, тому у них не було того досвіду і тих мотивацій, які були у Марка[13] У центрі його антиматеріалістичних вчень стоїть часткове володіння людиною своїм тілом, душею і духом, носієм яких є благочестива, мужня і керована розумом особистість — володарка (тільки над духом), вихователь почуття обов'язку і обитель совісті. За допомогою духу всі люди беруть участь в божественному і цим створюють ідейну спільність, долають всі обмеження. Якщо колишні стоїки вважали душу-пневму чільним початком, то Марк Аврелій називає провідним початком розум.[14] На думку Марка Аврелія, людина — лише елемент світового порядку, ланка в природних закономірностях, чиє існування не має ніякої вищої мети. Природа нейтральна щодо людини, вона не є ні добро, ні зло. Як розкладається тіло людини, так само розкладеться її душа і розвіється її розум. Єдина втіха — загибель одних є запорукою появи інших, а якогось більш піднесеного сенсу немає. При цьому імператор щиро вірив богам, не просто в богів, а саме богам, вважаючи, що вони все влаштовують найкращим чином.[13] Хоча Марк намагається підтримувати рівновагу між своїми вчителями, він не може втриматися від того, щоб спеціально не відзначити трьох: Аполлонія Тіанського, Рустика і Максима. Аполлоній Тіанський, як і Секст, був філософом-стоїком, людиною глибоко незалежного духу.[3] Марк Аврелій не тішився з недоліків своїх друзів; але за своєю мудрістю відрізняв вчення від слабкостей проповідників. Він знав, що мало було або зовсім не було філософів, які б дійсно здійснювали те, що радили іншим. Марк Аврелій залишився вірним філософії, незважаючи на всі вади філософів.[4] Учителем філософії Марка був Максим Клавдій. Ушанування пам′яті[ред. | ред. код] Астероїди[ред. | ред. код] 7447 Маркаврелій — астероїд, який назвали на честь імператора. Скульптура[ред. | ред. код] Бюст римського імператора Марка Аврелія Кінний монумент Марку Аврелію (175 рік н. е) .— давньоримська бронзова скульптура, розташована в Римі Арка Марка Аврелія (165 рік) — Триполі, Лівія Погруддя Марка Аврелія — знахідка археологів на півдні Єгипту в храмі Ком-Омбо на східному березі Нилу (2018)[15] Погруддя Марка Аврелія (приблизно 169 рік) — музей скульптури в Liebieghaus, Франкфурд Статуя Марка Аврелія (кінець ІІ ст.) — знайдена в Габії (Італія), нині знаходиться в Луврі, Париж Погруддя Марка Аврелія (161 рік) — знайдено в давньому Probalinthos, Аттіка, Греція, нині в Луврі, Париж Погруддя Марка Аврелія — знаходиться в Чиказькому художньому інституті, США Живопис[ред. | ред. код] Марк Аврелій роздає хліб людям (1765) — картина Жозеф Марі В'єн Кінематограф[ред. | ред. код] Падіння Римської імперії (1964) — Алек Гіннесс у ролі Марка Аврелія Гладіатор (2000) — Річард Гарріс у ролі Марка Аврелія Марк Аврелій. Останній триумф імператора (2002) — документальний фільм Видання українською мовою[ред. | ред. код] Марк Аврелій. Роздумування. Пер. з грецької: Омелян Омецінський. Буенос-Айрес; Нью-Йорк: Науково-Дослідне Товариство Української термінології. 1986. 149 стор.[16] (передрук) Марк Аврелій. Розмисли. Наодинці з собою Пер. з грецької: Омелян Омецінський. Харків: КСД. 2020. 208 стор. ISBN 978-617-12-7650-5[17] Марк Аврелій. Наодинці з собою. Роздуми. Пер. з грецької: Ростислав Паранько. Львів: Літопис, 2007. 212 стор. ISBN 966-7007-62-0[18] (передрук) Марк Аврелій. Наодинці з собою: роздуми. Пер. з грецької: Ростислав Паранько. Львів: Апріорі, 2018. 182 стор. ISBN 978-617-629-486-3 (Бібліотека античної літератури)[19] Примітки[ред. | ред. код] ↑ а б в Любкер Ф. Antoninus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 107.d:Track:Q4249594d:Track:Q101490d:Track:Q656d:Track:Q694826d:Track:Q4135787d:Track:Q24933120d:Track:Q30059240d:Track:Q1459210d:Track:Q45275993 ↑ Марк-Аврелий, Антонин // Военная энциклопедия — СПб: Иван Дмитриевич Сытин, 1914. — Т. 15. — С. 201.d:Track:Q656d:Track:Q26160611d:Track:Q4114391d:Track:Q4448234d:Track:Q25397449 ↑ а б Фонтен, Франсуа. «Марк Аврелий» (рос.). с. гл. III,1.  ↑ а б в г Ренан, Э. Ж. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. с. гл.I, 9.  ↑ Ренан, Э. Ж. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. с. гл.I, 1.  ↑ Ренан, Э. Ж. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. с. Глава XXVII,1–3.  ↑ Ренан, Э. Ж. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. с. гл.II, 1.  ↑ Ренан, Э. Ж. Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира. с. гл.II, 3.  ↑ а б Мнемон (2003). Политическая элита эпохи Антонинов. Исследования и публикации по истории античного мира. Санкт-Петербург: Под редакцией професора Э.Д. Фролова. с. 246–254.  ↑ Цюпак В. Політика Марка Аврелія щодо християн // Проблеми гуманітарних наук. — 2018. — Вип. 42: Сер. Історія. — С. 300—312. ↑ McLynn, Frank (2009). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press. с. 295.  (англ.) ↑ Gibbon, Edward (1776 - 1788). «The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire» 2. Strahan & Cadell, London. с. chapter 16, V.  (англ.) ↑ а б А. В. Халапсис. МАРК АВРЕЛИЙ И ИДЕЯ АПОФЕОЗА В АНТИЧНОЙ КАРТИНЕ МИРА. // Scientific Journal «ScienceRise» № 4// Стр. 55-58 ↑ Реале, Д.; Антисери, Д. (2003.). Западная философия от истоков до наших дней. с. 148–150.  ↑ Бюст римського імператора Марка Аврелія знайдено у Єгипті ↑ Марк Аврелій — Роздумування (пер. українською Омеляна Омецінського, 1986) на сайті е-бібліотеки diasporiana.org.ua ↑ Марк Аврелій — Розмисли. Наодинці з собою. bookclub.ua/ukr/, 2020 ↑ Марк Аврелій — Наодинці з собою. Роздуми. litopys.lviv.ua, 2007 ↑ Марк Аврелій — Наодинці з собою: роздуми. apriori.lviv.ua, 2018 Посилання[ред. | ред. код] Вікіцитати містять висловлювання від або про: Марк Аврелій Вікісховище має мультимедійні дані за темою: Marcus Aurelius Про Марка Аврелія Марк Аврелій на сайті newacropolis.org.ua/ua/ Марк Аврелій // Юридична енциклопедія : [у 6 т.] / ред. кол. Ю. С. Шемшученко (відп. ред.) [та ін.]. — К. : Українська енциклопедія ім. М. П. Бажана, 2001. — Т. 3 : К — М. — С. 580. — ISBN 966-7492-03-6. Марк Аврелій // Сучасний словник з етики: Словник. Житомир: Вид-во ЖДУ ім. І. Франка, 2014. — 416 с.: С. 11 ISBN 978-966-485-156-2 Марк Аврелій — Роздумування Марк Аврелій — Роздумування (оригінал тексту грецькою, II ст.) у Вікіджерелах (гр.) Марк Аврелій — Роздумування (пер. українською Омеляна Омецінського, 1986) на сайті е-бібліотеки diasporiana.org.ua Попередник Антонін Пій Імператор Римської імперії 161-180 Наступник Коммод п о р Імператори Римської імперії Принципат (27 до н. е.—235) 1. Октавіан Август (27 до н. е.—14 н.е.) 2. Тиберій (14—37) 3. Калігула (37—41) 4. Клавдій (41—54) 5. Нерон (54—68) 6. Гальба (68—69) 7. Отон (69) 8. Вітеллій (69) 9. Веспасіан (69—79) 10. Тит (79—81) 11. Доміціан (81—96) 12. Нерва (96—98) 13. Траян (98—117) 14. Адріан (117—138) 15. Антонін Пій (138—161) 16. Марк Аврелій (161—180) 17. Луцій Вер (161—169) 18. Коммод (180—192) 19. Пертінакс (193) 20. Дідій Юліан (193) 21. Септимій Север (193—211) 22. Каракалла (211—217) 23. Гета (209—211) 24. Макрін і Діадумен (217—218) 25. Геліогабал (218—222) 26. Александр Север (222—235) Криза (235—284) 27. Максимін Фракієць (235—238) 28. Гордіан I і Гордіан II (238) 29. Пупієн і Бальбін (238) 30. Гордіан III (238—244) 31. Філіпп Араб (244—249) 32. Децій Траян (249—251) і Геренній Етруск (251) 33. Гостіліан (251) 34. Требоніан Галл і Волусіан (251—253) 35. Еміліан (253) 36. Валеріан (253—260) 37. Галлієн (253—268) і Салонін (260) 38. Клавдій II (268—270) 39. Квінтілл (270) 40. Авреліан (270—275) 40. Марк Клавдій Тацит (275—276) 41. Флоріан (276) 42. Проб (276—282) 43. Гай Марк Аврелій Кар (282—283) 44. Марк Аврелій Карін (283—285) 45. Нумеріан (283—284) Домінат (284—395) 46. Діоклетіан (284—305) 47. Максиміан (285—308) 48. Констанцій I Хлор (293—305) 49. Галерій (293—305) 50. Флавій Север (305—306) 51. Максенцій (306—312) 52. Максиміан II Дая (305—310) 53. Ліциній (307—324), Валерій Валент (316—317) і Секст Мартініан (324) 54. Костянтин Великий (306—337) 55. Костянтин II (317—337) 56. Констант (333—350) 57. Констанцій II (324—361) 58. Ветраніон (350) 59. Флавій Клавдій Юліан (355—363) 60. Йовіан (363—364) 61. Валентиніан I (364—375) 62. Валент (364—378) 63. Граціан (367—383) 64. Валентиніан II (375—392) 65. Феодосій Великий (379—395) Західна Римська імперія (395—476) 66. Гонорій (393—423) і Констанцій III (421) 67. Іоанн (423—425) 68. Валентиніан III (425—455) 69. Петроній Максим (455) 70. Авіт (455—456) 71. Майоріан (457—461) 72. Лібій Север (461—465) 73. Антемій Прокопій (472) 74. Олібрій (472) 75. Гліцерій (473—474) 76. Юлій Непот (474—475) 77. Ромул Август (475—476) п о р Консули 118-138 рр.→ ​​Консули Римської імперії 139-160 рр. → Консули 161—192 рр. 139: Антонін Пій (2-й раз) і Гай Бруттій Презент Луцій Фульвій Рустік (2-й раз), суффекти - Луцій Мініцій Натал Квадроній Вер, Луцій Клавдій Прокул Корнеліан, Гай Юлій Скапула, Марк Цекцій Юстін, Гай Юлій Басс 140: Антонін Пій (3-й раз) і Марк Аврелій, суффекти - Юлій Крассіпед, Марк Барбій Еміліан, Тит Флавій Юліан 141: Тит Геній Север і Марк Педуцей Стлога Присцін, суффект - Луцій Анній Фабіан 142: Луцій Куспій Пактумей Руфін і Луцій Статій Квадрат, суффекти - Луцій Граній Каст, Марк Корнелій Фронтон, Луцій Лаберій Пріск, Луцій Тусідій Кампестер, Квінт Корнелій Сенеціон Анніан і Сульпіцій Юліан 143: Гай Белліцій Торкват і Ірод Аттичний, суффекти - Квінт Юній Калам і Марк Валерій Юніан 144: Луцій Гедій Руф Лолліан Авіт і Тит Статілій Максим, суффекти - Марк Кальпурній Лонг і Децім Велій Фід 145: Антонін Пій (4-й раз) і Марк Аврелій (2-й раз) суффекти - Квінт Мустій Пріск, Марк Понтій Леліан Ларцій Сабін, Луцій Поблікола Пріск, Луцій Плавтій Елій Ламія Сільван, Гней Аррій Корнелій Прокул, Децим Юній Пет, Луцій Петроній Сабін, Гай Вікрій Руф, Гай Фадій Руф і Публій Вікрій 146: Секст Еруцій Клар (2-й раз) і Гней Клавдій Север Арабіан, суффекти - Квінт Ліціній Модестін Секст Атій Лабеон, Публій Муммій Сізена Рутіліан,Тит Пріферній Пет, Луцій Аврелій Галл, Гней Луцій Теренцій Хомул Юніор, Квінт Воконій Сакса Фід, Гай Уммідій Квадрат Анніан Вер, Луцій Емілій Лонг, Квінт Корнелій Прокул 147: Гай Прастіна Мессалін і Луцій Анній Ларг, суффекти - Авл Клавдій Харакс, Квінт Фуфіцій Корнут, Купресен Галл, Квінт Корнелій Квадрат, Секст Кокцей Северіан Гонорій, Тиберій Ліциній Кассій Кассіан, Гай Попілій Кар Педон 148: Луцій Октавій Корнелій Публій Салвій Юліан Еміліан і Гай Белліцій Кальпурній Торкват, суффекти - Сатурій Фірм, Гай Сальвій Капітон, Публій Орфідій Сенеціон, Гай Фабій Агріппін, Марк Антоній Зенон 149: Сервій Корнелій Сципіон Сальвідієн Орфіт і Квінт Помпей Сосій Пріск, суффекти - Квінт Пассієн Ліцін, Гай Юлій Авіт, Тіт Флавій Лонгін Квінт Марцій Турбон 150: Марк Гавій Сквілла Галлікан і Секст Карміній Вет, суффекти - Марк Кассій Аполлінар і Марк Петроній Мамерцін 151: Секст Квінтілій Кондіан і Секст Квінтілій Валерій Максим, суффекти - Луцій Аттідій Корнеліан і Марк Коміній Секунд 152: Маній Ацилій Глабріон Гней Корнелій Север і Марк Валерій Гомул, суффекти - Луцій Клавдій Модест, Луцій Дазумій Туллій Туск, Публій Суфенат Вер, Гай Новій Пріск, Луцій Юлій Ромул, Публій Клувій Максим, Марк Сервілій Сілан 153: Луцій Фульвій Русцій Гай Бруттій Презент і Авл Юній Руфін, суффекти - Секст Цецілій Максим, Марк Понтій Сабін, Публій Септимій Апер, Марк Седацій Северіан, Квінт Петіедій Галл, Гай Катій Марцелл 154: Луцій Вер і Тит Секстій Латеран, суффекти - Пріферній Пет, Марк Ноній Макрін, Тиберій Клавдій Юліан, Секст Кальпурній Агрікола, Гай Юлій Стацій Север, Тит Юній Север 155: Гай Юлій Север і Марк Юній Руфін Сабініан, суффекти - Гай Ауфідій Вікторін, Марк Гавій, Анцій Поліон, Мініцій Опіміан, Децім Рупілій Север, Луцій Юлій Север 156: Марк Цейоній Сільван і Гай Серій Авгурін, суффекти - Авл Авілій Урінацій Квадрат, Страбон Еміліан, Квінт Канузій Пренестін, Гай Лузій Спарс 157: Марк Веттулен Цивіка Барбар і Марк Метілій Аквіллій Регул, суффекти - Гай Целій Секунд і Гай Юлій Коммод Орфіціан 158: Секст Сульпіцій Тертулл і Квинт Тиней Сакердот Клемент, суффекти - Марк Сервілій Фабіан Максим і Квінт Ялій Басс 159: Плавтій Квінтілл і Марк Стацій Пріск Ліциній Італік, суффекти - Луцій Матукцій Фусцін, Марк Пізібаній Лепід, Авл Курцій Кріспін 160: Апій Аній Ацілій Брадуа і Тит Клодій Вібій Вар, суффекти - Авл Платорій Непот Калпурніан Марцелл,Марк Постумий Фест, Гай Септимій Север, Цезорій Павел, Тиберій Оклацій Север, Нінній Хастіан і Новій Сабінан   Тематичні сайти NNDB · Open Library · MusicBrainz · Проєкт Гутенберг · Goodreads · Goodreads · Rodovid.org · Find a Grave · Quora Словники та енциклопедії Велика каталонська · Britannica (11-th) · Britannica (онлайн) · Britannica (онлайн) · Encyclopædia Universalis · Treccani · Італійська енциклопедія Нормативний контроль BAV: ADV12179132, ADV12667279, ADV11069824, ADV11069825, ADV12420148 · BIBSYS: 90564087 · BNC: a10491697 · BNE: XX932158 · BNF: 11914476c · CiNii: DA00596148 · CONOR: 6923107 · GND: 118577468 · ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X · LCCN: n80051702 · LNB: 000027790 · NDL: 00431918 · NKC: jn19981001808 · NLA: 1166401 · NLG: 150699 · NLR: 000136425 · NSK: 000083919 · NTA: 06867452X · NUKAT: n96103790 · PTBNP: 272140 · LIBRIS: 194415 · SUDOC: 027008614 · VIAF: 102895066 · ULAN: 500115701 Отримано з https://uk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Марк_Аврелій&oldid=32490279 Категорії: Народились 26 квітня Народились 121 Уродженці Рима Померли 17 березня Померли 180 Римські імператори Римські імператори II століття Давньоримські філософи Люди, на честь яких названо астероїд Афористи Люди на монетах Померли від чуми Консули Римської імперії Приховані категорії: Персоналії за алфавітом Статті з джерелами з Вікіданих Вікіпедія:P19:використовується Вікіпедія:P20:використовується Вікіпедія:P1791:відсутня Вікіпедія:P373:використовується Статті, які потрібно переписати з травня 2020 Всі статті, які потрібно переписати Вікіпедія:Сторінки з посиланням на Вікіцитати Сторінки, що використовують магічні посилання ISBN Навігаційне меню Особисті інструменти Ви не увійшли до системи Обговорення Внесок Створити обліковий запис Увійти Простори назв Стаття Обговорення Варіанти Перегляди Читати Неперевірені зміни Редагувати Редагувати код Переглянути історію Більше Пошук Навігація Головна сторінка Поточні події Нові редагування Нові сторінки Випадкова стаття Участь Портал спільноти Кнайпа Довідка Пожертвувати Сторінка для медіа Інструменти Посилання сюди Пов'язані редагування Спеціальні сторінки Постійне посилання Інформація про сторінку Цитувати сторінку Елемент Вікіданих Друк/експорт Створити книгу Завантажити як PDF Версія до друку В інших проєктах Вікісховище Вікіцитати Іншими мовами Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Редагувати посилання Цю сторінку востаннє відредаговано о 12:24, 3 червня 2021. Текст доступний на умовах ліцензії Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; також можуть діяти додаткові умови. Детальніше див. Умови використання. Політика конфіденційності Про Вікіпедію Відмова від відповідальності Зворотний зв'язок Мобільний вигляд Розробники Статистика Куки 
uli-nli-org-il-587	----	NLI AUT MultiLang - Full View of Record National Library of Israel Names and Subjects Authority File Basic Advanced Recent Search Previous Searches e-Shelf Other Catalogs Help Quit   Record View Full Record View Short Record View Catalog Card Name Tags MARC Tags Save/Email Add to My e-Shelf   Sys. no.   000088890 Personal Name    Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180    Марк Аврелий, Римский Император, 121-180   ‫  מרקוס אורליוס, קיסר רומי, 121-180 ‬   ‫  مرقص أوريليوس أنطونينوس ‬ S.F. Pers. Name    Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius    Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperor of Rome    Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180    Marcus Aurelius Antoninus    Marc Aurel    Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome, 121-180    Mark Aurel    Аврелий, Марк Антоний, Римский Император, 121-180   ‫  מרקוס אורליוס אנטוניוס, קיסר רומי ‬   ‫  אורליוס מארקוס אנטונינוס ‬   ‫  אנטונינוס מארקוס אורליוס ‬   ‫  מארקוס אורליוס אנטונינוס ‬   ‫  מארכוס אורליוס אנטונינוס ‬   ‫  ماركوس أوريليوس ‬   ‫  أوريليوس أنطونينوس ‬   ‫  مرقس أوريليوس أنطونينوس ‬ Source Data Found   LCN   LCN: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180   Record enhanced with data from Bibliography of the Hebrew Book database Alternate form   ‫ מארכוס אורליוס אנטונינוס source: bhb ‬   MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS source: bhb © The National Library of Israel 
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uz-wikipedia-org-7627	----	Avreliy Mark - Vikipediya Avreliy Mark Vikipediya, ochiq ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search Avreliy Mark (121-180) – Rim imperatori (161 yildan). Antoninlar sulo-lasidan. Senatorlar tabaqasiga suyangan. Armanistonda Rim hukmronligini tiklagan. Parfiyaliklar bilan bo‘lgan urushda (162–166) Mesopotamiyani bosib olgan. 166–180 yillarda Markoman urushi olib borgan. So‘nggi stoitsizm vakili ("O‘ylar" falsafiy asari muallifi).[1] Manbalar[tahrir] ↑ "Avreliy Mark" OʻzME. A-harfi Birinchi jild. Toshkent, 2000-yil Ushbu maqolada Oʻzbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi (2000-2005) maʼlumotlaridan foydalanilgan. Ushbu maqola chaladir. Siz uni boyitib, Vikipediyaga yordam berishingiz mumkin. v t e Bu andozani aniqrogʻiga almashtirish kerak. "https://uz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avreliy_Mark&oldid=2045844" dan olindi Turkum: Chala maqolalar Yashirin turkum: Oʻzbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi maqolalari Barcha chala maqolalar Navigatsiya Shaxsiy uskunalar Siz tizimga kirmagansiz Ushbu IP-manzil munozarasi Qoʻshilgan hissa Hisob yaratish Kirish Nomfazolar Maqola Munozara lotin/кирилл lotin/кирилл lotin кирилл Koʻrinishlar<!--Views--> Mutolaa Tahrirlash Tarix Yana Qidiruv navigatsiya Bosh sahifa Tanlangan maqolalar Yangi sahifalar Tasodifiy maqola Maqolalar indeksi Loyihaga koʻmak Ishtirok Xato haqida xabar berish Yangi oʻzgarishlar Jamoa portali Qoidalar Yordam Forum Aloqa Asboblar Bu yerga ishoratlar Bogʻliq oʻzgarishlar Maxsus sahifalar Doimiy havola Sahifa haqida maʼlumot Sahifadan matn parchasi ajratish Vikimaʼlumotlar bandi Nashr/eksport qilish PDF sifatida yuklash Bosma uchun versiya Boshqa loyihalarda Vikiombor Boshqa tillarda Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Ishoratlarni tahrirla Bu sahifa oxirgi marta 15-Iyun 2019, 17:52 da tahrir qilingan. Matn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike litsenziyasi boʻyicha ommalashtirilmoqda, alohida holatlarda qoʻshimcha shartlar amal qilishi mumkin (batafsil). Maxfiylik siyosati Vikipediya haqida Masʼuliyatdan voz kechish Mobil versiya Dasturchilar Statistika Cookie bayonoti 
viaf-org-5749	----	102895066 VIAF Virtual International Authority File Search Select Field: All Fields All Headings Corporate Names Geographic Names Personal Names Works Expressions Preferred Headings Exact Heading Bibliographic Titles Select Index: All VIAF Argentina Australia Belgium (Flemish) Brazil Canada Catalunya Chile Croatia Czech Denmark (DBC) Egypt Estonia FAST France (BnF) France (Sudoc) Germany Getty (ULAN) Greece Hispánica Hungary Iceland Ireland ISNI Israel Italy Japan (NDL) Japan (NII) Korea Latvia Lebanon LC (NACO) Lithuania Luxembourg Morocco Netherlands Norway (BIBSYS) Norway (National Library) Iceland Perseus Poland (National Library) Poland (NUKAT) Portugal Québec RILM RISM Russia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Swiss (National Library) Swiss (RERO) Syriac Taiwan Vatican Wikipedia xA xR Search Terms: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marc Aurèle, 0121-0180, empereur romain Mark Aurel Römisches Reich, Kaiser 121-180 Marek Aureliusz (cesarz rzymski ; 121-180). Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus 121-180 Romeins keizer Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Romeins keizer, 121-180 Marc Aureli, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus romersk keiser 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Aurelius, romersk kejsare, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, imperatore romano, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, rímsky cisár, 121-180 Marks Aurēlijs, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus, římský císař, 121-180 Марк Аврелий Антонин император римский 121-180 مرقص أوريليوس أنطونينوس מרקוס אורליוס, קיסר רומי, 121-180 Марк Аврелий, Римский Император, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, M. император римский Marcus 121-180 Markús Árelíus, keisari Rómaveldis, 121-180 Marco Aurélio, Imperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus, 121-180, ローマ皇帝 Aurélio, Marco, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Romos imperatorius Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marc-Aurèle, empereur romain, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome (Roman emperor, 121-180 CE) Marcus Aurelius, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης (121-180) Marc Aurèle, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius kejser over romerriget VIAF ID: 102895066 ( Personal ) Permalink: http://viaf.org/viaf/102895066 Preferred Forms 200 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡b  M.‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡g  Marcus‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 200 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurélio,‏ ‎‡b  Marco,‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 200 _ | ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle,‏ ‎‡d  0121-0180,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 100 0 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio,‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romeins keizer,‏ 200 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romos imperatorius‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Romeins keizer,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 _ _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  kejser over romerriget‏ 200 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 100 _ _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romeins keizer‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  římský císař,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180,‏ ‎‡c  ローマ皇帝‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡g  Roman emperor, 121-180 CE‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  romersk kejsare,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  rímsky cisár,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡c  (cesarz rzymski ;‏ ‎‡d  121-180)‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡c  (cesarz rzymski ;‏ ‎‡d  121-180).‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Markús Árelíus,‏ ‎‡c  keisari Rómaveldis,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 200 _ 0 ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий,‏ ‎‡c  Римский Император,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס,‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומי,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  مرقص أوريليوس أنطونينوس‏         4xx's: Alternate Name Forms (689) 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ̓Αντωνῖνος, Μάρκος,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  ̓Αντωνῖνος, Μάρκος‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Annius Verus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonin, Marc,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonin, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonin, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Antonino,‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninos Autokrator, Markos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Antonino‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Antoninus Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus A.‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  romersk kejsare,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  rímsky cisár,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  římský císař,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  romersk kejsare‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  římský císař‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Rooman keisari‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Antoninus,‏ ‎‡b  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Antoninus‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonius, Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  romersk kejsare,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonius, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonius, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonius, Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  romersk kejsare‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Antonius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aoleiliu, ..‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aoleiliu‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aoleliu, ..‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aoleliu, Make,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aoleliu, Make‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aoleliu.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aoleliu‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Marc‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Mark‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Mark‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Mark‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Mark‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurel, Mark‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurele, Marc‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelije, Marko‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelijus‏ ‎‡b  Markas‏ ‎‡c  Romos imperatorius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ 400 1 0 ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelio, Marco‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, imperatore romano‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180,‏ ‎‡c  Roma Kotei‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180,‏ ‎‡c  ローマ コウテイ‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ 400 1 7 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  ローマ皇帝.‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  rímsky cisár,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 700 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡b  M.‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antonius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antonius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Antonius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Marcus Antoninus.‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Aurelius Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Aurelius Markus‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius Markus‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, A. M.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 1 0 ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus,‏ ‎‡c  rímsky cisár,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Römischer Kaiser‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Römischer Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius, Marcus‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius,‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aureliusz, Marek‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Marcus‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurelius‏ ‎‡b  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurèle, Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurélio, Marco,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Aurélio,‏ ‎‡b  Marco‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aurélio‏ ‎‡c  Marco‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurēlijs, Marks,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aurēlijs, Marks,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Avrelij, Mark,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Avreliy Mark‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  M. Antoninus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  M. Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  M. Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  M. Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  M. Aurelius Antoninus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Make Aoleliu,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Make Aoleliu‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Makesi Aoleliu Andongnainuosi.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Antonin‏ ‎‡c  Empire Romain, Empereur‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurele Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurele Antonin‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli, Antoni,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli, Antoni,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureliu‏ ‎‡c  împărat roman din dinastia Antonină între anii 161 și 180 p.Chr. și filozof stoic‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aureli‏ ‎‡c  emperador romà‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle, empereur romain‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle, empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain de 161 à 180 et philosophe stoïcien‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Aurèli‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc Avrelij‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc'Aurelio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc'Aurelio Antonino.‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin, empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Antonin‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurele‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle Antonin‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle-Antonin‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  n‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ ‎‡c  de Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle Antonin, empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle Antonin,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle Antonin‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc-Aurèle‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  de Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marc. Aurel. Antonin, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcas Áiréilias‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  March Aureli‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonino‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonino,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonino,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonino‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonino‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonio,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio Antonio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio, Antonio,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio, Antonio,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio,‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antonino‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  Antonino‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  emperador del Imperio Romano‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurelio‏ ‎‡c  sedicesimo imperatore romano (161-180)‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio Antonino Vero,‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio Antonino Vero‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco Aurélio‏ ‎‡c  imperador romano‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Aurelio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Aurelio Antonous‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Filosofo Stoico‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperatore Romano‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡c  Aurelio Antonous‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡c  Aurelio‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡c  Filosofo Stoico‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marco‏ ‎‡c  Imperatore Romano‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcu Aureliu‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcu Uréliu‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Catilius Severus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Catilius Severus.‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡5  f‏ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Verus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Verus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Verus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Verus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius Verus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Catilius Severus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Verus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius‏ ‎‡c  Catilius Severus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Annius‏ ‎‡c  Verus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus, empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus.‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain,‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antonius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Antonius‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelis,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelis‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus‏ ‎‡c  Caesar‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.‏ 700 _ | ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Römischer Kaiser‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiser‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  imperatore romano,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Ancient Rome‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  římský císař,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,‏ ‎‡c  římský císař,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius,‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius,‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Antonius‏ ‎‡c  Imperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius Verus.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius római császár‏ ‎‡c  a Római Birodalom császára‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180,‏ ‎‡c  Roma kotei‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180,‏ ‎‡c  ローマ コウテイ‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius,‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  (imperator Imperii Romani ;‏ ‎‡d  121-180). [m]‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antoninus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Philosoph‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Römischer Kaiser‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  empereur de Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Antiikin Rooman keisari‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Philosophus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Philosoph‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Roma imparatoru.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Romanorum Imperator‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Romos imperatorius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  Römischer Kaiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  emperor of Ancient Rome (121–180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  kejsare av Rom 161–180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  politicus uit Romeinse Keizerrijk (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  římský císař (161–180)‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus Aurelius‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antoninus‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antonius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Aurel‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Aurelius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Antoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Antonius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Aurelius‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marcus‏ ‎‡c  Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Aurel‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marc‏ ‎‡c  Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureli.‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  MEmperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureliusz‏ ‎‡c  cesarz rzymski‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marek Aureljusz‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Anthony‏ ‎‡c  Imperium Romanum, Imperator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  Emperador de Roma,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel.‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Mark Aureliovi‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of the Roman Empire‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Empereur de l'Empire Romain‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  romersk keiser‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  römischer Kaiser und Philosoph‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  römischer Kaiser und Philosoph (121-180)‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aurel‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Aure‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avreli‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avrelii‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avrelii‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avreliĭ,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avrelij‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avrelij Antonin‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avreliĭ,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mark Avreliĭ‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markas Aurelijus‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Markas Aurelijus‏ ‎‡c  Romos imperatorius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Antonin Filozof‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Aurelije‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Aurelije Autokrat‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Aurelije Autokrator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Aŭrelio‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marko Aŭrelio‏ ‎‡c  imperiestro de Romio (121–180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antonimos.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antoninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Markos Antoninos‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antoninos‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡c  Autokrator‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡c  Autokratōr‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Autokrator‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Autokratōr‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Kaiser des Römischen Reichs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Antōninos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Avrelyws‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos Awrelyws‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antonios‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Antōnios‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos‏ ‎‡c  Antonios‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markos‏ ‎‡c  Antōnios‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurelijs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurelijs‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marks Aurēlijs‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators no 161. līdz 180. gadam‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markus A'urelyus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markus Aurelius‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markus Aʹurelyus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markus Orelyus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markus Orelyus‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Markús Árelíus‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Aʼurelyus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Orelyus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marqus ʾAvrelyus ʾAnṭoninus,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marqus ʾAvrelyus ʾAnṭoninus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marqws Abrelyws Antŵniynws‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marqws ʾAbrelyws ʾAntŵniynws‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Aʼurelyus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Aʼurelyus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Orelyus,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Marḳus Orelyus‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Márkos 'Antōninos‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurḗlios,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurḗlios‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurī́lios,‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurī́lios‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Màrc Aureliò‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Márkos 'Antōninos‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mâ-khù-sṳ̂ O-lie̍t-lî-vû-sṳ̂‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurī́lios‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Mârkos 'Aurḗlios‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Αντωνίνος Μάρκος‏ ‎‡c  Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Αὐρήιλος Ἀντώνιος, Μάρκος‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Αὐρήιλος Ἀντώνιος, Μάρκος‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αντωνίνος Αύγουστος‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αντωνίνος Αύγουστος‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος‏ ‎‡c  Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀυρήλιος‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ | ‎‡a  Μάρκος Ἀυρήλιος‏ ‎‡f  0121-0180‏ ‎‡c  empereur romain‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αντωνίνος‏ ‎‡c  Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Μάρκος Αυρήλιος‏ ‎‡c  Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης‏ ‎‡f  (121-180)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Авлелий‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Аврелий Марк‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий Марк‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк Антоний,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Римский Император,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк Антоний,‏ ‎‡c  Римский Император,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк Антонин,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк Антонин,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Аврелий, Марк,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ 700 _ 0 ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡c  Romos imperatorius‏ 400 _ 0 ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий Антонин‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Римский Император,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡c  16-й римский император‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡c  Борынгы Римның 16 нчы императоры, фәлсәфәче‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелий‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аврелій‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аўрэлій‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк Аўрэлій‏ ‎‡c  рымскі імператар‏ 400 _ 1 ‎‡a  Марк-Анний‏ ‎‡b  В.‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ ‎‡f  121-180‏ ‎‡5  z‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марк-Анний‏ ‎‡c  император римский‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марко Аврелиј‏ ‎‡c  римски цар и филозоф‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марко Аурелије‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Марко Аурелије‏ ‎‡c  импреатор древног Рима‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Մարկոս Ավրելիոս‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Մարկոս Ավրելիոս‏ ‎‡c  կայսր‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  אורליוס מארקוס אנטונינוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  אנטונינוס מארקוס אורליוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מארכוס אורליוס אנטונינוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מארקוס אורליוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מארקוס אורליוס אנטונינוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מחבר:מרקוס אורליוס‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס אנטוניוס,‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומי‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס אנטוניוס‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומה‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס,‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומא,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומא,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומה,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  מרקוס אורליוס‏ ‎‡c  קיסר רומי ופילוסוף סטואי‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  أوريليوس أنطونينوس‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  ماركوس أوريليوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ماركوس أوريليوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ماركوس أوريليوس‏ ‎‡c  إمبراطور روماني، فيلسوف‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ماركوس اوريليوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مارکس اورلیس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مارکوس آئورلیوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مارکوس اورلیوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مارکوس اورلیوس‏ ‎‡c  امپراتور و فیلسوف رومی‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مرقس أوريليوس أنطونينوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  مرقص أوريليوس أنطونينوس‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  मार्कस ऑरेलियस‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  मार्कस ऑरेलियस‏ ‎‡c  प्राचीन रोम के सम्राट‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  মার্কাস অরিলিয়স‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ்‏ ‎‡c  பண்டைய உரோமப் பேரரசர்‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ།‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ်‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  მარკუს ავრელიუსი‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος,‏ ‎‡c  Emperor of Rome,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  アウレリウス‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  アウレリウス‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  アウレリウス, M‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  アウレーリウス, マルクス‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  マルクス, アウレーリウス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  マルクス・アウレリウス‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  奧理略‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  馬可奧勒留‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯‏ ‎‡c  古羅馬皇帝‏ 400 _ _ ‎‡a  马可·奥勒留‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  马可·奥勒留‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  马可·奥勒留,‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  马可·奥勒留‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ ‎‡c  Romas imperators,‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  마르쿠스 아우렐리우스‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  마르쿠스 아우렐리우스‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  마르크스 안니우스 베루스‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  아우렐리우스‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  아우렐리우스, M‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  아우렐리우스, 마르쿠스‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  아우렐리우스, 안토니누스 마르쿠스‏ ‎‡d  121-180‏ 5xx's: Related Names (44) 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Antigonus‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Antigonus‏ ‎‡c  Carystius‏ ‎‡d  ca. v3. Jh.‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus Liberalis‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Antoninus‏ ‎‡c  Liberalis‏ ‎‡d  ca. 2. Jh.‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Apollonius‏ ‎‡c  Dyscolus‏ ‎‡d  ca. 2. Jh.‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Apollonius‏ ‎‡d  ca. 2. Jh‏ ‎‡c  Dyscolus‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Bach Pellicer, Ramón‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Dacier, André‏ ‎‡d  1651-1722‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Dacier, Anne‏ ‎‡d  1651?-1720‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Epictet‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Faustina‏ ‎‡d  130-176‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiserin‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Faustina‏ ‎‡b  II.‏ ‎‡c  Römisches Reich, Kaiserin‏ ‎‡d  130-176‏ ‎‡4  bezf‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#familialRelationship‏ ‎‡e  Beziehung familiaer‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Gataker, Thomas‏ ‎‡d  1574-1654‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Gesner, Konrad‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Gesner, Konrad‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Gessner, Andreas‏ ‎‡d  1513-1559‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Geßner, Andreas‏ ‎‡d  1513-1559‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Geßner, Andreas‏ ‎‡d  1513-1559‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Holzmann, Wilhelm‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Holzmann, Wilhelm‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Joly, Jean-Pierre de‏ ‎‡d  1697-1774‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  K.O‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  K.O.‏ ‎‡4  beza‏ ‎‡4  https://d-nb.info/standards/elementset/gnd#acquaintanceshipOrFriendship‏ ‎‡e  Bekanntschaft‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Kuthan, Rudolf‏ ‎‡d  1886-1966‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Long, George‏ ‎‡d  1800-1879‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Maia, João‏ ‎‡d  1923-1999, S.J.‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Meunier, Mario‏ ‎‡d  1880-1960‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Michaut, Gustave‏ ‎‡d  1870-1946‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Peh, Zoran‏ ‎‡c  prevoditelj‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Pierron, Alexis‏ ‎‡d  1814-1878‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Puech, Aimé‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Reiter, Marian‏ ‎‡d  1874-1943)‏ 515 _ _ ‎‡5  z‏ ‎‡a  Rome‏ ‎‡z  161-180 (Marc Aurèle)‏ 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Rome‏ ‎‡y  161-180 (Marc Aurèle)‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Stróżyński М. Mateusz‏ ‎‡d  1979-‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Trannoy, Amédée I‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Wittstock, Albert‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Zimmern, Alice‏ ‎‡d  1855-1939,ed‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  antoninus pius emperor of rome‏ 520 _ _ ‎‡a  Антонины (династия)‏ ‎‡f  96-192‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  Роговин С. М‏ ‎‡d  1885-1940 Семен Миронович‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  Черниговский, В. Б‏ 500 0 _ ‎‡a  العزيزات، جورج مرار‏ 500 1 _ ‎‡a  神谷, 美恵子‏ ‎‡d  1914-1979‏ Works Title Sources Ad se ipsum Commentariorum quos sibi ipsi scripsit, libri XII The communings with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antonius, emperor of Rome : together with his speeches and sayings The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and various friends Los doce libros del Emperador Marco Aurelio Écrits pour lui-même The Emperor Marcus Antoninus his conversation with himself Together with the preliminary discourse of the learned Gataker. As also, the Emperor's life, written by Monsieur D'acier ... To which is added the mythological picture of Cebes the Theban, &c. Translated into English from the respective originals, by Jeremy Collier, M.A. Epiktet, Mark Aurel, Theophrast. Epistulae Epistulae ad Frontonem Kejser Marcus Aurelius Tanker "til sig selv" Manuel d'Epictète Marc-Aurèle : sa vie, son œuvre : avec un exposé de sa philosophie. Marci Antonini Imperatoris In semet ipsum libri XII Mark Aurel's Selbstgespräche Meditacije Meditaciones Meditaciones Selección Meditations. Book 1-6. Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Meditations. Selections. [Monnaie] Bronze, Zacynthos, Élide, Zacynthos, Marc Aurèle Myeongsangnok Myšlienky Overpeinzingen Pašam sev, 1991 Pensamientos Pensées de Marc-Aurèle Pensées. Extraits. Pensées. Morceaux choisis Pensées pour moi-même Pensées. Texte établi et traduit par A. I. Trannoy,... Préface d'Aimé Puech,... [Texte et traduction.] Pensieri Persoonlijke notities De rebus suis Reflexions Morales De L'Empereur Marc Antonin Ricordi Rilievi storici capitolini, c1986 Rozmyślania [ @ ] Samomu sebi Selbstbetrachtungen A si mateix. Självbetraktelser Stoïciens Ta eis heauton Tankar The thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus Til meg selv To himself Wege zu sich selbst Wie soll man leben? Anton Čechov liest Marc Aurel Works. Selections. 1984 Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτὸν ... Марк Аврелий и конец античного мира Наедине с собой Размышления 명상록 自省録 Selected Co-authors Dacier, André 1651-1722 ‎(46) Long, George (1800-1879). ‎(39) Puech, Aimé 1860-1940 ‎(35) Gataker, Thomas 1574-1654 ‎(35) Meunier, Mario 1880-1960 ‎(34) Reiter, Marian (1874-1943). ‎(29) Joly, Jean-Pierre de 1697-1774 ‎(24) Dacier, Anne 1651?-1720 ‎(24) Haines, Charles Reginald ‎(21) Casaubon, Méric (1599-1671). ‎(20) Countries and Regions of Publication (44) View the list below for more details. Map View: Low High The flags indicate which authority file had at least some publications from the country or region: FR - France (452) DE - Germany (344) GB - United Kingdom (221) US - United States (117) NL - Netherlands (70) IT - Italy (70) ES - Spain (65) RU - Russian Federation (63) PL - Poland (48) CH - Switzerland (31) KI - Kiribati (30) CZ - Czech Republic (28) PT - Portugal (25) SK - Slovakia (21) DK - Denmark (17) SE - Sweden (14) BE - Belgium (12) JP - Japan (10) HR - Croatia (8) TW - Taiwan, Province of China (7) NO - Norway (7) NC - (7) MX - Mexico (6) AR - Argentina (5) UA - Ukraine (3) AT - Austria (3) VN - Viet Nam (2) UY - Uruguay (2) JO - Jordan (2) IN - India (2) HU - Hungary (2) CA - Canada (2) SI - Slovenia (1) RS - Serbia (1) LV - Latvia (1) IS - Iceland (1) IL - Israel (1) IE - Ireland (1) FI - Finland (1) EG - Egypt (1) CS - ? (1) CN - China (1) BR - Brazil (1) BG - Bulgaria (1) Publication Statistics Publication History 1500 | | 2100 Identifiers 383 unique ISBN's Selected Publishers (21) Teubner ‎(50) Les Belles Lettres ‎(46) Reclam ‎(44) Garnier frères ‎(40) Artemis-Verlag ‎(36) Kröner ‎(30) Cengage Gale ‎(18) Svoboda ‎(17) Insel-Verl. ‎(14) Dieterich ‎(13) Ambo ‎(6) 범우사 ‎(5) Nova Akropola ‎(3) 岩波書店 ‎(2) тип. М. Меркушева ‎(2) W. Heinemann ; G.P. Putnam's Sons ‎(2) Tecnoprint [i.e. Ediouro ‎(2) Nasjonalbiblioteket Digital ‎(2) Lindhardt og Ringhof ‎(2) Diogenes ‎(1) chez Pain ‎(1) About Personal Information Gender : Male Nationality or associated country: IT - Italy it - XX - XT - Rome - 이탈리아(국명)[Italy] - staroveký Rím - ancient Rome - Ancient Roman - Field of Activity: 철학 사상 哲学 정치학政治学 vlada stoic philosopher filozofia emperor Occupation: philosophers emperors 철학자哲学者 정치인政治人 patron krolowie i wladcy filozofi emperor cisari Language: lat - Latin grc - Greek, Ancient External Links Wikipedia - https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus_Aurelius Wikipedia - https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Aurelio Wikipedia - https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius Wikipedia - https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/ماركوس_أوريليوس Wikipedia - https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/ماركوس_اوريليوس Wikipedia - https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcu_Aureliu Wikipedia - https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Avreli Wikipedia - https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/مارکوس_آئورلیوس Wikipedia - 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About VIAF 
vi-wikipedia-org-4754	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedia tiếng Việt Marcus Aurelius Bách khoa toàn thư mở Wikipedia Bước tới điều hướng Bước tới tìm kiếm Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Hoàng đế thứ 16 của Đế quốc La Mã Tượng đồng Marcus Aurelius trên lưng ngựa tại thủ đô La Mã, Ý. Hoàng đế nhà Nerva-Antoninus Trị vì 8 tháng 3 năm 161 – 169 (với Lucius Verus ); 169 – 177 (một mình); 177 – 17 tháng 3 năm 180 (với Commodus ) Tiền nhiệm Antoninus Pius Kế nhiệm Commodus Thông tin chung Hậu duệ Hậu duệ Tổng cộng là 13 người, trong số đó có: Commodus Marcus Annius Verus Antoninus Lucilla Tên đầy đủ (Caesar) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Tước vị Tước vị Quan chấp chính La Mã (140, 145, 161) Hoàng đế La Mã (161 - 180) Triều đại Nhà Nerva-Antoninus Thân phụ Marcus Annius Verus Thân mẫu Domitia Lucilla Sinh (121-04-26)26 tháng 4 năm 121 La Mã, Đế quốc La Mã Mất 17 tháng 3 năm 180(180-03-17) (58 tuổi) Vindobona hay Sirmium An táng Lăng Hadrianus Nghề nghiệp Triết gia (tác phẩm Suy tưởng) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[notes 1] (ngày 26 tháng 4 năm 121 – 17 tháng 3 năm 180) là một Hoàng đế La Mã, trị vì từ năm 161 đến khi ông mất vào năm 180. Ông từng là quan chấp chính của Đế quốc La Mã vào năm 140.[4] Từ thuở thiếu thời ông đã được học kỹ về triết học,[5] và sau này, ông được vị minh quân Antoninus Pius chọn làm con nuôi để thừa kế ngai vàng.[6] Sau khi Antoninus Pius qua đời, ông là đồng Hoàng đế của Lucius Verus từ năm 161 cho đến khi Hoàng đế Lucius mất năm 169. Về cuối đời, ông đồng trị vì với Hoàng đế Commodus - con trai của ông, cho đến khi ông tạ thế.[7] Ông là vị Hoàng đế thứ 16 của Đế quốc La Mã (nếu tính luôn cả bốn ông vua trị vì ngắn ngủi trong Năm Tứ đế),[8] là vị Hoàng đế cuối cùng trong thời đại Ngũ hiền đế, và cũng được xem là một trong những nhà hiền triết kiệt xuất của chủ nghĩa khắc kỷ.[9] Là một chiến binh, ông đã xây dựng Đế quốc La Mã cường thịnh.[10] Dưới triều đại lâu dài của vua Marcus Aurelius, Quân đội La Mã phải vào sinh ra tử chinh chiến chống Đế quốc Parthia đang phục hưng, và chống nhau với các bộ lạc man tộc German dọc theo biến giới phía Bắc Limes Germanicus - những người đã tiến vào xứ Gaule và vượt qua sông Danube. Những chiến binh tinh nhuệ của ông đã kéo rốc đến châu Á, đánh thắng quân Parthia và chiếm lĩnh được cả thành Ctesiphon là kinh đô của người Parthia.[11][12] Trong khi đó, ở phương Bắc, nhà vua trở thành "nhà chinh phạt của giặc rợ German" nhờ thân chinh khởi binh đại phá tan tác man tộc German vào năm 172.[13] Ở phía Đông Đế quốc, một viên thống soái của Quân đội La Mã là Avidus Cassius - dù đã lập nên nhiều chiến công cho ông - khởi binh làm loạn vào năm 175 giữa lúc nhà vua đang súy nữa tiến đánh người German.[14][15] Ông đã truyền lệnh cho tướng sĩ thẳng tay dập tắt cuộc phản loạn, và bản thân Avidus Cassius cũng bị tiêu diệt.[16] Mặc dù sự bách hại Kitô hữu tại Đế quốc La Mã được cho là gia tăng trong thời đại của ông nhưng thái độ đích thực của ông đối với các Kitô hữu không được rõ. Là một vị Hoàng đế tài cao học rộng,[17] ông đã ban hành nhiều cải cách.[10] Tác phẩm "Suy tưởng", được Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius thân hành ngự bút viết trong những năm tháng binh lửa từ năm 170 đến năm 180 (bằng tiếng Hy Lạp), được xem là một tác phẩm kinh điển của triết học Khắc kỷ, về trách nhiệm và sự phục vụ của chính quyền. Qua cuốn sách này, chúng ta biết rằng ông đã tiếp nhận tư tưởng của nhà văn hào Platon về một ông vua - hiền triết như thế nào?[18] Và chúng ta cũng biết được về cuộc sống nội tâm của bậc đại minh quân La Mã.[19] Nhờ đó, ông trở thành một vị vua - hiền triết mẫu mực, dù rằng ông bách chiến bách thắng trong những cuộc binh đao.[20][21] Marcus Aurelius là người cuối cùng trong Ngũ Hiền Đế, cũng là nhà cai trị cuối cùng của thời đại Pax Romana. Mục lục 1 Nguồn tài liệu 2 Thời niên thiếu và sự nghiệp 2.1 Gia đình và con cái 2.2 Quan hệ với tướng Pompeius 2.3 Người công dân đức hạnh và những mối quan hệ gia đình (127 - 136) 2.4 Thừa kế Hadrianus 3 Di sản 4 Thái độ đối với Kitô hữu 5 Gia đình 6 Tác phẩm của Marcus Aurelius 7 Ghi chú 8 Chú thích 9 Tham khảo 9.1 Tài liệu cổ đại 9.2 Tài liệu hiện đại 10 Liên kết ngoài Nguồn tài liệu[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Những nguồn tài liệu chính về cuộc đời và triều đại của Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius đều rời rạc và thường không đáng tin cậy. Tuyển tập tài liệu quan trọng nhất là những tiểu sử vua chúa La Mã cổ trong bộ sử Historia Augusta, được cho là viết bởi một nhóm tác giả vào đầu thế kỷ thứ IV, nhưng thực chất là được viết bởi một tác giả duy nhất (trong bài này gọi là "nhà tiểu sử học viết về ông") từ cuối thế kỷ thứ IV (khoảng 395). Bộ sử "Historia Augusta" bao gồm một loạt tiểu sử nói phét và hư cấu về các vị Hoàng đế cấp dưới và những tên vua cướp ngôi, nhưng những tiểu sử viết trước đó, chủ yếu là dựa theo những tư liệu cổ mà ngày nay đã mất (Marius Maximus và Ignotus), thì viết tốt hơn nhiều.[22] Về cuộc đời và triều đại của Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius, tiểu sử của các vị Hoàng đế Hadrianus, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius và Lucius Verus đều có uy tín cao, nhưng những tiểu sử của Aelius Verus và Avidius Cassius - một tên vua cướp ngôi cùng thời với Marcus Aurelius[23] - đều là tự bịa đặt ra.[24] Nhà giáo Fronto và một vài triều thần nhà Antoninus vẫn còn hiện hữu trong một loạt văn kiện rời rạc, kể về thời kỳ lịch sử từ khoảng năm 138 cho đến năm 166.[25] Tác phẩm Suy tưởng do nhà vua thân hành ngự bút viết giúp cho chúng ta am hiểu về cuộc sống nội tâm của ông, nhưng không làm cho chúng ta hiểu được năm tháng của các sự kiện, và chỉ có một vài ghi chú đặc biệt về tình hình thế giới khi ông trị vì La Mã.[26] Một tài liệu viết chi tiết chủ yếu về thời đại đó là của Cassius Dio, một Thượng Nghị sĩ người Hy Lạp ở thành Nicaea xứ Bithynia, đã viết lịch sử La Mã kể từ thời lập quốc cho đến năm 229 trong 80 cuốn sách. Bộ sử của Dio thật cần thiết đối với lịch sử quân sự thời đó, nhưng ông có quan điểm chống đối mạnh mẽ đối với các cuộc chinh phạt của Đế quốc La Mã và hay có luận điểm hợp với cái chức Thượng Nghị sĩ của ông.[27] Một số tư liệu văn chương khác cung cấp những chi tiết đặc biệt: gồm có các tác phẩm của thầy thuốc Galen viết về tập quán của các vua nhà Antoninus, những bài diễn văn của Aelius Aristides về bản chất của thời gian, và những thành phần trong các Bộ luật Digest và Codex Justinianus nói về luật lệ đất nước đời vua Marcus Aurelius.[28] Các bi văn và đồng tiền cũng bổ sung cho những tư liệu văn chương.[29] Ở thời hiện đại, nhà sử học Frank McLynn có viết nên tác phẩm "Marcus Aurelius: A Life" - một cuốn tiểu sử được đánh giá rất cao, đã kể về cuộc đời và sự nghiệp của vị đại minh quân.[30] Một cuốn tiểu sử hiện đại khác có giá trị cao về vị đại anh quân La Mã cũng được nhà sử học Anthony Birley làm nên, đó là tác phẩm "Marcus Aurelius: A Biography".[31] Thời niên thiếu và sự nghiệp[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Gia đình và con cái[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Dòng họ Annia của Marcus Aurelius Antoninus không được biết đến nhiều trong lịch sử. Chỉ có thành viên nổi tiếng của họ là Titus Annius Milo, một người đàn ông được biết đến với việc góp phần vào sự sụp đổ của chế độ cộng hòa thông qua việc sử dụng bạo lực chính trị. Gia đình của Marcus Aurelius Antoninus có nguồn gốc ở Ucubi, một thị trấn nhỏ phía đông nam của Córdoba thuộc Baetica Iberia. Gia đình đã trở nên nổi vật vào những năm đầu thế kỉ 1 CN, dù tự nhận là hậu duệ của Numa Pompilius - ông vua thứ hai của Vương quốc La Mã xưa.[32] Theo Dio, nhà Annia là họ hàng của Hoàng đế Hadrianus. Ông cố nội của Marcus, Marcus Annius Verus (I) là một thượng nghị sĩ và (theo Historia Augusta) là cựu quan coi quốc khố. Trong các năm 73 - 74, ông nội của ông Marcus Annius Verus (II) trở thành một quý tộc.[33][notes 2] Con trai cả của Verus - cha của Marcus Aurelius - Marcus Annius Verus (III) kết hôn với Domitia Lucilla.[36] Lucilla là con gái của một nhà quý tộc tên là P. Calvisius Tullus Ruso với Domitia Lucilla Lớn. Domitia Lucilla Lớn đã được thừa kế một gia sản đồ sộ (được mô tả rất dài trong các lá thư của Pliny) từ ông ngoại và bà nội cho người con nuôi..[37] Lucilla Trẻ sẽ có được nhiều của cải của người mẹ, bao gồm một công trình bằng gạch lớn ở ngoại ô của kinh thành La Mã.[38] Tượng chàng trai trẻ Marcus Aurelius (Bảo tàng Capitoline). Nhà sử học Anthony Birley có lời bàn: "Đây rõ ràng là một chàng thiếu niên nghiêm trang."[39] Lucilla và Verus (III) có hai người con: một cậu con trai là Marcus Aurelius chào đời vào ngày 26 tháng 4 năm 121, và một cô con gái là Annia Cornificia Faustina có lẽ hạ sinh vào năm 122 hoặc là năm 123.[40] Trong khi làm Pháp quan thì Verus (III) có lẽ qua đời vào năm 124, khi ấy Marcus Aurelius chỉ mới có ba tuổi.[41][notes 3] Tuy ông khó có thể am hiểu về cha mình vì Verus (III) đã ra đi thật quá sớm, trong tác phẩm "Suy tưởng" của mình Marcus Aurelius ngự bút rằng ông đã học hỏi được "tính thanh đạm và mạnh mẽ" từ những ký ức về người cha cũng như danh thơm mà Verus (III) có được sau khi qua đời.[43] Lucilla không tái hôn.[41] Lucilla, theo truyền thống của phần lớn quý tộc La Mã thời đó, có lẽ không bỏ nhiều thời gian ra để chăm sóc con trai. Marcus Aurelius được các "bảo mẫu" giáo dưỡng.[44] Nhưng theo ghi chép của Marcus Aurelius, mẹ đã dạy cho ông đức tính "sùng đạo, ăn mặc từ tốn" và làm cách nào để tránh khỏi "những lối sống sung túc".[45] Trong các lá thư của ông, Marcus Aurelius nhiều lần đề cập đến mẹ và thể hiện rằng ông rất yêu thương bà; ông ca ngợi người mẹ của mình, "dù số phận đã khiến bà mất sớm, thế nhưng bà đã dành những tháng năm cuối cùng của mình với Trẫm".[46] Sau này cha của ông, Marcus Aurelius được ông nội của mình là Marcus Annius Verus (II) nhận làm con nuôi.[47] Ngoài ra có một nhân vật khác là ông Lucius Catilius Severus cũng tham gia vào việc nuôi dạy Marcus Aurelius. Severus được miêu tả là "ông cố ngoại" của Marcus Aurelius; ông có lẽ là cha dượng của Lucilla Lớn.[47] Tại căn nhà của cha mẹ ông trên ngọn đồi Caelian, ông được khôn lớn, và sau ông này ông sẽ còn gọi miền này là "Caelian của Trẫm" viết niềm yêu mến.[48] Miền Caelian lúc ấy đã được nâng cấp, với ít công trình công cộng nhưng có nhiều tư dinh của tầng lớp qu1y tộc. Ông nội của Marcus Aurelius có một dinh thự gần Lateran, tại đây Marcus Aurelius sẽ sinh sống trong phần lớn thời thơ ấu của ông.[49] Ông biết ơn người ông nội vì đã dạy dỗ cho ông "nhân cách cao đẹp và tránh né thói xấu".[50] Ông chẳng mấy ưa thích cái cô tình nhân của ông nội mình, đã chung sống với ông nội mình sau khi bà nội của Marcus Aurelius là Rupilia Faustina qua đời.[51] Marcus Aurelius vui mừng rằng ông đã không phải sống với cô tình nhân này lâu hơn nữa.[52] Marcus Aurelius được giáo dưỡng ở nhà, theo thông lệ của con nhà quý tộc La Mã thời đó;[53] Marcus Aurelius đa tạ Catilius Severus vì đã khuyến khích ông không đến học ở các trường công.[54] Một trong các thầy giáo dạy ông có Diognetus là một họa sĩ bậc thầy, mang lại ảnh hưởng sâu sắc đến Marcus Aurelius; hình như Diognetus đã dạy cho ông lối sống thản nhiên trong mọi hoàn cảnh.[55] Vào tháng 4 năm 132, trước sự chứng giám của thầy Diognetus, Marcus Aurelius nhận lấy trang phục và tuân theo các thông lệ của một nhà hiền triết: khi học hành ông chỉ mặc chiếc áo choàng không tay Hy Lạp thật đơn sơ, và sẽ phải nằm ngủ dưới đất cho đến khi mẹ ông khuyên ông lên giường ngủ.[56] Một nhóm các giáo viên mới — Alexander xứ Cotiaeum, Trosius Aper, và Tuticius Proculus[notes 4] — nhận việc nuôi dạy Marcus Aurelius trong khoảng năm 132 hoặc là 133.[58] Chẳng mấy ai biết về hai ông thầy Trosius Aper và Tuticius Proculus kia (cả hai ông này đều giảng dạy tiếng La Tinh), nhưng Alexander xứ Cotiaeum là vị thầy chính, là nhà khảo cứu về Homer hàng đầu trong thời đại của ông.[59] Marcus Aurelius cảm tạ Alexander vì thầy đã dạy cho ông về ngữ văn.[60] Ảnh hưởng của thầy Alexander đến Marcus Aurelius thật sâu đậm: ông luôn nhớ mãi lời thầy dạy rằng phải viết cẩn thận, phải coi trọng chủ đề hơn là văn phong, và thường trích dẫn các trích đoạn của thi hào Homer thuở xa xưa mơ hồ.[61] Quan hệ với tướng Pompeius[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Theo bộ sử "Historia Augusta" - một tài liệu khét tiếng là không đáng tin cậy, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus là hậu duệ của danh tướng Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus thông qua bà Pompeia Magna - con gái của Pompeius Magnus. Bà nội ông, Rupilia là chắt của Scribonia - con gái của Lucius Scribonius (quan chấp chính của Đế quốc La Mã vào năm 16), bản thân Scribonia cũng là chắt của tướng Pompeius thông qua cả cha lẫn mẹ của bà. Như vậy, vua Marcus Aurelius và con trai ông là vua Commodus là những vị Hoàng đế duy nhất có quan hệ với Pompeius - con rể đồng thời là kẻ kình địch của nhà độc tài Julius Caesar (100 - 44 trước Công Nguyên) năm xưa. Người công dân đức hạnh và những mối quan hệ gia đình (127 - 136)[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Bức tượng Hoàng đế Hadrianus (Viện Bảo tàng Khảo cổ Quốc gia Athena). Vị vua này bảo trợ chàng trai trẻ Marcus Aurelius và có lẽ có dự định phong ông làm vua kế tục lâu dài của mình.[62] Vào năm 127, khi mới 6 tuổi, Marcus Aurelius gia nhập Hiệp sĩ đoàn (ordo equester) theo lời kêu gọi của Hoàng đế Hadrianus. Tuy điều này hoàn toàn không phải là không có tiền lệ, nhưng so với những đứa trẻ khác cùng gia nhập Hiệp sĩ đoàn, tuổi đời của Marcus Aurelius vẫn còn quá nhỏ. Vào năm 128, Marcus Aurelius gia nhập nhớm tăng lữ của nhà Salii. Do những yêu cầu tiêu chuẩn để gia nhập nhóm tăng lữ này không thể được thực hiện vì cha mẹ của Marcus Aurelius đều đã qua đời, chúng cần phải được xóa bỏ bởi chính vua Hadrianus - người đề cử Marcus Aurelius, như một đặc ân đối với cậu bé.[63] Hoàng đế có thiện cảm với cậu bé, nên gọi ông là Verissimus, nghĩa là người "đúng đắn nhất".[64][notes 5] Về phần mình, Marcus Aurelius chăm chỉ thực hiện những trách nhiệm tôn giáo của mình. Ông hoàn thành mọi chức vụ giáo sĩ, để rồi vươn lên trở thành thủ lĩnh của nhóm này, nhóm tiên tri (vates), và rồi lên làm người lãnh đạo của Hiệp sĩ đoàn.[66] Trong suốt thời niên thiếu của Marcus Aurelius, Hadrianus nhiều khi không được gặp ông. Bởi vì Hoàng đế giành phần lớn thời gian của mình ở ngoại ô kinh đô La Mã, ở vùng biên giới, hoặc ngự giá đến thăm hỏi công việc hành chính và địa phương ở các tỉnh.[notes 6] Tuy nhiên, vào năm 135, Hoàng đế về Ý vĩnh viễn. Ông trở nên gần gũi với Lucius Ceionius Commodus, con rể của Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, một cận thần của tiên đế Traianus nhưng đã bị hành quyết vì âm mưu làm phản lúc Hoàng đế Hadrianus mới lên nối ngôi. Vào năm 136, ít lâu sau Marcus Aurelius khoác vào người bộ trang phục toga virilis - thể hiện ông đã trưởng thành, Hadrianus sắp đặt hôn nhân cho ông với một trong những cô con gái của Commodus là, Ceionia Fabia.[68] Trong buổi lễ feriae Latinae ít lâu sau đó, có lẽ Commodus đã bổ nhiệm Marcus Aurelius làm quan Thái thú của thành phố La Mã. Mặc dù chức vị này thực ra chẳng có vai trò hành chính gì quan trọng và nó chỉ có vai về về mặt nghi lễ, đây là một chức quan quý báu đối với các thiếu gia quyền quý và các Hoàng thân quốc thích. Marcus Aurelius làm việc tốt.[69] Thôgq qua Commodus, Marcus Aurelius gặp gỡ nhà triết học khắc kỷ Apollonius người xứ Chalcedon. Apollonius đã giảng dạy Commodus, và sẽ còn có ảnh hưởng lớn lao đến Marcus Aurelius, người sẽ học tập đều đặn với Apollonius. Apollonius là một trong ba người duy nhất mà Marcus Aurelius phải cảm tạ chư thần vì chư vị đã phù hộ cho ông được gặp gỡ.[70] Cùng lúc đó, em gái của Marcus Aurelius là Annia Cornificia kết hôn với Ummidius Quadratus, anh con dì của cô. Domitia Lucilla hỏi Marcus Aurelius có nên giao cho em gái ông một phần di sản mà cha của ông để lại không? Ông đồng ý và "biếu" hết cho cô, vì ông đã thỏa mãn với điền trang mà ông nội để lại.[71] Thừa kế Hadrianus[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Cuối năm 136, Hadrianus đã hấp hối vì bệnh xuất huyết. Từ khu Nghỉ dưỡng tại biệt thự của ông ở Tivoli, ông đã chọn Ceionius Commodus Lucius làm người kế vị, và nhận ông ta là con trai của ông [72] Việc lựa chọn đã "chống lại mong muốn của tất cả mọi người";[73] lý do của nó vẫn còn chưa rõ ràng.[74] Sau một thời gian ngắn đóng quân tại biên giới Danube, Lucius trở lại Rome để làm một bài diễn văn để trình bày trước viện nguyên lão vào ngày đầu tiên của năm 138. Tuy nhiên, đêm trước khi phát biểu, ông trở nên ốm yếu, và mất vì bệnh sốt xuất huyết trong ngày hôm đó[75][notes 7] Ngày 24 tháng 1 năm 138, Hadrianus đã chọn Aurelius Antoninus là người kế vị mới của mình.[77] Sau khi một vài ngày xem xét, Antoninus chấp nhận. Ông được chấp nhận làm con nuôi vào ngày 25 tháng hai. Là một phần của các điều khoản của Hadrianus, Antoninus chấp nhận Marcus và Lucius Commodus, con trai của Aelius làm con nuôi. Marcus đã trở thành M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, Lucius đã trở thành L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. Theo yêu cầu của Hadrianus, con gái của Antoninus, Faustina đã đính hôn với Lucius[78] Marcus đã hoảng sợ khi nhận được tin rằng Hadrian đã chấp nhận ông. Chỉ với sự miễn cưỡng ông đã đi từ nhà của mẹ mình trên đường Caelian đến nhà riêng của Hadrianus.[79] Tại một số thời điểm của năm 138, Hadrianus đã yêu cầu viện nguyên lão rằng Marcus được miễn trừ pháp luật cấm ông trở thành quan coi quốc khố trước sinh nhật 24 của mình. Viện nguyên lão tuân thủ, và Marcus phục vụ dưới thời Antoninus, chấp chính quan năm 139 [80]. Di sản[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Marcus Aurelius là một trong những bậc minh quân thánh chúa trong lịch sử,[81][82] là một trong những danh nhân lỗi lạc nhất trong thời kỳ cổ đại. Thật là khó tìm ra những người chỉ trích ông. Có tác giả còn gọi ông là "Đức Phật của La Mã".[83] Với tác phẩm "Suy tưởng", ông thể hiện rõ tài năng của một nhà triết học. Nhà sử học Edward Gibbon đã tỏ lòng kính trọng vị Hoàng đế "nghiêm khắc với chính mình, khoan dung cho lầm lỗi của người khác, công minh và hòa hợp với toàn thể nhân loại" (1783). 80 năm sau khi Gibbon, Matthew Arnold - được truyền cảm qua việc đọc phiên bản Anh ngữ mới của "Suy tưởng", đã cho rằng: "Thật không thể nào không hiểu biết về Marcus Aurelius".[84] Lúc sinh thời, ông đã được tôn vinh là một vị vua - hiền triết, và sau khi ông mất ngoại hiệu này vẫn còn trường tồn vĩnh cửu theo thời gian; cả Cassius Dio và nhà tiểu sử học viết về ông đều gọi ông là "nhà triết học".[85] Không những thế, các Ki-tô hữu như Thánh Justinus Người tử đạo, Athenagoras, Melito cũng đặt cho ông ngoại hiệu này luôn.[86] Nhà tiểu sử học này còn đi xa đến mức ca ngợi Marcus Aurelius "nhân đạo và am tường triết hoc" hơn các tiên đế Pius và Hadrian, và đặt ông trái ngược hòa toàn với các vị Hoàng đế tàn bạo như Domitian và Nero.[87] Nhà sử học Herodtian có viết:[88] “ Trong các vị Hoàng đế, ông là người duy nhất đưa ra bằng chứng về kiến thức thâm sâu của mình không chỉ qua những lời nói hoặc hiểu biết đơn thuần về triết lý, nhưng còn bởi nhân cách không chê vào đâu được cũng như lối sống giản dị của ông. ” — Herodian Đại văn hào người Anh là Shakespeare khen Marcus Aurelius là "người La Mã cao quý hơn cả". Theo lời bàn của Hoàng đế Pescennicus Niger (135 - 194), Marcus Aurelius cùng với Antoninus Pius và Traianus là ba vị Hoàng đế xuất sắc nhất của La Mã cổ đại. Người ta kể rằng Hoàng đế Diocletianus (244 - 311) đã tỏ lòng thành kính tiên đế Marcus Aurelius.[89] Vào thế kỷ thứ XVI, nhà văn Tây Ban Nha Antonio de Guevara có viết cuốn tiểu thuyết giáo dục "Reloj de Príncipes" mà Marcus Aurelius là nhân vật nam chính (1529). Cuốn sách được dịch sang Anh ngữ vào năm 1531.[90] Nhà chính trị và bình luận cánh tả cấp tiến Hoa Kỳ Pat Buchanan nổi tiếng là từng tố cáo Tổng thống George W. Bush "không phải vua Marcus Aurelius".[91] Nhà sử học người Pháp Ernest Renan cho rằng trong lịch sử chỉ có hai ví dụ tiêu biểu hơn cả về việc một loạt các ông vua xuất sắc nối ngôi nhau: đó là một loại các triều đại anh quân Babur, Humayun và Akbar ở Ấn Độ, cùng với hai triều đại minh quân Antoninus Pius cùng Marcus Aurelius ở Đế quốc La Mã vô cùng rộng lớn. Theo Ernest Renan, Marcus Aurelius có những điểm giống với minh quân Akbar của Ấn Độ. Chính nền quân chủ truyền hiền từ thời vua Nerva đã mang lại cho La Mã một loạt các đại minh quân như Marcus Aurelius là một điển hành.[92] Hoàng đế Julianus (332 - 363), khi viết về các đời Hoàng đế trong lịch sử La Mã cổ, đã hoàn toàn công nhận Marcus Aurelius là một bậc đại minh quân lần đầu tiên. Julianus cho rằng chỉ có mỗi Alexandros Đại Đế là ngang hàng với Marcus Aurelius trong chính sử từ xưa đến nay, và ca ngợi ông vì sự bền chí ngang với thần linh, vì sự am hiểu sâu sắc của ông về lúc nào nói, lúc nào im, và ông còn có tài truyền cảm triết lý đến mức "đưa người khác trở thành chư thần". "Bộc trực và không có khuyết điểm nào" (theo Julianus), Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius không những trở thành một bậc đại anh quân đánh phục hơn hẳn các vị vua khác, nhưng còn hiền đức hơn họ hẳn. Vị đại minh quân Julianus đã tôn vinh Marcus Aurelius hơn hẳn mọi ông hoàng bà chúa khác, và kể rằng đôi mắt và nếp nhăn trên trán của ông bộc lộ rõ hiệu lực của những công trình nghiên cứu lâu dài mà ông đã lao đầu vào. Ông chỉ có ba vết nhơ là nuông chiều Hoàng hậu Faustina, Hoàng tử Commodus và đồng Hoàng đế Lucius Verus - nhưng điều đó thể hiện nhân tính của ông, và sự cưng chiều con cái của ông có thể được phân tích như một lỗi lầm nhân văn và thánh thiện, mà chính nhà thi hào Homer đã thừa nhận. Thật không hề khó hiểu tại sao Julianus lại ngưỡng mộ Marcus Aurelius đến như vậy. Giống như vị tiên đế nhiều thế hệ trước – Marcus Aurelius, Julianus cũng phải xông pha trên hai mặt trận, và cũng luôn phải đối phó với các man tộc ở phương Bắc. Nói chung, hai vị hiền đế này phải nói là vô cùng giống nhau. Trong khi các bậc cố nhân Julius Caesar, Augustus và Traianus[89] là những vị anh hùng thượng võ thì Marcus Aurelius lại là một ông vua - hiền triết hiếu hòa.[93] Quốc vương Friedrich II Đại Đế (1712 - 1786) - một bậc đại anh quân trong lịch sử nước Phổ - đã lấy Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius làm tấm gương sáng để mà noi theo.[94] Friedrich II Đại Đế ngưỡng mộ vị Hoàng đế vì ông không chỉ là một nhà chỉ huy quân sự đại tài mà còn là một nhà triết học, đã phê phán sự phù phiếm của người đời.[21] Friedrich II Đại Đế không những noi theo tấm gương ngời sáng của Marcus Aurelius mà còn quy tụ các nhà hiền triết lỗi lạc của thời đại về cung đình Potsdam, do đó sự anh minh của nhà vua nước Phổ cũng khiến cho đại văn hào nước Pháp Voltaire, cũng so sánh ông với bậc đại minh quân Marcus Aurelius năm xưa.[95][96] Khi thân chinh đốc xuất binh mã đi chinh phạt mở cõi, nhà vua thường trích dẫn những câu nói của vị vua - hiền triết La Mã xưa để biện hộ cho "Cuộc chiến tranh chính nghĩa".[97] Song, tuy Marcus Aurelius đã thân chinh đánh những trận kịch chiến, vị vua - hiền triết nước Phổ ngưỡng mộ ông hơn hết vì ông là một nhà triết học khắc kỷ chứ không phải là một thống soái ba quân. Nhất là khi Quốc vương Friedrich II Đại Đế phải liên tục thân chinh đánh cường địch trong cuộc Chiến tranh Bảy Năm (1756 - 1763), cứ mỗi lúc bại trận ông thường cảm thấy hứng khởi hơn nhờ vào triết học khắc kỷ của vị Hoàng đế La Mã năm xưa, để hồi phục lại với ý chí quyết đấu tranh tới cùng.[98] Trong thời bình, ông mong muốn được làm một minh quân thâm sâu triết lý giống như tiền bối Marcus Aurelius.[99] Trong thư viện của ông tại điện Vô Ưu ở kinh thành Potsdam, nhà vua có tạc một bức tượng nhỏ Marcus Aurelius[100] - vị Hoàng đế gắn bó với triết học.[101] Đồng thời đại với ông, tại Tòa Thánh La Mã Giáo hoàng Biển Đức (1676 - 1758), do am hiểu văn chương sâu sắc, cũng được coi là một vị vua - hiền triết giống như Marcus Aurelius năm xưa.[102] Thái độ đối với Kitô hữu[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Trong hai thế kỷ đầu Công Nguyên, hầu như chỉ các quan chức La Mã địa phương là người ra lệnh bách hại các Kitô hữu. Vào thế kỷ thứ hai, các hoàng đế coi Kitô giáo là vấn đề địa phương cho cấp dưới xử lý.[103] Số lượng và mức độ bách hại ở nhiều nơi trong đế quốc dường như tăng dưới thời trị vì của Marcus. Ở chừng mực nào mà các cuộc bách hại này do chính Marcus điều động, khuyến khích hay ý thức được thì lại không rõ ràng và các sử gia vẫn còn đang tranh luận về điều này.[104] Nhà hộ giáo thời sơ khởi Justinô Tử đạo ghi lại trong cuốn Hộ giáo đầu tiên (khoảng từ 140 tới 150 CN) một bức thư của Marcus Aurelius gửi đến viện nguyên lão La Mã (trước khi ông lên ngôi hoàng đế) kể về một chiến địa mà tại đó Marcus tin rằng lời cầu nguyện của các Kitô hữu đã cứu đoàn quân của ông khỏi chết khát khi mà "nước đổ xuống từ thiên đường", và rồi "chúng tôi tức khắc công nhận sự hiện diện của Thiên Chúa". Tiếp tục bức thư, Marcus đề nghị viện nguyên lão dừng lại tiến trình bách hại Kitô hữu trước đó.[105] Gia đình[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Tượng Faustina Trẻ tại bảo tàng Louvre, Paris (Pháp. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus kết hôn với cô em họ là Faustina Trẻ vào năm 145. Trong 30 năm chung sống với nhà vua, Faustina đã sinh hạ cho ông 13 đứa con. Sau khi ông qua đời, chỉ có một người con trai và bốn người con gái còn sống: Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147 - sau năm 165) Gemellus Lucillae (chết khoảng năm 150), anh sinh đôi của Lucilla Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (148/150 - 182), em họ của Gemellus, kết hôn với đồng Hoàng đế của Marcus Aurelius là Lucius Verus Titus Aelius Antoninus (sinh sau năm 150, chết trước ngày 7 tháng 3 năm 161) Titus Aelius Aurelius (sinh sau năm 150, chết trước ngày 7 tháng 3 năm 161) Hadrianus (152–157) Domitia Faustina (sinh sau năm 150, chết trước ngày 7 tháng 3 năm 161) Annia Aurelia Fadilla (159 - sau năm 211) Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160 - sau năm 211) Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161 – 165), anh sinh đôi của vua Commodus Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161 – 192), em sinh đôi của Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, sau này là Hoàng đế La Mã Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162 – 169) Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170 - chết trước năm 217) Tác phẩm của Marcus Aurelius[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Wikisource có văn bản gốc liên quan đến bài viết: Suy tưởng Trong khi phải thân chinh lâm trận từ năm 170 cho đến năm 180, vị Hoàng đế đã ngự bút viết tác phẩm "Suy tưởng" (Meditations) bằng tiếng Hy Lạp, để tự giảng dạy chính mình, và để cải tiến cho bản thân minh. Đây là một trong những tác phẩm quan trọng nhất về những suy tư và châm ngôn. Chúng ta không rõ là ông có muốn xuất bản tác phẩm này ra hay là không?[106] Cái tựa "Suy tưởng" là do người ta đặt cho sau khi nhà vua ra đi về cõi vĩnh hằng, chứ ông chỉ đặt tựa cho công trình này là: "Gửi đến chính Quả Nhân", chỉ đơn giản vậy thôi. Ông đã từng làm giáo sĩ trong những lễ cúng tế lớn của người La Mã và cũng là một nhà yêu nước thiết tha. Ông có hệ tư tưởng của riêng mình và những ghi chép của ông thể hiện tinh thần và triết lý khắc kỷ. Cho đến nay, Suy tưởng vẫn được tôn vinh là công trình văn chương đồ sộ viết về nhiệm vụ và phẩm hạnh của Chính phủ. Cuốn sách này là tác phẩm yêu thích của vị vua - hiền triết nước Phổ Friedrich II Đại Đế (một "Marcus Aurelius đời mới" lẫy lừmg[107][108]), nhà triết học nước Anh John Stuart Mill, thi sĩ nước Anh Matthew Arnold, đại thi hào Đế quốc La Mã Thần thánh dân tộc Đức Johann Wolfgang von Goethe và Thủ tướng Trung Quốc Ôn Gia Bảo.[109] Vào năm 1992, Tổng thống Hoa Kỳ Bill Clinton được phỏng vấn xem ông yêu thích quyển sách nào nhất? Và, ông có hồi đáp rằng ông thích cuốn "Suy tưởng" của Hoàng đế Marcus Aurelius. Trong suốt nhiệm kỳ Tổng thống của mình, Bill Clinton đã đọc đi đọc lại cuốn sách của bậc minh quân La Mã xưa.[91] Người ta vẫn không thể hiểu rằng tác phẩm của Marcus Aurelius được truyền bá rộng rãi đến cỡ nào sau khi ông mất. Trong cổ văn, có những ghi chú rời rạc về sự mến mộ của người đời đối với những lời di huấn của ông, và Hoàng đế Julianus dù rất hâm mộ tiền bối Marcus Aurelius năm xưa, ông không có một đề cập chi tiết nào đến tác phẩm "Suy tưởng".[110] Chính cuốn sách này, dù đã được đề cập trong những bức thư của Arethas xứ Caesarea vào thế kỷ thứ X và trong Bách khoa từ điển Suda của Đế quốc Đông La Mã, được xuất bản lần đầu tiên vào năm 1558 tại thành phố Zurich (Đế quốc La Mã Thần thánh) bởi Wilhelm Holzmann, từ một bản sao chép tay đã mất ngày nay.[111] Một bản sao hoàn chỉnh duy nhất còn tồn tại là văn kiện trong Thư viện Vatican. Trong thời hiện đại, tác phẩm này trở thành tài liệu được đọc nhiều nhất về triết học khắc kỷ.[112] Ghi chú[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] ^ Ông có tên khai sinh là Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (hoặc có thể là Marcus Catilius Severus).[1] Khi lấy vợ, ông có tên là Marcus Annius Verus,[2] và khi lên ngôi hoàng đế, ông được đặt tên là Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Ông được biết đến trong tiếng Pháp là Marc-Aurèle.[3] ^ Cassius Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power.[34] The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated. One conjectural bond runs through Annius Verus (II). Verus' wife Rupilia Faustina was the daughter of the consular senator Libo Rupilius Frugi and an unnamed mother. It has been hypothesized Rupilia Faustina's mother was Matidia, who was also the mother (presumably through another marriage) of Vibia Sabina, Hadrian's wife.[35] ^ Farquharson kể rằng ông mất vào năm 130, khi Marcus Aurelius đã 9 tuổi.[42] ^ Nguyên văn HA Marcus viết là "Eutychius", nhưng Birley chỉnh sửa thành "Tuticius".[57] ^ Others put a harsher light on Hadrian's nickname. McLynn calls it an example of Hadrian's waspish (McLynn says "vespine") wit and adduces it in support of his contention that Marcus was a "prig".[65] ^ Birley, following the textual and epigraphic citations, concludes that he might only have seen Rome in 127, briefly in 128, and in 131.[67] ^ Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus' eventual succession anyways.[76] Chú thích[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. ^ Khắc Kỷ Sơ Kỳ Lưu trữ 2009-11-15 tại Wayback Machine, dẫn nguồn từ Đinh Ngọc Thạch, Lịch sử triết học Hy Lạp cổ đại, Nhà xuất bản CTQG, HN, 1999 ^ Marcus Aurelius, sách đã dẫn, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, tr. 2 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 65 ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, các trang 55-56. ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, trang 14 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 1 ^ Tìm thấy bức tượng Hoàng đế La Mã hàng nghìn tuổi ^ a ă Marcus Aurelius: A Life, by Frank McLynn ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 163 ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, trang 174 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 373 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 417 ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, trang 189 ^ Pierre Gaxotte, Philip Hamilton McMillan Memorial Publication Fund, Frederick the Great, trang 14 ^ Western Civilization: Sources, Images and Interpretations, Dennis Sherman, Vol. 1, 5th Ed., p. 104. ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, trang 25 ^ Theodor Schieder, Sabina Berkeley, Hamish M. Scott, Frederick the Great, trang 241 ^ a ă Theodor Schieder, Sabina Berkeley, Hamish M. Scott, Frederick the Great, trang 146 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 229–30. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's "Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptoes Historiae Augustae" (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), 337ff. ^ Ernest Renan, Marcus Aurelius, trang 125 ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 65–74. ^ Mary Beard, "Was He Quite Ordinary?", London Review of Books 31:14 (ngày 23 tháng 7 năm 2009), accessed ngày 15 tháng 9 năm 2009; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 226. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228–29, 253. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 227–28. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 228. ^ Marcus Aurelius: A Life, xem giới thiệu ở trang Amazon.com ^ Marcus Aurelius: A Biography, xem giới thiệu ở trang Amazon.com ^ Marcus Aurelius "Meditations", Kessinger Publishing, 2004, Lời giới thiệu, tr. 1 ^ HA Marcus 1.2, 1.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 28; McLynn, 14. ^ Dio 69.21.2, 71.35.2–3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 14.3579[liên kết hỏng]; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14, 575 n. 53, citing Ronald Syme, Roman Papers 1.244. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29; McLynn, 14. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 30. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31, 44. ^ a ă Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Farquharson, 1.95–96. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ HA Marcus 2.1 and Meditations 5.4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 32. ^ Meditations 1.3, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Meditations 1.17.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ a ă Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 33. ^ Ad Marcum Caesarem 2.8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 31–32. ^ Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 35. ^ Meditations 1.17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, 23; cf. Meditations 1.17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. ^ McLynn, 20–21. ^ Meditations 1.4; McLynn, 20. ^ HA Marcus 2.2, 4.9; Meditations 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 21–22. ^ HA Marcus 2.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; McLynn, 21. ^ Birley, Later Caesars, 109, 109 n.8; Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27, citing Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquia 1966/7, 39ff. ^ HA Marcus 2.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.27. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, citing Aelius Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, 21. ^ Meditations 1.10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40; McLynn, 22. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) 2.453. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ HA Marcus 4.1, 4.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36. ^ HA Marcus 1.10, 2.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. The appellation also survives on inscriptions: Birley cites (at Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.24) Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 A 697, and L'Année épigraphique 1940.62[liên kết hỏng]. On the Salii, see: Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 36–37; McLynn, 18–19. ^ McLynn, 18, citing Michael Grant, The Antonines (1994), 26 for the characterization of verissimus as an example of Hadrian's waspish wit. ^ HA Marcus 4.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 37; McLynn, 19. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 38, 270 n.24. ^ HA Marcus 4.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 39–40; McLynn, 24–25; R. Syme, "The Ummidii", Historia 17:1 (1968): 93–94. ^ HA Marcus 4.6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ HA Marcus 4.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 41–42. ^ HA Hadrian 23.10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 42. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, "Hadrian and Lucius Verus", Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, "Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo", Phoenix 49:4 (1995): 319–30. ^ HA Hadrian 23.15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 45; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.17.1; HA Aelius 3.7, 4.6, 6.1–7; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 147. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 46. Date: Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 148. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian 24.1; HA Aelius 6.9; HA Pius 4.6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 48–49. ^ HA Marcus 5.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49. ^ Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 49–50. ^ Ludwig Reiners, Frederick the Great: a biography, trang 75 ^ Nancy Mitford, Voltaire in Love, trang 150 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang XVI ^ Anthony Birley, Marcus Aurelius, trang 13 ^ HA Marcus 1.1, 27.7; Dio 71.1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1. ^ Francis, 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. ^ Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci 1.2.4, tr. Echols. ^ a ă Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, các trang 494-495. ^ George Peabody Gooch, Annals of politics and culture (1492-1899), trang 33 ^ a ă Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang XI ^ Ernest Renan, Marcus Aurelius, trang 3 ^ Gerhard Ritter, Frederick the Great: a historical profile, trang 67 ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters, trang 350 ^ David Fraser, Frederick the Great: King of Prussia, trang 63 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 530 ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life of Deed and Letters, trang 350 ^ Theodor Schieder, Sabina Berkeley, Hamish M. Scott, Frederick the Great, trang 88 ^ Gerhard Ritter, The German problem: basic questions of German political life, past and present, trang 29 ^ Pierre Gaxotte, Philip Hamilton McMillan Memorial Publication Fund, Frederick the Great, trang 234 ^ Pierre Gaxotte, Philip Hamilton McMillan Memorial Publication Fund, Frederick the Great, trang 368 ^ Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, trang 508 ^ Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. ^ McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. ^ The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII ^ Aurelius Marcus Antoninus, Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Wilder Publications, 2008. ISBN 1-60459-584-1. ^ Pierre Gaxotte, Philip Hamilton McMillan Memorial Publication Fund, Frederick the Great, trang 184 ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters, trang 142 ^ Gregory Hays. Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations Weidenfeld and Nicholson London2003 pxlix ^ Stertz, 434, citing Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius 3.5; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 16.9. ^ Gregory Hays. Introduction to Marcus Aurelius Meditations Weidenfeld and Nicholson London 2003 pp xlviii–xlix. ^ Jill Kraye, Martin William Francis Stone, Humanism and early modern philosophy, trang 107 Tham khảo[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Tài liệu cổ đại[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Aelius Aristides. Orationes (Orations). Cassius Dio. Roman History. Cary, Earnest, trans. Roman History. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. Online at LacusCurtius. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Codex Justinianus. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian, in The Civil Law. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Truy cập 31 tháng 8 năm 2009. Digest. Scott, S.P., trans. The Digest or Pandects in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Truy cập 31 tháng 8 năm 2009. Epitome de Caesaribus. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Truy cập 31 tháng 8 năm 2009. Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. Epistulae (Letters). Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Gellius, Aulus. Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Rolfe, J.C., trans. The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. Vols. 1 and 2 online at LacusCurtius. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Institutes. Scott, S.P., trans. Institutes of Gaius in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. Online at the Constitution Society. Truy cập 31 tháng 8 năm 2009. Lucian. Alexander. Harmon, A.M., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1936. Alexander online at Tertullian. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Historia Quomodo Conscribenda (The Way to Write History). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. The Way to Write History, in volume 2, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Imagines (Essays in Portraiture [Images]). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. A Portrait Study, in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Pro Imaginibus (Essays in Portraiture Defended). Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. Defence of the 'Portrait-Study', in volume 3, online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. Pausanias. Description of Greece. Jones, W.H.S., and H.A. Omerod, trans. Pausanias' Description of Greece. 4 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1918. Online at Theoi and Perseus at Tufts. Truy cập 27 tháng 8 năm 2009. Philostratus. Heroicus (On Heroes). Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. On Heroes. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online at Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies Lưu trữ 2008-05-31 tại Wayback Machine. Truy cập 27 tháng 8 năm 2009. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. Truy cập 26 tháng 8 năm 2009. Birley, Anthony R., trans. Lives of the Later Caesars. London: Penguin, 1976. Tài liệu hiện đại[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Tìm hiểu thêm về Marcus Aurelius tại các dự án liên quan Từ điển từ Wiktionary Tập tin phương tiện từ Commons Tin tức từ Wikinews Danh ngôn từ Wikiquote Văn kiện từ Wikisource Tủ sách giáo khoa từ Wikibooks Tài nguyên học tập từ Wikiversity Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. Barnes, Timothy D. "Hadrian and Lucius Verus." Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. ISBN 0-415-17125-3 Birley, Anthony R. "Hadrian to the Antonines." In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–94. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1 Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–59. Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-32668-7 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East: 31 TCN – AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-674-77886-3 Kraye, Jill; Stone, Martin William Francis. Humanism and early modern philosophy, Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-18616-1. Ritter, Gerhard. Frederick the Great: a historical profile. University of California Press, 1975. ISBN 0-520-02775-2. Gaxotte, Pierre, Philip Hamilton McMillan Memorial Publication Fund. Frederick the Great (R. A. Bell biên dịch). Yale university press, 1942. Ritter, Gerhard. The German problem: basic questions of German political life, past and present. Ohio State University Press, 1965. Reiners, Ludwig. Frederick the Great: a biography. Putnam, 1960. Mitford, Nancy. Voltaire in Love. Carroll & Graf, 1999. ISBN 0-7867-0641-4. Asprey, Robert B. Frederick the Great: the magnificent enigma. Ticknor & Fields, 1986. Schieder, Theodor; Berkeley, Sabina; Scott, Hamish M. Frederick the Great. Longman, 2000. ISBN 0-582-01769-6. (bản dịch) Schieder, Theodor. Friedrich der grosse. Ullstein, 1998. ISBN 3-548-26534-0. MacDonogh, Giles. Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters, St. Martin's Griffin, 2001. ISBN 0-312-27266-9. Fraser, David. Frederick the Great: King of Prussia, Fromm International, 2001. ISBN 0-88064-261-0. Liên kết ngoài[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Marcus Aurelius tại Find a Grave Bản mẫu:Nndb Wikimedia Commons có thêm hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius Nhà Antoninus Nhánh thứ của Nhà Nerva-Antoninus Sinh: 26 tháng 4, 121 Mất: 17 tháng 3, 180 Tước hiệu Tiền nhiệm: Antoninus Pius Hoàng đế La Mã 161–180 (cùng Lucius Verus 161–169) Kế nhiệm: Commodus Chức vụ Tiền nhiệm: Antoninus Pius, Gaius Bruttius Praesens và Lucius Fulvius Rusticus Chấp chính quan của đế quốc La Mã (cùng Antoninus Pius) 140 Kế nhiệm: Titus Hoenius Severus và Marcus Peducaeus Stloga Priscinus Tiền nhiệm: Lollianus Avitus và Titus Statilius Maximus Chấp chính quan của đế quốc La Mã (cùng Antoninus Pius) 145 Kế nhiệm: Sextus Erucius Clarus và Cnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus Tiền nhiệm: Appius Annius Atilius Bradua và Titus Clodius Vibius Varus Chấp chính quan của đế quốc La Mã (cùng Lucius Verus) 161 Kế nhiệm: Quintus Iunius Rusticus và Lucius Titius Plautius Aquilinus x t s Danh sách hoàng đế La Mã và Đông La Mã Thời kỳ Principatus 27 tr. CN – 235 CN Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasianus Titus Domitianus Nerva Traianus Hadrianus Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius và Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla và Geta Macrinus và Diadumenianus Elagabalus Alexander Severus Thời kỳ khủng hoảng 235–284 Maximinus Thrax Gordianus I và Gordianus II Pupienus và Balbinus Gordianus III Philippus người Ả Rập cùng với Philippus II Decius cùng với Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus cùng với Volusianus Aemilianus Valerianus Gallienus cùng với Saloninus và Valerianus II Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelianus Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus và Numerianus Các hoàng đế Gallia: Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I cùng với Tetricus II là Caesar Thời kỳ Dominus 284–395 Diocletianus (Đông) và Maximianus (Tây) Diocletianus (Đông) và Maximianus (Tây) cùng với Galerius (Đông) và Constantius Chlorus (Tây) là các Caesar Galerius (Đông) và Constantius Chlorus (Tây) cùng với Severus (Tây) và Maximinus Daia (Đông) là các Caesar Galerius (Đông) và Severus (Tây) cùng với Constantinus Đại đế (Tây) và Maximinus Daia (Đông) là các Caesar Galerius (Đông) và Maxentius (Tây) cùng với Constantinus Đại đế (Tây) và Maximinus Daia (Đông) là các Caesar Galerius (Đông) và Licinius I (Tây) cùng với Constantinus Đại đế (Tây) và Maximinus Daia (Đông) là các Caesar Maxentius (duy nhất) Licinius I (Tây) và Maximinus Daia (Đông) cùng với Constantinus Đại đế (Augustus tự phong) và Valerius Valens Licinius I (Đông) và Constantinus Đại đế (Tây) cùng với Licinius II, Constantinus II và Crispus là các Caesar (Martinianus) Constantinus Đại đế (toàn đế quốc) cùng con trai Crispus là Caesar Constantinus II Constans I Magnentius cùng với Decentius là Caesar Constantius II cùng với Vetranio Julianus Jovianus Valentinianus Đại đế Valens Gratianus Valentinianus II Magnus Maximus cùng với Flavius Victor Theodosius Đại đế Đế quốc Tây La Mã 395–480 Honorius (Constantinus III cùng con trai Constans II) Constantius III Joannes tiếm vị xưng đế ở Ravenna Valentinianus III Petronius Maximus cùng với Palladius Avitus Majorianus rồi Libius Severus rồi Anthemius rồi Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos (de jure) Romulus Augustulus (tiếm vị) Đế quốc Đông La Mã 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Pulcheria Marcianus Leo I xứ Thracia Leo II Zeno (lần 1) Basiliscus cùng con trai Marcus là đồng hoàng đế Zeno (lần 2) Anastasius I Dicorus Justinus I Justinianus Đại đế Justinus II Tiberius II Constantinus Mauricius cùng con trai Theodosius là đồng hoàng đế Phocas Heraclius Konstantinos III Herakleios Heraklonas Konstans II Konstantinos IV cùng các em trai Herakleios và Tiberios và rồi Justinianos II là các đồng hoàng đế Justinianos II (lần 1) Leontios Tiberios III Justinianos II (lần 2) cùng con trai Tiberios là đồng hoàng đế Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosios III Leon III xứ Isauria Konstantinos V Artabasdos Leon IV Konstantinos VI Eirene Nikephoros I Staurakios Mikhael I Rangabe cùng con trai Theophylact là đồng hoàng đế Leon V cùng con trai Symbatios-Konstantinos là tiểu hoàng đế Mikhael II Theophilos Mikhael III Basileios I Leon VI Alexandros Konstantinos VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos cùng các con trai Christophoros, Stephanos và Konstantinos là các đồng tiểu hoàng đế Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas Ioannes I Tzimiskes Basileios II Konstantinos VIII Zoë (lần 1) và Romanos III Argyros Zoë (lần 1) và Mikhael IV Mikhael V Kalaphates Zoë (lần 2) cùng với Theodora Zoë (lần 2) và Konstantinos IX Monomachos Konstantinos IX Monomachos (hoàng đế duy nhất) Theodora Mikhael VI Bringas Isaakios I Komnenos Konstantinos X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Mikhael VII Doukas cùng các em trai Andronikos và Konstantios và con trai cũng tên là Konstantinos Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos Ioannes II Komnenos cùng với Alexios Komnenos là đồng hoàng đế Manouel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos Isaakios II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nikolaos Kanabos là hoàng đế tiếm vị được tấn phong bởi Viện nguyên lão Alexios V Doukas Đế quốc Nicaea 1204–1261 Konstantinos Laskaris Theodoros I Laskaris Ioannes III Doukas Vatatzes Theodoros II Laskaris Ioannes IV Laskaris Đế quốc Đông La Mã 1261–1453 Mikhael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos cùng với Mikhael IX Palaiologos là đồng hoàng đế Andronikos III Palaiologos Ioannes V Palaiologos Ioannes VI Kantakouzenos cùng với Ioannes V Palaiologos và Matthaios Kantakouzenos là đồng hoàng đế Ioannes V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos Ioannes VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos Ioannes VIII Palaiologos Konstantinos XI Palaiologos Những tên in nghiêng thường để chỉ các đồng hoàng đế hoặc các hoàng đế tiếm vị Cổng thông tin Lịch sử Cổng thông tin Văn minh La Mã và Hy Lạp cổ đại Lấy từ “https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=64890223” Thể loại: Sinh năm 121 Mất 180 Annii Hoàng đế La Mã Người Roma Chấp chính quan của Đế quốc La Mã Triết gia khắc kỷ thời La Mã Triết gia Ý thời La Mã Triều đại Nerva-Antoninus Thể loại ẩn: Bản mẫu webarchive dùng liên kết wayback Bài có liên kết hỏng Trang sử dụng liên kết tự động ISBN Bài viết với dấu ngoặc kép do kéo Trình đơn chuyển hướng Công cụ cá nhân Chưa đăng nhập Thảo luận cho địa chỉ IP này Đóng góp Mở tài khoản Đăng nhập Không gian tên Bài viết Thảo luận Biến thể Giao diện Đọc Sửa đổi Sửa mã nguồn Xem lịch sử Thêm Tìm kiếm Xem nhanh Trang Chính Bài viết chọn lọc Tin tức Bài viết ngẫu nhiên Thay đổi gần đây Phản hồi lỗi Quyên góp Tương tác Hướng dẫn Giới thiệu Wikipedia Cộng đồng Thảo luận chung Giúp sử dụng Liên lạc Công cụ Các liên kết đến đây Thay đổi liên quan Trang đặc biệt Liên kết thường trực Thông tin trang Trích dẫn trang này Khoản mục Wikidata In/xuất ra Tạo một quyển sách Tải về dưới dạng PDF Bản để in ra Tại dự án khác Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Ngôn ngữ khác Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Bikol Central བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kongo Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 文言 Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Sửa liên kết Trang này được sửa đổi lần cuối vào ngày 11 tháng 5 năm 2021 lúc 10:18. 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war-wikipedia-org-4944	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Tikang ha Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hi Marcus Aurelius (Linatin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Abril 26, 121 – Marso 17, 180, in usa nga Romano nga emperador tikang 161 ngada 180.  Usa ka turók ini nga barasahon. Dako it imo maibubulig ha Wikipedia pinaagi han pagparabong hini. Ginkuha tikang ha "https://war.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=6187721" Mga kaarangay: Mga turók Marcus Aurelius Mga natawo han 121 Mga namatay han 180 Menu hit nabigasyon Mga pankalugaringon nga garamiton Diri naka-log in Hiruhimangraw Mga amot Himo-a an akawnt Sakob Mga ngaran-lat'ang Barasahon Hiruhimangraw Mga pagkadirudilain Mga paglantaw Basaha Igliwat Igliwat an wikitext Kitaa an kaagi More Bilnga paglayag Syahan nga Pakli Ganghaan han Komunidad Mga panhitabo Mga kabag-ohan Bisan ano nga pakli Bulig Mga Donasyon Garamiton Mga nasumpay dinhi Mga may kalabotan nga binag-o Pagkarga hin file Mga pinaurog nga pakli Sumpay nga unob Impormasyon han pakli Ig-cite ini nga pakli Wikidata item Pagpatika/pag-ambit Paghimo hin libro Igkarga-paubos komo PDF Maipapatik nga bersyon Ha iba nga mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Ha iba nga mga yinaknan Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 Igliwat an mga sumpay Ini nga pakli kataposan nga ginliwat dida han 17:12, 27 Abril 2015. An teksto in available ha ilarom han Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; kadugangan nga terms in puyde mag-apply. Kitaa anMga Terms of Use para han mga detalye. Polisiya hin pribasidad Bahin han Wikipedia Mga Disclaimer Mobile view Mga developer Statistics Cookie statement 
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These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+05932&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DD%2B05932%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; 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<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Bild('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=PH0009330')\">CIL 06, 31553 (p 3796, 4362) = D 05932</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=PH0009330" target="_blank">CIL 06, 31553 (p 3796, 4362) = D 05932</a></noscript> <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224106/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> [Imp(erator) Caesar T(itus) Aelius] / [Hadr]ianus An[toninus] / Aug(ustus) Pius po(n)tifex maxim(us) / trib(unicia) pot(estate) XXIIII imp(erator) II co(n)s(ul) IIII p(ater) p(atriae) / [A(ulo)] Platorio Nepote / Calpurniano curat(ore) / alvei Tiberis et ripa(rum) et cloacar(um) / urbis terminos vetust(ate) dilapsos / exaltavit et restit(uit) rect(a) rigore / proximo cippo p(osito) {positos} ex au(c)to/ritate Imp(eratoris) Caes(aris) divi Nervae fil(ii) Nervae / Traiani Aug(usti) Germ(anici) pont(ificis) max(imi) trib(unicia) / potest(ate) V co(n)s(ulis) IIII p(atris) p(atriae) curatore / alvei Tiberis et ripar(um) et cloacar(um) / Iulio Feroce <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:41:06 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:23 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): esindex: 0.014 LoadShardBlock: 269.549 (3) exclusion.robots: 0.425 PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 1586.808 (4) captures_list: 296.04 RedisCDXSource: 1.884 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 151.586 load_resource: 1521.711 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.409 CDXLines.iter: 20.201 (3) --> 
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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">8 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 06 Aug 2016</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-1667.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-1667.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DCIL%2B14%2C%2B03579%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+14,+03579&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429224027",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There were found 2 inscriptions. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 14, 03579 = InscrIt-04-01, 00077 = AE 2005, 00436 <br> <b> Province: </b> Latium et Campania / Regio I&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Tibur&latitude=41.963579&longitude=12.798272')\">Tibur</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Tibur&amp;latitude=41.963579&amp;longitude=12.798272" target="_blank">Tibur</a></noscript> <br> ]tate [3] / [3]ativa vel [3] / [3]entissimus fui / [3]mam socrum aman[tissimam] / [3] sibique salvam Sabinae meae / [3] matri meae facerem [3] / [prin]cipatum ac deinceps usque ad illam / [valetu]dinem qua diem suum obiit comes et con[tubernalis] / [3] verendo ut filia comitate nulla non fa[3] / [ga]visa est [3] / [3] moribus socrus meae nam qui potuit effici / feminae gravitatem ferret omnino ne / vi summa probaret / [si]ngillatim de virtutibus eius omnia quae / [3]r si non ita victus essem praesenti confusione / [3]e velit et dicere tantum quae possim indig[3] / aut laudibus eius dignum aut dolori meo / est imago tristissima socrus optumae labentis / is etiam num strepunt luctuosis conclamatio / [3]um mearum [3] / [3 ani]mi mei sublevate et ea quae pulchre scitis de mo[ribus] / [3]ote si potius ut nota dicentur quam ut nova / o carissima post eum longissimo viduvio in eximio flo[re] / summa pulchritudine formae castissima matri suae / [obsequ]entissima ipsa mater indulgentissima cognata piis / [3]ans nulli gravis nemini tristis iam quod ad me Atti / Lari post tanta modestia uti nihil unquam a me pe[3] / [3]raque non peterit quae peti maluissem inter meas / [3]e voluntatis plurimis et longissimis votis precata talem / [3 u]t vidit gaudere fortuna mea maluit quam frui / [proavi mei pronept]em(?) sanguine adoptione in consobrinae / [3] Augustae filiam et divae anvunculi / [3]um decus pro meritis hones / [3] re dignemini rogo / [3 vol]untate adversus / [3] in re tali / [3]cere Ve[ <p> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 14, 03579a <br> <b> Province: </b> Latium et Campania / Regio I&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Tivoli / Tibur&latitude=41.963579&longitude=12.798272')\">Tivoli / Tibur</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224027/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Tivoli / Tibur&amp;latitude=41.963579&amp;longitude=12.798272" target="_blank">Tivoli / Tibur</a></noscript> <br> ] quotiens vel hoc ibidem [3] / [3]orum columnatis trans[3] / [3] qui extare tale simulacrum [3] / [3] uxor quaequ[u]mque summ[3] / [3] servate mihi ius meum [3] / [3] et quod ubique quoqu[u]mque [3] / [3] inde comminus [3] / [3] si iacet et saeptis [3] / [3] per deos mihi quandoque [3] / [3] ipsum mihi ad vos [3] / [3] nihil omnino[3] / [3] quin immo[ <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:40:27 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:21 Jun 14, 2021. 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These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01098&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DD%2B01098%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; 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<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> CIL 06, 41142 = CIL 06, 01377 (p 3141, 3805, 4948) = CIL 06, 31640 = D 01098 = IDRE-01, 00010</a></noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/partner.php?param=HD030583" target="_blank"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/epi-button.jpg" alt="" border="0"></a> <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223856/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> M(arco) Claudio [Ti(beri)] f(ilio) Q[uir(ina)] / Frontoni co(n)s(uli) / leg(ato) Aug(usti) pr(o) pr(aetore) provinciarum Daciarum et [Moesiae] / super(ioris) simul leg(ato) Aug(usti) pr(o) pr(aetore) provincia[rum III] / Daciar(um) leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) pr(o) pr(aetore) Moesiae super(ioris) [et] / Daciae Apule(n)sis simul leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) pr(o) pr(aetore) pro/vinciae Moesiae super(ioris) comiti divi Veri / Aug(usti) donato donis militarib(us) bello Ar/meniaco et Parthico ab Imperatore An/tonino Aug(usto) et a divo Vero Aug(usto) corona / murali item vallari item classica item / aurea item hastis puris IIII item vexillis / IIII curatori operum locorumq(ue) publicor(um) / misso ad iuventutem per Italiam legen/dam leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) pr(o) pr(aetore) exercitus legionarii / et auxilior(um) per Orientem in Armeniam / et Osrhoenam et Anthemusiam ducto/rum leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) legioni(s) primae Minervi/ae in ex{s}peditionem Parthicam deducen/dae leg(ato) divi Antonini Aug(usti) leg(ionis) XI Cl(audiae) prae/tori aedili curuli ab actis senatus quaes/tori urbano Xviro stlitibus iudicandis / huic senatus auctore Imperatore M(arco) Au/relio Antonino Aug(usto) Armeniaco Medico / Parthico maximo quod post aliquo&lt;d=T&gt; se/cunda proelia adversus Germanos / et Iazyges ad postremum pro r(e) p(ublica) fortiter / pugnans ceciderit armatam statuam [poni] / in foro divi Traiani pecunia publica cen[suit] <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:38:56 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:22 Jun 14, 2021. 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These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00032&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DCIL%2B06%2C%2B00032%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00032&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429224044",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 06, 00032 (p 3003) = CIL 06, 04323 <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224044/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> [3]iana / [Apolli]ni Dianae / Latonae <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:40:44 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:22 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 936.157 exclusion.robots: 0.244 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.234 RedisCDXSource: 18.39 esindex: 0.009 LoadShardBlock: 897.483 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 838.457 (4) CDXLines.iter: 16.805 (3) load_resource: 85.117 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 45.814 --> 
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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">8 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 06 Aug 2016</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-2530.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-2530.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+03,+00199&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429224122",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 03, 00199 (p 1228) = D 05864 = ChoixIGLS 00030b <br> <b> Province: </b> Syria&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Suq Wadi Barada / Abila de Lysanias&latitude=33.626712&longitude=36.105773')\">Suq Wadi Barada / Abila de Lysanias</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224122/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Suq Wadi Barada / Abila de Lysanias&amp;latitude=33.626712&amp;longitude=36.105773" target="_blank">Suq Wadi Barada / Abila de Lysanias</a></noscript> <br> Imp(erator) Caes(ar) M(arcus) Aurel(ius) Antoninus / Aug(ustus) Armeniacus et / Imp(erator) Caes(ar) L(ucius) Aurel(ius) Verus Aug(ustus) Ar/meniacus viam fluminis / vi abruptam interciso / monte restituerunt per / Iul(ium) Verum leg(atum) pr(o) pr(aetore) provinc(iae) / Syr(iae) et amicum suum / i&lt;m=N&gt;pendiis Abilenorum <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:41:22 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:25 Jun 14, 2021. 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At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01091&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DD%2B01091%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01091&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223904",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There were found 2 inscriptions. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 08, 18893 = ILAlg-02-02, 04634 = D 01091 = AE 1888, 00139 <br> <b> Province: </b> Numidia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Announa / El Announa / Thibilis&latitude=36.366667&longitude=7.250000')\">Announa / El Announa / Thibilis</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Announa / El Announa / Thibilis&amp;latitude=36.366667&amp;longitude=7.250000" target="_blank">Announa / El Announa / Thibilis</a></noscript> <br> Genio / domus / sacr(um) // Pro salute / Q(uinti) Antisti Adventi Postumi Aqui/lini leg(ati) Aug(usti) leg(ionis) II Adiutri/cis et Noviae Crispinae eius / et L(uci) Antisti Mundici Burri et An/toniae Priscae matris eius et / liberorum et famil(iae) eorum / Antistius Agathopus lib(ertus) / ex viso d(onum) d(edit) // Q(uintus) Antistius Agathopus ex / viso d(onum) d(edit) idemque / dedicavit K(alendis) Mart(iis) / Macrino et Celso co(n)s(ulibus) // Genio domus sacrum // Pro salute / Q(uinti) Antisti Adventi Postumi Aqui/lini leg(ati) Aug(usti) leg(ionis) II Adiutricis / et Noviae Crispinae eius et / L(uci) Antisti Mundici Burri et Anto/niae Priscae matris eius et li/berorum et famil(iae) eorum / Agathopus lib(ertus) ex viso / d(onum) d(edit) // Q(uintus) Antistius Agathopus / ex viso d(onum) d(edit) idemq(ue) / dedic(avit) K(alendis) Mar(tiis) Ma/crino et Celso co(n)s(ulibus) <p> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 08, 18898 = D 01091a = ILAlg-02-02, 04651a <br> <b> Province: </b> Numidia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Announa / El Announa / Thibilis&latitude=36.366667&longitude=7.250000')\">Announa / El Announa / Thibilis</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223904/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Announa / El Announa / Thibilis&amp;latitude=36.366667&amp;longitude=7.250000" target="_blank">Announa / El Announa / Thibilis</a></noscript> <br> Victoriae / Aug(ustae) sacr(um) / pro salute / Antistior(um) Ad/venti et Bur/ri et liberoru(m) / eorum Agatho/pus lib(ertus) d(e)d(icavit) <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:39:04 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:21 Jun 14, 2021. 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style="color:rgb(87,186,244);font-size:160%;"></span></a> <a id="wm-tb-close" href="web-archive-org-272.html#close" onclick="__wm.h(event);return false;" style="top:-2px;" title="Close the toolbar"><span class="iconochive-remove-circle" style="color:#888888;font-size:240%;"></span></a> </div> <div id="wm-share"> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" id="wm-screenshot" title="screenshot"> <span class="wm-icon-screen-shot"></span> </a> <a href="web-archive-org-272.html#" id="wm-video" title="video"> <span class="iconochive-movies"></span> </a> <a id="wm-share-facebook" href="web-archive-org-272.html#" data-url="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="Share on Facebook" style="margin-right:5px;" target="_blank"><span class="iconochive-facebook" style="color:#3b5998;font-size:160%;"></span></a> <a id="wm-share-twitter" href="web-archive-org-272.html#" data-url="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="Share on Twitter" style="margin-right:5px;" target="_blank"><span class="iconochive-twitter" style="color:#1dcaff;font-size:160%;"></span></a> </div> </div> <table class="c" style=""> <tbody> <tr> <td class="u" colspan="2"> <form target="_top" method="get" action="https://web.archive.org/web/submit" name="wmtb" id="wmtb"><input type="text" name="url" id="wmtbURL" value="http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&r_sortierung=Belegstelle" onfocus="this.focus();this.select();" /><input type="hidden" name="type" value="replay" /><input type="hidden" name="date" value="20120429223912" /><input type="submit" value="Go" /></form> </td> <td class="n" rowspan="2" style="width:110px;"> <table> <tbody> <!-- NEXT/PREV MONTH NAV AND MONTH INDICATOR --> <tr class="m"> <td class="b" nowrap="nowrap">Mar</td> <td class="c" id="displayMonthEl" title="You are here: 22:39:12 Apr 29, 2012">APR</td> <td class="f" nowrap="nowrap"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120720082457/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="20 Jul 2012"><strong>Jul</strong></a></td> </tr> <!-- NEXT/PREV CAPTURE NAV AND DAY OF MONTH INDICATOR --> <tr class="d"> <td class="b" nowrap="nowrap"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/toolbar/wm_tb_prv_off.png" alt="Previous capture" width="14" height="16" border="0" /></td> <td class="c" id="displayDayEl" style="width:34px;font-size:24px;white-space:nowrap;" title="You are here: 22:39:12 Apr 29, 2012">29</td> <td class="f" nowrap="nowrap"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120720082457/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="08:24:57 Jul 20, 2012"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/toolbar/wm_tb_nxt_on.png" alt="Next capture" width="14" height="16" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> <!-- NEXT/PREV YEAR NAV AND YEAR INDICATOR --> <tr class="y"> <td class="b" nowrap="nowrap">2011</td> <td class="c" id="displayYearEl" title="You are here: 22:39:12 Apr 29, 2012">2012</td> <td class="f" nowrap="nowrap"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180432/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="03 Mar 2016"><strong>2016</strong></a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="s"> <div id="wm-nav-captures"> <a class="t" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">6 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 06 Aug 2016</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-272.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-272.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DD%2B02311%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+02311&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223912",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Bild('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=$CBI_00631.jpg')\">CIL 03, 07505 = D 02311 = IScM-05, 00160 = IDRE-02, 00340 = CBI 00631 = AE 1888, 00011</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=$CBI_00631.jpg" target="_blank">CIL 03, 07505 = D 02311 = IScM-05, 00160 = IDRE-02, 00340 = CBI 00631 = AE 1888, 00011</a></noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/partner.php?param=HD043185" target="_blank"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/epi-button.jpg" alt="" border="0"></a> <br> <b> Province: </b> Moesia inferior&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Balta Iglita / Troesmis&latitude=45.166667&longitude=28.166667')\">Balta Iglita / Troesmis</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223912/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Balta Iglita / Troesmis&amp;latitude=45.166667&amp;longitude=28.166667" target="_blank">Balta Iglita / Troesmis</a></noscript> <br> ] / [T(itus) Val(erius)] T(iti) f(ilius) Pol(l)ia Marci/[anus] cas(tris) vet(eranus) leg(ionis) V Mac(edonicae) ex / [b(ene)f(iciario) c]o(n)s(ularis) milit(are) coep(it) Imp(eratore) / [Antoni]n(o) IIII co(n)s(ule) funct(us) ex/[pedi]t(ione) Orientali sub St/[at(io) Pri]sco Iul(io) Severo M[art(io)] / [Vero] c(larissimis) v(iris) item Germ(anica) sub / [Cal]pur(nio) Agricola Cl(audio) Fronto/[ne] c(larissimis) v(iris) m(issus) h(onesta) missione in Da/cia Cethe(go) et Claro co(n)s(ulibus) / sub Corne(lio) Clemente c(larissimo) v(iro) r/evers(us) at Lares suos et / Marcia Basiliss(a) matre / dend(rophorum) enupt(a) sibi Val(eria) Lon/ga s&lt;o=A&gt;rore pro sal(ute) sua suor(um)q(ue) <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:39:12 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:24 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 167.162 exclusion.robots: 0.228 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.22 RedisCDXSource: 1.82 esindex: 0.009 LoadShardBlock: 143.644 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 117.617 (4) CDXLines.iter: 18.545 (3) load_resource: 174.904 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 122.469 --> 
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<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 06, 01012 (p 3070, 3777, 4315) = D 00360 = AE 2000, +00132 <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224059/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> Imp(eratori) Caes(ari) divi A[ntonini] / Pii fil(io) divi Had[riani] / nepoti divi Tr[aiani] / Parthici prone[poti] / divi Nervae abnep[oti] / M(arco) Aelio Aurel[io] / Antonino Aug(usto) p(ontifici) m(aximo) / trib(unicia) pot(estate) XVII co(n)s(uli) III / fratri Arvali <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:40:59 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:22 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 113.067 exclusion.robots: 0.393 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.38 RedisCDXSource: 13.489 esindex: 0.014 LoadShardBlock: 70.167 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 91.606 (4) CDXLines.iter: 24.432 (3) load_resource: 1165.179 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 1112.067 --> 
web-archive-org-5624	----	Roman Currency of the Principate success fail Jan FEB Oct 10 2000 2001 2002 93 captures 10 Feb 2001 - 31 Jan 2021 About this capture COLLECTED BY Organization: Alexa Crawls Starting in 1996, Alexa Internet has been donating their crawl data to the Internet Archive. Flowing in every day, these data are added to the Wayback Machine after an embargo period. Collection: Alexa Crawls DD Crawl data donated by Alexa Internet. This data is currently not publicly accessible TIMESTAMPS The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu:80/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm ROMAN CURRENCY OF THE PRINCIPATE   Roman currency was based on a silver denarius, struck at 84 to the Roman pound (322.5 grs.), that was exchanged against gold coins or base metal fractional denominations collectively called aes (a term that refers to copper and any of its alloys). The gold aureus, struck at 40 to the Roman pound, and the denarius were minted from virtually pure metal (99-99.5% fine). In 23 B.C. Augustus reformed theaes so that fractional denominations were struck in two metals orichalcum or brass (75% copper; 20% zinc; 5% tin) and pure copper. The rate of exchange was 1 aureus = 25 denarii = 100 brass sestertii = 400 copper asses. Romans reckoned large sums in the sestertii (abbreviated HS), although they paid in aurei or denarii.   AUGUSTAN CURRENCY SYSTEM               Equivalent Value   Denomination   Metal   Weight   In Denarii   In Asses   Aureus   Gold   7.90 grs.   25   400   Quinarius   Gold   3.80 grs.   12-1/2   200   Denarius   Silver   3.80 grs.   1   16   Quinarius   Silver   1.90 grs.   1/2   8   Sestertius   Orichalcum   25.00 grs.   1/4   4   Dupondius   Orichalcum   12.50 grs.   1/8   2   As   Copper   11.00 grs.   1/16   1   Semis*   Orichalcum   3.25 grs.   1/32   1/2   Quadrans   Copper   3.00 grs.   1/64   1/4 *Denomination introduced by Nero, 64-68 A.D.   In 64, Nero reduced the standard of the aureus to 45 to the Roman pound (7.20 grs.) and of the denarius to 96 to the Roman pound (3.30 grs.). He also lowered the denarius to 94.5% fine. Successive emperors lowered the fineness of the denarius; in 180 Commodus reduced its weight by one-eighth or 108 to the pound.   FINENESS OF DENARIUS, 64-192   Date Weight Purity Weight   64-68 3.18 grs.   93.5% 2.97 grs. 70-81 3.22 grs.   90.0% 2.87 grs. 82-85 3.33 grs.   98.0% 3.26 grs. 85-107 3.27 grs.   93.5% 3.04 grs. 107-148 3.21 grs.   89.0% 2.88 grs. 148-161 3.23 grs.   83.5% 2.68 grs. 161-168 3.23 grs.   79.0% 2.57 grs. 168-170 3.24 grs.   82.0% 2.67 grs. 170-180 3.26 grs.   79.0% 2.57 grs. 180-185 3.07 grs.   76.0% 2.34 grs. 186-192 2.98 grs.   74.0% 2.22 grs. ROMAN CURRENCY IN THE ERA OF INFLATION, 193-293   Severan emperors (193-235) steadily debased the denarius from a standard of 78.5% to 50% fine; in 212 Caracalla reduced the weight of the aureus from 45 to 50 to the Roman pound. They also coined aes from a bronze alloy with a heavy lead admixture and discontinued fractional denominations below the as.   DEBASEMENT OF THE DENARIUS, 193-241   Date Weight Purity Silver Weight   Pertinax 193 3.16 grs. 87.0% 2.75 grs. Didius Julianus, 193 2.95 grs. 81.5% 2.40 grs. Septimius Severus, 193-194 3.14 grs. 78.5% 2.46 grs. Septimius Severus, 194-196 3.07 grs. 64.5% 1.98 grs. Septimius Severus, 196-211 3.22 grs. 56.5% 1.81 grs. Caracalla, 212-217 3.23 grs. 51.5% 1.66 grs. Macrinus, 217-218 3.15 grs. 58.0% 1.82 grs. Elagabalus, 219-222 3.05 grs. 46.5% 1.41 grs. Severus Alexander, 222-228 3.00 grs. 43.0% 1.30 grs. Severus Alexander, 229-230 3.24 grs. 45.0% 1.46 grs. Severus Alexander, 230-235 2.94 grs. 50.5% 1.50 grs. Maximinus, 235-238 3.07 grs. 46.0% 1.43 grs. Gordian I & II, 238 2.77 grs. 63.0% 1.71 grs. Pupienus & Balbinus, 238 2.80 grs. 55.0% 1.55 grs. Gordian III, 241 3.03 grs. 48.0% 1.46 grs.   In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus (5.1 grs.; 52% fine) a double denarius, containing 80% of the silver of two denarii. The coin invariably carried the radiate imperial portrait. Elagabalus demonetized the coin in 219, but the senatorial emperors Pupienus and Balbinus in 238 revived the antoninianus as the principal silver denomination which successive emperors reduced to a miserable billon coin (2.60 grs.; 2% fine).   DEBASEMENT OF ANTONINIANUS, 238-274   Date Weight Purity Silver Weight   Pupienus & Balbinus, 238 4.79 grs. 49.5% 2.38 grs. Gordian III, 238 4.50 grs. 48.5% 2.20 grs. Gordian III, 241 4.43 grs. 44.5% 1.98 grs. Gordian III, 243 4.16 grs. 41.5% 1.62 grs. Philip, 244 4.12 grs. 43.0% 1.74 grs. Philip, 248 4.12 grs. 47.0% 1.94 grs. Trajan Decius, 250 3.97 grs. 41.0% 1.64 grs. Trebonianus Gallus, 251 3.46 grs. 36.0% 1.26 grs. Aemilian, 253 3.53 grs. 35.5% 1.26 grs. Valerian, 253 3.10 grs. 22.0% 0.68 grs. Valerian, 255-60 3.07 grs. 19.0% 0.58 grs. Gallienus, 260 3.03 grs. 18.0% 0.54 grs. Gallienus, 261-63 2.97 grs. 15.5% 0.46 grs. Gallienus, 263-65 2.75 grs. 13.0% 0.38 grs. Date Weight Purity Silver Weight   Gallienus, 265-66 2.81 grs.  9.0% 0.31 grs. Gallienus, 267-68 2.69 grs.  6.0% 0.16 grs. Claudius II, 268 2.95 grs.  3.0% 0.09 grs. Claudius II, 269 2.60 grs.  2.0% 0.05 grs. Claudius II, 270 3.39 grs.  3.0% 0.10 grs. Aurelian, 270 3.15 grs.  2.5% 0.08 grs. Aurelian, 274 3.88 grs.  5.0% 0.20 grs.   In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate aurelianianus of improved weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational denarii communes ("common denarii" or d.c.). The denomination carried on the reverse the numerals XXI (or in Greek KA) to denote the coin as equal to 20 sestertii (or 5 d.c.). The aureus (minted at 50 or 60 the Roman pound) was exhanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 d.c., equivalent to 120 to 200 aurelianiani. Rare fractions of billion denarii, and of bronze sestertii and asses were also coined. Simultaneously, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine tetradrachma that might have been tariffed at par with the aurelianianus.   The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the aurelianianus and halved its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. (hence coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276-282) immediately returned the aurelianianus to the standard and tariffing of Aurelian, and was the offical tariffing down to the reform of Diocletian in 293. MEASURES IN THE ROMAN WORLD     MEASURES OF CAPACITY   Romans measured dry capacity (grain) by the MODIUS (8.75 liters or 1.1 peck; by weight just over 6-2/3 kilogrs. or 14-2/3 lbs.) and wet capacity (oil and wine) by the AMPHORA (26 liters or nearly 7 gallons). The amphora was three times the volume of the modius. In markets, oil and wine were usually cited by the sextarius (0.539 liters or just under 1 pint).   DRY MEASURES LIQUID MEASURES   1 modius = 16 sextarii 1 culleus = 20 amphorae 1 sextarius = 16 cyathi 1 amphora = 48 sextarii 1 sextarius = 16 cyathi   In the Price Edict (301), Diocletian priced many items by the MODIUS CASTRENSIS ("camp modius"), equivalent to 1.5 modii.   Greeks measured grain by the MEDIMNOS (25 kilgrs. or 55 lbs.), equal to 6 Roman modii. In Egypt grain was measured by the ARTABA (18.75 kilgrs. or 41.3 lbs.), equal to 4.5 modii. Greeks measured wet capacity by the METRETES, divided into 12 choes = 144 kotylai = 864 kyathoi. The KOTYLE was half of the Roman SEXTARIUS.   In the Principate, an adult male required 4 modii as his monthly ration of wheat, which probably represented two-thirds of his caloric intake (with oil, vegetables, and protein making up the other third). The Roman soldier was allotted 1 cyathus (1/16 sextarius) of olive oil and 1 to 2 sextarii of wine per day. A peasant family of four consumed an annual minimum of 120 modii of wheat, 120 sextarii of olive oil, and possibly 720 sextarii of wine (often mixed with vinegar as posca).   MEASURES OF AREA   Romans measured area by the amount ploughed in a day by a yoke of oxen. Land was reckoned by the IUGERUM (28,000 square Roman feet or 5/8 of an acre). A farm of 10 iugera (5-6 acres or 2.5 hectares) could provide a plebian family of most of its annual subsistence needs. In Egypt, land was measured by the AROURA (equal to 1.1 iugera).   MEASURES OF DISTANCE   Romans measured distance by the mile, mille passuum ("one thousand of paces"), equivalent to 1,620 English yards or 92% of the English mile. 1 Roman mile = 1,000 paces (passus) = 5,000 feet (pedes). An average day's march for a Roman army was 15 to 17 miles; a forced march (magnum iter) was 20 to 25 miles. GREEK PROVINCIAL AND CIVIC CURRENCY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE   In the Greek-speaking East, provincial and city mints struck traditional currency based on a silver drachma. Each drachma was divided into six obols; each obol was in turn divided into 8 chalci. The exchange was 1 drachma = 6 obols = 48 chalci. In the Classical age, the Greeks minted silver drachmae and obols, along with their multiples and fractions of the drachma or obol. Since weight standards varied throughout the Greek world, the weight of the drachma varied from city to city. In the second century B.C., the Greeks cities also created a base metal fractional currency premised on either a bronze obol or, in Egypt, a bronze drachma. The result was a bewildering array of local silver and bronze coins in the Roman East. The major currency systems were as follows:   1. ATTIC STANDARD, the international standard of the Greek world, based on a silver drachma of Athens that was equal to the Roman denarius. Greek authors cite large sums of money in Attic drachmae rather than Roman denarii or sestertii. The following silver denominations were minted in the Roman age:   Tetradrachma = 4 drachmae Tridrachma = 3 drachmae Didrachma = 2 drachmae Drachma = 1 drachma Hemidrachma = 1/2 drachma   The Attic standard was used in Greece, Macedon, eastern and southern Asia Minor (Lycia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia), and the southern Levant (Phoenicia, Judaea, Arabia). In the Near East silver coins of Attic weight were called "silver of the standard of Tyre," the Phoenician port famed for her trade coins, the silver tetradrachmae with the striding eagle. Judas received Tyrian tetradrachmae as his thirty pieces of silver. Most cities minted bronze fractions based on an obol (1/6 of a denarius) that stood in no convenient relationship to Roman base metal coins. Large bronze didrachmae and drachmae were struck as proxies for silver coins, but cities usually minted a wide array multiples and fractions of the obol and chalcus.   2. CISTOPHORIC STANDARD. This was based on a silver drachma that was only 75% the weight of the denarius; the standard was used in Crete, Rhodes, western Asia Minor (Asia, Bithynia, and Pamphylia), and in northern Syria (where it was called the Antiochene standard). The most famed silver coins of this standard were silver cistophori (= 3 denarii) struck by the Asian cities of Pergamum and Ephesus, and tetradrachmae (= 3 denarii) of Antioch in Syria. Fractional bronze coins were based on a bronze obol that was exchanged against 2 Roman asses (or assaria in Greek) so that bronze coins in this system were easily equated to Roman aes.   3. ALEXANDRINE STANDARD. This was the standard of Alexandria, capital of Egypt. Initially, the Romans employed Ptolemaic regal coins: the bronze obol and drachma, and low grade silver tetradrachma tariffed at 1.5 denarii. In 41/2 A.D. Claudius introduced tetradrachmae (four drachmae pieces) minted from billon, an alloy less than 25% silver, and equal to 1 silver denarius. Bronze fractions were based on the drachma and obol. Egyptian provincial coins were thus FIDUCIARY so that Roman authorities enforced them as the sole legal tender and excluded all other coins, especially gold and silver coins. The exchange was 1 billon tetradrachma = 4 bronze drachmae = 24 bronze obols. In Roman tax collection, premiums were charged on payments in bronze so that the tetradrachma was often exchanged at rates of 25 to 29 obols.         WAGES AND PRICES IN THE ROMAN WORLD (c. 50 B.C.-235 A.D.)     WAGES. Roman soldiers received top pay for coveted full time employment. The legionary from 46 B.C. to 84 A.D. received a daily wage of 10 asses or 225 denarii per year; Praetorian guardsmen received 2 denarii per day or 720 denarii per year. Domitian raised legionary annual pay by one-third to 300 denarii. Septimius Severus in 195 and Caracalla in 215 raised the annual pay to 400 and 600 denarii respectively.   Pompeian laborers in 50 B.C.-79 A.D. earned daily wages of 5 to 16 asses, but employment was seasonal. In the second century A.D. skilled miners in Dacia earned 6 to 10 asses per day plus room and board when hired on 6 or 8 month contracts.   PRICES. The best index of the purchasing power of salaries comes from the price of grain, which represented two-thirds to three-quarters of the caloric intake of an adult male. Prices suffered regional and seasonal fluctuations, but averages were as follows:   Rome 1 modius 1 to 1.5 denarii Italy 1 modius 1 denarius Asia Minor 1 modius ½ to 1 denarius Africa 1 modius 6 asses to 1 denarius Egypt[1] 1 modius ½ denarius   The market price of an adult male's annual need of grain, 60 modii, was 60 denarii in Italy or 26.7% of the annual salary of a legionary. A peasant family of four required annually 150 modii of grain priced in the market at two-thirds of the annual salary of a legionary. Aristocratic patrons during festivals in Italian and African towns handed out sportula to poorer citizens at the rate of 1/2 or 1 denarius per man. Each citizen could thus buy 20-25% of his monthly needs for grain.   In Italy, 2 copper asses (1/8 denarius) bought the minimum daily dietary needs so that 45 to 50 denarii per year was the subsistence wage. In Asia Minor and Syria, the equivalent price for daily need was one 1 bronze obol (= 2 assaria). Market wardens (agoranomoi) of Ephesus in 150-200 A.D. fixed prices for 1 pound of wheat bread (capable of feeding an adult male) at 2 to 4 bronze obols (= 1/4 to 1/2 denarius). [1]Price expressed as 1 artaba of wheat at 2 tetradrachmae. 
web-archive-org-580	----	Marcus aurelius | Define Marcus aurelius at Dictionary.com success fail May DEC Apr 28 2017 2018 2020 14 captures 08 Nov 2016 - 13 Apr 2021 About this capture COLLECTED BY Organization: Internet Archive These crawls are part of an effort to archive pages as they are created and archive the pages that they refer to. That way, as the pages that are referenced are changed or taken from the web, a link to the version that was live when the page was written will be preserved. Then the Internet Archive hopes that references to these archived pages will be put in place of a link that would be otherwise be broken, or a companion link to allow people to see what was originally intended by a page's authors. The goal is to fix all broken links on the web. Crawls of supported "No More 404" sites. Collection: Wikipedia Near Real Time (from IRC) This is a collection of web page captures from links added to, or changed on, Wikipedia pages. The idea is to bring a reliability to Wikipedia outlinks so that if the pages referenced by Wikipedia articles are changed, or go away, a reader can permanently find what was originally referred to. This is part of the Internet Archive's attempt to rid the web of broken links. TIMESTAMPS The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20181228082840/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/marcus-aurelius Dictionary.com Word of the Day Crossword Solver Everything After Z Thesaurus.com Dictionary.com Thesaurus.com Try Our Apps definitions Search synonyms Marcus Aurelius [aw-ree-lee-uh s, aw-reel-yuh s] noun Marcus Annius Verus, a.d. 121–180, Stoic philosopher and writer: emperor of Rome 161–180. Explore Dictionary.com Don't Be Accident Porn And Other Hilarious Typos Can You Translate These Famous Phrases From Emoji? These Are the Longest Words in English These Are the Saddest Phrases in English Show More Also called Mar·cus Aure·lius An·to·ni·nus [an-tuh-nahy-nuh s] /ˌæn təˈnaɪ nəs/. Aurelius [aw-ree-lee-uh s, aw-reel-yuh s] noun Marcus. Marcus Aurelius. Show More Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2018 British Dictionary definitions for marcus aureliusAurelius noun See Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Show More Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 marcus aurelius in CultureMarcus Aurelius [(aw-ree-lee-uhs)] A Stoic philosopher and emperor of Rome in the second century a.d. He is best known for his Meditations, a philosophical autobiography that is a classic work of personal writing and a remarkable exposition on Stoicism. Show More The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Others Are Reading Word of the Day smackeroo Words We Get Wrong: How Many of These Can You Say? Did You Know Real People Write the Dictionary? Browse the Dictionary: # A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Browse by Category: Slang Emoji Acronyms Pop Culture More About | Cookies, Terms, & Privacy © 2018 Dictionary.com, LLC 
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These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DAE%2B1972%2C%2B00657%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=AE+1972,+00657&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223919",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Bild('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=$AP_RMD-01_00055.jpg')\">RMD-01, 00055 = AE 1972, 00657</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=$AP_RMD-01_00055.jpg" target="_blank">RMD-01, 00055 = AE 1972, 00657</a></noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/partner.php?param=B1878;HD009970" target="_blank"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/epi-button.jpg" alt="" border="0"></a> <br> <b> Province: </b> Galatia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Konya / Iconium&latitude=37.877590&longitude=32.481770')\">Konya / Iconium</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223919/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Konya / Iconium&amp;latitude=37.877590&amp;longitude=32.481770" target="_blank">Konya / Iconium</a></noscript> <br> [I]mp(erator) Caes(ar) divi Hadriani f(ilius) divi Traiani / Part(hici) nep(os) divi Nervae pron(epos) T(itus) Aelius Ha/drianus Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius pont(ifex) / max(imus) trib(unicia) pot(estate) XXIV imp(erator) II co(n)s(ul) IV p(ater) p(atriae) / equitib(us) et peditibus qui milit(averunt) in al(is) / II quae appell(antur) I Cl(audia) nova miscell(anea) et / Gallor(um) Flavian(a) et coh(ortibus) X V Gallor(um) et / Pann(oniorum) et V Hisp(anorum) et I Montanor(um) et I / Antioch(iensium) sag(ittariorum) et I Cret(um) et III Campes/tr(is) et II Gall(orum) et III Britt(onum) vet(eranorum) et I Aug(usta) / Lusitan(orum) et I Pann(oniorum) vet(eranorum) et sunt in / Moesia super(iore) sub Statio Prisco / leg(ato) quinq(ue) et viginti stipend(iis) / emerit(is) dimiss(is) honest(a) mission(e) quor(um) nomin(a) subscript(a) sunt / civitat(em) Roman(am) qui eor(um) non ha/ber(ent) ded(it) et conub(ium) cum uxorib(us) quas / tunc habuiss(ent) cum est civit(as) is dat(a) / aut eum is quas postea duxiss(ent) dum/tax(at) singulis a(nte) d(iem) VI Id(us) Febr(uarias) / M(arco) Annio Libone Q(uinto) Numisio Iuniore c(o)ns(ulibus) / coh(ors) V Hispanor(um) cui praest / Pacideius Carpianus / ex decurione / Volsingo Gai f(ilio) Dard(ano) / descript(um) et recognit(um) ex tabul(a) ae(nea) / quae fix(a) est Rom(ae) in mur(o) post tem(plum) / divi Aug(usti) ad Minervam // [I]mp(erator) Caes(ar) divi Hadriani f(ilius) divi Traiani / Part(hici) nep(os) divi Nervae pron(epos) T(itus) Aelius Ha/drianus Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius pont(ifex) / max(imus) trib(unicia) pot(estate) XXIV imp(erator) II co(n)s(ul) IV p(ater) p(atriae) / equitib(us) et peditibus qui milit(averunt) in al(is) / II quae appell(antur) I Cl(audia) nova miscell(anea) et / Gallor(um) Flavian(a) et coh(ortibus) X V Gallor(um) et / Pann(oniorum) et V Hisp(anorum) et I Montanor(um) et I / Antioch(iensium) sag(ittariorum) et I Cret(um) et III Campes/tr(is) et II Gall(orum) et III Britt(onum) vet(eranorum) et I Aug(usta) / Lusitan(orum) et I Pann(oniorum) vet(eranorum) et sunt in / Moesia super(iore) sub Statio Prisco / leg(ato) quinq(ue) et viginti stipend(iis) / emerit(is) dimiss(is) honest(a) mission(e) quor(um) nomin(a) subscript(a) sunt / civitat(em) Roman(am) qui eor(um) non ha/ber(ent) ded(it) et conub(ium) cum uxorib(us) quas / tunc habuiss(ent) cum est civit(as) is dat(a) / aut eum is quas postea duxiss(ent) d(umta)/x(at) singulis a(nte) d(iem) VI Id(us) Febr(uarias) / M(arco) Annio Libone Q(uinto) Numisio Iuniore c(o)ns(ulibus) / coh(ors) V Hispanor(um) cui pra(e)est / Pacideius Carpianus / ex decurione / Volsingo Gai f(ilio) Dard(ano) / descript(um) et recognit(um) ex tabul(a) ae(nea) / quae fix(a) est Rom(ae) in mur(o) post tem(plum) / divi Aug(usti) ad Minervam <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:39:19 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:21 Jun 14, 2021. 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These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01097&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DD%2B01097%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=D+01097&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223850",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Bild('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=PH0000063;PH0000061;PH0000062')\">CIL 02-05, 00950 = CIL 02, 01457 (p 702) = D 01097 = CILA-02-04, 01139</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/uah-bilder.php?bild=PH0000063;PH0000061;PH0000062" target="_blank">CIL 02-05, 00950 = CIL 02, 01457 (p 702) = D 01097 = CILA-02-04, 01139</a></noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/partner.php?param=HD031292" target="_blank"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223850im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/epi-button.jpg" alt="" border="0"></a> <br> <b> Province: </b> Baetica&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> El Hachillo / Olaurum <br> D(is) M(anibus) s(acrum) / Ignatia / Assata / annor(um) / XXIII pia / in suis / hi&lt;c=S&gt; s(ita) es(t) / s(it) t(ibi) t(erra) l(evis) <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:38:50 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:23 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 178.861 exclusion.robots: 0.21 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.203 RedisCDXSource: 1.667 esindex: 0.008 LoadShardBlock: 154.959 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 1121.259 (4) CDXLines.iter: 19.477 (3) load_resource: 2980.915 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 1915.501 --> 
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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120720081335/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="08:13:35 Jul 20, 2012"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/toolbar/wm_tb_nxt_on.png" alt="Next capture" width="14" height="16" border="0" /></a></td> </tr> <!-- NEXT/PREV YEAR NAV AND YEAR INDICATOR --> <tr class="y"> <td class="b" nowrap="nowrap">2011</td> <td class="c" id="displayYearEl" title="You are here: 22:40:54 Apr 29, 2012">2012</td> <td class="f" nowrap="nowrap"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925083039/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="25 Sep 2015"><strong>2015</strong></a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="s"> <div id="wm-nav-captures"> <a class="t" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">7 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 06 Aug 2016</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-6195.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-6195.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DCIL%2B06%2C%2B00379%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+06,+00379&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429224054",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 06, 00379 (p 3005, 3756) = CIL 01, 00990 (p 965) = ILLRP 00186 (p 321) = D 03038 = AE 1991, 00081 <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224054/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> C(aius) Volcaci(us) C(ai) f(ilius) har(uspex) de stipe Iovi Iurario [3 m]onimentom <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:40:54 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:22 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 216.153 exclusion.robots: 0.162 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.155 RedisCDXSource: 5.062 esindex: 0.004 LoadShardBlock: 192.702 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 129.887 (4) CDXLines.iter: 16.346 (3) load_resource: 174.404 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 142.471 --> 
web-archive-org-7284	----	Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column // CurateND success fail Apr MAY Aug 22 2019 2020 2021 5 captures 22 May 2020 - 13 Apr 2021 About this capture COLLECTED BY Collection: Wikipedia Eventstream TIMESTAMPS The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20200522142047/https://curate.nd.edu/show/ft848p61g5s University of Notre Dame Hesburgh Libraries Search CurateND Search CurateND Search About About Terms of Service Governing Policies FAQ Log In FAQ Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column Image Click to Expand Description Roman victory column, with a spiral relief, built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and modeled on Trajan’s Column. Because the original dedicatory inscription has been destroyed, it is not known whether it was built during the emperor’s reign (on the occasion of the triumph over the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians in the year 176) or after his death in 180; however, an inscription found in the vicinity attests that the column was completed by 193. As with Trajan’s column, there is an interior stairway. About 3 metres of the base have been below ground level since 1589 when, by order of pope Sixtus V, the whole column was restored by Domenico Fontana and adapted to the ground level of that time. Also a bronze statue of the apostle St. Paul was placed on the top platform, to go with that of St. Peter on Trajan’s Column (27 October 1588). (Originally the top platform probably had a statue of Marcus Aurelius, but it had been already lost by the 16th century.) Attributes Attribute Name Values Alternate Title Columna Centenaria Divorum Marci et Faustinae Creator G. Massiot & cie Subject Columns Architecture Date Created 1910-01-01 Date Digitized 2007-01-01 Cultural Context Roman (ancient Italian style) Imperial (Roman) Place of Creation Rome, Lazio, Italy: Piazza Colonna in front of Palazzo Chigi Rome +41.900833+12.479861 Departments and Units University of Notre DameHesburgh LibrariesGeneral Member of Architectural Lantern Slides of Italy Temporal Coverage before or circa 1910 Record Visibility Public Content License Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 Collections Collections Featuring this Image Architectural Lantern Slides of Italy Files Thumbnail File Name Description Size Type File Access Actions Please Note: You may encounter a delay before a download begins. Large or infrequently accessed files can take several minutes to retrieve from our archival storage system. Italy-Rome-column-Marcus-Aurelius.jpg 617 KB image/jpeg Public Begin Download View Details image_1155.xml 5.05 KB text/xml Public Begin Download View Details Italy-Rome-column-Marcus-Aurelius.tif 331 MB image/tiff Public Begin Download View Details 1 - 3 of 3 CurateND is a service of the Hesburgh Libraries of Notre Dame. Questions? Contact the CurateND Support team at curate@nd.edu. Help Copyright © 2020 University of Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Hesburgh Libraries 
web-archive-org-7486	----	How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius - Donald Robertson - Βιβλία Google success fail Apr AUG May 04 2018 2019 2020 8 captures 06 Apr 2019 - 04 Mar 2021 About this capture COLLECTED BY Collection: Media Cloud TIMESTAMPS The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20190804171626/https://books.google.gr/books?id=xGBbDwAAQBAJ Αναζήτηση Εικόνες Χάρτες Play YouTube Ειδήσεις Gmail Drive Περισσότερα Ημερολόγιο Μετάφραση Για κινητά Blogger Φωτογραφίες Έγγραφα Ακόμα περισσότερα » Account Options Είσοδος Βιβλία Η βιβλιοθήκη μου Βοήθεια Σύνθετη Αναζήτηση Βιβλίων Αγορά eBook - 14,99 $ Λήψη αυτού του βιβλίου σε έντυπη μορφή Macmillan Ελευθερουδάκης Παπασωτηρίου Εύρεση σε κάποια βιβλιοθήκη Όλοι οι πωλητές » How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Donald Robertson St. Martin's Press, 2 Απρ 2019 - 256 σελίδες 1 Κριτική "This book is a wonderful introduction to one of history's greatest figures: Marcus Aurelius. His life and this book are a clear guide for those facing adversity, seeking tranquility and pursuing excellence." —Ryan Holiday, bestselling author of The Obstacle is the Way and The Daily Stoic The life-changing principles of Stoicism taught through the story of its most famous proponent. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius was the last famous Stoic philosopher of the ancient world. The Meditations, his personal journal, survives to this day as one of the most loved self-help and spiritual classics of all time. In How to Think Like a Roman Emperor, cognitive psychotherapist Donald Robertson weaves the life and philosophy of Marcus Aurelius together seamlessly to provide a compelling modern-day guide to the Stoic wisdom followed by countless individuals throughout the centuries as a path to achieving greater fulfillment and emotional resilience. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor takes readers on a transformative journey along with Marcus, following his progress from a young noble at the court of Hadrian—taken under the wing of some of the finest philosophers of his day—through to his reign as emperor of Rome at the height of its power. Robertson shows how Marcus used philosophical doctrines and therapeutic practices to build emotional resilience and endure tremendous adversity, and guides readers through applying the same methods to their own lives. Combining remarkable stories from Marcus’s life with insights from modern psychology and the enduring wisdom of his philosophy, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor puts a human face on Stoicism and offers a timeless and essential guide to handling the ethical and psychological challenges we face today.   Προεπισκόπηση αυτού του βιβλίου » Τι λένε οι χρήστες - Σύνταξη κριτικής How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Κριτική χρηστών  - www.publishersweekly.comThis look at Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180) and his reign provides an illuminating study of the principles of Stoic philosophy, to which Aurelius was an adherent, within the framework of ... Ανάγνωση ολόκληρης της κριτικής LibraryThing Review Κριτική χρηστών  - GShuk - www.librarything.comEntertaining while learning about history and stoicism from a cognitive behavior perspective. Ανάγνωση ολόκληρης της κριτικής Επιλεγμένες σελίδες Σελίδα Τίτλου Πίνακας περιεχομένων Ευρετήριο Αναφορές Περιεχόμενα Introduction 1 The Dead Emperor 17 The Most Truthful Child in Rome 45 Contemplating the Sage 83 The Choice of Hercules 113 Grasping the Nettle 155 The Inner Citadel and War of Many Nations 187 Temporary Madness 217 Death and the View from Above 253 Acknowledgments 271 Πνευματικά δικαιώματα Άλλες εκδόσεις - Προβολή όλων How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Donald Robertson Περιορισμένη προεπισκόπηση - 2019 Συχνά εμφανιζόμενοι όροι και φράσεις accept actions ancient anger angry Antonine Plague Antoninus anxiety Apollonius Arrian Avidius Cassius become behavior called Cassius Dio Cassius’s catastrophic character cognitive therapy Commodus contemplate cope Cynic death described desire Diogenes Diogenes the Cynic Discourses emotional emperor endure Epictetus Epictetus’s Epicurus example exercise external things face fear feelings friends Fronto gain cognitive distance Galen goal Greek habits Hadrian happen harm Hercules Historia Augusta imagine important indifference legionaries legions looking Lucius Lucius’s man’s Marcomannic Marcomannic War Marcus Aurelius Marcus says Marcus tells Marcus’s Meditations mentor mind natural ourselves pain and illness passions people’s perhaps person philoso pleasure psychotherapy reminds reserve clause resilience rhetoric role model Roman Rome Sarmatians sensations situation Socrates someone sort Stoic philosophy Stoicism strategies suffering taught techniques therapists therapy There’s tion turn tutor unhealthy value judgments Verus what’s wisdom and virtue worry Zeno Σχετικά με τον συγγραφέα (2019) DONALD ROBERTSON is a cognitive-behavioral psychotherapist, trainer, and writer. He was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, and after living in England and working in London for many years, he emigrated to Canada where he now lives. Robertson has been researching Stoicism and applying it in his work for twenty years. He is one of the founding members of the non-profit organization Modern Stoicism. Πληροφορίες βιβλιογραφίας Τίτλος How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Συγγραφέας Donald Robertson Εκδότης St. Martin's Press, 2019 ISBN 1250196639, 9781250196637 Μέγεθος 256 σελίδες     Εξαγωγή αναφοράς BiBTeX EndNote RefMan Σχετικά με τα Βιβλία Google - Πολιτική απορρήτου - Όροι Παροχής Υπηρεσιών - Πληροφορίες για Εκδότες - Αναφορά προβλήματος - Βοήθεια - Google Αρχική σελίδα 
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<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 06, 01523 (p 3805, 4709) = RHP 00162 = D 01092 = IDRE-01, 00009 <br> <b> Province: </b> Roma&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&latitude=41.895466&longitude=12.482324')\">Roma</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429224111/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Roma&amp;latitude=41.895466&amp;longitude=12.482324" target="_blank">Roma</a></noscript> <br> [M(arco) Stati]o M(arci) f(ilio) Cl(audia) Prisco / [L]icinio Italico leg(ato) Augustorum / pr(o) pr(aetore) prov(inciae) Cappadociae leg(ato) Aug[g(ustorum)] / pr(o) pr(aetore) prov(inciae) Brittanniae leg(ato) Aug[g(ustorum)] / pr(o) pr(aetore) prov(inciae) Moesiae super(ioris) curato[ri] / alvei Tiberis et cl(o)acarum urbis c[o(n)s(uli)] / leg(ato) Aug(usti) prov(inciae) Daciae leg(ato) leg(ionis) XIII G(eminae) P(iae) F(idelis) leg(ato) leg(ionis) / [X]IIII Gem(inae) Martiae Victricis sacerdoti Titiali / [Fl]aviali pr(aetori) inter cives et peregrinos tr(ibuno) pl(ebis) quaes[t(ori)] / proc(uratori) Aug(usti) XX hereditatium prov(inciarum) Narbone(n)s(is) et Aquita[n(iae)] / [p]r(aefecto) eq(uitum) alae I pr(aetoriae) c(ivium) R(omanorum) trib(uno) mil(itum) leg(ionis) I Adiutr(icis) P(iae) F(idelis) et leg(ionis) X G(eminae) P(iae) [F(idelis)] / [e]t leg(ionis) [III] Gallicae praef(ecto) coh(ortis) IIII Lingonum vexillo mi[liti] / [d]onato a divo Hadriano in expeditione Iudaic[a] / Q(uintus) Cassius Domitius Palumbus <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:41:11 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:21 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): esindex: 0.018 LoadShardBlock: 334.491 (3) exclusion.robots: 0.271 PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 312.473 (4) captures_list: 579.985 RedisCDXSource: 215.551 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 32.811 load_resource: 84.35 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.26 CDXLines.iter: 25.093 (3) --> 
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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">8 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 21 Feb 2017</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-9178.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-9178.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DCIL%2B08%2C%2B07050%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07050&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223837",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b> CIL 08, 07050 (p 1848) = CIG 05366 = D 01102 = ILAlg-02-01, 00634</a></noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/partner.php?param=HD030970" target="_blank"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/epi-button.jpg" alt="" border="0"></a> <br> <b> Province: </b> Numidia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Constantine / Cirta&latitude=36.362900&longitude=6.608700')\">Constantine / Cirta</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223837/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Constantine / Cirta&amp;latitude=36.362900&amp;longitude=6.608700" target="_blank">Constantine / Cirta</a></noscript> <br> [P(ublio) I]ulio P(ubli) fil(io) Quir(ina) / [Ge]minio Marciano / [co(n)s(uli)] sodali Titio proco(n)s(uli) provin/[cia]e Macedoniae leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) pro pr(aetore) / [pr]ovinciae Arabiae leg(ato) Augg(ustorum) su/[per] vexillationes in Cappa/[do]cia leg(ato) Aug(usti) leg(ionis) X Geminae / [leg(ato)] pro pr(aetore) provinc(iae) Africae / [pr]aetori trib(uno) pleb(is) quaestori / [tr]ibuno laticlavio leg(ionis) X / [Fr]etensis et leg(ionis) IIII Scy/[th]icae IIIviro kapitali / [op]timo constantissimo / [1 D]urmius Felix primi/[pi]laris leg(ionis) III Cyren&lt;a=E&gt;icae / [st]rator in Arabica maioris / [te]mporis legationis eius / [h]on(oris) causa d(ecurionum) d(ecreto) <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:38:37 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:21 Jun 14, 2021. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 516.043 exclusion.robots: 0.361 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.348 RedisCDXSource: 8.029 esindex: 0.016 LoadShardBlock: 480.983 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 248.292 (4) CDXLines.iter: 22.329 (3) load_resource: 98.758 PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 47.385 --> 
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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843*/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle" title="See a list of every capture for this URL">8 captures</a> <div class="r" title="Timespan for captures of this URL">29 Apr 2012 - 22 Feb 2017</div> </div> </td> <td class="k"> <a href="web-archive-org-9365.html" id="wm-graph-anchor"> <div id="wm-ipp-sparkline" title="Explore captures for this URL" style="position: relative"> <canvas id="wm-sparkline-canvas" width="650" height="27" border="0"></canvas> </div> </a> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="position:absolute;bottom:0;right:2px;text-align:right;"> <a id="wm-expand" class="wm-btn wm-closed" href="web-archive-org-9365.html#expand" onclick="__wm.ex(event);return false;"><span id="wm-expand-icon" class="iconochive-down-solid"></span> <span style="font-size:80%">About this capture</span></a> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo" style="border-top:1px solid #777;display:none; overflow: hidden"> <div id="wm-capinfo-collected-by"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">COLLECTED BY</div> <div style="padding:3px;position:relative" id="wm-collected-by-content"> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:50%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/webwidecrawl);"></span> Organization: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/webwidecrawl" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Internet Archive</span></a> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the <a href="http://archive.org/web/web.php">Wayback Machine</a>. </div> </div> <div style="display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;width:49%;"> <span class="c-logo" style="background-image:url(https://archive.org/services/img/wikipediaoutlinks00003)"></span> <div>Collection: <a style="color:#33f;" href="https://archive.org/details/wikipediaoutlinks00003" target="_new"><span class="wm-title">Wikipedia Outlinks February 2012</span></a></div> <div style="max-height:75px;overflow:hidden;position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:75px;background:linear-gradient(to bottom,rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%,rgba(255,255,255,0) 90%,rgba(255,255,255,255) 100%);"></div> Crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started February, 2012. These files are currently not publicly accessible. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="wm-capinfo-timestamps"> <div style="background-color:#666;color:#fff;font-weight:bold;text-align:center" title="Timestamps for the elements of this page">TIMESTAMPS</div> <div> <div id="wm-capresources" style="margin:0 5px 5px 5px;max-height:250px;overflow-y:scroll !important"></div> <div id="wm-capresources-loading" style="text-align:left;margin:0 20px 5px 5px;display:none"><img src="https://web.archive.org/_static/images/loading.gif" alt="loading" /></div> </div> </div> </div></div></div></div><div id="wm-ipp-print">The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&amp;r_sortierung=Belegstelle</div> <div id="donato" style="position:relative;width:100%;"> <div id="donato-base"> <iframe id="donato-if" src="https://archive.org/includes/donate.php?as_page=1&amp;platform=wb&amp;referer=https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http%3A//oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888/epigr/epieinzel_en%3Fp_belegstelle%3DCIL%2B08%2C%2B07051%26r_sortierung%3DBelegstelle" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="width:100%; height:100%"> </iframe> </div> </div><script type="text/javascript"> __wm.bt(650,27,25,2,"web","http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=CIL+08,+07051&r_sortierung=Belegstelle","20120429223843",1996,"/_static/",["/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=omkqRugM","/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=qtvMKcIJ"], false); __wm.rw(1); </script> <!-- END WAYBACK TOOLBAR INSERT --> <link rel="SHORTCUT ICON" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/favicon.ico"> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Fenster(URL) { window.open(URL,"Orte","width=660,height=500,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=no") } //--> </script> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- function Neues_Bild(URL) { window.open(URL,"Belegstelle","width=750,height=620,screenX=100,screenY=100,scrollbars=yes") } //--> </script> <table border="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="17%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/mc.gif" border="0" align="center" valign="top"></td> <td width="66%" align="center"> <h1> Epigraphik-Datenbank &nbsp;Clauss / Slaby <br> EDCS </h1> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_de"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/de.png" width="16" height="11" alt="deutsch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_es"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/es.png" width="16" height="11" alt="spanisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_it"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/it.png" width="16" height="11" alt="italienisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_fr"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/fr.png" width="16" height="11" alt="französisch" border="0"></a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843im_/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/gb.png" width="16" height="11" alt="englisch" border="0"></a> </td> <td align="left" width="17%">&rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">Search database</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikkl_en">Search entries:<br> wrong spelling / no solutions </a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphikbeleg_en">Issuing by corpora</a><br><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://www.manfredclauss.de/gb/hinweis.html">Advice</a><br> &rarr; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://www.manfredclauss.de/abkuerz.html">Abbreviations</a><br> </td> </tr> </table> <font color="Black" size="4"> <p> <hr> <p> <h2> Inscriptions found: </h2> <font size="3" face="Times"> <p> <hr> <p> <b> There was found 1 inscription. </b> <p> <hr> <b> Publication: </b>CIL 08, 07051 (p 965, 1848) = D 01103 = ILAlg-02-01, 00635 = AE 1915, 00039 <br> <b> Province: </b> Numidia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <b> Place: </b> <script language="JavaScript"> <!-- document.writeln("<a href=\"javascript:Neues_Fenster('https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Constantine / Cirta&latitude=36.362900&longitude=6.608700')\">Constantine / Cirta</a>");//--></script><noscript> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429223843/http://www1.ku.de/epigr/map.php?ort=Constantine / Cirta&amp;latitude=36.362900&amp;longitude=6.608700" target="_blank">Constantine / Cirta</a></noscript> <br> "GR" <p> </font> <p> </font> </body> <!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 22:38:43 Apr 29, 2012 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 16:47:22 Jun 14, 2021. 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wuu-wikipedia-org-849	----	马可·奥勒留 - 维基百科 马可·奥勒留 吴语维基百科，自由个百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 马可·奥勒留（拉丁语：Marcus Aurelius，121年4月26号－180年3月17号），全名为马可·奥勒留·安敦宁·奥古斯都（拉丁语：Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[注 1]）。是罗马帝国五贤帝时代最后一个皇帝，拥有凯撒称号（拉丁语：Imperator Caesar）。拉161年到至180年在位。有“哲学家皇帝”个美誉。 取自“https://wuu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=马可·奥勒留&oldid=253049” 导航菜单 私人家伙 呒不登录 讲张 贡献 建账号 登录 名字空间 文章 讨论 变量 视图 阅读 编辑 望历史 更多 搜寻 导航 封面 社区门堂 近段辰光个事体 近段辰光个改动 随机页面 帮忙 捐款 家生 链进来点啥 搭界个改动 上传文件 特别页面 老世链接 页面信息 引用箇篇文章 维基数据项 打印/导出 创建书本 作为PDF下载 打印版 别个项目里向 维基共享资源 别样闲话版本 Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 编辑链接 箇只页面阿末趟编辑来拉2019年7月5号 (五) 19:25。 文字内容采用知识共享“署名-相同方式共享”许可协议授权；作兴会应用附加条款。详情见使用条款。 隐私政策 有关维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明 
www-bncatalogo-cl-9453	----	C.Colect. Autoridade - Full View of Record Otros Catálogos Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Congreso Nacional de Chile Universidad Católica de Chile Ayuda Sugerencias Información Nueva Búsqueda | Búsquedas Anteriores | Lista de Resultados     Solicitud de Título  |  Agregar a mi Canasta  |  Reservar  |  Guardar o Enviar Vista Completa del Registro Escoger Formato: Formato Estandar No. Sistema   000166929 Formato   AU Encab. establecido   Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Término no usado   Marcus Aurelius, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Aurelius Marcus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Marcus Antoninus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Antoninus Marcus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180   Marco Aurelio Antonio, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Fuente c/datos   Su: Meditaciones   Gran Enc. Larousse, 1967, v.6, p.959 Datos Biograf./His.   Filósofo romano, emperador de Roma, n. en Roma en 121 y m. en Vindobona en 180 Propietario   BCN Escoja Formato: Formato Estandar Etiquetas MARC Condiciones de Uso: Obligación de citar la fuente en el proceso de inserción de los registros en... Leer más 
www-dictionary-com-2432	----	Marcus aurelius | Definition of Marcus aurelius at Dictionary.com DICTIONARY.COM THESAURUS.COM MEANINGS MEANINGS Emoji Slang Acronyms Pop Culture Memes Gender and Sexuality Mixed-up Meanings GAMES GAMES Quizzes Crossword Solver Scrabble Word Finder Words With Friends Cheat Daily Crossword Puzzle LEARN LEARN Online Tutors New Words Trending Words All About English Science and Technology Literature and Arts Word Lists WRITING WRITING Grammar Coach Writing Prompts Grammar 101 Writing Tips Ways to Say It Better WORD OF THE DAY WORD OF THE DAY Word of the Day Synonym of the Day Word of the Year Word Lists Account Settings Subscriptions Help Center Sign Out DEFINITIONS SYNONYMS Search MEANINGS MEANINGS Emoji Slang Acronyms Pop Culture Memes Gender and Sexuality Mixed-up Meanings GAMES GAMES Quizzes Crossword Solver Scrabble Word Finder Words With Friends Cheat Daily Crossword Puzzle LEARN LEARN Online Tutors New Words Trending Words All About English Science and Technology Literature and Arts Word Lists WRITING WRITING Grammar Coach Writing Prompts Grammar 101 Writing Tips Ways to Say It Better WORD OF THE DAY WORD OF THE DAY Word of the Day Synonym of the Day Word of the Year Top Definitions Quizzes Examples Cultural Marcus Aurelius [ aw-ree-lee-uhs, aw-reel-yuhs ]SHOW IPA / ɔˈri li əs, ɔˈril yəs /PHONETIC RESPELLING New Word List Word List Save This Word! noun Marcus Annius Verus, a.d. 121–180, Stoic philosopher and writer: emperor of Rome 161–180. QUIZZES DO A DOUBLE TAKE ON THIS QUIZ ON CONTRONYMS Look both ways before you take this quiz on contronyms, or words that can have opposite meanings. Question 1 of 7 Choose the sentence that uses "rent" correctly. No one wanted to rent the run-down house on the corner. His rent was so loud that people the next block over could hear it. I had rent the apartment from an eccentric old lady. TAKE THE QUIZ TO FIND OUT Meet Grammar Coach Improve Your Writing Meet Grammar Coach Improve Your Writing Also called Mar·cus Aure·lius An·to·ni·nus [an-tuh-nahy-nuhs]. /ˌæn təˈnaɪ nəs/. Words nearby Marcus Aurelius Marconi mast, Marconi rig, Marco Polo, Marcos, Marcus, Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Baker, Marcuse, Marcus Gunn phenomenon, Marcus Gunn's sign Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2021 Example sentences from the Web for Marcus Aurelius Italy’s prime minister lives in the Palazzo Chigi, an imposing structure with a direct view of one of Rome’s ancient treasures, the Column of Marcus Aurelius. Friends, Romans …|Peter Dizikes|April 28, 2021|MIT Technology Review Available at Neiman Marcus Rialto Jeans, $245  These jeans are truly wearable art. The Daily Beast’s 2014 Holiday Gift Guide: For the Angelina Jolie in Your Life|Allison McNearney|November 29, 2014|DAILY BEAST As Dre mulled over how to talk to Andre Jr. (Marcus Scribner) about sex, Pops appeared while his son was stretching. Why ‘Black-ish’ Has a Gay Problem|Tim Teeman|October 3, 2014|DAILY BEAST And as The New York Times reported in May, Marcus Theatres, a chain of movie theaters, has been testing the Spire in Wisconsin. Font of Invention||September 18, 2014|DAILY BEAST Put simply, a scientific consensus has yet to emerge, and Marcus ignored the ongoing debate. Fact-Checking the Sunday Shows: July 27|PunditFact.com|July 27, 2014|DAILY BEAST Marcus is citing a 2012 study from Duke University researchers published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Fact-Checking the Sunday Shows: July 27|PunditFact.com|July 27, 2014|DAILY BEAST Marcus and Farringdon's pure badger, two shillings—gilt-edged badger half-a-crown. First Plays|A. A. Milne Marcus Aurelius was a very useful spring to the vast machine of the Roman Empire. Superstition In All Ages (1732)|Jean Meslier Of the daughters, Terentia Minor married Marcus and became the mother of two children. The Private Life of the Romans|Harold Whetstone Johnston The confusion in this direction is well illustrated by the name of the famous Marcus Junius Brutus. The Private Life of the Romans|Harold Whetstone Johnston There were mothers then, as well as in the times of the Gracchi; there were wives as noble as the wife of Marcus Brutus. The Private Life of the Romans|Harold Whetstone Johnston SEE MORE EXAMPLESSEE FEWER EXAMPLES Explore Dictionary.com What Do “a.m.� And “p.m.� Stand For? Why Do “Left� And “Right� Mean Liberal And Conservative? Arboreal To Zephyrean: 14 Sizzling Words To Enjoy On A Summer Day “Affect� vs. “Effect�: Use The Correct Word Every Time 10 Types Of Pronouns And How To Use Them The Dictionary.com Word Of The Year For 2020 Is … Cultural definitions for Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius [ (aw-ree-lee-uhs) ] A Stoic philosopher and emperor of Rome in the second century a.d. He is best known for his Meditations, a philosophical autobiography that is a classic work of personal writing and a remarkable exposition on Stoicism. The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. WORD OF THE DAY billowverb | [bil-oh ]SEE DEFINITION Others Are Reading The Most Surprisingly Serendipitous Words Of The Day Unfurl These Banner Facts And Words About Flag Day 11 Contronyms You’ve Been Using Without Realizing It “Have� vs. “Has�: When To Use Each One FEEDBACK Browse the Dictionary: # A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Browse by Category: Slang Emoji Acronyms Pop Culture More About Careers Contact Us Cookies, Terms, & Privacy Cookie Settings © 2021 Dictionary.com, LLC 
www-getty-edu-5406	----	ULAN Full Record Display (Getty Research) Research Home Tools Union List of Artist Names Full Record Display Click the icon to view the hierarchy.   Semantic View (JSON, JSONLD, RDF, N3/Turtle, N-Triples) ID: 500115701 Page Link: http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500115701   Record Type: Person Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome (Roman emperor, 121-180 CE) Note: Son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. Best known for his Meditations on Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius has symbolized for many generations in the West the Golden Age of the Roman Empire. Names: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome (preferred,V,display,LC,English-P,NA,U) Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (V)  ....  full name Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome (V) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome (V) Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome (V) Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome (V,English,NA,U) Marc Aurèle, empereur romain (V,French,NA,U) Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma (V,Spanish,NA,U) Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος (V,Greek,NA,U) מארקוס אורליוס (V,Hebrew,NA,U) Marcus Aurelius (V) Marcus Annius Verus (V)  ....  original name, used until 161 CE Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (V)  ....  name as emperor Aurelius, Marcus (V) Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, imperatore romano (V,Italian,NA,U) Nationalities: Ancient Roman (preferred) Roman Imperial Roman Roles: emperor (preferred)  ....  reigned 161-180 CE patron Gender: male Birth and Death Places: Born:  Rome (Roma province, Lazio, Italy) (inhabited place) Died:  Vienna (Vienna state, Austria) (inhabited place) Events: reign:   from 161 CE  Roman Republic and Empire (World) (former nation/state/empire) Related People or Corporate Bodies: adopted child of ....  Antoninus Pius, Emperor of Rome   ............................  (Roman emperor, 86-161 CE) [500115700] adopted child of ....  Faustina, Annia Galeria, Empress, consort of Antoninus Pius   ............................  (Roman empress and consort, ca. 100-140) [500350201] consort was ....  Faustina II, Empress consort of Marcus Aurelius  married in 145 ....................  (Roman empress consort, ca. 125-176) [500087074] successor of ....  Antoninus Pius, Emperor of Rome   ......................  (Roman emperor, 86-161 CE) [500115700] List/Hierarchical Position:  ....  Non-Artists  ........  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome (I) Biographies: (Roman emperor, 121-180 CE) ..... [VP Preferred] (Roman emperor, 121-180) ..... [Grove Art] Additional Names: Sources and Contributors: מארקוס אורליוס ........  [VP] ............................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος ........  [VP] ......................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, imperatore romano ........  [VP] .......................................................................................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) Vatican Library Aurelius, Marcus ........  [Grove Art Preferred, VP] ..................................  Grove Art artist database (1989-) ..................................  Grove Dictionary of Art online (1999-2002) accessed 2 Oct 2002 Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus ........  [VP] .................................................................................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 2 Oct 2002 Marc Aurèle, empereur romain ........  [VP] ........................................................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) National Library of France Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma ........  [VP] ..............................................................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) National Library of Spain Marcus Annius Verus ........  [VP] .......................................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 2 Oct 2002 .......................................  Grove Dictionary of Art online (1999-2002) accessed 2 Oct 2002 Marcus Aurelius ........  [VP] ................................  Coarelli, Rome (1973) 185 ................................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 2 Oct 2002 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ........  [VP] ...................................................  Grove Dictionary of Art online (1999-2002) accessed 2 Oct 2002 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome ........  [VP] .................................................................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome ........  [VP Preferred] ..............................................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) n 80051702 Mark Aurel, Emperor of Rome ........  [VP] ....................................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome ........  [VP] ..................................................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome ........  [VP] ..................................................................  Library of Congress Authorities online (2002-) Subject: ........  [Gallery Systems, Grove Art, VP] ....................  Coarelli, Rome (1973) 185 ....................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 2 Oct 2002 ....................  Gallery Systems (2000-) LOC ID: n80051702 ....................  Getty Vocabulary Program rules ....................  Grove Art artist database (1989-) ....................  Grove Dictionary of Art online (1999-2002) accessed 2 Oct 2002 ....................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) LOC ID: n80051702   Note: English ..........  [VP] ..........  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) The J. Paul Getty Trust © 2004 J. Paul Getty Trust Terms of Use / Privacy Policy / Contact Us   
www-gutenberg-org-4335	----	The Works of Lucian of Samosata — Volume 02 by of Samosata Lucian - Free Ebook Menu▾ About ▾ ▾ About Project Gutenberg Collection Development Contact Us History & Philosophy Permissions & License Privacy Policy Terms of Use Search and Browse ▾ ▾ Book Search Bookshelves Frequently Downloaded Offline Catalogs Help ▾ ▾ All help topics → Copyright Procedures Errata, Fixes and Bug Reports File Formats Frequently Asked Questions Policies → Public Domain eBook Submission Submitting Your Own Work Tablets, Phones and eReaders The Attic → Donate Donation Project Gutenberg 65,538 free ebooks 13 by of Samosata Lucian The Works of Lucian of Samosata — Volume 02 by of Samosata Lucian Download This eBook Format Url Size Read this book online: Generated HTML (no images) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585.html.noimages 561 kB EPUB (no images) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585.epub.noimages 290 kB Kindle (no images) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585.kindle.noimages 1.1 MB Plain Text UTF-8 https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6585.txt.utf-8 531 kB More Files… https://www.gutenberg.org/files/6585/ Similar Books Readers also downloaded… In Precursors of Science Fiction Bibliographic Record Author Lucian, of Samosata, 120-180 Translator Fowler, F. G. (Francis George), 1870-1918 Translator Fowler, H. W. (Henry Watson), 1858-1933 Title The Works of Lucian of Samosata — Volume 02 Language English LoC Class PA: Language and Literatures: Classical Languages and Literature Subject Lucian, of Samosata -- Translations into English Category Text EBook-No. 6585 Release Date Sep 1, 2004 Copyright Status Public domain in the USA. Downloads 56 downloads in the last 30 days. Price $0.00 Privacy policy About Project Gutenberg Terms of Use Contact Information Get Help 
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www-idref-fr-803	----	Marc Aurèle (empereur romain ; 0121-0180) paprika.idref.fr data.idref.fr Documentation Bonjour , Bienvenue sur IdRef, Identifiants et référentiels pour l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. Marc Aurèle (empereur romain ; 0121-0180) Paprika Export bibliographique Exporter en XML Exporter en RDF Améliorer la notice Signaler une erreur Identifiant IdRef : 027008614 Notice de type Personne Point d'accès autorisé Marc Aurèle (empereur romain ; 0121-0180) Variantes de point d'accès Marc-Antonin (empereur romain)[Nom de personne] Marcus Antoninus (empereur romain)[Nom de personne] Mârkos 'Aurī́lios (empereur romain)[Nom de personne] Mârkos 'Aurḗlios (empereur romain)[Nom de personne] Information (par souci de protection des données à caractère personnel, le jour et le mois de naissance peuvent ne pas être affichés) Langue d'expression : Grec ancien Pays : Italie Date de naissance :    0121 Date de mort :    0180 Genre : Masculin Notes Note publique d'information : A aussi écrit en latin Note publique d'information : Empereur romain, philosophe stoi͏̈cien Notices d'autorité liées Autre   Rome , 161-180 (Marc Aurèle) Forme parallele Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (empereur romain ; 0121-0180) Source BN Cat. gén. : Marc-Aurèle. BN Cat. gén. 1960-1969 : Marcus Aurelius. BN Service grec GDEL. Clavis SGL : Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Annius Aurelius Antoninus Imperator. Encycl. Grèce : en polytonique. Encycl. Papyros : en monotonique Marci Aurelii Antonini ad se ipsum Libri XII / ed. Joachim Dalfen, 1987 Autres identifiants Identifiant de notice Sudoc fusionnée : 027400360 Identifiant de notice Sudoc fusionnée : 085780642 Identifiant BNF : FRBNF11914476X Identifiant VIAF : http://viaf.org/viaf/102895066 Identifiant ARK : http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11914476c Identifiant ISNI : 000000011031946X Utilisation dans Rameau Le point d'accès peut être employé dans un point d'accès sujet Le point d'accès ne peut s'employer qu'en élément initial Equivalent dans un autre référentiel Informations sur la notice Identifiant de la notice : 027008614 Dernière modification : 02-03-2020 à 20 h 57 ... Références liées : ... IdRef - Identifiants et Référentiels pour l'ESR L'interface publique IdRef permet la consultation des notices d'autorités produites par les établissements membres des réseaux documentaires de l'ESR (Sudoc, Calames, Star). IdRef est à la disposition des usagers professionnels habilités à créer/corriger/enrichir les notices d'autorité (authentification requise). A partir d'IdRef, une gamme de services (triple store data.idref.fr, entrepôt OAI-PMH, APIs) est disponible en accès libre pour faciliter la réutilisation des données. Pour les développeurs Documentation IdRef APIs et web services data.idref.fr OAI-PMH IdRef GitHub Abes Utilisation des données Libre et gratuite sous licence Etalab GitHub Etalab Assistance Guichet AbesSTP A propos | Partenaires | Données Personnelles | CGU | Mentions Légales 
www-iep-utm-edu-9679	----	Aurelius, Marcus | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Search Primary Menu Skip to content A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Marcus Aurelius (121—180 C.E.) The philosophy of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius can be found in a collection of personal writings known as the Meditations. These reflect the influence of Stoicism and, in particular, the philosophy of Epictetus, the Stoic. The Meditations may be read as a series of practical philosophical exercises, following Epictetus’ three topics of study, designed to digest and put into practice philosophical theory. Central to these exercises is a concern with the analysis of one’s judgements and a desire to cultivate a “cosmic perspective.” From a modern perspective Marcus Aurelius is certainly not in the first rank of ancient philosophers. He is no Plato or Aristotle, nor even a Sextus Empiricus or Alexander of Aphrodisias. To a certain extent this judgement is perfectly fair and reasonable. However, in order to assess the philosophical qualities that Marcus does have and that are displayed in the Meditations it is necessary to emphasize that in antiquity philosophy was not conceived merely as a matter of theoretical arguments. Such arguments existed and were important, but they were framed within a broader conception of philosophy as a way of life. The aim was not merely to gain a rational understanding of the world but to allow that rational understanding to inform the way in which one lived. If one keeps this understanding of ‘philosophy’ in mind, then one becomes able to appreciate the function and the philosophical value of Marcus’ Meditations. Table of Contents Life The Meditations Philosophy Stoicism The Influence of Epictetus The Three topoi Philosophical Exercises The Point of View of the Cosmos Concluding Remarks References and Further Reading 1. Life Marcus Aurelius was born in 121 C.E.. His early education was overseen by the Emperor Hadrian, and he was later adopted by the Emperor Antoninus Pius in 138 C.E.. After an initial education in rhetoric undertaken by Fronto, Marcus later abandoned it in favor of philosophy. Marcus became Emperor himself in AD 161, initially alongside Lucius Verus, becoming sole Emperor in AD 169. Continual attacks meant that much of his reign was spent on campaign, especially in central Europe. However, he did find time to establish four Chairs of Philosophy in Athens, one for each of the principal philosophical traditions (Platonic, Aristotelian, Stoic, andEpicurean). He died in AD 180. 2. The Meditations Marcus’ reputation as a philosopher rests upon one work, the Meditations. The Meditations take the form of a personal notebook and were probably written while Marcus was on campaign in central Europe, c. AD 171-175. The entries appear to be in no particular order and may simply be in the original order of composition. The repetition of themes and the occasional groups of quotations from other authors (see e.g. Med. 4.46, 11.33-39)add to this impression. Book One, however, is somewhat different from the rest of the text and may well have been written separately (a plan for it may be discerned in Med. 6.48). The first recorded mention of the Meditations is by Themistius in AD 364. The current Greek title – ta eis heauton (‘to himself’) – derives from a manuscript now lost and may be a later addition (it is first recorded c. AD 900 by Arethas). The modern text derives primarily from two sources: a manuscript now in the Vatican and a lost manuscript (mentioned above), upon which the first printed edition (1558) was based. Beyond the Meditations there also survives part of a correspondence between Marcus and his rhetoric teacher Fronto, probably dating from earlier in Marcus’ life (c. AD 138-166), discovered as a palimpsest in 1815. However, although this interesting discovery sheds some light on Marcus as an individual, it adds little to our understanding of his philosophy. 3. Philosophy a. Stoicism According to tradition, Marcus was a Stoic. His ancient biographer, Julius Capitolinus, describes him as such. Marcus also makes reference to a number of Stoics by whom he was taught and, in particular, mentions Rusticus from whom he borrowed a copy of the works of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus (Med. 1.7). However, nowhere in the Meditations does Marcus explicitly call himself a Stoic. This may simply reflect the likelihood that Marcus was writing only for himself rather than attempting to define himself to an audience. Yet it is probably fair to admit that Marcus was at least open to ideas from other philosophical traditions, being impressed by Stoic philosophy, but not merely an unthinking disciple of Stoicism. b. The Influence of Epictetus As has been noted, Marcus was clearly familiar with the Discourses of Epictetus, quoting them a number of times (see Med. 11.33-38). Epictetus’ fame in the second century is noted by a number of ancient sources, being hailed as the greatest of the Stoics (Aulus Gellius 1.2.6) and more popular than Plato (Origen Contra Celsus 6.2). If Marcus felt drawn towards Stoicism, then Epictetus would surely have stood out as the most important Stoic of the time. It is perhaps reasonable, then, to turn to Epictetus in order to explore the philosophical background to the Meditations. c. The Three topoi Central to Epictetus’ philosophy is his account of three topoi, or areas of study. He suggests that the apprentice philosopher should be trained in three distinct areas or topoi (see Epictetus Discourses 3.2.1-2): Desires (orexeis) and aversions (ekkliseis); Impulse to act (hormas) and not to act (aphormas); Freedom from deception, hasty judgement, and anything else related to assents (sunkatatheseis). These three areas of training correspond to the three types of philosophical discourse referred to by earlier Stoics; the physical, the ethical, and the logical (see Diogenes Laertius 7.39). For Epictetus, it is not enough merely to discourse about philosophy. The student of philosophy should also engage in practical training designed to digest philosophical principals, transforming them into actions. Only this will enable the apprentice philosopher to transform himself into the Stoic ideal of a wise person or sage (sophos). It is to this end that the three topoi are directed. The first topos, concerning desire (orexis), is devoted to physics. It is not enough for the philosopher to know how Nature works; he must train his desires in the light of that knowledge so that he only desires what is in harmony with Nature. For the Stoic, Nature is a complex inter-connected physical system, identified with God, of which the individual is but one part. What might be called the practical implication of this conception of Nature is that an individual will inevitably become frustrated and unhappy if they desire things without taking into account the operations of this larger physical system. Thus, in order to become a Stoic sage – happy and in harmony with Nature – one must train one’s desires in the light of a study of Stoic physical theory. The second topos, concerning impulse (hormê), is devoted to ethics. The study of ethical theory is of course valuable in its own right but, for the Stoic training to be a sage, these theories must be translated into ethical actions. In order to transform the way in which one behaves, it is necessary to train the impulses that shape one’s behavior. By so doing the apprentice philosopher will be able not merely to say how a sage should act but also to act as a sage should act. The third topos, concerning assent (sunkatathesis), is devoted to logic. It is important to remember here that for the Stoics the term ‘logic’ included not only dialectic but also much of what one would today call epistemology. According to Epictetus every impression (phantasia) that an individual receives often includes a value-judgement (hupolêpsis) made by the individual. When an individual accepts or gives assent (sunkatathesis) to an impression, assent is often given to the value-judgement as well. For instance, when one sees someone drink a lot of wine, one often judges that they are drinking too much wine (see e.g. Epictetus Handbook 45). Epictetus suggests that, in the light of Stoic epistemological theory, the apprentice philosopher should train himself to analyze his impressions carefully and be on guard not to give assent to unwarranted value-judgements. For Epictetus, then, the student of philosophy must not only study the three types of philosophical discourse but also engage in these three types of philosophical training or exercise in order to translate that theory into actions. Marcus may himself be seen as a student of Epictetus, and so some scholars have suggested that the three topoi form a key to understanding the Meditations. Indeed, the Meditations may be approached as an example of a form of personal writing in which the very act of writing constituted a philosophical exercise designed to digest the three types of philosophical theory. In other words, the Meditations are a text produced by someone engaged in the three topoi outlined by Epictetus. This is hinted at in Med. 9.7 where Marcus exhorts himself to ‘wipe out impression (phantasia), check impulse (hormê), and quench desire (orexis)’. d. Philosophical Exercises The Meditations certainly do not present philosophical theories similar to those that one can find in, say, the surviving works of Aristotle. Nor are they comparable to a theoretical treatise like the Elements of Ethics by the Stoic Hierocles, possibly a contemporary of Marcus. Nevertheless, the Meditations remain essentially a philosophical text. As has already been noted, the Meditations are a personal notebook, written by Marcus to himself and for his own use. They do not form a theoretical treatise designed to argue for a particular doctrine or conclusion; their function is different. In order to understand this function it is necessary to introduce the idea of a philosophical exercise (askêsis). In the Meditations Marcus engages in a series of philosophical exercises designed to digest philosophical theories, to transform his character or ‘dye his soul’ in the light of those theories (see e.g. Med. 5.16), and so to transform his behavior and his entire way of life. By reflecting upon philosophical ideas and, perhaps more importantly, writing them down, Marcus engages in a repetitive process designed to habituate his mind into a new way of thinking. This procedure is quite distinct from the construction of philosophical arguments and has a quite different function. Whereas the former is concerned with creating a particular philosophical doctrine, the latter is a practical exercise or training designed to assimilate that doctrine into one’s habitual modes of behavior. Following the account of three types of philosophical training outlined by Epictetus, Marcus reflects in the Meditations upon a medley of physical, ethical, and logical ideas. These written reflections constitute a second stage of philosophical education necessary after one has studied the philosophical theories (see e.g. Epictetus Discourses 1.26.3). By engaging in such written philosophical exercises Marcus attempts to transform his soul or inner disposition that will, in turn, alter his behavior. Thus, this second stage of philosophical education is the process by which a philosophical apprentice trains himself to put theories into practice, and so make progress towards wisdom. e. The Point of View of the Cosmos Of all the philosophical exercises in the Meditations the most prominent centers around what might be called ‘the point of view of the cosmos’. In a number of passages Marcus exhorts himself to overcome the limited perspective of the individual and experience the world from a cosmic perspective. For example: You have the power to strip away many superfluous troubles located wholly in your judgement, and to possess a large room for yourself embracing in thought the whole cosmos, to consider everlasting time, to think of the rapid change in the parts of each thing, of how short it is from birth until dissolution, and how the void before birth and that after dissolution are equally infinite. (Med. 9.32; see also 2.17, 5.23, 7.47, 12.32) In passages such as this Marcus makes implicit reference to a number of Stoic theories. Here, for instance, the Stoic physics of flux inherited from Heraclitus is evoked. Perhaps more important though is the reference to one’s judgement and the claim that this is the source of human unhappiness. Following Epictetus, Marcus claims that all attributions of good or evil are the product of human judgements. As Epictetus put it, what upsets people are not things themselves but rather their judgements about things (see Handbook 5). According to Epictetus’ epistemological theory (to the extent that it can be reconstructed) the impressions that an individual receives and that appear to reflect the nature of things are in fact already composite. They involve not only a perception of some external object but also an almost involuntary and unconscious judgement about that perception. This judgement will be a product of one’s preconceptions and mental habits. It is this composite impression to which an individual grants or denies assent, creating a belief. The task for the philosopher is to subject one’s impressions to rigorous examination, making sure that one does not give assent to (i.e. accept as true) impressions that include any unwarranted value judgements. Marcus’ personal reflections in the Meditations may be read as a series of written exercises aimed at analyzing his own impressions and rejecting his own unwarranted value judgements. For instance, he reminds himself: Do not say more to yourself than the first impressions report. […] Abide always by the first impressions and add nothing of your own from within. (Med. 8.49) These ‘first impressions’ are impressions before a value judgement has been made. For Marcus, human well-being or happiness (eudaimonia) is entirely dependent upon correctly examining one’s impressions and judgements. For once one has overcome false value-judgements – that wealth and social standing are valuable and that one should compete for them against others, for instance –one will experience the cosmos as a single living being (identified with God) rather than a site of conflict and destruction. As Cicero put it in his summary of Stoic physics: The various limited modes of being may encounter many external obstacles to hinder their perfect realization, but there can be nothing that can frustrate Nature as a whole, since she embraces and contains within herself all modes of being. (On the Nature of the Gods 2.35) It is to this end – cultivating an experience of the cosmos as a unified living being identified with God– that the philosophical exercises in the Meditations are directed. 4. Concluding Remarks From a modern perspective Marcus Aurelius is certainly not in the first rank of ancient philosophers. He is no Plato or Aristotle, nor even a Sextus Empiricus or Alexander of Aphrodisias. To a certain extent this judgement is perfectly fair and reasonable. However, in order to assess the philosophical qualities that Marcus does have and that are displayed in the Meditations it is necessary to emphasize that in antiquity philosophy was not conceived merely as a matter of theoretical arguments. Such arguments existed and were important, but they were framed within a broader conception of philosophy as a way of life. The aim was not merely to gain a rational understanding of the world but to allow that rational understanding to inform the way in which one lived. If one keeps this understanding of ‘philosophy’ in mind, then one becomes able to appreciate the function and the philosophical value of Marcus’ Meditations. 5. References and Further Reading 1. Selected Editions and Translations of the Meditations CROSSLEY, H., The Fourth Book of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, A Revised Text with Translation and Commentary (London: Macmillan, 1882) – an excellent commentary, sadly of only one book. DALFEN, J., Marci Aurelii Antonini Ad Se Ipsum Libri XII, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Leipzig: Teubner, 1979; 2nd edn 1987) – includes an invaluable word index. FARQUHARSON, A. S. L., The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, Edited with Translation and Commentary, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1944) – arguably the definitive edition and essential for any serious study of the Meditations. FARQUHARSON, A. S. L.,The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, With Introduction and Notes by R. B. Rutherford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) – an edition reprinting only the translation from Farquharson’s 1944 edition, but supplemented with a helpful introduction and a selection from the correspondence with Fronto. GATAKER, T., Marci Antonini Imperatoris de rebus suis, sive de eis qae ad se pertinere censebat, Libri XII (Cambridge: Thomas Buck, 1652) – a justly famous early edition of the Meditations containing a substantial commentary. HAINES, C. R., The Communings with Himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, A Revised Text and a Translation into English, The Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann, 1916; later reprints by Harvard University Press) – probably the most readily available edition of the Greek text, with a facing English translation. Haines also prepared a two-volume edition of the correspondence with Fronto for the Loeb Classical Library. LEOPOLD, I. H., M. Antoninus Imperator Ad Se Ipsum, Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908) – the OCT edition, now out of print. THEILER, W., Kaiser Marc Aurel, Wege Zu Sich Selbst (Zürich: Artemis, 1951) – a widely praised edition of the Greek text, with a facing German translation. 2. Selected Studies AFRICA, T. W., ‘The Opium Addiction of Marcus Aurelius’, Journal of the History of Ideas 22 (1961), 97-102. ARNOLD, E. V., Roman Stoicism: Being Lectures on the History of the Stoic Philosophy with Special Reference to its Development within the Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1911; repr. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958) ASMIS, E., ‘The Stoicism of Marcus Aurelius’, ANRW II 36.3 (1989), pp. 2228-2252. BIRLEY, A. R., Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (London: Batsford, 1966; new edn Routledge 2000) BRUNT, P. A., ‘Marcus Aurelius in his Meditations‘, Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974), 1-20. CLARKE, M. L., The Roman Mind: Studies in the History of Thought from Cicero to Marcus Aurelius (London: Cohen & West, 1956) HADOT, P., ‘Une clé des Pensées de Marc Aurèle: les trois topoi philosophiques selon Épictète’, Les Études philosophiques 1 (1978), 65-83. HADOT, P., The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, trans. M. Chase (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); a translation of La Citadelle Intérieure (Paris, 1992) KRAYE, J., ‘Ethnicorum omnium sanctissimus: Marcus Aurelius and his Meditations from Xylander to Diderot’, in J. Kraye & M. W. F. Stones, eds, Humanism and Early Modern Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 107-134. LONG, A. A., ‘Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius’, in T. J. Luce, ed., Ancient Writers: Greece and Rome (New York: Scribner’s, 1982), pp. 985-1002. MORFORD, M., The Roman Philosophers: From the Time of Cato the Censor to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (London: Routledge, 2002) NEWMAN, R. J., ‘Cotidie meditare: Theory and Practice of the meditatio in Imperial Stoicism’, ANRW II 36.3 (1989), pp. 1473-1517. RIST, J. M., ‘Are You a Stoic? The Case of Marcus Aurelius’, in B. F. Meyers & E. P. Sanders, eds, Jewish and Christian Self-Definition 3 (London: SCM, 1982), pp. 23-45. RUTHERFORD, R. B., The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: A Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) STANTON, G. R., ‘The Cosmopolitan Ideas of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius’, Phronesis 13 (1968), 183-195. WICKHAM LEGG, J., ‘A Bibliography of the Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus’, Transactions of the Bibliographical Society 10 (1908-09, but publ. 1910), 15-81. This article was written in 2002. Since then a number of new translations of the Meditations have been published, including ones by Robin Hard (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), Martin Hammond (London: Penguin, 2006), and Gregory Hays (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003). A number of new studies have also been published. The most important are Angelo Giavatto’s Interlocutore di se stesso: La dialettica di Marco Aurelio (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2008), Marcel van Ackeren’s Die Philosophie Marc Aurels, 2 vols (berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), and the chapters by many authors in Marcel van Ackeren, ed., A Companion to Marcus Aurelius (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012). For an annotated and up-to-date guide to the literature on Marcus Aurelius see John Sellars, ‘Marcus Aurelius’, in D. Pritchard, ed., Oxford Bibliographies in Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), DOI 10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0278 (subscription required). Author Information John Sellars Email: john.sellars (at) kcl.ac.uk King’s College London United Kingdom An encyclopedia of philosophy articles written by professional philosophers. 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www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov-4621	----	[The Antonine plague] - PubMed This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Skip to main page content COVID-19 Information Public health information (CDC) Research information (NIH) SARS-CoV-2 data (NCBI) Prevention and treatment information (HHS) Español   Log in Show account info Close Account Logged in as: username Dashboard Publications Account settings Log out Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation Search: Search Advanced Clipboard User Guide Save Email Send to Clipboard My Bibliography Collections Citation manager Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Save citation to file Format: Summary (text) PubMed PMID Abstract (text) CSV Create file Cancel Email citation Subject: 1 selected item: 17195627 - PubMed To: Format: Summary Summary (text) Abstract Abstract (text) MeSH and other data Send email Cancel Add to Collections Create a new collection Add to an existing collection Name your collection: Name must be less than 100 characters Choose a collection: Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again Add Cancel Add to My Bibliography My Bibliography Unable to load your delegates due to an error Please try again Add Cancel Your saved search Name of saved search: Search terms: Test search terms Would you like email updates of new search results? 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[The Antonine plague] [Article in French] Charles Haas PMID: 17195627 Item in Clipboard [The Antonine plague] [Article in French] Charles Haas. Bull Acad Natl Med. Apr-May 2006. Show details Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Bull Acad Natl Med Actions Search in PubMed Search in NLM Catalog Add to Search . Apr-May 2006;190(4-5):1093-8. Author Charles Haas PMID: 17195627 Item in Clipboard CiteDisplay options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Abstract During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire was struck by a long and destructive epidemic. It began in Mesopotamia in late AD 165 or early AD 166 during Verus' Parthian campaign, and quickly spread to Rome. It lasted at least until the death of Marcus Aurelius in AD 180 and likely into the early part of Commodus' reign. Its victims were "innumerable". Galen had first-hand knowledge of the disease. He was in Rome when the plague reached the city in AD 166. He was also present during an outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia during the winter of AD 168-169. His references to the plague are scattered and brief but enough information is available to firmly identify the plague as smallpox. His description of the exanthema is fairly typical of the smallpox rash, particularly in the hemorrhagic phase of the disease. Cited by 1 article Yersinia pestis: the Natural History of Plague. Barbieri R, Signoli M, Chevé D, Costedoat C, Tzortzis S, Aboudharam G, Raoult D, Drancourt M. Barbieri R, et al. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020 Dec 9;34(1):e00044-19. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00044-19. Print 2020 Dec 16. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020. PMID: 33298527 Review. 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www-roman-emperors-org-1190	----	Roman Emperors - DIR Marcus Aurelius Virtual Catalog of Roman Coins An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors DIR Atlas Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180) Herbert W. Benario Emory University Introduction and Sources The Vita of the emperor in the collection known as the Historia Augusta identifies him in its heading as Marcus Antoninus Philosophus, "Marcus Antoninus the Philosopher." Toward the end of the work, the following is reported about him, sententia Platonis semper in ore illius fuit, florere civitates si aut philosophi imperarent aut imperantes philosopharentur (27.7), "Plato's judgment was always on his lips, that states flourished if philosophers ruled or rulers were philosophers." It is this quality of Marcus' character which has made him a unique figure in Roman history, since he was the first emperor whose life was molded by, and devoted to, philosophy (Julian was the second and last). His reign was long and troubled, and in some ways showed the weaknesses of empire which ultimately led to the "Decline and Fall," yet his personal reputation, indeed his sanctity, have never failed of admirers. Contributing to his fame and reputation is a slender volume of Stoic philosophy which served as a kind of diary while he was involved in military campaigns, the Meditations, a book which can be described as an aureus libellus, a little golden book. The sources for understanding Marcus and his reign are varied but generally disappointing. There is no major historian. The chief literary sources are the biography in the Historia Augusta, as well as those of Hadrian, Antoninus, Verus, and Avidius Cassius. Debate about this collection of imperial biographies has been heated and contentious for more than a century. In all likelihood, it is the work of a single author writing in the last years of the fourth-century. The information offered ranges from the precisely accurate to the wildly imaginative. Cassius Dio, who wrote in the decade of the 230s, produced a long history of the empire which has survived, for our period, only in an abbreviated version. Fourth century historians, such as Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, occasionally furnish bits of information. Marcus' teacher, Fronto, a distinguished orator and rhetorician, is extremely useful. Papyri, inscriptions, coins, legal writings, and some of the church writers, such as Tertullian, Eusebius, and Orosius, are very important. Archaeology and art history, with their interpretation of monuments, make the history of Marcus' principate literally visible and offer important clues for understanding the context of his actions.. Early Life He was born M. Annius Verus on April 26, 121, the scion of a distinguished family of Spanish origin (PIR2 A697). His father was Annius Verus (PIR2 A696), his mother Domitia Lucilla (PIR2 D183). His grandfather held his second consulate in that year and went on to reach a third in 126, a rare distinction in the entire history of the principate, and also served Hadrian as city prefect.[[1]] The youth's education embraced both rhetoric and philosophy; his manner was serious, his intellectual pursuits deep and devoted, so that the emperor Hadrian took an interest in him and called him "Verissimus," "Most truthful," by punning on his name.[[2]] He received public honors from an early age and seems to have long been in Hadrian's mind as a potential successor. When Hadrian's first choice as successor, L. Ceionius Commodus, died before his adoptive father, the second choice proved more fruitful. The distinguished senator T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, from Cisalpine Gaul, did succeed Hadrian, whose arrangements for the succession planned for the next generation as well. He required Antoninus to adopt the young Verus, now to be known as M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, as well as Commodus' son, henceforth known as L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus (PIR2 C606). The former was a bit more than seventeen years old, the latter was eight. Career under Antoninus Pius The long tenure of Antoninus Pius proved one of the most peaceful and prosperous in Roman history. The emperor himself was disinclined to military undertakings and never left Italy during his reign. Disturbances to the pax Romana occurred on the fringes of empire. Responses were decisive and successful, with legates in charge in the provinces. As a consequence, neither Caesar gained military experience nor was shown to the armies, a failing which later could have proved decisive and disastrous. Marcus rose steadily through the cursus honorum, holding consulates in 140 and 145, combining magistracies with priesthoods. He received the tribunicia potestas in 147, and perhaps also imperium proconsulare. Yet he never neglected the artes liberales. His closest contacts were with Fronto (c.95-c.160), the distinguished rhetorician and orator.[[3]] His acquaintance included many other distinguished thinkers, such as Herodes Atticus (c.95-177), the Athenian millionaire and sophist,[[4]] and Aelius Aristides (117-c.181), two of whose great speeches have survived and which reveal much of the mood and beliefs of the age.[[5]] Yet it was Epictetus (c.50-c.120) who had the greatest philosophical impact [[6]] and made him a firm Stoic.[[7]] In the year 161 Marcus celebrated his fortieth birthday, a figure of noble appearance and unblemished character. He was leading a life which gave him as much honor and glory as he could have desired, probably much more than his private nature enjoyed, yet his life, and that of the empire, was soon to change. The emperor died on March 7, but not before clearly indicating to magistrates and senate alike his desire that Marcus succeed him by having the statue of Fortuna, which had been in his bedroom, transferred to Marcus.[[8]] There was no opposition, no contrary voice, to his succession. He immediately chose his brother as co-emperor, as Hadrian had planned. From the beginning of the year they were joint consuls and held office for the entire year. Their official titulature was now Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and Imperator Caesar L. Aurelius Verus Augustus. The military qualities adumbrated by the word Imperator were soon much in demand, for the empire was under pressure in the year 161 in Britain, in Raetia, and in the east, where Parthia once again posed a significant danger.[[9]] The Parthian War (161-166) The incursion in northern Britain and the difficulties along the Danube were soon satisfactorily managed by legates. The danger in the East was of a different magnitude. Tensions between Rome and Parthia had intensified in the last years of Antoninus' reign over control of Armenia, the vast buffer state which had often aroused enmity between the two powers, since each wished to be able to impose a king favorable to its interests. With Antoninus' death and the uncertainty attendant upon a new emperor (in this case two, a dyarchy, for the first time in Rome's history), the Parthian monarch, Vologaeses III, struck rapidly, placed his own candidate upon the Armenian throne, and inflicted severe setbacks upon the Roman forces sent to oppose him. Marcus decided to send his colleague Lucius Verus, whose imperial prestige would underscore the seriousness of the empire's response. Verus lacked military experience and was sorely lacking in the attributes of leadership and command; further, he was notorious for being chiefly interested in amusements and luxury. But Marcus surrounded him with several of the best generals at the empire's disposal, chief among them Avidius Cassius (c.130-175)(PIR2 A1402). From 162 on, Rome's successes and conquests were extensive and decisive. Most of Parthia's significant cities and strongholds, such as Seleucia and Ctesiphon, were stormed and destroyed, and the army's movements eastward recalled the movements of Alexander the Great some five centuries earlier. By 166, Parthia had capitulated and a Roman nominee sat on the Armenian throne. The victory appeared to be the most decisive since Trajan's conquest of Dacia, but, when Verus returned to Italy with his triumphant army, there came also a devastating plague, which had enormous effect on all provinces. As is the case with all ancient diseases, it is almost impossible to identify this one. In all likelihood, however, it was smallpox; how severe the toll was is debated.[[10]] Clearly, it cast a pall over the triumph celebrated by the two emperors, who were honored with the titles Armeniacus and Parthicus. The last years of this decade were dominated by efforts to overcome the plague and provide succour to its victims. But already in 166, the German tribes smashed the Danubian limes, threatening the empire's stability and even existence,more than Parthia had ever done. From the north had come a far greater threat to the empire's stability, indeed existence, than that of Parthia had been. The first campaigns were punctuated by the death of Verus in 169, leaving Marcus as sole emperor. And so began the most difficult period of his life. The German Wars Early in 169, the Marcomanni and Quadi crossed the Danube, penetrated the intervening provinces, and entered Italy. The culmination of their onslaught was a siege of Aquileia. The effect upon the inhabitants of the peninsula was frightful. This was the first invasion of Italy since the late second century B.C., when the Cimbri and Teutones had been separately crushed by Marius. Perhaps more vivid in the collective imagination was the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 387, when the city was saved only by the payment of ransom. The two emperors hastened north, after a rapid mobilization of forces, which included the drafting of slaves, since the manpower potential of the empire had been so impaired by the consequences of the plague and the losses and troop commitments in the East. Verus died while in the north;[[11]] Marcus returned to Rome with the body and gave his brother full honors. He then turned north again and began his counterattacks against the barbarians. He did not know it at the time, but he was destined to spend most of his remaining years on the northern frontier. The only interlude was caused by revolt in the east. We have no record of Marcus' ultimate intentions in these campaigns, yet the various stages were clear. First and foremost, the enemy had to be driven out of Italy and then into their own territory beyond the Danube. He strove to isolate the tribes and then defeat them individually, so that the ultimate manpower superiority of the empire and its greater skill in warfare and logistics could more easily be brought to bear. It was a successful strategy, as one tribe after another suffered defeat and reestablished ties with Rome. But it was a time-consuming and expensive operation, requiring the recruitment of two new legions, II Italica and III Italica, the construction of many new camps, such as the legionary fortress at Regensburg, with success accruing year by year. He intended to create two new provinces, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, thereby eliminating the Hungarian Plain and the headwaters of the Elbe as staging areas for invasion.[[12]] This steady, slow progress was interrupted in 175 by the action of the distinguished general Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, who claimed the empire for himself.[[13]] Whether he responded to a rumor of Marcus' death or, as gossip had it, conspired with Marcus' wife, the emperor's response was quick and decisive. Leaving the northern wars, he traveled to the East, but Avidius was killed before Marcus arrived in the region. After spending time settling affairs and showing himself to some of the provinces, with particular attention shown to Athens, where he was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, as Hadrian and Verus had been. He returned to Italy and soon answered the call to duty once more on the northern frontier. He took with him as colleague his son Commodus, now merely sixteen years old but already long since marked out as his father's intended successor. The military campaigns proved successful, but in the spring of 180, when Marcus died, at least one more year of warfare was necessary for the attainment of the grand enterprise. Marcus recommended to Commodus continuation of the war, but the new emperor was eager to return to Rome and the ease and luxury of the imperial court and entered into a peace agreement. Never again was Rome to hold the upper hand in its dealings with the Germanic tribes beyond the now reestablished borders of the empire. Administrative and Religious Policy Marcus was a conscientious and careful administrator who devoted much attention to judicial matters.[[14]] His appointments to major administrative positions were for the most part admirable. Difficult tasks were put in the charge of the most capable men; he was not afraid of comparison with his subordinates. Social mobility continued as it had been under his predecessors, with men from the provinces advancing into the upper echelons of the Roman aristocracy. Those of humble birth could make a good career; such a one was Pertinax (126-193)[[15]], a gifted general, who in early 193 became emperor for a space of less than three months. The judicial administration of Italy was put in the hands of iuridici, who represented the emperor and thus spoke with his authority. This was a practice which had been established by Hadrian but had been allowed to lapse by Antoninus. The centralization of government continued apace. The imperial finances were sorely stretched by the almost continuous wars. Trajan had brought great wealth, Decebalus' treasure, into the empire after his conquest of Dacia. No such profit awaited Marcus. When preparing for the northern wars, he auctioned off much of the imperial palace's valuables.[[16]] In spite of the enormous expenses of war, Commodus found ample funds upon his accession as sole emperor for his expenditures and amusements. Although Marcus was a devoted thinker and philosopher, he was deeply religious, at least outwardly. The state cult received full honor, and he recognized the validity of other people's beliefs, so that the variety of religions in the vast extent of the empire caused no difficulties for inhabitants or government, with one significant exception. The Christians were not hampered by any official policy; indeed the impact of the church spread enormously in the second century. Yet their availability as scapegoats for local crises made them subject to abuse or worse. There was violence against them in 167, and perhaps the worst stain on Marcus' principate stemmed from the pogrom of Christians in Lugdunum in southern France in 177. He did not cause it, nor, on the other hand, did he or his officials move to stop it. Indeed, Tertullian called him a friend of Christianity. Yet the events were a precursor of what would come in the century and a quarter which followed.[[17]] Building Programs and Monuments Many of Marcus' predecessors transformed the face of the capital with their building programs, either by the vast range of their undertaking or by the extraordinary significance of individual monuments. Others did very little to leave a tangible mark. Marcus fell into the latter group. There is record of very few monuments for which he and his brother were responsible. Very early in their reign they honored the deceased Antoninus with a column in the Campus Martius, no longer in situ but largely surviving. The shaft, which seems not to have been sculpted, was used for the restoration of Augustus' obelisk, now in Piazza Montecitorio, in the eighteenth century. The base, which was sculpted on all four sides, is now on display in the Vatican Museum. The chief feature is the apotheosis of the emperor and his long deceased wife, the elder Faustina, as they are borne to heaven. Also presented on this relief are two eagles and personifications of the goddess Roma and of the Campus Martius, represented as a young male figure. There were three arches which commemorated the military achievements of the two emperors. No trace has been found of an early monument to Verus. Two arches later honored Marcus, both of which have disappeared but have left significant sculptural remains. The eight rectangular reliefs preserved on the Arch of Constantine came from one arch. Similarly, the three reliefs displayed in the stairwell of the Conservatori Museum on the Capitoline Hill came from another. One relief has disappeared from the latter monument. Certainly the best known monument of Marcus' principate is the column, which rises from Piazza Colonna. It is twin to Trajan's column in height and design, although the artistic craftsmanship of the reliefs which envelop the shaft is much inferior. The subject is Marcus' campaigns against the Marcomanni and Sarmati in the years 172-75. The most interesting panel represents the famous rainstorm, when the army, overwhelmed by drought, was suddenly saved by the divine intervention of rain.[[18]] Although begun in the latter part of the decade, the column was not completed until 193, when Septimius Severus had become emperor. The famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which survived the centuries near San Giovanni in Laterano because the rider was identified as Constantine, no longer greets the visitor to the Capitoline, where Michelangelo had placed it in the sixteenth century. It was removed in the 1980s because pollution was destroying it. After careful treatment and restoration, it is now displayed within the museum, with a replica placed in the center of the piazza. Although outside Rome, mention should be made of the monumental frieze commemorating Lucius Verus' victory over the Parthians in 165. It was an ornament of the city of Ephesus; the extensive sculptural remains are now in the Ephesus Museum in Vienna. Family As part of Hadrian's plans for his succession, when Ceionius Commodus was his choice, Marcus was betrothed to the latter's daughter. But when Ceionius died and Antoninus became Hadrian's successor, that arrangement was nullified and Marcus was chosen for the Emperor's daughter, the younger Faustina (PIR2 A716). She had been born in 129, was hence eight years younger than he. They were married in 145; the marriage endured for thirty years. She bore him thirteen children, of whom several died young; the most important were a daughter, Lucilla, and a son Commodus. Lucilla was deployed for political purposes, married first to Lucius Verus in 164, when she was seventeen, and then, after his death, to Claudius Pompeianus Quintianus of Antioch, a much older man who was an important associate of her father (PIR2 C973).[[19]]Commodus became joint-emperor with his father in 177 and three years later ruled alone. Faustina's reputation suffered much abuse. She was accused of employing poison and of murdering people, as well as being free with her favors with gladiators, sailors, and also men of rank, particularly Avidius Cassius. Yet Marcus trusted her implicitly and defended her vigorously. She accompanied him on several campaigns and was honored with the title mater castrorum. She was with him in camp at Halala in southern Cappadocia in the winter of 175 when she died in an accident. Marcus dedicated a temple to her honor and had the name of the city changed to Faustinopolis. [[20]] Death and Succession In early 180, while Marcus and Commodus were fighting in the north, Marcus became ill. Which disease carried him off we do not know, but for some days Marcus took no food or drink, being now eager to die.[[21]] He died on March 17, in the city of Vindobona, although one source reports that it was in Sirmium. His ashes were brought to Rome and placed in Hadrian's mausoleum. Commodus succeeded to all power without opposition, and soon withdrew from the war, thereby stymieing his father's designs and ambitions. It was a change of rulers that proved disastrous for people and empire. Dio called the succession a change from a golden kingdom to one of iron and rust.[[22]] Reputation Gibbon called Marcus "that philosophic monarch,"[[23]] a combination of adjective and noun which sets Marcus apart from all other Roman emperors. His renown has, in subsequent centuries, suffered little, although he was by no means a "perfect" person. He was perhaps too tolerant of other people's failings,[[24]] he himself used opium.[[25]] The abundance of children whom his wife bore him included, alas, a male who was to prove one of Rome's worst rulers. How much better it would have been if Marcus had had no son and had chosen a successor by adoption, so that the line of the five good emperors, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, could have been extended. It was not to be, and for that Marcus must accept some responsibility. Yet he was a man of ability and a sense of duty who sacrificed his own delights and interests to the well-being of the state. He was capax imperii, he did his best, and history has been kind to him. As Hamlet said to Horatio, when awaiting the appearance of the ghost of his father, "He was a man! Take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again." (I 2, 187-88) His memory remains vivid and tactile because of the famous column, the equestrian statue, and his slender volume of thoughts, written in Greek, the Meditations,[[26]] from which I choose two quotations with which to conclude: "If mind is common to us, then also the reason, whereby we are reasoning beings, is common. If this be so, then also the reason which enjoins what is to be done or left undone is common. If this be so, law also is common; if this be so, we are citizens; if this be so, we are partakers in one constitution; if this be so, the Universe is a kind of Commonwealth." (4.4) "At dawn of day, when you dislike being called, have this thought ready: 'I am called to man's labour; why then do I make a difficulty if I am going out to do what I was born to do and what I was brought into the world for?'" (5.1; both in Farquharson's translation) Bibliography Africa, T.W., "The Opium Addiction of Marcus Aurelius," JHI 22 (1961) 97-102. ____________, "The Philosopher - Marcus Aurelius," in his Rome of the Caesars (New York, 1965) 190-206. Asmis, E., "The Stoicism of Marcus Aurelius," in ANRW II 36.3 (Berlin/New York, 1989) 2228-52. Becatti, G., La Colonna di Marco Aurelio (Milan, 1957). Birley, A., Lives of the Later Caesars: The First Part of the Augustan History with Newly Compiled Lives of Nerva and Trajan (London, 1976). __________, Marcus Aurelius (London, 19872). Bowersock, G.W., Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford, 1969) Brunt, P.A., "M. Aurelius and His Meditations," JRS 64 (1974) 1-20. ___________, "Stoicism and the Principate," PBSR 43 (1975) 7-35. ___________, "Marcus Aurelius and the Christians," in C. Deroux, ed., Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History (Collection Latomus 64; Brussels 1979) 483-520. Champlin, E., Fronto and Antonine Rome (Cambridge, MA, 1980). Eck, W., "Marcus Aurelius," in Der Neue Pauly, 7 (1999) cols. 870-75. ________. "Avidius Cassius," in Der Neue Pauly 2 (1997) 370. Farquharson, A.S.L., trans., The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and a Selection from the Letters of Marcus and Fronto, trans. R.B. Rutherford (Oxford, 1989). Garzetti, A., From Tiberius to the Antonines (translated by J.R Foster, London, 1974). Gibbon, E., The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1 (London, 1776). Gilliam, J.F., "The Plague under Marcus Aurelius," AJP 82 (1961) 225-51. Grant., M., The Antonines:  The Roman Empire in Transition (London and New York, 1994). Grimal, P., Marc Aurèle (Paris, 1991). Halfmann, H., Itinera principum (Stuttgart, 1986). Hammond,  M. The Antonine Monarchy (Rome, 1959). Hendrickx, B., "Once again: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher," Historia 23 (1974) 254-56 Keresztes, P., "The Massacre at Lugdunum in 177 A.D.," Historia 16 (1967) 75-86. _____________, "Marcus Aurelius a Persecutor?," HTR 61 (1968) 321-41. Klein, R., ed., Marc Aurel (Darmstadt, 1979). Knauer, E.R., Das Reiterstandbild des Kaisers Marc Aurel (Stuttgart, 1968). Littman, R.J. and M.L., "Galen and the Antonine Plague," AJP 94 (1973) 243-55 Long, A.A., "Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius," in T.J. Luce, ed., Ancient Writers II (New York, 1982) 985-1002. Marco Aurelio - Mostra di Cantiere (Rome 1984). Millar, F., A Study of Cassius Dio (Oxford, 1964). __________, The Emperor in the Roman World (Ithaca, NY, 1977). Nash, E., Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, two volumes, (London, 1961-62). Oliver, J.H. and R.E.A. Palmer, "Minutes of an Act of the Roman Senate," Hesperia 24 (1955) 320-49. Oliver, J.H., Marcus Aurelius. Aspects of Civic and Cultural Policy in the East (American School of Classical Studies, Princeton: Hesperia Supplement XIII, 1970). Perowne, S., Caesars and Saints (London 1962.) ___________, The Caesars' Wives - above suspicion? (London, 1974). Raepsaet-Charlier, M.-T., Prosopographie des Femmes de l'Ordre Sénatorial (Ier-IIe siècles) (Louvain, 1987). Rosen, K., "Sanctus Marcus Aurelius," in Historiae Augustae Colloquium Argentoratense (Bari, 1998) 285-96. Rutherford, R.B., The Meditations of M. Aurelius: A Study (Oxford, 1989). Ryberg, I.S., Panel Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius (New York, 1967). de Serviez, J.R., tr. B. Molesworth, The Roman Empresses (London, 1752; New York 1913) II 47-91. Stanton, G.R., "Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher," Historia 18 (1969) 570-87. _____________, "Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus: 1962-1972," in ANRW II 2 (Berlin/New York, 1975) 478-549. Steinby, E.M., Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, six vols., (Rome, 1993-2000). Syme, R. "Avidius Cassius: His Rank, Age, and Quality," in Roman Papers V (Oxford, 1988) 689-701 Talbert, R.J.A., The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton, 1984). Vogel, L., The Column of Antoninus Pius (Cambridge, MA, 1973). Weber, W., "The Antonines," in CAH XI (Cambridge, 1936) 325-92 (a new edition of this volume is expected shortly). Footnotes [[1]] HA Marcus 1. [[2]] HA Marcus 1.10; Dio 69.21.2. [[3]] See Champlin. [[4]] See H.C. Rutledge, "Herodes the Great: Citizen of the World," CJ 56 (1960-61) 97-109; W. Ameling, Herodes Atticus (Hildesheim, 1983). [[5]] See J.H. Oliver, The Ruling Power (Philadelphia, 1953), and The Civilizing Power (Philadelphia, 1968). [[6]] Epictetus, a former slave, died before Marcus was born. Marcus borrowed a copy of Epictetus' works, as they had been recorded by Arrian, from his teacher Rusticus (Meditations 1.7). [[7]] See Long, 987: "the Stoics taught that nothing is of ultimate value to a man except his moral integrity." [[8]] HA Marcus 7.3. [[9]] HA Marcus 8.6-7. [[10]] See Littman and Littman for smallpox. Mortality estimates vary widely; Gilliam claims 1-2%, the Littmans 7-10%. The latter state that the plague was not a decisive event in Roman history (255). [[11]] Dio 71.3.1 reports that he was poisoned after having been discovered to have plotted against Marcus; HA Marcus 15.5-6. [[12]] HA Marcus 24.5, 27.10. [[13]] Dio 71.22.2ff; Avidius Cassius was suffect consul about 166 and became governor of Syria in the same year.  In 172 he was given an imperium over all the eastern provinces.  See R. Syme, "Avidius Cassius: His Rank, Age, and Quality," in Roman Papers V (Oxford, 1988) 689-701 and W. Eck, "Avidius Cassius," in Der Neue Pauly 2 (1997) 370. [[14]] Dio 71.6.1. [[15]] Dio 71.22.1. [[16]] HA Marcus 17.4-5. [[17]] See Oliver and Palmer, Keresztes, Hendrickx. [[18]] Dio 71.8-10; HA Marcus 24.4; Aurelius Victor 16; Orosius, Adversus Paganos 7.15.8-9, among many. [[19]] He is called grandaevus (HA Marcus 20.6). [[20]] Dio 71.10.5; HA Marcus 26.8-9. [[21]] Dio 71.21.1 reports that Commodus had physicians end his father's life. [[22]] Dio 71.36.4. The comment of the author of the HA is intriguing (Marcus 18.4), qui (Marcus), si felix fuisset, filium non reliquisset. [[23]] Page 8 in the Modern Library edition (n.d.). [[24]] Dio 71.26.2-4, 30.3-4. [[25]] See Africa, "Opium." [[26]] See Long, 996: "In origin the Meditations appear to be thoughts and memoranda that the emperor wrote in his own hand for his self-improvement and guidance." Copyright (C) 2001, Herbert W. Benario. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact. Comments to: Herbert W. Benario. Updated: 30 January 2001 For more detailed geographical information, please use the DIR/ORBAntique and Medieval Atlas below. Click on the appropriate part of the map below to access large area maps. Return to the Imperial Index 
www-roman-emperors-org-2514	----	Roman Emperors - DIR hadrian Virtual Catalog of Roman Coins An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors DIR Atlas Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Herbert W. Benario Emory University Introduction and Sources "During a happy period of more than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the design of this and of the two succeeding chapters to describe the prosperous condition of their empire, and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most important circumstances of its decline and fall, a revolution which will ever be remembered and is still felt by the nations of the earth." So Edward Gibbon concluded the first paragraph of his massive The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, referring to a period which he also styled the happiest of mankind's history. Hadrian was the central figure of these "five good emperors," the one most responsible for changing the character and nature of the empire. He was also one of the most remarkable and talented individuals Rome ever produced. The sources for a study of Hadrian are varied. There is no major historian for his reign, such as Tacitus or Livy. The chief literary sources are the biography in the Historia Augusta, the first surviving life in a series intended to continue Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars.[[1]] Debate about this collection of imperial biographies has been heated and contentious for more than a century. The most convincing view is that which sees the whole as the work of a single author writing in the last years of the fourth century. The information offered ranges from the precisely accurate to the most wildly imaginative.[[2]] Cassius Dio, who wrote in the decade of the 230s, produced a long history of the empire which has survived, for the Hadrianic period, only in an abbreviated version.[[3]] Fourth century historians, such as Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, occasionally furnish bits of information. Contemporaries or near-contemporaries of Hadrian, such as Arrian, Fronto, Pausanias, and Plutarch, are also useful. Papyri, inscriptions, coins, and legal writings are extremely important. Archaeology in all its aspects contributes mightily to any attempt to probe the character of a man and emperor whose personality and thoughts defy close analysis and understanding. Early Life and Career Hadrian was born on January 24, 76. Where he saw the light of day was, even in antiquity, matter for debate. Italica, in Hispania Baetica, was the birthplace of Trajan and was also considered that of Hadrian. But the HA reports that he was born in Rome, and that seems the more likely choice, since it is the more unexpected. The actual place of one's birth was, however, unimportant, since it was one's patria which was crucial. Hadrian's ancestors had come to Spain generations before, from the town of Hadria in Picenum, at the end of the Second Punic War. Italica's tribus, to which Hadrian belonged, was the Sergia. His father, P. Aelius Afer, had reached the praetorship by the time of his death in 85/86, his mother, Domitia Paulina, came from a distinguished family of Gades, one of the wealthiest cities in the empire. His sister Paulina married Servianus, who played a significant role in Hadrian's career. Trajan was the father's cousin; when Afer died, Trajan and P. Acilius Attianus, likewise of Italica, became Hadrian's guardians.[[4]] At the age of about ten, Hadrian went to Italica for the first time (or returned, if he had been there earlier in his childhood), where he remained for only a brief time. He then returned to the capital and soon began a rapid rise through the cursus honorum; he was a military tribune of three different legions in consecutive years, a series of appointments which clearly marked him for a military career, and reached the consulate as a suffect at the age of 32, the earliest possible under the principate. At Trajan's death, he was legate of the province of Syria, with responsibility for the security of the east in the aftermath of Trajan's Parthian War. His career as a privatus follows: decemvir stlitibus iudicandis sevir turmae equitum Romanorum praefectus urbi feriarum Latinarum trib. militum legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis (95, in Pannonia inferior) trib. militum legionis V Macedonicae (96, in Moesia inferior) trib. militum legionis XXII Primigeniae Piae Fidelis (97, in Germania superior) quaestor (101) ab actis senatus tribunus plebis (105) praetor (106) legatus legionis I Minerviae Piae Fidelis (106, in Germania inferior) legatus Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae inferioris (107) consul suffectus (108) septemvir epulonum (before 112) sodalis Augustalis (before 112) archon Athenis (112/13) legatus Syriae (117) (Some of these dates are less than secure; important for much of this information is the Athens inscription [Smallwood 109]). Relationship to Trajan, Marriage, and Adoption Hadrian's only male relative after the death of his father was M. Ulpius Traianus, his father's cousin, hence his own first cousin once removed. Trajan and his wife, Pompeia Plotina, had no children, and were surrogate parents to the child Hadrian. Trajan's influence in government was steadily increasing, both through his own merits and because of his father's great services to Vespasian in the civil wars and afterwards.[[5]] When Trajan was adopted by Nerva and designated successor in late 97, Hadrian carried the congratulations of the Moesian legions to him along the Rhine, and was kept there by Trajan to serve in a German legion. In 100, largely at the instance of Plotina, Hadrian married Trajan's grand-niece Vibia Sabina, ten years his junior. This marriage was not a happy one, although it endured until her death in 136 or 137. There were no children, and it was reported that Sabina performed an abortion upon herself in order not to produce another monster.[[6]] In spite of marital unhappiness, the union was crucial for Hadrian, because it linked him even more closely with the emperor's family. He got along very well with his mother-in-law Matidia and with the empress, whose favor enhanced his career. In mid-summer 117, when Trajan was returning from his Parthian campaigns, he fell ill while at Selinus in Cilicia and died on August 8. The following day his adoption of Hadrian was announced by Plotina and Attianus, the praetorian prefect who had earlier been Hadrian's guardian, with some question whether Trajan had indeed performed the act or whether it was posthumous, thanks to his widow. On August 11, which he considered his dies imperii, the army of Syria hailed its legate, Hadrian, as emperor, which made the senate's formal acceptance an almost meaningless event. This was an example of the historian Tacitus' famous dictum that an emperor could be made elsewhere than at Rome.[[7]] Succession and the Affair of the Four Consulars Hadrian chose as his official title Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus (for much of the decade of the 120s, he was simply known as Hadrianus Augustus). He must then have proceeded to Selinus at once from Antioch, to catch up with Attianus, Plotina, and Matidia. He then returned to his province no later than September and stayed there at least into the new year, consolidating his administration. He began the year as cos. II; whether he had been so designated by Trajan is unknown. On January 3, 118, the Arval Brethren met in Rome to offer vows for the well-being of the emperor, which shows that he was not in the capital. In June or July they sacrificed because of the arrival of the emperor who is present at the ceremony. He therefore may have taken as much as eleven months from his accession to return to Rome. He saw to the deification of his predecessor and celebrated games in honor of the consecration. Trajan's ashes were placed in the base of his column, by special dispensation, since burials were prohibited within the pomerium. Anticipation of his arrival had been overshadowed by the execution of four men of great importance, who had all held consulates and commands. This action had been ordered by the senate, perhaps at the instigation of the praetorian prefect Attianus. Hadrian always disclaimed responsibilty but his relations with the senate were irrevocably damaged, never really to improve until his death, when the senate hoped to have posthumous revenge. The four men were Cornelius Palma (cos. II 109), who had been with Trajan in the east and had been governor of Syria, Avidius Nigrinus (cos. 110), governor of Dacia, Publilius Celsus (cos. II 113), and Lusius Quietus, a Moorish chieftain (cos. 117), governor of Judaea and one of Trajan's chief generals. Personal enmity toward Hadrian certainly existed, perhaps because of Hadrian's move away from Trajan's policy of expansion, perhaps because of jealousy that Hadrian had been preferred for the succession. Be that as it may, they were all Trajan's men, and their elimination certainly made Hadrian's course easier. But the odium thereby raised caused him dismay until the end of his days.[[8]] He was cos. III in 119, which proved to be the last consulship he held. He thereby showed himself to be different from many of predecessors: Augustus held 13, Vespasian 9, Titus 8, Domitian 17, Trajan 6. He was similarly sparing in his acceptance of other titles; he became pater patriae only in 128. Foreign policy, wars, and travel In two important passages, Cassius Dio sets the tone for this section: "Once, when a woman made a request of him as he passed by on a journey, he at first said to her, 'I haven't time,' but afterwards, when she cried out, 'Cease, then, being emperor,' he turned about and granted her a hearing." (69.6.3) "Hadrian travelled through one province after another, visiting the various regions and cities and inspecting all the garrisons and forts. Some of these he removed to more desirable places, some he abolished, and he also established some new ones. He personally viewed and investigated absolutely everything, not merely the usual appurtenances of camps, such as weapons, engines, trenches, ramparts and palisades, but also the private affairs of every one, both of the men serving in the ranks and of the officers themselves, - their lives, their quarters and their habits, - and he reformed and corrected in many cases practices and arrangements for living that had become too luxurious. He drilled the men for every kind of battle, honouring some and reproving others, and he taught them all what should be done. And in order that they should be benefited by observing him, he everywhere led a rigorous life and either walked or rode on horseback on all occasions, never once at this period setting foot in either a chariot or a four-wheeled vehicle. He covered his head neither in hot weather nor in cold, but alike amid German snows and under scorching Egyptian suns he went about with his head bare. In fine, both by his example and by his precepts he so trained and disciplined the whole military force throughout the entire empire that even to-day the methods then introduced by him are the soldiers' law of campaigning." (69.9.1-4; both passages in the translation of E. Cary in the Loeb edition) These views of Hadrian stem from an historian who lived a century after the emperor's reign. He appears as a conscientious administrator, an inveterate traveler, and a general deeply concerned for the well-being of his armies, and thus of the empire. There was generally peace throughout its lands, although his principate was not entirely peaceful. First of all, he had to quash the Jewish uprising which had begun under Trajan and spread throughout the diaspora. Then there were disturbances in Mauretania, Dacia, and in northern Britain. Late in his reign, after deciding to resettle the site of Jerusalem as the city of Aelia Capitolina and build a temple to Jupiter on the site of the Jewish temple, another uprising occurred, more bitter still than its recent predecessor. Hadrian's goal as emperor was to establish natural or man-made boundaries for the empire. He had realized that its extent had severely strained the empire's capacity to maintain and protect it. Consolidation was his policy, not expansion, and this brought him enmity in the early years, when Trajan's eastern conquests were abandoned (a process already begun by Trajan) and withdrawal from Dacia was contemplated. Hadrian's own military experience was extensive. He had served in provinces in the east, along the Danube, and along the Rhine. Soon after his arrival in Rome, he began the lengthy journeys which took him to almost every province. He was absent from Italy from 121 to 125, from 128 to 132, and from 134 to 136. He spent more than half his reign traveling; he displayed a Wanderlust unlike that of any of his predecessors, and sharply contrasting with the practice of his successor, who never left Italy. Evidence for his precise routes and his goals is often entirely absent. One must frequently infer from what is known, and most lists differ in some details. The following is exemplary: 121 Gallia Germania superior Raetia Noricum Germania superior 122 Germania inferior Britannia (where he began the construction of the Wall which bears his name) Gallia Gallia Narbonensis (Nemausus) Hispania (Tarraco) 123 Mauretania (?) Africa (?) Libya Cyrene Crete Syria The Euphrates (Melitene) Pontus Bithynia Asia 124 Thrace Moesia Dacia Pannonia Achaia Athens 125 Achaea Sicily Rome 128 Africa Rome Athens 129 Asia Pamphylia Phrygia Pisidia Cilicia Syria Commagene (Samosata) Cappadocia Pontus Syria (Antioch) 130 Judaea Arabia Egypt (Nile trip; death of Antinous; Alexandria) 131 Libyan desert Syria Asia Athens 132 Rome 134 Syria Judaea Egypt (?) Syria (Antioch) 135 Syria 136 Rome His stay in the East these last years was necessitated by the Jewish War. His recurrent visits to Athens stemmed from his devotion to Greek culture and the city itself, which had elected him archon while he was still a private citizen (112). He much preferred the eastern provinces, the Greek lands, to the western ones. After 128/9, he was hailed as Olympios, after 132 as Panhellenios, and also as Panionios. Otherwise, his travels were intended to gain intimate knowledge of people and provinces, of the military in all its aspects, and to help produce a better and securer life for almost all his subjects. Domestic policy and legal activity Hadrian was so little in Italy, compared with his time abroad, that his governmental policies at home play a lesser role in consideration of his entire principate. Yet they have significance, because they display the same tendency toward order and consolidation as his external policies. When he arrived in Rome in July 118 to a hostile reception on the part of the senate, because of the death of the four consulars, he devoted attention to matters of significance to the people. He pursued the honors due Trajan, their favorite, examined the financial ledgers of the empire and discovered that there was an enormous sum of uncollectable debts, some 900,000,000 sesterces. He determined to remove these from the accounts and begin his reign with a clean slate. Consequently the records of these debts were publicly burned, an event which, obviously, gained him public favor.[[9]] It was represented in the relief of the plutei Traiani, presently displayed in the Senate house in the Forum.[[10]] He also continued and expanded the practice of the alimenta, whereby state money was lent to individuals who paid interest to their local communities. This money supported the local economy and helped maintain orphans.[[11]] He also ensured that the grain supply upon which Rome depended became more secure with his dramatic building program in Ostia.[[12]] The most significant legal achievement was the codification of the praetorian and aedilician edicts. This task was assigned to Salvius Julianus, who produced one of the glories of Roman legal science. Underscoring the importance of Hadrian's work, Kunkel in his magisterial survey of Roman law indicates, "Edicts were magistral proclamations whose content and scope might be very diverse. . . . At least from the late Republic onwards litigants could, vis-à-vis a magistrate, rely on the contents of the edicts as confidently as on a statute, for magistrates were by lex Cornelia of 67 B.C. strictly bound by their edicts."[[13]] These edicts, covering centuries, Julianus brought together into a straightforward and modern document, which became the basis of subsequent praetorian and aedilician activity in the field of law. The Edict has been lost, but many excerpts made by commentators upon it have survived in Justinian's Code.[[14]] Many letters and rescripts of Hadrian have survived, which, in their variety, illustrate the almost infinite range of matters which were referred to the emperor. Two important ones may be exemplary. In 121, at the request of Plotina, who was deeply interested in the Epicurean School at Athens, he permits the presidency of the school to be assumed by someone who is not a Roman citizen, thereby increasing the pool of potential candidates substantially.[[15]] Hadrian's rescript to Minicius Fundanus is crucial for our understanding of the development of Rome's relations with the Christians. He essentially reiterates Trajan's response to Pliny (Ep. 10.97). Minicius was governor of Asia in 124/5. Hadrian's communication replied to a question put to him by Minicius' predecessor, Serennius Granianus.[[16]] Literary and artistic achievements Hadrian was a man of extraordinary talents, certainly one of the most gifted that Rome ever produced. He became a fine public speaker, he was a student of philosophy and other subjects, who could hold his own with the luminaries in their fields, he wrote both an autobiography and poetry, and he was a superb architect. It was in this last area that he left his greatest mark, with several of the empire's most extraordinary buildings and complexes stemming from his fertile mind. The anonymous author of the Historia Augusta described Hadrian as Fuit enim poematum et litterarum nimium studiosissimus. Arithmeticae, geometriae, picturae peritissimus.[[17]] He rebuilt Agrippa's Pantheon into the remarkable building that survives today, reconstructing the accustomed temple facade, with columns and pediment, but attaching it to a drum which was surmounted by a coffered dome. The latter was pierced by an oculus nine meters in diameter, which was the main source of illumination. Height and diameter were identical, 43.3 meters. The dome remained the largest in the world until the twentieth century. As was his custom, he replaced the original inscription of Agrippa on the architrave; seldom did he put his own name on a monument.[[18]] To complete Trajan's Forum, which had been planned by Apollodorus on a tremendous scale, he added a large temple dedicated to the deified Trajan and Plotina. He thereby made this forum more similar to its four imperial predecessors, each of which had a temple as its focus.[[19]] On April 21, 121, the dies natalis of the city of Rome, Hadrian began construction of a temple unique in design and larger than any other ever built by the Romans. Its length of more than 100 meters made it the only Roman addition to the short list of temples built by the Greeks which were at least that long. Even more extraordinary was the interior, within a fully peripteral colonnade. There were two cellae, back to back, with an apse at the end in which were placed the statues of the goddesses Venus and Roma, gigantic statues which, Apollodorus is said to have sneered, would bang their heads if they got up.[[20]] The temple dominated the east end of the Roman forum, built on the heights of the Velia, overwhelming Titus' Arch and facing the Amphitheatrum Flavium. He thereby linked his own achievements as conqueror of the Jews and great builder with his Flavian predecessors. Unlike Vespasian and Trajan, who built new fora which bore their names, Hadrian was more interested in individual monuments, the novelty and magnitude of which would keep his name alive.[[21]] Late in life, he began construction of a mausoleum, larger than that of Augustus, on the other side of the Tiber and down river from it. It was approached by a new bridge across the river, the Pons Aelius. The mausoleum had not been completed at the time of his death.[[22]]His most imaginative, nay stupendous, architectural achievement was his villa at Tibur, the modern Tivoli, some 30 kilometers ENE of Rome, in the plain at the foot of the Sabine Hills. It covered some 700 acres and contained about 100 buildings, some of which were among the most daring ever attempted in antiquity. Here Hadrian reconstructed, so to speak, many of the places which he had visited in his travels, such as the Canopus of Alexandria and the vale of Tempe.[[23]] He also left his mark on almost every city and province to which he came. He paid particular attention to Athens, where he completed the great temple of Olympian Zeus, some six centuries after construction had begun, and made it the centerpiece of a new district of the city. Hadrian's relationship with philosophers and other scholars was generally fractious. He often scorned their achievements while showing his own superiority. An anecdote about an argument which he had with the eminent philosopher and sophist Favorinus revealed the inequity of such disagreement. Although Favorinus was correct, he gave way to Hadrian, and when rebuked by friends, replied, "You advise me badly, friends, since you do not permit me to believe that he who commands thirty legions is the most learned of all."[[24]] Hadrian's literary taste inclined toward the archaic and the odd. He preferred Cato to Cicero, Ennius to Vergil, Coelius Antipater to Sallust, and disapproved of Homer and Plato as well. Indeed, the epic writer Antimachus of Colophon supplanted Homer in Hadrian's estimation.[[25]] The biographer Suetonius held office under Hadrian but was discharged in 122 for disrespect to the empress.[[26]] The historian Tacitus, who may have lived into Hadrian's reign, seems to have found no favor with the emperor. His best known literary work is the short poem which he is said to have composed shortly before his death. These five lines have caused commentators much interpretative woe. animula vagula blandula hospes comesque corporis quae nunc abibis in loca pallidula rigida nudula nec ut soles dabis iocos! (25.9) "Little soul, wandering and pale, guest and companion of my body, you who will now go off to places pale, stiff, and barren, nor will you make jokes as has been your wont."[[27]] Another four lines of verse are preserved by the HA, part of an exchange with the poet Florus. [[28]] Mention is also made of his autobiography, which he had published under someone else's name.[[29]] Antinous Probably the aspect of Hadrian's life which is most widely known is his relationship with the handsome youth Antinous. He was a Bithynian, born about 110, whom Hadrian met when the lad was in his mid-teens. He joined Hadrian's entourage and was with him in Egypt in the fall of 130. During the course of the emperor's Nile cruise, Antinous drowned. The reason (or reasons) were not known. Conjecture of course abounded. The HA suggests that Antinous offered himself to save Hadrian's life and that there was a homosexual relationship between them. Tradition also reported that Antinous committed suicide because an oracle had stated that, if he did so, the remaining years of life that he could expect would be transferred to the emperor. There is even the unsensational possibility that the childless emperor, whose relationship with his wife was at best cool, looked upon the attractive young man as the son whom he had never had. Whatever the facts, Hadrian's grief was extravagant, and he caused the youth to be worshipped as a god throughout the empire and cities in his honor were established in many places. An Antinoopolis rose along the Nile near the spot where he drowned. Many statues of Antinous have survived, which reveal his fleshy and attractive appearance.[[30]] End of life and problems of succession When Hadrian returned to Rome in 136 from the east with its great responsibilities of the Jewish War, his health had deteriorated markedly. He was now 60 years old, lonely and despondent. The empress Sabina had died, Antinous was gone, few remained to whom he felt close. He therefore began to contemplate a successor, in order to avoid a situation such as had occurred before his own accession. Then, he was the obvious, indeed the only sensible choice; now, there was no one who, by military distinction or close relationship with him, would stand out. His choice, L. Ceionius Commodus, was surprising, although he was cos. ord. when adopted. Nothing particularly recommended him other than powerful political connections. His health was bad and he had no military experience, his career having been entirely in the civilian arena. Some scholars have suggested that he was Hadrian's bastard son, but that need not be believed. Nonetheless, his only recommendation was his good looks; his life was frivolous, his tastes luxurious. Hadrian's choice seems to have been an aberration of judgment. Commodus died on the first day of the year 138. Hadrian's next choice, a much happier one, was T. Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus known to history as Antoninus Pius. The scion of a distinguished consular family, he had been born near Rome in 86, although his patria was Nemausus in Gallia Narbonensis. Consul in 120, at an early age, he soon thereafter served as one of the four consulares who had jurisdiction of Italy.[[31]] He reached the acme of a senatorial career with his governorship of Asia about 134/5. He was one of the most distinguished men of the age. Hadrian caused Antoninus to adopt two young men, who were intended to succeed him in the fullness of years. One was the seven-year-old son of Commodus, now named Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, the later Lucius Verus. The other was the seventeen year old Marcus Annius Verus, now Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus, the later Marcus Aurelius. Upon Antoninus' death in 161, they succeeded as co-emperors; Hadrian's foresight was thus rewarded. Hadrian was at an imperial villa at Baiae, on the Bay of Naples, when he died on July 10, 138. The senate now felt it could repay the emperor for the wrongs done it from the beginning of his reign and undertook to condemn his memory, in other words, damnatio memoriae. But Antoninus fought against this condemnation of his adoptive father and gained deification instead. It is generally thought that it was for this action that he received the name of Pius.[[32]] Hadrian's ashes were placed in his mausoleum and he received the customary honors of having been recognized as a divus, which above all recognized that he had ruled constitutionally. A great temple in the Campus Martius was built to his memory in the early 140s, now called the Hadrianeum, one of the largest in Rome. A substantial part survives. The tall stylobate was decorated with alternating reliefs of provinces and victories. In all likelihood, there was a relief of each of the 36 provinces which existed at the time of Hadrian's death.[[33]] Reputation Hadrian died invisus omnibus, according to the author of the Vita.[[34]] But his deification placed him in the list of "good" emperors, a worthy successor to the optimus princeps Trajan. Hadrian played a significant role both in developing the foreign policies of the empire and in its continuing centralization in administration. Few would disagree that he was one of the most remarkable men Rome ever produced, and that the empire was fortunate to have him as its head. When Aelius Aristides delivered his oration To Rome in 143, he had Hadrian's empire in mind when he said, "But there is that which very decidedly deserves as much attention and admiration now as all the rest together. I mean your magnificent citizenship with its grand conception, because there is nothing like it in the records of all mankind. Dividing into two groups all those in your empire - and with this word I have indicated the entire civilized world - you have everywhere appointed to your citizenship, or even to kinship with you, the better part of the world's talent, courage, and leadership, while the rest yourecognized as a league under your hegemony. Neither sea nor intervening continent are bars to citizenship, nor are Asia and Europe divided in their treatment here. In your empire all paths are open to all. No one worthy of rule or trust remains an alien, but a civil community of the World has been established as a Free Republic under one, the best, ruler and teacher of order; and all come together as into a common civic center, in order to receive each man his due.[[35]] That being the case, it seems somewhat odd that he is best known to most people, not from Gibbon's narrative nor from any specific scholarly treatment, but from a work of fiction. This is the quite splendid Memoirs of Hadrian by Marguerite Yourcenar, which became a best-seller about half a century ago. She presents a Hadrian as he might have been, and, although she commands a wide range of source material, the reader must always be alert to the fact that this Hadrian is not necessarily the historical Hadrian.[[36]] Scholarly work on the emperor, above all biographies, has been varied in quality. Much the best, as the most recent, is by A.R. Birley, who presents all that is known but underscores how much is conjecture, nay even guesswork. We still do not really know the man. An enigma he was to many while alive, and so he remains for us. Semper in omnibus varius; omnium curiositatum explorator; varius multiplex multiformis: these are descriptions of him from antiquity.[[37]] They are still valid more than 1900 years after the emperor's death. Appendix: Historians and their Craft: The Evolution of the Historical Hadrian by Andrew Hill Bibliography Bardon, H., Les Empereurs et les Lettres Latines d'Auguste à Hadrien (Paris, 19682) Benario, H.W., A Commentary on the Vita Hadriani in the Historia Augusta (Chico, CA, 1980) Birley, A.R., Lives of the Later Caesars (Harmondsworth, 1976) ________., Hadrian, The Restless Emperor (London, 1997) Boatwright, M.T., Hadrian and the City of Rome (Princeton, 1987) Bowersock, G.W., Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford, 1969) Braund, D., Rome and the Friendly King: The Character of the Client Kingship (London, 1984) Chevallier, R., and R. Poignault, L'Empereur Hadrien (Paris, 1998) Clark, E., Rome and a Villa (Garden City, NY, 1952) 141-94 Crook, J.A., Consilium Principis. Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletain (Cambridge, 1955) de Serviez, J.R., tr. B. Molesworth, The Roman Empresses (London, 1752; New York, 1913) II 1-20 Eck, W., "Hadrianus," in Der Neue Pauly 5 (1998) cols. 59-64 Fein, S., Die Beziehungen der Kaiser Trajan und Hadrian zu den litterati (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1994) Garzetti, A., From Tiberius to the Antonines (translated by J.R. Foster, London, 1974) Gibbon, E., The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1, (London, 1776) Halfmann, H., Itinera principum (Stuttgart 1986) Hammond, M., The Antonine Monarchy (Rome, 1959) Lambert, R., Beloved and God. The Story of Hadrian and Antinous (New York, 1984) Levi, M.A., Adriano Augusto. Studi e ricerche (Rome, 1993) ________. Adriano. Un Ventennio di Cambiamento (Milan,1994) Macdonald, W.L., The Pantheon (Cambridge, MA, 1976) Mattern, S.P., Rome and the Enemy. Imperial Strategy in the Principate (Berkeley, 1999) Millar, F., A Study of Cassius Dio (Oxford, 1964) ________., The Emperor in the Roman World (Ithaca, NY, 1977) Nash, E., Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, two volumes (London, 1961-62) Perowne, S., Hadrian (London, 1960) Smallwood, E.M., Documents Illustrating the Principates of Nerva Trajan and Hadrian (Cambridge, 1966) Syme, R., "Hadrian and Italica," in Roman Papers II (Oxford, 1979) 617-28 ________., "Hadrian and the Vassal Princes," in Roman Papers III (Oxford, 1984) 1436-46 ________., "Hadrian as Philhellene," in Roman Papers V (Oxford, 1988) 546-62 ________., "The Career of Arrian," in Roman Papers V (Oxford, 1988) 21-49 ________., "Hadrian and the Senate," in Roman Papers V (Oxford, 1988) 295-324 ________., "Hadrian the Intellectual," in Roman Papers VI (Oxford, 1991) 103-14 ________., "Fictional History Old and New: Hadrian," in Roman Papers VI (Oxford, 1991) 157-81 ________., "Journeys of Hadrian," in Roman Papers VI (Oxford, 1991) 346-57 ________., "Hadrian's Autobiography: Servianus and Sura," in Roman Papers (Oxford, 1991) 398-408 Toynbee, J.M.C., The Hadrianic School (Cambridge, 1934) Weber, W., "Hadrian," in Cambridge Ancient History XI (Cambridge, 1936) 294-324 Yourcenar, M., Memoirs of Hadrian (New York, 1954)   Footnotes [[1]] See Benario, A Commentary, and Birley, Lives. [[2]] See Syme, The Historia Augusta. [[3]] See Millar, Cassius Dio. [[4]] HA Vita Hadriani 1, PIR2 A 184. [[5]] M. Durry, "Sur Trajan père," in Les Empereurs Romains d'Espagne (Paris, 1965) 45-54. [[6]] Epitome de Caesaribus 14.8. [[7]] Historiae 1.4.2. [[8]] Dio 69.2.5-6. [[9]] Dio 69.8.1. [[10]] Nash II 176-77. [[11]] See M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (Oxford, 1957) chap. 8. [[12]] See W.L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire II (New Haven, 1986) 253-54. [[13]] W. Kunkel, An Introduction to Roman Legal and Constitutional History, tr. J.M. Kelly, (Oxford, 1966)88-89. [[14]] S. Riccobono, Fontes Iuris Romani Antejustiniani (Florence, 1941) 335-91. [[15]] Smallwood 442. [[16]] Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 4.8.6, 4.9. See R. Freudenberger, Das Verhalten der römischen Behörden gegen die Christen im 2. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1967) 216-34. [[17]] VH 14.8-9; see also Dio 69.3. [[18]] See MacDonald (above, note 12) I (New Haven, 1965) 94-121; Nash II 170-75. [[19]] Nash I 450-56. [[20]] MacDonald (above, note 12) I 129-37; Dio 69.4. [[21]] Nash II 496-99. [[22]] Nash II 44-48. [[23]] W.L. MacDonald & J.A. Pinto, Hadrian's Villa and Its Legacy (New Haven, 1995) [[24]] VH 15.12-13. [[25]] VH 16.2; Dio 69.4.6. [[26]] VH 11.3. [[27]] See B. Baldwin, "Hadrian's farewell to life. Some arguments for authenticity," CQ 20 (1970) 372-74. [[28]] VH 16.3-4. [[29]] See Bardon, 393-424. [[30]] Dio 69.11; see Lambert. [[31]] VH 22.3. [[32]] Dio 69.17. [[33]] Nash I 457-61; see Toynbee. [[34]] VH 25.7. [[35]] J.H. Oliver, The Ruling Power (Philadelphia, 1953), chaps. 59 and 60, 901. [[36]] See Syme, Fictional History. [[37]] VH 14.11; Tertullian, Apologetica 5.7; Epitome de Caesaribus 14.6. Copyright (C) 2000, Herbert W. Benario. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact. Comments to: Herbert W. Benario. Updated: 24 September 2008 For more detailed geographical information, please use the DIR/ORBAntique and Medieval Atlas below. Click on the appropriate part of the map below to access large area maps. Return to the Imperial Index 
www-roman-emperors-org-40	----	Roman Emperors - DIR Anastasius Virtual Catalog of Roman Coins An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors DIR Atlas Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161) Richard D. Weigel Western Kentucky University   Introduction The long reign of the emperor Antoninus Pius is often described as a period of peace and quiet before the storm which followed and plagued his successor, Marcus Aurelius. In addition to the relative peacefulness, this emperor set the tone for a low-keyed imperial administration which differed markedly from those of his two immediate predecessors, Trajan and Hadrian. Antoninus managed to govern the empire capably and yet with such a gentle hand that he earned the respect, acclaim, and love of his subjects. Early Life The future emperor was born T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus on September 19, A.D. 86 at Lanuvium, an old Latin city southeast of Rome.[[1]] His father's family had originally migrated to Rome from Nemausus (Nîmes) in Narbonese Gaul, but his paternal grandfather, T. Aurelius Fulvus, had served twice as Roman consul and also as city prefect and his father, Aurelius Fulvus, also held the consulship. The future emperor's mother was Arria Fadilla and her father, Arrius Antoninus, had also been consul twice.[[2]] Young Antoninus was raised at Lorium, on the via Aurelia, where he later built a palace[[3]] Career Under Hadrian Very little is known about Antoninus' life before he became emperor. The brief biography in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae credited to Julius Capitolinus refers to his services as quaestor, praetor, and consul and P. von Rohden's entry in Pauly-Wissowa dates his tenure of these offices to A.D. 112, 117, and 120 respectively.[[4]] At some point between A.D. 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria Faustina, the daughter of M. Annius Verus.[[5]] Hadrian later appointed Antoninus as one of his consular administrators of Italy and between A.D. 130 and 135 Antoninus served as proconsul of Asia.[[6]] Antoninus had achieved a distinguished career under Hadrian. and could have retired from imperial service with great pride, but events in A.D. 138 changed Antoninus' future quite radically. Early in the year, the death of Aelius Verus, whom Hadrian had previously adopted and named Caesar, opened a new path. Hadrian met with the Senate and announced his decision to adopt Antoninus as his son and heir and to share both proconsular and tribunician power with him.[[7]] After giving this offer careful thought, Antoninus accepted and agreed in return to adopt as his heirs his wife's nephew, M. Antoninus, the future Marcus Aurelius, and L. Verus, the son of Aelius Verus.[[8]] Imperial Reign When Hadrian died in the following summer, Antoninus oversaw the conveyance of his body from Baiae to Rome for interment in the new imperial tomb (now Castel Sant' Angelo). To honor his adoptive father, Antoninus set up a magnificent shield, established a priesthood, and, against serious opposition in the Senate, requested and bargained for senatorial confirmation of Hadrian's deification.[[9]] Antoninus' devotion to Hadrian's memory is one of the reasons cited for the Senate's bestowal upon the new emperor of the name "pius".[[10]] After initially refusing the Senate's recognition of Antoninus as "pater patriae", the new emperor accepted the honor with thanks.[[11]] He declined, however, the Senate's decree authorizing the renaming of the months of September and October after the new emperor and empress.[[12]] The Senate did honor the new empress with the title of "Augusta".[[13]] On her death only a few years later in A.D. 141, the Senate deified Faustina and voted her a temple and priestesses.[[14]] In memory of his wife, Antoninus also instituted an alimentary program, similar to those of his immediate predecessors, which combined loans to Italian farmers with funds, generated by interest on those loans, set aside for the care of orphaned girls. On coins these orphans are designated as puellae Faustinianae.[[15]] Antoninus returned all of Italy's share of the aurum coronarium, the money raised in honor of his accession, and one-half of that contributed from the provinces.[[16]] His economic policy in general was relatively conservative and avoided luxurious waste while supporting public works of practical application.[[17]] His procurators were told to keep provincial tribute reasonable and they were held accountable for exceeding fixed bounds. The provinces in general prospered under his administration and the use of informers was ended.[[18]] Julius Capitolinus summarizes the excellence of Antoninus' administration when he says: "With such care did he govern all peoples under him that he looked after all things and all men as if they were his own." [[19]] In spite of his caution in raising imperial revenues, however, Antoninus provided regular gifts of money to the people and to the soldiers and produced spectacular public games with a great variety of animals on display.[[20]] The emperor also used his own funds to distribute oil, grain, and wine free in a time of famine and helped relieve the devastation caused in Rome by fire, flood, and a collapse of stands in the Circus Maximus and by fires and earthquakes in the provinces.[[21]] Although the reigns of his two immediate predecessors, Trajan and Hadrian, had seen prolific building activity in Rome and throughout the empire, Antoninus chose to be less lavish in his public works projects. He felt an obligation to complete work begun or promised by Hadrian. Antoninus completed the Mausoleum of Hadrian along the Tiber and built the temples of the Divine Hadrian in the Campus Martius and of Faustina in the Forum.[[22]] He also restored the oldest bridge in Rome, the Pons Sublicius, the Graecostadium, and the Colosseum. He may even have put some finishing touches on the Pantheon because Julius Capitolinus mentions restoration of a templum Agrippae, but the text may be corrupt and the temple of the Divine Augustus, the restoration of which is recorded on some of Antoninus' coins, may be the intended reference here.[[23]] Outside Rome, Antoninus repaired several roads and renovated ports in Alexandria, Caieta, and Terracina, a bath at Ostia, an aqueduct at Antium, and the temples in his birthplace, Lanuvium. [[24)]] Although some sources suggest that Antoninus went in person to Egypt and Syria to put down a revolt of peoples along the Red Sea, Julius Capitolinus says that Antoninus made his home in Rome where he could receive messages from all parts of the empire equally quickly . He also states that to avoid burdening the provinces with the expenses of housing an emperor and his associates Antoninus took expeditions out of Rome only to his estates in Campania. [[25]] If correct, these actions marked a decided break with the visibility of his two predecessors in the provinces and recreated a more Rome- and Italy-centered empire. Wilhelm Weber commented on this policy: "As if, perhaps, in criticism of Hadrian's conception of his task, he sat like a beneficent spider at the centre of his web, power radiating steadily from him to the farthest bounds of the empire and as steadily returning to him again. For the last time in Imperial history the Emperor was wholly one with Rome and its centralization."[[26]] During his third consulship (A.D. 140-144), Antoninus issued a series of unusual coins and medallions which featured entirely new or modified religious/mythological images.[[27]] Jocelyn Toynbee correctly pointed out that these types were issued to prepare for the celebration of Rome's nine hundredth birthday in A.D. 147/148 and she also discussed two images which represent the emperor's reaction against Hadrian's "cosmopolitanism" and his attempt to restore Rome and Italy to a superior position over the provinces.[[28]] This unusual series, issued especially in bronze, commemorated Rome's connection to her distant roots from Trojans, Latins, and Sabines and honored gods who had protected the city in the past. Themes associated with Aeneas, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, and Augustus by implication tied in Antoninus as successor to these four model Roman leaders. Although the death of Faustina may have motivated Antoninus' display of public piety to some degree on these coins and medallions, the series also set the tone for the games and rituals of the birthday celebration in 147/148, renewed religious values, and restored Rome's proper relationship with protective gods who had brought the city past success both in war and in peace.[[29]] Another series of coins, the "anonymous quadrantes", combines a portrait of a god or goddess on the obverse with a reverse symbol of an animal associated with the same deity. The absence of an imperial portrait or any inscription aside from the S.C. authorization of the Senate makes it especially difficult to date this series. However, the similarity of the Jupiter and Venus portraits to images of Antoninus and Faustina and other links to Antoninus' coin-types make it probable that several of these types were issued in Antoninus' reign, perhaps again in connection with Rome's birthday celebration in A.D. 147/148.[[30]] Although Antoninus' reign was generally peaceful, Capitolinus says that he fought wars, through legates, against the Britons, Moors, Germans, Dacians, and the Alans and suppressed revolts in Achaea, in Egypt, and among the Jews.[[31]] The war in Britain was fought around A.D. 142 against the Brigantes and led to the construction of the Antonine Wall across the island as a second line of defense north of Hadrian's Wall.[[32]] In foreign relations, the emperor's authority was respected among peoples bordering on the empire. Antoninus approved the appointment of kings for the Armenians, for the Lazi, and for the Quadi and he successfully prevented a Parthian attack on Armenia by sending the Parthian king a letter of warning. [[33]] Antoninus did continue his predecessor's interest in law and his imperial legislation is cited frequently in Justinian's Digest. Several lawyers served in the emperor's consilium and presumably advised him on legal matters. Antoninus' legislation included protections for slaves, freedmen, and for illegitimate children and further defined family and inheritance law, including consideration of a daughter's wishes in marriage arrangements.[[34]] In preparation for the succession, Antoninus' daughter Faustina married Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 145 and she soon became Augusta in place of her deceased mother. Marcus Aurelius was associated in imperial powers and he and L. Verus both held the consulship multiple times in preparation for their accession. [[35]] Antoninus made sure that he would leave the Empire secure and in sound financial condition and his adopted sons inherited a large surplus (reportedly 675 million denarii) in the Treasury .[[36]] Antoninus Pius died in March of A.D. 161, after giving the appropriate imperial watchword which so typified his reign, "equanimity". He was soon afterward deified by the Senate. His adopted sons and successors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, erected a column of red granite in his honor in the Campus Martius. The marble base for this column, which is preserved in the Vatican, includes a sculpted image of the apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina.[[37]] In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius expressed his enduring love and respect for his adoptive father: "Do all things as a disciple of Antoninus. Think of his constancy in every act rationally undertaken, his invariable equability, his piety, his serenity of countenance, his sweetness of disposition, his contempt for the bubble of fame, and his zeal for getting a true grasp of affairs." [[38]] In many ways Antoninus Pius was a model emperor who justifiably earned comparison with his own model, Numa Pompilius, and provided the Empire with a period of fortune, religious piety, and security perhaps unmatched in imperial annals.[[39]]   Bibliography Primary Sources: Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Loeb translation by David Magie), including Antoninus Pius, by Julius Capitolinus and Hadrian, by Aelius Spartianus Cassius Dio, Roman History (Loeb translation by Earnest Cary), epitome of book 70 Eutropius, Breviarium (translation by H.W. Bird) Fronto, Correspondence (Loeb translation by C.R. Haines) Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (Loeb translation by C.R. Haines) Orosius, Seven Books Against the Pagans (translation by R.J. Deferrari) Pausanias, Description of Greece (Loeb translation by W. Jones, vol. 4.) Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists (Loeb translation by W.C. Wright) Secondary Sources: Bossart, X. and J. Müller. Zur Geschichte des Kaisers Antoninus Pius bound in M. Büdinger, Untersuchungen zur Römischen Kaisergeschichte vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1868), 287-321 Beaujeu, J. La Religion Romaine a l l'Apogée de l'Empire. vol 1. (Paris, 1955). Bryant, E. The Reign of Antoninus Pius (Cambridge, 1895) Champlin, E. Fronto and Antonine Rome (Cambridge, 1980) Cook, S., F. Adcock, and M. Charlesworth, editors, The Cambridge Ancient History Volume XI: The Imperial Peace A.D. 70-192 (Cambridge, 1936) De Regibus, L. Antonino Pio (Rome, 1946) Garzetti, A. From Tiberius to the Antonines (translated by J.R. Foster, London, 1974) Geissen, A. "Faustina Thea - Bemerkungen zum Dynastischen Prägeprogramm des Antoninus Pius in Alexandria" in H.-C. Noeske and H. Schubert, Die Münze: Bild - Botschaft - Bedeutung (Frankfurt, 1991), 195-202. Grant, M. The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition (London, 1994) Hammond, M. The Antonine Monarchy (Rome, 1959) ________. "The Antonine Monarchy: 1959-1971" in ANRW 2.2 (Berlin, 1975), 329-353 Hanson, W. Rome's North West Frontier: the Antonine Wall. (Edinburgh, 1983) Hohl, E. Die Angebliche "Doppelbestattung" des Antoninus Pius (Dietrich, 1938) Hüttl. W. Antoninus Pius (2 vols., Prague, 1933-1936) Lacour-Gayet, G. Antonin le Pieux et son Temps (Paris, 1888) MacDonald, G. The Roman Wall in Scotland (Oxford, 1934) Mattingly, H. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum vol. 4 (London, 1940) Parker, H.M.D. A History of the Roman World from A.D. 138 to 337 (London, 1958) Russell, D. Antonine Literature (Oxford, 1990) Strack, P. Untersuchungen zur Römischen Reichsprägung des Zweiten Jahrhunderts (vol. 3, Stuttgart, 1937) Toynbee, J. "Some Programme Coin-Types of Antoninus Pius" in Classical Review 39 (1925), 170-173 Vogel, L. The Column of Antoninus Pius (Cambridge, 1973) Von Rohden, P. "Aurelius 138" in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie 2.2, 2493-2510 Weigel, R. "The 'Commemorative' Coins of Antoninus Pius Reexamined" in W. Heckel and R. Sullivan, editors, Ancient Coins of the Graeco-Roman World: The Nickle Numismatic Papers (Waterloo, Ontario, 1984), 187-200 Weigel, R. "The Anonymous Quadrantes Reconsidered" in Annotazioni Numismatiche Supplemento XI (Milan, 1998), 1-24 Williams, W. "Antoninus Pius and the Control of Provincial Embassies" in Historia 16 (1967), 470-483.           Notes [[1]]S.H.A. Pius 1.8; CIL 8.8239. [[2]]S.H.A. Pius 1.1-4. [[3]]S.H.A. Pius 1.8. [[4]]S.H.A. Pius 2.9; P. von Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie 2.2, 2495. [[5]]von Rohden, 2496. [[6]]S.H.A. Pius 2.11-3.2; von Rohden, 2495. E.E. Bryant, in The Reign of Antoninus Pius (Cambridge, 1895), p.16 and n.7, points out that the Baths of Antoninus in Nicomedia, later restored by Diocletian, and another of his buildings in Ephesus were probably erected during Antoninus' reign as emperor rather than during his proconsulship of Asia. [[7]]S.H.A. Pius 4.1-7. [[8]]S.H.A. Pius 4.5. [[9]]S.H.A. Pius 5.1-2. [[10]]S.H.A. Hadr. 27.1-4 and Pius 2.3-8; Dio Cassius epit. 70.1-2. [[11]]S.H.A. Pius 6.6. [[12]]S.H.A. Pius 10.1. [[13]]S.H.A. Pius 5.2. [[14]]S.H.A. Pius 6.7. [[15]]S.H.A. Pius 8.1; Bryant, 120-122; M. Grant, The Antonines (London, 1994), 20-21; H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum vol. 4 (London, 1940), nos. 324-325 and pl. 8.3-4. [[16]]S.H.A. Pius 4.10. See also Bryant, 34-35. [[17]]S.H.A. Pius 4.10; H.M.D. Parker, A History of the Roman World A.D. 138 to 337 (London, 1958), 7. [[18]]S.H.A. Pius 6.1 and 7.2. [[19]]S.H.A. Pius 7.1 (Loeb translation by David Magie). [[20]]S.H.A. Pius 4.9. 8.1, and 10.8-9. [[21]]S.H.A. Pius 8.11-9.3; A. Garzetti, From Tiberius to the Antonines (translated by J.R. Foster, London, 1974), 451. [[22]]L. Richardson, jr., A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Baltimore, 1992), 184-185. [[23]]S.H.A. Pius 8.1-3 (see Magie's note 9 on this text, 118-119); Mattingly, nos. 549-552, 916, 938-943, 1718, 2063-2066, and 2098. [[24]]S.H.A. Pius 8.3; Bryant, 54-55. [[25]]S.H.A. Pius 7.11-12; see also Magie's notes to the Loeb text on p. 112, n.3 and p. 116, n.3. [[26]]W. Weber in S. Cook et al., Cambridge Ancient History vol.11, 133-134. [[27]]For a more complete discussion of the coins, see my article "The 'Commemorative' Coins of Antoninus Pius Reexamined" in W. Heckel and R. Sullivan, eds., Ancient Coins of the Graeco-Roman World: The Nickle Numismatic Papers (Waterloo, Ontario, 1984), 187-200. On the medallions, see J. Toynbee, "Some Programme Coin-Types of Antoninus Pius", Classical Review 39 (1925), pp. 170-173. [[28]]Toynbee, 172-173; Weigel, 'Commemorative', 187. [[29]]Weigel, 'Commemorative', 188-195. [[30]]See R. Martini and N. Vismara, "Quadranti anonimi imperiali del Gabinetto Numismatico di Locarno" in Annotazioni Numismatiche Supplemento VI (1995), p. 15, no. 24 and R. Weigel, :The Anonymous Quadrantes Reconsidered" in Annotazioni Numismatiche Supplemento XI (1998), esp. pp. 3-4, 18-19 and figs. 1, 2, and 13. [[31]]S.H.A. Pius 5.4-6.1. [[32]]von Rohden, 2502; Grant, 17-18. [[33]]S.H.A. Pius 9.6-10; Grant, 20-21. [[34]]S.H.A. Pius 12.1; Garzetti, 455-460; Parker, 7; C.A.H. 11, 334-335; G. Lacour-Gayet, Antonin le Pieux et Son Temps (Paris, 1888), 403-431; W. Hüttl, Antoninus Pius volume 1 (Prague, 1936), 70-129. [[35]]C.A.H. 11, 331. [[36]]Parker, 8; Grant, 21. [[37]]S.H.A. Pius 12.5-6 and 13.3; L. Vogel, The Column of Antoninus Pius (Cambridge, 1973), 1-4 and plates; E. Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome volume 1 (New York, 1968), 270-275; Richardson, New Topographical Dictionary, 94; Lacour-Gayet, 435-444. [[38]]M. Aurelius, Meditations 6.30 (Loeb translation by C.R. Haines), see also 1.16. [[39]]S.H.A. Pius 13.4; see also Eutropius Breviarium 8.8.. Copyright (C) 1998, Richard D. Weigel. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact. Comments to: Richard D. Weigel. Updated:10 June 1998 For more detailed geographical information, please use the DIR/ORBAntique and Medieval Atlas below. Click on the appropriate part of the map below to access large area maps. Return to the Imperial Index 
www-roman-emperors-org-6269	----	Roman Emperors - DIR--De Imperatoribus Romanis Roman History Roman Roman Empire Imperator Basileus De Imperatoribus Romanis Encyclopedia Byzantine De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families Pull-down menus in frames: vertical click here; horizontal click here; full scrolling menu click here;scroll down the page for non-frames access. Welcome to De Imperatoribus Romanis ("On the Rulers of Rome")! WHAT IS DIR? DIR is an on-line encyclopedia on the rulers of the Roman empire from Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) to Constantine XI Palaeologus (1449-1453). The encyclopedia consists of (1) an index of all the emperors who ruled during the empire's 1500 years, (2) a growing number of biographical essays on the individual emperors, (3) family trees ("stemmata") of important imperial dynasties, (4) an index of significant battles in the empire's history, (5) a growing number of capsule descriptions and maps of these battles, and (6) maps of the empire at different times. Wherever possible, these materials are cross-referenced by live links. These contents are supplemented by an ancient and medieval atlas, a link to a virtual catalog of Roman coins, and other recommended links to related sites. The contents of DIR have been prepared by scholars but are meant to be accessible to non-specialists as well. They have been peer- reviewed for quality and accuracy before publication on this site. WAYS TO USE DIR   Go to the Imperial Index There, the emperors are listed in a chronological table in order of their dates of rule. The name of each emperor for whom a biographical essay is complete offers a live link to the essay.  Go to the Alphabetical Imperial Index There, the emperors are listed in the alphabetical order of their names, with dates of rule appended. The name of each emperor for whom a biographical essay is complete offers a live link to the essay.  Go to the Index of Imperial Stemmata. There, live links lead to the family trees of important imperial dynasties. Live links from the family trees will take you to individual biographies.  Go to the Imperial Battle Index. There, live links lead to the indexes of Battle Descriptions and Battle Maps. Individual descriptions and maps are also cross- linked.  Go to the DIR and ORB Ancient and Medieval Atlas There, view maps of the Roman Empire and follow live links to selected maps elsewhere.  Go to the Virtual Catalog of Roman Coins (created and maintained by Prof. Robert W. Cape, Jr. of Austin College).  Note: Because the Virtual Catalog of Roman Coins has been reprogramed in a way that makes all its old links invalid, the DIR can only offer access to this wonderful site via the link here on the DIR home page. The various links to the VCRC from the individual imperial essays are no longer functional!!!! We have not removed them because the manual removal of them would take too long to accomplish. on the page of each   Go to the DIR Historical Source Index for other on-line primary sources relating to the Roman Empire and its rulers. HOW YOU CAN BECOME INVOLVED WITH DIR DIR is collaborative; the members of the DIR Collegium Editorum are happy to receive suggestions for additions and changes.  If you have a special interest, please email  Richard D. Weigel with your email address and topics of interest to you.  Facilities are provided by Academic Computer Services of Loyola University Chicago. Direct all queries and suggestions to Richard D. Weigel with a subject line of: attention: DIR Note: All line drawings of Roman coins for emperors before the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. are reprinted from H. Cohen, Description historique des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, Paris, 1880-1892. Note: All photographs of Roman coins and statuary of emperors before the fall of Rome in 476 A.D., unless otherwise noted, are reproduced from Justin Paola's Collection of Roman Emperors. 
www-sacred-texts-com-3190	----	Works of Lucian, Vol. II: The Way to Write History Sacred Texts  Classics  Lucian  Fowler Index  Index  Previous  Next  THE WAY TO WRITE HISTORY MY DEAR PHILO, There is a story of a curious epidemic at Abdera, just after the accession of King Lysimachus. It began with the whole population's exhibiting feverish symptoms, strongly marked and unintermittent from the very first attack. About the seventh day, the fever was relieved, in some cases by a violent flow of blood from the nose, in others by perspiration not less violent. The mental effects, however, were most ridiculous; they were all stage-struck, mouthing blank verse and ranting at the top of their voices. Their favourite recitation was the Andromeda of Euripides; one after another would go through the great speech of Perseus; the whole place was full of pale ghosts, who were our seventh-day tragedians vociferating, O Love, who lord’st it over Gods and men, and the rest of it. This continued for some time, till the coming of winter put an end to their madness with a sharp frost. I find the explanation of the form it took in this fact: Archelaus was then the great tragic actor, and in the middle of the summer, during some very hot weather, he had played the Andromeda there; most of them took the fever in the theatre, and convalescence was followed by a relapse--into tragedy, the Andromeda haunting their memories, and Perseus hovering, Gorgon's head in hand, before the mind's eye. p. 110 Well, to compare like with like, the majority of our educated2 class is now suffering from an Abderite epidemic. They are not stage-struck, indeed; that would have been a minor infatuation--to be possessed with other people's verses, not bad ones either; no; but from the beginning of the present excitements--the barbarian war, the Armenian disaster, the succession of victories--you cannot find a man but is writing history; nay, every one you meet is a Thucydides, a Herodotus, a Xenophon. The old saying must be true, and war be the father of all things 1, seeing what a litter of historians it has now teemed forth at a birth. Such sights and sounds, my Philo, brought into my head that3 old anecdote about the Sinopean. A report that Philip was marching on the town had thrown all Corinth into a bustle; one was furbishing his arms, another wheeling stones, a third patching the wall, a fourth strengthening a battlement, every one making himself useful somehow or other. Diogenes having nothing to do--of course no one thought of giving him a job--was moved by the sight to gird up his philosopher's cloak and begin rolling his tub-dwelling energetically up and down the Craneum; an acquaintance asked, and got, the explanation: 'I do not want to be thought the only idler in such a busy multitude; I am rolling my tub to be like the rest.' I too am reluctant to be the only dumb man at so vociferous4 a season; I do not like walking across the stage, like a 'super', in gaping silence; so I decided to roll my cask as best I could. I do not intend to write a history, or attempt actual narrative; I am not courageous enough for that; have no apprehensions on my account; I realize the danger of rolling the thing over the rocks, especially if it is only a poor little jar of brittle earthenware like mine; I should very soon knock against some pebble and find myself picking up the pieces. Come, I will tell you p. 111 my idea for campaigning in safety, and keeping well out of range. Give a wide berth to all that foam and spray, and to the anxieties which vex the historian--that I shall be wise enough to do; but I propose to give a little advice, and lay down a few principles for the benefit of those who do venture. I shall have a share in their building, if not in the dedicatory inscription; my finger-tips will at least have touched their wet mortar. 5However, most of them see no need for advice here: there might as well be an art of talking, seeing, or eating; history-writing is perfectly easy, comes natural, is a universal gift; all that is necessary is the faculty of translating your thoughts into words. But the truth is--you know it without my telling, old friend--, it is not a task to be lightly undertaken, or carried through without effort; no, it needs as much care as any sort of composition whatever, if one means to create 'a possession for ever,' as Thucydides calls it. Well, I know I shall not get a hearing from many of them, and some will be seriously offended--especially any who have finished and produced their work; in cases where its first reception was favourable, it would be folly to expect the authors to recast or correct; has it not the stamp of finality? is it not almost a State document? Yet even they may profit by my words; we are not likely to be attacked again; we have disposed of all our enemies; but there might be a Celto-Gothic or an Indo-Bactrian war; then our friends' composition might be improved by the application of my measuring-rod--always supposing that they recognize its correctness; failing that, let them do their own mensuration with the old foot-rule; the doctor will not particularly mind, though all Abdera insists on spouting the Andromeda. 6Advice has two provinces--one of choice, the other of avoidance; p. 112 let us first decide what the historian is to avoid--of what faults he must purge himself--, and then proceed to the measures he must take for putting himself on the straight high road. This will include the manner of his beginning, the order in which he should marshal his facts, the questions of proportion, of discreet silence, of full or cursory narration, of comment and connexion. Of all that, however, later on; for the present we deal with the vices to which bad writers are liable. As to those faults of diction, construction, meaning, and general amateurishness, which are common to every kind of composition, to discuss them is neither compatible with my space nor relevant to my purpose. But there are mistakes peculiar to history; your own observation7 will show you just those which a constant attendance at authors' readings 1 has impressed on me; you have only to keep your ears open at every opportunity. It will be convenient, however, to refer by the way to a few illustrations in recent histories. Here is a serious fault to begin with. It is the fashion to neglect the examination of facts, and give the space gained to eulogies of generals and commanders; those of their own side they exalt to the skies, the other side they disparage intemperately. They forget that between history and panegyric there is a great gulf fixed, barring communication; in musical phrase, the two things are a couple of octaves apart. The panegyrist has only one concern--to commend and gratify his living theme some way or other; if misrepresentation will serve his purpose, he has no objection to that. History, on the other hand, abhors the intrusion of any least scruple of falsehood; p. 113 it is like the windpipe, which the doctors tell us will not tolerate a morsel of stray food. 8Another thing these gentlemen seem not to know is that poetry and history offer different wares, and have their separate rules. Poetry enjoys unrestricted freedom; it has but one law--the poet's fancy. He is inspired and possessed by the Muses; if he chooses to horse his car with winged steeds, or set others a-galloping over the sea, or standing corn, none challenges his right; his Zeus, with a single cord, may haul up earth and sea, and hold them dangling together--there is no fear the cord may break, the load come tumbling down and be smashed to atoms. In a complimentary picture of Agamemnon, there is nothing against his having Zeus's head and eyes, his brother Posidon's chest, Ares's belt--in fact, the son of Atreus and Aërope will naturally be an epitome of all Divinity; Zeus or Posidon or Ares could not singly or severally provide the requisite perfections. But, if history adopts such servile arts, it is nothing but poetry without the wings; the exalted tones are missing; and imposition of other kinds without the assistance of metre is only the more easily detected. It is surely a great, a superlative weakness, this inability to distinguish history from poetry; what, bedizen history, like her sister, with tale and eulogy and their attendant exaggerations? as well take some mighty athlete with muscles of steel, rig him up with purple drapery and meretricious ornament, rouge and powder his cheeks; faugh, what an object would one make of him with such defilements! 9I would not be understood to exclude eulogy from history altogether; it is to be kept to its place and used with moderation, is not to tax the reader's patience; I shall presently show, indeed, that in all such matters an eye is to be had to posterity. It is true, there is a school which makes a pretty division of history into the agreeable and the useful, and defends the introduction p. 114 of panegyric on the ground that it is agreeable, and pleases the general reader. But nothing could be further from the truth. In the first place the division is quite a false one; history has only one concern and aim, and that is the useful; which again has one single source, and that is truth. The agreeable is no doubt an addition, if it is present; so is beauty to an athlete; but a Nicostratus, who is a fine fellow and proves himself a better man than either of his opponents, gets his recognition as a Heracles, however ugly his face may be; and if one opponent is the handsome Alcaeus himself--handsome enough to make Nicostratus in love with him, says the story--, that does not affect the issue. History too, if it can deal incidentally in the agreeable, will attract a multitude of lovers; but so long as it does its proper business efficiently--and that is the establishment of truth--, it may be indifferent to beauty. It is further to be remarked, that in history sheer extravagance10 has not even the merit of being agreeable; and the extravagance of eulogy is doubly repulsive, as extravagance, and as eulogy; at least it is only welcome to the vulgar majority, not to that critical, that perhaps hypercritical audience, whom no slip can escape, who are all eyes like Argus, but keener than he, who test every word as a moneychanger might his coins, rejecting the false on the spot, but accepting the good and heavy and true; it is they that we should have in mind as we write history, and never heed the others, though they applaud till they crack their voices. If you neglect the critics, and indulge in the cloying sweetness of tales and eulogies and such baits, you will soon find your history a 'Heracles in Lydia.' No doubt you have seen some picture of him: he is Omphale's slave, dressed up in an absurd costume, his lion-skin and club transferred to her, as though she were the true Heracles, while he, in saffron robe and purple jacket, is combing wool and wincing under Omphale's slipper. A degrading spectacle it p. 115 is--the dress loose and flapping open, and all that was man in him turned to woman. 11The vulgar may very likely extend their favour to this; but the select (whose judgement you disregard) will get a good deal of entertainment out of your heterogeneous, disjointed, fragmentary stuff. There is nothing which has not a beauty of its own; but take it out of its proper sphere, and the misuse turns its beauty to ugliness. Eulogy, I need hardly say, may possibly please one person, the eulogized, but will disgust every one else; this is particularly so with the monstrous exaggerations which are in fashion; the authors are so intent on the patron-hunt that they cannot relinquish it without a full exhibition of servility; they have no idea of finesse, never mask their flattery, but blurt out their unconvincing bald tale anyhow. 12The consequence is, they miss even their immediate end; the objects of their praise are more inclined (and quite right too) to dislike and discard them for toadies--if they are men of spirit, at any rate. Aristobulus inserted in his history an account of a single combat between Alexander and Porus, and selected this passage to read aloud to the former; he reckoned that his best chance of pleasing was to invent heroic deeds for the king, and heighten his achievements. Well, they were on board ship in the Hydaspes; Alexander took hold of the book, and tossed it overboard; 'the author should have been treated the same way, by rights,' he added, 'for presuming to fight duels for me like that, and shoot down elephants single-handed.' A very natural indignation in Alexander, of a piece with his treatment of the intrusive architect; this person offered to convert the whole of Mount Athos into a colossal statue of the king--who however decided that he was a toady, and actually gave him less employment in ordinary than before. 13The fact is, there is nothing agreeable in these things, except to any one who is fool enough to enjoy commendations which p. 116 the slightest inquiry will prove to be unfounded; of course there are ugly persons--women more especially--who ask artists to paint them as beautiful as they can; they think they will be really better-looking if the painter heightens the rose a little and distributes a good deal of the lily. There you have the origin of the present crowd of historians, intent only upon the passing day, the selfish interest, the profit which they reckon to make out of their work; execration is their desert--in the present for their undisguised clumsy flattery, in the future for the stigma which their exaggerations bring upon history in general. If any one takes some admixture of the agreeable to be an absolute necessity, let him be content with the independent beauties of style; these are agreeable without being false; but they are usually neglected now, for the better foisting upon us of irrelevant substitutes. Passing from that point, I wish to put on record some fresh14 recollections of Ionian histories--supported, now I think of it, by Greek analogies also of recent date--both concerned with the war already alluded to. You may trust my report, the Graces be my witness; I would take oath to its truth, if it were polite to swear on paper. One writer started with invoking the Muses to lend a hand. What a tasteful exordium! How suited to the historic spirit! How appropriate to the style! When he had got a little way on, he compared our ruler to Achilles, and the Parthian king to Thersites; he forgot that Achilles would have done better if he had had Hector instead of Thersites to beat, if there had been a man of might fleeing in front, But at his heels a mightier far than he. [paragraph continues] He next proceeded to say something handsome about himself, as a fit chronicler of such brilliant deeds. As he got near his point of departure, he threw in a word for his native town of Miletus, adding that he was thus improving on Homer, who p. 117 never so much as mentioned his birthplace. And he concluded his preface with a plain express promise to advance our cause and personally wage war against the barbarians, to the best of his ability. The actual history, and recital of the causes of hostilities, began with these words:--'The detestable Vologesus (whom Heaven confound!) commenced war on the following pretext.' 15Enough of him. Another is a keen emulator of Thucydides, and by way of close approximation to his model starts with his own name--most graceful of beginnings, redolent of Attic thyme! Look at it: 'Crepereius Calpurnianus of Pompeiopolis wrote the history of the war between Parthia and Rome, how they warred one upon the other, beginning with the commencement of the war.' After that exordium, what need to describe the rest--what harangues he delivers in Armenia, resuscitating our old friend the Corcyrean envoy--what a plague he inflicts on Nisibis (which would not espouse the Roman cause), lifting the whole thing bodily from Thucydides--except the Pelasgicum and the Long Walls, where the victims of the earlier plague found shelter; there the difference ends; like the other, 'it began in Ethiopia, whence it descended to Egypt,' and to most of the Parthian empire, where it very discreetly remained. I left him engaged in burying the poor Athenians in Nisibis, and knew quite well how he would continue after my exit. Indeed it is a pretty common belief at present that you are writing like Thucydides, if you just use his actual words, mutatis mutandis 1. Ah, and I almost forgot to mention one thing: this same writer gives many names of weapons and military engines in Latin--phossa for trench, pons for bridge, and so forth. Just think of the dignity of history, and the Thucydidean style--the Attic embroidered with these Latin words, like a toga relieved and picked out with the purple stripe--so harmonious! p. 118 Another puts down a bald list of events, as prosy and commonplace16 as a private's or a carpenter's or a sutler's diary. However, there is more sense in this poor man's performance; he flies his true colours from the first; he has cleared the ground for some educated person who knows how to deal with history. The only fault I have to find with him is that he inscribes his volumes with a solemnity rather disproportioned to the rank of their contents--'Parthian History, by Callimorphus, Surgeon of the 6th Pikemen, volume so-and-so.' Ah, yes, and there is a lamentable preface, which closes with the remark that, since Asclepius is the son of Apollo, and Apollo director of the Muses and patron of all culture, it is very proper for a doctor to write history. Also, he starts in Ionic, but very soon, for no apparent reason, abandons it for every-day Greek, still keeping the Ionic es and ks and ous, but otherwise writing like ordinary people--rather too ordinary, indeed. Perhaps I should balance him with a philosophic historian; 17 this gentleman's name I will conceal, and merely indicate his attitude, as revealed in a recent publication at Corinth. Much had been expected of him, but not enough; starting straight off with the first sentence of the preface, he subjects his readers to a dialectic catechism, his thesis being the highly philosophic one, that no one but a philosopher should write history. Very shortly there follows a second logical process, itself followed by a third; in fact the whole preface is one mass of dialectic figures. There is flattery, indeed, ad nauseam, eulogy vulgar to the point of farce; but never without the logical trimmings; always that dialectical catechism. I confess it strikes me as a vulgarity also, hardly worthy of a philosopher with so long and white a beard, when he gives it in his preface as our ruler's special good fortune that philosophers should consent to record his actions; he had better have left us to reach that conclusion for ourselves--if at all. p. 119 18Again, it would be a sinful neglect to omit the man who begins like this:--'I devise to tell of Romans and Persians'; then a little later, 'For 'twas Heaven's decree that the Persians should suffer evils'; and again, 'One Osroes there was, whom Hellenes name Oxyroes'--and much more in that style. He corresponds, you see, to one of my previous examples; only he is a second Herodotus, and the other a second Thucydides. 19There is another distinguished artist in words--again rather more Thucydidean than Thucydides--, who gives, according to his own idea, the clearest, most convincing descriptions of every town, mountain, plain, or river. I wish my bitterest foe no worse fate than the reading of them. Frigid? Caspian snows, Celtic ice, are warm in comparison. A whole book hardly suffices him for the Emperor's shield--the Gorgon on its boss, with eyes of blue and white and black, rainbow girdle, and snakes twined and knotted. Why, Vologesus's breeches or his bridle, God bless me, they take up several thousand lines apiece; the same for the look of Osroes's hair as he swims the Tigris--or what the cave was like that sheltered him, ivy and myrtle and bay clustered all together to shut out every ray of light. You observe how indispensable it all is to the history; without the scene, how could we have comprehended the action? 20It is helplessness about the real essentials, or ignorance of what should be given, that makes them take refuge in word-painting--landscapes, caves, and the like; and when they do come upon a series of important matters, they are just like a slave whose master has left him his money and made him a rich man; he does not know how to put on his clothes or take his food properly; partridges or sweetbreads or hare are served; but he rushes in, and fills himself up with pea soup or salt fish, till he is fit to burst. Well, the man I spoke of gives the most unconvincing wounds and singular deaths: some one has his big toe injured, and dies on the spot; the general Priscus calls p. 120 out, and seven-and-twenty of the enemy fall dead at the sound. As to the numbers killed, he actually falsifies dispatches; at Europus he slaughters 70,236 of the enemy, while the Romans lose two, and have seven wounded! How any man of sense can tolerate such stuff, I do not know. Here is another point quite worth mention. This writer has21 such a passion for unadulterated Attic, and for refining speech to the last degree of purity, that he metamorphoses the Latin names and translates them into Greek; Saturninus figures as Cronius, Fronto must be Phrontis, Titianus Titanius, with queerer transmogrifications yet. Further, on the subject of Severian's death, he accuses all other writers of a blunder in putting him to the sword; he is really to have starved himself to death, as the most painless method; the fact, however, is that it was all over in three days, whereas seven days is the regular time for starvation; are we perhaps to conceive an Osroes waiting about for Severian to complete the process, and putting off his assault till after the seventh day? Then, Philo, how shall we class the historians who indulge in22 poetical phraseology? 'The catapult rocked responsive,' they say; 'Loud thundered the breach'; or, somewhere else in this delectable history, 'Thus Edessa was girdled with clash of arms, and all was din and turmoil,' or, 'The general pondered in his heart how to attack the wall.' Only he fills up the interstices with such wretched common lower-class phrases as 'The military prefect wrote His Majesty,' 'The troops were procuring the needful,' 'They got a wash 1 and put in an appearance,' and so on. It is like an actor with one foot raised on a high buskin, and the other in a slipper. p. 121 23You will find others writing brilliant high-sounding prefaces of outrageous length, raising great expectations of the wonders to follow--and then comes a poor little appendix of a--history; it is like nothing in the world but a child--say the Eros you must have seen in a picture playing in an enormous mask of Heracles or a Titan; parturiunt montes, cries the audience, very naturally. That is not the way to do things; the whole should be homogeneous and uniform, and the body in proportion to the head--not a helmet of gold, a ridiculous breastplate patched up out of rags or rotten leather, shield of wicker, and pig-skin greaves. You will find plenty of historians prepared to set the Rhodian Colossus's head on the body of a dwarf; others on the contrary show us headless bodies, and plunge into the facts without exordium. These plead the example of Xenophon, who starts with 'Darius and Parysatis had two children'; if they only knew it, there is such a thing as a virtual exordium, not realized as such by everybody; but of that hereafter. 24However, any mistake in mere expression or arrangement is excusable; but when you come to fancy geography, differing from the other not by miles or leagues, but by whole days' journeys, where is the classical model for that? One writer has taken so little trouble with his facts--never met a Syrian, I suppose, nor listened to the stray information you may pick up at the barber's--, that he thus locates Europus:--'Europus lies in Mesopotamia, two days' journey from the Euphrates, and is a colony from Edessa.' Not content with that, this enterprising person has in the same book taken up my native Samosata and shifted it, citadel, walls, and all, into Mesopotamia, giving it the two rivers for boundaries, and making them shave past it, all but touching the walls on either side. I suspect you would laugh at me, Philo, if I were to set about convincing you that I am neither Parthian nor Mesopotamian, as this whimsical colony-planter makes me. p. 122 By the way, he has also a very attractive tale of Severian, 25 learnt, he assures us on oath, from one of the actual fugitives. According to this, he would not die by the sword, the rope, or poison, but contrived a death which should be tragic and impressive. He was the owner of some large goblets of the most precious glass; having made up his mind to die, he broke the largest of these, and used a splinter of it for the purpose, cutting his throat with the glass. A dagger or a lancet, good enough instruments for a manly and heroic death, he could not come at, forsooth! Then, as Thucydides composed a funeral oration over the26 first victims of that old war, our author feels it incumbent on him to do the same for Severian; they all challenge Thucydides, you see, little as he can be held responsible for the Armenian troubles. So he buries Severian, and then solemnly ushers up to the grave, as Pericles's rival, one Afranius Silo, a centurion; the flood of rhetoric which follows is so copious and remarkable that it drew tears from me--ye Graces!--tears of laughter; most of all where the eloquent Afranius, drawing to a close, makes mention, with weeping and distressful moans, of all those costly dinners and toasts. But he is a very Ajax in his conclusion. He draws his sword, gallantly as an Afranius should, and in sight of all cuts his throat over the grave--and God knows it was high time for an execution, if oratory can be felony. The historian states that all the spectators admired and lauded Afranius; as for me, I was inclined to condemn him on general grounds--he had all but given a catalogue of sauces and dishes, and shed tears over the memory of departed cakes--, but his capital offence was that he had not cut the historian-tragedian's throat before he left this life himself. I assure you, my friend, I could largely increase my list of27 such offenders; but one or two more will suffice, before proceeding to the second part of my undertaking, the suggestions p. 123 for improvement. There are some, then, who leave alone, or deal very cursorily with, all that is great and memorable; amateurs and not artists, they have no selective faculty, and loiter over copious laboured descriptions of the veriest trifles; it is as if a visitor to Olympia, instead of examining, commending or describing to his stay-at-home friends the general greatness and beauty of the Zeus, were to be struck with the exact symmetry and polish of its footstool, or the proportions of its shoe, and give all his attention to these minor points. 28For instance, I have known a man get through the battle of Europus in less than seven whole lines, and then spend twenty mortal hours on a dull and perfectly irrelevant tale about a Moorish trooper. The trooper's name was Mausacas; he wandered up the hills in search of water, and came upon some Syrian yokels getting their lunch; at first they were afraid of him, but when they found he was on the right side, they invited him to share the meal; for one of them had travelled in the Moorish country, having a brother serving in the army. Then come long stories and descriptions of how he hunted there, and saw a great herd of elephants at pasture, and was nearly eaten up by a lion, and what huge fish he had bought at Caesarea. So this quaint historian leaves the terrible carnage to go on at Europus, and lets the pursuit, the forced armistice, the settling of outposts, shift for themselves, while he lingers far into the evening watching Malchion the Syrian cheapen big mackarel at Caesarea; if night had not come all too soon, I dare say he would have dined with him when the fish was cooked. If all this had not been accurately set down in the history, what sad ignorance we should have been left in! The loss to the Romans would have been irreparable, if Mausacas the Moor had got nothing to quench his thirst, and come back fasting to camp. Yet I am wilfully omitting innumerable details of yet greater importance--the arrival of a flute-girl from the next village, p. 124 the exchange of gifts (Mausacas's was a spear, Malchion's a brooch), and other incidents most essential to the battle of Europus. It is no exaggeration to say that such writers never give the rose a glance, but devote all their curiosity to the thorns on its stem. Another entertaining person, who has never set foot outside29 Corinth, nor travelled as far as its harbour--not to mention seeing Syria or Armenia--, starts with words which impressed themselves on my memory:--'Seeing is believing: I therefore write what I have seen, not what I have been told.' His personal observation has been so close that he describes the Parthian 'Dragons' (they use this ensign as a numerical formula--a thousand men to the Dragon, I believe): they are huge live dragons, he says, breeding in Persian territory beyond Iberia; these are first fastened to great poles and hoisted up aloft, striking terror at a distance while the advance is going on; then, when the battle begins, they are released and set on the enemy; numbers of our men, it seems, were actually swallowed by them, and others strangled or crushed in their coils; of all this he was an eye-witness, taking his observations, however, from a safe perch up a tree. Thank goodness he did not come to close quarters with the brutes! we should have lost a very remarkable historian, and one who did doughty deeds in this war with his own right hand; for he had many adventures, and was wounded at Sura (in the course of a stroll from the Craneum to Lerna, apparently). All this he used to read to a Corinthian audience, which was perfectly aware that he had never so much as seen a battle-picture. Why, he did not know one weapon or engine from another; the names of manœuvres and formations had no meaning for him; flank or front, line or column, it was all one. Then there is a splendid fellow, who has boiled down into30 the compass of five hundred lines (or less, to be accurate) the p. 125 whole business from beginning to end--campaigns in Armenia, in Syria, in Mesopotamia, on the Tigris, and in Media; and having done it, he calls it a history. His title very narrowly misses being longer than his book: 'An account of the late campaigns of the Romans in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Media, by Antiochianus, victor at the festival of Apollo'; he had probably won some junior flat race. 31I have known one writer compile a history of the future, including the capture of Vologesus, the execution of Osroes (he is to be thrown to the lions), and, crowning all, our long-deferred triumph. In this prophetic vein, he sweeps hastily on to the end of his work; yet he finds time for the foundation in Mesopotamia of a city, greatest of the great, and fairest of the fair; he is still debating, however, whether the most appropriate name will be Victoria, Concord, or Peacetown; that is yet unsettled; we must leave the fair city unnamed for the present; but it is already thickly populated--with empty dreams and literary drivellings. He has also pledged himself to an account of coming events in India, and a circumnavigation of the Atlantic; nay, the pledge is half redeemed; the preface to the India is complete; the third legion, the Celtic contingent, and a small Moorish division, have crossed the Indus in full force under Cassius; our most original historian will soon be posting us up in their doings--their method of 'receiving elephants,' for instance--in letters dated Muziris or Oxydracae. 32These people's uneducated antics are infinite; they have no eyes for the noteworthy, nor, if they had eyes, any adequate faculty of expression; invention and fiction provide their matter, and belief in the first word that comes their style; they pride themselves on the number of books they run to, and yet more on their titles; for these again are quite absurd:--So-and-so's so many books of Parthian victories; The Parthis, book I; The Parthis, book II--quite a rival to the p. 126 [paragraph continues] Atthis, eh? Another does it (I have read the book) still more neatly--'The Parthonicy of Demetrius of Sagalassus.' I do not wish to ridicule or make a jest of these pretty histories; I write for a practical purpose: any one who avoids these and similar errors is already well on the road to historical success; nay, he is almost there, if the logical axiom is correct, that, with incompatibles, denial of the one amounts to affirmation of the other. Well, I may be told, you have now a clear field; the thorns33 and brambles have all been extirpated, the debris of others' buildings has been carted of, the rough places have been made smooth; come, do a little construction yourself, and show that you are not only good at destroying, but capable of yourself planning a model, in which criticism itself shall find nothing to criticize. Well then, my perfect historian must start with two indispensable34 qualifications; the one is political insight, the other the faculty of expression; the first is a gift of nature, which can never be learnt; the second should have been acquired by long practice, unremitting toil, and loving study of the classics. There is nothing technical here, and no room for any advice of mine; this essay does not profess to bestow insight and acumen on those who are not endowed with them by nature; valuable, or invaluable rather, would it have been, if it could recast and modify like that, transmute lead into gold, tin into silver, magnify a Conon or Leotrophides into Titormus or Milo. But what is the function of professional advice? not the35 creation of qualities which should be already there, but the indication of their proper use. No trainer, of course,--let him be Iccus, Herodicus, Theon, or who he may--will suggest that he can take a Perdiccas 1 and make an Olympic victor of him, p. 127 fit to face Theagenes of Thasos or Polydamas of Scotussa; what he will tell you is that, given a constitution that will stand training, his system will considerably improve it. So with us--we are not to have every failure cast in our teeth, if we claim to have invented a system for so great and difficult a subject. We do not offer to take the first comer and make a historian of him--only to point out to any one who has natural insight and acquired literary skill certain straight roads (they may or may not be so in reality) which will bring him with less waste of time and effort to his goal. 36I do not suppose you will object that the man with insight has no need of system and instruction upon the things he is ignorant of; in that case he might have played the harp or flute untaught, and in fact have been omniscient. But, as things are at present, he cannot perform in these ways untaught, though with some assistance he will learn very easily, and soon be able to get along by himself. 37You now know what sort of a pupil I (like the trainer) insist upon. He must not be weak either at understanding or at making himself understood, but a man of penetration, a capable administrator--potentially, that is,--with a soldierly spirit (which does not however exclude the civil spirit), and some military experience; at the least he must have been in camp, seen troops drilled or manœuvred, know a little about weapons and military engines, the differences between line and column, cavalry and infantry tactics (with the reasons for them), frontal and flank attacks; in a word, none of your armchair strategists relying wholly on hearsay. 38But first and foremost, let him be a man of independent spirit, with nothing to fear or hope from anybody; else he will be a corrupt judge open to undue influences. If Philip's eye is knocked out at Olynthus by Aster the Amphipolite archer, it is not his business to exclaim, but just to show him as he is; p. 128 he is not to think whether Alexander will be annoyed by a circumstantial account of the cruel murder of Clitus at table. If a Cleon has the ear of the assembly, and a monopoly of the tribune, he will not shrink on that account from describing him as a pestilent madman; all Athens will not stop him from dwelling on the Sicilian disaster, the capture of Demosthenes, the death of Nicias, the thirst, the foul water, and the shooting down of the drinkers. He will consider very rightly that no man of sense will blame him for recounting the effects of misfortune or folly in their entirety; he is not the author, but only the reporter of them. If a fleet is destroyed, it is not he who sinks it; if there is a rout, he is not in pursuit--unless perhaps he ought to have prayed for better things, and omitted to do so. Of course, if silence or contradiction would have put matters right, Thucydides might with a stroke of the pen have knocked down the counterwall on Epipolae, sent Hermocrates's trireme to the bottom, let daylight through the accursed Gylippus before he had done blocking the roads with wall and trench, and, finally, have cast the Syracusans into their own quarries and sent the Athenians cruising round Sicily and Italy with Alcibiades's first high hopes still on board. Alas, not Fate itself may undo the work of Fate. The historian's one task is to tell the thing as it happened.39 This he cannot do, if he is Artaxerxes's physician 1 trembling before him, or hoping to get a purple cloak, a golden chain, a horse of the Nisaean breed, in payment for his laudations. A fair historian, a Xenophon, a Thucydides, will not accept that position. He may nurse some private dislikes, but he will attach far more importance to the public good, and set the truth high above his hate; he may have his favourites, but he will not spare their errors. For history, I say again, has this and this only for its own; if a man will start upon it, he must p. 129 sacrifice to no God but Truth; he must neglect all else; his sole rule and unerring guide is this--to think not of those who are listening to him now, but of the yet unborn who shall seek his converse. 40Any one who is intent only upon the immediate effect may reasonably be classed among the flatterers; and History has long ago realized that flattery is as little congenial to her as the arts of personal adornment to an athlete's training. An anecdote of Alexander is to the point. 'Ah, Onesicritus,' said he, 'how I should like to come to life again for a little while, and see how your stuff strikes people by that time; at present they have good enough reason to praise and welcome it; that is their way of angling for a share of my favour.' On the same principle some people actually accept Homer's history of Achilles, full of exaggerations as it is; the one great guarantee which they recognize of his truth is the fact that his subject was not living; that leaves him no motive for lying. 41There stands my model, then: fearless, incorruptible, independent, a believer in frankness and veracity; one that will call a spade a spade, make no concession to likes and dislikes, nor spare any man for pity or respect or propriety; an impartial judge, kind to all, but too kind to none; a literary cosmopolite with neither suzerain nor king, never heeding what this or that man may think, but setting down the thing that befell. 42Thucydides is our noble legislator; he marked the admiration that met Herodotus and gave the Muses' names to his nine books; and thereupon he drew the line which parts a good historian from a bad: our work is to be a possession for ever, not a bid for present reputation; we are not to seize upon the sensational, but bequeath the truth to them that come after; he applies the test of use, and defines the end which a wise historian will set before himself: it is that, should history p. 130 ever repeat itself, the records of the past may give present guidance. Such are to be my historian's principles. As for diction43 and style, he is not to set about his work armed to the teeth from the rhetorician's arsenal of impetuosity and incisiveness, rolling periods, close-packed arguments, and the rest; for him a serener mood. His matter should be homogeneous and compact, his vocabulary fit to be understanded of the people, for the clearest possible setting forth of his subject. For to those marks which we set up for the historic spirit--44frankness and truth--corresponds one at which the historic style should first of all aim, namely, a lucidity which leaves nothing obscure, impartially avoiding abstruse out-of-the-way expressions, and the illiberal jargon of the market; we wish the vulgar to comprehend, the cultivated to commend us. Ornament should be unobtrusive, and never smack of elaboration, if it is not to remind us of over-seasoned dishes. The historian's spirit should not be without a touch of the45 poetical; it needs, like poetry, to employ impressive and exalted tones, especially when it finds itself in the midst of battle array and conflicts by land or sea; it is then that the poetic gale must blow to speed the vessel on, and help her ride the waves in majesty. But the diction is to be content with terra firma, rising a little to assimilate itself to the beauty and grandeur of the subject, but never startling the hearer, nor forgetting a due restraint; there is great risk at such times of its running wild and falling into poetic frenzy; and then it is that writers should hold themselves in with bit and bridle; with them as with horses an uncontrollable temper means disaster. At these times it is best for the spirit to go a-horseback, and the expression to run beside on foot, holding on to the saddle so as not to be outstripped. As to the marshalling of your words, a moderate compromise46 p. 131 is desirable between the harshness which results from separating what belongs together, and the jingling concatenations--one may almost call them--which are so common; one extreme is a definite vice, and the other repellent. 47Facts are not to be collected at haphazard, but with careful, laborious, repeated investigation; when possible, a man should have been present and seen for himself; failing that, he should prefer the disinterested account, selecting the informants least likely to diminish or magnify from partiality. And here comes the occasion for exercising the judgement in weighing probabilities. 48The material once complete, or nearly so, an abstract should be made of it, and a rough draught of the whole work put down, not yet distributed into its parts; the detailed arrangement should then be introduced, after which adornment may be added, the diction receive its colour, the phrasing and rhythm be perfected. 49The historian's position should now be precisely that of Zeus in Homer, surveying now the Mysians’, now the Thracian horsemen's land. Even so he will survey now his own party (telling us what we looked like to him from his post of vantage), now the Persians, and yet again both at once, if they come to blows. And when they are face to face, his eyes are not to be on one division, nor yet on one man, mounted or afoot--unless it be a Brasidas leading the forlorn hope, or a Demosthenes repelling it; his attention should be for the generals first of all; their exhortations should be recorded, the dispositions they make, and the motives and plans that prompted them. When the engagement has begun, he should give us a bird's-eye view of it, show the scales oscillating, and accompany pursuers and pursued alike. 50All this, however, with moderation; a subject is not to be ridden to death; no neglect of proportion, no childish engrossment, p. 132 but easy transitions. He should call a halt here, while he crosses over to another set of operations which demands attention; that settled up, he can return to the first set, now ripe for him; he must pass swiftly to each in turn, keeping his different lines of advance as nearly as possible level, fly from Armenia to Media, thence swoop straight upon Iberia, and then take wing for Italy, everywhere present at the nick of time. He has to make of his brain a mirror, unclouded, bright, and51 true of surface; then he will reflect events as they presented themselves to him, neither distorted, discoloured, nor variable. Historians are not writing fancy school essays; what they have to say is before them, and will get itself said somehow, being solid fact; their task is to arrange and put it into words; they have not to consider what to say, but how to say it. The historian, we may say, should be like Phidias, Praxiteles, Alcamenes, or any great sculptor. They similarly did not create the gold, silver, ivory, or other material they used; it was ready to their hands, provided by Athens, Elis, or Argos; they only made the model, sawed, polished, cemented, proportioned the ivory, and plated it with gold; that was what their art consisted in--the right arrangement of their material. The historian's business is similar--to superinduce upon events the charm of order, and set them forth in the most lucid fashion he can manage. When subsequently a hearer feels as though he were looking at what is being told him, and expresses his approval, then our historical Phidias's work has reached perfection, and received its appropriate reward. When all is ready, a writer will sometimes start without52 formal preface, if there is no pressing occasion to clear away preliminaries by that means, though even then his explanation of what he is to say constitutes a virtual preface. When a formal preface is used, one of the three objects to53 p. 133 which a public speaker devotes his exordium may be neglected; the historian, that is, has not to bespeak goodwill--only attention and an open mind. The way to secure the reader's attention is to show that the affairs to be narrated are great in themselves, throw light on Destiny, or come home to his business and bosom; and as to the open mind, the lucidity in the body of the work, which is to secure that, will be facilitated by a preliminary view of the causes in operation and a precise summary of events. 54Prefaces of this character have been employed by the best historians--by Herodotus, 'to the end that what befell may not grow dim by lapse of time, seeing that it was great and wondrous, and showed forth withal Greeks vanquishing and barbarians vanquished'; and by Thucydides, 'believing that that war would be great and memorable beyond any previous one; for indeed great calamities took place during its course.' 55After the preface, long or short in proportion to the subject, should come an easy natural transition to the narrative; for the body of the history which remains is nothing from beginning to end but a long narrative; it must therefore be graced with the narrative virtues--smooth, level, and consistent progress, neither soaring nor crawling, and the charm of lucidity--which is attained, as I remarked above, partly by the diction, and partly by the treatment of connected events. For, though all parts must be independently perfected, when the first is complete the second will be brought into essential connexion with it, and attached like one link of a chain to another; there must be no possibility of separating them; no mere bundle of parallel threads; the first is not simply to be next to the second, but part of it, their extremities intermingling. 56Brevity is always desirable, and especially where matter is abundant; and the problem is less a grammatical than a substantial one; the solution, I mean, is to deal summarily with p. 134 all immaterial details, and give adequate treatment to the principal events; much, indeed, is better omitted altogether. Suppose yourself giving a dinner, and extremely well provided; there is pastry, game, kickshaws without end, wild boar, hare, sweetbreads; well, you will not produce among these a pike, or a bowl of peasoup, just because they are there in the kitchen; you will dispense with such common things. Restraint in descriptions of mountains, walls, rivers, and the57 like, is very important; you must not give the impression that you are making a tasteless display of word-painting, and expatiating independently while the history takes care of itself. Just a light touch--no more than meets the need of clearness--, and you should pass on, evading the snare, and denying yourself all such indulgences. You have the mighty Homer's example in such a case; poet as he is, he yet hurries past Tantalus and Ixion, Tityus and the rest of them. If Parthenius, Euphorion, or Callimachus had been in his place, how many lines do you suppose it would have taken to get the water to Tantalus's lip; how many more to set Ixion spinning? Better still, mark how Thucydides--a very sparing dealer in description--leaves the subject at once, as soon as he has given an idea (very necessary and useful, too) of an engine or a siege-operation, of the conformation of Epipolae, or the Syracusan harbour. It may occur to you that his account of the plague is long; but you must allow for the subject; then you will appreciate his brevity; he is hastening on; it is only that the weight of matter holds him back in spite of himself. When it comes in your way to introduce a speech, the first58 requirement is that it should suit the character both of the speaker and of the occasion; the second is (once more) lucidity; but in these cases you have the counsel's right of showing your eloquence. Not so with praise or censure; these should be sparing, 59 p. 135 cautious, avoiding hypercriticism and producing proofs, always brief, and never intrusive; historical characters are not prisoners on trial. Without these precautions you will share the ill name of Theopompus, who delights in flinging accusations broadcast, makes a business of the thing in fact, and of himself rather a public prosecutor than a historian. 60It may occasionally happen that some extraordinary story has to be introduced; it should be simply narrated, without guarantee of its truth, thrown down for any one to make what he can of it; the writer takes no risks and shows no preference. 61But the general principle I would have remembered--it will ever be on my lips--is this: do not write merely with an eye to the present, that those now living may commend and honour you; aim at eternity, compose for posterity, and from it ask your reward; and that reward?--that it be said of you, 'This was a man indeed, free and free-spoken; flattery and servility were not in him; he was truth all through.' It is a name which a man of judgement might well prefer to all the fleeting hopes of the present. 62Do you know the story of the great Cnidian architect? He was the builder of that incomparable work, whether for size or beauty, the Pharus tower. Its light was to warn ships far out at sea, and save them from running on the Paraetonia, a spot so fatal to all who get among its reefs that escape is said to be hopeless. When the building was done, he inscribed on the actual masonry his own name, but covered this up with plaster, on which he then added the name of the reigning king. He knew that, as happened later, letters and plaster would fall off together, and reveal the words: SOSTRATUS SON OF DEXIPHANES OF CNIDUS ON BEHALF OF ALL MARINERS TO THE SAVIOUR GODS p. 136 [paragraph continues] He looked not, it appears, to that time, nor to the space of his own little life, but to this time, and to all time, as long as his tower shall stand and his art abide. So too should the historian write, consorting with Truth and63 not with flattery, looking to the future hope, not to the gratification of the flattered. There is your measuring-line for just history. If any one be found to use it, well; I have not written in vain: if none, yet have I rolled my tub on the Craneum. H. Footnotes 110:1 See note on Icaromenippus, 8. 112:1 These were very common in Roman Imperial times, for purposes of advertisement, of eliciting criticism, &c. 'The audience at recitations may be compared with the modern literary reviews, discharging the functions of a preventive and emendatory, not merely of a correctional tribunal. Before publication a work might thus be known to more hearers than it would now find readers' Mayor, Juvenal, iii. 9. 117:1 Omitting, with Dindorf, the words which appear in the Teubner text, after emendation, as: μικρὰ ῥάκια, ὅπως, καὶ αὐτὸς ἃν φαίνης, οὺ δἰ αὐτήν. 120:1 It was suggested in the Introduction that Lucian's criticism is for practical purposes out of date; but Prescott writes: 'He was surrounded by a party of friends, who had dropped in, it seems, after mass, to inquire after the state of his health, some of whom had remained to partake of his repast.' 126:1 Omitting, with Dindorf, a note on Perdiccas which runs thus: 'if Perdiccas it was, and not rather Seleucus's son Antiochus, who was wasted to a shadow by his passion for his step-mother.' 128:1 See Ctesias in Notes. Next: Introduction 
www-sacred-texts-com-794	----	Works of Lucian, Vol. III: A Portrait-study Sacred Texts  Classics  Lucian  Fowler Index  Index  Previous  Next  A PORTRAIT-STUDY Lycinus. Polystratus Ly. Polystratus, I know now what men must have felt like when they saw the Gorgon's head. I have just experienced the same sensation, at the sight of a most lovely woman. A little more, and I should have realized the legend, by being turned to stone; I am benumbed with admiration. Poly. Wonderful indeed must have been the beauty, and terrible the power of the woman who could produce such an impression on Lycinus. Tell me of this petrifying Medusa. Who is she, and whence? I would see her myself. You will not grudge me that privilege? Your jealousy will not take alarm at the prospect of a rival petrifaction at your side? Ly. Well, I give you fair warning: one distant glimpse of her, and you are speechless, motionless as any statue. Nay, that is a light affliction: the mortal wound is not dealt till her glance has fallen on you. What can save you then? She will lead you in chains, hither and thither, as the magnet draws the steel. 2Poly. Enough! You would make her more than human. And now tell me who she is. Ly. You think I am exaggerating: I fear you will have but a poor opinion of my eloquence when you see her as she is--so far above my praise. Who she is, I cannot say: but to judge p. 14 from the splendour of her surroundings, her retinue, her host of eunuchs and maids, she must be of no ordinary rank. Poly. And you never even asked her name? Ly. Why no; but she is from Ionia; because, as she passed, I heard one of the bystanders speak aside to his neighbour: 'See, he exclaimed, 'what Smyrna can produce! And what wonder, if the fairest of Ionian cities has given birth to the fairest of women?' I thought he must come from Smyrna himself, he was so proud of her. Poly. There you acted your stony part to perfection. As you3 could neither follow her, nor make inquiries of the Smyrnaean, it only remains for you to describe her as best you can, on the chance of my recognizing her. Ly. You know not what you ask. It is not in the power of words--certainly not of my words--to portray such wondrous beauty; scarcely could an Apelles, a Zeuxis, a Parrhasius,--a Phidias or an Alcamenes, do justice to it; as for my flimsy workmanship, it will but insult the original. Poly. Well, never mind; what was she like? There can be no harm in trying your hand. What if the portrait be somewhat out of drawing?--the critic is your good friend. Ly. I think my best way out of it will be to call in the aid of some of the old masters I have named: let them fashion the likeness for me. Poly. Well, but--will they come? They have been dead so long. Ly. That is easily managed: but you must not mind answering me a few questions. Poly. You have but to ask. Ly. Were you ever at Cnidus? 4 Poly. I was. Ly. Then you have seen the Aphrodite, of course? Poly. That masterpiece of Praxiteles's art! I have. p. 15 Ly. And heard the story they tell there,--of the man who fell in love with the statue, and contrived to get shut into the temple alone, and there enjoyed such favours as a statue is able to bestow.--But that is neither here nor there.--You have seen the Cnidian Aphrodite, anyhow; now I want to know whether you have also seen our own Aphrodite of the Gardens,--the Alcamenes. Poly. I must be a dullard of dullards, if that most exquisite of Alcamenes's works had escaped my notice. Ly. I forbear to ask whether in the course of your many visits to the Acropolis you ever observed the Sosandra of Calamis 1. Poly. Frequently. Ly. That is really enough for my purpose. But I should just like to know what you consider to be Phidias's best work. Poly. Can you ask?--The Lemnian Athene, which bears the artist's own signature; oh, and of course the Amazon leaning on her spear. 5Ly. I approve your judgement. We shall have no need of other artists: I am now to cull from each of these its own peculiar beauty, and combine all in a single portrait. Poly. And how are you going to do that? Ly. It is quite simple. All we have to do is to hand over our several types to Reason, whose care it must be to unite them in the most harmonious fashion, with due regard to the consistency, as to the variety, of the result. Poly. To be sure; let Reason take her materials and begin. p. 16 [paragraph continues] What will she make of it, I wonder? Will she contrive to put all these different types together without their clashing? Ly. Well, look; she is at work already. Observe her procedure6. She begins with our Cnidian importation, from which she takes only the head; with the rest she is not concerned, as the statue is nude. The hair, the forehead, the exquisite eyebrows, she will keep as Praxiteles has rendered them; the eyes, too, those soft, yet bright-glancing eyes, she leaves unaltered. But the cheeks and the front of the face are taken from the 'Garden' Goddess; and so are the lines of the hands, the shapely wrists, the delicately-tapering fingers. Phidias and the Lemnian Athene will give the outline of the face, and the well-proportioned nose, and lend new softness to the cheeks; and the same artist may shape her neck and closed lips, to resemble those of his Amazon. Calamis adorns her with Sosandra's modesty, Sosandra's grave half-smile; the decent seemly dress is Sosandra's too, save that the head must not be veiled. For her stature, let it be that of Cnidian Aphrodite; once more we have recourse to Praxiteles.--What think you, Polystratus? Is it a lovely portrait? Poly. Assuredly it will be, when it is perfected. At present7, my paragon of sculptors, one element of loveliness has escaped your comprehensive grasp. Ly. What is that? Poly. A most important one. You will agree with me that colour and tone have a good deal to do with beauty? that black should be black, white be white, and red play its blushing part? It looks to me as if the most important thing of all were still lacking. Ly. Well, how shall we manage? Call in the painters, perhaps, selecting those who were noted for their skill in mixing and laying on their colours? Be it so: we will have Polygnotus, Euphranor of course, Apelles and Aëtion; they can p. 17 divide the work between them. Euphranor shall colour the hair like his Hera's; Polygnotus the comely brow and faintly blushing cheek, after his Cassandra in the Assembly-room at Delphi. Polygnotus shall also paint her robe,--of the finest texture, part duly gathered in, but most of it floating in the breeze. For the flesh-tints, which must be neither too pale nor too high-coloured, Apelles shall copy his own Campaspe. 8And lastly, Aëtion shall give her Roxana's lips. Nay, we can do better: have we not Homer, best of painters, though a Euphranor and an Apelles be present? Let him colour all like the limbs of Menelaus, which he says were 'ivory tinged with red.' He too shall paint her calm 'ox-eyes,' and the Theban poet shall help him to give them their 'violet' hue. Homer shall add her smile, her white arms, her rosy finger-tips, and so complete the resemblance to golden Aphrodite, to whom 9he has compared Brises' daughter with far less reason. So far we may trust our sculptors and painters and poets: but for her crowning glory, for the grace--nay, the choir of Graces and Loves that encircle her--who shall portray them? Poly. This was no earthly vision, Lycinus; surely she must have dropped from the clouds.--And what was she doing? Ly. In her hands was an open scroll; half read (so I surmised) and half to be read. As she passed, she was making some remark to one of her company; what it was I did not catch. But when she smiled, ah! then, Polystratus, I beheld teeth whose whiteness, whose unbroken regularity, who shall describe? Imagine a lovely necklace of gleaming pearls, all of a size; and imagine those dazzling rows set off by ruby lips. In that glimpse, I realized what Homer meant by his 'carven ivory.' Other women's teeth differ in size; or they project; or there are gaps: here, all was equality and evenness; pearl joined to pearl in unbroken line. Oh, ’twas a wondrous sight, of beauty more than human. p. 18 Poly. Stay. I know now whom you mean, as well from your description as from her nationality. You said that there were eunuchs in her train? Ly. Yes; and soldiers too. Poly. My simple friend, the lady you have been describing is a celebrity, and possesses the affections of an Emperor. Ly. And her name? Poly. Adds one more to the list of her charms; for it is the same as that of Abradatas's wife 1.You know Xenophon's enthusiastic account of that beautiful and virtuous woman?--you have read it a dozen times. Ly. Yes; and every time I read it, it is as if she stood before me. I almost hear her uttering the words the historian has put into her mouth, and see her arming her husband and sending him forth to battle. Poly. Ah, my dear Lycinus, this lady has passed you but11 once, like a lightning flash; and your praises, I perceive, are all for those external charms that strike the eye. You are yet a stranger to her nobility of soul; you know not that higher, more god-like beauty. I am her fellow-countryman, I know her, and have conversed with her many times. You are aware that gentleness, humanity, magnanimity, modesty, culture, are things that I prize more than beauty--and rightly; to do otherwise would be as absurd as to value raiment above the body. Where physical perfection goes hand-in-hand with spiritual excellence, there alone (as I maintain) is true beauty. I could show you many a woman whose outward loveliness is marred by what is within; who has but to open her lips, and beauty stands confessed a faded, withered thing, the mean, unlovely handmaid of that odious mistress, her soul. Such women are like Egyptian temples: the shrine is fair and stately, wrought of costly marble, decked out with gilding and painting: but p. 19 seek the God within, and you find an ape--an ibis--a goat--a cat. Of how many women is the same thing true! Beauty unadorned is not enough: and her true adornments are not purple and jewels, but those others that I have mentioned, modesty, courtesy, humanity, virtue and all that waits on virtue. 12Ly. Why then, Polystratus, you shall give me story for story, good measure, shaken together, out of your abundance: paint me the portrait of her soul, that I may be no more her half-admirer. Poly. This will be no light task, my friend. It is one thing to commend what all the world can see, and quite another to reveal what is hidden. I too shall want help with my portrait. Nor will sculptors and painters suffice me: I must have philosophers; it is by their canons that I must adjust the proportions of the figure, if I am to attain to the perfection of ancient models. 13To begin then. Of her clear, liquid voice Homer might have said, with far more truth than of aged Nestor's, that honey from those lips distilled. [paragraph continues] The pitch, exquisitely soft, as far removed from masculine bass as from ultra-feminine treble, is that of a boy before his voice breaks; sweet, seductive, suavely penetrating; it ceases, and still vibrating murmurs play, echo-like, about the listener's ears, and Persuasion leaves her honeyed track upon his mind. But oh! the joy, to hear her sing, and sing to the lyre's accompaniment. Let swans and halcyons and cicalas then be mute. There is no music like hers; Philomela's self, 'full-throated 14songstress' though she be, is all unskilled beside her. Methinks Orpheus and Amphion, whose spell drew even lifeless things to hear them, would have dropped their lyres and stood listening in silence to that voice. What should Thracian Orpheus, what should Amphion, whose days upon Cithaeron were divided p. 20 betwixt his lyre and his herd,--what should they know of true concord, of accurate rhythm, of accentuation and time, of the harmonious adaptation of lyre and voice, of easy and graceful execution? Yes; once hear her sing, Lycinus, and you will know something of Sirens as well as of Gorgons: you have experienced petrifaction; you will next learn what it is to stand entranced, forgetting country and kindred. Wax will not avail you: her song will penetrate through all; for therein is every grace that Terpsichore, Melpomene, Calliope herself, could inspire. In a word, imagine that you hear such notes as should issue from those lips, those teeth that you have seen. Her perfect intonation, her pure Ionic accent, her ready Attic15 eloquence, need not surprise you; these are her birthright; for is not Smyrna Athens' daughter? And what more natural than that she should love poetry, and make it her chief study? Homer is her fellow citizen.--There you have my first portrait; the portrait of a sweet-voiced songstress, though it fall far short of its original. And now for others. For I do not propose to make one of many, as you did. I aim higher: the complex picture of so many beauties wrought into one, however artful be the composition, cannot escape inconsistency: with me, each separate virtue of her soul shall sit for its own portrait. Ly. What a banquet awaits me! Here, assuredly, is good measure. Mete it out; I ask for nothing better. Poly. I proceed then to the delineation of Culture, the confessed16 mistress of all mental excellences, particularly of all acquired ones: I must render her features in all their manifold variety; not even here shall my portraiture be inferior to your own. I paint her, then, with every grace that Helicon can give. Each of the Muses has but her single accomplishment, be it tragedy or history or hymn: all these Culture shall have, and with them the gifts of Hermes and of Apollo. The poet's graceful numbers, the orator's persuasive power, the p. 21 historian's learning, the sage's counsel, all these shall be her adornments; the colours shall be imperishable, and laid on with no niggardly brush. It is not my fault, if I am unable to point to any classical model for the portrait: the records of antiquity afford no precedent for a culture so highly developed.--May I hang this beside the other? I think it is a passable likeness. Ly. Passable! My dear Polystratus, it is sublime; exquisitely finished in every line. 17Poly. Next I have to depict Wisdom; and here I shall have occasion for many models, most of them ancient; one comes, like the lady herself, from Ionia. The artists shall be Aeschines and Socrates his master, most realistic of painters, for their heart was in their work. We could choose no better model of wisdom than Milesian Aspasia, the admired of the admirable 'Olympian' 1; her political knowledge and insight, her shrewdness and penetration, shall all be transferred to our canvas in their perfect measure. Aspasia, however, is only preserved to us in miniature: our proportions must be those of a colossus. Ly. Explain. Poly. The portraits will be alike, but not on the same scale. There is a difference between the little republic of ancient Athens, and the Roman Empire of to-day; and there will be the same difference in scale (however close the resemblance in other respects) between our huge canvas and that miniature. 18A second and a third model may be found in Theano, and in the poetess of Lesbos; nay, we may add Diotima too. Theano shall give grandeur to the picture, Sappho elegance; and Diotima shall be represented as well by her wisdom and sagacity, as by the qualities for which Socrates commended her. The portrait is complete. Let it be hung. 19Ly. ’Tis a fine piece of work. Proceed. p. 22 Poly. Courtesy, benevolence: that is now my subject. I have to show forth her gentle disposition, her graciousness to suppliants. She shall appear in the likeness of Theano--Antenor's Theano this time--, of Arete and her daughter Nausicaa, and of every other who in her high station has borne herself with constancy. Next comes constancy of another kind20,--constancy in love; its original, the daughter of Icarius, 'constant' and 'wise,' as Homer draws her; am I doing more than justice to his Penelope? And there is another: our lady's namesake, Abradatas's wife; of her we have already spoken. Ly. Once more, noble work, Polystratus. And now your task must be drawing to a close: here is a whole soul depicted; its every virtue praised. Poly. Not yet: the highest praise remains. Born to magnificence21, she clothes not herself in the pride of wealth; listens not to Fortune's flattering tale, who tells her she is more than human; but walks upon the common ground, far removed from all thought of arrogance and ostentation. Every man is her equal; her greeting, her smile are for all who approach her; and how acceptable is the kindness of a superior, when it is free from every touch of condescension! When the power of the great turns not to insolence but to beneficence, we feel that Fortune has bestowed her gifts aright. Here alone Envy has no place. For how should one man grudge another his prosperity when he sees him using it with moderation, not, like the Homeric Ate, an oppressor of the weak, trampling on men's necks? It is otherwise with those meaner souls--victims of their own ignoble vanity--, who, when Fortune has raised them suddenly beyond their hopes into her winged aerial car, know no rest, can never look behind them, but must ever press upwards. To such the end soon comes: Icarus-like, with melted wax and moulting feathers, they fall headlong into the billows, a derision to mankind. The Daedaluses use their waxen wings p. 23 with moderation: they are but men; they husband their strength accordingly, and are content to fly a little higher than the waves,--so little that the sun never finds them dry; and that prudence is their salvation. Therein lies this lady's highest praise. She has her reward: all men pray that her wings may never droop, and that blessings may increase upon her. 22Ly. And may the prayer be granted! She deserves every blessing: she is not outwardly fair alone, like Helen, but has a soul within more fair, more lovely than her body. It is a fitting crown to the happiness of our benevolent and gracious Emperor, that in his day such a woman should be born; should be his, and her affections his. It is blessedness indeed, to possess one of whom we may say with Homer that she contends with golden Aphrodite in beauty, and in works is the equal of Athene. Who of womankind shall be compared to her In comeliness, in wit, in goodly works? 23Poly. Who indeed?--Lycinus, I have a proposal to make. Let us combine our portraits, yours of the body and mine of the soul, and throw them into a literary form, for the enjoyment of our generation and of all posterity. Such a work will be more enduring than those of Apelles and Parrhasius and Polygnotus; it will be far removed from creations of wood and wax and colour, being inspired by the Muses, in whom alone is that true portraiture that shows forth in one likeness a lovely body and a virtuous soul. There is no § 10 marked in the copytext--JBH. Footnotes 15:1 This statue is usually identified with one of Aphrodite by the same sculptor, mentioned in Pausanias. Soteira ('saviour') is known as an epithet of Aphrodite: but Sosandra ('man-saving') is explained as a nickname of the particular statue, in playful allusion to Callias, the donor, who was apparently indebted to Aphrodite for his success with a certain Elpinice. 18:1 See Panthea in Notes. 21:1 See Pericles in Notes. Next: Defence of the 'Portrait-Study' 
www-sacred-texts-com-8998	----	Works of Lucian, Vol. III: Defence of the 'Portrait-Study' Sacred Texts  Classics  Lucian  Fowler Index  Index  Previous  Next  p. 24 DEFENCE OF THE 'PORTRAIT-STUDY' Polystratus. Lycinus Poly. Well, here is the lady's comment. Your pages are most kind and complimentary, I am sure, Lycinus. No one would have so over-praised me who had not felt kindly towards me. But if you would know my real feeling, here it is. I never do much like the complaisant; they always strike me as insincere and wanting in frankness. But when it comes to a set panegyric, in which my much magnified virtues are painted in glaring colours, I blush and would fain stop my ears, and feel that I am rather being made fun of than commended. Praise is tolerable up to the point at which the object of it can2 still believe in the existence of the qualities attributed to him; pass that point, and he is revolted and finds the flatterer out. Of course I know there are plenty of people who are glad enough to have non-existent qualities added to their praises; who do not mind being called young and lusty in their decline, or Nireuses and Phaons though they are hideous; who, Pelias-like, expect praise to metamorphose or rejuvenate them. But they are mistaken. Praise would indeed be a most precious3 commodity if there were any way of converting its extravagances into solid fact. But there being none, they can only be compared to an ugly man on whom one should clap a beautiful mask, and who should then be proud of those looks that any one could take from him and break to pieces; revealed in his true likeness, he would be only the more ridiculous for the contrast between casket and treasure. Or, if you will, imagine a little man on stilts measuring heights with people who have eighteen inches the better of him in stocking feet. And then she told this story. There was a noble lady, fair4 p. 25 and comely in all respects except that she was short and ill-proportioned. A poet wrote an ode in her honour, and included among her beauties that of tallness; her slender height was illustrated from the poplar. She was in ecstasies, as though the verses were making her grow, and kept waving her hand. Which the poet seeing, and realizing her appetite for praise, recited the lines again and again, till at last one of the company whispered in his ear, 'Stop, my good man; you will be making her get up.' 5She added a similar but still more absurd anecdote of Stratonice the wife of Seleucus, who offered a talent to the poet who should best celebrate her hair. As a matter of fact she was bald, with not a hair to call her own. But what matter what her head was like, or that every one knew how a long illness had treated her? she listened to these abandoned poets telling of hyacinthine locks, plaiting thick tresses, and making imaginary curls as crisp as parsley. 6All such surrenders to flattery were laughed to scorn, with the addition that many people were just as fond of being flattered and fooled by portrait-painters as these by verbal artists. What these people look for in a painter (she said) is readiness to improve nature: Some of them insist upon the artist's taking a little off their noses, deepening the shade of their eyes, or otherwise idealizing them to order; it quite escapes them that the garlands they afterwards put on the picture are offered to another person who bears no relation to themselves. 7And so she went on, finding much in your composition to approve, but displeased in particular with your likening her to Hera and Aphrodite. Such comparisons are far too high for me, she said, or indeed for any of womankind. Why, I would not have had you put me on a level with women of the Heroic Age, with a Penelope, an Arete, a Theano; how much less with the chief of the Goddesses. Where the Gods are concerned (she continued; p. 26 and mark her here), I am very apprehensive and timid. I fear that to accept a panegyric like this would be to make a Cassiopeia of myself; though indeed she only challenged the Nereids, and stopped short of Hera and Aphrodite. So, Lycinus, she insisted that you must recast all this; otherwise8 she must call the Goddesses to witness that you had written against her wishes, and leave you to the knowledge that the piece would be an annoyance to her, if it circulated in its present shape, so lacking in reverence and piety. The outrage on reverence would be put down to her, if she allowed herself to be likened to her of Cnidus and her of the Garden. She would have you bear in mind the close of your discourse, where you spoke of the unassuming modesty that attempted no superhuman flights, but kept near the earth. It was inconsistent with that to take the same woman up to heaven and compare her with Goddesses. She would like to be allowed as much sense as Alexander9; he, when his architect proposed to transform Mount Athos into a vast image of the King with a pair of cities in his hands, shrank from the grandiose proposal; such presumption was beyond him; such patent megalomania must be suppressed; leave Athos alone, he said, and do not degrade a mighty mountain to the similitude of a poor human body. This only showed the greatness of Alexander, and itself constituted in the eyes of all future generations a monument higher than any Athos; to be able to scorn so extraordinary an honour was itself magnanimity. So she commends your work of art, and your selective method10, but cannot recognize the likeness. She does not come up to the description, nor near it, for indeed no woman could. Accordingly she sends you back your laudation, and pays homage to the originals from which you drew it. Confine your praises within the limits of humanity; if the shoe is too big, it may p. 27 chance to trip her up. Then there was another point which I was to impress upon you. 11I often hear, she said,--but whether it is true, you men know better than I--that at Olympia the victors are not allowed to have their statues set up larger than life; the Stewards see to it that no one transgresses this rule, examining the statues even more scrupulously than they did the competitor's qualification. Take care that we do not get convicted of false proportions, and find our statue thrown down by the Stewards. 12And now I have given you her message. It is for you, Lycinus, to overhaul your work, and by removing these blemishes avoid the offence. They shocked and made her nervous as I read; she kept on addressing the Goddesses in propitiatory words; and such feelings may surely be permitted to her sex. For that matter, to be quite frank, I shared them to some extent. At the first hearing I found no offence; but as soon as she put her finger on the fault, I began to agree. You know what happens with visible objects; if we look at them at close quarters, just under our eyes, I mean, we distinguish nothing clearly; but stepping back to the right distance, we get a clear conception of what is right and what is wrong about them. That was my experience here. 13After all, to compare a mortal to Hera and Aphrodite is cheapening the Goddesses, and nothing else. In such comparisons the small is not so much magnified as the great is diminished and reduced. If a giant and a dwarf were walking together, and their heights had to be equalized, no efforts of the dwarf could effect it, however much he stood on tiptoe; the giant must stoop and make himself out shorter than he is. So in this sort of portraiture: the human is not so much exalted by the similitude as the divine is belittled and pulled down. If indeed a lack of earthly beauties forced the artist upon scaling Heaven, he might perhaps be acquitted of blasphemy; but your p. 28 enterprise was so needless; why Aphrodite and Hera, when you have all mortal beauty to choose from? Prune and chasten, then, Lycinus. All this is not quite like14 you, who never used to be over-ready with your commendation; you seem to have gone now to the opposite extreme of prodigality, and developed from a niggard into a spendthrift of praise. Do not be ashamed to make alterations in what you have already published, either. They say Phidias did as much after finishing his Olympian Zeus. He stood behind the doors when he had opened them for the first time to let the work be seen, and listened to the comments favourable or the reverse. One found the nose too broad, another the face too long, and so on. When the company was gone, he shut himself up again to correct and adapt his statue to the prevailing taste. Advice so many-headed was not to be despised; the many must after all see further than the one, though that one be Phidias. There is the counsel of a friend and well-wisher to back up the lady's message. Ly. Why, Polystratus, I never knew what an orator you were15. After that eloquent close-packed indictment of my booklet, I almost despair of the defence. You and she were not quite judicial, though; you less than she, in condemning the accused when its counsel was not in court. It is always easy to win a walk-over, you know; so no wonder we were convicted, not being allowed to speak or given the ear of the court. But, still more monstrous, you were accusers and jury at once. Well, what am I to do? accept the verdict and hold my tongue? pen a palinode like Stesichorus? or will you grant an appeal? Poly. Surely, if you have anything to say for yourself. For you will be heard not by opponents, as you say, but by friends. Indeed, my place is with you in the dock. Ly. How I wish I could, have spoken in her own presence16! that would have been far better; but I must do it by proxy. p. 29 [paragraph continues] However, if you will report me to her as well as you did her to me, I will adventure. Poly. Trust me to do justice to the defence; but put it shortly, in mercy to my memory. Ly. So severe an indictment should by rights be met at length; but for your sake I will cut it short. Put these considerations before her from me, then. Poly. No, not that way, please. Make your speech, just as though she were listening, and I will reproduce you to her. Ly. Very well, then. She is here; she has just delivered the oration which you have described to me; it is now counsel's turn. And yet--I must confide my feelings to you--you have made my undertaking somehow more formidable; you see the beads gather on my brow; my courage goes; I seem to see her there; my situation bewilders me. Yet begin I will; how can I draw back when she is there? Poly. Ah, but her face promises a kindly hearing; see how bright and gracious. Pluck up heart, man, and begin. 17Ly. Most noble lady, in what you term the great and excessive praise that I bestowed upon you, I find no such high testimony to your merits as that which you have borne yourself by your surprise at the attribution of divinity. That one thing surpasses all that I have said of you, and my only excuse for not having added this trait to my portrait is that I was not aware of it; if I had been, no other should have had precedence of it. In this light I find myself, far from exaggerating, to have fallen much short of the truth. Consider the magnitude of this omission, the convincing demonstration of a sterling character and a right disposition which I lost; for those will be the best in human relations who are most earnest in their dealings with the divine. Why, were it decided that I must correct my words and retouch my statue, I should do it not by presuming to take away from it, but by adding this as its crowning grace. p. 30 [paragraph continues] But from another point of view I have a great debt of gratitude to acknowledge. I commend your natural modesty, and your freedom from that vanity and pride which so exalted a position as yours might excuse. The best witness to my correctness is just the exception that you have taken to my words. That instead of receiving the praise I offered as your right you should be disturbed at it and call it excessive, is the proof of your unassuming modesty. Nevertheless, the more you reveal that this is your view of praise, the stronger proof you give of your own worthiness to be praised. You are an exact illustration of what Diogenes said when some one asked him how he might become famous:--'by despising fame.' So if I were asked who most deserve praise, I should answer, Those who refuse it. 18 But I am perhaps straying from the point. What I have to defend is the having likened you, in giving your outward form, to the Cnidian and the Garden Aphrodite, to Hera and Athene; such comparisons you find out of all proportion. I will deal directly with them, then. It has indeed been said long ago that poets and painters are irresponsible; that is still more true, I conceive, of panegyrists, even humble prose ones like myself who are not run away with by their metre. Panegyric is a chartered thing, with no standard quantitative measure to which it must conform; its one and only aim is to express deep admiration and set its object in the most enviable light. However, I do not intend to take that line of defence; you might think I did so because I had no other open. 19 But I have. I refer you to the proper formula of panegyric, which requires the author to introduce illustrations, and depends mainly on their goodness for success. Now this goodness is shown not when the illustration is just like the thing illustrated, nor yet when it is inferior, but when it is as high above it as may be. If in praising a dog one should remark that it was bigger than a fox or a cat, would you regard him as a skilful p. 31 panegyrist? certainly not. Or if he calls it the equal of a wolf, he has not made very much of it so either. Where is the right thing to be found? why, in likening the dog's size and spirit to the lion's. So the poet who would praise Orion's dog called it the lion-queller. There you have the perfect panegyric of the dog. Or take Milo of Croton, Glaucus of Carystus, or Polydamas; to say of them by way of panegyric that each of them was stronger than a woman would be to make oneself a laughing-stock; one man instead of the woman would not much mend matters. But what, pray, does a famous poet make of Glaucus?-- To match those hands not e’en the might   Of Pollux' self had dared; Alcmena's son, that iron wight,   Had shrunk-- [paragraph continues] See what Gods he equals him to, or rather what Gods he puts him above. And Glaucus took no exception to being praised at the expense of his art's patron deities; nor yet did they send any judgement on athlete or poet for irreverence; both continued to be honoured in Greece, one for his might, and the other for this even more than for his other odes. Do not be surprised, then, that when I wished to conform to the canons of my art and find an illustration, I took an exalted one, as reason was that I should. 20You used the word flattery. To dislike those who practise it is only what you should do, and I honour you for it. But I would have you distinguish between panegyric proper and the flatterer's exaggeration of it. The flatterer praises for selfish ends, cares little for truth, and makes it his business to magnify indiscriminately; most of his effects consist in lying additions of his own; he thinks nothing of making Thersites handsomer than Achilles, or telling Nestor he is younger than any of the host; he will swear Croesus's son hears better than Melampus, p. 32 and give Phineus better sight than Lynceus, if he sees his way to a profit on the lie. But the panegyrist pure and simple, instead of lying outright, or inventing a quality that does not exist, takes the virtues his subject really does possess, though possibly not in large measure, and makes the most of them. The horse is really distinguished among the animals we know for light-footed speed; well, in praising a horse, he will hazard: The corn-stalks brake not ’neath his airy tread. [paragraph continues] He will not be frightened of 'whirlwind-footed steeds.' If his theme is a noble house, with everything handsome about it, Zeus on Olympus dwells in such a home, we shall be told. But your flatterer would use that line about the swineherd's hovel, if he saw a chance of getting anything out of the swineherd. Demetrius Poliorcetes had a flatterer called Cynaethus who, when he was gravelled for lack of matter, found some in a cough that troubled his patron--he cleared his throat so musically! There you have one criterion: flatterers do not draw the line21 at a lie if it will please their patrons; panegyrists aim merely at bringing into relief what really exists. But there is another great difference: the flatterers exaggerate as much as ever they can; the panegyrists in the midst of exaggeration observe the limitations of decency. And now that you have one or two of the many tests for flattery and panegyric proper, I hope you will not treat all praise as suspect, but make distinctions and assign each specimen to its true class. By your leave I will proceed to apply the two definitions to22 what I wrote; which of them fits it? If it had been an ugly woman that I likened to the Cnidian statue, I should deserve to be thought a toady, further gone in flattery than Cynaethus. But as it was one for whose charms I can call all men to witness, my shot was not so far out. p. 33 23Now you will perhaps say--nay, you have said already--Praise my beauty, if you will; but the praise should not have been of that invidious kind which compares a woman to Goddesses. Well, I will keep truth at arm's length no longer; I did not, dear lady, compare you to Goddesses, but to the handiwork in marble and bronze and ivory of certain good artists. There is no impiety, surely, in illustrating mortal beauty by the work of mortal hands--unless you take the thing that Phidias fashioned to be indeed Athene, or Praxiteles's not much later work at Cnidus to be the heavenly Aphrodite. But would that be quite a worthy conception of divine beings? I take the real presentment of them to be beyond the reach of human imitation. 24But granting even that it had been the actual Goddesses to whom I likened you, it would be no new track, of which I had been the pioneer; it had been trodden before by many a great poet, most of all by your fellow citizen Homer, who will kindly now come and share my defence, on pain of sharing my sentence. I will ask him, then--or rather you for him; for it is one of your merits to have all his finest passages by heart--what think you, then, of his saying about the captive Briseis that in her mourning for Patroclus she was 'Golden Aphrodite's peer'? A little further on, Aphrodite alone not meeting the case, it is: So spake that weeping dame, a match for Goddesses. When he talks like that, do you take offence and fling the book away, or has he your licence to expatiate in panegyric? Whether he has yours or not, he has that of all these centuries, wherein not a critic has found fault with him for it, not he that dared to scourge his statue 1, not he whose marginal pen 2 bastarded so many of his verses. Now, shall he have leave to match with p. 34 [paragraph continues] Golden Aphrodite a barbarian woman, and her in tears, while I, lest I should describe the beauty that you like not to hear of, am forbidden to compare certain images to a lady who is ever bright and smiling--that beauty which mortals share with Gods? When he had Agamemnon in hand, he was most chary of25 divine similitudes, to be sure! what economy and moderation in his use of them! Let us see--eyes and head from Zeus, belt from Ares, chest from Posidon; why, he deals the man out piecemeal among the host of Heaven. Elsewhere, Agamemnon is 'like baleful Ares'; others have their heavenly models; Priam's son (a Phrygian, mark) is 'of form divine,' the son of Peleus is again and again 'a match for Gods.' But let us come back to the feminine instances You remember, of course,                            --a match For Artemis or golden Aphrodite; and Like Artemis adown the mountain slope. But he does not even limit himself to comparing the whole26 man to a God; Euphorbus's mere hair is called like the Graces--when it is dabbled with blood, too. In fact the practice is so universal that no branch of poetry can do without its ornaments from Heaven. Either let all these be blotted, or let me have the same licence. Moreover, illustration is so irresponsible that Homer allows himself to convey his compliments to Goddesses by using creatures inferior to them. Hera is ox-eyed. Another poet colours Aphrodite's eyes from the violet. As for fingers like the rose, it takes but little of Homer's society to bring us acquainted with them. Still, so far we do not get beyond mere looks; a man is only27 called like a God. But think of the wholesale adaptation of their names, by Dionysiuses, Hephaestions, Zenos, Posidoniuses, p. 35 [paragraph continues] Hermaeuses. Leto, wife of Evagoras, King of Cyprus, even dispensed with adaptation; but her divine namesake, who could have turned her into stone like Niobe, took no offence. What need to mention that the most religious race on earth, the Egyptian, never tires of divine names? most of those it uses hail from Heaven. 28Consequently, there is not the smallest occasion for you to be nervous about the panegyric. If what I wrote contains anything offensive to the deity, you are not responsible, unless you consider we are responsible for all that goes in at our ears; no, I shall pay the penalty--as soon as the Gods have settled with Homer and the other poets. Ah, and they have not done so yet with the best of all philosophers 1, for saying that man is a likeness of God. But now, though I could say much more, madam, I must have compassion upon Polystratus's memory, and cease. 29Poly. I am not so sure I am equal to it, Lycinus, as it is. You have made it long, and exceeded your time limit. However, I will do my best. See, I scurry off with my fingers in my ears, that no alien sound may find its way in to disturb the arrangement; I do not want to be hissed by my audience. Ly. Well, the responsibility for a correct report lies with you alone. And having now duly instructed you, I will retire for the present. But when the verdict is brought into court, I will be there to learn the result. H. Footnotes 33:1 Zoilus, called Homeromastix. 33:2 Aristarchus. 35:1 Lucian's 'best of all philosophers' might be Plato, who is their spokesman in 'The Fisher' (see §§ 14, 22), or Epicurus, in the light of two passages in the 'Alexander' (§§ 47, 61) in which he almost declares himself an Epicurean. The exact words are not found in Plato, though several similar expressions are quoted; words of Epicurus appear to be translated in Cicero, De nat. Deorum, Book I, xviii s. f., hominis esse specie deos confitendum est: we must admit that the Gods are in the image of man. Next: Toxaris: A Dialogue Of Friendship 
www-tertullian-org-455	----	Herodian of Antioch, History of the Roman Empire (1961) pp.1-10. Introduction Herodian of Antioch, History of the Roman Empire (1961) pp.1-10. Introduction [Dustjacket] Price: $5.00 HERODIAN OF ANTIOCH'S HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE Translated from the Greek by Edward C. Echols Herodian's history is a lively contemporary record of a half century of scandal and intrigue, of corruption and progressive decay, in the empire. In eight books, it covers the years from 180 to 238, from the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III. Although Dio Cassius had already written the definitive history of his age, Herodian, a native of Syria, and a minor civil servant in Rome, undertook to write, from a somewhat limited personal experience, supplemented by reference to standard authorities, a moralizing account of the downward spiral of the empire. He recognizes, acutely for his time, that the death of Marcus Aurelius was the end of an era in Rome's history and he is chiefly concerned to show his readers the corruption that followed upon it. In his literary style Herodian is very much the product of his age: rhetorical, pompous, repetitive, derivative. Yet, unlike other imperial biographists, he makes no observations on the sexual experiments of the emperors, but chooses to ignore them. Perhaps, as Mr. Echols suggests in his introduction, the explanation for this singular omission is that Herodian, himself a Syrian, is reluctant to reveal the more notorious activities of the Syrian emperors. He is a sincere moralizer with a thoroughly patriotic Roman outlook. His account remains the best connected of any contemporary source and is a valuable example of later classical historiography. This is the first English translation from the Greek text since 1749. An introduction discusses the few facts about Herodian's life that are known, assesses his place in Roman historiography, describes his method, philosophy, and style, and comments on Herodian scholarship to date. EDWARD ECHOLS is the author of some fifty articles in the classical journals. His special interest is in translating from late Latin and Greek historical writings. He teaches Latin at The Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire. HERODIAN OF ANTIOCH'S HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE  FROM THE DEATH OF MARCUS AURELIUS TO THE ACCESSION OF GORDIAN III TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK BY EDWARD C. ECHOLS UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY & LOS ANGELES MCMLXI UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS  BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES © 1961 BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLISHED WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF A GRANT FROM THE FORD FOUNDATION LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NO.: 61-6218 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA DESIGNED BY ADRIAN WILSON Book vignettes reproduced from wood engravings by F. W. Fairholt, F.S.A., in S. W. Stevenson, F.S.A., A Dictionary of Roman Coins (1889). TO MY WIFE  MARY VIRGINIA HATHAWAY ECHOLS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I AM grateful to Dr. Linton C. Stevens, Professor of Romance Languages in the University of Alabama, for helpful criticism in regard to style and clarity. I have also to thank Professor Mason Hammond of Harvard University for his encouragement. And I wish to express my appreciation to Miss Genevieve Rogers, of the University of California Press, who assisted greatly in bringing the work to its final form. The successful completion of this work owes much to the generous and sustained support of the University Research Committee of the University of Alabama. Grants-in-aid enabled me to give full time to the work of translation during two summers, and, even more important, made it possible for me to have access to a library with facilities adequate for the specialized requirements of this project. For the shortcomings of the work I assume full responsibility. EDWARD C. ECHOLS LIST OF EMPERORS, 180-238 MARCUS AURELIUS 161-180 COMMODUS 180-193 PERTINAX 193 DIDIUS JULIANUS 193 SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS 193-211 CARACALLA 211-217 GETA 211-212 MACRINUS 217-218 ELAGABALUS 218-222 SEVERUS ALEXANDER 222-235 MAXIMINUS 238 GORDIAN I 238 GORDIAN II 238 BALBINUS 238 PUPIENUS MAXIMUS 238 GORDIAN III 238-244 INTRODUCTION THE Roman historians inherited from the Greeks a long and distinguished historical tradition. It was Hecataeus of Miletus who, in the fifth century B.C., first turned rational attention to the skeletal contemporary sources of history—the traditional myths, uncritically accepted, and the local annalistic records, uncritically evaluated. By the beginning of the Hellenistic period, Greek historiography included every form of historical writing: the discursive, rambling accounts deriving from Herodotus; the objective, scientific, and highly literate histories in the manner of Thucydides; partisan histories designed as propaganda; and historical biographies. Men of action described their personal exploits, and histories written to entertain or shock foreshadowed historical fiction. By the end of the fourth century B.C., history was a legitimate and accepted field of literary inquiry. The Greek writers of the third century B.C., however, failed to find at home a subject worthy of their talents. The growing importance of Rome tended to counteract the decline of Greek influence, and Timaeus of Sicily, in the third century, wrote at some length of his neighbor in Italy. For the next several centuries, great events tended to produce great historians, and virtually every phase of Rome's history was carefully studied and competently published. The early Roman historians were Greeks. The intent of these writers was to interpret for the Greek-reading world the phenomenon of Rome's rise to a position of dominance in the Mediterranean world. Greatest of these pioneer Graeco-Roman historians was the soldier-statesman-author Polybius |2 (ca. 203-ca. 120 B.C.), who wrote a Universal History covering events from 220 to 144 B.C. He describes in admirable detail, and with an equally admirable grasp of the issues involved, Rome's familiar extern wars during this important formative period. A pragmatic historian, describing contemporary times, Polybius was a competent analyst and interpreter. These pragmatic histories, describing in detail short periods of time, were soon replaced at Rome by the annalistic reconstruction of Rome's early history; the formulation of an annalistic tradition was necessitated by the growth of nationalism resulting from Rome's increasing importance in the Mediterranean world. Once the native Roman historiography was firmly established, it soon embraced all the extant historico-literary forms; by the Augustan Age, Latin historians were writing antiquarian history, contemporary history, military history, "literary" history, and the historical biography. The Graeco-Roman historians continued to write after the field was dominated by the Latin historians. Before the last century of the Republic, the great Stoic philosopher-historian, Posidonius of Apamaea, wrote a continuation of Polybius' Universal History covering the period from 144 B.C. to the dictatorship of Sulla. Posidonius, who had visited Rome and had been the teacher of many distinguished Romans at Rhodes, profoundly affected the literary careers of such Roman historians as Livy, Sallust, Julius Caesar, Tacitus, and Plutarch. Indeed, Posidonius has been credited with paving the way for the glory of the Augustan Age by awaking Rome's historians to a realization of her past and future greatness. The Greek writers of Roman history were still active in the early empire. Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote a |3 rhetorical account of Rome's origins, and Flavius Josephus produced in Greek an all-inclusive history of the Jews, as well as an eyewitness account of the Flavian conquest of Palestine in a.d. 68-70. The growing importance of the individual in the empire raised historical biography to a position of major importance. In the first century B.C., Cornelius Nepos wrote his De Viris Illustribus, a series of comparative biographies of Greeks and Romans. Plutarch (ca. A.D. 46-post 120) continued this literary form in a lengthy series of biographies comparing ancient and contemporary figures. Balancing these "antiquarian" biographies are the imperial biographies of Suetonius (A.D. 69-ca. 140), in which he described the empire in terms of its chief personalities, beginning with Julius Caesar. Paralleling the increasing emphasis upon the place of the individual in history was the trend toward epitomes, eclectic and excerpted accounts concerned with long periods of time. Among the most successful of the annalistic epitomizers was the Bithynian, Dio Cassius, who, in the third century of the Christian era, wrote in Greek his history of Rome from 753 b.c. to a.d. 229. Dio's history is the major source of information for much of the post-Flavian period, when Rome's historical felicitas at last began to fail. The late historical summarizers, Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Festus, Zosimus, and others, treat this period briefly in their epitomes. The imperial biographers of the Historia Augusta, which seems to date from the late fourth century, provide information about the emperors from Hadrian through Numerianus in 284. The third original source for the history of this period of the Roman empire is the Ab Excessu Divi Marci by Herodian of Syria, who wrote in Greek an account of the Roman empire from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 to the |4 accession of Gordian III in 238. Dio and Herodian provide the only extant contemporary histories of this important period of the empire. Iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes.                                                    ----Juvenal Sat. III 62   When Juvenal was moved to this peevish observation in the second century of the Christian era, the influx of Syria and Syrians into Rome was a recognized and often-deplored fact. Not all second-century Syrians in Rome, however, could be identified with Juvenal's light entertainers. In the field of history, Posidonius of Apamaea made an important contribution in the first century b.c. In the field of government, the Syrian phase began about 186, when the commander of a legion in Syria married the daughter of a priest of Elagabalus in Emesa. When Septimius Severus became emperor in 193, Rome had a Syrian empress, Julia Domna. When Caracalla became emperor in 211, Rome had a half-Syrian emperor; when Elagabalus became emperor in 218, Rome had a Syrian emperor. The key figure in Rome's Syrian dynasty was Julia Domna. A shrewd, highly capable woman, she had assumed imperial responsibility with her husband. When Caracalla became sole emperor, Julia was put in charge of imperial correspondence and state records. She soon gathered about her the most distinguished literary men of the day, many of whom held important political posts: the jurists Papinian and Ulpian, the biographer Diogenes Laertius, the sophist Philostratus, the historian Dio Cassius. After Julia's death, she was replaced at court by her younger sister, Julia Maesa. Rich and wily, Maesa plotted the overthrow of Macrinus and placed upon the throne her grandson Elagabalus, the first Syrian emperor of Rome. The Syrian domination was continued by the thirteen-year reign |5 of Alexander Severus, with whom the dynasty came to an end in 235. Thus, throughout most of the sixty-year period covered by Herodian's history, Rome was under some degree of Syrian domination. Herodian states that he had a career in the imperial civil service (1.2.5) which enabled him to write much of his history from personal experience and observation. Since his book ends with the year 238, it is hardly likely that he began his career before the accession of Septimius Severus. Marcus Aurelius had no reason to favor Syria, which had supported the unsuccessful pretender Avidius Cassius in 175. Commodus also seems to have taken relatively little interest in the country. But with the accession of Severus and Julia Domna, the time was favorable for an influx of Syrians into the civil service. Severus did not trust the native Romans, since he dismissed the Praetorian Guard and replaced it by veterans from his legions. The Syrian (?) Papinianus served as praetorian prefect under Severus. The imperial bias after 193 was definitely Eastern, and the literary language of the contemporary literary figures was Greek. Herodian belonged to the educated class in a country where Aramaic was still the spoken language. An educated Syrian would obviously be of value in the records division of the imperial civil service. It may be suggested that Herodian, a trilingual Syrian (Latin sources were employed for the first four books of his history), joined the civil service after the defeat of Niger by Severus. Herodian's early association with the Syrian dynasty at Rome would account for the amazing "Romanness" of his outlook. Herodian is so thoroughly patriotic and so Romanized that he can speak of his fellow non-Romans as barbarians, and can offer an analysis of his fellow Syrians that is thoroughly unflattering. Assuming that he began his imperial service with |6 Septimius Severus and ended it under Alexander or soon thereafter, Herodian may have been a member of Julia Domna's Eastern-oriented literary coterie. He read Dio Cassius; he used his sources; it is entirely possible that he knew Dio Cassius. In view of Dio's advanced age in 229, Herodian probably survived his greater contemporary. Dio had already produced the definitive "world" history of his age. If Herodian, after his long career in letters, had any serious historical intent, an epitome was obviously out of the question. I hazard the guess that the Ab Excessu Divi Marci is a true "memoir," but that Herodian had played so minor a role in the period he undertakes to describe from personal observation and experience that he was forced to supplement his limited knowledge by reference to the standard sources. His work therefore does not compete with that of Dio Cassius; instead, he offers a moralizing account of the downward spiral of the empire. We must credit Herodian with enough sense of history to recognize that the death of Marcus Aurelius signified the end of an era. Herodian's chief concern is with the corruption that accompanied the decline in Rome's world position. That he was not a professional historian is apparent. That he was literate, concerned with the recording of history, aware of the long tradition of Greek historiography but at the same time very much a product of his own age, is equally apparent. He is a rhetorician, pompous, repetitive, and derivative. His fabricated speeches in the Thucydidean mode, which were intended to enliven the narrative, generally have the opposite effect. His insight into causes and motivation is superficial and unconvincing; he obviously lacked the personal experience and broad background that are needed for passing judgment on men and events. Perhaps Polybius is right: only the man of action can write history. Herodian's biographical approach to this period of imperial history is not too successful; his |7 men on all levels are given a curious sameness of character that reminds us of Cornelius Nepos; with Nepos, the career of one Greek general is very much like that of any other Greek general. Herodian has been criticized for his many sins of omission, among them his failure to note Caracalla's extension of citizenship throughout the empire. We can only suggest that this action of the emperor's was not nearly so impressive at the time as it now seems. Herodian's geography is vague and must be cited with extreme care. His indefinite and inexact data suggest again the narrow limits of his personal knowledge. His decision to ignore the sexual experiments of many of the emperors is odd in the extreme. These clinical observations were basic features of imperial biography beginning with Suetonius, and the general historians, including Dio Cassius, did not overlook them. Herodian was doubtless a sincere moralizer; a Syrian, he would be reluctant to reveal the more spectacular activities of the Syrian emperors. As a historian, then, Herodian is an amateur; as a stylist he is typical third-century baroque. If he is no Polybius, no Livy, no Tacitus, it is only fair to point out that neither is any other third-century Roman historian. Herodian is a product of his age, and his work is an interesting and valuable specimen of later classical historiography from a period in which original sources are scarce. The manuscript tradition is discussed in the preface of the Teubner edition (1883) by K. Mendelssohn, and summarized in the Teubner edition (1922) by K. Stavenhagen. They conclude that there are five codices, one from the eleventh century and four from the fifteenth century. A sixth codex, used by Aldus for the editio princeps in 1503, has been lost. Three of these fifteenth-century codices derive from one source; the other three, including the lost codex of Aldus, |8 are from a second source. These two sources derive in turn from a single source which goes back to the archtype. This archtype is also the source of the excerpts quoted by the seventh-century John of Antioch; these excerpts are outside the surviving manuscripts. I have seen none of these codices. During the Renaissance, Herodian was studied with interest. At the request of Pope Innocent VIII, the Italian humanist Politian prepared, in 1487, and published both at Bologna and Rome, in 1493, so excellent a Latin version of Herodian that it was believed by many to be an original history in Latin. This translation was reprinted with the Greek text many times in the next two centuries. The first translation into English, prepared from the Latin of Politian by Nicholas Smyth, was published in London perhaps in 1550. Another English translation, by J. Maxwell, appeared in London in 1629 and 1635. G. B. Stapylton produced a metrical version in English in 1652. The last translation into English is apparently that of J. Hart, London, 1749. The first translation into French seems to have been that of Jean Collin in 1541; Leon Halevy was responsible for the second French version of Herodian in 1824, republished in 1860. Adolph Stahr did a German translation in 1858. Present-day scholarship has been concerned chiefly with Herodian's contributions to a knowledge of individual emperors. The most recent extensive work is the Princeton dissertation of Reynold Burrows, which considers Herodian and Septimius Severus. Twentieth-century classical and historical scholarship has neglected Herodian. This neglect reflects the general indifference of scholars to the period of the late Roman empire. Only a revival of interest in this significant era will lead to an adequate reappraisal of Herodian as a basic source for the eventful and important years treated in his history. |9  I have based my translation directly upon the Greek text edited by K. Stavenhagen for the Teubner Series (Leipzig, 1922), supplemented by the Latin version of Politian in the edition of 1532, and I had access also to the translations of Hart, Halevy, and Stahr. A variant of the old dictum frequently applies: "Four translators, four versions." I have elected to avoid a slavish adherence to the Greek idiom and style, and have essayed a version for readers without Greek. For readers of Greek I sincerely recommend the Stavenhagen text in the Teubner Series. For place names I have chosen to employ the Latin versions: for example, Perennis for Perennius. On occasion I have substituted familiar modern place names for the classical forms: for example, Danube for Ister. The names by which the emperors are generally known have sometimes been substituted for those used by Herodian: for example, Elagabalus for Antoninus.   SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY EDITIONS Aldine. Venice, 1503.  Bekker, I. Leipzig, 1855.  La Roche, J. Vienna, 1863.  Mendelssohn, L. Leipzig, 1883.  Stavenhagen, K. Leipzig, 1922. TRANSLATIONS Latin: A. Politianus. Bologna and Rome, 1493. English: J. Hart. London, 1749. French: Jean Collin. L'Histoire de Herodien ..., tournée de grecq en latin par Ange Politian et de latin en francays par Johan Collin. Paris, 1541 ; 2d ed., Lyons, 1546. L. Halévy. Paris, 1824, 1860.  German: A. Stahr. Stuttgart, 1858. BOOKS AND ARTICLES Baaz, E. De Herodiani fontibus et auctoritate. Berlin, 1909.  Dändliker, C. "Die drei letzten Bücher Herodians," Untersuchungen zur römischen Kaiser geschichte. Leipzig, 1870. III, 203-320.  Fuchs, K. "Beiträge zur Kritik der ersten drei Bücher Herodians," Wiener Studien, XVII (1896), 222-252.  --------- "Beiträge zur Kritik Herodians (IV-VIII Buch)," Wiener Studien, XVIII (1897), 180-234.  Kettler, G. Nonnullae ad Herodianum rerum Romanarum scriptorem annotationes. Erlangen, 1882.  Kreutzer, J. De Herodiano rerum Romanarum scriptore, Bonn, 1881.  Pasoli, A. L'Uso di Erodiano nella vita Maximini. Milan, 1927.  Roos, A. G. "Herodian's Method of Composition," Journal of Roman Studies, V [part 2] (1915), 191-202.  Smits, J. C. P. De geschiedschrijver Herodianus en zijn bronnen. Leiden, 1913. This text was transcribed by Roger Pearse, 2007. 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www-tertullian-org-8829	----	Lucian of Samosata : Alexander the False Prophet Lucian of Samosata : ALEXANDER THE FALSE PROPHET AN account of the false priest of Asclepius, Alexander of Abonoteichus. It has been discussed in detail by Cumont in the Mémoires couronnées de l'academie de Belgique, vol. xl (1887). Although Alexander achieved honour not only in his own country, a small city in remote Paphlagonia, but over a large part of the Roman world, almost nothing is known of him except from the pages of Lucian. Gems, coins, and inscriptions corroborate Lucian as far as they go, testifying to Alexander's actual existence and widespread influence, and commemorating the name and even the appearance of Glycon, his human-headed serpent. But were it not for Lucian, we should not understand their full significance. Alexander's religious activity covered roughly the years A.D. 150-170. The cult which he established outlasted him for at least a century. It was highly unusual in its character, as Cumont observes. Sacred snakes were a regular feature of sanctuaries of Asclepius ; but to give a serpent a human head and style it the god incarnate was a distinct innovation. Moreover, the proper function of Asclepius was to heal the sick, who passed the night in his temple, expecting either to be cured while they slept or to have some form of treatment suggested to them in their dreams. But at Abonoteichus we hear nothing of incubation, and only incidentally of healing; the "new Asclepius" deals in oracles like Apollo, and gives advice on any subject. This, together with Alexander's extravagant claims of divine descent, confirms Lucian in his appraisal of him as an out-and-out charlatan, aiming to play upon the gross credulity of the times and to secure the greatest gain with the least effort. Lucian was in a position to know a good deal about Alexander, and clearly believes all that he says. Without doubt his account is essentially accurate, but it need not be credited absolutely to the letter. Lucian was no historian at best, and he was angry. In the account of his relations with Alexander he reveals his own personality more clearly than usual, but not in a pleasant light. The piece was written at the request of a friend, after A.D. 180, when Alexander had been in his grave for ten years. A.M. HARMON 1.  No doubt, my dear Celsus,1 you think it a slight and trivial matter to bid me set down in a book and send you the history of Alexander, the impostor of Abonoteichus, including all his clever schemes, bold emprises, and sleights of hand; but in point of fact, if one should aim to examine each detail closely, it would be no less a task than to record the exploits of Philip's son Alexander. The one was as great in villainy as the other in heroism. Nevertheless, if it should be your intention to overlook faults as you read, and to fill out for yourself the gaps in my tale, I will undertake the task for you and will essay to clean up that Augean stable, if not wholly, yet to the extent of my ability, fetching out some few basketsful, so that from them you may judge how great, how inexpressible, was the entire quantity of filth that three thousand head of cattle were able to create in many years. 2.  I blush for both of us, I confess, both for you and for myself—for you because you want a consummate rascal perpetuated in memory and in writing, and for myself because I am devoting my energy to such an end, to the exploits of a man who does not deserve to have polite people read about him, but rather to have the motley crowd in a vast amphitheatre see him being torn to pieces by foxes or apes. Yet if anyone brings this reproach against us, we shall be able to refer to an apt precedent. Arrian, the disciple of Epictetus, a Roman of the highest distinction, and a life-long devotee of letters, laid himself open to the same charge, and so can plead our cause as well as his own; he thought fit, you know, to record the life of Tillorobus, the brigand.2 In our own case, however, we shall commemorate a far more savage brigand, since our hero plied his trade not in forests and mountains, but in cities, and instead of infesting just Mysia and Mount Ida and harrying a few of the more deserted districts of Asia, he filled the whole Roman Empire, I may say, with his brigandage. 3.  First I shall draw you a word-picture of the man himself, making as close a likeness as I can, although I am not particularly good at drawing. As regards his person—in order that I may exhibit this also to you—he was tall and handsome in appearance, and really godlike; his skin was fair, his beard not very thick; his long hair was in part natural, in part false, but very similar, so that most people did not detect that it was not his own. His eyes shone with a great glow of fervour and enthusiasm; his voice was at once very sweet and very clear; and in a word, no fault could be found with him in any respect as far as all that went. 4.  Such, then, was his outward appearance; but his soul and his mind—O Heracles Forfender! O Zeus, Averter of Mischief! O Twin Brethren, our Saviours! may it be the fortune of our enemies and ill-wishers to encounter and have to do with the like of him! In understanding, quick-wittedness, and penetration he was far beyond everyone else; and activity of mind, readiness to learn, retentiveness, natural aptitude for studies—all these qualities were his, in every case to the full. But he made the worst possible use of them, and with these noble instruments at his service soon became the most perfect rascal of all those who have been notorious far and wide for villainy, surpassing the Cercopes, surpassing Eurybatus, or Phrynondas, or Aristodemus, or Sostratus.3 He himself, writing to his son-in-law Rutilianus once upon a time and speaking of himself with the greatest reserve, claimed to be like Pythagoras; but— with all due respect to Pythagoras, a wise man of more than human intelligence—if he had been this man's contemporary, he would have seemed a child, I am very sure, beside him!4  In the name of the Graces, do not imagine that I say this to insult Pythagoras, or in the endeavour to bring them into connection with one another by likening their doings. On the contrary, if all that is worst and most opprobrious in what is said of Pythagoras to discredit him (which I for my part cannot believe to be true) should nevertheless be brought together for comparison, the whole of it would be but an infinitesimal part of Alexander's knavery. In sum, imagine, please, and mentally configure a highly diversified soul-blend, made up of lying, trickery, perjury, and malice; facile, audacious, venturesome, diligent in the execution of its schemes, plausible, convincing, masking as good, and wearing an appearance absolutely opposite to its purpose. indeed, there is nobody who, after meeting him for the first time, did not come away with the idea that he was the most honest and upright man in the world—yes, and the most simple and unaffected. And on top of all this, he had the quality of magnificence, of forming no petty designs but always keeping his mind upon the most important objects. 5.  While he was still a mere boy, and a very handsome one, as could be inferred from the sere and yellow leaf of him, and could also be learned by hearsay from those who recounted his story, he trafficked freely in his attractiveness and sold his company to those who sought it. Among others, he had an admirer who was a quack, one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, "sendings" 5 for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates. As this man saw that he was an apt lad, more than ready to assist him in his affairs, and that the boy was quite as much enamoured with his roguery as he with the boy's beauty, he gave him a thorough education and constantly made use of him as helper, servant, and acolyte. He himself was professedly a public physician, but, as Homer says of the wife of Thon, the Egyptian, he knew "Many a drug that was good in a compound, and many a bad one,"6 all of which Alexander inherited and took over. This teacher and admirer of his was a man of Tyana by birth, one of those who had been followers of the notorious Apollonius, and who knew his whole bag of tricks. You see what sort of school the man that I am describing comes from! 6.  Alexander was just getting his beard when the death of the Tyanean put him in a bad way, since it coincided with the passing of his beauty, by which he might have supported himself. So he abandoned petty projects for ever. He formed a partnership with a Byzantine writer of choral songs, one of those who enter the public competitions, far more abominable than himself by nature— Cocconas,7 I think, was his nickname,— and they went about the country practising quackery and sorcery, and "trimming the fatheads "—for so they style the public in the traditional patter of magicians. Well, among these they hit upon a rich Macedonian woman, past her prime but still eager to be charming, and not only lined their purses fairly well at her expense, but went with her from Bithynia to Macedon. She came from Pella, a place once flourishing in the time of the kings of Macedon but now insignificant, with very few inhabitants. [7] There they saw great serpents, quite tame and gentle, so that they were kept by women, slept with children, let themselves be stepped upon, were not angry when they were stroked, and took milk from the breast just like babies. There are many such in the country, and that, probably, is what gave currency in former days to the story about Olympias; no doubt a serpent of that sort slept with her when she was carrying Alexander.8 So they bought one of the reptiles, the finest, for a few coppers; [8] and, in the words of Thucydides: "Here beginneth the war!"9 As you might have expected of two consummate rascals, greatly daring, fully prepared for mischief, who had put their heads together, they readily discerned that human life is swayed by two great tyrants, hope and fear, and that a man who could use both of these to advantage would speedily enrich himself. For they perceived that both to one who fears and to one who hopes, foreknowledge is very essential and very keenly coveted, and that long ago not only Delphi, but Delos and Clarus and Branchidae, had become rich and famous because, thanks to the tyrants just mentioned, hope and fear, men continually visited their sanctuaries and sought to learn the future in advance, and to that end sacrificed hecatombs and dedicated ingots of gold. By turning all this round and round in conference with one another and keeping it astir, they concocted the project of founding a prophetic shrine and oracle, hoping that if they should succeed in it, they would at once be rich and prosperous—which, in fact, befell them in greater measure than they at first expected, and turned out better than they hoped. 9.  Then they began planning, first about the place, and next, what should be the commencement and the character of the venture. Cocconas thought Chalcedon a suitable and convenient place, close to Thrace and Bithynia, and not far, too, from Asia10 and Galatia and all the peoples of the interior. Alexander, on the other hand, preferred his own home, saying— and it was true—that to commence such a venture they needed "fat-heads" and simpletons to be their victims, and such, he said, were the Paphlagonians who lived up above Abonoteichus, who were for the most part superstitious and rich; whenÂ-ever a man but turned up with someone at his heels to play the flute or the tambourine or the cymbals, telling fortunes with a sieve, as the phrase goes,11 they were all agog over him on the instant and stared at him as if he were a god from heaven. 10.  There was no slight difference of opinion between them on that score, but in the end Alexander won, and going to Chalcedon, since after all that city seemed to them to have some usefulness, in the temple of Apollo, which is the most ancient in Chalcedon, they buried bronze tablets which said that very soon Asclepius, with his father Apollo, would move to Pontus and take up his residence at Abonoteichus. The opportune discovery of these tablets caused this story to spread quickly to all Bithynia and Pontus, and to Abonoteichus sooner than anywhere else. Indeed, the people of that city immediately voted to build a temple and began at once to dig for the foundations. Then Cocconas was left behind in Chalcedon, composing equivocal, ambiguous, obscure oracles, and died before long, bitten, I think, by a viper. [11] It was Alexander who was sent in first; he now wore his hair long, had falling ringlets, dressed in a parti-coloured tunic of white and purple, with a white cloak over it, and carried a falchion like that of Perseus, from whom he claimed descent on his mother's side. And although those miserable Paphlagonians knew that both his parents were obscure, humble folk, they believed the oracle when it said: "Here in your sight is a scion of Perseus, dear unto Phoebus; This is divine Alexander, who shareth the blood of the Healer!" Podaleirius, the Healer, it would appear, was so passionate and amorous that his ardour carried him all the way from Tricca to Paphlagonia in quest of Alexander's mother! 12 An oracle by now had turned up which purported to be a prior prediction by the Sibyl: "On the shores of the Euxine sea, in the neighbourhood of Sinope, There shall be born, by a Tower, in the days of the Romans, a prophet; After the foremost unit and three times ten, he will shew forth Five more units besides, and a score told three times over, Matching, with places four, the name of a valiant defender !" 13 12.  Well, upon invading his native land with all this pomp and circumstance after a long absence, Alexander was a man of mark and note, affecting as he did to have occasional fits of madness anti causing his mouth to fill with foam. This he easily managed by chewing the root of soapwort, the plant that dyers use; but to his fellow-countrymen even the foam seemed supernatural and awe-inspiring. Then, too, they had long ago prepared and fitted up a serpent's head of linen, which had something of a human look, was all painted up, and appeared very lifelike. It would open and close its mouth by means of horsehairs, and a forked black tongue like a snake's, also controlled by horsehairs, would dart out. Besides, the serpent from Pella was ready in advance and was being cared for at home, destined in due time to manifest himself to them and to take a part in their show—in fact, to be cast for the leading rôle. 13.  When at length it was time to begin, he contrived an ingenious ruse. Going at night to the foundations of the temple which were just being excavated, where a pool of water had gathered which either issued from springs somewhere in the foundations themselves or had fallen from the sky, he secreted there a goose-egg, previously blown, which contained a snake just born; and after burying it deep in the mud, he went back again. In the morning he ran out into the market-place naked, wearing a loin-cloth (this too was gilded),14 carrying his falchion, and tossing his unconfined mane like a devotee of the Great Mother in the frenzy. Addressing the people from a high altar upon which he had climbed, he congratulated the city because it was at once to receive the god in visible presence. The assembly—for almost the whole city, including women, old men, and boys, had come running— marvelled, prayed and made obeisance. Uttering, a few meaningless words like Hebrew or Phoenician, he dazed the creatures, who did not know what he was saying save only that he everywhere brought in Apollo and Asclepius. [14] Then he ran at full speed to the future temple, went to the excavation and the previously improvised fountain-head of the oracle, entered 'the water, sang hymns in honour of Asclepius and Apollo at the top of his voice, and besought the god, under the blessing of Heaven, to come to the city. Then he asked for a libation-saucer, and when somebody handed him one, deftly slipped it underneath and brought up, along with water and mud, that egg in which he had immured the god; the joint about the plug had been closed with wax and white lead. Taking it in his hands, he asserted that at that moment he held Asclepius! They gazed unwaveringly to see what in the world was going to happen; indeed, they had already marvelled at the discovery of the egg in the water. But when he broke it and received the tiny snake into his hollowed hand, and the crowd saw it moving and twisting about his fingers, they at once raised a shout, welcomed the god, congratulated their city, and began each of them to sate himÂ-self greedily with prayers, craving treasures, riches, health, and every other blessing from, him. But Alexander went home again at full speed, taking with him the new-born Asclepius, "born twice, when other men are born but once,"15 whose mother was not Coronis,16 by Zeus, nor yet a crow, but a goose! And the whole population followed, all full of religious fervour and crazed with expectations. 15.  For some days he remained at home, expecting what actually happened—that as the news spread, crowds of Paphlagonians would come running in. When the city had become over-full of people, all of them already bereft of their brains and sense, and not in the least like bread-eating humans, but different from beasts of the field only in their looks, he seated himself on a couch in a certain chamber, clothed in apparel well suited to a god, and took into his bosom his Asclepius from Pella, who, as I have said, was of uncommon size and beauty.17 Coiling him about his neck, and letting the tail, which was long, stream over his lap and drag part of its length on the floor, he concealed only the head by holding it under his arm—the creature would submit to anything—and showed the linen head at one side of his own beard, as if it certainly belonged to the creature that was in view. 16.  Now then, please imagine a little room, not very bright and not admitting any too much daylight; also, a crowd of heterogeneous humanity, excited, wonder-struck in advance, agog with hopes. When they went in, the thing, of course, seemed to them a miracle, that the formerly tiny snake within a few days had turned into so great a serpent, with a human face, moreover, and tame! They were immediately crowded towards the exit, and before they could look closely were forced out by those who kept coming in, for another door had been opened on the opposite side as an exit. That was the way the Macedonians did, they say, in Babylon during Alexander's illness, when he was in a bad way and they surrounded the palace, craving to see. him and say good-bye. This exhibition the scoundrel gave not merely once, they say, but again and again, above all if any rich men were newly arrived. 17.  In that matter, dear Celsus, to tell the truth, we must excuse those men of Paphlagonia and Pontus, thick-witted, uneducated fellows that they were, for being deluded when they touched the serpent— Alexander let anyone do so who wished—and besides saw in a dim light what purported to be its head opening and shutting its mouth. Really the trick stood in need of a Democritus, or even Epicurus himself or Metrodorus, or someone else with a mind as firm as adamant toward such matters, so as to disbelieve and guess the truth— one who, if he could not discover how it went, would at all events be convinced beforehand that though the method of the fraud escaped him, it was nevertheless all sham and could not possibly happen. 18.  Little by little, Bithynia, Galatia, and Thrace came pouring in, for everyone who carried the news very likely said that he not only had seen the god born but had subsequently touched him, after he had grown very great in a short time and had a face that looked like a man's. Next came paintings and statues and cult-images, some made of bronze, some of silver, and naturally a name was bestowed upon the god. He was called Glycon in consequence of a divine behest in metre; for Alexander proclaimed: "Glycon am I, the grandson of Zeus, bright beacon to mortals!" 19.  When it was time to carry out the purpose for which the whole scheme had been concocted—that is to say, to make predictions and give oracles to those who sought them—taking his cue from Amphilochus in Cilicia, who, as you know, after the death and disappearance of his father Amphiaraus at Thebes,18 was exiled from his own country, went to Cilicia, and got on very well by foretelling the future, like his father, for the Cilicians and getting two obols for each prediction—taking, as I say, his cue from him, Alexander announced to all comers that the god would make prophecies, and named a date for it in advance. He directed everyone to write down in a scroll whatever he wanted and what he especially wished to learn, to tie it up, and to seal it with wax or clay or something else of that sort. Then he himself, after taking the scrolls and entering the inner sanctuary—for by that time the temple had been erected and the stage set—proposed to summon in order, with herald and priest, those who had submitted them, and after the god told him about each case, to give back the scroll with the seal upon it, just as it was, and the reply to it endorsed upon it; for the god would reply explicitly to any question that anyone should put. 20.  As a matter of fact, this trick, to a man like you, and if it is not out of place to say so, like myself also, was obvious and easy to see through, but to those drivelling idiots it was miraculous and almost as good as incredible. Having discovered various ways of undoing the seals, he would read all the questions and answer them as he thought best. Then he would roll up the scrolls again, seal them, and give them back, to the great astonishment of the recipients, among whom the comment was frequent: "Why, how did he learn the questions which I gave him very securely sealed with impressions hard to counterfeit, unless there was really some god that knew everything?" 21.  "What were his discoveries, then?" perhaps you will ask. Listen, therefore, in order to be able to show up such impostors. The first, my dear Celsus, was a well-known method; heating a needle, he removed the seal by melting through the wax underneath it, and after reading the contents he warmed the wax once more with the needle, both that which was under the thread and that which contained the seal, and so stuck it together without difficulty. Another method was by using what they call plaster; this is a compound of Bruttian pitch, asphalt, pulverized gypsum, wax, and gum Arabic. Making his plaster out of all these materials and warming it over the fire, he applied it to the seal, which he had previously wetted with saliva, and took a mould of the impression. Then, since the plaster hardened at once, after easily opening and reading the scrolls, he applied the wax and made an impression upon it precisely like the original, just as one would with a gem. Let me tell you a third method, in addition to these. Putting marble-dust into the glue with which they glue books and making a paste of it, he applied that to the seal while it was still soft, and then, as it grows hard at once, more solid than horn or even iron, he removed it and used it for the impression. There are many other devices to this end, but they need not all be mentioned, for fear that we might seem to be wanting in taste, especially in view of the fact that in the book which you wrote against the sorcerers, a very good and useful treatise, capable of preserving common-sense in its readers, you cited instances enough, and indeed a great many more than I have.19 22.  Well, as I say, Alexander made predictions and gave oracles, employing great shrewdness in it and combining guesswork with his trickery. He gave responses that were sometimes obscure and amÂ-biguous, sometimes downright unintelligible, for this seemed to him in the oracular manner. Some people he dissuaded or encouraged as seemed best to him at a guess. To others he prescribed medical treatments and diets, knowing, as I said in the beginning, many useful remedies. His "cytmides" were in highest favour with him—a name which he had coined for a restorative ointment compounded of bear's grease.20 Expectations, however, and advancements and successions to estates he always put off to another day, adding: "It shall all come about when I will, and when Alexander, my prophet, asks it of me and prays for you." 23.  A price had been fixed for each oracle, a drachma and two obols.21 Do not think that it was low, my friend, or that the revenue from this source was scanty! He gleaned as much as seventy or eighty thousand 22 a year, since men were so greedy as to send in ten and fifteen questions each. What he received he did not use for himself alone nor treasure up to make himself rich, but since he had many men about him by this time as assistants, servants, collectors of information, writers of oracles, custodians of oracles, clerks, sealers, and expounders, he divided with all, giving each one what was proportionate to his worth. 24.  By now he was even sending men abroad to create rumours in the different nations in regard to the oracle and to say that he made predictions, discovered fugitive slaves, detected thieves and robbers, caused treasures to be dug up, healed the sick, and in some cases had actually raised the dead. So there was a hustling and a bustling from every side, with sacrifices and votive offerings—and twice as much for the prophet and disciple of the god. For this oracle also had come out: "Honour I bid you to give my faithful servant, the prophet; No great store do I set upon riches, but much on the prophet." 25.  When at last many sensible men, recovering, as it were, from profound intoxication, combined against him, especially all the followers of Epicurus, and when in the cities they began gradually to detect all the trickery and buncombe of the show, he issued a promulgation designed to scare them, saying that Pontus was full of atheists and Christians who had the hardihood to utter the vilest abuse of him; these he bade them drive away with stones if they wanted to have the god gracious. About Epicurus, moreover, he delivered himself of an oracle after this sort; when someone asked him how Epicurus was doing in Hades, he replied: "With leaden fetters on his feet in filthy mire he sitteth." Do you wonder, then, that the shrine waxed great, now that you see that the questions of its visitors were intelligent and refined? In general, the war that he waged upon Epicurus was without truce or parley, naturally enough. Upon whom else would a quack who loved humbug and bitterly hated truth more fittingly make war than upon Epicurus, who discerned the nature of things and alone knew the truth in them? The followers of Plato and Chrysippus and Pythagoras were his friends, and there was profound peace with them; but "the impervious Epicurus" —for that is what he called him—was rightly his bitter enemy, since he considered all that sort of thing a laughing-matter and a joke. So Alexander hated Amastris most of all the cities in Pontus because he knew that the followers of Lepidus 23 and others like them were numerous in the city; and he would never deliver an oracle to an Amastrian. Once when he did venture to make a prediction for a senator's brother, he acquitted himself ridiculously, since he could neither compose a clever response himself nor find anyone else who could do it in time. The man complained of colic, and Alexander, wishing to direct him to eat a pig's foot cooked with mallow, said: "Mallow with cummin digest in a sacred pipkin of piglets." 26.  Again and again, as I said before, he exhibited the serpent to all who requested it, not in its entirety, but exposing chiefly the tail and the rest of the body and keeping the head out of sight under his arm. But as he wished to astonish the crowd still more, he promised to produce the god talking—delivering oracles in person without a prophet. It was no difficult matter for him to fasten cranes' windpipes together and pass them through the head, which he had so fashioned as to be lifelike. Then he answered the questions through someone else, who spoke into the tube from the outside, so that the voice issued from his canvas Asclepius.24 These oracles were called autophones, and were not given to everybody promiscuously, but only to those who were noble, rich, and free-handed. [27] For example, the oracle given to Severianus in regard to his invasion of Armenia was one of the autophones. Alexander encouraged him to the invasion by saying: "Under your charging spear shall fall Armenians and Parthi; Then you shall fare to Rome and the glorious waters of Tiber Wearing upon your brow the chaplet studded with sunbeams." 25   Then when that silly Celt, being convinced, made the invasion and ended by getting himself and his army cut to bits by Osroes, Alexander expunged this oracle from his records and inserted another in its place "Better for you that your forces against Armenia march not, Lest some man, like a woman bedight, despatch from his bowstring Grim death, cutting you off from life and enjoyment of sunlight." 26 28.  That was one of his devices, and a very clever one—belated oracles to make amends for those in which he had made bad predictions and missed the mark. Often he would promise good health to sick men before their demise, and when they died another oracle would be ready with a recantation: "Seek no more for assistance against thy bitter affliction; Death now standeth in view; 'tis beyond thy power to 'scape him." 29.  As he was aware that the priests at Clarus and Didymi and Mallus were themselves in high repute for the same sort of divination, he made them his friends by sending many of his visitors to them, saying: "Now unto Clarus begone, to the voice of my father27 to hearken." and at another time, Visit the fane of the Branchids and hear what the oracle sayeth," and again, "Make thy way unto Mallus and let Amphilochus answer." 30.  So far, we have been concerned with his doings near the frontier, extending over Ionia, Cilicia, Paphlagonia, and Galatia. But when the renown of his prophetic shrine spread to Italy and invaded the city of Rome, everybody without exception, each on the other's heels, made haste, some to go in person, some to send; this was the case particularly with those who had the greatest power and the highest rank in the city. The first and foremost of these was Rutilianus,28 who, though a man of birth and breeding, put to the proof in many Roman offices, nevertheless in all that concerned the gods was very infirm and held strange beliefs about them. If he but saw anywhere a stone smeared with holy oil or adorned with a wreath,29 he would fall on his face forthwith, kiss his hand, and stand beside it for a long time making vows and craving blessings from it. When this man heard the tales about the oracle, he very nearly abandoned the office which had been committed to him and took wing to Abonoteichus. Anyhow, he sent one set of messengers after another, and his emissaries, mere illiterate serving-people, were easily deluded, so when they came back, they told not only what they had seen but what they had heard as if they had seen it, and threw in something more for good measure, so as to gain favour with their master. Consequently, they inflamed the poor old man and made him absolutely crazy. [31] Having many powerful friends, he went about not only telling what he had heard from his messengers but adding still more on his own account. So he flooded and convulsed the city, and agitated most of the court, who themselves at once hastened to go and hear something that concerned them. To all who came, Alexander gave a very cordial reception, made them think well of him by lavish entertainment and expensive presents, and sent them back not merely to report the answers to their questions, but to sing the praises of the god and to tell portentous lies about the oracle on their own account. [32] At the same time, however, the plaguy scoundrel devised a trick which was really clever and not what one would expect of your ordinary swindler. In opening and reading the forwarded scrolls, if he found anything dangerous and venturesome in the questions, he would keep them himself and not send them back, in order to hold the senders in subjection and all but in slavery because of their fear, since they remembered what it was that they had asked. You understand what questions are likely to be put by men who are rich and very powerful. So he used to derive much gain from those men, who knew that he had them in his net. 33.  I should like to tell you some of the responses that were given to Rutilianus. Asking about his son by a former marriage, who was then in the full bloom of youth, he enquired who should be appointed his tutor in his studies. The reply was: "Be it Pythagoras; aye, and the good bard, master of warfare." Then after a few days the boy died, and Alexander was at his wit's end, with nothing to say to his critics, as the oracle had been shown up so obviously. But Rutilianus himself, good soul, made haste to defend the oracle by saying that the god had predicted precisely this outcome, and on account of it had bidden him to select as his tutor nobody then alive, but rather Pythagoras and Homer, who died long ago, with whom, no doubt, the lad was then studying in Hades. What fault, then, should we find with Alexander if he thought fit to amuse himself at the expense of such homunculi? 34.  At another time, when Rutilianus enquired whose soul he had inherited, the reply was: "Peleus' son wert thou at the first; thereafter Menander, Then what thou seemest now, and hereafter shalt turn to a sunbeam. Four score seasons of life shall be given thee over a hundred." But as a matter of fact he died insane at seventy without awaiting the fulfilment of the god's promise! [35] This oracle too was one of the autophones. When one time he enquired about getting married, Alexander said explicitly: "Take Alexander's daughter to wife, who was born of Selene." He had long before given out a story to the effect that his daughter was by Selene; for Selene had fallen in love with him on seeing him asleep once upon a time—it is a habit of hers, you know, to adore handsome lads in their sleep ! 30 Without any hesitation that prince of sages Rutilianus sent for the girl at once, celebrated his nuptials as a sexagenarian bridegroom, and took her to wife, propitiating his mother-in-law, the moon, with whole hecatombs and imagining that he  himself had become one of the Celestials! 36.  No sooner did Alexander get Italy in hand than he began to devise projects that were ever greater and greater, and sent oracle-mongers everywhere in the Roman Empire, warning the cities to be on their guard against plagues and conflagrations and earthÂ-quakes; he promised that he would himself afford them infallible aid so that none of these calamities should befall them. There was one oracle, also an autophone, which he despatched to all the nations during the pestilence 31; it was but a single verse: "Phoebus, the god unshorn, keepeth off plague's nebulous onset." This verse was to be seen everywhere written over doorways as a charm against the plague; but in most cases it had the contrary result. By some chance it was particularly the houses on which the verse was inscribed that were depopulated! Do not suppose me to mean that they were stricken on account of the verse—by some chance or other it turned out that way, and perhaps, too, people neglected precautions because of their confidence in the line and lived too carelessly, giving the oracle no assistance against the disease because they were going to have the syllables to defend them and "unshorn Phoebus" to drive away the plague with his arrows! 37.  Moreover, Alexander posted a great number of his fellow-conspirators in Rome itself as his agents, who reported everyone's views to him and gave him advance information about the questions and the especial wishes of those who consulted him, so that the messengers might find him ready to answer even before they arrived 38.  He made these preparations to meet the situation in Italy, and also made notable preparations at home. He established a celebration of mysteries, with torchÂ-light ceremonies and priestly offices, which was to be held annually, for three days in succession, in perpetuity. On the first day, as at Athens,32 there was a proclamation, worded as follows: "If any atheist or Christian or Epicurean has come to spy upon the rites, let him be off, and let those who believe in the god perform the mysteries, under the blessing of Heaven." Then, at the very outset, there was an "expulsion," in which he took the lead, saying: "Out with the Christians," and the whole multitude chanted in response, "Out with the Epicureans!" Then there was the child-bed of Leto, the birth of Apollo, his marriage to Coronis, and the birth of Asclepius. On the second day came the manifestation of Glycon, including the birth of the god. [39] On the third day there was the union of Podaleirius and the mother of Alexander—it was called the Day of Torches, and torches were burned. In conclusion there was the amour of Selene and Alexander, and the birth of Rutilianus' wife. The torch-bearer and hierophant was our Endymion, Alexander. While he lay in full view, pretending to be asleep, there came down to him from the roof, as if from heaven, not Selene but Rutilia, a very pretty woman, married to one of the Emperor's stewards. She was genuinely in love with Alexander and he with her; and before the eyes of her worthless husband there were kisses and embraces in public. If the torches had not been numerous, perhaps the thing would have been carried even further. After a short time Alexander entered again, robed as a priest, amid profound silence, and said in a loud voice, over and over again, "Hail, Glycon," while, following in his train, a number of would-be Eumolpids and Ceryces33 from Paphlagonia, with brogans on their feet and breaths that reeked of garlic, shouted in response, "Hail, Alexander!" 40.  Often in the course of the torchlight ceremonies and the gambols of the mysteries his thigh was bared purposely and showed golden. No doubt gilded leather had been put about it, which gleamed in the light of the cressets. There was once a discussion between two of our learned idiots in regard to him, whether he had the soul of Pythagoras, on account of the golden thigh, or some other soul akin to it.34 They referred this question to Alexander himself, and King Glycon resolved their doubt with an oracle: "Nay, Pythagoras' soul now waneth and other times waxeth; His, with prophecy gifted, from God's mind taketh its issue, Sent by the Father to aid good men in the stress of the conflict; Then it to God will return, by God's own thunderÂ-bolt smitten." 41.  Although he cautioned all to abstain from intercourse with boys on the ground that it was impious, for his own part this pattern of propriety made a clever arrangement. He commanded the cities in Pontus and Paphlagonia to send choir-boys for three years' service, to sing hymns to the god in his household; they were required to examine, select, and send the noblest, youngest, and most handsome. These he kept under ward and treated like bought slaves, sleeping with them and affronting them in every way. He made it a rule, too, not to greet anyone over eighteen years with his lips, or to embrace and kiss him; he kissed only the young, extending his hand to the others to be kissed by them. They were called "those within the kiss." 42.  He duped the simpletons in this way from first to last, ruining women right and left as well as living with favourites. Indeed, it was a great thing that everyone coveted if he simply cast his eyes upon a man's wife; if, however, he deemed her worthy of a kiss, each husband thought that good fortune would flood his house. Many women even boasted that they had had children by Alexander, and their husbands bore witness that they spoke the truth! 43.  I want to include in my tale a dialogue between Glycon and one Sacerdos, a man of Tius, whose intelligence you will be able to appraise from his questions. I read the conversation in an inscription in letters of gold, at Tius, in the house of Sacerdos. "Tell me, Master Glycon," said he, "who are you?" "I am the latter-day Asclepius," he replied. "A different person from the one of former times? What do you mean?" "It is not permitted you to hear that." "How many years will you tarry among us delivering oracles?" "One thousand and three." "Then where shall you go?" "To Bactra and that region, for the barbarians too must profit by my presence among men." "What of the other prophetic shrines, the one in Didymi, the one in Clarus, and the one in Delphi—do they still have your father Apollo as the source of their oracles, or are the predictions now given out there false?" "This too you must not wish to know; it is not permitted." "What about myself—what shall I be after my present life?" "A camel, then a horse, then a wise man and prophet just as great as Alexander." That was Glycon's conversation with Sacerdos; and in conclusion he uttered an oracle in verse, knowing that Sacerdos was a follower of Lepidus:' "Put not in Lepidus faith, for a pitiful doom is in waiting." That was because he greatly feared Epicurus, as I have said before, seeing in him an opponent and critic of his trickery. 44.  Indeed, he seriously imperilled one of the Epicureans who ventured to expose him in the presence of a great crowd. The man went up to him and said in a loud voice: "Come now, Alexander! You prevailed upon such-and-such a Paphlagonian to put his servants on trial for their lives before the governor of Galatia on the charge that they had murdered his son, a student at Alexandria. But the young man is living, and has come back alive after the execution of the servants, whom you gave over to the wild beasts." What had happened was this. The young man cruised up the Nile as far as Clysma,35 and as a vessel was just putting to sea, was induced to join others in a voyage to India. Then because he was overdue, those ill-starred servants concluded that the young man either had lost his life during his cruise upon the Nile or had been made away with by brigands, who were numerous at the time; and they returned with the report of his disappearance. Then followed the oracle and their condemnation, after which the young man presented himself, telling of his travels. 45.  When he told this tale, Alexander, indignant at the exposure and unable to bear the truth of the reproach, told the bystanders to stone him, or else they themselves would be accurst and would bear the name of Epicureans. They had begun to throw stones when a man named Demostratus who happened to be in the city, one of the most prominent men in Pontus,36 flung his arms about the fellow and saved him from death. But he had come very near to being overwhelmed with stones, and quite properly! Why did he have to be the only man of sense among all those lunatics and suffer from the idiocy of the Paphlagonians? 46.  That man, then, was thus dealt with. Moreover, if in any case, when men were called up in the order of their applications (which took place the day before the prophecies were given out) and the herald enquired: "Has he a prophecy for So-and-so," the reply came from within: "To the ravens," nobody would ever again receive such a person under his roof or give him fire or water, but he had to be harried from country to country as an impious man, an atheist, and an Epicurean—which, indeed, was their strongest term of abuse. 47.  One of Alexander's acts in this connection was most comical. Hitting upon the "Established Beliefs" of Epicurus, which is the finest of his books, as you know, and contains in summary the articles of the man's philosophic creed,37 he brought it into the middle of the market-place, burned it on fagots of fig-wood just as if he were burning the man in person, and threw the ashes into the sea, even adding an oracle also: "Burn with fire, I command you, the creed of a purblind dotard!" But the scoundrel had no idea what blessings that book creates for its readers and what peace, tranquillity, and freedom it engenders in them, liberating them as it does from terrors and apparitions and portents, from vain hopes and extravagant cravings, developing in them intelligence and truth, and truly purifying their understanding, not with torches and squills and that sort of foolery, but with straight thinking, truthfulness and frankness. 48.  Of all this blackguard's emprises, however, hear one, the greatest. Since he had no slight influence in the palace and at court through the favour which Rutilianus enjoyed, he published an oracle at the height of the war in Germany, when the late Emperor Marcus himself had at last come to grips with the Marcomanni and Quadi. The oracle recommended that two lions be cast into the Danube alive, together with a quantity of perfumes and magnificent offerings. But it will be better to repeat the oracle itself. "Into the pools of the Ister, the stream that from Zeus taketh issue, Hurl, I command you, a pair of Cybele's faithful attendants, Beasts that dwell on the mountains, and all that the Indian climate Yieldeth of flower and herb that is fragrant; amain there shall follow Victory and great glory, and welcome peace in their footsteps." But when all this had been done as he had directed, the lions swam across to the enemy territory and the barbarians slaughtered them with clubs, thinking them some kind of foreign dogs or wolves; and "amain" that tremendous disaster befel our side, in which a matter of twenty thousand were wiped out at a blow. Then came what happened at Aquileia, and that city's narrow escape from capture. To meet this issue, Alexander was flat enough to adduce the Delphian defence in the matter of the oracle given to Croesus, that the God had indeed foretold victory, but had not indicated whether it would go to the Romans or to the enemy.38 49.  As by this time throngs upon throngs were pouring in and their city was becoming overcrowded on account of the multitude of visitors to the shrine, so that it had not sufficient provisions, he devised the so-called "nocturnal" responses. Taking the scrolls, he slept on them, so he said, and gave replies that he pretended to have heard from the god in a dream; which, however, were in most cases not clear but ambiguous and confused, particularly when he observed that the scroll had been sealed up with unusual care. Taking no extra chances, he would append at random whatever answer came into his head, thinking that this procedure too was appropriate to oracles; and there were certain expounders who sat by with that in view and garnered large fees from the recipients of such oracles for explaining and unriddling them. Moreover, this task of theirs was subject to a levy; the expounders paid Alexander an Attic talent each. 50.  Sometimes, to amaze dolts, he would deliver an oracle for the benefit of someone who had neither enquired nor sent—who, in fact, did not exist at all. For example: "Seek thou out that man who in utmost secrecy shrouded Tumbleth at home on the couch thy helpmeet Calligeneia, Slave Protogenes, him upon whom thou fully reliest. He was corrupted by thee, and now thy wife he corrupteth, Making a bitter return unto thee for his own violation. Aye more, now against thee a baneful charm they have fashioned So that thou mayst not hear nor see what deeds they are doing; This shalt thou find on the floor, beneath thy bed, by the wall-side, Close to the head; thy servant Calypso shareth the secret." What Democritus39 would not have been disturbed on hearing names amid places specified—and would not have been filled with contempt soon afterward, when he saw through their stratagem? 52.*  Again, to someone else who was not there and did not exist at all, he said in prose: "Go back; he  who sent you was killed today by his neighbour Diodes, with the help of the bandits Magnus, Celer, and Bubalus, who already have been caught and imprisoned." 51.  I may say too that he often gave oracles to barbarians, when anyone put a question in his native language, in Syrian or in Celtic; since he readily found strangers in the city who belonged to the same nation as his questioners. That is why the time between the presentation of the scrolls and the delivery of the oracle was long, so that in the interval the questions might be unsealed at leisure without risk and men might be found who would be able to translate them fully. Of this sort was the response given to the Scythian: "Morphen eubargoulis eis skian chnechikrage leipsei phaos." 40 53.  Let me also tell you a few of the responses that were given to me. When I asked whether Alexander was bald, and sealed the question carefully and conspicuously, a "nocturnal" oracle was appended: "Sabardalachou malachaattealos en."41 At another time, I asked a single question in each of two scrolls under a different name, "What was the poet Homer's country?" In one case, misled by my serving-man, who had been asked why he came and had said, "To request a cure for a pain in the side," he replied: "Cytmis42 I bid you apply, combined with the spume of a charger." To the other, since in this case he had been told that the one who sent it enquired whether it would be better for him to go to Italy by sea or by land, he gave an answer which had nothing to do with Homer: "Make not your journey by sea, but travel afoot by the highway." 54.  Many such traps, in fact, were set for him by me and by others. For example, I put a single question, and wrote upon the outside of the scroll, following the usual form: "Eight questions from So-and-so," using a fictitious name and sending the eight drachmas and whatever it came to besides.43 Relying upon the fee that had been sent and upon the inscription on the roll, to the single question: "When will Alexander be caught cheating?" he sent me eight responses which, as the saying goes, had no connection with earth or with heaven, but were silly and nonsensical every one. When he found out about all this afterward, and also that it was I who was attempting to dissuade Rutilianus from the marriage and from his great dependence upon the hopes inspired by the shrine, he began to hate me, as was natural, and to count me a bitter enemy. Once when Rutilianus asked about me, he replied: "Low-voiced walks in the dusk are his pleasure, and impious matings." And generally, I was of course the man he most hated. 55.  When he discovered that I had entered the city and ascertained that I was the Lucian of whom he had heard (I had brought, I may add, two soldiers with me, a pikeman and a spearman borrowed from the Governor of Cappadocia, then a friend of mine, to escort me to the sea), he at once sent for me very politely and with great show of friendliness. When I went, I found many about him; but I had brought along my two soldiers, as luck would have it. He extended me his right hand to kiss, as his custom was with the public; I clasped it as if to kiss it, and almost crippled it with a right good bite! The bystanders tried to choke and beat me for sacrilege; even before that, they had been indignant because I had addressed him as Alexander and not as "Prophet." But he mastered himself very handsomely, held them in check, and promised that he would easily make me tame and would demonstrate Glycon's worth by showing that he transformed even bitter foes into friends. Then he removed everybody and had it out with me, professing to know very well who I was and what advice I was giving Rutilianus, and saying, "What possessed you to do this to me, when I can advance you tremendously in his favour?" By that time I was glad to receive this proffer of friendship, since I saw what a perilous position I had taken up; so, after a little, I reappeared as his friend, and it seemed quite a miracle to the observers that my change of heart had been so easily effected. 56.  Then, when I decided to sail—it chanced that I was accompanied only by Xenophon44 during my visit, as I had previously sent my father and my family on to Amastris—he sent me many remembrances and presents, and promised too that he himself would furnish a boat and a crew to transport me. I considered this a sincere and polite offer; but when I was in mid-passage, I saw the master in tears, disputing with the sailors, and began to be very doubtful about the prospects. It was a fact that they had received orders from Alexander to throw us bodily into the sea. If that had been done, his quarrel with me would have been settled without ado; but by his tears the master prevailed upon his crew to do us no harm. "For sixty years, as you see," said he to me, "I have led a blameless and God-fearing life, and I should not wish, at this age and with a wife and children, to stain my hands with murder;" and he explained for what purpose he had taken us aboard, and what orders had been given by Alexander. [57]  He set us ashore at Aegiali (which noble Homer mentions45), and then they went back again. There I found some men from the Bosporus who were voyaging along the coast. They were going as ambassadors from King Eupator to Bithynia, to bring the yearly contribution.46 I told them of the peril in which we had been, found them courteous, was taken aboard their vessel, and won safely through to Amastris, after coming so close to losing my life. Thereupon I myself began to prepare for battle with him, and to employ every resource in my desire to pay him back. Even before his attempt upon me, I detested him and held him in bitter enmity on account of the vileness of his character. So I undertook to prosecute him, and had many associÂ-ates, particularly the followers of Timocrates, the philosopher from Heraclea. But the then governor of Bithynia and Pontus, Avitus,47 checked me, all but beseeching and imploring me to leave off, because out of good will to Rutilianus he could not, he said, punish Alexander even if he should find him clearly guilty of crime. In that way my effort was thwarted, and I left off exhibiting misplaced zeal before a judge who was in that state of mind.48 58.  Was it not also a great piece of impudence on the part of Alexander that he should petition the Emperor to change the name of Abonoteichus and call it Ionopolis, and to strike a new coin bearing on one side the likeness of Glycon and on the other that of Alexander, wearing the fillets of his grandÂ-father Asclepius and holding the falchion of his maternal ancestor Perseus?49 59.  In spite of his prediction in an oracle that he was fated to live a hundred and fifty years and then die by a stroke of lightning, he met a most wretched end before reaching the age of seventy, in a manner that befitted a son of Podaleirius ; 50 for his leg became mortified quite to the groin and was infested with maggots. it was then that his baldness was detected when because of the pain he let the doctors foment his head, which they could not. have done unless his wig had been removed. 60.  Such was the conclusion of Alexander's spectacular career, and such the denouement of the whole play; being as it was, it resembled an act of Providence, although it came about by chance. It was inevitable, too, that he should have funeral games worthy of his career—that a contest for the shrine should arise. The foremost of his fellow-conspirators and impostors referred it to Rutilianus to decide which of them should be given the preference, should succeed to the shrine, and should be crowned with the fillet of priest and prophet. Paetus was one of them, a physician by profession, a greybeard, who conducted himself in a way that befitted neither a physician nor a greybeard. But Rutilianus, the umpire, sent them off unfilleted, keeping the post of prophet for the master after his departure from this life. 61.  This, my friend, is but a little out of a great deal; I have thought fit to set it down as a specimen, not only to pleasure you as an associate and friend whom above all others I hold in admiration for your wisdom, your love of truth, the gentleness and reasonableness of your ways, the peacefulness of your life, and your courtesy toward all whom you encounter, but mostly—and this will give greater pleasure to you also—to right the wrongs of Epicurus, a man truly saintly and divine in his nature, who alone truly discerned right ideals and handed them down, who proved himself the liberator of all who sought his converse. I think too that to its readers the writing will seem to have some usefulness, refuting as it does certain falsehoods and confirming certain truths in the minds of all men of sense. 1 The scholiast thinks this Celsus the writer of the True Word, an attack upon Christianity, to which Origen replied in his eight books contra Celsum. He is certainly identical with the man whom Origen himself believed to be the author of that work, who, he says, was an Epicurean living under Hadrian and the Antonines, author also of a treatise against sorcery (vide c. 21 and note). And the True Word itself, a large part of which is preserved in Origen, seems to have been written about A. D. 180. But as Origen is not sure who wrote it, and as it is considered Platonic rather than Epicurean in character, the prevailing opinion is that its author is not the Celsus of Lucian, but an otherwise unknown Platonist of the same name and date. 2 There is no life of Tillorobus among the extant writings of Arrian, and we know nothing of him from any other source. His name is given in the g group of MSS. as Tilliborus, but compare C.I.L. vi, 15295.                 3 The Cercopes were two impish pests who crossed the path of Heracles to their disadvantage. For the little that is known about the other typical rascals, see the Index. 4 Yet Pythagoras was no mean thaumaturge; see Plutarch, Numa, 65.                 5 The word is borrowed from Kipling. A "sending" is a "visitation," seen from a different point of view. 6 Odyssey 4, 230.           7 Cocconas comes from KOKKON (modern Greek KOUKOUNARI), pine-kernel, seed, nut. Cf. Anth. Pal. 12, 222.     8 The story was that Alexander was the son of Zeus, who had visited Olympias in the form of a serpent.   9 Thucydides ii, 1.               10 Asia here and elsewhere in this piece refers to the Roman province of Asia—western Asia Minor. 11 Proverbial for cheap trickery. Artemidorus (Dream-book1, 69) says that "if you dream of Pythagoreans, physiognomonics, astragaloinants, tyromants, gyromants, coscinomants, morphoscopes, chiroscopes, lecanomants, or necyomants, you must consider all that they say false and unreliable; for their trades are such. They do not know even a little bit about prophecy, but fleece their patrons by charlatanism and fraud." Oneiromants may of course be trusted! The few allusions to coscinomancy in the ancients give no clue to the method used. As practised in the sixteenth— seventeenth century, to detect thieves, disclose one's future wife, etc., the sieve was either suspended by a string or more commonly balanced on the top of a pair of tongs set astride the joined middle fingers of the two hands (or of two persons); then, after an incantation, a list of names was repeated, and the one upon which the sieve stirred was the one indicated by fate. Or the sieve, when suspended, might be set spinning; and then the name it stopped on was designated. See, in particular, Johannes Praetorius, de Coscinomantia, Oder vom Sieb-Lauffe, etc., Curiae Variscorum, 1677. 12  Podaleirius and his brother Machaon, the Homeric healers (Iliad 11, 833), were sons of Asclepius and lived in Tricca (now Trikkala), Thessaly. According to the Sack of Ilium (Evelyn-White, Hesiod, p. 524) Machaon specialized in surgery, Podaleirius in diagnosis and general practice. 13  Since in the Greek notation numbers are designated by letters, this combination (1, 30, 5, 60) is ALEX (alex). Alexander seems to have been a little afraid that some rival might steal his thunder if he were not more specific: at all events the first two words of the last line give, in the Greek, the entire name (andros-alex).           14 Why "this too"? The hilt of the falchion may have been gilt, but Lucian has not said so. Perhaps Lucian is thinking of Alexander's golden thigh (c. 40), and forgets that he has not yet told us of it.                 15 Cf. Odyssey, 12, 22: "Men of two deaths, when other men die but once." 16 "Some say that the mother of Asclepius was not Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus, but Coronis, daughter of Phlegyas" (Apollodorus, 3, 10, 3).   17  There was special significance in this performance. "Anyhow, 'God in the bosom' is a countersign of the mysteries of Sabazius to the adepts. This is a snake, passed through the bosom of the initiates" Clement of Alexandria, Protrept, 1, 2, 16).                                 18  In speaking of the "death and disappearance" of Amphiaraus, Lucian is rationalizing the myth, according to which Zeus clove the earth with a thunderbolt and it swallowed him up alive (Pindar, Nem. 9, 57).                               19  St. Hippolytus (Refut. omn. Haeres. IV. 28-42) contains a highly interesting section "against sorcerors," including (34) a treatment of this subject.  It is very evidently not his own work; and K. F. Hermann thought it derived from the treatise by Celsus.  Ganschinietz, in Harnack's Texte und Untersuchungen 39, 2, has disputed this but upon grounds that are not convincing. His commentary, however, is valuable. 20 It is a nice question whether this reading or that of the other group of MSS., "goat's grease," is to be preferred. Galen in his treatment of these ointments (Kuhn xiii, p. 1008) does not mention bear's grease. But he considers goat's grease only moderately good; and every Yankee knows that in America bear's grease only gave place to goose grease (also mentioned by Galen) when bears became scarce. 21 Alexander's price was high.  Amphilochus got but two obols (one-fourth as much) at Mallus.  According to Lucian (Timon 6; 12; Epist. Saturn. 21) the wage of a day-labourer at this time was but four obols.  22  Drachmas.                         23  An inscription from Amastris (C.I.G. 4149) honours "Tiberius Claudius Lepidus, Chief Priest of pontus and President of the Metropolis of Pontus" (i.e. Amastris).  This can be no other than the Lepidus of Lucian.  The priesthood was that of Augustus.  Amastris is almost due N. of Angora, on the Black Sea, W. of Abonoteichus. 24  St. Hippolytus (l.c., 28) mentions a tube made of wind. pipes of cranes, storks, or swans, and used in a similar way. Du Soul has a note in the Hemsterhuys-Reitz Lucian (ii, p. 234), telling of a wooden head constructed by Thomas Irson and exhibited to Charles II, which answered questions in any language and produced a great effect until a confederate was detected using a speaking-tube in the next room. Du Soul had the story from Irson himself. 25  The corona radiata, worn by Augustus, Nero, and the emperors after Caracalla.  This passage seems to point to its use (in addition to the laurel wreath?) as one of the triumphal insignia.         26 The Parthians had been interfering with the succession to the throne in Armenia. Severianus, Roman governor of Cappadocia, entered Armenia with a small force in 161, and was disastrously defeated at Elegeia by Chosroes. Accordin to Dio Cassius (71, 2) the entire force was surrounded an wiped out. See also Lucian, de Hist. Conscrib. 21, 24, 25.   27  Apollo.             28  P. Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus.  What office he then held (see below) is uncertain.  He eventually went through the whole cursus honorum, including the consulship (probably suffect) and the governorship of Upper Moesia, and ending, about A.D. 170, with the proconsulship of the province of Asia. 29 For the Greek worship of stones, see Frazer's Pausanias, vol. iv, 154 sq.; v, 314 sq., 354. In the note last cited he quotes Arnobius adv. Nationes I, 39: si quando conspexeram lubricatam lapidem et exolivi unguine sordidatam, tamquam inesset vie praesens adulabar adfabar, beneficia poscebam nihil sentiente de trunco. Add Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 7, 4, 26. [Greek snipped]                                                 30  A reference to the story of Endymion.       31 The terrible plague which swept the whole Empire about A.D. 165.                     32 The reference is to the proclamation that preceded the Eleusinian mysteries. Its entire content is unknown, but it required that the celebrants be clean of hand, pure of heart, and Greek in speech. Barbarians, homicides, and traitors were excluded; and there was some sort of restriction in regard to previous diet.       33  Hereditary priesthoods in the Eleusinian mysteries.       34  As Pythagoras had a golden thigh (Plutarch, Numa, 65; Aelian, Var. Hist., 2, 26), a believer in metempsychosis might think that Alexander was a reincarnation of Pythagoras.                                               35 Probably Suez; the ancient canal from the Nile to the Red Sea ended there.             36  I suspect that the Greek phrase is really a title, but cannot prove it; the use of PROTOS without the article seems to make the phrase mean "One of the First Citizens."           37 Quis enim vostrum non edidicit Epicuri ,KURIAS DOXAS, id est, quasi maxume ratas, quia gravissumae sint ad beate vivendum breviter enuntiatae sententiae? Cicero, de Fin. Bon. et Mal., ii, 7, 20.                   38  The invading tribes flooded Rhaetia, Noricum, upper and lower Pannonia, and Dacia, taking a vast number of Roman settlers prisoner, and even entered Italy, capturing and destroying Oderzo.  Details are uncertain; so is the exact date, which was probably between 167 and 169.  On the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, one of the scenes depicts two animals swimming across a river, near a boat.  These have been thought to be the lions of the oracle, and indeed they look like lions in the representation of Bartoli (Pl. XIII). But Petersen takes them to be bisons. It is clear, too, from Lucian that Alexander's oracle was given before the campaign depicted on the column.                     39  Democritus of Abdera is adduced as a typical hard-headed sceptic; see above, c. 17, and the Lover of Lies, 32 (vol. iii, p.369).   * Chapters 51 and 52 transposed by Fritsche.         40  Of uncertain meaning, and perhaps corrupt.     41 In failing to submit this to the official interpreters, Lucian lost a priceless opportunity. 42 Alexander's nostrum; cf c. 22. 43 Since the price of each oracle was one drachma, two obols, the indefinite plus was sixteen obols, or 2dr. 4 obols.                                         44 Probably a slave or a freedman. He is not mentioned elsewhere in Lucian.   45  Iliad, 2, 855. 46.  Tiberius Julius Eupator succeeded Rhoemetalces as King of the (Cimmerian) Bosporus, on the Tauric Chersonese; its capital was Panticapaeum (Kertch).  The period of his reign is about A.D. 154-171.  At this time the kingdom seems to have been paying tribute to the Scythians annually as well as to the Empire (Toxaris, 44).       47 L. Lollianus Avitus, consul A.D. 144, proconsul Africae ca. 156, praeses Bithyniae 165. 48 Of course Lucian's case, as it stood, was weak, as Avitus tactfully hinted. But this does not excuse Avitus. The chances of securing enough evidence to convict Alexander in a Roman court were distinctly good, and fear of Alexander's influence is the only reasonable explanation of the failure to proceed. 49  The request was granted, at least in part.  Beginning with the reign of Verus, the legends IONOPOLEITON and GLYKON appear on the coins; and the continue to bear the representation of a snake with human head to the middle of the third century (Head, Hist. Numm., 432, Cumont l.c., p. 42). The modern name Inéboli is a corruption of Ionopolis. 50  As son of Podaleirius, it was fitting, thinks Lucian, that his leg (poda-) should be affected.               Translated and notes by A.M. Harmon, 1936, Published in Loeb Classical Library, 9 volumes, Greek texts and facing English translation: Harvard University Press. This extract transcribed by Roger Pearse, 2001.  I have abbreviated a few of the less relevant notes and omitted the Greek.  I understand that this version is now in the public domain pursuant to the 1978 revision of the U.S. Copyright Code, since the copyright on the earlier volumes has lapsed and that on the later volumes was not renewed in the appropriate years.  If anyone knows differently, please contact me - it seems very difficult for a layman to know for certain the position on such things.  This page has been online since 31st August 2001. Return to Roger Pearse's Pages       
www-wikidata-org-2908	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikidata Marcus Aurelius (Q1430) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus edit Language Label Description Also known as English Marcus Aurelius Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia part of Five Good Emperors 0 references image Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg 2,773 × 4,160; 8.61 MB 0 references Marcoaurelio30000.jpg 750 × 1,000; 324 KB media legend Estàtua eqüestre de Marc Aureli al Museu Capitolí de Roma (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Catalan Wikipedia sex or gender male 3 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 102895066 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Ancient Rome 0 references name in native language Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia birth name Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus (Latin) 0 references noble title Emperor 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=125614787 Roman praenomen Marcus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Aurelius 0 references date of birth 26 April 121 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar place of birth Rome country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Roman Italy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia date of death 17 March 180 2 references stated in Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin quotation ... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены. (Russian) sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии. (Russian) place of death Vindobona country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Upper Pannonia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia manner of death natural causes 0 references cause of death plague 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia place of burial Castel Sant'Angelo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Marcus Annius Verus 0 references mother Domitia Calvilla 0 references stepparent Antoninus Pius 1 reference stated in Antoninus sibling Annia Cornificia Faustina 0 references spouse Faustina the Younger 1 reference stated in Antoninus child Commodus 0 references Marcus Annius Verus Caesar 0 references Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina 0 references Fadilla 0 references Lucilla 0 references Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor 0 references Vibia Aurelia Sabina 0 references Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus 0 references Domitia Faustina 0 references family Nerva–Antonine dynasty 0 references gens Aurelia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references writing language Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references occupation politician 0 references philosopher 0 references writer 1 reference inferred from Category:Ancient Roman writers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Finnish Wikipedia field of work philosophy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikiquote position held Roman emperor start time 7 March 161 end time 17 March 180 replaces Antoninus Pius replaced by Commodus 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation 7 марта 161 г. он вступил в управление империей. (Russian) Ancient Roman senator 0 references Roman consul 0 references quaestor point in time 139 1 reference stated in Antoninus student of Alexander of Cotiaeum 0 references Herodes Atticus 1 reference stated in Antoninus Marcus Cornelius Fronto 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45272586 Junius Rusticus 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45262683 residence Rome 0 references ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource religion ancient Roman religion 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia notable work Meditations 0 references time period High Roman Empire 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antonin 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 0 references Sytin Military Encyclopedia statement is subject of Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin 0 references Paulys Realenzyklopädie 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www-wikidata-org-3884	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikidata Marcus Aurelius (Q1430) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus edit Language Label Description Also known as English Marcus Aurelius Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia part of Five Good Emperors 0 references image Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg 2,773 × 4,160; 8.61 MB 0 references Marcoaurelio30000.jpg 750 × 1,000; 324 KB media legend Estàtua eqüestre de Marc Aureli al Museu Capitolí de Roma (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Catalan Wikipedia sex or gender male 3 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 102895066 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Ancient Rome 0 references name in native language Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia birth name Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus (Latin) 0 references noble title Emperor 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=125614787 Roman praenomen Marcus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Aurelius 0 references date of birth 26 April 121 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar place of birth Rome country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Roman Italy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia date of death 17 March 180 2 references stated in Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin quotation ... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены. (Russian) sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии. (Russian) place of death Vindobona country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Upper Pannonia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia manner of death natural causes 0 references cause of death plague 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia place of burial Castel Sant'Angelo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Marcus Annius Verus 0 references mother Domitia Calvilla 0 references stepparent Antoninus Pius 1 reference stated in Antoninus sibling Annia Cornificia Faustina 0 references spouse Faustina the Younger 1 reference stated in Antoninus child Commodus 0 references Marcus Annius Verus Caesar 0 references Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina 0 references Fadilla 0 references Lucilla 0 references Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor 0 references Vibia Aurelia Sabina 0 references Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus 0 references Domitia Faustina 0 references family Nerva–Antonine dynasty 0 references gens Aurelia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references writing language Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references occupation politician 0 references philosopher 0 references writer 1 reference inferred from Category:Ancient Roman writers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Finnish Wikipedia field of work philosophy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikiquote position held Roman emperor start time 7 March 161 end time 17 March 180 replaces Antoninus Pius replaced by Commodus 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation 7 марта 161 г. он вступил в управление империей. (Russian) Ancient Roman senator 0 references Roman consul 0 references quaestor point in time 139 1 reference stated in Antoninus student of Alexander of Cotiaeum 0 references Herodes Atticus 1 reference stated in Antoninus Marcus Cornelius Fronto 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45272586 Junius Rusticus 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45262683 residence Rome 0 references ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource religion ancient Roman religion 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia notable work Meditations 0 references time period High Roman Empire 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antonin 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 0 references Sytin Military Encyclopedia statement is subject of Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin 0 references Paulys Realenzyklopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft statement is subject of Annius 94 (Pauly-Wissowa) Aelius 31 (Pauly-Wissowa) 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition statement is subject of EB-11 / Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Antoninus 0 references Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn19981001808 0 references The Nuttall Encyclopædia stated as Antoni′nus Aure′lius, Marcus Marcus Aurelius 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references different from Aurelian 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=950541997 Commons gallery Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 0 references Commons Creator page Marcus Aurelius 0 references Commons category Marcus 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Marcus Aurelius kkwiki Марк Аврелий kowiki 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 lawiki Marcus Aurelius lfnwiki Marco Aurelio ltwiki Markas Aurelijus lvwiki Marks Aurēlijs mgwiki Marko Aorelio mkwiki Марко Аврелиј mnwiki Марк Аврелий mrwiki मार्कस ऑरेलियस mswiki Marcus Aurelius mywiki မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် napwiki Marco Aurelio nlwiki Marcus Aurelius nnwiki Marcus Aurelius av Romarriket nowiki Marcus Aurelius ocwiki Marc Aurèli plwiki Marek Aureliusz pmswiki March Aureli pnbwiki مارکس اورلیس ptwiki Marco Aurélio rowiki Marc Aureliu ruwiki Марк Аврелий scnwiki Marcu Aureliu scowiki Marcus Aurelius shwiki Marko Aurelije simplewiki Marcus Aurelius skwiki Marcus Aurelius slwiki Mark Avrelij sqwiki Mark Aureli srwiki Марко Аурелије svwiki Marcus Aurelius swwiki Marcus Aurelius tawiki மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் tgwiki Марк Аврелий thwiki จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส tlwiki Marco Aurelio trwiki Marcus Aurelius ukwiki Марк Аврелій uzwiki Avreliy Mark viwiki Marcus Aurelius warwiki Marcus Aurelius wuuwiki 马可·奥勒留 yowiki Marcus Aurelius zh_classicalwiki 馬可奧勒留 zh_min_nanwiki Marcus Aurelius zh_yuewiki 奧理略 zhwiki 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(41 entries) edit arwikiquote ماركوس أوريليوس azwikiquote Mark Avreli bewikiquote Марк Аўрэлій bgwikiquote Марк Аврелий bswikiquote Marko Aurelije cawikiquote Marc Aureli cswikiquote Marcus Aurelius dawikiquote Marcus Aurelius dewikiquote Mark Aurel elwikiquote Μάρκος Αυρήλιος enwikiquote Marcus Aurelius eowikiquote Marko Aŭrelio eswikiquote Marco Aurelio etwikiquote Marcus Aurelius fawikiquote مارکوس اورلیوس fiwikiquote Marcus Aurelius frwikiquote Marc Aurèle glwikiquote Marco Aurelio hewikiquote מרקוס אורליוס hrwikiquote Marko Aurelije huwikiquote Marcus Aurelius hywikiquote Մարկոս Ավրելիոս idwikiquote Marcus Aurelius itwikiquote Marco Aurelio kawikiquote მარკუს ავრელიუსი kowikiquote 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 kuwikiquote Marcus Aurelius ltwikiquote Markas Aurelijus nowikiquote Marcus Aurelius plwikiquote Marek Aureliusz 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www-wikidata-org-4407	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikidata Marcus Aurelius (Q1430) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus edit Language Label Description Also known as English Marcus Aurelius Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and Stoic philosopher Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Annius Verus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia part of Five Good Emperors 0 references image Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg 2,773 × 4,160; 8.61 MB 0 references Marcoaurelio30000.jpg 750 × 1,000; 324 KB media legend Estàtua eqüestre de Marc Aureli al Museu Capitolí de Roma (Catalan) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Catalan Wikipedia sex or gender male 3 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 102895066 retrieved 4 November 2018 imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Ancient Rome 0 references name in native language Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin) 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia birth name Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus (Latin) 0 references noble title Emperor 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Aurelio&oldid=125614787 Roman praenomen Marcus 0 references Roman nomen gentilicium Aurelius 0 references date of birth 26 April 121 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar place of birth Rome country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Roman Italy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia date of death 17 March 180 2 references stated in Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin quotation ... но расстроенное здоровье его не выдержало трудностей похода и 17 мрт. 180 г. он скончался в лагере в Сирмиуме на Дунае, близ нынеш. Вены. (Russian) sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation Уже в 179 г. император снова должен был предпринять поход против вероломных маркоманнов, разбил их при Карнунте в Паннонии, но вскоре, еще в продолжение этой войны, умер 17 марта 180 г., вероятно, в Сирмии. (Russian) place of death Vindobona country Roman Empire located in the administrative territorial entity Upper Pannonia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia manner of death natural causes 0 references cause of death plague 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Belarusian Wikipedia place of burial Castel Sant'Angelo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Marcus Annius Verus 0 references mother Domitia Calvilla 0 references stepparent Antoninus Pius 1 reference stated in Antoninus sibling Annia Cornificia Faustina 0 references spouse Faustina the Younger 1 reference stated in Antoninus child Commodus 0 references Marcus Annius Verus Caesar 0 references Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina 0 references Fadilla 0 references Lucilla 0 references Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor 0 references Vibia Aurelia Sabina 0 references Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus 0 references Domitia Faustina 0 references family Nerva–Antonine dynasty 0 references gens Aurelia gens 0 references languages spoken, written or signed Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references writing language Latin 0 references Ancient Greek 0 references occupation politician 0 references philosopher 0 references writer 1 reference inferred from Category:Ancient Roman writers retrieved 20 June 2019 imported from Wikimedia project Finnish Wikipedia field of work philosophy 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikiquote position held Roman emperor start time 7 March 161 end time 17 March 180 replaces Antoninus Pius replaced by Commodus 1 reference stated in Antoninus sourcing circumstances unspecified calendar quotation 7 марта 161 г. он вступил в управление империей. (Russian) Ancient Roman senator 0 references Roman consul 0 references quaestor point in time 139 1 reference stated in Antoninus student of Alexander of Cotiaeum 0 references Herodes Atticus 1 reference stated in Antoninus Marcus Cornelius Fronto 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45272586 Junius Rusticus 2 references stated in Antoninus stated in Q45262683 residence Rome 0 references ethnic group Ancient Romans 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Czech Wikisource religion ancient Roman religion 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia notable work Meditations 0 references time period High Roman Empire 0 references described by source Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antonin 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 0 references Sytin Military Encyclopedia statement is subject of Marcus-Aurelius, Antonin 0 references Paulys Realenzyklopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft statement is subject of Annius 94 (Pauly-Wissowa) Aelius 31 (Pauly-Wissowa) 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition statement is subject of EB-11 / Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Antoninus 0 references Obalky knih.cz URL https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn19981001808 0 references The Nuttall Encyclopædia stated as Antoni′nus Aure′lius, Marcus Marcus Aurelius 0 references copyright status as a creator copyrights on works have expired applies to jurisdiction worldwide determination method 100 years after author's death 0 references different from Aurelian 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=950541997 Commons gallery Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus 0 references Commons Creator page Marcus Aurelius 0 references Commons category Marcus 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25431 0 references edition humboldt digital ID H0013941 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Marcus-Aurelius-emperor-of-Rome 0 references biography/Marcus-Aurelius-Roman-emperor 0 references Encyclopaedia Herder person ID Marco_Aurelio 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Mix'n'match Encyclopædia Universalis ID marc-aurele 0 references Freebase ID /m/051x8 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 French Vikidia ID Marc_Aurèle 0 references General Diamond Catalogue ID 22369 0 references Goodreads author ID 17212 point in time 26 September 2020 named as Marcus Aurelius number of subscribers 2,752 0 references Goodreads character ID 834 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0040045 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2186553 0 references Grove Art Online ID T005009 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 39004 0 references IMDb ID ch0002130 reason for deprecation former IMDb character page 0 references InPhO ID thinker/2570 0 references Interlingual Index ID i94307 0 references Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ID marcus 0 references Isidore scholar ID marc_aurele_empereur_romain_auteur_du_texte 0 references Joconde epoch ID T93-556 0 references KANTO ID 000080833 0 references LBT person ID MaAurel 0 references Les Archives du Spectacle Person ID 219226 0 references LibraryThing author ID aureliusmarcus 0 references LibriVox author ID 4398 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia ID A/aurelius-marcus-annius-verus-antoninus 0 references Museo Galileo authority ID 81383 0 references MusicBrainz artist ID 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b 1 reference stated in MusicBrainz retrieved 22 December 2018 Musisque Deoque author ID 147 0 references Namuwiki ID 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 0 references National Discography of Italian Song artist/group ID 1614 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000088890 1 reference stated in Virtual International 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references Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ID marcus-aurelius 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Marcus_Aurelius 1 reference stated in Great Norwegian Encyclopedia retrieved 3 August 2019 Svenska Institutet i Rom ID 10318 0 references Swedish Literature Bank Author ID MarcusAurelius 0 references TLG author ID 0562 1 reference stated in Perseus Project retrieved 30 August 2019 reference URL https://catalog.perseus.tufts.edu/catalog/urn:cite:perseus:author.892 Trading Card Database person ID 162259 0 references Treccani ID marco-aurelio 0 references Treccani's Dizionario di Filosofia ID marco-aurelio 0 references Treccani's Dizionario di Storia ID marco-aurelio 0 references Treccani's Enciclopedia Italiana ID marco-aurelio 0 references Union Catalog of Armenian Libraries authority ID 14710 0 references Unione Romana Biblioteche Scientifiche ID 4636 0 references 6310 0 references 16678 0 references 180475 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1072619 0 references Unz 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اوريليوس astwiki Marcu Aureliu azbwiki مارکوس آئورلیوس azwiki Mark Avreli bclwiki Marcus Aurelius bewiki Марк Аўрэлій bgwiki Марк Аврелий bowiki མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། brwiki Marcus Aurelius bswiki Marko Aurelije cawiki Marc Aureli cswiki Marcus Aurelius cywiki Marcus Aurelius dawiki Marcus Aurelius dewiki Mark Aurel diqwiki Marcus Aurelius elwiki Μάρκος Αυρήλιος enwiki Marcus Aurelius eowiki Marko Aŭrelio eswiki Marco Aurelio etwiki Marcus Aurelius euwiki Marko Aurelio extwiki Marcu Uréliu fawiki مارکوس آئورلیوس fiwiki Marcus Aurelius fowiki Marcus Aurelius frwiki Marc Aurèle fywiki Markus Aurelius gawiki Marcas Áiréilias gdwiki Marcus Aurelius glwiki Marco Aurelio hakwiki Marcus Aurelius hewiki מרקוס אורליוס hiwiki मार्कस ऑरेलियस hrwiki Marko Aurelije huwiki Marcus Aurelius római császár hywiki Մարկոս Ավրելիոս iawiki Marco Aurelio idwiki Marcus Aurelius iowiki Marcus Aurelius iswiki Markús Árelíus itwiki Marco Aurelio jawiki マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス kawiki მარკუს ავრელიუსი kgwiki Marcus Aurelius kkwiki Марк Аврелий kowiki 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 lawiki Marcus Aurelius lfnwiki Marco Aurelio ltwiki Markas Aurelijus lvwiki Marks Aurēlijs mgwiki Marko Aorelio mkwiki Марко Аврелиј mnwiki Марк Аврелий mrwiki मार्कस ऑरेलियस mswiki Marcus Aurelius mywiki မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် napwiki Marco Aurelio nlwiki Marcus Aurelius nnwiki Marcus Aurelius av Romarriket nowiki Marcus Aurelius ocwiki Marc Aurèli plwiki Marek Aureliusz pmswiki March Aureli pnbwiki مارکس اورلیس ptwiki Marco Aurélio rowiki Marc Aureliu ruwiki Марк Аврелий scnwiki Marcu Aureliu scowiki Marcus Aurelius shwiki Marko Aurelije simplewiki Marcus Aurelius skwiki Marcus Aurelius slwiki Mark Avrelij sqwiki Mark Aureli srwiki Марко Аурелије svwiki Marcus Aurelius swwiki Marcus Aurelius tawiki மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் tgwiki Марк Аврелий thwiki จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส tlwiki Marco Aurelio trwiki Marcus Aurelius ukwiki Марк Аврелій uzwiki Avreliy Mark viwiki Marcus Aurelius warwiki Marcus Aurelius wuuwiki 马可·奥勒留 yowiki Marcus Aurelius zh_classicalwiki 馬可奧勒留 zh_min_nanwiki Marcus Aurelius zh_yuewiki 奧理略 zhwiki 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(41 entries) edit arwikiquote ماركوس أوريليوس azwikiquote Mark Avreli bewikiquote Марк Аўрэлій bgwikiquote Марк Аврелий bswikiquote Marko Aurelije cawikiquote Marc Aureli cswikiquote Marcus Aurelius dawikiquote Marcus Aurelius dewikiquote Mark Aurel elwikiquote Μάρκος Αυρήλιος enwikiquote Marcus Aurelius eowikiquote Marko Aŭrelio eswikiquote Marco Aurelio etwikiquote Marcus Aurelius fawikiquote مارکوس اورلیوس fiwikiquote Marcus Aurelius frwikiquote Marc Aurèle glwikiquote Marco Aurelio hewikiquote מרקוס אורליוס hrwikiquote Marko Aurelije huwikiquote Marcus Aurelius hywikiquote Մարկոս Ավրելիոս idwikiquote Marcus Aurelius itwikiquote Marco Aurelio kawikiquote მარკუს ავრელიუსი kowikiquote 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 kuwikiquote Marcus Aurelius ltwikiquote Markas Aurelijus nowikiquote Marcus Aurelius plwikiquote Marek Aureliusz ptwikiquote Marco Aurélio ruwikiquote Марк Аврелий skwikiquote Marcus Aurelius slwikiquote Mark Avrelij sqwikiquote Mark Aureli srwikiquote Марко Аурелије tawikiquote மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் trwikiquote Marcus Aurelius ukwikiquote Марк Аврелій viwikiquote Marcus Aurelius zhwikiquote 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 Wikisource(14 entries) edit bnwikisource লেখক:মার্কাস অরিলিয়স cswikisource Autor:Marcus Aurelius dewikisource Mark Aurel elwikisource Συγγραφέας:Μάρκος Αυρήλιος enwikisource Author:Marcus Aurelius Antoninus eowikisource Aŭtoro:Marko Aŭrelio frwikisource Auteur:Marc Aurèle hewikisource מחבר:מרקוס אורליוס itwikisource Autore:Marco Aurelio plwikisource Autor:Marek Aureliusz ptwikisource Autor:Marco Aurélio rowikisource Autor:Marc Aureliu ruwikisource Марк Аврелий tawikisource ஆசிரியர்:மார்க்க ஒளரேலியன் Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Retrieved from 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www-worldcat-org-1230	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/958470753 Title: Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine Publisher: Paris Acad [2001?]- OCLC:958470753 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine Author: Académie nationale de médecine Publisher: Paris Acad [2001?]- Edition/Format:  Journal, magazine : FrenchView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Find a copy online Links to this item Volltext teilw. kostenfrei Volltext Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Genre/Form: Zeitschrift Additional Physical Format: Erscheint auch als: Académie nationale de médecine. Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine Druck-Ausgabe (DE-604)BV002531123 Material Type: Internet resource Document Type: Journal / Magazine / Newspaper, Internet Resource All Authors / Contributors: Académie nationale de médecine OCLC Number: 958470753 Notes: Gesehen am 14. September 2016 Description: 1 Online-Ressource Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-1307	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1118519303 Title: A history of the Roman Empire from its foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.). Author: J B Bury Publisher: New York Harper 1893. OCLC:1118519303 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... A history of the Roman Empire from its foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.). Author: J B Bury Publisher: New York Harper 1893. Series: The Student's series Edition/Format:  eBook : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Rome -- History -- Empire, 30 B.C.-284 A.D. Rome (Empire) More like this Similar Items Find a copy online Links to this item books.scholarsportal.info Connect to Internet resource graphicservices.uwo.ca Purchase a print copy Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Genre/Form: History Material Type: Internet resource Document Type: Internet Resource All Authors / Contributors: J B Bury Find more information about: J B Bury OCLC Number: 1118519303 Reproduction Notes: Electronic reproduction. University of Toronto. Description: 638 pages Series Title: The Student's series Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "A history of the Roman Empire from its foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.).". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(2) Rome -- History -- Empire, 30 B.C.-284 A.D. Rome (Empire) Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-2713	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503242210 Title: The works of Lucian of Samosata. Author: Lucian, of Samosata; F G Fowler; H W Fowler Publisher: Oxford : Clarendon P., 1949. OCLC:503242210 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The works of Lucian of Samosata. Author: Lucian, of Samosata.; F G Fowler; H W Fowler Publisher: Oxford : Clarendon P., 1949. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Lucian, of Samosata.; F G Fowler; H W Fowler Find more information about: Lucian, of Samosata. F G Fowler H W Fowler OCLC Number: 503242210 Description: 4 volumes ; 18 cm Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The works of Lucian of Samosata.". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-3295	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. 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E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/784124210 Title: A companion to Marcus Aurelius Author: Marcel van Ackeren Publisher: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, ©2012. ISBN/ISSN: 9781118219829 1118219821 9781118219836 111821983X 1405192852 9781405192859 OCLC:784124210 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... A companion to Marcus Aurelius Author: Marcel van Ackeren Publisher: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, ©2012. Series: Blackwell companions to the ancient world. Edition/Format:  eBook : Document : Biography : EnglishView all editions and formats Summary: A Companion to Marcus Aurelius presents the first comprehensive collection of essays to explore all essential facets relating to contemporary Marcus Aurelius studies. First collection of its kind to commission new stateoftheart scholarship on Marcus Aurelius Features readings that cover all aspects of Marcus Aurelius, including source material, biographical information, and writings Contributions from an international cast of top Aurelius scholars Addresses evolving aspects of the reception of the Meditations.  Read more... Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Marcus Aurelius, -- Emperor of Rome, -- 121-180. Rome -- History -- Marcus Aurelius, 161-180. Emperors -- Rome -- Biography. View all subjects More like this Similar Items Find a copy online Links to this item 123Library Ebook Library ebrary EBSCOhost ProQuest Ebook Central Wiley InterScience An electronic book accessible through the World Wide Web; click for information Wiley Wiley Wiley doi.org Wiley Online Library ebookcentral.proquest.com Connect to Ebook. site.ebrary.com Access provided by Berkeley Law Library Show all links Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Genre/Form: Electronic books Biographies History Biografieën (vorm) Biography Additional Physical Format: Print version: Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Malden, MA : Blackwell, ©2012 (DLC) 2011040483 (OCoLC)756377511 Named Person: Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome; Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome Material Type: Biography, Document, Internet resource Document Type: Internet Resource, Computer File All Authors / Contributors: Marcel van Ackeren Find more information about: Marcel van Ackeren ISBN: 9781118219829 1118219821 9781118219836 111821983X 1405192852 9781405192859 OCLC Number: 784124210 Description: 1 online resource Contents: Front Matter -- The Study of Marcus Aurelius / Marcel van Ackeren -- The Main Sources. Cassius Dio and the / Anthony R Birley -- Archaeological Evidence of the Marcomannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius (AD 166₆80) / Thomas Fischer -- The / Matteo Ceporina -- Marcus Aurelius' Letters / Pascale Fleury -- Epigraphic Records / P̌ter Kov̀cs -- Biography and Background. The Political State of the Roman Empire / Werner Eck -- Cultural and Intellectual Background and Development / Leofranc Holford-Strevens -- Early Life: Family, Youth, and Education / Anthony R Birley -- Marcus' Life as Emperor / Anthony R Birley -- The Relation of Politics and Philosophy under Marcus Aurelius / Lukas de Blois -- Marcus the Emperor. Administration and Jurisdiction in Rome and in the Provinces / Werner Eck -- Religion in the Age of Marcus Aurelius / Mark J Edwards -- The Wars and Revolts / Anthony R Birley -- The Roman Empire after His Death / Olivier Hekster -- Material Forms of Self-Representation. The Column of Marcus Aurelius / Martin Beckmann -- The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius / Peter Stewart -- Coins / Susanne B̲rner -- The Portraits / Dietrich Boschung -- The Reliefs / Dietrich Boschung -- Marcus the Philosopher. The Form and Structure of the / Jean-Baptiste Gourinat* -- The Style of the / Angelo Giavatto -- Aspects of Orality in (the Text of) the / Michael Erler -- The as a (Philosophical) Autobiography / Irmgard M̃nnlein-Robert -- Marcus and Previous Stoic Literature / Christopher Gill -- Marcus Aurelius on Physics / David Sedley -- Logic and the / Angelo Giavatto -- Ethics / Jean-Baptiste Gourinat* -- Social Ethics and Politics / Gretchen Reydams-Schils* -- The and the Ancient Art of Living / John Sellars -- The Self in the / Anthony A Long -- Reception. The Reception of the Philosopher-King in Antiquity and the Medieval Age / Julia Bruch, Katrin Herrmann -- The Sanctification of Marcus Aurelius / Amy Richlin* -- Marcus Aurelius and Neostoicism in Early Modern Philosophy / Jill Kraye -- Marcus Aurelius in Contemporary Philosophy / John Sellars -- Index. Series Title: Blackwell companions to the ancient world. Responsibility: edited by Marcel van Ackeren. Abstract: A Companion to Marcus Aurelius presents the first comprehensive collection of essays to explore all essential facets relating to contemporary Marcus Aurelius studies.  Read more... Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "A companion to Marcus Aurelius". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(7) Marcus Aurelius, -- Emperor of Rome, -- 121-180. Rome -- History -- Marcus Aurelius, 161-180. Emperors -- Rome -- Biography. HISTORY -- Ancient -- Rome. Emperors. Rome (Empire) Romeinse oudheid. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-4543	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6529816 Title: I medaglioni romani; Author: Francesco Gnecchi Publisher: Bologna, Forni, [1968?] OCLC:6529816 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... I medaglioni romani; Author: Francesco Gnecchi Publisher: Bologna, Forni, [1968?] Edition/Format:  Print book : ItalianView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Medals -- Rome. Medals. Rome (Empire) More like this Similar Items Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Francesco Gnecchi Find more information about: Francesco Gnecchi OCLC Number: 6529816 Notes: "Ristampa anastatica dell'edizione di Milano, 1912." Description: 3 volumes 162 plates, portrait 32 cm Contents: v. 1. Oro ed argento.--v. 2. Bronzo. pt. 1. Gran modulo.--v. 3. Bronzo. pt. 2. Moduli minori. pt. 3. Medaglioni del Senato. Responsibility: descritti ed illustrati da Francesco Gnecchi. Opera in tre volumi corredata da n. 162 tavole dal vero ... Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "I medaglioni romani;". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(3) Medals -- Rome. Medals. Rome (Empire) Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-5437	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/768929523 Title: The Roman imperial coinage / Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus / by Harold Mattingly and Edward A. Sydenham. Author: Harold Mattingly; Edward Allen Sydenham Publisher: London : Spink, 1930. OCLC:768929523 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The Roman imperial coinage / Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus / by Harold Mattingly and Edward A. Sydenham. Author: Harold Mattingly; Edward Allen Sydenham Publisher: London : Spink, 1930. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Publication: The Roman imperial coinage Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Harold Mattingly; Edward Allen Sydenham Find more information about: Harold Mattingly Edward Allen Sydenham OCLC Number: 768929523 Description: XVIII, 514 p., XVI bl. pl. : ill. ; 25 cm. Responsibility: ed. by Harold Mattingly and Edward A. Sydenham Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The Roman imperial coinage / Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus / by Harold Mattingly and Edward A. Sydenham.". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-5564	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1021363430 Title: The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius / 3, Books XIV - XX. Author: Aulus Gellius Publisher: Cambridge, Mass.; London : Harvard Univ. Press, [ca. 2007] ISBN/ISSN: 0674992342 9780674992344 OCLC:1021363430 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius / 3, Books XIV - XX. Author: Aulus Gellius Publisher: Cambridge, Mass.; London : Harvard Univ. Press, [ca. 2007] Series: Loeb classical library, 212. Edition/Format:  Print book : English : First publ. 1927, reprintView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Aulus Gellius Find more information about: Aulus Gellius ISBN: 0674992342 9780674992344 OCLC Number: 1021363430 Notes: 1927. Description: XXIX, 499 Seiten. Series Title: Loeb classical library, 212. Responsibility: with an English transl. by John C. Rolfe. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius / 3, Books XIV - XX.". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-5624	----	Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome 121-180 [WorldCat Identities] Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome 121-180 Overview Works: 2,922 works in 9,875 publications in 19 languages and 88,815 library holdings Genres: Personal correspondence  Biographies  Musical settings  Meditations  History  Bibliographies  Criticism, interpretation, etc  Illustrated works  Fiction  Exhibition catalogs  Subject Headings: Roles: Author, Other, Contributor, Creator, Originator, Bibliographic antecedent, Author in quotations or text abstracts, Honoree, Editor, Dubious author, Printer Classifications: B580, 188 Publication Timeline . Most widely held works about Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius by Anthony Birley( ) The diall of princes by Antonio de Guevara( ) The meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( ) Marcus Aurelius' rain miracle and the Marcomannic wars by Péter Kovács( ) Essays in criticism by Matthew Arnold( Book ) Warriors in winter by Mary Pope Osborne( Book ) Meditations by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) Marcus Aurelius in love by Marcus Aurelius( ) The meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( ) Marcus Aurelius : a life by Frank McLynn( Book ) Seekers after God by F. W Farrar( Book ) Marcus Aurelius; a biography told as much as may be by letters, together with some account of the Stoic religion and an exposition of the Roman government's attempt to suppress Christianity during Marcus's reign by Henry Dwight Sedgwick( Book ) Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and beyond by Geoff W Adams( ) Marcus Aurelius, his life and his world by A. S. L Farquharson( Book ) The thoughts of Marcus Aurelius by Marcus Aurelius( ) Marcus Aurelius, a biography by Anthony Birley( Book ) A companion to Marcus Aurelius by Marcel van Ackeren( ) Essays, classical by F. W. H Myers( Book ) The fall of the Roman Empire : film and history by Martin M Winkler( ) The golden boke of Marcus Aurelius emperour and eloquente oratour by Antonio de Guevara( )   more fewer Most widely held works by Marcus Aurelius Meditations by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 1,109 editions published between 1056 and 2021 in 17 languages and held by 10,918 WorldCat member libraries worldwide A new translation, the first in thirty-five years, of one of the most influential and admired books of the ages, the reflections of Marcus Aurelius, Stoic philosopher and emperor of Rome 161-180 A.D., few books have meant as much to as many as Marcus Aurelius's Meditations. It remains a life-enhancing work of the basics of Stoic doctrine, Aurelius's life and career, the recurring themes and structure of the work's ongoing influence (On) M. Aurelius Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( ) 5 editions published in 2000 in English and held by 1,796 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The meditations of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( ) 168 editions published between 1742 and 2018 in English and Greek, Ancient and held by 1,689 WorldCat member libraries worldwide "Translated from the Greek as a collaborative effort by Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746) and the classicist James Moor (1712-1779), The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus became a highly influential work in the philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment. In their translation and notes to the text, Hutcheson and Moor celebrate the Stoic ideal of an orderly universe governed by a benevolent God. The translation and notes also shed light on Hutcheson's other writings: above all, perhaps, on his conception of "true religion" as a religion of virtue, benevolence, and public spirit for an enlightened age." "Hutcheson contrasts the divisive sectarianism exhibited by Christians in Scotland and elsewhere with Marcus's recommendations of serenity and resignation to the will of the Creator. In light of the warmth of feeling Hutcheson expresses in his remarks, it is not surprising that he took pains to conceal his role (and Moor's) in the composition of the introductory "Life of the Emperor" and in the notes." "The edition of The Meditations that is reproduced here was published in 1742. It is the first of five editions published by Robert Foulis and is the only Foulis edition of the English translation published during Hutcheson's lifetime. In this new Liberty Fund edition, editors Moore and Silverthorne clarify the respective contributions of Hutcheson and Moor and identify persons and occurrences that appear in the text. The editors also explain Hutcheson and Moor's motivation in undertaking the translation and discuss the challenge Hutcheson faced in translating the technical Stoic vocabulary used by Marcus."--Jacket Meditations of Marcus Aurelius by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 119 editions published between 1880 and 2019 in English and Undetermined and held by 1,502 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Translation by George Long The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto with Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and various friends by Marco Cornelio Frontón( Book ) 62 editions published between 1919 and 2007 in English and Latin and held by 1,416 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The literary remains of the rhetorician Marcus Cornelius Fronto first came to light in 1815, when Cardinal Mai, then prefect of the Ambrosian Library in Milan, discovered that beneath an account of the Acts of the first Council of Chelcedon in 451 had originally been written copy of the correspondence between Fronto and members of the imperial family, including no less than three who were to wear the purple. The letters possess an extraordinary fascination as giving an authentic record of the relationship between the foremost teacher of his time and his illustrious student Marcus Aurelius, his chief correspondent. Apart from small-talk (but even that is replete with interest) the principal subject is Latin prose style. Fronto practices to excess the cultivation of trendy mannerisms, but sees clearly enough the sterility of a slavish imitation of classical models. -- Jacket The thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 88 editions published between 1800 and 2018 in English and held by 650 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The communings with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor of Rome : together with his speeches and sayings by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 58 editions published between 1916 and 1987 in 5 languages and held by 635 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 95 editions published between 1692 and 2020 in English and Chinese and held by 531 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Written in Greek without any intention of publication, a book by the 2nd century Roman emperor offers spiritual reflections and exercises developed by the author, as a leader who struggled to understand himself and make sense of the universe, covering such topics as the question of virtue, human rationality, the nature of the gods, and Aurelius's own emotions. This edition includes a selection of the correspondence between Marcus Aurelius and his former tutor, the rhetorician Marcus Cornelius Fronto The golden book of Marcus Aurelius by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 53 editions published between 1898 and 2004 in English and held by 490 WorldCat member libraries worldwide This translated volume of Marcus Aurelius' writings is titled The Golden Book. It is often also seen in translation titled Thoughts, or Meditations. All 12 books of Aurelius' great work are included here, as well as an introduction with some contextual information about the Emperor The essential Marcus Aurelius by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 3 editions published in 2008 in English and held by 451 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The late antique world possessed no voice like that of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121-180). His meditations on what constitutes a good life have withstood the centuries and reach us today with a force that has not diminished." "In this remarkable new translation, philosopher Jacob Needleman and classics scholar John P, Piazza reveal Marcus Aurelius not only in light of his philosophical ideas, but as a great practitioner who struggled to live according to those ideas." "The voice that emerges from their translation is a universal one that stands within the stream of the wisdom traditions of every historic faith. While rooted in the Stoic philosophy of Greece and Rome, it is recognizable to students of early Christianity and Buddhism, of the Vedas and the Talmud, and to all who seriously search for meaning in contemporary life." "The translators' selection process has also been guided by the intention of making Marcus's thought vividly accessible to the general reader. They frame the translation with concise, relevant introductions that tell who Marcus was and provide a fresh, while historically grounded, way of entering this deeply powerful work. Also included arc a glossary of terms; spare yet helpful notes that do not cloud the text; and recommendations for further reading Markou Antōninou tou autokratoros tōn eis heauton biblia 12 = Marci Antonini imperatoris de rebus suis, sive de eis q[u]ae ad se pertinere censebat libri XII : locis haud paucis repurgati, suppleti, restituti : versione insuper Latina novâ ... ac commentario perpetuo explicati atq[u]e illustrati by Marcus Aurelius( ) 32 editions published between 1652 and 1697 in 3 languages and held by 394 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The commentaries of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, containing his maxims of science and rules of life, wrote for his own use and address'd to himself by Marcus Aurelius( ) 20 editions published between 1747 and 1975 in English and held by 377 WorldCat member libraries worldwide The diall of princes by Antonio de Guevara( ) 21 editions published between 1529 and 1675 in 3 languages and held by 368 WorldCat member libraries worldwide A fictitious account of Marcus Aurelius The emperor's handbook : a new translation of The meditations by Marcus Aurelius( Book ) 4 editions published in 2002 in English and held by 364 WorldCat member libraries worldwide A new translation offers readers a practical handbook to life and leadership, filled with classical stoic wisdom and advice The Emperor Marcus Antoninus his conversation with himself. : Together with the preliminary discourse of the learned Gataker. As also, the emperor's life, written by Monsieur D'acier, and supported by the authorities collected by Dr. Stanhope. To which is added the mythological picture of Cebes the Theban, &c. Translated into English from the respective originals, by Jeremy Collier, M.A by Marcus Aurelius( ) 9 editions published between 1701 and 1726 in English and held by 339 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Markou Antoninou autokratoras tōn eis eauton, biblia 12 = Marci Antonini imperatoris, de seipso & ad seipsum, libri XII : recogniti et notis illustrati by Marcus Aurelius( ) 25 editions published between 1680 and 1980 in 4 languages and held by 308 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Meditations by Marcus Aurelius( ) 39 editions published between 1985 and 2020 in English and held by 308 WorldCat member libraries worldwide "One most the most significant books ever written by a head of State, the Meditations are a collection of thoughts by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-181 CD). Covering issues such as duty, forgiveness, brotherhood, strength in adversity and the best way to approach life and death, the Meditations have inspired thinkers, poets and politicians since their first publication more than 500 years ago"--Container Markou Antōninou autokratoros tōn eis eauton bib. 12. = b Marci Antonini imperatoris De seipso et ad seipsum libri XII by Marcus Aurelius( ) 11 editions published between 1643 and 1978 in Latin and held by 291 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Marcus Aurelius Antonius, the Roman Emperour, his meditations concerning himself : treating of a natural man's happiness wherein it consisteth, and the means to attain unto it by Marcus Aurelius( ) 12 editions published between 1635 and 1981 in English and held by 284 WorldCat member libraries worldwide El Diari ; Concierto para guitarra y orquesta ; Concierto para fagot y conjunto instrumental ; Acta est fabula by Joan Guinjoan( ) 4 editions published in 1999 in 3 languages and held by 281 WorldCat member libraries worldwide   more fewer Audience Level 0 1   Kids General Special   Audience level: 0.34 (from 0.02 for (On) M. Au ... to 0.61 for Marcus Aur ...) Related Identities Guevara, Antonio de -1545? Other Author Editor Translator Long, George 1800-1879 Other Translator Editor Author Casaubon, Meric 1599-1671 Other Author of introduction Annotator Translator Editor Birley, Anthony 1937-2020 Author Fronto, Marcus Cornelius Author Berners, John Bourchier Baron 1466 or 1467-1533 Other Translator Farquharson, A. S. L. (Arthur Spenser Loat) 1871-1942 Other Author Editor Translator Spinoza, Benedictus de 1632-1677 Haines, Charles Reginald Author of introduction Other Translator Editor Author Arnold, Matthew 1822-1888 Author Useful Links Library of Congress Authority File (English) Virtual International Authority File. Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Wikidata. Associated Subjects Antoninus Pius,--Emperor of Rome, Authors, Latin Concertos (Bassoon with instrumental ensemble) Concertos (Guitar) Conduct of life Correspondence (Fronto, Marcus Cornelius) Criticism Education of princes Emperors Emperors--Biography English poetry Epictetus Espinàs, Josep Maria, Ethics Fall of the Roman Empire (Motion picture) Fronto, Marcus Cornelius Guérin, Eugénie de, Guérin, Maurice de, Heine, Heinrich, Historiography Joubert, Joseph, Journal intime (Amiel, Henri Frédéric) Kings and rulers Latin literature Life Love-letters Magic Marcus Aurelius,--Emperor of Rome, Meditations Miracles Motion pictures Oracles, Greek Orators Philosopher-kings Philosophy Philosophy, Ancient Public opinion Religion Rome (Empire) Scriptores historiae Augustae Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Soldiers Songs (Medium voice) with instrumental ensemble Space and time Spinoza, Benedictus de, Stoics Tree houses Verus, Lucius Aurelius,--Emperor of Rome, Virgil War--Religious aspects Covers Alternative Names Annius Verus, Marcus 121-180 Antonin, Marc 121-180 Antonin, Marcus 121-180 Antonino 121-180 imperatore romano Antonino, imperatore romano, 121-180 Antoninos Autokrator, Markos 121-180 Antoninus Imperador de Roma Antoninus, Marcus Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 emperador de Roma Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Romas imperators Antoninus, Marcus A. 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 empereur de Rome Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Emperor of Rome Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 římský císař Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 romersk kejsare Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Emperor of the Roman Empire 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Imperador de Roma, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, římský císař, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, romersk kejsare, 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius Rooman keisari Antoninus, Marcus, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Antoninus Marcus Emperor of Rome Antoninus, Marcus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Antoninus, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Antonius, Marcus 121-180 Antonius, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Antonius, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Antonius, Marcus Aurelius 121-180 romersk kejsare Antonius, Marcus Aurelius, romersk kejsare, 121-180 Aoleiliu 121-180 Aoleliu. Aoleliu 121-180 Aoleliu, Make 121-180 Romas imperators Aoleliu, Make, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurel, Marc Aurel, Marc 121-180 Aurel, Mark 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurel, Mark 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurel, Mark 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurel, Mark Emperor of the Roman Empire 121-180 Aurel, Mark Kaiser des Römischen Reichs 121-180 Aurele, Marc Aurèle, Marc 121-180 Aurèle, Marc 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurèle, Marc, 121-180 empereur de Rome Aurèle, Marc 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurèle, Marc 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurèle, Marc Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Aurèle, Marc, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Aurelije, Marko Aurēlijs, Marks, 121-180 Romas imperators Aurēlijs, Marks, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurelijus Markas Romos imperatorius Aurélio Marco Aurélio, Marco, 121-180 Aurelio, Marco 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurelio, Marco 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurelio, Marco 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurelio, Marco Emperador de Roma Aurelius, A. M. Aurelius, Antoninus 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus M. император римский 121-180 Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 Emperador de Roma Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 empereur de Rome Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 imperatore romano Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180, Roma Kotei Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180, ローマ コウテイ Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, 121-180 ローマ皇帝. Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Emperor of Rome Aurelius Antoninus Marcus Emperor of Rome (121-180) Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus imperatore romano Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, rímsky cisár, 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus romersk keiser 121-180 Aurelius Antoninus император римский Aurelius Antonius, Marcus 121-180 Aurelius Antonius, Marcus, 121-180 Romas imperators Aurelius Antonius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurelius Marcus Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, 121-180 emperador de Roma Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Aurelius, Marcus, 121-180 empereur de Rome Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Aurelius, Marcus, 121-180 imperatore romano Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Imperium Romanum, Imperator Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Aurelius, Marcus, 121-180 Romas imperators Aurelius, Marcus 121-180 Römischer Kaiser Aurelius Marcus Antoninus. Aurelius, Marcus, Emperador de Roma Aurelius, Marcus, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Aurelius Marcus Emperor of Rome (121-180) Aurelius, Marcus Emperor of the Roman Empire 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, imperatore romano, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, rímsky cisár, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus romersk keiser 121-180 Aurelius, Marcus Römischer Kaiser 121-180 Aurelius Markus император римский Aurelius Markus император римский 121-180 Aureliusz, Marek Avrelij, Mark, 121-180 Avreliy Mark Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus M. Antoninus. M. Antoninus 121-180 Imperium Romanum, Imperator M. Antoninus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 M. Aurelius Antoninus. M. Aurelius Antoninus, 121-180 Mâ-khù-sṳ̂ O-lie̍t-lî-vû-sṳ̂ Make Aoleliu 121-180 Romas imperators Make Aoleliu, Romas imperators, 121-180 Makesi Aoleliu Andongnainuosi. Marc 121-180 Aurel Marc Antonin. Marc-Antonin 0121-0180 empereur romain Marc Antonin 121-180 Marc Antonin 121-180 Empereur Marc-Antonin 121-180 empereur romain Marc Antonin Empereur 121-180 Marc-Antonin empereur romain Marc-Antonin, empereur romain, 121-180 Marc Antonin Empire Romain, Empereur 121-180 Marc Aurel. Marc Aurel 121-180 Marc Aurel 121-180 emperador de Roma Marc Aurel 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marc Aurel 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marc Aurel 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Marc Aurel 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marc Aurel 121-180 Romas imperators Marc. Aurel. Antonin, Emperor of Rome Marc Aurel, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marc Aurel Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Marc Aurel Emperor of Rome Marc Aurel Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marc Aurel Emperor of the Roman Empire 121-180 Marc Aurel, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marc-Aurèle. Marc-Aurèle 121-180 Marc-Aurèle 121-180 de Rome Marc Aurèle 121-180 Empereur Marc Aurèle 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marc Aurèle 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Marc Aurèle 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marc-Aurèle Antonin 0121-0180 empereur romain Marc Aurele Antonin 121-180 Empereur Marc-Aurèle Antonin 121-180 empereur romain Marc Aurele Antonin Empereur 121-180 Marc-Aurèle Antonin empereur romain Marc-Aurèle Antonin, empereur romain, 121-180 Marc-Aurèle-Antonin император римский 121-180 Marc-Aurèle de Rome 121-180 Marc Aurèle Empereur 121-180 Marc Aurèle Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Marc Aurèle empereur romain Marc Aurèle empereur romain de 161 à 180 et philosophe stoïcien Marc Aurèle император римский Marc Aurèle император римский 121-180 Marc Aurèli Marc Aureli, Antoni, 121-180 emperador de Roma Marc Aureli, Antoni, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marc Aureli Emperador de Roma Marc Aureli emperador romà Màrc Aureliò Marc Aureliu împărat roman din dinastia Antonină între anii 161 și 180 p.Chr. și filozof stoic Marc Avrelij 121-180 Marcas Áiréilias Marc'Aurelio Marc'Aurelio Antonino. March Aureli Marco 121-180 Aurelio Marco 121-180 Aurelio Antonous Marco 121-180 Filosofo Stoico Marco 121-180 Imperatore Romano Marco Aurélio Marco Aurelio 0121-0180 empereur romain Marco Aurelio 121-180 Marco Aurelio 121-180 Antonino Marco Aurelio 121-180 emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marco Aurelio 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marco Aurelio 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Marco Aurelio 121-180 imperatore romano Marco Aurelio 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marco Aurelio Antonino Marco Aurelio Antonino 121-180 Marco Aurelio Antonino Emperador de Roma Marco Aurélio Antonino Vero Imperador de Roma Marco Aurélio Antonino Vero, Imperador de Roma, 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Antonio, 121-180 emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio, Antonio, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marco Aurelio Antonous 121-180 Marco Aurelio, Emperador de Roma Marco Aurelio, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marco Aurelio emperador del Imperio Romano Marco Aurelio empereur romain Marco Aurelio Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marco Aurélio imperador romano Marco Aurelio imperatore romano Marco Aurelio, imperatore romano, 121-180 Marco Aurelio sedicesimo imperatore romano (161-180) Marco Filosofo Stoico 121-180 Marco Imperatore Romano 121-180 Marcu Aureliu Marcu Uréliu Marcus 121-180 Antoninus Marcus 121-180 Antonius Marcus 121-180 Aurel Marcus 121-180 Aurelius Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus. Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus. Marcus Annius 121-180 Catilius Severus Marcus Annius 121-180 Verus Marcus Annius Catilius Severus. Marcus Annius Catilius Severus 121-180 Marcus Annius Verus. Marcus Annius Verus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus. Marcus Antoninus 0121-0180 empereur romain Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus 121-180 emperador de Roma Marcus Antoninus 121-180 empereur romain Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Imperator Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Philosophus Marcus Antoninus 121-180 Romas imperators Marcus Antoninus, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Antoninus empereur romain Marcus Antoninus, empereur romain, 121-180 Marcus Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Marcus Antoninus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Imperator 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Kaiser des Römischen Reichs 121-180 Marcus Antoninus Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Antoninus, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Antoninus romersk keiser 121-180 Marcus Antonius 121-180 Marcus Antonius Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurel 121-180 Marcus Aurelis 121-180 emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelis, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Antoninus Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marcus Aurelius 121-180 empereur de Rome Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Kaiser Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Philosoph Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Philosophus Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Romas imperators Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Römischer Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Antiikin Rooman keisari Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 0121-0180 empereur romain Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 imperatore romano Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Imperium Romanum, Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Philosophus Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus, 121-180, Roma kotei Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Römischer Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 121-180 Römisches Reich, Kaiser Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus, 121-180, ローマ コウテイ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus empereur romain Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Emperor of Ancient Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Emperor of the Roman Empire 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, imperatore romano, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Kaiser des Römischen Reichs 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Römisches Reich, Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus император римский 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antonius 121-180 emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antonius 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Marcus Aurelius Antonius 121-180 Romas imperators Marcus Aurelius Antonius, emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antonius Imperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, 121-180 římský císař Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, římský císař, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Emperador de Roma Marcus Aurelius, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Marcus Aurelius, empereur de Rome, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius emperor of Ancient Rome (121–180) Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marcus Aurelius (imperator Imperii Romani ; 121-180). [m] Marcus Aurelius Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius kejsare av Rom 161–180 Marcus Aurelius Philosoph 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Philosophus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius politicus uit Romeinse Keizerrijk (121-180) Marcus Aurelius římský císař (161–180) Marcus Aurelius Roma imparatoru. Marcus Aurelius római császár a Római Birodalom császára Marcus Aurelius Romanorum Imperator Marcus Aurelius, Romas imperators, 121-180 Marcus Aurelius romersk keiser Marcus Aurelius romersk keiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Römischer Kaiser 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Romos imperatorius Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus 121-180 Marcus Aurelius Verus. Marcus Aurelius император римский Marek Aureli. Marek Aureliusz Marek Aureliusz 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marek Aureliusz 121-180 MEmperor of Rome Marek Aureliusz cesarz rzymski Marek Aureliusz, Emperor of Rome Marek Aureliusz Emperor of Rome 121-180 Marek Aureljusz Mark Anthony Imperium Romanum, Imperator 121-180 Mark Aure Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel. Mark Aurel 121-180 Mark Aurel 121-180 Empereur de l'Empire Romain Mark Aurel 121-180 Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel 121-180 Emperor of the Roman Empire Mark Aurel 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Mark Aurel, Emperador de Roma, 121-180 Mark Aurel Empereur de l'Empire Romain 121-180 Mark Aurel Emperor of Rome Mark Aurel Emperor of Rome 121-180 Mark Aurel Kaiser des Römischen Reichs 121-180 Mark Aurel romersk keiser 121-180 Mark Aurel römischer Kaiser und Philosoph Mark Aurel römischer Kaiser und Philosoph (121-180) Mark Aurel император римский Mark Aurel император римский 121-180 Mark Aureliovi Mark Avreli Mark Avreliĭ 121-180 Emperor of Rome Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome Mark Avreliĭ, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Mark Avrelij Mark Avrelij Antonin 121-180 Markas Aurelijus Markas Aurelijus Romos imperatorius Marko Antonin Filozof Marko Aurelije Marko Aurelije Autokrat Marko Aurelije Autokrator Marko Aŭrelio Marko Aŭrelio imperiestro de Romio (121–180) Markos 121-180 Antōnios Markos Antonimos. Márkos 'Antōninos 0121-0180 empereur romain Markos Antōninos 121-180 Autokratōr Markos Antōninos 121-180 Emperor of Rome Markos Antōninos 121-180 Kaiser des Römischen Reichs Markos Antōninos 121-180 Romas imperators Markos Antōninos Autokratōr 121-180 Márkos 'Antōninos empereur romain Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome Markos Antōninos, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Markos Antōninos Kaiser des Römischen Reichs 121-180 Markos Antōninos, Romas imperators, 121-180 Markos Antōnios 121-180 Mârkos 'Aurḗlios 0121-0180 empereur romain Mârkos 'Aurḗlios empereur romain Mârkos 'Aurī́lios 0121-0180 empereur romain Mârkos 'Aurī́lios empereur romain Markos Avrelyws 121-180 Markos Awrelyws 121-180 Marks Aurēlijs Marks Aurēlijs 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marks Aurēlijs, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marks Aurēlijs Romas imperators no 161. līdz 180. gadam Markús Árelíus Markus Aurelius Marḳus Aʼurelyus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome Marḳus Aʼurelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marḳus Orelyus 121-180 Emperor of Rome Marḳus Orelyus, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Marqus ʾAvrelyus ʾAnṭoninus 121-180 Marqws ʾAbrelyws ʾAntŵniynws Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος, 121-180 Emperor of Rome Ἀντωνῖνος, Μάρκος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Αντωνίνος Μάρκος Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης (121-180) Αὐρήιλος Ἀντώνιος, Μάρκος Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος 121-180 Emperor of Rome Μάρκος Ἀντωνῖνος, Emperor of Rome, 121-180 Μάρκος Αντωνίνος Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης (121-180) Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Μάρκος Ἀυρήλιος 0121-0180 empereur romain Μάρκος Ἀυρήλιος empereur romain Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αντωνίνος Αύγουστος Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Αυτοκράτορας της Ρώμης (121-180) Μάρκος Αυρήλιος Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας Авлелий Аврелий, Марк, 121-180 Romas imperators Аврелий, Марк, Romas imperators, 121-180 Аврелий, Марк Антоний, 121-180 Римский Император Аврелий, Марк Антоний, Римский Император, 121-180 Аврелий, Марк Антонин, 121-180 Romas imperators Аврелий, Марк Антонин, Romas imperators, 121-180 Аврелий Марк император римский Аврелий Марк император римский 121-180 Марк Аврелий Марк Аврелий 121-180 Romas imperators Марк Аврелий 121-180 Римский Император Марк Аврелий 16-й римский император Марк Аврелий, Romas imperators, 121-180 Марк Аврелий Romos imperatorius Марк Аврелий Антонин Марк Аврелий Антонин 121-180 Romas imperators Марк Аврелий Антонин 121-180 император римский Марк Аврелий Антонин, Romas imperators, 121-180 Марк Аврелий Антонин император римский Марк Аврелий Антонин император римский 121-180 Марк Аврелий Борынгы Римның 16 нчы императоры, фәлсәфәче Марк Аврелий император римский Марк Аврелий император римский 121-180 Марк Аврелій Марк-Анний В. император римский 121-180 Марк-Анний император римский Марк Аўрэлій Марк Аўрэлій рымскі імператар Марко Аврелиј римски цар и филозоф Марко Аурелије Марко Аурелије импреатор древног Рима Մարկոս Ավրելիոս Մարկոս Ավրելիոս կայսր אורליוס מארקוס אנטונינוס אנטונינוס מארקוס אורליוס מארכוס אורליוס אנטונינוס מארקוס אורליוס מארקוס אורליוס אנטונינוס מחבר:מרקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס מרקוס אורליוס 121-180 קיסר רומא מרקוס אורליוס 121-180 קיסר רומה מרקוס אורליוס אנטוניוס קיסר רומה מרקוס אורליוס אנטוניוס, קיסר רומי מרקוס אורליוס, קיסר רומא, 121-180 מרקוס אורליוס קיסר רומי ופילוסוף סטואי أوريليوس أنطونينوس ماركوس اوريليوس ماركوس أوريليوس إمبراطور روماني، فيلسوف مارکس اورلیس مارکوس اورلیوس مارکوس اورلیوس امپراتور و فیلسوف رومی مارکوس آئورلیوس مرقس أوريليوس أنطونينوس مرقص أوريليوس أنطونينوس मार्कस ऑरेलियस मार्कस ऑरेलियस प्राचीन रोम के सम्राट মার্কাস অরিলিয়স மார்க்கஸ் அரேலியஸ் பண்டைய உரோமப் பேரரசர் จักรพรรดิมาร์กุส เอาเรลิอุส མར་ཁུའུ་སེ་ཨའུ་རེ་ལིའུ་སེ། မားကပ် ဩရီးလီယပ် အန်တိုနိုင်းနပ် მარკუს ავრელიუსი 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 마르쿠스 아우렐리우스 121-180 마르크스 안니우스 베루스 121-180 아우렐리우스 아우렐리우스, M 아우렐리우스, 마르쿠스 121-180 아우렐리우스, 안토니누스 마르쿠스 121-180 アウレリウス アウレリウス, M アウレーリウス, マルクス マルクス・アウレリウス マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌス 奧理略 马可·奥勒留 马可·奥勒留 121-180 Romas imperators 马可·奥勒留, Romas imperators, 121-180 馬可奧勒留 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 古羅馬皇帝 Languages English (1,861) German (226) French (153) Latin (84) Chinese (83) Spanish (78) Greek, Ancient (70) Polish (32) Italian (30) Greek, Modern (22) Multiple languages (11) Japanese (4) Korean (2) Dutch (2) Urdu (1) Russian (1) Romanian (1) French, Middle (1) Apache languages (1) © 2021 OCLC, Inc.   WorldCat Identities is covered by the OCLC ResearchWorks Terms and Conditions OCLC 6565 Kilgour Place, Dublin OH USA 43017 Cookie Notice Project Page | Feedback | Known Problems 
www-worldcat-org-5807	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/461867183 Title: Avidio Cassio Author: Maria Laura Astarita Publisher: Roma : Ed. di Storia e letteratura, 1983. OCLC:461867183 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Avidio Cassio Author: Maria Laura Astarita Publisher: Roma : Ed. di Storia e letteratura, 1983. Edition/Format:  Print book : ItalianView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Gaius Avidius Cassius, -- 0120?-0175. Généraux -- Rome -- Biographies. More like this Similar Items Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Named Person: Gaius Avidius Cassius Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Maria Laura Astarita Find more information about: Maria Laura Astarita OCLC Number: 461867183 Notes: Bibliogr. p. 187-199. - Index- Description: 222 p. : cartes ; 25 cm Responsibility: Maria Laura Astarita. More information: Notice et cote du catalogue de la Bibliothèque nationale de France Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Avidio Cassio". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(2) Gaius Avidius Cassius, -- 0120?-0175. Généraux -- Rome -- Biographies. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-5869	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/500523615 Title: Roman history Author: Dio; Earnest Cary Publisher: [Place of publication not identified] : Harvard University Press, 1925 (1961) OCLC:500523615 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Roman history Author: Dio.; Earnest Cary Publisher: [Place of publication not identified] : Harvard University Press, 1925 (1961) Series: Loeb classical library Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Dio.; Earnest Cary Find more information about: Dio. Earnest Cary OCLC Number: 500523615 Language Note: Trans. Series Title: Loeb classical library Responsibility: with an English translation by Earnest Cary 9 vols. Vol 8. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Roman history". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-thelatinlibrary-com-802	----	M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae M. Cornelius Fronto: Epistulae M. Cornelius Fronto qui Cirtae Numidiae circa a. dom. 95 natus est atque circa a. dom. 165 mortuus est, maximus sui temporis orator linguae Latinae habitus est et magister eloquentiae M. Aurelii adolescentis fuit. Quamquam orationes ejus cunctae perditae sunt, collectio litterarum quae ad M. Aurelium scripsit ab eoque accepit in codice παλιμψήστῳ praeservata est. Epistulas quae supersunt hac in pagina publicabo. ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber II 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber III 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber IV 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber II 1 2 ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber III 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber IV 1 2 ad Verum imperatorem Aurelium Caesarem liber I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ad Verum imperatorem Aurelium Caesarem liber II   ad M. Antoninum de eloquentia liber 1 2 3 4 5 ad M. Antoninum de orationibus liber   ad Antoninum Pium liber 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ad amicos liber I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 ad amicos liber II 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 principia historiae   laudes fumi et pulveris dis paratae   laudes neglegentiae   de bello Parthico   de feriis Alsiensibus   de nepote amisso   Arion   additamentum epistularum variarum acephalum 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8   M. Frontonis epistularum ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber I   ad M. Caesarem 1.1 [1 Hout; 1.80 Haines] <Caesari suo Fronto> <...> Mittam igitur tibi quantum pote librum hunc descriptum. Vale, Caesar, et ride et omnem vitam laetare et parentibus optimis et eximio ingenio tuo fruere.   ad M. Caesarem 1.2 [1 Hout; 1.80 Haines] M. Caesar M. Frontoni magistro meo 1 Quid ego ista mea fortuna satis dixerim vel quomodo istam necessitatem meam durissimam condigne incusavero, quae me istic ita animo anxio tantaque sollicitudine praepedito alligatum attinet neque me sinit ad meum Frontonem, ad meam pulcherrimam animam confestim percurrere, praesertim in hujusmodi ejus valetudine propius videre, manus tenere, ipsum denique illum pedem, quantum sine incommodo fieri possit, adtrectare sensim, in balneo fovere, ingredienti manum subicere? Et tu me amicum vocas, qui non abruptis omnibus cursu concitato pervolo? Ego vero magis sum claudus cum ista mea verecundia, immo pigritia. O me, quid dicam? Metuo, quicquam dicere, quod tu audire nolis; nam tu quidem me omni modo conisus es jocularibus istis tuis ac lepidissimis verbis a cura amovere atque te omnia ista aequo animo perpeti posse ostendere. At ego ubi animus meus sit nescio; nisi hoc scio, illo nescio, quo ad te profectum eum esse. Cura, miserere, omni temperantia, abstinentia omnem istam tibi pro tua virtute tolerandam, mihi vero asperrimam nequissimamque valetudinem depellere et ad aquas proficisci. Si et quando et, nunc ut commode agas, cito, oro, perscribe mihi et mentem meam in pectus meum repone. Ego interim vel tales tuas litteras mecum gestabo. 2 Vale, mihi Fronto jucundissimme, quamquam ita me dispositius dicere oportet (nam tu quidem postulas talia): O qui ubique estis di boni, valeat, oro, meus Fronto jucundissimus atque carissimus mihi, valeat semper integro, inlibato, incolumi corpore, valeat et mecum esse possit. Homo suavissime, vale.   ad M. Caesarem 1.3 [2 Hout; 1.82 Haines] Caesari suo Fronto 1 Tu, Caesar, Frontonem istum tuum sine fine amas, vix ut tibi homini facundissimo verba sufficiant ad expromendum amorem tuum et benevolentiam declarandam. Quid, oro te, fortunatius, quid me uno beatius esse potest, ad quem tu tam fraglantes litteras mittis? Quin etiam, quod est amatorum proprium, currere a me vis et volare. 2 Solet mea domina parens tua interdum loci dicere se mihi, quod a te tanto opere diligar, invidere. Quid si istas litteras tuas legerit, quibus tu deos etiam pro salute mea votis advocas et precaris? Procedo jam, babae, neque doleo jam quicquam neque aegre fero: Vigeo, valeo, exulto; quovis veniam, quovis curram. Crede istud mihi tanta me laetita perfusum, ut rescribere tibi ilico non potuerim; sed eas quidem litteras, quas ad priorem epistulam tuam jam rescripseram, dimisi ad te; sequentem autem tabellarium retinui, quo ex gaudio resipiscerem. 3 Ecce nox praeteriit, dies hic est alter, qui jam prope exactus est, necdum quid aut quemadmodum rescribam tibi, reperio. Quid enim ego possim jucundius, quid blandius, quid amantius, quam tu scripsisti, mihi proponere? Unde gaudeam, quod ingratum me et referundae gratiae imparem facias; quoniam, ut res est, ita me diligis, ut ego te magis amare vix possim. 4 Igitur ut argumentum aliquod prolixiori epistulae reperiam, quod, oro te, ob meritum sic me amas? Quid iste Fronto tantum boni fecit, ut eum tanto opere tu diligas? Caput suum pro te aut parentibus tuis devovit? Succidaneum se pro vestris periculis subdidit? Provinciam aliquam fideliter administravit? Exercitum duxit? Nihil eorum. Ne cotidianis quidem istis officiis circa te praeter ceteros fungitur, et immo sectator vel is satis infrequens. Nam neque domum vestram diluculo ventitat neque cotidie salutat neque ubique comitatur nec semper exspectat. Vide igitur, ut, si quis interroget, cur Frontonem ames, habeas in promptu, quod facile respondeas. 5 At ego nihil quidem malo quam amoris erga me tui nullam extare rationem. Nec omnino mihi amor videtur, qui ratione oritur et justis certisque de causis copulatur. Amorem ego illum intellego fortuitum et liberum et nullis causis servientem, inpetu potius quam ratione conceptum, qui non officiis, ut lignis apparatis, sed sponte ortis vaporibus caleat. Bajarum ego calidos specus malo quam istas fornaculas balnearum, in quibus ignis cum sumptu atque fumo accenditur brevique restinguitur. At illi ingenui vapores puri perpetuique sunt, grati pariter et gratuiti. Ad eundem prorsus modum amicitiae istae officiis calentes fumum interdum et lacrimas habent et, ubi primum cessaveris, extinguntur; amor autem fortuitus et jugis est et jucundus. 6 Quid quod neque adolescit proinde neque conrobatur amicitia meritis parta ut ille amor subitus ac repentinus? Ut non aeque adolescunt in pomariis hortulisque arbusculae manu cultae rigitaeque ut illa in montibus aesculus et abies et alnus et cedrus et piceae, quae sponte natae, sine ratione et sine ordine sitae nullis cultorum laboribus neque officiis, sed ventis atque imbribus educantur. 7 Tuus igitur iste amor incultus et sine ratione exortus, spero, cum cedris porro adolescit et aesculis; qui si officiorum ratione coleretur, non ultra myrtos laurusque procresceret quibus satis odoris, parum roboris. Et omnino quantum fortuna rationi, tantum amor fortuitus officioso amori antistat. 8 Quis autem ignorat rationem humani consilii vocabulum esse, Fortunam autem deam dearumque praecipuam, templa, fana, delubra passim Fortunae dicata, at Rationi nec simulacrum nec aram usquam consecratam? Non fallor igitur, quin malim amorem erga me tuum fortuna potius quam ratione genitum. 9 Neque vero umquam ratio fortunam aequiperat neque majestate neque usu neque dignitate. Nam neque aggeres manu ac ratione constructos montibus conparabis neque aquae ductuus amnibus neque receptacula fontibus. Tum ratio consiliorum prudentia appellatur, vatum impetus divinatio nuncupatur. Nec quisquam prudentissimae feminae consiliis potius accederet quam vaticinationibus Sibyllae. Quae omnia quorsum tendunt? Ut ego recte malim impetu et forte potius quam ratione ac merito meo diligi. 10 Quamobrem, etiam si qua justa ratio est amoris erga me tui, quaeso, Caesar, sedulo demus operam, ut ignoretur et lateat. Sine homines ambigant, disserant, disputent, conjectent, requirant, ut Nili caput, ita nostri amoris originem. 11 Sed jam hora decimam tangit et tabellarius tuus mussat. Finis igitur sit epistulae. Valeo revera multo quam opinabar commodius. De aquis nihildum cogito. Te dominum meum, decus morum, solacium mali, quam multum amo! Dices: “Num amplius quam ego te?” Non sum tam ingratus ut hoc audeam dicere. 12 Vale, Caesar, cum tuis parentibus et ingenium tuum excole.   ad M. Caesarem 1.4 [5 Hout; 1.90 Haines] M. Caesar Frontoni magistro suo salutem. 1 Accipe nunc tu paucula contra somnum pro insomnia. Quamquam, puto, praevaricor, qui adsiduo diebus ac noctibus somno adsum neque eum desero neque sino deserat, adeo sumus familiares. Sed cupio hac sua accusatione offensus paulisper a me abscedat et lucubratiunculae aliquam tandem facultatem tribuat. 2 Igitur ἐπιχειρήματα φίλα: Ejusdem illo primo utar epichiremate; quodsi tu dices faciliorem me materiam mihi adsumpsisse accusandi somni quam te, qui laudaveris somnum. “Quis enim”, inquis, “non facile somnum accusaverit?” Igitur cujus facilis accusatio, ejusdem difficilis laudatio; cujus difficilis laudatio, ejus non utilis usurpatio. 3 Sed hoc transeo. Nunc quando apud Bajas agimus in hoc diuturno Ulixi labyrintho, ab Ulixe me paucula, quae ad hanc rem attinent, sumam. Non enim ille profecto εἰκοστῷ demum ἔτει venisset εἰς πατρίδα γαῖαν, neque in isto lacu tam diu oberrasset neque, quae alia omnia Ὀδυσσείαν faciunt perpessus esset, nisi tum “γλυκὺς ὕπνος ἐπήλυθε κεκμηῶτα”. Quamquam “τῇ δεκάτῃ ἀνεφαίνετο πατρὶς ἄρουρα”. Sed quid somnus fecit? “βουλὴ δὲ κακὴ νίκησεν ἑταίρων· ἀσκὸν μὲν λῦσαν, ἄνεμοι δ᾽ ἐκ πάντες ὄρουσαν, τοὺς δ᾽ αἶψ᾽ ἁρπάξασα φέρεν πόντονδε θύελλα κλαίοντας, γαίης ἄπο πατρίδος”. Quid rursum apud insulam Trinacriam? “οἱ δ᾽ ἄρα μοι γλυκὺν ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροισιν ἔχευαν. Εὐρύλοχος δ᾽ ἑτάροισι κακῆς ἐξήρχετο βουλῆς. Postea ubi Ἠελίοιο βόας καὶ ἴφια μῆλα ἔσφαξα καὶ ἔδειραν καὶ μῆρ᾽ ἐκάη καὶ σπλάγχν᾿ ἐπάσαντο”, quid tum expergitus Ulixes? “οἰμώξας δὲ θεοῖσι μετ᾽ ἀθανάτοισι γεγώνευν· ἦ με μάλ᾽ εἰς ἄτην κοιμήσατε νηλέι ὕπνῳ”. Somnus autem Ulixen ne patriam quidem suam diu agnosceret sivit, cujus “καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα νοῆσαι ἱμείρετο”. 4 Nunc a Laertio ad Atridam transeo. Nam illud πασσυδίῃ quod eum decepit, cujus causa tot legiones funduntur, fugantur, ex somno et ex somnio profecto oritur. 5 Quid quom ὁ ποιητὴς Agamemnonem laudat, quid ait? “ἔνθ᾽ οὐκ ἂν βρίζοντα ἴδοις Ἀγαμέμνονα δῖον”. Quid quom reprehendit? “οὐ χρὴ παννύχιον εὕδειν βουληφόρον ἄνδρα”, quos quidem versus orator egregius mire quondam evertit. 6 Transeo nunc ad Q. Ennium nostrum, quem tu ais ex somno et somnio initium sibi fecisse. Sed profecto nisi ex somno suscitatus esset, numquam somnium suum narrasset. 7 Hinc ad Hesiodum pastorem quem dormientem poetam ais factum. Atenim ego memini olim apud magistrum me legere: “ποιμένι μῆλα νέμοντι παρ᾿ ἴχνιον ὀξέος ἵππου Ἡσιόδῳ Μουσέων ἑσμὸς ὅτ᾿ ἠντίασεν. τὸ ‘ὅτ᾿ ἠντίασεν’” vides quale sit, scilicet ambulanti obviam venisse Musas. Quid autem tu de eo existimas quem qui pulcherrime laudat quid ait? “νήδυμος ἥδιστος θανάτῳ ἄγχιστα ἐοικώς”. 8 Haec satis tui amorei quam meae fiduciae luserim. Nunc bene accusato somno dormitum eo, nam vespera haec detexui. Opto, ne mihi somnus gratiam referat.   ad M. Caesarem 1.5 [8 Hout; 1.96 Haines] M. Caesari domino suo Fronto 1 Domum reverso mihi epistula reddita est, quam tu videlicet Romam mihi scripseras, et erat lata Romam; deinde hodie relata et paulo ante mihi est reddita; in qua pauca, quae ego pro somno dixeram, tu multis et elegantibus argumentis refutasti ita scite, ita subtiliter et apte, ut, si vigilia tibi hoc acuminis et leporis adfert, ego prorsus vigilare te mallem. 2 Sed enim vespera scripsisse te ais, cum paulo post dormiturus esses. Igitur adpropinquans et imminens tibi somnus ram elegantem hanc epistulam fecit. Namque ut crocus ita somnus, priusquam prope adsit, longe praeolet longeque delectat. 3 Ut a principio igitur epistulae tuae incipiam, elegantissime ‘praevaricari’ te ais, quod <...> [duae paginae desunt] <...> est, ut eo sublato aliud subdi ejusdem usus et ponderis non possit. Illud vero dictum elegans ac saviatum, quo ais “neque alia omnia quae Ὀδυσσείαν faciunt”. 4 Enimvero omnia istaec inter Graecos versus Latina ita scite alternata sunt et a te et interposita, ut est ille in pyrrhica versiculorum discursus, quom amicti cocco alii, alii luteo, et ostro et purpura alii aliique cohaerentes concursant. 5 Jam a Laertio ad Atridam eleganter transisti. Ecce autem circa Q. Ennium aliam malitiosam petam dedisti, cum ais “nisi ex somno exsuscitatus esset, numquam somnium suum narrasset”. At oderit me Marcus meus Caesar, si pote, argutius! Praestrigiae nullae tam versutae, “nulla”, ut ait Laevius, “decipula tam insidiosa”. Quid si ego id postulo, ne expergiscare? Quin postulo, ut dormias! Aliud scurrarum proverbium: “En cum quo in tenebris mices”. Sed sumne ego beatus, qui haec intellego et perspicio et insuper ab domino meo Caesare magister appellor? Quo pacto ego magister, qui unum hoc, quod te docere cupio, ut dormias non inpetro? 6 Perge, uti libet, dummodo dii te mihi, sive prodormias sive pervigiles, facultate fandi et tam eleganti prosperent. 7 Vale, meum gaudium et cura mea seria.   ad M. Caesarem 1.6 [10 Hout; 1.154 Haines] M. Aurelius Caesar salutem dicit Frontoni magistro suo. 1 Ne ego impudens, qui umquam, quicquam meorum scriptorum tanto ingenio, tanto judicio legendum committo! Patri, domino meo, locum ex oratione tua, quem me eligere voluerat, ὑπεκρινάμην commode. Plane illa suum auctorem sibi dari flagitabant, denique mihi vix succlamatum est “ἀξίως τοῦ ποιητοῦ”. Sed quod tu merito omnibus praeoptas, non diu differam: Ita adfectus est auditione eorum dominus meus ut paene moleste ferret quod alio modo ad negotium opus sibi esset quam eo quo tu orationem habiturus intraveras. Sensuum facultatem, elocutionis variam virtutem, inventionis argutam novitatem, orationis doctam dispositionem vehementer miratus est. Nunc, credo, post hoc quaeris, quid me maxime juverit. Accipe, hinc coepi: 2 “In iis rebus et causis, quae a privatis judicibus judicantur, nullum inest periculum, quia sententia eorum intra causarum demum terminos valent; tuis autem decretis, imperator, exempla publice valitura in perpetuum sanciuntur. Tanto major tibi vis et potestas quam fatis adtributa est: Fata quid singulis nostrum eveniat statuunt; tu, ubi quid in singulos decernis, ibi universa exempla adstringis. 3 Quare si hoc decretum tibi proconsulis placuerit, formam dederis omnibus omnium provinciarum magistratibus, quid in ejusmodi causis decernant. Quid igitur eveniet? Illud scilicet, ut testamenta omnia ex longinquis transmarinisque provinciis Romam ad cognitionem tuam deferantur. Filius exheredatum se suspicabitur: Postulabit, ne patris tabulae aperiantur. Idem filia postulabit, nepos, abnepos, frater, consobrinus, patruus, avonculus, amita, matertera: Omnia necessitudinum nomina hoc privilegium invadent, ut tabulas aperiri vetent, ipsi possessione jure sanguinis fruantur. Causa denique Romam remissa quid eveniet? Heredes scripti navigabunt, exheredati autem in possessione remanebunt, diem de die ducent, dilationes petent, tempora variis excusationibus trahent: “Hiemps est et crudum mare hibernum est; adesse non potuit.” Ubi hiemps praeterierit: “Vernae tempestates incertae et dubiae moratae sunt.” Ver exactum est: “Aestas est calida et sol navigantis urit et homo nauseat.” Autumnus sequitur: poma culpabuntur et languor excusabitur. 4 Fingo haec et comminiscor? Quid, in hac causa non hoc ipsum evenit? Ubi est adversarius, qui jam pridem ad agendam causam adesse debuerat? “In itinere est.” Quo tandem in itinere? “Ex Asia venit.” Et est adhuc in Asia! “Magnum iter, et festinatum.” Navibusne an equis an diplomatibus facit haec tam velocia stativa? Cum interim cognitione proposita semel a te, Caesar, petita dilatio et impetrata; proposita cognitione rursum a te duum mensum petita dilatio. Duo menses exacti sunt Idibus proximis et dies medii isti aliquot. Venit tandem? Si nondum venit, at saltem adpropinquat? Si nondum adpropinquat, at saltem profectus ex Asia est? Si nondum profestus est, at saltem cogitat? Quid ille cogitat aliud quam bonis alienis incubare, fructus diripere, agros vastare, rem omnem dilapidare? Non ille ita stultus est, ut malit venire ad Caesarem et vinci quam remanere in Asia et possidere.” 5 “Qui mos si fuerit inductus, ut defunctorum testamenta ex provinciis transmarinis Romam mittantur, indignius et acerbius sic testamentorum periculum erit, quam sit si corpora huc defunctorum trans maria trahantur adflicta injuriose. Tum detrimentum neque mortuus neque peculium capiet. Sepultura enim cadaveribus in ipsis injuriis praesto est: Sive maria naufragos devorent sive flumina praecipites trahant, sive harenae obruant, seu ferae lacerent, sive volucres discerpant, corpus humanum satis sepelitur, ubicumque consumitur. At ubi testamentum naufragio submersum est, illa demum et res et domus et familia naufraga et insepulta est. Olim testamenta ex deorum munitissimis aedibus proferebantur aut tabullariis aut thecis aut archieis aut opisthodomis; at jam testamenta proferunt sicut jactitarint inter onera mercium et sarcinas remigum. Id etiam superest, si quando jactu opus est, ut testamenta cum leguminibus jactebtur. Quin etiam portorium constituendum, quod pro testamentis exigatur. Antehac non constitutum, quia testamenta nondum navigarent salis ad exemplar sicque replerent aliquo ducente teste.” 6 “Non facundum effecit reus publicanus testamentum, qui in Asia sorori nil utrique dat aliena quo quae isti usu habilior, eo legatis . . . . . . testatur notis suis vel ex aliquo publico opere vel tabula aliqua cognitis, igitur primo etiam mihi. Vident partes tantas confecisse dona sorores: Aqua maris, tempestate hiemis, caeli nubilis reliquos insectantur. Restant soluta ferocia venti et clarissimo Caelo et salo pericula transituris; legata in arbitrio marium versantur, illarum procellarum dolo e conspectu avulserint venti superruentes, item cum testamento auferentur. Mox inde illa nave vel contra voluntatem soluta aut sparsa, post in Hadriae fluminum sinus disjecta ac dilata marisque aestu absorpta eradicantur. 7 Interea sorores bona illa Asiana tali fallacia dolosa usae epulantur. Postea privatae solae sunt, quibus bona sanis testator allegare potuit item perfecto testamento propere celata litterula et . . . . . sua multi exempla.” 8 “De funere aliquid addamus. Sciat familia quemadmodum lugeat: Aliter plangit servus manumissus, aliter cliens laude vadatus, aliter amicus legato honoratus. Quid incertas et suspensas exequias facis? Omnium animalium statim post mortem hereditas cernitur: Ovi lana statim detrahitur, ut elephanto ebur, ungues leonibus, avibus pinnae plumaeque: Hominum hereditas post mortem jacet, differtur, praedonibus exposta dirripitur?” 9 Puto totum descripsi. Quid ergo facerem, quom totum admirarer, quom totum amarem talem hominem beatum? Vale, disertissime, doctissime, mihi carissime, dulcissime, magister optatissime, amice desiderantissime. 10 Herodi filius natus hodie mortuus est; id Herodes non aequo fert animo. Volo ut illi aliquid quod ad hanc rem adtineat pauculorum verborum scribas. Semper vale.   ad M. Caesarem 1.7 [13 Hout; 1.162 Haines] Domino meo 1 Accepi, Caesar, litteras tuas, quibus quanto opere laetatus sim, facile aestimas, si reputaveris singula. Primum quod caput est omnis mei gaudii, cum te bene valere cognovi, tum quod ita amantem mei sensi, finem ut amori nullum neque modum statuas, quin cottidie aliquid reperias, quod circa me jucundius atque amicius facias. Ego denique olim jam me puto satis amari, tibi autem nondum, etiam quantum me diligas, satis est; ut non mare ullum tam sit profundum quam tuus adversus me amor: Sane ut illud queri possim, cur me nondum ames tantum quantum plurimum potest, namque in dies plus amando efficis, ne id quod ante diem amaveris plurimum fuerit. 2 Consulatum mihi putas tanto gaudio fuisse, quanto tua tot in una re summi amoris indicia? Orationis meae particulas, quas excerpseram recitasti patri tuo ipse studiumque ad pronuntiandum adhibuisti, qua in re et oculos mihi tuos utendos et vocem et gestum et inprimis animum accomodasti. Nec video, quis veterum scriptorum quisquam me beatior fuerit, quorum scripta Aesopus ad populum pronuntiavit aut Roscius. Meae vero orationi M. Caesar auctor contigit et pronuntiator, tuaque ego opera et voce audientibus placui, cum audiri a te ac tibi placere omnibus summe sit optabile. Non miror itaque, quod placuerit oratio oris tui dignitate exornata. Nam pleraque propria venustate carentia gratiam sibimet alienam extrinsecus mutuantur. Quod evenit etiam in plebis istis edulibus: Nullum adeo vile aut volgatum est holus aut pulpamentum, quin elegantius videatur vasis aureis adpositum. Idem evenit floribus et coronis: Alia dignitate sunt, quom a coronariis veneunt, alia, quom a sacerdotibus porriguntur. 3 Tantoque ego fortunatior, quam fuit Hercules atque Achilles, quorum arma et tela gestata sunt a Patricole et Philocteta, multo viris virtute inferioribus; mea contra oratio mediocris, ne dicam ignobilis, a doctissimo et facundissimo hominum Caesare inlustrata est. Nec ulla umquam scena tantum habuit dignitatis: M. Caesar actor, Titus imperator auditor. Quid amplius cuiquam contingere potest - nisi unum, quod in caelo fieri poetae ferunt, quom Jove patre audiente Musae cantant? Enimvero quibus ego gaudium meum verbis exprimere possim, quod orationem istam meam tua manu descriptam misisti mihi? Verum est profecto, quod ait noster Laberius, ad amorem iniciendum ‘delenimenta’ esse ‘deleramenta’, ‘beneficia’ autem ‘veneficia’. Quo poculo aut veneno quisquam tantum flammae ad amandum incussisset praeut ut tu me et facto hoc stupidum et attonitum ardente amore tuo reddidisti? Quot litterae istic sunt, totidem consulatus mihi, totidem laureas, triumphos, togas pictas arbitror contigisse. 4 Quid tale M. Porcio aut Quinto Ennio, C. Graccho aut Titio poetae, quid Scipioni aut Numidico, quid M. Tullio tale usuvenit? Quorum libri pretiosiores habentur et summam gloriam retinent si sunt Lampadionis aut Staberii, Plautii aut D. Aurelii, Autriconis aut Aelii manu scripta exempla aut a Tirone emendata aut a Domitio Balbo descripta aut ab Attico aut Nepote. Mea oratio extabit M. Caesaris manu scripta. Qui orationem spreverit, litteras concupiscet; qui scripta contempserit, scriptorem reverebitur. Ut si simiam aut volpem Apelles pinxerit, ei bestiae nihili pictura pretium adderet; aut quod M. Cato de aegro servo [quattuor paginae desunt]   M. Frontonis epistularum ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber II   ad M. Caesarem 2.1 [16 Hout; 1.168 Haines] Φρόντωνος πρὸς Ἡρώδην [una pagina legi non potest] 1 -τερον γε ὡς ἢ . . . ἡμᾶς· τὸ δὲ μετριάζειν ἐν τοῖς ἥττοσιν κακοῖς οὐ δύσκολον. ἐν παντὶ μὲν γὰρ τὸ κατὰ πάντα θρηνεῖν κἀποιμώζειν ἔξω τοῦ προσήκοντος ἀπρεπὲς ἀνδρὶ παιδείας . . . . . . . . χαίρων δὲ ἔγωγε μᾶλλον ἢ λυπούμενος μέτρια ἂν ἐκβαίνοιμι. τὸ γὰρ πρὸς ἡδονὴν παράλογον τοῦ πρὸς ἀνίαν αἱρετώτερον.. 2 Ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ τὰ τῆς ἡλικίας σοι παρῴχηκεν πρὸς παίδων ἑτέρων ἀνατροφήν. ζημία δὲ πᾶσα σὺν ἐλπίδι μὲν ἀποκοπτομένῃ χαλεπή· ῥᾴων δὲ ὑπολειπομένης εἰς τὸ ἀναλαβεῖν ἐλπίδος· καὶ ὁ μὴ περιμείνας ταύτην ἀγεννὴς καὶ πολὺ τῆς τύχης αὑτῷ χαλεπώτερος· ἡ μέν γε τύχη τὸ παρὸν ἀφείλετο, ὁ δὲ ἐστέρησεν αὑτὸν καὶ τῆς ἐλπίδος. 3 Ὅθεν δ᾽ ἂν ῥᾷστα παραψυχῆς τύχοις, πείρᾳ μαθὼν ἔγωγε, ἀλλὰ οὐ σοφίᾳ, διδάξω· ἀεί μοι συνέβη τι τῶν δεινῶν παθεῖν ἐρῶντι. ἤρων δὲ τοτὲ μὲν Ἀθηνοδότου τοῦ σοφοῦ, τοτὲ δὲ Διονυσίου τοῦ ῥήτορος. καὶ δὴ τοῦτο ἐννοῶν ὅτι μοι σώζοιτο κεῖνος οὗπερ ἐρῶν τύχοιμι, ἧττον ἦν τῇ λύπῃ καὶ τοῖς προσπίπτουσιν ἁλώσιμος. εἰ δέ τινος ἐρᾷς καὶ σὺ νέου γενναίου ἀρετῇ καὶ παιδείᾳ καὶ τύχῃ καὶ σωφροσύνῃ διαφέροντος, οὐκ ἂν ἁμαρτάνοις ὁρμῶν ἐπ᾽ ἐκείνῳ καὶ πᾶσαν ἀγαθῶν ἀσφάλειαν ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ τιθέμενος, ὡς, ἐφ᾽ ὅσον γε ἡμῖν οὗτος περίεστιν (ἀντεραστὴς γὰρ εἶναι σοί φημι, καὶ οὐκ ἀποκρύπτομαι), τὰ ἄλλα γε πάντα ἡμῖν εὐίατα καὶ τούτου μακρῷ δεύτερα.   ad M. Caesarem 2.2 [17 Hout; 1.118 Haines] Caesari Aurelio domino meo consul tuus Fronto salutem 1 Quae sint aures hominum hoc tempore, quanta in spectandis orationibus elegantia, ex Aufidio nostro scire poteris: Quantos in oratione mea clamores concitarit, quantoque concentu laudantium sit exceptum “omnis tunc imago patriciis pingebatur insignibus”. At ubi genus nobile cum ignobili comparans dixi: “Ut si quis ignem e rogo et ara accensum similem putet, quoniam aeque luceat”, ad hoc pauculi admurmurati sunt. 2 Quorsum hoc rettuli? Uti te, domine, ita conpares, ubi quid in coetu hominum recitabis, ut scias auribus serviendum; plane non ubique nec omni modo, attamen nonnumquam et aliquando. Quod ubi facies, simile facere te reputato atque illud facitis, ubi eos, qui bestias stenue interfecerint, populo postulante ornatis aut manumittitis, nocentes etiam homines aut scelere damnatos, sed populo postulante conceditis. Ubique igitur populus dominatur, praevalet et praepollet. Igitur ut populo gratum erit, ita facies atque ita dices. 3 Hic summa illa virtus oratoris atque ardua est, ut non magno detrimento rectae eloquentiae auditores oblectet; eaque delenimenta, quae mulcendis volgi auribus conparat, ne cum multo ac magno dedecore fucata sint: Potius, ut in conpositionis structuraeque mollitia sit delictum quam in sententia inpudentia; vestem quoque lanarum mollitia delicatam esse quam colore muliebri, filo tenui aut serico; purpuram ipsam, non luteam nec crocatam. Vobis praetera, quibus purpura et cocco uti necessarium est, eodem cultu nonnumquam oratio quoque est amicienda. Facies istud, et temperaberis modo temperamentoque optimo. Sic enim auguror: Quicquid egregie umquam in eloquentia factum sit, te id perfecturum: Tanto ingenio studium vel sine studio solum ingenium egregiam gloriam pepererit. Certum habeo te, domine, aliquantum temporis etiam prosae orationi scribendae impertire. Nam etsi aeque pernicitas equorum exercetur, sive quadripedo currant atque exerceantur sive tolutim, attamen ea, quae magis necessaria frequentius sunt experiunda. 4 Jam enim non ita tecum ago, ut te duos et viginti annos natum cogiem, qua aetate ego vixdum quicquam veterum lectione attigeram. Deorum et tua virtute profectum tantum in eloquentia adsecutus es, quantus senioribus ad gloriam sufficat et, quod es difficillimum, in omni genere dicendi. Nam epistulae tuae, quae adsidue scripsisti, mihi satis ostendunt, quid etiam in istis remissioribus et Tullianis facere possis. 5 Pro Polemone rhetore, quem mihi tu in epistula tua proxime exhibuisti Tullianum, ego in oratione, quam in senatu recitavi, philosophum reddidi, nisi me opinio fallit, peratticum. Ain, quid judicas, Marce, quemadmodum tibi videtur fabula Polemonis a me descripta? Plane multum mihi facetiarum contulit istic Horatius Flaccus, memorabilis poeta mihique propter Maecenatem ac Maecenatianos hortos meos non alienus. Is namque Horatius Sermonum libro secundo fabulam istam Polemonis inseruit, si recte memini, hisce versibus: “Mutatus Polemon ponas insignia morbi, fasciolas, cubital, focalia, potus ut ille dicitur ex collo furtim carpsisse coronas, postquam est inpransi correptus voce magistri.” 6 Versus quos mihi miseras remisi tibi per Victorinum nostrum atque ita remisi: Chartam diligenter lino transui et ita linum obsignavi, ne musculus iste aliquid aliqua rimari possit. Nam mihi ipse de tuis hexametris numquam quicquam impertivit, ita est malus ac malitiosus. Sed ait te de industria cito et cursim  hexametros tuos recitare: Eo se memoriae mandare non posse. Remuneratus est igitur a me mutuo; paria paribus habet, ne ullum hinc versum audiret. Memini etiam te frequenter ne cuiquam versus tuos ostenderem admonuisse. 7 Quid est, domine? Certo hilaris es, certe bene vales, omnium rerum certe sanus es? Male dum similiter, ne umquam ita nos perturbes, ut natali tuo perturbasti; cetera minus laboro. εἴ τί σοι κακόν, εἰς Πυρραίων κεφαλήν. Vale meum gaudium, mea securitas, hilaritas, gloria. Vale et me, obsecro, omni modo ames, qua joco, qua serio. 8 Epistulam matri tuae scripsi quae mea inpudentia est Graece, eamque epistulae ad te scriptae inplicui. Tu prior lege et, si quis inerit barbarimus, tu, qui a Graecis litteris recentior es, corrige atque ita matri redde. Nolo enim me mater tua ut Opicum contemnat. Vale, domine, et matri savium da, cum epistulam dabis, quo libentius legat.   ad M. Caesarem 2.3 [21 Hout; 1.130 Haines] Μητρὶ Καίσαρος 1 Πῶς ἂν ἀπολογησάμενος συγγνώμης παρὰ σοῦ τύχοιμι, ὅτι σοι τούτων τῶν ἡμερῶν οὐκ ἐπέστειλα; ἢ δῆλον, ὅτι τὴν ἀληθῆ τῆς ἀσχολίας εἰπὼν αἰτίαν; λόγον γάρ τινα συνήγαγον περὶ τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως. ἡ δὲ τῶν Ῥωμαίων παροιμία φίλου τρόπον μὴ μισεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ εἰδέναι φησὶ δεῖν. οἷος δ᾽ οὑμὸς τρόπος φράσω καὶ οὐκ ἀποκρύψομαι. ὑπὸ τῆς πολλῆς ἀφυίας καὶ οὐθενείας ὅμοιόν τι πάσχω τῇ ὑπὸ Ῥωμαίων ὑαίνῃ καλουμένῃ ἧς τὸν τράχηλον κατ᾽ εὐθὺ τετάσθαι λέγουσιν, κάμπτεσθαι δὲ ἐπὶ θάτερα τῶν πλευρῶν μὴ δύνασθαι. κἀγὼ δὴ ἐπειδάν τι συντάττω προθυμότερον, ἀκαμπής τίς εἰμι καὶ τῶν ἄλλων πάντων ἀφέμενος, ἐπ᾽ ἐκεῖνο μόνον ἵεμαι ἀνεπιστρεπτεὶ κατὰ τὴν ὕαιναν. καὶ τοὺς ὄφεις δέ φασιν τὰ ἀκόντια οὕτως πως ᾄττειν κατ᾽ εὐθύ, τὰς δὲ ἄλλας στροφὰς μὴ στρέφεσθαι· καὶ τὰ δόρατα δὲ καὶ τὰ τόξα τότε μάλιστα τυγχάνει τοῦ σκοποῦ, ὅταν εὐθεῖαν ᾄξῃ μήτε ὑπ᾽ ἀνέμου παρωσθέντα μήτε ὑπὸ χειρὸς Ἀθηνᾶς ἢ Ἀπόλλωνος σφαλέντα, ὥσπερ τὰ ὑπὸ Τεύκρου ἢ τὰ ὑπὸ τῶν μνηστήρων βληθέντα. 2 Ταύτας μὲν δὴ τρεῖς εἰκόνας ἐμαυτῷ προσείκασα, τὰς μὲν δύο ἀγρίας καὶ θηριώδεις, τὴν τῆς ὑαίνης καὶ τὴν τῶν ὄφεων, τρίτην δὲ τὴν τῶν βελῶν καὶ αὐτὴν ἀπάνθρωπον οὖσαν καὶ ἄμουσον. εἰ δὲ δὴ καὶ τῶν ἀνέμων φαίην ἐπαινεῖσθαι μάλιστα τὸν οὔριον, ὅτι δὴ ἐπ᾽ εὐθὺ φέροι τὴν ναῦν, ἀλλὰ μὴ εἰς τὰ πλάγια ἀπονεύειν ἐῷ, ἡ τετάρτη ἂν εἴη αὕτη εἰκὼν καὶ αὐτὴ βιαία. εἰ δὲ προσθείην καὶ τὸ τῆς γραμμῆς ὅτι πρεσβυτάτη τῶν γραμμῶν ἡ εὐθεῖά ἐστιν, πέμπτην ἂν εἰκόνα λέγοιμι μὴ μόνον ἄψυχον ὥσπερ τὴν τῶν δοράτων ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀσώματον ταύτην οὖσαν. 3 Τίς ἂν οὖν εἰκὼν εὑρεθείη πιθανή; μάλιστα μὲν ἀνθρωπίνη, ἄμεινον δὲ, εἰ καὶ μουσική. εἰ δ᾽ αὖ καὶ φιλίας ἢ ἔρωτος αὐτῇ μετείη, μᾶλλον ἂν ἔτι ἡ εἰκὼν ἐοίκοι. τὸν Ὀρφέα φασὶν οἰμῶξαι ὀπίσω ἐπιστραφέντα· εἰ δὲ κατ᾽ εὐθὺ ἔβλεπέν τε καὶ ἐβάδιζεν, οὐκ ἂν ᾤμωξεν. ἅλις εἰκόνων. καὶ γὰρ αὕτη τις ἀπίθανος ἡ τοῦ Ὀρφέως εἰκὼν ἐξ ᾅδου ἀνιμημένη. 4 Ἀπολογήσομαι δὲ τοὐντεῦθεν ἤδη ὅθεν ἂν ῥᾷστα συγγνώμης τύχοιμι. τί δὴ τοῦτό ἐστιν; ὅτι συγγράφων τὸ τοῦ βασιλέως ἐγκώμιον ἔπραττον μὲν, ὃ μάλιστα σοί τε καὶ τῷ σῷ παιδὶ κεχαρισμένον ἐστίν· ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ ὑμῶν ἐμεμνήμην καὶ ὠνόμαζόν γε ὑμᾶς ἐν τῷ συγγράμματι, ὥσπερ οἱ ἐρασταὶ τοὺς φιλτάτους ὀνομάζουσιν ἐπὶ πάσῃ κύλικι. ἀλλὰ γὰρ τέχνωσις τῶν εἰκόνων ἐπεισρεῖ καὶ ἐπιφύεται. αὕτη γοῦν παρεφάνη, ἣν ἐπὶ πάσαις λέγω, ἥτις καὶ δικαιότατα εἰκὼν ἂν προσαγορεύοιτο οὖσα ἐκ ζωγράφου· τὸν Πρωτογένη τὸν ζωγράφον φασὶν ἕνδεκα ἔτεσιν τὸν Ἰάλυσον γράψαι, μηδὲν ἕτερον ἐν τοῖς ἕνδεκα ἔτεσιν ἢ τὸν Ἰάλυσον γράφοντα. ἐμοὶ δὲ οὐχ εἷς, δύο δὲ ἅμα Ἰαλύσω ἐγραφέσθην, οὐ δὴ τοῖν προσώποιν οὐδὲ ταῖν μορφαῖν μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖν τρόποιν καὶ ταῖν ἀρεταῖν οὐ μετρίω ὄντε ἄμφω οὐδὲ γράφεσθαι ῥᾳδίω, ἀλλ᾽ ὁ μέν ἐστιν μέγας βασιλεὺς ἄρχων πάσης τῆς γῆς καὶ θαλάττης, ὁ δὲ ἕτερος υἱὸς μεγάλου βασιλέως, ἐκείνου μὲν οὕτω παῖς ὥσπερ Ἀθάνα τοῦ Διός, σὸς δὲ υἱὸς ὡς τῆς Ἥρας ὁ Ἥφαιστος· ἀπέστω δὲ τὸ τῶν ποδῶν ταύτης τῆς τοῦ Ἡφαίστου εἰκόνος. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀπολογία αὕτη ἂν εἴη πάνυ τις εἰκαστικὴ γενομένη καὶ γραφικὴ εἰκόνων ἔκπλεως αὐτὴ. 5 Μάλ᾿ ἔτι κατὰ τοὺς γεωμέτρας αἰτήσομαι· τὸ ποῖον; εἴ τι τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐν ταῖς ἐπιστολαῖς ταύταις εἴη ἄκυρον ἢ βάρβαρον ἢ ἄλλως ἀδόκιμον ἢ μὴ πάνυ Ἀττικόν, ἀμελεῖν μὲν τοῦ ὀνόματος σ᾽ ἀξιῶ τήν δὲ διάνοιαν σκοπεῖν αὐτὴν καθ᾽ αὑτήν· οἶσθα γὰρ ὅτι ἐν αὐτοῖς ὀνόμασιν καὶ αὐτῇ διαλέκτῳ διατρίβω. καὶ γὰρ τὸν Σκύθην ἐκεῖνον τὸν Ἀνάχαρσιν οὐ πάνυ τι ἀττικίσαι φασίν, ἐπαινεθῆναι δ᾽ ἐκ τῆς διανοίας καὶ τῶν ἐνθυμημάτων. παραβαλῶ δὴ ἐμαυτὸν Ἀναχάρσιδι οὐ μὰ Δία κατὰ τὴν σοφίαν ἀλλὰ κατὰ τὸ βάρβαρος ὁμοίως εἶναι. ἦν γὰρ ὁ μὲν Σκύθης τῶν νομάδων Σκυθῶν, ἐγὼ δὲ Λίβυς τῶν Λιβύων τῶν νομάδων. κοινὸν δὲ ἦν τὸ νέμεσθαι ἐμοί τε καὶ Ἀναχάρσιδι· κοινὸν οὖν ἔσται καὶ τὸ βληχᾶσθαι νεμομένοις, ὅπως ἄν τις βληχήσηται. οὕτως μὲν δὴ καὶ τὸ βαρβαρίζειν τῷ βληχᾶσθαι προσῄκασα. οὐκοῦν παύσομαι μηδὲν ἕτερον γράφων ἀλλὰ εἰκόνας. <“-- tres fere paginae desunt --”>   ad M. Caesarem 2.4 [24 Hout; 1.108 Haines] <Caesari suo consul.> 1 Posterioribus litteris tuis, cur orationem in senatu non recitaverim, requisisti. At ego et edicto gratias agere domino meo patri tuo debeo, sed edictum quidem circensibus nostris proponam; cujus principium id ipsum erit: “Qua die primum beneficio maximi principis ederem spectaculum gratissimum populo maximeque populare, tempestivom duxi esse gratiae agere ut idem dies”, hic sequatur Tulliana conclusio. Orationem autem in senatu recitabo Augustis Idibus. Quaeras fortasse cur tam tarde? Quoniam ego numquam quam primum officio sollemni quoquo modo fungi propero. Sed ut tecum agere debeo sine fuco et sine ambagibus, dicam, quid cum animo reputem. Divom Hadrianum avom tuom laudavi in senatu saepenumero studio inpenso et propenso quoque; et sunt orationes istae frequentes in omnium manibus. Hadrianum autem ego, quod bona venia pietatis tuae dictum sit, ut Martem Gradivom, ut Ditem patrem propitium et placatum magis volui quam amavi. Quare? Quia ad amandum fiducia aliqua opus est et familiaritate: Quia fiducia mihi defuit, eo, quem tantopere venerabar, non sum ausus diligere. Antoninum vero ut solem, ut diem, ut vitam, ut spiritum amo, diligo, amari me ab eo sentio. Hunc nisi ita laudo ut laudatio me non in actis senatus abstrusa lateat, sed in manibus hominum oculisque versetur, ingratus sum etiam adversus te. Tum quod cursorem fugitivom ferunt dixisse, “domino sexagena currebam; mihi centena, ut fugiam, curram”, ego quoque quom Hadrianum laudabam domino currebam; hodie autem mihi curro, mihi, inquam, meoque ingenio hanc orationem conscribo. Ad meum igitur commodum faciam lente, otiose, clementer. 2 Tu si et valde properas, aliter te interum oblecta: Basia patrem tuum, amplectere, postremo ipse eum lauda. Ceterum quidem in Idus Augustas tibi expectandum est, ut quidvis, qualevis audias. 3 Vale, Caesar, et patrem promerere; et si quid scribere vis, lente scribe.   ad M. Caesarem 2.5 [25 Hout; 1.112 Haines] Mi Fronto consul amplissime 1 Manus do: Vicisti. Tu plane omnis qui umquam amatores fuerunt vicisti amando. Cape coronam atque etiam praeco pronuntiet palam pro tribunali victoriam istam tuam: Μ. Κορνήλιος Φρόντων ὕπατος νικᾷ, στεφανοῦται τὸν ἀγῶνα τῶν μεγάλων φιλοτησίων. At ego quamquam superatus tamen nihil de mea prothymia decesssero aut defecero. Igitur tu quidem me magis amabis quam ullus hominum ullum hominem amat; ego vero te, qui minorem vim in amando possideo, magis amabo quam ullus hominum te amat, magis denique quam tu temet ipsum amas. Jam mihi cum Cratia certamen erit quam timeo ut superare possim. Nam illius quidem, ut Plautus ait, “amoris imber grandibus guttis non vestem modo permanavit sed in medullam ultro fluit”. 2 Quas tu litteras te ad me existimas scripsisse! Ausim dicere quae me genuit atque aluit nihil umquam tam jucundum tamque mellitum eam ad me scripsisse. Neque hoc fit facundia aut eloquentia: Alioqui non modo mater mea sed omnes qui spirant quod faciunt confestim tibi cesserint. Sed istae litterae ad me tuae neque disertae neque doctae, tanta benignitate scatentes, tanta adfectione abundantes, tanto amore lucentes, non satis proloqui possum ut animum meum gaudio in altum sustulerint, desiderio fraglantissimo incitaverint, postremo, quod ait Naevius, “animum amore capitali conpleverint”. 3 Illa alia epistula tua, qua indicabas cur tardius orationem qua laudaturus es dominum meum in senatu prolaturus esses, tanta me voluptate adfecit ut temperare non potuerim (et videris tu an temere fecerim), quin eam ipsi patri meo recitarem. Quanto opere autem eum juverit, nihil me oportet persequi quom tu et illius summam benevolentiam et tuarum litterarum egregiam  elegantiam noris. Sed ex ea re longus sermo nobis super te exortus est, multo multoque longior quam tibi et quaestori tuo de me. Itaque nec tibi dubito ibidem in foro diu tinnisse auriculas. Conprobat igitur dominus meus et amat causas propter quas recitationem tuam in longiorem diem protulisti <“--quattuor paginae desunt--”>   ad M. Caesarem 2.6 [27 Hout; 1.128 Haines] <M. Aurelius Caesar consuli suo et magistro salutem> 1 <...> sane, si quid Graeci veteres tale scripserunt, viderint, qui sciunt; ego, si fas est dicere, nec M. Porcium tam bene vituperantem, quam tu laudasti usquam advorti. O, si dominus meus satis laudari posset, profecto a te satis laudatus esset! τοῦτο τὸ ἔργον οὐ γίνεται νῦν. Facilius quis Phidian, facilius Apellen, facilius denique ipsum Demosthenen imitatus fuerit aut ipsum Catonem quam hoc tam effectum et elaboratum opus. Nihil ego umquam cultius, nihil antiquius, nihil conditius, nihil Latinius legi. O te hominem beatum hac eloquentia praeditum! O me hominem beatum huic magistro traditum! O ἐπιχειρήματα, o τάξις, o elegantia, o lepos, o venustas, o verba, o nitor, o argutiae, o χάριτες, o ἄσκησις, o omnia! Ne valeam, nisi aliqua die virga in manibus tibi tradenda erat, diadema circumponendum, tribunal ponendum; tum praeco omnis nos citaret. Quid ‘nos’ dico? Omnis, inquam, philologos et disertos istos: Eos tu singulos virfa perduceres, verbis moneres. Mihi adhuc nullus metus hujus admonitionis erat: Multa supersunt, ut in ludum tuum pedem introferam. 2 Haec cum summa festinatione ad te scribo; nam quom domini mei ad te epistulam mitterem tam benignam, quid meis longioribus litteris opus erat? Igitur vale, decus eloquentiae Romanae, amicorum gloria, μέγα πρᾶγμα, homo jucundissime, consul amplissime, magister dulcissime. Postea cavebis de me, praesertim in senatu, tam multa mentiri. Horribiliter scripsisti hanc orationem. O, si ad singula capita caput tuum basiare possem! ἰσχυρῶς πάντων καταπεφρόνηκας. Hac oratione lecta frustra nos studemus, frustra laboramus, frustra nervos contendimus. Vale semper, magister dulcissime.   ad M. Caesarem 2.7 [28 Hout; 1.116 Haines] Magistro meo. Ego ab hora quarta et dimidia in hanc horam scripsi et Catonis multa legi et haec ad te eodem calamo scripto et te saluto et quam commode agas sciscitor. O, quam diu te non vidi! <“--duae paginae desunt--”>   ad M. Caesarem 2.8 [28 Hout; 1.136 Haines] <Amplissimo consuli magistro suo M. Caesar salutem> <...> adfinitate sociatum neque tutelae subditum, praeterea in ea fortuna constitutum in qua, ut Q. Ennius ait, “omnes dant consilium vanum atque ad voluptatem omnia”; item quod Plautus egregie in Colace super eadem re ait. Qui data fide firmata fidentem fefellerint, subdoli subsentatores regi, qui sunt proximi, qui aliter regi dictis dicunt, aliter in animo habent. Haec enim olim incommoda regibus solis fieri solebant, atenim nunc adfatim sunt “quei et regum filiis”, ut Naevius ait, “linguis faveant atque adnutent et subserviant”. Merito ego, mi magister, fraglo; merito unum meum σκοπόν mihi constitui; merito unum hominem cogito quom stilus in manus venit. 2 Hexametros meos jucundissime petis; quos ego quoque confestim misissem si illos mecum haberem. Nam librarius meus quem tu nosti, Anicetum dico, cum proficiscerer, nihil meorum scriptorum mecum misit. Scit enim morbum meum et timuit, ne si venissent in potestatem, quod soleo facerem et in furnum dimitterem. Sane istis hexametris prope nullum periculum erat. Ut enim verum magistro meo confitear, amo illos. 3 Ego istic noctibus, confiteor, studeo, nam interdiu in theatro consumitur. Itaque minus ago vespera fatigatus, surgo luce dormitans. Feci tamen mihi per hos dies excerpta ex libris sexaginta in quinque tomis, sed cum leges ‘sexaginta’, inibi sunt et Novianae Atellaniolae et Scipionis oratiunculae, ne tu numerum nimis expavescas. 4 Polemonis tui quom meministi, rogo ne Horatii memineris, qui mihi com Pollione est emortuus. 5 Vale mi amicissime, vale mi amantissime, consul amplissime, magister dulcissime, quem ego biennio jam non vidi. Nam quod ajunt quidam duos menses interfuisse, tantum dies numerant. Eritne quom te videbo?   ad M. Caesarem 2.9 [29 Hout; 1.140 Haines] Amplissimo consuli magistro suo M. Caesar salutem Anno abhinc tertio me commemini cum patre meo a vindemia redeuntem in agrum Pompei Falconis devertere. Ibi me videre arborem multorum ramorum, quam ille suum nomen catachannam nominabat. Sed illa arbor mira et nova visa est mihi, in uno trunco omnia omnium ferme germina <“--duae paginae deesse videntur--”>   ad M. Caesarem 2.10 [29 Hout; 1.116 Haines] <M. Aurelius Caesar consuli suo et magistro salutem> <...>deatur. Polemona ante hoc triduum declamantem audivimus, ἵνα τι καὶ περὶ ἀνθρώπων λαλήσωμεν. Si quaeris, quid visus sit mihi, accipe: Videtur mihi agricola strenuus, summa sollertia praeditus latum fundum in sola segete frumenti et vitibus occupasse, ubi sane et fructus pulcherrimus et reditus uberrimus. Sedenim nusquam in eo rure ficus Pompejana vel holus Acrinum vel rosa Tarentina vel nemus amoenum vel densior lucus vel platanus umbrosa: Omnia ad usum magis quam ad voluptatem, quaeque magis laudare oporteat amare non libeat. Satisne ego audaci consilio et judicio temerario videar, cum de tanta gloriae viro existimo? Sed quom me recordor tibi scribere, minus me audere, quam tu velis, arbitror. 2 Nos istic vehementer aestuamus. Habes et hendecasyllabum ingenuum. Igitur priusquam poetarei incipio, pausan tecum facio. 3 Desiderantissime homo et tuo Vero carissime, consul amplissime, magister dulcissime, vale mi semper anima dulcissima.   ad M. Caesarem 2.11 [30 Hout; 1.140 Haines] M. Aurelius Caesar consuli suo et magistro salutem 1 Postquam ad te proxime scripsi, postea nihil opera pretium, quod ad te scriberetur, aut quod cognitum ad aliquem modum juvaret. Nam διὰ τῶν αὐτῶν fere dies tramisimus: Idem theatrum, idem odium, idem desiderium tuum. Quid dico ‘idem’? Immo id cottidie novatur et gliscit et, quod ait Laberius de amore, suo modo καὶ ἐπὶ ἰδίᾳ μούσῃ, “amor tuus tam cito crescit quam porrus, tam firme quam palma”. Hoc igitur ego ad desiderium verto, quod ille de amore ait. Volo ad te plura scribere, sed nihil suppetit. 2 Ecce, quod in animum venit: Encomiographos istic audimus, Graecos scilicet, sed miros mortales, ut ego, qui a Graeca litteratura tantum absum, quantum a terra Graecia mons Caelius meus abest, tamen me sperem illis conparatum etiam Theopompum aequiparare posse; nam hunc audio apud Graecos disertissimum natum esse. Igitur paene me Opicum animantem ad Graecam scripturam perpulerunt “homines”, ut Caecilius ait, “incolumi scientia”. 3 Caelum Neapolitanum plane commodum, sed vehementer varium. In singulis scripulis horarum frigidius aut tepidius aut torridius fit. Jam primum media nox tepida, Laurentina; tum autem gallicinium frigidulum, Lanuvinum; jam conticinium atque matutinum atque diluculum usque ad solis ortum gelidum, ad Algidum maxime; exin antemeridie apricum, Tusculanum; tum meridies fervida, Puteolana; atenim ubi sol lautum ad Oceanum profectus, fit demum caelum modestius, quod genus Tiburtinum. Id vespera et concubia nocte, “dum se intempesta nox”, ut ait M. Porcius, “praecipitat”, eodem modo perseverat. 4 Sed quid ego, me qui paucula scripturum promisi, deliramenta Masuriana congero? Igitur vale, magister benignissime, consul amplissime, et me quantum amas, tantum desidera.   ad M. Caesarem 2.12 [31 Hout; 1.144 Haines] Caesari suo consul. Meum fratrem beatum, qui vos in isto biduo viderit! At ego Romae haereo conpedibus aureis vinctus, nec aliter Kal. Sept. expecto quam superstitiosi stellam, qua visa jejunium polluant. Vale, Caesar, decus patriae et Romani nominis. Vale, domine.   ad M. Caesarem 2.13 [32 Hout; 1.144 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Cratiam misi ad diem natalem matris tuae celebrandum eique praecepi, ut istic subsisteret quoad ego venirem. Eodem autem momento, quo consulatum ejuravero, vehiculum conscendam et ad vos pervolabo. Interim Cratiae meae nullum a fame periculum fore fide mea spopondi: Mater enim tua particulas a te sibi missas, cum clienta communicabit: Neque est Cratia mea, ut causidicorum uxores feruntur, multi cibi. Vel osculis solis matris tuae contenta vixerit. Sed enim quid me fiet? Ne osculum quidem usquam ullum est Romae residuum. Omnes meae fortunae, mea omnia gaudia Neapoli sunt. 2 Oro te, quis iste mos est pridie magistratus ejurandi? Quid quod ego paratus sum, dum ante plures dies ejurem, per plures deos jurare? Quid est autem, quod juraturus sum me consulatu abire? Ego vero etiam illud juravero, me olim consulatu abire cupere ut M. Aurelium conplectar.   ad M. Caesarem 2.14 [32 Hout; 1.146 Haines] Consuli et magistro meo optimo. Hoc sane supererat, ut super cetera quae insginiter erga nos facis, etiam Cratiam mitteres huc [sex vel paulo plures paginae desunt]   ad M. Caesarem 2.15 [32 Hout; 1.146 Haines] Μητρὶ Καίσαρος. 1 Ἑκὼν ἑκὼν νὴ τοὺς θεοὺς καὶ πάνυ γε προθυμούμενος τὴν ἐμὴν Κρατείαν ἐξέπεμψα συνεορτάσουσάν σοι τὰ γενέθλια καὶ αὐτὸς ἂν ἀφικόμενος εἰ ἐξῆν. ἀλλὰ ἐμοὶ μὲν ἐνποδών ἐστιν ἡ ἀρχὴ πρὸς τῷ ποδὶ ἤδη οὖσα. ὀλίγαι γὰρ ἡμέραι λοιπαὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς περιλείπονται καὶ μᾶλλόν τε ἄσχολοι διὰ τὰς λειτουργίας· ὧν ἀπαλλαγεὶς ἔοικα δραμεῖσθαι πρὸς ὑμᾶς τῶν τὸν στάδιον τρεχόντων πολὺ προθυμότερον· ὡς ἐκεῖνοί γε βραχύτατον χρόνον ἐπὶ τῆς ὕσπληγος ἐπιστάντες, ἔπειτα ἀφεῖνται τρέχειν, ἐγὼ δὲ τοῦτον ἤδη μῆνα δεύτερον εἴργομαι τοῦ πρὸ ὑμᾶς δρόμου.. 2 ἐχρῆν δὲ ἄρα πάσας τὰς πανταχόθεν γυναῖκας ἐπὶ ταύτην τὴν ἡμέραν ἁθροίζεσθαι καὶ ἑορτάζειν τὰ σὰ γενέθλια, πρώτας μὲν τῶν γυναικῶν τὰς φιλάνδρους καὶ φιλοτέκνους καὶ σώφρονας, δευτέρας δὲ ὅσαι ἄπλαστοι καὶ ἀψευδεῖς εἰσίν, τρίτας δὲ ἑορτάζειν τὰς εὐγνώμονας καὶ εὐπροσίτους καὶ εὐπροσηγόρους καὶ ἀτύφους. πολλαὶ δ᾽ ἂν καὶ ἄλλαι γυναικῶν τάξεις γένοιντο τῶν σοὶ μέρους τινὸς ἐπαίνου καὶ ἀρετῆς μετεχουσῶν, σοῦ μὲν ἁπάσας τὰς γυναικὶ πρεπούσας ἀρετὰς καὶ ἐπιστήμας κεκτημένης καὶ ἐπισταμένης, ὥσπερ ἡ Ἀθηνᾶ τέχνας ἁπάσας κέκτηταί τε καὶ ἐπίσταται, τῶν ἄλλων δὲ γυναικῶν ἐπὶ τῆς ἀρετῆς μέρος ἑκάστης ἐπισταμένης καὶ κατὰ τοῦτο ἐπαινουμένης, οἷος ὁ τῶν Μουσῶν ἔπαινος ἐκ μιᾶς τέχνης καὶ καθ᾽ ἑκάστην διῃρημένος.. 3 Εἰ δ᾽ ἦν ἐγὼ πρὸ θύρας εἰσαγωγεύς τις εἶναι λαχὼν τῶν τῆς ἑορτῆς ἀξίων, πρώτας ἂν Ὁμήρῳ πειθόμενος ἀπέκλεισα τὰς τὴν εὔνοιαν ψευδομένας καὶ πλαττομένας καὶ ἕτερον μέν τι κευθούσας ἐνὶ φρεσίν, ἄλλο δὲ λεγούσας, ἅπαντα δὲ τὰ ἀπὸ γέλωτος μέχρι δακρύων προσποιουμένας. ὅ τοι γέλως οὕτως τὸ πρὶν ἄδολος εἶναι πεφυκὼς ὡς καὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας τῶν γελώντων ἐπιδεικνύειν εἰς τοσοῦτον ἤδη περιέστηκε κακομηχανίας καὶ ἐνέδρας, ὡς καὶ τὰ χείλη κρύπτειν τῶν ἐξ ἐπιβουλῆς προσγελώντων. γυναικεία δή τις αὕτη θεὸς παρὰ ταῖς πλείσταις τῶν γυναικῶν θρησκεύεται ἡ Ἀπάτη· τίς γοῦν Ἀφροδίτης τόκος ἐκ πολλῶν τινων καὶ ποικίλων θηλειῶν κατασκευασαμένης [plures paginae desunt]   ad M. Caesarem 2.16 [34 Hout; 1.150 Haines] <Magistro meo.> <...> et meus me alipta faucibus urgebat. Sed quae, inquis, fabula? Ut pater meus a vineis domum se recepit. ego solito more equom inscendi et in viam profectus sum et paululum provectus. Deinde ibi in via sic oves multae conglobatae adstabant, ut locis solet artis, et canes quattuor et duo pastores, sed nihil praeterea. Tum pastor unus ad alterum pastorem, postquam plusculum equites vidit, “vide tibi istos equites”, inquit, “nam illi solent maximas rapinationes facere”. Ubi id audivi, calcar equo subpingo, ecum in ovis inigo. Oves consternatae disperguntur; aliae alibi palantes balantesque oberrant. Pastor furcam intorquet; furca in equitem, qui me sectabatur cadit. Nos aufugimus. Eo pacto, qui metuebat, ne ovis amitteret, furcam perdidit. Fabulam existimas? Res vera est; at etiam plura erant, quae de ea re scriberem, nisi jam me nuntius in balneum arcesseret. Vale, mi magister dulcissime, homo honestissime et rarissime, suavitas et caritas et voluptas mea.   ad M. Caesarem 2.17 [34 Hout; 1.152 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Cratia minor fecit, quod Cratia major facit, ut sollicitudinem nostram vel interim minuat vel jam omnino detergeat. Ego tibi de patrono meo M. Porcio gratias ago, quod eum crebro lectitas. Tu mihi de C. Crispo timeo ut umquam gratias agere possis, nam uni M. Porcio me dedicavi atque despondi atque delegavi. Hoc etiam ipsum ‘atque’ unde putas? Ex ipso furore. Perendinus dies meus dies festus erit, si certe tu venis. Vale, amicissime et rarissime homo, dulcissime magister. 2 Die senatus hujus magis hic futuri quam illuc venturi videmur. Sed utrumque in ambiguo est. Tu modo perendie veni, et fiat quod volt. Semper mi vale, animus meus. Mater mea te tuosque salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 2.18 [35 Hout; 1.152 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Tu cum sine me es Catonem legis, at ego quom sine te sum causidicos in undecimam horam audio. Equidem velim istam noctem, quae sequitur, quam brevissimam esse. Tanti est minus lucubrare, ut te maturius videam. Vale, mi magister dulcissime. Mater mea te salutat. Spiritum vix habeo, ita sum defessus.   ad M. Caesarem 2.19 [35 Hout; 1.154 Haines] M. Caesar magistro suo salutem dicit. Proficio: Ista tua benignitate magnum mihi negotium peperisti. Nam illa cottidie tua Lorium ventio, illa in serum expectatio. <“--complures paginae desunt--”>   M. Frontonis epistularum ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber III   ad M. Caesarem 3.1 [35 Hout; 1.52 Haines] <Domino meo> <...> verborum honestatur, fit plane impudica. Denique idem tu, quom in senatu vel in contione populi dicendum fuit, nullo verbo remotiore usus es, nulla figura obscura aut insolenti: Ut qui scias eloquentiam Caesaris tubae similem esse debere, non tibiarum, in quibus minus est soni, plus difficultatis.   ad M. Caesarem 3.2 [36 Hout; 1.58 Haines] Aurelius Caes. Frontoni suo salutem. 1 Saepe te mihi dixisse scio quaerere te, quid maxime facere gratum mihi. Id tempus nunc adest: Nunc amorem erga te meum augere potes - si augeri potest. Adpropinquat cognitio in qua homines non modo orationem tuam benigne audituri, sed indignationem maligne speactaturi videntur. Neque ullum video, qui te in hac re monere audeat. Nam qui minus aimici sunt, malunt te inspectare inconstantius agentem; qui autem magis amici sunt metuunt, ne adversario tuo amiciores esse videantur, si te ab accusatione ejus propria tua abducant. Tum autem, si quod tu in eam rem dictum elegantius meditatus es, per silentium dictionem auferre tibi non sustinent. Adeo sive tu me temerarium consultorem sive audacem puerulum sive adversario tuo benivolentiorem esse existimabis, non propterea quod rectius esse arbitrabor pedetemptius tibi consulam, sed quid dixi ‘consulam’, qui id a te postulo et magno opere postulo et me, si inpetro, obligari tibi repromitto. Et dices: “Quid? Si lacessitus fuero, non eum simili dicto remunerabo?” At ex eo tibi majorem laudem quaeris, si nec lacessitus quicquam responderis. Verum si prior fecerit, respondenti tibi utcumque poterit ignosci; ut autem non inciperet, postulavi ab eo et impetrasse me credo. Utrumque enim vestrum pro suis quemque meritis diligo et scio illum quidem in avi mei P. Calvisii domo eruditum, me autem apud te eruditum. Propterea maximam curam in animo meo habeo, uti quam honestissime negotium istud odiosissimum transigatur. 2 Opto, ut consilium conprobes, nam voluntatem conprobabis. Ego certe minus sapienter magis scripsero quam minus amice tacuero. Vale, mi Fronto carissime et amicissime.   ad M. Caesarem 3.3 [36 Hout; 1.62 Haines] 1 Merito ego me devovi tibi, merito fructus vitae meae omnis in te ac tuo parente constitui. Quid fieri amicius, quid jucundius, quid verius potest? Aufer ista, obsecro, ‘puerulum audacem’ aut ‘temerarium consultorem’. Periculum est plane, ne tu quicquam pueriliter aut inconsulte suadeas? Mihi crede, si tu vis (si minus, egomet mihi credam), seniorum a te prudentiam exsuperari. 2 Denique in isto negotio tuum consilium canum et grave, meum vero puerile deprendo. Quid enim opus est aequis et iniquis spectabulum praebere? Sive sit iste Herodes vir frugi et pudicus, proletarei conviciis talem a me virum non est verum; sive nequam et inprobus est, non aeua mihi cum eo certatio neque idem detrimenti capitur. Omnis enim cum polluto conplexus, tametsi superes, commaculat. Sed illud verius est, probum virum esse, quem tu dignum tutela tua judicas. Quod si umquam scissem, tum me di omnes male adflixint, si ego verbo laedere ausus fuissem quemquam amicum tibi. 3 Nunc me velim pro tuo erga me amore, quo sum beatissimus in hac etiam parte consilio juves. Quin nihil extra causam dicere debeam, quod Heroden laedat non dubito. Sed ea, quae in causa sunt (sunt autem atrocissima), quemadmodum tractem, id ipsum est, quod addubito et consilium posco: Dicendum est de hominibus liberis crudeliter verberatis et spoliatis, uno vero occiso; dicendum de filio impio et precum paternarum inmemore; saevitia et avaritia exprobanda; carnifex quidam Herodes in hac causa constituendus. Quodsi in istis criminibus quibus causa nititur putas debere me ex summis opibus adversarium urgere et premere, fac me, domine optime et mihi dulcissime, comsilii tui certiorem. Si vero in his quoque remittendum aliquid putas, quod tu suaseris id optimum factu ducam. Illud quidem, ut dixi, firmum et ratum habeto, nihil extra causam de moribus et cetera ejus vita me dicturum. Quodsi tibi videbitur servire me causae debere, jam nunc admoneo ne me inmoderate usurum quidem causae occasione: Atrocia enim sunt crimina et atrociter dicenda; illa ipsa de laesis et spoliatis hominibus ita a me dicentur, ut fel et vilem sapiant; sicubi Graeculum et indoctum dicero, non erit internecivum. 4 Vale, Caesar, et me, ut facis, ama plurimum. Ego vero etiam litterulas tuas δὶς amo, quare cupiam, ubi quid ad me scribes, tua manu scribas.   ad M. Caesarem 3.4 [38 Hout; 1.66 Haines] Have domine. 1 Clausa jam et obsignata epistula priore venit mihi in mentem fore, uti ei qui causam hanc agunt (acturi autem complures videntur) dicant aliquid in Heroden inclementius; cui rei quemadmodum me unum putas prospice. 2 Vale, domine, et vive, ut ego sim beatus. Acturi videntur Capreolus, qui nunc abest et Marcianus noster; videtur etiam Julianus.   ad M. Caesarem 3.5 [38 Hout; 1.66 Haines] Have mi Fronto carissime. Jam hinc tibi, mi Fronto carissime, gratias ago habeoque cum consilium meum non tantum non repudiasti, sed etiam conprobasti. De iis autem, quae per litteras amicissimas tuas consulis, ita existimo: Omnia, quae ad causam, quam tueris, adtinent, plane proferunda; quae ad tuas proprias adfectiones adtinent, licet justa et provocata sint, tamen reticenda. Ita neque fidem in negotio pannychio neque modestiam in existimatione tua laeseris s . . . . meo an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lis ceteri en . . . . . . . . mihi . . . . . . partam cueet dicant quae . . . at me enim una haec cura maxime exercet, ne quid tu tale dicas, quod tuis moribus indignum, negotio inutile, circumstantibus reprehensibile videatur esse. Vale, mihi Fronto carissime et jucundissime mihi.   ad M. Caesarem 3.6 [39 Hout; 1.68 Haines] Domino meo. Ita faciam, domine, quom hoc tum omnia, quod ad . u . m aut te velle intellexero. Alia item omnia faciam, teque oro et quaeso, ne umquam, quod a me fieri volueris, reticeas, sed ut nunc aptissima suadeas. Ita enim . . . . neque umquam fac . . . . . . . . . adversus voluntatem tuam quicquam incipiam. malim etiam nuic . . . . pessiis in causa cuo . . . . . . . . . in causa sunt. Singillatim sunt, ut Ciceronis modum proferamus. Nam cum in tantulum vel consultum cogunt versum, cupio praesertim quom par . . . sed pugna mi . . . . . es hoc modo transigi possit. Quodsi agemus perpetuis orationibus, licet extra causam nihil progrediar, tamen et oculis acrioribus et voce vehementi et verbis gravibus utendum est. Malim autem jam . . . hic digito irato quod alii . . . . hominem tuum laesisse, sed difficile est, ut istud ab eo inpetrari possit: Dicitur enim cupidine agendi flagrare. Nec reprehendo tamen ne hoc quidem, sed vide, moneo, ne tibi ipsa illa, quae in causa sunt, infestius prolata videantur. Verum et ipse suadeas inprimis fidei parendum: Et si armis vel palaestrica ludas, ne has quidem ludicras exercitationes sine contentione confici posse. Fac arbitreris et inedia disertis vel . . . . . tui plus adeo supta. Et ratis . . . . s facundior lucta . . arna laudavi beatius Opicum tuum.   ad M. Caesarem 3.7 [40 Hout; 1.32 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Quom tu quiescis et, quod commodum valetudini sit, facis, tum me recreavi. Libenter et otiose age. Sentio ergo: Recte fecisti quod bracchio curando operam dedisti. 2 Ego quoque hodie a septima in lectulo nonnihil egi, nam εἰκόνας decem ferme expedivi. In nona te socium et optionem mihi sumo, nam minus secunda fuit in persequendo mihi. Est autem, quod in insula Aenaria intus lacus est; in eo lacu alia insula est et ea quoque inhabitatur. ἐνθένδ᾿ εἰκόνα ποιοῦμεν. Vale, dulcissima anima. Domina mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 3.8 [40 Hout; 1.34 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Imaginem, quam te quaerere ais meque tibi socium ad quaerendum et optionem sumis, num moleste feres, si in tuo atque in tui patris sinu id futurum quaeram? Ut illa in mari Ionio sive Tyrrhenico sive vero potius in Hadriatico mari, seu quod aliud est mare, ejus nomen maris addito, igitur ut illa in mari insula Aenaria fluctus maritimos ipsa accipit atque propulsat omnemque vim classium, praedonum, beluarum, procellarum ipsa perpetitur, intus autem in lacu aliam insulam protegit ab omnibus periculis ac difficultatibus tutam, omnium vero deliciarum voluptatumque participem, namque illa intus in lacu insula aeque recipit, habitatur aeque, mare aeque prospectat, item pater tuus imperii Romani molestias ac difficultates ipse perpetitur, te tutum intus in tranquillo sinu suo socium dignitatis gloriae honorumque omnium participem tutatur. Igitur hac imagine multimodis uti potes ubi patri tuo gratias ages, in qua oratione locupletissimum et copiosissimum te esse oportet. Nihil est enim, quod tu aut honestius aut verius aut libentius in omni vita tua dicas quam, quod ad ornandas patris tui laudes pertinebit. Postea ego quamcumque εἰκόνα huc addidero, non aeque placebit tibi, ut haec quae ad patrem tuum pertinet; tam hoc scio, quam tu novisti. Quamobrem ipse aliam εἰκόνα nullam adiciam, sed ratione, qua tute quaeras, ostendam. Et amem te, tu quas εἰκόνας in eandem rem demonstrata ratione quaesiveris et inveneris mittito mihi, ut si fuerint scitae atque concinnae, gaudeam. 2 Jam primum quidem illud scis, εἰκόνα ei rei adsumi, ut aut ornet quid aut deturpet aut aequiperet aut deminuat aut ampliet aut ex minus credibili credibile efficiat. Ubi nihil eorum usus erit, locus εἰκόνος non erit. Postea ubi rei propositae imaginem scribes, ut si pingeres, insignia animadverteres ejus rei cujus imaginem pingeres, item in scribendo facies. Insignia autem cujusque rei multis modis eliges: τὰ ὁμογενῆ, τὰ ὁμοειδῆ, τὰ ὅλα, τὰ μέρη, τὰ ἴδια, τὰ διάφορα, τὰ ἀντικείμενα, τὰ ἑπόμενα καὶ παρακολουθοῦντα, τὰ ὀνόματα, τὰ ἐνούσια, τὰ συμβεβηκότα, τὰ στοιχεῖα et fere omnia ex quibus argumenta sumuntur; de quibus plerumque audisti, cum Θεωδώρου locos ἐπιχειρημάτων tractaremus. Eorum si quid memoriae tuae elapsum est, non inutile erit eadem nos denuo retractare, ubi tempus aderit. In hac εἰκόνε, quam de patre tuo teque depinxi, ἕν τι τῶν συμβεβηκότων ἔλαβον, τὸ ὅμοιον τῆς ἀσφαλείας καὶ τῆς ἀπολαύσεως. Nunc tu per hasce vias ac semitas, quas supra ostendi, quaeres, quonam modo Aenariam commodissime pervenias. 3 Mihi dolor cubiti haud multum sedatus est. Vale, domine, cum ingenio eximio. Dominae meae matri tuae dic salutem. 4 τὴν δὲ ὅλην τῶν εἰκόνων τέχνην alias diligentius et subtilius persequemur; nunc capita rerum attigi.   ad M. Caesarem 3.9 [42 Hout; 1.18 Haines] Have mi magister optime. 1 Si quid somni redit post vigilas de quibus questus es, oro te, scribe mihi. Et illud oro te: Primum valetudine operam da, tum securim Tenediam, quam minaris, abde aliquo ac reconde nec tu consilium causarum agendarum dimiseros, aut tum simul omnia ora taceant. 2 Graece nescio, quid ais te conpegisse, quod ut aeque pauca a te scripta placeat tibi. Tune es, qui me nuper concastigas quorsum Graece scriberem? Mihi vero nunc potissimum Graece scribendum est. “Quamobrem?” rogas. Volo periculum facere, an id, quod non didici, facilius obsecundet mihi, quoniam quidem illud, quod didici, deserit. Sed si me amares, misisses mihi istud novicium, quod placere ais. Ego vero te vel invitum istic lego; et quidem hac re una vivo et resto. 3 Materiam cruentam misisti mihi. Necdum legi Coelianum excerptum, quod misisti nec legam, priusquam sensus ipse venatus fuero. Sed me Caesaris oratio unceis unguibus adtinet. Nunc denique sentio quantum operis sit ternos vel quinos versus in die etornare et aliquid diu scribere. 4 Vale spiritus meus. Ego non ardeam tuo amore qui mihi hoc scripseris? Quid faciam? Non possum insistere. At mihi anno priore datum futi hoc eodem loco eodemque tempore matris desiderio peruri. Id desiderium hoc anno tu mihi accendis. Salutat te domina mea.   ad M. Caesarem 3.10 [43 Hout; 1.50 Haines] Have mi magister optime. 1 Scio die quojusque pro eo, quojus is dies natalis est, amicos vota suscipere; ego tamen, quia te juxta ut memet ipsum amo, volo hac die, tuo natali, mihi bene precari. Deos igitur omnis, qui usquam gentium vim suam praesentem promptamque hominibus praebent, qui vel somniis vel mysteriis vel medicina vel oraculis usquam juvant atque pollent, eorum deorum unumquemque mihi votis advoco meque pro genre cujusque voti in eo loco constituo de quo deus ei rei praeditus facilius exaudiat. 2 Igitur jam primum Pergamei arcem ascendo et Aesculapio supplico, uti valetudinem magistri mei bene temperet vehementerque tueatur. Inde Athenas degredior, Minerva, genibus nixus obsecri atque oro, si quid ego numquam litterarum sciam, ut id potissimum ex Frontonis ore in pectus meum commigret. Nunc redeo Romam deosque viales et promarinos votis inploro, uti mihi omne iter tua praesentia comitatum sit, neque ego tam saepe tam saevo desiderio fatiger. Postremo omnis omnium populorum praesides deos atque ipsum Jovem, qui Capitolium montem strepit, quaeso tribuat hoc nobis, ut istum diem, quo mihi natus es, tecum firmo te laetoque concelebrem. 3 Cale, mi dulcissime et carissime magister. Rogo, corpus cura, ut quom venero videam te. Domina mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 3.11 [43 Hout; 1.52 Haines] Domino meo. Omnia nobis prospera sun,t quom tu pro nobis optas; neque enim quisquam dignior alius te, qui a dis quae petit, inpetret; nisi quod ego cum pro te precor, nemo alius te dignior est, pro quo impetretur. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 3.12 [44 Hout; 1.12 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Cratia ad me heri nocte venit. Sed pro Cartia mihi fuit tu gnomas egregie convertisti, hanc quidem quam hocie accepi prope perfecte, ut poni in libro Sallustii possit nec discrepet aut quicquam decedat. Ego beatus, hilaris, sanus, juvenis denique fio, quom tu ita proficis. Est grave, quod postulabo, sed quod ipse mihi et profuisse memini non potest, quin a te quoque postulem. Bis et ter eandem convertito, ita ut fecisti in illa gnome brevicula. Igitur longiores quoque bis ac ter converte naviter, audacter. Quodcumque ausus fueris, cum isto ingenio perficies; at enim cum labore: Laboriosum quidem negotium concupisti, sed pulcrum et novum et paucis inpetratum de . . . . in me recips . . icula donec . . . . . perfecte absolveris. 2 Plurimum tibi in oratione facienda prodest tum certe quidem cottidie excerpere aut ex Jugurtha aut ex Catilina. Diis propitiis quom Romam reverteris exigam a te denuo versus diurnos. Dominam matrem saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 3.13 [44 Hout; 1.14 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Duas per id tempus epistulas tuas accepi. Earum altera me increpabas et temere sententiam scripsisse arguebas, altera vero tuere studium meum laude nitebaris. Adjuro tamen tibi meam, meae matris, tuam salutem mihi plus gaudii in animo coortum esse illis tuis prioribus litteris meque saepius exclamasse inter legendum: “O me felicem!” “Itane”, dicet aliquis, “felicem te ais, si est, qui te doceat, quomodo γνώμην sollertius dilucidius, brevius, politius scribas?” Non hoc est, quod me felicem nuncupo. Quid est igitur? Quod verum dicere ex te disco. Ea res, verum dicere, prorsum diis hominibusque ardua: Nullum denique tam veriloquium oraculum est, quin aliquid ancipitis in se bel obliqui vel inpediti habeat, quo inprudentior inretiatur et ad voluntatem suam dictum opinatus captione post tempis ac negotium sentiat. Sed ista res lucrosa est et plane nos talia tantum pio errore et vanitate excusare. At tuae seu accusationes seu lora confestim ipsam viam ostendunt sine fraude et inventis verbis. Itaque haberem etiam gratias agere vel, si verum me dicere satius simul et audire verum me doces. Duplex igitur pretium solvatur, pendere, quod ne valeam, elaborabis. Sei resolvi vis nil, quomodo tibi par pari exprendam nisi obsequio? Inpius tamen mihi malui te nimia motum cura . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 E . . . . . . . minitando postquam . . . . . . nam et acuit me et scribendo ac legendo ad ea et excerpendo . . . . i . . . . . tota e . . . on . . . lego . . . . . . . . . . insecatas paulatim . . . nmi . . . etsi . . . . . . . . est enim . . . . . . . qui laborem hic facilluma gloria pericl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Vale, mi . . . . . . . . . . . . . ne . . . . im . . . . . . . . . . . et optime, magister optime, gratissime . . . ., quantum te invenisse gaudeo. Domina mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 3.14 [45 Hout; 1.218 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Quod poetis concessum est ὀνοματοποιεῖν, verba nova fingere, quo facilius, quod sentiunt, exprimant, id mihi necessarium est ad gaudium meum expromendum. Nam solitis et usitatis verbis non sum contentus, sed laetius gaudeo quam, ut sermone volgato significare laetitiam animi mei possim: Tot mihi a te in tam paucis diebus epistulas scriptas easque tam eleganter, tam amice, tam blande, tam effuse, tam fraglanter conpositas, cum jam tot negotiis quot officiis, quot rescribendis er provinsias litteris distringere. 2 Atenim proposueram (nihil enim mihi a te occultum aut dissimulatum retinere fas est) ita, inquam, proposueram vel desidiae culpam a te subire rarius scribendo tibi potius, quam te multis rebus occupatum epistulis meis onorarem et ad rescribendum provocarem, quom tu cotidie ultro scripsisti mihi. Sed quid dico ‘cotidie’? Ergo jam hic mihi ὀνοματοποιίας opus est. Nam ‘cotidie’ foret, si singulas epistulas per dies singulos scripsisses; quom vero plures epistulae quam sint dies, verbum istud ‘cottidie’ minus significat. Nec est, domine, quod mihi tristior sis, cur omnino veritus sim ne tibi litterae meae crebriores oneris essent: Nam quo mei amantior es, tanto me laborum tuorum parciorem et occupationum tuarum modestiorem esse oportet. 3 Quid est mihi osculo tuo suavius! Ille mihi suavis odor, ille fructus in tuo collo atque osculo situs est. Attamen proxime, cum proficiscere, cum jam pater tuus vehiculum conscendisset, te salutantium et exosculantium turba diutius moraretur. profuit ut te solus ex omnibus non complecterer nec exoscularer. Item in ceteris aliis rebus omnibus numquam equidem mea commoda tuis utilitatibus anteponam; quin si opus sit, meo gravissimo labore atque negotio tuum levissimum et otium redimam. 4 Igitur cogitans quantum ex epistulis scribendis laboris caperes proposueram parcius te appellare quom tu cotidie scripsisti mihi. Quas ego epistulas quom acciperem, simile patiebar, quod amator patitur, qui delicias suas videat currere ad se per iter asperum et periculosum. Namque is simul advenientem gaudet, simul periculum reveretur. Unde displicet mihi fabula histrionibus celebrata, ubi amans amantem puella juvenem nocte lumine accenso stans in turri natantem in mare opperitur. Nam ego potius te caruero, tametsi amore tuo ardeo, potius quam “te ad hoc noctis natare tantum profundi patiar ne luna occidat, ne ventus lucernam interemat, ne quid ibi ex frigore inpliciscare, ne fluetur, ne vadus, ne piscis aliquo noxsit”. Haec ratio amantibus decuit et melior et salubrior fuit: Non alieno capitali periculo sectari voluptatis usuram brevem ac paenitendam. 5 Nunc ut a fabula ad verum convertar, id ego non mediocriter anxius eram, ne necessariis laboribus tuis ego insuper aliquod molestiae atque oneris inponerem, si praeter eas epistulas, quas ad plurimos necessario munere cotidie rescribis, ego quoque ad rescribendum fatigarem. Nam me carere omni fructu amoris tui malim quam te ne minimum quidem incommodi voluptatis meae gratiae subire.   ad M. Caesarem 3.15 [47 Hout; 1.100 Haines] Magistro meo. Epistula Ciceronis mirifice adfecit animum meum. Miserat Brutus Ciceroni librum suum corrigendum <...> <“-- duae paginae desunt--”>   ad M. Caesarem 3.16 [47 Hout; 1.100 Haines] <Domino meo.> <...> molliantur atque ita efficacius sine ulla ad animos offensione audientium penetrent. Haec sunt profecto, quae tu putas obliqua et insincera et anxia et verae amicitiae minime adcommodata. At ego sine istis artibus omnem orationem absurdam et agrestem et incognitam, denique inertem atque inutilem puto. Neque magis oratibus arbitror necessaria ejusmodi artificia quam philosophis. In ea re non oratorum domesticis, quod dicitur, testimoniis utar, sed philosophorum eminentissimis, poetarum vetustissimis excellentissimisque, vitae denique cotidianae usu atque cultu artiumque omnium experimentis. 2 Quidnam igitur tibi videtur princeps ille sapientiae simul atque eloquentiae Socrates? Huic enim primo ac potissimo testimonium apud te denuntiavi: Eone usus genere dicendi, in quo nihil est oblicum, nihil interdum dissimulatum? Quibus ille modis Protagoram et Polum et Thrasymachum et sophistas ceteros versare atque inretire solitus? Quando eautem perta arta congressus est? Quando non ex insidiis adortus? Quo ex homine nata inversa oratio videtur, quam Graece εἰρωνείαν appellant. Alcibiaden vero ceterosque adulescentis genere aut fama aut opibus feroces quo pacto appellare atque adfari solebat? per jurgium an per πολιτείαν, exprobrando acriter quae delinquerent an leniter arguendo? Neque deerat Socrati profecto gravitas aut vis, qua tum cynicus Diogenes volgo saeviabat; sed vidit profecto ingenia partim hominum ac praecipue adulescentium facilius comi atque adfabili oratione leniri quam acri violentaque superari. Itaque non vineis neque arietibus errores adulescentium expugnabat, sed cuniculis subruebat, neque umquam ab eo auditores discessere lacerati sed nonnumquam lacessiti. Est enim genus hominum natura insectantibus indomitum, blandientibus conciliatum. Quamobrem facilius precariis decedimus, quam violentis deterremur, plusque ad corrigendum promovent consilia quam jurgia. Ita comitati monentium obsequimur, inclementiae objurgantium obnitimur.   ad M. Caesarem 3.17 [49 Hout; 1.104 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Quod tu me putes somnum cepisse, totam paene noctem pervigilavi mecum ipse reputans, num forte nimio amore tui remissius et clementius delictum aliquod tuum aestumarem; num tu ordinatior, perfectior jam in eloquentia esse debueris, sed ingenium tuum vel desidia vel indiligentia elaudat. Haec mecum anxie volutans inveniebam te multum supra aetatem qua tu es, multa supra tempus, quo operam his studiis dedisti, multum etiam supra opinionem meam, quamquam ego de te sperem inmodica, in eloquentia promovisse. 2 Sed quo? Mihi tum demum venit nocte media in mentem qualem ὑπόθεσιν scribas, nimirum ἐπιδεικτικήν, qua nihil est difficilius. Cur? Quia, cum sint tria ferme genera ὑποθέσεων, ἐπιδεικτικῶν, συμβουλευτικῶν, δικανικῶν, cetera illa multo sunt proniora, multifariam procliva vel campestria, τὸ ἐπιδεικτικὸν in arduo situm. Denique, cum aeque tres quasi formulae sint orationis, ἰσχνόν, μέσον, ἁδρόν, prope nullus in epidicticis τῷ ἰσχνῷ locus, qui est in dicis multus necessarius. Omnia ἐν τῷ ἐπιδεικτικῷ ἁδρῶς dicenda, ubique ornandum, ubique phaleris utendum, pauca τῷ μέσῳ χαρακτῆρι. 3 Meministi autem tu plurimas lectiones quibus usque adhuc versatus es, comoedias, Atellanas, oratores veteres, quorum aut pauci aut praeter Catone et Gracchum nemo tubam inflat; omnes autem mugiunt vel stridunt potius. Quid igitur Ennius egit quem legisti? Quid tragoediae ad versum sublimiter faciundum te juverunt? Plerumque enim ad orationem faciendam versus, ad versificandum oratio magis adjuvat. Nunc nuper coepisti legere ornatas et pompaticas orationes: Noli postulare statim eas imitari posse. Verum, ut dixi, incumbamus, conitamur. Me vade, me praede, me sponsore celeriter te in cacumine eloquentiae sistam; dii facient, dii favebunt. 4 Vale, domine, καὶ ἔλπιζε καὶ εὐθύμει καὶ χρόνῳ καὶ ἐμπειρίᾳ πείθου. 5 Matrem dominam saluta. Quom Persarum disciplinam memorares, bene ‘battunt’ aisti.   ad M. Caesarem 3.18 [50 Hout; 1.106 Haines] Have mi Fronto merito carissime. 1 Intellego istam tuam argutissimam strofam, quam tu quidem benignissime repperisti: Ut quia laudando me fidem propter egregium erga me amorem tuum non habebas, vituperando laudi fidem quaereres. Sed o me beatum, qui a Marco Cornelio meo, oratore maximo, homine optimo, et laudari et reprehendi dignus esse videor! Quid ego de tuis litteris dicam benignissimis, verissimis, amicissimis? Verissimis tamen usque ad primam partem libelli tui; nam cetera, ubi me conprobas, ut ait nescio quis Graecus (puto Thucydides), τυφλοῦται γὰρ τὸ φιλοῦν περὶ τὸ φιλούμενον, item tu apertim meorum prope caeso amore interpretatus es. 2 Sed (tanti est me non recte scribere et te nullo meo merito, sed solo tuo erga me amore laudare, de quo tu plurima et elegantissima ad me proxime scripsisti) ego, si tu volueris, ero aliquid. Ceterum litterae tuae id effecerunt, ut, quam vehementer me amares, sentirem. Sed quod ad ἀθυμίαν meam attine, nihilominus adhuc animus meus pavet et tristiculus est, ne quid hodie in senatu dixerim, propter quod te magistrum habere non merear. Vale, mihi Fronto, quid dicam nisi amice optime.   ad M. Caesarem 3.19 [51 Hout; 1.78 Haines] Magistro suo Caes. suus. 1 In quantum me juverit lectio orationum istarum Gracchi non opus est me dicere, quom tu scias optime, qui me, ut eas legerem, doctissimo judicio ac benignissimo animo tuo hortatus es. Ne autem sine somite solus ad te liber tuus referretur libellum istum addidi. 2 Vale, mi magister suavissime, amice amicissime, quoi sum debiturus, quidquid litterarum sciero. Non sum tam ingratus, ut non intellegam, quid mihi praestiteris, quom excerpta tua mihi ostendisti, et quom cotidie non desinis in viam me veram inducere et oculos aperire, ut colgo dicitur. merito amo.   ad M. Caesarem 3.20 [51 Hout; 1.170 Haines] Magistro meo. Qualem mihi animum esse existimas, quom cogito, quam diu te non vidi, et quamobrem non vidi? Et fortassis pauculis te adhuc diebus, cum te necessario confirmas, non videbo. Igitur dum tu jacebis et mihi animus supinus erit, quomque tu dis juvantibus bene stabis, et meus animus bene constabit qui nunc torretur ardentissimo desiderio tuo. Vale, anima Caesaris tui, amici tui, discipuli tui.   ad M. Caesarem 3.21 [51 Hout; 1.172 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Lectulo me teneo. Si possim, ubi ad Centum Cellas ibitis, itineri idoneus esse VII Idus vos Lorii videbo deis faventibus. Excusa me domino nostro patri tuo, quem (ita vos salvos habeam!) magno pondere gravius amo et colo, quom tam bene in senatu judicatum est, quod et provinsciis saluti esset et reos clementer objurgasset. 2 Ubi vivarium dedicabitis, memento, quam diligentissime, si feras percuties, et equom admittere. 3 Galbam certe ad Centum Cellas produces. An potes octavum Idus Lorii? Vale, domine, patri placeto, matri dic salutem, me desiderato. 4 Cato quid dicat de Galba absoluto tu melius scis; ego memini propter fratris filios eum absolutum. τὸ δὲ ἀκριβὲς ipse inspice. Cato igitur dissuadet neve suos neve alienos quis liberos ad misericordiam concilliandam producat neve uxores neve adfines vel ullas omnino feminas. Domine, matrem saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 3.22 [52 Hout; 1.172 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Mane ad te non scripsi, quia te commodiorem esse audieram, et quia ipse in alio negotio occupatus fueram; nec sustineo ad te umquam quicquam scribere nisi remisso et soluto et libero animo. Igitur, si recte sumus, fac me, ut sciam. Quid enim optem scis; quam merito optem, scio. Vale, meus magister, qui merito apud animum meum omnis omni re praevenis. 2 Mi magister, ecce non dormito et cogo me, ut dormiam, ne tu irascaris. Aestimas utique me vespera haec scribere.   M. Frontonis epistularum ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber IV   ad M. Caesarem 4.1 [53 Hout; 1.70 Haines] <Domino meo Fronto.> Quoniam scio quanto opere sis anxius <...> 1 <...> et columbae cum lupis et aquilis cantantem sequebantur inmemores insidiarum et unguium et dentium. Quae fabula recte interpretantibus illud profecti significat fuisse egregio ingenio eximiaque eloquentia virum, qui plurimos virtutum suarum facundiaeque admiratione devinxerit; eumque amicos ac sectatores suos ita instituisse, ut, quamquam diversis nationibus convenae variis moribus inbuti, concordarent tamen et consuescerent et congregarentur, mites cum ferocibus, placidi cum violentis, quom superbis moderati, cum crudelibus timidi: Omnes dein paulatim vitia insita exuerent, virtutem sectarentur, probitatem condiscerent, pudore inpudentiam, obsequio contumaciam, benignitate malivolentiam commutarent. 2 Quo si quis umquam ingenio tantum valuit, ut amicos ac sectatores suos amore inter se mutuo copularet, tu hoc profecto perficies multo facilius, qui ad omnis virtutes natus es prius quam institutus. Nam priusquam tibi aetas insitutioni suffciens adolesceret, jam tu perfectus atque omnibus bonis artibus absolutus: Ante pubertatem vir bonus, ante togam virilem dicendi peritus. Verum ex omnibus virtutibus tuis hoc vel praecipue admirandum, quod omnis amicos tuos concordia copulas. Nec tamen dissimulaverim multo hoc esse difficilius quam, ut ferae ac leones cithara mitigentur. Quod tu facilius obtinebis, si unum illud vitium extirpandum eruendumque curaveris, ne liveant neve invideant invicem amici tui, neve, quod tu alii tribueris ac benefeceris, sibi quisque illud deperire ac detrahi putet. 3 Invidia perniciosum inter homines malum maximeque internecivum, sibi aliisque pariter obnoxium. Sed si procul a cohorte tua prohibueris, uteris amicis concordibus et benignis, ut nunc uteris. Sin aliqua pervaserit, magna molestia magnoque labore erit restinguendum. 4 Sed meliora, quaeso, fabulemur. Amo Julianum (inde enim hic sermo defluxit), amo omnis, qui te diligunt, amo deos, qui te tutantur, amo vitam propter te, amo litteras tecum: Inprimis eis mihi amorem tui ingurgito.   ad M. Caesarem 4.2 [54 Hout; 1.74 Haines] Carissime. 1 Quamquam ad te cras venio, tamen amicis tamque jucundis litteris tuis, tam denique elegantibus nihil, ne hoc quidem tantulum, rescribere non sustineo, mi Fronto carissime. Sed quid ego prius amem? Pro quo prius habeam gratiam? Idne pimum commemorem, quod in tantis domesticis studiis tantisque extrariis negotiis occulatus tamen ad Julianum nostrum visendum mea maxime gratia (nam sim ingratus nisi id intellegam) ira conisus es? Sed non magnum est tamen, ut est, si cetera addas: Tanto temporis spatio ibi te demorari, tantum sermocinari, idque ad me sermocinari aut, quod ad valetudinem ejus consolandam esset, aegrum commodiorem sibi, amicum amiciorem mihi facere; tum autem de iis singillatim ad me perscribere; inibi scribere nuntium de ipso Juliano optatissimum, verba suavissima, consilia saluberrima. 2 Quid illud quod dissimulare nullo modo possum apud alium dissimulaturus? Utique illud ipsum, quod tanta ad me scripsisti, cum cras venturus essem: Id vero mihi longe fuit gratissimum; in eo ego me beatissimum supra omnis homines arbitratus sum; nam quanti me faceres quantamque amicitiae meae haberes fiduciam, in eo maxime atque dulcissime ostendisti. Quid ego addam, nisi te merito amo? Sed quid dico ‘merito’? Nam utinam pro tuo merito te amare possem! Atque id est, quod saepe absenti atque insonti tibi irascor atque suscenseo, quod facis, ne te, ut volo, amare possim, id est, ne meus animus amorem tuum usque ad summum columen ejus persequi posset. 3 De Herode quod dicis. perge, oro te, ut Quintus noster ait: “Pervince pertinaci pervicacia”. Et Herodes te amat, et ego istic huc ago, et qui te non amat profecto neque ille animo intellegit neque oculis videt; nam de auribus nihil dico, nam omnibus aures tuae voculae subserviunt sub jugum subactae. 4 Mihi et hodiernus dies verno die longior et nox veniens hiberna nocte prolixior videtur atque videbitur. nam cum maximo opere Frontonem meum consalutare tum harum recentium litterarum scriptorem praecipuse cupio conplecti. Haec cursim ad te scripsi, quia Maecianus urgebat, et fratrem tuum maturius ad te reverti aecum erat. 5 Quaeso igitur, si quod verbum absurdius aut inconsultior sensus aut infirmior littera istic erit, id tempori adponas. Nam cum te ut amicum vehementissime diligam, tum meminisse oportet, quantum amorem amico, tantum reverentiae magistro praestare debere. Vale, mi Fronto carissime et supra omnis res dulcissime. 6 Sota Ennianus remissus a te et in charta puriore et volumine gratiore et littera festiviore quam antea fuerat videtur. Gracchus cum cado musti maneat, dum venimus, neque enim metus est Gracchum interea cum musto defervere posse. Valeas semper, anima suavissima.   ad M. Caesarem 4.3 [56 Hout; 1.1 Haines] Domino meo Fronto. 1 Omnium artium, ut ego arbitror, imperitum et indoctum omnino esse praestat quam semiperitum ac semidoctum. Nam qui sibi conscius est artis expertem esse minus adtemptat eoque minus praecipitat: Diffidentia profecto audaciam prohibet. At ubi quis leviter quid cognitum pro conperto ostentat, falsa fiducia multifariam labitur. Philosophiae quoque disciplinas ajunt satius esse numquam attigisse quam leviter et primoribus, ut dicitur, labiis delibasse, eosque provenire malitiosissimos, qui in vestibulo artis obversati prius inde averterint, quam penetraverint. Tamen est in aliis artibus, ubi interdum delitiscas et peritus paulisper habeare, quod nescias. In verbis vero eligendis conlocandisque ilico dilucet nec verba dare diutius potest, quin se ipse indicet verborum ignarum esse eaque male probare et temere existimare et inscie contrectare neque modum neque prondus verbi internosse. 2 Quamobrem rari admodum veterum scriptorum in eum laborem studiumque et periculum verba industriosius quaerendi sese commisere, oratorum post homines natos unus omnium M. Porcius ejusque frequens sectator C. Sallustius, poetarum maxime Plautus, multo maxime Q. Ennius eumque studiose aemulatus L. Coelius necnon Naevius, Lucretius, Accius etiam, Caecilius, Laberius quoque. Nam praeter hos partim scriptorum animadvertas particulatim elegantis Novium et Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et jocularibus ac ridiculariis, Attam in muliebribus, Sisennam in lasciviis, Lucilium in cujusque Artis ac negotii propriis. 3 Hic tu fortasse jandudum requiras quo in numero locem M. Tullium qui caput atque fons Romanae facundiae cluet. Eum ego arbitror usquequaque verbis pulcherrimis elocutum et ante omnis alios oratores ad ea quae ostentare vellet, ornanda magnificum fuisse. Verum is mihi videtur a quaerendis scrupulosius verbis procul afuisse vel magnitudine animi vel fuga laboris vel fiducia non quaerenti etiam sibi quaevix aliis quaerentibus subvenirent, praesti adfutura. Itaque conperisse videor, ut qui ejus scripta omnia studiosissime lectitarim cetera eum generea verborum copiosissime uberrimeque tractasse: Verba propria translata,, simplicia, conposita et, quae in ejus scriptis ubique dilucent, verba honesta, saepenumero etiam amoena, quo tamen in omnibus ejus orationibus paucissima admodum reperias insperata atque inopinata verba, quae nonnisi cum studio atque cura atque vigilantia atque multa veterum carminum memoria indagantur. Insperatum autem atque inopinatum verbum appello, quod praeter spem atque opinionem audientium aut legentium promitur, ita ut, si subtrahas atque eum, qui legat, quaerere ipsum jubeas aut nullum aut non ita significando adcommodatum verbum aliud reperiat. Quamobrem te magno opere conlaudo quod ei rei curam industriamque adhibes, ut verbum ex alto eruas et ad significandum adcommodes. Verum, ut initio dixi, magnum in ea re periculum est, ne minus apte aut parum dilucide aut non satis decore, ut a semidocto, conlocetur: Namque multo satius est volgaribus et usitatis quam remotis et requisitis uti, si parum significet. 4 Haud sciam, an utile sit demonstrare, quanta difficultas, quam scrupulosa et anxia cura in verbis probandis adhibenda sit, ne ea res animos adulescentium retardet aut spem adipiscendi debilitet. Una plerumque littera translata aut exempta aut inmutata vim verbi ac venustatem commutat et elegantiam vel scientiam loquentis declarat. Equidem te animadverti, quom mihi scripta tua relegeres, atque ego de verbo syllabam permutarem, te id neglegere nec multum referre arbitrari. Nolim igitur te ignorare syllabae unius discrimen quantum referat. Os ‘colluere’ dicam, pavimentum autem in balneis ‘pelluere’, non ‘colluere’; lacrimis vero genas ‘lavere’ dicam, non ‘pelluere’ neque ‘colluere’; vestimenta autem ‘lavare’, non ‘lavere’; sudorem porro et pulverem ‘abluere’, non ‘lavare’; sed maculam elegantius ‘eluere’ quam ‘abluere’. Si quid vero magis haeserit nec sine aliquo detrimento exigi possit, Plautino verbo ‘elavere’ dicam. Tum praeterea mulsum ‘diluere’, fauces ‘proluere’, ungulam jumento ‘subluere’. Tot exemplis unum atque idem verbum syllabae atque litterae commutatione in varium modum ac sensum usurpatur: Tam hercule quam faciem medicamento ‘litam’, caeno corpus ‘oblitum’, calicem melle ‘delitum’, mucronem veneno ‘praelitum’, radium visco ‘inlitum’ rectius dixerim. 6 Haud sciam, an quis roget: Nam quis me prohibet vestimenta lavere potius quam lavare, sudorem lavare potius quam abluere dicere? Tibi vero nemo in ea re intercedere aut modificarei jure ullo poterit, qui sis liberis prognatus et equitum censum praetervehare et in senatu sententiam rogere; nos vero, qui doctorum auribus servituti serviendae nosmet dedimus, necesse est tenuia quoque ista et minuta summa cum cura persequaremur. Verba prosus alii vecte et malleo ut silices moliuntur, alii autem caelo et marculo ut gemmulas exculpunt; te aequius erit ad quaerenda sollertius verba, quod correctus sis, meminisse quam, quod deprehensus, detractare aut retardari. Nam si quaerendo desistes, numquam reperies; si perges quaerere, reperies. 7 Denique visus etiam esmihi insuper habuisse, cum ordinem verbi tui immutassem, uti ante ‘tricipitem’ diceres quam ‘Geryonam’ nominare. Id quoque ne ignores: Pleraque in oratione ordine inmutto vel rata verba fiunt vel supervacanea. ‘Navem triremem’ rite dicerim, ‘triremem nave’ supervacaneo addiderim. Neque enim periculum est, ne quis lecticulam aut redam aut citharam triremem dici arbitretur. Tum praeterea quom commemorares, cur Parthi manuleis laxioribus uterentur, ita, opinor, scripsisti, “intervallis vestis aestum” ut “suspendi” diceres. Ain tandem: Quo pacto aestus suspenditur? Neque id reprehendo, te verbi translatione audacius progressum, quippe qui Enni sententia oratorum audacem esse debere censeam. Sit sane audax orator, ut Ennius postulat; sed a significando, quod volt eloqui, nusquam digrediatur. Igitur voluntatem quidem tuam magno opere probavi laudavique, quom verbum quaerere adgressus es; indiligentiam autem quaesiti verbi, quod esset absurda, reprehendi. Namque manuleorum intervallis, quae interdum laxata videmus atque fluitantia, ‘suspendi’ aestus non potest: Potest aestus per vestis intervalla ‘depelli’, potest ‘degi’, potest ‘demeare’, potest ‘circumduci’, potest ‘interverti’, potest ‘eventilari’, omnia denique potius potest quam posse ‘suspendi’, quod verbum ‘superne quid sustineri’, non ‘per laxamenta deduci’ significat. 8 Post ita monui, quibus studiis, quoniam ita velles, te historiae scribundae praeparares. Qua de re cum longior sit oratio, ne modum epistulae egrediar. Finem facio. Si tu de ea quoque re scribi ad te voles, etiam atque etiam admonebis.   ad M. Caesarem 4.4 [60 Hout; 1.174 Haines] M. Caesar M. Frontoni magistro suo salutem 1 Postquam vehiculum inscendi, postquam te salutavi, iter non adeo incommodum nos fecimus sed paululum pluvia aspersi sumus. Sed priusquam ad villam venimus, Anagniam devertimus mille fere passus a via. Deinde id oppidum anticum vidimus, minutulum quidem, sed multas res in se antiquas habet, aedes sanctasque caerimonias supra modum. Nullus angulus fuit ubi delubrum aut fanum aut templum non sit. Praeterea multi libri lintei, quod ad sacra adtinet. Deinde in porta cum eximus ibi scriptum erat bifariam sic: “Flamen sume samentum”. Rogavi aliquem ex popularibus quid illud evrbum esset. Ait lingua Hernica pelliculam de hostia, quam in apicem suum flame,n cum in urbem introeat, inponit. Multa adeo alia didicimus, quae vellemus scire; verum id solum est, quod nolimus, cum tu a nobis abes: Ea nobis maxima sollicitudo est. 2 Nunc tu postquam inde profectus est, utrumne in Aureliam an in Campaniam abisti? Fac scribas mihi, et an vindemias inchoaveris, et an ad villam multitudinem librorum tuleris, et illud quoque an me desideres, quod ego stulte requiro, quom tu certe facis. Nunc tu si me desideres atque si me ames, litteras tuas ad me frequentes mittes, quod mihi solacium atque fomentum sit. Nam decem partibus tuas litteras legere malim quam omnes Massicos aut Gauranos palmites; nam Signini quidem isti nimis rancidos racemos et acidos acinos habent, quod vinum malim quam mustum bibere. Praeterea istas uvas multo commodius passas quam puberes manducare; nam profecto malim eas pedibus calcare quam dentibus comesse. Sed tamen propitiae placataequa sint et mihi pro istic jocularibs bonam veniam duint. Vale mihi homo amicissime, suavissime, disertissime, magister dulcissime. 3 Quom videbis in dolio mustum fervere, in mentem tibi veniat mihi sic in pectore tuum desiderium scatere et abundare et spumas facere. Semper vale.   ad M. Caesarem 4.5 [61 Hout; 1.178 Haines] Have mihi magister carissime. 1 Nos valemus. Ego hodie ab hora nona noctis in secundam diei bene disposito cibo studivi; a secunda in tertiam soleatus libentissime inambulavi ante cubiculum meum. Deinde calceatus sagulo sumpto (nam ita adesse nobis indictum erat) abii salutatum dominum meum. 2 Ad venationem profecti sumus, fortia facinora fecimus, apros captos esse fandi audimus, nam videndi quid nulla facultas fuit. Clivom tamen satis arduum successimus; inde post meridiem domum recepimus. Ego me ad libellos. Igitur calceis detractis, vestimentis positis in lectulo ad duas horas commoratus sum. Legi Catonis orationem de bonis Pulchrae et aliam qua tribuno diem dixit, “Io”, inquis puero tuo, “vade quantum potes, de Apollonis bibliotheca has mihi orationes adporta.” Frustra: Nam duo isti libri me secuti sunt. Igitur Tiberianus bibliothecarius tibi subigitandus est; aliquid in eam rem insumendum quod mihi ille, ut ad urbem venero, aequa divisione inpertiat. 3 Sed ego orationibus his perlectis paululum misere scripsi quod aut Lymphis aut Volcano dicarem: ἀληθῶς ἀτυχῶς σήμερον γέγραπταί μοι, venatoris plane aut vindemiatoris tudiolum qui jubilis suis cubiculum meum perstrepunt causidicali prosum odio et taedio. Quid hoc dixi? Immo recte dixi, nam meus quidem magister orator est. 4 Ego videor mihi perfrixisse; quod mane soleatus ambulavi, an quod male scripsi, non scio. Certe homo alioqui pituitosus, hodie tamen multo mucculentior mihi esse videor. Itaque oleum in caput infundam et incipiam dormire, nam in lucernam hodie nullam stillam inicere cogito, ita me equitatio et sternutatio defetigavit. 5 Valebis mihi magister carissime et dulcissime, quem ego, ausim dicere, magis quam ipsam Roman desidero.   ad M. Caesarem 4.6 [62 Hout; 1.180 Haines] Have mihi magister dulcissime. 1 Nos valemus. Ego aliquantum prodormivi propter perfrictiunculam, quae videtur sedata esse. Ergo ab undecima noctis in tertiam diei partim legi ex agri cultura Catonis, partim scripsi, minus misere, mercule, quam heri. Inde salutato patre meo aqua mulsa sorbenda usque ad gulam et rejectanda ‘fauces fovi’ potius quam dicerem ‘gargarissavi’, nam est ad Novium, credo, et alibi. Sed faucibus curatis abii ad patrem meum et immolanti adstiti. deinde ad merendam itum. Quid me censes prandisse? Panis tantulum, cum conchim et caepas et maenas bene praegnatis alios vorantis viderem. Deinde uvis metendis operam dedimus et consudavimus et jubilavimus et “aliquos”, ut ait auctor, “reliquimus altipendulos vindemiae superstites”. 2 Ab hora sexta domum redimus. Paululum studui atque id ineptum. Deinde cum matercula mea supra torum sedente multum garrivi. Meus sermo hic erat: “Quid existimas modo meum Frontonem facere?” Tum illa: “Quid autem tu meam Cratiam?” Tum ego: “Quid autem passerculam nostram Cratiam minusculam?” Dum ea fabulamur atque altercamur, uter alterutrum vestrum magis amaret, discus crepuit, id est, pater meus in balneum transisse nuntiatus est. Loti igitur in torculari cenavimus (non loti in torculari, sed loti cenavimus) et rusticos cavillantes audivimus libenter. inde reversus, antequam in latus converto ut stertam, meum pensum explico et diei rationem meo suavissimo magistro reddo, quem si possem magis desiderare libenter plusculum macerarer. 3 Valebis, mihi Fronto, ubiubi es, mellitissime, meus amor, mea voluptas. Quid mihi tecum est? Amo absentem.   ad M. Caesarem 4.7 [63 Hout; 1.184 Haines] Have mihi magister dulcissime. 1 Tandem tabellarius proficiscitur et ego tridui acta mea ad te tandem possum dimittere. Nec quicquam dico: Ita epistulis prope ad triginta dictandis spiritum insumpsi. Nam quod proxime tibi de epistulis placuerat, nondum ad patrem meum pertuli. Sed cum dis juvantibus ad urbem veniemus, admone me, ut tibi aliquid de hac re narrem. Sed quae tua et mea meteoria est, neque tu me admonebis neque ego tibi narrabo; atque enim re vera opus consulto est. 2 Vale, meum - quid dicam? Quidquid dixero satis non est. Vale, meum desiderium, mea voluptas.   ad M. Caesarem 4.8 [63 Hout; 1.184 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. 1 Adventum tuum mihi frater tuus nuper εὐηγγελίσατο. Cupio mehercule possos venire, quod salute tua fiat. Spero enim fore ut etiam valetudine meae conspectus tuus aliquid contollat: “εἰς ὄμματ᾿ εὔνου φωτὸς ἐμβλέψαι γλυκύ”, Euripides ait, opinor. Ego praesentiarum sic me habeo, ut vel hinc aestimatu facile sit tibi, quod haec precaria manu scribo. 2 Sane quidem, quod ad vires adtinet, incipiunt redire: Pectoris etiam dolor nullus residuus; ulcus autem illud ἀπεργάζεται τῆς ἀρτηρίας. Nos remedia experimur et, ne quid operae nostrae claudat, advigilamus. Neque enim ulla alia re tolerabiliora diuturna incoomoda fieri sentio quam conscientia curae diligentis et temperantiae medicis obsequentis. Turpe alioqui fuerit diutius vitium corporis quam animi studium ad reciperandam sanitatem posse durare. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Salutat te mater mea.   ad M. Caesarem 4.9 [64 Hout; 1.186 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Accepi litteras tuas elegantissime scriptas, quibus tu intervallo desiderium mearum obortum tibi esse ais. Est igitur vera Socrati opinio doloribus ferme voluptates conexas esse cum in carcere dolorem constricti vinculi voluptate resoluti conpensaret. Item profecto in nobis, quantum molesiae absentia, tantum commodi adfert desiderium inritatum. Nam desiderium ex amore est. Igitur amor cum desiderio auctus est, quod est in amicitia multo optimum. 2 Tum, quod quaeris de valetudine mea, jam prius scripseram tibi me umeri dolore vexatum ita vehementer quidem, ut illam ipsam epistulam, qua id significabam, scribendo dare operam nequirem, sed uterer contra morem nostrum <...> <“--quattuor paginae desunt--”>   ad M. Caesarem 4.10 [64 Hout; 1.188 Haines] <Magistro meo salutem.> Haec me in praesentia <...> <...> Mater mea te salutat. Consulem nostrum saluta et matronam nostram.   ad M. Caesarem 4.11 [65 Hout; 1.202 Haines] Caesar Frontoni. Volentibus dis spem salutis nancisci videmur: Alvi fluxus constitit, febriculae depulsae; macies tamen pertenuis et tussiculae nonnihil restat. Profecto intellegis de parvola nostra Faustina harec me tibi scribere, pro qua satis egimus. Tibi valetudo an pro meo voto se adcommodet, fac sciam, mi magister.   ad M. Caesarem 4.12 [65 Hout; 1.202 Haines] Fronto Caesari. 1 Ut ego, di boni, consternatus sum lecto initio epistulae tuae! Quod ita scriptum fuit, ut tuum aliquod valetudinis periculum significari suspicarer. Postquam deinde illud periculum quod quasi tuum principio litterarum tuarum acceperam filiae tuae Faustinae fuisse aperuisti, quantum mihi permutatus est pavor! Nec permutatus modo, verum etiam nescio quo pacto nonnihil sublevatus. Dicas licet: “Leviusne tibi visum est filiae meae periculum quam meum? Tibine ita visum qui praefers Faustinam id tibi esse quod lucem serenam, quod diem festum, quod spem propinquam, quod votum impetratum, quod gaudium integrum, quod laudem nobilem nobilem atque incolumem?” Equidem ego, quid mihi legenti litteras tuas subvenerit, scio; qua vero id ratione evenerit nescio; nescio, inquam, cur magis ad tuum quam ad tuae filiae periculum consternatus sim, nisi forte, tametsi paria sint, graviora tamen videntur, quae ad aures prius accidunt. 2 Quae denique hujusce rei ratio tu facilius scias, qui de natura et sensibus hominum scis amplius aliquid meliusque didicisti. Ego, qui a meo magistro et parente Athenodoto ad exempla et imagines quasdam rerum, quas ille εἰκόνας appellabat, apte animo comprehendundas adcommodandasque mediocriter institutus sum, hanc hujusce rei imaginem repperisse videor, cur meus translatus metus levior sit mihi visus: Simile solere evenire onus grave umero gestantibus cum illud onus in sinistrum ab dextro umero transtulere, quamquam nihil de pondere deminutum sit, tamen ut oneris translatio videatur etiam et relevatio. 3 Nunc quoniam postrema parte epistulae tuae qua meliuscule jam valere Faustinam nuntiasti omnem mihi prosus metum ac sollicitudinem depulisti, non alienum tempus videtur de meo adversus te amore remissius aliquid tecum et liberalius fabulandi; nam ferme metu magno et pavore relevatis conceditur ludere aliquid atque ineptire. Ego quanto opere te diligam non minus de gravibus et seriis experimentis quam plerisque etiam frivolis sentio. Quae aut cujusmodi sint haec frivola indicabo. 4 Si quando te “somno leni”, ut poeta ait, “placidoque revinctus” video in somnis, numquam est quin amplectar et exosculer. Tum pro argumento cujusque somni aut fleo ubertim aut exulto laetitia aliqua et voluptate. Hoc unum ex Annalibus sumptum amoris mei argumentum poeticum et sane somniculosum. 5 Accipe aliud, rixatorium jam hoc et jurgiosum. Nonnumquam ego te coram paucissimis ac familiarissimis meis gravioribus verbis absentem insectatus sum: Olim hoc cum tristior, quam par era,t in coetum hominum progrederere vel cum in theatro tu libros vel in convivio lectitabas (nec ego dum tum theatris necdum conviviis abstinebam), tum igitur ego te durum et intempestivum hominem, odiosum etiam nonnumquam ira percitus appellabam. Quodsi quis alius eodem te convicio audiente me detrectaret, aequo animo audire non poteram. Ita mihi facilius erat ipsum loqui quam alios de te sequius quid dicere perpeti; ita ut Cratiam meam filiam facilius ipse percusserim, quam ab alio percuti viderim. 6 Tertium de meis frivoleis addam. Scis, ut in omnibus argentariis mensulis perguleis taberneis protecteis vestibulis fenestris usquequaque, ubique imagines vestrae sint volgo propositae, male illae quidem pictae pleraeque et crassa, lutea immo Minerva fictae scalptaeve; cum interim numquam tua imago tam dissimilis ad oculos meos in itinere accidit, ut non ex ore meo excusserit jactum osculei et savium. 7 Nunc ut frivolis finem faciam et convertar ad serium, hae litterae tuae cum primis indicio mihi fuerunt, quanto opere te diligam, cum magis perturbatus sum ad tuum quam ad filiae tuae periculum: Cum alioqui te quidem mihi, filiam vero tuam etiam tibi, ut par est, superstitem cupiam. Sed heus tu videbis, ne delator existas neve indicio pareas apud filiam, quasi vero ego te quam illam magis diligam. Nam periculum est, ne ea re filia tua commota, ut est gravis et prisca femina, poscenti mihi manus et plantas ad saviandum ea causa iratior subtrahat aut gravatius porrigat; cujus ego, dei boni, manus parvolas plantasque illas pinguiculas tum libentius exosculabor, quam tuas cervices regias tuumque os probum et facetum.   ad M. Caesarem 4.13 [67 Hout; 1.214 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 C. Aufidius animos tollit, arbitratum suum in caelum fert, negat se hominem justiorem, ne quid immoderatius dicam, ex Umbria ullum alium Romam venisse. Quid quaeris? Judicem se quam oratorem volt laudari. Cum rideo, despicit: Facile esse ait oscitantem judici assidere, ceterum quidem judicare praeclarum opus. Haec in me. Sed tamen negotium belle se dedit, bene est, gaudeo. 2 Tuus adventus me cum beat tum sollicitat. Cur beet, nemo quaerat. Quamobrem sollicitet ego me dius Fidius fatebor tibi. Nam quod scribendum dedisti ne paululum quidem operae ei, quamvis otiosus, dedi. Aristonis libri me hac tempestate bene accipiunt atque idem habent male: Cum docent meliora, tum scilicet bene accipiunt; cum vero ostendunt, quantum ab his melioribus ingeium meum relictum sit, nimis quam saepe erubescit discipulus tuus sibique suscenset quod viginti quinque natus annos nihildum bonarum opinionum et puriorum rationum animo hauserim. Itaque poenas do, irascor, tristis sum, ζηλοτυπῶ, cibo careo. 3 His nunc ego curis devinctus obsequium scribendi cotidie in diem posterum protuli. Sed jam aliquid comminiscar et, quod orator quidam Atticus Atheniensium contionem monebat, “nonnumquam permittendem legibus dormire”, libris Aristonis propitiatis paulisper quiescere concedam meque ad istum histrionum poetam totum convertam lecteis prius oratiunculeis Tullianeis. Scribam autem alterutram partem, nam eadem de re diversa tueri numquam prosus ita dormiet Aristo uti permittat. 4 Vale, mi optime et honestissime magister. Domina mea te salutat. M. Frontonis epistularum ad M. Caesarem et invicem liber V   ad M. Caesarem 5.1 [69 Hout; 1.188 Haines] Domino meo. Si quicquam nos amas, dormei per istas noctes, ut forti colore in senatum venias et vehementi latere legas.   ad M. Caesarem 5.2 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] Magistro meo. Ego te numquam satis amabo: dormiam.   ad M. Caesarem 5.3 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] Domino meo. Miserere, unum verbum de oratione ablega et quaeso, ne umquam eo utaris: ‘dictionem’ pro ‘orationem’. Vale, domine, mea gloria immortalis, matrem dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.4 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] Rescriptum. Cras me de hoc verbo tibi, si admonueris, defendam [quattuor paginae desunt]   ad M. Caesarem 5.5 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Quam fortis advenias <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.6 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Fortes venimus <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.7 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Sume cibum domine <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.8 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Sumpsi cibum <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.9 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Si animus Faustinae <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.10 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Et consilio tuo obsequor <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.11 [70 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> At Hercule compleri tem<...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.12 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Nimis diu sollicitus <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.13 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Mirifice ego quidem <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.14 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> In media incommoda <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.15 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Adflictus sum labore <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.16 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Fatigatio ista tua <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.17 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Modo mihi Cratia <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.18 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Magistro meo.> Possum satis pro re ista <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.19 [71 Hout; 1.190 Haines] <Domino meo.> Cajetae substiti <...>   ad M. Caesarem 5.20 [71 Hout; 1.192 Haines] <Magistro meo.> 1 Quantam tu mihi <...> <...> in biduo nunc, si videtur, dentes adprimamus tamen; et quo brevius iter sit tibi recenti morbo Cajetae nos opperire. Facio delicias, quod ferme evenit, quibus cupiunt, tandem in manu est: Differunt, affluunt, gestiunt; ego vero etiam fastidio omnia. 2 Domina mater te salutat, quam ego hodie rogabo, ut ad me Cratiam perducat, ‘vel fumum’, inquit, ‘patriae’ Grajus poeta. Vale, mi, omnia mea, magister. Amo me, quod te visurus sum.   ad M. Caesarem 5.21 [72 Hout; 1.192 Haines] Domino meo. Postqua, profecti estis, genus dolore arreptus sum, verum ita modico, ut et ingreder pedetemptim et vehiculo uterer. hac nocte vehementior dolor invaasit, ita tamen, ut jacens facile patiar, nisi quod amplius ingruerit. Augustam tuam vexatam audio. Diis quidem salutem ejus commendo. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.22 [72 Hout; 1.194 Haines] Magistro meo. Ludis tu quidem, at mihi peramplam anxietatem et summam aegritudinem, dolorem et ignem flagrantissimum litteris his tuis misisti, ne cenare, ne dormire, ne denique studere libeat. Verum tu orationis hodiernae tuae habeas aliquod solacium; at ego quid faciam, qui e auditionis omnem jam voluptatem consumpsei et metuo, ne Lorium tardiuscule venias, et doleo, quod interim doles? Vale, mi magister, cujus salus meam salutam inlibatam et incolumem facit.   ad M. Caesarem 5.23 [72 Hout; 1.196 Haines] Magistro meo. Ego dies istos tales transegi: Soror dolore muliebrium partium ita correpta est repente, ut faciem horrendam viderim. Mater autem mea in ea trepidatione inprudens angulo parietis costam inxlifxit: Eo ictu graviter et se et nos adfecit. Ipse cum cubitum irem, scorpionem in lecto offendi; occupavi tamen eum occidere, priusquam supra accumberem. Tu si rectius vales, est solacium. Mater jam levior est deis volentibus. Vale, mi optime, dulcissime magister. Domina mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.24 [73 Hout; 1.196 Haines] Domino meo. Quom te salvom et inlaesum dei praestiterunt, maximas deis gratia ago. Te certum habeo, cum tua instituta reputo, haud perturbatum; ego. quamlibet vos sapientes me inrideatis, comsternatus equidem sum. Vale domine dulcissime, et deis curae esto. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.25 [73 Hout; 1.194 Haines] Domino meo. Modo mihi Victorinus indicat dominam tuam magis caluisse quam heri. Cratia leviora omnia nuntiavit. Ego te idcirco non vidi, quod ex gravidine sum inbecillus. Cras tamen mane domum ad te veniam; eadem, si tempestivom erit, etiam dominam visitabo.   ad M. Caesarem 5.26 [73 Hout; 1.194 Haines] Magistro meo- Caluit et hodie Faustima, et quidem id ego magis hodie videor mihi deprehendisse; sed deis juvantibus aequiorem animum mihi facit ipsa, quod se tam obtemepranter nobis accomodat. Tu, si potuisses scilicet, venisses. Quod jam potes, et quod venturum promittis, delector, mi magister. Vale, mi jucundissime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.27 [73 Hout; 1.196 Haines] Domino meo. Quomodo manseris, domine, scire cupio. Ego cervicum dolore arreptus sum. Vale, domine. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.28 [73 Hout; 1.196 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Noctem sine febri videor transmisse; cibum non invitus cepi, nunc ago levissime. Nox quid ferat, cognoscemus. Sed, mi magister, cervicum dolore te arreptum, quo animo didicerim, profecto ex tua proxima sollicitudine metiris. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Mater mea salutat te.   ad M. Caesarem 5.29 [74 Hout; 1.198 Haines] Domino meo. Cervicum, domine, dolore gravi sum correptus, de pede dolor decessit. Vale, domine optime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.30 [74 Hout; 1.200 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Cervicum dolores si tertia quoque die remiserint, erit, quod meam redeuntem valetudinem majorem in modum adjuvet, mi magister. Lavi et hodie et ambulavi paulum, cibi paulo plus sumpsi nondum tamen libente stomacho. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.31 [74 Hout; 1.200 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Quom tibi etiam tum cervices doluerint, quom mihei scriberes, non possum aequo animo ferre neque sane volo aut debeo. Ego autem juvantibus votum tuum deis lavi hodie et cibi quantum sat erat cepi; vino etiam libenter usus sum. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.32 [74 Hout; 1.200 Haines] Domino meo. Dolores quidem cervicum nihil remiserunt, sed animo bene fuit, quom te balneo et vino libenter usum cognovi. Vale, domine. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.33 [74 Hout; 1.224 Haines] Domino meo. Gravissimo dolore inguinis sum arreptus, quo omnis dolor a dorso et lumbis incubuit. Vale, domine. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.34 [74 Hout; 1.224 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. 1 Doluisse te inguina cognosco, mi magister, et cum recordor, quantam vexationem tibi iste dolor adferre soleat, gravissimam sollicitudinem patior. Sed me levat, quod spero illo spatio, quo perferebatur hoc nuntius, potuisse cedere fomentis et remediis omnem illam vim doloris. 2 Nos aestivos calores adhuc experimur, sed cum parvolae nostrae, dixisse liceat, commode valeant, mera salubritate et verna temperie frui nos existimamus. Vale, mi optime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.35 [75 Hout; 1.226 Haines] Domino meo. Patri tuo fac notum de infirmitate mea. An me quoque scribere ei debere putes, scribe mihi.   ad M. Caesarem 5.36 [75 Hout; 1.226 Haines] Rescriptum. Statim, mi magister, indicabo domino meo necessitatem hujus quietis tuae. Velim tamen et a te scribi. Vale, mi optime et jucundissime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.37 [75 Hout; 1.210 Haines] Domino meo. Ego prodormivi. Materiam misi tibi; re seria est: Consul populi Romani posita praetexta manicam induit, leonem inter juvenes quinquatribus percussit populo Romano spectante. Apud censores expostulatur. διασκεύασον, αὔξησον. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.38 [75 Hout; 1.210 Haines] Rescriptum. Quando id factum et an Romae? Num illud dicis in Albano factum sub Domitiano? Praeterea in hac materia diuitius laborandum est, ut factum credatur, quam ut irascatur. ἀπίθανος ὑπόθεσις videtur mihi haud plena balucis, qualem petieram. Rescribe statim de tempore.   ad M. Caesarem 5.39 [76 Hout; 1.212 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Vindemias laetas atque tam firmissimo corpore agere te, mi magister, opto. Me adlevant nuntii de domnula mea commodiora dis juvantibus indicantes. Vale, mi jucundissime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.40 [76 Hout; 1.212 Haines] Domino meo. In hortis vindemias ago. Commodo valeo. Aegre tamen insisto dolore digitorum in sinistro pede. Pro Faustina mane cotidie deos appello: Scio enim me pro tua salute optare ac precari. Vale, mi domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.41 [76 Hout; 1.212 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Ego adeo perscripsi (tu mitte aliud, quod scribam), sed librarius meus non praesto fuit, qui transcriberet. Scripsi autem non ex mea sententia, nam et festinavi et tua ista valetudo aliquantulum detrivit mihi; sed veniam cras petam, cum mittam. 2 Vale, mi dulcissime magister. Domina mea mater salutem tibi dicit. Nomen tribuni plebis, cui inposuit notam Acilius censor, quem scripsi, mitte mihi.   ad M. Caesarem 5.42 [76 Hout; 1.214 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Tardius tibi, domino, rescribo; tardius enim libellum tuum aperui, quoniam ad agendum ad forum ibam. Ego commodius me habeo, tamen ulcusculum adhuc altius est. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta. 2 M. Lucilius tribunus plebis hominem liberum, civem Romanum, cum collegae mitti juberent, adversus eorum sententiam ipsius vi in carcerem compegit. Ob eam rem a censoribus notatur. Divide primum causam, εἶτα εἰς Ἑκάτερα τὰ μέρη ἐπιχείρησον καὶ κατηγορῶν καὶ ἀπολογούμενος. Vale, domine, lux omnium tuorum. Matrem dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.43 [77 Hout; 1.208 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Dies mihi totus vacuus erit. Si quid umquam me amasti, hodie ama et uberem mi materiam mitte, oro et rogo καὶ ἀντιβολῶ καὶ δέομαι μαὶ ἱκετεύω. In illa enim centumviralei non inveni praeter ἐπιφωνήματα. 2 Vale, optime magister. Domina mea te salutat. Volebam aliquid, ubi clamari debeat, scribere. Fave mi et quaere clamosam ὑπόθεσιν.   ad M. Caesarem 5.44 [77 Hout; 1.218 Haines] Domino meo. Perendie, domine, te videbo; sum enim adhuc a cubito et cervice infirmus. Fer me, obsecro, nimia et ardua a te postulantem: Ita in animum meum induxi posse te efficere, quantum contenderis. Nec deprecor, quin me oderis, nisei quantum postulo perfeceris, si, ut facis, animum et studium accommodaveris. Vale, domine, anima mea mihi potior. Dominam matrem saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.45 [77 Hout; 1.228 Haines] Domino meo. Annum novum faustum tibi et ad omnia, quae recte cupis, prosperum cum tibi tum domino nostro patri tuo et matri et uxori et filiae ceterisque omnibus quos merito diligis, precor. Metui ego invalido adhuc corpore turbae et inpressioni me committere. Si dei juvabunt, perendie vos vota nuncupantis videbo. Vale, mi domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.46 [78 Hout; 1.230 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. 1 Et ipse prospere sis ingressus annum! Omne votum tuum dei tibi ad usum tuum, qui noster idem erit, devertant atque, ut facis, pro amicis bene optes, ceteris bene velis. Quae pro me precatus es, scio te precatum. 2 Quod a turba cavisti, tibi et meae curae consuluisti. Quietius idem fiet perendie, si diu valetudo tua officio functa est. Nescio, an dominam suam Cratia salutaverit. Vale, mi dulcissime magister. Mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.47 [78 Hout; 1.230 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Et nunc sanus et deinceps validus, laetus, compos omnium votorum agas diem natalem, mi magister! Quae mea precatio sollemnis semper auctior fit, quanto magis accedit et mihi firmitas ad diligendum et aetas suavissimae familiaritatis nostrae. 2 Vale, mi magister jucundissime mihi. Mater mea te salutat. Cratiae salutem dic et osculum da meo nomine.   ad M. Caesarem 5.48 [78 Hout; 1.232 Haines] Rescriptum. 1 Quaecumque mihi precatus es, omnia in tua salute locata sunt. Mihi sanitas, bona valetudo, laetitia, res prosperae meae ibi sunt, cum tu corpore, animo, rumore tam incolumi uteris, tam carus patri, tam dulcis matri, tam sacntus uxori, tam fratri bonus ac benignus. Haec sunt, quae me cum hac valetudine tamen cupientem vitae faciunt: Absque te satis superque et aetatis et laboris et artis et gloriae, doloroum vero et aegritudinum aliquanto plus quam satis superque. 2 Filiae meae jussu tuo osculum tuli: Numquam mihi tam suavis tamque saviata visa. Dominam saluta, domine dulcissime. Vale et fer osculum matronae tuae.   ad M. Caesarem 5.49 [79 Hout; 1.234 Haines] Domino meo. Saenius Pompejanus in plurimis causis a me defensus, postquam publicum Africae redemit, plurimis causis rem familiarem nostram adjuvat. Commendo eum tibi cum ratio ejus a domino nostro patre tuo tractabitur, benignitatem ingenitam tibi, quam omnibus ex more tuo tribuis, ut huic et mea commendatione et tua consuetudine ductus inpertias. Vale, domine, dulcissime.   ad M. Caesarem 5.50 [79 Hout; 1.234 Haines] Rescriptum. Pompejanus meritis isdem, quibus te sibi conciliavit, me quoque promeruit. Quare cupio omnia ei ex indulgentia domini mei patris obsecundare; nam ea, quae tibi ex sententiae procedunt, gaudia sunt mea. Vale, mi magister jucundissime. Faustina et parvolae nostrae te salutant.   ad M. Caesarem 5.51 [79 Hout; 1.234 Haines] Magistro meo. Si te in provincia, mi magister, adierit Themistocles quidam, qui se Apollonio magistro meo dicat philosophiae cognitum eum sese, qui hac hieme Romam venerit et mihi voluntate magistri per filium Apollonium sit demonstratus: Ei tu, mi magister, velim quod possis bene facias, bene suadeas. Nam jus et aequom omnibus Asianeis erit apud te paratissimum, sed consilium, comitatem quaeque amicis sine ullo quojusquam incommodo propria inpertire fides ac religio proconsulis permittit, peto Themistocli libens inpertias. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Rescripto nihil opus est.   ad M. Caesarem 5.52 [79 Hout; 1.238 Haines] Domino meo. Aridelus iste, qui tibi litteras meas reddit, a pueritia me curavit, a studio perdicum usque ad seria officia. Libertus vester est; procuravit vobis industrie: Est enim homo frugi et sobrius et acer et diligens. Petit nunc procurationem ex forma suo loco ac justo tempore. Faveto ei, domine, quod poteris. Si formam non cognosces hominis, ubi ad nomen Arideli ventum fuerit, memento a me tibi Aridelum commendatum. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.53 [80 Hout; 1.240 Haines] Domino meo. Utrum facti virtus ornaverit orationem an oratio factum nobilissimum aequiperaverit, incertus sum. Certe quidem ejusdem dicta cujus illa facta. Sed et fratris tui oratio me delectavit, nam et ornata fuit et cordata; et certum habeo eum minimum spatii habuisse ad meditandum.   ad M. Caesarem 5.54 [80 Hout; 1.240 Haines] Rescriptum. Reversus a convivio patris libellum tuum accepi, dimisso jam, ut cognosco, eo per quem fuerat allatus. Rescribo igitur vespera multa, quod tu legas die crastino. Orationem patris mei parem materiae suae visam tibi nihil mirum est, mi magister. Fratris autem mihi gratiarum actio eo laudabilior est, quo minus ad meditandum, ut conjectas, habuit spatii. Vale, mi jucundissime mihi magister. mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.55 [80 Hout; 1.240 Haines] Domino meo. Cholera usque eo adflictus sum, ut vocem amitterem, singultirem, suspirio angerer, postremo venae deficerent, sine ullo pulsu venarum animo male fieret. Denique conclamatus sum a nostris; neque sensi aliquandiu; ne balneo quidem aut frigida aut cibo recreandi me ac fovendi medicis tempus aut occasio data; nisi post vesperam micularum minimum cum vino destillatum gluttivi. Ita focilatus totus sum. Postea per continuum triduum vocem non reciperavi. Sed nunc deis juvantibus commodissime valeo, facilius ambulo, clarius clamito; denique, si dei juvabunt, cras vehiculo vectari destino. Si facile silicem toleravero, quantum pote ad te curram. Tum vixero, cum te videro. A. d. VII Kal. Romam proficiscar, sei dei juvabunt. Vale, domine dulcissime, desiderantissime, causa optima vitae meae. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.56 [81 Hout; 1.242 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Post tempus te videre cupiebam: Quid tu censes post periculum? Quod suffigisse te, mi magister, iterum deis ago gratias lectis litteris tuis, quae me rusum quasi renovant; cum commemorares, quo in loco fueris, consternarunt. Sed habeo te deis volentibus et, ut promittis, propediem videbo et bene spero de bona longa valetudine. Salutat te mater mea. Vale, mi jucundissime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.57 [81 Hout; 1.244 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Plurimos natales liberum tuorum prosperis tuis rebus ut celebres parentibus gratus, populo acceptus, amicis probatus, fortuna et genere et loco tuo dignus, omni vita mea redemisse cupiam, non hac modo exigua vita, quae mihi superest, sed illa etiam quam vixi, si quomodo in integrum redigi ac pro te tuisque ac liberum tuorum commodis in solutum dependi potest. Si facile ingredi possem. Hic erat dies, quo cum primis conplecti te cuperem, sed concedendum est pedibus scilicet, quando ipsi parum procedunt. Ego de aquarum usu delibero. Si certius quid statuero, faciam tibi notum. 2 Vale, mi domine dulcissime. Faustinam tuam meis verbeis appella et gratulare et matronas nostras meo nomine exosculare, sed, uti ego soleo, cum plantis illis et manibus. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.58 [82 Hout; 1.244 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Salvos esto nobis, salva sit domus tibi domus tua, salva nostra; quae, si animum nostrum species, una est domus. Recte scio autem, si vel difficulter ingredi posses, venturum te ad nos fuisse. Sed venies saepe et tecum celebrabimus, si dei volent, omnia festa nostra. Vale, mi magister jucundissime. mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.59 [82 Hout; 1.246 Haines] Domino meo. Pueri dum e balneis me sellula, ut adsolent, advehunt, inprudentius ad ostium balnei fervens adflixerunt. Ita genum mihi simul abrasum et ambustum est; postea etiam inguem ex ulcere extitit. Visum medicis ut lectulo me tenerem. hanc causam, si tibi videbitur, etiam domino tuo indicabis, si tamen videbitur. Etiam cras mihi adsistendum erit familiari. Hodierno igitur otio et quiete labori me crastino praeparabo. Victorinus noster aget, ne me acturum putes. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.60 [82 Hout; 1.246 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Auxisti curas mihi, quas opto, quam primum releves sedatis tibi doloribus genus et inguinis. Me autem infirmitatis dominae meae matris quiescere non sinit. Eo accedit adpropinquatio partus Faustinae. Sed confidere dis debemus. Vale, domine dulcissime mihi. mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.61 [82 Hout; 1.248 Haines] Domino meo. Ipsa die, qua proficisci destinabam, genus dolorem sensi. Spero in paucis diebus me recte fore. Vale, domine optime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.62 [83 Hout; 1.248 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Nunc denique opto, mi magister, jucundiora indices. nam doluisse te in id tempus, quo mihi scribebas, litterae declarant. Haec obambulans dictavi; nam eum motum in praesentia ratio corpusculei desiderabat. Vindemiarum autem gratiam nunc demum integram sentiam, cum tua valetudo placatior esse nobis coeperit. Vale, mi jucundissime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.63 [83 Hout; 1.248 Haines] Domino meo. Plantae, domine, dolore impedior, ideo vos per istos dies non salutavi. Vale, domine optime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.64 [83 Hout; 1.248 Haines] Magistro meo. Quam salubre tibi est facile progredi, tunc et nobis conspectus tuus erit jucundus. Id ut quam primum eveniat et dolor plantae quiescat, di juvent. Vale, mi optime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.65 [83 Hout; 1.224 Haines] Domino meo. Ego gravissime arreptus sum iterum ab altero inguine.   ad M. Caesarem 5.66 [83 Hout; 1.226 Haines] Rescriptum. Quom haec scribas mihi, mi magister, credo intelligis sollicitissimum me vota facere pro salute tua, cujus dis juvantibus cito compotes erimus. Vale, mi magister jucundissime.   ad M. Caesarem 5.67 [83 Hout; 1.250 Haines] Domino meo. Decem tanta te amo. Filiam tuam vidi. Videor mihi te simul et Faustinam infantes vidisse: Tantum boni ex utriusque voltu est commixtum. Decem tanta te amo. Vale, domine dulcissime. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.68 [84 Hout; 1.250 Haines] Magistro meo. Et nos Cratiam quod tui similis est magis amamus. Facile ergo intellegimus, quanta apud te sit filiolae nostrae conciliatrix similitudo utriusque nostri, et omnino, quod eam vidisti, est jucundum mihi. Vale, mi optime magister.   ad M. Caesarem 5.69 [84 Hout; 1.250 Haines] Domino meo. Tertius est dies, quod per noctem morsus ventris cum profluvio patior. Hac vero nocte ita sum vexatus, ut prodire non potuerim, sed lectulo me teneam. Medici suadent balneo uti. Multos nataleis tuos ut celebres a dis precatus sum. Vale, domine. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.70 [84 Hout; 1.252 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Tu quoque intellegis, mi magister, quid ego pro me optem: Sanum et validum te deinceps et hunc diem tuum sollemnem et ceteros vel nobiscum vel nobis utique securis pro te quam diutissime celebrare. 2 Ceterum ego conjectavi statim fuisse ejusmodi aliquid quamobrem te non viderim et, si dicendum est, delector potius talem querellam corpusculi quam dolores aliquos intercessisse. Praeterea de profluvio isto bene spero, nam, etsi nunc te exhauserit, tamen dis volentibus confido salubriter sponte provenisse alvum tibi verno tempore quom alii id consulto movent et machinantur. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.71 [84 Hout; 1.252 Haines] Domino meo. Fauces miseras habeo unde etiam calui per noctem. In genu dolor est modicus. Vale, domine. Dominam saluta.   ad M. Caesarem 5.72 [84 Hout; 1.252 Haines] Magistro meo. Jam habeo, quod primum et praecipuum desiderabam: Desisse febriculam colligo ex litteris tuis. Nunc, mi magister, quod ad fauces adtinet, brevi temperantia aspelletur, et mihi adplenior nuntius veniet. Vale, mi magister jucundissime mihi. Mater mea te salutat.   ad M. Caesarem 5.73 [85 Hout; 1.186 Haines] Domino meo. Vexatus sum, domine, nocte diffuso dolore per umerum et cubitum et genu et talum. Denique id ipsum tibi mea manu scribere non potui.   ad M. Caesarem 5.74 [85 Hout; 1.52 Haines] Have mi magister optime. 1 Egone ut studeam, cum tu doleas, praesertim cum mea causa doleas? Non me omnibus incommodis sponte ipse adflictem? Merito hercule. Quis enim tibi alius dolorem genus, quem scribis nocte proxuma auctum, quis alius cum suscitavit nisi Centum Cellae, ne me dicam? Quid igitur faciam, qui nec te video et tanto angore discrucior? Adde eo quod, etiamsi libeat studere, judicia prohibent, quae, ut dicunt, qui sciunt, dies totos eximunt. Misi tamen tibi hodiernam γνώμην et nudiustertianum locum communem. Heri totum diem in itinere adtrivimus. Hodie difficile est, ut praeter vespertinam γνώμην quicquam agi possit. “Nocte”, inquis, “tam longa dormis?” et dormire quidem possum; nam sum multi somni. Sed tantum frigoris est in cubiculo meo, ut manus vix exseri possit. Sed revera illa res maxime mihi animum a studiis depulit, quod, dum ninium litteras amo, tibi incommodius apud Portum fui, ut res ostendit. Itaque valeant omnes Porci et Tulli et Crispi, dum tu valeas et te vel sine libris firmum tamen videam. 3 Vale praecipuum meum gaudium, magister dulcissime. Domina mea te salutat. γνώμας tres et locos communes mitte.   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber I   ad Anton.Imp. 1.1 [86 Hout; 2.30 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Bonum annum, bonam salutem, bonam fortunam peto a dis dies mihi sollemni natali tuo compotemque me voti fore confido; nam quem sponte dei juvisse volunt et dignum ope sua judicant, eum commode benignitati eorum. Tu cum alia laetabilia, mi magister, in tuo animo festo die agitabis, numerato apud te, qui te valde diligant: In iis primis hunc tuum discipulum ponito, inibi dominum meum fratrem, πάθει φιλοῦντάς σε ἀνθρώπους. 2 Vale et perennem multis annis bonam valetudinem, mi magister, obtine laetissimus incolumitate filiae, nepotum, generi. 3 Nostra Faustina reficit sanitatem. Pullus noster Antoninus aliquo lenius tussit. Quantum quisque in nidulo nostro jam sapit, tantum pro te precatur. Iterum atque iterum ac porro in longam senectam bene vale, jucundissime magister. Peto a te, sed impetratum sit, ne te ob diem natalem Cornificiae Lorium vexes. Dis volentibus Romae paucis diebus nos videbis. Sed post diem natalem tuum, si me amas, nox quae sequitur, fac jam placide quiescas sine ullius instantis officii cogitatione. Hoc Antonino tuo da sollicite et vere petentei.   ad Anton.Imp. 1.2 [86 Hout; 2.32 Haines] Antonino Augusto Fronto. 1 Seni huic et, ut tu appellas, magistro tuo bona salus, bonus annus, bona fortuna, res omnis bona: Quae tu scribis, ea te mihi ab dis die tibi sollemnissimo natali meo precatum. Omnia mihi ista in te tuoque fratre sita sunt, Antonine meo cordi dulcissime; quos ego postquam cognovi meque vobis transdidi, nihil umquam prae vobis dulcius habui neque habere possum, tametsi alios annos totidem de integro, quantum vixi, vivam. Hoc igitur unum conjunctis precibus ab deis precemur, uti vos incolumes et florentes et rei publicae familiaeque vestrae prospere potentes aetatem longam degatis. Nec quicquam est praeterea quod ego tantopere vel ab deis vel a Forte Fortuna vel a vobis ipsis impetratum cupiam quam, ut vestro conspectu et adfatu vestrisque tam jucundis litteris frui quam mihi diutissime liceat, eique rei, sei fieri possit, repuerascere opto. 2 Nam quod ad ceteras res alioqui adtinet, sat vitae est. Video te, Antonine, principem tam egregium quam speravi, tam justum, tam innocentem quam spopondi, tam gratum populo Romano et acceptum quam optavi, tam mei amantem quam ego volui, tam disertum quam ipse voluisti. Nam ubi primum coepisti rursus velle, nihil offuit interdum noluisse. Fieri etiam vobis cotidie facundiores video et exulto quasi adhuc magister. Nam quom omnis virtutes vestras diligam et amplectar, fateor tamen praecipuum me et proprium gaudium ex eloquentia vestra capere. Itidem ut parentes, cum in voltu liberum oris sui lineamenta dinoscunt, ita ego cum in orationibus vestris nostrae sectae animadverto, γέγηθε δὲ φρένα Λήτω: Meis enim verbis exprimere vim gaudi mei nequeo. 3 Nec te recordatio ista urgeat nec omnino angat quod tibi conscius es non perpetuam operam eloquentiae dedisse. Nam ita res habet: Qui magno ingenio praeditus recta via ad eloquentiam a principio inductus atque institutus fuerit, tametsi interdum concessarit aut restiterit, ubi primum progredei denuo et pergere visum erit, coeptum illud iter confecerit setius fortasse aliquo, minus tamen nihilo. Crede autem hoc mihi: Omnium hominum, quos ego cognoverim, uberiore, quam tu sis, ingenio adfectum comperisse me neminem. Quod quidem ego magna cum lite Victorini nostri et magna ejus cum bile adjurare solebam, cum eum adspirare ad pulchritudinem ingeni tui posse negarem. Tum ille meus Rusticus Romanus, qui vitam suam pro unguiculo tuo libenter dediderit atque devoverit, de ingenio tamen invitus et tristis aegre concedebat. 4 Unum tibi periculum fuit, Antonine, idem, quod omnibus, qui sublimi ingenio extiterunt, ne in verborum copia et pulchritudine clauderes; quanto enim ampliores sententiae creantur, tanto difficilius verbis vestiuntur, nec mediocriter laborandum est, ne procerae illae sententiae male sint amictae neve indecorius cinctae neve sint seminudae. 5 Meministin ejus orationis tuae, quam vixdum pueritiam egressus in senatu habuisti? In qua, cum imagine utriculi ad exemplum adcommodandum usus esses, anxie verebare, ne parum pro loci et ordinis dignitate τὴν εἰκόνα usurpasses, meque primam illam longiusculam ad te epistulam scripsisse, qua id, quod res est, augurabar magni signum esse ad ejusmodi sententiarum pericula audaciter adgredi, sed quod eo opus esset, tuo te studio et nonnulla nostra opera adsecuturum, ut digna tantis sententiis verborum lumina parares. Quod nunc vides provenisse et, quamquam non semper ex summis opibus ad eloquentiam velificaris, tamen sipharis et remis te tenuisse iter, atque ut primum vela pandere necessitas impulit, omnis eloquentiae studiosos ut lembos et celocas facile praetervehi. 6 Haec ut scriberem productus sum proxuma epistula tua, qua scripsisti exolescere paulatim, quaecumque didicisses; mihi autem nunc cum maxime florere, quae didicisti, atque adolescere videntur. An parum animadvertis, quanto studio quantoque favore et voluptate dicentem te audiat senatus populusque Romanus? Et spondeo, quanto saepius audierit, tanto flagrantius amabit: Ita multa et grata sunt ingeni et oris et vocis et facundiae tuae delenimenta. Nimirum quisquam superiorum imperatorum (imperatoribus enim te comparare malo ne viventibus compararem), quisquam illorum his figurationibus uteretur, quae Graeci schemata vocant? Ne longius repetam, vel proximo senatu, cum Cyzicenorum gravem causam commemorares, ita orationem tuam figurasti, quam figuram Graeci παράλειψιν appellant, ut praeterundo tamen diceres et dicendo tamen praeterires. In quo multa simul laudanda sunt: Primum hoc te doctissime perspexisse sociorum graves aerumnas non perpetua neque recta aut prolixa oratione exaggerandas, indicandas tamen esse impensius, ut digni senatus misericordia etauxilio viderentur. Deinde ita breviter rem omnem atque ita valide elocutus es, ut paucissimis verbis omnia, quae res posceret, continerentur, ut non ocius aut vehementius terra urbem illam, quam animos audientium tua oratio moverit. Ecquid adgnoscis formam sententiae Tullianae: “Ut non ocius vehementius terra urbem illam quam animos audientium tua oratio moverit”? Ut quisque amore quempiam deperit, ejus etiam naevolas saviatur. 7 Sed mihi crede amplissimum te jam tenere in eloquentia locum brevique summum ejus cacumen aditurum locuturumque inde nobiscum de loco superiore, nec tantulo superiore quanto rostra foro et comitio excelsiora sunt sed quanto altiores antemnae sunt prora vel potius carina. Praecipue autem gaudeo te verba non obvia arripere, sed optima quaerere. Hoc enim distat summus orator a mediocribus, quod ceteri facile contenti sunt verbis bonis, summus orator non est bonis contentus, si sunt ulla meliora. 8 Sed haec certo loco ac tempore pluribus vel scribemus ad te vel coram conloquemur. Ut voluisti, domine, et ut valetudo mea postulabat, domi mansi tibique sum precatu,s ut multos dies natales liberum tuorum prospere celebres. Pullo nostro tussiculam sedaverit et dies clementior et nutrix ejus, si cibis aptioribus vescatur: Omnia enim remedia atque omnis medelae fovendis infantium faucibus in lacte sunt sitae. 9 In oratione tua Cyzicena, cum deos precareris, “et si fas est, obsecro”, addidisti, quod ego me non memini legisse. Obsecrari enim et resecrari populus aut judices solebant, sed me forsitan memoria fugerit: Tu diligentius animadvertito. 10 Me quoque tussicula vexat et manus dexterae dolor, medicoris quidem, sed qui a rescribenda longiore epistula inpedierit; dictavi igitur. 11 Quoniam mentio παραλείψεως habita est, non omittam quin te impertiam quod de figura ista studiosus animadverterim, neque Graecorum oratorum neque Romanorum, quos ego legerim, elegantius hac figura usum quemquam quam M. Porcium in ea oratione, quae de sumptu suo inscribitur, in qua sic ait: “Jussi caudicem proferri, ubi mea oratio scripta erat de ea re, quod sponsiorem feceram cum M. Cornelio. Tabulae prolatae; majorum bene facta perlecta; deinde, quae ego pro re publica fecissem leguntur. Ubi id utrum perlectum est, deinde scriptum erat in oratione: “Numquam ego pecuniam neque meam neque sociorum per ambitionem largitus sum.” Attat, noli noli scribere, inquam, istud: Nolunt audire. Deinde recitavit: “Numquam ego praefectos per sociorum vestrorum oppida inposivi, qui eorum bona, liberos diriperent.” Istud quoque dele: Nolunt audire. Recita porro. “Numquam ego praedam neque, quod de hostibus captum esset, neque manubias inter pauculos amicos divisi, ut illis eriperem qui cepissent.” Istuc quoque dele: Nihil eo minus volunt dici; non opus est recitabo. “Numquam ego evectionem datavi, quo amici mei per symbolos pecunias magnas caperent.” Perge istuc quoque uti cum maxime delere. “Numquam ego argentum pro vino congiario inter apparitores atque amicos disdidi neque eos malo publico divites feci.” Enimvero usque istuc ad lignum dele. Vide sis quo in loco res publica siet, uti quod rei publicae bene fecissem, unde gratiam ceperam, nunc idem illud memorare non audeo ne invidiae siet. Ita inductum est male facere inpoene, bene facere nin inpoene licere.” 12 Haec forma παραλείψεως nova nec ab ullo alio, quod ego sciam, usurpata est. Jubet enim legi tabulas et, quod lectum sit, jubet praeteriri. A te quoque novom factum quod principium orationis tuae figura ista exorsus es; sicut multa alia nova et eximia facturum te in orationibus tuis certum habeo: Ita egregio ingenio natus es.   ad Anton.Imp. 1.3 [91 Hout; 2.118 Haines] Domino meo Antonino Augusto Fronto. 1 Vidi pullulos tuos, quod quidem libentissime in vita mea viderim, tam simili facie tibi, ut nihil sit hoc simili similius. Feci prorsus conpendium itineris Lorium usque, conpendium viae lubricae, conpendium clivorum arduorum. Tamen vidi te non exadvorsum modo, sed locupletius sive me ad dexteram sive ad sinistram convertissem. 2 Sunt autem dis juvantibus colore satis salubri, clamore forti. Panem alter tenebat bene candidum, ut puer regius, alter autem cibarium, plane ut a patre philosopho prognatus. Deos quaeso sit salvus sator, salva sint sata, salva seges sit, quae tam similes procreat. Nam etiam voculas quoque eorum audivi tam dulcis, tam venustas, ut orationis tuae lepidum illum et liquidum sonum nescio quo pacto in utriusque pipulo adgnoscerem. Jam tu igitur, nisi caves, superbiorem aliquanto me experiere: Habeo enim, quos pro te non oculeis modo amem, sed etiam auribus.   ad Anton.Imp. 1.4 [92 Hout; 2.120 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. 1 Vidi filiolos meos, quom eos tu vidisti; vidi et te, cum litteras tuas legerem. Oro te, mi magister, ama me, ut amas; ama me sic etiam quomodo istos parvolos nostros amas; nondum omne dixi, quod volo: Ama me, quomodo amasti. 2 Haec ut scriberem, tuarum litterarum mira jucunditas produxit; nam de elegantia quid dicam, nisi te Latine loqui, nos ceteros neque Graece neque Latine. Domino meo fratri peto scriptites. Valde volt, ut hoc a te impetrem; desideria autem illius intemperantem me et violentum faciunt. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. nepotem tuum saluta.   ad Anton.Imp. 1.5 [92 Hout; 2.122 Haines] Antonino Augusto domino meo. 1“Ante gestum, post relatum”, ajunt, qui tabulas sedulo conficiunt. Idem verbum epistulae huic opportunum est, quae litteris tuis nuper ad me scriptis nunc demum respondet. Causa morae fuit, quod, cum rescribere instituissem, quaedam menti meae se offerebant non “supino”, ut dicitur, “rostro” scribenda. Dein senatus dies intercessit et in senatu labor eo gravior perceptus, quod cum gaudio semul altius penetraverat, ita ut cum sole ventus. Nunc haec epistula, quod non suo tempore praesto adfuerit, veniam in relationibus usitatam poscit: “Ne fraudi sit”. 2 Quom accepi litteras tuas, ita rescribere coeperam: “Ama me ut amas”, inquis. Huic verbo respondere paulo verbis pluribus in animo est; prolixius enim rescribere tibi tempore illo solebam, quo amatum te a me satis comperum tibi esse tute ostendis. Vide, quaeso, ne temet ipse defrudes et detrimentum amoris ultro poscas: Amplius enim tanto amari te a me velim credas mihi, quanto omnibus in rebus potior est certus paesens fructus quam futuri spes incerta. Egone, qui indolem ingeniei tui in germine etiam tum et in herba et in flore dilexerim, nunc frugem ipsam maturae virtutis nonne multo multoque amplius diligam? Tum ego stolidissimus habear agrestium omnium omniumque aratorum, si mihi cariora sint sata messibus. 3 Ego vero quae optavi, quaeque vovi, compos optatorum votorumque meorum damnatus atque multatus sum: In eam multam duplicatum amortem tuum defero, non, ut antiquitus multas inrogari mos fuit, mille minus dimidio. Assae nutricis est infantem magis diligere quam adultum; suscensere etiam pubertati stulta nutrix solet: Puerum de gremio sibi abductum et campo aut foro traditum. Litteratores etiam isti discipulos suos, quoad puerilia discunt et mercedem pendunt, magis diligunt. Ego quom ad curam cultumque ingeniei tuei accessi, hunc te speravi fore, qui nun es: In haec tua tempora amorem meum intendi. Lucebat in pueritia tua virtus insita, lucebat etiam magis in adulescentia, sed ita ut cum serenus dies inluculascit lumine incohato. Nunc jam virtus integra orbe splendido exorta est et radiis disseminata. Et tu me ad pristinam illam mensuram luciscentis amoris tui revocas et jubes matutina dilucula lucere leridie? Audi, quaeso, quanto ampliore nunc sis virtute, quam antea fueris, quo facilius credas, quanto amplius amoris merearis, et poscere desinas tantundem. 4 Ut a pietate contendere te tibimet incipiam, obsequia erga patrem tua pristina commemorabo eaque cum praesentibus officiis comparabo. Quis ignorat, ubi pater tuus minus valeret, te juxta cum eo carere balneo, vino, aqua etiam et cibo temet deducere solitum? Nulla umquam te neque somni neque vigiliae neque cibi neque itineris prope tua tempora habuisse, sed patris tempribus servisse? [permultae paginae desunt]   ad Anton.Imp. 1.6 [94 Hout; 2.126 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Minus valui, mi magister <...>   ad Anton.Imp. 1.7 [94 Hout; 2.126 Haines] Antonino Augusto domino meo. Si ambulare jam <...>   ad Anton.Imp. 1.8 [94 Hout; 2.126 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Festino, mi magister <...>   ad Anton.Imp. 1.9 [94 Hout; 2.128 Haines] Antonino Augusto domino meo. Non recitebo quid <...>   ad Anton.Imp. 1.10 [94 Hout; 2.128 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. Ego, mi magister <...>   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber II   <-plures paginae desunt-->”   ad Anton.Imp. 2.1 [95 Hout; 2.94 Haines] <Domino meo Antonino Augusto Fronto.> 1 <...> abripere te praeut dicitur, immo cellae filios; tantam de thesauris Antonini pecunian prodigei quam nescio quae ista altilis alumna accipiat unde nihil Egatheus acceperit. Quanti vero rumores adversi quantae querimoniae exorientur bonis lege Falcidia distractis? Lineam istam famosam atque celebratam ceteraque tantae pecuniae ornamenta Faustina? Quis igitur emet margarita quae filiabus tuis legata sunt? Iis margaritis collos filiarum tuarum despoliabis, ut cujus tandem ingluvies turgida ornetur? 2 An hereditas Matidiae a vobis non adibitur? Summo genere, summis opibus nobilissima femina de vobis optime merita intestata obierit? Ita prosus eveniet, ut cui funus oublicum decreveris ei ademeris tastamentum. Adhuc usque in omnibus causis justum te et gravem et sanctum judicem exhibuisti: Ab uxorisne tuae causa prave judicare inchoabis? Tum tu quidem ignem imitaberis, si proximos ambures, longinquis lucebis.   ad Anton.Imp. 2.2 [95 Hout; 2.96 Haines] Rescriptum magistro suo. 1 Ergo magister meus jam nobis et patronus erit! Equidem possum securus esse, cum duas res animo meo carissumas secutus sim, rationem veram et sententiam tuam. Di velint, ut semper, quod agam, secundo judicio tuo, mi magister, agam. 2 Vides quid horae tibi rescribam. Nam post consultationem amicorum in hoc tempus collegi sedulo ea, quae nos moverant, ut domino meo prescriberem faceremque eum nobis in isto quoque negotio praesentem. Tum demum ἐγὼ θαρσήσω τοῖς βεβουλευμένοις, cum fuerint ab illo comprobata. Orationem qua causam nostram defendisti Faustinae comfestim ostendam et agam gratias ei, quod mihi talis epistula tua legenda ex isto negotio nata est. Bone et optime magister, vale.   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber III   [plures paginae desunt]   ad Anton.Imp. 3.1 [96 Hout; 2.158 Haines] <Domino meo.> 1 <...>tatem historias opera apta neque illam moderationem orationi accomdatam; figuras etiam, quas Graeci σχήματα vocant illum historiae, hunc orationi congruentes adhibuisse; Sallustium antithetis honeste compositis usum: “Alieni adpetens, sui profusus; satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum”; paronomasia etiam non absurda nec frivola, sed proba et eleganti: “Simulator ac dissimulator”; Tullium vero commotissima et familiari orationibus figura usum quam scriptores artium ἐπαναφοράν vocant. Sallustius sapius epeanaphoris usus iterata verba, “Quid audivi” dum repetat, ita Tullius de Pisone . . . . . . . : “Quis clarioribus viris quodam tempore jucundior, quis turpioribus conjunctior? Quis civis meliorum partium aliquandi, quis taetrior hostis huic civitati? Quis in voluptatibus inquinatior, quis in laboribus patientior? Quis in rapacitate avarior, quis in largitione difusior?” Et porro deinceps ab eodem isto verbo sententiae inchoantur. Si videbitur, id quoque animadvertito et cum animo agitato an pro cetero ornatu ac tumultu a Cicerone medium illud inculpatum sit: “Cum omnibus communicare quod habebat”; nam mihi paulo hoc volgatius et jejunius videtur. 2 Non . . . bis dictio coortandi post illa Sallusti et Tulli de Catilina a L. Antoni altera iratus an putabam ostendere in Tulli praeter vetera ipsum . . . . se magna pars juventutis sequebatur. Idcirco hoc in scripto jam faceres idem, quod pictor Calamis, qui numquam pingere equom quadrupedesve instituerat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pingat. 3 Jugurthae forma ejusmodi est: “Qui ubi primum adolevit, pollens viribus, facie, sed multo maxime ingenio validus, non se luxu neque inertiae corrumpendum dedit, sed, uti mos gentis illius est, equitare, jaculari cursu cum aequalibus certare et, cum omnis gloria anteiret, omnibus tamen carus esse. Ad hoc pleraque tempora in venando agere, leonem atque alias feras primus aut in primis ferire; plurimum facere, minimum ipse de se loqui.” “Nam Jugurtha, ut erat inpigro atque acri ingenio, ubi naturam P. Scipionis, qui tunc Romanis imperator erat, et morem hostium cognovit, multo labore multaque cura, praeterea modestissime parendo et saepe obviam eundo periculis in tantam claritudinem brevi pervenerat, ut nostris vehementer carus, Numantinis maximo terrori esset. Ac sane, quod difficillimum in primis est, et proelio strenuus erat et bonus consilio, quorum alterum ex providentia timorem, alterum ex audacia temeritatem afferre plerumque solet. Igitur imperator omnes fere res asperas per Jugurtham agere, in amicis habere, magis magisque eum in dies amplecti, quippe cujus neque consilium neque inceptum ullum frustra erat. Hoc accedebat munificentia animi et ingeni solertia, quibus rebus sibi multos ex Romanis familiari amicitia conjunxerat. Ea tempestate in exercitu nostro fuere complures novi atque nobiles quibus divitiae bono honestoque potiores erant, factiosi domi, potentes apud socios, clari magis quam honesti.” 4 Ne agrei quidem forma praetereunda: “Mare saevum, inportuosum; ager frugum fertilis, bonus pecori, arbori infecundus; caelo terraque penuria aquarum. Genus hominum salubri corpore, velox, patiens laborum, ac plerosque senectus dissoluit, nisi qui ferro aut bestiis interiere, nam morbus haud saepe quem superat; ad hoc malefici generis plurima animalia.” 5 Tum illa persequitur non inscite: “In regnum Adherbalis animum intendit. Ipse acer, bellicosus; at is quem petebat quietus, inbellis, placido ingenio, opportunus injuriae, metuens magis quam metuendus.” 6 Hoc de consulis peritia: “Nam in consule nostro multae bonaeque artes et animi et corporis erant, quas omnis avaritia praepediebat: Patiens laborum, acri ingenio, satis providens, belli haud ignarus, firmissimus contra pericula et invidias.” 7 Milites deinde corrupti: “Imperatori exercitus traditur a Spurio Albino proconsule iners, inbellis, neque periculi neque laboris patiens, lingua quam manu promptior, praedator ex sociis et ipse praeda hostium, sine imperio et modestia habitus. Ita imperatori novo plus ex malis moribus sollicitudinis quam ex copia militum auxilii aut spei bonae accedebat.” 8 Effeminatio: “Nam Albinus Auli fratris exercitusque clade perculsus, postquam decreverat non egredi provincia, quantum temporis aestivorum in imperio fuit, plerumque milites stativis castris habebat, nisi cum odor aut pabuli egestas locum mutare subegerat. Sed neque muniebatur neque more militari vigiliae deducebantur; uti cuique libebat, ab signis aberat. Lixae permixti cum militibus diu noctuque vagabantur et palantes agros vastare, villas expugnare, pecoris et mancipiorum praedas certantes agere eaque mutare cum mercatoribus vino advecticio et aliis talibus; praeterea frumentum datum publice vendere, panem in dies mercari; postremo quaecumque dici aut fingi queunt ignaviae luxuriaeque probra, ea in illo exercitu cuncta fuere et alia amplius. Sed in ea difficultate Metellum nec minus quam in rebus hostilibus magnum et sapientem virum fuisse comperior; tanta temperantia inter ambitionem saevitiamque moderatum; namque edicto primum adjumenta ignaviae sustulisse: Ne quisquam in castris panem aut quem alium cibum coctum venderet, ne lixae exercitum insequerentur, ne miles hastatus aut gregarius in castris neve in agmine servum aut jumentum haberet; ceteris arte modum statuisse. Praeterea transversis itineribus cotidie castra movere, juxta ac si hostes adessent vallo atque fossa munire, vigilias crebras ponere et eas ipse cum legatis circumire, item in agmine in primis modo, modo postremis, saepe in medio adesse ne quispiam ordine egrederetur, ut cum signis frequentes incederent, miles cibum et arma portaret. Ita prohibendo a delictis magis quam vindicando exercitum brevi confirmavit.” 9 Tum forma Marii: “Per idem tempus Uticae forte C. Mario per hostias dis supplicanti magna atque mirabilia portendi haruspex dixerat: Proinde quae animo agitabat, fretus dis ageret, fortunam quam saepissime experiretur; cuncta prospere eventura. At illum jam antea consulatus ingens cupido exagitabat” [quattuor paginae desunt] “<...> consuetam duritiam et alia quae ceteri miserias vocant voluptati habuisse, nisi tamen res publica pariter atque saevissimo imperio bene atque decore gesta.” 10 Sed forma ea imperatoris; perlege et voluptaria: “Sed in his erat Sempronia quae multa saepe virilis audaciae facinora commiserat. Haec mulier genere atque forma, praeterea viro, liberis satis fortunata fuit; litteris Graecis, Latinis docta, psallere, saltare elegantius quam necesse est probae, multa alia, quae instrumenta luxuriae sunt. Sed ei cariora semper omnia quam decus atque pudicitia fuit; pecuniae an famae minus parceret, haud facile discerneres; libido sic accensa ut saepius peteret viros quam peteretur.” 11 “Quis rebus permota civitas atque immutata urbis facies erat. Ex summa laetitia lasciviaque quae diuturna quies pepererat repente omnis tristitia invasit; festinare, trepidare neque loco neque homini cuiquam satis credere; neque bellum gerere neque pacem habere; suo quisque metu pericula metiri. Ad hoc mulieres quibus rei publicae magnitudine belli timor insolitus incesserat adflictare sese, manus supplices ad caelum tendere, miserari parvos liberos, rogitare omnia, omni rumore pavere, adripere omnia superbia atque deliciis omissis, sibi patriaeque diffidere.” 12 Forma qua flagitia disciplinae plebis describuntur: “Nam semper in ciuitate quibus opes nullae sunt bonis invident, malos extollunt, vetera odere, nova exoptant, odio suarum rerum mutari omnia student; turba atque seditionibus sine cura aluntur quoniam egestas facile sine damno habetur.” Vale.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.2 [101 Hout] Magistro meo salutem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . misisti nova arte, sed disciplinam . . . . . mihique gratissimas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caesaris quod miles . . . . . . . . . . . lem . . . . . . . . . . . a tu . . . . . . . . . . es ita pri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . manus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quoque jucundam . . . . . . . . . . . . adepto nepotem saluta.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.3 [102 Hout; 2.218 Haines] Magistro meo. Oratones desiderat dominus meus frater vel a me vel a te quam primum mitti. Sed ego malo, mi magister, tu mittas; easque ut in promptu haberes, exemplaria, quae apud nos erant, misi tibi. Ego mox alia conficiam, quae tibi capies. Hac oratione fratri elaboranda mora intercedar. Ita mihi scripsit. Vale, mi dulcissime magister. Nepotem saluta.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.4 [102 Hout; 2.220 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Pro cetera erga me benivolentia tua fecisti, quod orationum, quas frater tuus dominus desideraverat, huic mittendarum me gratias jam inire voluisti. Adjunxi ultro ego tertiam orationem pro Demostrato P . . . ano, de qua illi scripsi: “Adjunxi”, inquam, “orationem pro Demostrato, quam eum cum primum fratri tuo obtuli, didici ex eo Asclepiodotum, qui oratione ista compelleretur, a te non inprobari. Quod ubi prumum comperi, curavi equidem abolere orationem, sed jam pervaserat in manus plurium quam, ut abolere possem. Sed quid fiat postea? Quid, inquam, fiat nisi et Asclepiodotum, quia ut me tu probasti, mihi quoque fieri amicissimum? Tam hercule quam est Herodes summus nunc meus, quamquam dixi contra eum.” 2 Vale, mi domine dulcissime. Dominam et filiolos saluta. Fratri interea orationes mittito in ler . . . . duas desa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad Anton.Imp. 3.5 [102 Hout] Domino meo. Excerpta jam domino nostro ftratri tuo misi per dupla monitus ore ante menses fere octo rem ordinetis quae tandem . . . . . desistam ita ut multis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . epistulam placabilem misit . . . . . . . . . . nustibus et quo . . . . . . . . . . . tem diem . . . . . . . . . . . . sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . priusquam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e sudarrio notestinanus . . . . . . . . . . . . contu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . prorsus de . . . . . qua variam nondum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . facultate aliqua insolitis, nisi foristareres pigreis et . . . . . . . . . . adfuerint.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.6 [103 Hout; 2.128 Haines] Magistro meo salutem. 1 . . . ordo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eas quas infra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . consi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . disciplinarum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ratum atque expeditum sit, mi magister, quam tua clemens in officiis adversum te nostris interpretatio. Scribe igitur domino meo pollicenti tibi multas suas litteras comperisse te ex me quae manadavit. Tum cetera adfectionis et comitatis tuae subnecte, mi magister; nam in litteris tuis, ut aequom est, adquiescit. 2 Ego biduo isto, nisi quod nocturni somni cepi, nihil intervalli habui; quamobrem nondum legere epistulam prolixiorem domino meo a te scriptam potui, sed crastinam opportunitatem avide prospicio. Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Nepotem saluta.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.7 [103 Hout; 2.156 Haines] 1 Quom salubritas ruris hujus me delctaret, sentiebam non mediocre illud mihi deesse, uti de tua quoque valetudine certus essem, mi magister. Id uti suppleas, deos oro. Rusticatio autem nostra mea πολιτεία: Prorsus negotium illud est veitae togatae. Quid quaeris? Hanc ipsam epistulam paululum me poregere non sinunt instantes curae, quarum vacatio noctis demum aliqua parte contingit. 2 Vale, mi jucundissime magister. Ciceronis epistulas si forte electas totas vel dimidiatas habes, inperti aut mone quas potissimum legendas mihi censeas ad facultatem sermonis fovendam.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.8 [104 Hout; 2.156 Haines] Domino meo. 1 Quinctus hic dies est, quo correptus sum dolore membrorum omnium, praecipue autem cervicum et inguinum. Memini me excerpisse de Ciceronis epistulis ea dumtaxat, quibus inesset aliqua de eloquentia vel philsophia vel de re publica disputatio; praeterea, si quid elegantius aut verbo notabili dictum videretur, excerpsi. Quae in usu meo ad manum erant excerpta misi tibi. Tres libros, duos ad Brutum, unum ad Axium describi kubebis, si quid rei esse videbitur, et remittes mihi, nam exemplares eorum excerptorum nullos feci. Omnes autem Ciceronis epistulas legendas censeo, mea sententia vel magis quam omnis ejus orationes: Epistulis Ciceronis nihil est perfectius.   ad Anton.Imp. 3.9 [104 Hout] Domino meo Fronto. Quoniam scio quanta sollicitudine converses cum animo tuo quod ad rem frumentariam expediendam adtinet, dabo . . . . ihi exploranda diligentius qualia . . . . . tendunt et quae exploravi . . . . . . . . [plures paginae legi nequeunt]   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Antoninum imperatorem et invicem liber IV   ad Anton.Imp. 4.1 [105 Hout; 1.300 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plurimas il . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sal suo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . excerpere potui quondam ex Sallustio paululum ex Ciceronis oratione, sed quasi furtim, certe quidem raptim: Tantum instat aliud ex alio curarum, quom interim requies una librum in manus sumere; nam parvolae nostrae nunc apud Matidiam in oppido hospitantur: Igitur vespera ad me ventitare non possunt propter aurae rigorem. Vale, mi domine magister. Dominus meus frater et filiae cum sua matre, cujus prae nimia laetor cura et . . . . . . . . per . . avis ex animo tibi salutem dicunt. Mitte mihi aliquid, quod tibi disertissimum videatur, quod legam, vel tuum aut Catonis aut Ciceronis aut Sallustii aut Gracchi aut poetae alicujus; χρῄζω γὰρ ἀναπαύλης, et maxime hoc genus, quae me lectio extollat et diffundat ἐκ τῶν κατειληφυιῶν φροντίδων; etiam si qua Lucretii aut Enni excerpta habes εὐφωνότατα, ἁδρὰ et sicubi ἤθους ἐμφάσεις.   ad Anton.Imp. 4.2 [105 Hout; 1.302 Haines] Domino meo Antonino Augusto Fronto. 1 Ne ego post homines natos et locutos omnium facundissimus habear, cum tu, M. Aureli, mea scripta lectitas et probas et lucrativa tua in tantis negotiis tempora meis quoque orationibus legendis occupara non inutile tibi arbitraris nec infructuosum. 2 Quodsive amore inductus etiam ingenio meo delectaris, beatissimus equidem sum, quod tibi tam sum carus, ut esse videar etiam disertus; sive ita censes atque ita judicio tuo et animi sententia decernis, mihi quoque jam disertus jure videbor, quoniam videar tibi. 3 Quod vero patris tui laudes a me in senatu designato et inito consulatu meo dictas legisti libenter, minime miror. namque tu Parthos etiam et Hiberos sua lingua patrem tuum laudantis pro summis oratoribus audias, nec meam orationem, sed patris tui virtutem miratus es nec laudatoris verba, sed laudati facta laudasti. 4 De tuis etiam laudibus, quas in senatu eadem illa die protuli, ita sentias velim: Tunc in te eximiam indolem fuisse, nunc summam virtutem; frugem tunc in segete florentem, nunc messim perfectam et horreo conditam; sperabam tunc, habeo nunc: Spes in rem convertit. 5 Quod autem mitti a me tibi postulasti acceptis <...>   [plurimae paginae desunt]   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Verum imperatorem Aurelium Caesarem liber I   ad Verum Imp. 1.1 [107 Hout; 2.116 Haines] <Magistro meo.> 1 <...>rio correcta vel in tempore provisa vel celeriter curata vel sedulo instructa, praedicare ipsa apud te supersedi. Da verecundiae veniam, si urgentibus curis praepeditus negotia in manibus praeversus sum speque tuae erga me benignissimae facilitatis interim in scribendo cessavi. Fiduciae amoris ignoscito, si piguit consilia me ingularum rerum forsitan in dies mutanda sub incerto adhuc exitu dubia existimatione perscribere. 2 Causam quaeso tam justae cinctationis accipias. Cur igitur aliis quam tibi saepius? Ut breviter absolvam: Quoniam quidem, nisi ita facerem, illi irascerentur, tu ignosceres; illi tacerent, tu flagitares; illis officium officio repensabam, tibi amorem pro amore debeam. An velles ad te quoque me litteras invitum, querentem, festinantem, quia necesse erat potius quam, quia libebat, darem? “Cur autem”, inquies, “non libebat?” Quia nequedum quicquam ejusmodi effectum erat ut te luberet ad gaudii societatem vocare. Curarum vero, quae me dies noctesque miserrimum habuere et prope ad desperationem summae rei perduxere, facere participem hominem carissimum et quem semper laetum esse cuperem, fateor, non lubebat. Nec enim illud lubebat, aliud dolere, aliud loqui. Simulare Lucium quicquam adversum Frontonem, a quo ego prius multo simplicitatem verumque amorem quam loquendi polite disciplinam didicisse me praedico! Equidem pacto quoque, quod inter nos jam pridem intercessit, satis me ad veniam impetrandam paratum esse arbitror. Denique quamquam mihi lacessitus a me saepius numquam tamen rescripsisses, dolebam hercules, sed pacti memoria non suscensebam. 3 Postremo, quid plura, ne potius defendere me quam orare te videar? Peccavi, fateor; adversus quem minime decuit, etiam id fateor. Sed ti melior esto. Satis poenarum lui, primum in eo ipso quod peccasse me sentio; mox quod tantis terris disjunctus, qui te in vestigio exorare potuissem, tot interea mensibus, dum meas litteras accipis, dum ego tuas recipio, cura discruciabor. Adhibeo tibi deprecatores humanitatem ipsam, nam et delinquere humanum est et hominis maxime proprium ignoscere [plures paginae desunt]   ad Verum Imp. 1.2 [108 Hout; 2.194 Haines] <Magistro meo.> 1 <...> illi suis litteris subdiderunt. Ea vero, quae post meam profectionem gesta sunt, ex litteris ad me scriptis a negotio cuique praepositis ducibus cognosces. Earum exemplaria Sallustius noster, nunc Fulvianus, dabit. Ego vero, ut et consiliorum meorum rationes commemorare possis, meas quoque litteras, quibus quidquid gerendum esset, demonstratur mittam tibi. Quodsi picturas quoque quasdam desideraveris, poteris a Fulviano accipere. Equidem quo magis te quasi in rem praesentem inducerem, mandavi Cassio Avidio Martioque Vero commentarios quosdam mihi facerent, quos tibi mittam; ex quibus et mores hominum et sensum eorum cognosces. Quodsi me quoque voles aliquem commentarium facere, designa mihi; Qualem velis faciam et, ut jubes, faciam. Quidvis enim subire paratus sum, dum a te res nostrae inlustrentur. Plane non contempseris et orationes ad senatum et adlocutiones nostras ad axercitum. Mittam tibi et sermones meos cum barbaris habitos: Multum haec tibi conferent. 2 Unam rem volo non equidem demonstrare discipulus magistro, sed existimandam dare: Circa causas et initia belli diu commoraberis, et etiam ea, quae nobis absentibus male gesta sunt; tarde ad nostras venies. Porro necessarium puto, quanto ante meum adventum superiores Parthi fuerint dilucere, ut quantum nos egerimus appareat. An igitur debeas, quomodo πεντηκονταετίαν Θουκυδίδης explicuit, illa omnia corripere an vero paulo altius dicere nec tamen ita ut mox nostra dispandere, ipse dispicies. 3 In summa meae res gestae tantae sunt, quantae sunt scilicet, quoiquoimodi sunt: Tantae autem videbuntur, quantas tu eas videri voles.   ad Verum Imp. 1.3 [109 Hout; 2.236 Haines] Domino meo Vero Augusto. Quamquam me diu cum ista valetudine vivere jam pridem pigeat taedeatque, tamen ubi te tanta gloria per virtutem parta reducem videro, neque in cassum vixero neque invitus, quantum vitae dabitur vivam. Vale, domine desiderantissime. Socerum et liberos vestros saluta.   ad Verum Imp. 1.4 [109 Hout; 2.236 Haines] Magistro meo. Quidni ego gaudium tuum mihi repraesentaverim, mi magister carissime? Equidem videre te et arte complecti et multum exosculari videor mihi toto <...> [plures paginae desunt]   ad Verum Imp. 1.5 [109 Hout; 2.84 Haines] <Domino meo Vero Augusto> 1 <...> animi mei perturbatione non possem. Sed acceptis litteris tuis ea re jam primum bona spes mihi ostentata est, quod tua manu scripseras; deinde quod post abstinentiam tridui et sanguinem satis strenue et prompte demissum liberatum esse te periculo inpendentis valetudinis nuntiabis. Respiravi igitur et revalui et apud omnis foculos, aras, lucos sacros, arbores sacratas (nam rure agebam) supplicavi. Et nunc expecto cognoscere ex tuis litteris quantum medici isti dies promoverint ad vires reficiendas. Enimvero nunc majore multo cura diligentiaque opus est, ut paulatim temet compleas, nec properes ad detrimenta virium resarcienda. Nam id quidem omnium opinione compertum et traditum est sanguinem, ubi abundet, incursim detrahendum, postea pedetemptim esse reparandum. 2 Fac, oro te et obsecro, domine, quod tuo egregio ingenio decet, temperes et reparcas et modificeris desideriis omnibus, quae nunc acriora solito et procaciora existere necesse est post abstinentiam, qua necessario in tempore usus es. 3 Fratrem dominum saluta, quem salvom habebis, si tute salvus eris. Vale, domine dulcissime.   ad Verum Imp. 1.6 [110 Hout; 2.150 Haines] Vero Augusto domino meo. 1 Quanta et quam vetus familiaritas mihi intercedat cum Gavio Claro, meminisse te, domine, arbitror. Ita saepe de eo apud te ex animi mei sententia sum fabulatus. Nec ab re esse puto memorem te tamen admonere. 2 A prima aetate sua me curavit Gavius Clarus familiariter non modo iis officiis, quibus senator aetate et loco minor majorem gradu atque natu senatorem probe colit ac promeretur, sed paulatim amicitia nostra eo processit, ut neque illum pigeret neque me puderet ea illum oboedire mihi quae clientes, quae liberti fideles ac laboriosi obsequuntur nulla hoc et mea insolentia aut illius adulatione, sed mutua caritas nostra et amor verus ademit utrique nostrum in officiis moderandis omnem detrectationem. 3 Quid ego memorem negotia in foro nostra minima maximaque ab eo curata? Aut domi quod uspiam recte clausum aut obsignatum aut curatum aut confectum quid vellem, me uni huic mandasse et concredidisse? 4 Sed quod alumnus meus aegre toleraret, valetudine meae curandae ita semper studuit, tantam omni tempore etiam operam dedit, ut excubaret etiam aegro mihi et, ubi meis ego uti manibus per valetudinem non possem, manu sua cibos ad os meum adferret. Postremo, si quid humanitas absente Victorino et domino fratre meo mihi accidisset, huic justa corpori meo curanda mandavi. Praesentibus etiam illis ab hoc potissimum corpus meum contrectari volui, quo minus doloris ad fratrem et generum meum ex contactu ullo corporis mei perveniret. 5 Haec mihi cum Gavio Claro jura sunt. jam ego, si res familiaris mihi largior esset, ne quid ad senatoris munia facile toleranda deeset, omni ope subvenirem neque umquam ego hujus negotii causa eum trans mare proficisci paterer. Nunc et nostrae res ahud copiosae et hujus paupertas artior me compulerunt, ut eum invitum expellerem in Suriam ad legata, quae ei in testamento hominis amicissimi obvenerunt persequenda. 6 Quae paupertas Claro meo nulla ipsius culpa obtigit, sed neque paterna ulla neque materne bona fruenda percepit: Eaque fine heres patri fuit, ut creditoribus paternis aegre satisfaceret. Ceterum parsimonia et officiis et frugalitate onera quaestoria et aedilicia et praetoria perfunctus est. Cui quidem per absentiam ejus divus pater vester sumptum praeturae de fisco vestro cum expendisset, ubi primum in urbem Clarus reconsciliata sibi valetudine rediit, omne fisco vestro persolvit. 7 Nihil isto homine officiosius est, nihil modestius, nihil verecundius. Liberalis etiam, si quid mihi credis, et in tnata tenuitate; quantum res patitur, largys, simplicitas, castitas, veritas, fides Romana plane, φιλοστοργία vero nescio an Romana: Quippe qui nihil minus in tota mea vita Romae repperi quam hominem sincere φιλόστοργον; ut putem, quia reapse nemo sit Romae φιλόστοργος, ne nomen quidem huic virtuti esse Romanum. 8 Hunc tibi, domine, quantis possum precibus commendo, si umquam me amasti sive amaturus umquam es, hunc a me fidei tuae atque opi traditum tuearis peto. Quaeras fortasse, quid pro eo <..> [plures paginae desunt]   ad Verum Imp. 1.7 [111 Hout; 2.238 Haines] <Vero Augusto domino meo> 1 <...> desideretur is honor, quo pariter quisque expetit, si quid honoris aliis impertitum videat. Probasti me laudastique consilium, neque tamen triduo amplius vel quadriduo id a te obtinere potuisti ut mihi verbo saltem responderes; sed ita excogitasti: Primum me intromitti in cubiculum jubebas, ita sine cujusquam invidia osculum dabas, credo ita quom animo tuo reputans, mihi, cui curam cultumque tradidisses oris atque orationis tuae, jus tui quoque osculi habendum omnisque eloquentiae magistros sui laboris lege fructum capere satus in vocis aditu locatum. Morem denique saviandi arbitror honori eloquentiae datum. Nam cur os potius salutantes ori admovemus quam oculos oculis aut fontes frontibus aut, quibus plurimum valemus, manus manibus, nisi quod honorem orationi impertimus? Muta denique animalia oratione carentia etiam osculis carent. Hunc ego honorem mihi a te habitam taxo maximo et gravissimo pondere. 2 Plurima praeterea tua erga me summo cum meo honore et dicta et facta percepi sic: Quotiens tu me manibus tuis sustinuisti, adlevasti aegre adsurgentem aut difficile progredientem per valetudinem corporis paene portasti! Quam hilari voltu semper placatoque ore nos adfatus es! Quam libenter conseruisti sermonem, quam diu produxisti, quam invitus terminasti! Quae ego pro maximis duco. Sicut in extis inspicienti diffissa plerumque minima et tenuissima maximas prosperitates significant deque formicularum et apicularum ostentis res maximae portenduntur, item vel minimis et levissimis ab uno et vero principe habitis officii et bonae volentiae signis significari arbitror ea, quae amplissima inter homines et exoptissima sunt, amores honoresque. Igitur, quaecumque mihi a domino meo tuo fratre petenda fuerunt, per te petita atque impetrata omnia malui.   ad Verum Imp. 1.8 [113 Hout; 2.232 Haines] Domino Aurelio Vero Augusto. 1 Fatigatum me valetudine diutina et praeter solitum gravi ac gravissimis etiam luctibus paene continuis adflictum (nam in paucissimis mensibus et uxorem carissimam et nepotem trimulum amisi), sed his plerisque me malis perculsum, relevatum aliquantum fateor quod te meminisse nostri et quaedam nostra desiderasse cognovi. Misi igitur, quae dominus meus frater tuus litteris tuis admonitus mittenda censuit. Adjunxi praeterea orationem pro Demostrata, quam cum fratri tuo primum obtuli, didici ex eo Asclepiodotum, qui oratione ista compelletur, a te non improbarei. Quod ego ubi comperi, cupivi equidem abolere possem. Quid igitur, quid igitur, inquam, probabis? Asclepiodotum, cum a te probetur, mihi quoque fieri amicissimum, tam hercule quam est Herodes summus nunc meus, quamquam extet oratio. 2 Egit praeterea mecum frater tuus inpense id, quod ego multo inpensius adgredi cupio et, ubi primum commentarium miseris, adgrediar ex summis voluntatis opibus; nam de facultate tute videbis, qui me idoneum censuisti.   ad Verum Imp. 1.9 [113 Hout; 2.234 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Certo esse te, mi magister carissime, etiamsi reticeam, nihil dubito, quantaeque mihiacerbitati sit tua omnis vel minima tristitia. Enimvero cum et uxorem per tot annos caram et nepotem dulcissimum paene simul amiseris, maximam misericordiam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pernostique graviora mala quam, ut magistrum doctis dictis consolari audeam. Sed patris est pectus amoris pietatisque plenum effundere . . . . . . . . . . . opus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tristium tempore deliberasti morosus. 2 Nunc ad reliqua litterarum tuarum convertor: Delectatus oratione velim uti obliti amarae litis istius agatis pacem. Quid putas, mi magister? Irascar, nisi qui a me munus aut novum magistratum et per me accipies . . . . . . . . . . major erat . . . . . . . . . . . . . si ple . . . . . . . . . . . sas defendisset leges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . conqueris non vera subdi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . disse certis fidelius, quo nihil aliud ego cogito quicquam aut expeto aut somnio. Diserta fratris acta et scripta cum ineditis aliis fratris adquisita transmittam [plures paginae desunt]   ad Verum Imp. 1.10 [114 Hout; 1.304 Haines] <Magistro meo.> 1<...> nostro, Culpurnium dico, contentio est, quem ego facile et omnibus spectantibus et te, si spectaveris, teste revincam, Pyladen magistro suo istum tanto meliorem esse, quanto sit Apolausto similior. Sed quod sine joco dicatur: Jube Valerium istum Antonium dare mihi libellum, uti rescriptione quoque nostra gratia sententiae nostrae fiat. 2 Epistulam tuam summa cum voluptate et solita cum admiratione legi. Vale, mi magister, Vero tuo dulcissime et carissime.   ad Verum Imp. 1.11 [114 Hout; 1.296 Haines] Magistro meo. 1 Ah est, quod ego tecum graviter conquerar, mi magister, et quidem uti querellam dolor superet, quod ego tanto post intervallo neque conplexus neque adfatus sim, cum et in Palatium veneris, et postquam ego a domino meo fratre vixdum discesseram. Equidem multum fratrem meum objurgavi, cur me non revocavit neque culpam abnuere ausus est. Quantum, oro te, fuit ante mihi significare te ad fratrem meum venturum esse, velle me quoque visere, postremo redire me jubere, uti confabularemur? Quid enim? Si me hodie domum arcessas, nonne omnibus omissis lubens curram? Qui quidem aegerrime tulerim, quod non cotidie ad te commeem. Quin gravissimum stationis nostrae id esse arbitrer, quod veniendi ad te adeo rari casus sunt vel desunt. nam si . . . st dies aberis plerumque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oriatur ad Idus neque convenis . . . dinos non etsi nobis quaeundis perdis tempus prius Romam issem, nisi hominis cujus festiva praesentia . . . . . . . . . . causa . . . . . homini tali separasse retine mihi, oro, esse . . . rescriptus . . . . . . s matrisque paucis permodestis verbis ad te currissem . . . nunc oro saltem, dum discurris autumno me praevenias prognososam oro, quid homines autument, quin te . . . . . . . rure venis Romam lis expecto te apud me. 2 Vale, mi magister, Vero tuo carissime. Cratiam saluta.   ad Verum Imp. 1.12 [115 Hout; 1.296 Haines] Domino meo Vero Augusto. 1 Quod heri, cum in Palatium vestri visendi causa venissem, te non viserim, pro!, non de mea culpa evenisse ostendam paulo post. Quodsi libens id, si serio libens scienti animo . . . . . . . . . . . . . pote persolvissem, haudquaquam me paenitaret. Fuit enim, fuit tanta haec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . familiaribus litteris mecum expostulares neque tanto opere gauderem, sei, cum ad te venissem, summo cum honore a te appellatus essem, quam nunc gaudeo tanto me jurgio desideratum. Namque tu pro tua persingulari humanitate omnes magno opere requiris absentes. Haec denique seria causa est, in qua malim te mihi graviter irasci quam libenter ignoscere: Irasceris enim, quando revera desiderantius desiderasti; a quibus autem aversus fueris, neque irasceris neque desiderabis, si amare desieris. Enimvero, cum tu tuusque frater in tantis opibus locati, tanta multitudine omnium generum omniumque ordinum, in quos amorem vestrum dispergitis, circumfusi mihi quoque partem amoris vestri nonnullam impertiatis, quid me facere oportet, cujus spes opesque omnes in vobis sunt solis sitae? Non etiam tum pectus meum . . . vide valiturus vestra . . . . . comi . . . . . . . . . . dum . . . . . . . . . dominis nobis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atque . . . . . . . . . . quid ea . . . . . fieri aut libe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . praestare possim quam, uti vos illis anteponam. Sic enim profecto merebor, ut vos quoque illos mihi anteponatis.   3 Sed ne diutius defensionem meam differam, nulla, ut dixi, mea culpa accidit, ut te non convenirem. Nam ex hortis ego redii Romam ante diem quintum Kal. April. diluculo, uti bis ipsa illa, si possem, die longo post tempore complecterer. Sed epistula tua mihi erat Romam . . . . . si ita est paulo ante . e . . e . perlata s . . . stas perscriptas . . . . . alias interim tuas, si, domine, in tanta et tali aetate instat provecta senectute avi natus . . . nisi pax replet adeo nisi clandestino peraegre pergerem ego procul rusticus: Quidnam ut facerem? “Satin salve” ut percontarer? An ut complecterer? An ut exoscularer? An ut confabularer? An ego quarto post mense lacrimas vestras spectatum measque ostentatum venirem? Quid igitur postero die feci? Non sum ausus neque fratri tuo neuqe tibi scribere me ad vos esse venturum, sed ad libertum vestrum Charilam perscripsi his, si recte memini, verbis: “οἶσθ᾿ εἰ σήμερον εὔκαιρόν ἐστιν ἀφικέσθαι με πρὸς αὐτούς; σύ μοι δήλωσαν ὡς ἀνὴρ εὔφρων κἀμοὶ φίλος· καινὰ ὅσ᾿ ἐπίστελλε.” Hortante eo in Palatium [quattuor paginae desunt] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mithras . . protegeris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     ad Verum Imp. 1.13 [117 Hout; 1.306 Haines] <Domino meo Vero Augusto> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . irat alieni reges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percontatum an videre me posset; postquam respondi posse, succidaneum sibi Tranquillum nostrum paravit. Mea parum refert, quis me de caris tibi amicis diligat, nisi quod prior ratio est ejus, qui minus est nostri fastidiosus. Ego . . . . . . . . . amicorum tuorum ejusdem leo . . . . . sed exiliora facerem omnis, quales ex tempore ego vidi. Praevenit autem me Tranquillus, cum frigeret, etiam nunc devetantem, sed minus aegrum. Qua de causa sollicitudini tuae tantas gratias ago, quantas Transquillli industriae, qui nisi sciret, quanto opere me diligeres, voluntarium hoc negotium sibi numquam expetisset.   M. Frontonis epistularum ad Verum imperatorem Aurelium Caesarem liber II   ad Verum Imp. 2 [118 Hout; 2.128 Haines] Domino meo Vero Augusto salutem. 1 Jamjam, imperator, esto erga me, ut voles, utque tuus amicus feret: Vel tu me neglegito vel etiam spernito, nihil denique honoris inpertito, in pstremis, si videbitur hebeto: Nihil est ita durum aut ita injurium, quod me facere adversus, si maxime velis, possis, quin ego ex te gaudiis amplissimis abundem. 2 Virtutes tuas bellicas et militaria facinora tua atque consulta me nunc laudare tu forsitan putes. E quibus ego rebus, tametsi sunt pulcherrimae et in rem publicam imperiumque populi Romani optimae amplissimaeque, tam ex iis ego rebus laetandis virilem cum ceteris portionem voluptatis capio. Ex eloquentia autem tua, quam scriptis ad senatum ita litteris declarasti, ego jam hic triumpho. Recepi, recepi habeoque teneoque omnem abs te cumulatam parem gratiam: Possum jam de vita laeto animo excere magno operae meae pretio percepto magnoque monumento ad aeteram gloriam relicto. Magistrum me tuum fuisse aut sciunt omnes homines aut opinantur aut vobis credunt. Quod equidem parcius mihimet ipse adrogarem, nisi vos ultro praedicaretis: Id quoniam vos praedicatis, ego nequeo negare. 3 Bellicae igitur tuae laudis et adoriae multos habes administros multaqu armatorum milia undique gentium accita victoriam tibi adnituntur et adjuvant, eloquentiae virtus, ausim dicere, meo ductu, Caesar, meoque auspicio parta est . . . . . ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . moenera pl . . . . . . [duae paginae desunt]   <...> auxilium . . . . . . . . . . lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q . . . prima navium ca . . . . . . . . inrumpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A rhetore . r . . . . . . . . . . sicut nunc ego gloriae tuae eloquentia partae messem majorem carpo florum, sapientiae tibi vestigator atque indagator atque exercitator. Oro te, Luci, An . . . . orum aut Dacorum quisquam e . . . . . . Germanus alior . . . . l . . or . . . quispiam num qui . . . . . . . . igitur ceteri cum verborum tuorum lumina, cum pondera sententiarem, cum brevitas . . . . sonum denique orationis tuae seriae esc . . d . . . o neque fluxibus lascivis redolentis . . ib . . m . d . ec . . . . . plerique ut in o . . asie . . . tu . . en . . . familiari t . . . . . s . t . . . . . . sse cubilibus, quibusque vestigiis, unum quid eorum indgaveris, intellego, ut qui venanti haec tibi adsiduus et obsequens haeserim. 5 Itaque cum oratione omnes regas, lego atque audio, cumque senatum populi Romani ad omnes verborum tuorum sententiarumque . . . . . . . . clama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . next . . . . . . . . de . . . . go habes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s amp . . . . . . . . . ad gloriam mag . . . . . . . . quam quod a fratre . . . os fides imp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dentiu. . . . . . . . . quod fratri et a . . . . . . didicerimus omn . . . . . . . . . gaudium ex eloquentia . . . . imperio pon. . . . . . . . . . . . um imperium. . . . . . . . tibus traditum . . . . . . . . vestra . . st . . . . . . . . . . . quanto autem. . . . . . . . . ., cujus sit partis . . . . . . . quam dono dat . . . . . . . . . . . . matis namque . . . . . . . . . . rio apparetis non parum id, quod eloquenter paratum est. 6 Plerisque etiam indignis paternus locus imperium per manus detulit, haud secus quam pullis, quibus omnia generis insignia ab ovo jam insita sunt: Crista et pluma et cantus et vigiliae; regum liberis in utero matris summa jam potestas destinata est; obstetricis manu imperium adipiscuntur. Variae sunt eis memoriae: Est coram populo . . . non ita populo si itaque . . . et personae sicut initiatos rerum vero Persarum equi arbitratu co . . fit haec non cursu, sed hinnitu priorem de Romano . . . . . . . . inter Remum et Romulum ex diversis montibus augurantes exempla eloquentiam non Romulus . e . . centuriatis comitiis paratr, non cum . . . . . aquilae et voltures convolent, non si Pegasus hinniat . . . . . insidiis saepe aliorum et conjurationibus ademptum aliis imperium ad alios delatum scimus, sed neque viventi eloquentia potest adimi neque morte adempta in alium transferri. 7 Tecum frater tuus juste probat ea facta Romuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pl . . . segnes nunquam impetras eloquentiam parare, nisi . . . . . bo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . . . . . . . . n aut decerni viris praeensi dividit aut deorum numine ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dicere uberius nam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . didetaced . . d . d . . ed . . . toreo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dis . . . . . . are . . . ra . per . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ausrede . . . . . . . . . interdum . . . nibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lupis ululare, bellator tuba re . . . . . . . . . . deorum etiam partim eloquentes se quam tacitos coli maluerunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8 Ope deorum . . . . . . . . . . perat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . contumacia ego - - sint - - pervivacibus eloquentiae incutiatur. Ne fulmen quidem aeque terreret, nisi cum tonitru caderet. Ea ipsa tonandti potestas non Diti patri neque Neptuno neque dis ceteris, se imperatori summo Jovi tradita est, ut fragoribus nubium et sonoribus procellarum, velut quibusdam caelestibus vocibus, altissimum imperium a contemptu vindicaret. 9 Igitur si verum imperatorem generis humani quaeriti, eloquentia vestra imperat, eloquentia mentibus dominatur. Ea metum incutit, amorem conciliat, industriam extinguit, virtutem cohortatur, vitia comfutat, mulcet, docet, consolatur. Denique provoco audacter et condictione vetere: Omittite et Armeniam subigite. Alii quoque duces ante vos Armeniam subegerunt, sed una mehercules tua epistula, una tui fratris de te tuisque virtutibus oratio nobilior ad gloriam et ad posteros celebratior erit quam plerique principum triumphi. Ventidius ille, postquam Parthos fudit fugavitque, ad victoriam suam praedicandam orationem a C. Sallustio mutuatus est, et Nerva facta sya in senatu verbis rogaticiis commendavit. Item plerique ante parentes vestros propemodum infantes et elingues principes fuerunt, qui de rebus militiae a se gestis nihilo magis loqui possent, quam galeae loquuntur. 10 Postquam res publica a magistratibus annuis ad C. Caesarem et mox ad Augustum tralata est, Caesari quidem facultatem dicendi video imperatoriam fuisse, Augustum vero saeculi residua elegantia et latinae linguae etiam tum integro lepore potius quam dicendi ubertate praeditum puto, post Augustum nonnihil reliquiarum jam et vietarum et tabescentium Tiberio illi superfuisse, imperatores autem deinceps ad Vespasianum usque ejusmodi omnes, ut non minus verborum puderet, quam pigeret morum et misereret facinorum. 11 Quod quis dicat: “Non enim didicerant”, cur ergo imperabant? Aut imperarent gestu, censeo, ut histriones, aut nutu ut muti, aut per interpretem ut barbari. Quis eorum oratione sua populum aut senatum adfari, quis edictum, quis epistularum suismet verbis componere potuit? Quasi phrenitis morbus quibus implicitus est aliena eloquentes imperitabent: Ut tibiae sine ore alieno mutae erant. imperium autem non potestatis tantummodo vocabulum, sed etiam orationis est. Quippe vos imperandi jubendo vetandoque exercetur: Nisi bene facta laudet, nisi perperam gesta reprehendat, nisi hortetur ad virtutem, nisi a vitiis deterreat, nomen suum deserat et imperator frustra appelletur. 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qui culpam majoribis partum subdere, nefarium falsam pugnam deferre militare flagitum est, testimonium falsum dicere interest veras . . . tur facere capital . . . orationem falsam habere malignitate elusci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is ha . . . . . veteris eloquentiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tavit pater. 14 De nilacu<...> [una pagina legi nequit] <...>vit eloquentiaei illius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inpertes . . . . . . . . . has politus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nullas . . . . . . . . . . . . . alia Sallustium amo qui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d tos ovibos sustineres . . . . gallas in oratore se dare vellet, Cicero autem modulatius. Vos utriusque gratiam sectanes meam moderantis viam vaditis.   15 Exstant epistulae utraque lingua partim ab ipsis ducibus conscriptis, partim a scriptoribus historiarum vel annalium compositae, ut illa Thucydidi nobilissima Niciae ducis epistula ex Scilia missa; item apud C. Sallustium ad Arsacen regem Mithradatis auxilium inplorantis litterae criminosae et Cn. Pompei ad senatum de stipendio litterae graves et Adherbalis apud Cirtam arte obsessi invidiosae litterae; verum omnes, uti res postulat, breves nec ullam rerum gestarum expeditionem continentes. In hunc autem modum, quo scripsisti tu, extant Catuli litterae, quibus res a se jacturis atque damnis sane gestas, at lauro merendas historico exemplo exposuit; verum turgent elate prolata teneris prope verbis. Historia tamen potius splendide perscribenda; si ad senatum scriberetur, etiam caute. Pater Tullios jubilatus Consiliorum suorum, si in formam epistulae contulisset (necessario brevius et expeditius et densius et, quod interdum res poscit, inornatius), scripsisset melius. 16 Tuae litterae et elqoquentes sunt ut oratoris, strenuae et ducis, graves ut ad senatum, ut de re militari non redundantes. Nam neque invitant ad memorata seria neque ad formularia Liviana neque ad Titii Ausgonis pusillas et decoras voces, sed ad illa destillata responsa, in quibus peritia brevitatis ad obscuritatem coartatis membris fuit etiam imperator . . . . quid ad senatum quom debet loqui, epistulam . . . . . . . . . eaque titulandi difficultas facta adeo . . . . . . raeque, de quibus scribendum erat, cum . . . . . . . . nisiusta est aliomet . evi opus despexerant themata magnopere movendum coercenda . a . . . se denique cum jam . . . vita sicut, priusquam aliquam provinciam vastasset mer . . a . . nolui acta scelerata aperire acerbareque iterum, quod ille nostro ignavo atque inermi exercitu victo insultasset aut, cur provinciam cum parte exercitus non ipse sustentasset, nos . . . od indutiis cum hoste fractis res extitisset, vel quod Sohaemo potius, quam Vologaeso regnum Armeniae dedisset aut, quod Pacorum regno privasset. 17 Nonne oratione ejusmodi explicari vis, ut Nepos de re Numantina epistulam (eo minora de bello) innectit: “Undique viri e nationivus adducti Hispaniae aderant operam gestantes: Aurata pedites capita maculata galea ornati pelles discolorant.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . saturo summa eloquentiae ectae alacrisque virtus est de sublimioribus magnifice, de tenuioribus magnifice, de tenuioribus palam dicere frugaliter. Idoneas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nectaturi vi consolatio ista illata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pannis tecta praestabit varia locus igitur antelata ad summam in eloquentia sis . . . illa pervenire, esca sola est et, cum ardue ad normam fruges sis uberes adeptus, post maluisti cedere ex re et sumittere te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . solum olim, sed in senio falsa putaret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . issima consilia . . aemulas esse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . li . . . . . . . . . . . . . illa com . . . etiam diserto ei persilearis triumphabis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . amplissima sunt aspera ad facta ad ista illustria neque frustra, sed alicujus fide testata memoriae ceteros ars ad sua sponte regit, quia ars insita me sobrio pusilla exosculor in rostris probatissimus priscis verbis plerumque utor arisque interrogatus ita in orationibus dixeram antea pro me, postea dicturus aliena eloquentia studiis nitere suscites artem atque inertes per plures . . . . . . . . . . . . umne dis placo . . que . . . ares ca . . . n . . . cepisse . . plet palam meminisse denuo, si quis de . . is fere perditus . . testatus. 18 His te consiliis, imperator, a prima pueritia tua non clipeus profecto nec lorica, sed libri et litterarum disciplina inbuebat. Cum multa ejusmodi consiliosa exempla in historiis et in orationibus lectitares, ad rem militarem magistra eloquentia usus es.   19 Exercitus tibi traditus erat luxuria et lascivia et otio diutino corruptus. Milites Antiochiae adsidue plaudere histrionibus consueti, saepius in nemore vicinae ganeae quam sub signis habiti. Equi incuria horridi, equites volsi; raro bracchium aut crus militum hirsutum. Ad hoc vestiti melius quam armati, adeo ut vir gravis et veteris disciplinae Laelianus Pontius loricas partim eorum digitis primoribus scinderet, equos pulvillis instratos animadverteret. Jussu ejus cornicula consecta, a sedilibus equitum pluma quasi anseribus devolsa. Pauci militum equum sublimitus insilire, ceteri aegre calce, genu, poplite repere. Haud multi vibrantis hastas, pars major sine vi et vigore tamquam labceas jacere. Alea in castris frequens, somnus pernox aut in vino vigilia. 20 Hujuscemodi milites, quibus imperiis contineris et ad frugem atque industriam converteres, nonne te Hannibalis duritia, Africani disciplina, Metelli exempla historiis perscripta docuerunt? Ipsum hoc tuum a te diutina prudentia consultum, quod non ante signis conlatis manum cum hostibus conseruisti, quam levibus proeliis et minutis victoris militem imbueres, nonne Cato docuit, orator idem et imperator summus? Ipsa subjeci Catonis verba, in quibus consiliora tuorum expressa vestigia cerneres: “Interea unamquamque turmam, manipulum, cohortem temptabam quid facere possent. Proeliis levibus spectabam, cujusmodi quisque esset. Si quis strenue fecerat, donabam honeste, ut alii idem vellent facere, atque in contione verbis multis laudabam. Interea aliquot pauca castra feci, sed ubi anni tempus venit, castra hiberna.” [una pagina legi nequit] 21 <...> ne defendere. Atenim ples quia quen . . inbellem idem . le . . . non enim . . ui . ibus eadem ingentim. Neque similis virtus deest columbae alis pernicibus praedie . . . l . . . . . . . niubo . . . portendunt . . . d . . vultures et aquilae . e nescit modis ut rebus et cum . a . a . isa . . . . tisque e . ds . . tentis . . . r . . . . . . . . . . esu . . . . . . ia . . . . n . . sicut non is . . . solitatim eo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inis . morem . . . . . . . . . n . . . . . s . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atversus vod . . . non unus recess . . . sermonum acer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et bae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ter inter se cohaerent ut cum comitibus aliis artibus penetrarent.   22 Sed caput atque fons bonarum artium et studiorum ab eloquentiae disciplinis oritur, neque res militaris neque officii observantia, quam philosopham vocant, perfecta gigni potest, nisi cum eloquentia creata sit. Utri earum artium defuerit eloquentia, ea quasi ab . . . el . . . ainsio noscit nam quisquam rectius belli consilia tractaverit, nisi illis adsuetus in orationibus legibus . . . n . . al tuo eae oeis . e . n . . . . . . . sagac . . conte clare . . prudentius divideres . . sollertius non . . . . . omnia quasi persaturam ingentem non extercerem misce . . . . . . . sed . . . . . . . . . . nescio enim . . lo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cm parum perdiscis quomodo orationis in . . . . . . ibi structio t . . . . . . lae laus s . . s, quia equidem Syriae p . . . . . . vetustis alia fecundis cropla, modo fata decorare valeat, quae hinc quadamtentus magis minusve depicta sint: Ut principio ingrediendum, ut post principia ordo explicandus, ubi gravis per ballistas urguendum, ubi sanis argumentis res redintegranda, ubi gravioribus comfligendum, ubi immissis habenis eloquentia percursandum, quando orationi finiendae receptui canendum. 23 Etiam Viriathus, etiam Spartacus belli scientes et manu prompti fuerunt. Sed etiam omnes universos quicumque post Romam conditam oratores extiterunt illos etiam, quos in Oratore Cicero eloquentiae civitate gregatim donavit, si numerare velis, vix trecenorum numerum conplebis, quom ex una Fabiorum familia trecenti milites fortissimi pro patria dimicantes uno die occubuerint. Non enim lenis aestimator sum: Milia sub pellibus . . . . . unum diem remanserunt diserte themati, si sapias . . . potes immo praem . . . . . tecone . . . etiam . . . . vium quem tu praem . . . . [duae paginae desunt] 24 <...> . . . spolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et Parthorum prompte et graviter respondisti. Scilicet hoc te a centurionibus vel primipilaribus, eleganttissimis altercatoribus, didicisse! Dausara et Nicephorium et Artaxa ductu auspicioque tuo armis capta sunt, sed arcem munitam et invictam et inexpugnabilem, quae in fratris tui pectore sita est, ad nomen Armeniaci, quod recusaverat, sumendum, quis alius quam tu aut quibus aliis tu quam eloquentiae copis adortus es? Comitem tibi ad impetrandum adscisti exercitum, sed loquentem exercitum oratione pugnantem. In ea tu parte litterarum tuarum, ut fratrem amantem decuit, sententiis magis crebris et dulcibus usus es et verba modulatius collocasti. Quae cum legerem (in senatu enim per valetudinem non potui adesse), cum eloquentia tua fratrem tuum urgeri viderem, ita cum tacitis cogitationibus meis compellabam: “Quid hoc rei est, Antonine? Nam tibi video nomen quod recusaveras accipiendum esse et de sententia decedendum. Quid nunc meae, quid philosophorum litterae agunt? Litteris militis vincimur. Ecquid autem pulchre scripsisse videtur? Numquod verbum insolens aut intempestivum? Aut num ego tibi videor gloriosum militem erudisse? Quin, quod votis omnibus expetisti, habes fratrem fortem, virum bonum dicendi peritum; eadem enim dicit ille quam tu, sed ea minus multis ille quam tu.” 25 Cum maxime haec ego mecum agitabam, quom orationi tuae successit Antonini oratio, di boni, quam pulchra, quam vera, multa! Plane dicta omnia et verba delenifica pietate et fide et amore et desiderio delibuta. Quid facerem inter duos, ambos meos? Petitoremne an, unde peteretur, magis laudarem? Antoninus erat cum imperio obsequens, tu autem, Luci, cum obsequio eras prae amore imperiosus. Eas ego orationes ambas cum dextra laevaque manu mea gestarem, amplior mihi et ornatior videbar daduchis Eleusine faces gestantes et regibus sceptra tenetibus et quindecemviris libros adeuntibus, deosque patrios ita comprecatus sum: “Hammo Juppiter et Libyae”<...> [sex paginae desunt]   M. Frontonis ad M. Antoninum de eloquentia liber   ad Anton. de eloqu. 1 [133 Hout; 2.46 Haines] <Antonino Augusto Fronto.>   1 <...> ingenio discrepanti. Juberesne me niti contra naturam adverso, quod ajunt, flumine? Quid, si quis postularet, ut Phidias ludicra aut Canachus deum simulacra fingerent aut Calamis ut Tyrrhena aut Polycletus Etrusca? Quid si Parrhasium versicolora pingere juberet aut Apellen unicolora aut Nealcen magnifica aut Protogenen minuta aut Nician obscura aut Dionysium inlustria aut lascivia Euphranorem aut Pausiam . . . . . . . . a? 2 In poetis autem quis ignorat, ut gracilis sit Lucilius, Albucius aridus, sublimis Lucretius, medicoris Pacuvius, inaequalis Accius, Ennius multiformis? Historiam quoque scripsere Sallustius structe, Pictor incondite, Claudius lepide, Antias invenuste, Seisenna longinque, verbis Cato multijugis, Coelius singulis. Contionatur autem Cato infeste, Gracchus turbulente, Tullius gloriose; jam in judiciis saevit idem Cato, triumphat Cicero, tumultuantur Gracchus, Calvus rixatur.   3 Sed haec exempla fortasse contemnas? Quid? Philosophi ipsi nonne diverso genere orationis usi sunt? Zeno ad docendum planissimus, Socrates ad coarguendum captiosissimus, Diogenes ad exprobrandum promptissimus, Heraclitus obscurus: involvere omnia, Pythagora mirificus: clandestinis signis sancire omnia, Clitomachus anceps: in dubium vocare omnia. Quidnam igitur agerent isti ipsi sapientissimi viri, si de suo quisque more atque instituto deducerentur? Socrates ne coargueret, Zeno ne disceptaret, Diogenes ne increparet, ne quid Pythagoras sanciret, ne quid Heraclitus absconderet, ne quid Clitomachus ambigeret? 4 Sed ne in prima ista parte diutius, quam epistulae modus postulat, commoremur, tempus de verbis primum, quid censeas, considerare. Dic sodes hoc mihi: Utrumne, temetsi sine ullo labore ac studio meo verba mihi elegantiora ultro occurrerent, spernenda censes ac repudianda an cum labore quidem et studio investigare verba elegantia prohibes, eadem vero, si ultro, si injussu atque invocatu meo venerint, ut Menelaum ad epulas quidem, recipi jubes? Nam istud quidem vetare durum prosus atque inhumanum est: Consimile ut si ab hospite, qui te Falerno accipiat, quod rure ejus natum domi superfiat, Cretense postules vel Saguntinum, quod, malum, foris quaerendum sibi atque mercandum sit. Quid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . haud igitur indicarent ea, si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quid nostra memoria Euphrates, Dio, Timocrates, Athenodotus? Quid horum magister Musonius? Nonne summa facundia praediti neque minus sapientiae, quam eloquentiae gloria incluti extiterunt? An tu . . . . .s . . . . . . . . . consulto verbis usum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ne pallium quidem sordibus obsitum candido et pure lauto praetulisset. Nisi forte eum tu arbitrare claudum quoque consulto factum et servum consulto natum. Quid igitur est? Tam facile ille [duae paginae desunt]   ad Anton. de eloqu. 2 [135 Hout; 2.52 Haines] <Antonino Augusto Fronto.> 1 <...> verborum loca, gradus pondera aetates dignitatesque dinoscere, ne in oratione praepostere, ut in temulento ac perturbato convivio, conlocentur; quae ratio sit verba geminandi et interdum trigeminandi, nonnumquam quadriplicia, saepe quinquies aut eo amplius superlata ponendi, ne frustra neve temere verborum strues acerventur, sed ut certo ac sollertei termino uniantur. 2 Post ista omnia investigata, examinata, distincta, finita, cognita verborum omnium, ut ita dixerim, populo, sicut in bello, ubi opus est legionem conscribere, non tantum voluntarios legimus, sed etiam latentis militari aetate conquirimus, ita ubi verborum praesidiis opus sit, non voluntariis tantum, quae ultro obvenerint, utemur, sed latentia eliciemus atque ad imperandum indigabimus. 3 Hic illud etiam, ut ego arbitror, scite a nobis conventum, quibus rationibus verba quaerantur, ut non hiantes oscitantesque exspectemus, quando verbum ultro in linguam quasi Palladium de caelo depluat, sed ut regiones verborum et saltus noverimus ut, ubi quaesitis opus sit, ut per viam potius ad vestigandum quam invio progrediamur. 4 Certa igitur loca sunt a nobis <...> [duae paginae legi nequeunt]   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dicitur autem esse officiorum rationis tripertitas ab eis: Primam speciem substantiae, ut sit, alteram qualitatis . . . tis, ut talis sit, tertiam rei, ut rem ipsam, cujus causa sapiens superiora officia suscipit, exerceat. Etiam profecto vir sapiens esse non potest, nisi . . autem non vulgari ritu et promisco, sed qui aptus con . . . . . . tendenti ad sapientiam. Has duas officiorum species substantiae et qualitatis . . . . . . . eri . ed non ter annua t . . . . neque semet contentas, sed illi - - g . . . . ipsam et negotium capiscendae exi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . discendae exercendaeque sapientiae. Tertiam autem hanc speciem rei dico ac negotiis solam terminatam, se quasi contentam. Hac officiorum ratione, si tamen aut ille verum ajebat aut ego olim audita memoria retineo, ut prima homini ad sapientiam tendenti sint molimenta, quae ad vitam salutemque pertinent adcurandam. Igitur et prandere et lavari et ungui et cetera ejusmodi munera tota sunt sapientis officia, quamquam neque in balneo quisquam sapientia s . p . ni . . usl . neque ut circa et au . . . d . id majus vi . . . . . . es . ad mensam cenarit, prandio comeso vomerit, sapientiam ructarit . . . . . ur, si ederis . . . . . . . . ces, i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nisi vixeris. 5 Quid igitur istic admonendus es ne tinc . . . c . . . . nvio hoc d . . . . is . ene . . . prandio et mensa situm existimes? Non est sapientiae negotium vesci, sed sine vita, qua sine nulla sapientia, studia nulla si possunt esse, jam nunc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vides igitur . . . . . . . . officia et . . . . . . . tum a . ua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sapientia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non sunt qui . . . . at non aeque sequentia officia, quae sunt qualitati cujusque accomodata, possunt omnium esse communia: Aliud prandium gubernatori commune et aliud pugili de integris tegoribus; aliud prandendi tempus aliua lavatio, alius somnus, alia pervigilatio. 6 Considera igitur, an in hac secunda ratione officiorum contineatur eloquentiae studium. Nam Caesarum est in senatu quae e re sunt suadere, populum de plerisque negotiis in contione appellare, jus injustum corrigere, per orbem litteras missitare, reges exterarum gentium compellare, sociorum culpas edictis coervcere, bene facta laudare, seditiosos compescere, feroces territare. Omnia ista profecto verbis sunt ac litteris agenda. Non excoles igitur id, quod tibi totiens tantisque in rebus videas magno usui futurum? An nihil referre arbitraris qualibus verbis agas, quae non nisi verbis agi possunt? Erras, si putas pari auctoritate in senatu fore Thersitae verbis expromptam sententiam et Menelai aut Ulixi orationem, quorum Homerus et voltus in agendo et habitus et status et voces canoras ac modulationem eloquentiae genera diversa nondum <...> [duae paginae legi nequeunt]   7<…> fuisse Croesum et Solonem, periandrum et Polycraten, Alcibiaden denique et Socraten. Quis dubitat sapientem ab insipsiente vel praecipue consilio et dilectu rerum et opinione discerni et, si sit optio atque electio divitiarum atque egestatus, quamquam utraque et malitia et virtute careant, tamen electionem laude et culpa non carere? Proprium namque sapientis officium est recte eligere neque perperam vel postponere vel anteferre. 8 Si me interroges concupiscamne bonam valetudinem, abnuam equidem, si sim philosophus: Nihil est enim fas concupiscere sapienti aut adpetere, quod fors fuat, an frustra concupiscat; nec quicquam, quod in manu Fortunae situm videat, concupiscet. Tamen si necessario sit altera res eligenda, Achillei potius pernicitatem eligam quam debilitaten Philoctetae. Simile igitur in eloquentia servandum: Non opere nimio concupiscas igitur nec opere nimio aversere; tum si eligendum sit, longe longeque eloquentiam infantiae praeferas. 9 Audivi te nonnumquam ita dicentem: “Atenim cum aliquid pulchrius elocutus sum placeo mihi ideoque eloquentiam fugio.” Quin tu potius illud corrigis ac mederis ne places tibi, non ut id propter quod places repudies? Nam ut nunc facis, alibi tu medicamenta obligas. Quid tandem? Si tibi placebis tibi pio aliquo cultu parentis, pietatem spernabere? Places tibi cum facundus? Igitur verbera te; quid facundiam verberas? Tametsi Plato ita diceret itaque te compellaret: “O juvenis, periculosa est tibi praepropera placendi fuga: Novissimum namque homini sapientiam colenti amiculum est gloriae cupido; id novissimum exuitur.” Ipsi, ipsi, inquam, Platoni in novissimum usque vitae finem gloria amiculum erit. 10 Illud etiam audisse me memini pleraque sapientes viros in placitis mentis atque consultis habere debere quorum intedum usu abstineant, itemque interdum nonnulla in usu habere debere quae dogmatis improbent neque ubique rationem sapientiae rectam et usum vitae necessarium congruere. 11 Fac te, Caesar, ad sapientiam Cleanthis aut Zenonis posse pertingere, ingratiis tamen sibi purpureum pallium erit sumendum, non pallium philosophorum soloci lana. Purpureo <...> [una pagina legi nequit]   12<...> ne di immortales seirint comitium et rostra et tribunalia Catonis et Gracchi et Ciceronis orationibus celebrata hoc potissimum saeculo conticiscere, orbem terrae, quem vocalem acceperis, mutum a te fieri. Si linguam quis uni homini exsecet, inmanis habeatur. Eloquentiam humano generi exsicari mediocre facinus putas? Non hunc adnumeras Tereo aut Lycurgo? Qui Lycurgus quid tandem mali facinoris admisit, quam vites amputavit? Multis profecto gentibus ac nationibus profuisset vinum undique gentium exterminatum! Tamen Lycurgus poenas caesarum vitium luit. Quare metuendam censeo divinitus poenam eloquentiae exterminatae. Nam vinea in unius tutela dei sita, eloquentiam vero multi in caelo diligunt: Minerva orationis magistra, Mercurius nuntiis praeditus, Apollo paeanum auctor, Liber dithyramborum cognitor, Fauni vaticinantium incitatores, magistra Homeri Calliopa, magister Enni Homerus et Somnus. 13 Tum si studium philosophiae in rebus esset solis occupatum, minus mirarer, quod tanto opere verba contemneres. Discere te autem ceratinas et soritas et pseudomenus, verba contorta et fidicularia, neglegere vero cultum orationis et gravitatem et majestatem et gratiam et nitorem, hoc indicat loqui te quam eloqui malle, murmurare potius et friguttire quam clangere. Diodori tu et Alexini verba verbis Platonis et Xenophontis et Antisthenis anteponis, ut si quis histrionae studiosus Tasurci gestu potius quam Roscii uteretur, ut si in natando, si aeque liceret, ranam potius quam delphinos aemulari mallet, coturnicum potius pinnis breviculis quam aquilarum majestate volitare! 14 Ubi illud acumen tuum? Ubi subtilitas? Evigila et atende, quid cupiat ipse Chrysippus? Non est contentus, verum auget, in quantum potest, exaggerat, praemunit, iterat, differt, recurrit, interrogat, describit, dividit, personas fingit, orationem suam alii accommodat: ταῦτα δ᾿ ἐστὶν αὔξειν, διασκευάζειν, προϋπεργάζεσθαι, πάλιν λέγειν, ἐπαναφέρειν, παράπτειν, προσωποποιεῖν. Videsne ab eo paene omnia oratorum arma tractari? Igitur, si ipse Chrysippus his utendum esse ostendit, quid ego amplius postulo nisi, ut ne verbis dialecticorum, sed potius Platonis utaris: Gladio dimicandum esse convenit, verum utrum dimices gladio robiginoso an splendido interest. 15Quare est den . ce ais . . agrais . . . . s . . excepto versus composuisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . augere, sed id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ni caute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c . . . omne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ins . . . . . . . . . . . . ini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . am . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u . . . es . . . . . . . et ad ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . alienas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ra eam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16kisi non quam . . . . . . . . nionis . . . . . . . . . . . . . potes s . . . . . . . . . . . Aesopus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pericles Anaxagorae physici, non Alexini sycophantae auditor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . convocatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stillicidiis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . putas quos o . . . . scribere, quamquam . . . . . . . . ans sa . . . . con . . . . sco dialecticorum verbis scribat, suspirantem, tussientem immo Jovem scripserit, non tonantem. Para potius orationem dignam sensibus, quos e philosophia hauries, et quanto honestius sentis tanto augustius dicas. 17 Quin erige te et extolle et tortores istos, qui te ut abietem et alnum proceram incurvant et ad chamaetorta detrahunt, valido cacumine tuo excute et tempta an usquam ab dignitate discesseris. Sed comitem philosophiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . has si tenueris, contemnas; quom contempseris, nescias. Dic, obsecro, mihi: De dialecticis istis ecquid tenes? Ecquid tenere te gaudes? Nolo mihi dicas: Apud te ipse reputa. Ego illud praedico, quom plurimos amicos in hac disciplina tenuerim <...> 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rediro . . pudore studiorum tuorum comite exordiorum consilia paxosci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ne quen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . acci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accolta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . contra sosu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neque . . . . . . . . . . in tui ages . . . . . . . . . . . . inops est ipsum pectus . . . . . . . . concessi n . . . . . . . . experta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adipisci in hanc te . . . . agel deest lu . . . . . . . mutilum perficere, hiulcum fartis jugare . . . . . . e . . gentat . . . . . . . set qui meum in . . . . . . . . . . . nonne omnis oratorum copias sectabere: refutandi sollertiam, augendi facultatetm, eludendi venustatem, permovendi delectandique, deterrendi incitandique, ornandi, conciliandi, infamandi, laxandi audientium animos aut alliciendi, rectam quandam in dicendo potentiam ac potestatem?   19 Tum si quando tibi negotiis disticto perpetuae orationis conscribundae tempus deesset, nonne te tumultuaris quibusdam et lucrativis studiorum solaciis fulciebas, synonymis colligendis, verbis interdum singularibus requirendis, ut veterum commata, ut cola synonymorum ratione converteres, ut de volgaribus elegantia, de contaminateis nova redderes, imaginem aliquam accommodares, figuram iniceres, prisco verbo adornares, colorem vetusculum adpingeres? Haec si propterea contemnis, quia didicisti, philosophiam quoque discendo contemnes. 20 Sed non ea sunt ista, quae possis contemnere; possis sane non amare, ut olim Crassus tristis risum oderat, ut nostra hic memoria Crassus lucem fugitabat, ut nostra itidem memoria vir consularis campos formidabat, Pomptinum campum <...> [octo paginae desunt]   ad Anton. de eloqu. 3 [146 Hout; 2.70 Haines] <Antonino Augusto Fronto.> 1<...> tralata tum notione dic . . res ita impulerit . . . proverbia tralata . . . . vincas inesse. Testitra . . . . . . aterrid . . . . . . monere . . . . . . . . . . . . . te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . versum es . . . . . . . . . . . duis utetur coni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ent alterum proprium, ‘comes’, alterum translatum, ‘opifex’ neque ulla verbis istis inter se communio inest neque propinquitas. Offendit igitur aures et ingruens diversitatem suam notat sti sapere quid est dictum . . . . . . . . . . . . sapere aure . . . trum more dicta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atenem . . . . r . . Sallustius ait: “Quinque manu, ventre, pene bona patria laceraverat.” Vides quantum similitudine verborum formae adsecutus sit ut postremum verbum, quamquam parum pudicum, non indecorum esse videatur, ideo scilicet quod haec verba similia praecedant. Quodsi ita haec verba contra dixisset: “Quique pene, manu, ventre bona patria laceraverat”, inaudita obscenitas hic appareret . . . . . . . . . . excusare ssiros . duisesethat quibus tertio que . . . . . . . . . . duobus his verbis manu ventre adposita . . . . . . . . . . aures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tertioque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [una pagina legi nequit et duae paginae desunt] 2<...> nullius ante nisi unius Gaji Sallusti trita solo, sensum dictu periculosum et paene obstetricium pulcherrimo cultu et honestissimo ornatu protulisti. εὔφρανας, ὑπερεύφρανας, σώζεο μοι. 3Quod librari manu epistula scripta est, a labore gravi digitis consului, quei sunt jam in suspicione.   ad Anton. de eloqu. 4 [146 Hout; 2.72 Haines] Antonino Augusto Fronto. 1 Quid si quis scrutetur qua sollertia et quibus raionibus . . . Vestales virgines captae sint? Propterea neque balbam virginem capi neque sirbenam . . . . fas est r . mn . . . . t . . . . . nisi tal . . . . . cubi . . . . omnis . . . mnevis . . . . . quis neutalenisandes verba ins . lum . . . us balbuttientium vox his ferme verbis significatur: Vox impedita, vox vincta, vox difficilis, vox trunca, vox inperfecta, vox absona. His contraria quaerenti tibi subvenisse certum habeo: Vox eximia, vox absoluta, vox facilis, vox integra, vox lenis. Tua vox amabilis tum . . . . lenis tale . erd . . . . . . . . ull . uac . . b . . . . . . . . non . . nern . . . . a . . . . . . i et potest dic, Antonine, his omnibus . . . i . . . liiseno . . . . m . . . . . s . m sirabaennd . lauuim, quibus vocabulis appellentur sirbeni, percensio sit. 2 At vocis modulatae amatores primas audisse feruntur vernas aves luco opaco concinentes. Visa sunt perdulcia audiri avium murmura: Prosus uti disce . . . . . proded . . . . . aud . . . . plures nollent affecti. Post pastores suis modulati recens repertis fistulis se atque pecus oblectabant: Visae fistulae longe avibus modulatorioes. 3 Videbaris mihi ridenter declarare, quae verius proclamat ita Plautus: “E . . . bt . . . turis liquidioribus sane implere s . l . . . . . . . . . . . . . isa ubi . . . nessi . . . . . . . ” Sed . . . . . . . . ea insidi . . . . . . . . . . necessaria peteret . . suastanob quam antea, perita cura signum inceptui canere i . i . l . m . . . . . . . . crapula affecti amatores vi . ae . . . n . . . . . d . . . ia sunt perfecti aut faventes pro . . . . . e fabellis ut docerent via inde . . . . neomicel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ros alti . . . . . . . . . . . nto . . . . . . . . usi ora . . . post . . . setu det au . relicti atmqu . . ere fore . . . rent fa . e aures nausiant . . uli intima . . . . . m suabest . . . . a . . ita ad lubitos aut funalia alliciat . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Item pleraque sic explicasse oratione Sallustium ais et hoc exemplo usus: “Multi murmurantium voculis in luco in luco eloquentiae oblectantur”. Ennium deinde et Accium et Lucretium ampliore jam mugitu personantis tamen tolerant. At ubi Catonis et Sallustii et Tulli tuba exaudita est, trepidant et pavent et fugam frustra meditantur. Nam illic quoque in philosophiae disciplinis, ubi tutum sibi perfugium outant, Platonis ἴδια ῥήματα erunt audienda. 5 Haec in eos fabula competit, qui nulla indole praediti eloquentiam desperantes fugitant. Tibi, Caesar, ut cui maxime, sublime et excelsum et amplificum ingenium ab dis datum est; nam primi tui sensus et incunabula studiorum tuorum mihi cognita sunt. Elucebat jam tunc nobilitas mentis et dignitas sententiarum quibus sola fere deerant verborum lumina; ea quoque variis exercitationibus instruebamus. Ibi tu mihi videre mora temporali et laboris taedio defessus eloquentiae studium reliquisse, ad philosophiam devertisse, ubi nullum prohoemium cum cura excolendum, nulla narratio breviter et dilucide et callide collocanda, nullae quaestiones partiendae, nulla argumenta quaerenda, nihil exaggerendum aut ambiguendum; vere adhoc rectissimum est. 6 An tibi sae . . . . . . . . a tu sapiens inter . . . . . de rebus saepe videtur . se supersit tamen si dixisses nonnumquam de . . . . mosstos . . e . . ne . . . satis consuluisses . . . . . . . . m . . . . . . . . . . . . iste sine aquis supra aut in dicto quid gt . . sid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dum providet rent . . . modum. 7 Verum etiam saepe vir sapiens sicut pater tuus nescit elegato plane modo, sed si ita res tilerunt, ut de puteo quoque . . . . . puteus istic minus sorderet . . . . . s, si ita res tulit recte est . . . . . . . . . . . ver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suum mihi v . . . udis rent . . . . . . . . . . . ne sub sententia quae adest . . bse . . . . . . id . . . . . . . . n . . . . . . . . . . sub se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . so . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . p . . . ei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . erb . . . . et . . . . . . . . . . . . ae . . . . tu . . . . . . . ser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tium . . . . . . . . . . . . ob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ingenio autem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sententias inopinatas aliis exin partas. Tanto majus periculum sententieis inest, nisi figurationibus moderatis temperantur. Graecis verbis fortasse apertius significabo: τὰ καινὰ παράδοξα τῶν ἐνθυμημάτων εἴδωλα εἰς αὐτὰ πλάσματα . . . . πεηι πιθανὰ λέγειν ποιιδετοιερ . . . . . ποτανασιν τι . . . ακ ἄλλων χαι . . . . . non τὰ ηκ . ι φοτι και . . . . . . φ . . . . . . . πειπτεσιιhρ . . . . . . . . hoc ego anima . . eanna nullis orationibus suis subvenisse liber et sua deo esse et copias misti ad aetates ut . . . . . . rarus; scias igitur in hoc uno eximiam eloquentiam tuam claudere. 8 Moneo igitur Marcum meum etiam atque etiam et, ut meminerit, obsecro: Quotienscumque ἀδοξότερον ἐνθύμημα animo conceperis, volvas illud tumet, diversis et variis figurationibus verses temperesque et verbis splendidis excolas, Nam quae nova et inopinata audientibus sunt, periculum est, nisi ornentur et figurentur, ne videantur absurda. 9 Cetera omnia tibi in eloquentia expolita et explorata sunt: Scis verba quaerere, scis reperta recte collocare, scis colorem sincerem vetustatis appingere; sententiis autem gravissimis abundas [quattuor paginae desunt] 10 <...> prima conditio est; ubi semel patefactae sunt, facile cognitae negleguntur. Contemni denique et nullo honore esse rhetora videas; observari autem et omnibus officiis coli dialecticos, quod in eorum rationibus semper obscuri aliquid et tortuosi sit, eoque fit, ut magistro discipulus haereat semper et inserviat, vinctus perpetuis quibusdam vinculeis attineatur. 11 Dicet aliquis: “Tu igitur praeter ceteros nimirum verbis pulchris et insignibus uteris?” Ego immo volgaribus et obsoletis. Quid igitur est? Nisi istud saltem scirem, deterioribus uterer.   ad Anton. de eloqu. 5 [151 Hout; 2.80 Haines] Antonino Augusto Fronto. 1 Pleraque in oratione recenti tua, quod ad sententias attinet, animadverto egregia esse; pauca admodum uno tenus verbo corrigenda; nonnihil interdum elocutione novella parum signatum. Quae melius visum est particulatim scribere: Ita enim facilius perpendes singula et satis temporis ad inspiciendum habebis, ut qui plurimis negotis aut agendis occupatus sis aut actis defessus. 2 Igitur in prohoemio quae egregie a te dicta putem quaeque arbitrer corrigenda scripsi tibi. Scripturum deinceps pro amore in te meo confide cetera. Prima ergo pars tota mirifica est, multis et gravibus sententis referta, in quibus eximiae sunt ubi . . . . . sunt . . . . . . . imios si recte . . . . . t . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . judicamus. 3 Quid . . omnium . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pravis et malis sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a nullis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et . . . . . cenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quo genere Cato ubi . . . . . . . . o . . ed si dissertes domi . . . . . . . . . primis . . . . . . . . . . . . . et hoc genere . . . . . . . . . . . id eximiae . . . . . . . . . esse . am . . de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . st . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . moderatae et . . . . . . nonnullo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . esse si parce et cum dignitate ad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . multo deinde gravior et severior subjuncta - - si nihil - - nobis opinionis - - διασκευῇ et παρεκβάσει carendum. 4 Enimvero ad philosophos librum legas; magistro interpretanti tacitus adtendas; intellexisse adnuas; aliis legentibus ipse plerumque dormites; audias τὶ τὸ πρῶτον; τὶ τὸ δεύτερον; Diu multumque numerari; εἰ ἡμέρα ἐστίν, φῶς ἐστὶ fenestris patentibus laborari. Securus inde abeas, cui nihil per noctem meditandum aut conscribendum, nihil magistro recitandum, nihil pronuntiandum, nulla verbi indagatio, nullus synonymi ornatus, nihil de Graeco in nostram linguam pariter convertendum. In eos quoque magister Dionysium Tenuis arte compositam fabulam protulit de disceptatione vitis et arboris ilicis: 5 Vitis se ante ilicem ferebat, quod suavissimum fructum hominum convivieis et Osiris altaribus crearet: Idem dulce esu, idem haustu jucundum. Tum se majore cura quam Cleopatram reginam ornari, comptius quam Laidem formosam. Pampinos suos ita pulchros esse ut necterentur ex eis Libero thyrsi, corona Sileno, Nymphis Bacchisque redimicula. Ilicem esse horridam, infructuosam, inamabilem; creare boni aut amoeni numquam quicquam praeter glandem; suis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . di, ego autem nunc odolexasco baca . . . . . . . . conlecerata, item vos qua eloquentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     M. Frontonis ad M. Antoninum de orationibus liber   ad Anton. de orat. [153 Hout; 2.100 Haines] <Antonino Augusto Fronto> 1 <...> pauca subnectam, fortasse inepta, iniqua, nam rusus faxo magistrum me experiare. Neque ignoras omnem hanc magistrorum manum vanam propemodum et stolidam esse: Parum eloquentiae et sapientiae nihil. Feres profecto bona venia veterem potestatem et nomen magistri me usurpantem denuo. 2 Fateor enim, quod res est, unam solam posse causam incidere, qua causa claudat aliquantum amor erga te meus: Si eloquentiam neglegas. Neglegas tamen vero potius censeo, quam prave excolas. Confusam eam ego eloquentiam catachannae ritu partim pineis nucibus Catonis, partim Senecae mollibus et febriculosis prunuleis insitam subvertendam censeo radicitus, immo vero Plautino et rato verbo ‘exradicitus’. Neque ignoro copiosum sententiis et redundantem hominem esse, verum sententias ejus tolutares video nusquam quadripedo concito cursu tenere, nusquam pugnare, nusquam majestatem studere et, ut Laberius ait, ‘dictabolaria’, immo dicteria potius eum quam dicta confingere. 3 Itane existimas graviores sententias et eadem e re apud Annaeum istum reperturum te quam apud Sergium? “Sed non modulatas aeque”. Fateor, si prandium idem utriusque apponatur, adpositas oleas alter digitis prendat, ad os adferat, ut manducandi jus fasque est, ita dentibus subiciat, alter autem oleas suas in altum jaciat, ore aperto excipiat, exceptas ut calculos praestrigiator primoribus labris ostentet? Ea re profecto pueri laudent et convivae delectantur, sed alter pudice pranderit, alter labellis gesticulatus erit. “Atenim sunt quaedam in libris ejus scite dicta, graviter quoque nonnulla.” Etiam lamminae interdum argentiolae in cloacis inveniuntur: Eane re cloacas purgandas redimemus? 4 Primum illud in isto genere dicendi vitium turpissimum, quod eandem sententiam milliens alio atque alio amictu indutam referunt. Ut histriones, quom palliolatim saltant caudam cycni, capillum Veneris, Furiae flagellum, eodem pallio demonstrant, ita isti unam eandemque sententiam multimodis faciunt: Ventilant, commutant, comvertunt, eadem lacinia saltitant, refricant eandem unam sententiam saepius quam puellae olfactaria sucina. 5 Dicendum est de fortuna aliquid: Omnis ibi Fortunas Antiatis, Praenestinas, respicientis, balnearum etiam Fortunas omnis cum pennis, cum roteis, cum gubernaculis reperias. 6 Unum exempli causa poetae prohoemium commemorabo, poetae ejusdem temporis ejusdemque nominis: Fuit aeque Annaeus. Is initio carminis sui septem primis versibus nihil aliud quam “bella plus quam civilia” interpretatus est. Num hoc replicet quot sententiis? “Jusque datum sceleri” una sententia est. “In sua victrici conversum viscera”, jam haec altera est. “Cognatasque acies”, tertia haec erit. “In commune nefas” quartam numerat. “Infestisque obvia signa” cumulat quoque quintam. “Signis pares aquilas”, sexta haec Herculis aerumna. “Et pila minantia pilis” septimum de Ajacis scuto corium. Annaea, quis finis erit? Aut si nullus finis nec modus servandus est, cur non addis “et similes lituos”? Addas licet “et carmina nota tubarum”. Sed et loricas et conos et enses et balteos et omnem armorum supellectilem sequere. 7 Apollonius autem - non enim Homeri prohoemiorum par artificium est - Apollonius, inquam, qui Argonautas scripsit, quinque rerum capita prohoemio et imploratione quattuor versibus narrat: “παλαιγενέων κλέα φωτῶν”, viros qui navigassent; “οἳ Πόντοιο διὰ στόμα”, iter quo navigassent; “βασιλῆος ἐφημοσύνῃ Πελίαο”, cujus imperio navigassent; “χρύσειον μετὰ κῶας”, cui rei navigassent; “ἐύζυγον ἤλασαν Ἀργώ”, navem, qua vecti essent. Isti autem tam oratores quam poetae consimile faciunt, ut quae citharoedi solent: Unam aliquam vocalem litteram de Inone vel de Aedone multis et variis accentibus cantare. 8 Quid ego verborum sordes et illuvies? Quid verba modulate collocata et effeminate fluentia? Ubi . . . , ubi ticpioaoc . . celsa . . . . . ero et spencu . . . . . aversantes a . . . . . nnare hoc eloquentiae genus clipeo te Achillis in orationibus certare . . . . . . . . . oportet, non parmulam ventilare neque hastulis hsitrionis ludere. Auqae de sipunculis concinnius saliunt quam de imbribus . . . . . . . . . rem laudant . . . . . . . . . qui ind . . . . . . . . . . . . . quis istorum . . . . . . . . quaeritur . . . ni . . . . . pondere . . . . . in om . . . . delicias orationis apud m . . . . . . . . . d de ai . em . . . . s . n devesiru tu hic locus oculos mir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bodea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘Oculos convenientes’ dixisti. Quis clamor iteratur! Apparuit enim utrumque verbum quaesitum et inventum. Quod ubi verbum investigaveras, pulchre uti sciebas. Impedita voce dicuntur, qui balbuttiunt, et contrarium est soluta et expedita voce; multo melius apparuit ‘enodata’. Quaesisse te arbitror ex eodem isto loco, quod est ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐναντίου: Cum inperfecta vox balbuttientium sit, potuisse dici ‘perfectam’ quia ignorabas verb . t cul . . . . eadem in oratione ‘oculos convenientes’ dixisti . . strabis inprimis inprobatur hic locus, a multiplici significatione est quem Theodorus ἀπὸ τοὺ πολλαχῶς λέγεσθαι appellat: Nam ‘convenire’ et ‘decere’ et ‘aptum esse’ et ‘congruere’ est quod Graeci ἡρμόσθαι appellant. Non dubito alia item te verba percensuisse, nam straboni oculei dispares sunt: Potuisses pares aut inpares dicere; disconcinnos illos, hos concinnos dici potuisse; ‘convenientes’ multo melius. 9 Dicas fortasse: ‘Quid in orationibus meis novicium, quid crispulum, quid fuscum, quid purpurisso litum aut tumidum aut pollutum?’ Nondum quicquam, sed vereor . . . . . . eas promo . . . . . . . . . etiam lunam . . . . . . unt. 10 Laudo censoris factum, qui luos talarios prohibuit, quod semet ipsum diceret, cum ea praeteriret, difficile dignitati servire, quin ad modum crotali aut cymbali pedem poneret. Tum praeterea numta sunt in isto genere dicendi sinceris similia, nisi quis diligenter examinat: “Jurisque datum sceleri eo”, M. Annaeus ait; contra Sallustius: “Omne jus in validioribus esse”. 11 Gallicanus quidam declamator, cum Macedones delibarent Alexandro morbo mortuo an et Babylonem perverterent: “Quid si operas conducitis hyaenas?” inquit. Iste et superbe: “Factum est” (eodem hoc verbo Enni) “vobis, Quirites”, exclamavit, “factum est, factum est opus inexsuperabile: Tiberis est, Tisce, Tiberis quem jubes cludi; Tiber amnis et dominus et fluentium circa regnator undarum.” Ennius “postquam constitit is fluvius, qui est omnibus princeps, qui sub Ovilia” ait. 12 Peritia opus est, ut vestem interpolem a sincera discernas. Itaque tutissimum est lectionibus ejusmodi abstinere: Facilis ad lubrica lapsus est. 13 Unum edictum tuum memini me animadvertisse, quo periculose scripseris vel indigna defecto aliquo libro; hujus edicti initium est: “Florere in suis actibus inlibatam juventutem.” Quid hoc est, Marce? Hoc nempe dicere vis, cupere te Italia oppida frequentari copia juniorum. Quid in versu et verbo primo facit ‘florere’? Quid significat ‘inlibatam juventutem’? Quid sibi volunt ambitus isti et circumitiones? Alia quoque et in eodem edicto sunt ejusmodi. Revertere potius ad verba apta et propria et suo suco imbuta. Scabies, porrigo ex ejusmodi libris concipitur. Monetam illam veterem sectator. Plumbei nummei et cujuscemodi adulterini in istis recentibus nummis saepius inveniuntur quam in vetustis, quibus signatus est Perperna arte factis pristina. 14 Quid igitur? Non malim mihi nummum Antonini aut Commodi aut Pii polluta et contaminata et misera et maculosa maculosioraque quam nutricis pallium. Omnis personet tibia sonora, si possit, ut hebetatiorem linguam sonantiorem reddas. Verbum aliquod adquiras non fictum aperte (nam id quidem absurdum est), sed usurpatum concinnius aut congrentius aut accommodatius. 15 “Tantum antiquitatis curaeque pro Italica gente majoribus fuit”, Sallustius ait. Antiquitatis verbum usitatum, sed nusquam isto sensu usurpatum neque ideo probe placitum. Nam volgo dicitur, quod potius sit, antiquius esse; inde ‘antiquitas’ a Sallustio derivata et, quoniam minus clarum quod et minus usitatum verbum est, insequenti verbo interpretatus est: ‘antiquitatis curaeque’. 16 Hoc modo ‘municipies sacrorum’ dixeris. Sallustius plerisque locis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quid vero te impulit, ut arceres puriora, ut ‘vetustas curaque’ itarares, vero in eloquio aliquam construeres voculam? In ore plebis adhoc pervolgatum est usque hoc genus verborum: Accius, Plautus, Sallustius saepenumero, etiam raro Tullius adhibet. Vias respexi extrema ab meis supposta coquere, vidi Italiae dextima; vide sanitate sit eanp . . . de via extrema tuto locis . . . . . . . Vale. Quisquis vacat nobis, is de jure isto videbit. M. Frontonis epistularum ad Antoninum Pium liber   ad Anton.Pium 1 [161 Hout; 1.126 Haines] Imperatori Anotnino Pio Augusto Fronto. Ut meministi, caesar, cum tibi in senatu gratias agerem, desiderio quodam - - - quae distuleram - - dicit - - nere senatu frequentior . . . . sum nam - - litteras quae eo die recitabuntur - - tes - - librum - - dominus - - bene vale.   ad Anton.Pium 2 [161 Hout; 1.126 Haines] M. Frontoni Antoninus Caesar. 1 Quantas puto - - me tup - hercule - - - optimo in tam trita assidua tibi materia invenire et posse. Sed videlicet valde potens est, quod summe efficere possis, etiam velle. Nihil istis sensibus validus, nihil elocutione, salva sanitate tamen, civilius. Neque enim hoc omittam, ut te justissima laude fraudem, dum metuo ne insolenter laudes meas laudem. Bene igitur accepisti et rectissimo opere, cui plane seposita materia omnis honor debetur. Ceterum ad ostentandum mihi animum tuum non multum egit, nam esse te benignissimum omnium factorum et dictorum meorum conciliatorem bene noveram. Vale, mi Fronto carissime mihi. 2 Illa pars orationis tuae circa faustinae meae honorem gratissime adsumpta verior mihi quam disertior visa est. Nam ita se res habet: Mallem mehercule Gyaris cum illa quam sine illa in Palatio vivere.   ad Anton.Pium 3 [162 Hout; 1.254 Haines] Antonino Pio Augusto Fronto. 1 Si evenire posset, imperator, ut amici ac familiares nostri nostris moribus cuncta agerent, maxime vellem; tum si non moribus, at saltem ut consiliis ubique nostris uterentur. Sed quoniam suum cujusque ingenium vitam gubernat, fateor aegre ferre me quod amicus meus Niger Censorius testamento suo, quo me heredem instituit, parum verbis temperarit. Id ego factum ejus improbus sim, si defendendo purgare postulem. 2 Immemor amicitiae nisi saltem deprecando sublevem. Fuit sine dubio Niger Censorinus verborum suorum inpos et minus consideratus, sed idem multarum rerum frugi vir et fortis et innocens. Tuae clementiae est, imperator, unicam hominis verborum culpam cum ceteris ejus recte factis ponderare. 3 Ego quidem cum ad amicitiam ejus accessi, alii ampliorem gloriam strenua opera domi bellqiue promeruerant. Ut ceteros ejus amicos omittam, Turboni Marcio et Erucio Claro erat familiarissimus, qui duo egregi viri alter equestris, alter senatoriordinis primari fuerunt. Postea vero ex tuis etiam judiciis et plurimum et honoris et auctoritate accesserat. Talis ego viri amicitiam adpetivi. 4 Haud sciam, an qui dicat debuisse me amictiam cum eo desinere, postquam cognoveram gratiam ejus apud animum tuum imminutam. Numquam ita animatus fui, imperator, ut coeptas in rebus prosperis amicitias, si quid adversi increpuisset, desererem. Et omnino (cur enim non sententiam animi mei expromam?) ego eum, qui te non amabit, hostis numero habebo; quem vero tu minus amabis miserum potius quam hostem judicabo. Denique eis . . . e . . rs . ad . it nat . s novas i . . mi . . . . intentius; permultum enim refert inprobes aliquem an cii . . . oderis. 5 Cu . . . em totam e . . . . . aba . m . . . . . e . . . . . . . . cujus t . . . . . . . . . . . . . inminuente . . . r . . . in honoribus is . . . . . . . . . rat ini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . uma . . . . . . . . . . . . inviis et consiliis indigebat; atque utinam Niger, sicut in plerisque mihi post paruit, ita consilium meum in testamento conscribendo antea rogasset! Haud umquam tantam maculam memoriae suae inussusset verbis inmoderatis ipsum se potius quam alios laedantibus nec . . . . . . . . e vastius intervallum intercessisset, quo . . . . . . vir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . erisatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . miurus . cui . . . . . . . . . s . isistoses . . . . ne . . . . . anonodus . d . . . lus intolerabile sat . . . . . . . . amas . . . en . . . tiva . . . etia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . otium me . . . . . . . . . . . . es hunc virum illo ipso tempore quo offendit; sed amando ita offendit, ut pleraque animalia, quibus abest ars et sedulitas educandi ova atque catulos suos unguibus aut dentibus male contrectant nec odio, sed imperitia nutricandi obterunt. 6 Ego certe deos superos inferosque et fidem arcanam humanae amicitiae testor me semper auctorem fuisse, cujus - - - me - - animo - - utraque causas - - - et sane - - - hominem - - - eum incidisse magis doleas sed fideliter quem - - - in eodem agere velle in quo - - - et sane - - - expectari poterat in eo, quem . . . . . xerat nec . . . . . . . tanta benignitas et tot beneficia - - - tri tibi autem non - - - equidem - - - cumque habeat suum finem. res autem istas, quas nec tacere voluimus nec negare credimus et, si dii aequi sunt, veras et congruentes simplicitati nostrae amicitiae, semper adsequamur.   ad Anton.Pium 4 [164 Hout; 1.260 Haines] Domino meo Caesari. 1 Niger Censorius diem suum obiit. Quincuncem bonorum suorum nobis reliquit testamento cetera honesto, quod ad verba vero adtinet, inconsiderato, in quo irae magis quam decori suo consuluit. Inclementius enim progressus est in Gavium Maximum clarissimum et nobis observandum virum. 2 Ob eam rem necessarium visum scribere me domino nostro patri tuo et ipsi Gavio Maximo difficillimae quidem rationis epistulas, in quibus et factum Nigri mei, quod inprobabam, non reprehendere nequibam, et tamen amici atque heredis officium, ut par erat, retinere cupiebam. Haec ego te, ut mea omnia cetera, conatus mehercules ad te quoque de eadem re prolixiores litteras scribere; sed recordanti cuncta mihi melius visum non obtundere te neque a potioribus avocare.   ad Anton.Pium 5 [164 Hout; 1.226 Haines] Antonino Pio Augusto Fronto. Vitae meae parte depicisci cupio, imperator, ut te complecterer felicissimo et optatissimo initi imperii die, quem ego diem natalem salutis, dignitatis, securitatis meae existimo. Sed dolor umeri gravis, cervicis vero multo gravissimus ita me adflixit, ut adhuc usque vix inclinare me vel erigere vel convertere possim: Ita immobili cervici utor. Sed apud lares, penates deosque familiares meos et reddidi et suscepi vota et precatus sum uti anno insequenti bis te complecterer ista die, bis pectus tuum et manus exoscularer praeteriti simul et praesentis anni vicem persequens.   ad Anton.Pium 6 [165 Hout; 1.228 Haines] Ab Augusto rescriptum. Cum bene perspectas habeam sincerissimas in me adfectiones tuas, tum et ex meo animo non difficile credo, mi Fronto carissime, vel praecipue hunc diem quo me suscipere hanc stationem placuit a te potissimum vere religioseque celebrari. Et ego quidem et vota tua et te mente, ut par erat, repraesentavi mihi vuo malum iniquis . . . . s . . . . . . . tantam amicitiam iniquos . am . . . plus . . . . . . . . .   ad Anton.Pium 7 = ad amic. 2.7   ad Anton.Pium 8 [166 Hout; 1.236 Haines] Antonino Pio Augusto Fronto. 1 Omnem operam me dedisse, sanctissime imeprator, et inpenso studio cupisse fungi proconsulari munere res ipsa testis est. Nam et de jure sortiendi, quoad incertum fuit, disceptavi et, postquam jure liberorum prior alius apparuit, eam, quae mihi remansit, splendidissimam provinciam pro electa habui. Postilla quaecumque ad instruendam provinciam adtinerent, quo facilius a me tanta negotia per amicorum copias obirentur, sedulo praeparavi: Propinquos et amicos meos, quorum fidem et integritatem cognoveram, domo accivi; Alexandriam ad familiares meos scripsi, ut Athenas festinarent ibique me opperirentur, iisque Graecarum epistularum curam doctissimis viris detuli; ex Cilicia etiam splendidos viros, quod magna mihi in ea provincia amicorum copia est, cum publice privatimque semper negotia Cilicum apud te defenderim, ut venirent, hortatus sum. Ex Mauretania quoque virum amantissimum mihique mutuo carum Julium Senem ad me vocavi, cujus non modo fide et diligentia, sed etiam militari industria circa quaerendos et continendos latrones adjuvarer. 2 Haec omnia feci spe fretus posse me victu tenui et aqua potanda malam valetudinem, qua impedior, si non omnino sedare, certe ad majora intervalla et levioribus impetus mitigare. Ita evenit, ut solito diutius bene valerem et fortis vigerem, adeo ut etiam duas amicorum causas non minimi laboris apud te tutatus sim. Ingruit deinde tanta vis valetudinis, quae mihi ostenderet, omnem spem illam etiam frustra fuisse: Prope omnia du . . . me . . . . . o . . . mihi . . . . . . . . ci sunt . . . . . . . eret ob . fini . . . . . . . dinen . . . . . . . res . . . . mot . . . . . . . eastus . . . con . . . . essem . . . . . . . es et nonis . . . . ate . . . . . s stae . . . oribus . . . . . . . . . . . . pen . . . . iru . . n . . ecum . . r . . . . ris . . que . . eadem quae n . . . . . . . . uin . . . . . . p . fur . . . . . ri . . . . . s . . . quis enim l . e . . hos . . . . bis sim . . . . . . . . . ervales . . . . . ins . . . sunt . . nia . . . . . . . . . . re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . os est nam ejus . . . . . h . . . . namus . . . . . . . i . . . l . est tuus est e . . . e . . . . . . a . . . . . . nia . . . . hono . . . . . . uusus . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . . ota . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . add . . . . . sive quis . . . . . . . . . . . ta . us s . . . . . ere . . . . . ta tu sis . . . . . . . . . . . . is carissim . . . . . . . . . . . ina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ea te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ae p . . . . . . . . . . n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . niae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Una pagina legi nequit]   ad Anton.Pium 9 = ad amic. 2.1   ad Anton.Pium 10 [168 Hout; 1.262 Haines] <Antonino Pio Augusto Fronto. 1 Accepi, Caesar <...> lt;...> equitus Romani nius contubernalis mei Sexti Calpurnii dignitatem rogatu meo exornasti duabus jam procurationibus datis. Ea ego duarum procurationum beneficia quater numero: Bis cum dedisti procurationes itemqu bis cum excusationes recepisti. 2 Supplicavi tibi jam per biennium pro Appiano amico meo, cum quo mihi et vetus consuetudo et studiorum usus prope cotidianus intercedit. Quin ipsum quoque certum habeo et adfirmare ausim eadem modestia usurum, qua Calpurnius Julianus meis usus est. Dignitatis enim suae in senectute ornandae causa, non ambitione aut procuratoris stipendii cupiditate optat adpisci hunc honorem. Quom primum pro Appiano petivi, ita benigne admisisti preces meas, ut sperare deberem. 3 Proximo superiore anno petenti mihi propitius multa respondisti, illud vero etiam comiter, futurum ut, cum Appiano me rogante procurationem dedisses, causidicorum scatebra exorertur idem petentium. Meministi etiam, quem de Graecia propitius et ridens nominaveris. Sed multa distant: Aetas, orbitas, cui leniendas solaciis opus est. Ausim dicere honestatem quoque et probitatem inter duos bonos viros nonnihil tamen distare; quod propterea facilius dico, quoniam illum, cui amicum meum antepono, non nominavi. 4 Postremo dicam, quomodo simplicitas mea et veritas me dicere hortantur et fiducia amoris erga te mei, profecto aequius esse illum quoque propter me impetrare. Memento etiam, domine imperator, cum ille meo exemplo petet, me biennio hoc petisse: Igitur illei quoque, sei videbitur, post biennium dato. Fecerit exemplo nostro, si ipse quoque se tibi impetraverit excusare.   ad Anton.Pium 11 = ad amic. 2.2   ad Anton.Pium 12 = ad amic. 2.3   ad Anton.Pium 13 = ad amic. 2.4     M. Frontonis epistularum ad amicos liber I ad amicos 1.1 [170 Hout; 1.282 Haines] Fronto Claudio Severo salutem. 1 Commendandi mos initio dicitur benivolentia ortus, cum suum quisque amicum ali amico suo demonstratum conciliatumque vellet. Paulatim denique uste mos progressus est, ut etiam eos, qui publico vel privato judicio disceptarent, non tamen inproba res videretur judicibus ipsis aut iis, qui consilio adessent, commendare, non, opinor, ad justitiam judicis labefactandam vel de vera sententia deducendam. Sed iste in ipsis judiciis mos inveteratus erat causa perorata laudatores adhibere, qui, quicquid de reo existimarent, pro sua opinione cum fide expromerent; item istae commendantium litterae laudationis munere fungi visae sunt. 2 Quorsum hoc tam ex alto prohoemium? Ne me existimasses parum considerasse gravitatem auctoritatemque tuam commendando Corneliano Sulpicio familiarissimo meo, qui propediem causam apud vos dicturos est, sed, ut dici, veteris instituti exemplo necessarium meum laudare apud te ausus sum. Industrius vir est, strenuus, ingenio libero ac liberali, patriae amantissimus, innocentia fretus magis quam confidens, litterarum studio et bonarum artium elegantia mihi ad <...> [Una pagina legi nequit] <...> jam di me . . . . rsen . . s quicumque . . . am . . . . os e . . . . set hos . . . . . e intercedit neque forte aut temere necessitudine ista sumus copulati, nec ultro me amicitiam Corneliani adpetisse fateor. Nam laus ad me de ingenio ejus jam pervaserat, quam veram ad aures meas accidisse usu didici multisque documentis expertus sum, habitavimus una, studuimus una, jocum seriumque participavimus, fidei consiliique periculum fecimus, omnibus modis amicitia nostra et voluptati nobis et usui fuit. 3 Quamobrem quantum plurimum possum, tantum imploro quaesoque es . m . . . . nisque carissimo mihi hominis homini in causa inu . . . is . met alienis . . mum in pe . . . . . r quas . . . . . ineiam . . e . . . me incitarit ad accusationem nostri ordinis virum, sed lectis concilii commentaris ta . te planem facie . . . . . . ed . e . . asse cav . . a . . . tam propulsare conisus est; solliditudo animi me agit multis vum verbis commendare, sed fidum amorem nostri respondet tamen e . . . . . . m, quid postulem, orationem vobis unum meum verbum visum iri.   ad amicos 1.2 [171 Hout; 1.286 Haines] Φρόντων Ἀπ. Ἀπολλωνίδῃ Κορνηλιανὸν Σουλπίκιον φιλεῖν ἠρξάμην ἡσθεὶς τῷ τε τρόπῳ τἀνδρὸς καὶ τοῖς λόγοις. πέφυκεν γὰρ πρὸς λόγους ἄριστα. οὐκ ἂν δὲ ἔξαρνος εἴην τὰ πρῶτα παρ᾽ ἐμοὶ φέρεσθαι τὴν ἐκ παιδείας φιλίαν συσταθεῖσαν· παιδείαν δὲ ταύτην λέγω τὴν τῶν ῥητόρων· αὕτη γὰρ δοκεῖ μοι ἀνθρωπίνη τις εἶναι· τῶν φιλοσόφων θεία τις ἔστω. βοήθησον οὖν τὰ δυνατὰ Κορνη λιανῷ ἀγαθῷ ἀνδρὶ κἀμοὶ φίλῳ καὶ λογίῳ καὶ οὐ φιλοσόφῳ.   ad amicos 1.3 [172 Hout; 1.278 Haines] Fronto Lolliano Avito salutem. 1 Montanum Licinium (ita te reducem complectar, quo jurejurando mea tuaque salus aeque continetur) sic diligo, ut non temere quamquam eorum, quiscum mihi hospitii jura sunt, Montano meo anteponam. Quotiensquomque Romam venit, in meo contubernali fuit, meis aedibus usus est. Una nobis mensa semper, postremo omnium paene rerum consiliorumque communicatio et societas fuit. 2 Huic tantum honorem haberi a te velim, quantum tuo hospiti, contubernali, consiliari tributum ab altero postulares c . . . . . . . p . . . artium bonarum magnus sectator est meus Montanus, tum doctrina etiam et facundia est eleganti, etsi sentio me meo artificio nimium favere ei, quod ipse nihil studiis eloquentiae antetulerit, magis . . e . . nihio . ars eloquentiae ho . . . . due . . t et rerum e . . . . . m et n . . . nihio ars eloquentiae ho . . . . due . . t et rerum e . . . . . m et n . . . s . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . ret . . . . . . . . . et te . . . . . . tuus re . . . . . . . . . . . . . tia . . . ae . . . . . . . . . b qua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inc . . . . . . . . . . cestus . . . . . . res . . . . . quo . . . . . . eae . . . . . . . . . . . . . sus. . . . . . . . . . art . . . . . . . . . . a . . n . . aere . . . . . . . . . . . . as . antiquissimum locum laudis eloquentia possidet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sae . . . e fateor . . . . . esse, sed ordinem . . e . . . . . . . . sset . . . . . . . . . et . . . ed . . . . . . . od . . . es . . . t . . pes . . ones ille s . tonn . . tat s . i quam . . . . . . . . . . . bes tam s . . . . . . sere neque . . . . . . . entius aper . . . . s . nus atque e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ali . . . . quisquis . . s . . . . . . . hos odium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m ob honorem . . . . . . . . . . ax d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . locum quis . . . . . . . m . . . . is . . . . sces . . . . . . est neque talis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . . . . . . ex summis benignitatis opibus nihil autem postulavit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . nisi quod probum honestumque sit et tibi datu et sibi postulatu . . . . . . . . ne nullis . . . a . mis . . . . . . nis . . . . . 3 Terentius Vanus olim mihi familiaris et inter paucissimos carus est; longa virtus et nostrum vita plurimas occasiones officiorum nobis dedit plurimasque causas adtulit m . . . o . . . e sunt dico mos et ad . . ic . . t . . tias . . . domine praeterquam plenas ner . . ista pro ro . . . . . . etalesinmis quam . . . . . . . . . . . . dine sed ut lum . . . ta eaeninens . . . ded . . . . saes . . . . immunitas . . . . . . . ejusmodi . . . . sum ac munerum . . . . . tas si quis sutempustier Rom . . . . . . . . . sen . . . . . . . . . . easuberit quam meus . . . . . . . senator Romanus consub . . . . . enere . . . . . et multi ho . . . . . . . sus sae . . . . . . amplissimis praeditus se . . . . h . . . . . . . . . l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ner . . . . . illarum . . em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et n . . . ci . . . . . . . . arum harum . . . . . . is amisso. 4 A mise . . . domine fili, . . . . um moe . . que . . . . . . . que . . . . . . . rem . . . . . . . . . um ad . . . . pris . . . . . egun fame et ele . . e . . . . . . . . . . . sine . . . . frugi, probum, philostorgum prae . . . . eu . . . sos eum, quoniam ejus rei nomen apud Romanos nullum est . . . ineus . . . . . . em multum cape . . . me . . . . l . . multum scripsit, multum is adeo postulabat asylum in ora denique justas res istas; igitur non maris, sed aurae cupidus est is et die . . . plenda tali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . let. 5 Cavillantes eundem audio aegre abstractum tristem contubernio meo, quod pectoris valetudine correptus laetissimo caelo posse redire ab Cirta patria serio videatur, quod ut fiat optes. Cum eum inter paucissimos ultro amem, fac mihi caro fruaris, eum praesentem accipias et propitia curas ambias et auxilium summum ei amicis consiliis feras. Post hospitis salutem corpusque examines saepius cupio.   6 Saluta nostros amicos et decuriones et equites et inter Lares: Ita cenobatus es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tu seris finxeris . . .   ad amicos 1.4 [174 Hout; 1.288 Haines] Egrilio Plariano facundissimo viro Fronto salutem. 1 Julius Aquilinum virum, si quid mihi credis, doctissimum, facundissimum, philosophiae disciplinis ad optimas artis, eloquentiae studiis ad egregiam facundiam eximie eruditum, commendo tibi quam possum studiosissime. Decet a te gravissimo et sapientissimo viro tam doctum tamque elegantem virum non modo protegi, sed etiam provehi et inlustrari. Est etiam, si quid mihi credes, Aquilinus ejusmodi vir, ut in tui ornamentis aeque ac nostro merito numerandus sit. Non dubitabis ita esse, ut dico, si eum audire disputandum de Platonicis disciplinis dignatus fueris. Perspicies pro tua prudentia intelligentiaque summam in dicendo copiam, luculentissimum verborum apparatum, maximam frequentiam sententiarum. 2 Quom haec ita esse deprehenderis, scito amplius esse in hominis moribus, tanta probitate est et verecindia. Maximi concursus ad audiendum eum Romae saepe facti sunt. Plurimi nostri ordinis viri facundiam ejus non modo probant, sed arte mejus etiam admirantur. Officio necessario inductus est, ut hinc proficiscerentur ad consolandam consobrinam suam casu gravi adflictam. Quantumcumque Aquilino meo honoris tribueris, id te mihi tribuisse existimato.   ad amicos 1.5 [174 Hout; 1.290 Haines] Fronto Claudio Juliano salutem. 1 Cuperemus profecto, mi Naucelli carissime, eo nos fato praeditos, ut, si mihi liberi etiam virilis sexus nati fuissent eorumque aetas hoc potissimum tempore ad munia militiae fungenda adolesceret, quo tempore tu provinciam cum exercitu administrares, uti sub te mei liberi stipendia mererent. 2 Non longe aberit, quin hoc, quod uterque cuperemus, evenerit: Nam Faustinianum Satiani mei filium non minus diligo neque minus cum a te diligi cupio, quam si ex me natus esset. Is nunc sub te merebit. Scias etiam: Meliore bono annos auxeris; quantum ex tua benivolentia Faustinianus ornamenti adsequetur, tantundem tu voluptatis ex Faustiniani elegantia capies. Quam doctus sit, mihi crede; quam rei militaris peritus, praedicant omnes sub quibus meruit. Sed tum demum doctrinae industriaeque suae fructum sese percepisse putabit, ubi se tibi probarit. Fac periculum in militia e muneribus, fac periculum in consiliis judiciaris, fac periculum in litteris, omni denique prudentiae et facilitatis usu vel serio vel remisso: Semper et ubique eum parem sui invenies, 3 Patrem vero ejus egregium virum, nisi tute nosses, satis ego laudare non possem. Quin aliquanto minus dixerim, tametsi plurimum dixero. Prosus ego Statiani mei filium qualemcumque earum haberem. Nunc vero uter utri plus apud me gratiae conciliet ignoro, nisi quod utrumque impensius alterum alterius gratia diligo.   ad amicos 1.6 [175 Hout; 2.190 Haines] Fronto Avidio Cassio salutem. 1 Junius Maximus tribunus, qui laureatas Romam adtulit litteras, non publico tantum munere strenue, sed privato etiam erga te officio amice functus est: Ita de laboribus et consiliis tuis et industria et vigilantia praedicator ubique frequentissimus extitit. Ad me quidem minus valentem, cum in suburbanam villam venisset, numquam cessavit in vesperum usque fabulas nectere itinerum tuorum et disciplinae ad priscum morem institutae ac retentae; tum in agmine ducendo et manu conserenda strenuissimi vigoris tui et consultissimae opportunitatis: Prorsus ut nullus miles Plautinus de suis quam hic de tuis virtutibus gloriosius praedicaret, nisi quod Plautus de suo milite cum lepore, hic de te cum amore et cum summa fide. 2 Dignus est quem diligas et suffragiis tuis ornes. Tuae propriae gloriae addideris quantum dignitati laudatoris tui adstruxeris.   ad amicos 1.7 [176 Hout; 2.168 Haines] Fronto Aufidio Victorino salutem. 1 Antonius Aquila vir doctus est et facundus. Quod tu dicas “Audistine eum declamantem?”, non me dius Fidius ipse audivi, sed credidi adfirmantibus id doctissimis et honestissimis et mihi carissimis viris, quos et judicare recte posse et ex animi sententia testimonium perhibere certe scio. 2 Velim, domine, ut adjuves eum, quo facilius in civitate aliqua istius provinciae publice instituendis adulescentibus adsciscatur. Impense istud a te peto: Factum enim Aquilae volo honoris eorum causa, qui pro eo studiose laborant. Nec ita ei studerent profecto, nisi dignum tanto studio arbitrarentur; nec nisi facundiam ejus magnopere probarent, tibi eum commendare tantopere postularent quom te gravissimum et prudentissimum judicem cum aliarum rerum tum vel praecipue eloquentiae sciant. Ego vero etiam nomine hominis faveo, ut sit ῥητόρων ἄριστος, quoniam quidem Aquila appellatur.   ad amicos 1.8 [176 Hout; 2.190 Haines] Fronto Passieno Rufo salutem. Aemilius Pius cum studiorum elegantia tum morum eximia probitate mihi carus est. Commendo eum tibi, frater. Nec ignoro nullum adusque inter nos mutuo scriptitantium usum fuisse, quamquam ego te optimum virum bonarumque artium sectatorem communium amicorum fama cognossem, et tu fortasse aliquid de me secundi rumoris acceperis. Sed nullum pulchrius vinculum amicitiae copulandae reperire potui quam adulescentis optimi conciliandi tibi occasionem. Ama eum, oro te, cum ipsius causa hoc peto tum mea quoque, nam me etiam magis amabis, si cum Pio familiarius egeris. Novit enim Pius nostra omnia et inprimis quam cupidissimus sim amicitiarum quom ejusmodi viris, qualis tu es, copulandarum.   ad amicos 1.9 [177 Hout; 2.240 Haines] Fronto Caelio Optato salutem. Sardius Saturninus artissima mihi familiaritate conjunctus est per filios suos doctissimos juvenes, quos in contubernio mecum adsiduos habeo. Magnopere eum tibi, frater, commendo et peto, si quid negotii eum ad te perduxerit, carissimum mihi virum omni honore dignum judices et ope tua protegas.   ad amicos 1.10 [177 Hout; 2.242 Haines] Fronto Petronio Mamertino salutem. 1 Sardius Saturninus filium habet Sardium Lupum, doctum et facundum virum, de mea domo meoque contubernio in forum deductum, ad omnis bonas artis a me institutum, frequentissimum auditorem tuum et maximum laudatorem carminum tuorum. Habuit fratrem egregiae indolis juvenem; adtentus minus paludis aqua solus mersus in domo mea defunctus est. Me gravissimo dolore adfecit, ut eo casu gravissimo aucta mihi necessitudo sit cum Sardio Saturnino. Tu, qui alias . . . Romae, alias serio sive festivo modo amasti, altero modo . . . . . consolatus sis. 2 Oro quaesoque, ut merito honore eum prosequaris et inter cultores familiae nostrae numeres ac diligas.   ad amicos 1.11 [177 Hout; 2.86 Haines] Fronto Velio Rufo seni salutem. Figurae orationis sunt, quae maxime orationem ornant. Duplex autem genus est figurarum: Aut enim verborum figurae sunt aut sententiarum. In figuris verborum est tropos metaphora. Hac figura usus sum, cum ‘cloacam’ dixi de cirpore, in quo neque sangis sincerus neque aqua pura neque ullus umor liquidus, sed ita ut in palude corrupta omnia. Quod autem plerosque fugit, te hominem vehementem et cum doctrina tum multo magis natura validum scire oportet ejus modicae oratorias aliter <...;gt; [duae paginae desunt]   ad amicos 1.12 [178 Hout; 2.170 Haines] Fronto Aufidio Victorino salutem. 1 Litteras, quas, domine, <...> <...> meremur et mihi filiam et tibu uxorem, ut recte proveniat, favebunt et familiam nostram liberis ac nepotibus augebunt et eos, qui ex te geniti sunt eruntque, tui similes praestabunt. 2 Cum isto quidem sive Victorino nostro sive Frontone cotidianae mihi lites et jurgia intercedunt. Cum tu nullam unquam mercedem ullius rei agendae dicendaeve a quoquam postularis, Fronto iste nullum verbum prius neque frequentius congarrit quam hoc ‘da’. Ego contra quod possum aut chartulas ei aut tabellas porrigo, quarum rerum petitorem eum esse cupio. Nonnulla tamen et aviti ingeni signa ostendit: Uvarum avidissimus est. Primum denique hunc cibum degluttivit nec cessavit per totos paene dies aut lingua lambere uva, aut labris saviari ac gingivis lacessere ac ludificari. Avicularum etiam cupidissimus est: Pullis gallinarum, columbarum, passerum oblectatur, quo studio me a prima infantia devinctum fuisse saepe audivi ex his, qui mihi eductores aut magistri fuerunt. Senes etiam quanto perdicum studio tenear, nemo est, qui me leviter noverit, quin sciat. 3 Nullum est enim factum meum dictumve, quod clam ceteris esse velim; quin cui rei mihimet ipse conscius sim, ceteros quoque omnes juxta mecum scire velim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 1.13 [179 Hout; 2.174 Haines] Fronto Aufidio Victorino salutem. Graviter oculos dolui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . novus dolor acrior quam, qui lateris aut internati oriebantur. Internatium Graeci ‘ἱερὸν ὀστοῦν’, Suetonius Tranquillus ‘spinam sacram’ appellat. Ego me neque Graecum neque Latinum vocabulum ullius membri nosse malem, dum istius doloris expers vitam degerem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 1.14 [179 Hout; 2.98 Haines] <Fronto Aufidio Victorino salutem> 1 Ad obrussae tempora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et Varianis alumnis masculis feminique sestertium deciens singulis reliquit usurarium propius quam proprium: Nam quinquagena annua ab Augusta singulis dare jussit. Plerique omnes, qui eam curaverant, frustra fuerunt: Ne libris quidem singulis ponderati sunt. Ausi tamen sunt nonnulli, navi scilicet et strenui viri, codicillos, quos jam pridem Matidia inciderat, obsignare, cum illa sine sensu ullo jaceret. Ausi etiam sunt codicillos istos apud dominum nostrum ut probe ac recte factos tueri ac defendere. Nec sine metu fui, ne quid philosophia perversi suaderet. Quid ad eum scripserim, exemplum litterarum misi tibi. 2 In oratione Bithyna, cujus partem legisse te scribis, multa sunt nova addita, ut arbitror ego non inoranate, locus inmprimis de acta vita, quem tibi placiturum puto, si legeris quid in simili re M. Tullius pro P. Sylla egregie scriptum reliquit, non ut per pari compares, sed ut aestimes nostrum mediocre ingenium quantum ab illo eximiae eloquentiae viro abfuat.   ad amicos 1.15 [180 Hout; 2.88 Haines] Fronto Praecilio Pompejano salutem. 1 Verum ex me, mi Pompejane, uti res est, audies, velimque te mihi verum dicenti fidem habere: Orationem istam pro Bithynis ante annum fere in manus sumpseram et corrigere institueram. Tibi etiam Romae tunc agenti nonnihil de ista oratione promiseram, et quidem, si recte memini, quom sermo inter nos de partitionibus orationum ortus esset, dixeram et prae me tuleram satis me diligenter in ista oratione conjecturam, quae in crimine mandatae caedis verteretur, divisisse argumentis ac refutasse. 2 Interea nervorum dolor solito vehementior me invasit et diutius ac molestius solito remoratus est, nec possum ego membris cruciantibus operam ullam litteris scribendis legendisve impertire nec umquam istud a me postulare ausus sum. Philosophis etiam, mirificis hominibus, dicentibus sapientem virum etiam in Phalaridis tauro inclusum beatum nihilo minus fore, facilius crediderim beatum eum fore quam posse tantisper amburienti in aheno prohoemium meditari aut epichiremata scribere. 3 Reconciliata deinde mihi longo post tempore commoda valetudine alias egi res potius; adversus istam orationem alienato animo fui nec pudebit me fateri odium ac simultatem [una pagina legi nequit]   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 1.16 [181 Hout; 2.90 Haines] Fronto Praecilio Pompejano salutem. Lege carissime mihi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 1.17 [181 Hout; 2.90 Haines] Fronto Claudio Juliano salutem Habuisti igitur domi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . das curare. Rescribit mihi litteras se nullas accepisse ait certe nescire vis hoc idem nos vestiri neque hoc edere quone nobis loquar tui meminerim te desideres, meministi certe ita nos amicitiam instituisse, ut haec officia vulagta beglegeremus, ita contenti amore vero expectem cetera sicut ante adfore, utinam haec subice proba meae peritiae   ad amicos 1.18 [182 Hout] Fronto Victorino genero salutem. Has saltem litteras ad naves sarciendas certe misi tabellarium falsa, quia alio quo voluerat naves pervenerant.   ad amicos 1.19 [182 Hout] Fronto Claudio Juliano salutem. Non agnovi ista mea ab Gellio pessime quaeri: Credideris admonuisse se edere. Ego epistulae invitissime scribo et inter ampullas doctas panem amo. Saepe sileo, qua in amico prodesse possim quid caro amico, quid familiarissimo, quid dilcissimo, quom humana et dulcia et amara communicata velim amico. Aetate sic aspera mea senis cupere tantum est; eo pervenit, ut non tantum mihi carissimus sis, sed etiam paene solus; ita solitario uteris adflatus fato, quia artem mortali lucratus erat.   ad amicos 1.20 [182 Hout; 2.92 Haines] Fronto Claudio Juliano salutem. 1 Nescio quo pacto fit omnes provinciales loqui multa etiam laboriosus facere te quam ipsa res postulat: Acta cognitionum, epistulas omnis denique ad provinciam adtinentes. Te juvabunt tuisque optatis consiliis certantes obsequerentur adsidue: Propere munera obire permittes, pro honore provinciales tractare, ut verum sit quod Attici veteres dixerunt: “τοῦ αὐτοῦ εἶναι καὶ παίζειν καὶ σπουδάζειν”. Hoc Valeriani magistri dicto offenderis malos, defenderis bonos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iterum ait: “καὶ παίζειν ἀναγκαῖον” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qui exercent sacerdotium neque obtecta studebam conclusus nec me Valerianus noster videre potuit. 2 A dominis nostris imperatoribus non propter aliud adamari me opto quam, ut te quoque participem mei corporis et animi diligant, et propter bonitatem tam certus tu fueris, quam ego sum, ita fore. 3 Quom tibi scriberem, paulo commodius valebam. Adhuc quoque aeger eo tempore eram ex longissima mea valetudine, quam contra curam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aeque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . male mulcavit, recitavi in senatu satis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . repeterem, postularetur. 4 Fac, mi Naucelli, valetudinis tuae curam agas, ut fortis ad nos venias. Di praestabunt, ut me quoque forticulum invenias. 5 Valerianus noster magnas ad te plagas rettulit, quas ab omnibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gravius eum tractavi quam Stratonabian aut Paralium; stragula mihi linea sculpta quae germani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 1.21 [183 Hout; 2.192 Haines] 1 Ego integer epistularum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . munus hoc ab eineunte aetate infrequens habui et paene neglectum; nec quisquam est hominum, nisi me fallo, qui rarius quam ego scripserit ad amicos aut rescripserit, nec quisquam de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . denuntio defletusque ultro citro eodem ea tibi ac si queaxendepricatis nominis eadesba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tas est . . . . . . . . pre . . . . . . . . . . . res . . tevate . . . . . . . . . . . . . tamen sis . . . . . . . . . . . amicis et comitibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . possi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neque duco neque umquam querar. 2 Quid igitur? Non illud quoque evenire solet, ut is, qui diu amaverit quempiam, subito vel levitate morum vel copia novorum amicorum desinat amare? Scis saepenumero hoc perperam multis usuvenire,s ed non nostrae mensurae hominibus; sed nescis verelarerat pro . . . . . . . . quelendines. . . . . . . . . defenderitis de spe quibusdam amicis ferri opem diligentius, si aetatis nostrae mediocritas retinet.   ad amicos 1.22 [184 Hout; 2.242 Haines] Fronto Sardio Saturnino salutem. Gravissimum casum tuum recenti malo consolari nequivi, periculosiore valetudine ipse et in hoc usque tempus conflictatus, cum quidem mihi languore fesso cumulus aegritudinis venit nuntius amissi juvenis nostri, quem tibi optimum filium fors iniqua abstulit, mihi jucundissimum contubernalem. Quamobrem, quamquam recuperata sit commodo valetudo, tristitia tamen inhaeret animo meo magisque in dies augetur maerore Lupi nostri fratrem optimum misere desiderantis. Quom praesentem ac loquentem vis consolarer, sentio, quam difficile sit te absentem per litteras consolari. Nec postulo, ut maerere desinas (id enim frustra postulabo), sed ut moderatius [duae paginae desunt]   ad amicos 1.23 [185 Hout] Fronto Junio Maximo salutem. Humani casus homini <...>   ad amicos 1.24 [185 Hout] Fronto Praecilio Pompejano salutem. Labris ejus labra fovi <...>   ad amicos 1.25 [185 Hout] Fronto Sardio Saturnino salutem. Hortatus sum constanter <...>   ad amicos 1.26 [185 Hout; 2.244 Haines] Fronto Junio Maximo salutem. Per Ulpium nostrum <...> <...> honestatis gravitatisque tuae praedicatorem, quem cupio ad me celeriter remittas. Neque enim cum alio ullo tanta familiaritas est aut tantus usus studiorum bonarumque artium communicandi. Multo etiam mihi jucundior erit, quom sermones de te mutuo recolemus ac recensebimus.   ad amicos 1.27 [185 Hout; 2.244 Haines] Fronto Squillae Gallicano salutem. 1 Tibi, domine frater, commodius evenit, qui pro filio nostro praesens trepidaveris, quam mihi, qui trepidaverim absens. Nam tua trepidatio pro eventu actionis facile sedata e st; ego, quoad mihi ab omnibus contubernalibus nuntiatum est, quo successu noster orator egisset, trepidare non destiti. Et tu quidem ad singulos orationis successus, prout quaeque sententia laudem meruerat, gaudio fruebare; at ego domi sedens perpetua sollicitudine angebar, ut qui periculum actoris recordarer, laudibus actionis non interessem. Tum praeterea multiplicis tu fructus abstulisti: Non enim audisti tantum,sed et vidsti agentem; nec eloquentia sola, sed etiam vultu ejus et gestu laetatus es. Ego tametsi quid dixerit scio, tamen ignoro, quemadmodum dixerit. 2 Postremo dico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cui Callistus lacrimas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . patrem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adeptus es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gaudeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hodie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . esse si hodie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . moris est, sed ausculta dicendo . . . . . . . . . . . . justisti disertis, nam in forum descendit natalibus nobilis, de foro rediit eloquentia quam genere nobilior.   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   M. Frontonis epistularum ad amicos liber II   ad amicos 2.1 [187 Hout; 1.306 Haines] Volumnio Quadrato. Secretum servabo ita, ut vis. Legam libenter itaque, ut soleo, corrigam, quantum manus, quae infirmissima sunt, tolerare poterunt. Ex voto studiorum cultum teneto diligenter et, si quid vacui temporis detur, exercendo ingenio occupare.   ad amicos 2.2 [187 Hout; 1.306 Haines] Volumnio Quadrato. Castricius noster libellum tuum mihi heri reddidit de balneo egredient; peti, ut mane ad me veniret ad rescriptum accipiendum. Per noctem ita vexatus sum tussi et vigiliis, ut necessario in quintam horam dormierim. Ita Castricium nostrum detinui. Ciceronianos emendatos et distinctos habebis; adnotatos a me leges ipse; in volgus enim eos exire quare nolim, scribam diligentius.   ad amicos 2.3 [187 Hout; 1.306 Haines] Volumnio Quadrato. Legam, fili, libenter orationem istam quam misisti mihi, et si quid videbitur corrigendum, corrigam, sed librari manu, nam mihi manus dextra jam vexatur doloribus non mediocribus. Cum istis tamen doloribus in circum delatus sum: Rusum enim studio inpense circensium teneor. Pedibus utor vix auditor citis aut adsum spectator; hoc agis exemplo pugnantium quidem ex libellis tuoque bestias perdas rectius orationis altesisti conjectare possum aliquantum in studiis artis promeridie te intellegent asylo recreari, ut eleganter scripsisti mihi; cupiam necesse erit, si est hic libellus, quia epistolicotata scripsisiti, ut e materia composita sit rhetoricotata.   ad amicos 2.4 [188 Hout; 1.282 Haines] Cornelio Repentino Fronto salutem. 1 Fecisti, frater Contucci, pro tua perpetua consuetudine et benignitate, quod Fabianum spectatum in officiis civilibus, frequentem in forum, meum familiarem ita tutatus es, ut ei existimationem incolumem conservares. Meritissimo certe tibi parem gratiam refereundo mihi immortalies prospe<rent di...> - - - 2<...> tempore nocturno in tali porro actione atque dolore ne absit; a . . . . . . nobis similitudo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vix prestis spes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neque mox habebis tibi nobiles; teneto potius eos satis aperto odio plenos fuisse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darent . . . . . . . . . . pro utro dic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adoris servaverunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 2.5 = ad Anton.Pium 7 [165 Hout; 1.258 Haines] <Fronto Gavio Maximo> salutem. 1 Cum gravitatem apud omnes senes . . . . . . tato . . . . . . . . . a ibi . . . neque uti et contubernio meo insa . . . res . . in senectute mea ne . . . e nostra senectus quod . . . . m dis tu n . . . . . at . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suo m . . . eaque quae . m . . si sed nun . . . . . . . . et puepes . . . . . i an . . . . mo fati n . . . . . . . . . ussi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tiscoen . . . . ese . . . . r . . . . . . . missos per domin . na. . . . . . n . . . fuisset desine . . . . . . . . m . . . . tran . ini . . . . . stesen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s satis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . te verbis . . . . . . . . ns . . . . . domine imperator . . . . . d . . . . r sollertiam vi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eum v . . . vi audi . . . . . . . . ec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . riat aut . s. . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . nios . . . ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Sed . . . . . . . l . . . . . . . . diae . . . . . . . . . . . . . te hom . . . . . . . . . . . . trat et . . . . . . . tu . en . . . ae ume . d . to . . . . em . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nimia . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . se . . nibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eu . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . anine . . . . . . . . . . . agsa . . . . . . . . . . . e n . . . . . . . . . . 3 Num . . . . . . . . in . . . . lo fere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m ac . . . . . . . . . . fu . t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sam . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . imo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quis est . . . . . no . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aut a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ednis . . . qui non tuum ante reprehenderit.   4 Postremo neque ego Nigrum propter te amare coeperam, ut propter te eundem amare desinerem, neque tu me a Nigro tibi traditum diligere coepisti. Quamobrem tecum quaeso, ne quid obsit amicitia nobis, quia nihil profuit. Jam si dicendum sit, deos testor me saepe vidisse Nigrum Censorium ubertim flentem desiderio tui atque hujus discidii dolore. 5 Sed erit fortasse tempus aliud, quod ego memoriae ejus placem te ac migitem. Interim, ne quid loci malignis hominibus adversus me apud aures tuas pateat, ll . . soe . . btes perperam satis fidem, quam quom firman et sinceram cum Censorio servaverim, multo magis profecto tecum perpetuam atque incorruptam retinere conitar.   ad amicos 2.6 [189 Hout] Fronto Arrio Antonino salutem. Multum amicorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eram; demonstrati sunt mihi a doctis et multum mihi familiaribus viris, quorum apud me voluntas ipsorum merito valet plurimum. Igitur, si me amas, tantum Volumnio tribue honoris facultatisque amicitiae tuae complectandas; οἱ γὰρ φίλτατοι ἄνδρες conciliaverunt eum mihi. Igitur tam comi amicitiae accipias velim quam ille Menoetiadi volebat, ζωρότερον δὲ κέραιρε quom imperabat.   ad amicos 2.7 [189 Hout; 2.176 Haines] Arrio Antonino. 1 Have, mi domine fili carissime. Sicut eos, qui dicta factaque tua in administranda provincia maximis laudibus ferunt, laetus ac libens audio, ita, si quis quid remurmurat aut deprecatur, multo scupulosius ausculto et, quo quicque modo gesseris aut judicaveris, requiro, ut qui existimationi tuae famaeque juxta quam meae consultum cupiam. 2 Volumnius Serenus Concordiensis, si nihil in iis, quae apud me commemoravit, verae rei dempsit aut addidit, jure meritoque utetur me apud te vel patrono vel precatore. Quodsi ultra epistulae modum videbor progressus, eo eveniet, quod res postulat, ut cum epistula conjuncta sit quaedam causidicatio. 3 Rem omnem ita, ut mihi Volumnius exposuit, proponam, simul et quidque, verumne sit, rogabo: 4 Estne lege coloniae Concordiensium cautum, ne quis scribam faxit nisi eum, quem decurionem quoque recte facere possit? 5 Fueruntne omnes et sunt ad hoc locorum, quibus unquam scriptus publicus Concordiae datus est, decuriones? 6 Factusne est Volumnius decreto ordinis scriba et decurio? Pensiones plurimas, ad quartam usque, ob decurionatum dependitne? 7 Ususne est per quinque et quadraginta annos omnibus decurionum praemis commodisque in cenis publicis, in curia, in spectaculis? 8 Cenavitne, seditne ut decurio, censuitne? Si quo usus fuit publice legando, legatusne est Volumnius saepenumero? Estne Volumnio legato semper viaticum publicum decretum? 9 Item legationis de re frumentaria gratis a Volumnio susceptae estne in commentariis publicis scripta commemoratio? 10 Si omnia ista, quae supra dixi, ita decreta, ita depensa, ita gesta sunt, estne, cur duvites post quinque et quadraginta annos sitne decurio, qui scriba fuerit, pecuniam ob decurionatum intulerit, commoda decurionatus usurpaverit, munia fuctus sit? Et quid est, mi fili, quid est, quod ista probari tibi plenius velis? Quoniam quaereret exemplaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non ea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sed propero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . censoribus servaverim est a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cum posces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . num do consilia debet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . debet . . . . . . . . . . offenderit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . debet . . . . . . . reanit cum sit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dextera nisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non natales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . debet . . . . . . . pro honore satis non videbo, qui possit assequi non insitus. 11 Quid cum imperatores nostri in Isidori Luciae causa haec instituerunt, ut a . . . . . aut Ulpiam an legationis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . exempla perdisceres alussis pecuniam intulerit, munia fecerit. 12 Post ista ultro citroque a me rogata atque responsa, nonne etiam praejudicium relegationis fuit es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . delatus est Volumnius, quasi in curiam inrumperet, etsi ei jus introeundae curia non esset ut relegato, quod neque ante exilium pro decurionatu omnem pecuniam neque ullam posterius intulisset; quae eum longissimis temporibus forent perorata, Lollius Urbicus causa inspecta nihil adversus Volumnium statuit, sed loco <...> [duae paginae deesse videntur] 13<...> denique plures habet mutuos liberos, graviter ut hi acquirant; pluris respuerunt vel e comitibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aliter . . . . . . . . . . . verum domini infensi malificis servis dant poenas, sed, pro, qui arte usi pari simul perlata inrogatis ignominia adimunt morituris sementare; non idem dedecus est homini solitario ignominia feriri, quantum dedecus est plena liberis ac nepotibus domo infamia notari, cujus infamiae aspergo inquinant simul multos et dedecorant, sicut non eadem clades est in proelio unum equitem obtruncarei et triremem frangi. Turris ballistis satis armata facile hostes coercet, cum navis ornata remis denis rudente rudi perierit t . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Leges plreaeque poenas constituerunt, ne quis arborem felicem succidisset. Quaenam est arbos aborisque felicitas? Arbor scilicet fecunda et frugifera, rami bacis pomisque onusti, neque erit cannam quisquam, qui aut harundinem, quamvis proceram, dixerit felicem. Atque aequiusne est arboribus honori atque tutelae poma et bacas esse quam hominibus liberosque nepotesque? 15 Volumnius . . . . quod dedecoratus erat, globus re vera in uno homine et forum equitum Romanorum, pars curiae dehonestatur: Raro umquam tot simul capita de caelo tacta, quam tu condemnasti. Genitorum meorum aetate lucrum et facultates pedibus, manibus petere solebant. Verius est virtutem neglegere inertibus fere senibus esse exitiosum: Tam valide res sudore crescit, quom ille, qui esse quam videri bonus maluit, fortunis parum prosperis usus est. Verius immo est eum, qui opinionem virtutis neglegat, virtutem quoque ipsam neglegere, neque quisquam bonas artis magno opere studet adipisci, quas adeptus necne sit, non studet scire vel permultorum sententiam errare deinde sententiae tuae stare possis, qui c . r . . r . . m . . . are iterum verbum . . . quod in absentis agis, miror si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nisi portento sin repudium dare et adgnatis possit, addubito; nam quidem, quod longum sit, posse interdum fieri longius, altum altius, numerosum numerosius. Haec et ejusmodi verba video admittere aliquod augendi laxamentum, pleno autem plenius nihil fieri posse. Nam poculom profecto si plenum sit, magis conpleri frustra postules, nisi effuderis. Enimvero quom omnibus negotiis artata sint tempora, alterum tempus trudat alterum . . . . . . . . . . . . conjunctum, alterum tempus ne culpares ac putes . . . . . . . . . . . . cum animo tuo, an ista ipsa causa tempus argumenti probandi careat.   16 Antequam decurionum vestimentis . . . . . . . . perbene . . . . . . . . . . . . creari debuit, si per utrumque creatus est. Ubi creatus est, usurpare honorem debuit: Multifariam usurpavit. Postquam usurpavit, pensionibus inferre pecuniam debuit: Quater intulit. Munia decurionatus ista . . . . . . . : Plurima et . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fueris isdeteras quidem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sine secessu . . . . . a pro dedecus suscipiatur ad per als . . c . . . amutas labrum cumulasti, si . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . et tanta a reo redemptas parum valent; quidquid huc additum fuerit, frustra abundabit. Nam ubi, quae ad fidem sat esse oportet, satis judici non sunt, nullus finis est ambiguitatis, si plura sint, quam sat est, judicibus perconstare fidem, ut rectam viam ingressis certus est itineris finis ac modus, errantibus autem peragrare facilius est quam pervenire. 17 Nun arte fori alterius sententiae restiterint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . consilia serventur, neminem tenendum quantum esto, nisi qualia jura sunt; lenissimum, mansuetissimum, doctissimum, piissimum in causa non dicam bona (finge enim ambigua) tanto natu senem prohibuisse curia ‘interim’. Cui aetati omnium vacatio munerum data est, quam aetatem nulla lex, si sacramento adiguntur, res publica magis inter nullas se . . . . qui hodie repeti fiotine dabas ei tua aut ignominia . . . inrica sic tenes. 18 Seni septuaginta annos olim egresso insignes maculas infligis, quando, oro te abolendas? Senem tripudis et ludificas. Quantulum enim est vitae natis ais abstine et ista in plerosque? Qunatulum enim est vitae tempus reliquum ad infamiam exuendam et pristinam dignitatem sperandam? Hoc, quod vocas ‘interim’, quantisper sperabit? Si tantisper dum vivet, paulisper sperabit. Quis segeti torridae messem procrastinat ‘interim’? Quis vindemiam maturam ac destillantem propellit ‘interim’? Quis tempus prorogat pomis m itibus aut floribus marcentibus aut facibus ardentibus? Etiam soli ego recenti verbum ‘posterius’, id est interim, occidenti aptius ‘confestim’ vellem. Sicut tu senem differs, ita aetas different. Teneram pro ‘interim’ et ‘confestim’ dixerit et . . . . vita sat timent quando s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., id est adulescentiae et juventuti prolixa curricula vita data sunt, sicut diebus interdum et noctibus licet esse longis, cum senectus viridis et quidem et vitae crepusculum interdum non longum poterit esse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . flores . . . . . . . . . . . . . segetes vites metiendae sunt. 19 Proculus Julius quidecimvir anno decimo lamentis relegatus est gratuando tulit biennium illud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . noit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . homini seni quidquid verbis perversis tum veridicis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sexto Didio fautore effecit, ut gratae provinciae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . si sapiam conspirati nec legerentur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ridisse poenam inrogatam, item praeverti et quinquennium exsulis in triennium artavit; orius pugnavit fervidius ter laesus, adlatas tum per spatia temnio invias usque lanasiastdii clementer . . . . . . . vocare . . . . . . . . . . . . . ad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nisiar facultates arbiter Proculus homo ingenio ad cetera remisso et delicato, sed in sententiis dicundis ad poeniendum paulo durior et infensior et infestior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . male maledico; plerique ad cetera viri minime severi inlautius prolati, in judicando asperi tamen in eadem dignitate fuere, videlicet spectantes, ut pro severitate, qua carebant, obtensui saevitias subornarent. 20 Biennium tunc de exacto demum Volumnio probato de exigendo illi nunc remansit biennium vitae explendum, quia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adagi a te nosci . . . entia tua res nondum aliter structa est . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sit, detrahis ignominiam ejus liberis, nepotibus, genero, adfinibus, quibus pretia domi patrem fratresque reliqueris. 21 Igitur subleva misericordia aetatem familiarem tibi et oatritam. Pervicisti tibi ut rescindas sic disciplina recte, sed potius opto, ut res, quas sibi interim distulerat, vel totus or . . . a . ee . ms . . . . a . . . ingr . . s . . . al . . . . . . e . . . . . vel decorum ordinem decurionatum . . . . . . . . . rec . . . . . . is . . . . pro . . terea . . p . . . . ia . . . . . . . e . . . . . relaturis . . . . inter iterati sineret, quod omnem pro decurionatu pecuniam dependisset sibi . a . . . . . . . . . . . um priusquam reliquit omni . . o . . . u . . s . . e . . . s . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . es . . . . re . . . . r . . . . t equidem docte dictis et interdum facias et . . . . . . . . .   ad amicos 2.8 [197 Hout; 2.188 Haines] Arriano Antonino. 1 Gratulor mihi plerisque hominibus . . . . . . es . . . . . en . . . . . . . . ut opus meos . . . . quisquis . . . a fortissimis . . . . . me a tenon secus quam parentem observari. Eo fit, ut ad me decurrant plurimi, qui tuam gratiam cupiunt. Quos ego non temere nec sine dilectu audio, sed probe petentibus suffragium meum impertio. Iis vero, qui parum probe quid a te impetratum velint, ipse denego, ut a me potius ferant repulsam. 2 Burburiana saidia . e . audiam e . e . s . ressen . s. plurimos ita maxime caros mihi viros, ut magno opere eis obsequi cupiam, ita tamen ut ars maxima ac potissima sit justitiae tuae ratio habenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tuae humanitati congruens videbatur. 3 Desiderium Baburianae commendandum tibi recepi et, quam possum studiosissime, commendo et honorasti decenter identidem sicut scribis servanda . a . . . . . . adesi exstructum videbatur apulasporiis figuras . . . ingentes dependi pronuntiasti quid aduletsiaexesalul . . ne peperiam quo velut diuturna dicas an agas, quod fuit tradendum, superest; quod a te benefice providendum, in pauca conferam. 4 Sententiae tuae Buburiana non aequo animo, sed prompto etiam et, paene diceres, juveniliter morigeratur. Quid igitur postulat, quod tibi non ambitiosum concessu, Baburianae verecundum oratu et jucundum impetratu fuerit, ut pecunia ista, quae de sententia tua usurarum . . . . . . . . i inpenditur, operi exstruendo adjungatur; est multoi honestas . . . . . . quondam impigri ac idoneus quam poneriscendensnola petita contulisse polluisse sententias ita priora Caesaris operis perennius aliter ritarexeris, sed etiam infamia multata videatur; id populo quoque ni<...> [duae paginae desunt]   ad amicos 2.9 [199 Hout] Arriano Antonino. Valerius Clitianus <...>   ad amicos 2.10 [199 Hout] Triumviris et decurionibus. Meae gloriae totius <...>   ad amicos 2.11 [199 Hout; 1.292 Haines] Triumviris et decurionibus. 1 Quantae mihi curae <...> <...> multoque malim patriae nostrae tutelam auctam quam meam gratiam. Quare suadeo vobis patronos creare et decreta in eam rem mittere ad eos, qui nunc fori principem locum occupant: Aufidium Victorinum, quem in numero municipum habebitis, si di consilia mea juverint; nam filiam meam despondi ei nec melius aut mihi ad posteritatem aut meae filiae in omnem vitam consulere potui quam, cum talem mihi generum cum illis moribus tantaque eloquentia elegi. Servilium quoque Silanum optimum et facundissimum virum jure municipis patronum habebitis, cum sit vicina et amica civitate Hippone Regio. Postumium Festum et morum et eloquentiae nomine recte patronum vobis feceritis, et ipsum nostrae provinciae et civitatis non longinquae. Horum patronorum non mediocri dote frui gaudebitis. Tres facite, ut e meis cognoscites, non quasi quia familiares essent Liciniae familiae et adesse adversus rem eam noluerint. 2 Quae causa . . . . . tres m . . ad aliud consilium inpulerit, dicam: Quoad aetas mihi et valetudo integra fuit, negotia vestra et quae mea voce recensa sunt, non censeo facilius et aetates datas, si in rem nostram . . . . eraure et juniorum praesidiis esse fundatam, nec ignoro, quantus umutra per vitae nostrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nam nos et virum popularem habeamus et virum consularem jus publicum respondentem. Ego quoque, ut spero, quoad aetatis vis viguit, in officiis civilibus non obscure versatus sum. Alii quoque plurimi sunt in senatu Cirtenses clarissimi viri. Postremus est honos maximus tres vestram gessisse civitatem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tria ei aut sibi, sed etiam suave est, nisi ardem adfuturos numero, sed vos melius est jam nunc interdum quid et quantum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . incerta explicem.   ad amicos 2.12 [200 Hout] Praeciliano Pompejano. Esse . . . . . porro   ad amicos 2.13 [200 Hout] <...> <...>   ad amicos 2.14 [200 Hout] <...> <...>   ad amicos 2.15 [201 Hout] <...> <...> defendi jam.   Additamentum epistularum variarum acephalum   additamentum 1 = ad M. Caesarem 2.3   additamentum 2 = ad M. Caesarem 2.15   additamentum 3 = ad M. Caesarem 2.1   additamentum 4 [242 Hout; 1.264 Haines] Παρὰ Ἀππιανοῦ Φρόντωνι. 1 Οὐδὲ σήμερον ἐδυνήθην σε ἰδεῖν διὰ τὴν γαστέρα νυκτὸς ἐνοχλοῦσαν ἕως ἄρτι κοιμηθείς. ἃ δὲ ἀγρυπνῶν ἠπόρουν, οὐ κατέσχον οὐδ᾽ ἀνεβαλόμην, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ πολλῶν ὀλίγα σοι γέγραφα. σὺ δέ, εἰ μὲν δίκαιά ἐστιν, ὡς δικαίοις, εἰ δὲ σχολαστικά, ὡς ἁπλοῖς, εἰ δὲ μή, ἀλλ᾽ ἔμοιγε ὡς λυπουμένῳ καὶ παρακαλοῦντι πείσθητι καὶ εἶξον. 2 Εἰκὸς ἕπεσθαι τοῖς κοινοῖς τὰ ἰδιωτικά. εὐθύνομεν γοῦν τὰ ἴδια πρὸς ἐκεῖνα, καὶ ὁ νόμος οὕτω κελεύει. πῶς οὖν αἱ μὲν πόλεις οὐκ ὀκνοῦσι λαμβάνουσαι παρὰ τῶν διδόντων ἀναθήματά τε καὶ χρήματα καὶ ἀργύριον αὐτοπολιτῶν τε καὶ ξένων, ἤδη δέ τινας καὶ αὑτούς πως ὑποδιδόντας, φίλος δὲ δὴ παρὰ φίλου λαβεῖν ὀκνεῖ παρακαλοῦντος; καὶ ὅτι θεοὶ δὲ τῷ νόμῳ τῶν πόλεων προσίενται ταῦτα παρὰ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, καὶ δεικνύουσιν οἱ θησαυροὶ τῶν θεῶν. καὶ οἱ φίλοι δὲ ἐκ τῶν διαθηκῶν λαμβάνειν οὐκ ὀκνοῦσιν. καὶ διὰ τί οὖν ἐκ μὲν διαθήκης ἄν τις λάβοι, παρὰ δὲ τῶν περιόντων οὐ λάβοι, ὁπότε καὶ μεῖζον ταῦτ᾽ ἔχει τὸ δεῖγμα τῆς προθυμίας; οἳ μὲν γὰρ ἄλλον ἄλλου προτιθέασιν, οἳ δὲ περιόντες ἑαυτῶν τοὺς φίλους προτιθέασιν. καὶ ἥδιον παρὰ τοῦ περιόντος λαβεῖν, ὅτι καὶ μαρτυρῆσαι περιόντι δυνατόν ἐστι καὶ ἀμείψασθαι. πάλιν ξένιον μὲν οὔτε θεοῖς οὔτε πόλει πέμπεται, τὰ σεμνότερα δ᾽ ἀεὶ τοῖς σεμνοτέροις. 3 Ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ εἰσὶ ταῦτα βαρύτερα λαμβάνειν; τί γάρ ἐστι φιλίας καὶ τιμῆς βαρύτερον, ὧν οὐδ᾽ ἴσως γ᾽ ἄρειον οὐδέν ἐστιν; τί δὲ καὶ βαρὺ ἦν ὅλως ἢ τί ἂν ἐγὼ βαρὺ ἔχοιμι; οὐδ᾽ ἂν μὲν ἐργασαίμην οὐδὲν οὐδὲ πριαίμην οὐδέποτε, οἶσθα, τι ἅμα μισθὸν ἔχον, ἐξ οἴκου, φασίν, ἐς οἶκον μετατεθέν. ἐννόησον δὲ κἀκεῖνο, ὅση μὲν ἡδονὴ τῷ πέμψαντι ληφθέντων, ὅση δὲ λύπη μὴ ληφθέντων εἰσγίγνεται, εἰ τὸ καθαρὸν . . . . . . . . . . . . . καὶ μετὰ πο . . . . . . προσιέναι σοι. πιστεύεις δὲ δίκαιον εἶναι τὸν νόμον τῶν τε πόλεων καὶ θεῶν καὶ φίλων . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φίλων δὲ οὐχ ὡς τούτων ἐπιδεικνύντων θράσος εὐνοίας, ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων ὑπὸ δέους, εἰ ἐπέπεμψα τὸ πρὶν ἐπιτρέψῃς. σὺ δὲ μὴ δευτερώσῃς ᾧ γε ἔδει μηδ᾽ ἅπαξ. additamentum 5 [244 Hout; 1.268 Haines] Ἀππιανῷ παρὰ Φρόντωνος 1 Οὐκ ἀπορήσει μὲν οὐδὲ ἐκεῖνος πιθανῶν λόγων ὅστις πρὸς τὸ πρῶτον ἐνθύμημα τῶν ὑπὸ σοῦ προτεθέντων ἐνίσταιτο, ὡς μὴ δέοι ἕπεσθαι τοῖς κοινοῖς τὰ ἴδια. πολλὰ γὰρ ἔθη καὶ νόμιμα κοινῇ ταῖς πόλεσιν καὶ ἰδίᾳ τοῖς καθ᾽ ἕκαστον εὑρήσομεν οὐχ ὅμοια. μάθοις δ᾽ ἂν προσέχων ταῖς τε δίκαις καὶ τοῖς ἀγῶσιν τοῖς δημοσίοις καὶ τοῖς ἰδιωτικοῖς· ἔνθα οὔτε ὁ τόπος τῶν δικαστηρίων οὔτε τῶν δικαζόντων ὁ ἀριθμὸς οὔτε ἡ τάξις τῶν φάσεων καὶ κλήσεων οὔτε τοῦ ὕδατος τὸ μέτρον οὔτε τὰ προστιμήματα τῶν κατεγνωσμένων τὰ αὐτά, ἀλλὰ πλεῖστον ὅσον διήνεγκεν τὰ δημόσια τῶν ἰδίων, καὶ ὅτι τῆς μὲν πόλεως ἀναπεπετάσθαι προσήκει τὰς πύλας εἰσιέναι τε τῷ βουλομένῳ καὶ ἐξιέναι, ὅποτε βούλοιτο· ἑκάστῳ δὲ ἡμῶν τῶν ἰδιωτῶν, εἰ μὴ φυλάττοι τὰς θύρας καὶ πάνυ ἐγρηγοροίη ὁ θυρωρὸς εἴργων μὲν τῆς εἰσόδου τοὺς μηδὲν προσήκοντας, τοῖς δὲ οἰκέταις οὐκ ἐπιτρέπων ἀδεῶς ὁπότε βούλοιντο ἔξω βαδίζειν, οὐκ ἂν ὀρθῶς οἰκουροῖτο τὰ κατὰ τὴν οἰκίαν, καὶ στοαὶ δὲ καὶ ἄλση καὶ βωμοὶ καὶ γυμνάσια καὶ λουτρὰ τὰ μὲν δημόσια πᾶσιν καὶ προῖκα ἀνεῖται, τὰ δὲ τῶν ἰδιωτῶν ὑπὸ σιδηρᾷ κλειδὶ καί τινι θυροφύλακι, καὶ μισθὸν ἐκλέγουσιν παρὰ τῶν λουομένων. οὐδὲ τὰ δεῖπνα δὲ ὅμοια τὰ ἰδιωτικὰ καὶ τὰ ἐν πρυτανείῳ· οὐδὲ ὁ ἵππος ὅ τε ἰδιωτικὸς καὶ ὁ δημόσιος· οὐδὲ ἡ πορφύρα τῶν ἀρχόντων καὶ τῶν δημοτῶν· οὐδὲ ὁ στέφανος ὁ τῶν ῥόδων τῶν οἰκόθεν καὶ ὁ τῆς ἐλαίας τῆς Ὀλυμπίασιν. 2 Ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν ἐάσειν μοι δοκῶ καὶ χαριεῖσθαί σοι τὸ δεῖν ἕπεσθαι τοῖς δημοσίοις τὰ ἰδιωτικά. χαρισάμενος δὲ τοῦτο οὐκέτι χαρισαίμην ἂν τοῦτοις εν . . . πεισ . . . ολειν . . ἐπιτρέπειν χρῆσθαι. †τί δὴ τοῦτο ἦν χρὴ μεγάλα καὶ πολλῆς τιμῆς ἄξια δῶρα παρὰ τῶν φίλων δέχεσθαι. ταῦτα προστάσσων εἰς παράδειγμα ἐκάλεις τὸ τὰς πόλεις μεγάλα δῶρα παρ᾽ ἀλλήλων προσίεσθαι, αὐτὸ δὴ τὸ ἀμφισβητούμενον σφετεριζόμενος, ὦ φιλότης. ὁ γὰρ τοὺς ἰδιώτας ἐγὼ φάσκων μὴ δεῖν μεγάλα δῶρα παρ᾽ ἀλλήλων λαμβάνειν, τὸ αὐτὸ τοῦτο ἂν εἴποιμι καὶ περὶ τῶν πολέων, ὡς οὐδὲ τὰς πόλεις δέοι λαμβάνειν· σὺ δὲ ὡς τοῦτο προσῆκον ταῖς πόλεσιν λαβὼν εἰς ἀπόδειξιν φέρεις τοῦ καὶ τοῖς ἰδιώταις προσήκοντος. τὸ δὲ ζητούμενον μὴ δεῖν ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν ἀμφισβητουμένων ἀποδεικνύειν φήσαις ἄν. εἰ δὲ τοῦτο φῄς, ὅτι λαμβάνουσιν πολλαὶ πόλεις τὰ τοιαῦτα δῶρα, φαίην ἂν, ὅτι καὶ τῶν ἰδιωτῶν πολλοὶ λαμβάνουσι τὰ τοιαῦτα, ζητοῦμεν δὲ, εἰ ὀρθῶς καὶ προσηκόντως λαμβάνουσιν. τοῦτο δὲ τὸ ζήτημα ἀπὸ τῶν ἰδιωτῶν ἀρξάμενον διήκει καὶ πρὸς τὰς πόλεις. τοῦτο μὲν οὖν δίκαια ποιῶν ἐν ζητήματος μέρει διαλείψεις ἀμφισβητήσιμον, τὸ τῶν πόλεων λέγων. οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδ᾽ ἐκεῖνο σ᾽ ἀγνοεῖν οἶμαι, ὡς αἱ πλεῖσταί γε τῶν ἐνδοξοτάτων καὶ εὐνομουμένων πόλεων οὐκ ἐδέξαντο τὰ μεγάλα δῶρα· ὥσπερ ἡ Ῥωμαίων πόλις πολλὰ πολλάκις παρὰ πλείστων πεμπόμενα οὐ προσήκατο, ἡ δὲ τῶν Ἀθηναίων βαρύτερα τῶν προσηκόντων ἐκλέγουσα οὐ πάνυ τι ὤνατο. 3 Τὸ δέ γε τῶν θεῶν παράδειγμα, ὅτι δῶρα καὶ ἀναθήματα θεοὶ δέχονται, καὶ πάνυ σοι διὰ βραχέων εἰρημένον, ἐν ἴσῳ τάχει ἀπολύσασθαι πειράσομαι. οὐδὲ γὰρ προσκυνεῖσθαι μοι προσῆκεν μήτε θεῷ μήτε αὖ βασιλεῖ Περσῶν ὄντε. 4 Πιθανώτατον δὲ μὴ Δία τὸ τῶν διαθηκῶν ὑπήνεγκας, τί δή ποτε ἐκ διαθηκῶν καὶ τὰ μεγάλα λαμβάνοντες παρὰ τῶν ζώντων τὰ τηλικαῦτα οὐ προσησόμεθα· φθάνεις δὲ τὴν αἰτίαν αὐτὸς ὑποβάλλων. οἱ μὲν γάρ, ὡς σὺ φῄς, ἄλλον ἄλλου προτιθέασιν οἱ κατὰ διαθήκας χαριζόμενοι· φημὶ δὴ παρὰ τούτων λαμβάνειν προσήκειν. οἱ δ᾽ αὖ ζῶντες, ὡς σὺ φῄς, ἑαυτῶν τοὺς φίλους, οἷς χαρίζονται, προτιμῶσιν· δι᾽ αὐτὸ δὴ τοῦτο φημὶ δεῖν τὰ πεμπόμενα μὴ προσίεσθαι. βαρὺ γὰρ ὄντως καὶ ὑπεροπτικὸν καὶ τυραννι κόν, ὡς ἀληθῶς, τὸ δέχεσθαι τὰς τοιαύτας προτιμήσεις, ἐν αἷς ὁ τιμῶν ἕτερον δῆλός ἐστιν αὐτὸς αὑτὸν ἀτιμάζων καὶ ἐν δευτέρῳ τιθεὶς τοῦ προτιμωμένου. οὐδὲ γὰρ ἵππον ἀναβαίην ἄν, ἀφ᾽ οὗ καταβὰς αὐτός τις καὶ βαδίζων ἐμὲ δὴ ἱππάζεσθαι ἀξιοίη· οὐδὲ ἐν θεάτρῳ καθεζοίμην ἂν ἄλλου μοι ὑπανισταμένου· οὐδὲ ἱμάτιον δεξαίμην ἂν ἐν χειμῶνος ὥρᾳ, εἴ τις ἀποδυόμενος ῥιγῴη μὲν αὐτός, ἐμὲ δὲ ἀμφιεννύοι. οἰκειότερος γὰρ αὐτὸς ἕκαστος αὑτῷ καὶ προτιμᾶσθαι πρὸς αὑτοῦ δικαιότερος. 5 Φῂς δὲ ξένια μὴ πέμπεσθαι θεοῖς. ἢ οὐχὶ ξένια τὰ ψαιστὰ πόπανα καὶ τὸ μέλι καὶ ὁ οἶνος ὁ σπενδόμενος καὶ τὸ γάλα καὶ τὰ σπλάγχνα τὰ τῶν ἱερείων; καὶ ὁ λιβανωτὸς δὲ ξένιον θεοῦ. 6 Ταῦτα μὲν πρὸς τὰ ὑπὸ σοῦ σοφῶς καὶ πιθανῶς πάνυ δημοσίων τε καὶ θείων καὶ διαθηκῶν πέρι προτεθέντα ἐνθυμήματα. τὰ δὲ παρ᾽ ἐμοῦ ταῦτα εἰρήσθω διὰ βραχέων· ὅσα αἰτεῖν ἀναιδὲς καὶ φιλοκερδὲς καὶ πλεονεκτικόν, ταῦτα καὶ παρ᾽ ἑκόντος λαμβάνειν ὁμοίως ἀναιδοῦς τινὸς καὶ φιλοκερδοῦς ἀνδρὸς καὶ πλεονέκτου· αἰτεῖν δέ γε τὰ μεγάλα ἀναιδές, πολὺ δὲ μᾶλλόν γε λαμβάνειν, καὶ οὐδὲν διήνεγκεν εἰ παρέχοντος λαμ βάνοι τινὰ ἢ ἀρνοῦντος . . . . . . . υται . . . . . . . . . οὐκ ἐν τῷ αἰτεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ λαμβάνειν· οὐδέ γε τὰ τοιαῦτα δῶρα χρή τινα ἑλέσθαι, ἃ τοὺς μὲν πέμποντας πενεστέρους ἀποδείξει, τοὺς δὲ λαμβάνοντας πλουσιω τέρους παρασκευάσει. ἑκάτερον δὲ τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις δώροις ἔνεστιν. εἰ γοῦν ἀποτιμήσεις γίγνοιντο, σὺ μὲν ὁ πέμψας τοὺς δύο τούτους παῖδας μικροτέραν, ἐγὼ δὲ ὁ λαβὼν μείζω τὴν οὐσίαν ἀποφανοῦμαι. οὐ γάρ ἐστιν εὐκαταφρόνητος οὔτε ἐν ἀποτιμήσει χρημάτων οὔτε ἐν ἀντι δόσει οὐσίας οὔτε ἐν ἀπογραφῇ τέλους οὔτε ἐν καταβολῇ φόρου ὁ τῶν δύο δούλων ἀριθμός. 7 Ὁ δὲ τὰ βαρύτερα δῶρα πέμπων οὐχ ἧττον λυπεῖ τοῦ βαρεῖαν πέμποντος ἐπὶ τὸν συνσφαιρίζοντα ἢ μεγάλην κύλην προπίνοντος τῷ συνπότῃ· εἰς γὰρ μέθην, οὐκ εἰς ἡδονὴν προπίνειν ἔοικεν. ὥσπερ δὲ τὸν οἶνον ἐν τοῖς σώφροσιν συνποσίοις ὁρῶμεν κιρνάμενον ἀκράτῳ μὲν πάνυ ὀλίγῳ, πλείστῳ δὲ τῷ ὕδατι, οὕτω δὲ καὶ τὰ δῶρα κιρνάναι προσῆκεν πολλῇ μὲν φιλοφροσύνῃ, ἐλαχίστῳ δὲ ἀναλώματι. τίσιν γὰρ ἂν φαίημεν ἁρμόττειν τὰ πολυτελῆ δῶρα; ἆρά γε τοῖς πένησιν; ἀλλὰ πέμπειν οὐ δύνανται· ἢ τοῖς πλουσίοις; ἀλλὰ λαμβάνειν οὐ δέονται. τοῖς μὲν οὖν μεγάλοις δώροις τὸ συνεχὲς οὐ πρόσεστιν, ἢ ἐκπεσεῖν ἀνάγκη τῶν ὑπαρ χόντων, εἴ τις μεγάλα τε πέμποι καὶ πολλάκις. τοῖς δὲ μικροῖς δώροις τό τε συνεχὲς πρόσεστιν καὶ τὸ ἀμετάγνωστον τιν . δ . . . . . ειδι τελέσαι μικρὰ πέμψαντι. 8 Ὁμολογήσαις δ᾽ ἂν καὶ τοῦτο, ὡς, εἴ τις ἑαυτῷ μὲν ἔπαινον παρα σκευάζοι, ἕτερον δὲ ἐπαίνου ἀποστεροίη, οὐ δίκαιος. σὺ δὲ μεγάλα δῶρα πέμπων σαυτῷ μὲν ἔπαινον παρασκευάζεις ὡς μεγαλοφρόνως χαριζόμενος, ἐμὲ δὲ ἐπαίνου ἀποστερεῖς προσίεσθαι βιαζόμενος. δόξαιμι γὰρ ἂν καὶ αὐτὸς μεγαλόφρων τὰ τηλικαῦτα μὴ προσέμενος. ἐν δὲ τοῖς μικροῖς τῶν δώρων ἴσος ὁ ἔπαινος, τῷ μὲν πέμψαντι ὅτι οὐκ ἠμέλησεν, τῷ δὲ λαβόντι ὅτι οὐχ ὑπερηφάνησεν, ματευσαίμην δ᾽ ἂν εἰκότι τῷ χαλεπῷ χρώμενος, ὡς καὶ σὺ εἰ αὐτὸ τοῦτο δῶρον ἐμοῦ πέμψαντος οὐκ ἂν ἔλαβες, πῶς παρὰ σοῦ τοὺς πεμφθέντας παῖδας ἡδόμενος προσηκαίμην ἄν; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Γλαῦκος πάλαι . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . χρύσεια τῶν χαλκείων καὶ τὰ ἑκατόμβοια τῶν ἐννεαβοίων ἀμείβοντος. πᾶσα μὲν γὰρ ἀνάγκη τὸν ἀμειβόμενον ἢ πολὺ πλέονος ἄξια ἀντιπέμπειν καὶ Ὁμήρῳ μάρτυρι τὰς φρένας δοκεῖν ὑπὸ τοῦ Διὸς βεβλάφθαι ἢ τὰ μείω ἀντιπέμποντα μὴ δίκαια ποιεῖν. τρίτον δὲ καὶ δικαιότατον ἃ πέμπεται τῷ αὐτῷ μέτρῳ καὶ τοῖς ἴσοις δώροις ἀμείβεσθαι· τοῦτο δὲ ὁ ποιῶν ὁμοιότατος ἂν εἴη ἐμοὶ τῷ αὐτὰ δὴ τὰ πεμφθέντα ἀποπέμποντι. 9 Ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν φίλῳ πρὸς τὸν φίλτατον πεπαίχθω. τροφεῖ δὲ . . . . . . . . . καὶ λογιζόμενος . . μείζονα μο . αὐτὰ παρέξει.   additamentum 6 = ad M. Caesarem 3.9   additamentum 7 [249 Hout; 1.30 Haines] Have mi magister optime. 1 Ave perge, quantum libet, comminare et argumentorum globis criminare: Numquam tu tamen erasten tuum, me dico depuleris; nec ego minus amare me Frontonem praedicabo minusque amabo, quo tu tam variis opitulandum ac largiendum esse. Ego hercule te ita amore depereo neque deterreor isto tuo dogmate ac, si magis eris alieis non amantibus opportunus et promptus, ego tamen amabo atque usque amabo. 2 Ceterum quod ad sensuum densitatem, quod ad inventionis argutiam, quod ad aemulationis tuae felicitatem adtinet, nolo quicquam dicere te multo placentis illos sibi et provocantis Atticos antevenisse, ac tamen nequeo quin dicam. Amo enim et hoc denique amantibus vere tribuendum esse censeo, quod victoris τῶν ἐρωμένων magis gauderent. Vicimus igitur, vicimus, inquam. Num . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . praestabilius sub laquearibus quam sub platanis, intra pomerium quam extra murum, sine delicieis quam ipsa Lai proxime adsistente habitanteve disputari? Nequeo retejaclari, utra re magis caveam, quod de Lysia orator saeculi hujus dogma tulerit an quod magister meus de Platone. 3 Illud equidem non temere adjuravero: Si quis iste re vera Phaeder fuit, si umquam is a Socrate afuit, non magis Socraten Phaedri desiderio quam me per istos dies (‘dies’ dico? ‘menses’, inquam) tui adspectus cupidine arsisse. Tua epistula haec fecit, ne ille Diona esset quin tantum amet nisi confestim tuo amore corripitur. 4 Vale, mihi maxima res sub caelo, gloria mea. Sufficit talem magistrum habuisse. Domina mater te salutat.   additamentum 8 [250 Hout; 1.20 Haines] 1 Ὦ φίλε παῖ, τρίτον δή σοι τοῦτο περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν ἐπιστέλλω, τὸ μὲν πρῶτον διὰ Λυσίου τοῦ Κεφάλου, δεύτερον δὲ διὰ Πλάτωνος τοῦ σοφοῦ, τὸ δὲ δὴ τρίτον διὰ τοῦδε τοῦ ξένου ἀνδρός, τὴν μὲν φωνὴν ὀλίγου δεῖν βαρβάρου, τὴν δὲ γνώμην, ὡς ἐγῷμαι, οὐ πάνυ ἀξυνέτου. γράφω δὲ νῦν οὐδέν τι τῶν πρότερον γεγραμμένων ἐφαπτόμενος, μηδὲ ἀμελήσῃς τοῦ λόγου ὡς παλιλλογοῦντος. εἰ δέ σοι δόξει τῶν πρότερον διὰ Λυσίου καὶ Πλάτωνος ἐπεσταλμένων πλείω τάδε εἶναι, ἔστω σοι τεκμήριον ὡς εὔλογα ἐξιῶ, ὅτι οὐκ ἀπορῶ λόγων. προσέχοις δ᾽ ἂν ἤδη τὸν νοῦν, εἰ καινά τε ἅμα καὶ δίκαια λέγω. 2 Ἔοικας, ὦ παῖ, πρὸ τοῦ λόγου πάντως βούλεσθαι μαθεῖν, τί δή ποτέ γε μὴ ἐρῶν ἐγὼ μετὰ τοσαύτης σπουδῆς γλίχομαι τυχεῖν ὧνπερ οἱ ἐρῶντες. τοῦτο δή σοι φράσω πρῶτον ὅπως γε ἔχει. οὐ μὰ Δία πέφυκεν ὁρᾶν ὀξύτερον οὑτοσὶ ὁ πάνυ ἐραστὴς ἐμοῦ τοῦ μὴ ἐρῶντος, ἀλλ᾽ ἔγωγε τοῦ σοῦ κάλλους αἴσθομαι οὐδενὸς ἧττον τῶν ἄλλων. δυναίμην δ᾽ ἂν εἰπεῖν ὅτι τούτου καὶ πολὺ ἀκριβέστερον. ὅπερ δὲ ἐπὶ τῶν πυρεττόντων καὶ τῶν εὖ μάλα ἐν παλαίστρᾳ γυμνασαμένων ὁρῶμεν, οὐκ ἐξ ὁμοίας αἰτίας ταὐτὸν συνβαίνειν. διψῶσιν μὴν γὰρ ὁ μὲν ὑπὸ νόσου, ὁ δὲ ὑπὸ γυμνασιῶν· τοιάνδε τινὰ κἀμοὶ [duae saltem paginae desunt] <...>λειτον τε ἅμα καὶ ὄλισθον. 3 Ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἔμοιγε ἐπ᾽ ὀλέθρῳ πρόσει οὐδὲ ἐπὶ βλάβῃ τινὶ ὁμιλήσεις, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ παντὶ ἀγαθῷ. καὶ ὠφελοῦνται γὰρ καὶ διασώζονται οἱ καλοὶ ὑπὸ τῶν μὴ ἐρώντων μᾶλλον, ὥσπερ τὰ φυτὰ ὑπὸ τῶν ὑδάτων. οὐ γὰρ ἐρῶσιν οὔτε πηγαὶ οὔτε ποταμοὶ τῶν φυτῶν, ἀλλὰ παριόντες οὕτω δὴ καὶ παραρέοντες ἀνθεῖν αὐτὰ καὶ θάλλειν παρεσκεύασαν. χρήματα δὲ τὰ μὲν ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ διδόμενα δικαίως ἂν καλοίης δῶρα, τὰ δὲ ὑπ᾽ ἐκείνου λύτρα. μάντεων δὲ παῖδές φασιν καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς ἡδίους εἶναι τῶν θυσιῶν τὰς χαριστηρίους ἢ τὰς μειλιχίους· ὧν τὰς μὲν οἱ εὐτυχοῦντες ἐπὶ φυλακῇ τε καὶ κτήσει τῶν ἀγαθῶν, τὰς δὲ οἱ κακῶς πράττοντες ἐπὶ ἀποτροπῆ τῶν δεινῶν θύουσιν. τάδε μὲν περὶ τῶν συνφερόντων καὶ τῶν σοί τε κἀκείνῳ ὠφελίμων εἰρήσθω. 4 εἰ δὲ τοῦτο δίκαιός ἐστιν τυχεῖν τῆς παρὰ σοῦ βοηθείας . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ἠρείσω σὺ τοῦτο . . . . . . αὐτὸν τὸν ἔρωτα ἐτεκτήνω καὶ ἐμηχανήσω τὰς Θετταλὰς . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . μεν . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ων . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ἐρᾷς . . . . . . . . . . . . . εἶπε . . . . . . . . . . . . . . τοτε κον . . . . . . . . . . . . ἀναίτιος . . . . . . . . . . . τινὸς διὰ τὴν αὐτῷ κατακο . . . . . . . . . κο . . . . . . . . πλὴν εἰ μή τι ὀφθεὶς ἠδίκηκας. 5 Μὴ ἀγνόει δὲ καὶ ἀδικηθεὶς αὐτὸς καὶ ὑβριζόμενος οὐ μετρίαν ἤδη ταύτην ὕβριν, τὸ ἅπαντας εἰδέναι τε καὶ φανερῶς οὕτως διαλέγεσθαι, ὅτι σου εἴη ὅδε ἐραστής· φθάνεις δὲ καὶ πρίν τι τῶν τοιῶνδε πρᾶξαι, τοὔνομα τῆς πράξεως ὑπομένων. καλοῦσί γ᾽ οὖν σε οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν πολιτῶν τὸν τοῦδε ἐρώμενον· ἐγὼ δέ σοι διαφυλάξω τοὔνομα καθαρὸν καὶ ἀνύβριστον. καλὸς γὰρ, οὐχὶ ὁ δρώμενος, τό γε κατ᾽ ἐμὲ ὀνομασθήσει. εἰ δὲ τούτῳ ὡς δικαίῳ τινὶ χρήσεται, ὅτι μᾶλλον ἐπιθυμεῖ, ἴστω ὅτι οὐκ ἐπιθυμεῖ μᾶλλον ἀλλὰ ἰταμώτερον. τὰς δὲ μυίας καὶ τὰς ἐμπίδας μάλιστα ἀποσοβοῦμεν καὶ ἀπωθούμεθα, ὅτι ἀναιδέστατα καὶ ἰταμώτατα ἐπιπέτονται. τοῦτο μὲν οὖν καὶ τὰ θηρία ἐπίσταται φεύγειν μάλιστα πάντων τοὺς κυνηγέτας, καὶ τὰ πτηνὰ τοὺς θηρευτάς· καὶ πάντα δὴ τὰ ζῷα τούτους μάλιστα ἐκτρέπεται τοὺς μάλιστα ἐνεδρεύοντας καὶ διώκοντας. 6 Εἰ δέ τις οἴεται ἐνδοξότερον καὶ ἐντιμότερον εἶναι τὸ κάλλος διὰ τοὺς ἐραστάς, τοῦ παντὸς διαμαρτάνει. κινδυνεύετε μὲν γὰρ οἱ καλοὶ περὶ τοῦ κάλλους τῆς ἐς τοὺς ἀκούοντας πίστεως διὰ τοὺς ἐρῶντας, δι᾽ ἡμᾶς δὲ τοὺς ἄλλους βεβαιοτέραν τὴν δόξαν κέκτησθε. εἰ γοῦν τις τῶν μηδέπω σε ἑωρακότων πυνθάνοιτο, ὁποῖός τις εἴης τὴν ὄψιν, ἐμοὶ μὲν ἂν πιστεύσαι ἐπαινοῦντι, μαθὼν ὅτι οὐκ ἐρῶ· τῷ δὲ ἀπιστήσαι, ὡς οὐκ ἀληθῶς ἀλλ᾽ ἐρωτικῶς ἐπαινοῦντι. ὅσοις μὲν οὖν λώβη τις σώματος καὶ αἶσχος καὶ ἀμορφία πρόσεστιν, εὔξαιντο ἂν εἰκότως ἐραστὰς αὑτοῖς γενέσθαι· οὐ γὰρ ἂν ὑπ᾽ ἄλλων θεραπεύοιντο ἢ τῶν κατ᾽ ἐρωτικὴν λύτταν καὶ ἀνάγκην προσιόντων. σὺ δ᾽ ἐν τῷ τοιῷδε κάλλει οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅτι καρπώσει πλέον ὑπ᾽ ἔρωτος. οὐδὲν γὰρ ἧττον δέονταί σου οἱ μὴ ἐρῶντες. 7 Ἀχρεῖοι δὲ ἦ οἱ ἐρασταὶ τοῖς ὄντως καλοῖς οὐδὲν ἧττον ἢ τοῖς δικαίως ἐπαινουμένοις οἱ κόλακες· ἀρετὴ ἤδη καὶ δόξα καὶ τιμὴ καὶ κέρδος κόσμος. θαλάττῃ μὲν ναῦται καὶ κυβερνῆται καὶ τριήραρχοι καὶ ἔμποροι καὶ οἱ ἄλλως πλέοντες, οὐ μὰ Δία δελφῖνες, οἷς ἀδύνατον τὸ ζῆν ὅτι μὴ ἐν θαλάττῃ, καλοῖς δὲ ἡμεῖς οἱ τηνάλλως ἐπαινοῦντες καὶ ἀσπαζόμενοι, οὐχὶ ἐρασταί, οἷς ἀβίωτον ἂν εἴη στερομένοις τῶν παιδικῶν. εὕροις δ᾽ ἂν σκοπῶν πλείστης ἀδοξίας αἰτίους μὲν ὄντας τοὺς ἐραστάς· ἀδοξίαν δὲ φεύγειν ἅπαντας μὲν χρὴ τοὺς εὐφρονοῦντας, μάλιστα δὲ τοὺς νέους, οἷς ἐπὶ μακρότερον ἐνκείσεται τὸ κακὸν ἐν ἀρχῇ μακροῦ βίου προσπεσόν. 8 Ὥσπερ οὖν ἱερῶν καὶ θυσίας, οὕτω καὶ τοῦ βίου τοὺς ἀρχομένους εὐλογίας μάλιστα πρέπει ἐπιμελεῖσθαι . . . . . . . . . . . . . τοῖς τῶν . . . . . . . . . . . . εἰς ἐσχάτην ἀδοξίαν . . τούτους δὴ τοὺς χρηστοὺς ἐραστὰς ἐξὸν εἰ . . . . . πέντε καὶ καπ . . . . . . . . . ανεικ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . νον χρῆμα ἐρασταῖς . . . ατ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . του . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . δετης . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . σιε . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . αυτο . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ἰσχυροὶ . . . . . . . τεσ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . νεκ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . δὲ καὶ γὰρ οἱ ἐρῶντες διὰ τῶν τοιῶνδε φορημάτων οὐκ ἐκείνους τιμῶσιν, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτοὶ ἀλαζο νεύονταί τε καὶ ἐπιδείκνυνται, καὶ ὡς εἰπεῖν ἐξορχοῦνται τὸν ἔρωτα. συγγράφει δέ, ὥς φασιν, ὁ σὸς ἐραστὴς ἐρωτικά τινα περὶ σοῦ συγγράμ ματα, ὡς τούτῳ δὴ μάλιστά σε δελεάσων καὶ προσαξόμενος καὶ αἱρήσων· τὰ δ᾽ ἔστιν αἴσχη καὶ ὀνείδη καὶ βοή τις ἀκόλαστος ὑπὸ οἴστρου προπεμ πομένη, ὁποῖαι θηρῶν ἢ βοσκημάτων ὑπὸ ἔρωτος βρυχωμένων ἢ χρεμετι ζόντων ἢ μυκωμένων ἢ ὠρυομένων. τούτοις ἔοικεν τὰ τῶν ἐρώντων ᾄσματα. εἰ γοῦν ἐπιτρέψαις αυτὸν τῷ ἐραστῇ χρῆσθαι ὅπου καὶ ὁπότε βούλοιτο, οὔτ᾽ ἂν καιρὸν περιμείνας ἐπιτήδειον οὔτε τόπον οὔτε σχολὴν οὔτε ἐρημίαν, ἀλλὰ θηρου δίκην ὑπὸ λύττης εὐθὺς ἵοιτο ἂ καὶ βαίνειν προθυμοῖτο μηδὲν αἰδούμενος. 9 Τοῦτο ἔτι προσθεὶς καταπαύσω τὸν λόγον, ὅτι πάντα θεῶν δῶρα καὶ ἔργα ὅσα ἐς ἀνθρώπων χρείαν τε καὶ τέρψιν καὶ ὠφέλειαν ἀφῖκτα, τὰ μὲν αὐτῶν πάνυ καὶ πάντῃ θεῖα, γῆν φημι καὶ οὐρανὸν καὶ ἥλιον καὶ θάλατταν, ὑμνεῖν μὲν καὶ θαυμάζειν πεφύκαμεν, ἐρᾶν δὲ οὔ· καλῶν δέ τινων φαυλοτέρων καὶ ἀτιμοτέρας μοίρας τετυχηκότων, τούτων ἤδη φθόνος καὶ ἐρῶς καὶ ζῆλος καὶ ἵμερος ἅπτεται. καὶ οἱ μέν τινες κέρδους ἐρῶσιν, οἱ δὲ ὄψων αὖ, οἱ δὲ οἴνου. ἐν δὴ τῷ τοιῷδε ἀριθμῷ καὶ μερίδι καθίσταται τὸ κάλλος ὑπὸ τῶν ἐρώντων ὁμοῖον κέρδει καὶ ὄψῳ καὶ μέθῃ αὖ· ὑπὸ δὲ ἡμῶν τῶν θαυμαζόντων μέν, μὴ ἐρώντων δέ, ὅμοιον ἡλίῳ καὶ οὐρανῷ καὶ γῇ καὶ θαλάττῃ· τὰ γὰρ τοιαῦτα παντὸς ἔρωτος κρείττω καὶ ὑπέρτερα. 10 Ἕν τί σοι φράσω πρὸς τούτοις, ὃ καὶ σὺ πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους λέγων παῖδας πιθανὸς εἶναι δόξεις. εἰκὸς δέ σε ἢ παρὰ μητρὸς ἢ τῶν ἀναθρε ψαμένων μὴ ἀνήκοον εἶναι ὅτι τῶν ἀνθῶν ἐστίν τι ὃ δὴ τοῦ ἡλίου ἐρᾷ καὶ πάσχει τὰ τῶν ἐρώντων, ἀνατέλλοντος ἐπαιρόμενον καὶ πορευομένου καταστρεφόμενον, δύνοντος δὲ περιτρεπόμενον· ἀλλ᾽ οὐδέν γε πλέον ἀπολαύει, οὐδὲ εὐμενεστέρου πειρᾶται διὰ τὸν ἔρωτα τοῦ ἡλίου. ἀτιμότατον γοῦν ἐστιν φυτῶν καὶ ἀνθῶν οὔτε εἰς ἑορταζόντων θαλίας οὔτ᾽ ἐς στεφάνους θεῶν ἢ ἀνθρώπων παραλαμβόμενον. 11 Ἔοικας, ὦ παῖ, τὸ ἄνθος τοῦτο ἐδεῖν ἐθέλειν· ἀλλ᾽ ἔγωγέ σοι ἐπιδείξω, τείχους πρὸς τὸν Ἰλισὸν ἅμα ἄμφω βαδίσαιμεν. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . etes dubi . . . . . . . . . . . . rablo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . statalataemanali nemini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . linio. The Miscellany The Latin Library The Classics Page 
www-worldcat-org-6133	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. 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Author: Marcus Aurelius; A S L Farquharson; D A Rees Publisher: London : David Campbell, [2000?] ISBN/ISSN: 1857150554 9781857150551 OCLC:897495952 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Meditations. Author: Marcus Aurelius.; A S L Farquharson; D A Rees Publisher: London : David Campbell, [2000?] Series: Everyman's library, 212.; Millennium library. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Summary: The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (AD 121-180) embodied in his person that ideal figure of antiquity, the philosopher-king. His "Meditations" reveal a mind of exceptional clarity and originality and a spirit attuned to the particulars of human destiny.  Read more... Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Philosophy, Ancient. More like this Similar Items Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Marcus Aurelius.; A S L Farquharson; D A Rees Find more information about: Marcus Aurelius. A S L Farquharson D A Rees ISBN: 1857150554 9781857150551 OCLC Number: 897495952 Notes: Special reprint of the 1992 ed. "First included in Everyman's library 1946." Description: xxi, 250 pages. Series Title: Everyman's library, 212.; Millennium library. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Meditations.". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(1) Philosophy, Ancient. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 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www-worldcat-org-7541	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/463202486 Title: Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire : From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III Author: Herodianus; Edward C Echols Publisher: Berkeley & Los Angeles : Univ. of California Press, 1961 OCLC:463202486 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire : From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III Author: Herodianus; Edward C Echols Publisher: Berkeley & Los Angeles : Univ. of California Press, 1961 Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Herodianus; Edward C Echols Find more information about: Herodianus Edward C Echols OCLC Number: 463202486 Description: 220 s. : illustrations Other Titles: Historiae Responsibility: Transl. from the Greek by Edward C. Echols Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire : From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-7652	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1072405870 Title: The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius in three volumes. 2 Author: Aulus Gellius; John Carew Rolfe Publisher: Cambridge, Mass. London Harvard Univ. Press Heinemann 1982 ISBN/ISSN: 0674992202 9780674992207 0434992003 9780434992003 OCLC:1072405870 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius in three volumes. 2 Author: Aulus Gellius; John Carew Rolfe Publisher: Cambridge, Mass. Harvard Univ. Press London Heinemann 1982 Series: Loeb classical library, 200 Edition/Format:  Print book : English : ReprView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Find a copy online Links to this item Inhaltsverzeichnis Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Material Type: Internet resource Document Type: Book, Internet Resource All Authors / Contributors: Aulus Gellius; John Carew Rolfe Find more information about: Aulus Gellius John Carew Rolfe ISBN: 0674992202 9780674992207 0434992003 9780434992003 OCLC Number: 1072405870 Description: XXXVII, 531 Seiten Series Title: Loeb classical library, 200 Responsibility: with an English transl. by John C. Rolfe. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius in three volumes. 2". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-8662	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/879899744 Title: Background to archaeology : Britain in its European setting Author: Desmond Collins Publisher: Cambridge [England] : University Press, 1973. ISBN/ISSN: 0521201551 9780521201551 OCLC:879899744 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Background to archaeology : Britain in its European setting Author: Desmond Collins Publisher: Cambridge [England] : University Press, 1973. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Desmond Collins Find more information about: Desmond Collins ISBN: 0521201551 9780521201551 OCLC Number: 879899744 Description: 116 p. ; 23 cm Responsibility: Desmond Collins [and others]. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Background to archaeology : Britain in its European setting". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-889	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/476921438 Title: The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto : in two volumes Author: Marcus Cornelius Fronto; C R Haines Publisher: Cambridge, Mass : Harvard University Press, 1962-63 OCLC:476921438 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto : in two volumes Author: Marcus Cornelius Fronto; C R Haines Publisher: Cambridge, Mass : Harvard University Press, 1962-63 Series: Loeb classical library, 112-113 Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Marcus Cornelius Fronto; C R Haines Find more information about: Marcus Cornelius Fronto C R Haines OCLC Number: 476921438 Notes: Med parallel engelsk og latinsk tekst Description: 2 bd., 1 tav Series Title: Loeb classical library, 112-113 Responsibility: ed. and for the first time transl. into English by C.R. Haines Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto : in two volumes". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-9316	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23759480 Title: The Civil law. Publisher: New York, AMS Press [1973] OCLC:23759480 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The Civil law. Publisher: New York, AMS Press [1973] Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Roman law -- Sources. Law, Byzantine -- Sources. Law, Byzantine. View all subjects More like this Similar Items Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Genre/Form: Sources Document Type: Book OCLC Number: 23759480 Notes: Reprint of the original edition, Cincinnati, 1932. At head of title: Corpus juris civilis. Original t.p. reads: The civil law, including the Twelve tables, the Institutes of Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Opinions of Pualus, the enactments of Justinian, and the Constitutions of Leo: translates from the original Latin, edited, and compared with all accessible systems of jurisprudence ancient and modern. By S.P. Scott. Description: 17 volumes in 7 Contents: 1. (v.1) Laws of the Twelve tables. Four commentaries of Gaius. Rules of Ulpian. Opinions of Julius Paulus. (v.2) Enactments of Justinian: Institutes. Digests or pandects 1-2. -- 2. (v.3-4) Digests or pandects 3-17. -- 3. (v.5-6) Digests or pandects 18-29. -- 4. (v.7-8) Digests or pandects 29-39. -- 5. (v.9-11) Digests or pandects 39-50. -- 6. (v.12-14) Code of Justinian 1-9. -- 7. (v.15) Code of Justinian. (v.16) Constitutions of Justinian 1-7. (v.17) Constitutions of Justinian 8-9. New constitutions of the Emperor Leo. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The Civil law.". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(4) Roman law -- Sources. Law, Byzantine -- Sources. Law, Byzantine. Roman law. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-9457	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123314338 Title: Epiphanius' Treatise on weights and measures: the Syriac version. Author: Epiphanius, Saint Bp. of Constantia in Cyprus; James Elmer Dean; British Museum Publisher: Chicago, University of Chicago Press [©1965] OCLC:123314338 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... Epiphanius' Treatise on weights and measures: the Syriac version. Author: Epiphanius, Saint Bp. of Constantia in Cyprus.; James Elmer Dean; British Museum. Publisher: Chicago, University of Chicago Press [©1965] Series: Studies in ancient oriental civilization, no. 11. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Subjects Weights and measures, Ancient. Syriac language -- Texts. Syriac language. More like this Similar Items Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Genre/Form: Texts Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Epiphanius, Saint Bp. of Constantia in Cyprus.; James Elmer Dean; British Museum. Find more information about: Epiphanius, Saint Bp. of Constantia in Cyprus. James Elmer Dean OCLC Number: 123314338 Notes: The British museum manuscript, Or. Add. 17148, used as text, with English translation. Description: xv, 145 pages facsimiles 25 cm. Series Title: Studies in ancient oriental civilization, no. 11. Responsibility: Edited by James Elmer Dean, with a foreword by Martin Sprengling. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "Epiphanius' Treatise on weights and measures: the Syriac version.". Be the first. Similar Items Related Subjects:(3) Weights and measures, Ancient. Syriac language -- Texts. Syriac language. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
www-worldcat-org-9926	----	Your Web browser is not enabled for JavaScript. Some features of WorldCat will not be available. Home WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Search Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search for Contacts Search for a Library Create lists, bibliographies and reviews: or Search WorldCat Find items in libraries near you Advanced Search Find a Library Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. Your request to send this item has been completed. Cite/Export Cite/Export Copy a citation APA (6th ed.) Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.) Harvard (18th ed.) MLA (7th ed.) Turabian (6th ed.) Export a citation Export to RefWorks   Export to EndNote / Reference Manager   Export to EasyBib Export to EndNote / Reference Manager(non-Latin)   Cancel Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Print E-mail E-mail All fields are required. The E-mail Address(es) field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address(es). The E-mail Address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. Please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). You may send this item to up to five recipients. Enter recipient e-mail address(es): Separate up to five addresses with commas (,) The name field is required. Please enter your name. Enter your name: The subject field is required. Please enter the subject. Subject: The E-mail message field is required. Please enter the message. E-mail Message: I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59229750 Title: The attic nights of Aulus Gellius. Vol. I Author: Aulus Gellius Publisher: Heinemann, 1946. OCLC:59229750 Please verify that you are not a robot. Cancel Share Permalink Permalink Copy this URL to link to this page: Add a review Would you also like to submit a review for this item?     Cancel Your list has reached the maximum number of items. Please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. You already recently rated this item. Your rating has been recorded Write a review Rate this item: 1 2 3 4 5 Preview this item Preview this item Checking... The attic nights of Aulus Gellius. Vol. I Author: Aulus Gellius Publisher: Heinemann, 1946. Series: Leob Classical library, no. 195. Edition/Format:  Print book : EnglishView all editions and formats Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. Add library to Favorites Please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. Allow this favorite library to be seen by others Keep this favorite library private Save    Cancel Find a copy in the library Finding libraries that hold this item... Details Document Type: Book All Authors / Contributors: Aulus Gellius Find more information about: Aulus Gellius OCLC Number: 59229750 Notes: Parallel Latin and English texts. Description: 1 volume. Series Title: Leob Classical library, no. 195. Responsibility: with an English translation by John C. Rolfe. Reviews User-contributed reviews Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. Be the first. Tags Add tags for "The attic nights of Aulus Gellius. Vol. I". Be the first. Confirm this request You may have already requested this item. Please select Ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. Languages: Česky  |  Deutsch  |  English  |  Español  |  Français  |  Italiano  |  Nederlands  |  Português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) You: Sign In | Register | My WorldCat | My Lists | My Watchlist | My Reviews | My Tags | My Saved Searches WorldCat: Home | About | Help | Search Legal: Copyright © 2001-2021 OCLC. All rights reserved. | Privacy Policy | Cookie Notice | Cookie list and settings | Terms and Conditions WorldCat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Learn more ›› Follow WorldCat: Please sign in to WorldCat  Don't have an account? You can easily create a free account. User Name: Password: Remember me on this computer Cancel Forgot your password? 
yo-wikipedia-org-3106	----	Marcus Aurelius - Wikipedia, ìwé-ìmọ̀ ọ̀fẹ́ Marcus Aurelius Lát'ọwọ́ Wikipedia, ìwé ìmọ̀ ọ̀fẹ́ Jump to navigation Jump to search Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Emperor of the Roman Empire [[File:|frameless|alt=]]Bust of Marcus Aurelius in the Glyptothek, Munich Orí-ìtẹ́ 8 March 161–169 (with Lucius Verus); 169–177 (alone); 177–17 March 180 (with Commodus) Orúkọ (Caesar) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Ọjọ́ìbí (121-04-26)26 Oṣù Kẹrin 121 Ibíbíbísí Rome Aláìsí 17 March 180(180-03-17) (ọmọ ọdún 58) Ibi tó kú sí Vindobona or Sirmium Ìsìnkú Hadrian's Mausoleum Aṣájú Antoninus Pius Arọ́pọ̀ Commodus (alone) Consort to Faustina the Younger Ẹbíajọba Antonine Bàbá Marcus Annius Verus Ìyá Domitia Lucilla Àwọn ọmọ 13, incl. Commodus, Marcus Annius Verus, Antoninus and Lucilla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[notes 1] (26 April 121 – 17 March 180) je obaluaye pelu Lucius Verus ni Ile Obaluaye Romu. Àyọkà yìí tàbí apá rẹ̀ únfẹ́ àtúnṣe sí. Ẹ le fẹ̀ jù báyìí lọ tàbí kí ẹ ṣàtúnṣe rẹ̀ lọ́nà tí yíò mu kúnrẹ́rẹ́. Ẹ ran Wikipedia lọ́wọ́ láti fẹ̀ẹ́ jù báyìí lọ. Itokasi[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀] ↑ He was originally named Marcus Annius Catilius Severus (or perhaps Marcus Catilius Severus).[1] When he married he took the name Marcus Annius Verus,[2] and when he was named emperor, he was given the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. w ọ a Western and Eastern Roman emperors Principate 27 BC–235 AD Augustus · Tiberius · Caligula · Claudius · Nero · Galba · Otho · Vitellius · Vespasian · Titus · Domitian · Nerva · Trajan · Hadrian · Antoninus Pius · Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus · Commodus · Pertinax · Didius Julianus · Septimius Severus · Caracalla · Geta · Macrinus with Diadumenian · Elagabalus · Alexander Severus Crisis 235–284 Maximinus Thrax · Gordian I and Gordian II · Pupienus and Balbinus · Gordian III · Philip the Arab · Decius with Herennius Etruscus · Hostilian · Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus · Aemilianus · Valerian · Gallienus with Saloninus · Claudius Gothicus · Quintillus · Aurelian · Tacitus · Florianus · Probus · Carus · Carinus · Numerian Dominate 284–395 Diocletian · Maximian · Constantius Chlorus · Galerius · Severus · Maxentius · Maximinus Daia · Licinius with Valerius Valens and Martinianus · Constantine I · Constantine II · Constans I · Constantius II with Vetranio · Julian the Apostate · Jovian · Valentinian I · Valens · Gratian · Valentinian II · Theodosius I Western Empire 395–480 Honorius · Constantius III · Joannes · Valentinian III · Petronius Maximus · Avitus · Majorian · Libius Severus · Anthemius · Olybrius · Glycerius · Julius Nepos · Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius · Theodosius II · Marcian · Leo I · Leo II · Zeno · Basiliscus · Anastasius I · Justin I · Justinian I · Justin II · Tiberius II Constantine · Maurice · Phocas · Heraclius · Constantine III · Heraklonas · Constans II · Constantine IV · Justinian II · Leontios · Tiberios III · Philippikos · Anastasios II · Theodosios III · Leo III the Isaurian · Constantine V Copronymus · Artabasdos · Leo IV the Khazar · Constantine VI · Irene · Nikephoros I Logothetes · Staurakios · Michael I Rangabe · Leo V the Armenian · Michael II the Stammerer · Theophilos · Michael III the Drunkard · Basil I the Macedonian · Leo VI the Wise · Alexander · Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos · Romanos I Lekapenos · Romanos II · Nikephorus II Phokas · John I Tzimiskes · Basil II Boulgaroktonos · Constantine VIII · Zoe · Romanos III Argyros · Michael IV Paphlagon · Michael V Kalaphates · Constantine IX Monomachos · Theodora the Macedonian · Michael VI the Aged · Isaac I Komnenos · Constantine X Doukas · Romanos IV Diogenes · Michael VII Doukas · Nikephoros III Botaneiates · Alexios I Komnenos · John II Komnenos · Manuel I Komnenos · Alexios II Komnenos · Andronikos I Komnenos · Isaac II Angelos · Alexios III Angelos · Alexios IV Angelos · Nikolaos Kanabos · Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris · Theodore I Laskaris · John III Doukas Vatatzes · Theodore II Laskaris · John IV Laskaris Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos · Andronikos II Palaiologos · Michael IX Palaiologos · Andronikos III Palaiologos · John V Palaiologos · John VI Kantakouzenos · Matthew Kantakouzenos · Andronikos IV Palaiologos · John VII Palaiologos · Andronikos V Palaiologos · Manuel II Palaiologos · John VIII Palaiologos · Constantine XI Palaiologos ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ↑ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. 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zh-classical-wikipedia-org-5791	----	馬可奧勒留 - 維基大典 馬可奧勒留 文出維基大典 跳至導覽 跳至搜尋 馬可奧勒留 Marcus Aurelius 帝奧勒留策馬像 本名 馬可·奧勒留 生 西元一百二十一年四月二十六日 歿 西元一百八十年三月十七日 本貫 羅馬 職位 皇帝 馬可奧勒留者，好斯多葛宗，君臨羅馬，列五賢帝。初，帝與維魯斯尊先皇遺令，共治天下；及魯斯崩，獨理綱朝。日耳曼反，率眾征伐，凡十二年。立德立言，賢才蓋世。有文集曰《沉思錄》，斯多葛宗名作。 少年事[纂] 西元一二一年降羅馬柴利歐。父威勒斯，母露西雅，皆貴冑。帝三歲失父。少有才智，好通幾，喜讀書，精希臘文，不喜珍玩，帝哈德良奇而嗣之。受命輔政，拜佛倫多為太傅。尚第歐根尼言，夜則粗布短衣，席地而臥。倫多諫曰：「君稟賦高明，若彼芝諾、克律安提斯輩，然當臨天下而服紫袍。」西元一四五年，妻芙絲汀娜。西元一六一年，帝崩，詔奧勒留、維魯斯共治天下。 治天下[纂] 尊維魯斯、奧勒留為凱撒，掌三軍，斷綱朝，以勒留為司祭徒。西元一六二年，臺伯河澇，詔堙洪水，開倉濟民。安息伐亞美尼亞，廢其君，帕克魯斯立，蓋大患也。敘利亞執事遣塞維利亞努斯討逆。努斯者，部將也。率兵六千臨陣，敗，自裁。魯斯親征，勒留治邦。西元一六六年，行凱旋禮，復遣使華夏。一六八年，魯斯崩。日耳曼反，帝討之，凡十二年。一百八十年，帝崩，遺句云：「莫我悲，念世楚。」不延殘喘，絕食而崩，年五十八。 據[纂] 鹽野七生《羅馬人的故事：結局的開始》 取自"https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=馬可奧勒留&oldid=304962" 一類： 羅馬皇帝本紀 導 家私 尚未登簿 議 績 增簿 籍名 名集 文 議 變字 覽 閱 纂 誌 更多 尋 導覽 卷首 市集 世事 監修 絕妙好文 清風翻書 貢獻品物 凡例 凡例 會館 全典 燕語 捐助 多寶 取佐 援引 進獻 特查 恆通 文訊 引文 維基數據項目 付梓 存為PDF檔 付梓 諸策 維基共享 他山 Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Bân-lâm-gú 粵語 纂鏈 此頁二〇一八年三月一日 （週四）〇四時四八分方易。 凡我維基之文，悉為共享創意授權。翻印增刪，皆須引據，並同道為之。然條款繁多，不一而足。請閱全文，以得其詳。 隱私通例 大典自序 免責告示 掌中書卷 司空津逮 統計 鑑識聲明 
zh-min-nan-wikipedia-org-8101	----	Marcus Aurelius – Wikipedia Marcus Aurelius Wikipedia (chū-iû ê pek-kho-choân-su) beh kā lí kóng... 跳至導覽 跳至搜尋 Marcus Aurelius Lô-má Tè-kok Hông-tè Marcus Aurelius Lô-má Tè-kok Hông-tè Chāi-ūi 161 nî kàu 180 nî Phoè-ngó͘ Annia Galeria Faustina Minor Ông-sek Nerva-Antoninus ông-tiâu Chhut-sì 121 nî 4 goe̍h 26 ji̍t Kòe-sin 180 nî 3 goe̍h 17 ji̍t Marcus Aurelius (121 nî 4 goe̍h 26 ji̍t – 180 nî 3 goe̍h 17 ji̍t) sī Lô-má Tè-kok ê hông-tè, chāi-ûi kî-kan sī 161 nî kàu 180 nî. Che sī chi̍t phiⁿ koan-î jîn-bu̍t toān-kì ê phí-á-kiáⁿ. Chhiáⁿ tàu khok-chhiong. Lâi-goân: "https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Aurelius&oldid=1514914" Lūi-pia̍t: Lô-má hông-tè Sûn-lám me-niú Kò-jîn kang-khū Bô teng-ji̍p Thó-lūn Kòng-hiàn Khui sin kháu-chō Teng-ji̍p Miâ-khong-kan Bûn-chiuⁿ Thó-lūn piàn-thé Khoàⁿ Tha̍k Siu-kái kái goân-sí-bé khoàⁿ le̍k-sú 更多 Chhiau-chhoē Se̍h chām Thâu-ia̍h Bûn-chiuⁿ bo̍k-chhù Sûi-chāi kéng ia̍h Sin-bûn sū-kiāⁿ Kià-hù Pian-chi̍p Soat-bêng-su Siā-lí mn̂g-chhùi-kháu Thó-lūn Chòe-kīn ê kái-piàn Ke-si kheh-á Tó-ūi liân kàu chia Siong-koan ê kái-piàn Kā tóng-àn chiūⁿ-bāng Te̍k-sû-ia̍h Éng-kiú liân-kiat Ia̍h ê chu-sìn Ín-iōng chit phiⁿ bûn-chiuⁿ Wikidata hāng-bo̍k Ìn-soat/su-chhut Chò PDF hā-chài Ìn-soat pán-pún Chí-mōe kè-ōe Wikimedia Commons Kî-thaⁿ ê gí-giân Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 粵語 Kái liân-kiat Chit ia̍h siāng bóe tī 2016-nî 11-goe̍h 13-ji̍t (Lé-pài), 06:53 ū pian-chi̍p--koè. Chiàu ē-kha--ê kui-tēng tō thong-iōng Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; kî-thaⁿ kū-thé--ê tiâu-bûn chhiáⁿ lí khoàⁿ Terms of Use. Ín-su chèng-chhek Koan-hē Wikipedia Bô-hū-chek seng-bêng Hêng-tōng bô͘-sek Khai-hoat-chiá 統計 Cookie seng-bêng 
zh-yue-wikipedia-org-4251	----	奧理略 - 維基百科，自由嘅百科全書 奧理略 出自維基百科，自由嘅百科全書 跳去導覽 跳去搵嘢 奧理略 奧理略（拉丁文：Marcus Aurelius，121年4月26號—180年3月17號）係羅馬帝國第十六位皇帝，161年到180年在位。 奧理略係羅馬帝國少見嘅明君，同時亦係一位思想家，著作有《沉思錄》。 呢篇同意大利人相關係一篇楔。 你可以幫維基百科擴寫佢。 睇 • 論 • 改 • 歷 由「https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=奧理略&oldid=1597868」收 屬於6類: 121年出世 4月26號出世 180年死 3月17號死 羅馬帝國皇帝 意大利人物楔類 屬於2隱類: 有拉丁文嘅文章 死咗嘅人物 導覽選單 個人架生 未簽到 同呢個互聯網地址嘅匿名人傾偈 貢獻 開戶口 簽到 空間名 文章 討論 變種 外觀 閱 改 睇返紀錄 多啲 查嘢 導覽 頭版 目錄 正嘢 時人時事 是但一版 關於維基百科 聯絡處 捐畀維基百科 交流 說明書 城市論壇 社區大堂 最近修改 架撐 有乜連過嚟 連結頁嘅更改 上載檔案 專門版 固定連結 此版明細 引用呢篇文 維基數據項 打印/匯出 下載PDF 印得嘅版本 第啲維基項目 維基同享 第啲話 Afrikaans Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bikol Central Беларуская Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kongo Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lingua Franca Nova Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Napulitano Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 文言 Bân-lâm-gú 改拎 呢版上次改係2021年4月10號 (禮拜六) 10:41 嘅事。 呢度嘅所有文字係根據Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike 牌照嘅條款發佈；可能會有附加嘅條款。 Wikipedia® 係Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 嘅註冊商標，一個非牟利機構。 私隱政策 關於維基百科 免責聲明 手提版 開發人員 統計 Cookie聲明 
zh-wikipedia-org-8251	----	馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 维基百科，自由的百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 奧列里烏斯 羅馬帝国第十六任皇帝 奧列里烏斯的半身像 統治 161年3月8日 – 180年3月17日 （19年9天） 前任 安敦宁·毕尤 繼任 康茂德 出生 (121-04-26)121年4月26日 羅馬 逝世 180年3月17日(180歲－03－17)（58歲） 文多波納（今維也納）或斯雷姆（位於今塞爾維亞） 子嗣 康茂德 全名 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯·安东尼·奧古斯都 朝代 安敦尼王朝 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯（拉丁語：Marcus Aurelius，121年4月26日－180年3月17日），全名為馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯·安敦宁·奧古斯都（拉丁語：Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus[註 1]）。是羅馬帝國五賢帝時代最後一個皇帝，擁有凱撒稱號（拉丁語：Imperator Caesar）。於161年至180年在位。有「哲學家皇帝」的美譽。 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯是羅馬帝國最偉大的皇帝之一，同時也是著名的斯多葛派哲學家，其统治时期被认为是罗马黄金时代的标志。他不但是一個很有智慧的君主，同時也是一個很有成就的思想家，有以希臘文寫成的关于斯多葛哲学的著作《沉思錄》（Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν）傳世。 目录 1 生平 2 文学影视作品 3 註釋 4 参考文献 5 外部链接 6 參見 生平[编辑] 奧列里烏斯於121年4月26日生於羅馬，在一個很有政治勢力以及富有的家庭中長大。他的父亲是马库斯·安尼乌斯·维鲁斯三世，出自安尼亚氏族，传说是努马·庞皮里乌斯的后裔。安尼亚氏族的一支迁徙到了伊比利亚半岛贝提卡行省的乌库比，这支维里安尼亚氏在公元1世纪发迹，奥勒留的曾祖父马库斯·安尼乌斯一世是一名元老并曾担任过罗马民选官。他的祖父马库斯·安尼乌斯·维鲁斯二世是一名罗马贵族。通过他的祖母鲁比莉娅，奥勒留也是安敦尼王朝的一员。他的母亲多米提娅·鲁西拉是罗马贵族卡尔维西乌斯·图鲁斯之女，并从她的父母和祖父母处继承了大量的财产。收养奥勒留的家庭是意大利-高卢人，属于奥勒里亚氏族。他的养父安敦宁·毕尤出自奥勒里亚氏族在高卢的支系弗尔维-奥勒里亚氏。 124年，奥勒留的父亲去世。而根据当时的传统他也没有与母亲长期共处，而是被看护士照顾着。他的祖父维鲁斯二世和外祖父路西乌斯·卡提利乌斯·塞维鲁也都抚养过奥勒留。奥勒留在西里欧山的家中成长，并对此地有着感情，他称之为“我的西里欧山”。奥勒留是在家中接受教育的，并感谢其外祖父建议他避免公立学校。他教师中的一位，名叫迪奥戈涅图斯，是一位画师，似乎对他产生了很大影响，并将奥勒留带入了哲学式的生活。 奥勒留小的時候就被當時的羅馬皇帝哈德良注意到，因而得到特殊的教育。六歲即升為騎士階級，七歲入學於羅馬的薩利聖學院（Salii），並在這裡得到各種文化中精英的教育。真正把奧列里烏斯推入政壇的是前朝皇帝哈德良，他认养安敦宁·毕尤为嗣子，条件是安托宁同等认养奧列里烏斯。 奧列里烏斯在161年3月7日与其弟弟路奇烏斯·維魯斯一同继承皇位，是羅馬帝國首度出現兩帝共治，不过多数时候由他定夺。统治期间戰爭不斷，帝国边界受到外来侵略的威胁，並且国内自然災害频发。他取得了对安息帝國的战役（162~166年）的胜利，但是班师回朝的军队带来了瘟疫，傳染疾病氾濫整個帝國。同时日耳曼人也开始入侵罗马帝国。但他最终成功地把日爾曼人游掠部族趕出羅馬領土。然而，維魯斯後來因病在169年死於返回羅馬的途中，年僅39歲。由於這些戰爭，奧列里烏斯在位時國庫亏空超前，皇帝的生活也日渐拮据。妻子据说贞守不严，兒子們也都属无能之辈。北方戰爭爆發後，奧列里烏斯死於西元180年3月17日潘諾尼亞（不過有些報導指出他死於舍米安）。他的骨灰被帶回羅馬，安置在哈德良的陵墓，王位由其子康茂德繼承。 尽管奥勒利乌斯是一位性格温和、博学多才的贤君，但是他仍然与同时代的许多罗马皇帝一样反对基督教，并在统治期间对基督徒加以迫害。 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 166年，他遣使中国汉朝，即自日南徼外獻象牙、犀角、瑇瑁，這是中國與羅馬正式交通。 文学影视作品[编辑] 好莱坞巨片《角斗士》劇情初始的老皇帝，原型就是這位虔奉斯多葛派淡泊、禁欲至理的明君。 註釋[编辑] ^ 原名Marcus Annius Catilius Severus（或Marcus Catilius Severus）[1]，婚後改名Marcus Annius Verus[2]，稱帝後改名Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 参考文献[编辑] 维基语录上的相关摘錄： 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.9; McLynn, 24. ^ Dio 69.21.1; HA Marcus 1.10; McLynn, 24. 外部链接[编辑] 从维基百科的姊妹计划 了解更多有关 “Marcus Aurelius”的内容 维基共享资源上的多媒体资源 维基语录上的名言 维基文库上的原始文献 维基学院上的學習资源 维基文库中有關The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus的文本  希臘語维基文库中与本条目相关的原始文献：Μάρκος Αὐρήλιος Marcus Aurelius的作品 - 古騰堡計劃 互联网档案馆中馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯的作品或关于他的作品 來自馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯的LibriVox公共領域有聲讀物 在Find A Grave上的馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Marcus Aurelius | In the Dark 參見[编辑] 古罗马主题 人物主题 查 论 编 羅馬皇帝與拜占庭皇帝 元首制時期 （前27年－235年） 奥古斯都 → 提贝里乌斯 → 卡利古拉 → 克勞狄一世 → 尼禄 → 加爾巴 → 奧托 → 維特里烏斯 → 韦斯巴芗 → 提圖斯 → 图密善 → 涅尔瓦 → 圖拉真 → 哈德良 → 畢尤 → 奧列里烏斯與維魯斯 → 康茂德 → 佩蒂纳克斯 → 尤利安努斯 → 塞普蒂米烏斯·塞維魯 → 卡拉卡拉與蓋塔 → 马克里努斯與迪亚杜门尼安 → 埃拉伽巴路斯 → 亚历山大·塞维鲁 危機時期 （235年－284年） 馬克西米努斯 → 戈尔迪安一世與戈爾迪安二世 → 普皮恩努斯與巴尔比努斯 → 戈爾迪安三世 → 菲利普與菲利普二世 → 德西乌斯與赫伦尼乌斯 → 加卢斯與霍斯蒂利安 → 加卢斯與沃鲁西安努斯 → 埃米利安努斯 → 瓦勒良 → 加里恩努斯、薩洛尼努斯與瓦勒良二世（英语：Valerian II） → 克劳狄二世 → 昆提卢斯 → 奥勒良 → 塔西佗 → 弗洛里安努斯 → 普羅布斯 → 卡鲁斯 → 卡里努斯與努梅里安 多米那特制時期 （284年－395年） 戴克里先 → 戴克里先（東）與馬克西米安（西） → 戴克里先（東）與馬克西米安（西），伽列里乌斯（東）與君士坦提烏斯一世（西）為凱撒 → 伽列里乌斯（東）與君士坦提烏斯一世（西），馬克西米努斯二世（東）與塞维鲁二世（西）為凱撒 → 伽列里乌斯（東）與塞维鲁二世（西），馬克西米努斯二世（東）與君士坦丁（西）為凱撒 → 伽列里乌斯（東）與马克森提乌斯（西），馬克西米努斯二世（東）與君士坦丁（西）為凱撒 → 伽列里乌斯（東）與李锡尼（西），馬克西米努斯二世（東）與君士坦丁（西）為凱撒 → 马克森提乌斯 → 馬克西米努斯二世（東）與李锡尼（西），瓦倫斯（英语：Valerius Valens）與君士坦丁為凱撒 → 李锡尼（東）與君士坦丁（西），李錫尼二世（英语：Licinius II）、君士坦丁二世與克里斯（英语：Crispus）為凱撒（ → 馬提尼亞努斯（英语：Martinian (emperor)）） → 君士坦丁，克里斯（英语：Crispus）為凱撒 → 君士坦丁二世 → 君士坦斯一世（ → 马格嫩提乌斯，德森提烏斯（英语：Decentius）為凱撒） → 君士坦丁二世與韋特雷尼奧（英语：Vetranio） → 尤利安 → 约维安 → 瓦伦提尼安一世 → 瓦伦斯 → 格拉提安 → 瓦伦提尼安二世 → 马格努斯·马格西穆斯與維克多 → 狄奧多西一世（ → 尤金尼厄斯（英语：Eugenius）） 西羅馬帝國 （395年－476年） 霍諾留 → 君士坦丁三世與康斯坦丁二世（英语：Constans II (son of Constantine III)） → 君士坦丁三世（ → 喬安（英语：Joannes）） → 瓦伦丁尼安三世 → 佩特罗尼乌斯·马克西穆斯與帕拉迪烏斯（英语：Palladius (Caesar)） → 阿维图斯 → 马约里安 → 利比乌斯·塞维鲁 → 安特米乌斯 → 奥利布里乌斯 → 格利凯里乌斯 → 尼波斯 → 罗慕路斯·奥古斯都 東羅馬／拜占庭帝國 （395年－1204年） 阿卡狄奧斯 → 狄奧多西二世 → 普爾喀麗亞 → 马尔西安 → 利奥 → 利奥二世 → 芝諾 → 巴西利斯库斯與馬爾庫斯（英语：Marcus (son of Basiliscus)） → 芝諾 → 阿纳斯塔修斯一世 → 查士丁一世 → 查士丁尼一世 → 查士丁二世 → 提比略二世 → 莫里斯與狄奥多西斯 → 福卡斯 → 希拉克略 → 君士坦丁三世 → 赫拉克洛纳斯 → 君士坦斯二世 → 君士坦丁四世、希拉克略與提比略（英语：Tiberius (son of Constans II)） → 君士坦丁四世與查士丁尼二世 → 查士丁尼二世 → 利昂提奥斯 → 提比略三世 → 查士丁尼二世與提比略 → 菲利皮科斯 → 阿纳斯塔修斯二世 → 狄奧多西三世 → 利奧三世 → 君士坦丁五世 → 阿爾塔瓦茲德 → 利奧四世 → 君士坦丁六世 → 伊琳娜 → 尼基弗鲁斯一世 → 斯陶拉基奥斯 → 米海尔一世與忒俄費拉克圖（英语：Theophylact (son of Michael I)） → 利奧五世與君士坦丁（英语：Constantine (son of Leo V)） → 米海尔二世 → 狄奥斐卢斯 → 米海尔三世 → 巴西尔一世 → 利奧六世 → 亞歷山大 → 君士坦丁七世 → 羅曼努斯一世、赫里斯托弗、史蒂芬（英语：Stephen Lekapenos）與君士坦丁（英语：Constantine Lekapenos） → 羅曼努斯二世 → 尼基弗鲁斯二世 → 約翰 → 巴西尔二世 → 君士坦丁八世 → 佐伊與羅曼努斯三世 → 佐伊與米海爾四世 → 米海尔五世 → 佐伊與狄奥多拉 → 佐伊與君士坦丁九世 → 君士坦丁九世 → 狄奥多拉 → 米海爾六世 → 伊萨克一世 → 君士坦丁十世 → 罗曼努斯四世、利奧（英语：Leo Diogenes）與尼基弗魯斯（英语：Nikephoros Diogenes） → 米海尔七世、安德羅尼科斯、康斯坦丁斯（英语：Konstantios Doukas）與君士坦丁（英语：Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)） → 尼基弗鲁斯三世 → 阿历克塞一世 → 約翰二世與阿歷克塞·科穆寧（英语：Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)） → 曼努埃爾 → 阿历克塞二世 → 安德洛尼卡一世與約翰·科穆寧（英语：John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)） → 伊薩克二世 → 阿历克塞三世 → 阿历克塞四世（ → 尼古拉烏斯·卡納波斯（英语：Nicholas Kanabos）） → 阿歷克塞五世 尼西亚帝国 （1204年－1261年） 君士坦丁·拉斯卡利斯（英语：Constantine Laskaris） → 狄奧多爾一世 → 約翰三世 → 狄奧多爾二世 → 約翰四世 東羅馬／拜占庭帝國 （1261年－1453年） 米海尔八世 → 安德洛尼卡二世與米海尔九世 → 安德洛尼卡三世 → 約翰五世 → 約翰五世、約翰六世與马修·坎塔库泽努斯 → 約翰五世 → 安德洛尼卡四世 → 約翰七世 → 安德洛尼卡五世 → 曼努埃爾二世 → 約翰八世 → 君士坦丁十一世 查 论 编 斯多葛主義 人物（英语：List of Stoic philosophers） 早期 季蒂昂的芝诺 · 珀耳塞烏斯（英语：Persaeus）  · 阿里斯頓  · 斯法埃魯斯 · 赫里洛斯（英语：Herillus）  · 克里安西斯 · 克律西波斯 · 塔普蘇斯的芝諾（英语：Zeno of Tarsus）  · 馬魯斯的克拉特斯 · 巴比倫的第歐根尼（英语：Diogenes of Babylon）  · 阿波羅多羅斯（英语：Apollodorus of Seleucia）  · 塔爾蘇斯的安提帕特（英语：Antipater of Tarsus） 中期 巴內修斯（英语：Panaetius）  · 達爾達諾斯（英语：Dardanus of Athens）  · 墨涅撒尔库斯（英语：Mnesarchus of Athens）  · 赫卡忒（英语：Hecato of Rhodes）  · 波希多尼  · 迪奧多特斯（英语：Diodotus the Stoic）  · 吉米紐斯（英语：Geminus）  · 泰勒的安提帕特（英语：Antipater of Tyre）  · 雅典諾多羅斯（英语：Athenodoros Cananites） 晚期 小塞內卡 · 盧修斯 · 鲁弗斯（英语：Gaius Musonius Rufus）  · 幼發拉底（英语：Euphrates the Stoic）  · 克萊奧邁季斯  · 愛比克泰德 · 希洛克勒（英语：Hierocles (Stoic)）  · 克羅尼亞的塞克斯都（英语：Sextus of Chaeronea）  · 朱利乌斯·拉斯蒂克斯（英语：Junius Rusticus）  · 馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯 種類 斯多葛主義 （堅忍的類別 · 堅忍的激情 · 斯多葛物理） · 新斯多葛學派（英语：Neostoicism） 概念（英语：Glossary of Stoicism terms） 可有可無之事 · 冷漠寡慾 · 心神安定 · 分裂 · 吉星高照 · 掌握 · 邏各斯 · 義務 · 常道（斯多葛學派） · 靈魂 · 選擇 著作 《對話錄》（塞內卡） · 《演講》（伊壁鳩魯） · 《手冊》（伊壁鳩魯） · 《伊壁鳩魯給路奇利烏斯的書信集》 · 《沉思录》 · 《共和國》（芝諾） 规范控制 WorldCat Identities BIBSYS: 90564087 BNA: 000026945 BNC: 000166929 BNE: XX932158 BNF: cb11914476c (data) CiNii: DA00596148 CONOR: 6923107 FAST: 54205 GND: 118577468 ISNI: 0000 0001 1031 946X LAC: 1020L1335F LCCN: n80051702 LNB: 000027790 MusicBrainz: 517aed2c-8edd-4f31-b649-27cb9125436b NDL: 00431918 NKC: jn19981001808 NLA: 35966523 NLP: A1180743X NNL: 000088890 NSK: 000083919 NTA: 000083919 SELIBR: 194415 SNAC: w6c851bs SUDOC: 027008614 ULAN: 500115701 VIAF: 102895066 取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=馬爾庫斯·奧列里烏斯&oldid=64924548” 分类： 121年出生 180年逝世 羅馬皇帝 斯多亞學派哲學家 被神格化的罗马皇帝 古罗马被收养者 奥列里氏族 埃利氏族 古羅馬哲學家 希腊语作家 隐藏分类： 含有拉丁語的條目 含有希臘語的條目 含有古騰堡計劃連結的條目 含有互联网档案馆链接的条目 包含BIBSYS标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNA标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNC标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目 包含CINII标识符的维基百科条目 包含CONOR标识符的维基百科条目 包含FAST标识符的维基百科条目 包含GND标识符的维基百科条目 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